CORNELL 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 FROM 
 
 83. 
 
 THE Sue. _ _ MINES, MINERS 
 AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1882 before 
 it reached the printer, and the warm praise lavished upon the plan of the work, 
 revealed very clearly to the Compiler that the greatest success of his idea could 
 be obtained only through an annual issue. It has been determined therefore to publish 
 a volume yearly, and to make such issue the manual of American Mining Interests. 
 
 With this as the laudable objective point, the Publishers announce the issue 
 of THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OP THE UNITED 
 STATES IN 
 
 1883. 
 
 This volume it is earnestly intended shall be a compilation of the greatest value. 
 Matters that in the volume for 1882 are passed over lightly, or not mentioned at all 
 for want of time and public confidence, will receive next year the fullest expert attention. 
 Strong efforts will be made to cover every known interest that the volume reaches. Our 
 own statistics from every State and Territory will be at the reader's disposal. The ablest 
 expert engineers have already been enlisted for its pages. The illustrations will be 
 drawn for us. A series of magnificent original maps will adorn the pages, and no 
 expense wiU be spared in order that the MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTER- 
 ESTS OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1883 shall adequately represent its high aims. 
 
 The difiiculty of obtaining reliable Mining statistics and the best mining infor- 
 mation, will be readily overcome if our readers will co-operate with us, and furnish 
 such information as they may possess. Criticisms upon the present volume will be 
 thankfiiUy received, and suggestions gladly adopted. We are satisfied that the Mining 
 Interests of this country are in need of just such u, publication as we have projected. 
 To atiain our highest ambition the co-operation of the public is necessary. Your sincere 
 support is therefore solicited. 
 
 THE MINING INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHING BUREAU: 
 4.27 Walnut Street, 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, 
 
Cornell University Library 
 
 arY897 
 
 Mines miners & mining Interests of the 
 
 3 1924 032 183 521 
 
 olin.anx 
 
■v. 
 
 Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924032183521 
 
THE 
 
 Mines, Miners and Mining Interests 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 IN 
 
 1882: 
 
THE GRAND 
 
 CANON 
 
 OF THE COLORADO. 
 
No MAN WHO ENTERS THE GEOLOGICAL FIELD IN QUEST OF THE WONDERFUL, NEED PAS^ IN THE 
 PURSUIT OF HIS OBJECT, FROM THE TRUE TO THE FICTITIOUS — Hugh Miller 
 
 THE 
 
 Mines, Miners and Mining Interests 
 
 OF THE 
 
 United States 
 
 IN 
 
 1882 
 
 COMPILED BY 
 
 WILLIAM RALSTON BALCH 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 
 THE MINING INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHING BUREAU 
 
 UHIVu,<i>li Y 
 
 If . !; I. If V 
 
^f^^^tt 
 
 ,NTERE[) AGSOHDING TO A6T OF CONGRESS 
 
 IN THE YEAR 1882 
 
 WILLIA 
 
 m^raZstok 
 
 N BALCH 
 
 3n % (Office of tl]e £tbraricin of (Sangrcss, at iDasljingtan. 
 
 « -^s^*' ' I ♦ ^:^ ^^-l8> ■'■ 3=:=l<" "- ^'«=- 
 
 The Composition op Reading Matter and the Press Work upon- this Volume was done by 
 
 GRANT, FAIRES &. RODGERS 
 
 The Composition of Advektjsing Pages by 
 
 /cornel? 
 university 
 
 \LIBRARV 
 
 EDWARD STERN & CO 
 
 The Frontispiece was Drawn [From a Painting by Tliumas Moran) by 
 
 FRED. B. SCHELL 
 
 and 
 Engraved on Wood by 
 
 The Remaining Illustrations and the Maps were executed bv 
 
 The Book was Bound by 
 
 ^,^^ .^^.,,^^4^1^... 
 
 J. W. LAUDERBACH 
 
 THE LEVYTYPE COMPANY 
 
 WILLIAM MARLEY &. CO 
 
 ^:<i<-o- =*ig5- 
 
 
'O 
 
 THOSE WHO HAVE AT HEART THE BEST INTERESTS OF THE 
 
 AMERICAN MINING INDUSTRY 
 
 THIS VOLUME 
 
 Is Sincerclj ll)£lilait£li 
 
 THE COMPILER. 
 
'Ens volume requires, I trust, neither apology nor special plea for ita appearance. The mining 
 industry of the United States has never yet possessed a publication that answered its need as a 
 reference book or manual of our mining life. Government documents however valuable, State 
 documents however worthy their purpose, are practically inaccessible to the general public. The 
 careful collections of the Census Bureau, owing to the time consumed in preparation and printing 
 and the parsimony of Congress, are sealed books to the multitude. The millions invested in 
 mining stocks find chroniclers from week to week and can be collated for reference only after the 
 moat laborious search. With the exception of Coal, Iron and Steel, no annual furnishes anything 
 of reference value upon our mining industries. What is being done by our excellent and hard- 
 working Scientific Societies is frequently lost altogether or buried in their archives. The 
 progress making in the technical studies at our schools and colleges reaches the people 
 partially like the faint response of an echo. The cause of hygiene and the elevation of the mining classes is in the 
 keeping of a very few. The records of invention and discovery rarely challenge interest beyond the circle of those 
 immediately benefitted, because of the few open avenues through which to summon public attention. Many important 
 treasure fields of our country lack development, because attention is not directed to them. The actual condition of 
 the mining industry is nowhere reflected in such a way that the economic questions involved in its rise and fall can 
 be studied w ith ease. The money problems that come so close home to us in questions of debt and taxation, have only 
 occasional expounders to champion their cause with the people. The banker, the broker and the investor have no book to 
 which they can appeal for the standing of the Mining Companies whose stocks and bonds they are solicited to purchase. The 
 shares may form part of $100,000,000 of capitalization or they may be only constituent elements in 810,000. The promoter of 
 a mining company has a long hunt before he can intelligently comply with the necessary legal forms. The lawyer 
 called in to prosecute or defend a mining suit must endure hours of arduous study to collate the law points of his case. The 
 iron master, the coal and copper operator, the mine owner who has risked his capital, wants yearly a thousand facts that bear 
 with vital force upon his. prosperity, and he knows not where to get them. The fluctuations of the markets, the discovery of 
 new deposits of treasure, the opening of new depots of supply and distribution, the steady insinuations of trade in 
 
 Fresh fields and pastures new, 
 
 the product of rival countries abroad and rival States at home — all possess special interest for him, and yet, if he would know 
 them, he must compile them. This volume is an earnest attempt to supply the wants that are thus suggested. 
 
 The value of most books is measured by the conveniences they afford for ascertaining facts. The maker of a good 
 dictionary wins for his work a profounder circle of constant companions than the writer of a striking fiction. The 
 dictionary maker gets little credit for originality and none for his labor, but the satisfaction remains to him that he has 
 produced a volume that answers the necessities of the many. The Compiler of this volume claims no more credit for it than 
 is deserved by its appearance and the selection and arrangement of its contents. It bears the finger marks of haste, a 
 haste that was unavoidable; yet it evidences, I trust, an appreciable amount of thoroughness over a, wide range of topic. 
 The ground has been fairly gleaned in all parts of the world. In the arrangement of the book no efibrt was made to more 
 than meet the requirements of hasty work. That system of parts and pages was adopted that most readily bent itself to 
 the imperial dictation of the printer. All short-comings of this arrangement are covered by the elaborate thoroughness of 
 the index. The Compiler hopes that in this way his work has been kept fairly symmetrical, and while it hardly approaches 
 the high ideal set for it ; still it proves if nothing more, the sincerity of his intention. 
 
Whatever may be the sins of omission and commission — and I am aware that both have been committed — the pages of 
 this volume are honest. They were prepared without bias, free from the shackles so often riveted upon an author by the greed 
 of his publishers. No insidious considerations of gain have dictated the phraseology of a single line within the portions of this 
 book subject to the Compiler's control. The opinions advanced by some of the authors brought together here may have been 
 swayed by low ambitions. Of this I know not. But nothing has been allowed a place that to the Compiler was not honestly 
 deserved, by its value for permanent record. The reading matter of Part XII, which precedes the Index, is matter furnished 
 by the Publishers and is paid for as advertising. To the close of Part XI and for the Index, the Compiler is wholly responsible. 
 Everything appropriated has been credited to its source ; and no one deprived of any portion of his good name. Duplications 
 in the matter will be noticed here and there, but these the Compiler has permitted rather than deprive any article of the 
 symmetry given it by the author. Any other arrangement would have necessitated annoying references. 
 
 The Compiler believes this volume to be a timely publication. The clouds that obscure the gold and silver mining 
 industry of this country cannot be allowed longer to intrude their shadows. No industry can thrive hedged about with fraud and 
 deception. Mr. J. D. Whitney, in his volume " The Metallic Wealth of the United States," says : 
 
 " The facility with which the public allows itself to be deceived, in regard to everything connected with mining, is as 
 remarkable, as the machinery by which the swindling speculation is organized and brought into successful operation is simple. 
 The locality is selected, and visited by some very distinguished scientific geologist, who for a sufficient consideration will write 
 a sufficiently flattering report, and demonstrate the absolute certainty of success. The value of the mine is fixed at an 
 enormous sum, and divided into one or even two hundred thousand shares ; the company is organized, and the stock brought 
 into the market. Every means possible is then taken to inflate its value ; fictitious sales of ore are announced ; the most 
 flattering reports are received from the mine, and published in all the newspapers ; the President of the company, who, 
 perhaps, had never seen a mine before in his life, and who may therefore be excused for mistaking iron for copper pyrites, 
 or perhaps even for gold, visits the scene of action, and finds the surface literally '.covered with stacks of ore;' a series 
 of dividends is announced as about to be paid, or perhaps, even, the ore or metal from a neighboring mine is purchased 
 with a part of the capital paid in, and sold, and a dividend declared 'from the proceeds of the mine;' the whole machinery 
 of fictitious sales of stock is put in motion, the stock rises, and the promoters of the enterprise benevolently allow the 
 public to step in and share with them in the magnificent profits which are certain to accrue. As soon as a sufficient 
 quantity of the stock has been thus disposed of, and the getters-up of the scheme have pocketed the proceeds of their 
 skilful manoeuvring, the natural results follow : the stock, no longer artificially kept up, begins to droop ; one after another the 
 deceptions which have been practiced become suspected ; the unfortunate holders rush to dispose of their shares, but it is too 
 late. The property which a few days before was quoted at hundreds of thousands can now hardly be given away ; the 
 unfortunate victims having nothing left as the tangible evidence of the brilliant dividends promised but the elegantly engraved 
 stock certificates, and the equally valuable reports by which they were deluded. And yet the mine, thus made the object of 
 speculation, and perhaps abandoned in disgust, may be really of value, and capable of being worked so as to pay a moderate 
 profit on the capital actually and judiciously invested in its development. But the idea was given out in the beginning of the 
 enterprise that it could be made profitable at once, and because this has not been the case, the holders of the stock lose all 
 confidence, and refuse to furnish the capital, without which hardly any mine, however rich it may be, can be put into a condition 
 in which it can for any length of time be worked with profit. The system which prevails in this country of chartered companies 
 with a large number of shares, seems especially adapted to make the mining business, which contains so much of the lottery 
 element of uncertainty in it, a mere object of stock speculations. The records of the last few years show almost without 
 exception that companies with large fictitious capital, and an enormous number of shares, have been got up for the purpose of 
 swindling the public, and not for bona Jide mining purposes. It may be laid down as a universal rule, that the stockholders in 
 a mining enterprise should be kept fully informed in regard to the expenditures and operations of the company. A frank and 
 full publication is the only guarantee of sincerity and good faith. When these things are more generally understood, and the 
 public refuses any longer to be victimized, we may expect to see a less noisy but far more effective development of our 
 mineral resources than we have yet had." 
 
 This was written in 1853. And it is not a day old in 1882. What Mr. Whitney saw is a, photograph of mining matters 
 this year. The Compiler has knowledge of a mining company that was formed with a borrowed set of ore samples and false 
 reports, and knows of the existence of a depot of geological specimens where samples of ores may be procured from any mine 
 in the world, including those not yet discovered! And this state of affairs has come about largely because mine owners fail to 
 recognize, what Francis Wayland puts so clearly : 
 
 " The case is the same with a copper, a silver, or a gold mine. The owner of the land at the time of the discovery becomes 
 greatly enriched in consequence of this new product which may be derived from his property. But after this rise, when a new 
 purchaser comes into possession, the peculiarity of the gain ceases. A rich gold mine will rent or will sell for more than a 
 poor one, and its price, or its rent, will be in exact proportion to its productiveness; just as a farm, a mill privilege or anv 
 other property. It is a somewhat remarkable fact, that mines of the precious metals arc, in general, singularly unprofitable after 
 they have passed out of the hands of the original owners. It had grown into a proverb in South America, that if a man owned 
 a copper mine he would grow rich, if he owned a silver mine he would gain nothing, but if he owned u gold mine he would 
 certainly be ruined. The fact, however, may be easily accounted for. The imaginations of men are always strono-ly excited by 
 the contemplation of the precious metals, and it is rare that anything but experience can teach them that they may buy gold too 
 dear. Hence they do not compute the chances of profit in the production of gold as they do in any other case. But the 
 production of gold is governed by as fixed laws as the production of wheat. Gold cannot, any more than wheat be produced by 
 an effort of the imagination. It is the result of labor, and skill, and expense. And if these be greater than the revenue a 
 man will as assuredly be ruined by producing gold as by conducting any other unprofitable business, his imagination to the 
 contrary notwithstanding." 
 
Such a state of afifairs can be altered only by the dissemination of honest information, and the Compiler hopes this 
 volume is therefore a timely step forward to the day of honest business-like mining. 
 
 No work such as this could have been brought to a conclusion without the incurring by the Compiler, of many debts of 
 courtesy. Of these, I desire to acquit myself as far as may be possible, in a public acknowledgment. My sincere thanks are 
 due, for services rendered, to 
 
 Hon. Edward McPherson, Clerk of the House of Representa- 
 tives, Washington. 
 
 Hon. Horatio C. Burchard, Director of the Mint, Washington. 
 
 Hon. N. C. McFarland, Land Commissioner, Washington. 
 
 Mr. John W. Powell, Director TJ. S. Geological Survey, 
 Washington. 
 
 Hon. Thomas Donaldson, Smithsonian Institute, Washington. 
 
 His Excellency Thomas J. Churchill, Governor of Arkansas. 
 
 His Excellency Albert G. Porter, Governor of Indiana. 
 
 His Excellency Thomas J. Jarvis, Governor of North Carolina. 
 
 His Excellency George C. Perkins, Governor of California. 
 
 His Excellency John H. Kinkead, Governor of Nevada. 
 
 His Excellency Shelby M. Cullum, Governor of Illinois. 
 
 His Excellency John P. St. John, Governor of Kansas. 
 
 His Excellency Charles Foster, Governor of Ohio. 
 
 Hon. Aaron K. Dunkel, Secretary of Internal Affairs for 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 Mr. Henry G. Hanks, State Mineralogist of California. 
 Mr. F. L. Bartlett, State Chemist of Maine. 
 Mr. George H. Cook, State Geologist of New Jersey. 
 Mr. W. C. Keer, State Geologist of North Carolina. 
 Andrew Roy, State Inspector of Mines for Ohio. 
 Edward Gilpen, Inspector of Mines for Nova Scotia. 
 Eossiter W. Raymond, Ph. D., New York. 
 Dr. Charles B. Dudley, Altoona. 
 Mr. James M. Swank, Secretary of the American Iron and 
 
 Steel Association, Philadelphia. 
 Mr. P. W. Sheaper, M. E., Potts viUe : and to others. 
 
 Thanking the reader for the attention that has carried him thus far in a preface, and trusting the faults of this compila- 
 tion will be forgotten in its merits, the Compiler invites him to go farther — ^to the pages beyond — and fare much better. 
 
 WILLIAM RALSTON BALCH. 
 
 Philadelphia. Summer of 1882. 
 
PART I. 
 
 T 
 
 HE Distribution of MineralR— Origin of Minerals — Description of Minerals— Iron and Iron Ores — Copper — Nickel— Lpad— Gold— Silver — Platinum 
 — Iridium— Osmium— Rhodium— Palladium— Mercury — Quicksilver— Zme— Tin— Coal— Mining and Metallurgy among the Ancients- 
 Analyses of Ancient Arms and Cutting Instruments— Table showing the Mean Compositions of Examined Specimens — Iron Historically 
 considered — The Early Use of Iron in Europe- The Growth of the British Iron Industry— Historical Sketch of Silver— Historical 
 Sketch of Lead— Historical Sketch of Copper— First Attempt by Europeans to Manufacture Iron in the United States — Iron 
 Manufacture in the New England Colonies — Early Iron Enterprises In the Middle, Southern and Western States — The Iron Industry of 
 New York— The Iron Industry of New Jersey— The Iron Industry of Pennsylvania— The Manufacture of Charcoal in Eastern 
 Pennsylvania after the Revolution — The Manufacture of Charcoal Iron in the Juniata Valley — The Manufacture of Charcoal Iron in 
 "Western Pennsylvania — Early Iron Enterprises in Delaware and Maryland — Early Iron Industries in Virginia, The Carolinas and 
 Georgia— The Early Days of the Iron Industry in Kentucky and Tennessee — Primitive Character of the Iron Works of North Carolina 
 and Tennessee— Early Iron Industries of Alabama— Iron Industries in the Western and South- Western Stales — The Iron Industry of 
 Indiana— The Iron Industry of Illinois— The Iron Industry of Michigan— The Iron Fndustiy of Wisconsin — The Iron Industry of 
 Missouri — The Iron Industry of Arkansas — The Iron Industry of Texas— The Iron Industry of Kansas — The Iron Industry of Nebraska — 
 The Iron industry of Colorado — The Iron Industry of Wyoming—The Iron Industry of Utah— The Iron Industry of California — The 
 Iron Industry of Oregon— The Iron Industry of Washington Territory — The First Iron Works in Canada — The Manufacture of Iron 
 with Anthracite Coal— The Manufacture of Iron with Bituminous Coal— The Early History of the Michigan Copper District— Early Days 
 of Mining on the Pacific Slope- Primitive IVJining Methods— Miners' "Rushes"— Improvement in Mining— Decline of River Mining— 
 The Miners' Madness — New Discoveries— The Cnmstock Lode and Washoe Fever — A Century of Mining and Metallurgy in the United 
 States— Erection of the First Steam Engine in America— Gold Mining in the South— The Opening of tlie Anthracite Coal Fields— The 
 Development of the Copper Mines of Lake Superior— The Discovery of Gold in California— The Commencement of Regular Mining 
 Operations at the New Almaden Quicksilver Mines, in California— The Commencement of the Hydraulic Mining Industry — The 
 Commencement of Iron Mining at Lake Superior— Table of Production of Leading Metals and Minerals in the United States during the 
 First Centurv of National Independence— Table of the Production of Quicksilver at New Almaden for Twenty-three Years and Three 
 Months— Tab'le of the Production of the Comstock Lode— Table of the Production of Iron Ore and Pig Iron at Lake Superior— Progress 
 in Mining and Metallurgical Art, Science and Industry, from 1875 to ISSl — The Productitfn of Pig Iron in the United States — The Output 
 of Bessemer Steel Ingots for Five Years— Increase in the r)utpnt of Petroleum— Statement of the Annual Production of Leading 
 Mining and Metallurgical Products— The Origin and History of Coal— The Earliest Attempt to Secure a Discoverer's Rights— The 
 Golden Treasury. 
 
 Pages 
 
 . 1 to 107 
 
 ^-g^- 
 
 PART IL 
 
 T 
 
 HE Min 
 
 . 107 to 159 
 
PART III. 
 
 THE Geology and Veins of Tombstone, Arizona— Table of the Production of Tombstone Mines and Mills— The Contention Mine— Gold in 
 •Poi-phyry— Metallization of the Dike- Bedded Oi-e Deposits— Geology and Mining Industry of Leadville. Colorado— General GeoloRy of 
 the Mosquito Kange— Aruhiean Kouks— Paleozoic Formations— Lower Quartzices— White Lime»tone— Blue Limestone— Upper Coal- 
 measure Limeotone— Quaternary Formations- Eruptive or Igneous Rocks— White or Leadville Porphyry— Lincoln Porphyry- 
 Sacramento Porphyry— Fyritiferous Porphyry— Dioritic Rocks— Rock Kormations— Eruptive Rocks- Glacial Phenomena— Ore Deposits- 
 Blanket Veins- LeadviUe Deposits— Iron Hill jMines— Carbonate Hill Mines— Fryer Hill Mines— Ore in Lower Horizons— Blue 
 Limestone Horison— Distribution of Bonanzas in the Fryer Hill Mines— Gray Porphyry Dike— Sedimentary Formations— Formation of 
 Ore Deposits— Value of Ore Deposits compared with Fissure Veins— Practical Suggestions to Prospectors— Area under LeadviUe— 
 Metallurgical Notes— The Comstock Mines— Table of the Annual Product of the Comstock Mines— Table showing the Bonanza* in the 
 Comstook Mines— Table of the Capital stock. Dividends and Assessments of the Comstock Mines— Ventilation in the Com-toek Mines— 
 The Geology of the Comstock Lode and the Washoe District— Decomposition of Rocks— The Rocks of the Washoe District— Structural 
 Results of Faulting on the Comstock— Occurrence and Succession of Rocks in the Comstock- The Chemical History of the Comstock— 
 Heat Phenomena of the Comstock Lode— The Electrical Activity of Ore Bodies— On the Thermal Effect of Kaolinization— The 'Origin 
 of Metalliferous Deposits— The Chemical History of Iron— '1 he Geological Relations of Ore Deposits— The Ores of Iron- their 
 Geographical Distribution— The Iron Ores of England— Scotch Coal Measures- The Ores of Sweden— Iron Ores of Russia— Iron Ores of 
 France— Iron Ores of Belgium— Iron Production of Austria— Iron Production of the German Empire— Mineral Resources of Spain- 
 Iron Ore Deposits in Africa— Iron Ores of North America -Analyses of Magnetic Iron Ores— Analysis of Iron Mountain and Pilot Knob 
 Ores— The Anthracite and Magnetic Iron Ore Districts of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Eastern Maryland— The Mountain 
 Region of Central Pennsylvania— The Pittsburg Iron Region— The Iron Region of the Southern Alleghanies- The Iron Region of 
 Western Kentucky and Tennessee— The Block-Coal Iron Region of Indiana— The Missouri Iron Region- The Northern Illinois Iron 
 Region- The Lake Superior Iron Region— Iron Manufacture in Mexico— The Mineral District of Chiquilistlan— The Xew Iron Works in 
 Mexico— Coal in Mexico— Limestone in Mexiio— Cost per ton of Pig lion in Mexico- Present Production of the Works— Estimated 
 Production of the Works when completed and in Good Running Order— The Formation of Gold Nuggets and Placer Deposits— Tlie 
 Geographical Distribution of Mining Districts in the United States— Silver in the Sedimentary Rocks— Prof. Newberry's theorj' of the 
 Sliver Sandstone Deposits at Silver Reef -The Hygiene of Mines— Absence of Sunlight in Mining- Carbonic Acid Gas in Mines- 
 Physical Exertion in Mining— The Air of Metal Mines— Temperature of Mines— Provision for the Health and Comfort of Miners- 
 Miners' Homes— Prof. Egleston on Miners' Homes— The Hospital System in France— Our Non-Precious Mineral Industries— Table of the 
 Production of the Non-Precious Minerals of the United States during the year ending June 1st, 1880— Table of the Yearly Mineral 
 
 PrnHne+.inn T^pr r>!ir,iln nf l>nniT}atinn rPriKl^ ^f iU^ r>^.« ^„+I \Ti ^f *l,~ kt n ;-.. ~ it*; 'i x_ ., . _: - _ mi. _ it ._ n li . 
 
 of the Coal-Pields of the United Kingdom— Product of the various Coal-Fields in 1860, 16T0 and 1881- Statistics of the Coal Production 
 in the United Kingdom— The Great Northern Coal-Pield of Great Britain-The Midland Coal-Pieid of Great Britain— The Cumberland 
 Coal-Field of Great Britain— The Lancashire Coal-Field of Great Britain— The Leicestershire Coal-Field of Great Britain— The Gold 
 Fields of Nova Scotia— Estimated Cost of Crushing Gold Ores— Tables showing the Assays of Nova Scotia Gold Ores— General Annual 
 Summary respecting the Nova Scotia Gold Fields— Bare Minerals of California— New Mineral Localities in California— Occurrence of 
 Vanadates of Lead at the Castle Dome Mines— Interesting Statistics from Foreign Countries— Coal Production of Great Britain— Table 
 •showing the Growth of the Pig Iron Industry of Great Britain from 1740 to 1881— Manufactured Iron in Great Britain— Bessemer Steel 
 m Great Britain— Table of the Total Exports of Iron and Steel from Great Britain— Production of Pig Iron in (he German Empire— The 
 Iron Indu3tr.r of Luxemburg— The Production of Pig Iron in France— Table Relative to the TarifF— The Production of Pig Iron in 
 Belgium— The Iron Trade of Austria and Hungary— Statistics of the Iron and Steel Production of Sweden— Iron Ore Exports of Spain- 
 Iron Industry of Italy— Imports and Exports of Iron, Steel and Coal of Russia— Statistics of Mineral Production- The Hardware 
 Industry of Great Britain— Minerals of Great Britain— Production of Gold in Australia— Gold Production of New South Wales— The 
 Gold Fields of Victoria- Minerals and Metals of France— Mineral Industries of G-rmany- Minerals and Manufactures of Belgium- 
 Swedish Manufactures- Manufactures and Minerals of Russia— Exports and Imports of Austria-Hungary- Minerals of Spain— The 
 Mineral Productions of Italy— Great Britain's Coal and Iron Output in 1881— Consumption of Coal in France— Quicksilver Production 
 in Spain— Quicksilver Production of the Almaden Mine during 18S1— Russian Coal Statistics. 
 
 Baeea 159 to 267 
 
 - » > <■» 
 
 i 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 r I lECHNICAL Education^The University of Pennsylvania — Faculty of the University — Courses of Instruction in the University of Pennsylvania— 
 The Lehigh University— Faculty of the Lehigh University— Courses of Instruction in the Lehigh University— Lafayette College, 
 Easton, Pa. — Faculty of Lafayette College— Courses of Instruction in Lafayette College — The Industrial School for Miners and 
 Mechanics, at Drifton, Luzerne Co., Pa. — School of Mines, Columbia College, New York City — Faculty of the School of Mines— Courses 
 of Instruction in the School of Mines — A Summer School of Practical Mining — The Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N. J. — 
 Facultj' of the Stevens Institute of Technology — Courses of Instruction in the Stevens Institute of Technology—Sheffield Scientific 
 School, Yale College, New Haven— Faculty of the Sheffield Scientific School — Courses of Instruction in the Sheffield Scientific School — 
 Lawrence Scientific School, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. — Faculty of the Lawrence Scientific School — Courses of Instruction 
 in the Lawrence Scientific School— Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston— Faculty and Officers of the Massachusetts Institute 
 of Technology— Courses of Instruction in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology— A Mining Laboratorj^— Cornell University, 
 Ithaca, N. Y. — Faculty of Cornell University — Courses of Instruction in Cornell University — University of Michigan, Ann Harbor — ■ 
 Faculty of the University of 3richigan — Courses of Instruction in the University of Michigan — Colorado State School of Mines— Faculty 
 of the Colorado State School of Mines — Courses of Instruction in the Colorado Stare School of JMines — University of California, 
 Berkeley, California— Faculty of the University of California— Courses of Instruction in the University of California— American 
 Students of Mining in Germany — Friedburg Academy, Germany — Professors and Subjects of Instruction in the Freidburg Academy — 
 The American Institute of Mining Engineers — Rules and Officers of the American Institute of Mining Engineers — The National 
 Mining Exhibition at Denver, Colorado— Classification of Departments in the National Mining Exhibition at Denver — The United States 
 Geological Survey and its Work — The Mining and Scientific Press of the United States— The California Mining Bureau— The California 
 State Geological Society. 
 
 Pages . . ' . 267 to 359 
 
 — — »"«4 
 
 T 
 
 PART V. 
 
 HE Report of the Director of the Mint — Table showing the Amount and Character of the Deposits at the Mints— Table showing the Purchases 
 at the Coining Mints and the New York Assay Office— Table of the Coinage and Distribution at each Mint — Estimation of the Values of 
 Foreign Coins— Philadelphia Mint— San Francisco Mint— Carson Mint — New Orleans Mint— New York Assay Office— Denver Mint and 
 Assay Offices at Charlotte, Helena, Boise City and St. Louis — Coin Circulation of the United States — Table of the Deposits and Purchases 
 of Gold and Silver Bullion during the year ended June 30, 1881 — Table of the Deposits and Purchases of Gold and Silver of Domestic 
 Production — Table of the Coinage executed during the Fiscal Year — Table of the Coinage executed during the Calendar Year— Table 
 showing the Bars Manufactured during the year ended June 30, 1881- Statement of Earnings and Expenditures of the United States 
 Mints and Assay Offices— Wastages and Loss on Sale of Sweeps — Statement cf the Number of Melts of Ingots made and condemned at 
 each Mint — Percentage of Coin produced from Gold and Silver by the Coiners of the Mints, 1874 to 1881 — Table of Domestic Gold and 
 Silver deposited at the Mints and Assay Offices— Statement of Coinage from the Organization of the Mint to the close of the Fiscal 
 Year ended June 30, 1880 — Estimate of Values of Foreign Coins — Table showing the Average Monthly Price of Fine Silver Bars at 
 London — Table showing the Relative Market Value of Gold to Silver — Statement of Imports and Exports of Gold and Silver during the 
 year ended June 30, 1881- Statement by Countries of the Net Imports of American Silver Coin — Table of the Value and Character of the 
 Gold and Silver used in Manufactures and Arts in the United States— Horological Productions of Various Countries— Table of Average 
 
L 
 
 PART V.-CONTINUED. 
 
 and Comparative Prieef, of the Principal Domestic Commodities Exported from tlie United States— Table Relative to Gold and Currency 
 Prices of Staple Articles in the New York Market— Table of the Value and Character of Gold and Silver used in Manufactures and Arts 
 in the United States— Table of tlie Currency and Gold Prices of Staple Articles in the New York Market compared with the Ratio of 
 Circulation to Population and Wealth — t-Jreat Britain; Gold in the Arts— Ratio of Circulation to Population and Wealth compared with 
 Prices of Staple Articles in the New Yorlt Market— Tables of the Annual Consumption of Gold and Silver in the Arts— Table relative to 
 the movement of Specie in France— Table showing the Specie and Paper Circulation in France from 1850 to 1878— Production of the 
 Precious Metals in Germany— Statement of the Precious Metals used in Austria— Manufactured Gold— Industrial Employment of Silver 
 and Gold in Norway and Sweden— Statement of the Monetary Situation of the Kingdom of Norway— Table of the Articles of Gold 
 Manufactured in or Imported into Sweden from 1848 to 1880— Table of the Articles of Silver Manufactured in or Imported into Sweden 
 frorn 1848 to 1880 — Gold and Silver in Sweden — Gold, Silver and Paper Money in Norway — Tables relative to the Coinage and Circulation 
 of Silver in Norway— Quantity of Gold and Silver in Sweden— Currency in Circulation in Russia— Table of Gold and Silver Coined in the 
 St. Petersburg Mint— Tables of the Deposits of Gold and Silver Coin and Bars on hand in the Treasury of the Empire— Table of the 
 Coinage of Gold in St. Petersburg since 1800— Tables of Gold and Silver Coinage in St. Petersburg at various dates — Tables of the amount 
 of Gold and Silver Coined in Lisbon, Portugal— Statements of the Imports and Exports of Gold and Silver into and from Portugal — 
 Table of the Amount of Gold and Silver Coined under the Metric Decimal System in Italy— Table of Italian Coinage from 1862 till 1878— 
 Summary of the Coinage of the Swiss Mints — Table of the Imports, Exports and Coinage of Gold and Silver of British India — Amount 
 of Gold and Silver Coin and Bullion in the Government Treasuries of British India— Coin and Bullion at the Banks of Bengal, Madras 
 and Bombay— Imports and Exports of Specie into and from the Cape of Good Hope— Bank Reserve and Paper Circulation in the Cape 
 of Good Hope— Table of the Gold and Silver Coin, Bullion and Paper Money in the Banks of Au.stralasia^— Tables of the Coin held by 
 the Banks of Victoria — Imports and Exports of Gold by sea and land into and from New South Wales — Gold in New Zealand— Gold 
 Production in the Australian Colonies— Table of the Gold Production of Victoria— Tables showing the Notes and Specie of the Banks of 
 British Columbia — Imports and Exports of Specie and Bullion into and from .Japan — Table of the Deposits of Gold and Silver at the 
 Mints of Mexico- Tables of the Coinage of the Mints of Mexico by Fiscal Years- Table of the Total Coinage of the Mints of Mexico 
 from their establishment to the present time— Historical Memoranda concerning Gold and Silver — Production of Gold in the State of 
 California Proper— Annual Production in the United States of Gold and Silver— Annual Production of Gold in Australia— Comparative 
 ' leld of the Great Gold Fields of the Modern World— The Western World's Production of Gold and Silver— E.otimated Annual Production 
 of Gold and Silver by the Mines of America from the Discovery to the beginning of the Nineteenth Centurv— Table of the estimated 
 P''oa"otion of Silver in the Western World— Table of the estimated Production of Gold in the Western World— Estimated Production 
 °' "9}° *■"' Silver throughout the World— Proportion of Consumption to Production— The World's Stock of Precious Metals— Table of 
 tlie Estimated Stock of Gold and Silver Coin and the Population of the European World— Ratio between Gold and Silver of Ancient 
 limes— Quantity determining the Ratio of Value between the Precious Metals— Legal Regulations in determining the Ratio of Value 
 between the Precious Metals— The Effect of Law upon Quantity, and of Quantity upon Ratio— EtTeot of Mint charges upon Ratio— Effect 
 ot Arbitrary Decree upon Ratio— Tables showing the Ratio between Gold and Silver in Ancient Times— The Ratio between Gold and 
 bilver in IModern Times— The Mint Ratios of Spain— The Optional Standard in France- The Optional Standard in England— The Silver 
 btandard in the United States— Tables of the Average Annual Market Ratio between Gold and Silver from 1760 to 1878, and- the Average 
 Monthly Ratio from 1873 to the present time— The History of the Relative Values of Gold and Silver— Token Coinage— Relative Value of 
 Gold and Silver in Ancient Times— Relative Value of Gold and Silver in the Middle Ages— Relative Value of Gold and Silver from 1492 
 to the Opening of the Mines in California and Australia— Relative Value of Gold and Silver from 1851 to 1874— Commonplace Fallacies 
 concerning Money -Views of Mr. Bonamy Price on the Value of Money— Effects of a Scarcity of Cash— Slow Monetary Contraction 
 orises— Ihe Fiat Money Theory— Power of the Law with regard to Money— The Purchase Power of the Monetary Metals— Table of the 
 Annual Production of Gold and Silver from 1840 to lS79-StabiIity in the Legal Tender— Bimetallic Coinage— The Future of Gold— 
 Atiriterous Hocks— Auriferous Veins— Auriferous Alluvium— The Bonanza of Gold Hill— Table showing the decline of Gold in Australia- 
 wiiy Gold and Sliver are used for Money— The Quantity of the Precious Metals in Greece- The Principal Enochs in the Modern 
 tt-oduction ot the Precious Metals— Table showing the Stock of Coin in Christendom— The Effects of Prosperous Mining— Bimetallism : 
 bingle and Double Standards— Standard Measure of Value— The Value of the Precious Metals but slightly affected by their Employment 
 *^. ™°"^?-; i^roduction of Precious Metals from 1800 to 1879— Exports of Silver to the East from Great Britain and Mediterranean Ports— 
 ir ?!, S i'?!"*^^ PC'*''?''* Britain-Silver Stocked by Western Nations— Consumption of Silver as affected by Important Changes in 
 jMetnoas 01 Oriental Exchange-True Cause of the Depreciation of Silver— The Increase of Money Needed— Depreciation of Silver but 
 siigntiy Attected by Its Demonetization— Why Double Standards have always failed and must continue to do so— Monetary Functions of 
 i°^, T?" , Monetary Functions of Coin on the Exchangeable Value of the Precious Metals— Mr. Mulhall's Estimates upon Gold 
 
 ana bilver— Banks and Paper Money— Table showing the Ratio of convertible Paper Money to Population— Finances and Wealth— Table 
 Showing the Increase in the Chief Products— Sir Hector Hay's Estimate of the Production of Precious Metals— Figures and Facts in 
 consumption and Distvibiition of Precious Metals— Present Monetary Standard of the Nations of the World-Gold Standard Countries- 
 Countries having Double Standard— Countries having Silver Standard— Table of the Production of Gold and Silver from 1492 to 1879— 
 w„ 1 j° -f ifi Constimption of Gold and Silver by India and the East— Amount of Gold and Silver in use by the Principal Countries of the 
 .V^r T?~* J Q.^f " ,? Relative Values of Gold to Silver— Relation of Gold to Silver in the London Market— Minute on the Standard of 
 tne united atates-How Money is Made— Proceedings of the Assay Commission of 1882— Report of the Committee on the Weight of 
 coins at the Philadelphia,, San Francisco, Carson and New Orleans Mints- Laws Relating to the Reservation of Coins for the Annual 
 Assay— Rules of the Board of Assay Commissioners. 
 
 ^^Ses ... . 359 to 468 
 
 »•"» 
 
 PART VI. 
 
 AW of Mining Stock Brokers and Mining Stock Engineers-Legal Relation of Stock-broker to his Client-Annals of the New York Stock 
 Exchange-Definitions of Wall Street Terms-The New fork Mining Stock Market-Mining Stock SdianKes-The Americaii Min^n^ 
 and StocTc Exehange-The New York Mining Stock Eifchange-OflScers of fhe New Yoil"i[ining S^tock Shanet-rSitutim an! 
 By-Laws of he New York Mining Stock ExcTiange-Names of the Stocks listed at the New York Mini4 Stock l^mni^^^ 
 rfining Stock Exchange-By-Laws and Rules and Regulations of the American Mining S^ocl^EfchMie-StoolS^isted^^^ 
 the Ainerican Mining Stock Exchange-The Mining Stock Market-Tablo of the Prices Sid Num&i" f sfares of Stotfk sold at thl^Jt 
 York Mining Exchanees-Table of tTie Total Transactions in Stocks dealt in at the New York Mining Exchanges-Table of Prices It the 
 New York Stock Exchange-Goveroment of the New York Stock Exchange-The Bullion Production for 1882-Tabferpl„tvft„^ Iht 
 
 Sirph1a^'s°t«a^rref-Ti;^e«S&^ 
 
 piX^!^^:^^^^ li^ch!n1^.=D^-"r«St?ct ^^^^^l^lX^S^^iS !^?^ 
 ?roduT, 'iff: Tc"'"^ '"-Jl" States^nd Territories west of thfMisso'ud Rivlr-pfccious^Metals^rc';;^^^^^^^ 
 
 ^S^I?S"gi'lV7i?'^r„X^^ 
 
 and By-Law! of theB^nFmneiZoHtnckLdT^^^^ p ''if ^S-" ^.^n^^co Stock and Exchange BoarS-Constitution 
 
 Comstock Shares-Table" orthe HigW ami LowSt P®ric?s of^^^^^ ■®'<'^^, Bxchange-^Dealings in the 
 
 the Highest Prices of Mining Stock! in San Fiancffco-'rhp1?,,(n?irS^ ®'S', '^™n<'>s™ Share Market in 1882-Table of 
 
 OflaeerS and Board of Managers of the New Yn^.h^STlndlM^V^^:^^^^^^^^ ".?" \"'''^ ^'■™ ""<* '*^'^'a"' Exchanges- 
 
 Code of Rules of the New York Iron and J?etal Exo Zio Th^ tL^ o^^ & J" i^^^^ "^ "A*' ''"^ ^ '"■'^' ''■"" I"'! Metal Exchange- 
 Market to June 30, 1882-Table of Price" for Iron hi New^oric Stnlemp^ J n '''b'^''''''""'^^^ Limited-A Review of the fron 
 Prices of Pittsburg Iron-A Review Sf the C, ™ Market to TmieioTsR. ?n,i,n„™r'""sf*^'"''' ^^Vt^ °*' "^'^ United States-Table of 
 Anthracite Coal jfining in Ponn.^y^vania-D^triSion of Anthracite (^i^^f^^^^ '^^^ Anthracite Coal Production- 
 Distribution of the LaKe Superior Copper Y 3d in 1881-Tn" e showlnrthe Valnr^f ?r'?'r *^ Copper Market to .Tune 30.1SS2- 
 Market to June, 1882-Table 'showing l^he Tin Product of the Worid-a^at^eind c flint S!w v?°P,P''v!; '^'^ *^T YorU-Roview of tho Tin 
 Banca Tin-Table of the Net Imports of Tin in tl?e United StS-R^^Tvlewr^??^^^^^^^ f"''"" ^"^ Tin-Table of Prices of 
 Price of Common Domestic Lea/at New C-lt-Review of the Spei^i? M T^.b^'^f'*?! l^S^-Table of the Average 
 New York-Review of the Quicksilver Market to June 30, 1882-TTble of Uie Production o?'calif7rnia Mineriu 188? ""'°" ''''"""' ^' 
 
 Pages 
 
 . 468 to 541 
 
M 
 
 A 
 
 'T 
 
 PART VI I. 
 
 INING and Mining Law among the Ancients— Mines of the Persians and Egyptians— A.ncienfc Mining in Siberia and Europe — Mining in 
 Greece — Ancient Mining in Western Europe — Mining of the Romans— Mining Law in the Middle A^es — German Mining Codes of'the 
 Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries— A Scheme of Organizing Mining in Germany— The SpanWh Mining Law— Modern German 
 Codes — The New Prussian Mining Law— Tlie Code of France— Classified Minos of France— Mming Law of England— Open Letter of 
 Baymond on Mineral Lands as a part of the Public Domain — Tlie Government Organization — Business of tlie Secretary of the Interior 
 relative to Mines and Public Lands— The General Ijand Office— Administration of the Land Service— Duties of the Commissioner— 
 Importance of the General Land Office— Present Organization of the General Land Office— Surveyors-Genera! prior to 1825— Sin- veyors- 
 General within States or Territories— Registers and Receivers in Land Districts — List of Offices of Surveyor-General — List of Surveying 
 Districts and Surveyors-General — List of Local Land Offices from May in, 1800 to June 30, 1880— List of Existing Local Land Offices ana 
 Names of Officers, November 10, 1880— Surveys of the Public Lands— The Rectangular System of Surveys— Methods and System of 
 Land Parceling Surveys — Administration and Method of the Surveys — Execution of Surveys— Geological Surveys of Public Domain 
 under General Xand Office— Method of Surveying Mineral Claims— Classification of Mineral Land— Benefits of the Present System of 
 Land Parceling- Tabular Statement relative to Public Lands— Coat of Surveying under the Rectangular System— Tables showing Cost 
 of Surveys from 1860 to 1881 — Statement showing Surveying Districts and Offices of Surveyors-General — United States Laws relatmg to 
 Surveys and Surveyors — Surveying of Mining Claims in Colorado — Land Districts and Officers— Sale and Disposition of Public LandH- 
 Disposal of Public Lands by Public Offering and Sale— Prices of the Public Lands at Various Periods— Saline Lands— Change in Saline 
 Laws— Table relative to Grants of Salines by Congress — Timber and Timber Culture— Laws respecting Town Sites and County Seats- 
 Laws relative to Mineral Lands — Miscellaneous Provisions relating to the Public Lands— Coal Lands— Estimate of Area of Coal 
 Measure— Table of the Cash Sales of Coal Lands by fiscal years to June 30, 1880— Laws Governing the Sale of Government Coal Lanrls— 
 Mines on the Public Domain— Mineral Reservations in Northwest Territory — Cash Sales of Mineral Lands ordered by CongresH— 
 Mineral Lands in charge of the War Department— The Discovery of Gold in California causing a change in the Mineral' Laws of the 
 United States — Congressional Action as to Metals on the Pacific Slope— ^Local Mining Laws in California — Report of Col. R- B. Mason on 
 the Gold-Fields of California — Mining District under Local Usage; How Organized— Organization and Kules of Mining Camp at 
 Jacksonville, California — The Present Method of Organizing a Mining Camp— Executive and Departmental Recommendations relative 
 to Mineral Lands— Retrospect of Mining Legislation prior to 1806— Estimated Production of Gold and Silver from 1848 to 1880— The 
 Condition of the Precious-Metal Bearing Regions prior to 1866— The Mining Act of July 20, 1866— Placer-Mining Art, July 9, 1870— The 
 Mining Act of May 10, 1872 — Provisions or the existing Mining Law— Cost of Patents to the United States and Claimants — Patents for 
 Placer Claims— The Policy; of the United States in Relation to Mineral Lands— Number of Mining Locations and of Patents — Estimate 
 of Area of Western Precious- Metal Regions— Statement relative to Placer Mining Claims — Sale and Disposition of Public Lands- 
 Rulings of the General Land Office— Lode-Claims Located prior to May 10, 1872— Patents for Veins or Lodes heretofore Issued— Manner 
 of Locating Claims on Veins or Lodes after May 10, 1872 — Rulings of the General Land Office relative to Tunnel Bights— Method of 
 Obtaining Government Title to Vein or Lode Claims- Rulings of the General Land Office relative to Adverse Claims- Quantity of 
 Placer Ground subject to Location— Rulings of the General Land Office relative to Mill Sites — Proof of Citizenship of Mining-Clalmancs 
 — Appointment of Deputy Surveyors of Mining Claims— Charges for Surveys and Publications — Fees of Registers and Receivers— 
 Hearmgs by the General Land Office to establish the Character of Lands — Rules of Practice before Land Officers, the General Land 
 Office and the Department of the Interior — Proceedings before the Commissioner of the General Land Office and Secretary of the 
 Interior— Appeals from the Commissioner to the Secretary — Recent decisions affecting Rights under the Mining Laws of the United 
 States — Decisions regarding the Lizzie Bullock Claims— Decisions regarding the Town Site of Eureka Springs — Decisions regarding 
 Mining Claims in Town Sites — Decisions respecting the Price of Coal Lands— Decisions respecting Relocation by a Co-owner— Decisions 
 regarding the Sutro Tunnel — Decisions "relative to the Mark Twain Lode — Decisions on Expenditures on Mming < laims — Decisionis 
 relative to Locating Mineral Veins— Decision relative to the Richmond Mining Company — Decision as to the Validity of the Shark- 
 Paymaster Case^Uecisions from Carpenter's Mining Code — Decision relative to the Bull of the Woods; American Case— Decision relative 
 to the Bell Tunnel; Ben Harding Case — Decision relative to the Colorado Central; Equator Case — Deciijion regarding the Iron; Grand 
 View Case — Decision regarding the New Discovery ; Little Chief Case— Important Stock Derision— Important Decision relative to Timber 
 on MineralLands— Summary of the General Land Office Annual Report for 1881 — Circular Instructions to Surveyors-General on Fraudulent 
 Surveys — Examination of Surveys in the Field — Table relative to United States Public Lands— Statement relative to the Mineral 
 Lands Division— Report of the Surveyor-General on the Mineral Production of California— Report of the Surveyor-General on the 
 Mineral Production of Montana— Report of the Surveyor-General on the Mineral Production of Nevada — Report of the Surveyor- 
 General on the Mineral Production of New Mexico— Report of the Surveyor-General on the Mineral Production of Utah — Mining Laws 
 of the States and Territories — Mining Laws of Nevada^Mining Laws of Idaho— Mining Lawri of Dakota— Mining Laws of Arizona — 
 Amendment of "Chapter Fifty" of the Howell Code — Mining Laws of Colorado— Mming Laws of New Mexico — Mining Laws of 
 California — Mining Laws of Utah — Mining Laws of Wyoming — Mining Laws of Montana— Mining Laws of Illinois — Mining Laws of 
 Ohio— Mining Laws of Pennsylvania— Mining Laws of Massachusetts— fable showing Interest Laws of Different States — Tiie Dominion 
 of Canada— Laws relating to Public Lands m Canada— Land Laws of Mexico— The Debris Question— The Great Evils of Hydraulic 
 Mining — A Governmental Report on the Evils of Hydraulic Mining — Ancient Drainage— The Hydraulic Mining Industry — Table of 
 Reservoirs on the Yuba, Bear, Feather and American Rivers — Incomplete Statistics of Mining Ditches in California — Table relative to 
 the Grades of Tunnels of Mines on the Yuba River— Estimate of Mining Material moved Annually — The Economic Aspect of Mining — 
 Tabular Statement showing the Condition of Mining in California — Table of the Products of Precious Metals in California from laiS 
 to the close of 1881 — Tabular Statement of the Average Yield of Auriferous Gravel — Table of the Yield of Hydraulic Mining in 
 California— Natural Denudation in Mining— Changes in Navigable Waters by Hydraulic Mining — Deposits of Detritus in Tributaries of 
 Navigable Waters— General Features of the American River presented by Mr. Manson — Gravel Workable by Hydraulic Process — 
 Remedial Measures in Mining — Table showing Estimates and Order of Structure upon Yuba River — Table relative to Structures on 
 Bear River— Table relative to Structures on American River — The Gold Run Suit — Judge Temple's Deeision in the Gold Run Suit — 
 Forms of Mining Companies and Officers — Form of Western Mining Company Charter— Form of Eastern Mining Company Charter — 
 Form of Patent for Placer Claim — Form of Patent for Vein or Lode Claim— Rules for Forming a Mining District— Mode! of a Stock 
 Certificate— Form of Transfer of Stock— Form of Mining Deed— Form of Mining Lease— Legal Decision relative to Mining Stock. 
 
 Pages ... ... . ... . . 542 to 728 
 
 ^-C^ 
 
 PART VIII. 
 
 GLOSSARY of Minin"and Metallnrgieal Terms— The Properties of Metals— Tables of Reference for the Miner, Engineer and Mine Owner- 
 Chronological Eras and Cycles for 1882— United States Measures and Weights — Geographical Measures and Distances — Miscellaneous 
 Notes— Tide Table for the United States Coast— Tables showing the Weight of Flat and Round Rolled Iron— Tables relative to Weight 
 and Volume of Cast Iron- Table of Weights of Wrought Iron, Steel, Copper and Brass Plates— Elementary Bodies, with their Symbols 
 and Equivalents— Tables relative to Wire Rope, Ropes, Hawsers and Cables— Rule for obtaining the Weight of Solids in Cubic Inches — 
 Table relative to Elastic Fluids— Table of Weights and Volumes of Various Substances in Ordinary Use- Wages Table— Table of 
 Velocities and Discharges in Hydraulic Mining— Cost of Mining in Colorado and Nova Scotia— Explosive Force of Various Substances 
 used for Fire Arms— Weights and Measures of Coal— Average Composition of Important Alloys— Composition of Bronze for Machinery — 
 Atmospheric Air— Facts relative to Carbonic Acid Gas— Facts relative to Water— Metrical Abbreviations— Rule for Reckoning Quantity 
 of Coal in Place- Rule for Preparation of Alloys of a Given Fineness— Short Methods of Calculation— Miners' Inches for Various Horse 
 Powers— A Miner's Inch of Water— Mean relative Evaporating Power of Different Fuels— Calendar 1882-3. 
 
 Pages . .... 729 to 768 
 
 »-g* 
 
 PART IX. 
 
 HE Physical Geology of the Grand Canyon District— The Plateau Province— De Motte Park— The Romance of Mining— The Madre D'Oro— The 
 Divining Rod — The Whims of Fortune — Down in a Utah Mine — Social Life in the Mines and the Surrounding Influences — Society near 
 the Gold Mines— Diet and Privation among Miners— The Wreck Wrought by Mining— Mining as a Promoter of Crime- Reported 
 Numbers of Suicides in San Francisco— Curiosit.es of Metals— Color Relations of Metals— Communication from Mr. J. Van Cleve 
 Phillips on Sex in Mineral Veins— Letter from Mr. J. Williams on Sex in Mineral Vein.s— The Forms of Minerals — Accidents in the 
 Comsfock Mines and their Relation to Deep Mining— Deep Mine Workings— The Temperature of the Soil — The Physical Limits of Deep 
 Mining — Deep Coal Mining in Wales — The Ventilation and Lighting of Underground Workings— Nature of Air — Air SoUars — The Water 
 
PART IX.-CONTINUED. 
 
 Trompe— Natural Ventilation— Heat of Deep Mines— Lighting of Mine Workings— Mining Ventilation— Mechanical Ventilation and 
 Drainage in Indiana Mines— Measuring the Air of Mines— Compressed Air in Mines— Electricity in Mining Work — Transmission ol 
 Power by Electricity in Mining— Lighting Mines by Electricity— The Application of Electricity to the Prevention of Fire-Damp 
 Explosion — Accidents in Mines — Fatal Accidents in Prussian Mines— Nature of Accidents in Prussian Mines — Injuries in Prussian 
 Minos in 1881— Fatal Accidents and Deaths in English Coal Mines— Fires in Mines: Their Causes and the Means of Extinguishing 
 them— Explosions of Fire-Damp— Spontaneous Combustion and Weather Waste of Coal — Means adopted for Preventing Mine Fires- 
 Means adopted for Extinguisliing Mine Fires — Mining Accidents — Coal Mine Explosions and their Prevention — Mining Explosions and 
 Mining Warnings— Mechanical Appliances for Mine Accidents— Prospecting as a Piofession— Locating a Mine— The Operation of a 
 Mine— Extraction of Malleable Iron directly from the Ore— TheMiner and the Capitalist— The Purchase of Mines— Salted Ledges and 
 Wildcat Mines— Gold Mining from the Investor's Point of View— The Problems of Labor. 
 
 Pages ... . . . . . : 769 to 873 
 
 --*-£*-- 
 
 I 
 
 PART X. 
 
 RON— Extraction of Iron from its Ores in the Form of Cast Iron— Conversion of Bar Iron into Steel by Cementation— Conversion of Blister Steel 
 into Cast Steel— Production of Bessemer Steel— Copper— Roasting Copper to Expel Arsenic and Sulphur— Copper Smelting: Removing 
 the Oxide of Iron as a Silicate— Calcination of Copper for the Conversion of Sulphuret of Iron into Oxide— Fusion of Copper Ore for 
 the Removal of Iron— Blistered Copper: Roasting the Pine Metal- Refining Process lor Purifying Copper— Effect of the Presence of 
 Foreign Matters upon the Quality of Copper— Metallurgy of the Precious or Noble Metals— Gold— Silver— Silver-Lead Alloy— Extraction 
 of Silver from Copper Pyrites— Amalgamation Process for the Extraction of Silver— Platinum— Zinc— The Physical Properties of Metals- 
 Tables of Breaking Strains of Wire— Welding of Metals— Spinning of Utensils— Washing Gold Alluvia 200 years ago— Hydraulic 
 Mining in California— Table sliowing the Construction of Wrought Iron Pipe for Hydraulic Mining— Profile of Wrought Iron Pipe for 
 GravelMines in California— Mechanical and Legal History of Hydraulic Nozzles— The Drainage of Mines— Modes of Blasting— Rock- 
 Boring Machinery— Tools used in Rock-Drilling Machinery— Brain's Radical System in Rock-Drilling— Tools used in Breaking Rock- 
 Dead Work in Shafts — Conveyance and Raising of Ore — Note on Hoefer's Method of Determining Faults in Mineral Veins — The Silver 
 Mill — The Quicksilver Pump System — The Quicksilver Pressure System — Origin and Classification of Ore L'eposits — The Anthracite 
 Coal Fields and their E.xhaustion- Output of Anthracite Coal from 18*20 to 1880 — United States Coal Product of 18G9 and 1878 — Available 
 Tonnage of the Bituminous Coal of Pennsylvania— 'Winding Gear for Mines and Wire Rope — The Preservation of Mining Steel Wire 
 Ropes — Valuation of Iron Mines in New Jersey — 'The Great Comstock Lode— The Sutro Tunnel — Nickel in Oregon. 
 
 Pages . . ... ... . 874 to 954 
 
 -■^■■^ 
 
 P 
 
 PART XI. 
 
 RODUCTION of the Pi'Goious Metals— Production of Deep Mines in California— Production of Gold in California— Production of Nevada Mines- 
 Production of Comstock Mines — Taxed Product of Nevada Mines— Production of Preriou^ Metals in Utah — Base Bullion Product of 
 Utah ymeJting Works— Wel]>, Fargo & Cn.'s Statement ol' the Miiural Product of t^lali for 1S79 and 1880— Production of Deep Mines in 
 Arizona— Production of Placer Mines in Arizuua— Production of Deep Mines in Idaho — Production of Placer, Drift and River Mines in 
 Jdaho— Production of Deep Mine?, in Oregon— Production of Gold, Init't and River Mines in Oregon— Production of Deep Mines in 
 Washington Territory— Production of Hydraulic, .Placer, Drift and Kiver Mines in Wa'-hington Teiritory— Production of Deep Mines in 
 Colorado— Production of Placer Mines in Coloiado— Bullion Product of Colorado— Production in (ulnrado of Smelting Woiks and 
 Amalgamation .^lill.s— Production of Deep I\[ines in Dakota— Production of Hydraulic, Placei-, Drift and River Mines— Production of Deej) 
 Mines in Montana— Crude Bullion Product of Montana— Production of Deep Mines in New Mexico— Production of Deep Mines in 
 Wyoming — Production of Deep Mines in the Eastern States— Production of Hydraulic, Placer, River and Branch Mines in the Eastern 
 States— Bullion Proauct of the United States for the year ending May 31, 1S80— Relative Production of the States and Territories- 
 Average Product of Gold and Silver per Square Mile and Per Capita— Hank of the States and Territories in Production of tlie Precious 
 Metals— Shipnnents of Bulhon, Dust and Amalgam through Wells, Fargo & Co.'s Exjiress— Bullion Shipment^? from Utah, tlirough the 
 Pacific Express Company- Treasure Movement through San Francisco Custom House— Dr. Soetbeer's Estimate of tlie Production of the 
 Precious Metal? of the United States to the close uf 1875— Hon. Mr. Bnrehard's Report of the Precious IMetals of the United States from 
 1848 to 1880— Statement of the Amount of Precious Metals Produced in .^lexicn and British Columbia— Annual Products of Load, Silver 
 and Gold in the Slates and Territories uest of ihe 100th Meridian— Gold Production of the Southern States from 1804 to ISOii — Annual 
 Bullion Pioduet of the VVoiid— Production of Iron Ore— List of Iron-producing States— production of Bituminous Cnai by States- Coal 
 Production of the United States, by Coal Fields, for the year ending June 1, 1880- Ohio Cual Mines Cla->-itied— Indiana Coal Mines 
 Classified— Production of Anthracite Coal- Production of Copper East of lonth Meridian— :\rnnufacture of Chemicals— Manufacture of 
 Iron and Steel— Relative Rank in Iron and Sieel Production of the States— Geographical Distribution of Iron Products — Summary oflron 
 and Steel Statistic: fnr 1880 -Statistics of the American Iron Trade in 1881— Imports of Iron and Steel from 1871 to 18S1— Domestic Exports 
 of Iron and Steel from 1S71 to 1881— Production of Iron and Steel Ralls in 1881- Production of Bessemer Steel in 1881— Total Production 
 of Iron and Steel in the United States from 1872 to 1881— Grand Summary of United States Statistics for 1881— Michigan Iron and Copper 
 Statistics— Lead Production in Germany— Production of Mines of Great Britain in 18S1— Belgium Spelter— Coal Trade in the United 
 States in 1881— Anthracite Coal Production of Pennsylvania— Prices, in Dollars, of Anthracite Coal from 1826 to 1882— Review of Blr. F. E. 
 Saward on the Anthracite Coal Production- Business done by various Coal Companies— Coal Output of Different States— Government 
 Estimates of Anthracite Coal for ISSl— Coal Statistics for the Dominion of Canada— Comparative Statement of the Salt Industry— Powder 
 Dividends.in 1881— Gold and Silver Production in the United States— General Annual Summary of the Gold Yield— Gold Product and 
 Coinage of Brazil, 1878-1881- Mr. Bnrehard's Report on the Production of Precious Metals in 1881— Mineral-Bearing Sections of Arizona 
 —List of Quanz Mills in Arizona— Mineral-Bearing Sections of California— Silver Shipments from San Francisco to Hong-Kong, China- 
 Production of Gold and Silver in (California, by Counties — Bullion Production in California— Bullion Production of Nevada— Assessments 
 and Dividends upon the Comstock Mines from their Discovery to the close of 1881— Assessed Valuation of Nevada Mines, with Amount of 
 
 Taxes Paid in 1881— Gross Yield of Nevada Mines— Gold and Silver Production in Oregon— Bullion Production in Wasliington Territory 
 
 Gold and Silver Production of Alaska— Bullion Statistics of Idaho— Gold and Silver Production of Montana— Gold and Silver Yield of 
 Utah— Wells, Fargo & Co.*s statement of the Mineral Product of Utah— Statistical Information relative to the Gold and Silver of 
 
 Colorado— Product of Colorado Smelting Works— Gold and Silver Production of Dakota — Mines of the Appalachian Range Statistics 
 
 of Imports and Exports of Gold and Silver, furnished by Mr. Burchard— The Mining Companies of the United States. 
 
 ^ages 955 to 1154 
 
/ TAKE it for granted that every thoughtful, intelligent man would be glad, if he 
 could, to be on the right side, believing that in 'the long run tlie right side will 
 be the strong side. — f. A. Garfield. 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 WHAT MET ALB ARE— FACTS FOR MINE OWNERS— HISTORICAL 
 
 NOTICES AND MEMORANDA. 
 
 ,VERMAN writing more than thirty 
 years ago in his still interesting volume 
 on " Practical Mineralogy " lamented 
 the existing ignorance concerning 
 those minerals most useful in the arts. 
 To-day, with the mineral interests of 
 the American continent, hundreds 
 of millions of dollars more in value 
 than in 1851, his lament is still true. 
 Mine owners, the great body of capi- 
 talists who possess the earth's treasures know little more 
 concerning their properties than is contained in the annual 
 report of the mine superintendent or the monthly balance 
 sheet from their ledger. In Part X. of The Mines, Minees 
 AND Mining Interests op the United States, this 
 deiiciency. is in a measure supplied in articles that give 
 in simple language primary information upon the subject 
 of mines and minerals. To these are added several articles 
 of a historical nature, containing valuable memoranda con- 
 cerning the early days of mining and metal finding in this 
 country, with some further information about metals and 
 metallurgy among the ancients. 
 
 THE DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS. 
 
 THE useful minerals are not distributed over the earth 
 irregularly ; there is a system in these distributions, 
 the knowledge of which furnishes us with a rule by 
 which we decide whether a particular kind of mineral 
 may be expected to be found in a certain spot. The signs by 
 which we judge whether a particular mineral is present at the 
 place in question, are the general characteristics of the rock 
 in that locality. The knowledge of the relation of particu- 
 lar minerals to the general character of rocks constitutes 
 the science of Geology ; and the knowledge of the character 
 of minerals, that of Mineralogy. It is not our object to 
 penetrate into the science of Geology ; but it will be useful 
 to give a general idea of the positions in which minerals are 
 found, and of their relations to each other. 
 
 Granite. — The history of the formation of rocks has 
 been divided into certain periods ; and it is generally agreed 
 that granite is the oldest of the rocks. For this reason it is 
 called primitive rock. Granite is a close, compact rock, 
 composed of fragments of other rock or stony matter. These 
 are so firmly cemented together, that the whole forms but 
 one solid mass, without the slightest indication of pores or 
 fissures. The matter of which granite is composed is often 
 found to be in the form of small crystals, seldom or never 
 assuming the shape of round grains. It is found of all 
 shades and colors, froiii a bright white to deep black, often 
 1 
 
 in the same block. The crystals are, in many instances, not 
 more than one-twelfth of an inch in diameter ; but they are 
 also found of the size of one inch, and even larger. If a 
 certain color of the composing crystals predominates, the 
 granitic rock appears to oe of that color, either grey, red- 
 dish, greenish, or bluish ; shades of yellow and crimson are 
 also perceptible. Granite rock is particularly characterized 
 by the absence of all stratification, or any .indication of par- 
 allel joints ; the rock is uniformly compact in all directions. 
 It is of great hardness and strength, and of everlasting du- 
 rability. It takes a. fine polish; but, on account of its com- 
 ponent matter scaling off in leaves, like mica, — which lat- 
 ter is sometimes found to be one of its elements, — it does 
 not take or retain a solid surface. 
 
 Granite is not very extensively found in the United States. 
 It occurs chiefly in the States of Maine, Massachusetts, New 
 Hamjjshire, Connecticut, New York, along the Lakes, and 
 sometimes in the Mississippi Valley. Granitic rock is fi-e- 
 quently interspersed with more or less vertical crevices or 
 veins, which are filled with matter foreign to the rock itself, 
 and form lodes and veins of ores or other minerals. We 
 may expect to find in these veins, ores of tin, iron, copper, 
 lead, cobalt, silver, a few other metallic ores, and anthracite 
 coal. We find also, in such veins, feldspar, kaolin, quartz, 
 in beautiful crystals, plumbago, or black lead, garnets, heavy 
 spar, calcareous spar, fluor-spar, and fragments of rock of 
 various kinds. We cannot expect to find bituminous coal in 
 granite ; nor anthracite coal, except as a curiosity. We do 
 not find gold, platinum, iridium, rhodium, and similar met- 
 als, nor sulphurous ores of tin, nickel, cobalt, or mercury ; 
 nor sulphur and sulphurets in such quantities as to justify 
 their extraction. 
 
 Metamorphic Rock. — The rock of this formation, also 
 called transition rock, is the second in age. To this class 
 belong a great variety of minerals ; as gneiss, mica-slate, 
 clay-slate, limestone, and other minerals, in rocks covering 
 tracks of great extent and at a great depth. The rock of 
 this class is characterized by a partial and sometimes by a 
 decided stratification. It does not exactly belong either to 
 the compact or the stratified variety. Metamorphic rock, 
 which often assumes the appearance of granite, pudding- 
 stone, or stratified rock, is particularly distinguished by its 
 close grain and strength from the rocks of the secondary 
 formation, and by its stratification from granite and volcanic 
 rocks. Transition rock covers the greater part of the New 
 England States, New York, western New Jersey, eastern 
 Pennsylvania, Maryland to the AUeghanies, middle Virginia, 
 parts of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, 
 Missouri, Arkansas, and all the States west of the Mississippi. 
 In this rock, which is the most extensive in the United 
 States, we find, and may expect to find, gold, in Virginia, 
 North and South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, New Mexico, 
 California, Utah, and Oregon. We also find silver in this 
 rock in Vermont, Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, Arkan- 
 sas, New Mexico, and California. Platinum and the plati- 
 num metals are also found along with the gold. Lead is 
 found in this rock in almost every State, particularly in 
 Missouri and Arkansas. Iron also is "found everywhere in 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 this formation, and generally the best quality of iron ores. 
 Besides these, there are found ores of zinc, antimony, ar- 
 senic, nickel, cobalt, tin, manganese, and in fact almost 
 every kind of ore. In Pennsylvania, Virginia, and North 
 Carolina, heavy deposits of plumbago are met with ; and 
 anthracite coal is almost exclusively found in this forma- 
 tion. It is the home of metallic sulphurets. It generally 
 forms good building material, if not too hard to be worked. 
 The sandstones of this period are exceedingly well qualified 
 for building purposes, of which an example may be seen in 
 the brown Connecticut sandstone, so extensively used for 
 ornamental architecture. We find roofing-slate, and exten- 
 sive tracts of limestone, in the rock, of this period, in New 
 York, New Jersey, Virginia, Ohio, Missouri, Illinois, and 
 other States. The limestone is generally magnesian ; that 
 is, it contains magnesia as well as lime. The mineral veins 
 of this period run either parallel with the stratification, as 
 the gold veins of the southern States do ; or traverse the 
 strata in more or less inclined angles ; or form isolated ellip- 
 tical masses or lodes, as the iron, zinc, and lead ores gene- 
 rally do. This rock formation is the most productive in use- 
 ful minerals ; and where a faint indication of something 
 valuable is discovered, it is generally worth the trouble to 
 follow and dig after it. 
 
 Stratified Hock. — ^The rock of this period, also called 
 secondary formation, or coal formation, is decidedly strati- 
 fied. We easily follow the various layers of minerals, which 
 are distinctly parallel to each other. The layers or seams 
 are sometimes almost horizontal, as is the case in the west- 
 ern coal basin. The inclination of the strata of the Pitts- 
 burgh coal veins 'is almost imperceptible. We can follow 
 the same stratum for hundreds of miles, without its disap- 
 pearing below ground, or running over the tops of the hills. 
 In other places the strata are more or less inclined ; the coal 
 strata of Alleghany county, Maryland, form a canoe, sunk 
 between two high ridges of mountains. In Illinois and 
 Missouri we find the strata undulating, gently rising and 
 falling. The rock of this period, is the coal-hearing rock 
 par excellence. We find here the richest and most extensive 
 layers of mineral coal, all of the bituminous kind, or soft 
 coal. The great western coal field covers western Pennsyl- 
 vania, parts of Ohio, Illinois, western Virginia, Kentucky, 
 Tennessee, Alabama, Indiana, Missouri, and other States. 
 The Maryland coal formation is about forty miles long, and 
 eight miles wide ; the Pittsburgh field is over five hundred 
 miles long, and from two hundred to three hundred miles 
 wide. There are coal deposits of this kind in the transition 
 rocks of eastern Virginia, North Carolina, California, Ore- 
 gon, Nova Scotia, and Canada. In this formation we are to 
 look chiefly for soft mineral coal, iron ore, limestone, and 
 salt. If contains none of the precious metals, no lead, no 
 copper, nor any metal except iron and manganese, the latter 
 not available. There is no plumbago or anthracite, no 
 heavy spar or fluor-spar. We can neither find nor expect 
 to find anything useful but sandstone, (which, however, is 
 an inferior building-stone,) fire-clay, limestone, iron ore, and 
 salt in the form of brine, which is found from one hundred 
 to one thousand feet below the surface. Coal is almost 
 everywhere found where this kind of rock appears. 
 
 Tertiary Formation.— Stratified rock of a later period 
 is frequently called tertiary formation. In this rock we find 
 plenty of shells, and fossil remains of animals and plants. 
 This rock is not rich in minerals. It often contains a species 
 of mineral coal not much valued, and sprinklings of iron 
 ore of no consequence. The only mineral of importance in 
 this series is green sand or marl, which is extensively de- 
 posited in heavy beds all along the Atlantic coast, from 
 New York to Florida. This marl, containing the elements 
 for stimulating the growth of plants, is extensively used in 
 New Jersey and Maryland, and to some extent in Virginia, 
 for improving the land. This formation, extensive as it is, 
 offers but little inducement to search for minerals ; and those 
 which are found are generally of an inferior quality. It 
 affords no building material of any consequence, and the 
 small beds of shelly limestone contained in it are not of 
 much importance. In many instances, a fine quality of 
 potter's^ clay is found in it; but this is generally of such a 
 composition as to be too fusible for strong and fine ware. It 
 frequently affbrds fine sand for ordinary glass. 
 Volcanic Bock. — The rocks belonging to this class are 
 
 often found to be perfectly vitrified, and of a glassy appear- 
 ance, as basalt and some kinds of lava. The first is found 
 in columns, grouped together in isolated mountains, or im- 
 bedded in other volcanic rocks. The latter appears in com- 
 pact masses, and is often very porous. To this class belongs 
 a remarkable rock, called trap-rock. This is generally very 
 hard, tough, and crystalline in its fracture. We find it also 
 soft and brittle. This rock is found all along the Atlantic 
 coast, intruding from below in the form of both small and 
 large dikes, imbedded in the transition rock. It is very ex- 
 tensively found around the Lakes and in the Rocky Moun- 
 tains. This rock is characterized by the presence of copper 
 and heavy layers of iron ore. The native copper and silver 
 of Lake Superior is imbedded in it ; and in New Jersey, 
 Pennsylvania, and the southern States, we also find copper 
 ores in or near the trap-rock. Iron ore is found imbedded 
 in this rock in almost all the States of the Union. Of the 
 volcanic rocks, this is the most valuable as a matrix of use- 
 ful minerals. The other rocks of this class are of less im- 
 portance. All the rocks of this formation are hard, and, 
 when broken into small pieces, if not partially decomposed, 
 emit a sound like crockery, when struck with a piece of 
 wood, or against one another. This rock furnishes the very 
 best material for macadamizing roads, and some of it forms 
 the most durable building-stone ; but it is very difficult to 
 work. Of useful minerals, we find in these rocks copper, 
 gold, silver, iron, sulphur, alum-slate, arsenic, lead, pumice- 
 stone, and other substances. 
 
 Alluvium. — Alluvium is a term used to designate the 
 most recent deposit of matter. It comprises deposits of 
 gravel, sand, loam, and clay ; and frequently contains, or is 
 entirely composed of, animal remains. It is found along 
 the sea-coast, the lakes, rivers, and rivulets, and forms their 
 banks and bottoms. Alluvium is generally loose ground or 
 fragments of rock. Most of the valleys, swamps, and 
 prairies are alluvial matter. We find the following useful 
 minerals in these deposits of earthy matter : iron ore (bog 
 ore only,) potters'-clay, fire-clay, gravel, brown coal, peat or 
 turf, and some others. 
 
 Minerals, particularly the metallic ores, are chiefly dis- 
 tributed over and below the surface of the earth in layers or 
 masses; in lodes, or large veins, running parallel with or 
 traversing the general course of the stratification of the 
 rock ; in nests or pockets ; in nodules, which are concre- 
 tions or accumulations of minerals of small extent; and in 
 small veins, which are either branches of heavy veins, or 
 traversing larger veins, ramifying the rock in all directions. 
 The transition rock is the domain of metalliferous deposits. 
 Here we find more variety and abundance than in any other 
 geological formation. In this rock the best qualities of ores 
 are also found. The secondary rocks, or those which con- 
 tain bituminous coal, do not furnish so great a variety of 
 minerals as the transition rocks, and many kinds are not 
 found at all in them. In the latter there is an absence of 
 gold, silver, copper, antimony, and other substances. It 
 furnishes chiefly stone-coal, iron, limestone, and often a little 
 lead or zinc, but these latter only in a very limited quantity. 
 Mineral substances, particularly those which are used for 
 the production of metals, — the workable or useful ores, — 
 are but few in number. They are generally oxides, that is, 
 combinations of metal with oxygen ; ■ sulphurets, or metals 
 combined with sulphur; and carbonates, or metallic oxides 
 combined with carbonic acid. Combinations of metals with 
 other substances than these, are rare. Minerals of the above 
 description frequently form large bodies of pure ore by 
 themselves, buried beneath the surface in the rock. In most 
 cases, however, these ores are blended with foreign matter, 
 as lumps or grains of quartz, lime, and other substances^ 
 which are mechanically mixed or in chemical combination 
 with it. In some instances, the main body of the layer or 
 vein is rocky matter, and the ore imbedded in that sub- 
 stance. The mineral deposits are often found in such 
 heavy masses as to admit of their extraction without any 
 admixture of rock ; in other cases, rock and mineral must 
 be raised together, as they cannot be separated. In some 
 instances, the veins are too small for the entrance of the 
 miner, and are consequently of no practical value. 
 
 Geographical Distribution.— The geographical dis- 
 tribution of minerals is very distinctly marked in the 
 United States. The ridge of the Alleghany Mountains 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 divides the surface of the country into trapsition rocks on 
 the east side and secondary rocks on the west. In the first, 
 or between the Atlantic and the Alleghanies, wefind chiefly 
 the minerals and rocks belonging to the transition series ; 
 and in the second, or between the Alleghanies and the Mis- 
 sissippi river, we find chiefly the minerals belonging to the 
 secondary rock. Both slopes of the Rocky Mountains are 
 of a uniform character, and the minerals on each side are 
 those belonging to the east slope of the Alleghanies. The 
 extent of mineral veins is as different as the character of 
 the minerals themselves. In the western coal fields, partic- 
 ularly in that of Pittsburgh, we may trace the same vein of 
 coal for hundreds of miles, as well as veins of iron ore and 
 limestone; There are also small veins of coal and ores, of 
 but a few miles in extent, in the same basin. The veins of 
 gold ore in Virginia and North Carolina can be traced in a 
 continuous belt for more than five hundred miles, running 
 parallel with the Allegheny ridge. Immense beds of mag- 
 netic iron ore are found in the State of New York ; also 
 veins of peroxide of iron of uncommon magnitude in the 
 Mississippi Valley. Layers of useful minerals are found in 
 almost every State of the Union, in such abundance and ex- 
 tent as to render the raising of them most easy. 
 
 Origin of Minerals. — The origin of the minerals, and 
 their form as veins or layers, may be considered as the result of 
 infiltration from the surface, to which class many of the iron 
 and copper ores belong ; or the deposits have been formed 
 in the bottom of a sea, as those of the coal .measures ; or 
 the minerals are injected from below, raised by the power of 
 internal heat, to which class the gold and silver ores of Vir- 
 ginia and North Carolina, and the native copper of Lake 
 Superior, belong. The first class generally consists of wedges 
 decreasing with the depth ; the second of spheroidal masses, 
 and the third of wedges increasing with the depth. The 
 first class of veins is the most deceptive, and cannot be de- 
 pended upon ; the second may be measured by its appear- 
 ance on the surface, or by sinking shafts into it ; the third 
 class may be depended upon as improving with the depth. 
 Masses and veins of minerals are not always found in a 
 horizontal position. The stratification of the great western 
 coal field is almost horizontal ; and as the mineral veins of 
 this region are parallel to the stratification, these also are of 
 course nearly horizontal. Except in the bituminous coal 
 region, we find but few horizontal veins of minerals. The 
 veins of Virginia and North Carolina run parallel with the 
 stratification of the rock, and also with the layers of it ; but 
 the layers are in many cases almost vertical, and generally 
 inclined not less than 60°. The inclination or dip of a vein 
 is measured from the horizontal plane ; if, therefore, a vein 
 dips but 10^, it is nearly horizontal ; and if it dips 80°, it is 
 almost vertical. The dip of a vein is not always the same 
 in its various parts, particularly if the plane of the vein 
 is not parallel to the plane of the stratification. Veins 
 of minerals are frequently found to be disturbed in 
 their regular course, either by other mineral veins or by 
 dead rock. Such disturbances, called, faults, slips, 
 or slides, appear in every kind of vein ; they are caused by 
 matter which has penetrated the crevices of the rock after 
 the main vein was formed. The mass of a vein is often 
 found to divide itself into various small veins, which, at cer- 
 tain distances or at greater depths, reunite. Such faults, 
 whether consisting of mineral or dead veins, are often per- 
 plexing to the practical workman ; but the scientific miner 
 is never at a loss what to do. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF MINERALS. 
 
 A DESCRIPTION of well known minerals is needful 
 for a full appreciation of what is said about them 
 - elsewhere in this volume. Doubtless, also, it 
 will be appreciated by the reader who is unfamiliar with 
 more than their names. 
 
 Iron and Iron Ores. — Native iron is a mere curiosity, 
 of no practical value. It is found in Connecticut. 
 
 Brown hematite — brown oxide of iron ; brown ironstone; 
 pipe ore ,' bog ore.^-This is found of almost all shades of 
 
 color, and under the most varying forms. It is character- 
 ized by its powder when rubbed, or its streak, which are 
 always yellow. We find this ore of all shades of yellow, 
 brown, and black. Its lustre varies from the dul- 
 ness of loam to the resinous brilliancy of pitch. Its 
 compact or solid varieties are generally granulated, 
 but are frequently found of fibrous texture and of a silky 
 lustre, the fibres being from a lively brown to jet-black. 
 It is mostly opaque, but often transmits light through 
 thin scales and at its corners, in which it appears to 
 be blood-red. It sometimes appears in the form of hollow 
 nodules, which are often of a black velvety appearance on 
 the inner surface. This ore is so extensively distributed, 
 and appears under so many different forms, that a descrip- 
 tion of it would be very difficult. The most certain mode 
 by which it may be distinguished is, to reduce it to a pow- 
 der ; if this is yellow, the ore belongs to the variety under 
 consideration. The scientific term for this ore is hydrated 
 oxide of iron. Its chemical composition, if pure, is peroxide 
 of iron, with from 13 to 18 per cent, of water. In its purest 
 condition it never contains more than 60 per cent, of iron. 
 This kind of ore is the most profusely distributed over the 
 United States. It is found in heavy beds near and in the 
 anthracite region of Pennsylvania, and in the valleys of 
 the western coal formation, where it forms the outcrops of 
 the veins of argillaceous carbonates of iron. It occurs in 
 Massachusetts, Connecticut, Tennessee, Kentucky, Alabama 
 and elsewhere, sometimes in veins thirty feet thick. The 
 iron ores found in the bogs of New York, Michigan, Ohio, 
 and Illinois, belong to this variety. It is found in almost 
 every State of the Union, and is the most generally distri- 
 buted of the iron ores. It is best qualified for pig-metal ; 
 the impure varieties not being well adapted to the manufac- 
 ture of bar iron. 
 
 Red iron ore — red hematite ; iron-glance ; specular iron 
 ore. The appearance of this ore varies from a dull brown- 
 ish red like reddle, to the lustre and colour of polished st«el 
 or plumbago. Its powder often feels greasy, like plumbago, 
 but it is always red when rubbed upon white paper or on a 
 white porcelain plate. Some kinds of this ore, like that 
 of the Missouri iron mountain, are compact and pos- 
 sess the colour and lustre of steel ; other ores of the 
 same kind are found in crystals, in the form of fine 
 leaves or cubes, and of the colour and lustre of black 
 lead, as is the case in New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl- 
 vania, Arkansas, and other States. A heavy body of this 
 ore, of the red variety, has been found in Wisconsin and 
 Michigan. Smaller veins are found in most of the States 
 of the Union. The chemical composition of this ore is 
 iron and oxygen ; and, if pure, it may contain about 70 
 per cent, of metallic iron. It is frequently adulterated 
 with clay or siliceous matter, and is often found to con- 
 tain but from 10 to 20 per cent, of iron. Some kinds of 
 red clay ore, though of an intensely red colour, contain 
 but 5 per cent, of metal. This ore is not attracted by 
 the magnet. If not too largely mixed with foreign mat- 
 ter, it forms one of the best and cheapest iron ores for 
 the smelter. The quality of iron made of it is always 
 found to be soft and strong. It is particularly qualified 
 for the production of heavy wrought iron. 
 
 Magnetic iron ore — loadstone; black oxide of iron. 
 Large beds and veins of this ore are found in the United 
 States, particularly on the west side of Lake Champlain, 
 in Essex county, New York and in the States of New 
 Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. It is also found in the 
 New England States. This ore is generally bluish-black, 
 and sometimes pitch-black. It is of a metallic lustre, and 
 exceedingly hard. It is found in compact, solid masses, and 
 also in crystalline grains, from a large size down to the 
 form of fine black sand. The compact and the cry.stalline 
 varieties are frequently found in the same vein. This ore 
 is characterized by always forming a black powder when 
 rubbed upon a white body. If it contains impurities, its 
 powder is more or less grey. It is exceedingljr sensitive to 
 the magnet, and is attracted by it. When it occurs in 
 large pieces, it attracts iron, and imparts magnetism to it 
 when rubbed over it. This ore is said to belong to the 
 primitive rock formations ; but in the United States we find 
 it chiefly in the metamorphic rocks of Pennsylvania, New 
 Jersey, and New York. It forms the main body of the iron 
 
THE MINES, MINEKS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ore in Sweden. If pure, this ore is better qualified for mak- 
 ing strong iron than any other, provided it be not spoiled 
 in the smelting operation. In Jersey City, an excellent 
 cast-steel is manufactured of the iron derived from this kind 
 of ore, found in the western part of the State of New York. 
 Spring-steel and file-steel are also extensively made of it in 
 New Jersey. This is the richest of the iron ores. The 
 compact ore of Lake Champlain, which is nearly pure, 
 contains 70 per cent, of metallic iron in 100 parts of ore. 
 There are varieties which contain but from 20 to 25 parts of 
 metal ; these are conglomerates, in which the crystals of 
 ore are imbedded in a cement of clay, silex, and often 
 lime. Magnetic ore is frequently adulterated with foreign 
 matter injurious to iron, as silex, copper, arsenic, titanium, 
 and particularly sulphur ; the latter often in large visible 
 (quantities, in the form of crystals of yellow pyrites. This 
 is the case with most of the richest veins of magnetic ore in 
 New Jersey and Pennsylvania. 
 
 Carbonate of iron. — This species comprises two varieties. 
 The first of these, termed the compact, or argillaceous ore, 
 is chiefly found on the western side of the Alleghanies. The 
 other variety is the sparry ore, found on the eastern slope of 
 that mountain chain. The first is the most extensively dis- 
 tributed in this country, and for that reason we shall speak 
 of it first. The compact carbonate of iron — clay iron-stone ; 
 argillaceous ore — is chiefly found in the western bituminous 
 coal formation. It is there deposited in veins of more or 
 less extent and thickness. Some of these veins are more 
 than fifty miles in length and eight feet in thickness; others 
 are so small as not to be workable. The general form in 
 which this ore is found is that of a flattened spheroidal body 
 from the size of a pea to a mass of sufiicient bulk to weigh 
 half a ton. These balls form either a continuous vein, in 
 which one is laid beside and above the other, and the spaces 
 between them are filled with clay, or the balls are separated, 
 sometimes many feet or yards, and imbedded in slate. We 
 find this ore also in continuous veins, in a compact form, 
 resembling limestone. All this kind of ore, when discovered 
 near the surface, at the outcrop of the vein, is found to be 
 decomposed, has lost its carbonic acid, and is converted into 
 brown or yellow hematite (hydrated oxide). By following 
 these veins or outcrops of veins, we always find the ore in 
 the interior of the rock to be the compact carbonate. The 
 finest qualities of this ore are found near Baltimore, which 
 is not in the coal region. We also find it in the Frostburg 
 coal region, in Maryland, and in almost all the western coal 
 deposits. The color of this ore is sometimes white, but 
 generally of a dirty gray, a yellowish-brown, or of a faint 
 brick-red appearance. There are oxidized veins of this ore 
 in the western coal-fields along the Alleghany and Ohio 
 rivers, of fine quality, making a superior iron. Most of it 
 adheres to the tongue like clay, and emits an odor like that 
 of clay when breathed upon. All our bituminous coal 
 formations contain this ore, which is not so generally the 
 case in Europe. This carbonate of iron generally contains 
 from 20 to 33 per cent, of metallic iron; seldom more than 
 36 per cent. Its composition is protoxide of iron, carbonic 
 acid, clay, silex, lime, and often magnesia; and in most 
 cases it contains manganese, which is often found in the 
 centre of a decomposed ball, forming a black lump. The 
 balls of this ore, when in the progress of decomposition, 
 form shells of hydrated oxide of iron, which are dis- 
 tinguished by difierent color, and may be separated in the 
 same manner as the diflTerent coats of an onion. In the 
 centre of such a ball, we often meet with an undecomposed 
 core, where the ore is in its original state, presenting the 
 appearance of limestone. 
 
 Sparry ore — sparry carbonate; also called spathic ore. 
 This is the second variety of the native carbonates of iron. 
 In almost all instances where this ore occurs, it is adulte- 
 rated with sulphur, and in some cases with copper, which 
 detracts seriously from its practical value. The color of 
 this ore is in most cases white, varying to yellowish-brown 
 and dark brown. Its texture in the fresh fracture is always 
 decidedly crystalline, and of a silky lustre. It is not at- 
 tracted by the magnet — which is also the case with the com- 
 pact variety before described ; but if either kind be slightly 
 heated, it is attracted by the magnetic steel. This ore is 
 frequently found to form the main mass of a vein in which 
 other valuable ores are present; and in this respect it is a 
 
 guide to detect ores which would not otherwise be found. 
 In North Carolina, it forms the bulk of a vein of gold ore, 
 where it is accompanied by quartz, iron and copper pyrites, 
 and a large quantity of gold. It associates with all kinds 
 of metallic ores, changing the character of a vein from one 
 kind of ore to another. The foregoing enumeration consti- 
 tutes the bulk of useful iron ores. There are some few fer- 
 ruginous minerals, which are' used in the manufacture of 
 iron ; but they do not constitute iron ores proper, and may 
 be considered as fiuxes. Among these substances are ferru- 
 ginous slate, shale, and clay-slate, which contains iron, red 
 marl, and green marl. These minerals contain but from 5 
 to 10 per cent, of iron. Any mineral which does not con- 
 tain at least 20 per cent, of iron, is not considered an iron 
 ore. 
 
 Iron pyrites — sulphuret of iron ; in some places simply 
 called sulphur. This we do not consider as iron ore ; but it 
 is a species of mineral of great value in some parts of the 
 country. There are two difiierent kinds of iron pyrites : the 
 one is yellow, of a brass or gold color ; the other is white, 
 of a silvery lustre. The chemical composition of both is 
 nearly alike. Each of them contains more than half its 
 weight of sulphur ; the other part is metallic iron. This 
 mineral is frequently confounded with more valuable sub- 
 stances, by those who are not expert metallurgists, on 
 account of its great lustre, bright color, and hardness. It 
 is easily distinguished from any other mineral ; for the 
 slightest heat drives ofl' sulphur, the sufibcating smell of 
 which at once proves its character. This mineral is exceed- 
 ingly hard : it strikes fire with steel. Sulphuret of iron is 
 very extensively distributed all over the United States, and 
 accompanies almost every description of mineral. It is 
 found in all geological formations, in primitive rock as well 
 as in alluvial gravel. In the coal regions it is distributed 
 in small veins, leaves, or crystals, incorporated with the 
 coal, and depreciating its value. Where the coal is slaty, 
 and contains much sulphuret — or, as it is commonly called, 
 sulphur — it is used for making copperas, or alum, provided 
 the slate contains but little coal. Along the Ohio river, 
 extensive use is made of the sulphurets in this way. In 
 other parts of the United States, not much attention is paid 
 to these minerals. Iron pyrites are of little value in them- 
 selves; but, as a matrix of other metals, namely, as the 
 bearers of gold and silver, they deserve more attention than 
 they have hitherto received. All iron pyrites contain gold 
 and often silver, from which rule only those of the coal 
 formation are excepted. The extensive gold deposits of the 
 Southern States constitute virtually a belt, or accumulation 
 of veins, of iron pyrites. The gold had its seat originally 
 in the pyrites, which, when decomposed, liberated the gold, 
 and it appears in a metallic state. The pyrites are the mat- 
 rix of the gold. The veins of gold ore in those regions are 
 and have been, veins of pyrites, decomposed at the surface 
 to a certain depth ; below that decomposition, the veins are 
 essentially formed of pyrites, and at a greater depth, entirely 
 so. The pyriteous slate of these regions contains gold in 
 most cases, if the pyrites are perfectly decomposed. Iron 
 pyrites and copper pyrites are not easily distinguished from 
 each other. The first, however, is of a decidedly crystalline 
 form, the latter not so ; the first is very hard, the latter does 
 not strike fire with steel. The color of the iron pyrites 
 varies from a pure silvery white or golden yellow to" red ; 
 the copper pyrites are of all the colors of the rainbow. 
 
 Copper. — Native copper is found in large quantities, in 
 regular veins, in the Lake Superior region. The heavy 
 masses of copper in these places are imbedded in volcanic 
 rock, and small veins ramify it in all directions. It occurs 
 in bodies of almost every size, from small grains to masses 
 weighing ten tons and upwards. This native copper is fre- 
 quently found to be mixed with silver in distinct fibres, the 
 latter pot being alloyed with the copper. Native copper is 
 found in almost every vein of copper ore ; it has been found 
 in those of New Jersey, and also in those of Pennsylvania. 
 
 Sulphuret of copper. — There are two kinds of ore of this 
 variety; the one is called grey sulphuret of copper, and 
 other copper pyrites; the latter generally contains iron in 
 admixture. The gray sulphuret is a compact ore ; its sur- 
 face is dull, and it is of the color of lead, or an iron-grey ; 
 it also occurs of a faint red color, if taken near the surface 
 of the ground. It melts easily, if a small splinter of it be 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 held in the flame of a candle. It may be cut with a hard 
 and sharp knife. If the ore is pure, it contains 78 parts of 
 copper and 18 parts of sulphur. It is always found in veins 
 of copper ore, forming part of their mineral contents. 
 
 The foregoing are the most generally distributed copper 
 ores. There are others, such aa : — 
 
 Bed oxide of copper, distinguished from oxide of iron 
 by a lively red color, more brilliant than the latter. 
 
 Black oxide of copper, which is velvet-black, often in- 
 clined to blue or brown. Hydrosilicate of copper, or 
 siliceous oxide of copper. — This is generally the green ore, 
 found in most cases at the outcrop of veins of copper ore. 
 It has a bright green color and resinous lustre; and when 
 freshly broken, its fracture is like that of glass. 
 
 Carbonate of copper, or malachite. — This is generally of 
 a blue color ; but it is also found of all shades, from dark 
 blue to light green. Specimens of this variety are found in 
 every copper vein, particularly at the outcrop. Phosphate 
 and chlorides of copper are also found. They are both 
 green, and form no regular copper ore. There is a great 
 variety of copper ores. They are of various shades of 
 color, from a brilliant red to velvet-black ; of a beautiful 
 green, and sky-blue. They are all distinguished from 
 other ores by their bright color, and their power of impart- 
 ing that color to other substances. There is scarcely any 
 variety of copper ore which does not betray the presence of 
 that metal by a green film, partcularly if it has been ex- 
 posed to the influence of the atmosphere. Copper pyrites, 
 if exposed to the air for a short time, exhibit a film of blue 
 crystals of sulphate of copper. 
 
 Nickel. — ^This metal is usually found associated with 
 cobalt, with arsenic, with iron and copper, with sulphur and 
 antimony, as an oxide, as a sulphuret of nickel and as a 
 sulphuret and arseniate of nickel. It is always present in 
 meteoric stones. It posseses a fine silver white color and 
 lustre ; it is hard, but malleable both hot and cold, and it 
 may be drawn into wire ^V of an inch thick and 
 rolled into plates y^j of an inch thick; a small quantity 
 of arsenic destroys its ductility. When pressed it has a 
 specific gravity of 8.279 and when hammered of 8.66 or J'.82. 
 It is susceptible of magnetism in a somewhat inferior degree 
 to iron, but superior to cobalt. Its melting point is nearly 
 as high as that of manganese. It is hot oxydized by contact 
 with air but may be burned in oxygen gas. It is found 
 on this continent only in Pennsylvania and Lower Canada. 
 
 Lead. — Native lead is a mineral curiosity, of no practical 
 value whatever. It is said to have been found in its metal- 
 lic state ; but that is of little consequence, because it can 
 have been discovered only in small quantities, and because 
 it costs but little to smelt it from its ores. The most impor- 
 tant ore of this class is 
 
 Galena, or sulphuret of lead. This ore has the lustre and 
 color of polished metallic lead. It is always grey, without a 
 shade of any other color ; but its powder, when finely rubbed, 
 is black. It is always found in a crystalline form, the crystals 
 being cubes, often composed of square plates, and frequent- 
 ly so small as only to be detected by the aid of a lens. In 
 other instances, the cubes, or plates which form the cubes, 
 are more than one inch square. Galena is composed of me- 
 tallic lead and sulphur ; it contains, if pure, 86 per cent, of 
 lead and 13 per cent, of sulphur. It is very heavy, and 
 equal to metallic iron in specific gravity. It is indeed, the 
 heaviest of all metallic ores. Galena is very extensively 
 distributed over the United States. It is found almost every 
 where, except in the bituminous coal region. The most 
 extensive deposits are in the States of Missouri, Illinois, 
 and Arkansas ; between the Blue Ridge and the Alleghanies, 
 in Virginia; and in smaller quantities in all the States of 
 the Union. Some varieties of galena contain silver to a 
 large amount; but in that case the ore is generally mixed 
 with other minerals. The ore of this description in the gold 
 region is of a bluish tinge, often inclining to black, and 
 contains an accumulation of small crystals, which may be 
 distinctly recognized in it. It is a compound of the sulphu- 
 rets of zinc, lead, iron, copper, tin, silver, and gold. The 
 galena in this ore amounts to from five to ten per cent, of the 
 bulk ; and each ton of lead smelted from it contains from 
 180 to 200 ounces of silver and gold, and frequently more 
 than that. This may be considered a rich silver ore, and 
 will pay a handsome profit. Any galena which yields 50 
 
 ounces to a ton of ore, is considered a silver ore. This amount 
 of silver alone will pay for refining the lead. 
 
 Carbonate of lead. — This is a lead ore of frequent occur- 
 rence ; but it rarely forms a vein of itself. It accompanies 
 other lead ores, in the form of soft white concretions, as a 
 powder, or in crystals. The crystals of carbonate of lead 
 are generally flat, and transparent like glass. When the 
 crystals, or the earthy kinds of this ore, are kept in a room 
 where stone-coal or coal-gas is burned, or where men or 
 animals breathe, it gradually turns grey, and at last black ; 
 forming black sulphuret of lead, by the absorption of sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen. The clear crystals of this ore possess 
 the double refracting power ; that is, they show two images 
 of any object viewed through them. They are very soft, 
 and easily scratched or broken. 
 
 Phosphate of lead. — This variety is not so common as the 
 foregoing, but occurs quite frequently in all lead districts. 
 It is an indication of the presence of lead, for it is chiefly 
 found at the outcrop of a vein. Its color is greenish ; and 
 if inclined to yellow, it contains arsenic and phosphorus. 
 We find it, like the carbonate, or native white lead, in the 
 .^rm of a fine powder, in concretions and in crystals. There 
 are, besides the above, quite a variety of minerals containing 
 lead, but they are of little interest as ores. There are oxides, 
 sulphates, chlorides, arseniates, &c., which are of little in- 
 terest to the practical man. The lead ores appear of almost 
 every color, from the brightest white in the sulphates, to 
 the deepest black in the sulphurets. All these various com- 
 positions of lead, if exposed to the air in a room, turn black, 
 except the sulphate, which remains white. The color of 
 these lead ores is generally not distinct, but is of a dirty, 
 earthy character, or becomes so in the atmosphere. They 
 are all, however, characterized by forming a fine powder 
 when rubbed, which possesses the adhesive property in an 
 eminent degree, and are in this respect superior to any other 
 mineral. Finely powdered lead ore, particularly galena, is 
 used for glazing earthenware. The galena found in lime- 
 stone formations, or accompanied by lime, is generally poor 
 in silver. The richest and most numerous beds of ore are 
 found in and near limestone rocks. The lead ores of 
 siliceous formations, particularly those found in slates, are 
 generally rich in precious metal; and it may be said that 
 the lead ores of the oldest rocks, as, for example, those from 
 granite, are the richest. 
 
 Gold. — Native gold. — California stands pre-eminent in 
 the production of this precious metal. The gold in these 
 regions is found in its native state, in small grains, in 
 spangles, in crystals so small as to be almost invisible to the 
 naked eye, and also in lumps of ten and twenty pounds 
 weight. These grains of gold are often found to be imbedded 
 in masses of quartz ; at other times they are mechanically 
 enclosed by quartz ; but in most cases the grains are pure 
 gold, alloyed with a little silver. The latter admixture 
 diminishes the value of gold about 15 or 20 per cent. Gold- 
 bearing rock is chiefly a talcose slate ; that is, a slate resem- 
 bling soapstone, but which does not feel so greasy. This 
 slate is red, and ferruginous at the surface. At a greater 
 depth it is filled with small crystals of iron pyrites, which 
 are decomposed near the surface, and appear as peroxide of 
 iron, which colors the slate brown, and, in a few instances, 
 yellow. This slate is of various grades of hardness, and is, 
 in the East, a metamorphic rock, running in a regular belt, 
 parallel with the Alleghany mountain chain. The width of 
 this belt is, in its broadest part, from twenty to twenty-five 
 miles, which is often contracted to two or three miles. 
 Within this belt the various veins of gold-bearing slate are 
 distributed. Those parts of the vein which are richest in 
 gold are characterized by small veins of quartz, running 
 parallel with the slate. Where this quartz is wanting, not 
 much gold is to be expected. The direction of the veins is 
 parallel to the general course of the rocky strata or forma- 
 tion ; that is, from north-east to south-west ; and their 
 inclination, which is also parallel to that of the strata, is 
 from 45° to 90°. This belt of talcose slate extends farther 
 north-east, through Maryland, Pennsylvania, and New 
 Jersey ; but it is changed in its composition. It appears in 
 this extension as mica-slate, and ceases to contain gold. 
 Farther south-west than North Carolina, it changes into 
 feldspar and its relative rocks. The gold in this south- 
 western district is found imbedded in heavy veins of quartz, 
 
6 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 which appear frequently in this rock, being parallel with its 
 stratification. These veins of quartz are often twenty_ feet 
 thick and upwards ; they are pyriteous, and contain iron, 
 copper, and suiphurets of lead, which are found sometiines 
 to be rich in precious metal. The gold-bearing belt, which 
 can be traced in a southerly direction through South Caro- 
 lina, Georgia, and Alabama, sinks beneath the Mississippi 
 river, and rises again to the surface near the Rocky Moun- 
 tains. The gold found in the slate of Virginia and North 
 Carolina occurs in exceedingly small grains, often so fine as 
 to be not only invisible to the naked eye, but undiscernible 
 even by the assistance of a strong lens. This is the case 
 even when the ores are worth three or four dollars per 
 bushel. Some veins of the slate region contain coarse gold, 
 in grains as large as the head of a pin, and even larger. 
 These are generally found in veins of quartz, in which the 
 pyrites are concentrated into larger masses. Where the 
 pyrites are disseminated in fine crystals through the mass of 
 the rock, the gold is found to be very fine. In the fresh 
 pyrites the gold is invisible, even if, after separation, it 
 appears to be coarse. By natural or artificial decomposition 
 the gold becomes visible; the pyrites are converted into 
 oxide of iron, and by the aid of a lens, the gold may be 
 detected, imbedded in the oxide of iron. 
 
 Another form in which native gold is found, is in quartz, 
 in which it is imbedded. Solid white quartz, both in veins 
 and in crystals, is found, in which the gold occurs in 
 spangles, plates, grains, and also in perfectly developed 
 crystals. Quartz of this description is met with in Virginia ; 
 more perfect specimens occur in North Carolina, and still 
 better in Georgia ; but the best quality is found in California. 
 Gold never appears in solid veins ; it is always disseminated 
 through the mass of the rock, in some places more dense 
 than in others. There are localities in the gold region where 
 every piece of rock, every handftil of soil, contains more or 
 less of the precious metal. Gold is never found in secondary 
 strata or the coal regions. We may look in vain for it on 
 the western i lope of the AUeghanies ; it cannot be there. 
 Its origin appears to be in primitive rock, or granite ; but it 
 is most abundantly found in the trap-rooks, or those of 
 igneous origin. TJie geological formation of Canada is of 
 this character ; but that of the gold region of the Southern 
 States is not. Greenstone-porphyry, syenite, and gneiss, 
 appear to be the primary sources of gold. These are also 
 found in dikes and veins in the gold regions. The imme- 
 diate matrix of gold in these regions is evidently the pyrites, 
 which, however, may be a secondary enclosure. 
 
 The next deposit and source of gold may be found in the 
 infiltrated veins. Gold enclosed in crystallized quartz is evi- 
 dently derived from alluvial soil, which has been washed 
 into the crevices of the rock, and afterwards covered with 
 quartz in solution ; and to this result the heat of a volcanic 
 region has no doubt greatly contributed. Silex is easily 
 soluble in pure hot water, but is precipitated from it as soon 
 as it comes in contact with any other matter, or when cooled. 
 The crevices of the feldspathic rock of North Carolina are 
 chiefly filled with crystalline quartz, which in many instances 
 contains gold. This quartz is evidently the result of infil- 
 tration ; and all the veins of this kind must be uncertain in 
 their duration and extent. 
 
 The veins injected from below are a third source of gold. 
 To these belong the pyriteous veins, and, as far as their de- 
 composition is concerned, the ferruginous veins. Wheth- 
 er the gold in these veins is in a metallic form, and 
 has been evaporated in that state ; or whether the gold was 
 raised and condensed along with other metals and suiphur- 
 ets, is a question of no importance. It may b& asserted as a 
 fact, that all native suiphurets, particularly all the suiphur- 
 ets of iron, contain gold. It does not follow from this that 
 all pyrites contain sufiicient gold to pay for its extraction. 
 As suiphurets cannot possibly penetrate any roek but from 
 below, we may naturally conclude that the heaviest body of 
 such kind of ore must necessarily lie deep in the earth. 
 This conclusion is supported and confirmed hj practice ; for 
 all pyriteous veins are invariably found to improve in qual- 
 ity and quantity with the depth. 
 
 Silver. — Native silver occurs in various forms ; and it is 
 often difficult to decide by sight whether a mineral is pure, 
 or contains silver in admixture. It is found in all mines 
 where silver ores occur, in the regular form of crystals, but 
 
 chiefly in irregular grains and formless aggregations. It 
 appears in the native copper of Lake Superior, ramifying^ 
 the copper in all directions, in the form of fine threads of 
 pure silver. Silver has a great aflinity for sulphur, which 
 soon blackens its bright surface. For this reason we find 
 most of the native silver in black masses, imbedded in the 
 silver ores, filling fissures in a vein, or appearing as a black 
 vegetation in cavities or on the surface of a vein. Metalic 
 silver is found in all mines where silver ores are found, or 
 where the ores of another metal are impregnated with 
 
 silver. 
 
 Suiphurd of siZuer— silver glance. This is the most 
 common of the silver ores. We find it in the form of crys- 
 tals, hairs, and needles, or like wire twisted into nets ; in 
 plates, and in shapeless masses. This ore is opaque, or of a 
 dark-grey color. It is malleable, and easily cut with a 
 knife like lead. It is not elastic, like metallic silver. The 
 clean' cut looks like metallic lead, but is soon covered with a 
 film of various colors. This ore, in its pure form, con- 
 tains 87 per cent, of silver, and 13 per cent, of sulphur. It 
 is easily smelted, and yields metallic silver with but little 
 trouble. Sulphuret of silver, and all the silver ores, are 
 found in rocks of all ages, except in the coal region ; and 
 always accompany the ores of copper, lead, antimony, gold, 
 arsenic, and others, along with quartz, calcspar, heavy spar, 
 manganese, pyrites, and other minerals. It is a remarkable 
 fact, that silver occurs more abundantly where mineral veins 
 cross or meet each other, than in other places, or in the finer 
 ramifications of a vein. 
 
 ifoj-ra-siZuCT-— chloride of silver. This ore is not so gener- 
 ally found as the above sulphuret, but it appears in almost 
 every place where silver is found. It occurs chiefly at the 
 outcrop of veins, along with native silver or sulphuret of 
 silver. Chloride of silver is a horny substance, so soft as 
 to be cut by the finger-nail. Its color is often grey, and it 
 sometimes shows all the colors of mother-of-pearl. These 
 colors darken, if the ore is exposed to light for some time. 
 This ore is also found of a uniform green color. One 
 variety of chloride of silver is called buttermilk ore. In 
 this case it is mixed with foreign minerals, and with gold 
 and copper. The greater portion of it, however, is clay. 
 
 Antimonial silver. — This is the richest of the silver ores, 
 but not so frequently found as others. It has not been ob- 
 served in the old States of the Union. It is found in Mex- 
 ico and Central America, and in New Mexico, California, 
 Utah, and Montana. Antimonial silver is a crystallized ore, 
 of a white or yellowish-blue color, hard, and very brittle. 
 It resembles arsenical iron very much, but is easily distin- 
 guished from that ore by its crystals being longer, and not 
 quite so hard. The ore, when fresh from the mine, is white ; 
 but it is soon tarnished by a yellow film, and gradually be- 
 comes grey, blue, and at last dark -grey or black. This ore, 
 when pure, contains 80 per cent, of silver and 20 per cent, 
 of antimony. 
 
 Antimonial sulphuret of silver — red silver ; rubyblende. 
 This is a valuable silver ore. Its color embraces all the 
 shades of red, and is sometimes of an iron-grey. It is rare- 
 ly found of any other color. The lustre of this ore is re- 
 markable, being metallic, and in many instances as brilliant 
 as that of a diamond. It is found wherever other silver 
 ores are found, and may be expected in the mineral veins of 
 primitive, transition, and metamorphic rocks. It is accom- 
 panied by or associated with antimonial and arsenical ores, 
 lead, cobalt, nickel, copper and iron pyrites, along with 
 quartz, lime, heavy spar, fluorspar, and other minerals. 
 There are other varieties of silver ore, but their appear- 
 ance is very rare. 
 
 Platinum; Iridium; Osmium.; Rhodium; Palla- 
 dium.. — These are called the platinum metals, because they 
 always appear together or alloyed. Platinum has been found 
 in the gold diggings of Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, 
 and California. These metals are as valuable as gold ; and 
 some of them are sold at even higher prices than that metal. 
 They are chiefly found wherever gold occurs, and mostly or 
 exclusively in alluvial gravel and sand. Platinum appears 
 in flattened grains, of a greyish or lead color, resembling 
 tarnished steel. In its ordinary state, it is as heavy as gold ; 
 and, if pure, even heavier. 
 
 Mercury; Quicksilver. — Native Mercury is found in 
 all mercury mines. It occurs in small drops, attached to the 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MIXING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 body of the ore, to the gangue, or dead minerals of the vein, 
 and to the rock. The most important quicksilver ore is the 
 
 Sulphur et of mercury — cinnabar. This mineral resembles, 
 in color, oxide of iron, with which it is sometimes confound- 
 ed. Its redness, however, is mingled with a yellowish hue, 
 like that of minium, by which peculiarity it is distinguish- 
 ed. It is also easily distinguished from other minerals by its 
 volatile character. It evaporates entirely, when thrown on 
 red-hot iron, leaving no residuum, and emitting a strong 
 smell of sulphur. The powder of cinnabar, when rubbed 
 on gold or copper, whitens these metals, as if plated with 
 silver. Cinnabar is found in California in heavy masses. 
 The ore is of a beautiful appearance, pure, and Compact. It 
 contains 84 per cent, of metal, and 14 per cent, of sulphur. 
 
 Bituminous sulphur el of mercury. — This is a variety of cin- 
 nabar, of a more or less grey, brown, earth color and ap- 
 pearance. It generally accompanies the pure qualities, and 
 is mainly distinguished from them by its color. On heating 
 this quicksilver ore, it emits a very disagreeable smell, and 
 leaves a residue of earthy matter. There are other ores of 
 mercury, but they are of little importance. They may all 
 be distinguished by their entire volatility, and their capacity 
 of coating gold white when rubbed upon it. The geological 
 position of the quicksilver ores is in the older rocks of the 
 secondary formation, or the later series of the transition 
 rocks. We find it therefore in the New England Stated 
 along the Lakes, and in the gold region of the Southern 
 States, but in such small quantities that the mining of it 
 cannot be. carried on to advantage. Quicksilver ores may 
 also be found in an earlier series of rocks than the bitumi- 
 nous coal ; but in that case there is some metamorphic or 
 volcanic rock in its vicinity, which appears to have been the 
 means of depositing it where it is found. These ores are 
 very volatile, and anj^ volcanic eruptions will bring them 
 from the interior of the earth, to condense on some conve- 
 nient spot, colder than the place of their origin. Quicksil- 
 ver ores are not always found in regular veins. We find 
 these ores in grains, disseminated through the masses of 
 rock, like gold, platinum, and other metals. One of the 
 quicksilver ores of Spain is a black slate impregnated with 
 metallic quicksilver. 
 
 Zinc— Native zinc is never found ; it has so much affinity 
 for other matter, particularly oxygen, that it cannot exist 
 very long in its pure state. The following are the principal 
 ores of this metal : 
 
 Zinc-blende, or simply blende. — This is a sulphuret of 
 zinc, and is composed of 68 per cent, of zinc, and 32 per 
 cent, of sulphur. This ore is always found crystallized ; and 
 in most cases the masses of it are mere accumulations of 
 crystals. Its color is generally a bright or yellowish-brown ; 
 but it is occasionally found to be black, red, green, or yel- 
 low. It is transparent, or at least admits of the passage of 
 light, if in thin splinters. The lustre of this ore is brilliant, 
 and more decidedly adamantine than any other ore. It is 
 found in heavy veins and masses in the gold region of the 
 Southern States, where it forms the principal silver ore. It 
 also contains a considerable amount of gold. It is here as- 
 sociated with galena, iron and copper pyrites, tin, heavy 
 spar, black manganese, and manganese-spar. The bulk of 
 this ore is blende, which in most cases constitutes at least 
 50 per cent. Blende occurs chiefly in the rocks of the tran- 
 sition series, and is abundantly found in the United States. 
 The operation of smelting this ore, and extracting from it 
 the gold, silver, and lead, is extremely troublesome. 
 
 Red zinc ore. — Zinc ore is extensively deposited in New 
 Jersey and Pennsylvania, and is used for the manufacture 
 of brass. This ore is a compound of oxide of zinc, manga- 
 nese, and oxide of iron. Its color is a brick-red, with a yel- 
 lowish tinge, like cinnabar. Its texture is granular and 
 massive. This ore, like the blende, belongs to the transi- 
 tion series of rocks. 
 
 Calamine -sWicaXe of zinc, is very widely distributed, 
 and is found in heavy beds in eastern Pennsylvania. There 
 are two kinds of this ore, the silicate and the carbonate : 
 the latter series is that alluded to as found in Pennsylvania. 
 This ore appears in kidney-shaped masses, and in concre- 
 tions like iron pipe-ore, honey-combed. It is of a dirty yel- 
 low or stone color. If pure, it consists of about one-half 
 oxide of zinc ; the other half is composed of carbonic acid, 
 silex, iron, water, and other admixtures. It is found in 
 
 heavy veins, and may be looked for in all limestone rock, 
 from the most recent to the oldest formations. 
 
 Tin. — There are but two ores of tin known, which are of 
 any practical use. One of these is tin-stone, or peroxide of 
 tin ; the other is sulphuret of tin, or tin pyrites. No tin of 
 any moment is manufactured in the United States at pre- 
 sent; still, there are indications of the ore, and, at some 
 future day, it may be found advantageous to smelt it. 
 
 Tin-stone occurs chiefly ia granite, in heavy masses or 
 lodes, mixed with conglomerates of various rocks. It is 
 also found in alluvial gravel, as the result of the decompo- 
 sition of the above rock, and is then called stream-tin. Tin- 
 stone is of a variety of colors, white, grey, yellow, red, 
 brown, and black. Its most striking feature is its weight. 
 Its specific gravity is equal to that of galena, from which it 
 is easily distinguished. This ore is very hard, of a brilliant 
 lustre in the fresh fracture, and is frequently found in de- 
 tached double crystals. By striking with this stone upon 
 steel, fire can be produced. 
 
 Till pyrites are not very abundant, and cannot be con- 
 sidered an ore of tin ; their presence in the silver ores of the 
 southern gold region is so limited, as to render the extraction 
 of the metal unprofitable. This ore is of a grey or yellowish 
 colour, heavy, crystallized, and of a metallic lustre. It is 
 always found to be adulterated with foreign matter, as iron, 
 copper, lead, and olher ores. 
 
 Coal. — ^All mineral substances containing sufficient car- 
 bon to supply their own fuel, and support combustion, 
 may be called coal, mineral coal. There are vast beds of 
 slate and limestone, containing a large amount of carbon, 
 which cannot properly be clashed as coal, because they do 
 not perpetuate combustion. 
 
 ■ Charcoal. — Mineral charcoal is frequently found in 
 bituminous coal, in the form of thin seams and plates ; but 
 the quantity is so small as to render its separation from 
 other coal impracticable. 
 
 Anthracite — hard stone-coal, is, with the exception of 
 charcoal, the purest mineral carbon of which we have any 
 knowledge ; and it forms the bulk of the fuel used in the 
 Atlantic cities. Anthracite coal forms lieavy veins and 
 masses in the metamorphic rocks of the eastern slope of the 
 Alleghenies, but is seldom found on the western side of that 
 mountain chain. Hard coal is a very black, hard substance, 
 of great lustre: it breaks in irregular fragments, and is not 
 affected by the atmospheric air. The chemical composition of 
 this coal is, almost entirely pure carbon, a little hydrogen, and 
 a small percentage of ashes. When a sufficient quantity of 
 this coal is ignited, it creates an intense heat ; but, in small 
 quantities, it does not burn well, and requires a strong draft 
 to support combustion in a small space. This coal is also 
 more difficult to kindle than any other, requiring the use of 
 wood, or wood -charcoal, to ignite it. This fuel is welladapt- 
 ed to smelting operations, for which purpose it is extensive- 
 ly employed. The geological position of anthracite coal is 
 said to be in the transition rocks ; but, in this countrv, we 
 cannot place it in that series. 
 
 Bituminous coal — soft stone coal. This name is applied 
 to a mineral coal, which has never been properly defined. 
 A natural and well-marked distinction of this coal is, its 
 property of coking ; that is, if exposed to a red heat, it blazes, 
 swells, and finally bakes together, forming a spongy mass, 
 called coke. All the coal which is black, and makes a black 
 powder, but does not coke, is anthracite ; and all the coal 
 which is soft, and makes a brown powder, but does not coke, 
 is denominated brown coal. Bituminous coal is black, 
 makes a black powder, has a bright, resinous lustre, and is 
 liable to form slack when exposed to the air. It is distin- 
 
 fuished from anthracite by possessing a more slaty structure, 
 ome of this coal breaks into beautiful cubical pieces, of 
 which the Pittsburg vein shows many fine samples. Most 
 of this coal is inclined to break in that way, but the cubes 
 are often very small, and form mere slack. Bituminous coal 
 burns easily, with a bright, vivid flame, similar to pine 
 wood. Anthracite usually burns without any flame ; but, 
 sometimes, with a faint, blue, scarcely-visible flame. Bitu- 
 minous coal is easily kindled, and, in small quantities, sup- 
 ports combustion with facility. The chemical composition 
 of this coal differs from anthracite, only in the larger amount 
 of hydrogen it contains : this, in combination with carbon, 
 forms bitumen, which can be extracted by distillation in 
 
8 
 
 THE MINES, MINEKS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 iron retorts ; and from this circumstance is derived its name, 
 " bituminous coal." In the Mississippi valley, that is, in the 
 region where this river and its tributaries flow, the amount 
 of bituminous coal buried beneath the surface of the earth 
 is so large, that no parallel can be drawn between the amount 
 of coal in that district, and what is contained in all the 
 other parts of the world. The quality of the coal in 
 this large basin is, as may be expected very different. 
 " The Pittsburg vein," is, notwithstanding its local 
 appellation, of vast extent. This vein may be traced to 
 a distance of from one hundred to one hundred and fifty 
 miles from Pittsburg, and furnishes at every point where 
 it has been opened, the same kind of coal. The coal from 
 the Pittsburg vein, of which the coal from the Youghio- 
 geny river, a branch of the Monongahela, may be consider- 
 ed the finest, is a beautiful jet-black coal, almost free 
 from sulphur, of a high lustre, frequently displaying the 
 colors of the rainbow. This coal breaks into cubes, of 
 from two to six and eight inches. It is not very liable to 
 form slack on being exposed to the air. This coal breaks 
 into a beautiful, strong, and clear, coke, and may be consider- 
 ed a fine coal for making gas. This vein does not furnish an 
 equally-beautiful coal throughout its extent, still, it produces 
 in every part a superior coal. Within one hundred miles of 
 Pittsburg, along the Monongahela river, this vein produces 
 superior coal ; below Pittsburg, on the Ohio river, and 
 above Pittsburg on the Alleghany river this coal is not so 
 good as at the first mentioned place. Pittsburg may be 
 considered very near the centre of the large western coal 
 field ; and here the coal, particularly that of the thick vein, 
 is superior to any coal, no matter whence it comes. The 
 same vein furnishes a fine coal along the borders of the coal 
 field, where the vein is generally from ten to fourteen feet 
 thick — near Pittsburg it is but seven feet. The geological 
 position of this coal forms a particular era, a separate period 
 in the formation of rocks. It is not found in the old rocks 
 —in granite and its associates — nor do we find it in transi- 
 tion or metamorphic rocks ; yet, in Virginia, a bituminous 
 coal is found imbedded upon granite, and surrounded by 
 the younger transition rocks. This coal cannot be consider- 
 ed a true bituminous coal, but forms a link between this 
 and the next following — brown coal. This Virginia coal 
 burns with a vivid flame, and forms a sort of friable coke ; 
 still, we cannot consider it as a true bituminous coal, of the 
 secondary formation. 
 
 Brown coal — lignite. This is a kind of coal more gene- 
 rally distributed than known. This coal is found among or 
 above the rocks of all ages. We find it resting on granite 
 in Virginia, on the James river, imbedded in tertiary rocks 
 along the Atlantic coast, in Michigan and Missouri, in Ore- 
 gon, on the shores of the Pacific, and in California. We 
 find this coal jet black, and also of a brown color; we find 
 it as hard as anthracite, and so soft as to crumble into fine 
 dust on being touched. It is never found in extensive layers, 
 like the coal of the secondary strata, and the deposits most- 
 ly form thin veins or elliptical masses. This coal is chara- 
 terized by its making a brown powder, which may be more 
 or less dark, but always shows its brown color. Some of 
 this coal forms coke, but the coke is weak, friable, and, on 
 account of its impurities, not qualified for smelting iron and 
 other metals. The greater bulk of this coal does not coke 
 at all. It always contains more impurities than coal of 
 the older rocks, makes more ashes, and is very sulphurous, 
 which causes operate in the formation of clickers in the fire- 
 grates, causing trouble to the firemen. If brown coal is 
 very impure, slaty, and does not contain sufficient carbon to 
 constitute fuel, it can be used for the manufacture of alum, 
 either by burning or roasting in large piles, and may be con- 
 sidered the best material for that purpose. We may expect 
 to find brown coal below the sand of the beach, as well as 
 in the granitic and volcanic mountain regions. It is always 
 accom()anied by fossil remains of plants and animals. Coal 
 which is too brittle to bear transportation, and diminishes 
 the draft of a fire by falling into dust, may be moulded like 
 fire-bricks, dried, and then used as fuel. If there is any dif- 
 ference between hard coal and soft coal, of equal purity, it 
 is in favor of hard coal ; for, the less hydrogen fuel contains, 
 the greater the amount of heat liberated from the same 
 weight. There are, however, differences of a practical na- 
 ture, which considerably modify this theoretical fact. A 
 
 fire-grate or furnace of any kind, which burns soft coal to 
 advantage, is found to have a contrary effect upon hard 
 coal ; and the grate in which hard coal can be profitably 
 consumed, will not answer so well for soft coal. Soft coal 
 burns more rapidly, and distributes more heat in the same 
 time, over the same space; but also consumes faster than 
 hard coal would, under similar circumstances. The abso- 
 lute amount of heat evolved, is greater in soft than in hard 
 coal, but this heat cannot be used to so much advantage as 
 thatprodu;ed from hard coal. 
 
 — Compiled from " Practical Mineralogj/" by J. 8. Overman. 
 
 MINING AND METALLURGY AMONG THE 
 ANCIENTS. 
 
 IN the time of Moses, at least six metals were known, 
 since, in his direction for the purification of the spoils of 
 the Midianites, he says : " Only the gold and the silver, 
 the brass, the iron, the tin, and the lead, every thing that 
 may abide the fire, ye shall make it pass through the fire and 
 it shall be clean.* Thus showing that the metallurgic arts 
 had at that early period attained considerable perfection, 
 and that the metals were of frequent occurrence and con- 
 stant employment. Of the various metallurgic processes 
 practised in the early ages of the world, little can be at 
 present known ; but it would appear likely, from some 
 passages in the sacred writings, as well as from the some- 
 what confused and obscure accounts of profane authors, 
 that they differed but little from those which are employed 
 at the present day. 
 
 That silver was at a very early period purified by means 
 of lead, the following passages would seem to indicate : 
 "The house of Israel is to me become dross ; all they are 
 brass, and tin, and iron, and lead in the midst of the fur- 
 nace, they are even the dross of silver."t And again, 
 " The bellows are burned, the lead is consumed of the fire, 
 the founder melteth in vain."| We also read of silver being 
 purified in a furnace of earth. Strabo quotes Polybius as 
 speaking of a silver ore which, after being washed seven 
 times, was melted with lead and became pure silver. That 
 tin was not only well known, but also highly valued, at the 
 time of the Trojan War, we learn from Homer, who calls it 
 KaacriTepoc, and mentions it as forming part of the armour of 
 Agamemnon,? and shield of Achilles,|| to make which, Vul- 
 can is represented as throwing into the crucible, brass un- 
 conquered naaahepoQ^ and honored gold and silver. 
 
 Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, the workers of 
 metal had attained a pitch of excellence, in some instances 
 scarcely to be surpassed in the present day : but although 
 many proofs of their skill have come down to us, in the form 
 of coins, statues, and implements of war, yet their authors 
 afford but scanty information relative to the methods em- 
 ployed in their production. This may be accounted for by 
 the fact, that those who have written on the subject could 
 have been but imperfectly acquainted with it, the metals be- 
 ing generally found and extracted in mountainous countries, 
 at a great distance from the large and populous cities in 
 which the authors may be supposed to have usually resided, 
 and who were, consequently, dependent for their facts on 
 those who might be unable to enlighten them very fully on 
 the subject. It is therefore not to be wondered at, that our 
 stock of information should be limited, or that the ancient 
 authors should treat rather of the uses of the metals, and 
 the formation of alloys, than of their extraction from the 
 ores. 
 
 The art of working the alloys of copper was cultivated in 
 Rome at a very eariy period after the foundation of that 
 city. King Numa, the immediate successor of Romulus, 
 founded a fraternity of brass founders, from which it may 
 be inferred that this trade was even then in a flourishing 
 condition. At the date in which Pliny wrote his Natural 
 History of the World, the Romans had acquired an exten- 
 sive knowledge of the metals, and their uses ; as we find him, 
 m his thirty-third and thirty-fourth Books, not only de- 
 
 * Numbers xxxi. 22. 
 § Iliad, 2. 
 
 t Ezek. xxii. 18. 
 II Iliad, 18. 
 
 t Jer. vi. : 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 9 
 
 scribing gold, silver, brass, tin, iron, lead, antimony, mer- 
 cury, and cadmia ; but he gives us also the proportions in 
 which these various metals should be mixed, in order to 
 form suitable alloys for casting, soldering, and brazing, and 
 moreover describes, with a great degree of accuracy, the 
 medicinal and other properties of some of their oxides and 
 salts, as well as the method of their preparation and the lo- 
 calities in which they were found. But his descriptions of 
 the means used for the extraction of these metals from their 
 ores, are not only imperfect, but also frequently obscure. 
 This arises both from the abrupt transitions which continu- 
 ally occur, and also from frequent allusions to methods and 
 apparatus long since obsolete, and relative to which at the 
 present time we have no means of acquiring knowledge. In 
 speaking of gold, Pliny says, " In these parts of the world 
 in which we live, gold mines are found, to say nothing of 
 India, where the ants cast it up out of the ground, or that 
 which the griffins gather in Scythia. The gold with us is 
 procured in three ways ; among the sands of some great 
 rivers, such as the Tagus in Spain, the Po in Italy, Hebrus 
 in Thrace, Pactolus in Asia, and the Indian Ganges, all of 
 which yield gold. Neither is there any gold finer or more 
 perfect, from being thoroughly polished, by the rubbing 
 and attrition which it meets with in the courses of streams 
 of water. There is also another method of obtaining gold, 
 viz. : by digging it out of pits which are sunk for that pur- 
 pose, or else in the caverns and breaches which occur by the 
 fell of mountains." He also goes on to say, that the gold 
 obtained by cleaving and opening mountains needs no try- 
 ing or refining, as it is naturally fine and pure. In speaking 
 of the value of gold, the same author remarks : " The repu- 
 tation which it has acquired is for the following reason, — 
 that it alone, of all things, loses nothing in the fire, but 
 withstands its action without change. Indeed the oftener 
 it has been in the fire the more refined and purer it becomes. 
 One method of testing the quality of gold is by the applica- 
 tion of fire, of which it ought to take not only the color, 
 but to a certain extent the radiance also. This kind is called 
 Obryzum. This is another astonishing property of gold, 
 that a fire made of light straw or chafi' will quickly melt it, 
 whilst if it be thrown on the strongest fire of wood-charcoal, 
 it will with difficulty yield to its intensity and melt. With 
 respect to its purification, it should be melted with lead. 
 The second property which causes gold to be so highly 
 valued is, that it loses but little of its weight by use Sind at- 
 trition, whilst silver, lead, and copper, leave metallic stains 
 on bodies which they touch, and soil the skin of those who 
 handle them. Neither is there any metal which can be 
 beaten out broader by the hammer, or divided more easily 
 into parcels, as every ounce of it may be reduced into more 
 than seven hundred and fifty leaves, each one of which 
 being four fingers square. The other minerals, after their 
 extraction, require the fire for their conversion into metal ; 
 but gold, of which we now treat, is gold as soon as it is 
 found." Again, " Neither rust nor canker alters the weight 
 of gold, or affects in any way its quality. Salt and vinegar, 
 though such active solvents, do not make the least impres- 
 sion on it." 
 
 The above quotations go to show, that many of the prop- 
 erties of gold were known at this period, and also that the 
 methods of extracting it were similar to those employed at 
 the present day. Pliny, however, gives us but little informa- 
 tion relative to its metallurgic treatment, except that lead 
 was employed in its purification, and also that when found 
 in lumps it was of itself pure, and required no artificial re- 
 fining. He also states, when speaking of the properties of 
 mercury, " So penetrating is this liquor, that there is no ves- 
 sel but it will eat and pass through. It supports everything 
 which may be thrown into it, unless it be gold only, which 
 sinks to the bottom. It is, besides, very useful for the pur- 
 pose of refining gold; to effect which object, that metal 
 mixed with cinders is placed in an earthen pot, and shaken 
 with mercury, which rejects all the impurities mixed with 
 it, but in return takes hold of the gold itself. To expel it 
 from the gold, the mixture is poured on skins, which, on 
 being pressed, allow the mercury to pass through them in 
 drops, whilst the gold remains in all ite purity." The above 
 process differs little from those in general use, for the pur- 
 poses of amalgamation, at the present day ; but in this case 
 Pliny's description is imperfect, inasmuch as the solid amal- 
 
 gam remaining on the skins would require the separation of 
 the combined mercury before the gold could exist in the 
 pure and fine .state described. No mention is moreover 
 made, of any means of separating gold fi-om silver, or in 
 fact of their ever being found associated, except in an alloy 
 called electrum, said to be found in veins, and of which an 
 artificial kind was made by mixing one part of silver and 
 four parts of gold, and which appears to have been anciently 
 in great request, since Homer describes the palace of King 
 Menelaus as glittering with gold, electrum, silver, and ivory. 
 This alloy, though sometimes made by the direct mixture of 
 the two metals, was, doubtless, in most instancesj a natural 
 production, as many gold ores contain a portion of silver, 
 and the ancients being ignorant of the method of separating 
 them, and without any knowledge of the stronger acids,* 
 might have been in the habit of occasionally adding a cer- 
 tain quantity of silver to specimens of gold which already 
 contained a proportion of that metal, thereby converting 
 them into electrum. 
 
 That silver was formerly, as at the present day, chiefly ex- 
 tracted from the ores of lead, we are distinctly informed by 
 the author of the " Historia Naturalis," who adds, that those 
 ores of silver which do not contain lead, or an ore of lead, 
 cannot be successfully worked without the addition of 
 either one or the other. Tin and lead he seems to regard as 
 only two varieties of the same metal, as he describes them 
 under the title of white lead, and black, and states that the 
 white lead called in Latin Plumbum candidum, and by the 
 Greeks Cassiteros, was much more valuable, and commanded 
 a higher price than the black variety. His description of 
 the Plumbum candidum, and the state in which it was found, 
 leaves no doubt "that this much valued metal was tin, 
 it being represented as occurring among sand, in the dried- 
 up beds of rivers, and as only known from the other sub- 
 stances with which it was found associated, by its dark color 
 and great weight.f There is likewise found in the gold 
 mines a kind of lead-ore which they call Elutia (stream 
 tin). The water which is let into the mines washes, and 
 carries down with it, certain little black stones, streaked 
 and marked with white, and as heavy as the gold itself. It 
 is gathered with it, and they remain together in the baskets 
 in which the gold is collected. These are not separated 
 from it until after melting in the furnace, when the fusion 
 transforms them into white lead." Again : " You cannot 
 solder together two pieces of black lead without white lead, 
 neither can this be united to the other without the aid of oil." 
 He also says of this metal : " Neither out of the white lead 
 can any silver be extracted ; whereas out of the bl ack this 
 is commonly done." 
 
 In speaking of common lead, the same author says : It is 
 much used for conduit pipes and for being hammered into 
 thin plates," and then goes on to describe the mines of 
 France, Spain and Britain, which he states, when quite worked 
 out and exhausted, become as productive as ever, and even 
 
 * Nitric acid is first mentioned by Heber, who lived in the eighth 
 century. He describes it under the name of " dissolving water," 
 and prepared it by distilling in a retort one pound of sulphate of 
 iron of Cyprus, half a pound of saltpetre, and a quarter of a pound 
 of alum of Jameni. This process, although not economical, would 
 certainly produce nitric acid, and to this when obtained he added 
 sal-ammoniac, in order to give it the property of dissolving gold. 
 Raymond Lully, who lived in the early part of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury, employed the same process, except that he omitted the alum. 
 Basil Valentine, who was horn about the year 1400^ describes a 
 method of obtaining " Spirits of Nitre," by distilling nitrate of pot- 
 ash with powered porcelain or clay, with which the potash entering 
 into combination the same result is obtained as by the former 
 method. Basil Valentine is also the first who describes oil of vit- 
 riol, which he prepared by distilling sulphate of iron according to 
 the method at present practised at Nordhausen in Saxony. 
 
 t " It is generally considered that the Greeks obtained their tin 
 by means of the PhoBnicians from the Scilly Islands or Cornwall, 
 but there is no direct proof of this ; and it appears probable, from 
 the Sanskrit derivation of the Greek word (kassiteros, from kas- 
 tira), that the Greeks originally obtained their tin from India. The 
 Islands Cassiterides, however, the position of which was unknown 
 to Herodotus (iii. 115), are supposed to be the Scilly Islands, or the 
 peninsula of Cornwall, though their position is not exactly de- 
 fined by Straho (iii. 175). Still there can be little doubt that the 
 Cassiterides, to which the Phcenicians from Gades (Cadiz) went for 
 tin, and the Eomans afterwards traded for the same commodity, 
 were on the south-western angle of Great Britain." — Gen. Cyc. art. 
 " Hindustan." 
 
10 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 more so, if allowed to remain a short time without being 
 worked ; for which he accounts, by supposing the metal to 
 be produced by the air, which has then free access into the 
 mine. With regard to the state in which Plumbum nigrum 
 occurs, we are informed : " Biack lead has a double origin ; 
 for it is either produced in a vein of its own without any 
 other metal ; or otherwise it is mingled with silver in the 
 same mine, being mixed together in one stone of ore, and 
 they are only separated by melting and refining in a furnace. 
 The first liquor that flows from the furnace is tin {Stannum), 
 and the second silver. That part which remains behind is 
 galena, the third element of the vein, which being again 
 melted, after two parts of it are deducted, yields black 
 lead." The above passage is obscure : tin, lead and silver, 
 are not frequently found in the same stone, and were they 
 thus to occur, the tin certainly would be the first to flow out 
 of the furnace. 
 
 That cupellation has long been employed for the extrac- 
 tion of silver from lead may be inferred from the works of 
 Agricola, who, in his " De Ee Metallica," describes and gives 
 drawings of the furnaces used in his time for that purpose, 
 and which exactly in every respect correspond with the old 
 German cupel. 
 
 The Greeks and Eomans have left no treatises relative to 
 mining or metallurgy ; but it is scarcely reasonable to suppose, 
 that had the method of refining lead by crystallization been 
 known to them, it should either have been lost or fallen into 
 disuse, as its advantages are too obvious not to have been 
 evident to the rudest operators. Another argument against 
 the opinion of Pliny having referred to this method, is the 
 fact thaf rich lead, and not pure silver as described by him, 
 is obtained by the crystallizing process, and if this method 
 were ever known, it must evidently have fallen into disuse 
 before the time of Agricola, who makes no mention of any 
 knowledge on the subject, but gives the old German furnace 
 as that ordinarily employed for the extraction of silver, and 
 which, from the circumstance of its having remained un- 
 changed in every respect since the days of Agricola, may be 
 supposed to have existed in the same form long prior to that 
 time: and to have been probably not only used by the 
 Greeks and Eomans, but possibly even at a much earlier date. 
 
 Of all the metals employed by the ancients for the manu- 
 facture of objects of luxury, as well as for those adapted 
 to the everyday usages of life, copper and its alloys were 
 the most common; as by far the greater portion of the 
 coins, tools and implements of war, which are occasionally 
 brought to light, are composed of some modification of 
 either bronze or braas; and consequently, the making of 
 these alloys, and their adaptation to the various wants of 
 mankind, must have formed a very important branch of 
 the manufactures among the Greeks and Eomans. Accord- 
 ingly the author of the "Natural History of the World," 
 after describing the properties of this metal, and stating the 
 localities in which that of the best quality was found, gives 
 the composition and proportions employed in various alloys 
 then common in Eome, and informs us to what uses they 
 were severally applied. He also states that copper was first 
 found in the Island of Cyprus, from whence two distinct 
 kinds were exported :• one called Curonarium, which, when 
 reduced into thin leaves and colored with the gall of an ox, 
 had a golden color, and was employed for making coronets 
 and tinsel ornaments for actors, from which circumstance it 
 derived its appellation. Another variety, which was named 
 Begulaire, is not particularly described, except that, like the 
 former, it would stand hammering, and might be thus made 
 to take any required form. The brass (copper) of the next 
 best quality came from Campania, where it was the custom 
 to adcl eight parts of lead to every 100 pounds of copper. It 
 is also mentioned, that in France it was usual to melt copper 
 among red-hot stones, for the purpose of obtaining a steady 
 heat, as a quick fire was found to blacken the metal and 
 render it brittle. He moreover informs us that the pro- 
 cess was completed in one operation, but states that the 
 quality would be improved by more frequent melting: 
 Moreover, it may not be amiss to state also, that all kinds 
 of brass melt best in the coldest weather. For statues and 
 tables, brass is worked in the following manner: First the 
 ore, or stone as it come3 out of the mine, is melted, and as 
 soon as this is done, they add to it a third part of scrap 
 brass, consisting of broken pieces of vessels that have been 
 
 used ; for it is time and use alone that bring brass to perfec- 
 tion, it is the rubbing which conquers the natural harshness 
 of the metal. They then mix twelve pounds and a half of 
 tin to every hundred pound weight of the aforesaid melted 
 ore. The softest alloy is called Formall, in which are incor- 
 porated a tenth of black lead, and one-twentieth part of 
 argentine lead ; it is this mixture which best takes the color 
 called grecanic. The last alloy is that which is called Ollaria, 
 or pot-brass, as it takes its name from the vessels for which 
 it is mostly employed, and this is made by tempering every 
 hundred pounds weight of brass with three or four pounds 
 weight of argentine lead or tin." 
 
 The alloys above described are merely modifications of 
 bell-metal or bronze; but it is not improbable that the 
 ancients were acquainted with zinc-brass long before this 
 period. Aristotle tells us that the Mosynseci, a people who 
 inhabited a country not far from the Euxine Sea, were said 
 to make copper of an exceedingly fine color, not by the 
 addition of tin, but by mixing and cementing it with an 
 earth found in that country. We are also informed by 
 Strabo, that in the neighborhood of Andera, a city of Phiy- 
 gia, a remarkable -kind of stone was met with, which being 
 calcined became iron, and on being fluxed with a certain 
 kind of earth, yielded drops of silvery -looking metal, which, 
 mixed with copper, formed an alloy called Aurichalcum. 
 Sextus Pompeius Festus, who abridged a work of Verrius 
 Flaccus, a writer of considerable note in the time of Augus- 
 tus, mentions cadmia, which he defines as an earth thrown 
 upon copper, in order to convert it into aurichalcum. On 
 this subject Pliny affords us but little information, merely 
 stating where cadmia was found, and naming some of its 
 medicinal properties; but he seems to have regarded it 
 rather as an earth which gave a yellow color to copper, than 
 as the ore of a distinct metal, zinc being in no instance 
 mentioned by him, although he speaks of a kind of brass 
 which Avas manufactured in the Island of Cyprus from copper 
 and cadmia. That metallic zinc, however, was known to 
 the ancients, there is no evidence to prove, since the metal 
 mentioned by Strabo as given out in drops from a certain 
 stone when heated, could scarcely have been zinc, which 
 would have been volatilized if treated in the way described, 
 and we may therefore suppose, that if the stone referred to by 
 him was an ore of zinc, it might also have contained some 
 other metal, such as lead, with which it is often found asso- 
 ciated, and which would produce the appearance in question. 
 Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, describes the transformation of 
 copper into aurichalcum as being eflfected by means of a 
 drug, and not by the addition of another metal ; from which 
 we mayinferhewasunacquaintedwith the metallic nature of 
 the material employed, although from his calling it a drug, 
 •he was i)erhaps aware of its medicinal properties. A similar 
 descrijjtion of the manufacture of brass is given by Prima- 
 sius, Bishop of Andrumetum, in Africa, in the sixth century, 
 and by Isidorus, Bishop of Seville, in the seventh. Agricola, 
 who wrote in the sixteenth century, was also ignorant that 
 cadmia contained zinc, of which we have no authentic ac- 
 count until we find it mentioned by Paracelsus; and from 
 which it is evident, that although the manufacture of zinc- 
 brass is of great antiquity, the extraction of the metal itself 
 is comparatively a modern discovery. 
 
 Iron, the last of the six metals known to the ancients, was 
 not, in the earliest times, very extensively employed, as the 
 primitive heroes are described as being armed with weapons 
 of brass. Plutarch informs us that when Cimon, the son of 
 Miltiades, conveyed the bones of Theseus from the Island of 
 Scyros to Athens, he found interred with him a bronze sword 
 and spear-head of the same metal. Although generally 
 used, however, brass was not universally emploved for the 
 manufacture of arms, as the celebrated robber, "Periphetes, 
 slain by Theseus, was named Korunetes [KapiniiTi]^) from 
 using an iron club. In the days of Herodotus iron must 
 have already come into general use ; since, when his inter- 
 preter reads to him an inscription on one of the Egyptian 
 Pyramids relative to the amount of money expended on 
 radishes, onions, and garlic for the workmen employed in 
 Its construction, he makes the reflection, that if this were 
 true, how much more must have been paid for iron tools and 
 bread ! It would again seem almost incredible that these 
 stupendous struc'tures could have been erected without the 
 aid of steel, both for quarrying and shaping the stone, as 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING IISTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 11 
 
 well as for cutting the hieroglyphics so common in the 
 earliest specimens of Egyptian architecture. If, then, we 
 allow that iron tools were employed in building these monu- 
 ments, we must suppose this metal to have been in common 
 use during the reign of the shepherd kings who conquered 
 Egypt and occupied the throne of the Pharaohs during some 
 part of the interval which elapsed between the birth of 
 Abraham and the captivity of Joseph. In speaking of iron, 
 Pliny says: "After copper, comes iron, both the mostuseful 
 and most fatal instrument of life. With iron man delves 
 the earth, plants trees, prunes his orchards, trims his vines, 
 cutting off the older branches, and thereby throwing more 
 vigor into the grapes ; by its aid man builds houses, cuts 
 stone, and prepares a thousand other implements ; but by it 
 war, atrocity, and villainy are effected andrendered common." 
 He also describes iron as occurring in almost every part of 
 the known world, but particularly in the Island of Elba, 
 where the color of the earth indicated the presence of the 
 ore. We are, moreover, informed that the ores of iron 
 should be treated like those of copper, in order to extract 
 the metal, and that it was a disputed point in Cappadocia 
 whether the principle of iron was aqueous or earthy in its 
 nature, as the water of a certain river of that country, wlien 
 thrown on the earth, produced iron precisely similar to that 
 obtained from a fiirnace. He then goes on to say that there 
 are two distinct kinds of forges, as some produce steel 
 {nucleus ferri), which is best adapted for cutting-instruments ; 
 whilst others shape it into instruments of common use, such 
 as hammers and anvils; but that seasoning is the most 
 important and delicate part of the operation. "It is a 
 remarkable fact that, in the treatment of this mineral, the 
 metal in melting is at first as liquid as the most limpid 
 water, but becomes spongy in getting cold." * 
 
 Analyses of Ancient Arms and Cutting Instru- 
 ments. — From the extracts already quoted, it will be seen 
 that tke information which has come down to us relative 
 to the metallurgy of the early ages, is both vague, and, to 
 some extent, uncertain ; as those who describe the materials 
 and methods employed have themselves acquired their in- 
 formation from others, and were, therefore, more subject to 
 commit errors than if practically acquainted with the sub- 
 jects of which they treated. This circumstance induced 
 Mr. J. Arthur Phillips to believe that a careful analytical 
 examination of such productions of the early metallurgists 
 as have been discovered in different localities would not 
 be without interest, and he, therefore, undertook the fol- 
 lowing series of analyses. From the advantage afforded 
 for ascertaining dates, most of the analyses were execu- 
 ted on coins, care being first taken to well establish their 
 authenticity. Some Celts and sword-blades were also- ex- 
 amined. The analyses are placed consecutively, according to' 
 the supposed dates of the specimens examined. 
 
 It would be impossible to determine the dates of these 
 relics of former times with the same accuracy with which 
 we may ascertain the ages of coins; and we shall there- 
 fore merely give the weight and dimensions of the va- 
 rious specimens which have been examined, and endeavor 
 to adduce such evidence as may show their great antiquity, 
 without attempting to specify the precise dates at which 
 they were employed. The ancient authors who have writ- 
 ten on this subject, all agree that brass was used for the 
 manufacture of arms before the discovery of iron. Lucre- 
 tius says : 
 
 "Anna antiqua manus, ungues, dentesque fuerunt, 
 Et lapides, et item silvarum fragmina rami, 
 Et flammse, atque ignes, jostquam sunt oognita primum 
 Posterius ferri vis est serisque reperta 
 Sed prius serfs erat quam ferri cognitus usus." 
 
 Hesiod also informs us that, " In remote ages, the earth 
 wa3 worked by brass, because iron had not been discovered." 
 The Etrurians were acquainted with the use of copper, and 
 appear to have used it for the purposes of agriculture at a 
 very early period, as, when the boundaries of their city were 
 marked out, it was done with a plowshare of bronze. Nu- 
 
 * Iron in Pliny's time was doubtless made by the direct or Catalan 
 process, and the spongy appearance above described must have 
 arisen, not from its cooEng, as he seems to suppose, but from com- 
 bustion of the combined carbon, and the consequent conversion of 
 the compound into malleable iron. 
 
 merous other authorities might, if necessary, be quoted in 
 support of the above statements ; but the opening of divers 
 Scandinavian tumuli, of very remote antiquity, in Denmark, 
 fully establishes the accuracy of these accounts. From 
 these barrows have been collected specimens of swords, dag- 
 gers, knives, and implements of industry, since preserved 
 and arranged in the Museum of Copenhagen, and among 
 them are instruments of flint, resembling in their shapes, 
 our wedges, axes, chisels, hammers, and knives ; which we 
 may infer, from their rude workmanship, as well as from the 
 materials of which they are formed, to have been the first 
 description of edge-tools used by mankind for the several 
 purposes for which they were adapted. Specimens of swords, 
 daggers, and knives were also found, of which the blades 
 are made of gold, whilst the cutting edges only are of iron. 
 Some of these objects are composed principally of copper, 
 with edges of iron ; and in the whole of them, the profuse 
 application of copper and gold, in comparison with the par- 
 simony evident in the expenditure of iron, seems to prove 
 that at that early, though unknown period, both gold and 
 copper were more plentiful and less highly valued than iron, 
 among the now-forgotten people who manufactured these 
 implements. Although we have the best evidence for be- 
 lieving that copper and bronze were employed for the pur- 
 pose of making cutting instruments before the discovery of 
 iron, it would be more difficult to ascertain at what date and 
 among what nation this metal first came into general use. 
 That it was known at a very early period we learn from 
 various passages in the Books of Moses ; and that it was 
 used in the days of Job (about b. c. 1400) for the manufac- 
 ture of arms, is evident from the following passage : " He 
 shall flee from the iron weapon and the bow of steel shall 
 strike him through." It is nevertheless probable that bronze 
 might have been in common use long after the discovery of 
 the harder metal, as the preparation of iron must have been 
 a very tedious and expensive operation, to a people having 
 but a scanty knowledge of the metallurgic arts, and we ac- 
 cordingly find a kind of compromise between its known 
 utility and high commercial value in the case above-quoted, 
 in which the cutting edge alone is made of steel. At the 
 present day, a valuable discovery made in any part of the 
 world speedily becomes known and appreciated throughout 
 its whole extent, but at the remote time in which iron was 
 first reduced from its ore, so little communication existed 
 between the various nations, that a process well known and 
 highly valued by the inhabitants of one country, might be 
 quite unheard of in another ; and, consequently, the uses of 
 this metal may for a long time have been limited to a few 
 districts, where accident, or the smelting of some other min- 
 eral, had first revealed its presence. In the earliest ages of 
 recorded history, when the world was divided into numerous 
 petty states and principalities, the constant feuds, which 
 were the principal occupation of mankind, would certainly 
 cause a demand for arms and weapons of defence. Such a 
 state of things must, however, operate most unfavorably on 
 the cultivation of the arts ; and it is not reasonable to sup- 
 pose that a conquering army on entering a foreign territory 
 would have leisure to acquire the arts of the conquered na- 
 tion, and, consequently, although they might find the arms 
 of their enemies superior to their own, they would still be 
 ignorant of the means by which they were manufactured ; 
 and thus the secret would remain for a long period in the 
 possession of its first discoverers. At what precise epoch 
 weapons of iron came into general use among the Romans, 
 we have not suflicient information to decide, but in the time 
 of Augustus, iron mines were worked to a considerable ex- 
 tent in the Noric Alps, and from them iron of the first qua- 
 lity was obtained. This was used for making the best wea- 
 pons, and hence " Noricus ensis," was as much synonymous 
 for a good sword, as a Toledo or Andrea Ferrara blade in 
 more modem times. In this sense it is used by Horace, 
 Book I. Ode xvi., v. 9. At the time in which Pliny wrote 
 his " Historia Naturalis," iron was almost universally em- 
 ployed, not only for the blades of swords, but also for the 
 manufacture of the different cutting instruments used for 
 the purposes of daily life, as he both describes the metal and 
 fhe means of forging it, and also refers to the difficulty of 
 tempering steel in order to give it the requisite degree of 
 hardness. From these considerations, it is evident that the 
 various weapons of bronze must be of great antiquity, since 
 
32 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS .OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 iron was in common use prior to the Christian era, and we 
 have therefore placed the analysis of these instruments in a 
 part of the series which corresponds to that period, notwith- 
 standing that in all probability some of them may belong 
 to a much earlier date. 
 
 plied by a quantity of silver, varying from 0.76 to nearly 8 
 per cent., and which may perhaps have been intentionally 
 added for the purpose of increasing the value of the metal. 
 In speaking of these coins, Pinkerton remarks : " It may be 
 proper to observe, before leaving this part of my subject, 
 
 TABLE, SHOWINO THE MEAN 
 
 COMPOSITIONS 
 
 OP THE 
 
 SPECIMENS EXAMINED. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Date. 
 
 'Copper. 
 
 Tin, 
 
 Load. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Silver, 
 
 Sulph. 
 
 Nickel. 
 
 Cobalt, 
 
 
 B.C. 
 
 A. d; 
 
 
 ^g 
 
 "500 
 
 
 69.69 
 
 7.16 
 
 21.82 
 
 .47 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 .57 
 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 62.04 
 
 7.66 
 
 29.32 
 
 .18 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 trace 
 
 .19 
 
 .23 
 
 Quadrans ... . 
 
 500 
 
 — 
 
 72.22 
 
 7.17 
 
 19.56 
 
 .40 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 trace 
 
 .20 
 
 .28 
 
 Hiero I. . . .• 
 
 470 
 
 — 
 
 94.15 
 
 5.49 
 
 — 
 
 .32 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Alexander the Great. . ... 
 
 335 
 
 — 
 
 86.77 
 
 12.99 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 .06 
 
 — 
 
 —7 
 
 Philippus III 
 
 323 
 
 — 
 
 90.27 
 
 9.43 
 
 — 
 
 ■ — 
 
 ■ — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Philipus IV 
 
 200 
 
 , 
 
 85.15 
 
 11.12 
 
 2.85 
 
 .42 
 
 — 
 
 ■ — ■ 
 
 trace 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 ? 
 
 , 
 
 88.34 
 
 9.95 
 
 .63 
 
 .26 
 
 — 
 
 — • 
 
 — 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 Egyptian, Ptolemy IX. . 
 
 70 
 
 — 
 
 84.21 
 
 15.64 
 
 . — 
 
 trace 
 
 ■ — 
 
 — 
 
 trace 
 
 — 
 
 trace 
 
 Pompey, First Brass . . 
 
 63 
 
 — 
 
 74.17 
 
 8.47 
 
 16.15 
 
 .29 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ■ — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Coin of the Atilia Family. . ... 
 
 45 
 
 — 
 
 68.69 
 
 4.86 
 
 25.43 
 
 .11 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 Julius and Augustus. ... .... 
 
 42 
 
 — 
 
 79.13 
 
 8.00 
 
 12.81 
 
 trace 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 trace 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Augustus and Agrippa 
 
 Large Brass of the t3assia Family 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 78.45 
 
 12.96 
 
 8.62 
 
 trace 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 trace 
 
 — • 
 
 — 
 
 20 
 
 — 
 
 82.26 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 .35 
 
 17.31 
 
 — 
 
 trace 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Sword-blade 
 
 — 1 
 
 — 
 
 89.69 
 
 9.58 
 
 — 
 
 .33 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 trace 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Broken sword-blade 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 85.62 
 
 10.02 
 
 — 
 
 .44 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Frasjment of a sword-blade . . ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 91.79 
 
 8.17 
 
 — , 
 
 trace 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 trace 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Broken spear-head. . . 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 99.71 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 .28 
 
 — ■ 
 
 — 
 
 Celt.. 
 
 — 
 
 — . 
 
 90.63 
 
 7.43 
 
 1.28 
 
 trace 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 trace 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Celt 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 90.18 
 
 9.81 
 
 — 
 
 trace 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — ■ 
 
 Celt 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 89.33 
 
 9.19 
 
 — 
 
 .33 
 
 — 
 
 ■ — . 
 
 .24 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Celt 
 
 
 
 
 
 83.61 
 
 10.79 
 
 3.20 
 
 .58 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 trace 
 
 ,34 
 
 Lar^e Brass of Nero. . . 
 
 
 
 GO 
 
 81.07 
 
 1.05 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 17.81 
 
 — 
 
 . — . 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Titus 
 
 
 
 79 
 
 83.04 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 .50 
 
 15.84 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Hadrian . . . 
 
 
 
 120 
 
 85.67 
 
 1.14 
 
 1.73 
 
 .74 
 
 10.85 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Faustina, Jun 
 
 
 
 165 
 
 79.14 
 
 4.97 
 
 9.18 
 
 .23 
 
 6.27 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Greek Imperial Samosata. 
 
 — 
 
 212 
 
 70.91 
 
 6,75 
 
 21.96 
 
 trace 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Victorinus.Sen. (No. 1.) 
 
 
 
 262 
 
 95.37 
 
 .99 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 — 
 
 1.60 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Victorinua, Sen. (No. 2.) 
 
 
 
 262 
 
 97.13 
 
 .10 
 
 trace 
 
 1.01 
 
 — 
 
 1,76 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Tetrius, Sen. (No. 1.) 
 
 — 
 
 267 
 
 98.50 
 
 .37 
 
 trace 
 
 .46 
 
 ■ — 
 
 .76 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Tetriua, Sen. (No. 2.) 
 
 — 
 
 268 
 
 9H.00 
 
 ,51 
 
 — 
 
 .05 
 
 — 
 
 1.15 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Claudius Gothicus, (No. 1.) . 
 
 — 
 
 |268 
 
 8i.eo 
 
 7.41 
 
 8.11 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1.86 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 84.70 
 
 3.01 
 
 2.67 
 
 .31 
 
 trace 
 
 7.93 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Tacitus, (No. 1.) 
 
 — 
 
 ■ 275 
 
 86.08 
 
 3.63 
 
 4.87 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 4.42 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Tacitus, (No, 2.) . 
 
 — 
 
 91.46 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 2.31 
 
 — 
 
 6.92 
 
 — 
 
 ■ — 
 
 — 
 
 Probus, (No. 1.) 
 
 Probus, (No. 2.) 
 
 — 
 
 ■ 275 
 
 90.68 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.33 
 
 .61 
 
 1.39 
 
 2.24 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 94.65 
 
 .45 
 
 .44 
 
 .80 
 
 
 3.22 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 In addition to the foregoing analyses, the following esti- 
 mations of silver were made by direct cupellation : — 
 
 Coin. 
 
 Legend. 
 
 Weight of 
 coin. 
 
 Percentage 
 amount of 
 
 
 
 grs. 
 
 silver. 
 
 Aurelian . . . 
 
 Eestitnti orbis. . . 
 
 67.2 
 
 2.90 
 
 " .... 
 
 Fortuna-redux 
 
 50.5 
 
 2.96 
 
 Severina ... 
 
 Providentia Deoram. 
 
 5i.5 
 
 4.37 
 
 *' .... 
 
 Concordia militum. . . 
 
 64.0 
 
 5.80 
 
 Taoitus 
 
 Libertas Aug. . . . 
 
 61.4 
 
 4.00 
 
 VictoriDUs, Sen. 
 
 Pax Aug: ... 
 
 38.0 
 
 2.20 
 
 " " 
 
 Providentia Ai g: . , 
 
 35.7 
 
 1.10 
 
 Tetrius, Jun. 
 
 PietasAug; 
 
 31-5 
 
 .38 
 
 " *' 
 
 " " . ... 
 
 44.11 
 
 .41 
 
 Quintillus. 
 
 Fides militum. 
 
 52.4 
 
 2.32 
 
 " 
 
 " " . . . 
 
 33.8 
 
 2.25 
 
 Marius. . . 
 
 
 43.7 
 
 6.15 
 
 It will be seen from the foregoing analyses that the metals 
 entering into the composition of the brass of the earliest 
 ages were copper, tin and lead, although the latter seldom 
 occurs in any considerable quantity, except in the oldest 
 specimens, and in many even of these, particularly in the 
 early Macedonian coins, it is entirely wanting. The iron, 
 cobalt and nickel, together with traces of sulphur, which 
 sometimes occur, are evidently too small in quantity to have 
 been intentionally added to the mixture, and consequently 
 their presence must be rather ascribed to the localities from 
 which the ancients drew their supply of ore, and the im- 
 perfect methods employed for their reduction, than to any 
 design on the part of the artists. The cutting instruments 
 which have been examined are uniformly composed of cop- 
 per and tin, with the occasional admixture of a small quan- 
 tity of lead, which was probably added for the purpose of 
 communicating a certain degree of toughness to the alloy, 
 and it is also remarkable that the proportion of tin to that 
 of copper, both in the celts and sword-blades, is very nearly 
 as one to ten. Zinc iirst makes its appearance a short time' 
 previous to the Christian era, and is continued in all the 
 subsecjuent coins, although occasionally associated with lead 
 and tin, until it almost entirely disappears in the small brass 
 of the period of the Thirty Tyrants, when its place is sup- 
 
 that the metal used in the Parts of the Assarion, or in the 
 small brass coins, is, as may be supposed, very little attended 
 to by the ancients. In those of the first emperors, yellow 
 brass is sometimes employed, but it is always of a refuse or 
 bad kind ; as in the Semis of Nero, for instance, Genio Av- 
 GVSTI. But copper is the general metal used in parts of the 
 As, from the earliest times down to the latest ; and if some- 
 times brass be employed, it is never such as appears in the 
 Sestertii and Dupondiarii, which is very fine and beautiful ; 
 but only the refuse. Yellow brass of the right sort seems 
 to have totally ceased in the Roman coinage, with the Ses- 
 tertius, under Gallienus ; though a few small coins of very 
 bad rnetal, of that hue, appear so late as Julian II." On 
 referring to the table of analyses, we shall, however, perceive, 
 that although the results obtained seem to confirm the as- 
 sertions made relative to yellow brass, in the above quota- 
 tion,_ yet that in no one instance has a coin been found to 
 consist of copper alone ; and the only case in which this 
 metal proved to be unalloyed, was in a spear-head found in 
 Ireland. The largest proportion of lead occurs in the an- 
 cient Eoman As, and its parts, in which it was probably 
 employed for the purpose of rendering the alloy of which 
 they consist easily fusible ; for these coins being originally 
 cast, and not stamped like other money, a metal melting 
 at a low temperature would materially facilitate this opera- 
 tion. The later coins, containing a large proportion of tin 
 seem to have been struck while the metal was still warm, as 
 it wcmld be impossible to obtain such sharp impressions' as 
 they usually bear, by the force of any blow applied on a 
 metal so very hard and brittle, at ordinary temperatures. 
 With respect to the furnaces employed by the ancients, little 
 information can be obtained, aa these arts were formerly 
 either held as secrets by a few individuals, who made a 
 mystery of their operations, or they were too much despised 
 by ancient authors to afford them a subject for their writings ; 
 and we are consequently more indebted for our scantv know- 
 ledge of ancient metallurgy to the vestiges of primitive 
 toundnes, which have occasionally been brought to light in 
 various parts of the world, than to any accounts which may 
 have been transmitted to us from. those remote times. The 
 first method of smelting ores, doubtless consisted in placing 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 13 
 
 the mineral in heaps, together with several successive layers, 
 of wood, which being kindled, first roasted, and then re- 
 duced a portion of the material with which it was mixed. 
 In Macedonia, where lead mines were worked in the time 
 of Phillip, the father of Alexander, large heaps of slag are 
 found so far ab(jve the level of the rivers of the country, 
 that the furnaces in which they were produced must have 
 been worked either by bellows moved by human labor, or 
 by the force of the prevailing winds alone. We are also 
 told that the Peruvians were in the habit of melting their 
 ores by the simple application of fire, or, when they were of 
 a very refractory nature, by means of furnaces so constructed 
 on high ground as to yield a draught without the aid of 
 bellows, a machine with which they were totally unac- 
 quainted. The boles of Derbyshire, many of which, from 
 the pigs of Roman lead found in their vicinity, may be pre- 
 sumed to be of great antiquitity, were worked in a nearly 
 similar manner, and continued to be thus carried on during 
 several centuries, as this method of smelting was, accord- 
 ing to Childrey, not quite extinct in the seventeenth century, 
 who, in speaking of the Peak, says : " The lead-stones in 
 the Peak lie but just within the ground, next to the upper 
 crust of the earth. They melt the lead on the top of the 
 hills that lie open to the west wind ; making their fires to 
 melt it as soon as the west wind begins to blow, which wind, 
 by long experience, they find to hold longest of all others. 
 But, for what reason I know not, since I should think lead 
 were the easiest of all metals to melt, they make their fires 
 extraordinary great." 
 
 Discoveries made by various travellers in Russia, during 
 the last century, throw considerable light on the subject of 
 mining and metallurgy as anciently practiced in that part of 
 the world. The remains of numerous mines have been 
 traced by Gmelin, Lepechin and Pallas, on the southern and 
 eastern borders of the Ural Mountains ; and in them were 
 found hammers and chisels of copper, as well as various 
 instruments of the same metal, of which the uses are at 
 present unknown. From the absence of any remains of 
 masonry in the neighborhood, these excavations are inferred 
 to have been made by a nomadic people, probably the Scyth- 
 ians; and from no iron tools having been found in any of 
 them, we may conclude that these operations were carried 
 on before the conquest of Siberia by the Tartars, who effected 
 the subjugation of that part of Asia, about 150 years before 
 our era. Sledges made of large stones, to which handles 
 had been attached, were also discovered, together with boars' 
 fangs, with which the gold appears to have been collected, 
 and leathern bags or pockets in which it was preserved. 
 With such imperfect tools, the progress made must neces- 
 sarily have been exceedingly slow, and in one instance, 
 after reaching a band of rock, and penetrating it for a short 
 distance, the miners seem to have lost patience and aban- 
 doned the works. The pits or shafts are well made, about 
 seven feet in diameter, and of a circular form, some of them 
 being twenty fathoms in depth. The passages are also well 
 executed, but so low and narrow, that they could only have 
 been excavated with the greatest difficulty to the workmen. 
 The ores, when extracted, were carried to the nearest rivulet 
 for the purpose of being crushed and washed, which opera- 
 tions were probably dispensed with in the richer varieties, 
 which were sometimes melted in the mines themselves ; 
 metallic copper, together with slag, and the tools employed 
 in melting and refining, having been found in some of them. 
 Lumps of copper, containing no traces of gold, have also 
 been discovered, although the copper ores of the district are 
 found associated with that metal, and it is therefore evident 
 that the ancient people who worked these mines were ac- 
 quainted with a method of refining gold. The smelting was 
 effected in small furnaces made of red bricks, and of which 
 Gmelin found nearly a thousand in the eastern parts of 
 Siberia. The -height and breadth of these were about two 
 feet, and the width three. They were also furnished with 
 holes in two of their opposite sides, the one for the intro- 
 duction of bellows, and the other for the escape of the 
 metal and slags. In the neighborhood of the furnaces were 
 found large quantities of broken pottery, together with 
 numerous heaps of scorise, which indicate that operations 
 to a very considerable extent have at some period^ been 
 carried on in that locality. Gmelin likewise found in the 
 same district, the remains of various furnaces which had 
 
 been employed for the extraction of silver, and remarked 
 that the lead with which it was associated had been thrown 
 away in the scoriae, whilst the whole of the silver was care- 
 fully extracted. By what means this was effected, in this 
 particular case, is of course now impossible to say, although 
 it is highly probable that cupellation in some form was re- 
 sorted to. Diodorus (iii. 14) informs us, that gold was puri- 
 fied by being melted and heated in earthen pots, together 
 with an alloy of tin and lead, to which salt and barley-bran 
 were added, and that the fire was kept up during five suc- 
 cessive days. Another ancient author states, that gold was 
 melted by a gentle filre, with the addition of salt, nitre, and 
 alum, and that the same process was employed for refining 
 silver. It is, ho^yever, difficult to understand what action 
 these substances, with the exception of the nitre, could have 
 on the purification of silver and gold, and we may therefore 
 conclude, that the action of the air was, after all, the chief 
 means of oxidation employed.* 
 
 In Britain, silver mines were worked before the invasion 
 of the island by the Romans, and gold must also have been 
 well known to the inhabitants before the arrival of Caesar, 
 since coins of that metal were in circulation among them. 
 Coesar and Strabo both state that the Britons obtained their 
 copper from foreign countries, and we may hence infer that 
 the art of refining this metal was either unknown or little 
 cultivated by our forefathers at that remote period. Iron is 
 described by Caesar as being so rare, that pieces of it were 
 sometimes used as a medium of exchange, and almost as 
 highly valued as gold ; but a century afterwards it had 
 become very common, as in Strabo's time it was an article of 
 exportation. Tin was anciently the most celebrated product 
 of Britain, and appears even at that time to have been ex- 
 tracted in considerable abundance, since it was the desire of 
 obtaining possession of these mines, and becoming thereby 
 independent of the Phoenician monopoly, which first induced 
 the Romans to visit the island. Before the conquest of their 
 country, the ancient Britons extracted this metal from its 
 ores by methods which they had themselves discovered, and 
 which were probably improved on [by their conquerors. 
 The smelting process would seem to have been very simply 
 conducted. The broken ore was placed in a hole in the 
 ground, the sides of which were lined with pieces of wood ; 
 these, on being ignited, reduced the metal, which was 
 separated from the slags by being run off through a narrow 
 channel into an outer receptacle. Many of these rude fur- 
 naces have been found in various parts of Cornwall and 
 elsewhere, in which not only charcoal and slags have been 
 discovered, but also portions of the reduced metal, which in 
 many instances had, from long exposure to oxidising influ- 
 ences, again become partially converted into tin ore. This 
 very rude method must, in some cases, have been attended 
 witifi considerable success, as the slags resulting from it 
 often prove on examination to contain but a small amount 
 of metal. From these and many other relics which have 
 been met with in diffwent parts of the world, we may infer 
 that, although the arts of extracting minerals and working 
 the metals were carried on formerly on a much smaller scale 
 than at the present day, the operations of the early metal- 
 lurgists were tolerably successful, and that, in spite of the 
 rude apparatus which they employed, the results obtained 
 by them were generally of a satisfactory nature. That a 
 great degree of attention was, at a very early period, be- 
 stowed on the manufacture of alloys destined for particular 
 purposes, is proved by the uniform composition of the several 
 cutting instruments examined ; although it is evident that 
 but little care was taken to obtain a correct standard for 
 the early brass money, as many pieces of nearly the same 
 date, and of similar value, differ materially in the amounts 
 of the metals of which they consist. One of the oldest 
 mines in Europe, producing copper in comparatively modern 
 times, is thatof Rammelsberg, nearGoslar, in Lower Saxony, 
 the records of which have been traced back to the tenth 
 century. The celebrated Swedish mine of Fahlun, com- 
 menced in the twelfth century, first entered into competition 
 with Rammelsberg, and yielded large quantities of copper 
 ores. The mines of Thuringia were opened at the com- 
 mencement of the thirteenth century, and, together with 
 others of less note situated in different parts of Germany 
 
 *The nitre of the ancients was probably carbonate of soda. 
 
14 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and Sweden, supplied during the succeeding three hundred 
 years the wants of a great portion of the civilized world. 
 In the thirteenth century Cumberland is known to have pro- 
 duced copper ; since it appears, from records still preserved, 
 that at Newlands, near Keswick, rich veins of this ore were 
 worked in the year 1250. It is also further evident, from a 
 charter granted by Edward IV., A. D. 1470, to the town of 
 Keswick, that it was, at that period, the seat of extensive 
 copper works. In Camden's time these works were re- 
 opened, but afterwards " destroyed, and the miners killed 
 in the civil wars." 
 
 In the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI. several 
 Acts of Parliament were passed prohibiting the exportation 
 of copper, brass, latten, bell-metal, gun-metal, &c., &c., 
 under penalty of forfeiting double the value of the metal 
 exported. The reasons assigned being, " lest there should not 
 be left metal enough in the kingdom for making guns and 
 other engines of war, nor for household utensils." Copper 
 was also produced in considerable abundance at Ecton Hill, 
 in Staffordshire, previous to its discovery in Cornwall, since 
 Dr. Pot, who wrote in 1686, speaks of the copper mines 
 having been wrought long previous to that date. The 
 Pary's mine, in Anglesea, is believed to have been first 
 opened by the Romans, and became exceedingly productive 
 about the year 1773, and, during the twelve years from that 
 date to 1785, produced such large quantities of copper as to 
 reduce in a very considerable degree the price of that metal 
 throughout Europe. Subsequently to this date, the produce 
 of the Anglesea mines began rapidly to decline, and in 1799 
 the Pary's Mountain had become almost exhausted, and the 
 price of copper was again raised to £128 per ton. A work 
 entitled "A Just and True Remonstrance of His Majesties 
 Mines-Royall to his Majestie," published in 1641, aifords a 
 good idea of the state of lead mining in this country at that 
 time. This little volume consists of a series of letters, or 
 rather memorials, addressed to the King (Charles I.), the 
 Prince of Wales (afterwards Charles II.), and to the Privy 
 Council, by Mr. Bushell and others interested in the " Mines- 
 Royall " of Cardiganshire, praying for the extension of the 
 lease, the employment of convicts in the mines, and the 
 liberty of cutting peat and turf for the purpose of smelting 
 the ores raised. When speaking of the reasons which in- 
 duced him to undertake these mines, Mr. Bushell says : — 
 " That which first wrought in me a desire to try and fathom 
 those mines, was a sensible discourse delivered me by a 
 Portugall, in presence of Sir Francis Godolphin, (by whose 
 death I lost the hope of a most knowing partner), who had 
 been for many years imployed under the King of Spaine in 
 his West Indian Mines, purporting that if his Master were 
 Soveraine Lord of those Brittish hils, as is your Majestie, he 
 would not doubt but to make them a second Indies, and 
 affirming with deepe protestations, that the greatest riches in 
 those mountaines lay in their lowest levels, which I finde to 
 be true by laborious experiment, in those five mountaines ; 
 for by this way of working, and driving through the depth 
 of rocks, we are not only freed from the danger and deluge 
 of waters, but also have discovered an increase of rich 
 veines in quantity and qualitie, some containing twentie 
 pound, some fifteene, some tenne, and some six in silver, in 
 the tunne of lead upon the great test, *hich are answerable 
 to most of the mines of the King of Spaine, the Eraperour 
 of Germany, and the Duke of Saxony; moreover we find 
 that by mixing and smelting these severall veines together, 
 the one proves a good additament to the other, and becomes 
 thereby a meanes to advance the Mines-Royall, and in them 
 the good of your kingdome and subjects." He subsequently 
 goes on to say : — "And as I am bound to give to Ccesar that 
 which is Caesar's, I must further humbly acknowledge your 
 Majesties large addition to your former royall favours in 
 granting mee (the meanest of your creatures) liberty to give 
 your Majesties impression to such silver as the mole-like 
 miners cast out of the earth, for their speedier payment, for 
 they are the men who make the rocks their resting-place, 
 and expect no other reward or benefit for their sweaty browes 
 then what they gaine from out of the darke cavernes of the 
 earth by harralesse and importunate labor." 
 
 In the memorial praying the employment of convicts in 
 mines, Mr. Bushell enumerates several precedents, both in 
 England and foreign countries, of such persons being con- 
 demx.ed to labor for the public good, and " especially for 
 
 tlie enlargement of his (the King of Spain's) Indian mines 
 of gold, silver, quicksilver, and the like." On the use of 
 peat and peat-charcoal for the purpose of smelting, Mr. 
 Bushell makes the following observations : — " For furthering 
 and facilitating of which worke I caused a meeting of 
 Smelters, Refiners, and Monyers, to consult and try whether 
 fuel of turfe would separate the oare, extract the silver, and 
 reduce litharge, as well as the vast expence of whole forests 
 of woods formerly consumed for that purpose ; and upon an 
 exact triall made thereof, by altering the earthy substance 
 turfe into charkie cyndars, v.'e found by infallible experience, 
 that your Majesties Turffaries will furnish your Mines-Royall 
 with fuel to all future ages." The following is given as 
 " The declaration of learned Lawyers what a Mine-Royall 
 is, according to former presidents," and is signed by Sir 
 Ralph Whitfield, "His Majesties Sergeant-at-Law," and 
 about thirty other lawyers of the day : — "Although the gold 
 or silver contained in the base mettall of a mine, in the 
 lands of a subject be of lesse valew then the baser mettall, 
 yet if the gold or silver doe countervaile the charge of the 
 refining, or be of more worth than the base mettall spent in 
 refining it, this is a Mine-Royall, and as well the base met- 
 tall, as the gold and silver in it, belong by prerogative to the 
 Crowne." 
 
 Sir John Pettus, who published his " Fodinse Regales'' in 
 1670, remarks, while treating of the mines of Cardiganshire : 
 " The chief mines which produce silver now in working 
 (though not effectually) are those at Coomsumblock, and 
 the Darien Hills, Cogincan, Tallabont, Coomustwith, Tre- 
 dole, Thruscott, and Rossevawre, which were the old Roman 
 works, near to which are conveniently placed the smelting 
 and refining mills, which therefore are called the silver 
 mills, all of which are in the township of Skibery Coed in 
 the parish of Llanny Hangell Genne Glyme, and in the 
 county of Cardigan, alias Shire Abertivy." These five great 
 works were wrought for many years with the joint-stock of 
 the first incorporators, under the conduct of themselves ; 
 but afterwards Sir Hugh Middleton undertook those in 
 Cardiganshire, paying £400 per annum rent to the society, 
 and he cleared monthly the sum of £2000, and had he not 
 diverted his gains to the making of the new river from Ware 
 to London, certainly he would have been master of a mass 
 of wealth ; but great wits and purses seldom know how to 
 give bounds to their designs, and, by undertaking too many 
 things, fail in all. And we may further give credit to the 
 beneficialness of those mines, when, as Mr. Thomas Bushell, 
 by his knowledge and ingenuity to work them to the best 
 advantage, did find business enough there for a mint, and 
 with the product thereof made provision for the clothing of 
 the late King's whole army." In speaking of the tin mines 
 of Cornwall,- Camden makes the following observations : 
 "After the comming in of the Normans, the Earles of Corn- 
 wal gathered great riches out of these mines, and especially 
 Richard, brother to King Henrie the Third : and no mar- 
 veil, sith that in those dales Europe had tinne from no oth- 
 er place ; for the incursions of the Mores had stopped up 
 the tinne mines of Spaine, and as for the tinne veines of 
 Germanic, which are in Misnia and Bohemia, they were not 
 as yet knowen, and those verily not discovered before the 
 yeere after Christ's nativitie 1240. For then (as a writer of 
 that age recordeth) was fiiive mettall found in Germanic, hy 
 a certain Cornishman driven out of his native soile, to the 
 great losse and hindrance of Richard, Earle of Cornwal. 
 This Richard began to make ordinances for these tin works', 
 and afterward Edmund his sonne granted a charter and cer- 
 tain liberties, and withall prescribed certaine lawes concern- 
 ing the saine, which he ratified or strengthened under his 
 scale, and imposed a tribute or rent upon tinne to be an- 
 swered unto the Earls. " These liberties, priviledges, and 
 lawes. King Edward the Third did afterward confirme and 
 augment. The whole commonwealth of those tinners and 
 workmen, as it were one bodie, hee divided into four quar- 
 ters which of the places they call Foy-more, Blackmore, Tre- 
 warnaile, and Pat with. Over them all he ordained a war- 
 den called Lord Warden of the Sfannicrs, of Statinum, that 
 18, Tinne; who giveth judgement as well according to equi- 
 tie and conscience as law, and appointed to every quarter 
 their stewards, who once every iij. weeks (every one in his 
 severall quarter) minister justice in causes personall between 
 Tinner and Tinner, and between Tinner and Forrainer^ ex- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 15 
 
 cept in causes of land, life, or member, — From whom there 
 lieth an appeals to the Lord Warden, from him to the Duke, 
 from the Duke to the King. In matters of moment, there 
 are by the Warden generall parliaments or severall assem- 
 blies summoned, whereunto jurats are sent out of every 
 Stannarie, whose constitutions do bind them. As for those 
 who deale with tinne, they are of foure sorts : the owners of 
 the soile, the adventurers, the merchants, or regraters, and 
 the laborers, called the i^a?iiard« (of their spade) who,poore 
 men, are pitifully out-eaten by usurious contracts." In the 
 reign of King John, the production of tin in the county of 
 Cornwall was so small that the farms of that mineral yield- 
 ed no more than 100 marks per annum, according to which 
 valuation the Bishop of Exeter received, in lieu of his tenth 
 part, the sum of £6 l&s. 4d., while those in Devonshire at 
 the same period amounted to £100 per annum. Although 
 tin mining appears to have been extensively carried on from 
 the earliest period of our history, it is nevertheless evident, 
 from the following account given by Carew of the method 
 of dressing tin ore in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, that 
 but few refinements had been introduced into this branch of 
 industry at that time : " As much almost dooth it exceede 
 credite, that the tynne, for and in so small qiiantitie digged 
 vp with so much toyle, and passing afterwards thorow the 
 managing of so many hands, ere it come to sale, should be 
 any way able to acquite the cost ; for being once brought 
 aboue ground in the stone, it is first broken in peeces with 
 hammers, and then carryed, either in waynes or on horses 
 backs, to a stamping-mill, where three, and in some places 
 sixe, great logges of timber, bounde at the ends with ^ron, 
 and lifted vp and downe by a wheele driven with the water, 
 doe break it smaller. The stream, after it hath forsaken the 
 mill, is made to fall by certaine degrees, one somwhat dis- 
 tant from another, vpon each of which, at every discent, 
 lyeth a green turfe, three or four foot square, and one foot 
 thicke. On this the tynner layeth a certayne portion of the 
 sandie tynne, and with his shuell softly tosseth the same to 
 and fro, that through thus stirring the water which runneth 
 over it, may wash away the light earth from the tynne, 
 which, of a heauier substance, lyeth fast on the turfe. Hau- 
 ing so cleansed one portion, he setteth the same aside, and 
 begihneth with another, vntil his labor take end with his 
 taske. After it is thus washed, they put the remnant into a 
 wooden dish, broad, flat, and round, being about two foote 
 ouer, and having two handles fastened at the sides, by which 
 they softly shogge the same to and fro in the water between 
 their legges, as they sit ouer it, untill whatsoever of the 
 earthie substance that was left be flitted away. Some of 
 later time, with a sleighter inuention and lighter labor, 
 doe cause certayne boyes to stir it vp and down with their 
 feete, which worketh the same effect : the residue, after this 
 often cleansing, they calle black tynne. But sithence I 
 gathered sticks to the building of this poor nest, Sir Fran- 
 cis Godolphin entertained a Duch mynerall-man, and tak- 
 ing light from his experience, but building thereon farre 
 more profitable conclusions of his owne inuention, hath 
 practised a more saving way in these matters, and, besides, 
 made tynne with good profit of that refuse which tynners 
 rejected as nothing worth." 
 
 In the year 1693, in consequence of a fall in the price of 
 tin, the tinners of the counties of Cornwall and Devon pub- 
 lished a proposal for the redress of their grievances, and the 
 raising of the price of that metal. This document, after 
 setting forth the various means by which the object is tobe 
 attained, concludes with the following appeal to the king 
 and nation : — 
 
 "Henry the Eighth of this great nation. 
 Began the famous Reformation, 
 His daughter. Queen Elizabeth, 
 Finisht the second ere her death ; 
 And now the Xing is almost rife 
 To out the third out to the life, 
 And raise the nation to that stature 
 For which it was out out by nature. 
 And 'twas the nature of our white tin, 
 From whence it hath the name of Britain." 
 
 Pryce, who wrote in 1778, describes the various methods of 
 treating tin ores then employed and which very closely resem- 
 ble — exceptior being made of certain mechanical appliances 
 
 — those now in use. He, however, very properly remarks 
 that " the mode of dressing tin and its leavings are too nu- 
 merous to lay before the reader without danger of prolixity. 
 All of them depend upon the difference of the kinds of tin 
 in the stone, and must be dealt with, agreeable to the judg- 
 ment of the several manufacturers. So much depends upon 
 the skill of a dresser, that one may save one-twelfth part of 
 a. batch of tin, which another for want of equal knowledge 
 may cast away in waste, or perhaps take up so much waste 
 with it as to depreciate the value of the whole by two parts 
 in twenty. Nevertheless, all the dressers save the hinder 
 stuff from the frame end, as it washes off in a pit, by the 
 name of catchers, which is expressive enough ; and likewise 
 the mud at the trunk ends, by the other name of loobs, both 
 of which are denominated the loobs, after leavings, or leav- 
 ings of leavings. These are wrought over in the same man- 
 ner as the former, mostly upon tribute, by an aged work- 
 man and a few little boys in the summer months, when they 
 can stand out in good weather, and do a long day's easy la- 
 bor. The tribute paid by the undertaker is one-third of 
 the produce in white tin ; the other two-thirds he has for 
 himself to pay his cost and charges." The smelting of tin 
 ores in Cornwall appears to have been anciently conducted 
 in furnaces scooped out of the ground, and in which a mix- 
 ture of black tin and charcoal was employed, the heat be- 
 ing kept up by means of a blast supplied by the aid of rude 
 bellows. Remains of ancient establishments of this kind 
 are frequently met with in various parts of the country, and 
 are known by the name of "Jews' Houses." Not long 
 since a relic of this description was found buried beneath a 
 stratum of peat, twelve feet in thickness, at Redmoor, in the 
 parish of Luxillian. At this place, in addition to a consid- 
 erable amount of metallic tin, more or less oxidised on the 
 exterior, large quantities of imperfectly fused scoriase, mix- 
 ed with imbedded charcoal and metallic globules, were dis- 
 covered. A Romano-British fibula, some stone arrow-heads, 
 a fragment of an earthen tuyere, and numerous blocks of 
 peat, which had evidently been collected for the purpose of 
 being employed as fuel, and subsequently covered by a de- 
 posit of the same material, were also found. 
 
 Another ancient smelting-house found in the same neigh- 
 borhood was probably of a more recent date ; since not only 
 were portions of the stonework of the furnace still in situ, 
 but the slags were more completely fused, and entirely free 
 from metallic globules. These slags presented the appear- 
 ance of thin fragments of bottle-glass, and were found on 
 analysis to have the following composition : — 
 
 Analysis on 100 Parts. 
 
 Silica 40-60 
 
 Alumina 19-22 
 
 Oxide of tin 22-95 
 
 Protoxide of iron •.. 7-31 
 
 Sulphide of iron .' 9-04 
 
 Lime Traces 
 
 Potash 1-00 
 
 100-12 
 
 In this place were discovered fragments of tobacco-pipes, 
 and a silver coin of Charles I. Previous to the time of 
 Charles I. no attempt had been made to efiect the smelting 
 of tin by means of pit-coal ; but at this period some unsuc- 
 cessful experiments were undertaken by Sir Seville Green- 
 ville, of Stow, in Cornwall: no satisfactory results were, 
 however obtained till the second year of the reign of Queen 
 Anne, when a Mr. Liddell, with whom was associated a Mr. 
 Moult, celebrated for his knowledge of chemistry, obtained 
 letters patent for the reduction of tin ores by the use of fos- 
 sil-fiiel in a blast fiirnace. The invention of the reverbera- 
 tory furnace soon followed this discovery. This apparatus, 
 slightly modified in form and dimensions, is emplo5'ed by the 
 tin-smelters of the present day. Coal was not generally em- 
 ployed as fuel until the beginning of the reign of Charles I. 
 It is, however, mentioned in documents anterior to the reign 
 of Henry III. ; for that monarch, in the year 1234, renewed 
 a charter granted by his father to the inhabitants of New- 
 castle, who were permitted to dig for coal upon paying a 
 yearly tax of £100. That fossil fuel had been introduced 
 into London before 1306, is proved by the fact that in that 
 
16 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 year its use was prohibited, from the supposed tendency of 
 its smoke to corrupt the atmosphere. The coal-fields at 
 Colliery, near Lanchester, were first opened in the year 1330 ; 
 those at Merrington and Ferry Hill in 1343 ; and those of 
 Gateshead, Wickham, and Tynemouth in 1500. In 16i!5, a 
 patent was granted by James VI. of Scotland to Mr. Ramsey 
 for machinery to be employed in draining collieries by 
 water-power. Grey, in his " Chronographia,'' published in 
 1649, says : — " Some South gentlemen, upon hope of benefit, 
 came in to this county (Durham) to hazard their monies in 
 coal mines. Mr. Beaumont, a gentleman of great ingenuity 
 and rare parts, adventured into our mines with his £30,000 
 who brought with him many rare engines not known then in 
 these parts, as the art to bore with rods, to try the deepness 
 and thickness of the coal, rare engines to draw water out of 
 the pits, wagons with one horse to draw coal from the pits 
 to the staiths, to the river, &c. Within a few years he con- 
 sumed all his money, and rode home upon his light horse." 
 
 " Now the trade of coal began not past fourscore years 
 since. Coals in former times were only used by smiths, and 
 for burning lime. Notwithstanding this, it appears that in 
 1602 the trade had arrived at such an extent as to occupy 
 twenty-eight acting fitters, or hostmen, who were to vend by 
 the year nine thousand and eighty tons of coal, and find 
 eighty-five keels for that purpose." 
 
 " In the year 1600, among other regulations made at a 
 Courte of the Hostman's Company at Newcastle, wains were 
 ordered to be measured and marked ; for it appears that ' for 
 time out of mind yt hath been accustomed that all cole wains 
 did usuallie carry and bring eighte boules of coles to all the 
 staiths upon the ryver of Tyne; but of late several had 
 brought only or scarce seven boules.' The same record men- 
 tions ' two small maunds or pannyers, holdinge two or three 
 pecks a-piece.' " 
 
 From the foregoing paragraphs it appears that coals were 
 in those days not only carried in carts along ordinary roads, 
 but also on the backs of horses. Amongst the rare engines 
 introduced by "Master Beaumont" into the coal trade, 
 were, " waggons with one horse to carry down coales from 
 the pits to the staiths, to the river." They are thus de- 
 scribed by Lord Keeper Guilford:— The manner of the car- 
 riage is by laying rails of timber from the colliery down to 
 the river, exactly straight and parallel, and bulky carts are 
 made with four rollers fitting tnese rails, whereby the car- 
 riage is so easy that one horse will draw down four or five 
 chaldrons of coals, and is an immense benefit to the coal 
 merchants." In 1676, Lumley Colliery, as well as the col- 
 lieries of Heaton and Jesmond, had chain pumps worked by 
 water-wheels. The earliest mention of a steam-engine for 
 mining purposes is at the colliery of Grifi", near Coventry, in 
 the year 1711 ; and in the following year, Newcomen and 
 Crawley contracted to pump water by this means, for Mr. 
 Black, of Wolve«harapton. Mr. Bald, in his " Coal Trade 
 of Scotland," published in 1812, says, that in 1690, water- 
 wheels and chains of buckets were commonly employed to 
 drain the collieries in that country. The axle of the wheel 
 extended across the pit's mouth, and small carriers were 
 fixed upon it to receive endless chains, consisting of two or 
 three tires, which reached down to the coal. To these chains 
 were attached wooden buckets or troughs in a horizontal 
 position, which circulated with the chains, ascending on one 
 side, and descending on the other, filling at the bottom, and 
 discharging at the top, as they turned over the wheels on 
 the great axletree. This apparatus was subject to the incon- 
 venience that, whenever a joint gave way, the whole set of 
 chains fell to the bottom, every bucket being splintered to 
 pieces by the fall. When water could not be procured, the 
 same sort of machinery upon a smaller scale was worked by 
 horses. In 1708, windmills were erected to work pumps in 
 several collieries in Scotland; but, being ineffective in calm 
 weather, their application was very limited. In 1709, John, 
 Earl of Mar, who paid great attention to the improvement 
 of his collieries in Clackmannanshire, sent the manager of 
 his works to Newcastle to inspect the machinery of that dis- 
 trict. From the report of this gentleman it appears that 
 the machines there in use were water-wheels, and horse-en- 
 gines, fiirnished with chain-pumps: the common depth of 
 the pits being from twenty to thirty fathoms, whilst a few 
 were from fifty to sixty fathoms deep. When it wa? found 
 requisite to draw water from the depth of thirty fathom«, 
 
 two pits were usually sunk. The first of these was made 
 thirty fathoms deep ; and the other only half that depth. 
 One machine drew the water half-way up the deeper pit, 
 where it was poured into a level communicating with the 
 bottom of the other ; from this the water was raised to the 
 surface by another machine. In deep mines, a third pit 
 with a third machine was resorted to. In Scotland, how- 
 ever, at the same time, the machinery employed was more 
 powerful, since water was raised at once from the depth of 
 forty fathoms, by a chain of buckets as before described. 
 The first steam engine created near Newcastle, was put up 
 at Byker, in 1714, by the son of a Swedish nobleman, who 
 taught mathematics. These engines were worked by atmos- 
 pheric pressure above the piston, whilst the vacuum beneath 
 was created by the injection of water into the cylinder ; the 
 alternate movements were executed by the hand of an at- 
 tendant, until the year 1718, when a Mr. Beighton invented 
 a method of performing this operation by means of the en- 
 gine itself. The history of mining in England is intimately 
 connected with that of the steam-engine ;" and we invariably 
 find that the mining districts have been the fields of opera- 
 tion for the inventors and early improvers of this machine. 
 In this way, mining has not only been vastly benefited by 
 the application of steam-power, but, on the other hand, has 
 itself in a great degree contributed to produce the present 
 high state of perfection to which this machine has been 
 brought. The old atmospheric engine was capable of rais- 
 ing 5,000,000 lbs. of water one foot high, by the expenditure 
 of one bushel of coal. In 1776, Watts' improved engine 
 yielded an average of 18,900,000. In 1800, the duty had 
 been raised to 20,000,000. In 1820, the average duty of 
 thirty-seven Cornish engines was 28,736,398. In 1828, the 
 fifty-four engines reported afibrded an average duty of 37,- 
 000,000. The total number of engines reported in 1856 was 
 forty-six ; and their mean duty, 44,650,000. Of these ma- 
 chines some are known to have performed more than 100,- 
 000,000 ; and still better results have been obtained by the 
 employment of high-pressure condensing engines, and a 
 greater length of stroke in the cylinder. 
 
 — compiled frma " Becords of Mining and Melallurgy" by Philips d: Darlington, 
 
 IRON; HISTORICALLY CONSIDERED. 
 
 THE use of iron can be traced to the earliest ages of an- 
 tiquity. It was first used in Asia, the birthplace of the 
 human race, and soon after the time when " men be- 
 _ gan to multiply on the face of the earth." Tubal Cain 
 who was born in the seventh generation from Adam, is de- 
 scribed as " an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron." 
 The Egyptians, whose existence as a nation probably dates 
 from the second generation after Noah,and whose civilization 
 is the most ancient of which we have any exact knowledge, 
 were at an early period familiar with the use of iron, and 
 it seems probable that they were engaged in its manufacture. 
 Iron tools are mentioned by Herodotus as having been used 
 in the construction of the pyramids. In the sepulchres at 
 Thebes and Memphis, cities of such great antiquity that 
 their origin is lost, butchers are represented as using tools 
 which archaeologists decide to have been made of iron and 
 steel. Iron sickles are also pictured in the tombs at Mem- 
 phis, and at Thebes various articles of iron have been found 
 which are preserved by the New York Historical Society 
 and are probably three thousand years old. Kenrick, in 
 his Ancient Egypt under the Pharaohs, is authority for the 
 statement that Thothmes the First, who reigned about seven- 
 teen centuries before Christ, is said, in a long inscription at 
 Karnak, to have received from the chiefs, tributary kings, 
 or allied sovereigns of Lower Egypt, presents of silver and 
 gold, " bars of wrought metal, and vessels of copper, and of 
 bronze, and of iron." From the region of Memphis he 
 received wine, iron, lead, wrought metal, animals, etc. An 
 expedition which the same king sent against Chadasha re- 
 turned, bringing among the spoil " iron of the mountains, 
 40 cubes." Belzoni found an iron sickle under the feet of 
 one of the sphinxes at Karnak, which is supposed to have , 
 been place^l there at least six hundred yeare before Christ 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 17 
 
 A piece of iron was taken from an inner joint of the great 
 pyramid at Gizeh in 1837. The reference to iron in Deu- 
 teronomy, iv. 20, apparently indicates that in the time of 
 Moses the Egyptians were engaged in its manufacture, and 
 that the Israelites, if they did not malce iron for their task- 
 masters, were at least familiar with the art of manufacturing 
 it. " But the Lord hath taken you, and brought you forth 
 out of the iron furnace, even, out of Egypt." This expres- 
 sion is repeated in I. Kings, viii. 51. A small piece of very 
 pure iron was found under the Egyptian obelisk which has 
 recently been removed to New York. The use of iron and 
 the art of manufacturing it were introduced into the south- 
 ern and western portions of Arabia at a very early day, and 
 this may have been done by the Egyptians ; it is at least 
 established that some of their own works were located east 
 of the Red sea. In 1873 the ruins of extensive iron works 
 of great antiquity and of undoubted Egyptian origin were dis- 
 covered near the Wells of Moses, in the Sinaitic peninsula. 
 The country which lay to the south of Egypt is supposed to 
 have produced iron in large quantities. Iron was also 
 known to the Chaldeans, the Babylonians, and the Assyrians, 
 who were cotemporaries of the early Egyptians. Some 
 writers suppose that the Egyptians derived their supply 
 of iron principally from these Asiatic neighbors and from 
 the Arabians. Babylon was built about seventeen centu- 
 ries before Christ, and Nineveh was of about equal antiquity. 
 Iron ornaments have been found in Chaldean ruins, and 
 Chaldean inscriptions show that iron was known to the 
 most ancient inhabitants of Mesopotamia. In the ruins of 
 Nineveh the antiquarian Layard found many articles of iron 
 and inscriptions referring to its use. Among the articles 
 discovered by him were iron scales of armor, from two to 
 three inches in length. " Two or three baskets were filled 
 with these relics." He also found a " perfect helmet of 
 iron, inlaid with copper bands." In the British Museum 
 there are preserved several tools of iron which were found 
 at Nineveh by Layard, including a saw and a pick. The art 
 of casting bronze over iron, which has only recently been 
 introduced into modern metallurgy, was known to the 
 Assyrians. At Babylon iron was used in the fortifications of 
 the city just prior to its capture by Cyrus, in the sixth century 
 before Christ. In a celebrated' inscription Nebuchadnez- 
 zar declares : " With pillars and beams plated with copper 
 and strengthened with iron I built up its gates." The huge 
 stones of the bridge built by his daughter, Nitocris, were 
 held together by bands of "iron fixed in place by molten 
 lead. 
 
 The Book of Job, which relates to a patriarchal period 
 between Abraham and Moses, contains frequent references to 
 iron, "even to bars of iron," " bai'bed irons," " the iron wea- 
 pon," and " the bow of steel." In the 28th chapter and 
 2d verse it is declared that " iron is taken out of the earth." 
 In the 19th chapter and 24th verse the " iron pen," which 
 could be used to engrave upon a rock, is mentioned. Job 
 is supposed to have lived in the northern part of Arabia, in 
 the Land of Uz, which was separated from Ur of the Chal- 
 dees, where Abraham was born, by the Euphrates. Iron ore 
 of remarkable richness is still found between the Eu- 
 phrates and the Tigris. Moses led the children of Israel out 
 of Egypt fifteen or sixteen hundred years beforethe Chris- 
 tian era. In the story of their wanderings iron is frequent- 
 ly mentioned. In Leviticus, vii. 9, the frying-pan is men- 
 tioned. When the Israelites under Moses spoiled the 
 Midianites they took from them iron and other metals; 
 when they smote Og, the king of Bashan, they found with 
 him an iron bedstead. Canaan, the Land of Promise, 
 was described by Moses in Deuteronomy, viii. 9, as " a land 
 whose stones are iron." Iron is still made in the Lebanon 
 mountains. In Deuteronomy, xxvii. 5, 6, and in Joshua, 
 viii. 31, the use of iron tools in building an altar of " whole 
 stones" to the Lord is prohibited, which shows that, not 
 onlv did the Israelites in the days of Moses have a know- 
 ledge of iron tools that would cut stone, but that the Egyp- 
 tians must have possessed the same knowledge. After the 
 Israelites came into possession of Canaan iron is frequently 
 mentioned in their history, some of the earliest references 
 being to chariots of iron, which the Canaanites used in their 
 wars with them, and which were probably armed with iron 
 scythes. Chariots of the same kind were doubtless used by 
 the Egyptians. Frequent mention is made of agricultural 
 
 implements and tools of iron, and of iron weapons of war. 
 In the description of the armor of Goliath it is said that 
 " his spear's head weighed six hundred shekels of iron." 
 Axes and saws and harrows of iron are mentioned in the 
 reign of David, and axes and hammers and tools of iron in 
 the reign of Solomon. Isaiah also speaks of harrows of 
 iron. Daniel says that " iron breaketh in pieces and sub- 
 dueth all things." When David, about a thousand years 
 before Christ, made preparations for the building of the 
 temple he "prepared iron in abundance for the nails for the 
 doors of the gates and for the joinings ;" and in his instruc- 
 tions to Solomon concerning it he said that he had prepared 
 " brass and iron without weight," and that of gold, silver, 
 brass, and iron "there is no number." It would appear 
 that the Israelites in the early part of their history were 
 not skilled in the manufacture or manipulation of iron, but 
 were generally dependent upon their neighbors for iron itself 
 and for the skill to fashion it. In the reign of Saul, because of 
 the oppression of the Philistines, " there was no smith found 
 throughout all the land of Israel ; but all the Israelites went 
 down to the Philistines to sharpen every man his share, 
 and his coulter, and his axe, and his mattock." When 
 Solomon came to build the temple he sent to Hiram, king 
 of Tyre, for " a man cunning to work in gold, and in silver, 
 and in brass, and in iron." The Phoenicians were celebrated 
 as workers in all the metals. In Jeremiah, xv. 12, the 
 question is asked by the prophet : " Shall we break the 
 northern iron and the steel?" The northern iron and steel 
 here referred to were probably products of Chalybia, a small 
 district lying on the southeastern shore of the Euxine, the 
 inhabitants of which, called Chalibees or Chalybians, were 
 famous in the days of Asiatic pre-eminence for the fine 
 quality of their iron and steel. Herodotus, in the fifth cen- 
 tury before Christ, speaks of " the Chalybians, a people of 
 iron-workers." They are said to have invented the art of 
 converting iron into steel, but it is probable that, as they 
 used magnetic sand, they made steel mainly. Latin and 
 Greek names for steel were derived from the name of this 
 people. From the same source we obtain the words " chaly- 
 bean " and " chalybeate." But other eastern nations doubt- 
 less made steel as early as the Chalybians. In Ezekiel, 
 xxvii. 12, the merchants of Tarshish are said to supply 
 Tyre with iron and other metals, and in the 19th verse of 
 the same chapter the merchants of Dan and Javan are said 
 to supply its market with " bright iron." Tarshish is 
 supposed to have been a city in the south of Spain, and 
 Dan and Javan were probably cities in the south of Arabia. 
 The name Tarshish may, however, have referred generally 
 to the countries lying along the western coast of the Medi- 
 terranean and beyond the Pillars of Hercules. Dan and 
 Javan may have supplied iron made in the southern part of 
 Arabia, or they may have traded in the " bright iron," or 
 steel, of India. The period embraced in the references 
 quoted from the prophet was about six hundred years before 
 Christ. Both Tyre and Sidon traded in all the products of 
 the East and the West for centuries before and after Eze- 
 kiel, and iron was one of the products which they supplied 
 to their neighbors, the Israelites. The Persians and their 
 northern neighbors, the Medes, made iron long before the 
 Christian era, and so did the Parthians and other Scythian 
 tribes. The Parthian arrow was first tipped with bronze, 
 but aft;erwards with steel. The Parthian kings are said to 
 have engaged with pride in the forging and sharpening of 
 arrow-heads. Iron is still made in Persia by primitive me- 
 thods. 
 
 India appears to have been acquainted with the manufac- 
 ture of iron and steel from a very early period. When 
 Alexander defeated Forus, one of thePunjaub tings, in the 
 fourth century before the Christian era, Porus gave him 
 thirty pounds of Indian steel, or wootz. This steel, which 
 is still made in India and Persia, was a true steel, and of a 
 quality unsurpassed even in our day. It was and still is 
 mauufactured by a process of great simplicity, similar to 
 that by which crucible steel is now manufactured. Long 
 prior to the Christian era, as well as for many centuries 
 afterwards, Damascus, the capital of Syria, manufactured 
 its famous swords in part from Indian wootz. The people 
 of India further appear to have become familiar, at an 
 early period in their history, with processes for the manu- 
 facture of iron on a large scale which have since been lost. 
 
18 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 It is circumstantially stated that a cyliadrical wrought-iron 
 pillar is now standing- at the principal gate of the ancient, 
 mosque of the Kutub, near Delhi, in India, which is about 
 60 feet long, 16 inches in diameter near the base, contains 
 about 80 cubic feet of metal, and weighs probably over 17 
 tons. The immense proportions of this pillar are not more 
 striking than its ornate finish. An inscription in Sanscrit 
 is variously interpreted to assign its erection to the ninth or 
 tenth century before the Christian era or to the early part 
 of the fourth century after it." In the ruins of Indian tem- 
 ples there have been found wrought-iron beams similar in 
 size and appearance to those used in the construction of 
 buildings at the present time. Metallurgists are unable 
 to understand how these large masses of iron could have 
 been forged by a people who appear not to have possessed 
 any of the mechanical appliances for their manufac- 
 ture which are now necessary to the production of simi- 
 lar articles. The period at which China first made iron 
 is uncertain, but great antiquity is claimed for its manufac- 
 ture in that mysterious country. In a Chinese record 
 which is supposed to have been written two thousand years 
 before Christ iron is mentioned, and in other ancient Chi- 
 nese writings iron and steel are both mentioned. Pliuy the 
 Elder, writing in the first century of the Christian era, thus 
 speaks of the iron of China, the inhabitants of which were 
 known in his day as the Seres: " Howbeit, as many kinds 
 of iron as there be, none shall match in goodness the steel 
 that Cometh from the Seres, for this commodity also, as 
 hard ware as it is, they send and sell with their soft silks 
 and fine furs. In a second degree of goodness may be plac- 
 ed the Parthian iron." It may be assumed as susceptible 
 of proof that the knowledge of the use of iron, if not of its 
 manufacture, was common to all the people of Asia and of 
 Northern Africa long previous to the Christian era. The 
 Phoenicians would carry this knowledge to their own great 
 colony, Carthage, which was founded in the ninth century 
 before Christ, and to all the colonies and nations inhabiting 
 the shores of the Mediterranean. Phoenician merchants 
 obtained iron from such distant countries as Morocco and 
 Spain, and possibly even from India and China, as well as 
 from nearer sources. But in time the merchants of Tyre 
 and the " ships of Tarshish " deserted the places that long 
 had known them, empire after empire fell in ruins, and 
 with the fading away of Asiatic and Africian civilization 
 and magnificence the manufacture and the use of iron in 
 Asia and Africa ceased to advance. Egypt has probably 
 not made iron for nearly three thousand years, and probably 
 no more iron is made in all Asia to-day than was made in 
 its borders twenty-five centuries ago, when Babylon was 
 " the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldees' excel- 
 lency." 
 
 The Early Use of Iron in Europe.— The authentic 
 history of the use of iron in Europe does not begin until 
 about the period of the first Olympiad, corresponding to the 
 year 776 before the Christian era, although both Grecian 
 poetry and the traditions of the Grecian heroic age have 
 transmitted to us many references to iron long prior to that 
 period. About the time of Moses the Phoenicians are said 
 to have introduced into Greece the art of working in iron 
 and other metals. Minos, king of Crete, was indebted to 
 them for the tools which enabled him to build his powerful 
 fleet. In the fifteenth century before Christ the burning of 
 the forests on Mount Ida, in Crete, is said to have accident- 
 ally communicated to the inhabitants the art of obtaining 
 iron from native ores. This discovery enabled the Idsei 
 Dactyli, who were priests of Cybele, to introduce the manu- 
 facture of iron and steel into Phrygia, a Greek colony in Asia 
 Minor. So read some of the stories which have come down 
 to us from the heroic age of Greece, and which, like the 
 well-known story of Vulcan and his forges on the island of 
 Lemnos, may be wholly fabulous ; but there is nothing im- 
 probable in the conclusion which may be derived from them, 
 that they point to a very early use of iron by the Greeks! 
 From Phoenicia certainly, and probably also from Egypt, 
 they would be likely to derive a knowledge of its use in the 
 mechanic arts at least a thousand years before Christ. It is 
 worthy of notice that the mythologies of both Greece and 
 Egypt attributed the invention of the art of manufacturing 
 iron to the gods — a fact which of itself may be regarded as 
 establishing the great antiquity of the art in both countries. 
 
 We come next to that period of Grecian history which intro- 
 duces us to historical personages and historical events. Ly- 
 curgus, who lived about the time of the first Olympiad, 
 required the Spartans to use iron as money ; he " allowed 
 nothing but bars of iron to pass in exchange for every com- 
 modity." These bars, for which iron rings or quoits were 
 afterwards substituted, may have been made from the iron 
 ores which were found in abundance in Laconia, or they 
 may have been obtained abroad ; but the use of iron as a 
 measure of value in the days of Lycurgus indicates that this 
 metal could not then have been a rare commodity. If it 
 had been a precious metal Lycurgus would not have enforced 
 its use as money. The iron ores of Elba were worked by 
 the Greeks as early as the year 700 before Christ. They 
 called the island ^thalia, " from the blazes of the iron 
 works." The working of the ores of this island is men- 
 tioned by Herodotus, who lived in the fifth century before 
 Christ ; by Diodorus, a Sicilian historian of the first century 
 before Christ ; and by Strabo, a Greek traveler and geogra- 
 pher, who lived at the beginning of the Christian era. The 
 Phoenicians made iron on the island of Euboea at a very 
 early day, and the Greeks afterwards actively prosecuted 
 the same pursuit. Strabo speaks of the mines of Euboea as 
 being partially exhausted in his day. In Boeotia, on the 
 mainland of Greece, iron was also made in very early times, 
 and probably in other parts of the Grecian mainland and on 
 the Grecian islands where iron ores are now found. On the 
 island of Seriphos the ores are of the richest quality. He- 
 rodotus speaks of iron heads to lances and arrows in his 
 day. He also mentions a silver bowl inlaid with iron, the 
 work of Glaucus the Chian, which Alyattes dedicated at 
 Delphi about the year 560 before Christ. Chalybian steel 
 was imported into Greece in the time of Herodotus ; and in 
 the time of Aristotle, who lived a century later, the Greeks 
 were themselves familiar with the manufacture of steel. 
 Sophocles, who died in the year 406 before Christ, speaks of 
 the tempering of iron in water. The manufacture of swords 
 of steel about this time received some attention in Greece, 
 as it did elsewhere. The father of Demosthenes, who was a 
 manufacturer of arms, probably made steel swords. Iron 
 and steel weapons of war began to displace those of bronze 
 in most Mediterranean countries about the time of the battle 
 of Marathon, which was fought in the year 490 before Christ. 
 When Xerxes invaded Greece, ten years after the battle of 
 Marathon, the Assyrians in his army carried wooden clubs 
 '' knotted with iron." The use of iron scythes as well as 
 iron sickles was common among the Greeks about this time. 
 Alexander, in the fourth century before Christ, is said by 
 Pliny to have strengthened a bridge over the Euphrates, at 
 Zeugma, with a chain made of links of iron. Daimachus, 
 a writer who was cotemporary with Alexander, enumerates 
 four different kinds of steel and their uses — the Chalybdic, 
 Synopic, Lydian, and Lacedaemonian. Each kind of steel 
 was adapted to the manufacture of a particular tool. From 
 the Chalybdic and Synopic were made ordinary tools ; from 
 the Lacedaemonian were made files, augers, chisels, and 
 stone-cutting implements ; and from the Lydian were made 
 swords, razors, and surgical instruments. The accounts left 
 by this and other writers indicate great proficiencv bv the 
 Greeks in the use of steel, and the possession of much" skill 
 in its manufacture. According to accepted chronologv, Rome 
 was founded in the year 753 before the Christian era. It 
 reached the culmination of its power about the end of the 
 first century of that era. From its foundation to the begin- 
 ning of its decline embraced a period of about nine hundred 
 years. During the first part of this period Rome was favored 
 with the experience of older nations in the use and manu- 
 facture of iron, and during the last part of it she greatly 
 contributed by her energy and progressive spirit to extend 
 its use and to increase its production. The Greeks were the 
 great teachers of the Romans in all the arts, including metal- 
 lurgy ; but the Etruscans, who were the near neighbors of 
 the Romans, and whom they in time supplanted, also con- 
 tributed greatly to their knowledge of the arts of ancient 
 civilization. The Etruscans, however, owed thoir civili- 
 zation in large part, to the Tyrrhenian Greeks, with whom 
 they coalesced centuries before Rome was founded. . Etruria 
 was largely devoted to commerce, and among the countries 
 with which it traded were Phoenicia and Cartilage, as well 
 afi Greece and its colonies. From all these countries Etruscan 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 19 
 
 civilization was invigorated and diversified, and Rome in its 
 early days enjoyed the benefit of this invigoration and diver- 
 sification. That it early acquired from the Etruscans a 
 knowledge of the use and manufacture of iron can easily be 
 imagined, and subsequent direct contact with Grecian colo- 
 nies and with "Greece itself would extend this knowledge. 
 The island of Elba lay off the Etruscan coast, and, as has 
 already been stated, its iron ores were extensively used by 
 the Greeks about the time when Rome was founded. Its 
 mines were also worked by the Etruscans, and its ores were 
 smelted both on the island and on the mainland. They were 
 also taken to other countries to be converted into iron. 
 After a lapse of twenty-five centuries the iron ores of this 
 celebrated island are still exported, many cargoes finding 
 their way to the United States. The Romans would also 
 obtain iron from the islands of Corsica and Sardinia, but 
 chiefly from the former. This island was occupied by the 
 Ligurians and the Etruscans about the time of the founding 
 of Rome, and by the Etruscans for centuries afterwards. 
 The Carthaginians succeeded the Etruscans, and the Romans 
 the Carthaginians. Iron was made in Corsica from the ear- 
 liest times, and is still made in small quantities. The island 
 has given a name to the Corsican forge, which is yet in use. 
 A few years ago ten of these forges were in operation in 
 Corsica, and they were probably almost identical in character 
 with those which were used on the island when Rome was 
 founded. 
 
 Some of the swords and javelins of the Romans were 
 made of iron or steel in the fifth century before the Chris- 
 tian era, but their agricultural implements, as has been 
 shown in the reference to Etruria, were made of iron at an 
 earlier period. The Roman battering-ram, which was bor- 
 rowed jtrom the Greeks, had a head of iron, and iron rings 
 were placed around its beam. The Romans used this en- 
 gine of war at the siege of Syracuse, in the year 212 before 
 Christ. Prior to this time iron and steel tools were in 
 common use among the carpenters, masons, shipwrights, and 
 other tradesmen of Rome. At the beginning of the Chris- 
 tian era iron was in general use throughout the Roman Em- 
 pire, the supply being derived from many countries which 
 were subject to its sway. In the Acts of the Apostles, xii. 
 10, is a statement which indicates that iron was used at this 
 period for architectural purposes and in public works. "When 
 they were past the first and second ward they came unto the 
 iron gate that leadeth unto the city." Iron was, however, 
 used especially for tools, agricultural implements, and 
 weapons of offense and defense. Pliny says that " iron ores 
 are found almost everywhere," and that " the processes for 
 refining the metal are nearly everywhere the same." It 
 does not appear, however, that the Romans made iron at 
 this time either at Rome or in its immediate vicinity. Pliny 
 remarks that " in abundance of metals of every kind Italy 
 yields to no land whatever, but all search for them has been 
 prohibited by an ancient decree of the Senate." This pro- 
 hibition probably applied only to the territory surrounding 
 Rome. Vestiges of iron used by the Romans in the first 
 century after Christ have, been found in the ruins of the 
 Coliseum, which was built by the Emperor Vespasian. This 
 iron was used as clamps to bind together the stones of that 
 remarkable structure. Iron has also been found in the 
 ruins of Pompeii, which was destroyed about the time the 
 Coliseum was built. In the northern part of Italy, just 
 south of the Alps, corresponding to Piedmont and Loin- 
 bardy of the present day, iron was made by the Romans in 
 the first and second centuries before the Christian era. 
 Pliny speaks of the excellence of the water at Comum, now 
 Como, for tempering iron, although iron ores were not found 
 there. Among the provinces which contributed largely to 
 the Roman supply of iron at this time was Noricum, corre- 
 sponding to Styria and Carinthia in Austria. Both Pliny 
 and Ovid, who lived at the beginning of the Christian era, 
 speak of Norican iron as being of superior quality, and it is 
 certain that ferrvm noricum was celebrated throughout 
 Italy before tlieir day. The best of swords were made from 
 it in the reign of Augustus: Horace speaks of them. The 
 spathic ores of Styria and Carinthia are still held in high 
 favor; and the supply of ore, especially in the famous iron 
 mountains of Erzberg and Huttenberg, shows no signs of 
 exhaustion at the end of twenty centuries of almost con- 
 stant use. Iron is still made in these provinces of Austria in 
 
 small forges which are almost as primitive in character as 
 those used by their anciejit Celtic inhabitants. Celtic and 
 Roman implements and medals, including a coin of the 
 Emperor Nerva, who lived in the first century of the Chris- 
 tian era, have been found in mounds of slag in the vicinity 
 of Carinthian mines. Cotemporaneously with the working 
 of the Norican iron mines by the Celts, the Quadi, who in- 
 habited the province of Moravia, lying north of Noricum, 
 also made iron. The geographer Ptolemy, who lived in the 
 second century of the Christian era, makes mention of the 
 Quadi as ironworkers. Great antiquity is also claimed lor 
 the iron industry of that vast country which was known to 
 the Romans as Sarmatia, now known as Russia in Europe. 
 The nomadic Scythians would doubtless carry the art of 
 ironmaking to the Ural mountains, where iron ore was and 
 still is abundant. One of the Greek poets calls Scythia 
 " the mother of iron " — Scythia comprising the countries 
 lying north, east, and south of the Caspian sea. 
 
 The Phoenicians are known to have founded colonies in 
 France and in Spain prior to the sixth century before Christ. 
 They had settlements in Southern Gaul, on the Garonne and 
 Rhone. The ancient city of Massilia, now Marseilles, is 
 supposed to occupy the site of a Phoenician trading-post, 
 which fell into the possession of the Phocsean Greeks about 
 the period we have mentioned, who gave to it great com- 
 mercial and manufacturing importance. The Greeks also 
 planted other colonies in Southern France. The city of 
 Tartessus, or Tarshish, is supposed to have been one of the 
 Phoenician settlements in the south of Spain ; the city of 
 Gades, or Cadiz, was another. Tartessus stood between the 
 two arms of the Guadalquivir ; but in the time of Strabo, 
 who died about the year 25 of the Christian era, it had 
 ceased to exist ; Gades was its near neighbor, and ttill ex- 
 ists. It is probable that the Phoenicians introduced the 
 manufacture of iron among the native inhabitants of 
 France and Spain; the Iberians and Celtiberians of the 
 latter country were certainly active in mining and working 
 in metals several hundred years before the Christian era, 
 and enjoyed an extensive trade in metals with Tyre and 
 Carthage. Under Grecian influence, which succeeded that 
 of the PhcEuicians in Spain, the Celtiberians, who inhabited 
 the central and northeastern parts of the country, continued 
 to make iron, and to this was joined the manufacture of 
 steel. The famous forges of Aragon and Catalonia were 
 active during the Grecian occupation of Spain. The 
 Romans succeeded the Carthaginians. The Romans greatly 
 extended the arts of their advanced civilization among the 
 native inhabitants. They gave special encouragement to 
 the manufacture of iron and steel, although in justice to the 
 Celtiberians it must be said that their metallurgical skill was 
 at least equal to that of the Romans. Polybius, a Greek 
 historian, who flourished in the second century before 
 Christ, says that the helmet and armor of the Roman sol- 
 dier were of bronze, but that the sword was a cut-and-thrust 
 blade of Spanish steel. At the battle of Cannse, in the year 
 216 before Christ, the Romans had learned from the Cartha- 
 ginians at very great cost the value of the Spanish sword. 
 Livy has recorded the fines which were imposed by Cato 
 the Censor on the Celtiberian iron works after the Roman 
 war with Spain in the year 194 before Christ. About the 
 time these fines were imposed, the town of Bilbilis, near the 
 present Moorish-built town of Calatayud, in Aragon, and 
 the little river Salo were celebrated as the center of the iron 
 district of Celtiberia. The water of the Salo was supposed 
 to possess special qualities for the tempering of steel. The 
 same excellence was attributed to other streams in Spain 
 and in some other countries. Diodorus speaks of the ex- 
 cellent two-edged swords, " exactly tempered with steel," 
 and of other arms which the Celtiberians in Aragon manu- 
 factured from rods of iron which had been nisted in the 
 ground "to eat out all the weaker particles of the metal, 
 and leave only the strongest and purest." He says that the 
 swords which were manufactured from these rods " are so 
 keen that there is no helmet or shield which cannot be cut 
 through by them." Plutarch, who died about the year 140 
 of the Christian era, gives the same account of the Celti- 
 berian method of purifying iron. Pliny speaks of the ex- 
 cellent iron of Bilbilis and Turaisso, the latter a town in 
 Tarragona, and of an extensive mountain of iron upon the 
 coast of Biscay, probably Somorrostro. Iron ore from the 
 
20 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 coast of Biscay is now exported in large quantities to Great 
 Britain, the United States, and other countries. Toledo has 
 been famous since the Roman occupation of Spain for its 
 manufacture of swords, but this industry existed at Toledo 
 before the appearance of the Romans. The town was cap- 
 tured by them in the year 192 before Christ. The Roman 
 army from that time forward was provided with steel swords 
 from Toledo and other places in Spain. The manufacture 
 of Toledo blades probably attained its greatest development 
 in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The business still 
 continues. A certain degree of mystery has always sur- 
 rounded the manufacture of these swords, and the same may 
 be said of the manufacture of the equally-celebrated Da- 
 mascus blades. 
 
 The iron industry of Spain was the first in the world for 
 many hundred years after the Romans obtained a foothold 
 in the country, surviving the downfall of the Roman power 
 in the peninsula, and flourishing under the subsequent rule 
 of the Visigoths. This distinction was strengthened when 
 the Moors became masters of the greater part of Spain, in 
 the beginning of the eighth century of the Christian era. 
 They stimulated the further development of the iron manu- 
 facture in the districts subject to their sway. At the same 
 time the native inhabitants who had successfully resisted 
 the Moorish arms continued to push their small Catalan 
 forges still farther into the Pyrenees and along the coast of 
 Biscay, lighting up the forests in every direction. So prom- 
 inent did the iron industry of Spain become that its iron- 
 workers were sought for by other countries, and on the 
 French side of the Pyrenees, and in the mountains of Ger- 
 many, and along the Rhine, they set up many of their small 
 forges. The Catalan forge, which received its name from 
 Catalonia, has been introduced into every civilized country 
 of modern times that produces iron, and it still exists in al- 
 most its original simplicity in the mountains of both Spain 
 and France. France did not at an early period in its his- 
 tory make the same progress in the manufacture of iron that 
 has been recorded of Spain, partly because it did not re- 
 ceive the same outside attention which made Spain a center 
 successively of Grecian, Roman, Gothic, and Moorish civil- 
 ization, but partly also because it did not possess iron ores 
 of the same rich quality as those of Spain. It may be said, 
 however, that the use of iron weapons was well known to the 
 Gauls who confronted the Romans hundreds of years before 
 the Christian era, and to their successors who opposed the 
 armies of Julius Csesar, who refers frequently to their use 
 of iron. In speaking of the Veneti, who inhabited the 
 southern part of Brittany, he makes the remarkable 
 statement that the anchors for their ships were fastened 
 to them with iron chains instead of cables. He also 
 says that the benches of the ships were fastened with 
 iron spikes of the thickness of a man's thumb. This cir- 
 cumstantial statement denotes great familiarity with the use 
 of iron by the Veneti. In describing the siege of Avaricum, 
 the modern Bourges, a fortified town of the Bituriges, 
 Csesar says that "there are in their territories extensive iron 
 mines, and consequently every description of mining opera- 
 tions is known and practiced by them." For hundreds of 
 years after Caesar's time only faint glimpses are furnished us 
 of an iron industry in France. During this period it was 
 doubtless wholly confined to Catalan forges. StiXckofens, or 
 high bloomaries, were in use in Alsatia and Burgundy in 
 the tenth century. When William the Norman invaded 
 England in 1066 he was accompanied by many smiths who 
 were armorers and horse-shoers, and therefore skilled work- 
 ers in iron. The modern blast furnace is supposed to have 
 originated in the Rhine provinces about the beginning of 
 the fourteenth century, but whether in France or Germany 
 or Belgium is not clear. A hundred years later, in 1409, 
 there was a blast furnace in the valley of Massevaux, in 
 France, and it is claimed by Landrin that France had many 
 blast furnaces about 1450. Iron was made by the Belgas as 
 early as tha time of Julius Csesar, and possibly at an earlier 
 date. Heaps of iron cinder, which archaeologists decide to 
 be as old at least as the Roman occupation of Gallia Belgicii, 
 have recently been found on the tops of ferruginous hil- 
 locks in the provinces of Brabant and Antwerp, and in these 
 cinder heaps flint arrow-heads and fragments of coarse pot- 
 tery, characteristic of the earliest dawn of civilization, have 
 been discovered. During the Roman occupation of the 
 
 country iron was produced in many places in Belgium, a 
 fact which is attested by heaps of cinder or slag which yet 
 exist and are found in association with Roman relics. It 
 has been supposed that the iron which was made in Belgium 
 at this period was produced in low bloomaries without an 
 artificial blast. We do not again hear of the Belgian iron 
 industry until the tenth century, when high bloomaries, or 
 wolf furnaces, otherwise stuckofena, were in operation in the 
 valley of the Meuse. We are informed that " iron waa made 
 to perfection in the Netherlands " in the twelfth century. 
 In the fourteenth century high furnaces, or fiuasofens, were 
 in existence in Belgium. In 1340 a furnace of this descrip- 
 tion was built at Marche les Dames, near Namur, to which, 
 in 1345, special privileges were granted by William, count 
 of Namur. These furnaces were true blast furnaces, pro- 
 ducing cast iron. In 1560 there were in operation in Bel- 
 gium, according to the authority of M. Deby, 86 blast fur- 
 naces and 85 forges. 
 
 Near Saarbrucken, in Rhenish Prussia, where the first 
 battle between the French and the Germans was fought in 
 the war of 1870, iron is said to have been made in the days 
 of Roman ascendancy, but the Germans do not appear du- 
 ring this period to have been as familiar as their neighbors 
 with its manufacture. Polybius, however, states that the 
 Teutons and the Cimbri, from northwestern Germany, who 
 invaded Italy and Gaul near the close of the second century 
 before Christ, " were already familiar with iron, and pos- 
 sessed weapons of that metal." Tacitus informs us that 
 " iron does not abound in Germany, if we may judge from 
 the weapons in general use. Swords and large lances are 
 seldom seen. The soldier grasps his javelin, or, as it is 
 called in their language, his /ram, an instrument tipped with 
 a short and narrow piece of iron, sharply pointed, and so 
 commodious that, as occasion requires, he can manage it in 
 close engagement or in distant combat." He further says 
 that the use of iron was unknown to the ^styans, who in- 
 habited the northern part of Germany lying upon the Bal- 
 tic ; " their general weapon was the club." The Gothinians 
 are described by Tacitus as a people who " submit to the 
 drudgery of digging iron in mines " for the Quadi, who were 
 their neighbors. Ernest, the German editor, says the Gothi- 
 nians had iron of their own, and did not make use of it to 
 assert their liberty. Tacitus wrote his Treatise on Germany 
 about the close of the first century of the Christian era. 
 From this time forward the condition of the German iron 
 industry is enveloped in obscurity until the eighth century, 
 when we hear of iron works, probably wolf furnaces or 
 stuckofens, in the district of the river" Lahn, in Nassau, 
 where iron of great celebrity was made by a guild of " forest 
 smiths " in 780. We are informed by Maw and Dredge that 
 "they had their special privileges, kept an iron mart at 
 Wetzlar, and sent their products regularly to the great an- 
 nual fairs at Frankfort-on-the-Main. This iron industry 
 was especially flourishing during the thirteenth, fourteenth, 
 and fifteenth centuries." During the ei ghth century we 
 hear also of the iron industry of the principality of Siegen. 
 There was a steel forge at the town of Siegen in 1288, which 
 had been in existence before the eleventh century. The 
 iron industry of Siegen was very active during the Middle 
 Ages. About the middle of the thirteenth century stuckofens 
 were in use in Siegen. Percy says that in the beginning of 
 the fifteenth century pig iron was made in Siegen in hlmis- 
 fens. Iron was made in Saxony as early as the eighth cen- 
 tury. Alexander informs us that the flussofen was intro- 
 duced iuto Saxony in 1550, and that the wooden bellows 
 was invented about this time by Hans Lobsinger, an organ- 
 ist of Nuremberg. Iron was made in the Hartz mountains 
 in the eighth century. In the Thuringian mountains wolf 
 furnaces and bloomaries were in existence in the tenth cen- 
 tury, and blast furnaces in the fourteenth century. Alex- 
 ander states that in the latter half of the sixteenth century 
 there was a furnace in these mountains 24 feet high and six 
 feet wide at the boshes, built by Hans-sien, a Voigtlander. 
 In 1377 cast-iron guns were made near Erfurt, in Thuringia. 
 In the fifteenth century pots, plates, balls, etc., of iron were 
 cast at the celebrated Ilscnberg foundry in Germany. Stoves 
 are said to have been cast for the first time in 1490, in Al- 
 sace. Recurring to the iron industry of Austria, Alexander 
 says that the mines of Styria were " opened again " in 712. 
 It appears probable that wolf furnaces were in use in Styria^ 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 21 
 
 Carinthia, and Carniola as early as the eighth century, 
 which appears to be the epoch of their introduction in most 
 European countries. The first blast furnace in the Alps 
 provinces was, however, introduced very much later than in 
 Belgium or on the Rhine — the first in Carinthia being built 
 in 1567, at Urtl ; the fir.st in Styria in 1760, at Eisenerz : 
 and the first in Carniola in the early part of the present 
 century. Iron was made in Bohemia and Silesia at an early 
 period, "The Bohemian chronicler, Hajek, of Liboschan, 
 mentions that iron works existed in 677, near Schasslau." 
 
 Heaps of cinder and remains of wolf furnaces and ore 
 bloomaries are numerous in Bohemia. In 1365 bloomaries 
 were in use in Upper Silesia. The iron industry of Sweden 
 had an existence as early at least as the thirteenth century. 
 A Swedish historian says that the oldest iron mine in Swe- 
 den is probably Norberg, in Westmanland, on the southern 
 borders of Dalecarlia. i?here are documents still in exist- 
 ence, dated July 29, 1303, signed by Thorkel Knutson, the 
 royal marshal, in which Norberg is mentioned as an iron 
 mine. To the miners of Norberg, also, the first recorded 
 privileges exclusively for iron mines appear to have been 
 granted by King Magnus Ericsson, on February 24, 1851. 
 In 1488 the mines of Dannemora were opened, and in 1614, 
 Gustavus Adolphus encouraged the immigration of German 
 fiirnacemen into Sweden. The celebrated iron works at 
 Finspong were established in 1641 by Louis de Gier, from 
 Liege, as a cannon foundry. The Walloon refining process, 
 which takes its name from the Walloons, who were inhabi- 
 tants of Flanders, was introduced into Sweden from Flan- 
 ders in the time of Charles the Twelfth, who reigned from 
 1697 to 1718. Percy states that the osmund furnace, which 
 was a modification.of the stilckofen, was formerly very com- 
 mon in Sweden. The iron industry of Russia dates histori- 
 cally from 1569, in which year as recorded by Scrivenor, the 
 English "obtained the privilege of seeking for and smelting 
 iron ore, on condition that they should teach the Russians 
 the art of working this metal." The first historical iron 
 works in Russia, however, were established long afterwards, 
 according to the same author, in the reign of the czar Alexis 
 Michaelovitch, about sixty miles from Moscow, and were 
 the only ones in Russia prior to the reign of Peter the Great, 
 who is said to have worked in them before he set out, in 
 1698, on his first journey into foreign countries. It is not 
 known when the celebrated Russia sheet iron was first made. 
 There is reason to believe that the Russians were skilled 
 ironworkers and metallurgists long before the historic period 
 above mentioned. The bells of Moscow have been famous 
 for hundreds of years. The use of iron in a limited way 
 was known to the Britons before the invasion of England by 
 Julius Caesar in the year 55 before Christ. The Phoenicians, 
 who traded with the Britons probably as early as the year 
 600 before Christ, may be supposed to have introduced 
 among this barbarous people the use of iron, but we have no 
 proof that they instructed them in its manufacture. The 
 Greeks and Carthaginians succeeded the Phoenicians in 
 trading with the Britons, but there is no evidence that they 
 taught them the art of making iron. They, as well as the 
 Phoenicians, probably took iron into Britain in exchange for 
 tin and other native products. Caasar, in his Commentaries, 
 says of the Britons who opposed his occupation of the is- 
 land that " they use either brass or iron rings, determined 
 at a certain weight, as their money. Tin is produced in the 
 midland regions ; in the maritime, iron ; but the quantity 
 of it is small : they employ brass, which is imported." This 
 quotation from Caesar would appear to establish the fact 
 uiat iron was a precious metal in Britain at the time of his 
 invasion ; at least it would seem to show that it was not in 
 common use, and could not have been used as an article of 
 export. Caesar nowhere mentions the use of iron weapons 
 of war by the Britons. It is worthy of mention that the 
 Belgae had passed over to Britain before Caesar's time and 
 made settlements upon its coast, and whatever arts they pos- 
 sessed they would of course take with them. It cannot be 
 proved that the Belgae made iron in their own country before 
 Caesar's invasion of it; if it could be shown that they did, it 
 might safely be assumed that they would introduce their 
 methods of' manufacture into Britain. Caesar says that a 
 small quantity of iron was made in the maritime regions of 
 the island, and this the Belg£e may have made. 
 
 The Growth of the British Iron Industry,— If the 
 
 manufacture of iron by the Britons prior to the Roman in- 
 vasion is enveloped in obscurity and even in doubt, there 
 can be no doubt that iron was made in considerable quanti- 
 ties during the Roman occupation of Britain, which nomi- 
 nally extended from about the middle of the first century of 
 the Christian era to the year 411. The Romans, it may here 
 be remarked, were never themselves prominent as iron manu- 
 facturers in any country occupied by them ; but, knowing 
 the value of iron, they encouraged its manufacture wherever 
 their arms were borne and the necessary conditions existed. 
 The remains of iron works which were in existence and were 
 operated during their stay in Britain are still pointed out. 
 Dismissing all speculation concerning the origin of the first 
 iron works in Britain, the remains of some of these works 
 may well receive attention. They relate to a most interesting 
 period in the history of the British iron trade. Large heaps 
 of iron scoria, or cinder, as old as the Roman era, have been 
 discovered in the Wealds of Kent and Sussex, in the hills 
 of Somerset, and in the Forest of Dean in Gloucestershire; 
 also at Bierley, a few miles from Bradford in York.^hire, and 
 in the neighborhood of Leeds in the same county. There is 
 also evidence that iron was made under the Romans in North- 
 umberland, which is near Yorkshire; in Surrey, which ad- 
 joins Kent and Sussex ; and in Monmouthshire, Hereford, 
 and Worcester, which adjoin Gloucester. Except Bierley, 
 Leeds, and Northumberland, all the places and districts 
 named as having produced iron lie in the southeastern or 
 southwestern parts of England, or within the ancient bound- 
 aries of South Wales - " the country of the Silures." Next 
 to Cornwall, where tin was obtained by the Phoenicians and 
 their successors, these southern portions of the country would 
 be most likely to be visited and influenced by foreigners be- 
 fore the Roman invasion. Caesar described the island of 
 Britain as being shaped like a triangle, with one of its sides 
 looking toward Gaul. " One angle of this side is in Kent, 
 whither almost all ships from Gaul are directed." The cin- 
 der mentioned has been found almost invariably in connec- 
 tion with Roman coins, pottery, and altars. A coin of Anto- 
 ninus Pius, who lived in the second century after Christ, 
 was found in the Forest of Dean in 1762, together with a piece 
 of fine pottery. Coins of other Roman Emperors have been 
 found m the cinder heaps of the Forest of Dean. In the 
 cinder beds of Beauport, between Hastings and Battle, in 
 Sussex, a bronze coin of Trajan has been found, and one of 
 Adrian. These eniperors lived in the first and second centu- 
 ries after Christ. Coins found in the cinder heaps of Mares- 
 field, not far from Uckfield, have dates ranging from Nero 
 to Diocletian, or from the year 54 to, the year 286 after 
 Christ. In the cinder mounds of Sussex many specimens of 
 pottery have been discovered, including black and red 
 Samian ware. On one of these, the base of -a. patera, is the 
 potter's mark, " Albvciani." One relic consisted of a bronze 
 ligula, very thin and elastic, more than four inches long, in 
 good preservation, and having an elegantly-shaped bowl. 
 Altars erected by Jupiter Dolichenus, the protector of iron 
 works, have been discovered in various places in association 
 with the remains of such works. Much of the cinder has 
 been found on the tops of hills or mounds, a circumstance 
 which has led to the belief that bellows were not employed 
 in producing a blast, but that the wind was relied upon to 
 produce a draft sufficient to smelt the ore in charcoal 
 bloomaries, some of which were mere excavations in the 
 tops of hills, with covered channels leading to the hillside 
 in the direction of the prevailing winds. This method of 
 making iron is that which appears to have prevailed in 
 Belgica at the same time. It is a curious fact that bloom- 
 aries of similar form and adoption ^were in use in Derby- 
 shire, for smelting lead, as late as the seventeenth century. 
 Scrivenor mentions that similar fiu-naces were used by the 
 Peruvians to smelt the silver ore of the country before the 
 arrival of the Spaniards. Other air-bloomaries in England 
 are supposed by Fairbaim and other writers to have been 
 simple conical structures, with small openings below for the 
 admission of air, and erected on high grounds that the wind 
 might assist combustion. Iron is made to-day in Burmah 
 without the aid of an artificial blast. The cinder found in 
 England and Wales was very rich in iron ; in the Forest of 
 Dean it was so rich and so abundant that for many years 
 after its discovery, a few centuries ago, about twenty small 
 charcoal furnaces were engaged in smelting it. Recent re- 
 
22 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 aearchea by Mr. James Rock, of Hastings, in Sussex, throw 
 much new light on the Roman and early British methods of 
 manufacturing iron. Cinder beds, or cinder heaps, were 
 formerly very numerous in East Sussex, and many of them 
 still exist. The neighborhood of Hastings appears to have 
 been a great center of the iron industry "from the earliest 
 times." The cinder heaps yet remaining are large enough 
 to be quarried, and contain many thousand tons of scoria, 
 some of the heaps having large oak trees growing upon their 
 summits. It was stated in 1G81, by Andrew Yarranton, in 
 the second part of his England's Improvements by Sea and 
 Land, that " within 100 yards of the walls of the city of 
 Worcester there was dug up one of the hearths of the Ro- 
 man foot-blasts, it being then firm and in order, and was seven 
 foot deep in tae earth ; and by the side of the work there 
 was found a pot of Roman coin to the quantity of a peck." 
 The fo')t-blast here referred to must have been a leather bel- 
 lows, with which the Romans and their Mediterranean 
 neighbors were certainly acquainted. There is nothing im- 
 probable in the supposition that the Romans while in Brit- 
 ain used both the wind-bloomaries aud the foot-blasts. 
 Strabo mentions the exportation of iron from Britain in his 
 day. This was before the Romans had subdued the Britons, 
 but after the influence of Roman civilization had been felt 
 in the island. The emperor Adrian landed in Britain in 
 the year 120, and in the following year there wa.s established 
 at Bath, in Wiltshire, a great Roman military forge, or 
 fahrica, for the manufacture of iron arms. This forge was 
 close to the bloomaries in Somerset and the Forest of Dean, 
 from which it was supplied with iron. That the manufac- 
 ture of iron at this time and for some time subsequent was al- 
 most wholly confined to the southern parts of England seems 
 probable from a passage in Herodian, quoted by Smiles in 
 his Industrial Biography, who says of the British pursued 
 by the emperor Severus, in the year 208, through the fens 
 and marshes of the east coast, that " they wore iron hoops 
 round their middles and their necks, esteeming them as or- 
 naments and tokens of riches, in like manner as other bar- 
 barous people then esteemed ornaments of silver and gold." 
 The Anglo-Saxons, who succeeded the Romans in the 
 early part of the fifth century as the rulers of Britain, used 
 iron weapons of war, and it is a reasonable supposition that 
 they manufactured all the iron that was required for this 
 purpose ; but their enterprise as iron manufacturers proba- 
 bly extended but little further, although Bede speaks of the 
 importance of the iron industry in his day, the beginning of 
 the eighth century. The Anglo-Saxon monks frequently 
 engaged in the manufacture of iron. Saint Dunstan, who 
 lived in the tenth century, is said to have had a forge in his 
 bedroom, and to have been a skilled blacksmith and metal- 
 lurgist. During the ascendency of the Danes, and afterwards 
 down to the accession of William the Conqueror in 1066, 
 iron was made in the Forest of Dean and elsewhere, but in 
 limited quantities. In the eleventh century the Anglo-Sax- 
 on plow consisted of a wooden wedge covered with straps of 
 iron ; to this the Normans added the coulter. The ship- 
 builders of Edward the Confessor, the last king of the An- 
 glo-Saxons prior to Harold, who lost the battle of Hastings, 
 obtained bolts and bars of iron from the city of Gloucester. 
 The antiquarian Camden, quoted by Scrivenor and others, 
 states that " in and before the reign of William the Con- 
 queror the chief trade of the city of Gloucester was the for- 
 ging of iron ; and it is mentioned in Doomsdaxj-Book that 
 there was scarcely any other tribute required from that city 
 by the king than certain dicars of iron and iron bars for the 
 use of the royal navy. The quantity required was thirty- 
 six dicars of _ iron ; a dicar containing ten bars and 
 one hundred iron rods for nails or bolts." Giraldis 
 Cambrensis, who lived in the twelfth century, speaks 
 of "the noble Forest of Dean, by which Gloucester 
 was amply supplied with iron and venison." Nicholls, in 
 The Forest of Dean, says that in the time of Edward the 
 First, in the early part of the thirteenth century, the Free 
 Miners of the Forest " applied for and obtained their ' cus- 
 tomes and franchises,' which were granted, as the record of 
 them declares, ' time out of miiid." In 1282, according to 
 Nicholls, there were "upward of seventy -two forgece er- 
 rantes, or movable forges, in the Forest, each of which paid 
 a license of 7s. a year to the crown. Scrivenor states that 
 during the period from the Conquest to the death of John, 
 
 in 1216, iron and steel were imported into Britain from Ger- 
 many and other countries. The Normans, however, con- 
 tributed much to develop English iron and other resources. 
 Green, in his History of the English People, says that one 
 immediate result of the Conquest was a great immigration 
 into England from the Continent. " A peaceful invasion of 
 the industrial and trading classes of Normandy followed 
 quick on the conquest of the Norman soldiery." Still the 
 English iron industry made but slow progress. It is men- 
 tioned by Scrivenor that there were but few iron mines in 
 the north of England in the thirteenth and fourteenth cen- 
 turies, and that, in the tenth year of the reign of Edward 
 the Second, in 1317, iron was so scarce in that section and 
 in Scotland that the Scots, " in a predatory expedition which 
 they made in that year, met with no iron worth their notice 
 until they came to Furness, in Lancashire, where they 
 seized all the manufactured iron they could find, and carried 
 it off with the greatest joy, though so heavy of carriage, and 
 preferred it to all other plunder." The Scots at this time 
 were in great need of iron, which they did not produce, but 
 for which they were wholly dependent on the Continent and 
 on the favor or ill-fortune of England. Alexander says 
 that there were iron works at Kimberworth, in Yorkshire, 
 in 1160, and Smiles gives an extract from a contract for sup- 
 plying wood and ore for iron " blomes " at Kirskill, near 
 Otley, in Yorkshire, in 1352. A recent writer, Mr. H. A. 
 Fletcher, says that "the earliest record which has been 
 found of iron-ore mining in Cumberland seems to be the 
 grant of the forge at Winfel to the monks of Holm Cultram 
 Abbey, in the twelfth century, which also included a mine 
 at Egremont, by inference of iron, being in connection with 
 a forge ; and Thomas de Multon confirms a gift to the same 
 abbey de quartour duodenis mince fern in Coupland." Scrive- 
 nor mentions one art related to the manufacture of iron 
 which flourished in England from William to John, if the 
 manufacture itself did not. The art of making defensive 
 armor was brought to such perfection during the period 
 mentioned that a knight completely armed was almost in- 
 vulnerable." The history of the Crusades shows that the 
 English were then very proficient in the manufacture of 
 both arms and armor, as were the Turks who resisted them. 
 Smiles says that it was the knowledge of the art of iron for- 
 ging which laid the foundation of the Tiu-kish empire. By 
 means of this art they made the arms which first secured their 
 own freedom and then enabled them to extend their power. 
 Edward the Third, who reigned from 1327 to 1377, did 
 much to advance the manufacturing industries of Eng- 
 land. He protected domestic manufactures by legislation 
 which restricted the importation of foreign goods, and he 
 encouraged the immigration into England of skilled work- 
 men from the Continent. The use of iron was greatly ex- 
 tended in his reign, and its manufacture was active in Kent 
 and Sussex and in the Forest of Dean. Nevertheless the 
 domestic supply did not meet the wants of the people. 
 Scrivenor says : " By an act passed in the twenty-eighth year 
 of Edward the Third no iron manufactured in England, and 
 also no iron imported and sold, could be carried out of the 
 country, under the penalty of forfeiting double the quantity 
 to the king ; and the magistrates were empowered to regu- 
 late the selling price and to punish those who sold at too 
 dear a rate, according to the extent of the transaction." 
 This act appears to have remained in force long after Ed- 
 ward's death. Smiles quotes from Parker's English Home 
 the statement that in Edward the Third's reign the pots, 
 spits, and frying-pans of the royal kitchen were classed among 
 the king's jewels. The methods of manufacturing iron 
 which were followed in England in the thirteenth and four- 
 teenth centuries were still of a slow and restricted character, 
 although greatly advanced beyond those which existed in 
 the days of the Romans. The English were yet mainly de- 
 voted to agriculture, and were not even good farmers, "their 
 implements of husbandry and their methods of cultivating 
 the soil being equally rude. AVool was their great staple, 
 and this was largely exported to the Continent, where it was 
 manufactured into finer fabrics than the English were capa- 
 ble of producing. Iron was often scarce and dear, because 
 the domestic supply was insufficient. The iron industry on 
 the Continent was at this period in a much more advanced 
 stage of development, and most of the Continental iron was 
 also of a better quality than the English iron. Professor 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 23 
 
 James E. Thorold Rogers, in his History of Agriculture and 
 Prices in England, gives many interesting details concerning 
 the iron industry of England in the thirteenth and four- 
 teenth centuries. Iron was made at this time in Tindale, 
 in Cumberland ; at or near the city of Gloucester ; and in 
 Kent and Sussex. It was, doubtless, made in many other 
 places. Steel is frequently mentioned, the first reference to 
 it being in 1267. It is not clear whether all the steel used 
 in England during the period under consideration was im- 
 ported, but most of it certainly was. Much of the iron 
 used was imported, frequent mention being made of Spanish 
 and Osemond iron. Osemond steel is also frequently men- 
 tioned. In 1281 Norman iron, of a superior quality, was 
 bought for the Newgatejail. Spain appears to have been 
 the principal source of the supply of imported iron. It is 
 probable that the Osemond iron and steel were imported 
 from Sweden and Norway, the osmund furnace having been 
 in use in these countries and in Finland about this time. 
 Iron and steel were generally bought at fairs and markets. 
 The Spaniard attended the Stourbridge fair with his stock 
 of iron, and iron from the Sussex forges was sold at the same 
 place. The prices of iron and steel were usually lower near 
 the sea and at the great towns in the south of England than 
 elsewhere. Among the farmers it was customary for the 
 bailiff to buy the iron that might be needed on the farm, 
 and to employ a smith to make the horseshoes and nails and 
 to iron the implements. Steel appears to have been but 
 little used by the farmers. Rogers says that " no direct in- 
 formation about the seasons, scanty as it is, is so frequent as 
 that found in the notices which the bailiff gives of the great 
 cost of iron." Iron for the tires of wagons and carts was 
 so dear that many wheels were not ironed. 
 
 Iron wa, sold in several forms. The iron made at the 
 works at Tendale was sold in the form of blooms in 1333 
 and subsequently. Blooms were sold as early as 1318, but 
 the place of their manufacture is not given. Slabs and bars 
 of iron are also mentioned, but the commonest form in 
 which iron was sold was the piece, twenty-five pieces con- 
 stituting a hundred-weight. " The small fagot of iron, cash 
 bar of which weighed a little over four pounds, was kept by 
 the bailiff, and served, as occasion required, for the various 
 uses of the farm." The Tendale bloom weighed about one 
 hundred pounds, and was sold at a much lower price than 
 other forms of iron. It was, of course, unrefined iron. 
 Steel was usually sold by the garb, or sheaf, each sheaf con- 
 taining thirty small pieces, the exact weight of which is not 
 stated. Rogers supposes that the pieces of iron and steel 
 were of about the same weight, and that the price of steel 
 was about four times the price of iron. Occasional mention 
 is made of steel, which was sold by the cake ; it was " a 
 little higher in value and much greater in weight than the 
 garb." Plow-shoes, which appear to have been iron points 
 to wooden shares, are of frequent occurrence in the accounts 
 quoted by Rogers, and so are lath and board nails, clouts and 
 clout nails, and horseshoe and horseshoe nails. Horseshoes 
 were not purchased from the smiths until about the close of 
 the fourteenth century ; down to that time the smiths were 
 supplied by the bailiffs with the iron for their manufacture. 
 " Hinges, staples, and bolts were occasionally manufactured 
 by the village smith, from iron supplied him by the bailiff, 
 but were more frequently bought at the market-town or 
 fair." Iron mattocks and hoes were used in the fourteenth 
 century, as were iron sickles, scythes, and hay and other 
 forks. Domestic utensils of iron were not in general use; 
 pots and other articles, used in the kitchen were usually of 
 brass. A brass jug and pan are mentioned in 1272 ; a brass 
 jug and basin in 1360; and two brass pots in 1383. Such 
 iron utensils as were in use appear to have been made of 
 wrought iron. Tinware was certainly unknown. Hammers, 
 axes, pickaxes, and other tools were made of iron. Iron 
 hoops were used for buckets and grain measures in the_ four- 
 teenth century ; " the iron-bound bucket that hung in the 
 well " had an existence as early at least as 1331. Passing 
 ti other authorities we find that arrow-heads were manu- 
 factured at Shefiield in the thirteenth century, and that 
 knives were manufactured at the same place in the fourteenth 
 century, as they are to-day. Chaucer, who wrote his Can- 
 terhw-y Tales near the close of the latter century, in describing 
 the miller of Trompington, says that " a Schefeld th;vytel 
 bar he in his hoso." Birmingham was then, as it is now, a 
 
 center of the manufacture of swords, tools, and nails. 
 Smiles pays a deserved compliment to the English smith, to 
 whom England owes so much of her greatness. In Anglo- 
 Saxon times his person was protected by a double penalty, 
 and he was treated as an officer of the highest rank. The 
 forging of swords was then his great specialty. ^V'illiam the 
 Conqueror did much to exalt the art of the smith, to which 
 he was much indebted for his victory at Hastings, his 
 soldiers being better armed than those of the Saxon Harold. 
 At the close of the fourteenth century the smith had fairly 
 entered upon the brilliant career which has since contributed 
 so much to the industrial pre-eminence of England. Mr. 
 Picton, in a recent address, says : " Iron work at this period 
 was of the most elaborate description. The locks and keys, 
 the hinges and bolts, the smith's work in gates and screens, 
 exceed in beauty anything of the kind which has since been 
 produced." England appears to have first used cannon in 
 field warfare at me battle of Cressy and the siege of Calais 
 in the year 1346, when the bowmen of Edward the Third 
 were drawn up "in the form of a harrow," with small 
 bombards between them, '' which, with fire, threw little iron 
 balls to frighten the horses." These bombards were made of 
 " iron bars joined together longitudinally, and strengthened 
 by exterior hoops of iron." France, however, according to 
 Scrivener, appears to have used cannon as early as 1338, in 
 which year it is reported that the government had an account 
 with Henry de Faumichan " for gunpowder and other things 
 necessary for the cannon at the siege of Puii Guillaume." 
 But the archers of the English army continued to be the 
 main reliance of the English kings for many years after 
 Edward's first use of the bomljards, and on the Continent 
 gunpowder did not come into general useuntil the sixteenth 
 century At the battle of Pavia, in 1525, the match-lock 
 was first used in an effective form, and it was then fired from 
 a rest. 
 
 During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the manu- 
 facture of iron in England was greatly extended. The en- 
 couragement which Edward the Third and his immediate 
 successors had given to the immigration of foreign workmen 
 into England had resulted in the settlement in the country 
 of many Flemish and French ironworkers, whose skill was 
 eagerly sought by many landed proprietors, who entered 
 with zeal into the manufacture of iron. Sussex became the 
 principal seat of the industry ; it possessed both ores and 
 forests, the latter supplying the necessary fuel, and small 
 streams furnished the requisite power to drive the "iron 
 mills." As one marked result of the extension of the iron 
 manufacture in England, the dependence of the country 
 upon foreign sources of iron supply was greatly lessened ; 
 so much so that in 1483 an act was passed prohibiting the 
 importation of gridirons, grates, iron wire, knive'^, hinges, 
 scissors, and many other manufactured articles of iron or 
 steel which competed with like articles of domestic pro- 
 duction. Landrin, however, states that fine tools were still 
 imported from Bilbao, in Spain, as late as 1548. About the 
 beginning of the fifteenth century, blast furnaces were in- 
 troduced into England from the Continent, and this event 
 gave a fresh impetus to the iron industry of Sussex, Kent, 
 Surrey, and other sections. Prior to the introduction of 
 blast furnaces, all the iron that was manufactured in England 
 was produced in forges or bloomaries directly from the ore, 
 and was, consequently, when finished, wrought or bar iron. 
 Little of it was cast iron. These bloomaries were doubtless 
 modeled after the German stuckofen during the latter part of 
 the period antecedent to the introduction of the blast furnace. 
 The exact date of the erection of the first blast furnace in 
 England is unknown, but this event must have followed 
 closely upon the introduction of tho Jlussofen, or blauofen, 
 on the Continent in the fourteenth century. The English 
 antiquarian writer, Mr. A. Lower, in his account of the iron 
 industry of Sussex, mentions iron castings which were made 
 in Sussex in that century, but these may have been pro- 
 duced by the stuckofen, or high bloomary. Mushet supposes 
 that cast iron was made in the Forest of Dean in 1540, and 
 he says that the oldest piece of cast-iron he ever saw bore 
 the initials "E.R." and the date "1555." Camden, who 
 lived between 1551 and 1623, says that " Sussex is full of 
 iron mines everywhere, for the casting of which there are 
 furnaces up and down the country, and abundance of wood 
 is yearly spent." He also says that the heavy forge-ham- 
 
24 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 mers, which were mostly worked by water-power, stored in 
 hammer-ponds, "beating upon the iron, fill the neighbor- 
 hood round about, day and night, with continual noise." 
 About 1G12, John Norden, quoted by Smiles, stated in a 
 published document that there are, or lately were, in 
 Sussex neere 140 hammera and furnaces for iron.'' At this 
 time Sussex is supposed to have produced one-half of all 
 the iron made in England. The best of the Sussex furnaces 
 did not, however, at this time produce more than eight or 
 ten tons of pig iron in a week. At Pontypool, in Mon- 
 mouthshire, a blast furnace was built in 1565 by Capel 
 Hanbury, to smelt the Eoman cinder which was found there, 
 and about the same time several furnaces were built in the 
 Forest of Dean to rework the cinder which was found there 
 in large quantities. The first furnaces built in the Forest 
 were 15 feet high and six feet wide at the boshes. The fur- 
 naces at work in 1677 were blown with bellows 20 feet long, 
 driven by " a great wheel " turned by water. Smiles says 
 that " the iron manufacture of Sussex reached its height 
 toward the close of the reign of Elizabeth, when the trade 
 became so prosperous that, instead of importing iron, 
 England began to export it in considerable quantities in the 
 shape of iron ordnance." This ordnance was cast, and the 
 time referred to was the close of the sixteenth century. 
 Bronze cannon had succeeded the bombards about the 
 beginning of that century, and as early as 1543 cast-iron 
 cannon were made in Sussex, at a place called Bucksteed, 
 by Ealph Hoge, who employed a Frenchman named Peter 
 Baude as his assistant. " Many great guns " were subse- 
 quently cast in Sussex, John Johnson and his son Thomas 
 Johnson, the former a servant of Peter Baude, being promi- 
 nent in their manufacture. John Johnson is said to have 
 " succeeded and exceeded his master in this his art of casting 
 ordnance." About 1595 the weight of some of the cannon 
 cast in Sussex amounted to three tons each. At a later 
 period, in 1648, Bishop Wilkins, in his Mathematicall Magick, 
 says that " a whole cannon weighed commonly 8,000 pounds, 
 a half cannon 5,000, a culverin 4,500, a demi-culverin 3,000. 
 A whole cannon required for every charge 40 pounds of 
 powder and a bullet of 64 pounds." But a still greater 
 honor is claimed for Peter Baude than that with which his 
 name is above associated. Stow, in his Chronicle, quoted 
 by Froude and Smiles, says that two foreign workmen, whom 
 Henry the Eighth tempted into his service, first invented 
 shells. " One Peter Baude, a Frenchman-born, and another 
 alien called Peter Van Cullen, a gunsmith, both the king's 
 feed men, conferring together, devised and caused to be made 
 certain mortar pieces, being at the mouth from 11 inches 
 unto 19 inches wide, for the use whereof they caused to be 
 made certain hollow shot of cast iron, to be stufied with fire- 
 work or wild-fire, whereof the bigger sort for the same had 
 screws of iron to receive a match to carry fire kindled, that 
 the fire-work might be set on fire for to break in pieces the 
 same hollow shot, whereof the smallest piece hitting any 
 man would kill or spoil him.'' There is deposited in the 
 library of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, at Phila- 
 delphia, a stone cannon-ball, one of twenty -three which are 
 said to have been fired at the boat in which Queen Mary and 
 Douglass made their escape from Loch Leven in 1568. It is 
 about 8 inches in diameter, is round, but not smooth, and 
 weighs probably 15 pounds. 
 
 The exportation of cast-iron cannon became so extensive 
 that complaint was made that Spain armed her ships with 
 them to fight the ships of England, and the trade was for a 
 time prohibited. Hume says that "shipbuilding and the 
 founding of iron cannoa were the sole manufactures in which 
 the English excelled in James the First's reign," from 1603 
 to 1625. In 1629 the crown ordered 600 cannon to be cast 
 for the States of Holland. England, however, continued to 
 import from the Continent, particularly from Sweden, Ger- 
 many, and Spain, some of the finer qualities of iron and 
 considerable stsel. Before 1568 all iron wire that was made 
 in England was "drawn by main strength alone," according 
 to Camden. The Germans, says this author, then intro- 
 duced into the Forest of Dean and ebewhere, the art of 
 drawing it by a mill. Prior to the year mentioned the greater 
 part of the iron- wire and ready-made wool-cards used in 
 England was imported. Scrivenor quotes Williams' History 
 of Monmouthshire as authority for the statement that the 
 iron and wire works near Tint«rn Abbey wera erected by 
 
 Germans. There can be no doubt that the iron industry of 
 England in the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries 
 was greatly indebted to the inventive genius and mechanical 
 skill of the Continental nations. Near the close of the six- 
 teenth century there was introduced into England an inven- 
 tion for slitting flattened bars of iron into strips, called 
 nail-rods. This invention was the slitting mill. Scrivenor, 
 upon the authority of Gough'a Camden, states that Godfrey 
 Bochs, of LiSge, Belgium, set up at Dartford, in 1590, " the 
 first iron mill for slitting bars." Dartford is a market town 
 in Kent. Another story associates the name of " the founder 
 of the Foley family, who was a fiddler living near Stour- 
 bridge," with the honoi- of introducing the first slitting mill 
 into England, a knowledge of which he surreptitiously 
 gained by visiting Swedish iron works and fiddling for the 
 workmen. Percy states that Eichard Foley, the founder of 
 the Foley family at Stourbridge, who was first a seller of 
 nails and afterwards a forgemaster, died in 1657, at the age 
 of 80 years. In 1606 and 1618 patents were granted in Eng- 
 land to Sir Davis Bulmer and Clement Dawbeny, respect- 
 ively, for cutting iron into nail-rods by water-power. Th« 
 slitting mill, by whomsoever invented and perfected, greatly 
 benefited the nail trade of England. Birmingham became 
 the center of this industry, and it was htre, probably, Aat 
 women and girls were first regularly employed in England 
 in the manufacture of nails. Hutton, quoted by Dr. Young 
 in his Labor in Europe and America, says that in 1741 they 
 were thus employed in the numerous blacksmiths' shops of 
 Birmingham, " wielding the hammer with all the grace of 
 their sex." They were called " nailers." Machinery was 
 not applied to the manufacture of nails until near the close 
 of the eighteenth century. The art of tinning iron was first 
 practiced in Bohemia, and about 1620 it was introduced into 
 Saxony. These countries for a time supplied all Europe 
 with tin plates. In 1681 Andrew Yarranton asserted that tin 
 plates were then made in England through his means, he 
 having learned the art of making them in Saxony in 1665. 
 
 The exact date of the introduction of the manufac- 
 ture of tin plates into England by Yarranton is said to 
 have been 1670. The first attempt to establish the new 
 industry in England was made at Pontypool, in Monmouth- 
 shire. Scrivenor states that in 1740 the art " was brought 
 to considerable perfection in England." But, notwithstand- 
 ing the progress which had been made in the development 
 of the English iron trade, especially in the reigns of Henry 
 the Eightli, Elizabeth, and James the First, an influence was 
 at work which was destined to weigh heavily for a hundred 
 and fifty years upon all further development. This was the 
 growing scarcity of wood for the use of the forges and fur- 
 naces ; mineral fuel, or pit-coal, not yet having come into 
 use as a substitute for wood. The forests of England in the 
 ironmaking districts had been largely consumed by " the 
 voragious iron mills," and there were "loud complaints that 
 the whole community would be unable to obtain fuel for 
 domestic purposes if this denudation was persisted in. In 
 response to these complaints we learn from Scrivenor that, 
 in 1558, the first year of the reign of Elizabeth, an act was 
 passed which prohibited the cutting of timber in certain 
 parts of the country for conversion into coal or fuel " for 
 the making of iron," special exception being made of the 
 Weald of Kent, certain parishes, and " high in the Weald of 
 the county of Surrey." In 1581 a further act to prevent the 
 destruction of timber was passed, which set forth the increas- 
 ing scarcity of timber for fuel in consequence of " the late 
 erection of sundry iron mills in divers places not far distant 
 from the city of London and the suburbs of the same, or 
 from the downs and sea-coast of Sussex," and provided that 
 no new iron works should be erected within twenty-two 
 miles of London, nor within fourteen miles of the river 
 Thames," nor in certain parts of Sussex near the sea ; nor 
 should any wood within the limits described, with certain 
 exceptions, be converted to coal " or other fuel for making 
 of iron." A more sweeping act was passed in 1584, which 
 prohibited the erection of any new iron works in Surrey, 
 Kent, and Sussex, and ordered that no timber one foot square 
 at the stub should be used as fuel " at any iron work.'^ It 
 is said that these restrictions were not very rigidly enforced, 
 but they served to narrow the limits within which the manu- 
 facture of iron could be prosecuted. About the middle of 
 the seventeenth century the iron industry experienced 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 25 
 
 another serious check through the civil commotioa which 
 then prevailed. Many of the forges and furnaces in Sussex 
 and m the south of Wales were then destroyed, and not 
 again rebuilt. Soon after the Restoration all of the royal 
 iron works in the Forest of Dean were destroyed, owing to 
 the scarcity of timber. There was then much apprehension 
 felt whether the Forest of Dean should fail to supply timber 
 for the royal navy. Owing to the scarcity of timber many 
 of the iron works in Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and in the north 
 of England were " laid down " in 1676, when England's 
 supply of iron was largely derived from " Sweadland, Flan- 
 ders, and Spain." Dudley, in his Metallum Martis, says 
 that in 1644 there were nearly 20,000 smiths of all sorts 
 within ten miles of Dudley Castle, in Staffordshire, and that 
 there were also " many iron works at that time within that 
 circle decayed for want of wood (yet formerly a mighty 
 woodland country)." 
 
 Notwithstanding these severe checks, the iron industry of 
 England bravely refused to be utterly destroyed, and as late 
 as 1720 it was still second in importance to the manufacture 
 of woolen goods. In 1740, however, only 59 furnaces were 
 left in all England and Wales, and their total production 
 was but 17,350 tons of pig iron, or about 294 tons for each 
 furnace. AH of the mrnaces may not have been in blast, 
 as it has been proved that, ten years later, in 1750, each of 
 the charcoa,l furnaces of Monmouthshire produced 24 tons 
 of iron in a week. Ten of the furnaces existing in 1740 
 were in Sussex, but in 1788 only two of these were left. In 
 1740 there were ten furnaces iii the Forest of Dean. Pig 
 iron is still made in this district, but with coke as fuel. The 
 iron industry of Kent and Sussex is now extinct. The last 
 furnace in the Weald of Sussex, at Ashburnham, was blown 
 out in 1829. During the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- 
 turies England imported iron largely from Sweden, and in 
 the latter century both Russia and the American colonies 
 contributed to her supply. The scarcity of timber for fuel 
 for blast purposes in England continuing, a proposition was 
 made in the British Parliament in 1737 to bring all pig iron 
 from the British colonies in America ; and in 1750, to facili- 
 tate the importation of pig iron from these colonies, the 
 duty which had previously been imposed for the protection 
 of British ironmakers was repealed. At this time the busi- 
 ness of manufacturing iron in some parts of Great Britain 
 was conducted upon such primitive principles that both 
 charcoal and iron ore were carried to the furnaces of Mon- 
 mouthshire on the backs of horses. Soon after the passage 
 of the act of 1750, mineral coal in the form of coke came 
 into general use in the manufacture of iron in England, and 
 the iron trade of that country and of Wales at once revived, 
 while that of Scotland may be said to have been created by 
 the new fuel. The first successftil use of mineral coal in the 
 blast furnace was by Abraham Darby, of Shropshire, at his 
 furnace at Coalbrookdale, in 1735. This coal .was coked. 
 In 1740 a coke furnace was built at Pontypool, in Monmouth- 
 shire. In 1796 charcoal furnaces had been almost entirely 
 abandoned in Great Britain. The manufacture of pig iron 
 with mineral coal was greatly facilitated by the invention of 
 a cylindrical cast-iron bellows by John Smeaton, in 1760, 
 to take the place of wooden or leather bellows, and by the 
 improvements made in the steam engine by James Watt 
 about 1769 — ^both these valuable accessions to blast-furnace 
 machinery being used for the first time, through the influ- 
 ence of Dr. Roebuck, at the Oarron iron works in Scotland. 
 The effect of their introduction was to greatly increase the 
 blast, and, consequently, to increase the production of iron. 
 The blast, however, continued to be cold air at all furnaces, 
 both coke and charcoal, and so remained until 1828, when 
 James B. Neilson, of Scotland, invented the hot-blast. These 
 and other changes in the manufacture of pig iron were speedily 
 followed by equally important innovations in the manufac- 
 ture of finished iron. In 1783 Henry Cort, of Gosport, Eng- 
 land, obtained a patent for rolling iron into bars with grooved 
 iron rolls, and in the following year he obtained a patent 
 for converting pig iron into malleable iron by means of a 
 puddling furnace. These patents did not relate to abso- 
 lutely new inventions in the manufacture of iron, but to 
 important improvements on existing methods, which had 
 not, however, been generally employed. Mineral- coal was 
 now used in the puddling furnace as well as in the blast 
 iiirnace : it had long been used in refineries. To the im- 
 
 provements introduced by Cort the iron trade of Great 
 Britain is greatly indebted. The refining of pig iron in 
 forges and its subsequent conversion into bars and plates 
 under a tilt-hammer virtually formed the only method of 
 producing finished iron down to Cort's day, both in Great 
 Britain and on the Continent, and it was wholly inadequate 
 to the production of large quantities of iron of this char- 
 acter. With mineral fuel, powerful blowing engines, the 
 puddling furnace, and grooved rolls Great Britain rapidly 
 passed to the front of all ironmaking nations. The inven- 
 tion of crucible cast steel originated with Benjamin Hunta- 
 man, an English clockmaker, about the middle of the 
 eighteenth century, and not only ShefiSeld, the principal 
 seat of the manufacture of fine cutlery, but all England as 
 well, has greatly profited by his discovery. 
 
 We now turn from the iron industry of England to thai or 
 Wales, Ireland, and Scotland. In the sixteenth century, 
 owing to the scarcity of timber in England, some of the 
 ironmasters of Sussex emigrated to Glamorganshire, in South 
 Wales, where they founded the iron works of Aberdare and 
 Merthyr Tydvil, and other iron works. Remains of the 
 works in the Aberdare valley still exist, and Merthyr Tydvil 
 is the centre of a great iron industry to-day. In 1770 the 
 first coke furnace in South Wales was built at Cyfarthfa. 
 In 1788 there were six coke furnaces in South Wales. Cort's 
 inventions were promptly appropriated by Welsh ironmas- 
 ters. According to Scrivenor, iron-ore mines were opened 
 in Ireland by the English who settled in the country during 
 the reign of Elizabeth, and iron itself was extensively 
 manufactured in Ireland by the English during the reign 
 of James the First and afterwards. The most ex- 
 tensive works were in the provinces of Munster, Con- 
 naught, and Ulster, and in the counties of Queens, Kings, 
 and Thomond. In some instances iron ore was taken from 
 England to the sea-coast of Ulster and Munster, in Ireland, 
 the latter country then abounding in forests, but generally 
 Ireland supplied both the ore and the fuel. Most of the 
 iron produced was in bars from forges, but ordnance, pots, 
 and other articles were also cast in foundries or furnaces. 
 The rebellion of 1641 put an end to many of the English 
 iron works in Ireland, some valuable works in the county of 
 Mayo escaping. In 1660 Sir William Petty established ex- 
 tensive iron works in the county of Kerry, which continued 
 in operation until the middle of the eighteenth century, 
 when they were stopped in consequence of the scarcity of 
 timber. In 1672 this gentleman stated that one thousand 
 tons of iron were then made in Ireland. Near the close of 
 the seventeenth century an act of the British Parliament 
 remitted the duties on bar iron and on iron slit and ham- 
 mered into bars imported from Ireland, the manufacturing 
 industries being then greatly depressed. The iron industry 
 of Ireland survived until the reign of George the Second, 
 in the early part of the eighteenth century, when it came to 
 an end in consequence of the scarcity of timber, the compe- 
 tition of English iron, and the unsettled condition of the 
 country. An efibrfc was made to revive it at the close of the 
 century, but it met with slight success. In 1840 there were 
 no iron works in Ireland " going on." In 1857 there was 
 but one furnace yet standing in Ireland. There are now no 
 iron works in the country. Irish ores were imported into 
 the United States in 1879 and 1880. It has already been 
 stated that iron was very scarce in Scotland in the closing 
 centuries of the Middle Ages, Scotland obtaining all her 
 supply of iron at that time from outside her borders. The 
 Scotch, however, were noted during the period mentioned 
 for the excellence of their swords and armor, the former 
 vying in temper with those of Toledo and Milan. In Sir 
 Walter Scott's story of The Fair Maid of Perth, the events 
 of which are supposed to have occurred during the last years 
 of the fourteenth century, the hero, Henry Gow, is an 
 armorer — a forger of swords, and bucklers, and coats-of- 
 mail. In 1547 an English chronicler wrote that " the Scots 
 came with swords all broad and thin, of exceeding good 
 temper, and universally so made to slice that I never saw 
 none so good, so I think it hard to devise a better." Scot- 
 land had no noteworthy iron-producing industry of her own 
 until the middle of the eighteenth century. It is conjec- 
 tured, however, that her ancient inhabitants may have made 
 iron in very small quantities, as pieces of iron slag were 
 discovered in 1861 in the ruins of Celtic fortified towns in 
 
26 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the Cheviot hills, on the border between England and Scot- 
 land. Mr. Richard Meade informs us that the earliest 
 information bearing on iron smelting in Scotland dates from 
 1750, in which year the first furnace was erected at Bunawe, 
 in Argyleshire, by a Mr. Ford. In this furnace the blast 
 was driven by water-power obtained from the' river Awe, 
 the ore used being brought from Ulverstone, in Lancashire, 
 while charcoal was exclusively used as fuel. The Bunawe 
 furnace, now known as the Lome, is still in existence, 
 although not in operation. Previous to 1788 a similar fur- 
 nace was erected at Goatfield, also in Argyleshire. In 1760 
 the first blast furnace at the celebrated Carron iron works, 
 in Stirlingshire, was put in operation, where for some time 
 charcoal was used. The manufacture of carronades was 
 long a specialty of the Carron iron works. Mineral coal 
 was soon substituted for charcoal at this furnace, and from 
 that time forward the iron industry of Scotland was rapidly 
 developed. In 1788 there were six coke furnaces in Scot- 
 land and the two charcoal furnaces of Bunawe and Goatfield. 
 The following statistics will show how rapidly the manu- 
 facture of pig. iron in Great Britain has grown in the last 
 hundred years. In 1788 there were 77 furnaces in England 
 and Wales, and 8 furnaces in Scotland, the total production 
 of which was 68,300 tons. Of the whole number of furnaces, 
 26 used charcoal and 59 used coke. The imports of iron by 
 Great Britain in this year amounted to about 15,000 tons. 
 In 1796 there were 104 furnaces in England and Wales, 
 producing 107,797 tons of iron. In Scotland there were 17 
 furnaces, producing 16,086 tons. In 1806 there were 173 
 furnaces in Great Britain, producing 258,006 tons. In 1820 
 there were 285 furnaces, producing 400,000 tons. In 1827 
 the production was 690,500 tons. In 1840 it was 1,396,400 
 tons. In 1854 it rose to 3,069,838 tons. This quantity was 
 then estimated to be fully one-half of the world's production 
 of pig iron. The same proportion was steadily maintained 
 by Great Britain for manyyears, butit is now lost. In 1857 
 Great Britain's production of pig iron was 3,659,477 tons, 
 smelted from 9,573,281 tons of ore in 628 blast furnaces, of 
 which 333 were in England, 170 in Wales, 124 in Scotland, 
 and 1 in Ireland. In 1872 the product was 6,741,929 tons. 
 In 1880 the production of pig iron by Great Britain was 
 7,749,233 tons. For several years there have been preserved 
 only 4 charcoal furnaces in Great Britain, and these have 
 produced but little iron. The whole number of blast fur- 
 naces in Great Britain in 1880 was 967, only 567 of which 
 were in blast. The eighteenth century marked a new era 
 in many branches of manufacturing industry in which the 
 British people have become prominent. It was the era of 
 machinery, which then began to receive general attention as 
 a substitute for hand labor. This era gave to the people of 
 Great Britain the manufacture of Indian cotton goods, and it 
 largely increased their woolen manufacture and assisted to 
 develop their iron manufacture. It was in the eighteenth 
 century that Great Britain, in consequence of her quick ap- 
 preciation of the value of labor-saving machinery, became 
 the first manufacturing nation in the world; in the pre- 
 ceding century four-fifths of the British working people 
 were still farmers or farm laborers. During the latter part 
 of the eighteenth century and the whole of the nineteenth 
 century down to the present time no other country has 
 occupied so conspicuous a position as Great Britain in the 
 manufacture of iron and steel. Spain and Germany had in 
 turn led modern nations in the production of these essentials 
 in civilization, but Great Britain passed to the head when 
 she began to make pig iron with the aid of mineral fuel and 
 her powerful blowing engines. She had abundance of iron 
 ores and bituminous coal, and her people had applied to 
 the utilization of these products their indomitable energy 
 and newly-developed inventive genius. France, Germany, 
 Belgium, and other Continental countrier. might have sub- 
 stituted mineral coal for charcoal, invented the puddling 
 furnace, or perfected the rolling mill and the steam engine, 
 but none of them did. To England and also to Scotland is the 
 world indebted for the inventions that gave a fresh impetus 
 to the manufacture of iron in the eighteenth century; and 
 it is also indebted to the same countries for most of the 
 inventions and changes of the present century which have 
 further developed the manufacture of iron and increased the 
 demand for it, and which have almost created the manufac- 
 ture of steel. Stephenson, the Englishman, improved the 
 
 locomotive in 1815, and in 1825 the first passenger railroad 
 in the world was opened in England, Stephenson's locomo- 
 tive hauling the trains. Neilson, the Scotchman, invented 
 the hot-blast in 1828 ; Crane, the Englishman, applied it to 
 the manufacture of pig iron with anthracite coal in 1837 ; 
 Nasmyth, the Scotchman, invented the steam hammer in 
 1838 and the pile driver in 1843 : and Bessemer, the Eng- 
 lishman, invented the process which bears his name, and 
 which is the flower of all metallurgical achievements. The 
 Siemens regenerative gas furnace, which has been so exten- 
 sively used in the manufacture of iron and steel, is also an 
 English invention, although the inventors, Charles Willianr 
 and Frederick Siemens, while citizens of England, are natives 
 of Hanover, in Germany. That Great Britain did not at first 
 seek to extend the influence of her new light and life to 
 other countries, but by various acts of Parliament sought to 
 prevent the introduction of her inventions and the emigra- 
 tion of her skilled artisans into those countries, is not here 
 a subject for comment; nor is the strict adherence of Great 
 Britain to a policy of protection to home industries by cus- 
 toms duties during many centuries and down to almost the 
 middle of the present century a subject of comment. Both 
 measures undoubtedly fostered the growth of British manu- 
 facturing industries, and in the end the world was benefited 
 by British inventions, which found their way across the 
 British channel and the Atlantic ocean, and by the example 
 of British energy and British enterprise in the utilization of 
 native manufacturing resources. — 
 
 — Compiled from James 31. Swank^s " Eeport on Iron und Steel, Tenth Census of the 
 a. S." 
 
 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF SILVER. 
 
 SILVER had already taken a high rank among the me- 
 tals in the days of Abraham, and even at that early 
 period we find it playing the same part in the economy 
 of nations that gives it so much importance to us of 
 the present day. It was a standard of value, and a medium for 
 the transaction of exchanges when first mentioned ; this is still 
 its chief function, and will probably continue to be as long as 
 mankind buy and sell. In the time of the patriarchs it would 
 appear that money, as we understand it, was already but 
 partially in use; since sometimes we read of Abraham 
 receiving so many pieces of silver, and at others that he 
 weighed out a certain number of shekels of the same metal. 
 Hence we may conclude that the plan of employing a piece 
 of determined size in commercial transactions, was only 
 then superseding the more ancient system of determining, 
 by a separate weighing, the amount of silver necessary in 
 each exchange. Whether these^i'eces were stamped with a 
 device or not we have no means of knowing, but that silver 
 as well as gold was at that period wrought into various 
 household utensils and articles of ornament, we have abun- 
 dant evidence in the book of Genesis. There is a passage 
 in the account of a purchase of the field of Hebron which, 
 in investigating the ancient history of silver, demands more 
 than our passing attention. It is the statement that the 
 silver weighed by Abraham was current monaj with the 
 merchants. This leads to the conclusion that various sorts 
 of silver were already recognized, and that the merchants 
 possessed the knowledge necessary to distinguish between 
 the current and the uncurrent, or the pure and alloyed ; in 
 short, that the rudiments of assaying were practically 
 understood. Numismatologists concur in considering the 
 oldest stamped money that has come down to us to be that 
 made from silver by the ^ginetans, and in the Parian 
 chronicle the origin of coined money is ascribed to that 
 nation, the date of its discovery being placed in the time 
 of Phidon, who reigned 895 y'eaj-s before the Christian era. 
 Homer's heroes carried weapons ornamented with silver, 
 and that bard even mentions the locality from whence the 
 precious substance was brought ; but where to search upon 
 modern maps for the region thus made known by name will 
 probably continue to be, as it now is, an unsolved problem 
 for the antiquary. It is generally supposed that the silver 
 possessed by the nations along the eastern end of the 
 Mediterranean came from some country to the north or east, 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 27 
 
 and Chaldea, Bucharia, and the mountains belonging to the 
 modern Russian Empire have been mentioned as probable 
 localities. That silver was abundant in early historical 
 times is clear from the vast quantities that were obtained 
 by conquering armies in the form of plunder, ransom, or 
 tribute. Thus Rawlinson has found on a Babylonian mon- 
 ument an inscription stating that the city of Damascus, 
 after its conquest by Phuluk, was adjudged to pay a tribute 
 of - 2300 talents of silver, beside gold, copper and brass ; 
 and if it were possible to credit the figures of Pliny, Cyrus 
 obtained from his conquests in Asia an amount of silver 
 equivalent to 7,720,000,0002. ; while according to Herodotus, 
 the nations subdued by the Persians, excepting the Indies 
 and Antioch, paid a yearly tribute in silver of about 3,000,0002. 
 The metallic treasures of the East, won from the degener- 
 ate successors of Ale:Kander by victorious Roman warriors, 
 flowed into the lap of the Mistress of the World, where 
 they joined the precious streams coming northward from 
 the cofiers of the sumptuous Carthaginians. For fifty years 
 after the second Punic war, the conquered city paid an 
 annual tribute of 9000 pounds of silver. This treasure was 
 partly collected in the hands of private individuals or 
 families, and partly in the public treasury. The latter i3 
 said to have received, during the nine years following the 
 second Punic war, 112,000 pounds of silver from Spain 
 alone. The spectacles of the Emperors were often accom- 
 panied by the most lavish display of metallic wealth. To 
 such an extent was this carried, that Caligula, we are told, 
 loaded 124,000 pounds of silver upon the armor and 
 weapons that he caused to be brought into the circus. 
 Indeed, the extraordinary accounts given by various classic 
 authors of the amount of silver collected in ancient Rome, 
 would often have the appearance of gross exaggeration, 
 were we not aware that the treasures of the world gathered 
 for generations within her walls; and had we not incontes- 
 table statistics of the products of a region that in modern 
 times has yielded treasures far exceeding those possessed by 
 Rome even in the most brilliant period of her decadence : — 
 I allude to the meridional countries of the new world, which 
 will claim our attention presently. The localities from 
 whence the ancients obtained their silver seem to have been 
 quite numerous. The mines of Laurium, which Eschylus 
 calls the "fountain of silver treasure of the earth," were 
 possesssed by the Athenians: their production appears to 
 have largely decreased in early days, so that Strabo speaks 
 of them as exhausted. Diodorus relates that the shepherds 
 on the Pyrenees having set fire to their forests, the silver in 
 the earth was fused and ran upon the ground in numerous 
 streams, and that the natives not knowing the value of the 
 extraordinary substance thus springing from the mountains, 
 exchanged it with the Phoenician traders for wares of small 
 value. Pliny writes, what we may believe with less exten- 
 sion of our credulity that in his time the miners of Spain 
 sought silver in the bowels of the earth a mile and a half 
 beyond the light of day. The Carthaginians, according to 
 Polybius, had 40,000 men engaged in the Spanish mines, and 
 the Moors are known to have continued the search that had 
 in turn yielded so largely for nearly alf the great nations 
 of antiquity; yet when in 1571, the German family of 
 Fugger re-opened the deserted veins, they succeeded in the 
 space of thirty-six years in taking out more than 3,000,0002. 
 worth of the precious metal. Thus from the most remote 
 periods, strangers have sought in Spain the silver which the 
 natives have allowed to remain dormant in the earth. Nor 
 is this rule at present reversed, since by royal decrees of 
 1825 and 1849 the mines were thrown open to foreign 
 enterprise, and several English companies are now explor- 
 ing districts that were wrought in the grey antiquity, 
 perhaps for the merchants of Tyre. When Rome lost her 
 proud precedence, her stores of silver and gold moved east- 
 ward toward the seat of the Byzantine Government, and the 
 dark centuries that then followed were not of a character to 
 favor mining or to preserve records of metallic discovery. 
 German fable carries the first opening of some of the 
 middle European mines back to the seventh century. In 
 the tenth century, according to records that appear quite re- 
 liable, silver mines existed in Bohemia ; and in the twelfth 
 century, Tyrolese mines were worked. From Bohemia min- 
 ing knowledge and the spirit of mining enterprise spread to 
 the countries toward the north and west ; in the tenth century 
 
 mines of the Hartz were discovered, and in the twelfth those 
 of Saxony were opened. The mines of England, France, 
 Hungary, and Norway were already in operation when the 
 discovery of the new world, with its febulous stores of 
 metallic wealth, opened a new epoch in the history of the 
 precious metal. It was the fortune of Spain to reach this 
 land of gold and sUver first, and to appropriate to herself 
 not only the treasure in possession of the natives, but what 
 was far more important, the districts where the strata still 
 held untold millions. The Incas of Peru drew their silver 
 from the mines of Porco, but without any of those ingenious 
 and expensive contrivances that miners of the present day 
 bring to their aid. They sank no shafts, but simply drove 
 adits horizontally upon the vein, and worked out the ore 
 that happened to lie above the water level. Their processes 
 of reduction were as primitive as their methods of mining. 
 They had no idea of the virtues of quicksilver — a metal not 
 at all rare in their land — ^but fused the ore in rude fujmaces, 
 so built upon the mountain side that the prevailing winds 
 fanned the wasteftil flames. No money circulated in their 
 empire, but the precious metals were lavished upon the 
 walls of their temples, so that the polished surfaces threw 
 back brilliant images of their governing deities, the sun 
 and the moon. The palaces of the Inca nobility were 
 georgeously decorated. To such an extent was this carried, 
 that it is recorded that the soldiers of Pizarro found, near 
 Cuzco, three beams of silver each twenty feet long, one foot 
 broad, and two to three inches thick, which were intended 
 to form ornaments for a country seat then in process of 
 erection. The unfortunate prince Atahulapa, when made a 
 prisoner by the conquerors, sought to obtain his liberty by 
 offering rooms full of the precious metals as a ransom. The 
 ornaments torn from the temples of the various deities, and 
 removed from the royal palaces by the loyal subjects who 
 did not foresee the dark deed of treachery that awaited them , 
 amounted to a value at that period of 3,5000,0('02. of gold 
 and 51,610 marks,* or about 25,805 pounds of silver. But 
 the rapacious conquerors of the new world, found but a 
 comparatively small portion of the precious metals that 
 their victories brought them into possession of, in the hands 
 of the inhabitants. The veins of silver, discovered and 
 undiscovered, held a treasure that could scarcely have 
 been exceeded by their wildest dreams. The silver pro- 
 duction of the world is at the present time largely concen- 
 trated in the western hemisphere, and the richness and 
 abundance of the ores of the Cordilleras and Andes promise 
 a prize so tempting that almost continual revolution, and 
 consequent insecurity of property, combined with the many 
 difficulties which nature has thrown in the way, cannot 
 prevent both native and foreign companies from pushing 
 forward their precarious but often highly remunerative 
 operations. Peru is considered by Whitney to exceed all 
 other countries in the vastness of its silver deposits, but the 
 desolate region of snow and rock, in which some of the 
 : mines are situated, strikes even the most hardy miner with 
 terror. The mines of Potosi are worked at a height even 
 greater than that of Mont Blanc. Among the richest 
 silver mines in the world is that of Pasco, which was 
 discovered by accident ^in 1630. It is so miserably worked 
 that at one time 300 laborers were killed by the falling of a 
 portion of the mine, and hence it is known as the Matagenti, 
 or Kill-people. The well-known Cornish engineer, Richard 
 Trevithick, introduced nine steam-engines into this mine ; 
 in 1814 he visited the country himself, and was received 
 with the highest honors ; it was even proposed to erect a 
 statue to him in solid silver. In consequence of political 
 dissensions and civil war he was afterwards forced to escape, 
 and he carried with h:'m as the only remnant of his former 
 wealth a single pair of silver spurs. The total amount of 
 silver smelted at the Pasco works from 1784 to 1827 was 
 4,967,710 pounds troy, while the value of the metal yielded 
 in 1851 was about 400,0002. sterling. The Republic of 
 Bolivia contains mines whose' riches have passed into a 
 proverb. The immense deposits in the isolated mountain 
 known as the " Great Potosi," were discovered in 1545, since 
 which date, according to various estimates, they have sup- 
 plied the world with silver to the amount of 240,000,0002. 
 The greatest store of metal appeai-s to have been near the 
 
 * Prescott's History of the Conquest of Peru. 
 
28 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 surface, so that the most flourishing period occurred shortly 
 after they were opened. The average annual yield from 
 1545 to 1556 was about 2,818,000Z., and at that date silver 
 possessed a value fully six times that which it holds at 
 present. The Potosi mines, however, have fallen from their 
 rank as the first in the world in point of quantity produced, 
 and Chevalier estimates that at present they do not give an 
 annual yield of over 192.000Z. 
 
 The sad condition of the mining interest in Bolivia may be 
 perceived, when the fact is mentioned that in that country 
 in_1852 there were 4,165 abandoned mines, and only sixty- 
 six in actual operation. The mines of Peru and Bolivia, 
 notwithstanding their depressed condition during recent 
 years, yielded, from the period of their discovery to the 
 year 1845, a quantity of silver equal to 155,839,180 lbs. troy, 
 or a money value of not less than 506,220,000?. The politi- 
 cal condition of Chili has been more favorable for the 
 prosecution of mining adventure, and English enterprise 
 has served to open a number of mines within its borders. 
 Not less than 1,750,000 pounds of silver were raised in this 
 country between 1846 and 1853. The vast metallic deposits 
 of Mexico began to claim attention about the same period 
 as those of South America. Workings were commenced at 
 Zacatecas in 1548, and at Ghianaxuato in 1558. In the early 
 period of their history the mines of Mexico produced, 
 according to the estimates of Humboldt, from 400,000?. to 
 600,000Z. per annum. During the 18th century this pro- 
 duction gradully rose to 4,600,000?. per annum. This yearly 
 sum decreased during the War of Independence, but within 
 the last ten years it appears to have been higher than ever 
 before, having, according to the most reliable accounts, 
 reached 5,000,000?. sterling. Chevalier calculates the total 
 yield of the Mexican mines, between the advent of the 
 whites and the year 1845, to be at least 162,858,700 pounds 
 troy. 
 
 The earliest method of obtaining silver from its ores, of 
 which we have any knowledge, bears an astonishing resem- 
 blance to that made use of at the present day. The reader 
 will recall in this connection the striking similes used by 
 the Prophet Ezekiel : " Son of man, the house of Israel is 
 to me become dross : all they are brass, and tin, and iron, 
 and lead, in the midst of the furnace ; they are even the 
 dross of silver." And, "As they gather silver, and brass, 
 and iron, and lead, into the midst of the furnace, to blow 
 the fire upon it, to melt it ; so will I gather you in mine an- 
 ger and in my fury, and will leave you there and melt you." 
 Only those who have seen beneath the glowing arch at the 
 smeltin;^ works, flames surging wave after wave across the 
 surface of the liquid metal carrying all the substances here 
 called dross from the pure silver, and only those who have 
 heard the roar of the fiery blast that ceases neither day nor 
 night until its task of purification is accomplished, can ap- 
 preciate the terrible force of the figure macle use of by the 
 prophet. Several other passages in Holy Writ show us that 
 the plan of extracting silver from its ores in those ancient 
 times was first to obtain the silver in combination with lead 
 and other easily oxidisable metal-3, and then, by heating the 
 compound in a furnace and blowing air upon it, the impuri- 
 ties, or " dross," were turned into light oxides that were ab- 
 sorbed by the hearth, or floating on the surface were scraped 
 away. The student of metallurgy will find that the method 
 adopted in most of the silver furnaces of the present day, 
 is in principle analogous to this. The Romans made use of 
 a similar plan. Strabo quotes Polybius as speaking of a 
 silver ore which, after being washed seven times, was melted 
 with lead, and became pure silver. Pliny says that most of 
 the silver in his time was found in connection with lead, and 
 he further remarks that neither metal can be extracted 
 from its ores without the addition of the other. The plans 
 in use for extracting silver from its natural combinations, 
 without in one form or another introducing lead into the 
 furnace^ are probably all of modern invention, and it is 
 hence likely that this last expression of Pliny gives a gen- 
 eral fact in the metallurgy of silver in his time. That silver 
 must always be added to the ores of lead to insure the pro- 
 duction of the latter metal is an error, probably originating 
 in the circumstance that pieces of native silver, in order 
 that they may be readily fused, are frequently given directly 
 to the argentiferous lead in the process of cupelation. And 
 it is further probable that in ancient times all the commer- 
 
 cial lead contained a very perceptible quantity of silver 
 which it might readily be supposed had been added pur- 
 posely. But it is not to be expected that very distinct ac- 
 counts of the metallurgic processes of the Romans should 
 have descended to us, sin.ce the reduction of ores was carried 
 on in mountain fastnesses, far from regions frequented by 
 men of cultivation ; and mining and metallurgy were not 
 then, as they have become in modern times, subjects to 
 which men of the highest mental capacity directed their at- 
 tention. What in later days such men as Swedenborg, 
 Humboldt, Le Play, Rivot, and Scheerer have studied and 
 written upon with laborious care, was then left almost en- 
 tirely in the hands of serfs and malefactors. The accounts 
 that Diodorus has handed down to us of the cruelties prac- 
 tised in the mines of Spain are shocking to every sense of 
 humanity. Here the wretched laborers were driven, under 
 the whip of overseers, night and day, along the dark passa- 
 ges of the mine, and, forced to crawl with their loads of ore 
 through cramped crevices charged with all the vapors that 
 collect in subterranean excavations. 
 
 It is pleasing to one hopeful for the grand principle of 
 human progress to observe the immense and universal 
 change for the better in the condition of the laborers, that 
 has gradually taken place in this branch of industry. In 
 England each precious life that is lost in the mines is count- 
 ed with scrupulous care ; and by governmental and private 
 efibrts it is sought to prevent accidents and save bodily suf- 
 fering. In Westphalia can be seen vast bathing establish- 
 ments, where all the miners belonging to the works may take 
 their warm baths as regularly as did the old Roman aedile. 
 The silver mines of Saxony have an organ at their mine to 
 accompany them in their religious exercises that precede 
 their hours of labor. In southern Austria furnace-men and 
 miners are generally pensioned by the Government, at full 
 pay, after a faithful service of 40 years, and in many lands 
 steam not only draws the ore that was once laboriously car- 
 ried out by human labor, but even transports the miner him- 
 self to and from his daily employment. The mining of sil- 
 ver has led more than that of any other metal to this ame- 
 liorated condition of the miner, since its veins, penetrating 
 deep into the earth, have carried the adventurer gradually 
 forward, compelling him continually to devise new expe- 
 dients for the purpose of raising the water that threatened 
 to flood his treasure, to supply himself with pure air, and to 
 draw to the surface the mineral that he had collected in his 
 rocky caverns. The study of Hydraulics, Pneumatics, and 
 Mechanics was thus encouraged," by supplying a profitable 
 field for the practical application of the results of these 
 sciences. Gunpowder, which has wrought a change in the 
 underground economy of the rniner, as radical as that which 
 it has efiected in the habits of civilized nations, is stated to 
 have been first employed for blasting, in a mine produ- 
 cing silver ; that of Rammelsberg in the Hartz. The mines 
 of silver are among the most extensive with which man has 
 pierced the surface of the earth. Recently could be seen, 
 at the bottom of the Samson mine, in Hanover, figures in- 
 dicating that the main pit is 2,600 English feet, or within 
 40 feet of half a mile deep. It is a subject for wonder, how, 
 with the aid of water power alone, and with wooden pumps 
 that seem ready to fall to ^lieces with every stroke, even the 
 most patient miner should have reached a depth so extraor- 
 dinary. The vein of Guanaxuato, in Mexico, has been ex- 
 plored for about 2,000 feet. The deeper mines about Claus- 
 thal on the Hartz reach 1,900 feet below the surface. Some 
 of the most extensive engineering works connected with 
 mining have their origin in the search for silver. The adit 
 level, commenced in 1782 with the object of draining the 
 Schemnitz district, in Hungary, is intended to be nearly 9 
 miles long, and each fathom it is estimated will cost 40?. 
 The Freiberg silver mines, in Saxony, are about to be tap- 
 ped by a level nearly 8 miles (42,640 feet) in length, which 
 will carry the water off at a point 410 feet below the level of 
 the present deepest drainage. This tunnel will be 9 feet 11 
 inches in height, about 8 feet wide, and will rise in the whole 
 distance 12.6 feet. The metallic district of the Hartz around 
 Clausthal is drained by what is known as the " Tiefe Georg- 
 stollen," which was partly excavated in the latter years of the 
 last century, and completed in 1835. It is llj miles 
 longj and taps the mines 840 feet below the surface. At a 
 depth of 375 below the " Stollen ' above mentioned, is a 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 29 
 
 subterranean canal, upon which ore is transported in boats 
 from different mines to a convenient place for winding. The 
 length of this navigable channel is over two and a half 
 miles. 
 
 Beside stimulating mankind to the profound study of the 
 Divine laws by which matter is governed, by furnishing a 
 domain where knowledge thus gained could be brought into 
 daily and profitable use, silver, in its purified condition, has 
 played among the nations of the earth a very important 
 part as a civilizer. I allude to its employment in the form 
 of money in facilitating necessary exchanges of property, 
 and thus encouraging the ennobling intercourse of nations. 
 Mention has been already made of the period when it is 
 supposed that coius were invented. From the earliest his- 
 torical times to the present, silver has been par excellence the 
 metal of the mint, and in pieces of determined value it now 
 circulates under a thousand familiar names wherever com- 
 merce ia known. As a standard of value silver possesses ad- 
 vantages over all other substances. Gold alone presents 
 qualities that can be brought into comparison with it in this 
 connection. The fact that since the discovery of America 
 gold has fallen, when compared with the necessities of life 
 — as, for example, food — but in the proportion of 4 to 1, 
 while silver in the same period has experienced a depression 
 in the proportion of 6 to 1, has been adduced to show that 
 the former metal is the most staple in its worth, and hence 
 best suited for a standard. But the circumstances that have 
 taken place within the last century can never occur again. 
 No virgin hemisphere yet remains with mountains teeming 
 with silvery ores, whose discovery can work a new epoch in 
 the history of the precious metals. But, as a substance of 
 universal distribution in nature, and requiring long, labor- 
 ious, and ingenious processes to extract it from its layer in 
 the solid rock, and bring it into a form adapted for circula- 
 tion, silver must always retain a worth among men that will 
 bear a steady relation to the necessities of life. 
 
 — Cb7Bpi?ed./ror» " MetaVivffqy of Slluer and Lead, by R. H. Lamhorn^ Fh. D" 
 
 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF LEAD. 
 
 IN ancient times lead appears to have held quite a sub- 
 ordinate position among the metals, both as regards 
 the number of its uses and the value it possessed in 
 the market. Of its discovery history furnishes us 
 with no information. The Greek term molybdus, by which 
 the metal was known, is so closely analogous to its Indian 
 name, mulva, that some authors have been led to the con- 
 clusion that the knowledge and usage of the metal originated 
 in remote ages in the distant East, and from hence was dis- 
 seminated among the nations of Europe. Nature produces, 
 in sufficient quantities to attract the attention of the primi- 
 tive worker in metals, only such compounds of lead as fur- 
 nish the pure metal after a chemical process requiring the 
 aid of heat ; so that, unlike gold, copper, or silver, its 
 earliest use must have come subsequent to that condition of 
 cultivation that enabled the reduction of an ore. The dis- 
 covery of native lead among natural productions is due to 
 the scientific acumen of more recent times. An elementary 
 acquaintance with the properties of ores once possessed, it 
 is not diflScult to follow the course of reasoning and experi- 
 ment that would lead to the discovery of lead. Its most 
 valua"ble and abundant ore — galena — possesses so many 
 qualities calculated to make it remarked by an uncultivated 
 race ; its weight, its brilliant metallic glance, its hardness, 
 would all favor the conclusion that it was an unrefined 
 metal, and a very simple operation of the mind would lead 
 to the attempt to make it malleable by subjecting it to the 
 action of the fire. The occurrence of the ores of lead with 
 silver, and the attempts to purify the latter, may have been 
 the immediate cause of the discovery of the former metal. 
 The winning of lead from plumbiferous silver ores was in 
 the earliest times not connected with the reduction of the 
 litharge, as is at present so generally the case. The lead 
 was deemed the impurity of the more precious metal, and 
 was " burned " or oxidized away, as has been described in 
 the history of silver. The earliest mention that we have of 
 
 lead occur.i in Numbers, where it is spoken of with various 
 other metals among the spoils brought by the children of 
 Israel to Moses, after their victories over the Midianites ; 
 and it is evident that the same metal was an article of trade, 
 together with silver, iron, and tin, at the fairs of the Phoe- 
 nicians.* The Romans employed for lead the name^?um- 
 bum, which clearly had its origin in the Greek and Indian 
 appellations. They appear to have regarded lead and tin as 
 but varieties of the same metal, distinguishing the former 
 as black lead, and the latter as white lead. Remarkable 
 differences, however, were observed as existing between the 
 two, and the process of collecting the mineral, producing 
 the white variety (stream tin) from the dibris of the valleys, 
 is distinctly described; and, further, the fact that black 
 lead only, of the two varieties, could be refined for the pur- 
 pose of obtaining silver, appears to have been well under- 
 stood. The employment of lead in ancient times was much 
 less general than one might anticipate from the abundance 
 with which it occurs in nature. It was often used in con- 
 nection with tin as an alloy, and this mixture, being em- 
 ployed in the manufacture of bronze, probably led to the 
 introduction of the lead which is found to constitute a por- 
 tion of many works of plastic art, and coins, that have de- 
 scended to us. I have seen, in the Museo Borbonico, at 
 Naples, portions of an ancient water conduit from the island 
 of Capri, in which an exceedingly malleable lead was em- 
 ployed apparently for tightening the joints. Lead also ap- 
 pears to have been made into plates and tubes, and to have 
 answered as a material for vessels for household purposes. 
 Some of the chemical compounds of the metal appear to 
 have been well known to the Romans. Litharge, produced 
 in the treatment of argentiferous lead, was a common sub- 
 stance. As it was crystalline or amorphous, or more or less 
 pure, it received difterent names, which names were sup- 
 posed to designate entirely different substances. The 
 finer qualities were employed in medicine, in the prepara- 
 tion of plasters. 
 
 What is now known as white lead was called by the Ro- 
 mans " cerussa," and they prepared it by a method not very 
 dissimilar to that in use at present in many localities, by al- 
 lowing vinegar to act upon the commercial metal. This 
 substance was used as a color, and also extensively in med- 
 icine. It is related that some casks of white lead, that hap- 
 pened to be in a burning building, were so affected by the 
 neat, that their contents became a fine red color that was 
 found to make an excellent pigment, and which, after this 
 accidental discovery, was manufactured and sold under the 
 name of " burned white lead." This was the beginning of 
 the knowledge of what we call '' red lead," a substance now 
 so valuable to the painter. The Romans knew how to re- 
 duce the litharge formed in the process of smelting silver to 
 the condition of metallic lead, but this knowledge, limited 
 as it may seem, does not appear to have been possessed by 
 the tribes of eastern Siberia, where Gmelin .states that he 
 observed the remains of many old furnaces where silver had 
 been extracted, but where the lead with which it had been 
 combined was, after oxidation, thrown away. The poison- 
 ous qualities of the vapors of lead were known to the an- 
 cienta, and the deplorable effects it produces upon laborers 
 employed in the furnace were early noticed, as were also the 
 highly poisonous qualities of many of the lead compounds. 
 Although they appear to have used lead in the form of a 
 thin sheet, to detect by its color, upon being immersed in 
 wine, the state of acidity to which that fluid had arrived, 
 it does not appear that they had discovered the more modern 
 plan of adding litharge to sour wine, for the purpose of im- 
 proving its taste, by bringing about therein the formation 
 of a sweet salt. The countries standing first as producers of 
 lead in modern times are Great Britain, Spain, and the 
 United States. The royal decree that in 1825 opened the 
 Spanish mines to native and foreign competition was fol- 
 lowed by a period of rapid expansion in the mining and 
 metallurgic industry of the kingdom. For a period pre- 
 vious to 1820, with the exception of a few inconspicuous 
 iron pits, the only mine in activity in Spain was that of 
 Almaden, where the Government monopolised the produc- 
 tion of quicksilver. But in 1826 no less than 3000 mines 
 had been opened in the Sierras of Gador Lujar. So large 
 
 * Ezek. xiyii. 12. 
 
30 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and rich were the lead deposits here, that in 1823 the pro- 
 duction of the region had reached 25,000 tons per annum, 
 and in 1827 the quantity produced was 42,000 tons. The 
 markets of the world were soon overflowing, and, as a con- 
 sequence, a universal depression in the price of lead was 
 experienced throughout Europe, and many of the poorer 
 mines of Germany and England were compelled to suspend 
 operations. At length, in order to raise the price of the 
 metal to a remunerative point, the miners of the country 
 were obliged to enter into a mutual agreement to work the 
 deposits only during half the year. These vast stores of 
 metal were, however, chiefly near the surface ; their pro- 
 ductiveness soon began to diminish. Their point of culmi- 
 nation was in 1827, since which there has been a rapid fall- 
 ing off, until at present the yield is comparatively incon- 
 siderable. The lead and silver mines of Sierra de Almagrera 
 were discovered in 1839, and the excitement which the dis- 
 coveries there made produced was extraordinary. The 
 influx of population was such that in 1845,8000 miners were 
 employed in that district in 826 mines, and there were 38 
 smelting works in operation, which produced in that year 
 108,230 pounds troy of silver and 8,350 tons of lead. The ore 
 which furnished the great quantity of precious metal was 
 an argentiferous galena holding from 130 to 180 ounces of 
 silver to the ton. But upon sinking deeper the miners 
 found that their ore decreased in quantity, and this deposit 
 has also become of less importance than it formerly was. 
 Besides these districts, the ancient mining region of Linares 
 has produced much lead since having become a locality for 
 the exertion of English enterprise. Great Britain contains 
 a large number of lead-bearing districts, and her production 
 of this metal, as well as that of tin, copper and iron, is 
 enormous. The production of silver and lead are intimately 
 connected, and the introduction of new processes that will 
 be described in subsequent chapters, has brought her yield 
 of the latter metal to a large figure during the last few years. 
 From the circumstances that pigs of lead, evidently of 
 Roman origin, have been found in Derbyshire, we are led 
 to the conclusion that Britain was a lead-producing country 
 even in those remote times. It is generally stated that 
 Derbyshire supplied the only mines where that metal was 
 raised until 1289, when the lead deposits of Wales wei-e 
 discovered. In 1661 Childey, speaking of the Peak of 
 Derbyshire, gives the following curious account of the 
 treatment of the ores in that district; — "The lead stores of 
 the Peak are just within the ground, next to the upper 
 crust of the earth. They melt the lead on the tops of the 
 hills that lie open to the west wind, making their fire to 
 melt it as soon as the west wind begins to blow, which wind, 
 by long experience, they find holds longest of all others. 
 But for what reason I know not, since I should think that 
 lead was the easiest of all metals to melt, they make the 
 fires extraordinarily great." The most important lead- 
 mining district at present is in the north of England, in the 
 vicinity of Alston Moor, where the three counties of North- 
 umberland, Durham, and Cumberland come together. Near 
 this point are the large possessions of Mr. Beaumont, which 
 produce about one-fourth of the whole quantity of lead 
 raised in England, and one-tenth of the entire yield of 
 Europe. The increase in the amount of lead raised in 
 Cornwall and Devon within the last twenty years has been 
 quite extraordinary. Borlase, who wrote in 175J', says, that 
 lead mines had been anciently worked in the first-named 
 county ; that those of Penrose, near Helston, had been 
 wrought for about 200 years, but the only mine worthy of 
 note in his time waa that of St. Issy, near Padstow. In 
 1835 only about 140 tons were produced by the mines of the 
 two counties, and in 1839, according to De la Bfiche, the 
 whole produce amounted to scarcely 180 tons, while in the 
 years from 1845 to 1850 over 10,000 tons were raised annually. 
 One mine alone of extraordinary richness. East Wheal Rose, 
 produced from 1845 to 1849 from 3000 to 5000 tons of metal- 
 lic lead annually. In 1858, 9710 tons were sent to market 
 from 34 Cornish mines, and among these were 13, each of 
 which furnished more lead than was raised in the whole 
 county twenty years before. The ore raised in Cornwall is 
 largely silver-holding ; the average of that metal per ton 
 of lead produced in 1858 was 41 ounces, while the average 
 for the entire United Kingdom for the same year was 
 between 8 and 9 ounces. Isolated mines produce ore much 
 
 richer than the above average ; thus Huel Mary Anne in 
 1858 yielded 906 tons of lead, containing an average of over 
 68 ounces. The mines of Derbyshire furnish some ex- 
 amples of ores extremely rich in silver. Huel Florence 
 gave ore in 1858 containing 150 ounces, or equivalent to 
 225 ounces per ton of metallic lead. Two tons of this ore 
 realised 19SI. 16s. The yield of the lead mines of Great 
 Britain in 1810, although exceeding in amount that of all 
 the rest of Europe, did not amount to over 12,500 tons, in 
 1845, according to the estimates of Mr. Taylor, it had 
 increased to 46,112 tons. In 1858 the invaluable statistics 
 prepared by Mr. Hunt show that 68,303 tons of metallic 
 lead were produced from 95,855 tons of ore, being an aver- 
 age of 71 per cent. There are few articles occupying such 
 an important place in commerce, that experience such large 
 variations in price, as lead. In the period between 1800 
 and 1810 its average price was 271. 14s. 6d. per ton ; irom 
 1811 to 1821, 231. 6s. 6d. ; from 1822 to 1832, 20/. 7s. In 
 1832 the price was as low as 18^. 10s., and in 1858 the mean 
 value per ton was about 211. 10s. In the United States, 
 lead ores are widely distributed among the several States, 
 but by far the most considerable amount is raised in that 
 portion of Wisconsin, Iowa and Illinois, which is generally 
 known as the " Upper Mississippi Lead Region." Here the 
 ore is non-argentiferous galena, occurring in limestone in 
 irregular deposits o'r veins that do not appear to retain their 
 richness below a moderate depth. The ancient inhabitants 
 of the country appear to have been aware of th6 existence 
 of the mineral, but it is doubtful whether they understood 
 the process of smelting it, for although galena has been 
 found in their sepulchral mounds, no metallic lead has as 
 yet been discovered. Le Sueur, the French explorer, 
 notices many mines of lead along the bank of the Missis- 
 sippi during his expedition in 1700-1701, but little attention 
 appears to have been paid to the wealth there until 1788, a 
 French miner named Dubuque obtained a grant of a tract 
 of land and opened mines, which he continued to work until 
 his death in 1810. In 1839 a geological exploration was 
 ordered by the United States Government, and, aided by 
 139 assistants. Dr. D. D. Owen made a rapid exploration 
 of a region embracing 2880 square miles, which he reported 
 to be plumbiferous. — • 
 
 — Compiled from the " Metallurgy of Lead hy B. H. Lamhom, Ph. D.'* 
 
 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF COPPER. 
 
 COPPER is one of the six metals spoken of in the 
 Old Testament, and one of the most important of 
 the seven mentioned by ancient historians. It was 
 known at least as early as the time of Tubal Cain, 
 since he was an instructor of artificers in brass and iron. 
 Grecian historians relate that Cadmus discovered copper, 
 and taught its application to the wants of mankind. It was 
 found on the island of Euboea, near the town of Chalkis, 
 and hence, it has been assumed, came the Grecian name 
 Chalkos, by which the metal was Icnown to Homer, Hesiod, 
 and other ancient Achaean authors. The Romans knew 
 copper as aes cyprum, and later as cuprum, names derived 
 from that of the island of Cyprus, where Pliny declares the 
 method of working it was discovered. It is certain that 
 upon this island thePhajnicians had opened mines at a very 
 early date. Hence in the mystic nomenclature of the 
 Alchymists copper came to be called Venus, to which god- 
 dess Cyprus was sacred, and among their signs it was known 
 by the astronomical designation of that planet ? . The 
 English word copper, the French ruicre, and the German 
 kupfer, were introduced into those languages during the 
 middle ages, and are plainly but alterations of the Latin 
 name. The mention of copper in the oldest records, and 
 among the first metals whose use was known to mankind, is 
 consistent with what we would be led to conclude, after a 
 close consideration of its nature and the manner of its 
 occurrence. Masses of the tough native metal, detached by 
 water from their original beds, and deposited in spots where 
 a warlike people went to seek stones from which to shape 
 their rude weapons, by reason of their weight, color, lustre, 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 31 
 
 and malleability, would quickly attract attention. These 
 qualities, connected with the fact that the native maisses 
 are often of considerable size, render it more than probable 
 that copper was the first metal upon which were made the 
 unskilled attempts of primeval smiths and smelters. In 
 the Hebrew manuscripts no distinction is made between 
 pure copper and the alloy with tin, which in modern times 
 has been known as bronze, but which in our translations 
 is rendered by the word brass. This alloy, however, was 
 undoubtedly the discovery of a generation long posterior 
 to that which made the earliest use of native copper, since 
 tin not being found in the countries bordering on the shores 
 of the Mediterranean, could only have been introduced 
 after commercial relations with distant European or Asiatic 
 regions had been established. It is generally assumed, 
 without any particular evidence to support the assumption, 
 that the ancients had a means of making this alloy of tin 
 and copper so hard that it would cut the most refractoiy 
 rocks, and the existence of vast monuments of syenite and 
 porphyry are spoken of by antiquaries as inexplicable under 
 any other supposition. It is a fact provoking speculation, 
 that the race of the Incas in Peru, although unable to 
 reduce the iron ores that were scattered in abundance 
 around them, and hence ignorant of the use of that metal, 
 were well aware of the peculiarities of this hard alloy of 
 copper and tin, and forming it from proportions almost 
 identical with those adopted by the ancients of the old 
 world, used it to construct the tools required for dressing 
 the stones necessary in building their vast aqueducts and 
 temples. 
 
 The Israelites had bronze weapons in the time of David. 
 Homer represents his heroes fighting with arms made from 
 the same substance, and it formed an important portion 
 of many of the agricultural implements of the ancients. 
 Bronze was early recognized as a material adapted to the 
 needs of the fine arts ; the Colossus of Rhodes, which was 
 constructed of this metal, is a remarkable proof of the 
 abundance of copper even at that early date; and it is 
 said that Mummius after the sacking of Corinth, filled 
 Rome with bronze statues, thus transporting Grecian art to 
 the banks of the Tiber. Whether the Phoenicians who 
 carried tin from Britain found there the knowledge of 
 making bronze is uncertain; but it is a probable hypothesis, 
 that the enigmatical weapons and tools of bronze found 
 in the graves of some ancient race in various European 
 lands, and which archaeologists have determined to be Celtic 
 remains, were obtained by the wandering tribes from that 
 region in Britain where at the present day the descendants 
 of those same metallurgic Celts have made themselves the 
 largest refiners of copper on the globe, and in whose vicinity 
 occurs the richest and almost the only known tin region 
 within a circumference of many thousands of miles. The 
 earlier money of the Romans was of bronze, or more rarely 
 of the alloy of copper with zinc, known as brass. Before 
 the time of the Caesars no pure copper pieces appear to have 
 been struck, and those of the time of the emperors often 
 show indications of having been silvered, by which process 
 it is probable they were made to take the place of solid 
 pieces of the more valuable metal. Descending into the 
 middle ages, we find a new and imj)ortant application of 
 copper in its combination with tin originating in the triumph 
 of the Christian religion. Church bells, which are made 
 of this alloy, are first definitely mentioned in ecclesiastical 
 records of the seventh century ; they were brought into 
 general use by Charlemagne, and for several centuries were 
 almost the only object for the employment of the founder's 
 art. In the construction and ornamenting of churches, 
 copper, bronze, and brass, have played an important part : 
 the roof, the altars, and the sepulchral monuments were 
 often wrought of these substances ; and the statues and 
 decorations of pantheistic temples still exist in renovated 
 forms in the worshipping places of Christendom. The in- 
 vention of gunpowder, and the subsequent introduction of 
 bronze cannon in the wars of the fourteenth and fifteenth 
 centuries, had an important influence in increasing the 
 value and the production of copper ; and, as the civilization 
 of more modern periods grew, the demand for a cheap metal, 
 approaching in its properties those of gold and silver, in- 
 creased rapidly, until at present there is scarcely a branch 
 of human economy where copper is not found an important 
 
 means of arriving at greater perfection. Either unmixed 
 or in the form of a compound, it is employed in the con- 
 struction of nearly all kinds of machinery ; for forming the 
 delicate instruments of the astronomer, natural philosopher, 
 engineer, and musician ; for increasing the security of com- 
 mercial enterprise by adding to the durability of ships ; as 
 a path for the electric current in its bold journey from con- 
 tinent to continent in the service of civi lization. It furnishes 
 a re-agent for the chemist, and for the physician a remedy 
 against disease. The sculptor employs it to express his con- 
 ceptions, the painter, aided by the engraver, to reproduce 
 and disseminate his beautiful thoughts. The electro-metal- 
 lurgist uses it to catch and make prominent the evanescent 
 forms of nature and art. The glassmaker, the cook, the 
 dyer, and those engaged in many other employments, use 
 it constantly, whilst almost every advance made in technical 
 science adds to the number of its applications. Eubosa and 
 Cyprus have already been mentioned as localities known to 
 the ancients for their mines of copper-producing minerals. 
 The Egyptians, in early times, drew their supply of the 
 metal from Arabia, and it is related that one of the objects 
 in view by Ramses the Great, in digging the canal across 
 the isthmus of Suez, was to connect the copper-producing 
 countries of the Arabian peninsula with his kingdom on 
 the Nile. Travellers of the present day. find in the midst 
 of the waste, far removed from the region of fuel, remains of 
 mines, and hieroglyphic inscriptions provir.gthem to belong 
 to an age almost beyond the reach of history. Upon the 
 highlands of the Urals and the Altai are found remains of 
 mines dating from the most remote period, before the use of 
 iron was introduced as a material for the construction of 
 tools. The Phoenicians brought copper from Asia Minor, 
 the Taurus Mountains, England, Portugal, and Spain, and 
 during the middle ages the last-mentioned countries produced 
 a notable quantity of the metal under consideration. 
 
 The information we have regarding the early stages in the 
 progress in Britain of both the mining and metallnrgic 
 divisions of this important branch of industry, is remarkably 
 scanty, and records or traditions treating of the period prior 
 to the beginning of the seventeenth century, are seldom of 
 a reliable character. At Newlands, near Keswick in Cum- 
 berland, some rich mines of copper were wrought about 1250, 
 and it would appear that in 1470 the place was still famous 
 for the metal it produced. Ecton Hill, in Staffordshire, was 
 another spot where copper was obtained in considerable 
 abundance, previous to the era of copper mining in Corn- 
 wall. It is amusing, with our present knowledge of the 
 mineral resources of England, to meet with Acts of Parlia- 
 ment passed in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI. 
 for preventing the exportation of brass and copper, lest there 
 should not be metal enough left in the kingdom fit for 
 making guns and other engines of war, and for household 
 utensils ; " and even at so late a date as 1708, to find a 
 memorial presented to the House of Commons by the brass 
 manufacturers, stating that " England, by reason of the in- 
 exhaustible plenty of calamine, might become the staple of 
 brass manufacture for itself and foreign ports, and that the 
 continuing the brass works of England would occasion 
 plenty of rough copper to he brought in." At this period the 
 supply of copper came from the Continent, metal produced 
 by the mines of the Hartz and Hungary was sold in the 
 magazines of London, and, indeed, not until 1717 were 
 English pennies struck from English metal. At the end of 
 the seventeenth century the attention of Cornish tin miners 
 began to be seriously drawn to the more valuable cupreous 
 deposits around them ; previous to that date, it is true, cop- 
 per ore had been sold at a low price under the name of 
 poder, but this was produced by mines worked or originally 
 opened for tin. The yellow copper pyrites was the first ore 
 recognized as valuable by the miner, the far richer sulphide 
 and black oxide of copper were for a long time not con- 
 sidered worth preserving, and thousands of pounds were cast 
 into the sea or left standing in the lodes to surprise and de- 
 light subsequent and wiser explorers. Deposits began to be 
 opened, exclusively for the copper they contained, about the 
 commencement of the last century, and from that time to 
 the present the produce of ore has gradually but steadily 
 increased. The discovery of the rich mines of Anglesea in 
 1768, the addition of Devonshire and Ireland to the list of 
 copper-producing regions, and, of late yftars, the immense 
 
32 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 importation of ores from Chili, Cuba, and the Pacific islands, 
 have neither destroyed the demand for Cornish ore nor ma- 
 terially disturbed the law of growth. The advantage of 
 sending ore to be smelted in the rich repository of fuel in 
 the Welsh coal basin was very early perceived, and, even in 
 1586, according to Carew, ore was shipped thence from 
 Cornwall. In 1765 several furnaces were in existence near 
 Bristol, and others along the coast toward the westward. 
 The general plan of the various processes then in use appears 
 to have been extremely similar to that now practised at 
 Swansea, and known as the English method of smelting cop- 
 per ; and when we consider the complex nature of the nu- 
 merous operations which it includes, and the remarkable 
 difierence that exists between them and those practised at 
 that time in all other copper-refining countries, we cannot 
 but admire the ingenuity and judgment of those old metal- 
 lurgists who, aided only by their clear powers of observation, 
 worked out a system which, while it is so excellently adapted 
 to all the circumstances of the locality, can be used in the 
 treatment of every known variety of ore, and has withstood, 
 with but slight changes, the keenest researches of modern 
 science. 
 
 In the United States of America copper, in workable 
 quantities, has been found in nearly all the States pene- 
 trated by the Appalachian chain of mountains. The oldest 
 incorporated mining company in the country appears to 
 have been one for the purpose of working copper ores in 
 Connecticut, the date of whose charter is 1709. But all 
 other deposits at present suffidently developed to warrant a 
 judgment regarding their value, are exceeded by that which, 
 within the last sixteen years, has been re-opened upon the 
 shores of Lake Superior. That this remarkable region was 
 known to a race existing at a period anterior to the earliest 
 authenticated dates in aboriginal history, is evident from the 
 remains which still exist of gangways, tools, and other proofs 
 of skill which the races occupying the country at the time of 
 its discovery nowhere evinced. The Indians found by the first 
 travellers were utterly ignorant of the methods of working that 
 had been in use by the former race ; they had no traditions to 
 explain the existence of the numerous excavations, and 
 what copper they possessed was only such as they gathered 
 among the surface stones. The first record of the deposit is 
 found in the missionary report of the Society of Jesuits for 
 1659-60. The savages had then rude utensils made from the 
 metal, and huge blocks of it were erected and worehipped 
 among their gods. In 1763, one Henry, a practical English- 
 man, explored the country at the imminent risk of his life, 
 and in 1771 he established works, which were, however, 
 soon abandoned. The recent mining era of the region be- 
 gins with the year 1844. The explorations of various scien- 
 tific men had made the region partially known to the world, 
 and miners drawn thither by the reports of mineral wealth, 
 soon discovered large blocks of the native copper, contain- 
 ing much silver. A feverish excitement set in among adven- 
 turers and capitalists, and companies were formed in various 
 parts of the world to work localities, of which, in many 
 cases, not even a survey had been made. In 1847, the inevi- 
 table crisis came, and of the hundreds of companies nomi- 
 nally existing, only six were found actually engaged in 
 mining. The distrust naturally resulting from these early 
 disasters has gradually disappeared. The convulsion was 
 beneficial in exposing the spurious and worthless schemes, 
 and in pointing out those enterprises whose inherent strength 
 made them capable of weathering the storm. Since that 
 period the progress of the region has been healthy, legitimate, 
 and unwavering. — 
 
 — Compiled from " Tlie Metallurgy of Copper^ hy It, H. Lambomf Ph, i)." 
 
 FIRST ATTEMPT BY EUROPEANS TO 
 
 MANUFACTURE IRON IN THE 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 IT would not be profitable to inquire minutely whether 
 the mound-builders or other aboriginal inhabitants of 
 the United States, or the aboriginal inhabitants of any 
 other part of the American continent, possessed a know- 
 
 ledge of the use and consequently of the manufacture of iron. 
 It may be assumed that it has not been proved that they 
 possessed this knowledge. Antiquarians have not neglected 
 a subject of such importance, but thus far their researches 
 have been fruitless of decisive results. Rude hatchets and 
 other small implements of iron have been found in situa- 
 tions which give color to the theory that they may have 
 been of aboriginal origin, but the weight of much concur- 
 rent testimony is strongly against this supposition. Pres- 
 cott expressly says that the inhabitants of Mexico and Peru, 
 who were, at the time of the -conquest, the most advanced 
 in all the arts of civilization of the immediate predecessors 
 of the white race in North and South America, were unac- 
 quainted with the use of iron, copper serving them as a sub- 
 stitute. Our North American Indians were certainly unac- 
 quainted with the use of iron when the English, the Dutch, 
 and other Europeans first landed on the Atlantic coast. In 
 the absence of conclusive information concerning the use of 
 iron by any of the aboriginal inhabitants of America, the 
 interesting fact may be parenthetically stated that iron is 
 now made in Cherokee county, in the western part of North 
 Carolina, by some members of the remnant of a band of 
 Cherokee Indians. They use the primitive Catalan forge, 
 which was introduced into North Carolina by the early 
 white settlers. North Carolina first gave to Europeans the 
 knowledge that iron ore existed within the limits of the 
 United States. The discovery was made in 1585 by the ex- 
 pedition fitted out by Sir Walter Raleigh, and commanded 
 by Ralph Lane, which made in that year, on Roanoke Is- 
 land, the first attempt to plant an English settlement on the 
 Atlantic coast. Bishop, in his History of American Manu- 
 factures, says that "Lane and his men explored the country 
 along the Roanoke and on both sides from Elizabeth river 
 to the Neuse." Thomas Hariot, the historian of the colony, 
 and servant to Sir Walter Raleigh, says that, " in two places 
 of the countrey specially, one about foure-score and the oth- 
 er sixe score miles from the fort or place where wee dwelt, 
 wee founde neere the water side the ground to be rockie, 
 which, by the triall of a minerall man, was founde to hold 
 iron richly. It is founde in manie places of the countrey 
 else. I know nothing to the contrarie but that it male bee 
 allowed for a good marchantable commoditie, considering 
 there the small charge for the labor and feeding of men ; 
 the infinite store of wood ; the want of wood and deereness 
 thereof in England ; and the necessity of ballasting of 
 shippes." But no attempt was made to utilize this discov- 
 ery, as the colonists were in search of gold and not iron. 
 In 1586 they quarreled with the Indians and returned to 
 England. ■ A permanent settlement in North Carolina was 
 not efiected until many years afterward. Iron ore was not 
 mined in North Carolina nor was iron made within its boun- 
 daries until after many of the other colonies had com- 
 menced to make iron. In 1607 the first permanent English 
 colony in the New World was founded at Jamestown,in Vir- 
 ginia, by the Virginia Company of London, and on the 10th 
 of April in the following year, 1608, the company's ship, 
 commanded by Captain Christopher Newport, sailed from 
 Jamestown, loaded with iron ore, sassafras, cedar posts, and 
 walnut boards, and on the 20th of Blay it arrived in Eng- 
 land. From Neill's history of the company we learn that 
 the iron ore was smelted, and " seventeen tons of the metal 
 were sold at £4 per ton to the East India Company." This 
 was undoubtedly the first iron made by Europeans from 
 American ore. In 1610 Sir Thomas Gates, who had spent 
 some time in Virginia, testified before the council of the 
 company, at London, that there were divers minerals, es- 
 pecially " iron oare," in Virginia, lying upon the surface of 
 the ground, some of which ore, having been sent home, had 
 been found to yield as good iron as any in Europe. The 
 iron here referred to was that whicli had been sold to the 
 East India Company. In 1610 the Virginia Company sent 
 to Virginia a number of persons who were skilled in the 
 manufacture of iron, to "set up three iron works" in the 
 colony. The enterprise was undertaken in that year, and 
 was located on Falling creek, a tributary of the James river, 
 which it enters on its right or southern bank in Chesterfield 
 county, about seven miles below Richmond, and about sixty- 
 six miles above Jamestown. In 1620, as stated by Beverley 
 in his History of Virginia, "an iron work at Falling creek, 
 in James River," was set up, " where they made proof of 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 33 
 
 good iron oar, and brought the whole work so near a perfec- 
 tion that they writ word to the company in London that 
 they did not doubt but to finish the work and have plentiful 
 provision of iron for them by the next Easter" — in the 
 spring of 1621. But neither " plentiful provision " or any 
 other provision of iron was made on Falling creek in 1621, 
 owing to the death of three of the master workmen 
 who had the enterprise in charge. In July of that year the 
 company sent over Mr. John Berkley, "formerly of Bever- 
 stone Castle, Gloucester, a gentleman of an honorable 
 family," to take charge of the work. He was accompanied 
 by his son Maurice and twenty experienced workmen. In 
 a letter from the company to the colonial authorities, dated 
 July 25, 1621, it was stated that " the advancement of the 
 iron works we esteeme to be most necessarie, by perfecting 
 whereof we esteeme the plantation is gainer. We therefore 
 require all possible assistance be given to Mr. Berkley now 
 sent, and all furtherance to his ship, especially good enter- 
 tainment at their landinge." On the 12th of August of the 
 same ytar the company, m a communication to the authori- 
 ties, wrote respecting the iron works and the saw-mills 
 which had been projected: "We pray your assistance in 
 the perfectinge of these two workes ; the profitt will redound 
 to the whole colony, and therefore it is necessary that you 
 extend your authoritie to the utmost lymitts to enforce such 
 as shall refuse the help to a business so much tending to the 
 generall good." On the 5th of December, 1621, the com- 
 pany again wrote, enjoining "all possible dilligence and in- 
 dustrious care to further and accomplish those great and 
 many designes of salte, sawinge mills, and iron." Jn Janu- 
 ary, 1622, the authorities wrote to the company that " the 
 care we have taken of the iron workes we reserve to be re- 
 ported by Mr. Threasurer and Mr. Berkley himself." On 
 June 10th the company wrote of " the good entrance 
 we have understood you have made in the iron works, and 
 other staple comodities," and added, " let us have at least by 
 the next returnes some good quantitie of iron and wyne." 
 But before this letter was written the colony had been visi- 
 ted by the Indian massacre of the 22d of March, 1622, in 
 which John Berkley and all his workmen were slain and the 
 iron works were destroyed. The works were not rebuilt. Bev- 
 erley, writing in 1705, says the project of iron works on Fall- 
 ing creek " has never been set on foot since, till of late ; but 
 it has not had its full trial." In 1624 the charter of the Vir- 
 ginia Company was revoked. Arid thus ended disastrously 
 the first attempt by Europeans to make iron in America. 
 
 The "good entrance" mentioned in the company's letter 
 of June 10th doubtless referred to satisfactory progress in 
 the construction of the works, but there is no positive evi-' 
 dence that iron was ever made on Falling creek. Letters 
 from Mr. John Berkley had promised that "the company 
 might relye upon good quantities of iron made by him" 
 by Whitsuntide of 1622, but the massacre occurred before 
 that time. Beverley, however, in referring to the Falling 
 creek enterprise, says that " the iron proved reasonably good ; 
 but before they got into the body of the mine the people 
 were cut off in that fatal massacre." The ore on Fall- 
 ing creek is described as having been brown in color. Mr. 
 Berkley declared that "a more fit place for iron workes than 
 in Virginia, both for woods, water, mynes, and stone," was 
 not to be found ; and Mr. George Sandys wrote to the com- 
 pany on the 3d of March, 1622, that Falling creek was fitted 
 for iron making "as if Nature had applyed herselfe to the 
 wish and dictation of the workeman ; where also were great 
 stones, hardly seene elsewhere in Virginia, lying on the 
 place, as though they had beene brought thither to advance 
 the erection of those workes." We have failed to discover 
 whether the works on Falling creek embraced a blast fiir- 
 nace and refinery or a bloomary only, but the frequent 
 references to building stone in connection with the works, 
 and the length of time and the number of workmen occu- 
 pied in their erection, lead to the inference that a furnace 
 formed a part of the enterprise. No further attempt to 
 make iron in Virginia appears to have been made for many 
 years after the failure on Falling creek, In a pamphlet 
 entitled A Perfect Description of Virginia, published at 
 London in 1649, it is stated that " an iron work erected 
 would be as much as a silver mine." In 1650 another 
 pamphlet, quoted by Bishop, says of iron ore in Virginia : 
 " Neither does Virginia yield to any other province whatso- 
 
 ever in excellency and plenty of this oare." In 1687, and 
 again in 1696. Col. William Byrd, the first of the name in 
 Virginia, set on foot the project of reviving the works ou 
 Falling creek, but it was not carried into execution. This 
 is the project referred to by Beverley in 1705 as not having 
 had ita "full trial." To encourage manufactures in Vir- 
 ginia the exportation of hides, wool, and iron from the 
 colony was forbidden by an act of the assembly in 1662, on 
 penalty of one thousand pounds of tobacco for every hide 
 exported, and fifty pounds of tobacco for every pound of wool 
 exported, and' ten pounds of tobacco for every five pounds 
 of iron exported. The restriction was removed in 1671, " no 
 successe answering the conceived hopes and apparent losses 
 accrueing to all inhabitants by the refusall of those con- 
 cerned to buy the commodityes aforesaid," but it was re- 
 enacted in 1682. We cannot learn that duringall the time 
 covered by these enactments, and down to the beginning of 
 the eighteenth century, there was a single pound of iron 
 manufactured in Virginia. Notwithstanding the wise en- 
 couragement given by the Virginia Company and by some 
 succeeding colonial authorities to the establishment of manu- 
 factures, the Virginia settlers for a hundred years after the 
 settlement of Jamestown devoted themselves almost entirely 
 to the raising of tobacco and other agricultural products. 
 
 — ConvpUedfrom James M. BwanUB Ke^ortan Iron and St^lj TejUh Cemus of the U. 5. 
 
 IRON MANUFACTURE IN THE NEW ENG- 
 LAND COLONIES.. 
 
 ALTHOUGH iron ore in this country was first dis- 
 covered in North Carolina, and the manufacture 
 of iron was first undertaken in Virginia, the first 
 successful iron works were established in the 
 province of Massachusetts Bay. In 1632 mention is made 
 by Morton of the existence of "iron stone" in New Eng- 
 land, and in November, 1637, the General Court of Massa- 
 chusetts granted to Abraham Shaw one-half of the benefit 
 of any " coles or yron stone w""" shal be found in any comon 
 ground w""" is in the countryes disposeing." Iron ore had 
 also been found in small lakes or ponds on the western 
 banks of the Saugus river, near Lynn, soon after its settle- 
 ment in 1629, and in 1642 specimens of it were taken to 
 London by Robert Bridges, in the hope that a company 
 might be formed for the manufacture of iron. This hope 
 was realized in the formation of "The Company of Under- 
 takers for the Iron Works," consisting of eleven English 
 gentlemen, who advanced £1,000 to establish the works. 
 John Winthrop, Jr., had previously gone to England, and 
 he appears to have assisted Mr. Bridges to secure th^ or- 
 ganization of the company, as did others among the colonists. 
 Thomas Dexter and Robert Bridges, both of Lynn, were 
 among the original promoters of the enterprise. Alonzo 
 Lewis, in his History of Lynn, published in 1844, says that 
 in 1643 "Mr. John Winthrop, Jr., came from England with 
 workmen and stock to the amount of one thousand pounds, 
 for commencing the work. A foundry was erected on the 
 western bank of Saugus river. . . . The village at the 
 foundry was called Hammersmith by some of the principal 
 workmen, who came from a place of that name in England." 
 InNewhall's revision of Lewis's history, published in 1865, 
 the iron works are said to have been located near the site of 
 the present woolen factories in Saugus Centre, a suburb of 
 Lynn, where large heaps of scoria are still to be seen. "This 
 iron foundry at Lynn," says Lewis, " was the first which was 
 established in America. Lynn is eleven miles north-east 
 of Boston. In 1644, and subsequently, as stated by Lewis, 
 the General Court granted many special privileges to the 
 company. On March 7, 1644, it was granted three miles 
 square of land at each of six places it might occupy in the 
 prosecution of its business. On November 13, 1644, it 
 was allowed three years "for y° perfecting of their worke 
 and furnishing of y'' country with all sorts of barr iron." 
 The citizens ware granted liberty to take stock in the enter- 
 prise " if they would complete the finery and forge, as well 
 as the furnace, which is already set up." On the Hth of 
 
34 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 May, 1645, the general court passed an order declaring that 
 "y" iron worke is very successfull (both in y° richness of 
 "y» ore and y' goodness of y* iron)" and that between 
 £1,200 and £1,500 had already been disbursed, "with which 
 y" furnace is built, with that which belongeth to it, . . 
 and some tuns of sows iron cast . . in readiness for 
 y forge. . . There will be neede of some £1,500 to finish 
 y" forge.'' On the 14th of October of the same year the 
 company was granted still further privileges by the general 
 court, on the condition "that the inhabitants of this juris- 
 diction be furnished with barr iron of all sorts for their use, 
 not exceeding twentye pounds per tunn," and that the 
 grants of land already made should be used "for the build- 
 ing and seting up of six forges, or furnaces, and not bloom- 
 aries onley." The grant was confirmed to the company of 
 the free use of all materials " for making or moulding any 
 manner of gunnes, potts, and all other cast-iron ware." On 
 the 6th of May. 1646, Mr. Richard Leader, the general agent 
 of the company, who is described as a man of superior 
 ability, purchased "some of the country's gunnes to melt 
 over at the foundery." On August 4, 1648, Governor Win- 
 throp wrote from Boston to his son, who had removed to 
 Pequod, Connecticut, that " the iron work goeth on with 
 more hope. It yieldeth now abont 7 tons per week." On 
 September 30th he writes again: "The furnace runs 8 tons 
 per week, and the bar iron is as good as Spanish." Newhall 
 quotes from a Lynn account book for 1651, the following 
 entry: "James Leonnarde, 15 days worke about finnery 
 chimneye and other worke in y° forge, 1: 13: 0. To ditto 
 Leonard for dressing his bellows 3 times, 1 : 10 0." Ed- 
 ward Johnson, of Woburn, in describing Lynn in 1651, in 
 his Wonder Working Providence, printed in that year, says : 
 "There is also an iron mill in constant use;" and Mr. 
 Lewis states that, prior to 1671, " the iron works for several 
 years were carried on with vigor, and furnished most of the 
 iron used in the colony." After 1671 they passed under a 
 cloud, and about 1688 they appear to have finally ceased 
 operations. Their owners were harassed after 1651 with 
 frequent lawsuits, arising from the overflow of the water in 
 the dam. The fear that the works would create a scarcity 
 of timber also appears to have added to their unpopularity. 
 Hubbard, writing about 1677, says that " a work was set up 
 at Lynn upon a very commodious stream, which was very 
 much promoted and strenuously carried on for some time, 
 but at length, instead of drawing out bars of iron for the 
 country's use, there was hammered out nothing but conten- 
 tion and lawsuits." 
 
 From the foregoing details it is plainly established that the 
 enterprise at Lynn embraced a blast furnace or " foundery " 
 and a refinery forge. The term " foundery '' was long a syno- 
 nym for " furnace," castings being made directly from the 
 furnace, as has been previously stated. This practice con- 
 tinued in this country down to almost the middle of the 
 present century, and is still followed in many European 
 countries. That the furnace was in operation in May, 
 1645, is certain, and that the forge was in operation in Sep- 
 temper, 1648, is equally certam. These dates may be 
 accepted as definitely determining, respectively, the first 
 successful attempts in this country to make " sowe iron " 
 and other castings in a blast furnace and to make "barr 
 iron in a refinery forge from " sowe iron." Joseph Jenks 
 was a machinist at the Lynn iron works, who had come 
 from Hammersmith in England, and was a man of much 
 skill and inventive genius. He prepared the molds for the 
 first castings that were made at Lynn. " A small iron pot, 
 containing about one quart," was the first article cast in the 
 furnace. It 1844 it was in the possession of Mr. Lewis's 
 mother, who was a lineal descendant of Thomas Hudson, 
 the first owner of the lands on Saugus river on which the 
 iron works were built, and who obtained possession of the 
 pot immediately after it was cast, " which he preserved as a 
 curiosity." " It has been handed down in the family ever 
 since," wrote Mr. Lewis in 1844. Joseph Jenks, who be- 
 came the founder of an eminent New England family, 
 purchased from Richard Leader on the 20th of January, 
 1617, the privilege of building a forge at the Lynn iron 
 works for the manufacture of scythes and other edge tools. 
 This enterprise was successful. In 1652 he made at the 
 Lynn iron works, for the mint which was that year es- 
 tablished at Boston, the dies for the first silver pieces coined 
 
 in New England. On one side of these coins was the im- 
 pression of a pine tree. In 1654 he made for the city of 
 Boston the first fire engine made in America. In 1655 the 
 general court granted him a patent for an improved scythe. 
 He died in 1683. Henry and James Leonard were also 
 skilled workmen at the Lynn iron works. They and their 
 descendants were afterwards connected with other colonial 
 iron enterprises. They had a brother Philip, who does not 
 appear to have lived at Lynn. Rev. Dr. Forbes, in referring 
 to the Leonard family in his Topographical Description of the 
 town of Raynham, written in 1793, says that " the circum- 
 stance of a family attachment to the iron manufacture is so 
 well known as to render it a common observation in this 
 part of the country, " Where you can find iron works there 
 you will find a Leonard." Henry and James Leonard are 
 said to have learned their trade at Pontypool, in Monmouth- 
 shire. The second iron enterprise that was undertaken in 
 New England embraced a furnace and forge' at Braintree, 
 about ten miles south of Boston. The works of Lynd and 
 Braintree belonged to the same company. Bishop says that, 
 on the 19th of November, 1643, a grant of 3,000 acres of the 
 common land at Braintree was made to Mr. Winthrop and 
 his partners, the Lynn company, " for the encouragement of 
 an iron work to be set up about Monotcot river." But this 
 grant, according to Lewis, was not surveyed until January 
 11, 1648. On the 29th of September, 1645, as stated by 
 Lewis, the first purchase of land, consisting of twenty acres, 
 " for a forge at Braintree," was made from George Ruggles 
 by Richard Leader, who was the general agent for the com- 
 pany of undertakers. The furnace was probably built in 
 1646. Robert Child, writing from Boston on the 15th of 
 March, 1647, to John Winthrop, Jr., " at Pequot river," says 
 of the Lynn and Braintree enterprises : " We have cast this 
 winter some tuns of pots, likewise mortars, stoves, skillets. 
 Our potter is moulding more at Brayntree as yet, which 
 place after another blowing we shall quit, not finding mine 
 there." We find, however, that iron ore was mined at 
 Braintree in the early part of 1652, and that, on the 28th of 
 September of that year, it was proposed at London, on behalf 
 of the undertakers to employ William Osborne, " at Brantry 
 furnas & fordges." Lewis states that in 1691 "iron ore, 
 called ' rock mine,' was taken from the ledges at Nahant for 
 the forge at Braintree." Henry Leonard is supposed to 
 have superintended the erection of the Braintree works. John 
 Giiford was the manager of the works, according to New- 
 hall, and in 1651 he succeeded Richard Leader as agent for 
 the works at Lynn. The next iron enterprise in New 
 England was located in the town, or township, of Taunton, 
 now Raynham, two miles from the city of Taunton, in 
 Bristol county. This enterprise was undertaken in 1652 by 
 Plenry and James Leonard and Ralph Russell. At a town 
 meeting at Taunton, held October 21, 1652, " it was agreed 
 and granted by the town to the said HCenry Leonard and 
 James Leonard, his brother, and Ralph Russell, free con- 
 sent to come hither and join with certain of our inhabitants 
 and set up a bloomery work on the Two-mile river." The 
 'i'annton works, sometimes called the Raynham works, are 
 referred to by Lewis as "Leonards' celebrated iron works." 
 They were well managed, and long continued in a pros- 
 perous condition. At these works bar iron was made di- 
 rectly from the ore. As Henry Leonard was at Lynn in 
 1655, and as James Leonard does not appear to have been 
 there after 1652, it is probable that the latter and his sons 
 became the sole owners of the Raynham works. Dr. Forbes 
 gives an account of the intimacy which existed between 
 the Leonards at Raynham and King Philip, through which 
 they were protected against Indian outrages. Sanford, in 
 his History of Raynham, says: "Philip had a summer 
 hunting seat near the Fowling pond. The Leonards had 
 supplied him with beef, repaired his muskets, and fur- 
 nished him with such simple tools as the Indians could 
 use." Philip's head, says Dr. Forbes, was deposited in the 
 cellar of James Leonard's house for a considerable time 
 after his death in 1676. At the date of Dr. Forbes's book, 
 1793, this house was occupied by Leonards of the sixth gene- 
 ration. The forge, says the writer, was situated on " the great 
 road, and, having been repaired from generation to genera- 
 tion, it is to this day still in employ." In William Read 
 Dean's Genealogical Record of the- Leonard Family, published 
 in 1851, it is stated that " the old forge, though it has been 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 several times remodeled, has been in constant use for nearly 
 two hundred years, and is now in the full tide of successful 
 operation. It is owned by Thomas Dean, Esq., w^ho is de- 
 scended from the Leonards." The forge was at that time 
 employed in the manufacture of anchors. In 1865 it was 
 Btill so employed, with six forge fires, two hammers and four 
 water-wheels ; but about that time it ceased to be active and 
 has not since been in operation. The works are now in a 
 dilapidated condition. Theodore Dean was recently the 
 owner. This forge is the oldest iron establishment in the 
 country that is now in existence. Fowling pond, which was 
 originally nearly two miles long and three-quarters of a 
 mile wide, was close to the forge, and supplied it with ore. 
 A blast furnace, for the manufacture of hollow-ware, was 
 built on a branch of Two-mile river before the Revolution, 
 and has long been abandoned. 
 
 In Rioketson's History of New Bedford it is stated that 
 " one of the earliest settlers of Dartmouth was Ralph Rus- 
 sell, who came from Pontypool, England, and had been en- 
 gaged in tfie iron business with Henry and James Leonard, 
 of Taunton. He set up an iron forge at " Russell's Mills,' 
 which place received its name from him." In 1657 the 
 Gen eral Court of Massachusetts, owing to the failure of the 
 undertakers at Lynn and Braintree to furnish the colony 
 ■with a constant supply of iron, whereby unsufferable dam- 
 age may accrew," granted to the inhabitants of Concord 
 and Lancaster, and such as they should associate with them, 
 " liberty to erect one or more iron workes within the limitts 
 of theireoune toune bounds, or in any common place neere 
 thereunto." That this grant resulted in the establishment 
 of an iron work at Concord — since become famous through 
 its association with the outbreak of hostilities between the 
 mother country and the colonies in 1775 — appears probable 
 from the grant by the Court in 1660, " to ye company in 
 partnership in the iron worke at Concord,"' of " free liberty 
 to digg mine without molestation in any lands now in the 
 court's possession." About 1668 Henry Leonard went to 
 Rowley Village, about 25 miles northeast of Lynn, as stated 
 by Newhall, " and there established iron works." Lewis 
 says that in 1674 Henry Leonard's sons, Nathaniel, Samuel, 
 and Thomas, contracted to carry on these works for the 
 owners whose names are given by Bishop as " John Ruck 
 and others of Salem." The works did not prove to be pro- 
 fitable. After establishing the Rowley works Henry Leo- 
 nard went to New Jersey, " and there again engaged in the 
 iron manufacture." At some time previous to his removal 
 to New Jersey he appears to have been connected with the 
 establishment of iron works at Canton, about 14 miles 
 south of Boston. Other iron enterprises in Massachusetts 
 speedily followed in the same century those that have been 
 mentioned. In 1677 one of these works, the name of which 
 has not come down to us, was destroyed by the Indians. 
 About the same year iron was made at Topsfield, near Ips- 
 wich, and in 1680 its manufacture was commenced at Box- 
 ford. Hubbard, writing about 1677, says that at that time 
 there were in the colonies " many convenient places, where 
 very good iron, not much inferior to that of Bilbao, may be 
 produced, as at this day is seen in a village near Topsfield, 
 seven or eight miles west from Ipswich." About 1696 
 George Leonard is said to have erected " an iron-working 
 establishment" at Newton, about 27 miles southwest of Bos- 
 ton. For a hundred years after its settlement in 1620 
 Massachusetts was the chief seat of the iron manufacture on 
 this continent. Most of its iron enterprises during this hun- 
 dred years were bloomaries, but there were blast furnaces 
 also, although the latter as a rule produced only hollow- 
 ware and other castings, and not pig iron. During the per- 
 iod mentioned the iron industry of Massachusetts was con- 
 fined to the eastern counties of the colony, where bog and 
 pond ores formed almost the only kinds of ore that were 
 obtainable. The English settlement at New Haven closely 
 followed Massachusetts in the manufacture of iron. John 
 Winthrop, Jr., who removed from Lynn to Pequod, (New 
 London,) Connecticut, in 1645, had obtained from the Gene- 
 ral Court in the preceding year permission to set up an iron 
 work, and in 1651 he obtained a grant of certain privileges 
 to enable Mm to "adventure " in the manufacture of iron ; 
 but he does not seem to have embarked in the iron business 
 until subsequently. On the 30th of May, 1655, according 
 to Bishop, it was ordered by the assembly of Ngw Haven 
 
 " that if an iron worke goe on within any part of this juris- 
 diction the persoBus and estates constantly and onely imploy- 
 ed in that worke shall be free from paying rates." In 
 1658 Captain Thomas Clarke, in connection with John Win- 
 throp and others, put in operation an " iron worke " at New 
 Haven, and in 1659 he seems to have been still engaged in 
 the same enterprise, for in that year the General Court of 
 Connecticut continued the exemption already noted for ano- 
 ther seven years, "for encouragement of the said worke in sup- 
 plying the country with good iron and well wrought accord- 
 ing to art." This enterprise embraced a blast fiirnace and 
 refinery forge. On the 22d of June, 1663, John Davenporte 
 wrote from New Haven to John Winthrop, Jr., as follows : 
 "The freshest newes here, & that which is e re vestra, is, 
 that they have bene blowing, at the iron worke, and ha\'e 
 runne, from the last 6th day to this 2d day, 5 sowes of iron, 
 which are commended for very good ; & this night it's 
 thought they will run another, & begin to-morrow to make 
 pots. The work is hopeful, but the workemen are thought 
 to be very changeable and frovrard." This frowardness was 
 due apparently to the influence of an old enemy of iron 
 works, and ironworkers, John Barleycorn. Bishop records 
 " a proposition made in May, 1662, ' in ye behalfe of Capt. 
 Clarke, that wine and liquors drawn at the iron workes 
 might be custome free,' which was allowed to the extent of 
 one butt of wine and one barrel of liquors, and no more." 
 Rhode Island made iron soon after its settlement in 1636 — 
 certainly at Pawtucket and elsewhere as early as 1675, when 
 the forge at Pawtucket, erected by Joseph Jenks, Jr., son of 
 Joseph Jenks, the machinist at Lynn, was destroyed by the 
 Indians in the Wampanoag war, together with other iron 
 works and infant enterprises. A third Joseph Jenks was 
 governor of Rhode Island from 1727 to 1732. The few 
 forges and furnaces which were erected in this colony in the 
 seventeenth and eighteenth centuries used bog or pond ore, 
 and all or nearly all of them were located on the border of 
 Bristol county, Massachusetts. Iron does not appear to have 
 been made within the limits of Maine, New Bfampshire, or 
 Vermont until the eighteenth century. 
 
 Doctor James Thacher, in his valuable essay on the iron 
 ores and iron enterprises of Plymouth county, Massachu- 
 setts, printed in 1804, says : " The first furnace for smelting 
 iron ore, known in the county of Plymouth, was erected in 
 the year 1702 by Lambert Despard (a founder) and the 
 family of Barkers, his associates, at the mouth of Matta- 
 keeset pond in the town of Pembroke, but the wood in the 
 vicinity being exhausted the works were long since aban- 
 doned." In James Torrey's History of Scituate, in Plym- 
 outh county, written in 1815, mention is made of an iron 
 enterprise in the township of Scituate, as follows : " In 1648 
 Mr. Timothy Hatherly, the principal founder and father of 
 the town of Scituate, requested liberty of the colony to 
 erect an iron mill. It was granted in 1650, conditional to 
 be erected within three years, or the privilege, certain wood- 
 lands about Mattakeeset pond, (now Pembroke,) to revert 
 to the colony. It did not, however, take place at that 
 period, but ' a smelting furnace was erected on the precise 
 grant, by Mark Despard and the family of Barker, about 
 1702.' " With the building of this furnace the iron history 
 of Massachusetts in the eighteenth century may be said to 
 begin. The enterprise of Despard and the Barkers was 
 speedily followed by the erection of a bloomary forge on 
 Bound brook, near Hingham, in 1703, by a company in 
 which two brothers, Daniel and Mordeoai Lincoln, were 
 partners. Mordecai Lincoln is supposed to have been an 
 ancestor of Abraham Lincoln. In Torrey's History of 
 Scituate mention is made of the erection of the Drinkwater 
 iron works, near Abington, about 1710, by a person named 
 Miehill, probably Rev. Thomas Mighill. The first slitting 
 mill in the colonies, for slitting nail rods, is said by tradi- 
 tion to have been erected at Milton, in Norfolk county, as 
 early as 1710 ; but Bishop accords this honor to Middle-i 
 borough, in Plymouth county, at a later day. About 1722 a 
 bloomary forge was built at Bridgewater, which was active in 
 1750. In 1738 Hugh Orr, Scotchman, established at this place 
 a gun factory, and about 1748 he made five hundred muskets 
 for the province of Massachusetts Bay, which are believed to 
 have been the first muskets manufactured in the country. 
 Subsequently he established a cast-iron cannon foundry at 
 Bridgewater,and was instrumental in promoting various other 
 
36 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 manufacturing enterprises. In 1730 iron worlds were erected 
 at Plympton, now Carver, which appear to have emhraced 
 a blast furnace, as mention is made of iron tea-kettles hav- 
 ing been cast at Plympton between 1760 and 1765. In 1731 
 there were officially reported to be in Massachusetts " several 
 forges for making bar iron, and some furnaces for cast iron 
 or hollow-ware, and one slitting mill, and a manufacture 
 for nails." At the same time there were in all New Eng- 
 land "six furnaces, meaning hollow-ware furnaces, and 
 nineteen forges, meaning bloomaries, not refineries." " At 
 that time," says Douglass, 'in his British Settlements, "we 
 had no pig furnaces nor refineries of pigs " in New England. 
 Eefineries were in use about twenty years later. In 1760 
 there were four slitting mills in Massachusetts— two at 
 Middleborough, one at Hanover, and one at Milton ; also a 
 plating-forge with a tilt-hammer, and one steel furnace. 
 About 1750 Douglass thus described the iron industry of 
 New England : 
 
 Iron is a considerable article in our manufactures ; it consists of 
 these general branches: (1) Smelting furnaces reducing the ore into 
 pigs ; having coal enough and appearances of rock ore. In Attle- 
 borough were erected at a great charge three furnaces, but the ore 
 proving bad and scarce this projection miscarried as to pigs. They 
 were of use in casting of small cannon for ships of letters of marque 
 and in casting cannon-balls and bombs toward the reduction of 
 Louisbourg. (2) Eefineries which manufacture pigs, imported 
 from New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland flirnaces, into bar 
 iron. (3) Bloomeries, which, from bog or swamp ore, without any 
 furnace, only by a forge hearth, reduce it into a bloom or semi- 
 liquidated lump to be beat into bars, but much inferior to those 
 from the pigs, or refineries. (4) Swamp ore furnaces; from that 
 ore smelted they cast hollow- ware which we can afford cheaper than 
 from England or Holland. 
 
 Bog or swamp ore lies from half a foot to two feet deep. In 
 about twenty years from digging it grows or gathers fit for another 
 digging ; if it lies longer it turns rusty and does not yield well. 
 Tliree tons of swamp ore yield about one ton of hollow-ware. 
 
 One hundred and twenty bushels of charcoal are sufficient to 
 smelt rock ore into one ton of pigs. The complement of men for 
 a furnace is eight or nine, besides cutters of wood, coalers, carters, 
 and other common laborers. 
 
 In New England we have two slitting mills for nail rods : one in 
 Milton, eight miles from Boston, and another in Middleborough, 
 about thirty miles from Boston, which are more than we have 
 occasion for. Our nailors can afford spikes and large nails cheaper 
 than from England, but small nails are not so cheap. 
 
 In New England they do not forge bar iron sufficient for their home 
 consumption by bloomeries and refineries ; they import from Eng- 
 land, New York, Jersies, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. 
 
 The development of the rich iron ores of the Bertshire 
 hills, in Western Massachusetts, commenced about 1750. 
 A furnace was built at Lenox, in Berkshire county, in 1765, 
 and it made pig iron in the following year. It had an ex- 
 ceptionally high stack for that day — 28 feet high, and was 
 blown with one tuyere. This furnace was torn down in 
 1881. Previous to 1773 a furnace was built at Furnace Vil- 
 lage, in Worcester county, and a few years after that date 
 there were several bloomaries and one refinery forge in the 
 same county. In 1793 the county contained several manu- 
 factories of edge tools, hardware, machinery, etc. In the 
 township of Sutton there were at this time one axe, one hoe 
 and five scythe manufactories, and several naileries. In the 
 whole county there were seventeen trip-hammers. At 
 Springfield, in Hampden county as stated by Bishop, some 
 cannon were cast and some forging was done during the 
 Revolutionary war, but small arms were not made until 
 after the peace. The Government armory at Springfield 
 was established in 1794. While the iron manufacture of 
 Massachusetts was thus being extended westward it con- 
 tinued to make rapid progress in the eastern counties. 
 Charlotte furnace at Middleborough was built in 1758, and 
 was in operation for many years. Eiuring our two wars with 
 the mother country it was employed in casting shot and 
 shells. The shot which the Constitution carried in her con- 
 flict with the Oaerrilre were cast at this furnace. In 1784 
 there were seventy-six iron-works in Massachusetts, " many 
 of them small." At Amesbury, in Essex county, a furnace 
 was erected about 1790, and at Boxborough, in Middlesex 
 county, a bloomary forge was built about the same time. 
 In 1795 Dr. Morse reported eleven slitting mills in Bristol, 
 Norfolk, and Plymouth counties, which rolled and cut in 
 
 that year 1,732 tons of iron into hoops and nail rods. 
 Bishop says that " the two counties of Plymouth and Bristol 
 had in operation in 1798 fourteen blast and six air furnaces, 
 twenty forges, and seven rolling and slitting mills, in addi- 
 tion to a number of trip hammers and a great number of 
 nail and smith shops. Cut and hammered nails, spades and 
 shovels, card teeth, saws, scythes, metal buttons, cannon 
 balls, bells, fire arms, sheet iron for tin ware, wire, etc., 
 were made in large quantities." Steel was made from crude 
 iron at Canton about 1797 " by the German process." In 
 1804 there were ten blast furnaces in Plymouth county, all 
 producing castings exclusively. In 1830 only three of these 
 were left — Charlotte, Federal, and Pope's Point, all in Car- 
 ver township, and all in operation. There were also in 
 1804 ten forges in the same county, which were principally 
 employed in working " old iron scraps," broken pots, kettles, 
 etc., and produced in all about 200 tons of bar iron per 
 annum. Dr. James Thacher, who was a part owner of 
 Federal furnace, wrote in 1804 a description of this furnace, 
 which was built in 1794, and is said by him to have been 
 the most valuable furnace with which he was acquainted, 
 the manufacture of castings being "there prosecuted to 
 great extent and advantage." The furnace was built of 
 stone, as were all other Plymouth furnaces. It was 
 20 feet high and 24 feet square, its walls being 7 feet thick 
 and its interior 10 feet in diameter. Charcoal was the only 
 fuel used, and marine shells formed the only fluxing mate- 
 rial. The furnace was lined with " fire-stone" composed of 
 "soft slate." A brick funnel at the top of the stack served 
 "to convey off the blaze and smoke." The Doctor con- 
 tinues his description as follows : 
 
 At the bottom of an arch in the front of the furnace is an aper- 
 ture, from which the workmen remove the scoria and dip out the 
 metal. And in another arch on one side there is a small aperture 
 for the insertion of the pipes of two large bellows 22 feet long and 
 4 feet wide, which being kept in constant alternate motion by the 
 agency of a water-wheel 25 feet diameter, a powerful current of air 
 is excited; and being impelled upon the surface of the fuel the 
 fusion of the metal is greatly accelerated. The whole of this 
 machinery is included in a large wooden building, affording accom- 
 modation to the workmen with their apparatus for moulding and 
 casting. 
 
 The specific articles manufactured at the Federal furnace are, 
 besides hollow-ware of every description, Seymour's patent rolls for 
 slitting mQls, of a superior quality, cast in iron cylinders, potash 
 kettles, stoves, fire-backs and jambs, plates gudgeons, anvils, large 
 hammers, cannon shot of every kind, with a vast variety of ma- 
 chinery for mills, etc. 
 
 The ores used in the furnaces and bloomaries of eastern 
 Massachusetts were chiefly bog and pond ores. Dr. Thacher 
 says, however, that in 1804 "a very considerable proportion 
 of ore smelted in our furnaces is procured from the very 
 productive mines at Egg Harbor, in the state of New Jersey, 
 of a reddish brown color, producing from 30 to 40 per cent, 
 of excellent iron. The usual price is $6.50 per ton." He 
 also says that "reddish brown" ore in large lumps was ob- 
 tained from a mine on Martha's Vineyard, " aflfording about 
 25 per cent, and worth $6 per ton." The pond ores con- 
 tained from 20 to 30 per cent, of iron, and the average price 
 was about $6 per ton at the furnace. Bog ore, found in 
 swamps and other low places, was of a " rusty-brown color, 
 yielding about 18 per cent, and worth $4 per ton at the 
 furnace." The following letter from the Rev. Isaac Backus, 
 of Middleborough, dated July 25, 1794, gives a description 
 of the manner in which pond ores were obtained. 
 
 Vast qnantities of iron, both cast and wrought, have been made 
 in this part of the country for more than a hundred years past; 
 but it was chiefly out of bog ore, until that kind was much ex- 
 hausted in these parts, and then a rich treasure was opened in Middle- 
 borough, which had been long hid from the inhabitants. About 
 the year 1747 it was discovered that there was an iron mine in the 
 bottom of our great pond at Assowamset ; and after some years it 
 became the main ore that was used in the town, both at furnaces 
 and forges, and much of it has been carried into the neighboring 
 places for the same purpose. Men go out with boats, and make use 
 of instruments much like those with which oysters are taken to 
 get up the ore from the bottom of the pond. I am told that for a 
 number of years, a man would take up and brint; to shore two tons 
 of it in a day; but now it is so much exhausted' that half a ton ia 
 reckoned a good day's work for one man. But in an adjacent pond 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 37 
 
 is now plenty, where the water is twenty feet deep, and much is 
 taken up from that depth, as well as from shoaler water. It has 
 also been plenty in a pond in the town of Carver, where they have 
 a furnace upon the stream which runs from it. Much of the iron 
 which is made from this ore is better than they could make out of 
 bog ore, and some of it is as good as almost any refined iron. The 
 quantity of this treasure, which hath been taken out of the bottom 
 of clear ponds, is said to have been sometimes as much as five hun- 
 dred tons in a year. 
 
 In 1735 Samuel Waldo erected a furnace and foundry on 
 the Pawtuxet river, in Ehode Island, which were afterward 
 known as Hope furnace. They are said to have been the 
 most important iron works in the state during the eighteenth 
 century. Cannon and other castings were made here, 
 During the Eevolution they were active in producing can- 
 non, cannon balls, and other munitions of war. About the 
 , year 1735 three other furnaces were erected in Cumberland 
 township, in the northeastern part of the state, but they 
 seem to nave been abandoned before the Eevolution. They 
 made "cannon, bombs, and bullets" during the French 
 war of 1755. Before 1800 a slitting mill had been erected 
 on one of the branches of Providence river; a slitting and 
 rolling mill at Pawtucket falls ; and other iron-manufactu- 
 ring establishments in various parts of the state. Bishop 
 says that " manufactures of iron, including bar and sheet 
 iron, steel, nail rods and nails, farming implements, stoves, 
 pots, and other castings and household utensils, iron works 
 for shipbuilders, anchors, and bells formed the largest 
 branch of productive industry in the state toward the close 
 of the eighteenth century." 
 
 Litchfield county, in northwestern Connecticut, contains 
 iron-ore mines of great value, from which the ore for the 
 celebrated "Salisbury iron" has been taken for a hundred 
 and fifty years. This ore is of a similar quality to that 
 found in Berkshire county, Massachusetts, already referred 
 to. As early as 1734 a bloomary forge was erected at Lime 
 Eock, in Litchfield county, by Thomas Lamb, which pro- 
 duced from 500 to 700 pounds of iron per day. About 1748 
 a forge was erected at the village of Lakeville, in the same 
 county, and in 1762 John Haseltine, Samuel Forbes, and 
 Colonel Ethan Allen purchased the property and built a 
 blast furnace, but soon afterwards sold it to Charles and 
 George Caldwell, of Hartford. It made two and a half tons 
 of iron in twenty-four . hours, and three tons of ore and 250 
 bushels of charcoal were used per ton of iron. Its blowing 
 apparatus consisted of a pair of leather bellows driven by a 
 water-wheel. In 1768 the furnace was sold to Eichard 
 Smith, of Hartford. Smith was a royalist, and fled to 
 England during the Eevolution, but his furnace was made 
 to produce large quantities of cannon, cannon balls, shells, 
 etc., for the Continental army. After the Eevolution it 
 made cannon for the navy, potash kettles weighing nearly 
 half a ton each, and pig iron for forges and foundries. 
 Many bloomary forges were erected in this country about 
 the close of the last century. One of these was built on 
 Mount Eiga, about five miles north of Lakeville, in 1781, 
 by Abner or Peter Woodin. It was afterwards owned by 
 Daniel Ball, and was called Ball's forge. About 1806 Seth 
 King and John Kelsey commenced to build a furnace on 
 Mount Eiga, but were not able to finish it, and in 1810 it 
 fell into the hands of Holley & Coffing, who completed it 
 in that year and operated it for many years. Twenty-seven 
 furnaces have been built and operated within a radius of 
 thirty miles of Lakeville, a few of which were in New York 
 and Massachusetts, but the majority were in Connecticut. 
 At the close of the eighteenth century Litchfield county 
 contained fifty bloomary forges, making iron directly from 
 the ore, and three slitting mills. At the same time the 
 county was so prominent in the manufacture of nails that 
 only Plymouth and Bristol counties in Massachusetts, of all 
 the nail-making districts in the country, exceeded its pro- 
 duction. The iron of Litchfield county is now entirely used 
 for foundry purposes and most of it in the manufacture of 
 car wheels. Bishop says that Oldmixon mentions " a small 
 iron mill" at Branford, in New Haven county, in -1741, on 
 a small stream, running into Long Island sound, and adds 
 that on many of the small streams and branches of the 
 rivers which fall into the sound "bloomaries and small 
 works for a variety of manufactures in iron were established, 
 some of them quite early." The bloomaries were in part 
 
 supplied with bog ore, " dug near them," and in part with 
 better ores obtained elsewhere. Bishop also says that in 
 1794 a slitting mill and other iron works had been erected 
 in East Hartford, a forge at Glastonbury, and two furnaces at 
 Stafibrd " which made sufficient hollow and cast-iron wares 
 for the whole state." Lesley says that there were at one 
 time, about the beginning of the present century, three 
 blast flirnaces in northern Connecticut, near the Massachu- 
 setts line, on a branch of Willimantic river, a mile or two 
 apart. Three forges near them converted their pig iron 
 into bar iron. Hebron furnace was south of the above 
 mentioned furnaces, and Enfield forge stood a few miles 
 east of Windsor Locks. All these ftirnaces and forges were 
 stopped about 1837, when Scotch pig iron began to come 
 into the country. Connecticut was among the first of the 
 colonies to make steel. Bishop relates that in 1728 Joseph 
 Highby, " an ingenious blacksmith," of Simsbury, Hartford 
 county, represented to the legislature that he had, " with 
 great pains and cost, found out and obtained a curious art, 
 by which to convert, change, or transmit common iron into 
 good steel, suflicient for any use, and was the very first that 
 ever performed such an operation in America." The 
 certificates of several smiths, who had made a trial of the 
 steel and pronounced it good, were produced. He and 
 Joseph Dewey were granted the exclusive right for ten years 
 " of practicing the business or trade of steel-making." A 
 "steel furnace" was owned by George Eliot, of Killingworth, 
 in Middlesex county, previous to 1759, and in 1761 the Eev. 
 Jared Eliot, of the same place, father of the above-mentioned 
 George Eliot, succeeded in producing in a common bloom- 
 ary forge a bar of excellent iron, weighing 60 pounds, from 
 83 pounds of black magnetic sand, and in his son's steel 
 furnace a portion of the bar was converted into good steel. 
 For this discovery he was awarded a gold medal in 1764 by 
 the London Society of Arts. But this sand, which is found 
 in the southern parts of Connecticut, as well as in other 
 states, never received much further attention for conversion 
 into iron or steel. Iron ore was discovered near Ports- 
 mouth, in New Hampshire, as early as 1634, some of which 
 was shipped to England, but there is no evidence that its 
 discovery led to the establishment of any ironworks in that 
 century. The manufacture of iron in this state dates from 
 about 1750, when several bloomaries, using bog ore, were in 
 existence on Lamper Eel river, but were soon discontinued. 
 About the period of the Eevolution there were a few bloom- 
 aries in operation in the state. In 1791 mention is made of 
 iron works at Exeter. At Furnace Village the magnetic 
 ore of Winchester was first smelted in 1795 by a Ehode 
 Island company. Franconia furnace, in Franconia county, 
 was built in 1811 by a company which was organized in 1805. 
 Maine had a few bloomary forges in York county during 
 the Eevolution and for some years afterwards, but she has had 
 but few blast furnaces. A small furnace, capable of yield- 
 ing a ton and a half of iron daily, was erected at Shapleigh, 
 in York connty, about 1838. It was used to produce cast- 
 ings, and cost but $13,000. A larger furnace in Piscataquis 
 county, called Katahdin, was built in 1845, and is now 
 active. This is the only furnace now in the state. At an early 
 period in its history it was successfully operated for several 
 years by Hon. John L. Hayes, now of Cambridge, Massa- 
 chusetts. A forge was erected near the furnace soon after 
 1845. In 1853 it made 700 tons of blooms. There were in 
 1880 two rolling mills in Maine — one at Portland and one 
 at Pembroke. The manufacture of iron vpas commenced in 
 Vermont about 1750. Large deposits of iron ores similar 
 to those of western Massachusets and western Connecticut 
 had previously been found in the southern and western 
 parts of the state. In Eutland county a mine was opened . 
 in 1785, and in 1794 there were fourteen forges, three fur- 
 naces, and a slitting mill in the county. In other counties 
 there were seven forges in 1794 — one in Bennington, four in 
 Addison, and two in Chittenden counties, and before 1800 
 other forges and a slitting mill were added ; possibly some 
 furnaces, the township of Eandolph, in Orange county, 
 had two forges and a slitting mill at the same period 
 About the beginning of the nineteenth century there were 
 twenty bloomaries in the neighborhood of Vergennes, in 
 Addison county, all built with Boston capital. The manu- 
 facture of nails was one of the household industries of New 
 England during the eighteenth century. In a speech in 
 
38 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Congress ia 1789 Fisher Ames said : " It has become common 
 for the country people in Massachusetts to erect small 
 forges in their chimney corners ; and in winter, and in 
 evenings, when little other work can be done, great quanti- 
 ties of nails are made even by children. These people take 
 the rod iron of the merchant and return him the nails, and 
 in consequence of this easy mode to barter the manufacture 
 is prodigiously great." In a description of the town of Middle- 
 borough, in Plymouth county, Massachusetts, written in 
 1793 by Nehemiah Bennet, it is mentioned that "the most 
 common and general employment of the inhabitants of said 
 town is agriculture, which seems to be increasing ; though 
 there are a number of mechanioks. Nailing, or the business 
 of making nails, is carried on largely in the winters, by the 
 farmers and young men, who have but little other business 
 at that season of the year." When Jacob Perkins, of New- 
 buryport, Massachusetts, invented his machine for making 
 cut nails, which was patented in 1795 and speedily followed 
 by other inventions for the same purpose, the occupation of 
 making wrought nails in the chimney corner virtually came 
 to an end. The manufacture of tacks by hand was also a 
 New England household industry during the last century, 
 and down to about fifty years ago. A writer in the Furniture 
 Trade Journal thus describes this industry : " In the queer- 
 shaped, homely farm-houses, or the little contracted shops 
 of certain New England villages, the industrious and frugal 
 descendants of the Pilgrims toiled providently through the 
 long winter months at beating into shape the little nails which 
 play so useful a part in modern industry. A small anvil 
 served to beat the wire or strip of iron into shape and point 
 it ; a vice, worked by the foot, clutched it between jaws 
 furnished with a gauge to regulate the length, leaving a 
 certain portion projecting, which, when beaten flat by a 
 hammer, formed the head. By this process a man might 
 make, toilsomely, perhaps 2,000 tacks per day." Nearly 
 all the bloomary and refinery forges and blast farnaces of 
 New England have long disappeared, and in their stead 
 have grown up reproductive iron industries of almost end- 
 less variety and vast extent, employing large numbers of 
 skilled mechanics and adding greatly to the productive 
 wealth of the country. The rolling mills, machine shops, 
 hardware establishments, nail and tack factories, foundries 
 and other iron enterprises of New England, together with 
 a few steel works and modern blast furnaces, form to-day a 
 striking contrast to the ore bloomaries, not much larger 
 than a blacksmith's fire, and the small charcoal furnaces 
 and chimney-corner nail factories of the last century. 
 " All that," says Lesley, "has given way and disappeared 
 before the inventive spirit of New England, sustained and 
 incited by the wealth of its commercial cities." 
 
 — Compiled from James M. Swank's Report on Iron and Steely Tenth Census of the U. 8_ 
 
 EARLY IRON ENTERPRISES IN THE MIDDLE, 
 SOUTHERN AND WESTERN STATES. 
 
 THE following paragraphs will furnish the reader 
 with interesting historical memoranda concerning 
 iron and iron industry in the different states other 
 than those of New England : 
 
 New York. — Peter Kalm, the Swedish traveler, writing 
 in 1748, says of the commerce of New York : " Of late years 
 they have shipped a quantity of iron to England." Some of 
 this iron was made in Connecticut and New Jersey. Doug- 
 lass in his British Settlements, written in 1750, speaking of New 
 York says: " The article of iron in pigs and bars is a grow- 
 ing affair." Bishop says that iron works were established in 
 Orange county prior to 1750, but by whom he does not state. 
 In 1760 Governor Clinton reported that, at a place called 
 Wawayanda, in Orange county, about twenty-six miles from 
 the Hudson, there was a planting-forge with a tilt-hammer, 
 which had been built four or five years before, but was not 
 then in use. It was the property of Lawrence Scrawley, a 
 blacksmith. It was the only mill of that kind in the pro- 
 vince. There was no rolling or slitting mill or steel furnace 
 at that time in the province." In 1750 a vein of magnetic 
 iron ore was discovered on Sterling mountain, in Orange 
 
 county, and in 1751 Ward & Colton built a furnace at the 
 outlet of Sterling pond. In Eager's Bistort/ of Orange 
 County it is stated that " at the early establishment of this 
 furnace the charcoal used was transported several miles on 
 the backs of horses from the mountains where it was burned, 
 there being no roads at the time." Bishop says that in 1752 
 "Abel Noble, from Bucks county, Pennsylvania, erected a 
 forge in Monroe, near the furnace, at which anchors are said 
 to have been made." Eager says that the first anchor made 
 in New York was made at this forge in 1753. In 1765 
 William Hawkhurst published an advertisement stating 
 that he had lately erected " a finery and great hammer for re- 
 fining the Sterling pig iron into bars," but the location of this 
 enterprise is not mentioned. The farnace of Ward & Col- 
 ton and the forge of Abel Noble became the property of 
 Peter Townsend before the Eevolution. They had named 
 the Sterling iron works, presumably after Lord Stirling, the 
 owner of the land, who became a general in the Continental 
 army, and who was engaged in the manufacture of iron in 
 New Jersey before the Eevolution. He may have been part 
 owner of the Orange county enterprises. (The Sterling 
 works have always been spelled as here given, but Lord 
 Stirling's name was differently spelled.) In 1773 Mr. Town- 
 send made anchors at Sterling. We are informed by Mr. 
 A. W. Humphreys that the anchors of the United States 
 frigate Constitution were made here, as well as the 
 anchors for the first ships of war that carried the stars and 
 stripes. In 1777 " the Townsends " had two forges with 
 eight forge fires. In 1776 Mr. Townsend, according to 
 Bishop, "produced the first steel in the province, at first 
 from pig and afterwards from the bar iron, in the German 
 manner." Bishop also says that " the first blister steel made . 
 in the state was made by Peter Townsend, Jr., in 1810, from 
 ore of the Long mine on the Sterling estate." This mine 
 was discovered in 1761 by David Jones. Other valuable 
 mines than those mentioned were discovered and opened on 
 the Sterling estate in the last century. In 1777 a second 
 Sterling furnace was erected by the Townsends, and in 1806 
 Southfield furnace was built, about six miles distant from 
 the Sterling mines, and is still standing. The two early 
 Sterling furnaces have made way for one modern stack. 
 Other mines of rich ore were discovered in Orange county 
 during the last century, and many furnaces and forges were 
 built in connection with them which have long been aban- 
 doned. In 1756 there was a Forest of Dean furnace five miles 
 west of Fort Montgomery, which was supplied with ore from 
 the Forest of Dean mine, near which it stood. The furnace 
 was abandoned twenty-one years later. Eager says that 
 " Captain Solomon Townsend, a cousin of Peter Townsend, 
 and who married his daughter Anne in 1783, purchased the 
 mountain estate adjoining that of his father-in-law, which 
 he named Augusta, and established the iron works, anchory, 
 forges, etc., at the place." These works were on the 
 Eamapo, three miles above the Orange county line, in 
 Orange county. There was a forge and anchory on Mur- 
 derer's creek during the Eevolution, owned by Samuel Brew- 
 ster; after the war they passed into the hands of his son-in- 
 law, Jonas Williams. Queensborough furnace, which went 
 out of blast about 1800, and which was built to make pig 
 iron, was located about two and a half miles southwest of Fort 
 Montgomery. On the stream issuing from Hazzard's pond 
 there was a furnace named Woodbury about the beginning 
 of this century. During the last century Orange county was 
 the chief seat of the iron manufacture in New York. 
 Greenwood furnace, in this county, w.is erected in 1811 by 
 the Messrs. Cunningham. In 1871 it was the only charcoal 
 furnace in Southern New York that remained in blast ; since 
 that year it also has been silent. 
 
 In 1765 there were iron works in Duchess county. A fur- 
 nace and foundry at Amenia in this county were in opera- 
 tion during the Eevolution, "at which steel and castings 
 were made for the use of the army." A bloomary was in 
 operation about the period of the Eevolution at Patchogue, 
 in Brookhaven township, Suffolk county. Long Island. At 
 Eiverhead, in Suffolk county, Captain Solomon Townsend 
 established " a manufactory of bar iron " before the close of 
 the last centuiy. Iron ore was mined in Putnam county in 
 the last century, some of which was taken to iron works on 
 Long Island sound. In the manor of Philipsburg, in West- 
 chester county, iron ore was mined and furnaces were 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 39 
 
 erected before the close of the same century. About the 
 time of the Revolutioa a furnace named Haverstraw and 
 several bloomaries were in existence in Rockland county, on 
 the western side of the Tappan Zee. About the year 1800 
 the celebrated Champlain iron district was developed, and in 
 1801 the first iron works in the district were built at Wills- 
 borough falls, on the Boquet river, in Essex county, to manu- 
 facture anchors. George Throop, Levi Highly, and Charles 
 Kane were the owners. Among other early iron enterprises 
 in this district were the New Russia, Jay and Elba forges in 
 Essex county, and the Eagle rolling mill at Keeseville, in 
 Clinton county. This district is now and'for a long time has 
 been the most important iron district in the state. It now 
 contains six rolling mills, six blast furnaces, and twenty -two 
 forges. The forges are all true bloomaries, manufacturing 
 blooms, chiefly for conversion into steel, directly from the 
 rich magnetic and specular ores of the neighborhood. The 
 district comprises the counties of Essex, Clinton, and Frank- 
 lin. A forge was built at West Fort Ann, in Washington 
 county, south of Lake George, about 1802. West of the 
 Champlain district, in the counties of Saint Lawrence, 
 Jefferson, Lewis, Oswego, and Oneida, many charcoal fur- 
 naces were built after the beginning of the present century, 
 among the earliest of which were Rossie furnace in Saint 
 Lawrence county, Taberg furnace in Oneida county, and 
 Constantia furnace in Oswego county. In the extreme 
 western and southwestern parts of the state the few iron en- 
 terprises that have had an existence during the present 
 century have all been of yet more modern origin. Nails 
 were extensively manufactured by hand at Albany in 1787. 
 Twenty years later, in 1807, John BrinkerhoflF, of Albany, 
 lighted the fires in his newly-erected rolling mill on the 
 Wynantskill. The Troy Daily Times says that " the opera- 
 tions of the little wooden rolling mill built bjr him were con- 
 fined to converting Russian and Swedish bar iron into plates, 
 which were slit into narrow strips, and these cut into re- 
 quired length and made into nails by hand." In 1826 the 
 nail factory of John Brinkerhoff was sold at auction, and 
 was purchased for $5,280 by Erastus Corning, who was then 
 engaged at Albany in the hardware business. It now forms 
 part of the works of the Albany and Rensselaer Iron and 
 Steel Company, the most extensive and important iron and 
 steel works in the state. The iron industry of New York 
 was not so prominent during the eighteenth century as that 
 of some other states, but soon after the beginning of the 
 present century the development of the Champlain district 
 gave to the industry more prominence, which was still fur- 
 ther increased after 1840, when anthracite coal was applied 
 to the manufacture of pig iron on the Hudson river and 
 elsewhere in the state. In 1870, and again in 1880 it ranked 
 third in the list of iron and steel producing state". 
 
 New Jersey. — In William Reed Deane's Genealogical 
 Memoirs of the Leonard Family, already referred to, it is 
 stated that Henry Leonard left Rowley Village, Massachu- 
 setts, early in 1674, "and at that time, or soon after, went to 
 New Jersey, estal3lishing the iron manufacture in that state." 
 His sons, Samuel, Nathaniel, and Thomas, probably left 
 Rowley Village soon after their father's departure, and 
 followed him to New Jersey. Bishop says that Shrewsbury, 
 a township lying northwest of Long Branch, in Monmouth 
 county, was settled by Connecticut people soon after New 
 Jersey was surrendered to the English by the Dutch in 1664, 
 and that it was "to this part of Jersey" that Henry Leonard 
 removed. About the time of the Connecticut settlement, 
 James Grover, who had been a resident of Long Island, also 
 settled in Shrewsbury, and is said to have established iron 
 works in that township, which he afterwards sold to Colonel 
 Lewis Morris, then a merchant of Barbadoes, but born in 
 England. On October 26, 1676, a grant of land was made 
 to Colonel Morris, with full liberty to him and his heirs " to 
 dig, delve, and carry away all such mines for iron as they 
 shall find or see fit to dig and carry away to the iron work," 
 which establishes the fact that the iron works in Shrews- 
 bury were built prior to 1676, and that they were then owned 
 by Colonel Morris. They were probably undertaken about 
 1674, in which year Henry Leonard is said to have emi- 
 grated from Massachusetts to New Jersey. They were the 
 first iron works in New Jersey. 
 
 In a brief account of the province of East Jersey, pub- 
 lished by the proprietors in 1682, it is stated that " there is 
 
 already a smelting fiirnace and forge set up in this colony, 
 where is made good iron, which is of great benefit to the 
 country." Smith, in his History of New Jersey, says that in 
 1682 " Shrewsbury, near Sandy Hook, adjoining the river 
 or creek of that name, was already a township, consisting of 
 several thousand acres, with large plantations contiguous ; 
 the inhabitants were computed to be about 400. Lewis 
 Morris, of Barbadoes, had iron works and other considerable 
 improvements here." In 1686 it was stated in The Model of 
 the Government of East New Jersey that " there is an iron 
 work already set up, where there is good iron made." In 
 the same year Thomas Budd, in his Good Order in Pennsyl- 
 vania and New Jersey, wrote that there was but one iron 
 work in New Jersey, and that this was located in Mon- 
 mouth county. All of these statements refer to the Shrews- 
 bury works, which do not seem to have had a long life. 
 According to Oldmixon, they were located between the towns 
 of Shrewsbury and Middletown. They used bog ore. 
 
 The rich deposits of magnetic iron ore in northern New 
 Jersey were discovered at an early day, and about 1710, as we 
 are informed by the Rev. Dr. Joseph F. Tuttle, in his Early 
 History of Morris Couniy, written in 1869, settlements were 
 made on the Whippany river, in Hanover township, in 
 Morris county ; and at a place now called Whippany, four 
 miles northeast of Morristown, a forge was erected. Bishop 
 says that the first settlers of Hanover located there "for the 
 purpose of smelting the iron ores in the neighborhood." 
 They "early erected several forges and engaged exten- 
 sively in the iron manufacture." Whippany is about fifteen 
 miles east of the celebrated Succasunna iron ore mine, in 
 the present township of Eoxbury, and it was here that the 
 settlers obtained their supply of ore. The ore was carried 
 to the works in leather bags on pack-horses, and the iron 
 was carried in the same way over the Orange mountains to 
 Newark. Bishop says that " forges at Morristown, and some 
 in Essex county, were long supplied in the sapie way from 
 the rich ore of the mine. The ore was for some time free to 
 all." Dr. Tuttle says: "The Succasunna mine lot was 
 located in 1716 by John Reading, and sold the same year to 
 Joseph Kirkbride, containing 558- acres, and after his death 
 the tract was divided between his three sons, Joseph, John, 
 and Mahlon Kirkbride, except the mine lot, which was held 
 by them in common until such time as the same should be 
 sold." This celebrated iron-ore deposit has long been 
 known as the " Dickerson mine." 
 
 Dr. Tuttle says that in 1722 Joseph Latham sold a tract 
 of land in the present township of Mendham, in Morris 
 county, to "one John Jackson, who built a forge on the 
 little stream which puts into the Rockaway near the resi- 
 dence of Mr. Jacob Hurd. The forge was nearly in front 
 of Mr. Hurd's house," a mile west of Dover. Wood for 
 charcoal was abundant, and the mine on the hill was not 
 far distant. For some reason Jackson did not succeed in 
 his iron enterprise, and was sold out by the sheriff 1753. 
 Dr. Tuttle says that Rockaway was settled about 1725, or 
 possibly as late as 1730, " at which time a small iron forge 
 was built near where the upper forge now stands in Rocka- 
 way, Denmark, Middle Forge, Ninkee, Shaungum, Frank- 
 lin." This statement fixes the date and location of the first 
 forge at Rockaway. The Doctor says that subsequently 
 " forges were built on different streams at Rockaway and 
 other places from the year 1725 to 1770." At Troy, in 
 Morris county, as we learn from another source, a forge 
 was built in 1743, which was in operation as late as 1860. 
 All these forges were bloomaries, manufacturing bar iron 
 from the ore. 
 
 At the close of the seventeenth century and for some 
 years after the beginning of the eighteenth century New 
 Jersey was the only colony outside of New England that 
 was engaged in the manufacture of iron, and this manufac- 
 ture was almost wholly confined to its bloomaries. The 
 rich magnetic ores, the well-wooded hillsides, and th6 rest- 
 less mountain streams of Northern New Jersey afforded every 
 facility for the manufacture of iron of a superior quality by 
 this primitive method, while the nearness of good markete 
 furnished a sufficient inducement to engage in the business. 
 The bloomaries of New Jersey were Catalan forges of the 
 German type. 
 
 Not much progress was made, however, in the establish- 
 ment of the iron industry in New Jersey until the middle 
 
40 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the eighteenth century. From about 1740 down to the 
 Revolution many flirnaces and other iron works were built 
 in New Jersey. Its iron industry during the greater part of 
 this period was exceedingly active, although greatly ham- 
 pered by restrictions imposed by the mother country. To 
 the iron enterprises which were then built up within its 
 borders the patriotic cause was afterwards greatly indebted 
 for much of the iron and steel that were needed to secure 
 its ascendency. 
 
 Peter Hasenclever, a Prussian gentleman of distinction, 
 who is usually referred to as Baron Hasenclever, emigrated 
 to New Jersey in 1764, as the head of an iron company 
 which he had organized in London, and brought with him 
 a large number of German miners and ironworkers. The 
 Eingwood Company, which was organized in 1740 and was 
 principally composed of several persons named Ogden. In 
 the year named and in 1764 the company purchased about 
 thirty acres of land at Ringwood, near Greenwood lake in 
 Bergen, now Passaic county. By one of the purchases of 
 1764 Joseph Board conveys to the company a tract of land 
 at Ringwood, near Greenwood lake, in Bergen, now Passaic 
 county. By one of the purchases of 1764 Joseph Board 
 conveys to the company a tract of land at Ringwood " near 
 the old forge and dwelling house of Walter Erwin." On 
 July 5, 1764, the Ringwood Company sell to " Peter Hasen- 
 clever, late of London, merchant," for £5,000 all of the 
 company's lands at Ringwood. The deed states that on the 
 property there are " erected and standing a furnace, two 
 forges and several dwelling-houses." It speaks of " Timothy 
 Ward's forge ;" also of the " old forge at Ringwood." Hasen- 
 clever also bought from various persons other tracts of land 
 in 1764 at Ringwood and in its vicinity, and in 1765 he 
 bought several tracts of land from Lord Stirling. These 
 various purchases were located at Ringwood, Pompton, 
 Long Pond, and Oharlottenburg, all in Bergen county. 
 Hasenclever also probably purchased an interest in the iron- 
 ore mines at Hibernia. Dr. Tuttle says that " Hasenclever 
 at once began to enlarge the old works and build new ones 
 at each of the places just named," that is Ringwood, Pomp 
 ton. Long Pond, and Oharlottenburg. It is probable that 
 he built a furnace and one or more forges at each place. 
 Three furnaces and six forges he certainly erected. The 
 furnaces were erected, respectively as follows : Oharlotten- 
 burg, on the west branch of the Pequannock ; Ringwood, 
 on the Ringwood branch of the Pequannock ; Long Pond, 
 on the Winockie, and about two miles from Greenwood 
 lake. Oharlottenburg was built in 1767, and was capable 
 of producing from 20 to 25 tons of pig iron weekly. Long 
 Pond was in blast in 1768. 
 
 Hasenclever undoubtedly succeeded in making good iron 
 some of which was shipped to England. He also made 
 steel of good quality directly from the ore. In 1768 he be- 
 came financially embarrassed, and in 1770 was formally 
 declared a bankrupt. He was succeeded in the manage- 
 ment of the company's works by John Jacob Faesch, who 
 had come to New Jersey with him, under an engagement as 
 manager of the iron works for seven years. Faesch was a 
 native of Hesse Cassel. He is said to have mismanaged the 
 affairs of the company, and in 1771 or 1772 was succeeded 
 by Robert Erskine, a Scotchman, who appears to have met 
 with success until 1776, when all the works were stopped by 
 the opening of hostilities, and Oharlottenburg furnace was 
 accidentally burned. The Adventure furnace, at Hibernia, 
 in Morris county, was a famous furnace during the Revolu- 
 tion, casting ordnance and other iron supplies for the army. 
 It was built about 1765. Mr. Halsey says that a tract of 
 land was located November 23, 1765, " about three-quarters 
 of a mile above the new furnace called the Adventure." 
 The name usually given to this furnace is Hibernia. Dr. 
 Tuttle says that " the names of Lord Stirling, Benjamin 
 Oooper, and Samuel Ford are connected with the original 
 building and ownership of the Hibernia works." Mount 
 Hope furnace, about four miles northwest of Rockaway, was 
 built in 1772 by John Jacob Faesch. It was active until 
 about 1825. It also was a noted furnace during the Revolu- 
 tion, casting shot and shells and- cannon for the Continental 
 army. In September, 1776, Joseph HofT, who was at this 
 time manager of Hibernia furnace, wrote to its owner that 
 Faesch had spoken to him " to inform you that he wanted 
 200 tons of pig metal, and wanted to know your price and 
 
 terms of payment. Iron will undoubtedly be in great de- 
 mand, as few works on the continent are doing anything 
 this season." This letter indicates that at the time it was 
 written Faesch owned or controlled a forge for converting 
 pig iron into bar iron. On the 14th of November, 1776, 
 Hoff wrote to General Knox that there were then 35 tons of 
 shot at Hibernia furnace, and on the 2l8t of November he 
 wrote that it was the only furnace in New Jersey which he 
 knew to be then in blast. The Hibernia and the Mount 
 Hope furnaces were both in blast in 1777. Mr Halsey in- 
 forms us that among the laws of New Jersey for 1777 is an 
 act, passed October 7, exempting men to be employed at 
 Mount Hope and Hibernia furnaces from military services and 
 reciting the necessity of providing the army and navy of 
 the United States with cannon, cannon shot, etc., and that 
 the works " have been for some time past employed " in 
 providing such articles and " are now under contract for 
 a large quantity." 
 
 Colonel Jacob Ford, Sr., was a large landholder in Morris 
 county about the middle of the last century. In 1736 he 
 was the owner of " iron works " at Mount Pleasant, three 
 miles west of Rockaway. There was a forge at this place as 
 late as 1856, but almost in ruins. In 1764 John Harriman 
 owned a forge called Burnt Meadow-forge, at Denmark, 
 about five miles north of Rockaway, of which Colonel Jacob 
 Ford, Jr., afterwards became the owner. Colonel Ford also 
 about the same time became the owner of the forge below 
 Denmark and above Mount Pleasant, called ever since 
 Middle forge, which was built on land located by Jonathan 
 Osborne in 1749. The United States Government'now owns 
 the site of the forge last mentioned. John Johnson had 
 " iron works " at Horse Pound, now Beach Glen, a mile and 
 a half below Hibernia, from 1753 to 1765, as appears from 
 references to them in the title papers of adjoining lands. In 
 Andover township in Sussex county, a furnace and forge 
 was erected by a strong company before the Revolution, 
 probably about 1760, and the works were operated on an 
 extensive scale. About the beginning of hostilities the 
 works were stopped, the company being principally com- 
 posed of royalists. The excellent quality of the iron made 
 from the ore of the Andover mine led, however, to such 
 legislation by Congress in January, 1778, as resulted in 
 again putting them in operation. Mr. Whitehead Hum- 
 phreys, of Philadelphia, was directed by Congress to make 
 steel for the use of the army from Andover iron, as the iron 
 made at the Andover works was the only iron which would 
 "with certainty answer the purpose of making steel." The 
 action of Congress is given in detail by the Hon Jacob W. 
 Miller, in his address before the New Jersey Historical 
 Society in 1854, who also records the interesting fact that 
 William Penn was an early owner of the Andover mine. 
 He says that, "on the 10th of March, 1774, by a warrant 
 from the council of proprietors, he acquired title to a 
 large tract of land, situated among the mountains, then of 
 Hunterdon, now of Sussex, county, and William Penn be- 
 came the owner of one of the richest mines of iron ore in 
 New Jersey. This mine, since called Andover, was opened 
 and worked to a considerable extent as early as 1760. Tra- 
 dition reveals to us that the products of these works were 
 carried upon pack-horses and carts down the valley of the 
 Mosconetcong to a place on the Delaware called Durham 
 and were thence transported to Philadelphia in boats, which 
 were remarkable for their beauty and model, and known as 
 Durham boats to this day." Israel Acrelius, the historian 
 of New Sweden, who resided in this country from 1750 to 
 1756, mentions five iron enterprises then existing in New 
 Jersey— the Union iron works, and Oxford, Sterling Os- 
 den's, and Mount Holly furnace. Oxford furnace on a 
 branch of the Request river, at Oxford, in Warren countv 
 was built by Jonathan Robeson in 1742. Tradition says 
 that it was first blown by a water-blast. A pig of Oxford 
 iron bearing the date '^'1755,'' is now in possession of 
 the Historical Society at Trenton. Oxford cannon balls, 
 cast during the French war, have also been preserved 
 Cannon balls were cast at this furnace for the Continental 
 ^^'^I'cn '^^^ furnace is still standing and was in operation 
 in 1880, using anthracite coal. It is the second furnace in 
 New Jersey of which there is any exact record, the Shrews- 
 bury furnace being the first. It divides with Cornwall fur- 
 nace, in Pennsylvania, the honor of being the oldest furnace 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 41 
 
 in the United States that is now in operation. The Union 
 iron works were situated near Clinton, in Hunterdon county, 
 and embraced at the time of Acrelius's visit two furnaces 
 and two forges, " each with two stacks ; " also a trip- 
 hammer and a " flatting-hammer." These works were then 
 owned by William Allen and Thomas Turner, of Philadel- 
 phia. William Allen was chief justice of Pensylvania from 
 1751 to 1774. Allentown, in Pennsylvania, was named after 
 him. He was largely interested in the manufacture of iron 
 in Pennsylvania and New Jersey. In October, 1775, he 
 gave his " half of a quantity of cannon shot belonging to 
 him and to Turner for the use of the Board of the Council 
 of Safety;" but he remained loyal to the British crown, 
 nevertheless, dying in London in 1780. The Union iron 
 works appear to have been entirely abandoned in 1778. 
 Judge Allen informed Acrelius that at the Union iron 
 works, and also at Durham, (hereafter to be mentioned), 
 one and a half tons of ore yielded one ton of pig iron, and 
 that a good furnace yielded from twenty to twenty-five tons 
 of pig iron weekly. Ogden's furnace was situated near 
 Newton, in Sussex county. Mount Holly furnace was situ- 
 ated at the town of that name, in Burlington county. It 
 was built between 1730 and 1747, and is probably as old as 
 Oxford furnace. A forge was connected with the furnace. 
 The works stood where the saw-mill at the south end of 
 Pine street, on Rancocas creek, now stands. All of the fur- 
 naces named, except Mount Holly, used magnetic ore; 
 Mount Holly, according to Acrelius, used " brittle bog ore 
 in gravel," which was only serviceable for castings." But 
 the existence of the forge, and the further fact that pig iron 
 has been found in the ruins of the works show that the 
 ore was used for something else than castings. The furnace 
 was in operation before and partly through the Revolu- 
 tion. It was destroyed by the British during that period. 
 • On the 10th of November, 1750, Governor Belcher certi- 
 fied that there were in New Jersey " one mill or engine for 
 slitting and rolling of iron, situate in the township of Beth- 
 lehem, in the county of Hunterton, on the south branch of 
 the river Raritan, the property of Messrs. William Allen 
 and. Joseph Turner, of Philadelphia, which is not now in 
 use; one plating-forge, which works with a tilt-hammer, 
 situate on a small brook at the west end of Trenton, the 
 property of Benjamin Yard, of Hunterton, which is now 
 used , one furnace for the making of steel, situate in Trenton, 
 the property of Benjamin Yard, which is not now used." 
 Steel was, however, made at Trenton during the Revolution. 
 A rolling and slitting mill was burnt at Old Boonton, in 
 Morris county, before the Revolution, and a similar enter- 
 prise was established at Dover, in the same county, in 1792, 
 by Israel Canfield and Jacob Losey. In 1800 there were in 
 this county three rolling and slitting mills, two furnaces, 
 " and abqut forty forges with two to four fires each." 
 
 Mr. Halsey furnishes us with the following interesting 
 episode in the history of Old Boonton slitting mill : " A 
 slitting mill was erected at Old Boonton, on the Rockaway 
 river, about a mile below the present town of Boonton, in 
 defiance of the law, by Samuel Ogden, of Newark, with the 
 aid of his father. The entrance was from the hillside, and 
 in the upper room first entered there were stones for grind- 
 ing grain, the slitting mill being below and out of sight. It 
 is said that Governor William Franklin visited the place 
 suddenly, having heard a rumor of its existence, but was so 
 hospitably entertained by Mr. Ogden, and the iron works 
 were so efiectually concealed, that the Governor came away 
 saying that he was glad to find that it was a groundless 
 report, as he had always supposed." In the southern part 
 of New Jersey several furnaces were built at an early day to 
 smelt the bog ores of that section. Of these the ftirnace at 
 Mount Holly, already mentioned, was probably the oldest. 
 Batsto furnace, also in Burlington county, was built about 
 1766 by Charles Reed, and cast shot and shells for the Con- 
 tinental army. Majiy bloomaries were also built in this 
 section in the last century to work bog ores. The " Jersey 
 pines " fiirnished the fuel for both the furnaces and bloom- 
 aries. Batsto furnace was situated on Little Egg Harbor 
 river, and ran until after the middle of the present cen- 
 tury. Sheet iron was made at a forge at Mount Holly 
 in 1775, by Thomas Mayburry, some of which was 
 used to make camp-kettles for the Continental army. A 
 nail factory was in operation at Burlington in 1797. In 
 
 1814 or 1815 Benjamin and David Reeves, brothers, estab- 
 lished the Cumberland nail and iron works at Bridgeton, in 
 Cumberland county, and for many years successfully manu- 
 factured nails, with which they largely supplied the eastern 
 markets. These works are still in operation. 
 
 In 1784 New Jersey had eight furnaces and seventy-nine 
 forges and bloomaries, but principally bloomaries. In 1810 
 there were in New Jersey, according to a memorial to Con- 
 gress adopted in that year, 150 forges, " which at a moderate 
 calculation, would produce twenty tons of bar iron each an- 
 nually, amounting to 3,000 tons." At the same time there 
 were in the state seven blast furnaces in operation and six 
 that were out of blast ; also four rolling and slitting mills, 
 " which rolled and slit on an average 20() tons, one-half of 
 which was manufactured into nails." Of the forges men- 
 tioned, about 120 were in Morris, Sussex, and Bergen coun- 
 ties. Of the numerous charcoal furnaces which once dotted 
 New Jersey not one now remains which uses charcoal, the 
 introduction of anthracite coal in the smelting of iron ores, 
 which took place about 1840, rendering the further produc- 
 tion of charcoal pig iron in New Jersey undesirable. The 
 last charcoal furnace erected in the state was built at Split 
 Rock, in Morris Co., by the late' Andrew B.Cobb, just prior 
 to the civil war, but it was soon abandoned. Only two or three 
 of the old bloomaries of New Jersey now remain, although 
 there are in the state a few bloomaries and forges of modern 
 origin, as well as a number oflarge rolling mills, steel works, 
 wire works, pipo works, and anthracite furnaces. Peter 
 Cooper, now living in New York at the age of 92 years, em- 
 barked in the iron business at Trenton, in New Jersey, in 
 1845, where, as is stated by the American Ci/dopoedia, " he 
 erected the largest rolling mill at that time in the United 
 States for the manufacture of railroad iron, and at which 
 subsequently he was the first to roll wrought-iron beams for 
 fire-proof buildings." He had previously, however, been 
 prominently engaged in the manufacture of iron at Balti- 
 more and New York. In connection with members of his 
 family he also embarked in many other important enter- 
 prises in New Jersey. His name has been the most prom- 
 inent and the most honored in the iron history of the state 
 during the present century. In 1870 New Jersey was fourth 
 in rank among the iron-producing states of the Union, but 
 in 1880 it had fallen to fifth place. 
 
 Pennsylvania. — The settlers on the Delaware, under 
 the successive administrations of the Swedes and Dutch and 
 the Duke of York, down to 1682, appear to have made no 
 effort to manufacture iron in any form. In the Journal of a 
 Voyage to New York, in 1679 and 1680, by Jasper Dankers 
 and Peter Sluyter, who then visited the Swedish and other 
 settlements on the Delaware, it is expressly declared that 
 iron ore had not been seen by them on Tinicum Island or 
 elsewhere in the neighborhood. Jasper Dankers says : " As 
 to there being a mine of iron ore upon it, I have not seen 
 any upon that island, or elsewhere ; and if it were so, it is 
 of no great importance, for such mines are so common in 
 this country that little account is made of them." Under 
 the more energetic rule of William Penn, the manufacture 
 of iron in Pennsylvania had its beginning. In a letter 
 written by Penn to Lord Keeper North, in July, 1683, he 
 mentions the existence of "mineral of copper and iron in 
 divers places " in Pennsylvania. In his Further account of 
 the Province of Pennsylvania, written in 1685, speaking of 
 " things that we have in prospect for staples of trade," he 
 says: " I might add iron, (perhaps copper, too,) for there is 
 much mine, and it will be granted us that we want no wood." 
 In a letter to James Logan, the secretary of the province, 
 dated London, April 21, 1702, he says, under the heading of 
 "Iron Works :" "Call on those people for an answer to the 
 heads I gave them from Ambrose Crawley. Divers would 
 engage here in it as soon as they receive an account, which, 
 in a time of war, would serve the country. Things as to 
 America will come under another regulation after a while." 
 To this letter Logan replied from Philadelphia, under date 
 of October 1, 1702, as follows : " I have spoke to the chief 
 of those concerned in the iron mines, but they seem careless, 
 having never had a meeting since thy departure ; their an- 
 swer is that they have not yet found any considerable vein." 
 Samuel Smiles, in his Industrial Biography, says : " William 
 Penn, the courtier Quaker, had iron ftirnaces at Hawkhurst 
 and other places in Sussex." It was, therefore, but natural 
 
42 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 that he should encourage the manufacture of iron in his 
 province, and it was certainly through no indifference or 
 neglect of his that it was not established at an early day 
 In 1692 we find the mention of iron having been made in 
 Pennsylvania. It is contained in a metrical composition 
 entitled A Short Description of Pennsylvania, by Richard 
 Frame : printed and sold by William Bradford, in Philadel 
 phia, in 1602. He says that at " a certain place about some 
 forty pound " of iron had then been made. The entire re- 
 ference is as follows : 
 
 A certain place here is, where some begun 
 To try some Mettle, and have made it nm, 
 Wherein was Iron absolutely found, 
 At once was known about some Forty Pound. 
 
 It was possibly made in a bloomary fire — ^probably in a 
 blacksmith's fire. In 1698 Gabriel Thomas published at 
 London An Historical and Geographical Account of the 
 Province and Country of Pennsylvania and of West New 
 Jersey in America, in which mention is made of the mineral 
 productions of these colonies. Alluding to Pennsylvania, 
 he says : " There is likewise ironstone or ore, lately found, 
 which far exceeds that in England, being richer and less 
 drossy. Some preparations have been made to carry on an iron 
 work." But neither these preparations nor the enterprise 
 alluded to by Richard Frame led to satisfactory results. 
 Mrs. James, in her Memorial of Thomas Potts, Junior, gives 
 an account of the first successful attempt that was made to 
 establish iron works in Pennsylvania. The event, which oc- 
 curred in 1716, is briefly described in one of Jonathan 
 Dickinson's letters, written in 1717, and quoted by Mrs. 
 James : " This last summer one Thomas Rutter, a smith, 
 who lives not far from Germantown, hath removed further 
 up in the country, and of his own strength hath set upon 
 making iron. Such it proves to be, as is highly set by by all 
 the smiths here, who say that the best of Sweed's iron doth 
 not exceed it ; and we have accounts of others that are going 
 on with iron works." Rutter's enterprise was a bloomary 
 forge, located on Manatawny creek, in Berks county, about 
 three miles above Pottstown. The name of this first forge 
 is uncertain. Mrs. James says that the name was Pool 
 Forge. There was certainly a Pool forge on the Manatawny 
 as early as 1728, in which year it is mentioned in Thomas 
 Rutter's will. The name of Rutter's pioneer enterprise may, 
 however, have been Manatawny. In the Philadelphia 
 Weekly Mercury for November 1, 1720, Thomas Fare, a 
 Welshman, is said to have run away from " the forge at 
 Manatawny." Bishop says: " A forge is mentioned in March, 
 1719-'20, at Manatawny, then in Philadelphia, but now in 
 Berks or Montgomery county. It was attacked by the In- 
 dians in 1728, but they were repulsed with great loss by the 
 workmen." Mrs. James says that Rutter was an English 
 Quaker, who was a resident of Philadelphia in 1685, and 
 who removed in 1714 from Germantown " forty miles up the 
 Schuylkill, in order to work the iron mines of the Mana- 
 tawny region." She gives a verbatim copy of the original 
 patent of William Penn to Thomas Rutter for 300 acres of 
 land " on ManahataWny creek,'' dated February 12, 1714-'15. 
 The following obituary notice in the Pennsylvania Gazette, 
 published at Philadelphia, dated March 5 to March 13, 
 1729-'30, ought to be conclusive proof of the priority of 
 Thomas Rutter's enterprise ; " Philadelphia, March 13. On 
 Sunday night last died here Thomas Rutter, Senior, of a 
 short illness. He was the first that erected an iron work in 
 Pennsylvania." In his will he is styled a blacksmith. Many 
 of his descendants have been prominent Pennsylvania iron- 
 masters. Mrs. James says that Dr. Benjamin Rush, a signer of 
 the Declaration of Independence, was a great-grandson of 
 Thomas Rutter. The next iron enterprise in Pennsylvania 
 was Coventry forge, on French creek, in the northern part 
 of Chester county, which was built by Samuel Nutt, also 
 an English Quaker. Egle's History of Pennsylvania says 
 that Nutt arrived in the province in 1714, and that " he took 
 up land, on French creek, in 1717, and about that time built 
 a forge there. A letter written by him in 1720 mentions an 
 intention of erecting another forge that fall." We have 
 seen this letter, which is dated July 2, 1720. It is written 
 in Friends' language. Nutt proposed to build the new forge 
 on French creek. Mrs. James states that Nutt purchased 
 
 800 acres of land at Coventry in October, 1718. This was in 
 addition to his earlier purchases. He probably made iron 
 at Coventry forge in that year. Bishop refers to a letter 
 written by Dickinson, in July, 1718, stating that " the ex- 
 pectations from the iron works forty miles up Schuylkill 
 are very great." In April, 1719, Dickinson again wrote : 
 " Our iron promises well. What hath been sent over to 
 England hath been greatly approved. Our smiths work up 
 all they make, and it is as good as the best Swedish iron." 
 Dickinson probably referred to Natt's forge as well as to 
 Rutter's. Coventry forge was in operation in 1756, and in 
 1770 it is noted on William Scull's map of Pennsylvania. 
 It was in operation after the Revolution, and in 1856 a forge 
 of the same name, which is now abandoned, was in opera- 
 tion at or near the original site. 
 
 The next iron enterprise in Pennsylvania was undoubt- 
 edly Colebrookale furnace, which was erected about 1720 by 
 a company of which Thomas Rutter was the principal 
 member. It was located on Ironstone creek, in Colebrook- 
 dale township, in Berks county, about eight miles north 
 of Pottstown, three-fourths of a mile west of Boyertown, 
 and about two hundred yards from the Colebrookdale rail- 
 road. Plenty of cinder marks the exact site to-day. A 
 large grist and saw niill stands about one hundred feet 
 distant. This furnace supplied Pool forge with pig iron, 
 and in course of time other forges. Both Pool and Cov- 
 entry forges were at first probably operated as bloomaries. 
 The company which built Colebrookdale furnace appears 
 to have been composed of Thomas Rutter, James Lewis, 
 Anthony Morris, and others — Rutter owning two-thirds 
 interest, as is shown by his will, dated November 27, 1728, 
 on file in the oifice of the register of wills in Philadelphia. 
 In 1731, according to Mrs. James, Colebrookdale furnace 
 and Pool forge were both owned by companies. In the list 
 of owners of both establishments appears the name of 
 Thomas Potts, the founder of a family of the same name 
 which has ever since been prominent in the manufacture of 
 iron in Pennsylvania, and in other states. He died at Cole- 
 brookdale in January, 1762. He was in his day the most 
 successful iron manufacturer in Pennsylvania. In his will, 
 dated 1747, he leaves his " two-thirds of Colebrookdale fur- 
 nace and iron mines " to his son Thomas, and his "one-third 
 of Pine forge" to his son John. He was of English or 
 Welsh extraction. In 1733 the furnace was torn down and 
 rebuilt by the company, Thomas Potts being the manager. 
 A second Pool forge appears to have been built prior to this 
 time, higher up the stream than the first A'enture. Mrs. 
 James writes us as follows : " I have a large calf-bound 
 folio ledger of nearly 200 folios of Colebrookdale furnace, 
 marked ' B.' The first date is August. 1728, hut there are 
 several pages referring to the first ledger, one of them in 
 1726. Mention is constantly made of sending ' piggs ' to 
 Pool forge, proving that Pool was then in full blast. 'A' 
 would seem to be a large volume from reference to the 
 folios,'' and therefore to have covered the operations of a 
 number of years. Mrs. James thinks that it is lost. She 
 adds that on the title-page of ledger " B " the name of 
 Thomas Potts is written in connection with the year 1728, 
 probably as the manager or lessee of the furnace. He was 
 a resident of Manatawny in 1725. On Nicholas Scull's map 
 of Pennsylvania, published in 1759, Colebrookdale furnace 
 is noted, and in a list of iron works existing in Pennsyl- 
 vania in 1793, and published by Mrs. James, it is again 
 mentioned, although it was not then active. We have not 
 found it mentioned at any later period. A stove-plate cast 
 at this furnace in 1763 was exhibited at the Philadelphia 
 Exhibition of 1876. In 1731 pig iron sold at Colebrookdale 
 furnace " in large quantities " at £5 10s. per ton, Pennsyl- 
 vania currency, a pound being equal to $2 66f. It would 
 seem that friendly Indians were employed at Colebrookdale 
 ftirnace, as "Indian John" and " Margalitha " are found in 
 the list of workmen about 1728. The fiiriiace was located in 
 the heart of one of the richest deposits of magnetic iron ore 
 in the United States. After being neglected for a long time 
 this deposit is now the center of great mining activity. 
 
 Durham furnace, on the Delaware river, in the extreme 
 northern part of Bucks county, was built in 1727 by a com- 
 pany of fourteen persons, of which Anthony Morris, William 
 Allen, Joseph Turner, and James Logan (Penn's secretary) 
 were members. Its first blast took place iji the spring of 
 
THE MINES, MESTEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 43 
 
 1728, and in November of that year James Logan shipped 
 three tons of Durham pig iron to England. At the Phila- 
 delphia exhibition of 1876 the keystone of the Durham fur- 
 nace, bearing date " 1727," was an object of interest. It is 
 probable that about 1750 there were two Durham furnaces. 
 On Nicholas Scull's map of Pennsylvania (1759) an old and 
 a new furnace and a forge at Durham are distinctly marked. 
 In 1770 there were two furnaces and two forges at Durham. 
 There were at one time three forges on Durham Creek. As 
 late as 1780 negro slaves were employed at Durham, twelve 
 of whom in that year escaped to the British lines. Much of 
 the iron made at Durham was taken to Philadelphia in 
 boats fashioned somewhat like an Indian canoe, and first 
 built at Durham ; hence the term afterwards in common 
 use, "Durham boats." Eedmond Conyngham, quoted by 
 Day, says that iron works are supposed to have been estab- 
 lished in Lancaster county in 1726 by a person named 
 Kurtz, who is said by another authority to have been an 
 Amish Mennonite. In Egle's History of Pennsylvania it is 
 stated that Kurtz's works were on Octorara creek, and that 
 it is possible they were in Maryland, and not in Lancaster 
 county. Conyngham also says that the enterprising family 
 of Grubbs " commenced operations in 1728," also in Lan- 
 caster county. Both history and tradition are silent con- 
 cerning the nature of these alleged " operations " at that 
 time. In 1728 James Logan wrote that "there are four 
 furnaces in blast in the colony." Colebrookdale and Dur- 
 ham were certainly two of these, but the names of the others 
 are in doubt. The iron industry of Pennsylvania may be 
 fairly said to have been established on a firm foundation at 
 this period. In 1728-29 the colony exported 274 tons of 
 pig iron to the mother country. The production of a Penn- 
 sylvania furnace at this time was about two tons of iron 
 in twenty-four hours. 
 
 The manufacture of nails in Pennsylvania commenced at 
 a very early day. In 1731 George Megee, nailer, at the 
 corner of Front and Arch streets, Philadelphia, advertised 
 for sale, wholesale and retail, all sorts of nailes of his own 
 manufacture. The erection of other forges and furnaces 
 proceeded with great rapidity in the Schuylkill valley and 
 in other eastern portions of Pennsylvania after Butter and 
 other pioneers had shown the way. McCall's forge, after- 
 wards called Glasgow forge, on Manatawny creek, in Berks 
 county, a short distance above Pottstown and below Pool 
 forge, was built by George McCall about 1725. Spring 
 forge, on the Manatawny, in Berks county, west of Cole- 
 brookdale furnace and about five miles north of Douglass- 
 ville, was built in 1729, probably by Anthony Morris. 
 These forges, as well as Pool forge, were supplied with pig 
 iron from Colebrookdale furnace. Green Lane forge, on 
 Perkiomen creek, in Montgomery county, twenty miles north 
 of Norristown, was built in 1733 by Thomas Mayburry. 
 The workmen employed here were at one time chiefly negro 
 slaves. 'This forge was supplied with pig iron from Durham 
 furnace before 1747. Mount Pleasant mrnace, on Perkio- 
 men creek, in Berks county, thirteen miles above Pottstown, 
 was built by Thomas Potts, Jr., in 1738. A forge of the 
 same name was added before 1743. Pine forge, on the 
 Manatawny, in Berks county, about five miles above Potts- 
 town, was built about 1740 by Thomas Potts, Jr. Spring, 
 Glasgow, Mount Pleasant, and Green Lane forges were in 
 operation down to the middle of the present century. Pine 
 forge was converted into Pine rolling mill in 1845, and upon 
 the site of Glasgow forge there was erected in 1874 and 1876 
 a rolling mill which is known as the Glasgow iron works. 
 ' It is supposed that Nutt built a furnace called Reading 
 soon after he built Coventry forge, but this is uncertain. 
 Mrs. James says that two furnaces bearing that name were 
 erected, about a mile from each other, the second after the 
 first was abandoned. It is certain that a furnace of this 
 name was built by Samuel Nutt and William Branson, on 
 French creek, about 1736. We think that this was the 
 second Reading flirnace, and that both were built by Nutt 
 and Branson. In the inventory of the estate of Samuel 
 Nutt, which Gilbert Cope, of West Chester, has kindly 
 placed in our hands, mention is made of "a ring round the 
 old shaft at the old furnace," and of " one tonn of sow 
 mettle at new furnace." Acrelius, in speaking of the iron 
 ore on French creek, says : " Its discoverer is Mr. Nutt, who 
 afterwards took Mr. Braaz into-partaership." The reference 
 
 is to William Branson. This event occurred as early as 
 March 29, 1728, as their names then appear in the Phila- 
 delphia Weekly Mercury as partners. Acrelius further says: 
 " They both went to England, brought workmen back with 
 them, and continued together." Mrs. James says: "The 
 15th day of March, 1736, Hamuel Nutt and William Branson 
 entered into an agreement with John Potts to carry on their 
 furnace called Redding, recently built near Coventry, and 
 of which they are styled 'joint owners.'" At a meeting 
 of the Provincial Council on January 25, 1737, " a petition 
 of sundry inhabitants of the county of Lancaster was pre- 
 sented to the board and read, setting forth the want of a 
 road from the town of Lancaster to Coventry iron works, 
 on French creek, in Chester county, and praying that proper 
 persons of each of the counties may be appointed for laying 
 out the same from Lancaster town to the said iron works, 
 one branch of which road to goe to the new fiirnace, called 
 Redding's furnace, now erecting on the said creek." On 
 October 7th of the same year commissioners were appointed 
 to lay out the road. 
 
 Samuel Nutt died late in 1737. In his will, dated Sep- 
 tember 25, 1737, he gave one-half of his " right " to Red- 
 ding furnace and Coventry forge to his wife, and the other 
 half to Samuel Nutt, Jr., and his wife. He also made 
 provision for the erection of a new furnace by his wife. This 
 mrnace was commenced in the same year, and was built on 
 the south branch of French creek. It was probably finished 
 in 1738. In 1740 its management fell into the hands of 
 Robert Grace, (a friend of Benjamin Franklin,) who then 
 married the widow of Samuel Nutt, Jr. This lady was the 
 grand-daughter of Thomas Rutter. The new fiirnace was 
 called Warwick. The celebrated Franklin stove was in- 
 vented by Benjamin Franklin in 1742, and in his auto- 
 biography he says : " I made a present of the model to Mr. 
 Robert Grace, one of my early friends, who, having an iron 
 furnace, found the casting of the plates for these stoves a 
 profitable thing, as they were growing in demand." Mrs. 
 James has seen one of these stoves with the words "War- 
 wick Furnace " cast on the front in letters two inches long. 
 Bishop says that Warwick flirnace "was blown by long 
 wooden bellows propelled by water wheels, and when in 
 blast made 25 or 30 tons of iron per week." It continued in 
 operation during a part of almost every year, frpm its erec- 
 tion in 1738 down to 1867, when its last blast came to an 
 end and the furnace was abandoned. During the Revolu- 
 tion it was very active in casting cannon for the Continental 
 army, some of which were buried upon the approach of the 
 British in 1777. After Samuel Nutt's death Reading fur- 
 nace became the property of his partner, William Branson. 
 It is noted on Nicholas Scull's map of 1759. Coventry 
 forge finally fell to Samuel Nutt's heirs. The German 
 traveler, Schoepf, writing in 1783 of some Pennsylvania fur- 
 naces and forges, makes the following mention of Warwick 
 and Reading furnaces : " Warwick furnace, 19 miles from 
 Reading, near Pottsgrove, makes the most iron, often 40 
 tons a week ; the iron ore lies ten feet under the surface. 
 Reading furnace, not far from the former, is at present 
 fallen into decay. Here the smelting would formerly of- 
 ten continue from 12 to 18 months at a stretch. At an 
 uncertain period before 1750 William Branson and others 
 established on French creek the first steel works in Pennsyl- 
 vania. They were called Vincent steel works. They are 
 thus described by Acrelius: " At French creek, or Branz's 
 works, there is a steel furnace, built with a draught hole, 
 and called an ' air oven.' In this iron bars are set at the 
 distance of an inch apart. Between them are scattered 
 horn, coal-dust, ashes, etc. The iron bars are thus covered 
 with blisters, and this is called ' blister steel.' It serves as 
 the best steel to put upon edge-tools. These steel works are 
 now said to be out of operation." Vincent forge, with four 
 fires and two hammers, was connected with Vincent steel 
 furnace, but the date of its erection is also uncertain. It is 
 noted on William Scull's map of 1770. The furnace and 
 forge were located about six miles from the mouth of French 
 creek, and about five miles distant from Coventry forge, 
 which was farther up the stream. Before February 15, 1797. 
 a rolling and slitting mill had been added to the forge. We 
 do not hear of the steel furnace after 1780, nor of the forge 
 after 1800. In 1742 William Branson, then owner of Read- 
 ing furnace, bought from David Jenkins a tract of 400 acres 
 
44 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of land on Conestoga creek, near Churchtown, in Caernarvon 
 township, Lancaster county, on ■which in 1747 he erected a 
 forge, wiiich he called Windsor. This forge was speedily- 
 followed by another of the same name. In a short time 
 afterwards, as we are informed by Mr. James McCaa, 
 " Branson sold out to the English company, who were Lyn- 
 ford Lardner, Samuel Flower, and Eichard Hockley, 
 Ejqs., who held it lor thirty years, when, in 1773, David 
 Jenkins, son of the original proprietor, bought the half in- 
 terest of the company for the sum of £2,500, and in two 
 years afterwards bought the other half for the sum of £2,400, 
 including the negroes and stock used on the premises." 
 Kobert Jenkins inherited the Windsor property from his 
 father David, and managed Windsor forges with great suc- 
 cess for fifty years, dying in 1848. They have since been 
 abandoned. 
 
 Acrelius, narrating events which occurred between 1750 
 and 1756, mentions the enterprises of Nutt and Branson as 
 follows : " Each has his own furnace — Branz at Beading, 
 Nutt at Warwick, Each also has his own forges — Branz in 
 Windsor. Nutt supplies four forges besides his own in 
 Chester county." Nutt was not living at the time this was 
 written, but Acrelius's confounding of ownership is easily 
 understood. Nor is it probable that Branson operated 
 Windsor forges in 1750. In that year he is reported as hav- 
 ing then owned a furnace for making steel in Philadelphia, 
 and soon after 1743 it is known that he sold Windsor forges 
 to the " English company," which was composed of his sons- 
 in-law. William Branson was himself an Englishman who 
 emigrated to Pennsylvania about 1708 and became a Phila- 
 delphia merchant. He died in 1760. There was a forge on 
 Crum creek, about two miles above the town of Chester, in 
 Delaware county, which was built by John Crosby and 
 Peter Dicks about 1742. Peter Kalm, the Swede, in his 
 Travels into North America, written in 1748 and 1749, thus 
 describes it: "About two English miles behind Chester I 
 passed by an iron forge, which was to the right hand by the 
 road side. It belonged to two brothers, as I was told. The 
 ore, however is not dug here, but thirty or forty miles from 
 hence, where it is first melted in the oven, and then carried 
 to this place. The bellows were made of leather, and both 
 they and the hammers, and even the hearth, [were] but 
 small in proportion to ours. All the machines were worked 
 by water. The iron was wrought into bars." The " oven " 
 here referred to was a blast furnace, which was probably 
 located in the Schuylkill valley, the pigs for the forge being 
 boated from it down the Schuylkill and Delaware and up 
 Crum creek. Acrelius says that the forge was owned at the 
 time of his visit by Peter Dicks, had two stacks, was worked 
 sluggishly, and had " ruined Crosby's family." As early as 
 1742 John Taylor built a forge on Chester creek, in Thorn- 
 bury township, Delaware county, where Glen Blills now 
 stand, which he called Sarum iron works. In 1746 he added 
 a rolling and slitting mill. These works are said to 
 have been carried on with energy by Mr. Taylor until his 
 death in 1756. Acrelius, writing about the time of Mr. 
 Taylor's death, says : " Sarum belongs to Taylor's heirs ; has 
 three stacks, and is in full blast." Peter Kalm states that 
 at Chichester (Marcus Hook) " they build here every year a 
 number of small ships for sale, and from an iron work which 
 lies higher up in the country they carry iron bars to this 
 place and ship them." This "iron work" was certainly 
 Sarum. Taylor was the descendant of an English settler in 
 the province. His rolling and slitting mill was the first in 
 Pennsylvania. In 1750 there was a " plating forge with a 
 tilt-hammer" in Byberry township, in the northeastern part 
 of Philadelphia county, the only one in the province, owned 
 by John Hall, but not in use in that year. In the same 
 year there were two steel furnaces in Philadelphia, one of 
 which, Stephen Paschall's, was built in 1747, and stood on 
 a lot on the northwest corner of Eighth and Walnut streets; 
 the other was owned by William Branson, and was located 
 ne?.r where Thomas Penn "first lived at the upper end of 
 Chestnut street." These furnaces were for the production of 
 blister steel. There appear to have been no other steel fur- 
 naces in the province in 1750. Whitehead Humphreys 
 was in 1770 the proprietor of a steel furnace on Seventh 
 street, between Market and Chestnut, in Philadelphia, where 
 he also made edge tools. In February, 1775, Uriah Wool- 
 man and B. Shoemaker, "in Market street, Philadelphia," 
 
 advertised in Dunlap's Pennsylvania Packet " Pennsylvania 
 steel manufactured by W. Humphreys, of an excellent quali- 
 ty, and warranted equal to English, to be sold in blister, 
 faggot, or flat bar, suitable for carriage springs." Eeturn- 
 ing to the Schuylkill valley, we find in 1751 a forge called 
 Mount Joy at the mouth of East Valley creek, on the Ches- 
 ter county side of the creek, the one-third of which was ad- 
 vertised for sale on the 4th of April of that year by Daniel 
 Walker, and the remaining two-thirds on the 26th of Septem- 
 ber of the same year by Stephen Evans and Joseph Wil- 
 liams. In Daniel Walker's advertisement it was stated that 
 the forge was " not so far distant from the furnaces." Pen- 
 nypacker, in his Annals of Phcenixville and its Vicinity, 
 says that "the ancestor of the Walker family" had come 
 from England with William Penn, and "at a very early 
 date had erected the small forge on the Valley creek." It 
 is clear, however, that in 1751 Daniel Walker owned only 
 the one-third of the forge, Evans and Williams owning 
 the remainder. In 1757, as we learn from Mrs. James, the 
 forge was sold to John Potts by the executors of Stephen 
 Evans. In 1773 it was owned by Joseph Potts, at which 
 time it continued to be legally designated as Mount Joy 
 forge, although for some time previously it had been popu- 
 larly known as Valley forge. In that year Joseph Potts 
 sold the half of the forge to" Colonel William Dewees. The 
 pig iron used at Valley forge was hauled from Warwick 
 furnace. In September, 1777, the forge was burned by _ the 
 British, and in December of the same year the American 
 army under Washington was intrenched on the Montgomery 
 county side of Valley creek, opposite Valley forge. General 
 Washington's headquarters were established at the sub- 
 stantial stone house of Isaac Potts, also on the Montgomery 
 county side of Valley creek. The house is still standing. 
 Isaac Potts was not, however, at this time an owner of Val- 
 ley forge. After the close of the Revolutionary war Isaac 
 and David Potts, brothers, erected another forge on the 
 Montgomery county side of Valley creek and about three- 
 eighths of a mile below the old Mount Joy forge. A new 
 dam was built, which raised the water partly over the site of 
 the old forge. About the same time, and as early as 1786, a 
 slitting mill was built on the Chester county side of the 
 stream by the same persons. The new forge was called Val- 
 ley forge. It was in ruins in 1816. About 1824 all the iron 
 works at the town of Valley Forge were discontinued. Mrs. 
 James says that " nothing now remains but an immortal 
 name." 
 
 Charming forge, on Tulpehocken creek, two miles from 
 Womelsdorf, in Berks county, was built in 1749, probably 
 by Pennsylvania Germans, as we find that in 1754 it was 
 styled Tulpehocken Eisen Hammer. This forge is still in 
 operation. Another early forge in the Schuylkill valley was 
 Amity forge, on the Manatawny or one of its branches. 
 Helmstead, Union, and Pottsgrove were the names of other 
 forges existing in 1750. Mary Ann ftirnace, in Long Swamp 
 township, Berks county, was in existence as early as 1762, 
 when it was owned by George Ross and George Ege. This 
 furnace was in blast until 1869. Oley furnace, on Manataw- 
 ny creek, about eleven miles northeast of Reading, was built 
 in 1779, by Daniel Udree, a Pennsylvania German, and is 
 still in operation. In 1780 a forge of the same name was 
 built on the same stream by Mr. Udree. It has been 
 abandoned since 1856. Green Tree forge, near Reading, 
 was built in 1770. On William Scull's map of 1770 Mose- 
 lem forge, on Maiden creek, Berks county, and Gulf forge, 
 on Gulf creek, in Upper Merion township, Jlontgomery 
 county, are noted. William Bird was an enterprising Eng- 
 lishman who established several iron enterprises in Berks 
 county before the Revolution. A person of this name was 
 a witness of Thomas Rutter's will, on November 27, 1728, 
 when he appears to have been a resident of Amity township, 
 Berks county. In 1740 or 1741 William Bird built a forge on 
 Hay creek, near its entrance into the Schuylkill, where the 
 town of Birdsboro now stands. In 1759 he built Hopewell 
 furnace on French creek, in Union township, Berks county, 
 which is still in operation and still using charcoal. In tlie 
 same year he built Nine Pine forge, near Hopewell furnace, 
 in the same township. As early as 1760 he built Roxbo- 
 rough furnace in Heidelburg township, Berks county, the 
 name of which was subsequently changed to Berkshire. 
 Dying in 1762, his estate was divided between his six 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEE8TS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 45 
 
 children and his widow. Berkshire furnace fell to a son, 
 Mark Bird, who in 1764 sold it to John Patton and his wife 
 Bridget, who had been the wife of William Bird. In 1789 
 Bridget Patton, again a widow, sold the furnace to George 
 Ege. Mark Bird built a rolling and slitting mill and a nail 
 factory at Birdsboro about the time of the Kevolution. He 
 also built Spring forge ia Oley township, and Gibraltar 
 forges in Robeson township. At Trenton, New Jersey, he 
 manufactured wire. He failed in business about 1788. Eli- 
 zabeth furnace, near Brickersville, in Lancaster county, on 
 Middle creek, a branch of Conestoga creek, was built about 
 1750 by John Huber, a Pennsylvania German. It was a 
 small furnace, and did not prove to be profitable. In 1757 
 Huber sold it to Henry William Stiegel and his partners, 
 who built a new and larger furnace, which was operated 
 until 1775, when through Stiegel's embarrassments, it passed 
 into the hands of Daniel Benezet, who leased it to Robert 
 Coleman, who subsequently bought it and eventually be- 
 came the most prominent ironmaster in Pennsylvania at 
 the close of the last and far into the present century. 
 Bishop states that "some of the first stoves cast in this 
 country were made by Baron Stiegel, relics of Which still 
 remain in the old families of Lancaster and Lebanon coun- 
 ties." Rev. Joseph Henry Dubbs, of Lancaster, says that 
 Stiegel's stoves bore the inscription : 
 
 Baron Stiegel ist der mann 
 Der die Of en machen kann. 
 
 That is, "Baron Stiegel is the man who knows how to make 
 stoves." On the furnace erected by Huber the following 
 legend was inscribed : 
 
 John Huber, der erste Deutche man 
 Der das Eisenwerlc vollfuren kann. 
 
 Freely translated this inscription reads: "John Huber is the 
 first German who knows how to make iron." Henry Wil- 
 liam Stiegel was a man of great enterprise and business ca- 
 pacity, but of a too sanguine temperament; hence his failure 
 where others succeeded. On the fifth of February, 1763, he 
 was associated with Charles and Alexander Stedman as 
 a lessee of Charming forge. In 1772 the forge was leased by 
 him and Paul Zantzinger to George Zantzinger and George 
 Ege. Between 1760 and 1770 he established a glass factory 
 at Manheim, in Lancaster county, called the American flint 
 glass factory, which was in operation as late as 1774. He 
 was a native of Germany, arriving in this country on Au- 
 gust 31, 1750, (old style,) in the ship iVajicy from Rotterdam. 
 He is buried in the Lutheran graveyard in Heidelberg 
 township, Berks county, a few miles from Womelsdorf. In 
 his last days he taught school in this township. 
 ^ After Elizabeth furnace came into the possession of Rob- 
 ert Coleman he cast shot and shells and cannon for the Con- 
 tinental army, and some of the transactions which occurred 
 between him and the Government in settlement of his ac- 
 counts for these supplies are very interesting. On Novem- 
 ber 16, 1782, appears the following entry : " By cash, being 
 the value of ^ German prisoners of war, at £30 each, 
 £1,260 ; " and on June 14, 1783, the following : " By cash, 
 being the value of 28 German prisoners of war, at £30 each, 
 £840." In a foot note to these credits Robert Coleman cer- 
 tifies '' on honour " that the above 70 prisoners were all that 
 were ever secured by him, one of whom being returned is to 
 be deducted when he produces the proper voucher. Rupp, 
 in his history of Lancaster county, mentions that in 1843 he 
 visited one of the Hessian mercenaries who was disposed of 
 in this manner at the close of the war for the sum of £80, 
 for the term of three years, to Captain Jacob Zimmerman of 
 that county. Elizabeth flirnace continued in operation until 
 1856, when it was abandoned by its owner, Hon. G. Dawson 
 Coleman, the grandson of Robert Coleman, for want of wood. 
 Among the persons who were employed at Windsor forges 
 under the "English company" was James Old, a forgeman. 
 He was shrewd and energetic. Abont 1765 he built Pool 
 forge on Conestoga creek, about a mile below Windsor forges. 
 Early records mention his ownership of Quitapahilla forge, 
 near' Lebanon, and of Speedwell forge, on Hammer creek, 
 in Lancaster county. Tradition also associates his name 
 with the ownership of other forges in Chester, Lancaster, 
 and Berks counties. In 1774 he was a lessee of Reading 
 
 furnace, on French creek. In 1795 he conveyed Pool forge 
 and 700 acres of land attached to his son, Davies Old. 
 
 James Old was born in AVales in 1730. He emigrated to 
 Pennsylvania previous to September 7, 1754, when his name 
 for the first time appears in the register of Bangor church, at 
 Churchtown, Lancaster county, as the contributor of £5 to- 
 ward the erection of the church building. Soon after his 
 settlement at Windsor he married Margaretta Davies, a 
 daughter of Gabriel Davies, of Lancaster county. Gabriel 
 Davies is supposed to have been the owner of the site on 
 which Pool forge was built. James Old died on May 1, 
 1809, in his 79th year, and is buried in the graveyard of 
 Bangor church. He was one of the most enterprising and 
 successful of early Pennsylvania ironmasters. He had a 
 brother William, also a forgeman, who had been employed 
 at Windsor forges, and who afterwards embarked in the 
 manufacture of bar iron on his own account. William Old, 
 a son of James Old, married Elizabeth Stiegel, the daughter 
 of Baron Stiegel. She is buried in the same graveyard 
 which holds the remains of her father. Mrs. Henry Morris, 
 of Philadelphia, is her grand-daughter. Robert Coleman was 
 in his younger days in the service of James Old, and while 
 with him at Reading furnace in 1773 he married his daugh- 
 ter Ann. Soon after his marriage he rented Salford forgCj 
 above Norristown, in Montgomery county, where he re- 
 mained three years. While at this forge he manufactured 
 chain bars, which were designed to span the Delaware river 
 for the defense of Philadelphia, against the approach of the 
 British fleet. From Salford Forge he went to Elizabeth fur- 
 nace. He was born near Castle Fin, in Donegal county, and 
 not far from the city of Londonderry, in Ireland, on the 4th 
 of November, 1748. In 1764, when 16 years old, he left 
 Ireland for America. He died at Lancaster in 1825, at 
 which place he is buried. Cyrus Jacobs married Margaretta, 
 another daughter of James Old, about 1782. At that time 
 he was living at Churchtown, in the employment of James 
 Old as a clerk at Pool forge. He was at Gibraltar forge, in 
 Berks county, in 1787, and at Hopewell forge, in Lancaster 
 county, from 1789 to 1792. Tradition says that he was a 
 lessee of both these forges from James Old. In 1793 he 
 built Spring Grove forge, on Conestoga creek, about three 
 miles west of Pool forge, and in 1799 he purchased Pool 
 forge from Davies Old. Both these forges were active until 
 1856, after which they were abandoned. The Jacobs family 
 came to Pennsylvania from Wales about 1693, and settled 
 on Perkiomen creek. Cyrus Jacobs was born in 1761, and 
 died in 1830 at Whitehall, near Churchtown. 
 
 Cornwall furnace, located within the limits of the new 
 celebrated Cornwall ore hills, on Furnace creek, in Lebanon 
 county, a few miles south of Lebanon, was built in 1742 
 by Peter Grubb, whose descendants to this day have 
 been prominent Pennsylvania ironmasters. He was the 
 son of John Grubb, a native of Cornwall, in England, 
 who emigrated to this country in the preceding century, 
 landing at Grubb's Landing, on the Delaware, near 
 Wilmington, at which latter place he is buried. There 
 is record evidence that Peter Grubb w-as already an iron- 
 master before he built Cornwall furnace, and a tradition 
 in his family says that in 1735 he built a furnace or 
 bloomary, most likely the latter, about five-eighths of a mile 
 from the site of Cornwall flirnace. He died intestate about 
 1754, and his estate, including the Cornwall ore hills, de- 
 scended to his two sons, Curtis and Peter Grubb — both after- 
 wards colonels in the Revolution. In 1756, just after the 
 death of Peter Grubb, Acrelius wrote of Cornwall furnace as 
 follows: Cornwall, or Grubb's iron works, in Lancaster 
 county. The mine is rich and abundant, forty feet deep, 
 commencing two feet under the earth's surface. The ore is 
 somewhat mixed with sulphur and copper. Peter Grubb 
 was its discoverer. Here there is a furnace which makes 
 twenty-four tons of iron a week, and keeps six forges regu- 
 larly at work — ^two of his own, two belonging to Germans in 
 the neighborhood, and two in Maryland. The pig iron is 
 carried to the Susquehanna river, thence to Maryland, and 
 finally to England. The bar iron is sold mostly in the 
 country and in the interior towns ; the remainder in Phila- 
 delphia. It belongs to the heirs of the Grubb estate, but is 
 now rented to Gurrit & Co." The firm was doubtless 
 Garret & Co. During the Revolution Cornwall furnace cast 
 cannon and shot and shells for the Continental army. It ia 
 
46 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 still in operation, and is the oldest active charcoal furnace 
 in the United States. It has always used charcoal. In 1785 
 Robert Coleman purchased a one-sixth interest in Cornwall 
 furnace and the ore hills. After that year, through succes- 
 sive purchases from the Grubbs, he obtained four additional 
 sixths of the Cornwall property. His total purchases of this 
 valuable property remain in the hands of his descendants 
 to-day. Martic forge, on Pequea creek, near the present 
 village of Colemanville, Lancaster county, was built in 1755, 
 and is still in operation. Early in this century cemented or 
 blistered steel was made here. Mr. R. S. Potts, one of the 
 present owners of Martic forge, writes us as follows : " There 
 used to be a small rolling mill near the forge that stopped 
 running some fifty years ago. There was also a charcoal 
 furnace called Martic some six miles east of the forge, but I 
 have been unable to ascertain its history beyond the fact 
 that it was owned and operated by the Martic Forge Com- 
 pany ; when that was, however, or how long it was in blast, 
 I cannot learn. The old cinder bank is still visible. Dur- 
 ing the Revolution round iron was drawn under the ham- 
 mer at the forge and bored out for musket barrels "at a 
 boring mill, in a very retired spot, on a small stream far off 
 from any public road, doubtless with a view to prevent dis- 
 covery by the enemy. The site is still visible. In 1769 
 Martic furnace and forgewere advertised for sale by the 
 sheriff, together with 3,400 acres of land and other property 
 — " all late the property of Thomas Smith, James Wallace, 
 and James Fulton." The furnace was in existence in 1793, 
 but it was n(.it then active. 
 
 Hopewell forge, on Hammer creek, in Lancaster county, 
 about ten miles south of Lebanon, was built by Peter Grubb 
 soon after he built Cornwall furnace. Speedwell forge, on 
 the same stream, near Brickersville, in Lancaster county, 
 was built in 1750, also by Peter Grubb. The iron industry 
 of Pennsylvania crossed the Susquehanna at a very early 
 period. Acrelius says that there was a bloomary in York 
 county in 1756, owned by Peter Dicks, who had but re- 
 cently discovered " the mine. " Spring forge, in the 
 same county, was built in 1770, was still in operation in 
 1849, and was abandoned about 1850. About the year 1760 
 a forge was built at Boiling Springs, in Cumberland county, 
 forming the nucleus of the Carlisle iron works, which after- 
 wards included a blast furnace, a rolling and slitting mill, 
 and a steel furnace. The furnace was built in 1762 by John 
 Rigbey & Co Michael Ege was the proprietor after 1768. 
 On a tax list at Carlisle Robert Thornburg & Co. appear in 
 1767 as the owners of a forge to which 1,200 acres of land 
 were attached. We cannot locate this forge. A forge is 
 supposed to have been built at Mount Holly in 1765. Pine 
 Grove furnace, in the same county, was built about 1770 by 
 Thornburg & Arthur. In 1782 Michael Ege became part 
 owner and subsequently sole owner. A forge was attached 
 to this furnace. Both the furnace and forge are still in 
 operation. No other iron works west of the Susquehanna 
 are known to have been established previous to the Revolu- 
 tion. About 1777 William Denning, an artificer of the 
 Revolutionary army, had a forge in active operation at Mid- 
 dlesex, in Cumberland county, at which he manufactured 
 wrought-iron cannon. Although all the iron enterprises 
 which were established in Pennsylvania prior to the Revolu- 
 tion have not been mentioned in the preceding pages, those 
 which have been mentioned indicate remarkable activity in 
 the development of the iron resources of the province. 
 Pennsylvania was one of the last of the thirteen colonies to be 
 occupied by permanent Euglish settlements, and even after 
 these settlements were made a long time elapsed before the 
 erection of iron works was successfully undertaken. Very 
 strangely, the business of manufacturing iron was not fairly 
 commenced in Pennsylvania until 1716, but after this time it 
 grew rapidly, and in the sixty years which intervened before 
 the commencement of hostilities with the mother country 
 probably sixty blast furnaces and forges were built- a rate of 
 progress which was not attained by any other colony in the 
 same period. Acrelius said in 1756 : " Pennsylvania, in re- 
 gard to its iron works, is the most advanced of all the 
 American colonies." Many of these enterprises were upon 
 a scale that would have done credit to a much later period 
 of the American iron industry. 
 
 Cornwall and Warwick furnaces were each 32 feet high, 21 J 
 feet square at the base, and 11 feet square at the top. War- 
 
 wick was at first 9 feet wide at. the boshes, but was after- 
 wards reduced to 7J feet. The forges were usually those in 
 which pig iron was refined into bar iron " in the Walloon 
 style," as stated by Acrelius. There were few ore bloomaries, 
 and nearly all of these were built at an early day. Acrelius 
 mentions only one of this class — Peter Dicks' bloomary, in 
 York county. The smaller furnaces yielded only from 1 J to 
 2 tons of pig iron daily, but the larger ones yielded from 3 
 to 4 tons. The Reading and Warwick furnaces, when in 
 blast, each made from 25 to 30 tons of iron per week. The 
 furnaces were used to produce both pig iron and castings, 
 the latter consisting of stoves, pots, kettles, andirons, and 
 similar articles. Of the product of the forges Acrelius says 
 that " one forge, with three hearths in good condition, and 
 well attended to, is expected to give 2 tons a week." The 
 same author says that for four months in summer, when 
 the heat is most oppressive, all labor is suspended at the 
 furnaces and forges." The scarcity of water at this season 
 would also have much to do with this suspension, all of the 
 works being operated by water-power. It was not until 
 about the close of the first third of the present century that 
 blowing engines were used to produce the blast at either fur- 
 naces or forges in Pennsylvania, or in any other state. At 
 first large leather bellows were used to blow both the fur- 
 naces and the forges, but afterwards, about the time of the 
 Revolution, wooden cylinders, or " tubs," were substituted. 
 Reading, Warwick, and Cornwall furnaces— three of the 
 best furnaces of the last century — retained their long leather 
 bellows until a late day. The Cornwall bellows was 20 feet 
 7 inches long, 5 feet 10 inches across the breech, and 14 
 inches at the insertion of the nozzle. Only one tuyere was 
 used at the furnaces. The fuel used was exclusively char- 
 coal, and the blast was always cold. About 400 bushels of 
 charcoal were required to produce from the ore a ton of ham- 
 mered bar iron. 
 
 — CompHsdfrom James M. Swank^B Seport on Iron and Steel, Tenth Census of the XJ. 8. 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL IRON 
 
 IN EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA AFTER 
 
 THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 AFTER the Revolution the business of manufactur- 
 ing iron received a fresh impulse in the eastern 
 part of Pennsylvania, and was further extended 
 into the interior. Chester, Lancaster, and Berks 
 counties shared conspicuously in the development at this 
 period of the leading manufacturing industry of the state. 
 Many blast furnaces and forges and a few rolling and slitting 
 mills were built in these counties before 1800, and after the 
 beginning of the present century this activity was continued. 
 A few of the more important enterprises in each of these 
 counties and in other eastern counties may be mentioned. 
 In 1790 Benjamin Longstreth erected a rolling and slitting 
 mill at Phoenixville, where the foundry now stands, to roll 
 bars into plates to be slit into nail rods. This was the be- 
 ginning of the present extensive works of the Phoenix Iron 
 Company. 
 
 Federal slitting mill, on Buck run, about four miles south 
 of Coatesville, in East Fallowfield township, Chester county, 
 was built in 1795 by Isaac Pennock. The name of this mill 
 was afterwards changed to Rokeby rolling mill. It was 
 used to roll sheet iron and nail plates and to slit the latter 
 into nail rods. It continued in operation until 1864, when 
 it was burned down and abandoned. During the latter part 
 of its history it rolled boiler plates. A paper mill now oc- 
 cupies its site. About 1810 Mr. Pennock built the Brandy- 
 wine rolling mill at Coatesville, which was afterwards oper- 
 ated for him by Dr. Charles Lukens, who had been em- 
 ployed at the Federal slitting mill. At this mill it is claimed 
 that the first boiler plates in the United States were rolled 
 by Dr. Lukens in 1816. The puddling mill of the Lukens 
 rolling mill at Coatesville occupies to-day the site of the 
 Brandy wine mill. Upon the death, in 1825, of Dr. Lukens, 
 who had become the owner of the Brandywine mill, the 
 management of the mill devolved upon his wife, by whom 
 the business was greatly extended and profitably conducted 
 for twenty years. As a tribute to her jnemory tte name of 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 47 
 
 the works was, after her death, changed to Lukens rolling 
 mills. Mount Hope furnace, located on the Big Chiquisa- 
 lunga creek, in Lancaster county, about ten miles south of 
 Lebanon, was built in 1785 by Peter Grubb, Jr., and is 
 still operated by members of the Grubb family. Colebrook 
 furnace, on the Conewago, in Lebanon county, seven miles 
 southwest of Cornwall furnace, was built by Robert Cole- 
 man in 1791 and abandoned about 1880. Mount Vernon 
 furnace, on the same stream, about twenty-three miles west of 
 Lancaster, and in Lancaster county, was built in 1808 by 
 Henry Bates Grubb. A second furnace of the same name was 
 built near the first in 1831. Both have been abandoned. 
 Conowingo furnace, on the creek of the same name, and 
 about sixteen miles southeast of Lancaster, was built in 1809. 
 
 About 1840 steam-power for driving the blast was success- 
 fully introduced by its owner, James M. Hopkins, the boilers 
 being placed at the tunnel-head. Soon after the introduc- 
 tion of steam at Conowingo furnace it was successfully 
 applied to Cornwall furnace by the manager, Samuel M. 
 Reynolds. In 1786 there were seventeen furnaces, forges, 
 and slitting mills within thirty-nine miles of Lancaster. In ■ 
 1838 there were 102 furnaces, forges and rolling mills within 
 a radius of fifty-two of Lancaster. At this time Lancaster 
 was the great iron center of eastern Pennsylvania. In 1805 
 there were seven forges and one slitting mill in Delaware 
 county. Franklin rolling mill, at Chester, in Delaware 
 county, was built in 1808. In 1828 there was in this county 
 five rolling and slitting mills and some manufactories of 
 finished iron products. The Cheltenham rolling mill, on 
 Tacony creek, in Montgomery county, one mile below 
 Shoemakertown, was built in 1790. In 1856 it was owned 
 and operated by Rowland & Hunt ; it has since been aban- 
 doned. Joanna furnace, on Hay Creek, in Berks county, 
 was built as early as March, 1793. It is still in operation, 
 and still uses charcoal. A neighboring furnace called 
 Rebecca was situated in Chester county, and was in exist- 
 ence in 1793. Reading furnace, two iniles east of Womels- 
 dorf, in Berks county, was built in 1793 by George Ege, on 
 the site now occupied by the Robesonia furnaces. It was a 
 near neighbor of Berkshire furnace. Sally Ann furnace, in 
 Rockland township, about five miles south of Kutztown, 
 was built in 1791. After having been idle for many years 
 it was refitted in 1879 and is now in operation under the 
 name of Rockland furnace. In 1798 there were six furnaces 
 and six forges in Berks county. In 1832 there were eleven 
 furnaces and twenty-one forges. 
 
 The first iron enterprises in the Lehigh valley are said to 
 have been established in the last century, in Carbon county. 
 These were Maria forge and furnace, on Pocopoco creek, 
 near Weissport. The forge is said to have been built in 
 1753. It was abandoned in 1858, and the furnace in 1861. 
 Several charcoal iron enterprises were established in this 
 valley during the early part of the present century, includ- 
 ing a few bloomaries. All of the forges and bloomaries in 
 the Lehigh valley have been abandoned. Nearly all of the 
 bloomaries were supplied with ore fi:om northern New Jer- 
 sey. Of the charcoal fiirnaces only one is now in operation 
 which uses charcoal — East Penn, formerly Pennsville, in 
 Carbon county, built in 1837. In 1836 a rolling mill and 
 wire factory were built at South Easton, in Northampton 
 county, by Stewart & Co. This was probably the .first rolling 
 mill in the valley. In 1805 there were two forges in York 
 county, one of which was Spring forge, which stood on 
 Codorus creek. Castle Fin forge, formerly called Palmyra 
 forge, on Muddy creek, in York county, was built in 1810, 
 by a person named Withers, and rebuilt in 1827 by Thomas 
 Burd Coleman, who also erected a steel furnace about 1832. 
 Both have been abandoned. In its day Castle Fin forge 
 was a very prominent enterprise. In 1850 there were five 
 furnaces and three forges in this county. Since then its iron 
 industry has sensibly declined. Chestnut Grove furnace, at 
 Whitestown, in Adams county, was built in 1830, and is still 
 active. About 1830 Maria furnace was built in Hamilton- 
 ban township, in this county, by Stevens & Paxton (Thad- 
 deus Stevens), but was abandoned about 1837. The first 
 fiirnace in Franklin county was Mount Pleasant, in Path 
 valley, five miles northwest of Loudon, which was erected 
 soon after the peace of 1783 by three brothers, William, 
 Benjamin, and George Chambers. A forge was also erected 
 by them as early as 1783. This furnace and forge were 
 
 destroyed in 1843. A furnace called Richmond, built in 
 1865, now occupies the site of Mount Pleasant furnace. 
 Soundwell forge, at Roxbury, sixteen miles north of Cham- 
 bersburg, on Conodoguinet creek, was built in 1798, by 
 Leephar, Crotzer & Co., and was active until 1857. Roxbury 
 furnace, at or near the same place, was built in 1815 by 
 Samuel Cole, and is now abandoned. In the old " pack- 
 horse" days there was an active iron trade carried on at 
 Roxbury. Carrick forge, four miles from Fannettsburg, in 
 Franklin county, was built in 1880, and was in operation in 
 1856. A furnace of the same name was built m 1828 by 
 General Samuel Dunn, which is still active. Loudon forge 
 and furnace were built about 1790 by Colonel James Cham- 
 bers, and destroyed about 1840. Valley forge, near Loudon, 
 in Franklin county, was built in 1804, and abandoned after 
 1856. Other old forges in Franklin county were abandoned 
 before 1850. Mont Alto furnace, in the same county, was 
 built in 1807 by Daniel and Samuel Hughes, and is still ac- 
 tive. Two forges of the same name, which are yet in opera- 
 tion, were built in 1809 and 1810 about four miles from the 
 furnace. A foundry was built in 1815, a rolling mill in 1832, 
 and a nail factory in 1835. About 1850 the nail factory was 
 burned down, and soon after 1857 the mill was abandoned. 
 Caledonia forge, in Franklin county, on Conococheague 
 creek, ten miles southeast of Chambersburg, was built in 
 1830 by Stevens & Paxton. Caledonia furnace, at the same 
 place, was built in 1837 by the same firm, after the aban- 
 donment of Maria furnace, in Adams county. For many 
 years previous to 1863 this furnace and forge were owned by 
 Hon. Thaddeus Stevens, in which year they were burned by 
 the Confederates, under General Lee, when on the march to 
 Gettysburg. Franklin furnace, in St. Thomas township, 
 was built by Peter and George Housum in 1828, and is still 
 running on charcoal. There were a few other charcoal fur- 
 naces in this county which have left scarcely their names by 
 which to be remembered. Early in the present century 
 nails and edge tools were made in large quantities at several 
 establishments at Chambersburg and in its vicinity. One of 
 these, the Conococheague rolling mill and nail factory, was 
 established by Brown & Watson in 1814. Liberty forge, at 
 Lisburn, on Yellow Breeches creek, in Cumberland county, 
 was built in 1790, and is still active. An older forge, long 
 abandoned, is said to have been built at Lisburn in 1783. 
 A few other forges in -Cumberland county were built prior 
 to 1800. Cumberland furnace, ten miles southwest of Car- 
 lisle, on Yellow Breeches creek, is said to have been built in 
 1794 by Michael Ege. It blew out permanently in Decem- 
 ber, 1854. Holly furnace, at Papertown, in the same county, 
 is said to have been built about 1785 by Stephen Foulk and 
 William Cox, Jr. A forge was in existence here in 1848. 
 Holly furnace was torn down in 1855 to give place to a paper 
 mill. It was once owned by Michael Ege. Two furnaces, 
 now abandoned, once stood near Shippensburg in this coun- 
 ty — Augusta, built in 1824, and Mary Ann, built in 1826. 
 Big Pond furnace, built in 1836, between Augusta and Mary 
 Ann furnaces, was burned down in 1880. Jacob M. Halde- 
 man removed from Lancaster county to New Cumberland, 
 at the mouth of Yellow Breeches creek, on the Susquehanna, 
 about 1806. He purchased a forge at this place and added 
 a rolling and slitting mill, which were operated until about 
 1826, when they were allowed to decay. Fairview rolling 
 mill, about a mile from the mouth of Conodoguinet creek, 
 in Cumberland county, and two miles above Harrisburg, was 
 built in 1833 by Gabriel Heister and Norman Callender, of 
 Harrisburg, to roll bar iron. Jared Pratt, of Massachusetts, 
 leased the mill in 1836, and added a nail factory. Michael 
 Ege was for nearly fifty years a prominent ironmaster of 
 Cumberland county, owning, a short time before his death. 
 Pine Grove furnace, the Carlisle iron works. Holly furnace, 
 and Cumberland furnace. He and his brother George Ege, 
 already mentioned, were natives of Holland. He died on 
 August 31, 1815. In 1840 there were 8 furnaces and 11 
 forges, bloomaries, and rolling mills in Franklin county, and 
 6 furnaces and 5 forges and rolling mills in Cumberland 
 county. 
 
 Schuylkill county has had several forges, mainly at or 
 near Port Clinton, the first of which at that place appears 
 to have been built in 1801. Between 1800 and 1804 a small 
 charcoal furnace was built by Reese & Thomas at Pottsville. 
 In 1807 Greenwood furnace and forge were erected at Potts- 
 
48 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ville by John Pott, the founder of the town, which was laid 
 out in 1816. In 1832 there were in operation in Schuyllcill 
 county Greenwood furnace and forge^ and Schuylkill, Bruns- 
 wick, Pine Grove, Mahanoy, and Swatara forges. A furnace 
 called Swatara, six miles from Pine Grove, was built in 1830, 
 which was followed by Stanhope furnace; still nearer to Pine 
 Grave, in 1835. All of these were charcoal enterprises. In 
 1785 Henry Fulton established a "nailery" in Dauphin 
 county, probably at Harrisburg. It is said to have been 
 " only a little remote from a smithy." In 1805 there were 
 two furnaces and two forges in the county. Oakdale forge, 
 at Elizabethville, appears to have been built in 1830. Vic- 
 toria furnace, on Clark's creek, was built in that year. In 
 1832 there were three forges and two furnaces in the county. 
 Emeline furnace, at Dauphin, was built about 1835. The 
 first furnace at Middletown, in this county, was built in 1833, 
 and a second furnace was built in 1819 — both cold-blast 
 charcoal furnaces. Manada furnace, at West Hanover, was 
 built in 1837 by E. B. & 0. B. Grubb. The first rolling mill 
 in the county was the old Harrisburg mill, at Harrisburg, 
 built in 1836. The first anthracite furnace in the county 
 was built at Harrisburg, in 1845, by Governor David E. 
 Porter. Hon. Siinon Cameron has been prominently iden- 
 tified with the iron interests of this county. A furnace and 
 forge, probably Paxinas, were in operation in Shamokin 
 township, Northumberland county, as early as 1830. Berlin 
 furnace and forge were built near Hartleytown, in Union 
 county, in 1827. Forest furnace, near Milton, in Northum- 
 berland county, was built in 1846, and Beaver furnace, near 
 Middleburg, in Snyder county, in 1848 — both charcoal fur- 
 naces. Esther furnace, about three miles south of Cata- 
 wissa, on East Eoaring creek, in Columbia county, was built 
 in 1802 by Michael Bitter & Son, who cast many stoves. In 
 1836 the furnace was rebuilt by Trago & Thomas. Catawissa 
 furnace, near Mainville, in Columbia county, was built in 
 1825, and a forge was built in 1824, near the same place. 
 In 1832 there were two furnaces and two forges in Catawissa 
 township. In 1837 Briar Creek furnace, two miles from Ber- 
 wick, in Columbia county, was built. In 1845 Fincher & 
 Thomas built Penn charcoal furnace, on Catawissa creek, 
 one mile east of Catawissa. AH of these furnaces have 
 been abandoned, but the forge at Mainville is still active. 
 
 A charcoal furnace called Liberty was built at Mooresburg 
 in Montour county, in 1838. A furnace at Danville, in 
 Montour county, was built in 1838 to use charcoal, but was 
 altered in the following year to use anthracite. Danville roll- 
 ing mill was built in 1845, Montour in 1845, and Eough-and- 
 Eeady in 1847— all at Danville. About 1778 a bloomary 
 forge was built on Nanticoke creek, near the lower end of 
 Wyoming valley, in Luzerne county, by John and Mason 
 F. Alden. Another bloomary forge was erected in 1789 on 
 Lackawanna river, about two miles above its mouth, lay Dr. 
 William Hooker Smith and Jame=i Sutton. Still another 
 bloomary forge was erected in 1799 or 1800, on Eoaring 
 brook, at Scranton, then called Slocum's Hollow, by two 
 brothers, Ebenezer and Benjamin Slooum. The product of 
 these bloomaries was taken down the Susquehanna river.in 
 Durham boats. They all continued in operation until about 
 1828. Nescopeck forge, in Luzerne county, was built in 
 1821, and abandoned about 1854. Shickshinny charcoal 
 furnace was built in 1846, and abandoned about 1860. In 
 1811 Francis McShane established a small cut-nail factory 
 at Wilkesbarre, " and used anthracite coal in smelting the 
 iron." Wyoming rolling mill, at Wilkesbarre, was built in 
 1842, and abandoned about 1850. It was followed by Lacka- 
 wanna, at Scranton, in 1844. Lackawanna county owes its 
 present prominence in the iron industry to the courage, 
 energy, and business sagacity of two brothers, George W. 
 and Sslden T. Scranton, and their cousin, Joseph H. Scranton, 
 the two brothers commencing operations in 1840 at Scranton, 
 and their cousin joining them soon afterwards. 
 
 A furnace was built in Lycoming county in 1820, four 
 miles from Jersey Shore, and named Pine creek. In 1832 
 it was owned by Kirk, Kelton & Co. A forge was added at 
 the same place in 1831. Heshbon forge, furnace and rolling 
 mill, on Lycoming creek, five miles above its mouth, were 
 built, respectively, in 1828, 1838, and 1842. Hepburn forge, 
 on the same creek, twelve miles north of Williamsport, was 
 built in 1830 and Cresson rolling mill, one mile lower down 
 the stream was built in 1842. About 1835 Astonville fur-l| 
 
 nace, near Ealston, was built to use coke, but charcoal was 
 soon substituted. At Ealston a charcoal furnace, rolling 
 mill, nail factory, etc., were erected by the Lycoming Valley 
 Iron Company in 1837. Washington Furnace, on Fishing 
 creek, at Lamar, in Clinton county, was built in 1811. It 
 was last in blast in 1875. A forge was added in 1837, and it 
 also is silent. A furnace at Farrandsville, near the mouth of 
 Lick run, in this county, which was built about 1836, to use 
 coke, is said to have sunk, in connection with a nail mill, 
 foundry, and other enterprises, over half a million dollars, 
 contributed by Boston capitalists. Mill Hall, Sugar Valley, 
 and Lamar are the names of other charcoal iiirnaces in the 
 same county. Of the enterprises above named, Washington 
 furnace and forge and Mill Hall furnace are the only ones that 
 have notbeen abandoned. In 1814 Peter Karthaus, a native 
 of Hamburg, in Germany, but afterwards a merchant of Bal- 
 timore, and Eev. Frederick W. Geissenhainer, a native of 
 Muhlberg, in Germany, established a furnace at the mouth 
 of the Little Moshannon, or Mosquito creek, in the lower 
 end of Clearfield county. The firm of Karthaus & Geissen- 
 hainer was dissolved on the 18th day of December, 1818. 
 It had been organized in 1811, partly to mine and ship to 
 eastern markets the bituminous coal of Clearfield county. 
 The furnace was operated with partial success for several 
 years. A furnace was built about 1840 at Blossburg, in 
 Tioga county, to use charcoal, but in 1841 it was altered by 
 J. G. Boyd and another person to use coke. It soon chilled, 
 however, and was abandoned. 
 
 — Compiled from James M. Swank^s Seport on Iron and Steely Tenth Census of the U. S. 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL IRON 
 IN THE JUNIATA VALLEY. 
 
 AS early as 1767 a company called the Juniata Iron 
 Company was organized, apparently by capital- 
 ists of eastern Pennsylvania, to search for iron 
 ore in the Juniata valley, and probably with the 
 ulterior object of manufacturing iron. It was in existence 
 from 1767 to 1771, during which its agent, Benjamin Jacobs. 
 made for it some surveys and explorations and dug a few 
 tons of iron ore, but where these operations were conducted 
 and who were the members of this pioneer company some 
 future antiquarian must discover. The first iron enterprise in 
 the Juniata valley was Bedford furnace, built in 1785, on 
 Black Log creek, below its junction with Shade creek at 
 Orbisonia, in Huntingdon county, by the Bedford company, 
 composed of Edward Eidgely, Thomas Cromwell, and George 
 Ashman. It made from eight to ten tons of pig iron weekly. 
 It was constructed in part of wood, and was five feet wide at 
 the bosh, and either fifteen or seventeen feet high. A forge 
 was built on the Little Aughwick creek by the same com- 
 pany, a short distance from the furnace, about 1785, which 
 made horseshoe iron, wagon tire, harrow teeth, etc. Large 
 stoves and other utensils were cast at the furnace. At the 
 Philadelphia Exhibition was a stove-plate cast at this lur- 
 nace in 1792. Bar iron made at Bedford forge was bent 
 into the shape of the letter U, turned over the backs of 
 horses, and in this manner taken by bridle-paths to Pitts- 
 burgh. Bar iron and castings from Bedford furnace and 
 later iron works in the Juniata valley were also taken down 
 the Juniata river in arks, many of them descending to as 
 low a point as Middletown on the Susquehanna, whence 
 the iron was hauled to Philadelphia, or sent to Baltimore in 
 arks down the Susquehanna river. The furnace and forge 
 have long been .abandoned. Three other charcoal furnaces 
 have been built at or near the site of Bedford furnace during 
 the present century. One of these was Eockhill, on Black 
 Log creek, three-quarters of a mile southeast of Orbisonia, 
 built in 1830. It was in operation in 1972, but in 1873 gave 
 place to the two new coke furnaces of the Eock Hill Iron iv 
 and Coal Company. Centre iiirnace, on Spring creek in 
 Centre county, was the second furnace in the Juniata valley. 
 It was built in the summer of 1792 bv Colonel John Patton 
 and Colonel Samuel Miles, both Eevolutionary officers. 
 The latter afterwards founded the iron works at Milesburg, 
 in this county. The first forge in Centre county was Eoc'^ 
 forge, on Spring creek, built in 1793 by General Philip 
 Benner, of Chester county, who subsequently became an ex- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 49 
 
 tensive manufacturer of Juniata iron. He died in 1832, aged 
 70 years, long belore which time his Rock forge enterprise 
 had expanded into a rolling and slitting mill, nail factory, 
 blast furnace, etc. The furnace was built in 1816. General 
 Banner had made iron at Nutt's forge at Coventry after the 
 Revolution. In 1795 Daniel Turner built Spring creek 
 forge, and in 1796 Miles, Dunlop & Co. built Harmony 
 forge, on Spring' creek. Logan furnace, near Bellefonte, 
 was built in ISOl) by John Dunlop, who afterwards origi- 
 nated other iron enterprises in Centre county, including a 
 forge at Bellefonte. Tussey furnace, in Ferguson township, 
 fourteen miles south of Bellefonte, was built about 1805 by 
 General William Patton. In 1807 Roland Curtin, a native 
 of Ireland, and father of Governor Andrew G. Curtin, in 
 company with Mosea Boggs, erected Eagle forge on Bald 
 Eagle creek, about five miles from Bellefonte, Boggs re- 
 maining a partner only a short time. Pig iron for this 
 forge was obtained from Tussey furnace. In 1817 Mr. Cur- 
 itin built a fiirnace called Eagle, near his forge. In 1828 a 
 small rolling mill was added, tor the manufacture of bar 
 iron and nails. About 1832 he built Martha furnace, on 
 Bald Eagle creek, about eleven miles west of Bellefonte. 
 He died in 1850, aged 84 years. About 1820 Hardman 
 Philips, an enterprising Englishman, erected at Philipsburg 
 a forge, foundry, and screw factory — ^the last named being 
 one of the first of its kind in this country. Cold stream 
 forge was erected about 1832 by John Plumbe, Sr., in Rush 
 towaship, Centre county. Hecla furnace, near Hublers- 
 burg, was built in 1820. Hannah furnace, about ten miles 
 northeast of Tyrone, was built iu 1828. Julian furnace, on 
 Bald Eagle creek, was built in 1835. A rolling mill was 
 built by Valentines & Thomas, near Bellefonte, in 1824. 
 Abram S. Valentine, of this firm, was the inventor of an ore 
 washing machine. 
 
 Barree forge, on the Juniata, in Huntingdon county, was 
 built about 1794 by Edward Bartholomew, of Philadelphia, 
 and his son-in-law, Greenberry Dorsey, of Baltimore, to con- 
 vert the pig iron of Centre fiirnace into bar iron. Hunting- 
 don furnace, in Franklin township, was built in 1796, four 
 miles from the mouth of Spruce creek, on Warrior's Mark 
 run, but after one or two blasts a new stack was built a mile 
 lower down the stream. The furnace was built for Morde- 
 cai Massey and Judge John Gloninger by George Anshutz, 
 who in 1808 became the owner of one-fourth of the proper- 
 ty. At the same time G«orge Shoenberger purchased a one- 
 fourth interest. Prior to 1808 Martin Dubbs had become 
 part owner. A forge called Massey, on Spruce creek, was 
 connected with Huntingdon furnace, and was built about 
 1800. The furnace has been silent since 1870. Tyrone 
 forges, on the Juniata, were built by the owners of Hunting- 
 don furnace, the first of the forges in 1804. In 1832 Gordon, 
 in his Gazetteer of the State of Pennsylvania, stated that 
 these forges, with a rolling and slitting mill and nail factory 
 attached, formed " a very extensive establishment," owned 
 by Messrs. Gloninger, Anshutz & Co. " The mill rolls about 
 150 tons, 75 of which are cut into nails at the works, 50 tons 
 are slit into rods and sent to the West, and about 25 tons 
 are sold in the adjoining counties." 
 
 Juniata forge was built at Petersburg about 1804 by 
 Samuel Fahnestock and George Shoenberger, the latter be- 
 coming sole owner in 1805. Coleraine forges, on Spruce 
 creek, were built in 1805 and 1809, by Samuel Marshall, an 
 Irishman. There have been many forges on Spruce creek, 
 none of which are now in operation. Union furnace in 
 Morris township, Huntingdon county, was built by Edward 
 B. Dorsey and Caleb Evans in 1810 or 1811. Pennsylvania 
 furnace, on the line dividing Huntingdon from Centre coun- 
 ty, was built by John Lyon, Jacob Haldeman, and William 
 Wallace in 1813. It is now in operation, using coke. About 
 1818 Reuben Trexler, of Berks county, built a bloomary 
 called Mary Ann, in Trough Creek valley, and about 1821 
 he added Paradise furnace.. In 1832 John Savage, of Phila- 
 delphia, built a forge near Paradise furnace, which is said 
 to have been the first forge in this country " that used the 
 big hammer and iron helve on the English plan." 
 
 George Shoenberger was born in Lancaster county, and 
 daring the closing years of the last century settled on 
 Shaver's creek, in Huntingdon county, as did also his brother 
 Peter The town of Petersburg was laid out in 1795 by 
 Peter Shoenberger. On September 27, 1800, Peter sold to 
 
 4 
 
 his brother George the Petersburg tract of land. George 
 Shoenberger died in 1814 or 1815. His only son. Dr. Peter 
 Shoenberger, succeeded him in the ownership of his iron 
 enterprises. Etna furnace and forge, on the Juniata, in 
 Catharine township, Blair county, were built in 1805 by 
 Canan, Stewart & Moore. John Canan was an Irishman 
 from Donegal. The furnace was the first in Blair county. 
 Cove forge, on the Frankstown branch of the Juniata, in 
 Blair county, two miles northeast of Williamsburg, was 
 built between 1808 and 1810 by John Royer, who was born 
 in Franklin county in 1779 and died at Johnstown in 1850. 
 Allegheny furnace was built in 1811 by AUinson & Hender- 
 son, and was the second furnace in Blair county. In 1835 
 it was purchased by Elias Baker and Roland Diller, both of 
 Lancaster county. The next, furnace in Blair county was 
 Springfield, built in 1815 by John Royer and his brother 
 Daniel. Springfield furnace and Cove Ibrge are now owned 
 by John Royer, born in 1799, son of Daniel. The next 
 furnace in this county was Rebecca, built in 1817. It was 
 the first furnace erected by Dr. Peter Shoenberger, who 
 afterwards became the most prominent ironmaster in the 
 state. His other iron enterprises, in the Juniata valley and 
 elsewhere were numerous and extensive, and their begin- 
 ning followed closely upon the building of Rebecca furnace. 
 The Doctor was born at Manheim, Lancaster county, in 
 1781 ; died at Marietta, Lancaster county, on June 18, 1854, 
 aged 73 years; and was buried at Laurel Hill cemetery, 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 Elizabeth furnace, near Antestown, in Blair county, is 
 said to have been the first in the country to use gas from 
 the tunnel-head for the production of steam. The furnace 
 was built in 1832, and the gas was first used in 1836. The 
 improvement was patented about 1840 by the owner of the 
 furnace, Martin Bell. A furnace and forge were built at 
 Hopewell, in Bedford county, about the year 1800, by 
 William Lane, of Lancaster county. On Yellow creek, 
 two miles from Hopewell, Mr. Lane built Lemnos forge 
 and slitting mill in 1806. In 1841 Loy & Patterson built 
 Lemnos furnace, on the same creek, two miles west of 
 Hopewell, to use charcoal. The furnace is now abandoned. 
 Bedford forge, also on Yellow creek, was built by Swope & 
 King in 1812. Elizabeth furnace, now Bloomfield, was 
 built at Woodbury, in Bedford county, in 1827, by King, 
 Swope & Co., Dr. Shoenberger being a partner. In 1845 the 
 furnace was removed to Bloomfield, in Bedford county. In 
 1840 Bedford county, which then embraced Fulton county 
 and a part of Blair county, contained nine furnaces and two 
 forges. Hanover furnace and forge, nine miles below Mc 
 Connellsburg, in Fulton county, known as the Hanover 
 iron works, were regarded in their day as an extensive 
 enterprise. The forge was built in 1822 by John Doyle, 
 and the furnace in 1827 by Jqhnlrvine. Both were aban- 
 doned about 1850. There areTibw' n'o iron enterprises in 
 Fulton county. Cemented or blister steel was made at 
 Caledonia, near Bedford, for several years before the beginn- 
 ing of this century by William McDermett, who was born 
 ne^r Glasgow, Scotland, and emigrated to this country at 
 the close of the Revolutionary war. Mr. McDermett's 
 works continued in successful operation for about ten years, 
 when financial reverses caused their abandonment. A few 
 years later he removed to Spruce creek, in Huntingdon 
 "county, and there ended his days about 1819. Josephine, 
 one of his daughters, married, in 1820, David_Jgj^ojtgr, 
 then a young ironmaster on Spruce creek, but afterwards 
 governor of Pennsylvania. About 1818 David R. Porter and 
 Edward B. Patton built Sligo forge, on Spruce creek. After 
 Mr. McDermett's removal to Spruce creek a forge and steel 
 works, called Claubaugh, were built on the creek by his 
 nephew, Thomas McDermett, at which steel was made by 
 the process that had been in use at Caledonia. These works 
 became the property of Lloyd, Steel & Co. about 1819, by 
 whom they were operated for a few years, when they were 
 abandoned. 
 
 There was a very early forge in Juniata county. It was 
 built in 1791 by Thomas Beale and WUliam Sterrett on 
 Licking creek, two miles west of Mifflintown. It had two 
 hammers and was in operation about four years. The pig 
 iron for this forge was mainly obtained fi:om Centre furnace, 
 but some was brought from Cornwall fiirnace and some 
 from Bedford furnace. Hope fiirnace, a few miles firom 
 
50 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Lewistown, and Freedom forge, three miles from the same 
 place, were built in 1810, and were probably the first iron 
 enterprises within the present limits of Mifflin county. 
 General James Lewis was one of the proprietors of Hope 
 furnace. In 1832 there were three furnaces and one forge 
 in Mifflin county, and in 1850 there were five furnaces and 
 two forges. The first iron enterprise in Perry county was 
 probably a forge on Cocalamus creek, built in 1807 or 1808 
 by General Lewis, and operated by him in connection with 
 Hope furnace. It was abandoned about 1817. It had two 
 fires and two hammers, and was called Mount Vernon. 
 Juniata furnace, three miles from Newport, was built in 
 1808 by David Watts, Esq., an eminent lawyer of Carlisle. 
 In 1832 it was owned by Captain William Power. A forge 
 called Flo was built on Sherman's creek, about four miles 
 from Duncannon, in Perry county, in 1829, by Lindley & 
 Speek. A forge was also built at Duncannon in the same 
 year by Stephen Duncan and John D. Mahon. Dun- 
 cannon rolling mill was built in 1838 by Fisher, Morgan & 
 Co. Montebello furnace, at Duncannon, was built in 1834 ; 
 Perry fiirnaoe, four miles from Bloomfield, in 1840 ; Oak 
 Grove, four miles from Landisburg, by Dr. Adam Hayes 
 and his brother John, in 1830 ; and Caroline, at Bailysburg, 
 in 1833. All of the charcoal furnaces of Perry county have 
 been abandoned. Many other charcoal furnaces and forges 
 and a few rolling mills were built in the upper part of the 
 Juniata valley before 1850. In 1832 there were in operation 
 in Huntingdon county, which then embraced Blair county, 
 eight furnaces, ten forges, and one rolling and slitting mill. 
 Each of the furnaces yielded from 1,200 to 1,600 tons of 
 iron annually. In the same year an incomplete list enumer- 
 ated eight furnaces and as many forges in Centre county. 
 In 1850 there were in Huntingdon and Centre counties and 
 in Blair county (formed out of Huntingdon and Bedford in 
 1846) and in Mifflin county forty-eight furnaces, forty-two 
 forges, and eight rolling mills, nearly all of which were in 
 Huntingdon and Centre. Most of these charcoal furnaces 
 and forges and rolling mills have been abandoned. Among 
 the persons who have been prominent in the iron manufac- 
 ture in the Juniata valley special reference may be made, 
 in addition to those who have been mentioned, to Henry S. 
 Spang, of Montgomery county, John Lyon, of Cumberland 
 county, and Anthony Shorb, of Lebanon county Most of 
 the iron made in the Juniata valley during the palmy days 
 of its iron industry was sold at Pittsburgh. Before the 
 completion of the state canal and railroads it was trans- 
 ported with great difficulty. Bar iron from Centre county 
 was at first carried on the backs of horses to the Clarion 
 river, where it was loaded on boats, upon which it was 
 floated to Pittsburg. Pig iron from Huntingdon county 
 was hauled to Johnstown, and thence floated to Pittsburg 
 in the same manner as the bar iron from Centre county. 
 
 ^-CompUedfrom /umfti M. Swank^s Beport on Iron and Bteelj Tenth Census of the U. 8. 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL IRON 
 IN WESTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 THE first iron manufactured west of the Allegheny 
 mountains is said to have been made in 1790, in 
 Fayette county, Pennsylvania, " in a smith's fire," 
 by John Hayden, of Haydenville, in that county. 
 Taking a sample on horseback to Philadelphia, he enlisted 
 his relative, John Nicholson of that city, then state comp- 
 troller, in a scheme for building Fairfield ftirnace, on 
 George's creek, seven miles south of Uniontown, and the 
 two ''^then went on to build the furnace," which they com- 
 pleted in 1792. A forge was built about the same time, and 
 probably before the furnace. In the mean time William 
 Turnbuil and Peter Marmie, of Philadelphia, built a fur- 
 nace and forge on Jacob's creek, a mile or two above its 
 entrance into the Youghiogheny river. The furnace was 
 first blown in on November 1, 1790, and the iron was tried 
 the same day in the forge. The furnace and forge were on 
 the Fayette county side of the creek, and were called the 
 Alliance irou works. The furnace was successfully operated 
 for many years, and the stack is still standing, but in ruins. 
 
 An extract from a letter written by Major Craig, deputy 
 quartermaster general and military storekeeper at Fort Pitt, 
 to General Knox, dated January 12, 1792, says ; " As there 
 is no six-pound shot here, I have taken the liberty to engage 
 four hundred at Turnbuil & Marmie's furnace, which is 
 now in blast." The firm was dissolved August 22, 1793, 
 Peter Marmie becoming sole owner of the works. John 
 and Andrew Oliphant bought a half interest in Fair- 
 field furnace in 1796, and in a few years they became its 
 sole owners. Fairchance furnace, on George's creek, six 
 miles south of Uniontown, was built in 1794 by John Hay- 
 den, William Squire, and Thomas Wynn. J. & A. Oliphant 
 bought it about 1805. It was rebuilt two or three times, 
 and kept in operation until 1873. A forge was built near the 
 furnace about 1794. The Oliphants built Sylvan forges, oil 
 George's creek, below Fairfield and Fairchance furnaces, to\ 
 convert their pig-iron product into bar iron. Union furnace,\ 
 now Dunbar furnace, was built by Colonel Isaac Meason on 
 Dunbar creek, four miles south of Connellsville, in 1791, 
 and was put in blast in March, 1791. A forge was connect- 
 ed with this furnace. It was succeeded in 1793 by a larger 
 furnace of the same name, built near the same site by 
 Colonel Meason, John Gibson, and Moses Dillon. Another 
 of Colonel Meason's enterprises was Mount Vernon furnace, 
 on Mountz's creek, eight miles east of its mouth, built 
 before July, 1800. In 1801 it was rebuilt. It is still stand- 
 ing but abandoned. In 1805 there were five fiirnaces and 
 six forges in Fayette county. In 1811 there were ten blast 
 furnaces, one air furnace, eight forges, three rolling and 
 slitting mills, one steel furnace, and five trip-hammers. At 
 a subsequent date there were twenty furnaces in this county. 
 Fayette county was a great iron centre at the close of the 
 last and far into the present century. For many years 
 Pittsburg and the Ohio and Mississippi valleys were almost 
 entirely supplied by it with castings of all kinds, and with 
 pig and bar iron. Long before 1850, however, the fires in 
 most of its furnaces and forges were suffered to die out. In 
 1849 only four of its furnaces were in blast. Other fiirnaces, 
 to use coke, have since been built within its boundaries, but 
 its fame as a centre of iron production has departed. In its 
 stead it now enjoys the reputation of being the centre of pro- 
 duction of the far-famed Connellsville coke. The steel fur- 
 nace above referred to was at Bridgeport, adjoining Browns- 
 ville, was owned by Morris Truman & Co., and made good 
 steel. In that year Truman & Co. advertised that they had 
 for sale "several tons of steel of their own converting, which 
 they will sell at the factory for cash, at 12 dollars per cwt., 
 and 20 dollars per faggot for Crowley." The first nail fac- 
 tory west of the Alleghenies was built at Brownsville, before 
 1800, by Jacob Bowman, at which wrought nails, made by 
 hand, were produced in large quantities. The rolling and 
 slitting mills which were in existence in Pennsylvania prior 
 to 1816 neither puddled pig iron nor rolled bar iron, but rolled 
 only sheet iron and nail plates with plain rolls from blooms 
 heated in a hollow fire and hammered under a tilt-hammer. 
 Cramer's Pittsburg Almanac for 1812 says that in 1811 there 
 were three such mills in Fayette county." 
 
 The first rolling mill erected in the United States to pud- 
 dle iron and roll iron bars was built by Colonel Isaac 
 Meason in 1816 and 1817, on the Redstone creek, about 
 midway between Connellsville and Brownsville, at a place 
 called Plumsock, in Fayette county. Colonel Meason had 
 previously erected forges at Plumsock. Thomas C. Lewis 
 was the chief engineer in the erection of the mill, and 
 George Lewis, his brother, was the turner and roller. They 
 were Welshmen. The project was conceived by Thomas C. 
 Lewis, and by him presented to Colonel Meason. F. H. 
 Oliphant told us in his lifetime that it was built " for 
 making bars of all sizes and hoops for cutting into nails." 
 He said further that " the iron was refined by blast, and 
 then puddled." Samuel C. Lewis, the son of Thomas C. 
 Lewis, assisted as a boy in rolling the first bar of iron. He 
 is still living at Pittsblirg, at the age of 80 years. Mr. 
 Lewis informs us that his father and uncle, being skilled 
 workmen, and therefore prohibited by an English statute t 
 from leaving their native land, were compelled to resort to' 
 artifice to secure their passage across the Atlantic. The 
 mill contained two puddling furnaces, one refinery, one 
 heating furnace, and one tilt-hammer. R.aw coal was used 
 in the puddling and heating furnaces, and coke in the re- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 51 
 
 finery. The rolls were cast at Dunbar furnace, and the lathe 
 for turning the rolls was put up at the mill. The mill went 
 into operation on September 15, 1817, and was kept in opera- 
 tion until 1824, the latter part of the time by a Mr. Palmer. 
 A flood in the Redstone caused the partial destruction of the 
 mill, the machinery of which was subsequently taken to 
 Brownsville. Colonel Meason, who did so much to develop 
 the iron resources of Fayette county, was a native of Vir- 
 ginia. His wife was a Miss Harrison of that state. He died 
 in 1819. A furnace named Mary Ann was erected in Greene 
 county at a very early day, about twenty miles from Union- 
 town, and on the opposite side of Ten-mile creek from 
 Clarksville. It was abandoned long before 1820. An ad- 
 vertisement for its sale, by " Samuel Harper, agent for the 
 proprietors,'' dated July 23, 1810, called it "The Iron 
 Works," late the property of Captain James Robinson. It 
 was probably built about 1800. Gordon, in his Gazetteer, 
 (1832), says that " there were formerly in operation on Ten- 
 mile creek a forge and furnace, but they have been long idle 
 and are falling to decay." This reference is to Robinson's 
 works. Greene county has probably never had any other 
 iron enterprises within its limits. 
 
 The beginning of the iron industry at Pittsburg was 
 made at a comparatively modern period. George Anshutz, 
 the pioneer in the manufacture of iron at Pittsburg, was 
 an Alsacian by birth, Alsace at the time being under the 
 control of France. He was born November 28, 1753. In 
 1789 he emigrated to the United States, and soon afterwards 
 located at a suburb of Pittsburg now known as Shady 
 Side, where he built a small furnace on Two-mile run, prob- 
 ably completing it in 1792. In 1794 it was abandoned for 
 want of ore. It had been expected that ore could be 
 obtained in the vicinity, but the expectation was not rea- 
 lized, and the expense entailed in bringing ore from other 
 localities was too great. In 1794 the fire of the furnace 
 lighted up the camp of the participants in the whisky 
 insurrection. The enterprise seems to have been largely 
 devoted to the casting of stoves and grates. The ruins of 
 the furnace were visible until about 1850. After the aban- 
 donment of his furnace Anshutz accepted the management 
 of John Probst's Westmoreland furnace, near Laughlins- 
 town, and remained there about one year, whence he 
 removed to Huntingdon county, where, in connection with 
 Judge John Gloninger and Mordecai Massey, he built 
 Huntingdon furnace in 1796. He died at Pittsburg, Feb- 
 ruary 28, 1837, aged 83 years. In 1807 there were three 
 nail factories in existence at Pittsburg — Porter's, Stur- 
 geon's, and Stewart's, according to Cramer's Pittsburg 
 Almanac, one of which made 100 tons of cut and wrought 
 nails annually. In 1810 about 200 tons of cut and wrought 
 nails were made at Pittsburg. In 1813 there were two 
 iron foundries at Pittsburg — McClurg's and Anthony Bee- 
 len's, and one steel furnace, owned by Tuper & McKowan. 
 
 The first rolling mill at Pittsburg was built in 1811 and 
 1812 by Christopher Cowan, an Englishman. It was called 
 the Pittsburg rolling mill. This mill had no puddling fur- 
 naces, nor was it built to roll bar iron. It was built to 
 manufacture sheet iron, nail and spike rods, shovels, spades, 
 etc. Cramer's Pittsburg Almanac for 1812 says of this en- 
 terprise : " Christopher Cowan is erecting a powerful steam- 
 engine, 70-horse power, to run a rolling mill, slitting mill, 
 and tilt-hammer ; to make iron, nails, sheet iron, spike and 
 nail rods, shovels and tongs, spades, scythes, sickles, hoes, 
 axes, frying pans, cutting knives, chains, plough irons, 
 hatchets, claw hammers, chizzels, augurs, spinning-wheel 
 irons, and smiths' vises — capital $100,000." This rolling 
 / mill stood at the intersection of Penn street and Cecil's 
 alley, where the fourth ward school-house now stands. In 
 1818 it was owned by Ruggles, Stackpole & Whiting, who 
 failed in 1819. In 1826 it was owned by R. Bowen. The 
 second rolling mill at Pittsburg was the Union on the Mon- 
 ongahela river, built in 1819, and accidentally blown up and 
 permanently dismantled in 1829, the machinery being taken 
 
 / to Covington, Kentucky. This mill had four puddling fur- . 
 \ nnces— the first in Pittsburg. It was also the first mill in 
 
 \Pittsburg to roll bar iron. It was built by Baldwin, Robinson, 
 McNickle & Beltzhoover. It is claimed that the first angle 
 iron in the United States was rolled at this mill by Samuel 
 Lenard, one of its proprietors, who also rolled ell iron for salt- 
 pans. On Pine creek, on the site of the present works of 
 
 Spang, Chalfant & Co., at Etna, Belknap, Bean & Butler manu- 
 factured scythes and sickles as early as 1820, but in 1824 
 their works were enlarged and steam-power introduced for 
 the purpose of rolling blooms. In 1826 they were operated by 
 M. B. Belknap. They afterwards passed into the hands of 
 Cuddy & Ledie, and were purchased by H. S. Spang in 
 1828, to roll bar iron from Juniata blooms. Sligo rolling 
 mill was erected where it now stands by Robert T Stewart 
 and John Lyon in 1825, but was partly burned down that 
 year. The Juniata iron works were built in 1824 by Dr. 
 Peter Shoenberger. Grant's Hill works were erected in 
 1821 by William B. Hayes and David Adams. They stood 
 near where the court-house now stands. Water for the gen- 
 eration of steam had to be hauled fi-om the Monongahela 
 river. The Dowlais works, in Kensington, were built in 
 1825 by George Lewis and Reuben Leonard. In 1826 all 
 of these mills did not make bar iron ; some only manipula- 
 ted rolled and hammered iron. 
 
 In 1829 Pittsburg had eight rolling mills, using 6,000 
 tons of blooms, chiefly from the Juniata valley, and 1,500 
 tons of pig iron. In the same year there were nine found- 
 ries which consumed 3,500 tons of iron. In 1828 the iron 
 rolled was 3,291 tons; in 1829 it was 6,217 tons; and in 
 1830 it was 9,282 tons. In 1831 there were two steel fur- 
 naces at Pittsburg. Cast iron began to be used in this year 
 for pillars, the caps and sills of windows, etc. In 1856 there 
 were nine rolling mills in operation, and eighteen foun- 
 dries, engine-factories, and machine-shops. In 1836 there 
 were in Pittsburg and Allegheny county twenty-five roll- 
 ing mills. 
 
 Clinton furnace, built in 1859 by eras', Bennett & Co., 
 and blown in on the last Monday of October in that year, was 
 the first furnace built in Allegheny county after the aban- 
 donment in 1794pf George Anshutz's furnace at Shady Side — 
 a surprisingly long interregnum. Westmoreland county 
 speedily followed Fayette county in the manufacture of 
 iron. Westmoreland furnace, near Laughlinstown, in Ligo- 
 nier valley, or Four-mile run, was built about 1792 by John 
 Probst, who also built a small forge about the same time. 
 Neither the furnace nor the forge was long in operation, 
 both probably ceasing to make iron about 1810. On the 1st 
 of August, 1795, George Anshutz, manager of Westmoreland 
 furnace, advertised stoves and castings for sale. General 
 Arthur St. Clair built Hermitage furnace, on Mill creek, 
 two miles northeast of Ligonier, about 1802. It was man- 
 aged for its owner by James Hamilton, and made stoves 
 and other castinge. It was in blast in 1806. In 1810 it 
 passed out of the hands of General St. Clair, and was idle 
 for some time. In 1816 it was started again by O'Hara & 
 Scully, under the management of John Henry Hopkins, 
 afterwards Protestant Episcopal bishop of Vermont. In 
 October, 1817, Mr. Hopkins left the furnace, himself a 
 bankrupt, and it has never since been in operation. The 
 stack is still stailding. General St. Clair died a very poor 
 man in 1818, aged 84 years, and was buried at Greensburg. 
 Mount Hope flirnace was built about 1810, in Donegal 
 township, by Trevor & McClurg. Mount Pleasant furnace, 
 on Jacob's creek, in Mount Pleasant township, was built 
 about 1810 by Mr. McClurg, and went out of blast in 1820 
 while under the control of Mr. Freeman. Washington 
 flirnace, near Laughlinstown, was built about 1809 by 
 Johnston, McClurg & Co. It was abandoned in 1826, and 
 rebuilt in 1848 by John Bell & Co. It was in blast as late 
 as 1854. Jonathan Maybury & Co. owned Fountain furnace 
 before 1812. It stood on Camp run, in Donegal township, 
 at the base of Laurel hill. The firm was dissolved on 
 August 19, 1812. Kingston forge, erectcAJn -1811 on Loy- 
 alhanna creek, ten miles east of GreeSburgTby A. Johnston 
 & Co., went into operation early in 1812. Ross furnace, on 
 Tub-mill creek, in Fairfield township, was built in 1814 by 
 Colonel Meason, and abandoned about 1850. It made pig 
 iron, stoves, sugar-kettles, pots, ovens, skillets, etc. Hannah 
 furnace, in Fairfield township, was built about 1810, a short 
 distance below Ross furnace, on Tub-mill creek, by John 
 Beninger. He also built a small forge on the same stream, 
 where the borough of Bolivar now stands. Both the furnace 
 and forge ceased to make iron soon after they were built, 
 Baldwin furnace, on Laurel run, near Ross furnace, is said 
 to have been built by James Stewart about 1810. It ran 
 but a short time. In 1831 there were in operation in West- 
 
62 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 moreland county one furnace, Eoss, operated by Colonel 
 Mathiot, and one forge, Kingston, on Loyalhanna creek, 
 operated by Alexander Johnston. The latter named gentle- 
 man, whose name appears above in connection with another 
 iron enterprise, was the father of Governor William F. John- 
 ston. He was born in Ireland July, 1772, and died July 15, 
 1872, aged 100 years. Seven other charcoal furnaces in 
 Westmoreland county were built between 1844 and 1855. 
 All of the charcoal furnaces of Westmoreland county have 
 been abandoned. The early Westmoreland furnaces shipped 
 pig iron and castings by boats or arks on the Conemaugh 
 and Allegheny rivers to Pittsburg, much of which found 
 its way down the Ohio river to Cincinnati and Louisville. 
 Shade furnace was built in 1807 or 1808, on Shade creek, Som- 
 erset county, and was the first iron enterprise in the county. 
 It was built by Gerehart & Reynolds upon land leased from 
 Thomas Vickroy. In November, 1813, Vickroy advertised the 
 furnace for sale, at a great bargain. A sale was effected in 1819 
 to Mark Richards, Anthony S. Earl, and Benjamin Johns, of 
 New Jersey, constituting the firm of Richards, Earl & Co., 
 who operated the furnace down to about 1830. In 1820 they 
 built a forge called Shade, below the furnace, which was 
 carried on by William Earl for four or five years, and after- 
 wards by John Hammer and others. The furnace was con- 
 tinued, at intervals, by various proprietors to the close of 
 1858. About 1811 Joseph Vickroy and Conrad Piper built 
 Mary Ann forge, on Stony creek, about five miles below 
 Shade furnace, and a half a mile below the mouth of Shade 
 creek. David Livingston was subsequently the owner of 
 the forge, and operated it for several years. Richard Geary, 
 the father of Gov. John W. Geary, was the millwright who 
 built the forge for the owners. Pig iron was sometimes 
 packed on horseback to this forge from Bedford county, the 
 horses taking salt from the Conemaugh salt works, and bar 
 iron as a return load. In the year 1809 or 1810 Peter Kim- 
 mell and Matthias Scott built a forge for the manufacture of 
 bar iron on Laurel Hill creek, now in Jefferson township, in 
 the western part of Somerset county. , It ceased operations 
 about 1815. Supplies of metal were obtained from Bedford 
 and Fayette counties. About the year 1810 Robert Philson 
 erected a forge and furnace on Casselman's river, in Turkey- 
 foot township, to use ore mined in the immediate vicinity. 
 The enterprise was a failure. Four other charcoal furnaces 
 were afterwards built in Somerset county. All of the fur- 
 naces and forges in this county have long been abandoned. 
 The first iron enterprise in_Cambria county was a forge at 
 Johnstown, built on Stony creek, about 1809, by John Buck- 
 waiter, and subsequently removed to the Conemaugh river, 
 also at Johnstown, where it was operated with more or less 
 regularity down to about 1835. It was used to hammer 
 bars out of Juniata pig iron. In 1817 Thomas Burrell, the 
 [proprietor, offered wood-cutters "fifty cents per cord for 
 chopping two thousand cords of wood at Cambria forge, 
 HJohnstown." About 200 pounds of nails, valued at $30, 
 ■were made at Johnstown by one establishment in the census 
 year 1810. About this time an enterprise was established at 
 Johnstown by Robert Pierson, by which nails were cut with 
 a machine worked by a treadle, but without heads, which 
 were afterwards added by hand. Cambria county has been 
 noted as an iron center since its first furnace, Cambria, was 
 built by George S. King, David Stewart, John K. Shryock. 
 and William L. Shryock in 1841, on Laurel run. It was 
 followed in the next six years by five other 'charcoal fur- 
 naces. All of these furnaces have been abandoned. The 
 Cambria iron works, at Johnstown, were commenced in 
 1853 by a company of which Mr. King was the originator 
 'and of which Dr. Peter Shoenberger was a member. 
 
 The first iron enterprise jn Indiana county was Indiana 
 forge, on Finley's run, near the Conemaugh, built about 
 1837 by Henry and John Noble, who also built a small fur- 
 nace as early as 1840. The forge was operated by water- 
 power, but the furnace by steam-power. The furnace and 
 forge were both running in the last-named year. Pig iron 
 for the forge was at first obtained from Allegheny furnace, 
 in Blair county. Iron ore for the furnace was obtained 
 from the Allegheny furnace mines. Becoming embarrass- 
 ed, the firm was succeeded about 1843 by William D. and 
 Thomas McKernan. About 1846 the property passed into 
 the hands of Elias Baker, who built a new furnace and 
 forge. John Noble owned about 1837 a farm of about 200 
 
 acres in the heart of the present city of Altoona, which he 
 sold to David Robinson, of Pleasant valley, for $4,500, 
 taking in payment the contents of Mr. Robinson's country 
 store, which he removed to Finley's run and added to the 
 capital stock of the firm of Henry and John Noble. The 
 Altoona farm is now worth many millions of dollars. Three 
 other charcoal furnaces in Indiana county were built in 
 1846 and 1847. All of the Indiana furnaces and its solitary 
 forge have long been abandoned. 
 
 A blast furnace was built at Beaver Falls, on the west 
 side of Beaver river, in Beaver county, in 1802, by Hoopes, 
 Townsend & Co., and was blown in in 1804. A forge was 
 connected with it from the beginning, and was in operation 
 in 1806. The furnace and forge were in operation in 1816. 
 The whole enterprise was abandoned about 1826. The ore 
 used was picked out of gravel banks in the neighborhood 
 in very small lumps. There was another early furnace in 
 this county, named Bassenheim, built in 1814 by Detmar 
 Basse Muller, on Connoquenessing creek, about a mile west 
 of the Butler county line. In February, 1818, $12 per tonl 
 was paid for hauling the pig metal made at this furnace to 
 Pittsburg, thirty miles distant over a bad road. The fur- 1 
 nace was abandoned at an early day. John Henry Hopkins 
 previously mentioned in connection with General St. Clair's 
 furnace near Ligonier, was engaged about 1815 as a clerk at 
 Bassenheim furnace. Prior to 1846 there were only a few 
 furnaces in the Shenango valley — all charcoal, one of the 
 oldest of which was Springfield furnace, half a mile from 
 Leesburg and seven miles southeast of Mercer, built in 1837 
 and active in 1849. Day, in 1843, says: "Two furnaces 
 were wrought formerly, but have since been abandoned." 
 The geographer, Joseph Scott, says in 1806 that "a forge 
 and fiirnace are now nearly erected " at New Castle. About 
 1810 there was a forge on Neshannock creek, " midway be- 
 tween Pearson's flour mill and Harvey's paper mill,'' for 
 the manufacture of bar iron from the ore. The first rolling 
 mill in Lawrence county was built in 1839 at New Castle 
 by James D. White, of that place, under the superintend- 
 ence of S. Wilder, a native of Massachusetts. It made bar 
 iron and cut nails, and was subsequently known as Cosalo 
 rolling mill. Orizaba rolling mill, at the same place, was 
 built in 1845 by Joseph H. Brown, Joseph Higgs, and 
 Edward Thomas, who had been employed at the Cosalo 
 mill. In 1846 and soon afterwards several furnaces were 
 built in this valley to use its splint coal in the raw state. 
 The first furnace in the once important but now nearly 
 neglected ironmaking district composed of Armstrong, 
 Butler, Clarion, Venango, and other northwestern counties, 
 was doubtless Bear Creek, in Armstrong county, commenced 
 in 1818 by Ruggles, Stackpole & Whiting, who then owned 
 the Pittsburg rolling mill. In the following year, owing to 
 the failure of this firm, it passed uncompleted into the 
 hands of Baldwin, Robinson, McNickle & Beltzhoover, of 
 Pittsburg. The furnace went into operation in 1819. It 
 was abandoned long before 1850, but was running in 1832,f 
 in which year Gordon says it was owned by Henry Baldwinj 
 Esq., and was reputed to be the largest furnace in the United 
 States, having made forty tons of iron in a week. This 
 furnace had a tram-road with wooden rails, in 1818. Rocl? 
 furnace, on Roaring run, a tributary of the Kiskiminetas, 
 four miles east of Apollo, in Armstrong county, was built 
 about 1825 by James W. Biddle, of Pittsburg^ and others. 
 It has been abandoned since 1855. Slippery Rock furnace, 
 in Butler county, and Clarion ftirnace, in Clarion county, 
 were built in 1828— the latter by Hon. Christian Myers, "a 
 native of Lancaster county, who built another furnace 
 about 1844, which he called Polk. Judge Myers was the 
 pioneer in the manufacture of iron in Clarion county, and 
 was a man of great enterprise. Allegheny furnace, at Kit- 
 tanning, in Armstrong county, and Venango furnace, on 
 Oil creek, in Venango county, were built in 1830. In 1832 
 the former was owned by A. McNickle, and made about 
 fourteen tons of iron weekly. From 1830 to 1850 this section 
 of the state produced large quantities of charcoal pig iron. 
 In 1850 there were 11 furnaces standing in Armstrong 
 county, 6 in Butler, 28 in Clarion, and 18 in Venango— 63 
 m all. In 1858 there were 18 in Armstrong, 6 in Butler, 27 
 in Clarion, and 24 in Venango— 75 in all. All of these 
 were charcoal furnaces, except four coke furnaces at Brady's 
 Bend. Many of these furnaces had, however, been aban- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 53 
 
 doned at the latter date. Nearly every one has since then 
 been abandoned. The Great Western iron works at Brady's 
 Bend, embracing a rolling mill, and four furnaces to use 
 coke, were commenced by Philander Raymond in 1840. 
 They have been abandoned for many years. The rolling 
 mill was built in 1841 to roll bar iron, but it afterwards 
 rolled iron rails. The iron manufactured in the Allegheny 
 valley was taken down the Allegheny river to Pittsburg 
 on keel-boats and arks, the business of transporting it being 
 quite extensive. Erie charcoal furnace, at Erie, was built 
 in 1842, and abandoned in 1849. It used bog ore. It was 
 owned by Charles M. Reed. Liberty furnace on the north 
 side of French creek, in Crawford county, was built in 1842 
 by Lowry & Co., of Meadville, and abandoned in 1849. In 
 1791 there were 16 furnaces and 37 forges in Pennsylvania. 
 In 1816 there were 44 furnaces, 78 forges, and 176 naileries. 
 In 1849 there were 298 furnaces, 121 forges, 6 bloomaries, 
 and 79 rolling mills. Of the furnaces existing in 1849 
 nearly all were charcoal furnaces, only 57 being anthracite 
 and 11 bituminous coal and coke furnaces. The charcoal 
 iron industry of Pennsylvania still exists in a healthy con- 
 dition, but its glory has departed . About 1840 a revolu- 
 tion was created in the iron industry of the country, by the 
 introduction of bituminous and anthracite coal in the blast 
 furnace, and since about 1850 the manufacture of charcoal 
 iron in Pennsylvania has declined. Since about the middle 
 of the last century Pennsylvania, whose early iron history 
 has unavoidably occupied so much of our space, has been 
 the foremost ironmaking state in the Union. 
 
 — CompUedfrom Jmnes M. Bwank^a Report on Iron and Steely Tenth Census of the U. S. 
 
 EARLY IRON ENTERPRISES IN DELAWARE 
 AND MARYLAND. 
 
 IN the Colonial Records of Pennsylvania, volume 1, page 
 115, mention is made of one James Bowie, " living near 
 iron hill, about eight miles distance from New Castle," 
 in Delaware, in 1684. In Oldmixon's British Em- 
 pire in America, edition of 1708, in referring to New Castle 
 county, then in Pennsylvania, but now in Delaware, it is 
 stated that there is a place in the county " called iron hill, 
 from the iron ore found there," but the existence of an "iron 
 mill," to use the ore, is expressly denied. This "iron hill " 
 is undoubtedly the one referred to in the Colonial Records 
 as having been discovered as early as 1684. Mrs. James 
 says that on the 24th of September, 1717, Sir William Keith, 
 governor of Pennsylvania, " wrote to the Board of Trade in 
 London that he had found great plenty of iron ore in Penn- 
 sylvania," and Bishop says that "Sir William Keith had 
 iron works in New Castle county, Delaware, erected pre- 
 vious to 1730, and probably during his administration from 
 1717 to 1726." This enterprise consisted of a furnace and 
 forge, which were located on Christiana creek, and are said 
 to have had a short life. Iron was, however, made in 
 Bloomaries on the Christiana and its branches after 1730, 
 and there is a tradition that a furnace was in existence at 
 the foot of " iron hill " after this date. In the gable of an 
 old Baptist church near " iron hill " is a cast-iron plate 
 dated 1746, which is said to have been cast at this furnace. 
 Among the bloomaries was one on White Clay creek, in 
 New Castle county, owned by John Hall. In the edition of 
 Oldmixon for 1741 the author says that " between Brandy- 
 wine and Christiana is an iron mill." These references 
 point out with all the exactness that is now possible the 
 character and location and date of erection of the first iron 
 enterprises in the state of Delaware. Bishop says that in 
 Sussex county, at the southern extremity of Delaware, 
 " where bog oi'e in the shape of a very pure hydrate, yield- 
 ing from 55 to 66 per cent, of iron, exists in large beds in 
 the vicinity of Georgetown, and on the branches of the 
 Nanticoke and Indian rivers, the manufacture of iron and 
 castings was carried on before the Revolution to a consider- 
 able extent. The compact hydrated peroxide of some of 
 these beds has, since the early part of this century, been 
 
 raised in quantities for exportation, and the local production 
 of iron is consequently less than it might have been." 
 Tench Coxe, in his report on The Arts and Mamifaclures of 
 the United States in 1810, mentions five forges in Sussex 
 county, which produced in that year 216 tons of iron, but 
 he makes no reference to a blast furnace in the whole state. 
 Bog ore from near Milton, in Sussex county, was at one time 
 taken to Millville, New Jersey, to be smelted in a furnace 
 at that place which was built in 1815. The shipment of 
 this ore ceased about 1853. About 1820, as we are informed 
 by Judge Caleb S. Layton, of Georgetown, in Sussex county, 
 a blast furnace was established at Millsborough, on the 
 Indian river, about eight miles south of Georgetown, by 
 Colonel William D. Waples and others, In connection 
 with this furnace was a foundry. An interest in the furnace 
 was purchased in 1822 by Hon. Samuel G. Wright, of New 
 Jersey, and in 1830 his son, Colonel Gardiner H. Wright, 
 obtained an interest, and afterwards operated the furnace 
 until 1836, when it went out of blast finally. The foundry 
 continued in operation until 1879. In 1859 Lesley stated 
 that " Millsborough charcoal furnace, owned by Gardiner 
 H. Wright, of Millsborough, Sussex county, Delaware, is 
 the only furnace in the state, and has not made iron for ten 
 years. A cupola furnace is in activity beside it." Francis 
 Vincent, of Wilmington, informs us that the castings for 
 the eastern penitentiary of Pennsylvania, and for Moya- 
 mensing prison, and the iron railing which once surrounded 
 Independence Square, in Philadelphia, were cast at Mills- 
 borough furnace— presumably at the " cupola fiirnace." He 
 also informs us that ten or twelve years before the Revolu- 
 tion an English company, under the leadership of Colonel 
 Joseph Vaughan, built a furnace near Concord, in Sussex 
 county. The company had a stone wharf at the head of 
 Nanticoke river, and shipped its iron direct to England. 
 The iron was named " Old Meadow." " The stone wharf 
 is there yet," says Mr. Vincent. Colonel Vaughan com- 
 manded one of the Delaware regiments during the Revolu- 
 tion. In 1828 and in the two subsequent years Millsborough 
 furnace and foundry produced 450 tons of pig iron and 350 
 tons of castings. 
 
 A rolling and slitting mill near Wilmington, in Delaware, 
 existing and in operation in 1787 or 1788, has already been 
 referred to in the chapter relating to New York. This mill 
 then rolled and slit Swedish and Russian iron for the use of 
 a New York cut-nail factory. In 1810 there were three 
 rolling and slitting nails in New Castle county. Lesley 
 stated in 1859 that, the Delaware iron works, located five 
 miles northwest of Wilmington, owned by Alan Wood, of 
 Philadelphia, and built in 1812, " began to manufacture 
 sheet iron thirty years ago in what had been a nail-plate 
 works. At that time only Townsend in New Jersey made 
 sheet iron." Marshall's rolling mill, on the Red Clay creek, 
 two miles west of Newport, was built in 1836. The Wil- 
 mington rolling rnill, near Wilmington, was built in 1846. 
 The Diamond State rolling miil, at Wilmington, was built 
 in 1854. These were the only rolling mills existing in Dela- 
 ware in 1859. Others have since been built. The business 
 of iron shipbuilding has been added to the iron industries of 
 Delaware within the last few years. The iron hill to which 
 reference has been made is situated about twelve miles from 
 Wilmington, and near the Pennsylvania line. Ore taken 
 from this place has been used at Principio furnace, in Cecil 
 county, Maryland, since 1847. This ore has also been used 
 in some of the furnaces of Pennsylvania. Previous to 1847 
 the mines had been worked but little. Between 1832 and 
 1847 some ore was mined here and taken to a furnace in 
 New Jersey. 
 
 Maryland. — In his Report on the Manufacture of Iron, 
 addressed to the governor of Maryland in 1840, Alexander 
 gives 1715 as "the epoch of furnaces in Maryland, Virginia, 
 and Pennsylvania." We have seen that this statement is 
 true of Pennsylvania, and there is no reason to believe that 
 it is not substantially true of Maryland. Scrivener says that 
 in 1718 Maryland and Virginia exported to England three 
 tons and seven cwt. of bar iron, upon which the mother 
 country collected a duty of £6 19«. Id. This indicates that 
 iron was made in both of these colonies before that year. In 
 1719 the general asembly of Maryland passed an act "auth- 
 orizing 100 acres of land to be laid off to any who would set 
 up furnaces and forges in the province." Other induce- 
 
54 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ments were offered in 1721 and subsec[uently to those who 
 would engage in the manufacture of iron. The preanlble to 
 the act of the general assembly of 1719 recites that "there 
 are very great conveniences of carrying on iron works within 
 this province, which have not hitherto been embraced for 
 want of proper encouragement to some first undertakers," 
 which clearly implies that iron enterprises had already 
 been undertaken in Maryland but were not in operation. 
 Who these " first undertakers " were will presently appear. 
 As a result of the encouragement given by the general as- 
 sembly official reports show that in 1749 and again in 1756 
 there were eight furnaces and nine forges in Maryland, and 
 that on the 21st of December, 1761, there were eight fur- 
 naces, making about 2,500 tons of pig iron annually, and 
 ten forges, capable of making about 600 tons of bar iron 
 annually. Daring the colonial period Maryland had no 
 manufacturing industry worthy of the name except that of 
 iron. Tobacco-growing and wheat-growing formed the 
 principal employment of the people. 
 
 The first iron works in Maryland were erected in the 
 northeastern part of the state, in Cecil county. A forge at 
 North East, at the head of the North East river erected 
 previous to 1716, is supposed to have been the pioneer iron 
 enterprise. That iron works were built at North East pre- 
 vious to 1716 is proved by a deed, dated in that year, in 
 which Robert Dutton conveyed a flour mill near the " bot- 
 tom of the main falls of North East," together with fifty 
 acres of land, to Richard Bennett for £100 in silver money. 
 In this deed "iron works" are mentioned as among the 
 appurtenances which were conveyed by it. They were pro- 
 bably not then active. In 1722 the iron works at North East 
 appear to have been owned by Stephen Onion and Thomas 
 and William Russell. These works embrace only a forge, 
 which was at first probably used only to make iron direct 
 from the ore. At or about the time when the forge at 
 North East was built a furnace was built by the Principio 
 Company at Principio, on Principio creek, which empties 
 into the Chesapeake near the mouth of the Susquehanna, 
 about six miles from North East, in Cecil county. A forge 
 was afterwards erected at Principio. Stephen Onion, Josh- 
 ua Gee, Joseph Farmer, William Russell, and John Rus- 
 ton were the original members of the company. The North 
 East and Principio companies appear to have been united 
 about 1722. Stephen Onion and Thomas Russell were the 
 leading spirits in both companies. Henry Whiteley has 
 published an exceedingly full and valuable history of the 
 Principio Company, from which we compile the following 
 interesting details. The most prominent members of the 
 Principio Company, which existed for about sixty years, 
 were Sir Nicholas Hackett Carew, Bart., of Beddington, 
 Surrey ; Thomas Russell, of Birmingham, and his sons, 
 Thomas and William Russell ; Stephen Onion ; John Eng- 
 land ; Joshua, Samuel, and Osgood Gge ; William Chet- 
 wvnd, Esq., — all of England; and Augustine and Lawrence 
 Washington, of Virginia, father and brother of George 
 Washington. In 1724 Stephen Onion and Thomas Russell 
 left their works in charge of John England, a practical iron- 
 master, and sailed from New Castle for Great Britain, in 
 the same ship with Benjamin Franklin, who says in his 
 autobiography that they were '' masters of an iron work in 
 Maryland " and had engaged " the great cabin." Onion 
 soon returned, and in 1726 was in active superintendence at 
 Principio; but Russell remained in England. Ore for the 
 furnace was at first obtained in the immediate neighbor- 
 hood, but as early as September 4, 1724, it was obtained 
 from Gorsuch's point, below Canton, on the eastern shore of 
 the Patapsco, about opposite to Fort McHenry. In 1727 
 the Principio Company, through John England, purchased 
 all the iron ore, opened and discovered, or shut and not 
 yet discovered," on Whetestone point, at the extremity of 
 which Fort McHenry now stands, for £300 sterling and £20 
 current money of Maryland. This was for many years one 
 of its principal sources of ore supply. 
 
 The company did not confine its operations to Principio 
 and North East. It was early in treaty with Captain Au- 
 gustine Washington for land in Virginia, at Accokeek, on 
 which to erect a furnace. In February, 1725, the furnace 
 was ready for work, and John Barker, the founder at Prin- 
 cipo, was sent there to start it. After Accokeek, Kingsbury 
 fturnace was the company's next venture. It was situated 
 
 on Herring run, at the head of Back river, in Baltimore 
 county. It was built in 1744 and went into blast in April, 
 1745, producing at the first bla«t, which lasted till December 
 18th of the same year, 480 tons of pig iron. The first four 
 blasts embraced the period extending from April, 1, 1745, 
 to December 26, 1751, and produced 3,853 tons, or an aver- 
 age of 75 tons per working month. More than 3,300 tons 
 of the iron were shipped to the company in England. In 
 1751 Lancashire furnace was purchased from Dr. Charles 
 Carroll, of Annapolis. It was located near Kingsbury, on 
 the west side of a branch of Back river, a few miles north- 
 east of Baltimore. . The deed embraced 8,200 acres of land, 
 and was " signed " on behalf of the company by Lawrence 
 Washington. Lancashire furnace was operated by the 
 company from the time of its purchase until the_ Revolution. 
 It was its last acquisition of property "in America. At the 
 time of its purchase the company outranked all competitors, 
 being the sole proprietor of four furnaces and two forges, viz: 
 Principio furnace, Cecil county, Maryland, built about 1715; 
 Principio forge at the same place ; North East forge, Cecil 
 county, Maryland, built about 1715; Accokeek furnace, 
 Virginia, built in 1725; Kingsbury furnace, Baltimore 
 county, Maryland, built in 1744; Lancashire furnace, Balti- 
 more county, Maryland, purchased in 1751. It owned slaves 
 and live stock in abundance, and its landed estates were of 
 great extent, amounting to nearly thirty thousand acres ex- 
 clusive of the Accokeek lands in Virginia. One-half of the 
 pig iron exported to Great Britain from this country is said 
 by Mr. Whitely to have come from its works. 
 
 After 1776 the company had no actual control over any 
 of its American property. Thomas Russell, who had been 
 the company's general manager, continued to operate the 
 furnaces and forges, and supplied bar iron and cannon balls 
 in large quantities to the Continental army. In the Lan- 
 cashire furnace ledger is an "account of shott made at Lan- 
 cashire furnace in the year 1776." In 1780 the general as- 
 sembly of Maryland passed an act to seize and confiscate all 
 British property within the state, and this was the end of 
 the Principio Company, after an existence of more than 
 sixty years. All the possessions of the company, with two 
 exceptions, passed under the auctioneer's hammer and into 
 new hands. The works at North East were retained by 
 Thomas Russell, one of the company and a son of the first 
 Thomas Russell, who had cast his fortunes with the patriotic 
 cause. The Accokeek lands are supposed to have fallen to 
 "a certain Mr. Washington," who owned a one-twelfth in- 
 terest in the possessions of the company, and was also a 
 patriot." 
 
 In 1744 William Black, secretary of the commissioners 
 appointed by Governor Gooch, of Virginia, to unite with 
 those from Pennsylvania and Maryland to treat with the 
 Iroquois, or Six Nations of Indians, in reference to the 
 lands west of the AUeghenies, wrote in his journal, on May 
 25th, while at North East in Maryland : " I must not for- 
 get that in the forenoone the Com'rs and their company 
 went to the Principio iron works, in order to view the curio- 
 sities of that place. They are under the management of 
 Mr. Baxter, a Virginian, and was at work forming barr- 
 iron when we came there. For my part I was no judge of 
 the workmanship, but I thought everything appeared to be 
 in very good order, and they are allowed to be as compleat 
 works as any on the continent by those who are judges." 
 This visit was made to North East forge, which being own- 
 ed by the Principio Company, formed a part of the " Princi- 
 pio iron works." Iron works have been almost continuous- 
 ly in operation at Principio and North East since their first 
 establishment, or about one hundred and sixty years. At 
 Principio George P. AVhittaker and his associates have had 
 a charcoal furnace in operation since 1837, and at North 
 East, on the very site of the old forge, are the present exten- 
 sive iron works of the McCullough Iron Company. Pig iron 
 from Virginia furnaces was taken to the forge at North 
 East, and perhaps to Principio forge, to be refined into bar 
 iron. About thirty years ago a whole pig o*iron was found 
 near the site of the first Principio furnace, which was plain- 
 ly stamped "Principio, 1727.^' A few years ago two or 
 three pigs of iron, marked " Principio 1751," were discover- 
 ed m the bed of the Patapsco river. All of these relics have 
 been preserved, A furnace at the mouth of Gwynn's falls 
 and a forge at Jones's falls, called Mount Royal, were built 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 55 
 
 by the Baltimore Company soon after 1723 and before 1730 
 Messrs. Carroll, Tasker, and others forming the company. 
 Stephen Onion severed his connection with the Priucipio 
 Company and built a furnace and two forges of his own at 
 the head of Gunpowder river, about a mile from Joppa, 
 then one of the principal towns of Maryland, but now 
 wholly deserted. These works were advertised for sale in 
 1769, after Stephen Onion's deaih. The exact date of the 
 erection of these extensive works has not been preserved. 
 
 Bush furnace, in Harford county, and Northampton 
 furnace, in Baltimore county, were built about 1760 — ^the 
 latter by members of the Ridgely family. The proprietors 
 of this furnace owned a forge on the Great Gunpowder river, 
 called Long Cam forge, which was probably older than the 
 ftirnace. Bush furnace, located on Bush creek, was owned 
 about 1767 by John Lee Webster. On the Patapsco, near 
 Elkridge Landing, were Elkridge furnace and forge, owned 
 by Edward Dorsey ; at a locality not now known was York 
 furnace ; in Anne Arundel county were the Patuxent fur- 
 nace and forge, owned by Thomas, Richard, and Edward 
 Snowden. There was once a furnace on Stemmer's run, 
 about seven miles from Baltimore. There was also a fur- 
 nace on Curtis creek, in Patapsco county, built by William 
 Goodwin and Edward Dorsey, which remained in operation 
 until 1851. Nottingham furnace, in Baltimore, was built 
 before the Revolution. In 1762 Robert Evans, Jonathan 
 Morris, and Benjamin Jacobs built Unicorn forge at a place 
 called Nasby, in Queen Ann County. The castings iox the 
 forge were procured at " Bush river furnace," which appears 
 to have been then operated by Isaac Webster. The firm of 
 Evans, Morris & Jacobs was not Icftig in existence In 
 Frederick county were several early iron enterprises, partic- 
 ulars of which have been preserved by Alexander. Old 
 Hampton furnace, on Tom's creek, about two miles west of 
 Emmetsburg, was built between 1760 and 1765 by persons 
 whose names have not survived. Legh furnace was built 
 about the same time by an Englishman named Legh Master, 
 at the head of Little Pipe creek, two or three miles south- 
 west of Westminster. Both of these furnaces were soon 
 abandoned. Catoctin furnace, situated about twelve miles 
 northwest of Frederick, was built in 1774 by James John- 
 son & Co. It was rebuilt in 1787 by the same company, 
 " about three-fourths of a mile further up Little Hunting 
 creek, and nearer the ore banks." It was again rebuilt 
 about 1831. We may add that in 1856 a new furnace was 
 built at the same place, called Catoctin No. 2, and in 1874 
 another furnace was added, called Catoctin No. 3. All of 
 the Catoctin furnaces were in operation in 1880, and all used 
 charcoal, although No. 3 usually uses anthracite and coke. 
 The yield of the first Catoctin furnace was from twelve to 
 eighteen tons of pig iron weekly. Shortly after the erection 
 of the first Catoctin furnace the same owners erected on Bush 
 creek, about two miles above its mouth, the Bush creek 
 forge. The forge was in operation until 1810, when it was 
 abandoned. About the time when Catoctin furnace and 
 Bush creek forge were built, the Johnsons built a rolling 
 and slitting mill at a spot known in 1840 as Reel's mill. 
 About 1787 they built Johnson fiirnace on a small stream 
 one mile above the mouth of the Monocacy. In 1793 the 
 various iron properties belonging to the Johnsons were di- 
 vided, and Johnson furnace fell to Roger Johnson, who soon 
 afterwards built a forge in connection with the furnace. It 
 was situated on Big Bennett's creek, about five miles above 
 its junction with the Monocacy, and was called Bloomsburg 
 forge. Its weekly product was between four and five tons 
 of finished iron. The furnace and forge were abandoned 
 soon after 1800. Fielderea furnace, on the Harper's Ferry 
 road, three miles south of Frederick, was built by Fielder 
 Gantt shortly after the Revolution, but after making the 
 one blast it was abandoned. This event occurred before 
 1791. 
 
 In Washington county there were many iron enterprises 
 at an early day, most of which have been noted by Alexan- 
 der. In 1770 James Johnson superintended the erection of 
 Green Spring ftirnace, on Green Spring run, one mile above 
 its entrance into the Potomac. It was owned by a Mr. 
 Jacques and Governor Johnson. The neighboring iron ore 
 not being of good quality, the furnace was abandoned in a 
 few years. James Johnson also built Licking creek forge, 
 near the mouth of Licking creek, for the sdme firm. It was 
 
 at first supplied with pig iron from Green Spring furnace, 
 but was afterwards sold to " Mr. Chambers, of Chambers- 
 burg, who carried it on for several years with pig supplied 
 from his furnace in Pennsylvania." Mount Etna fiirnace, 
 on a branch of Antietam creek, five or six miles north of 
 Hagerstown, was built by Samuel and Daniel Hughes about 
 1770, and was in successfiil operation for many years. 
 During the Revolution it cast the first Maryland cannon. 
 About a mile and a half from the furnace, and about four 
 miles from Hagerstown, the same owners built Antietam 
 forge, which was in operation after the furnace was aban- 
 doned. Bishop states that General Thomas Johnson and 
 his brother were the owners in May, 1777, of a furnace at 
 Frederick, but it was not then in blast. Between 1775 and 
 1780 Henderson & Ross built a furnace at the mouth of 
 Antietam creek. A forge was built at the same place about 
 the same time. There were at least three forges on Antie- 
 tam creek during the last century. In 1845 a new furnace 
 was built on the site of the original Antietam furnace, and 
 it is still in operation. A small rolling mill, with a nail 
 factory attached, was built at the same place about 1831 
 and abandoned about 1853. Bishop says that a slitting mill 
 was established at or near Baltimore in 1778 by William 
 Whetcroft, and that about the same time two nail factories 
 were established in the city — one by George Matthews and 
 the other by Richardson Stewart. At Elkridge Landing 
 Dr. Howard owned a tilting forge in 1783. On Deer creek, 
 in Harford county, a forge and slitting mill were built dur- 
 ing the last century. During the Revolution there were 17 
 or 18 forges in operation in Maryland, .in addition to fur- 
 naces and other iron enterprises. 
 
 After the Revolution the iron manufacture of Maryland 
 experienced a healthy development, which has continued 
 without serious interruption to the present time. One of 
 the first successful rolling mills in the state was the cele- 
 brated Avalon iron works, on the Baltimore and Ohio rail- 
 road, half a mile above the Relay House, built about 1796 
 and in use down to about 1860. It first made nails exclu- 
 sively, but afterwards it also rolled nails. , A rolling mill 
 was built on the Big Elk river, five miles north of Elkton, 
 in 1810, on the site of copper works which had existed be- 
 fore the Revolution. It was active until about 1860, making 
 sheet iron chiefly. Octorara forge and rolling mill, on 
 Octorara creek, four miles above ite mouth and eight miles 
 north of Port Deposit, were built about 1810. These works 
 are still active, and, together with two other Maryland roll- 
 ing mills of modern origin, are owned by the McCuUough 
 Iron Company. The once numerous forges of Maryland 
 have gradually given place to rolling mills. In 1840 several 
 forges were in operation ; in 1856 two forges were active, 
 and in 1880 there was only one forge active — ^the one at 
 North East. 
 
 The development of the iron ores belonging to the coal 
 measures of the extreme western part of Maryland appears 
 to have been undertaken about fifty years ago. Near the 
 village of Friendsville, on Bear creek,-a branch of the You- 
 ghiogheny river, there were erected, in 1828 and 1829, the 
 Yohogany iron works, consisting of a furnace and two forges, 
 to use charcoal. These works were abandoned about 1834. 
 In 1837 a furnace 50 feet high and 14J feet wide at the 
 boshes was built at Lonaconing, eight miles southwest of 
 Frostburg, by the George's Creek Coal and Iron Company, 
 to use coke. In June, 1839, it was making about 70 tons 
 per week of good foundry iron, with coke as fuel. Overman 
 claims that this was the first successful coke ftirnace in the 
 United States. Two large blast furnaces were built in 1840 
 by the Mount Savage Iron Company, nine miles northwest 
 of Cumberland, also to use coke. This enterprise was also 
 successful. In 1845 the same company built an additional 
 furnace, but it was never lined. The Mount Savage rolling 
 mill was built in 1843, especially to roll iron rails, and in 
 1844 it rolled the first rails used in this country. These 
 rails were of the inverted U pattern, and weighed 42 pounds 
 to the yard. Alleghany county, Maryland, is thus entitled 
 to two of the highest honors in connection with the Ameri- 
 can iron trade. It built the first successfiil coke furnace and 
 rolled the first heavy iron rails. The furnaces and rolling 
 mill of the Mount Savage Iron Company have long been in- 
 active and abandoned. In 1846 a furnace called Lena was 
 built at Cumberland, which at first used charcoal and after- 
 
56 
 
 THE MINES MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 wards used coke. It was not long in operation. Alexander 
 mentions a furnace on the Eastern Shore of Maryland, built 
 in 1830 by Mark Richards, about five miles from Snow Hill, 
 to use bog ore yielding only 28 per cent, of iron. Its annual 
 production about 1834 was 700 tons. In 1840 the furnace 
 was owned by T. A. Spence. It was called Naseongo, and 
 it was the only furnace in the state that used bog ore exclu- 
 sively or in large quantities. A bloomary which used bog 
 ore once stood near Federalsburg, but it was abandoned long 
 ago. The prominence of Maryland as an iron-producing 
 state was relatively much greater in 1870 than in 1880. In 
 the former year it was fifth in rank, and in the latter year it 
 was twelfth. A furnace was built at Georgetown, in the 
 District of Columbia, in 1849, and finally went out of blast 
 about 1855. A second stack was built at the same place, but 
 was never lined and consequently never put in blast. Be- 
 fore 1812 the United States Government built an anchor 
 forge at the navy-yard at Washington, which was enlarged 
 about 1830, and afterwards used to produce anchors, shafts, 
 chains, etc. The District of Columbia never had any other 
 iron enterprises until 1878, when the Government established 
 a small rolling mill at the navy-yard. The forge is still in 
 operation, as is also the rolling mill. 
 
 —CompiUdfTom Jamei M. Swank's Report on Iron and Sl^el, Tenth Census of the U. S. 
 
 EARLY IRON INDUSTRIES IN VIRGINIA, 
 THE CAROLINAS AND GEORGIA. 
 
 AFTER the failure to manufacture iron on Falling 
 creek in 1622, no successful effort was made to re- 
 vive the iron industry in Virginia until after the 
 beginning of the succeeding century— a delay of al- 
 most a hundred years. To Colonel Alexander Spotswood, 
 who was governor of Virginia from 1710 to 1723, the honor of 
 having established the iron industry of the colony on a firm 
 and permanent basis is fairly due, although the exact date 
 of the commencement of the various iron enterprises is 
 lost. We are indebted to the researches of R. A. Brock, 
 Esq., of Richmond, for the following information concern- 
 ing the inception of Governor Spotswood's schemes to eflfect 
 a revival of the iron industry in Virginia. In the collec- 
 tions of the Virginia Historical Society are two MS. volumes 
 of the letters of Governor Spottswood to the lords' com- 
 missioners, the council of trade at London, covering the 
 period from 1710 to 1721. On October 24, 1710, the Gover- 
 nor writes: "There is a project to be handed to the next 
 assembly for improvement of the iron mines, lately dis- 
 covered in this country, the ores of which upon tryall have 
 Ijeen found to be extraordinary rich and good. It is pro- 
 posed that the work be carried on at publick charge." This 
 scheme appears not to have been acted upon by the 
 assembly. On December 15, 1710, the Governor writes: 
 " I humbly propose to your lordships' consideration, whether 
 it might not turn to good account if her majesty would be 
 pleased to take that work [the iron] into her own hands, 
 sending over workmen and materials for carrying it on." 
 He states that the "iron mines lie at the falls of James 
 river." On January 27, 1714, he asks that the German 
 Protestants settled at the head of the Rappahannock river, 
 who came over with Baron de Graffenreidt " in hopes to 
 find out mines," be exempted from the payment of levies 
 for the support of the government. In the latter part of 
 1716 lengthy charges for malfeasance in office were anony' 
 mou&ly preferred against Governor Spotswood to the coun 
 cil of trade, the counts of which are numerous. In one of 
 them Governor Spotswood is charged, under- pretence of 
 guarding the frontiers, with building, at the cost of the 
 government, two forts, one at the head of James river and 
 another at the head of Rappahannock river, only to support 
 his two private interests, at least one of which, that on the 
 Rappahannock, related to the manufacture of iron. Another 
 account charges the maintenam-e at jiublic cost, at these 
 forts, of "rangers," for three years, ending in December,' 
 1716. The beginning of this period would be near that of 
 
 the German settlement the members of which were the 
 operatives of Governor Spotswood. It may be assumed 
 that some of his iron enterprises were in operation certainly 
 in 1716, and, most likely, two years earlier. 
 
 In 1727 the general assembly of Virginia passed an act 
 for encouraging adventurers in iron works," which begins as 
 follows: "Whereas, divers j)ersons have of late' expended 
 great sums of money in ere(iting furnaces and other works 
 for the making of iron in several parts of the country, . . . 
 and for as much as it is absolutely necessary for roads to be 
 laid out and cleaned from all such iron works to convenient 
 landings," etc. In A Progress of the Mines, by Colonel 
 William Byrd, of Westover, Virginia, written in September, 
 1732, is given a full account of the iron enterprises of Vir- 
 ginia at that time. They embraced three blast furnaces and 
 one air furnace, but no forge. One of the blast furnaces 
 was at Fredericksville, a village which has disappeared from 
 the maps, but which was located about twenty-five miles 
 south of Fredericksburg, in Caroline county or Spottsylvania 
 county. Mr. Chiswell, the manager, told Colonel Byrd that 
 the pig iron produced at the furnace was carted twenty-four 
 miles over an uneven road to the Rappahannock river, about 
 a mile below Fredericksburg. This furnace was built of 
 brick, but it had been idle " ever since May, for want of 
 corn to support the cattle." Colonel Byrd says : " The fire 
 in the furnace is blown by two mighty pair of bellows, that 
 cost £100 each, and these bellows are moved by a great 
 wheel of 26 foot diameter." The owners of the furnace had 
 invested about £12,000 in land, negroes, cattle, etc., and had 
 made 1,200 tons- of iron. " When the furnace blows it runs 
 about 20 tons a week.'-' Colonel Byrd says the company was 
 formed as follows : " Mr. Fitz Williams took up the mine 
 tract, and had the address to draw in the Governor, [Spots- 
 wood,] Captain Pearse, Dr. Nicholas, and Mr. Chiswell to be 
 jointly concerned with him, by which contrivance he first 
 got a good price for the land, and then, when he had been 
 very little out of pocket, sold his share to Mr. Nelson for 
 £500, and of these gentlemen the company at present con- 
 sists. And Mr. Chiswell is the only person amongst them 
 that knows anything of the matter." One of the mines at- 
 tached to the furnace was fifteen or twenty feet deep, and 
 the ore was dislodged by blasting, after which it was carried 
 away " in baskets up to the heap." It was calcined before 
 being used, a layer of charcoal and ore alternating. The 
 limestone used at the furnace was brought from Bristol as 
 ballast, and carted from the Rappahannock to the furnace 
 by the ox teams which brought down the iron. Colonel 
 Byrd recommended the substitution of oyster shells for lime- 
 stone, but without eflfect. 
 
 The next furnace visited by Colonel Byrd was directly 
 controlled by Colonel Spotswood, and was situated in Spott- 
 sylvania county, about twenty miles southwest of Fredericks- 
 burg, and about thirteen miles from Germania. This last 
 place was situated in Orange county, on the south side of 
 the Rapidan, and about fourteen miles distant from its 
 junction with the Rappahannock. It had been settled by 
 Germans ^nd afterwards abandoned for another location on 
 "land of their own, ten miles higher, in the Fork of Rap- 
 pahannock." The furnace, according to Colonel Spotswood, 
 was the first in Virginia. " It was built of rough stone, 
 having been the first of that kind erected in the country." 
 The iron made at this furnace was carted fifteen miles to Mas- 
 saponux, on the Rappahannock, five miles above Fredericks- 
 burg, where Colonel Spotswood had recently erected an air 
 furnace, which he "had now brought to perfection, and 
 should be thereby able to furnish the whole country with all 
 sorts of cast iron, as cheap and as good as ever came from 
 England." The blast furnace " had not blown for several 
 moons, the Colonel having taken off great part of his people 
 to carry on his air furnace at Massaponux." " Here the 
 wheel that carried the bellows was no more than 20 feet 
 diameter." The ore at this furnace was also blasted with 
 gunpowder. " All the land hereabouts seems paved with 
 iron ore, so that there seems to be enough to feed a iiirnace 
 for many ages." Colonel Byrd next mentions " England's 
 iron mines, called so from the chief mqnager of them, tho' 
 the land belongs to Mr. Washington." These mines he 
 states were on the north side of the Rappahannock river, 
 " not far from a spring of strong steel water," which was in 
 King George county, twelve miles distant from Fredericks- 
 
THE MIXES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 57 
 
 burg. Two miles distant from the mines was a furnace. 
 " Mr. Washington raises the ore, and carts it thither for 20 
 shillings the ton of iron that it yields. The furnace is built 
 on a run, which discharges its waters into Potomeck. And 
 when the iron is cast they cart it about six miles to a land- 
 ing on that river. Besides Mr. Washington and Mr. Eng- 
 land there are several other persons in England concerned 
 in these works. Matters are very well managed there, and 
 no expense is spared to make them profitable, which is not 
 the case in the works I have already mentioned." This was 
 Accokeek furnace, already referred to in the Maryland chap- 
 ter as forming one of the possessions of the Principio Com- 
 pany. It was situated in Stafford county. The " 'Mi: Wash- 
 ington " referred to was Augustine Washington, the father 
 of George Washington. Colonel Byrd did not visit Ac- 
 cokeek furnace. He visited Colonel Spotswood's air furnace 
 at Massaponux, which he fully describes. It was a very 
 ambitious and creditable enterprise, and appears to have 
 been successfully managed. Colonel Spotswood used it " to 
 melt his sow iron, in order to cast it into sundry utensils, 
 such as backs for chimneys, andirons, fenders, plates for 
 hearths, pots, mortars, rollers for gardeners, skillets, boxes 
 for cart wheels, and maily other things. And, being cast 
 from the sow iron, are much better than those which come 
 from England, which are cast immediately from the ore for 
 the most part." '' Here are two of these air furnaces in one 
 room, that so in case one want repair the other may work, 
 they being exactly of the same structure." Colonel Spots- 
 wood informed Colonel Byrd that Robert Gary, of England, 
 was a silent partner of his in all his iron enterprises. 
 
 In the valley of Virginia many furnaces and forges were 
 built prior to the Revolution, and others were built before 
 the close of the century. Zane's furnace and forge, on 
 Cedar creek, in Frederick county, are said to have been 
 the first iron works in the valley. Pine forge, in Shenan- 
 doah county, three and a half miles north of New Market, 
 was built in 1725, according to Lesley. Isabella furnace, on 
 Hawksbill creek, near Luray, in Page county, was built in 
 1760. In Augusta county, fifteen miles north of Staunton, 
 a forge was built in 1757 on Mossy creek, and on the same 
 stream a furnace was built in 1760. Union forge, near 
 Waynesborough, in Augusta county, was built about 1800. In 
 Rockbridge county were two forges, built about 1800 — Gib- 
 raltar forge, on North river, nine miles north of Lexington, 
 and Buffalo forge, on Buffalo creek, the same distance south 
 of Lexington. Moore's furnace, on Steele's creek, in this 
 county, and a furnace on Smith's creek, in Rockingham 
 county, were built before 1800. 
 
 A furnace was built in Loudon county before 1800, con- 
 cerning which Bishop states Mr. Clapham, its owner, " cut 
 a canal through the end of Cotocktin mountain, 500 feet 
 through solid rock and 60 feet beneath the surface, to obtain 
 water for his furnace and mill." Iron works were erected 
 in Craig, Grayson, Wythe, Washington, Carroll and other 
 southwestern counties about the close of the last century. 
 A forge on Chestnut creek, in Carroll county, was built 
 about 1790, and another on Little Reed Island dreek was 
 built about the same time. Bishop says that an excellent 
 air furnace was built at Westham, six miles above Rich- 
 mond, on the north side of the river, during the Revolution ; 
 there was also a cannon foundry here at the same period. 
 Benedict Arnold destroyed the works at Westham in 1781. 
 A rolling and slitting mill was afterwards built at Westham, 
 which was probably the first in the state. The Government 
 armory at Harper's Ferry was established in 1798. At 
 Lynchburg and in its vicinity, in the James River valley, 
 several furnaces and forges were built in the last century. 
 
 No state in the Union gave more attention to domestic 
 manufactures after the close of the Revolution than Vir- 
 ginia. Richmond, Lynchburg, Staunton, Winchester, and 
 some other places became noted for the extent and variety 
 of their manufactures. Household manufactures were also 
 everywhere cultivated. The manufacture of nails was one 
 of these household industries. Thomas Jefferson required 
 about a dozen of the younger slaves owned by him to make 
 nails, and it is said that "they made about a ton of nails a 
 month at a considerable profit." Lesley enumerates no less 
 than 88 charcoal furnaces and 59 forges and bloomaries as 
 having been built in Virginia prior to 1856 ; also 12 rolling 
 mills. Several of these various enterprises were within the 
 
 limits of the present state of West Virginia. The furnaces 
 were located in 31 counties and the forges in 26 counties. 
 
 The first rolling mill of any kind west of the Allegheny 
 mountains of which we can obtain exact information was 
 located in West Virginia, and is described in Cramer's 
 Pittsburg Almanac for 1813, issued in 1812, as follows : 
 " Jackson & Updegraff, on Cheat river, have in operation a 
 furnace, forge, rolling and slitting mill, and nail factory — . 
 nails handsome, iron tough." Like all the rolling and slit- 
 ting mills of that day, the Cheat river mill did not puddle 
 iron nor roll bar iron, but rolled only sheet iron and nail 
 plates. Hon. James Veech informed us in his lifetime that 
 its location was on the road from Uniontown to Morgantown, 
 about three miles south of the Pennsylvania state line, and 
 eight miles north of Morgantown. In the old days before 
 the civil war Wheeling was the center of the rolling mill 
 industry of Virginia, having seven of the twelve rolling 
 mills in the state. Of the remaining five mills, four were in 
 Richmond and one was on Reed creek, in Wythe county, 
 twelve miles east of Wytheville. Since the war two rolling 
 mills have been established at Lynchburg, and new mills 
 have been built at Wheeling. A large number of the fur- 
 naces and forges of Virginia were abandoned before 1850. 
 In 1856 there were 39 charcoal furnaces and 43 forges 
 enumerated by Lesley as being then in operation or prepared 
 to make iron. Since 1856 many of the charcoal furnaces 
 and most of the forges which were then in existence have 
 been abandoned. Insufficient transportation facilities, 
 coupled with the failure of ore in certain localities, have had 
 much to do with the abandonment of many charcoal fur- 
 naces in Virginia, while the disappearance of the forges is 
 attributable to other well-known causes. Of late years, how- 
 ever the extension of railroads and the discovery of new 
 and valuable ore deposits have given a fresh impetus to the 
 manufacture of pig iron in Virginia and West Virginia, 
 much of which is made with coke. West Virginia supplying 
 an excellent quality of this fuel. The future of the iron 
 industry of these two states is to-day very promising. The 
 young state, however, in both 1870 and 1880 took higher 
 rank among iron-producing states than the old state. It 
 ranked tenth in 1870 and seventh in 1880 ; whereas Virginia 
 ranked thirteenth in 1870 and sixteenth in 1880. 
 
 North Carolina. — Scrivenor says that in 1728-'29 there 
 were imported into England from "Carolina" 1 ton and 1 cwt. 
 of pig iron, and that in 1734 there were imported 2 qrs. and 12 
 lbs. of of bar iron. Shipments of pig iron and bar iron from 
 "Carolina" were made in subsequent years down to the 
 Revolution. It is a curious fact that hose made in Virginia 
 and Carolina were sold in New York several years before 
 the Revolution, Bishop says that several iron works were 
 in operation in North Carolina before the Revolution, some 
 of which were put out of blast by that event. They were 
 situated on branches of the Cape Fear, Yadkin, and Dan 
 rivers. When the shadow of the approaching conflict with 
 the mother country reached North Carolina, her patriotic 
 citizens, first in convention at New Berne and afterwards in 
 the provincial legislature, encouraged, by the offer of 
 liberal premiums, the manufacture of crude and finished iron 
 and steel, as well as other manufactured products. " John 
 Wilcox was the proprietor of a furnace and iron works on 
 Deep run in the beginning of the war. There were also 
 iron works in Guilford county, probably on the same 
 stream. In April, 1776, the provincial congress sent com- 
 missioners to treat with Mr. Wilcox for the use of his fur- 
 nace and works for two years, or to purchase and repair 
 those in Guilford, for casting ordnance, shot, etc., and em- 
 powered them to draw on the treasury for £5,000 for that 
 purpose." Buffalo Creek furnace and forge were also built 
 before the war on Buffalo creek, in Cleveland county, not 
 far from King's mountain, on the southern border of the 
 state. Prior to 1800 there were in operation in Lincoln 
 county four forges, two bloomaries, and two ftirnaces. One 
 of the furnaces, Vesuvius, on Anderson's creek, built in 
 1780, was in operation down to 1873. Of other iron enter- 
 prises established in North Carolina in the last century we 
 condense from Lesley and Bishop the following informa- 
 tion : Union bloomary forge, on Snow creek, in Stokes 
 county, six miles northeast of Danbury, was built in 1780, 
 Iron works were built on Iron creek, also in the same 
 county, and were conducted with spirit about 1790. Key- 
 
58 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ser's bloomary forge, on the headwaters of Town fork, in 
 the same county, ten miles southwest of Danbury, was built 
 in 1796. Hill's bloomary forge, on Tom's creek, in Surry 
 county, nineteen miles west of Danbury, was built in 1791. 
 In the same county, near the Yadkin, iron works were erect- 
 ed a few years after the Revolution, probably by Moravians 
 from Pennsylvania, who had settled in the county as early 
 as 1753. In Wilkes county a forge was built about the 
 same time. A furnace and forge were erected on Trouble- 
 some creek, in Rockingham county, at an early day. In 
 Burke county, at the foot of the Blue Ridge, two bloomaries 
 and two forges were erected before the close of the last 
 century. 
 
 After 1800 the iron industry of North Carolina was still 
 further developed. This development was, however, mainly 
 confined to the manufacture of iron in bloomaries, the 
 magnetic and hematite ores of the state being well adapted 
 to this primitive mode of treatment. In 1810, according to 
 Tench Coxe, there were six bloomaries, two rolling and slit- 
 ting mills, and two naileries in Lincoln county; one bloom- 
 ary in Iredell county ; six bloomaries and one trip-hammer 
 in Burke county; and five bloomaries in Surry county — 
 eighteen bloomaries in all. In 1856 Lesley enumerated 
 about forty bloomaries and a few forges, most of which were 
 then in operation. The trompe or waterblast, was in general 
 use. He also described six furnaces: Vesuvius, already re- 
 ferred to ; Madison, on Leiper's creek, in Lincoln county, 
 built in 1810 ; Rehoboth, on the same creek and in the same 
 county, built in 1810 ; Columbia, seven miles west of High 
 Shoals, in Gaston county, then in ruins ; Tom's Creek, near 
 Hill's forge, on Tom's creek, destroyed by a flood in 1850 ; 
 Buffalo creek, already referred to, and then in ruins. Ve- 
 suvius, Madison, and Rehoboth were blown with wooden 
 " tubs." There was also active at this date a small rolling 
 mill on Crowder's creek, in Gaston county, a mile and a 
 quarter north of King's mountain, owned by Benjamin F. 
 Briggs, of Yorkville, South Carolina, and built in 1853. At 
 the same time another small rolling mill and forge, known 
 as High Shoals iron works, and situated in Gaston county, 
 were in ruins. At least two furnaces were built in North 
 Carolina during the civil war, one in Chatham and one in 
 Lincoln county, and two were built in Chatham county after 
 the war, but of these four furnaces, and Vesuvius, Madison, 
 and Rehoboth, all of which are still standing, as may pos- 
 sibly be one or two other furnaces, not one has made a pound 
 of iron since 187/. Of the long list of bloomaries and forges 
 which the state could once boast, less than a dozen are now 
 active, and there is not to-day a rolling mill or steel works 
 in the state. 
 
 South Carolina.— If the iron industry of North Caro- 
 lina has declined in late years, that of South Carolina has 
 suffered a worse fate ; it has Ijeen an extinct industry for 
 many years. Yet this state made some iron as early as the 
 Revolutionary period, and subsequently it made iron in con- 
 siderable quantities. In the northwestern part of South 
 Carolina, including the counties of Union, Spartanburg, and 
 York, are deposits of magnetic ores, and here, according to 
 Dr. Ramsay, quoted by Bishop, the first iron works in the 
 state were erected by Mr. Buffington in 1773, but they were 
 destroyed by the Tories during the Revolutionary war. 
 
 At the beginning of the Revolution South Carolina fol- 
 lowed the example of many other colonies by offering liberal 
 premiums to those who would establish iron works, but we 
 do not learn that the manufacture of iron was thereby in- 
 creased. Mr. Buffington's experience probably deterred 
 others from embarking in the business. Several furnaces 
 and forges were erected in this state a few years after the 
 peace, the principal of which were the Era and Etna fur- 
 naces and forges in York county. The Era was built in 
 1787 and the Etna in 1788. These enterprises were situated 
 on a creek flowing into the Catawba river, and about two 
 miles west of it. In 1795 the nearest landing to these works 
 was at Camden, seventy miles below. They were on the 
 road leading from Charlotte, in North Carolina, to York- 
 ville. Iron ore was abundant in the neighborhood, and was 
 easily smelted after having been roasted. " It was obtained, 
 massive, in such quantity above the surface that it was 
 thought there would be no occasion to resort to shafts or 
 levels for half a century.'' William Hill was one of the 
 principal owners of the works. He is said to have devised 
 
 "a new blowing apparatus," by the aid of which he con- 
 trived to blow " all the fires, both of the forges and furnaces, 
 so as to render unnecessary the use of wheels, cylinders, or 
 any other kind of bellows." This apparatus was undoubt- 
 edly the trompe, or water-blast, but Mr. Hill did not invent 
 it, nor was he the first in this country to use it. The state- 
 ment, which Bishop quotes from some unknown authority, 
 is, however, valuable, as it contains one of very few referen- 
 ces to the use of the trompe in blowing a blast furnace in 
 this country that have come under our notice. Bishop says 
 that other iron works soon followed those of Mr. Hill, and 
 that "they were erected in different places, including sev- 
 eral in the mountain district of Washington, where iron, 
 the only article made for sale to any extent, was manufac- 
 tured, at the beginning of this century, as cheap and good 
 as the imported." In 1810 Tencli Coxe enumerates two 
 bloomaries in Spartanburg county, four in Pendleton county, 
 two in Greenville county, and one in York county— nine in 
 all. He also mentions one small nailery and one small steel 
 furnace in the state. He makes no reference to blast fur- 
 naces. 
 
 Scrivenor mentions the following iron enterprises in South 
 Carolina as existing apparently atfout 1815 . " On Allison's 
 creek, in York district, there are a forge, a furnace, a rolling 
 mill for making sheet iron, and a nail manufactory. On 
 Middle Tiger river are iron works on a small scale ; also on 
 the Enoree river and Rudy river, on the north fork of Saluda 
 river, on George's creek, and on Twenty-six-mile creek. In 
 1802 an air-furnace was erected on a neck of land between 
 Cooper and Ashley rivers, where good castings are made." 
 (York district is the same as York county, the subdivisions 
 of South Carolina having been known as districts down to 
 1868.) In 1856 South Carolina had eight furnaces — one in 
 York, one in Union, and six in Spartanburg county. They 
 are described by Lesley. Four of these furnaces were then 
 in operation, producing in the year named 1,506 tons of 
 charcoal iron, but three others had been " out of repair for 
 twenty years," and the remaining furnace had been aban- 
 doned. In 1856 there were also three small rolling mills in 
 the state — one on Pacolet river, in Spartanburg county ; one 
 on Broad river, in Union county ; and one on the same river, 
 in York county. At the first two of these mills dry wood 
 was used in the puddling and heating furnaces. In 1856 the 
 three mills made 1,210 tons of bar iron and nails. In the 
 same year there were also in South Carolina two bloomaries 
 — one connected with the rolling mill in Union county, and 
 the other connected with the rolling mill in York county. 
 Their joint product was 640 tons of blooms. But South 
 Carolina no longer makes iron. Every iron-producing estab- 
 lishment in the state is to-day silent, and has been silent for 
 many years, and all are in a more or less dilapidated condi- 
 tion. South Carolina furnishes the only instance in the 
 history of the country of a state having wholly abandoned 
 the manufacture of iron. 
 
 Georgia. — Georgia is the last of the original thirteen 
 colonies whose iron history remains to be noticed. Unlike 
 its sister colonies, however, Georgia has no colonial iron 
 history. It was the last of the thirteen to be settled, and it 
 was not until within a few years of the commencemeat of 
 the Revolutionary struggle that the few settlements on the 
 coast began to experience even moderate prosperity. After 
 the close of the Revolution the settlement of the interior was 
 for many years retarded by difficulties with the Indians, and 
 it was not until 1838 that the Cherokees were induced to 
 surrender their claims to a portion of ihc territory of the 
 state. It will be scon that, undrr the circumstances which 
 have been mentioned, the manufacture of iron in Georgia 
 was destined to be the result entirely of comparatively 
 modern enterprise. In 1810 there was a bloomary in Warren 
 county, a forge in Elbert county, and a nailery in Chatham 
 county. These enterprises we're on or near the Atlantic 
 coast, and were doubtless among the first of their kind in the 
 state, if they were not, indeed, the very first. Sequee bloom- 
 ary forge, three miles south of Clarksville, in Habersham 
 county, was built about 1830, and abandoned about 1835. 
 Hodge's forge, in the same county, was probably built at an 
 earlier date. Lesley says of.it : " Situation unknown ; his- 
 tory unknown; abandoned very long ago." The coast 
 sections of Georgia did not possess ample resources for the 
 manufacture of iron. No iron industry exists there to-day. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 59 
 
 Old bloomary forges in Cass county, now Bartow county, 
 were built as follows: Etowah, No. 1, in 1838; Etowah, 
 No. 2, in 1841 ; Allatoona, about 1846. Ivy Log bloomary, 
 in Union county, was built about 1839. Aliculsie bloomary, 
 in Murray county, was built about 1843. A bloomarj' was 
 built on Armuchy creek, in Walker county, about 1848. 
 Lookout bloomary, in Dade county, was built at an earlier 
 day. All of these enterprises were abandoned before 1856, 
 in which year, however, several other bloomaries of more 
 recent origin were in operation. In 1880 only two blooma- 
 rios in the state were reported to be in use. One forge, at 
 Allatoona, made blooms from scrap iron in that year. The 
 first furnace in Georgia of which we have any account was 
 Sequee furnace, built prior to 1832, near Clarksville, in Ha- 
 bersham county, and abandoned in 1837. Etowah furnace, 
 on Stamp creek, in Cass county, now Bartow county, was 
 built in 1837, abandoned in 1844, and torn down in 1850. 
 A new furnace, built by its side in 1844, is now in ruins. 
 Allatoona furnace, in Cass county, built in 1844; Union fur- 
 nace, in the same county, built in 1852; Lewis furnace, in 
 the same county, built about 1847 ; and Cartersville furnace, 
 in the same county, built in 1852, have been abandoned. 
 Clear Creek furnace, in Walker county, built about 1852, 
 and rebuilt in 1857, has also been abandoned. All of these 
 were charcoal furnaces. Of the furnaces existing in Geor- 
 gia in 1880 Bartow county contained five charcoal furnaces 
 and two coke furnaces — seven in all. Of these, the two 
 Bear Mountain charcoal furnaces, built in 1842, were the 
 oldest. Four other furnaces in the state were situated in 
 Polk, Floyd, and Dade counties — two in Polk and one in 
 Floyd using charcoal, and one in Dade using coke. Rising 
 Fawn furnace, in Dade county, is 63 feet high by 16 feet 
 wide at the boshes, and was the first furnace in the United 
 States to use the Whitwell hot-blast stove, blowing in for the 
 first time on June 18th, 1875. Georgia had two rolling mills 
 in 1859 — Etowah, in Cass county, built about 1849, and Gate 
 City, at Atlanta, built in 1858. It is a curious fact that the 
 state had just two rolling mills twenty-one years later, in 
 1880,— Atlanta, built in 1865, and Rome, built in 1869. The 
 latter has been idle for several years. Lesley, in 1859, thus 
 describes the Etowah rolling mill and its blast furnace and 
 other connections, situated on the Etowah river: "This 
 property has been building up and developing for twelve 
 years. On it there has been expended $250,000. It contains 
 a rolling mill, nail and spike factory, and all necessary ap- 
 paratus; a blast furnace and foundry, with full equipment; 
 a wheat mill (150 to 250 bushels per day), warehouse, coo- 
 per-house, hotel, and operative houses, two corn grist mills, 
 two saw mills, and a coal mine ; all using not one-tenth of 
 the water-power on the premises. River 600 feet wide. Iron 
 ore and wood are abundant. It is on the metamorphic rocks 
 of the gold and copper belt, both minerals being found on 
 it," etc. Notwithstanding the decadence of its bloomaries, 
 and the slow progress it has made in building up a rolling- 
 mill industry, Georgia possesses to-day a very promising 
 blast-furnace industry, which has been almost wholly reha- 
 bilitated during the past decade. 
 
 —Cowpihdfrom James M. SwaiiWa Report on Iron and S'.eel, Tenth Cmau oftlie V. S. 
 
 THE EARLY DAYS OF THE IRON INDUSTRY 
 IN KENTUCKY AND TENNESSEE. 
 
 THE first iron enterprise in Kentucky is said byLesley 
 to have been Slate furnace, erected by government 
 troops in 1791 on Slatecreek, a branch of Licking riv- 
 er, in Bath county, then Bourbon. It was successfully 
 operated until 1838. This is the ouly furnace in Kentucky 
 whose history can be definitely traced back to the last cen- 
 tury. It will be remembered that Jefferson, in the extract 
 from his Notes on the State of Virginia, already quoted, says 
 that there were iron mines " on Kentucky, between the Cum- 
 berland and Barren rivers," and also " between Cumberland 
 and Tanissee." It is probable that about the year 1800 there 
 were a few bloomaries in eastern Kentucky, to supply local 
 
 wants for bar iron, and possibly Slate furnace was not the 
 only furnace that supplied castings to the Kentucky pioneers 
 in the last century. The original of the following memo- 
 randum was handed to the editor of the Portsmouth 
 (Ohio) Tribune in 1880 by Mr. L. C. Robinson. It refers to 
 a furnace in Kentucky called Bourbon, but which was pro- 
 bably the same as Slate furnace. 
 
 Kenttjcky, ss : Memorandum of an Agreement made and Con- 
 cluded upon this day between John Cockey Owings & Co., in Iron 
 Works at the Bourbon Furnace of the one part, and Robert 
 WiUiams (potter) of the other part. Witnesseth that the aforesaid 
 Company doth this day agree to give the said WiUiams five pounds 
 p month for three months work and to find him provisions during 
 the time he shall work until the three months are expired, and said 
 Company doth farther agree. La case the furnace is not ready to blow 
 before or at the expiration of the three months, if the water will 
 admit, or as soon as the water wUl admit after that time, to give him 
 p month as much as he can make in a month at the potting Busi- 
 ness for such time as said Furnace may not be Ready to putin Blaut 
 —as witness our hands this second day of June, 1793. 
 
 Test : Jno. Mockbee. 
 
 JN. COCKEY OWINGS, 
 WALTER BEALL, 
 CHRIST GREENUP. 
 
 Lesley says that Slate furnace " was run by Colonel 
 Owing," and that it went out of blast in 1838. The name 
 of Bourbon furnace indicates its location in Bourbon county, 
 and it is hardly probable that there were two furnaces in 
 this county as early as 1793. The term " potter " was ap- 
 plied to the molder, who cast pots, kettles, etc., from the 
 melted iron which was taken direct from the furnace and 
 poured into molds. Colonel Christopher Greenup afterwards 
 became the third governor of Kentucky, serving from 1 804 
 to 1808, and it was in his honor that Greenup county was so 
 named. 
 
 For a number of years after 1800 the iron industry of 
 Kentucky made but slow progress. Tench Coxe in 1810 
 nientions only four furnaces and three forges. One fur- 
 nace was in Estill, one in Wayne, and two were in Mont- 
 gomery county. One of the forges was in Estill, and one 
 in Wayne, and one in Montgomery county. About 1815 
 there were four nail factories at Lexington, making 70 
 tons of nails yearly. About 1815 Richard Deering, a 
 farmer of Greenup county, smelted in a cupola the first iron 
 ore used in the Hanging Rock district of Kentucky. His 
 experiment with the cupola proving to be successfiil, he 
 took into partnership David and John Trimble, and these 
 three persons erected as early as 1817 the first blast flirnace 
 in the district. It was called Argillite, and was located in 
 Greenup county, about six miles southwest of Greenups- 
 burg, upon the left bank of Little Sandy River. The stack, 
 which was 25 feet high and 6 feet wide at the boshes, was 
 cut in a cliff of black slate — hence the name, Argillite. 
 Lesley says: "It was not a structure, but an excavation in 
 the solid slate rock of the cliff, the archway below being 
 excavated to meet it.'' This furnace was operated until 
 1837, when it was abandoned, but its product was always 
 small. The next furnace in this district appears to have 
 been Pactolus, built by Ward & McMurtry in 1824, in Carter 
 county, on the Little Sandy river, above Argillite furnace. 
 It also was abandoned about 1837. A forge was connected 
 with this furnace. The next iron enterprise in the district 
 is said to have been Steam furnace, in Greenup county, 
 situated about three miles from the Ohio river and five 
 miles from Greenupsburg. It was built in 1824 by Leven 
 Shreeves & Brother, and was operated with steam. It was 
 abandoned after 1860. Enterprise furnace, on Tygart's creek, 
 in Greenup county, was built in 1826, but Richard Deering 
 is said to have erected a forge of the same name, on the 
 same creek, in 1824. Bellefonte furnace on Hood's creek, 
 two and a half miles southwest of Ashland, in Boyd county, 
 was built in 1826 by A. Paull, George Poague, and others, 
 and was the first furnace in this county. It is still in opera- 
 tion. Between 1817 and 1834 at least thirteen furnaces 
 were built in Greenup, Carter, and Boyd counties. One of 
 the earliest of these was Camp Branch, or Farewell, situated 
 on Little Sandy river, fourteen miles from Greenupsburg, 
 near the Carter county line, built by David and John 
 
60 
 
 THE MI]N'ES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Trimble. Subsequent to 1834 about fifteen other charcoal 
 furnaces were built in these three counties and in Lawrence 
 county. Many of the charcoal fiirnaces of this district 
 have been abandoned. A few excellent bituminous coal 
 and coke furnaces have, however, been erected in late years. 
 Notwithstanding these additions to its furnace capacity, this 
 district is not now so prominent in the manufacture of iron 
 as it has been. 
 
 About 1830 there were a dozen forges in Greenup, Estill, 
 Edmonson, and Crittenden counties, all of which, with one 
 exception, were abandoned before 1840. Two forges were 
 built below Eddyville, in Lyon county, about 1850. All of 
 the forges mentioned refined pig iron into blooms, many of 
 which found a market at Pittsburg, Cincinnati, and Ken- 
 tucky rolling mills. There is now only one forge in the 
 state — ^Red River, in Estill county, and it is not active. The 
 bloomaries that once existed in Kentucky were abandoned 
 early in this century. In addition to the iron enterprises in 
 the Hanging Rock region of Kentucky, furnaces were built 
 before 1860 in several of the middle and western counties of 
 the state — in Bath, Russell, Bullitt, Nelson, Muhlenburg, 
 Lyon, Crittenden, Trigg, Calloway, and Livingston counties. 
 In this period eight rolling mills were also built in various 
 sections. The period from about 1825 to 1860 witnessed 
 great activity in the development of the iron industry of 
 Kentucky. Since the close of the civil war this activity has 
 been maintained, but it cannot be said that the state has of 
 late devoted that attention to the manufacture of iron which 
 its position and resources would seem to invite. It was 
 seventh in the list of iron-producing states in 1870, and 
 eleventh in 1880. Of twenty-two furnaces in the state in 
 1880 eighteen used charcoal, the others used bituminous 
 coal. In the same year there were eight rolling mills — two 
 at Covington, two at Newport, two at Louisville, one at 
 Ashland, and one in Lyon county; there were also two 
 steel works in the slate. The first rolling mill in Kentucky 
 appears to have been built at Covington in 1829, a portion 
 of its machinery having been obtained from the dismantled 
 Union rolling mill at Pittsburg. Ashland, in Boyd county, 
 has recently become prominent as an iron centre. • 
 
 Tennessee. — The first settlers of Tennessee erected iron 
 works within its limits soon after the close of the Revolution. 
 Bishop says that a bloomary was built in 1790 at Emeryville, 
 in Washington county. At Elizabethton, on Doe river, in 
 Carter county, a bloomary was built about 1795. Wagner's 
 bloomary, on Roane creek, in Johnson county, is said to 
 have been built in the same year. A bloomary was also 
 erected on Camp Creek, in Greene county, in 1797. Two 
 bloomaries in Jefferson county — the Mossy creek forge, ten 
 miles north of Dandridge, and Dumpling forge, five miles 
 west of Dandridge — were built in the same year. About 
 the same time, if not earlier, David Ross, the proprietor of 
 iron works in Campbell county, Virginia, erected a large 
 furnace and forge at the junction of the two forks of the 
 Holston river, in Sullivan county, near the Virginia line on 
 the " great road from Knoxville to Philadelphia." Bishop 
 states an interesting fact in the following words: "Boats of 
 25 tons burden could ascend to Ross's iron works, nearly 
 1,000 miles above the mouth of the Tennessee. At Long 
 Island, a short distance above on the Holston, where the 
 first permanent settlement in Tennessee was made in 1775, 
 boats were built to transport iron and castings made in con- 
 siderable quantities at these works, with other produce, to 
 the lower settlements and New Orleans." A bloomary was 
 built about 1795 below the mouth of the Watauga, and 
 another at the same time about twenty-five miles above the 
 mouth of French Broad river and thirty miles above 
 Knoxville. 
 
 All of the above-mentioned enterprises were in East 
 Tennessee. In West Tennessee iron was also made in the 
 last decade of the last century. Nashville was founded in 
 1780, and a few years later iron ore was discovered about 
 thirty miles west of the future city. Between 1790 and 1795 
 Cumberland furnace was erected on Iron fork of Barton's 
 creek, in Dickson county, seven miles northwest of Char- 
 lotte. This furnace was rebuilt in 1825, and was in operation 
 in 1880. Dickson county and its neighbors, Stewart and 
 Montgomery counties, afterwards became very prominent 
 
 in the manufacture of charcoal pig iron. Other counties in 
 the same section of the state have also, but in a less con- 
 spicuous degree, made iron in charcoal fiirnaces. The first 
 furnace in Montgomery county was probably Yellow Creek, 
 fourteen miles southwest of Clarksville, built in 1802. The 
 iron industry of Tennessee made steady progress after the 
 opening of the present century. Both fiirnaces and bloom- 
 aries multiplied rapidly. In 1856 Lesley enumerated over 
 seventy-five forges and bloomaries, seventy-one furnaces, 
 and four rolling mills in Tennessee, each of which had been 
 in operation at some period after 1790. Of the furnaces, 
 twenty-nine were in East Tennessee, and forty-two in Mid- 
 dle and West Tennessee. Of the latter, fourteen were in 
 Stewart county, twelve in Montgomery, seven in Dickson, 
 two in Hickman, two in Perry, two in Decatur, two in 
 Wayne, and one in Hardin county. There were at one 
 time forty-one furnaces on the Cumberland river in Tennessee 
 and Kentucky. The furnaces in East Tennessee were mainly 
 in Sullivan and Carter counties — Sullivan having five and 
 Carter seven, but Johnson, Washington, Greene, Cocke, 
 Sevier, Monroe, Hamilton, Claiborne, Campbell, Grainger, 
 and Union counties each had one or two furnaces, while 
 Roane county had three. There was a very early fiirnace 
 in Polk county, which is not noted by Lesley but is men- 
 tioned by Bishop. The forges and bloomaries were mainly 
 located in East Tennessee. Johnson county contained 
 fifteen, Carter ten, Sullivan six, Washington three, Greene 
 ten, Campbell seven, Blount four, Roane seven, Rhea three, 
 and a few other counties one and two each. Nearly all of 
 these were bloomaries. In West Tennessee there were less 
 than a dozen refinery forges, and one or two bloomaries. 
 The forges of West Tennessee, like those of Kentucky, were 
 mainly employed from about 1825 to 1860 in the manufac- 
 ture of blooms for rolling mills, many of which were sold 
 to mills in the Ohio valley. Most of the furnaces, forges, 
 and bloomaries enumerated by Lesley have long been aban- 
 doned. There still remain in Tennessee twenty charcoal 
 furnaces and about the same number of forges and bloom- 
 aries. There were also in the state in 1880 five bituminous 
 furnaces — all of recent origin, four rolling mills, and two 
 steel works. Cumberland rolling mill, on the left bank of 
 the Cumberland river, in Stewart county, was built in 1829, 
 and was probably the first rolling mill in the state. It was 
 the only rolling mill in Tennessee as late as 1856. 
 
 Since the close of the civil war Chattanooga has become 
 the most prominent iron center in Tennessee, having several 
 iron enterprises of its own and others in the vicinity. Prior to 
 the war Bins' furnace had been built in 1854 to use char- 
 coal, and at the beginning of the war, in 1861, S. B. Lowe 
 commenced the erection of the Vulcan rolling mill, to roll 
 bar iron. This mill was not finished in 1863, when it was 
 burned by the Union forces. Mr. Lowe rebuilt the mill in 
 1866. It is now owned and operated by the Powell Iron 
 and Nail Company. In 1864 a rolling mill to reroU iron 
 rails was erected by the United States Government, under 
 the supervision of John Fritz, then superintendent of the 
 Cambria iron works. It is now owned and operated by the 
 Roane Iron Company. The first open-hearth steel made in 
 any southern state was made by the Siemens-Martin process 
 at Chattanooga, by this company, on the 6th day of June, 
 1878. Lookout rolling mill was built by the Tennessee Iron 
 and Steel Company in 1876, and was started in Octoberof that 
 year. Lewis Schofield was at the time the president of the 
 company. The prominence of Chattanooga as an iron center 
 is partly due to the excellent bituminous coal which is found 
 in the neighborhood, and partly to its superior transpor- 
 tation facilities. 
 
 Tennessee is destined to become much more prominent in 
 the manufacture of iron than it has ever been. It will owe 
 this prominence largely to the abundance of good bitumi- 
 nous coal which it possesses, but largely also to the improve- 
 ments in the manufacture of charcoal "pig iron which have 
 already been adopted in many instances, and which are cer- 
 tain to be generally adopted at an early day. Of the good 
 quality of Tennessee ores nothing needs to be said. 
 
 —Compiled from James M. Fu-ank'eltepoHon Iron andSlee', Tenlh Census of the U.S. 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 61 
 
 PRIMITIVE CHARACTER OF THE IRON 
 
 WORKS OF NORTH CAROLINA 
 
 AND TENNESSEE. 
 
 THE establishment at an early day of so many charcoal 
 furnaces and ore bloomaries in western North Caro- 
 lina and East Tennessee — sections of our country re- 
 mote from the sea-coast and from principal rivers — is 
 an interesting fact in the iron history of the country. The 
 people who built these furnaces and bloomaries were not 
 only bold and enterprising, but they appear to have been 
 born with an instinct for making iron. Wherever they went 
 they seem to have searched for iron ore, and having found 
 it, their small charcoal furnaces and bloomaries soon followed. 
 No states in the Union have shown in their early history 
 more intelligent appreciation of the value of an iron industry 
 than North Carolina and Tennessee, and none have been 
 more prompt to establish it. It is true that their aim has 
 been mainly to supply their own wants, but this is a praise- 
 worthy motive, and people are not to be found fault with if 
 a lack of capital and of means of transportation prevents 
 them from cultivating a commercial spirit. 
 
 The enterprije of the early ironworkers of Western North 
 Carolina and East Tennessee assumes a picturesque aspect 
 when viewed in connection with the primitive methods of 
 manufacture which were employed by them, and which they 
 have continued to use until the present day. Their charcoal 
 furnaces were blown through one tuyere with wooden "tubs" 
 adjusted to attachments which were slow in motion, and 
 which did not make the best use of the water-power that 
 was often insufficiently supplied by mountain streams of 
 limited volume. A ton or two of iron a day, in the shape 
 of pigs or castings, was a good yield. The bloomaries, with 
 scarcely an exception, were furnished with the trompe, or 
 water-blast, — a small stream with a suitable fall supplying 
 both the blast for the fires and the power which turned the 
 wheel that moved the hammer. Of cast iron cylinders, steam 
 power, two tuyeres, and many other improvements in the 
 charcoal-iron industry these people knew but little, and that 
 little was mainly hearsay. They were pioneers and frontiers- 
 men in every sense ; from the great world of invention and 
 progress they were shut out by mountains, and streams, and 
 hundreds of miles ofSunsubdued forest. It is to their credjt, 
 and it should not be forgotten, that they diligently sought 
 to utilize the resources which they found under their feet, 
 and that they were not discouraged from undertaking a dif- 
 ficult task because the only means for its accomplishment of 
 which they had any knowledge were crude in conception 
 and often difficult to obtain. 
 
 It is a curious fact that the daring men who pushed their 
 way into the wilds of western North Carolina and East Ten- 
 nessee in the last century, and who set up their small fur- 
 naces and bloomaries when forts yet took the place of hamlets, 
 founded an iron industry which still retains many of the 
 primitive features that at first characterized it. There are 
 ti-day in Tennessee about two dozen bloomaries, and in North 
 Carolina a dozen or more, which are in all respects the coun- 
 terparts in construction of those which the pioneers estab- 
 lished. Nearly every one of these bloomaries is to-day blown 
 with the trompe, and in all other respects they are as barren 
 of modern appliances as if the world's iron industry and the 
 world itself had stood still for a hundred years. They are 
 fitfully operated, as the wants of their owners or of the 
 neighboring farmers and blacksmiths require, or as the sup- 
 ply of water for the trompes and hammers will permit. They 
 furnish their respective neighborhoods with iron for horse- 
 shoes, wagon-tires, and harrow-teeth. Mr. J. B. Killebrew, 
 of Nashville, informs us that throughout the counties of 
 Johnson and Carter, in Tennessee, where many of these 
 bloomaries are located, bar iron is used as currency. He 
 says: "Iron is taken in exchange for shoes, coffee, sugar, 
 calico, salt, and domestic and other articles used by the 
 people of the country. It is considered a legal tender in the 
 settlement of all dues and liabilities. This bar iron, after 
 being collected by the merchants, is sent out and sold in 
 Knoxville, Bristol, and other points affording a market." 
 
 The explanation of the survival in this day and in this 
 country of primitive methods of making iron which have 
 long been abandoned by progressive communities lies in the 
 
 fact that the environments which hedged about the pioneers 
 of western North Carolina and East Tennerisoe have never 
 been broken down, and have been only slightly modified. 
 Few of the mountains and streams and forests of these sec- 
 tions ha^e been tunneled, or bridged or traversed by modern 
 means of communication. The iron horse has made but 
 slow progress in bringing this part of our country into asso- 
 ciation with other sections. Cut off by their isolated situation 
 and their poverty from all intimate relations with the outside 
 world, the pioneers we have mentioned are not to be blamed 
 for not adopting modern methods and. for clinging to the 
 customs of their fathers. They are rather to be praised for 
 the efforts they have made to help themselves. But old 
 things must pass awav, even in the iron industry of North 
 Carolina and East Tennessee. At Chattanooga, Rockwood, 
 Oakdale, Knoxville, South Pittsburgh, and Cowan the trans- 
 formation has already commenced. Before this century 
 closes the people of whom we have been writing will wonder 
 that the old ways of making iron stayed with them so long. 
 There are a few ore bloomaries still left in southwestern 
 Virginia which are similar in all respects to those of western 
 North Carolina and East Tennessee, and which are used for 
 precisely similar purposes. But the manufacture of iron in 
 bloomaries was never relatively so prominent a branch of 
 the iron industry of Virginia as of the other two states 
 mentioned. 
 
 — Compiled from James M. Sioani s Report on Iron and Stael, Tenth Cenma of the U. 8 
 
 EARLY IRON INDUSTRIES OF ALABAMA. 
 
 THE earliest furnace in Alabama mentioned by Lesley 
 was built about 1818, a few miles west of Russellville, 
 in Franklin county, and abandoned in 1827. This 
 unsuccessful venture appears to have had a dispiriting 
 effect on other schemes to build furnaces in Alabama, as we do 
 not hear of the erection of any for many years after it was 
 abandoned. A furnace was builtat Polksville, in Calhoun 
 county, in 1843; one at Round Mountain, in Cherokee 
 county, in 1852 ; and Shelby furnace at Shelby, in Shelby 
 county, in 1848. These were all charcoal furnaces, and 
 were the only ones in Alabama enumerated by Lesley in 
 1856. The total product in that year of the three last- 
 named furnaces was 1,495 tons. Shelby furnace was built 
 by Horace Ware, who many years afterwards added a small 
 foundry and a small mill for rolling cotton-ties and bar iron. 
 The furnace was burned in 1858, but was immediately 
 rebuilt. The mill was commenced in 1859, and on the 11th 
 of April, 1860, the first iron was rolled. It was burned in 
 April, 1865, by General Wilson's command of Union troops, 
 and has not been rebuilt. 
 
 Alabama had a bloomary two and a half miles southwest 
 of Montevallo, in Shelby county, in 1825 ; several bloomaries 
 in Bibb county between 1830 and 1840 ; one in Talladega 
 county in 1842 ; two in Calhoun county in 1843 ; and others 
 in various counties at later periods. In 1856 seventeen 
 forges and bloomaries, mostly the latter, were mentioned as 
 having been built at various periods prior to that year, about 
 one-half of which were then in operation, producing 252 tons 
 of blooms and bar iron. Since 1856 all of the forges and 
 bloomaries of Alabama have gradually disappeared. Most 
 of them were blown with the trompe, and the remainder with 
 wooden "tubs." 
 
 It will be observed that as late as 1856 Alabama possessed 
 a very small iron industry. During the civil war several 
 new iron enterprises were undertaken. A furnace in Sanford 
 county was built in 1861 ; Cornwall furnace, at Cedar Bluff, 
 in Cherokee county, was built in 1862 ; a second Shelby fur- 
 nace, in Shelby county, was built in 1863 ; Alabama furnace, 
 in Talladega county, was built in 1863, burned by General 
 Wilson in April, 1865, and rebuilt in 1873. Two furnaces 
 and a small rolling-mill were built at Brierfield, in Bibb 
 county, in 1863 and 1864. All of the furnaces were built to 
 use charcoal. The Brierfield rolling-mill was first used for 
 rolling bar iron and rails. In 1863 or early in 1864 it was 
 sold to the Confederate government, by which it was operated 
 until 1865, when it was burned by the Union troops under 
 General Wilson. It was rebuilt after the war, and for soma 
 
62 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 time was used to roll bar iron and cotton-ties, principally 
 the latter. After having been idle for several years, this 
 mill is again in operation. Since the close of the civil war 
 the attention of Northern capitalists has been attracted to 
 the large deposits of rich ores in Alabama, and several new 
 furnaces, with modern improvements, have been built by 
 them, some to use charcoal and others to use coke. Most of 
 these furnaces are now in operation. Two new rolling-mills 
 have also been built in Alabama since the war — one at 
 Helena, in Shelby county, built in 1872, and one at Birming- 
 ham, in Jefferson county, built in 1880. 
 
 The existence of bituminous coal in Alabama was first 
 observed in 1834, by Dr. Alexander Jones, of Mobile, but 
 little was done to develop the ample coal resources of the 
 State until after the close of the civil war, when it was found 
 that the coal in the neighborhood of Birmingham and at 
 other places would produce excellent coke for blast furnaces, 
 and that at least two coal fields — ^the Black Warrior and 
 Coosa — were so extensive as to set at rest all apprehension 
 concerning a constant supply of coal for a long period of 
 time. These discoveries, joined to the possession of an 
 abundant supply of good ores, at once gave Alabama promi- 
 nence as a State which would, before many years, boast a 
 large iron industry, and this promise is now being fulfilled. 
 
 — Compiled from James M. S-wanVs Report on Iron and Steel, Tenth Census oftlte U. 8. 
 
 IRON INDUSTRIES IN THE WESTERN AND 
 SOUTH-WESTERN STATES. 
 
 THE beginning of the iron industry of Ohio is cotempo- 
 rary with the admission of the state into the Union. 
 It was admitted in 1802, and in 1803 its first furnace, 
 Hopewell, was commenced by Daniel Heaton, and in 
 1804 it was finished. (The name of Daniel Heaton was after-, 
 wards changed by act of assembly to Dan Eaton. ) The fur- 
 nace stood on Yellow creek, about one and a quarter miles 
 from its junction with the Mahoning river, in the township 
 of Poland, in Mahoning county. On the same stream, about 
 three-fourths of a mile from its mouth, and on the farm on 
 which the fiirnace of the Struthers Furnace Company now 
 stands, in the village of Struthers, another furnace was 
 built in 1806 by Robert Montgomery and John Struthers. 
 This furnace was called Montgomery. Thomas Struthers 
 writes : " These furnaces were of about equal capacity, and 
 would yield about two and a half or three tons each per 
 day. The metal was principally run into molds for kettles, 
 bake-ovens, flat irons, stoves, andirons, and such other arti- 
 cles as the needs of a new settlement required, and any sur- 
 plus into_ pigs and sent to the Pittsburg market." The ore 
 was obtained in the neighborhood. Hopewell furnace is 
 said by Mr. Struthers to have had a rocky bluff" for one of 
 its sides. It was in operation in 1807, but soon afterwards 
 it was blown out finally. Montgomery furnace was in ope- 
 ration until 1812, when, Mr. Struthers says, "the men were 
 drafted into the war, and it was never started again." This 
 furnace stood "on the north side of Yellow creek, in a hol- 
 low in the bank." We are informed by Hon. John M. 
 Edwards, of Youngstown, that Hopewell furnace was sold 
 by Eaton to Montgomery, Clendenin & Co. about 1807, who 
 were then the owners of Montgomery Furnace, John Struthers 
 having sold his interest, or part of it, to David Clendenin in 
 1807, and Robert Alexander and James Mackey having 
 about the same time become part owners. The above men- 
 tioned iron enterprises were the first in Ohio, and, as will 
 be observed, they were both on the Western Reserve. 
 There were other early iron enterprises on the Reserve. At 
 Nilestown, now Nile", in Trumbull county, as we are in- 
 formed by Colonel Charles Whittlesey, of Cleveland, James 
 Heaton built a forge in 1809, for the manufacture of bar iron 
 from "the pig of the Yellow Creek furnace "—Montgomery 
 furnace. ' This forge produced the first hammered bars in 
 the state." It continued in operation until 1838. About 
 1812 James Heaton built a furnace at Nilestown, near the 
 mouth of Mosquito Creek, where the Union school building 
 
 now stands. It was called Mosquito Creek fiirnace, and for 
 many years used bog ore, the product being stoves and other 
 castings. It was in operation until 1856, when it was 
 abandoned. 
 
 About 1816 Aaron Norton built a furnace at Middlebury, 
 near Akron, in Summit county, and in 1819 Asaph Whittle- 
 sey built a forge on the Little Cuyahoga, near Middlebury. 
 A furnace at Tallmadge, in the same county, was built about 
 the same time. These two furnaces v^ere operated until 
 about 1835. The beginning of the iron industry in the 
 counties on Lake Erie probably dates from 1825, when Ar- 
 cole furnace was built in Madison township, in the present 
 county of Lake, by Root & Wheeler, and Concord furnace, 
 in the same county, was built by Fields &Stickney. Geauga 
 furnace, one mile north of Painesville, in Lake county, and 
 Railroad furnace, at Perry, in Geauga county, were built 
 about 1825 — the former by an incorporated company and the 
 latter bj' Thorndike & Drury, of Boston. During the next 
 ten or twelve years several other furnaces were built near 
 Lake Erie, in Ashtabula, Cuyahoga, Erie, Huron, and Lorain 
 counties. At a still later period other charcoal furnaces 
 were built in the lake counties. All of these lake furnaces, 
 writes John Wilkeson in 1858, " were blown some eight 
 months each year, and made about 30 tons per week of metal 
 from the bog ore found in swales and swamps near, and 
 generally to the north of, a ridge of land which was probably 
 once the shore of Lake Erie, found extending, with now and 
 then an interval, along from the west boundary of the state 
 of New York to the Huron river in Ohio. The want of 
 wood for charcoal, consequent upon the clearing up of the 
 land, has occasioned the stoppage of most of these works. 
 For a long time the settlers upon the shores of Lake Erie 
 and in the state of Michigan were supplied with their stoves 
 potash-kettles, and other castings by these works." AH of 
 the above-mentioned iron enterprises were on the Western 
 Reserve. Just outside of its limits Gideon Hughes built a 
 furnace in 1807 or 1808, on the Middle fork of Little Beaver 
 creek, one and a half miles northwest of New Lisbon, in 
 Columbiana county. It was in operation in 1808 and 1809. 
 It was first called Rebecca of New Lisbon, but was after- 
 wards named Dale furnace. Attached to this furnace a few 
 years after its erection was a forge, which was used for 
 making bar iron. John Frost, of New Lisbon, to whom we 
 are indebted for this information, also writes us that " some 
 two or three miles up the same stream Mr. Hughes and 
 Joshua Malin erected a rolling mill in 1822, to which a com- 
 pany of Englishmen, said to be from Pittsburg, not long 
 afterwards added nail-making machinery. In addition to 
 manufacturing bar iron, these works placed large quantities 
 of nails in the market. This concern was more or less active 
 till 1832, when the great flood of waters early in that year 
 destroyed it, and it was never rebuilt." New Lisbon is 
 located about twelve miles from the mnuth of Little Beaver 
 creek, which empties into the Ohio river. 
 
 Soon after the beginning of the iron industry on the West- 
 ern Reserve the manufacture of iron was undertaken in 
 some of the interior and southern counties of the state. 
 Bishop says that Moses Dillon, who had been associated 
 with Colonel Meason and John Gibson in the building of 
 Union furnace, in Fayette countv, Pennsylvania, in 1793 
 
 afterwards erected a forge on Licking river, near Zanes- 
 vule, Ohio, possibly the first in the state." This enterprise 
 was preceded or immediately succeeded by a Airnace and 
 the date of its erection is said to have been 1808, but it may 
 have been a few years later. It was located " at the falls of 
 Licking, four miles northwest of Zanesville, in Muskingum 
 county, and its capacity was about one ton per day. It was 
 used to produce castings, as well as pig iron for the forge 
 Lesley says that this furnace was not aljandoned "until 1850 
 or Jater. The forge was also operated until about 1850. 
 1 he furnace and forge were known as Dillon's, and were 
 widely celebrated. Mary Ann furnace, ten miles northeast 
 ot JNewark in Licking county, was built about ISKi by Dr. 
 Brice and David Moore. It was burned down about 1850. 
 in luscarawas county the Zoar Community owned two 
 early charcoal furnaces. One of these, called Tuscarawas 
 was built about 1830 by Christmas, Hazlett & Co., and was 
 atterwards sold to the Community; the other, called Zoar, 
 was built about the same time by the Community. Both 
 luruaces were blown out finally before 1850. Three fur- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 63 
 
 naces were built in Adams county between 1811 and 1816. 
 The first of these, Brush Creek, on the stream of that name, 
 and twelve miles from the Ohio river, was operated in 1813 
 by James Rodgers. It was probably built in 1811, its build- 
 ers being Andrew Ellison, Thomas James, and Archibald 
 Paull. It was in operation as late as 1837, when it produced 
 200 tons of iron in 119 days. On the same stream, twenty- 
 two miles from the Ohio, was Marble furnace, built in 1816. 
 Another furnace, known as Old Stream, was built in 1814. 
 This furnace is said to have been built by James Rodgers, 
 A ndrew Ellison, and the Pittsburg Steam Engine Company. 
 Thomas W. Means informs us that " the first blast furnace 
 run by steam in southern Ohio, if not in the United States, 
 was built by James Rodgers in Adams county about 1814." 
 This reference is to Old Stream furnace. " Its product was 
 less than two tons of iron a day. Brush Creek furnace, in 
 the same county, and other furnaces of that period which 
 were run by water, hardly averaged one ton of iron a day. " 
 Marble and Old Stream furnaces were abandoned about 
 1826. Lesley mentions three forges in Adams county — 
 Stream, at Old Stream furnace ; Scioto, on the Little Scioto ; 
 and Brush Creek, probably connected with Brush Creek 
 furnace. The date of the erection of these forges is not 
 given, but they were doubtless built soon after the three 
 Adams county furnaces. They were all abandoned many 
 years ago. There ia now no iron industry in Adams county. 
 
 In the chapter relating to Kentucky the beginning of the' 
 iron industry in the Hanging Rock region has been noted. 
 This celebrated iron district embraces Greenup, Boyd, 
 Carter, and Lawrence counties in Kentucky, and Lawrence, 
 Jackson, Gallia, and Vinton counties and part of Scioto 
 county in Ohio. Just north of the Ohio portion of this 
 district is the newly-developed Hocking Valley iron dis- 
 trict, embracing Hocking and several other counties. The 
 Hanging Rock district takes its name from a projecting 
 cliff upon the north side of the Ohio river, situated back of 
 the town of Hanging Rock, which is three miles below 
 Ironton, in Lawrence county. The first furnace in the 
 Ohio part of Hanging Rock district was Union furnace, situ- 
 ated a few miles northwest of Hanging Rock, built in 1826 
 and 1827 by John Means, John Sparks, and James Rodgers, 
 the firm's name being James Rodgers & Co. Franklin furnace 
 was the second on the Ohio side. It stood sixteen miles 
 east of Portsmouth and half a mile from the Ohio river, in 
 Scioto county, and was built in 1827 by the Rev. Daniel 
 Young and others. The next furnace was Pine Grove, on 
 Sperry's fork of Pine creek, back of Hanging Rock, and 
 five miles from the Ohio river, in Lawrence county, built in 
 1828 by Robert Hamilton and Andrew Ellison. In the 
 same year Scioto furnace, in Scioto county, fifteen miles 
 north of Portsmouth, was built by William Salters. From 
 this time forward blastfurnaces increased rapidly on the 
 Ohio side of the district, as well as on the Kentucky side. 
 From 1826 to 1880 the whole number built on the Ohio side 
 was about sixty, and on thcKentucky side about thirty. All 
 of the early furnaces were built to use charcoal, but timber 
 becoming scarce, coke was substituted at some of them, 
 while others were abandoned. In late years a few furnaces 
 have been built in the district expressly to use coke or raw 
 coal. In 1880 there were on the Ohio side thirty-one char- 
 coal furnaces and seventeen bituminous coal or coke furnaces. 
 
 At Vesuvius furnace, on Storm's creek, in Lawrence 
 county, Ohio, six miles northeast of Ironton, the hotblast 
 was successfully applied in 1836 by John Campbell and 
 others, William Firmstone putting up the apparatus. The 
 Hanging Rock district, on both sides of the Ohio, has pro- 
 duced many eminent ironmasters, and its iron resources 
 have been developed with great energy. Most prominent 
 among its ironmasters of the generation now passing away 
 are John Campbell, of Ironton, and Thomas W. Means, of 
 Hanging Rock. Mr. Campbell^ who is a native of Brown 
 county, Ohio, was born in 1808. In connection with others 
 he has built eleven furnaces in the Hanging Rock district. 
 He projected the town of Ironton and gave it its name, and 
 also assisted in the founding of Ashland, Kentucky, and in 
 building its railroad. Like most of the ironmasters of this 
 district he is of Scotch-Irish extraction, his ancestors having 
 removed in 1612 from Inverary, in Argyleshire, Scotland, to 
 the neighborhood of Londonderry, in Ulster, Ireland. Their 
 descendants removed in 1729 and 1739 to Augusta county. 
 
 Virginia ; thence, in 1790, to Bourbon county, Kentucky ; 
 and thence, in 1798, to that part of Adams cc^anty, Ohio, 
 which is now embraced in Brown county. Mr. Means was 
 born in South Carolina in 1803, and is also of Scotch-Irish 
 origin. His father, John Means, was an owner of one of the 
 furnaces and forges in Adams county, Ohio. He was bom 
 in Union district, South Carolina, on March 14, 1770, and 
 moved to Adams county, in 1819, taking with him his slaves, 
 whom he liberated. He died on his farm near Manchester, 
 in Adams county, on March 15, 1837, and was buried in the 
 churchyard in Manchester. Andrew Ellison, Robert Hamil- 
 ton, James Rodgers, and Andrew Dempsey, now deceased, 
 were enterprising and prominent iron manufacturers. In 
 December, 1844, Mr. Hamilton successfully tried the ex- 
 periment of stopping Pine Grove furnace, which he then 
 owned, on Sunday, and his example has since been generally 
 followed in the Hanging Rock region. This furnace is still 
 active. John Campbell, Robert Hamilton, and Thomas AV. 
 Means were united in marriage with members of the Ellison 
 family. The third generation of this family is now engaged 
 in the iron business of southern Ohio. 
 
 In 1833 a forge was built at Hanging Rock, after which 
 it was named, to manufacture blooms. It was owned by J. 
 Riggs & Co., and was built under the superintendance of 
 John Campbell and Joseph Riggs. A Rolling mill was 
 added before 1847. Both the forge and rolling mill have 
 long been abandoned. A forge was built at Sample's Land- 
 ing, fifteen miles below Gallipolis, soon after 1830, to make 
 blooms for the Covington rolling mill. Bloom forge was 
 built at Portsmouth, in Scioto county, in 1832, and in 1857 
 a rolling mill was added. A forge called Benner's, on 
 Paint creek, near Chillicothe, in Ross county, once 
 owned by James & Woodruff, was abandoned about 1850. 
 There never were many forges in Ohio for refining iron, and 
 there have been few, if any, for making bar iron directly 
 from the ore. The first iron enterprise in the state preceded 
 by only a few years the building of rolling mills at Pittsburg. 
 
 The Globe rolling mill was built at Cincinnati in 1845. 
 Joseph Kinsey writes us that it "was the first built in Cin- 
 cinnati for the purpose of making general sizes of merchant 
 iron, hoops, sheets, and plates. It was built by William 
 Sellers and Josiah Lawrence, and was considered a great 
 enterprise at that time. Soon afterwards a wire mill was 
 added for the purpose of making the first wire used for 
 the lines of telegraph extending through this country. " The 
 foregoing details relate to what may be termed the charcoal 
 era of the Ohio iron industry. The second stage in the develop- 
 ment of the iron industry of this state dates from the intro- 
 duction in its blast furnaces of the bituminous coal of the 
 Mahoning valley in its raw state. This coal is known as 
 splint, or block coal, or as Brier Hill coal, from a locality 
 of that name near Youngstown where it is largely mined. 
 The first furnace in Ohio to use the new fuel was built 
 expressly for this purpose at Lowell, in Mahoning county, 
 in 1845 and 1846, by Wilkeson, Wilkes & Co., and it was 
 successfully blown in on the 8th of August, 1846. The 
 name of this furnace was Mahoning. A letter from John 
 Wilkeson, now of Buffalo, New York, informs us that Wil- 
 liam McNair, a millwright, was the foreman who had charge 
 of its erection. It was blown in by John Crowther, who 
 had previously had charge of the ftirnaces of the Brady's 
 Bend Iron Company, at Brady's Bend, Pennsylvania. Mr. 
 Wilkeson and his brothers had for many years been promi- 
 nent charcoal-iron manufacturers on the Western Reserve. 
 They are of Scotch-Irish extraction. Th§ir father was a 
 native of Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Immediately after the 
 successful use of uncoked coal in the furnace at Lowell many 
 other furnaces were built in the Mahoning valley to use the 
 new fuel, and it was also substituted for charcoal in some old 
 furnaces. At a later day theuseofthisfuelandof Connells- 
 ville coke contributed to the further development of the manu- 
 facture of pig iron in Ohio, and at a still later and veiy 
 recent date the opening of the extensive coal beds of the 
 Hocking valley and the utilization of its carbonate ores 
 still further contributed to the same development. 
 
 The beginning of the iron industry at Youngstown, which 
 now has within its own limits or in the immediate vicinity 
 twelve furnaces and six rolling mills, dates from about 1835, 
 when a charcoal furnace called Mill Creek was built on a 
 creek of the same name, a short distance southwest of the 
 
G4 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 city, by Isaac Heaton, a son of James Heaton. There was 
 no other furnace at Youngstown until after the discovery at 
 Lowell that the block coal of the Mahoning valley could be 
 successfully used in the smelting of iron ore. In a recent 
 sketch of the history of Youngstown Hon. John M. Edwards 
 says : " In 1846 William Philpot & Co. built in the north- 
 western part of Youngstown, adjoining the present city, and 
 near the canal, the second furnace in the state for using raw 
 mineral coal as fuel. In the same year a rolling mill was 
 built in the southeastern part of the village, and adjoining 
 the canal, by the Youngstown Iron Company. This mill is 
 now owned by Brown, Bonnell & Co." In a sketch of 
 Youngstown, Past and Present, printed in 1875, a fuller ac- 
 count is given of the first bituminous furnace at that place. 
 It was known as the Eagle furnace, and was " built in 1846 
 by William Fhilpot, David Morris, Jonathan Warner, and 
 Harvey Sawyer, on land purchased of Dr. Henry Manning, 
 lying between the present city limits and Brier Hill. The 
 coal used was mined from land contiguous, leased from Dr. 
 Manning." The second furnace at Youngstown to use raw 
 coal was built in 1847 by Captain James Wood, of Pitts- 
 burg. It was called Brier Hill furnace. The proximity 
 of the coal fields of Ohio to the rich iron ores of Lake 
 Superior has been an important element in building up the 
 blast-furnace industry of the state. The use of these ores 
 in Ohio soon followed the first use in the blast furnace of 
 the block coal of the Mahoning valley. An increase in the 
 rolling-mill capacity of Ohio was naturally coincident with 
 the impetus given to the production of pig iron by the use 
 of this coal and Lake Superior ores. David Tod, afterwards 
 governor of Ohio, bore a prominent part in the develop- 
 ment of the coal and iron resources of the Mahoning valley. 
 The iron industry of Cleveland has been built up during 
 this period, and the city is now one of the most prominent 
 centers of iron and steel production in the country. Charles 
 A. Otis, of Cleveland, writes us as follows concerning the 
 first rolling mills in that city: "The first rolling mill at 
 Cleveland was a plate mill, worked on a direct ore process, 
 which was a great failure. It went into operation in 1854 
 or 1855. The mill is now owned by the Britton Iron and 
 Steel Company. The next mill was built in 1856 by A. J. 
 Smith and others, to reroll rails. It was called Railroad 
 rolling mill, and is now owned by the Cleveland Rolling 
 Mill Company. At the same time a man named Jones, with 
 several associates, built a mill at Newburgh, six miles from 
 Cleveland, also to. reroll rails. It was afterwards operated 
 by Stone, Ohisholm & Jones, and is now owned by the Cleve- 
 land Rolling Mill Company. In 1852 I erected a steam 
 forge to make wrought-iron forgings, and in 1859 I added to 
 it a rolling mill to manufacture merchant bar, etc. The 
 Union rolling mills were built in 1861 and 1862 to roll mer- 
 chant bar iron." 
 
 In the list of persons connected with the development of 
 the iron and steel industries of Cleveland, the name of 
 Henry Chisholm is most prominent. Mr. Chishoim was 
 born at Lochgelly, in Fifeshire, Scotland, on April 27, 1822, 
 and died at Cleveland on May 9, 1881, aged 59 years. 
 From 1846 to 1880 the iron industryof Ohio has made steady 
 progress, and the state now ranks second among the iron pro- 
 ducing states of the Union. This was also its rank in 1870. 
 Indiana. — Indiana possessed a small charcoal-iron indus- 
 try before 1850, but at what period inthe present century this 
 industry had its beginning cannot now be definitely deter- 
 mined. Tench Coxe makes no reference to it in 1810, but 
 mentions one nailery in the territory, which produced in 
 that year 20,000 pounds of nails, valued at 14,000. He 
 does not locate this enterprise. In 1840 the cen^ius men- 
 tions a furnace in Jefferson county, one in Parke, one in 
 Vigo, one in Vermillion, and three in Wayne county, the 
 total product being only 810 tons of "cast iron." A 
 forge in Fulton county, producing twenty tons of "bar 
 iron," is also mentioned. The census of 1840, however, 
 frequently confounds furnaces with foundries, and it is 
 therefore possible that some of the alleged furnaces in Indiana 
 at that period were foundries. In 1859 Lesley enumerated five 
 charcoal furnaces in Indiana, as follows : Elkhart, in Elk- 
 hart county, date of erection unknown; Laporte near the 
 town of that name, in Laporte county, built in 1848 ; 
 Mishawaka, in Saint Joseph county, built about 1833 ; 
 Richland, on Richland creek, in Greene county, built in 
 
 1844 by A. Downing ; and Indiana, a few miles northwest 
 of Terre Haute, in Vigo county, built in 1839. The three 
 last named were in operation in 1857, but were abandoned 
 about 1860. Elkhart and La Porte furnaces were idle in 
 1857, and probably had been abandoned at that time. 
 Elkhart, La Porte, and Mishawaka used bog ore exclusively, 
 and Richland used it in part ; in 1857 Mishawaka was still 
 using it. Indiana furnace used brown hematite found in 
 the neighborhood. In a chapter on the geology of Monroe 
 county, by George K. Greene, printed in 1881, it is stated 
 that " nearly forty years ago an iron furnace was erected by 
 Randall Ross, of Virginia, on the lands of George Adams, 
 of Monroe county, on section 7, township 7, range 2, west. 
 The investment soon proved a failure, and the furnace has 
 long since gone to decay. The ruins of the 'old iron fur- 
 nace ' are to-day the mournful monument of an early spirit 
 of enterprise that deserved a better fate." The early Indiana 
 furnaces doubtless made more castings than pig iron. 
 
 In 1860 there was only one furnace in blast in Indiana — 
 Richland. It was abandoned probably in that year, and 
 from this time until 1867 no pig iron was made in Indiana. 
 In the latter year the manufacture of pig iron in this state 
 was revived, the development of the block-coal district in 
 the neighborhood of Brazil, in Clay county, having led to 
 the belief that this fuel might be profitably used in blast 
 furnaces. Planet furnace, at Harmony, in Clay county, 
 built in the summer of 1867, and put in blast in November 
 of that year, was the first of eight furnaces that were built 
 in Indiana between 1867 and 1872 to use this coal, the ores 
 for the furnaces being mainly obtained from Missouri and 
 Lake Superior. Five of these furnaces were in Clay county. 
 Of the eight furnaces built, four have been abandoned and 
 torn down since 1872, and, of the remaining four, one is now 
 using charcoal and three are using block coal. No furnaces 
 have been built in Indiana since 1872. Except the solitary 
 forge above mentioned we have no record of any forges or 
 bloomaries having been built in Indiana at any period. The 
 first rolling mill in the state was probably the Indianapolis 
 mill, built by R. A. Douglas, which was completed in the 
 autumn of 1857, and put in operation in November of the 
 same year. Lesley in 1858 says : " The machinery and 
 building were planned by Lewis Schofield, of Trenton, New 
 Jersey, who also built the Wyandotte mill and is building 
 the mill at Atlanta, Georgia." There were in 1880 nine rol- 
 ling mills in Indiana, four of which were rail mills. The 
 state contained no steel works in that year. 
 
 Illinois. — In 1839 a small charcoal flirnace was built four 
 miles northwest of Elizabethtown, in Hardin county, in the 
 extreme southeastern part of Illinois, by Leonard "White, 
 Chalen Guard & Co. It was called Illinois. This is the 
 first furnace in the state of which there is any record, and it 
 probably had no predecessor. In 1853 it was purchased by 
 0. Wolfe & Co., of Cincinnati, who tore down the stack and 
 built a larger one in 1856, with modern editions. In 1873 
 this furnace, after having been out of blast for several years, 
 was repaired, but it has not since been put in blast. A char- 
 coal furnace called Martha was built in 1848 by Daniel 
 McCook & Co. about two miles east of Illinois furnace. It 
 was probably the second furnace in the state. Illinois and 
 Martha furnaces were both in blast in 1850, but in 1860 only 
 Illinois was in blast. Martha had not been in operation 
 since 1856, and it probably never made any iron aSer that 
 year. It has long been abandoned. These furnaces were 
 supplied with limestone ore from the immediate neighbor- 
 hood. They seem to have been the only charcoal-iron enter- 
 prises of any description that ever existed in Illinois. In 
 the census of 1840 mention is made of a furnace in Cook 
 county, one in Fulton, one in' Hardita, and one in AVabash 
 county. The furnaces in Fulton and Hardin counties 
 were idle ; the furnaces in Wabash county produced eight 
 tons, and the furnace in Cook county produced 150 tons of 
 " cast iron." As the census of 1840 frequently confounds 
 blast furnaces with foundries, reliance cannot be placed in 
 the correctness of its statements concerning furnaces in Il- 
 linois. We have definitely ascertained that there was no 
 furnace in Cook county in that year, and that the furnace 
 with which it is credited in the census was Granger's foun- 
 dry, the only one in Chicara at that time. 
 
 There appears to have Tjeen no furnace in operation in 
 Illinois from 1860 to 1868. Soon after the close of the 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 65 
 
 civil war the attention of iron manufacturers was attracted 
 to the Big Muddy coal fields, in the southwestern part of 
 Illinois, and to the proximity to these coal fields of the rich 
 iron ores of Missouri. In 1868 the Grand Tower Mining, 
 Manufacturing, and Transportation Company, built two 
 large furnaces at Grand Tower, in Jackson County, Illinois, 
 to use the Big Muddy coal in connection with Missouri 
 ores ; and in 1871 another large furnace, called Big Muddy, 
 was built at Grand Tower by another company, to use the 
 same fuel and ores. The two Grand Tower furnaces have 
 been out of blast for several years and are now abandoned, 
 but the Big Muddy furnace is still in blast. At East Saint 
 Louis the Meier Iron Company built two large coke fur- 
 naces between 1873 and 1875. These furnaces are now in 
 operation, their fuel being mainly Carbondale coke from 
 Jackson county, Illinois, The iron industry at Chicago 
 and its vicinity properly dates from 1857, when Captain E. 
 B. Ward, of Detroit, built the Chicago rolling mill, on the 
 right bank of the Chicago river, "just outside of the city." 
 This mill was built to re-roll iron rails. It formed the 
 nucleus of the present very extensive works of the North 
 Chicago Rolling Mill Company. There was no furnace at 
 Chicago until 1868, when two furnaces were built by the 
 Chicago Iron Company. They are now owned by the 
 Union Iron and Steel Company. One was blown in early 
 in 1869, and the other late in the same year. Two furnaces 
 were built at Chicago in 1869 by the North Chicago Rolling 
 Mill Company. No other fiirnaces were built in Chicago 
 until 1880, when seven new furnaces were undertaken, 
 three of which were finished in that year and two in 1881. 
 At Joliet, thirty-seven miles southwest of Chicago, the 
 Joliet Iron and Steel Company built two furnaces in 1873. 
 They are now owned by the Joliet Steel Company. In 
 1880 there were thirteen rolling mills and steel works in 
 Illinois, three of which were Bessemer steel works — ^two at 
 Chicago and one at Joliet, and one was an open-hearth steel 
 works at Springfield. At the beginning of 1880 there were 
 ten blast furnaces in the state, and, as has been mentioned, 
 three new fiirnaces were finished during the year and four 
 others were undertaken. In 1880 Illinois ranked fourth 
 among the iron and steel producing states of the Union, 
 making a great stride since 1870, when it ranked fifteenth. 
 Michigan. — If we could credit the census of 1840 there 
 were fifteen blast furnaces in Michigan in that yeai — one 
 in each of the counties of Allegan, Branch, Cass, Kent, Mon- 
 roe, and Oakland, two in Calhoun, two in Washtenaw, and 
 five in Wayne county. Some of these alleged furnaces were 
 doubtless foundries, particularly in counties lying upon or 
 not very remote from Lake Erie, vessels upon which could 
 bring pig iron for their use from neighboring states. Others 
 were undoubtedly true blast fiirnaces, producing household 
 and other castings from bog ores. All of the fifteen enter- 
 prises mentioned were in the southern part of the state. 
 Their total production in 1840 was only 601 tons offcast 
 iron." Neither forges nor bloomaries are mentioned in the 
 census of 1840. From 1840 to 1850 the iron industry of 
 Michigan certainly made no progress, and possibly declined. 
 From 1850 to 1860 a marked improvement took place. Three 
 new furnaces were built in the southern part of the state to 
 use bog ore, and in the northern peninsula and at Detroit 
 and Wyandotte a commencement was made in smelting the 
 rich ores which had been discovered in the now celebrated 
 Lake Superior iron-ore region. In 1859 Lesley enumerated 
 the following bog-ore flirnaces in the southern part of the 
 state: Kalamazoo, at the city of that name, in Kalamazoo 
 county, built in 1857 to take the place of an earlier furnace; 
 Quincy, three miles north of the town of that name, in 
 Branch county, built in 1855 ; and Branch county, one mile 
 from Quincy furnace, built in 1854. All of these bog-ore 
 iiirnaces made pig iron in 1857. It is a curious fact that 
 furnaces to use bog ore should have been built in this coun- 
 try after 1850. The development of the Lake Superior iron- 
 ore region marks an important era in the historjr of the 
 American iron trade, and the incidents attending its com- 
 mencement have fortunately been preserved. We learn 
 from A. P. Swineford's History of the Lake Superior Iron Dis- 
 trict that the existence of iron ore on the southern border 
 of Lake Superior was known to white traders with the In- 
 dians as early as 1830. The same writer further mforms us 
 that the first discovery by white men of the iron ore of this 
 5 
 
 region was made by William A. Burt, a deputy surveyor of 
 the General Government, on the 16th of September, 1844, 
 near the eastern end of Teal lake. In June, 1845, the Jack- 
 son Mining Company was organized at Jackson, Michigan, 
 for the purpose of exploring the mineral districts of the 
 southern shore of Lake Superior, and in the summer of the 
 same year this company, through the disclosures of a half- 
 breed Indian, named Louis Nolan, and the direct agency of an 
 old Indian chief, named Man-je-ki-jik, secured possession of 
 the now celebrated Jackson iron mountain, near the scene 
 of Mr. Burt's discovery. It appears, however, thattherepre- 
 sentatives of the company had not heard of Mr. Burt's dis- 
 covery until they met Nolan and the Indian chief. Mr. P. 
 M. Everett, the president of the company, was the leading 
 spirit of the exploring party which secured possession of this 
 valuable property. The actual discovery of Jackson moun- 
 tain was made by S. T. Carr and E. S. Rockwell, members 
 of Mr. Everett's party, who were guided to the locality by 
 the Indian chief. 
 
 In a letter written on the 10th of November, 1845, at 
 Jackson, Michigan, Mr. Everett, referring to the ore of 
 Jackson Mountain, says that " since coming home we have 
 had some of it smelted, and find that it produces iron and 
 something resembling gold — some say it is gold and cop- 
 per." This smelting is not further described. In 1846 A. 
 V. Berry, one of the Jackson Mining Company, and others, 
 brought about 300 pounds of the ore to Jackson, and in 
 August of that year, writes Mr. Berry, " Mr. Olds, of Cucush 
 Prairie, who owned a forge, then undergoing repair, in which 
 he was making iron from bog ore, succeeded in making a 
 fine bar of iron from our ore in a blacksmith's fire — the first 
 iron ever made from Lake Superior ore." Mr. Swineford 
 says that " one end of this bar of iron Mr. Everett had 
 drawn out into a knife-blade." In 1847 the Jackson Mining 
 Company commenced the erection of a forge on Carp 
 river, about ten miles from its mouth, and near Jackson 
 mountain, which was finished early in 1848, and on the 10th 
 of February of that year the first iron made in the Lake 
 Superior region was made at this forge by Ariel N. Barney. 
 Mr. Swineford says that the forge, which was named after 
 Carp river, had " eight fires, from each of which a lump was 
 taken every six hours, placed under the hammer, and forged 
 into blooms four inches square and two feet long, the daily 
 product being about three tons. The first lot of blooms 
 made at this forge— the first iron made on Lake Superior, 
 and the first from Lake Superior ores, except the small bar 
 made by Mr. Olds — was sold to the late E. B. Ward, and 
 from it was made the walking-beam of the side-wheel 
 steamer Ocean.'' The forge was kept in operation until 
 1854, when it was abandoned, having in the mean time 
 " made little iron and no money." In 1849 the Marquette 
 Iron Company, a Worcester (Massachusetts) organization, 
 undertook the erection of a forge at Marquette, and in July, 
 1858, it was finished and put in operation. Mr. Swineford 
 says that it " started with four fires, using ores frcim what 
 are now the Cleveland and Lake Superior mines." It was 
 operated irregularly until December, 1858, when it was 
 burned down and was not rebuilt. 
 
 The Collins Iron Company was organized in 1853, with 
 Edward K. Collins, of New York, at its head, and in 1854 
 it built a forge on Dead river, about three miles northwest 
 of Marquette, and in the fall of 1855 the manufacture of 
 blooms was commenced from ore obtained at the company's 
 mines. This forge was in operation in 1858, after which 
 time it seems to have been abandoned. 
 
 Another forge on Dead river was built in 1854 or 1855 by 
 William G. McComber, Matthew McConnell, and J. G. 
 Butler. The company failed in a few years, and in 1860 
 Stephen R. Gay erected Bancroft furnace on the site of the 
 forge. Before 1860 every forge in Michigan appears to have 
 been abandoned. It will be observed that all of the first 
 iron enterprises in the Lake Superior district were bloomary 
 forges, the intention evidently having been to build up an 
 iron industry similar to that of the Lake Champlain district. 
 The first pig iron produced in the Lake Superior region was 
 made in 1858 by Stephen R. Gay, who then leased the forge 
 of the Collins Iron Company and converted it in two days, 
 at an expense of $50, into a miniature blast furnace. Mr. 
 Gay writes to C. A. Trowbridge that this furnace was " 2J 
 feet across the bosh, 8 feet high, and 12 inches square at thq 
 
66 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 top and 15 inches square in the hearth,'' and would hold 
 eight bushels of coal. He gives the following details of its 
 first and only blast: "Began on Monday, finished and fired 
 on Wednesday, filled with coal Thursday noon, blast turned 
 on Friday noon, and thenceforth charged regularly with 1 
 bushel coal, 20 pounds of ore, and 7 pounds of limestone. 
 Oast at six o'clock 500 pounds, and again at eight o'clock 
 Saturday morning, half a ton in all, 92 pounds of which 
 were forged by Mr. Eddy into an 85-pound bloom. This 
 little furnace was run two and a half days, made 2J tons, 
 carrying the last eight hours 30 pounds of ore to a bushel of 
 coal, equal to a ton of pig iron to 100 bushels of coal." 
 These experiments were made in February. The first reg- 
 ular blast furnace in the Lake Superior region was built by 
 the Pioneer Iron Company in the present city of Negaunee, 
 convenient to the Jackson mine. It was commenced in 
 June, 1857, and in February, 1858, it was finished. Another 
 stack was added in the same year. These furnaces took the 
 name of the company. Pioneer No. 1 was put in blast in 
 April, 1858, and Pioneer No. 2 on May 20th, 1859. Both 
 furnaces are now owned by the Iron Cliffs Oompany, and 
 both were in operation in 1880. The second regular blast 
 furnace in this region was the Oollins furnace, built in 1858 
 by Stephen R. Gay, near the site of the Collins forge. It 
 made its first iron on December 13th of that year. It was 
 abandoned in 1873, owing to the failure of a supply of char- 
 coal. Other furnaces in the Lake Superior region soon fol- 
 lowed the erection of the Pioneer and Collins furnaces. 
 While these early furnaces and the few forges that have been 
 mentioned were being built on the shore of Lake Superior 
 two furnaces were built at or near Detroit to smelt Lake 
 Superior ores. These were the Eureka furnace, at Wyan- 
 dotte, built in 1855 by the Eureka Iron Company, of which 
 Captain E. B. Ward was president, and put in blast in 1856 ; 
 and the Detroit furnace, at Detroit, built in 1856 by the De- 
 troit and Lake Superior Iron Manufacturing Company, of 
 which George B. Russell was president, and put in blast in 
 January, 1857. These furnaces and the others that have 
 been mentioned used charcoal as fuel. 
 
 The first shipment of iron ore from the Lake Superior 
 region was made in 1850, according to Mr. Swineford, and 
 consisted of about five tons, " which was taken away by Mr. 
 A. L. Crawford, of Newcastle, Pennsylvania." A part of this 
 ore was made into blooms and rolled into bar iron. "The 
 iron was found to be most excellent, and served to attract 
 the attention of Pennsylvania ironmasters to this new field 
 of supply for their furnaces and rolling mills." In 1853 
 three or four tons of Jackson ore were shipped to the 
 World's Fair at New York. The first use of Lake Superior 
 ore in a blast furnace occurred in Pennsylvania. The im- 
 portant event is described in a letter to us from David 
 Agnew, of Sharpsville, Mercer county, Pennsylvania, from 
 which we quote as follows : 
 
 The Sharon Iron Company, of Mercer county, Pennsylvania, 
 about the year 1850 or 1851 purchased the Jackson mines, and, in 
 expectation of the speedy completion of the Sault canal, com- 
 menced to open them, to construct a road to the lake, and to build 
 docks at Marquette, expending a large sum of money in these 
 operations. The opening of the canal was, however, unexpectedly 
 delayed until June, 1855. Anxious to test the working qualities of this 
 ore, the Sharon iron Company brought, at great expense, to Erie, in 
 the year 1853, about 70 tons of it, which was shipped by canal to 
 Sharpsville nirnace, near Sharon, owned by David and John P. 
 Agnew. The first boat-load of ore, on its receipt, was immediately 
 used in the furnace, partly alone and partly in mixture with native 
 ores, and the experiment was highly successful, the furnace work- 
 ing well and producing an increased yield of metal, which was 
 taken to the Sharon Iron works and there converted into bar iron, 
 nails, etc., of very superior quality. The second boat-load of ore 
 was also brought to Sharpsville, but, having been intended to be 
 left at the Clay furnace, owned by the Sharon Iron Company, was 
 returned and used at that establishment. 
 
 In 1854, 1855, and 1856 Clay furnace continued the use 
 of Lake Superior ore, most of it mixed with native ore, and 
 used in all until August, 1856, about 400 tons. "Up to that 
 date," as is stated by Mr. Frank Allen, its manager, " the 
 working of it was not a success. In October, 1856, we gave 
 the Clay furnace a general overhauling, put in new lining 
 and hearth, and made material changes in the construction 
 of the same, put her in blast late in the fall, and in a 
 few days were making a beautiful article of iron from 
 
 Lake Superior ore alone." The fuel used at Sharpsville and 
 Clay furnaces was the block coal of the Shenango valley. 
 After 1856 other furnaces in Pennsylvania and in other 
 states began the regular use of Lake Superior ore. Until 
 about 1877 the mining of iron ore in the Lake Superior 
 region was confined to the territory in the immediate vi- 
 cinity of Marquette. Since 1877, and particularly since 
 1879, a new iron-mining region has been developed in the 
 northern part of Menominee county and the southern part 
 of Marquette county, which takes its name from the former 
 county. This region has proved to be very productive and 
 the ore to be very desirable. Since the discovery of iron 
 ore in the Lake Superior region there have been built on 
 the upper peninsula, in the vicinity of the mines, twenty- 
 three furnaces, of which ten have been abandoned. There 
 have also been built at other points in the state of Michigan, 
 to use Lake Superior ore, fifteen furnaces, of which none 
 had been abandoned in 1880. All of these furnaces, with 
 the exception of two at Marquette, were built to use char- 
 coal, and the abandonment of many of them in the upper 
 peninsula is attributable to the scarcity of timber for fuel. 
 Michigan is, however, the first state in the Union to-day in 
 the manufacture of charcoal pig iron, having twenty-eight 
 furnaces of which all but one furnace at Marquette now use 
 charcoal when in operation. The three bog-ore furnaces in 
 Kalamazoo and Branch counties have been abandoned. 
 
 There are now two active rolling mills in Michigan — ^the 
 Eureka, formerly the Wyandotte, at Wyandotte, built in 
 1855, and the rolling mill of the Baugh Steam Forge Com- 
 pany, at Detroit, built in 1877, the forge having been built 
 in 1870. In 1871 a rolling mill was built at Marquette, 
 which has since been abandoned. In 1872 a rolling mill 
 was built at Jackson, in Jackson county, but it was torn 
 down in 1879, and the machinery removed to the mill of 
 the Springfield Iron Company at Springfield, Illinois. From 
 the Marquette Mining Journal, edited by Mr. Swineford, we 
 take the following statement in gross tons of the aggregate 
 production of the Lake Superior iron-ore mines for each 
 calendar year since the commencement of mining operations 
 in the district. 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Gross tons. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Gross tons. 
 
 1856 and previous . . 
 
 1857 
 
 1858 
 
 1859 
 
 1860 
 
 1861 
 
 1862 
 
 1863 
 
 1864 
 
 1865. . . . . . 
 
 1866 
 
 1867 
 
 1868 
 
 86,319 
 
 26,646 
 
 22,876 
 
 68,832 
 
 114,401 
 
 114,258 
 
 124,109 
 
 203,965 
 
 247,069 
 
 193,768 
 
 296,713 
 
 405,60-l 
 
 610,522 
 
 639,007 
 
 1870. . 
 
 1871. . . 
 
 1872. ... 
 1873 . 
 1874. . 
 1875 . . 
 1876. 
 
 1877. . . 
 
 1878. . 
 
 1879 
 
 1880. . 
 
 1881 
 
 Total 
 
 859,607 
 
 813,984 
 
 948,563 
 
 1 ,196,234 
 
 936,488 
 
 910,840 
 
 993,311 
 
 1,025,129 
 
 1,126,093 
 
 1,414,182 
 
 1,987,698 
 
 2,321,315 
 
 1869 . . ... 
 
 15,321,128 
 
 The iron ores of Lake Superior that are not used in Michi- 
 gan are mainly shipped to Ohio Pennsylvania, Illinois and 
 Wisconsin. About one-third of all the pig iron that is now 
 manufactured in the United States is made from these ores. 
 Captain Ward was the most prominent of all the iron manu- 
 facturers of Michigan, his enterprise in this respect extend- 
 ing to other states than his own. He was born in Canada 
 of Vermont parents, on December 25, 1811, and died sud- 
 denly at Detroit, on January 2, 1875. In 1870 Michigan 
 ranked eighth in the list of iron -producing states, and in 
 1880 its rankwas the same. 
 Wisconsin. — In 1840 the census mentions a furnace in 
 Milwaukee town," which produced three tons of iron in 
 that year. This was doubtless a small foundry. In 1859 
 
 Lesley mentions three charcoal furnaces in Wisconsin 
 
 Northwestern, or Mayville, at Mayville, in Dodge county 
 forty miles northwest of Milwaukee, and five miles from the 
 Iron ridge, built in 1853 by the owners of Mishawaka 
 furnace in Indiana, and to which a foundry was added in 
 1858 ; Ironton, at Ironton, in Sauk county, built in 1857 by 
 Jonas Tower ; and Black River, built in 1857 by a German 
 company on the east bank of Black river, near the falls, in 
 German county. Of these furnaces at least one, Ironton, 
 was built to produce castings. A description of it in 1858 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MIXING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 67 
 
 says : " It is a small blast fiimace capable of producing 
 about three tons of iron per day, and intended for the 
 manufacture of stoves, castings, etc." The Ironton furnace 
 still produces castings as well as pig iron. The Mayville 
 furnace is also still in operation, having been rebuilt in 
 1872, but the Black River furnace has long been abandoned. 
 There appear to have been no forges or bloomaries in Wis- 
 consin in 1840, 1850, or 1860. The furnaces which have 
 been mentioned were all that the state could boast until 
 1865, when a charcoal furnace at Iron Ridge, in Dodge 
 county, was built by the Wisconsin Iron Company. This 
 was soon followed by several other furnaces, some of which 
 were built to use native ores and some to use Michigan ores 
 from Lake Superior. The Appleton Iron Company built 
 two furnaces at Appleton, in Outagamie county, in 1871 
 and 1872 ; C. J. L. Meyer built a furnace at Fond du Lac 
 in 1864, but it had not been put in blast down to November 
 15, 1881 ; the Fox River Iron Company built two furnaces 
 at West Depere, in Brown county, in 1869 and 1872 ; the 
 Green Bay Iron Company built a furnace at Green Bay, in 
 the same county, in 1870 ; and the National Furnace Com- 
 pany built two furnaces at Depere, in the same county, in 
 
 1869 and 1872. All of these furnaces were built to use 
 charcoal. In 1870 and 1871 the Milwaukee Iron Company 
 built two large furnaces at Bay View, near Milwaukee, and 
 in 1873 the Minerva Iron Company built a furnace at 
 Milwaukee. These three furnaces were built to use mineral 
 fuel and Lake Superior oras. A furnace called Richland 
 was built in 1876 at Cazenovia, in Richland county, and 
 was torn down in 1879. In 1880 there were fourteen fur- 
 naces in the state, eleven of which used charcoal and three 
 used anthracite coal and coke. Wisconsin had no rolling 
 mill until 1868, when its first and thus far only mill was 
 built at Milwaukee by the Milwaukee Iron Company, of 
 which Captain E. B. Ward was a leading member. This 
 was from the first a large mill, and was built to roll new iron 
 rails. In 1874 a merchant bar mill was added. This mill 
 and the two Bay View fiirnaces are now operated by the 
 North Chicago Rolling Mill Company. Wisconsin advanced 
 rapidly in the manufacture of iron in the decade between 
 
 1870 and 1880, and in the latter year it ranked sixth among 
 the iron-producing states of the Union. In 1870 it was 
 twelfth in rank. 
 
 Missoviri. — ^Missouri has an iron history which ante- 
 dates its admission into the Union in 1820. The celebrated 
 iron district, in Iron and Saint Francois counties, which 
 embraces Iron Mountain and Pilot Knob, contained a blast 
 furnace before 1819, and possibly as early as 1812 or 1814, 
 as we find in a prospectus of the Missouri Iron Company, 
 written in 18.B7, the statement that "cannon balls, made 
 from the Iron Mountain ore during the late war, after having 
 been exposed for several years to the open atmosphere and 
 rains, still maintained their original metallic lustre." The 
 cannon balls referred to would probably be used for the 
 defense of New Orleans. This furnace was called Spring- 
 field, and was situated in the vicinity of Iron Mountain, 
 and about forty miles from the Mississippi river, but its 
 exact location we cannot learn. It was in Washington 
 county as the county was then bounded. In 1858 Lesley 
 says that " an old charcoal furnace was once in operation in 
 township 33, range 4 north, half section 2 " of Iron county. 
 This may have been Springfield furnace. John Perry and 
 Colonel Ruggles, whether jointly or severally the authority 
 from which we quote does not state, operated Springfield 
 furnace " for more than fifteen years " prior to 1837. In 
 that year the furnace was in operation, when it was called 
 " a small furnace." A forge was then attached to it, and 
 "a blooming forge" was promised "the ensuing year." 
 Maramee furnace, in Phelps county, about sixty miles west 
 of Iron Mountain, was built in 1826, and rebuilt many years 
 afterwards. It is still standing but not in operation. At 
 an early day a forge was added to the furnace, to convert its 
 pig iron into bar iron, and this forge, with eight fires, is also 
 still standing but not in operation, its product when last 
 employed being charcoal blooms. In 1843 a rolling mill 
 was added, but it was " abandoned after one year's trial, 
 because of the sulphur in the stone coal obtained at a bank 
 fourteen miles southeast." In the census of 1840 Missouri 
 is credited with two furnaces — one in Crawford county, and 
 one in Washington county. It is also credited with three 
 
 forges in Crawford county and one in Washington county. 
 The furnace in Crawford county was Maramee — Phelps 
 county not having been then organized, and the forges in 
 Crawford county were probably attached to Maramee fur- 
 nace. The furnace in Washington county was Springfield, 
 and the forge was doubtless the one attached to this furnace 
 We do not hear of Springfield furnace and forge after this 
 time. In 1836 the remarkable iron-ore mountains already 
 mentioned — Iron Mountain and Pilot Knob — attracted the 
 attention of some Misssouri capitalists, and in the fe.ll of 
 that year the Missouri Iron Compay, with a nominal capital 
 of $6,000,000, was formed to utilize their ores, the le^sla- 
 ture chartering the company on December 31, 1836. In 
 January, 1837, the company was fully organized under the 
 presidency of Silas Drake, of Saint Louis, who was soon 
 succeeded by J. L. VanDoren, of Arcadia, hut active work 
 in the development of its property does not appear to have 
 been undertaken until some years afterwards when a few 
 furnaces were erected at the foot of the mountains by other 
 companies. In 1846 a furnace was built at the southwest 
 base of Little Iron Mountain, which was followed in 1850 
 by another furnace at the same place, and in 1864 by still 
 another. In 1849 a furnace was built on the north side of 
 Pilot Knob, which was followed in 1865 by another at the 
 same place. These were all charcoal furnaces, and were 
 exceptionally well managed in 1857, when they were visited 
 and described by Charles B. Forney, of Lebanon, Pennsyl- 
 vania. At that time two of the Iron Mountain ftirnaces 
 and one of the Pilot Knob furnaces were blown with hot 
 blast. 
 
 In 1846 Moselle fiimace was built at Moselle, in Franklin 
 county, and in 1859 a furnace was built at Irondale, in 
 Washington county — ^both furnaces to use charcoal. These, 
 with the furnaces previously mentioned, appear to be all 
 that were built in Missouri prior to 1860. It will be 
 observed that they were all built in the same part of the 
 state — southwest of Saint Louis. 
 
 The iron industry of Saint Louis appears to have had its 
 commencement in 1850, when the Saint Louis, or Laclede, 
 rolling mill was built. It was followed by the Missouri 
 rolling mill, built in 1854 ; by the Allen rolling mill, built 
 in 1855 ; by the Pacific rolling mill, built in 1856 ; and by 
 Raynor's rolling mill, built in 1858. In 1880 there were 
 seven rolling mills in Saint Louis, and there were no others 
 in Missouri. One of these mills, the Vulcan, built in 1872, 
 was connected with the Bessemer steel works of the Vulcan 
 Steel Company and rolled steel rails. Two other mills rolled 
 light rails and bar iron. The Bessemer works of the Vulcan 
 Steel Company were built in 1875 and 1876. The state had 
 no other steel works in 1880. Saint Louis had no blast 
 ftirnaces until 1863, when the Pioneer ftirnace was built at 
 Carondelet, to use coke. It was in blast in 1873, but in 
 1874 it was torn down and removed by the Pilot Knob Iron 
 Company. In 1869 the Vulcan Iron Works, now called the 
 Vulcan Steel Company, built two furnaces, which' were 
 followed in 1872 by another furnace built by the same 
 company. In 1870 and 1872 the South Saint Louis Iron 
 Company built two furnaces ; in 1870 the Missouri Furnace 
 Company built two ; and in 1873 Jupiter fiirnace was built, 
 but it was not put in blast until 1880. These eight furnaces 
 were all built to use Illinois or Connellsville coke and 
 Missouri ores. In 1871 a large forge was built at South 
 Saint Louis, called the Germania iron works, to make 
 charcoal blooms from pig iron, but it has been idle for 
 several years. In 1863 a forge was built at Kimmswick, in 
 Jefferson county, and enlarged and remodeled in 1877 by the 
 Peckham Iron Company, its product after the enlargement 
 being charcoal blooms from the ore, It was in operation iii 
 1880. There were in 1880 ten charcoal furnaces and eight 
 coke furnaces jn Missouri, and two charcoal furnaces were 
 in course of erection. During the decade between 1870 and 
 1880 the iron industry of Missouri was subject to excep. 
 tional vicissitudes, but in the latter year it was apparently 
 placed upon a more substantial basis of prosperity than it 
 had ever before occupied, and to-day its future is hopeful, 
 although it has lost the prominent rant it held among iron- 
 producing states in 1870. It then ranked sixth, but in 1880 
 it had fallen to the tenth place. The shipments of iron ore 
 from Missouri to other states have for many years averaged 
 over 100,000 tons annually. 
 
68 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTEEESTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Minnesota has one furnace, situated at Duluth, wMch 
 was commenced in 1873 and not finished until 1880, when it 
 was put in blast. Its projectors failed, and after passing 
 through the hands of creditors it was purchased by the Du- 
 luth Iron Company, its present owners. It uses charcoal as 
 fuel and obtains its supply of ore from the Lake Superior 
 mines in Michigan. 
 
 Arkansas. — In 1857 a bloomary called Big Creek was 
 built about six miles southwest of Smithville, in Lawrence 
 county, Arkansas, by Alfred Sevens & Co. In 1858 Lesley 
 describes it as " a bloomary with two fires and a hammer, 
 making 250 pounds of swedged iron per day per fire, with a 
 cold-blast in November, 1857, but has now a hot-blast, and 
 is making perhaps 800 pounds, using 300 bushels of char- 
 . coal to the ton of finished bars, made out of brown hematite 
 ore." The bloomary was driven by water-power. It is not 
 mentioned in the census of 1860 or 1870, and has been 
 abandoned. We have no. knowledge of any other iron- 
 manufacturing enterprise having ever existed in this state. 
 
 Texas. — Texas does not appear to have had any iron 
 enterprises of any kind before the civil war, but three small 
 furnaces are reported to have been abandoned at the close of 
 the war. They were probably built during its continuance 
 to meet the necessities of the Confederate government. In 
 1869 a charcoal furnace was built at Jefferson, in Marion 
 county, which was rebuilt in 1874. It was in operation in 
 1880, and was then the only furnace in the state. It is called 
 Kelly flirnace, after Mr. G. A. Kelly, the president of the 
 Jefferson Iron Company, by which it is owned. It uses 
 brown hematite ore found in the neighborhood. 
 
 Kansas had two rolling mills in operation in 1880, both 
 of which were built to reroll rails. One of these, at Eose- 
 dale, in Wyandotte county, three miles from Kansas City, 
 is owned by the Kansas Eolling Mill Company. This mill 
 was once in operation at Decatur, Illinois, where it was built 
 in 1870, and whence it was removed to Eosedale in 1875. 
 The other mill is located at Topeka, and was built in 1874 
 by the Topeka Eolling Mill Company. This mill was burned 
 in April, 1881, but will probably be rebuilt. 
 
 Nebraska. — Nebraska had one iron enterprise in opera- 
 tion in 1880 — a rolling mill and cut-nail factory at Omaha, 
 owned by the Omaha Iron and Nail Company. These works 
 were first built at Dunleith, Illinois, in 1875 and 1876, and 
 were removed to Omaha in 1879 and considerably enlarged. 
 They have a capacity of 60,000 kegs of nails annuSly. 
 They use old iron exclusively. 
 
 Colorado. — In 1877 a rolling mill was removed by 
 William Faux from Danville, Pennsylvania, to Pueblo, 
 Colorado, and put in operation on March 1, 1878, its product 
 being reroUed rails. In the same year it was removed to 
 Denver. It was in operation in 1880, rolling bar iron as 
 well as reroUing rails. This mill is now owned by the 
 Colorado Coal and Iron Company. In 1880 this company 
 commenced the erection of a large coke furnace at South 
 Pueblo, in Colorado, which was put in blast on September 
 
 7, 1881. In the former year it commenced the construction 
 of Bessemer steel works at the same place. These enter- 
 prises are the pioneers of a very extensive and complete 
 iron and steel establishment which has been projected by 
 this company, and which is to embrace two blast furnaces, 
 Bessemer steel works, and a rolling mill for rolling steel 
 rails. Coke works on an extensive scale have already been 
 built by the company at El Moro. The number of ovens 
 now completed is over 200, and others are being erected. 
 Colorado has apparently a great future before it in the 
 production of iron and steel, all the elements necessary to 
 their manufacture being found within its limits, 
 
 Wyoming'. — The Union Pacific Railroad Company built 
 a rolling mill to reroll rails at Laramie City, Wyoming terri- 
 tory, in 1874, and put it in operation in April, 1875, It was 
 in operation in 1880, 
 
 Utah. — In 1859 Lesley reported a forge in Utah territory, 
 " smelting iron ore found in the mountains east of Salt Lake 
 City, but no reliable information could be obtained respect- 
 ing it." It does not appear in the census of 1860. Dr. J, 
 
 8. Newberry writes that in 1880 he "visited the deposit of 
 crystalline iron ore of Iron county, in the southern part of 
 the territory. These ore beds have been long known, and 
 were to some extent utilized by the Mormons in their first 
 advent thirty years ago. The iron region referred to lies 
 
 nearly 300 miles directly south of Salt Lake City.'' In 1874 
 the Great Western Iron Company, of which John W. Young 
 was president, built a charcoal furnace at Iron City, in Iron 
 county. It was in blast in that year and in the two follow- 
 ing years, but has since been idle. This is a very small 
 furnace, being only nineteen feet high and four feet wide at 
 the boshes, with a daily capacity of five tons. The erection 
 of a much larger furnace, also to use charcoal, was com- 
 menced at Ogden City, Utah, in 1875, by the Ogden Iron 
 Manufacturing Company, and was intended to use hematite 
 and magnetic ores found in the neighborhood. The furnace 
 had not been put in blast at the close of 1880, and was not 
 then entirely completed. The same company commenced 
 to build a rolling mill at Oregon City in 1875, which had 
 not been completed in 1880. 
 
 California. — California has for many years had a very 
 complete rolling mill at San Francisco, owned by the Pacific 
 Eolling Mill Company. It was first put in operation on 
 July 25, 1868. It rolls rails, bar iron, angle iron, shafting, 
 etc. It was in operation in 1880, and has always been well 
 employed. The California Iron Company commenced in 
 1880 the erection of a charcoal furnace at Clipper Gap, in 
 Placer county, where iron ore had been discovered, and in 
 the same year the Central Pacific Eailroad Company com- 
 menced the erection at Sacramento City of a small mill to 
 roll bar iron. The Clipper Gap furnace was successfully put 
 in blast in April, 1881, and the first cast was made on the 24th 
 of that month, California may have had a forge or two 
 while it was Mexican territory, but it is doubtful whether its 
 Mexican inhabitants ever engaged in the manufacture of iron. 
 
 Oregon, — At Oswego, in Clackamas county, Oregon, a 
 furnace to use charcoal was built in 1866 and enlarged in 
 1879. It was in blast in 1880, when it produced 5,000 net tons 
 of pig iron. Its charcoal is made exclusively from the fir tree. 
 
 Washington Territory. — A furnace at Irondale, near 
 Port Townsend, in Jefferson county, Washington territory, 
 was built in 1880, and put in blast early in 1881. It is a 
 small furnace, and was built to make charcoal pig iron from 
 Puget sound bog ore mixed with Texada Island magnetic 
 ore. It is owned by the Puget Sound Iron Company, of 
 Port Townsend, The company is said to contemplate the 
 erection of another blast furnace on Texada Island, which 
 is in British Columbia, 
 
 The First Iron Works in Canada. — ^A brief notice 
 of the first iron works in Canada seems proper to be insert- 
 ed here, more especially as these works are still in operation. 
 They are known as the Forges of the St, Maurice, and are 
 located near Three Elvers, in the province of Quebec. Mr. 
 A, T. Freed, one of the editors of the Hamilton (Ontario) 
 Spectator, informs us that iron ore in the vicinity of Three 
 Eiyers was discovered as early as 1666. In 1685 the Mar- 
 quis de Denouville sent to France a sample of the ore at 
 Three Elvers, which the French ironworkers found to be "of 
 good quality and percentage." In 1672 the Count de Fron- 
 tepac reported that he had begun to mine the ore at Three 
 Elvers. He strongly urged the establishment of forges and 
 a foundry. But no effort to establish iron works at this place 
 appears to have been made until the next century, when the 
 St. Maurice works were undertaken, Dr, T, Sterry Hunt, 
 of Montreal, has supplied us with the following brief history 
 of these works. 
 
 "King Louis XIV, gave a royal license in 1730 to a company to 
 work the iron ores of St, Maurice and the vicinity, and advanced 
 10,000 livreg for aid in erecting the furnace, etc. No work being 
 done he took back the license, and in 1735 granted it to a new com- 
 pany, which received 100,000 livre.s in aid and in 1737 built a blast 
 furnace. In 1 843, however, the works reverted to the crown, and 
 were worked for the king's profit. He then sent out from France 
 skilled workmen, who rebuilt, in part at least, the blast furnace as 
 it now stands, and erected a Walloon hearth, which is still in use, 
 for refining. The works became the property of the British Crown 
 at the conquest, and were at first rented to a company and afterwards 
 sold. Smelting has been carried on at this place without interruption 
 to the present time, the bog ores of the region being exclusively used. 
 Three tons of ore make one ton of iron. 
 
 There seems to be no doubt that the stack is the one built in 1737, 
 and is still in blast. It is 30 feet high, and the internal diameter at 
 the hearth is 24 feet, at the boshes 7 feet, and at the throat 3i feet. 
 There are two tuyeres, and the blast is cold, with a pressure of one 
 pound. The daily production of iron is four tons, and the eon- 
 sumption of charcoal is l^O bushels, (French.) of about 12 pounds 
 each, per toa of iron. The metal was formerly used in the district 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 69 
 
 for ordinary castings, but is now in great demand for car wheels. 
 A very little is, however, refined in the Walloon hearth, and is 
 esteemed by the blaclismiths for local use. The analysis of a sam- 
 ple of the gray pi^ of St. Maurice made by me in 1868 gave : 
 Phosphorus, .450 ; silicon, .860 ; manganese, 1.240 ; graphite, 2.820 ; 
 carbon combined, 1.100." 
 
 In addition to the above information from Dr. Hunt, we 
 find some facts of interest concerning the St. Maurice iron 
 works in Peter Kalm's Travels into North America, written 
 in 1749. 
 
 " The iron worli, which is the only one in this country, lies three 
 miles to the west of Trois Rivieres. Here are two great forges, 
 besides two lesser ones to each of the greater ones, and under the 
 same roof with them. The bellows were made of wood, and every- 
 thing else as it is in Swedish forges. The melting ovens stand close 
 to the forges, and are the same as ours. The ore is got two 
 French miles and a half from the iron worlis, and is carried thither 
 on sledges. It is a kind of moor ore, which lies in veins, within six 
 inches or a foot from the surface of the ground. Each vein is from 
 six to eighteen inches deep, and below it is a white sand. The veins 
 are surrounded with this sand on both sides, and covered at the top 
 with a thin mould. The ore is pretty rich and lies in loose lumps 
 in the veins, of the size of two fists, though there are a few which 
 are eighteen inches thick. These lumps are full of holes, which 
 are filled with ochre. The ore is so soft that it may be crushed 
 betwixt the fingers. They make use of the grey limestone, which 
 is broke in the neighborhood, for promoting fusibility of the ore; to 
 that purpose they likewise employ a clay marble, which is found 
 near this place. Charcoals are to be had in great abundance here, 
 because all the country round this place is covered with woods 
 which have never been stirred. The charcoals from evergreen trees, 
 that is from tlie fir kind, are best for the forge, but those of 
 deciduous trees are best for the smelting oven. The iron which is 
 here made was to me described as soft, pliable, and tough, and it is 
 said to have the quality of not being attacked by rust so casUy as 
 other iron; and in tliis point there appears a great difference 
 between the Spanish iron and this in shipbuilding. 
 
 This iron work was first founded in 1737, by private persons, who 
 afterwards ceded it to the king; they cast cannon and mortars here, 
 of different sizes, iron stoves, which are in use all over Canada, kettles, 
 etc., not to mention the bars which are made here. They have like- 
 wise tried to make steel here, but cannot bring it to any great 
 perfection, because they are unacquainted with the manner of 
 preparing it." 
 
 Mr. Freed says that the French company which esta- 
 blished the St. Maurice iron works in 1737 was known as 
 Ougnet et Cie. He also says that there was a French garri- 
 son at Trois Eivieres at the time, and that the soldiers were 
 the principal workmen. He sends us a copy of a report 
 made in 1752 to M. Bigot, Intendant of New France, re- 
 siding at Quebec, by M. Franquet, who had been instructed 
 to visit and examine the St. Maurice works. From this 
 report the following extract is taken : 
 
 On entering the smelting forge I was received with a customary 
 ceremony ; the workmen moulded a pig of iron about 15 feet long 
 for my especial benefit. The process is very simple ; it is done by 
 plunging a large ladle into the liquid-boiling ore and emptying the 
 material into a gutter made in the sand. After this ceremony, I 
 was shown the process of stove moulding, which is also a very 
 simple but rather intricate operation. Each stove is in six pieces, 
 which are separately moulded ; they are fitted into each other and 
 form a stove about three feet high. I then visited a shed where 
 the workmen were moulding pots, kettles, and other hollow-ware. 
 On leaving this part of the forge we were taken to the hammer 
 forge, where bar iron of every kmd is hammered out. In each de- 
 partment of the forges the workmen observed the old ceremony of 
 brushing a stranger's boots, and in return they expect some monej 
 to buy liquor to drink the visitor's health. The establishment is 
 very extensive, employing upward of 180 men. Nothing is con- 
 sumed in the furnaces but charcoal, which is made in the imme- 
 diate vicinity of the post. The ore is rich, good, and tolerably 
 clean. Formerly it was found on the spot; now the director has to 
 send some little distance for it. This iron is preferred to the Span- 
 ish iron, and is sold off in the king's stores in Quebec. 
 
 Still quoting from Mr. Freed, we learn that in 1815 a vis- 
 itor to the St. Maurice works wrote as follows: "The foun- 
 dry itself is replete with convenience for carrying on an 
 extensive concern ;■ furnaces, forges, casting-houses, work- 
 shops, etc. The articles manufactured consist of stoves of 
 all descriptions that are used throughout the provinces, large 
 caldrons or kettles that are used for making potashes, 
 machinery for mills, with cast or wrought iron-work of all 
 denominations. There are likewise large quantities of pig 
 and bar iron exported. The number of men employed is 
 from 250 to 300." The works remained in the ownership 
 
 of the British government until 1846, when they were sold 
 to Henry Stuart. The latest information concerning them 
 is contained in a report to the Dominion Parliament in 
 1879, which says that they were then owned by F. Macdou- 
 gall & Son, of Three Rivers, and were using bog ore and 
 making good iron with charcoal. " The first furnace was 
 erected in 1737 ; still running ; capacity four tons." 
 
 — Ofmpiledjram James M. Swank's Report on Iron and Bteel, Tenth Census of the 
 U.S. 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON WITH 
 ANTHRACITE COAL. 
 
 THE details given abore of the early iron history of 
 the Atlantic states of the Union relate almost 
 entirely to the manufacture of charcoal iron, no 
 other fuel than charcoal having been used in 
 American blast furnaces until about 1840. The period of 
 our iron history prior to 1840 may therefore very properly 
 be styled the charcoal era. 
 
 The line which separates the charcoal era of our iron his- 
 tory from the era which succeeded it, and which may be said 
 to still continue, is marked by the introduction of anthracite 
 and bituminous coal in the manufacture of pig iron. This 
 innovation at once created a revolution in the whole iron 
 industry of the country. Facilities for the manufacture of 
 iron were increased; districts which had been virtually 
 closed to the manufacture because of a local scarcity of 
 charcoal were now opened to it; and the cheapening of 
 prices, which was made possible by the increased production 
 and consequent increased competition, served to stimulate 
 consumption. A notable efiect of the introduction of min- 
 eral fuel was that, while it seriously affected the production 
 of charcoal pig iron in States which, like Pennsylvania, pos- 
 sessed the new fuel, it did not injuriously affect the produc- 
 tion of charcoal pig iron in other States. Some of these 
 States, like Michigan, which scarcely possessed an iron indus- 
 try of any kind in 1840, now manufacture large quantities 
 of charcoal pig iron. The country at large now annually 
 makes more charcoal pig iron than it did in 1840 or in any 
 preceding year. The introduction of mineral fuel did not, 
 therefore, destroy our charcoal iron industry, but simply 
 added to our resources for the production of iron. This 
 introduction, however, marked such radical changes in our 
 iron industry, and so extended the theatre of this industry, 
 that we are amply justified in referring to it as a revolu- 
 tion, and as one which ended the distinctive charcoal era. 
 Of the two forms of mineral fuel — anthracite and bitu- 
 minous coal — anthracite was the first to be largely used in 
 American blast furnaces, and for many years after its adapta- 
 bility to the smelting of iron ore was established it was in 
 greater demand for this purpose than bituminous coal. In 
 recent years the relative popularity of these two fuels for 
 blast furnace use has been reversed. The natural difficulties 
 in the way of the successful introduction of anthracite coal 
 in our blast furnaces were enhanced by the fact that, up to 
 the time when we commenced our experiments in its use, no 
 other country had succeeded in using it as a furnace fuel 
 The successive steps by which we were enabled to add the. 
 manufacture of anthracite pig iron to that of charcoal pig 
 iron will be presented in chronological order. In 1840 
 Jesse B. Quinby testified, in the suit of Farr & Kunzi 
 against the Schuylkill Navigation Company, that in 1815 
 he used anthracite coal for a short time at Harford furnace, 
 Maryland, mixed with one-half charcoal. Between 1824 
 and 1828 Peter Ritner, whose brother, Joseph Ritner, after- 
 wards became Governor of Pennsylvania, was successful for 
 a short time in using anthracite coal in a charcoal furnace in 
 Perry county, Pennsylvania, mixed with charcoal. In 1826 
 the Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company erected near 
 Mauch Chunk, in Pennsylvania, a smalt furnace intended 
 to use anthracite coal in smelting iron ore. The enterprise 
 was not successful. In 1827 unsuccessful experiments in 
 smelting iron ore with anthracite coal from Rhode Island 
 were made at one of the small blast furnaces in Kingston, 
 
70 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Plymoutli county, Massachusetts. In 1827 and 1828 a simi- 
 lar failure in tlie use of anthracite coal took place at Vizille, 
 in France. All of these experiments failed because the 
 blast used was cold. The hot-blast had not then been 
 invented. 
 
 In 1828 James B. Neilson, of Scotland, obtained a patent 
 for the use of hot air in the smelting of iron ore in blast 
 furnaces, and in 1829 pig iron was made in several Scotch 
 furnaces with the apparatus which he had invented. But 
 the coal used was bituminous. It was not until 1836 that 
 the smelting of iron ore with anthracite coal by means of 
 the hot-blast invented by Neilson was undertaken in Great 
 Britain. In the mean time the application of the hot-blast 
 to anthracite coal in American furnaces was successfully 
 experimented upon by an enterprising German- American, 
 the Rev. Dr. Frederick W. Geissenhainer, a Lutheran 
 clergyman of New York city. A copy in his own hand- 
 writing of a letter written by him in November, 1837, to the 
 commissioner of patents, gives some interesting and valuable 
 details concerning his experiments. In this letter, which 
 we have before us, he says : " I can prove that, in the month 
 of December, 1830, and in the months of January, Febru- 
 ary, and March, 1881, I had already invented and made 
 many successful experiments as well with hot air as with 
 an atmospheric air blast to smelt iron ore with anthracite 
 coal in my small experimenting furnace here in the city 
 of New York." 
 
 On the 5th of September, 1831, Dr. Geissenhainer filed in 
 the patent office at Washington an account of his invention 
 for which he claimed a patent. On the 19th of December, 
 1833, a patent was granted to him for a " new and useful 
 improvement in the manufacture of iron and steel by the 
 application of anthracite coal." From the long and re- 
 markably clear and learned specification by the Doctor, 
 which accompanied the patent, we learn that he discovered 
 that iron ore could be smelted with anthracite coal by 
 applying " a blast, or a column, or a stream or current of 
 air in or of such quantity, velocity, and density or compres- 
 sion as the compactness or density and the continuity of the 
 anthracite coal requires. The blast may be of common 
 atmospheric or of heated air. Heated air I should prefer in 
 an economical point of view." The Doctor distinctly dis- 
 claims in his specification " an exclusive right of the use of 
 heated air for any kind of fuel," from which it is to be in- 
 ferred that he had full knowledge of Neilson's experiments 
 with hot air in Scotland. He appears to have relied for suc- 
 cess largely upon the efiect of a strong blast. 
 
 The patent having been granted, Dr. Geissenhainer pro- 
 ceeded to build a furnace for the practical application of his 
 invention. This was Valley furnace, situated on Silver 
 creek, in Schuylkill county, Pennsylvania, about ten miles 
 northeast of Pottsville. In August and September, 1836, he 
 was successful in making pig iron at this furnace exclusively 
 with anthracite coal as fuel. His own testimony on this 
 point is given in the letter from which we have already 
 quoted. The blast used varied from 3 J to 3}, to 3, and to 2| 
 pounds to the square inch. That the furnace did not con- 
 tinue to make iron after the fall of 1836 is explained by Dr. 
 Geissenhainer to have been due to an accident to its machi- 
 nery. He adds: "My furnace would have been put in 
 operation again long before this time, with strong iron ma- 
 chinery and a hot-air apparatus, had I not been prevented 
 by the pressure of the times and by a protracted severe sick- 
 ness from bestowing my attention to this matter. The draw- 
 ings for the iron machinery and for the hot-air apparatus 
 are already in the hands of Messrs. Haywood & Snyder, in 
 Pottsville, who are to do the work." The blast used in 
 August and September, 1836, was heated. Before the Doc- 
 tor's plans for improving his furnace were completed he was 
 called to another world. He died at New York on the 27th 
 of May, 1838, aged sixty-six years and eleven months. He 
 was born at Muhlberg, in the Electorate of Saxony, in 1771, 
 and came to this country when about eighteen years old. 
 His remains rest in the family burial vault in the Lutheran 
 cemetery in Queen's county, New York. Prior to his erec- 
 tion of Valley furnace. Dr. Geissenhainer had been engaged 
 in the development of the iron and coal resources of Penn- 
 sylvania. As early as 1811 he was associated with Peter 
 Karthaus, of Baltimore, in the mining of bituminous coal in 
 Clearfield county, and a few years later in the ownership of | 
 
 a charcoal furnace in that county. For two or three years 
 before 1830 he owned and operated a small charcoal furnace 
 in Schuylkill county, and it was near this furnace that he 
 afterwards built Valley furnace. Attached to the charcoal 
 furnace was a puddling furnace. He was the pioneer in the 
 development of the Silver creek anthracite coal mines, the 
 projector of the Schuylkill Valley Railroad, and the sole 
 owner of the Silver Creek Railroad. Dr. Geissenhainer was, 
 as will be seen, a man of great enterprisa His memory as 
 the first successful manufacturer of pig iron with anthracite 
 coal and the hot-blast is entitled to greater honor than it has 
 yet received. On the 28th of September, 1836, when Dr. 
 Geissenhainer's Valley furnace was successfully making pig 
 iron, and almost three years after the Doctor had obtained 
 a patent for his invention, George Crane, the owner of sev- 
 eral furnaces at Yniscedwin, in South Wales, obtained a 
 patent from the British government for the application of 
 the hot-blast to the smelting of iron ore with anthracite coal. 
 On the 7th of February, 1837, he successfully commenced 
 the use of anthracite with the hot-blast at one of his furnaces, 
 obtaining 36 tons a week. In May of that year Solomon 
 W. Roberts, of Philadelphia, visited his works and witnessed 
 the complete success of the experiment, which was the first 
 successful experiment with anthracite coal in a blast furnace 
 in Europe. 
 
 Mr. Crane endeavored to obtain a patent in this country 
 for his application of the hot-blast to anthracite coal in the 
 blast furnace, but was unsuccessful. Dr. Geissenhainer's 
 invention being accorded priority. His patent, which was 
 only for the United States, was purchased from his execu- 
 tors in 1838 by Mr. Crane, who, in November of that year, 
 patented some additions to it in this country. The patents 
 could not be enforced here, but Mr. Crane compelled the 
 ironmasters of Great Britain to pay him for the use of his 
 invention. Dr. Geissenhainer never attempted to enforce 
 his patent. The consideration which his executors received 
 from Mr. Crane was $1,000 and the privilege of erecting, 
 free of royalty, fifteen furnaces for the use of anthracite coal 
 with the hot-blast. The following advertisement by Mr. 
 Crane's agents in this country we take from a Philadelphia 
 newspaper published in December, 1839 : 
 
 Anthracite Ieon. — The subscribers, agents of George Crane, 
 Esq., are prepared to grant licenses for the manufacture of iron 
 with anthracite coal under the patent granted to Mr. Crane by the 
 United States, for smelting iron with the above fuel, in addition to 
 which Mr. Crane holds an assignment of so much of the patent 
 granted to the late Reverend Dr. Geissenhainer as pertains to mak- 
 ing iron with anthracite coal. The charge will be 25 cents per ton 
 on all thus manufactiu'ed. It has been completely successful both 
 in Wales and at Pottsville, one furnace at the latter place yielding 
 an average product of 40 tons per week of excellent iron. All per- 
 sons are cautioned against infringing upon either of the above 
 patents. Any application of hot-blast m the smelting of iron ore 
 with anthracite coal, without a license, will be an infringement and 
 will be treated accordingly. Apply to 
 
 A. & G. RAXSTON & CO., 
 
 dee 9— Im 4 South Front st. 
 
 Mr. Crane was born about 1785 at Bromsgrove, in Worces- 
 tershire, England, whence he removed in 1824 to Wales. 
 Two interesting experiments in the use of anthracite coal in 
 the blast furnace were made in this country about the time 
 that Dr. Geissenhainer was successful with his experiment 
 at Valley furnace. In 1836 and 1837 John Pott experi- 
 mented at Manheim furnace, at Cressona, in Schuylkill 
 county, with anthracite coal as a fuel for smelting iron ore. 
 He first used a mixture of anthracite coal and charcoal with 
 cold-blast. The results accomplished were so encouraging 
 that he added a hot-blast and gradually reduced the propor- 
 tion of charcoal until only anthracite was used. This he 
 used alone and successfully for a short time. But the blast 
 was too weak, and the furnace was not long in operation. 
 Before necessary improvements could be made it was 
 destroyed by a freshet. In 1837 Jarvis Van Buren, acting 
 for a company, built a furnace at South Easton, in 
 Northampton county, for the purpose of experimenting with 
 anthracite coal. Early in 1838 he was successful in making 
 20 tons of pig iron, when further operations were stopped in 
 consequence of the blast being too weak. We are not 
 informed whether it was hot or cold. 
 
 It is claimed that a successfiil experiment in the manufac- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 71 
 
 ture of pig iron with anthracite coal was made in 1837 by a 
 Mr. Bryant, in a foundry cupola at Manayunk, near Philadel- 
 phia. The blast used was produced by " wooden bellows." 
 A few tons of the iron made were used by Parke & Tiers, the 
 owners of the foundry, " and proved to be of good gray 
 quality and of uncommon strength." The experiment was 
 conducted under the auspices of this firm and of Mr. 
 Abraham Kunzi, of the firm of Farr & Kunzi, manufactu- 
 ring chemists, of Philadelphia. Wecannot learn whether the 
 blast was hot or cold. The record which we shall now give 
 of the successful use of anthracite coal in American furnaces, 
 after Dr. Geissenhainer and George Crane had established 
 the practicability of such use, will embrace only a few of the 
 early anthracite fiirnaces, and this we condense fi'om Walter 
 R. Johnson's Notes on the Use of Anthracite, published in 
 1841, and from William Firmstone's Sketch of Early Anthra- 
 cite Furnaces, published in the third volume of the Trans- 
 action of the American Institute of Mining Engineers. Late 
 in 1837 Joseph Baughman, Julius Guiteau, and Henry 
 High, of Reading, experimented in smelting iron ore with 
 anthracite coal in the old furnace of the Lehigh Coal and 
 Navigation Company at Mauch Chunk, using about 80 per 
 cent, of anthracite. The results were so encouraging that 
 they built a small water-power furnace near the Mauch 
 Chunk weigh-lock, which was completed in July 1838. 
 Blast was applied to this furnace on August 27, and discon- 
 tinued on September 10, the temperature being heated up to 
 about 200° Fahrenheit. The fuel used was mainly anthra- 
 cite, but not exclusively. A new heat apparatus was pro- 
 cured, placed in a brick chamber at the tunnel head, and 
 heated by a flame therefrom. Blast was applied late in 
 November, 1838, the fiiel used being anthracite exclusively, 
 and " the furnace worked remarkably well for five weeks," 
 up to January 12, 1839, when it was blown out for want of 
 ore. Some improvements were made, and on July 26, 1839, 
 the furnace was again put in blast, and so continued until 
 November 2, 1839. Mr. F. 0. Lowthorp, of Trenton, was 
 one of the partners at this time. For " about three months " 
 no other fuel than anthracite was used, the temperature of 
 blast being 400'' to 600°. About 100 tons of iron were made. 
 The next furnace to use anthracite was the Pioneer, built in 
 1837 and 1838 at Pottsville, by William Lyman, of Boston, 
 under the auspices of Burd Patterson, and blast was unsuc- 
 cessfully applied on July 10, 1839. Benjamin Perry then 
 took charge of it, and blew it in on October 19, 1839, with 
 complete success. This furnace was blown by steam-power. 
 The blast was heated in ovens at the base of the furnace, 
 with anthracite, to a temperature of 600°. The product was 
 about 28 tons a week of good foundry iron. The furnace 
 continued in blast for some time. A premium of $5,000 was 
 paid by Nicholas Biddle and others to Mr. Lyman, as the 
 first person in the United States who had made anthracite 
 pig iron continuously for one hundred days. 
 
 Danville fiirnace, in Montour county, was successfully 
 blown in with anthracite in April, 1840, producing 35 tons 
 of iron weekly with steam-power. Roaring Creek furnace, 
 in Montour county, was next blown in with anthracite on 
 May 18, 1840, and produced 40 tons of iron weekly with 
 water-power. A charcoal furnace at Phoenixville, built in 
 1837 by Reeves, Buck & Co., was blown in with anthracite 
 on June 17, 1840, by William Firmstone, and produced 
 from 28 to 30 tons of pig iron weekly with water-power. 
 The hot-blast stove, which was planned and erected by 
 Julius Guiteau, of the Mauch Chunk furnace, was situated 
 on one side of the tunnel-head, and heated by the name of 
 the furnace. This furnace continued in blast until 1841. 
 Columbia furnace, at Danville, was blown in with anthracite 
 by Mr Perry on July 2, 1840, and made from 30 to 32 tons 
 of iron weekly, using steam-power. The next furnace to 
 use anthracite, and the last one we shall mention, was built 
 at Catasauqua, for the Lehigh Crane Iron Company in 
 1839 by David Thomas, who had been associated with Mr. 
 Crane in his experiments at Yniscedwin. It was success- 
 fully blown in by him on the 3d of July, 1840, and produced 
 50 tons a week of good foundry iron, water power being 
 used. This furnace was in active use until 1879, when it 
 was torn down. Mr. Firmstone says that "with the erection 
 of this furnace commenced the era of higher and larger 
 furnaces and better blast machinery, with consequent 
 improvements in yield and^ quality of iron produced. 
 
 David Thomas who died in the first half of June, this year 
 — 1882 — ^was the oldest ironmaster in the United States in 
 length of service, and, next to Peter Cooper, the oldest in 
 years. 
 
 He was born on November 3, 1794, at a place called, in Eng- 
 lish, Grey House, within two and a half miles of the town of 
 Neath, in the county of Glamorgan, South Wales. He 
 landed in the United States on June 5, 1839, and on July 9 
 of that year he commenced to build the furnace at Cata- 
 sauqua. Father Thomas's character and services to the 
 American iron trade are held in high honor by every 
 American iron and steel manufacturer. William CuUen 
 Bryant and Mr. Thomas were born on the same day. In 
 1835 the Franklin Institute, of Philadelphia, offered a 
 premium of a gold medal " to the person who shall manu- 
 facture in the United States the greatest quantity of iron 
 from the ore during the year, using no other fuel than 
 anthracite coal, the quantity to be not less than twenty 
 tons," but we cannot learn that it was ever awarded to any 
 of the persons who were instrumental in establishing the 
 manufacture of anthracite pig iron in this country. 
 
 The discovery that anthracite coal could be successfully 
 used in the manufacture of pig iron gave a great impetus to 
 the iron industry in Maryland, New Jersey, and New York as 
 well as in Pennsylvania. In 1840 there were only six fiimaces 
 in the United States which used anthracite coal, and they 
 were all in Pennsylvania. The first anthracite furnace out- 
 side of Pennsylvania was built at Stanhope, New Jersey, in 
 1840 and 1841, by the Stanhope Iron Company, and it was 
 successfully blown in on April 5, 1841. On the 1st of April, 
 1846, there were forty-two ftimaces in Pennsylvania and 
 New Jersey which used anthracite coal as fuel, their annual 
 capacity being 122,720 gross tons. In 1856 there were 121 
 anthracite furnaces in the country which were either " run- 
 ning or in running order " — ninety-three in Pennsylvania, 
 fourteen in New York, six in Maryland, four in New Jersey, 
 three in Massachusetts, and one in Connecticut. Soon after 
 1856 many other furnaces were built to use anthracite as 
 fuel. Although the revolution to which we have referred 
 properly dates from the first successftil use of anthracite coal 
 in the blast furnace, this ftiel had been previously used in a 
 small way in our country in other ironmaking operations. 
 Its use in these operations became general about the time 
 when pig iron Was made with it. The first use of anthracite 
 coal in connection with the manufacture of iron in the 
 United States dates from 1812, in which year Colonel George 
 Shoemaker, of Pottsville, Pennsylvania, loaded nine wagons 
 with coal from his mines at Centreville, and hauled it to 
 Philadelphia, where with great difficulty he sold two loads 
 at the cost of transportation and gave the other seven loads 
 away. He was by many regarded as an impostor for attempt- 
 ing to sell stone to the public as coal. Of the two loads 
 sold, one was purchased by White & Hazard, for use at their 
 wire works at the Falls of Schuylkill, and the other was 
 purchased by Malin & Bishop, for use at the Delaware 
 County rolling mill. By the merest accident of closing the 
 fiirnace doors Mr. White obtained a hot fire' from the coal, 
 and from this occurrence, happening in 1812, we may date 
 the first successful use of anthracite coal in the manufacture 
 of iron in this country and in other American manufactures. 
 At both the establishments mentioned it was used in heating 
 their furnaces. Previous to this time bituminous coal from 
 Virginia and Great Britain had been relied upon for manu- 
 facturing purposes in the Atlantic States in all cases where 
 wood was not used. In the latter part of 1823 the Boston 
 Iron Company, owning the Boston iron works, obtained a 
 full cargo of Lehigh anthracite coal, for use in heating iron 
 to be rolled in its mill, and for smith-work. A short time pre- 
 vious to this transaction, and in the same year, Cyrus Alger, 
 of South Boston, obtained a lot of about thirty tons of Lehigh 
 coal, which he used in a cupola for melting iron for castings. 
 Anthracite coal for the generation of steam was first used in 
 this country in January, 1825, under the boilers of the roll- 
 ing mill at Phoenixville, of which Jonah and George 
 Thompson, of Philadelphia, were the proprietors. It is also 
 claimed that, two years later, in 1827, the first use of anthra- 
 cite coal in the puddling ftirnace in this country was at the 
 same rolling mill, Jonah and George Thompson still being 
 the proprietors. The use of anthracite for puddling did not 
 become general until about 1840. In 1839 anthracite coal 
 
72 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 was used in puddling at the Boston iron works by Ralph 
 Crooker, the superintendent. About 1836 Thomas and 
 Peter Cooper, brothers, used anthracite in a heating furnace 
 at their rolling mill in Thirty-third street, near Third 
 avenue. New York, and about 1840 they began to puddle 
 with anthracite. In April, 1846, there were twenty-seven 
 rolling mills in Pennsylvania and New Jersey which used 
 anthracite coal. 
 
 The following notice of the success of the Messrs. Thomp- 
 son in the use of anthracite coal for the production of steam 
 appeared at the time in a newspaper published at West 
 Chester, Pennsylvania. "We understand that the Messrs. 
 Thompson, at the Phoenix nail-works, on French creek, 
 have fully succeeded in constructing a furnace for a, steam 
 engine calculated for the use of anthracite coal, and in dis- 
 covering a mode by which this fuel may be most advanta- 
 geously applied to that important purpose. We would 
 heartily congratulate the eastern section of our state upon 
 this valuable discovery. Nothing within our knowledge 
 has occurred of recent date which can have a more auspi- 
 cious influence upon our manufacturing interests." 
 
 — CotnpiUdfrom James M. SwanJe^a Report on Iron and Sleel, Tervth Cenmsofthe U. S. 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON WITH 
 BITUMINOUS COAL. 
 
 IT is remarkable that the introduction of bituminous 
 coal in the blast furnaces of this country should have 
 taken place at so late a day in our history, and within 
 the memory of men who are not yet old. Bituminous 
 coal had been discovered in the United States long before 
 any attempt was made to use it in our blast furnaces, and 
 Great Britain had taught us while we were still her colonies 
 that it could be so used. In 1735 Abraham Darby, at his 
 furnace at Coalbrookdale, in Shropshire, had successfully 
 made pig iron with coke as fuel ; in 1740 a coke furnace 
 was built at Pontypool, in Monmouthshire; and in 1796 
 charcoal furnaces had been almost entirely abandoned in 
 Great Britain. Our delay in following the example of the 
 mother country may be variously explained. There was a 
 lack of transportation facilities for bringing iron ore and 
 coke together ; not all of the bituminous coal that had been 
 discovered was suitable for making good coke ; the manu- 
 facture of coke was not well understood ; the country had 
 an abundance of timber for the supply of charcoal ; and, 
 finally, a prejudice existed in favor of charcoal pig iron and 
 of bar iron hammered in charcoal forges. 
 
 The introduction about 1840 of bituminous coal as a fuel 
 in American blast furnaces, was naturally preceded by many 
 experiments in its use, which were attended with varying 
 success, but none of them with complete success. It 
 appears to be mathematically certain that down to 1835 all 
 these experiments had been unsuccessful, as in that year 
 the Franklin Institute, of Philadelphia, oflered a premium 
 of a gold medal " to the person who shall manufacture in 
 the United States the greatest quantity of iron from, the ore 
 during the year, using no other fuel than bituminous coal 
 or coke, the quantity to be not less than twenty tons." The 
 Institute would not have been likely to make this offer if 
 even so small a quantity as twenty tons of pig iron had 
 been made in one furnace with bituminous coal, either 
 coked or uncoked. In a report by a committee of the Sen- 
 ate of Pennsylvania, of which Hon. S. J. Packer was chair- 
 man, read in the Senate on March 4, 1834, it was stated that 
 " the coking process is now understood, and our bituminous 
 coal is quite as susceptible of this operation, and produces 
 as good coke, as that of Great Britain. It is now used to a 
 considerable extent by our iron manufacturers in Centre 
 county and elsewhere." It is certain that, at the time this re- 
 port was written, coke could not have been used in blast fur- 
 naces in any way than as a mixture with charcoal, and then 
 only experimentally. The offer of the gold medal by the 
 Franklin Institute doubtless assisted in stimulating action 
 upon a subject which had already attracted much attention. 
 
 In the year in which the premium was offered, that accom- 
 plished furnace manager, William Firmstone, was successful 
 in making good gray forge iron for about one month at the 
 end of a blast at Mary Ann furnace, in Huntingdon county, 
 Pennsylvania, with coke made from Broad Top coal. This 
 iron was taken to a forge three miles distant and made into 
 blooms. Mr. Firmstone did not claim the medal. He may 
 not have known that a premium had been offered for the 
 achievement which he undoubtedly accomplished. In a 
 pamphlet published in April, 1836, Isaac Fisher of Lewis- 
 town, Pennsylvania, stated that " successful experiments 
 have lately been tried in Pennsylvania in making pig iron 
 with coke." It is probable that Mr. Fisher had in mind 
 Mr. Firmstone's experiment. William Firmstone was born 
 at Wellington, in Shropshire, England, on October 19, 
 1810. When quite a young man he was manager at the 
 Lays Works, near Dudley, which were then owned by his 
 uncles, W. & G. Firmstone. He emigrated to the United 
 States in the spring of 1885. After filling many responsible 
 positions in connection with the manufacture of pig iron, he 
 died at his residence near Easton, on September 11, 1877, 
 and is buried in the cemetery at Easton. He was one of 
 the first to introduce the hot-blast in the United States, 
 having successfully added this improvement to Vesuvius 
 furnace, in Lawrence County, Ohio, in 1836. In 1839 he 
 added a hot-blast to Karthaus furnace, in Pennsylvania. 
 
 In 1836 or 1837, F. H. Oliphant, a skillful iron master, 
 made at his furnace called Fairchance, near Uniontown, 
 Fayette County, Pennsylvania a quantity of coke pig 
 iron in excess of twenty tons, and probably in excess of 100 
 tons. He did not, however, long continue to make coke 
 iron, and resumed the manufacture of iron with charcoal. 
 Mr. Oliphant had heard of the offer of the gold medal, 
 and in a letter to the Institute, dated October 3, 1837, he 
 modestly referred to his success in making pig iron with 
 coke, and suggested that possibly he was entitled to the pre- 
 mium. Accompanying his letter was a box of pig iron and 
 the raw materials of ite manufacture. We do not learn that 
 he ever received the medal, or that anybody received it. 
 
 Between 1836 and 1839 other attempts were made at 
 several furnaces in Pennsylvania to use coke, but the experi- 
 ments were unsuccessful or unfortunate. The legislature of 
 Pennsylvania passed an act on June 16, 1836, "to encourage, 
 the manufacture of iron with coke or mineral coal," which 
 authorized the organization of companies for the manu- 
 facture, transportation, and sale of iron made with coke or 
 coal. At Farrandsville, six miles north of Lock Haven, in 
 Clinton county, half a million dollars was sunk by a Boston 
 company in a disastrous attempt to smelt the neighboring 
 ores with coke, and to establish other iron and mining 
 enterprises. This company had commenced operations in 
 the mining of coal as early as 1833. The furnace was blown 
 in the summer of 1837, and ran probably until 1839. About 
 3,500 tons of iron were made, but at such great cost, owing 
 to the impurity of the coal and the distance of the ore, that 
 further efforts to make iron with coke were abandoned. At 
 Karthaus, in Clearfield county, the Clearfield Coal and Iron 
 Company, composed of Henry 0. Carey, Burd Patterson, 
 John White, and others, succeeded in 1839, under the man- 
 agement of William Firmstone, in making pig iron with 
 coke in a furnace which was built in 1836 by Peter Ritner 
 (brother of Governor Ritner) and John Say, but at the 
 close of the year the whole enterprise was abandoned, owing 
 to the lack of proper transportation facilities. A furnace at 
 Frozen run, in Lj^coming county, made some pig iron with 
 coke in 1838, but in 1839 it was using charcoal. The fur- 
 naces at Farrandsville and Karthaus were both supplied 
 with hot blasts— the former in 1837 and the latter in 1839. 
 The apparatus for that at Farrandsville was made at Glas- 
 gow, and was the best then known. The first notable' 
 success in the use of bituminous coal in the blast furnace in 
 this country was achieved at three furnaces in western 
 Maryland. Lonaconing furnace, in the Frostburg coal 
 basin, on George's creek, eight miles northwest of Frostburg . 
 in Alleghany county, was built in 1837 by George's Creek 
 Company, to use coke, and in June 1839, it was making 
 about 70 tons per week of good foundry iron. Alexander 
 says that " the air was heated by stoves placed near the 
 tuyere arches, and attained a temperature of 700 degrees 
 Fahrenheit." The furnace was blown by an engine of 60- 
 
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THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 73 
 
 horse power. In the same coal basin, on the south branch 
 of Jenning'a run, nine miles northwest of Cumberland, two 
 large blast furnaces were built in 1840 by the Mount Savage 
 Company to use the same fuel. These furnaces were for 
 several years successfully operated with coke. But the use 
 of coke did not come rapidly into favor, and many experi- 
 ments with it were attended with loss. It was not until 
 after 1850 that its use began to exert an appreciable in- 
 fluence upon the manufacture of pig iron. In 1849 there 
 was not on-e coke furnace in Pennsylvania in blast. Thus 
 far coke had not noticeably contributed to the revolution 
 to which we have referred in the preceding chapter. But 
 in 1856 there were twenty-one furnaces in Pennsylvania, 
 and three in Maryland which were using coke. After 1856 
 the use of this fuel rapidly increased in Pennsylvania, and 
 was extended to other states. 
 
 While the effort was being made in a few localities in 
 Pennsylvania and Maryland to introduce the use of coke 
 in the blast furnace, attention was also directed to the pos- 
 sibility of using uncoked coal for the same purpose. 
 Alexander says that the proprietors of Lonaconing furnace, 
 in western Maryland, used raw coal before 1840. He leaves 
 the reader to infer that it was successfully used, but he prob- 
 ably wrote from imperfect information. Some unsuccess- 
 ful experiments we're made with raw coal in Clarion county, 
 Pennsylvania, about' 1840. In the sketch of Mercer 
 county, Pennsylvania, in Day's Historical Collections, 
 printed in 1843, it is stated that " in the vicinity of Sharon, 
 on the Pittsburgh and Erie canal, exists a most valuable 
 bed of coal of peculiar quality, between anthracite and 
 bituminous, without the least sulphur. It has been tried 
 successfiilly for smelting iron in a common charcoal 
 furnace." It is not certain that the furnace referred to was 
 in Mercer county. The coal mentioned is now classed 
 among bituminous varieties. At Arcole furnace, in Lake 
 county, Ohio, operated by Wilkeson & Co., raw coal from 
 Greenville, Mercer county, Pennsylvania, was experimented 
 with about 1840. John Wilkeson, one of the owners of 
 the furnace at that time, writes us that the experiment met 
 with a small measure of success. Doubtless the several 
 experiments . mentioned were not the only ones that were 
 made with raw coal before success in its use was fully 
 achieved; and doubtless, too, none of the experiments 
 mentioned produced any more satisfactory results than the 
 qualified success attained at Arcole furnace. The first 
 truly successful use of raw bituminous coal in the blast 
 furnace occurred in the autumn of 1845. It is circumstan- 
 tially described in the following extract from a pamphlet, 
 entitled Yowngstown, Past and Present, published in 1875 : 
 "In July, 1845, Himrod and Vincent, of Mercer county, 
 Pennsylvania, blew in the clay furnace not many miles 
 from the Ohio line on the waters of the Shenango. About 
 three months afterwards, in consequence of a short supply 
 of charcoal, as stated by Mr. Davis, the founder, a portion 
 of coke was used to charge the furnace. Their coal belongs 
 to seam No. 1, the seam which is now used at Sharon and 
 Youngstown, in its raw state, variously known as ' free- 
 burning splint,' or 'block coal,' and which never makes 
 solid coke. A difficulty soon occurred with the cokers, and, 
 as Mr. Himrod states, he conceived the plan of trying his 
 coal without cokeing. The fiirnace continued to work 
 well, and to produce a fair quality of metal. It is admitted 
 that Mr. David Himrod, late of Youngstown, produced the 
 first metal with raw coal, about the close of the year 1845." 
 The furnace here alluded to was situated on Anderson's 
 run, in Mercer county, Pennsylvania, about two and one- 
 half miles southeast of Clarksville, and was built in 1845. 
 It has been abandoned for many years. In the chapter 
 relating to Michigan we have mentioned the part taken by 
 this furnace at an early day in smelting Lake Superior 
 ores with the block coal of the Shenango valley. 
 
 While Himrod and "Vincent were using the raw coal of 
 the Shenango valley at Clay furnace, Messrs. Wilkeson, 
 Wilkes & Co., of Lowell, in Poland township, Mahoning 
 county, Ohio, were building Mahoning furnace, as related 
 in the chapter devoted to Ohio, expressly to use in its raw 
 state coal of the same quality from their mine near Lowell. 
 This furnace was successfully blown in with this fuel by 
 John Crowther on the 8th of August, 1846. The Trumbull 
 Democrat, of Warren, Ohio, for August 15, 1846, in an ac- 
 
 count of the blowing in of Mahoning furnace, states that " to 
 these gentlemen (Wilkeson, Wilkes & Co.) belongs the 
 honor of being the first persons in the United States who 
 have succeeded in putting a furnace in blast with raw bitu- 
 minous coal." John Crowther was an Englishman, born at 
 Brosely, in Shropshire, on May 7, 1797. He emigrated to 
 the United States in 1844, immediately prior to which time 
 he had been the manager of seven blast furnaces in Staf- 
 fordshire — five at Stowheath and two at Osier Bed. Prior 
 ■to his connection with the Lowell furnace he had been em- 
 ployed as manager of the furnaces at Brady's Bend. He 
 adapted many furnaces in the Mahoning and Shenango val- 
 leys to the use of block coal, and instructed three of his sons 
 in their management, namely, Joshua, Joseph J., and Ben- 
 jamin. He died on April 15, 1861, at Longton, in Stafford- 
 shire, England, where he is buried. After it had been 
 demonstrated at Clay and Mahoning furnaces that the block 
 coal of the Shenango and Mahoning valleys could be used 
 in the manufacture of pig iron, other furnaces in these two 
 valleys were built to use this fuel, and some charcoal fur- 
 naces were altered to use it. In 1850 there were, however, 
 only four furnaces in the Mahoning valley and only seven 
 in the Shenango valley which used raw coal. After 1850, 
 and especially after the introduction into these valleys of 
 Lake Superior ores, about 1856, the use of raw coal greatly 
 increased. In 1856 six furnaces in Pennsylvania and thir- 
 teen in Ohio were using this fiiel. Some progress was after- 
 wards made in its use in other states, particularly in Indiana, 
 but down to 1880 its use had been mainly confined to the 
 two valleys mentioned. The American Iron and Steel As- 
 sociation has published a table which exhibits the production 
 of pig iron in this country in each year from 1854 to 1880, 
 classified according to the fuel used. So much of this table 
 is here reproduced as will show the growth of the manufac- 
 ture of pig iron with anthracite and bituminous coal since 
 1854, and also the period at which the use of bituminous 
 coal in the blast furnace overtook that of anthracite coal. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Anthracite. 
 
 Charcoal. 
 
 Bituminous 
 Coal & Coke 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Net Tom. 
 
 Net Tom. 
 
 Net Tom. 
 
 Net Tom. 
 
 1864 
 
 339,435 
 
 342,298 
 
 54,485 
 
 736,218 
 
 18S5 
 
 381,866 
 
 339,922 
 
 62,390 
 
 784,178 
 
 1856 
 
 443,113 
 
 370,470 
 
 69,554 
 
 883,137 
 
 1872 . 
 
 1,369,812 
 
 600,687 
 
 984,159 
 
 2,854,658 
 
 1873 . , 
 
 1,312,754 
 
 677,620 
 
 977,904 
 
 2,868,278 
 
 1874 . 
 
 1,202,144 
 
 676,667 
 
 910,712 
 
 2,689,413 
 
 1875 . 
 
 908,046 
 
 410,990 
 
 947,645 
 
 2,266,681 
 
 1876 . . , 
 
 794,578 
 
 308,649 
 
 990,009 
 
 2,093,236 
 
 1877 . 
 
 934,797 
 
 317,843 
 
 1,061,946 
 
 2,314,585 
 
 1878 
 
 1,092,870 
 
 293,399 
 
 1,191.092 
 
 2,577,361 
 
 1879 . . . 
 
 1,273,024 
 
 ■358,873 
 
 1,438,978 ■ 
 
 3,070,875 
 
 1880 ... 
 
 1,807,661 
 
 537,568 
 
 1,950,205 
 
 4,295,414 
 
 1881 
 
 1,734,4*2 
 
 638,838 
 
 2,268,264 
 
 4,641,664 
 
 Some of the pig iron classed ahove as having been pro- 
 duced with anthracite and bituminous coal, respectively, 
 was produced with a mixture of these fuels, the quantity of 
 pig iron so produced being mainly represented in the an- 
 thracite column. The mixed fuel referred to was not used to 
 any considerable extent until within the past few years. 
 Before the close of the charcoal era steam had been applied 
 to the blowing of American furnaces, but water-power was 
 still in general use. The necessity of increasing the blast, 
 and other considerations, soon led to the more general use 
 of steam blowing engines in connection with anthracite and 
 bituminous furnaces. Another improvement in hlast-furnace 
 management also had its beginning about the close of the 
 charcoal era, namely, the utilization of the combustible 
 gases emitted from blast furnaces. These gases were first 
 used to heat the boilers for the blowing engines, and after- 
 wards to heat the hot-blast stoves. Bituminous coal was 
 used at an early day in the heating furnaces attached to 
 American rolling and slitting mills, and in 1817, when the 
 roiling mill was established at Plumsock, in Fayette county, 
 Pennsylvania, it was used in puddling furnaces. It was not, 
 however, until about 1830, when rolling mills became 
 numerous at Pittsburgh, that the use of bituminous coal in 
 these establishments assumed noteworthy importance. 
 
 — Cotnpihdfrom James M. Swanh^s B^ort on Iron and Steel, Tenth Census of QieJJ, S. 
 
74 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE MICHIGAN 
 COPPER DISTRICT. 
 
 PRIOR to the admission of Michigan as one of the 
 States of the Federal Union, the Territory claimed 
 as a valued portion of its domain a strip of land 
 bordering on Lake Erie, in which was included the 
 now flourishing city of Toledo. The right of possessing 
 this parcel of land was insisted upon with equal strenuous- 
 ness by the State of Ohio, and when, in 1835, a covention 
 assembled at Detroit and formed a constitution defining the 
 boundaries of the proposed State, and comprised within 
 them this disputed territory, so great did the excitement 
 become that men upon both sides began to arm and to 
 organize for a conflict, that for a time it seemed must inevit- 
 ably occur. The matter coming before Congress on the 
 application of Michigan to become a State, that body passed 
 an act admitting her into the Union upon condition that she 
 should relinquish her claim to the disputed territory. A 
 sugar-coating was given to this bitter pill by offering to her 
 people, in lieu of the coveted territory so strenuously claimed, 
 the isolated and little regarded region known as the Upper 
 Peninsula. A convention being called soon after, these 
 conditions were indignantly rejected ; but a second conven- 
 tion, acting upon the inatter in December of the same year, 
 concluded discretion to be the better part of valor, and 
 reluctantly accepted the proviso, and in January thereafter 
 (1837) Michigan was admitted into the Union. Thus it is 45 
 years since the Upper Peninsula was given to Michigan by 
 Congress as a final settlement of a serious dispute ; it was 
 thrown in, not as possessing intrinsic value, but to soothe the 
 pride of an irritated people. The magnificent territory thus 
 acquired was given as an offset to a mere strip of land insig- 
 nificant in comparison, yet which was nevertheless regarded 
 as of far greater value. But slowly the people awakened to 
 a knowledge of the magnitude of their gain in the exchange 
 which was thus thrust upon them. The State possesses in 
 this northern peninsula one of the most wonderful and 
 valuable regions within the limits of the national domain. 
 Rich it is in minerals in an unparalleled and almost to an 
 incredible degree, producing ores of iron unsurpassed in 
 quality and unequalled in richness, and native copper in an 
 abundance and of value found nowhere else. 
 
 The possession of this country, known as the region of 
 Lake Superior, as a portion of the territory of the United 
 States is said to be due to Dr. Franklin, who, while in Paris, 
 in the days of the American Revolution, represented the 
 interests of the struggling colonies, became acquainted 
 through the records of the government departments to 
 which he had access, with the reports that had been made 
 concerning the existence of copper along the margin of the 
 Great Lake; and thus conceiving the region to possess a 
 possible mineral value that would be available at some 
 future period, he subsequently in arranging the treaty with 
 England, in which she acknowledges our independence, 
 drew the boundary line so as to include the south shore of 
 Lake Superior within the limits of the new nation. The 
 first exploration of the country bordering on Lake Superior 
 was undertaken by Charles Raymbault and Isaac Jogues, 
 two Jesuit priests, who, with a party of Hurons, landed at 
 the Sault de Ste. Marie in the fall of 1641. Here they met 
 a large body of Indians encamped upon the banks of the 
 river engaged in catching fish in the rapids, and from them 
 they learned that these waters were the outflow of a great 
 lake lying beyond, which they designated as Kitchigummi, 
 or Big Lake, as it exceeded, as they declared, in dimensions 
 any other of the great lakes. In the following year, Raym- 
 bault, having died at Quebec from the effects of his previous 
 exj>osures, Jogues set out with some Huron attendants to 
 revisit the Sault, and to extend still further his knowledge 
 of the country and his intercourse with the tribes who 
 inhabited it; but almost at the outset of his expedition, 
 himself and party were captured by the Mohawks, and after 
 suffering the most cruel torments, short of death, and 
 witnessing the burning of his companions at the stake, he 
 was finally ransomed by the Dutch, at Albany, whence he 
 proceeded to France. Soon after, with unabated zeal, he 
 returned to the scene of his former labors. 
 
 Pierr6 Mesnard set out from Quebec in 1660, and having 
 arrived at the Sault, proceeded in his canoe ahmg the south 
 shore of the, lake to the head of Keweenaw Bay, where he 
 remained through the winter, laboring to promote the 
 spiritual welfare of the Indians. In the following summer, 
 accompanied by a single Indian, he entered Portage Lake 
 intending to cross the peninsula, and to push westward along 
 the shore beyond; but while his guide was engaged in 
 conveying the canoe across the Portage, the good father 
 wandered into the woods and no trace of him was ever after- 
 wards obtained. In 1666 Claude AUouez established a mis- 
 sion at La Pointe, in Chaquomegon Bay, where he remained 
 for two years extending his travels and his teachings among 
 the Indians who gathered in great numbers to listen to his 
 wonderful disclosures. Allouez makes mention of the 
 veneration in which the lake is held by the savages who 
 worship it, he says, as a divinity, and he also states that he 
 has observed that they have in their possesssion pieces of 
 copper, which are sometimes of a considerable size, which 
 they esteem as domestic gods. Claude Allouez returned to 
 Quebec to secure aid for his mission, but such was his zeal 
 that in two days thereafter he again started to go back to 
 the scene of his labors. Two years subsequent to the estab- 
 lishment of his mission at La Pointe, James Marquette and 
 Claude Dablon founded a permanent mission at the Sault 
 de Ste Marie, and from this period the place dates its settle- 
 ment, making it thus the oldest within the State. A grand 
 council with the Indians was held and formal possession of 
 the country was taken in the name of the King of Fi'ance. 
 In 1690 two of the Jesuit fathers made a map of the Lake 
 which was published in Paris three years later. A copy of 
 this map is contained in Foster & Whitney's report, and 
 shows with what care these men must have explored the 
 coast which they thus represented. Since considering the 
 great extent of the coast to be traversed, and their utter 
 want of facilities to accomplish such a task other than their 
 own almost unaided powers of observation, this graphical 
 delineation of the outlines of the Great Lake is indeed a 
 marvel of accuracy. Mesnard, Marquette, and Dablon were 
 overtaken by death while in the midst of their labors and 
 their bodies became mingled with the dust of the rude land 
 they had discovered ; but their names deserve to be cherished 
 with the memory of those who gave all in their zeal to pro- 
 mote the welfare of the poorest of their fellow-men. 
 
 The occurrence of copper was one of the objects that 
 early attracted the attention of the Jesuits, and its presence, 
 so frequently met with among the Indians, naturally excited 
 their curiosity and wonder. Frequent mention of it is 
 made, and in some instances the descriptions relate to 
 masses of considerable size. But long prior to this period 
 the metal that attracted the attention of the missionaries 
 and early votjageurs, and which now forms the basis of a 
 great and growing industry, had been sought and mined for 
 by a people who have left no record but the implements 
 which they used and the excavations which they made. 
 These excavations the slow accumulations of debris during 
 the years which have since elapsed had obscured from view, 
 and the Indians, whom the good fathers labored to Christian- 
 ize, had no knowledge whatever of the matter. No sus- 
 picion that any such work had ever been performed occurred 
 until within a recent period, after the country was thrown 
 open to settlement and actual mining had begun. Then it 
 became known that this ground had beeen previously occu- 
 pied, and that these metalliferous ^eins had been long ao-o 
 extensively worked and apparently large amounts of copper 
 obtained ; but when and by whom is a mvstery. But that 
 this mining work" is of a high antiquitv is evident from 
 many facts; the pits and tunnels which had been made had 
 become filled up with rubbish and with decayed vegetation 
 and grown over with forest trees. If the depressions were 
 ever observed they were naturally regarded as those made 
 by overturned trees or as hollows in the rocks, and it was 
 not suspected until the discovery was actually made, so late 
 as 1847-48, that here, too, men had formerly delved in 
 search of metals. These ancient excavations are found in 
 all portions of the Mineral Range and in Isle Roval So 
 general is this fact, that there is scarcely a vein or' outcrop 
 of mineral m the whole copper district but the evidences 
 are tound of their ancient workings, extending into the 
 solid rock from a few feet to sixty feet in depth? In these 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 75 
 
 pits when cleared of the accumulated dirt and rubbish, have 
 sometimes been found large masses of copper which these 
 primitive seekers had unsuccessfully endeavored to remove. 
 Masses of copper of many tons weight have thus been dis- 
 covered surrounded with stone hammers in great numbers, 
 pieces of burnt wood and other evidences of former labor. 
 The method of mining which these people apparently pur- 
 sued was to heat the rock by fire and then by pouring on 
 water and pounding the rook with their stone hammers to 
 disintegrate and separate it. Quantities of these stone ham- 
 mers are nearly always obtained from the bottom of these 
 ancient pits. They consist of small boulders of hard trap 
 rock of from three to thirty pounds in weight, around which 
 a groove has sometimes been made for the purpose of hold- 
 ing a withe which fastened on the handle. Copper tools 
 iind other utensils and materials have also been found, but 
 no indications that would lead to the identification of the 
 race to which these miners belonged, have been, as yet, 
 discovered. These ancient " diggings," as they are locally 
 called, are everywhere so abundant and have now become 
 so well known and familiar to those engaged in mining in 
 Michigan, as to be no longer'a matter of surprise or wonder. 
 In one respect they have undoubtedly been of great service, 
 serving as guides which have led to the discovery of lodes, 
 which were thus shown to have been previously worked and 
 as indicative of the value of such lodes. 
 
 As in the iron region, the magnetic needle has guided to 
 the discovery of many valuable deposits of ore, so in the 
 copper district these pits of the ancient miners extending 
 along the surface outcrop of the copper bearing veins, have 
 silently betokened to the eager explorer where was hidden 
 the object of his search. But to the Indians who roamed 
 the country at the time of its discovery, to the Jesuits, and 
 to the early voyageurs and explorers this fact of ancient 
 mining was wholly unknown. The evidence of the exist- 
 ence of copper in this region — a knowledge which had 
 already become wide-spread — was derived from the speci- 
 mens in the possession of the Indians and from seeing the 
 erratic boulders of that metal which were sometimes found 
 in traversing the country, and from observing the copper- 
 bearing veins which outcropped along the streams and near 
 the shore of the lake. 
 
 Among those who early visited this country was Alexander 
 Henry, who came to Mackinaw in about 1760 for the pur- 
 pose of traffic with the Indians. Henry was a man of intel- 
 ligence and education, and spent many years in this country, 
 meeting with numberless adventures and actively engaged 
 in various undertakings. He subsequently publisbed a well 
 written and interesting narrative of his experience and his 
 observations in the country. Henry became familiar with 
 the fact of the existence of copper in the country, and, as 
 he thought, of more precious minerals also. He describes 
 the great copper rock, an erratic boulder or mass of native 
 copper which lay in the margin of the Ontonagon River, 
 about 20 miles above its mouth, at the foot of a' high bluff, 
 from which it had rolled down or had been brought to the 
 spot by some transporting agency, and which he describes 
 as probably weighing five tons. Ten years thereafter Henry 
 was chosen the agent of a company organized in England 
 to conduct practical mining work in Lake Superior, and 
 after some preliminary examinations elsewhere, selected this 
 location as the seat of his operations. To this place he 
 proceeded in the fall of 1770, with a small party of miners, 
 in a vessel which he had previously built at the Sault. He 
 himself soon after returned to the Sault, leaving his men to 
 work through the winter. In the spring he sent his barge 
 with provisions to the relief of his men, but was soon after 
 surprised to see the vessel return with the whole party 
 aboard. They had drifted into the bluff a distance of about 
 40 feet, and failing to secure the work, in the spring, when 
 the frost went out and the ground became loosened, the 
 walls fell in, and the miners, realizing the futility of the 
 undertaking at that point, decided to abandon the work. 
 Some copper was obtained, possibly chipped off from the 
 great boulder. A second attempt was made, equaly unsuc- 
 cessful, but conducted upon the north shore of the lake. 
 Here they punctured the rock to a depth of 30 feet in a vein 
 that rapidly narrowed as they proceeded downward, until it 
 nearlv disappeared. Satisfied that nothing was likely to be 
 gained here, and his associate members refusing to advance 
 
 any more money, further effort was relinquished. What 
 copper had been obtained was sent to England, and the ves- 
 sel and other company property were sold to pay the debts. 
 The parties to this enterprise, the first mining undertaking 
 in the Lake Superior country within historical times, were 
 His Royal Highness the Duke of Gloucester, Mr. Secretary 
 Townshend, Sir Samuel Touchet, Mr. Baxter, Consul to the 
 Empress of Russia, Mr. Cruickshank, Sir William Johnson, 
 Mr. Bostvvick, and Alexander Henry. A charter was applied 
 for and granted, but never taken from the seals office. Henry, 
 in reflecting upon the matter, states that the country must 
 be settled and peopled before mining can be carried on to 
 advantage. He avers that the soil is productive and will 
 grow good crops, and cites some facts to corroborate the 
 statement, among which he says he distributed seed corn 
 among the Indians, which they planted and which yielded 
 well, though he thinks them too improvident to preserve 
 their seed from year to year. Capt. Jonathan Carver pub- 
 lished in 1796 an account of three years' travel in this 
 country, in which he speaks of the Ontonagon River as a 
 stream of considerable size that flows into the lake, the head 
 of which is composed of an assemblage of small streams. 
 He declares the river to be remarkable for the abundance of 
 virgin copper, which is found near its banks, and states that 
 this metal is also met with elsewhere in the country. He 
 opines that at some future period it may furnish the basis of 
 a profitable industry, and relates how the metal may be car- 
 ried in vessels to the Sault, thence around the rapids and 
 re-shipped to Niagara Falls, here another portage to a point 
 below the Falls, whence it may be conveyed to Quebec or 
 elsewhere. 
 
 It was not until 1796 that Michigan came into possession 
 of the American government, and the uncertainty of affairs, 
 the trouble with the English government and with the In- 
 dians prevented any effort being made towards the explora- 
 tion or settlement of the Territory, much less of the Lake 
 Superior country. In 1818-19 the survey of Michigan was 
 begun, a delegate was sent to Congress, some important 
 Indian cessions made, and the lands thrown open to sale. 
 And in the latter year Gen. Lewis Caes, the Governor of the 
 Territory, proceeded, under directions from the War Depart- 
 ment, on a tour of inspection, which included the south shore 
 of Lake Superior. This expedition was accompanied by Mr. 
 H. R. Schoolcraft in the capacity of geologist, etc., and he 
 had for his object an especial purpose to determine as far as 
 possible the truth of the reports regarding the mineral value 
 of the country. The party entered the mouth of the On- 
 tonagon River in July and proceeded up the stream a dis- 
 tance of twenty miles and upwards, to view the celebrated 
 copper rock previously spoken of, the fame of which had 
 reached their ears. He speaks of finding copper along the 
 banks of the river, and that La Houton, Charlevoix, Carver, 
 and McKenzie have successively noted the same remarkable 
 fact and published accounts thereof which had given to the 
 stream a notoriety which it would not otherwise have pos- 
 sessed. Many of the reports regarding the minerals found 
 in the country referred especially to this river, but nothing 
 very definite was known and it was for the purpose of en- 
 deavoring to determine the facts that they entered the river. 
 The party experienced excessive difficulty in ascending the 
 rapids and in climbing over the range with the thermometer 
 indicating at 90° in the shade, and with the swarms of mus- 
 quitoes and flies attacking them. The General, who remained 
 in the boat, became exhausted ; however, both divisions of 
 the party finally reached their destination and found the ob- 
 ject of their search. The size of the rock scarcely met their 
 expectations, still Mr. Schoolcraft thought it a remarkable 
 object and one well worth the journey to see. It evidently 
 had been frequently visited since it bore the marks of much 
 pounding and many cuts, and broken tools lay strewn about. 
 The mass had apparently been removed some distance from 
 its original bed as the adhering rock, mainly serpentine, was 
 foreign to the vicinity ; its whole appearance, the intimate 
 association of the metal and matrix, pointed to a common 
 and contemporaneous origin. This mass of native copper, 
 which up to the period of its removal was the largest known 
 in the world, was, in the spring of 1842, taken to the mouth 
 of the river by James PauU who came to the country from 
 the lead mines of Wisconsin for that purpose. Paull pre- 
 pared a truck car upon which he hoisted the rock and sue- 
 
76 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ceeded in drawing it over the range by using a windlass, 
 taking it to a point below the rapids and thence conveying 
 it to the mouth of the river on a iiat boat. The mass was 
 soon after sold to a Mr. Eldridge who in turn sold it to the 
 U. S. Government, and it has since been on the grounds of 
 the War Department, at Washington. PauU claims to have 
 bought of an Indian a second mass of copper of about 
 800 lbs. weight, which was found on the west shore of the 
 peninsula, above the Portage, and which he took to Copper 
 Harbor, whence, he thinks, it found its way into the cabinet 
 of Yale College. Paul! remained at Ontonagon where he 
 still resides, and was thus the first permanent resident in 
 the copper region. 
 
 By a succession of treaties made with the various Indian 
 tribes in 1836, 1837 and 1842, the lands comprising the Lake 
 Superior district were ceded to the United States, and all 
 Indian claims thereto were finally extinguished. Imme- 
 diately thereafter large numbers of persons proceeded to 
 the country with authority from the Government to mine 
 on the lands of the newly acquired territory. Public atten- 
 tion had been recently awakened to the copper deposits of 
 the northern peninsula through the first published report 
 of Dr. Houghton, who, having been appointed geologist 
 of the newly made State, eagerly entered upon the active 
 prosecution of his labors, extending his geological observa- 
 tions to the shores of Lake Superior, and in 1841 submitted 
 to the Legislature the results of this preliminary examina- 
 tion. In this report the prominent geological features of 
 the country were ably outlined, and the first definite in- 
 formation regarding the occurrence of copper and the cha- 
 racter of the deposits was given to the world. Dr. Houghton, 
 a few years later, entered upon the prosecution of a detailed 
 survey of the entire Upper Peninsula, upon a plan which he 
 successfully inaugurated, but the fulfillment of which was 
 unfortunately prevented by his untimely death, by drown- 
 ing, which occurred on the 13th of October, 1847, near the 
 mouth of Eagle" river, in Keweenaw county. With him was 
 thus lost to the world the valuable results of his extended 
 observations, and the system which he had devised of com- 
 bining with the government linear survey of the country, 
 geological and other scientific work was gradually aban- 
 doned. But his previous announcements had already drawn 
 the public attention to the country. The copper district 
 was now swarming with speculators, prospectors and ex- 
 plorers; and the rocks were being everywhere perforated 
 with incipient mining. The first operations were under- 
 taken under grants or permits obtained from the War 
 Department, of which about 1,000 in all were issued, and 
 960 locations actually made. The essential conditions of 
 these leases were that the lessee, or his assigns, should, 
 during the first three years, pay to the government six per 
 cent, of all metal produced ; at the expiration of that period 
 the lease should be renewed, at the option of the holder, for 
 an additional three years on condition of payment to the 
 government of ten per cent, of the mineral obtained, at the 
 end of which time the lease could be further extended for 
 the same length of time on the same conditions, unless 
 Congress should otherwise dispose of the lands. Very 
 many of these locations were made along the Keweenaw 
 peninsula, and this portion of the country became the seat 
 of the earliest mining work, and for some years before 
 operations were conducted elsewhere to any extent this im- 
 mediate region was teeming with active industry. The 
 mineral range in this county, which begins at the ex- 
 tremity of Keweenaw Point, and trends westerly a distance 
 of about twenty miles, and thence southwesterly, is charac- 
 terized by the occurrence of a broad belt of green stone or 
 semi-crystaline trap, which forms the southern escarpment 
 or wall in this portion of the range. This greenstone forma- 
 tion terminates at about the south line of the county, and 
 does not again appear throughout the further prolongation 
 of the mineral range. The greenstone has a northerly and 
 northwesterly dip, corresponding with the other belts of 
 this portion of the range, of about 24° to 30° to the horizon, 
 and attains an elevation above the lake of about 800 feet. 
 From the top of the range the land slopes with a general 
 gradual descent to the north and to the west to the lake, 
 which is distant in this direction from two to three miles. 
 On the south side the elevation drops abruptly a distance 
 
 of one to two hundred feet to a low lymg plane which forms | three square miles including Copper Harbor- 
 
 the valley of the Eagle river and other streams, and which 
 reaches to the east till it meets the foot of a second range of 
 hills having a trend generally parallel with the principal 
 elevation, and known as the Southern or Bohemian range. 
 This portion of the range, as far as the greenstone extends, 
 is frequently crossed by veins having a nearly vertical dip 
 and a lateral direction generally at right angles to the 
 formation and a width of from one foot to three feet, and 
 have been found to carry copper sometimes in extraordi- 
 nary quantities, some of them having proved among the 
 most remarkable deposits of copper that the world has re- 
 vealed. Both north and south of the greenstone are 
 numerous amygdaloid beds, which are crossed by the fissure 
 veins, and which usually carry a greater or smaller percen- 
 tage of copper. There are also found in some portions, 
 immediately underlying the greenstone and further to the 
 south, beds of conglomerate, which in some instances con- 
 tain copper in workable quantities. But surpassing all 
 these, except the fissure veins, the most important of the 
 copper-bearing deposits of this district is what is known as 
 the ash bed, a scoriacious amygdaloid bed lying north of the 
 greenstone, having a varying width of from five to twenty 
 feet, and yielding at favorable points about one per cent, of 
 copper. This ash bed, as it is called, through the invention 
 and use of the compressed air drill, high explosives and 
 greatly improved stamping and washing apparatus, seems 
 likely to become the basis of the future mining prosperity 
 of Keweenaw county, although in the past all attempts to 
 work it at a profit have proved ruinous to the companies 
 engaged in the undertaking. 
 
 In the earlier period of copper mining on Lake Superior, 
 the fissure veins, yielding copper in masses, were the ones 
 which gave to the country its celebrity, and the ones in 
 which the mining operations were attended with profit, and 
 of these the most noted and the most productive lie south of 
 the greenstone — an important feature of this region geologi- 
 cally as well as geographically. As before remarked, what 
 has proved to be, thus far, the great copper-bearing belt of 
 Keweenaw county, lies immediately south of the greenstone, 
 and pitches beneath it. In this belt are situated the Clifi", 
 Phcenix, Central, Delaware and many other noted mines 
 which have produced the greater portion of the copper ob- 
 tained. South of this copper-bearing range which underlies 
 the greenstone, is another belt having a parallel direction, 
 but of an entirely different character, and too lean in copper 
 to have aflPorded to the companies that worked it any degree 
 of prosperity. Of these are the South Cliff, Manhattan, 
 North American, Boston & Northwestern, and other com- 
 panies, all of whose operations have resulted unprofitably. 
 The same transverse veins which have proved so abundantly 
 rich beneath the greenstone in crossing this belt, are poor 
 and of a character in keeping with the country rock. 
 Still further to the south is another belt quite distinguish- 
 able in character, within which are several beds of amygda- 
 loid exposed at the surface, but the working of which has 
 proved equally unprofitable. 
 
 The ash bed, to the north of the bluff, is crossed by the 
 fissure veins which have here also yielded, in the aggregate, 
 a large amount of copper, but occurring in pockets and not 
 in any degree of certainty or with the comparative richness 
 or regularity pertaining to the ground underneath the 
 greenstone when crossed by the fissure veins. Underlying 
 the greenstone and in contact with it, occurs a belt of con- 
 glomerate which at some points is utterly barren of copper, 
 at others becomes a mere slide, while at the AUouez and at 
 the Conglomerate Mining Company's location it becomes a 
 distinct workable deposit. The fissure veins crossing the 
 greenstone have never proved suflioiently rich in copper in 
 this lormation, to be profitably mined. As before stated, 
 immediately succeeding the final treaty extinguishing the 
 possessory rights of the Chippewas to the lands in the 
 Upper Peninsula in 1842, and the decision of the General 
 Government to issue to applicants exploring permits, the 
 country became at once flooded with searchers for mineral 
 who made locations and obtained Government leases there- 
 tor which they subsequently sold to eastern capitalists. A 
 person by the name of Raymond secured, thus earlv several 
 of these leases, three of which he disposed of to parties in 
 littsburg and Boston. Thesejeases comprehended : First, 
 
 -a name given 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 77 
 
 to this point by the early voyageurs by reason of the cuprif- 
 erous vein which conspicuously outcrops here; second, 
 three miles square on the west side of Eagle River, in which 
 tract is included the Cliff mine ; and third, a like tract in 
 the next township west. Work was begun by these 
 Pittsburg and Boston gentlemen in 1844, consisting of sink- 
 ing a shaft to the depth of forty feet, on Hog's Point, under 
 the direction of Charles Avery, the president of the asso- 
 ciation. This was the first mining shaft that was sunk on 
 the lake. Soon after a continuation of this vein, with much 
 more favorable indications, was discovered on the opposite 
 side of the harbor near the site of old Fort Wilkins. This 
 vein contained a deposit of black oxide of copper, a 
 remarkable fact, since it has proved to have been the only 
 similar deposit that has thus far been found, excepting, 
 perhaps, traces of the same vein which has occasionally 
 been observed elsewhere in this vicinity. The mining work 
 was immediately transferred to this point, and two shafts 
 were sunk at a distance apart of about 100 feet. The pocket 
 of black oxide proved of brief duration ; about 40 tons were 
 obtained and sold for $4,500. The main shaft was carried 
 down a distance of 120 feet and levels were driven each way 
 from the shaft, in the vein, without finding any more of the 
 ore. 
 
 In the meantime an important discovery was made on the 
 Eagle River location by a party of explorers, under the 
 direction of Mr. Cheny, in the greenstone bluff in the s. w. 
 \ of sec. 36, T. 68 N., R. 32 W., being about three miles 
 distant from the lake, which is what became known as the 
 Cliff Mine. This celebrated vein was first discovered in 
 1845 on the upper surface of the greenstone, where it is 
 narrow and gave little indication of the enormous wealth 
 concealed below. It was examined by Dr. Jackson and Mr. 
 Whitney, geologists, who advised, as the vein became 
 wider and richer as it was traced downward on the wall of 
 the bluff, that it would be well to uncover and examine it at 
 the foot. The rocks at the foot of the bluff were cleared 
 away in the winter of 1845, and indications obtained which 
 stimulated to increased activity. An adit was driven a 
 distance of about 70 feet, when it intersected a mass of 
 copper- — the first mass of native copper that had been found 
 in place in the Lake Superior region. This discovery was 
 one of the most important that was made in the copper 
 district, since it determined the fact that the erratic boulders 
 which had been previously found had their origin in the 
 region itself, and since it was but the precursor of a 
 continued succession of masses that astonished the world 
 and gave confidence to investments in the country and 
 enthusiasm and zeal in its investigation. After the dis- 
 covery of the Cliff Mine the Eagle River location was 
 purchased of the government and the other leases were 
 abandoned. About the time the first work was done the 
 gentlemen holding these leases entered into articles of 
 agreement for the formation of a company ; these parties 
 were H. G. Hussey, T. M. Howe, and five others. The 
 association was formed May 13, 1844, as the Pittsburg and 
 Boston Mining Company, and under that name was incorpo- 
 rated by a special act of the Legislature of Michigan, 
 approved March 18, 1848, with a capital stock of $150,000, 
 divided into 6,000 shares. The number of shares were sub- 
 sequently increased to 20,000, without any increase in the 
 capital stock. The cost of the lands purchased from the 
 government— about 5,000 acres— was $11,600. The Cliff 
 vein, an amygdaloid trap, was from the start remarkably 
 rich in mass copper, and subsequently also afforded a con- 
 siderable amount of stamp rock obtained especially from the 
 beds of amygdaloid, or the amygdaloid floors, which inter- 
 sected the vein at right angles, having a varying thickness, 
 and which were of frequent occurrence, dipping and 
 running with the formation, and some of which were found 
 to be highly productive in copper. They occasioned some 
 trouble from the crumbling character of the rock, tending 
 constantly to close up the shafts and the levels, making it 
 frequently necessary to enlarge the, shafts and lower the 
 tramways in the levels. The rock did not crumble off in 
 fragments to any great extent ; it was hard and sufficiently 
 difficult to mine, but the pushing force was stronger than 
 any timbers were able to resist. Work was fairly begun in 
 1846, and during the seven years thereafter the vein was 
 penetrated to a depth of 462 feet and a range of about 1,200 
 
 feet, and sufficient copper taken out to realize in net sales 
 the sum of §1,328,406.83. It may be safely asserted that 
 nowhere in the world had there previously been produced 
 so large an amount of copper from the same amount of 
 ground. The mine was paying to the company a net profit 
 of $20,000 per month. The dividends paid during this period 
 aggregated the sum of $462,000, or $77 per share, the first 
 dividend, $60,000, being paid in 1849, and the total assess- 
 ments had amounted to S18.50 per share, $110,000 ; at this 
 time the stock and the quotations of the stock in the Boston 
 market, June, 1854, was $175 per share. 
 
 To illustrate how little was definitely known regarding 
 the geological structure of the country at this time, the 
 opinion was entertained that the greenstone would, in itself, 
 prove productive in copper. It was also thought to be 
 possibly an overcap, or to compose a basin, and thus did not 
 extend far into the earth, so that the lower levels, if 
 extended northward, would pass under it. With a view to 
 settle these conjectures, the upper levels were driven into 
 this formation, but all the workings in this direction went 
 to establish the fact that the veins in the greenstone do not 
 carry copper in paying quantity, and the scientific suppo- 
 sition, previously made, became verified that the greenstone 
 belongs to the regular geological strata of the country. 
 
 No. 1 shaft was sunk at the foot of the bluff, and the 
 levels therefrom, carried to the north, intersected No. 3 
 shaft which was sunk vertically from near the edge of the 
 bluff, passing 129 feet through the greenstone to the slide 
 where it intersected No. 1 level ; but as the mine attained 
 depth and the levels were pushed to the north under the 
 greenstone, the necessity began to be greatly felt for in- 
 creased facilities for hoisting to the surface. The peculiar 
 geological features of the mine, being overlaid with the 
 heavy belt of crystalline trap, rendered it necessary that 
 either a vertical shaft should be sunk, although it must 
 pass through 650 feet of unproductive rock, exceedingly 
 difficult to excavate, or an inclined shaft must be built run- 
 ning down into the mine following, substantially, the 
 direction of the limiting greenstone wall. The objections 
 tp the latter arose from the irregular and tortuous course of 
 the vein and the frequent enlargements from 10 ft., 15 ft., 
 and even to 20 ft. in width, so that the necessary alignment 
 could not be secured and keep within the vein ; added to this 
 was the fact that the ground had been very fully stopped out, 
 in some places to an enormous width, which would render it 
 extremely difficult to adequately support the track for a skip 
 road. If the incline were made, it would require to be 
 driven, mainly off the lode, to one side of it, in which case 
 it would be all dead work — ^be driven in unproductive trap 
 — and therefore it was thought to have little advantage in 
 matter of economy of construction over the vertical shaft ; 
 in fact the matter w^ held under consideration for several 
 years. The company's engineer careftilly estimated the 
 matter and it was concluded that the latter would involve 
 the less cost. It was finally decided to sink the vertical 
 shaft, and the work was begun in 1854 at a point 943 feet 
 north from No. 3. This shaft, called No. 4, involved a nice 
 problem of engineering, the work being carried upward 
 and downward at the same time, and it being exceedingly 
 important that the alignment should be exact. It will be 
 readily understood that the carrying of a line down a deep 
 shaft and thence for a long distance underground to be 
 finally extended upwards hundreds of feet through solid 
 rock to intersect an exact point, must require extreme accu- 
 racy to be successfully performed ; in this instance the result 
 was entirely satisfactory. The mine yielded many large 
 masses of copper at this time — 1854. In driving north in 
 the 7th level a mass was found 80 feet in length and 20 feet 
 in breadth, so heavy that a sand blast of several kegs of 
 powder did not suffice to stir it. The company built a dock 
 at the mouth of Eagle River and constructed a road from 
 the mine thereto, warehouses, both at the mine and at the 
 harbor, were built and many other surface improvements 
 made, which included a 24-head stamp mill, to which 12 
 more heads were subsequently added. The total expen- 
 ditures to the close of the year 1853 were 8948,839.83. 
 The average number of miners employed, 120, and the 
 average monthly earnings were $39 per month. Average 
 cost of drifting in the levels was $30 per yard, and average 
 cost for stoping per fathom $23. The company owned its 
 
78 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 own smelting furnace in Pittsburg, at which its mineral 
 was smelted. Abovt 70 per cent of the product was in 
 masses, the remainder being about equally divided between 
 barrel and stamp work. During its time there was nothing 
 in mining history to compare with the surpassing richness 
 of the ClifF. The Minnesota approached it in productiveness, 
 but scarcely equalled it. For years there was scarcely a foot 
 of ground that did not fully pay the cost for excavating, 
 yielding in 1856 for each fathom of mineral ground broken 
 the unprecedented amount of 1,851 pounds of mineral, 
 yielding 67 per cent, refined copper. The business of min- 
 ing, especially for the more valuable metals, is at all times 
 precarious and uncertain, but the owners were confident, 
 and surely they found in their mine an abundant reason for 
 the faith that was in them. During each year explorations 
 were being made to discover additional workable deposites 
 on the company's property, but without any conspicuous 
 result. The number of men employed had increased to 
 about 460 in 1856, at an average wage per month of $32. 
 The mining work was generally done on contract. The 
 cost per ton for hauling to Eagle River was $1 to $1.12. The 
 number of shares in 1858 was increased to 20,000, and the 
 market value of the shares was about $300 per share. 
 
 The company was one of the pioneer companies of the 
 region. As before stated it sunk the first mining shaft in 
 1844, at Cooper Harbor, and afterward acquired at the Cliff 
 mine the greatest degree of success heretofore experienced 
 by any company, and while the stockholders were well 
 compensated in dividends for their enterprise, their exper- 
 ience and success contributed greatly to aid and encourage 
 others, and thus indirectly resulted in developing the mate- 
 rial interests of the country. The whole amount of the 
 capital stock paid in was $110,905. and from 1848 to the 
 cessation of work in 1870 the Cliff mine had not only sus- 
 tained the expenses of the company, but had paid to the 
 stock-holders the net sum of $2,627,660, or a little over 2,000 
 per cent, of the capital paid in. The capital stock paid in 
 does not, however, represent the total expenditure incurred 
 in bringing the mine to the divided paying point ; it sufficed 
 to open the mine to the extent that the product met the e:^- 
 penses. Over half a million of dollars were expended be- 
 fore any dividends were paid. If it had not been for the 
 excessive productiveness of this mine this preliminary ex- 
 penditure would have been a failure. The wonderful suc- 
 cess of this mine occasioned the starting of many others in 
 similar situations, with apparently as reasonable prospects 
 of success, but with perhaps the exception of the Central 
 it has had no rival among the mines that have worked 
 underneath the greenstone. 
 
 Contemporary with the Pittsburg and Boston Mining 
 Company, and really antedating it by a few months in the 
 time of organization, was the old Lake Superior Copper 
 Company, the progenitor of the present Phoenix Company. 
 The originators of this pioneer enterprise, one of the most 
 important ever undertaken on the lake, were among the 
 first who proceeded to Lake Superior after the relinquish- 
 ment of the Indian rights to this country in 1843. They 
 represented mainly gentlemen from Boston, who selected 
 seven three-mile square locations, and afterward secured 
 them by leases obtained from the War Department, and in 
 1844, February 22d, organized a company, dividing the cap- 
 ital stock into 1,200 shares of $100 each, 400 of which 
 were assigned to the proprietors of the locations in payment 
 for the lands conveyed to the company ; these purchased 
 shares were to be exempt from assessment. In addition to 
 the 400 shares, the original holders of the leases were to 
 receive compensation for the expenses incurred in locating 
 the lands, etc., to be paid out of the first earnings of 
 the company. The conditions on which these leases were 
 granted were very advantageous to the lessees, as it gavt^ 
 them several years in which to explore the lands and to de- 
 termine as far as they deemed requisite their mineral value 
 before deciding to purchase ; they were virtually long op- 
 tions, in which the government only secured to itself a per- 
 centage of the mineral products which should be removed. 
 The trustees of this early organization were David Han- 
 shaw, Samuel Williams, of Boston ; D. G. Jones, of Detroit, 
 and Col. Chas. H. Gratiot; the latter recently from the lead 
 mines of Missouri. Several veins had been discovered on 
 the property, and Dr. C. T. Jackson, who was employed to 
 
 examine them, found them so favorable that he recomend- 
 ed the prosecution of mining work, which was begun Oc- 
 tobsr 22, 1844, in the east bank of the Eagle river, near the 
 center of the line between sections 19 and 30, T. 68 N., R. 
 31 W. The preliminary work was directed by Dr. Jackson, 
 but when he left the country late in the season, for his home 
 in Boston, the charge of attairs was given over to Col. 
 Gratiot, who had had previous experience in the lead mines. 
 A stamp mill was decided upon, and the necessaiy machin- 
 ery contracted for in Detroit, which on completion, was 
 transferred to the lake and got ready for work in August, 
 1845. This was the first attempt at a stamp mill on Lake 
 Superior, but it proved unsuitable for the purpose intended, 
 and was of little service. The building is yet standing in 
 which this stamping work was thus early begun. 
 
 — Gambled from annual report Michigan Commissioner of Mineral Statistics, 1880, 
 
 EARLY DAYS OF MINING, ON THE 
 PACIFIC SLOPE. 
 
 THE first mention of gold in California is made in 
 Hakluyt's account of the voyage of Sir Francis 
 Drake, who spent five weeks in June and July, 
 1579, in a bay near latitude 38° ; whether Drake's 
 bay or San Francisco bay is a matter of dispute. It cer- 
 tainly was one of the two, and of neither can we now say 
 with truth, as Hakluyt said seriously, " There is no part of 
 the earth here to be taken up wherein there is not a reason- 
 able quantity of gold or silver." This statement, taken 
 literally, is untrue, and it was probably made without any 
 foundation, merely for the purpose of embellishing the 
 story and magnifying the importance of Drake and of the 
 country which he claimed to have added to the possessions 
 of the English crown. If any " reasonable quantity " of 
 gold or silver had been obtained by the English adven- 
 turers, we should probably have had some account of their 
 expeditions into the interior, of the manner and place in 
 which the precious metals were obtained, and of the speci- 
 mens which were brought home, but of these things there 
 is no mention. Neither gold nor silver exists " in reasonable 
 quantity " near the ocean about latitude 38°, and the infer- 
 ence is that Drake's discovery of Gold in California was a 
 matter of fiction more than of fact. Some small deposits of 
 placer gold were found by Mexicans near the Colorado river 
 at various times from 1775 to 1828, and in the latter year a 
 similar discovery was made at San Isidro, in what is now 
 San Diego county, and in 1802 a mineral vein, supposed to 
 contain silver, at Olizal, in the district of Monterey, attrac- 
 ted some attention, but no profitable mining was done at 
 either of these places. Forbes, who wrote the history of 
 California in 1835, said "No.minerals of particular import- 
 ance have yet been found in Upper California, nor any ores 
 of metals." It was in 1838, sixty-nine years alter the arrival 
 of the Franciscan friars, and the establishment of the first 
 mission, that the placers of San Francisquito, forty-five miles 
 northwest from Los Angeles, were discovered. The deposit 
 of gold was neither extensive nor rich, but it was worked 
 steadily for twenty years. In 1841 the exploring expedition 
 of Commodore Wilkes visited the coast, and its mineralogist, 
 James D. Dana, made a trip overland from the Columbia 
 river, by way of Willamette and Sacramento valleys to San 
 Francisco bay, and in the following yesir he published a 
 book on mineralogy, and mentioned in it that gold was found 
 in the Sacramento valley, and that the rocks similar to those 
 of the auriferous formations were observed in southern Ore- 
 gon. Dana did not regard his discovery as of any practical 
 value, and if he said anything about it in California no one 
 paid any attention to it. Nevertheless, many persons had 
 an idea that the country was rich in minerals, and on the 
 4th of May, 1S46, Thomas O. Larkin, then United States 
 consul in Monterey, a gentleman usually careful to keep his 
 statements witliin the limits of truth, said in an official let- 
 ter to James Buchanan, then Secretary of state : " There is 
 no doubt but that gold, silver, quicksilver, copper, lead, sul- 
 phur, and coal mines are to be found all over California, and 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 79 
 
 it is equally doubtful whether, under their present owners, 
 they will ever be worked." The implication here is that if 
 the country were only transferred to the American flag, these 
 mines, of whose existence he knew nothing save by surmise, 
 or by the assertion of incompetent persons, would soon be 
 opened and worked. In sixty-six days after that letter was 
 written, the stars and stripes were hoisted in Monterey, and 
 now California is working mines of all the minerals men- 
 tioned by Larkin save lead, which also might be produced 
 if it would pay, since there is no lack of its ores. 
 
 Marshall's Discovery. — ^The disco yery of the rich 
 gold fields of the Sacramento basin is an American achieve- 
 ment, accomplished under the American dominion, by a 
 native of the United States, and made of world-wide im- 
 portance by American enterprise and industry, favored by 
 the liberal policy of American law. It was on the 19th 
 day of January, 1848, ten days before the treaty of Guada- 
 lupe Hidalgo was signed, and three months before the rati- 
 fied copies were exchanged, that James W. Marshall, while 
 engaged in digging a race for a saw-mill at Coloma, about 
 thirty-five miles eastward from Sutter's Fort, found some 
 pieces of yellow metal, which he and the half dozen men 
 working with him at 
 
 the mill supposed to - — . 
 
 be gold. He felt con- 
 fident that he had 
 made a discovery of 
 
 great importance, but - '_ 
 
 he knew nothing of 
 either chemistry or 
 gold mining, so he 
 could not prove the 
 nature of the metal or 
 tell how to obtain it in 
 paying quantities. Ev- 
 ery morning he went 
 down to the race to 
 look for the bits of the 
 metal ; but the men at 
 the mill thought Mar- 
 shall was very wild in 
 his ideas, and they 
 continued their labors 
 in building the mill, 
 and in sowing wheat, 
 and planting vegeta- 
 bles. The swift cur- 
 rent of the mill-race 
 washed away a consid- 
 erable body of earthy 
 matter, leaving the 
 coarse particles of gold 
 behind, so Marshall's 
 collection of speci- 
 mens continued to ac- 
 cumulate, and his associates began to think there might be 
 something in his gold mine after all. About the middle of 
 February, aMr. Bennett, one of theparty employed atthe mill, 
 went to San Francisco for the purpose of learning whether 
 this metal was precious, and there he was introduced to 
 Isaac Humphrey, who had washed for gold in Georgia. The 
 experienced miner saw at a glance that he had the true stuff 
 before him, and after a few inquiries he was satisfied that 
 the diggings must be rich. He made immediate preparation 
 to go to the mill, and tried to persuade some of his friends 
 to go with him, but they thought it would be only a waste 
 of time and money, so he went with Bennett for his sole 
 companion. He arrived at Coloma on the 7th of March, and 
 found the work at the mill going on as if no gold existed in 
 the neighborhood. The next day he took a pan and spade 
 and washed some of the dirt from the bottom of the mill 
 race in places where Marshall had found his specimens, and 
 in a few hours Humphrey declared that these mines were 
 far richer than any in Georgia. 
 
 He now made a rocker and went to work washing gold 
 industriously, and every day yielded him an ounce or two of 
 metal. The men at the mill made rockers for themselves, 
 and all were soon busy in search of the yellow metal. 
 Everything else was abandoned ; the rumor of the discovery 
 spread slowly. In the middle of March, Pearson B. Read- 
 
 THB SAW MILL OF COLOMA, WHEEE GOLD WAS DISCOVERED, JANtTAET 19, 1848. 
 
 ing, the owner of a large ranch at the head of the Sacra- 
 mento valley, happened to visit Sutter's Fort, and hearing 
 of the mining at Coloma, he went thither to see it. He said 
 that if similarity of formation could bs taken as proof, there 
 must be gold mines near his ranch, so after observing the 
 method of washing, he posted ofi", and in a few weeks he was 
 at work on the bars of Clear creek, nearly two hundred 
 miles northwestward from Coloma. A few days after Read- 
 ing left, John Bidwell, once representative of the northern 
 district of the State in the lower house of Congress, came to 
 Coloma, and the result of his visit was that in less than a 
 month he had a party of Indians from his ranch washing 
 gold on the bars of Feather river, seventy-five miles north- 
 westward from Coloma. Thus the mines were opened at far 
 distant points. The first printed notice of the discovery 
 was given in Ihe California newspaper published in San 
 Francisco, on the 15th of March, as follows : 
 
 " In the newly made race-way of the saw-mill recently erected by 
 Captain Sutter on the American Fork, gold has been foimd in con- 
 ~!rlnlili- qmntitirg. One person brought thirty dollars to New 
 il"l\i.ii.i, L'.itlii ri'il there in a short time." 
 
 On the 29th of May 
 the same paper, an- 
 nouncing that its pub- 
 lication would be 
 suspended, says : 
 
 " The whole country, 
 from San Francisco to 
 Los Angeles, and from 
 the sea-3iore to the base 
 of the Sierra Nevada, 
 resounds with the solid 
 cry of gold /gold ! gold ! 
 while the field is left 
 half planted, the house 
 half built, and every- 
 thing neglected but the 
 manufacture of picks and 
 shovels, and the means 
 of transportation to the 
 spot where one man ob- 
 tained one hundred and 
 twenty- eight dollars' 
 worth of the real stuft in 
 one day's washing ; and 
 the average for all con- 
 cerned is twenty dollars 
 per diem." 
 
 The towns and 
 farms were deserted, 
 or left to the care of 
 women and children, 
 while rancheros, 
 wood-choppers, me- 
 chanics, vaqueros, 
 deserted or obtained 
 energies to washing 
 
 and soldiers and sailors who had 
 leave of absence, devoted all their 
 
 the auriferous gravel of the Sacramento basin. Never 
 satisfied, however much they might be making, they were 
 continually looking for new places which might yield 
 them twice or thrice as much as they had made before. 
 Thus the area of their labors gradually extended, and at the 
 end of 1848 miners were at work in every large stream on 
 the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, from the Feather to 
 the Tuolumne river, a distance of one hundred and fifty 
 miles, and also at Reading's diggings, in the northwestern 
 corner of the Sacramento valley. The first rumors of the 
 gold discovery were received in the Atlantic States and in 
 foreign countries with incredulity and ridicule ; but soon 
 the receipts of the precious metal in large quantities, and the 
 enthusiastic letters of army officers and men of good re- 
 pute, changed the current of feeling, and an excitement 
 almost unparalleled ensued. Oregon, the Hawaiian islands, 
 and Sonora sent their thousands to share in the auriferous 
 harvest of the first year ; and in the following spring all the 
 adventurous young Americans east of the Rocky mountains 
 wanted to go to the new Eldorado, where, as they imagined, 
 everybody was rich, and gold could be dug by the shovelful 
 from the bed of every stream. Before 1850 the population 
 of California had risen from 15,000, as it was m 1847, to 
 
80 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 100,000, and the average increase annually for five or six 
 years was 50,000. As the number of mines increased, so did 
 the gold production and the extent and variety of the gold 
 fields. In 1849 the placers of Trinity and Mariposa were 
 opened, and the following years those of Klamath and 
 Scott's valleys. 
 
 Primitive Mining Methods. — In the first two years 
 the miners depended mainly for their profits on the pan and 
 the rocker. The placer miner's pan is made of sheet-iron, 
 or tinned iron, with a flat bottom about a foot in diameter, 
 and six inches high, inclining outwards at an angle of thirty 
 or forty degrees. We frequently see and hear the phrase 
 " golden sands," as if the gold were contained in loose sand ; 
 but usually it is found in a tough clay, which envelops 
 gravel and large boulders as well as sand. This clay must 
 be thoroughly dissolved ; so the miner fills his pan with it, 
 goes to the bank of the river, squats down there, puts his 
 pan under water and shakes it horizontally, so as to get the 
 mass thoroughly soaked ; then he picks out the larger stones 
 with one hand and mashes up the largest and toughest 
 lumps of clay, and again shakes his pan ; and when all the 
 dirt appears to be dissolved so that the gold can be carried 
 to the bottom by its weight, he .tilts up the pan a little to let 
 the thin mud and light sand run out ; and thus he works 
 until he has washed out all except the metal which remains 
 at the bottom. The rocker, which was introduced into 
 California mines at their discovery, is made somewhat like 
 a child's cradle. On the upper end is a riddle, made with a 
 bottom of sheet-iron punched with holes. This riddle is 
 filled with pay-dirt, and a man rocks the machine with one 
 hand while with a dipper he pours water into the riddle 
 with the other. With the help of the agitation, the liquid 
 dissolves the clay and carries it down with the gold into the 
 floor of the rocker, where the metal is caught by traverse 
 riffles or cleets, while the mud, water and sand run ofi' at the 
 lower end of the rocker, which is left open. The riddle can 
 be taken oif so that the larger stones can be conveniently 
 thrown ofil In places where there was not water enough for 
 washing, and where the gold was coarse, the miners some- 
 times scratched the metal from the crevices in the rocks 
 with their knives ; but the pan and rocker were their main 
 reliance for three or four years. In many places the rich 
 spots were soon exhausted, and there was a rapid decrease 
 in the profits of the miners. It was necessary that they 
 should devise new and more expeditious methods of work- 
 ing, so that they could wash more in a day, and thus derive 
 as much profit as they had obtained by washing a little dirt. 
 The chief want of the placer miner is an abundant 
 and convenient supply of water, and the first noteworthy at- 
 tempt to convey the needful element in an artificial channel 
 was made at Coyote Hill, in Nevada county, in March, 1850. 
 A ditch was built about two miles long, and, proving a de- 
 cided success, was imitated in many other places, until, in 
 the course of eight years, six thousand miles of mining 
 canals had been made, supplying all the principal 
 placer districts with water, and furnishing the means for 
 obtaining the greatest portion of the gold yield of the State. 
 Many of the ditches were marvels of engineering skill. 
 The problem was to get the largest amount of water at the 
 greatest altitude above the auriferous ground, and at the 
 least immediate expense, as money was worth from three to 
 ten per cent, per month interest. As the pay-dirt might be 
 exhausted within a couple of years, and as the anticipated 
 profits would in a short time be sufficient to pay for an en- 
 tirely new ditch, durability was a point of minor import- 
 ance. There was no imperial treasury to supply the funds 
 for a durable aqueduct in every township, nor could the im- 
 patient miners wait a decennium for the completion of gi- 
 gantic structures in stone and mortar. The high value of 
 their time and the scarcity of their money made it neces- 
 sary that the cheapest and most expeditious expedients for 
 obtaining water should be adopted. Where the surface of 
 the ground furnished the proper grade, a ditch was dug in 
 the earth ; and where it did not, flumes were built of wood 
 and sustained in the air by frame-work that rose sometimes 
 to a height of three hundred feet in crossing deep ravines, 
 and extending for miles at an elevation of a hundred or two 
 hundred feet. All the devices known to mechanics for con- 
 veying water from hill-top to hill-top were adopted. Aque- 
 ducts of wood and pipe of iron were suspended upon cables 
 
 of wire, or sustained on bridging of wood ; and inverted 
 siphons carried water up the sides of one hill by the heavier 
 pressure from the higher side of another. The ditches 
 were usually the property of companies, of which there 
 were at one time four hundred in the State, owning a total 
 length of six thousand miles of canals and flumes. The 
 largest of these, called the Eureka, in Nevada county, had 
 two hundred and five miles of ditches, constructed at a cost 
 of $900,000 ; and their receipts at one time from the sale of 
 water were $6,000 per day. Unfortunately these mining 
 canals, though more numerous, more extensive, and bolder in 
 design than the aqueducts of Rome, were less durable, and 
 some of them have been abandoned and allowed to go to ruin, 
 so that scarcely a trace of their existence remains, save in the 
 heaps of gravel from which the clay and loam were washed 
 in the search for gold. As the placers in many districts 
 were gradually exhausted, the demand for water and the 
 profits of the ditch companies decreased ; and the more ex- 
 pensive flumes, when blown down by severe storms, carried 
 away by floods, or destroyed by the decay of the wood, 
 were not repaired. 
 
 Miners' "Rushes." — The year 1850 was marked by the 
 first of a multitude of "rushes" or sudden migrations in search 
 of imaginary rich diggings. The miners, although generally 
 men of rare intelligence as compared with the laborers in 
 other countries, had vague ideas of the geological distribu- 
 tion of gold, and the marvellous amounts dug out by them, 
 sometimes ascending to thousands of dollars per day to the 
 laborer, excited their fancy so much that they could scarce- 
 ly have formed a sound judgment if they had possessed 
 the information neccessary for its basis. Many believed 
 that there must be some volcanic source from which the 
 gold had been thrown up and scattered over the hills, and 
 they thought that if they could only find that place, they 
 would have nothing to do but to shovel up the precious 
 metal and load their mules with it. More than once, long 
 trains of pack animals were sent out in the confident expec- 
 tation that they would get loads of gold within a few days. 
 No story was too extravagant to command credence. Men 
 who had never earned more than a dollar a day before they 
 came to California were dissatisfied when they were here ■ 
 clearing twenty dollars, and they were always ready to start 
 ofi' on some expedition in search of distant diggings re- 
 puted to be rich. Although the miners of to-day have far 
 better ideas of the auriferous deposits than they had thirty 
 years ago, and no longer expect to dig up the pure gold by 
 the shovelful, they are now, as they have been since the 
 discovery of the mines, always prepared for migration to 
 any new field of excitement. In the spring of 1850 a story 
 was circulated that gold was lying in heaps on the bank of 
 Gold Lake, a small body of water eastward of where Down- 
 ieville now is. Thousands of men left good claims to join 
 this rush, but after weeks or months they returned much 
 poorer than they started. The next year witnessed a rush 
 to Gold Bluff, on the ocean shore about latitude 41°. The 
 sea beating against a high auriferous hill had left a wide 
 beach containing much gold, which was mixed with sand 
 that was very rich in spots, but was shifted about under the 
 influence of a heavy surf. A gentleman of much intelli- 
 gence, secretary of a mining company which claimed a por- 
 tion of the beach, examined the place and seriously wrote 
 to his associates that each one would receive at least $43,- 
 000,000 if the sand proved to be only one-tenth as rich as 
 that which he had examined. Several other similar state- 
 ments were made in corroboration. The mining population 
 were wonderfully excited by these reports, and preparations 
 were made for a large migration to the golden beach ; but 
 more precise information was soon published, and most of 
 the adventurers who had started were disenchanted before 
 the vessels in which thoy were to sail could get to sea. The 
 construction of hundreds of ditches within three or four 
 years after the successful experiment at Coyote Hill gave a 
 great imimlse to placer mining, and had much influence to 
 change its character. Before the water had been carried in 
 artificial channels to the tops or high upon the sides of the 
 hills, nearly all the miners spent their summers in washing 
 the dirt in the bars of the rivers and their winters in work- 
 ing the beds of gullies, which were converted into brooks 
 during the rainy season. In the gullies the supply of pay- 
 dirt was usually small, and the claims were exhausted in 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 81 
 
 the course of a few weeks. On the bars the water was 
 below the level of the pay-dirt, and had to be dipped or 
 pumped up by hand. These circumstances were favorable 
 to the use of the rocker ; but the ditch brought the water to 
 places where the dirt was far more abundant and could be 
 obtained with more facility, though it was poorer in quality, 
 and, therefore, the washing of a larger quantity would be 
 necessary to yield an equal profit. New modes of working 
 and new implements must be introduced to accomplish the 
 greater amount of work, and the tom and the sluice came 
 rapidly into use. The tom had been employed for years in 
 the placers of Georgia, and some Georgians had their sluices 
 in Nevada county in the later part of 1849, and in February 
 the following year a party at Gold Run, in that county, 
 finding that the bed of the ravine did not give them enough 
 fall, made a long board trough on the hill-side leading 
 down to their tom, and the pay-dirt from the claim was 
 thrown up to a board platform, and from that thrown up to 
 the head of the trough, and the water carried the dirt down 
 to the tom. The purpose of this trough was mainly to save 
 the labor of carrying the dirt by hand from the claim to 
 the tom ; but the trough having been once built, its value in 
 washing gold was soon apparent. It was, however, the ditch 
 that gave opportunities for the general introduction of the 
 tom and sluice, and in most districts they were unheard of 
 until late in 1850 or 1851. 
 
 The tom is a trough about twelve feet long, eight inches 
 deep, fifteen inches wide at the head and thirty at the foot. 
 A riddle of sheet-iron punched with holes half an inch in 
 diameter forms the bottom of the tom at the lower end, so 
 placed that all the w^ater and their mud shall fall down 
 through the holes of the riddle and none pass over the sides 
 or end. The water falls from a riddle into a flat box with 
 transverse cleets or riffles, and these are to catch the gold. 
 A stream of water runs constantly through the tom, into the 
 head of which the pay-dirt is thrown by several men, while 
 one throws out the stones too large to pass through the 
 riddle, and throws back to the head of the tom the lumps 
 of clay which reach the foot without being dissolved. The 
 tom was a great improvement on the rocker, but it was soon 
 superseded by a still greater, the sluice, which is a board 
 trough, from a hundred to a thousand feet long, with trans- 
 verse cleets at the lower end to catch the gold. With a 
 descent of one foot in twenty the water rushes through it 
 like a torrent,bearing down large stones and tearing the lumps 
 of clay to pieces. The miners, of whom a dozen or a score 
 may work at one sluice, have little to do save to throw in 
 the dirt and take out the gold. Occasionally it may be 
 necessary to throw out some stones, or to shovel the dirt 
 along to prevent the sluice from choking, but these atten- 
 tions cost relatively very little time. The sluice is the best 
 device for washing gold. It was used in California du- 
 ring the early days more extensively than elsewhere, al- 
 though it has been introduced by men who have been 
 in our own mines, into Australia, New Zealand, Bri- 
 tish Columbia, Transylvania, and many other countries. 
 The sluice, though an original California invention had 
 been previously invented in Brazil ; but it was never 
 brought to much excellence there nor used extensively, and 
 no such implement was known in 1849 in the industry of 
 gold mining. At firstthe sluices were made short, and after- 
 wards lengthened, until some were a mile long, the length 
 being greater a? the gold was finer ; that is, if the surface 
 of the earth in the direction of the sluice was favor- 
 able. 
 
 There were many little variations in the form of the sluice, 
 to suit different circumstances. The ground sluice is a mere 
 ditch on a hillside or slope, and the miners dig up the bot- 
 tom and dig down the banks, while the water carries away 
 the clay and leaves the gold ; but the dirt at the bottom of 
 the ground sluice must afterwards be washed in a board 
 sluice. The ground sluice has been used to grade roads 
 and to carry away snow irom the streets of mining towns, 
 as well as to wash-gold. In claims where many large stones 
 were found in the pay dirt, and had to be carried by the 
 water through the board sluice, or where the sluice was to 
 be used for a long period, they were paved with stones, be- 
 cause any wooden bottom was rapidly worn out. Soine- 
 times the bed of a stream into which many sluices emptied 
 was converted into a "tail sluice," which yielded a large 
 6 
 
 revenue, with no labor save that of occasionally " cleaning 
 up " or washing out the metal from the sand deposited in 
 the crevices between the stones. 
 
 Placer Leads Traced to Quartz.— The placer gold had 
 originally been confined in rocky veins which were disin- 
 tegrated by the action of chemical or mechanical forces, and 
 the lighter material was swept away by the water, while the 
 heavier remained near its primeval position. The gold 
 found in the bars of large streams far from the mountains, 
 after having been carried a long distance, is in small smooth 
 particles, as though it had been ground fine and polished by 
 long attrition. In small gullies in the mountains the gold 
 is usually coarse and rough, as if it had suffered little 
 change after having been freed from the quartz by which it 
 was once surrounded. In hundreds of instances the abun- 
 dance of gold in a gully has been traced unmistakably to 
 an auriferous quartz lode in the hill-side above it, and the 
 placer miners, following streaks of loose gold, have been 
 brought to the rocky source from which it came. In this 
 manner the Allison mine and the Comstock lode, not to 
 mention other less celebrated mines or veins, were found. 
 Such discoveries were made in 1850, and in the following 
 year capitalists in New York and London, anxious to get 
 their share of the marvellous wealth of the Sierra Nevada, 
 formed companies to work the quartz mines at Grass valley 
 and at Mariposa. Millions of dollars were invested in 
 machinery, and superintendents, with the wildest ideas, 
 were sent to erect mills and to take charge of the precious 
 metals. All these ventures proved complete failures. In 
 most instances the machinery was utterly useless, and the 
 superintendents utterly incompetent. The castings for the 
 mills lay about the wharves of San Francisco for many 
 years, objects of curiosity for experienced miners, and of 
 ridicule for the general public. In one mill the metal was 
 to be caught in a coarse sieve, and in another the quartz was 
 to be crushed by a rolling ball. The mismanagement was 
 so gross and the losses so severe that foreign capitalists be- 
 came very shy of California quartz mines, and the develop- 
 ment of that branch of industry was much retarded. It 
 was not, however, in quartz mining alone that ridiculous 
 blunders were made. Large sums of money were expended 
 in the eastern states by men who had never seen a placer 
 mine, arid had no correct idea of the nature of the gold 
 deposits, in making machinery to take gold more expedi- 
 tiously from the river beds and bars than could be done by 
 hand. One enterprising New York company sent a dredg- 
 ing machine to dig the metal from the bottom of the Yuba 
 river, never- questioning whether that stream was deep 
 enough in the summer to float such a machine, or whether 
 the tough clay and gravel in its bed could be dug up by a 
 dredger, and entirely ignorant of the fact that the gold is 
 mostly in the crevices of the bed-rock, where the spoon and 
 knife of the skilfiil and attentive miner would be necessary 
 for cleaning out the richest pockets. With the introduction 
 of the sluice, the ditch, and the hydraulic process, it became 
 customary to hire laborers. The pan and the rocker re- 
 quired every man to be his own master. In 1849 each miner 
 worked for himself, or the exceptions were so few that they 
 were almost unknown. The method of working made it 
 impossible for the employer to guard against the dishonesty 
 of the servant, who could always make more in his own 
 claim than any one could aflford to give him. Men become 
 servants usually because they have no capital, and cannot 
 get into profltable employment without it ; but there was no 
 lack of profitable employment for the miner in 1849, nor did 
 he need any capital, even if he had it. But the sluice 
 brought deep diggings, with large masses of pay dirt, into 
 demand, and the claims were held at high prices so that 
 their possession was in itself a capital. 
 
 There had been an abundance of rocker claims in 1849 ; 
 but there were not enough good sluice claims three years 
 later to supply one-third of the miners. The erection of a 
 long sluice, the cutting of drains, often necessary to carry 
 ofi" the tailings, and the purchase of water from the ditch 
 company, required capital, and the manner of cleaning up 
 rendered it possible for the owner of a sluice to prevent his 
 servants from stealing any considerable portion of his gold 
 before it came to his possession. Thus it was that the 
 custom of hiring miners for wages became common in the 
 placer diggings. In 1852 the wages were $6 or $7 per day; 
 
82 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the next year about S5, since which time they have gradually 
 fallen. 
 
 The development of the quartz mining interest was slow 
 and steady, unlike the placer mining, which, rising suddenly 
 to gigantic proportions, soon reached its culminating point, 
 and then began to decline rapidly. The placers had been 
 discovered by miners who were searching for them, and who 
 spent much time and labor in the search ; but in early years 
 most of the richest auriferous lodes were found by men who 
 were not looking for quartz. Hunters, travelers, placer 
 miners and road makers occasionally came, without think- 
 ing of it, upon valuable veins, which they immediately 
 claimed, and proceeded to work or sell. The first quartz 
 miners in California were Mexicans, who knew how gold- 
 bearing rocks were reduced in their native country. They 
 pounded up the quartz in mortars, or, if not rich enough to 
 pay for reduction in that way, they made an arrastra or little 
 circular stone pavement in the centre of which stood a post. 
 To an arm extending out from this was hitched a mule which 
 dragged round a heavy piece of granite, between which and 
 the pavement, the quartz was pulverized, and, when fine, 
 the gold was caught with quicksilver and separated from the 
 base matter by washing. This process required neither 
 capital nor skilled labor, nor delay, nor a number of 
 laborers. The owner of the arrastra could dig out his own 
 rock one day, and reduce it the next. As a matter of profit 
 he usually selected only the richest pieces to work in the 
 arrastra, throwing aside those portions that would not yield 
 at the rate of $75 or more per ton. With experience in the 
 observation of quartz, and a mode of working in which 
 failure was almo5t impossible, these Mexicans frequently 
 did very well. Their success excited the envy of the Amer- 
 icans, who would purchase the claims at high prices, and 
 tell the Mexicans to see the wonders that would be done by 
 American enterprise. The common result was that a large 
 and costly steam-mill was erected ; a multitude of laborers 
 were employed ; they did not know how to select the rich 
 from the poor quartz ; the mill was so large that it could not 
 be kept going at its full capacity without receiving all the 
 poor as well as the rich rock accessible in the vein ; the 
 amalgamator did not understand his buiness ; the rich rook 
 in which the Mexicans had been at work was soon exhausted ; 
 the creditors who had loaned money for the erection of the 
 mill brought suit to foreclose their mortgage; the work 
 stopped ; the title of the property was insecure ; and the 
 people in the neighborhood said that quartz mining was a 
 very uncertain business. And so it is under that system of 
 management ; and that system, leading to failure, was fol- 
 lowed in more than a hundred cases. Mills were built in 
 places where only a little pocket of rich quartz had been 
 found, and if the pay-quartz was abundant it was not 
 properly selected; or, if selected, the amalgamation was 
 intrusted to a man who knew nothing of the business, and 
 the gold was lost. Horace Greeley was near the truth when 
 he said, " I am confident that fully three out of every four 
 quartz mining enterprises have proved failures, or have at 
 best achieved no positive- success." And yet in nearly 
 every case prudent and competent management would have 
 secured success, perhaps on oaly a small scale, because in 
 many instances the quantity of pay-rock was small. But 
 the failure of three-fourths of the quartz mills built in early 
 years did not prevent the continuous increase of mills, and 
 of the yield of gold from quartz. When a miner found a 
 vein yellow with gold, he could not turn his back on it 
 because his neighbor's mill did not pay. Gradually more 
 caution was used ; competent miners and metallurgists 
 became numerous, and the veins were carefully examined as 
 to the quantity of pay-rock before mills were built. As the 
 placers declined the miners were compelled to turn their 
 attention to quartz, and prospecting for quartz became a 
 regular business. 
 
 Improvement in Mining.— The sluice, though per- 
 fect as a device for washing the dirt, was not the last 
 invention in placer mining. The shovel did not furnish the 
 earth to the sluice fast enough, and the wages of a dozen 
 workmen must be saved if possible. In 1852, Edward E. 
 Mattison, a native of Connecticut, invented the process of 
 hydraulic mining, in which a stream of water was directed 
 under a heavy pressure against a bank or hill-side containing 
 placer gold, and the eai-th, was torn down by the fluid and 
 
 carried into the sluice to be washed ; thus the expense of 
 shoveling was entirely saved. The man with the rocker 
 might wash one cubic yard of earth in a day ; with the torn 
 he might average two yards ; with the sluice four yards ; 
 and with the hydraulic and sluice together tfty or even a 
 hundred yards. The difi'erence is immense. A stream of 
 water rushing through a three-inch pipe, under a pressure of 
 two hundred feet perpendicular, has a tremendous force, and 
 the everlasting hills themselves crumble down before it as 
 if they were but piles of cloud blown away by a breath of 
 wind or dissipated by a glance of the sun. 
 
 And yet even this terrific power did not suffice. When 
 the hills have been dried by months of constant heat and 
 drought, the clay becomes so hard that the hydraulic stream, 
 with all its momentum, does not readily dissolve it, and 
 much of the water runs off nearly clear through the sluice, 
 and thus is wasted for the pui-pose.i of washing. The sluice 
 could wash more dirt than the hydraulic stream will furnish 
 when the clay is hard and dry. To prevent this loss, the 
 miner will often cut a tunnel into the heart of his claim, 
 and by powder blast the clay loose, so that it will give way 
 more readily to the water. There have been instances 
 in which two tons of powder have been used at one blast in 
 a hydraulic claim. As the introduction of the ditch led to 
 the use of the sluice and hydraulic power, so the introduc- 
 tion of the latter led to a change in the mining ground. 
 The miners were now able, and they even preferred to 
 attack high hills of gravel, which afforded them an im- 
 mense mass of auriferious earth, and furnished profitable 
 employment to large streams of water for months or even 
 years. Those counties which contained the most extensive 
 districts suitable for the application of hydraulic power 
 were the most prosperous, while the towns dependent on 
 river mining, or on shallow placers fell into decay, and were 
 partially, and in some cases entirely, deserted. 
 
 Decline of River Mining. — From 1850 to 1856 river 
 mining occupied a very important place in the industry of 
 the State. The beds of all the streams in the auriferous 
 regions were rich in gold, which could only be obtained by 
 taking the water from its natural course by means of dams 
 and ditches or fiumes. The beds being deep, and the banks 
 steep, rocky, and crooked, these enterprises to drain the 
 rivers were very expensive, and they were also very dan- 
 gerous pecuniarily, since only a brief portion of the year 
 was suitable for the work, and an early rain might come 
 and sweep away dam and flume before an ounce of gold 
 had been obtained. The coinb of the Sierra Nevada along 
 nearly its whole length rises almost to the limits of per- 
 petual snow, and the white caps do not difappear or the 
 rivers reach a low stage until late in the summer, so that 
 three months may be considered as the limit of the period 
 in which a river can be flumed and the bed emptied of its 
 gold. _ Every perennial stream of rnuch note in the aurifer- 
 ous districts was flumed at some time in its history, but after 
 1850 such enterprises became rarities. One of the most costly 
 and remarkable river flumes in the State was erected in 
 1857 to drain the Feather river at Oroville. It was three- 
 quarters of a mile long and twenty feet wide ; the expendi- 
 tures of the company during the season were $176,P85 and 
 their profits $75,000. They flumed the river again in 1S58, 
 and then lost $45,000. In some of the diggings the auriferous 
 clay is so hard and tough that the hydraulic stream and 
 sluice are unable to dissolve it, and mills were built to crush 
 it fine so that the water in the sluice could get an oppor- 
 tunity to dissolve all the earthy particles and set free the 
 metal. The discovery of gold in Australia, was made in 
 1851, by a miner from California, and it proved to be equal 
 in magnitude to that of our own State ; and, singular to say, 
 it attracted little attention, and drew from us within two 
 years only about a thousand of our residents, while many 
 thousands were ready to rush to imaginary diggings in 
 other directions. 
 
 The Miners' Madness.— Placer mining was at the 
 height of its prosperity in 1852 and 1853. Wages were high, 
 employment abundant for everybody that wished to hire 
 out, and there was plenty of ground that would pay, at least, 
 moderately for working with the rocker. But the rich spots 
 were few, and the miners who had shared the prosperity of 
 1849 were longing for the discovery of some new gold field that 
 would again reward them with an ounce a day. In the lat- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 83 
 
 ter part of 1853, and the beginning of 1854, a series of 
 newspaper letters and articles were published asserting that 
 there were very ricli placers on the head waters of the 
 Amazon in Peru. These articles probably came from the 
 same source, and must have been written with the deliberate 
 purpose of throwing trade into the hands of a few ship- 
 ownerj and merchants. Whatever the design of the writer 
 or writerj may have been, the result was that two thousand 
 miners went from California and Australia to Peru, where 
 they found no placers, nor could they learn of any such 
 place as that mentioned in the articles. The next year was 
 marked by a greater rush to Kern river, in the southern 
 part of the State. Some small placers had been found 
 there, and they served as the basis or the suggestion of a 
 multitude of false letters, asserting that the basin of Kern 
 river was as rich in gold as those of American and Yuba 
 rivers had been in 1849. Thsse statements were copied into 
 the newspapers, which had no means of verification, and 
 the entire industry of the state was thrown into confusion. 
 Miners abandoned good claims, farm laborers and clerks left 
 their employers, the rate of \vage3 and the cost of mining 
 implements rose in the market, and soon six or eight thou- 
 sand men were on the road to Kern river and as many 
 more were ready to start, when the newspapers began to 
 show the folly of such a rush to diggings that had a& yet 
 produced no considerable amount of gold. The tide of 
 migration was arrested, and soon it turned back, the-'dis- 
 appointed adventurers returning with the satisfaction of 
 knowing that every river between the Mariposa and Fea- 
 ther, even aft3r seven years' working, was richer than Kern 
 river had ever been. It was in October, 1855, that a very 
 remarkable discovery was made near Columbia, in Tuo- 
 lumne county. In various parts of the State, the miners in 
 following up rich deposits of gold had come upon what 
 appeared to be the channel of ancient rivers, which had 
 been filled up and covered over with beds of clay and gravel 
 in some places a thousand feet deep. The high banks, the 
 bars, the bends, the rapids, the deep places, the tributary 
 guUiea and brooks, the water-worn gravel, the remains of 
 fresh-water mollusks, the flat stones pointing down stream, 
 the heaps of gravel formed by eddies, the drift-wood, and 
 the deposit of coarse gold in the centre and deep places of the 
 channel — unmistakable evidences of a stream that had ex- 
 isted for centuries — were all distinctly recognizable. 
 
 In these ancient rivers the gold was distributed in the 
 same manner as in those of the present geological era, but 
 in greater abundance and usually in larger particles, as 
 though it had not been subjected to so much wear. The 
 primeval streams were intersected in places by water courses 
 of our own day, and these latter were usually richer just below 
 the points of intersection than at any other places. The 
 largest and most noted of the ancient river beds discovered 
 before 1867 in California, called the Blue lead, runs nearly 
 through the middle of Sierra and Nevada counties, has a 
 width varying from a hundred to three hundred yards, and 
 has been traced nearly forty miles. Its course is at right 
 angles to that of the present streams in the same neighbor- 
 hood. The amount of gold taken from its. bed has never 
 been ascertained, but it could not have been, up to 1868, less 
 than $25,000,000, and perhaps twice as much. 
 
 New Discoveries. — The traveller in the mining dis- 
 tricts frequently sees " table mountains ;" that is, high rocky 
 elevations, with flat surfaces and steep sides. They are 
 evidently remains of lava floods, from which the earth, by 
 which they were once surrounded, has been washed away, 
 leaving the basalt towering above the adjacent country. 
 The most remarkable of these table mountains is in Tuo- 
 lumne county, through which runs the Stanislaus river, and 
 with the same general course. Its length, with its bends, is 
 about thirty-five miles, its height from three hundred to one 
 thousand feet above the clay and gravel near it, and its 
 width from a quarter t"i half a mile. The smoothness of its 
 surface, the gradual inclination to the westward, the basal tic 
 nature of the rock, its proximity to a center of great volcanic 
 activity, and various other circumstances which cannot be 
 stated here in detail, leave no room for doubt that this table 
 mountain is a solidified bed of lava. Some miners, sinking 
 a shaft at a place where the lava had been carried away, 
 leaving the sandstone or gravel under it bare, found gold, 
 and some other miner*, working along the side of the 
 
 mountain, found a rich streak of pay-dirt, which ran down 
 in a deep rocky channel obliquely under the mountain. 
 They atJempted to follow it, but they soon met a body of 
 water, which they could neither avoid nor pump out. This 
 put them on nettles. Further examination showed that 
 there were other little channels running under the mountain 
 and on both sides, and all going deeper as they went further 
 in, and nearly all tending westward, with a course oblique 
 to that of the mountain, and all containing more or less 
 gold. There must, then, be an ancient river bed under the 
 mountain. This opinion, advanced by a few men without 
 education, who wished to induce wealthy men to undertake 
 the exploration of the mountain by tunnels, was met by 
 incredulity and ridicule. Nevertheless, the projectors of the 
 scheme had got the idea fixed in their minds, and they were 
 determined to see what the mountain was made of. The 
 storekeepers, in accordance with the general custom of 
 assisting in developing the resources of their own neighbor- 
 hood, willingly trusted them for provisions, tools, and 
 clothes, while they were cutting a tunnel to reach the bed of 
 the supposed ancient river. They commenced their work at 
 some distance from the basalt, and after cutting through 
 clay and gravel reached a slate rock, which seemed to have 
 been the ancient bank, and then they came to a bed of 
 gravel of such character that the theory of the primeval 
 river was fully established. But the tunnel was not deep 
 enough. It was far above the bed rock, and the water 
 stood, as before, between the miner and the gold. Months 
 of labor had been lost, and it was uncertain whether the 
 next tunnel would strike the right level, nor could it be 
 known whether the bed would be rich enough to pay. 
 Nevertheless, hope and confidence are the chief divinities of 
 the miner. He is happy in their smiles even when priva- 
 tion is his companion and when experience tells him that no 
 gold fortune is in store, they continue to sustain him. The 
 Table mountain prospectors, however, had reason and 
 experience, as well as liope and confidence, to cheer them, 
 and the second tunnel was undertaken with the encourage- 
 ment of many men who had sneered at the first. The right 
 elevation had been struck this time, the bottom of the river 
 bed was reached and was drained by the tunnel, and the 
 gravel was found to be extremely rich. Ten feet square of 
 superficial area yielded $100,000. A pint of gravel not 
 unfrequently contained a pound of gold. The whole 
 mountain was soon claimed. The State echoed with the 
 discovery. A stream of lava had filled up the bed of an 
 ancient river for thirty miles, and in the course of ages the 
 earth and slate that once formed the banks were washed 
 away, leaving the basalt to mark the position of the golden 
 treasure. Other similar deposits were found elsewhere, and 
 other explorations, as bold in their conception but less 
 successful or less impori3,nt in their results, were undertaken 
 in nearly every county. The years 1856 and 1857 were 
 marked by no peculiar excitement or sudden change. The 
 working of the gullies and river bars and beds was gradually 
 becoming less profitable and productive, the quartz and, 
 ditch interests continued to grow larger, wages kept their 
 downward tendency, and the number of hired laborer? 
 increased. In 1858 the State received a shock that was felt 
 in every fibre of her political and industrial organization. 
 Rich diggings were found in the spring on a bar of Eraser 
 river, and it was asserted and presumed that there were 
 large tracts of excellent placers in the upper basin of the 
 stream. The presumption was not without its foundation in 
 experience and reason, but after all it was but a presumption. 
 The miners, however, were not disposed to listen to any 
 doubts ; they were ready to sacrifice everything in the hope 
 of finding and being the first to enjoy another virgin gold 
 field like that of California. In the course of four months, 
 18,000 men, nearly one-sixth of all the voters in the State 
 went to Fraser river, and many thousands of others were 
 preparing for an early start. The confident belief prevailed 
 that " the good old times " of '49 were to come again. 
 Servants threw up their positions, farmers and miners left 
 their valuable property, wages rose, houses and land fell in 
 value, and many persons believed that California would 
 soon be left without a tenth part of her population. All 
 this excitement was made before any gold had been received 
 in San Francisco, and before there was any direct and trust- 
 worthy evidence of the existence of paying diggings beyond 
 
84 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the limits of a few bars, wliich could not give occupation to 
 more than a hundred men. Suddenly, and with no material 
 addition to the evidence, the conviction burst on the people 
 that Eraser river would not pay, and five-sixths of the 
 truant minero had returned before the end of the year. 
 
 The Comstock Lode and Washoe Fever.* — A 
 party of emigrants discovered placer diggings on Gold cafion, 
 a little tributary of Carson river, east of the Sierra Nevada, 
 in 1849, and a permanent mining camp was established there 
 in 1852. It was observed that the gold contained a large 
 proportion of silver, in some claims nearlyone-half in value, 
 but this fact was not without precedent in the placers of 
 California, and was regarded simply as a misfortune for the 
 miner, who did not receive more than $10 or $12 an ounce 
 for his dust, while that obtained on the western slope of the 
 Sierra usually sold for $17 or S>18. The Gold canon diggings 
 had been worked for seven years, and gave employment to 
 about fifty men, when, in the spring of 1859, the miners, 
 following up a rich streak of placer gold, came upon a quartz 
 lode in the place now known as Gold Hill. A couple of 
 months later, some miners, in following up a placer lead in 
 which the gold was mixed with about an equal weight of 
 silver, came on the lode from which the metal had been 
 washed down.f They were working here in a rude way, 
 with no idea of the value of their claim, when James Walsh, 
 an intelligent quartz miner from Grass valley, passed their 
 place and examined their mine. His attention was attracted 
 by the dark gray stone which he suspected was silver ore, 
 
 * The credit of this discovery has been claimed by so many par- 
 ties, and the testimony is so conflicting, that we are induced to give 
 two of the popular versions. Substantially they agree upon the 
 main points. 
 
 t S. H. Marlette, surveyor general of Nevada, in his annual report 
 for 1865, gives the following history of the. discovery of the Com- 
 stock lode : 
 
 " In 1«52, H. B. and E. A. Grosch or Grosh, sons of A. B. Grosh, 
 a Universalist clergyman of considerable nots, and editor of a 
 Universalist paper at Utiea, New York, educated metallurgists, 
 came to the then Territory, and the same or the following year en- 
 gaged in placer mining in Gold canon near the site of Silver City, 
 and continued there until 1857, when, so far as 1 can learn, they 
 first discovered silver ore, which was found in a quartz vein, prolj- 
 ably the one now owned by the Kossuth Gold and Silver Mining 
 Company, on which the Grosh brothers had a location. Shortly 
 after the discovery, in the same year, one of the brothers accidentally 
 wounded himself with a pick, from the effects of which he sooii 
 died, and the other brother went to California, where he died early 
 in 1858, which probably prevented the valuable nature of their dis- 
 covery from becoming known. In the mean time placer mining 
 was carried on to considerable extent in various localities, princi- 
 pally in Gold canon. In 1857, Joe Kirby and others commenced 
 placer mining in Six Mile canon, about half a mile below where the 
 Ophir works now are, and worked at intervals with indifferent suc- 
 cess until 1859. On the 22d day of rebi;^ary, 1858, the first quartz 
 claim was located in Virginia mining district, on the Virginia crop- 
 pings, by James Finney^ generally known as Old Virginia, from 
 whom the city of Virginia and the croppings have taken their name. 
 This must be considered the first location of the Comstock lode, un- 
 less we consider the Kossuth claim as upon one branch of the 
 Comstock, which may not be impossible iu case we adopt the one 
 lode svstem, for the lode is about one hundred feet in thickness, and 
 its strike would take it to the eastern slope of Mount Davidson, as 
 explorations prove, as I have been informed the Virginia croppings 
 to be the outcrop of the western portion of the Comstock. The dis- 
 covery of rich deposits of silver ore was not made until June, 1859, 
 when Peter O'Reilly and Patrick McLaughlin, while engaged in 
 gold washing on what is now the ground of the Ophir Mining Com- 
 pany, and near the south line of tlie Mexican Company's claim, un- 
 covered a rich vein of sulphuret of silver in an excavation made for 
 the purpose of collecting water to use in their rockers in washing 
 for gold. This discovery being on ground claimed at the time by 
 Kirby and others, Comstock was employed to purchase their claim, 
 whereby Comstock's name has been given to this great lode, by 
 which those entitled to ' the credit of its discovery have been de- 
 frauded — a transaction, to compare .".mill things with great, as dis- 
 creditable as that by which Americus Vcspucius bestowed his name 
 upon the western continent, an honnr due alone to the great Colum- 
 bus. Prom this discovery renilted the marvellous growfli of Nevada. 
 Immediately the lode was claimed for miles; an unparalleled ex- 
 citement followed, and miners and capitalists came in great numbers 
 to reap a share of the reported wealth. The few hardy prospectors 
 exploring the mountains for hidden wealth soon counted their 
 neighbors by thousands ; soon walls;ed along miles of busy streets, 
 called into existence by the throng of adventurers, and soon the 
 prospectors were ransacking almost every part of the (at present) 
 State of Nevada in search of .silyer Ipdes. , 
 
 and as an assay of it he sent a ton and a half of it to San 
 Francisco, where it was sold for $3,000 per ton. He and 
 some friends then bought out four of the five partners, pay- 
 ing $22,000 for four-fitths of 1,800 feet, or at the rate of $14 
 per foot. Some shafts sunk on the vein showed that the 
 gray stone, a rich sulphuret of silver, could be obtained in 
 large quantities. The lode was soon claimed as far as it 
 could be traced, and the market value of the shares rose so 
 rapidly that before the end of the year $1,000 a foot had 
 been ofiered for a portion of the lode. The excitement about 
 the silver mines spread throughout California in the spring 
 of 1860, and thousands of miners crossed the mountains to 
 work in the newly-discovered mines or to seek for others. 
 In every town companies were formed to equip and send out 
 prospectors, and the work was continued on a large scale for 
 three years. Thousands of square miles, never before visited 
 by white men, were explored and examined, and many 
 thousands of metalliferous lodes were found and claimed. It 
 was in 1860 that the silver districts of Esmeralda, Bodie, 
 Potosi, Coso, and Humboldt were discovered, besides many 
 others of less note. The chief silver mining town grew up 
 at the Comstock lode, and was soon the home of a large and 
 excited population. Every' man owned thousands of feet of 
 argentiferous lodes, and considered himself either possessed 
 of a fortune or certain of soon acquiring one. The confidence 
 in the almost boundless wealth of the country was universal, 
 but -jnany were bothered to convert their ore into ready cash. 
 Men who considered themselves millionaires had sometimes 
 not enough money to pay for a dinner, and in their dress 
 they looked like beggars. The following extract from a 
 letter written at Virginia, in April, 1860, gives a picture of 
 the condition of society there at that time : 
 
 " Of a certainty, right here, is Bedlam broke loose. One cannot 
 help thinking, as he passes through the streets, that all the insane 
 geologists extant have been corraled at this place. Most vehement 
 is the excitement. 1 have never seen men act thus elsewhere. Not 
 even in the earlier stages of the California gold movement were they 
 so delirious about the business of metalliferous discovery. Hundreds 
 and thousands are now here, who, feeling that they may never have 
 another chance to make a speedy fortune, are resolved this shall 
 not pass unimproved. They act with all the concentrated energy 
 of those having the issues of life and death before them. They 
 demean themselves not like rational beings any more. Even the 
 common modes of salutation are changed. Men, on meeting, do not 
 inquire after each other's health, but after their claims. They do 
 not remark about the weather, bad as it is, but about out-eroppings, 
 assays, sulphurets, &e. They do not extend their hands in token 
 of friendship on approaching, but pluck from their well-filled 
 pockets a bit of rock, and, presenting it, mutually inquire what they 
 think of its looks. During the day they stand apart, talking in 
 couples, pointing mysteriously hither and yon: and during the 
 night mutter in their sleep of claims and dips and strikes, showing 
 that their broken thoughts are still occupied with the all-absorbing 
 subject. I shall be able to convey to your readers some idea of the 
 intensity of this mining mania, wlien 1 assure them that this portion 
 of the American people do not even ask after newspapere, nor en- 
 gage in the discussion of politics. Little care they whom you choose 
 President ; conventions and elections, wars and rumors of wars, are 
 nothing to them. They have their own world here. Here, bounded 
 by the Sierra and the mountains of Utah, spread over the foot-hills 
 and the deserts, is a theatre beyond which their thoughts are not 
 permitted to roam ; to this their aspirations and aims are all con- 
 fined. Whatever of energy, ambition, and desire are elsewhere ex- 
 pended on love, war politics, and religion, are here all devoted to 
 this single pursuit of finding, buying, selling, and trading in mines 
 of silver and gold. Everybody makes haste to be rich; and so great 
 is the mental tension in this direction, that itmav well be questioned 
 whether, if a sweeping disappointment should overtake them, many 
 will not be reduced to a condition of absolute lunacy. Vv'hat guai'an- 
 tee this wildly-excited multitude have against thehapponing of this 
 fearful contingency, I am not fully prepared to say, having, as yet, 
 not been able to give the subject niuch examination since niy return. 
 To attempt eliciting information from tliose now here, only tends to 
 confuse and complicate what is already incomprehensible. If you 
 talk with one man, he is onlyconoerned lest the argentiferous metal 
 be rendered worthless by the superabundance here' met with ; while 
 another, with equal opportunities, and perhaps batter ability for 
 forming a correct judgment, derides the idea of lliero being" any 
 .silver apart from the Comstock vein, telling you that tlie whole 
 thing is an inverted pyramid, having that truly wonderful lead for 
 a base." ■ 
 
 Manipulation Troubles.— There was much difficulty 
 in extracting the metal even from the richest ore. There 
 were no mills to crush the rock, no skilful metallurgists to 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 86 
 
 reduce the ore, and no confident opinion in regard to the 
 best means of extraction. The simple processes used for re- 
 ducing auriferous quartz would not suffice. The gold exists 
 in the metallic form, and so soon as the rock is pulverized 
 can be obtained by washing or amalgamation. But silver is 
 in chemical combination with baser substances, and must be 
 separated from them by chemical influences before the metal 
 will submit to unite with quicksilver, by which it must 
 usually be caught. All the silver produced in civilized 
 countries was obtained by two processes, the Frieberg Ger- 
 man barrel, and the Mexican yard or patio. In the German 
 process three hundred pounds of the ore, finely pulverized, 
 are mixed with water to the thickness of cream, and after 
 the addition of some salt, iron pyrites, scraps of iron, and 
 quicksilver are put into a strong barrel, and kept revolving 
 rapidly for fourteen hours, at the end of which time the sil- 
 ver and quicksilver have united, and they can easily be 
 separated from the mud by washing. The barrels are rapid- 
 ly worn out, the amount of work done is little, and the labor 
 required is much. In the Mexican process the pulverized 
 ore is mixed with water, salt, iron pyrites, and quicksilver, 
 and left out in an open yard for three weeks, the mass being 
 stirred or trodden with mules occasionally. This mode of 
 reducing is very slow, and is unsuited to the cool climate of 
 Nevada, in latitude 38°, and at an elevation of 5,000 or 
 6,000 feet above the sea. There was a general belief that 
 some mode of amalgamation better than either of these could 
 and would be devised, so while one set of men were engaged 
 in hunting and opening mines, another set were busy in 
 studying a mode for reducing the ores. A satisfactory result 
 was not reached for several years, but it came at last in the 
 invention of the pan process, as distinguished from the bar- 
 rel and yard processes. . The pan was of cast-ircm, about five 
 feet in diameter and eighteen inches deep. Five hundred 
 or a thousand pounds of ore were put in with salt, iron 
 pyrites, quicksilver, and enough water to make a thin mud. 
 A'muUer revolved on the bottom of the pan, and served to 
 grind the matter, which was not fine enough, and also 
 brought all the particles of the ore into contact with the 
 chemicals and the quicksilver. Besides the motion of the 
 muUer, various devices were used to keep up a regular cur- 
 rent, so that all portions of the mixture were successively 
 brought to the bottom, and exposed to the action of the 
 quicksilver. In some pans heat was applied. The American 
 process extracted silver from the common sulphuret ore as 
 thoroughly as any other process, with much more rapidity, 
 and with less expense. It was, therefore, in almost univer- 
 sal use in the American silver mines of the Pacific slope, 
 and has been introduced into Mexico. White the metallur- 
 gists were working away at their pans, the miners generally 
 were afraid to erect mills lest buildings and machinery might 
 be unsuited to the new modes of working. The mills that 
 were built charged $50 and $60 per ton for crushing and 
 amalgamating, though the same work was done at Grass 
 Valley, only one hundred miles distant, for less than $5 a 
 ton. The amalgamation was so conducted that only the free 
 gold was saved. All the silver and much of the gold were 
 lost. Ore that contained $500 to the ton was sent to the mill 
 if it yielded $70 or $80, leaving about $10 profit, and a los? 
 of $400 of silver. The value of the ore and the amount of 
 silver lost were precisely understood, but there was no' 
 remedy. It was necessary to take some silver from the mines 
 at any sacrifice to keep up the confidence of the share- 
 holders. Although the ore in sight was worth millions, the 
 bullion sent across the mountains from Nevada amounted 
 to only $90,897 in 1860. The next year, however, the ex- 
 port rose to $2,275,256 ; in 1862 to $6,247,074, and in 1863 
 to $12,486,238. This increased rate might well astonish the 
 world, and dazzle people in the vicinity. 
 
 New Developments.— The silver excitement which 
 pervaded California in the spring of 1860 continued to increase 
 steadily for three years. Washoe, by which name the mining 
 region near the Comstock lode was generally known, was the 
 main topic of conversation, and the main basis of speculation. 
 Everybody owned shares in some silver mine. High prices 
 were paid to strangers for mines at places of which the pur- 
 chaser had never heard until a day or two before the purchase. 
 Men seemed to have discarded all the dictates of prudence. 
 Their judgment was overwhelmed by the suddenly acquired 
 wealth of a few and by the general anxiety of the many to 
 
 buy any kind of silver shares. People acted as though there 
 were so many rich silver mines that men who had been 
 searching for them would not be so mean as to offer a poor 
 one for sale. Three thousand silver mining companies were 
 incorporated in San Francisco, and 30,000 persons purchased 
 stock in them. The nominal capital was $1,000,000,000, but 
 their actual market value never exceeded $60,000,000, and 
 not one in fifty owned a claim of the least value. And yet 
 the organization of each company cost $100 on an average, 
 and that money had to be paid by somebody. Although the 
 mines were in Western Utah, which was organized after- 
 wards into the Territory and then into the State of Nevada, 
 the shares were mostly owned in San Francisco, and that 
 place was the centre of speculation and excitement, of profit 
 and loss. On every side were to be seen men who had made 
 independent fortunes in stocks within a few months. The 
 share in the leading mines on the Comstock lode were the 
 preferred security for loans by money lenders and banks. 
 The shares, or feet, as they were most commonly called (for 
 in most of the companies a share represented a lineal foot 
 lengthwise on the vein), of the Comstock claims advanced 
 with great rapidity, in some cases as much as $1,000 per 
 month. A foot of the Gould and Curry mine, worth $500 
 on the 1st of March, 1862, was sold for $1,000 in June ; for 
 $1,550 in August ; for $2,500 in September ; for $3,200 in . 
 February, 1863 ; for $3,700 in May ; for $4,400 in June, and 
 for $5,600 in July. Other claims advanced with a rapidity 
 less rapid but scarcely less startling. In the middle of 1863, 
 Savage was worth $3,600 per foot ; Central $2,850 ; Ophir 
 $2,550 ; Hale and Norcross $1,850 ; California $1,500 ; Yel- 
 low Jacket $1,150; Crown Point $750; Chollar $900, and 
 Potosi $600. Virginia City, the centre of the mining in- 
 dustry, rose to be the second town west of the Kocky moun- 
 tains. It had a population of 15,000, and the assessed value 
 of its taxable property was $11,000,000. The amount of 
 business done was twice as great as in any other town of 
 equal size in the United States. And well might the town 
 be large and busy. It produced more silver within a year 
 than any other one mining district of equal size ever did. 
 Neither Potosi nor Guanajuato could equal it. The former 
 town yielded $10,000,000 annually for a time, but with that 
 yield supported a population of 160,000. In 1863 it may be 
 doubted whether any town of 15,000 persons ever before 
 produced an average of $12,000,000 annually, or an average 
 of $800 to the person. Well might excitement run high, 
 and money be flush. But though the silver yield kept up, 
 distrust set in, and prices of stocks commenced to fall in the 
 summer of 1863. The people began to count up how many 
 millions they had paid as assessments on claims that had 
 been worked for years and had never yielded a cent. Ex- 
 perts from other silver mining countries said that no rich 
 and permanent deposits of silver had been opened, save on 
 the Comstock lode, and that the management of the mines 
 there was grossly wasteful. 
 
 It was a notorious fact that many companies had been or- 
 ganized for the purpose of swindling the ignorant by selling 
 worthless stock to them. Prices declined slowly until the 
 middle of the next year, and then they were attacked by a 
 panic which smote hundreds of the Washoe speculators with 
 terror and bankruptcy. Gould & Curry fell from $5,600 to 
 $900 per foot ; Savage, from $3 600 to $750 ; Ophir, from 
 $2,550 to $425 ; California, from $1,500 to $21 ; Hale & Nor- 
 cross, from $1,850 to $310, and others in like proportion. 
 The wild-cat or baseless speculations were swept away to 
 destruction by the thousand, and never heard of more. The 
 dray-men, the hod-carriers, the mechanics, the clerks, the 
 seamstresses, the servant-girls, who had cheerfully paid 
 assessments for years, in the confidence that they would 
 soon have a handsome income from their silver mines were 
 disenchanted. The name of Washoe, which had once been 
 blessed, was now accursed by the multitude, though still a 
 source of profit to a few. People wondered how they could 
 have been so blind. It was found on examination that the 
 most deliberate and most dishonest deception had been sys- 
 tematically practiced in many cases. Most of the mines 
 had been managed not with the object of taking silver from 
 the ore, but for the purpose of making profit by the sale and 
 purchase of stocks. The officers, or some of them, com- 
 bined to raise or depress the shares as suited their schemes. 
 It was an easy matter to instruct the miners to- take, out the 
 
86 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 richest or the poorest of the ore, and the returns of the mill 
 could be published as a fair indication of the value of all the 
 ore within sight. " When a bulling operation was in pro- 
 gress the superintendent would write glowing letters ; rich 
 rock, selected froni a large mass of poorer material, would 
 be sent to mill ; debts would be incurred to be paid in the 
 future, and large dividends would be declared. If a ' bear- 
 ing' operation was in contemplation, the rich deposits would 
 be avoided ; the rock sent to mill would prove to be very- 
 poor; assessments would be levied to payoff the debts of 
 the company; suits would be commenced against it, and 
 every device that could discourage stockholders would be 
 adopted." In the erection of buildings the financial manage- 
 ment of the companies was grossly extravagant. Money 
 waj thrown about almost as if it had no value. It was pre- 
 sumed that the rich and extensive deposits found near the 
 surface, instead of being exhausted, would become still 
 richer as the works advanced in depth. The ignorance of 
 metallurgy and lack of experience in silver mining led to 
 many costly mistakes. Wages much higher tlian those of 
 California were paid. The overestimate of the value of the 
 mines was one of the causes of a great litigation, for which 
 opportunities were given by the careless manner in which 
 claims were located, recorded, and transferred in early 
 times. The lawyers charged fees high almost beyond ex- 
 ample. Witnesses who found that their testimony was 
 necessary in important suits suddenly had business in the 
 eastern states, or in snme other remote place, and could not 
 be persuaded to remain till the trial unless some large sums 
 of money were paid to them. Subornation of perjury be- 
 came a profession in which many engaged. So much money 
 was spent in a law-suit that it materially affected business. 
 When the trial of the suit between the Ophir and the 
 Burning Moscow was transferred from Virginia City to 
 Aurora, property in certain parts of the latter town rose 
 fifty per cent., so confident were the residents there that the 
 attendants at the court would be numerous and flush of 
 money. In several cases more money was spent in litiga- 
 tion than the entire mine was worth. The surveyor general 
 of the state, in his report for the year 1865, says : 
 
 " I have understood that $1,300,000 have been expended in liti- 
 gation between the ChoUar and Potosi corapanie'i, and $1,000,000 
 more have besn expanded in the Ophir-Moscow trials. * * * I 
 believe one-fifth of the proceeds or the Com^took would not more 
 than pay the expenses of litigating the title thereto." 
 
 The yield of the Comstock lode, up to the date of that re- 
 port, was about §45,000,000 ; so Mr. Marlette's estimate of 
 the amount spent in litigation would be $9,000,000, and 
 four-fifths of this was expended within a period of three 
 years. The sum paid as dividends to stockholders in many 
 permanent mines was less than that expended in litigation. 
 One of the- main sources of the lawsuits was the doubt 
 whether the Comstock lode had at its side a number of 
 branches, or whether it was one of a series of independent 
 and parallel lodes within a distance of two hundred yards. 
 At the surface several seams of ore were perceptible, and the 
 first claimants had taken the seam which was largest and 
 lowest on the hill, and they asserted that the seams above 
 were mere branches. This assertion, however did not pre- 
 vent others from claiming the other seams, and thus arose 
 the suits between the Ophir and the Burning Moscow, that 
 between the Gould & Curry and the North Potosi, and thsit 
 between the Potosi and the Bajazet, which were all cases of 
 mu3h importance in their day. The people were divided be- 
 tween the one-lode and the many-lode parties, and elections 
 turned more than once on that question. Most of the stock 
 of the one-lode companies was held in San Francisco, while a 
 larger proportion of the stockholders of the many-lode com- 
 panies were residents of Virginia City, so it was argued that 
 it was the interest of Nevada that the old companies should 
 be defeated. But the latter had the evidence of geology, 
 and what was, perhaps, still more important, the money, on 
 their side, and the many-lode theory was at last completely 
 overthrown, but not until after a struggle that cost years of 
 time and millions of money. The Comstock vein has a dip 
 of 45' to the horizon, and while it was in the process of forma- 
 tion large bodies of porphyry split off from the hanging wall, 
 
 fell down into the vein stone and were there suspended, 
 leaving a seam of quartz above as well as one below. These 
 pieces of hanging wall are usually long, narrow and deep, 
 but not large enough in any direction t.-) make two lodes out 
 of one. Another source of disappointment to the mining 
 companies was that as the works advanced in depth ex- 
 penses increased in an unexpected manner. The immense 
 excavations for the extraction of ore i-equired vast quan- 
 tities of timber ; as the forests were distant and transporta- 
 tion dear, the mines were compelled to pay three-quarters of 
 a million dollars annually for timbering alone. The water 
 increased, and powerful engines, consuming much wood, 
 were required to pump constantly at an expense of $100 per 
 day to each of half-a-dozcn companies. Foul air made it 
 impossible for miners to work rapidly in the deep drifts, 
 and ventilation was expensive. These, and a multitude of 
 other considerations, contributed to the panic and kept the 
 general stock market down. But such influences could not 
 entirely govern the price of particular stocks. Gould & 
 Curry, which was sold for $900 per foot in July. 1864, ad- 
 vanced to $2,000 in April, 1865, and fell to $600 'in October, 
 1866. Savage was $7,000 in April, 1865, and $1100 in October, 
 1866. Of stocks, which were not noticed in the stock-boards 
 in the summer of 1864, Yellow Jacket rose in April, 1865, to 
 $2,590 per foot, and was sold in October, 1866, for $700 ; Bel- 
 cher, worth 81,650 in April, 1865, was offered for $95 in Oc- 
 tober, If 66. Alpha, worth $2,100 in April,1865, was worth only 
 $50 in October, 1866, and Crown Point fell from $1,225 in 
 April, 1865, to $950 in October, 1806. A fall of fifty per cent, 
 or a rise of two hundred per cent, in the market value of a 
 large mine within the space of six months was nothing 
 very unusual, and it is easily understood that in such events 
 fortunes were made and lost with great rapidity, and that 
 the mining days in the Pacific slope from the date of the 
 gold discovery in 1848 to 1865 were, exciting, busy days, 
 days of millions, days of poverty, ruin and death as well 
 as of affluence, and the wild riot of the baser passions. 
 
 — Compiled from J. Eosa Erovjne's Eqports. 
 
 A CENTURY OF MINING AND METALLURGY 
 IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 MINING enterprises were among the motive powers 
 to the exploration, conquest, and colonization of 
 the New World. The desire to find a shorter route 
 to the profitable trade of India, and the desire to 
 conquer new territory wherever it might be found, in the 
 name of some Catholic or Protestant sovereign of Europe, 
 were accompanied both in North and South America, by 
 eager hopes of the discovery of gold and silver. The history 
 of the plunder of the metallic wealth and the development 
 of the mineral resources of Mexico and South America, does 
 not lie within our present purpose. The early enterprises 
 of this kind in the northern part of the continent were less 
 successful, though the progress of two hundred years has 
 made them more beneficial to national prospcritv, for reasons 
 which I shall, perhaps, be able to indicate. Gold was found 
 in moderate quantities in use among the Indian tribes of the 
 present Southern States. The Spaniards under De Soto, 
 following this clue, and led on by stories, exaggerated or 
 misunderstood, of their Indian guides, made a wide super- 
 ficial exploration in search of the origin of this trcarurc. 
 They are supposed to have excavated many of the diggings 
 in North and South Carolina and Georgia, which are now 
 overgrown with forests. But no rich deposits appear to 
 have been discovered, and no permanent operations under- 
 taken. In the great charter of King James, by which, in 
 1600, the right to explore and settle the North American 
 continent from the thirty-fourth to the forty-fifth parallel 
 was granted to the London and Plymouth Companies it 
 was provided that one-fifth of the gold and silver, and one 
 fifteenth of the copper, which might be discovered, should 
 belong to the crowu. One of the earliest expeditions of 
 
THE MIXES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 87 
 
 Captain John Smith, in Virginia, was the exploration of 
 the Chickahominy River, in the hope that it might consti- 
 tute a water-way to tlie Pacific Ocean ; and one of the next 
 events in the history of the same colony was a mining 
 excitement, such as would be called in our California tongue 
 a " stampede," caused by the supposed discovery of gold ; 
 in whish, fortunately, John Smith did not avail himself of 
 his official position to take " stock." It is a curious circum- 
 stance that gold really occurs in that region, though the 
 glittering dust, of which a ship-load was sent by the deluded 
 colonists to the jewelers of London, proved to be but mica 
 or iron pyrites ; and it Reems probable (albeit this sugges- 
 tion is mt based upon any. explicit record known to me) 
 that the presence of gold among the Indians, and the dis- 
 covery of specimens of the quartz or slates of Virginia, con- 
 taining visible particles of it, gave rise to the general ex- 
 citement, under the influence of which, without further 
 tests of value, a large amount of worthless material was 
 collected, to the neglect of necessary and profitable industry. 
 From this point of view the Jamestown mining fever was 
 the prototype of many that have since occurred — all of 
 which may be summed up in the general expression, that 
 the mine " did not pan out according to the sample"." 
 
 A more promising industry was inaugurated at the same 
 time by the sending of a quantity of iron ore from James- 
 town to England in 1608. This ore, smelted in England, 
 yielded seventeen tons of metal, probably the first pig-iron 
 ever made from, North American ore. In 1620, a hundred 
 and fifty skilled workmen were sent to the colony to erect 
 iron-works ; and it is said that a fund, subscribed for the 
 education of the colonists and Indians, was invested in this 
 enterprise, as a safe and sure means of increase. But, in 
 1622, an Indian massacre broke up the enterprise ; and both 
 the manufacture of iron and the education of citizens and 
 Indians have been obliged ever since, to rely upon other 
 sources of support. 
 
 According to the statement of Colonel Spotswood, quoted 
 by Mr. Pearss, it appears that, previous to 1724, neither 
 New England, Pennsylvania, nor Virginia, possessed blast 
 fiirnaces. Their product of iron was from bloomeries only. 
 According to Prof. Hodge, quoted by Prof. Whitney, how- 
 ever, a furnace was built at Pembroke, Mass., in 1702 ; and 
 another authority states that, in 1721, New England pos- 
 sessed six furnaces and nineteen forges. In 1719 was passed 
 the famous resolution of the British House of Commons, 
 " that the erection of manufactories in the colonies tended 
 to lessen their dependency on Great Britain." Only the 
 earnest protest of the colonial agents prevented the prohibi- 
 tion at the time of the American iron manufacture. The 
 next thirty years witnessed two instructive contests. The 
 first was that of the colonial with the domestic pig-iron 
 manufacture — a, competition in which America was favored 
 by her abundance of her vegetable fuel (the employment of 
 mineral coal in iron-making not having yet found introduc- 
 tion), in comparison with the rapidly waning forests of 
 Great Britain. The British manufacture being protected by 
 heavy duties on colonial pig-iron, the latter began to be 
 more and more worked up into bar-iron, nails, steel, etc., at 
 home ; and this brought on a new competition with the 
 British manufactures of these articles. In 1750, a further 
 legislative attempt to regulate this trade was made by Par- 
 liament, which decreed the admission of colonial pig-iron duty 
 free but prohibited the erection in America of slitting, rolling, 
 or plating mills, or steel furnaces, ordering that all new ones 
 thereafter built should be suppressed as " nuisances." It 
 will be recollected that arbitrary acts of this kind, for the 
 destruction of our infant manufactures, were among the 
 grievances cited in the Declaration of Independence. The 
 extent of the American iron manufacture, during the ante- 
 revolutionary period, can be inferred only from scanty re- 
 cords of exports. These, beginning in 1717 with three tons, 
 had increased, in 1750, to about 3000 tons ; in 1765, the to- 
 tal is reported at 4342 tons ; and, in 1771, at 7525 tons, the 
 maximum annual report. The outbreak of the war of course 
 put an end to exportation and caused a great demand for 
 war material, which occupied and rapidly extended the 
 manufacture possessed by the country. The expanded iron 
 industry suffered a severe collapse when, at the close of the 
 war, not only this demand ceased, but the reopened ports 
 admitted large quantities of foreign iron— the successful em- 
 
 ployment of mineral coal, the steam engine and puddling 
 having by that time laid the foundation of English supre- 
 macy in the iron manufacture. 
 
 The earliest copper-mining company of which we find 
 any record — according to Prof. Whitney, in his excellent 
 work on the metallic wealth of the United States, the earliest 
 incorporated raining company of any kind — was chartered 
 in 1709, to work the Simsbury mines, at Granby, Conn. 
 These mines were abandoned in the middle of the eighteenth 
 century, afterwards bought by the State of Connecticut, and 
 used as a prison for sixty years. Mining was resumed in 
 them about 1830, and after a few years they were again aban- 
 doned. The ores were mostly shipped to England, and seem 
 to have been lean. The deposit belongs to the class of ir- 
 regular bunches, nodules, seams, or limited beds, in the New 
 Red Sandstone, near its junction with trap. This formation 
 was the scene in New Jersey, also, of early mining activity. 
 The Schuyler mine, near Belleville, on the Passaic, was dis- 
 covered about 1719, and proved more profitable to its own- 
 ers before the Revolution than it ever has been since that 
 time, to any of the series of individuals and companies that 
 have expended large sums in its development. In fact, the 
 chief blessing conferred upon mankind by the Schuyler 
 mine arises from the circumstance that thefirst steam engine 
 ever built wholly in America was constructed in 1793-4, at 
 the small machine shop attached to the smelting works at 
 Belleville, Mr. Hewitt being the pattern-maker in the party 
 of mechanics sent out by Boulton & Watt for the purpose of 
 erecting an engine forthe Philadelphia Water-works in Cen- 
 tre Square. In 1751 a copper mine was opened near New 
 Brunswick ; and the Bridgewater mine, near Somerville, was 
 operated previous to the Revolution, though even then, it is 
 said, with much loss of capital. New Jersey's record in 
 copper-mining is not a cheerful one ; but her unsurpassed 
 ranges of iron ores may well console her. Betrayed by the 
 treachery of Triassic and trap, she can flee to the shelter of 
 the crystalline schists. Pennsylvania was not without her 
 copper-mining in the colonial period, the Gap mine, in Lan- 
 caster County, having been opened in 1732. 
 
 Already during the colonial period the first red gleams of 
 the future glory of the Lake Superior mines had appeared. 
 The intrepid Jesuit fathers, Marquette and others, who 
 penetrated the wilderness from Acadia to the Gulf, to carry 
 both the Cross of their religion and the Lilies of their Sov- 
 ereign, had made extensive explorations on the Upper 
 Peninsula, and published glowing accounts of the abund- 
 ance of copper, to which later travelers added legends of 
 gold and precious stones. Before them the Indian tribes, 
 whose stone tools now furnish subjects of inquiry to the 
 archeologist, had wrought rudely upon the deposits which 
 nature had left in a condition so exceptionally pure as not 
 to need, for the production of limited amounts of metal, the 
 intervention of metallurgical process. The first recorded 
 mining operations on the part of white men were those of 
 Alexander Henry, near the Forks of the Ontonagon, in 1771. 
 As is well known, however, the active development of this 
 region dates from the publication of Houghton's Geological 
 Report, in 1841, and the extinguishment of the Chippewa 
 title by the treaty of 1843. Lead mining in this country 
 may also claim an ancient origin — as we reckon antiquity. 
 As early as 1651, Governor John Winthrop received his 
 famous license to work any mines of " lead, copper, or tin, 
 or any minerals as antimony, vitriol, black-lead, alum, salt, 
 salt-springs, or any other the like," and " to enjoy forever 
 said mines, with the lands, woods, timber, and water within 
 two or three miles of said mines." As he received also a 
 special grant of mines or minerals in the neighborhood of 
 Middletown, Conn., it is not unlikely that the old Middle- 
 town silver-lead mine, the date of the discovery of which is 
 not precisely known, was opened by him or his successors. 
 The nickel and cobalt mines near Chester, in Connecticut, 
 once held to be very promising deposits, are also believed to 
 have been originally worked by Governor Winthrop ; but 
 nickel was not valuable in those days; and the lead and 
 copper in these ores do not seem to have been abundant. 
 Unfortunately, now that nickel and cobalt are so valuable 
 as to repay amply the cost of extracting them when they are 
 present in a small percentage only, these Connecticut ores 
 no longer correspond (if indeed they ever did) to the 
 analysis and accounts formerly given as to their niccoliferous 
 
88- 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 character. The old Southampton silver-lead mine, in 
 Massachusette, well known to mineralogists, was com- 
 menced in 1765, by Connecticut adventurers ; but its opera- 
 tions were suspended by the Revolutionary war. Lead 
 mines in Columbia and Dutchess Counties, N. Y., were also 
 worked at an early period ; and, no doubt, all over the country 
 occupied or controlled during the war by the American 
 forces, there were small and desultory surface opera- 
 tions, furnishing lead for the use of the army. The Indians 
 inhabiting the Mississippi Valley before the advent of the 
 whites probably did not understand the metallurgy of lead. 
 Galena has been found in the Western mounds, but, it is 
 said, no lead. In 1700 and 1701 Pere Le Sueur made his 
 famous voyage up the Mississippi, discovering as he claimed, 
 many lead mines. Lead mining was begun in Missouri in 
 1720, while that country belonged to France, and under the 
 patent granted to Law's famous Mississippi Company. 
 Mine la Motte, named after a mineralogist who came over 
 with Renault, the superintendent, was one of the first dis- 
 coveries. It has been in operation at intervals ever since, 
 and is now successfully managed by Mr. Cogswell, 
 who may, I think, truthfully claim that he has charge 
 of the oldest mining enterprise still active in the United 
 States. The ores yield a small percentage of nickel and 
 cobalt, as well as lead. Id was in 1788 that Dubuque 
 obtained from the Indians the grant under which he 
 mined until the year of his death, where the city now 
 stands which bears his name. The land was subsequently 
 ceded to the United States by the Indians, and the repre- 
 sentatives of Dubuque were forcibly ejected. 
 
 Such, then, was the condition of our mining industry at 
 the commencement of our national existence. We occupied 
 but a strip of territory on the Atlantic ; and even in that 
 limited area we had scarcely learned the nature and extent 
 of the mineral resources to be utilized. Anthracite and 
 petroleum, quicksilver and zinc, were unknown as treasures 
 within our reach. The rapid extension of possession, gover- 
 ment, population, and industry over plains and mountains 
 to the Pacific, which has been effected in a hundred years, is 
 but the type of a conquest and progress which has advanced 
 with equal rapidity in every department of human labor, and 
 nowhere more notably than in the departments of mining 
 and metallurgy. The tables which accompany these re- 
 marks, show that this country has produced during the cen- 
 tury ending with 1875, of gold, about 66,680,000 troy ounces, 
 worth about $1,332,700 000 ; of silver, about 201,300,000 troy 
 ounces, worth about $231,450,000 ; of quicksilver, 840,000 
 flasks, or 64,206,000 pounds avoirdupois ; of copper, 200,000 
 tons ; of lead, 855,000 tons ; of pig-iron, 40,000,000 tons ; of 
 anthracite coal, 351,521,423 tons (the ton in all these cases 
 being 2240 pounds avoirdupois) ; and of petroleum, 76,594,- 
 600 barrels. The product of these leading industries for the 
 year 1875 were : gold, $33,400,000 ; silver, $41,400,000 ; quick- 
 silver, 53,706 flasks ; copper, 15,625 tons ; lead, 53,000 tons ; 
 pig-iron, 2,108,554 tons ; zinc, about 15,000 tons ; anthracite, 
 20,643,509 tons ; bituminous coal, about 26,000,000 tons; pe- 
 troleum, 8,787,508 barrels. 
 
 In order that a clear idea may be formed as to the relative 
 position now held by the United States in the world of 
 mining and metallurgy, I have selected the production 
 of coal, which is the main reliance for power of all organized 
 industry, and of iron, which is the chief agent of civiliza- 
 tion, and as the basis of comparison with other nations, 
 using, so far as coal is concerned, the flgures given in the 
 42nd Annual report of the Philadelphia Board of Trade, for 
 the year 1873. 
 
 Great Britain, 
 
 Unitf d States, 
 
 Germany, 
 
 France, . 
 
 Bol:;ium, 
 
 Austria and Hungary, 
 
 R'lssia, . 
 
 Spain, 
 
 Portup^al, 
 
 Nova Sootia, . 
 
 Australia, 
 
 India, 
 
 Otlier countries, . 
 
 Total . . 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 127,010,747 
 
 40.4 
 
 60,512,000 
 
 18.4 
 
 45,335,741 
 
 10.5 
 
 17,400,000 
 
 C.4 
 
 17,000,0110 
 
 6.2 
 
 11,000,000 
 
 4.0 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 0.5 
 
 670,1100 
 
 0.2 
 
 18,000 
 
 — 
 
 1,051,607 
 
 0.4 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 0.4 
 
 600,000 
 
 0.2 
 
 100,000 
 
 0.4 
 
 273,004,055 
 
 100,0 
 
 The following estimate, in round numbers, of the world's 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 5,991,000 
 
 45.2 
 
 2,401,000 
 
 18.1 
 
 1,600,000 
 
 12.1 
 
 1,360,000 
 
 10.3 
 
 670,000 
 
 4.3 
 
 305,000 
 
 2.T 
 
 300,000 
 
 2.7 
 
 306,000 
 
 2.3 
 
 73,000 
 
 0.5 
 
 73,000 
 
 0.5 
 
 7,000 
 
 — 
 
 20,000 
 
 0.2 
 
 60,000 
 
 o.i 
 
 9,000 
 
 0.1 
 
 40,000 
 
 0.3 
 
 25,000 
 
 0.2 
 
 10,000 
 
 0.1 
 
 13,260,000 
 
 1.00 
 
 present production of iron, is taken from various sources, 
 and may be considered approximately correct. The figures 
 for Great Britain and France are those of 1874, and the 
 product of the United States for the same year has been 
 taken. For other countries the estimates are principally for 
 1871 or 1872, except Austria and Plungary, tor which the 
 official returns for 1873 have been taken. The quantities 
 are given in tons of 2240 pounds. 
 
 Great Britain, 
 
 United States, 
 
 Germany, 
 
 France, .... 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Austria and Uungary, . 
 
 Russia 
 
 Sweden and Norway, . 
 Italy, .... 
 Spain, .... 
 Switzerland, . 
 Canada, . 
 South America, . 
 
 Japan 
 
 Asia, 
 Africa, . 
 Australia, 
 
 An examination of these tables will serve to show that in 
 the products which measure the manufacturing industry of 
 nations. Great Britain stands first and the United States 
 second on the roll, and that there is a clear and almost 
 identical relation between the product of coal and the 
 product of iron. The United States now produces as much 
 coal and iron as Great Britain yielded in 1850. We are 
 thus gaining steadily and surely upon our great progenitor, 
 and in the nature of things, as the population of this coun- 
 try grows, must, before another century rolls around, pass 
 far beyond her possible limits of production, and become 
 the first on the International list, because we have the 
 greatest geographical extent, and our natural resources are 
 upon so vast a scale that all the coal area of all the rest of 
 the world would only occupy one-fourth of the space in 
 which, within our borders, are stored up the reserves of 
 future power. In a hundred years, we have thus far reached 
 a point at which for coal, iron, gold, silver, copper, lead, and 
 zinc, we are independent of the world, with abundant 
 capacity to supply as well our growing wants, as to 
 export these blessings of civilization to other and less 
 favored lands, as soon as our labor and our legislation are 
 adjusted to the conditions which will enable us to compete 
 in foreign markets. 
 
 One hundred years ago we proclaimed our political inde- 
 pendence, and we maintained it by force of arms ; we are 
 now in a position to proclaim our industrial and commer- 
 cial independence, and maintain it by the force of peaceful 
 agencies against friendly competition. Never was a century 
 of free government celebrated under such favorable condi- 
 tions ; never was free government so justified by the mater- 
 ial results it has produced. But let us not conceal from 
 ourselves the fact that mere growth in wealth, mere devel- 
 opement in industry, mere increase in population are not 
 the best evidences of national greatness ; and unless cur 
 progress in art, learning, morals, and religion keeps pace 
 with our material growth we have cause rather for humilia- 
 tion thanglorification. " Whatsoever things are true, what- 
 soever things are honest, whatsoever things are just, whatso- 
 ever things are pure, whatsoever things are lovely, whatso- 
 ever things are of good report" constitute the real glory of 
 a nation, without which the magnificent material structure 
 which in a century we have reared, will disapear "like the 
 baseless fabric of a vision. " 
 
 In a hundred years, as I have said, we have reached a 
 point at whichj for every one of the minerals and metals 
 named we are independent of the world, havingthe capacity 
 to supply our own growing domestic demand, also to export 
 to foreign lauds. It is not my purpose to trace in detail the 
 steps by which this degree of progress has been achieved. 
 The narration of succcessive events alone, without any dis- 
 cussion of underlying causes and accompanying effects, 
 would consume far more time than I could command. So 
 far as the leading epochs of the history are concerned, I 
 think they may be fairly summed up in the following brief 
 catalogue : 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 89 
 
 1. First of all, must be named the erection in Philadel- 
 phia, in 1794, of the first steam engine in America. We 
 celebrated in 1876 the centennial anniversary of a greater 
 power than the United States of America — a wider revolu- 
 tion than our War of Independence. It was in 1776 that 
 James Watt presented to the world the perfected steam en- 
 gine, all the improvements of which since his day are not to 
 be compared with those which he devised upon the rude 
 machines of his predecessors. In one hundred years, the 
 steam engine has transformed the face of the world and af- 
 fected to its remotest corners the condition of the human 
 race. Few changes have been so profound ; not one in 
 history has been so rapid and amazing. With reference to 
 the special subject now under consideration, if I were asked 
 what elements had most to do with the swift progress of 
 our country, I should answer, freedom and the steam en- 
 gine. But deeper even than any organized declarations or 
 outward forms of freedom lies the influence of the steam 
 engine, which has been from the day of its birth, in spite of 
 law3 and dynasties, and all accidents of history, the great 
 emancipator of man. 
 
 2. Gold Mining in the South. — Already Jefferson, in his 
 Notes on Virginia, mentioned the finding of a lump of gold 
 weighing seventeen pennyweights, near the Rappahannock ; 
 and, about the beginning of this century, the famous Cab- 
 arrus nugget, weighing twenty-eight pounds, was discovered 
 at the Reed Mine, in North Carolina. But the great gold 
 excitement in the South followed the discoveries in Georgia, 
 from 1828 to 1830. The maximum of production (probably 
 never more than $600,000 in any one year) was from 1828 to 
 1845, since which time it has declined, though a few enter- 
 prises, both in hydraulic and quartz mining, are now active- 
 ly prosecuted. 
 
 3. The Opening of the Anthracite Coal Fields and the use 
 of Anthracite in the Blast Furnace. — The first of these 
 events practically dates from the year 1820, although some 
 anthracite found its way to market much earlier, and the 
 second from the year 1839. The latter was followed by the 
 development of the vast anthracite iron industry, which 
 has contributed so much to the prosperity of Pennsylvania. 
 The connection between anthracite and civilization was 
 long ago pointed out by Sir Charles Lyell, in connection 
 with his visit to this country, when he observed in 
 Pennsylvania and in Philadelphia, the strange pheno- 
 menon of a vast manufacturing population, dwelling 
 in neat houses and able to keep themselves and their houses 
 clean. This smokeless fuel is a great moral and aesthetic 
 benefactor. It has also proved specially useful in metallur- 
 gy — one process at least, the American zinc-oxide manufac- 
 ture, being impracticable without it ; and in war no one 
 will deny its superiority who remembers how our cruisers 
 burning anthracite, and hence not traceable at sea by their 
 smoke, were able to spy and pursue the blockade-runners, 
 whose thick clouds of escaping bituminous smoke betrayed 
 them. A table of the production of anthracite is given 
 herewith ; and some further observations concerning its 
 control and management will be appropriate under another 
 head of my remarks. 
 
 4. The Use of Saw Bituminous Coal in the Blast Furnace. 
 — This was introduced in 1845. 
 
 5. The Development of the Copper Mines of Lake Superior, 
 beginning in 1845 and increasing slowly but steadily to 
 i862, when about eight thousand tons of ingot copper were 
 produced ; then declining for some years, to recover in 1868 
 and 1869 its lost ground, and since the latter year, by reason 
 of the great production of the Calumet and Hecla Mine, to 
 attain an unprecedented yield. The tables of copper pro- 
 duction for the United States, herewith given, show that our 
 present product is not far from sixteen thousand tons, of 
 which three-fourths must be credited to the Lake Superior 
 
 mines. . ^„.„ ^i 
 
 6. TJie Discovery of Gold in California, m 1848, or rather 
 its rediscovery, since it had previously been known to both 
 the natives and the Jesuit missionaries, and also to hunters 
 and trappers. The wonderful direct and indirect results ot 
 this event have been too often the theme of orators, histo- 
 rians, and political economists to need a further description 
 from me. Its direct result in the way of mining was the 
 rapid exploration of the Western territories by eager pros- 
 pectors, and the successive development- of- placer-mines in 
 
 nearly all of them. It is difiicult to fix the dates of these 
 beginnings ; but we may assume with sufiicient accuracy 
 that gold mining practically began in Oregon in 1852, in 
 Arizona in 1858, in Colorado in 1859, in Idaho and Montana 
 in 1860. With the completer exploration of the country, 
 and the decline of the placer-mines, stampedes have g'own 
 less frequent and extensive than in the earlier days. There 
 is scarcely any corner of the country left, except the Black 
 Hills of Dakota, which has not been ransacked sufliciently 
 to show whether it contains extensive and valuable placer 
 deposits; and those districts which present accumulations 
 of gold in such a way as to oflfer returns immediately to labor 
 without capital have been already over-run. The principal 
 reliance of our gold-mining industry for the future must be 
 quartz and hydraulic or deep gravel mines. These may be 
 expected to maintain for years to come their present rate of 
 production, if not to increase it. In the table of gold pro- 
 duction, herewith given, there is, it is true, a falling off of 
 late years ; but this is to be attributed to the placer-mines. 
 
 7. The Commencement, about 1851, of Regular Mining 
 Operations at the New Almaden Quicksilver Mine, in Cal- 
 ifornia. — The production of this metal in the United States 
 has been thus far confined to the State of California ; and it 
 will be seen from the table of the production of the New 
 Almaden mine, that it has always furnished a large, though 
 of late a waning, proportion of the grand total for the 
 country. 
 
 8. The middle of the nineteenth century was crowded 
 with important events in metallurgy and mining. It was in 
 1856 that Mr. Bessemer read his paper at the Cheltenham 
 meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of 
 Science, which inaugurated for both continents the age of 
 steel. Within sixty days after that event an experimental 
 Bessemer Converter was in readiness at the fiirnaces of 
 Cooper & Hewitt, at Phillipsburg, New Jersey. But the 
 experiment was not carried far enough to demonstrate the 
 value of the newly-proposed process, and it was left to the 
 late John A. Griswold and his associates to introduce and 
 perfect this wonderful method in the United States. 
 
 9. The Commencement of the Eydraulic Mining Industry. 
 — The position of the auriferous slates and quartz veins, on 
 the west flank of the Sierra, with the precipitous mountains 
 behind them, and the broad plain before, has favored 
 exceptionally the formation of deep auriferous gravels in 
 which California far exceeds any other known region. And 
 the same topographical features furnish the two other prime 
 requisites of hydraulic mining, namely, an abundant supply 
 of water and a sufficient grade of descent to pennit the use 
 of flumes and the escape of tailings. These advantages the 
 keen-witted miners of the Pacific coast were quick to make 
 available ; and I think we may set down the invention of 
 hydraulic mining, which occurred, I believe, about 1853, as 
 an epoch in the progress of American mining. It has given 
 us an entirely new and original branch of the art, involving 
 many ingenious hydrodynamic and hydrostatic contrivances ; 
 and it has certainly made possible the exploitation of 
 thousands upon thousands of acres of auriferous gravel 
 which could not have been profitably handled in any other 
 way. The mountain torrents of the Sierra, caught on their 
 way to the Pacific, have been forced to pause and do the 
 work of man. The same agencies that buried the gold 
 among the clay and pebbles of the river-beds are now made 
 to strip the covering from it and lay it bare again. The 
 hydraulic mines produce, at present, not less than $10,000,- 
 000 or $12,000,000 annually ; and many enterprises of this 
 kind which have been prosecuted through years of expensive 
 preparation, and are now just beginning to touch their 
 harvests of profit, will add henceforward to the product. I 
 may mention as an illustration the extensive operations of 
 the North Bloomfield and its two allied companies in Cali- 
 fornia, which have expended in works $3,500,000, and will 
 have six deep tunnels, aggregating over 20,000 feet, and 
 canals supplying 100,000,000 gallons of water daily. 
 
 10. We must turn for a moment to the East again, to note 
 the commencement of iron mining at Lake Superior, about 
 the year 1856. The extraordinarily pure and rich ores of' 
 the upper peninsula of Michigan now find their way to the 
 extent of a million of tons per annum, in fleets of vessels 
 across the lakes to Cleveland, and are thence distributed to 
 the furnaces of Ohio and Pennsylyania. - The similajlyBpure 
 
90 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Missouri ores have built up ia like manner their own market. 
 The growth of the Lake Superior iron business is shown in 
 the accompanying table. 
 
 11. The next great event in the history of American 
 mining was the discovery, in 1859, that the Comstock lode 
 was rich in silver. This opened an era of activity and 
 speculation which has scarcely ceased since that time. 
 Single districts have been subjected to fluctuating experi- 
 ences, passing from the first enthusiasm through all the 
 stages of hope to reaction and despair; but though the 
 fortunes of each have risen and fallen like the changing 
 tide, it has nearly always been high water somewhere. 
 Thus we have had a succession of favorites in the way of 
 silver-mining districts, each one crowding its predecessor 
 out of the public notice. Of these the following list in- 
 cludes the most permanently productive : In Nevada, the 
 Unionville, Reese River, Belmont, White Pine, Eureka, 
 Esmeralda, and Pioche districts : in California, the argen- 
 tiferous district of Inyo County; in Idaho, the Owyhee 
 district ; in Utah, the Cottonwood and Bingham districts ; 
 in Colorado, the silver districts of Clear Creek, Boulder and 
 Summit Counties, to which the latest favorite, the San Juan 
 region, may be added. • It is amazing that under the adverse 
 conditions surrounding the industry of mining in regions 
 "remote, unfriended, solitary" — though not "slow" — so 
 many communities should have succeeded in taking perma- 
 nent root. Too much is expected of this industry when it 
 is required to supply the lack of labor, food, transportation, 
 government, and the organized support which in settled 
 societies all the trades and occupations give to each other. 
 Pioneer work is full of peril and of waste; and in view of the 
 wonderful results achieved by our pioneers in mining, it ill 
 becomes us to sneer at the losses and failures which consti- 
 tute the inevitable cost of such conquests. When the battle 
 has been gloriously won, and the spoils of victory are ours, 
 we do not greatly mourn over the number of bullets that 
 may have been fired in vain. But through all the vicissi- 
 tudes of silver mining in other districts, the Comstock 
 mines have maintained their place, an instance of rapid 
 exploitation, and of aggregated wealth of production un- 
 exampled in history. Here, too, there have been intervals 
 of failing hope ; but a new bonanza has always made its 
 appearance before the resources at hand were entirely ex- 
 hausted ; and we have seen extracted from the ores of this 
 one vein, during the past fifteen years, the round sum of 
 $200,000,000 in gold and silver. Dr. Raymond, in the table 
 herewith given, assumes the product of gold to have been 
 (on the authority of Mr. Hague) about 40 per cent, of the 
 entire value. We have, therefore, from the Comstock mines 
 during the period named, $80,000,000 gold, and $120,000,000 
 silver. The swift development of these mines, and the 
 active commencement about the same time, of deep quartz 
 mining operations in California led to a remarkable progress 
 in mining machinery, and to the perfection of two distinct- 
 ively American processes. I refer to the California stamp 
 mill and amalgamation process for gold, and the Washoe 
 pan-process for silver. Neither of these is so novel in prin- 
 ciple as the hydraulic process of gold mining already men- 
 tioned ; but both of them have received the peculiar im- 
 press of an ingenuity and mechanical skill, partly innate in 
 our national character, and partly the product of the stern 
 pressure of economic necessities. Into the fruitful field of 
 further metallurgical improvements born of our Western 
 mining industr)'— or adopted by it — such as the Blake rock- 
 breaker, the Stetefeldt roasting furnace, the Bruckner cylin- 
 der, the Plattner chlorination, and many others less widely 
 known, I cannot enter here. Our people have advanced in 
 this line with headlong energy, and accomplished great 
 results— at great expense. Much, undoubtedly, remains to 
 be done ; and it may be hoped that future progress will be 
 equally rapid, but less costly. The introduction, three or 
 four years ago, of the smelting processes of Europe for the 
 treatment of the silver ores of the West, is a striking and 
 encouraging instance of the quickness of our mining com- 
 munities to seize upon the advantages of experience else- 
 where, as soon as they are brought to notice. The igno- 
 rance which has led to many disasters in such enterprises, 
 was not voluntary or obstinate. Give our people light, and 
 they do not keep their eyes shut. I am assured that already 
 the s.Tielting works of the West present many features of 
 
 interest and suggestiveness even to the study of skilful 
 engineers from abroad. 
 
 12. I may be permitted, in closing this imperfect review, 
 to refer to the great improvements in mining machinery, in 
 rock-drilling, in explosives, in the use of gaseous fuel, in 
 the construction and management of blastfurnaces, puddling 
 furnaces, rolling mills, and other branches of the iron man- 
 ufacture, which have crowded upon us during the last ten 
 years. It ia impossible here to give even an enumeration of 
 them which shall do them justice. They have been wor- 
 thily commemorated by others upon other pages. With 
 regard to one of them, the Martin process for the manufac- 
 ture of open-hearth steel, I may speak with some personal 
 satisfaction, since I had the privilege of introducing it into 
 this country, after studying its merits abroad in 1867. I am 
 convinced that it has a great future, as the ally, if not the 
 rival, of the Bessemer process. 
 
 Returning now to the contemplation of the general field 
 over which we have passed, we may inquire what the gov- 
 ernment of the United States has done, with regard to the 
 mining industry. Other nations have elaborate mining 
 codes and bureaus, of administration. In comparison witn 
 these, the meagerness of our governmental supervision of 
 mining is remarkable ; yet, in view of the progress I have 
 sketched, may it not be possible that our system has been on 
 the whole the best for us ? Certainly a complicated mining 
 code like that of Spain and Mexico, whatever it may have 
 brought to the coffers of the State, seems to have conferred, 
 in centuries of operation, little benefit upon the people. 
 The common law of England is the foundation of our juris- 
 prudence in this, as in so many other respects. According 
 to that law, as laid down in a noted case in the reign of 
 Elizabeth, all gold or silver ores belonged to the crown, 
 whether in private or public lands ; but any ores containing 
 neither gold nor silver belonged to the proprietor of the soil. 
 Apart from the claims of the crown, the property in miner- 
 als, is, according to the common law, prima facie in the 
 owner of the fee of the land, hut the property in minerals, 
 or the right to search for them, may be vested in other per- 
 sons by alienation, prescription, or custom. Since the two 
 latter rights require an origin beyond the time of legal mem- 
 ory, they are practically out of the question in this country. 
 The crown right to the precious metals, as declared in the 
 case referred to, was a survival or remainder of the royalty 
 claimed in ancient times by the sovereign over all minerals. 
 This sweeping claim, born of the despotisms of the Orient 
 and made the subject of much conflict among emperors, feu- 
 dal lords, and municipal authorities during the middle ages, 
 dwindled at last till it covered only gold and silver. But it 
 disappeared entirely from English America, for the simple 
 reason that there was no private land ownership in this coun- 
 try, and the sovereign of' England claimed, by right of dis- 
 covery, soil and metals alike, barring only the Indian title, 
 which it was his exclusive privilege (or that of his author- 
 ized representatives or grantees) to extinguish. After the 
 Revolution, the United States succeeded to the rights of the 
 British crown, and by the treaty of peace and the subse- 
 quent cessionsby the different States of their colonial claims 
 upon the public lands, the federal government became pos- 
 sessed of a vast domain over which, after extinguishing the 
 Indian title, it had complete control. In the territories sub- 
 sequently acquired from France and Spain, the United States 
 assumed the rights and obligations of those sovereigns ; and 
 this circumstance, particularly in the adjustment of Spanish 
 mineral and agricultural grants, has caused some apparent 
 variations from the general policy. But it is sufficiently ac- 
 curate to say that at the present time, throughout the coun- 
 try, the owner of the fee, or the partv who has obtained 
 from him by lease or purchase the mineral risrht, has su- 
 preme control. The mining legislation of the United States, 
 therefore, is simply a part of the administration of the pub- 
 lic lands ; and for this reason it is executed bv the Commis- 
 sioner of the General Land Office. In 1807 an act was 
 passed, relating primarily to the lead-bearing lands of lUi- 
 nois._ They were ordered to be reserved fi-om sale, and leased 
 to miners by the war department. The leases covered tracts 
 at first three miles square (afterward reduced to one mile), 
 and bound the lessee to work the mines with due diligence 
 and return to the United States 6 per cent, of all the ores 
 '""'°°'^ No leases were issued under this law," says Prof. 
 
 raised. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 91 
 
 Whitney, " until 1822, and but a small quantity of lead waa 
 raised, previous to 1826, from which time the production be- 
 gan to increase rapidly. For a few years the rents were paid 
 with tolerable regularity ; but, after 1834, in consequence of 
 the immense number of illegal entries of mineral land at 
 the Wisconsin Land Oflice, the smelters and miners refused 
 to make any further payments, and the government was en- 
 tirely unable to collect them. After much trouble and ex- 
 pense, it was, in 1847 finally concluded that the only way 
 was to sell the mineral land, and do away with all reserves 
 of lead or any other metal, since they had only been a source 
 of embarrassment to the department." Meanwhile, by a 
 forced construction (afterwards declared invalid) of the same 
 act, hundreds of leases were granted to speculators in the 
 Lake Superior copper region, which was, from 1843 to 1846, 
 the scene of wild and baseless excitement. The bubble 
 burst during the latter year ; the issue of permits and leases 
 was suspended as illegal, and the act of 1847, authorizing 
 the sale of the mineral lands, and a geological survey of the 
 district, laid the foundation of a more substantial prosperity. 
 This policy of selling the mineral lands has been that of the 
 government ever since. But it has necessarily been modi- 
 fied in the West by the peculiar circumstances under which 
 that region has been settled. Before lands can be sold they 
 must be surveyed ; and before they can be sold as mineral 
 lands, their mineral-bearing character must be ascertained. 
 Our miners and explorers overran and occupied the Pacific 
 slope in advance of the public surveys. They built cities 
 that were not shown on any map ; they cut timber, turned 
 water-courses, dug canals, tunneled mountains, bought and 
 sold their rights to these improvements under laws estab- 
 lished by themselves, and enforced by public sentiment only. 
 For nearly twenty years the government looked on, without 
 asserting its dominant ownership of the public lands ; and 
 when by the acts of 1866, 1870, and 1872, and other minor 
 enactments, a general system was created, it was necessary 
 to recognize as far as possible the rights which had grown 
 up by general consent, and to seek only to give to them cer- 
 tainty, practical uniformity, and reasonable limitations. It 
 is not my purpose to discuss in detail the mining laws of the 
 United States, or to trace the curiously complicated origins 
 of the local customs on which they are largely based. Suffice 
 it to say that the system recognizes the English common law 
 principle, that the mineral right passes with the fee to the 
 lands; so that, in the words of the commissioner (July 10th, 
 1873) " all mineral deposits discovered upon land, after 
 United States Patent therefor has issued to a party claiming 
 under the laws regulating the disposal of agricultural lands, 
 pass with the patent, and the Land Office has no further 
 jurisdiction in the premises." But the principle is also re- 
 cognized that the mineral right may be separated from the 
 fee by the owner, whether he be an individual or the United 
 States ; and this principle is curiously applied in the form 
 of patents for mining claims upon lodes, which, following 
 the form of the possessory title, grant to the patentee the 
 right to follow all veins, the top or apex of which lies within 
 the exterior boundaries of his claim, downward to any depth, 
 though they pass under the surface of the land adjoining. 
 As the size and the price per acre of the tracts sold under 
 the agricultural laws are different from those to which the 
 mining laws apply, and as, under the homestead law, a cer- 
 tain" amount of agricultural land may be obtained without 
 any payment, it is evidfint, that no known mineral deposits 
 can be acquired under the agricultural laws; and this reser- 
 vation is enforced both in the preliminary proceedings and 
 in the patents finally issued under those laws. With regard 
 to the mineral lands, however, it is certain that the patent 
 for a claim carries with it both the fee of the land and also 
 a mineral right, though not the same mineral right as is con- 
 templated by the common law ; since it is enlarged on the 
 one hand by the permission to follow mineral deposits be- 
 neath the surface of adjoining land, and limited on the other 
 hand by the operation of the same permission in favor of the 
 adjoining owner. The latter limitation is incorporated in 
 agricultural patents also, and may become operative when- 
 ever they adjoin mining patents. Previous to the applica- 
 tion for a patent, the law permits free exploration and mm- 
 in" upon the public lands to all citizens and those who have 
 declared their intention to become such. The rights of this 
 class of miners, under what is known as the possessory title, 
 
 are regulated by local laws and customs, subject only to a 
 few simple conditions, which the -United States enforces 
 upon all, and which chiefly concern the maximum size of 
 individual claims, the definite character of their boundaries 
 and landmarks, and a certain quantity of labor which must 
 be bestowed upon them annually, in order to maintain pos- 
 session. I will not pause to state the different features which 
 these conditions present for lode and placer claims. It is 
 sufficient to say that the miner, conforming to them, and 
 thus maintaining his possessory title, may, after a certain 
 expenditure, and upon due application, survey, and adver- 
 tisement, in the absence of any valid opposing claim, per- 
 fect his purchase from the Government, receive his patent, 
 and be thereafter free from the necessity of performing any 
 given annual amount of labor to hold his claim. There are 
 features in the present law concerning the rights of pros- 
 pecting tunnels which seem both obscure and unwise ; and 
 some serious questions remain to be settled as to the precise 
 ineaning of the law in these and other respects ; but these 
 we must pass by. 
 
 Looking at the legislation on this subject as a whole, we 
 see that it is confined to one department — that of title. The 
 whole system is devised to facilitate the purchase of the 
 mines by citizens. They are freely permitted to work them 
 experimentally, but it is made their interest to buy them. 
 No inspection, no police regulation, no technical control, 
 is exercised by the Government. Turning to the State and 
 Territorial Legislatures, we find that they have, in some 
 cases, provided for inspecting mines, in the interest of the 
 safety of the workmen. Perhaps the best law of this kind 
 is that of Pennsylvania, in which State the peculiar perils of 
 coal mining have forced the legislature to take measures of 
 protection. But we find nowhere such a technical control 
 of mining as is exhibited in many European States, where 
 the Government requires of the miner that he shall not 
 waste wantonly or ignorantly the resources which, once ex- 
 hausted, will never grow again. Our people waste as much 
 as they like, and no one interferes. Admitting that this is 
 an evil, it still remains a matter of doubt how far, under 
 the circumstances of our particular case, the supervision of 
 authority could remedy it. For my own part, though in- 
 clined to restrict as far as possible the functions of govern- 
 ment, I am not disposed to say that for so great an end as 
 the cqnservation of the mineral wealth of the country, it may 
 not properly enforce some measures of economy, with as 
 good right as it may forbid the reckless waste of timber or 
 the slaughter of game out of season. But, in our nation, at 
 least, governmental interference is the last resort, and a poor 
 substitute for other causes, which, in the atmosphere of free- 
 dom and intelligence, ought to be effective. We are, per- 
 haps, in our material career as a nation, like the young man 
 who has " sown his wild oats," and now, by mature reflec- 
 tion and the lessons of experience, is likely to be better re- 
 strained than by the hand of parental authority. 
 
 Permit me, in drawing my remarks to a close, to suggest 
 two agencies which seem to me to be co-operating already, 
 and to open still wider future prospect, for the steady social 
 and economical improvement of our mining and metallur- 
 gical industry. The first of these is the spread of knowledge 
 on these subjects throughout the country. Under this head 
 we must recognize the great importance of that series of ex- 
 plorations of our great Western domain, which was recom- 
 mended by Mr. Lincoln, with sublime feith in the salvation 
 of his country, in the midst of the civil war, and which has 
 been, by the liberality of the Government, prosecuted under 
 various departments ever since. I need hardly make special 
 mention, in addition, of the reports of the Commissioner of 
 Mining Statistics, which have appeared annually since 1866, 
 and have reflected upon our own community the light of the 
 gathered technical knowledge of the world, while they have 
 in turn exhibited to the world the resources and the progress 
 of America. Such works as these, together with the tech- 
 nical periodicals and the occasional volumes, translated or 
 original, which have come from the American press, have 
 contributed already a great deal to the education of our 
 mining communities. The government has not done too 
 much in this direction ; but it seems to me that it should 
 continue this most necessary and proper work in a more 
 systematic and uniform way. There ought to be no conflict 
 of authorities, no duplication of work, no unnecessary ex- 
 
92 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 penditure of labor and money in the face of a task so great. 
 Next in order, I may rank the influence of the technical 
 schools. The number of these has rapidly increased during 
 the past ten years ; and I venture to say that many of them 
 compare favorably, in theoretical instruction at least, and 
 several of them in the apparatus of instruction, with the 
 famous schools of the old world. The Massachusetts In- 
 stitute of Technology, at Boston ; the School of Mines of 
 Columbia College, at New York; the Sheffield Scientific 
 School of Yale College, at New Haven ; the Stevens Insti- 
 tute of Technology, at Hoboken ; the Pardee Scientific De- 
 partment of Lafayette College, at Easton ; the excellent 
 school at Rutgers College, under the direction of Prof. 
 Cook ; the new Scientific Department of the College of New 
 Jersey ; the School of Mining and Metallurgy of Lehigh 
 University, at Bethlehem ; the School of Mining and Prac- 
 tical Geology of Harvard University, at Cambridge ; the 
 Scientific Department of the University of Pennsylvania, 
 in Philadelphia; the School of Mines of Michigan Univer^ 
 sity, at Ann Arbor ; the Missouri School of Mines and Metal- 
 lurgy, at RoUa ; the Polytechnic Department of Washing- 
 ton University at St. Louis ; and the similar department of 
 the University of California, at Oakland; and perhaps 
 some others which I have omitted to name — this is a list of 
 schools for instruction in the sciences involved in mining 
 and metallurgical practice, of which we need not be ashamed. 
 What our schools undoubtedly need, is a more intimate re- 
 lation with practice. But this theme I need not touch. 
 
 One more agency of the spread of technical knowledge 
 deserves special mention. I refer to the influence of socie- 
 ties like the Institute of Mining Engineers. The five years' 
 activity of this Institute has impressed upon the professions 
 which it represents a spirit of union, an enthusiasm of 
 progress, a mutual recognition of the claims of theory and 
 practice, which cannot be too highly estimated. Perfect 
 our schools as much as we may, the association of the young 
 engineer with experienced engineers, the contact of his 
 mind with mature minds, their recognition of his merit, 
 their correction of his errors, constitute the necessary 
 supplement to the school-training. The average man, at 
 least, should not be left to wrestle with his professional 
 career alone. He will make better progress and take more 
 pleasure in it, if he calls to his aid the element of social 
 sympathy, and the intellectual reinforcement expressed in 
 the proverb, " many heads are better than one." 
 
 One further consideration, and I have done. The effect 
 of growing intelligence and knowledge in improving our 
 methods of industry would come short of some great ends if 
 it operated only through the self-interest of the individual. 
 Many reforms are beyond the power of the individual ; some 
 are not even to his interest. Thus the miner under a 
 possessory title on a gold-bearing quartz vein in Colorado 
 may know that with a greater investment of capital he could 
 manage to reduce his losses of gold in extraction ; but the 
 capital may be wanting ; or, he may know that by robbing 
 the mine of its richest ores only, and allowing it to cave, he 
 is probably destroying more valuable resources than he 
 utilizes; but the mine is only temporarily his, and he 
 prefers quick gains to permanent ones. So long as the 
 anthracite lands of Pennsylvania were leased to countless 
 small operators, who paid royalty only on the coal which 
 they sent to market, it was useless to explain to them that 
 they wasted a third of the coal in the ground, and another 
 third in the breaker, or that they ruined thousands of acres 
 of coal-beds, overlying those which they recklessly worked. 
 If there were no natural remedy for this wicked waste of 
 the reserved force upon which the future prosperity and 
 comfort of mankind depend, it would be the highest duty 
 of Government promptly to take into its own hands the 
 direction and management of the mines of coal which 
 society holds in trust for the future ; but already it is easy 
 to detect the operation of a new social law developed within 
 the memory of man, yet the fruit of the preparation of the 
 ages during which society has been slowly built up, and 
 niatured into its present form and conditions. To the 
 philosophic observer, the controlling law which runs 
 through the whole history of man down to the present 
 century, is the law of dispersion, diffusion, distribution, the 
 centrifugal social force, so to speak, which by its irresistible 
 power has tended not merely to scatter mankind over the 
 
 face of the habitable globe, but through what are termed 
 civilizing and Christianizing agencies to place communities 
 and individuals upon the common plane of equal rights in 
 the domain of nature and before the law. From the time 
 of the confusion of tongues at the Tower of Babel, through 
 the long history of the early Oriental Empires, which re- 
 duced society to the rule of order and then broke up into 
 fragmentary political organizations, retaining, nevertheless, 
 the principles of cohesion acquired by bitter experience; 
 through the Greek and Roman imperial political structures 
 upon which were ingrafted the civilization and the religion 
 which their downfall made the common heritage of the 
 northern barbarians who came for destruction, but were 
 themselves transformed into the apostles of a more liberal 
 and enlightened social organization, this law of dispersion 
 has never ceased to exercise its power and its supremacy. 
 The very inventions of man are only so many proofs of the 
 unceasing operation of this law. In warfare, gunpowder 
 and firearms merely enlarged the area over which it was 
 possible to carry on military operations; the magnetic 
 compass only widened the field of commerce ; the printing- 
 press and the telegraph are merely agencies for the diffusion 
 of thought; the steam engine is but a means whereby it 
 becomes possible to establish local industries in every part 
 of the habitable globe ; and the canal and the railway are 
 essentially distributers of the products and the wealth of the 
 human race. Although there is an impression abroad that 
 this age is one of growing concentration of property, no man 
 can study the history and the facts of the development of 
 society without coming to the conclusion that at no period 
 has there been so general and equal a distribution of rights 
 and property as in the present age. The destruction of the 
 feudal system was, in reality, the establishment of a new and 
 better theory, in regard to the ownership of land, which has 
 borne its legitimate fruits in the subdivision of estates in 
 France, through the convulsions of a revolution ; in the 
 more general distribution of landed property in Germany, 
 and in that steady, remarkable, and successful agitation in 
 England, which is now showing its results in the limitation 
 of entail, the simplification of transfer, the enlargement of 
 the suffrage, and the acquisition of small freeholds, whereby 
 political power is being slowly but surely transferred from 
 the great landholders to the middle classes of the most 
 powerful and compact political organization which the world 
 has ever seen. 
 
 While, then, there is thus an unmistakable progress in the 
 world towards a juster and more general distribution of the 
 control of the resources of nature and of the fruits of human 
 industry, the present century has, undoubtedly, developed 
 a new and remarkable centralizing tendency, which might 
 be denominated the centripetal industrial force. I speak of 
 the application of the corporate principle to the management 
 of industrial enterprises, producing a concentration of pro- 
 perty and management through the diffusion of ownership. 
 Under the corporate system, the number of owners may be 
 unlimited, but the management is necessarily confined to a 
 fe\v hands. It is the political idea of representation applied 
 to industrial enterprises ; it is the common wealth in its in- 
 dustrial, and not its political sense, which is concentrated 
 for the material wants and progress of the human race. 
 Now, this law of universal ownership, under limited manage- 
 ment, heretofore applied with marked success during-tlie 
 latter half of the present century to great manufacturing 
 establishments in this country, and of late in Europe, and 
 of necessity to railroads everywhere, has at length, by slow 
 but irresistible steps, taken possession of the great mining 
 enterprises of the United States, and to-day has its strongest 
 and most interesting development in the anthracite coal 
 region, which may be said to be monopolized by six great 
 corporations, administered by a very small number of able 
 oflicors representing a vast body of owners who rely upon 
 steady but not excessive dividends for their support. It is 
 the fashion to denounce these corporations as monopolizers, 
 but it is only the thoughtless who do not investigate below 
 the surface, who take this view of what is reallv the most 
 interesting and suggestive application in our dav of a power- 
 ful and irresistible force originating in the very heart of the 
 social fabric. The monopoly is not the monopoly of owner- 
 ship, for everybody is free to buy and sell, and there is no 
 day when a man with money raav not, at its value, procure 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 93 
 
 a share in these enterprises. And no one familiar with 
 business will pretend that the profits have been out of pro- 
 portion to the cost and the risk of the undertakings, and no 
 more conclusive answer, to any complaint on the score of 
 monopoly can be made, than that to-day the shares in these 
 corporations, in many cases, are selling below the original 
 money cost. These corporations are, in fact, not the creators, 
 but the outgrowth of a new and beneficent principle, which 
 has begun to assert itself in society, and will continue to 
 grow in power until the end of time. This principle is the 
 practical association of diffused capital, through the agency 
 of corporate organization, with labor, for the promotion of 
 economy, for the improvement of processes, and for the 
 general welfare of manldnd. The capital is derived from 
 innumerable sources, just as the little rills, finally, through 
 streams and rivers, constitute the great ocean. The laborer 
 himself may thu 3 be the capitalist, and the capitalist may 
 thus be the laborer, each taking his share of that portion of 
 the fund which is appropriated to labor and to capital, and 
 often in a double capacity taking a share from both. In its 
 perfect and ultimate development it embodies the Christian 
 idea of "having all things in common," yet "rendering 
 unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's." The rate of profit 
 which may be derived from these great enterprises, subject 
 as they are to the scrutiny, criticism, and judgment of the 
 public, in an age when nothing escapes notice, and all rights 
 and property are virtually subordinated to the popular will, 
 can never be excessive, for two reasons: on the one side the 
 public will inevitably demand lower prices for an article of 
 primary consequence in every household, and these cor- 
 porations, creatures of the public will as they are, could not 
 successfully resist such a demand, based upon excessive or 
 unreasonable profits. On the other hand, whenever the 
 dividends rise above a reasonable rate of compensation, the 
 laborers engaged in the production of coal, from whom these 
 profits cannot be concealed, will ju>tly claim, and rightfully 
 secure, a larger share of the fruits of their labor. The checks 
 upon any unreasonable exercise of the power conferred by 
 the ownership under limited management of the anthracite 
 coal-fields, are in reality so powerful that the public have 
 nothing to fear from this cause, but the corporations have 
 rather reason to dread that they may not have justice at the 
 hands of the public and the working classes. This justice 
 they can only hope to secure by the wisest, best, and most 
 economical management and administration of the property 
 they control, and whatever profits they may hereafter derive 
 and be allowed to divide among the owners, will be rather 
 due to the economies which they may be able to introduce, 
 whereby the article is furnished at the lowest possible rate, 
 than to any fancied monopoly which they may have in the 
 coal itself, or in its transportation to market. 
 
 Already, by the application of adequate capital, guided 
 by the largest experience and the highest technical skill, the 
 anthracite coal mines, from being worked in a wasteful and 
 extravagant manner, are being rapidly put in the best possi- 
 ble shape for the economical delivery of coal at the surface, 
 and for the preservation of every portion of the store upon 
 which the future value of the property must depend. But 
 besides economy in mining and care in preserving, there must 
 be regularity and stability in the operations of the mine. 
 There can be no real profit where these operations are 
 subject to constant interruption, caused by strikes or other 
 artificial impediments. The loss of interest on the plant at 
 the mines, and in the lines of transportation caused by any 
 serious stoppage to the works, would, of itself, be sufficient 
 to render investments of this kind unprofitable. Hence the 
 out-put must be regulated and proportioned to the wants of 
 the market. But this regulation must be continuous and 
 not spasmodic. To enable this to be done, large stocks of 
 coal must necessarily be kept on hand, in order that any 
 sudden demand may be properly met without any serious 
 increase in price; and in dull times the accumulation 
 and restoration of the stocks will give steady employment 
 to the miners, to whose families any cessation of work is a 
 calamity of the most serious character, and to society an 
 
 unmitigated evil. To insure continuous operations, the best 
 relations must exist between the corporate owners and the 
 laborers in their employ. It is notorious that throughout 
 the coal regions these relations have been of the most un- 
 satisfactory character, resulting, at often-recurring intervals, 
 in strikes and lock-outs, which have no redeeming feature, 
 but, on the contrary, have raised the price of coal to the 
 consumer, have impaired the dividends of the owners, and 
 have reduced the working men and their families to a con- 
 dition of suffering and demoralization, appalling to every 
 well-wisher of his race. It is fortunate, therefore, that the 
 interests of all classes concur in the prevention of these 
 destructive and demoralizing collisions, and that the owners 
 of the property, for their own self-protection, will be driven to 
 remove the causes which have produced them. It is idle for 
 them to expend their capital for the best machinery, for the 
 highest skill, for the most economical transportation, unless 
 they can, at the same time, insure a continuous production 
 from a contented laboring population. This they have it in 
 their power to do. If the same spirit of sacrifice which has 
 sent out our missionaries into every heathen land, had been 
 shown in the coal regions, and the same efforts had been 
 made to establish and maintain the school-house, the church, 
 and above all the Sunday-school, which have borne such 
 fruits elsewhere in this broad land ; if the hospital for the 
 sick, and the comfortable refuge for the unfortunate had 
 been carefully provided; if reading-rooms and night- 
 schools, and rational places of amusement had, from the 
 outset, been maintained for a growing and restless popula- 
 tion, the coal regions to-day might have been a paradise 
 upon earth instead of a disgrace to civilization. And here it 
 is that this new power of concentrated management can 
 exert itself with a sure and absolute success. The appropri- 
 ation of a few cents per ton on the coal mined to the work 
 of improving the moral and intellectual conditions of the 
 miners and their families will, in a time incredibly short, 
 change the whole face of society in the coal regions. To be 
 effective, however, this consecration of a fixed amount on 
 each ton of coal sent to market must be as absolute and final 
 as that portion of the proceeds which is devoted to pumping 
 the mines, or driving the gangways. It must not come from 
 grace, but from a sense of duty involved in the ownership 
 of property, and dictated by a wise regard for its preservation 
 and permanent value. Even if this percentage were added 
 to the price of the coal the addition would not be grudged by 
 the public ; but in fact no such addition could possibly occur, 
 as there is no surer way of promoting economy in the cost 
 of production than by improving the social condition, the 
 self-respect, and the intelligence of those who are engaged 
 in the work of production, which thus becomes continuous 
 and systematic. Until the great companies thus recognize 
 the duties, the responsibilities, and the opportunities for good, 
 which are offered by the new social development which has 
 rendered their existence a necessity as well as a possibility, 
 they must not complain that they are regarded with distrust, 
 and as enemies, both by the public which consumes their 
 products, and by the working classes who see in them only 
 grasping employers without a conscience. What individual 
 owners could not do, it is easy for these great companies to 
 put in practice ; but the effort must be as earnest and serious 
 as is the business of producing the coal and getting it to 
 market. The very best talent must be secured for the orga- 
 nization and management of the various agencies necessary 
 for the moral, intellectual, and social improvement of the 
 working classes, who must be themselves associated in the 
 administration of the fund created and expended for their 
 benefit. Five cents per ton would produce an annual 
 revenue of over $1,000,000 applicable to this necessary and 
 noble use, and five years of its intelligent and conscientious 
 administration would convert what in some regions has been 
 aptly termed a " hell upon earth " into a terrestrial paradise 
 which would be the pride and glory of the new world. 
 
 (The various tables to which Mr. Hewitt has drawn the 
 reader's attention will be found on the following page:) 
 
94 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Table o* Production of licadlng Metala and Minerals In the United States during tUe First Century of Nallonal 
 
 Independence, Prepared toy R. W. Raymond. 
 
 
 Anthracite,* 
 
 Pig-iron, 
 in tons of 2240 
 
 Lead, 
 in tons of 2240 
 
 Copper, 
 in tons of 2240 
 
 ■ Quicksilver, 
 in flaslcs of 76)^ 
 
 Gold, 
 in dollars, 
 
 Silver, 
 in dollars, 
 
 PetroTm, 
 in barrels of 
 42 gallons. 
 
 
 lbs. avoir. 
 
 Bis. avoir. 
 
 Bis. avoir. 
 
 fiis. avoir. 
 
 lbs. avoir. 
 
 U. S. coin. 
 
 
 1819 
 
 18,000* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1820 
 
 1,965 
 
 
 
 .. . - 
 
 
 
 
 
 1821 
 
 3,273 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1822 
 
 4,940 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9,023 
 13,641 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1824 
 
 
 4,432* 
 
 
 
 
 • . -1 
 
 
 1823 
 
 38,499 
 
 
 1,281 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 1826 
 
 64,815 
 71,167 
 
 
 1,771 
 3,927 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1827 
 
 2,178,239* 
 
 
 1828 
 
 91,914 
 
 130,000 
 
 7,815 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1829 
 
 133,203 . 
 
 142,000 
 
 7,824 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1830 
 
 209,634 
 
 166,000 
 
 7,163 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1831 
 
 230,320 
 
 191,000 
 
 6,646 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -1832 
 
 448,171 
 
 200,000 
 
 8,888 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1833 
 
 692,210 
 
 218,000 
 
 9,767 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1834 
 
 456,859 
 
 236,000 
 
 10,552 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1833 
 
 678,517 
 
 254,000 
 
 11,696 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1836 
 
 8 -'5,729 
 
 272,000 
 
 14,216 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1837 
 
 1,039,241 
 
 290,000 
 
 11,994 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1838 
 
 873,013 
 
 308,000 
 
 13,612 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1839 
 
 9.57,436 
 
 326,000 
 
 16,639 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1810 
 
 1,008,220 
 
 347,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1841 
 1842 
 
 1,116,045 
 1,286,618 
 
 290,000 
 230,000 
 
 18,171 
 21,586 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1843 
 
 1,478,926 
 
 312,000 
 
 21,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1844 
 
 1,899,806 
 
 394,000 
 
 22,000 
 
 2,680* 
 
 
 
 
 - ■ 
 
 1845 
 
 2,352,984 
 
 486,000 
 
 26,.500 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 - i 
 
 
 1846 
 
 2,707,-321 
 
 766,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 160 
 
 
 
 
 
 1847 
 
 3,327,165 
 
 800,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 300 
 
 
 20,600,006* 
 
 
 
 1848 
 
 3,572,695 
 
 800,000 
 
 22,500 
 
 500 
 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 
 
 1849 
 
 3,724,805 
 
 660,0110 
 
 21,000 
 
 700 
 
 
 40,000,000 
 
 
 
 1860 
 
 3,863,365 
 
 663,755 
 
 19,5(10 
 
 600 
 
 25,424* 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 
 
 1851 
 
 6,190,690 
 
 413,(100 
 
 16,600 
 
 800 
 
 24,000 
 
 56,000,000 
 
 
 
 1852 
 
 5,725,148 
 
 640,755 
 
 14,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 
 
 1853 
 1854 
 
 6.940,905 
 0,846,656 
 
 723,214 
 662,216 
 
 15,000 
 14,000 
 
 1,850 
 2,250 
 
 19,000 
 27,000 
 
 66,000,000 
 60,000,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 1866 
 
 7,684,542 
 
 700,159 
 
 14,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 33,000 
 
 66,000,000 
 
 
 
 1856 
 1867 
 1868 
 
 7,999,767 
 7,694,842 
 7,864,230 
 
 788,515 
 712,640 
 629, '52 
 
 14,000 
 14,000 
 14,0il0 
 
 4,000 
 4,800 
 5,500 
 
 
 66,000,000 
 56,000,000 
 50,000,000 
 
 
 
 28,000 
 31,000 
 
 
 
 1,000,000* 
 
 
 1859 
 
 9,010,723 
 
 75(),.560 
 
 14,000 
 
 6,300 
 
 12,000 
 
 50,000,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 3,": (JO 
 
 1860 
 
 9,807,118 
 
 821,223 
 
 14,000 
 
 7,200 
 
 10,000 
 
 46,000,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 6i0,(i00 
 
 1861 
 
 9,147,461 
 
 663,164 
 
 14,000 
 
 7,600 
 
 3.5,000 
 
 43,000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 2,113,000 
 
 1S62 
 
 9,026,211 
 
 702,912 
 
 14,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 42,900 
 
 39,200,000 
 
 4,600,000 
 
 3,056,606 
 
 1863 
 
 10,953,077 
 
 846,076 
 
 14,000 
 
 6,474 
 
 40,.531 
 
 40,000,000 
 
 8,500,000 
 
 2,611,359 
 
 1864 
 
 11,631,409 
 
 1,013,837 
 
 14,000 
 
 6,618 
 
 47,489 
 
 46,100 000 
 
 11,000,000 
 
 2,116,182 
 
 1863 
 
 10,783,032 
 
 831 768 
 
 13,165 
 
 6,811 
 
 53,000 
 
 63,200,000 
 
 11,260,000 
 
 3,497,712 
 
 1866 
 
 14,2.33,919 
 
 1,200,199 
 
 14,312 
 
 6,978 
 
 46,660 
 
 63,600,000 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 3,697,627 
 
 1837 
 
 14,345,644 
 
 1,305,013 
 
 13,662 
 
 7,774 
 
 37,000 
 
 51,700,000 
 
 13,550,000 
 
 3,347.306 
 
 ■ 186^ 
 
 16,810,466 
 
 1,431,250 
 
 14,636 
 
 9,467 
 
 37,000 
 
 48,000,000 
 
 12,(100,000 
 
 3,715 741 
 
 1869 
 
 16,376,678 
 
 1,711,276 
 
 15,663 
 
 11,868 
 
 33,713 
 
 49,500,000 
 
 13,(1(10,00(1 
 
 4,216.000 
 
 1870 
 
 17,819.700 
 
 1,696,429 
 
 15 922 
 
 12,650 
 
 29,546 
 
 50,0 0,000 
 
 16,00(1,000 
 
 6,659.000 
 
 1871 
 
 17,370,463 
 
 1,707,685 
 
 17,854 
 
 12,646 
 
 31,881 
 
 43,.500,000 
 
 22,000,1100 
 
 6,795,000 
 
 1372 
 
 2-2,032,-265 
 
 2,639,783 
 
 23,106 
 
 11,948 
 
 30.306 
 
 36,000,000 
 
 25,750,0110 
 
 6,539,103 
 
 1873 
 
 22,828,178 
 
 2,660,962 
 
 46,661 
 
 16,673 
 
 28,600 
 
 35,000,000 
 
 36,.50(1(I0I» 
 
 9,879,455 
 
 1874 
 
 21,667,386 
 
 2,401,261 
 
 63,219 
 
 17,,548 
 
 34,254 
 
 39,600,000 
 
 32,800,000 
 
 10,910,303 
 
 1875 
 
 20,643,509 
 
 2,108,664 
 
 63,000 
 
 15.625 
 
 63.706 
 
 33,400,000 
 
 41,400.000 
 
 8,78T,506 
 
 Total, 
 
 341,521,423 
 
 40,000,000 
 
 856 000 
 
 200,000 
 
 840,000 
 
 1,332,700,000 
 
 261,450,000 
 
 76,694,600 
 
 * Including the whole previous period from 1776. 
 
 Production at ^ulclcsllver 
 
 at Nevr Alntaden for Twenty-tliree Years and Three Months 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 Class and Quantity op Ore, 
 
 Total pounds. 
 
 Flasltsfrom 
 furnaces. 
 
 Flasks 
 from 
 
 wash- 
 ings. 
 
 Flasks, 
 total. 
 
 Av'ge 
 Eimount 
 
 per 
 month 
 flasks. 
 
 Per- 
 centage 
 includ- 
 ing all. 
 
 Per- 
 oent'ge, 
 Tierra". 
 
 True 
 per ct, 
 of ore 
 ex'ld 
 tier & 
 wings. 
 
 ,- « 
 
 Dates. 
 
 Grueso, 
 Pounds. 
 
 Granza, 
 Pounds, 
 
 Tierras, 
 Pounds. 
 
 Si 
 
 J[]|y 18.30 to June 1851. 
 " 1861 '• " 1852. 
 
 
 
 
 4,970,717 
 4,643,290 
 4,839,620 
 7,448,000 
 9,109,300 
 10,356,200 
 10,299,900 
 10,997,170 
 3,873,085 
 
 13,323,200 
 16,281,400 
 7,172,660 
 2,346,000 
 2,369,300 
 23,277,600 
 31,948,400 
 26,886,300 
 20,02 ',933 
 29,406,630 
 25,458,175 
 21,097,700 
 22.034,700 
 21,410,600 
 17,330,375 
 23,464,000 
 31,106.200 
 
 23,875 
 19,921 
 18,035 
 26,325 
 31,860 
 28.083 
 26,002 
 29,347 
 10,688 
 
 32,402 
 39,262 
 17,310 
 4,820 
 4,040 
 42,176 
 47,078 
 84,726 
 23,990 
 25,677 
 16,898 
 14,423 
 18,513 
 18,391 
 11,042 
 8,867 
 13,541 
 
 2,363 
 
 1,129 
 
 2,248 
 
 700 
 
 407 
 
 313 
 
 116 
 
 424 
 
 471 
 
 61 
 
 6 
 183 
 
 ■ '217 
 107 
 
 23,875 
 19,921 
 18,035 
 26,325 
 31,860 
 28,083 
 26,002 
 29,347 
 10,588 
 
 34,765 
 40,391 
 19,564 
 6,520 
 4,447 
 42,489 
 47,194 
 35,160 
 24,461 
 28,628 
 10,898 
 14.423 
 18,668 
 18,574 
 11,042 
 9,084 
 13,648 
 
 1,989U 
 
 1.660 
 
 1,6(13 
 
 2,193% 
 
 2,665 
 
 2,M0]4 
 
 2,167 
 
 2,445 J^ 
 
 2,647 
 
 2,897 
 
 3,366 
 
 2,706 
 
 2,760 
 
 2.223 >< 
 
 SMO% 
 
 3,933 
 
 2,929 
 
 2,0381^ 
 
 2.1364s 
 
 1,408 ' 
 
 1,2(12 
 
 IMVA 
 
 1,648 
 
 920 
 
 757 
 11.37>.^ 
 
 36,74 
 32.82 
 28.!iO 
 27.03 
 26.76 
 20.74 
 19.31 
 20.41 
 20.91 
 
 19.96 
 
 20.22 
 
 20.86 
 
 18.00 
 
 18.66 
 
 13.96 
 
 11.30 
 
 10.00 
 
 7.19 
 
 6.66 
 
 6.07 
 
 6.23 
 
 6.-44 
 
 6.63 
 
 4.87 
 
 2.96 
 
 3.36 
 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 1.69 
 1 
 
 36.74 
 32.82 
 28.60 
 27.03 
 26.75 
 20.74 
 19.31 
 20.41 
 20.91 
 
 18.64 
 
 18.65 
 
 19.46 
 
 15.67 
 
 17.52 
 
 16.64 
 
 12.42 
 
 11.62 
 
 942 
 
 10.12 
 
 8.48 
 
 7.42 
 
 9.16 
 
 9.67 
 
 7.86 
 
 4.29 
 
 6.92 
 
 12 
 12 
 
 *' 1862 " " 1863. 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 " 1853 " " 1854. 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 '■ 1856 " " 1856. 
 " 1856 " " 1857. 
 " 1867 " " lt^58. 
 
 
 ' 
 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 
 " 1858 " Oct. 1858. 
 
 
 
 
 Nov. 1868 " Jan. 1861. 
 Feb.1861 " " 1862. 
 
 " 1862 " " 1863. 
 
 " 1863 " Aug. 1863. 
 Sep 1863 " Oct. 1803. 
 
 Closed by 
 
 injunction. 
 
 
 12 
 12 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Nov. 1863 " Dec. 1803. 
 Jan. 1804 " Deo. 1864. 
 
 " 1865 " " 1866. 
 
 " 1866 " " 1866. 
 
 " 1867 " " 1867. 
 
 " 1868 " " 1868. 
 
 " 1869 " " 1869. 
 
 " 1870 " " 1870. 
 
 " 1871 " " 1871. 
 
 64,800 
 
 1,2.59,400 
 
 2,288,900 
 
 1,,506,000 
 
 731,6 
 
 2,274,208 
 
 160,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 1,586,600 
 18,730,300 
 25,749,0('0 
 19,039.100 
 15,689,288 
 14,666,(iO0 
 11,942,175 
 12,531,900 
 13,661,700 
 12,777.000 
 
 8,492,376 
 11.294,000 
 12,236,000 
 
 718,000 
 
 3,287,900 
 
 3,910,500 
 
 6,340,200 
 
 9,603,145 
 
 12,564,722 
 
 13,306 000 
 
 8,635,800 
 
 8,373.000 
 
 8,497,600 
 
 8,838,000 
 
 12,l(i0,000 
 
 18,870, ;00 
 
 2 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 
 " 1872 " " 1872. 
 •' 1873 " " 1873. 
 " 1874 " '■ 1874. 
 " 1875 " " 18/6. 
 
 142,009 
 
 Totals and averages. 
 
 8,436,808 1 179,196,938 
 
 114,165,067 
 
 406,467,265 
 
 687,148 
 
 8,734 l696,>'82 
 
 21.359^ 
 
 11.21 
 
 1.99 
 
 14.68 
 
 279 
 
 Product of Enrigueta from 1860 to 1863, 10,571. 
 
 Total Product of all the mines on the Company's property, 606,463 flasks of 70^!; ttis. each, or 46,393,654^ lbs.— San FYancisco Sckntiflc Prese. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 95 
 
 Production of Comstock Lode* 
 
 I860, 
 181)1, 
 1882, 
 1863, 
 1861, 
 1866, 
 1866, 
 1867, 
 1868, 
 1869, 
 1870, 
 1871, 
 1872, 
 1873, 
 1874, 
 1876, 
 
 . . $1,000,000 
 
 . 2,'275,2o6 
 
 . . 6,247,047 
 
 . 12,486,238 
 
 . . . 15,795,685 
 
 . 15,184,877 
 
 . 14,167,071 
 
 . 13,738,618 
 
 8,499,769 
 
 . 7,628,607 
 
 8,319,698 
 
 . . 11,063,328 
 
 . 13,669,724 
 
 . . 21,534,727 
 
 . 22,400,684 
 
 . . . 26,023,036 
 
 $199,824,364 
 
 Or, in round numbers, $200,000,000 ; of which, about $80,0n0- 
 000 has been gold, and $120,000,000 silver, according to Mr. 
 J. D. Hague. 
 
 Production of Iron Ore and Pig-Iron at Lake Superior, 
 
 Dates. 
 
 1866 
 1857 
 1858 
 1859 
 1860 
 1861 
 18C2 
 1863 
 1864 
 1866 
 1866 
 1867 
 1868 
 1869 
 1870 
 1871 
 1872 
 1873 
 1874 
 1876 
 
 Ore 
 Tons. 
 
 7,000 
 
 21,000 
 
 31,035 
 
 ' 66,679 
 
 116,908 
 
 45,4.30 
 
 116,721 
 
 186 257 
 
 235,123 
 
 196,266 
 
 296,072 
 
 466,076 
 
 607,813 
 
 633,238 
 
 866,471 
 
 813,379 
 
 962,055 
 
 1,066,875 
 
 840,295 
 
 829,115 
 
 8,281,698 
 
 Pig-iron. 
 Tons. 
 
 1,629 
 
 7,268 
 
 6,660 
 
 7,970 
 
 8,590 
 
 9,813 
 
 13,832 
 
 12,283 
 
 18,437 
 
 311,011 
 
 38,246 
 
 39,003 
 
 49,298 
 
 51,225 
 
 63,195 
 
 85,245 
 
 72,740 
 
 76,874 
 
 542,209 
 
 Total. 
 
 7,000 
 
 21,000 
 
 32,684 
 
 72,937 
 
 122,663 
 
 63,400 
 
 124,311 
 
 195,070 
 
 248,955 
 
 208,639 
 
 316,409 
 
 496,987 
 
 646,059 
 
 672,241 
 
 905,769 
 
 864,604 
 
 1,015,250 
 
 1,102,120 
 
 913,035 
 
 906,989 
 
 8,823,907 
 
 Value. 
 
 $28,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 249,202 
 
 575,529 
 
 736,496 
 
 419,601 
 
 984,977 
 
 1,416,935 
 
 1,867,215 
 
 1,690,430 
 
 2,405,960 
 
 3,475,820 
 
 3,992,413 
 
 4,968,436 
 
 6,300,170 
 
 6,115,895 
 
 9,188,055 
 
 7,600,000 
 
 6,800,000 
 
 6,900,000 
 
 $65,575,033 
 
 — Compiled from apmaerby Hon. Abram S. Sewilt, Transactions of Ameri- 
 can JnUUute of Mining Engineers. 
 
 PROGRESS IN MINING AND METALLURGI- 
 CAL ART, SCIENCE, AND INDUSTRY 
 FROM 1875 TO 1881. 
 
 THE period since 1875 has been marked by a degree 
 of activity in mining and metallurgical industry 
 never before equalled in our history, while the prog- 
 ress made in the science and art has been, if pos- 
 sible, still more noticeable. Whether we consider the 
 mining of iron, ore, and coal, or of the precious metals — 
 the advances made in smelting the former and in reducing 
 the latter, the extraordinary increase in the production of 
 Bessemer steel, or the science of Thomas and Gilchrist, 
 which makes the hitherto rejected phosphorus the corner- 
 stone of success— the past five years are alike memorable 
 for the progress they have shown. It may be of interest in 
 this connection to note the following figures, showing the 
 growth of the population of the United States during the 
 last three decades : 
 
 Year. : 
 
 Population. 
 
 loorease. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 1850. 
 1860. 
 1870. 
 1880. 
 
 23,191,876 
 31,443,321 
 38,568,371 
 50,300,000 
 
 8,251,445 
 7,115,050 
 11,741,629 
 
 36.6 
 22.6 
 30.5 
 
 Coal.— The known area of useful and workable coal in 
 the United States has been greatly extended since 1875 by 
 discoveries in Utah, Colorado, Indian Territory, and New 
 
 Mexico, good coking coals having recently been found in 
 the two latter, which seem destined to open these territories 
 very rapidly to metallurgical industry. A comparison 
 of the production of anthracite coal during the last five 
 years with that of the preceding five years shows that there 
 was mined of anthracite coal : 
 
 In 1871—1875 . 
 In 1876—1880 . 
 
 Gross tons. 
 154,655,254 
 111,482,727 
 
 . . . 6,827,473, 
 or 6.61 per cent. 
 
 The great increase in the capacity for its production is 
 shown by the output for 1879 — 27,711,250 gross tons — being 
 4,730,329 in excess of the largest previous output (that for 
 1873), or 21 per cent. The total coal production of the 
 United States is thus stated in gross tons : 
 
 1870 . . 
 1875. 
 1879 . . 
 
 Anthracite. Bituminous. Total. 
 . 13,985,960 15,231,668 29,217,628 
 
 . 20,664,609 
 . 27,711,250 
 
 26,031,720 
 33,666,709 
 
 46,686,235 
 61,376,969 
 
 showing an increase from 1870 to 1879 of 109.7 per cent., of 
 which two-thirds occurred since 1875. The past five years 
 have witnessed many improvements in the mining and 
 handling of coal ; notably in restricting the waste in the 
 preparation of anthracite and in utilizing the culm, both by 
 apparatus for burning it in its natural condition, such as 
 that of Mr. John E. Wootten, applied to the engines of the 
 Reading Railroad, and by forming it into bricks, in com- 
 bination with clay or tar, as is done by the Delaware and 
 Hudson Canal Company, and used on their locomotives. 
 Machinery for washing bituminous coal for coking has been 
 greatly improved, and a practicable arrangement has been 
 devised for burning pulverized fuel which promises well. 
 It is in the preparation by comminution, or by conversion 
 to gas, that further economy in the use of fuel is to be 
 looked for. 
 
 Pig Iron. — The production of pig iron in the United 
 States for the periods named aggregated as foUowes : 
 
 1871—1875, . . . 
 1876—1880, . 
 
 Increase, . . 
 
 Gross tons. 
 
 . 11,233,424 
 
 . . ,12,813,814 
 
 1,580,390, 
 
 or about 14.07 per cent. 
 
 The production for 1880 was reported by Mr. James M. 
 Swank as 3,835,191 gross tons, an amount 50 per cent, 
 greater than the production of 1872 and 1873, and over 
 double that of 1876. We are accustomed to regard the five 
 years 1874r-78 as years of great depression in the iron indus- 
 try, and yet the product of pig iron for those years was 10,- 
 652,836 tons, while it was for the ante-panic years, 1869-73, 
 10,192,933 tons, showing an increase of 459,903 tons, or 4.51 
 per cent, in five panic years over the production of the best 
 five consecutive years ever known to the iron trade of this 
 country. The use of regenerative stoves with blast furnaces 
 of large hearth area opened a new era in the history of blast 
 furnaces, evidenced by the product of the furnaces of the 
 Edgar Thomson Steel Company, Limited, their " B " fur- 
 nace of 20 feet bosh by eighty feet high having averaged 
 upward of 140 tons per day during a blast of seven months, 
 and having made 208 tons in 24 hours. That large blowing, 
 combined with high heating capacity, in furnaces having 
 large hearths, will result in still greater production, with less 
 consumption of fuel per ton, seems assured. 
 
 Iron Ore.— The production of iron ore received an im- 
 petus in the increased production of pig iron, shown by the 
 increased production of the Lake Superior region, as follows. 
 The output for the five year periods before referred to 
 shows as follows : 
 
 For 1871-76, . 
 For 1876-80, . 
 
 Increase, . 
 
 Gross tons. 
 . . 4,779,114 
 . . 6,451.092 
 
 . . . 1,673,978, 
 or 34 per cent. 
 
 The production for 1880 reached 1,975,602 gross tons an 
 amount exceeding by 800,000 tons the largest year's output 
 
96 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 prior to 1876, and by 560,000 tons the greatest production of 
 any previous year — tliat of 1879. 
 
 Wrought Iron. — There was a material advance in the 
 production of the various forms of wrought iron, and some 
 decided improvements in the economy of its production. 
 The ordinary consumption of fuel per ton of iron puddled 
 was 3000 to 3200 pounds, but the Swindell regenerative fur- 
 nace puddle a ton of iron with 1250 pounds of slack coal. 
 
 Steel. — In the production of Bessemer steel there was an 
 increase as unexpected as it was extraordinary, whether 
 considered in its commercial aspects or as the result of the 
 skilful handling of machinery originally designed for a 
 much smaller output, for it must be considered that up to 
 the end of 1880 there was no increase in number and very 
 little in the size of converters since. 1876. The output of 
 Bessemer steel ingots was for five years : 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 1S71-75, . 
 1876-80, . 
 
 Increase, . 
 
 907,000 
 3,950,964 
 
 . . 3,043,894, 
 or 333 per cent. 
 
 The product of 1879 was 928,972 net tons, or 21,000 tons 
 in excess of the five years 1871-75, while that for 1880 was 
 1,203,173 net tons, an amount greater than the output of any 
 two years prior to 1878. The output of ingots of some of the 
 leading steel works during 1880 was reported as follows : 
 
 Edgar Thomson, 
 Cambria, . 
 Joliet, .... 
 Lackawanna, . 
 Nortli Chicago, . 
 
 Gross tons. 
 123,303 
 
 . 122,143 
 116.760 
 105,3o4 
 
 . 100,178 
 
 Of steel rails there was a more than proportionate in- 
 crease, due to greater economy in the production, whereby a 
 slightly larger percentage of rails was obtained from the 
 ingots than was previously done. The product for five 
 years was : 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 1871-76, . 
 1876-80, . 
 
 Increase, . 
 
 . 697,142 
 . 3,046,684 
 
 . . . 2,349,442, 
 or 335 per cent. 
 
 The steel rails produced in 1879 were 683,964 tons, nearly 
 equal to the five years 1871-76, while for 1880 there were 
 made 967,592 tons, or 40 per cent, in excess of that five-year 
 product. Improvement in the quality of Bessemer steel is 
 to be looked for in the direction of allowing time for the 
 steel to settle, the ingredients to become more thoroughly 
 distributed, the fine particles of slag to rise to the surface, 
 and the free oxygen to escape before casting into ingots. 
 The question of the removal of the occluded gases from 
 steel is also attracting attention abroad, and appears likely 
 
 to afiect very materially the quality of the ingot metal of 
 the future. One of Edison's experiments with platinum 
 wire, effecting what he calls the removal of the contained 
 air, but which was evidently the removal of the occluded 
 gases, raised the melting-point of the wire to double its 
 original temperature, and increased its light-giving capacity 
 eight times. It is noted that the Wheeler process of rolling 
 steel scrap in an iron casing is being utilized at Chester, 
 Pa., in the manufacture of ship plates. 
 
 Oold and Silver. — The product of the precious metals for 
 the periods named was as follows < 
 
 1871-75, 
 1870-80, 
 
 Decrease, 
 
 1871-75, 
 1876-80, 
 
 $197,662,244 
 190,690,603 
 
 $971,641 
 
 $133,697,510 
 206,210,848 
 
 Increase, 
 
 $72,603,338 
 
 The product of the two precious metals showing an in- 
 crease of $71,631,697. The great increase in the output of 
 silver was largely due to the great carbonate deposits of 
 Colorado, the product of the Leadville mines in 1879 being 
 $10,189,521, and in 1880, $15,095,153. 
 
 Petroleum. — The mining product showing the greatest 
 increase in output is petroleum, which was : 
 
 In 1871-75, . 
 In 1870-811, . 
 
 Increase, . 
 
 41,911,367 
 83,04^,121 
 
 . . . • 41,130,754, 
 
 or nearly 100 per cent. 
 
 The production in 1880 reached the enormous total of 
 26,032,421 barrels, compared with which the greate.st year's 
 output prior to 1876 was 10,910,303 barrels in 1874. 
 
 Machinery. — There have been great improvements in 
 mining and metallurgical machinery during the last five 
 years, prominent among which, may be mentioned the Por- 
 ter-Allen high-speed engine for rolling-mills ; the Leavitt 
 compound engine for pumping and hoisting, the Bulkley 
 condenser, which is coming into general use for rolling-mill 
 and blast-furnace engines ; and the Kloman eye-bar univer- 
 sal mill, for producing weldless eye-bars of iron and steel, 
 the only process so far used adapted to eye-bars of Bessemer 
 steel. 
 
 Railroads. — Much of the increased output of iron ore, 
 pig iron, and steel rails was due to the demand created by 
 the construction of railroads, of which there were 19,397 
 miles constructed since 1875, and of which 7150 miles were 
 built in 1880, an amount nearly equalling the mileage of 
 1872, which was 7340 miles. 
 —Compiled from Annual Address, W. P. Shinn, AmtrUan Institute Mining 
 
 Statement of Annual Production of Ijeadlng Mining and Metiainrglcal Prodncts, 
 During the Ten Years 1871—80. 
 
 
 Anthracite coal. 
 Gross tons. 
 
 Pig Iron. Gross 
 Tons. 
 
 Bessemer 
 
 Steel Ingots. 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 Steel rails. 
 Net tons. 
 
 Sold. 
 
 SilTOr. 
 
 Petroleum 
 Barrels. 
 
 Lake Superior region. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Ore. 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1871 
 1872 
 1873 
 1874 
 1876 
 
 17,379,365 
 22,084,083 
 22,880,921 
 21,61)7,386 
 20,643,609 
 
 1.707,685 
 2,539,783 
 2,660,962 
 2,401,261 
 2,023,733 
 
 48,850 
 120,108 
 170,652 
 191 933 
 376,617 
 
 38,260 
 94,070 
 129,015 
 144,944 
 290,863 
 
 $35,898,000 
 39,459,459 
 40,456,593 
 40,103,045 
 41,745,147 
 
 $20,286,000 
 20,627,600 
 28,262,100 
 30,498,000 
 34,"4,%910 
 
 6,795,000 
 6,539,103 
 9,879,456 
 10,910,303 
 8,787,506 
 
 813,379 
 952,0.55 
 1,167,379 
 935,488 
 910,843 
 
 61.225 
 61,195 
 70,507 
 86,494 
 81,753 
 
 5 years. 
 
 104.655,254 
 
 11,233,424 
 
 907,060 
 
 697,142 
 
 $197,662,244 
 
 6133,607,510 
 
 41,011,367 
 
 4,779,141 
 
 361,174 
 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 
 19,000 000 
 21,323,000 
 18,600,000 
 27,711,260 
 24,848,477 
 
 1,868,961 
 2.066,694 
 2,301,215 
 2,741,853 
 3,836,191 
 
 526,996 
 660,587 
 732,226 
 928,972 
 1,203,173 
 
 412,461 
 432,169 
 660,398 
 683,964 
 967,592 
 
 $14,328,501 
 46,300,000 
 41,000,000 
 32,539,020 
 33,522,182 
 
 $41,506,672 
 40,075,000 
 40,000,000 
 38,023,812 
 40,006,304 
 
 8,968,906 
 13,136,611 
 16,163,462 
 19,741,661 
 26,032,421 
 
 977,233 
 
 960,982 
 
 1,123,093 
 
 1,414,182 
 
 1,U76,602 
 
 61,911 
 29,685 
 17,404 
 39,583 
 48,502 
 
 6 years. 
 
 111,482,727 
 
 12,813,814 
 
 8,950,954 
 
 3,046,684 
 
 $196,690,003 
 
 $206,210,848 
 
 83,042,121 
 
 6,451,092 
 
 . 197,085 
 
 —Clompiledfrom Annual Address, W. P. Shinu, American Institute Mining Eugmeers, 
 
WESTERN SCENERY-GREEN RIVER STATION-COLORADO RIVER. 
 
 -FROM J W. POWELL'S REPORT. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 97 
 
 THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF COAL. 
 
 THE rocks of the earth, known as the " Coal Measures," 
 consist of a series of beds of sandstones, shales, 
 limestones, fireclays, iron-ores, and coals, in mani- 
 fold alternations. The beds of coal are now univer- 
 sally held by men of science to have been formed from the 
 decomposition of vegetable matter — .the leaves and stems of 
 ancient plants and trees which grew, and died, and became 
 decomposed and mineralized on the spot where the coal is 
 now found ; and the associated beds of rocky strata to have 
 been derived from the sediments of the water which flowed 
 over the carbonaceous accumulations during the subsidence 
 of the land. Several other theories have been advanced, 
 accounting for the origin of coal — as that it is of animal 
 origin, or that it was formed from petroleum. Bischoff, 
 and other eminent geologists, held that the carbonaceous 
 matter was an accumulation of vegetable detritus, which 
 had been drifted by rivers into bays and estuaries, as the 
 va5t rafts of dead floating trees now accumulate in the Lower 
 Mississippi ; but careful examinations of the original coal 
 plants found in the floor of the coal, first brought to notice 
 by Sir William Logan, in 1840, during a survey of the 
 South Wales coal field, have confirmed the theory that the 
 vegetation grew on the spot where the coal is )iow buried. 
 During the coal formation period, in the history of the 
 earth, vast marshes of swampy plains skirted the ocean, or 
 perhaps formed low islands near the shore. Upon these 
 marshes there grew a profuse and luxuriant vegetation, con- 
 sisting of numerous beautiful and various plants, differing 
 in size from small mosses to stately trees, which, year after 
 year, dropped their leaves and fruit, and in time, died them- 
 selves. New forests arose and died in succession, growth 
 and decay going on through many slowly-moving centuries, 
 until a mingled mass of vegetable tissue was accumulated, 
 like the pulpy mass of a peat bog of the present day. At 
 length, through the agency of subterranean movements, the 
 area of the coal marsh became depressed with much unifor- 
 mity, the land slowly and gradually sank, and the waters of 
 the ocean flowed in over the carbonaceous accumulation, 
 bringing along mud and sand and other sedimentary 
 materials, which settled at the bottom. As the sinking pro- 
 cess continued, the ocean currents brought in more detritu?, 
 covering the older depositions, which, becoming compressed 
 by the accumulating weight, solidified, forming into sand- 
 stones, shales, etc., according to the nature of the materials. 
 The buried peat bog also became greatly compressed by the 
 accumulated weight of this detritus, the original plants and 
 peaty tissue matting together and becoming hard and com- 
 pact, while a portion of the gases escaped in the forms_ of 
 carbureted hydrogen and carbonic acid by slow distillation 
 and putrefactive fermentation. 
 
 The subsidence period was in time arrested, and was fol- 
 lowed by a long period of rest, when the waters of the ocean 
 becoming filled up, there was formed a new subaereal sur- 
 face. A growth of vegetation covered this new plain, as in 
 the former case. Generations of forests again succeeded 
 each other, and again the vast marsh accumulated matter 
 capable of forming a second seam of coal. Then followed 
 another downward movement of the land, and another 
 burial of the coal vegetation by the detritus of the water. 
 The set of processes thus described was repeated in the 
 formation of^every seam of coal and its associated beds of 
 strata; the periods of elevation were longer or shorter 
 according to the amount of vegetable matter which accumu- 
 lated on the marsh; and the periods of subsidence were 
 lono-er or shorter according to the amount of strata which 
 accumulated between the different beds of coal. Many 
 geological writers maintain that during the Carboniferous 
 era, the atmosphere of the earth was intensely hot, and was 
 also saturated with vapor, and charged with undue propor- 
 tions of carbonic acid gas which had been liberated trom 
 the interior of the earth through the agency ot volcanic 
 eruptions; these conditions being claimed as essential to 
 the production of the coal vegetation. But as coal is found 
 in newer formations than the Carboniferous era—the coal 
 of China belonging to the Triassic, and that of the Pacifec 
 Coast to the Cretaceous formations— and as coal is doubtless 
 forming now in many places of.the earth, it may .be fairly 
 7 
 
 assumed that the climate of the Carboniferous age was not 
 unlike the climate of the present age, although, perhaps, 
 more mild and equable ; only the plants and animals were 
 different. Instead of one peculiar coal-bearing age, all 
 ages perhaps, as well deserve to be called carboniferous. 
 Sir Charles Lyell, in his " Principles of Geology," writing 
 of the formations of the Delta of the Mississippi, mentions 
 instances of whole forests of strata sunk as they grew, and ^ 
 covered, to a depth of several hundred feet, with an accumu- ' 
 lation of mud and sand and vegetable soil in alternating 
 beds, in the same manner as the coal marshes were covered 
 up in the primeval ages. The sunken country of New 
 Madrid a water space of nearly 80 miles long and 30 miles 
 wide, caused by the earthquake of 1811-12, was filled, as 
 late as the year 1846, with dead trees, some standing erect 
 in the water, as they grew, others fallen down, and lying in 
 dense masses over the bottom, and along the shore. He 
 mentions another case of a tract of land, at the mouth of 
 the river Indus, larger than the Lake of Geneva, which was 
 converted into an inland sea in the year 1819, by an earth- 
 quake shock, while an adjoining tract, 50 miles in length, 
 and nearly 16 miles wide, was raised by the same shock, 
 ten feet above the level of the alluvial plain. The coal 
 strata are full of the remains of animal and vegetable life. 
 Nearly a thousand different coal plants have been described 
 by the geologists. Beneath every seam of coal there is 
 generally a stratum of fire-clay — the original land surface 
 upon which the coal plants grew, in which rootlets, stumps 
 of trees, stems and dark filaments are found. Sometimes 
 the remains of trees, embedded as they grew in the under- 
 clay, and standing up through the coal and the roof above, 
 and then abruptly stopping — the upper part having rotted 
 and fallen off— are met with. In the year 1844, at the Park- 
 field colliery, near Wolverhampton, in England, the work- 
 men mined into a quarter of an acre of coal, which was 
 filled with stumps of trees, standing as they grew; the 
 trunks, fiattened by the pressure of the superincumbent 
 strata, were converted into coal, but were identified. The 
 trees were found scattered in all directions, having evidently 
 been snapped off' by a storm or an inflow of the water, 
 during the sinking of the land, or by an earthquake shock. 
 The roof above the coal is often charged with the remains 
 of ferns, flattened trunks of trees, pieces of bark, branches 
 and leaves, crossing each other in promiscuous profusion. 
 
 Of the numerous forms of vegetable matter, from which 
 coal is derived, a great bulk of the coal appears to have been 
 formed from trees allied to the club mosses, ferns and rushes 
 of the present day — more particularly in the lower beds or 
 coal. The casts of the sigillarise, known by their fluted and 
 symmetrically scarred bark, often lie full length, as they fell 
 in the mud, immediately above the coal, and can be traced 
 for fifty and sixty feet along the working places of the miners. 
 The gigantic lepidodendrons, allied to our modern club mos- 
 ses, which in the coal era attained a height of forty feet, lie 
 stretched full length, alongside of the sigillarise. Calamites 
 (the representatives of our rushes) with jointed and striated 
 stems, meet the eye in nearly every mine, and often measure 
 thirty feet in length. The fossil remains of fishes, marine 
 shells and amphibian reptiles are also found interspersed in 
 the roof shales. One hundred and fifty species of fishes, 
 many of them of immense size as compared with the fishes 
 of the present day, have been discovered in the coal and its 
 •associated strata, and the teeth, scales and spines of fishes 
 are frequently found imbedded irt the same manner. The 
 tracks of the reptiles, formed as they walked along the soft 
 and muddy sediment of the ancient shore, ripple marks, and 
 the impression of rain drops, have also been seen in the roof 
 shales of some mines. 
 
 Some of the coal fields of the world contain strata of im- 
 mense thickness. At Lundly, in Wales, the coal measures 
 are known to be fully ten thousand feet thick, and to contain 
 forty-two different seams of coal, the total thickness of which 
 measures one hundred and fifty feet. The coal strata of 
 Nova Scotia, at the Joggins, are fifteen thousand feet thick, 
 and include seventy-six different seams of coal, one of which 
 measures thirty-seven feet in thickness, and another twenty- 
 two feet. The coal field of Saarbrucken, on the left bank of 
 the Rhine, in Prussia, has the enormous depth of twenty 
 thousand feet. It has been estimated by eminent geologists 
 that it would require a period of 150,000 years to accumulate 
 
98 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 matber to form sixty feet of thickness of coal, an amount far 
 exceeded in many coal fields of the world. In this cal- 
 culation, no account is taken of the different periods of sub- 
 sidence of the land, when the associated strata were deposited. 
 As the sinking process was slow and gradual, and as fifty 
 feet of strata intervene, on an average, between the different 
 seams of coal, it may be reasonably assumed that an equal 
 period of time was required in building up these strata as 
 occurred in the formation of the carbonaceous matter which 
 formed the coal. Beroldingen first suggested the theoiy 
 that the coal beds of the present age, were the peat bogs of 
 the primeval ages, converted from peat into brown coal, and 
 then into true coal ; and this view is now accepted by every 
 intelligent geologist. The progressive steps from peat to 
 anthracite, are thus described by Dr. Newberry, the emi- 
 nent geologist of Ohio : 
 
 " Coal is now considered, by all good chemists and geologists, as 
 of organic origin, and it may be easily demonstrated that it has been 
 derived from the decomposition of vegetable tissue. As we find it 
 in the earth, it forms one of a series of carbonaceous minerals which 
 represent the different stages in a progressive change from vegetable 
 tissue as found in the living plant. In peat and lignite, we witness 
 the first step in the formation of coal. Peat is bituminized vegetation, 
 generally mosses and other herbaceous plants, which, under favor- 
 able circumstances, accumulate in marshes, hence called peat bogs. 
 Lignite is the product of a similar change effected in woody tissue ; 
 and because it retains in a greater or less degree the form and struc- 
 ture of wood, it has received the name it bears. Peat is the product 
 of the present period, and lignites are found in deposits of recent 
 geological age. In the older formations, these carbonaceous ac- 
 cumulations, still further changed, are bituminous coal. 
 
 " The changes which vegetable tissue has suffered in passing 
 through these various stages, are not only physical but chemical. 
 They nave been carefully studied by several eminent chemists, and 
 have been so fully explained that they may be comprehended by 
 any intelligent person. The rationale of this process may be seen 
 at a glance, by reference to the following formula, taken from 
 Bischoff's Chemical Geology : 
 
 BITUJIIN's 
 
 WOOD. LOSS PEAT. LOSS. LIGNITE. LOBS. COAL. 
 
 Carbon . . . 40.1 21.50 27.6 18.6.5 30.45 12..35 18.10 
 
 Hydrogen 6.3 3 80 2 8 3.25 3.05 1.85 1.20 
 
 Oxygen . . . 44.6 29.10 16.5 24.40 20.20 18.13 2.07 
 
 " This is the condition in which we find most of the beds of peat 
 and lignite that accumulated in the Carboniferous age, millions of 
 years ago, and whichj deeply buried, have been subjected to slow 
 and general distillation, resulting in the different varieties of 
 bituminous coal. Where exposed to peculiar influences, as to heat 
 from volcanic eruptions, or from the elevation of mountain chains 
 where all the strata are metamorphosed, the volatile constituents of 
 bituminous coal are partially or perfectly driven off, giving us, first, 
 semi-bituminous coal, then anthracite, and finally graphite. The 
 process by which graphite and anthracite ai-e farmed from ordinary 
 bituminous coal, is indicated in the succeeding formula : 
 
 
 BITUMINOUS COAL. 
 
 LOSS. 
 
 ANTHRACITE. 
 
 LOSS. 
 
 GRAPHITE. 
 
 Carbon . , 
 Hydrogen 
 Oxygen . . 
 
 18.10 
 1.20 
 2.07 
 
 3.57 
 0.U3 
 1.32 
 
 14.55 
 0.27 
 0.65 
 
 1.42 
 014 
 0.65 
 
 I'i.ll 
 0.30 
 0.00 
 
 From the above tables it will be seen.that the change from 
 wood tissue to peat or lignite, and from these to bituminous, 
 thence to anthracite coal and plumbago, consists in the 
 evolution of a portion of the carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, 
 leaving a constantly increasing percentage of carbon behind, 
 until, ultimately, the resulting mineral consists of a portion 
 of the original carbon of the plant, with all its earthy matter. 
 That portion of the original substance which is lost in the 
 progressive change escapes in the form of some hydro-carbon, 
 as water, carbureted hydrogen, carbonic acid, petroleum, etc. 
 The escape of these volatile compounds we see in the gases 
 bubbling up in marshes where vegetable matter is under- 
 going decomposition, in the gases generated in our coal 
 mines, and in the oil springs, which always flow from strata 
 charged with bituminous matter. By the application of heat, 
 and with proper management, we can manufacture any of 
 these mineral fuels from vegetable fibre, at will. This has 
 been done repeatedly, and although we cannot accurately 
 reproduce the conditions under which these changes are ef- 
 fected in nature's laboratory, we can so closely imitate them 
 as to demonstrate their character. 
 
 It would require from eight to ten feet of thickness of the 
 loosely matted peaty tissue of the coal marshes to form one 
 foot of coal ; and as Some coal seams are thirty and forty 
 feet thick, in several of the coal fields of the world, an enor- 
 mous bulk of vegetable matter mmt have accumulated fnr 
 
 the production of these thick seams. The thickest peat 
 bogs of the present day seldom exceed thirty or forty leet. 
 The coal marshes of the primeval world, on being opened 
 up to serve the purposes of man, present several-distinct 
 varieties of coal. The coals of the Carboniferous age, called 
 true coals, in contradistinction to the lignites or brown coals 
 of more recent geological ages, are classed under the general 
 heads of bituminous and anthracite. The bituminous coals 
 are divided into different species, and show great diversity, 
 both in their physical and chemical properties, and they 
 are known by different names, according to their qualities 
 and chief propertie.3, such as "dry-burning coals," "caking 
 coals," "gas coals/' "cannel coals," etc. Bituminous coals 
 are of all shades of color, from deep black to greyish black, 
 and they exhibit in their structure some well marked pecu- 
 liarities. 
 
 The diy-burning variety usually possesses, a laminated 
 structure, the Iracture or cleavage of the coal being horizon- 
 tal, and the seam is often intersected with partings or cut- 
 ters, which cross each other every foot or two, like latitude 
 and longitude lines, giving the masses, as they come from 
 the miner's pick, the appearance of squares, or blocks, 
 hence they are called block coals. Such coals do not cake 
 nor swell when burning, and for this reason they are es- 
 pecially adapted for smelting iron in a raw state. In the 
 blast furnace they retain their shape until they fall to ashes. 
 They are generally very hard and compact, and bear trans- 
 portation better than any caking species of bituminous coals. 
 Caking coals melt and fuse together in the act of combus- 
 tion. This property forbids their use in the furnace, as they 
 form a hollow fire, and they require to be converted into 
 coke before being applied to the reduction of ores. The 
 slack or small coal is of nearly equal value, when in a pure 
 state, with the round coal, the abundance of bituminous 
 matter in the coal causing the whole to agglutinate in mass- 
 es when exposed to a moderate heat. Cannel coal is nearly 
 always formed in thin seams, and the deposits generally oc- 
 cupy but limited areas. It contains a large percentage of 
 hydrogen, and burns with a bright, clear flame, making a 
 very pleasant parlor fire. Cannel is the richest gas coal ob- 
 tainable, the gas possessing brighter illuminating powers 
 than that of the more common varieties. This coal has a 
 dull lustre and is in color between a velvet and greyish- 
 black ; it breaks with a flat, conchoidal fracture, and it is 
 very compact and fine in the grain. It will scarcely soil the 
 fingers in handling it, and it makes very little dust in the 
 mine. The remains of shells, fishes and amphibious 
 animals are very often found imbedded in the beds of can- 
 nel coal, whence it is thought that the carbonaceous matter 
 from which it derived was deposited in lagoons of open 
 water in the condition of muck or mud, similar to the muck 
 swamps of the present day. The specific gravity of bitu- 
 minous coals is from 1.25 to 1:4. They generally contain 
 from 55 to 80 per cent, of carbon, and from 8 to 22 per cent, 
 of oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, with variable propor- 
 tions of earthy matter. 
 
 Anthracite is a black, heavy coal, having a conchoidal 
 fracture, and containing from 80 to 95 per cent, of carbon 
 and a small per cent, of hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen! 
 Ihis coal kindles with difficulty, but when once fairly igni- 
 ted. It burns with an intense heat, emitting neither smoke 
 nor flame. It occupies much less extensive areas than the 
 bituminous species. 
 
 Anthracite coal was originally bituminous, the change 
 having been affected through the agency of heat, which 
 drove off the bituminous matter, as the gases are now 
 driven off from bituminous coal in the production of com- 
 mon street gas. The anthracite coal fields of Pennsylvania 
 form partof the great Allegheny coal field. During the 
 upheaval of the Allegheny Mountains, which occurred after 
 the c ose of the Carboniferous age, the heat which attended 
 the elevation of the mountains, acted on the coal and drove 
 out the gaseous matters. Anthracite exists in South Wales 
 and in France, Russia, and Saxony; and everywhere it is 
 found occupying abrupt flexures of the strata, the result of 
 gradual and irresistible forces. So abrupt are these flexures 
 in the anthracite region of Pennsylvania, that the coal strata 
 nn!utn» °°,'=".Py'"S '" "any places, nearly perpendicular 
 positions, and in some cases reverse dips. The snecific 
 gravity Of anthracite is from 1.3 to 1.75. Semi-bituminous 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 99 
 
 coal is, as its name implies, intermediate between bitum- 
 inous and anthracite . It contains little bituminous matter 
 and a- large percentage of carbon, and is highly prized for 
 the generation of steam and the manufacture of iron. This 
 coal burns freely, producing an intense heat when exposed 
 to the action of a strong blast. Like anthracite, semi- 
 bituminous coal has been subjected to the action of beat, 
 though in a leas degree, during the folding of the strata. 
 The coal is less debitumenized, because, during the meta- 
 morphic processs, the gaseous materials had not the same 
 opportunity to escape ; the strata, though folded, are nowhere 
 fractured. The lignites, or brown coals, belong to the geo- 
 logical formations of more recent age than the true coals of 
 the Carboniferous period. They exhibit in their structure, 
 plain and unmistakable traces of their vegetable origin. 
 These coals burn with a clear flame, but give off a highly 
 bituminous smell. They decompose very rapidly when 
 exposed to the action of the atmosphere, and for this reason 
 are unfitted for distant transportation. The coals of China 
 and of our Pacific Coast belong to this class ; and they exist 
 over large areas on the Continent of Europe. Some of the 
 better sorts approach the true coals in character. 
 
 The coal fields of the world generally exist in the shape 
 of elliptical basins. Some of the basins are nearly round; 
 but in most cases they possess much greater length than 
 breadth. The greatest thickness of strata, and, consequently, 
 the greatest number of beds of a field, exist at the center or 
 trough. From this point the strata are inclined, or pitch 
 upward in all directions, the upper coals cropping out ^rst 
 and the lower ones stretching across the whole surface of the 
 coal marsh. The original shape of many fields has been 
 greatly changed by faults in the form of "slip dykes" and 
 "dislocations" of the strata. These faults traverse the coal 
 field for miles, and are the result of violent mechanical convul- 
 sions, by which the strata in one part of the field are thrown 
 up on one side of the dislocation. The change of level 
 caused by such faults ranges from a few inches, to hundreds 
 of feet ; and it frequently happens in the operation of sink- 
 ing for coal, that the seam is reached by a shaft at the depth 
 of three hundred feet, while on the opposite side of the fault, 
 the same seam is found a thousand or twelve hundred feet 
 deep. These dislocations are very common in the British 
 coal fields. They sometimes divide the basin into sub- 
 ordinate basins, presenting great barriers to the successful 
 prosecution of underground operations. But they come as 
 friends as well as enemies, for they are true flood-gates, 
 damming back the waters of the mine. Their line of 
 direction of these slip-dikes is not always the same, and they 
 sometimes cross each other. The change of level caused by 
 a slip-dike in one of the Scottish coal fields, is stated by Mr. 
 Robert Bald, the eminent coal viewer of Scotland, to be 
 no less than 1,230 feet, and the coal field is divided by this 
 and another slip, on the north side of the basin, into three 
 subordinate basins. The great dislocation throws out the 
 whole of the coal strata for nearly a mile, when, by reason 
 of the natural inclination of the rocks, the missing materials 
 again appear as the outcrop of one of the subordinate fields. 
 Another dike in Lanarkshire, causes a change of level of the 
 coal rocks, of the enormous distance of 2,700 feet. 
 
 The change of level caused by slip-dikes is upward or 
 downward, according to the side from which they are ap- 
 proached by the miner ; and when forming an acute angle 
 with the floor of the mine, the coal strata are thrown down ; 
 when the angle is obtuse, they are thrown up. Sometimes, 
 however, the face of the dike is perfectly vertical, formmg a 
 right angle with the pavement ; in which case it is very dif- 
 ficult to undermine whether it is an upthrow or downthrow. 
 These dikes are not always upthrows or downthrows, for the 
 strata are sometimes only pierced by them without change 
 of level. In these examples they are known as trap-dikes, 
 the intrusive matter being the lava which flowed in during 
 the rents of the strata. In approaching such faults the coal 
 is frequently found burnt like coke. Besides dikes of the 
 character noticed above, there are a number of other faults 
 encountered in mining, which are known by various names, 
 such as "troubles," "horsebacks," "nips," "clay-veins, 
 "wants," etc. Troubles are generally meant to denote ir- 
 regularities in the coal, as where a seam has an irregular 
 floor, and is subject to sudden thinning, or where part of the 
 coal is so soft as to resemble the gob waste of the mine. 
 
 Horseback U an Americanism, and in this country, is now 
 very generally applied to every trouble of the mine, though 
 originally meant to designate a fault in the floor of the coal, 
 which resembles the shape of a horse's back. Sometimes 
 irregular layers of sandstone or shale appear in the body of 
 the coal ; and it also frequently happens that a foreign mass 
 of sandstone will be found usurping the place of the coal. 
 This latter fault is very common in some mines, and is, 
 doubtless, due to currents of water, in rapid motion, having 
 carried sand across the old coal bog, which, by constant 
 friction, has removed the coal, and finally settled down in 
 its place. In the coal fields of the United States, although 
 there are an abundance of faults of a local character, there 
 is seldom met any slip dike ; and such dislocations of the 
 strata, wherever encountered, seldom exceed a few feet of 
 upthrow or downthrow ; though in the coal strata of North 
 Carolina, which are subject to many troubles, some of the 
 dikes are known to. cause twenty or thirty feet of change of 
 level. The various beds of coal in the coal fields of the 
 world generally bear a parallel relation to each other. This 
 fact, though general, is by no means universal, for there are 
 some well known cases where the beds diverge or approxi- 
 mate each other, according to the line of direction in which 
 they are followed ; and sometimes, also, the seams split up 
 into two or more parts, by the introduction of shale bands, 
 which, though thin at first, continue to increase in thickness 
 until two or more independent seams are formed. The great 
 thick coal of Billston, Dudley and Wolverhampton, in Eng- 
 land, which forms a mass of solid coal, from twenty-four to 
 thirty-six feet in thickness, splits up in one part of the coal 
 field into nine different beds; and the mammoth vein of the 
 anthracite region, also splits up into several seams. Some 
 well marked cases of the splitting of the seams also occur 
 in the coal strata of Ohio. 
 
 " Coal," says Dr. Newberry, " is entitled to be considered 
 as the mainspring of our civilization. By the power de- 
 veloped in its combustion, all the wheels of industry are 
 kept in motion, commerce is carried with rapidity and cer- 
 tainty over all portions of the earth's surface, the useful 
 metals are brought from the deep caves in which they have 
 hidden themselves, and are purified and wrought to serve 
 the purposes of man. By coal, night is, in one sense, 
 converted into day, winter into summer, and the life of man, 
 measured by its fruita, greatly prolonged. Wealth with all 
 its comforts, the luxuries and triumphs it brings, is its gift. 
 Though black, sooty, and often repulsive in its aspects it is 
 the embodiment of a power more potent than that attributed 
 to the genii in oriental tales. Its possession is, therefore, 
 the highest material boon that can be craved by a com- 
 munity or nation. Coal is also not without its poetry. It 
 has been formed under the stimulus of the sunshine of long 
 past ages, and the light and power it holds are nothing else 
 than such sunshine stored in the black casket, to wait the 
 coming, and servo the purposes, of man. In the process of 
 formation, it composed the tissues of those strange trees 
 that lifted up their scaled trunks, and waved their feathery 
 foliage over the marshy shores of the carboniferous conti- 
 nent, where not only no man was, but gigantic salamanders 
 and mail-clad fishes were the monarchs of the animated 
 world.'' In the early ages of the world, the products of the 
 forest were sufficient to supply the wants of mankind, but as 
 the race increased in numbers, and its wants began to mul- 
 tiply, attention was turned to the mineral fuels of the earth. 
 The peculiar appearance of a coal bed, exposed in the flanks 
 of a hill, or laid bare by the action of water along the banks 
 of a stream, would doubtless attract the attention of the 
 earliest inhabitants of a country, and accident or experi- 
 ment would reveal its combustible properties. We have no 
 knowledge of the people who first discovered the existence 
 and uses of coal, but the history of coal mining can be 
 traced back to a period long before the commencement of 
 the Christran era. 
 
 The first time coal is expressly mentioned in the works of 
 ancient authors, occurs in the writings of Theophrastus, the 
 pupil of Aristotle, who lived nearly three hundred years be- 
 fore Christ. In his book on Stones, chapter XXVIII, this 
 author remarks : " Those substances that are called coals, 
 and are broken for use, are earthy ; they kindle, however, 
 and burn like wood coals. These are found in Lyguria, 
 where there ij amber, and in Elis, on the way to Olympus, 
 
100 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE- UNITED STATES. 
 
 over the mountains. They are used by smiths." Pliny also 
 speaks of a black substance, as available for medicinal and 
 ornamental purposes. Frequent allusions are made to coals 
 of fire in the Scriptures ; but they doubtless have reference 
 to charcoal. The Chinese are known to have used coal from 
 the very earliest times, and to have extracted the inflamma- 
 able gases from this mineral for illuminating purposes. The 
 coal fields of Great Britain appear to have been the first 
 opened in Europe. The primeval Britons, those savage and 
 roving clans, who inhabited the island at the time of its in- 
 vasion by Julius Csesar, a people possessed of perceptive 
 faculties of a high order, were doubtless acquainted with the 
 existence and properties of coal. They could only mine it 
 along its outcrop, where it exposed itself in full view to the 
 naked eye, and their tools would be of the very rudest kind, 
 composed partly of wood and stone, since they had no 
 knowledge of the use of iron. In a coal mine in Mon- 
 mouthshire, in Wales, there was found, some years ago, a 
 flint axe sticking in the coal ; and near Stanley, in Derby- 
 shire, the miners in holing through into some old workings, 
 found tools formed out of solid oak, without any iron what- 
 ever. The Romans, while in Britain, were well acquainted 
 with the existence of the coal mines, and carried on mining 
 operations to a considerable extent. Cinder beds yet exist 
 among the ruins of several Roman stations, in which Roman 
 coins, and Roman inscriptions have been found. The Ard- 
 ley main coal of Lancashire, which crops out along the 
 banks of the river Douglas; has been mined along that 
 stream, for over a hundred yards in one direction, in the 
 form of polygonal rooms, altogether different from any Brit- 
 ish manner of mining, the symmetry and regularity of plan 
 resembling the tesselated pavements of Roman villas. Coal 
 is mentioned for the first time in English history, in the 
 year 1180, when the Bishop of Durham granted some lands 
 to a collier, to mine coal for the use of a blacksmith, at 
 Counden, in the county of Durham. During the reign of 
 Henry III, that monarch, in the year 1239, granted a char- 
 ter to the people of New-Castle-on-Tyne, conferring upon 
 them the privilege of mining coal ; and in 1240 coal appears 
 to have been shipped to London. In 1280, the coal trade of 
 New Castle had consumed considerable importance. By the 
 beginning of the next century, the use of coal had become 
 so general in London that the citizens became alarmed for 
 their health, believing the coal smoke induced disease of the 
 lungs and chest, and they petitioned Parliament to prohibit 
 the burning of coal as an intolerable nuisance. Accord- 
 ingly, the Lords and Commons, in Parliament assembled, 
 complained to the King (Edward I) in behalf of the citizens 
 of London, and humbly petitioned him to prohibit the use 
 of coal, as a public nuisance ; and the King issued a procla- 
 mation forbidding the burning of coal in London, and its 
 suburbs, and commanded all persons to make their fires of 
 wood, except blacksmiths, " to avoid the sulphurous smoke 
 and savour of the firing." But the proclamation of the 
 King appears to have been generally disregarded, and on a 
 second complaint from Parliament, a royal commission was 
 appointed, with strict orders to punish all delinquents by 
 fines, and to destroy all furnaces and kilns which burned 
 coal. The self-interest of the manufacturing establishments, 
 and the necessities of the common people, however, appear 
 to have been more potent than both royal proclamations 
 and arbitrary commissions, for coal not only continued to 
 be used, but within twenty years afterward, it is said to have 
 found its way to the royal palace itself. 
 
 Coal was mined in Scotland during the 12th century. At 
 this time, we have reliable accounts of grants being made to 
 mine coal. In the year 1189, the Earl of Winchester made a 
 grant to the monks of the Abbey of Newbattleto work coal ; 
 and in the year 1294, a mining grant was executed in favor of 
 the Abbot of Dumferline, to open a coal " heugh." In 1322, 
 Robert Bruce, the Hero King of Scotland, granted to Henry 
 Cissor the lands of Kilbaberton for mining purposes. The 
 coal mines of the Lothians and Fife, appear to have been 
 the first opened. Both Agricola and Camden mention that 
 in their days there were abandoned pits in Scotland, filled 
 with water ; and .iEneas Silvius, afterward Pope Pius the II. 
 who traveled through Britain about the middle of the 15th 
 century, relates that in Scotland the beggars were in the habit 
 of .receiving as an alms, at the church doors, pieces of coal, 
 which they burn instead of wood, of which their country 
 
 was destitute. The coal mines of Wales would seem to have 
 been opened about the same time as those of Scotland and 
 England. We have authentic accounts that coal was mined 
 and used during the reign of Edward I. 
 
 The first systems of mining consisted in "stripping" the 
 coal, that is, in uncovering the bed and quarrying it out in 
 open day. After all the crop coal was mined which could 
 be reached in this primitive manner, drifting into the hill, 
 by following the lead or strike of the seam, was resorted to. 
 If the coal dipped, it could not be followed far, owing to the 
 accumulating waters ; but if the seam were level-free, and 
 the waters of the mine discharged themselves by gravitation, 
 the subterranean excavations were pushed boldly forward. 
 The first tools of the miners, the pick and shovel, were made 
 of wood, and then of stone. As civilization advanced, and 
 the arts and sciences began to be understood, improvements 
 were made in mining implements, and the working tools of 
 the coal hewer were made of iron, and pointed with steel. 
 The common pick for undermining and shearing the sides 
 of the coal seams has been in use in British mining since 
 the days of William the Conqueror, retaining nearly its 
 original shape and structure. 
 
 The coal, placed in sacks, was carried from the working 
 faces to the mouth of the drift on the backs of the miners. 
 Then wheelbarrows were invented, upon which the coal was 
 wheeled out to-day, and the terms barrow-man and barrow- 
 way are still in use in many British mining districts. In 
 ancient workings, where the coal dipped under water, day- 
 levels were frequently cut through the solid rocks, to dis- 
 charge the water. Some of these levels were not more than 
 eighteen inches wide, and they were cut with remarkable . 
 smoothness and accuracy. In time, shallow pits were sunk, 
 generally beside some running stream, the water of which 
 was utilized for hoisting the coal through the shaft, and 
 then escaping from the mines by means of a day-level. 
 
 Although coal is now regarded, not alone as the 
 source and mainstay of the national prosperity of Eng- 
 land, but even of modern civilization itself, it was 
 necessity rather than choice, which led to its applica- 
 tion, not only as a household fuel, but to even industrial 
 purposes. We have seen that during the reign of Edward 
 the First, it was banished firom the city of London 
 as an intolerable nuisance. Even as late as the year 1661, 
 more than three and a half centuries afterwards, a memorial 
 was sent to the Crown by Sir Kenelm Digby, remonstrating 
 against the use of coal, of which the following is an ex- 
 tract: "This coal flies abroad, fouling the clothes that are 
 exposed a-drying on the hedges, and in the spring time 
 besoils all the leaves so that there is nothing free from its 
 contamination ; and it is for this that the bleachers aloout 
 Haarlem prohibit by an express law (as I am told) the use 
 of coals for seven miles about town. Being thus incorpor- 
 ated with the very air which ministers to the necessary res- 
 piration of our lungs, the inhabitants of London, and such 
 as frequent it, find it in all their expectorations : the spittle 
 and other excrements which proceed from them beinff, for 
 the most part of a blackish and fuliginous color ; besides 
 the acrimonious soot produces another sad eficct by render- 
 ing the people obnoxious to inflammations, and comes in time 
 to exculcerate the lungs, when a mischief is produced, so 
 incurable that it carries away multitudes by languishing 
 and deep consumptions, as the bills of mortality do quickly 
 inform." British writers of this period lamented to see 
 manufactures arise which made use of coal as a necessity 
 in their establishments. In Stowe's annals, by Homes, pub- 
 lished in 1632, we are told the nice dames of London would 
 not come into any house or room where coal was burned, 
 nor willingly cat of food which was cooked by a coal fire. 
 
 Until the beginning of the 17th century, coal was mainly 
 used for household purposes, and in blacksmith forges, and 
 by brewers, dyers, and other artificers who required a 
 Htrong fire. It was not till the discovery of steam, and its 
 practical application to industrial purposes, that the coal 
 trade began to assume real importance. This mighty 
 power, dependent upon coal, like Samson upon his hair, for 
 strength, at once opened up a multitude of uses for coal. 
 Then came the manufacture of gas from coal, and the dis- 
 covery of the hot blast in the smelting of iron ; and finally, 
 the steamboat and railroad locomotive, which made the use 
 of coal an indispensable article of modern civilization, and 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 101 
 
 almost as important an element as water. Before the appli- 
 cation of steam by Newcomen, for raising the waters of the 
 mine, the subterranean excavations were limited to drift 
 mining, or to comparatively shallow and dry shaft work- 
 ings. The machinery in use for hoisting water from pits, 
 previous to the middle of the 18th century, consisted of 
 chain pumps, barrels, and sometimes ox-skins, operated by 
 h'irse power. The horse and gin, which is often now em- 
 ployed for raising material in the first stages of sinking 
 shafts, was used for hoisting coal. The Germans were the 
 first to employ rails and cars for moving the coal from the 
 working faces to the bottom of the mine. Agricola, writing 
 in 1550, mentions the form of the wagon then in use. It 
 was rectangular in shape, bound with iron, and was mounted 
 on four small wheels. The manner of working tht^ coal in 
 those early days, was simple and rude. All the coal was 
 removed as the workings progressed forward, except pillars 
 of just sufficient size and strength for the immediate support 
 of the superincumbent rocks. As a result, most of the 
 mines were lost by the creep of the fioor, or by the pillars 
 crushing, before the excavations were pushed to the limits 
 of the field sought to be won. John Carr, of Sheffield, 
 England, introduced wooden rails in British mines in the 
 year 1775. Gunpowder was long discovered and employed 
 for warlike purposes, before the miner thought of its assis- 
 tance in breaking out the rock or coal. 
 
 Before the introduction of railways and car,, in British 
 mines, the coal was generally carried froin the working faces 
 ti the bottom, and in the large coal mines to the top, of the 
 pit on the backs of bearers. These bearers were often women 
 and half grown girls, and in England were clothed in the 
 same garb as the men. In the Scottish coal mines, the coal 
 was carried in wicker cribs, fitted on the backs of the bear- 
 ers. The cribs were held in place by leather straps passing 
 around the forehead. In some mines, as many as two hun- 
 dred female bearers were working at once, and the coal was 
 carried to the top of the shaft by long winding stairways. 
 An ordinary load of one of these female bearers consisted 
 of one hundred and seventy pounds. Robert Bald, the em- 
 inent coal viewer of Scotland, has estimated the day's work 
 of the female bearers of that country, as equal to carrying a 
 hundred weight from the level of the sea to the top of Ben 
 Lomond. The powers of endurance of some of these bear- 
 ers, and the loads they carried, would scarcely find credence 
 in these modern days. A Scottish song, written by a miner 
 on a bearer, his cotemporary in the mines, thus alludes to 
 her prowess : 
 
 " She could carry on her back what wad harry a naggy, — 
 For trained to the coal heugh was Meg Kilbeggie." 
 
 This slavish practice was not confined to Great Britain, 
 but prevailed in equal extent in the coal mines of Continen- 
 tal Europe, and to this day women work in the mines of 
 Belgium. In the mines of St. Etienne, in France, the fe- 
 male bearers were compelled to carry a certain number of 
 loads of coal up the winding stairway of the shaft as a day's 
 work. Barefooted, and supported by a staff; these poor crea- 
 tures toiled harder than galley slaves. The shameful prac- 
 tice of employing delicate females in the coal mines of Great 
 Britain, continued until the year 1842, when_ an act of the 
 Legislature, based upon the report of a commission appoint- 
 ed by Parliament to inquire into the nature and results of 
 female labor in the coal pits, was passed, which abolished a 
 system replete with poverty, and shame and demoralization, 
 at the very thought of which the sensitive mind revolts with 
 horror. The same law also prohibited the employment of 
 boys under ten years of age from working in the mines. 
 Of the coal fields of Continental Europe, the mines of 
 Zwickau, in Saxony, were working in the 14th century, and 
 it is claimed that mining operations can be traced back as 
 far as the 10th century. In the year 1348, the metal work- 
 ers of Zwickau were forbidden to use coal in their works, 
 owing to the supposed deleterious character of the smoke. 
 
 The working of coal in Belgium, is traced back to the 12th 
 century, at which time we have authentic accounts of min- 
 ing operations, at Plenevaux, near Liege ; and not long 
 afterward we learn of the mines of Charleroi being worked. 
 Coal was used in the manufacture of arms in this country 
 from very .early times — some historians asserting, even be- 
 
 fore the invasion of the Romans under Csesar. The Belgian 
 miners have a tradition that the existence and use of coal 
 were revealed to an old blacksmith, a poor but worthy 
 man, named Houillos, by an angel from Heaven. The 
 blacksmith, who lived in the village of Plenevaux, was one 
 day sitting in his shop brooding over his hard lot (for he 
 was so poor that his family was nearly reduced to starva- 
 tion), when an aged man (the angel in disguise), with a grey 
 beard, came into the shop and entered into conversation 
 with Houillos. The blacksmith told of his poverty and of 
 the necessities of his family, remarking that if charcoal was 
 not so dear he could do well enough. The good old man 
 was moved to pity. "My friend," said he, "go over to 
 that mountain and you will find veins of black earth which 
 will, make a stronger heat in the forge than charcoal." 
 Houillos repaired to the spot, and digging into the hill side, 
 found the black stones, some of which he carried back to 
 his forge; and so great a heat was produced, that he actually 
 forged a horse shoe at a single heat. Overjoyed with the 
 discovery, Houillos communicated the tidings to all his 
 neighbors and all his fellow-craftsmen. A grateflil posterity 
 has conferred his name upon the mineral — houllis being the 
 French for coal. The miners of Belgium delight to tell the 
 story of Houillos, the ancient miner of Plenevaux. We 
 have no authentic account of mining in France till the 14th 
 century. The history of the introduction of coal in Paris 
 was similar to its introduction in London. It was condemn- 
 ed, and its use forbidden in the city, because of the noxious 
 sulphurous vapors which it was supposed to give off' in the 
 act of combustion, and the iron merchants were prohibited 
 from using it in their shops, on pain of fine and imprison- 
 ment. As late as the year 1769, when the first shipments of 
 coat were made from New Castle to Paris, it was accused of 
 polluting the air, of causing disease of the chest and lungs, 
 and of even impairing the beauty and delicacy of the female 
 complexion. The matter was appealed to the Academy of 
 Science and Medicine, which decided in favor of the coal ; 
 but popular clamor would not be appeased, and for several 
 years the hated English mineral was the subject of much 
 bitter invective. 
 
 The first discovery of coal in America was made by a 
 Catholic priest, Father Hennepin, in the year 1669, in 
 what is now the State of Illinois. His Journal, published 
 in 1698, contained a map illustrating his travels, and he 
 points out a coal mine on the Illinois river, where a bed of 
 coal was exposed to view along the banks of that stream. 
 The Richmond coal field, of Virginia, was first developed 
 in this country, coal having been mined as early as 1750. 
 In 1775, and during the progress of the war of indepen- 
 dence, the coal from -the mines near Richmond was employed 
 in the manufacture of shot and shell for the patriot army. 
 In 1789, coal was shipped from Richmond to Philadelphia, 
 New York and Boston. The city of Pittsburg was laid 
 out in 1664, and twenty years afterward privilege was grant- 
 ed by Wm. Penn, to mine coal in the hills fronting the 
 river. Bituminous coal was" first mined in the United 
 States, in any systematic manner, in the Pittsburg coal 
 region ; for although the coal of the Richmond coal field 
 was used, and even shipped to the markets ■ of the east, be- 
 fore any attention was paid to the Pittsburg coal, the early 
 efforts of mining in the Richmond-basin consisted not in 
 underground mining, but in quarrying the coal. The ex- 
 istence of the anthracite deposits of Pennsylvania was 
 known as early as 1766, in which year a specimen of the 
 coal of the Wyoming region was shipped to England. In 
 1768, this coal was first used by two blacksmiths by the 
 name of Gore, who were originally from New England, but 
 had settled in the Wyoming valley. They found the coal 
 exposed in open day, on ths flanks of the mountains, and 
 applied it in their forges in the place of charcoal, with flat- 
 tering success. The coal of the Lehigh region was discover- 
 ed by a hunter named Philip Ginter, in the year 1791, while 
 returning home from a hunting expedition. He had heard 
 of the coal of the Wyoming valley, and was always looking 
 well about in the hope of discovering coal. He took some 
 of it home and showed it to his neighbors, and pieces of it 
 were sent to Philadelphia for the opinion of more compe- 
 tent judges. 
 
 For many years anthracite coal was used for no other pur- 
 pose than the blacksinith's forge. Being very difficult of 
 
102 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ignition it was believed it could only be employed to advan- 
 tage while under the action of a strong blast. In 1808, 
 Judge Jesse Fell, of Wilkesbarre, conceived the idea of 
 burning anthracite in a common parlor grate. Before going 
 to the expense of building an iron grate, he resolved to 
 make the experiment in one constructed of wood. The 
 effort was crowned with complete success ; and the Judge, 
 himself a blacksmith, at once commenced the work of 
 fashioning an iron grate. Henceforth, he enjoyed his even- 
 ings before a glowing fire of anthracite coal. The success 
 attending the Judge's experiment was a matter of wonder 
 to all his neighbors, who, for many days and weeks, thronged 
 from far and near to witness the burning of a stone coal 
 parlor fire. Before this time, a number of efforts had been 
 made in Philadelphia to use the stone coal of the mountains, 
 but without success. In 1803, the Lehigh Coal-Mine Com- 
 pany, among whose members was the celebrated Robert 
 Morris, shipped six barges of coal from the Lehigh region 
 to Philadelphia, four of which were lost by the way, and the 
 remaining two, after much difficulty, were disposed of to the 
 authorities to be used as fuel for one of the city engines. 
 But the coal could not be made to burn ; it was pronounced 
 " black rocks " instead of coal, and was broken up into 
 gravel and thrown upon the side walks. Five years elapsed 
 before another effort was made to introduce the Lehigh coal 
 in the eastern cities, and again it was a failure. In the year 
 1814, five barges were loaded at -the mines, two of which 
 reached Philadelphia in safety, and the coal found ready 
 sale at $21 a ton, for by this time the secret of burning 
 anthracite coal had been discovered, and the foundation of 
 the anthracite coal trade had been laid. 
 
 — Compiled from ^^Tlie Coal-Minea by Andrew Boy.*' 
 
 THE EARLIEST ATTEMPT TO SECURE 
 A DISCOVERER'S RIGHTS. 
 
 AS being of great historical interest to the mining 
 men of America, we reprint here, in its entirety, 
 a little volume that Mr. Israel W. Morris, of 
 Philadelphia, was fortunate enough to chance upon while 
 exploring an old book stall. It presents the earliest attempt 
 to secure to the discoverer in America his rights to a mining 
 claim of which we have any knowledge. Its quaint pages 
 of one hundred and eighty-three years ago contain also a 
 remarkable prediction about the abounding mineral wealth 
 of this continent, and of which the earnest author could hardly 
 have known much even in his most mad dreams. The fol- 
 lowing is the book : 
 
 THE GOLDEN TREASURY: 
 
 OR, THE 
 
 COMPLEAT MINOR. 
 
 BEING 
 
 Royal Institutions, oe Proposals 
 
 FOK 
 
 ARTICLES 
 
 To Establish and Confirm 
 
 Laws, Liberties & Customs 
 
 of 
 
 SILVER & GOLD MINES, 
 
 to all 
 
 The KING'S Subjects, in such Parts of AFRICA and 
 AMERICA, which are Now (or Shall be Annexed to, and 
 Dependant on the CROWN of England. 
 
 With Rules, Laws and Methods of Mining, and Getting of 
 Precious Stones ; The Working and Making of Salt-Peter ; 
 And also, The Digging and Getting of Lead, Tin, Copper, 
 and Quick-Silver- Oars, in Any or Either of those Coun- 
 tries ; Whereby Navigation, and Trade, with the Subject's 
 Interest and Riches, together with the CROWN'S Reve- 
 nues, would be greatly Encreased in a little Time. 
 
 Most Humbly Offered to the Consideration of the King's most 
 Excellent Majesty, & this Present Parliament. 
 
 LONDON, Printed for the Author, and sold by J. Marshal 
 at the Bible in Grace-church-street, 1699. 
 
 TO THE 
 
 KING'S 
 
 MOST 
 
 Excellent Majesty; 
 
 Together, with the Present 
 
 PARLIAMENT 
 
 Assembled this Thirteenth Day 
 
 of February, 1699. 
 
 Great C^SAR, and SENATORS, 
 
 In all Humility, most Humbly I inform You 
 
 There is nothing more Certain and Irue, Than that there 
 are many extraordinary Rich Veyns, Mines, and Mineral 
 Countries, in some Parts of America, which are now An- 
 nexed to, and Dependant on the Crown of England ; (the 
 Experience and Truth of which, nothing but want of Skill in 
 Mineral Affairs, and Incredulity can or will deny); which 
 Veyns and Mines, if they was Sought for, and Set to Work, 
 by any that understands them, would undoubtedly, in a little 
 Time, prove as Rich as any the Spaniards have in Peru, or on 
 the North Side of the ^Equinox, in New-Spain ; and, in a few 
 Years, would produce and raise great Quantities of Silver, 
 Gold, Copper, and other Valuable Things, to the Great Con- 
 tent and Satisfaction of the English ; provided there was any 
 Regular Laws, Rules, and Methods Settled, for Working 
 and Carrying on the said Mines ; by which LAWS, the Enter- 
 prisers, or Undertakers thereof, might Enjoy and Secure their 
 Rights, Interests, and Properties therein, to Them, their ^Heirs, 
 and Assigns, after they have been at the Cost and Charges of 
 Finding and Discovering the said Mines. But as the Royal- 
 ties thereof stand, at present, (in their respective and separate 
 Grants from the Crown) to a few Proprietors, who form- 
 erly hath not, at present doth no t, nor hereafter, in all Proba- 
 bility, will not use any effectual Ways and Means to Work 
 and Discover the same; whereby this excellent Undertaking 
 hath hitherto been Neglected and Slighted, and is yet rendered 
 Impracticable to all Englishmen ; and so will remain to Pos- 
 terity ; by ichich many Rich Veyns and Mines have been, are, 
 <i will be of no Benefit; but continue Void, and utterly Lost, 
 unless some further Care be taken, than yet hath been, for 
 Settling and Methodizing the same : The evil Oircum.'itances 
 ofiohich, hath been, is, and will be, if not remedied, an un- 
 valuable Loss to the English Nation, in Neglecting to give all 
 due Encouragement to improve this Honourable Enterprise ; 
 which would greatly increase the Revenues of the Crown, and 
 advance the English Nation's Interest, to an unspeakable De- 
 gree, in a little time. Therefore thai the King's most excel- 
 lent Majesty, in his Princely Wisdom, together with this 
 Present Parliament, would be Graciously Pleased to take it 
 into Consideration, and amend this Mischief, by making the 
 following Articles, (or sum such other, as the Government 
 shall approve off ) for Standing LAWS, and CUSTOMS, to be 
 Observed and Practised by all the KING'S Subjects in Amer- 
 ica ; whereby the Enterprize icmdd become National to the 
 English Posterity, and every Free-Born Subject have Liberty 
 to Seek, Find, and Enjoy the Fruit of his Labours ; Paying 
 to the Crown, the Duties and Reservations he^-e-dfter men- 
 tioned, is the sole Desire and earnest Request of, 
 
 Your most Humble, 
 
 Most Dutiful, and most 
 Obedient Petitioner, 
 
 Thorn. Houghton. 
 
 ROYAL INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 Article I. 
 
 That it is the Right and Prerogative of the CROWN to 
 Elect and Choose an Officer, and Officers for the Mana'o-e- 
 inent of the Royal Treasures, when and where Occasfon 
 doth or shall require, to take the Care and Charge of the 
 KING'S Part, in all Royal Mines; and also in all Mines of 
 Base Metal, where the Royalties yet remain annexed to the 
 Crown ; Which Officer, and Officers, shall be Su-om to do 
 Right and Justice, as much as in Him or Them" lieth (ac- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 103 
 
 cording to the best of his or their Skill and Knowledge) 
 between his Soveraign Majesty the KING, and the Miner, 
 Maintainer, or Venturer; and also, between Ifijiej' and Jlfiracr, 
 and Miner and Maintainer of such Mines ; and shall either 
 Himself, or by his or their Lawful Deputy or Deputies, 
 duly Execute, and faithfully put in Practice, amongst the 
 Miner's and Adventurers, and all other of the KING'S Sub- 
 jects, these ARTICLES, as Rules, Laws, and Customs, fit to 
 be kept and observed, in all parts of Africa, America, or the 
 West-India Islands, where any Silver or Gold Mines, or any 
 other Mines of Tin, Lead, Copper, Quick Silver, Precious 
 Stones, and Salt-Petre, shall be Found, Dug, Made, and Dis- 
 covered hereafter ; which Officer shall be called the Bar- 
 Master ; and shall remain Overseer and Supervisor of the 
 Royal Mines, and other Mines of Base Metal, for the KING'S 
 Part, during his Majesty's Pleasure. 
 
 Article II. 
 
 That all or any of the KING'S Subjects, of what Degree, 
 Quality, or Estate soever they be, shall have full Power, & 
 free Liberty to Dig, Delve, Work, Mine, and Break up 
 Ground in any of the Countries afore-said, to seek for Silver, 
 Gold, Lead, Tin, Copper, Quick Silver, Precious Stones, and 
 Salt-Petre, in any Part or Place whatsoever. Houses, Or- 
 chards, Gardens, and Enclosures of Sugarworks excepted, 
 upon the Terms and Conditions following: That is to say, 
 He or they who findeth them, or any of them, shall pay to 
 the king's Officer, for the Use of the King, in Oars ready 
 drest, and cleansed from the Earth, Stone, and Rubbish, 
 made fit for Smelting, Melting, and Refining ; of all Gold 
 and Silver Oars, one Sixth Part; And of all Lead, Tin, 
 Copper, Quick-Silver- Oars, and Precious Stones, one Twelfth 
 Part ; And of all Salt-Petre, every Twelfth Tunn : For Pay- 
 ment of which Sixth and Twelfth Parts, as afore-said, every 
 Miner, Maintainer, or any of the KING's Subjects, shall 
 have free Liberty to Dig, Work, & Break up Grounds in any 
 of the Countries afore-said ; except in such Places, as is 
 before excepted. 
 
 Article III. 
 
 That all Rakes or Veyns of Silver or Gold, Lead, Tin, 
 Copper, and Quick-Silver, and all Pipes and Flat- Works of 
 Precious Stones or Salt-Petre, shall, in three Days Time next 
 after they, or any of them are found, be possest with one pair 
 of Stowes or more, by the Owners or first Finders thereof; and 
 Notice shall be given, or sent to the KING's Officer, by 
 word of Mouth, or Writing, concerning the same, within 
 three Months Time next after such Veyn or Veyns, Rake or 
 Rakes, Pipe or Pipes, Flat- Work or Flat- Works are Found 
 and Discovered ; and, for want of such Officer, to the Minis- 
 ter of the Parish, or the next Magistrate, or Justice of the 
 Peace, or Governour of the Place, where such Mines are 
 Found, who shall immediately go or send his Deputy to the 
 said Mine, Rake, Veyn, Pipe, or Flat- Work, and shall there 
 measure out as many Meers* of Ground, as the Owner or 
 Owners thereof have Stowes set in quiet Possession ; which 
 Meers of Ground he shall deliver to the first Finder, or 
 Owners thereof, and shall Register that Veyn, Rake, Pipe or 
 Flat- Work, by such Name, as the Owners think fit to give 
 it ; the Miner, Owner, or Finder thereof Paying to the Bar- 
 Master, or his Deputy, Ten Shillings for every Meer of 
 Ground he or they shall so Measure out and Register ; each 
 Meer of Ground containing Twenty Nine Yards of Ground 
 in Length : Upon every of which Meer of Ground, a pair 
 of Stowes shall stand to keep Possession, as aforesaid, within 
 which Length of Ground, no Person or Persons shall pre- 
 sume to Work, Dig, or Break up Ground, in Order to get 
 Oar therein, without the Leave and Consent of the Owner, 
 or first Finder thereof, whether Gold, or any other Metal 
 whatsoever. 
 
 *A little more than one-sixth of an acre. 
 
 Article IV. 
 
 That it is, and shall be. Lawful for any Person to Cross, 
 Stow, and take Possession of either of the Extreams or Ends 
 of all Rakes, Veyns Pipes and Flat-Works so found, where 
 the Right and Possession of the next Owner expires, either 
 at the Measuring out of the first Meers of Ground, or before; 
 and he who shall first break Ground by the Making of a 
 Cross or Crosses, and shall Own and Prove himself to be the 
 first Taker at the Finder, or to him or them that Holdeth 
 and Enjoyeth the next Possession, and shall set on one pair 
 of Stowes or more, within Three Days Time next after the 
 Making of such Cross or Crosses, or breaking of Ground, 
 shall be Judged and Concluded to have the Right, Interest, 
 and Possession of the next Ten Meers of Ground in the 
 same Rake, Veyn, Pipe, or Flat-work, there-unto adjoyning, 
 at whither End or Side soever it is, or shall be ; provided 
 he or they shall and do set on the other Nine pair of Stowes, 
 within Three Days Time next after the Making of such 
 Cross or Crosses ; and shall Pay the Bar-Master, or his 
 Deputy, Ten Shillings for Registering and Measuring out 
 each Meer of Ground ; at which Time, Stakes shall be driven 
 down, or Marks made to determine and show the End of 
 the same. But if he or they, who have made such Cross or 
 Crosses, and Broken Ground, Neglect or Reftise to set on 
 One Pair of Stowes or more, where such Cross or Crosses 
 was made, within Three Days Time next after the Making 
 thereof; that then it shall be free & lawful for any other 
 Person to Cross, Take, and Set on Stowes, and Possess those 
 Ten Meers of Ground, and shall Hold and Enjoy the same 
 to himself, or his Assigns, giving the Bar-Master, or his 
 Deputy, Notice thereof, and Paying for Registering and 
 Measuring these Meers of Ground, as afore-said. And thus 
 every one shall be served, sooner or later, in the same Rake, 
 Veyn, Pipe or Flat- Work, whether it be Silver, Gold, Lead, 
 Tin, Copper, Quick-Silver, Precious Stones, or Salt-Petre, 
 according to his or their Antiquity of Crossing, or Breaking 
 of Ground, and Setting on of Stowes, as is afore-said. 
 
 Article V. 
 
 That after the Ground is Possest with Stowes, Measured, 
 Marked out, and Registered, if any Man's Stowes be Stol'n 
 off', and taken away by any Malicious Person, or by any 
 Indirect Way or Means shall be Carried or Taken from 
 the Places where they or any of them Stood, That it shall not 
 be Lawful for any Person or Persons to Set his or their 
 Stowes, or Possess the same Ground, or to Work therein, or 
 in any Part of it, for three Months Time next after ; and 
 at the End of the three Months, he or they who desires to 
 be Owners and Possessors of the same, shall go or send to 
 the Bar-Master, or his Deputy, or to the Minister of the 
 Parish, or to some other Person, as afore-said, and acquaint 
 him or them therewith ; where-upon the Officer or Person, 
 so acquainted, shall Write or send to the late Owner or 
 doners thereof, to whom the Right of those Meers of 
 Ground did belong, or to some of his or their Agents ; and 
 shall give them Notice, That unless he or they set on New 
 Stowes upon those Meers of Ground, and Dig or Work in 
 some Part of it, within three Months Time next after such 
 Notice given. That his or their Right in and to those Ten 
 Meers of Ground will be given away : But if the Bar-Mas- 
 ter, or other Officer, knows not how or where to Write or 
 Send to such Owner or Oioners, nor any of their Agents, to 
 give him or them Notice thereof. Then the Bar-Master, or 
 his Deputy, shall go to that Ground, and shall take Three 
 or Four Persons along with him, and shall there make open 
 Proclamation, upon the Mine, some Time of the Day, be- 
 tween the Hours of Eight of the Clock in the Morning, and 
 Two in the Afternoon, in the hearing of such Persons as go 
 along with him. That unless the late Owner, or Owners 
 thereof, shall set on new Stowes, and make Workman-ship 
 in some Part of those Meers of Ground, within Three Months 
 Time next after such Proclamation, so that the Mine may 
 be set forwards, and wrought for the Publick Good of the 
 KING, and his Subjects : That for such Neglect, those Ten 
 Meers of Ground in that Rake, Veyn, Pipe, or Flat- Work, 
 will be given away to others, and his or their Names, that 
 was late in Possession, will be raced out of the Register, and 
 
104 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED' STATES. 
 
 new Owners put into Possession, and their Names Registered : 
 And this Proclamation shall determine the Right and In- 
 terest thereof. And furthermore. Every Person and Persons 
 whatsoever, having Possest and Stowed up the Ground as 
 afore-said, whether it be Rake, Veyn, Pipe, or Flat- Work, 
 shall do and perform some actual Work, by Digging and 
 Mining, in some Part of that Ground, in Twelve Months 
 Time next after it is so Stowed and Possest, as afore-said ; 
 or else it is, and shall be. Lawful to and for the Bar-Master, 
 or the KING'S Officer, to throw oflT those Stowes, so set on, 
 and to set on the Stows of any other Person that shall de- 
 sire that ground ; to the End, That the Mines may not lye 
 Waste and Neglected; but that the KING, and the Publick, 
 may receive the Benefit thereof. 
 
 Article VI. 
 
 That no Person' or Persons, Society or Societies of Men' 
 shall take up or Possess above Forty Meers of Ground to- 
 gether, in any Rake, Veyn, or Pipe- Work, without leaving 
 an Interval, or Space of Ten Meers of Ground at least, for 
 other Adventurers ; for the Reason of Giving all the KING'S 
 Subjects Encouragement to Venture, and to set the Field or 
 Mine more fully at work, for the Publick Good. But in all 
 Flat- Works of Gold, or any of the before-mentioned Metals, 
 Minerals, Stones, or Salts, every Man shall have as many 
 Meers of Ground, as he or they have sett-on Stowes, being 
 Twenty Nine Yards Square, upon the Superficies of the 
 Ground, for every Pair of Stowes; and for every Man 
 successively, sooner or later, according to his or their Tak- 
 ing, Stowing, and Working the same, as afore-said. 
 
 Article VII. 
 
 That all Miners and Adventurers, shall have the Timber 
 of the Countrey, (where the Grounds are not enclosed) for 
 the use of their Mines, to Work and Uphold the Same, and 
 to Smelt and Refine their Oars with, or to do and perform 
 any other Service or Business, their Occasions shall require, 
 in and about the Mines ; And Liberty to Dress, Wash, and 
 Cleanse their Oars from the Earth, and Rubbish, whether 
 they be Silver, Gold, Copper, or any other Metal, Stones, or 
 Salt, as before-mentioned, in the most fit and convenient 
 Places they can find ; and shall Build, and set up Smelting 
 Mills, or Melting and Refining Houses for the same ; and 
 shall have Ways, with free Egress and Regress, to Pass and 
 Repass, to and from the Mines, with any Carriages ; and the 
 Benefit of the Water, where-ever they shall find it. And 
 when the Oars shall be Cleansed from the Earth, and Rub- 
 bish, and made fit for Melting and Refining, before any of 
 the Oar is Removed, Conveyed, and Carried away from the 
 Ground, where it is got, to Smelt, or Refine, or any other 
 Ways, to be disposed off" by the Owners, Diggers, or Getters 
 of the same; The KING's Officer, or his Deputy, or some 
 such Person, as is before-mentioned, shall be sent for, to 
 Measure or Weigh the same. And when the Bar-Master, or 
 his Deputy, hath taken the Sixth Part of all Gold, and Silver 
 Oars, and the Twelfth Part of all Copper, Lead, Tin, and 
 Quick-Silver Oars, and the like for Precious Stones, and Salt- 
 Petre, as afore-said, for the Use of the KING ; Then the 
 Miner, or Maintainer, shall have Liberty to Sell and Dispose 
 of the Rest, to his or their best Advantage ; or to Smelt and 
 Refine the same, as he or they that Owns them think fit ; 
 And after it is made into Copper, Lead, or Tin, shall and 
 may (if he or they please) Smoke oflf the Base Metal, or 
 Refine their Oars, before they are Melted, by Quirk-Silver, 
 or Corrosive- Waters, or any other Way, to the best of his or 
 their Advantage, according as his or their Skill and Judge- 
 ment shall direct them, either in Oars, or in Metal, as he or 
 they think fit. 
 
 Article VIII. 
 That if it shall so happen, that Two Veyns of Silver, Gold, 
 Copper, or any other Metal, shall run or go along One by 
 the Side of Another, and shall be parted by a Rither or 
 Rock of Stone Three Foot Thick, or More ; That then they 
 shall be Held and Accounted for Two Rakc3 or Veyns ; and 
 
 he or they that Found the First Veyn, shall Hold and En- 
 joy that in his or their own Right ; for'each Pair of Stowes, 
 a Meer of Ground, as is before-said : And so likewise shall 
 he or they that Found and Discovered the other Veyn or 
 Rake, so running near, and going along by the Side of the 
 Veyn first Found, according to his or their Crossing, Taking, 
 and Possessing of the same with Stowes, one Meer of Ground 
 for each Pair of Stowes; and so every Man, sooner or later, 
 according to his or their Taking and Stowing. But if these 
 Two Rakes or Veyns run One into Another, and continue 
 so, or go so near together, that the Rither or Rock, which 
 parts theni, may be got, without Blasting and Blowing down 
 of the same Rock with Gunpowder; Then they shall be 
 Taken, Held, and Accounted tor one Veyn ; and he or they 
 that was the first Finders, or Owners of the Veyn first Found, 
 shall Enjoy the same, so long as they continue thus together: 
 But if these two Rakes or Veyns, or any other Eake or Veyn, 
 Intersect and Cross one another Diametrically, as thus, X 
 or obliquely, in this manner. 
 
 He that first comes to, and finds the Place, or Point of Inter- 
 section, shall Hold and Enjoy the same : That is to say, He 
 
 shall Hold and Enjoy his own Veyn, as A. A. 
 
 in his own Eight, and Three Foot of either Side into the 
 
 Veyn B. B., as far as the Black Spots . . beyond 
 
 which, being Three Foot, of either Side, from the Point of 
 
 Intersection, towards B. B., he shall not Work, 
 
 upon the Pain of Forfeiting the double Value of the Oar got 
 therein, without any Cost or Charges to the Wronged Person, 
 
 if that Veyn or Rake B. B. belong to any other 
 
 Person or Persons ; and this point of Intersection shall be 
 
 called the P, to distinguish it: Butif the Veyn B. 
 
 B. be a New Veyn, and no other Person in Possession 
 
 of it ; Then it is, and shall be Lawful for the Finder thereof 
 to Take and Possess it, and Hold it in his own Right. And 
 if any Person shall Work upon the Front and Forefield of 
 another Man's Rake or Veyn, and shall be thought and 
 judged to Work in the same Veyn that another Man, at 
 some Distance, had first in Work, and was Possest of; Then 
 the Person that thinks himself Wronged, shall apply him- 
 self to the Bar-Master, or his Deputy, and desire him to 
 keep an Account of all the Oar got therein ; and before the 
 Getters, or Owners thereof, shall carry it, or any of it awav, 
 or shall Smelt, Melt, or Refine any of the same into Silver,' 
 Gold, or any other Metal, he or thev shall give Bond to the 
 Owners of the first Veyn, That if by Workmanship, in Length 
 of Time, these Two Places proves to be one and the same 
 Veyn, to return the full value of the Oar got therein, to the 
 Owners or Finders of the first Veyn, without Stopping or 
 Deducting any Cost or Charges for Getting the same; and 
 if he or they refuse to give Bond, then the Oar shall be 
 Stopt, and Seized for the Use of the first Owners, by the 
 Bar-Master, or his Deputy till further Workmanship shall 
 make the Truth appear, whether they be one and the same 
 Veyn or no; aud to whether of them, the Place in Question 
 and Dispute, doth appertain and belong. 
 
 Article IX. 
 
 That whereas it is most Natural and Customary, for Gold 
 to lye in the Earth in Flat- Work ; therefore, when any Gold, 
 Silver, Copper, or the Oars of any other Metal, shall be 
 found to lye in Flat- Work, he or they who first Findeth 
 the same, and Crosseth, Kreaketh Ground, and Sets on 
 Stowes within Three Days Time next after such Flat- Work 
 IS Found, shall have as many Meers of Ground in that Flat- 
 Work, as he or they shall Set on Stowes in Three Days Time 
 next Ensuing the Finding, Crossing, and Taking thereof 
 each Meer of Ground containing Twenty Nine Yards of 
 Ground Square, upon the Superficies ; within which Length 
 and Compass of Ground, no other Person or Persons shall 
 presume to Dig, Work, or Carry the same away, without the 
 Leave and Consent of the first Finder, or Owners thereof. 
 But if any other Person or Persons, shall find any other 
 Voyn or Veyns, Rake or Rakes, tliat shall sink Perpendicu- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 105 
 
 lar or Hadeing, within the Limits or Compass of that 
 Ground so Taken, Poasest, and Stowed up for Flat- Work, as 
 afore-said ; That then it is, and shall be Lawful to and for 
 the first Finders, or Owners of those Rakes, and Veyns, to 
 Hold, Work, and Enjoy the same, & all the Product thereof 
 that shall be got within the Compass and Bounds of those 
 Rakes or Veyns, without any Disturbance or Hindrence from 
 or by the Owners or Masters of the Flat- Works ; because such 
 Rakes and Veyns lye in the earth after another Manner, and 
 Nature, quite different, to Flat- Works, and are Separate 
 Things; And so (successively) every one in the same Rakes 
 or Veyns, according to his or their Taking, and Possessing 
 with Stowes, sooner or later, shall be served. Hold and En- 
 joy the Meers of Ground so Taken, and Possest, in those 
 Rakes and Veyns. And if there be no Veyns or Rakes 
 Found within that Compass of Ground, so Taken and Possest 
 for Flat- Work, but the Flat- Work shall continue, and extend 
 it self, bearing Gold, or the Oars of any other Metal, further, 
 and beyond the Limits of the Ground so Possest with Stowes, 
 as afore-said, for Flat- Works ; That then the first and next 
 Taker, Possessor, and Stower of the next adjoyning Ground, 
 shall Hold and Enjoy as many Meers of Ground, each Meer 
 containing Twenty Nine Yards of Square Ground upon the 
 Superficies, as he or they have Taken, and Set on Stowes for 
 the same Flat- Work, within the Time afore-said; and so, 
 successively, every other Person or Persons shall be served, 
 sooner or later, according to his or their Taking, Possessing, 
 and Stowing up of the same Flat- Work ; be it in Gold Mines, 
 or in Seams and Beds of Salt-Petre, or Precious Stones lying 
 in the Earth, Soyl, or Rocks, in Flat- Works, as afore-said ; 
 or any other Metal and Oars, lying in the same manner 
 whatsoever. 
 
 Article X. 
 
 That where any Oars shall be got, made, and run into 
 Copper, Lead, Tin, or Quick-Silver, all and every Part of 
 those Metals, that shall be used and spent in the Countrey, 
 where they are got, s-hall Pay no other Duty to the KING, 
 but only that before-mentioned ; for the Reason of giving 
 the Inhabitants, and Adventurers, all the Encouragement, 
 that may be, to Work the Mines, and to Carry on the Field. 
 But if the Finders, Getters, or Owners thereof, or any other 
 Person, shall have a mind, and finds it for his or their Bene- 
 fit and Advantage, to Transport and Ship them, or any of 
 them, from the Countries where they are got, to other Places 
 beyond the Seas, he or they that Ship them, shall Pay for 
 every Tunn of Copper so Shipt, Twenty Shillings to the 
 KING'S Office, for the Use of the KING ; and the same Sum 
 of Twenty Shillings the Tunn, for Salt-Petre, and Tin; and 
 Five Pounds for every Tunn of Quick-Silver so Shipt off, 
 and Transported from the Countries where they are got : 
 For the Payment of which Duties, and the Twelfth Part or 
 Caract of all Precious Stones, as afore-said. All Diggers, 
 Finders, Owners, Bmjers, Adventurers, or Dealers therein, or 
 in any of them, shall have free Liberty to Sell, Ship, and 
 Transport them to any Part or Place whatsoever, to the best 
 of his or their Advantage. 
 
 The End of the Articles. 
 
 POSTSCRIPT. 
 
 All which Methods, Rules, and Articles, that they, and 
 every of them, may be Enacted, Established, and Confirmed by 
 the King's most Excellent Majesty, and this present Parlia- 
 ment, now Assembled, as LAWS and CUSTOMS, hereafter 
 to be Practiced, Used, and Observed by all the Subjects of 
 the Crown of England, in all Parts of Africa, and America, 
 for the Discovering, Working, and Carrying on any of the 
 Mines before mentioned, when and where they, or any of 
 them, shall be Found, is the most Humble Petition and Re- 
 quest of a well- Wisher to the Nation's Interest, 
 
 T. H. 
 
 TO THE 
 
 LORDS 
 
 Spiritual and Temporal, 
 
 Together with the 
 
 COMMONS, 
 
 Assembled in this present 
 
 Paeliambnt. 
 
 Gentlemen, 
 It is Worth your Thoughts & Considerations, fa Enquire 
 into the Reasons and Causes, Why no English King, Prince, 
 Noble-Man, Merchant, or any other Person of Heroick Spirit, 
 should not, in all this Time, since America hath been Dis- 
 covered, endeavour to be Master of Silver and Gold Mines, 
 as well as the Spaniards ; there being in many Places of 
 America, now in the Hands of the English, as Rich, and as 
 Plentiful Veyns and Mines to be Found, as any the Spaniards 
 have in Peru, or New-Spain. But one Reason of this Mis- 
 fortune, I believe to be this; He that hath had Substance, to 
 have undertaken this Enterprise, hath wanted Skill, and 
 durst not Trust another with a small Stock out of Sight, nor 
 would not go himself with such as had Judgement therein : 
 Or, He that hath had Skill, hath wanted Money, and En- 
 couragement, to Manage and Carry on this Affair, and so 
 could not undertake it, for want of a Stock ; and as yet, no 
 Person hath Petitioned any King or Prince, about it: 
 However, it is plain, and too true, the Mines have been 
 Neglected, which one would think, since all the Kings, 
 Princes, .Grandees, and Persons of Estate, in Europe, have 
 known, That for 150 Years last past, the Spaniards have im- 
 ported at Cales, from Ten to Forty Millions a Year in Silver 
 and Gold, besides many Precious Stones, and other Rich 
 Commodities, of great Value. The Knowledge of which, 
 one would imagine, should have strongly induced some other 
 Prince, or Heroick Spirited Men, to have used all their En- 
 deavours to have Found and Discovered such Mines ; and 
 have given them sufficient Cause to have pursued the samei 
 by sending such Persons about this Affair, as well Under- 
 standeth such Things : But the chief Reason and Mischief, 
 that these Mines have layn so long Neglected, is. Because 
 a few Peopbietoes (as is before recited in the Peeface,) 
 having, together with the Land; got Grants from the Crown, 
 of the Royalties, where Mines, and Mineral Countries are; 
 and not using any effectual means to Discover the Mines 
 themselves, at their Charge, the Enterprise hath remained 
 intricate, and no ways feasable to Others, by Reason of those 
 Grants ; all other Persons being Prohibited to engage there- 
 in. For to what purpose shall a Man spend his Time, La- 
 bour, and Money, to Enrich Others, by Seeking for That 
 which, when he hath found, neither He, nor his Heirs, shall 
 Enjoy, nor any part thereof: To Engage in this, would be 
 perfect Madness. This is the chief Reason, why the English 
 are not Masters of Silver and Gold Mines, as well as the 
 Spaniards; and not the want of such Mines, being within 
 the English Terretories and Dominions ; for if this Sore was 
 once Cured, The English would have a Plate-Yleet, in a few 
 
106 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Years, Arrive in England, as well as tlie Flota doth in 
 Spain. How great tlie Loss of which hath been, and is, and 
 how Acceptable and Profitable the Discovering of such 
 Mines, and an arrival of a PZaie-Fleet Yearly in England. 
 would be, I leave every one to Judge, that knows the Use 
 and Service of Silver and Gold : And the Cause and Causes, 
 why there are no such Mines Wrought in America, but what 
 are Wrought by the Spaniards, are only the Reasons afore-said; 
 concerning which, I hope, I have said sufficient ; and that 
 some better Care will be taken, for the Future, whereby all 
 those Grants, relating to the Mines in America, may be 
 Null'd, Revok'd, and made Void, (only in such Clauses as 
 concern Mines,) by the King's Most Excellent Majesty, and 
 the Prudence of this Present Parliament; and that the 
 KINO hereafter may remain sole Lord of the Field, and 
 Royalties, in all Parts of Africa and America, that are now, 
 or shall be, Annexed to the Ceown of England, &c. The 
 Indians, both on the South and North Side the Equinoctial, 
 had Found the Mines, and Wrought in them (after their 
 Fashion) for above Three Hundred Years before the Span- 
 iards came there ; or else most of the Mines had layn Un 
 discovered to this Day, by Reason of the Spaniards Laziness 
 for the Indians of Peru, having Lived some Hundreds of 
 Years in a civiliz'd Government, before the Spaniards 
 Arrival, had Wrought the Mines, and got great Quantities 
 of Silver and Gold, although they were in no proper way of 
 Working them, nor had any Iron or Steeled Tools, fit for 
 the Service of the Mines ; but only Tools of Copper, which 
 they Valued more than Silver or Gold, in regard the Tools 
 and Utensils of Copper were most serviceable for their Do- 
 mestick Afiairs, and all other Occasions, in their Times : So 
 that, for many years wherever the Spaniards came, unless they 
 Found Vessels of Silver and Gold in the Indians Houses, or 
 Wore about them, at their Ears, Lips, Necks, or Noses ; or 
 was conducted, by the Indians, to the Mines, and Places, 
 where the Silver and Gold had been got. The best and Rich- 
 est Mines, the Spaniards now have, lay Void, and for a long 
 Time Un wrought; being no more taken Notice of, than some 
 Mineral Countries now are by the English, in several Parts 
 oi America. And the best Method (for Gathering and Tak- 
 ing up Gold,) most of the Spaniards had, for many Years, 
 was only to Cleanse and Scower up the small Rivers and 
 Brooks of the Country, falling from the Mountains ; from 
 the Sands whereof, they Gathered much Gold, without the 
 Experience of Digging, Mining, and Sinking of Shafts, to 
 seek for Veyns and Rakes ; The Knowledge of which hath 
 not been many Years Understood, and Practised by them ; 
 nor is yet Understood, Used, and Practised to that Heighth, 
 and to such Advantage, as it might be. So that, in many 
 Places, which are now in Possession of the English, there 
 was never any Shafts Sunk, and put down, either by the 
 English or the Spaniards ; their chief Objects, and Places of 
 Tryal, being only the Surface of the Earth, with the Brooks 
 and Rivers, as afore-said. And therefore it remains, with- 
 out Contradiction, there is all the probable Signs and Symp- 
 tomes of Rich Veyns to be had, and Found, for Digging and 
 Seeking for. And to this Day, the best Method and Way 
 that is known, Practised, and Used by the Spaniards and 
 Indians, for Gathering and Taking up Gold, in Flat- Work, 
 is as followeth : The Spaniard* set their Indian and Negro 
 
 Slaves out a Parcel of Ground, Forty or Fifty Yards Square 
 more or less as the Patroon or Master thinks fit ; which 
 Ground, the Indians and Slaves Dig up as Deep as they 
 find any Gold in it; and as they Dig it, throw it into Wheel- 
 Barrows ; which being done, their other Slaves run it away 
 to the next River, or Running Brook, and there lays it 
 down, and Returns for mbre; and in this Manner they La- 
 bour, till their Days Work is done, in Digging and carrying 
 of Earth. At the River, or Running Brook, there are also 
 several other Indian Women, Boys, Girls, or Slaves, at 
 Work, having Bowls, or small Treays with Handles ; where 
 a Negro Boy or Girl, having first broken and beaten the 
 Lumps of Earth small, where, by Reason of the Heat, it 
 immediately dryes ; which when it is dry, they put about 
 an English Peck of that small Earth, so beaten and dryed, 
 into one of those Treays, as afore-said, at a Time ; and then 
 the Woman shakes and dances it about in the Water, turn- 
 ing the Bowl or Treay about and about, till the Water hath 
 Washt away all the Earth, and Rubbish ; and what Gold is 
 in it, sinks, and remains at the Bottom ; which not being 
 fully Cleansed from the Earth, is put into a Bowl that 
 stands by, to undergo a second and a third Cleansing. And 
 in this Manner, the Women, Boys, and Girls, renew filling 
 of their Treays and Bowls, with that Earth, till their Days 
 Work is done ; and so daily gather more or less Gold, accord- 
 ing as it happens, and as that Flat- Work is more or less 
 Plentiful of Gold ; Pursuing this Method in Digging, Carry- 
 ing, and Washing, as long as that Earth hath any Gold in 
 it worth their Labour ; and then they remove to another 
 Place. After this Way, they Work out all their Earth and 
 Land, that lies near Rivers, or Running-Brooks, that hath 
 Gold in it ; but where the Gold lies at a great Distance from 
 any Running Water, they are obliged to let all alone, or else 
 to lose the greatest Part of the Gold that is small ; for in 
 such Places that are remote from the Water, (as on the Tops 
 and Plains of the Mountains, where there is generally the 
 most plentiful Store of Gold) the best Ways they Use or Un- 
 derstand to gather it there, are these : They Dig the Earth, 
 Dry it, then Beat it small, and Sift it ; which done, they 
 Spread or Strow it thin upon the Ground, and there it lies, 
 till the next Showers of Rain Wash it ; and then they pick 
 out what Gold they can ; which being done, they draw the 
 Earth up and down with Coal Rakes, or turn it with Shovels, 
 and spread it thin again, and let it lye till other Rains wash 
 it, and so pick it over again ; which Operation, being twice 
 or thrice Repeated, and having taken what Gold they can 
 out this Way, they then shovel all the Earth together upon 
 Heaps ; and if there be no Pools or standing Waters near, 
 they make Ponds or Pools, which when the Rain-Water 
 hath filled, they carry that Earth, so laid upon Heaps, 
 thither, and wash it, with their Treays and Bowls, in those 
 Pools, as afore-said: And by this means they get some 
 more Gold, although most of the fine and small Gold is quite 
 lost, because the Water of those standing Pools soon grows 
 dirty and muddy, and thereby rendered unfit to separate the 
 fine dust -Gold from the Earth, for want of clear running- 
 Waters ; which Error and Defect, might easily be amended, 
 and all the Gold, though never so small, preserved, if they 
 understood the way of Bushing, and using long Buddies, 
 and Landers : As much Gold might be taken up in a Month, . 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 107 
 
 by the same Number of Hands, as tkey now take up in Seven 
 Years : But, whether this be a proper Place, and a fit Time, 
 to Shew and Describe the Way of Hushing, and Using these 
 Buddies and Landers, I know not, till I find what Reception 
 and Countenance these Articles will meet with. And if 
 the Design of this Book meets with Encouragement, I will 
 Publish a Book, Entitled, The Boijal Miner ; (in which, the 
 whole Method and Progress of Digging, Working, and 
 Carrying on of Mines, from the first Beginning, or Breaking 
 of Ground, to the Melting, Refining, and Making the Oars 
 into Metal, shall be clearly Taught and Described ; together 
 with all the Work-Tools, Instruments, and Materials Used 
 in and about the Mines : As also, what Incidents, or Acci- 
 dents, Prejudicial, or Profitable, hath, doth, and may attend 
 the same, as far as Art, or Nature, hath Discovered these 
 things to Humane Reason : In all which, (I may say, with- 
 out Boasting,) I have had long Experience, and am as capa- 
 ble to Acquaint Posterity with, as any Person extant, having 
 for Six and Twenty Years past, been universally concerned 
 in Mines, in all, or most of the Mineral Countries oi England, 
 not only as a Partner, Master, or Owner of them ; but in the 
 Practick Part of their Workman-ship, from the Beginning, 
 to the End:) In which Book, I will describe the Method 
 of these Buddies and Landers, for Hushing, and the most 
 proper Way of taking up, and gathering of Gold, with many 
 Useful and Beneficial Directions and Instructions, in and 
 about the Mines, and Mineral Countries of England, and other 
 Places, shall be fully set out and described. In the Interim, 
 If this small Book should fall into the Hands of any Detrac- 
 tors, who, through Ignorance or Envy, shall exclaim against 
 any "thing herein mentioned, or hereby intended ; I shall 
 only give such Persons this Modest Reproof, Quis nist men- 
 tis inops ohlitum respuat auram ? and he may well be reck- 
 oned a weak Man, if not a Fool, that will censure, slight, or 
 condemn anything, in which he never acquired snflScient 
 Knowledge to be a competent and fit Judge. 
 
 Gentlemen, 
 I would not have You, or any of You, think, or believe 
 that Gold and Stiver, or the Oars of any other Metals, lyes 
 in the Earth, in such Plenty, or in such a Manner, as to dis- 
 cover themselves to every vulgar or unskillful Eye ; however, 
 it is certain. There is great Plenty, and many Rich Veyns 
 to be Found in the English Territories ; & for what I have 
 mentioned before, concerning a Plate- Fleet coming Yearly 
 into England, if Liberty, and fit Encouragement, be given, I 
 will Undertake to Effect and Perform it. And, if any of 
 You desires further Information in this Affair, I am ready, 
 to Acquaint You with it, when You Command me ; and to 
 Shew You how, where and by what Ways and Means the 
 same may be Effected ; so that, if Liberty and Encourage- 
 ment may be given, I doubt not, but to have Five Hundred 
 Miners at Work, in Two Years Time; by which, with some 
 Negroes, and other Persons, that I will Cause to be brought 
 to them, in Two Years Time more, I question not, but to 
 make the Mines flourish to a greater Degree, than I shall 
 now Speak of. To Conclude ; All that I seek herein, is, That 
 the King's most Excellent Majesty, and this August Assembly 
 of Parliament, would be Graciously Pleased, (if in their 
 great Wisdom, it may be thought fit,) to take away, and 
 remove all those Obstructions, which hitherto have Ruined 
 this Honourable Enterprize ; and that for the Future, they 
 would Settle and Confirm either the afore-going ARTICLES, 
 or some other Fundamental Laws and Customs, for the 
 Mines before-mentioned ; whereby all Free-Bom Subjects 
 of the Clio\rN of England, may have Liberty, and full 
 Power of Using their Endeavours, to improve their own In- 
 terests, together with the Revenues of the Ckown : Which 
 is the most Humble Desire, and Petition, of a Well- Wisher 
 to his KING, and Countrey, 
 
 Thorn. Houghton. 
 
 FINIS. 
 
108 
 
 THE MINES, MINEE8 AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 UNFAMILIAR MINING REGI0N8 OF THE UNITED STATES- 
 MINOR BEDS OF TREASURE— MINERAL LANDS 
 OF THE SOUTH, EAST AND NORTH. 
 
 'HE uninitiated in American mi- 
 ning interests have very little 
 knowledge about the resources of 
 this continent if they suppose 
 them to exist only in California 
 and the far West. 
 
 In Part II, of the Mines, 
 Miners and Mining Inter- 
 ests OF THE United States, 
 it is our intention to draw the 
 eyes of the reader to some of our 
 mineral belts that are not so well known as the great under- 
 ground treasure vaults of the Pacific States, and to mining 
 interests in the Dominion of Canada and the Republic of 
 Mexico. The mineral veins of the Southern, Southwestern, 
 Middle, Eastern, and Northern States ; and of our neighbor- 
 ing countries represent a great many million dollars of Ameri- 
 can capital, and produce an amount of metallic wealth that 
 has a precise influence upon the market. Much of the terri- 
 tory upon the Atlantic sea-board that undoubtedly contains 
 valuable mineral deposits has never even been explored ; as 
 the constant discoveries yearly testify. The silver mines of 
 Nevada and Colorado were old stories when it occurred to a 
 keen-sighted ne'er-do-weel to have some sparkling rocks found 
 near Newburyport, Massachusetts, analyzed. The mines of 
 Maine were myths for twenty years after California became 
 the gold field of the world. To the resources of some other 
 States and regions it is our purpose to call attention here, in 
 the desire of spreading wider some valuable information 
 that seems in spite of its value, to travel but slowly. 
 
 THE MINES AND MINERALS OF ARKANSAS. 
 
 HIS Excellency, Governor T. J. Churchill, of Arkan- 
 sas, has kindly had prepared for this work by Mr. 
 George W. Dale, of Little Rock, a careful and 
 competent mining expert, the following concise account of 
 the mines and mineral prospects of the State of Arkansas. 
 Mr. Dale deals thus with his subject : 
 
 The oldest mine in the state is situated in Pulaski county, 
 eight miles north-east of Little Rock. It is known as the 
 Kellogg mine, and was discovered about forty years ago. 
 Lead, copper, pyrites and zinc blende are found in this 
 mine. Assays oi galena, by Dr. D. D. Owen, run as high as 
 339 ounces to the ton of ore. The country rock is shaly. 
 
 talcose schist, much contorted, intersected with dykes of red 
 and gray feldspathic quartz. It is supposed that a mineral 
 belt runs from the Kellogg mine in a south-westerly direc- 
 tion through the counties of Pulaski, Saline, Montgomery, 
 Garland, Hot Springs, Polk, Pike, and Sevier, to the Bella 
 mine, which was discovered about thirty-five years ago, and 
 was developed, to some extent, by making an open cut some 
 sixteen feet deep. The lead found in this mine gives about 
 30 ounces of silver to the ton of ore. Since the late war 
 considerable prospecting has been done in several counties 
 of Arkansas. In Montgomery, the Silver City mines are 
 located. At this camp a miner's district is organized, and 
 considerable prospecting has been accomplished. A stamp 
 mill and reduction works have been established, and ore 
 raised, but the result, so far, has been a loss to those en- 
 gaged in the business. This results from lack of capital, 
 and want of skill in working the mines, and in manipulating 
 the ores. The minerals found at this place are the same as 
 at the Kellogg. Assays of ore are reported as running 
 several hundred ounces of silver to the ton. The country 
 rock at this camp is, as at the Kellogg, talcose shale, inter- 
 sected by quartz and trap dykes. The shales, as at the 
 Kellogg mines, are underlaid by the sub-carboniferous lime- 
 stone. In the same condition is the entire mineral belt 
 running across the state from the Kellogg to the western 
 border. The strata of this mineral belt is much tilted, 
 ranging from 10 to 90° ; the tilt is north ; the strike, east 
 and west. 
 
 In Polk county some prospecting has been done in the 
 last few years, resulting in the discovery of manganese 
 (Pyrolusite) of fine quality. These lands were recently 
 purchased from the government by some northern capi- 
 talists. Iron, copper, zinc, lead, and graphite abound. 
 Some gold has been found. But little work has yet been 
 done, and that of the most unskilled kind. I regard Polk 
 as one of the best mineral-bearing counties in the state. 
 Large bodies of antimony are found in Pike and Sevier 
 counties. A few years ago reduction works were erected ; 
 the ore wa,s abundant, and of high ^rade (sulphuret), but 
 from the want of skill in the manipulation, and lack of 
 judgment in the erection of a suitable furnace, the enterprise 
 resulted in failure, and consequent loss to the stockholders. 
 The company is, I understand, about to resume operations, 
 and it is to be hoped with better success. In Pike, large 
 deposits of gypsum are found. At Royston's Bluff, on Little 
 Missouri river, there is a deposit of gypsum, highly crys- 
 tallized, and of the finest quality. Salt-water is obtained in 
 this district. Works were at one time established for the 
 manufacture of sail, but this was long since discontinued, 
 In Garland county, lead, copper, and the celebrated no- 
 vaculite hone-stone are found. The latter is extensively 
 used throughout the world. There is also an excellent 
 quality of tripoli. It only needs thorough enterprise to 
 wring a fortune from it. In Hot Springs county, lead, cop- 
 per, magnetic iron, buhr stone and novaculite are found. 
 Saline county ranks among the first in the stale in point of 
 mineral wealth. In this county are found iron, copper. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 109 
 
 lead, argentiferous galena and nickel. The country rock is 
 talcose slate, intersected by mineral-bearing quartz ledges, 
 and by numerous trap dykes of basaltic formation. Limestone 
 is found, mostly blue in color, veined with white quartz and 
 calcspar. The most extensive deposit of steatite (soap-stone) 
 and serpentine known in the Missiisippi Valley is located 
 in this county. This deposit is destined, at no distant day, 
 to be of vast importance. The lead, copper, and carbonates 
 of iron all carry more or less silver. Some of them are of 
 high grades, and I have no doubt but the time will come 
 when valuable mines will be opened up in the belt herein 
 described. Gold has' been found in small quantities. No- 
 vaculite, roofing slate and porcelain clay of excellent quality, 
 are found in great abundance. 
 
 Having spoken of the Kellogg mine, I will return to 
 Pulaski county. The strike of the metallic veins of the en- 
 tire mineral belt of South Arkansas, (as was originally dis- 
 covered at the Kellogg mine) is uniformly east and west or 
 nearly so. Three miles south of Little Rock, is what is 
 called Fourche mountain. This so-called mountain is a low 
 ridge running east and west about seven miles ; and two 
 miles north and south. It consists of a fine quality of 
 syenite, of gray and blue colors, intersected by dykes of 
 quartz and of magnetic iron. In the hands of men of enter- 
 prise, skill, and capital, this deposit of valuable material 
 could be made immensely profitable. No county in the 
 state is, probably, possessed of more mineral wealth than 
 this. Iron, copper, argentiferous galena, cobalt, nickel, and 
 manganese (Pyrolusite) abound. A mine of the last-named 
 mineral — a true fissure vein, of immense proportions, — lies 
 twelve miles west of Little Rock, a»d seven miles from the 
 Iron mountain R. R. From what is known of the character 
 and quality of the vein, I regard it as one of the most valu- 
 able deposits of the kind to be found on the Continent. 
 Gold has been found in this country, but not in quantity, 
 promising profitable results. The foregoing described dis- 
 trict is timbered with the various kinds of oak, hickory, ash, 
 gum, and pitch-pine, all of excellent quality. Much of this 
 land is public, subject to sale for cash, or to homestead entry, 
 or to location and purchase under the mineral laws of the 
 United States. 
 
 The coal field has its eastern terminus in "White county, 
 about thirty miles north east of Little Rock, and is confined 
 to a narrow belt along the Arkansas river valley and near to 
 the foot-hills of the Boston mountain, which extends from 
 White river, opposite to Batesville, in Independence county, 
 thence in a westerly direction, far into the Indian territory. 
 The main bodies of the workable coal are found in Pope, 
 Johnson, and Sebastian counties. The veins range from 
 three to four feet in thickness, and are from thirty to eighty 
 feet below the surface. The coal is semi-anthracite. The 
 principal mines worked are the Ouita, in Pope county ; the 
 Spadra, Horsehead, and Coal Hill, in Johnson county. 
 Some are worked in Sebastian county, near the city of Fort 
 Smith, for local consumption. The vein gets thicker as it 
 gora west, and, as before stated, penetrates far into the In- 
 dian territory, where, at McAlister, on the Missouri, Kan- 
 sas, and Texas R.R., there is a valuable mine opened, from 
 which northern Texas receives a large portion of the coal 
 used in that part of the state. Within the immediate 
 vicinity of some of the Arkansas coal mines, and on the 
 line of the Little Rock and Fort Smith R. R., as also, on 
 and near the banks of the Arkansas river, are large bodies 
 of valuable iron ore. These deposits are well deserving the 
 attention of the iron masters of the country. At the mouth 
 of Shoal creek, in Logan county, and on the. south bank ot 
 the Arkansas, is the most extensive deposit of micaceous 
 fire clay I have ever found anywhere. This clay is favor- 
 ably located, both for the purpose of manufacturing, and for 
 shipping. It is owned by one of our resident capitalists ; 
 one who is interested in mines in Old and New Mexico ; 
 and although he owns, in this deposit of clay, that of greater 
 value than mines of gold and silver, he gives up this land 
 to the production of cotton in preference to working up the 
 clay into fire-proof materials. At this place there is also a 
 vein of good coal three feet in thickness. 
 
 The mineral belt of north Arkansas includes the counties 
 of Lawrence, Sharp, Independence, Izard, Marion, Pearcy, 
 Boone Newton, Madison and .garroll. The mineral-bear- 
 ino--rocks of this belt are. of lower Silurian date 
 
 rence county, calamine (carbonate of zinc) is found, in 
 large quantities. Many years ago reduction works were 
 erected at the town of Calamine in that county, and a large 
 amount of zinc was smelted, but in consequence of lack ot 
 sufficient capital, work was suspended. Lead and iron ores 
 of good quality are found. In Independence county, iron 
 and manganese are found. The manganese mines are being 
 developed. The mineral is the variety known as Psilome- 
 lane, very hard, and strikes fire to a steel. It is found in 
 clay fissures, in the lower carboniferous limestone. In Sharp 
 county, zinc ore has been found, but no mines opened. Iron 
 is there and in sufficient quantities to attract the notice of 
 iron men. Izard county shows some iron, lead and man- 
 ganese. 
 
 Some specimens of copper have been found; no mines 
 have yet been opened. Buhr stone is found in that 
 county, and is pronounced by those professing to be judges, ^ 
 equally as good as the French buhr. Marion county is one ' 
 of the great mineral counties of the state. Lead has been 
 mined successfiiUy in a number of localities. Not having 
 cheap transportation facilities, work has been, in a great 
 measure, discontinued. Marion has copper and zinc ; the 
 latter in large quantities ; also marble of very fine quality. 
 Searcy county, located mostly in the Boston mountains, con- 
 tains many valuable minerals, among which may be men- 
 tioned lead, zinc, and black marble. Boone county is des- 
 tined, at no distant day, to become one of the most noted 
 localities in the world for its vast deposits of zinc ores. 
 Very fine marble is found. Newton county Is the most 
 mountainous county in the state. It has valuable deposits 
 of zinc, also lead and marble. Madison county, in the Bos- 
 ton mountains, has lead, iron and coal. A mine of the lat- 
 ter has been recently opened, and is said to be of good qual- 
 ity. Marble is found. 
 
 Carroll county, in point of mineral wealth, including its 
 beautiful pink-colored marble, is destined to, and, in fact, 
 does stand, first in the list of counties in north Arkansas. 
 And not alone for its rich deposits of lead, zinc, and iron, 
 but for its celebrated medicinal waters, at the city of Eureka 
 Springs, it is becoming famous throughout the Union. 
 These springs are situated in the northwest part of Carroll. 
 Although not yet three years since their discoveiy, there is 
 a city around these springs of about ten thousand inhabi- 
 tants. In conclusion, I will say that what Arkansas most 
 needs is capital and brains. When we have acquired these, 
 we need have no fears for the future success of our mining 
 interests. 
 
 THE ZINC DEPOSITS OF SOUTHERN MIS- 
 SOURI. 
 
 In Law- 
 
 THE lead-mining industry of Missouri, as of other 
 parts of the Mississippi basin, appears to have been 
 paralyzed by the shock of competition with the 
 mines of the States and Territories further west. It 
 is difficult for establishments working galena ores, too poor 
 in silver to pay for extracting it, to compete with the pro- 
 ducers of the argentiferous carbonates of Utah and Colorado, 
 who look upon their lead as a by-product of little value, 
 and are satisfied' if it pays the charges of transportation, or 
 the loss in smelting for silver. But simultaneously with this 
 depression in the lead-mining of the Mississippi States, the 
 development of new zinc deposits has caused a notable 
 revival in the mining of zinc ores. The zinc-bearing terri- 
 tory in Southwest Missouri appears to be very extensive ; 
 that is to say, zinc ores have been mined quite recently 
 at various points throughout a district extending from 
 the eastern edge of Kansas, west of Joplin, to a line some 
 50 miles east of Springfield. Many of these openings, how- 
 ever, have already been abandoned. The deposits were 
 superficial and limited, or the quality was unsatisfactory, or 
 transportation was too dear, etc. The ores were carbonate 
 and hydrous silicate of zinc. Further north and northeast, 
 
110 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 discoveries of zinc ore are also reported, but no developments 
 have yet been made. These northern deposits, like those of 
 Southeast Missouri, are said to be in Silurian rocks, and 
 therefore belong to a diiferent horizon from those of the 
 S )uthwest, which are pronounced sub-Carboniferous. This 
 difference in age of the inclosing rocks does not necessarily 
 prove a similar difference in age of the deposits, since all 
 that can be predicated upon a determination of the period 
 to which the country rock belongs is the limit, back of which 
 the beginning of the deposit is not to be placed. In other 
 words, an ore-deposit in Silurian rocks must be Silurian or 
 post-Silurian in age, and its formation may have taken place 
 much more recently than that of the country rock. The 
 sub-Carboniferous and the Silurian rocks of Missouri may, 
 therefore, be traversed by deposits of some one age posterior 
 to both; 
 
 The sub-Carboniferous limestone of the Southwest lies 
 nearly horizontal, and is characterized by flinty segregations, 
 sometimes solid, sometimes brittle, and much fissured. The 
 limestone is occasionally shaly. The ore-deposits, irregular 
 in shape and distribution, occur in this formation. Those 
 which have proved most productive hitherto have been 
 associated with lead ores ; but their superior productiveness 
 is probably due to the circumstance that previous mining 
 operations, having lead for their object, had laid bare large 
 amounts of zinc ore, ready for cheap extraction. It was a 
 fortunate thing that the mines first opened at Joplin yielded 
 rich blende, in large pure masses, associated with galena. 
 For some years they worked for lead. When a solid body 
 of blende was reached the miners called it a "bar," and 
 excavated — or, as the Western men would say, " gophered " 
 — around it to save the expense of blasting it out. When 
 the value of this ore was subsequently recognized, large 
 quantities could be obtained from these bars, so rich as to 
 need no concentration before shipment. Under less favor- 
 able conditions the development of the industry in this 
 district would have been slow. Most of these bars appear 
 now to have been exhausted. The zinc ore now brought 
 into market comes mostly from deposits in the brittle flint 
 rock, the fissures of which it fills. The whole mass extracted 
 in mining must be crushed and jigged. Galena is sometimes 
 present and sometimes very scarce. Little is known of the 
 extent of these deposits. They appear to be limited in 
 height, width, and length, abutting against barren rock. 
 At some points the zinc ore impregnates or interlaminates 
 shales instead of flint. Iron sulphide is plentiful in a few 
 mines only. Some of the ore consists of a skeleton of silica, 
 as porous as a sponge, the pores of which are filled with 
 blende ; and all forms of transition are observed, from this 
 to solid flint-rock, with disseminated specks of blende. This 
 the miners call " iron-jack," their name for blende being 
 "black-jack." 
 
 Next to the blende deposits of Joplin, the most important 
 are the silicate mines at Granby. Here, also, the zinc ores 
 were first exposed in large quantities by the mining of lead, 
 and the earliest productiveness has considerably fallen off 
 through the exhaustion of these reserves. The deposits of 
 Granby seem to lie all in one horizon — either in one stratum 
 of limestone, or in a group of several strata a few feet apart. 
 The layers of ore-bearing rock are separated by barren 
 layers. Other deposits, again, resemble fissure-veins for 
 considerable distances ; but the local expression " run " 
 designates most of them aptly. There is no foretelling how 
 they will pitch or branch or turn. At many of the mines 
 the ore is broken by hand with the so-called buck-hammer 
 on the anvil consisting of a hard rock, and is then dressed 
 in Cornish jigs of the most ancient fashion, operated by 
 hand with a pole. Stone-breakers and crushers are, how- 
 ever, coming into use, and several well-arranged concentrat- 
 ing works of large capacity have been built. The attempt, 
 to build up a smelting industry on the spot, instead of 
 shipping the ore out of the district, has not yet borne fruit. 
 If, as now seems probable, the ore supply is to be for the 
 most part the aggregate of many small and short-lived 
 operations, scattered over a large area, the proper place for 
 smelting-works is not at the locality of any one of these 
 mines, but at the centres of transportation, where cheap 
 freight and cheap fuel will command the whole field. 
 
 — CkmpSUdfram apa/per by liostiter W. Raymond, M, K, Ph. D., TramacHom 
 
 American Imtitute of Mining Engineera. 
 
 THE SOUTHEAST MISSOURI LEAD 
 DISTRICT. 
 
 THE lead district of Southeast Missouri covers an area 
 of over 8000 square miles, including Maries County 
 on the west, Jefferson on the east, Franklin on the 
 north, and part of Madison on the south, or parts of 
 ten counties. A general section of the rocks of the southeast 
 part of this region would be about as follows, numbering 
 from the top : 
 
 1. Sandstone (the second of Missouri geologists), . . . . 20 feet 
 
 2. Chert beds — beds of passage below, .... ... 125 " 
 
 3. Magnesian limestone, chert, and quartzite, 100 to 300 " 
 
 4. Lower magne.'^ian limestone, ... . 100 to 150 " 
 
 5. Gritstone and lingula beds, . . . 50 " 
 
 6. Ozark marble beds . 6 to 20 " 
 
 7. Sandstone and conglomerate, . , 5 to 90 " 
 
 8. Porphyry, \ Arnhseap 
 
 9. Granite, / Ar^h^s"" 
 
 The thickness is approximate, for it is not possible to 
 obtain the correct thickness of the various beds. No. 1 may 
 be seen as detached outliers or loose masses of a hard sand- 
 stone or quartzite, and is found on the hilltops in the 
 southern part of Madison County, in like topographical 
 position in Reynolds County and the western part of Wash- 
 ington County. No. 2 consists of alternations of chert, 
 clay, and quartzite. It is the formation which contains 
 most of the limonite deposits of Central and Southern Mis- 
 souri. In Reynolds County shafts have penetrated it 75 
 feet. Outcrops there and in Madison would indicate it to 
 be at least 125 feet thick. Fossils obtained in various 
 places prove it clearly to be of the age of the calciferous 
 sandrock of the New York system, and No. 1 and 2 may 
 also be referred to the age of the second sandstone of Mis- 
 souri. No. 3 consist chiefly of thick beds of ash, drab and 
 flesh-colored magnesian limestone, both coarse and fine- 
 grained. These beds, where they occur, in Washington, Jeffer- 
 son, and the southern part of Madison Counties, contain a 
 good deal of quartz in drusy cavities. In Washington 
 County the limestones are beautifully ramified by a system 
 of connected drusy cavities generally lined with minute 
 quartz crystals arranged in botryoidal and mammillary 
 forms, and called " mineral blossom '' by the miners. This 
 is the bed-bearing rock of Washington County, but in the 
 southern part of Madison it does not appear to be galenifer- 
 ous. It is also undoubtedly the equivalent of the lead bear- 
 ing rock of Central Missouri, and is known in Missouri geo- 
 logy as the third magnesian limestone. In Washington 
 County it is from 200 to 300 feet or more thick, but in Madi- 
 son probably not over 100. No fossils have been obtained 
 from it in these counties. I would here remark that the line of 
 division between Nos. 3 and 4 is not well defined. It may 
 yet be proved that they belong to the same group. No. 4 
 consists of either dark ash or flesh-colored dolomitic lime- 
 stone, generally occurring in thick beds. On Mine La Motte 
 tract, this limestone, with the underlying gritstone beds, is 
 80 feet thick. At St. Jo Mine, St. Francois County, it has 
 been proved to be not less than 200 feet thick. At the lead 
 mines it soon becomes brown upon exposure. 
 
 At Mine La Motte a thin band of blue shale is found 
 which abounds in a Lingula (LingueUa) Lambomi, which 
 is regarded as a Potsdam fossil by palaeontologists. Near 
 Frederickstown the lower limestone beds contain this fossil, 
 together with ScoUthus Orthocera^, and a Pleurotomaria. 
 This is the lead-bearing rock of Mine La Motte, Fox Mines, 
 Avon Mines and St. Jo. No. 5 is a close-grained, even-bedded 
 silicious dolomite, sometimes having drusy cavities lined with 
 dolomite. The various beds seem to be chiefly formed of 
 rounded quartz grains disseminated in a compact dolomitic 
 paste. Its greatest thickness amounts to 23 feet, but is even 
 sometimes wanting. No. 6, the marble beds, are not always 
 present ; for in the northern part of Madison countj' No. 5 
 rests directly on No. 7. These beds consist generally "of fine- 
 grained, even-bedded, magnesian limestone, of gray, red, 
 flesh-colored, buff, or mottled white, with red, buff, or drab, 
 the colors sometimes quite beautiful. It admits of a high 
 polish and is quite handsome. The lowest unaltered 
 sedimentary rock of southeast Missouri is a sandstone, 
 generally coarse-grained, although we do find it of fine 
 grain. It also occure as a" conglomerate, formed chiefly 
 
THE MINES, MIKEES AXD MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Ill 
 
 of porphyritic pebbles. Its chief outcrop is in the southern 
 part of St. Francois and northern part of Madison counties, 
 especially on the Mine La Motte tract, where we find it 
 directly reposing unaltered on the porphyry, and farther 
 westward on granite. Its greatest thickness is 80 or 90 feet, 
 but it is often much thinner. The occurrence of any ore 
 in it is very rare, and only at one place have 1 heard of a 
 little galena being found. With regard to the age of these 
 rocks we would call No. 7 (the sandstone) Potsdam. If 
 Lingula [Lingulella] Lamborni is restricted to the Potsdam 
 group, and the Scolithus, also occurring in the same bed 
 with the lAnqula, we should, without hesitation, regard the 
 rocks as Potsdam, but if these fossils are also found in the 
 calciferous group, we should prefer to assign all our rocks 
 above the lower sandstone, to No. 1, inclusive, as calciferous, 
 for there has thus far been found no well-marked line of 
 division between Nos. 3 and 4, and the late Dr. Shumard 
 stated in his reports that No. 3 (the third magnesian lime- 
 stone) undoubtedly contained calciferous fossils. The oldest 
 rocks of southeast Missouri are the porphyries and granites. 
 We know that the porphyries are older than the above- 
 named rocks, because we have found the lowest sandstone 
 resting unaltered on them, and also upon the granite. We 
 also have found the lowest magnesian limestones resting on 
 this sandstone, and also unaltered upon the porphyry. We 
 therefore have a correct succession of rocks. Our data, thu3 
 far, is not sufficient to establish the age of granites, or 
 whether they are older than the porphyries, but we incline 
 to the belief that they are. Our porphyries, though, are 
 exactly similar to those of Massachusetts and New Bruns- 
 wick, which are considered Huronian. We, therefore, feel 
 correct in calling ours Huronian. Our granites may be 
 Laurentian. 
 
 Orel of the above. — The ores of No. 4 and 5 include those 
 of lead, copper, nickel, and cobalt. The oldest worked 
 mines are those of Mine La Motte, where lead was mined 
 soon after the year 1720. At intervals, these mines have 
 been much worked during the present century. The ore 
 occurs disseminated in horizontal limestone beds, throughout 
 an average vertical thickness of 7i feet. The cap-rock and 
 bed-rock are of like composition, but contain very little ore. 
 In one portion of the mines, copper ore (chalcopyrite) is 
 quite abundant, and is intimately associated with galena. 
 At another place we find nickel and cobalt quite abundant. 
 This mine having been formerly particularly described, we 
 pass on to others, simply mentioning that at the Avon and 
 Fox Mines the ore occurs very similarly, and that the for- 
 mation is of the same geological age. At the Fox Mines 
 much of the galena is found in drusy cavities, associated 
 with pyrites, calcite, and dolomite. But it is of the St. Jo 
 Mines that we wish more particularly to speak. As we have 
 stated before, the rocks are similar to those of Mine La 
 Motte, but the ores are only lead and copper. The rock 
 here is a dense ash-blue magnesian limestone, reposing in 
 nearly horizontal strata. The St. Jo Company at present 
 have two working shafts of 80 and a 100 feet depth, the ore- 
 bearing rocks being the lower 25 feet arranged in tolerably 
 uniform layers of two to four feet in thickness. No vertical 
 veins were observed, but the mineral will sometimes follow 
 vertical cracks. At one place, solid layers of galena, of 
 about three inches in thickness, are intercalated with the 
 limestone beds every few feet ; but the ore is generally 
 disseminated in the limestone. In the upper beds, bands ot 
 chalcopyrite are of frequent occurrence. A vertical section 
 at one place shows . 
 
 1 Several feet of magnesian limestone, occurring in even 
 beds, and containing a small percentage of disseminated 
 galena. , , , 
 
 2. 6 feet of magnesian limestone— no galena observed. 
 
 3. 3 inches— sheet of galena. 
 
 4. 2J feet of limestone; 
 
 5. 3 feet of limestone, with a good percentage ot galena. 
 
 6. 4 feet— nearly all galena— with a very little limestone. 
 The Deslodge Shaft.— Jnst adjoining the St. Jo LeadOom- 
 
 pany's land, and only a few hundred feet northeast, the Mis- 
 souri Lead Mining and Smelting Companjr have sunk a shaft 
 120 feet, and bored 84 feet further, passing through rich 
 galeniferous limestone. A section recorded by the company 
 reports passing through limestone with disseminated galena 
 as follows : 
 
 Galena at . 
 
 very rich at 
 
 at 
 
 a little from .... 
 richly disseminated, . . 
 sparsely disseminated, 
 a good percentage,. . . 
 
 a very little to 
 
 a good percentage, from . 
 disseminated, from . 
 very rich, from . . 
 disseminated, from . . . 
 fair, disseminated, from 
 very rich percentage, from 
 disseminated, from . 
 
 very rich, from 
 
 good, disseminated, from 
 
 lean, from 
 
 rich, disseminated, from 
 lean, disseminated, from 
 very rich, disseminated from 
 
 f;ood, disseminated, from 
 ean, disseminated, from 
 rich, disseminated, from 
 a little ore, from . . 
 very rich from . . 
 mineral, from . . . • 
 
 lean, from 
 
 disseminated, from 
 very rich from . . 
 some mineral, from . . 
 
 3354 
 
 40 
 
 78 
 
 78 
 . 81 
 . 83 
 .103 
 .104 
 .114 
 . 117 
 .117 
 .120 
 . 1.38 
 .140.6 
 . 140.9 
 .141.3 
 .143 
 . 151.6 
 . 152.3 
 .154 
 . 1S5.6 
 . 166.8 
 .157 
 . 158 
 . 169 
 .161.3 
 .164.6 
 .165 
 . 167 
 .179 
 .184 
 .194 
 .197 
 
 feet from surface. 
 
 to 80 
 
 to 97 
 to 104 
 to 114 
 to 116 
 
 to 127 
 to 138 
 to 140 
 to 140.9 
 to 1413 
 to 142 
 to 151 6 
 to 162.3 
 to 154 
 to 165.0 
 to 166.6 
 to 167 
 to 168 
 to 1.59 
 to 161.3 
 to 164 
 to 165 
 to 167 
 to 175 
 to 182 
 to 194 
 to 197 
 to 204 
 
 The limestones here lie about horizontal, and it is imposa- 
 ible at present to estimate the probable extent of the galena, 
 but it is undoubtedly very great. The galena at St. Jo, as 
 at other mines in the lower limestone, is coarsely granular, 
 and cubes are of rare occurrence, but in small drusy cavities 
 very nice crystals of a secondary form are often found. Iron 
 pyrites, dolomite, and calcite abound at the Fox Mines. 
 Calcite and dolomite are of general occurrence ; barytes, if 
 at all seen, is very rare. With regard to the origin of the 
 galena in these mines, we would give as our theory that the 
 limestones were first formed in deep seas. That after and 
 during a long period of subsequent time, the galena, in a 
 state of solution, replaced a portion of the limestone beds 
 which had previously been softened by acids. We would 
 not hazard the opinion that th6 process of replacement was 
 recent, but rather believe it to have taken place in some re- 
 mote period of 'time, and probably before the deposition of 
 the galena among the more recent formations of Southeast 
 Missouri ; also, that its formation must have continued 
 through a long period of time, for the galena did not replace 
 the limestone in the difierent beds at the same time, nor is 
 it certain that the process was in progress in difierent beds 
 at the same time. 
 
 Ores in No. 3, or the Third Magnesian Limestone. — Some 
 of the mines of St. Franjois County, for instance the Vall6 
 Mines, and all of those of Washington and Crawford Coun- 
 ties, occur in these rocks. 
 
 The ore occurs either — 
 
 1st. In caves or openings. 
 
 2d. In leads or lodes. 
 
 Cave Openings. — Although there may be a slight differ- 
 ence in the form or shape of the deposits, still I believe that 
 all the galena ores of this formation, excepting the " leads," 
 may come under this head, nor am I certain that the verti- 
 cal leads should be separated. The limestones are often 
 bisected by vertical cracks or fissures, crossed by others. 
 These are sometimes narrow, but are often widened out, pro- 
 bably caused by breaking off and disintegration of masses 
 of limestone. The ore and its associated minerals are limi- 
 ted by " runs " and " openings." The " run " is a widening 
 of the opening, and must not be confounded with the runs 
 of Southwest Missouri. It is limited above and below by 
 solid limestone, which cuts it off from other runs below, 
 sometimes only separated by a few feet, but at other times 
 much more. These runs may therefore be considered as oc- 
 cupying a part of the same crevice, and shut off from each 
 other by closing up of the walls. 
 
 At Prairie Diggings, on " Old Mines '' tract, we entered 
 a run of 7 feet wide and 55 feet depth, extending in a nearly 
 northern direction as far as explored for several hundred 
 feet. Other short runs or cave openings meet the main run, 
 but generally terminate within a few feet. Others, extend- 
 ing further, develop into similar openings to the main run. 
 These "runs" or "openipes" are filled with masses of de- 
 composed magnesian limestone, baiytes, iron pyrites, galena. 
 
112 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and calcite, sometimes confusedly arranged, but often in 
 regular broken liorizontal layers, the galena generally 
 preserving a nearly horizontal position in its arrangement, 
 and when disseminated, it is found occupying nearly the 
 same horizontal line. The galena is sometimes inclosed by 
 bands of pyrites, and at other times associated with a gangue 
 of barytes, the latter apparently of more recent age. 
 A vertical section in the main run at one place shows — 
 
 1. Cap-rock of magnesian limestone. 
 
 2. 1 inch of barytes and galena. 
 
 3. 10 inches decomposing magnesian limestone. 
 
 4. Streak of iron pyrites. 
 
 5. 4 inches of barytes and galena. 
 
 6. Streak of iron pyrites. 
 
 7. 2-feet mass of barytes, boulders of softened limestone, 
 galena, and streaks of iron pyrites. 
 
 8. Bed-rock of magnesian limestone. 
 
 At " New Diggings," near Potosi, the galena occurs in a 
 similar association with barytes and pyrites. 
 
 The ore at Mineral Point occurs in a very similar manner 
 and in irregular-shaped openings. A vertical section in a 
 shaft displays — 
 
 1. Clay and chert. 
 
 2. Limestone. 
 
 3. Red clay, barytes, and a little galena. 
 
 4. 10 inches barytes, in nearly horizontal bands with 
 galena. 
 
 5. 5 inches magnesian limestone. 
 
 6. Thin seam of barytes and galena. 
 
 7. Quartz in drusy cavities and mammillary forms, with 
 some galena attached to the quartz. 
 
 The mode of occurrence of ores at New Ishmael, on Palmer 
 tract, is very similar to the last, and to the others just above 
 named. At Mineral Point are interesting exhibitions of re- 
 placement of galena by barytes, proven by right angular 
 galeniferous lines traversing barytes. At the Palmer Mines 
 are beautiful forms of calamine crystallized on galena, some- 
 times entirely enveloping large cubes. The galena at the 
 Palmer Mines also shows drusy cavities, with pretty crystals 
 of cerussite and sometimes also anglesite. The cerussite is 
 sometimes covered by hairlike crystals of barytes. At Mam- 
 moth Mines, in Jefferson County, beautiful specimens can 
 be obtained crystallized in the following genetic succession 
 on magnesian limestone: 1. Quartz in minute botryoidal 
 forms; 2. Iron pyrites; 3. Blende; 4. Barytes; 5. Calcite. 
 The Sandy Mines occur in what is known as the second 
 magnesian limestone, a group of rocks lying next above our 
 sandstone, which we have spoken of in the first part of this 
 article, but as they occur similarly to other lead deposits we 
 have to speak of, we here insert a brief account of them. At 
 these mines we find a nearly vertical fissure, varying from a 
 knife-edge to 15 inches wide ; the wall-rock is magnesian 
 limestone. The fissure is filled with a gangue of barytes 
 with galena, and has been worked with variable success for 
 many years. The course of the main fissure varies but little 
 from a north and south line, and has been traced for several 
 miles. Parallel to this, and but a few hundred feet apart 
 are two other fissures, also galeniferous. Of a similar char- 
 acter is the Jones Mine, owned by the Kansas City Mining 
 and Smelting Company, 15 miles southeast from Versailles, 
 Morgan County. At this place the vein varies in width 
 from 4 to 18 inches, and includes a gangue of barytes in 
 vertical sheets, crystallized at their junction, and bearing 
 galena near its southern exposed portion. It can be traced 
 for three-quarters of a mile north and south. The vein can 
 be easily traced out, but only near its southern exposure is 
 galena found. In Benton County we find a similar fissure 
 vein, and bearing nearly the same magnetic course, which 
 has also been traced for three-quarters of a mile. Its 
 minerals are iron pyrites, galena, and blende. These "leads," 
 or " fissure veins," originate in cracks in the rock, probably 
 all owing to the same prime cause, and to the same cause as 
 that which created the place for the " run" on Old Mines 
 tract, and the " runs" or leads" near Potosi, and the Vir- 
 ginia Mines in Franklin County. 
 
 THE BRAZOS COAL FIELD OF TEXAS. 
 
 Compiled from a paper 
 
 Fro/, G. O. Broadhendf Trameicfinns Am. IwlUttUi 
 Mining Engineers. 
 
 VERY little is known of the economical value of 
 the coal beds of the State of Texas. The first 
 authentic statement in regard to their occur- 
 rence is that contained in the reports of the 
 United States Explorations for the Pacific Railroad, 
 near the 32d parallel of latitude, published in 1853-55. 
 Professor William P. Blake reports, "that a number of 
 seams of bituminous coal, varying in thickness from two to 
 four feet, have been opened along the Brazos river, in 
 Young county, about one hundred and fifty miles west of 
 Fort Worth." Dr. Shumard also states, " that the charac- 
 teristic fossil forms of the Carboniferous Era have been found 
 with this coal, and considers the age of the formation estab- 
 lished. Fossils obtained from the carboniferous limestone 
 remove all doubt of the age of these deposits." The de- 
 mand for coal in this section of the country is great, and a 
 fuel which in our Eastern markets might be considered of 
 inferior quality, would here find a ready sale. It must be 
 remembered that the market value of a coal does not depend 
 upon its absolute purity, but upon its actual value in heat 
 units which it is capable of producing. A poor coal which 
 can be cheaply mined near the consumer, is infinitely more 
 remunerative to a mining company than a superior coal, 
 whose cost to the consumer is greatly increased by high 
 mining charges and railroad freights. The value of the 
 Texan coals does not depend upon their purity but upon 
 their low first cost and nearness to a market. 
 
 A glance at a geological map of the United States, will 
 show that the Brazos coal field is the extreme southwestern 
 extension of what may be called the Missouriau, Fourth, or 
 Western bituminous coal basin. This basin spreads over the 
 southwestern part of Iowa, Western Missouri, and Eastern 
 Kansas, eastern part of the Indian Territory, Western and 
 Central Arkansas, and ends in Northern Texas. Professor 
 C. H. Hitchcock, in the report of the ninth census, estimates 
 the area of the basin, which is the largest in the United 
 States, as 84,000 square miles. The area embraced within 
 the State of Texas, according to A. R. Roessler, is 6X00 
 square miles. Professor B. F. Shumard estimates the thick- 
 ness of the measures at 300 feet.* 
 
 The official geological reports of the several States all 
 claim that the Missourian coal field is continuous from 
 Iowa to Texas. My knowledge of the main features of the 
 field is too general to add much corroborative testimony. 
 From the dissimilarity of the coal at McAllister, in Indian 
 Territory to that found in the vicinity of Fort Belknap, 
 Texas, many of the local geologists deny the state- 
 ment that the basins in the Territory and State are con- 
 nected. The principal ground upon which the objection is 
 made, is that along the Red River carboniferous strata are 
 not found, and that the coals in the two localities are 
 entirely different. When it is remembered that the Red 
 River rocks belong to a newer and overlying formation to 
 the coal measures, there seems to be but little doubt that 
 the coal strata must pass considerably below the bed of the 
 Red River and connect the otherwise severed fields. The 
 mere fact that the Texan coals, so far as at present 
 known, are so very much inferior to the coal which is being 
 mined at McAllister amounts to nothing. I have examined 
 the coal bed in the mine at McAllister, and the coal 
 bed in the drifts at Fort Belknap, over two hundred and 
 five miles distant, and have found less difference than 
 exists in Pennsylvania between beds of the coal-measures 
 in localities only a few miles apart. We know nothing yet as 
 to the relative position in the measures of the Belknap and 
 McAllister beds, so that their great difference in quality 
 cannot establish the fact of a break between the two basins. 
 The area in which my examinations were principally made, 
 lies in the northern part of Stephens county, along the 
 Clear Fork of the Brazos river, and in the southern part of 
 Young county. There are but two beds which may possibly 
 prove to be commercial. The upper bed I have called the 
 
 « This is very much in excess of the thickness which I deter- 
 mined between Crystal Falls, Port Belknap, and Graham. Pro- 
 fessor Shumard does not state the exact position in the basin at 
 which his measurement was made. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 113 
 
 Belknap bed, because it has been opened for a great many 
 years in the vicinity of old Fort Belknap, and the lower 
 bed the Brazos, since as yet it has only been found in the 
 tributary waters of the Brazos River. Besides these two 
 beds there are a number of associated coal seams, which 
 have never been found of a workable thickness. The verti- 
 cal interval containing the coal beds is less than 100 feet in 
 thickness, and lies between a sandstone and conglomerate, 
 and a hard gray limestone. A general section of the strata, 
 compiled from measurements made in the vicinity of Crystal 
 Falls, Stephens county, and Fort Belknap, Young county, 
 is as follows : 
 
 FEET 
 
 
 !50 + 
 
 'i~~r 
 
 ]=p: 
 
 n~T~~r 
 
 "^ 
 
 ii- i r I 
 
 I II 
 
 T . I . I r 
 
 i~ri 
 
 I I . I I 
 
 Sandstone and Conglomeratt 
 
 Coal 
 
 Sandstone and Shale 
 
 Coal 
 
 Sandstone and Shdle,with oo 
 
 casional hands qfldmestone 
 
 BELKNAP COAL BED 
 
 Sandstone and Shale 
 
 Coal 
 
 Gray Slate 
 
 Sandstone 
 BRAZOS COAL BED 
 
 Gray Limestone 
 
 seems to point clearly to the conclusion that the top sand- 
 stone and conglomerate is the representative of the carboni- 
 ferous conglomerate or Millstone Grit, that the limestone ia 
 the subcarboniferous or Mountain limestone, known general- 
 ly throughout the Mississippi Valley as the St. Louis or 
 Chester limestone, and that the included coal-measures are 
 really subconglomerate.* The upper, or Belknap coal-bed, 
 has been most extensively prospected. It covers a large ex- 
 tent of territory, especially in Stephens and Young counties, 
 as is proved further on. The bed usually consists of two 
 benches, or layers ef coal, as shown in the section. 
 
 SCALE 50=1 
 
 The sandstone and conglomerate at the top of the section 
 immediately underlies most of the prairie flat between Crys- 
 tal Falls and Fort Belknap. The sandstone is a compar- 
 atively soft, friable, and ferruginous stone. The conglomer- 
 ate beds have no marked persistency ; the rock itself bears 
 no resemblance to the carboniferous conglomerate so familiar 
 to geologists in the Eastern States. It is quite soft, very 
 ferruginous, and the pebbles are small, often quite irregular 
 in shape, and are generally formed from sandstone, which 
 at times is very calcareous. Below this sandstone and con- 
 glomerate is a group of strata, 85 feet thick, composed of 
 sandstones, shales, slates, fire-clays, and coal-beds, and below 
 these coal-measures occurs a hard, gray limestone, the total 
 thickness of which is unknown. I have measured 150 feet 
 in the valley of the Brazos river. This succession of the 
 strata is not unlike that to be found in many localities where 
 the carboniferous rocks are found in the Middle States. It 
 
 Coal 6 inches 
 Slate t inches 
 
 Coal2^to3fl. 
 
 Fire Clay 
 
 The upper bench of coal is usually about 6 inches thick, 
 while the lower varies from 2J to 3 feet thick. The two 
 benches are separated by 7 inches, more or less, of black 
 slate or clay, containing a great deal of sulphur in the 
 form of iron pyrites or sulphide of iron. The coal itself is 
 poor, bony, and extremely sulphurous. The bed is always 
 overlaid by a very ferruginous sandstone or conglomerate. 
 From the unvarying character of this rock it seems quite 
 probable that the territory underlaid by the coal-bed is 
 coextensive with the area underlaid by the sandstone, the 
 latter being easily recognized wherever it occurs. The bed 
 was found to outcrop in the following localities : 
 
 1. The Belknap coal-bed may be seen about three-quarters 
 of a mile southwest of Crystal Falls, at an elevation of 1115 
 feet, the barometric elevation of "Widow Nash's house in 
 Crystal Falls being assumed at 1100 feet above ocean level.f 
 At this point the following section is exposed : 
 
 2ftMack Slate 
 containing plates 
 of Coal 
 
 6 in. Coal 
 
 7 in. Slate,very 
 Sulphurous 
 
 3 ft. Coal 
 
 Fire Clay 
 
 Where this coal is seen there is only from 5 to 15 feet of 
 cover. When a coal-bed contains a large amount of sul- 
 phur, and occurs under so little cover as at this point, little 
 
 * In many places in Northwestern Pennsylvania and West Vir- 
 ginia sections have been constructed which compare in many respects 
 with the Brazos section. In the former locality no Mountain lime- 
 stone has been found, but coal occurs under the base of the Potts- 
 ville or carboniferous conglomerate No. XII ; in the Virginias the 
 same section exists, and in addition the Mountain (locafly called 
 Lewisburg) limestone is boldly developed. 
 
 t The elevations given in this paper were determined by a Hicks's 
 aneroid barometer. No opportunity was afforded of determining the 
 elevation of Crystal Falls instrumentally. ' 
 
114 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 can be judged of what its actual condition and character 
 would be when drifted on under good solid'cover, which 
 would prevent the infiltration of surface-water. About 300 
 feet south of this point the Belknap bed outcrops again at 
 about the same elevation. At this latter out-crop a fire-clay 
 bed is observed immediately under the coal. This is an in- 
 variable accompaniment of our bituminous coal-beds, and 
 doubtless will always be found under the Belknap bed. 
 
 On account of the imperfect character of the diggings the 
 fire-clay is not always observed where the coal-bed is seen 
 to outcrop. Below the fire-clay at this last locality occurs a 
 hard, iron sandstone, which is immediately underlaid by an 
 outcrop, indicating a coal-bed about 1 foot thick. This bed 
 is about 12 feet below the bottom of the Belknap bed. A 
 number of small coal-beds, such as this last, are seen in a 
 number of localities either above or below the Belknap bed. 
 I do not think they will ever prove workable. 
 
 2. The next place where the Belknap bed was visited was 
 at the O'Neill opening, about 600 feet southeast of the first 
 outcrop mentioned. The character and thickness of the 
 bed is the same as at the former outcrop ; the elevation of 
 the opening is 1100 feet. The coal bed has been drifted on 
 for 200 feet, more or less, and proves no better under 15 or 
 20 feet of sandstone cover than on the outcrop. The bed is 
 overlaid by a hard ferruginous sandstone. Three hundred 
 feet northeast of the mouth of the drift there is 40 feet of 
 cover to the coal-bed, and a quarter of a mile north of the 
 opening the prairie flat is 1185 feet high, showing 80 feet of 
 cover to the bed. 
 
 3. The same bed outcrops on the Walker tract to the 
 south of Samuel Sloan's house, and about three-quarters of 
 a mile, a little north of east of the O'Neill opening. The 
 elevation of the bed at this point is 1105 feet, and 35 feet 
 above the level of the Clear Fork, which flows at the foot of 
 the hill immediately below the outcrop. 
 
 4. I found another outcrop of the same bed in the bank 
 of the creek, about 450 feet southeast of the last mentioned. 
 The elevation of this outcrop is 1110 feet. This last locality 
 is about half a mile north o± Crystal Falls. 
 
 5. The next outcrop visited was found on the east bank of 
 the Clear Fork, about a quarter of a mile north of the 
 above outcrop, and in the northwestern corner of the J. T. 
 Pinkney tract. This is known as the Ballard opening. The 
 following section is exposed : 
 
 18 in. Sandstone 
 
 Ifoot Goal and Slate 
 Ifoof Clay and Slate 
 
 18 indies Coal 
 Sulphurous 
 
 Fire Clay 
 
 The coal is rather hard and bright, but has the unvariable 
 character of the Belknap bed in being very slaty and very 
 sulphurous. The elevation of the coal at this opening is 
 1080 feet, and about ten feet above the Clear Fork. 
 
 6. On Coal Creek, in the southeastern corner of section 3 
 of the railroad lands, the Belknap bed is exposed, showing 
 from 2i to 3 feet of coal. The bed is here immediately 
 overlaid by 18 inches of highly sulphurous black slate, 
 above which occurs 15 feet of hard, shaly iron sandstone. 
 The same bed has been found at several other points along 
 the creek. 
 
 7. The Belknap bed outcrops around the base of Coal 
 Mountain, seven miles southwest of Crystal Falls, and be- 
 tween Hubbard and Gonzales creeks. The elevation of the 
 coal is 1185 feet, and of the top of the mountain 1200 feet. 
 The following section is observed : 
 
 38 feet Sandstone 
 
 1ft. Coal 
 
 12 ft. Sandstone and Shale 
 
 1ft. Coal 
 
 15 ft. Sandstone and Shale 
 
 Slaty CoalG inches 
 Sulphurous Slate inches 
 Coal 24: inches 
 
 JPire Clay 
 
 The coal has been hauled from the mountain to Brecken- 
 ridge for blacksmith use. It is very sulphurous and very 
 slaty. At the junction of Sandy and Hubbard creeks, 
 northwest of Coal Mountain, and at an elevation of 1105 
 feet, a coal has been worked in the bed of the creek below 
 water level. The coal from this bed has been mined and 
 used by the blacksmiths ; it is said to be purer and to burn 
 much better than the coal from the Belknap bed. The bed 
 was under water when I visited it, so that I could not see 
 the coal. This bed occurs at a lower level than that at the 
 foot of Coal Mountain. I should judge it to be a lower 
 coal and very probably the representative of the Brazos 
 coal-bed. Its thickness is very uncertain ; it was variously 
 reported to me to be from 1 to 6 feet thick. 
 
 8. On Mr. P. F. Pascall's farm, two and a half miles 
 southwest of Crystal Falls, a well has recently been dug, 
 and I was fortunate enough to obtain a record from the 
 well-digger. The well was dug 39 feet deep, and a drill- 
 hole ten feet deep was sunk below the bottom of the well. 
 The following is a section of the well : 
 
 5ft. Gravel 
 
 10 ft. Clay 
 
 3 ft. Coal and Slate 
 
 8ft.Light Gray Slate 
 
 20ft.Sandstone 
 
 \3 ft. Coal 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 116 
 
 The elevation at the top of the well is about 1125 feet. 
 The elevation of the first coal is 1107 feet, and of the second 
 coal 1079 fe?t. I believe the lower coal-bed which was 
 pierced by the drill is the Brazos coal-bed. The upper coal, 
 which is found associated with black slate, is very possibly 
 the thin coal which is shown in the general section under- 
 neath the Belknap coal-bed. I am inclined to put this con- 
 struction upon the well record from an examination of 
 the rock exposures and topography in the immediate vici- 
 nity of the Pascall farm. 
 
 The most important outcrop visited in Stephens County 
 was that of the Brazos coal-seam in the bed of the Clear 
 Fork of the Brazos River in the eastern part of the Johnson 
 tract, four and a half miles northwest of Crystal Falls. 
 The coal lies 3 to 4 feet under the surface of the water in the 
 bed of the creek, and is variously reported to be from 6 to 
 7 feet thick. The coal has been worked by prying large 
 cubical blocks apart by a long crowbar and raising the blocks 
 on to rafts by divers or tongs. The elevation of the top of 
 the coal is 1075 feet. Forty-five feet above the top of the 
 coal in the creek, which I have named the Brazos bed, and 
 on the south side of the stream, is seen an imperfect outcrop 
 of a coal which is probably the representative of the Belknap 
 bed. The following is the section : 
 
 cztz^ 
 
 -7-7 
 
 I /_ 
 
 TJT 
 
 TUl 
 
 XZ 
 
 VT/T 
 
 X 
 
 "V- 
 
 2Sft.8andstone 
 
 Coal Outcrop 
 BELKNAP BEOC?; 
 
 4:5 ft. Sandstone and Shale 
 
 _,—- Surface of water 
 """ Clear Fork of Brazos. 
 BRAZOS COAL BED 
 (Johnson TracO 
 
 A hard massive gray limestone is found in the bed of the 
 Clear Fork at Crystal Falls ; in fact, it is the limestone 
 which forms the natural fall of 4 feet 10 inches which has 
 given a name to the place. This limestone underlies the 
 Brazos coal-bed and is probably the base of the coal 
 measures. The top of the limestone is only exposed in the 
 northern part of Stephens County. By glancing over the 
 elevations of the Belknap bed in the vicinity of Crystal 
 Falls we see that the bed is nearly horizontal. The lowest 
 point where it was found was at the Ballard opening on the 
 Pinkney tract. The Brazos coal-bed if it has an extended 
 area should be found at Crystal Falls above the level of the 
 creek, as the limestone in the creek occurs below the coal. 
 The area under which we might expect to find the Belknap 
 and Brazos coals is very great. I found the limestone which 
 
 occurs under the latter coal but a short distance west of 
 Weatherford. The top of the limestone is not reached until 
 we approach the Brazos River in Northern Palo Pinto 
 County. Here the sandstone which is found over the 
 Belknap coal-bed shows itself in the tops of the hills from 
 100 to 200 feet above the bottom of the valleys. If the coal- 
 beds should be found on these hills the area would be too 
 limited to make a development profitable. In Eastern 
 Stephens County the sandstone is found more universally 
 underlying the surface. Going south from Crystal Falls to 
 Breckenridge the topography resembles very much that in 
 the eastern part of the county. The limestone for the most 
 part is below the surface, and the topographical features are 
 formed by the sandstone. From Crystal Falls to Belknap, 
 I found the sandstone generally beneath the surface until 
 we descended into the valley of the Brazos River, about 
 three miles southwest of Fort Belknap. There is no evidence 
 against the existence of both the Belknap and Brazos coal- 
 beds under most of the plateau between Crystal Falls and 
 Belknap. The Belknap coal has been opened on several 
 places on Whiskey Run, one and a half miles northwest of 
 the settlement. About half a mile from the mouth of the 
 run the following section is exposed : 
 
 X^ft.Sandstone 
 and Shale 
 
 6 inches slaty Coal 
 \Q inches Shale very 
 
 Sulphurous 
 2ft.6inch.Coal 
 
 Fire Clay 
 
 The bottom of the coal-bed is 45 feet vertically below the 
 town and 50 feet above the bottom of the Brazos River. 
 An indication of a coal-bed 8 or 9 feet above the Belknap 
 bed is seen on Whiskey Run. It is possibly the same coal 
 that was found above the Belknap bed in the vicinity of 
 Crystal Falls. A coal-bed has been opened at one time on 
 the Brazos River near the mouth of Whiskey Run and 30 to 
 35 feet vertically below the Belknap bed. I did not see this 
 bed exposed. It was reported to be two to three feet thick 
 and of better quality than the upper bed. I was informed 
 by the blacksmith at Fort Belknap that he had picked 
 blocks of coal out of the-bed of the river which had come 
 from this lower coal-bed, which may prove to be the Brazos. 
 The elevation of the Belknap bed at Fort Belknap is about 
 the same as it is at Crystal Falls, so that the coal-strata lie 
 very nearly horizontal between the two places. The Belk- 
 nap bed is opened two and a half miles fi-om the mouth of 
 a small stream which empties into Salt Creek nine miles 
 north of Graham. The coal is 2J feet in thickness and has 
 all the characteristics of the Belknap bed. Most of the 
 territory lying between Belknap and Graham, and Graham 
 and Crystal Falls, is underlaid by the Belknap and Brazos 
 coal-beds. Whether they will ever prove to be workable 
 commercial coal-beds in all this territory can Qnly be deter- 
 mined by actual tests and, openings made on the beds, The 
 Brazos coal-field extends south to the Colorado River, 
 There are many oqnflicting feports as to its boundaries. I 
 gathered no facts Qutsi(Je of the immediate territory ex- 
 amined, SQ that I am not prepared to express an opinion as 
 
116 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 to its definite limits. Coal has been reported to have been 
 found in El Paso and Presidio counties along the Rio Grande, 
 but nothing has been authentically stated as to the extent 
 of the areas or the value of the beds. Tertiary lignites, or 
 lignitic coals, are said to exist in the following counties : 
 Rush, Harrison, Cass, Grayson, Bastrop, Fayette, Caldwell, 
 and Guadalupe. 
 
 RhximL — The Brazos coal-field is the southwestern limit 
 of the Missourian or Fourth bituminous coal basin of the 
 United States. The coal-measures of Stephens and Young 
 counties belong to the Carboniferous Age. The coal-strata 
 proper are 85 feet thick, and are included between an upper 
 sandstone and conglomerate, representative of the Millstone 
 Grit or Pottsville conglomerate, No. XII of the Penn- 
 sylvania series, and a. lower gray limestone representative 
 of the Mountain limestone or Chester and St. Louis lime- 
 stone of the Mississippi Valley. The coal-strata contain 
 two coal-beds of workable thickness. The upper bed, 
 namedBelknap, ranges from 2} to 4 feet, and the lower, 
 named Brazos, from 4 to 6 feet. The coals are high in ash 
 and sulphur, but have never been thoroughly tested. The 
 Brazos bed underlies a great area, and will no doubt prove 
 to be a valuable commercial coal in some localities. 
 
 — Compiled from a pa-per by Cliarles A,Ashhurnel\ Transactions American 
 
 Inst.tuU of Mining Engineers. 
 
 ALABAMA COAL AND IRON. 
 
 A REFERENCE to the geological map of Alabama 
 shows the coal measures of that State to form three 
 distinct fields. The Coosa, or most easterly, con- 
 tains about one hundred square miles ; the Cahaba, 
 or middle field, which is also the most southern true coal in 
 the United States, contains about 230 square miles ; and the 
 Warrior field, which contains in the State of Alabama some 
 5000 square miles, is the' southern extremity of the great 
 carboniferous deposit, which extends through Pennsylvania, 
 West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Georgia. But 
 very little has yet been done towards developing those coal 
 fields, partly owing to the absence of all commercial manu- 
 facturing enterprise in the South under slavery, and partly 
 owing to the want of capital and disturbed condition of the 
 South since the war. During the past three or four years I 
 have devoted a large part of my time to the examination of 
 the coal and iron ores of this range, and particularly to the 
 coal in the Warrior and Cahaba fields, and the iron ores 
 which are found in such abundance in their vicinity. My 
 surveys and examinations have been directed especially to 
 the Cahaba field, which, from its geographical position as 
 the most southern coal in the State, and the most accessible 
 by water communication, counting the Alabama River as 
 the only available stream at present, and on account of its 
 presenting the greatest "variety and, I believe, the best 
 quality of coal feasibly accessible, will, undoubtedly, be the 
 centre of a large industry, and must, in the near future, be- 
 come one of the principal coal-producing districts of 
 America. Under the stimulus of State aid a number of rail- 
 roads have been built in Alabama within the last six years, 
 and the prospectuses and reports of these have invariably 
 counted on a large part of their profits coming from carrying 
 coal and iron ; but strangely enough, none of the roads built 
 where alone they would make the development of the coal- 
 fields possible ; so we have to-day the somewhat peculiar 
 phenomenon of a market at the iron ore deposits, in the cities 
 of the South, and in the Gulf and export trades, calling for an 
 amount of coal the carriage of which would in itself make a 
 railroad profitable ; a coal-field in which we know there 
 exists an abundance of coal of excellent quality in large 
 veins ; and on each side of the field, railroads which have 
 become bankrupt, because, through some strange design, 
 they have avoided the very source from which not only their 
 own prosperity, but also that of the entire State must come. 
 Most of these , roads appear to have been designed rather 
 with the view of obtaining the State grants than of develop- 
 ing the greal natural resources of this favored country, for 
 they have avoided where possible, crossing the coal-fields, or 
 encouraging, till recently, by modern freight charges the 
 establishment of mining industries. Under these circum- 
 
 stances, and in the absence of anything deserving the name 
 of a geological survey of the State, we can scarcely be sur- 
 prised at the almost complete ignorance that prevails con- 
 cerning the quality of the Alabama coals, and the number, 
 thickness and position of the coal-beds. No developments 
 of any value have been made in the Coosa field, beyond 
 proving the fact of the existence of several workable beds 
 of coal, which were exploited some years ago for the supply 
 of the blacksmiths in the vicinity. The Coosa River could 
 be made navigable only by a large expenditure of money, 
 building locks and danis, and the coal-basin is not crossed 
 by any railroad. The Selma, Rome and Dalton Railroad 
 passes near the southern edge of this field, and the South 
 and North Alabama road follows up the limestone valley, 
 which lies between this and the Cahaba field. 
 
 At the base of the coal-measures in Alabama, as in other 
 portions of this country, we find a series of hard, coarse- 
 grained, and heavy-bedded sandstones. They do not how- 
 ever, resemble the conglomerate we find at the base of our 
 anthracite coal-measures, nor are they even as coarse as the 
 sandstones which lie below the West Virginia coals on the 
 Sewall Mountains and the New River, but they have the 
 same effect on the topography of the country ; for, being 
 much harder than the rocks immediately containing the 
 coal-beds, they form a well-defined ridge, running in an 
 almost straight northeast and southwest line, as the western 
 limit of the Cahaba field. The dip of these rocks does not 
 usually exceed twelve degrees, and is frequently less than 
 ten. Crossing the field in the direction of the dip (i. e., 
 southeast), and limiting our remarks to the southern portion 
 of the field, where the measures are regular and the width of 
 the greatest field (about twelve miles), we note that the in- 
 clination of the measm-es increases from six to ten degrees 
 on the western limit to twelve or fifteen degrees on the 
 Cahaba River, in the vicinity of the Lilly Shoals, and from 
 that to the eastern limit of the field, the dip increases much 
 more rapidly, though still with tolerable regularity, till 
 along the eastern edge of the field the rocks are dipping 
 from forty-five to seventy-five degrees, or even \ertical in a 
 few places, the dip being constantly in the southeasterly 
 direction. The Cahaba coal-field is limited on its southern 
 and eastern sides by a fault which cuts off the coal-meas- 
 ures, and brings to the surface, on a level with the highest 
 coal-beds of the field, silurian rocks, which belong fliUy 
 7000 to 8000 feet below them. The-vertical displacement of 
 this enormous throw, or fault, must therefore be but little 
 less than 10,000 feet, or nearly two miles. I know of no 
 other such fault in any part of the world. The Silurian 
 rooks, which have also a steep southeast dip, are for the most 
 part limestones, metamorphosed by the action of the agents 
 which caused this great rupture of the earth's crust, and 
 cherts, which evidently have replaced limestones, and are, in 
 many places, pseudomorphs of calc spar, and contain occa- 
 sionally characteristic silurian fossils, orthoceratites, etc. 
 In hardness, these rocks do hot vary greatly from the softer 
 sandstones, and coarse and loose pebbly conglomerates 
 which here constitute the higher coal-measures, and we do 
 not, therefore, find any very marked ridge along the south- 
 ern and eastern sides of the field as we do on the west, and 
 as we would find were this field really a true trough-shaped 
 basin, instead of being a monoclinal basin as it is. This 
 very remarkable feature exerts a notable influence on the 
 economic value of the field. In the firet place we have here 
 a very much greater thickness of measures than exists any- 
 where along the eastern side, and probably in any part of 
 the great Warrior field, which is a true trough-shaped basin, 
 with a very moderate inclination of the measures. The 
 greater inclination of the Cahaba beds causes them to out- 
 crop within a limited area, and as we have here a greater 
 total thickness of measures, so have we a greater number of 
 coal-beds, and, consequently, a greater variety of coals than, 
 I believe, exists in any part of the Warrior or Coosa fields. 
 It is true, however, that there is more coal which can be 
 worked above wafer level in the Warrior field than in the 
 Cahaba, though, since in either case the hills rarely rise 
 more than 150 to 200 feet above the levels of the creeks, no 
 very large amount of coal will be. obtained level free. From 
 the topographical features of the countv, a railroad crossing 
 the southern portion of the Cahaba field would be graded at 
 a considerable elevation above the streams, the coal would 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 117 
 
 have to be raised either in shafts or on planes to the level of 
 the railroads; there would, therefore, be the less inducement 
 for opening mines on the lowest water level, except, of 
 course, drainage levels. The small inclination of the beds 
 would make it necessary to open all the lower beds by 
 means of vertical shafts, which would be located with refer- 
 ence to shipping facilities on the railways. The surface of 
 field is very oroken, valleys being cut in every direction, it 
 is therefore an exceedingly difficult country in which to 
 select the most desirable route for a road ; not that there are 
 insurmountable, or even very great obstacles to the construc- 
 tion of a road with moderate grades and good alignment 
 across the southern portion of the field, but, because the 
 road should be built with the special object of developing 
 the coal mining interests, and should run irrespective of 
 minor difficulties, in that portion of the field where the 
 largest beds and the best' qualities of coal are accessible at 
 moderate depths, and where the regularity of the meas- 
 ures gives promise of freedom from those faults and disturb- 
 ances which are so serious a drawback and source of ex- 
 pense in practical mining operations. These are considera- 
 tions which appear to have been overlooked in the location 
 of all the Alabama railroads. The surface of these coal- 
 fields is nearly everywhere covered by a virgin forest of 
 yellow pine, oak, chestnut, and other valuable timber. The 
 soil is light, and not suitable for agricultural purposes, 
 except in the river and creek bottoms, which are of very 
 limited area. The climate is exceedingly healthy, except 
 in the bottoms, where, at certain seasons of the year, ague is 
 prevalent. 
 
 Number and Thickness of the Coa?-6e(Zs.— The coal-measures 
 of the Alabama fields consist of a series of sandstones, con- 
 glomerates, and shales, among which we find some ten or 
 twelve veins of workable thickness, i. e., from two feet (aver- 
 age thickness of clean coal) upwards, besides a number of 
 smaller beds, several of which are from 15 to 18 inches in 
 thickness. These ten or twelve workable beds are distributed 
 in two series or groups, as we find in all our coal-fields, 
 notably in West Virginia, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. The 
 lower group contains seven or eight workable beds, varying 
 in average thickness from Z' C to 7' C of clean coal, and 
 making an aggregate thickness of workable coal in the beds 
 thus far proved of from 30 to 35 feet, while the upper, or 
 Montevallo, series, which occupies but a very small area 
 along the eastern side of the field, contains some three or four 
 workable beds, giving an aggregate thickness of about 12 
 feet, making the total thickness of coal in the field, in beds 
 of workable size, at from 40 to 50 feet. The enormous thick- 
 ness of measures which exists between the lower beds of the 
 lower series and the beds in the Montevallo, or upper, group, 
 renders the lower coals so deep as to be forever inaccessible 
 where we have the upper beds, hence the maximum amtlable 
 thickness of coal as yet proved in any portion of the field 
 will not exceed 30 to 35 feet; while, if we take the area ot 
 the Cahaba field at 230 square miles, the average thickness 
 of workable coal over the entire field would probably scarce- 
 ly attain 15 feet; for in a great part of the field along the 
 western side, where the measures are nearly horizontal 
 (5='_10^) there are but two workable beds. This estimate, 
 so much lower than we have been accustomed to see stated 
 in reports and newspaper articles, is probably not ve^ dif- 
 ferent from the thickness which the same method ot esti- 
 mating would give for any of our other bituminous coal-fields. 
 Without describing in detail the peculiarities of the different 
 veins, which would be out of place in a general paper ot 
 this kind, though of very great importance m determining 
 on the establishment of mines, I may say that the veins ot 
 the Cahaba coal-field are generally free from shale partings, 
 that is, they form generally a single bench of coal, and in 
 that respect will be found better adapted for clean mining 
 than most of the beds of the Warrior field, where some of 
 the larger veins have got a number oi shale bands running 
 through them. The thickness of the largest bed as yet 
 proved in the Cahaba field is about 9' 0" but where ex- 
 amined, two feet of these nine formed a shale band leaving 
 the coai in two divisions of about 5' 6'- and 1' 6 ; wheie, 
 unfortunately, the thick benchcomes on the top, the proba- 
 bmty, therefore, is that the lower bench will be abandoned 
 Another vein worked to some e/t^nt <iu"ng the war is 
 represented to have a thickness of 7' C' of clean coal. The 
 
 good quality of the coal from this place is quite evident, for 
 there still remain at the pit-head several hundred tons of it 
 in large lumps, which have resisted very successfully the 
 action of the atmosphere for some eight years now, having 
 been all that time exposed to the sun and rain of a warm 
 climate; and it is still so serviceable a fuel that many of the 
 farmers send for miles to get it for their winter supply. 
 The sections, one across the southern or widest portion of 
 the field, the other across the basin, on the line of the 
 South and North Alabama Railroad, will give the gene- 
 ral features of this field, and show the remarkable fault 
 which limits the coal-field on the south and east. The South 
 and North Alabama Railroad section shows also one of those 
 peculiar contortions in the rocks which we frequently find 
 in the coal-fields ; it is very well defined at this point, and 
 has the effect of greatly interfering with mining operations, 
 for such complications are the results of a crushing of the 
 measures which makes the coal faulty and not unfrequently 
 sulphury, even at some distance from the anticlinal and syn- 
 clinal axes. In general, we may remark that wherever the 
 disturbance of the measures is so great as to leave the beds 
 standing at a high angle, say 60° to 80°, or vertical, we al- 
 most invariably find the veins are subject to great irregular- 
 ity, both in the thickness and hardness of the coal ; they 
 are, in short, " faulty," and this is as true in the anthracite 
 as in the bituminous fields. The rolls which we find in the 
 narrow- compressed part of the field where the South and 
 North Alabama Railroad crosses, disappear, or at least, so 
 diminish in importance in the southern portion of the field 
 that they cannot be designated as anticlinals, ror they do 
 not divide the field into separate basins. On the " Four 
 Mile Creek " section, to which I refer, these rolls barely 
 change the degree of dip over a very limited distance from, 
 say, twenty degrees to horizontal or nearly po. Undoubtedly 
 they will exert an influence on mining operations, even 
 though they are not of such magnitude as to divide the field 
 into different troughs or synclinal basins. Their position in 
 the field, especially in that portion of it where the most de- 
 sirable coals are accessible, has received much attention in 
 my examination, but to name these points without reference 
 to elaborate maps would be of little interest. 
 
 The following are the workable beds proved on or near 
 the line of the South and North Alabama Railroad. I place 
 them in their order of superposition, commencing with the 
 highest, the thickness being the average of clean coal where 
 examined : 
 
 No. 9. Thicknesp, 
 " 8. 
 
 " 7. " 
 
 " 6. 
 " 6. " 
 
 4'0" 
 3'C" 
 2'0" 
 2'0" 
 2' 6" 
 
 No. 4. Thickness, ... 3' r," 
 
 " 3. " . . 3' 3" 
 
 " 2. " . . 4-'0" 
 
 "1. " ... 3' 6" 
 
 Aggregate thickness, . 28' 3" 
 
 It is true that at this point the measures are compressed 
 and these veins may become thicker as we get some distance 
 away from the line of greatest disturbance, as we find in the 
 southern portion of the field where the beds are much larger, 
 being but little disturbed. The developments thus far made 
 are not sufficient to enable us to identify the beds in differ- 
 ent parts of the field, but I give an approximate section of 
 the measures in the " Four Mile Creek," as follows : 
 
 Four veins Montevallo group, 
 aeereeate . . ■ -12' "" 
 S'6" 
 
 VIIIT Vein, 
 
 VII. ■■ 
 
 VI. 
 V. 
 
 7'0' 
 4'0" 
 3'C" 
 
 IV. Vein, . 
 
 III. " . 
 
 II. " 
 
 I. " 
 
 Total, 
 
 . 8' 6' 
 3' 6" 
 4'0" 
 4'0" 
 
 , 50' 0" 
 
 There are, probably, other workable beds not yet known. 
 We can assume the thickness of coal in the southern portion 
 of the field at 85' 0" to 40' 0" in the lower group, and about 
 twelve feet in the upper group. The great fault which 
 limits this coal-field on the east has left none of the upper 
 groups of coals, and, probably, not even the two highest 
 veins of the lower group, on the line of the South and North 
 Alabama Railroad. While our data are not sufficient to 
 identify the several beds in different parts of the field, yet 
 the dimensions of theveins I have above given are from 
 openings rnade mostly during the war, when the needs of 
 the Confederate Government caused it to make extensive 
 surveys and examinations of the field (the notes of these 
 
118 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 were, unfortunately, destroyed during the latter part of the 
 war), and to open mines in a number of places. The fact is 
 therefore fully proven that Alabama possesses an abundant 
 supply of coal m easily accessible beds of good workable 
 thickness. I have made careful examinations of the quality 
 of the coal of all the workable beds from which it was 
 possible to obtain satisfactory samples for analyses. I was 
 unable in most cases to procure such large amounts of the 
 coals as would have been desirable ; for the only manner 
 in which to obtain samples whose analysis will give the 
 average quality of a bed is by taking a large number of 
 freshly mined average specimens from the different divisions 
 of the vein and crushing and mixing them previous to taking 
 the samples for analysis. In some cases it was impossible 
 to do this, so that, though care was taken to get what 
 appeared average pieces, it is possible the run of the bed 
 would not equal the analysis I have given. As a means of 
 comparison with coals from other fields, the results will 
 probably be satisfactory, for in most cases samples for 
 analysis are taken in the same manner as were these, and 
 the published results consequently indicate almost invari- 
 
 culm-banks, exposed to the rain, and under conditions the 
 most favorable for decomposition, being mixed with shales 
 containing a large amount of iron pyrites, which in decom- 
 posing generate a very high temperature in the whole mass, 
 is yet found to burn well, almost as well as that freshly 
 mined, while large lump coal has been used in our blast-fur- 
 naces after an exposure of twelve years, and no perceptible 
 difference in its quality could be noticed. It is, neverthe- 
 less, quite certain that most varieties of bituminous coal de- 
 teriorate very rapidly, and to an extent but little apprecia- 
 ted. These important results should be born in mind not 
 cmly in providing for the storage of coal, but also ineelect- 
 ingsamples for analysis. The following table gives the com- 
 position from some seven different beds. For obvious rea- 
 sons the numbers of the samples do not indicate the num- 
 ber of the bed as given in the previous table, and while gen- 
 erally in ascending order, they do not commence with the 
 lowest bed of the field. These analyses, made with much 
 care, will be found of value and interest, and though only a 
 part of those I have made, they may be taken as represent- 
 ing fairly the quality of the Cahaba coals. 
 
 Caliaba Coals. 
 
 
 KUMBtlll OF S.\MPLES. 
 
 Mean of ten 
 analyses of 
 Cahaba coals, 
 from 8 veins. 
 
 Mean of 14 
 
 analyses of 
 
 Indiana coals. 
 
 Cox. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 
 Specific gravity 
 
 1.22 
 
 1.29 
 
 1.29 
 
 1.38 
 
 1 29 
 
 1.28 
 
 1.12 
 
 1.28 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.36 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.24 
 
 1.266 
 
 Moisture 
 
 Vol. combustible matter . 
 
 Fixed carbon 
 
 Ash 
 
 Sulphur ... 
 
 166 
 33.28 
 63.0i 
 
 2.02 
 
 1.58 
 32.60 
 62.62 
 
 3.20 
 
 1.91 
 32.05 
 63.91 
 
 1.53 
 
 1.93 
 32.84 
 69.64 
 
 6.59 
 
 2.05 
 33.47 
 62.20 
 
 2.28 
 
 2.13 
 30.86 
 64.54 
 
 2.47 
 
 2.54 
 29.44 
 66.81 
 
 1.21 
 
 1.78 
 30.60 
 66.58 
 
 1.09 
 
 2.14 
 31.92 
 63.68 
 
 2.26 
 
 2.13 
 27.03 
 66.22 
 
 4.62 
 
 1.98 
 
 31.47 
 
 63.92 
 
 2.63 
 
 1.06 
 
 5.2 
 34.8 
 67.6 
 
 2.6 
 
 4.54 
 34.61 
 68.68 
 
 2.17 
 .87 
 
 Total.. 
 
 100. 
 
 100. 
 
 I'lO. 
 
 100. 
 
 100. 
 
 100. 
 
 100. 
 
 100. 
 
 100. 
 
 100. 
 
 
 Sulphur as sulphate 
 
 Sulphur as sulphuret of Iron.. . . 
 Sulphur in coke .... 
 
 .097 
 .428 
 
 .223 
 .727 
 
 .071 
 
 .559 
 
 Not dete 
 
 1.001 
 
 2.779 
 
 rmined 
 
 .118 
 .623 
 
 .320 
 1.160 
 
 .073 
 .455 
 .214 
 
 .085 
 .479 
 .223 
 
 
 .114 
 .388 
 
 
 For comparison— Sulphur in Connellsville coke, Pa., .65 to .70. 
 
 ably a quality of coal superior to the average production of 
 the mines. It is also essential that the coal be freshly 
 mined, for experiments have been made that show the 
 deterioration which coal undergoes by even a very limited 
 exposure to the atmosphere is quite considerable. For 
 example : 
 
 According to Dr. Eichter, the weather waste of a coal de- 
 pends on its ability to absorb oxygen, converting the hydro- 
 carbons into water and carbonic acid. Grundman found 
 that coal exposed for nine months to the atmosphere lost 50 
 percent, of its value as a fuel. He states that the decom- 
 position takes place in the middle of a heap the same as on 
 the surface, and it reached its maximum about the third or 
 ■ fourth week; and' one-half the oxygen was absorbed during 
 the first fourteen days. He also found that a coal poor in 
 oxygen absorbs it most rapidly, and that the presence of 
 moisture is an important condition. Coal which made, 
 when freshly mined, a good compact coke, after eleven days' 
 exposure either would not coke at all or it made an inferior 
 coke. For gas purposes the coal is also greatly injured by 
 the loss of its volatile hydrocarbons. Varrentrapp, of Bruns- 
 wick, found in his experiments that oxidation of the coal 
 takes place even at common temperature, where moisture is 
 present. Coal exposed to a temperature of 284° Fahr. for 
 three months lost all its hydrocarbons, a fact which shows 
 that the conversion of bituminous into anthracite was not 
 necessarily accompanied by a high temperature. " He found 
 also that the weather waste in some cases amounted to 33 
 per cent., and in one instance the gas-yielding quality de- 
 creased 45 per cent., and the heating power 47 per cent., 
 while the same coal under cover lost m the same time but 
 24 per cent, for gas purposes, and 12 per cent for fuel." The 
 harder varieties of bituminous coal, such for example as the 
 cannel and splint coals of West Virginia, Ohio, and Indi- 
 ana, do not appear to lose much by exposure to the atmos- 
 phere, except it be in heaps of slack where the conditions 
 are favorable to the generation of a high temperature. An- 
 thracite appears to be still less affected by exposure, for the 
 fine coal which has lain for the past twenty years in our 
 
 The above table shows that the Cahaba coab are of re- 
 markably fine quality, being chiefly distinguished for their 
 dryness, small amount of ash. and large amount of fixed 
 carbon. We note particularly (as a subject worthy of further 
 attention, and on which I desire to have the experience of 
 other members)the regular increase, with but little exception, 
 of the amount of moisture in the coal as we go from the 
 lower to the higher veins ; it would appear that, possibly, 
 with a sufficient number of analyses of freshly mined coal, 
 we might be able to determine the relative height in the 
 series of the several veins of any given field by this test 
 alone. I believe it has been asserted that the quantity of 
 oxygen in the coals of a given basin varies directly with the 
 geological height of the vein. Unfortunately I was not 
 enabled to apply this test, but it is a matter of great interest 
 if by careful analyses we can determine the relative ages of 
 coal-beds of the same field, and possibly even of different 
 fields. Some of the above coals make an excellent coke 
 suitable for blast-furnace use, and as some of them are dry- 
 burning coals that do not coke, they would probably work 
 raw in the furnace. Judging from "the analysis alone, we 
 would be inclined to consider all of the Cahabas as drier- 
 burning coals than those of Indiana or Ohio, while in 
 reality the opposite is the case. The block coals of Ohio 
 and Indiana, so largely used raw in the furnaces of the 
 Mahoning Valley, do not coke in burning, while the Cahaba 
 coals do, though the former contain about 3 per cent, more 
 of volatile combustible matter, and nearly 6 per cent, less 
 fixed carbon than the latter. It is noticeable that these 
 Indiana and Ohio coals, ranked among the best furnace 
 fuels we have in this country, contain on an average 2J to 
 3 per cent, more moisture than the Alabama coals ; in fact 
 the analysis would indicate that the Cahaba coal is a better 
 fuel, and altogether an exceptioxially pure coal. It has 
 been fully proved as a steam generator and is highly 
 esteemed, and the coke from several of the veins was used 
 very successfully in the smelting of iron for the cannon 
 foundry of the Confederate States, at Selma, during the war. 
 It may be found that it will be desirable in the case of a 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 119 
 
 few of the good coking seams to crush and wash the coal 
 before coking, and this will be more necessary in the War- 
 rior field than in the Oahaba, the veins proved in the former 
 containing more soft shale partings which, in the mining 
 will break up and cannot be separated from the coal. The 
 coals of the Warrior field appear also to be softer and more 
 friable in general, than those mined on the Cahaba. The 
 property which makes one coal coke or melt in burning, 
 and another burn without change of form, is not to be 
 determined *by their composition alone, for we find coals 
 almost identical in chemical composition, as are these 
 Cahaba coals, and yet one cokes well, making a hard, com- 
 pact, silvery coke, and another burns without change of 
 form. It appears . to me probable, that in non-coking coals 
 the carbon is in thin layers, which are separated by exceed- 
 ingly thin leaves of a carbon which has partially lost its 
 volatile constituents. We not unfrequently find in the part- 
 ings between successive layers of both bituminous and an- 
 thracite coal, layers of charcoal, mineral charcoal, if we may 
 so call it. And again, we know that on heating a piece of 
 the hardest anthracite with the most perfect couchoidal 
 fracture, we can readily distinguish under the microscope 
 the original bedding planes of the coal, and can usually 
 even divide the piece into leaves. Now, where these leaves 
 are separated by thin layers of what we may call oxidized 
 coal — that is, coal which, from exposure, or other cause 
 when being deposited, has lost a portion of its volatile con- 
 stituents, bringing it to the condition of this mineral char- 
 coal, it is probable the coal would not melt or coke in burn- 
 ing even where the amount of coal in the partings is so 
 small that it would not change noticeably the composition 
 of the entire vein, while where the bed was deposited in a 
 continuous manner or without these partings of non-coking 
 carbon we would have a coking coal. The Cahaba coals 
 contain a small amount of sulphur principally in the form 
 of sulphuret of iron. I have determined separately the 
 amount contained as sulphate of lime, alumina, etc., since 
 in that condition it is not supposed to exercise the injurious 
 influence in the blast-furnace which it does when occurring 
 as sulphuret of iron. The quantity of sulphur contained 
 in these coals varies considerably, but the best veins are 
 suflioiently free from it to be suitable for use raw in the 
 blast-furnace, where the nature of the coal in other respects 
 will allow of tbis. In all cases they are so free from sul- 
 phur as to produce coke of great purity. 
 
 The cost of mining in the Cahaba and Warrior fields will 
 vary for the different veins, according to their thickness, 
 the amount of shales interbedded in the coal, the nature of 
 the roof of the vein, the locations of the veins, and other 
 conditions of a practical nature, which will require carefiil 
 consideration for each special' case. For a large output the 
 cost should not exceed $1.75 per ton in the railroad wagons, 
 including in this, interest and wear and tear of improve- 
 ments, but not royalties, for where the land can be bought 
 at from $3 to $10 per acre, it is not necessary to count roy- 
 alty or sinking-fund for the property, the increase in the 
 value of the surface much more than covering the first cost 
 of the land. I had intended to give in this paper some par- 
 ticulars as to the great iron ore deposits which are found in 
 the immediate vicinity of the coal-fields of Alabama, but I 
 shall not at present take up that subject further than to say 
 that the limonite or brown hematite deposits are of the 
 most wonderful extent and richness. I have never seen 
 deposits of this kind of ore in any other part of the world 
 to equal them. The ore can be mined at a cost of about 
 $1 per ton, and will yield in the furnace, when roasted (in 
 which process it loses about 12 per cent, moisture), from 50 
 to 60 per cent, metallic iron. From the very nature of their 
 origin— depositions from ferruginous springs— these limonite 
 deposits are of irregular and uncertain extent, and require 
 a careful study in each particular case. The red or fossil 
 ores being in regular stratified beds are easier studied. 
 They occur to the west, south, and southeast of the Cahaba 
 coal-field, and extend in an unbroken line through many 
 hundred miles. These beds are from 10 to 30 feet in thick- 
 ness in the vicinity of that part of the coal-field which I 
 have examined, but in many places the ore is lean, sel- 
 dom yieldino- over 40 per cent, in the furnace, even trom 
 the better portion of the bed. These ores are somewhat 
 eilicidus, and their treatment alone in the charcoal tumaces 
 
 of that region has been attended with considerable diffi- 
 culty ; most of the furnaces now use a mixture of limonite 
 and red ore, and produce an excellent quality of pig-iron. 
 The charcoal iron manufactured from the limonites alone 
 stands at the very head of our American iron, " Shelby " 
 and " Bibb " ranking with the famous Salesbury car-wheel 
 iron of Connecticut. The Blackband ore of the coal- 
 measures is found from 16 to 20 inches thick in the Warrior 
 field, and forms a continuous bed within a short distance of, 
 and between two of the best coal-veins of the field. It is of 
 fine quality, yielding in the assay about 34 per cent, of iron 
 and 12 per cent, carbonaceous matter, and 1.35 per cent, 
 manganese. There has been but very little magnetic ore iron 
 yet found in Alabama; that which occurs near the Coosa, 
 on the line of the Selma, Eome and Dalton Eailroad, is 
 quite silicious, and contains, also, an injurious amount of 
 phosphorus. Indeed, all the Alabama ores contain more or 
 less of that bugbear of our iron and steel producers, though 
 we have the analysis of ores from a few deposits of limonites, 
 where the quantity of phosphorus is so small that it would 
 probably permit of their use in the manufacture of Bessemer 
 metal. Without going into any detailed estimate of the 
 cost of producing pig-iron in Alabama, I maj^ay that there 
 is no other place in America in which coke iron can be pro- 
 duced so cheaply as in well-selected locations in the vici- 
 nity of the Cahaba and Warrior coal-fields. For a large 
 production, we may put this cost of pig-iron at $12 to $13 
 per ton, and this includes interest on capital, etc., etc. 
 This iron can be delivered in New York at an additional 
 charge of about $10 per ton. Under these circumstances, it 
 is scarcely necessary for me to add that Alabama is des- 
 tined, at no distant day, to take a prominent place among 
 our producers of iron. With the very large home market 
 for her coals, among the furnaces, factories, cities, railroads, 
 and steamboats, and a very large foreign market, in which 
 they could compete with advantage were the mines devel- 
 oped on a large scale, and the enterprise carried on with 
 sufficient capital to insure certainty in the supply, there can 
 be no doubt that Alabama will, before many years have 
 passed, contribute to the coal production of the United 
 States a quota proportionate to the enormous extent and 
 richness of her fields. 
 
 -Compiled from a paper i 
 
 R.- P. Bothwellj M, E., Transactions American 
 InzHiute of Mining Engineers, 
 
 AURIFEROUS SLATE DEPOSITS OF THE 
 SOUTHERN MINING REGION. 
 
 CAN the auriferous slate deposits of the Southern min- 
 ing region ever be successfully worked ? is a question 
 that has been often asked by persons seeking invest- 
 ments in Southern mines. Those who have had the 
 opportunity of exploring the region mentioned above, will 
 readily recall to mind numerous localities, to which their 
 attention was directed by would-be miners, as "rich and de- 
 sirable properties," in which there were but few quartz. 
 seams running in every direction through fine-grained tal- 
 cose slate. Most of the gold in such formations was always 
 found disseminated through the slate, and but a small per- 
 centage contained in the quartz. Such are the deposits dis- 
 cussed here. Of course there are many excellent quartz 
 mines in the South that are paying the owners good profits, 
 and many more that are not being worked for obvious rea- 
 sons. But it is out of the question to suppose that these 
 slate deposits can be practically worked by the same meth- 
 ods adopted for extracting the ore from well-defined and 
 prominent quartz veins. It is true that in many instances 
 these slate formations are quite rich in gold, but this is not 
 uniformly the case, and, as there is no chance of sorting the 
 ore, handling so much crude and dead stuff" in the ordinary 
 way of mining and milling would be ruinous. These for- 
 mations in the South, as a general thing, are found so tlior- 
 oughly decomposed, as to render it not at all difficult to 
 spade the slate, and pulverize the whole mass between the 
 fingers. These formations are sometimes several hundred 
 feet in width, extending to unknown depth, and varying, in 
 
120 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 length from a few hundred feet to several miles. In fact, in 
 every respect, except as to composition and location, they 
 bear a striking resemblanoeto the ordinary gravel deposit. 
 
 Now, why cannot these slate formations be worked by 
 water, somewhat in the same way as ore is concentrated in 
 gravel beds ? This plan has, in part, been adopted by N. 
 H. Hand & Co., in working a property located near the 
 Pigeon Roost region, Lumpkin County, Ga. The idea 
 seems to have suggested itself from the surrounding circum- 
 stances. It is well known that for a number of years this 
 company have been supplying their mines with water from 
 a well-constructed ditch over 26 miles in length, and by 
 means of this ready agent they have successfelly worked 
 the slate vein mentioned above. Before N. H. Hand & 
 Co. took possession, the property was very thoroughly tested 
 by the old plan of driving shafts and extracting the ore by 
 means of picks and shovels. Very expensive and elaborate 
 machinery was employed, but without success, and the 
 property was eventually abandoned with considerable loss 
 to the company. When the present owners, therefore, took 
 possession, the past history of the mine contained but little 
 to encourage them in the prosecution of the enterprise. 
 There was no fegularly defined vein of quartz, but simply a 
 large mass of fine-grained talcose slate, throughout the 
 length and breadth of which good pannings of gold were 
 obtained. A twenty-five stamp battery, run by water, Avas 
 erected one-half mile from the mine, at the lowest point 
 accessible. On a high hill in the neighborhood of the 
 mine a large reservoir was supplied with water from the 
 ditch menticTned above, and by means of a " Little Giant, " 
 in connection with this reservoir, playing under a pressure 
 of 150 feet head, the vein of decomposed slate and quartz 
 was driven through riffle-boxes towards the mill. The in- 
 clination of these boxes was sufficient to carry everything 
 in the nature of ore into the mill-house, and the force of 
 the water being broken there by mechanical means, only 
 the finely pulverized slate and floating mud were permitted 
 to pass away and settle wherever opportunities were present- 
 ed in the various gulches. It was of course necessary at 
 times to break up by means of hammers, or otherwise, any 
 large boulders that were washed down from the vein before 
 permitting them to enter the riffle-boxes. But these were 
 of such rare occurrence that two to four men were all that 
 were necessary to supply the mill with ore. The net profits 
 yielded by this mine per week in 1879, under the above 
 treatment, were $800. The unused water power of the 
 Southern gold belt is immense, and if companies could be 
 formed to build the proper water ditches to reach these at 
 present worthless properties, there would be a wonderful 
 revolution and revival in the mining interests. 
 
 From the geological reports of Georgia it is found that 
 there are 180 prominent streams in the gold belt of that 
 state, that furnish in the aggregate 26,000 cubic feet Of water 
 per second, the capacity of each stream varying from 2 cubic 
 feet upward as high as 3000 cubic feet per second. This 
 amount of water would give, with an assumed head of 100 
 feet, 285,640 theoretical horse-power, or 190,426 available 
 horse-power. Again, 26,000 cubic feet per second would be 
 equivalent to 1,560,000 cubic feet per minute, and this 
 volume of water confined in a ditch would supply about 
 700,000 miner's inches. North Carolina and Alabama are 
 not behind Georgia in the supply of water, and the most of 
 this vast power is running unused to sea. Custom mills 
 should be built at intervals throughout the region, and this 
 water utilized for not only washing down and concentrating 
 the ore, but also transporting it, if possible, to the mill ready 
 for crushing and amalgamating. Upon actual experiment 
 in Georgia, it has been found that by such treatment ore can 
 be profitably handled that yields but 75 cents per ton. Last 
 year the manager of Finley Mine stated that where the ore 
 could be reached by the water, he had succeeded in mining 
 and crushing at a cost of but 28 cents per ton. This was the 
 case, however, where the water was made not only the 
 mining but the transporting agent as well. The climate is 
 delightful the year round, and seldom are the streams so 
 locked up with ice as to suspend all mining operations. 
 Railroads are running within a few miles of the farthest 
 point of the mining region. Provisions are cheap, and in 
 great abundance. Labor is to be had in sufficient amount, 
 ranging in value from 50 cents per day for ordinary hands 
 
 to $1.50 per day for mechanics. The forests are also in their 
 original beauty and abundance, and there is, of course, no 
 lack of wood for building and fuel purposes. So, in sum- 
 ming up, it would not be far from right to assert that, with 
 all these advantages, the same class of ore that is now cast 
 aside as worthless on the Rocky Mountain slopes, could be 
 profitably worked in North Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama. 
 
 — Compiled from ajiaper by P. H. Melt Jr., M. D. Ph. D., Trmisactiom American 
 
 InsiUute of Mining Engineers. 
 
 THE GOLD GRAVELS OF NORTH CAROLINA 
 —THEIR STRUCTURE AND ORIGIN. 
 
 WHEN Agassiz and his party of geologists com- 
 menced their exploration of the interior of 
 Brazil and the Amazon region, one of the 
 first and, to the last, one of the most novel 
 and striking phenomena which met them everywhere was 
 the great depth of decomposed or partially decayed rock in 
 situ, which mantles, and for the most part conceals, the 
 underlying strata. The same facts strike all geological ob- 
 servers from the North who happen to penetrate the middle 
 and southern latitudes of the Atlantic States. In North 
 Carolina, e. g., the entire middle and western regions, out- 
 side of the Quaternary clays, sands, and gravels of the East, 
 — ^that is, all that portion of the State occupied by the 
 Archaean and Mesozoic rocks, — show everywhere this pecu- 
 liarity, so new to those accustomed to glaciated surfaces. 
 Not only do the hills and slopes, the mountain chains and 
 spurs, present everywhere to the eye this superficial cover- 
 ing, but even the more level tracts and the valleys. The 
 railroad cuts give very good exposures of this covering, and 
 furnish, everywhere, abundant opportunities for the study 
 of its structure and history. Some of the more obtrusive 
 facts are these : the thickness of this covering varies from a 
 few feet to 30 or 40, and often 60 and 75, and even 100 feet, 
 and bears an obvious relation to the character of the under- 
 lying rook, being least where this is most refractory, and 
 vice versa; the rock is generally nearest the surface in the 
 crests of the hills. The upper portion of this earthy envelope 
 for several feet beneath the soil is homogeneous and struc- 
 tureless ; but lines of structure soon make their appearance, 
 becoming more pronounced with the depth. These lines of 
 structure are commonly coincident with bands and ribbons 
 of differently colored earths, which, on closer inspection, 
 show differences in their materials also, these differences be- 
 coming more and more strongly marked as they are traced 
 downward, until they pass by insensible gradations into the 
 solid rock beneath. The obvious and necessary conclusion 
 from these observations gives itself, viz., that the rocks of 
 the region are and have long been undergoing a slow chemi- 
 cal decomposition and disintegration from the action of 
 atmospheric forces, this decay being too rapid, however, to 
 be overtaken by the abrasi i^e and transporting power of these 
 same agencies. So far the general and obvious facts are plain 
 to be read by the man that runs. A little closer inspection 
 reveals another set of facts. It is easily discovered that these 
 mantles of earth and half-decayed rocks are not strictly in. 
 situ, but have been subjected to some sort and degree of 
 movement, and that the materials have undergone at least a 
 partial rearrangement in certain situations and under certain 
 conditions. In general on the summits of the hills there 
 has been no change, but descending the slope, however 
 gentle, a tendency to a sorting and arrangement of materials 
 appears, and this becomes more observable with the dis- 
 tance. At. first the fragments of quartz and other hard rocks 
 are sharply angular, and are distributed equally and ir- 
 regularly through the mass, or in lines corresponding to the 
 bedding of the rocks. Descending a few rods the rock 
 fragments have " settled " somewhat; they are found more 
 thickly strewn towards the bottom, and are less angular. 
 Descending still further all the coarser fragments are found 
 accumulated in a layer of cobbles or pebbles, with only the 
 interstices filled with earth and gravel. Combining sections 
 of this covering taken from different points, from the hilltop 
 to the bottom of the slope, which commonly terminates in a 
 ravine or valley, or the bed of a stream, we havQ the ap- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 121 
 
 pearance shown in Figure 1. The obvious interpretation of 
 these facta is that there has been a movement or flux of the 
 earthy mass in the direction of the slope. And this notion 
 is confirmed by an occasional observation which is re- 
 presented in Figure 2. The difficulty at once arises how to 
 account for a flow of such materials with such results. The 
 ordinary action of flowing water is, of course, excluded. 
 The mere action of gravitation will not account for the 
 phenomena, — slipping or sliding down hill. This, doubtless, 
 often happens on very 
 steep declivities, but 
 such cases are quite 
 exceptional and are 
 easily distinguished. 
 The movements we 
 are considering have 
 taken place at every 
 degree of inclination, 
 from one degree and 
 less upwards, and oc- 
 casionally on a level, 
 or even up hill. 
 
 After puzzling over 
 these phenomena for 
 half a dozen years, 
 
 and wondering that there is no explanation in the books, 
 or even any discussion of the subject or note of the 
 facts, not even in Gerkie's Great Ice Age, it occurred to me 
 that the only possible solution must be sought in the action 
 of frost. The alternate freezing and thawing of such a mass 
 of earth must needs produce just the effects we have been 
 considering. The earth, saturated with water, in the process 
 of consolidation under 
 the action of cold 
 would, of course, ex- 
 pand just as if it were 
 all water, and in thaw- 
 ing there would be a' 
 slight movement of 
 the parts and particles 
 of the mass inter se, 
 and of course a settling 
 of the heavier frag- 
 ments ; in other words, 
 the movement would 
 be the same in kind. 
 
 (though not in amount) as that of a glacier. These 
 masses may be considered earth glaciers, and I have 
 ventured to denominate this group of phenomena, and these 
 peculiar superficial accumulations, frost drift. Now the or- 
 dinary glacial phenomena are wanting in North Carolina, 
 with, perhaps, the exception of a few morainal ridges in the 
 gorges of the higher mountains. But during the glacial 
 period, of course, the cold must have been intense enough 
 to account for the 
 depth and extent of 
 action which the the- 
 ory of frost drift sup- 
 poses. I was led to 
 these results from the 
 particular study of the 
 
 fold deposits of the 
 tate. They have all 
 been formed in this 
 way. There are pro- 
 bably five hundred 
 square miles of gold 
 
 drifts in North Caro- i -, . , 
 
 Una. They are found through a range of four hundred miles 
 east and west, from the lower waters of the Roanoke, near 
 Weldon, to the extreme western border, the county of Chero- 
 kee, and they belong to all the different subdivisions of the 
 Archsean rocks of the State. The two most extensive de- 
 posits are found in the middle region, on the Yadkin and 
 Catawba rivers, among the low ranges and spurs_ ot the 
 mountains. The schistose and slaty rocks, highly inclined 
 and much contorted and dislocated, are in many places 
 penetrated by innumerable small veins and seams of gold- 
 bearing quartz. (See Fig. 3.) In the disintegration and 
 brfakinn- down of these rocks, and the movements ot the 
 
 debris in the manner described, it is evident that the gold 
 particles, with the heavier crystalline minerals, will be found 
 accumulated near the bottom of the drifts, on or near the 
 surface of the bed-rock, or "slate," as the miners call it. 
 The gold mining of modern times began sixty years ago in 
 this region from the accidental discovery of a twenty-eight 
 pound nugget by a boy in one of the streams of Carolina. 
 Most of the simple and effective appliances now in use 
 everywhere for the separation of gold from such deposits — 
 
 the long torn, the 
 sluice, the riffle-box, 
 etc. — were devised 
 and used in this re- 
 gion, and were car- 
 ried hence to Califor- 
 nia when, twenty-five 
 years later the trained 
 miners of this region 
 emigrated in a body 
 to that newer and 
 richer field. Since 
 that emigration there 
 has been but little 
 placer mining done 
 m North Carolina. 
 Still this sort of mining has never entirely ceased, and in 
 some sections, and by a few families, it has been followed 
 continuously to the present. The richest deposits within the 
 reach of water have been worked over, but there are large 
 areas still untouched, because inaccessible to water without 
 considerable outlay for ditching, canalling, and fluming, to 
 which neither the capital nor the enterprise of the region 
 
 is equal. Possibly at 
 no distant day for- 
 eign capital will open 
 up an industry that 
 once more will draw 
 the gaze of the world 
 to the gold fields of 
 California. 
 
 — Compiled from apaper Vy 
 W. a Kerr, Slate GeologUl of 
 North CaroUna, Tranaactwns 
 American Institute of Mining 
 Engineers. 
 
 THE JENKS CORUNDUM MINE, MACON 
 COUNTY, N. C. 
 
 T 
 
 HE mine is situated upon the Culsagee Fork of the 
 Tennessee River, in Macon County, North Carolina, 
 a few miles from Franklin. The most practicable 
 route by which it can at present be visited is by wag- 
 on (or preferably 
 on horseback) from 
 Seneca City, S. C, a 
 station on the Char- 
 lotte and Atlanta Air 
 Line Railroad. The 
 itinerary is as fol- 
 lows: to Walhalla,* 
 nine miles ; Walhalla 
 to Highlands, twenty- 
 nine miles ; High- 
 lands to Culsagee, 
 fourteen miles. By 
 passing the night at 
 or near Highlands, the mine can be reached and examined 
 and the return to Highlands made on the second day ; and 
 the round trip, if performed in the saddle, can be completed 
 in three days from Seneca City. It is not easy, with due 
 regard to steed and rider, to do it in less time. The rough 
 and precipitous mountain roads do not permit rapid travel ; 
 and the journey is at best a fatiguing one. But its slight 
 
 * A branch or cross railroad is in operation as far as Walhalla ; 
 but the single daily train runs at an nonr not convenient for this 
 expedition ; and Seneca City is probably the best starting-point. At 
 all events, I obtained there an excellent mount for the trip. 
 
122 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 hardships are overpaid by the stimulating effect of the climate 
 and the great beauty of the scenery, both of which are destined 
 to become more widely known than at present, to seekers for 
 health and pleasure. Indeed the town of Highlands, already 
 named, is almost entirely made up of northern immigrants, 
 attracted by these advantages and by the inducement of cheap 
 land for agriculture and stock-raising. The Culsagee or 
 Sugartown fork of the Tennessee traverses the belt of an- 
 cient crystalline schists on the west flank of the Blue Ridge. 
 This belt abounds in valuable minerals. Among those of 
 the non-metallic class may be mentioned graphite, soapstone, 
 serpentine, asbestos, and mica. The latter has been mined 
 to considerable extent since 1870 ; and in some of the most 
 productive localities* the curious discovery has been made 
 that mica was mined here on a large scale not less than three 
 centuries ago. The occurrence of mica utensils and orna- 
 ments in the mounds of the Northwest, and of mica cut into 
 corresponding forms in the dibris of these ancient workings, 
 leaves, according to Prof. Kerr, no doubt that these work- 
 ings were contemporary with the ancient copper-mining ex- 
 cavations of Lake Superior, and that their product was con- 
 veyed to the West by the operations of a prehistoric com- 
 merce, the existence of which is thus for the first time made 
 known. 
 
 Mr. Jenks, in a paper before the Society of Arts of the 
 Massachusetts Institute of Technology (December, 1876), 
 has suggested that the ancient Egyptians may have used 
 corundum, on account of its superior hardness, to execute 
 their inscriptions in porphyry. However this may be, there 
 is, so far as I am aware, no evidence to show that the miner- 
 al and its uses were known to the former inhabitants of this 
 country ; nor do their mounds or other relics present speci- 
 mens of workmanship requiring its employment. Its dis- 
 covery in North Carolina is not, therefore, like the opening 
 of the mica mines, merely therenewal of an earlier industry. 
 
 " This mountain tract of Laurentian rocks," says Prof. 
 Kerr, " contains between 3000 and 4000 square miles of sur- 
 face," the aggregate area of these rocks in the whole State 
 being, according to the same authority, more than 20,000 
 square miles, or nearly half the territory of North Carolina. 
 Along the middle of the belt now specially under 
 consideration, a discontiiiuousline of outcrops appears at in- 
 tervals from Cane Creek in Mitchell County through the in- 
 tervening counties of North Carolina into Union County, 
 Georgia, and perhaps still further south. These are called, 
 in the State Geological Report, dikes of chrysolite or dunite.f 
 Mr. Smith, who seems to have made the most extended ex- 
 amination, thus far, of the rocks of this belt, says the chrys- 
 olite bears decided marks of its eruptive origin, and cites in 
 proof its crystalline structure, the disseminated octahedral 
 crystals of magnetite and chrome iron which it contains, 
 and the circumstance that although it is laminated, the strike 
 of its laminae seldom conforms to the strike of the inclosing 
 rocks. " It cannot, therefore," he says, " be regarded as a 
 regular interpolation, nor as an intercalation with the in- 
 closing beds." It would be presumptuous to dispute, on the 
 strength of a hasty examination of a single locality, an 
 opinion so positively expressed ; yet I should not be sur- 
 prised if future careful study of all the localities should 
 show these chrysolite beds to be intercalated members of 
 the formation in which they occur. Prof Kerr, who speaks 
 of them as dikes (and also as ledges and masses) without 
 definitely pronouncing them to be eruptive, says they are 
 more or less distinctly granular, and constitute in fact a 
 chrysolitic sandstone of a yellowish to dull or dark olive- 
 green color. The composition, as analyzed by Dr. Genth 
 and Mr. Chatard, of specimens from Webster and Culsagee, 
 N. C, is as follows : 
 
 Genth (Webster). Chataiid (Culsagee). 
 
 Silica, . 11.89 41.68 
 
 Altimina, . . trace 0.14 
 
 Protoxide of iron, , 7.39 7.49 
 
 Nickel oxide, 0.35 0.34 
 
 Magnesia, . . 40 13 40.28 
 
 Lime, . . 0.06 o.il 
 
 Loss by healing, 0.82 1 72 
 
 Cliromic iron, etc., . 0.58 
 
 * Near Bakerville, for instance. Sec the Report of 1875, of Prof 
 W. C. Kerr, State Geologist, p. 300. 
 
 t See two papers by Rev. Cf. D. Smith, of Franklin, N. C, in the 
 Appendix to the State Report of 1875. 
 
 Prof. Shepard, in the American Journal of Science for 
 August, 1872, and Dr. Genth, in No. 1 of the Contributions 
 from the Laboratory of the University of Pennsylvania, 
 have discussed the mineral species associated with this 
 chrysolite. They comj)rise corundum, chlorite (ripidolite, 
 jefferisite), talc, chalcedony, hornblende (actinolite, asbes- 
 tos), damourite, tourmaline, etc. In view of this paragene- 
 sis, it is noteworthy that Dr. Genth's analysis of the 
 chrysolite shows so little alum'ina. Whether the chrysolite 
 be eruptive or not, the veins of chlorite which it contains 
 are plainly of secondary origin, and the presence of crystal- 
 lized alumina in them as corundum cannot well be explained 
 as a result of fusion. Whether this alumina has been segre- 
 gated from the constituents of the (now chrysolitic) wall- 
 rock, or deposited as an original member of the series of 
 strata, or brought in by percolation in solution and precipi- 
 tated by slow reactions, it is not easy to determine. The 
 absence of potassa and soda from the analysis above quoted 
 may have significance in this connection, since the exchange 
 of these bases for alumina would leave them in solution, 
 while the latter was precipitated as hydrate or (carbonic acid 
 being present) as a basic carbonate. 
 
 Dr. Genth's conclusions from the chemical analysis of the 
 associated minerals are stated as follows : That, at the great 
 period when the chromiferous chrysolite beds (in part sub- 
 sequently altered into serpentine, etc.) were deposited, a 
 large quantity of alumina was separated, which formed beds 
 of corundum ; that this corundum has subsequently been 
 acted upon and thus been changed into various minerals, 
 such as spinel, fibrolite, cyanite, and perhaps some varieties 
 of felspar, also into tourmaline, damourite, chlorite, and 
 margarite ; that a part of the products of the alteration of 
 corundum still exists in the form of large beds of mica 
 (damourite) and chlorite slates or schists; and that another 
 part has been further altered and converted into other 
 minerals and rocks, such as pyrophyllite, paragonite, beaux- 
 ite, lazulite, etc. Dr. Genth frankly .declares his inability 
 to explain the manner of these transformations, and says 
 that we have at present no facts upon which a tenable 
 theory could be built. Taking the case of chlorite as an 
 example, we find that some of the specimens from the Cul- 
 sagee mine are apparently pseudomorphs after corundum, 
 with central nuclei of the unaltered mineral. Others con- 
 tain distinct, perfect and brilliant crystals of corundum. Dr. 
 Genth is forced to conclude that in the latter case there has 
 apparently been a recrystallization of corundum, since, as he 
 says, the crystals "appear to have formed after a great 
 portion of the original corundum had changed into chlorite, 
 as if there had been an excess of alumina ready for combi- 
 nation, which, not finding a supply of the i-equisite amount 
 of silicic acid and basis, had again crystallized as corundum." 
 It is difficult to conceive of the precipitation and crystalli- 
 zation of anhydrous alumina. One would rather suppose 
 the original deposit to have been a hydrate, such as diaspore 
 or beauxite. Dr. T. Sterry Hunt says* of the latter mineral, 
 "By intense heat this substance (beauxite) is converted into 
 crystalline corundum resembling emery in its physical 
 characters ; but the presence of grains of corundum in the 
 hydrated mineral seems to show that the transformation 
 may take place at ordinary temperature." Dr. Genth thinks 
 that all the specimens he has examined present no instance 
 in which corundum could have been eliminated under such 
 circumstances from the hydrate. On the contrary, he says, 
 the presence of grains of corundum in the beauxite proves 
 pretty conclusively that the latter is itself the result of 
 hydration, and that the grains which have been found are 
 remnants not yet converted. As to diaspore, it occurs, 
 according to Prof J. Lawrence Smith,t very intimately 
 mixed with corundum ; but Prof Smith observed that all 
 the corundum which he had examined contained from 0.68 
 to 3.74 per cent, of water even when careful examination 
 showed the absence of diaspore or other definite hydrate of 
 alumina. Dr. Genth suggests that the distribution may be 
 so minute that even microscopic observation would fail to 
 show it. But in any case, the presence of water in the 
 corundum might be regarded as a sign either of commencing 
 hydration or of closing dehydration. The problem is there- 
 fore still unsolved. 
 
 * Sill. Jour. (2) xxxii, 288, quoted by Dr. Genth. 
 fSill, ,Jour. (2.) X, 355 and xi, .53, quoted by Dr. Genth. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 123 
 
 Dr. Genth's view, which is strongly supported by many 
 of the specimens examined, rather favors the probability 
 that large masses of pure corundum will be found by deeper 
 working upon those veins or strata in which, near the surface, 
 the corundum appears in nodules, inclosures and "remain- 
 ders " only. In this view, the " veins " of chlorite, etc., are 
 local alterations of the original belt of corundum, and pos- 
 sibly that belt might be exposed in a less extensively altered, 
 or wholly unaltered, condition by explorations beneath the 
 surface zone. On the other hand, a hypothesis which makes 
 the corundum part of a fissure-filling, or the result of segre- 
 gation from the country rock, gives no special ground, so far 
 as I know, for the expectation of larger masses at greater 
 depth. So far as the chemical aspects of the problem are 
 concerned, nothing can at present be added to the work 
 of such experts as Genth, Hunt, and Lawrence Smith. In 
 visiting the locality at Culsagee, I hoped to contribute to the 
 discussion the result of a thorough examination of the out- 
 crops and underground exposures of the difierent strata, 
 embracing a study of the mineral paragenesis more satisfac- 
 tory than those hitherto based upon hand-specimens. My 
 intention was, however, completely frustrated by the present 
 eondition of the various openings, which would have taken 
 days of labor to clear of the rubbish impeding a careful 
 examination. My own observations, therefore, leave me in 
 uncertainty ; but it is fair to say that they revealed nothing 
 absolutely inconsistent with Dr. Genth's view. The beds of 
 corundum which, according to that view, were originally 
 separated before deposition, must have been several in num- 
 ber at this locality, and their deposition must have alternated 
 pretty sharply with that of the chrysolite. But this fact, 
 although it favors the notion of a subsequent segregation 
 during metamorphosis, is not fatal to Dr. Grenth's idea. 
 
 Mr. Jenks, whose superintendence of mining operations 
 gave him opportunities for continuous study of the facts, 
 says that sometimes the corundum and sometimes the chlo- 
 rite appeared to be the matrix. The purest corundum, if I 
 am not mistaken, was usually found in nuclei ; but one of 
 the veins, more frequently than the others, produced it in 
 crystals. It would be unwarrantable assumption, in view of 
 the circumstances, to attempt to add weight to either side 
 of the theoretical discussion by the expression of a private 
 judgment. It is only for the sake of frankness that I say, 
 that while the particular evidences either favor or do not 
 disprove Dr. Genth's theory, the general analogies of chem- 
 ical geology seem to me to be the other way. The dike or 
 mass of chrysolite exposed at the Jenks mine constitutes 
 a somewhat barren ridge, through which five parallel veins 
 of chlorite run longitudinally, having a N. E. and S. W. 
 course, and a dip of about 45° N. W. These veins vary 
 from a few inches to several feet in width. Exact meaaure- 
 menti were not practicable at the time of my visit, by reason 
 of the d'ebris which had caved into the accessible workings 
 since active operations were suspended in 1873. The veins 
 have been explored by several shafts, tunnels, and open cuts, 
 besides a large amount of surface costeariing, executed for 
 the purpose of ascertaining their number and position. The 
 net result of these operations has been to demonstrate the 
 existence of these five definite zones, in which corundum 
 may be sought with confidence, and to show with a certain 
 deo'ree of probability, that the diiferent veins have individual 
 characteristics, one of them being_ apparently most likely to 
 yield the gems, another the massive laminated, another the 
 granular, opaque corundum, etc. Concerning the gems, I 
 need hardly say that, being well aware of the repeated 
 scrutiny to which every exposed part of the deposit has been 
 subjected, not only by the workmen during the operations 
 of the mine, but by numerous visitors since, I wasted no 
 time in hunting on the ground for rubies or sapphires. But 
 the specimens from this mine in many cabmets of the 
 United States and Europe, from the great (opaque) ruby and 
 sappbire crystal, weighing 312 pounds, now in the bhepard 
 collection at Amherst College, to the superb crystals in the 
 possession of a collector in PhUadelphia, place it beyond 
 doubt that the conditions controlling the formation ot all 
 the corundum gems have been present m various parts of 
 this deposit. These gems are nine in number, including, 
 besides the well-known ruby and sapphire, the asteria, corun- 
 dum emerald, corundum amethyst, girasol, chatoyant, and 
 white or coloriess sapphire. They difier from each other in 
 
 coloring matter only, and from the common corundum in 
 transparency and in the absence of cleavages which would 
 interfere with the work of the lapidary. Strictly speaking, . 
 like all other gems, they possess crystalline cleavage. Even 
 the diamond must be handled with much care in cutting, lest 
 it be split and ruined. But the requisite degree of firmness 
 may coexist with this property. The corundum gems here- 
 tofore known to commerce have always been found, in India, 
 Ceylon, Bactria, the Ural, China, etc., as pebbles, rounded by 
 long attrition in gravel. It has been of course inferred that 
 they were crystals, torn from their original matrix, though, 
 like the matrix of the diamond, this has been unknown. But 
 it now seems more likely that these pebbles are the dense 
 nuclei of larger crystaline masses, the more laminated, 
 granular or cleavable parts of which have been rubbed away. 
 At least, this is shown to be a possible origin by the dis- 
 covery in the Jenks mine of transparent nodules of corun- 
 dum in a matrix of the same material. Mr. Jenks says that 
 specimens, more or less perfect, of all the nine varieties have 
 been obtained from the mines. 
 
 On the other hand, if Dr. Genth's conclusions are accept- 
 ed, it seems likely that the original bed of corundum would 
 be opaque, and that the pure, transparent and variously 
 colored gems would more probably result from recrystalliza- 
 tions, such as he suggests in the passage already quoted. 
 This notion receives some confirmation from the circum- 
 stance reported to me, that one of the veins at Culsagee has 
 produced more gems than the others, while it contains ap- 
 parently fewer large masses. Although the buildings and 
 works at this mine are out of repair, it would not be difiicult 
 or expensive to resume operations. The value of the material 
 in the arts, its superiority to ordinary emeiy, and the great 
 demand for it, which could easily be revived and maintained, 
 are matters beyond doubt. The facts were sufficiently es- 
 tablished, a few years ago, when corundum from Chester 
 County, Pa., was "put into market. To the great regret of 
 manufacturers, that source of supply became, at least tem- 
 porarily, exhausted. I am informed that further explorations 
 are making or to be made in that locality, with a view of 
 discovering other pockets of mineral. Meanwhile, the pro- 
 duct from there, together with that already taken irom 
 Culsagee, has "broken the ice;" and there is no doubt of a 
 ready sale for the material, when delivered in suitable form 
 and purity. 
 
 To secure these conditions, the product of the mine must 
 be crushed and subjected to mechanical dressing, which will 
 remove the associated minerals, except a small remainder of 
 chromic iron. The proportion of this in the Culsagee corun- 
 dum is fortunately trifling. I understand from Mr. Jenks 
 that he has been able to dress his crude material up to 98 
 per cent, of pure alumina. If the works which I saw were 
 able to do this, the problem of mechanical dressing cannot 
 be very difficult. A small and rude stamp-mill with a few 
 launders, comprised the whole apparatus. A supply of water 
 both for power and for concentration was obtained by means 
 of a ditch and reservoir. Perhaps operations on a larger 
 scale would require steam-power. But the veins are narrow ; 
 mining is slow work ; and even for a very profitable business, 
 at the present price of corundum, a large product would not 
 be required, even if it could be obtained. Mr. Jenks says 
 that, without the aid of better machinery, and without im- 
 provements in transportation or favorable contracts with 
 teamsters and railroads, based on a steady business, he can 
 mine and dress a ton of prepared corundum for $40, send it 
 to the railroad for $20, and deliver it in' Philadelphia for $20 
 more, or $80 in all. Each of these items can, I believe, be 
 greatly reduced. But the material is said to be easily worth 
 in market $160 per ton, several tons having been sold at 
 much higher figures. Without vouching for these estimates 
 from personal knowledge, I feel safe in saying that they in- 
 dicate a very favorable prospect for the enterprise. The only 
 remaining question of vital importance is that of competition. 
 The chrysolite belt is, as I have shown, an extensive one ; 
 and corundum has been found in it at numerous points. 
 Whether at some future time, perhaps under the stimulus 
 of the success achieved in a pioneer enterprise, rival mines, 
 more favorably located as to transportation, may not be 
 opened, it is of course impossible to predict. I have taken 
 some pains to investigate as to the other localities heretofore 
 reported, and have to acknowledge my obligations to Eev, 
 
124 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 C. D. Smith, of Franklin, N. C, the original discoverer and 
 tracer of the chrysolite belt, for his cordial reply to the in- 
 quiries I addressed to him on the subject. Putting together 
 what information could be obtained from all quarters, I am 
 led to conclude that the Culsagee mine is the only one, so 
 far, which has passed through the laborious and expensive 
 stage of preliminary explorations, and definitely exposed the 
 corundum-bearing deposits in situ. Moreover, those other 
 localities hitherto discovered, which seem most promising as 
 to mineral, are about as badly off as Culsagee with regard 
 to transportation. 
 
 — Compiled from a paper by R. W. Raymond, M. E. Ph. T>., TraTisacliom American 
 
 Institute of Milting Engineers. 
 
 THE DISCOVERY OF EMERALDS IN NORTH 
 CAROLINA. 
 
 THAT emeralds have been found in the United States, 
 has been doubted. The press has stated "the dis- 
 covery of emeralds needed confirmation." It is my 
 pleasure to show you convincing proof of the exist- 
 ence in our country of this rare and beautiful gem. Since, 
 what the impetus was that started the search for emeralds in 
 North Carolina would be of interest, I will give you the 
 story, gathered as it is from a year's residence on the spot 
 where the discovery was made. Sixteen years ago the site 
 of the North Carolina emerald mine was covered with a 
 dense primitive forest. Less than ten years ago the locality 
 was mineralogically a blank, nothing was known to exist 
 there having any special interest or value. This new mineral 
 region (and I state this from my own experience in collect- 
 ing) has produced lately some of the most remarkable and 
 beautiful specimens of emerald, spodumene, beryl, rutile, 
 monazite and quartz thus far discovered in the United 
 States. 
 
 To be brief, I will say, that in a few localities in Alex- 
 ander county, crystals would be found of the cominon opaque 
 beryl ; but occasionally a semi-transparent prism, having a 
 decided grass-green color, much resembling the famous 
 crystals from Siberia, so familiar to mineralogists, would be 
 found and offered for sale in the neighboring towns. Those 
 came to have the name among the farmers of "green rocks " 
 and "green bolts." From the fact of their selling for more 
 than anything else they found these green crystals became 
 the ultimatum of their searchings. 
 
 Among other curious names for minerals were " Donicks " 
 quartz crystals, "Black Bolts" for prisms of tourmaline, 
 "Red Metal" for rutile crystals, and "Needle Rock" for 
 the beautiful sagenite, or Arrows-of-love-stone. Suffice it to 
 say that in a period of about six years, there were found 
 loose in the surface soil, on three plantations in this county, 
 a small number of beryls having a color verging distinctly 
 upon the true emerald tint, none of which crystals, however, 
 were deep-colored or transparent enough for use as gems. 
 That such indications could receive only passing notice from 
 collectors, is really inexplicable. A very natural conclusion 
 would have been that where these pale emeralds were found 
 loose in the soil, darker and purer ones would be found by 
 mining for them. Such inducements as the following were 
 held out to the farmers to search for these " green bolts." A 
 visiting collector had offered the munificent sum of one dollar 
 to farmers who should find a crystal as long as his finger, 
 which must, to merit the dollar, be dark green, pure, trans- 
 parent, and with perfect terminal planes and prismatic 
 faces ! Such is the history of the emeralds found in Alex- 
 ander county, before I commenced systematic mining for 
 them. 
 
 The location of the mine was obtained in the following 
 manner. A corps of workmen was employed to dig a series 
 of deep ditches in directions that would cut the strata at 
 difierent angles. The site chosen for work was on the spot 
 where at least half a dozen pale emeralds had been found. 
 This location was shown to me by the farmer who had dis- 
 covered the specimens while plowing. Not knowing then 
 their manner of occurrence, I expected in this way to strike 
 a vein bearing them. Five weeks were spent (in July and 
 August, 1880,) before any success was met with ; and then, 
 at a depth of eight feet, was discovered a " blind vein " (so 
 
 called because it had no outcrop), having very small em- 
 eralds. In this vein, or pocket, as it proved to be later, 
 and outnumbering the emeralds fifty to one, was also found 
 the new emerald-green mineral which was such a surprise 
 to the scientific world, and which was destined to answer 
 the same purposes as did the gem I sought. I refer to the 
 spodumene-emerald, now known as Hiddenite. You must 
 pardon this digression, but the search for emeralds is so in- 
 terwoven with my discovery of emerald-green spodumene 
 that I cannot tell the story of one without the other. The 
 two minerals occur intimately associated, and while mining 
 for the one the other is constantly found. This " blind 
 vein" yielded very handsomely of the new mineral, but very 
 sparingly of emeralds, and the few found were too small to be 
 useful as gems, though their color was very good. A tunnel, 
 for the purpose of drainage, 261 feet long, mostly through 
 rock, was cut to this vein, and a shaft sunk down upon it. 
 At this time the work on this vein has reached a depth 
 of 36 feet, at which point it proved its pocket nature by 
 pinching out — closing together. Thus-, far, twelve of these 
 pockets have been found within an area of forty feet square, 
 carrying emeralds, four of which pockets contained also the 
 spodumene-emerald. All these veins maintain nearly the 
 same character of dip, thickness, length and associations. 
 Other pockets were found that yielded Quartz, Rutile, Mona- 
 zite, and Mica crystals of great beauty. Others yet, whose 
 walls were covered with finely crystalized Dolomite, Calcite, 
 Apatite (transparent and pellucid) Rutile, Pyrite, Quartz 
 and Mica. In one instance, a small pocket that contained 
 two beautiful emerald crystals, had its walls covered with 
 large crystals of Albite. Another pocket contained only 
 Mica crystals and one small pellucid colorless beryl that 
 had both ends brilliantly terminated with many planes. I 
 mention the above associations, that 3'ou may learn the di- 
 versity in these pockets, although they are so near together. 
 In the rock-mining, and while prospecting on the surface, 
 the sign of a vein is the presence of small streaks of mas- 
 sive quartz, or of mica, in a counter direction to the strike 
 of the country-rock, either of which lead to open pockets 
 not many feet off. The gems have thus far been found loose- 
 ly attached to the rock. Not over nine emeralds have been 
 found at any one time. Mineralogists have a great treat in 
 store for them, when deep rock-mining is accomplished here. 
 Then the gems will be found firmly attached, and they will 
 shine with all their primitive crystalline beauty. The lar- 
 gest emerald found in this mine is SJ inches long, and weighs 
 nearly nine ounces. It was one of nine fine crystals con- 
 tained in a single pocket ; their color was excellent, and they 
 were transparent, though somewhat flawed. The localily is 
 situated about 35 miles, air-line measure, S. E. from the 
 " Blue Ridge " mountains. The contour of the country is 
 low rolling, and its altitude is about 1200 feet. The soils 
 are chiefly red gravelly clays, of not much fertility. The 
 prevailing rock is gneiss, with more of a feldspathic than a 
 micaceous character ; the trend of the strata is N. N. W. 
 and S. S. E. with a dip nearly vertical. The gems and crys- 
 tals occur in open pockets of very limited extent, these are 
 cross fractures or fissures in the rock. These fissures are 
 usually nearly perpendicular. 
 
 To a foreign geologist, entering the Soxith Atlantic States 
 for the first time, a hundred miles or more from the coast, 
 the most striking and novel feature of the geology is the 
 great depth of earth that everywhere mantles and conceals 
 the rooks. This is readily discovered to be, for the most 
 part, merely the result of the decomposition in situ of the 
 exposed edges of the underlying strata. The vertical and 
 highly inclined bedding lines or strata, are distinctly trace- 
 able by the eye, through this superficial earth covering, and 
 are seen to pass by insensible gradations into the undecayed 
 rock beneath. At this locality, the unaltered rock is found 
 at a depth of twenty-six feet, and is of unusual hardness 
 especially where it walls the gem-bearing pockets. Thus 
 far the gems have been found in a narrow belt running N. 
 E. and S. W., aud scattered over a distance of three miles. 
 In this belt, signs of cross-fissures are vcrv abundant, and it 
 is a very cominon thing to find crystals of quartz, rutile, 
 tourmaline, etc., etc., perfectly preserved, scattered over the 
 surface. 
 
 A pe,culiar feature pertains to most of the emeralds and 
 beryls from this region. They appear as though filed across 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 125 
 
 the prismatic faces. The basal plane is also often pitted 
 with minute depressed hexagonal pyramids, that lie with 
 their edges parallel to one another, and to the edge of the 
 di-hexagonal prism. Rarely, though, crystals are found 
 with perfectly smooth and brilliant faces. The emerald col- 
 or is often focused on the surface, and fades gradually to a 
 colorless central core, which feature is of exceeding interest 
 when the genesis of the mineral is considered. The emer- 
 alds have been found of richer color, and less flawed, as the 
 mine gets deeper. In regard to the commercial value of the 
 emeralds thus far found, I will frankly state that the major- 
 ity of the crystals have little value "for gem purposes ; but 
 as cabinet specimens they are unprecedented, and as such 
 have a market value ranging from $25 to $1,000 each. From 
 the largest crystals, stones of over one carat weight could be 
 cut, that would be marketable as gems ; but as scientific 
 specimens, the crystals in their entirety would have greater 
 value. Certainly no better signs could be wished for than 
 these specimens, to prove the existence at this locality of 
 dark-colored crystals, pure enough for cutting into valuable 
 gems. This region has a great future as a gem-producing 
 district. Mining skill and capital are the only essentials 
 needed to insure success. It may be interesting to note that 
 the entire expense of the work at this locality has been 
 more than repaid by the sales of the gems (Hiddenites) dis- 
 covered. 
 
 — CompUedfrom a paper by Wm. Earl Hidden, Tramactiom New York Academy of 
 
 Sciences. 
 
 THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF SOUTH- 
 WESTERN VIRGINIA. 
 
 Among other known localities may be mentioned Round 
 Mountain, Nye's Cove, Newberry's, and other places in 
 Bland County ; Whitely's Ridge, Kent's Ridge, and numer- 
 ous other places in Tazewell County ; Kent's Ridge, Copper 
 Ridge, Clinch River, in Russell County; Copper Ridge, 
 Mocasin Ridge, Big Ridge, Newman's Ridge, Powell's 
 Mountain, Boatwrignt's, in Scott County ; the neighborhood 
 of Big Stone Gap, in Wise County ; Bale's or Bowling Green 
 Forge, Waldin's Ridge, Poor Valley Ridge, in Lee Countj^. 
 The strictly fossil ores are found in continuous veins in 
 Walker's Mountain, Gap Mountain, Clinch Mountain, 
 Round Mountain, Wolf Creek Mountain, Pearis's Mount- 
 ain, Buckhorn, East River Mountain, Peters's Mountain, 
 Paint Lick Mountain, Salt Pond, Butte, Newman's Ridge, 
 Powell's Mountain Waldin's Ridge, and Poor Valley Ridge, 
 in the counties of Giles Montgomery, Bland, Pulaski, Rus- 
 sell, Scott, Wise, and Lee. Of these localities, the best fos- 
 sil ores I have seen came from the Clinch Mountain, in the 
 line between Washington and Eussell counties ; Poor Val- 
 ley Ridge, near Pennington's Gap, in Lee County ; Boon's 
 Path, the same county ; East River Mountain, Giles County, 
 and one or two points in Wolf Creek Mountain, Pearis's 
 Mountain, and Round Mountain, in Bland County. 
 
 The Giles and Bland fossil ores assayed, according to H. 
 Dickinson, of Norwood, Mass., as follows : 
 
 THE region to which this paper calls attention, 
 though limited in area, is remarkable for the quan- 
 tity and purity of its mineral deposits, and in these 
 respects it would be difficult to hnd its equal any- 
 where. 
 
 Iron Ores. — The red and brown hematites, pipe ore, and 
 semi-magnetites, from which is made in charcoal furnaces 
 the highest quality of iron for car wheels, extend through 
 the counties of Giles, Montgomery, Pulaski, Wythe, 
 Smythe, Washington, Bland, Tazewell, Russell, Scott, Lee, 
 Floyd, Carroll, and Grayson, Virginia, and run over into 
 Ashe County, North Carolina. One locality of semi-mag- 
 netite, in the centre of the great Giles county basin, has in 
 sight, by actual measurement, 50,000 tons of ore, which, 
 according to Prof. Fesquet, contains 69.74 per cent, of iron 
 and no phosphorus. In the great brown-ore belt, which 
 passes through the counties of Montgomery, Pulaski, 
 Wythe, Smythe, and Washington, there is an extraordinary 
 deposit of more than a million tons. A small section of 
 this very long vein on Cripple Creek, in the county of 
 Wythe, yields an ore which, analyzed by Mr. James 
 Aumann, gave the following results. Metallic iron, 58.15 ; 
 water, 12.96; alumina, 2.32; silica, 1.09; phosphorus, 
 none. At one point towards the western end of Red Land 
 Mountain, in Pulaski county. New River section, there is a 
 body of ore in this belt which will yield, to a depth of 
 150 feet, over 8,000,000 tons, and the deposit extends far 
 below the 150 feet measured at the upper part. Again, at 
 Rich Hill, near the mouth of Eeed Island Creek, these 
 veins show extraordinary surface development, giving an 
 ore of very great purity. At numerous places, also, in the 
 counties of Giles, Bland, Tazewell, Russell, Scott, Wise, and 
 Lee, these brown and red iron ores are exposed in such vast 
 quantities as to baffle both description and measurement. 
 That of Chestnut Flat, in Giles county, back or west of the 
 Angel's Rest Mountain, is an easily reducible ore, blood-red 
 when crushed, of which there are fully 300,000 tons in 
 sight. Its analysis is as follows : 
 
 Sesquioxide of iron, 
 Oxide of rnunL^anPS*', 
 Silica, . . . 
 Alumina, . 
 Lime, . 
 Magnesia, . . 
 Sulpliuric acid, 
 Phosphoric acid, . . 
 Water, hygroscopic, 
 Water combined, 
 
 89^5 
 0.20 
 2.58 
 l.ll 
 0.20 
 15 
 0.37 
 30 
 1.25 
 4.10 
 
 Sesquioxide of Iron, . 
 Oxide of manganese, 
 Alumina, . 
 Lime, . , 
 Magnesia, . . . 
 Potassa and Soda, . 
 Silica, .... 
 Sulphuric acid^ . 
 Phosphoric acid. . . 
 Water, hygroscopic, 
 Water, combined, . 
 Organic matter . 
 
 58.12 
 0.06 
 4.07 
 0.20 
 0.41 
 0.4U 
 
 32.74 
 0.00 
 0.75 
 0.60 
 0.96 
 0.84 
 
 Other ores from the fossil belt in East River Mountain 
 gave Prof. Fesquet 50.36 per cent, of metallic iron. The 
 true magnetites are principally found in the more ancient 
 rocks (Laurentian) in the counties of Floyd, Carroll, and 
 Grayson, Virginia, and in Ashe County, North Carolina, in 
 veins varying between 3 and 30 feet. One well-defined vein 
 at Ballou's, on New River, in Ashe County, N. G, is 30 feet 
 in thickness by 160 feet elevation above water in the river, 
 the dip varying between 28 and 60 degrees. For a length 
 of 300 feet it is very accessible to the river, and shows 1,- 
 800,000 tons of ore that yields, according to Mr. John Ful- 
 ton, 0.031 per cent, of phosphorus. Another portion of the 
 vein holds 0.026 per cent, of phosphorus, by the analysis of 
 Mr. F. P. Dewey. These veins, of which three in the local- 
 ity just named, are almost continuous through Ashe County, 
 North Carolina, and Grayson, Carroll, and Floyd counties, 
 Virginia, will yield so vast an amount altogether that 
 they can scarcely be ranked as second to any known depos- 
 its. Floyd County, at the Toncray Mines, gives fine mag- 
 netite, somewhat south of the general direction of the above 
 veins. The semi-magnetites are found in the counties of 
 Giles, Montgomery, Carroll, Wythe, Smythe, and Washing- 
 ton. Many of them contain, according to the analyses of 
 Messrs. Booth and Garrett: Metallic iron, 65,690, Phos- 
 phorus, 0.028. Their quantity is not yet so fully determin- 
 ed as the true magnetites and peroxides. They occur usu- 
 ally as semi-magnetic red ores. 
 
 The Lead and Zinc Ores. — ^These ores are confined 
 principally to the counties of Wythe, Pulaski, Montgomery, 
 Smythe and Washington, and one or two localities in Bland, 
 Russell, and Scott counties. While occurring in large quan- 
 tities in Pulaski and Montgomery, their greatest develop- 
 ment seems, from all explorations to the present, to be in 
 Wythe County, from near Reed Island Creek to the south- 
 west, along New River and up the waters of Cripple Creek. 
 The ores undoubtedly belong in the rocks of No. 2. It is 
 an error to place these measures in the upper part of the Tren- 
 ton limestones, as it is understood some persons have done. 
 The extraordinary quantities of carbonate, oxide, silicate, 
 and sulphide of zinc, and sulphide of lead, at different points 
 in Wythe County, suggest the idea of a very large continu- 
 ous deposit. Perhaps the following measures, taken on 
 Painter's Branch, known originally as the Kitchen's, Noble's, 
 and Painter's mines, may not be uninteresting: Dip of 
 measures 30 degrees northwest, measured with the clino- 
 meter in a deep shaft, as well as other places. Beginning 
 
126 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 on the floor or southeast wall of the main measure, we have 
 144 feet of heavy blend-bearing strata ; then 36 feet of dolo- 
 mite, with occasional spots of zinc and lead ; 36 feet iron 
 sulphuret and oxide; 90 feet dolomitic rock, containing 
 large veins and deposits of zinc and lead sulphuret, one of 
 which is 18 feet thick ; 180 feet of iron, zinc, and barytes, 
 heavily disseminated in the rock ; then toward the northern 
 or hanging wall an indefinite amount of dolomite, more or 
 less charged with barytes. The hill, along the crest of which 
 these measures were taken, is 75 to 100 feet above the water 
 in the small creek flowing near. This series of rocks trends 
 through the country for many miles in a general direction 
 N. ■ 70° E. At the Wythe lead and zinc mines, on New River, 
 the great pressure apparently exerted from the southeast 
 throughout this whole region of country, in folding the 
 earth's surface, has met with such resistance as to cause a 
 partial fusion of the various strata holding the lead and zinc. 
 Hence the whole body of the rocks is more crystalline^ in 
 structure, and has less of that appearance of stratification 
 which is so apparent at other points. Here the measures 
 from which this ancient lead company has, under one form 
 or another, for more than 100 years taken its ores, are forty 
 feet in thickness between walls of dolomite, with a dip of 70° 
 in the main drift, which is reached with a tunnel 1600 feet 
 in length. Numerous excavations over this hill show other 
 deposits of lead of good dimensions, as well as large bodies 
 of zinc ores of high grade. The Bertha mine now shows a 
 face of silico-carbonate and oxide of about 180 feet by a 
 depth of 20 feet, with the ore still below. Numerous shafts 
 in this and adjoining hills show the continuity of the beds 
 from which the recently erected smelting works on the At- 
 lantic, Mississippi, and Ohio Railroad, at Martin's Station, 
 derive their ores. On the headwaters of Walker's Creek, 
 in Bland County, there are lead and zinc ores, as well as in 
 other localities to the northeast and southwest. 
 
 Copper. — The three great lodes of copper which are 
 known to exist in the section under consideration, pass 
 through the counties of Floyd, Carroll, and Grayson, Vir- 
 ginia, and continue on through Alleghany, Ashe, and 
 Watauga counties. North Carolina. There is another — ^the 
 native lode — confined to Carroll County, Virginia. This 
 lode difiers from the rest in being apparently injected from 
 below, and is associated with tremolite and hornblendic 
 trap, having a trend from N.W. to S.E., while the direction 
 of the first-named lodes is N.E. to S.W. The first three are 
 distinguished as the Northern or Iron Lode (having its 
 greatest development in Carroll County), the Middle or 
 Peach Bottom Lode, and the Southern or Ore Knob Lode. 
 The middle lode shows best at the Peach Bottom Mine in 
 Alleghany County, and at Elk Knob, in Watauga County, 
 North Carolina, while the southern has its finest develop- 
 ment at Ore Knob, Ashe County, Noi-th Carolina, and at 
 Toncray Mine, Floyd County, Virginia. The Ore Knob 
 Mine has given sulphuret ores from a vertical vein, 18 feet 
 thick, averaging 25 per cent, of copper, at a depth of about 
 300 feet from the surface. This ore is being converted into 
 ingot copper at the mine, by the extensive plant of the Ore 
 Knob Copper Company. At th'e Toncray Mine, on this 
 lode, the better grades of ores have been exposed in a vein 
 30 feet thick, but dipping S.E about 45 degrees, and having 
 on its northern wall 4 feet of excellent magnetite. On the 
 northern lode, at some points in Carroll County, can be 
 found a thickness of fully 150 feet. At one point, where it 
 gives this measure, a shaft sunk into its central portion 
 shows sulphuret ores which will average 5 per cent, of cop- 
 per for 30 feet in width, while the remainder of the 150 feet 
 on either side gives only 1.70 per cent, of copper. This 
 great lode is marked by extensive beds of gossan, forming 
 most abundant and useful hematite ores. It may be as well 
 to say that throughout this copper belt there are numerous 
 other minerals, both interesting and highly valuable, — 
 specular ores, mica, feldspar, asbestos, and gold and silver, 
 as at Cowles's, Gap Creek, in Ashe County, North Carolina; 
 gold being also found on Bush Creek, and Little River, in 
 Floyd and Montgomery counties, Virginia, and silver in the 
 ores at Peach Bottom Mine, and at the Clifton opening, 
 near Old Town, on the northern lode. To these, also, may 
 be added njckel, cobalt, antimony, and arsenic.. 
 
 CoaL — Southwestern Virginia holds a very large area of 
 the southern portion of the great Kanawha Coal Basin 
 
 proper ; the counties of Tazewell, Russell, Scott, Buchanan, 
 Wise, and Lee, participate in it; while in the counties of 
 Montgomery, Pulaski, Wythe, Smythe, and Bland are found 
 the coals which belong more strictly to the protocarbonif- 
 erous series, and are designated generally as the Upper New 
 River series. The former may be considered as belonging 
 nearer the great Carboniferous, from the regularity and 
 continuity of both the coal and the accompanying rocks. 
 The latter have, also, been found to run for miles through 
 the counties named with surprising regularity; so much so 
 as to baflie those gentlemen who, basing their opinions on 
 the unreliability of corresponding measures in Pennsylvania, 
 ventured to predict the same character for the Virginia beds. 
 Daddow was one of the first to recognize that these measures 
 were of a highly valuable nature ; and recent developments 
 have fully proved his conclusions. Witness the operations 
 of the Altoona Coal Company at Martin's, in Pulaski 
 County ; of the Blacksburg Company, and numerous others, 
 in Montgomery County; of Colonel Boyd, and Joseph 
 Crockett, in Wythe County, and others, in diiferent locali- 
 ties. It is undeniably true that much of this area has been 
 badly injured by the convulsions to which this part of the 
 earth's crust has been subjected ; but there are large areas 
 which have been preserved in almost their original regu- 
 larity, or, if disturbed, only to the advantage of the miner. 
 Those veins vary in thickness, being 22 feet at Altoona, 8 
 feet in Montgomery, 5 feet in Wythe, and less at other 
 points, generally with a uniform pitch of SO and 42 degrees 
 in different parts, except where there are well-defined 
 basins, as in Pulaski, and the lower part of Wythe and 
 Montgomery counties. These dips then apply mainly to the 
 outcrops, while the central portions lie nearly flat. 
 
 The southeastern portion of the Great Kanawha Basin, 
 which we have just mentioned as being confined to the 
 counties of Tazewell, Russell, Scott, Buchanan, Wise, and 
 Lee, cannot be overestimated as a mineral producing region. 
 These counties hold the most valuable bituminous coal veins, 
 accessible to the miner, and close to the ores which they are 
 intended to reduce, in the country. Within seventy-five 
 miles of vast quantities of the iron, copper, lead, and zinc 
 ores are found horizontal veins of fine bituminous and block 
 coals, measuring 11 feet, 8 feet, 5J feet, and 4 feet, running 
 for miles reliably through the extended area above men- 
 tioned. It is true that a part of the extreme southeastern 
 edge of this area is somewhat broken up by a double fault ; 
 but immediately back of this begin the flat dips and reliable 
 measures above alluded to. There is, also, in Southwestern 
 Virginia the largest and most valuable virgin forest in the 
 United States, comprising poplar, cherry, walnut, oak, 
 hickory, white pine, hemlock, and locust. In conclusion 
 may be added, as of interest to iron manufacturers, the fol- 
 lowing analysis, made by Mr. Dickinson, of a limestone from 
 the Lower Helderberg group at the base of Flat Top Moun- 
 tain, Dismal Creek, Giles County : 
 
 Lime 49.42 
 
 Magnesia .... 2-04 
 
 Protoxide of iron . . ].53 
 
 Oxide of manganese 0.15 
 
 Alumina 0.4S 
 
 Silica 2.9 1 
 
 Sulphuric acid . . 0.02 
 
 Phosphoric acid . ... 0.04 
 
 Carbonic acid 42.00 
 
 Water .... 0.60 
 
 Organic matter 0-78 
 
 During 1868 zinc ore was mined at the Union Lead Mines, 
 and shipped to Trenton, N. J., and to the Lehigh Zinc 
 Works at Bethlehem, Pa. It was sold at the mouth of the 
 shaft at $6 a ton, and the average cost of raising it was $3.50 
 a ton. At this time the cost of pumping the water alone at 
 the Friedcnsville mines amounted to $6 to the ton of ore. 
 About 2500 tons of zinc ore were raised that year. Double 
 this amount mi^ht have been produced but" for the short- 
 sighted policy of the proprietors, who would not make the , 
 necessary outlay for the improvement of the dressing 
 machinery. 
 
 The Union Lead Mines have produced since 1338 12,167 , 
 tons of pig lead (2,000 pounds), charcoal being used for' 
 reduction. Before the war the cost of production was 2.4 to 
 3.1 cents per pound, during the war as high as 12 cents 
 (gold), and since the war up to 1869 5 cents per pound. If 
 these mines had been in the hands of a vigorous company 
 [ four times this amount of lead could have been produced. 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 127 
 
 As much as 745 tons have been raised in one year, but the 
 necessary exploration being neglected this production could 
 not be maintained. A tunnel 1100 feet in length, which 
 cost 132,000, is now used only as a tram road, connecting 
 with an old shaft which is used as a shot tower, when it 
 might be the main avenue of large and productive mines. 
 
 The iron resources of the western part of the State are 
 especially remarkable, both for the quantity and quality, as 
 well as for the variety of the ores which occur there, and 
 also for the manner in which they occur, which renders 
 their mining so extremely easy. Commencing at the Mary- 
 land line the whole belt of country which lies between the 
 Blue Ridge and the Allegheny Mountains may be said to be 
 ferriferous. On the eastern side of the Blue Ridge the 
 Archaean orei are found, which are followed on the western 
 slope by the ores of the Potsdam period, greatly developed, 
 then the Clinton and Oriskany groups. Incidentally depo- 
 sits are found in other formations, as in the Trenton lime- 
 stone, or as it is there called the Valley limestone, and also 
 in the Hamilton shales. These last are»pockety, while the 
 others are regular geological beds. Independently of these 
 are the magnetic belts of the James River in the southwestern 
 part of the State. It is astonishing that so little attention 
 has been called to the mineral wealth of the State of Vir- 
 ginia. There seems to have been a theory that the Oriskany 
 sandstone, which is the great ore-bearing formation of the 
 State, was too rich in silica to be worked. This finds ex- 
 pression in the Geologists' Travelling Handbooh, in which it 
 is distinctly asserted that the Oriskany formation contains 
 no ores that can be utilized for the manufacture of iron. 
 Shortly beyond the Maryland line the great Shenandoah 
 Valley is cut in two, in the direction of its length, by the 
 Massanutten Mountains, and in their valleys the Potsdam 
 ores are worked on the western flanks of the Blue Ridge, 
 while the Clinton and Oriskany ores are worked on both 
 slopes of the Massanutten Mountains. Not far from Staunton 
 these mountains abruptly terminate, and the valley opens 
 for several miles the whole width between the two ranges. 
 Commencing at Buffalo Gap, the ores reappear on the wes- 
 tern flanks of Little North Mountain. The Clinton ores 
 outcrop occasionally, and in some places, as at Clifton Forge, 
 are well developed, in three beds about one foot each in 
 thickness, and have been mined to a considerable extent. 
 The Oriskany is, however, the formation which usually ap- 
 pears in force. It has been folded on itself and afterwards 
 eroded, so that for a distance of more than fifty miles, it 
 crops several times at short intervals high up on the hill- 
 side, in beds of from twelve to twenty feet in thickness, and 
 in a few localities even thicker. Very little work is done 
 on the Potsdam beds. In the Massanutten Mountains the 
 most prominent ore is that of the Shenandoah Iron Works, 
 where a small charcoal blast furnace is being worked. The 
 only other furnaces at work, at the present time, are those 
 at Longdale and Quinnimont, though an eighty-ton furnace 
 is being constructed at Low Moor. 
 
 The coals of West Virginia are remarkably pure and h-ee 
 from sulphur, and are as low as two per cent, in ash. An- 
 alysis of the cokes, shows them to contain rarely more than 
 six per cent of ash, which is a much lower average than 
 that of the Connellsville coke. These averages of the coals 
 and ores are given of over one hundred samples, which 
 were very carefully analyzed. The Virginia iron deposits 
 justify the erection of a very large number of furnaces. 
 Very few of the ores are suitable for making Bessemer pig, 
 but for other purposes the ores are of good quality and rich ; 
 the coke is excellent, and remarkably "free from ash sul- 
 phur, and phosphorus, while good limestone and plenty ot 
 water can be had in abundance. 
 
 -O^m^aei Ao» a pape. l,y C. S. Boya, M. E. """--f «,.t7^^;L^.''«' 
 
 MAGNETIC IRON ORES OF NEW JERSEY. 
 
 THE magnetic iron ores of New Jersey are found in 
 the northern part of the State, m the Highland 
 Mountain range, which runs from the New York 
 line on the northeast, to the Delaware River, near 
 Easton, atthe southwest. The same range continues across 
 Orange county to the Hudson river, and towards the south- 
 
 west it is known in Pennsylvania as the South Mountain. 
 It is, more properly, an elevated table-land, quite deeply 
 furrowed by several narrow, longitudinal valleys, and 
 shorter cross-valleys, or gaps. The ridges, or lines of ele- 
 vation, as well as the lower valleys, conform in their general 
 direction verj' closely to the general trend of the whole belt 
 or table-land, that is, from the northeast to the southwest. 
 This also agrees with the prevailing strike of the rocks. 
 This great uniformity in the altitudes of the hills and 
 ridges, and the direction of the lines of depression corres- 
 ponding to the strike of the strata, point to original table- 
 land, which, through the long action of denuding agents, 
 has been quite deeply eroded, giving rise to the present sur- 
 face configuration, so that some of the former and uniform 
 features have been partially obliterated. The very few 
 cross-valleys or depre sions are much more irregular in their 
 course, and serve as outlets through which the drainage is 
 carried, either into the Kittatinny Valley on the northwest, 
 or to the broad red shale and sandstone plane bounding the 
 highlands on the southeast. The area of this highland 
 region in New Jersey is about nine hundred square miles. Its 
 average elevation above the ocean is about one thousand feet. 
 Except the valleys toward the northwestern border, as the 
 Wallkill, Musconetcong, Pohatcong, and German, which con- 
 tain magnesian limestone and Hudson River slate, this whole 
 range consists of crystalline rocks, mainly gneiss, granite, 
 syenite, and limestone, covered in many places by drift and 
 alluvial beds. These rocks resemble closely those of the 
 Laurentian formation of Canada, both in their structure and 
 in their mineralogical characters. Stratification is nearly 
 everywhere plain, indicating a sedimentary origin and sub- 
 sequent metamorphism. In the Geological Survey reports 
 of the States they have been described as belonging to the 
 " Azoic Formation." It is in this series of crystalline, met- 
 amorphic rocks, that the magnetic iron ores occur. The ex- 
 tent of this outcrop and the iron mines and localities at 
 which ore in workable amounts has been obtained, are both 
 indicated upon the geological maps of the State survey, one 
 of which has recently been published. This map shows the 
 mines as in lines nearly parallel to one another, and having 
 the same direction as that of the whole belt or range. In 
 some instances they arc so close as almost to form a contin- 
 uous line, as the Mount Hope, Allen, Baker, Richards, 
 Mount Pleasant, and others, near Dover, in Morris County. 
 Others appear in sort of en tchelon arrangement. 
 
 This occurrence in lines, or what may be more properly ^ 
 termed ranges, is so well known that miners and those ' 
 searching for ore speak of veins continuing for miles, and of 
 certain mines belonging to certain veins. Large and pro- 
 ductive mines, as the Hibernia, Mount Hope, Dickerson, 
 Ogden, and Kishpaugh, with others, give names to such 
 lines. The complete breaks in veins worked, and the ab- 
 sence of any indications of continuity, show that these pop- 
 ular theories are not yet substantiated by the facts, although, 
 if by the terms lines or veins, or, better, ranges,- series of ore 
 beds whose several lines of strike or axes run closely paral- 
 lel to one another, are meant, then they have a foundation 
 in truth. In the " Geology of New Jersey," published in 
 1868, the mines then opened were grouped in such lines, 
 and these were called ranges. The map accompanying that 
 report, as well as the one just issued by the State Survey, 
 shows these lines and the intervening barren belts. A com- 
 parison of these two maps confirms in some degree this the- 
 ory of ranges, or what would be better termed, ore-belts, in- 
 asmuch as the hundred or more new mines and ore outcrops 
 opened since 1868, and represented on the latter map, are 
 nearly all either on old and well-known lines or what must 
 be considered as new ones. These discoveries have short- 
 ened the gaps and widened the ranges. Thus the new mines 
 near Chester, and those along the eastern base of Copperas 
 Mountain, all in Morris County, have filled in wide blanks, 
 and greatly extended what were but faintly indicated as 
 ranges or belts of ore. The numerous openings quite recent- 
 ly made on Marble, Scotts, and Jenny Jump Mountains, in 
 Warren County, constitute a new and marked line. In this 
 the manganiferous character of the ore throughout 
 its whole length seems to give additional evidence in 
 proof of such a relation. An order of arrangement or di- 
 vision into such lines or belts, based upon lithological and 
 mineralogical characters, has not been possible, but it is 
 
128 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 hoped that further studies will develop the existence of such 
 characteristic features which will confirm the indications 
 from the geographical distribution. The last map also shows 
 groups of mines, between which very little ore has been 
 found. One of the best known and largest of these groups 
 is near Dover, Morris County, and a map of this district was 
 published in 1868. Northeast of this there is an interval of 
 several miles, extending almost to Ringwood, in which there 
 are no working mines, and comparatively but few localities 
 where ore is known to exist. But the newly opened Board, 
 Ward, Green Pond, Pardee, and Splitrock mines show that 
 the lines of ore are beginning to be traced into this hitherto 
 barren district, and point to future discoveries which will 
 connect the Ringwood and Sterling groups with the Morris 
 County lines. A lack of cheap and ready transportation 
 has prevented the thorough examination of this part of the 
 State, or the development of any localities which were prom- 
 ising. The extended workings in the older mines are also 
 doing much to prove the great length, and probably contin- 
 uity, of some of these veins. Thus the long line from Mount 
 Hope to the Dickerson mine, a distance of seven miles, has 
 been so opened as to show an almost uninterrupted bed or vein 
 of ore, or a series of veins parallel to each other, and all 
 within a very narrow belt ; and all of the facts of geograph- 
 ical distribution, as well as the arguments which could be 
 drawn from the probable mode of origin of this ore, tend 
 to support this theory of lines or ranges, or better, perhaps, 
 belts of ore. 
 
 Magnetite, as a mineral, is very common in the crystal- 
 line rocks of the Highlands, occurring more frequently than 
 any other mineral, excepting the ordinary constituents of 
 the gneissic rocks; viz., quartz, feldspar, mica, and horn- 
 blende. And so widely is it distributed that it is impossible 
 to find many strata in succession where it is entirely want- 
 ing. It appears as one of the constituent minerals of these 
 beds, either wholly or in part replacing their more common 
 components, or it is added to these, and in each case occurs 
 in thin layers or larainas alternating with them, or it is ir- 
 regularly distributed through the rock mass. The unstrati- 
 fied granitic and syenitic rocks, as well as the bedded gneis- 
 ses, also often contain magnetite. In these, however, it oc- 
 curs in larger and more irregular crystalline masses or 
 bunches, and does not appear to be so properly a constituent 
 of the whole, but rather as foreign to it. The same mode of 
 replacement is sometimes seen in these as in the stratified 
 rocks. In both these classes it enters into the composition 
 • in all proportions, increasing in amount until the whole is 
 sufficiently rich to be considered as an ore of iron. Between 
 rock entirely free from magnetite and the richest ore there 
 is an endless gradation, making it impossible to fix any oth- 
 er line of demarcation between them other than that of the 
 minimum percentage for the profitable extraction of the 
 iron. Three modes of occurrence have been assigned to this 
 mineral, two of which are in the rock, as one of its consti- 
 tuents eithet in irregular bunches or in a granular form, and 
 the third in seams or strata, when it is called ore. But 
 these distinctions are not fixed, and therefore it is better to 
 consider it as one of the more common minerals of these 
 gneissic and granite rocks, and in places forming the whole 
 mass, or else so much of it as to be workable, and then to 
 be called an ore. Rock containing from twenty to forty per 
 cent, of metallic iron, the most of which is in the form of 
 magnetite, has been found in many places, and some of these 
 have been explored to a considerable extent in searching 
 for richer ores. The granitic and syenitic rocks containing 
 magnetite are generally found to cut the beds of gneiss, and 
 are, geologically, huge ore-bearing dikes. The most com- 
 mon mineral aggregation is feldspar, quartz, magnetite, and 
 hornblende, or mica, although in some cases both the latter 
 enter into the composition. Such rook is worked at a few 
 points, but these operations are not yet worthy of the desig- 
 nation of mines. And, in fact, the great irregularity and 
 the varying percentage of iron in it does not make it a de- 
 sirable ore. Gneiss containing magnetite in quantity suf- 
 ficient to render it workable, has been opened and mined at 
 several localities. Perhaps it would be called lean ore. One 
 of the mo«t extensive outcrops of such ore is near the Pe- 
 quest mine, in what is known as the Henry tunnel, about 
 two miles north of Oxford Furnace. Here there is a breadth 
 of twelve feet or more, in which the beds are highly impreg- 
 
 nated with magnetite, while those on each side are free from 
 it. Extensive drifting and sinking have exposed several 
 hundred feet of these beds on the line of strike, and shown 
 an increase in the percentage of iron going from the surface 
 to the lowest levels. Near Hackettstown, in Warren Coun- 
 ty, there are several localities of such ore-bearing rock, but 
 nearly all of them are failures as mines. The ■Scrub Oak 
 mine, near Dover, the Combs mine, near Walnut Grove, 
 have large portions of their veins so mixed with rock that 
 they may be classed with the above localities of ore-bearing 
 gneiss. And all the lean ores of the State may be consid- 
 ered as gradations in the series from rock to what is conven- 
 tionally termed ore. 
 
 While it is impossible to separate these lean ores from the 
 rock upon any decisive or marked distinctions or differences, 
 the richer ores are to be considered as a distinct mode of 
 occurrence, as these diflTer from the lean ores and rock in 
 their simplicity ol composition, being made up of fewer ele- 
 ments, and these predominating to the exclusion of all 
 others. Assuming^his as another mode in which the mag- 
 netite occurs, the geological features of these seams or strata 
 may claim our attention. They are often called veins be- 
 cause of their highly inclined or almost vertical position, 
 and hence resemblance to true veins. Their irregular form 
 has helped to strengthen this opinion of them. But as they 
 show well-marked planes of stratification and also lamina- 
 tion, both parallel to the beds of gneiss which inclose them 
 on the sides, and have strike, dip, and pitch, and are folded, 
 bent, contorted, and broken, just as stratified rock, they must 
 be called beds, and be classed among the sedimentary rocks. 
 The irregularities in their extent, thickness, and the pres- 
 ence of included masses of rock, known as horses, are 
 phenomena common to the gneiss and them, and therefore 
 these cannot serve as an argument for calling them veins. 
 Lenticular masses of micaceo-homblendic gneiss, lying in 
 feldspathic and quartzose beds, or the converse, are quite 
 common, nor do the strata of these rocks run on unchanged 
 in character. But they thin out or grow thicker, or change 
 in mineral composition just as these veins are seen to pinch 
 out or swell into thick shoots, or be replaced more or less 
 gradually by rock. The similarity in these respects between 
 these ore masses and the surrounding stratified rocks proves 
 them to be beds and of contemporaneous origin. Imbedded 
 in the gneissic strata of this highland belt or region, these 
 iron-ore beds or veins (so called) have the same general 
 strike or dip in common with them. The prevailing direc- 
 tion of the first is towards the northeast, varying, however, 
 within the quadrant from north to east. In most cases it is 
 between the north and northeast. From these there are 
 several exceptions, as at Oxford Furnace, where the veins 
 run north 25° west ; the Connet mine, a few miles west of 
 Morristown, where it is also northwest and southeast. While 
 these lines of strike have a general straight bearing, they 
 exhibit short irregularities and deflections, often varying 
 from side to side, or zigzagged by faults or ofisets. The 
 rocks of this formation, as observed in hundreds of places, 
 show the same prevailing straight lines as are seen m the 
 longer openings for ore. Bends or foldings are very rare. 
 One of the most remarkable of these is on Mine Hill, Frank- 
 lin, Sussex County, although this occurs in a zinc vein or 
 bed, and not in iron ore. ' Here there is quite a sudden bend, 
 so that the vein returns almost to its original course — ^which 
 is the usual northeast and southwest one. In the iron mines 
 of the State, the AVaterloo or Brookfleld mine, about five 
 miles north of Hackettstown, in Warren County, shows a 
 curving strike— turning from northeast and southwest to 
 north and south. Further opening mav find as complete a 
 bend here as is to be seen on Mine Hill. But the best ex- 
 ample of such folding is at Durham, Pa., where the iron-ore 
 vein, as followed in the mining operations, coincides in its 
 course very nearly with the contour line of the Mine Hill, 
 running around in a semicircle on the western side of this 
 elevation. 
 
 The dip of these ore-beds being at right angles to the line 
 of strike has, of course, the same degree of uniformity in 
 direction, and that is towards the southeast, or more generally 
 towards the east-southeast. In some localities the strata are 
 in a vertical position or inclined towards the northwest, and 
 the dip is in that direction. But this has been observed in 
 a few mines only, and in some of these, deeper working has 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 129 
 
 found the vein below assuming the prevailing southeast dip, 
 indicating the existence of a fold, of which the vein opened 
 is a segment, or a bending over near the surface caused by 
 some powerful force acting subsequently to the elevating and 
 folding agents. The Beach Glenn and Davenports' mines, 
 in Morris County, offer illustrations of northwest dips. The 
 rocls; outcrops show a number of such directions, but they are 
 comparatively few in number, when the thousand or more 
 observed southeast dips are considered. In the Connet 
 mine (mentioned above) the dip is towards the southwest. 
 At Durham it is radiating towards a central axial line of 
 what is considered as a fold, and in, towards the centre of 
 the hill. In the Hurd mine, as also at the zinc mine, 
 Franlclin, the two legs of the synclinals show dips at differ- 
 ent angles towards the southeast, one of these, at Hurdtown, 
 being almost vertical, while the other is quite steep. In the 
 large openings of the Ford and Scofield mines there is no 
 dip, the beds standing vertical. The term pitch is used to 
 designate the descent or inclination of the ore-bed or shoots 
 of ore towards the northeast — or in line of strike. If we 
 should conceive of the line of strike as broken and depressed 
 so as to descend towards the northeast, we should get a good 
 example of this pitch of shoot. This inclination has been 
 observed in the rock as well as in the ore. It ia so com- 
 monly observed in mining these magnetic ores as to be ex- 
 pected everywhere, and miners speak of the ore pitching or 
 shooting, and their working has constant reference to such 
 a structure in both ore and inclosing rocks. In nearly all 
 cases the pitch is towards the northeast. It is beautifully 
 exhibited in the Cannon mine, at Ringwood, where it 
 amounts to 45° inclination from a horizontal line. The long 
 slope of the Hurd mine, in Morris County, and the thick 
 swells alternating with intervening pinchers, or barren 
 ground, at Mount Hope, show this same structural pheno- 
 menon. 
 
 These shoots of ore, however named, are best described as 
 " irregular, lenticular masses of ore imbedded in the gneiss, 
 their longest diameters coinciding with the strike and pitch 
 of the rock," which in nearly all cases is towards the north- 
 east, and their dip conforming to that of the same surround- 
 ing rocky case, and generally at a hi^h angle towards the 
 southeast. They vary greatly in their dimensions, some- 
 times thinning out or pinching, when followed on the 
 line of the strike, or on that of the dip, to a thin sheet or 
 seam of ore and occasionally . ending wedge-like in rock. 
 Sometimes they split up into several small vems or fingers 
 which are dovetailed, as it were, in with the rock, and so 
 gradually pinch out. Quite often there is a sort of flattened 
 kernel or core of rock inclosed in the shoots of ore, but gen- 
 erally these horses, or what are called such, are interpene- 
 trating masses of rock from the outside country rock. Ex- 
 tensive mining operations and explorations have shown some 
 of these shoots to be connected with others, forming a series 
 of these lenticular masses, or if not actually united by ore, 
 associated and arranged on closely parallel planes, if not in 
 the same axial plane. Following the plan e of the dip down- 
 wards, the pinches between the shoots are nearly everywhere 
 continuous sheets of ore, and these are not often greater in 
 breath than the shoots. That is, the distance from shoot to 
 shoot measured across the pinch is not often greater than 
 the breadth of the former. But quite frequently these shoots 
 are entirely separate from one another, rock intervening in 
 the same plane, or they are in different planes or geological 
 horizons. Nearly all of our New Jersey mines work on 
 more than one shoot, since the extraction of the ore from 
 near the surface ia easier and more economical than follow- 
 ing a single shoot downwards. Their length is unknown. 
 In the Hurd mine the slope is nearly 900 feet long descending 
 on the bottom roch and there are no signs of exhaustion In 
 the Weldon mine (near the Hurd mine) there are two shoots 
 side by side, but not exactly parallel nearing each other as 
 they pitch down, and now separated by about twelve feet of 
 gneiss rock. These may come together and prove to be 
 leaders from one large shoot. In most of our iron mines the 
 ore is bounded by well defined walls or strata ot rock from 
 which the ore comes off clean in mining but very frequently 
 there isno such plain boundaries or sudden transitions from 
 magnetite to gneiss, but a very _ gentle gradation of ore 
 intS rock, and in these cases the mining goes only so far as 
 the richness of the beds in iron makes it profitable to re- 
 9 
 
 move them. Following the shoots downwards, the same 
 gradual replacement has been observed until the whole was 
 too lean to work, or altogether free from ore ; but this feature 
 is not so common as that of the gradation or deplacement 
 towards the side of the shoots or the walls. Occasionally 
 the shoot is said to run out, that is, there is a sudden change 
 from ore to rock; some of these, however, may be faults 
 rather than shoots changed into mineral composition. 
 
 The thinning out of the shoots towards the edges, or at 
 right angles to the line of pitch, or towards what may be 
 csuled the lines of pinch, which run parallel to the lines of 
 swell or axes of these shoots, has originated the terms cap-rock 
 and bottom rock. The former makes the arched or double- 
 pitched roof of the mine, while the latter constitutes the 
 trough-like floor or bottom. These peculiar features are very 
 finely exhibited in the Hurd mine, Hurdtown, Morris county, 
 where the extraction of the ore, following the conformation 
 of the shoot, has left the cap-rock overhead and the bottom 
 rock below, on which the long slope runs down to the bottom 
 of the mine. In the Cannon mine, at Ringwood, the same 
 capping rock appears in the heading or northeast side of the 
 large opening, and the track runs down on the bottom rock 
 towards the northeast. Here the pitch is nearly twice as 
 great as in the Hurd mine and the shoot as worked is much 
 broader, being nearly of the same size both ways. And here 
 there may be said to be four walls that surround the ore. 
 Sometimes miners speak of these top and bottom rocks as 
 walls. But generally there is a narrow vein or sheet of ore 
 left both at the top and in the bottom; and these may 
 gradually run out entirely, or they may connect with other 
 shoots of ore lying in the same plane of dip as that 6f the 
 shoot worked. And this is true in nearly every case ; the 
 exceptions being considered as not yet fully demonstrated as 
 such, since the mining operations generally cease when the 
 vein pinches up so as to become unprofitable for the removal 
 of its ore. 
 
 The extent of these shoots of ore is exceedingly varying, 
 and our mines are not yet deep enough to show their maxi- 
 mum length. The width and thickness, or the lateral 
 dimensions, are soon ascertained, the former scarcely ever 
 exceeding one hundred feet, from cap to bottom rock, or from 
 pinch to pinch ; and the latter varying from an inch to 
 eighty feet ; but more often less than thirty — ^they may aver- 
 age five to twenty feet These figures always include some 
 rock, or horses. The oldest and deepest of our mines, as the 
 Blue mine, at Ringwood, the Mount Hope, Swedes, Dicker- 
 son, and Hurd mines, are all steadily going down, increasing 
 the length of their slopes, and they are apparently as in- 
 exhaustible as ever, and promise to continue so, at least as far 
 as our present appliances for hoisting ore and water can allow 
 of the economical extraction of ore from them Such are 
 some of the more general and essential features that charac- 
 terize the iron-ore beds of the state. Lying imbeded in, and 
 being contemporaneous in origin with, the gneissoid rocks 
 of this Azoic formation, these ore beds or veins have been 
 subject to the same disturbing forces which have elevated, 
 folded, wrinkled, and broken all the strata belonging to it, 
 and which have given to it its present structure. These 
 forces, so manifold and acting through so long a period of 
 time, and probably at wide intervals, have so destroyed any 
 degree of uniformity which once may have existed, that it is 
 often difficult, and sometimes impossible, to recognize amidst 
 this chaos any order of structure whatever. The beds of ore 
 and rock have been squeezed into close folds, so that they 
 now stand on edge, and through these agencies have come 
 the strike and dip. Other forces acting on lines traversing 
 the veins at all angles, have variously dislocated and further 
 disturbed the strata, giving rise to frequent faulU or offsets, 
 and what are called cross-slides — phenomena seen in both 
 the veins and in the rock strata of this formation. In some 
 instances the veins have been displaced one hundred feet 
 while in others the ore-mass has been broken apart, but not 
 pushed aside, so as to interrupt its course. The planes of 
 these dislocations traversing the veins in all directions, the 
 dip and strike are sometimes both altered. These faults are 
 common, and can be seen in nearly all the mines ; sometimes 
 so fi-equent a-s to cut the vein into short segments, giving it a 
 zigzag course. The most remarkable faults or offsets are 
 seen in the Mount Hope mines, where five veins are all dis- 
 placed over a hundred feet ; in the Hurd mine, where the 
 
130 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED SPATES. 
 
 displacement has been in a vertical plane and the original 
 long and continuous shoot appears as two distinct masses, 
 the upper of which has been worked out. Other examples 
 are in the Byram and the Mount Pleasant mines, near Dover. 
 Generally a thin seam of ore mixed with rock connects the 
 vein on corresponding sides of the fault, and this serves 
 often as a guide to find the vein beyond the break or oftset. 
 Miners have several so-called rules about offsets, but these 
 are not universal, and there is no general law in the direc- 
 tion of the throw or displacement. Occasionally one fault 
 is crossed by another — increasing the irregularity in the 
 course of the vein. 
 
 From these numerous faultings, discovered in mining 
 operations, we learn something of the extent to which these 
 strata have been disturbed since their original deposition, 
 and probably all subsequent to their elevation and com- 
 pression into folds. More thorough surveys of the surface 
 and more extended mining may yet enable the geologist 
 and miner to trace out these lines of fracture, and learn how 
 much they, together with the general effects of elevation 
 and folding of the whole formation, have contributed 
 towards the grouping of the iron-ore as we find it, and this 
 knowledge may direct both our mining and our searches 
 for ore. The facts already obtained point to a system, and 
 the successful pursuit of the ore in its crooked and broken 
 course in some of the largest mines is the best evidence of 
 the accuracy of the laws of structure as now understood. 
 They also show most forcibly, and illustrate most beautifully, 
 the intimate and necessary relations of mining and the 
 principles of geology, and show that the two ought never to 
 be disassociated. 
 
 — CompUed from a paper by J". C. Smock, Tranaactions American Institute 
 
 Inatttute of Mining Engineers, 
 
 THE SALISBURY (CONN.) IRON 
 MINES AND WORKS. 
 
 THE three principal mines from which the celebra- 
 ted Salisbury iron ores are obtained are called 
 respectively the "Old Hill," "Davis," and "Chat- 
 field ore beds, and are situated in the town of Salis- 
 bury, Litchfield County, Conn., on the eastern slope of the 
 Tocconuc range of hills. The Old Hill Ore Bed is a tract 
 of land of 100 acres, originally granted by the General Court 
 in October, 1731, to be laid out by Daniel Bissell of Windsor. 
 It was soon after surveyed and located by Ezekiel Ashley and 
 John Pell. The descendants of Ashley are still proprietors 
 in the mine. The supply of ore has been very abundant, 
 and for many years was easily obtained, but latterly the cost 
 of raising has been greatly increased. Up to about 1840 the 
 average yield was estimated to be about 4500 tons per annum. 
 The production has gradual ly increased until the average yield 
 at present is estimated at 15,000 tons annually. The largest 
 production in any one year was about 20,000 tons. The proprie- 
 tors of this mine were incorporated many years ago under 
 the style of " The Salisbury Ore Bed Proprietors." The 
 Davis Ore Bed, named after an early owner, was originally 
 called Hendricks Ore Bed, and was owned before the organi- 
 zation of the town of Salisbury by Thomas Lamb, one of the 
 first settlers in the town. Ore was mined in this bed as 
 early as 1730 or 1731, and was taken by Lamb to supply his 
 forge at Lime Rock. It was in early days transported in 
 leathern ba^s on horses. This mine has been worked almost 
 constantly since first opened, showing an increased produc- 
 tion. The average yearly yield at present is estimated to be 
 about 15,000 tons. The property has passed through several 
 ownerships ; the proprietors are now incorporated under the 
 name of Forbes Ore Bed Company. The Chatfield Ore Bed 
 was originally owned by Philip' Chatfield, from whom it 
 takes its name, and was opened soon after the other beds 
 were. It has been steadily worked since first opened, show- 
 ing also an increased production. Its annual yield at present 
 is estimated to be 12,000 tons. Notwithstanding these mines 
 have been so long and so constantly worked, the supply of 
 ore is still abundant and apparently inexhaustible. There 
 has been no special effort to increase the production, as 
 these ores are not in the market, and it is only desired to 
 raise a sufficient supply for the furnaces in the immediate 
 
 vicinity of the mines. The ores are all of the brown hema- 
 tite variety, and of the same general character, yielding 
 about forty-five per cent, of iron. The process of raising 
 the ore and making it ready for the furnaces has been much 
 improved within the past twenty years ; it is crushed and 
 washed by machinery before leaving the mines. The ore is 
 raised entirely by open mining, and beds are now worked 
 at a depth of from 75 to 100 feet. In addition to the mines 
 mentioned above, the Barnum-Richardson Company is work- 
 ing mines at Amenia and at Mount Riga, both on the New 
 York and Harlem Railroad, just over the New York State 
 line, and on the western slope of the Tocconuc Hills. These 
 mines produce ores very similar in character and value to 
 those already described. 
 
 The first forge in this vicinity was erected in Lime Rock 
 by Thomas Lamb, as early as 1734. He took his ore from 
 the Hendricks (now Davis) Ore Bed. Several different 
 parties succeeded to the ownership ; among those who occu- 
 pied it longest, and operated it most successfully, were 
 Messrs. Canfield & Robbins. They operated a forge and 
 blast-furnace on this site for many years, and also had a 
 forge and blast-furnace (built by Leman Bradley in 1812) on 
 the Housatonic River, just below the Canaan Falls, using at 
 both places Salisbury ores. The Lime Rock property came 
 into possession of its present owner in 1863, and in 1864 a 
 new blast furnace was erected, which has been in operation 
 up to the present time. About the year 1748 a forge was 
 erected in the present village of Lakeville (then called Fur- 
 nace Village), and in 1762 John Haseltine, Samuel Forbes, 
 and Ethan Allen purchased the property, and built a blast 
 furnace. This is supposed to be the first blast furnace built 
 in the State. This property in 1768 came into the possession 
 of Richard Smith, of Boston, who, being a Loyalist, returned " 
 to England upon the breaking out of the war. The State 
 took possession of the works, and appointed Col. Joshua 
 Porter their agent in its management, and upon orders of the 
 Governor and Council large quantities of cannon, shot, and 
 shell were made during the Revolutionary AVar for the 
 General Government. John Jay and Gouverneur Morris 
 were often there superintending the casting and proving of 
 the guns, and at this lime the Salisbury iron gained a celeb- 
 rity which it has never lost for superior strength and gene- 
 ral quality. The cannon were intended chiefly for the navy, 
 and after the war the navy, to a considerable extent, was 
 supplied with guns from the same iron. The ship of Com- 
 modore Truxton, the Constellation, and the celebrated Con- 
 stitution, "Old Ironsides," were supplied with Salisbury 
 cannon. The furnace was afterwards owned and operated 
 for many years by Messrs. Holley & CoflSng, who also opera- 
 ted a forge and furnace at Mount Riga. The forge on Mount 
 Riga was built about the year 1781 by Abner or Peter 
 Woodin. Daniel Ball succeeded, and the works were for 
 many years known as Ball's Forge. Seth King and John Kel- 
 sey commenced building a furnace thtre about 1806, but were 
 not able to complete it, and in 1810 it came into possession 
 of Messrs. Holley & Cofiing, who the same year finished it, 
 and for many years carried on an extensive business. Pig 
 iron, anchors, screws, and various kinds of manufactured 
 iron were made there. These works and those at Lakeville 
 were abandoned many years ago, and the property at Mount 
 Riga, including the water privilege, which is very valuable 
 and one of the finest in the State, is now owned by the Mil- 
 lerton Iron Company, Irondale, N. Y. There were also 
 built at East Canaan two blast furnaces for the manufacture 
 of pig iron from Salisbury ores, one about 1S40 by Samuel 
 Forbes, and one about 1S47, by John A. Beckley. The 
 first foundry for the melting of pig iron was built at 
 Lime Rock about the year 1830, and soon after came under 
 control of Milo Barnura, who was the founder of the present 
 Barnum-Richardson Company. He associated in the busi- 
 ness Leonard Richardson, and within a few yeare his son, 
 William H. Barnum, was taken into the partnership. 
 
 The foundry business was carried on in a small way in 
 connection with the store; their productions consisted 
 chiefly of clock and sash weights, plow castings and other 
 small work. The business gradually increased until about 
 1840, when they began the manufacture of railroad work, 
 the first of which was chairs for the Boston & Albany 
 Railroad, then building from Springfield to Albany; the 
 castings were transported by teams to Springfield and to 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 131 
 
 Chatham, a distance of about fifty miles. The great tensile 
 strength and natural chilling qualities of the Salisbury iron 
 proved it of great value in the manufacture of cast chilled 
 car-wheels, which naturally followed in a few years the 
 making of smaller railroad castings. The iron early ob- 
 tained, and has since held, the reputation of being the best 
 known for this purpose. In 1858 the company obtained 
 possession of the Beckley furnace at East Canaan, and in 
 1862 purchased the Forbes furnace at the same place. They 
 also, about this time, purchased the foundry at 64 South 
 Jefferson Street, Chicago, and organized a joint stock com- 
 pany under the name of the Barnum-Richardson Manufac- 
 turing Company, for the continuance of the foundry business. 
 Jjj May, 1864, the Barnum-Richardson Company, a joint 
 stgck company was organized with William H. Barnum as 
 pr||iident and general manager. It has since largely in- 
 cre^ed its works by building, and by acquiring further 
 interests in mining and furnace companies. A third and 
 improved furnace was built at East Canaan in 1872 ; in 1870 
 a second foundry was erected at Lime Rock. A new wheel 
 foundry was built in Chicago in 1873. The foundries at 
 Chicago use the Salisbury iron, and have a capacity in the 
 two shops of 800 wheels per day. The company uses, at its 
 Lime Rock works, Salisbury iron also, and have a capacity 
 of 200 wheels per day. 
 
 In 1840, there were in this vicinity four blast furnaces in 
 operation, each using an average of 600 bushels of charcoal 
 and producing three tons of pig iron per day. There are 
 now seven blast furnaces owned by the company, of which 
 William H. Bamum is president and general manager. 
 They \ise each an average of 1200 bushels of charcoal, and 
 produpe eleven tons of iron per day. The new furnace at 
 East Canaan at its last blast made an average of eighty tons 
 of iron per week, this being the most advantageous blast 
 known to have been made in a charcoal furnace of this 
 size. The seven furnaces are located within a radius of 
 eight miles from Lime Rock, and are situated as follows: 
 three at East Canaan, one at Lime Rock, one at Sharon 
 Valley, one at Cornwall Bridge, and one at Huntsville. In 
 connection with the latter fiirnace there is a car-wheel 
 foundry at Jersey City, having a capacity of 150 wheels per 
 day, arid using the iron exclusively from this furnace. The 
 Salisbury pig iron shows an average tensile strength of 
 about 30,000 lbs. to the square inch, and, besides being valu- 
 able for ordnance and railroad purposes, it is extensively 
 supplied for malleable and machinery uses. The wheels 
 made sit the Barnum-Richardson Works have been largely 
 used in the United States, Canada, and foreign countries, 
 particiilarly in South America. The opening of the Con- 
 necticut Western Railroad has brought these mines and fur- 
 naces within easier access of each other, and has also enabled 
 the fiirnace companies to procure a portion of their supply 
 of charcoal from a distance, most of it being brought from 
 Vermont. 
 
 e.d from a paper by A. L. RoUey, C. E.. Tratwactims Americim 
 JmtUtile of Mining Engineers. 
 
 THE IRON ORE AND ANTHRACITE COAL OF 
 RHODE ISLAND AND MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 THE existence of iron ore and anthracite coal in the 
 neighborhood of Providence, R. I., has long been 
 known, chiefly as a geological fact ; that these ma- 
 terials, so near to each other and to tide-water, are 
 of such a good quality and are present in such large quan- 
 tity, as to have seriously raised the question of establishing 
 blast furnaces there, was a surprising fact to me ; and 1 
 have thought that the few notes I have lately gathered on 
 the subject would be of interest. The coalfield referred to has 
 an area of above 400 square miles, and is found throughout 
 the belt of transition rocks extending from Newport JN eck 
 to Mansfield, Massachusetts. It underlies the cities ol 
 Providence and Newport, and the towns of Middletown, 
 Portsmouth, Jamestown, Warwick, Barrington, Cranston, 
 
 North Providence, Cumberland, Bristol, Warren, East 
 Providence in Rhode Island, and Seekonk, Attleboro, Wren- 
 tham, and Mansfield, in Massachusetts. The amount of 
 coal is not estimated, but very roughly stated at " hundreds 
 of millions of tons" in a report of "The Rhode Island 
 Society for the Encouragement of Domestic Industry." 
 Professor Ridgway,'in a memorial to the General Assembly 
 in 1868, states that the field is a large but shallow one, made 
 up of a cluster of beautiful coal basins, being identical with 
 the lower coal series of the anthracite basin of Pennsyl- 
 vania. The coal on the edges of the field has been not only 
 broken up, but altered, by heat and pressure, such as the 
 Pennsylvania field seems to have escaped; but Professor 
 Ridgway states that it is regular and undisturbed, and less 
 altered, in other parts. Still later — in 1875 — a hole was 
 sunk a little over 700 feet, at a point in Massachusetts some 
 five miles from Providence, in the centre of the basin, and 
 a bjed of coal nine feet thick was found at this depth. Its 
 quality, judging from the core brought up, was superior to 
 the coal previously worked. All this coal has a red ash, and 
 burns with great freedom and with a fuller blaze than other 
 anthracite. The ash is quite fusible, so that a moderate 
 blast is required. Some time ago, Mr. Samuel L. Crocker, 
 of the Taunton Copper Company, stated that, for about 
 twelve years, he had used 10,000 tons annually of this coal 
 from the Portsmouth mine, in various manufacturing estab- 
 lishments and for domestic purposes, and that, for steam and 
 all ordinary purposes, it was quite as good as Pennsylvania 
 anthracite; while, for smelting copper ores, it was the best 
 mineral fuel. More recently, the Taunton Copper Company 
 have acquired this mine, and are now raising their own 
 coal. The main shaft measures 1400 feet on the incline, 
 and the gangways aggregate a length of 3J miles. Another 
 mine at Cranston, from which some thousands of tons were 
 formerly shipped, has recently been reopened with a capacity 
 of 100 tons per day. Most of the workings have been on 
 the outcrop, where, as before stated, the coal is broken and 
 altered. But the alteration seems to have pretty well freed 
 the coal from sulphur, and has also given it free-burning 
 qualities. Prof. Jackson's analysis of the Portsmouth coal 
 is as follows : 
 
 ■Water and volatile matter 
 Fixed carbon .... 
 Ash of dark red color . . 
 
 .10.00 
 
 .84.50 
 
 6.50 
 
 Prof. Shaler's analysis of Cranston coal (1876) is as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Volatile matter expelled at red heat . 
 Fixed carbon . . 
 
 Ash 
 
 Hygroscopic moisture 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 Specific gravity . . 
 
 . . . a.M 
 
 . . 82.26 
 
 . 6.65 
 
 . . . 8.55 
 
 100.00 
 
 . . . 0.026 
 
 .1.839 
 
 The magnetic iron ore deposit at Cumberland, three miles 
 from Woonsocket, and twelve from Providence, is the most 
 valuable in the State. The " Cumberland Iron Hill " is a 
 mass of ore 500 feet long, 150 feet wide, and 104 feet high, 
 and is estimated to contain over a million tons above natural 
 drainage. Probably a very much larger quantity lies below 
 ground. The ore is not rich in iron — it averages 85 per 
 cent. — ^but it is extremely free from sulphur and phosphorus, 
 the latter element, as lately determined at the Bethlehem 
 Iron Works, being but 0.026 per cent. The Bethlehem 
 analysis givps the iron in one specimen as 30.86 per cent., 
 and in another at 33 per cent, and the silica as 25.5 per 
 cent. Dr. Chilton's analysis is as follows : 
 
 Per- and protoxide of iron . .... 58.50 
 
 Oxide of manganese ... .* 2.10 
 
 Oxide of titanium . . . 3.66 
 
 Alumina and silica . 26.33 
 
 Magnesia 6.80 
 
 Lime . . . 0.65 
 
 Water and loss . ... . . . 1.96 
 
 100.00 
 Metallic iron 42.68 
 
132 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Such an ore mined by open quarrying with natural drain- 
 age, and almost on tidewater, would seem to be of some value 
 for the steel manufacture. There are also hematite deposits, 
 the largest being at Cranston, five miles from Providence. 
 The analysis of this ore by Prof. Willis in 1870 is as follows : 
 
 Volatile matter, . . 
 Peroxide of iron . 
 Protoxide of iron . 
 
 Silica, 
 
 Alumina, 
 
 Sulphuric acid {0.047 sulptiur), . . 
 Phosphoric acid (0.199 phosphorus). 
 Peroxide of manganese, . . 
 Lime, ... . . 
 
 Magnesia, . 
 Ltoss, . . . . . 
 
 Metallic iron, 
 
 Metallic iron in calcine J ore. 
 
 14.060 
 76.285 
 trace 
 4.810 
 2.100 
 
 o.ns 
 
 0.463 
 0.080 
 0.500 
 0.410 
 0.20O 
 
 90.938 
 
 63.40 
 63.G0 
 
 The manufacture of iron in Rhode Island is not exactly a 
 new subject, since it commenced in 1703. Many cannon were 
 cast here from these ores for use in the Revolutionary War 
 and in the war of 1812. The charcoal iron manufacture 
 closed in this State in 1834, when anthracite iron began to 
 be introduced. The authorities of the time pronounced the 
 iron of very superior quality. The Cumberland and 
 Cranston ores were mixed in equal quantities. It has 
 been estimated that pig iron can be produced in this 
 region at less than $16 per ton, which is no doubt true, 
 seeing that ore, coal and limestone are adjacent and easily 
 mined, provided the coal turns out to be a good blast-fur- 
 nace fuel. I do not learn that experiments have been made 
 in this directfon. But whether iron is produced here or not 
 there is already a largely growing development of coal 
 mining, and it seems probable that ore of this quality, so 
 near tidewater, may find a profitable market. 
 
 ^■Compiled from a paper hy A' L. Holley, C. E., Transactions American In- 
 stitute of Mining Engineers 
 
 THE SILVER MINES OF NEWBURYPORT. 
 
 THE first pit was opened in May, 1874. In August I 
 made a visit to this j)it, which was six feet wide in 
 the north-west direction, twelve feet long north, 80° 
 east, and six feet deep. About four tons of galena 
 carrying gray copper siderite, and quartz, had been taken 
 from this pit. The lumps were all of them evidently float 
 specimens and varied from eight to twelve inches in thick- 
 ness and showed very distinct indications of crevice or vein 
 structure; The indications at the bottom of this pit were 
 such as to remove all questions of salting. Three specimens 
 were assayed, with the following results : No. 1, a coarse- 
 grained galena, very rich in lead, yielded $63.13 of silver 
 per ton of 2240 lbs. No. 2 was a fine-grained galena, and 
 seemed to represent the standard ore of the mine. This 
 gave 50 per cent, of lead and $84.26 in silver per ton. No. 3 
 *as a nearly pure piece of gray copper not quite perfectly 
 freed from quartz and galena ; this sample yielded $1422 
 in silver per ton, also $145.12 in gold, and 27 per cent, of 
 copper. The first discovery of ore in in situ was made about 
 October 10th, 1874, when a crevice filled with a deposit an 
 inch thick of galena was discovered some 40 feet due north 
 of the first pit. This had a strike of about north 80° east. 
 6 feet to the north of this and parallel to it a six-inch crevice 
 of galena was discovered. The parties who were operating 
 the deposit then went about 20 feet, hoping to find a wider 
 vein. The ore deposit as here found had widened out to a 
 thickness of three feet at ten below the sod, and at a distance 
 of 22 feet below the surface of the galena vein measured six 
 feet thick. A hole was drilled dry through this mass perpen- 
 dicular to the plane of the vein, and the drillings saved 
 thoroughly sampled, and assayed, yielding ' 
 
 62 per cent, load at 6 cti<. per lb., $69.84 per ton 2240 lbs 
 
 17-36 per cent, silver at $1.29 per oz. Troy, . 72.87 " " •■ 
 OOIT per cent, gold at $20.60. per oz. Troy . 11.43 " << « 
 
 ^ - - $164 14 
 
 This gives the gross value of a ton of the ore. A consid- 
 able percentage will be lost in the working owing to the 
 presence of antimony in the gray copper. Another valua- 
 tion of the ore was made upon a larger scale at the In- 
 stitute of Technology in Boston. A lump weighing 500 
 lbs. one foot thick was broken into three pieces, one of which, 
 weighing 145 lbs., was treated. This when crushed and 
 sorted by hand yielded 92 lbs. of smelting ore, i. e., a tol- 
 erably rich galena, and one which would probably pass as 
 No. 1 ore in most of the mining districts of the United 
 States. While making ihe meltings a very considerable loss 
 was experienced from tume. The yield was 30 lbs. of crude 
 ingot lead or 746 lbs. to the ton of 2240 lbs. This crude 
 lead after being refined with zinc, was again refined, and 
 the rich portion cupelled. The lead was recovered from the 
 cupel bottom, and there was obtained in actual marketable 
 condition, 23 lbs. refined lead ; 436.32 grains of silver ; and 
 4.19 grains of gold. From this it appears that a ton of 
 picked ore contains, in condition to be actually extracted 
 and put in the market, as follows : 
 
 560 lbs. lead at 6 ots. per lb., . 
 
 22 oz. silver at $1.30 per oz., . . . . 
 
 101.8 grains gold at $20.60 per oz.. 
 
 .$33.60 
 28 60 
 . 4.37 
 
 866.57 
 
 Also a ton of crude ingot lead as produced by smelting 
 
 yields : 
 
 1710 lbs. lead at 6 cents per lb., . 
 
 74 oz. silver at $1.30, 
 
 341 grains gold at $J0.60 per oz.. 
 
 . $102.60 
 
 . . 96.20 
 
 . 14.63 
 
 $213.43 
 
 It must be remembered that the losses in the above work 
 are far greater than would actually take place where the ore 
 was worked on a large scale and with experienced work- 
 men. In reporting on the mine, the long ton, 2240 lbs., 
 was used at the special request of the former owner. Dr. 
 Kelley. The above figures are copied directly from that 
 report. The Chipman shaft was sunk on the thick outcrop 
 of galena just described. I am inclined to think that this 
 mass was what is often known as a chimney of thickening 
 up of the vein. A thickness of six feet of solid ore with a 
 parting on each side has nowhere else been found in this 
 mine. At a depth of 30 feet on the Chipman shaft a level 
 90 feet long has been driven to the southwest to the limit of 
 the property. The ore has been stoped out up to the surface 
 to a distance of 30 feet from the shaft, and I am told that 
 the ore deposit was from 10 inches to 16 inches thick at all 
 parts of the stoping ground of 30 feet square. The remaining 
 portion of this 30 feet level which has not been stoped, i. e., 
 the 60 feet lying beyond the first 30 feet from the shaft, now 
 carries a very fine display of ore, there being along the roof 
 of the level about 12 to 15 inches thick of solid ore. The 
 vein at one point on this level has been faulted with a throw 
 of about six feet to the northwest. The deposit appears to be 
 unchanged in character beyond the fault. At a depth be- 
 tween 60 and 60 feet below the surface of the vein, which so 
 far has been vertical, leaves the shaft with a decided dip to 
 the southeast. A level has been driven in a southerly di- 
 rection at 100 feet depth, but when I last heard from the 
 mine this level had not yet reached the vein though it was 
 20 feet from the shaft. Some gray copper, however, was 
 beginning to appear at the end of this level, and a carefully 
 selected and cleaned specimen of this was essayed at the 
 Institute of Technology, and yielded as a mean of five 
 
 12.186 per cent, silver, or $4583.93 per ton of 200O lbs. 
 .004 per cent, gold, or $20.69 per ton of 2000 lbs. 
 
 The Chipman Mine is well equiped with a well-lined shaft; 
 a fine hoisting engine, cage, cars, and pump, all of which have 
 been put in by the superintendent, Mr. 0. G. Paterson. In 
 September, 1S75, the mine was yielding regularly about IJ 
 tons of No. 1 ore, and 2 tons of No. 2 ore, and about 3 tons of 
 No. 3 ore per day. No. 1 is fine smelting ore; No. 2 is a low 
 grade of smelting ore ; No. 3 reqiiires crushing and wash- 
 ing. No. 1 ore, I am told, will sell outright ibr $100 per ton 
 in New York. The Boynton shaft lies about 150 feet from 
 the Chipman shaft in a direction south 80° west. Th6 i(t6rk 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 133 
 
 of prospecting has not been carried on so extensively nor 
 systematically here as in the Chipman Mine. The shaft ap- 
 parently follows down the same ore streak, though it is not 
 quite so thick on the average as in the Chipman Mine. I 
 have visited a number of other openings, but have nowhere 
 else seen an indication strong enough to give any great hope 
 of the discovery of a mine. In many places the rusty streak 
 of yellow ochre is followed with as much enthusiasm as in 
 California, but it does not seem to be the fashion to pan this 
 yellow dirt ; this may, perhaps, be due to the fact that when 
 it is panned it does not yield the color of gold which the 
 California pay dirt does. The diamond drill has been used 
 in the vicinity of Newburyport to some extent for prospect- 
 ing. It seems a little odd that it should have been chosen 
 for this purpose. A vertical hole is scarcely adapted to 
 prospect among vertical veins which are liable at any mo- 
 ment to swerve away from the drill-core. A furnace has 
 been erected in the vicinity of the Chipman Mine. This 
 furnace is built on a slope of about 30°, and is intended to 
 be continuous in its action, receiving the ore at the top of 
 the slope, roasting it on the slope, and smelting with reduc- 
 tion to lea;d at the foot of the slope. 
 
 — Oorrvpiled from a paper by R. B. Richardson, S. B., TransaclioTis ATnerican 
 
 Institute of mining Engineers. 
 
 THE ROCK FORMATIONS OF MAINE. 
 
 UNFORTUNATELY but little is known of the geo- 
 logical ages of the rocks of the greater part of 
 Maine. There are thousands of square miles in 
 the northern part of the State that are as yet 
 wholly unexplored. Undoubtedly the rocks of the north- 
 western portion of the State are Laurentian in character. 
 Of the explored and settled portions, we have of the 
 Palaeozoic age, the lower Silurian, the upper Silurian and 
 the Devonian. No positive evidence has been afforded us 
 of the existence of any part of the Carboniferous system. 
 Many of our rocks have been referred to the Cambrian or 
 Huronian system. Our rocks have hitherto received so 
 little attention from geologists that there is necessarily a 
 great deal of uncertainty regarding the true classification of 
 them. The coast line from Grand Manan to the Isle of 
 Shoals, although but three hundred miles in a straight line, 
 owing to the numerous indentures, islands, capes, bays and 
 • rivers, actually measures more than twenty-five hundred 
 miles of exposed rocks, affording magnificent and almost 
 unlimited facilities for the examination of their formations. 
 It is doubtful if anywhere in the known world is exhibited 
 such a variety of rocks. Prominent among them may be 
 seen granites of all grades and varieties, gneiss, sienite, 
 protogine, porphyry, eurite, felsite, quartz, conglomerates, 
 limestones, serpentine, steatite, hornstone, Jasper, trap of all 
 kinds, mica, hornblende, talcose; and argillaceous schists; 
 clay and calciferous slates; pyritiferous and plumbaginous 
 schists; fossiliferous and sandstone rocks. Many of the 
 rocks on the coast of Maine are metalliferous; those of 
 Hancock county especially. Another feature exceptionally 
 prominent in Hancock county, and contiguous to the mmes, 
 is the great number of trapdykes and veins. Deer Isle, 
 Sedgwick, Mount Desert, Sullivan and Gouldsboro, present 
 numerous examples of these traps ; also in Hampden, Han- 
 cock, Ellsworth, Blue Hill, Long Island, Machias, Lubec, 
 Dexter and many other places. Much of the trap is por- 
 phyritic, more especially at Sedgwick, Deer Isle and Brooks- 
 ville. That these trap-dykes and veins have some intimate 
 connection with, or relation to, the ore veins about Hancock 
 county is apparent from the fact that they are much more 
 numerous in the vicinity of ore-bearing lodes. There is a 
 very striking resemblance between the Maine metal-bearing 
 belts and those of the Old World; and in reading de- 
 scriptions of those of Cornwall, Wales, Derbyshire, North 
 Germany and Spain, one cannot but notice the similarity 
 The rocks of Mainemore nearly resemble those ot the Old 
 
 World than they do those of the Pacific coast. Mineral 
 veins and beds in each separate portion of the earth certainly 
 appear to follow one another in nearly the same relative 
 order as to age, in so far as they are the gradual result of 
 similar geological events. There can be no doubt that all 
 true ore beds were originally formed by mechanical or 
 chemical precipitation from water. Their conditions may 
 have been much changed afterwards by the action of chemi- 
 cal or heat agencies. They exhibit certain lines of polarity. 
 Magnetism or electricity seems to have something to do with 
 the formation of ore veins, but exactly how or in what 
 manner we are unable to determine at the present day. 
 
 It has been asserted that ore veins are more commonly 
 found in mountainous regions than in plains ; that they ap- 
 pear to be more frequent in the older rocks and formations 
 than in the very recent ones. Hence it would appear that 
 Maine is particularly well adapted to bear valuable deposits 
 of ores. That the north and northwestern portions of the 
 State are very much broken, and present an appearance alto- 
 gether different from that of the south-western and eastern 
 portions is true. This difference in appearance is easily ac- 
 counted for by the fact that the northern portions of the 
 State, being much more elevated, escaped the action of the 
 drift matter which must have swept along the coast with 
 great power, denuding and wearing down the surface, filling 
 up valleys and ravines, and leaving comparatively a level 
 track. We have positive evidence that this was the case in 
 the fact that the surface of the denuded rocks shows 
 numerous strife or drift marks. If the surface of the rocks 
 of the coast was laid bare, they would all present a polished 
 or striated appearance. The discoveries of minerals and ores 
 seem to have been confined principally to the coast line. 
 No particular exploration has been made of the more 
 northerly or mountainous regions. It is not anticipated 
 that any rich discoveries of silver ores will be made in that 
 section ; if anything, gold will be discovered. Of the mining 
 belts thus far explored in Maine, the more prominent ones 
 are the Lubec and Trescott belts ; the Gouldsboro and Sul- 
 livan, Sedgwick and Deer Isle belt ; the Blue Hill copper 
 belt; the Dexter, Corinna and St. Albans belt; and the 
 Acton, Newfield and Parsonsfield belt. 
 
 The Lubec Mining' Belt. — This has been the longest 
 known of any in the State. Explorations for lead were 
 commenced here many years ago, and considerable work 
 has been done at different times, which has resulted in the 
 development of a number of veins of argentiferous galenas. 
 Considerable ore has been shipped from these mines at 
 various times, and the result has been satisfactory. Several 
 shafts and a number of drifts have been opened and a great 
 deal of money has been expended, mostly (if reports are 
 true), under a misguided management, the greater part 
 having been devoted to expensive machinery and buildings. 
 There is no question but these properties are valuable. 
 Recent examinations by a prominent expert have shown 
 this to be a fact. The mineral belt of which the Lubec 
 mines are but a part, undoubtedly extends through Campo- 
 bello Island, Lubec and Trescott. Numerous veins of galena 
 have been found in Trescott, one of which is exceedingly pro- 
 mising. The rocks which appear upon this belt are argillace- 
 ous and calcareous slates. Trap dykes are exceedingly nume- 
 rous ; some of them are composed of green stone, "others are 
 porphyritic. Calcite is quite frequent and forms part of the 
 gangu'e of the veins. Few impressions of shells are found, 
 probably the same as those of Perry. The ore consists of 
 lead, zinc and copper, on the surface. The galena is 
 argentiferous, carrying silver in the proportion of from 
 twenty to ninety ounces to the ton. Below seventy-five feet 
 in 3epth, the ores rapidly change, becoming much softer, 
 containing more lead and silver, and less zinc and copper. 
 This belt probably extends up through St. George in New 
 Brunswick. Several veins of ore have been opened in that 
 section, the character of which is precisely similar to those 
 of Lubec. Magnificent specimens of copper pyrites have 
 been shown from Campobello Island, assaying twenty-four 
 per cent, of metallic copper. This whole region is un- 
 doubtedly very rich in metallic deposits. 
 
 The G-ouldsboro and Sullivan Mining Belt. — 
 Coming west from Lubec to Gouldsboro one will cross a 
 number of metalliferous belts, most of them, however, un- 
 explored as yet. The above named belt or district has been 
 
134 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 quite extensively prospected, resulting in the opening of a 
 number of good mines. It extends from Gouldsboro through 
 the towns of Sullivan and Hancock to Franklin, in a north- 
 westerly direction some twenty miles or more. The Cherry- 
 field district should not be omitted in mentioning these 
 metalliferous belts. It is probably somewhat similar to the 
 Gouldsboro. The country rocks are syenites, quartzites and 
 schists. Several exceedingly long and broad bands of quartz 
 extend through the towns of Cherryfield and Harring- 
 ton. A little free gold is occasionally found in this 
 quartz, but not in sufficient quantity, probably, to pay for 
 working. 
 
 At Gouldsboro there have been discovered some exceed- 
 ingly large and well defined veins of galena, on which are 
 located the Gouldsboro and Home, also the Soule and Gup- 
 till silver mining companies. These mines are very pro- 
 ductive and rich. The Gouldsboro is the oldest, and con- 
 sequently much farther advanced than the others. The ore 
 taken from this mine consists of a mixture of galena, zinc, 
 copper and iron pyrites, with occasional specks of gray cop- 
 per. The ore runs from ten to four hundred ounces in silver 
 to the ton. Some of the galena concentrates which I have 
 assayed, run four hundred and eight ounces to the ton. The 
 gangue of the ore vein is quartz ; the wall of the rocks are 
 formed of a peculiar kind of material composed of horn- 
 blende, quartz and lime. The Home mine produces ex- 
 ceedingly massive galena, carrying from forty to sixty 
 ounces of silver. The vein is of great width and length. 
 The gangue and the wall rock are similar to the Gouldsboro. 
 One peculiarity of the country rock in the vicinity of these 
 mines, is that it all contains lime. At the Soule and Gup- 
 till mine are found distinct veins of calcspar ; this is con- 
 sidered a good indication for the whole district. Coming 
 west from the Gouldsboro mines the rqck changes into a 
 slaty quartzite. At Sullivan it comes into contact with 
 granite on the north. Along the shore of the Sullivan 
 river, and running nearly parallel with it, is located the fa- 
 mous Sullivan lode. The course of the vein is from north- 
 west to south-east. The strike being the same as the coun- 
 try rock, it dips towards the granite and will probably come 
 in contact with it, inside of the depth of one thousand feet. 
 This vein was discovered by Mr. Messer, in May, 1877. It 
 crops out along the shore of the river, showing eight or ten 
 inches of quartz, containing silver-sulphuret, galena, and 
 iron pyrites. Mr. Frances Worcester caused a shaft to be 
 sunk some eight or ten feet, and strange to say, he encoun- 
 tered specimens of native silver in the form of threads and 
 flakes. Specimens of these were forwarded to the State 
 Assayer. Having never seen any thing of the kind from the 
 State before, he was exceedingly astonished and could not 
 believe it,until he visited the mine and made a personal ex- 
 amination. The following spring a company was formed 
 composed of Boston men, who commenced work at once, 
 and has proceeded uninteruptedly ever since. 
 
 The discovery of the Sullivan lode marks an era in the 
 history of mining in Maine, and deserves special mention. 
 The Sullivan Company, although laughed at by many, and 
 encouraged by none, except two or three experts who ex- 
 amined the property, with commendable energy, enterprise 
 and perseverance, pushed their work forward until they 
 haveactually proved, despite all opposition, that the lode or 
 vein is one of exceeding great richness. The success attend- 
 ing the working of this mine was unquestionably the cause 
 of starting all other mines in this and adjoining districts. 
 On the Sullivan vein proper, are located the Wankeag, 
 Sullivan, Pine Tree and Milton mining companies. Further 
 up the river, on the Hancock side, on the same range, are 
 located the Robert Emmet and Hancock silver mining 
 companies. These mines, although probably not located on 
 any part of the Sullivan vein, are within the Sullivan belt. 
 The Robert Emmet and Hancock mines both produce 
 ores which carry considerable gold and some copper, while 
 that _ of the Sullivan vein contains but little of either. 
 Coming back again to the Sullivan side, we have the Ash- 
 ley, Milbrook and Tugvvassa mines, located below and a lit- 
 tle to the eastward of the Sullivan veins. The Ashley and 
 Millbrook are both located on what is claimed to be a 
 broken or dislocated portion of the Sullivan vein, which, if 
 the claim be not true, must have some close relationship to 
 it, since the ore taken from the Millbrook at the depth of 
 
 ninety feet, is of the same character as that of the Sullivan 
 vein proper. There has been considerable disturbance of 
 some portions -of the Sullivan lode by the intrusion of trap 
 dykes and porphyry, which may have caused a deflection or 
 splitting up of the vein. The country rock in which the 
 Sullivan vein is found, is a slaty quartzite, somewhat tal- 
 cose, and in some places calcareous and occasionally por- 
 phyritic. At the Milton mine, the rock somewhat resem- 
 bles the Comstock, porphyry being distinctly calciferous. A 
 brief description of some of the characteristic features of 
 the Sullivan mine will answer ibr all the others on or near 
 this lode. The Sullivan company have one shaft one hun- 
 dred and ninety feet in depth, following the dip of the ore 
 vein, in which can be seen the ore vein, gradually widening 
 from ten inches at the top to nine feet at the bottom of the 
 shaft. ' Both the walls, foot and hanging, are clearly defined, 
 and are separated from the slate by a distinct seam of clay 
 nearly two inches in thickness. The vein matter is made 
 up of alternate layers of different grades and varieties of 
 ores, some of the streaks being exceedingly rich in silver 
 compounds. The predominating ore is a black sulphuret of 
 silver. Splendid specimens of native silver may be obtain- 
 ed ; also argentite, stromeyerite, pyrargyrite, stephanite, and 
 cerargyrite. In fact, almost every ore of silver is represent- 
 ed in this mine. The proportion of lead in the ore is very 
 small. There is considerable iron, some arsenic and a little 
 zinc. A fair average of the first-class ore from this mine 
 will be about one hundred ounces. All the mines in this 
 section are provided with first-class steam machinery. 
 Many discoveries of ore have been made on all the adjacent 
 and surrounding lands about Sullivan. Mount Desert, 
 Hancock Neck, Iron Bound Island, Little Duck Island, 
 Petit Manan Point and many other places have all contribu- 
 ted their share of new discoveries. At Petit Manan Point 
 is located the Petit Manan Mining Company. On the east- 
 ern side of Hancock Neck is located the Grant Mining 
 Coinpany. 
 
 The Blue Hill Copper Belt. — Proceeding west from 
 the Sullivan belt twenty-two miles, we come to the justly 
 celebrated Blue Hill copper belt. Blue Hill is situated at 
 the head of Blue Hill Bay, in the county of Hancock, and 
 is of easy access by rail or steamer from any direction. This 
 copper belt is about four miles long and one-half mile wide. 
 It is entirely a distinct belt of itself, and has no resemblance 
 to the adjoining parallel belts. It will be seen from the fol- 
 lowing description that it resembles the copper belts of 
 Falun, Sweden, also the Carpathian belts, and the Chilian 
 deposits. The copper belt proper undoubtedly belongs to 
 the Huronian series. Blue Hill mountain is composed of 
 coarse, eruptive granite ; the same may also be found both 
 sides of the belt, and even in some instances breaking 
 through the gneiss and quartzite which form the larger part, 
 of the country rock of the metalliferous section of this belt. 
 The richest copper ore seems to be confined toa soft granu- 
 lar quartzite. The whole belt is pyritiferous, even to the 
 extreme boundary lines. The whole deposit is clearly 
 stratified, and appears to be an immense fissure vein, the 
 whole mass of which is impregnated with cupriferous ores, 
 and in fact it bears a great resemblance to, and is almost 
 identical with, many of the great copper belts of the world, 
 and as might be expected, indeed as has already been 
 proved, is of almost uniform richness throughout the whole 
 length. The strike of the rock is almost east and west ; the 
 dip varies greatly, mostly inclining, however, to the south. 
 The ores lie in parallel alternate bands, in width varying 
 from one inch to many feet. These, according to well 
 known laws that have application to beds or deposits of this 
 nature, must continue to yield ore to great depths. There 
 are no faults or cross veins. No possibility can exist of 
 losing or exhausting the ore strata in depth. A portion of 
 one of the richest bands uncovered two hundred feet wide, 
 on the property of the Douglass copper mining company, 
 present the following characteristics, which will apply 
 equally well to all the others. Commencing on the south- 
 ern side, is found a thin band containing galena and zinc 
 blende, some of the former being exceedingly rich in silver. 
 A thin clay selvage separates the galena from a granular 
 quartz band of rich purple copper, often containing black 
 oxide and native copper. Then comes a rich band of yellow 
 copper pyrites ; next a wide band of "mundio ;" next alter- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 135 
 
 nating strata of yellow pyrites and " mundic," with thin 
 seams of purple ore, until it verges into the gneiss on the 
 northern side. Ores can be taken out in large quantities, 
 ranging from two to thirty per cent. ; a fair average of the 
 larger portion would be twelve per cent. 
 
 The following named ores may be found at this place : 
 Red copper oxide (quite common) ; chalcocite, or copper 
 glance (occasionally); bornite, often called erubescite; 
 purple copper and peacock ore (very common) ; chalcopyrite, 
 or yellow pyrites (predominates) ; tennantite (rarely) ; tetra- 
 hedrite, or gray copper (occasionally) ; malachite (in small 
 nodules) ; azurite (rarely) ; chrysocolla (rarely) ; pyrrhotite 
 (common) ; mispickel (frequently) ; molybdenite (occasion- 
 ally) ; galenite, stibnite and zinc blende (quite common). 
 
 The Blue Hill copper belt presents many advantages, 
 amongst which may be mentioned : first, its nearness to tide 
 ■frater, less than two miles. Ores may be landed in Baltimore 
 or New York, from the wharf, at a price not exceeding two 
 dollars per ton for shipment. Second, the facilities for 
 raising the ore, no deep shafts being required, as it can be, 
 and is worked from the surface ; hence, no great amount of 
 capital is necessary in developing. Third, the fine quality 
 of the ore, the large quantity, and the ease in dressing and 
 making it ready for the market. The smelters who have 
 received the ore shipped from this region are greatly pleased 
 with the way it Works, the ore being one of great purity, 
 containing no admixture of arsenic, lime, magnesia, or any- 
 thing of the sort that will in any way interfere with the 
 process of smelting. It is a simple mixture of quartz with 
 the sulphurets of iron and copper, and makes a most excel- 
 lent flux for reducing other more refractory ores. A fair 
 average of the constituent parts is presented by the following 
 analysis, made from ore taken from one of the mines : 
 
 Copper, . 
 Silica, 
 Iron, . 
 Sulphur, 
 Zinc, : . 
 
 . 10.34 per cent. 
 
 34.60 " " 
 . 23.28 " 
 . 31.78 " 
 10 " 
 
 ICO 
 
 It also contained gold at the rate of five pennyweights, 
 and silver five and one-half ounces to the ton. These mines 
 are under able and efBcient management. All the modern 
 and improved steam machinery is brought into requisition 
 to assist in the working of them. Plenty of manganese is 
 found in this vicinity, and the whole region seems to be un- 
 usually prolific in minerals and ores. All the mmmg and 
 geological experts who have examined this belt, are una- 
 nimous in their reports of the value of the mines. 
 
 The Sedgwick and Deer Isle Belt.— Passing south 
 from the Blue Hill copper belt, we cross a series of slaty 
 rocks bearing some quartz and somewhat metalliferous 
 Reaching the coast line, the rocks become porphyritic, and 
 are penetrated by numerous trap-dykes. In the town of 
 Sedgwick, on what is termed Byard's Point, is found one 
 large silver-bearing vein and several smaller ones ; on the 
 large vein is located the Edgemoggin company. At the depth 
 of sixty-five feet, native silver was found, and the ore pos- 
 sesses many characteristics of the Sullivan ore TheTeinis 
 very strong and well defined. The hanging wall is as smooth 
 as a marble floor, and is within five degrees of the vertical. 
 Deer Isle is exactly opposite Byard's Point. Here there 
 have been discovered a number of veins, some ot whicH 
 look exceedingly well. The Deer Isle silver mining^ compa- 
 ny is located on a very strong vein near Dunham s Point 
 Their exploitations show a sulphuret ore vein, composed ot 
 heavv spar, calcite, fluor-spar, and quartz, carrying sulphur- 
 ets of lead zinc, iron, silver, and copper. The formation 
 belongs to the same as that of the Edgemoggin mine Ser- 
 pentine, asbestos, jasper, quartz, apatite and several other 
 rarer minerals are found in close proximity to the Deer Isle 
 mine. The Isle of Haut and Vinal Haven probably should 
 both be included in the Sedgwick and Deer Isle belt. Both 
 these islands are prolific in ores. At Vmal Haven nickelit- 
 erous pyrites is found in great abundance. Should nickel 
 ever again become in great demand in this country, here is 
 a deposit of unlimited extent that can be worked mexpen- 
 sivdy, and would probably be a source ^f }^rgerjenue 
 There are dozens of smaller islands in the vicinity of Vinal 
 Haven, from which many discoveries have been reported 
 
 The Metalliferous Slate Belt of Penobsoot and 
 Piscataquis Counties. — This enormous slate belt is me- 
 talliferous in many places. It takes in nearly the whole of 
 Penobscot and Piscataquis counties. It is very irregular in 
 shape, being about seventy miles wide in the broadest part 
 and is over one hundred and twenty miles in length. If a 
 line be drawn from the lower partof Moosehcad Lake down 
 to New Portland ; thence through Anson and Norridgewock 
 to Waterville and Winslow ; from there in a direct line to 
 the north part of Bucksport ; thence along the north-west- 
 ern part of Washington county to Princeton ; thence across 
 the Patten by the Twin Lakes in a direct line to the foot of 
 Moosehead Lake ; forming a section in the centre of the 
 state, the outlines of which are very similar in figure to that 
 of the state itself. Much of the slate of this area is of the 
 clay variety, valuable in some portions as a roofing slate and 
 Worked as such. In the north-eastern part it is often more 
 properly a fine-grained sandstone, associated with layers of 
 clay slate. It is, also, in some parts slightly micaceous and 
 often containslime. Occasionally granite penetrates through 
 the slate. Trap, greenstone, and quartz veins are frequent. 
 Two sections of this slate belt are certainly metalliferous ; 
 possibly the whole of it may be. The eastern metalliferous 
 part extends from Hampden and Carmel, up through Low- 
 ell, Passadumkeag, Enfield, Howland, and certainly as far 
 north as Lee. The characteristics of this eastern metallif- 
 erous bearing belt may be summed up as follows. The veins 
 occur in green-stone or an epidotic variety of quartz, mixed 
 with occasional bunches of calcspar. The ore on the sur- 
 face is always arsenical and antimonial. The ore is sparse 
 but very rich, gray copper being always associated with it. 
 Several mines are being operated on this belt, notably among 
 them the Hampden, Harrington and McKusick. The Hamp- 
 den mine has a shaft down on one of the green-stone veins 
 from which specimens have been taken assaying over seven 
 hundred dollars to the ton. The western metalliferous sec- 
 tion of this great slate belt extends through the towns (com- 
 mencing at the southern limit) of Newport, Corinna, and 
 St. Albans, and probably as far west as Athens, also north- 
 erly through Dexter, Garland, and Parkman, to Guilford. 
 The slate through this section is somewhat talcose, occa.sion- 
 ally micaceous. The ore veins through this region are very 
 pockety. Large boulders of galena are found in various 
 places, especially in the towns of Dexter, Corinna, and St. 
 Albans, where many prospecting shafts have been sunk. 
 The galena is remarkably fine, and carries silver in fair pro- 
 portions. It contains a slight admixture of antimony, and 
 has a peculiar appearance that easily distinguishes it from 
 galenas from other portions of the State. The slate is very 
 friable and easy decomposed. Much of the quartz was orig- 
 inally heavily charged with arsenical sulphurets ; this has 
 decomposed on the surface, and considerable gold is found 
 amongst the quartz that has probably been set free from this 
 decomposition. It has been claimed that nuggets of free 
 gold and also of silver have been found in Corinna and St. 
 Albans. Several mines are now in operation in Dexter, 
 Corinna, and St. Albans. So much float ore is indicative of 
 good veins somewhere. 
 
 The Acton Mining Belt.— Leaving the St. Albans 
 and Corinna belt, and passing south-westerly, we cross wide 
 bands of ancient gneiss and granites, all so far as known, 
 non-metalliferous. Proceeding west of Acton, in the coun- 
 ty of York, we encounter another metalliferous belt, very 
 narrow, but of considerable length, which we denominate 
 the Acton mineral belt. This is from two to four miles in 
 width, and probably about twenty miles in length. The 
 formation is regular, and consists of shally mica schists and 
 slates, enclosed on each side by irregular patches of granite, 
 and also capped by the same on the hills. The explored 
 part, where the mines are situated, is in the towns of Acton 
 and Lebanon, some three or four miles from East Lebanon 
 station, on the Portland & Rochester railroad. 
 
 The strike of the rock is southeast-south ten degrees, and 
 the dip thirty -two degrees towards the south-west. Numerous 
 parallel bands or veins of quartz, many of them metalli- 
 ferous, run through the belt. The uniformity of the strike 
 and dip is something remarkable. Scarcely a break or dis- 
 location occurs within the minBral portion of the belt. The 
 ore veins first show themselves at the edge of a marsh, at 
 the upper end of the belt. Here they divide and run parallel 
 
136 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 about seventy feet apart, the entire length of the belt, crop- 
 ping out occasionally along the first mile and a half of the 
 belt, but finally becoming lost in the drift and soil at the 
 lower end. Numerous cross-cuts and prospecting shafts have 
 been put down along on the veins, and in no case has the 
 thickness of the quartz been found to be less than four feet, 
 and in every case more or less ore is present. Narrow veins 
 of trap run along the eastern side of both these veins, and 
 commonly form the foot walls. The ores consist mainly of 
 argentiferous galenas, both fine and coarse grained ; some 
 zinc, arsenical iron and copper are also present in the sur- 
 face ores, but not to any great extent. One notable fact is 
 that the arsenical iron is argentiferous, often containing 
 silver in the proportion of twenty ounces to the ton. In 
 some places in the veins are found decomposed ores, oxides 
 and carbonates of lead. These run in some cases very high 
 in silver. The gangue of the ore is pure quartz ; there is no 
 admixture whatever of any lime or alumina minerals. This 
 is a great advantage in concentrating the ores, since it rend- 
 ers the operation one of great simplicity. Almost any good 
 form of jig, buddle or table, after the ores are crushed and 
 screened, will answer for concentrating, and the product 
 cannot fail to be very rich, and will command a high price 
 in the market. The surface ores from the Acton veins run 
 from twenty to one hundred and twenty-five dollars to the 
 ton. Several companies have been formed for working these 
 veins. The Acton silver mining company have a valuable 
 section of land, through w^hich both ot the veins pass. Ad- 
 joining the Acton silver mining company on the south, is 
 the Silver Wave mining company. The ore vein shows here 
 a thickness of some twelve feet. The future of this mining 
 section is very promising. The fact that so much good ore 
 lies on the surface and the many advantages surrounding 
 the working of the same seem to indicate that the working 
 of these mines may be made to pay from the start. 
 
 The Wakefield and Parsonsfield Belt.— The State 
 of Maine can lay claim to but half of this belt, as it passes 
 in a south-easterly direction down into New Hampshire. 
 This is eminently a quartz and gneissic belt. Immense -veins 
 of quartz crop out from East Wakefield, clear up through to 
 Woodstock and Milton Plantation in Oxford county ; pos- 
 sibly it may extend much further. The croppings are con- 
 fined more particularly to the elevated portions, the hills 
 and mountains. The quartz carries considerable gold in 
 some places ; it occurs very irregularly, however. There are 
 also many veins of argentiferous galenas. The Lone Star 
 mine in Milton Plantation is located on one of these. The 
 Mineral Hill mining company is located on another at Ea»t 
 Wakefield, just across the State line. The exploitations of 
 the last named company reveal a true fissure vein. Consider- 
 able depth will have to be attained by the mines, on these 
 quartz veins, before fine ore will be reached, owing to the 
 nigh elevation of the country rock which carries the veins. 
 This mining belt is either quite wide, or else there is a series 
 of these elevated quartz veins, since ores of the same de- 
 scription have been found in nearly all of the towns sur- 
 rounding Wakefield, also at Gilead, Newry, Andover, and 
 Phillips. 
 
 The Gold Fields of Maine. — For years reports have 
 come to us of the existence of Gold in the north-western 
 part of the State. Hunters and men engaged in lumbering 
 in the vicinity of the Eangely lakes have brought to us 
 numerous samples of gold dust and nuggets. One hunter 
 has for years, in his semi-annual visits to Portland to dis- 
 pose of his fur, brought with him from one to four ounces 
 of clean gold, which he reports has gathered on the streams 
 running into the Eangely lakes. Quartz has also been 
 brought us from the same locality, containing free gold. 
 This quartz must have been broken from the ledges ; conse- 
 quently there is a strong possibility, not to say probability, 
 that gold exists there in situ. Gold has also been washed 
 from the black sand found in Sandy river, running through 
 Philips, Madrid, and New Sharon, also from Carritunk 
 stream. Dead river. Seven Mile brook, and many of the 
 small tributaries near the head waters of the Kennebec. 
 Gold has been found in the quartz at Bingham, Moscow, 
 and New Portland in Somerset county. It is also reported 
 from many of the ranges between the Eangely and Moose- 
 head lakes. As near as we can ascertain from a careful ar- 
 rangement of all the facts in connection with the gold dis- 
 
 coveries of these sections, there must be gold in the quartz 
 on the west side of the Eangely lakes. This quartz proba- 
 bly follows the range of mountains, including Mt. Abram 
 and Mt. Biglow, through to the foot of Moosehead lake. 
 The valley of the Chaudiere (in Canada), has been very 
 productive in alluvial gold for many years. At one time, it 
 was thought that the Sandy Eiver gold was a part of the 
 washings from the Chaudiere, but this is not true. The 
 range of mountains previously referred to would have most 
 efTectually cut ofi" the sources of supply from the Chaudiere 
 to the Sandy river valley. The gold found on the Sandy 
 river and contiguous streams, , owes its parentage to the 
 quartz rock west of the Eangely lakes. The rocks of ttis 
 region are mostly azoic, and contain numerous veins of 
 quartz. No explorations or exploitations of any conse- 
 quence have ever been made in these regions. The gold 
 coming from the vicinity of the Eangeley lakes is very fine 
 and pure. The quartz is very similar to that which yields 
 the gold in the southern States. 
 
 Another gold region probably exists in the north-eastern 
 part of the State, in the region of the head waters of the St. 
 John river. The rock there is talcose schist, similar to the 
 gold bearing schists of New Hampshire and Canada. This 
 is a region, however, of which we possess but little know- 
 ledge, and that derived from sources that may be unreliable. 
 Free gold has been found in small quantities in many of the 
 towns of Maine ; it has been found in Baileyville and Barine, 
 near the New Brunswick line in Washington county ; also 
 in Cherryfield, Columbia and Harrington, towns in the same 
 county. Small specimens have been found in Pittston, 
 Corinna and St. Albans. In York county at Saco (in the 
 slate quarry), and also at Waterboro. Some of the silver 
 ores in the State are aui-iferous, notably those found at Blue 
 Hill and Hampden. Nearly all of the arsenical, copper, and 
 iron pyrites of the State are auriferous, but they do not con- 
 tain gold in sufiicient quantity to render the extraction of it 
 alone profitable. It may, however, be worked to advantage 
 in ores containing other metals, where the saving of the gold 
 would be but an accessory part of the operation. In pro- 
 specting for gold, there is one fact which should be kept in 
 mind, that auriferous ore does not always contain gold coM'se 
 enough to be visible to the naked eye. Fully two-thirds of 
 all the gold quartz that is now worked, contains gold in such 
 a fine state of division that it is wholly undiscernible to the 
 eye, even when assisted by a powerful lens ; hence, in pro- 
 specting for gold, simple panning or examination by a lens 
 is not sufficient. Chemical tests should always be brought 
 into requisition before the case is decided. 
 
 Other Minerals and Metals found in Maine. — The 
 mineral wealth of Maine does not consist alone in her mines 
 of gold, silver, and copper. There are other metals and 
 minerals which, if not valuable in the same sense as these, 
 are quite as valuable in their way as economic productions. 
 The demands now made upon science to produce from the 
 minerals of the earth materials which are to be used in the 
 arts and consumed in the daily routine of commercial trans- 
 actions are unlimited. Should this daily production cease, 
 even for a moment, the wheels of business would cease to 
 revolve. Nature's laboratory, ample as it is, can but keep 
 pace with the steady and growing demands upon it. For 
 years the granites, the slates, and the limestones of Maine 
 have been quarried and sent to every part of the known 
 world. Some of the most magnificent works of modern 
 engineering attribute their strength and durability to the 
 beautiful and time-enduring granite of Maine. Thousands 
 of fine dwellings and magnificent blocks are protected from 
 the elements by the slates drawn from the inexhaustible 
 quarries of Maine ; while the inside walls are covered with 
 mortar made from the best lime rock in existence, which 
 also came from the State of Maine. Glazing for pottery 
 ware is made from Maine feldspar; sandpaper is made from 
 the crushed quartz of Maine ; iron and steel are refined 
 by the use of Maine manganese ; the good housewife 
 polishes her culinary utensils with polishing powder 
 made from Maine tripoli, and buildings are protected 
 by the use of mineral paints made from Maine decomposed 
 iron ores. 
 
 One other subject remains to be spoken of, that is the 
 manufacture of sulphur and sulphuric acid from the iron 
 pyrites, of which Maine has. almost ihexhaustable beds. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OE THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 137 
 
 This is an industry that has long been established in France. 
 Germany, and England, all of their sulphuric acid being 
 now produced from the combustion of iron pyrites. We 
 are at this very moment importing sulphur and saltpetre to 
 make our sulphuric acid, when we have a ready and conveni- 
 ent supply of the necessary materials almost at our very 
 door. Maine, with her immense beds of these pyrites, might 
 produce sulphuric acid to supply the demands of the whole 
 United States. Most of these pyrites are cupriferous, and 
 manufacture of salts of copper metal might be profitably 
 carried on in connection with that of sulphuric acid. 
 Alums can be manufactured from Maine shales. The State 
 has good horn-stone that might be manufactured into 
 scythe-stones and whet-stones. Emery is found in many 
 parts of the state suitable for cutting and polishing steel. 
 Tin has been found in many localities of the State. We have 
 good reason to believe that it may yet be found in profitable 
 quantities. The Blue Hill region is especially adapted for it. 
 Zinc ores occuf in abundance associated with the ores of 
 lead, and will be profitable as a by-product. Arsenic might 
 be made in large quantities from the immense deposits of 
 arsenical iron which exist thereabouts. Antimony also 
 occurs ; there is a very large deposit of it at Vanceboro, 
 which has been worked to some extent. The region round 
 about Gardiner, on the Kennebec, promises well for Graph- 
 ites, and many fine specimens have been shown from that 
 locality. Many people still persist in their determination 
 that coal must exist in Maine in quantity. Near and about 
 the mouth of the Kennebec river are found small, thin seams 
 of pyriteriferous, bituminous coal ; these veins have no ex- 
 tent, neither do they lead to any deposits of value. Iron, 
 nickel, and cobalt exist in almost unlimited quantities. 
 Splendid mica, sufficiently large for industrial purposes, is 
 found in the ancient gneiss which forms part of the rock 
 formation of the State. In fact the mineral resources of 
 Maine include about all of the earthy productions. Maine 
 is also rich in the precious gems ; tourmaline, emeralds, and 
 garnets have been found, many of which have been cut and 
 polished, and found purchasers in the market for precious 
 stones. 
 
 Ore Veins. — It is a well known fact, and an allusion to 
 it may perhaps be unnecessary, that surface ores from 
 nearly all mines of the globe are refractory and compound 
 mixtures of the various chemical elements, the base metals 
 largely predominating over the more precious. It is ex- 
 pected, and is, indeed, usually found to be true that on 
 going down to the lower depths the base metals give way to 
 the more precious ones. Not only has experience demon- 
 strated this, but the theory now accepted by scientific men 
 of the mineralization of ore veins is chiefly in accordance 
 with it. The old and now thoroughly irrational theory of 
 vein formations was that of ejection or projection of fused 
 mineral matter through a cavity or fissure in the rock. The 
 idea is almost completely erroneous, and is now supplanted 
 by that of Professor Dana, which may be given in a few 
 words : " The fissures occupied by veins are simply 
 cavities penetrating the rocks more or less deeply down 
 to regions of great heat, but not to those of fused rock. 
 During the metamorphic changes, such cavities, as soon 
 as formed, would begin to receive mineral solutions or 
 vapors from the rocks adjoining. The rocks may con- 
 tain sufficient moisture to carry on this system of 
 infiltration if there were no other source, and this mois- 
 ture and any vapors present would move towards the open 
 spaces. The mineral matters thus carried to the fissure 
 would there become concreted and commence the formation 
 of the vein. These materials from the adjoining rock may 
 be taken directly from it by simple solution, or be derived 
 by a decomposition of some of its constituents."^ Von 
 C'otta, in his excellent work on ore deposits, says : " There 
 can be no doubt that all true ore beds were originally formed 
 by chemical or mechanical precipitation from water. The 
 formation of fissures, as well as their filling, is continuous. 
 Metalliferous veins, which from their nature were formed at 
 a great depth, could first attain the surface only by means 
 of a great, and consequently very long continued, decom- 
 position and erosion of the rocks covering them." Speak- 
 ing of the length and depth of ore veins, he says : Up *» 
 the present time it has never been proved that a lode has 
 been followed to its end ; that is, to where the fissure 
 
 actually ceased. Most of the stated cases concerning the 
 wedging out of veins, or their becoming sterile with in- 
 creased depth, rest on the fact that ores are generally dis- 
 tributed in the veins. As long as the fissures exist there 
 remains a possibility of their widening out and containing 
 ore." Von Cotta considers it safe to assert that " ore veins 
 will certainly be as deep as they are long." Under the new 
 and rational theory of vein formation, the much abused 
 iron pyrites or sulphuret of iron plays an important part. 
 Le Conte considers it " the parent or the great carrier of 
 all the other metals." Its presence in an ore vein is signi- 
 ficant of strength and permanency. This being the case, there 
 are in the State of Maine, all the characteristics of valuable 
 veins, so far as sulphuret of iron is concerned ; for it is doubt- 
 ftil if anywhere in the known world are to be found such ex- 
 tensive deposits of this material. It is allowed, and, indeed, 
 already proved, that there are in Maine many true fissure 
 veins, well mineralized, of great length and thickness. 
 Why, then, may they not have great depth ? The exploita- 
 tions carried on in the State have proved beyond the 
 shadow of a doubt, that the veins do actually improve both 
 in quality and quantity with depth. If any additional 
 proof is needed of the permanency of the Maine veins it 
 will remain with the future, since time alone can give it. 
 There is no silver mining region in the world that has given 
 out. Mexican mines, worked by the Aztecs before the con- 
 quest of Cortez, are still as profitable as ever. The old 
 Spanish mines opened long before Hannibal's time, are still 
 worked with enormous profits. The South American mines 
 have constantly yielded their wealth for more than three 
 hundred years and are as productive as ever. Mines in 
 Hungary that were worked by the Romans before the time 
 of Christ, still yield an abundance of ore. 
 
 Maine Ores. — It has been said that the ores from the 
 Maine mines are refractory ; this is true in part, but not 
 whoHy so. The ores of Blue Hill are much sought after by 
 the smelters, on account of being so easily reduced. This, 
 then, is a refutation of part of the charge. There are no 
 very deep mines in the state as yet, and the silver ores mined 
 thus far are most essentially surface ores, and consequently 
 contain many refractory elements. In some individual cases 
 the ores have been found to be very refractory, while in 
 others, on the contrary, they have been found to be easily 
 reduced. On the whole I think it is safe to say that the ores 
 of the state are not more refractory than those from other 
 mining countries. More time is required for the develop- 
 ment of the mines and erection of mills than most people 
 suppose, and people must wait patiently for the completion 
 of the work before they can expect great results. Now the 
 question naturally presents itself, are the ores rich enough in 
 the precious metals to pay for working? The quantity is, in 
 most cases, pronounced large enough, the facilities for work- 
 ing are allowed to be unsurpassed, and the ores can be mined 
 at a price far less than those of regions unsettled, mountain- 
 ous, and far from navigation, as most mining centers are. 
 So the whole matter naturally rests upon the question of 
 richness. 
 
 Now an assay made from time to time of picked samples 
 from an ore vein cannot give anything like a correct idea 
 of the average value of the vein. It does prove that the 
 mine contains rich ore perhaps, but not by any means that 
 it is a rich mine ; consequently the practical miner has little 
 or no confidence at all m reported assays, but always makes 
 his own selections of ore for assay, usually choosing sam- 
 ples of the best and poorest. And even then, when thinking 
 he has made a judicious and fair selection, he may cheat 
 himself, for it has been proved on many occasions that in 
 making selections from ore piles we are mightily prone to 
 take samples a little better than the average. The only way 
 to ascertain the true value of a vein is to conduct a regular 
 systematic course of assays on cross sections of the vein 
 taken every few feet in depth and the whole of it to be assayed, 
 no samples taken, but the whole mass crushed and assayed 
 carefully ; or when a large pile of ore has accumulated on 
 the dump, it can be crushed coarsely and cut down in 
 quarters until an average sample is secured for assay. Either 
 of these methods will give good, fair, average results, and 
 are about the only means that will lead to that much desired 
 end. We give here a table of average assays for Maine 
 Minerals. 
 
138 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Ta1>le of Assays.—Ores of tlxe State of Maine. 
 
 Tifiriffi'tn 
 
 Ifame of 
 
 Kind of 
 
 Depth 
 
 Silver 
 
 1 Gold 
 
 Lead 
 
 Cup'r 
 
 JLJvij u lh v^y rf> 
 
 mine. 
 
 ore. 
 
 in ounces 
 
 HnFW 
 
 perct 
 
 perct 
 
 Acton 
 
 Dirigo 
 
 Galena 
 
 Soft 
 
 22.31 
 
 2.10 
 
 31.82 
 
 
 *' 
 
 " 
 
 *' 
 
 80 ft 
 
 84.96 
 
 trace 
 
 35,20 
 
 
 " 
 
 Acton 
 
 (( 
 
 surf 
 
 21.70 
 
 3.0f 
 
 72.20 
 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 Sulph'ts 
 
 » 
 
 10.84 
 
 2.57 
 
 15.7( 
 
 
 *' 
 
 " 
 
 Galena 
 
 *' 
 
 21.70 
 
 
 66.10 
 
 
 !! 
 
 « 
 
 Arsenic'l 
 Galeoa 
 
 ." 
 
 32.97 
 45.20 
 
 11.97 
 
 42.67 
 68.20 
 
 
 Blue Hill 
 
 Douglas 
 
 " 
 
 10 ft 
 
 56.23 
 
 14.67 
 
 47.00 
 
 
 " 
 
 * 
 
 Antimo'l 
 
 25 ft 
 
 72.00 
 
 86.00 
 
 
 
 ft 
 
 " 
 
 Pyrites 
 
 60 ft 
 
 5.50 
 
 6.00 
 
 
 22,50 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 Purple 
 
 10 ft. 
 
 9.60 
 
 800 
 
 
 IH.25 
 
 " 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 Pyrites 
 
 surf. 
 
 4.60 
 
 6.0O 
 
 
 18.90 
 
 tc 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 10.00 
 
 2.46 
 
 
 12.83 
 
 " 
 
 Blue Hill 
 
 " 
 
 »( 
 
 9.20 
 
 4.50 
 
 
 13.48 
 
 Corinna 
 
 Corinna 
 
 Galena 
 
 « 
 
 52.60 
 
 2.00 
 
 61.60 
 
 
 Cherryfield 
 
 
 Gold qtz. 
 
 " 
 
 3.63 
 
 17.49 
 
 
 
 It 
 
 Cherryfield 
 
 Galena 
 
 12 ft. 
 
 48.65 
 
 traces 
 
 35.25 
 
 
 Deer Isle 
 
 Deer Isle 
 
 Sulph'ts 
 
 surf. 
 24 ft. 
 
 12.00 
 35.20 
 
 8.20 
 23.33 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 22 ft. 
 
 8.00 
 
 29.11 
 
 
 
 Gouldsboro 
 
 Gouldsboro 
 
 Galena 
 
 surf. 
 
 116.00 
 
 trace 
 
 
 
 *' 
 
 " 
 
 Sulph'ts 
 
 " 
 
 44.60 
 
 
 30.00 
 
 7.60 
 
 *' 
 
 " 
 
 Gal. Con. 
 
 20 ft. 
 
 403.20 
 
 t« 
 
 78.92 
 
 
 Hampden 
 
 Dun ton 
 
 Galena 
 
 20 ft. 
 
 35.68 
 
 6.83 
 
 36.00 
 
 
 " 
 
 *' 
 
 Antimo'l 
 
 20 ft. 
 
 246.40 
 
 14.67 
 
 
 32.00 
 
 Haocock 
 
 Hancock 
 
 Sulph'ts 
 
 16 ft. 
 
 32.20 
 
 14.00 
 
 
 
 '' 
 
 ,' " 
 
 Concen'd 
 
 40 ft. 
 
 179.87 
 
 17 60 
 
 
 
 liubec 
 
 Lubec 
 
 Galena 
 
 20 ft. 
 
 28.14 
 
 20.00 
 
 22.00 
 
 11.10 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 14 ft. 
 
 16.60 
 
 trace 
 
 38.69 
 
 3.00 
 
 Lowell 
 
 Shorey 
 
 Sulph'ts 
 
 8 ft. 
 
 18.25 
 
 2.50 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 '* 
 
 " 
 
 6 ft. 
 
 11.60 
 
 14.60 
 
 
 
 Lincolnville 
 
 
 Galena 
 
 surf. 
 
 56.62 
 
 trace 
 
 62.50 
 
 
 Pitts ton 
 
 Manhattan 
 
 Quartz 
 
 
 6.00 
 
 6.30 
 
 
 
 Sullivan 
 
 Sullivan 
 
 Galena 
 Sulph'ts 
 
 10 ft. 
 12 ft. 
 16 ft. 
 
 32.62 
 
 79.74 
 
 85.05 
 
 111.79 
 
 trace 
 14.00 
 trace 
 
 38.00 
 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 *' 
 
 20 ft. 
 
 121.21 
 
 5.40 
 
 10.00 
 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 30 ft. 
 
 67.86 
 
 14.00 
 
 8.00 
 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 Antimo'l 
 
 60 ft. 
 
 7,370.35 
 
 18.00 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 Sulph'ts 
 
 76 ft. 
 
 220.00 
 
 7.50 
 
 
 
 Sedgwick 
 
 Edgemog'n 
 
 Galena 
 
 surf. 
 
 19.60 
 
 trace 
 
 20.00 
 
 
 " 
 
 H 
 
 " 
 
 12 ft. 
 
 51.00 
 
 9.69 
 
 28.00 
 
 
 *' 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 24 ft. 
 
 226.44 
 
 traces 
 
 24.00 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 " 
 
 34 ft. 
 
 56.00 
 
 16 05 
 
 25.00 
 
 
 St. Albans 
 
 
 " 
 
 6 ft. 
 
 14.08 
 
 trace 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 '* 
 
 15 ft. 
 
 62.20 
 
 1.80 
 
 82.60 
 
 
 Trescott 
 
 
 " 
 
 6 ft. 
 
 31.87 
 
 trace 
 
 3S.00 
 
 6.60 
 
 Wakefield, N.H. 
 
 Miner'I Hill 
 
 « 
 
 surf. 
 
 16.(10 
 
 S.oo 
 
 45.00 
 
 
 *' 
 
 (t 
 
 " 
 
 40 ft. 
 
 46.51 
 
 trace 
 
 65.00 
 
 
 « 
 
 '( 
 
 
 55 ft. 
 
 34.68 
 
 14.40 
 
 42.00 
 
 
 It needs but a glance at the assays given in this table to 
 convince the most skeptical that Maine ores do contain 
 va,lue. It will be seen that this list contains only what 
 might be termed surface ores. What may be discovered at 
 a greater depth, yet remains to be seen. In reducing silver 
 ores, they are divided into two classes, viz.: "smelting" 
 and " milling " ores. Ores that contain twenty per cent, (or 
 more), of lead, are usually smelted directly ; ores contain- 
 ing a lesser amount of lead are " milled " ; in the latter case, 
 if the silver is in the form of native chlorides, etc., it is 
 treated without roasting ; but where there is a mixture of 
 several sulphides, such as zinc, antimony, arsenic and cop- 
 per, they require to be treated by roasting and chloridizing, 
 and subsequent treatment by amalgamation. Wet or chem- 
 ical processes for silver ores are rapidly superseding other 
 methods, and will probably soon take the place of smelting. 
 Many of the ores are too quartzose to admit direct treat- 
 ment ; by this is meant the particles of ore are disseminated 
 all throi^h the quartz gangue, not concentrated at any one 
 point Such ores, although giving low assays, owing to the 
 large amount of quartz present, are really very valuable, 
 from the fact that they can be easily concentrated by 
 machinery designed expressly for that purpose. For 
 instance, take a galena ore in quartz, one-tenth of which is 
 ore, and nine-tenths quartz, by separating the ore from the 
 quartz, the expense of handling so much bulk is dispensed 
 with, and ore is obtained in a concentrated form and can be 
 sent direct to the smelter, who will pay a good price for it. 
 Without this treatment, such ores would be valueless. It 
 has been demonstrated that ores of this kind, when the mine 
 is in a fair location, which contain at the rate of ten dollars 
 per ton, in silver, will pay for mining, concentrating and 
 reducing. This same method is applicable to copper ores as 
 well, and the process of concentration may be seen in actual 
 work at Blue Hill, where a large quantity of copper ores are 
 separated daily from the quartz gangue. 
 
 —Oompttedfrom P. L. Bartlett's "Mines of Maitt." 
 
 THE MINING DISTRICT AT SULLIVAN, 
 MAINE. 
 
 IF New England were located in some distant and almost- 
 inaccessible region, there is no doubt that its mineral 
 resources would have been ere this well developed and 
 generally acknovcledged, but laboring under the dis- 
 advantage of nearness, it has been neglected. Its surface, 
 moreover, is not cut up by mountains and canons, and the 
 remnants of many of the old ridges are extensively covered 
 by glacial drift. The Sullivan Mining District extends 
 from the town of Franklin, through Hancock, Sullivan, and 
 Gouldsborough, from northwest to southeast, about sixteen 
 miles. A general idea of this locality may be gathered from 
 the map accompanying, which we demonstrate Fig. 1. 
 
 Sullivan is situated at the head of Frenchman's Bay, ten 
 miles north from Bar Harbor, Mount Desert, twelve miles 
 from Ellsworth, and thirty-seven miles from Bangor. It 
 may be reached in summer by steamer, via Eockland and 
 Bar Harbor, and has good hotel accommodations. A daily 
 mail stage connects with Ellsworth and Bangor at all times 
 
 Figures 2 to 5. 
 
 Sections of Vein, Sullivan Mine, 85 ft. level. 
 
 Down River Drift. 
 
 ^caldjfifeettoaiiiiicl]. 'VlewslooklnsS.Dw 
 
 ■'• U AgaHzea giiailz, * day.. 
 
 Si^'ji Slate &c[naTtz,-(congIoineratBJ 
 
 S.l'^Qoartz&liea'VT'Eiilptaidee.- 
 
 i,ig Qobctz & diver snlptaldes,- 
 
 , I . ("Oomstock" ore.-) 
 S.iVl! ..^lae Slaitf' ofvein.- 
 
 6.K<; Partly altereuccnmbT'sIateai' 
 
 t. Slack iKatdSiClaj strealo- 
 
 SCft.S.E.£rom Shaft. 
 
 Kote. AE iheee varieties carry eUverf 
 hut ike proper oree are 2fos. 1 to 6, in* 
 ctudedtNo, 5,iaaTilii£isli slaty quartzilet 
 oXteniieri/rifihirbjTgetititeaad/lakesilieT 
 
 &Sts:&.fiomSaai\i, 
 
 BUiSHSixw.Shsii, 
 
 t&tt.S.E.fro»i.£]jatt, 
 
 of the year. The staple production of Sullivan is granite, 
 ot which unlimited quantities of very fine quality may easily 
 be obtained. At first impression a stranger would say that 
 no other rock existed there, but further examination dis- 
 closes the fact that the region has more slate than granite, 
 and that along or near the line of their contact are most of 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 139 
 
 the mineral veins of the district. The lithological character- 
 istics of the surface are shown on the map. The slates of 
 the region are quartzitic, of unknown age, undoubtedly very 
 ancient, and referred to the latter Laurentian — the limbo to 
 which most of the doubtful New Eng- 
 land rocks are consigned. Through 
 these have been thrust the immense 
 mass of granite and its allied rocks, 
 from which action has proceeded the 
 formation of the principal mineral de- 
 posits. 
 
 The first discovery of silver ores 
 here was made by Mr. A. A. Messer 
 in May, 1877. They were discovered 
 below high-water mark, on the shore 
 of the bay, at the site now occupied 
 by the shaft of the "Sullivan" mine. 
 The vein, when found, showed about 
 ten inches of quartz, carrying pyrites, 
 galena, and traces of brittle silver 
 (stephanite). A coffer dam was built 
 and shaft commenced. The first na- 
 tive silver threads were found about ten 
 feet down. The vein was uncovered 
 in several other places, also below 
 high-water mark, proving that the 
 showing at the shaft location was 
 the poorest yet found. Seventy-five 
 feet from the shaft, southeasterly, the 
 quartz is four feet wide at three feet 
 
 Figures 6 to 9. 
 Sections of Vein, Sullivan Mine, 8g ft. level. 
 Up River Drift. 
 feet to an inch. Views looking If. W. 
 
 i" TV Agatized qnarte, Ac. 
 
 2.VM Conglomerate. 
 
 3.«'. QoartzaadlieavjrsulpluaeSi 
 
 4. ix Qoattz and EUver Gulpliides. 
 
 ^.*.' Seim.ctyBtfll1ine quartz and gny dlveE mt. 
 
 C. ''li*.' Blue elBte of vein. 
 
 6. ^c^ Partly altered conntiy slateBa 
 
 7. Black1uul3s, clay atreaka. 
 
 MHttlS.-WSramSiiait. 
 
 below the beach, and the lowest assay I have known from this 
 is over $200 per ton in silver. The ore is principally stephan- 
 ite. Proceeding with the shaft, at about thirty feet depth, the 
 vein, composed of quartz, with more or less slate highly im- 
 
 ITSiftJf.WJiom. Shaft. 
 
 ;!5Ha.K.WjEraiii, Shalt. 
 
 8alt.N.W.from Shalt w 
 
 pregnated with sulphides, was found to be four feet wide. 
 Drifts have been run southeast from the 75 feet level, and 
 northwest from the 85 feet level. Sections showing the 
 formation of the vein, and to some extent the nature of the 
 ore, are given in Figures 2 to 9 inclusive. The ore is essen- 
 tially silver, sulphides and native. In quartz and slaty gan- 
 gues, with slight amounts of iron, zinc, etc., as sulphides, and 
 also galena. ■ 
 
 Of the silver minerals, stromeyerite is most plentiful, 
 stephanite next, argentite (silver glance), common, native 
 silver in flakes very plenty, threads frequent, lumps oc- 
 casional. 
 
 Ruby silver is exceedingly rare; antimonial silver has 
 been found. The occasional yellow copper sulphide met 
 with has a peculiar lustre and runs very rich in silver. As 
 stated above, the course of the vein is from northwest to 
 southeast, with the strike of the slate running parallel to 
 the line of contact of the granite. The vein is in the slate, 
 dipping at an angle of 70° from the horizon, northeasterly, 
 toward the granite, which it probably reaches in less than a 
 thousand feet. The slate also dips toward the granite at 
 this place about 37° from horizontal, although at some other 
 places not more than 12°. (See sketch. Fig. 10.) 
 
 At the contact of the slate and granite, the latter often 
 penetrates the bedding of the slate, in known instances 
 riearly 200 feet. The granite is much cut up by dikes of 
 black trap, which also run into the slate, faulting the Tein 
 in several places. A sketch of dikes and faults is shown in 
 the map. (Fig. 11). 
 
 The geological sequence of the formations appears to be, 
 commencing with the oldest : Quartzite slates. Granite, and 
 silver vein in slate. Trap. Quartz veins in granite and 
 syenite. The general line of fissure of the Sullivan vein, 
 passing northwest under the bay about three miles, strikes 
 the shore at the Cline shaft, shown in section in Fig. 12. 
 Here, owing to some local disturbances, the vein is deflected 
 more westerly and cuts directly across the slates, by which 
 action it has been split up into no less than nine veins, 
 dipping to meet within four hundred feet of the surface. 
 The shaft is sunk on No. 3 vein, this appearing to be the 
 main branch, and has reached the junction of No. 4 at 
 about 60 feet from the surface, as shown. The ore here is 
 copper pyrites, galena, etc., at the surface assaying well for 
 silver, and appears to carry gold and silver in form of tellu- 
 rides at a depth of 60 feet. Average assays about $20 
 per ton. 
 
 Returning to the Sullivan mine, and passing southeast a 
 few hundred feet, we come to the Stimson shaft, which 
 struck the vein, well developed, at a depth of 64 feet. 
 About five hundred feet further southeast the vein is faulted 
 
140 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 by a large dike of black trap. Beyond this it continues in a 
 direction more easterly, and is accompanied for a portion of 
 its length in the next 700 feet, by a heavy quartzitic band. 
 
 Fig. II. 
 
 Vicinity of the Sullivan Mine, 
 
 3cale, 1^ juclies to a mile. 
 
 ..Line of contact, Granite & Slates. 
 
 mam^^ TrapDykcs* 
 
 — ^— Quartz Vein, in Slates. 
 &. SuniranSliatt. 
 £. Stimpson. *• 
 C. 'Waiilceas " 
 "S, Brools u 
 IL-AsHex " 
 
 nearly 25 feet wide, carrying arsenical iron. This iron 
 gives a show of gold, and in some cases gives an assay for 
 silver. The vein proper is highly decomposed. The sketch 
 (Fig. 13, see p. 141), gives a section across this formation, 
 about 650 feet beyond the large dike, easterly. The vein 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 Cline Shaft.Hancock.Maine. 
 
 Scale,16 £t.to an inch. 
 Section looking W. Showing junction of veins 3 & 4, 
 
 Vein No. 4../ 
 
 V 
 
 ^ffi/fS 10. 
 
 a iwBi JO. 
 
 1.%1 Conntiy slates.- 
 2,B Quartz vein.- (VeinNo. 3.-) 
 3.n Alterea (soft,) date.- 
 4,g Very hard blade slatea.- 
 
 Koto. The'hardlHtuki'.aladteappvirtd 
 at abcnit n/cet, anclKeremaeedediiiau 
 so/KSro.SiOale- 
 
 It carries both gold and silver. In the Ashley the same 
 occurred, sparingly, and sulphides carrying $26 to 130 per 
 ton in gold and silver have been found at the present bottom 
 of shaft. No further developments have 
 been made on this vein and its connec- 
 tions, but some nine miles southeast, in 
 Gouldsborough, two veins have been 
 struck in the syenite, which bid fair to 
 become of value. " G " on the map (Fig. 
 1), the "Young" mining property, is a 
 galena vein, with strike northwesterly 
 and southeasterly, or about parallel with 
 the Sullivan vein. " H " is made up of 
 galena and copper sulphides, the surface 
 ore assaying quite rich in silver. The 
 strike is nearly north and south. Both 
 these veins dip nearly perpendicularly. 
 Less than a year sufficed to demon- 
 strate the existence of strong fissure veins 
 in this district, carrying high-grade ores, 
 and to give every assurance of their 
 permanency and value. As has been 
 stated, the level surface of the country, 
 covered with drift gravel, makes pros- 
 pecting a slow matter, and there is no 
 reason why there should not exist many 
 mineral deposits in the Sullivan district 
 as good or better than those already dis- 
 
 covered. 
 
 — Compiled from a paper 
 
 I C. W. Kemptcm, M. E., Transaeticms American Inatiiaie 
 of Mining Engineers. 
 
 GOLD IN NEWFOUNDLAND. 
 
 30. 
 
 a. 
 
 so. 
 
 J 
 
 beyond this is fan ted and deflected, and next worked at the 
 T" K ^I'aft'^o called, about half a mile east, and also at 
 ^e Ashley shaft some hundreds of yards from the Brook. 
 Fig. 14 (see p. 141), gives an idea of the formations at these 
 two shafts, their height being referred to high-tide level 
 In the Brook shaft some telluride ore has occurred but not 
 enough in quantity to enable the mineral to be identified 
 
 THE discoveries of gold made in Newfoundland dur- 
 ing 1880, have aroused considerable interest in the 
 colony. The following report on the auriferous 
 district by the official geologist, Sir Alexander 
 Murray, indicates a possibility of the island becoming as 
 celebrated for its mines as it had been for its fisheries. Sir 
 Alexander says: "Reports having beeu circulated for 
 some time past that gold had been discovered in quartz 
 veins in the regions near Brigus, of Conception Bav, I 
 considered it my duty to make a personal examination of 
 the ground, and to have portions of the veins tested by 
 blasting, under my own immediate supervision. These 
 rumors of the presence of the precious metal, have 
 naturally had the. effect of inducing people to make appli- 
 cations at the Surveyor General's office for licenses of search 
 over the supposed auriferous area. I proceeded to Brigus 
 on Monday, September 27, and on the afternoon of the 
 same day visited the locality where, according to report, 
 gold had been found. Here I selected and marked out a 
 series of spots upon the quartz for trial, and on the follow- 
 ing day, which proved to be a rainy one and unfit for ex- 
 perimenting I inspected another area, about two miles 
 southwest of the former place, and nearly in the strike of 
 the quartz-bearing strata, where I found the rocks, with 
 their reticulations of quartz veins, to be nearlv identical in 
 all respects. This latter place is known locally as Fox 
 Hill, and from it sundry specimens of gold are said to have 
 been taken, one of which is in my possession. The place 
 where I finally determined to t.y the first blast is situated 
 near the so-called Brigus Lookout, about equidistant from 
 two peaks, each a triangulation point of the Admiralty 
 surveyors, the heights above the sea being marked on the 
 chart respectively 408 and ' 413 feet. 
 
 By the first blast from two to three cubic feet of rock was 
 removed all of which was carefiilly broken up, washed, and 
 examined which operation finally resulted in the display of 
 en or twelve distinct "sights" of gold. In one fra|ment, 
 largely charged with daiTc green chlorite, tbe gold shows 
 Itself in three places distinctly, while many small specks are 
 
 Frf.''^'' ^^^^-ir^"','-"^ '\S°°'^ '«°«- The fracture of a 
 fragment of milky-white and translucent quartz, which was 
 
 o^n?H 1° f°K }^l^''l^ P'^^®"' J-evealed two large patches of 
 gold, both of which, together, if removed from the matrix. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 141 
 
 would probably produce about a pennyweight of the metal ; 
 while several small masses or nuggets were found adhering 
 to the small broken fragments of quartz at the bottom of 
 the pail in which the rock was washed, the largest of which 
 contained about ten or twelve grains of gold. From some 
 specimens, in which no gold was perceptible to the naked 
 eye, which I had selected for analysis, I found among the 
 dust at the bottom of the bag in which it was carried a small 
 
 Formations atWaukeag Property, 
 Sullivan, Maine. 
 
 Boole, 10 feet to an Inch. SectlonlooklnsS.Xl. 
 
 . BltjK iToter marie- 
 
 tl Qnartxronclomerate. 
 
 a Blueshto. 
 
 V; Qiinrtz nnd lime^ 
 
 3t Conntry quartzite slates* 
 
 !ij Slaty con[:louiera(e. 
 
 O Quartz and arM;utcal IrOQi 
 
 SftBlack traji. 
 
 nugget weighing three grains. A second shot was tried on 
 the same lead, a few yards distant from the first, but, owing 
 to our imperfect implements, it failed to blow out more than 
 a few pounds of rock, in which no gold was perceptible. 
 In the specimen I procured from Fox Hill the metal occurs 
 thickly in the minutest specks, scarcely, if at all, perceptible 
 to the naked eye, but readily recognized under the lens. 
 
 ^Qoortz, 
 QAltiired,___ 
 CHaid black. 
 
 SS SbckLioiyiUtn.-' 
 
 Altered (BofO Asiat^ 
 aialea.- 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 Brook &. Ashley Shafts. 
 Sullivan, Maine. 
 
 feet to an inch. 
 View looking N, W. 
 
 where it chiefly surrounds a small patch of chlorite. The 
 rock formation, intersected by these auriferous quartz veins, 
 is of Huronian or intermediate age, or of the group of strata 
 next below the Aspidella slates of St. Johns. The group 
 consists chiefly of greenish, fine-grained felsite slates, which, 
 judging by the weathering of the exposed surfaces, are also 
 
 magnesian and ferruginous. The cleavage is exactly coin- 
 cident with the bedding, and the slates occasionally split 
 into very fine laminae, but frequently into strong, stout slabs, 
 which are used to a considerable extent at Brigus for paving, 
 for hearth stones, and for building foundations and walls. 
 A dip taken on the beds just in front of the place where the 
 gold was found was north 56° west by compass, or north 88° 
 west from the true meridian, or of inclination 45°. Parallel 
 joins intersect the strata bearing south 
 80° west magnetic, or north 68° west true. 
 By the side of the road at Brigus the dip 
 on some strong slabby beds was found to 
 be north 42° west magnetic, or north 74° 
 west true, or of inclination 40°. 
 
 A rough and hummocky belt of coun- 
 try, from three-quarters to one mile wide, 
 which forms the nucleus of the peninsula, 
 tween Bay de Grase and Brigus Harbor, 
 thickly intersected by reticulating 
 1 artz veins, varying in thickness from 
 less than an inch to upward of a foot, 
 which often appear to ramify from a cen- 
 tral base or great mass of quartz, often 
 extending over many square yards, and 
 usually forming low, isolated hummocks 
 or hills. The general run of the belt is 
 as nearly as possible northeast and south- 
 west from the true meridian,-having been 
 traced in a southwest direction from Brigus Lookout as far as 
 Fox Hill, and, as lam informed can be traced several miles 
 more in the same direction. 
 
 Thus, although many of the veins, both small and 
 large, may be seen for considerable distances to run ex- 
 actly parallel with the bedding, the network of the whole 
 mass runs obliquely to the strike of the beds, which are also 
 minutely intersected by the smaller veins, crossing and 
 reticulating in all directions. I nowhere observed anything 
 to indicate a true fissure vein, and consider these with gold, 
 as altogether veins of segregation. The resemblance in 
 general character of the strata with their included aurifer- 
 ous quartz veins in New Foundland, to those of Nova 
 Scotia, must strike any one who has visited the two coun- 
 tries with the purpose of studying their geological features, 
 and I venture to say that the description given of the latter 
 country by Dr. J. W. Dawson, might in many respects 
 equally apply to the former, although, according to that 
 author, the auriferous country of Nova Scotia is supposed 
 to be of Lower Silurian age, while that of Newfoundland is 
 undoubtedly unconformably below the Primordial Group, 
 which, with abundant characteristic fossils, skirts the shores 
 of Conception Bay. Without presuming to offer an opinion 
 as regards the age of the Nova Scotian strata, the fact of 
 the resemblance is suggestive. Chlorate is profusely dis- 
 seminated through the quartz veins, filling up cracks and 
 drusy cavities, and it was observed that the visible gold was 
 always in or near a patch of chlorate. Some specimens 
 which were produced at the place of trial, presented small 
 cubes of galena, minute cubical iron pyrites, and, in a few 
 instances, small crystals of sulphate of copper, together with 
 specks or grains of gold. 
 
 That a large area of country in the regions referred to is 
 auriferous there can scarcely be a doubt, although nothing 
 short of actual mining and practical experience can possibly 
 prove what the value of the product may be, or whether the 
 prospects of obtaining a remunerative return for the neces- 
 sary outlay are favorable or otherwise. The specimens 
 which have been obtained, although an unquestionable evi- 
 dence of the presence of the precious metal, cannot by any 
 means be taken as indicative of a certain average yield ; in- 
 deed, to quote the words of Dr. Dawson, from his "Acadian 
 Geology," page 626, " It is not easy from mere inspection of 
 the veinstone to predict as to its value, since the gold is 
 usually invisible to the eye." And again, at the following 
 page, when treating of the characteristics of the Waverly 
 Mine, he says : "Visible gold is rare in this vein at present, 
 the greater part being in a minutely disseminated and in- 
 visible state." An analysis of quartz collected, in which 
 gold is imperceptible to the naked eye, may aid in reveal- 
 ing some evidence of its constancy, and may throw some 
 light upon the possible average of superficial contents over 
 
142 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 certain areas surrounded by similar circumstances ; but it 
 may be safely predicted that the irregularities of the distri- 
 bution so conspicuously displayed by the veins on the sur- 
 face, will extend beneath it, and that it will be mainly 
 on the stronger and more persistent bands, where intercal- 
 ated with the strata, that mining will extend to any con- 
 siderable depth. The indications of gold in this country, 
 then, are sufficiently favorable to merit a fair trial, and there 
 are good reasons to hope and expect that ample capital applied 
 to skilled and judicious labor, may be found remunerative 
 to ftiture adventurers, while a new industry will be added 
 to give employment to the laboring population of the 
 island, and possibly bring this despised and but little known 
 country into more prominence and consideration abroad than 
 it has hitherto enjoyed. 
 
 — CompUed from the Scientijic American. 
 
 THE NICKEL ORES OF ORFORD; QUEBEC, 
 CANADA. 
 
 IN September last I had my attention called by Mr. R. 
 G. Leckie to a deposit of nickel in the township of 
 Orford, province of Quebec. In many ways it has 
 proved to be a subject of great interest. As this ore is, 
 as far as I can learn, entirely new in mineralogy and metal- 
 lurgy, it has seemed to me that it would be a matter of in- 
 terest to have, in a short paper, the peculiarities I have met 
 with in studying it. This deposit of nicxel was first described 
 by Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, in the Geology of Canada, 1863, p. 738, 
 in the following terms : " The general diffusion of nickel 
 throughout the magnesian rocks of the Quebec group has 
 been already noticed. It has, however, never been met with 
 in any considerable quantities in these rocks, although work- 
 able deposits of its ores may reasonably be looked for in 
 some parts of their distribution. On the sixth lot of the 
 twelfth range of Orford, the sulphuret of nickel (millerite) 
 is met with in small grains and crystals, diseminated 
 through a mixture of green chrome-garnet, with calc-spar, 
 and through the adjacent rock. Explorations were made at 
 this place a year or two since in the hope of obtaining cop- 
 per, which was supposed to be indicated by the brilliant 
 green of the garnet ; and lead, small quantities of which are 
 found in the vicinity. The ore of nickel is sparingly dis- 
 seminated in small grains through the garnet and calcar- 
 eous spar, and the masses submitted to analysis did not yield 
 more than one per cent, of nickel. It is, perhaps, doubtful 
 whether this small quantity could be extracted with profit." 
 On page 497 is the following : 
 
 " It (the garnet)forms granular masses, or is disseminated 
 with millerite in a white crystalline calcite. The largest 
 crystals are found in druses in the massive portions, but do 
 not exceed a line in diameter, and are dodecahedrons with 
 their edges replaced. 
 
 " This garnet resembles closely the ouvarvo- 
 
 vite from the Urals. 
 
 " This beautiful garnet, if obtained insufficiently large 
 crystals, would constitute a gem equal in beauty to the 
 emerald." 
 
 My first visit to the mine occupied several days. We 
 were encamped on an island in Brompton Lake. . A half mile 
 distant lay the nickel mine, on the side of a hill. On this 
 deposit there are. two shafts being sunk, 180 feet apart. The 
 hanging wall is a magnesian limestone ; the percentage of 
 magnesia is, however, small. The width of this has not yet 
 been determined, but on the surface other smaller veins and 
 branches of the spar and garnet are visible. The foot-wall, 
 a dark-colored serpentine, is very clearly defined. At a 
 considerable distance south of No. 1 shaft the line of strike is 
 cut at right angles by a sharply defined band of clay slate. 
 The vein has now pretty much the same characters as be- 
 fore described in the Oeology of Canada, viz., green chrome- 
 garnet, calcite, and millerite ; besides these, small particles 
 of chromite are found. There is no trace of copper or 
 
 cobalt present, possibly a trace of arsenic, though I have not 
 thoroughly established that yet. The hanging wall contains 
 nickel in small grains. 
 
 The following analysis gives a fair idea of the composition 
 of the vein : 
 
 Calcite and millerite . . . 
 Black speclts (chromite) . 
 Chrome garuet , 
 
 . . 50.40 per cent. 
 . 6.87 " 
 . 42.73 " 
 
 No. 2 shaft was started on the vein in decomposed spar 
 and pyroxene, carrying occasionally small masses of chrome- 
 garnet. The vein here is fully as wide as in No. 1 shaft. 
 The pyroxene (analyzed by Dr. Hunt) has the following 
 composition : 
 
 Silica . . 
 
 47.15 
 
 Alumina . . . 
 
 3.45 
 
 Oxide of iron .... 
 
 8-73 
 
 Oxide of magnesium . 
 
 24.65 
 
 Oxide of calcium . 
 
 11.35 
 
 Water 
 
 6.83 
 
 
 101.08 
 
 
 —Bana^s Mineralogy^ p. 221 
 
 The chrome-garnet is the beautiful green crystal, a rhombic 
 dodecahedron of the isometric system. It remains abso- 
 lutely untouched in hot, strong aqua regia. I am still in 
 hopes of finding crystals in some of the many druses which 
 occur in the vein, large enough to show their beauty to tbe 
 naked eye. The specimens which I have will require 
 a glass to bring out the crystals. In the ore near the surface, 
 which only was accessible at the time the Geology of Canada, 
 quoted above, was written, the millerite occurred in grains 
 as there described, but as the shafts have gone down, the 
 crystals have increased in size, till now we have the large 
 ones, which show the characteristic needles very plainly. 
 Sometimes these occur in clusters of needles, placed side by 
 side as it were, forming a flat plate. It (the millerite). varies 
 in color greatly according to the depth. In the samples 
 shown from No. 2 shaft, there appear two distinct, differ- 
 ently colored metallic sulphides, and this was the case with 
 specimens from No. 1 before it got below the decomposed 
 spar. At first it was supposed that magnetic iron pyrites or 
 other sulphides might be present, but the analyses go to 
 prove it all to be millerite. At first I had grave doubts about 
 the practicability of treating the ore, owing to the infusibility 
 of the chrome-garnet; at the least I expected to have to add 
 fluxes, but the results have proved quite the contrary. The 
 first experiments were made in a Siemens furnace. A black- 
 lead crucible full of the ore was placed on the bank of the 
 furnace, while making low steel. Looking at it fifteen or 
 twenty minutes later, I was surprised to find it liquid. It 
 was poured into a niold, and a good button obtained, which 
 was more ductile than the pieces shown, and had the yellow 
 color to a greater degree when polished. The next experi- 
 ment was to run 508 pounds of the ore through a blast 
 furnace. Through the courtesy of Prof. Richards, of the 
 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, I was allowed to use 
 the blast furnace of his laboratory. It is about one foot 
 square by four feet high, and uses gas coke as fuel. I am 
 largely indebted to the great facilities offered by Prof. 
 Richards for the results I have obtained. Ten minutes 
 after the ore was charged into the furnace, slag appeared at 
 the tap-hole. The whole charge was run through in 2J 
 hours ; 146 pounds of coke being used, making about 3.5 of 
 ore to 1 of coke ; and 8 pounds of matte or alloy were 
 obtained, containing 
 
 Iron . . 
 Nickel . 
 
 . 71,84 per cent. 
 . 22.70 " 
 
 The ore treated was a very lean lot from near the surface, 
 probably containing not over one half of one per cent, of 
 nickel. The slag had a mere trace of nickel. As to the 
 further treatment of this product, I am not prepared now to 
 make any report. Prima facie, it would seem that the 
 problem waii a simpler one than most nickel manufacturers 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 143 
 
 have to face^ since there is no copper or cobalt present ; but 
 not finding it spoken of in the books on metallurgy, I have 
 been obliged to investigate as I have gone along, and my 
 progress has consequently been slow. At some future time 
 1 hope to give the results of the present investigations, and 
 at the same time to be able to report some progress in ex- 
 tracting the chromium in some merchantable condition. 
 Inasmuch as the slag produced must contain somewhere 
 about 6 per cent, of sesquioxide of chromium, it becomes 
 extremely valuable, provided it can be extracted easily, but 
 while some slags produced yield it up with great readiness, 
 others yield it up with great difficulty. As to the per cent, 
 of nickel which this ore carries, and which will determine 
 its money value, it is not easy at present to speak with any 
 certainty. At the bottom of No. 1 shaft, pieces taken to be 
 average ones for three-quarters the width, show between 
 three and four per cent, nickel. Specimens from No. 2 
 look equally rich. What is to be the average yield after the 
 mine is opened up it is impossible to say. 
 
 Compiled from a paper by W. E. C. Eustw, A. B., S. B.; Transactions 
 American Institute of Mining Engineers, 
 
 THE GOLD-BEARING MISPICKEL VEINS OF 
 MARMORA, ONTARIO, CANADA. 
 
 ABOUT thirty miles north of the city of Belleville 
 (which is situated on a branch of Lake Ontario), 
 and in the township of Marmora, Ontario, there 
 is found a belt of gold -bearing quartz veins, 
 which present geological, mineralogical, and economic fea- 
 tures of great interest to the profession. The district in 
 which these veins are found is characterized as rolling 
 country, with low rounded hills of syenitic granite, over- 
 lain on the flanks of the hills by Silurian limestones, which 
 lie in nearly horizontal beds, and in some places are so fine 
 in texture as to afford lithographic stone of a fair quality. 
 The gold-bearing veins run north and south through this 
 belt of syenitic granite, and are quartz-filled true fissures, 
 with micaceous or talcoid slates forming the walls of and 
 horses in the veins. This talcose, slaty rock is evidently 
 the product of the chemical decomposition of the syenite 
 along the fissures, the quartz being segregated from the 
 country rock into the veins, and the hornblende of the 
 syenite furnishing the magnesia of the talcoid slates. The 
 veins, besides quartz, contain also, as gangue, crj'stallized 
 calc-spar, and occasionally crystallized black mica. The 
 ore scattered through this gangue, in heavy bands in some 
 places and in detached, well-formed crystals at other points, 
 is an arsenical sulphuret of iron (mispickel), having a com- 
 position of about 55 per cent, o'f iron and 25 per cent, of 
 sulphur. This mispickel contains the greater part of the 
 gold for which the mines are worked, but free gold is also 
 found scattered through the quartz in small leaves and 
 grains, and it is also found, showing freely at times, in the 
 mispickel itself. The tests which have been made of these 
 veins and their ores have so thoroughly established the facts 
 of the continuity of the veins, both in length and depth, and 
 the economic value of the ores, that the interest which would 
 naturally be taken in so promising a prospect as this was, 
 even before development, has now deepened into the sub- 
 stantial form of an interest in a great industrial enterprise. 
 Gold was first discovered in this district in 1865 as free 
 gold in quartz and mispickel, and sporadic attempts have 
 since been made at two or three points to treat the ores, 
 chiefly by raw amalgamation. As might have been anticipated 
 from the nature of the ore, but a very small proportion of 
 the gold was saved in this way, while the expense of treat- 
 ment in the small and primitive mills adopted was great and 
 the loss of quicksilver heavy. There was neither experi- 
 ence nor technical knowledge available at the time, and no 
 sufficient capital to put up suitable works or to develop the 
 mines; hence they have lain idle all these years without a 
 single serious effort to work them on an economical basis. 
 Nevertheless, many tests of the ores were made, some on 
 quite an extensive scale, in reduction works in the United 
 
 States and England, and the results were invariably satis- 
 factory. By far the most extensive and the only systematic 
 tests of these veins and their ores have been made upon the 
 properties combined under the ownership o^ the Canada 
 Consolidated Gold Mining Company. From these tests 
 some four or five parallel veins have been proved to exist 
 in a belt of 500 or 600 feet in width, running through the 
 property of this company for a length of over three-quarters 
 of a mile, while the main vein has been opened on acyoining 
 properties, making a total proved length of this great fissure 
 of about three miles on the vein, a fact which, next to actual 
 sinking, may be considered the best proof of the continuance 
 in depths of the veins. Three of these veins have been proved 
 on this property by costean pits and shafts sunk at short inter- 
 vals along their outcrops, to depths varying from 15 to 150 
 feet. In this manner, the east or main vein has been thorough- 
 ly explored over a length of about 800 feet by shafts of from 40 
 to 150 feet in depth; these have in every case, been in pay- 
 ore all the way ; their lowest points are now in as good ore 
 as has been found on the property ; and they have shown 
 this vein to have a thickness exceeding 20 feet in many 
 places, and averaging probably 8 or 10 feet, while the mid- 
 dle and west veins, though smaller, have still apparently a 
 thickness of three feet and upward. As each foot of thick- 
 ness for a length of 700 feet and a depth of 150 feet will 
 yield about 10,000 tons of ore, the estimate which counts 
 as technically in sight, in this small part of this vein alone, 
 from 60,000 to 75,000 tons of ore, must be considered very 
 moderate. These estimates and some much higher have been 
 made by a number of experts of large experience. 
 
 Perhaps the question of greatest interest is the average 
 gold contents of the ore; and as this has been determired 
 in a very thorough manner under my own supervision, I 
 shall enter somewhat into the detail of the work, as showing 
 what is considered essential in determining with safety the 
 average value of gold ore and of a mine. Some three or 
 four thousand tons of ore have been mined upon this pro- 
 perty, and of this about a half has been milled or treated 
 in a variety of ways, and the remainder is now on the 
 dumps. The first tests of these ores were made from sam- 
 ples selected by various experts who had from time to time 
 examined the property. Some of the results were as fol- 
 lows : Twenty assays, made at the laboratory of the Gen- 
 logical Survey of Canada, of samples from the Marmora 
 mines, gave an average of 1.6367 ounces of gold, equal to 
 $33.81 per ton of 2,000 pounds. Twelve of these samples 
 were from the Gatling mines, and gave an average of 1.9107 
 ounces of gold, or $39.47 per ton. Professor E. J. Chap- 
 man, of the University College, Toronto, says : " I have 
 made assays of its ores from time to time, and I have never 
 failed to obtain from any sample (mispickel), as a minimum 
 value, at least $50 per ton." " The following results were 
 obtained from samples collected very carefully with a view 
 to obtain the average amount of precious metal held by the 
 undressed ore : No. 1, or East Vein — Gold, 73.50 ; silver, \ 
 ounce. No. 3, or Middle Vein— Gold, t69.H6 ; silver, \ 
 ounce. O'Neil Shaft, middle vein— Gold, ?.60.26 ; silver, \ 
 ounce. On a former occasion, I obtained from a small sam- 
 ple of the Gatling ore $112, and from pure mispickel $156 
 per ton." Mr. James Douglas, Jr., Mining Engineer : "A 
 sample taken as fairly as possible from the ore-piles on the 
 Gatling Company's property, the five acre lot, and the Hawk- 
 eye lot gives me in gold 1 oz. 5 dwts., value, $25.84 per ton of 
 2000 pounds." Professor W. T. Rickard, of London, says : 
 " I took samples from the various shafts and opening on each 
 claim, and ground them, together. . . . I picked out a 
 large quantity of pure mispickel, crushed and sampled, &nd 
 assayed the same. . . . I deducted the estimated amount 
 of quartz, associated with the mispickel, and then alhwed 
 50 per cent, for depreciation in the quality of the mispickel. 
 The following results were obtained by careful assay : 
 
 "Hawheye ore from three shafts mixed mispickel — Gold, 
 $753,48 ; silver, $15.71. Total, $769.19. "Gailing five-acre lot. 
 —From one shaft quartz— Gold, $200.93; silver, $3.14. 
 Total, $204.07 per ton. " Gatling Company.— From three 
 shafts, mixed mispickel — Gold. $351.63 ; silver, $21.91. 
 Total, $373.54. "^(?afflm^ Company.— O'Neil Shaft, third 
 vein— Gold, $376.64; silver, $7.35. Total, $384.49. " Tvt- 
 tle Property.Smface quartz— Gold, $125.48 ; silver, $4.70. 
 Total. $130.18. 
 
144 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 'Mucraje— Firs(>-olass quartz and pure mispickel 
 
 Deduct 4-5 ton for gan^ue in bum, leaving 
 
 " }/i ton for inferior mispickel, leaving 
 
 " for loss in reduction $7 23, leaving 
 
 Or netyiiMd of ore in treatment tfSO per ton. 
 
 $372 29 
 
 74 46 
 
 , 37 23 
 
 30 00 
 
 F. W. Daline, Esq., who dressed a lot of this ore sent to 
 Swansea, says : " The ore I treated contained, before dress- 
 ing, 2J ounces of gold to the ton(2240 pounds). " Captain 
 Benjamin Plummer, who examined these mines for Messrs. 
 John Taylor & Sons, of London, carefully sampled the ores 
 from the different openings, and had his samples assayed by 
 Professor Chapman, of University College, Toronto, who 
 obtained the following as the average of a number of assays, 
 gold counted at $20.66 per ounce troy : 
 
 Samples No. 19, Gold ?38.65 per ton of 2000 pounds. 
 
 '' No. E, " 24.87 " " 
 
 No. F, " 36.60 " " 
 
 " No. 6, " 24.74 " " 
 
 Average, »31.21. 
 
 The amount of silver in these samples never exceeded \ 
 ounce per ton. 
 
 Two barrels of average ore treated at Balbach's works, 
 in Newark, N. J., yielded : 
 
 From East Feira.— Gold, $23.76 ; silver, $4.07. Total, 
 $27.83 per ton of 2000 pounds. From O'Neil Shaft. — Gold, 
 $25.62 ; silver, $4.39. Total, $30.01 per ton. Four barrels 
 of ore sent to Messrs. Richardson & Co., Swansea, yielded 
 as follows (assays being reduced to dollars per ton of 2000 
 pounds): Tuttle Shaft— Go\A, $93; silver, $7 per ton 
 (2000 pounds). Gatling Company's Deep Shaft.— Qold, 
 $37.21 ; silver, $20 per ton (2000 pounds). Gatling Company's 
 ^ySAa/if.— Gold, $23.15; silver, $18 per ton (2000 pounds). 
 Gatling Company's O'Neil Shaft. — Gold, $23.15; silver, 
 $100 per ton (2000 pounds). The report for a large lot of ore 
 from the O'Neil shaft, subsequently sent to the same Swan- 
 sea parties, was as follows : For 19.8 tons : Gold, $23.16 ; 
 silver, $0.50 per ton of 2000 pounds. For 9.9 tons : Gold, 
 $27.90 ; silver, $0.75 per ton of 2000 pounds. For 4.4. tons : 
 Gold, $55.81 ; silver, $0.50 per ton of 2000 pounds. Analy- 
 ses of pure mispickel, made by Thomas Thomas and J. 
 Hernaman James, Assayers in Swansea, to Messrs. Richard- 
 son & Co., were as follows (the gold being reduced to dollars 
 in a ton of 2000 pounds at $20.67 per ounce) : 
 
 
 SMilt 
 CETSTALLIZATION. 
 
 LARGE 
 CRYSTALLIZATION. 
 
 Peroxide of iron ... 
 
 Silica 
 
 Sulphur. . .... 
 
 Arsenic 
 
 Nickel 
 
 64.00 
 0.51 
 19.03 
 25.70 
 trace, 
 trace. 
 $306.95 
 
 66.00 
 0.03 
 
 18.13 
 23 00 
 
 SiIvpr(perton <.f 2000 pounds) . . 
 Gold (per ton of 2000 pounds) . . 
 
 $6.50 
 fJ2920.67 
 
 Mr. E. W. Harmon, in 1876, tested the ores from these 
 properties in the interest of Boston parties, who had a pat- 
 ent process for treating sulphuret ores. The following are 
 the results obtained by Mr. Harmon from average samples 
 selected by himself, per ton of 2000 pounds: 
 
 No. 1. East Vein Gatling Company, gold, $123.84; No. 
 2. East Vein Gatling Company, gold, $37.84 ; No. 3, East 
 Vein Gitling Company, gold, $37.84; No. 4, East Vein 
 Gatling Company, gold, $75.68; No. 6, Middle Vein Gatling 
 Company, gold, $48.16 ; No. 6, Middle Vein Gatling Com- 
 pay, gold, $116.96 ; No. 7, West Vein Gatling Company, 
 gold, $41.28 ; No. 8, West Vein Gatling Company, gold, 
 $120.40 ; No. 9, Sample from all of foregoing, $61.92 ; No. 
 10, Gatling South, $41.28 ; No. 11, Gatling five acres, $550.- 
 40 ; No. 12, Gatling five acres, $595 12 ; No. 13, Gatling five 
 acres, $37.84 ; No. 14 Williams mine, tailings, $34.40 ; No. 15, 
 Gatling Company— Shaft, free gold, $440.32; No. 16, Gatling 
 roasted steely ore, amalgamated, $48.16 ; No. 17, Gatling rich 
 pyrites, raw treatment, $1265.92 ; No. 18, 1 pound average ma- 
 terial from first test by a stirring (almalgamating) process, 
 $52.46. 18.7 tons of ore from the several shafts of the Gat- 
 ling Company's mines were then treated by the same parties, 
 the process being roasting and almalgamating ; the roasting 
 was veij imperfect, being effected in a revolving cylinder 
 only 3 feet diameter and 12 feet long, heated from the out- 
 
 side, and with a strong draught of air forced through it by 
 a blower. The consequence was, that the fine-dust contain- 
 ed much gold, and the roasted ore carried 6 per cent, of sul- 
 phur. The following were the assays of lots of from two 
 to three tons each : 
 
 No. 1, Ore, $30.90, Tailings, $30.80 ; No. 2, Ore, $41.20, 
 Tailings, $6.67; No. 3, Ore, 65.23, Tailings, $6.87; No. 4, 
 Ore, $41.20, Tailings, $6.87; No. 5, Ore, 151.60; Tailings, 
 $8,58 ; No. 6, Ore, $44.71, Tailings, $12.94. Average gold 
 in 18.7 tons was $35.46 per ton, counting gold at $20 per 
 ounce. Gold actually saved was $25.32 per ton, or 71 per 
 cent, of assay value, while there was still in the bottoms in 
 flue-dust returnable for retreatment, obtainable gold that 
 would have made the yield $27.31 per ton, or 77 per cent. ; 
 and tailings were extremely rich, and could easily have 
 yielded on shaking tables or belts gold enough to have 
 made the actual yield $30 or $31 per ton. Captain Thomas 
 Couch, Mine Superintendent, in his examination of these 
 mines, in February, 1880, carefully sampled the several 
 mines, taking one and two ton samples of the ore just as it 
 came from each of the shafts and ■ levels, without sorting. 
 The results were as follows : 
 
 Tuttle shaft, 2 tons, 
 
 Deep shaft levels, 2 tons, . 
 
 Middle vein, 2 tons, 
 
 N. Hawkeye shaft, 
 
 S. Hawkeye shaft. 
 
 Concentrates (Tuttle shaft), 
 
 " (Levels deep shaft), 
 
 *' (Middle vein), 
 
 Gold. 
 
 $26.46 per ton. 
 16.33 
 
 32.65 " 
 7.85 
 
 7.44 " 
 137.48 
 65.00 " 
 107.48 " 
 129.19 
 
 Silver. 
 
 1.28 ounces. 
 
 .79 
 1.58 " 
 
 .38 
 
 .36 
 6.65 
 3.14 
 6.20 
 6.25 " 
 
 Assayed by W. E. Gifford, 64 Pine Street, New York. 
 
 Mr. R. H. Stretch, Mining Engineer, sampled the mines 
 by taking one-ton lots of the ore just as it came from the 
 several shafts and levels, without sorting, and the result of 
 his assavs was as follows : Deep shaft, bottom, $21.50 per 
 ton ; N." level, $9.00 per ton ; S. level, $7.50 per ton ; a shaft 
 (3 samplings), $17.92 per ton ; Tuttle shaft, $19.00 per ton ; 
 average after parting; gold, $13.06 per ton. 
 
 By far the most exhaustive tests of these ores were made 
 under my own direction. Having secured a working bond 
 upon these properties, I carried on mining and milling ope- 
 rations with a force of eighty or ninety men during nearly 
 four months. During this time, seven shafts were worked 
 upon and attained depths of from forty to one hundred and 
 ten feet ; and two levels of forty feet each in length were 
 driven. Three of these shafts, namely, the Tuttle, the A 
 shaft, the deep shaft, and two levels were those upon which 
 the most work was performed, and it is to the ore from these 
 that the following remarks are confined. These openings 
 proved a length along the main vein of about 700 feet. 
 The ore extracted, without any sorting whatever, was taken 
 to the mill; it was then weighed and crushed for the greater 
 part in five-ton lots, every twentieth shovelful as it came 
 from the Blake crusher being laid aside for a sample. The 
 samples of five-ton lots were crushed fine, quartered down 
 as usual, and assayed ; thus, one hundred and eight lots, 
 nearly all- representing five tons of ore, were assayed sepa- 
 rately, while fifty-one tons from the Tuttle shaft were 
 sampled in the same careful manner in one lot by Mr. 
 Thomas Macfarlane, of the Wyandotte Silver Smelting 
 Company. The assays of these several samples are given in 
 the following table. It will be noted that the richer five- 
 ton lots were obtained by selecting the heavier sulphurets 
 from the remainder of the ore in the ore-house so as to 
 demonstrate the effect of rough hand-sorting ; the low assays 
 were therefore of second-class ore; the whole number of 
 assays gives, however, the average yield of the ore just as it 
 comes from the mine without sorting. The higher assay 
 numbers (last assays made) were, in general, from ore 
 mined nearest the surface, and which accordingly was found 
 at the centre of the dump. Nearly one-half the dump was 
 milled, and the last milled came from the centre of the 
 dump. 
 
 Note. — The proportions of gold and silver m the assay buttons 
 were obtained by parting 89 buttons in one operation. It was found 
 the average was 68 per cent, gold, 32 silver. The following t^ole 
 gives only the gold, or 68 per cent, of the weight of the button . 
 

 ft! 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 145 
 
 Record of Assays of Canada Consolidated Gold Mining Company's 
 Ores, mostly from, the Galling Mine — 108 samples, mostly 5 tons 
 each, representing a total of 512 tons of 2000 pounds. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 
 5 . 
 
 6 . 
 7. 
 8 . 
 9. 
 
 10. 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 15. 
 18 . 
 17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 20. 
 
 21 . 
 
 22 . 
 
 23 . 
 
 24 . 
 
 25 . 
 
 26 . 
 27. 
 
 .*33 04 
 14 06 
 1) 84 
 . 18 98 
 . 43 94 
 . 15 11 
 . 11 60 
 . 10 55 
 . 14 76 
 . 8 44 
 . 11 CO 
 
 8 79 
 
 9 84 
 9 14 
 
 . 7 73 
 
 11 25 
 
 . 16 17 
 
 . 14 00 
 
 . 7 ; 
 
 . 11 25 
 
 . 9 49 
 
 . 7 03 
 
 . 9 14 
 
 . 8 79 
 
 . 11 26 
 
 . 8 44 
 
 . 18 28 
 
 28. . . 
 
 . . $6 33 
 
 20. . . 
 
 8 08 
 
 30 . 
 
 25 31 
 
 31 . . 
 
 . . 7 03 
 
 32. . . 
 
 33 74 
 
 33 . 
 
 . 7 38 
 
 34. 
 
 . . 7 38 
 
 35 . . 
 
 6 60 
 
 36 . 
 
 . 12 65 
 
 37. 
 
 . 16 17 
 
 38 . 
 
 . . 9 84 
 
 39. . 
 
 . . 18 28 
 
 40. . . 
 
 21 79 
 
 41 . . . 
 
 . 14 76 
 
 42. . 
 
 7 03 
 
 43. 
 
 10 56 
 
 44. 
 
 . 7 73 
 
 45. . 
 
 4 92 
 
 46. . . 
 
 . 9 14 
 
 47. . . 
 
 . . 53 43 
 
 48. . . 
 
 6 62 
 
 49 . . 
 
 . 6 62 
 
 50. . 
 
 . . 5 62 
 
 51. . . 
 
 17 58 
 
 62. 
 
 . 13 71 
 
 53. . . 
 
 . 18 88 
 
 64. . . 
 
 8 44 
 
 56 . 
 56. 
 67. 
 68 . 
 69. 
 60. 
 61 . 
 02. 
 
 64. 
 65. 
 66 . 
 67. 
 68. 
 69 . 
 70. 
 71. 
 72. 
 73. 
 74. 
 75. 
 76. 
 77 . 
 78. 
 79 . 
 80. 
 81. 
 
 42 18 
 28 12 
 27 00 
 14 76 
 39 37 
 
 11 26 
 9 84 
 
 23 20 
 16 17 
 9 49 
 8 44 
 
 12 66 
 10 72 
 
 10 90 
 
 6 33 
 5 27 
 
 8 44 
 
 9 84 
 5 62 
 
 7 38 
 12 48 
 
 11 07 
 5 98 
 9 03 
 
 10 90 
 
 8 26 
 
 82. 
 83. 
 84. 
 86. 
 86 . 
 87. 
 88. 
 89 . 
 90. 
 
 01 . 
 
 02 . 
 93. 
 04. 
 96 . 
 
 96 . 
 
 97 . 
 98. 
 99 . 
 
 100 . 
 
 101 . 
 102. 
 103 . 
 104. 
 
 105 . 
 
 106 . 
 107. 
 108. 
 
 .10 90 
 
 .11 07 
 
 9 49 
 
 7 38 
 
 . 4 67 
 
 . 6 98 
 
 .52 34 
 
 7 03 
 
 . 7 73 
 
 6 62 
 .33 04 
 .32 34 
 .15 47 
 . 6 33 
 . 9 49 
 .17 58 
 .17 58 
 . 9 14 
 . 5 45 
 .12 83 
 .13 30 
 . 4 92 
 .15 11 
 . 6 62 
 .23 12 
 .11 96 
 
 7 03 
 
 Averas;6 108 samples, 516 tons Gatling ore, assayed by A. Thies, $13.37 
 
 gold per ton. 
 Check assays, by Prof. Richards, of Boston, and GifiFord, of New York, 
 
 814.75. 
 Average value Gatling ore. East vein, $14.06 per ton. _ 
 
 Average sanjples, aggregating 63 tons Tuttle shaft. East vein, $24 88. 
 Average samples, aggregating 12 tons, IVIiddle vein, $30.82. 
 
 Allowing the proper proportion of ore-reserve to each of 
 these shafts, the average assay value of the ore in reserves I 
 find to be $18.65 in gold per ton. 
 
 From these most exhaastive teats, the average gold con- 
 tents of the ore were determined with great accuracy. Per- 
 haps the most interesting and certainly one of the most 
 important and valuable facts 'developed was the very 
 remarkable uniformity of the gold yield of the ore. In only 
 three instances -even of second-class ore after the richer ore 
 had been roughly picked out — was less than five dollars per 
 ton in gold found, and the highest assay of a five-ton lot was 
 $53.43 per ton. Samples of a few hundred pounds have 
 been found to run as high as $150 per ton, and hand samples 
 very much higher ; but these were not considered as safe 
 guides in valuing a mine, and were therefore rejected as 
 exceptional. 
 
 When I first commenced testing these mines, I was 
 met with a vast array of dicta concerning the difficulties 
 to be encountered in roasting, in amalgamating, or other- 
 wise getting the gold out of' arsenical sulphurets of iron. 
 It is fair to add, however, that these difficulties were 
 always reported by persons who had not themselves worked 
 such ores, but had "always understood" they existed. 
 No satisfactory record of tests actually made with such 
 ores being on record, so far as I knew, I determined to 
 make history myself; and though in some particulars we 
 have still very much to learn, the facts which were estab- 
 lished may be of use to the profession, and I gladly com- 
 municate them. As there could be no possible question 
 about the facility of concentrating mispickel, with a specific 
 gravity of about 6 or ^, from quartz and calc-spar, with a 
 specific gravity of about 2J, we did not consider it necessary 
 to build concentrating works to test that point ; and as there 
 was no concentrator except a centre-discharge huddle taking 
 all the ore as it came from the battery (with forty-mesh 
 screens) without sizing, it was no matter of surprise that at 
 times one-half of the gold was lost in the operation. That, 
 however, was not so much a consideration with us_ as to 
 determine points upon which knowledge was not obtainable. 
 The ores were sampled in the manner mentioned above 
 before going through the battery. After concentration, the 
 concentrates from some two or three hundred tons were 
 roasted in a muffle furnace, those from nearly six hundred 
 tons in a reverberatory, and those from several hundred 
 tons in a revolving cylinder. The results in all cases showed 
 that these arsenical sulphurets roast with the greatest facility, 
 and in much less time than simple pyrites, owing probably 
 to the fact that the arsenic is volatilized at a much lower 
 heat than the sulphur, and in escaping it leaves the ore m a 
 measure porous, and therefore m suitable condition for 
 oxidizing the sulphur. The consumption of fuel was far 
 10 
 
 greater in the reverberatory and muffle furnaces than in the 
 revolving cylinder, where indeed one cord a day would roast 
 ten tons of ore. There was no comparison, either, in the 
 cost of labor in these different systems (in the revolving 
 cylinder it was about 50 cents per ton), and our results give 
 a very decided advantage to the automatic continuous cylin- 
 der in the uniformity of the roast. It was found that ore 
 which took one hour and three-quarters to pass through the 
 cylinder was thoroughly roasted, so far, at least, as was 
 necessary for amalgamation. The chief objection to the 
 cylinder was in the amount of flue-dust made, and that in a 
 somewhat less degree is also the objection to any hand- 
 rabbled furnace. The arsenic fumes are very dense, and 
 when aided by a rapid current of air, they easily carry over 
 dust and gold. 
 
 The question is not at all one of roasting the ore, for 
 arsenical sulphurets roast much more easily, more quickly, 
 and sinter less than simple sulphurets ; but the important 
 question — the only practical difficulty found in the treatment 
 of these ores — is that of preventing a loss of extremely fine 
 gold, which is mechanically carried over with flue-dust and 
 arsenic fumes. The cause of loss, though it will probably 
 always exist to a greater or less extent, does not appear by 
 any means insuperable; but oui: tests have thoroughly 
 convinced us that, both on the score of expense and loss in 
 flue-dust, no hand-rabbled furnace is admissible. The auto- 
 matic continuous revolving furnace, known in the Western 
 States as the White & Howell furnace, and in England as 
 the Oxland, is entirely satisfactory so far as expense is con- 
 cerned ; but without special precautions, it will make too 
 much flue-dust. By taking out most of the shelves, or leaving 
 only sufficient to turn over and not lift the ore (which when 
 hot, runs like quicksand), the greater part of the loss which 
 we encountered would, no doubt, be avoided. There are 
 other modifications in the revolving, cylinder which have 
 suggested themselves ; but as they have not been tried, they 
 need not be mentioned here. In Philadelphia, a revolving 
 hearth, with fixed rabbles, and with a preheating furnace 
 forming the flue from the revolving hearth, has worked well, 
 and undoubtedly made less dust than the cylinder. Of 
 course, some of the gold which escapes is recovered by the 
 re-treatment of the flue-dust ; but there would be still a loss, 
 which should, and in a great measure undoubtedly can, be 
 avoided. 
 
 The roasted ore was found to amalgamate with the greatest 
 possible facility, 80 and even 85 per cent, of the gold con- 
 tained in the roasted ore being obtained in regular work and 
 with a very slight loss of mercury. There is no flouring of 
 the mercury, and the gold is bright and very readily amal- 
 gamated. Some of the roasted ore was treated by chlorination 
 under pressure (Mears's process), and practically nearly the 
 fiill fire-assay was obtained. Even including the loss in 
 flue dust in roasting in the revolving hearth, an ore which 
 assayed less than $14 per ton yielded, net in the bullion, 91 
 per cent, of the fire-assay; so that it is thought that by care 
 in roasting, from 93 to 95 per cent, of the gold in the con- 
 centrates can be regularly obtained. That the loss in con- 
 centrating will be very small, can be understood when it is 
 considered that the concentration will not be made close. It 
 is proposed to crush the ore in rock-breakers to from J to 1 
 inch size, screen in revolving screens which will size into 
 say i to J inch and J to 1 inch, which would then be jigged, 
 the richer ore going to rolls, and thence directly to the 
 roasting furnace without concentration, and the poorer going 
 to other rolls, where it is crushed, and then jigged. It is 
 thought that from J to f of the sulphurets, and consequently 
 of the gold, will be obtained in the coarse jigging, and will 
 suffer no loss in concentration. Works have been built for 
 the Canada Consolidated Gold Mining Company capable of 
 treating from 100 tons to 125 tons a day. 
 
 Without going into the cost of mining and milling these 
 ores I may say that a number of experts, taking from the 
 books the figures of cost of such work as has already been 
 done at the mines, have estimated at from $3 to $8.50 per 
 ton of ore, as it comes from the mines, the entire cost of 
 mining and milling. This cost is made up about as follows : 
 Mining, per ton of ore as mined, $1.75; concentrating, 
 50 cents; roasting, 20^60 cents per ton concentrates; 
 chlorinating, 50=$2 per ton roasted concentrates ; con- 
 tingencies, 55 cents ; — %3.50 per ton. Labor is paid $1 to 
 
146 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 $1.25 per day; wood, $1.25 per cord; water-power will 
 partly drive machinery. Supplies of all kinds are extremely 
 abundant and cheap. The ore carries as an average between 
 $18 and $19 per ton in gold, and assuming a net yield in 
 bullion of only 80 per cent., the net profit on the treatment 
 of these ores is estimated at from $10 to $12 per ton. 
 
 — Compiled from a paper by U. P. Bothwell, M. E., Ph. B., Tf-aitsaclions 
 
 Airterican Institute of Mitmig Engineers. 
 
 THE MASS COPPER OF THE LAKE SUPE- 
 RIOR MINES, AND THE METHOD 
 OF MINING IT. 
 
 THE occurrence of enormous masses of pure copper 
 has given the mining district of Lake Superior world- 
 wide reputation. The first masses brought from 
 there excited great attention, and directed the notice 
 of the mining world to the few particular mines from which 
 they were taken. It may not now be generally known that 
 nearly all the veins which are worked, and which cut across 
 the trap ridge, contain mass copper, and that large masses 
 are continually being raised from them. The largest con- 
 tinuous mass which has been taken out was probably that 
 from the Minnesota, in 1857, which is variously stated as 
 weighing 420 tons and 470 tons. Its length was about 45 
 feet, its breadth or height 22 feet, and its greatest thickness 
 8 feet. All such masses are very irregular and ragged in 
 their form and thickness, thinning out generally from a foot 
 to a few'inches, and straggling through the vein until they 
 connect with other large masses. This was the character of 
 a mass found in the Phcenix Mine, one of the oldest on the 
 lake, which mass altogether weighed some 600 tons. But 
 this was really a series of masses more or less connected by 
 strings of metal, yet no one large part of it weighed, singly, 
 over 200 tons. A similar series of masses, weighing about 
 600 tons, was extracted from the Minnesota. Some of the 
 Phcenix masses were four to five feet thick of solid copper. 
 The Oliflf Mine has yielded masses weighing from 100 to 150 
 tons in one piece. One of 40 tons was taken out in 1879, 
 besides numerous blocks weighing from 1 to 8 tons. This 
 mine and the Central are now yielding mass copper in 
 abundance. It is, of course, impossible to pick, or drill, or 
 to break out such huge masses of solid metal when they are 
 found, by drifting upon the course of the vein. The method 
 of extraction is as follows : The miner picks out or excavates 
 a narrow passage or chamber upon one side of the mass, 
 laying it bare as far as possible over its whole surface. It 
 is usually firmly held by its close union with the vein-stuff) 
 or by its irregular projections above, below, and at the end. 
 If it cannot then be dislodged by levers, the excavation of a 
 chamber is commenced behind the mass, and this excava- 
 tion is made large enough to receive from 5 to 20 or more 
 kegs of powder. In one instance, the ChfT Mine, a charge 
 of 21 kegs of powder threw down 200 tons of copper. Bags 
 of sand are used for tamping, and the drift is closed up by a 
 barricade of refuse and loose dirt. After such a blast the 
 drift is, of course, charged with foul air, and it cannot safely 
 be entered for hours afterwards. If entered too soon, men 
 lose all strength in their limbs, and fall down. 
 
 The huge masses of copper dislodged in this way are too 
 large to be handled and got to the surface. They have to 
 be cut up. The copper-cutters are called in, and the mass 
 is marked off into squares or blocks of suitable size. Copper- 
 cutting is a distinct art, and requires considerable skill and 
 experience. Ordinary miners, however skilful they may be, 
 cannot cut up copper without long training. 
 
 The tools used are simply narrow chisels and striking 
 hammers. The chisels are shaped like the parting-tool of 
 turners. They are made of flat bars of half-inch steel, about 
 two inches wide, and eighteen inches long. They are cham- 
 fered each way like a cold chisel, to form the cutting edge. 
 This ed^e is made a little longer than the thickness of the 
 bar. The cutter holds the chisel, and two men strike it. A 
 thin slice or chip of copper is in this way cut out in a narrow 
 channel across the mass of copper. The operation is re- 
 
 peated until the narrow cut, but little over half an inch 
 wide, has been carried through tha mass. The chips cut 
 out in this way are long, narrow strips of copper, only about 
 half as long as the groove from which they are taken, the 
 metal being condensed and thickened by the force of the 
 blow. This work is necessarily slow and tedious, and it 
 costs twelve dollars ($12) per square foot by contract. At 
 this price the cutters make $2 per day. It is inconvenient 
 to handle masses weighing over six tons. Such masses when 
 hoisted are landed upon very strong platform trucks, and 
 are then dumped in the rock-house upon a large pile of dry 
 pine logs. When a considerable number of masses have 
 accumulated, the logs are fired, and the whole pile is heated 
 to redness, for the purpose of loosening the very considerable 
 quantities of vein-stone which are inclosed in the ragged 
 cavities. This vein-stone consists chiefly of calcite, and after 
 cooling off' it is so much softened, that the greater portion 
 can be knocked out by pounding upon the copper. The 
 masses are then marked, numbered, and recorded, and are 
 shipped to the smelting works, where they are melted down 
 in reverberatories. 
 
 — Compiled from a paper by Prof. Wm. P. Blake, Transactions American 
 
 Institute of Mining Engineers. 
 
 NOTES ON THE TREATMENT OF MERCURY 
 IN NORTH CALIFORNIA. 
 
 THE ores of mercury of North California are composed 
 of metallic mercury and cinnabar. They are lound 
 in serpentine, and are very often associated with 
 chalcedony, in masses more or less irregular, often 
 concentrated enough, however, to furnish ores yielding from 
 three to ten per cent, and sometimes richer. This deposit 
 makes its appearance in Vallejo where it has been worked. 
 North of there the mines are more developed. Most of the 
 quicksilver mines, however are situated in Sonoma and Napa 
 Counties. On its outcrop the serpentine rocks have become 
 decomposed, and have often been washed away to a consid- 
 erable depth, so that in many cases in their neighborhood, 
 what is apparently nothing but ordinary dirt, wiirfrequently 
 contain from two to three per cent, of metallic -mercury, 
 with but a trace of cinnabar, in which case, as at the Sonoma 
 mine, it is made up into adobes and distilled. Such material 
 does not require to be mixed with dirt to be made into 
 adobes. Very often, also, the outcrop of the rock, where it 
 is not decomposed, is filled with metallic mercury, so that 
 by striking a pick into it, as at the Rattlesnake mine, a 
 pound or more of mercury at a time will sometimes spurt 
 out. Such rock as this is found in several localiiiesin every 
 stage of impregnation, and usually makes very rich ore. 
 There is generally, however, very little of it, and it is found 
 only in the first workings ; the ore in depth is always cin- 
 nabar. At the Rattlesnake mine near Pine Flat, where 
 large _ quantities of metallic mercury are found, the rock 
 contains so much petroleum that it has been necessary to 
 niake special arrangements to burn the carbides of hydrogen, 
 since the distillation of the petroleum causes an extra 
 quantity of poor soot to be formed in the condensation- 
 chambers. At the Geysers the ore is associated with large 
 quantities of Eulphur and gypsum, so that in a hand speci- 
 men there is often more sulphur than cinnabar, which is a 
 serious impediment to working, especially for the modern 
 style of furnace with iron condensers, and causes so much 
 soot to be formed that it has been known to penetrate as far 
 as the blower, and to so completely clog it as to prevent its 
 revolution. 
 
 The ore coming from the mine is more or less hand-picked. 
 In one or two cases attempts have been made to treat the 
 poorest, and especially the very fine ores, mechanically as 
 at the California works. The apparatus used for the purpose 
 is very rude, and the treatment does not seem to be very 
 successful, as there is visibly a considerable loss in the 
 tailings. Usually the fine ore is not concentrated; it is 
 taken as it comes from the mine, mixed with dirt and made 
 up into adobes, which have no regular size or weiglit, and 
 treated in the furniice. The processes by which the ore is 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND- MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 147 
 
 treated are, first, the process by precipitation ; second, by 
 roasting. The precipitation is done in retorts with lime, 
 and consists of oxidizing the sulphur by means of an excess 
 of air, and so producing sulphate of lime and free mercury. 
 The roasting is done either in retorts, or in other furnaces 
 which are not continuous, and in several styles of continuous 
 furnaces. The reaction consists in volatilizing the sulphur 
 and oxidizing it so as to produce free mercury and sulphuric 
 acid, which, with the moisture of the fuel and ore is con- 
 densed and allowed to run to waste. The furnaces which 
 are not continuous are a modification of the old Idria fur- 
 nace, which is used at Knoxville and at New Almaden in 
 Sjuth California. Those which are continuous are the 
 Luckhart, which is used at Sonoma, and which was being 
 built at the Rattlesnake mine and elsewhere ; and the Knox 
 furnace, which is in very .successful operation at the Red- 
 ington, Manhattan, and the California mines, and elsewhere. 
 There are a number of other varieties of furnaces, none of 
 which, however, I saw. To these processes should be added 
 the process of distillation, if the metallic mercury of the 
 outcrops were found in sufficient quantities to warrant the 
 ore being treated alone. This, however, has never been the 
 case, and the small quantities that are found are charged in 
 the furnace with the other ores, either as rock ore or as 
 adobes. Very little effort is made to sort the ore, and this 
 generally consists in a rough attempt at hand-picking. No 
 assays of any kind are made. The fiirnace manager, or 
 miner, judges by the eye that the ore contains one, two, 
 three, ten, or twenty-five per cent., as the case may be, and 
 hencj there is little faith to be placed in the statement of 
 many of the advocates of different kinds of furnaces, that 
 their furnace yields such and such a percentage of the 
 assay value. The mercury produced is put up in iron flasks, 
 which contain 76 J lbs. each, with an iron screw for a cork, 
 and shipped. Irregular flasks, as they are called, contain 
 less or more. 
 
 Method of Distillation. — -At the American Mine, near 
 Pine Flat, all the ore is crushed fine in an ordinary California 
 stamp-mill, with a battery of ten stamps, which is run at a 
 high velocity. It is then mixed with lime, and treated in 
 retorts. The average yield of the ore is said to be two per 
 cent. There are twelve retorts 9 feet long, 2 fset wide, and 
 18 inshes high in the middle. They are made of cast iron, 
 and are D-shaped like the ordinary gas retort, and are ar- 
 ranged in benches of three, the centre one being the highest, 
 so that there are four fireplaces to the twelve retorts. The 
 charge consists of 150 lbs. of crushed ore, to which ten per 
 cent, of quicklime is added. This charge is introduced into 
 the muffle in an iron spoon 6 feet long, 9 inches wide, and 6 
 inches deep. This is carried by three men, one taking the 
 end, which has an iron handle 2 feet long, with a crossbar 
 of wood of the same length. The middle is supported on an 
 iron bar, curved in the middle to fit the shape of the spoon, 
 with handles projecting 18 inches from the sides, and is 
 carried by two men. This spoon is introduced into the 
 muffle and shoved to its end. It is drawn out by short 
 jerks, so as to leave the charge in the retort. The doors of 
 the retort are then fastened by means of thumb-screws, and 
 luted with wood ashes, and fired during four hours, when 
 the charge is withdrawn. Not over 500 lbs. per retort is 
 treated in twelve hours. The condensation pipes are m the 
 back of the retort. A pipe, about 18 inches long, connects 
 each retort with a vertical pipe about 5 inches long, which 
 connects with a horizontal pipe 6 inches in diameter, placed 
 in a water-tank at a lower level than the front of the furnace, 
 and which receives the pipes of all the retorts. Every six 
 retorts are so arranged that they discharge their condensed 
 mercury through a siphon pipe. The soot is treated with 
 lime as is usual. These works are new and carefully built. 
 It is surprising to see works upon which no expense seems 
 to have been spared, apparently put up to treat such very 
 small quantities at a time of very lean ore by such a system; 
 mt even the possible economy of the retort system seems to 
 have been taken into account. There did not seem to be 
 sufficient care taken with the condensation apparatus, tor 
 the air for some distance fi-om the works was filled with 
 mercurial vapors ; and though the workmen wore wet sponges 
 over their mouths and noses, most of them were more or less 
 salivated. I did not visit the mines; but any mine which 
 would justify such carefully erected works with stamp-mills. 
 
 would certainly justify the erection of other and less waste- 
 ful furnaces. 
 
 Method of Roasting'. — ^The method by roasting is the 
 one which is the most extensively used, and all the mfierent 
 varieties of furnaces are adapted to it. Those most in use 
 are retorts, and the modified Idria furnace of the non-con- 
 tinuous varieties, the Luckhart and the Knox furnace of the 
 continuous ones. 
 
 Non-Continuous Furnaces. — At the Missouri mine, 
 near Pine Plat, the average yield of the ore is from one-half 
 to 2 per oent. of mercury. The cinnabar is irregularly scat- 
 tered through a chalcedony found in very irregular masses 
 in serpentine ; the large pieces are crushed in a Blake's 
 crusher to about 1 cubic inch in size. There are two benches 
 of retorts, one containing two retorts and holding 250 pounds 
 of charge at a time, and the other containing three retorts 
 and holding 350 pounds, so that the small retorts treat 1000 
 and the large ones 2100 pounds in twenty-four hours. The " 
 large retorts have been in use but a short time, and have 
 consequently produced but little. The retorts are D-shaped, 
 and are here 9 feet long, 12 inches high, and 18 inches wide 
 on the bottom; they are charged every twelve hours by 
 means of a shovel. At the Lost Ledge mine the same con- 
 pany have three retorts which are only five feet in length, 
 and have a capacity of 500 pounds, or 160 pounds each ; 
 they are charged every four hours, and consequently treat 
 3000 pounds of ore in twenty-four hours. It takes three- 
 quarters of an hour at the Missouri mine to discharge and 
 charge the large retorts, and half an hour for the small ones, 
 so that, as there is not much difference in the wear and tear, 
 the large size retorts are the most advantageous. They are 
 never filled full, as there would be danger that the pressure 
 of the discharging vapors might force an exit through the 
 luted joints. When the furnace is ready to be discharged 
 the men cover their mouths and noses with wet sponges, 
 tied on with bandages, and then remove the cover of the 
 retorts. When they are about to be removed a little fan 
 placed on the condensing pipes is set in motion to cause an 
 aspiration through the retorts, so that no mercurial fumes 
 escape. When the fumes cease to be dense the charge is 
 drawn out of the retort with long hoes on to the floor in 
 front of the furnace. The discharged ore is at a cherry-red 
 heat, and, as it is not entirely free from mercury, a consider- 
 able quantity of fumes are given oft" so that the precaution of 
 using the bandage over the mouth and nose is indispensable. 
 After the ore has all been raked out, it is carried as quickly 
 as possible a short distance from the furnace and extin- 
 guished with water, a new charge being put in in the mean- 
 time. This is an exceedingly bad system, as the workmen 
 are constantly exposed to fumes, more especially when water 
 is scarce, since small quantities at a time thrown on the very 
 hot ore seem to increase the quantity of fumes. The men, 
 however, seem to know this, and take the necessary pre- 
 cautions, as none of them were salivated. The product of 
 the small retorts varies from 3 Ho 70 pounds of mercury in 
 twenty-four hours. The large ones yield from 10 to 100 
 pounds. 
 
 As the two benches of retorts are at some distance, each 
 bench requires one man per shift of twelve hours, who is 
 paid $3.75 a day. They burn 3^ cords of wood in twenty- 
 four hours. Wood costs it 6 per cord, and labor $64 per 
 month with board. Each retort is connected by a short 
 joint, with a horizontal pipe leading to the condenser, which 
 must be large enough to insure of its not being clogged by 
 the soot. This pipe is of cast iron, and is 30 feet long and 
 6 inches in diameter. The pipes leading from the retorts, in 
 the latest and best construction, come from the back, where 
 there is plenty of room and they are not in the way, so that 
 they can be large. Formerly they were made to gome from 
 the front, where they were in the way of the worlcmen, and 
 were constantly in danger of being damaged by the charge 
 lying against them as it was drawn from the furnace. The 
 condensing apparatus consists of two cast-iron boxes 3 feet 
 by 2, and 2 feet high, turned down into cast-iron tanks, with 
 inclined bottoms, which are covered with water. From the 
 bottom of these tanks a wrought-iron pipe, curved in the 
 shape of an S, is placed, with the arms sufiiciently long to 
 counterbalance the pressure of the water, so that the mercury 
 flows from it continuously. The mercury commences to flow 
 two and one-half hours after the charge is put in. Between 
 
148 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the two cast-iron boxes, which are connected with each 
 other, and on the main pipe, a small fan-blower is placed, 
 and is made to suck out the vapors from the retorts, or when 
 the condenser is to be cleaned into an exterior pipe. The 
 fan is inclosed in a box 18 inches square, into which there 
 is an opening 1 foot in diameter, closed with a hydraulic 
 packing. The pipes and condensers are cleaned once a 
 week. 
 
 In the small furnace 140 pounds of soot and mercury 
 together are collected ; this is put in a sheet-iron-pan, 8 feet 
 long, 3 feet wide, 6 inches deep, inclined about 25°, which 
 is not fixed, but is moved from place to place as convenience 
 may require. The soot is placed at ite upper end, and is 
 worked with a hoe for a quarter of an hour, to separate the 
 free mercury. Three to five pounds of unslaked lime with- 
 out water are then stirred into it. As the soot is already 
 damp, the lime soon commences to slack ; it is left until it 
 slacks entirely. No one goes near it for one-half or three- 
 quarters of an hour, on account of the vapors arising from 
 it. It is then worked with a hoe for three hours. About one 
 barrel of lime, which costs $3 the barrel, is used per week for 
 treating the soot. The mercury as it collects runs into the 
 lower part of the pan, and is taken out with a ladle and put 
 into flasks. The residue, which has twice the bulk which the 
 soot originally had, is added to the next charge of the retorts, 
 in addition to the charge of ore. Such a charge will produce 
 about 10 pounds more mercury than usual. From 140 pounds 
 of soot, 120 pounds of mercury are obtained directly, and 
 about 10 pounds more from soot charged in the furnace. 
 The large furnaces were run 10 days; 200 pounds were 
 taken from the first condensers and pipes, and from 12 to 14 
 out of the second condenser. When there is only a small 
 amount of soot to be treated, a small cast-iron sink 3 feet 
 by 18 inches is used, the drain-hole being placed over an 
 enamelled vessel 1 foot in diameter, and 6 inches deep. 
 This vessel is used because ordinary kitchen utensils answer 
 perfectly well, and can be had much cheaper than special 
 apparatus, which would work no better. 
 
 The expenses for twenty-four hours : 
 
 2 men at the retorts, . . 
 Sl^ cords of wood, at $6, . 
 
 Lime for soot, 
 
 Crushing the ore two days, at $1.25 . 
 
 . $6.50 
 
 . 21.00 
 
 . .60 
 
 . 2.50 
 
 There does not seem to be any real economy in using this 
 retDrt system. The yield is not greater, nor is the cost of 
 repairs and running less, while the risk of salivation is 
 greater. There is certainly an economy of first installation, 
 and this seems to be the only reason why such furnaces are 
 used. With the high prices of quicksilver which have 
 ruled during 1873 and most of 1874, every place where ores 
 could be found has been worked, and as all the deposits 
 are irregular and uncertain, the owners of such mines have 
 not felt themselves justified in going to any greater expense. 
 I saw no well-developed property, nor any property which 
 appeared to have any future which was worked with retorts, 
 except in a few instances, where the retorts were put up 
 to have a yield while other furnaces were being erected on 
 the property developed, or where the mines were evidently 
 being worked with too small a capital. 
 
 Modified Idria Furnace . — As an example of non-contin- 
 uous working withshaft furnaces,! have selected the practice 
 of the Eedington mine, with the old Idria furnace, which is by 
 far the largest mercury works in North California. But as 
 everything relating to this variety of furnace, which is des- 
 tined in a few years to disappear altogether, is of interest, I 
 have added some details relating to the New Almaden fur- 
 nace of the same type, which I visited shortly after, although 
 they are south of San Francisco. Great attention is being 
 paid to the question of condensation, which is, perhaps, 
 even more important than that of the furnace. The two 
 questions are, however, intimately connected, and are en- 
 gaging the most serious study of all persons interested in 
 the metallurgy of mercury. 
 
 At Knoxville, the Redington Quicksilver Company treat 
 the ores from the Redington mine, which they own, in both 
 the modified Idria furnaces, of which they have two, and 
 also in the Knox furnaces, of which there are two working, 
 and two in the course of construction ; besides these two 
 others are to be built. The furnaces are situated at the 
 
 mines and within a few feet of the ore shaft. The mine 
 produces 700 to 800 tons of cinnabar per week. The ore 
 occurs in a sand-rock, in serpentine. Much pure cinnabar 
 is found, and a considerable quantity of high grade ore, but 
 the average yield of the whole- mine is about 3 per cent. 
 Metacinnabarite is found in considerable quantities in these 
 mines. Epsomite, resulting from the decomposition of the 
 serpentine, also occurs here in very large quantities, in 
 acicular crystals over a foot long. The ore is largely asso- 
 ciated with pyrites. About one-tenth of the ore comes from 
 the open cut made in the side of the hill. From the mine 
 the ore is thrown upon screens placed one over the other ; 
 the upper screen is made of round iron bars 1 J- inches in 
 diameter, placed 2 inches apart at the top, and 2i at the 
 bottom. The screen itself is 5 feet wide at the top, 5 feet 6 
 inches at the bottom, and is eight feet long. Whatever 
 passes over this screen only, is hand-picked. What passes 
 through falls upon strong iron- wire screen of f-inch mesh. 
 What goes over the second screen goes directly to the fur- 
 nace, and is charged with the hand-picked ore ; what passtis 
 through is treated as fine ore ; all the large pieces are broken 
 by hand. Before the Knox furnace was introduced, the ore 
 was dressed by hand up to 5 per cent. 
 
 All the fine ore is mixed with dirt and made into adobes, 
 which are sun-dried and stored, for use in the modified Idria 
 furnaces exclusively. There is no generally adopted siz^e 
 for the adobes. They are made in roughly constructed 
 wooden frames, made by the workmen, which wear out 
 rapidly. The usual sizes are 9x4x4 inches. When dry 
 such adobes weigh 12 pounds. They are sometimes made 
 12 X 5 X 5 inches, which is a very large size. Such adobes 
 weigh 18 pounds. The smaller size is the one most generally 
 used. Seven men, at $2 per day, can make 6000 adobes. 
 Each man can mould one thousand, but the six men require 
 one man to loosen and moisten the dirt, and to mix the ore 
 with it. Making the adobes costs, therefore, $2.33 the thous- 
 and. The cost of the adobes delivered atthe furnace, ready 
 for charging, including making, carting and storing, is $5 the 
 thousand. The modified Idria furnaces (Fig. 1 ) are built one 
 on each side of the condensers, which are at right angles to 
 them. Each of these furnaces is capable of treating 100 
 tons of ore with 4000 to 5000 adobes per week. They are 
 built of a porous sandstone, which is found a short distance 
 from the works. Each furnace has a double fire-place, B, 
 20 inches in width, 17 feet long, and 15 feet higli, from the 
 spring of the arch of the fireplace. The total inside height 
 of the fireplace compartment is 20 feet. It has on the ore- 
 chamber side a brick screen pierced with fourteen openings, 
 the size of one brick, and two bricks apart, across the fur- 
 nace, and fourteen openings in height, also two bricks apart. 
 The fireplace wall has been repaired once in seven years. It 
 is made of red brick, and is glazed by the heat. The ore 
 chamber, C, is 13 feet by 10, and 20 feet high. Its walls are 
 4 feet thick. There are two ore discharge openings, 32 by 20 
 inches, on each side, at the bottom, which are four feet above 
 the ground. The car for discharging the fiirnace runs under 
 a swinging apron of cast iron, and the ore which has been 
 treated is raked out over it. The fireplace and condenser 
 walls are each mere screens of brickwork filled with holes, 
 which are the starting-points of the flues, made in the 
 charge. As the condenser side is constantly exposed to the 
 acid vapors, it is the one most rapidly worn. It has been 
 renewed twice in five years. It is now strengthened with 
 an abutment. From constant use the inside walls round 
 the ore-chamber have become worn away, making its present 
 size somewhat larger than it originally was. Beyond the 
 ore-chamber each furnace has two sandstone condensers, D, 
 which are 4 feet wide, 13 feet long, and 20 feet high, in 
 which very little material ever collects, never more than 
 two flasks of mercury a week. 
 
 In the drawing, Fig. 1, these furnace condensers are con- 
 nected with the main condensing chambers, A, by the flues, 
 E, which are supported upon arches, and which enter the 
 top of the first chamber of the main condenser, A. The 
 length of the flue between the furnace and the main con- 
 denser is 8 feet and the furnaces are so arranged that each 
 one may work independently into the condenser, the con- 
 nection being cut oflT at will. The total length of each 
 furnace, including the fireplace, ore-chamber, and two 
 condensing chambers, is 36 feet, its total width is 17 feet. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 149 
 
 total outside height 24 feet. The main condensers, A, con- 
 sist of a series of twelve chambers, each of which is 4 feet 
 wide, 20 feet long, and 20 feet high on the inside, contained 
 in a structure at right angles to the furnaces, and which is 
 common to both of them. Each one of these compartments 
 has an iron door on each side on a level with the bottom of 
 the chamber. The inside walls of the condensers are 1 foot 
 thick, the outside 18 inches. They are braced on the out- 
 side with wooden beams 8 x 10 inches, which are tied with 
 |-inches round iron rods. These rods must be carefully 
 watched, as they are likely to become corroded through, and 
 allow the wall to fall, and thereby cause serious accident. 
 
 The walls of these chambers are soon saturated with 
 mercury, and become soft from the effects of the acid vapors. 
 The stones are found corroded for a depth of six inches, and 
 some of the interior walls have been corroded entirely 
 through. Whenever they have been repaired with brick, it is 
 found to be quite hard and to resist much better than the 
 stone. The relation of the condensing surface of the con- 
 densers to that of the charging compartment is much too 
 small. The relation of the condensi ng volume to the volume 
 of the furnace should be at least as 24 to 1. In this furnace, 
 however, it is not more than one-half of that amount. This 
 would make the chambers only large enough for one furnace. 
 That the condensing capacity is not sufficient, is evident, from 
 the fact that metallic mercury has supersaturated the stones, 
 and still exudes in globules from the walls even after repeated 
 cleaning. The flue leading to the chimney is also built of 
 cut stone, and is 250 feet long. It is oval, 4 feet in the 
 highest diameter inside, with walls 2 feet thick. It lies 
 against the side hill. The chimney is built of stone, with 
 walls 3 feet thick. It is conical, 5 feet in diameter at the 
 base, and 50 feet high. 
 
 The furnace is charged by a windlass from above. The 
 ore is let down in iron buckets 3 feet in diameter, and 30 
 inches high. The adobes are let down in iron cages that 
 hold 150 adobes, which weigh about a ton. This cage is 3 
 feet by 30 inches, and 2J feet high. The charging compart- 
 ment is lined with adobes 2 to 5 thick, piled close, but not 
 crowded. Inside of this the ore is placed in pieces from 
 about the size of an egg to twice the size of the fist, in layers 
 of four, 18 to 24 inches in thickness, then four to five chan- 
 nels the size of an adobe are built over the ore. Their 
 number depends on the size of the ore, five for fine ore, and 
 four for coarse. These channels start in the opening of the 
 fireplace screen, and end in the opening towards the con- 
 densation-chamber. They answer the purpose of flues, and 
 are necessary not only to provide a draft and to allow of the 
 heat coming in contact with the ore, but also to prevent the 
 charge from packing together. The poor soot, or that which 
 has been worked, is charged on top of every layer of ore. A 
 new layer of ore is then put in, and so on, until the chamber 
 is nearly full. A layer of fine ore and poor soot is placed 
 near the top, and this is covered over with clay and straw. 
 The compartments are closed with cast-iron pans, which are 
 filled with water, the joints between the pans and against 
 the masonry being made tight with ashes or cement. These 
 pans are lOJ feet long, 4} feet wide, 5 inches deep. The 
 cold water flows constantly from an inch pipe into the pan 
 nearest the fireplace. A spout from every pan carries the 
 water to the next pan, so that they are always full. Each 
 pan is provided with two eyes at the sides for their removal 
 when it is necessary to recharge the furnace. One furnace 
 is charged on Monday, and is fired Monday night, and is 
 kept burning until Thursday morning. During this time 
 two cords of wood are burned to each furnace. The sulphur, 
 to a great extent, answers for fuel, for there is always an 
 excess of sulphur in the shape of pyrites in the ore. The 
 other furnace is charged on Tuesday, and is fired Tuesday 
 evening, and kept burning until Friday. One flirnace will 
 thus be cooling on Saturday and Sunday, and the other on 
 Sunday and Monday. A little mercury commences to run 
 in D on Tuesday, and in the 1st, 2d, and 3d compartments 
 of the main condenser. It runs most freely Wednesday and 
 Thursday. By Thursday the mercury condenses quite in 
 the end of the condenser, but only in very small quantities ; 
 150 sometimes 200, flasks are collected from both furnaces 
 during the week ; most of it comes from the 5th and 6th 
 condensers. On Wednesday it commences in the 5th and 
 6th and runs from here continually until the furnace is dis- 
 
 charged. The most of the mercury is obtained when the 
 furnace is cooling down. When the draft is good and the 
 ore moderately rich the yield will not be less than 200 flasks 
 a week. 
 
 The bottoms of the condensing chambers were originally 
 built inclined towards the centre, as is shown in the lower 
 part, Fig. 2, with the intention of having all the mercury in 
 all the condensers run out through a common opening made 
 for the purpose, but the openings in- the partition walls of 
 the condensing-chambers very soon became clogged, and so 
 much mercury was absorbed in the masonry that this was 
 shortly abandoned. The present disposition is iron pans, 
 sloping from the centre toward the outside, as is shown in 
 the upper part. Fig. 2, which are placed three feet above 
 the furnace bottom of the old construction, which has not 
 been altered, so that there is a space of considerable size 
 under the bottom of the pans. The pans are made in three 
 pieces, which overlap each other. This is especially neces- 
 sary, as when the walls get old and fall, the whole pan 
 would then be liable to be broken. Tiles placed upon the 
 top of the pans to protect them, have been used with good 
 effect. The castings with this protection have lasted already 
 four years, and are seemingly perfect. The cast iron with- 
 out the tiles lasts only two years, at which time it is cor- 
 roded by the sulphuric acid, which condenses from the 
 furnace. 
 
 On Saturday the iron doors at the bottom of the conden- 
 sation chambers are taken off) and a workman with a long 
 hoe collects the soot on the pan, and that from the walls, 
 about two feet above the bottom of the pan ; what is higher 
 up on the wall is left to collect there until it falls of its own 
 weight. Seventy-five to 100 bushels of soot are collected in 
 buckets every week from the bottom of the condensing 
 chambers, which yields from five to twenty flasks of mer- 
 cury. This soot is a mechanical mixture composed of or- 
 dinary soot, condensed from the smoke of the fuel, ashes, 
 dust, and dirt, carried over from the ore, volatilized cinna- 
 bar, and sublimated mercury in very fine globules. It is 
 usually taken from the condenser damp, owing to the con- 
 densation of steam from the moisture in the fuel and ore, 
 and the acid vapors. This soot is removed in buckets, 
 fourteen inches in diameter at the bottom, thirty at the top, 
 and thirty-three inches high. Two such buckets, filled one 
 foot high, are taken from each side of the condenser. 
 Sometimes as many as eight, and sometimes not as many, 
 are taken. It takes two men two days to clean out and work 
 the soot from all the five condensers in an ordinary working 
 of the furnace. The amount collected is very variable. 
 When, for any reason, such as a stoppage for repairs, the 
 furnace cools, a large quantity of soot becomes detached at 
 the time the fiirnace is lit. The amount of mercuiy col- 
 lected from the soot varies from five to twenty flasks a week. 
 The flue leading to the chimney is cleaned once in two or 
 three weeks ; about one bushel of soot is taken from it. 
 This is not kept separate, but is mixed with that taken from 
 the condensers. It takes ten men one day to charge each 
 furnace, and six men one day to discharge it. The six men 
 are paid about $85 per month and board, making about 
 $1.90 a day. There is a fireman and one man to clean and 
 repair the flasks and fill them. They work during the day 
 only. Each shift of twelve hours has its own foreman. 
 This does not include the men working up the soot. When 
 the draft is not good afire is placed at the foot of the chim- 
 ney, which is fifty feet high, to increase the draft. The 
 draft depends for the most part upon the way the furnace 
 has been charged, but is sometimes due to the direction of 
 the wind. This draft furnace is oftenest used when the fur- 
 nace has been allowed to get cool. Not a cord of wood per 
 month is required for this purpose. In winter, fall, and 
 spring there is no trace of mercury in the flue, but when 
 the weather is hot it collects inside, near the top of ihe 
 chimney, which is provided with a ladder in order to make 
 any observations on the escape of gases at the top which 
 may be desirable. When the furnace is out of repair in 
 very hot summer weather, it is apparent that some mercury 
 escapes. The joints of the furnace are made so tight that 
 no accident arises from salivation except through the care- 
 lessness of the men. As soon as the workmen experience 
 any sensitiveness about the mouth they are instructed to go 
 to the office, and are there furnished with a mouth-wash, 
 
150 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 consisting of two parts of cinchona, one part tincture of 
 myrrli, and three parts water, but no case of real salivation, 
 except from the carelessness of the men, has occurred in a 
 great many years. 
 
 Twice in a year a general clean-up is made. This is done 
 by putting iron pipes, twenty-four inches in diameter in 
 compartment D, and three in the flues leading to the chim- 
 neys, both to hasten the cooling and ventilate them while 
 they are being cleaned. The walls of the condensers are 
 cleaned by scraping. On account of the dust arising from 
 the falling soot, it is necessary, when this work is done, for the 
 men to wear a wet sponge over the mouth and nose, which 
 is covered with a thin cloth, tied behind the head. At this 
 work the men relieve each other every fifteen minutes. 
 After scraping, the walls are thoroughly washed. It takes 
 eight men two days to scrape and wash the walls, flues, and 
 condensers. The soot so detached contains a large amount 
 of mercury. From such a general clean-up as many as one 
 hundred flasks have been collected. The soot in the first 
 condenser is often six inches thick in concretions. It is 
 here hard and solid, but in the other condensers it is soft 
 and light. The light soot upon the walls is of very variable 
 thickness, but is rarely less than one to two inches thick. 
 It sometimes reaches as high as six inches after a long run 
 without cleaning. When there is very rich soot it may 
 often be as thick as six inches on the bottom of the iron 
 pan. The soot is richest in the fourth, fifth, and sixth con- 
 densers, but it is always very evenly distributed. In all the 
 compartments in the space below the iron pans, a hard con- 
 crete, consisting of hardened soot and mercury in globules, 
 is found. 
 
 The furnaces with the condensers cost originally between 
 $100,000 and 1125,000 ; they have been built eight years, 
 and have been repaired three times, parts of six partition 
 walls having fallen down at the flue end. At the furnace 
 end the wall is good. The walls after having been scraped 
 and washed every day for a month still showed mercury in 
 globules all over them, a few hours after they became 
 exposed to the heat of the sun. All the stone taken out 
 of the condensation-chambers during repairs is carefully 
 preserved and is treated as very rich ore. The first time 
 that the furnace was charged the ore was picked. At the 
 top of the charge, over the rich ore, 6 to 7 feet of rich soot 
 were put in, but the heat did not reach it. The charge 
 being unusually rich, should have yielded five hundred 
 flasks of mercury, but all but nine flasks of it were absorbed 
 by the walls. This furnace has been definitely abandoned 
 at Knoxville. The masonry has been altered into Liver- 
 more's inclined continuous furnace, which is adapted to treat 
 fine ores, and since its introduction, in the earlier part of 
 1875, no adobes are made. The cost of altering the furnace 
 was only $1200. 
 
 Average cost per- week of reducing 1 ton of ore in the 
 modified Idria furnace, at the Redington mine, furnaces Nos. 
 1 and 2, in 1874 : 
 
 5}4 cords of wood at $5, $27.50 
 
 .Sfl days, fnrnaeeman, fireman, and his assistant, . . 8G.00 
 
 20 days, laborers charging furnace . 38,00 
 
 12 days, laborers discharging furnace, . 23.15 
 
 8 days, laborers working soot, . . 14.55 
 
 8 days fireman, . . . 14.55 
 
 9000 adobes at $5 per thousand, ... . . . 45.00 
 
 Total charge of 200 tons cost, . . , . . $240.3', 
 
 Average cost per ton for reduction , . 81.25 
 
 New Almaden Works. — At New Almaden, the 
 Quicksilver Mining Company have six furnaces of the 
 modified Idria type, built of brick, which produced in the 
 year 1874, 11,042 flasks of 76} pounds each, or 920 flasks per 
 month. Four of these have a capacity of 50 tons, one a 
 capacity of 70, and one 100 tons of ore a week. They run 
 a week, so that each furnace makes four charges a month. 
 Each furnace has from sixteen to twenty-two brick conden- 
 sing-chambers, the numbers varying with its ore capacity. 
 The bottom of the chambers inclines from the centre toward 
 the doors. The floor is built of brick, and is covered with 
 cement. Besides the brick condensers, each furnace has 
 four or five wooden condensers, which are 26 feet long, 14 
 feet wide, 20 feet high, divided into six compartments of 
 equal size. As the result of the addition of these wooden 
 
 chambers, one of the flues, which formerly yielded in the 
 general clean-up from 60 to 100 flasks of mercury, yielded 
 in the year 1873 only two flasks, and the largest part of this 
 was found near the outlet from the condensers, and no signs 
 of metal were found further on. It is the present intention 
 to cut up the blocks of brick condensers by taking down the 
 outside wall of one or more compartments, and making the 
 dividing walls the exterior walls of the new structure. The 
 former condensers will thus be divided into three or more 
 separate buildings. A much larger radiating surface being 
 exposed in this way, it is expected that the condensation 
 will be much more perfect. Adobes 10 x 4J x 4J inches in 
 size, made of the fine ore mixed with dirt, are placed over 
 the floor of the ore-chamber, one adobe thick the entire 
 height of the sides ; ore is then put 2J to 3 feet in thickness, 
 then a layer of adobes, in which five flues from one side to 
 the other of the furnace are made, and then ore, and so on 
 to the top. The top is covered with a layer of adobes, and 
 then a layer of straw two or three inches thick, and then 
 ordinary clay and mud, to make it even with the top, and 
 over this ashes. Any cracks that may occur are filled in with 
 ashes. When the furnace is filled, one-third of the charge 
 will be adobes; sometimes the furnace is run on adobes 
 alone. It takes six men one day to charge the furnace. It 
 takes one man part of twelve hours to keep up the fire. It 
 takes four men one day to discharge it. The charging is 
 done by the company, as it must be carefully done, but the 
 discharging, as it requires no supervision, is done by contract. 
 The fire is kept up ninety-six hours, and during this time 
 eighteen cords of wood are burned for 100 tons of ore. The 
 wood costs from four to six dollars a cord. The ore is dis- 
 charged twelve hours after the fire is drawn ; twenty-four 
 hours afterwards the soot is taken out. 
 
 The mercury commences to condense fourteen to sixteen 
 hours after the furnace is lit. If the ore is very rich it 
 sometimes commences to condense in eight hours. It ap- 
 pears first in condenser No. 1. In Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, it loins 
 for ten hours ; after this it runs in Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. It ap- 
 pears in No. 7 on the second day, after which it ceases to 
 run in the first four condensers, but continues to run in all 
 the others. The greater part collects in Nos. 9, 10, and 11. 
 Before the fire is drawn, half of all the mercury is condens- 
 ed, which is in about forty hours, gradually diminishing 
 until it ceases to condense. A small amount of mercury 
 still runs, however, the flow being kept up by the dripping 
 from the walls. From the bottom of each of the condens- 
 ers there are small pipes leading into an outside trough, to 
 allow any mercury that forms to run immediately into the 
 gutter, from which it is discharged into the reception basin. 
 The iron doors which close the entrance to the brick con- 
 densers have been given up, except for the first four or five 
 chambers, and are now replaced by ordinary glass window- 
 frames 3x3 feet, with six panes of glass. It is found that 
 there is a material difference in the condensation since they 
 have been adopted. The condensers made of wood and 
 glass, which were patented in May, 1874, are in successful 
 operation here. They are certainly much cheaper, and it 
 would seem a much better condenser, and less likely to get 
 out of repair than the iron ones used elsewhere. This kind 
 of condenser requires no water, and is, therefore, applicable 
 everywhere. The want of water in many places in Califor- 
 nia is often a serious drawback to the working of the ores. 
 Four such condensers are at work at New Almaden. Each 
 one has a volume of 2640 cubic feet, and 1196 square feet of 
 condensing surface, or altogether 10,560 cubic feet volume, 
 and 4784 square feet of surface. They cn:it only $1500, 
 which is the smallest cost for any such amount of condens- 
 ing surface known. If they work as well as they promise they 
 will take the place at least of half the iron or brick condensers. 
 The soot is collected in the same way as at Knoxville. That 
 collected from four charges gave 18 flasks of mercury. The 
 same four charges produced 474 flasks. The soot condenses 
 in all the condensers from No. 4 on; the most of it collects 
 in 10, 12, and 14, or about in the middle. On an average 
 .aboutalime-barrelful per week is collected from each con- 
 denser. One man does the whole cleaning up. The soot 
 was formerly on an inclined plane, and stirred and slightly 
 rubbed with a wooden hoe. A certain quantity of quick- 
 silver separated and ran out into a vessel prepared for it, but 
 left a very large quantity still remaining in the soot, which 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 151 
 
 was afterwards treated with lime. This method, which is in 
 general use and takes a great deal of time, has been given 
 up here. The soot is now put into a hemispherical boiler 
 about 3 feet in diameter; it is mixed with boiling water 
 from a vertical boiler, used for this purpose only. About 
 half of the bulk of soot is added in wood-ashes, and the 
 whole thoroughly stirred with an iron hoe for three-quarters 
 of an hour, when the separation is Qomplete. It is then 
 allowed to remain an hour and settle, and during this time 
 another boiler is worked. The mercury collects in the bot- 
 tom of the vessel, and flows out of a siphon-shaped pipe, so 
 that only the pure mercury is discharged. The water is 
 drawn oiT afterwards, and the soot remaining behind is 
 thrown into a heap, and when dry is placed upon the top of 
 the furnace near the flue where the flame passes, as it still 
 contains some sulphur. It is claimed that all the mercury 
 in the soot is separated in this way and with much less labor 
 than by the former method. This process was patented 
 October 4th, 1873. 
 
 It takes one man, working ten hours, four to five days to 
 work the soot of six furnaces. The fuel used here is wood, 
 or ordinary charcoal made from oak, or a mixture of char- 
 coal and ooke. It requires 75 lbs. of coke and charcoal mix- 
 ed to 3000 lbs. of ore and adobes, or equal quantities in 
 bulk. This furnace, as used here and at Knoxville, must 
 be considered as a very great improvement on the old Idria 
 furnaces, as there are no arches in the ore-chamber which 
 are likely to break down without warning. 
 
 The method of charging large and small ores and arrang- 
 ing air-channels by means of adobes prevents the charge 
 from packing, and gives all the space which is required for 
 the circulation of the air and heat, and allows of using a 
 poorer ore than could be otherwise used. The labor of 
 making the adobes, which is, however, only $5 the thousand, 
 must be regarded as a necessary expense, as the furnace 
 could not be run without them ; as the expense of making 
 the air-channels of large pieces of ore would be too great, 
 and there would be no certainty that they would last if so 
 made. The adobes, however, do not change their form, and 
 the air-channels once made remain as they were made in 
 the charge. The making of adobes is, however, one of the 
 expenses to be avoided in the furnace of the future, and the 
 most careful attention now being given to the construction 
 of furnaces which will allow of the fine ore being treated as 
 it comes from the screens. Although this furnace, with its 
 expensive, cumbersome method of condensation, is a great 
 improvement on the old Idria furnace, it is destined to dis- 
 appear, and in a few years will probably be cited as one of 
 the curiosities of metallurgical history. 
 
 Continuous Furnaces.— The continuous furnaces m 
 use are all of them shaft furnaces, which do not differ es- 
 sentially in the principles of their construction, though there 
 are wide differences of detail, which are more or less essential. 
 The California practice is essentially different from that of 
 other countries, in that all of these furnaces are provided 
 with fans placed bevond the condensing apparatus, which 
 not only do away with the necessity of high chimneys, but 
 give such an absolute control of the draft that there is no 
 fear of the fumes escaping. The draft is always toward the 
 interior of the furnace, so that even if an aperture m the 
 furnace or the condensing apparatus should remain open, 
 no fumes escape, and consequently cases of salivation are 
 very rare. As the velocity of the fan can always be changed, 
 the draft can be regulated at will to suit either the wording 
 of the furnace, or the irregularities of the weather, ihe 
 furnace is of less consequence than the condensation ap- 
 paratus, though its aim should always be to extract the naetal 
 at the lowest possible temperature, and to require the least 
 possible preparation of the ore. It is consequently on the 
 condensation apparatus rather than on the furnace that the 
 greatest number of experiments have been made ; Providing 
 that the furnaces are continuous, the one which has the best 
 condensation apparatus will be the best. There are a num- 
 ber of these furnaces used in California, all of which I believe 
 are patented. I saw, however, but two of them, the l^uck- 
 hart and the Knox, working. . . „ 
 
 Luokhart Furnace.— The Luckhart furnace is, in all 
 respects, similar to the Swedish ftxrnace for roasting iron 
 ores. It consists of a shaft with a fire-box, with openings in 
 the two sides only, which goes through the furnace from one 
 
 side to the other. It is covered with a cast-iron rouf slanting 
 from the centre towards both sides of the furnace, so that 
 the charge is divided as it passes down, and the heat is also 
 divided as it passes up. The sides of the furnace are pierced 
 with holes to observe what is passing in its interior, and to 
 watch the progress of the charge. The discbarge door is 
 sufficiently far below the grate to insure the ore remaining 
 long enough in the furnace to have all of its volatile contents 
 distilled, and to be sufficiently cool to be discharged with 
 perfect safety into an open wagon at the bottom. By this 
 system, which is common to all the continuous furnaces, the 
 inconveniences arising from the discharge of hot ore .not 
 entirely worked are avoided. The Luckhart furnace used 
 at the Sonoma mine, is capable of treating 15 to 18 tons of 
 ore and adobes a day. The richest ore treated has not con- 
 tained over 10 per cent. The serpentine containing the 
 mercury crops out near the furnace, and is verj' much de- 
 composed. The rock is soft and crumbly, and where it is 
 exposed to the weather, its ddbris has been washed away 
 so that the soil for some distance from the outcrop is com- 
 posed of its detritus, more or less mixed with free mercury, 
 and a very little undecomposed cinnabar. Where the rock 
 has been mined so as to reach the undecomposed parts of it, 
 it is found to contain in the upper portions more or less free 
 mercury mixed with the cinnabar, but nine-tenths of all the 
 ore treated consist of dirt taken from the surface of the 
 ground, which is made into adobes by Chinamen. The 
 adobes contain from one-quarter to one-half per cent. The 
 rock does not contain more than one and a half per cent. 
 The adobes are made by mixing the earth with water to a 
 thick paste, and then putting it into wooden moulds 5 by 
 4} inches, and 4 inches high. The thick mud is simply 
 placed in a frame containing 8 of these moulds, patted with 
 a shovel, the wooden frame drawn up, and the adobes left 
 to dry in the sun ; it takes about two days to dry them. 
 When ready for use, they weigh about eight pounds each, 
 and are a little larger than an ordinary brick. One China- 
 man can make a thousand in a day. The men are paid 
 $1.25, and find themselves It takes two Chinamen, at H.25, 
 to pick as much dirt as six men can use for making adobes. 
 The furnace is charged by means of a circular hopper 22 
 inches in diameter, and 26 deep ; 5 to 6 of these hoppers full 
 make a charge, and 5 such charges make a ton. The hopper 
 is covered over with a hydraulic cover for safety, but even 
 when it is off, the draft is so strong that there is no discharge 
 of mercurial vapors from the top of the furnace, as I assured 
 myself by removing the cover and having the charge wilh- 
 drawn below the hopper. The furnace consumes one and a 
 half cords of wood a day, which comprises all the fuel used 
 in the works. The wood is usually oak, and is worth $3 a 
 cord. About 15 tons of ore a day are treated. Most of the 
 ore is discharged from the bottom of the furnace black, some 
 of the last of a discharge is occasionally red-hot; it is 
 drawn about every hour and a quarter into iron wagons, 
 which hold about half a ton. There are 7 men engaged in 
 making adobes, and there is one Chinaman and one en- 
 gineer on each shift of twelve hours at the furnace; the 
 Chinaman is paid $1.50, and finds himself, the engineer is 
 paid $65 a month. The engineer helps the Chinaman, who 
 draws the charge and dumps it, and charges the furnace and 
 puts in the fuel. In addition to the two helpers, there is 
 one man engaged continually in chopping wood. The total 
 cost of treating the ore is one dollar per ton. 
 
 The condensing apparatus consists of three sheet-iron 
 cylinders five feet apart, which are 14 feet high, six feet in 
 diameter. The vapors pass from the furnace through a pipe 
 about 20 feet long, in at the top, and out at the bottom of 
 the condenser. A blower is placed just beyond the last 
 condenser, which is three feet in diameter, and makes 100 
 to 120 revolutions a minute. If there is much fine stuff not 
 made into adobes charged into the furnace, it must be run 
 faster. The engine used is twelve horse-power, but six would 
 answer for a single furnace. Just beyond it is a wooden box, 
 six feet high, 12 feet long, and eight feet wide, into which 
 the blower discharges. This box has a partition in the cen- 
 tre, which goes to within two feet of the bottom, to break 
 the current. From this box there is a flue two feet square, 
 and 100 feet long, ending in a wooden chimney 20 feet high. 
 Around the top of the condensing cylinders there is a lead 
 pipe one inch in diameter, pierced with small holes about 
 
152 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 three inches apart. When there is a plenty of water it is 
 allowed to flow continuously from this pipe, and discharges 
 itself over the outside of the cylinder, thus cooling it. When 
 there is a lack of water it is allowed to flow only over the last 
 condenser. The pipes which connect the cylinders have in 
 their interior a partition about two feet long, and on them a 
 considerable amount of soot collects. The bottom of the 
 cylinders incline towards the centre, and from here a pipe 
 leads to an iron kettle on the outside two feet in diameter, 
 which is kept constantly full of water. A large quantity of 
 soot collects on the sides of the condensing apparatus. A 
 little of it constantly falls, and is washed out into the iron 
 basin by the condensed moisture, which is but slightly acid, 
 as there is but little cinnabar in the ore. About one flask of 
 mercury a day is collected from the first two condensers. 
 About one-half of this comes from the second. From the 
 third about a flask a month is collected. The cylinders are 
 provided with doors, and the furnace is stopped once in 
 three weeks to clean out the soot, which is collected in 
 kettles. About ten flasks of mercury will collect from the 
 soot after some stirring ; the rest is put into an iron pan, 
 nine feet by three, with a gutter in the centre. The pan is 
 set at an angle of 20^, and gently heated to about 120° F. ; 
 it is then mixed with lime or ashes and stirred. The mer- 
 cury flows readily from it, and about 70 per cent, of its 
 mercury contents is collected in this way. The rest is made 
 into adobes and treated in the furnace. The more or less 
 acid water which is constantly flowing into the basin outside 
 of the condenser, as it runs off carries away some light mer- 
 cury and soot. This is conducted to a wooden tank, 12 feet 
 long, six feet wide, and four feet deep, where it collects and 
 gives a product which contains considerable mercury, which 
 is treated as soot. The soot comes from the basins, the 
 wooden tanks, and sometimes a very little is taken from the 
 blower cylinders. This soot gets poorer as it is further from 
 the furnace. The richest contains 60 per cent, of mercury 
 and the poorest about 3. The product of the works is about 
 25 to 50 flasks of mercury a month. The condensation at 
 these works seemed nearly perfect. The manager stated to 
 me that he had exposed a |20 gold piece for six weeks from 
 the top of the wooden chimney, and that he not only found 
 it there at the end of that time, but entirely unaffected by 
 mercury. There is so little sulphur in the ore that the sheet 
 iron does not seem to have been acted upon to any great ex- 
 tent. With this system of high cylinders with a bottom 
 converging towards the centre, there seems to be but little 
 opportunity for the action of the acid, and with a thick cast- 
 iron bottom there seems to be no reason why it should not 
 answer quite well. It would seem, however, that a few large 
 compartments could not give as good results as a greater 
 number of smaller ones, as a perfect condensation requires a 
 maximum of surface, and does not depend so directly upon 
 volume, though the amount of soot and mercury collected 
 in the wooden box and in the last condenser here seem to 
 show that in this ca^e, at least, owing probably to the very 
 small product of the furnace, the condensation was quite 
 perfect. 
 
 Knox Purnaoe.— At Knoxville, beside the Idria fur- 
 naces, there were, in August, 1874, at the Redington mine, 
 two Knox furnaces in the course of construction, and two 
 in work, which treated 25 tons of ore each in twenty-four 
 hours, and have been running since January, 1874. During 
 the years 1874 and 1875, two other furnaces have been con- 
 structed, making six in all, which treat together from 900 to 
 1000 tons of ore a week. Before the use of these Knox fur- 
 naces, and while the modified Idria furnaces were the only 
 ones in use at these works, all the ore had to be dressed up 
 to five per cent. Now ore yielding not more than 1 to 1^ 
 per cent, as it comes from the mine, is treated, and Mr. Knox 
 claims that he can treat profitably ore containing not more 
 than i per cent. A furnace about to be constructed is to be 
 adapted to treat fine ore exclusively, and it is expected, if 
 this furnace works successfully, to give up making adobes 
 altogether and treat the fine ore here, and if the modified 
 Idria furnaces are still retained, to treat in them only the 
 large and medium-sized ores. 
 
 The Knox furnace(Fig3. 1,3,4 and 5) is a shaft furnace with 
 a fireplace upon the side. The total height of the furnace 
 is 39 feet. The bottom of the fireplace is 17 feet 6 inches 
 from the bottom of the furnace, so that the fire itself is 
 
 about in the middle of the shaft. The furnace is rectangular 
 in shape. At the top it is two feet square ; it continues for 
 two feet at this size, and then widens out on one side, until 
 at the depth of four feet it attains the width of seven feet. 
 While in the other direction it continues straight for a depth 
 of ten feet, and then increases gradually until it becomes 
 seven feet at the fireplace. At this point there are two 
 chambers, Z and Z', Fig. 5, arranged in the masonry, on one 
 side for the fireplace, and on the other, the space for the in- 
 troduction of the pipe U', which carries off" the fumes. At 
 this point, which is 17 feet 6 inches from the top, there 
 commence a series of six retreating arches, which support 
 the masonry of the furnace, four of which retreat two feet six 
 inches on either side. The two others which are above are 
 much smaller, and reach to within three feet of the top of 
 the furnace. At the fireplace the furnace is seven feet 
 square. The shaft continues to the bottom on the fireplace 
 side of the same size. On the other side it contracts equally 
 upon both sides, so that at the bottom, X Y, where the ore 
 discharges, the width is only two feet. The fireplace follows 
 the retreating arches with a width of 36 inches to the top of 
 the second arch, and then diminishes to 30 at the top of 
 the third, and continues so to within 3 ft. 6 in. of the 
 top of the furnace. Between each of these arches, on 
 both sides of the furnace, there are openings six inches 
 wide, and the whole width of the arch. The aspiration of 
 the blower draws the flame from the fireplace Z to the 
 chamber Z' on the opposite side. The heat of the fire- 
 place is always sufficient to keep it at a dull-red. This con- 
 struction of the fireplace is far too complicated. These 
 retreating arches are liable to be worn by the ore, though 
 not very rapidly, but are quite rapidly affected by the fire 
 and the gases. Exactly the same effect might be brought 
 about by the much simpler construction of having the fire- 
 place entirely outside of the furnace. As originally con- 
 structed the furnace was quite different. It was 24x42 
 inches at the top, and continued for two feet at this size 
 and then gradually widened by a curve upon one side until at 
 a depth of seven feet from top it was seven feet six inches 
 wide ; it continued to the bottom of the fireplace at this 
 width, and then gradually diminished until it was two feet 
 at the discharge. On the other side, at a depth of two feet 
 from the top, it widened to three feet, and continued at this 
 width to the top of the arch, then followed the retreating 
 arches down to the bottom of the fireplace, where it was 
 seven feet, and continued at this size to the discharge. 
 There were only three openings between the arches, and it - 
 was found that this was insuflBcient, and the two small 
 arches above were introduced to increase the heat and at- 
 tack the ore higher up. The fireplace is so arranged that it 
 receives air which enters at the bottom of the furnace and 
 passes round it through a series of channels Y, so that 
 before entering the fireplace, il is heated by the walls of the 
 furnace, and thus effects a small saving in fuel, so that the 
 furnace may be said to be in some respects a hot-air furnace. 
 The masonry of the furnace was formerly made six feet 
 thick, and it is now made eight feet. It is braced by ten 
 large wooden beams, which are held together by iron bolts, 
 and as the furnace is double, are strengthened by three up- 
 rights of the same size, also clamped together by bolts which 
 pass entirely through the masonry furnace. By the en- 
 largement of the furnace in the centre the ore as it comes 
 to the point where it is to receive the highest temperature 
 is made suddenly to spread out, so that each particle of it 
 comes in contact with heat, and is in no danger of fusing. 
 The flames are made to traverse through the six openings 
 between the arches, which are six inches in height, to the 
 chamber on the opposite side of the furnace, into which all 
 the fumes are carried by the draft. 
 
 The cubic contents of the furnace are calculated in such a 
 way as to be capable of containing about 75 tons of ore, but 
 as only one ton of treated ore is drawn from the bottom of 
 the furnace every hour its capacity is 24 tons in twenty-four 
 hours, so that every ton of ore will remain in the furnace at 
 least three days. When, however, the proportion of very 
 fine ore becomes large, or when the ore is wet, the amount 
 that can be treated in twenty-four hdure will be reduced to 
 12 to 16 tons per day. In the case of a large quantity of 
 fine ore it is jjroposed to remedy this to some extent by 
 charging wood in small pieces with the ore. This serves to 
 
Missing Page 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 153 
 
 some extent the purpose of keeping the ore opeu, so as to 
 allow free passage to the heat through the ore, and at the 
 same time creates a source of heat within the charge, so that 
 it will be partially dried, and not pack as it comes down in 
 front of the fireplace. The chamber for the outlet of the 
 vapor is underlaid with a very heavy cast-iron plate, in 
 order to prevent any possible condensation or absorption of 
 the vapor at that point. The .pipe U' for the outlet of gas 
 is made of cast-iron, is 18 inches in diameter, sixteen feet in 
 height, as it enters the condensation-chambers U. It pro- 
 ject two feet from the furnace before it turns down ; at 
 the elbow there is a man-hole for cleaning the pipe. Just 
 above the outlet pipe a cast-iron door is arranged, so as to 
 observe, what is passing in the interior of the furnace on the 
 side. Two of tne furnaces were built in one structure on 
 account of economy in constructing and running them. 
 They are charged with two-thirds to three-quarters me- 
 dium, and one half to one quarter of fine ore. Adobes are 
 never used in these furnaces. 
 
 The charge is introduced by means of an automatic iron 
 wagon, which contains 18 cubic feet of ore, which is equiv- 
 alent to about a ton when it is moderately heaped. If the 
 ore is very light, however, the amount contained may be 
 somewhat less than this. When the capacity of the furnace 
 is given in tons, that number of carloads is intended to be 
 expressed. The wagon runs upon rails, and is shoved by 
 the charger to the top of the furnace, where the rim of the 
 wagon first strikes a lever attached to a wire rope, which 
 supports the cover of the furnace, which throws off the 
 cover, then a projection on the body of the wagon throws it 
 to one side. The workman then pulls out a pin in the 
 wagon, which discharges the ore into the furnace. As soon 
 as the ore is discharged the weight of the furnace top and 
 lever drives the car back, when the cover drops and closes 
 the furnace. The weight of the charge holds the wagon in 
 place only long enough for the car to empty itself. The 
 workman shoves the empty car back far enough to be out 
 of the way, covers the furnace top with ashes, and prepares 
 a new charge. 
 
 There are fifteen men breaking and sorting the ore, but 
 one man does the whole charging for both furnaces. The 
 fuel used here and at the Manhattan works is the most 
 ordinary oak brush, which is cut by the company and 
 brought one-quarter of a mile. It costs about $4 a load, 
 which is supposed to be equal to about a cord of good wood. 
 The reason for the use of brushwood is, that during the 
 fommer an unlimited supply of it can be had at a short 
 distance from the furnace, both at the Manhattan works and 
 at Knoxville. It is much more easily cut and carried than 
 wood, and it is a cheap fuel in the summer. As this supply 
 fails in the winter, and teaming is more difficult, wood is 
 used at this season. A sheet-iron trough, 3 feet long and 2 
 feet square, is hung before the fireplace door. This trough 
 is made to fit the fireplace door, which is counterbalanced 
 and rises vertically. The brush is cut to the length ot the 
 trough and is packed into it with a pitchfork, the fireplace 
 door is then raised, and the brush shoved in with the fork 
 This brush is used green, immediately after cutting. It 
 flames very readilv and makes a quick hot fire, it is 
 charged about every half hour. It takes 2 J cords of good 
 wood to do the work of the furnace in twenty-four hours, or 
 two loads of brush, which are considered as weighing one 
 ton. The wood is a mixture of white and lije oak, and 
 costs $5 a cord delivered at the furnace. A ton of the brush- 
 wood costs $5, and is sufiicient to treat about 24 tons of ore 
 The fireman draws the ore that has been treated and takes 
 care of the furnace. The charge is drawn from a long 
 narrow door X in the lower part ot the fiirnace, 15 feet below 
 the level of the fireplace and on the side next to it. Ihe 
 door is raised by a tackle, and is counterpoised. The dis- 
 charge is eflTecte-d by means of a hoe and a rake, attached to 
 handles 12 to 14 feet in length made "^ "^;=1^ P'P% ^he 
 discharging car is of iron, and is half the length of the 
 door, ft ii rolled to one side of the opening and stopped 
 with the handle of the rake, so as to be exactly oPPo^ite the 
 Ind of the door. The ore, which is black, though not cold 
 is drawn into it from one side of the charging door until the 
 wagonTs half full, it is then rolled to the other side and 
 fillfd from there. By the time the car is Ml the red-hot ore 
 Sppeari The car holds one ton of fiilly treated ore. One 
 
 load is drawn every hour from each furnace. The furnace 
 is charged above as soon as the charge is drawn. It is done 
 by the same men who also attend to the fire. 
 
 Each furnace requires two men and an aid per shift, so 
 that a single fiirnace requires six men to treat 24 tons in 
 24 hours. A double furnace requires only 8 men, who treat 
 
 5 tons in 24 hours. To run four furnaces, standing as in 
 Plate VIII, requires 10 men to treat 100 tons in 24 hours. 
 It therefore requires one day's labor to treat 4 tons, 6 tons, 
 or 10 tons in 24 hours, showing a gain of twice and a half 
 on all the labor by increasing the number of furnaces to 
 four. One engine and boiler will do all the work of four 
 furnaces, and three or four cords of wood is sufficient both 
 to burn the ore and to keep up steam to run the blowers. 
 
 The draft in the furnace is produced by four Root's 
 blowers, E, F, G, H, placed at the extremity of the con- 
 densing-chambers. The bottoms of the condensers U are 
 inclined at an angle of from 16° to 20°. They are joined, 
 as is shown in the drawings, at the top by means of curved 
 iron pipes U'- There are sixteen to each furnace as at 
 present constructed. It is proposed, however, to have four 
 sets of eleven, two sets of ten, and six out of line, making 
 twenty-two in all, or eighteen for each, when the four fur- 
 naces are finished. These condensers are 8 feet long, 2 feet 
 
 6 inches wide, and 5 feet high at one end and 6 feet at the 
 other. They are set on wooden frames on a cement floor. 
 The first condenser of the series nearest the furnace is set 
 30 inches, and the last one 37 inches above the ground. 
 Commencing with the next series, the first one farthest from 
 the furnace is 40 inches, and the last one of this series, 
 nearest to the furnace, is 47 inches above the ground. They 
 are made out of three castings, for greater ease of trans- 
 portation and repair. The top piece is 30 inches in depth 
 all round, is clamped to a projection of the bottom part. 
 The top is made in a shape of a pan, and holds water to the 
 depth of 2 inches. When there is plenty of water it is made 
 to discharge over the top, so as to run down the sides of the 
 condensers, but when water is scarce it simply rests upon 
 the top. At the Manhattan works, which were the first that 
 used the Knox furnace, the condensers are only half the 
 height of those used elsewhere. They have been in constant 
 use for five years, and are nearly worn out, though they may 
 last six months or a year longer. The ore here does not 
 contain much sulphur. These condensers will be replaced 
 by others like those in use here. A very small amount of 
 weak and impure sulphuric acid water commences to con- 
 dense in the third condenser, but is very abundant in the 
 eighth, and condenses through all the rest. It corrodes the 
 iron-work more or less rapidly. As this action takes place 
 chiefly on the bottom of the condenser, it is cast separate 
 and made several inches thick. As it has been foundthat 
 the action of the acid water is much less rapid when it is in 
 contact with a small quantity of air, it is allowed to collect 
 for about two inches in the bottom of the last eight con- 
 densers, and at this height is discharged from a wooden spout 
 into the mercury trough, and runs to the settling vats M, 
 which are 6 by 10 feet in size and 4 feet deep. A very small 
 amount of mercury is carried off by these streams and col- 
 lects in this tank. The very small amount so collected 
 shows that the condensation is very nearly perfect. Mer- 
 cury commences to collect in the first to the eighth con- 
 denser, and is discharged at once into a conduit by a small 
 opening in the bottom of the manhole door. It is collected 
 in the iron pots K, which contain about an inch of water, 
 to prevent the mercury from spattering as it falls into the 
 pot. The iron pipe leading from the trough into the mer- 
 cury pot is shaped like a goose-neck, so that the acid water 
 runs off above and the mercury collects clear. It is bottled 
 from these pots in the bottling-pot J. From the end of each 
 set of condensers a wooden box, E', F', Gr', H', 1500 feet 
 long and 30 inches square, carries the fiimes and smoke 
 away from the furnace. The boards of which it is made are 
 clamped against a wooden frame, on the inside by wooden 
 clamps, on the outside so that it can be taken apart at any 
 time. If nails were used they would very quickly corrode, 
 and the flue, if not clamped, would be likely to fall to pieces 
 at any moment. 800 feet from the furnace, on these long 
 flues, there is a chimney, I, which descends about 15 feet 
 high and 4 feet square. This chimney is filled with large 
 stones, and water is made to flow over them fi-om a pipe 
 
154 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 connecting with the reservoir S. This reduces the volume 
 of smoke, which in this way, is made quite cool at this point. 
 1000 feet from this point the four conduits are united into 
 one, and is continued to the top of the hill, half a mile off. 
 No mercury and no mercurial soot is found in any part of 
 this conduit, or in the flues leading to it. The object of it 
 is'to carry away the smoke, which in the winter time collects 
 in and around the furnace and annoys the men. It is quite 
 common to see the sickly cattle of the neighborhood collect 
 near the end of this conduit and remain there for half a day 
 at a time, so that they have to be driven from it. The 
 engines, W, which do the work of the two blowers are fifteen 
 horse-power, and are to be used to saw all the wood. It 
 takes 1 J cords of wood for the engines in twenty-four hours. 
 Nothing like fifteen horse-power is required for these 
 blowers, and only four will be required when the six fur- 
 naces are built. All the condensers are cleaned once a 
 week. This is done in the intervals between the charging 
 and discharging by taking off the manhole door and clean- 
 ing down the sides with a hoe, but without scraping them. 
 It takes two or three minutes to take out the soot from each 
 condenser. The soot is caught in an iron soot-bucket, which is 
 2 feet by 3 feet, and 18 inches deep, and is carried on a truck. 
 The soot from the first eight condensers only is rich enough to 
 treat ; that collected from the others is too poor to work, 
 and is put back into the furnace. The draft into the con- 
 densers is so strong that there is no danger that mercurial 
 vipora will escape, if not more than one condenser is open 
 at a time ; so that to prevent any possible accident they are 
 opened one by one. After one or two have been cleaned 
 the soot is worked up, and then the others are cleaned. By 
 dsing the work in this way times cm be selected when the 
 furnace is neither charging or discharging. The quantity of 
 soot which is produced is very variable, and depends entirely 
 upon how thoroughly the condensers are cooled, whether the 
 fire is slow or quick, upon the speed of the blower, and also 
 to some exteut upon the changes of the weather, so that the 
 quantity deposited in each condenser will vary at different 
 times. The same is true of the acid water ; and it some- 
 times happens that when the blower is run at the usual 
 speed, and everything else in the furnace is in the normal 
 condition, but the water has given out, that no acid water 
 will be deposited in the first six or eight condensers, the 
 heat, which is usually absorbed by the evaporation of the 
 water, being so great that they remain perfectly dry. 
 
 It takes from Monday to Friday to clean out and work 
 up all the soot, which is worked in the usual way with lime 
 on an inclined plane. On Saturday the conduit and spouts, 
 which get filled with mud, are cleaned, and the flasks are 
 filled with mercury collected during the week. In a charge 
 which gives 150 flasks per week, 40 flasks come from the 
 soot. The works are so arranged that two furnaces may be 
 run with one blower, or through one set of condensers ; and 
 this may become necessary when one of the blowers, or one 
 set of the condensers, have to be repaired. It is more diffi- 
 cult to keep the heat up under such circumstances, and a 
 smaller charge has to be put into each furnace. The diminu- 
 tion» of capacity will amount to from four to five car-loads 
 of ore in twenty-four hours. The two furnaces, B and 0, 
 will generally treat 50 tons of assorted ore in a day. They 
 have been run without repairs since January, 1874, and have 
 produced from 600 to 900 flasks a month, the variation 
 depending upon the richness of the ore. It is the intention 
 to make the trial of distilling all the soot in a retort, P. The 
 retort is built, but the trial had not at the time oi my visit 
 been made. At the Manhattan works the soot is worked up 
 in a retort to which a Liebig condenser, like Q, 10 feet long, 
 is attached. The condensing pipe is large enough to hold a 
 barrel of water at one time. The experiment is being made 
 here of working the soot mechanically. It is mixed with 
 lime and is put into an iron rocker, which has several motions, 
 and in which a rake works backwards and forwards. A 
 very large part of the mercury in the soot is collected in 
 this way by machine labor without necessarily having any 
 one to tend it. The rocker is run by the steam-engine of 
 the works. This machine is not yet perfected. "Working as 
 it did at the time of my visit, some of the mercury separated 
 is afterwards floured. This is a serious imperfection, but 
 is is expected will be shortly overcome The best men in 
 the works at Knoxville are always selected for the Knox 
 
 furnace. They work twelve hours, and are paid $40 for 30 
 days and board. If the men have families and occupy the 
 company's cottages they are allowed $20, as a commutation 
 for board, but they pay $7 J per month for rent. 
 
 California Works. — The California Quicksilver Works 
 also use the Knox furnace. They treat their own ore^ and 
 produce 26 flasks of 76J pounds of mercury a week. All 
 the ore passes over a coarse screen, so as to separate the 
 large pieces from the fine and small, which are separated by 
 other screens in the same shute. The larger pieces are 
 broken by hand. The fine ore which is rich enough is made 
 into adobes. One man mixes his dirt and makes 900 a day. 
 The poor fine ore is dressed by hand gigs, and six men treat 
 10 tons, and reduce it to one-eighth of its former capacity. 
 The enriched ore contains about five per cent, of mercury, 
 but a considerable quantity of cinnabar is lost in the tailings, 
 and it is doubtful whether the dressed ore pays for the labor 
 expended upon it. The men are paid 140 and board, which 
 equals $2 a day. The attempt was made here to treat the soot 
 in the arched chamber Z opposite the fireplace, but the gases 
 of the furnace contained so much free oxygen at this point, 
 that the result was the formation of a large quantity of sul- 
 phate of mercury, and the attempt was abandoned. The 
 works have been managed with so little care that the con- 
 densing-chambers, which have been used only 18 months, 
 are so corroded that they' will have to be taken out. Long 
 stalactites of acid 'sulphate of iron are hanging from them 
 in every direction, and the walls in some cases have been 
 entirely eaten through, or are so thin that they could be 
 easily pushed through with the finger. It is the intention 
 to replace the last eight condensers by brick chambers, 8 by 
 10, and 4 J feet high, with three partitions. When the iron 
 condensers are in good repair the soot is found in from the 
 third to the sixth, but now they are leaking it is found in 
 from the first to the third. The soot is drawn every week 
 from the first six condensers ; beyond the six they are cleaned 
 only once in three months. The soot collected in the first 
 six condensers is about six ordinary sugar barrels per week. 
 The quantity depends upon the sulphur in the ore, its damp- 
 ness, and other causes. 
 
 Good oak wood is $4| per cord. About two cords in twen- 
 ty-four hours are burned in the furnace. Brushwood is not 
 as cheap as other wood here, and is consequently not used. 
 There are five men in twenty -four hours about the furnace. 
 At night the fireman and engineer alone run it. In dis- 
 charging the furnace the engineer fills the wagon while the 
 furnaceman draws the charge down. In the daytime there 
 is a superintendent of the work, besides one man making 
 adobes. The miners are required to deliver the ore broken 
 and sorted. There are 100 men working in the mines. The 
 miners are paid $45 a month. The works have been run 
 constantly for 18 months without repairs, and have not 
 stopped more than three weeks during the whole of this 
 time for any cause. The first Knox furnaces constructed 
 cost between $35,000 and $40,000 each. They were built 
 when wages were high, and labor was difficult to get. The 
 furnaces since constructed have cost about $25,000 each. 
 There are 170,000 brick in the furnace beside the stone, but 
 nearly half the cost of construction is for iron work. Be- 
 low is a statement of the cost, at the Redington mine, of 
 treating the ore in the modified Idria furnace and the Knox 
 furnace. 
 
 Cost per ton of reducing ore in the modified Idria fur- 
 naces, Nos. 1 and 2, at the Redington mine, Napa County, 
 California, in 1874, taking one week's run both furnaces : 
 
 6H oords wood, at 8,5, . , $27 50 
 
 36 days. Furnace foreman and his assistanr, , ... 88 00 
 
 20 " Laborers charging furnace, . . . . 38 00 
 
 12 " Laborers discharging furnace, . . 23 15 
 
 6 " Laborers worliing aoot, ... . 14 05 
 
 8 '* Firemen, . . . 14 65 
 
 9000 adobes, at $5 per thousand, 45 00 
 
 Total charge of 200 tons ore in these two furnaces cost, : $249 35 
 
 Average cost \t6r ton for reduction, . . i 25 
 
 Cost per ton of reducing ore in the Knox furnace at the 
 Redington mine, furnaces Nos. 3 and 4, taking one week's 
 run of both furnaces : 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 155 
 
 42 days' labor, engineer, fireman, soot men, etc., . , . $8106 
 
 n]4 cords wood, at 1(5 87 60 
 
 1 gallon oil tor lamps, , 75 
 
 1 gallon lard oil for engine . . 1 20 
 
 Total cost of one week's run . $170 61 
 
 Average cost per day for reducing 60 tons, . . . 24 36 
 Average cost per ton, ... 60 
 
 The difference between $1.25, which is the cost of treat- 
 nlent in the modified Idria furnace, and $0.50 the cost of 
 treatment in the Knox furnace, is suflSciently great not only 
 to warrant the use of much poorer ore in the latter furnace, 
 but to call seriously into discussion whether it is not worth 
 while to abandon the old style of furnaces altogether. 
 Below is given an estimate of the principal items of ex- 
 pense of building one Knox & Osborn quicksilver furnace, 
 in October, 1874 : 
 
 60 to 75 M red brick. 
 
 12 M firebrick. 
 
 Stone for iouadation, walls, etc. 
 
 1 cast iron lintel weight snno lbs. 
 
 1 cast iron draw-door frame, weight, 650 " 
 
 1 set draw plates, cast iron, weight, 3500 " 
 
 18 cast-iron condensers, complete, weight each, . . 6500 " 
 
 1 fire-door and frame, weight, 650 " 
 
 1 flue-chamber plate and door, weight 1000 " 
 
 6 braces, weight 3000 " 
 
 1 blower-box, weight . . 2500 " 
 
 2 pots, etc., weight, . . 500 " 
 
 1 set grate-bars, weight, . . . 1200 " 
 
 1 blower, . . $500 " 
 
 Blower pipes ... ... 50 
 
 1 retort and condenser 600 
 
 lOOO feet wooden flues, cost per running foot 1 
 
 1 engine, with pulleys and shafting, 8 x 12 cylinder. 
 2boiTer*i (12x3). 
 
 35 square timbers, 12 inches by 12 inches, and 21 feet 
 
 long. 
 60 round iron rods, 1^ inch diameter, 23 feet long, 
 
 lO-inch washers on both ends. 
 
 2 cars, railroad tracks, etc. 
 
 It takes six or eight masons, with their helpers, between 
 three and four months, to build one of these furnaces. The 
 cost might t>e made less by making more than one-half of 
 the condensers of wood. They might answer even nearer 
 the furnace, if there was a certainty of always having a large 
 supply of water, so that they could be kept constantly wet. 
 
 Co=t of labor would be about, $5,000 
 
 Cost of building the furnaces 3 and 4, and condensersnow 
 
 in use .... 60,000 
 
 Below is given Knox & Osborn's estimated cost of a 
 quicksilver furnace, with a capacity of 75 tons, or to work 
 24 tons every twenty -four hours : 
 
 Cast iron in furnaces, 17,000 lbs., at 6 ets. per lb $1,020.00 
 
 Cast iron in condensers. 91,000 lbs., at 6 cts. per lb., . . 5,496.00 
 Work, planing and fitting, . . ... $9'i.00 
 
 1 conical charging car, . 
 
 The cost of the half size furnace is about, .... 
 The cost of the three-quarter size furnace is about. 
 
 .$9,000 
 . 14,000 
 
 . 150.00 
 
 1 discharging~car . . . . 125.00 
 
 1 Knox pat nt i-uction blower, ... . . . 400.00 
 
 2 boxes b'rings t) caulk condensers, . . . .10.00 
 
 3 iron kettles, 120 gallons each 100 00 
 
 Forging bolt ends, and nuts and screwing, . . . 70.00 
 
 Gross amount of foundry bill, 
 20,000 feet of lumber, at $20 per M, . . 400.C0 
 
 80,000 red brick, at $10 ner M, . . . . 800,00 
 
 7000 firebrick, at $60 per M 420.00 
 
 4O00 lbs. wrought iron, at $5 per M, 200.00 
 
 1 set blocks and fall (watch tackle) 6 inches, . lO.iio 
 
 2 iron sheaves, l^x 6 inches, . . . 
 
 4 iron side pulleys, 
 
 40 feet chain >.i-inoh wire, 
 
 10 kegs nails and spikes, at $60 per keg, . . . 
 
 $7,461.00 
 
 6.00 
 
 2.00 
 
 2 00 
 
 46.00 
 
 Labor, erecting furnace, 
 
 Boiler and engine, four horse-power, 
 
 1,884.00 
 
 . $2,000.00 
 . 800 00 
 
 $12,145.00 
 
 In this estimate nothing is included for grading site, 
 drayage, freight, hauling brick, sand, clay, rook, and timber, 
 to the furnace; nor for the sheds to cover the structures. 
 As the different sized furnaces would require about the same 
 amount, as an approximation, we may say, that $3000 would 
 cover an extreme case, and $1500 would suffice for a very 
 favorable one. In a position where water for a four horse- 
 power can be had, a saving in the first cost is effected, and a 
 greater saving in the current expenses of running. There 
 Ire two sizes of this furnace, a half size, or 12-ton furnace 
 which easily treats 15 tons, and has, when crowded worked 
 17 tons. The full size, or 24-ton furnace, crowded in the 
 same way, will work 30 to 34 tons. 
 
 Both these sizes have been built within the year 1874, and 
 they are giving perfect satisfaction. 
 
 The following is the estimated cost of running or opera- 
 ting the Knox & Osborn furnace, at the Manhattan works, 
 per day of twenty-four hours, when run by steam power : 
 
 For an average ore for 24 hours, 1% cords of wood (oak), at $4.50 per 
 cord,* $5.63 
 
 2 men on each watch of twelve hours, or 4 men, $50 per month, and 
 board, $2-53 per day, . . . 10 12 
 
 Oil for light and engine, ... . . 60 
 
 Cost per day for reducing 24 tons of ore, . .... $16.25 
 Cost per ton, . 67.j:^ 
 
 With regard to these systems of working it may be said 
 that the advantage of the retort system is its economy of 
 installation. It does not appear that there is any gain in 
 yield, though this is claimed for it, while the expenses for 
 fuel and labor are necessarily maximum, of the amount which 
 can be treated at any given time must be considered as a 
 minimum. The cost of repair is also a maximum, since the 
 iron of the retort is rapidly attacked by the sulphur of the 
 ore, which destroys them, so that a larger number of them 
 must always be kept on hand. The danger of accidents 
 from salivation is at a maximum, even when the precaution 
 of using a blower, as at the Missouri mine, is taken, and 
 there seems to be no good reason why such furnaces should 
 not go out of use, altogether. There is evidently a limit 
 beyond which the speed of the blowers, which are so charac- 
 teristic of California practice, cannot be increased. Not 
 only is a large surface necessary to a perfect condensation, 
 but a certain amount of time is quite as indispensable to 
 cool the volatilized material, in order to have it condense. 
 If, therefore, the condensing surface be a maximum, but the 
 velocity of the current too great, it is evident that there will 
 be a loss of mercury, which will be exhausted out of the 
 condensers by the rapidity of the current. The proper speed 
 of the blower will vary at different times, and with the 
 obstruction caused to the passage of the air, by the kind of 
 condensers used, and by the character of the ore charged in 
 the furnace. It is evident that in a given furnace, the ore 
 may be charged so fine, that it will pack in such a way, that 
 no speed of the blower will draw the furnace's gases through 
 it, or so large that a few revolutions per minute will be- all 
 that will be required. Between these two extremes there is 
 a mean, which can only be determined by the judgment of 
 the person in charge of the furnace, and it is often precisely 
 this judgment and skill, which may or may not have been 
 acquired by long experience with a process, which makes an 
 inferior process give good results in one place, and the want 
 of it which makes a good process fail in another. Such ex- 
 amples occur throughout the whole range of metallurgical 
 industry, and not in the metallurgy of mercury only. 
 
 The objections to masonry condensers are generally the 
 penetrating power of the mercury, which is so great that it 
 not only impregnates th.e vertical stone or brick walls of the 
 chamber!?, but infiltrates into the ground to such an extent 
 that on taking up the foundations of some old furnaces at 
 New Almaden, about the year 1863, mercury was found to 
 have penetrated through the foundation, and the clay 
 beneath it to the bed rock a depth of 25 to 30 feet, and over 
 2000 flasks were recovered in a single year from the foun- 
 dations of two furnaces. This loss is now prevented by 
 building the condensing chambers upon double arches, into 
 which plates of iron are built so as to cut off the flow of 
 mercury, and turn it inwards towards an iron basin into 
 which it may be seen to fall in intermittent streams every 
 few minutes. At the time of my visit to New Almaden a 
 large shaft had been dug beside one of the furnaces, and at 
 the depth of 30 feet, it was still profitable to wash the dirt 
 in order to collect the mercury from it. In 1874 suflScient 
 mercury was obtained from the brick ore-chamber, and three 
 condensing-chambers of a furnace, and from the dirt around 
 the structure, to more than pay for the new shaft fiirnace 
 and condensers. For the construction of condensers pricks, 
 though porous, are much preferable to and I think less 
 porous than the sandstone used in the old Idria furnaces at 
 
 * Of this one cord would fire the furnace, one-quarter the boiler. Ores 
 rich in sulphur will not require over one-half cord of wood in twenty- 
 four hours. 
 
156 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the Eedington Works. Whenever repairs in the condensers 
 at Knoxville have been made with brick, they have stood 
 while the sandstone next to the bricks has been worn away. 
 It is evident that what is required is some substance that 
 will be impervious to mercury. Bricks, however, are not so. 
 Every brick or piece of sandstone taken out of a condenser 
 must be considered and treated as a very rich ore of mer- 
 cury, or whenever broken myriads of globules of metallic 
 mercury are seen scattered through it. Iron is better than 
 brick, in that it does not absorb mercury, but it is rapidly 
 corroded by the sulphuric acid wljich condenses. Wood is 
 much cheaper, but cannot be used near the furnace on ac- 
 count of the heat. At a certain distance from it, it is more 
 or less rapidly acted on by the condensing sulphuric acid. 
 It seems perfectly practicable to make such a combination 
 of wood and glass that will stand at a certain distance from 
 the fireplace, and by placing the condensers made of brick 
 near the furnace, and cutting them up into smaller struc- 
 tures so that they shall not retain the heat, or substituting 
 iron condensers with water cooling arrangements, for them 
 to arrange a good condensing apparatus. By using, for in- 
 stance, the Knox condensers together with the wood and 
 glass arrangement recently patented at Almaden, it would 
 seem that a much better condenser would be made than any 
 now in use.* In any case a few large compartments are not 
 so effective as the same volume distributed among a large 
 number of small ones. What is required to eifect a perfect 
 condensation is surface more than volume , and more espe- 
 cially sudden and frequent changes of the direction of the 
 current of volatilized material. With a furnace having only 
 a natural draft this was impracticable, but with a furnace 
 working by an exhaust fan, where obstacles can be intro- 
 duced within certain limits, it is only necessary to increase 
 the speed of the fan to get the necessary draft. There is, 
 however, evidently a limit of obstruction which cannot be 
 overstepped. There seem? to be a very decided advantage 
 in using an artificial fuel when it can be had ; European 
 experience has pronounced decidedly in favor of it. At 
 New Almaden a series of experiments were made during 
 the years 1873-4. with coke and charcoal, and a mixture of 
 both, but at the time of my visit no definite conclusion had 
 been arrived at. It would seem even advantageous under 
 certain circumstances to mix a certain amount of fuel with 
 the ore, especially when large amounts of fine ore not made 
 into adobes must be charged. It is evident that the fuel 
 which contains the least amount of moisture, if it is not 
 friable, will prevent the formation of a certain quantity of 
 soot, and as artificial fuels generally contain less moisture 
 than natural ones, there would probably be less acid con- 
 densed if they were used. There are places, however, where 
 the cost of making the artificial fuel would more than coun- 
 terbalance the advantage gained. 
 
 Every system in use, and some which are not, have their 
 supporters. When the date of the discovery of these depo- 
 sits in California is taken into consideration, it must be 
 confessed that more rapid strides have been made in the 
 metallurgy of quicksilver there than in Europe. There is, 
 however, much to be done. So little is known of what is 
 done, and the prices of the metal have been subjected to 
 such great fluctuations, that except in the case of the 
 wealthy companies, there has been but little encouragement 
 to experiment. The price of quicksilver in San Francisco 
 in August, 1874,' was $1.76 per pound. It is now 75 cents, 
 and has been in former years as low as 35 cents. Such 
 prices as these, if they should rule again, would compel al- 
 most all the small works to stop. The general feeling is 
 that every advantage must be taken of the present. Under 
 such circumstances the small works must wait to benefit by 
 the experiments and experience of the larger ones, if they 
 are not entirely ruined by the fluctuations in value before 
 they have the oppoitunity. 
 
 — CompUed/rom a papier by Prof. T. Egleaton, Trtiusacfions American 
 
 Institute of Mliiuig Eiir/uienrs. 
 
 '* While this paper is going through the press, Mr. 0. E. Liver- 
 more, of the Redington mine, writes that they have commenced to 
 use SIX or eight wooden condensers to t'aeh furnace. They are made 
 of seasoned red wood li inches thick, and of the same size and shaiie 
 as the iron ones. They are found to last at least equally as well, 
 and are far cheaper. 
 
 THE GOLD BLUFFS AND GOLD BEACHES 
 ON THE NORTH PACIFIC COAST. 
 
 MORE than thirty-one years have now elapsed since 
 the first discovery of gold in the beach sands on 
 this coast. This occurred at Gold Blufi" in 1850, 
 and led to the excitement which the following 
 spring carried a great many people to that point. Although 
 the most of these adventurei'S were disappointed in their 
 expectations, the existence of gold in considerable quantities 
 at that locality was not altogether a myth. The precious 
 metal was there, but it existed in a form and under con- 
 ditions that made it impossible for these people to gather it 
 with profit. So, after a few fruitless attempts at working 
 these deposits, the business was abandoned, the most of 
 these Argonauts returning to San Francisco, whence they 
 came, a few having made their way farther up the coast, or 
 crossing the mountains to the mines on Trinity River, then 
 just beginning to be heard of. The trouble with these beach 
 deposits was this : The gold which the surf threw up and 
 exposed to view at one time was covered with ma^^es of 
 barren sand or swept wholly away at another, its stay being 
 to brief to permit the waiting crowd, ill equipped for the 
 purpose, to secure more than an infinitesimal portion of it 
 at any one time. Then, but little of the gold that the sands 
 contained, could, by reason of its fineness and its being 
 coated with some greasy or gaseous substance, be saved. 
 And so Gold Blufi' was, for the time being, pretty much 
 deserted, and its name afterward classed with the tradi- 
 tionary humbugs of which there were all too many at that 
 day. But there were those who entertained the belief that 
 where there was so much gold, means could be devised for 
 saving at least sufficient to make the collecting of it re- 
 munerative. Of these hopeful ones enough remained to 
 form several small companies who pursued her^ the business 
 of gold gathering with tolerably good results, these parties 
 having stopped at the original Gold Blufi", and secured there 
 some of the best paying portions of the beach. 
 
 In course of time, however, the whole of the beach lying 
 in front of this bluff, some eight miles in extent, fell into 
 the hands of two companies, the one composed of two mem- 
 bers, Greenbaum & Chapman, and the other by some six or 
 eight persons, all practical miners. These companies 
 adopted the plan of gathering at low tide the richest por- 
 tions of the sand, and packing it on animals up beyond the 
 reach of high water, and there washing it in sluices. As 
 each of them owned four miles of beach it seldom happened 
 that they failed to find after a heavy surf, with a favorable 
 wind, some rich sand at one point or another along this 
 stretch of beach, and having grown expert at detecting 
 these deposits when present, and being withal well pro- 
 vided with the means for securing and removing them, 
 these companies made the business pay handsomely. But 
 the locality being remote and difiicnlt of approach, vessels 
 of any kind rarely ever touching and making no regular 
 landings there, only at long intervals have we been able 
 to hear much about the operations of these companies, 
 little exact information on the subject having, in fact, 
 ever reached the public ear. From Mr. Allen Heald, of 
 Oakland, who is familiar with this class of deposits, aud 
 who, not long since, visited Gold BluflT, traversing the beach 
 thence north, we have some recent and accurate infor- 
 mation from this isolated but interesting section of our 
 gold fields. Touching the history and operations of the two 
 companies mentioned, it seems that they or their successors 
 are still the only parties extensively engaged in gathering 
 and washing the auriferous sands at or near the old Gold 
 Bluff. The Greenbaum Company still consists of the two 
 members who originally composed it. The shares of the 
 other company hn.ving been bought up by Richard Furnald 
 and Solomon Hall, this property was afterwards sold to 
 Adson Adams, the real estate millionaire, of Oakland, Mr. 
 Heald having examined the ground and negotiated the sale 
 on behalf of Mr. Adams, who is now its sole owner. Each 
 of these estates vields on an average about $40,000 per year, 
 of which something like 65 per cent, consists of net profits. 
 As Mr. Adams paid but $50,000 for his purchase, he natu- 
 rally considers the bargain a good one. He has since. been 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 157 
 
 offered $100,000 for the mine, but declined to sell at any 
 such figure, believing it agood legacy to leave to its children. 
 Not only so — he finds the locality a pleasant summer resort, 
 and is, at this time, sojourning at Gold Bluff" with his 
 family. 
 
 The manner of conducting the business of gold gather- 
 ing at this point is as follows : After a heavy surf the super- 
 intendent of the mine rides along the beach as the tide 
 begins to ebb and carefully notes the condition of the sand, 
 watching for evidence of gold having been thrown up by the 
 waves. If he discovers that fresh deposits have been made 
 he signals the muleteers to that effect, who then rush down 
 their animals and pack out as much of the auriferous sand 
 as possible before the tide again comes in and puts a stop to 
 their work, covering up perhaps the rich streak with a heavy 
 layer of barren sand or possibly sweeping it away altogether. 
 It is a singular circumstance that when the surf comes 
 square on the beach the gold brought up by it is covered 
 under several feet of this barren sand, and that only when 
 the surf strikes the beach at some other angle, is the gold 
 left on the surface where it can be seen and readily gathered. 
 After being so collected, this rich sand is washed in sluices, 
 small streams of water having been brought in for the pur- 
 pose. For saving the gold only copper silvered plates are 
 used in the sluices, which are usually run with a light head 
 of water. 
 
 On the border of a small lagoon on the Greenbaum 
 ground, a short distance back from the beach, occurs a large 
 body of low-grade sand. This is run out on cars and washed 
 in an old-fashioned " Jenny Lind " torn, being a sluice of 
 one box widened out and supplied with a screen at the lower 
 end. At one time it was thought that this gold was brought 
 up out of the ocean, an opinion that some people still enter- 
 tain. But this is clearly a mistake. It came from the bluff 
 in the rear, which is made up of alternating strata of clay, 
 gravel, and sandstone, the gravel strata, three or four in 
 number, being all more or less auriferous. The action of the 
 waves has broken down this bluff, which varies from 100 to 
 500 feet in height, and released the gold ; the latter having 
 afterwards been by the same agency carried seaward at least 
 as far as low water mark. After a very heavy surf breaking 
 down, as sometimes happens, a portion of the bluff, the beach 
 below is sensibly enriched, the gold by this new addition 
 - being rendered somewhat coarser than before. This fact has 
 suggested the utility of employing powder for breaking 
 down and disintegrating these banks, an agent that will, no 
 doubt, some day be used for that purpose. While the sand 
 along this beach must under such steady and long-continued 
 working, necessarily suffer a gradual impoverishment, this 
 latter has not, as yet, proceeded far enough here to sensibly 
 . affect practical results, a fact due, it may be presumed, to the 
 great width of the beach at this point and to the replenish- 
 ment which the stock of workable material is constantly 
 receiving from the caving down of the banks above. Far- 
 ther north, where these favorable conditions did not exist, 
 the gold-bearing beaches have been so nearly exhausted, that 
 hardly any work is now being done, where from fifteen to 
 twenty-five years ago, thousands of men made good wages. 
 That the sand, which is constantly covered by the sea, is not 
 very rich has been proven by the trials made on it some 
 years ago with steam dredgers, none of which found gold 
 enough in it to warrant a continuance of these operations. 
 Each of the companies above mentioned employ from ten to 
 twelve men and about eighteen pack-animals the year round. 
 Operations are kept up with but little interruption, the men 
 being engaged a good part of the time, either in gathering 
 sand or washing it. "What time they are not so employed 
 is devoted to cultivating a patch of land in the neighbor- 
 hood, on which the companies raise some fruit, hay, and 
 vegetables for their own use. Adjoining the Adams claim, 
 which covers the upper or northern half of the beach, a 
 small company is washing these sands by the hydraulic 
 method, using a limited amount of water under a pressure 
 of eighty or ninety feet. From this point noith, clear into 
 Oregon, a distance of thirty to forty miles, very little in this 
 line'of mining is being done, though this was at one time along 
 miles and miles of the beach in the vicinity of Whisky Run 
 and the Coquille rivers, an active and profitable industry. 
 Here and there a small company is still to be seen rework- 
 ing the sands that have already been washed. In some in- 
 
 stances several times over, and always with remunerative 
 results, the first one or two washings having generally paid 
 very large wages. From Mr. Heald, who is himself a 
 successful miner, we learn that the present has been a 
 prosperous year with hydraulic miners along both the 
 Trinity and Klamath rivers, notwithstanding the water 
 season there, as elsewhere throughout California, has been 
 a very short one. Owing to its freedom from the vexatious 
 dSbris question and to the presence of good conditions gen- 
 erally, that region of country is strongly attracting the at- 
 tention of capitalists and others inclined to invest in this 
 branch of mining. Besides great quantities of good gravel, 
 the Klamath country is especially well situated as regards 
 water, which is not only abundant but can be brought upon 
 the mines at small cost and under great pressure, the moun- 
 tains, the sources of the supplying streams, rising to a great 
 height directly over the mines. That but little trouble is 
 encountered there from high-rim rock or cemented gravel, 
 may be inferred from the fact that no bank blasting has 
 ever been practiced nor has a single bedrock tunnel of any 
 length ever been driven in Klamath county ; and this, not- 
 withstanding hydraulic mining has been carried on there 
 extensively and successfully for many years. For these and 
 other reasons it costs comparatively little to open up and 
 run a mine of this kind anywhere in this northern region. 
 — QympHed from *^The Mining and Scietdific Press. " 
 
 TIN MINING AND THE CALIFORNIA ORES 
 OF TIN. 
 
 THE importations of tin in bars, blocks and pigs into 
 San Francisco have trebled within four years. 
 From 656,752 pounds, valued at $83,870, in the 
 year 1876-77, they have increased to 1,315,104 
 pounds, valued at $248,256, for the year ending June 30, 
 1881. This does not include the tin plate imported. The 
 large increase is due to the fruit and salmon canning busi- 
 ness. When it is considered that what is used on the Pa- 
 cific Coast is only a small portion of the total quantity 
 employed in the entire country, one will be better able to 
 comprehend the importance of the tin trade, and to under- 
 stand that if tin mines were discovered iu the United States 
 they would prove a profitable investment. At present all 
 the tin used comes irom Cornwall, Banca, and New 6outh 
 Wales. The tin mines of Cornwall are connected with the 
 earliest history of England. The Phoenicians imported tin 
 from the white Island, the name given in their time to 
 Great Britain. Under the Saxon dominion the Cornish tin 
 mines were neglected, but when the Normans came they 
 were vigorously developed. During the reign of John, the 
 Jews got hold of them and worked them to their own profit. 
 For over two centuries they continued to yield largely, when 
 a lode was discovered in Bohemia by a Cornish tin miner 
 who had been banished from England, but the yield from it 
 was never at any time very great. About the middle of the 
 last century discoveries were made at Banca, one of the 
 islands in the Malay Archipelago, belonging to the Dutch, 
 which promised to seriously interfere with the Cornish 
 trade. 
 
 Destructive competition was avoided by the action of the 
 British Government, which interfered to prevent too rapid 
 development of the Banca mines. The consequence was 
 that the supply waS never at any time greater than the de- 
 mand, and both countries continued to sell the products of 
 their two mines at paying prices. The yield of the Corn- 
 wall mines at the beginning of the present century was 
 under 2,500 tons. It now exceeds 18,000 tons a year. The 
 yearly yield of the Banca mines is in the neighborhood of 
 10,000 tons. Since the latter development tin has been 
 discovered in New South Wales, Australia. The yield of 
 these mines is about 8,000 tons yearly. The total tin supply 
 of the world is from these three sources, the quantity 
 obtained from other countries being of small moment. The 
 Australian discoveries broke the English prices, and from 
 £150 ($750) a ton, Cornish tin has sold as low as £60 ($300) 
 
158 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 a ton. An understanding between the two countries was 
 eventually arrived at, and at present the average whole- 
 sale price of tin is about $500 a ton, or from twenty-four 
 cents to twenty-five cents a pound. Taking the world's 
 requirement at 40,000 tons, the total value of tin used, at 
 the above rates, is $20,000,000. The American importation 
 represents over $6,000,000 of this amount. 
 
 Discoveries of tin have from time to time been made in 
 the Southern part of California, notably in the Temescal 
 Range of mountains about thirty miles from Riverside, and 
 close to the San Bernardino county lines. The first of any 
 note was made in 1860, and caused considerable excitement. 
 The tin found was pronounced of good quality, and was 
 said to exist in large quantities. It came principally from 
 what is known as the Cajaica mine. A fuller examination 
 of the lode was not satisfactory, the evidence being 
 that it was not of any great extent. The increased demand 
 for tin on this coast, and the high prices maintained, have 
 been the means of again directing attention to the tin lodes 
 of Southern Califojnia, with more satisfactory results. One 
 reason of previous disappointment was due to the finding 
 of a dark colored glossular garnet, quite common in the 
 Temescal region, the crystals of which resemble the tin ores 
 of Cornwall, Cornish and Australian miners have been 
 frequently deceived by this mineral. A party of them that 
 had worked in the Australian tin mines, and who were 
 passing through San Francisco, visited the Temescal Range. 
 On seeing a dark colored stone in the I'iver beds, they 
 , immediately said that stream tin existed there in large 
 quantities. They were, however, mistaken. Although 
 closely resembling in appearance the stream tin ore of New 
 South Wales, the Temescal specimens contained no tin at 
 all. There is no stream tin in the Temescal mines as far as 
 known, but it has been determined that there are consider- 
 able quantities of tin ore in lodes. 
 
 A peculiarity of the ore is that it does not look like tin 
 ore. Clever assayers have been frequently deceived with it. 
 Some years ago some of the ore was forwarded East for assay. 
 The person; to whom it was sent, well competent to judge of 
 tin ore, returned the specimens saying that the sender of them 
 must have made some mistake, that the ore sent was not tin 
 ore, and could not possibly contain tin. They were again sent 
 to him with the request to assay them, and not to mind 
 •whether they had the appearance of tin or not. He did so, 
 and changed his opinion. Following upon this a company 
 was formed to work them. A sufficient amount of capital 
 was subscribed by the shareholders to make further in- 
 vestigations. When prepared to go seriously to work the 
 Company found that there was a difficulty in the way of 
 obtaining a perfect title to the land. It formed part of one 
 of the old original Spanish grants, with a floating title, and 
 it was decided to abandon all further enterprise until the 
 title to it was definitely obtained. In the opinion of some 
 persons this fact has been determined, but not to the entire 
 satisfaction of capitalists. It is still before Judge Sawyer of the 
 United States Circuit Court in San Francisco. A letter lately 
 received at the State Mining Bureau of California states 
 that when a clear and settled title to the land in which the 
 mines are situated can be obtained, all the money necessary 
 
 to work and develop them will be immediately forthcoming. 
 The prospects of obtaining such a title are said to be 
 promising. The samples of tin ore obtained from the Tem- 
 escal district gave thirty per cent, of oxide of tin under 
 assay. If ore assaying that percentage exists in large quan- 
 tities the value of the mines could hardly be overestimated. 
 The sole matter of doubt appears to be the extent of the 
 deposits. Investigations have never been pushed sufficiently 
 far to determine that point. Experience in respect to the 
 deposits in other counties teaches that wherever tin has been 
 found in one locality it has led to the discovery of other de- 
 posits in the neighborhood. An important point is to know 
 how to prospect for it. A simple and good way is to pul- 
 verize the ore in a mortar or any other vessel that will answer 
 the purpose. Then wash it out in a pan or a horn spoon in 
 the same way gold is prospected for. Dry the residue in the 
 sun. Then again pulverize it as fine as possible. Fuse it 
 with cyanide of potassium on charcoal before a blow pipe, 
 and if the ore contains any deposit a button of metallic tin 
 will be obtained. The miner will in course of time become 
 familiar with the appearance of ore containing tin, and will 
 be able to pronounce upon it at sight in the same way as 
 would an expert Cornish miner. A peculiarity of tin mines, 
 as was 6.hown in the celebrated Dolcoath mine, is that they 
 may at first be worked as a tin, then as a copper mine, copper 
 deposits underlying the tin ore, and finally at greater depth 
 as a tin mine again. The Coneto tin mines near Durango, 
 Mexico, on the Pacific slope of the Rocky Mountains, 
 although comparatively unknown are said to contain im- 
 mense deposits of tin ore. They have been worked for many 
 years past, but are still only partially developed. This is 
 owing to the cost of bringing the tin down on mules' backs. 
 If railroad communication existed and capital were put in 
 to develop them, it is believed, from what has already been 
 accomplished, that they would yield as largely as any tin 
 mines in the world. At the State Mining Bureau of Cali- 
 fornia, there can be seen specimens of the Durango and 
 Temescal ores. There are also specimens of tin ores from 
 Cornwall, Bohemia and Australia. The cause why so 
 little has been done to determine the extent and value of 
 the tin ore deposits of Temescal is due to a prejudice arising 
 from a misconception of the existing geological relations of 
 the Pacific coast. The ore has been judged at the Cornwall 
 standard, and failing to correspond to the English ore in ap- 
 pearance, has been condemned. Tin ore yielding thirty per 
 cent, of oxide of tin under assay, will give ninety-five per 
 cent, under concentration, equal to about seventy-five per 
 cent, of pure tin. There are over five hundred tin claims 
 located in the Temescal Range. Of this number thirty-three 
 are known to contain tin, but only one, the Cajaica, has been 
 opened. An analysis of Temescal tin ore, made by F. A. 
 Genth of Philadelphia, gave the following results : 
 
 Silicic acid . . 9.82 
 
 Tungstie .22 
 
 Sianniu (oxide of tin) . 76.15 
 
 Oxide of copper .27 
 
 Oxides of iron, manganese, lime and alumina 13.54 
 
 Total ... . 100.00 
 
 — Son Francisco Sulktin. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 159 
 
 PART III 
 
 GEOLOGY OF PROMINENT MINING CAMPS— THE DI8TRIBUTI0N OF 
 
 IRON ORES— THE C0M8T0CK LODE AND THE 8UTR0 TUNNEL 
 
 —FOREIGN FACT8 OF MINING INTEREST. 
 
 'HE study of geology in all its 
 branches is fascinating at all 
 times, more particularly however 
 in the mining regions, where the 
 skilful eye of the man of science 
 enables him at a glance to gain 
 the key to the region under 
 observation, and to profit where 
 the unlearned can see nothing 
 but rocks. In Part III, The 
 Mines, Miners and Mining 
 Intekests of the United States, we have therefore in- 
 troduced some information concerning two important min- 
 ing regions. We have also in this Part embodied a mass of 
 information of more than general interest, on many subjects 
 connected with the metallic wealth of this country. Also, 
 we have compiled for a place in Part III, some papers an 
 European topics including some statistics upon the iron 
 trade of Great Britain. Some statistics of foreign bullion 
 product are also printed, which do not strictly pertain to 
 the mining interests of the United States in 1882. Possibly 
 this Part should have been headed Miscellaneous, rather 
 than the titles bestowed, as the articles are such as did not 
 admit of classification under any other head, nor belong ap- 
 propriately with the other divisions of this volume. 
 
 THE GEOLOGY AND VEINS OF TOMB- 
 STONE, ARIZONA. 
 
 THE mining district and the town of Tombstone are 
 situated in Cochise County, Arizona Territory, at 
 the northwest end of the Mule Pass range of moun- 
 tains, in longitude 110°, and latitude abcftit 31 40 
 N., upon the right bank of the San Pedro River from which 
 the town is distant 9 miles east. It is also 24 miles south ot 
 Benson Station on the Southern Pacific Railroad of Arizona, 
 and about 40 miles north of the Mexican hne. Its altitude 
 above the sea is 4,600 feet. The Dragoon Mountains rise 
 across a valley to the northeast, and the Huachuca range sim- 
 ilarly upon the southwest. The country is open, without 
 timber, and the suffape, where the mines are opened is, in 
 general, gently rolling and accessible to wagons by natural 
 roads, 
 
 The first locations were made in the year 1878 by the 
 Scheffelin brothers and Richard Gird, the latter being well 
 known among the pioneers of Arizona as a surveyor and 
 miner who contributed largely to our knowledge of the 
 geography of the territory in early days, when the dreaded 
 Apache dominated the region. There are now, probably, 
 over one thousand locations or claims in the district, and 
 upward of 2,500 inhabitants. The output of the precious 
 metals, gold and silver, up to the first of January, 1882, ag- 
 gregates $7,359,200, and over $3,000,000 have been disbursed 
 in dividends. This product is distributed among the follow- 
 ing-named mines and mills : 
 
 Production of Tombstone Mines and Mills. 
 
 Tombstone Mill and Mining Company, . 
 
 . . . S2,704,936.S3 
 
 Contention Consolidated, 
 
 
 2.703,144.39 
 
 Grand Central, . . 
 
 
 1,060,875.30 
 
 Head Centre, 
 
 
 191,620.52 
 
 Vizina, 
 
 
 526,716.98 
 
 Ingersoll, 
 
 
 16,000.00 
 
 Sunset, ... 
 
 
 16,000.00 
 
 Corbin Mill, . 
 
 
 40,000.00 
 
 Boston Mill, . 
 
 Dividends. 
 
 112,007.83 
 
 Tombstone Mill and Mining Company, . 
 
 . $1,100,000.00 
 
 Contention Consolidated, 
 
 
 . 1,376,000.00 
 
 Grand Central, . . 
 
 
 . 600,000.00 
 
 Vizina, . ... 
 
 
 80,000.00 
 
 This will sufiice to show the importance of the locality for 
 mining, and to indicate at the same time the principal claims. 
 
 Geology of the District. — In going from the railroad 
 at Benson to the mines, the traveler rises from the post- 
 pliocene deposits along the San Pedro to a granite plateau. 
 The rock is gray and highly crystalline, and is apparently 
 eruptive. It weathers in places into gigantic rounded blocli 
 and masses lying one upon another, as if piled there by some 
 titanic force, rather than by the gentle and gradual effects 
 of irresistible decay. This rock extends to within a mile or 
 two of Tombstone, where stratified formations occur, over- 
 lying the granite. These stratified beds consist of quartzites, 
 limestones and shales, with frequent repetitions in an ascend- 
 ing series several thousand feet thick, but all conformable 
 and dipping generally at a low angle from 20° to 45° to Ihe 
 eastward. The fossils which have been found in the middle 
 and upper beds, consisting chiefly of Produetus and cya- 
 thophylloid corals, show them to be Paleozoic, and probably 
 lower carboniferous. The lower strata are probably older. 
 A small shell, like Lingula, occurs in the shales of the Con- 
 tention mines. 
 
 In addition to the stratified formations, we find intrusive 
 porphyritic dykes . cutting through the strata indiscrimi- 
 nately, nearly at right angles, and trending approximately 
 north and south, or a little east of north. This is the direc- 
 tion of the general rift or breaking of the country and of 
 the mineral veins. In the central portion of the district. 
 
160 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Ill n I II 
 
 Fig. I.^Anticlinal Fold. Toughnut, 
 I. Novaculite — under the limestone. 
 II. Limestone — bending over the novaculite. 
 III. Shales — bending over the limestone. 
 
 UlM 
 
 covering the claims known as the Toughnut, Good Enough, 
 Way-Up, Vizina and others, erosion has exposed the out- 
 cropping edges of many strata of limestone shales and 
 " quartzites." Both the shale and so-called quartzite beds 
 are of deep-sea origin, being very fine and compact in tex- 
 ture, with scarcely any signs of granular structure. The lat- 
 ter, particularly, is flint-like and very hard, and is more ex- 
 actly described as a novaculite or honestone. In places, it 
 passes insensibly into limestone. It is, no doubt, largely 
 organic in its origin, and is a very fine sediment, totally dif- 
 ferent from the typical quartzites, with granular structure, 
 found in the higher parts of the series of strata. It evi- 
 dently, in forming, accumulated slowly, beyond the influ- 
 ence of currents, at the sea bottom. An abundance of iron 
 pyrites in fine crystal- 
 line grains, dissemina- 
 ted through the layers 
 of this rock, gives evi- 
 dence of its organic ori- 
 gin in part, at least 
 This rock has special 
 importance from the 
 fact that the miners in 
 the Toughnut and Good 
 Enough claims find it 
 fie^ow the chief ore-bear- 
 ing limestone. It is 
 regularly and evenly 
 stratified for a thickness 
 of about 140 feet, and 
 
 rests upon a thickly-bedded dolomitic limestone below. The 
 beds above it consist of dark, black or blue limestones, and 
 of thick beds of dark argillaceous shale, alternating with 
 black siliceous shales for nearly half a mile to the eastward. 
 The black limestones above the novaculite are the chief 
 depositories of the bedded masses of rich silver ore, as will 
 be presently shown. The whole .series of 
 beds in this central part of the district is 
 thrown into folds, being regularly plicated 
 in a series of wave-like flexures, the steepest 
 and sharpest folds being on the north- 
 west of the Toughnut and Good Enough 
 claims, facing the granite region in that di- 
 rection. These folds may be traced, but with 
 difficulty, upon the surface, but are best seen 
 in the cross-cuts of the mines and along the 
 drifts. In the open cut upon the Toughnut 
 there is a good exposure of soma of the beds 
 at the crest of an anticlinal fold presenting an 
 appearance in section, along 
 a northeast and southwest cut, 
 nearly as shown in the an- 
 nexed drawing. This little 
 section is along the upper 
 level known as the "adit." 
 It is directly below the place 
 on the surface where ore was 
 found cropping out, mixed 
 with soil and vein-stufl!". At 
 another place, upon the west- 
 ern end of the Good Enough, 
 we find a series of plications 
 up and down at about the 
 angles shown, and with rich 
 ore lying in the folds. These folds are not 
 large, covering only a few hundred feet in 
 extent, but are beautifully regular and well- 
 defined. As we pass up the hill, rising 
 higher in the series of strata to the eastward, 
 the dip becomes more regular, and coarse- 
 grained quartzites, in thicker beds, take the 
 place of the finer-grained deposits. All the 
 formations named have not only been up- 
 lifted as described, but have been much 
 broken and faulted, either at the time of up- 
 lift, or at long periods later. This is shown by the number 
 of fissures and lines of fault, as well as by the outcrop of 
 dikes of porphyry, and the dissimilarity of the stratified beds 
 on each side of them, and the disjointed outcrops of the 
 limestone beds. 
 
 The Contention Mine.- -The chief fissure and ore- 
 bearing vein of the district traverses the Grand Central and 
 the Contention claims. These claims were located in a north 
 and south direction, upon the somewhat obscure croppings 
 of a dike of dioritic porphyry carrying ore in through and 
 alongside of it. This location was made by Messrs. White 
 & Parsons. The croppings were not remarkably well de- 
 fined, consisting of the porphyry and a confused mixture 
 of porphyry,chert and quartz, with masses of porous quartzite 
 alongside ; none of these rocks rising high above the soil. 
 There was, however, a considerable discoloration of the soil 
 by iron rust along the line,and a little digging revealed good 
 ore near the surface. The harder parts of the dike were the 
 most prominent, and its direction governed the direction of 
 
 location of the claim. This 
 dike varies in width from a 
 few feet to 50 feet or 70 feet, 
 and dips to the westward at 
 an angle of from 55° to 65°. 
 It cuts indiscriminately 
 through shales, quartzites, 
 and limestones, and is evi- 
 dently of igneous origin. 
 The contact, however,with 
 the abutting edges of the 
 disrupted beds is not al- 
 ways marked by any great 
 change in their appear- 
 ance or composition, 
 though in places there is 
 impregnations of silica, and some 
 re. The dike itself has a distinct 
 vertical lamination or structure through most of its sub- 
 stance, and is more or less penetrated by veinlets of quartz. 
 In some portions it is highly crystalline and nearly barren, 
 and in otliers, consists chiefly of a feldspathic base, in which 
 the feldspar crystals are obscure. It passes into a felsite, 
 which, in the decomposed portions of the dike, and when 
 slaty in structure, might be mistaken for the partly decayed 
 shales or quartzites. Large portions of the dike are so pene- 
 trated by quartz as to consist largely of it, and might be 
 called quartz, although close examination will show the 
 presence of feldspar. 
 
 The accompanying cross-section of the chief part of the 
 dike, taken on the first level of the Head Centre mine, upon 
 the Contention lode, will convey a better idea than can be 
 given in words. It shows the vertical structure and the 
 general distribution of quartz in vertical seams or layers, 
 and in one place a vugg or cavity, in which there are distinct 
 
 obscure metamorphism 
 modifications of structure, 
 
 quartz crystals. In general, however, combs of quartz 
 crystals are wanting; the quartz being in an amorphous, 
 sub-vitreous state, or in the form of chert. A fragment 
 ground down to a plane surface showed very plainly the 
 lamellar arrangement of this quartz with the intermediate 
 spaces filled with feldspar. This lamination is typical of 
 the vertical structure of the dike. Another fragment, with 
 less quartz, taken at a distance of about two feet from the 
 first consists chiefly of a felsite base, with obscure crystals of 
 foldspnr sparingly distributed. Examination shows it to be 
 penetrated irregularly by veinlets of quartz, as shown by the 
 accompanying sketches from ground and polished surface. 
 
 There is also a considerable amount of mineralization of 
 the dike by iron pyrites disseminated irregularly in its sub- 
 stance in cubical crystals, most of which have dissolved out 
 and left the cavities only to indicate their former presence, 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 161 
 
 making in some places a spongy mass of porphyry or of 
 quartz. Although the mine has been worked to a depth of 
 600 feet, and there are some 12 to 15 miles of drifts, levels 
 and winzes in the Contention and adjoining mines, the un- 
 deuomposed ores below the water-line have not yet been 
 reached and mined, and all the ores above are in the decom- 
 posed and oxidized condition common to surface ores. A 
 large part of the ore is highly charged with red oxide of 
 iron, to such an extent that the clothing of the miners be- 
 comes saturated with the rouge-like powder, and the tailings 
 at the mills are blood-red. There has been an extensive de- 
 composition of the porphyry, especially along the upper 300 
 feet of the dike, resulting in the formation of (quantities of 
 white-clay kaolin, sometimes perfectly snow-white and pure, 
 but generally more or less mixed with red oxide of iron. 
 This kaolinization extends in places to the adjoining shales, 
 and there are some white, clay-like interstratifled beds which 
 may, on further examination, be found to be altered felsitic 
 offshoots from the dike. It is not yet possible to say what 
 the exact nature of the ore below the water-level will be 
 found to be. The only metallic contents so far found, with 
 the exception of the pyrites and some galenite and lead car- 
 bonate, are gold and silver in a comparatively free state ; 
 part of the gold, if not all, being free, and the silver occur- 
 ring chiefly as chloride, or horn silver {with probably some 
 iodide), in crusts and films, also occurring in minute crystals 
 upon cleavage surfaces. The average value of silver and 
 gold in the ores worked last year was about $70 per ton. 
 The gold has of late increased "from 20 to 25 per cent, of the 
 value of the product, the rest being silver. 
 
 Gold in Porphyry. — One very interesting fact is the 
 occurrence of free metallic gold together with chloride of 
 silver, in the midst of the porphyritic rocks, at a distance of 
 many feet from the portions of the porphyry-carrying quartz 
 in veins, and dissemi- 
 nated. This gold is 
 found chiefly in a por- 
 tion of the rock ap- 
 parently dioritic, con- 
 taining finely dissemi- 
 nated hornblende. In 
 decomposing, this por- 
 phyry becomes steati- 
 tic, and in places ap- 
 pears to be changing 
 to serpentine. The 
 gold is found in thin 
 sub-crystalline flakes 
 and scales, chiefly in 
 and along thin seams .^ . t j t, • ^i 
 
 and cracks in the mass of the rock, as if it had been infil- 
 trated and deposited from solution. This is probably the 
 fact, and the magnesian nature of the rock has no doubt ex- 
 erted an important influence in its deposition. Free gold is 
 also found in quartz in the usual manner of association ; but 
 even in such specimens the crystalline feldspar of the dike is 
 
 found. „, . , c 
 
 Metallization of the Dike.— The time and manner of 
 the metallization of the dike may be considered as open 
 questions, for a solution of which we must wait until the 
 mining extends below the permanent water-level of the for- 
 mation. It seems most probable that the rock, at the time ot 
 its intrusion, was pyritous, and the strata ad)0ining it no 
 doUbt were. It is not impossible that there may have been 
 a concentration of the precious metals in the dike from the 
 surrounding beds, the result of the decay and change ot the 
 pyrites diffused in the strata. On the other hand we may 
 suppose that the dike has been the source, of the silver and 
 gold we find in and about it. , ..j. j. ,„ 
 
 In either case, the vertical laminated or stratiform struc- 
 ture parallel with the walls has been an- important tactor in 
 the distribution of the metals, and in the changes and modi- 
 fications of the original condition of the dike. We may 
 readily conceive of such vertical planes of structure affording 
 planes or lines of least resistance to yertica movements 
 while the abutting ends of the strata, in contact with the 
 walls of the dike, would offer great resistance by friction 
 The condition of the dike along a great part of its course 
 seems to sustain and verify this hypothesis. There has 
 evidently been considerable movement of parts of the dike 
 11 
 
 upon itself, resulting in the formation of heavy clay seams 
 and brecciated layers of porphyry and ciuartz, sometimes 
 occupying a medial position along the dike, sometimes at 
 one side or the other, and again along the line of contact 
 with the country rocks. Such seams and brecciated ground 
 are sometimes wanting, and the structure and condition of 
 the dike remain unchanged. The whole of the dike with 
 the adjoining strata has been subjected to extensive move- 
 ments and displacements, shown not only by breaks of 
 continuity, but by the brecciated cross-courses and seams 
 traversing both the igneous and stratified formations. One 
 of these faults resulting in a throw of the northern portion 
 of the Contention lode 150 feet to the west, and partly out- 
 side of the west side-line of the claim, has recently led to 
 expensive litigation. The faulting seam or break has been 
 drifted upon between the two ends of the disjointed dike. 
 It consists of a heavy breccia of fragments of the adjoining 
 strata, together with a strong clay wall, marking the plane 
 of greatest movement and slip. Its direction is southwest 
 and northeast. 
 
 In addition to the lateral movement, there have been ex- 
 tensive vertical displacements, and it is probable that the 
 lateral shifting may be referred to them. It would be pre- 
 mature to attempt an exact description of the numerous 
 faults and mechanic-al changes to which the dike has been 
 subjected. They require further study and surveys. Mr. 
 Isaac E. James, so long and well known upon the Comstock 
 lode as an accomplished mine engineer, is now in charge, 
 and has the subject under investigation. We owe the first 
 determination of the nature and position of many of Ihe 
 vertical faults and throws to his careful observation and 
 surveys. Without now entering into precise descriptions of 
 particular displacements, it will suffice to give a sketch 
 indicative of what has occurred, producing such a confused 
 
 recurrence of ore 
 upon certain levels 
 of the mine as to lead 
 at once to the sup- 
 position that there 
 were several dikes 
 of porphyry and ore 
 over a breadth of 
 five or six hundred 
 feet. The movement 
 appears to have been 
 from the west east- 
 ward and downward, 
 the top of the dike 
 being carried off in 
 successive blocks by 
 the sliding of masses of the stratified formations partly 
 upon the planes of deposition of the beds, these dipping 
 eastward and affording surfaces of easy movement; and 
 partly upon steeper planes of fracture, generally dipping 
 eastward, partly as shown in the outline sketch section, 
 which may be taken as typical. This disruption of the 
 dike, with its attendant fracturing and brecciation of the 
 country-rock, accompanied by the movement of the dike 
 upon itself, and the formation of heavy clay seams, has 
 provided favorable places for the accumulation of ore. 
 It is generally fountt in the softer and most broken por- 
 tions of the dike, coincident, no doubt, with the regions 
 of greatest original metallization and subsequent move- 
 ment, attended by clay seams. Such clay seams, with 
 the accompanying ore, have by some been considered as 
 marking the limits of a second or subsequently formed vein, 
 following the dike and independent of it. This theory, 
 formed under the inspiration of the necessity of narrowing 
 down the vein and throwing it as far west as possible, in 
 order to secure a greater length of it upon the Head Centre 
 ground, would be more defensible, if in the stopes any vein 
 structure referable to a later deposition could be found. 
 Instead of the fragments of broken porphyry, shale and 
 quartz being Cemented together by quartz, they are loosely 
 aggregated, and show clearly that the formation is due to 
 mechanical force and attrition. The clay seams are also 
 not certain boundaries of the ore; it occurs on both sides of 
 clay seams. The clay cannot, therefore, be taken as separa- 
 ting ore from waste. The seams, moreover, are not contin- 
 uous, but give out, and in some parts of the dike are absent. 
 
162 
 
 THE MINES, MTNEBS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The only place upon the lode where water has been reach- 
 ed is upon the Sulphuret claim. At this point, the lode 
 intersects strata of limestone, and there is a bedded layer of 
 ore following the stratification and connected with the dike. 
 This ore is chiefly galena and iron pyrites. Very little has 
 yet been taken out. So also in the Head Centre ground, at 
 a higher level, where the dike intersects limestone, a bedded 
 or interstratified layer of ore occurs. But the best examples 
 of bedded deposits in the district are in the Toughnut and 
 Good Enough claims before referred to. 
 
 Bedded Ore Deposits. — These also are associated with 
 dikes and vertical fissures nearly parallel with the Conten- 
 tion lode. One of the longest and best defined is the West 
 Side lode, which may be traced for about two miles until it 
 passes into the underlying granite. Its northern prolonga- 
 tion appears to cut across the Toughnut claim, and to con- 
 nect with the vertical fissure and quartz croppings at the 
 discovery-shaft on the Good Enough. A second line of 
 fissure cuts across the anticlinal line of the formations at 
 the open cut on the Toughnut, and across the whole breadth 
 of the Good Enough into the Way-Up claim beyond. This 
 has been followed on ore from the open cut to the Way-Up, 
 and is connected with the chief lateral bedded deposits. A 
 lode has also been followed in the same general direction 
 from the claim called the Defense, across the Toughnut into 
 the Good Enough. This lode is marked by very heavy crop- 
 pings of quartz and flinty boulders lying above the limestone 
 oa the surface. In the fissure extending into the Way-Up 
 claim, the ore was found in layers and bunches following 
 the plane of the vein, extending upward and downward 
 along its course in nearly vertical shoots or ore-bodies, but 
 breaking off into the adjoining strata in flat bed-like layers, 
 particularly where the vein intersects the lower limestone 
 resting on the noviculite beds. These bedded offshoots from 
 the vein are often of considerable lateral extent, following 
 the planes of stratification on each side. We cannot yet 
 state with confidence what the exact origin of these bedded 
 deposits is. They may be due to the decomposition of 
 nodular masses, but they are generally deposited in the 
 limestone as if by replacement. They may be regarded as 
 filling irregular cavernous spaces eroded from the strata by 
 metalliferous solutions, and without any regular boundaries. 
 These bedded massei do not have a symmetrical arrangement 
 of the ore, except such as may be referred to stratification 
 or deposition by gravity. It is to be observed that these 
 beds occupy the limestones rather than the siliceous or ar- 
 gillaceous strata, as we might expect from the greater solu- 
 bility of the limestone. Inasmuch as these limestone strata 
 are folded and turned up in different directions, the inter- 
 section of the limestone with the vertical plane of the vein 
 is an irregular line. At such intersections, the walls of the 
 fissure are corroded away, and are obliterated or are farther 
 apart than where the fissure cuts the siliceous beds, the shales, 
 or the quartzite5. In this respect the formations are similar 
 to many abroad. Moissenet reprejents bodies or shoots of 
 ore corresponding in their pitch to the intersection of strata 
 with the plane of a vein. Wallace describes a series of strata 
 in the north of England, consisting of limestone and shales 
 traversed by lodes productive in the limestone, but poor 
 when passing through shales. Other examples might be 
 cited. In extent, the bedded masses of the Good Enough 
 and Toughnut claims have been much greater than the ore- 
 bodies of the vertical fissures, and it may be said that the 
 greater part of the productions have been from the beds or 
 flats. They extend irregularly between the two fissures a 
 distance of about 400 feet, measured diagonally along the 
 dip. It is noteworthy that they follow the stratification, and 
 then suddenly break across it vertically, following a crack 
 or break of the bedding, and then expand again horizontally 
 for some distance to another dropping down by a series of 
 steps from one layer to another in and between the lime- 
 stones. The ores found in these bedded deposits in the 
 limestone? are much more plumbiferous than the ore of the 
 feldspPothic dikes. Galenite, blende, and iron pyrites are 
 abundant in masses, which, within the reach of oxidizing 
 agencies, are largely converted into oxides and rarbonatos. 
 Bedded ores of this nature are also found in the limestone of 
 the Blue Monday claim contiguous to the verticid fi.s.siires in 
 the western prolongation of the West Side lode, or vertical 
 ore-bearing fissure. This contiguity of the bedded deposits 
 
 of the camp to the vertical fissures and dikes, and the oc- 
 currence of bedded ores where the dikes intersect limestone 
 strata, lead me to the opinion that the metallization of the 
 district is due to the igneous intrusions, and that these are 
 the true lodes, or " leads, " that may be followed with con- 
 fidence in the search for ores. 
 — A paper by Professor Wm. P. BlaJie^ Transactions American Institute of Min- 
 
 ing Engineers. 
 
 GEOLOGY AND MINING INDUSTRY OF 
 LEADVILLE, COLORADO. 
 
 THE present city of Leadville is situated in the county 
 of Lake, State of Colorado, on the western flank of 
 the Mosquito or Park Range, and on the eastern 
 slopes of the valley of the Arkansas, near its head. 
 Its exact position is in longitude 106° 17' west from Green- 
 wich and .39° 15' north latitude, and its mean elevation above 
 sea-level is 10,150 feet, taken at the court-house, in the center 
 of the city. In this latitude the Rocky Mountain chain is 
 made up of three main and more or less parallel uplifts; the 
 Colorado or Front Range, the Mosquito or Park Range, and 
 the Sawatch Range. The first rises immediately from the 
 Great Plains, and to the traveler from the East, who has 
 just passed over £00 weary miles of unincidented and practi- 
 cally level country, represents at first view the whole Rocky 
 Mountain system. It is a broad, somewhat irregular chain, 
 whose more prominent peaks rise to a height of over 14,000 
 feet above sea-level, and whose flanks are deeply scored by 
 the tortuous ravines or canons cut by streams flowing out to 
 join the Platte and Arkansas Rivers. Beyond this range 
 lies the mountain valley known as the South Park, a broad, 
 basin-like depression, sloping gently to the southward, hav- 
 ing an elevation of 8,000 to 10,000 feet above sea-level. The 
 next nu.untain uplift, which forms the Western border of the 
 South Park, is the Mosquito Range, a narrow and abrupt 
 ridge having a trend nearly north and south, and whose 
 prominent peaks also rise above 14,000 feet, the average 
 height of its crest being nearly 13,000 feet above sea-level. 
 It is characterized in general by long, easy slopes on the 
 east toward the Park, and broken, abrupt slopes, which are 
 nearly perpendicular walls near its crest, on the west toward 
 the Arkansas Valley, while either flank is deeply scored by 
 amphitheaters and deep gorges or canons of glacial origin. 
 The Arkansas Valley is a meridional depression, about 60 
 miles in length by 16 in width, bordered by the sharp peaks 
 of the Mosquito Range on the east, and by the equally high 
 but broader mountain mass of the Sawatch Range on the 
 west. This valley is not only remarkable as presenting some 
 of the grandest mountain scenery to be found in the Rocky 
 Mountains, but also on account of the great mineral wealth 
 found along its borders, and the scientific interest of its 
 geological structure. To the upper 20 miles alone will at- 
 tention be especially directed here. 
 
 At about this distance from its head the foot-hills of the 
 bordering ranges close together, confining the present bed of 
 the stream within a narrow rocky caBon^a few miles above 
 the town of Granite. Above this cafion the valley widens 
 out in broad grassy meadow-lands, on each side of which 
 flat table-like terraces rise for several miles, with a gentle, 
 almost imperceptible slope to the foot of the more rugged 
 mountain spurs. Such topography suggests at once to the 
 thoughtful observer that this portion of the valley was once 
 a mountain lake, and, as will be seen Later on, the present 
 investigation proves this to have been the case. On the 
 upper edge of one of these gently sloping terraces, between 
 Big Evans and California Gulches, and at the base of Car- 
 bonate Hill, the extremity of a western spur of the Mosquito 
 Range, is situated the city of Leadville. 
 
 Discovery.— Hhe. history of the discovery and development 
 of the mineral wealth of Leadville, which well illustrates 
 the uncertainties and vicissitudes attendant upon a life of 
 search for the precious metals in these wild regions, can be 
 here but briefly touched upon. Among the hundreds of 
 weary gold-seekers whom the so-called Pike's Peak rush 
 brought to Colorado in the fall of 1859, only to find them- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 163 
 
 selves the victims of exaggerated and chimerical stories, a 
 few undaunted spirits pushed still further on into the recess- 
 es of the then unknown mountain regions. Gold was first 
 discovered in the same year on Tarryall Creek, at the head 
 of the South Park, and early in the spring of 1860 two parties 
 of prospectors, pushing westward still, stumbled almost 
 simultaneously upon rich diggings in California Gulch, near 
 the present site of Leadville. The news of the discovery 
 spread with wonderful rapidity, considering the diflSculties 
 of travel and sparseness of population in those early days, 
 and eager miners flocked rapidly in. tLarge amounts of 
 gold-dust were obtained from tnis gulch, and the town which 
 was built along its banks, known as Oro City, is somewhat 
 freely estimated to have had within a year 10,000 inhabitants. 
 A similar generosity of estimate, so readily accorded to by- 
 gone times of which accurate information is not attainable, 
 places the aggregate production of the gulch in gold-dust at 
 ten millions, while more conservative and better grounded 
 opinions would give it a maximum of $3,000,000. At all 
 events the richer placers were soon exhausted, and the 
 population of the ephemeral city of Oro gradually decreased, 
 the thousands having dwindled within three or four years 
 to hundreds. At that day miners had gained most of their 
 experience in th« gold fields of California, and to them silver 
 ores were comparatively unknown and worthless. Some 
 prospecting was done for the gold veins from the croppings 
 of which the gold of the placer diggings was originally de- 
 rived, and resulted in the discovery of several gold mines, 
 such as the Printer Boy, Five-Twenty, and a few others, 
 whose working gave a fitful gleam of renewed prosperity to 
 the camp, but of whose actual yield no accurate data are 
 attainable. Few, if any, however, suspected the value of 
 the so-called " heavy rock," fragments of ironstained car- 
 bonate of lead, which obstructed their sluices, being too 
 dense to be carried down by the force of water alone, and 
 which had to be thrown out by hand. Although many now 
 claim to have known of the existence of the rich argenti- 
 ferous lead ores of Leadville in earlier days, its practical 
 discovery is apparently due to Mr. A. B. Wood, an educated 
 and experienced miner and metallurgist, who first came to 
 this region in 1874, and at once recognized the mineralogical 
 character of the miners' worthless heavy rock." In 1875 
 the titles acquired by the gulch-miners under local laws had 
 lapsed by limitation, and Messrs. Wood and W. H. Stevens 
 located, under United States laws, the claims which now 
 belong to the Iron-Silver Mining Company, covering, with 
 remarkable accuracy, when it is remembered that at that 
 day little or nothing was known of the geological structure 
 of the region, the croppings of the ore-bearing stratum over 
 a distance of more than a mile. The first practical test of 
 the value of the ore was made by Mr. A. R. Meyer, a 
 graduate of the Freiberg Mining Academy, and agent for 
 the Saint Louis Smelting and Refining Company, who 
 shipped a small lot to Saint Louis in the fall of 1876. 
 
 Development. — Active prospecting over the whole region 
 maybe said to have coftimenced in the spring of 1877, and 
 the development of rich and productive mines from that 
 time on advanced with a rapidity that is truly marvelous. 
 This can be more easily comprehended by a comparative 
 statement of the econoriiical conditions of Leadville in the 
 spring of 1877, and at this same period in 1880, after a lapse 
 of three years. At the former time the nucleus of the 
 present city, known as the town of Agassiz, consisted of a 
 few log cabins, relics of the -palmy days of gulch-minmg, 
 scattered along the edge of California Gulch with an estimated 
 population of less than 200 persons; its business houses con- 
 sisted of a ten-by-twelve grocery and two small saloons. 
 Three of the now productive mines had been discovered, but 
 were still scarcely more than mere surface scratchings. A 
 single lead furnace was planned, but not as yet erected. Com- 
 munication was had with the outside world by stage or 
 wagon, either across the crests of two high ranges to Denver, 
 or by an almost equally difficult road to Colorado Springs. 
 The latter date finds a broad, populous, admirably situated 
 city, of 15,000 inhabitants, with 28 miles of streets, in part 
 lit by gas, and furnished with hydrants and over fave 
 miles of water-pipes. It has thirteen schools, with an 
 average attendance of 1,100 pupils ; five churches, and three 
 public hospitals, supported by charitable contributions; an 
 opera house and numerous smaller theaters; six banks, and 
 
 block after block of business stores, many substantially con- 
 structed of brick or stone. Its assessable property is esti- 
 mated at $30,000,000, ifnd 81,400,000 were expended during 
 the year 1880 in new buildings and improvements. To sup- 
 port this population are over thirty producing mines, with 
 innumerable smaller mines and prospects, which are either 
 producing small amounts of ore or give promise of so doing 
 in a comparatively short time. Ten large smelting works 
 are in active operation reducing the ore of these mines, and 
 the value of the aggregate annual production of the district 
 in gold, silver, and lead amounts to $15,000,000. Two lines 
 of narrow-gauge railway connect i*. with the East, the one by 
 wav of Denver, across the Mosquito and Front Ranges, the 
 other following down the valley of the Arkansas to Pueblo, 
 and these find ample remuneration, even over the heavy 
 grades which the mountainous nature of the region traversed 
 necessitates, in the business its mines afford. 
 
 General Geology of the Mosquito Range. — 
 The area now occupied by the Mosquito Range and 
 the Upper Arkansas Valley was once the littoral re- 
 gion of an Archaean continent or island, whose area 
 is approximately expressed by the Archaean expo- 
 sures of the Sawatch Range. The Rocky Mountain chain 
 or eastern member of the Cordilleran system, in this 
 latitude consists of a series of Archaean islands or continents 
 which have never been entirely submerged. Some super- 
 ficial geological observers have reasoned, Irom the fact that 
 the later sedimentary beds are here generally found resting 
 on the flanks of the Archaean masses, and dipping away from 
 them often at high angles, that these strata once arched 
 entirely over the Archaean masses in anticlinal folds. Were 
 this the case, however, wherever the edges of folded strata 
 were exposed around the eroded crest of the anticlinal, 
 beds of invariably the same geological horizon would be 
 found resting dirtctly on the Archaean, and their angle of 
 dip should be sufficiently steep to carry the strata, in an 
 ideal reconstruction of the original arch, entirely over the 
 present mountain masses. In point of fact, however, along 
 the flanks of the Archaean of the Colorado Range Car- 
 boniferous, Triassic, and even Cretaceous beds are found at 
 different points directly abutting against the crystalline 
 schists ; and, with few exceptions, the angle of inclination 
 of the sedimentary beds is far too low to carry them up to 
 any considerable height, even on the present surface of the 
 mountains, which must have been considerably planed 
 down by long periods of erosion and abrasion. The sedi- 
 mentary deposits of the Mosquito Range were, as above 
 stated, originally deposited, in the Paleozoic seas, along the 
 shores of the Sawatch island, and have been lifted to their 
 present position by dynamic forces, which have resulted in 
 a series of sharp folds and longitudinal faults, in which the 
 upward movement has been almost invariably on the east 
 of the fault line. There is every reason to suppose that, 
 like the Archaean masses of the Colorado range, the Sa- 
 watch island was never entirely submerged. But the fact 
 that in the limited region studied absolutely the same bed, 
 with one single exception, is found resting upon the 
 Archaean rocks, shows, that the bottom of the ocean in 
 which they were deposited had a comparatively smooth and 
 regular surface, and that no steep cliffs existed along the 
 immediate shore line, as in the Colorado Range, or that if 
 they did exist within this area, they, together with their 
 bordering sediments, have been entirely removed by sub- 
 sequent erosion. The dynamic movements which resulted 
 in the elevation of Mosquito Range, and produced its 
 present complicated structure, can be most readily ex- 
 plained on the generally received contraction theory, as 
 the result of tangential pressure exerted upon the upper 
 portion of the earth's crust in a direction approximately at 
 right angles to the shore line, or radial to the center of the 
 Sawatch island. The primal effect of such pressure exerted 
 against a comparatively unyielding mass of crj'stalline rocks 
 would be to compress the series of conformable sedimentary 
 beds into longitudinal folds, whose principal axis would be 
 at right angles to the direction of pressure. In the region 
 under consideration the pressure would act from the east 
 westward. The upper beds being relatively more plastic 
 than those beneath, the pushing force would tend to produce 
 anticlinal folds having a gentle slope to the eastward and a 
 steep or approximately vertical inclination on the west. 
 
164 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 That sedimentary beds, even though formed of apparently 
 rigid and unyielding material, may, under favorable con- 
 ditions of pressure, be flexible and plastic, is abundantly 
 proved by observation in nature. Such plasticity must, 
 however, have a limit, and when such limit is reached the 
 tension produced by pressure will result in a fracture of the 
 beds and a vertical displacement, or faulting. After the 
 deposition of the sedimentary beds in the area under con- 
 sideration, there occurred, during Secondary times, an in- 
 trusion of igneous or eruptive rocks, which spread themselves 
 out in sheets between the strata, and became, as it were, an 
 integral part of the sedimentary formation. It was after the 
 eruption and consolidation of these masses of igneous_ rock 
 that the dynamic movements in question occurred. Sedimen- 
 tary strata are comparatively thin sheets of homogeneous 
 and coherent material, whose plasticity, other things being 
 equal, would be proportionate to the average thinness of the 
 bads. An augmentation of the aggregate number of strati- 
 fication planes in a given thickness would increase the 
 possible movement of each on the other along such planes, 
 and, as in the familiar illustration of folding a number of 
 shests of paper, the sharpness and number of folds into 
 which, under given conditions of pressure, they could be 
 compressed without fracturing. The igneous rooks, however, 
 which were spread out in irregular and comparatively thick 
 masses, having no bedded structure, but fracturing with 
 equal ease in any direction, would render the whole series 
 more rigid, and favor the production of faults rather_ than 
 folds. Such is the case in this region, where the action of 
 faulting and displacement is predominant over that of fold- 
 ing, and particularly prominent in those portions where 
 there is the greatest concentration of eruptive rocks, as in 
 the district immediately adjoining Leadville. 
 
 Archsean Rocks.— All the sedimentary rocks found 
 within this area belong, geologically, to the Archsean, 
 Paleozoic, or Quaternary eras. The Archsean rocks are, 
 as well as the present limited data enable us to determine, 
 the very oldest of the crystalline rocks, and may be con- 
 sidered as the Rocky Mountain equivalent of the Lauren- 
 tian of Eastern geologists. They consist here of granites, 
 gneisses, and amphibolites. 
 
 Granites. — -The granites are, in most cases, distinctly 
 stratified and of undoubted sedimentary origin. In other 
 cases the evidence is less clear and at times they even have 
 characteristics of eruptive granites. In composition they 
 belong to the normal type of granite, viz., those which con- 
 sist of quartz, two feldspars, biotite, and muscovite. They 
 are generally very coarse-grained and contain large twin 
 crystals of orthoclase porphyritically distributed. In color 
 
 they are gray or red, the latter tint being more prominent 
 in the coarse-grained varieties; but in some instances fine- 
 grained, deep-red granites, not unlike the famous Aberdeen 
 granites, occur. There is sometimes a foliated structure 
 approaching that of gneiss, especially where found imme- 
 diately adjoining sedimentary rocks. Within the mass of 
 normal granite occur large, irregular, vein-like white masses 
 of secondary origin, corresponding to the German definition 
 of pegmatite. They consist of large, inter-grown crystals 
 of white orthoclase, microcline, and quartz, with irregular 
 masses of muscovite. 
 
 Gneiss. — Among gneisses the mica-gneiss is the prevailing 
 type; hornblende gneiss, which is so frequent in other 
 Archaean masses to the north, being comparatively rare. 
 Their composition is similar to that of granites. In struc- 
 ture, however, they present a great variety of forms, from 
 the normal gneiss structure, with fine, even grain and con- 
 stant composition in the different layers, to a coarse-grained 
 porphyritical structure, containing large twin crystals of 
 orthoclase and approaching that of the coarse-grained 
 granites. 
 
 Amphibolites. — ^The amphibolites are of less frequent oc- 
 currence than either of the previously-mentioned rocks, 
 and occur interstratified with them in layers of varying 
 thickness, and sometimes in large lenticular bodies. Under 
 this name are included hornblende rocks of less marked 
 schistose structure than is common in normal gneisses or 
 schists. They consist mainly of quartz, two feldspars, and 
 hornblende, with not infrequent biotite. 
 
 Paleozoic Formations. — Among Paleozoic formations 
 beds of the Cambrian, Silurian, and Carboniferous groups 
 have been recognized, although, owing to the difficulty of 
 obtaining distinct fossils in such a highly metamorphosed 
 region, the limits of the two first mentioned have not been 
 definitely fixed. The question of the existence or absence 
 of Devonian beds is one upon which too little evidence has 
 been gathered for a definite decision. Such as it is, it is 
 purely of a negative character, viz., that no undoubted De- 
 vonian forms have yet been found in the Rocky Mountains, 
 and that in the area under survey a slight, though-not un- 
 questionable, evidence of non-conformity by erosion exists 
 between the horizons of the Carboniferous and Siluriai;i 
 periods. A comprehensive idea of the relative thickness 
 and general character of these beds will be given by the 
 subjoined table of -the average section obtained in Mosquito 
 Range, to which is added, for purposes of comparison, a 
 typical section of corresponding beds in the Wahsatch 
 Range,* and a section of the same in the region of the 
 Lower Colorado, made by Mr. C. D. Walcott.f 
 
 Mosquito section ; 4,050-5,600 feet; possible unconformity by erosion. 
 
 Carboniferous . 
 3,700 ft. 
 
 to 
 4,000 ft. 
 
 Silurian . . . 
 
 200 ft. 
 .Cambrian . . . 
 
 200 ft. 
 
 Upper Coal measure 
 
 . limestones . . . 
 
 Weber grits . . 
 
 Weber shales , . . , 
 
 Blue limestone . . 
 
 Parting quartzite . . 
 White limestone 
 
 Lower quartzite . , . 
 
 1000 
 to 
 1500 
 
 Usoo-! 
 
 40 
 160 
 160 
 to 
 200 
 
 Blue and drab limestones and dolomites, with red sandstones and shales. Mud shales at top. 
 
 Coarse white sandstones, passing inti consilomerates and siliceous and highly micaceous 
 hales, with occasional beds of olaclc argillite and blue dolomitic limestone. 
 
 Calcareous and carbonaceous shales, with (juartzite. 
 Compact, heavy-bedded, dark-blue dolomitic limestone, 
 of Dlack chert. 
 
 Siliceous concretions at top, in form 
 
 White quartzite. 
 
 Light-gray siliceous dolomitic limestone, with white chert concretions. 
 
 White quartzite, passing into calcareous and argillaceous shales above. 
 
 Kanab (Colorado River) section ; 5,000 feet ; unconformities by erosion. 
 
 Permian . . 
 855 ft. 
 
 Carboniferous . 
 3,260 ft. 
 
 Devonian . 
 100 ft. 
 
 Cambrian . 
 786 ft. 
 
 Upper Permian . 
 Lower Permian .. . 
 Upper Aubrey 
 
 Lower Aubrey . . . 
 
 Red Wall limestone 
 
 Devonian. ... 
 
 Tonto Group . , . 
 
 710 
 115 
 835 
 
 1,455 
 
 970 
 
 235 
 550 H- 
 
 Gypsiferous and arenaceous shales and marls, with impure shaly limestone at base. 
 
 Same as above, with more mtissivo limestone. 
 
 Massive cherty limestone, witli gypsiferous arenaceous bed, passing down into calciferous 
 sandrock. 
 
 Friable, reddish sandstone, passing dcvn into more massive and compact sandstone below. A 
 ffiw fillets of impure limestone intercalated. 
 
 Arenaceous and cherty limestone 235 feet, with massive limestone beneath. Cherty layers coin- 
 cident with bedding near base. 
 
 Sandstone and impure limestone. 
 
 Massive mottled limestone, with 50 feet sandstone at base. 
 
 Tliin-bedHedj motiled limestono in massive layers. Green arenaceous and micaceous shales 100 
 feet at the base. 
 
 Geological Exploration of the 40th parallel. 
 
 t American Journal of Science, Saptember, 1880, page 222. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 165 
 
 Wahsatch Beetlon ; 30,000 feet; conformable. 
 
 Permian . . 
 
 650 ft. 
 
 Carboniferous 
 15,000 ft. 
 
 Waverley. 
 
 Devonian . . 
 2,400 ft. 
 
 Silurian . . . . 
 
 1,000 ft. 
 Cambrian . . , 
 
 12,000 ft. 
 
 Permian . . . . 
 
 Upper Coal - measure 
 
 limestone. 
 Weber quartzite 
 
 Wahsatch limestone. > 
 
 Ogden quartzite . . 
 Ute limestone . . 
 Cambrian 
 
 650 
 2,000 
 6,000 
 7,000 
 
 1,000 
 1,000 
 12,000 
 
 Clays, marls, and limestones, shallow. 
 
 Blue and drab limestones, passing into sandstones. 
 
 Compact sandstone and quartzite, often reddish; intercalations of lime, argillites, and con- 
 glomerate. 
 Heavy-bodded blue and gray limestone, with siliceous admixture, especially near the top. 
 
 Pure quartzite, with conglomerate. 
 Compact, or shaly siliceous limestone. 
 Siliceous schists and quartzite. 
 
 NoTK.— Planes of unconformity by erosion denoted by doable dividing lines. 
 
 Cambrian. — Lower quartzites. — The beds assigned pro- 
 visorily to this horizon, are prevailingly quartzites ; to them, 
 therefore, the local name of Lower quartzites has been given. 
 Their average thickness is about 150 feet, of which the lower 
 100 feet are composed of evenly-bedded white saccharoidal 
 quartzites, while the upper 50 feet are shaly in character and 
 more or less calcareous, passing by almost imperceptible 
 transition into the siliceous limestone aboVe. At the base a 
 thickness of a foot or more is conglomeritic and stained with 
 oxide of iron. Above this is a heavy white quartzite of re- 
 markably uniform and persistent character, from 40 to 100 
 feet in thickness, always very readily distinguished as a white 
 line in the numerous sections afforded by the cafion walls of 
 the range. Primordial fossils belonging to the Potsdam 
 epoch were found in the shaly beds above this quartzite. In 
 its upper portion also occurs a remarkably persistent stratum, 
 about a foot in thickness, of siliceous limestone, to which 
 the local name Red Cast bed has been given, from the red 
 concretions resembling casts of fossils which are constantly 
 found in it. The siliceous dolomites near the dividing line 
 between this and the overlying series contain local develop- 
 ments of serpentine, resulting from metamorphic Action, 
 which range in color from a dark, beautifully veined verd- 
 antique green to a homogeneous mass of yellow tint re- 
 sembling beeswax, not only in color but in texture. 
 
 ■Silaria,n.^ White limestone.— The beds of this horizon, 
 to which the above local name has been given from their 
 prevailing light color as distinguished from the formation 
 immediately succeeding, consist in the main of light-drab 
 dolomites, containing, besides the normal proportion of 
 lime and magnesia, from 10 per cent, upwards of silica. 
 They are thinly .bedded, compact rather than crystalline, 
 often with conchoidal fracture, and only rarely of absolutely 
 white color. Their characteristic feature is the occurrence 
 in certain beds of concretions of white, semi-transparent 
 hornstone or chert. Their average thickness is about 150 to 
 160 feet. 
 
 Parting quartzite.— Above the White limestone occurs a 
 remarkably persistent bed of rather variable thickness, to 
 which the local name of Parting quartzite has been given, 
 and which, in the absence of any direct geological evidence, 
 has been included in the Silurian group. It has an average 
 thickness of from 10 to 40 feet, and is not to be distinguished 
 lithologically from the numerous white quartzites found at 
 other horizons. It is, however, of geological importance as 
 determining the dividing line between the Silurian andCar- 
 boniferous groups. The fossil evidence obtained as to the 
 age of the above formation is rather meager, being confined 
 to a few Niao-ara forms found near its base, and to fornis ot 
 the Trenton and Calciferous epochs contained in float frag- 
 ments which probablv came from this horizon. . , , , 
 
 Carboniferous.— .Bfee limestone.— The beds included 
 under this local name, and which, from the fact that they 
 form the ore-bearing rocks par excellence ot the region, it is 
 most important to be able to trace accurately, are fortunately 
 marked by persistent and characteristic features. iney 
 have an average thickness of 150 to 200 feet. Their compo- 
 sition, which is remarkably regular, is that of normal do o- 
 mite, cOBtaining a very ^all percentage of silica. I" color 
 they are of a deep grayish blue, often nearly black above, 
 while some of the lower beds are lighter, approaching the 
 drak and, where locally bleached, difficult to distinguish 
 lithologically fro-u the underlying White hmestone. 
 
 The 
 
 upper bed is well marked by characteristic concretions of 
 black chert, frequently hollow in the center, and often Con- 
 taining within their mass distinct casts of fossils. ,T}ie 
 typical rock is generally granular or coarsely crystalline, and 
 has a characteristic ribbed structure produced by irregular 
 lines and spots of white crystalline dolomite, resulting from 
 the dissolving out and redeposition of this material. The 
 principal characteristics, therefore, which distinguish the 
 ore-bearing limestone from the underlying White limestone 
 are, first, its color ; second, its composition, the latter being 
 invariably more siliceous ; third, its texture, which is gener- 
 ally crystalline, while the latter is more frequently compact ; 
 fourth," the chert secretions, which in the former are always 
 black and in the latter light colored or white ; to which may 
 be added the fact that the Blue limestone is generally more 
 heavily bedded than the Whit«. The fossils obtained, which 
 were comparatively abundant in the upper beds, contain, 
 among prevailing Coal-measure forms, some which belong 
 to the Lower or Sub-carboniferous of the East. 
 
 Weber grits. — The rocks included under this head form 
 a series of relatively great thickness and of prevailing sili- 
 ceous composition. At their base, immediately above the 
 Blue limes'.one, occurs a series of shales and quartzites of 
 very variable thickness and composition. The thickness may 
 be roughly estimated at 150 feet. The quartzites are not to be 
 distinguished from other quartzites of the region, while the 
 shales are sometimes green, more frequently black, and highly 
 carbonaceous argillites which are generally impregnated with 
 pyrites, and contain at times beds of impure anthracite coal. 
 Locally there are developments of impure dolomite, which, as 
 well as the shales, are often very rich in coal-measure fossils. 
 The Weber grits proper, which have an average thickness of 
 about 2,500 feet, consist of coarse white sandstones, passing 
 into conglomerates, containing pebbles of Archsean rocks, 
 most frequently white or pinkish quartz. They have a 
 varying admixture of finely-dissemijiated carbonaceous ma- 
 terial, which at times gives them an almost black color. 
 Besides the sandstone there are abundant schists, generally 
 siliceous, and always rich in brilliant white mica. At 
 irregular intervals through the horizon are found beds of 
 compact black argillite, sometimes calcareous, and about 
 the middle of the series two persistent beds of blue-gray 
 dolpmite, frdm ten to fifty feet in thickness. 
 
 tipper Coal-measure Limestone — ^Less favorable opportu- 
 nities were offered for studying this group than either 
 of the preceding, and its limite are therefore less defi- 
 nitely determined. It consists mainly of calcareous beds, 
 alternating with coarse reddish sandstones and quartz- 
 ites, more or less micaceous, and sometimes passing into 
 mica-schists. Its lower limit is drawn at the base of the 
 first important limestone bed above the siliceous series of 
 the Weber grits. This limestone, locally called the Robin- 
 son limestone, from the fact that it forms the ore-bearing 
 horizon of an important mine of that name in the Ten-mile 
 district, is noticeable from the fact that it is the only true 
 limestone observed among the calcareous beds of the re- 
 gion; the others are all practically dolomites of varying 
 purity. As developed in this mine it is of a drab color and 
 of peculiarly compact texture, resembling a lithographic 
 stone. These textural characteristics are apparently not 
 persistent, however, not having been recognized in other 
 portions of the region. Several beds of blue-gray limestone, 
 and one of a very fossiliferous black limestone, were ob- 
 
166 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AISD MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 served on the western flanks of Mount Silverheels, and in 
 the upper horizons of the Ten-mile district were found mud 
 shales, recalling the Permo-Carboniferous beds of the Wah- 
 satch. No fossils other than coal-measure forms were 
 found, however. The red sandstones of this group are dis- 
 tinguished from the overlying Triassic rocks by a deeper 
 color, approaching a Venetian red, whereas in the latter it 
 is rather a light brick-red. 
 
 Quaternary. — The Quaternary formations are the 
 Lake Beds and the Recent formations, including drift and 
 moraines. The former were deposited in the bed of a 
 fresh-water lake at the head of the Arkansas during the in- 
 termediate flood period of the Glacial epoch. The material 
 of which they are composed is therefore not essentially 
 difierent from that of the moraine material, but it is dis- 
 tinguished from it by its bedded structure. These beds 
 consist at times of fragments, more or less rounded, of 
 various rocks which make up the range, frequently with 
 calcareous cement, and at other times of a mixture of clays 
 resulting from the decomposition of porphyry, and of de- 
 composed granite, and still again of earthy marls. In the 
 recent beds are included not only the later alluvial deposits, 
 where these are accumulated in sufficient depth to obscure 
 the underlying rock, but also moraines and rearranged mo- 
 raine material, for which the local name of " Wash " has 
 been preserved. 
 
 The Paleozoic rocks described above have an aggregate 
 thickness of between 4,000 and 5,000 feet. In the seas in 
 which they were deposited, however, a continuous sedimen- 
 tation went on through the successive Triassic, Jurassic, 
 and Cretaceous periods, it being at the close of the lat- 
 ter that the dynamic movements took place which resulted 
 in the folding and fracturing which raised the Mosquito 
 Range to its present position. From data available their 
 thickness may be estimated at not less than 7,000 feet. 
 Probably the greater part, if not the whole, of these sed- 
 iments were already accumulated at the bottom of the 
 ocean before the intrusion of the Secondary eruptive 
 rocks now found in the region, and which will be next de- 
 scribed. An explanation of their exceptionally crystalline 
 structure may therefore be found in the fact that they 
 solidified under the pressure of a thickness of at least 10,000 
 feet of superincumbent beds. 
 
 Eruptive or Igneous Rooks. — The eruptive rocks of 
 the district are mostly of Mesozoic age, and belong to the 
 general types of porphyries* and diorites, or those in which 
 
 * In the ab52nce of any universally accepted classification and 
 definition of eruptive rocks of Secondary agj, it seems important to 
 state here the system adopted and the reasons therefor. To the use 
 of the term porphyry, as applied to a type of rooks of definite a'e 
 and composition, the very valid objection may be brought that in 
 its original acceptation it simply defined a certain type of structure, 
 viz., that of a fine-grained or amorplious groundmass containing 
 larger crystals porpnyritioally imbedded. On the other hand, the 
 custom of applying this term to orthoclastic porpliyritio rocks of 
 Secondary age has become so firmly established by long-continued 
 usage that it would seem unwise to abandon the present use of the 
 term until a satisfactory substitute were found which would be re- 
 ceived by all lithologistB. The normal quartz-porphyry is a por- 
 phyritic compound of quartz, prevailing ortnoclase, and sgme 
 plagioelase feldspar, with mica or hornblende, in which the ground- 
 mass contains more or less isotropic amorphous material. A granite- 
 porphyry, on the other hand, is a porphyritic rock of similar 
 composition in which the groundmass contains only cry.stallinE and 
 no amorphous material. It is distinguished from granite, structur- 
 ally, by the fact that it has a porphyritic rather than an evenly 
 crystalline texture, but, like granite, it contains microscopically 
 only fluid and no glassy inclusions. The rocks described above 
 are, however, essentially crystalline as viewed under the microscope, 
 though certain specimens contain a limited amount of amorphous 
 material, and glassy inclusions are found in them, but less fre- 
 quently than fluid inclusions. Strictly defined, therefore, they 
 cannot be considered as granite-porphyries, though frequently 
 indistinguishable from them in the hand-specimen. Rosenbusch 
 has proposed (Jiosenbitsch, Muss. Gesteine, pp. 85-87) to separata 
 all such rocks from the quartz or felsite-porphyries, and call tlK'in 
 micro-granites. To call the rooks in (luestion micro-granites, linw- 
 ever, would be to add a new and .sjinewhat ambiguous term to the 
 already suffieiently confused lithological nomenclature, without 
 gaining thereby in clearness of definition, since although they 
 approach granite in microscopical structure, they are widely diver- 
 gent from it in geological habitus. It has been judged best there- 
 fore, to preserve the tsrm quartz-porphyry, which is sanctioned by 
 local usage, and of which they form the extreme crystalline type. 
 
 monoclinic or triclinic feldspars are relatively predominant. 
 Of Tertiary eruptive rocks, which are closely allied to. the 
 products of modern volcanoes, the only representatives are 
 andesites, which occur at Biiifalo Peaks, and rhyolite of the 
 crystalline variety classed by Richthofen as Nevadite. 
 
 White or Leadville Porphyry — Constitutes the 
 most distinct and well-characterized variety of the porphy- 
 ries. It is a white, homogeneous-looking rock, composed of 
 quartz and feldspar, of even, granular texture, in which the 
 porphyritical ingredients, which are accidental rather than 
 essential, arp small rectangular crystals of white feldspar, 
 occasional double pyramids of quartz, and fresh, hexagonal 
 plates of biotite, or black mica. More frequent than either 
 of the above are aggregations of fine leaflets of muscovite, 
 or white mica, which are a secondary product resulting from 
 the decomposition of feldspar. The rock is always in a 
 more or less advanced state of decomposition, which is first 
 shown by the opaqueness of its feldspars and the develop- 
 ment of spots of muscovite, and in its extreme stage in the 
 neighborhood of the ore deposits results in a general soften- 
 ing of the mass, due to the kaolinization of the feldspar. 
 Among the miners of Leadville it is known also as " Block 
 Porphyry," on account of its tendency to split up into 
 angular blocks ; and also as " Forest Rock," from the depo- 
 sition of dendritic oxide of manganese on the surfaces of 
 such fragments. Its composition is that of normal quartz 
 porphyry, containing about 70 per cent, of silica. 
 
 Other Porphjrries.^-All the other forms of porphyry 
 found, which, though presenting a number of varieties in 
 the field, have essentially the same general composition, 
 both mineralogical and chemical. They consist generally 
 of quartz, two feldspars, and biotite ; hornblende occurring 
 as an essential ingredient in only one variety. The crystal- 
 line ingredients are easily distinguishable by the eye, and 
 there is, therefore, no danger of confounding them in the 
 field with White porphyry. This crystalline structure, on 
 the other hand is often so far developed that they are not 
 readily distinguishable by the nntechnical eye from granites ; . 
 as such, indeed, they are generally classed by the miner. A 
 careful examination, however, readily reveals their struc- 
 tural difference, which is that in them the larger crystals are 
 enclosed in a finer-grained groundmass, whereas between 
 the crystals of granite there is no such intervening and ap- 
 parently structureless material. 
 
 Lincoln porphyry. — The principal subdivision of this 
 group has been called Lincoln porphyry, from the fact that 
 it is typically developed in the mountain mass around Mount 
 Lincoln. It consists of quartz, orthoclase and plagioelase 
 feldspars, and biotite. Its most striking peculiarity is the 
 frequent occurrence of large crystals of rather glassy-looking 
 orthoclase feldspar about one inch in length. The quartz, 
 which occurs in double pyramids, appears to have a rounded 
 outline, and frequently a delicate rose tint. The mica is 
 found in hexagonal plates, generally decomposed and of 
 greenish color. Although the type-rock does not occur in 
 the immediate vicinity of Leadville, a variety known as Gray 
 porphyry, which does not differ in its essential constituents, 
 and occupies generally the same stratigraphical position, is 
 a prominent feature in the geology of that region. It has a 
 prevailing dark greenish-gray color, due to the alteration of 
 the constituents of its groundmass ; but when found in the 
 mines, where it is more thoroughly decomposed, it is quite 
 white, and only to bo distinguished from the White porphyry 
 by the traces left of outlines of former crystalline ingredients. 
 The large feldspars are often finely developed, but the 
 groundmass is relatively more prominent than in the Lincoln 
 porphyry proper. The Sf)ecimens analyzed yielded 66 per 
 cent, of silica for the Lincoln porphyry and 68 for the 
 Gray. 
 
 Sacramento porphyry. — The second important variety of 
 quartz porphyry receives its name from the locality of 
 its typical occurrence, which is at the head of the Sacra- 
 mento Gulches. At first glance it does not differ from the 
 Lincoln porphyry, except in the absence of the large feld- 
 spar crystals. It contains the same large rosy quartz-grains, 
 two feldspars and biotite, but is distinguished fr6m it by 
 carrying hornblende also. It is in general comparatively- 
 fresh, and perhaps more likely to be confounded with granite 
 than even the Lincoln porphyry. This rock does not opcur 
 on the surl'ace within the Leadville region, although the 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 167 
 
 variety next to be described, which occupies a nearly equiv- 
 alent stratigraphical position there, may be allied to it. 
 
 Pyritiferous porpkyry.^-This rock, which forms an extreme- 
 ly important mass in the Leadville region, is found in such 
 a universally decomposed condition that its original con- 
 stituents cannot definitely be determined. It is generally 
 of a white color, with grayish-green or pinkish tints, com- 
 
 ?aratively fine-grained, with no traces of the large crystals, 
 a it can be distinguished small grains of white feldspar, 
 quartz, biotite . which is generally altered to a chloritic sub- 
 stance, and pyrite. The latter ingredient, from which it 
 derives its name, is found abundantly scattered through 
 the rock in crystals, often so fine as to be indistinguishable 
 by the naked eye. They occur at times within the crystals 
 of quartz and biotite, and are hence supposed to be an 
 original constituent of the rock. They are frequently con- 
 centrated along cleavage planes, sometimes associated with 
 finely disseminated crystals of galena. Pyritiferous por- 
 phyry is readily distinguished from the White porphyry by 
 Its crystalline constituents. It differs from the Sacramento 
 and Gray porphyries by a relatively small amount of plagio- 
 clase feldspar, and from the former by the absence of horn- 
 blende. Its most strikingly distinctive feature is the amount 
 of pyrites which it contains, wliich is estimated to constitute, 
 on the average, 4 per cent, of its mass. Besides the above- 
 mentioned varieties are the Silverheels, the Mosquito, and 
 the Green porphyries, only the former of which is found in 
 any considerable mass. The others are generally fine-grained, 
 of a greenish tinge, and present no important typical features, 
 having approximately the same ultimate composition as 
 those already mentioned. 
 
 Dioritic Kocks. — DioHte. Of the rocks in which plagio- 
 clase feldspar is the characteristic ingredient the crystalline 
 ■ type or diorite, which is the structural equivalent of granite, 
 is of comparatively rare occurrence. 
 
 Porphyrite. — Its porphyritic variety, known as porphyrite, 
 is, however, extremely well developed in the region, so 
 that an excellent opportunity was aiforded for its study. 
 As the rocks themselves do not occur in the Leadville 
 region, nor have any economic bearing, no further men- 
 tion of them need be made here. 
 
 Rock Formations— Distribution.— The superficial 
 distribution of the various sedimentary formations, or the 
 relative area covered by their outcrops, being a function of, 
 or dependent upon, erosion, are intimately connected with 
 the existing topographical structure of the region. Were 
 erosion the only factor to be considered, the Archaean rocks 
 would be found exposed continuously on the west side of a 
 line, approximately representing the old shore line, and in 
 the deeper drainage valleys and anticlinal axes of the east- 
 ern side. The displacements of the numerous faults which 
 run through the region have, however, considerably modi- 
 fied this normal distribution. In point of fact, the central 
 portion in the latitude of Leadville is mainly covered by 
 the outcrops of Paleozoic sedimentary beds and intruded 
 masses of porphyry ; the Archaean exposure being confined 
 to deep glacial amphitheatres near the crest of the range, 
 and to minor masses which represent the eroded crests of 
 anticlinal folds. In the northern portion of the area, Arch- 
 £ean rocks are exposed along the main crest of the range 
 and in the deep cafion valleys and glacial amphitheaters of 
 the streams which flow into the Platte ; the Paleozoic beds 
 being found only on the easterly sloping flanks of the in- 
 cluded spurs. On the western side of the range, owing to 
 the displacement of the great Mosquito Fault, the area 
 adjoining the valley of the East Fork of the Arkansas is 
 covered by beds of the Weber grits formation, while a bor- 
 dering fringe of outcrops of Lower Quartzite, and White 
 and Blue Limestone beds is found on the northern and 
 eastern rim of Tennessee Park. The western limit of the 
 Paleozoic beds is a line running southeasterly from the 
 forks of the Arkansas to the crest of the range at Weston s 
 Pass, and southward along the crest approximately in a 
 north and south line. West of this line are found only the 
 a-ranites and schists of the Archrean, and irregular dikes and 
 intruded masses of porphyry. In the area included be- 
 tween this line and the crest of the range are triangular 
 zones of easterly-dipping sedimentary beds, in some cases 
 formini- a continuous series from the Cambrian to the Upper 
 Coal-measures, cut off abruptly by fault lines, and suc- 
 
 ceeded again on the east by Archaean exposures. On the 
 west of the crest the Paleozoic beds slope regularly back 
 beneath the floor of the South Park, the Archaean rocks 
 being found only in the deeper hollows at the head of the 
 streams. Beyond the limits of the map the outcrops of the 
 more resisting beds of Mesozoic age form parallel ridges, 
 running across South Park from north to south. 
 
 Eruptive — Distribution. — The most .striking fact con- 
 nected with the distribution of the Secondary eruptive rocks 
 is that an east and west line drawn through'Leadville repre- 
 sents very closely the limit of the two main varieties of 
 porphyry recognized above. South of a line drawn through 
 Empire and Horseshoe Gulches, the White porphyry is 
 absolutely the only one which has been found within the 
 limits of our exploration, while it is practically wanting 
 north of the line through Evans and Mosquito Gulches, the 
 only exceptions being dikes of comparatively insignificant 
 size, and not absolutely identical in structure. 
 
 Mode of Occurrence. — In their mode of occurrence the 
 type feature is that of intrusive masses, which are developed 
 on a scale of unprecedented magnitude, and follow certain 
 horizons with remarkable regularity. These inter-bedded 
 sheets are found to have a maximum thickness at certain 
 points, or along certain lines, and to become thinner in pro- 
 portion to their distance from such central point, which is 
 probably near a vent or channel through which they were 
 erupted. This form resembles the structure of the intrusive 
 masses of the Henry Mountains, which have received from 
 Mr. G. K. Gilbert the name of Laccolites. Nor is the 
 resemblance confined to external structure, but extends also 
 to internal texture and mineralogical composition. It is 
 probable that this mode of occurrence of eruptive rocks, 
 viz., as intrusive masses, which originally did not reach the 
 surface, but were forced up to a certain horizon and then 
 spread out between the beds, is far more common than has 
 hitherto been suspected by geologists. It is difiicult to 
 conceive of the conditions under which a fused mass could 
 pry open strata to a width of 1,000 feet or more, overcoming 
 the weight of 10,000 feet of superincumbent rocks, and 
 spread itself out in a continuous sheet between the beds to 
 a distance of ten miles from the point or line of eruption. 
 That they did exist, however^ can be clearly demonstrated 
 in this region, thanks to the intense action of folding and 
 faulting, and the enormous amount of erosion which has 
 taken place since such eruption, and afforded exceptional 
 opportunities for a study of their form and extent. 
 
 Intrusive Masses. — The main sheet of White porphyry 
 which lies upon the suriace of the Blue limestone had its 
 principal vent at the head of Four Mile Creek, where it 
 can be seen breaking through the underlying beds, and 
 forming the main mass of a hill 2,000 feet high. The 
 gradually thinning outcrops of this sheet can be traced 
 southward continuously along the east slopes of the ranee 
 nearly to Buffalo Peaks, and back again on the west side 
 from Weston's Pass to Empire Gulch. The continuity of 
 the outcrop on an east and west line is broken by faulting 
 and erosion, but wherever the Blue limestone is found this 
 sheet occurs, with some unimportant exceptions, directly 
 above it, following all its undulations. Of less uniform 
 extent are sheets of White porphyry at lower horizons, 
 generally between the Blue and White limestone, whose 
 principal development is in the vicinity of Leadville. One 
 important mass can also be seen on the south wall of Horse- 
 shoe Creek, breaking up across Weber grits beds and then 
 spreading out between the strata. 
 
 Intrusive masses of the other porphyries are found devel- 
 oped on an even greater scale than those of the White por- 
 phyry. Although no single sheet has been traced over so 
 great an area as in the case of the former, they have a much 
 greater vertical distribution, extending up to tlie Jurassic 
 and possibly even into Cretaceous beds. In one single sec- 
 tion over fifteen sheets, many several hundred feet thick, 
 were counted between the Blue limestone and the top of the 
 Carboniferous. The great aggregate thickness of beds thus 
 added to the conformable Paleozoic sediments must have 
 given them in their original position an arched form, which 
 is now seen in a very marked change in the strike of out- 
 crops, where there has been the greatest accumulation of 
 intrusive masses, as on the line of Mount Silverheels on the 
 east, and of Sheep and Jack Mountains in Ten-Mile District 
 
168 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 on the west of the range. In many cases quite thin sheets 
 show most remarkable uniformity of thickness and position 
 over comparatively large areas ; for instance, along the 
 walls of Mosquito Canon a twenty-foot bed of porphyrite, 
 occurring between the Blue and White limestone, can be 
 traced continuously several miles. While these intrusive 
 sheets follow by preference one definite plane, they not in- 
 frequently change their horizon, crossing an intervening 
 bed ; in one case also a second sheet is seen to have forced 
 itself horizontally through the mass of an already interbed- 
 ded sheet. 
 
 Dikes.— While by far the greater mass of igneous rocks 
 occurs in the form of intrusive beds, the dike form is by no 
 means uncommon, although the normal dike with regular 
 parallel walls, generally figured in text-books, is seldom 
 seen ; on the other hand, large masses, of no regular form 
 and apparently quite independent of stratification lines, 
 which are intermediate between the normal dike and the in- 
 trusive sheet, are quite common. Dikes are generally ibund 
 in the crystalline or Archaean rocks, and may be best ob- 
 served in the glacial amphitheaters. They are generally 
 narrow sheets from 20 to 50 feet in thickness, and of no great 
 longitudinal extent. A not uncommon form is the " inter- 
 rupted dike," a succession of outcrops of porphyry or por- 
 phyrite on the same general line, separated by short inter- 
 vals of the enclosing rock mass. These may be projecting 
 points of one main sheet, or independent chimneys, the for- 
 mer seeming more probable from their close proximity and 
 identical composition. Dikes within dikes are found as 
 well as intrusive sheets within intrusive sheets. Dikes are 
 also found extending up through the crystalline rocks into 
 the overlying Paleozoic beds ; wherever observed on canon 
 walls they were found to end abruptly at a definite, although 
 not always the same, horizon. Opportunities for actually 
 tracing the dike as the feeding-channel of an intrusive sheet 
 were comparatively rare. 
 
 Relative age. — The evidence as to the relative age of the 
 different varieties of porphyry, though generally satisfac- 
 tory, offers some apparent contradictions ; these 'may, how- 
 ever, be explained on the supposition that the eruption of 
 any one variety was not strictly confined to a single definite- 
 ly marked period, but was intermittent. In other words, 
 after a main eruptive mass had consolidated and been suc- 
 ceeded by eruptions of other rocks or from difierent mag- 
 mas, a renewed activity took place in the magma of the first 
 rock, which resulted in later intrusions of less magnitude. 
 Thus the White porphyry is definitely the oldest of the 
 Secondary rocks. The great mass of the Sacramento por- 
 phyry, whose main vent apparently adjoined that of the 
 former, between the head of Little Sacramento and Big 
 Evans Gulches, contains caught-up portions of the White 
 porphyry and of the Weber grits. The main sheet of Gray 
 porphyry in the Leadville region occurs above, sometimes 
 replacing the White porphyry, while other intrusive masses 
 of this rock are found cutting across both White porphyry 
 and the sedimentary strata which enclose it. It is also signi- 
 ficant that the White porphyry is the most thoroughly crys- 
 talline of all the Secondary eruptive rocks, and generally 
 occupies a lower geological horizon. On the other hand, 
 dikes of White porphyry have been found cutting across 
 interbedded masses of Lincoln porphyry, which seems to be 
 the equivalent in age and position of the Gray. 
 
 Contact phenomena. — There is a notable absence in the 
 region of strongly marked contact phenomena in the sedi- 
 mentary beds, that is, changes which have resulted from the 
 contact of a fused mass, such as a baking or vitrification. 
 The changes which are found in them near intrusive masses 
 are evidently rather the result of the action of percolating 
 waters. Within the eruptive rocks themselves the usual 
 phenomena observed near the outer surface of cooling mass- 
 es are found here along their contact with the enclosing 
 rock, viz., a finer grain and different relative distribution of 
 mineral constitutents as contrasted with the average charac- 
 ter of the rock, and a tendency to development of laminated 
 structure at the actual contact. Angular fragments ot the 
 enclosing rock are, morever, so abundant at times along the 
 contact as to form a regular breccia. 
 
 Glacial phenomena. — Of the forces of erosion and abrasion 
 which have removed an aggregate thickness of about 10,000 
 feet of sedimentary beds, together with an unknown amount 
 
 of eruptive rocks, from a great portion of the area examined, 
 only the latter phases, viz., those which have acted during 
 and since the Glacial period, come "directly under observa- 
 tion. As already stated, the present investigations afford evi- 
 dence of the existence during the Glacial period of two 
 epochs of maximum cold, separated by one of higher tem- 
 perature. In its general bearing this fact presents no nov- 
 elty, but is merely confirmatory of observations already 
 made by American, as well as European geologists, who 
 have arrived at the same conclusion by reasoning from dif- 
 ferent classes of phenomena, astronomical as well as terres- 
 trial. The warmer intervening period here was, owing to 
 the melting of enormous ice masses and great precipitation, 
 I one of great floods, which caused a rapid degradation, as 
 well as the removal of existing detritus, and where, as at the 
 head of the Arkansas Valley, conditions were favorable to 
 the formation of a lake, by the damming up of the waters, 
 the coarse detrital material was deposited in regular beds, of 
 relatively great thickness at its bottom. While, therefore, the 
 actual outlines, as here given, might be modified by more 
 complete data, the information obtained is quite sufficient to 
 establish the following important facts: 
 
 I. That the present moraines have been deposited over the 
 Lake beds; consequently that the glaciers by which they 
 were formed existed after the deposition of the latter and 
 the draining of the lake in which they were deposited. 
 
 II. That since the latter epoch there has been an elevation of 
 the mountain, mass, relatively to the adjoining valley, amount- 
 ing in one place to over 1,000 feet. This is proved by the 
 existence of Lake beds at an elevation, on the spurs adjoin- 
 ing Iowa Gulch, of 11,000 feet; by the angle at which they 
 now stand on the ridges adjoining the Arkansas Valley, and 
 by the fact that where they are nearly horizontal, in the 
 center of the basin, they have an average level of less than 
 10,000 feet. 
 
 Valleys. — In studying the configuration of the present 
 surface the valleys may be separated into three classes as 
 regards their age and manner of formation: 
 
 I. Glacial valleys. 
 
 II. Valleys of erosion. 
 
 III. Surface valleys. 
 
 The first, which owe their main outline to the carving of 
 glaciers, have in cross-section a characteristic U outline, 
 head in a glacial amphitheater, and have a comparatively 
 straight course. This original form is always more or less 
 modified by the same action which has formed the other 
 two kinds of valleys. To this class belong all the large 
 canons or valleys on the east side of the range, and the East 
 Fork of Arkansas, Evans, Iowa, and Empire Gulches on the 
 west. The second class, formed exclusively by the action 
 of ruiining water, which has cut through surface accumula- 
 tions into the hard rock mass, have a V shape; that is, the 
 sides are proportionately less steep, and the bottom narrower 
 than the former, while their course is generally tortuous, 
 being affected by the unequal resistance offered by different 
 positions or textures of rocks. They also want the amphi- 
 theater-shaped head. The third class are also valleys of 
 erosion, but cut out of surface accumulations, such as drift 
 or Lake beds, which have not yet become solid rock. They 
 are in consequence relatively wide and shallow, and have a 
 straighter course than the second class. The most striking 
 difference between these and ordinary valleys of erosion is 
 seen on a geological map, where the outline of outcrops 
 crossing the latter would have a re-entering angle in the 
 direction of the dip, whereas the former would cause no 
 divergence in the course of such outlines. This class wovild 
 be anywhere of more recent origin than the other two, and 
 in this region the second class is younger than the first. As 
 instances of surface valleys may fie mentioned. Little Evans, 
 Georgia, and Thompson's Gulches. The former drains the 
 amphitheater on the south face of Prospect Mountain, being 
 separated from Big Evans Valley only by a moraine ridge 
 formed by the glacier of the second epoch. It is thus proved 
 thatthe amphitheaters were carved out by the earlier set of 
 glaciers, since that from the Prospect Mountain amphithea- 
 ter was originally a branch of the main glacier from the 
 Evans amphitheater, and it was the moraine of the second 
 Evans glacier which, being placed across the mouth of the 
 Prospect Mountain amphitheater, necessitated its seeking a 
 new outlet for its waters. That at one time ice must have 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 169 
 
 filled the amphitheaters to their brim, and been in places 
 over 2,000 feet thick, is proved by their configuration and 
 the position of erratic blocks. 
 
 Ore Deposits. — A brief outline having thus been given 
 of the geological structure of the region, it will be next in 
 order to show the general characteristics of its ore deposits, 
 and give a brief rfisumi of the conclusions which have been 
 arrived at with regard to their origin and mode of formation. 
 Clasaification. — To a scientific description of natural objects, 
 the most valuable aid is a rational and universally accepted 
 system of classification. The first obstacle one encounters 
 in attempting a description of mineral deposits is the ab- 
 sence of such a classification. A rational system should 
 take account, not only of the present outward form of the 
 deposits, but also of its origin and manner of formation. 
 Mining geology in the United States has hereto found its 
 principal discussion in the courts of law ; and the authority 
 there generally accepted is the classical though now some- 
 what antiquated work of B. von Cotta. This book, which is 
 a most excellent compilation of what was known about the 
 ore deposits of the world twenty-five or thirty years since, 
 though containing manypreviously unrecorded observations, 
 presents no claims as a work of original scientific investiga- 
 tion ; and the classification adopted by Von Cotta takes ac- 
 count only of the external form of the deposits. It divides 
 them into four classes of veins or lodes : 
 
 1. Ordinary. {Gewohnliche-gdnge.) 
 
 2. Bedded. {Lager-gdnge.) 
 
 3. Contact. [Contact-gdnge) 
 
 4. Lenticular. [Lenticular- gdnge.) 
 
 The terms most current among mining men, which are 
 probably derived in great measure from the above seem to be : 
 
 True fissure veins. 
 
 Contact veins or deposits, 
 
 Pipe or rake veins. 
 
 Blanket Veins or Deposits. — ^The first are popu- 
 larly supposed to be the most valuable, since they occupy, 
 in general, a nearly vertical position, and may extend in- 
 definitely in depth. The term blanket deposit, on the 
 other hand, which is probably derived from the manias 
 of the Spanish miners, seems to be generally applied in 
 rather a derogatory sense to any horizontal sheet of ore. The 
 last,whoseproper definition has given rise to some discussion, 
 is derived from local usage in a small district in the north of 
 England, where valuable lead deposits are found in the Car- 
 boniferous or mountain limestone. According to Mr. West- 
 garth Foster this local usage classes as Rake veins fissures 
 analogous to the faults in the Coal-measures, but which con- 
 tain lead ore. When these are wide above and gradually 
 contract below they become Oash veins. Pipe veins, on the 
 other hand, are irregular deposits in the limestone, in shape 
 like the cavern so often found there. When these occupy 
 a nearly horizontal position between the strata they become 
 Flats, or flat veins. Since Von Cotta's time the most im- 
 portant general treatises on mineral deposits are those of Joh. 
 Grimm, of Pribram, and of Dr. A. von Groddeck, of Claus- 
 thal, which includes not only the ores of metals, but all 
 minerals useful in the arts, such as coal and salt. Grimm's 
 classification is very thorough, and takes account of the 
 origin of the deposits, but is too complicated for general ap- 
 plication. Von Groddeck divides all mineral deposits into 
 four general classes : 
 
 1st. Bedded deposits [geschichteten Lager stdtten), including 
 those which have been deposited at the bottoms of seas or 
 oceans, whether mechanically, or as chemical precipitates- 
 coal, gypsum, salt, etc. 
 
 2nd. Massive deposits (massigen Lagerstdtten), a rather 
 ill-defined division, including large masses of metallic 
 minerals impregnating a particular rock. 
 
 3rd. Deposits filling pre-existing cavities (Hohlraums-ful- 
 lungen), which include all veins or deposits, whatever their 
 .shape, whose vein-material is essentially difierent from the 
 
 enclosing rock. ' , , r j^-u \ 
 
 4th. Metamorphic deposits (meiamorphisc/ie Lagerstatten,) 
 including those which result from a more or less complete 
 metamorphism of the rock itself by metallic combinations. 
 In the last edition of Johnson's Encyclopaedia Prol. R. 
 Pumpelly, in his article on ore deposits, proposes the lol- 
 lowino- six divisions, in which the first two are based on the 
 texture or mineralogical composition of the enclosing rock; 
 
 and the three following considered as due chiefly to pre- 
 existing open cavities or fissures : 
 
 I. Disseminated concentrations. 
 
 1. Impregnations. Fallbands. 
 
 II. Aggregated concentrations. 
 
 1. Lenticular aggregations. 
 
 2. Irregular masses. 
 
 3. Reticulated veins. 
 
 4. Contact deposits. 
 
 III. Cave deposits. 
 
 IV. Gash veins. 
 V. Fissure veins. 
 
 VI. Surface deposits. 
 
 1. Residuary deposits. 
 
 2. Stream deposits. 
 
 3. Lake and bog deposits. 
 
 Undsr gash veins Pumpelly would include those fissures 
 which are limited to a certain bed or rock mass, while, his 
 fissure veins extend across difierent rock masses, without 
 any definite limit. A discussion of the above systems of 
 classification, which have been quoted simply as aids in the 
 subjoined description, would exceed the limits of the present 
 abstract. That the difierence of origin and manner of 
 formation should be a more important factor in the classi- 
 fication of ore deposits than has been the case hitherto is 
 generally admitted, but, owing to the fact that the definite 
 determination of such origin requires more laborious and. 
 expensive investigations, especially from a chemical point 
 of view, than .geologists are in general able or willing to 
 make, trustworthy data: are as yet too meager to form a basis 
 for a general classification from this standpoint. The ut- 
 most that can be claimed by this memoir is to contribute to 
 the general store of knowledge reliable facts in regard to an 
 important group of ore deposits, and to point out the bearing 
 of those facts upon the generally received theories of ore 
 deposition, and the modifications which they may suggest 
 in present classifications. The earlier geologists devoted 
 much speculation to the subject of the origin of metallic 
 minerals in ore deposits, and arrayed themselves on the side 
 respectively of the Neptunists or Plutonists, according as 
 they believed them to have been brought to their present 
 position by descending or ascending currents, whether gas- 
 eous or liquid. As pure theory has been gradually modified 
 by the results of actual investigation, the upholders of the 
 two opposing schools have come to concede, in this, as in 
 other questions of general bearing in geology, an element of 
 truth even in the views of their opponents. Only extremists 
 maintain that any series of geological phenomena admit of 
 but one explanation, or are due to one universal immediate 
 cause. It is generally agreed that subterranean waters, how- 
 ever deep-seated their apparent source, came originally from 
 the surface. It is moreover proved that no rocks are ab- 
 solutely impermeable to water, but as on the earth's surface, 
 so within its solid crust, there is a constant circulation either 
 through capillary pores, where it is not readily visible, or 
 through the larger and more apparent channels formed by 
 joints, cleavage planes, faults, dikes, and stratification lines, 
 the direction taken by such waters varying with difierent 
 local conditions. In the case, therefore, of ore deposits 
 which are derived from aqueous solutions circulating within 
 the earth's crust, a class which is constantly augmented by 
 scientific investigation, the question as to the immediate 
 source of the metals in the solutions from which they were 
 deposited, whether above or below the present position, is 
 one which must be determined independently in each in- 
 dividual case, and to which no general answer can probably 
 ever be given. 
 
 Leadville Deposits. — The present investigation has 
 proved of the ore deposits of Leadville and vicinity as re- 
 gards their origin — 
 
 I. That they have been derived from aqueous solutions. 
 II. That these solutions came from above. 
 
 III. That they derived their metallic contents from the neigh- 
 boring eruptive rocks. 
 
 IV. That in their original form they were deposited not 
 later than the Cretaceous epoch. 
 
 And as regards -their mode of formation — 
 
 I. That the metals were deposited from their solutions main- 
 ly as sulphides. 
 
 II. That the process of deposition of the vein-material wa3 
 
170 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 a chemical interchange, or actual replacement of the rock-mass 
 in which they were deposited. 
 
 III. That the mineral solutions or ore-currents concentrated 
 along natural water channels and followed hy preference the 
 bedding planes at a certain geological horizon ; but that they 
 also penetrated the mass of the adjoining rocks through cross- 
 joints and cleavage planes. 
 
 And with regard to distribution — 
 
 I. That the main mass of argentiferous lead ores is found 
 in calcareo-magnesian rocks ; 
 
 II. That the siliceous rocks, porphyries, and crystalline 
 rocks contain proportionately more gold and copper. 
 
 As regards classification it is more difficult to make a de- 
 finite statement. Von Groddeck's term " metamorphic de- 
 posits" would include all the deposits of the district, with 
 the possible exception of certain veins in the Archsean which 
 have riot as yet been sufficiently developed for thorough 
 investigation. These veins would, in any event, come under 
 the popular definition of true fissure veins, even though they 
 should prove to be metamorphic, or the result of the alter- 
 nation of country rock in place. Those not in the crystalline 
 rocks would, in the main, come under the popular definition 
 of contact veins, but they not infrequently pass directly into 
 pipe veins, as in England; while, on the other hand, the 
 fissure veins, which some have considered true fissures, cor- 
 respond to the English pipe or rake veins. They would, 
 however, be excluded from Pumpelly's class of gash veins, 
 inasmuch as they do not fill pre-existing fissures. There is 
 no evidence that the deposits in limestone were made in 
 pre-existing cavities ; on the contrary, the caves, which are 
 not infrequently found, are plainly due to the action of sur- 
 face waters, and are sometimes hollowed out of ore bodies 
 as well as of limestone. When ore is found in them it is 
 through the accident that surface waters have followed or 
 crossed a previous ore-channel. Moreover, the thickness of 
 the original limestone bed, or the distance between the en- 
 closing strata, is found to be proportionately reduced if the 
 amount of replacement has been exceptionally great. 
 
 Secondary Deposition. — As in the deposition of minerals 
 from percolating waters the process is a practically 
 continuous one, and by changes in the character of the 
 waters, minerals already deposited may be redissolved and 
 deposited again in another place or form, the statement that 
 a mineral is in its original form or position may be only 
 relatively true. The action of surface waters, that is, those 
 which have penetrated the rock masses directly from the 
 surface during recent geological time, is, however, one that 
 can be readily traced by the preponderance of combinations 
 of oxygen and chlorine with the metals of an ore deposit in 
 those portions which are near the present surface. To such 
 combinations, therefore, the term secondary may be safely 
 restricted in speaking of our deposits. The deposits of the 
 Leadville region are peculiarly exposed to the action of 
 surface waters ; first, because of the relatively great precipi- 
 tation ; and, second, because of the geological structure, the 
 numerous faults and displacements bringing the ore-bearing 
 horizon near the surface in a great number of points, and 
 erosion having largely removed from above them the more 
 impermeable sedimentary beds, and left a covering of rela- 
 tively permeable porphyry. This is more especially the case 
 in the immediate vicinity of Leadville, the value of whose 
 ores is greatly enhanced by the predominance in them of 
 oxides and chlorides. It may also be observed, in con- 
 sidering the distribution of minerals, as shown by present 
 developments, that the proportion of secondary products is 
 less in the higher altitudes, where the waters are imprisoned 
 by frost during a comparatively . larger portion of the year. 
 
 Composition. — The prevailing and by far the most im- 
 portant ore, from an economical point of view, is argen- 
 tiferous galena, and its secondary products, ccrussite or 
 carbonate of lead, and kerargyrite or chloride of silver. 
 Lead is also found as anglesite or sulphate, as pyromorphite 
 or phosphate, and occasionally as oxide in the form of 
 litharge or more rarely minium. Silver frequently occurs 
 as chloro-bromide, less frequently as chloro-iodido, occasion- 
 ally as sulphuret, and very rarely in the native state. Che- 
 mical investigation has failed to detect sufficient regularity 
 in the proportions of chlorine, bromine, and iodine com- 
 bined with the silver to justify the determination of distinct 
 mineral species. Gold occurs in the native state, generally 
 
 in extremely small flakes or leaflets. It is also said to have 
 been found in the filiform state in galena. 
 
 As accessory minerals, are: 
 
 Zinc blende, and silicate of zinc or calamine. 
 
 Arsenic, probably as sulphide and as arseniate of iron. 
 
 Antimony, probably as sulphide. 
 
 Molybdenum, in the form of wulfenite, and locally copper, 
 as carbonate or silicate. 
 
 Bismuth as sulphide, and its secondary product, a double- 
 carbonate. 
 
 Tin has been detected in furnace products. 
 
 Iron occurs as an ore, though in the Leadville deposits it 
 may be considered as an essential part of the gangue or 
 matrix in which the valuable ore is found. In the former 
 case it occurs in considerable bodies, as pyrite or sulphide, 
 and anhydrous oxide, or red hematite with a little magnetite. 
 
 Gangue. — The other components of the ore deposits, 
 which may be considered as gangue, although this term is 
 perhaps more strictly applicable to non-metallic minerals, 
 are : Silica, either as chert, or a granular cavernous quartz, 
 and chemically or mechanically combined hydrous oxides 
 of iron and manganese. A great variety of clays or hydrous 
 silicates of alumina, generally very impure, and charged 
 with oxide of iron and manganese, the extreme of purity 
 being white normal kaolin, containing at times sulphuric 
 acid in appreciable amount. Sulphate of baryta, or heavy 
 spar. Carbonate of iron, pyrite, and sulphate of lime, are 
 comparatively rare in the deposits of Leadville itself. The 
 miner's term, "Chinese talc,'' has been preserved for a sub- 
 stance which is found with singular persistence along the 
 main ore-channel, or at the dividing plane between the 
 White porphyry and underlying limestone or vein material, 
 and also at times within the body of the deposit. It is com- 
 posed of silicate and a varying amount of sulphate of alu- 
 mina, to which no definite composition can be assigned. It 
 is compact, semi-translucent, generally white, and very soft 
 and easily cut by the finger-nail. It is very hygroscopic ; 
 hardens and becomes opaque on exposure to the air. 
 
 Paragenesis. — The metals were all brought in as sulphides. 
 The evidence of this is found in the fact that they form the 
 interior or unaltered kernels of masses of lead ore, that sul- 
 phurets already increase in proportion as the more unaltered 
 portion of the deposits is reached, and in the fact that a 
 basic sulphate of alumina is left as the result of the action 
 of sulphurous waters on porphyry along the main ore- 
 channel. The silver was without doubt originally con- 
 tained in the galena, and where now found as chloride free 
 from lead is a secondary deposition. While the sulphide 
 of lead was undoubtedly deposited as such, it seems more 
 likely that an actual chemical interchange took place be- 
 tween the sulphide of iron and the carbonates of lime and 
 magnesia, the latter being carried away as soluble sulphates, 
 and the former deposited either as carbonate, or directly as 
 oxide. As regards the relative age of lead and iron, it is 
 difficult to determine definitely whether galena was ori- 
 ginally deposited in the dolomite, and the process of re- 
 placement of the latter by oxide of iron went on around it 
 later, or whether the two were deposited at practically the 
 same time, as sulphides, the pyrites being in so much 
 greater amount as practically to enclose the galena, so that, 
 being thus first exposed to oxidizing action, and perhaps 
 also more susceptible to it, they are now completely oxidized, 
 while the galena is only partially so. That the replacement 
 of dolomite by oxides of iron and manganese has been going 
 On in comparatively recent times is quite evident. 
 
 With regard to the immediate source from which the vein 
 materials were derived, chemical examinations of the vari- 
 ous rocks of the region made on specimens taken from 
 portions at a distance from ore deposits, and in a compara- 
 tively unaltered condition, show that while the sedimentary 
 and crystalline rocks contain no precious metals, appreciable 
 .imounts of gold, silver, lead, and baryta may generally be 
 found in the eruptive rocks. An ii'lea of the amount of 
 material available in these rocks may be obtained from 
 the following estimate of the possible contents of a sin- 
 gle variety of porphyry of the licadville district, the 
 Pyritiferous porphyry. The figures are deduced from the 
 superficial area of its outcrop, as shown on the map, its 
 probable thickness, and the average percentage of metals 
 contained in it, deduced from chemical examination of 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 171 
 
 eleven specimens taken from different parts. They are, in 
 round numbers, 250,000,000 ounces of silver, 9,000,000 tons 
 of galena, and 100,000,000 tons of limonite, whicii repre- 
 sent fairly the average proportions of each in Leadville 
 ores as a whole. As regards the agents of secondary depo- 
 sition, chloride was found in the surface waters, and also in 
 all the dolomites and limestones ; traces of bromine were 
 also detected in the latter. Phosphoric acid is found in the 
 White porphyry, and in comparatively large amount in the 
 Lingula shales which overlie the Blue limestone. Carbonic 
 acid, as is well known, exists everywhere in the air and 
 water ; it is chemically combined in lime and magnesian 
 rocks, and mechanically in siliceous rocks. 
 
 Distribution. — Tke principal ore-deposits of the region are 
 found at or near the contact of the Blue limestone with the 
 overlying porphyry. 
 
 The contact of the main sheet of White porphyry has, 
 whenever it has been examined, shown evidence of the 
 passage of ore-currents, and in the region of Leadville, al- 
 though not every inch, or every foot even, yields an appre- 
 ciable quantity of silver, no considerable area has yet been 
 examined without finding bodies of valuable ore. The ore 
 is, however, by no means confined to the surface of the 
 limestone, but often extends into its mass, pinching out 
 however in depth; sometimes the bodies thus developed 
 show no visible connection with the surface, but it is evi- 
 dent that they originally came from it. While for some as 
 yet unexplained reason the horizon of the Blue limestone 
 was exceptionally favorable to the deposition and concen- 
 tration of ore, valuable deposits are occasionally found else- 
 where, generally along bedding planes or contact surfaces, 
 less frequently on jointing planes. The deposits in crystal- 
 line rocks, which are popularly supposed to be true fissure 
 veins, have, as before stated, been but little studied. A 
 brief mention of a few of the best known mines will, per- 
 haps, give a better idea of the geological distribution of ores 
 than any general statement. On the east side of the range 
 the Monte Oristo deposits, which occur on the east flank of 
 Quandary Peak, consist of galena impregnating one of the 
 upper quartzite beds of the Cambrian horizon. The Phil- 
 lips mine, in Buckskin Gulch, is a concentration of gold- 
 bearing pyrites along a bedding plane of the Cambrian 
 quartzite, in the neighborhood of a dike or intrusive mass of 
 quartz porphyry. The Criterion mine, now deserted, had 
 large renticular bodies of ore replacing this quartzite, ad- 
 joining which are natural caverns hollowed out of such 
 bodies by surface waters, while the ore channels extend up 
 into the" White limestone above. The Orphan Boy, in 
 Musquito Gulch, is also apparently an impregnation or re- 
 placement of quartzite beds of this horizon. In the mas- 
 sive of Mounts Lincoln and Bross the Blue limestone has 
 been the scene of the most extensive ore deposition. Here 
 it is overlaid by a sheet of Lincoln porphyry, while innu- 
 merable dikes and cross-bodies of other porphyries exist, 
 which could not be accurately traced oat in the limited 
 time that could be given to this region. The ore bodies of 
 the Russia, Moose, and other mines extend irrei^ularly from 
 the surface into the mass of the limestone, while in the 
 Dolly Varden mine, on Mount Bross, the ore is found in 
 that portion of the limestone which immediately adjoins a 
 vertical dike of White porphyry. In the Sacramento mine, 
 on the spur between Sacramento and Four-mile Gulches, 
 rich galena and carbonates are found in irregular bodies in 
 the Blue limestone ; the Sacramento porphyry, which origi- 
 nally overlaid it, has been largely removed by erosion, and 
 the connection with the contact surface, if it existed, is not 
 to be seen. On the main crest of the range the Peerless, 
 Bado-er, New York, and other mines find their ore at or 
 near the contact of the Blue limestone and White porphyry. 
 West of the crest, the Dyer mine, near the head of Iowa 
 Gulch, has long been worked on rich bodies of galena, asso- 
 ciated with some copper, which occur in the White lime- 
 stone. The Colorado Prince and Miner Boy have a gash 
 vein carrying gold in the Lower quartzite. The Black 
 Prince has veins of sulphurets extending up into the White 
 limestone. The Dania, J. B. Grant, and other shafts on 
 Yankee Hill have found small bodies of iron on the White 
 limestone contact. The Great Hope found the Parting 
 quartzite impregnated with gold to such an extent that it 
 -cGuld be profitably Worked. The Ocean is said to have ob- 
 
 tained gold from the lower quartzite and the Nevada tunnel 
 has found ore bodies, possibly belonging to a similar hori- 
 zon, though, as it is on a fault line, it is difficult to say what 
 was their original position. The Ready Cash gets gold ore 
 from a vein in the granite, while above the horizon of the Blue 
 Limestone, the Green Mountain, Ontario, Tiger, and others, 
 have found ore in gash veins in the Pyritiferous porphyry 
 and at its contact with the Weber grits. The most valuable 
 ore bodies, however, are those which occur as a replacement 
 of the Blue limestone. At times the original dolomite has 
 been so largely removed that its geological position canonly 
 be recognized by the bounding beds. In the subjoined de- 
 scription, however, the horizon is spoken of by its geological 
 name, whether it be represented by dolomite or a mass of 
 iron-stained clay, granular quartz, or chert. The reader 
 must also bear in mind that when outcrops are spoken of 
 not the actual surface of the ground is referred to, but the _ 
 surface of rock in place under the Wash or other superficial' 
 detritus. In a great portion of the shafts mentioned this 
 rock is only reached after passing through a hundred feet or 
 more of detrital matter. 
 
 Iron Hill Mines. — Of the three principal groups of 
 mines those of Iron Hill present the simplest type, both in 
 geological structure and in the character of their ore de- 
 posits. It is that of a block of easterly-dipping beds, capped 
 by porphyry, with a fault on its western side, by whose dis- 
 placement these beds have been lifted over a thousand feet 
 above their western continuation, and in which the ore de- 
 position has taken place on the surface of the upper lime- 
 stone bed, at its contact with the overlying porphyry. This 
 simple type obtains only on the southern end of Iron Hill, 
 and even then only in a somewhat modified form, the north- 
 ern presenting, as will be seen later, the extreme of compli- 
 cation. The southern face of the hill has, by the erosion 
 of the deep V-shaped valley of California Gulch, been left 
 so steep that its surface is but thinly covered by detrital 
 material, and east of the Iron fault, which is marked by 
 slight depression, the outcrops of the succeeding beds can 
 be readily traced up its slopes from the Lower quartzite, 
 immediately overlying the granite, to the main sheet of 
 White porphyry, which forms its summit. Besides this 
 normal senea of beds are two intruded masses of porphyry 
 of later age, and allied to, though not absolutely identical 
 with, the Gray porphyry. One occurs near the base of the 
 Blue limestone, and has its greatest thickness at the fault 
 line, thinning out to the eastward, and disappearing midway 
 between it and the point where the Blue limestone reaches 
 the bed of the gulch. The other has its greatest thickness 
 at this point, where it cuts across the upper portion of the 
 Blue limestone at so small an angle with its stratification 
 planes that it forms the contact between it and the White 
 porphyry for some distance up the slope on either side, and 
 then passes up into the White porphyry, also gradually 
 thinning out and disappearing. The average strike of the 
 formation in this vicinity is a little west of north, and the 
 beds dip to the eastward at an angle of about 12° at the 
 outcrop, which shallows to 7° and even less under the sum- 
 mit of the hill. 
 
 Iron fault. — The average direction of the line of the Iron 
 fault is a little east of north, but its course is very crooked, 
 as proved by actual development in shafts and winzes in 
 the Garden City, L. M., Lingula, Iron, and Codfish-Ball 
 claims. It has an average inclination to the west of 65°, 
 and its movement of displacement, though no shaft has yet 
 reached the Blue limestone to the west of it, is probably 
 more than one thousand feet. Were the Carbonate Hill 
 beds carried back at the angle of dip thus far determined 
 it would give a still greater thickness of White porphyry 
 above the limestone immediately adjoining the fault, but 
 such thickness cannot be calculated on, since there are good 
 grounds for assuming that the dip shallows, and even that 
 the beds basin up before reaching the fault. 
 
 Dome Hill. — South of California Gulch the structure is 
 more complicated, and the opportunities for accurate study 
 of the rock surface diminished by great depth of Wash and 
 underlying Lake beds, on the ridge which separates it from 
 Iowa Gulch. Its expression will be made clearer if the 
 displacement is considered as a downward movement of the 
 beds on the west of the fault, instead of an upward move- 
 ment of those Qn the east, as is. actually the case. - The 
 
172 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 downward movement of the western block has, then, south 
 of California Gulch, been distributed between the Iron fault 
 proper, and a second fault further east, just below the Rock 
 and Dome mines, whieh is connected with the former by a 
 cross-fault following the bed of California Gulch from the 
 Garden City shaft up to within 600 feet of the Montgomery 
 quarry. Moreover, between these two faults is a third, run- 
 ning below the Robert Emmet tunnel, in the gulch, to con- 
 nect with the Iron fault, and enclosing thus a wedge-shaped 
 piece of ground, which has been lifted up and compressed 
 into an anticlinal fold. As a result of the upward move- 
 ment of this wedge-shaped piece of ground, Blue limestone 
 is found outcropping on the south side of the gulch directly 
 opposite the Lower quartzite on the Globe ground, and the 
 Columbia, Ben Burb, and others, have been enabled to strike 
 the contact comparatively near the surface; on its west side 
 the beds dip steeply towards the Iron fault. It is probable 
 that before reaching Iowa Gulch the Iron fault merges into 
 the axis of a synclinal fold, in which case the normal con- 
 tinuation of the Iron fault might be considered to be formed 
 by the California Gulch and Dome fault, since the latter 
 becomes beyond Iowa Gulch the axis of an anticlinal fold, 
 as does the northern extremity of the Iron fault. Moreover, 
 evidence of a westerly dip in beds between the Dome and 
 Iron faults is found in the relatively greater depth at which 
 the Blue limestone was reached in the Coon Valley shaft 
 near the latter than in those fiirther east. This region is 
 worthy of being systematically prospected, being within the 
 principal ore-bearing area of the district. 
 
 Mineral deposits. — As shown by present developments the 
 principal deposition of ore has taken place along the con- 
 tact plane between the Blue limestone and overlying White 
 porphyry, and extended to greater or less depth into the 
 mass of the limestone; in several instances large deposits 
 have been formed within the body of the limestone, being 
 probably on the line of some natural cleavage plane or 
 fissure, which caused a deviation of the ore-currents from 
 their normal course. 
 
 Gangue. — ^The vein material or gangue consists of hydra- 
 ted oxides of iron or manganese, silica, and clay. The iron 
 varies from a hard, compact, more or less siliceous, brown 
 hematite to a simple coloring matter of the clay. Manga- 
 nese is found sometimes in fine needle-like crystals of pyro- 
 lusite, but mainly occurs in a black clayey mass, known to 
 the miners as " black-iron." Silica occurs either as a blue- 
 black chert, or as a granular, somewhat porous mass, hardly 
 distinguishable from quartzite. Clay is found in greatly 
 varying degrees of impurity, from a white kaolin down, and 
 is a product of the decomposition of porphyry. It occurs 
 either in place or as an infiltrated mass. Besides this should 
 be mentioned the "Chinese talc" of the miners, found 
 mainly at the actual contact. 
 
 Ore.^-The ore is principally argentiferous galena and its 
 secondary products, viz., carbonate of lead or cerussite, and 
 chloride of silver; as accessory minerals, or those of less 
 frequent occurrence, are sulphate of lead or anglesite, pyro- 
 morphite, minium, zinc blende, and calamine. Native sul- 
 phur is found in one instance as a result of the decomposi- 
 tion of galena, and native silver, from the reduction of the 
 chloride. 
 
 Mine worlcings. — The principal mine workings may be 
 divided into the following groups, commencing at the north : 
 1st, the main Iron mine workings, including the north Bull's- 
 Eye; 2nd, the Silver Wave and Silver Cord workings, in- 
 cluding south Bull's-Eye; 3rd, Lime and Smuggler work- 
 ings. Beyond California Gulch: 1st, the La Plata work- 
 ings; 2nd, the Rock and Dome workings. 
 
 Iron mine.— This group has an area of about 25 acres of 
 underground workings, being the most considerable of any 
 single mine in the district. They have been driven a dis- 
 tance of over 1,500 feet along the contact from the outcrop 
 of the Blue limestone. Here the contact hag been found 
 productive over an unusually large area, the main ore body 
 extending diagonally through the claims in a northeast di- 
 rection from the croppings, with an average width of 200 
 feet. In this area the ore currents have penetrated irregu- 
 larly into the body of the limestone, and ore bodies of 30 
 and 40 feet in thickness have been developed. It is found 
 that the limestone, while keeping its general inclination to 
 the eastward, is compressed into -lateral folds which have 
 
 produced a series of troughs and ridges within the mass. 
 The relation of the distribution of rich ore bodies to these 
 minor folds is not, however, as clear as in the deposits of 
 Carbonate Hill. In the lower part of the mine, oetween 
 the sixth and seventh levels, is a body of Gray porphyry, 
 cutting up across the strata into the AVhite porphyry, which 
 would appear to have influenced a concentration of ore on 
 its flanks. The developments here have been pushed al- 
 ready to a sufficient depth to show an increase in the pro- 
 portion of sulphurets in the ore and a decrease in the tenor 
 of silver, which would be naturally expected from dimin- 
 ished action of surface waters. 
 
 Silver Wave group. — In the Silver Wave group the con- 
 tact surface has been found relatively unproductive, but large 
 amounts of rich ore have been found in irregular lenticular 
 bodies, standing nearly vertical, and extending downwards 
 60 to 100 feet from the surface of the limestone. That these 
 are along water-channels isprovedby the discovery of recent 
 caves washed out of the ore bodies themselves, or immedi- 
 ately adjoining them, which have evidently been formed by 
 the percolation of surface waters at a comparatively recent 
 date. The general direction of these bodies is also north- 
 east, buton a line convergent with that of the main Iron body. 
 
 Smuggler and Lime. — On the south end of Iron Hill, 
 adjoining California Gulch, there is evidence of another 
 zone where the limestone has been largely replaced by vein 
 material, in which, however, present limited developments 
 have disclosed no large bodies of very rich ore. 
 
 La Plata. — The La Plata mine has been developed by a 
 tunnel run in near tiie contact, but with a direction a little 
 west of that of the strike. As in the Silver Wave, but little 
 rich ore has been found on the contact, but large lenticular 
 bodies standing in a nearly vertical position have been found 
 within tlie limestone extending to a depth of 100 feet below 
 the tunnel level. 
 
 The Rock and Dome. — Near the mouth of the Rock tunnel 
 once stood a huge outcrop of "hard carbonate" from which 
 came the first silver ore that was discovered in the region. 
 The main workings of these two mines are in a bonanza 
 which is near tlie croppings, and which, like those on Iron 
 Hill, has a general northeast direction. The ore in this 
 body occurs mostly near the contact, extending at places to 
 a considerable depth into the limestone. It is much more 
 siliceous than that of the Iron mine. A second more or less 
 parallel body, on a line with that of the La Plata body, may 
 be looked for in the lower working of either mine. 
 
 Future explorations. — It is difficult to oifer suggestions as 
 to manner of exploration to those who so well understand 
 the character of their deposits as do the managers of mines 
 in this region. Practical experience has already proved to 
 them that not only should the contact be thoroughly ex- 
 plored, but indications of ore bodies extending into the mass 
 of the limestone should be carefully followed. They should 
 also look for bodies of porphyry which may cross the for- 
 mation, either as dikes or irregular sheets, since they are 
 likely to be accompanied by a concentration of ore at no 
 great distance ; the Gray porphyry forms such bodies more 
 commonly than the White. It is probably a fruitless task 
 to search for valuable ore deposits below the horizon of the 
 Blue limestone, although there is always a remote possibility 
 of finding veins in the underlying granite. Ore indications 
 on fault planes are also likely to prove deceptive; the evi- 
 dence afforded by present developments goes to show that, 
 while small fragments of ore are found which have probably 
 fallen into the fissure, and a certain amount of secondary 
 deposition from waters which have passed over the original 
 deposits has taken place there, the ore to be obtained from 
 them will at the best no more than pay the expenses of 
 exploration. 
 
 To the west of the fault line, however, the contact un- 
 doubtedly exists below the porphyry and probably contains 
 valuable bodies of ore, which, however, as present expe- 
 rience abundantly shows, are not continuous over the whole 
 surface. In locating a shaft for such exploration the proba- 
 ble continuation of already existing bodies should be care- 
 fully calculated, taking into consideration the apparent 
 lateral movement that would be caused by the fault-displace- 
 ment. Directly opposite the Iron mine it may be calculated 
 that at least a thousand feet of unproductive rock will have 
 to be passed through ; this thickness is probably less as one 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 173 
 
 goes south, and the least depth will probably be found on 
 Dome Hill, or beyond in Iowa Gulch, with the disadvantage 
 in going south that the centre of ore developements as at 
 present known is further removed. 
 
 North Iron Hill. — Explorations in the Adelaide- Argen- 
 tine group of mines on the northern end of Iron Hill 
 overlooking Stray Horse Gulch, have developed a geological 
 structure of an intricate and complicated nature. Only a brief 
 sketch of its main outlines will here be presented. Along a 
 line running southeast from Fryer Hill toward Mount Sheri- 
 dan, the sheet of White porphyry cuts across the Blue lime- 
 stone, or splits into two bodies, there being on the northeast 
 of this line one body of White porphyry above the Blue 
 limestone, and one below, between it and the White lime- 
 stone. On Iron Hill this cutting across occurs in the region 
 under description, in which, morever, two minor sheets of 
 White porphyry were forced in, the one in the- middle of the 
 Parting quartzite, the other in the body of the White lime- 
 stone near its base ; furthermore, two bodies of Gray por- 
 phyry were afterwards introduced, the main one into the 
 mass of the White limestone above the lower sheet of White 
 porphyry, and a smaller one above the Parting quartzite, be- 
 tween it and the offshoot from the main general sheet of 
 White porphyry. In the movements of folding and displace- 
 ment these beds were lifted by a fold and cut off by the 
 Adelaide cross-fault, which runs diagonally from the Iron 
 to the Mike fault. The whole upper part of the fold was 
 then planed off by erosion, which entirely removed the por- 
 tion of Blue limestone above the cross-cutting mass of White 
 porphyry. During the period of ore deposition the currents 
 followed" the under surface of the porphyry body, and in 
 these mines the main deposit of pay-ore has consequently 
 been found at its contact with the Parting quartzite, although 
 some replacement probably took place also along the basset 
 edges of the Blue limestone. In the Argentine tunnel, which 
 is driven in a direction nearly at right angles to the strike, 
 the beds are found with a dip at first of 25° southeast, which 
 shallows as one proceeds. One crosses in succession from 
 the mouth inwards, or ascending in the geological scales ; 
 
 1. Lower White porphyry. 
 
 2. White lime^storie. 
 
 3. Offshoot from Gray porphyry body. 
 
 4. White limestone. 
 
 5. Main Gray porphyry body. 
 
 6. White limestone. 
 
 7. Offshoot from Gray porphyry body. 
 
 8. White limestone. 
 
 9. Parting quartzite. 
 
 10. 'White porphyry. 
 
 11. Parting quartzite. 
 
 12. Ore horizon. 
 
 13. Blue limestone. 
 
 14. White porphyry (overlying). 
 
 The supposed contact of White porphyiy over the basset 
 edges of the Blue limestone is not seen, being above the tun- 
 nel level. The actual contact between the upper surface of 
 the Blue limestone and White porphyry is barren in the tun- 
 nel, but has produced ore in the Hynes shaft on the Camp 
 Bird claim to the south. The main ore body extends above 
 the tunnel level, on the surface of the Parting quartzite, 
 westward into the Camp Bird Claim, and east and south on 
 the dip into the Adelaide claim. Small bodies of carbonate 
 of lead were also found in the Adelaide ground, at the con- 
 ■tact of a small body of Gray porphyry which does not cross 
 the tunnel, and the main White porphyry. Moreover, be- 
 sides the surface of the Parting quartzite, replacement is 
 found to have gone on to a considerable extent in the White 
 limestone also, without, however, developing much rich ore. 
 In the Discovery tunnel of the Adelaide, on Stray Horse 
 Gulch, a small body of Blue dolomite was found immedi- 
 ately over the Parting quartzite, which is apparently a por- 
 tion of Blue limestone which had not been separated from 
 the overlying rocks by the cross-cutting White porphyry. 
 In such a complication of intrusive bodies the only maxim 
 for the miner is, to follow all productive contacts so long as 
 there are signs of ore or vein material. 
 
 Carbonate Hill Mines.— The geological structure of 
 Carbonate Hill is very similar to that of Iron Hill, in that 
 it is formed by a series of easterly-dipping beds, broken on 
 the west by aline of fault or displacement. Outcrops are 
 
 also exposed on its southern face by the erosion of Cali- 
 fornia Gulch, but in a less complete series owing to its being 
 shallower and proportionately wider, in consequence of 
 which its bounding slopes, being less steep, are more thickly 
 covered by surface dibris. The fault is nearly parallel to 
 that of Iron Hill, and, like it, merges into the axis of an 
 anticlinal fold on the north. In the southern half of the 
 hill, however, the movement of displacement is distributed 
 in part to a secondary nearly parallel fault, a short distance 
 to the west. Of the southern continuation of these faults 
 less satisfactory data are available, but they are supposed to 
 merge together before crossing California Gulch, and proba- 
 bly pass into an anticlinal fold under the Lake beds to the 
 southwest like the Dome fault, the normal continuation of 
 the Iron fault. As on Iron Hill, also, there is evidence of a 
 basining up, as they approach the fault, of the beds of the 
 relatively downthrown mass on the west ; in other words, of 
 a synclinal structure. 
 
 Formations. — The series of beds of which it is composed 
 is essentially the same as that given in the Iron Hill section, 
 but the distribution of the latter intrusions of Gray or Mot- 
 tled porphyry differs somewhat in detail. Where these cross 
 the beds, either as dikes or sheets, there is a noticeable en- 
 richment of the ore bodies. One main sheet of Gray por- 
 phyry is found at or near the base of the Blue limestone, 
 which apparently cuts up to a higher horizon in different 
 portions of the hill. A second sheet is found in the White 
 limestone in California Gulch, but as none of the under- 
 ground workings have penetrated as yet to this depth, there 
 is no evidence to show whether this is a distinct sheet or 
 merely an offshoot from the main body. 
 
 Vein material. — The materials composing the ore deposits 
 of Carbonate Hill are essentially the same as those of Iron 
 Hill ; they may perhaps be said to be less rich in bases of 
 iron and manganese, and proportionately more in silica, 
 therefore less favorable for the smelter, but this characteris- 
 tic is rather one to be confided to individual mines, or parts 
 of a mine, than in such a general way. Silica occurs less 
 frequently as chert and more commonly as a very finely 
 granular and somewhat porous quartz rock, than on either 
 Iron or Fryer Hills. The ore is either galena or its second- 
 ary products, carbonate of lead and chloride of silver. In 
 one instance native silver has been found. Exceptionally 
 good opportunities are offered for observing the action of re- 
 placement, and the gradual passage from dolomite into 
 earthy oxides of iron and manganese. The workings not 
 yet having reached the great distance from the surface that 
 they have on Iron Hill, no such definite evidence is found 
 of decrease in the action of surface waters, producing oxida- 
 tion and chlorination of the original deposits. The limit of 
 the zone of oxidation would morever be expected to be fur- 
 ther from the surface, on account of its lower altitude. 
 
 Mine workings. — ^The underground workings of Carbonate 
 Hill may, for convenience of description, be divided into 
 three groups. 1st. A southern, including the Carbonate, 
 Little Giant, and Yankee Doodle claims to the east of the 
 main fault and the .S^tna and Glass-Pendery claims below 
 or to the west of it. 2nd. A central group, including the 
 Crescent, Catalpa, and Evening Star claims east of the fault, 
 and the minor workings of the Lower Crescent, Catalpa No. 
 2, Lower Evening Star, Niles & Augusta, and Wild Cat west 
 of it. 3rd. A northern group, consisting of the Morning 
 Star, Waterloo, Henriette, Maid of Erin, and other claims 
 above the fault line, and the Forsaken, Halfway House, and 
 Lower Henriette below it. 
 
 Carbonate group. — In this group of claims, the principal 
 developments have been made on what is practically one 
 main body, running in a northeasterly direction from the 
 outcrop in the Carbonate claim. A noticeable feature ol 
 the structure is a prominent fold in the limestone, which 
 bends down sharply to the east, and rising again forms a 
 narrow trough. This is best seen in the main Carbonate in- 
 cline at about 350 feet from its mouth, and can be traced 
 through the adjoining Little Giant and Yankee Doodle 
 claims, running parallel to the ore body, of which its crest 
 forms the southeastern limit. Approximately parallel to this, 
 several minor folds or complications can be seen in the Car- 
 bonate workings. The ore body is narrower in the Yankee 
 Doodle and Little Giant claims, but widens out as it ap- 
 proaches the surface in the Carbonate ground, having bar- 
 
174 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ren streaks corresponding to the minor folds mentioned. 
 From the actual cropping of the southeastern portion of 
 this body was taken the first ore discovered on Carbonate 
 Hill. The region to the southeast of the fold has thus far 
 proved barren of rich ore, but the explorations are hardly 
 sufficient to warrant the conclusion that another bonanza 
 does not exist in that direction. The influence of the fold 
 as determining the deposition of ore may be ascribed to the 
 compression of the beds produced by it, and the consequent 
 partial arresting of ore currents, giving them time to deposit 
 their metallic contents'. 
 
 Carbonate fault. — The Carbonate fault runs nearly on the 
 dividing line of the Carbonate and iEtna claims, cutting 
 acrosa the extreme southwest edge of the former and the 
 northeast corner of the latter. It is well shown by a shaft 
 sunk on this claim which has followed its plane ; as thus 
 developed, it stands with an inclination of about 60' west, 
 shallowing somewhat in depth, and having a movement of 
 displacement of only about 250 feet. Within the opening 
 were found some fragments of ore, and the fault material 
 was slightly impregnated with chloride of silver. The 
 slickensides surfaces are smooth and clearly defined, and the 
 beds on either side have the same angle and direction of dip. 
 In the jEtna and Glass-Pendery claims the contact has thus 
 far proved practically barren, the principal ore extracted 
 having been obtained from lenticular bodies within the 
 limestone, lying mostly within the former claim. Judging 
 from the few points at which its level has been determined, 
 the general surface of the limestone would appear to slope 
 westward, although as before stated, at the actual fault line 
 it dips east. 
 
 Pendery fault. — A short distance west of the Glass shaft a 
 second fault, apparently nearly parallel and having the 
 same angle of inclination with the Carbonate fault, cuts off 
 the limestone, no explorations west of this line having 
 reached below the White porphyry. It is to be regretted 
 that the persistent refusal of the owners of the Glass-Pen- 
 dery to permit an examination of their mine renders the 
 data with regard to this fault, which has such an important 
 bearing upon future explorations, less full than could have 
 been desired. Its probable continuation has been traced, 
 however, southward to a connection with the Carbonate 
 fault, and northward through the Washburne and Saint 
 Mary workings, where it appears to be a combination of 
 minor folds and faults, and into a probable anticlinal fold 
 north of the Niles & Augusta, and west of the Halfway 
 House. 
 
 Evening Star group. — In the second group of mines the 
 workings above the fault have developed a second bonanza 
 or ore body, nearly parallel to the one already mentioned, 
 and separated from it by a comparatively barren belt of 
 ground. In the Crescent claim it is rather thin and spread 
 out somewhat irregularly, but concentrates and becomes 
 deeper in the Catalpa, reaching its maximum, iDoth of 
 breadth and thickness, in the Evening Star claim. In the 
 upper portion of the latter the entire body of limestone hai 
 been replaced by vein material, a remarkably large proportion 
 of which is pay ore; but to the eastward the ore currents 
 have penetrated to less depth, and in the lower workings 
 unreplaced dolomite is found, at times only separated from 
 the overlying porphyry by a few inches of clay and " Chinese 
 talc." The actual southeastern limit of the bonanza has not 
 yet been reached, however, and present explorations, exten- 
 sive though they are, cover such a comparatively small 
 proportion of the possible area of ore bodies, and afford 
 such meager data for generalization, that it is with extreme 
 reluctance that I speak of even possibly barren ground. A 
 fact worthy of mention here is the occurrence of a narrow 
 dike of Gray porphyry, standing nearly vertical, and having 
 a northeasterly direction, cutting across the ore horizon at 
 the western edge of the bonanza. This may be an offshoot 
 from the heavy sheet of Gray porphyry which has been 
 proved by the lower workings of the mine to underlie the 
 main ore body, and has probably influenced the great concen- 
 tration of ore in this mine. A second fiict worthy of note 
 is the occurrence of ore in the White porphyry near the main 
 shaft of the Evening Star mine. Such instances of the diver- 
 gence of ore-currents into the mass of the overlying porphyry 
 are extremely I'are. In this case the deposit consists largely 
 of pyromofphiteaad carbonateof lead, with a little sulphide, 
 
 and forms the binding material of small angular blocks of 
 porphyry. It is therefore in part certainly, and possibly 
 altogether, of secondary origin. The ground west of the 
 main or Carbonate fault in this central group has been com- 
 paratively little explored, as no considerable ore bodies have 
 yet been developed in it. The fault itself has nowhere been 
 cut by underground working, and its existence is only proved 
 inferentially, both here and on the more northern portion of 
 the -hill, by the relative difference of level of the contact 
 above and below its assumed line. Its displacement in the 
 Crescent ground, where the workings on either side most 
 nearly approach each other, viz., those of the Crescent in- 
 cline and the Lower Crescent shaft, are not more than 170 feet. 
 In the Catalpa pay ore is found to extend nearly to the sur- 
 face above the fault line; its existence below has, however, 
 not yet been thoroughly tested. In the Evening Star the 
 new No. 6 shaft has been sunk through a body of iron into 
 a remnant of unreplaced dolomite, and is probably in the 
 lower half of the Blue limestone or ore-bearing horizon. 
 The lower Evening Star shaft is said to have developed a 
 small body of ore, which would not be more than 100 feet 
 below the bottom of the former, but in calculating the 
 amount of displacement it must be borne in mind that in 
 one case the ore is near the bottom, in the other probably 
 at the top of the Blue limestone horizon. In the Niles & 
 Augusta ground, immediately adjoining the Evening Star 
 on the west, there is evidence of a westerly dip in the forma- 
 tion, so that between the two would be the crest of the 
 anticlinal fold into which the Pendery fault is supposed to 
 merge. 
 
 Morning Star group. — The continuation of the Evening 
 Star bonanza has been traced in a northeasterly direction 
 through the upper workings of the Morning Star mine, but 
 too little systematic exploration has been done to give a 
 satisfactory idea of its outlines or limits. It apparently 
 decreases in thickness, and the acid character of its gangue, 
 which is a porous granular quartz containing very little or 
 no iron, is very noticeable. Ore has been found on the 
 same line in the workings of the upper Henriette claim, but 
 the adjoining portions of the Waterloo and Henriette be- 
 tween this and the fault, in which ^re bodies may be 
 reasonably looked for, are as yet practically untouched. 
 Ore has also been found on the dip in the Big Chief, indica- 
 ting a possible widening out of the ore body in that direction. 
 In the Lower Morning Star, but still above the line of the 
 fault, is a singular combination of fault and fold, by which 
 the ground opened by the lower shaft has been lifted up, 
 relatively to that nearer the main shaft. There is here also 
 a body of Gray porphyry, which is probably an offshoot 
 from the lower main sheet of Gray porphyry cutting up 
 across the strata. The descent of the strata to the east of ■ 
 this fault is evidently comparable to that in the sharp folds 
 noticed in the Carbonate and Crescent inclines, and the 
 actual faulting movement, so far as could be observed, was 
 very slight. As in these, also, the ground for a certain dis- 
 tance beyond is comparatively barren. 
 
 Below the line of the main fault, whose existence here, as 
 already stated, is only proved inferentially, important ore 
 bodies have been developed, and the probable structure as 
 revealed by their exploration is so complicated that its 
 explanation is difficult. The Carbonate feult is supposed 
 to pass between the Lower Morning Star and Waterloo 
 shafts, and extend northeasterly across Stray Horse Gulch 
 (there being evidence of a slight displacement in the 
 ridge beyond) in . the direction of Upper Frver Hill, 
 where, in the Dunkin ground, it has passed into a flat 
 anticlinal fold. To the northwest of this line is a flat 
 synclinal fold, which would be a continuation of the syncli- 
 nn,l of Fryer Hill. In the ground of the Foraaken, Half- 
 way House, and Lower Henriette, where are at present the 
 principal ore developments, a body of Gray porphvry has 
 cut up across the Blue limestone into the overlying White 
 norphyry, and on cither side of this body the dolomite has 
 been replaced by vein material rich in iron, and often carry- 
 ing pay ore. , The edges of the strata, which rise from the 
 bottom of the synclinal toward the fault line, have been 
 planed off" by erosion, the overlying White porphyry being 
 left only in the trough of the synclinal. The Lower Henri- 
 ette and Half-way House shafts, then, have been sunk 
 through a. portion of this remaining White porphyry to 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 175 
 
 contact, and their workings have followed an ore body on 
 an eastern dip, over which lies, not the White porphyry, but 
 the cross-cutting Gray porphyry. The new shafts sunk to 
 the eastward, to meet these workings in depth, have passed 
 first through an iron body, the replacement of the dolomite 
 adjoining the Gray porphyry on the east, and through this 
 Gray porphyry to the productive contact, now below, 
 formerly on the west side of this sheet. This explanation is 
 founded mainly on analog drawn from observations in 
 other parts of the district, since, at the time of visit, no body 
 of unreplaced dolomite had yet been penetrated, from which 
 the dip of the bedding planes could be actually determined. 
 The Jolly shaft, below the Half-way House, finds ore at a 
 lower horizon, and passes through a much greater depth of 
 Wash. This greater depth of Wash denotes the edge of a 
 former shore-line, which may be traced southward along the 
 western flank of the hill, through the Forsaken, Niles & 
 Augusta, Lower Crescent, Pendery, and Glass shafts. Above 
 this line there is no accumulation of Wash, the rock surface 
 being only covered by angular debris resulting from the 
 disintegration of the rocks forming the actual surface above, 
 and locally known as " slide." Wash, on the other hand, 
 as already stated, consists of rounded fragments of rocks, a 
 large proportion of which must have come from considerably 
 greater elevations on the range, and have been brought 
 down by glaciers. 
 
 Fryer Hill Mines. — Thegeological structure of Fryer Hill 
 has always seemed a puzzle to Leadville miners, and with 
 good reason, since the Blue limestone has here been almost 
 entirely replaced by vein material, the only relics remain- 
 ing, besides two considerable masses of unreplaced do- 
 loinite, being occasional blocks or boulders, and small ir- 
 regular bodies of dolomitic sand scattered through the ore 
 bodies. Moreover, the White porphyry, instead of confining 
 itself to the horizon above the Blue limestone, as on Iron 
 and Carbonate hills, has formed a second distinct body be- 
 tween this and the underlying White Ihnestone, and forced 
 itself into the mass of the Blue limestone, splitting it into 
 two and sometimes three sheeis, which, being replaced, form 
 as many different bodies of iron or vein material. In ad- 
 dition to these are irregular bodies of Gray porphyry, evi- 
 dently of later eruption, which have been intruded in different 
 places, and an interrupted dike which traverses the whole 
 hill in a direction East 18° South. Nevertheless, _ the 
 structure and manner of ore deposition are here strictly 
 analogous to those already described for Iron and Car- 
 bonate Hills, with the difference that the folding of the 
 beds has been more complicated, the intrusion of porphyry 
 bodies more extensive, and the replacement of limestone by 
 vein material and ore more complete. The simplest ex- 
 pression of the structure is tha,t of two parallel folds, the one 
 a synclinal, the other an anticlinal, whose axes have a north- 
 east and southwest direction. All the beds which are in- 
 cluded in this folding partake also of the prevailing north- 
 east dip of the region. When, therefore, the upper portion 
 of the beds thus folded was planed off, as it was in Glacial 
 times by the great glacier which flowed down Big Evans 
 Gulch, the resulting outcrops have an S-curve, if one looks 
 in a southeast direction, or at right angles to the direction of 
 the axes of the folds. ' The apex of the upper re-entering 
 curve of the S indicates the axis of the anticlinal fold, 
 which, as has been already stated, is a continuation of the 
 line of the main Carbonate fault, now become a fold, while 
 the convex lower curve is the outcrop of the flat synclinal. 
 In actual fact this simple structure is complicated by minor 
 irregularities within the folds, so that the dip at any par- 
 ticular point may not always be found to have its normal 
 direction. • • i 
 
 Mine workings. — The general disposition of the principal 
 mines, or rectangular blocks of ground which represent their 
 claims, which is familiar to many from maps already pub- 
 lished, is, proceeding eastward or up the ridge from its 
 western edge, first, the various claims of the Chrysolite 
 Company, and the New Discovery, then the Little Chief, 
 Little Pittsburg, Amie, Climax, Duukin, Matchless, Big 
 Pittsburg, Hibernia, and E. E. Lee. The claims of the four 
 first mentioned cover the outcrops of the lower portion of 
 the S or synclinal fold, their side lines running nearly North 
 and South, or North 10° West, while the triangular wedge 
 of the Dives claim, belonging to the little Pittsburg, gives 
 
 to the eastern side line of the latter a northeast direction 
 parallel to the anticlinal axis. The Amie claim covers the 
 intermediate arm of the S, the Dunkin and Climax the re- 
 entering curve or apex of the anticlinal, and the Matchless, 
 Dee, and Hibernia its rather irregular top. 
 
 White porphyry bodies. — Throughout all this area the exis- 
 tence of an overlying and underlying body of White por- 
 phyry, enclosing the main ore horizon, is well proved, the 
 former having been, however, in great measure removed by 
 erosion, and when found above the ore bodies, being very 
 much decomposed. Intermediate bodiesof White porphyrj', 
 splitting up the ore-bearing bed into several sheets, are also 
 found. The most important of these are : 1st. In the west- 
 ern Crysolite working ; here a second or horizon has been 
 proved in the west drift from Roberts shaft second level, 
 immediately under the Wash at Vulture No. 2 shaft, and in 
 a winze sunk a short distance south of Vulture No. 1 shaft. 
 In the two latter points it was further separated from the 
 main ore body by a sheet of Gray porphyry within the White 
 porphyry. The value and extent of this lower ore-body 
 still remain to be proved ; it may cover a considerable area, 
 but it probably does not extend as far east as the Roberts 
 chaft. 2nd. In the Amie, and extending somewhat irregu- 
 larly into the Climax and Dunkin ground, are found two 
 lower sheets of vein material in the Lower porphyry. The 
 dividing porphyry in all these cases belongs probably to 
 the Lower porphyry body rather than the upper. 
 
 White limestone. — The outcrops of the underlying White 
 limescone have been proved on the west by Crysolite No. 6 
 shaft, and various outlying shafts of the Fairview, Kit 
 Carson, and All Right claims; in Little Stray Horse Gulch 
 on the south, by New Discovery No. 6 shaft,' and those of 
 the Gambetta, Big Pittsburg, Eudora, Little Daisy, and 
 others ; while the shafts Amie No. 2, Climax No. 5, and 
 Dunkin No. 1, have sunk down to it through the overlying 
 beds ; likewise New Discovery No. 6, on Stray Horse ridge, 
 which has passed through Gray porphyry. Lower Blue lime- 
 stone, and Parting qnartzite into the White limestone. The 
 coming to the surface of these lower beds proves that the 
 overlying ore-horizon has been eroded off, and cannot be 
 looked for to the west and south, unless a distinct southwest 
 dip is developed, which would bring down the Blue lime- 
 stone on the other side of a fold under the Wash and Lake 
 beds which form the present site of Leadville. The probabi- 
 lities in favor of this supposition will be discussed else- 
 where. 
 
 Ore in lower horizons. — The question, whether the White 
 limestone and lower quartzite contain ore deposits of com- 
 mercial value, is one of special moment to owners of 
 claims in this region, since its affirmative answer would 
 greatly enlarge the horizontal as well as vertical extent of 
 possibly productive ground. W^hile a priori there seems 
 to be at present no valid reason why ore should not have 
 been secreted in the White limestone, especially when, as 
 here, it is directly overlain by a body of porphyry, the fact 
 that the many points where it has been explored, have,with 
 few unimportant exceptions, disclosed no ore deposits of 
 value, renders it safer policy to assume a negative answer 
 and confine explorations to the horizon of the Blue lime- 
 stone, which is proved to have been more or less replaced 
 by ore over its entire extent, until the labors of those who are 
 leading the forlorn hope of exploring for unknown ore 
 bodies in a vertical direction shall have met with some prac- 
 tical return. 
 
 Blue limestone horizon. — The valuable ore deposits of Fryer 
 Hill, thus far developed, have been found either at the out- 
 crops or comparatively near the surface ; that is, with but 
 little or no covering of rock-in-place, the maximum thick- 
 ness of overljdng White porphyry remaining being but 80 
 feet. The existing surface is formed of Wash which has an 
 average depth of 75 to 100 feet, and at no point on the hill 
 is there an actual outcrop of rock-in-place. It is a rather 
 singular fact that the first discovery of ore by A. Rische, 
 and his partner was made, by pure chance, at the point 
 where the rock-surface and the surface of the "Wash most 
 nearly approach each other. This was at the No. 1 shaft of 
 the little Pittsburg claim, where a boss of iron, a portion 
 of an immense iron body very rich in silver, projected to 
 within 30 feet of the actual surface of the ground. The 
 outcrop of the ore-bearing stratum has an average width on 
 
176 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the surface (meaning always the rock-surface under the 
 Wash, not that of the hill) of from 100 to 150 feet. From the 
 point of discovery in the Little Pittsburg it extends nearly 
 due west through the Little Chief and New Discovery 
 claims, bending to the Northward in the latter ; through the 
 Vulture claim at Silver No. 2 and Vulture No. 1, and then 
 again to the northeast through Carboniferous No. 5, the 
 cropping of the lower iron sheet, which is here split off from 
 the main ore body, being found still further west in Vulture 
 No. 2. Eastward from the same point it extends through 
 the Amie ground a little south of Amie No 4, where it has 
 not been much explored, to Climax No. 4, and then bends 
 to the northeast through the Climax claim into the Dunkin. 
 The outcrops thus outlined form a semi-circle, convex to the 
 southwest, and a cord drawn through Carboniferous No. 5 
 and Amie No. 3 shafts in a southeast direction, would prac- 
 tically define the northern limit of present exploration. 
 Within this area the oil-bearing material has a maximum 
 thickness of about 90 feet, becoming in places extremely 
 thin. Its definite limits, however, cannot always be de- 
 termined ; these are defined above by a thin bed of quartzite, 
 the base of the Weber shales, and below by the Parting 
 quartzite, which is here generally about 10 feet thick. These 
 siliceous beds which would be less changed by the action of 
 mineralizing solutions than the included limestone, afibrd 
 when found a definite horizon, but are often not seen, being 
 separated from the ore body by intervening masses of por- 
 phyry through which developments are not pushed; fre- 
 quently they are merely loose quartz sand, only distinguish- 
 able from decomposed porphyry by a more gritty feel. 
 
 Vein Material. — The vein material of this ore body con- 
 sists mainly of a hydrated oxide of iron, in which the iron 
 is frequently replaced by its interchangeable base, manga- 
 nese ; with silica, either combined with the iron, or as chert ; 
 small irregular masses of sulphate of baryta, or heavy spar; 
 and a mechanical admixture of clay, resulting from the in- 
 filtration of decomposed porphyry ; with this are unreplaced 
 dolomite masses, either in the form of fine blue sand, Or as 
 solid blocks of varying dimensions. The extreme form of 
 the iron is a hard, compact, though generally somewhat 
 cavernous hematite, or, when manganese prevails, a soft, 
 black, clayey material, known as " black iron, " often form- 
 ing large masses, and generally barren of pay ore. 
 
 Ore. — Within this mass, which may be considered as a 
 gangue, the pay ore occurs in its original state as argenti- 
 ferous galena, the secondary products of which are carbonate 
 of lead and chloride of silver, with a varying amount of 
 bromide and iodide ; as accessory minerals are anglesite, 
 pyromorphite, and wulfenite. " Hard carbonates " are 
 masses of more or less siliceous iron oxide, in which crystals 
 of carbonate of lead fill cavities in the mass, and the chloride 
 of silver occurs generally in leaflets of such minute size as 
 not to be visible to the naked eye; under this head are also 
 included the masses of unaltered galena, which are more 
 likely to have escaped oxidation in a hard, comparatively 
 impermeable mass. " Sand carbonates " are portions of the 
 ore mass in which silica and iron are not present under con- 
 ditions favorable to consolidating it into a compact form,and 
 which consequently crumble into sand on removal. As ex- 
 ceptional occurrences are masses of pure, transparent horn 
 silver, one of which in the Vulture claim weighed several 
 hundred pounds. 
 
 Distribution of bonanzas. — ^The distribution of the bodies 
 of pay ore, or bonanzas, is extremely irregular, as is their 
 shape and size. Their vertical dimensions are often 30 or 
 40 feet, and have in one instance reached 80 feet, but this 
 great thickness seldom extends over any large horizontal 
 area, the lower limits of the pay ore streak generally rising 
 and falling with great rapidity. In general the form of in- 
 dividual bodies is not unlike that of those found within the 
 mass of the limestone in other parts of the region. The rich 
 ore masses are more common in the upper portion of the ore- 
 bearing stratum. In horizontal distribution the larger 
 bonanzas form two longitudinal bodies, rudely parallel with 
 a dike-like mass of Gray porphyry, which has evidently in- 
 fluenced their deposition. The northern of these is practi- 
 cally continuous from the Climax south-workings to the 
 Crysolite west-workings ; the southern extends from Little 
 Pittsburg through New Discovery and Vulture, being con- 
 nected with the former in the Little Chief ground, and again 
 
 around the west end of the dike, near the outcrop in Vul- 
 ture and Crysolite. 
 
 Gray porphyi-y dike. — The Gray porphyry dike is a some- 
 what irregular body about 30 feet in thickness, standing at 
 an average inclination of 50° to the north. Its mass is so 
 thoroughly decomposed that it is with difficulty distinguished 
 from the White porphyry except where the large feldspar 
 crystals still remain. Nevertheless, it has been traced con- 
 tinuously through the Crysolite, Little Chief, Little Pitts- 
 burg, and Amie workings, and found again on the same line 
 in the Big Pittsburg, Hibernia, and Lee mines. As shown 
 by the outcrops, it is what we call an interrupted dike. It 
 is supposed to have acted as a dam, causing an interrup- 
 tion of the ore-currents ; these currents having flowed 
 from the northeast toward the southwest, the stagnation thus 
 produced has influenced a first deposition on its northeast 
 flank, leaving a barren portion immediately under its south- 
 west side ; but through the gaps above mentioned the cur- 
 rents passed slowly depositing as they went, and in the eddy 
 beyond was formed a second accumulation of ore. 
 
 DunJcin mine. — In the Dunkin mine, and the adjoining 
 workings of the Climax and Matchless, the richest ore mas- 
 ses have been found near the outcrops, and in these are the 
 principal developments. In the north end of the lower level 
 of the Dunkin, a considerable body of unreplaced Blue 
 limestone has been cut, showing the characteristic markings 
 of this formation. The southern lower workings in both 
 Climax and Dunkin are below the ore-horizon. A slight 
 fold at the south end of the Dunkin claim brings the iron 
 body down again for a short distance in the Little Dia- 
 mond. 
 
 Matchless mine. — The rich ore body developed in this 
 ground adjoining the Dunkin has not yet been thoroughly 
 explored, but probably connects with the upper part of the 
 Lee body. In the southeast corner of the claim, as in the 
 northern edge of the Big Pittsburg and Hibernia claims, 
 work is being done Upon a western continuation of the re- 
 markable ore body of the Lee mine. This is the very lowest 
 portion of the ore horizon, the Parting quartzite being found 
 in considerable thickness immediately under the ore. As 
 the formation dips a little north of east the full thickness of 
 the body is found in the Lee ground ; whereas on the bound- 
 ing line of the Matchless and Big Pittsburg claims, there 
 remains only a wedge-shaped remnant of the ore body, in- 
 cluded between the actual rock surface and the lower bound- 
 ing plane of the ore horizon, which is cut oflf on the south 
 by the dike. 
 
 B. E. Lee mine. — The Lee ore body is on a direct lirie with 
 the northern body in the mines first described, and like that 
 bounded on the south by the Gray porphyry dike ; it may 
 therefore be considered an eastern continuation of that body, 
 the intermediate portion on the crest of the fold having 
 been planed ofi" by erosion. It still remains to be proved 
 by future exploration whether or not the ore sweeps 
 around the eastern end of the dike, and another large 
 body exists to the south, as in the western group. The 
 existence of such body is rendered probable by the dis- 
 covery in the Surprise and other claims on the south 
 side of Little Stray Horse Gulch, of pay ore near the out- 
 crop, which is, like that in the Big Pittsburg, near the base 
 of the ore-bearing stratum. Mineralogically, the Lee body 
 differs very essentially from those thus far described ; its 
 gangue_ is principally silica and clay, containing only suf- 
 ficient iron to color the mass in places a bright red, and little 
 or no manganese. The ore is in the form of chloride of silver 
 and contains practically no lead, either in the form of galena 
 or carbonate ; it is also exceptionally rich. It is, therefore, 
 a secondary product, being the redeposition and probable 
 concentration of material resulting from the decomposition 
 of another ore body, now removed by erosion. As it is fol- 
 lowed in depth to the east and north, it will probably con- 
 tain more lead and proportionately less silver. 
 
 Denver City fcorfi/.— South of the above claims, the con- 
 tinuation of the ore stratum is next proved in Denver City, 
 under a great depth of Wash and porphyry, and about 6ti0 
 feet east of its probable outcrop. In this region the lower 
 body of White porphyry is cutting diagonally across the ore- 
 bearing stratum, which is now largely unreplaced dolomite, 
 and gplits it into two wedge-shaped masses, the upper one 
 tapering off to- the south, the lower one thinning to • nothing 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 177 
 
 on the north. The northern extremity of the latter is proved 
 in the Stonewall Jackson, Pearson, Joe Bates, and other 
 shafts , southward it stretches across the Stray Horse claim, 
 on to Carbonate Hill, soon embracing the fiill thickness of 
 the body. The upper body is proved southward in the 
 Robert Emmett, Agassiz, Gone-abroad, Cyclops, Mahala, 
 and Greenback shafts, in the latter of which it has thinned 
 out to seven feet of dolomite, and is separated from the rest 
 of the Blue limestone body, which crops on the west face of 
 Carbonate Hill, by a probable thickness of over 600 feet of 
 White porphyry. 
 
 Future explorations and ore prospects. — Within the actu- 
 ally developed area yet unopened ore bodies may still be 
 looked for. Practical experience has already taught miners 
 that no part of the ore-bearing stratum can be considered 
 barren until it is proved so by systematic exploration. 
 Systematic exploration means a definite system of drifts, 
 cross-cuts, and winzes, controlled by accurate surveys in 
 such a manner that the mine superintendent may know that 
 no considerable block of ground has been left untouched, 
 either by himself or his predecessors. The system of bur- 
 rowing, so much in vogue in the early days of mining in this 
 region, is especially reprehensible in such rich ore deposits. 
 Future explorations in as yet untouched ground must be 
 carried on in the direction of the dip, not of individual ore 
 bodies, but of the ore-bearing stratum as a whole ; that is to 
 the north and east of present developments. The whole 
 northern and eastern portions of the hills are as yet practi- 
 cally untouched ground, the Virginius and Little Sliver 
 being the only important shafts which have penetrated the 
 ore-horizon, besides the Buckeye, which is on its western 
 outcrop. The reason for the non-exploratidn of this ground 
 lies mainly in the fact that whenever the ore-bearing stratum 
 has been reached, the volume of water pouring in was so 
 great that it could not be controlled by the pumps used. 
 The laws of hydrostatic pressure, and the fact that we are 
 here on the lower rim of a synclinal basin or trough, across 
 whose edges the drainage of both Big and Little Evans runs, 
 amply account for the great volume of water found. It can- 
 not be assumed that the ore bodies, as at present developed, 
 will necessarily be found to extend continuously, or in equal 
 richness to the north and east ; indeed, the few develop- 
 ments as yet made have been in comparatively low-grade 
 ore. Still the promise of ore is amply sufficient to justify 
 the expenditure of a large amount of money in exploration. 
 Under the present conditions of ownership of the ground, 
 however, whoever puts in pumping machinery of power 
 sufficient to lower the water-level in his own ground, will 
 probably do the same thing for his neighbors. The ex- 
 ploration must, therefore, be accomplished by a combination 
 of property owners, and the putting down of one or more 
 large union shafts, provided with powerful machinery, such 
 as are in use on the Comstock lode, from which explorations 
 may be carried out into the grounds of all belonging to the 
 combination. These shafts should be located so as to reach 
 the ore-bearing stratum as nearly as possible at the lowest 
 point at which it is expected to be worked. For definitely 
 determining such point, it would be wise to obtain more ac- 
 curate data than have been available in this work, by sinking 
 additional exploring shafts. Judging from what is now 
 known, a union shaft for the claims on the western half of 
 Fryer Hill should be sunk along Big Evans Gulch, at the 
 southern extremity of the dividing line between the Little 
 Pittsburg and Amie claims ; say at the Little Amie shaft. 
 For the eastern portion of Fryer Hill and the claims in 
 Little Stray Horse Park, the union shaft should be placed 
 near the gulch about midway between the Tip-Top shaft 
 and Lickscumdidrix bore-hole. There will always be the 
 element of uncertainty in regard to the complete efficiency 
 of this system of drainage that as yet unknown bodies of 
 porphyry may cross the beds in such a way as to interfere 
 with the regular circulation of water in the basin ; but in 
 spite of this uncertainty the experiment should be tried, 
 since portions which were thus cut oflF from the benefits of 
 the common pump might easily be connected with it by a 
 drainage level. 
 
 Conclusions. — The most important facts of general 
 bearing are ; 
 
 I. Sedimentary formations. — That the Paleozoic and 
 Mesozoic beds are a littoral deposit around the Sawatch Arch- 
 12 
 
 £ean island, and were consequently formed in comparatively 
 shallow water. 
 
 II. Intrusive bodies. — The occurrence, on an enormous 
 scale, of intrusive bodies of eruptive rock of Secondary or 
 Mesozoic age, and of exceptionally crystalline structure, 
 which are so regularly interstratified as to form an integral 
 part of the sedimentary series, and yet which never reached 
 the surface, but were spread out and consolidated before the 
 great dynamic movement or mountain-building period at the 
 close of the Cretaceous. 
 
 III. Ore deposits. — That the original ore depositions 
 took place after the intrusion of the eruptive rocks and be- 
 fore the folding and faulting occasioned by the great dynamic 
 movement. 
 
 IV. Plication and faulting. — ^That the plication and 
 faulting which resulted from this dynamic movement 
 were intimately connected with each other, the latter being, 
 in most cases, a direct sequence of the former, when the 
 limit of flexibility of the plicated masses had been reached. 
 
 V. Duration of dynamic movement. — That while the close 
 of the Cretaceous is properly considered the mountain-build- 
 ing period of this region, being that in which the greater 
 dynamic movements were initiated and their major effects 
 produced, these movements have continued, though on a 
 probably much smaller scale, to recent times, as evinced by 
 the movement proved to have taken place in the Lake beds 
 since the Glacial period. Evidence, though of less definite 
 character, has also been obtained of movements since the 
 opening of the Leadville mines. 
 
 Facts which bear directly upon the ore deposits have a 
 more practical application, and will therefore interest a 
 larger class of readers. The main conclusions may be briefly 
 summarized as follows : 
 
 Formation of ore deposits. — The minerals contained in the 
 principal ore deposits of the region were derived from cir- 
 culating waters, which in their passage through the various 
 bodies of eruptive rocks took up certain metals in solution, 
 and, concentrating along bedding planes, by a metamorphic 
 or pseudomorphic action of replacement, deposited these 
 metals as sulphides along the contact or upper surface, and 
 to greater or less depth below that surface, of beds generally 
 of limestone or dolomite, but sometimes also of siliceous rooks. 
 
 VII. Distribution of ore deposits. — That in the region 
 immediately about Leadville the principal deposition of 
 silver-bearing minerals took place at the horizon of the low- 
 est member of the Carboniferous group, the Blue limestone 
 formation, commencing at its contact with the overlying 
 White porphyry. But that, while this particular formation 
 has been peculiarly susceptible to the action of ore currents 
 in this region, it is not admissible to assume, as some have 
 done, that in general the beds of any one geological epoch 
 are more favorable than those of any other to the formation 
 of this important type of silver-bearing deposits ; since, al- 
 though they are generally found in greatest abundance in 
 calcareous beds of Paleozoic age, the horizon of such beds 
 is by no means identical in the various mining districts in 
 which they have been thus far developed. 
 
 VIII. Dikes. — That in this, as in many other mining dis- 
 tricts, dikes of eruptive rock, cutting the ore-bearing forma- 
 tion transversely, seem to favor the concentration of rich ore 
 bodies or bonanzas in their vicinity. 
 
 IX. Faults. — ^That on fault planes, on the other hand, no 
 considerable ore bodies have been deposited, as might have 
 been assumed a priori from the fact that their origin is later 
 than that of the original ore deposits. 
 
 X. Value of these deposits as compared with fissure 
 veins. — The superior estimation in which true fissure 
 veins aie held, as compared with this class of deposits, is, 
 as far as valid scientific reasons go, largely a popular preju- 
 dice. While fissure-vein deposits may be more regular and 
 continuous, the bonanzas in this class are genertdly larger 
 and more easily worked ; morever, I consider that additional 
 and more definite evidence is required before it can be as- 
 sumed as proven that fissure veins extend indefinitely in 
 depth and are filled directly from below, and consequently 
 see no reason why the area of ore deposition, other things 
 being equal, should be greater in that class than in this. A 
 rough comparison of the relative areas of ore deposition in 
 the famous Comstock lode and in the Blue limestone of 
 Leadville, which was once as continuous as the former, will 
 
178 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 illustrate my idea. The Comstock has been worked on a 
 length of 20,000 feet and to a maximum depth of 3,000 feet 
 or over an area of 60,000,000 square feet. In Leadville, if 
 we take, as the limits within which the Blue limestone has 
 been found productive, a square of which Fryer Hill, 
 Little Ellen Hill, and Long & Derry Hill should be three of 
 the corners, we have an area of over 225,000,000 square feet, 
 or about four times as great as that of Comstock. Too small 
 a portion of the latter area has yet been explored to attempt 
 any comparison between the relative proportions of produc- 
 tive and unproductive ground in the two cases. 
 
 XL Legal aspect. — From the point of view of legal owner- 
 ship, however, there is an undoubted advantage in favor of 
 the fissure vein, since the owner of a certain number of feet 
 on the outcrop can, under the United States mining law, 
 establish his title to that width as far as the vein extends. 
 In the case of the Leadville deposits, on the other hand, 
 late legal decisions made under the system of trial by jury 
 have practically reversed the law, and given effect to the 
 system of square locations, which, however much may be 
 said in its favor, was certainly never intended by the legis- 
 lators who made it. 
 
 XII. Practical suggestions to prospectors. — In general, 
 deposits of this type are to be looked for in regions where 
 sedimentary beds are found associated with numerous dikes 
 and intrusive masses of Mesozoic or Secondary age. In such 
 regions valuable deposits would be first sought in limestone 
 beds, and in preference on their upper surface, or at the 
 contact with overlying eruptive rocks or sedimentary beds 
 of essentially different composition. It should also be borne 
 in mind that limestone deposits are generally irregular in 
 their distribution, and often found within the mass of the 
 rock with relatively few surface indications to guide the 
 explorer. In the region here treated of the Blue limestone 
 is essentially the ore-bearing bed, and while, owing to the 
 favoring condition of the presence of large masses of in- 
 trusive rock impregnated with precious metals, ore has 
 locally been concentrated at other horizons, this particular 
 bed offers the best promise to the prospector. Experience 
 has shown, moreover, that ore deposition has been most 
 active where the Blue limestone is overlain by White 
 porphyry. In the area covered by this intrusive mass, ex- 
 ploration has not yet thoroughly tested the horizon ; but 
 within these limits it seems to be well proved that no con- 
 siderable portion of it is altogether barren of useful metals. 
 On the -Other hand it must be remembered that it is only 
 bonanzas or exceptionally large concentrations of ore which 
 yield a great reinuneration to miners, and these are, in the 
 nature of things, limited to comparatively small areas where 
 conditions have been favorable to their concentration. Such 
 portions can here be readily recognized by the presence of 
 large amounts of vein material, either ferruginous or silice- 
 ous, replacing the dolomite. By the aid of the U. S. geolog- 
 ical survey maps the prospector can therefore determine 
 with approximate accuracy where the Blue limestone 
 horizon has been removed by erosion and where it still 
 exists, and in the latter portions, by the further aid of 
 sections and descriptions herein, where it may be looked for 
 under the surface, and at what probable depth it may be 
 found. He should bear in mind that, it is sometimes 
 bleached so as even to be confounded with porphyry, from 
 which its effervescence with acids is then the only safe dis- 
 tinction, and that even the porphyry is sometimes so 
 impregnated with carbonate of lime as to effervesce slightly. 
 Also that the Parting quartzite is the formation which marks 
 its base, but that in the decomposed state prevalent in the 
 mines it is often to be distinguished from porphyry only by 
 its gritty feel; that, if for any reason the Parting quartzite 
 is not definitely distinguishable, the finding of White lime- 
 stone beneath, with its characteristic secretions of white 
 hornstone or chert, is an unmistakable evidence that he is 
 below the horizon of the Blue limestone. 
 
 Area under Leadville. — The determination of the existence 
 or non-existence of the Blue limestone beneath the city of 
 Leadville, or the area immediately west of Carbonate and 
 Fryer Hills, is of prime importance, for the reason that so 
 many rich bonanzas have already been developed at that 
 horizon on its eastern borders, which it is reasonable to sup- 
 pose once extended farther west, and that thus far the rich- 
 ness of the horizon seems to increase with its distance from 
 
 the crest of the range. The evidence gathered upon this: 
 point will therefore be given in considerable detail. It is 
 sufficiently well proved by the general geological structure 
 of the region that the Blue limestone originally extended to 
 the west of Leadville, its probable limits being a line drawn 
 from the mouth of the East Fork of the Arkansas in a south- 
 east direction to a point just west of Weston's Pass. If, 
 then, it has not been removed by erosion, it should still be 
 found there, and the question resolves itself into the deter- 
 mination of the amount of erosiou over the triangular area 
 included between that line and the known outcrops, and the 
 probable elevation or depth below the present surface at 
 which the Blue limestone was left by the folding action and 
 faulting of the Paleozic series. Of the amount of erosion, 
 or its practical exponent, the depth of surface accumula- 
 tions of Wash and Lake beds over the actual rock surface, 
 no data are attainable, except along the eastern shore-line 
 of the ancient lake, or the western edges of the present hills, 
 where rock in place has been actually reached in a few 
 shafts. As it may be reasonably assumed that this was a 
 shelving shore, the only deduction to be drawn from the 
 data thus afforded is that farther west the thickness of Wash 
 and Lake beds is probably greater. 
 
 With regard to the depth below the present surface at 
 which the Blue limestone was left by folding and faulting, 
 it may be assumed from analogy with the structure of other 
 similar areas in the region, which the few available facts 
 confirm, that this area is occupied by a shallow synclinal 
 fold, cut off in part on its eastern edge by a fault. If, then, 
 the shore of the Glacial lake was not very much steeper 
 than has been assumed in the sections, and there exists no 
 anticlinal ridge within the basin, it is probable that a con- 
 tinuous sheet of Blue limestone still exists west of the pre- 
 sent known outcrops, and probably at no point over a thou- 
 sand feet below the present surface. The evidence obtained 
 with regard to its form may be very briefly stated. 
 
 On the North. — The existence of the Cambrian quartzite 
 dipping southeast at the mouth of the East Fork of the 
 Arkansas, and of Blue limestone on the ridge north of this 
 stream, proves a basining-up in that direction, and that out- 
 crop of the Blue limestone on that side of the basin runs 
 nearly parallel to the river, and one or two thousand feet 
 south of it, with a shallow dip southeast. 
 
 East Side. — On the west slope of Prospect Mountain it 
 comes to the surface, as already shown, in the Little Evans 
 anticlinal. South of this the Oolite shaft cut the overlying 
 Gray and White porphyries, and found Blue limestone dip- 
 ping steeply west at about 165 feet. About 1,100 feet west 
 of this the Sequa shaft and bore-hole was sunk 280 feet 
 through porphyry without reaching the contact, proving the 
 western dip to be continuous so far. Still further south, at 
 the foot of Fairview Hill, a number of now abandoned 
 shafts have struck the White limestone under only sixty to 
 ninety feet of Wash, in one of which, the American Eagle, 
 it is said that the beds dipped both east and west. This 
 would be the axis of the Big Evans anticlinal fold. About 
 600 feet west of this shaft the Bob IngereoU drill, after 
 passing through 360 feet of Wash and lake beds, has been 
 driven from 100 to 150 feet in White porphyry. This proves 
 definitely a western dip here, since no considerable sheet of 
 White porphyry is known to exist below the White lime- 
 stone. Whether this is the one which occurs above or below 
 the Blue limestone will be determined only when the under- 
 lying bed is reached. On Carbonate Hill, as stated in 
 Chapter VIII, the downward movement was distributed be- 
 tween two faults, the amount of that in the westernmost, 
 the Pendery fault not having been proved. The fact that 
 the shafts which have been sunk through' the Wash along 
 the lower slopes of the hill have invariably struck White 
 porphyry, is satisfactory evidence that the ore horizon is 
 still below them, since in this region the only known sheet 
 of White porphyry is that which overlies the Blue limestone. 
 There is some evidence of a western dip, as there shown, 
 but whether the formation descends to the westward in a 
 regular slope or in a series of short folds or faults is yet to be 
 proved. The former would be more favorable to fiiture 
 developments. The facts that the displacement of the Car- 
 bonate fault is so small and that the Pendery fault probably 
 passes into a fold are presumptive evidence that immedi- 
 ately west of the latter line the depth of the Blue limestone 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 179 
 
 below the present surface is not great, and that it probably 
 increases toward California Gulch and decreases toward 
 Stray Horse Gulch. On the south slope of Carbonate Hill 
 the California Tunnel passes through White porphyry west 
 of the fault, which here had an inclination of only 30° to 
 the west, and a shaft and bore-hole near the bed of the 
 gulch, opposite the Harrison smelter, has been sunk 200 feet 
 also in White porphyry. 
 
 South side. — ^The main fault crosses California Gulch in a 
 southwest direction, about 500 feet above the Gillespie & 
 Ballou sampling works, and west of it the Blue limestone 
 may probably exist for some distance further south. Theo- 
 retically, it should extend, if not eroded, as far as the con- 
 vergence of the fault line with the western rim of the basin. 
 Practically, as the Lake beds probably deepen rapidly in 
 this direction, its actual extent is likely to remain a matter 
 of pure speculation for some time to come. 
 
 West side. — The western limits of the basin are equally 
 a matter of speculation. The outcrops of the Blue lime- 
 stone, run just west of the city limits. Within the limits 
 thus rudely outlined the probabilities of the existence of 
 the ore horizon below the Wash and Lake beds seem 
 sufficient to justify the expense of an experimental shaft. 
 This expense must necessarily be great, from the thick- 
 ness of loosely agglomerated material to be passed through, 
 which will almost certainly admit an enormous amount 
 of water, the drainage of the surrounding hill surface. 
 It must therefore be undertaken with the intention of 
 risking a large sum of money, and as its result, if favorable, 
 will increase the value of property in the whole area, the 
 risk should be shared proportionately among them, as far as 
 possible. From a purely geological standpoint, the most 
 conservative method of exploration would be to reach the 
 Blue limestone horizon somewhere near the eastern rim of 
 the basin, say on the lower slopes of Carbonate Hill, and 
 follow it westward. Other influencing motives may proba- 
 bly make it advisable to sink the experimental shaft further 
 out on the fiat, and in this case some position on a north 
 and south line through Capitol Hill, would be a safe loca- 
 tion to choose. While there might be advantage in going 
 still farther west, inasmuch as the nearer one approaches the 
 actual outcrop the less will be the overlying porphyry that 
 will have to be passed through, on the other hand, once that 
 outcrop is passed, the shaft would reach only the compara- 
 tively barren Silurian, Cambrian, or Archaean ; it is there- 
 fore advisable to keep within safe limits until more definite 
 data as to the probable breadth of the basin can be obtained. 
 ALhough the Blue limestone may extend half way to Malta, 
 in a region so complicated by unexpected folds and faults 
 the regular slope of the basin, which would give it that 
 width, cannot safely be counted on. 
 
 Other unexplored areas. — Present developments show that 
 on a line running eastward from Fryer Hill replacement 
 action has been exceptionally active. The Blue limestone 
 horizon along this line is therefore worthy of thorough ex- 
 ploration, first in the synclinal basin of Little Stray Horse 
 Park, and again in the area between the Yankee Hill anti- 
 clinal and the Weston fault. In either portion, as it is 
 covered by thick porphyry masses, it would be more eco- 
 nomical to conduct the exploration, from some common 
 . shaft, and only sink actual working shafts after the exist- 
 ence of valuable ore bodies had been definitely determined. 
 In either of these basins the ore horizon extends northward 
 beyond Big Evans Gulch and under Prospect Mountain, 
 and may prove productive there, but it is relatively more 
 difficult of access, and the few points at which it has been 
 reached give less promise of widespread ore deposition than 
 in other regions. Southeastward from the crest of Yankee 
 Hill the Blue limestone horizon might be expected to be 
 productive from the presence of the cross-cutting body of 
 Gray porphyry; on the other hand it may be more difficult 
 to trace, on account of the probably complicated geological 
 structure. Under the Pyritiferous porphyry of Breece Hill 
 it must exist, but at an as yet unknown depth. On the 
 north slope of this hill the contact eastward from the High- 
 land Chief mine has not yet been thoroughly explored, as 
 prospectors in this region have been hopelessly confused by 
 the complicated structure, and have sunk_ their shafts indis- 
 criminately above and below it. On Little Ellen Hill it 
 has been found productive, as already mentioned, but not 
 
 explored in the valleys to the north and south. East of the 
 BallMountain fault, again, the contact crosses South Evans 
 Gulch, but has been opened at comparatively few points. 
 The prospects of as yet undeveloped ore bodies under 
 Fryer, Carbonate, and Iron Hills have already been dis- 
 cussed. South of California Gulch the extension of the 
 line of the Iron fault probably coincides nearly with the 
 axis of a synclinal basin, east and west of which the 
 formations should rise. The generally shallow depth at 
 which the Gray porphyry sheet between the White por- 
 phyry and Blue limestone was found, just west of the 
 Dome fault, affiDrded an indication that the latter would 
 be found here comparatively near the surface, and this 
 indication has been confirmed by explorations since the 
 completion of field work. East of the Dome fault the out- 
 crop of the Blue limestone is found in the Nisi Prius and 
 adjoining shafts in Iowa Gulch, and its southern continua- 
 tion has thus far only been struck by the Hoodoo and Echo 
 shafts at the head of Thompson Gulch, leaving a consider- 
 able extent entirely unprospected. Under Printer Boy Hill, 
 east of the Pilot fault, the geological indications are favor- 
 able to the existence of ore bodies in the Blue limestone. 
 Its outcrop on the Iowa Gulch side is clearly marked, but 
 on the northern slope toward California Gulch it is obscured 
 by surface debris, or slide, and when last visited was un- 
 prospected between the Lovejoy shaft and the Eclipse tun- 
 nel. East of this it extends at a depth as yet unprofitable 
 for exploration, until cut ofi' by the Ball Mountain fault; 
 while on Long & Derry Hill it is cut off earlier by the 
 Weston fault, and is wanting in the areas further east. The 
 outcrop of Blue limestone can be traced from the western 
 shoulder of Mount Zion northward, gradually descending 
 the hill slope, crossing the mouth of No Name Gulch and 
 Piny Creek to Taylor Hill, at which point the El Capitan 
 mine has developed a valuable body of gold ore. Through- 
 out this extent it is as yet but little prospected. 
 
 Metallurgical Notes. — The smelting of lead in Lead- 
 ville, upon a careful and prolonged investigation, prompted 
 Mr. A. Guyard, who had undertaken the subject for the 
 Government, to the following conclusions : 
 
 1. That smelting in Leadville is a profitable operation, 
 but that the aggregate smelting capacity of the working 
 smelters is about equal to the present mining product of the 
 camp. 
 
 2. That lead smelting, in Leadville, has, on the whole, 
 been brought to a state of great perfection, with regard 
 both to the plant adopted, which is constructed on the most 
 approved principles, and to the manner in which fuel, 
 fluxes, and ores are mixed for smelting, giving slags which 
 are remarkable for their fluidity, not too highly charged 
 with either silver or lead (especially when it is remarked 
 that the bullion produced is very rich) ; and from which 
 bye-products, such as speises and mattes, are easily de- 
 tached. 
 
 3. That the quantity of bye-products, other than lead 
 fumes, resulting from smelting in Leadville, amounts to but 
 little. 
 
 ■ 4. That the camp is provided with the necessary plant to 
 work profitably such bye-products, which are generally rich 
 in silver, and either completely neglected, or treated imper- 
 fectly and with a considerable loss of silver. 
 
 5. That the mode adopted at a great many smelters, of 
 mixing and re-smelting with caustic lime the flue dust form- 
 ed in considerable quantity, is the best that could have Tjeen 
 devised, and that it would be advisable to substitute pure 
 lime for the dolomitic lime used in Leadville for this opera- 
 tion. 
 
 6 That the numerous imperfections noticeable at various 
 smelters are mostly intentional and based on economical 
 grounds, and are not on ignorance, for smelting is conducted 
 in Leadville by very clever superintendents and smelters. 
 
 7. That the smelting of lead ores, in presence of iron- 
 stone, has here been brought to a state of great practical 
 perfection, and is carried on most successfally, from one 
 year's end to the other, with the greatest regularity at a 
 dozen smelters, and that superintendents of smelters do not 
 hesitate to introduce in the charges sometimes very large 
 quantities of galena, which are reduced with the greatest 
 facility. 
 
 8. That owing to the peculiar nature of the Leadyille 
 
180 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ores, and to the great altitude at which smelting is perform- 
 ed, which increase the volatility of lead compounds, at- 
 tempts ought to be made to substitute caustic lime, free 
 from magnesia, for the raw dolomite universally used in 
 Leadville, in order to avoid as much as possible the forma- 
 tion of volatile lead compounds. 
 
 9. That coeteris paribus, dolomite forms as good a flux as 
 calcitic limestone, so far as the actual working of the blast 
 furnace is concerned, and that the fluidity of the slags thus 
 formed is not only irreproachable but quite remarkable. 
 
 10. That besides the substances existing in large quanti- 
 ties in the camp, such a.i silica, sulphur, carbonic acid, lime, 
 magnesia, alumina, oxides of iron and manganese, lead, sil- 
 ver, chlorine, and phosphoric acid, the following substances 
 exist in small quantities : sulphuric acid, titanic acid, bro- 
 mine, iodine, zinc, baryta, gold, nickel, molybdenum, 
 arsenic, antimony, and copper ; and that traces of the fol- 
 lowing substances may be detected : tin, bismuth, cobalt, 
 iridium, selenium, tellurium, cadmium, and a new metal 
 which has been imperfectly studied .is yet, and which ap- 
 pears to be intermediate between the metals of the iron 
 group and those of the lead group. 
 
 11. That ores of Leadville are either rich in lead and 
 poor in silver, rich in silver and poor in lead, or equally 
 rich in both silver and lead, and very variable in composi- 
 tion ; but that by judicious admixtures of various ores, ore 
 beds of sensibly the same composition are made at the 
 smelters, which are needed to insure regularity in the 
 smelting operations. 
 
 12. That the quantity of lead completely lost in the at- 
 mosphere is sensibly twice as large as the quantity of lead 
 caught in the dust chambers generally used. 
 
 13. That the crude bullion extracted in the blast furnaces 
 of Leadville by the process referred to in ? 7, is of very fair 
 quality, and that a little of its silver and some of its lead 
 exist there in the state of sulphurots. 
 
 14. That matte9-(both-iron and lead mattes) which had 
 hitherto been considered as entirely formed of sulphurets 
 are crystallographic compounds of sulphurets of iron and 
 lead, and crystallized magnetic oxide of iron. (This last 
 observation, however, interferes in no way with the fact that 
 in various smelting operations mattes entirely formed of 
 sulphurets are produced.) 
 
 15. That slags cannot very well be compared with min- 
 erals, from which they differ essentially; that they contain 
 minute quantities of carbonates which have escaped destruc- 
 tion, and small quantities of carbon or carburets, two prod- 
 ucts which hitherto had not been generally known to exist. 
 That slags are formed of crystallographic compounds of sili- 
 cates of iron, manganese, zinc, lead, lime, and magnesia, on 
 the one hand, and on the other of a peculiar matte which is 
 designated by the name of calcium matte, and which like its 
 congeners is formed of a sulphuret (sulphuret of calcium) 
 and magnetic oxide of iron, which can be isolated in the 
 pure crystalline state. 
 
 16. That at least three distinct metallurgical kinds of 
 speises, containing two distinct chemical arsenio-sulphurets 
 of iron, are formed in lead smelting, and that they always 
 contain small quantities of nickel and molybdenum entirely 
 concentrated in them, showing that the metallurgy of molyb- 
 denum could be conducted jointly with that .of lead, with 
 ores containing only traces of molybdenum. 
 
 17. That a very curious and a hitherto unsuspected reac- 
 tion takes place in the blast furnaces of Leadville, by means 
 of which cobalt is completely separated from nickel (nickel 
 being concentrated in speises and cobalt in the skimmings 
 of the lead pots of blast furnaces), and showing that the 
 metallurgy of both metals and their separation could be 
 effected in lead furnaces by operating under conditions sim- 
 ilar to those observed in Leadville. 
 
 18. That iron sows are a variety of speise and present a 
 great analogy with the latter products. 
 
 19. That lead fumes are very complicated products, char- 
 acterized in Leadville by the presence of no inconsiderable 
 amount of chloro-bromoiodide of lead and phosphate of lead, 
 and that they contain, contrary to the opinion formed in 
 Leadville, but small quantities of arsenic and antimony. 
 
 20. That owing to that erroneous notion, the practice of 
 roasting the dust in order to free it from arsenic and anti- 
 mony, as adopted at one smelter, is a useless and costly one. 
 
 which is unnecessary and ought not to be generalized in 
 Leadville. 
 
 21. That accretions are products of sublimation, and that 
 these products, which line the shaft of the furnaces and 
 interfere seriously with a regular run, might be, to some 
 extent, avoided, or made less troublesome, by a slight mod- 
 ification of the manner of charging the furnaces, and by 
 the adoption of caustic lime, instead of raw limestone, in 
 smelting. 
 
 22. That some accretions are characterized by the concen- 
 tration, in sometimes large quantities, of metals such as tin, 
 arsenic, antimony, and zinc, which exist but in small quan- 
 tities in the ores. 
 
 23. That the charcoal used in smelting is of very good, 
 and the coke of bad quality; but that the fuel obtained by 
 mixing them contains 20 per cent, of ash, and that it re- 
 quires a maximum amount of 32 to 33 parts of this fuel for 
 100 parts of ore, and 24 parts for IOC parts of charges to ef- 
 fect smelting ; but that at several smelters these percentages 
 are considerably lowered. 
 
 24. That for every 100 parts of carbon thrown in the fur- 
 naces with the smelting charges, only 52.25 parts reach the 
 zone of combustion at the tuyeres, the balance being con- 
 sumed chiefly by carbonic acid formed in the zone of com- 
 bustion, involving, as is well known, an absorption of 
 heat. 
 
 Compiled from an article by S. F. Emmons, C. E., Beport of U.S. Geological 
 Survey, 1881. 
 
 THE COMSTOCK MINES. 
 
 THE known limits of the lode cover a space of 22,546 
 feet, in a nearly due north and south direction 
 (magnetic). At the time the existing mine maps 
 were laid out, the variation of the needle in that 
 locality was 16^ degrees east. The northern half of the lode 
 has a direction a little more to the east than the magnetic 
 meridian, and the southern half a strike which again is 
 slightly more to the east than its neighbor. Great irregu- 
 larities in the course occur locally, the strike varying in fact 
 from north-east to north-west within short distances. Still 
 the mean direction of the lode is almost coincident with the 
 line of magnetic north. Upon this extensive seat of metal- 
 liferous deposition, the following mines have been opened, 
 the list beginning at thje northern end, and being divided 
 into the Virginia, Gold Hill, and American Flat groups in 
 accordance with the geological separation of the ore bodies. 
 The names given these divisions are those of the towns 
 which have been built upon them, and which rank in popu- 
 lation in the order here given : 
 
 Virginia Gronp. 
 
 Length of Claim. 
 
 Utah 1,000 feet. 
 
 Sierra Nevada 3,650 " 
 
 *Union Consolidated . . 675 " 
 
 *Mexican . 600 " 
 
 Ophir 675 " 
 
 California , . 600 " 
 
 Consolidated Virginia ... , . , . . 710 " 
 
 *Best Sc BelohPr 640 " 
 
 Gould & Curry ... 612^ " 
 
 Savage . 771% " 
 
 Hale & Roroross .... . . . 400 " 
 
 Chollar 700 " 
 
 Potosi . . . 700 " 
 
 Bullion . ... 9435- " 
 
 ♦Exchequer . . 400 " 
 
 *Alpha . . .... 306 " 
 
 Imperial Consolidated . . ... 406 " 
 
 13,649^6 feet. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 181 
 
 Gold HUl Group. 
 
 Length of Claim. 
 
 •Challenge 90 feet. 
 
 •Confidence • 130 " 
 
 Yellow Jacket 953^^ " 
 
 •Kentuok 93}^ " 
 
 CrownPoint .... Mlfj " 
 
 Belcher 1,040 " 
 
 •Segregated Belcher 160 " 
 
 Overman 1,200 " 
 
 Caledonia 2,188 " 
 
 6,3971^ feet. 
 
 American Flat Group. 
 
 Length of Claim. 
 
 Maryland 900 feet. 
 
 Baltimore Consolidated 1,200 " 
 
 American Flat SOO " 
 
 2,600 feet. 
 
 ' The mines above mentioned are followed by a number of 
 others which from their position may have good reason to 
 place themselves among the acknowledged mines of the 
 Comstock Lode. The three series of mines occupy a total 
 length on the lode of 22,546 feet, as follows : 
 
 la the Virginia Group . . 17 mines. 
 
 In the Gold Hill Group ... " 
 
 In the American Flat Group . . 3 " 
 
 13,549 feet. 
 6,397 '• 
 2,000 " 
 
 22,646 feet. 
 
 the Comstock has become the greatest gold and silver mine 
 in active operation in the world. It is extremely difficult to 
 ascertain its true yield in the nineteen years of its history, 
 and estimates vary from $300,000,000 to $350,000,000. 
 During the earlier years very little effort was made to give 
 accuracy to the statistics, and even the fuller data now 
 obtainable must be regarded as a minimum, because they 
 represent only that portion of the product which is extrac- 
 ted in the interest of the mine owners. In addition to this 
 there are the battery slimes and the tailings, which are the 
 property of the mills, and from which a large amount of 
 bullion has been obtained. In the following table the 
 annual product is given from the best sources at command. 
 For the most part it covers only that portion of the product 
 which is accounted for to the mine stockholders; but it 
 includes also about $6,500,000 obtained from tailings and 
 from mines that are not on the Comstock, though in its 
 immediate neighborhood. This addition probably com- 
 pensates nearly for the omissions due to imperfect records, 
 and the benefit to stockholders from the Comstock lode has 
 probably been not far from $290,000,000. 
 
 The length of the claims now (1877) included in the lode 
 is more than one thousand feet greater than it was in 1866, 
 the additions having been made on the extreme southern 
 end in the American Flat district. The division of the lode 
 among the mining companies also is not now what it was 
 when the table quoted by Mr. Hague (" Survey of the For- 
 tieth Parallel," Vol. III., p. 99) was compiled by Mr. K. H. 
 Stretch, State Mineralogist of Nevada. That contained the 
 names of forty-six claims, many of which were less than a 
 hundred feet long. Several of these have been consolidated 
 within late years, and one company, the Chollar-Potosi, has 
 divided its ground between two companies, the Chollar and 
 the Potosi. A practical consolidation has been accomplished 
 by working two or more mines through one shaft. Thus the 
 Union, Mexican, and Ophir are all worked through the 
 Ophir shaft ; the Best and Belcher is managed by the Gould 
 and Curry officers, and the Imperial and Empire shaft is a 
 point from which the Exchequer, Alpha, Impmal, Chal- 
 lenge Consolidated, and Confidence claims, covering 1392 
 feet of ground, are all explored. The Kentuck is worked 
 through the Crown Point shaft, and the Segregated Belcher 
 through the Belcher. The number of working shafts distri- 
 buted along the length of the lode in 1877 was twenty ; to 
 which must be added the air-shaft of the Belcher. Nine 
 mines had no shaft, and some of them were among those of 
 the first importance. This consolidation of interests is a 
 favorite method of reducing the cost of exploration while 
 the mine is in barren ground, and it can be and frequently 
 is abandoned as soon as ore is reached. The great and in- 
 creasing depth of the mines is no bar to this method of con- 
 ducting the search for ore, because the energetic methods 
 of mining practised on the Comstock allow the sinking of a 
 deep shaft with extraordinary rapidity if the discovery of 
 ore makes it advisable. 
 
 Mining began in the Comstock region in 1850, when gold 
 was found by some Mormon emigrants in Gold Cafion, 
 which leads from the immediate locality of the lode to the 
 Carson River. The discovery was made near the Carson, 
 and the work was confined to surface diggings. As these 
 were pursued from one point to another, the Cafion was 
 ascended until, in 1859, Gold Hill at the head of the 
 Canon was reached, and the surface claims were staked out 
 close to and probably including, the croppings of the great 
 ledge. During the same period Six-Mile Canon, which runs 
 from the northern part of the Comstock to the Carson, as 
 Gold Canon runs from the central part, was worked, and in 
 the same vear, 1859, the Comstock Lode was discovered by a 
 pit sunk "for a water-hole. This was on the ground of the 
 Ophir mine. Milling the ore began in October of the same 
 year ; but progress was slow, and the amount of bullion 
 taken out in 1860 is estimated at only $100,000. Since then 
 
 • Worked through the shaft of a neighboring mine. 
 
 
 
 
 
 jold and Silver. 
 
 1860* . 
 
 
 . $100,000 
 
 
 1861* . . 
 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 
 1862*. . 
 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 
 1863* 
 
 
 . 12,400,000 
 
 
 1864*. . . 
 
 
 . 16,000,000 
 
 
 1865*. . 
 
 
 . 16,000,000 
 
 
 1866* . 
 
 
 . 11,739,100 
 
 
 1867* 
 
 
 . 13,738,618 
 
 
 1868* ... . 
 
 
 . 8,479,769 
 
 
 1869*. . . . 
 
 
 . 7,405,578 
 
 
 1870t. . . . 
 
 
 . 8,603,175 
 
 
 Unclassified 
 
 
 
 $102,466,240 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 
 18711 
 
 
 $4,077,027 
 
 }8,230,587 
 
 
 lS7i! 
 
 
 6,310,035 
 
 6,611,943 
 
 
 1873 
 
 
 10,493,796 
 
 11,037,023 
 
 
 1R74 
 
 
 12,579,825 
 
 11,881,000 
 
 
 1R75 
 
 
 11,739,873 
 
 14,492,360 
 
 
 1876 
 
 
 18,002,906 
 
 20,570,078 
 
 
 1877? . . 
 
 16,130,996 
 
 17,760,702 
 
 
 1878J. . . 
 
 9,357,040 
 
 9,694,940 
 
 
 
 $88,691,498 
 
 $98,278,623 
 
 
 Total .... 
 
 
 
 . . . 186,970,121 
 
 18771 Unclassified . 
 
 
 . *901,790 
 
 
 187811 " 
 
 
 . . 826,064 
 
 1,725,844 
 
 
 
 
 
 $291,162,205 
 
 From the mines in the Comstock region but not 
 on the Comstock Lode, 1877 and 18781 . 
 
 $2,635,042 
 
 How much these figures should be increased to account 
 for the bullion extracted from the battery slimes and tailings, 
 is impossible to estimate with accuracy ; but if an allowance 
 of $5 per ton of ore is made on these two items, the above 
 sum total would be increased by $32,500,000 and the entire 
 product of the lode would be placed above $320,000,000. 
 The quantity of ore extracted is even more doubtful than its 
 value, for no record of it has been kept in earlier years. It 
 consists of two general classes, the rich ore, obtained when 
 the mines are in bonanza, and the low-grade ore, which is 
 worked during the intermediate periods of comparative 
 barrenness. The former ranges usually between $40 and 
 $108 returned to the stockholders, and the latter between 
 $20 and $35. A good authority on this subject estimates 
 the average value of the Comstock ore in the past at $45 per 
 ton of 2000 pounds, and this includes only the return to the 
 companies. At this rate the above total of $201,161,205 
 represents about 6,500,000 tons of ore. To this must be 
 added from two to ten per cent, for slimes, which vary quite 
 as much in value. In the earlier years of this region, the 
 slimes and tailings were not always worked over, and that 
 was also for some of the mines the period of richest yield. 
 Taking all these circumstances together, it is probable that 
 the allowance above made of $5 per ton of ore mined would 
 cover the amount actually extracted from the slimes and 
 tailings. It is very much in excess of the quantities re- 
 ported to the Controller of Nevada for taxation. 
 
 * From J. D. Hague's Report on Mining Industry of the Fortieth 
 Parallel, 1870. 
 
 f From the Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Mining Statistics, 
 1871, corrected by data received from some mines. 
 
 t From Report of the U. S. Monetary Commission, 1877. 
 
 I Reported by the mining companies with minor amounts taken 
 from the Tax List. 
 
 1 Prom State Tax List of Nevada. 
 
182 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The quantity of precious metals which has been allowed 
 to run off with the exhausted tailings is unknown ; but $40,- 
 000,000 is probably a minimum estimate for this item. 
 Estimates of this kind are necessarily inexact. Summing up 
 these estimates, we have for the gross contents of the lode as 
 worked up to the end of 1878 : 
 
 Ore extracted ' 6,500,000 tons. 
 
 Per Ton. Total. 
 
 Bullion from the ore $44.80 1291,161,205 
 
 Bullion from tailings and slimea . . . 6.00 32,500,000 
 
 Lost in tailings 6.20 40,300,000 
 
 Total estimated assay value of ore $363,961,205 
 
 If the percentage yield in the mills were accurately known, 
 it would of course be possible to determine the value of the 
 ore from their returns. But this yield has varied constantly, 
 increasing with the improvement in machinery and practice 
 from sixty-five per cent, to seventy-two per cent. Seventy 
 per cent, is probably a somewhat high average, and adding 
 three per cent, for the amount extracted from tailings, which 
 is also slightly in excess of the reported amount, we have a 
 total yield of 73 per cent, from the ore. Therefore the 
 $291,000,000 which has been obtained from the lode re- 
 presents a mass of ore containing a little less than $399,- 
 000,000 worth of silver and gold. Adding to this sum $9,- 
 000,000 for the value of the slimes, or a little more than 
 three per cent., we obtain a grand total of $408,000,000 for 
 the original contents of the ore taken from the Comstock 
 mines in twenty years, ending with the year 1878. These 
 two methods of computation therefore give results that differ 
 by no less than forty-five million dollars. Most of the 
 bullion yield of the lode has been obtained from sixteen ore 
 bodies or "bonanzas," and from low-grade ore which most 
 of the mines continue to extract in large quantities after the 
 rich quartz that furnish the rich ore, but is left in the mine 
 until that has been removed. The bonanzas which have 
 been found are as follows, beginning at the north end of 
 the lode : 
 
 One in Sierra Nevada. Two in Ophir. One in Con- 
 solidated Virginia and California. One in Gould and Curry 
 and Savage. One in Hale and Norcross. Two in Chollar- 
 Potosi. One in the Imperial and adjacent mines. One in 
 Yellow Jacket. One in Yellow Jacket, Kentuck, and Crown 
 Point. One in Crown Point and Belcher. One in Belcher. 
 One in Segregated Belcher. One in Overman. One in 
 Caledonia. 
 
 The number of these bodies is variously given by autho- 
 
 ground, has produced no less than thirty-seven per cent, 
 of the whole product of the lode, or $108,861,230. It is 
 now too late to attempt an accurate summary of the in- 
 teresting facts connected with these remarkable collections 
 of ore. The published records have always been of doubt- 
 ful value, and the fire which destroyed so many mine offi- 
 ces in Virginia, in 1875, swept away nearly all the original 
 notes and maps which could supply means for their cor- 
 rection. The following table is therefore given merely as 
 an approximation to the truth. It was compiled by the 
 San Francisco Chronicle in August 1877, and its statistics 
 are brought down to June 30th of that year. In some re- 
 spects it is obviously incorrect. It gives the dimensions of 
 the '' great bonanzas " as 500 feet high, 700 feet long, and 
 90 feet wide ; and every one of these figures could be suc- 
 cessfully disputed as being too small. But a mass of that 
 size would yield 81,500,000 cubic feet of quartz, which at 
 thirteen cubic feet to the ton would weigh 2,423,000 tons ; 
 a quantity which is nearly twice as much as this ore body 
 has supplied. Doubtless the other dimensions shown are 
 equally inaccurate. Nevertheless the table may give to 
 persons unaccustomed to mining some idea of the scale upon 
 which the metalliferous depositions of the Comstock lode 
 have been made. It is copied with no change except the 
 insertion of the true yield to date from the California and 
 Consolidated Virginia mines. The sum total, it will be ob- 
 served, does not agree with that given above, a fact which 
 illustrates the conflict of authorities on the question of yield ; 
 but is also partly accounted for by the yield from low-grade 
 ore which is not included. The number of bonanzas named 
 in this table is twenty, or four more than I have accounted 
 for. The discrepancy is due to the fact that the Chronicle 
 tabulates the returns from mines rather than from bonanzas, 
 and one of the latter may stretch through two or three of 
 the former. 
 
 The proportion of silver and gold in the ore, is another 
 point which suffers considerable obscurity from the want of 
 accurate book-keeping, though it has lately been the subject 
 of careful calculation. It varies in different ore bodies and 
 in different parts of the same bonanza. In the Crown Point 
 and Belcher, the Belcher, or southern end, was richer in 
 gold than the other half of the mass. In the Consolidated 
 Virginia & California, the California or northern end had 
 the larger proportion of gold. In the latter case the ore 
 bodies were absolutely distinct and occupied different quartz 
 masses which were nowhere united together, though closely 
 adjoining. The Consolidated Virginia had produced up to 
 
 Bonanza. 
 
 Date of 
 Discovery. 
 
 Position. 
 
 " Depth 
 
 Length. 
 
 Width. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Average 
 Yield. 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 Ophir, No. 1 . . . . 
 
 Gould & Cun-y . . t 
 Savage . . J 
 Gold Hill .... . ... 
 
 Yellow Jacket . . ) 
 Kentuck. ... . . > 
 
 Crown Point ) 
 
 Belcher .... 
 
 Chollar-Potosi . . 
 
 Overman 
 
 Seg. Belcher 
 
 1859 
 1860 
 1863 
 
 1864 
 
 1864 
 1866 
 1866 
 1866 
 1866 
 1866 
 1868 
 
 1871 
 
 1873 
 
 1874 
 1874 
 
 Totals. . 
 
 Surface. 
 Surface. 
 Surface. 
 
 100 feet. 
 
 Surface. 
 Surface. 
 Surface. 
 Surface. 
 Surface. 
 400 feet. 
 
 900 feet. 
 
 1100 feet. 
 
 1300 feet. 
 200 feet. 
 
 200 
 400 
 450 
 
 360 
 
 160 
 300 
 200 
 80 
 100 
 360 
 200 
 
 500 
 
 300 
 
 300 
 500 
 
 200 
 900 
 1000 
 
 600 
 
 200 
 500 
 250 
 50 
 100 
 350 
 300 
 
 600 
 
 700 
 
 800 
 400 
 
 40 
 30 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 60 
 30 
 20 
 26 
 35 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 90 
 
 30 
 10 
 
 109,168 
 
 777,783 
 
 1,037,412 
 
 418,051 
 
 55,288 
 
 653,958 
 
 110.669 
 
 4,961 
 
 16,613 
 313,270 
 111.497 
 
 1,374,528 
 
 1,090,360 
 
 264,000 
 112,964 
 
 $48 00 
 39 70 
 
 25 39 
 
 32 02 
 
 34 39 
 
 26 39 
 14 26 
 20 49 
 12 89 
 24 97 
 
 7 89 
 
 42 40 
 
 93 65 
 
 20 70 
 
 21 38 
 
 $5,210,000 
 30,881,397 
 26,340,762 
 
 13,389,068 
 
 1,901,117 
 13,985,716 
 
 1,578,388 
 101,453 
 212,761 
 
 Hale & Norcross 
 
 Sierra Nevada 
 
 7.822,233 
 883,108 
 
 
 
 Consol Virginia 
 
 California 
 
 Ophir, No. 2 
 
 Justice 
 
 104,007,652 
 
 5,548,055 
 2,395,974 
 
 
 6,360,520 
 
 42 89 
 
 272,367,624 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rities, the doubt not resting upon denial of reported ore dis- 
 coveries, but being caused by the difficulty of distinguishing 
 bonanzas which are enclosed in the same mass of quartz, 
 and only separated by low-grade ore which may be mined 
 out afterward. The subject is not important ; and no pains 
 have been taken to form a decided opinion upon it. The 
 Justice lode, lying near and opposite the southern end of 
 the Comstock, has also produced one large ore body. The 
 
 freat difference in the importance of the bonanzas is in- 
 icated by the fact that one of them, the last found and 
 lying in Consolidated Virginia, California and Ophir 
 
 December 31st, 1878, 26,141,851^^ ounces, or 1101 tons, 861 
 pounds of bullion, and the California 10,000,770^ ounces, 
 or 615 tons, 524 pounds. The California iDullion was worth 
 $2.56 per ounce, and the Consolidated Virginia $2,246. 
 
 The profit and loss account of the mines is probably quite 
 as difficult to arrive at as the dimensions and yield of the 
 bonanzas. All the facts which have been attainable are 
 shown in the following table which relates to those com- 
 panies that were in existence April 1st, 1879, and gives an 
 account of their capital stock, dividends and assessments, 
 since the date of their incorporation : 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 183 
 
 Name of Mine. 
 
 Length 
 Qaim. 
 
 Shares of 
 
 Stock 
 Number. 
 
 Value 
 
 per 
 
 Share. 
 
 Capital 
 Stock. 
 
 Total 
 ABBessmcnts. 
 
 Date of 
 last 
 
 AseesBment. 
 
 Total 
 Dividends. 
 
 Date of 
 
 last 
 
 Dividend. 
 
 Date of 
 Incorporation, 
 
 Yjeoinia Geocp. 
 
 1. Utah 
 
 2. Sierra Nevada ... 
 
 Feet. 
 
 1.000 
 3,650 
 
 676 
 
 600 
 
 675 
 
 ■600 
 
 710 
 
 640 
 
 700 
 700 
 
 943M 
 400 
 406 
 408 
 
 20,000 
 100,000 
 100,000 
 100,800 
 100,800 
 640,000 
 540,000 
 100,800 
 108,000 
 112,000 
 112,000 
 112,000 
 112,000 
 100,000 
 100,000 
 
 30.00 
 600,000 
 
 8100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 lOO 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 8 2,000,000 
 10,000,000 
 10,000,000 
 10.080,000 
 10,080,090 
 54,000,000 
 54,000,000 
 10,080,000 
 10,080,000 
 11,200,000 
 11,200,000 
 ll,ZuO,009 
 11.200,000 
 10,009,000 
 10,000,000 
 3 000,000 
 60,000,000 
 
 9 780,000 
 
 2,650,000 
 
 46(J,000 
 
 221,760 
 
 2,340,744 
 
 None. 
 
 474,600 
 
 438,692 
 
 2,945,600 
 
 4,196,000 
 
 3,026,000 
 
 1,760,000 
 
 None. 
 
 2,802,000 
 
 380,000 
 
 240,000 
 
 876,000 
 
 February, 1879. 
 
 April, 1879, 
 
 April, 1879. 
 
 May 16, 1878. 
 
 September 10,'78. 
 
 June, 1873. 
 
 April 16, 1878. 
 
 March 1879. 
 
 February, 1879. 
 
 March, 1879. 
 
 September, 1878. 
 
 January 22, '70. 
 January 17, '78. 
 March 21, 1878. 
 February, 1879. 
 
 November, 1878. 
 
 April 10, 1878. 
 
 January, 1879. 
 
 August 7, 1878. 
 December, 1878. 
 
 April 14, 1879. 
 April, 1876. 
 
 January, 1879. 
 
 April 11, 1879. 
 
 None 
 8102,500 
 
 None. 
 
 None. 
 
 1,394 400 
 
 30,240,000 
 
 41.810,000 
 
 None. 
 3,826,800 
 4,460,000 
 1,898,000 
 3,080,000 
 
 None, 
 None. 
 None. 
 None. 
 
 January 16, 187i. 
 
 March 7,1864. ' 
 
 January, 1879. 
 
 April, 1879. 
 
 April 9, 1872. 
 
 3. Umon Consolidated . . 
 
 4. Mexican 
 
 6. Ophir ... 
 
 6. California 
 
 1 7. Consol. Virginia . : . 
 8. Best & Belcher . . . 
 
 January 23, 1865. 
 1874. 
 
 December 31, "73. 
 June 7 ,1867. 
 
 9. Gould & Curry, . . 
 
 10. Savage 
 
 11. Hale & Noroross . . 
 
 12. ChoUar. . 
 
 13. PotBsl 
 
 October, 1870. 
 
 June, ;1869. 
 
 April, 1871. 
 
 February, 1871. 
 
 June 27, 1860. 
 
 October 14, 1862. 
 
 March 19, 1860. 
 
 April, 1805. 
 
 14. Bullion 
 
 
 
 15. Exchequer . 
 
 16. Alpha 
 
 17. Imperial Consol. . . 
 
 
 April 13, 1876. 
 
 Total 
 
 GoLTi Hill Group. 
 
 18. Challenge Consol . . . 
 
 19. Confidence 
 
 20. Yellow Jacket . . 
 
 21. Kentuck 
 
 22. Crown Point 
 
 23. Belcher 
 
 24. Segregated Belcher 
 
 26. Overman . ... 
 26. Caledonia . . . . 
 
 13,711^ 
 
 90 
 130 
 
 i,gS^ 
 
 160 
 1,200 
 2,188 
 
 2,888,400 
 
 30,000 
 
 24,960 
 120,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 104,0110 
 
 6,400 
 
 38,400 
 100,000 
 
 673,760 
 
 64,000 
 84,0 JO 
 30,000 
 
 8100 
 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 8288,840,000 
 
 8 6,000,000 
 2,496,000 
 
 12,000,000 
 3,000,000 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 10,400,000 
 1,020,000 
 3,840,000 
 
 10,000,003 
 
 823,480,296 
 
 8 10,000 
 
 266 320 
 
 3,912.000 
 
 300;000 
 
 2,053,370 
 
 1,692,040 
 
 244,800 
 
 3,066,800 
 
 1,646,000 
 
 886,011,700 
 
 None. 
 
 8 78,000 
 
 2,184,000 
 
 1,252,000 
 
 11,898,000 
 
 16,307,200 
 
 None. 
 
 None. 
 
 None. 
 
 May', 1865'. 
 
 August, 1871. 
 March 10. 1870. 
 January, 1875. 
 
 April 10, 1876. 
 
 November, 1873. 
 
 August 11, 1866. 
 
 February 16, '63. 
 
 August 22, 1865. 
 
 February 8, 1861. 
 
 November 2, '68. 
 
 July 18, 1866. 
 
 April, 1866. 
 
 May 2, 1871. 
 
 Total ... 
 
 American Flat Group. 
 
 27. Maryland ■ . 
 
 28. Baltimore Consol.. . . 
 
 29. American Flat .... 
 
 6,397}^ 
 
 900 
 
 1,060 
 
 500 
 
 $100 
 100 
 .100 
 
 858,666,000 
 
 8 6,400,000 
 8,400,000 
 3,000,000 
 
 $13,080,600 
 
 8 64,000 
 936,000 
 172,600 
 
 May 9, 1877. 
 April 30, 1878. 
 May 18, 1877. 
 
 830,809,200 
 
 None. 
 None. 
 None. 
 
 
 March, 1875. 
 July 3, 1872. 
 April, 1872. 
 
 Total 
 
 2,450 
 
 168,000 
 
 
 816,800,000 
 
 81,162,500 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Summarized, the account stands as follows : 
 
 Number of Companies .... 
 Shares of Stock ... 
 
 Par value 
 
 Total dividends ... 
 
 Total Assessments 
 
 Dividends less Assessments , 
 
 29 
 
 3,630,160 
 
 $.364,296,000 
 
 8116,820,900 
 
 837,623,886 
 
 879,097,014 
 
 A large part of this assessment account has accrued during 
 the last four years, which has been a period remarkable for 
 the continuance of barren ground in all but five of the 
 mines. The financial consequences of this misfortune have 
 been increased by the depth of the workiuffs, the flioding of 
 two mines in the most favored part of the lode, the con- 
 struction of new pumps of the heaviest and most expensive 
 pattern, and the sinking of several new shafts designed to 
 strike the lode at still greater depths. From all these causes 
 combined, the assessments in Storey County in 1878 
 amounted to $8,561,600. This sum includes the levies of a 
 large number of mines not on the Comstock lode, but the 
 amount to be deducted on their account would be only a 
 small portion of the whole. 
 
 In the third volume of Mr. Clarence King's report on the 
 Fortieth Parallel Survey, Mr. James D. Hague, of San 
 Francisco, has given a very thorough description of the 
 methods of mining and the machines employed on the Com- 
 stock. That admirable treatise is still a trustworthy guide 
 to the main features of the work and also to many details, 
 most of the recent changes consisting in expansions of the 
 former methods. In fact the plan followed, necessitated by 
 the nature of the ground, has been quite uniform since the 
 true eastward inclination of the lode was discovered. Since 
 that time the works have differed more in magnitude than 
 in plan. No attempt will be made here to repeat the infor- 
 mation given by Mr. Hague, which will also be constantly 
 referred to, and only a few of the additions to the mode of 
 work will be described. The Comstock is an example of an 
 inclined deposit which is reached by shafts sunk through 
 the hanging wall. The extreme rapidity with which the 
 ground is worked out necessitates the frequent removal of 
 these shafts in the direction of the inclination, and to avoid 
 the sinking of so many new and expensive openings a system 
 of combined vertical and inclined works has been introduced. 
 On account of the moderate dip (30 to 60 degrees) of the 
 lode it is not practicable to work a large number of levels 
 from a vertical shaft, and no attempt is made to do this. As 
 soon as the vertical or " straight" shaft reaches the lode its 
 
 further construction is abandoned, and an incline is opened 
 usually on or near the foot wall, but not conforming clofeely 
 to it. The vertical shafts have three or four compartments, 
 disposed in a parallelogram, the only departure from this 
 system being in the deep Forman shaft, which is L shaped. 
 The inclines are mostly built for one track. From the in- 
 cline a main drift is run north and south at those depths 
 where it is desired to establish a level, and which are one 
 hundred feet apart in promising ground, but may be three 
 hundred feet apart in a barren zone. It is quite common 
 now to maintain a practical uniformity in the position of 
 these levels in neighboring mines, so that the main drift is 
 fi-equently part of a gallery that may reach from one end of 
 the actively worked ground to the other. While this is not 
 true for every level, care is taken to make these connections 
 at such distances as will secure good ventilation and the 
 safety of the men in case of accident. The deepening of 
 the mines frequently amounts to 150 feet vertical in a year, 
 and this corresponds to about an equal advance eastward, 
 and about one half more excavation, following the inclina- 
 tion of the lode. For this reason the depth which can be 
 worked from one point is rather rapidly exhausted, and in 
 the nineteen years during which the Comstock has been 
 worked upon there have been three principal bases of ope- 
 ration, as follows: 1. Surface works, consisting of "dig- 
 gings," tuunels, and shallow shafts or inclines. 2. A line of 
 deeper shafts, but not often exceeding 500 or 600 feet in 
 depth. 3. The first line of deep shafts sunk through the 
 hanging wall and reaching the lode at the depth of about 
 one thousand feet or more. The surface works were mostly 
 operated about 1860-62, the line of shallow shafts about 
 1862-65, and the first line of deep shafts was begun in 1864 
 by the construction of the Bonner shaft of the Gould & 
 Curry. All the other mines followed this example, and the 
 entire line from the Mexican to the Overman was probably 
 complete by 1869 or 70. The average life of these shafts 
 has Deen somewhat more than ten years, and the mines 
 have deepened in this time from about the 700 to the 2000 
 level, and in some cases a greater depth. None of these 
 data are exact, but they illustrate fairly the rapidity with 
 which the respurces of the lode are exhausted. 
 
 Within the past two or three years all the principal mines 
 have attained the 2000-foot level, and many have passed 
 several hundred feet beyond it. The depth named requires 
 a hoisting cable about 2500 feet long, and for every foot 
 further an increased length of cable amounting to a foot and 
 
184 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 a half is necessary. Such extreme lengths require very 
 powerful machinery, and increase the chances of accident. 
 A barren zone in the lode has also been reached where the 
 ore deposits are not numerous enough to require the use of 
 so many shafts, the intervals in the present line being often 
 less than 1000 feet. A new line considerably removed to the 
 east has therefore been occupied, and several shafts are now 
 under construction, most of which are designed to supply the 
 ■wants of two or three mines. The Union Consolidated 
 mine, which has been hitherto worked through the Ophir 
 shaft, now has a new shaft nearly 1500 feet further east. 
 The Gould & Curry mine have a new shaft, about 2300 feet 
 east of the existing point of extraction. It is known as 
 the Osbiston shaft, from the superintendent of the mine. 
 The Savage, Hale & Norcross, and Chollar Potosi mines 
 united in sinking a shaft known as the Requa shaft. It 
 is about 3100 feet east of the lode croppings, and about 
 1700 feet east of the line occupied by the present shafts of 
 those mines. South of this is the new Jacket or Taylor 
 shaft, 2545 feet east of the -present shaft. Finally, at the 
 extreme southern end of the Gold Hill group of mines is 
 located the important new Forman shaft, named after Mr. 
 Forman, the superintendent, the fourth in the history of that 
 mine, and the deepest mining work which has been projected 
 in America, if not in the world. It is no less than 3100 feet 
 east of the present shaft. At what depth it will strike the 
 lode cannot be positively foretold, but it is expected to be 4500 
 feet in vertical depth. The Caledonia mine joins with the 
 Forman in this great work. Of these new undertakings, 
 the Requa, Forman and Osbiston shafts have four compart- 
 ments each, and the Taylor has three. The Forman shaft 
 is L-shaped, having three compartments 5 feet wide and 4J 
 feet, 4J feet, and six feet long respectively. The pump shaft 
 on the short arm is 6 by 7 feet. 
 
 Work upon the Comstock mines is unusually irregu- 
 lar, even for such irregular subjects of industrial opera- 
 tions as mines mostly are. The absence of a vein and 
 the occurrence of large ore masses and perfectly barren 
 ground in a succession that cannot be foretold, gives to 
 mining in this lode the most extreme alternations of good 
 and bad fortune. The ground in which lay the great 
 bonanzas of the California and Consolidated Virginia 
 mines yielded some ore above the 200 foot level, and then 
 was practically barren down to the 1200 level. From 
 the next four hundred feet of depth a million tons of very 
 rich ore has been taken. Such vicissitudes necessarily in- 
 duce irregularity in working, which is further increased by 
 the differences which exist in the length of the various 
 claims. It is matter of course that the progressive increase 
 in depth should be less when a great ore body is removed, 
 than when works of exploitation are carried on in a barren 
 and unpromising part of the lode. But the extraordinary 
 vigor of operations in these mines somewhat counteracts 
 this cause of fluctuations. When ore is at hand in large 
 quantities the extraction is pushed with such speed that a 
 deposit containing $150,000,000 worth of metal may be 
 mostly removed within four years from the time of discov- 
 ery; the whole work of laying out the levels and extracting 
 the ore being done in this time. The Consolidated Virginia 
 mine yielded 144,400 tons of ore in 1877, or 400 tons daily 
 for 362 days ; and the California had probably about the 
 same yield from the neighboring ground. With such 
 energetic management it is not strange to find the mines 
 deepening at the rate of 100 feet a year, even when in 
 bonanza. 
 
 The New Jacket shaft, begun October 7th, 1876, was car- 
 ried to the depth of 2250 feet in twenty-eight months, an 
 average progress of 81 J feet per month. For some time the 
 work was retarded by swelling ground ; but pumps were not 
 required for the first half or two-thirds of the sinking, the 
 water being bailed out with the ore-skip. The work was not 
 pressed with unusual vigor but carried on as steadiljr as the 
 ground permitted. This rapid work is the result partly of 
 high wages, admirable organization, and the lavish use of 
 machinery. The administrative vigor which characterizes 
 the management of these mines has made the employment 
 of machinery for drilling a success wherever tried. The 
 drifts are pushed forward at the rate of three to eight feet a 
 day, and shafts at three to five feet. The higher rate is 
 usually the result of machine- work ; but hand-work also 
 
 produces results that would be considered extremely rapid, 
 even for machinery elsewhere. 
 
 Rapid progress is obtained here, as it is in most mining 
 works, by the use of heavy powder charges and high-grade 
 explosives. Picking and gadding are not much encouraged 
 when the ground will blast well. For softer ground, where 
 these modes of breaking down are advisable, shallow holes, 
 three or four inches in depth, are sometimes made over the 
 face of the header, and cartridges about an inch long, called 
 "gophers," without tamping, are exploded in them. In 
 ground which has been shattered in this way, excellent pro- 
 gress can be made by picking. Black powder is little used; 
 nearly all the work being done with the nitro-glycerine 
 compounds. Electricity is not used for firing, a fuse being 
 inserted into the exploder. At the Sutro Tunnel the elec- 
 trical mode of ignition was in use, and caused some very 
 serious explosions. In spite of all precautions, the use of 
 the electric exploder was found to be dangerous in the dry 
 air of Nevada. 
 
 The high rate of progress is partly due to favorable ground. 
 All the rocks encountered in the mines blast well, and the 
 details of the work in excavation show that the rapid ad- 
 vance is obtained without resort to those strenuous efforts 
 which are necessary in some other places. Comparing the 
 Comstock drifts with the railroad tunnels, which seem to be 
 the only rivals to them in swiftness of execution, it is im- 
 mediately evident that decided differences exist in the details 
 of work. In the tunnels, drill-holes of eight to eleven feet 
 deep are common ; but on the Comstock five feet is usually 
 the maximum depth, even of machine-drill holes ; and more 
 frequently they are thirty to forty inches deep. Hand-worked 
 holes vary from ten to thirty inches. This comparative shal- 
 lowness is an inevitable consequence of the narrow quarters 
 in which the machines work. All these details have come 
 gradually into use, and though the mines have never enjoyed 
 a common direction, the practice is essentially uniform 
 throughout the district. While it is never safe to say that 
 efficiency can go no further, it is probable that drilling and 
 blasting are near their maximum of excellence in Comstock 
 mining. These parts of the task involved in the extraction 
 of subterranean rock have in fact reached a state of excel- 
 lence that is much in advance of some other divisions of the 
 labor. The removal of freshly blasted material is as slow 
 here as it is in all single-track drifts, and greatly retards the 
 progress. Probably one-half the time required for breaking 
 down is spent in filling the rock into cars and running these 
 to the shaft ; and any means for hastening this work would 
 be a valuable addition to the mining methods of the Com- 
 stock. 
 
 The cars used are now always made of iron ; but the con- 
 struction otherwise has not been changed from that which 
 Mr. Hague described and illustrated. The load carried is 
 still somewhat less than one ton, the large cars taking not 
 more than 18(10 or 1900 pounds. The disposition made of 
 the car-load varies with the position of the level. When 
 this runs out from a vertical shaft, the car is pushed upon a 
 cage and hoisted ; but when the level connects with the in- 
 cline, the load is tipped into a shoot excavated over the 
 incline. From this shoot the ore is loaded into the " giraffe," 
 while the car returns for a new load, not leaving the leve'l. 
 This mode of extraction was barely introduced in Mr. 
 Hague's day, but is now the prevalent one in the deep shafts. 
 The name giraffe is given to the large car, holding twelve or 
 fourteen tons, which runs in the incline. The principal in- 
 novations which have been made in the machinery of the 
 mines since Mr. Hague's description was published in 1871 
 are: 
 
 1. Introduction of compound pumping-engines, with the 
 Davey differential valve gear, modified by Mr. W. H. Patton. 
 2. Introduction of a direct-acting hoisting-engine, and in- 
 crease of hoisting-speed to 1100 feet per minute. 3. Inven- 
 tion of the " skeet " by Mr. I. L. Requa, Superintendent of 
 the Chollar-Potosi mine. This name is given to a large skip 
 or ore-bucket, the use of which replaces the cage and avoids 
 the necessity of hoisting the cars. Holding 4J tons, it will 
 raise more than a cage with four decks, and very much 
 diminishes the dead weight to be lifted. It is self-dumping. 
 This apparatus has been placed in the Requa, Taylor and 
 other shafts, and if it approves itself upon extended trial, it 
 may have an important effect upop Comstock mining aind 
 
COMSTO CK DISTRICT 
 
 N EVADA 
 Xo.l. 
 
 -Drawn and Engraved /or the Mines', Miners and Mining Interests of the United States. 
 
 ^«E^^Mt. Davidson 
 ''"'lioi'JSa? above S 
 
 :: OMSTOCKBISTRICT 
 
 N EVADA. 
 TSro.2 
 
 Drawn and Engraved for the Mines, Miners and Mining Interests of the United States. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 185 
 
 play an excellent part in removing some of the difficulties 
 of deep mining. 4. Tlie use of galvanized iron air-pipes 
 instead of the old red-wood boxes. Small as this detail is, 
 no step can be taken in the management of ventilation in 
 these mines without producing important results ; and this 
 has no doubt greatly improved the efficiency of the air sup- 
 ply. These points of distinctively engineering features will 
 not be ftirther touched upon ; but there are others which 
 concern the physics of the lode that will be described. 
 They relate to ventilation and water supply. 
 
 Ventilation is secured by a combination of natural and 
 artificial means ; but underground the latter is mostly em- 
 ployed. Some also employ forced air-currents from the sur- 
 face ; but the apparatus is entirely inadequate to the supply 
 of the large quantities of air required in these hot mines. 
 
 Brattices are sometimes found in main air-ways, and es- 
 pecially in the inclines ; but the conditions of the ground 
 are such that this mode of guiding air-currents is trouble- 
 some and costly in the vertical shafts. All the shafts on 
 the lode lie in a hanging wall that has been undermined by 
 extensive excavations, and even when this ground has set- 
 tled to a firm condition, there is always local movement in 
 the country rocks. The stratified condition and varied 
 character of the material, the vast masses of soft clay or 
 rock that decompose, swell, and flake away under the 
 action of the atmosphere, with which this ground is filled, 
 makes every opening insecure. Pressure and crushing are 
 simply questions of time in every shaft, and the mode of tim- 
 bering which has come into use, is designed to meet these pe- 
 culiar exigencies. It consists of heavy timber frame work, 
 Unfastened and held together entirely by the pressure it sus- 
 tains. This timbering is the invention of Mr. Phillip Deide- 
 sheimer. It allows considerable movement in the rock with- 
 out losing its value as a safeguard, and this quality is so im- 
 portant that there is strong objection to placing stiff brattices, 
 sscurely fastened, in the works. Air-currents from the sur- 
 face, when forced, are therefore always sent down by pipes of 
 galvanized sheet-iron eleven to twenty inches in diameter ; 
 and it is probably owing to these difficulties that the artifi- 
 cial ventilation of these mines is so unimportant. This re- 
 mark does not apply to the local movement of air from one 
 part of a mine to another. That is in use everywhere, and 
 is accomplished by small engines which will be spoken of 
 hereafter. Even tlie natural ventilation of these mines is 
 remarkably small considering the vast heating powers of 
 the hot rock, and the fact that evgn in summer an addition 
 of from twenty to thirty degrees is made to the temperature 
 of the air passing through the mines, while in winter the 
 difference is greatly increased. In nearly all cases a shaft 
 is exclusively down-cast, or up-cast, and the mines are di- 
 vided into six down-cast and ten up-cast. In addition, the 
 Gould & Curry had air-currents both ways in its shaft, and 
 the Belcher has a special air-shaft for down-cast. On the 
 2d of July, 1877, the amount of air rising from eleven up- 
 cast shafts (including the Gould & Curry), with its tempera- 
 ture, was as follows : 
 
 Cubic Feet Temperature of Upcast 
 
 per Minute. ■ Top of Shaft. 
 
 Utah 4,000 ... degrees Fahr. 
 
 Sierra Nevada 7,700 76 " " 
 
 C. &C 21,600 84 " " 
 
 Consolidated Virginia . 48,750 89 " " 
 
 Gould & Curry 12,000 ... " " 
 
 Savage . . ." 68,500 100 " " 
 
 Choirai>Potosi . . . 18,000 77 " 
 
 Bullion 10,080 89i " " 
 
 Imperial Consolidated 28,80D 9.5 " " 
 
 Belcher . . . 52,0ii0 89 " " 
 
 Overman . . . . 27,000 63 " " 
 
 Total cubic feet per minute 288,630 
 
 This is probably to be considered as near a minimum 
 quantity. A great difference is discernible in the ventila- 
 tion of the mines on different days, due perhaps to the di- 
 rection of the wind. This day (July 2d, 1877) was not a bad 
 one, and the outside temperature, taken in the shaft-houses 
 (and therefore in the shade) of those mines which were 
 down-cast, averaged about 73 degrees F. from 10 a. m. to 4 
 p. M. The supply of air may be taken at eleven and a 
 quarter tons or 300,000 cubic feet per minute, as the old 
 Chollar and Kentuck shafts, both up-cast, were inaccessible. 
 Probably 10,000 feet of this quantity is supplied by the 
 numerous air compressing machines in use, and 30,000 feet 
 
 by the blowers. The up-cast shafts had an aggregate suction 
 of about 750 square feet, the area of which was diminished 
 by an unknown quantity due to the presence-of the cages, at 
 various stages of their paths. The minimum average velo- 
 city was therefore 400 feet per minute. Considering the 
 straight course and excellent condition of the air-passages, 
 and the short paths of most of the currents, this result can- 
 not be regarded a very successful utilization of the great 
 working powers of this extremely hot lode ; but the causes 
 of the deficiency, aside from the small section of the drifts 
 as compared with those of coal mines, are not understood. 
 
 The velocities actually observed (with a Byram anemome- 
 ter) varied from 200 to 900 feet per minute, the lower rate 
 being obtained in those mines which have unusually 
 long air-ways. The Savage, Bullion, Imperial, and Overman 
 gave a velocity of 550 feet to 590 feet ; the O. & C. 400 ; 
 Consolidated Virginia, 620 ; and Belcher 900 feet per min- 
 ute. Though ventilation is the life of all mines, the air- 
 current is an especially beneficent visitor in the Comstock 
 works. Nevada has a dry climate, and its atmosphere must 
 have very high powers of hygroscopic absorption, which are 
 further increased by the elevation of temperature which the 
 air experiences in the mines. All of this is utilized, and the 
 up-cast is so loaded with steam that it rises in a solid body of 
 vapor thirty or forty feet above the shafts. The vaporiza- 
 tion of this great amount of water must have a very marked 
 effect in cooling down the drifts, aided as it is by the expan- 
 sion of about 10,000 cubic feet per minute of air which has 
 been compressed to one-fourth its usual volume, and the 
 absorption of the heat which raises the whole current to a 
 temperature of more than 90° F. 
 
 The unusual importance of the air-current in these mines 
 is illustrated by the history of the 1850 level of the Bullion 
 mine. This level was first opened from the Imperial shaft 
 and attained a length of 1700 feet before any attempt to es- 
 tablish an air connection in the Bullion mine was made. 
 The thermometer is reported to have ranged between 130° 
 and 140° F., and work in the drift was extremely difficult 
 and costly; but the State Mineralogist says that when a 
 through current of air was established, the thermometer fell 
 from 138° to 100° F. Here was an increase of thirty-eight de- 
 grees merely from the mode of working. At the time the ob- 
 servations given here were made, there were about 2700 men 
 working underground in the mines in Virginia & Gold Hill. 
 They worked in three " shifts " of eight hours each, and the 
 allowance was therefore 300,000 cubic feet per minute to 900 
 men, or 330 cubic feet per man. This is very much in 
 excess of the theoretical requirement, the amount required 
 by law in the coal mines, where vast quantities of gas are 
 discharged, not being above 100 cubic feet per man per 
 minute. This quantity is itself a maximum designed to 
 cover all possible contingencies, including the effective dilu- 
 tion of the coal gases. But the three times greater quan- 
 tity which the Comstock mines receive is not sufficient to 
 keep them cool nor to secure really comfortable conditions 
 for them. 
 
 In another place it is shown that the heat of these rocks 
 is probably due to the condensation of atmospheric water in 
 the process of kaolinization, or transformation of the felds- 
 pathic rock to clay. By this action currents of gas, of which 
 carbonic anhydride probably forms a principal part, are dis- 
 charged, and take their way through the dry portions of the 
 rock, conveying the heat produced to any opening by which 
 they escape. It is probably to this agent in part that the 
 nauseating effects which are sometimes felt even in the pre- 
 sence of a fair amount of ventilation are due. When the 
 Sutro Tunnel reached the Savage works, in July, 1878, and 
 a current of air was established through the tunnel into the 
 mine, and thence 1600 feet upward to the surface, the air 
 from the tunnel was said to be " sickening," though men 
 had been working in it, with fair ventilation, and without 
 unusual inconvenience for years. In this case the more 
 vigorous movement of the air seems to have swept out the 
 gas accumulated in the irregularities of the tunnel walls, 
 and several days passed before the purity of the current was 
 restored. The steaming atmosphere of the mines may con- 
 tribute to the exhaustion which work in them induces; but 
 whatever the causes, it is certain that the work is trying, 
 and its severity is less dependent upon the temperature than 
 upon deficient quantity of the air-current. This was cout 
 
186 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES." 
 
 stantly proved by leaving thermometers with the men who 
 would not, without experimental proof, believe that the 
 places which they sought for cooling off were sometimes 
 hotter than those where they worked, and frequently had 
 precisely the same temperature. It is true that an increase 
 of a few degrees in the temperature of a drift will sometimes 
 bring with it an exhaustion which is out of proportion to 
 the heat change alone. This is explainable on the supposi- 
 tion that the increased heat is due to an unusual access of 
 gas, and such places frequently become more comfortable 
 after a few days. For this reason they are sometimes 
 abandoned for a short time, "to cool off." It was invariably 
 observed that while the men wanted constant change of air, 
 they did not enjoy too strong a draft. They would complain 
 if the fan engine was run too fast. On one occasion this 
 fact was proved to me by the foreman of a mine, who 
 quietly opened the throttle of the fan engine enough to 
 speed it a little above its usual rate, though not to an ex- 
 cessive degree. My impression was that the change would 
 be an improvement, for the drift to which the pipe led was 
 probably 500 feet long, and quite hot. But in a few minutes 
 one of the men came to the station and turned the valve 
 back, saying it was " cold ! " In this case the air at the fan 
 had a temperature of 88° F., at the end of the air pipe 108° 
 F., and in the drift about midway of its length 112° F. 
 The latter was probably about the temperature of the at- 
 mosphere in which the men worked. 
 
 These conditions which are due to the character of the 
 ground in which the mines are excavated, are supplemented 
 by the requirements of vein mining. Labor is performed in 
 narrow quarters, only a small portion of the lode material 
 being moved in the work of exploration. Long stretches 
 have to be excavated before a connection with a distant air- 
 shaft can be established and a special mode of ventilation 
 must be employed to supply the men working in these culs 
 de sac, which are particularly subject to the peculiar condi- 
 tions of the locality, for the reason that they are continually 
 advancing into fresh ground. In these points which are re- 
 moved from the line of the natural air-currents, ventilation 
 is obtained by forced blast, and the machines which supply 
 it are mostly placed below ground. They are ordinary 
 upright engines of two to five horse power worked by 
 compressed air at 60 pounds' pressure, supplied from the 
 surface. Connected with each engine is a four- vane fan of 
 simple construction, made in the shops of each company ; and 
 the air which these machines supply is taken to the end of 
 the drift, or " header," by galvanized iron pipes eight or 
 eleven inches in diameter. The engines are placed at some 
 point in the main air-way, and take air of 75° to 95° F. 
 temperature, the quantity being usually from 700 to 1000 
 cubic feet per minute to each fan. This may furnish three 
 to seven men with air. Contrary to the usual practice in 
 mining, the air is supplied by pressure instead of exhaus- 
 tion ; and this feature of Comstock engineering, which seems 
 to be a matter of criticism to those who are not initiated in 
 the peculiar requirements of work in these mines, is really 
 one of the points most essential to the comfort of the men. 
 The air-pipe terminates within twenty feet of them, and the 
 current of fresh air is directed immediately upon their half- 
 naked bodies, assisting in the rapid removal of the streams 
 of perspiration which pour from them in quantities sufficient 
 to soak their garments, fill their shoes, and even moisten the 
 rock under their feet. The men drink copiously of ice- water, 
 which is supplied without stint, and an allowance of three 
 
 fallons per man is probably a minimum estimate for eight 
 ours' work. All this is removed through the vigorous ac- 
 tion of the skin, and the main condition for comfort to the 
 men seems to be the quick removal of that part of the per- 
 spiration which is vaporized. If this hangs about the per- 
 son, or if the vaporization is insufficient, there is a sense of 
 suffocation ; and this may take place either with deficient 
 ventilation or even in a fair current of air if it is humid. 
 Heat which increases the capacity of air for absorbing 
 aqueous vapor may be in this way favorable to comfortable 
 working, a fact which explains the relief so constantly ob- 
 tained in a current of warm air. Throughout the mines it 
 was observed that the men did not seek coolness, but quan- 
 tity of air, and probably quality also, that is, capacity for 
 absorbing moisture. For tne latter reason, the air which is 
 taken from a current having a temperature of 85° F., and is 
 
 sent through a long pipe where it is heated to 100°, has its 
 capacity for aqueous absorption increased so as to act with 
 the highest eflSciency when thrown upon the men. If the 
 contrary method were used, and the air were drawn from 
 the end of the drift through the pipe, as the managers are 
 sometimes advised t> do, the men would inevitably be put 
 to great discomfort. Instead of a velocity of 100 feet per 
 minute, the air would not have a greater movement than 
 40 feet per minute, and in passing through the drift it would 
 pick up all the deleterious gases and all the moisture in its 
 path. It would have no force of projection upon the men, 
 and the constant exchange of atmosphere which is now ob- 
 tained in the header would be lost. Without making 
 radical and probably impracticable changes in the quan- 
 tity of air supplied, there can be little doubt that the 
 method of ventilation by exhaust fans would almost cause 
 the closing of the mines. Still, the day is approaching when 
 the present means of ventilation may be found insufficient, 
 and a change of plan be necessary. It is probable that an 
 intelligent study of the conditions under which personal 
 comfort is secured will establish methods of ventilation that 
 will allow the triumphant accomplishment of mining at 
 depths of four and five thousand feet, even in these extraor- 
 dinaiy natural furnaces. In another chapter it is shown 
 that the most active centres of the heat are small and often 
 can be avoided in planning the drifts, or confined by tight 
 lagging, devices which may permit mining in much hotter 
 ground than that of the existing levels. As the heat of the 
 rock increases, the temperature and capacity for aqueous 
 absorption of the air-current also increases, and the latter 
 advantage can perhaps be heightened by drawing the air-cur- 
 rents direct from the surface. Thus in addition to improve- 
 ment from increased care in management, the evil of in- 
 creasing rock temperatures tends to correct itself by making 
 the cooling and sustaining effects of the forced ventilation 
 more vigorous. Of course there may be a point where the 
 air will be too hot for the lungs to receive without injury ; 
 but the existing experience shows that a temperature of 
 123° and above this can be borne successfully, provided the 
 action of the skin is properly maintained. 
 
 Pumping. — The country rock which encloses the Com- 
 stock is divided into distinctively wet and dry portions, 
 arranged in a series of alternations parallel with the lode. 
 The dry ground is in large excess over the wet, and it is so 
 dry that the usual seepage, which takes place in all rocks, is 
 quite insignificant. It is most often solid, but fissured 
 portions are met with. Fissuring and decomposition are, 
 however, the distinctive characteristics of the wet ground 
 which occupies comparatively narrow bands, two or three 
 hundred feet being probably a maximum thickness. Their 
 vertical extent and their length are probably very great, 
 for they pour out immense volumes of water, and for 
 several years it was supposed that there must be large 
 chambers in the rocks holding water, so great was the 
 quantity yielded by some of the "water bonanzas." No 
 such chambers have ever been encountered in the exten- 
 sive explorations in the country rock, and there is no 
 doubt that the seat of the aqueous stores is the soft and 
 fissured seams which are constantly met with. The quan- 
 tity of fluid which these shattered bands will hold is im- 
 mense. Three years ago the Savage & Hale and JS'or- 
 cross mines were flooded by water, which entered on the 
 2200 foot level, and rose to about the 1750 level, flooding 
 also the 2400 level which had been partly opened. The 
 water therefore had a head of 450 feet, which must have 
 been due entirely to hydrostatic pressure, and the freedom 
 of movement within the seamy magazine is shown by the 
 fact that here, as well as on other similar occasions, the 
 miners had to fly for their lives, so rapid was the influx. 
 New pumps, capable of throwing about 10,000,000 gallons 
 per month to the surface, were immediately built for both 
 mines, and have been working with great vigor ever since, 
 but had not been able by the middle of December 1878 
 to reduce the water to a greater depth than 50 feet below 
 the 2000 foot level, where it remained for several months 
 longer. Great difficulties were experienced in the Savage 
 by the breaking of the pump rod, and it is not probable 
 that the pumps of the two mines have averaged more than 
 three quarters of their full working capacity. Still that 
 ratio would give for thirty months 450,000,000 gallons, or 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 187 
 
 1,800,000 tons, estimating the gallon at 8 pounds. This 
 represents the quantity of water supplied by about three 
 hundred feet of head. Two hundred feet remain to be 
 overcome, and what amount of the fluid this represents 
 cannot be foretold. The reduction of the water level is 
 by no means very rapid nor uniformly continuous, and it 
 is not possible to say how much the fissured water-bearing 
 seam extends below the 2200 level. The Sutro Tunnel, 
 which has been carried through to the 1640 foot level of 
 the Savage mine, offers an opportunity for reducing the 
 lift of the pumps, and increasing their size. 
 
 The third anniversary of its appearance (March, 1879) 
 found this flood in full possession of the two mines, and 
 the height was near still the 2000 foot level. Considering 
 the depth at which it lies, and the character of the mines 
 it has overcome, this " water bonanza" may fairly take po- 
 sition among the historic floods, which have defied the 
 intelligence and determination of man. The Sutro Tunnel 
 offers another example of the immense quantities of water 
 which the rocks of this region locally contain. The quan- 
 tity flowing from it has of course increased steadily with its 
 progress, and now appears to be about 1,250,000 gallons a 
 day, the tunnel being 20,489 feet long. Whenever wet 
 
 f round was encountered the flow increased, reaching its 
 ighest point in October, 1876, when it was 24 miner's inches, 
 or more than 4,000,000 gallons daily. This great work of 
 engineering offers the best evidence of the banded nature 
 of the water reservoirs. They have been repeatedly cut and 
 passed in the tunnel, and always found to be soft and 
 shattered seams of rock, and never vacant spaces. The next 
 two or three years of experience in the tunnel will have 
 great interest from its bearing upon the important question 
 of what amount of atmospheric water reaches the tunnel 
 level yearly. At present it is impossible to say how much 
 of the floods which enter the mines is due to constant sup- 
 ply, and how much to the exhaustion of stores accumulated 
 in the rocks. Upon the Comstock the impression is com- 
 mon that the current supplies from the atmosphere are very 
 small, and it is in fact an ordinary occurrence for almost 
 overwhelming floods to dwindle away to insignificant streams ; 
 but it is also true that some supplies are quite constant, as in 
 the Ophir mine, which has pumped from its upper levels 
 for years since they were worked out and abandoned, the 
 lower levels meanwhile remaining remarkably dry. 
 
 It is noteworthy that while the country rocks contain 
 these immense accumulations of water, the lode itself is 
 tolerably free from them. Often it is quite dry, but some- 
 times contains a considerable amount of water, lying in the 
 loose " sugar quartz " as in a sandstone bed. As a rule, these 
 accumulations drain away rather rapidly, and are never so 
 persistent as the great bodies from outside the lode. It is the 
 country rock and not the lode that is distinctively the water- 
 carrier, a fact which is probably due to the entrance of 
 siliceous waters on the line of the lode, and the deposition 
 of quartz in the crevices which elsewhere are free to store up 
 water. It should be mentioned however, that a flow of 
 water is looked upon as a favorable sign and promise of ore 
 by the miners. Such indications of course depend upon 
 position for their value, since floods of water have frequently 
 been struck away from the lode, in points where there could 
 be no sound expectation of ore. It is also possible that the 
 value of water as a sign of ore, even within the just limits 
 of the lode, has passed away as the mines have gained depth. 
 In the upper portions the barren quartz was distinguished 
 for its hardness and close structure, while the ore quartz was 
 porous and loosely coherent. There was a well marked dif- 
 ference in the storing capacity of the two kinds of material, 
 and water was no doubt often a true sign of the quartz that 
 usually carried ore. But in the lower levels the strength ot 
 these distinctions is much diminished. Hard quartz is met 
 with, but in proportion it is much diminished, and a now ot 
 water in the lode is no longer a sign that a neighboring body 
 of quartz is an ore carrier. The liability to overwhelming 
 floods of water compels the mines to maintain pumps ot the 
 largest size, even though m extraordinary amount ot water 
 is encountered for years. They are all Cornish pumps, and 
 the underground arrangements are still in the mam what 
 they were when Mr. Hague figured them in 1870, with ex 
 ception of the size, which has been increased; * ^""'' "••"""- 
 great chattgeS have tateh pkce. '^^'^ "''^ ' 
 
 Above ground 
 The old cog geaiiog has 
 
 given way to direct action in all the new pumps except that 
 of the Jacket. Compounding, and the Davey differential 
 cut-off", with a modification by a Mr. W. H. Patton, have been 
 applied to all new constructions, and the Comstock now pre- 
 sents a line of powerflil pumps constructed after the latest 
 models. Beginning at the south end of the lode, we find the 
 following new machines. The table also gives the number 
 of strokes at which they were running in the autumn of 1877 ; 
 but the maximum speed possible is about the same in all of 
 them. This is lower on the Comstock than in cooler and 
 drier mines. The difficulty of maintaining long pump-rods 
 in a steaming atmosphere and over shifting rock surfaces, 
 does not permit a higher speed than eight and a half strokes 
 per minute. 
 
 Overmau 
 
 Belcher ... 
 Yellow Jacket . . 
 Requa Shaft . . . 
 Hale and Norcross 
 
 G-ould & Curry . 
 0. & 0. Shaft . . 
 
 Pump. 
 
 Stroke. 
 
 feet. 
 8 
 8 
 10 
 8 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 inches 
 14 
 14 
 14 
 
 Two barrels, each 15 in, 
 
 13 
 
 14 in. vertical shaft. 
 
 13 in. inclined " 
 
 14 & 13 
 
 12 
 
 ^Strokes per 
 minute. 
 
 IK (registered), 
 3j|(regi9tered;. 
 
 6J4 to VA 
 
 6J4 to ^i4 
 
 4 to 414 
 
 7 to8 
 
 Hours 
 
 of 
 Daily 
 run. .* 
 
 24 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 •24 
 
 24 
 24 
 
 Six of these pumps, together with the old ones, were in 
 the summer and fall of 1877 raising 350,000 to 400,000 tons, 
 of water monthly. The efficiency of the new form of pump- 
 ing-engine is shown by the record of the Hale & Norcross 
 pump for eight months, from October 1st, 1876. This mine 
 being flooded, the pump was worked continuously. 
 
 Total Strokoa 2,040.938 
 
 Strokes per Minute, including stops 6,85 
 
 Stoppages 9 days, 16 hours, 48 minutes. 
 
 Strokes per Minutes, excluding stops 6.119 
 
 Water pumped 84,436,192^ gallons. 
 
 Wood consumed . 3,027 oorda. 
 
 Cost ««,T-21 
 
 Stroke of Pump (actual) . 6ft5in. 
 
 Gallons per Stroke • ■ -tt/i 
 
 The cost per gallon was not quite half a mill, 20.24 gal- 
 lons costing, one cent. The height of the lift varied as the 
 water fell from a depth of 1670 feet to 1945 feet, the lowest 
 point reached in this period. Probably the average lift was 
 near 1800 feet. From October 1st, 1876, to March 1879, or in 
 twenty-nine months, his pump made 7,432,054 strokes, and 
 raised 306,572,228 gallons, at a cost of 8649 cords of wood, 
 valued at $10.50 per cord. The stoppages amounted to 903 
 hours, 44 minutes. The Hale & Norcross, Savage and C. & 
 C. pumps were working at their full capacity ; the Belcher, 
 Overman, and Gould & Curry pumps were working at re- 
 duced speed ; the Kequa, had no spear-rod, and the Jacket 
 was not built in the fall of 1878. Three of the series were 
 therefore run at their full capacity, three others at diminished 
 speed, and two were idle. The total capacity of these new- 
 pumps may be taken at about twice the amount of water 
 they were actually throwing at the time mentioned, or about 
 80,000,000 gallons, or 320,000 tons a month. 
 
 Of the old geared pumps there were six at work raising 
 about one-third the water of the lode. This does not include 
 either the number of pumps in idle mines or in those mines 
 which, like the Julia, do not claim to be on the Comstock 
 proper. The latter lie so near that lode as to drain the same 
 rocks, and in any complete computation of drainage they 
 should be accounted for. The spear-rods are always of 
 Oregon pine, and vary from 11 to 14 inches in diameter. 
 The extreme variation in quantity of water to be raised ia 
 not usually met by especial arrangements, but by slowing 
 the engine or stopping it entirely for short intervals. Most 
 mines increase the diameter of the pump cylinders in the 
 upper part of the shaft, but not all. The Eequa shaft has 
 pump cylinders placed on each side of the rod, which in 
 ordinary conditions of drainage are worked singly, but can 
 be doubled on requirement. For single working, the suc- 
 cessive cylinders on alternate sides of the rod are used. All 
 the pumps on the Comstock are single acting ; but the Alta 
 mine at Devil's Gate has two spear-rods and pumps at both 
 strokes, an arrangement which saves the use of balance- 
 bobs. The cylinders of this engine also are compounded. ' 
 
 Though, the cultivation of the soil requires artificial ir- 
 
188 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 rigation in this region, the vast quantity of mine waters are 
 but little used for this purpose. Running into the gulches 
 of Six-Mile Canon and Gold Canon, they serve to carry 
 down the tailings from the mills where the ore is treated, 
 and on their way are employed to operate a considerable 
 number of blanket tables and pans for concentrating and 
 treating the tailings. Finally they take their way to the 
 Carson River, about seven miles distant by their route. 
 Looking to the future, it is not improbable that the problem 
 of deep mining will meet its greatest difficulty in drainage. 
 The heat of the mines can be controlled sufficiently to afford 
 even better conditions for work at great depths than have 
 been enjoyed hitherto. But the deepest points of excavation 
 are already 1000 feet below the Carson, the drainage area 
 has greatly extended, and must now interfere seriously with 
 the natural channels of relief to surface waters over wide 
 districts. The extraordinary persistence of the Savage water 
 and its return nearly to its highest level during a three 
 months' rest of the pumps, after losing more than 2,000,000 
 tons by pumping, has not been explained. Still it is true 
 that the resources of engineering have by no means been 
 exhausted in the present mode of drainage, and_ the new 
 shafts will undoubtedly offer great advantages in this respect 
 over their predecessors, 
 
 — From "The Oomstock Lode bj John A. Church, E. M, Ph. D." 
 
 THE GEOLOGY OF THE OOMSTOCK LODE 
 AND THE WASHOE DISTRICT. 
 
 THE CoMSTOCK LODE lies on the east slope of the 
 Virginia Range, a northeasterly offshoot from the 
 range of the Sierra Nevada. The region is a desert, 
 supporting scarcely any vegetation besides the sage- 
 brush. Portable water is found only in quantities too small 
 to supply a settlement, and the town now depends for its 
 supply on a point in the Sierra Nevada, thirty miles away. 
 The mines were first opened in this inhospitable region in 
 1859, but have since been pushed with such vigor that their 
 product is supposed seriously to have affected the silver 
 market of the world. They have produced about $31 5,000,000 
 worth of bullion, of which $175,000,000 was silver (at the 
 rate of one ounce equal to $1.2929). Qf the total yield, $115,- 
 871,000 has been disbursed in dividends. The last great ore 
 body discovered yielded $111,707,609.39, of which $74,250,000 
 was paid in dividends. The number of men employed in the 
 mines on June 1, 1880, was 2,770, and the sum annually dis- 
 bursed in wages is now $4,550,000. The aggrega,te horse 
 power of the machinery of the mines is 24,130. The total 
 length of shafts and galleries exceeds 150 miles, and the 
 greatest depth reached is above 3,000 feet. As has long been 
 known, the Comstock lode presents scientific questions of 
 an interest commensurate with its economical importance, 
 and a number of famous geologists have written more or less 
 fully on the subject. Besides numerous scattered papers, 
 several important memoirs have been printed. Baron von 
 Richthofen made an examination in 1865, the results of 
 which were printed by the Sutro Tunnel Company, but were 
 not published in the proper sense of the word. It is a very 
 remarkable paper, and the portions relating to the geology 
 are reproduced in this report almost in full. In 1867 Baron 
 von Richthofen also published a paper entitled " A Natural 
 System of Volcanic Rocks," as a memoir of the California 
 Academy, in which the system proposed is avowedly based 
 to a great extent on the geology of Washoe. At the date of 
 these papers microscopical lithology was still in embryo, and 
 Mr. Sorby's experiments were attracting attention as possibly 
 promising important results. It is not wonderful, therefore, 
 if the present inquiry, in which the microscope has been used 
 as a field instrument, has led to different lithological results; 
 while, so far as the structure and vein formation are con- 
 cerned, the greater part of this geologist's views are confirmed 
 in a remarkable manner. In 1867-'68, Mr. Clarence King, 
 who was in charge of the exploration of the 40th parallel, 
 made an examination of the lode, down to the 800-foot level.* 
 He accepted von Richthofen's propylite, though stating a 
 
 * Exploration of the 40th Parallel, Vol. III. 
 
 doubt whether it might not eventually prove identical with 
 andesite. The. quartzose rock of the district, which von 
 Richthofen had determined as a pre-Tertiary quartz-por- 
 phyry, King regarded as quartz-propylite. The most promi- 
 nent feature of this memoir is the graphic description of the 
 vein phenomena from the surface down. In 1875, Prof F. 
 Zirkel examined the lithological collections of the 40th 
 parallel.! Among the slides which he describes are thirty- 
 three from the Washoe district. He confirnjed the indepen- 
 dence of propylite and quartz-propylite as lithological species, 
 regarded the quartzose rock as dacite, corrected the deter- 
 mination of the granular diorite (it had been considered 
 syenite), and added augite-andesite, rhyolite, and a strange 
 variety of basalt to the list of rocks previously recognized. 
 In 1877, Mr. J. A. Church, in connection with the United 
 States Surveys West of the 100th Meridian, under Captain 
 Wheeler, examined the workings down to the 2,000-foot level. 
 Mr. Church accepted the lithology of his predecessors, with 
 some exceptions a little difficult to follow, but though he 
 mentions slides of the rocks, describes none. His memoir 
 contains a number of ingenioiis hypotheses, prominent 
 among which are the following : 
 
 That diorite was a thin flowing lava, and spread over the 
 country in successive thin horizontal beds ; That propylite 
 and andesite were laid down in the same manner on the 
 diorite, and the whole bedded mass was tilted or folded in 
 such a way that the eruptive strata assumed their present 
 position with an inclination of about 45° ; That the ore was 
 deposited by substitution for propylite, regulating the Com- 
 stock to the class of Fahlbands ; That the heat of the 
 Comstock is due to the kaolinizing action of surface waters 
 on the feldspar of the country rock. 
 
 A topographical map of the district was published by the 
 Expedition of the ^Oth Parallel, but a more detailed contour 
 map, on a larger scale, was made, in 1879, under orders of 
 Captain Wheeler, by Mr. A. Karl. 
 
 Decomposition of Rocks. — The economical impor- 
 tance of the district, the obscure character of some points 
 in its geology, and the great weight of the authorities 
 whose investigations had already been published made 
 it essential that the work done under the new United 
 States Geological Survey should be supported by the strong- 
 est and most detailed evidence In laying down the va- 
 rious formations the microscope was in constant use, 
 slides being ground as the occasion arose, and the results 
 obtained from them finding immediate application in the 
 extension of the work. . The area in which the Comstock 
 lies is characterized by a wide-spread and profound decom- 
 position of the rock masses, and a study of the lithology of 
 the district resolves itself primarily into an investigation 
 into decomposition. In spite of the most painstaking 
 choice of specimens, there is not one in fifty of those col- 
 lected underground which contains a particle of any of the 
 characteristic bisilicates, secondary minerals replacing them 
 throughout. Even the feldspars are rarely intact, and are 
 sometimes wholly decomposed. AVhen the steps of these 
 processes of degeneration are once understood, it is com- 
 paratively easy to infer the original composition and struc- 
 ture of the rock. Some of the results obtained concerning 
 the decomposition of the Washoe rocks are the following : 
 Hornblende, augite, and mica generally pass into a chloritic 
 mineral, which, so far as can be judged by any optical tests 
 now known, is almost without exception the same, from 
 whichever of the primary bisilicates it may have originated. 
 This chlorite is generally green, but in especially compact 
 masses appears greenish-brown under the microscope. It is 
 strongly dichroitic, but, except in dense masses, appears 
 nearly black between crossed Nicols. It is fibrous, often 
 spherolitic, and invariably extinguishes light parallel to the 
 direction of the fibres. It thus bears a considerable resem- 
 blance to fibrous green hornblende, but the cases are very 
 rare, if they actually occur, in which a careful examination 
 will not serve to discriminate between the minerals. This 
 chlorite is decidedly soluble. It occurs in veinlets and 
 diffused through the ground mass and through other min- 
 erals when these have become pervious through decomposi- 
 tion. It is especially striking as an infiltration in the 
 feldspars, where, of course, it is readily visible. All the 
 
 . t E.'cploration of the 40th Parallel, Vol. VL . ' 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 189 
 
 stages can be traced, from the first inconsiderable attack of 
 the biailicates, through rocks in which chlorite occurs 
 wholly, or almost wholly, as admirable pseudomorphs alter 
 the bisilicates, and up to cases in which the secondary 
 mineral is wholly diiiused through the mass of other pro- 
 ducts of decomposition. Epidote is usually in Washoe a 
 product of the decomposition of chlorite. Comparatively 
 very few occurrences of epidote are explicable on the sup- 
 position that the mineral is the direct result of the decom- 
 position of the primary basilicates ; none are inexplicable 
 on the supposition that chlorite represents an intermediate 
 stage in the alteration, and hundreds of cases show beyond 
 question epidote developing in chloritic masses, and sending 
 characteristic denticles and fagot-like ofishoots into the 
 comparatively homogeneous chlorite. A considerable num- 
 ber of drawings, which are photographic in their fidelity, 
 have befen made, illustrating these processes. Epidote, too, 
 appears to be soluble, but to a much slighter extent than 
 chlorite. The veinlets of epidote are often, though proba- 
 bly not always, a result of the alteration of chlorite. No 
 evidence has been obtained that feldspars are ever con- 
 verted into epidote, and the dissemination of fresh horn- 
 blende particles in feldspars in any considerable number 
 has not been observed. In many cases, on the other hand, 
 it can be shown that feldspars have been impregnated with 
 chlorite, from which epidote has afterwards developed. 
 Chlorite does not always change to epidote, and appears 
 often to be replaced by quartz and calcite. This is fre- 
 quently visible in slides, which also show its alteration to 
 epidote. No certain evidence of the alteration of epidote 
 has been met with. 
 
 In the decomposition of the feldspars, the first stage 
 appears to be the formation of calcite. This sometimes 
 leaches out, leaving small irregular cavities, and these 
 cavities are not infrequently filled with liquid, sometimes 
 carrying a bubble, which is commonly stationary, but oc- 
 casionally active. Thus secondary liquid inclusions are 
 formed, which may mislead in the diagnosis of a rock. Pri- 
 mary liquid inclusions are either more or less perfect nega- 
 tive crystals or vesicular bodies. The vesicles often assume 
 strange forms through pressure, such as are often observed 
 in air-bubbles in the balsam of a slide, but their outlines 
 are composed of smooth curves. The secondary fluid 
 inclusions are bounded by jagged lines. Inclusions of this 
 kind are never met with unaccompanied by other evidences 
 of decomposition, and thus are abundant in the altered outer 
 crust of andesite masses, the inner portions of which show 
 none of them. There is every reason to suppose that the 
 same secondary inclusions would form in older rocks, and 
 similar occurrences have been noticed. Kaolin possesses so 
 few characteristic optical properties that it is not identified 
 with ease or certainty under the microscope. No kaolin has 
 been identified in the Washoe rocks, and while it is by no 
 means asserted that they contain none, it seems hardly possi- 
 ble that, had it formed a prominent constituent, it would have 
 eicaped observation. The presence of enormous masses of 
 " clay" on the Comstock does not prove the existence of 
 much kaolin, for so-called clays are largely attrition mix- 
 tures. But of this later. 
 
 An increase of volume appears to accompany the decom- 
 position of the Washoe rooks. This is perceptible where 
 dense masses, such as the more compact andesites, are sub- 
 jected to the process. Angular blocks are then converted 
 
 into a series of concentric shells of comparatively soft 
 
 matter, which approach the spheroidal shape more and more 
 
 as the diameter diminishes. Often the nodule of undecom- 
 
 posed rock is found at the center, and such masses afford the 
 
 very best opportunity for studying themacroscopical appear- 
 ances resulting from degeneration. When the attacked 
 
 mass is large, erosion often exposes the fresh core, which 
 
 then, ofibring greater resistance, projects as a "cropping' 
 
 or, if it has an elongated form, like a dike above the 
 
 surrounding country ; and as the tendency of the mere 
 
 action of atmospheric agencies is to the production of ferric 
 
 hydrate rather than chlorite from the bisilicates, the first 
 
 impression which such a mass produces is that of an older 
 
 and younger rock in conjunction. Nevertheless, suflaciently 
 
 thorough examination will reveal a transition. When the 
 
 rock is not soHd, but brecciated or loose-grained, sufficient ^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^ _ ^ ___^^ ^ ^^ _ 
 
 ...space seem.s often available to permit the requisite increase . porphyritis. rook, of which the main constitu^ts are plagioolase 
 
 of volume without disintegration. Large and often promi- 
 nent masses of very strongly cohesive decomposition-pro- 
 ducts derived from breccia are common in the district. The 
 mineralogical character and the microscopical phenomena 
 of decomposition seem to be identical in the different rocks. 
 Those refined manifestations of physical character by which 
 it is so often possible to discriminate between older and 
 younger rocks, and between the various rock species when 
 fre^h, are nearly or quite obliterated by the decomposition 
 process, which impresses its own character on the product. 
 
 PropyKte. — The present investigation of the geology 
 of the Washoe District has failed to establish the existence 
 of propylite. Fnll proof of this responsible statement cannot 
 of course be given in this summary of results. It consists 
 in a process of exhaustive elimination. A study of each of 
 the rocks of the districts, in all stages of decomposition, has 
 led to the identification of all of them with other and 
 previously recognized species. The reduction of rocks of 
 originally difierent aspect to apparently uniform character 
 by chlorite decomposition is strikingly evinced by a mere 
 list of the species in the district, which have been grouped 
 under the terms propylite and quartz-propylite. These are 
 granular and diorite, porphyritic diorite, diabase, quartz- 
 porphyry, hornblende-andesite, and augite-andesite. The 
 peculiar " habitus " which is always referred to in descrip- 
 tions of propylite appears to consist in the impellucidity of 
 the feldspars, the green and fibrous character of the horn- 
 blende, the greenish color which often tinges feldspars and 
 ground-mass, and a certain blending of the mineral ingredi- 
 ents. The impellucidity of the feldspars (which surprisingly 
 alters the appearance of rocks originally containing trans- 
 parent unisilicatesj.isdue to incipient decomposition, espe- 
 cially, as it seems, to the extraction of calcite. The " green 
 hornblendes" are simply pseudomorphs of chlorite after 
 hornblendes or augite, as the case may be. Excepting the 
 granular diorite, not one of the rocks from which propylite 
 forms have ever been found in the Washoe District containing 
 green hornblende, (barring uralite). The other character- 
 istics are due to the diffusion of chlorite and the formation 
 of epidote from it. The description of propylite as a species 
 arose from the erroneous determination of chlorite as green 
 hornblende — a very natural mistake before the microscope 
 was brought to bear on the subject, since even with that 
 instrument the same error may be committed if color and 
 dichroism are exclusively relied upon as diagnostic tests. 
 The microscopical characteristics of propylite are illusory. 
 Finely disseminated hornblende in the. ground-mass of a 
 Washoe rock is very rare, and far rarer is the presence of 
 particles of hornblende in feldspars. The propylites contain 
 glass inclusions and primitive liquid inclusions, or not, 
 according to the rocks from which they are derived. Base is 
 rare in propylites; where it originally formed a constituent 
 of the rock, it has for the most part undergone devitrifica- 
 tion, and the writer does not hesitate to affirm that there 
 is no proof yet known of the existence of a pre-andesitic 
 Tertiary eruption in the United Soates. The term propylite 
 should not be retained in the nomenclature of American 
 geology even to express, certain results of decomposition, 
 for the equally loose term greenstone seems to cover the 
 same ground and has priority. 
 
 The Rooks of the Washoe District. — ^The rocks 
 occurring in the Washoe District are granite, metamorphic 
 schists, slates, and limestones ; eruptive diorite of three 
 varieties; metamorphic diorite, quartz-porphyry, an older 
 and a younger diabase, an older and a younger hornblende- 
 andestite, augite-andesite, and basalt.* The report contains 
 
 * The signification attached to these names has varied somewhat 
 as the science of llthology has progressed. Some of the main points 
 of their definitions as here understood are as follows : 
 
 Granite, pre-Tertiary non-vitreous crystalline rock, of which the 
 principal constituents are orthoclase, quartz, and mica or hornblende. 
 
 Diorite, pre-Tertiary non-vitreous crystalline rock, of which the 
 main constituents are plagloclase and hornblende. It may or may 
 not contain quartz. 
 
 Quartz-porphyry, pre-Tertiary glass-bearing porphyritic rock, of 
 which the main constituents are orthoclase, quartz, and hornblende 
 or mica. 
 
 Diabase, pre-Tertiary, more or less porphyritic rock, of which the 
 main constituents are plagioclase and augite. 
 
 AudesitCj Tertiary or post-Tertiary, glass-bearing, more or less 
 
190 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 a discussion of each of these rocks, embracing a detailed de- 
 scription of about seventy-five slides well illustrated. Here 
 they can be dismissed with a very few remarks. 
 
 Concerning the granite and basalt there has scarcely been 
 a question. They are eminently characteristic occurrences. 
 The metamorphic diorite sometimes resembles eruptive 
 diorite, and has been taken both for diorite and granite ; 
 usually it bears some resemblance to augite, andesite or 
 basalt, and has been determined microscopically as an un- 
 usual variety of the latter rock. It is composed essentially 
 of oligoclase and hornblende. The hornblende was originally 
 colorless, but through some change (perhaps absorption of 
 water) it is in large part converted into an intensely green 
 variety. The hornblende polarizes in unusually intense 
 colors. The quartz-porphyry underlies both hornblende, 
 andesite and diabase. The microscope, Thoulet's method 
 of separation, and analysis show that the predominant feld- 
 spar is orthoclase. It is characterized by the association of 
 liquid and glass inclusions usual in quartz-porphyry, to 
 which also the ground-mass corresponds. In one locality, 
 near the Red Jacket, the quartz is nearly suppressed, and 
 the rock is excessively fine-grained. It is a felsitic modi- 
 fication of the ordinary variety. This rock, which Baron v. 
 Richthofen determined correctly, has since been called 
 quartz-propylite, dacite, and. in its felsitic modification rhy- 
 olite. Most of the quartz-porphyry is greatly decomposed. 
 The eruptive diorite is sometimes granular, sometimes por- 
 phyritic. In the porphyritic diorite mica sometimes 
 predominates over hornblende. Quartz is irregularly dis- 
 seminated through the rock. In the granular diorite the 
 hornblende is sometimes green and fibrous, sometimes brown 
 and solid. In some cases it can be shown that the latter 
 variety of hornblende is altered to the former, and possibly 
 this is ordinarily the case. Augite is not uncommon, and a 
 part of the fibrous green hornblende is very likely uralite, 
 but in the granular rock the outlines of the crystalline grains 
 are rarely sufiiciently regular to determine this point. In 
 the porphyritic diorites the fresh hornblende is always brown. 
 Even in this latter variety of the diorites well-developed 
 feldspars are rare. The porphyritic diorites have for the 
 most part been regarded as propylite, and some occurrences 
 of the granular rock have been classed in the same way. 
 Some of the fresher porphyritic diorites have been mistaken 
 for andesites, the resemblance to which is sometimes strong. 
 The older diabase is porphyritic. Almost the whole of this 
 ■rock is in a very advanced stage of decomposition, and when 
 fresh considerably resembles an augite-andesite, but its 
 ground-mass is thoroughly crystalline ; it contains no glass 
 inclusions, but frequent fluid ones ; the augites show both 
 pinacoidal and prismatic cleavages, and a tendency lo urali- 
 tic decomposition. It is also manifestly older than the other 
 diabase. An important characteristic is the lath-like deve- 
 lopment of the porphyritic feldspars, for in cases of extreme 
 decomposition of the bisilicates this characteristic at least 
 serves to suggest whether the rock is dioritic or diabasitic. 
 The older diabase has been considered as propylite or ande- 
 site, according to the stage of decomposition. The younger 
 diabase ("black dike") is very highly crystalline and not 
 porphyritic. It is bluish when fresh, but in course of a few 
 hours turns to a smoky brown. It is identical with many of 
 the diabases of the New England and the Middle States. 
 The older hornblende-andesite and the augite-andesite where 
 fresh are typical rocks macroscopically and microscopically. 
 When decomposed they have been taken for propylite. The 
 younger hornblende-andesite which overlies the augite- 
 andesite is a cross-grained, soft, reddish or purplish rock, 
 with large glassy feldspars. It has always been supposed to 
 be trachyte; but, when endeavoring to determine the dif- 
 ■ferent species of feldspar under the microscope, the writer 
 was unable to include any satisfactorily determinable ortho- 
 clases in the list. Dr. G. W. Hawes was kind enough to 
 undertake the separation of the feldspars by Thoulet's 
 method, and the analysis of the resultant feldspars. The 
 specimen selected was the most trachytic in appearance, 
 
 ' and hornblende, mica, or augite. The andesites in which an'^Mu is 
 
 the characteristic bisilicate appear to be separate eruptions, while 
 
 mica and hornblende replace one another to a variable extent in the 
 
 same eruption. In the andesites feldspar predominates. 
 
 Basalt, Tertiary or post-Tertialry plagioclase augite rook, with 
 
 ' pjfe^DOimant augite; ustially-charactenzeaby thepreeen6«of.oiiviip. 
 
 that of Mount Rose, but no feldspar whatever was found 
 corresponding either physically or chemically to orthoclase. 
 There is much reason to believe that trachyte occurs less 
 often than had been supposed in the Great Basin area. 
 
 Structural Results of Faulting. — The evidence oi 
 faulting on the Comstock is manifold, and has been re" 
 cognized by all observers. The irregular openings in the 
 vein, the presence of horses, the crushed condition of the 
 quartz in many parts, the presence of slickensides and of 
 rolled pebbles in the clays, are all conclusive on this point. 
 Both to the east and west of the vein, too, the country rock 
 shows a rude division into sheets, and along the partings 
 between the plates evidences of movement are perceptible, 
 decreasing in amount as the distance from the vein increases, 
 according to some law not directly inferable. All the evi- 
 dence points to a relative downward movement of the 
 hanging wall. 
 
 The question of the character of the contact surface, 
 whether it is a faulted surface or a continuation of a former 
 exposure of the east front of Mount Davidson, is not to be 
 settled by mere inspection. A cross-section to scale takem 
 from Mr. King's maps shows immediately that while the 
 dip of the lode is 45° or more, the maximum slope of Mount 
 Davidson is about 30°. This fact, taken in connection with 
 the character of the west wall when exposed, indicates that 
 the surface is the result of faulting. A natural surface' 
 sloping for a long distance at an angle of above 40°, too, is 
 very unusual. On the other hand, the coincidence between 
 the contours of the west wall and those of the exposed sur- 
 face has been notorious from the earliest days of mining on 
 the lode, and it seems a less violent supposition that the 
 steep flank of the mountain passes over into the still steeper 
 wall of the vein than that the range has experienced an 
 erosion modifying its angle 15° and more, and has still 
 retained the details of its topography otherwise unaltered. 
 It is plain that the elucidation of the faulting action on the 
 Comstock is a very important structural problem, and that 
 it is most desirable to account quantitatively for the results, 
 as well as to prove the existence of a notable dislocation. 
 The most striking and wide-spread evidence of the faulting 
 is the apparent relative movement on the contact surfaces 
 between more or less regular sheets of the east and west 
 country rocks for a long distance in both directions from the 
 lode. Each sheet appears to have risen relatively to its 
 eastern neighbor, and to have sunk as compared with the 
 .sheet adjoining it on the west. The consideration of a sheet 
 or plate of rock under the influence of friction of a relatively 
 opposite character on its two faces, therefore, forms the 
 natural starting point for an examination of the observed 
 conditions. It will be shown in the report, that if a country 
 divided like the Comstock area into parallel sheets ex- 
 periences a dislocation on one of the partings under a com- 
 pressive strain equal at each parting, a vertical cross-section 
 will show a surface line represented by two logarithmic 
 equations : 
 
 y^A [m—x — 1) — X tan i? 
 
 y^A (1 — mx) -\- X tan 9 
 
 in which A is one-half of the throw of the fault, and i9 is the 
 angle which the a;-axis makes with the original surface. 
 The y-axis coincides with the dip line of the parting on 
 which the fault occurs, and the origin is at the cropping of 
 the fault-fissure. The coordinates are rectangular. The 
 correctness of this equation is confirmed by a very simple 
 and satisfactory experiment. Fig. 1 shows a cross-section 
 such as might result from a fault on the line Y A, supposing 
 the original surface to have been level. 
 
 The discussion is also extended to the case in which the 
 compressive strain is not uniform, but varies proportionally 
 to the distance from the fault-plane. This case also results 
 in a logarithmic equation of a more complex character. A 
 discussion of the logarithmic equation as an expression of 
 faulting action leads to some very interesting results, some 
 of which are as follows : AVhere a fault of the class under 
 discussion has occurred, and where the resulting surface has 
 not been obscured by deep erosion, the original surface can 
 be reconstructed or calculated, and the amount of dislocation 
 determined. This is also true where more than one rock is 
 involved. Where; as is nearly always the case, the niove- 
 inent on the- fault-plane is- equivalent to -a rise of-thefbot 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 191 
 
 wall; the hanging wall seen in cross-section will assume the 
 form of a sharp wedge, and this wedge will be very likely to 
 yield to the compressive strain, and break across. If the 
 movement of the footwall on the fault-fissure were down- 
 ward, a surface line would form, which is scarcely ever met 
 with in nature, and the inference is that faults of this kind 
 are of extreme rarity. This not only confirms the observa- 
 tions made in mines, but places the fact on a wide basis of 
 observation. If a fault, accompanied by compressive strain, 
 takes place on a fissure in otherwise solid rock, the walls 
 are likely either to be distorted, if they are composed of 
 flexible material, or to be fissured into parallel plates if the 
 material is rigid. In the latter case the sheets of rock will 
 also arrange themselves on logarithmic curves. 
 
 If the intersection of 
 a fault fissure with the 
 earth's surface is not a 
 straight line, but is sin- 
 uous or broken the se- 
 condary fissures will be 
 parallel to the original 
 one, and in the resulting 
 surface each inflection of 
 the trace of the fissure 
 on the original surface 
 concave toward the lower 
 country will be repre- 
 sented on the faulted sur- 
 face by a ravine, and each 
 inflection convex towards 
 the lower country will 
 result on the faulted sur- 
 face in a ridge. This is 
 illustrated in Fig. 2, 
 which is a contour map 
 of the country represent- 
 ed in Fig. 1, if the fault- 
 fissure is supposed to have 
 intersected the original 
 surface on the undulating 
 line A B. There is also a direct relation between the con- 
 tours of the footwall of such a fissure and the surface contours. 
 If the original surface was a horizontal plane, the surface 
 contours will be identical with the footwall contours. A fault 
 may be the result of a single extensive movement, or of suc- 
 cessive slight movements in the same sense, with intervals 
 of quiescence. It can be shown, with a high degree of pro- 
 babrlity, that the result of an intermittent dislocation will be 
 sensibly the same as that of a continuous one. 
 
 Fig. 1.— Fault Curve. 
 
 Fig. 2. — Faulted surface. 
 
 The theory, though worked out independently of the 
 Comstock, applies to it with much precision. Equations 
 can be given representing very closely the surface line of a 
 cross-section, the amount ofthe'fault can be determined, etc. 
 It can be shown that the erosion since the beginning of the 
 fault is very slight, that the cations of the range were pro- 
 duced by faulting, and have been only slightly modified by 
 erosion, whence the correspondence of the contours of the 
 footwall with those of the surface. The east fissure is a re- 
 
 sult of the faulting, and the ore has been deposited since 
 Washoe became a region of insignificant rainfall. The 
 sheeted structure of the country is, in all probability, due 
 to the fault. It is^of course, most unlikely that the Comstock 
 is the only vein in which the deposition of ore is recent and 
 has been accompanied by faulting, and some conclusions as 
 to the occurrence of veins in such cases may be welcome to 
 some of the readers of this paper. In a locality modified by 
 faulting action under pressure the fact will appear in the 
 parallelism of the exposed edges and faces of rock sheets. 
 If erosion had not seriously modified the surface resulting 
 from the faulting action, the logarithmic curve will be 
 recognizable to the observer looking in the direction of the 
 strike. The main cropping of the vein is to be sought at 
 
 the point of inflection of 
 the curve, which will be 
 found nearly or exactly 
 midway between the top 
 and bottom of the hill- 
 side. One or more se- 
 condary vein-croppings 
 should be looked for be- 
 low the main cropping, 
 and these, so far as yield 
 is concerned (but not in 
 regard to location of 
 claim), may prove even 
 more important than the 
 main fissure. The dip of 
 the vein will be to the 
 same quarter as the slope 
 of the surface, but of 
 course greater in amount. 
 The flatter the surface 
 curve the smaller the 
 angle of dip will be. The 
 mean strike will be nearly 
 or quite at right angles to 
 the direction of the spurs 
 andravincsofthefaultcd 
 area. If, besides the movement of one or other wall in the azi- 
 muth of the dip, there has been a dislocation in the direction 
 of the strike, chimneys will open, all of them on the same side 
 of the diflerent ravines. Surface evidences will often enable 
 the prospector to determine on which side the chimneys are 
 to be found. On the barren sides evidences of crushing and of 
 closure of the fissure are probable. The fissure is more 
 likely to have a constant dip (barring the secondary ofP- 
 shoots than a constant strike, but, of course, irregularities of 
 dip, like those in a strike, will open chambers which may be 
 productive. Offshoots into the hanging wall may occur at 
 any depth, but none, except those near enough to the main 
 cropping to reach the surface where it has a very con.sid- 
 erable slope, are likely to be continuous. Finally it is 
 shown that the law of land slips is also capable of expres- 
 sion by logarithmic equations, and that a large part of the 
 details of the topography of grassy hills is formed in obedi- 
 ence to this law. 
 
 Occurrence and succession of rocks. — Granite oc- 
 curs on the surface only in a very limited area near the 
 Red Jacket mine, but it is certain that it has considerable 
 underground development, for it has been struck at the 
 Baltimore, the Rock Island, and by a tunnel to the south- 
 west of the latter. The granite is overlaid by metamorphic 
 rocks, which, however, are less metamorphosed close to it 
 than at a distance from it, and the probabilities are 
 that the sedimentary strata were laid down upon the massive 
 rock. The sedimentary rocks are limestones, crystalline 
 schists, and slate. They are badly broken and highly al- 
 tered, and the search for fossils was not rewarded by 
 success. The general geology of this part of the Great 
 Basin, however, leaves little doubt that they are Mesozoic. 
 A considerable area of metamorphics has been exposed in 
 the southwest of the region by the erosion of the overlying 
 eruptive masses. North and east of Silver City, however, 
 the surface shows scarcely any metamorphics, while they 
 play a large part in the underground occurrences as far as 
 the Yellow Jacket. In the Gold Hill mines black slates 
 form the footwall of the lode. They are intensely colored 
 with" graphite, and often very highly charged with pyrites; 
 
192 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 They are frequently mistaken for " black dike," but a mo- 
 ment's inspection in a good light shows their sedimentary 
 origin. The presence of such carbonaceous rocks at greater 
 depths would explain the formation of hydrogen sulphide. 
 There is also an obscure occurrence of metamorphic lime- 
 stone in the Sierra Nevada mine between granular and mi- 
 caceous diorite. It appears to be conformable to the face 
 of the granular diorite. The metamorphics in and about 
 Gold Hill appear both to overlie and to underlie diorite, and 
 there is little doubt that sedimentary strata were present at 
 the period of the diorite eruption. 
 
 Between the metamorphics and the quartz porphyry in 
 the southwest portion of the area is a considerable extent of 
 a black, crystalline rock, the relations of which are some- 
 what obscure. It has already been referred to as a meta- 
 morphic diorite. Cases of transition into distinctly meta- 
 morphic rocks no doubt occur, but none of an indiibitable 
 character were discovered. On the other hand, in some oc- 
 currences the rook is a distinct breccia, and bears a strong 
 resemblance to augite-andesites or basalts. The point to 
 which most weight has been given in determining its orgin 
 is its association with the quartz-porphyry, and the distinct- 
 ly metamorphic rocks. It appears to be exposed wherever 
 the quartz-porphyry is eroded, and is frequently also associa- 
 ted with underlying metamorphics. Its resemblance to a 
 volcanic rock, too, is greatest on its upper surface, and its 
 analysis shows a composition which would be strange for an 
 eruptive diorite. Besides the surface occurrences, it is found 
 particularly well developed in the Silver Hill mine. The 
 principal exposure of diorites is on the west of the lode 
 through Virginia City, but there are several outlying occur- 
 rences about the Forman Shaft,, and again far to the east at 
 the Lady Bryan mine, which show that the underground 
 development of the rock is a very extensive one. It forms 
 the footwall of the lode from the Tellow Jacket north. The 
 diorite is excessively uneven in its composition, and in al- 
 most any area of a hundred feet square several modifications 
 are to be found. This fact, taken in connection with the 
 microstructure of the rock, is pretty conclusive evidence 
 that it has never reached a higher degree of fluidity than the 
 plastic state. The varieties can be roughly classified as 
 granular diorite, porphyritic-hornblendic diorite, and por- 
 phyritic-micaceous diorite. But intermediate varieties are 
 of constant occurrence. There seems, nevertheless, to be a 
 certain amount of order in the disposition of the different 
 varieties. Mount Davidson, from Bullion Ravine to Spanish 
 Ravine, is almost altogether granular on the west of the 
 LODE, but to the north and south of these limits porphyritic 
 forms prevail. In the neighborhood of the Utah mine mica 
 becomes the predominant bisilicate, and the last variety is 
 also the one which occurs in the neighborhood of the 
 Formin Shaft. How this orderly disposition of the various 
 diorites came about is a somewhat obscure question. The 
 diabase appears but to a very trifling extent upon the sur- 
 face, though it is by no means unlikely that an exposure of 
 this rock occupied the position now covered by Virginia 
 City. Underground it is extensively developed from the 
 Ooerman to the Sierra Nevada, and from the lode to the 
 Combination Shaft, as is seen in the cross-section on the 
 Sutro Tunnel line. Its great importance is due to the 
 fact that all the productive bodies of the Comstock have 
 been intimately associated with it, as, indeed, are many 
 of the famous silver mines of the world. This diabase 
 is of a rather unusual character, being more than com- 
 monly porphyritic, and containing comparatively little au- 
 gite, a trifle less than twenty per cent. In appearance it is 
 often not dissimilar to the andesites, but the resemblance 
 does not extend to details. Almost the whole of this dia- 
 base is greatly decomposed, and has hitherto escaped recog- 
 nition on that account. 
 
 Between the east country diabase and the west wall of the 
 Comstock occurs a thin dike, which has long been known 
 as " black dike." It is only in the lower levels that fresh oc- 
 currences of this material have been met with. The " black 
 dike" appears to be identical with the Mesozoic diabase of 
 the Eastern States, from which it is scarcely distinguishable 
 microscopically, or chemically. This younger diabase forms 
 a remarkably microscopically thin and uniform dike, nowhere 
 more than a few feet in thickness, extending from the Savage 
 southward to the Overman, and the branching off to the 
 
 southwest as far as the Caledonia shaft. This is the only 
 dike in the district, in spite of the prevalence of eruptive 
 rocks, Its presence shows that- the fissure on which the 
 Comstock lode afterward formed was first opened in pre- 
 Tertiary times, and its uniform thickness shows that its in- 
 trusion antedates any considerable dislocation on the con- 
 tact. This inference receives strong confirmation from the 
 evidence already explained that the faulting is a compara- 
 tively recent phenomenon. The occurrence of the two dia- 
 bases also goes a long way toward demonstrating the nature 
 of the fork in the vein, which has always been a mysterious 
 point in the geology of the lode. The prolongation of the 
 " black dike" beyond Oold Hill is toward American Flat, 
 whereas the older diabase extends in the direction of Silver 
 City. Much the larger part of the surface of the district is oc- 
 cupied by audesites,of which there are three varieties distinr 
 guishable both lithologically and geologically. .These are a 
 younger and a later hornblende-andesite, the latter of which 
 has hitherto been considered a trachyte, and an augite- 
 andesite intermediate in age. The older hornblende-andesite 
 has in part long been recognized as such and is deceptive 
 only when highly decomposed. It occupies a belt immedi- 
 ately east of the older diabase {seeSutro Tunnel section), a 
 large area on the heights immediately west of the diorites, 
 and a considerable area at and north of Silver City. The 
 latter occurrence is noteworthy for the unusual size of the 
 hornblendes, which are sometimes several inches in length. 
 The augite-andesite occupies a second belt of country east 
 of the lode and beyond the earlier hornblende-andesite, and 
 is also extensively developed to the north and south of the 
 diorite. The Forman Shaft penetrates 1 ,200 feet of this rock 
 before passing into the hornblende-andesite. The reasons 
 are given elsewhere for considering the rock heretofore 
 regarded as trachyte to be an andesite. It is rough but soft, 
 and its red and purple colors and large glassy feldspars made 
 the mistake an easy one. The Flowery Range, the Sugar 
 Loaf, Mount Emma, and Mount Rose, are all of this rock, 
 which also occurs in two little patches close to the Sierra 
 Nevada mine. These latter have been cut off from the 
 quarry above the Utah by the erosion of Seven-Mile Cafion. 
 The patches of rock near the Combination Shaft and. the new 
 Yellow Jacket Shaft, which have sometimes been regarded as 
 trachyte, are merely decomposed older hornblende-andesite. 
 The occurrence of basalt is exceedingly limited. It is a 
 .fine, fresh, and typical basalt, but there is no evidence of 
 any direct connection between its eruption and the vein 
 phenomena. 
 
 Chemistry. — The chemical history of the Comstock is 
 no doubt a very complex one, nor are there by any means 
 suflicient data to trace it in detail. All that can be attempted 
 here is to show that the results observed might naturally 
 follow from highly proba-ble causes. The decomposition of 
 the rocks shows three important features. The formation of 
 pyrite from the bisilicates, the decomposition of the bisil- 
 icates into chlorite (which is in part further altered to 
 epidote), and a partial change of the feldspar. The pvrite 
 appears to have formed at the expense of the bisilicates. 
 The really fresh rocks contain no pyrite, but minute crystals 
 often occur in or attached to partially decomposed bisili- 
 cates. Sometimes distinct pseudomorphs of pyrite after 
 augite or hornblende are visible, but this is not common 
 because the average size of the pyrite crystals is about one- 
 half that of their hosts. A macroscopical comparison, too, 
 of series of rocks increasingly decomposed shows that the 
 pyrite is to all appearances associated with the bisilicates, 
 and in extreme cases replaces them with an entire corres- 
 pondence of distribution, so that the cumulative evidence is 
 all in one direction. It is well known that ferrous silicates 
 in contact with waters charged with hydrogen sulphide 
 produce pyrite. The transformation of the bisilicates into 
 chlorite is not obscure in its general features, though its 
 details are far from clear : like those of most similar decom- 
 positions chlorite is essentially a silicate of aluminium, iron, 
 and magnesia. Chlorite contains nearly equal quantities of 
 alumina and magnesia ; whereas augite, for example, con- 
 tains nearly four times as much of the protoxide base. If 
 the amount of alumina is supposed to remain unchanged, 
 the alteration must be accompanied by a separation of all 
 the lime and of the greater part of the silica and the magne- 
 sia. The relations of the other bisilicates to chlorite are 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 193 
 
 similar and their conversion to chlorite is a familiar fact, 
 particularly in the neighborhood of silver ores. The triclinic 
 feldspars of the Washoe District retain their strise and optical 
 properties in a recognizable form much longer than the 
 bisilicates. Among the mine rocks it is very rarely that 
 bisilicates occur undecomposed, but it is the exception when 
 a slide 'of a tolerably hard rock does not show recognizable 
 feldspars. When the feldspars are altered they are replaced 
 by an aggregate of polarizing grains, which appear to be 
 quartz and calcite with some opaque particles, but with no 
 transparent amorphous material. Two generically distinct 
 processes of decomposition of feldspar have hitherto been 
 recognized. The one results in the formation of kaoline, or 
 a less hydrous aluminium silicate. The other is character- 
 ized by the introduction of magnesia and a little water, and 
 the separation of soda and lime. Everything seems to point 
 to the latter change as the characteristic one in the Washoe 
 District. Kaolin could hardly be present in large quantities 
 without being recognized microscopically. The analyses of 
 the clays, too, show that when allowance is made for the 
 presence of hydrous chlorite there is not enough water to 
 correspond with any large percentage of kaolin. In fact the 
 analyses of the clays so exactly correspond to the compo- 
 sition of the firm rocks that the great masses of clay evidently 
 represent only equal volumes of disintegrated rock. On the 
 other hand, the magnesia, which plays a part in the alter- 
 native decomposition of plagioclase, is furnished by the 
 conversion of the bisilicates to chlorite, the microscopical 
 phenomena are just what might be expected, and the 
 analyses correspond. On the whole, therefore, it appears 
 improbable that there has been any large amount of kaoli- 
 nization in the Washoe District. Epidote is very common 
 on the surface, while under ground it .seems rare and con- 
 fined to the neighborhood of the fissure. The conversion of 
 chlorite to epidote must be accompanied by a substitution 
 of lime for magnesia, and by the conversion of ferrous to 
 ferric oxide. It might very readily occur in the presence of 
 solutions containing carbonic acid and free oxygen, or when 
 surface waters mingled with waters rising from lower levels; 
 for epidote is far less soluble than chlorite, and under these 
 circumstances would form in obedience to the general law 
 of precipitation. Its occurrence is usually compatible with this 
 supposition, but it is not so decisive as to warrant a positive 
 assertion that the conditions of its formation are those in- 
 dicated. 
 
 As is well known. Prof. F. Sandberger has very ably 
 maintained what is known as the lateral-secretion of ore 
 deposits.* With a view to testing the probabilities of this 
 theory, with reference to the Oomstock, the rocks of the dis- 
 trict have been essayed with all possible precaution. The 
 rocks found to contain precious metals were also separated 
 by Thoulet's method, and the precious metals traced to their 
 mineralogical source. The results of this investigation show 
 many interesting facts, among which are the following : The 
 diabase shows noteworthy contents in the precious metals, 
 most of which is found in the augite. The decomposed dia- 
 base contains about half as much of these metals as the 
 fresh rock. The relative quantities of gold and silver in the 
 fresh and decomposed diabase correspond fairly well with 
 the known composition of the Oomstock bullion. The total 
 exposure of diabase is sufficient to account for far more bul- 
 lion than has been extracted from the mines. 
 
 The gangue on the Oomstock is almost exclusively quartz, 
 though calcite also occurs in limited areas. The ore mine- 
 rals elude investigation for the most part because they are 
 so finely disseminated as merely to stain the quartz, but it 
 is fairly certain that they are principally argentite, and na- 
 tive silver and gold, accompanied in some case by sulphu- 
 ric antimonides, etc. The chloride has rarely been identified. 
 Where ore is found in diorite, or in contact with it, it is usu- 
 ally of low grade, and its value is chiefly in gold. The no- 
 tably productive ore bodies have been found in contact with 
 dialiase, and they have yielded by weight about twenty 
 times as much silver as gold. It would perhaps be legiti- 
 mate to infer from the chemical phenomena enumerated 
 that waters charged with carbonic acid and hydrogen sul- 
 phide had played a considerable part on the Oomstock. 
 This is not, however, a mere inference, for an advance boring 
 
 *Berg und Huttenmansohe Zeitang, vol. 30, 1880, 402 et ante.' 
 13 
 
 on the 3,000' level of the Yellow Jacket struck a powerful 
 stream of water at 3,065 feet (in the west country), which 
 was heavily charged with hydrogen sulphide and had a 
 temperature of 170° F., and there is equal evidence of the 
 presence of carbonic acid in the water of the lower levels. 
 A spring on the 2,700' level of the Yellow Jacket, which 
 showed a temperature of above 160° F., was found to be 
 depositing a sinter largely composed of carbonates. Baron 
 V. Richthofen was of opinion that fluorine and chlorine had 
 played a large part in the ore deposition on the Oomstock, 
 and this the writer is not disposed to deny ; but, on the other 
 hand, it is plain that most of the phenomena are sufficiently 
 accounted for on the supposition that the agents have been • 
 merely solutions of carbonic and hydrosulphuric acids. These 
 reagents will attack the bisilicates and feldspars. The re- 
 sult would be carbonates and sulphides of metals, earths and 
 alkalies, and free quartz ; but quartz and the sulphides of ^ 
 the metals are soluble in solutions of carbonates and sul- ' 
 phides of the earths and alkalies, and the essential consti- 
 tuents of the ore might, therefore, readily be conveyed to 
 openings in the vein wliere they would have been deposi- 
 ted on relief of pressure and diminution of temperature. 
 Some of the physical conditions of the process will be else- 
 where considered. It has been claimed that the ore and 
 quartz have been deposited by substitution for masses of 
 country rock. This hypothesis is exceedingly doubtful on 
 chemical grounds, but there is also at least one insuperable 
 physical objection to it. In all processes involving the so- 
 lution of angular bodies, it is a matter of common observa- 
 tion that points and corners which expose a greater surface 
 than planes are first attacked, consequently masses exposed 
 to solution, substitution, weathering, and the like, always 
 tend to spheroidal forms. Now, nothing is more common 
 than to find masses of country rock included in the ore-bear- 
 ing quartz. These masses are, in all cases which have come 
 under the observation of th« writer, angular fragments, in 
 form precisely such as result from a fresh fracture ; not a 
 single instance has been observed in which a spheroidal rock 
 was surrounded by more and more polyhedral concentric 
 shells of quartz and ore. 
 
 Heat Phenomena of the Lode. — One of the famous 
 peculiarities of the Oomstock Lode is the abnormally 
 high temperature which prevails in and near it. This mani- 
 fested itself in the upper levels, and has increased with the 
 depth. The present workings are intensely hot. The water 
 which flooded the lower levels of the Gold Hill mines during 
 the past winter had a temperature of 170° F. This water 
 will cook food, and will destroy the human epidermis, so 
 that a partial immersion in it is certain death. The air in 
 the lower levels more or less nearly approaches the tem- 
 perature of the water, according to the amount of ventila- 
 tion. The rapidity of the ventilation attained in the mines 
 is something unknown elsewhere, yet deaths in ventilated 
 workings from heat alone are common, and there are drifts 
 which, without ventilation, the most seasoned miner cannot 
 enter for a moment. Except where circulation of air is most 
 rapid, and in localities not far removed from downcast shafts, 
 the air is very nearly saturated with moisture. It is a serious 
 question how far down it will be possible to push the mines 
 in spite of the terrific heat. 
 
 The relation of the temperature to the depth from the 
 surface is evidently one of great interest, but not entirely 
 simple. If the rock were wholly uniform in character and 
 unfissured the relation of temperature to depth would be 
 wholly regular, and would be represented by a curvilinear 
 focus. As the source of the heat was approached the rate 
 at which the temperature rose would rapidly increase, and 
 under the ideal conditions supposed, it would be possible to 
 deduce the constants of the equation and to calculate the 
 position of the source of heat. . But unless the source of 
 heat were so close to the surface that the errors introduced 
 by the presence of fissures, the lack of homogeneity of the 
 rock, and the percolation of surface water, were insignificant 
 in comparison with the rate of increase of the temperature, 
 such a calculation would not be possible. A careful record 
 of temperature has been kept at three of the newer shafts to 
 a depth of 2,000 feet. On plotting these records as ordinates 
 and the depths as abscissse no indication of regular curva- 
 ture appears, being wholly obscured by the fluctuations due 
 to the disturbing causes mentioned, tn other words, there 
 
194 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 is as yet nothing in the observations to show any but local 
 divergences from a strict proportionality between depth and 
 temperature. The source of heat must, consequently, lie at 
 a very great distance from the surface as compared with the 
 depth yet reached, and the curve is to be regarded as still 
 sensibly coincident with its asymptote. In order to elimi- 
 nate the fluctuations of temperature as far as possible, Mr. 
 Reade and Dr. Barus have computed the observations made 
 at the Forman, Cumbination, and New Yellow Jacket shafts 
 by the method of least squares, and also, for comparison 
 with them, the observations of Mr. J. A. Phillips at the 
 Rosehridge Colliery. Here it is sufficient to state that the 
 mean data for rock and water on the Comstock result in the 
 equation 
 
 <=53.7-l-0-0327d 
 
 while the Rosehridge Colliery observations result in the 
 equation 
 
 i=56+0.0150d 
 
 t representing degrees F., and d the depth from the surface 
 in feet. Since no evidence of curvature can yet be traced 
 in the locus representing the relations of temperature to 
 depth, these equations may be expected to hold good for 
 depths greatly exceeding the present, but if more than local 
 variations occur at any depth they will be in the sense of a 
 more rapid increase of temperature. Boiling water will 
 probably be encountered on some parts of the Comstock 
 before the mines reach a depth of 5,000 feet, while the water 
 of the Rosehridge Colliery will not boil before twice that 
 depth is attained. 
 
 Two causes have been suggested in explanation of the 
 high temperature of the Comstock — the kaolinization of the 
 feldspar contained in the country rock, and residual volcanic 
 phenomena. Tlie theory that kaolinization is the cause of 
 the heat appears to rest upon two positive grounds — that the 
 solidification of water liberates heat and that flooded drifts 
 have been observed to grow hotter. It is also claimed in 
 favor of the kaolinization hypothesis that there is no evi- 
 dence of any other chemical action proceeding with suffi- 
 cient activity to afford an explanation, and that the reten- 
 tion of igneous heat in the rocks is a sheer impossibility; 
 while the hypothesis that the heat is conveyed from some 
 deep-seated source to the mines by means of currents of 
 heated water is characterized as somewhat violent and un- 
 necessary. So far as the present writer is aware, there are 
 no theoretical grounds upon which the heat involved in 
 kaolinization can be estimated. The decomposition of feld- 
 spar into kaolin and other products (supposing kaolin to 
 result from the decomposition of plagioclase) involves sev- 
 eral processes, of which some are more likely to absorb than 
 to liberate heat. But supposing an anhydrous aluminium 
 silicate formed without loss of heat, the thermal results of 
 its combination with waters are by no means certain. Were 
 the water contained in kaolin not water of hydration, but 
 chemically combined, it would be possible from known ex- 
 periments to compute approximately the heat which would 
 be produced. It will be shown in the report that the cor- 
 responding temperature would be so high as to be utterly at 
 variance with known facts. The water is therefore the 
 water of hydration. Of the heat involved in the hydration 
 of salts we know that it is usually small, that it is some- 
 times negative, and that the different molecules of water 
 combine with differing amounts of energy, but of the heat 
 of hydration of kaolin we know nothing. With a view to 
 testing the theory of kaolinization as far as possible, Dr. 
 Barus, at the writer's request, undertook some very difficult 
 experiments presently to be described. The result of these 
 experiments, in a word, was that finely divided, almost fresh 
 cast country diabase, exposed to the temperature of boiling 
 water and the action of saturated aqueous vapor for a week 
 at a time, and for several weeks in succession, showed no 
 rise of temperature perceptible with an apparatus delicate 
 to the TnjVir of a degree C. It is by no means certain that 
 kaolinization was affected by this experiment. The parti- 
 cles of rook were indeed coated with a white powdery sub- 
 stance, but in such small quantities that its nature could not 
 be determined. It is still possible that when kaolinization 
 oc?ur§, heat is liberated. It is also possible that at temper- 
 atures above the boiling point and pressure greatly exceed- 
 
 ing 760™m, feldspars are kaolinized ; but it appears no longer 
 reasonable to ascribe the heating of drifts, which are at 
 nearly normal pressure, to the reaction on the rocks of water 
 below the boiling point. The scene of active and heat-pro- 
 ducing kaolinization, if it exists at all, must, therefore,be at re- 
 mote depths. As was explained in a previous paragraph, 
 the present examination has not resulted in tracing any con- 
 siderable amount of kaolinization on the Comstock ; while, 
 had the heat of the lode been maintained ever since its for- 
 mation at the expense of the feldspars, but little undecom- 
 posed feldspar could now remain. In short, while it cannot 
 be demonstrated that the heat of the Comstock is not due 
 to the prevalence, at unknown depths and pressures, of a 
 chemical change of unknown thermal relations, the writer 
 has failed to find any proof that the heat of the Comstock 
 is due to kaolinization. 
 
 Of the origin of the heat of solfataras not very much is 
 known ; yet, as they commonly occur either as an accom- 
 paniment of volcanic activity, or in regions characterized by 
 the strongest evidences of past volcanic activity, it is usual 
 and seems rational to connect them as cause and effect, or as 
 difierent effects of a common cause. There seems to be no 
 special opportunities on the Comstock for an elucidation of 
 the whole theory of vulcanism, but considerable grounds 
 for connecting the heat there manifested with that chain of 
 phenomena. That solfataric action as commonly understood, 
 once existed on the Comstock is certain. That the time at 
 which the lode was charged with ore is not immeasurably 
 removed from the present, appears to be demonstrated by the 
 trifling character of the erosion which has since taken place. 
 The water entering the bottom of the New Yellow Jacket 
 shaft in the winter of 1880-81, at a temperature of 170° F., 
 was highly charged with hydrogen sulphide. The steam- 
 boat Springs, only a few miles west of the Comstock, lie in 
 a north and south line like the Comstock, close to the con- 
 tact of ancient massive rocks and andesites. Some of them 
 are boiling hot, are charged with solfataric gases, and are 
 now depositing cinnabar and silica as at the time of Mr. 
 Phillips' visit many years ago. Finally, there is reason to 
 suppose that the hot waters of the Comstock come from 
 great depths. No meteorological station exists at Virginia 
 City, but the rainfall is so small that the country is a sage- 
 brush desert, and the precipitation is insufficient to account 
 for the water met with on the lode. The main influx of water, 
 and especially of hot water, is from the west wall, and when 
 encountered it is found under a head often of several hun- 
 dred feet. Between the Comstock and the main range of the 
 Sierra Nevada, the whole country is covered by massive 
 rocks, principally andesites, with occasionally croppings of 
 granite. The general structure of the country, and the ex- 
 posures of sedimentary rocks in the mines, lead to the sup- 
 position that the underlying strata dip eastward, and the in- 
 ference is that the Comstock fissure tops water-ways leading 
 from the crests of the great range. If the heat is conveyed 
 to the lode by waters of great depths, the variations in tem- 
 perature are readily explained. The distribution of the 
 heated waters would be determined by the presence of cracks, 
 fissures, and clamy-seams, and the uniformity of distribution 
 of heat would further be disturbed, even at considerable 
 distances from the surface, by the infiltration of surface 
 water. One published observation, which is important in 
 this connection, is that a large proportion of the rocks in the 
 Virginia mines are dry. This is very true in the sense in 
 which dry is used in mining, i. e., there are many places 
 where water does not drip from the walls ; but the present 
 examination has failed to reveal rocks which are not moist. 
 Indeed the occurrence of really desiccated rock thousands of 
 feet below the surface, near vr.st quantities of water, would 
 disprove the generalization of the perviousnessof rocks,which 
 is one of the best established in geology. Unless, therefore 
 very strong proof to the contrary can be adduced, the con- 
 duction of heat on the Comstock must be considered as tak- 
 ing place in moist rock. 
 
 •irne Lode. — The detailed structure of the upper portion 
 of the lode was minutely and graphically described by Mr. 
 King, and Mr. Church has followed the vein phenomena 
 down to the 2,000-foot level. Below this point only one very 
 small ore-body has been found, and the position of the. vein 
 is marked only by barren quartz or by a mere clay seam. 
 The old upper workings, and many of those visited .by Mr. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 195 
 
 Church, are now wholly inaccessible j and the present writer's 
 task, so far as the mere description of the vein is concerned, 
 is limited to showing what light is thrown on the recorded 
 phenomena by the present investigation. The Comstock 
 from the surface down is a remarkably regular fissure. This 
 is shown by the close correspondence between the contours 
 of the west wall and the lower levels with those of the sur- 
 face near the lode, and when the presence of a large fault is 
 taken into consideration, is also indicated by the closeness 
 with which the east wall follows the west in many parts of 
 the mines. A most important feature near the surface was 
 the existence of the east fissures, or, so called, Virginia 
 vein. This was referred by v. Eichthofen to its proper cause, 
 a fracture through the hanging wall, caused by faulting ; 
 and the present examination has shown how the edge of the 
 east country came to assume a sharp wedge-like form, es- 
 pecially favorably for a formation of a cross fracture. Above 
 the junction of the primary and secondary fissures both 
 were largely occupied with quartz, but while the quartz of 
 the main fissure carried but little metal, concentrations of ore 
 or bonanzas were plentifully distributed through the east 
 fissure. Below the junction of the two the east as well as 
 the west wall became regular in dip, and both have con- 
 tinued so ever since. The secondary fissure and evidences 
 of great fault extend from the lower portion of Gold Hill to 
 the Sierra Nevada mine, as may be seen by reference to Mr. 
 King's sections. Beyond these points the signs become less 
 marked, and the dislocation has been distributed. The true 
 vein is probably to be considered as limited to the contact 
 between diabase and the underlying rocks. To the north of 
 the Union shaft a considerable extent of this contact seems 
 to be still unexplored. The fissure which has been followed 
 on the Sierra Nevada upper levels appears to be wholly in 
 diorites, though a small stringer of diabase also occurs here, 
 and a similar one still further north, in the Utah mine, 
 while the main contact between the diorite and the diabase 
 swings off to the northeast in Union ground. So, too, to the 
 south of the Overman there seem to be two fissures. While 
 the main productive ground has been at or close to the dia- 
 base contact, ore has been found at many other points in the 
 district. The gold quartz mines of Cedar Hill stand in such 
 relation to the Comstock as proves, almost beyond aquestion, 
 that they owe their existence to the same dynamical and 
 chemical phenomena, modified only by the lithological char- 
 acter of their walls. The Occidental lode is evidently re- 
 ferable to the same causes which produced the Comstock, and 
 it is probable that the numerous occurrences of ore on vari- 
 ous contacts in the district (though they have seldom proved 
 remunerative) have the same origin. It is possible that this 
 may even be the case with the east and west veins in horn- 
 blende-andesite (at their croppings) which occur just north 
 of Silver City.- If is the combination of dynamical and 
 lithological conditions, and of the chemical relations de- 
 pendent upon ,the latter, which, taken together, separate 
 what is unanimously conceded to be the Comstock Lode 
 from the other ore-bearing formations of the district. From 
 the surface down, the filling of the vein has consisted es- 
 sentially of more or less metalliferous quartz, with here and 
 there a'little calcite, broken and decomposed rock, and clay. 
 The presence of rock and clay is easily Accounted for when 
 the method of formation of the vein is considered. The 
 great horses near the top were masses broken from the east 
 country, but innumerable smaller fragments must have form- 
 ed at the same time, filling or more or less obstructing the 
 fissure. It is certain that openings formed in this way would 
 have been held open to a greater or less extent, at least 
 within moderate distances below the surface, but it is also 
 certain that a large amount of the rock would have been 
 triturated. When decomposition set in, conversion of the 
 finely-divided rock into clay would have followed. The de- 
 composition of all the fragments, too, would be likely to be 
 more energetic on the fissure than elsewhere, on account of 
 the activity of circulation. It may not be superfluous to 
 repeat here that clays by no means necessarily contain any 
 considerable perceiitage of kaolin. The quartz was found 
 to a very large extent in a highly crushed condition, resemb- 
 ling nothing so much as ordinary commercial salt. Some 
 doubt has been . thrown on the manner in which this fine 
 division has been produced, though it has ordinarily been 
 assumed to be the result of crushing. Samples mounted in 
 
 balsam and examined under the microscope show that the 
 material is composed of fractured crystalline quartz. The 
 edges and points of the spiculseare sharp, and of course the 
 crystalline character is perfectly evident in polarized light, 
 while crystal faces as well as fractures are recognizable. Be- 
 sides crushing, the only action which could have produced 
 this state of division is some internal force such as tension 
 produced by heat. That such is not the cause, however, is 
 demonstrated by the fact that bunches of crystals of con- 
 siderable size often occur, through each individual of which 
 the same crack can be traced, showing a common and an 
 external force. Small vugs must have formerly existed 
 where these crystals occur. Taking into consideration the 
 brittle character of this mineral it can readily be shown that 
 there was force enough available during the dislocation of 
 tlie country to effect its comminution. The eastern bodies 
 are much more generally reduced to " sugar quartz, " as it 
 is commonly called, than the masses which lie near the west 
 wall. This is as would be expected. As has been seen,there 
 is good reason for believing that the decomposition of the 
 east country has not been effected by surface waters. Grant- 
 ing this, it is almost necessary to suppose that at some depth 
 or other there is a zone on the fissure which is closed water- 
 tight ; for were it otherwise the waters ascending from great 
 depths would rise along the open fissure. Even at the levels 
 already reached, the vein is in pla&s only represented by a 
 clay-seam, practically impervious to water, and as the liabi- 
 lity to stoppage will certainly increase with the depth it is by no 
 means an extravagant supposition that further down on some 
 straight Or sinuous line the fissure is impenetrable by water 
 from one end to the other. As the east country is penetrated 
 throughout by capillary fissures, of which those parallel to, 
 the lode probably possess great continuity, the heated waters 
 entering the fissures below the stoppage would rise through 
 the broken east country, but higher up would again tend 
 towards the fissure as offering the path of least resistance. 
 
 The ore-bearing solutions must have taken the same course 
 as those which decomposed the east country rock, and the 
 vein must therefore hare been filled through the east wall, 
 even if the diabase is not regarded as the source of the metals. 
 Had the vein been filled through- the fissure from great 
 depths, " comb-structure " must have been visible in the ore 
 on both walls, for while "comb-structure" may not be in- 
 compatible with lateral secretion, it can hardly be maintained 
 that minerals would crystallize out from ascending solutions 
 otherwise than on the sides of the fissure and on included 
 fragments. This structure is actually visible on the Com- 
 stock, where narrow intervals between rock masses have in- 
 duced such a method of deposition in miniature. On the 
 other hand, a flow of mineralized solutions from the east 
 country into the fissure would be exceedingly apt to inter- 
 fere with the definiteness of the east wall, both mechanically 
 and chemically. In point of fact, as is well known, although 
 the east wall is well defined in some places, it is often ill de- 
 fined and sometimes indistinguishable. At the intersection 
 of the Sutro Tunnel with the Savage claim nothing could be 
 more perfect than the east wall, but this also happens to be 
 the only spot discovered where a considerable mass of diabase 
 exists in an undecomposed condition. Unless, contrary to 
 the conclusions to which this examination has led, a great 
 mass of material has been eroded from the surface since the 
 deposition of the ore, the ore-bearing solutions must have 
 taken an upward course, since remunerative ore was com- 
 paratively well distributed in the first thousand feet of the 
 lode. If precipitation was the result of the decrease of 
 tempera.ture and pressure, the tendency to precipitation 
 must evidently have been greater near the surface. In this 
 connection it is worthy of note that the character of the ores 
 in portions of the croppings differed from that of those found 
 at greater depths, being to a much larger extent galena, 
 blende, and sulphur salte. 
 
 Collectively, the various observations made, if they are 
 correct and the inferences from them sound, throw consider- 
 able light on the history of the lode. After the eruption 
 of the diorite the first event of importance, so far as the vein 
 is concerned, was the outburst of diabase, which involved a 
 rupture and dislocation of the earlier diorite, leaving a 
 smooth contact between the two rocks at an angle of about 
 43°. The contact was afterwards slightly opened to admit 
 the younger diabase, or black dike. Eruptions of earlier 
 
196 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 hornblende -andesite and of augite-andesite afterwards oc- 
 curred, whi^h. probably produced fractures and dislocation 
 in the eastern portion of the diabase, but have left no traces 
 of action on the Comstook fissure. The country was sub- 
 sequently so eroded as to reduce the surface of these four 
 rocks to a gently sloping plane, with an inclination of a little 
 more than two degrees to the west. After the commence- 
 ment of the dry period (dry, that is to say, so far as this 
 region was concerned) a great movement began, which may 
 possibly have been a sinking of the hanging wall, but was 
 more probably a rise of the foot wall. This dislocation in- 
 volved an enormous friction, one result of which was a separ- 
 ation of the foot wall and the hanging wall for a long dis- 
 tance from the fissure into sheets parallel to it. A secondary 
 effect of the same force was to form innumerable cracks in 
 these sheets nearly perpendicular to their partings. The 
 edge of the east country necessarily assumed the form of a 
 wedge, and was broken completely through at a point a few 
 hundred feet below th.at at which the primary fissure reached 
 the surface. The total dislocation amounted to a little less 
 than 3,000* feet, measured on the dip of the fissure ; but the 
 movement was not effected continuously. After the secon- 
 dary east fissure had been opened, large masses of ore-bearing 
 quartz were deposited by alkaline solutions of carbonates, 
 sulphides, and silica flowipg in from the east country. These 
 were subsequently crushed by renewed movements of the 
 walls. The nature of the ore-bearing solutions and of their 
 contents no doubt varied from time to time. It is evident 
 that currents following the same channels would gradually 
 exhaust either the metalliferous minerals exposed to their 
 action or the supply of the necessary alkaline solvent, and 
 that a renewed movement would open up fresh material to 
 attack. Pressure, too, if not temperature, may have varied 
 from time to time. This necessary variation in the process 
 of extraction sufficiently accounts for the great variety in 
 the grade of the ore. Most of the ore-bodies which have 
 hitherto been discovered are situated in the east fissure. 
 From the very nature of the case this opening must have 
 been exceedingly irregular. Above it lay only the shattered 
 edge of the east country, approximately retaining its position 
 only by gravity, while the mass of the east and west country 
 were both in motion. The deposition of ore in this fissure 
 was no doubt dependent upon the disposition of openings, 
 and it appears to the writer a hopeless attempt to reduce to 
 order, either a posteriori or a priori, the openings which may 
 have been left in this fissure at different stages of the fault. 
 In a very general way they would have been more likely to 
 occur opposite ravines than opposite ridges. And in an 
 equally_ general way such was the distribution of the ore- 
 bodies in the east fissure. Two of the most important bo- 
 nanzas have been found below the junction of the east fissure 
 and the lode.' One of them was in the Crown, Point and 
 Belcher, and the other was the famous body of the California 
 and the Consolidated Virginia. The former appears to have 
 been deposited in one of the ordinary lens-shaped openings 
 which so frequently occur in all veins from a slight noncon- 
 formity of the walls. The latter appears to have had a some- 
 what different origin. A pDrtion of the foot wall seems to 
 have given way at this point, carrying a large amount of 
 rock from the hanging wall with it, and the ore has been 
 deposited in the space thus formed. Of course, the space 
 referred to was not actually empty but was filled with frag- 
 ments, leaving considerable interstices between them. These 
 fragments, however, after decomposition, acted as absorbents 
 for the mineralized solutions, and became charged with 
 argentiferous minerals. For the most part (with entire pro- 
 priety) they have been mined and milled as ore. 
 
 No warning can be had of approach from above to a body 
 of this character, because the attendant phenomena will be 
 found below the ore, as in this case ; and such bodies may 
 occur at almost any point on a vein of which the hanging 
 wall is like that of "the Comstook. Openings of a related 
 character, however, may not improbably occur at the bottom 
 of masses of broken and dislocated rock. An enormous 
 volume of such material exists at the contact of the diabase 
 
 * This is distributed both in east and west country. At and near 
 the Sittro Tunnel section, any point on the hanging wall of the fis- 
 sure was originally opposite a point about 1,600 feet higher up on 
 the foot wall, the distance being rasaaurei on the dip. 
 
 and the diorite all the way from the Gould & Curry to the 
 Sierra Nevada; and nothing would be less surprising than 
 the discovery of one or more ore-bodies at the lower portion 
 of this mass. Perhaps the quickest way to reach them, if 
 they exist, would be to sink immediately to the lower portion 
 of the mass, where they are most likely to be found. Atten- 
 dant upon the ore-bodies, and to the east of them, though 
 perhaps somewhat below them, there will probably be areas 
 of the east country more heavily charged with pyrite than 
 usual, as has been the case opposite former bodies. The 
 flooding of the Gold Hill mines during the past winter un- 
 fortunately prevented an examination of their lower levels, 
 and nothing can therefore be said as to their probabilities. 
 
 The Comstock is likely to be an ore-bearing vein as long 
 as it continues to be the contact between a large body of 
 diabase and the older rocks. Should a point be reached at 
 which the diabase contracts to a narrow dike between diorite 
 walls, the prospects will be less hopeful ; but such a point, 
 if it exists, may be many thousands of feet below the 
 present workings. On the Occidental lode scarcely any 
 work was done during the progress of this investigation, 
 and no considerable examination could be made of it. Its 
 croppings are laid down on the map mainly to exhibit their 
 remarkable parallelism to the Comstock, and for the sake of 
 consequent inferences as to the structure of the whole inter- 
 vening country. That the Occidental lode dips to the east 
 at an angle similar to that of the Comstock is certain, but 
 whether the barren stringer cut by the Sutro Tunnel is really 
 the Occiilental lode is perhaps not unquestionable, nor are 
 there any means known to the writer of settling this 
 point until it has been more extensively explored. 
 
 Physical Investig'ations. — It is well known that Fox, 
 Reich, and others made experiments of great interest upon 
 the electrical phenomena of oj-e-bodies. Bernhard von Gotta 
 earnestly recommended* that the experiments should be 
 further pursued, as they seemed to him likely to lead to 
 results of practical importance in the discovery of ore- 
 bodies. If this recommendation has ever been followed out, 
 no account of the investigation has been published. It was 
 the writer's earnest desire to see the subject pursued, and 
 Dr. Barus was invited to join the survey on account of his 
 special fitness for this inquiry. All the plans and details of 
 the electrical survey are due to Dr. Barus, the general scope 
 of the work and the localities only being prescribed ; and a 
 rSsume of his results is given below in his own words. 
 Neither of the localities chosen were the best possible for 
 the purpose. It was evidently necessary in such an inquiry 
 to begin by the examination of the ore-bodies already 
 exposed. At the date of the examination there was very 
 little ore in sight on the Comstock. At the Eureka large 
 bodies of ore were exposed, but being in an oxidized condi- 
 tion would be likely to give weaker currents than sulphides 
 of similar quantity and distribution. These two localities, 
 however, were the only ones practically available, and at 
 thesame time accessible through extensive workings. The 
 results are nevertheless of great interest, and a considerable 
 advance has been made towards a solution. It is one of tho 
 plans for the future to repeat these experiments under more 
 favorable conditions. Dr. Barus also gives a summary of the 
 e.xperiments which he carried out on the subject of kaoli- 
 nization, and which have been sufficiently alluded to in a 
 foregoing paragraph. 
 
 On the Electrical Activity of Ore-Bodies.— The 
 discovery of local electrical currents in metalliferous veins 
 is due to Fox. The remarkable results contained in his 
 original paper (1830) suggested a series of subsequent ex- 
 periments made by Fox himself and Henwood in England, 
 von Strombeck and Reich in Germany. In all of these, 
 however, the results contained refer principally to the cur- 
 rents observed on joining with the prolonged te'rminals of a 
 galvanometer two points lying at diflfercut distances apart 
 on the same or different metalliferous veins. Special mention 
 is due to a second paper of Reich (184-i), insomuch as the 
 author assumes that lode currents are hydroelectric, that 
 contiguous ore-bodies (or different kinds of ore in the same 
 body) and the country rock have the same relation to each 
 other as the metals and licjuid of an ordinary galvanic cell, 
 and that therefore — this is his main point — currents must 
 
 * Erzlagarstaetten, pai't I, p. 203. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 197 
 
 exist in the rock itself. It would follow herefrom that im- 
 portant practical inferences might be drawn from a careful 
 study of the latter, and it was with this conviction that 
 Reich made a number of experiments. Unfortunately he 
 did not pursue his argument into its full consequence. 
 After this, further study of the subject seems to have been 
 altogether abandoned ; at least a published account of an 
 attempt to advance our knowledge in this direction, could 
 not, without some pains be found. We can hardly suppose, 
 however, that during this long interval of upwards of 37 
 years no experiment should have been made. The matter 
 is rather to be ascribed to the necessary non-concordance of 
 interpretations made from purely qualitative results, with 
 facts. 
 
 * ** * » * * »«- * 
 
 The problem offered is not apparently a difficult one, and 
 consists simply in determining the variation of earth-poten- 
 tial at as many points within and in the vicinity of the ore- 
 body as may be desirable; or, in other words, of tracing 
 the equipotential surfaces in their contour and position 
 relative to it. We are, however, able a priori, to systematize 
 the method of research. In the first place, the hypothesis 
 that lode-currents, if present, are due to hydroelectric action 
 is quite a safe and natural one. It is known that a number 
 of ores — especially sulphides — -possess metallic properties. 
 The presence of two or more of these in the same ore-body 
 is not an uncommon occurrence, and we are justified in 
 anticipating electric action at their surfaces of contact. The 
 currents thus generated have a very close analogy to those 
 technically known as " local currents " in batteries, and 
 which are due to impurities in the zinc. 
 
 In the second place, it is obvious that if currents are met 
 with in a region of ore deposits, such currents, insomuch as 
 electrical action has been going on for an indefinite period 
 of time, must be Constant, both in intensity and direction. 
 The equipotentials corresporfding to this flow, will, therefore, 
 have fixed and invariable positions relative to the ore body. 
 Suppose, now, that from a point remote from the ore-body 
 a line has been drawn towards it and prolonged beyond to 
 about the same distance. It is not necessary for the present 
 consideration that this line should actually pierce the de- 
 posit ; only that certain of its parts are sufficiently near ore, 
 and more so than its extreme points, and that it lies wholly 
 within or upon the surface of the earth." Suppose, moreover, 
 that the ores are so associated as to generate electrical cur- 
 rents. If, then, we commence at one end of our line and 
 determine the values of earth-potential at consecutive, 
 approximately equidistant points, it is obvious, insomuch as 
 we pass hy the seat of an electromotive force, or, in other 
 words, through the field of sensible electrical action, that our 
 progress from one extremity of the line to the other must be 
 accompanied by a passage of the values of earth-potential 
 corresponding, through a maximum or minimum, or both, or 
 a number of such characteristic variations. In short, we 
 may regard the earth-potential at any point as a fraction of 
 the distance of this point from the assumed origin of our 
 line. The assertion that this fraction will pass through a 
 characteristic change of the kind specified is only another 
 way of expressing that our line may be chosen so long, that 
 in comparison with its extent, the field of sensible electrical 
 action will be local, or its linear dinaensions in the direction 
 in question small. Maxima in a general sense are, therefore, 
 to be regarded as criteria, and as indicating the part of the 
 line nearest to the electrically active ore-body. This is 
 about the idea underlying the experiments made in the 
 bonanza mines on the Comstock Lode, Nevada, and in 
 those of the Richmond Company, Eureka District, Nevada. 
 Practically, since we possess no means of measuring poten- 
 tial absolutely, it will be sufficient to assume a value (zero) 
 for one of the points of our series. The electromotive force 
 between this and any of the other points is then the poten- 
 tial of the latter. In making the actual measurements, the 
 simple problem above enunciated became quite complicated, 
 because the small lode-electromotive forces were distorted 
 by a number of errors, which in the aggregate might possibly 
 produce an effect in the same order. On the Comstock, 
 where the mines at the time were, without exception, work- 
 ing in very barren parts of the vein, no definite evidence of 
 currents due to the lode itself was obtained. But even at 
 Eureka, in spite of the enormous ore-bodies in sight, the 
 
 range of variation of potential, corresponding to a distance 
 of 2,000 feet, in the underground experiments very rarely 
 reached 0.1 volt ; whereas usually the variation lay within 
 a few hundredths volt. These limits, in a case where we 
 have to do with such disturbances as action between termi- 
 nals, polarization, earth currents (normal), bad insulation of 
 circuit at any point, difference of potential between liquids 
 in contact, incidental effects due to masses of metal — 
 machines, tracks, turn-tables, water and air pipes, etc. — dis- 
 tributed throughout the mine are to be considered as com- 
 prehending a rather dangerously small interval. This matter 
 is to be attributed to the earthy character of the Eureka 
 ores. 
 
 By way of example, the results obtained on the 600-foot 
 level, west drift, Richmond mine, where the circumstances 
 were particularly favorable, will be graphically given. The 
 consecutive points tapped may be regarded as lying on a 
 horizontal straight line, extending in an east-westerly direc- 
 tion. In the following figure, distance .in feet is given as 
 abscissa, the corresponmng value of earth -potential in volts. 
 as ordinate. The line of points lay completely out of the 
 ore-bodies, the latter occupying positions above and to the 
 south of it, at a mean distance of several hundred feet, and 
 extending from east to west about as far as is indicated by 
 the heavy black line below Uie curve. This line of electrical 
 survey passes from shale, probably free from ore, at its 
 westernmost extremity, into limestone, encountering therein 
 a region of electric action to be attributed to the ore-bodies ; 
 but it does not pass through this region, local circumstances 
 preventing. If we pass from west to east on the dotted pro- 
 longation of the heavy black line just mentioned, we shall 
 find ore all along our path and finally get into the immense 
 deposits of the Eureka Consolidated Mining Company. 
 Contact with the earth was secured at the pointe tapped by 
 means of a closed bag of beefgut, containing a solution of 
 zinc sulphate into which a strip of amalgamated zinc, form- 
 ing the terminus of the metallic circuit, had been introduced. 
 The bag during the experiments was placed in a suitable 
 cylindrical hole drilled in the rock and filled with water. 
 These terminals were exchanged twice for each observation. 
 It is to be especially borne in mind that with the exception 
 of the first, in shale, the holes were in solid rock, in lime- 
 stone throughout— a matter which has been indicated by 
 the dotted line above the curve. The results for earth-poten- 
 tial, now to be given, are the means of two independent sets 
 of observations, the second of which was made at an interval 
 of 130 days after the first, and agreed fairly with it. A 
 variety of methods of measurement were employed. 
 
 The irregular progress of curve is not due to such errors 
 as might be supposed to result from the accidental condition 
 of the holes in the rock. It was proved by using suitable 
 terminal (bladders, otherwise like the above), which were 
 allowed merely to recZine against the walls of the drift, that 
 the progress of the values of earth-potential in passing from 
 hole to hole is continuous. It is safe to regard this curve as 
 containing an unknown disturbing effect, superimposed on 
 the larger electrical effect, due to the ore-body itself. In 
 the experiments thus far made the variation of potential 
 along a single line of electric survey only has been deter- 
 mined. It is obvious, however, that in order to derive the 
 full benefits from such a method a number of these surveys 
 must be co-ordinated. We should endeavor by passing 
 toward and from the ore-body, in all directions, actually to 
 determine the contours and position of the equipotential 
 surfaces. It is not improbable that the interpretation of 
 these results would give us clews for the economical exploi- 
 tation of the mine, comparable in value to those of a purely 
 geological character. Both should go hand in hand. Un- 
 der ground, this general method of research is not always 
 feasible, as it presupposes the mine to have been already 
 widely exploited. On the surface of the earth, however, it 
 may to some extent be applied. We here endeavor to ob- 
 tain the traces of the equipotential surface on the former. 
 Suppose, for instance, that the potential at every point of a 
 given part (several square miles) of the earth's surface were 
 known. Then let this surface be projected on a fixed hori- 
 zontal ("X Y") plane, and thef value of earth-potential cor- 
 responding to each of the points be constructed as "Z." In 
 this way_ we will obtain a new {potential] surface, coexten- 
 sive horizontally with the first. Terrestrial electrical action 
 
198 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
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THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 199 
 
 would manifest itself upon our new surface as a whole and 
 would not affect its regularity. Local action, on the other 
 hand, would produce an effect local and circumscribed in 
 comparison with the horizontal extent of the area under con- 
 sideration. We should expect to find a hillock or depression, 
 or both, or a number of these variegations in our imaginary 
 potential surface. The experiments made cannot be said to 
 nave settled the question as to whether lode currents will or 
 will not be of practical assistance to the prospector. Indeed, 
 we cannot as yet even assert with full assurance that the 
 currents obtained are due to the ore-bodies. We have simply 
 observed a local electrical effect, sufficiently coincident in 
 position with the ore-bodies themselves to warrant us to 
 some extent in assuming that these contained the cause. 
 They certainly, however, give high encouragement to fur- 
 ther research in this direction. 
 
 On the Thennal Effect of Kaolinization.— Mr. 
 Church has endeavored to account for the heat of the CoM- 
 STOCK Lode by assuming a thermal effect of kaolinization. 
 This view is new and ingenious, but unfortunately purely 
 speculative ; for while, on the one hand, there is no direct 
 evidence to support it, we haye, on the other, to do with a 
 process so complicated, so little understood, that there is 
 abundant room for difference of opinion. To avoid am- 
 and vagueness. 
 
 it will be well to give 
 a quantitative significa- 
 tion to the effect in ques- 
 tion at the outstart. We 
 will define the thermal 
 effect of kaolinization 
 (abbreviated T. E. K.) 
 as the quantity of heat 
 generated by the action 
 of aqueous vapor on the 
 unit mass of the given 
 feldspathic rock in the 
 unit time. With this 
 understanding, T. E. K. 
 is then to be considered 
 as a function of the per- 
 centage quantity of feld- 
 spar originally contain- 
 ed in, and the tempera- 
 ture of the given rock, 
 as well as of the time ^ 
 during which the action ~s" 
 has been going on. A 
 priori, T. E. K. may be 
 either positive, zero, or 
 negative. The above the- 
 ory having been enun- 
 ciated in connection 
 with the heat of the 
 CoMSTOCK, it became 
 necessary to endeavor 
 to see in how far its fun- 
 damental principle [i. «., 
 T.E. K.positive) was 
 in agreement with 
 facts. In the second 
 place however, such 
 a research was desi- 
 rable because of the 
 intrinsic interest which 
 attaches to it. Consider- 
 ed from a physical point 
 of view, the question is 
 quite a difficult one, and 
 of a kind in which satis- 
 factory results can only be reached by a process of gradual 
 and laborious approximation. As T. E. K. will probably, 
 even in the final experiments, escape detection, the pro- 
 blem may be more accurately said to consist in reducing 
 the limits (respectively positive and negative) within 
 which T. E. K. must lie to the smallest interval possible. 
 Under all circumstances a mathematical analysis, based on 
 some rational assumption of the dependence of T. E._ K., for 
 'Si'giV'en rock, on time and ^temperature, and utilizing the 
 limits just mentioned, will be the fast resort.' Ovtt object, 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 T 
 
 k 
 
 V^ 
 
 
 therefore, in making the qualitative experiments, briefly to 
 be reviewed herewith, was more that of obtaining a precur- 
 sory view of the difficulties which present themselves in 
 actual practice than that of obtaining results of a decisive 
 character. In processes of the kind before us, the action 
 may usually be accelerated by increasing the temperature at 
 which it takes place ; provided, of course, the latter is not 
 chosen so high as to interfere with the products of decompo- 
 sition resulting in a normal case. The idea was, therefore, 
 to act on the rock with steam at a temperature from the 
 boiling point of water upward. But, with the primitive 
 facilities at our disposal in Nevada, the experiments with 
 superheated steam had to be abandoned. The apparatus in 
 which the rock was subjected to the action of steam (Fig. 
 25) so closely resembles that usually employed for the de- 
 termination of the " boiling point " of thermometers that 
 but a brief description will be necessary. 
 
 Steam is generated in the interior conical compartment 
 tdoeu, the lid doe of which is removable from water to the 
 level mn, and passes through the hole o into the exterior 
 compartment /aft/''', jacketing the former, thence through the 
 tubulures f and/' into the air. The lid ab can also be 
 removed. The whole boiler is, moreover, covered with a 
 thick (|-1) layer of cotton batting. In the interior com- 
 partment, finally, the 
 cylindrical receptacle 
 for the rock hk, open at 
 its top, having a pro- 
 perly strengthened wire 
 gauze bottom, and sup- 
 ported on a suitable tri- 
 pod (not shown), is sit- 
 uated. 
 
 The rock to be acted 
 on was crushed fine and 
 packed into hk tightly, 
 so that the atmosphere 
 of steam enveloping it 
 could reach the interior 
 by a process of diffusion 
 only, and that convec- 
 tive action from currents 
 of steam passing through 
 hk was not to be appre- 
 hended. The object was, 
 in short, to allow the 
 heat, possibly generated 
 in the mass of rock in 
 consequence of kaolini- 
 zation, to accumulate. 
 The difference of tem- 
 perature between ' the 
 interior of the rock and 
 that of the steam sur- 
 rounding it was deter- 
 mined by the aid of a 
 thennopi\e,p qr (termi- 
 nals omitted), consisting 
 of three bismuth-plati- 
 num couples. The in- 
 fluence of fluctuations 
 of the barometer — the 
 increment of tempera- 
 ture of the junction r, 
 in consequence, lagging 
 behind that of p — may, 
 in a long series of ex- 
 periments (number of 
 weeks), be eliminated 
 mathematically. If a 
 and b are constants, e the thermoelectromotive force cor- 
 responding to the temperatures T and t of the junctions r 
 and p, respectively, we may put 
 
 4. — Boiler used in kaolinizing. 
 
 T—t= 
 
 a+b(T+t) a+2bt' 
 
 since b is very small ; t is calculable with sufficient ap- 
 proximation from the mean barometric height during tne 
 
200 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 interval in which the experiments are made. Usually 2 bt 
 is negligible (correction) : e was measured by a method of 
 compensation; a and b frequently rechecked; but it is un- 
 desirable to go into the diverse details necessary in measure- 
 ments of this kind here. The whole enabled the observer 
 still to detect a variation of T—t as small as 0.001° C. The 
 boiler was heated by two petroleum stoves (each containing 
 two broad wicks), which could be replenished with oil, etc., 
 without interfering to an appreciable extent with the flames. 
 The water lost by evaporation was re-fed into the apparatus, 
 drop by drop, through the tube cs, by means of a pneumatic 
 arrangement (not shown) placed on the lid ab, A vertical 
 glass tube, gg, the ends of which were in communication 
 with the water and steam, respectively, of the interior com- 
 partment, indicated the height of the water-level. The 
 whole aim was to make the process a continuous one, and 
 had it not been for accidents the nearly constant source ol 
 heat and nearly constant water-level would have enabled us 
 to keep up an ebullition of nearly constant intensity for an 
 indefinite period of time. The rock used was earlier diabase 
 from the hanging wall of the Lode collected in the main 
 Sutro Tunnel. It had Undergone only a trifling amount of 
 decomposition. The experiments were continued during an 
 interval of nearly _;5«e weeks, unfortunately with an accident 
 between the first and second, and another between the 
 second and third. On the average, three observations of 
 T—t were made during each twenty-four hours. 
 
 In order to derive a comprehensive view over the large 
 number of data obtained it will be sufficient to assume the 
 empirical relation, 
 
 T—t=a^-px 
 
 where a and /J are constants to be calculated by the method 
 of least squares, ;f the time in hours corresponding to any 
 particular T — t, and dated from the commencement of the 
 series of experiments to which the results belong. Under 
 variation of a, an apparent thermal effect not due to kaolin- 
 ization may be conveniently understood. For a a mean 
 value of — 0.05° C was found. The interior of the rock was, 
 therefore, invariably colder than the surrounding steam. It 
 follows, also, that it is impossible, even after the lapse of a 
 great interval of time, to heat so large a mass of material to 
 an equal temperature throughout. The variation of a will 
 add itself algebraically to /?; and unless the T. E. K. pro- 
 duces a comparatively large result, will entirely vitiate the 
 signification of the latter constant. y8 gives us nominally 
 the rate of increase of the temperature of the interior of the 
 rock in consequence of a T. E. K. Instead of reporting ft 
 however, it will be more perspicuous to give the correspond- 
 ing rate B referred to a year as the unit, viz : 
 
 5=3766/3. 
 
 For reasons which will appear in the report, the experi- 
 mental material may be conveniently divided into two 
 halves. In the first of these was found, 
 
 in the second. 
 
 5=-t-l°.5d=0°.l, 
 B=— 0°.9±0°.l. 
 
 Herefrom it appears that the variation of a alone was ob- 
 served. The values of B are to be regarded as an index of 
 the errors incident to the method in its present form, and it 
 is moreover probable that the effect of kaolinization is 
 negligible in comparison therewith. The limits set for the 
 present article preclude a discussion of this abnormal be- 
 havior of B. It may be well to add, however, that the ex- 
 periments made have suggested the following mode of 
 attacking the question: A and B (Fig. 5) are two strong 
 hermetically sealed receivers of metal similar in every re- 
 spect and capable of withstanding great internal pressures. 
 With the exception of the cavities a and /3 below, both are 
 completely filled with the same quantity of finely pulverized 
 feldspar, this material being tightly packed. Into a a little 
 water has been introduced, so that the whole space A is at 
 all temperatures thoroughly permeated with aqueous vapor. 
 B, on the contrary, has before sealing been well dried, and 
 the interstices between the granules of feldspar contain dry 
 
 air only. A and B are placed in an appropriately jacketed 
 elongated receiver, TTT, through which vapor at the boiling 
 point of the liquid corresponding continually circulates. 
 
 A thermoelement can hardly be used with advantage 
 here, as the couple chosen would either be insufficiently 
 sensitive, or else give rise to too many experimental compli- 
 cations. A resistance thermometer* has therefore been 
 substituted. The bridge adjustment, diagrammatically 
 added, explains itself. 
 
 Fig. 5 — Proposed apparatus for experiments on kaolinization. 
 
 The wire, ab, (for interpolation) had best be wrapped, 
 after the ingenious manner of Kohlrausch, on a correspond- 
 ingly grooved cylinder of serpentine, whence it projects 
 outward much like the threads of a screw. In this way the 
 apparatus becomes more compendious, and the whole may 
 be easily so modified as to admit of complete submersion in 
 an oil bath. B and iJ^ are adjusted so as to correspond to 
 the approximately equal resistance (fine platinum wire) in 
 A and B, and the whole problem is reduced to a measure- 
 ment of lengths, etc. 
 
 The method just described is advantageous in the follow- 
 ing respects : 
 
 1. Both electric thermometers (respectively junctions of 
 the thormoeleinent) are placed and heated under circum- 
 stances as nearly identical as practicable. 
 
 2. The thermometer i3 in very intimate contact with the 
 pulverized feldspar. 
 
 3. T. E. K. may be studied in its relation to temperature. 
 ( Confer remarks above. ) To this effect, the region TTT\% 
 to be heated consecutively with steam (100°C.), aniline 
 vapor, 185°, etc. 
 
 4. A disposition by which COi may be allowed to act on 
 the rock simultaneously with aqueous vapor is easily made. 
 
 5. Although a change of mechanical state (" after 
 action") of the spirals in A and .8 is of more serious conse- 
 quence here, than in the case of a thermoelement, we have 
 on the other hand the_ advantage of being able to examine 
 each of them electrically, while the experiment is in 
 progress. 
 
 —Cnminhd from a pafer hy Gcorr;e F. Bcclcr. Report of V. S. Gcoloqical 
 Survey, 1881. " 
 
 » Confer remarkable results of Prof. S. P. Langley, Beibl 3 1881 
 p. 191 ; Chem. News, 43, 1881, p. 6 & 7 ; Am. Journal, March, 1881, p! 
 187. The problem which Professor Langley proposed to himself 
 is, however, somewhat different from the one occurring here. It 
 will be remembered, moreover, that the difficultv encountered in 
 the present case is more that of obtaining a su&cicutly constant 
 temperature, than of measuring the same. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 201 
 
 THE ORIGIN OF METALLIFEROUS 
 DEPOSITS. 
 
 THERE are about sixty bodies which chemists call 
 elements; the simplest forms of matter which they 
 have been able to extract from the rooky crust of 
 our earth, its waters, and its atmosphere. These sub- 
 stances are distributed in very unequal quantities, and in 
 very different manners. As regards the frequency of these 
 elements in nature, neglecting for the present those which 
 constitute air and water, and confining ourselves to the solid 
 matters of the earth's crust, there are a few which are ex- 
 ceedingly abundant, making up nine-tenths, if not ninety- 
 five hundredths, of the rocks so far as known to us. The 
 elements of which silica, alumina, lime, magnesia, potash, 
 and soda are oxides, are very common, and occur almost 
 everywhere. There are others which are much rarer, being 
 found in comparatively small quantities. Many of these 
 rarer elements are, however, of great importance in the 
 economy of nature. Such are the common metals and other 
 substances used in the arts, which occur in nature in quan- 
 tities relatively very minute, but which have been collected 
 by various agencies, and thus made available for the wants 
 of man. It is chiefly of the well-known metals, iron, copper, 
 silver, and gold, that I propose to speak here; but there 
 are two other elements not classed among the metals, which 
 I shall notice for the reason that their history is extremely 
 important, and will, moreover, enable us to comprehend 
 more clearly some points in that of the metals themselves. 
 I speak of phosphorus and iodine. 
 
 You all know the essential part which the former of these, 
 combined as phosphate of lime, plays in the animal econ- 
 omy, in the formation of bones; and how plants require for 
 their proper growth and development a certain amount of 
 phosphorus. Ordinary soils contain only a few thousandths 
 of this element, yet there are agencies at work in nature 
 which gather this diffused phosphorus together in beds of 
 mineral phosphates and in veins of crystalline apatite, 
 which are now sought to enrich impoverished soils. Iodine, 
 an element of great value in m-edicine and in the art of 
 photography, is widely distributed, but still rarer than 
 phosphorus, yet it abounds in certain mineral waters, and is, 
 moreover, accumulated in marine plants. These extract it 
 from the waters of th"e sea, where iodine exists in such mi- 
 nute quantities as almost to elude our chemical tests. 
 
 There are probably no pei-fect separations in nature. We 
 cannot, without great precautions, get any chemical element 
 in a state of absolute purity, and we have reason to believe 
 that even the rarest elements are everywhere diffused in 
 infinitesimal quantities. The spectroscope, which we have 
 lately learned to apply to the investigation alike of the 
 chemistry of our own earth and that of other worlds once 
 supposed to be beyond the chemist's ken, not only demon- 
 strates the very wide diffusion of various chemical elements 
 here on earth, but shows us that very many of them exist in 
 the sun. If we accept, as most of us are now inclined to do, 
 the nebular hypothesis, and admit that our earth was once, 
 like the sun of to-day, an intensely heated vaporous mass ; 
 that it is, in fact, a cooled and condensed portion of that 
 once great nebula of which the sun is also a part, we might 
 expect to find all the elements now discovered in the sun 
 distributed throughout this consolidated globe. We may 
 speculate about the condensation of some of these before 
 others, and their consequent accumulation in the inner parts 
 of the earth, but the fact that we have all the elements of 
 the solar envelope (together with many more) in the exterior 
 portions of our planet, shows that there was, at least, but a 
 very partial concentration and separation of these elements 
 during the period of cooling and condensation. The super- 
 ficial crust of the earth, from which all the rocks and min- 
 erals which we know have been generated, must have con- 
 tained, diffused through it, from the earliest time, all the 
 elements which we now meet with in our study of the earth, 
 whether still diffused, or accumulated, as we often find the 
 rarer elements, in particular veins or beds. 
 
 The question now before us is, how have these elements 
 thus been brought together, and why is it that they are not 
 all still widely and universally diffused? Why are the com- 
 pounds of iron in beds by themselves, copper, silver, and 
 
 gold gathered together in veins, and iodine concentrated in 
 a few ores and certain mineral waters? That we may the 
 better discern the direction in which we are to look for the 
 solution of this problem, let us premise that all of these ele- 
 ments, in some of their combinations, are more or less solu- 
 ble in water. There are, in fact, no such things in nature 
 as absolutely insoluble bodies, but all, under certain condi- 
 tions, are capable of being taken up by the water, and again 
 deposited from it. The alchemists sought in vain for a uni- 
 versal solvent, but we now know that water, aided in some 
 cases by heat, pressure, and the presence of certain widely 
 distributed substances, such as carbonic acid and alkaline 
 carbonates and sulphides, will dissolve the most insoluble 
 bodies ; so that it may after all be looked upon as the long- 
 sought-for alkahest or universal menstruum. 
 
 Let us now compare the waters of rivers, seas, and subter- 
 ranean springs, thus impregnated with various chemical 
 elements, with the blood which circulates through our own 
 bodies. The analysis of the blood shows it to contain al- 
 buminoids which go to form muscle, fat for the adipose tis- 
 sues, phosphate of lime for the bones, fluorides for the en- 
 amel of the teeth, sulphur which enters largely into the 
 composition of the hair and nails, soda which accumulates 
 in the bile, and potash, which abounds in the flesh-fluid. 
 All of these are dissolved in the blood, and the great 
 problem for the chemical physiologist is to determine 
 how the living organism gathers them from this complex 
 fluid, depositing them here and there, and giving to each 
 part its proper material. This selection is generally ascrib- 
 ed to a certain vital force, peculiar to the living body. I 
 shall not here discuss the vexed question of the nature of 
 the force which determines the assimilation from the blood 
 of these various matters for the needs of the animal organism 
 further than to say that modern investigations tend to show 
 that it is only a subtler kind of chemistry, and that the study 
 of the nature and relation of colloids and crystalloids, and 
 of the phenomena of chemical diffusion, promises to subor- 
 dinate all these obscure physiological processes to chemical 
 and physical laws. 
 
 Let us now see how far the comparison which we have 
 made between the earth and an animal organism will help 
 us to understand the problem of the distribution of miner- 
 als in nature ; how far water, the universal solvent, acting 
 in accordance with known chemical and physical laws, 
 will cause the separation of the mixed elements of the 
 earth's crust, and their accumulation in veins and beds in 
 the rocks. The subject is one of great importance to the 
 geologist, who has to consider the genesis of the various 
 rocks and ore-deposits, and the relations, which we are only 
 beginning to understand, between certain metals and par- 
 ticular rocks, and between certain classes of ores and pecu- 
 liar mineralogical and geological conditions. It is at the 
 same time a vast one, and I can here only give you a 
 few illustrations of the earth's crust, and of the laws of the 
 terrestrial circulation, which I have compared to that of the 
 blood distributing throughout the animal frame the elements 
 necessary for its growth. The analogy is not altogether 
 new, since a great French geologist, Elie de Beaumont, has 
 already spoken of a terrestrial circulation in regard to cer- 
 tain elements in the earth's crust; though he has not, so far 
 as I am aware, carried it out to the extent which I propose 
 here in my attempt to explain some of the laws which 
 have presided over the distribution of metals in the earth. 
 
 The chemist in his laboratory takes advantage of changes 
 of temperature, and of the action of various solvents and 
 precipitants, to separate in the humid way, one element from 
 another ; but to these agencies, in the economy of nature, 
 are added others which we have not yet succeeded in imita- 
 ting, and which are exerted only in growing animals and 
 plants. I repeat it, I do not wish to say that these latter pro- 
 cesses are different in kind from those which we command 
 in our laboratories, but rather that these organisms control 
 a far finer and more delicate chemical and physical appara- 
 tus than we have yet invented. Plants have the power of 
 selecting from the media in which they live the elements 
 necessary for their support. The growing oak and the grass 
 alike assimilate from the air and water the carbon, hydro- 
 gen, nitrogen, and oxygen which build up their tissues, and 
 at the same time take from the soil a portion of phosphorus, 
 which, though minute, is in both cases essential to the vege>- 
 
202 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 table growth. The acorn of the oak and the grass alike be- 
 come the food of animals, and the gathered phosphates pass 
 into their bones, which are nearly pure phosphate of 
 lime. In like manner the phosphates from organic waste 
 and decay find their way to the sea, and through the agency 
 of marine vegetation become at last the bony skeleton of 
 fishes. These are, in turn, the prey of carnivorous birds, 
 whose exuvias form on tropical islands beds of phosphatic 
 guano. A history not dissimilar will explain the origin of 
 beds of coprolites and other deposits of mineral phosphates. 
 But again, these plants or these animals may perish in the 
 sea and be buried in its ooze. The phosphates which they 
 have gathered are not lost, bnt become fixed in an insolu- 
 ble form in the clayey matter ; and when in the revolutions 
 of ages, these sea-muds, hardened to rook, become dry land, 
 and crumble again to soil, the phosphates are there found 
 ready for the wants of vegetation. 
 
 Most of what I have said of phosphates applies equally 
 to the salts of potash, which are not less necessary to the 
 growing plant. From the operation of these laws it results 
 that neither of these elements is found in large quantities in 
 the ocean. This great receptacle of the drainage from the 
 land contains still smaller quantities of iodine ; in fact, the 
 traces of this element present in sea-water can scarcely be 
 detected by our most delicate tests. Yet marine plants have 
 the power of separating this iodine, and accumulating it in 
 their tissues, so that the ashes of these plants are not only 
 rich in phosphates and in potash-salts, but contain so much 
 iodine that our supplies of this precious element are almost 
 wholly derived from this source, and that the gathering and 
 burning of sea-weed for the extraction of iodine is in some 
 regions an important industry. When this marine vegetation 
 decays, the iodine which it contains, appears, like the potash 
 and phosphates, to pass into combinations with metals, 
 earths, or earthy phosphates, which retain it in an insoluble 
 state, and in certain cases yield it to percolating saline solu- 
 tions, which thus give rise to springs rich in iodine. 
 
 In all of these processes the action of organic life is direct 
 and assimilative, but there are others in which its agency, 
 although indirect, is not less important. I can hardly con- 
 ceive of an accumulation of iron, copper, lead, silver, or gold, 
 in the production of which animal or vegetable life has not 
 either directly or indirectly been necessary, and I shall begin 
 to explain my meaning by the case of iron. This, you are 
 aware, is one of the most widely difiused elements in nature ; 
 all soils, all plants contain it ; and it is a necessary element 
 in our blood. Clays and loams contain, however, at best, 
 two or three hundredths of the metal, but so mixed with 
 other matters that we could never make it available for the 
 wants of this iron age of ours. How does it happen that 
 we also find it gathered together in great beds of ore, which 
 furnish an abundant supply of the metal ? The chemist 
 knows that the iron, as diffused in the rocks, exists chiefly 
 in combination witli oxygen, with which it forms two prin- 
 cipal compounds: the first, or protoxide, which is readily 
 soluble in water impregnated with carbonic acid or other 
 feeble acids, and the second, or peroxide, which is insoluble 
 in the same liquids. I do not here speak of the magnetic 
 oxide, which may be looked upon as a compound of the 
 other two, neutral and indifferent to most natural chemical 
 agencies. The combinations of the first oxide are either 
 colorless or bluish or greenish in tint, while the peroxide is 
 reddish-brown, and is the substance known as iron-rust. 
 Ordinary brick-clays are bluish in color, and contain com- 
 bined iron in the state of protoxide, but when burned in a 
 kiln they become reddish, because this oxide absorbs from 
 the air a further proportion of oxygen, and is converted in- 
 to peroxide. But there are clays which are white when 
 burned, and are much prized for this reason. Many of these 
 were once ferruginous clays, which have lost their iron by a 
 process everywhere going on around us. If we dig a ditch 
 in a moist soil which is covered with turf or with decaying 
 vegetation, we may observe that the stagnant water which 
 collects at the bottom soon becomes coated with a shining, 
 iridescent scum, which looks somewhat like oil, but is really 
 a compound of peroxide of iron. The water as it oozes from 
 the soil is colorless but has an inky taste from dissolved 
 protoxide of iron. When exposed to the air, however, this 
 absorbs oxygen, and peroxide is formed, which is no longer 
 soluble, but separates as a film on the surface of the water, 
 
 and finally sinks to the bottom as a reddish ochre, or, under 
 somewhat different conditions, becomes aggregated as a mas- 
 sive iron ore. A process identical in kind with this has been 
 at work at the earth's surface ever since there were decaying 
 organic matters, dissolving the iron from the porous rocks, 
 clays, and sands, and gathering it together in beds of iron 
 ore or iron ochre. It is not necessary that these rocks and 
 soils should contain the iron in the state of protoxide, since 
 these organic products (which are themselves dissolved in 
 the water) are able to remove a portion of the oxygen from 
 the insoluble peroxide, and convert it into the soluble pro-, 
 toxide of iron, being themselves in part oxidized and con- 
 verted into carbonic acid in the process. 
 
 We find in rock formations of very different ages beds of 
 sediments which have been deprived of iron by organic 
 agencies, and near them will generally be found the ac- 
 cumulated iron. Go into any coal region, and you will see 
 evidences that this process was at work when the coal-beds 
 were forming. The soil in which the coal-plants grew has 
 been deprived of its iron, and when burned turns white, as 
 do most of the slaty beds from the coal-rocks. It is this 
 ancient soil which constitutes the so-called fire-clays, prized 
 for making fire-bricks, which, from the absence of both iron 
 and alkalies, are very infusible. Interstratified with these 
 we often find, in the form of ironstone, the separated metal ; 
 and thus from the same series of rocks may be obtained the 
 fuel, the ore, and the fire-clay. 
 
 From what I have said it will be understood that great 
 deposits of iron ore generally occur in the shape of beds ; 
 although waters holding the compounds of iron in solution 
 have, in some cases, deposited them in fissures or openings 
 in the rocks, thus forming true veins of ore, of which we 
 shall speak further on. I wish now to insist upon the pro- 
 perty which dead and decaying organic matters possess of 
 reducing to protoxide, and rendering soluble, the insoluble 
 peroxide of iron diffused through the rocks ; and reciprocally 
 the power which this peroxide has of oxidizing and con- 
 suming these same organic matters, which are thereby finally 
 converted into carbonic acid and water. This last action, 
 let me say in passing, is illustrated by the destructive 
 action of rusting iron fastenings on moist wood, and the 
 effect of iron-stains in impairing the strength of linen fibre. 
 We see in the coal formation that the vegetable matter 
 necessary for the production of the iron-ore beds was not 
 wanting; but the question has been asked me, where are the 
 evidences of the organic material which was required to 
 produce the vast beds of iron ore found in the ancient 
 crystalline rocks? I answer, that the organic matter was, in 
 most cases, entirely consumed in producing these great 
 results; and that it was the large proportion of iron diffused 
 in the soils and waters of those early times, which not only 
 rendered possible the accumulation of such great beds of 
 ore, but oxidized and destroyed the organic matters which 
 in later ages appear in coals, lignites, pyroscbists, and bitu- 
 mens. Some of the carbon of these early times is, however, 
 still preserved in the form of graphite, and it would be 
 possible to calculate how much carbonaceous material was 
 consumed in the formation of the great iron-ore beds of the 
 older rocks, and to determine of how much coal or lignite 
 they are the equivalents. 
 
 In the course of ages, however, as a large proportion of 
 the once diffused iron-oxide has become segregated in the 
 form of beds of ore, and thus removed from the terrestrial cir- 
 culation, the conditions have grown more favorable for the 
 preservation of the carbonaceous products of vegetable life. 
 The crystalline magnetic and specular oxides, which con- 
 stitute a large proportion of the ores of this metal, are almost 
 or altogether indifferent to the action of organic matter. 
 When, however, these ores are reduced in our furnaces, and 
 the resulting metal is exposed to the oxidizing action of a 
 moist atmosphere, it is again converted into iron-rust, which 
 is soluble in \vater holding organic matters, and may thus be 
 made to enter once more into the terrestrial circulation. 
 There is another form in which iron is frequently concen- 
 trated in nature, that of sulphide, and most frequently as 
 the bis\ilphide, known as iron-pyrites. This substance is 
 found both in the oldest and newest rocks, and, like the 
 oxide of iron, is even to-day forming in certain waters, and 
 in beds of mud and silt, where it sometimes takes a beauti- 
 fully crystalline shape. What are the conditions in which 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 203 
 
 the sulphide of iron is formed and deposited, instead of the 
 oxide or carbonate of iron? Its production depends, like 
 these on decaying organic matters. The sulphates of lime 
 and magnesia, which abound in sea-water, and in many 
 other natural waters, when exposed to the action of decaying 
 plants or animals, out of contact of air, are like peroxide of 
 iron, deoxidized, and are thereby converted into soluble sul- 
 
 E hides ; from which, if carbonic acid be present, sulphuretted 
 ydrogen gas is set free. Such soluble sulphides, or sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen, are the reagents constantly employed 
 in our laboratories to convert the soluble compounds of many 
 of the common metals, such as iron, zinc, lead, copper, and 
 silver, into sulphides, which are insoluble in water and in 
 many acids, and are thus conveniently separated from a 
 great many other bodies. Now, when in a water holding 
 iron oxide, sulphates are also present, and the action of 
 organic matter, deoxidizing the latter, furnishes the reagent 
 necessary to convert the iron into a sulphide ; which in 
 some conditions, not well understood, contains two equiv- 
 alents of sulphur for one of iron, and constitutes iron-pyrites. 
 I may here say that I have found that the unstable proto- 
 sulphide, which would naturally be iirst formed, may, under 
 the influence of a persalt of iron, lose one-half of its com- 
 bined iron ; and that from this reaction a stable bisulphide 
 results. This subject of the origin of iron-pyrites is still 
 under investigation. The reducing action of organic matters 
 upon soluble sulphates is well seen in the sulphuretted hy- 
 drogen which is evolved from the stagnant sea-water in the 
 hold of a ship, and which coats silver exposed to it with 
 a black film of sulphide of silver, and for the same reason 
 discolors white-lead paint. The presence of sulphur in the 
 exhalations from some other decaying matters is well known, 
 and in all these cases a soluble compound of iron will act as 
 a disinfectant, partly by fixing the sulphur as an insoluble 
 sulphide. Silver coins brought from the ancient wreck of a 
 treasure-ship in the Spanish Main were found to be deeply 
 incrusted with sulphide of silver, formed in the ocean's 
 depths by the process just explained, which is one that must 
 go on wherever organic matters and sea-water are present, 
 and atmospheric oxygen excluded. 
 
 The chemical history of iron is peculiar ; since it requires 
 reducing matters t(5 bring it into solution, and since it may 
 be precipitated alike by oxidation, and by farther reduc- 
 tion, provided sulphates are present. The metals, copper, 
 lead, and silver, on the contrary, form compounds more or 
 less soluble in water, from which they are not precipitated 
 by oxygen, but only by reducing agents, which may sepa- 
 rate them in some cases in a metallic state, but more fre- 
 quently as sulphides. The solubility of the salts and oxides 
 of these metals in water is such that they are found in 
 many mineral springs, in the waters that flow from certain 
 mines, and in the ocean itself, the waters of which have 
 been found to contain copper, silver, and lead. Why, then, 
 do not these metals accumulate in the sea, as the salts of 
 soda have done during long ages ? The direct agency of 
 organic life comes again into play, precisely as in the case 
 of phosphorus, iodine, and potash. Marine plants, which 
 absorb these from the sea-water, take up at the same time 
 ■the metals just named, traces of all of which are found in 
 the ashes of siea-weeds. Copper, moreover, is met with in 
 notable quantities in the blood of many marine molluscous 
 animals, to which it may be as necessary as iron is to our 
 own bodies. Indeed, the blood of man, and of the higher 
 animals, appears never to be without traces of copper as 
 well as of iron. In the open ocean the waters are constantly 
 aerated, so that soluble sulphides are never formed, and the 
 only way in which these dissolved metals can be removed and 
 converted into sulphides is by fixing them in organisms, 
 either vegetable or animal. These, by their decay in the mud 
 of the bottom, or the lagoons of the shore, generate the sul- 
 phides which fix their contained metals in an insoluble 
 form, and thus remove them from the terrestrial cir- 
 culation. It is not, however, in all cases necessary to invoke 
 the direct action of organisms to separate from water the dis- 
 solved metals. It often happens that the waters containing 
 these, instead of finding their way to the ocean, flow into 
 lakes or inclosed basins, as in the case of the drainage 
 waters of an English copper mine, which have impregnated 
 the turf of a neighboring bog to such an extent that its 
 ashes have been found a profitable source of copper. Under 
 
 certain conditions, not yet well understood, this metal is 
 precipitated by organic matters in the metallic state, but if 
 sulphates are present a sulphide is formed. Thus, in certain 
 mesozoic schists in Bohemia, sulphide of copper is found 
 incrusting the remains of fishes and in the sandstones of 
 New Jersey we find it penetrating the stems of ancient 
 trees. I have in my possession a portion of a small trunk, 
 taken from the mud of a spring in Ontario, in which the 
 yet undecayed wood of the centre is seen to be incrusted by 
 hard metallic iron-pyrites. In like manner the old trees of 
 the New Jersey sandstone became incrusted with copper- 
 sulphide, which, as decay went on, in great part replaced 
 the woody tissue. Similar deposits of sulphides of copper 
 and of iron often took place in basins where the organic 
 matter was present in such a condition or in such quantity 
 as to be entirely decomposed, and to leave no trace of its 
 form, unlike the examples just mentioned. In this way 
 have been formed fahl-bands, and beds of pyrites and 
 other ores. The fact that such deposits are associated with 
 silver and with gold leads to the conclusion that these 
 metals have obeyed the same laws as iron and copper. It 
 is known that both persalts of iron and soluble sulphides 
 have the power of rendering gold soluble, and its subsequent 
 deposition in the metallic state is then easily understood. 
 
 I have endeavored by a few illustrations to show you by 
 what processes some of the more common metals are dis- 
 solved and again separated from their solution in insoluble 
 forms. It now remains to say something of the geological 
 relations of ore deposits, which are naturally divided into 
 two classes ; the first including those which occur in beds, 
 and have been formed contemporaneously with the inclosed 
 earthy sediments. Such are the beds of iron ores, which 
 often hold imbedded shells and other organic remains, and 
 the copper-bearing strata, already mentioned, in which the 
 metal must have been deposited during the decay of the 
 animal or plant which it incrusts or replaces. But there 
 are other ore deposits, evidently of more recent formation 
 than the rocky strata which inclose them, which have 
 resulted from a process of infiltration, filling up fissures 
 with the ore, or diffusing it irregularly through the rock. 
 It is not always easy to distinguish between the two classes 
 of deposits. Thus a fissure may in some cases be formed 
 and filled between two sundered beds, from which may 
 result a vein that may be mistaken for an interposed stra- 
 tum. Again, a bed may be so porous that infiltrating 
 waters may diffuse through it a metallic ore or a metal, in 
 such a manner as to leave it doubtful whether the process 
 was contemporaneous with the disposition .of the bed, or 
 posterior to it. But I wish to speak of deposits which are 
 evidently j)osterior, and occupy fissures in previously formed 
 strata, constituting true veins. Whether produced by the 
 great movements of the earth's crust, or by the local con- 
 traction of the rocks (and both of these causes have in dif- 
 ferent cases been in operation), such fissures sometimes 
 extend to great lengths and depths ; their arrangement and 
 dimensions depending very much on the texture of the 
 rocks which have been subject to fracture. When a bone 
 in our bodies is broken, nature goes to work to repair the 
 fractured part, and gradually brings to it bony matter, which 
 fills up the little interval, and at length makes the severed 
 parts one again. So, when there are fractures in the earth's 
 crust, the circulating waters deposit in the openings mineral 
 matters, which unite the broken portions, and thus make 
 whole again the shattered rocks. Vein-stones are thus 
 formed, and are the work of nature's conservative surgery. 
 
 Water, as we have seen, is a universal solvent, and the 
 matters which it may bring and deposit in the fissures of the 
 earth are very various. There is scarcely a spar or an ore 
 to be met with in the stratified rocks that is not also found 
 in some of these vein-stones, which are often very heteroge- 
 neous in composition. In certain veins we find the elements 
 of limestone or of granite, and these often include the gems, 
 such as amethyst, topaz, garnet, hyacinth, emerald, and 
 sapphire ; while others abound in native metals or in metal- 
 lic oxides or sulphides. The nature of the materials thus 
 deposited depends very much on conditions of temperature 
 and of pressure, which affect the solvent power of the liquid, 
 and still more upon the nature of the adjacent rocks and of 
 the waters permeating them. The chemistry of mineral 
 veins is very complicated. Many of these fissures penetrate 
 
204 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 to a depth of thousands of feet of the earth's crust, and along 
 the channels thus opened the ascending heated subterranean 
 waters may receive in their course various contributions 
 from the overlying strata. From these additions, and from 
 the diminished solubility resulting from a decrease of pres- 
 sure, deposits of different minerals are formed upon the 
 walls, and the slow changes in composition are often repre- 
 sented by successive layers of unlike substances. The power 
 of these waters to dissolve and bring from the lower strata 
 their contained metals and spars is probably due in great 
 part to the alkaline carbonates and sulphides which these 
 waters often hold in solution ; but the chemical history of 
 the deposition of the ores of iron, lead, copper, silver, tin, 
 and gold, which are found in these veins, demands a length- 
 ened study, and would furnish not less beautiful examples 
 of nat'ire's chemistry than those I have already laid before 
 you. The process of filling veins has been going on from the 
 earliest ages ; we know of some which were formed before 
 the Cambrian rocks were deposited, while others are still 
 forming, as the observations of Phillips have shown us 
 in Nevada, where hot springs rise to the surface and 
 deposit silica, with metallic ores, which incrusts the walls 
 of the fissures. These thermal waters show that the 
 agencies which in past times gave rise to the rich mineral 
 deposits of our Western regions, are still at work there. 
 Let us now consider the beneficent results of the process 
 of vein-making. The precious metals, such as silver, are so 
 sparsely distributed, that even the beds rich in the products 
 of decaying sea-weed, which we have supposed to be de- 
 posited from the ocean, would contain too little silver to be 
 profitably extracted. But in the course of ages these sedi- 
 ments, deeply buried, are lixiviated by permeating solutions, 
 which dissolve the silver difiused through a vast mass of 
 rock, and subsequently deposit it in some fissure, it may be 
 in strata far above, as a rich silver ore. This is nature's 
 process of concentration. 
 
 We, learn from the history which we have just sketched 
 the important conclusion, that amid all the changes of the 
 face of the globe the economy of nature has remained the 
 same. We are apt, in explaining ,the appearances of the 
 earth's crust, to refer the formation of ore-beds and veins to 
 some distant and remote period, when conditions very unlike 
 the present prevailed, when great convulsions took place, 
 and mysterious forces were at work. Yet the same chemical 
 and physical laws are now, as then, in operation ; in one 
 part dissolving the iron from the sediments and forming 
 ore-beds, in another separating the rarer metals from the 
 ocean's waters ; while in still other regions the consolidated 
 and buried sediments are permeated by heated waters, to 
 which they give up their metallic matters, to be subsequently 
 deposited in veins. These forces are always in operation, 
 rearranging the chaotic admixture of elements which results 
 from the constant change and decay around us. The laws 
 which the first great cause imposed upon this material 
 universe on the first day are still irresistibly at work fash- 
 ioning its present order. One great design and purpose is 
 seen to bind in necessary harmony the operations of the 
 mineral with those of the vegetable and animal worlds, and 
 to make all of these contribute to that terrestrial circulation 
 which maintains the life of our mother earth. 
 
 While the phenomena of the material world have been 
 looked upon as chemical and physical, it has been customary 
 to speak of those of the organic world as vital. The ten- 
 dency of modern investigation is, however, to regard the 
 processes of animal and vegetable growth as themselves 
 purely chemical and physical. That this is to a great extent 
 'true must be admitted, though I am not prepared to concede 
 that we have in chemical and physical processes the whole 
 secret of organic life. Still we are, in many respects, 
 approximating the phenomena of the organic world to those 
 of the mineral kingdom ; and we at the same time learn 
 that these so far interact and depend upon each other that 
 we begin to see a certain truth underlying the notion of 
 those old philosophers who extended to the mineral world 
 the notion of a vital force; which led them to speak of the 
 earth as a great living organism, and to look upon the 
 various changes in its air, its waters, and its rocky depths, 
 as processes belonging to the life of our planet. Since 
 this lecture was delivered, I have seen the results of the 
 researches of Sonstadt on the iodine in sea-water, which 
 
 appear in the Chemical News for April 26, May 17, and 
 May 24, 1871. According to him this element exists in 
 sea-water, under ordinary conditions, as iodide of calcium, 
 to the amount of about one part of the iodate in 250,000 
 parts of the water. This compound, by decaying organic 
 matter (and by most other reducing agents), is changed to 
 iodide, from which, apparently by the action of carbonic 
 acid, iodine is set free, and may be separated by agitating 
 the water with bisulphide of carbon. The iodine thus lib- 
 erated from sea-water by the action of dead organic matters, 
 however, slowly decomposes water in presence of carbonate 
 of calcium, and is reconverted into iodate, the oxygen of 
 the air probably intervening to complete the oxidation, 
 since, according to Sonstadt, iodides are readily converted 
 into iodates under these conditions. He finds that the in- 
 solubility of the iodides of silver and of copper is so great 
 that by the use of salts of these metals iodine may be sepa- 
 rated from sea-water without concentration, provided the 
 iodate of calcium has first been reduced to iodide. By this 
 property of iodine and its compounds to oxidize and bo 
 oxidized in turn, Sonstadt supposes them to perform the 
 important function of consuming the products of organic 
 decay, and so maintaining the salubrity of the ocean's 
 waters. Their action would thus be very similar to that of 
 the oxides of iron, as explained in the present lecture. 
 Still more recently the same chemist has announced that 
 the sea-water of the British coasts contains in solution be- 
 sides silver an appreciable quantity of gold, estimated by 
 him at about one grain to a ton of water. This is separated 
 by the addition of chloride of barium, apparently as an 
 aurate of baryta adhering to the precipitated sulphate, 
 which yields by assay an alloy of about six parts of gold to 
 four of copper. Other methods have been devised by him 
 for separating these metals from their solution in sea-water. 
 The agent which keeps the gold of the sea in a soluble and 
 oxidized condition is, according to Sonstadt, the iodine lib- 
 erated by the action already described. 
 
 The views maintained by Lieber, Wurtz, Genth, and Sel- 
 wyn, as to the solution and redeposition of gold in modern 
 alluvial deposits seem to be well grounded, and we are led 
 to the conclusion that the circulation of this metal in nature 
 is as easily effected as that of iron or of copper. The 
 transfer of certain other elements, such as titanium, chrome, 
 and tin, or at least their accumulation in concentrated 
 forms, appears, on the contrary, to require conditions which 
 are no longer operative at the surface of the earth. It 
 should here be noticed that Prof. Henry Wurtz, of New 
 York, in a paper read before the American Association for 
 the Advancement of Science in 1868, expressed the opinion 
 that the ocean-waters contained gold, and urged experi- 
 ments for its detection. According to his calculations the 
 total amount of gold hitherto extracted from the earth, and 
 estimated at two thousand million dollars, would give only 
 one dollar for two hundred and eighty million tons of sea- 
 water, while from the experiments of Sonstadt it would 
 appear that the same quantity of gold is actually contained 
 in twenty five tons of water. 
 
 —A paper bj T. SUrry Hunt, LL.D., F. R S\, Trar.faciions AmericaK 
 
 Institute of Mimng Engineers. 
 
 THE ORES OF IRON ; THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL 
 DISTRIBUTION. 
 
 MENTION has been made by several observers 
 that iron has been found in certain localities as 
 native or pure iron. It is probable, however 
 that iron is never found of terrestrial origin in a 
 pure state, and that in the instances referred to, the material 
 was of meteoric derivation. In meteoric masses, nearly pure 
 iron 13 not uncommon, but the iroa of meteorites is usually 
 associated with certain proportions of nickel, cobalt and 
 other elements, and sometimes considerable amounts of oc- 
 cluded hydrogen. Magnetite or the magnetic oxide {Fefi, 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 205 
 
 +FeO=Fe30^), is the richest of all the known ores of iron, 
 and when perfectly pure contains 72.41 per cent, of iron, 
 and 27.59 of oxygen, though commercially it rarely exceeds 
 55 to 60 per cent, of iron. It is found crystallized in octa- 
 hedra, crystalline, massive, or as sand ; color black ; is mag- 
 netic, and some varieties possess polarity — the loadstone. 
 The great deposits are in the Russian Altai and Ural Moun- 
 tains, Sweden, Norway, and Lapland, and in North America. 
 In America it is found solely in the metamorphic crystalline 
 rocks — Archaean — the great deposits being in the Canadian 
 highlands and the Alleghany Mountains from the St. Law- 
 rence to Georgia. Besides these, other deposits of less 
 present importance are found in Arkansas and at various 
 points in the Archaean rocks of the Rocky Mountains. Certain 
 deposits in all of these great iron regions are found to be 
 contaminated by titanium in the form of the mineral men- 
 accanite (Ti.Fe)j,03. In the Eastern United States, Canada, 
 Tasmania, New Zealand, Japan, etc., a sand of magnetic 
 oxide, often titaniferous, is found as the result of the destruc- 
 tion of large masses by wave action, in all of which places 
 it has been used in the manufacture of iron. In Sussex 
 County, New Jersey, there is found a unique deposit of mag- 
 netite — Franklinite — in which part of the protoxide of iron 
 is replaced by protoxides of zinc and manganese, and 
 part of the peroxide by peroxide of manganese. This mineral 
 when pure contains about 65 per cent, of peroxide of iron, 
 12 per cent, of manganese oxide, and 20 per cent, of zinc 
 oxide. It is a doubly valuable ore, first, for the production 
 of zinc white, and secondly in the production of spiegeleisen. 
 hematite, red hematite, specular iron, etc., (Fe^Oj). When 
 pure it contains 70 per cent, of iron and 30 per cent, of oxy- 
 gen, though as used by the iron master it rarely surpasses 
 60 to 66 per cent, of metallic iron. It is distinguishable 
 from the other ores of iron by its red streak ; is found nearly 
 black to brick -red in color, crystallized, crystalline, massive, 
 .fibrous, oolitic, botryoidal, ochrey, etc. The great deposits 
 of this ore are crystallized on the island of Elba ; massive 
 and botryoidal in Lancashire, England, and certain places 
 in Western Europe ; massive and crystalline. Lake Superior, 
 Pilot Knob, and Iron Mountain, etc., Missouri ; oolitic in the 
 stratified ore of the Clinton group of the Lower Silurian in 
 the Eastern United States, the " dyestone " or " fossil ore." 
 Limonite, brown hematite, brown iron ore, hydrated per- 
 oxide, bog ore, pipe ore, etc., (2Fe203,3IIO), contains when 
 pure 59.9 per cent, of iron and 14.4 per cent, of water. 
 Under this ore may practically also be included the other per- 
 oxides of different degrees of hydration, Gothite and Jfan- 
 throsiderite, or yellow iron ore, which sometimes largely 
 compose masses of limonite. Limonite is found nearly 
 black in color to brown, yellowish-brown, or yellow, and is 
 distinguished by its yellowish-brown streak. It occurs mas- 
 sive, botryoidal, stalactitic, granular (bog ore), ochreous, 
 etc. In richness it varies greatly, but the ore as used rarely 
 contains more than 45 to 50 per cent, of iron. Of all the 
 ores of iron it is one of the most widely distributed. Usually 
 it is found as surface deposits in basins or depressions, 
 which are of very uncertain extent, and while there is 
 scarcely a country or state that does not contain some de- 
 posits, as an ore, though valuable, it is of inferior impor- 
 tance. Sometimes it is found as the result of the oxidation 
 of the outcrops of mineral veins containing iron {gossans) 
 of the stratified carbonates or crystalline ores, and as de- 
 posits on the surface or in cavities, pockets, or fissures in the 
 rocks from ferruginous springs or waters. In Sweden large 
 quantities are found in the bottom of the lakes as grains of 
 ml sizes up to that of peas or beans, and is known as lake ore. 
 Carbonates of the protoxide (FeO,COj) the different forms of 
 which are: (a) Spathic iron ore siderite or chalyhite, the 
 crystallized carbonate of iron, when pure containing 48.22 
 per cent, of iron, crystallizing in rhombohedra. Though a 
 very valuable ore of iron, it is of little importance in the 
 United States, and is found in but small deposits in Roxbury, 
 Conn., and Southern Vermont. In Carinthia and West- 
 phalia in Europe, the spathic ore is of great importance and 
 is the foundation of large industries. (6) The clay ironstone 
 or argillaceous carbonate of iron, is the great ore of the coal 
 measures, but is, however, found in considerable quantities 
 in the cretaceous formation of both the East and West 
 United States. It occurs as stratified deposits, though more 
 commonlylas. rounded, masses, kidneys or nodules, otaU. sizes, 
 
 which are sometimes, however, so closely compacted as to 
 form regular strata. In richness this clay ironstone contains 
 commonly from 33 to 40 per cent, of iron. 
 
 It has been the principal ore used in Central England and 
 Wales, and is also found in several of the European coal 
 basins. While the carbonates of the coal measures are of 
 considerable importance in the United States, they are 
 greatly overshadowed in value by the richer and more abun- 
 dant crystalline ore. Clay ironstone is also found granular 
 and oolitic, as the oolitic ores of the Jurassic (Lias) in Ger- 
 many and France, which are also of the same age and gen- 
 eral character as the celebrated ore of the Cleveland Hills 
 of Northeast England, where they are the foundation of an 
 immense iron industry. When the argillaceous carbonate 
 is associated with bituminous matter it forms (c.) hlachhand 
 or bituminous clay ironstone, which is a bituminous shale 
 impregnated with sufficient iron to render it valuable as an 
 ore. Usually it contains frona 25 to 50 per cent, of iron. It 
 is the ore of the famous blackband iron district of Scotland, 
 and is found to some extent also in Central England and 
 Wales, also in some of the German coal basins. The United 
 States contains deposits of little importance in the Triassic 
 coal basin of North Carolina, in the metamorphic coal 
 measures of Pottsville, Pa., and in the bituminous coal 
 basin of West Virginia. The only deposits of value now 
 known, however, are found in the coal measures of Eastern 
 Ohio. Ores are rarely used which contain lees than 25 per 
 cent, of iron, and they may be roughly divided according to 
 their richness into poor ores, those between 25 and 35 per 
 cent. ; ordinary or average ores, between 35 and 50 per cent. ; 
 and rich ores, those containing more than 50 per cent, of 
 metallic iron. To show the distribution of the ores of iron, 
 and the locations of the great iron producing regions of the 
 world, the chief iron-making countries of the world may be 
 passed rapidly and briefly in review. 
 
 England. — It requires no argument to show that Eng- 
 land's position, as one of the highest civilized countries, 
 arises mainly from the extent of her manufactures and her 
 commercial intercourse with the rest of the world, which 
 are due almost exclusively to the great magnitude of her 
 iron industries. Thus in 1871, of the total of 13,315,500 
 tons of pig iron made in the world, England produced about 
 one-half, or 6,500,000 tons. Her facilities for iron manufac- 
 tures are almost unsurpassed, for all the materials necessary, 
 the iron ore, coal, etc., may be drawn from very limited 
 areas, and often from the same mine, thus being in marked 
 contrast with the condition in the United States where such 
 long and expensive transportation is necessary. The dis- 
 tricts of manufacture are five in number: the Scotch, Cleve- 
 land, West Coast, Central England, and South Wales. 
 
 1st. The Scotch region is limited by the extent of the 
 Scotch coal measures, and is included in the shires of Fife, 
 Lanark, Linlithgow, Stirling, and Ayr, extending across 
 from the Frith of Forth to the Frith of Clyde. The ores are 
 the blackband and clay ironstone of the coal measures, 
 which are found in beds of limited extent and thickness, 
 varying from a few inches to a couple of feet, but on an 
 average only about ten inches. The amount of ore mined 
 in 1872 was 3,270,000 tons. The ftiel employed is the dry 
 open-burning coal of the Scotch fields used raw in the fur- 
 nace, similar in character to our own block coals of Ohio 
 and Indiana. The pig iron produced is mainly for foundry 
 use, and though not of first quality, has a reputation over all 
 parts of the world for its exceeding uniformity and adapta- 
 bility for foundry purposes, and is known by the familiar 
 names of "Coltness," Gartsherrie," etc. 
 
 2d. The Cleveland district, though the newest, ranks first 
 in production and in the application of skill and boldness 
 in the manufacture. It is situated on the northeast coast of 
 England, around Middlesboro', in Durham, and the North 
 Riding of Yorkshire. The ore used is an oolitic clay iron- 
 stone from the Jurassic formation, occurring in immense 
 beds 12 to 17 feet in thickness, and containing about 35 per 
 cent, of iron, with commonly 1 per cent, of phosphoric acid. 
 The production of ore in 1872 was 5,539,000 tons. During 
 the last few years, however, some ores have been imported 
 for mixtures from Spain and Sweden. The fuel used is 
 coke from the Durham coal-field, the coal of which ap- 
 proaches more nearly our typical coking coals, than that. of 
 the other English coal areas. 
 
206 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 3d. The West Coast district is one of the newest centres; 
 but as the repository of the only ore used in Great Britain 
 in making iron for the Bessemer steel process, is of great 
 importance. It is located along the west coast of Cumber- 
 land and Lancashire, at Barrow, Workington, etc. The ore 
 is a very pure red hematite found in pockets in the moun- 
 tain limestone, and containing about 50 per cent, of iron. 
 The ore is shipped largely to other parts of the country, 
 Wales, Central England, etc., and in 1872 there were raised 
 1,769,000 tons.* The fuel employed is coke from the coals 
 of the Cumberland coal-field, but principally from the Dur- 
 ham coal measures. The iron produced is specially adapted, 
 from its purity, for making Bessemer steel, and large quan- 
 tities are transported to Germany, France, and the United 
 States for that purpose. 
 
 4th. The Central region of Staffordshire, Derbyshire, 
 etc., including the famous towns of Birmingham, Derby, and 
 Sheffield, though one of the oldest in the country, is being 
 overshadowed by the newer districts. The ores worked for 
 so many years are now becoming less abundant, and more 
 difficult to mine. They are the argillaceous carbonate, and 
 some black band of the coal measures, besides which brown 
 hematites are imported from the adjoining country. Forest 
 of Dean, etc. The fuel is the dry bituminous coal of the 
 underlying coal formation, which is used both in the raw 
 state and as coke. 
 
 5th. The South Wales region is embraced in the shires of 
 Glanmorgan, Monmouth, and Brecknock, and is limited by 
 the area of the Welsh coal-fields. The ores are similar in 
 character to those of Staffordshire, besides which considerable 
 quantities are brought from Cumberland, Ireland, Spain, etc. 
 The fuel is, the dry bituminous coal and anthracite of the 
 region, and the iron produced is used chiefly for forge and 
 mill purposes. 
 
 Sweden. — ^The ores of Sweden are specular, some brown 
 hematite and bog ore, but principally magnetite. The char- 
 acter and geological position of the latter is peculiarly 
 similar to that of the magnetites of the Eastern United States 
 and Canada, though they are generally more free from sul- 
 phur and phosphorus. While abundantly provided with 
 iron ores, and producing a large amount of iron celebrated 
 for its excellent qualities, Sweden has made but little ad- 
 vance in her production, because of the absence of ready 
 means of communication, but more especially from the want 
 of an abundant supply of fuel, the only fuel being charcoal, 
 amd the quantity of this is fast becoming reduced, though 
 its production is controlled by law. The principal deposits 
 of magnetite in Sweden are in the southern part, around 
 Lake Wenern, and in' the counties of Wermland, Westman- 
 land, and Dalecarlia. The mines of Dannemora, north of 
 Upsala, also produce large quantities of iron, which is made 
 into the celebrated brand of that name. There are also 
 lar^e deposits of magnetite in North Sweden and Lapland, 
 and in Arendal in Norway. The chief product is wrought 
 iron made from the pig iron almost exclusively in low fires, 
 holding the first rank in all countries of Europe. Consider- 
 able amounts of cast iron and steel are also produced, and 
 some quantities of ore are now being sent to the coal-fields 
 of England and Northern Europe. 
 
 Russia. — Russia contains immense and almost inex- 
 haustible deposits of iron ore, principally magnetite, with 
 some hematite. While producing iron of the highest grades, 
 her advance in the manufacture is retarded, like Sweden, by 
 the want of mineral fuel ; and though in some of the govern- 
 ments coal is known to exist, charcoal is the only mel em- 
 ployed, its consumption reaching 1,500,000 tons per year, 
 and large areas being laid waste to furnish the supply. The 
 scantiness of the population, the vast areas possessing limited 
 and precarious means of communication, and the great 
 distance from the works to the markets are also great ob- 
 stacles to its progression. The principal iron regions are: 
 1st. Those of the Ural and Altai Mountains, which are the 
 great mineral storehouses of Russia. Large and valuable 
 
 * Quite large amounts of ore are imported from Ireland, which 
 Is also sent, to a considerable extent, into Staffordshire and Wales. 
 The ore is a pisolitic limonite, particularly free from sulphur and 
 phosphorus, but remarkable for its large percentage of alumina, 
 being, in fact, almost a bcmmte. It has been found to add much to 
 the case of smelting the pure hematites of the Cumberland region, 
 and to mix well with the other English ores. 
 
 deposits are found in the Altai Mountains, around Nert- 
 sohinsk, in Eastern Siberia, and Barnaul, in Western Siberia. 
 The great deposits and works are, however, situated in the 
 Urals, in the government of Perm, and the magnetic depo- 
 sits of the mountains of Blagodat, 150 versts north of 
 Jekaterinburg, of Nijni Tajilsk, etc., are celebrated for their 
 magnitude and richness. Beside the magnetic ores, con- 
 siderable quantities of red hematite are found near Barnaul, 
 Jekaterinburg, 'and the South Urals. The vast establish- 
 ments of Prince Demidoff at Perm, Nijni Tajilsk, and 
 Jekaterinburg have a world-wide reputation. 
 
 2d. The region of Central Russia around Moscow, Nijni 
 Novgorod, etc., in the governments of Nijni Novgorod Vla- 
 dimir, Kaluga, Penza, Orel, and Tambov, in which the 
 principal ore, the red hematite, is found in great abundance, 
 containing usually from 45 to 48 per cent, of iron, together 
 with carbonate ores. In addition to these two principal 
 regions, considerable iron is produced in Russian Poland 
 from carbonates and bog ores, and Finland is particularly 
 rich in magnetites, though producing but litle iron. In- 
 formation is limited concerning the magnitude of the Russian 
 iron industry, but it is estimated to be between 200,000 and 
 300,000 tons per year. 
 
 France. — France is quite abundantly supplied with iron 
 ores, but the manufactures have been much retarded from a 
 want of a good supply of coal. A large part of the iron has 
 been made from charcoal, but the introduction of a better 
 system of communication has enabled the ironmaster to 
 more thoroughly utilize the coals of the few and scattered 
 coal-basins, which are neither of very superior quality, nor 
 of great extent, and to very largely increase her production. 
 Very considerable amounts of coal are also annually im- 
 ported from England. The principal ore of France is the 
 oolitic ore (similar to the Cleveland ore of England), which 
 occurs scattered on the surface and in the rocks of the Ju- 
 rassic formation, extending across the country from the Pas 
 de Calais, on the northwest, to the Jury Mountains on the 
 southeast. There are also found very abundant deposits of 
 limonite in the tertiary and alluvium ; some spathic ores, red 
 hematites, and a little magnetite, besides which quite con- 
 siderable quantities of magnetite and hematite are imported 
 from Algiers, Elba, Sardina, and Spain, especially into the 
 southern regions. The iron districts of France have been 
 divided into nine groups, viz. : 1st. Group of the Southeast, 
 or of the Rhone and Saone, including now the principal 
 district of France, and the celebrated works of Le Creusot, 
 Terrenoire, St. Etienne, of Petin, Gaudet & Co., at St. Cham- 
 ond, etc. The ores are mainly oolitic and brown hematite, 
 and imported ores from the Mediterranean, the fuel being 
 coke from the coals of the basins of the Loire, Gard, etc. 
 The production in 1867 was 28.8 per cent, of 1,380,422 tons, 
 the total production of the country. 
 
 2d. The Compte district, situated in the east, along the 
 Jura and Franche Compt6, employing charcoal with oolitic 
 and brown hematite ores, and in 1867 producing 5.6 per 
 cent, of the production of the country. 
 
 3d. Region of the Alps, in the southeast, in Is§re and 
 Savoy, using charcoal and principallv spathic carbonates, 
 and in 1867 producing only 0.4 percent, of the total produc- 
 tion. 
 
 4th. The Champagne district, on the northern border, in 
 Ardennes, Haute Marne, and Meuse, in which the fuel is 
 charcoal and coke, from the coal-basin of du Nord and Pas 
 de Calais on the west, and the bordei-s of the Belgian coal- 
 field on the east, with oolitic and hydrated peroxide ores, 
 the production in 1867 being 12.8 per cent, of the national 
 production. 
 
 5th. Group of the North, in Pas de Calais, basins of the 
 E3cant and Sambre, employing coke from the coals of the 
 underlying coal measures as fuel, and granular limonites, 
 etc., and producing in 1867 13.6 per cent, of the total pro- 
 duction. 
 
 6th. R.egion of the Ceraifre, comprising the manufacture in 
 the provinces of Berry, Bourbonnais, Nivernais, etc., using 
 charcoal mainly, and some coke, from the Allier basin, and 
 alluvial with some little Spanish and Mediterranean ores 
 The proportion of the production for 1867 was 10.4 per cent. 
 7th. Region of the Northwest, north of the Loire and 
 west of the Seine, in Bretagne, etc., using charcoal and a 
 little coke, with limonites, little magnetite, and some ores 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 207 
 
 from Spain, prodncing in 1887 1.6 per cent, of the iron 
 made in France. 
 
 8th. Southeast group, or group of the Pyrenees, in which 
 the fuel ia charcoal, with some coke, and the ores hematite, 
 spathic, limonite, oolitic carbonate, etc., with a production 
 of 5.6 per cent, in 1867. 
 
 9th. Region of the Moselle and Meurthe, in the northeast, 
 where the fuel is from the Prussian coal-hasin of the Saar, 
 and the ores oolitic carbonate from the Lias, with a produc- 
 tion in 1867 of 20.8 per cent. In 1870, by the annexation 
 of Alsace and Lorraine to Prussia, twenty-five establish- 
 ments out of thirty-seven were taken from this group, which 
 represented 75 per cent, of the production of this region. 
 
 Belgiuin. — Belgium, though only about the area of the 
 State of Maryland, by the devel6pment of the comparative- 
 ly small coal-basins of LiSge and Charleroi, and of the 
 abundant iron ores, produced in 1871 nearly 900,000 tons of 
 iron, which ranks her as fifth among the iron-producing 
 countries of the world. The ore most important in her 
 manufacture is the minette, psammite, or oolitic limonite from 
 the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. This is a hydrated per- 
 oxide of iron, the result of the oxidation of oolitic carbon- 
 ate of the Lias, the equivalent of the Cleveland ironstone 
 of England. Formerly the red hematites occurring in the 
 limestone at the base of the coal measures, in the eastern 
 provinces of Namur and Li§ge, were the main source of 
 supply, but they became insufficient for the d'?mand, and 
 have been supplemented by the minette, which in many 
 cases has to be transported a hundred miles or more. Be- 
 sides these ores there are found considerable quantities of 
 brown hematite in the eastern provinces, and some bog ore 
 mainly from the northeast low countries. The iron manu- 
 facture is conducted chiefly around the cities of LiSge and 
 Charleroi, the fuel employed being coke made from the coal 
 of the adjoining coal-basins. The usual inferior character 
 of the Belgian and French coals, compared with the Eng- 
 lish, have neccessitated their most careful preparation, to 
 enable them to be successfully used in the blast-furnace, and 
 hence to these countries we are indebted for the develop- 
 ment of and the best forms of coal-washing machines and 
 coking apparatus, now in use. 
 
 Austria. — Austria, though one of the largest states, and 
 containing some of the most valuable ores in Europe, ranks 
 but sixth among the iron-producing countries, and in 1871 
 the make of pig iron, 450,000 tons, wa.s but little more than 
 half that of the small kingdom of Belgium. The cause of 
 this is mainly to be found in the wide separation of the 
 great ore deposits from the coal-fields, and the want of cheap 
 and ready means of transportation. In 1870 84 per cent, of 
 iron made was produced with charcoal, and 16 per cent, with 
 mineral fuel. The only valuable coal-fields are found along 
 the northwestern border of the empire, in Bohemia and 
 Silesia, the coals of which are much inferior, as smelting 
 fuels, to the coals of France and Belgium. Brown coal, or 
 lignite, and peat, are found in considerable abundance in 
 many places, especially in Hungary and Bohemia, and when 
 dried, or charred, they have been used to a small extent for 
 smelting purposes, though they are more commonly em- 
 ployed in puddling and working iron. The most important 
 iron ore deposits are found in the southeast, in Styria and 
 Carinthia (the Noricum of the Romans), where charcoal is 
 the only fuel, and as the manufacture has been pursued in 
 these countries for several centuries, the production has 
 been limited on account of scarcity of fuel. More perfect 
 communication, however, is stimulating the industry, and 
 permitting the transfer of mineral fliel from the northern 
 coal-fields to these southern deposits. The ores are principally 
 rich and pure spathic carbonates, the iron from which has 
 long been famous for its excellent quality. The spathic ore 
 deposits of the Erzberg and Eisenerz, in Styria, are cele- 
 brated for their great magnitude, being found in beds from 
 200 to 600 feet in thickness, while in Carinttiia are similar 
 deposits of less extent. The ore raised in Carinthia and 
 Styria in 1858 was 15 and 20 per cent, of the total raised in 
 the empire, and in 1870 the make of pig iron was respect- 
 ively 11 and 37 per cent, of that made in the empire, ex- 
 clusive of Hungary. Next in importance to the manu- 
 facture in Styria and Carinthia is that of Bohemia, Moravia, 
 and Silesia. The principal ores of Bohemia are red hematite 
 from the bordering mountains, and brown hematites, with 
 
 clay ironstone, of the coal measures. In Moravia and Silesia 
 the ores are mainly clay ironstone from the Carpathian 
 Mountains. The proportion of ore raised in these countries 
 was, in 1858, in the above order : 19.36, 12.43, and 2.09 per 
 cent, of that raised in the empire, and the production of pig 
 iron in 1870 was 28,11, and 2 per cent, of that made in the 
 empire, excluding Hungary. In Hungary the ores are 
 chiefly spathic carbonates, with some magnetites, limonites, 
 etc. In 1858 Hungary raised 18 per cent, of all the ores 
 produced in the empire, and in 1870 yielded about 133,000 
 tons of pig iron, while Carinthia and Styria produced 178,- 
 000, Bohemia 130,000, and Moravia and Silesia 33,000 tons. 
 
 The German Empire. — In the Empire of Germany the 
 principal iron production is confined to the Prussian states, 
 in which there are two great iron-making sections, viz., in 
 the east, in Upper Silesia, and in the west in the region 
 bordering the Rhine, or the Rhine provinces; besides a 
 manufacture of less importance in the central and northern 
 parts. Saxony and Hanover. These sections also contain all 
 the coal-fields of any importance in the Empire, as those 
 of Silesia, of the basin of the Saar, on the Upper Rhine.and 
 of the basin of the Ruhr or Westphalia, and the adjoining 
 basins of Aachen in Belgium, in the Lower Rhine, with the 
 smaller and less important one of Saxony. The ores of the 
 Prussian states are in the order of their importance as fol- 
 lows : The brown hematites, which furnish 40 per cent, of 
 the ore used, are very widely distributed, and probably the 
 most valuable of all the ores. The spathic or sparry car- 
 bonate forms nearly 20 per cent, of the ore used, and is 
 mainly obtained in the Rhine provinces, especially in the 
 Bonn region, where are the celebrated deposits of Musen, 
 Siegen, etc., which furnish large quantities of Bessemer iron, 
 and Spiegel eisen, the latter of which is exported to all parts 
 of Europe and America for steel purposes. The red hema- 
 tite deposits yielding 19 per cent, of the total ore produced 
 are found chiefly in the Rhine provinces west of Bonn, 
 where it is a continuation of the similar deposits of Belgium 
 in the carboniferous limestone. Black band ore forms 10 
 per cent, of the ore used, and is exclusively obtained in the 
 coal-fields of Westphalia. Limonites, — " bean ore, " — ^to 
 the extent of 7 per cent, of the total ores, is used in the 
 Clausthal or Hanoverian region. Clay iron.stone, including 
 the oolitic carbonate of the Belgian frontier, is used to the 
 extent Of 1.75 per cent., and is found mainly in the Silesian 
 region and the Rhine provinces. Bog ore is found in con- 
 siderable quantities in the plains of Northern Germany,and 
 to the extent of 1.75 per cent., is mined and used in Silesia 
 and Northern Germany. 
 
 The manufacturing districts are divided by the Prussian 
 authorities as follows : The Silesian region around Breslau, 
 Oppeln, etc., where the Silesian coal-field and the brown 
 hematites, with clay ironstone and bog ores, produced in 
 1870 24 per cent, of the pig iron made in the Prussian states. 
 The Halle region of Saxony, at Magdeburg, etc., of little 
 importance, producing only 0.12 per cent, of the total pro- 
 duction of pig iron. The districts of the HMne, which are 
 divided into : 1st, the region of Dortmond, the most impor- 
 tant iron region, producing 36.76 per cent, of the iron made, 
 containing part of the Westphalian coal-field, and using 
 black band, brown hematite, spathic, and red hematite ores. 
 In this division are included the celebrated works of Krupp 
 at Essen — the largest iron establishment in the world — and 
 a considerable manufacture at Dusseldorf, Osnabruck, etc. 
 2d. The Bonn region, which ranks next in importance, pro- 
 ducing in 1870 33.67 per cent, of the pig iron made, and 
 including portions of the -Westphalian and Rhine provinces 
 around Bonn. Fuel is accessible from the basin of the Ruhr 
 on the north, and Aachen on the west, besides the celebrated 
 lignite beds of the Rhine. The most important ore is the 
 spathic carbonate, of Devonian age, which is found in the 
 famous district of Siegen, where the most noticeable deposit 
 is that of the Stahlberg or Steel Mountain, near Miisen, 
 besides which large quantities of brown hematite and red 
 hematite are also employed. The Clausthal region of Han- 
 over, etc., using mainly limonite ores, is of smaller impor- 
 tance, producing in 1870 only 5.22 per cent, of the pig uron 
 made in the Prussian states. The annexation of Alsace and 
 Lorraine, after the war of 1870, has transferred to Prussia 25 
 blast-fiirnaces, producing in 1870 205,679 tons of pig iron. 
 The principal ore used is the oOlitic, minette of the Jurassic, 
 
208 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AKD MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the continuation of the same formation producing the 
 valuable ores of Northeastern France, and Southeastern 
 Belgium already mentioned. The fuel is all obtained from 
 the basin of the Saar near Osnabruck, already alluded to. 
 The other states of the Zollverein besides the Prussian— 
 Wurtemberg, Bavaria, and the coal-basins of Zwickau in 
 Saxony— hold but an unimportant position in the iron 
 manufacture. 
 
 Spain. — We have but little accurate information concern- 
 ing the mineral resources of Spain, but we know that she 
 possesses many large and valuable deposits of iron ore with 
 coal-basins of no mean extent. While, during the last half 
 century, the iron manufacture in the other European states 
 has advanced to a most wonderful extent, from inherent 
 national conservatism, political uncertainty, etc., the iron 
 industry of Spain has been far behind them, and her pros- 
 perity is still further checked by the present civil war. In 
 former years a considerable industry was maintained in the 
 production of charcoal iron on the Biscayan coast, etc,, and 
 of wrought iron by the Catalan direct process in the Pyre- 
 nean provinces, Catalonia, etc., but from the causes men- 
 tioned her present iron production is small, being in 1870 
 but 54,000 tons. Within the last five years, however, very 
 earnest attention has been directed to the Spanish ore 
 deposits by English and German iron masters, principally in 
 seeking ore sufficiently pure for producing Bessemer pig 
 iron. Many companies nave been formed for working the 
 deposits, with an aggregate capital of several million dollars, 
 and large amounts of ore have been and are being constantly 
 shipped to England, Belgium, and Germany. The principal 
 deposits yielding these ores are situated on the Biscayan 
 provinces of Oviedo, Santander, Biscay, Guipuzcoa, etc., 
 and the deposits now most extensively worked are near 
 Samorrostro (Santander), and especially in the vicinity of 
 Bilbao (Biscay). The deposits of the range of mountains 
 along the Biscayan coast, have been examined by Mr. David 
 Forbes, who pronounces them to be of Cretaceous age. The 
 ore is a hydrated peroxide, occupying veins or lodes in the 
 rocks of this age, is quite rich, and particularly free from 
 sulphur and phosphorus. It is an ore well adapted for 
 making steel iron, and for such purposes is principally 
 employed. The ore, as greater depths are reached in the 
 veins, is found to be only a gossan or oxidized outcrop, the 
 mass of the unchanged deposit being spathic iron or car- 
 bonate ores, containing, however, a greater proportion of 
 sulphur than the gossan ore. 
 
 North European capital has also been at work developing 
 the iron mines of the southern provinces, particularly in 
 Murcia (near Cartagena), in Malaga, Seville, etc. The ore 
 in these districts is principally magnetic and specular. 
 The great addition this entails upon the expenses of sea 
 transportation is, however, against their competition with 
 the product of the Biscayan coast. In the coal-fields of 
 Villanueva, the ore deposits of Seville, etc., find a ready fuel, 
 and it is not unlikely that it will soon be the foundation of 
 a prosperous local manufacture. Statistics of the yield of 
 the Spanish mines are very meagre. According to some 
 authorities the total annual production in 1870 was 436,000 
 tons, while from other sources the importation of England 
 alone was in 1868 only 88,000, which had, however, risen in 
 1872 to 631,000 tons. 
 
 Africa. — Deserving of mention also are the rich and 
 pure deposits of iron ore in Algiers, which have a growing 
 importance in the iron manufacture of Europe. The ores 
 are mainly spathic carbonates and limonites the result of 
 the decomposition of the former. They are quite rich in 
 iron, and particularly free from sulphur and phosphorus, 
 and are now largely exported for the manufacture of Besse- 
 mer irons. France has heretofore been the chief importer 
 of these ores, but owing to the Spanish difficulties consider- 
 able quantities have been sent to England and Germany. 
 Some cargoes have also been shipped to the United States, 
 and have been used by. the Bethlehem, Pa., Bessemer Steel 
 Works. This ore is said to have been sold in New York for 
 $24 per ton. The principal export has been from the Mokta 
 mines which produced in 1872, 335,000, and in 1873,404,000 
 tons of ore. Attention has recently been directed toward 
 smelting in Algiers, and works are said to have been erected 
 to use coal brought by the ore vessels on their return voyage. 
 
 Wood, though abundant, consists mainly of cork, mahogany, 
 and other woods too valuable to make charcoal from. 
 
 North Araerica. — In the abundance, purity, and wide 
 distribution of iron ores, and their accessibility to the largest 
 coal areas in the world, the United States possesses facilities 
 for an iron industry unexcelled by those of any other land. 
 Along the eastern coast, the magnetic ores are found as an 
 almost constant associate of the older metamorphic rocks,- 
 the gneiss, hornblende, and mica schists of the Appalachian 
 Mountains, in nearly continuous lines of outcrop from the 
 borders of the St. Lawrence Eiver and Lake Champlain in 
 Northern New York, to their terminations in the northern 
 part of Georgia. The ore occurs in beds interstratifled with 
 the other members of the Archsean system, following the 
 severe contortions of that series, usually in lenticular-shaped 
 deposits, and though limited in extent and thickness, are 
 often of great magnitude. The thickness is subject to very 
 great variations, and while sometimes occurring in beds 150 
 to 200 feet thick, they are usually of much less size. In the 
 character of the ores, the mode of occurrence, and their 
 associations, they bear a very close resemblance to the mag- 
 netic deposits of Sweden already mentioned. In Northern 
 New York in the Adirondack Mountains, in Essex and 
 Clinton Counties, immense beds are found, which have long 
 been worked, and supply much of the ore consumed in 
 Eastern New York and on the Hudson Biver. The great 
 beds of the Moriah district in Essex County are remarkable 
 for their great size, in some cases nearly 200 feet in thickness 
 of solid ore. These ores often contain large proportions of 
 titanic acid, sometimes from 12 to 30 per cent., which 
 renders many deposits of little present value. Phosphorus 
 and sulphur, especially the former, are quite generally 
 present, and often in a damaging proportion. In the high- 
 lands of Eastern New York, and portions of the adjoining 
 State of Massachusetts, in the same belt of metamorphic 
 rocks, valuable deposits of magnetite also occur, which are 
 of special importance in Orange, Putnam, and Dutchess 
 Counties. In direct continuation of these deposits are those 
 of the northern counties of New Jersey, Passaic, Sussex, 
 Morris, and Warren, a belt of this same series passing across 
 the State from northeast to southwest, and contains some of 
 the most valuable ores of the Eastern United States. In 
 this region is also included the unique deposit of Franklinite, 
 a manganiferous magnetite containing zinc, which is of 
 great importance in the production of zinc and manganifer- 
 ous pig iron or spiegeleisen. The ores west of the Hudson, 
 in New York and Northern New Jersey, have been wrought 
 from_ a very early period, and contain but little or no 
 titanium, but are commonly contaminated by sulphur or 
 phosphorus, generally to so great an extent as to unfit them 
 for the manufacture of steel-irons. In Pennsylvania, the 
 only really important deposits of magnetite are found in 
 the southeast part of the State, at Cornwall, in Lebanon 
 County, where they occur near the junction of the Mesozoic 
 sandstone and metamorphic Silurian slates. They are quite 
 sulphurous and are associated with copper minerals, but 
 particularly free from phosphorus, and are altogether one of 
 the finest and most important deposits in the country. In 
 other places in Eastern Pennsylvania, magnetites are found, 
 and are remarkable often for an association with chrome 
 and alumina. 
 
 Following this Archaean belt of the Appalachian Moun- 
 tains, through Maryland and Western Virginia, magnetites 
 occur in numerous places, but their importance is not yet 
 fiilly known. In Western North Carolina they have been 
 fully investigated, and occur in an abundance and of a purity 
 unsurpassed by any other of the well-known regions of the 
 country. They are found in several nearly parallel belts, 
 passing across the western part of the State in a southwest 
 direction into Northern Georgia, where thev still retain con- 
 siderable importance. Some of the North Carolina ores are 
 quite titaniferous, others aluminous or chromiferous, while 
 others again are of very exceptional purity, as the celebrated 
 Cranberry ore of Mitchell County. These ores are found 
 often m beds of 300 or 400 feet in width, and are destined to 
 assume a great value in the development of the iron industry 
 of that region, especially as thev are not far distant from the 
 valuable extensions of the Alleghany coal-field in the Cum- 
 berland region of West Tennessee, the Black Warrior basins 
 etc., of Alabama, and the Deep and Dan Rivers Triassic 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 209 
 
 coal-fields of North Carolina. These magnetites of the 
 Eastern United States flank the great Alleghany coal-basin 
 along its entire eastern margin, and must form the most im- 
 portant store-houses of ore for the iron industry of that part 
 of the country. 
 
 Analyses ot 
 
 magnetic Iron Ores. 
 
 
 
 Northern 
 
 New Jersey. 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 
 New York. 
 
 {Ormtberry ore). 
 
 Magnetic oxide of iron, . . 
 
 93.236 
 
 73.20 
 
 91.89 
 
 Oxide of Manganese, . . 
 
 trace. 
 
 .50 
 
 .32 
 
 Alumina 
 
 0.595 
 
 4.40 
 
 1.03 
 
 Lime, . . .... 
 
 .664 
 
 1.56 
 
 1.06 
 
 Magnesia, .... 
 
 .119 
 
 1.59 
 
 .23 
 
 Sulphur, 
 
 .ODT 
 
 0.11 
 
 .26 
 
 Phoapiioric acid, ... 
 
 .050 
 
 0.38 
 
 trace. 
 
 Silicic acid 
 
 4.697 
 
 r..03 
 
 4.02 
 
 Titanic acid 
 
 0.733 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 
 6.58 
 
 1.15 
 
 
 100.000 
 
 99.95 
 
 99.95 
 
 Metallic iron, 
 
 67.61 
 
 53 00 
 
 66.53 
 
 Bearing a similar though more remote relation to the 
 northweistern margin of the Alleghany coal-basin and the 
 coal-fields of the Mississippi Valley in Indiana, Illinois, 
 Missouri, etc., are the rich specular hematites of Missouri 
 and Lake Superior. The specular ores of Lake Superior, 
 admixed in certain localities with magnetite, are found on 
 the south shore of Lake Superior, beginning about ten miles 
 from the lake in Marquette County, Michigan, and extend- 
 ing thence in a belt about eight miles in width, in a south 
 and westerly direction, into Northern Wisconsin. Develop- 
 ments, however, have only been made extensively in Mar- 
 (juette County, Michigan. The ore occurs in distinct beds 
 in the metamorphic rock of the Huronian age, which are 
 chiefly quartzites, chloritic rocks, ferruginous schists, etc., in 
 which the ore is often only a ferruginous stratum, rich enough 
 to be valuable as an ore of iron. These beds are of great 
 magnitude, in some instances 200 feet or more in thickness, 
 and not unfrequently occur in lenticular masses, as men- 
 tioned when referring to the magnetites of the Eastern 
 United States. The ore varies from a very pure specular 
 ore, often beautifully crystallized in lamellae, to a silicious 
 ferruginous rock, of little value as an ore, and on the whole 
 the ores are generally silicious and often contain much jasper. 
 The ore is otherwise exceptionally pure, as may be seen from 
 the following analysis from the Michigan State Geological 
 Reports : 
 
 
 (1) 
 
 (2) 
 
 (3) 
 
 (*) 
 
 Protoxideof iron, . . 
 
 11.87 
 
 
 
 
 Peroxide " " . . 
 
 74.93 
 
 86.70 
 
 74.69 
 
 93.75 
 
 Manganese oxide, . 
 
 .05 
 
 trace. 
 
 .42 
 
 trace. 
 
 Alumina, . 
 
 4.15 
 
 1.64 
 
 .60 
 
 .73 
 
 Lime 
 
 .62 
 
 .67 
 
 .37 
 
 .61 
 
 Magnesia, . 
 
 .92 
 
 .24 
 
 .63 
 
 .23 
 
 Sulphur, ... 
 
 .12 
 
 .01 
 
 
 .03 
 
 Phosphoric acid, 
 
 .28 
 
 .14 
 
 .18 
 
 .32 
 
 Silica 
 
 3.70 
 
 9.82 
 
 16.44 
 
 3.27 
 
 Water 
 
 .52 
 
 .61 
 
 7.16 
 
 1.09 
 
 
 100.06 
 
 99.74 
 
 100.39 
 
 100.03 
 
 Metallic iron, .... 
 
 66.04 
 
 60.69 
 
 62.28 
 
 65.62 
 
 1) Magnetic ore — Champion Mine. 
 
 2) Specular ore — Lake Superior Mine 
 
 3 ) '■ Hematite " — Foster Mine. 
 
 4) "Specular" ore— Jackson Mine. 
 
 According to their richness, they are divided into three 
 classes : 1st, containing 55 to 65 per cent, of iron ; 2nd, 
 those containing 45 to 55 per cent. ; and 3rd, those ores below 
 45 per cent, of iron. The ore is mined almost entirely in 
 large open quarries, and since the first openings in 1856- up 
 to 1870 there have been produced 3,771,939 tons of ore, and 
 in the year 1871 alone, the production was 1,073,979 tons, 
 producing about one-quarter of the pig iron made in the 
 entire United States. 
 
 The great deposits of specular ore in Missouri occur in 
 isolated peaks, or islets of the older Archaean rocks, pro- 
 bably of the same age as the very similar ores of Lake 
 14 
 
 Superior, surrounded by the more recent sedimentary rocks. 
 They are situated about 75 miles southwest of St.Louis, and 
 appear in two principal localities, removed from each other 
 by only a few miles, — Pilot Knob and Iron Mountain. Ad- 
 joining Pilot Knob, are Cedar Hill, Shephard Mountain, 
 etc., which are also ore-bearing. In both these localities, 
 the characteristic associate of the ore is a porphyritic rock, 
 which is usually very much decomposed. The Pilot Knob 
 deposits form a regular bed, distinctly stratified, while the 
 Iron Mountain ore is of a compact character and is found in 
 veins in the porphyry more or less irregular. The ores of 
 both localities have much of the character and purity of the 
 Lake Superior ores, though the Pilot Knob ores are much 
 more silicious than the Iron Mountain. The following 
 analysis from the Missouri Geological Reports will show 
 their composition : 
 
 Silica 
 
 Peroxide of iron. 
 Protoxide '* 
 Alumina, . . . 
 
 Lime 
 
 Magnesia, . 
 Sulphur, . . . 
 Phosphorus, . . 
 
 Metallic iron, 
 
 Iron Mountain. 
 
 3.99 
 
 91.45 
 
 2.34 
 
 1.40 
 
 ..51 
 
 .22 
 
 .262 
 
 1.67 
 95.04 
 
 2.67 
 •79 
 .17 
 .137 
 .005 
 .071 
 
 100.353 
 
 Pdol Knob. 
 
 13.27 
 
 84.33 
 
 .16 
 
 2.19 
 
 .21 
 
 .14 
 
 trace. 
 
 .035 
 
 100.326 
 
 6.18 
 90.87 
 
 1.67 
 .89 
 
 1.76 
 .13 
 .078 
 
 100.647 
 
 From the purity of the Lake Superior and Missouri 
 hematites, they afford the main source of supply in the 
 United States for making iron for conversion into steel by 
 the Bessemer process, and for this purpose they are very 
 largely used. They are the main dependence of the iron 
 industry in West Pennsylvania, Ohio, and the Mississippi 
 Valley, and in the coals of these regions, the Lake Superior 
 ores first meet an abundant supply of fiiel in which they are 
 deficient at home. Magnetic ores have been found in the 
 Archaean rocks of Wyoming Territory, Arkansas, etc., but 
 they have not yet become au element in the iron industry of 
 the country. 
 
 The next ore of importance in the United States is the 
 " fossil " ore, an oolitic red hematite, which is found as a 
 member of the Clinton group in the lower Silurian forma- 
 tion, and is known in different sections as the " Clinton," 
 "fossil," "dyestone," and "flaxseed" ore. In the extent of 
 its distribution, and the uniformity of its character and oc- 
 currence, it is one of the most remarkable ores in the 
 country. Following the formation wherever it outcrops, it 
 is found in almost a continuous stratum over a very large 
 area of the Eastern United States. In Dodge county, Wis- 
 consin, it occurs as a bed 20 to 25 feet in thickness, of a soft 
 gravelly character, and is there mined and known as " flax- 
 seed" ore. Its next place of appearance is where the 
 inclosing formation enters New York State at Little Sodus 
 Bay, from which it passes eastward in a curved line through 
 Oneida and Wayne counties, and southward into Pennsyl- 
 vania at Danville. It is mined and largely used in New 
 York State, where it is familiarly known as " the Clinton " or 
 "Wayne county '' ore. From Danville, Pa., it passes south- 
 ward, through Huntingdon and Bedford counties, and fol- 
 lowing the flanks of the Alleghanies, it is found in all the 
 intermediate States, disappearing finally in Northern Ala- 
 bama. At Danville and numerous other places in Eastern 
 Pennsylvania and in Maryland, it is very extensively worked 
 and known as the "fossil" ore. In Eastern Tennessee and 
 Northern Alabama, as the "dyestone" ore, it forms a very 
 important element in the iron industry of that region. The 
 ore occurs as distinct strata in the Clinton group, usually in 
 two beds, and though varying considerably, is on an average 
 from two to four feet in thickness. The character of the 
 ore is peculiar, being an aggregation of grains of peroxide 
 of iron, each seeming to have a nucleus of some organic re- 
 mains, and the mass is filled with fossils, and usually cal- 
 careous. It is probably the result of a deposition in shallow 
 water in a manner similar to the accumulation of bog ore at 
 the present day, and not a formation subsequent to that of 
 the inclosing strata. Where, however, the beds have been 
 highly tilted, the ore is not unfrequently found changed by 
 
210 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the percolation of atmospheric waters into a brown hematite 
 or hydrated oxide. The ore very generally contains con- 
 siderable phosphoric acid, from 0..') to 100 per cent., and the 
 pig iron produced is wholly unfit for steel purposes and 
 generally the better qualities of wrought iron, yet it fulfils 
 excellently well foundry purposes and the ordinary grades 
 of malleable iron. The following are analyses of this ore 
 from three States : 
 
 
 Tennessee. 
 
 Pemwyluania. 
 
 Wlacomin. 
 
 Peroxide of iron, . . 
 
 81.2G 
 
 83.Y2 
 
 66 93 
 
 Oxide of manganese 
 
 trace. 
 
 
 1.00 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 .5U 
 
 
 
 Magnesia carbo late, 
 
 
 
 3.48 
 
 Sulphuric acid, . 
 
 trace. 
 
 
 
 Alumina, 
 
 3.40 
 
 1.16 
 
 140 
 
 Lime, 
 
 l.en 
 
 .20 
 
 
 Lime carbonate, 
 
 
 
 6.82 
 
 Lime phosphate, 
 
 
 
 8.99 
 
 Silica, 
 
 6.50 
 
 2.96 
 
 4.80 
 
 Phosphoric acid, 
 
 1.45 
 
 .64 
 
 
 Carbonic acid, 
 
 1.50 
 
 
 
 Water, • ■ 
 
 4.00 
 
 11.20 
 
 7.60 
 
 
 100.21 
 
 99.87 
 
 100,02 
 
 Metallic iron, . 
 
 66.88 
 
 68.12 
 
 40 15 
 
 The ores of the coal measures of the United States are 
 much less abundant and important than those of Great 
 Britain, and while valuable, are insignificant when com- 
 pared with the richer and more commonly used ores already 
 mentioned. In the Alleghany coal-fields no important de- 
 posits are found in the anthracite basins, and though some 
 local accumulations of argilliferous ores are found at the 
 base of the upper group of coals, as the Oliphant ore, etc., 
 of Southwestern Pennsylvania and Northwest West Virginia, 
 the chief deposits occur in the rocks of the lower group, of 
 coals. Several horizons in the lower coals in the western 
 part of the Alleghany coal-field are peculiarly marked as 
 ore-bearing, especially that of the " ferriferous limestones " 
 of Northwestern Pennsylvania and Eastern Ohio, and while 
 they are of some considerable value in Northwestern Penn- 
 sylvania, they become of particular importance in the 
 Hanging Rock region of Southern Ohio and Eastern Ken- 
 tucky, where they are the foundation of a large industiy. 
 The ore resting upon a limestone is a carbonate of iron, 
 more or less calcareous and argillaceous, though it appears 
 more largely as a hydrated peroxide, the result of the de- 
 composition of the original bed. Near the same horizon are 
 also other deposits, of less interest, of nodular clay ironstone. 
 In the Kanawha Valley of West Virginia important accu- 
 mulations of ore are also found in the lower coal series, 
 which are not yet, however, an essential element in the 
 manufacture of iron in that region. At many horizons in the 
 AUe^^hany coal-basin deposits of argillaceous shale occur, 
 including scattered kidneys or nodules of clay ironstone, but 
 they are of very uncertain character and are rarely of any 
 importance as ores. The coal-fields of the Mississippi Valley 
 have nowhere been found to contain any considerable deposits 
 of iron ore. Black band iron ores have been found in the Trias- 
 sic coal-basin of North Carolina, but Dr. Genth reports them 
 to be valueless as ores, from the large proportion of phosphorus 
 present, derived from fossil organic remains. At Pottsville, 
 Pa., black band occurs metamorphosed by the same action 
 that changed the accompanying coal into anthracite, but 
 the deposits have not been found to be of great extent. The 
 only important deposit of black band known in the United 
 States is in the coal measures of Eastern Ohio, where it ex- 
 ists as a local accumulation at the top of the lower series of 
 coals, in limited portions of Stark and Tuscarawas Counties. 
 The deposit varies greatly in thickness and character, and 
 while ranging from 6 to as high as 16 feet, the average 
 thickness is about 12 feet, though it not unfrequently thins 
 out entirely, or passes into a non-ferruginous bituminous 
 clay shale. The ore is generally less rich than the Scotch 
 black band, and contains 25 to 40 per cent, of iron. The 
 only deposits of crystallized carbonate or spathic iron ore 
 known in the United States, are found at Roxbury, Conn., 
 and in Southern Vermont, but they are of little economic 
 significance. The brown hematites or limonites of the 
 
 United States are very widely distributed, and are of great 
 interest in the iron industry of the country, and while every 
 State contains some deposit of ihcm, they are particularly 
 abundant in the valleys and lowlands along the flanks of the 
 Alleghany Mountains, which are so rich in magnetic ores, 
 and in similar relations, though in less extent, to the great 
 ore deposits of Missouri and Lake Superior. These ores are 
 largely used in the Eastern States as mixtures with the 
 richer crystalline ores, and the deposits of South Vermont, 
 Salisbury, Conn., New York, and at other places, are well 
 known, and contribute largely to the iron industry of that 
 region. In Eastern Pennsylvania, they are very abundant, 
 and at numerous other places in the southern extension 
 of the Alleghany Mountains, in Tennessee, etc., but from 
 the great uncertainty of the extent of the deposits, they 
 rarely can prove the basis alone of any important iron in- 
 dustry in our country.* 
 
 The Laurentian rocks of Canada are very rich in magnetic 
 ores, similar in character to those of Northern New York.^ 
 The area including them stretches in direct continuation of 
 the Adirondack region on the north side of the St. Lawrence 
 River in a northwesterly direction, crossing the river about 
 Ogdensburgh, and passing in a broad area along the eastern 
 shores of G^eorgian Bay and Lake Superior. The ore occurs 
 in numerous deposits, similar in character to those of Eastern 
 New York, and often of great dimensions, as the celebrated 
 bed of Marmora, which is 100 feet in thickness. They have 
 been mainly developed in the vicinity of the Rideau canal, 
 Marmora, Belmont, etc., in the region north of Kingston, 
 from which they have been shipped to some extent to the 
 iron centres of Pennsylvania and Ohio. Though selected ore 
 of a fair degree of purity is obtained, it is generally largely 
 contaminated with sulphur and phosphorus, and often con- 
 tains very large proportions of titanium. But while Canada 
 contaim very extensive deposits of ore, from the absence of 
 mineral fuel it produces but a very small amount of iron. 
 The immense deposits of magnetite, specular, and other ores 
 which are found in the United States, and the facilities 
 which our mode of transportation gives to their union with 
 the great coal areas of the Alleghany and the Mississippi, 
 must give to the United States the foremost position in the 
 future iron industry, and consequently of the manufactures 
 of the world. In theii* development we are yet but beginning 
 to realize their importance, and the future must witnecs 
 great advances in the manufacture in the Eastern States, but 
 more particularly in the Virginias, East Tennessee, Northern 
 Alabama, and in Western North Carolina, which are so 
 abundantly provided ivith rich and pure ores. The manu- 
 facture of iron in the Eastern States will undoubtedly be 
 divided into two great regions, the northern centring in 
 Pennsylvania, and the southern in adjoining corners of Ala- 
 bama, Georgia, Tennessee, and North Carolina. Indepen- 
 dent, however, of these regions in the east, the facilities 
 offered by the valley of the Mississippi, in its valuable coal- 
 basins, and the rich ores of Missouri and Lake Superior, 
 must surely give materials to large iron industries, and all 
 the attendant manufactures, and the rich and fertile valley 
 of the Mississippi must be the home of a large, wealthy, and 
 from its position, a united population. To complete this 
 article, it may not be inappropriate to add a brief synopsis 
 of the great iron regions of our country, with the peculiar 
 conditions of each, and to this end they may be divided as 
 follows : 
 
 1st. The ANTHRACITE and jiagnetic iron ore districts 
 of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Eastern 
 Maryland. The establishments included in this division, 
 with the exception of a few charcoal furnaces in New York 
 and Pennsylvania, depend entirely upon the anthracite coal- 
 basins of Northeastern Pennsylvania for their fuel, and 
 produce all the iron made in the country with anthracite 
 coal. This was, in 1872, 52 per cent, of the total production 
 
 • Since the pi-eparation of these notes much light has heen 
 thrown upon the distribution ani mode of occurrence of the brown 
 hematites of Eastern Penn.<:vlvania, bv the able ami energetic in- 
 vestigation of Prof. Fred. Prim, .Jr., of Lafayette Colletre. These 
 studies form the subject of a very interesting paper " On the Oociu-- 
 rence of the Brown Hematite Deposits of the Great Valley." It is 
 replete with intere.sting facts, and is a long step toward an under- 
 standing of the sequence of events in the' formation of those mos* 
 puzzling deposits, the brown hematites. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 211 
 
 of the United States, or 1,197,000 out of 2,300,000 tons, being 
 the yield of 209 blast-furnaces. The ores used are chiefly 
 magnetic and commonly an admixture of brown hematite, 
 and in some cases the Clinton fossil ore, the Rossie red 
 hematite of St. Lawrence County, New York, and in Wes- 
 tern New York some Lake Superior and Canadian ores, and 
 in Maryland argillaceous carbonate from the Cretaceous 
 clays. The districts may thus be subdivided by reference 
 to the position and the character of the ore in each group. 
 
 (a.) The group of Eastern New York, including the manu- 
 facture in the Adirondack region, at Port Henry, and various 
 places on the Hudson River and contiguous counties ; at 
 Troy, Albany, Hudson, Poughkeepsie, etc., where the an- 
 thracite is brought by canal and railroad from Pennsylvania, 
 and the ores used are mainly magnetic from the Adirondacks 
 and the southeastern counties, with an admixture of the 
 brown hematites of the region. 
 
 (6.) The group of Central and Western New York. — ^The 
 ores used in the central counties, Chemung, Oneida, Wayne, 
 etc., are mainly the fossil Clinton ore, and in some cases an 
 admixture with magnetite or Rossie hematite, while in Wes- 
 tern New York, at Buffalo, etc., Lake Superior and Canadian 
 ores are generally employed. In 1872 New York produced 
 about 16 per cent, of the anthracite, and about 9 per cent, 
 of the total pig iron made in the United States, the greater 
 part being produced in the eastern section of the State. The 
 entire number of blast-furnaces in the State is about sixty- 
 two. 
 
 (c.) Northern Neio Jersey, though furnishing large sup- 
 plies of magnetic ore to the neighboring State of Pennsyl- 
 vania, produced in 1872 only 84,035 tons of pig iron, or 7 per 
 cent, of the total anthracite pig iron made in the United 
 States. The ores exclusively used are the magnetites already 
 alluded to, occurring in the northern counties, while the 
 anthracite coal is supplied by Pennsylvania. The manufac- 
 ture is conducted principally at Phillipsburg, Boonton, Ring- 
 wood, etc., and includes about sixteen blast-furnaces. 
 
 {d.) Eastern Pennsylvania, so well supplied by its abun- 
 dant stores of anthracite coal and the accessible magnetites 
 of the eastern counties and New Jersey, and by the large 
 and scattered deposits of brown hematite, and, near the Sus- 
 quehanna River, the fossil Clinton ore, is the largest pig iron 
 producing region in the United States. In 1872 it produced 
 893,375 tons, or 74.6 per cent, of all the anthracite pig iron 
 made in the country. This region of Eastern Pennsylvania 
 may be again divided into four groups. 
 
 {a.) The Lehigh Valley, embracing the manufacture 
 along and near the Lehigh River at Easton, Bethlehem, Cata- 
 sauqua, Hohendauqua, Allentown, etc., producing about one- 
 fifth of the total iron made in the country. The ores used 
 are chiefly magnetites from New Jersey, with equal propor- 
 tions of the brown hematite of the adjoining country. 
 
 (/?.) The group of the Schuylkill River, embracing the 
 manufacture in Schuylkill, Berks, Montgomery, Chester 
 Counties, etc., where the ores are magnetic, obtained prin- 
 cipally from the Cornwall mines of Lebanon County, with 
 smaller proportions of brown hematite, smelted with anthra- 
 cite coal from the Pottsville region. The manufacture is rep- 
 resented by about sixty-five furnaces, the chief points of 
 production being Reading, Pottsville, Conshohocken, etc. 
 
 {y.) The group of the Upper Susquehanna, embracing the 
 manufacture in Montour, Luzerne, Columbia Counties, etc., 
 where the fuel is obtained from the neighboring anthracite 
 basins, the ores being chiefly magnetite from New Jersey, 
 and brown hematite, with some Clinton fossil ore ; the latter 
 obtained in the vicinity of Danville. The chief points of 
 manufacture are Scranton, Danville, etc., with a total of 
 about twenty-five furnaces. 
 
 (S.) The group of the Lower Susquehanna, in Dauphin, 
 Lebanon, Lancaster Counties, etc., where the most impor- 
 tant ore is derived from the magnetite mines of Cornwall, 
 besides which considerable quantities of brown hematite and 
 some fossil Clinton ore are also employed. Charcoal is used 
 in some localities, the principal fuel being anthracite from 
 the Pottsville basins. The furnaces of this group are about 
 forty-five in number. 
 
 (e.) The final group, which has been included in the re- 
 gion of the Eastern United States, is made to contain the 
 manufacture in Eastern Maryland, in Harford, Baltimore, 
 Howard, and Washington Counties, which though-possessing 
 
 a few anthracte furnaces, is rather an exception to the clas- 
 sification, as it includes quite a number of furnaces using 
 charcoal and coke, the latter derived from the great Cum- 
 berland coal-basin, while the little anthracite used comes 
 from Eastern Pennsylvania. The ores also are chiefly brown 
 hematite, with some red hematite and argilliferous kidney 
 ore from the Cretaceous clays of Eastern Maryland. The 
 chief points of manufacture are near Baltimore, and the en- 
 tire number of blast furnaces in the group is about twenty- 
 one. 
 
 2d. The Mountain Region or Central Pennsylva- 
 nia, lying on the eastern borders of the Alleghany coal- 
 basin, and including also the manufacture depending upon 
 the semi-bituminous coal-basins of Broad Top and Cumber- 
 land, and containing between 45 and 50 furnaces, located 
 chiefly in Blair, Huntingdon, Centre, Franklin, Cambria, 
 and Bedford Counties. Nearly one-half of this number em- 
 ploy charcoal as fuel, while the others use coke made from the 
 coals of the eastern part of the Alleghany basin, and the semi- 
 bituminous coals of the small Broad Top and Cumberland 
 basins. The use of charcoal must soon be entirely superseded 
 by coke, an abundant supply of coal being so accessible. The 
 ore which occurs in greatest importance and regularity is the 
 fossil Clinton ore, which is particularly abundant in Bedford 
 and Huntingdon Counties, besides which large quantities of 
 brown hematite are very generally distributed as surface de- 
 posits, and decomposed fossil ore, which in some cases, are 
 the main source of supply. Large quantities of coal-mea- 
 sure carbonates are also used at Johnstown, and by the char- 
 coal furnaces of Blair, Centre Counties, etc., while small 
 quantities of Lake Superior ore have been imported to one 
 or two localities, but at great expense. The chief points 
 where the pig-iron manufacture is carried on, are at numer- 
 ous places in Blair County, where charcoal is the fuel, and 
 the ores clay ironstones, fossil, and brown hematite; at 
 Johnstown, where are located the works of the Cambria- 
 Iron Company, the most extensive rolling mills in the Uni- 
 ted States — supplied with fuel by the underlying coal, and 
 using the fossil, coal measure and surface limonitic ores. 
 The Broad Top region of Bedford and Huntingdon Coun- 
 ties, drawing its supply of fuel from the Broad Top semi- 
 bituminous basin, has at present a limited manufacture. The 
 presence, however, of vast deposits of the fossil or Clinton 
 ore has destined it to be at no distant future a large pro- 
 ducer. Near the latter, in Maryland, are a few furnaces 
 bearing a similar relation to the semi-bituminous Cumber- 
 land coal-basin. 
 
 3d. The Pittsbukgh eegion (which city being the 
 great iron centre, may appropriately give a title to the eur 
 tire region), including the maufactures of Western Pennsyl- 
 vania, Eastern Ohio and Kentucky, and West Virginia; 
 Though possessing much diversity in material and condi- 
 tions in the various sections, all the different manufacturing 
 points can with reason be included in one great iron district. 
 While in some places charcoal is still an important fuel, the 
 larger supply, and the entire future dependence must be 
 upon the abundant deposits of coal of this part of the Alle- 
 ghany coal-basin. The coals vary in character, as the cele- 
 brated open-burning block coals of the Shenango Valley, 
 Pa., and Mahoning and Hocking Counties, Ohio, the splint, 
 coals of West Virginia, and the coking coals, which are 
 widely distributed, and of which the celebrated Connells- 
 ville coal, of Southwestern Pennsylvania, and the Pittsburgh 
 coal are lypes. This region bears also an important relation 
 to the rich deposits of specular and magnetic ores of Lake 
 Superior and Canada, which first find here an abundant 
 supply of fuel, and which are the chief source of supply for 
 the northern districts of the region. Besides these, large 
 quantities of Missouri specular Ores are also used, and in 
 some parfa of Southwestern Pennsylvania, Southern Ohio, 
 Kentucky, etc., the coal-measure ores become of great im- 
 portance. This region may be divided into four districts as 
 follows : 
 
 (a.) The Pittsburgh district proper, embracing the manu- 
 facture in Armstrong, Alleghany, and the southwestern 
 counties of Pennsylvania, and at Leetona, Steubenville, 
 Martinsburg, Bellaire, etc., in Ohio, and Wheeling in West 
 Virginia. The fuel is exclusively coke, derived principally 
 from the Pittsburgh coal-seam, the Connellsville coal fur- 
 nishing considerable used in the district, though coke is alsp 
 
212 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 made at each place from the local coals. The coal-measure 
 ores are used in Armstrong and Lafayette Counties, but the 
 main supply are the rich ores of Lake Superior, Missouri, 
 and Canada. The chief points of the industry are Pitts- 
 burg, which from the extent of its manufacturing industry 
 has not been inaptly called the Birmingham of America, as 
 it is undoubtedly the city of the largest iron manufacturing 
 interest in the country. Steubenville, Ohio, and Wheeling, 
 West Virginia, though much inferior in importance, are 
 rapidly becoming the centres of an extensive industry, and 
 the latter place, from the magnitude of its nail manufacture, 
 is commonly known as the "Nail City." 
 
 (6.) The Uock coal regions of the Shenango Valley, Penn- 
 sylvania, and Mahoning Valley, Ohio, in Lawrence and 
 Mercer Counties, Pennsylvania, and Mahoning and Trum- 
 bull Counties, and Cleveland, Ohio, comprises 34 furnaces 
 in Pennsylvania, and 25 in Ohio. The fuel is exclusively 
 block coal, which is used in the raw state in the blast-fiir- 
 nace, and as the "Briar Hill" or "Mahoning Valley" coal, 
 has become celebrated as one of the finest known smelting 
 fuels. The ores are almost without exception the rich spec- 
 ular ores of Lake Superior, though sometimes small quanti- 
 ties of Canadian or Lake Champlain ores have also been 
 imported. The ores of the region are generally shipped by 
 way of Cleveland, which is the most important iron market 
 on the entire chain of the great lakes, it being the commer- 
 cial centre for the chief Lake Superior mines. The chief 
 points of manufacture in the region are Sharpsville, Sharon, 
 Middlesex, and Wheatland, Pennsylvania, and Youngstown 
 and Cleveland, Ohio. 
 
 (c.) The black band district of the Tuscarawas Valley, in 
 Stark and Tuscarawas Counties, Ohio, with furnaces at 
 Massillon, Canal Dover, Port Washington, etc. Though but 
 a small iron-producing district, from the exceptional char- 
 acter of its conditions it merits separate consideration. The 
 ore used is the black band ore, the only place in the United 
 States where it is used in any quantity, and though the de- 
 posits are of limited extent, it must be the foundation of a 
 considerable industry, especially in the event of its mixture 
 with the richer crystalline ores. The fuel now used is Mas- 
 sillon block coal, similar in character to the Mahoning coal, 
 though coke will eventually be very considerably employed. 
 In the character of its product it more closely resembles the 
 celebrated "Scotch pig," than any other iron made in the 
 country. 
 
 (d.) The Hanging Rock region of Southern Ohio and East- 
 ern Kentucky, in Lawrence, Jackson, Vinton, etc., Counties 
 of Ohio, and Boyd and Carter Counties, Kentucky, is the 
 largest charcoal iron region in the United States ; but char- 
 coal is rapidly giving way to the use of mineral fuel, which 
 underlies the entire region in great abundance. The special 
 characteristic of this region is the rich and valuable deposits 
 of ore found in the rocks in the lower group of coals, which 
 occur either as a bed of unchanged calcareous or argilla- 
 ceous carbonate of iron, or as a hydrated peroxide, the 
 result of the oxidation of the original bed, as well as some 
 less important accumulations of kidney ore, etc. The iron 
 made from these ores with charcoal has long held a superior 
 rank as a peculiarly soft and tough iron, and has been 
 largely used by the government for ordnance purposes. The 
 substitution of coal for charcoal and the opening up of new 
 avenues of transportation are rapidly increasing the impor- 
 tance of the region, and permitting the importation of the 
 Missouri and Lake Superior ores, which work admirably 
 with those of native origin. Large and pure deposits of 
 open-burning coal are accessible from the Hocking Valley 
 region on the north, and have been long used from the 
 Coalton region of Kentucky. The chief points of the man- 
 ufacture are at Ironton, Ohio, and Ashland, Kentucky, 
 which two places are the keys to the region, in their respec- 
 tive States, Ohio being represented by 46, and Kentucky by 
 15 blast-furnaces. In West Virginia, beside the points al- 
 ready mentioned, there are very large deposits of iron ore, 
 as well as excellent fuel, both coking and open-burning, 
 which must ere' long be the foundation of a large industry. 
 The valley of the Kanawha Eiver has been characterized by 
 numerous observers as particularly rich in such resources. 
 
 4th. The region of the Southern Alleghanies, 
 in East Tennessee, West North Carolina, Northwest Georgia 
 and Northern Alabama, or the Chattanooga region, though 
 
 at present represented by but 52 blast-furnaces, some half 
 dozen of which only use coke or raw coal, is still most im- 
 portant in its resources and in the relation which it must 
 bear to the future iron industry of the South, and the coun- 
 try at large, when better means of communication are pro- 
 vided and the region becomes more developed. In the 
 Cumberland table-land of East Tennessee, the Black War- 
 rior, Coosa, and Cahawba basins of Alabama, we have the 
 southern prolongation and termination of the Alleghany 
 coal-fields, represented here by numerous coal-seams of great 
 value, and which, though at present very little developed, 
 must be the key to extensive manufactures and great wealth. 
 The extreme northwest corner of Georgia possesses also 
 some coal— the overlapping edge of the Alabama and Ten- 
 nessee coal-fields, and North Carolina contains in the 
 Triassic coal-basins of the Deep and Dan Eivers, coal similar 
 in character to those of Eichmond, Virginia, which may be 
 of value in iron smelting. The great extent, purity, and im- 
 portance of the magnetic iron deposits of North Carolina, 
 which extend also into Northern Georgia, though not yet 
 very largely opened, must make a chief source of supply in 
 the future iron industry of the South. The ores at present 
 mainly employed in Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee arc 
 brown hematites, which are very abundant, and the dye- 
 stone or fossil ore, which latter is used in Georgia and Ala- 
 bama. The fuel now employed is, with only a few excep- 
 tions, charcoal, but the supply of wood is necessarily limited, 
 and in the future expansion of the manufacture, the depend- 
 ence will be upon the coal-basins already mentioned. Many 
 of the coals of Alabama and Tennessee are dry or open- 
 burning in character. At present the manufacttire in Ten- 
 nessee is principally conducted in Eoane, Carter and Green 
 Counties, by about 10 furnaces ; in Alabama, in Jefferson, 
 Cherokee, Shelby, and Bibb CountieS; by 17 furnaces ; and 
 in North Carolina, in Chatham and Lincoln Counties by 10 
 furnaces. 
 
 5th. The manufacture in Western old Virginia, along 
 the flanks of the Blue Eidge Mountains, in Wythe, Pulaski, 
 Page, Augusta, Botetourt Counties, etc., which, however, is 
 not yet of great importance. The points of manufacture are 
 widely scattered, the fuel with one or two exceptions being 
 charcoal ; while the forests will furnish a long supply of 
 fuel, the basis of large industries mnst be the mineral fuel, 
 which is readily accessible in the adjoining coal-basins of 
 the Cumberland on the north, and West Virginia on the 
 west, the use of which will concentrate the establishments 
 in such places as are accessible to both ore and fuel. The 
 ores employed are at present almost exclusively brown 
 hematites, with a small proportion of red hematite, produc- 
 ing in 1870, according to the census returns, 17,200 tons of 
 pig iron. 
 
 6th. The region of Western Kentucky and Ten- 
 nessee, south and west from Louisville — in Lyon, Trigg, 
 and Bullitt Counties, etc., in Kentucky ; west of Nashville, 
 in Stewart, Dickson, etc.. Counties, Tennessee. Though 
 containing, in Western Kentucky, part of the Illinois coal- 
 field, this is an iron region of comparatively little interest. 
 It is represented in Kentucky by 9, and in Tennessee by 14 
 blast-furnaces. The fuel is, with one or two exceptions in 
 Kentucky, charcoal, the ore being brown hematite, which is 
 found frequently in large deposits, mainly decomposed 
 nodules of carbonate and sulphide of iron, from the lower 
 carboniferous rocks of the region. This region is probably 
 never destined to be of much importance in the production 
 of iron ; the ore is scattered somewhat uncertainly in its de- 
 posits, and too often quite silicious, but as a feeder of ores to 
 the iron manufacture in the southern part of the Illinois 
 coal-field it may meet a needed supply of raw material. 
 
 7th. The block-coal iron region of Indiana, ori- 
 ginated within the past few years, and though at present 
 represented by less than a dozen blast-furnaces — situated in 
 Clay, Vigo and Martin Counties — is a region of peculiar in- 
 terest. The southwestern part of the State is underlaid by 
 the eastern margin of the Illinois coal-field, and in the 
 counties named, the coal is extensively mined and used in 
 iron smelting. It is an open-burning block coal of unusu- 
 ally excellent and pure quality, resembling very closely 
 the block coals of Eastern Ohio. Indiana contains no iron 
 ores of economic value, and hence the supply is obtained 
 from Missouri or Lake Superior, chiefly the former. The 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 213 
 
 iron made is of excellent quality, and has been successfully 
 used in the Bessemer process. The manufacture is centred 
 principally around Terre Haute and Brazil. 
 
 8th. The Missouri iron region, with St. Louis as a 
 centre, includes the manufacture in Southern Illinois and 
 Eastern Missouri. Considering the immense deposits of 
 specular ore of Pilot Knob and Iron Mountain, and the 
 great extent of the workable coal area in Missouri, Illinois, 
 and Kentucky, this region has resources which when 
 developed fully must make it the great iron centre of the 
 Mississippi Valley. At present the manufacture is main- 
 tained chiefly at and near St. Louis, Grand Tower, Pilot 
 Knob, and in Franklin and Campbell counties, Illinois, the 
 furnaces being about 24 in number. The ores are drawn 
 almost entirely from Iron Mountain and Pilot Knob, 
 while in the adjoing counties in Missouri, a small industry 
 is supported by less iniportant deposits of red and brown 
 hematites. The coals of the Missouri and Illinois coal- 
 basin are as a rule much more impure than the coals of the 
 Alleghany basin, and most of them require washing before 
 they will make coke suitable for iron smelting, though from 
 their general dry character some of the coals are used in the 
 raw state, as the coal from the Big Muddy, Illinois. At St. 
 Louis and Grand Tower, coke is made chiefly from the Big 
 Muddy coal of Illinois, though no inconsiderable amount 
 has been brought from Pittsburgh and Connellsville, Penn- 
 sylvania. In the other works of Southern Missouri, char- 
 coal is the only fuel used. The iron produced with these 
 materials is of an excellent quality, and together with the 
 iron mad3 from Lake Superior ores, ranks as the best in the 
 country. 
 
 9th. The Northern Illinois or the Chicago region, 
 is not large in the number of its establishments, but it 
 includes, at Joliet, in Will county, Illinois, one of the 
 largest pig iron and steel works in the West, and at Chicago 
 and Milwaukee several fine blast-furnaces, beside a number 
 of others in Southern Wisconsin, in Dodge, Sauk counties, 
 etc. The ores that are the chief dependence of the indus' 
 try of the region are shortly and easily transported by water 
 from the Lake Superior region, via Escanaba, Some Mis- 
 souri ores are used at Joliet, and in Central Wisconsin the 
 celebrated fossil or flaxseed ore of Dodge county is largely 
 smelted and exported, and to some extent used at Milwaukee 
 and Chicago. In Wisconsin, charcoal is still used, while 
 much of the fuel at the other places is coal and coke from 
 the northern part of the Illinois coal-field. The coal is not 
 of so good a quality as that of Pennsylvania and Ohio, and 
 while at Joliet, etc., large quantities of Northern Illinois 
 coal is consumed, there is still a very considerable amount 
 of coke imported from Western Pennsylvania. At Chicago 
 and Milwaukee, anthracite has been brought from Eastern 
 Pennsylvania, and mixed with the native coals. The source 
 of fuel supply, however, for this region must be the Illinois 
 coal-field, and necessity will compel the use of more perfect 
 methods of fuel preparation. 
 
 10th. The Lake Superior iron region comprises the 
 manufacture of pig iron in the Lake Superior iron ore 
 district, from the rich native hematites, which, from 
 the entire absence of mineral fuel, is conducted with char- 
 coal, with only one or two exceptions where Ohio or Penn- 
 sylvania coals are imported by the ore vessels on their return 
 trips from the lower lakes. The iron produced holds a 
 deservedly high reputation in the Western markets, and is 
 very largelv used for the manufacture of Bessemer steel in 
 Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Illinois. In this group is included 
 the manufacture in Marquette county, Michigan, and the 
 counties adjoining Green Bay, Lake Michigan, and in Brown 
 and Outagamie counties in northern Wisconsin. 
 
 Though not properly included in this group, there is quite 
 a considerable industry in Southern Michigan, depending 
 on the supply of Lake Superior ores, and which belongs 
 properly to none of the other groups mentioned. Thus the 
 Lake Superior ores are carried from Escanaba across Lake 
 Michigan to several counties adjoining Grand Traverse Bay, 
 where°are vast forests of timber, also to the southern end 
 of the lake to Van Buren county. At Detroit also, on the 
 direct line of communication between the upper and lower 
 lakes, a considerable industry is established, where the ores 
 await the anthracite and bituminous coals of Pennsylvania 
 and Ohio, as well as tlie charcoal of the adjoinmg country. 
 
 In all, the furnaces in the places mentioned number about 
 50, and in the Marquette' region of Upper Michigan are 
 located the greater proportion, nearly 40, producing in 1870, 
 60,000 tons of pig iron. The region to which this name is 
 more generally applied is however, centered in Marquette 
 county, where are located also the immense and valuable 
 ore deposits. 
 
 — A paper by Henry Newton, E. M., Transaciions American Institu'.e of Mining 
 
 Engineere. 
 
 IRON MANUFACTURE IN MEXICO. 
 
 THE works of the Tula Iron Company are in the Re- 
 public of Mexico, State of Jalisco, twenty-eight 
 leagues southwest of Guadalajara, ten leagues north- 
 west of the town of Sayula, through which passes the 
 projected line of the Mexican National Railroad. Its geo- 
 graphical position would be about : latitude, 20° 10' N., 
 longitude, 4° 35' W. of Mexico City. The surrounding 
 country is a rolling plateau, 6000 feet above the sea, en- 
 joying the most magnificent climate in the world, the average 
 temperature being about 70°. The works were commenced 
 in 1860 by a company with a very small capital, having not 
 the least idea of the undertaking. They soon fell into the 
 hands of the money-lenders, and after changing owners 
 three times, the works came, in 1870, into the present com- 
 pany, and have been in a manner rebuilt. As they were 
 originally commenced without any fixed plan, and each suc- 
 cessive owner has pulled down and rebuilt acccording to his 
 fancy, the result is a number of old machines and sheds, 
 huddled together in the most inconvenient manner, which 
 have cost about four times as much as an entirely new es- 
 tablishment. 
 
 Description of the Works. — Water-Power. — Being 
 placed at the junction of two synclinal valleys, Atunajac on 
 the north and Tapalpa on the south, the direct drainage of 
 thirty square miles is partially received ; and for a trifling 
 amount expended in straightening and removing the ob- 
 structions of the various water-courses, the amount of water 
 in the drye.st season (the month of May), which is now 3.6 
 cubic feet per second, may be doubled. The rainy season 
 commences in June and ends in October. The present 
 dam collects sufficient water to last until the end of 
 April, or about ten months, more or less. This dam is 
 of rubble masonry, built in form of an L, across the 
 valley. It is 650 feet long and 20 feet high at the highest 
 point. Here it is 7 feet at the base and 3 J feet at the top ; 
 the back vertical and the face with a batter of 2 inches to 
 the foot, or the base is equal to 0.35 of the height. A wall 
 of this height (20 feet), to be just equal in resistance to the 
 pressure of the water, should be at least 8.4 feet, or 0.42 of 
 the height. The numerous retaining-walls added at inter- 
 vals of SO feet protect it irom overturning. The back water 
 extends half a mile ; the average width is 600 feet. The 
 ground contiguous to the works is in the shape of a horse- 
 shoe. At the apex or top there is a basalt dike,80 feet high, 
 which being in the bed of the old stream, the water has 
 eroded a deep ravine below, and caused the present topo- 
 graphy. On one side is a water-tank, to be subsequently 
 mentioned, on the other are the works. 
 
 The Furnaces. — In a deep excavation in the hillside. No. 
 1 furnace was built. Stack (brick), 28 feet high; bosh, 6 
 feet 5 inches, inclination, 50° ; throat, 3 feet; heart 19 by 20 
 inches, rectangular ; two tuyeres, IJ inches and 17J inches 
 above hearth-line; cold blast; pressure, 1 pound. The lin- 
 ing above the bosh is of refractory stone, said to have been 
 in use thirteen years ; the hearth is of stone. From the 
 tuyeres to the bosh a composition is used, made of equal 
 parts of clay, from a place called Capula, powdered stone, 
 and powdered quartz. It generally lasts from four to six 
 months. Blast is supplied by two double-acting wooden 
 blowing cylinders, with clock valves ; diameter, 3 feet ; stroke 
 7 feet. These also furnish blast for four bloomary fires and 
 two smith's forges. This machine is driven by a 30-feet 
 overshot water wheel, which gives about 46 per cent, of the 
 
214 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 power of the water used. This wheel drives also a small 
 drill-press and turning lathe. In front of furnace No. 1 is 
 the foundry, 40 x 60 feet, arranged with suitable cranes and 
 apparatus. To the right in an excavated space, are two 
 badly constructed cupolas and the exit gate. At the end is 
 the carpenter shop, very small and crampy, beneath which is 
 a storeroom for pig iron and billets. On the same level is 
 the bloomary, twenty feet below the level of the foundry, to 
 the left, which consists of four bloomary fires two trip ham- 
 mers, operated by separate overshot water wheels of 15 feet 
 diameter. In the same building are also an old single-pud- 
 dling furnace and nine inch bar mill, both worthless 
 and abandoned. About fifteen feet to the left of the foun- 
 dry and furnaces is a reservoir, 50 x 80 feet, which catches 
 the water from the 30-feet water wheel and delivers it to the 
 water-wheels of the bloomary. Furnace No. 2 is immedi- 
 ately behind or to the south of No. 1 about twenty feet, in 
 a space excavated for the purpose. The stack was of cut 
 stone, with ornamental cornices. It was erected in 18G9. 
 Two horizontal wooden blast cylinders, 4x7 feet, were geared 
 to the above mentioned 30-feet water-wheel. A Was^eral- 
 fingen stove was constructed to supply hot blast. An at- 
 tempt to blow in was made, and after two weeks' severe 
 labor a gas explosion destroyed the stove, the machinery 
 was found iuefiective, the work was abandoned, and the 
 lining torn out. Such was the condition of the old works 
 in 1870, which are said to have absorbed $400,000, without 
 taking into consideration the hacienda, church, workmen's 
 houses, and other improvements necessary for the existence 
 of iron works. 
 
 The Ne"w Works. — Blast furnace No. 2 has been re- 
 constructed after plans furnished by Messrs. Taws & Hart- 
 man, of Philadelphia. Hearth (round), 3 feet 6 inches dia- 
 meter; bosh, 9 feet; height, 85 feet; throat, 3 feet; two 
 tuyeres, 3 inches diameter and 30 feet above the hearth- 
 line. It is lined from the mantle to the throat with the so- 
 called refractory stone This is a white magnesian silicious 
 stone, which, when first quarried, can be cut easily with a 
 hatchet, but when dry it breaks. It is very heterogeneous 
 in quality. Of several samples, apparently alike, some may 
 be very refractory and the others utterly worthless. When 
 gradually heated to the temperature of melting cast iron in 
 a thoroughly clean bloomary fire, it swells, cracks, and 
 glazes greenish, the interior being porcelain-white. At the 
 end of an hour it melts to a pasty mass of dark-brown color. 
 The trouble experienced with the fire-stone caused all the 
 brick in the country to be tried, and those of San Pedro, 
 near Guadalajara, were found to be the best, and although 
 hj,ving to be packed thirty leagues on mule-back, were 
 cheaper than the cut stone, and fullyequal, if not superior, 
 to it in quality. These brick are badly burned ; on being 
 heated they contract 20 per cent, of their length, warp, and 
 crack. There is no quartz near San Pedro, so old brick and 
 broken quartz were sent to be mixed with the clay, but as the 
 brick are made by Indians, who tread the clay with bare 
 feet and knead it by hand, they would only add quartz in 
 fine powder, and claim that it is the only proper way to 
 make good brick. Over four months were consumed before 
 we could get a few experimental brick made, which were 
 found to be an improvement on the old brick, but many 
 months, or even years, will elapse before they will make 
 what is wanted. It was finally decided to line the bosh and 
 hearth with brick, 16 x 1 x 1 j inches, which is the size the 
 Indians could make most readily. 
 
 As there was already on hand a supply of water sufficient 
 to run a thirty feet overshot water-wheel, consuming seven 
 cubic feet a second, for ten months in the year, it was con- 
 sidered far preferable in every way, and more economical, to 
 use water-power than steam, provided that with the great 
 fall near the works a turbine could be got guaranteed to do 
 all the work and use only three and one-half cubic feet per 
 second, in which case the old wheel, which was much out of 
 repair, would be abandoned. Acting on this view, one of the 
 owners of the company, relying implicitly on the assurances 
 and reputation of a well-known manufacturer of turbines in 
 the United States, bought a horizontal turbine of eighteen 
 inches diameter, to use as a motor. Two double acting 
 blowing cylinders, three feet diameter by two feet stroke, 
 made by Naylor & Co., of Philadelphia, with shaftins;, jour- 
 nals, and patterns for the gearing were bought and shipped. 
 
 The housings, bed-plates, and cog-wheels (of brass) were 
 made at the works. Twelve hundred cubic feet of air per 
 minute, at two and a-half to three pounds pressure per 
 square inch, and fifteen horse power, were required by the 
 furnace. The turbine was expected to make six hundred 
 to seven hundred revolutions per minute, or twenty-four 
 revolutions to one of the blowing pistons. Considerable 
 doubts were entertained about the turbine, but from re- 
 peated assurances from the manufacturers that, with one 
 hundred and fifteen feet fall, it would give thirty horse- 
 power, or eighty per cent, of the power of the water used, 
 and as all the machinery and fixtures were on the ground, 
 it was decided to put it in. It was the intention to use a 
 wooden or brick conduit for the blast, but as the distance 
 was great, and it would have to be built over a stream and 
 up a hillside at an inclination of thirty-five degrees, a 
 wrought iron conduit pipe, twenty inches in diameter, was 
 sent for, which was shipped in sheets and riveted on the 
 ground. The blowing machinery was placed on a solid 
 cut-stone foundation in the ravine in line with the hot- 
 blast. The length of the conduit-pipe was 387 feet. It was 
 provided with a suitable expansion joint, and properly 
 secured to solid masonry pillars. A rubble stone canal, 
 1,000 feet long, capable of delivering nine cubic feet of 
 water per second, was built from the dam, around the hill- 
 side, to a small reservoir placed on the other side of the 
 horseshoe, opposite the works. This reservoir, sixty by 
 ninety by three feet, was intended to catch mud, and also to 
 retain water for thirty minutes, in case of sudden stop- 
 pages. Cast-iron pipes, twelve inches in diameter, conveyed 
 the water two hundred and fifty feet from the reservoir to 
 the turbine, having a fall of one hundred and fifteen feet. 
 The' season was so far advanced that little water could be 
 obtained to make a thorough test of the machinery, but by 
 filling the reservoir and noting the time it took to flow 
 through the turbine, it was found that about seven to eight 
 feet per second were used, and that the turbine gave very 
 little power even then. The manufacturers now say it was 
 only an experimental wheel, and they thought that it 
 would work. A modification of Kent's hot-blast stove, with 
 twenty pipes, capable of heating two thousand cubic feet of 
 air per minute up to 1,000° F., a bell and hopper, drop- 
 valves, and all of the most recent and improved fixtures 
 from the United States completed the outfit of this 
 furnace. 
 
 Bar-Mill.— This is placad on a hill, on a level with the 
 top of furnace No. 2, the waste gases from which will heat, 
 as desired, both hot-blast and boilers, which are also placed 
 on the same level. The building is 150x40 feet, and fifteen 
 feet in the clear, roof of tiles, supported by heavy wooden 
 trusses resting on brick pillars ; only a portion of the sides 
 are boarded in as a protection against rain. The end far- 
 thest from the blast furnace, or east end, is allotted to the 
 puddling furnaces, there being space for six ; one double 
 furnace is completed. In the center of the mill there is a 
 one-ton steam hammer, to shingle the puddle-balls ; it is 
 from Ferris & Miles of Philadelphia, and works well. 
 About midway of the building on the south side are the 
 heating furnaces, one of which is in operation. Beyond the 
 heating furnace is a three-high bar-mill, of the best work- 
 manship, capable of making 2J inch bars, and all sizes of 
 flats, IJ inch squares, and various sizes down to ,85- round. 
 A set of puddle-rolls is provided, and an overhead rail- 
 road connects them with the steam hammer and puddling 
 furnaces. The- mill is driven by a twenty-inch leather belt 
 from the fly-wheel of the engine, which is in a brick room 
 on the north side of the building, opposite the heating fur- 
 naces. The engine is one hundred horse-power, from 
 Mackintosh, Hemphill, & Co., of Pittsburg. It rests on a 
 solid cut-stone foundation, and is a particularly well built 
 and smooth working machine. There are two boilers of the 
 best Pennsylvania charcoal iron, forty-two inches diameter 
 by forty-five feet long; they have been tested to 150 pounds 
 hydraulic pressure, or double the working pressure allowed. 
 They are provided with both injector and steam-pump ; the 
 pump IS usually worked, and the injector kept for accidents ; 
 a little water is always kept running from one of the 
 cocks so that the fireman may know that the boilers are 
 full. A steam-pump and shears were needed to complete 
 the equipment. The mill has .be?a constnicted to work 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 215 
 
 towards the blast furnace, or west, where there is but little 
 space ; it should have been made to deliver at the east end, 
 where there is ample room. 
 
 Foundry. — This requires no special description; castings 
 are generally made direct from the blast furnace, but when 
 the latter is not in blast the cupolas are used ; these are badly 
 constructed and insnfBciently supplied with blast, and as 
 much as sixteen hours have been consumed in getting a 
 single heat from them. The fly-wheel of the engine, four- 
 teen feet in diameter, and weighing over four tons was cast 
 in a single piece direct from the blast furnace, as were also 
 the bed-plates of the engine and blowing machinery, and 
 various heavy castings of the hot-blast. Every description 
 of castings can be made from five pounds up to four tons, 
 but they nave no experience in making casting as thin as 
 a quarter of an inch. Castings are generally made in the even- 
 ing and removed in the morning. It seems to be a fixed 
 custom to immediately remove the top covering as soon 
 as the iron solidifies, and allow the top to cool, so the piece 
 frequently warps and is generally so hard that it is difficult 
 to cut with either file or cold-chisel. The workmen are spe- 
 cially skilful in making baluster railings, ornamental rustic 
 chairs, and sugar-boilers ; of this class of work few foundries 
 of the United States or Europe can make neater or cleaner 
 castings. There are several smith's forges scattered around, 
 well supplied with tools, and a lathe and drill'press, in bad 
 condition, driven by water-power. The carpenter shop.s, of 
 which there are two, are fairly furnished, but no seasoned 
 lumber is ever kept on hand even to make patterns ; in fact 
 only a few boards are brought on mule-back, from time to 
 time, from the saw-mill fifteen miles distance, as necessity 
 demands. There was but one good monkey-wrench, after 
 which boys were kept in perpetual pursuit. The shovels 
 were of wood, and there was a general deficiency of picks, 
 axes, and other small but absolutely necessary tools. Tram- 
 ways with hand-cars should be substituted for the barbarous 
 and expensive system of packing loads on men's backs ; but 
 the most deep-seated and yet cunning prejudices exist against 
 all labor-saving devices. 
 
 The District of Tula.— The nucleus of the hills is green- 
 stone, generally overlaid by a thin seam of a shaly disjointed 
 sand-rock, the joints of which are highly discolored by 
 oxide of iron. In some places may be observed a layer of 
 stone, which, from its position and character, has evidently 
 been formed from the disintegratien of the greenstone, and 
 subsequently cemented. 
 
 Amole Mne.— This is situated on the side of a ravine two 
 and a half miles from the works ; it is the only mine in the 
 district, but from the occurrence of iron outcrops in variou-. 
 places, others will probably be found and opened up with 
 advantage. On one side of it is a trap dike, on the other 
 side the disjointed stone, and lower down the ravine the 
 cemented stone. It is worked by an open cut extending 
 horizontally seventy-five feet into the hill. So far it is only 
 a pocket, but from the indications of float rock about; a 
 small drift would possibly soon disclose a vein parallel with 
 the dike. The ore and waste (the latter being thrown into 
 the ravine) are packed on men's backs. A mine car is very 
 much needed, since the farther the open cut penetrates the 
 hill the more will be the waste and the greater the distance 
 it will have to be carried. The ore occurs in bunches, a,nd 
 is very variable, passing from a limonite to a crystalline 
 specular hematite and a micaceous hematite, the one verging 
 into the other without any apparent regularity ; it is broken 
 and hand-picked at the mine. The gangue is clay mixed 
 with decomposed hornblende. This ore is very unpopular 
 with the furnacemen ; the micaceous ore they caW plumbacma 
 (graphite) and throw away as worthless. The following are 
 the analyses of two samples of the limonites such as they 
 prefer to work, made by Kenneth Robertson, E. M., ot Eas- 
 ton, Pennsylvania: ^^^ p^ 
 
 (1) 
 Silica, 293r 
 
 Water, 
 Alumina, .... 
 Phosphoric acid, . . 
 Ses'quidxide of iron, 
 Protoxide of iron. 
 Lime, ... 
 Magnesia, . . ■ 
 
 Metallic irf^n, 
 Phosphorus, 
 
 2.19 
 1.16 
 ".21 
 03.74 
 2.66 
 0.66 
 0.25 
 
 100.00 
 46.68 
 0.092 
 
 27.50 
 6.21 
 2.10 
 0.46 
 
 63.38 
 
 0.26 
 0.10 
 
 100.00 
 44.36 
 0.20 
 
 The cost of mining is $0.9| per cargo of 300 pounds or 
 $0.62J per ton; transportation to works $0.12J per cargo or 
 S0.83| per ton ; or total cost of one ton of 2000 pounds 
 delivered at the works 81.46. 
 
 The Mineral District of Chiquilistlan. — ^This is twenty 
 miles west of the works and is of very interesting character. 
 The formation is limestone (probably Tertiary), greatly 
 upheaved by volcanic action, and penetrated in various 
 directions by trap dikes. The general trend is northeast 
 by southwest. Comparatively near together are mines of 
 iron, copper (both oxides and pyrites), silver, lead, coal, 
 and, I am told, also, tin and graphite. Here, also, is the 
 once famous cinnabar mine of La Manta, which caused the 
 town to be a quite important place. It was worked by the 
 Spaniards, who only employed prisoners, and it is said that 
 any man who survived six months' work was given his 
 freedom. The mine is now abandoned, but with machinery 
 could easily be opened. The large excavations, and a pile 
 of over ten thousand tons of dibris, attest the extent of the 
 operations. A little mercury is distilled in Canteras, from 
 a hydraulic washing in the neighborhood. There is an 
 abundance of wood and water near this mine. 
 
 Tacofes Mine.— Thii is the principal iron mine of the 
 works, from which it is twenty-one miles distant, the trans- 
 portation being effected as usual by pack-mules. It is 
 situated in the southern portion of the district, on the side 
 of a steep hill, about eight hundred feet above a ravine. 
 The vein is what is termed segregated, occupying a space 
 between parallel seams of limestone. Its outcrop may be 
 distinctly traced from the top of the hill to near the bottom 
 of the ravine, and I am told that it also extends to the other 
 side of the hill, but that has not been proved. Half-way 
 up the hill it is worked by an open cut, which now extends 
 horizontally inward about two hundred feet by eighty feet 
 wide, and exposes six seams of ore of an aggregate thickness 
 of fifty to sixty feet. A little powder is occasionally used 
 for blasting. The chief labor is in disposing of the waste, 
 which is packed on men's backs, in raw-hide sacks, and 
 dumped in the ravine. The natural way to work the mine 
 would seem to be in benches or steps, using chutes and 
 mine cars to carry off the waste to two small ravines which 
 exist conveniently on either side of the vein, and down 
 which water continually flows. The cost of exploration 
 would thtis be diminished and the yield be increased to any 
 desired extent. The present cost of mining is 4i cents per 
 carga, or 28t% cents per ton ; transportation to works, 37^ 
 cents per carga, or $2.50 per ton. Total cost per ton at the 
 works, $2.78t%. The gangue is clay, with very hard sili- 
 cious nodules of iron ore. The following are the analyses 
 of the various seams, made by the above-mentioned chemist : 
 
 Silica 
 Water . 
 Alumina .... 
 Phosphoric acid . 
 Sesquioxide of iron 
 Pr' toxide of iron . . . 
 Sesquioxide of manganese. 
 Lime . 
 Magnesia . . 
 
 Metallic iron 
 Phosphorus . 
 
 ^t 
 
 1.14 
 0.90 
 0.76 
 0.39 
 95.97 
 
 0.32 
 0.52 
 
 loo.no 
 
 67.18 
 0.17 
 
 1.70 
 1.16 
 0..58 
 0.06 
 95.97 
 
 0.27 
 0.26 
 
 100.00 
 67.18 
 0.026 
 
 2.81 
 0..55 
 2.30 
 0.21 
 09.08 
 
 0.28 
 1.43 
 
 100.00 
 66.44 
 0.092 
 
 
 2.18 
 0.14 
 94.80 
 
 0.28 
 0.11 
 
 100.00 
 66.36 
 0.06 
 
 9.50 
 11.30 
 2.03 
 trace. 
 64.39 
 22.68 
 
 0.20 
 0.90 
 
 100.00 
 62.73 
 
 t-.o 
 - a 
 
 4.T2 
 5. 
 
 1.20 
 0.47 
 86.67 
 
 0..52 
 0.48 
 0.26 
 
 100.00 
 
 60.67 
 
 0.20 
 
 3.73 
 1.43 
 
 1.62 
 0.21 
 84.68 
 7.66 
 0.09 
 0.30 
 0.58 
 
 lon.oo 
 6509 
 0.092 
 
 These ores, from No. 1 to No. 4, are brown hematites ; No. 
 5 is occasionally crystalline, and makes excellent fettling for 
 the puddling fiirnaces; No. 7 is extensively sold to the 
 numerous Catalan forges in the neighborhood, or exchanged 
 for other ores that the forgemen dislike to work. 
 
 La Mora Mine. — This is nine miles north of Tacotes, in a 
 similar formation to the last, but more irregular. It has 
 been worked from the time of the Spaniards, and extends 
 about three hundred feet under ground in various directions. 
 The ore has not been mined, but dug out. Several crosses 
 are placed at the entrance of the mine, to encourage the 
 
216 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 miner and insure him of safety. It is now only worked to a 
 limited extent, to mix with other ores. It is much sought 
 after by the Catalan-forgemen, and the blast-furnacemen 
 consider it almost impossible to work without it. The fol- 
 lowing analysis does not indicate any important difference 
 from the other ores. It must, therefore, owe its good quali- 
 ties to its molecular condition : 
 
 Silica, 3.24 
 
 Alumina, 2.88 
 
 Pliosphoric acid, 0.37 
 
 Sesquioxide of iron 68.61 
 
 Protoxide of iron 22.73 
 
 Oxide of mangane.se, 0.52 
 
 Lime 0.34 
 
 lyiagnesia 1.31 
 
 Metallic Iron, 
 Phosphorus, 
 
 100.00 
 . 05.72 
 . 0.19 
 
 It costs to mine, 16 cents per carga, or $1.15 per ton ; 
 transportation, 43J cents per carga, or $2.92 per ton. Total 
 cost at the works, $4.07 per ton. 
 
 Las Animas Mine. — This is also a segregated vein in lime- 
 stone, four miles west of La Mora mine. The outcrop can 
 be traced without difficulty for over a thousand feet. The 
 vein is well defined and regular, varying from three to five 
 feet in thickness. It has been but recently opened and the 
 exploitation is done in a very workmanlike manner. The 
 property is not owned by the company, but the ore is ex- 
 changed for that of Tacotes and delivered at the works for 
 the same price. The forgemen do not like it. In the blast 
 furnace it works well and makes a very fine-grained and 
 very tough iron, which has not yet been analyzed. Within 
 half a mile of this mine occur several pockets of cinnabar, 
 that have been worked from time to time for the last two 
 hundred years, yielding from one to five per cent, of mercury. 
 
 Coal. — On the northern edge of this district, eight miles 
 northeast of La Mora, occurs an outcrop of coal, occupying 
 seams of limestone and shale, the latter being in contact 
 with the volcanic rock. There are four distinct seams of 
 bituminous coal, dipping conformably with the limestone, 
 varying in thickness from eighteen inches to three feet. A 
 shaft thirty feet deep on the largest, discloses a seam of bitu- 
 minous shale interstratified with small seams of bituminous 
 coal, with conohoidal fracture, bright surface, and very 
 pyritiferous. When slightly heated it will burn with a 
 bright flame. Before the blow-pipe it cakes and gives off a 
 strong empyreumatic odor. It may be valuable some day 
 for steam purposes, but will never be useful metallurgically 
 and is probably a deposit that would not pay for prospecting. 
 
 Limestone. — This occurs in an inexhaustible bed nine 
 miles south of the works, in a prolongation of the Chiquilist- 
 lan formation. It is delivered, calcined, at 75 cents per 
 carga, or $5.00 per ton. The raw stone can be delivered at 
 $1.40 per ton, but the calcined stone is used in the furnace 
 because they are used to it, although the saving in fuel is in- 
 considerable. The following is the analysis of the calcined 
 stone, and calculated analysis of the raw stone : 
 
 Silica, 
 
 Alumina and oxide of iron, 
 Lime, . . 
 Magnesia .... 
 CarDonic acid, . . 
 
 Calcined. 
 
 Eaw. 
 
 1.96 
 
 1.48 
 
 . 2.59 
 
 1.95 
 
 70.43 
 
 63.12 
 
 108 
 
 0.82 
 
 23.94 
 
 42.63 
 
 100.00 
 
 Fuel. — The company owns six and a half square leagues, 
 or thirty-six thousand acres of land surrounding the 
 works, one-half of which is already cleared; but for 
 twenty' leagues around the mountains are covered with a 
 magnificent forest of oak and pine, and several valuable 
 leases or privileges are held for cutting timber at the 
 most accessible points. The wood is burnt in piles con- 
 taining about ten cords (one cord equal to one hundred and 
 twenty-eight cubic feet), and yields charcoal of the best 
 quality, weighing seventeen to twenty pounds per bushel, 
 of two thousand seven hundred and forty-seven cubic inches. 
 
 The charcoal-burners are Indians, who work by contract. 
 To avoid hauling or packing the wood they built their piles 
 where the wood falls. They are always very small ; some- 
 times they are built about one hundred feet apart, with only 
 one man to attend them all. During a windy day, which 
 frequently occurs, some are necessarily neglected. It is 
 useless to try to persuade them that this system is very waste- 
 ful, and that experience elsewhere has shown, that it is far 
 more economical in labor and yield of coal to haul Wood 
 and burn it in kilns, or at least in piles containing thirty or 
 forty cords. The charcoal is delivered in sacks, weighing 
 one hundred to one hundred and twenty pounds, including 
 waste, at twenty-three cents a sack, or about four cents a 
 bushel. The coal should be forked, all brands, waste, and 
 stones rejected, and be paid for either by weight or by 
 measure ; but this is never done, being contrary to the " cos- 
 tumbus, del pais." 
 
 Cost Per Ton (2000 lbs.) of Pig Iron.— Boasting 
 and Breaking. — The ores from the mines of Tacotes, Las Ani- 
 mas, and Amole are roasted in piles, with wood and 
 charcoal braize, and then broken by hand, whether they 
 have been fused or not, to the size of a walnut ; about five 
 per cent, is lost in this operation as waste. 
 
 Cost of roasting per ton, . 
 " breaking " 
 
 .$04.0 
 . 0.20 
 
 Cliarges of Foraace THo, 1. 
 
 Tacotes, ... . . 1.5 boxes = 118 lbs. 
 
 Amole 0.6 " — = 33 " 
 
 La Mora, 0.5 " = 33 " 
 
 184 lbs. 
 
 Charcoal, .4 baskets =165 " 
 
 Calcined limestone, .... . i shovel — 2.06 lbs. 
 
 Number of charges a day, 50 to 60 ; yield of iron, about 
 55 per cent. ; loss of iron in slag, 7 per cent. ; average pro- 
 duction per day, 3 tons ; charcoal consumed per ton of iron, 
 3228 pounds. In addition, about 20 bushels are consumed 
 at the tymp (no clay or sand stopper being used), from which 
 rises a bright flame two or three feet high, similar to that of 
 the Catalan forges, as worked by the Indians in the neigh- 
 borhood. 
 
 Cost ofBIaterlal per Ton of Iron. 
 
 Tacotes ore roasted and broken, 1.15 tons @ $3.38, . $3.89 
 Amole, " " " '• 0.33 " @ 1.35, . 0.44 
 
 La Mora, " " " " 0.33 " @ 4.27. . 
 
 Lime, 41 lbs . . @^^ct, . 
 
 Charcoal, 180 bus., ... @ 4 " . 
 
 Total cost of material, . ... 
 
 1.41 
 0.10 
 7.20 
 
 $13.04 
 
 Cost ot liabor per Ton of Iron* 
 
 First keeper, . . . 
 
 Second '* 
 
 2 helpers, @ 50 cents, . 
 4 tillers, ®S1)4 " . 
 
 . $1.25 per day 
 
 . 1.12>^ ■■ 
 
 . 1.00 
 
 . 1.50 " 
 
 Total for labor, .... $4.87J^ 
 Superintendence, repairs, etc.. 
 
 for 3 ton.s, or per ton, $1.62 
 2.60 
 
 Total cost per ton $17.16 
 
 Cost per Ton of Iron Rcflnca In Blooniary and Hammered 
 Into Billets. 
 
 Labor of melter per quintal, . $0.4.3% 
 
 TH ", „„„!!'?!]"""?■"'*" , " ■ ,"■'"' —$0,735^, or per ton, . . $14.75 
 
 Fuel, OOOOlbs. charcoal, or 333 bus., @ 0.04, , .; . 13 33 
 
 Iron 1.26ions@ 17.16, ...!..'.'' Zliis 
 
 Repairs, superintendence, and foreman 2.60 
 
 Total cost per ton of billets, .... 
 Loss of iron, from 16 to 35 per cent, 
 
 .... $52.03 
 
 The hammermen are paid for other pieces as follows : 
 
 Shafts, per quintal «i oo 
 
 Cart axles, " .!!!.! .60 
 
 Cost of One Ton of Puddled Bar Iron, Shingled by Steam 
 Hammer.- -This estimate is based on the few weeks' 
 work of the double puddling furnace. 
 
MINING LIFE-A MINE SHAFT IN MEXICO. 
 
 -FROM LA VIE SOUTERRAINE " BY L. SIMONIN. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 217 
 
 1.06 tons of pig iron @ $17.16 '. 
 
 Packing " " top of hill to the furnace . 
 7 cartloads of wood (388 cubic feet) © 76 cents . 
 
 Labor, per ton 
 
 Shingling, " 
 
 EoughingroHH ' ... 
 
 Engine-drivers, steam, etc 
 
 Superintendence, repairs, and foremen .... 
 
 Coat per ton of puddle bar .... 
 Capacity of furnace, 2 to 2.6 tons per day 
 
 $18.02 
 AS 
 5.25 
 3.60 
 .00 
 2.60. 
 1.18 
 2.50 
 
 $34.00 
 
 Cost of One Ton of Ordinary Bar Iron, Boiled from Billets. 
 
 1.016 tons of billets @ $62.03 $64.36 
 
 Packing from bio )mary to mill 1.04 
 
 Heating (labor) l.oo 
 
 Heating (fuel, 6 cartloa'is wood, .334 cubic feet, @ 95 cents), 4.60 
 
 Boiling, straightening, etc. . . 5,00 
 
 Engine-driver and firemen . . ^68 
 
 f Fuel for engine , .50 
 
 1 Superintendence, repairs, and foremen, . .' 2!60 
 
 Total cost per ton of bars $69.58 
 
 Average rolled per day, 6 tons ; maximum, 7 tons. 
 
 Cost of One Ton of Ordinary Bar Iron, Rolled from Puddle 
 Bar. 
 
 1.045 tons puddle bar, @ $34.00 . 
 Heating, rolling, etc. . . . 
 
 $36.63 
 14.18 
 
 $49.71 
 
 From the notes of Mr. Michael O'Neil, an experienced 
 puddler from Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, I gather the follow- 
 ing, which is added as an interesting description of the 
 condition of the works. He found the small puddling fur- 
 nace choked up and that it had been used for melting brass. 
 After making proper repairs, using the refractory stone of 
 the country, which he was assured was " perfectly infusible," 
 it was started. The charges were first 350 pounds of iron, 
 and, finally, 450 pounds; the iron melted in three quarters 
 of an hour, and each heat lasted about an hour and a half; 
 here a heat usually takes from two to two and a quarter 
 hours._ The iron was very dry, but with plenty of good dry 
 wood it worked perfectly. Balls of only 80 to 100 pounds 
 were made, and shingled under a small trip-hammer of two 
 and a half inch face. After every two or three heats, delays 
 occurred on account of portions of the roof and stack melt- 
 ing down, which would have to be removed. Two entire 
 new roofs of the " refractory " stone were built from Nov. 
 1st to Jan. 31st, when so much of the stack fell that it was 
 deemed useless to repair it, and puddling was postponed for 
 a time. The time from February until May was consumed 
 in building the heating furnace. The refractory stone was 
 again used, the roof was twelve inches thick, and would last 
 about three weeks, single turn, but the chimney, after three 
 days, melted so much as to entirely fill the take-up and stop 
 operations ; it was then lined with fire-brick, and has worked 
 well ever since. The charge was 800 to 1200 pounds, ac- 
 cording to the size of the billets, and took three-quarters of 
 an hour to heat. The double-puddling furnace was com- 
 menced in May, and completed about the middle of August. 
 Here numerous drawbacks again occurred; from the con- 
 traction of the fire-brick ; the bridge wall fell, damaging a 
 portion of the fire-chamber. The wood was so wet that even 
 though dried in strips on hot-iron plates, it would scarcely 
 burn, so that the grate-bars had to be altered to allow the 
 addition of charcoal. The hands were green, and from 
 their little knowledge previously gained at the small furnace, 
 were very conceited and impertinent, considering them- 
 selves teachers rather than learners. The charges were 900 
 pounds, and six heats were made in eleven hours; the iron 
 hammered under the steam-hammer, worked well, and was 
 of fair quality. Work continued about two weeks, when 
 fifteen feet of the stack fell on account of the contraction of 
 the fire-brick, a portion being constructed of key-brick ; the 
 work was then stopped. Mr. O'Neil's contract expiring at 
 this time he came home, after having taught them all he 
 could in a year. It is much to be regretted that they did 
 not learn more, or rather that they concluded that they had 
 learned everything, and allowed him to return so soon. His 
 salary, travelling expenses and maintenance, amounted to 
 about $4000. One may judge of the cost of this experiment, 
 which may be taken as a type of the cost and difliculty of 
 introducing new things into this country. We refrain from 
 estimating the cost per ton of the iron he did puddle, but 
 
 will mention the quality of that puddled in the small single 
 furnace. The usual Mexican test is to hammer a rod cold 
 into a nail : this it stood perfectly. Specimens of this iron 
 were exhibited at the Centennial Exhibition, and tested on 
 RiShle's testing machine. The tensile strength per square 
 inch was as follows : 63,880 pounds ; 54,060 pounds ; 54,700 
 pounds; 58,930 pounds ; 58,590 pounds. The qualities of 
 this iron are magnificent. Even with the present rude manu- 
 facture, it fully equals the special brands of European and 
 American iron, manufactured with the greatest care and 
 skill. 
 
 Present Production of the Works. — Active opera- 
 tions are carried on from the first of July to the first of May, 
 ten months, or while the supply of water lasts. During this 
 period the furnace is in blast about two hundred days, pro- 
 ducing about 400 tons of pig iron and castings. The bloom- 
 ary fires are active, off and on, all the time ; but from stop- 
 pages on Sundays, Saint's days, and break-downs, they may 
 be said to average three and a half weeks' actual work du- 
 ring the month, or thirty-five weeks for the year. Each 
 bloomary produces 3 tons of billets a week, with a loss of 
 iron of about 25 per cent. These three bloomaries, during 
 the year, produced 315 tons of billets and consumed 394 
 tons of pig iron. The loss of heating and rolling billets in- 
 to bar iron is 4i per cent., leaving a yield of 301 tons of bar 
 iron. Castings are made direct from the blast ftirnace at a 
 cost for patterns and moulding of three-quarters of a cent, 
 per pound, or $15 per ton ; whence we have — 
 
 To 206 tons of casting @ $32.10, 
 " 301 tons bar iron @ $06.59, 
 
 Db. 
 $6,62496 
 20;843.68 
 
 Ce. 
 
 By 607 tons C 
 
 ' 10 cts. per pound, or $200 per ton, . . . $101,400.00 
 Balance in favor, . $73,931.46 
 
 $101,400.00 . $101,400.00 
 
 Estimated Production of the Works when Com- 
 pleted and in Good Running Order. — ^We will assume 
 that all the production is from No. 2, the puddling furnaces 
 and rolling mill, though for four months in the year, when 
 there is an excess of water, furnace No. 1 and the bloomaries 
 might be employed. Assuming furnace No. 2 to be worked 
 under the same conditions as furnace No. 1. as regards ore, 
 fuel, and labor, and that it produces ten tons of pig iron 
 daily, the price of labor per ton will be reduced to $1.13, 
 and it will then cost $16.03. Supposing the furnace in blast 
 200 days per year at 10 tons per day, — -2000 tons ; of this is 
 sold as castings, 500 tons, leaving to be puddled and rolled in- 
 to bar iron, 1500 tons. Assume that the mill works 250 
 days a year, and each double-puddling fiirnace only produces 
 2 tons per day, or 500 tons per annum, then three puddling 
 furnaces (allow one more for accidents), and two reheating 
 furnaces will do the work. We have then as the production 
 of the works the following : 
 
 To 600 tons castings @ $31.02, 
 " 1376 tons bar iron, $^.71, 
 
 Do. 
 . $16,516.00 
 . 63.400.96 
 
 Ck. 
 
 By 1876 tons @ 8 cts. pr pound or $160 pr ton, . . . $299,160.00 
 Balance in favor, . $216,244.04 
 
 $299,160.00 
 
 $299,160.00 
 
 Such is the condition of the manufacture of iron in this 
 portion of Mexico, and it may be taken as a type of its 
 manufacture in other parts of the republic. It is obvious 
 that the works were badly located in the beginning, and it 
 is a question whether it would not have been more judicious, 
 instead of adding to their new improvements, to have built 
 an entirely new concern at the Tacotes Mine, using steam- 
 power entirely. While the large ftirnace is in full blast the 
 daily transportation of 15 tons of ore from the Tacotes Mine, 
 will require 210 mules and 35 mounted drivers, a day being 
 allowed them to return. A wagon road will have to be con- 
 structed: then 6 wagons, 72 mules, and 12 drivers will do 
 the work. Still these works possess advantages that few en- 
 joy, and were their resources properly developed, they would 
 make iron cheaper than anywhere in the world. They have 
 the richest and purest of ores, that produce an iron only sur- 
 passed by the best from Sweden, abundance of cheap fuel, 
 and superabundance of cheap labor. This last, however, 
 is not an unalloyed blessing, for double the necessary number, 
 
218 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and a host of decrepit old foremen are employed, and the 
 "compadre" system all-powerl'ully reigns. The market for 
 the iron extends throughout the States of Colima, Michoa- 
 can, Jalisco, and Zacatecas ; covering an area of more than 
 103,000 square miles of the richest and most enterprising 
 part of the republic, and the works always have more orders 
 than they can fill, at prices ranging from eight cents to ten 
 cents per pound. There is a slight competition from foreign 
 iron in the towns near the coast, but as this has paid exces- 
 sive duties and costs of transportation, it can be easily ex- 
 cluded by the really superior Tula iron, which can always 
 undersell it. 
 
 There are many Catalan forges in the neighborhood 
 operated by Indians, who eke out a meagre existence by 
 selling, at three cents per pound, the plow-shares, axes, and 
 billets they produce, to the shop-keepers, who advance them 
 food. This manufacture does not amount to a competition; 
 but a well-organized lot of forges throughout the country, 
 and portable steam-engine and hammer to make nail-rods, 
 which would require but very small capital, could offer very 
 serious competition. In the face of numerous difficulties, 
 and after the expenditure of immense sums of money and 
 indomitable energy and pluck, Tula has been established, 
 and fully contributed its share to the advancement of the 
 independence and civilization of the country. 
 
 — A paper by J. P. Carson^ TroTisacticns Avierican Institute of Mining 
 
 Engineers. 
 
 THE FORMATION OF GOLD NUGGETS AND 
 PLACER DEPOSITS. 
 
 IN the year 1874 I made some examinations of the 
 hydraulic mines of California, and was very much 
 struck with the distribution of the gold throughout 
 these deep placers, which were almost invariably poor 
 on the surface, while gradually growing richer towards the 
 bedrock. The constant presence of fossil wood, and the 
 large quantity of organic matter contained even low down 
 in these beds, was also remarkable. Not being satisfied with 
 the various theories advanced to account for the formation 
 of these deposits, I began an investigation early in the year 
 1879 on the conditions of solubility of gold and the causes 
 of the loss in working gold ore in a large way. The re- 
 searches which I have undertaken show that gold must be 
 considered a soluble rather than an insoluble metal, and 
 that the conditions of solution are such as will be found 
 anywhere where gold is likely to occur, and the solution 
 may take place even under the ordinary circumstances of 
 surface drainage, and may be going on freely even where 
 the presence of gold has never been suspected, and that 
 there are causes enough in nature to produce the solution of 
 the gold in sufficient quantities to account for all the pheno- 
 mena of both the vein and placer formations. 
 
 Ths general theory with regard to the formation of these 
 placer deposits and nuggets has been that they were the 
 result of the destruction of pre-existing vein-matter, which 
 d-)es not accord with the facts as shown in the deep placer 
 deposits. The gold in such case would be distributed in 
 layers of unequal richness throughout the bed, the richness 
 depending on the amount of deposition taking place at any 
 one time, and would not occur in increasing richness from 
 the top to the bottom. Further, every particle of gold of 
 whatever size would have a rounded form, resulting from 
 its abrasion against the harder rocks, which is not the case, 
 the small as well as the large grains being of very irregular 
 shape. It must also be borne in mind that most of the veins 
 from which the gold is supposed to have come had a gangue 
 of quartz. The gold is much softer than the rock; the 
 quantity of precious metal contained in the vein would also 
 be very much less than the rock, so that in the destruction 
 of the formations there would be a very small amount of 
 gild bein^ abraded and ground in a very large quantity of 
 rock. It IS therefore likely that the coarse particles of gold, 
 which is so much softer, would be comminuted at least as 
 fine as the rook, and the smaller ones much finer than the 
 rock, so that the difference in density would hardly tend to 
 make a concentration by any subsequent action of wind or 
 water, since the small particles of gold would tend to float 
 
 away and thus prevent the concentration. Where the large 
 particles are not in suiBcient quantity to make an extended 
 natural concentration possible, and where the deposition of 
 the sediment of the rivers is taking place, the result would 
 be a very small quantity of almost impalpably fine gold, 
 distributed uniformly in a very large amount of comminuted 
 rock, or a production of clays resembling that used to make 
 brick around Philadelphia, which contains very sm.all 
 amounts of gold uniformly distributed through it. The 
 structure, too, of each one of these particles would be the 
 same as that of the rock with which it was abraded, and 
 would be uniform. It is, however, well known that the 
 grains of gold found in the placers are not uniform ; some 
 of them are flattened with rounded edges, others rounded, 
 and most are mammillary, all of which forms are not pro- 
 bable, and hardly possible, under the conditions suggested. 
 A nugget rounded like a water-worn pebble is a great ex- 
 ception in any of the placer deposits. 
 
 While the theory of vein destruction might in some cases 
 account for the presence of gold in small quantities through- 
 out the sands in grains large enough to admit of concen- 
 tration, it could never account for the presence of large 
 nuggets, which if they had been transported any distance by 
 water would have lost their mammillnry form. Admitting 
 the greater size and force of the ancient rivers, it is impos- 
 sible to conceive that such large and irregularly shaped 
 nuggets as those from Australia, Siberia, and from this 
 country could ever have been so transported by water as to 
 be entirely relieved of all their gangue, without having 
 themselves assumed much more regular surfaces and a moie 
 uniformly cobble-stone shape. On the other hand, slow ac- 
 cumulations from solutions of varying strength and a depo- 
 sition of unequal rapidity continued for a great length of 
 time, accounts perfectly both for the form and for all the 
 attendant phenomena. It is a fact, moreover, that very large 
 masses such as these nuggets have never been found in veins, 
 and are confined exclusively to placer deposits. The detrital 
 theory accounts still less for the fact that in many of the 
 deposits, especially where the bed-rock is soft and porous, 
 the gold often enters it to the deplh of nearly a foot, and it 
 is frequently the richest part of the deposit. In 1867 Mr. 
 Wilkinson, of Australia, made a series of researches with 
 reference to the effect of organic material on the deposition 
 of gold. Sonstadt* also made a series of researches on the 
 presence of gold in sea-water, and found it to be present in 
 the ratio of about one grain to the ton of water, or about 51 
 for every 25 tons of water. 
 
 Up to this time gold had always been considered as a very 
 insoluble substance, because it was insoluble or very nearly 
 so in most mineral acids. Ingenious metallurgical processes 
 based on this insolubility have been invented, and are still 
 in constant use ; but it does not follow that because gold is 
 not affected by the ordinary acids it is therefore not soluble 
 in other substances much more likely to be found in nature. 
 The action of organic acids and of the alkalies were left out 
 of view, and also the fact that (he solution of infinitesimal 
 quantities may acquire great significanc e in a geological sense. 
 Bischoff found that sulphide of gold is slightly soluble in 
 meteoric waters, and much more soluble in a saturated 
 solution of sulphuretted hydi'ogen in water. It has also 
 been ascertained that chloride of gold in minute quantity 
 in an alcoholic solution may remain in solution in the 
 presence of proto-salts of iron, and that metallic gold is 
 slightly soluble in solutions of (he per-salts of iron. But 
 the theories founded on these discoveries supposed that gold 
 was much less soluble than it really is, and (hat the solution 
 required peculiar agencies and a set of circumstances not 
 likely to occur everywhere. Its diffusion in sea-water was 
 accounted for by the presence of chlorine, iodine, bromine, 
 and of alkalies, and these conditions were not thought to be 
 of general application in the explanation of the phenomena 
 exhibited in mineral veins. 
 
 Mr. Selwyn, the government geologist of Victoria, proposed 
 a theory of solution to account for the formation of nuggets 
 and placer deposits, suggesting that the gold was dissolve d 
 by the waters which filtered through the soil, was carried in 
 solution until it met some nucleus around whieh it could 
 deposit, and was then precipitated, and that nuggets and 
 
 • Chem. News, vol. x.wi, p. 15n ; Am. Chemist, vol. iii, p. 206. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 219 
 
 placer deposits were formed in this way. He does not, how- 
 ever, state what he supposed the cause of the solution to be, 
 and suggests that the gold is undoubtedly deposited on par- 
 ticles of gold previously existing in the sands. These re- 
 searches and theories, however, did not attract very much 
 attention, and the old theory of the destruction of pre- 
 existing veins was still adhered to. It is to be observed, 
 however, that when gold does come from the destruction of 
 veins the surfaces are rounded and worn smooth, as is shown 
 in the large boulder of quartz containing gold detached from 
 a vein in Venezuela, which is now in the collection of the 
 School of Mines. This is in entire contradiction to the 
 mammillary structure of the nuggets. If they had been 
 transported far by water they would have been rounded and 
 water-worn to much more regular surfaces. These worn 
 surfaces would of course hg,ve been confined entirely to the 
 outside of the nuggets, any cavities existing in the interior 
 of the piece would have been in the condition in which they 
 left the vein, and the edges of any crystals found there would 
 have been sharp ; while in the nuggets the mammillary form 
 exists even in the cavities of the interior, and even where 
 crystals or the commencement of crystallization is observed, 
 the edges of the crystal are very often blunted or rounded, 
 showing both deposition and solution on these edges. It is 
 aho to be noticed that the analyses of nearly all the samples 
 of gold taken from veins show it to be much less pur§ than 
 the nuggets found in the placer mines of the same district. 
 If the gold of the placers had come from eroded rocks it 
 would be of the same composition as that of the veins of the 
 district in which it was found. It is well known that most 
 of the gold nuggets are pure, while the gold of the veins is 
 of a much lower grade, containing considerable quantities of 
 silver and other foreign metals. Thus the Ballarat nuggets 
 are 992.5 fine, the Australian nuggets vary from 960 to 966 ; 
 those from veins in California from 875 to 885 ; in Tran- 
 sylvania 600 with 399 of silver, and in Nevada there are 
 some of 554 of gold and 429 of silver, and others only 333 
 of gold with 666 of silver. 
 
 It must be remembered also that the violence of the old 
 placer currents was very much greater than that of the 
 ordinary streams of these days. The rivers were not only 
 larger and deeper, but more rapid, and the results of their 
 action would have been an almost complete comminution of 
 the gold by its rubbing against the harder rocks. If this 
 were the whole of the process and no further action had 
 taken place, the gold would be found in the sands in this 
 comminuted condition exclusively, and few if any of the par- 
 ticles would have escaped the battering and pounding process 
 incident to long exposure to rolling rocks ; and the deposita 
 resulting from it would be found on the bed of the stream. 
 
 Gold is, however, also found as nuggets, and in small par- 
 ticles in rocks which have never been disturbed from their 
 original 'conditions, but which have been decomposed to a 
 considerable depth ; and it then has the same rounded form, 
 occupying positions which make it evident that it must 
 have been in situ, and never have undergone any abrasive 
 action. The nugget found in 1828, in Cabarrus county, 
 North Carolina, which weighed 37 pounds, and also the one 
 found in the Valley of Tasohku, Targanka, near Miask, 
 in Siberia, which weighed 96 pounds, were both found 
 under such circumstances in a decomposed dioritic rock. 
 In some few cases it has been deiinitely ascertained that the 
 gold has been dissolved and precipitated in the decomposed 
 rocks, for it has penetrated only just so far as the decompo- 
 sition has allowed it, the yield in gold ceasing entirely at 
 the point where the rock allowed no further filtration ; 
 while in other rocks of a more porous nature in the same 
 district the gold has penetrated to a depth not yet ascer- 
 tained. Such a condition of things is not uncommon in 
 the gold belts of the Southern States. Admitting that 
 heavier masses of gold did exist in the veins disintegrated 
 by the ancient rivers, gravity alone cannot account for the 
 bottom deposits (which are often 300 feet frem the surface) 
 being the richest. It would have required greater agitation 
 of the earth than we have any evidence for believing ever 
 took place to sift the coarse particles even through 50 feet 
 depth of earth, and there is no indication that these deposits 
 after they were once made were ever disturbed. It is un- 
 doubtedly true that in shallow placers, where the bed-rock 
 comes near the surface, the surface-soil in rich ; but it is the 
 
 invariable rule that in deep placers the richest deposits are 
 near the bed-rock, and at a great distance from the surface. 
 
 There is a tradition, which is prevalent in all the gold 
 mines of the South, and in those of some other districts, to 
 the effect that gold grows, so that every few years the tails 
 of the old mines are reworked, generally with profit; the 
 quantity separated each time, according to the local tradi- 
 tion, being in proportion to the length of time the material 
 has remained undisturbed. As there is no opportunity for 
 the gold in these sands to accumulate by gravity, the people 
 of the region believe that gold grows like a plant. It would 
 not, however, be rational to deny a theory so easily ex- 
 plained as the formation of placers by the destruction of 
 vein-matter without having some other to replace it. If the 
 theory of the destruction of pre-existing veins is not tenable, 
 we are bound to examine carefully whether there are causes 
 in nature sufficient to account for solution, and what are the 
 agencies that render the gold soluble. A series of experi- '' 
 ments have been made on this subject lasting over many 
 months, both synthetical and analytical, which seem to be 
 of considerable importance in the study of the origin both 
 of placer and vein phenomena. In this investigation most 
 of the known salts of gold were prepared ; but as the chlo- 
 ride is most easily made, this was made the basis of almost 
 all the solutions. While making the chloride of gold for 
 the solutions some sponge-gold was placed in a tube and 
 heated in a current of chlorine-gas until the chloride of gold 
 formed was entirely sublimed. It deposited at the upper 
 part of the tube directly over the gold, and as the tube 
 cooled, on the gold also, in fine transparent crystals half an 
 inch long. This tube, when cool, was closed while full of chlo- 
 rine, by substituting for the glass tubes glass rods, and the 
 joints made tight with parafiine. In five months the crys- 
 tals were melted into a mass, and in a year the whole of the 
 chloride had been transformed into metallic gold with occa- 
 sional nodules of chloride through it ; but the whole of it 
 could be readily amalgamated. In order to ascertain the 
 effect of different organic substances on salts of gold in 
 solution, five portions of fifty cubic centimeters each of a 
 solution containing 50 grams of chloride of gold were 
 treated in different ways. The first was covered with a 
 cubic centimeter of petroleum. In the second a quarter of 
 a gram of cork was placed ; in the third a quarter of a gram 
 of peat; in the fourth half a gram of leather; in the fifth 
 half a gram of leaves. These solutions were put in a dark 
 place, and were left for three months before examination. 
 When the solution containing the petroleum was brought to 
 the light the liquid had lost its color, and there were sus- 
 pended in it a number of very fine and long crystals of 
 gold, distributed nearly uniformly from the top to the bot- 
 tom, and floating almost perpendicularly in the water. They 
 had the appearance of the hexagonal crystals described by 
 Professor Chester.* As soon as the liquid was agitated they 
 fell to the bottom. The solutions containing the cork, 
 leather, and leaves had also been rendered colorless, but 
 the gold had entered into these substances, replacing the 
 organic matter, so that they were pseudomorphed into gold. 
 The solution in which the peat was placed was also colorless, 
 but the gold was precipitated in the form of very small mam- 
 millary masses, recalling perfectly the form of nuggets. 
 
 To ascertain the degree of solubility of gold a quantity of 
 pure spongy gold was prepared, and placed in a variety of 
 solutions ; some of these were left exposed to the air; others 
 were sealed at the ordinary temperature and pressure of the 
 air for periods of from six to eight months ; others were ex- 
 posed to heat and pressure under varying conditions in an 
 air-bath, arranged in such away that the temperature could 
 be kept constant for a number of hours at a time. Many of 
 these last tubes burst after the liquid had acquired a tint. 
 Of some of these the contents were entirely lost, of others a 
 sufficient quantity of liquid was left to test for gold. Solu- 
 tions of salt, sulphate of ammonia, chloride of ammonium, 
 chloride and bromide of potassium in sealed tubes, after 
 eight months gave no reaction. Heated for five hours at 
 temperatures varying from 150° to 200° C, none of them, 
 except the bromide of potassium, gave any reaction, and 
 that reacted very strongly. In the sealed tubes the solution 
 of salt, in which a few drops of nitric acid had been placed, 
 
 * American Journal of Science, 3d series, vol. xvi., p. 32. 
 
220 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 reacted for gold ; the iodide of potassium gave no immediate 
 reaction, but when evaporated to dryness left a purple 
 residue, soluble in bromine, which reacted for gold. Heated 
 to a temperature of from 100° to 170° C, the iodide of potas- 
 sium tube gave a reaction for gold not much stronger than 
 the solution before heating. A solution of commercial 
 nitrate of ammonia, which contained some chloride of 
 ammonium as an impurity, kept in an open tube at the 
 ordinary temperature and pressure for four and a half 
 months, colored the solution bright yellow, and reacted 
 strongly for gold. Two solutions were made each contain- 
 ing five grams of nitrate of ammonia and half a gram of 
 chloride of ammonium in 200 cubic centimeters of distilled 
 water. One of the solutions was left in an open room and 
 the other put in a dark place, and left for eleven days. At 
 the end of that time both reacted strongly and with equal 
 intensity for gold. Pure sponge- gold was then placed in 
 the following solutions, contained in sealed tubes at the 
 ordinary temperature and pressure for three months. Sul- 
 phide of ammonium produced no change and no reaction. 
 With sulphide of potassium a black precipitate was formed, 
 and a strong reaction for gold was given by the liquid. 
 Sulphide of sodium gave a black precipitate and a strong 
 reaction for gold. Cyanide of potassium gave a yellow 
 solution, a brown precipitate and smell of ammonia, and a 
 strong reaction for gold. Chloride of magnesium, after 
 nearly three months, gave a gelatinous pi-ecipitate, but no 
 gold. Sulphate of soda, after the same length of time, pro- 
 duced no change and no reaction. The sulphate of copper 
 produced no change after two and a half months. Spongy 
 gold was then put into solutions of the following substances, 
 and heated for six and a half hours between 145° and 180° 
 C. Sulphide of ammonium showed no apparent change, 
 but reacted strongly for gold. The solution of sulphide of 
 potassium attacked the glass strongly ; it looked greenish, 
 and the liquid reacted for gold ; a black precipitate was 
 formed, which was dissolved in bromine, and reacted for 
 gold. The solution of sulphide of sodium acted slightly on 
 the glass, and acquired a greenish tint ; a pink film was 
 found oil the glass, and a slight precipitate was formed. 
 This film reacted slightly, and the solution very strongly 
 for gold ; there was not enough of the precipitate to examine. 
 The solution of chloride of magnesium attacked the glass 
 strongly, from which scales fell, but no gold was dissolved. 
 The solution of sulphate of soda gave a cloudy, flooculent 
 precipitate, but no reaction for gold. Commercial sulphuric 
 acid and solutions of sulphate of potash, iron, and manganese 
 gave white scales, but no reaction for gold. Solutions of 
 sulphate and nitrate of soda gave no change and no reaction. 
 The solution of permanganate of potash produced no reac- 
 tion. In the solution of cyanide of potassium the brown 
 preoipitite which was formed in the previous experiment 
 dissolved, reducing the gold in the solution so that no gold 
 was found dissolved. A mixture of nitrate of silver and 
 sulphuric acid produced no change after two months. A 
 mixture of the sulphates of potash, iron, manganese, and 
 commercial sulphuric acid produced no change after two 
 months. The permanganate of potash and sulphuric acid 
 gave a black precipitate and colored the liquid slightly 
 pink, but gave no gold. 
 
 In order to test the effect of organic matter in solution, 
 half a gram of chloride of gold was placed in two liters of 
 Croton water in two large bottles. One of these was left 
 exposed to the sunlight, and from this all the gold was pre- 
 cipitated in less than a week ; the other was placed in a 
 dark room and left there ; at the end of eight months a 
 small amount of gold was precipitated. When solid organic 
 matter was placed in the bottle the precipitation was quite 
 rapid, and when the bottle was then brought into the sun- 
 light all the gold was precipitated in about forty-eight 
 hours. 
 
 To ascertain the effect of different soils on weak gold solu- 
 tions half a gram of chloride of gold was dissolved in ten 
 liters of filtered Croton water, and made to pass continuously 
 over the three mixtures given below arranged in glass fun- 
 nels. The apparatus was so arranged that the liquid would 
 flow drop by drop on the filters. No. 1 contained 30 grams 
 pf quartz sand, No. 2, 20 grams of sand and 10 of soil. No. 
 3, 30 grams of magnetic iron sand and ten of quaj-tz sand. 
 The filters were left exposed in a room where there was con- 
 
 siderable dust arising, and where there was also the smoke 
 from passing trains. In two days most of the gold had been 
 precipitated in the filters, and Ihe water had a greenish look. 
 Half a gram of chloride of gold was then dissolved in ten 
 liters of distilled water, and filtered in the same way over 
 thirty grams of quartz sand, a mixture of twenty of sand and 
 ten of soil and a mixture of ten of sand and thirty of mag- 
 netic sand. These filters were carefully covered to prevent any 
 dust settling on them ; so that they were protected from all or- 
 ganic matter except such as was contained in them. At the end 
 of two months the clean sand and the mixture of magnetic and 
 clean sand had reduced a small quantity of gold (a little more 
 in the latter than the former) in concretionary shapes, which, 
 owing to the rapidity of the action,-were not coherent, but could 
 be crushed with the pressure of the finger. In the mixture with 
 the soil the whole had been reduced, and was distributed 
 through the sand as an impalpable powder, no indication of 
 any concretionary form being observed. The attempt was 
 then made to dissolve gold in a manner similar to that which 
 was supposed to take place in nature. For this purpose 
 filters were prepared of thirty grams each of clean quartz 
 sand ; in one of these 1.161 grams of sponge-gold was placed 
 and carefully mixed with the sand; in each of the other two 
 half a gram of very fine gold was mixed. Over the sponge- 
 gold ten liters of distilled water, containing thirty grams of 
 comnipn salt and five grams of nitrate of soda, was made to 
 filter constantly for two months, but no observable change 
 took place. For the second solution six liters of Croton 
 water were taken, in which nine grams of nitrate of am- 
 monia and one gram of chloride of ammonium were 
 dissolved. This was made to filter constantly for one 
 month, but no gold was dissolved. For the last experi- 
 ment one gram of nitrate of ammonia and nine grams 
 of chloride of ammonium were used, but no gold was dis- 
 solved. It was the intention to continue these filtrations for 
 six months at a time, and with all the conditions of natural 
 waters, but the difficulty of making the experiments con- 
 tinuous decided the abandoment of them after a number of 
 the other results had been obtained. The failure to dissolve 
 gold in this short time does not prove that there is no action, 
 as the other experiments show. An amount equal to a little 
 less than that in sea-water might easily escape detectiou. 
 In these experiments there is lacking the certainty that all 
 the conditions necessary to success are fulfilled. It was 
 found in one of the experiments, made in the early stages of 
 the investigation, that the fine dust circulating in the room 
 was sufficient to precipitate the gold from a dilute solution. 
 All these researches had to be made in a room to which 
 many persons had access, and it is quite possible that the 
 organic matter precipitated the gold in these last experi 
 ments as fast as it was dissolved ; for in the experiments for 
 the production of the placers the organic matter did deposit 
 the gold in the sand. It is greatly to be regretted that these 
 experiments could not have been made in the complete 
 absence of dust. 
 
 In order to test the effect of organic life in such solutions, 
 a plant was watered with a very weak solution of gold, but 
 as is often the case in such experiments, the plant died of 
 too much watering. In the anxiety to produce the kind of 
 absorption by plants described by Durocher and Malaguti, 
 the experiment was made a failure by too much enterprise. 
 The examination of the ashes of the plant showed a small 
 amount of gold, but most of the gold precipitated was in the 
 soil around the plant, being thrown down there by the or- 
 ganic material in the earth. This experiment indicates the 
 origin of the thin plates of gold which are sometimes found 
 in the grass roots of certain placer countries. It will be 
 observed that in almost all the cases where gold was dis- 
 solved, chlorine and some nitrogenous substances were found 
 together in the presence of alkaline watei-s. These same 
 conditions are favorable also to the separation and solution 
 of silica. It has been proven by these experiments that the 
 alkaline sulphides act on gold as well as the substances 
 enumerated above, and it is quite easy to imagine the con- 
 ditions under which the gold, already in solution in exces- 
 sively small quantities, coming in contact either with solid 
 or liquid organic matter, may precipitate all the metal. 
 
 In Grass Valley, California, I have known of gold being 
 thrown down in the filter of a Plattner's vat by the organic 
 matter contained in the very impure water used there for the 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 221 
 
 solution of gold rendered soluble by the action of the chlor- 
 ine. The filter was full of metallic gold, and there was no 
 means of ascertaining how much of it had been lost. Several 
 ounces of a brown deposit were taken from it which was 
 nearly pure gold. This cause of deposition, and of loss in 
 large operations, has, I believe, been entirely overlooked. 
 It is quite easy to explain the presence of gold in alluvial 
 sands by the action of sunlight alone on the waters contain- 
 ing the gold in solution, and to account for the g;old on the 
 bed-rock, by the solutions coming in contact with organic 
 or mineral matter, such as the lignites, fossil woods, or the 
 pyrites, which is everywhere found in deep placer deposits. 
 The waters not being able to pass the bed-rock, remain there 
 in contact with the organic matter until all the gold is pre- 
 cipitated. . The same would not be true of the decomposing 
 rocks, or of slaty strata coming up to the bottom of the 
 deposit at an angle. The deposition would be rendered 
 much more rapid by any electrical currents that might pass 
 through the strata. In all of these phenomena, time, which 
 in the operations of nature is unlimited, is one of the chief 
 factors. In any laboratory experiment the limit of time 
 must of necessity be short, but there is no such limit in na- 
 ture. That tills solution goes on on a large scale there is every 
 reason to suppose. That this may be connected with vein 
 phenomena the California nugget shows, since in this case 
 both the formation of the quartz and of the nuggets are evi- 
 dently posterior to that of the blue gravel. It will be seen 
 from these reactions that many of the conditions favorable 
 to the solution of gold are also favorable for the solution of 
 silica, and that, as Professor Kerr shows,* the rocks may be 
 actually decomposed and the gold deposited, forming in this 
 way shallow deposits called veins, in which the gold disap- 
 pears entirely beyond a few feet. 
 
 Nothing is more likely than that the infiltration of water 
 through rocks undergoing decomposition, of which there are 
 enormous quantities in the gold region, should take up the 
 alkalies, and, slowly passing over the gold, should dissolve it. 
 The composition of these alkaline salts would depend on the 
 nature of the rock through which the waters passed, but it is 
 more than likely that they would be mixtures of many of 
 the compounds likely to attack the gold and carry it off in 
 solution, and not alkaline carbonates and sulphides alone, 
 although these would be likely not only to be present, but to 
 be powerful agents in carrying on the work of solution. In 
 some cases the decay of the rocks is so rapid that the pheno- 
 mena may, as it were, be caught in the act. The agencies 
 producing the decomposition of the rock, penetrating it be- 
 yond the limits of local drainage, and carrying ofi" the solu- 
 ble parts, leave the debris in a condition easily penetrated 
 by the infiltrating solutions, and ready to receive any deposit 
 which these solutions may for any cause leave behind them. 
 A source of these deposits in the deep placers of California is 
 the trap which sometimes covers the old river deposits to a 
 depth of 150 feet. In the deep placers these waters would be 
 capable of holding the gold in solution until they niet some 
 decomposing element, such as particles of metallic com- 
 pounds, native metals or organic matter, which is always 
 present in large quantities in the deep placers. If a nucleus 
 of metal were present the gold would be precipitated on it, 
 and if none were present then the gold would come down as 
 a powder, each grain of which, however small, would serve 
 as a nucleus for future aggregations. Admitting the solutions 
 to be even more dilute than the sea-water near the coast of 
 England, yet unlimited time and quantity would evidently 
 •produce these efiects, redistributing the gold. Iodine, which 
 is a solvent of gold, is found in many of the plants of the 
 gold region, and in considerable quantities of sea-water. 
 Sonstadtt supposed that gold is kept in solution in the water 
 of the sea by the slow rate at which iodate of calcium is 
 decomposed in the se.a-water of the temperate zones, but sug- 
 gests that where the decomposition of the iodate, whose 
 presence is necessary to keep the small amount of gold in 
 solution, is very rapid as in hot countries, the liberation ot 
 the nascent iodine, and consequent rapid solution of the 
 gold, and subsequent precipitation by organic matter is quite 
 sufficient to account for the great richness of the gold deposits 
 of tropical countries. 
 
 « Transactions, American Institute of Mining Engmeers,yol. 8, p. 462. 
 •f-Chem. News, vol. xxvi, p. 161. Am. Chemist, vol. ui, p, 208. 
 
 It seems, by the experiments already cited, to be clearly 
 proved that gold is not only not insoluble, but that in nature 
 it is constantly being dissolved out of the rocks and placers, 
 the waters of filtration dissolving out of the rocks in their 
 passage through them all the materials necessary for the 
 solution of the gold, and carrying it in very dilute solutions 
 until it meets some substance that precipitate it. It seems 
 to be proved that when the action is slow and localized, we 
 have the phenomena of placers with large or small nuggets 
 and irregularly shaped pieces, and when the action is rapid 
 we find the gold in small particles distributed through the 
 sands. We have reason to suppose that these phenomena 
 are now taking place in such a way as to concentrate the 
 gold by infiltration and precipitation in the tailings of 
 mines which cannot be concentrated by mechanical means. 
 Some of these phenomena can be accounted for by the sim- 
 ple action of sunlight, but others, mostly those of the deep 
 placer deposits, have their cause in the large amount of 
 organic material contained in them. The use of a charcoal 
 filter to precipitate the gold from relatively concentrated 
 solutions in one of the recently invented metallurgical pro- 
 cesses, is a very suggestive idea of the means nature may 
 have used on an immense scale on very attenuated solutions. 
 The same conditions which cause the solution of gold in 
 certain cases cause also the solution of silica. This explains 
 the phenomenon of mammillary and apparently water-worn 
 nuggets (like that from Placer county) encased in quartz, 
 while both the gold and the quartz have been found posterior 
 to the blue gravel. It also explains the presence of " putty 
 stones," as the soft pieces of decomposed rock constantly 
 found in placer deposits are called. Many of the causes 
 which produce the precipitation of the gold would also 
 produce the reduction of soluble sulphates to insoluble 
 sulphides, the gold being detained in the mass. This would 
 account for the almost constant presence of gold in pyrites, 
 or the occurrence of some of the copper ores of Texas in 
 the form of trees, the ore containing both gold and silver, 
 and also for the constant presence of gold in the iron ores of 
 Brazil, the so-called Jacotinga, and also for the presence of 
 trees transformed into iron ore carrying gold in some of our 
 Western States. In many of the deep placers of California 
 the heavy cap of basalt is quite sufficient to account for 
 many of the phenomena which occur not only beneath but 
 around it. The fact that gold has not as yet been found iu 
 potable waters may be simply due to the extreme difficulty 
 attendant on its detection in minute quantity. It is more 
 than likely that many of the geological, phenomena on a 
 large scale were produced by very dilute solutions or very 
 slight forces acting for a very long time. How far the elec- 
 trical currents of the earth may have been a factor in these 
 phenomena it is impossible to surmise. It is, however, more 
 than probable that they were the result, not of one alone, 
 but of all the causes mentioned, and perhaps many others 
 which as yet have escaped our attention. No single agent 
 is so powerful a solvent of gold as chlorine. Very few 
 drainage-waters are free from some compound of it, and no 
 soil is without the nitrogenous materials necessary to set the 
 chlorine fi-ee, and therefore capable of attacking the gold 
 and rendering it soluble. The experiments show that a trace 
 of it is quite sufficient to dissolve enough gold to color a 
 solution so that the eye can detect it after a few weeks' 
 exposure. In the nugget of Placer county it would have 
 been impossible for either the gold or the silica to have got 
 into its position except by solution. The iron of the blue 
 gravel in this case seems to have been the first cause of pre- 
 cipitation, and subsequently the gold itself was an active 
 agent in increasing its own weight. The general absence of 
 crystals and of their rounded edges, where they are found, 
 can be easily accounted for by the fact of the rapid action 
 possible in the placers. The readiness of filtration through 
 the easily permeated gravel causes the gold to precipitate so 
 rapidly that there is no time for any but a mammillary 
 deposit; while in vein deposits the extreme slowness of the 
 deposition allows the gold to assume a crystalline shape. 
 When we consider that two-thirds of all the gold produced 
 in the world comes from alluvial deposits it seems difficult 
 to account for its presence in the sands in any other way 
 than by solution. 
 
 ■^A paper hy T. ISjXeatan, Ph. D., Bchijol of Minea, Tranmctiona Amerienn IntsUtixU 
 
 of Mining Bngvneers, 
 
222 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEREST OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 
 
 OF MINING DISTRICTS IN THE 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 PROFESSOR W. P. BLAKE, in a note to his Cata- 
 logue of California Minerals, pointed out that the 
 mining districts of the Pacific slope are arranged in 
 parallel zones, following the prevailing direction of 
 the mountain ranges. This interesting generalization has 
 been more fully illustrated and connected with the geologi- 
 cal history of the country by Mr. Clarence King, who sums 
 up the observed phenomena as follows: "The Pacific coast 
 ranges upon the west carry quicksilver, tin, and chromic 
 iron. The next belt is that of the Sierra Nevada and Oregon 
 Cascades, which, upon their west slope, bear two zones, a 
 foot-hill chain of copper mines, and a middle line of gold 
 deposits. These gold veins and the resultant placer mines 
 extend far into Alaska, characterized by the occurrence of 
 gold in quartz, by a small amount of that metal which is 
 entangled in iron sulphurets, and by occupying splits in the 
 upturned metamorphic strata of the Jurassic age. Lying to 
 the east of this zone, along the east base of the Sierras, and 
 stretching southward into Mexico, is a chain of silver mines, 
 containing comparatively little base metal, and frequently 
 included in volcanic rocks. Through Middle Mexico, Ari- 
 zona, Middle Nevada, and Central Idaho is another line of 
 silver mines, mineralized with complicated association of the 
 base metals, and more often occurring in older rocks. 
 Through New Mexico, Utah, and Western Montana lies 
 another zone of argentiferous galena lodes. To the east, 
 again, the New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana 
 gold belt is an extremely well-defined and continuous chain 
 of deposits." 
 
 These seven longitudinal zones or chains of mineral de- 
 posits must not, in my opinion, be held to constitute a com- 
 plete classification. The belts of the Coast Range and the 
 west slope of the Sierra are well defined, both geologically 
 and topographically ; but it is not so easy to separate into 
 distinct groups the occurrences of gold and silver east of the 
 Sierra. For instance, the gold of Eastern Oregon, Idaho, 
 and Western Montana, together with such occurrences in 
 Nevada as those of the Silver Peak and New Pass districts, 
 and numerous instances of sporadic occurrence of particular 
 ores of silver or argentiferous base metals, cannot be brought 
 within the classification above given. Either more zones 
 must be recognized,, or a greater mineralogical variety must 
 be acknowledged in those already laid down. The" latter 
 alternative is, I think, the more reasonable. According to 
 the principles set forth in a discussion of mineral deposits 
 in my report for 1870,* it appears evident that the agencies 
 which affect the general constitution of geological formation 
 are far wider in their operation than those which cause the 
 formation of fissures; and that the causes influencing the 
 filling of fissures are still more local in their peculiarities 
 than those which form the fissures themselves. Thus, of the 
 area covered by rocks of a given epoch, more or less uniform 
 in lithological character, only a small portion may have 
 been exposed to conditions allowing deposits of useful min- 
 erals, even when such deposits are contemporaneous, as in 
 the case of coal. Still more limited is the field for the for- 
 mation of fissures ; but it must be freely confessed that in 
 the case before us, the corrugation of half the continent 
 into parallel mountain ranges offers good grounds for the 
 expectation of vast longitudinal systems of fissures. When 
 we come to consider the filling of these fissures, however, it 
 is evident that the mineralogical character of the vein-ma- 
 terial must vary, to some extent, as to the gangue, but to a 
 still greater extent as to the nature of the ores. Even single 
 mines, in the course of extensive exploitation, have pro- 
 duced ores diflfering as widely as do those of the different 
 zones enumerated by Mr. King. I am, in fact, strongly in- 
 clined to consider freedom from base metals, for instance a 
 peculiarity due in many cases to secondary processes, and 
 not to be relied upon as characteristic for single veins even, 
 to say nothing of whole groups, districts, and continental 
 
 » Statistics of Minea and Mining in the States and Territories 
 west of the Rocky Mountains, by E. W. Baymond, U. S. Gommis- 
 sioner of Mining Statistics. 
 
 zones. Nevertheless, the generalizations of Professor Blake 
 and Mr. King on this subject are highly interesting and 
 valuable. The criticism here made is not in opposition to 
 their views so much as in qualification of a possible rash 
 application on the part of the general public. The zonal 
 parallelism does exist, though in a somewhat irregular way; 
 and it is clearly referable, as these writers have shown, to 
 the structural features of the country, the leading feature of 
 which is the longitudinal trend of the mountain ranges. 
 
 Subordinate to this trend (or, more strictly, resulting from 
 the same causes as produced it) appear the predominant 
 longitudinal strike of the great outcrops of sedimentary 
 rocks, the longitudinal axis of granite outbursts, and final- 
 ly, the longitudinal vents of lava overflows and the arrange- 
 ment of volcanoes in similar lines. It is evident that in 
 crossing the country from east to west we traverse a series of 
 different formations, while, by following routes parallel 
 with the main mountain ranges, we travel upon the continu- 
 ous outcrops of the same general age. Mr. King distinguishes 
 in the history of the entire Cordillera two periods of disturb- 
 ance which have been accompanied by the rending of 
 mountain chains and the ejection of igneous rocks. Such 
 periods would atford the conditions of solfataric action, 
 thermal springs, and the generation of acid gases and me- 
 tallic sublimates and solutions, and thus favor the formation 
 of metalliferous deposits. The first of these periods, he says, 
 culminated in the Jurassic, produced over the entire system 
 a profound disturbance, and is, in all probability, the da- 
 ting-point of a large class of lodes. To the second, or terti- 
 ary period he assigns the mineral veins which traver.se the 
 early volcanic rocks. The expression j" culminated in the 
 Jurassic," merely refers, no doubt, to the fact that the cre- 
 taceous strata of California repose unconformably upon the 
 upturned and metamorphosed Jurassic slates, having been 
 themselves neither tilted nor highly metamorphosed. Per- 
 haps it is well to remember, however, that the cretaceous is 
 a weak point in the California series, at least, as determined 
 by leading fossils ; and perhaps the results of more com- 
 plete stratigraphical surveys will indicate that there are 
 gaps of no little significance, dynamically and chronologi- 
 cally, in this part of the geological record. At all events, 
 the period of the folding of the Sierra Nevada (presumably 
 that of the formation of many metalliferous deposits) was in 
 some sense post-Jurassic, rather than Jurassic ; and proba- 
 bly this is the meaning of Mr. King, who speaks of it in an- 
 other passage as " late Jurassic. '' The lodes which are 
 referred to this period are of two types: first, those wholly 
 inclosed in the granites, the outburst of which accompa- 
 nanied the upheaval of the earlier stratified group, or in 
 metamorphosed Jurassic and sub- Jurassic strata; secondly, 
 those which occupy planes of stratification or jointure, thus 
 following in general the dip and strike of the country rock, 
 while they present in other respects the indication of fis- 
 sure-veins. In the veins of Reese River granite are exam- 
 ples of the first type ; many gold veins of California, the 
 Humboldt mines, etc., are given as illustrations of the second. 
 The White Pine district, the mineral deposits of which are 
 said to be inclosed conformably between strata of Devonian 
 limestone, is declared to be " a prominent example of the 
 groups comprised wholly within the ancient rocks. " 
 
 We have hitherto supposed the strata immediately overly- 
 ing the argentiferous limestone at White Pine to be deep- 
 water Carboniferous ; but their Devonian character seems to 
 be demonstrated by Mr. Arnold Hague.* More practically 
 important is the assignment of these deposits to the earlier 
 period of geological disturbance. Mr. King appears here to 
 include in one group all the white Pine deposits, the "Base 
 Range "as well as " Treasury Hill ; " yet the striking distinc- 
 tion in mineralogical character is worthy of regard. The 
 deposits of Treasure Hill are notably free from base metals ; 
 .ind it seems to me that in their present form they must be 
 due to a secondary action, which has concentrated and 
 recombined the metallic elements of older deposits. It should 
 be added, however, that although the chlorides of Treasure 
 Hill are as pure as those of Lander Hill, they do not ap- 
 pear, like the latter, to yield in depth to such silver ores as 
 characterize the fissure veins of Reese River district— ruby 
 
 » See Volume on Mining Industrv of the United States Geologi- 
 cal Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 223 
 
 silver for instance. Nor are they fissure-veins, so far as we 
 can now decide. 
 
 To tlie Tertiary period of orographical disturbance are 
 referred the volcanic overflows and the veins wholly or part- 
 ly inclosed in volcanic rocks. Under this head Mr. King 
 classes many important veins of Mexico, several of those 
 which border the Colorado River, in the United States, and, 
 in general, that zone which lies along the eastern base of 
 the Sierra Nevada. The Comstock lode is adduced as- the 
 most prominent example of this type, and the Owyhee dis- 
 trict in Idaho, is also referred to it, because, although in 
 granite, it presents a series of volcanic dikes, which appear 
 to prove, by the manner of their intersections with the 
 quartz lodes, that the latter are of Tertiary origin. It will 
 be seen that although the extent and number of the depos- 
 its of this class are inferior to those of the earlier period, 
 they include some of the most brilliant instances in the 
 history of mining. As Mr. King, however, points out, many 
 of the veins which are wholly inclosed in the older rocks 
 may nevertheless be due to this later period of disturbance. 
 Nor does he ignore the bearing of his thought on his deter- 
 mination of the earlier period as Jurassic. He confesses 
 that in more recent strata, formed from debris of Jurassic 
 rocks, ore-bearing pebbles have not been found; but he 
 regards this fact as a piece of negative evidence merely. 
 
 The distribution of mineral deposits east of the Rocky 
 Mountains follows somewhat different laws. Here we have 
 but one longitudinal range, that of the Alleghanies, which 
 is accompanied by a gold-bearing zone of irregular extent 
 and value. In the Southern States the strata flanking this 
 range present a remarkable variety of mineral deposits. On 
 the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, again, occurs 
 what may perhaps be denominated a zone or longitudinal 
 series of coal-fields. But between these mountain boundaries 
 the geological formations of the country cluster, as it were, 
 around centres or basins. We have such a group in Michigan, 
 another in the Middle States, and a third in the Southwest. 
 
 The deposits of the different metals, ores, and useful min- 
 erals, in the country east of the Rocky Mountains, vary widely 
 in age. The ores of gold, copper, and iron, in the pre-Sil- 
 urian schists of the south ; the galena and cobalt ores of the 
 Southwest, and the copper ores of Lake Superior, in the 
 lower Silurian rocks ; the argillaceous iron ores of New 
 York, and other States west of New York, in the Upper 
 Silurian, and the salines of the same group ; the bitumen, 
 salt, coal and iron ores of the Subcarboniferous ; the coal 
 and iron of the Carboniferous ; the coal, copper, and barytes 
 of the Ttiassic ; the lignites of the Cretaceous, and the fossil 
 phosphates of the Tertiary period, are instances which may 
 serve to show how great is this variety. It is not within the 
 province of this paper to discuss the mineral deposits of the 
 Mississippi Basin, the Appalachian Chain, or the Atlantic 
 Coast. I shall content myself with brief mention of two 
 points. The first is the greater relative age of the metalli- 
 ferous deposits as compared with those of the inland basin 
 and the Pacific slope. On this side the period of greatest 
 activity in such formations was over before it began in the 
 West. The great gold and silver deposits beyond the Rocky 
 Mountains appear to be post-Devonian, post-Jurassic, and 
 even Tertiary in their origin. The vast volcanic activity 
 which affected so wide an area in California, Oregon, Wash- 
 ington, Idaho, and Nevada, is not represented in the East. 
 The other point is the peculiar relative position of our coal 
 and iron deposits. This was eloquently described by Mr. 
 Abram S. Hewitt, United States Commissioner to the Paris 
 Exposition, in his admirable review of the iron and steel 
 industry of the world. I cannot do better than quote his 
 forcible words : 
 
 " The position of the Coal-Measures of the United States 
 suggests the idea of a giganti-c bowl filled with treasure, the 
 outer rim of which skirts along the Atlantic to the Gulf of 
 Mexico, and thence, returning by the plains which lie at 
 the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, passes by the great 
 lakes to the place of beginning, on the borders of Pennsyl- 
 vania and New York. The rim of the basin is filled with 
 exhaustless stores of iron ore of every variety, and of the 
 best quality. In seeking the natural channels of water 
 communication, whether on the north, east, south, or west, 
 the coal must cut this metalliferous rim ; and, in its turn, 
 the iron ore may be carried back to the coal, to be used in 
 
 conjunction with the carboniferous ores, which are quite as 
 abundant in the United States as they are in England, but 
 hitherto have been left unwrought, in consequence of the 
 cheaper rate of procuring the richer ores from the rim of 
 the basin. Along the Atlantic slope, in the highland range, 
 from the borders of the Hudson River to the State of Georgia, 
 a distance of one thousand miles, is found the great magnetic 
 range, traversing seven entire States in its length and course. 
 Parallel with this, in the great limestone valley which lies 
 along the margin of the coal-field, are the brown hematites, 
 in such quantities at some points, especially in Virginia, 
 Tennessee, and Alabama, as to fairly stagger the imagination. 
 And, finally, in the coal-basin is a stratum of red fossiliferous 
 ore, beginning in a comparatively thin seam in the State of 
 New York, and terminating in the State of Alabama in a 
 bed 15 feet in thickness, over wliich the horsemen may ride 
 for more than one hundred miles. Beneath this bed, but 
 still above water-level, are to be found the coal-seams, ex- 
 posed upon mountain sides, whose flanks are covered with 
 magnificent timber, available either for mining purposes or 
 the manufacture of charcoal iron. Passing westward, in 
 Arkansas and Missouri, is reached that wonderfiil range of 
 red oxide of iron, which, in mountains rising hundreds 
 of feet above the surface, or in beds beneath the soil, cul- 
 minates at Lake Superior in deposits of ore which excite 
 the wonder of all beholders ; and returning thence to the 
 Atlantic slope, in the Adirondacks of New York, is a vast 
 undeveloped region watered by rivers whose beds are of iron, 
 and traversed by mountains whose foundations are laid upon 
 the same material. In and among the coal-beds themselves 
 are found scattered deposits of hematite and fossiliferous 
 ores, which, by their proximity to the coal, have inaugurated 
 the iron industry of our day. Upon these vast treasures the 
 world may draw for its supply for centuries to come ; and 
 with these the inquirer may rest contented, without further 
 question — for all the coal of the rest of the world might be 
 deposited wi+hin this iron rim, and its square miles would 
 not occupy one-quarter of the coal area of the United States." 
 This vivid description rests upon a geographical rather 
 than a geological grouping. But it is none the less inti- 
 mately connected with the underlying geological facts. Its 
 strongest application is, however, economical. If any ma- 
 terial thing may stand as the type of force, it is coal, the 
 deposits of which may well be called vast storehouses of 
 power — the product of solar activity through uncounted 
 years — laid up for the use of man ; and iron, on the other 
 hand, may symbolize the inert, dead matter, awaiting the 
 touch of power to wake it into eificient life. These are prime 
 elements in our universe of industry. Take them away and 
 our present civilization is annihilated. Put them together 
 in the hand of an intelligent and mighty nation, and that 
 nation could recall the world from the chaos of barbarism. 
 But they need each other, and it is in the wonderful com- 
 bination of both, as well as the exhaustless abundance of 
 each, that America finds sure promise of enduring power. 
 Thus East and West bear witness of our great inheritance of 
 natural wealth. Every period of geological change has been 
 laid under contribution to endow with rich legacies some 
 portion of our land. Our territory epitomizes the processes 
 of all time, and their useful results to man. Divided, yet in 
 a stronger sense united, by mountain chains and mighty 
 rivers, our diversified mineral resources may figuratively re- 
 present, as I firmly believe they will literally help to secure 
 and maintain our characteristic national life, a vast commu- 
 nity of communities, incapable alike of dissolution and of 
 centralization ; one, by mutual needs and affections, as the 
 continent is one ; many, by multiform industries and forms 
 of life, as the members of the continent are many. 
 
 — A paper by R. W. Raymond, Ph. D., Transaciwns American InatUvte of 
 
 Mining Engineers. 
 
 SILVER IN THE SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. 
 
 WIDESPREAD interest has recently been de- 
 veloped in the subject of the occurrence of 
 silver ores in sandstones and related sedimen- 
 tary rocks, by the success which has attended 
 the developments of the famous Silver Reef mines in South- 
 
224 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 em Utah. These mines ship regularly between $70,000 and 
 $80,000 worth of bullion per month, most of which is de- 
 rived from ores taken from two or three strata of sandstone, 
 a rock, which, like most sedimentary rocks, is continuous 
 over many square miles of territory. This certainly must 
 seem passing strange to the Pacific coast miner, who has 
 been accustomed to consider that if there is any place where 
 ores of the precious metals are not to be sought it is in the 
 sandstones and related sedimentary rocks. The question is 
 at once suggested, If precious metal is found in the sand- 
 stone of Utah, may it not be found in the sandstone of other 
 districts? Has the prospector, who has with such untiring 
 energy explored the most inaccessible recesses of our highest 
 mountain chains in search of silver and gold, entirely over- 
 looked a source of wealth which may be hidden in the 
 monotonous sedimentary rocks of our plains and valleys ? 
 Finally, is there any practical consideration which guides 
 the prospector which can tell him that in one locality he 
 would seek fruitlessly for gold or silver, while in another he 
 may hope to find it? I think it can be shown that there is. 
 To the miner these are intensely practical considerations. 
 
 If argentiferous and auriferous ores are to be sought indis- 
 criminately in all of our sedimentary rocks, then there is 
 scarcely an acre of the surface of the dry land but must be 
 investigated to prove either the presence or absence of ore. 
 I am the more desirous of presenting a few thoughts on this 
 subject for two reasons. On the one hand, prospectors have 
 more than once recently sent sedimentary material to the 
 geological department of the university, with a query a9 to 
 whether ore deposits of the precious metals might be sought 
 in them. On the other hand, one of the leading geologists 
 of the country. Professor Newberry, of Columbia College, 
 New York, has announced a theory of the formation of the 
 silver sandstone deposits at Silver Reef which, pushed to its 
 legitimate conclusion, would necessitate the investigation, 
 as I said before, of almost every acre of sedimentary rock ia„ 
 every country before the miner could be satisfied that gold 
 or silver did not exist in it. Now, I am aware that geology 
 is far from being an exact science ; furthermore, that that 
 particular portion of it which deals with the genesis of ore 
 deposits is one of the least understood. It is truly aston- 
 ishing, when one reflects, that some of the fundamental 
 principles of an industry which yearly adds hundreds of 
 millions of dollars to the wealth of the country should be so 
 little understood. However, while it is true that we know 
 comparatively little about the genesis of ore deposits, still 
 we are not altogether in the dirk. In almost every mining 
 district there are certain empirical laws which guide the 
 miner in that particular district, but which are totally in- 
 applicable, or at least not necessarily applicable, to any 
 other district. The laws of the occurrence of gold and silver, 
 which are of general application, are exceedingly few. The 
 typical mineral vein, the " true fissure vein," as it is very 
 properly called, is very simple in its structure and geologi- 
 cal relations. It consists, essentially, of a fracture or fissure 
 of a rock, varying from a fraction of an inch to many feet in 
 width, of moderate length, rarely more than two or three 
 miles, and of indefinite depth. This fissure becomes subse- 
 quently filled from side to side with ore and veinstone, 
 probably introduced in the form of solutions from below, 
 very little obvious connection between the neighboring 
 rocks and the contents of the fissure is observed. The bulk 
 of the ore is confined almost entirely between the two walls 
 of the fissure. It is often noticed, however, that the ore 
 wanders out laterally into the wall rocks in suflicient quan- 
 tities to render them worth mining, and, to a much less 
 extent than this, even to very considerable distances. This 
 takes place, too, under circumstances where the conditions 
 would seem to be exceedingly unfavorable, as in solid 
 granite and similar rocks. Special attention is called to 
 this lateral impregnation of the country rocks, as it has an 
 important bearing upon the genesis of the ore in the sedi- 
 mentary deposits. The essential characteristics of fissure 
 veins are, then, indefinite extension in depth, very moderate 
 width (or thickness) and length, and subsequent formation 
 to the inclosing rock. 
 
 The structure and geological relations of sedimentary 
 rocks are in many respects quite the reverse of these. Take 
 sandstone as-a typical instance. It generally exists in the 
 form of a widely extended horizontal deposit, covering many, 
 
 often hundreds, of square miles, and varying in thickness 
 from a few feet to thousands of feet. Other stratified rock 
 often lie both above and below it, and it is always younger 
 than the underlying and older than the overlying material. 
 Suppose such a body of rock to be impregnated with silver 
 ore, more or less, throughout its whole extent ; you at once 
 comprehend the vast difference in mode ojf occurrence 
 between such an ore body and the typical mineral vein 
 previously described. Such in general is the mode of oc- 
 currence of the ore at Silver Reef, Utah. I am indebted to 
 Professor Newberry and to Mr. Rolker, for several years 
 and until quite lately superintendent of the Stormont mine, 
 for the facts concerning these mines; particularly to the 
 latter gentleman, who has recently communicated a paper 
 to the American Institute of Mining Engineers, upon the 
 Leeds district mines, which was abstracted from the San 
 Francisco Mining and Scientific Press, December 25, 1880. 
 I have not been able to consult Mr. Rolker's original paper, 
 but have been compelled to content myself with the above- 
 mentioned abstract. I will not present a detailed descrip- 
 , tion of the entire district and deposit, but will suggest only 
 such points as bear more immediately upon the question to 
 be discussed, namely. How did the silver get into the sand- 
 stone ? 
 
 -Let it be remarked right here, however, that no one can 
 pretend to furnish a complete solution of the problem in all 
 of its details without a most minute and accurate knowledge 
 of every detail of structure and relation presented by the 
 deposit in place. Such a knowledge can rarely be acquired 
 at second hand, nor can it be attained even by investigation 
 in the field until the mines have been much more thor- 
 oughly opened than is the case at the present time. These 
 mines have beenprospectedtoaslightdepth this year (1877). 
 The Comstock lode has beeji pierced to a vertical depth of 
 over 3,000 feet, and scientific men are to-day unable to 
 demonstrate precisely how the ore came into its present 
 position, and where it came from. The temptation to hasty 
 generalization from insufl[icient data is, perhaps, nowhere so 
 great as in geology. Instances without number can be cited 
 where theorists have fallen into error by drawing hasty con- 
 clusions from too few or imperfectly observed facts. I would 
 prefer altogether to await the accumulation of observed 
 facts and let them explain themselves, as they always will 
 sooner or later, if properly recorded and collated. However, 
 the average modern investigator in almost every department 
 of science has found it necessary to have constantly in mind 
 what he calls a " working hypothesis " concerning the sub- 
 ject under investigation, which is to him the most- rational 
 of the many explanations of the phenomena in question 
 which suggest themselves. Since we must have these hypo- 
 theses, it behooves us (particularly where practical considera- 
 tion of great moment are involved, as in mining) to see that 
 our hypotheses rigidly conform to observed facts, and that, 
 as soon as this is not the case, we discard them for less ob- 
 jectionable ones. 
 
 It is in this spirit that we approach the present question, 
 fully aware that at thi-s distance from the field, and with the 
 few data in hand, a complete solution is impossible, but be- 
 lieving that at least a rational choice from the two or three 
 proposed hypotheses can be made. To return, then, from 
 this digression to the facts of the case. The Silver Reef 
 mines are situated iu extreme Southern Utah. The sand- 
 stone containing the silver ore is of Triassic age, as recently 
 determined by Professor Newberrv. They are not to any 
 extent metamorphosfed from their primitive condition. There 
 are two silver-bearing sandstone strata or "reefs," as they 
 are called, overlying each other but separated bv beds of 
 clay shale. The ore, which .above water line is mostly horn 
 silver, and below it silver glance, is not homogeneously dis- 
 tributed through the entire rock, but is largely concentrated 
 in ore-channols, lying one above another in the different 
 beds. Organic remains of plants, partially or wholly con- 
 verted into ore, are very plentiful ; they make up, perh<aps, 
 the bulk of the ore, although it is distinctly stated by Mr. 
 Rolker that he had mined portions of these beds for a stretch 
 of 200 consecutive feet, which were absolutely devoid, to the 
 eye, of organic remains, and yet yielded an average of 130 
 per ton. On the other hand, organic remains are'plentiful 
 in sandstone layers quite free from ore, but overlaid and 
 underlaid by sandstone free from fossils and full of good 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 225 
 
 ore. Mr. Rolker also cites another instructive instance 
 where a layer of 2 feet of $30 sandstone, lies upon 15 inches 
 of barren rock, under which the sandstone again carries $20 
 ore. Further, at Silver Reef comparatively little copper is 
 found, while farther south copper enters largely into the ore, 
 and in the same Triassic sandstone on the west flank of the 
 Nacimiento Mountains, in New Mexico, the silver gives 
 place entirely to copper. Professor Newberry finds that the 
 extension of these sandstones into the table lands to the 
 east of Silver Reef, and along Cedar Mountains as far north 
 as Beaver, all contain silver, though rarely more than 7 or 8 
 ounces per ton. Finally, in the words of Mr. Rolker, " the 
 Silver Reefs are, where the silver is mostly concentrated, in 
 close proximity to former volcanic centers ; as is likewise 
 the case at another less known locality, viz., at Virginia City, 
 on North Creek." These, then, are the facts which we have 
 to interpret. How did the silver get into the sandstone ? 
 Several theories have been propounded. Professor Newberry 
 thinks that "the silver, like the copper, which the sandstones 
 contain, was deposited with them, and not introduced sub- 
 sequently.'' Mr. Cazin, of New York, takes exception to 
 this and thinks that " the ore deposits both of copper and 
 silver in the Triassic sand-rocks are precipitations from 
 solutions containing metals, upon animal an(f vegetable 
 matter, such matter, and not the metallic ores, being con- 
 temporaneous with the deposition of the sandstone." This 
 U really, however, one of the possible interpretations which 
 can be given to Professor Newberry's statement of the case. 
 The usually accepted theory is that the metal solutions come 
 from below, and are dependent upon, and immediately sub- 
 sequent to, the eruption of igneous rocks in the vicinity of 
 the present deposits. The hot springs bringing the metal 
 solutions are the last dying manifestations of subterranean 
 activity. Let us examine these theories in the order in- 
 dicated. It is unfortunate that Professor Newberry's opinion 
 is not couched in specific language. It was probably not 
 intended as a scientific statement, as it was contained in a 
 personal letter to the president of the Stormont Mining Com- 
 pany, published in the Engineering and Mining Journal of 
 October 23, 1880. It is susceptible of two or three quite 
 different interpretations, possessing in common only the fact 
 of contemporaneousness of deposition of the inclosing sand- 
 stones. I will give first the most natural one and the one 
 which I think he intended, viz., that the ores were pre- 
 cipitated out from solution in the ocean, at the bottom of 
 which the sandstones were formed. The only ground for 
 this view given by Professor Newberry is his discovery of 
 copper and silver in the same Triassic sandstones in the 
 table lands to the east, and as far north as Beaver. Now, on 
 the one hand this comparatively widespread impregnation 
 can be equally well explained by another theory, while on 
 the other hand the theory itself seems to be unable to explain 
 already observed facts. Conceding for the moment that the 
 theory is the true one, there are two ways by which this 
 precipitation could be effected, viz., by separation, caused by 
 over-concentration of the Triassic ocean, or by reduction 
 out of a far less concentrated solution by means of organic 
 matter. I find it hard to believe that Professor Newberry 
 would have us accept the first method. It would be like 
 asking us to believe that the Pacific Ocean, or any consider- 
 able area thereof^ was made up of a concentrated solution of 
 blue vitriol. 
 
 Mr. Rolker urges against this view that it would necessi- 
 tate the existence at the present time of an homogeneous 
 mechanical impregnation of the entire Triassic sandstone 
 covering hundreds of square miles in Utah, New Mexico, 
 and Colorado, while, as a fact, we find the most of the ore 
 locally segregated, and but a small amount at distances re- 
 moved from these local segregations. This objection is not a 
 valid one, as it is quite possible for the local segregation to 
 have been entirely subsequent to the original deposition of 
 the ore and sandstones. One certainly could not explain 
 upon this hypothesis, however, the peculiar form in which 
 this local concentration is at present found, viz, iii ore chan- 
 nels lying over each other in the two beds. It is likewise 
 difiicuit to conceive how the alternation of sandstone layers, 
 rich in silver, poor in silver, and free from silver, as de- 
 scribed above, could be explained upon this hypothesis. We 
 should have to suppose the superincumbent ocean to be al- 
 ternately exhausted and re-supplied several times, or else, 
 15 
 
 that later, the ore in the now barren sandstone was leached 
 out and concentrated in the next lower bed. The firet sup- 
 position is, to say the least, a strained one ; and as for the 
 second, there certainly appears to be no good reason why 
 such a leaching process if it took place at all, should favor 
 narrow zones of but 15 inches thickness, and not be general 
 over the entire sandstone bed. Again, there seems to be no 
 adequate relation between the amount of ore existing in the 
 sandstones and the amount of copper and silver salts required 
 to saturate an ocean to the point of deposition. Finally, the 
 fact that the Silver Reef region contains almost exclusively 
 silver ores, while farther south it becomes largely replaced 
 by copper, and again still farther to the southeast in the 
 triassic sandstone of the Nacimiento Mountains, in New 
 Mexico, the silver gives place entirely to the copper, seems 
 to me fatal to the hypothesis. I do not see how a subsequent 
 separation of copper from silver over such an extensive area 
 could be brought about. 
 
 Without denying, however, that in the progress of chemi- 
 cal geology the chemical possibility may be established, it 
 must at least be acknowledged that at the present day it 
 looks like an arbitrary assumption. The second method of 
 deposition above indicated, viz., reduction by organic mat- 
 ter out of the sea very far below the point of saturation, is 
 an altogether more natural assumption. We are quite pre- 
 pared to believe that a minute proportion of silver existed 
 in the waters of the triassic ocean, inasmuch as it appears 
 highly probable, although not yet directly proven, that cop- 
 per and silver exist in the sea-water of the present ocean in 
 exceedingly minute quantity. Now, while organic matter 
 would unquestionably reduce the ore even from exceedingly 
 dilute solution, my principal objection to this view of the 
 question is, that in an ocean made up of such dilute solu- 
 tion, there would be even far less probability that most of 
 the copper would be reduced in one portion of the sea-bed, 
 as at the Nacimiento Mountains, while most of the silver 
 was deposited in a different portion of the same sea, as at 
 Silver Reef. Ocean currents would certainly bring about a 
 comparatively homogeneous composition to the whole body 
 of water, necessitating a chemical homogeneous impregna- 
 tion of copper and silver over the entire triassic area ; and, 
 as I have said before, I do not see how the copper and silver 
 could subsequently become differentiated. But again, con- 
 ceding this to be possible, neither of these theories would 
 explain why the ores in the two or three principal localities 
 (Silver Reef and Virgin City, Utah, and on the west flank of 
 the Nacimiento Mountains, in New Mexico) should become 
 concentrated in the vicinity of eruptive rocks, and, so far as 
 we yet know, there only. Mr. Cazin advocates essentially this 
 theory of reduction by organic matter out of an ocean con- 
 taining an exceedingly small amount of copper and silver. 
 He modifies it, however, by assuming that the deposition of 
 the organic matter only was contemporaneous with the 
 formation of the sandstones, which organic matter became 
 gradually converted into ore by exposure during thousands 
 of years to the waters of the superincumbent ocean perco- 
 lating downward through the subsequently formed and 
 forming sandstone. The theory, even thus modified, is 
 open, however, to all the objections above stated. The only 
 remaining interpretation that can be given to Professor 
 Newberry's language (and this, in my estimation, is the 
 most plausible of all) is that the ore particles are the result 
 of the mechanical disintegration of pre-existing ore de- 
 posits, just as the grains of quartz in the sandstones are the 
 result of the mechanical disintegration of pre-existing sili- 
 ceous rocks, or that the ore grains thus originally formed by 
 mechanical disintegration became subsequently oxidized 
 into sulphates, and again reduced to sulphides by the or- 
 ganic matter in the sandstones. A fatal objection to the 
 first process (as indicated by Cazin) is that the difference in 
 grains would inevitably lead to the mechanical segregation of 
 the ore in comparatively restricted areas. Furthermore, 
 the ore particles are not rounded or water-worn, but 
 have evidently been formed just where they are now found, 
 proven also by the plant remains converted into ore, which 
 would not bear transportation and preserve their form. 
 The second process, viz., oxidation to sulphate and subse- 
 quent reduction by organic matter, would obviate the 
 objection that the ore particles are not rounded, but would 
 certainly not that founded upon differences of specific grav- 
 
226 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED . STATES. 
 
 ity, although such a process would certainly admit of a far 
 more extensive impregnation of the sandstone than the 
 purely mechanical theory. Further, we have the testimony 
 of Mr. Rolker that the mountains in the immediate vicinity 
 of these deposits have as yet revealed no ore bodies to 
 the industrious prospector, while the nearest vein deposits, 
 situated to the north, contain gold and lead with the silver. 
 Rolker pertinently asks, if the ores are dei'ived from this 
 source, why do we not find lead or gold with the silver in 
 the sandstones ? Finally, neither of these theories explains 
 the occurrence of the ore in channels previously described, 
 nor the concentration in the neighborhood of eruptive rocks. 
 There being, then, valid objections to all of the theories 
 thus far suggested, let us turn to the last and most 
 generally accepted theory, viz., that the metallic solu- 
 tions came from below, and were dependent upon and 
 immediately subsequent to the eruJ)tion of the igneous 
 rocks in the neighborhood of the present deposit. 
 In the first place, let it be noted that this is substantially the 
 theory ordinarily accepted for the formation of true fissure 
 veins, so that if it can be made equally applicable to such 
 deposits as these under consideration, there would be a 
 certain amount of presumption in its favor, even if other 
 things were equal. As fast as an hypothesis becomes gra- 
 tuitous in science, it is eliminated— it becomes unnecessary. 
 Not that nature always produces the same efiects in precisely 
 the same way. Too close adherence to this idea has 
 frequently led into error. The only safe test is , for each 
 specific case to bring our theories to the ordeal of a satis- 
 factory explanation of observed facts. In the present instance 
 I fail to see a single fact which cannot be explained npon this 
 hypothesis. In the first place, the igneous rocks are in close 
 proximity to every locality where ore in paying quantities has 
 been discovered. It explains the occurrence of ore in chutes or 
 ore channels, one above another, in difierent beds. The erup- 
 tion of igneous rocks could not fail to fissure more or less the 
 adjacent sedimentary rocks. The solutions which followed, 
 bringing the silver and copper, would come through these 
 fissures, and would, of course, deposit the greater portion of 
 their metallic contents in and near the fissures which now 
 form the ore channels. It would explain the alternation of 
 rich and barren zones in the sandstone. We know that 
 solutions will travel in channels offering the least resistance. 
 The layers richest in ore will be such channels, and in pro- 
 portion as the physical or chemical conditions for absorption 
 are unfavorable, in the same proportion will the rock be 
 poorer in ore. It would explain the preponderance of silver 
 in one portion of the triassic sandstone, and of copper in 
 another portion ; viz., they came through different fissures 
 and from different sources below. It would explain the im- 
 pregnation of the sandstones even at considerable distances 
 from the larger bodies of ore. I have already cited the 
 common occurrence of lateral impregnation of the country 
 rock on either side of fissure veins. In the same way from 
 the main channels in the sandstone the lateral impregnation 
 of the body of the rock, even to considerable distances, 
 would take place. Mr. Cazin objects to this theory (and 
 considers the objection fatal) that the ore deposits are local, 
 but extend over Utah, New Mexico, &c., and thence they 
 cannot be dependent upon local fissures ; and furthermore, 
 that it is characteristic of the triassic sandstone that it is 
 not fissured. 
 
 In reply I would say that if the ore deposits are not local 
 neither are the igneous rooks local ; and that according to 
 Mr. Rolker the two go together; i.. e. the larger or more 
 pronounced concentrations are in the neighborhood of crys- 
 talline rocks. In the second place, I am compelled on gen- 
 eral principles to doubt Mr. Cazin's statement concerning 
 the absence of these fissures over such an extensive dis- 
 trict. The greater portion of the Jura-triassic area between 
 Leeds district, Utah, and the Nacimiento Mountains, New 
 Mexico, is deeply covered by later sedimentary rocks, 
 exposed only in places in the deep cafions of the rivers 
 which drain the country. Even these exposures have not 
 all been investigated to prove either the presence or absence 
 of silver or copper ores. One cannot speak, therefore, of 
 an universal impregation of the entire Triassic sandstone, 
 nor of the absence of fissures over the whole area. Finally, 
 concerning the existence of fissures in those places which 
 have been explored, neither Professor Newberry nor Mr. 
 
 Cazin recognized any fissure ; but Mr. Rolker has discovered 
 the key to the whole problem when he recognized the exiEt- 
 ence of the ore channels at the Stormont mine, and properly 
 explains them, viz. : During the disturbances attendant upon 
 the eruption of the neighboring igneous rocks, the sand- 
 stones were fractured without opening. Instead of produc- 
 ing open fissures, to be subsequently filled like ordinary fis- 
 sure veins, the result was the formation of cracks, along 
 which, from the friable nature of the sandstones, the rock 
 would be considerably crushed, and might later partially 
 heal up. But the ultimate result would be the existence of 
 numerous vertical channels or water-ways, which would cer- 
 tainly be followed by metal solutions forcing their way up- 
 wards. These water-ways would finally contain the largest 
 amount of ore, and would form the ore channels which Mr. 
 Rolker describes, and from them the lateral impregnation of 
 the sandstones, even to considerable distances, would be 
 easily effected. These water-ways would branch and ramify 
 through the rock in all directions, never making themselves 
 visible on t?ie surface as fissure veins, and, in fact, by the 
 entire absence of all the usual characteristics of fissure 
 veins, such as distinct walls, selvages, &c., would easily es- 
 cape the observation of even such an acute observer aa 
 Professor Newberry. It is, then, by such a process as this 
 that I would explain the wide-spread impregnation of the 
 sandstone, so far as yet observed, and the apparent absence 
 of fissures, as insisted upon by those who have written upon 
 the subject. The silver came into the sandstones, conse- 
 quently, in the same general way that the silver came into 
 the Comstock lode, or any other fissure vein, the present 
 difference in the mode of occurrence being due to the fact 
 that the fissures did not open, and that the sandstone ab- 
 sorbed the metallic solutions like a sponge, as fast as they 
 came in contact with it. The existence of water-ways was 
 first suggested to me by a large and magnificent specimen 
 of ore from the Bassick mine in Colorado, now in the mu- 
 seum of economic geology of the University of California, 
 presented about a year ago by Mr. J. B. Parish, then of 
 Silver Cliff, California. The country rock of the Bassick 
 mine is an igneous rock (sanidin trachyte), and the differ- 
 ence between their modes of occurrence at this mine and 
 the Silver Reef mine is due entirely to the different nature 
 of the country rocks. The trachyte exists in the form of 
 irregular fragments from the size of a walnut to many feet 
 in diameter, all more or less rounded and greatly decomposed 
 by the action of infiltrating metallic solutions which 
 have deposited the ore between the fragments. Had the 
 rock been anywhere nearly as porous as sandstone, we should 
 have found here the same extensive lateral impregnation as 
 at Silver Reef. A subsequent visit to the Sulphur Bank 
 quicksilver deposit, in Lake County, California, disclosed 
 precisely similar relations at that mine. There augite an- 
 desite, which forms the bank, has been irregular fissured at 
 thetimeof its original solidifications, and subsequently infil- 
 trated with metal solutions carrying mostly quicksilver ore. 
 I have learned recently from Prof. Joseph Le Conte that this 
 idea of the widesjjread occurrence of water-ways has been 
 suggested by him in his lectures on geology for the past two 
 years, and that in the next edition of his geology he pro- 
 poses to give it prominent place. We are both convinced 
 of the value of the suggestion. In fact, it is only by means 
 of it that many otherwise puzzling deposits can be under- 
 stood. It brings likewise into close genetic relation a large 
 number of ore deposits which pass in the literature as im- 
 pregnations, stocks, veins of substitut'on, irregular deposits, 
 geyser deposits, &c., into genetic relation, not only with 
 each other, but with what must be regarded as the simplest 
 type of them all, viz., the fissure vein. 
 
 It is certainly to be expected, a priori, that the process of 
 rock fracturing that accompanies every considerable distur- 
 bance in the mutual relations of rocks, for one fracture that 
 is accompanied by the formation of an open fissure, many 
 would be formed without opening, and through which me- 
 tallic solutions could force their way upwards. The form of 
 the resulting deposit would then depend upon the nature of 
 the rock in which the fracture was produced. If the fissure 
 opened, we should have the simple fissure vein ; if it re- 
 mained closed and the rock was porous like sandstone, should 
 have, as at Silver Reef, ore channels with very extensive 
 lateral impregnation of the surrounding rock ; if the rock 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 227 
 
 was not porous, like the Bassick and Sulphur Bank rocks, 
 we should have comparatively thin veinlets ramifying in all 
 directions, accompanied, as it always is, by extensive decom- 
 position of the rock ; if the rock is very readily acted upon, 
 chemically, by tho metallic solutions, as is the case with 
 limestone, dolomite, etc., the softer portions would be dis- 
 solved, outforming huge caverns of most irregular form, 
 which would subsequently become partially or wholly filled 
 with ore, as at the Eureka and Richmond Consolidated mines 
 in Nevada. The ore deposits at Silver Reef and at the 
 Nacimiento Mountains are by no means the first sedimen- 
 tary rocks containing sulphuretted ores which have been dis- 
 covered. These beds are the first that have yielded any 
 considerable amount of silver ; but copper, lead, and quick- 
 silver, and even gold, have long been known in similar beds. 
 I will mention but one or two localities ; thus, at Vorospa- 
 tak, in the Siebenburgen Mountains, the Carpathian sand- 
 stones are impregnated with gold and quartz ; at Bleiberg, 
 in Carinthia, galena is found in limestone ; at Bohmiscn- 
 Brod and Schwarzkosteletz, in Bohemia, the sandstone of 
 the Rothleigenden formation of the Germans is impregnated 
 with copper ores. The copper schist of Mansfield, at the 
 base of the Harz Mountains, is another instance, and many 
 more might be mentioned. 
 
 I have studied carefully the geological relations of many 
 such deposits, to see which of the above mentioned theories 
 best explained the recorded facts. The theory which best 
 explains the phenomena at Silver Reef is, likewise, the one 
 which appears most rational for most of the others. With 
 but a single exception (Commern, near Aachen, in Rhenish 
 Prussia), sedimentary rocks are impregnated only in the 
 neighborhood of eruptive rocks. I will mention here but a 
 single striking instance, the copper mines of Eastern Russia. 
 Central Russia is one vast, monotonous region of compara- 
 tively undisturbed sedimentary strata, perfectly free from 
 sulphuretted ores of all kinds. But as soon as we reach the 
 extreme eastern edge, where the igneous masses of the Ural 
 Mountains have forced their way upwards through the se- 
 dimentary beds, there we find these same sedimentary rocks 
 impregnated with ores of copper, while in the immediately 
 adjacent mountains the same metal is abundantly present in 
 the fissure veins of the eruptive rocks. One more point, and 
 I will close. It is the answer to the question I asked in my 
 introduction — " Has the prospector any practical guide in 
 his search for the precious metals ?" lean only state what 
 must still be considered as about the only law which is 
 generally applicable to all mineral districts where the pre- 
 cious, metals have thus far been mined, viz., that deposits of 
 the precious metals occur almost exclusively in the neigh- 
 borhood of the massive crystalline rocks. Gold and silver 
 may at any time be found in sandstones and similar sedimen- 
 tary ropks, but only in the neighborhood of the massive 
 crystalline rocks, and it is useless to prospect sedimentary 
 rocks for the precious metals at great distances from such 
 geological formations. It is scarcely necessary to add that 
 superficial drift deposits and all kinds of placer deposits, 
 both recent and older, may form exceptions to the law as 
 above stated. 
 — A paper by A. W. Jackson read before the Calif ornia Academy ofSdenees. 
 
 THE HYGIENE OF MINES. 
 
 IT is convenient to divide mines, with reference to this 
 subject, into two classes, collieries and metal mines. 
 Subterranean quarries, rock-salt mines, etc., present no 
 conditions requiring them to be separated from the lat- 
 ter class. With regard to the hygiene of American collieries (a 
 branch of the subject which I shall not discuss at length), I 
 take the liberty of quoting some excellent observations con- 
 tained in a recent article by Mr. Henry C. Sheafer, of Potts- 
 ville. Mr. Sheafer says: " The working miner usually devotes 
 his whole life to that occupation. He frequently, perhaps 
 generally, begins at the age of from eight to twelve years as a 
 slate picker in the breaker— the building in which the coal 
 is prepared for market— where his business is to sit all day, 
 -with twenty or thirty companions of about his own age, and 
 
 pick out fragments of slate from a thin stream of coal 
 flowing past him. The place in which he works is apt to 
 be more or less open and exposed to draughts. His clothing 
 consists of shirt and pantaloons, usually old and ragged ; a 
 battered cap, and a pair of coarse shoes — the last often 
 omitted in summer. His whole costume, whatever its 
 original color, is soon stained a uniform black by the thick 
 cloud of coal-dust which fills the breaker, filters through 
 his clothing and begrimes his skin, and which forms a large 
 component part of the atmosphere he breathes. As boy 
 and man, his invariable practice at the close of every work- 
 ing day, is to wash himself thoroughly from head to foot, a 
 custom to which his hardiness and generally rugged health 
 in early life, are largely attributed. His diet, as boy and 
 man, is simple. Perk, salt fish, potatoes, and home-made 
 bread are its staple constituents ; but when work is good 
 and money suflicient, all the luxuries of the local market 
 are to be found on the miner's table. He learns to smoke 
 and chew tobacco at an early age, has few or no scruples 
 against the use of either malt or alcoholic liquors, and 
 withal grows up to be a lusty, sinewy youth, who seldom 
 troubles the doctors, unless overtaken by one of the numer- 
 ous accidents to which his own recklessness, not less than 
 his somewhat dangerous occupation, exposes him. At the 
 age of eighteen or twenty, if he has not previously entered 
 the mine as a driver, or for some other description of boys' 
 work, he goes in as a laborer, becoming in efiect, though 
 not in name, an apprentice to a practical miner, with duties 
 so nearly the same as those of his boss, that, for the pur- 
 poses of this article, they may be considered identical. 
 
 " The miner gets to his work shortly before seven o'clock 
 in the morning, if on the day shift, or between five and six 
 in the evening, if on the night shift. He is dressed in flan- 
 nel shirt, woolen or heavy duck pantaloons, heavy shoes or 
 boots, and usually with a coat thrown loosely over his 
 shoulders. On his head he wears a cap, a slouch hat, or a 
 helmet shaped like a fireman's, but of smaller dimensions. 
 Whatever the headgear, his lamp, a small tin one, shaped 
 like a miniature coffee-pot, swings by a hook over the visor ; 
 unless the place in which he works is fiery, when he carries 
 a safety-lamp in his hand. His dinner-can and canteen of 
 water or cold tea are swung from a strap passing over his 
 shoulders. Thus equipped, he rides down the shaft or the 
 slope, and if he is lucky enough to catch a train of empty 
 mine wagons going to his working place, he rides in, a dis- 
 tance, it may be, of two or three miles from the foot of the 
 shaft. If no wagons are at hand, he walks most of the way 
 through water and slush, taking small account of wet feet, 
 or, indeed, of wet clothing at any time, though the roof 
 over him may drip all day long. It is an exceptional case 
 if he wears a rubber or oU-cloth suit, even in the wettest 
 places. 
 
 "Two miners, or two miners and a laborer, form a gang, 
 and their work is an alternation of exhausting physical 
 labor and intervals of rest. They work with drilling-bar, 
 powder, and pick, getting down the coal and breaking it to a 
 size small enough to handle ; with drills, preparing and 
 charging a hole tor blasting; with shovels, clearing away the 
 coal and getting it into the mine-cars to be sent to the sur- 
 face ; and then, when a particular job is done, or a blast is to 
 be fired, they repair to the nearest place of safety, and in 
 their overheated condition sit down in the cold, damp draught 
 of the ventilatiiig current to cool off as rapidly as possible. 
 Is it any wonder that rheumatism, consumption, and ' miner's 
 asthma,' are the common ailments among them ? In walk- 
 ing to and from his work along the mine gangway, the 
 miner tries to step On the sills on which the track is laid, 
 thus avoiding the hollows worn by the mules' feet between 
 the sills ; and as these are laid from two. and a half to three 
 and a half feet apart, the effort gives him a long, slow, swing- 
 ing gait, the head being thrown to counterbalance the body. 
 The same posture is found best for traversing the manways 
 and other smaller passages, the long stride being advante,- 
 geous in picking the way over rough and uncertain ground, 
 while the bent head escapes projections of the roof, and per- 
 mits the light of the lamp in the miner's cap to fall on the 
 ground at his feet. The habit becomes fixed, and the old , 
 miner may always be known by his bent shoulders and 
 swinging stride. That this unnatural compression of the 
 chest cannot but be injurious is evident. 
 
228 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 " Among the most laborious of the miner's duties is setting 
 the timbers which support the roof. The gangway, or gen- 
 eral passageway of the mine, is usually from seven to ten feet 
 in height, and about the same in width, seldom falling be- 
 low these dimensions in American mines, where thick beds 
 of coal are worked and the cars are drawn by mule or loco- 
 motive power, though in the thin beds of England and 
 Wales, they are often so small that a man cannot stand up- 
 right in them. The gangway timbers, unless the rock and coal 
 are unusually solid, consist of a prop on each side, with a cross- 
 piece uniting them. They are from 10 to 15 inches thick, of 
 length adapted to the dimensions of the gangway, and being 
 of green wood, are correspondingly heavy, weighing from 
 300 to 600 pounds, according to size. Yet "three men are not 
 only expected to set the side-pieces, but to lift the heavy 
 cross-beam into position far above their heads, and fix it 
 there. The work is so hard, performed as it is beyond the 
 brattice which supplies fresh air, in an atmosphere more or 
 less charged with powder-smoke and carbonic acid gas, that, 
 by the time it is done, all three are thoroughly exhausted 
 and overheated, and in most favorable condition for the 
 reception of colds, lung disorders, and rheumatism. If work- 
 ing in a steeply pitching breast,* though the timbers used 
 are not so large, they are quite large enough to tax the 
 strength of two men who have to get them up a steep and 
 difficult ' manway ' by sheer lifting and pulling. In this way, 
 which is almost like working up through a chimney, timbers 
 averaging perhaps eight feet long by six inches thick are 
 carried to the top of the breast, which may be from sixty to 
 eighty yards above the gangway level. 
 
 "Mention has been made of the brattice. This is a highly 
 important aid to the ventilation of the mine. It is an air- 
 tight partition, generally carried along one side of the gang- 
 way, though sometimes over its top, and so arranged with 
 reference to the ventilating current, that the fresh air is car- 
 ried along one side of it, while the impure air, which is to 
 be withdrawn, passes along the other. Its object is to keep 
 up a circulation of air in the recess formed by advancing 
 operations at the face of the workings. As every passage or 
 chamber is pushed forward into the solid coal or rock, it 
 necessarily forms a bay, in which the air is always stagnant, 
 unless moved by some such appliance at the brattice. Com- 
 municating passages, called headings, are made between the 
 working-chambers about thirty yards apart, for the same 
 purpose ; but as the chamber is opened beyond the heading, 
 a brattice becomes necessary here also. One great cause of 
 impurity in the atmosphere in which the miner works is that 
 the brattice is frequently neglected, and the work pushed so 
 far beyond it that it ceases almost entirely to affect the air 
 at the face which then becomes loaded with powder-smoke 
 and carbonic acid, or, in fiery mines, carburetted hydrogen. 
 In either case the effect on the miner's health is most injur- 
 ious. 
 
 " Of course the principal occupation of the coal-miner is 
 cutting and getting out cqal, and here again his work is 
 performed under disadvantageous circumstances as regards 
 the preservation of health. Much of it consists in lying on 
 the side, holding under the mass in a low cut, where every 
 stroke of the pick dislodges a fresh shower of dust, to be 
 inhaled by the miner. Other portions consist of straining 
 at arm's length to dislodge a mass hanging from the roof, 
 of lifting and tugging at heavy weights, of shovelling con- 
 tinuously, hour after hour (where coal has to be shovelled 
 into the mine-cars, the filling of from eight to ten cars, 
 holding three tons each, is considered a day's work for a 
 laborer), and of swinging a heavy sledge in drilling by 
 hand-power. His footing is frequently unsteady, having to 
 be maintained on a steep-pitching floor of smooth slate, 
 so that, as a miner once expressed it to a friend of the 
 writer, ' it is very much like asking a man to stand on the 
 roof of a house while working.' There are chasms under 
 foot and loose rocks overhead, equally to be avoided, and 
 the whole shrouded in a darkness which the miner's lamp 
 
 * In steeply pitching breasts of great thickness — say, like the 
 Mammoth vein in Pennsylvania — timbers are not used, but the 
 miner works the coal on benches, and works from the top roclc down- 
 ward, having bis breast constantly full of coal, on which he stands. 
 In coal-beds of ordinary thickness, say ten feet and less, these tim- 
 ber are used. 
 
 reduces only to a semi-obscurity, and which hides without 
 removing the danger, 
 
 " The miner's life when not at work also has its eflfect on 
 his general health, and, as with every other class of men, 
 this varies according to the tastes and temperament of the 
 individual. His house is of frame, plainly but conveniently 
 built, and furnished with the necessary conveniences of life. 
 Being situated in the country, and iu a section where land 
 is of little value for either building or agricultural purposes, 
 there is plenty of space about the house, and fresh air in 
 abundance. Even the close neighborhood of frequent hog- 
 pens and occasional stables, and the universal practice of 
 emptying slops from the house on the ground at the back 
 door, have little or no deleterious eflfect, being neutralized 
 by the abundance of pure air with which their odors and 
 gases mingle. 
 
 " The miner's first care on coming from work is to take a 
 tub-bath, cleansing his skin thoroughly. He then dresses 
 in a clean suit, eats his supper, and is ready for the duties 
 and amusements of the evening, both of which are few and 
 simple. Usually the male inhabitants of the ' patch ' gather 
 in groups in the open air, in the village store, or in the 
 omnipresent saloon, and smoke and talk, until the coming 
 of an early bedtime sends them home. Comparatively little 
 drinking is indulged in except on pay day, which comes 
 once a month, and is celebrated by the drinking classes with 
 a ' spree.' In this particular the miner's nationality makes 
 itself seen. While men of all nations may be found drink- 
 ing to intoxication, the practice as a race is confined to the 
 Irish. There are few of American descent among the 
 miners, and these are generally found among the best and 
 steadiest of their class. The Irish are the most numerous, 
 and they are fond of liquor, drink to excess, and are very 
 quarrelsome when drunk. Terrible fights often accompany 
 a pay-day spree among them. Next to the Irish, in num- 
 bers, are the Welsh, a temperate, thrifty, and intelligent 
 race, who form a valuable element in the population. They 
 are industrious and economical, generally succeed in secur- 
 ing homes of their own, which they delight in beautifying 
 and keeping in order, and are apt to be found in positions 
 of trust and authority in later life. Germans and Poles, too, 
 are industrious and economical, but less intelligent and less 
 temperate than the Welsh, more careless in their personal 
 habits, and utterly regariless of the laws of health. They 
 eat unwholesome food, sleep in ill-ventilated rooms, and 
 early acquire a sallow, unhealthy appearance. Nevertheless, 
 their active occupation and the enforced cleanliness of the 
 'shifting-suit' counteract many of the ill effects of their 
 mode of living, and they will probably be found to average 
 as long lives as the other races. Less numerous, though 
 making up the bulk of the population in certain localities, 
 are Scotch, English, and Italian miners. The last are much 
 like the Irish in habits, while the others hold an interme- 
 diate place between them and the Welsh. It is of course 
 to be understood that these remarks apply in general to the 
 nationalities; there are very good workmen and excellent 
 citizens in all classes, and, similarly, there are worthless 
 characters in all; but the general tendency will be found as 
 has been stated. As in every other occupation, personal 
 habits have their effect on the constitution, and predispose 
 it to invite or to repel disease. Thus, drunkenness causes 
 gray tuberculosis, which, with the inhalation of dust and 
 noxious gases, predisposes to consumption, a very common 
 disease in mining towns. 
 
 "One of the most prominent conditions of a miner's 
 working life — certainly the first to be noticed by the casual 
 visitor — is the absence of sunlight, a very deleterious condi- 
 tion as many physicians and engineers of large practical 
 experience consider it, while others as positively deny that 
 it has any injurious effect. Dr. J. T. Carpenter, of Potts- 
 ville, in a paper read before the Schuylkill County Medical 
 Society, says (Transactions Medical Society of Pennsylvania, 
 1868-9, p. 488) : 'The deprivation of sunlight must be a 
 very strongly predisposing cause of disease. It is to be ex- 
 pected that the results of this deprivation will become 
 apparent in general ansemia, in chronic nervous irritations, 
 in tendencies (easily to be developed by exciting causes) 
 toward scrofula, tubercular phthisis, and allied maladies.' 
 Other practitioners, however, assert that the deprivation of 
 sunlight is among the least of the miner's afflictions; that 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 229 
 
 no injurious effects from it are perceptible, and that no 
 acute disease can be traced either wholly or in part to this 
 cause; while physicians will probably continue to differ 
 forever as to whether or not absence from sunlight during 
 all the working hours predisposes to or prolongs any chronic 
 complaint. In this connection it must be borne in mind 
 that the miner's work is carried on wholly by artificial 
 light, and that usually of a very poor quality. Not the 
 faintest ray of sunlight can penetrate to him, and about the 
 first thing the unaccustomed visitor usually remarks is that 
 it is so very dark. It needs but a slight exercise of the 
 imagination to persuade him that he has at last found a 
 sample of that thick darkness that might be felt' which 
 once visited the land of Egypt. 
 
 " In the winter season, especially when the mines are 
 working fiill time, their inmates, as a rule, see but little of 
 the sun during their working days. They enter the mine 
 before sunrise, and quit it after sunset. It is, however, a 
 very common practice among them to work week about, one 
 week by day and the next week by night. In this case they 
 have at least from four to six hours of every day's daylight 
 during their night week, and in any case they usually spend 
 Sunday above ground. They do not complain of want of 
 sunshine, and it is difficult to trace any ill-effects of its 
 absence upon them. Their complexions are pale, but not 
 more so than these of persons who work at night, or in 
 shaded rooms above ground ; and their eyesight, as a general 
 thing, considering the miserable light they have to work by, 
 is remarkably good. Few miners are compelled to wear eye- 
 glasses, for either working or reading, before reaching old age. 
 
 " Too much care cannot be exercised to guard against car- 
 bonic acid gas in mines. It not only exists in large quanti- 
 ties in a natural state, but is constantly being formed by the 
 exhalations from the lungs of men and animals, the products 
 of conibustion in the miners' lamps, the ventilating furnaces, 
 and especially the small locomotive engines now so com- 
 monly employed. When mixed with common air it is only 
 safe up to the proportion of five per cent., though it is said 
 that some miners become so accustomed to it that they can 
 breathe • an atmosphere charged with twenty per cent, of 
 carbonic acid. Mr. Andrew Roy, State Mine Inspector of 
 Ohio (Third Annual Report, 1876), calls attention to the in- 
 sidious workings of thi.s unseen but deadly foe of the miner. 
 'The air,' he says, in speaking of the comparatively shallow 
 mines of Ohio, where natural ventilation is depended on to 
 a very great degree, ' is best in the morning, because the 
 circulation is partially, if not wholly, renewed in the night, 
 during the absence of the miners ; but in the afternoon and 
 toward quitting-time it becomes very foul, and miners fre- 
 quently leave work because their lights will no longer burn, 
 or because they are so oppressed with languor and headache 
 that they can no longer stay in the mine. The black-damp, 
 however, is more insidious than direct in its operations, 
 gradually undermining the constitution and killing the men 
 by inches. By reason of constant habit, young and robust 
 miners are able to stay several hours in a mine after a light 
 goes out for want of fresh air, where a stranger, unused to 
 such scenes, would fall insensible, and, if not speedily re- 
 moved, would die.' 
 
 " Similarly, Mr. J. K. Blackwell, appointed British Com- 
 missioner of Mines in 1849, with instructions to make an in- 
 spection of their sanitary condition, reports : ' There is an- 
 other class of injuries, resulting irom defective ventilation, 
 to which miners are exposed. "The circumstances producing 
 these injuries are slow in operation, and as their effects bring 
 disease, and not immediate and sudden death, their exist- 
 ence has been little considered. These effects are the re- 
 sult of an inadequate supply of air, which has become viti- 
 ated and unfit for breathing on account of its having lost its 
 due proportion of oxygen, which is replaced by the forma- 
 tion of carbonic acid. This gas has its sources in respiration, 
 the lights of the mine, the decomposition of small coal in 
 the goaves(cavities of the roof), and of timber in the work- 
 ings. Air in this state is also usually found to be loaded 
 with carburetted hydrogen, yielded from the whole coal or 
 in the goaves. Sulphuretted hydrogen, arising from the 
 decomposition of pyrites, is sometimes present, especially in 
 coal-seams liable to spontaneous ignition. The gases 
 formed by blasting are also allowed to load the air of mines 
 to a very injurious degree.' 
 
 "And Thomas E. Foster, Government Inspector in 1864, 
 says: ' In collieries that I alluded to as being badly venti- 
 lated, they had no inflammable gas, and that was the reason 
 why they were not well ventilated. Although you sometimes 
 kill a few men by an explosion, these collieries where they 
 have no inflammable gas kill the men by inches. There are 
 quite as many, in my opinion, killed where there is nothing 
 but carbonic acid gas, as where there is inflammable gas. 
 The men's health is naturally destroyed, and they kill them 
 by inches. They do not go immediately, but they go in for 
 a few years and die.' Attention is especially called to Mr. 
 Foster's remarks. Colliery managers are altogether 'too 
 prone to think that fire-damp is the only 'damp' that is to 
 be feared, and force their men to work year after year in 
 an atmosphere loaded with carbonic acid, because in this 
 gas they die slowly and one by one, dropping off without 
 any of the dramatic circumstances attending death by an 
 explosion. It is cause for congratulation that the improved 
 state of science and the requirements of the mining laws in 
 all civilized countries have greatly improved the condition 
 of the mines with regard to ventilation. 
 
 "Another evil too commonly met with in coal-mines is 
 the cloud of dust with which the air is loaded. Where the 
 coal is kept damp by the percolation of water, little dust ia 
 made, and the miner is comparatively firee from its injurious 
 effect ; but it is exceptional for the coal to be in this condi- 
 tion, and it has been found that the deeper the workings 
 penetrate the less water is found and the drier and more 
 dusty the coal becomes. Any one who has seen a load of 
 coal shot from a cart, or has watched the thick clouds of 
 dust which sometimes envelop the huge coal-breakers of the 
 anthracite region so completely as almost to hide them from 
 sight, can form an idea of the injurious effect upon the 
 health of constant working in such an atmosphere. The 
 wonder is not that men die of clogged-up lungs, but that 
 they manage so long to exist in an atmosphere which seems 
 to contain at least fifty per cent, of solid matter. Ventila- 
 tion mitigates this evil, but does not obviate it, as a stream 
 of pure water flowing into a muddy pool, ot which the bot- 
 tom is continually being stirred up, will thin the contents 
 of the pool, but will not make them clear. Every fresh 
 stroke of the pick or the hammer, every shovelful of coal 
 moved, every fall of a dislodged mass, causes a fresh cloud 
 of dust, until the ventilating current would need to flow 
 with a force little short of a hurricane to keep the miner's 
 lungs supplied with unvitiated air. Inspector Boy, who has 
 given much attention to the .subject of mine ventilation, 
 says (Report for 1876, p. 92): 'Constant labor in a badly 
 aired mine breaks down the constitution and clouds the 
 intellect. The lungs become clogged up from inhaling coal- 
 dust and from breathing noxious air; the body and limbs 
 become stiff and sore, and the mind loses the power of vigo ■ 
 rous thought. After six years' labor in a badly ventilated 
 mine — ^that is, a mine where a man with a good constitution 
 may from habit be able to work every day for several years 
 — the lungs begin to change to a bluish color. After twelve 
 years they are black, and after twenty years they are densely 
 black, not a vestige of natural color remaining, and are 
 little better than carbon itself. The miner dies at thirty- 
 five years of coal-miners' consumption.' Mr. Roy attributes 
 the frequent strikes and other expressions of discontent 
 among the miners primarily to defective ventilation, saying: 
 'The sources of discontent among miners arise, not, in my 
 judgment, so much in the evil nature of the men, as in the 
 evil genius of the mines; and no conspiracy laws are needed 
 to compel miners to be law-abiding citizens, but better ven- 
 tilation to expel the demons of the mines — those noxious 
 gases which in remoter ages the priests of Germany were 
 wont to combat with religious exorcisms.' The following 
 cases reported by Dr. William Thomson, show the condition 
 of the lungs above referred to: 'D. C, aged 58; miner for 
 12 years; lungs uniformly black and of a carbonaceous 
 color. D. D., aged 62; miner from boyhood; lungs uni- 
 formly black. G. H., aged 45 years; lungs uniformly deep 
 black through their whole substance, with a density equal 
 to caoutchouc. L. A., aged 54 years ; miner all his life ; 
 whole lungs dyed with black carbonaceous matter.' 
 
 "Dr. R. C. Rathburn, of Middleport, Ohio, testified before 
 the Ohio Mining Commission, on this subject, as follows : 
 ' I have made two post-mortem examinations in which there 
 
230 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 was carbonaceous solidification in the air-cells. The Scotch 
 people call it spurious melanosis, really a coal-miners' con- 
 sumption. I have no doubt the carbonaceous particles 
 caused their death. I examined them after death, because 
 before their decease they spit up a black substance whose 
 real character I wished to ascertain. Four cases came to 
 my knowledge. 
 
 "The black substance referred to is solid carbonaceous 
 matter, inhaled while at work. As noted above, it is very 
 slow to operate as a direct cause of death ; but aggravates 
 diseases of the lungs, acting principally as an irritant. Once 
 in the lungs it remains there ever after, manifesting itself in 
 a peculiar black sputum in all cases of expectoration from 
 lung troubles. . 
 
 " Dr. J. T. Carpenter, of Pottsville, in his treatise before 
 quoted, says : ' I saw, a short time since, a patient suifering 
 from chronic bronchitis, with coal-dust sputa, who had not 
 entered a mine for nineteen years. A gentleman of Potts- 
 ville, under my care, is now recovering from pneumonia, 
 with softening and abscess of the lung, who in former years 
 was engaged in mines, but has not habitually entered them 
 for eight years past. During his recent illness the charac- 
 teristic black sputum was constant.' 
 
 " After what has been said, it is evident that the greatest 
 necessity for healthful mining is good ventilation. With 
 air-currents suflScient to carry off noxious gases, powder- 
 smoke, and at least the most of the dust, mining becomes 
 not merely a healthful but an agreeable occupation, notwith- 
 standing all that has been said about its perils and draw- 
 backs. The latter may seem a bojd statement to those whose 
 experience in mines is limited to a single visit, but it is the 
 testimony of the great ma-jority of miners, and is confirmed 
 by the well-known fact that men who go from farms and 
 shops to work for a season in the mines rarely go back to 
 the old work. There is something about the comparatively 
 free and easy life of the miner, who is to a great extent his 
 own boss — ^the uniform temperature, which in most mines 
 varies little, if any, with the seasons, and which ranges from 
 45° to 65° Fahr., according to local circumstances, the year 
 round — and perhaps the spice of danger which is always 
 present, that makes the miner, once initiated, cling to that 
 work for the rest of his life. Nor is that life necessarily a 
 short one, though the appalling frequency of easily avoidable 
 accidents reduces its average length far below what it should 
 be. So far as the writer is aware, no comparative statistics 
 of the average length of miners' lives, or of their liability to 
 disease, have ever been published ; but old men are common 
 among them, and men who have worked thirty, forty, or 
 fifty years in the mines, and are still hale and hearty for 
 their age, are by no means rare. Their principal diseases, 
 as before stated, are miner's asthma, consumption, and 
 rheumatism, and, among those who have worked long in 
 badly ventilated places, dyspepsia, tremors, vertigo, and 
 other troubles arising from blood-poisoning. The two prin- 
 cipal causes are dampness and bad air. Pumps and pre- 
 caution obviate the one, and proper ventilation the other. 
 
 " In conclusion, it is the opinion of the writer, formed 
 from long personal acquaintance with the subject, and sus- 
 tained by the almost unanimous testimony of practicing 
 physicians, mining engineers, colliery owners, and miners 
 themselves, that, were it not for accidental injuries and 
 deaths, the mining class would show as good average health, 
 as fair a percentage of longevity, and as low a death-rate as 
 any other class of manual laborers; that the hygienic con- 
 ditions of American mines are receiving more attention and 
 consequent improvement year by year, and that, if the 
 average miner could only be taught to exercise caution and 
 common-sense about his work, the list of fatal accidents 
 would be materially shortened, and mining would lose most 
 or all of the terrors which now invest it in the minds of the 
 general public." 
 
 Coming now to the second class of mines, I wish to in- 
 quire whether the general conclusions expressed by Mr. 
 Sheafcr with regard to collieries are equally applicable to 
 metal-mines. 
 
 The chief differences in this country between the sanitary 
 conditions of coal-mines and those of metal-mines are the 
 following : 
 
 1. The coal-mines are, as a rule, neither very deep nor 
 very high above the sea-level ; whereas a large proportion 
 
 of the metal-mines are situated at great altitudes (5000 to 
 13,000 feet above tide). The comparative rarity of the at- 
 mosphere, though not perhaps injurious to health per- se, 
 nevertheless intensifies the changes of temperature to which 
 both the mountain climate and the underground work render 
 the miner liable, and thus promotes certain febrile and 
 rheumatic complaints. 
 
 2. Although it cannot be said of American metal-mines, 
 in general, that they are deeper than the coal-mines, yet it 
 must be admited that they grow deep faster, and that the 
 deepest of them far exceed our coal-mines in this respect. 
 In some cases — notably in that of the Comstock Lode — the 
 increase of heat in depth is a very serious inconvenience 
 and injury to the mining work. 
 
 3. With rare exceptions, metal-mines do not generate 
 poisonous or explosive gases in large quantity or in brief 
 periods. Slow decomposition in the rocks of minerals such 
 as pyrites may give rise to sulphurous or sulphhydric gases; 
 carbonic acid may be generated by decaying wood, or by the 
 burning candles, or the exhalations of the workmen ; but 
 there is no such imminent danger fom these sources as 
 threatens the coal-miner, who may be ovenvhelmed by a 
 sudden irruption and explosion of " fire damp," or drowned 
 in a flood of "black damp." On the other hand, this im- 
 munity from sudden catastrophes due to imperfect ventilation 
 leads, in metal-mines, to a degree of carelessness in this 
 department of mine engineering of which no one would dare 
 to be guilty at a colliery. As a rule, therefore, the air is 
 much worse in metal-mines than in coal-mines. The former 
 are usually left to ventilate themselves, according to aeros- 
 tatic laws ; and when changes of wind or season cause a 
 reversal or stagnation of the ordinary current, the pheno- 
 menon is submitted to with a kind of fatalism. Miners say 
 "the air is bad" in this or that level, very much as one would 
 speak in helpless resignation about the weather out of doors. 
 When the heat or foulness of the air at any point actually 
 prevents work, remedies are applied; but so long as it is 
 merely an inconvenience or a slight enhancement of the 
 price per yard of contract work, it is too often neglected, 
 since neglect is not exposed to the death penalty. 
 
 4. The greater expense and completely unremunerative 
 character of excavations in rock such as usually incloses 
 metalliferous deposits, leads to the making of much smaller 
 and less regular passages than the gangways of collieries ; 
 while separately excavated airways may be said not to exist 
 in metal-mines at all — a brattice or an air-box or a weather- 
 door now and then being the most that is done for the 
 artificial direction of the ventilating current. The small- 
 ness of the excavations in metal-mines is therefore another 
 cause for imperfect ventilation. On the other hand, the old 
 workings, particularly if well packed with " deads," or waste- 
 rocks, do not need to be ventilated- so much as is often the 
 case in coal mines, to prevent the accumulation of dangerous 
 gases in them. 
 
 6. There is, as a rule, much more climbing in metal-mines. 
 The miners often descend and ascend through great vertical 
 distances by means of ladders and stairs. 
 
 6. It is in a few localities only, apart from the coal regions, 
 that a permanent class of miners exists. Moreover, the 
 hygienic conditions of most American metal-mines are not 
 extreme ; and, finally, the effects often attributed to under- 
 ground conditions, in other countries, may be largely due to 
 other causes, and it may be that better diet, less prolonged 
 and exhaustive labor, more comfortable homes, and more 
 rational habits have to some extent rescued the American 
 miner from the evils which have been supposed to inhere in 
 his avocation. 
 
 The points thus suggested will now be briefly reviewed, 
 under the heads of physical exertion, air, and temperature. 
 
 Physical ^crfion,.— The wielding of sledges and pick, the 
 pushing of cars, the wheeling of barrows, and the lifting of 
 heavy rocks and timbers are forms of exertion which the 
 miner undergoes in common with laborers of many other 
 classes, and which cannot be deemed, apart from the peculir.r 
 conditions surrounding them, specially injurious to health, 
 though they are doubtless more or less competent to cause 
 or to aggravate certain organic diseases. The ascent and 
 descent upon the ladders may be considered characteristic 
 of his avocation, though it is involved also in the ordinary 
 method of raising bricks and mortar to buildings in process 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 231 
 
 of construction. Here the hod-carrier not only climbs, but 
 climbs frequently, and carries a heavy load — a practice once 
 common in the mines of Mexico and South America, but 
 unknown in this country, from which its cost as well as its 
 inhumanity has excluded it. It is the custom now to use 
 windlasses or hoisting engines even for buildings, when 
 these exceed one or two sloriea in height; and it must be 
 remembered that the highest building.3 come far short of the 
 vertical extension of ordinary mines. The question, how 
 much the health and efficiencv of miners are affected by 
 climbing up and down ladders, has been carefully examined. 
 The loss of working-time involved in this method of transit 
 is serious. But the exercise of climbing itself, if taken 
 slowly and with due caution, and if the heated climber is 
 not afterward exposed to a chill, is not generally held to be 
 injurious to healthy and strong men. Added to other 
 enfeebling conditions, it is said to hasten the period of 
 declining strength ; and it is an important objection to the 
 use of ladders in deep mines that they necessitate the em- 
 ployment of the younger men in the lower levels, and thus 
 deprive the mine, at the points where skilled labor is most 
 desirable, of the services of the oldest and most experienced 
 workmen. Ladders placed at a proper angle are better than 
 stairs, since they permit the arms to take part in raising the 
 body. The loss of time and waste of strength involved in 
 ladder-climbing are shown by the relative amount of work 
 done per man in the upper and lower levels, this amount 
 being, for instance, in the lead-mines of the north of Eng- 
 land, one-fifth greater in the upper levels. On the question 
 of health, it may here be added that sailors are not reported 
 to suffer from climbing any more than bricklayers do ; and 
 the sum of the whole discussion appears to be, that the 
 economical view of the subject of climbing in the mines is 
 more important than the sanitary one. This view has led 
 to the introduction of the man-engine, and the practice 
 of lowering and raising workmen in skips and cages. 
 This is not the place for a criticism of the comparative 
 merits of these devices. It is sufficient to say that in 
 most of those American mines which are deep enough to 
 render the use of ladders a matter of hygienic importance, 
 the workmen are raised and lowered by the machinery 
 that hoists the ore ; and the ladders being kept merely 
 as a means of transit between neighboring levels, or as 
 a resort in case of accident, do not enter into the hygienic 
 problem. 
 
 Air.^-Tke most thorough and satisfactory reports on the 
 air of metal-mines are those of Dr. E. Angus Smith and 
 Dr. A. J. Bernays, included in appendix B to the Report of 
 the Commissioners, appointed to inquire into the condition 
 of the metal-mines of Great Britain, with reference to the 
 health and safety of the persons employed in such mines. 
 (London, 1864.) Dr. Smith begins with an elaborate dis- 
 cussion of the normal amount of oxygen and carbonic acid 
 in pure air, and, after citing many analyses of distinguished 
 chemists, adopts 20.0* parts by volume of oxygen, and 0.04 
 of carbonic acid as a fair out door average, and shows that 
 in confined spaces, and under various influences, the amount 
 of carbonic acid maybe increased indefinitely. At 11 p. M., 
 in the pit of London theatre, it was 0.32. But many sam- 
 ples of bad air, taken from mines, have shown over two per 
 cent, of carbonic acid. By a series of most interesting ex- 
 periments, conducted in a hermetically closed lead chamber, 
 containing 170 cubic feet of air. Dr. Smith established, 
 among other important results, the following: 
 
 A person shut up in the chamber for five hours raised the 
 amount of carbonic acid to 2.25 per cent. _ In this atmos- 
 phere the breathing was changed from 16 inspirations per 
 minute to 22, and the pulse fell from 76 to 55, becoming, at 
 the same time, so weak that it was difficult to find. On 
 another occasion, when the carbonic acid had risen to 3.9 
 per cent., the number of inspirations advanced to 26, and 
 the pulse became so weak as to cauae'alarm. This is a symp- 
 tom of poisioning by carbonic acid. An experiinent, tried 
 by blowing carbonic acid into fresh air, containing 20.1 
 oxygen, without removing the oxygen, showed that the pulse 
 of the subject was weakened, though breathing was not 
 very difficult, and the candles burned moderately well. Four 
 
 * The proportion-! given throughout this paper are parts in 100, 
 by volume. 
 
 miners' candles, inclosed in the chamber, ceased to bum at 
 the end of five hours, having raised the temperature from 
 50° Fahrenheit to 65°, and vitiated the air until it contained 
 13.8 oxygen and 2.28 carbonic acid. It follows that n.eh 
 can live where candles will not burn ; but that the poisonous 
 effect of carbonic acid begins before its subject is conscious 
 of serious inconvenience. Moreover, it appears that the 
 presence of carbonic acid is a more noxious agency than 
 the mere diminution of oxygen in an otherwise pure air. 
 According to Dr. Smith's experiments, respiration is not 
 affected sensibly by a small or even a considerable diminu- 
 tion of oxygen, when the place of that gas is not taken up 
 by others of a harmful character. But we do not usually 
 have to deal, in mines, with simply rarefied or deoxygenated 
 air. The abstraction of oxygen is due to processes which 
 load the air with such gaseous products as carbonic acid. 
 The facility with which water absorbs certain percentages 
 of its weight of carbonic acid and other gases, explains the 
 fact that the air is more tolerable in wet than in dry work- 
 ings. Trickling streams or spray perceptibly improve the 
 ventilation ; and this means is occasionally resorted to for 
 enabling men to continue work where it otherwise would be 
 difficult. 
 
 Dr. Bernays points out another most important fact, 
 namely, that there is a great difference in the personal sen- 
 sations of comfort or distress occasioned by breathing dif- 
 ferent atmospheres containing practically the same pro- 
 portion of carbonic acid. This is undoubtedly the effect 
 of organic impurities, which greatly aggravates that of the 
 carbonic acid. A much larger proportion of the latter may 
 be breathed with impunity when it is the result of inorganic 
 processes, and particularly of the slow oxidation of coal, 
 than when it proceeds from animal exhalation, and the quick, 
 smoky combustion of candles. Dr. Bernays says that he has 
 often found the air of a crowded room intolerable, though 
 it contained not more than 0.1 per cent, of carbonic acid. 
 He mentions also, as a curious fact, that a man may 
 continue to breathe without distress in a confined space so 
 long as it is contaminated by his own breath only, though he 
 could not, without great disgust, enter an atmosphere ren- 
 dered equally foul by the respiration of others. But I sus- 
 pect that the inference he suggests is not well founded. It 
 is, perhaps, not the source of the contamination, but the 
 entrance of the observer from purer air, that makes it more 
 repulsive in the latter case. 
 
 Carbonic acid and accumulations of organic impurities 
 are most troublesome at the end of galleries, or in confined 
 stopes, winzes, etc., which are not swept by the general cur- 
 rent of ventilation. The operation of blasting in such 
 places has the good effect of breaking up the stagnation of 
 the air ; but, on the other hand, it contributes certain im- 
 purities of its own, partly volatile, and partly in fine, sus- 
 pended floating particles. Carbonic acid, sulphuretted 
 hydrogen, sulphide and nitrite of potassium, etc., are amoug 
 the products of explosion from ordinary gunpowder. Gun- 
 cotton is less harmful in this respect, and was recommended 
 by the British Commission ; but it has never found general 
 application in mines, perhaps because its use in mines, as 
 a quick and violent explosive, has been superseded, or rather 
 forestalled, by the various nitroglycerin compounds. It is 
 well known that the gases from these produce most distressing 
 headache ; but this appears to be the effect on those persons 
 only who are unaccustomed to them. I have seen miners 
 return to a stope almost immediately after a blast of dyna- 
 mite, apparently without inconvenience. This was, how- 
 ever, in a well ventilated mine. With all explosives it is 
 necessary and customary to allow the gases to clear away 
 before resuming work. Sulphuretted and arsenuretted hy- 
 drogen may be given off by rocks which contain such min- 
 erals as pyrites of iron or copper, mispickel, etc., which 
 undergo decomposition in the presence of air and moisture. 
 To this cause, in part may be due the alleged unhealthi- 
 ness of the copper-mines of Cornwall as compared with 
 the tin-mines, in which the ore, being already an ox- 
 ide, suffers, upon exposure, no chemical change. Besides 
 the gaseous impurities of the air, the dust produced by 
 drilling has been considered a source of disease. This 
 is probably not a serious evil. The almost invariable 
 practice is to put water in the bore-holes to facilitate the 
 work, and there is from this source little or no dust to be 
 
232 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 inhaled. What has sometimes been mistaken for mineral 
 dust in post-mortem examinations of the lungs of miners, 
 is finely divided carbon ; and this is almost certainly attri- 
 butable, not so much to the occasional inhalation of gun- 
 powder vapors as to the constant breathing of the products 
 of the imperfect combustion of candles. Some reported 
 cases of the " lead-colic " among lead-miners in Great Bri- 
 tain, and similar cases in the " carbonate lead-mines of our 
 West " may be attributed to the inhalation of plumbiferous 
 dust. The effect of all these impurities of the air has been 
 found on the continent of Europe and in Great Britain to be 
 a peculiar form of" asthma," " consumption," or " ansemia," 
 known as the miners' disease. It is difficult to say how 
 much the general low tone of vitality due to insufficiency of 
 animal food, lack of healthy dwellings, and reckless per- 
 sonal habits, contributes to the prevalence of this disease ; 
 but it is probably fair to conclude that these causes weaken 
 the ability of the workman to resist the effects of impure 
 mine-air. 
 
 Temperature. — There is a gradual increase of temperature 
 in the rocks of the earth's crust, below the zone of uniform 
 temperature which is found near the surface. The law of 
 this increase in temperature is not clearly established. It is 
 certainly much affected by the chemical reactions which 
 may go on in the rook. Mr. Robert Hunt, in his testimony 
 before the British Commission, says that whatever may be 
 the temperature of the atmosphere on the surface of 
 the earth, there is in the Cornish mines a constant 
 temperature throughout the year at the depth of about 
 150 feet. Below that point, he says, the increase is one 
 degree Fahrenheit for every 56 feet down to about 750 feet ; 
 then one degree in every 75 feet down to about 1350 feet ; 
 and below that about one degree to 85 feet. Mr. Henwood 
 (quoted by Prof. J. A. Church, in his paper published on 
 the Heat of the Comstock Mines) gives for different kinds 
 of rock the following distances in feet, corresponding with 
 each rise of one degree : granite, 51 ; slate, 37.2 ; cross veins, 
 40.8 ; lodes, 40.2; tin lodes, 40.8 ; tin and copper lodes, 39.6 ; 
 copper lodes, 38.4. These figures show how great is the vari- 
 ation due to local causes. Assuming the increase in granite 
 to be least affected in this way, and applying also Mr. Hunt's 
 formula for the rate of increase, we may adopt as a probable 
 standard of comparison a scale of depths and rock tempera- 
 tures, as follows : 
 
 Depth— Feet. 
 
 160, . . 
 
 300, . . 
 
 600, . . . 
 1330, . • ■ 
 2000, .... 
 
 Temperature of rock. 
 60° 
 62° 
 06° 
 76° 
 . 81° 
 
 It will generally be admitted that most mines are hotter 
 than this, the fact being that the heat given off by lights, 
 explosives, animals, and men is not immediately removed 
 by the ventilation, and hence the rock is perceptibly cooler 
 than the air. But chemical reactions and hot springs in the 
 rock may very greatly raise its temperature; and when 
 this is the case the miners, finding that the rock feels hot, 
 in comparison with the air, say that the lode or the wall 
 "makes heat." Even when the air is still somewhat the 
 warmer, the rock may seem to be so when touched with the 
 hand. 
 
 One of the United mines in Wales is mentioned by Prof 
 Church, in the paper already cited, as possessing springs 
 which discharge water at 116° Fahr., the depth being 1320 
 feet. The heat of the air in the workings is given at 100° 
 to 113° Fahr. The hottest mine in Cornwall is, or was in 
 1862, the Wheal Clifford, concerning which the superinten- 
 dent, John Richards, testified that the temperature was 
 102° fifty-one feet below the 1200 feet level, and a "pretty 
 deal hotter" (120° he guessed) at the 1380 feet level. At 
 one time, in a confined working, the temperature was 
 known to rise as high as 128°. Mr. Robert Hunt, speaking 
 apparently of the same mine, says that, by his personal 
 measurement, the air showed 110° in the deep level, and the 
 tests of the rock, made by leaving a thermometer for two 
 hours in a bore-hole, gave from 112° to 114°. He reports 
 the maximum with which he was acquainted as 117°. 
 Mr. Richards says the workmen can endure 120° perhaps 
 
 half an hour, but cannot continue to work for an hour at 
 102°, while they can make a four-hour shift without inter- 
 ruption at 95°. Mr. Hunt gi res the average time of working 
 at twenty minutes, and says that on retreating, the men 
 washed themselves in water at 90°, to cool off. Six sets of 
 men were employed, so that each set had one hour and forty 
 minutes to recover from the effects of the twenty minutes' 
 exertion. Four turns of twenty minutes, thus distributed 
 through an eight-hour shift, constituted a day's work. It is 
 not surprising that, under these circumstances, the labor 
 account was heavy. It is said that three guineas per inch 
 was paid for driving a cross-cut in this mine. 
 
 These remarkable statements are even surpassed by the 
 recent experience of the deep mines of Comstock Lode in 
 Nevada. For many data on this subject, corroborating and 
 completing my own hasty observations and recollections, I 
 am indebted to the paper of Profeesor John A. Church, 
 already mentioned, and to the unpublished memoranda of 
 that gentleman, generously placed at my disposal. In the 
 lower levels of these mines (say about 2000 feet below the 
 croppings of the Gould & Curry, the usual datum-line) the 
 temperature of the rock is generally about 130°. In freshly 
 opened ground the air usually varies from 108° to 116° ; but 
 higher temperatures are not unfrequently reported, as, for in- 
 stance, 123° in the 1900 feet level of the Gould & Curry. 
 The water, which enters the drift from the lode and the 
 country rock, is, however, often much hotter. The vast body 
 which filled the Savage and the Hale and Norcross mines for 
 many months had the temperature of 154°. But the water, 
 like the rock and the air, varies in this respect in different 
 portions of the mines. The ordinary range of " hot drifts " 
 is 105° to 110° air-temperature. The ventilating current is 
 delivered at a temperature of 90° to 95°, which seems to be 
 most conducive to comfort. It is blown upon the men 
 through zinc pipes by means of powerful mechanical blowers. 
 The question of present interest being the effect upon the 
 health of the miners of working under such conditions, fur- 
 ther description of the peculiar phenomena of the case will 
 be unnecessary. Before considering the health of the Com- 
 stock miners, it should be noted that by no means all, or 
 even the majority of them, are employed in the hot drifts, 
 and, moreover, that these mines are provided with arrange- 
 ments which enable every miner to bathe and change his 
 clothing immediately upon emerging from underground. 
 The diseases of the Comstock miners are mainly typhoid and 
 mountain fever, rheumatism and erysipelas. There is little 
 or no consumption,,bladdei-, kidney or liver disease. The 
 superior ventilation (apart from the question of temperature) 
 in the mines, the hearty and abundant diet of the miners, 
 the constant enormous activity of their perspiratory func- 
 tions, and the personal cleanliness resulting from their daily 
 baths, seem to have abolished among them the disease, sup- 
 posed elsewhere to be characteristic of their avocation. It is 
 admitted by all observers that they are healthier than their 
 wives and children. 
 
 As to the immediate effect of the high temperature upon 
 those who work in them, it must be confessed that while 
 actually working, the men display apparently undiminished 
 vigor, delivering with seven, eight or even nine pound ham- 
 mers, very rapid and effective blows. Perhaps a third of the 
 time is lost in resting and cooling. In very hot drifts, a re- 
 lief gang is employed ; and, in extreme cases, four and even 
 six men to the pick have been found necessary. In the 
 main, however, the rapid progress in the hot drifts is remark- 
 able, and shows that the heat does not greatly lessen the 
 power of work, except by necessitating longer or more fre- 
 quent rest. At the usual temperature of 108°, three shifts 
 of three men each, working in turns of eight hours, advance 
 three to five feet daily in hard rock. This is so much better 
 than the efficiency reported from the hot lode in Cornwall, 
 that we are led to infer that the method of delivering air to 
 the Comstock drifts affects the temperature and perspiration 
 of the miners in such a manner as to protect them to a large 
 extent from the otherwise distressing action of the heat. My 
 own sensations, as I recall them, in a deep and very hot 
 level of the Crown Point (about 116°, I believe), were not 
 specially uncomfortable on the surface of the body, except 
 when a drop of still hotter water fell upon me. The princi- 
 pal feeling of distress was internal, and was caused by the 
 inhalation of the scorching air. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 233 
 
 The question whether those who labor in such places are 
 permanently injured, is more difficult to decide. One of the 
 physicians at Virginia City has declared that " there is not 
 a sound heart in any man on the lode who has worked in 
 a hot drift for two years." This statement is perhaps too 
 strong, though it is possibly true that many of the miners 
 are organically affected. Yet this appears not to interfere 
 with ordinary and equable work, though it may, perhaps, 
 develop into distinct disease under special strain or excite- 
 ment. After long work in the hot drifts, the men have a 
 waxen color, and are known as " tallow-face." Prof. Church 
 noticed some men who, without being lazy, showed unusual 
 care in handling their work, and two or three of them told 
 him that they were " broken down " in hot drifts. In the 
 only instance in which the time required for "breaking 
 down " was given, the workman had been employed under- 
 ground six years. 
 
 The actual effect of the heat on the men is, first, excessive 
 perspiration, and, if this is not removed by evaporation with 
 sufficient rapidity, great faintness. The pulse increases, as 
 is shown in the following interesting data, obtained by Prof. 
 J. D. Whitney and and Prof. Church, in the 1800 feet level 
 of the Julia Mine, the drift being about 1200 feet long, and 
 having an air temperature of 108° to 110°, while the air 
 temperature at the station or junction of the drift with the 
 (downcast) shaft was only 84°. The following observations 
 were made : 
 
 Carman, after bringing out car, say 1200 feet . . 
 
 Carman, after resting at station 
 
 Carman (another easel, after partial rest .... 
 Prof. Whitney, after wallcing through drift . . 
 
 Prof. Whitney, normal rate 
 
 Prof. Church, after moving about, without exertion 
 
 Pulse-beats 
 
 per minute. 
 
 140 
 
 04 
 
 . 128 
 
 . 120 
 
 A case of death is reported as follows : A powerful man, 
 accustomed to hot drifts, returned to work after a rest of 
 three months, and entering the Imperial Mine as carman, 
 pushed his first car to the end of the drift, in the 2000 feet 
 level — ^say 1000 to 1200 feet — loaded it, and brought it back 
 to the station, where another man was waiting to relieve 
 him. But, instead of taking his turn, he dumped the car 
 and started back without cooling off. He loaded the car 
 again at the end of the drift, and proceeded to return, but 
 was found a few minutes later hanging senseless to his car, 
 and died, I believe,, before he could be got to the surface. 
 Another died in the Imperial incline while that was sinking. 
 Three such deaths in all are reported from this mine, which 
 is an excessively hot one. Sometimes accidental deaths may 
 be the indirect result of the faintness caused by the effect of 
 the heat on the circulation. Thns a man fell down the Im- 
 perial (upcast) shaft last year, who was probably overcome 
 by the heat while putting in timbers. In these worst places, 
 strong and healthy young men are employed. Fat men 
 seem to stand the heat best, and, among visitors, women 
 endure it better than men. Some men wilt under the work, 
 and are said to have " no pluck." Drinking habits unfit 
 the miner for this severe test. Unaccustomed men are often 
 unable at first even to reach the end of the drift where they 
 are-to work. An intelligent miner told Prof. Church that 
 the first month of such work after a long rest is hard ; then 
 comes three months of brisk feeling ; and then follows a 
 " dragged-out " sensation. 
 
 The underground us« of machine-drills, operated by com- 
 pressed air, is an important aid to ventilation and cooling, 
 since the expansion of the escaping air absorbs much heat 
 from the immediate neighborhood. But when, as in the 
 Comstock, the heat radiated from the whole surface of ex- 
 posed rock is far in excess of that which men and lights 
 supply, nothing can sensibly reduce it, or mitigate its effects, 
 except abundant mechanical ventilation. This is carried to 
 a large extent in the Comstock mines ; and to the fact that, 
 in counteracting the high temperature, the impurities of the 
 air are thus removed, the remarkable good health of the 
 Comstock miners may be partly ascribed. Other causes 
 have been already mentioned, such as the healthy mountain 
 climate, the good food, and the comfortable dwellings. 
 Finally, the fact must not be omitted from consideration 
 that the miners of our Western regions are emigrania, and 
 presumably men of such bodily vigor and health as their 
 
 adventurous spirit would imply. Incidental to the question 
 of temperature is the effect of sudden changes of tempera- 
 ture, such as are experienced on coming suddenly from the 
 depths of a mine to the surface. The hygienic conditions 
 here do not differ from those which any similar change 
 of temperature produces; and since they may easily 
 be counteracted by the product miner, they need not be set 
 down as sources of disease inherent in his occupation. 
 
 Another kindred question relates to the effect of baromet- 
 ric pressure, which varies in mines with the depth of the 
 openings, and also with the changes of the outside weather. 
 The general experience is that high barometric pressure, 
 though it permits a greater inhalation of oxygen with each 
 breath, causes a feeling of distress, and affects the heart un- 
 favorably. Dr. Bernays says that undoubtedly the most 
 injurious, as well as the most unpleasant, condition of mine 
 air is that in which a high temperature is accompanied with 
 excessive barometric pressure and great humidity. The 
 effect of the pressure alone can best be studied in the records 
 of work in highly compressed air, as in the sinking of the 
 caissons for the East River and other bridges. J( may be 
 affirmed, as a general rule, that sound men are not perma- 
 nently injured by it. In ordinary mines the chief sensible 
 effect of the barometric pressure is the variation it may cause 
 in the natural ventilating current. Where the ventilation is 
 wholly or partly artificial,- these changes may be controlled. 
 The introdtiction of compressed and cool air by machinery 
 tends powerfully to reduce to a minimum the humidity of 
 hot mines, and thus (as in the Comstock) to give an atmos- 
 phere in which free perspiration, rapidly evaporating, cools 
 and refreshes the body. A comparison of the statements 
 above made, as to the Comstock miners and the miners in 
 the hottest mine of Cornwall, shows how much more can be 
 endured and accomplished by workmen when thus protected 
 from vitiated or over-humid air. The injurious effect of 
 working under artificial light, instead of sunlight, has been 
 often asserted ; but there is no definite proof of it. Where 
 other conditions are wholesome, and the habits of the 
 workmen are regular, this is not likely to have a traceable 
 effect. At all events, it is subordinate to many other causes. 
 
 General Conclusions. — The British Commission, to 
 which reference has been made, summed up its voluminous 
 report in a few conclusions and recommendations, the sub- 
 stance of which I quote below, in order to point out how far 
 they are applicable to miners in the United Stotes. The 
 Commission finds that a large proportion of the diseases af- 
 fecting miners in the metal-mines is to be ascribed to de- 
 fective ventilation only. However various the opinions of 
 physicians concerning the causes of the disease so well 
 known under the name of miners' consumption or miners' 
 asthma, there is in one respect a remarkable unanimity 
 among all the experts, namely, that the health of the miner 
 is chiefly affected by the quality of the air in which he 
 works. This conclusion is emphasized by the results of 
 very wide inquiry on the part of the Commission. In 
 the coal-mines, where special attention is paid to ventila- 
 tion, on account of explosive gases, the mortality of miners, 
 apart from accidents, is lower than in the metal-mines. 
 Starting from this significant fact, the Commission recom- 
 mends that some of the methods of artificial ventilation 
 employed in the former should b3 more generally introduced 
 into the latter, and favors particularly the use of furnaces 
 in "upcast" shafts, to accelerate the natural current by 
 heating the upward-moving column of vitiated air, and to 
 prevent the stagnation or reversal of the current by change 
 of season or weather. 
 
 With reference to other causes of disease, the Commission 
 recommends that every mine be provided with a conveni- 
 ently situated, separate house, in which the workmen may 
 change and dry their clothes ; that boys under fourteen be 
 not permitted to work under-ground ; and that mechanical 
 means be adopted for transporting the miners into and out 
 of the mines. The man-engine is praised; but the system 
 of hoisting the men in skips and cages is also pronounced 
 satisfactory provided the machinery iDe properly constructed 
 and carefully tended. These recommendations are as timely 
 now as they were ten years ago, except that the increasing 
 use of compressed air in mining has furnished an aid to 
 ventilation not then considered. There is no proof that the 
 metal-minero of America are less healthy than other labor- 
 
234 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ers, and there is no need that they should ever become so. 
 In my judgment a wise regard for financial economy alone 
 will cause capitalists to do all that philanthropic considera- 
 tions would require in dealing with the problem of hygiene 
 in mines — a problem which contains, as the foregoing dis- 
 cussion shows, no fatally insuperable difficulties, and no in- 
 soluble mysteries. 
 
 —A paper hy B. W. Baymond, M. E. Ph. V., Transactions American Insti- 
 tute of Mining Engineers. 
 
 PROVISION FOR THE HEALTH AND COM- 
 FORT OF MINERS.-MINERS' HOMES. 
 
 WHEN we consider the efforts made in Europe 
 to promote the physical and moral well-being 
 of the working classes, the question is sug- 
 gested whether in this country, where, theor- 
 etically, every man is peculiarly the arbiter of his own des- 
 tiny, we may not be too prone to expect every man to take 
 care of himself, and neglect to make those provisions for the 
 welfare of the employed, demanded alike by enlightened 
 economy and humanity. In the older countries, where the 
 disproportion between capital and labor is greater, and the 
 working classes are more dependent, their welfare largely 
 occupies the attention of employers. The subject is involved 
 in the problem of the just relations of capital and labor, and 
 we are rapidly approaching the time, if we have not already 
 reached it, when a generous paternal interest in the welfare 
 of the employed should be more generally manifested. It 
 is a subject which is of special importance to mine-owners 
 and engineers in this country, especially to those located in 
 the coal regions. My own attention has been particularly 
 directed to it by a visit made to the Hassard collieries, a few 
 miles from Lifege, Belgium, under the direction of M. 
 Andrimont. This celebrated engineer has established a 
 
 generally known. The miners wear a special dress into the 
 mine, and remove it on coming out. When they reach the 
 hotel at the end of the shift they go to the bathroom and 
 bathe, each in a small compartment. Hot and cold water 
 are plentifully supplied in movable tubs. The soiled mining 
 clothes are removed to the laundry, and are neatly washed 
 and ironed in the course of the next day, and placed in the 
 miner's room. The miners wear sabots in the mine, .and 
 leather boots or shoes above ground. These are nicely 
 blacked daily at the hotel, and kept in readiness for the 
 miner when he dresses for the surface. The men are not 
 allowed in the restaurant or other apartment of the hotel 
 until their toilet is made. Meals are furnished at a fixed 
 rate.. The food is wholesome, well selected, and well cooked, 
 as I can testify from actual trial. The miner is charged only 
 with the meals that he takes ; that is, he does not pay by the 
 day or week, but is furnished with a printed card upon which 
 each meal taken is registered,, and at the end of the time 
 named the account is squared. These cards or tickets are 
 in the subjoined form, and entitle the holder to the privileges 
 of the hotel for the eight days, of which the dates are given, 
 by stamping in the figures when the card is issued. New 
 cards are issued at the end of the time, and the old ones are 
 surrendered. Whenever a meal is taken the clerk of the 
 hotel punches a hole through the proper square under the 
 date. At the end of the time the card shows exactly how 
 many and what meals have been taken. Upon the back of 
 this ticket the miner is informed, by a printed notice in 
 French and in German, that no workman is permitted to 
 lodge at H6tel Louise unless he works regularly for the com- 
 pany, and conducts himself honestly and properly toward 
 his fellow-workmen and the officers of the establishment. 
 The hotel has proved a success. Its comforts are prized by 
 the men, and it helps to secure an excellent class of miners 
 for the company. The moral effects are important. The 
 library is an excellent one ; the books are well selected, are 
 substantially bound, and are well used. The total cost of 
 all this wholesome comfort was stated to me as only one franc 
 and twenty centimes a day (25c.). 
 
 HOTEL 
 LOUISE. 
 
 ° Cette carte n'est valuable que 
 pour le dSlai insorit en tSte ; 
 elle doit 6fcre ^xchangSe le 
 jour de la distribution. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f Num 
 1 dul 
 
 6ro 1 
 it. ) 
 
 6ro 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f Num 
 
 
 Du 8- 
 
 au 15 
 
 
 
 
 1^ du con 
 
 r«le. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 Souper. 
 
 Souper. 
 
 Souper. 
 
 Souper. 
 
 Souper. 
 
 Souper. 
 
 Souper. 
 
 Souper. 
 
 Diese Karte ist nur gOltig 
 fQr die vorgegchriebene Zeit, 
 nnd mua nach Ablauf gegen 
 eine neue umgetauscht wer- 
 den. 
 
 
 Diner. 
 
 Dtner. 
 
 Diner. 
 
 Diner. 
 
 ptner. 
 
 Dtner. 
 
 Diner. 
 
 Diner. 
 
 D6jeuner. 
 
 Dejeuner. 
 
 DSjeuner. 
 
 Dejeuner. 
 
 D6jeuner. 
 
 D<3;jeuner. 
 
 Dejeuner. 
 
 D6jeuner, 
 
 comfortable home for the miners near the mouth of the shaft 
 of the mine. It has been highly successfiil and beneficent 
 in its results, and may to a great degree be regarded as a 
 model for such undertakings. 
 
 It is known as "Hotel Louise,'' this being the name of 
 Madame d' Andrimont, who laid the corner-stone of the 
 building April 4th, 1871. The structure is of brick, upon 
 three sides of a square, and is three stories high. The ceil- 
 ings are high ; it is thoroughly well ventilated, and is fire- 
 proof. It has lodgings for 200 men, and all above the first 
 floor. The first or ground floor is used for the restaurant, 
 the coffee-room, the reading-room, library, store, and the 
 office. The basement is divided off into kitchen, laundry, 
 bathing-room, store-room, etc. Each miner has a separate 
 room, with separate bedding and clothing, all marked with 
 the number of his room, by which number the occupant is 
 
 At the store connected with the hotel the men can pur- 
 chase any clothing or delicacies of which they have need 
 at very low rates. The cheapness of sabots, of boots and 
 shoes, and of well-made Cornish hats was surprising. 
 But this is only one of many prominent examples of pro- 
 vision for the health and comfort of workingmen abroad. 
 To give only a general view of what has been accomplished 
 at the great industrial and metallurgical establishments 
 would require more space than can appropriately be given 
 in conjunction with the technical papers" of the Institute. 
 The subject is a broad one, and mucn has been written upon 
 it since the lamented Prince Consort more fully aroused the 
 attention q|' the public to it by the model dwellings which 
 he erected at the Great Exhibition in 1851. Those who 
 visited the Paris Exhibition in 1867 will remember the 
 miner's cottages, with their furniture, shown by the Blanzy 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 235 
 
 Coal Mining Company as examples of the 676 cottages of 
 the kind which they had erected at the works, and rented 
 for 45 francs a year, including fuel and a garden privilege. 
 
 Prop. Egleston. — The improvement of the condition of 
 workmen, which is the subject of Prof Blake's paper, is one 
 in which every one must feel the greatest interest. There is, 
 however, something beside their mere physical welfare, 
 which is the topic of Prof Blake's paper, which requires the 
 most earnest attention. I do not know of any place where 
 laundry privileges seem to be carried out in so great perfec- 
 tion, or where such special attention is given to the restau- 
 rant department as in the hotel which he has described. 
 These are, however, only insignificant items, so far as the 
 general well-being of the men is concerned. Something 
 requires to be done to elevate their moral as well as physical 
 condition ; and unless it is done, it is impossible to keep up 
 their morale for any great length of time. To ameliorate 
 their condition, it is not suificient to provide restaurants and 
 laundries, although good food and cleanliness are very 
 important moral as well as physical correctives. But the 
 world cannot generally depend upon unmarried men, for 
 whom these provisions are made at H6tel Louise. It is 
 generally conceded that, to keep a skilled or even an ordi- 
 nary workman for any length of time in the same place, he 
 must be married. He should be able to hope that his family, 
 which is as dear, and, perhaps dearer to him, than that of 
 persons occupying higher stations in life, will be reasonably 
 provided for in case of his death ; or that, if he is disabled 
 by accident, there will be some expectation that he will either 
 receive treatment which will cure him, or, at least, will 
 render him as capable as possible, under the circumstances, 
 of supporting his family. He wishes to be assured that his 
 family will be provided for in case of sickness, that his 
 children will be educated, that his dead shall have a decent 
 burial. In those establishments where the best work is 
 obtained, some kind of rational amusement is provided, 
 which not only elevates the tone of the society which sur- 
 rounds him, but keeps him with his family, and, what is 
 quite as important from worse things. It is not always pos- 
 sible to combine all this in any one institution ; nor are they 
 anywhere combined, but each one separately does exist in 
 the highest state of perfection in different parts of Europe. 
 As a student, my attention was very early called to this sub- 
 ject, and the condition of the working people has been a 
 subject of great interest to me ever since. The establish- 
 ments for ameliorating the condition of workmen differ in 
 different countries. Most of them have been founded for the 
 sake of keeping the men quiet and satisfied where they are. 
 No one is applicable in this country as it exists abroad. 
 There are too many races here, each one of which has its own 
 national customs and amusements, and they refuse as per- 
 sistently to blend as oil and water. 
 
 In the Georg-Marien Hiitte, in Hanover, each workrnan 
 is prpvided, at a low rent, with a house built of slag brick, 
 which is of a gray color, and is light and singularly free 
 from dampness, and makes a house of exceedingly pleasant 
 exterior aspect. These houses are arranged for families of 
 different sizes, and their interior is in every way comfortable 
 and commodious. They have each a cellar, and are one 
 story and an attic high. Every attention is given to their 
 proper sanitary condition, and their arrangement in streets 
 is most convenient. The plans of these houses attracted 
 very great attention at the Vienna Exposition, and I think, 
 on the whole, are the best of their kind, furnishing a com.- 
 fortable, commodious home, where more than ordinary sani- 
 tary regulations are carried into effect. In certain parts of 
 Austria there is a choice in such houses, the best being 
 given to those married men who have been longest in the 
 works, and who have had the least complaint made against 
 them for abuse of the sanitary laws. Of the mere matter of 
 houses, these form the two most conspicuous examples that 
 have fallen under my notice. Under such conditions as 
 these, where houses are furnished, the restaurant system be- 
 comes impossible; and it is doubtful whether it is desirable, 
 except in the case of unmarried persons, who are, in Europe, 
 almost always transient men, and, therefore, are not a very 
 - desirable class. The part of the old Guild system, which 
 requires that the workman shall travel, is still in moral force, 
 from the fact that it has become a custom, though the 
 MeisterstUck is no longer required, and there are conse- 
 
 quently a considerable number of transient workmen who 
 use the time they remain in works for their own benefit. 
 With the modern system of rapid travel the transient work- 
 man is generally a very demoralizing element. 
 
 It is characteristic of almost all the German works, where 
 the system of looking after the workmen is carried into effect, 
 that they provide some kind of rational amusement. The 
 best types of these are Georg-Marien Hiitte, where the work- 
 men have a small Bier Garten, and have beer furnished to 
 them at cost price, and where they have also a theatre and 
 a concert hall. The actors and musicians are composed 
 exclusively of workmen. I visited this theatre and Bier 
 Garten, and examined it in detail, and I was told by the 
 director of the works that the musical and theatrical per- 
 formances of the men were creditable in the highest de- 
 gree, and that the families of the officers of the works were 
 in the habit of visiting the theatre and concerts as a matter 
 of amusement ; and that since the erection of the theatre 
 there was an appreciable elevation in the condition of the 
 men. The bier-garten system, or the pleasure-garden of 
 the Anglo-Saxon, is most extensively and completely car- 
 ried out in Borsig's Works, in Silesia. A garden, com- 
 prising a number of acres, laid out in the most artistic 
 style, and planted with trees and flowering shrubs, is pro- 
 vided by the works. It is arranged on the same general 
 plan as the pleasure-gardens of the great European cities, 
 but, of course, not so luxuriantly fitted up. This garden is 
 provided with the ordinary amusements for children, and 
 handsome arbors and shade-trees ; and on holidays a band 
 of music, composed of workmen, play at stated intervals. 
 All kinds of amusements, for grown people as well as child- 
 ren, are provided, such as is usual in gardens of that cha- 
 racter in Europe. All the buildings are decorated ar- 
 tistically, and are filled in the evening and on holidays 
 with men, women, and children, including the families of 
 the officers of the works. On special occasions there are 
 grand demonstrations of music, and special decorations oi' 
 the gardens, all of which are carried out by the men, 
 under proper direction. Such a garden as this, filled 
 with families engaged in all kinds of harmless recrea- 
 tion, goes far to make the men and their families re- 
 spectable, and Is certainly an interesting spectacle, which, 
 unfortunately, cannot be seen in any country inhabited by 
 Anglo-Saxons. Its influence is seen directly, in the product 
 of the works. The men rarely leave of their own accord, 
 and their general morale is no small part of the reason why 
 the works turn out some of the highest grades of iron 
 manufactured in Germany. The free hospital and school 
 systems are carried out in their greatest perfection in Eng- 
 land, where day and night schools have been established by 
 the proprietors of some of the works, under the direction of 
 clergymen and government schoolmasters. I became so 
 much interested in some of these schools, that after examin- 
 ing them in a good deal more than the ordinary routine of 
 arithmetic, etc., I offered a prize for a written examination 
 on subjects which I proposed to them, and these examina- 
 tions were afterwards sent to me. The children of this 
 school, which was a day school, were none of them over 
 thirteen or fourteen years of age. The examination would 
 have certainly done credit to the lower classes in our 
 colleges and the universities abroad. The night schools 
 were attended principally by persons over the age of six- 
 teen. The parts of these schools which principally at- 
 tracted my attention were the drawing classes ; they were 
 organized to teach not only free hand sketching, but to 
 some extent geometrical and mechanical drawing. The 
 interest excited even among the older workpeople of both 
 sexes was surprising, and their performances highly credit- 
 able. The school-houses are so arranged as to be easily 
 transformed into a church on Sunday, and I certainly never 
 saw a more quiet and devout congregation than that as- 
 sembled there for worship. I visited the families in.their 
 homes with the clergyman in charge, and as is not unusual 
 in England, I frequently found that the grandfather of the 
 family had been a workman in these same works, and the 
 grandson was looking forward to the same position. There 
 was connected with these works a hospital system, a physi-. 
 clan being paid by the works, and the men allowed the 
 liberty, in all ordinary cases, of being treated in a hospital 
 or in their own homes. A system, which I have seen no- 
 
236 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 •where else, was adopted here with reference to boys who 
 had become maimed in the works so as to render them unfit 
 to become workmen. They were specially trained to oc- 
 cupy office positions, or educated for occupations suited 
 to their condition. One of the brightest boys I saw had lost 
 a leg by some accident about the rolls, and was being trained 
 to occupy the position of bookkeeper. My attention was 
 specially attracted to these works because I had gone to 
 Staffijrdshire to ascertain how their iron was made, as it was 
 of superior quality, and much better than that of their 
 neighbors who were using the same materials. My impres- 
 sion, of course, was that the superiority was owing to some 
 peculiar process. After visiting the works carefully I saw 
 nothing in any way different from the other works of the 
 neighborhood, and I became convinced that the whole se- 
 cret lay in these excellent arrangements for elevating the 
 moral and physical tone X)f the workmen. The proprietor 
 of these works informed me that he had si)eut £30,000 in 
 the erection of the necessary buildings, and in carrying out 
 the plans, which were the most perfect that I saw in Eng- 
 land ; and I am certain that every penny of the capital so 
 invested came back to him, in the superiority of the work 
 done in consequence, every few years. 
 
 In France the hospital system — for the school system was 
 not formerly in favor — is carried out mainly by the workmen 
 themselves. A society of the workmen is formed, of which 
 the director of the works is president. Members chosen 
 from among the workmen by ballot are associated with him 
 as a council or board of trustees. A certain part of the 
 funds necessary is subscribed by the company, the rest is 
 raised among the workmen themselves, by means of a tax 
 on wages or by fines. These fines are established for such 
 things as coming to the works intoxicated, arriving late, 
 unnecessary neglect, and, in some cases, for profanity, etc. 
 The workman declared sick by the physician in the employ- 
 ment of the company receives so much per day from the 
 common fund. In case of death a portion of the funeral 
 expenses is paid by the society and the works together, and 
 the widow receives a pension, graduated according to the 
 position of her husband and the length of time he had been 
 connected with the society or the works. Persons disabled 
 by sickness or age receive a pension, to provide for which a 
 certain percentage of the wages received by every workman 
 id retained by the society to create a pension fund. Any work- 
 man discharged for incompetence or neglect, or who volunta- 
 rily leaves the works, loses all right to any part in the adminis- 
 tration of this fund. In case he should return, he commences, 
 except under special circumstances, as if he had never been 
 connected with the works. I have been convinced for 
 a great many years that the workman does the best where 
 he is most kindly treated, and where he can look forward to 
 some reasonable support for his family in case of his death 
 or inability to work. When I first returned to this country 
 I hoped to put some of these schemes into practice, and I 
 commenced with more enthusiasm than judgment to apply a 
 system drawn from my experience in England and the Con- 
 tinent to Celts, with not very fortunate results. They were 
 suspicious of the houses that I built, were certain that I was 
 personally deriving benefit from the fines that I proposed 
 for the foundation of their fund; were jealous of their own 
 members, raised to higher position than themselves, as they 
 thought, by being brought more in contact with the officers 
 of the company than they were, and caused so much trouble 
 that in the interest of the company I was obliged to abandon 
 any attempts to elevate the condition of the men, and I 
 must confess that I have been obliged as conscientiously to 
 abstain from acting as I was at first disposed conscientiously 
 to act. The short time that can be allowed to the discus- 
 sion of any question like this by the Institute is greatly to 
 be regretted, not only because anything that can be done to 
 raise the condition of the workmen, necessarily increases the 
 product, but also because there is a greater humanitarian 
 interest in elevating the moral and physical welfare of our 
 own people and our adopted countrymen. Unfortunately 
 our religious and political differences greatly aggravate the 
 difficulty. I believe it, nevertheless, to be" true that seme 
 plan may be devised which will work successfully with the 
 various nationalities which we are obliged to employ as 
 workmen. The chief trouble with them all, as far as they 
 have come under my notice, is that, as a class, the men en- 
 
 gaged in mining are improvident, and that they are addicted 
 to the use of the stronger alcoholic stimulants. If they used 
 good liquors in moderation there would be little objection. 
 The difficulty, however, is that the liquor which they buy in 
 preference is cheap, and that, as a general rule, even if they 
 should try to purchase good liquor the cheap article would 
 be furnished to them at a high price. This cheap liquor 
 contains so much fusel oil as to endanger the constitution of 
 the men and make them more unmanageable than they 
 would be if inebriated simply by alcohol. To flirnish the 
 men with good liquor at a low price, or at least liquor which 
 did not contain fusel oil, would strike me as being one of 
 the means of remedying the real evil. I cannot pretend to 
 say how this should be carried out or regulated in each par- 
 ticular case. The German would certainly be content with 
 good beer, and if he understood that better beer was fur- 
 nished to him for the same money he would take that in 
 preference; while the Irishman would probably want some- 
 thing which scratched all the way down which could be fur- 
 nished him without the poison. Whether it would be worth 
 while for any company to undertake to inspect the liquor 
 sold to their men is a question. Those who have large 
 works have pi'obably tried the experiment of regulating the 
 sale, and know more about it than I can suggest, but it is a 
 matter of real moral and physical importance that some 
 method should be devised by which workmen should be 
 prevented, if possible, from drinking liquors ^\hich, from 
 their method of manufacture, must be more or less poison- 
 ous. We cannot prevent their use of stimulants and I 
 therefore think it is better that, since they cannot be pre- 
 vented from drinking, a good and always pure liquor should 
 be furnished them, and that they should be fui-nished a 
 better article than they can buy at the same price, which 
 can only be done by those who have no interest in making 
 money out of them. 
 
 I cannot pretend to give you a remedy for the improvi- 
 dent character of the miners, except to encourage marriage 
 among them, and I do not feel certain that even this would 
 be effectual ; but it seems to me that some plan of furnishing 
 them comfortable, commodious, well-drained and ventilated 
 houses, provided with plenty of good water, would be an 
 efficient means of keeping them at home. The question of edu- 
 cation is provided for much better in this country under State 
 laws than it is in any of the countries of Europe, and I do 
 not know that it would be wise for any company to interfere 
 further, than perhaps to see that the State system was really 
 carried out. The matter of pensions, hospital relief, etc!, 
 has been taken up so much by societies among the workmen 
 in this country that it would seem, perhaps, a difficult 
 matter for any company to interfere in any way with it. I 
 am satisfied, however, that if any plan could be devised by 
 which the society could have its officers members of the 
 company, who would show in their meetings a real interest 
 in the welfare of the men, that would go far toward dejlroy- 
 ing the influence of demagogue workmen upon their fellows. 
 I am not prepared to furnish any plan for such a society, 
 nor am I at all sure that such an organization would be pos- 
 sible. This class of people are difficult to treat with, and 
 my experience of many years' charitable work among the 
 poor has shown that the great difficulty in reaching them is 
 not so much the kind of treatment or the distribution of 
 alms as their suspicion of you, for they are, as a general rule, 
 slow to believe in disinterested motives. I make these sug- 
 gestions with diffidence in presence of persons largely en- 
 gaged in manufactures, and who have so many men work- 
 ing under them, on account of my great interest in the 
 subject, because I have become convinced by long connec- 
 tion with charitable work that a great deal "of our charity 
 makes beaigars, and that there is a great deal of misdirection 
 in the philanthropic work undertaken to elevate or relieve 
 the classes known as the working classes. It is much easier, 
 I know, to find fault than to carry out plans for relief, or 
 even to huggest some practical method for effecting the 
 object in which we are all so greatly interested. Prof. 
 Blake said that we, in the United States, were not without 
 notable example on a considerable scale of care of working 
 men, both unmarried and married, with suitable provision 
 for their education, amusement, and morals. 
 
 —A paper (ran! iUsmssion) by Piof, W. P. Blake " T,-amacliom Amei-icon hiMiile 
 
 of Mtmmj Zhigiueers^^^ 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 237 
 
 OUR NON-PRECIOUS MINERAL 
 INDUSTRIES. 
 
 THE three great divisions of industry — agriculture, 
 mining and the fisheries, — are usually classed 
 together by writers on political economy, for the 
 reason that they do not add a value to raw material, 
 hut draw it directly from theJand or sea. They must be 
 the primitive occupations of mankind, and in the subsequent 
 development of society must remain the foundation indus- 
 tries on which manufactures, transportation and exchange 
 are built. Therefore, though they may not occupy the 
 largest space in the public eye nor in the marts of great 
 cities, their growth is one of the surest criteria of the 
 material progress and independence of a community. This 
 is especially true of the coal and iron ore mining industries ; 
 for coal furnishes the jjower, and iron the lever, by which 
 the work of modern civilization is accomplished, and a very 
 rapid increase in their production has been one of the 
 marked industrial features of the nineteenth century. A 
 brief presentation of some of the leading lacts made public 
 by the tenth census of the United States, in its reports on 
 the raining of the non-precious minerals, will prove that our 
 country has never participated so fully in the movement as 
 it has during the past decade, and may not be devoid of 
 interest to the readers of this magazine. The table below 
 is condensed from the official bulletins, which, though 
 subject to final revision, will not be changed materially, 
 — certainly, not enough to affect any of the important 
 relations. 
 
 The coal and iron ore production referred to in the follow- 
 ing table is that of the firms and individuals who make 
 mining their regular business, and employ more or less 
 capital and labor. To arrive at the total output of the 
 country, there should be added to these figures 628,569 tons 
 of coal and 909,877 tons of iron ore mined by farmers from 
 shallow deposits which are worked in a desultory manner 
 when the season for the operations of husbandry is ended. 
 Obviously, such irregular production must be kept distinct 
 from the returns of the industry at large. The copper 
 comes exclusively from the part of the country east of 
 the one hundredth meridian. Over three thousand tons 
 of ingot were produced from mines west of that line; 
 but a large portion of this is a by-product in the smelt- 
 ing of the precious metals, and the difficulty of deter- 
 mining exactly the labor and capital applicable to the 
 copper alone has led to its rejection from the present con- 
 sideration. 
 
 The minor minerals include asbestos, asphaltum, bismuth, 
 barytes, chromium, emery, graphite, glass, sand, kaolin, 
 manganese, mica, nickel, ochre, pyrites, etc., the production 
 
 of which, though not individually of great importance, 
 makes a respectable aggregate, which is rapidly increasing. 
 The table, therefore, covers the mineral industries of the 
 United States, with the exception of gold and silver, salt, 
 petroleum, building stone and material, and the fertilizers, 
 gypsum, marl, and the phosphates of South Carolina. Care 
 has, of course, been taken to apply the same limitations to 
 the summations from the ninth census before instituting 
 comparisons. 
 
 In interpreting the figures, it must be borne in mind 
 that they represent strictly raw material at its first point of 
 shipment, and imply the existence of a vast body of second- 
 ary workers before the finished product is ready for the 
 consumer. Thus, the value of the coal, which is given 
 at one dollar and forty-seven cents per ton for anthracite 
 and one dollar and twenty -five cents per ton for bituminous, 
 is, as we have occasion to notice on our bills, more than 
 doubled by the cost of transportation before it melts our iron 
 or warms our houses. The iron ore, Mr. Swank tells us, in 
 passing into its first manufactured state of pig and bar iron, 
 is five-folded in value, and gives employment to a corps of 
 the industrial army numbering over seventy-seven thousand 
 men. The seventy-eight million 'tons of raw material dug 
 every year from the earth are all worked up within (;ur bor- 
 ders, with the exception of a little copper and a trifling 
 amount of the minor minerals. An increase in mineral 
 production means to us an increase in machine shops and 
 artisans in all the metal-working trades. It is an increase in 
 the hidden foundations of the industrial world, on which a 
 broader and higher superstructure may safely rest. More 
 iron and coal means to us more railroads, more steam- 
 engines, more plows, more reaping-machines, more labor- 
 saving implements of every description, which, do not perish 
 in the using, but cause a permanent gain in productive 
 capacity. 
 
 Space will not permit us to refer to the geographical dis- 
 tribution of mineral production in the United States, further 
 than to say that it is very wide. There are few large areas 
 in our country that do not contain workable beds of coal or 
 iron ore. All things considered, our Appalachian coal field, 
 extending from Northern Pennsylvania to Central Alabama, 
 is the largest and most valuable mineral deposit in the 
 world. The next census will show a marked development 
 of the coal and iron industries in the extreme North-west, a 
 promising beginning having already been made at Washing- 
 ton and Oregon. Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois and Michigan 
 will undonlotedly retain their leading positions as mineral 
 producers for many years to come. Relative gains have 
 been made, and will continue to be made, by the Southern 
 States, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee and Alabama. 
 
 Restricting the consideration to the United States as a 
 whole, and comparing the figures in our table with the cor- 
 responding ones from the census.of 1870, the great advance 
 becomes at once evident. The gross weight of minerals 
 
 Prodnctlon of the Non-precious Minerals at the United States during the year ending June lat, 1880. 
 
 1880. 
 
 No. of establiahr 
 menta. 
 
 Tone of 1,iV\V>3. pro- 
 duced during census 
 year 1880. - 
 
 Value of product. 
 
 Value of materials 
 consumed. 
 
 Total hands 
 employed. 
 
 Wages jpaid 
 ojnnu^ly. 
 
 Ca;piial employed 
 invested. 
 
 Bituminnus ooftl, . . 
 Anthracite coal. 
 Iron ore, ... 
 Copper ore, . . 
 Lead and zinc ore. 
 Minor minerals. 
 
 2,989 
 275 
 805 
 32 
 234 
 178 
 
 41,789,195 
 28,640,829 
 
 7,061,829 
 *1,005,955 
 
 fl82,414 
 218,452 
 
 $52,316,868 
 
 42,172,948 
 
 20,470,766 
 
 8,842,961 
 
 4,242,409 
 
 3 236,703 
 
 $4,851,093 
 
 6,729,477 
 
 289,604 
 
 1,391,101 
 
 347,807 
 
 683,980 
 
 99,916 
 70,669 
 31,668 
 6,116 
 7,787 
 3,982 
 
 $32,636,460 
 22,664,055 
 9,538,117 
 3,11.5,103 
 2,716,217 
 1,227,060 
 
 $98,478,674 
 
 164,399,796 
 
 61,782,387 
 
 31,676,096 
 
 7,665,672 
 
 6,673,415 
 
 Total, .... 
 
 4,513 
 
 78,898,674 
 
 131,281,705 
 
 14,193,062 
 
 220,138 
 
 71,796,004 
 
 359,574,940 
 
 * Yielded 25,376 tons of ingots copper. 
 
 t Yielded about 27,228 tons of lead and about 26,812 tons of zine. 
 
 The same remark applies to lead, which is largely yielded 
 as a by-product in silver mining, and comes East with it in 
 the form of base bullion. The entire amount of lead pro- 
 duced in the country during the census year varied but little 
 from seventy thousand tons. The table, in a word, is con- 
 fined to the statistics of what may be termed " regular min- 
 ing establishments." 
 
 removed from the earth has increased one hundred and thir- 
 teen per cent., although, in consequence of a decline of 
 thirty-three per cent, in the average price received per ton, 
 owing principally to the resumption of species payments, the 
 money received for it has increased only forty-one per cent. 
 But the total number of employes has increased eighty-eight 
 per cent, only, or considerably less than the result of their 
 
238 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 labor. This would seem, at first sight, to indicate a striking 
 gain in the efficiency of labor, — so striking, indeed, as to sug- 
 gest inaccuracies in the data ; for it is hardly possible that 
 the number of tons produced per man, yearly, can have 
 increased as much as fifteen per cent. Most of this apparent 
 gain is undoubtedly due to the fact that labor has been much 
 more continuously employed than it was ten years ago, 
 although it is impossible to determine accurately the pro- 
 per allowance to be made for " short time " in 1870. The 
 average number of full days worked by a miner in 1880 varied 
 but little from two hundred and thirty. Strikes, slack 
 demand, etc., probably caused a greater loss in 1870. From 
 the best evidence attainable, it is safe to say, however, that 
 the efficiency of mining labor has been increased not less 
 than three per cent, in the past ten years by increased experi- 
 ence and the introduction of labor-saving machinery, when 
 the effect is spread over the entire industry.* In certain 
 cases, the use of the power drill and " high explosive " has 
 enabled two men to do as much as three did before. 
 
 That increase in mineral production has been much more 
 rapid than in population, is shown by the following com- 
 parative table : 
 
 Yearly Production Per Capita of Population. 
 
 
 
 
 The 
 
 
 Tlie Uililed 
 
 The United 
 
 Vhiled Kingdom 
 
 
 Stales, 1870. 
 
 Stales, 1880. 
 
 of Great Britain 
 and Ireland, 1881. 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Coal, . . . . 
 
 I,fi08 
 
 2,818 
 
 9,30 
 
 Iron ore, 
 
 177 
 
 283 
 
 1,500 
 
 MetaHic copper. 
 
 0.7 
 
 1 
 
 
 Pig iron. 
 
 
 141 
 
 492 
 
 Estimating the world's consumption of coal in 1880 at 
 three hundred and fifty million tons, — ^the mean of several 
 authorities,— the industrial standing of Great Britain and 
 the United States is shown by the fact that of this total we 
 produce twenty per cent, and England forty-seven per cent., 
 leaving only thirty-threef per cent, to be distributed among 
 the non-Anglo-Saxon pDpulations. Any ideas based on the 
 future scarcity of coal in England, may as well be dismissed 
 at once, since the careful surveys of the royal commissioners 
 show the available fuel yet in the ground, within four thou- 
 sand feet of the surface, which they consider the limit of 
 workable depth, is sufficient to keep up her annual output 
 of one hundred and forty-seven million gross tons for ten 
 centuries to come. The expense of English deep mining is 
 shown by the high average price of coal at the pit's mouth, 
 — one dollar and eighty-two cents, — the price per ton of 
 bituminous coal in the United States in the same position 
 being only one dollar and twenty-five cents. Nevertheless. 
 the price in the London market was only three dollars and 
 seventeen cents a ton, a che'aper fuel than is obtained by any 
 great city here outside of the Ohio valley. Iron ore in 
 England costs much less than it does here ; but so large a 
 proportion of it is argillaceous carbonate, that their furnace 
 yield of pig iron is only thirty-three per cent, of the ore, 
 whereas ours averages fifty-two per cent. Therefore, though 
 Great Britain produces three and one-quarter times as much 
 iron ore as we da, her output of iron weighs but little over 
 twice as much as ours. The price of ore averages one dol- 
 lar and fifty-nine cents there, against two dollars and ninety 
 cents here ; so that, admitting that her native ores can be 
 cheaply brought up to a higher grade by calcination, the 
 iron masters of the United States must, when they enter on 
 the area of large production and moderate profits, become 
 formidable rivals of their transatlantic brethren. When 
 the day comes that we contend with her for the markets of 
 the world in manufactured iron, our strong points will be 
 richer ore, stronger iron, and more accessible coal, and hers, 
 proximity of coal and iron ores to each other and to the 
 ocean. In addition to her native ores, England imported, 
 
 * Mr. Swank's bulletin on the manufacture of iron and steel shows 
 a still more marked increase in the " effectiveness of labor." Me- 
 chanical applicances, however, pay a more important part in'rollinff- 
 mills and furnaces than they do in mines; and improvements are 
 much more likely to increase the product per head. But in both 
 cases, " steady work " is the important factor. 
 
 t Part of this last comes from the English colonies, Nova Scotia 
 and Austraha. 
 
 in 1881, from Spain, Elba, and Algeria, 2,632,601 gross tons 
 of high grade ores, especially suitable for the manufacture 
 of Bessemer steel ; but in this regard the only advantage 
 she has over us-lies in our tariff of two dollars a ton, since 
 such freight could be brought as cheaply here as ballast for 
 return grain vessels as it can to Wales. We were restricted 
 during the census year to the importation of four hundred 
 and thirty-nine thousand, four hundred and fifty-one net 
 tons of this valuable raw material. 
 
 Since 1870, the increase in our product of iron ore has 
 been one hundred and eight per cent., in bitumimms coal, 
 one hundred and forty two per cent., and in bituminous and 
 anthracite coal, together, one hundred and fourteen per 
 cent.* The great increase in the demand for iron and 
 steel is due to the extension of railroad building, as well as 
 to the natural growth of the country. The production of 
 coal bears, of course, an intimate relation to that of iron. 
 That it has increased in a greater ratio, is due to the follow- 
 ing causes: 1. The great relative growth of urban and 
 village communities burning coal only. A strictly rural 
 population is generally able to supplement its supply of 
 coal with wood. 2. The increase of internal transportation, 
 effected by that great consumer of coal, the locomotive. 
 3. The decreasing supply of wood, which is gradually forc- 
 ing even the inhabitants of the agricultural districts to burn 
 coal. 4. The increase of machine labor, energized by steam. 
 This cause is intensified by the gradual failure of water-pow- 
 ers, owing to the shameless and wanton destruction of our 
 forests in the absence of any intelligent State supervision. 
 We may safely take the increased production of iron ore 
 as one of the surest gauges of industrial advance, since its 
 consumption is less likely to be influenced by science 
 and the lesser economic changes. Iron enters into our in- 
 dustrial bone and blood. A thousand tons of ore, removed 
 from the earth and converted into useful forms, become a 
 possession of permanent value ; whereas, the burning of a 
 thousand tons of coal may mean only the substitution of 
 one fuel for another. An English writer says that the con- 
 sumption of sulphuric acid in a country is a measure of the 
 develojsment it has attained in the useful arts ; but, surely, 
 it is iron, which " breaketh in pieces and subdueth all 
 things," that does the work of modern civilization, from 
 " turning the furrow to reaping the grain." 
 
 The great consumption of copper in the United States is 
 a remarkable economic feature. The world's annual yield 
 of ingot copper is but little over one hundred thousand 
 tons, of which we contribute more than one-quarter. Sub- 
 stantially, the whole of our product is worked up and used 
 in our own country. Since the decline of wooden ship- 
 building, its principal applications have been to articles, 
 the use of which implies a certain degree of comfortable 
 living, as clocks, ornamental hardware, modern household 
 appliances, etc. It would be interesting, by the way, to 
 know how much copper is shot away yearly by the Ameri- 
 can people in the form of metallic cartridges,— probably as 
 much as any other people can afibrd to consume in all its 
 forms. It is certainly a striking evidence of the distribu- 
 tion of wealth in our country, that we can absorb so large a 
 quantity of this metal at its present high price ; for, com- 
 pared to iron, it may be called semi-precious. Possibly, the 
 new demand for copper wire created by the development of 
 electrical machinery is an important factor in fixing the 
 price and consumption. It may not be considered too fanci- 
 ful to SRy, that if wo take the production of iron as a meas- 
 ure of industrial progress, we can regard that of copper as 
 an indication of accumulating wealth. The engines that 
 drive our great factories are built of iron, but ornamented 
 with brass. 
 
 ■» Attention Is again called to the fact that the " irregular pro- 
 duct of coal and iron is disregarded in all these computations, 
 and that they are, therefore, safely within the mark. This product 
 —at least in the case of iron ore,— is a part of the yearly addition 
 to ournational wealth ; for it is created by labor that would other- 
 wise be unoccupied. The reasons for omitting it are, first the 
 importance of keeping the "regular industry " distinct, since it is 
 the labor-employer, and must more and more displace the farmer 
 mines; second the Superintendent of the Census reported that the 
 ore product of 1870 was underestimated ; third, more ore was pro- 
 duced m 1880 than was consumed, by about ten per cent the active 
 demand following the "ore famine" of 1879, stimulating production 
 beyond the requirements of the market. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF, THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 239 
 
 The following table, to return to more solid ground, 
 shows the relative importance of the industries under con- 
 sideration : 
 
 Comparative View ot tbe Hon-Precloiu Mineral Indastrleg. 
 
 Anthracite coal, 
 
 hltuminous coal, 
 
 Iron ore, 
 
 Copper rock and ore, 
 
 Lead and zinc ore, 
 
 Ores of the minor minerals, . . 
 
 Total mineral product of above 
 
 36.3 
 
 S3.0 
 
 8.9 
 
 1.3 
 
 .2 
 
 .3 
 
 
 32.1 
 39.0 
 18.6 
 6.7 
 3.2 
 2.5 
 
 100.0 100.0 100.0 
 
 ■s 
 ■si 
 
 32.1 
 45.4 
 14.4 
 2.S 
 3.5 
 1.8 
 
 "3 
 
 •■3 
 
 I 
 
 
 42.9 
 
 27.4 
 
 17.2 
 
 8.8 
 
 2.1 
 
 1.6 
 
 In anthracite coal, the figures approach nearest to equal- 
 ity, and it is the industry which has mostiully entered upon 
 an area of large establishments, ample capital, improved 
 mechanical appliances and modern profits. Grouping to- 
 gether all the above industries, the average yearly product 
 for a "full hand" is three hundred and eighty tons of ma- 
 terial, ready for transportation, valued at six hundred and 
 thirty-one dollars. Of this value, labor receives three hun- 
 dred and forty-five dollars, and thirty-seven dollars and 
 fifty cents more go to pay for the' materials and supplies 
 consumed. The number of boys below sixteen years of age 
 employed about the mines has increased from ten for every 
 one hundred men to twelve and one-half for every one hun- 
 dred men. Mr. Swank's bulletin on the manufacture of iron 
 and steel shows a still greater gain in the number of young 
 boys allowed to work at an age when the community has a 
 right to their time in the public schools it has provided for 
 them. It is not an encouraging sign, though one of the 
 results of an increased demand for labor. 
 
 The workiugman is better ofi" than he was in the _ days of 
 paper money ; for the average earnings reported in these 
 mining industries in 1870 was only four hundred and 
 eightj^-nine dollars yearly, so that the purchasing power of 
 his income is evidently greater now than it was then. A 
 "full hand," too, produces forty-eight tons more, yearly, 
 than he did ten years ago ; but, as said before it is impossi- 
 ble to tell how much of this increased product is due to fuller 
 time made during the year, and how much to increased ef- 
 fectiveness of the individual resulting from the use of im- 
 proved labor-saving machinery. Steam-power certainly 
 plays a more important part than it did, and has increased 
 in a greater ratio than the number of employes. 
 
 The true test of the position of labor is, however, the pro- 
 portion it receives of the value of the product, measuring in 
 the units of the cost of living. In applying this test, how- 
 ever, we are met by the difficulty that the pay of miners 
 usually includes varying allowances for powder, candles, 
 etc., furnished by the men, which are not in any sense 
 wages of labor, but expenditures for material. In the fore- 
 going tables, this item has been carefully separated from the 
 wages returns and added to the amount stated as the cost of 
 supplies. This deduction was usually made when filling up the 
 original census blanks, so that it is now imjjossible to state 
 exactly how far it had the effect of changing the laborers' 
 apparent income. Consequently, an exact comparison of 
 earnings with those of 1870 cannot be made. The share 
 retained by capital has increased one per cent. Labor re- 
 ceived fifty-five per cent, of the product in 1880; and dis- 
 tributing the cost of supplies in 1870 as far as possible, it 
 would appear to have lost at least one-half of one per cent, 
 of its share, as compared with the earlier period. However, 
 the comparison need not arouse the depressing reflection 
 that the condition of labor is growing worse as civilization 
 advances in our country ; for the miner receives, on the 
 average, fifty-five per cent, of his yearly product of three 
 hundred and eigjitv tons,. as .against fifty-five and one-half 
 per cent, of three "hundred and thirty-two tons ten years 
 ago ; nor could any general deduction of this nature be safely 
 drawn from the averages of only two periods. 
 
 The increase in the amount of capital in the mining in- 
 dustries referred to is one hundred and fifty-eight per cent. 
 and is much greater than the corresponding increase in in- 
 come. Still, the figure of $359,674,940 bears about the ex- 
 pected relation to the yearly productiveness of the property 
 it represents, and contains no items of a speculative or 
 unreal value. Mines individually should yield a larger 
 profit than other fixed capital, because their income is 
 always terminable. There is a time in the future — indefi- 
 nite, perhaps, but always certain to be reached, — ^when any 
 mine must be exhausted and the capital invested in it sunk. 
 The net income of a mining property must, therefore, be 
 applied to paying for the maintenance of the plant and to 
 creating a sinking fund which will make good the original 
 cost when the value has reached zero, besides paying inter- 
 est charges and the expenses of the general management. 
 These principles have been borne in mind in assessing the 
 value of the " capital invested in mining establishments " 
 for the census of 1880. That the sum total returned is so 
 much greater than it was in 1870, arises from several causes 
 in addition to natural growth. These are, first the ruling 
 rate of interest has fallen, and the values of income-bearing 
 properties have risen correspondingly ; second, the steadi- 
 ness of all prices brought by the return to specie payments 
 further increases the value of all fixed productive capital ; 
 third, in 1870, the mine operators were simply asked to 
 state the amount of their capital. When they did not own 
 the land, but, as is true in many cases, worked it on a 
 royalty, they naturally omitted any estimate of it in their 
 answer. But the real estate forms seventy-five per cent of 
 the capital of the industry. In 1880, the questions were: 
 " What is the value of the real estate attached to the mine ?'' 
 "What is the value of the plant and equipment?" and, 
 " How much do you usually use as working capital to carry 
 on your business ? " None of these questions were resented, 
 and, if the answers were palpably wrong, the agent could 
 use his own judgment to correct them on the spot. Un- 
 developed mineral lands, which, from the economic stand- 
 point, are the property of the next generation, were omitted 
 entirely. Therefore, the capital returned is not a mere sum- 
 mation of share capital, — often fictitious, — but represents, at 
 a fair valuation, productive wealth of a kind in which only 
 one nation on earth can make any comparison with us. 
 
 On the "face of the returns," there is no evidence of any 
 tendency to concentration in the hands of large operators. 
 In fact, the number of separate establishments has increased 
 rather more rapidly than production. This is owing to the 
 great number of small mines of bituminous coal. The 
 areas of mineral lands are so extensive, there are so many 
 producers in widely distant localities, that it is not likely that 
 combinations can ever be formed to create a monopoly in 
 any of the leading mineral products. At the same time, the 
 influence of large capital in the mining industries is greater 
 than it was. Nineteen mines yield over one-third of our 
 most valuable iron ore. One mine yields over one-half of 
 our copper. The two hundred and seventy-five anthracite 
 collieries are virtually owned or controlled by seven great 
 corporations. Should the man ever appear possessed of 
 force and tact enough to combine them, such a pool could 
 easily lay the Eastern public under an annual contribution 
 of several millions of dollars. Our experience with the 
 Standard Oil Company proves that neither law nor public 
 opinion affords the community any protection against op- 
 pressions of this nature. On the other hand, it must be 
 admitted that large mining establishments pay higher wages 
 than small ones, and even yield to labor a larger share in 
 the division of the product, depending for their profits more 
 on the volume of the business than on a large margin. 
 Thus the average wages earned in copper mines reach five 
 hundred and twenty-two dollars, while in the soft coal mines 
 labor makes only three hundred and thirty-six dollars per 
 annum, being subject to an average period of three months 
 of enforced idleness. 
 
 The industrial returns of the tenth census must, of course, 
 be interpreted with reference to the time they cover. The 
 year ending June 1st, 1880, marked the termination of a 
 period of depression. There can be few, who were engaged 
 in active business during the five years previous, Avho have 
 forgotten how economy and industry seemed powerless 
 against some malign cause which paralyzed eflbrt and made 
 
240 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 each successive balance-sheet more discouraging than the 
 last. There are few now who do not understand that the 
 hidden sinister influence was a currency " based on the faith 
 of the nation," but divorced from a direct connection with 
 objective value, which caused the prices of commodities to 
 " peak, dwindle and pine," while the debts incurred for 
 purcliases remained unaifected. Many can, no doubt, recall 
 the day when the relation between buyer and seller changed 
 — when a guardedly written letter brought an unstinted 
 order and disclosed the fact that price was less an object 
 than promptness. The productive energies of the country 
 were released from their bonds and came into action with a 
 sudden spring which carried them, for a time, beyond their 
 normal power. Every department of industry was infused 
 with a feverish energy. The census year covered this period 
 of "boom," as it was not inaptly called, and the census 
 statistics, no doubt, reflect the sanguine feeling then preva- 
 lent. 
 
 Making all possible allowances for this and every other 
 imaginable cause, it is evident that the United States have 
 made and are making wonderful progress in mining, as in all 
 other industries. This progress is in no sense fictitious. It 
 is a gain in tangible an d comparatively indestructible pro- 
 perty ; but, after all, it is only a gain in material things. 
 Corresponding advance in the world of ideas — of ideas em- 
 bodied in institutions and in definite habits of action — -must, 
 in the end, determine whether material progress prove a 
 blessing or a curse to the nation at large. Our growth on 
 the material side is so rapid as to be alarming. It suggests 
 undefinable dangers, and should be as much a source of un- 
 easiness as of congratulation. It renders the responsibilities 
 of the American citizen, educator and legislator graver and 
 more complex. The coming years may not call for passion- 
 ate loyalty and sacrifice, but they will call for a thoughtful 
 patriotism and a broad comprehension of the organic life of 
 a great republic. The more rapidly we grow rich, the 
 sooner we shall be called upon to settle the question of equit- 
 able distribution. The sudden accumulation of wealth is as 
 trying to national character as it is to that of an individual. 
 It is an increase of power. The philosophers of the twentieth 
 century, from the vantage-ground of recorded history, must 
 determine whether in our hands it proved a power for good 
 or for evil. 
 
 — A Paper by O. F. Jolmson, Jr., in the Perm Monthly. 
 
 THE GERMAN SPELTER INDUSTRY. 
 
 AT the present time, when considerable quantities 
 of spelter are isnported from Germany, and the 
 sales for future delivery indicate an increasing 
 strength in this movement, some data concerning 
 the spelter industry of the most formidable rival of our 
 common Western metal in Eastern markets are of value. 
 In a recent issue of the Verhandlungen des Vereins zur 
 Beforderung des Oewerbjieisses, Herr Oskar Bilharz, of the 
 Altenburg Company, treats of the Wester.n or Rhenish Dis- 
 trict, while Herr E. Althaus, a well-known authority, 
 reports elaborately on the Silesian District. Though both 
 reports relate to the year 1880, the technical questions in- 
 volved and, to a certain extent, the commercial status are 
 unchanged. Herr Bilharz gives the following valuable esti- 
 mate of the production of Europe, the figures being in 
 metric tons : 
 
 Germany 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England . 
 
 France 
 
 Austria, Poland, etc. 
 
 Total 
 
 1879. 
 86,300 
 63,007 
 15,760 
 14,467 
 
 3,200 
 
 193,784 
 
 1880. 
 09,405 
 65,010 
 22 000 
 13,716 
 3,200 
 
 203,330 
 
 Silesia produced 63,476 tons in 1879, and 65,437 tons in 
 1880, leaving 32,884 and 33,968 tons respectively to the rest 
 of Germany. Up to the present time, the supply of German 
 zinc ores keeps pace with the increasing production ; but the 
 use of blende instead of calamine, carbonates and silicates 
 is steadily increasing. In the Aix la Chapelle District, for 
 
 instance, the quantity of blende treated has, in three years, 
 reached a quantity double that of the calamine used. The 
 following figures may serve to illustrate the increase in that 
 district: 
 
 1879. 1880. 
 
 Tons. Tons. 
 
 Calamine 21,800 19,690 
 
 Blende 31,790 34,580 
 
 Total 53,590 54,270 
 
 Besides the German ores, the works of the Rhenish Dis- 
 trict draw largely upon the northern and southwestern coast 
 of Spain, and upon Sardinia. Quite recently, the mines of 
 Laurium, in Greece, have sent rich ores running as high as 
 62 per cent. Herr Bilharz states that, while no trouble is at 
 present experienced concerning the supply of calamines, he 
 seems to fear that in a few years, when the Mediterranean 
 mines, now worked to flill capacity, approach exhaustion, 
 the question will become a serious one, because the manu- 
 facture of zinc from blende is not alone more expensive, but 
 also furnishes a poorer grade of metal. Some of our West- 
 ern works which are contending with the same difficulties 
 will appreciate the importance of this confession. Herr 
 Bilharz gives the following interesting figures concerning 
 the articles into which the spelter made by the Vieille 
 Montague Company of Germany and Belgium, the largest 
 producer of the world, is manufactured. It will be seen 
 that sheet-zincis in that district the most important article: 
 
 1879. 1880. 
 
 Production of spelter 43,750 tons 44,690 tons 
 
 Manufactured into : 
 
 Sheevzinc 41,882 " 37,622 " 
 
 Zinc-white • 6,018 " 6,683 " 
 
 Herr Althaus, who reports on the great Silesian District, 
 goes into the questions at issue much more at length. The 
 causes which gave that district such a commanding position, 
 notwithstanding its remoteness from the markets of the 
 world and the low grade of the ores, are that the zinc mines 
 are located in close proximity to the coal mines, and that 
 mines and works are in the hands of a few strong parties. 
 The cost of the raw materials is. therefore, very low. While 
 the older calamine mines are gradually becoming exhausfr-^d, 
 blende, which predominates in the lower workings, is more 
 and more superseding calamine. The necessity of roasting 
 it and the difficulty of handling the gases of the roasting 
 process increase the cost of working. The manufacture of 
 sulphuric acid from the gases is less profitable than in other 
 districts, because the market lor acid is limited and the 
 blende contains arsenic. Only one works is making sul- 
 phuric acid, and that one has not introduced it for an ex- 
 tension of the plant recently made. The other works are 
 forced to adopt some means of getting rid of the roasting 
 gases, and generally use towers in which the sulphurous acid 
 IS absorbed by milk of lime. It may be of interest to state 
 that one of the largest of our Western works is now putting 
 up a sulphuric acid plant in connection with blende roasting. 
 The lead ores associated with the zinc ores of Silesia have 
 hitherto paid for a part of the cost of mining. It is found 
 that they are not only much more difiicult to separate by 
 dressing from blende than from calamine,^but also that in 
 the former they are poorer in silver than in the latter. The 
 large producers are, on the other hand, favored by the large 
 extent and the regularity of their deposits, aiid by the 
 cheapening of freights by the construction of narrow-gauge 
 roads between the mines and the works. The production 
 of zinc ores in 1880, the quantities taken from ( — ) or added 
 to (-f) the stocks at the works, and the actual consumption 
 of the latter are given in the following table : 
 
 Find of ore. 
 Calamine . . 
 Blende ... 
 
 Production. 
 . 449,672 
 . 81,322 
 
 Drawn from or 
 
 added to t>tock. 
 
 Tmu. 
 
 +22,866 
 
 — 8,516 
 
 Total supply 
 of works^ 
 
 Tons. 
 462,637 
 
 72,806 
 
 P. c. 
 84-6 
 14-6 
 
 530,994 14,349 646,343 09-2 
 
 Excess of imports and exports of ore 3,185 0-8 
 
 Total 548,628 1000 
 
 The following table will serve to show the development 
 of the Silesian zinc industry since 1810: 
 
m 
 en 
 
 H 
 m 
 ji 
 
 z 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 m 
 
 z 
 m 
 
 33 
 ■< 
 
 1 
 
 > 
 < 
 
 > 
 
 00 
 
 c 
 
 H 
 H 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 > 
 
 z 
 
 < 
 O 
 r 
 O 
 > 
 
 i ^ 
 
 o 
 m 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 241 
 
 Period. 
 
 1810-1819 
 1820-1829 
 1830-1839 
 1840-1819 
 1850-1869 
 1860-1869 
 1870-1879 
 1880 . . . 
 
 Average annual production of 
 
 2,600-0 
 27,984-0 
 37iM5-5 
 94,779-1 
 180,9151 
 276,938-1 
 392,988-8 
 630,904-0 
 
 680-0 
 7,466-0 
 8,190-6 
 17,068-0 
 30,3520 
 38,155-4 
 45,2-24-3 
 66,443-0 
 
 Value of ore 
 in per cent, 
 of value of 
 
 23-1 
 34-0 
 Sl-0 
 
 21-9 
 42-5 
 35-3 
 38-5 
 36-6 
 
 Pounde of coal per 
 
 Pound of 
 ore. 
 
 6-300 
 4-200 
 
 3-284* 
 
 2-594t 
 
 2-657 
 
 1-607 
 
 1-629 
 
 Pound of 
 spelter. 
 
 20-20 
 16-80 
 
 14-76* 
 
 14-15+ 
 
 19-03t 
 
 U-00 
 
 12-40 
 
 * 6'5 per cent, being slack. flS'lper cent, being slack. t48-6 percent, 
 being slack. 
 
 The reduction in the consumption of- fuel is due to the 
 introduction fluring the years 1870 to 1880 of gas firing, 
 either in the shape of step grates with upper and lower 
 blast or the Siemens regenerative system with natural 
 draught. The former is economical, because it allows the 
 use of otherwise unsalable slack; while the latter, notwith- 
 standing high first cost, is cheaper still, although market 
 sizes of coal must be used. Herr Althaus says that, in con- 
 sequence of the almost general introduction of the gas firing, 
 the smoke is almost entirely disappearing. He expresses 
 his surprise that the recuperative system introduced by Dr. 
 Wedding at the small Friedrich works at Tarnowitz has not 
 been more generally adopted, as it combines the advantages 
 of both of the above methods. The upper blast is heated in 
 a cast-iron hot stove. The following table will best illus- 
 trate the efiect of the introduction of these improvements : 
 
 Production 
 
 of spelter. 
 Tons. 
 
 1860 40,364 
 
 1870 ... ■ 36,444 
 
 1871 31,971 
 
 1872 . ... .32,602 
 
 1873 36,719 
 
 1874 41,618 
 
 1875 . .... 43,194 
 
 187G 49,377 
 
 1877 57,423 
 
 1878 69,619 
 
 1879 62,476 
 
 1880 . . . 65,443 
 
 Herr Althaus gives the following estimate of the cost of 
 manufacture of spelter, the cost of the ore, which is gen-, 
 erally mined by the smelting companies themselves, being 
 placed at the assessed valuation of the government for the 
 purposes of taxation : 
 
 Per metric Per metric 
 
 ton of ore, ton of speller. 
 
 Assessed valuation of ore 16-23 Marks. 129-46 Marks. 
 
 Freiglit to works, unloading, etc 1-70 " 14-45 '' 
 
 Fuel : . 5-78 " 49-10 " 
 
 Wages 5-29 " 45-00 " 
 
 Other expenses 2-94 " 25 00 " 
 
 Interest and sinking fund 306 " 26-00 
 
 Total cost 34-00 " 289-00 '^ 
 
 Average selling price '. 39-77 " 338-00 
 
 Average profit • S-77 " 49-00 " 
 
 Spirek gives the following figures for- four Silesian works : 
 
 
 Consumption of coal 
 
 
 per pound of 
 
 Tield of are. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Per cemi. 
 
 Ore. 
 
 Spdler. 
 
 15-3 
 
 2-099 
 
 17-03 
 
 12-8 
 
 2-456 
 
 19.16 
 
 12-1 
 
 2-040 
 
 16.80 
 
 9-6 
 
 1-425 
 
 14-80 
 
 10-0 
 
 1-342 
 
 13-40 
 
 11-3 
 
 1-675 
 
 13-97 
 
 11-4 
 
 1-066 
 
 14-00 
 
 11-0 
 
 1-553 
 
 14-14 
 
 12-0 
 
 1-526 
 
 12-70 
 
 11-8 
 
 1-509 
 
 12-78 
 
 12-7 
 
 1-420 
 
 11-21 
 
 ;i2-3 
 
 1-629 
 
 12 41 
 
 Cost of ore at works 203-8 209 
 
 Cost of fuel 82-0 60-4 
 
 Other expenses 80-0 67-7 
 
 3. 4. 
 
 200-0 195-0 202-0 
 
 40-0 38-0 52 6 
 
 67-8 65-0 70-1 
 
 Total cost 365-8 
 
 Average selling price 338-0 
 
 337.1 
 338-0 
 
 307-8 
 338-0 
 
 298-0 
 338'0 
 
 324-7 
 338-0 
 
 -f33-l 
 
 —27-8 -t-0-9 +30-2 +48.0 
 
 The German imports and exports of spelter and sheet-zinc 
 during the year 1880, were as follows, in metric tons : 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Denmark, Sweden and 
 liorway ;...-* 
 
 Eussia 
 
 Austria-Hungary . . . 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Prance 
 
 Belgium 1,756-4 
 
 Netherlands ""'" 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 United States 
 
 Otlier countries .... 
 
 Total 
 
 Imports from. 
 
 Exports to. 
 
 Spelter. 
 
 Sheet-zinc. 
 
 SpeUer. 
 
 Sheet zinc. 
 
 47.7 
 
 3-2 
 
 
 156-3 
 
 620-4 . 
 
 36-5 
 
 17,388 9 
 
 5,007-6 
 
 54-2 
 
 
 
 1,248-3 
 
 
 
 488-3 
 
 093-4 
 
 705-8 
 
 ,2-3 
 
 6,845-3 
 
 499-3 
 
 
 2-2 
 
 
 1731 
 
 
 10-5 
 
 1,9560 
 
 
 1,755-4 
 
 66-9 
 
 1,290-5 
 
 236.'3 
 
 76-2 
 
 2-3 
 
 3,158-4 
 
 1,264-2 
 
 631-3 
 
 
 8,673-4 
 
 2,772-4 
 134-0 
 
 98-8 
 
 0-9 
 114.8 
 
 621-6 
 
 60-9 
 
 3,989-8 
 
 40,622 4 
 
 12,524-8 
 
 It will be noted that a very considerable portion of the 
 exports are to Hamburg, which, being a free city, is outside 
 of the German customs union. Hamburg is really the main 
 distributing point for spelter exported, the other figures 
 being only shipments from other German ports. To a cer- 
 tain extent, the metal that goes into the Netherlands ia 
 really only in transit. It is not, therefore, correct to assume 
 that the figures given under " United States, " represent all 
 of the German spelter and 2anc which has come to this 
 country. 
 
 — Engineering ank Mining Journal. 
 
 COPPER SMELTING IN THE MANSFELD 
 DISTRICT. 
 
 ONE of the old established and successfiil min- 
 ing industries of Germany has been that of Mans- 
 feld, where a thin stratum of cupriferous slate has 
 been worked for centuries. The miners of the dis- 
 trict, by nice distinctions divide the bed into a series of nine 
 layers, the whole of which do not aggregate more than from 
 13.5 to 22 inches. Only a few inches are worth mining, and 
 yet the working of this deposit for copper has been profitable. 
 The average percentage of copper in the slate between 
 Gerbstadt and Eisleben, the principal district, is from 2 to 
 3 per cent, with an average of half a per cent, of silver in 
 the copper. In the Sangerhausen District, silicious ores run 
 as high as 5 and sometimes even 10 per cent, of copper, but 
 contain only one-half the quantity of silver. The average 
 of the ore smelted is 2.5 to 3 per cent., and 0.015 per cent, of 
 silver. The Mansfeld copper slate contains a considerable 
 quantity of bitumen, and it is, therefore, first calcined in 
 open heaps, the operation taking four to six weeks, and oc- 
 casioning a loss of weight of from 8 to 12 per cent. The 
 calcined ore is smelted in five works in cupolas or shaft- 
 furnaces. In the older establishments, the furnaces have a 
 fore-hearth into which the melted cinder and matte flow 
 directly, thus separating outside of the furnace. They do 
 not put through as large a quantity as the more modern fnr- 
 naces, closely modeled upon iron blast furnaces, but they 
 possess the advantage that there is less danger of the for- 
 mation of salamanders, bodies of metallic iron reduced from 
 the ore. Their maximum capacity is 100 tons per day, while 
 the larger modern furnaces, from which slag and matte are 
 tapped at intervals, can put through 160 tons per day, being 
 run with a higher pressure of blast, which ranges between 
 1.9 and 5.2 inches of mercury. Generally the ore is fluxed 
 only with impure slag from the furnaces themselves, or with 
 slag from smelting roasted matte. The coke used holds 
 only about 5 per cent, of ash, 3.5 to 4 cwts. being used per 
 ton of charge. The slag contains 48 to 50 per cent, of silica 
 at one works, and 53 to 57 per cent, at another, and its con- 
 tents of copper vary from 0.2 to 0.3 per cent, of copper, the 
 loss of that metal being, therefore, very nearly 10 per cent. 
 The gases escape from the tunnel-head with a temperature 
 of 100 to 300 degrees C, and are partially utilized under 
 steam boilers or in hot-blast stoves. By analyses, the gases 
 of two works contained : 
 
 1. 2. 
 
 Carbonic acid 10-8 16-0 
 
 Oxygen 0-4 0.1 
 
 Carbonic oxide 16-8 14,0 
 
 nitrogen 720 70-9 
 
 Total . ■ . ". ■ ■ 100-0 100-0 
 
 The matter produced by four worts held : 
 
 1. 2. 3. 4. 
 
 Copper 30-600 44-900 36-400 44.815 
 
 Silver 0-152 0-230 0-180 0-225 
 
 lead 1-210 0-690 1-046 0-643 
 
 Iron 26-600 20-000 25-9C0 23-778 
 
 -Nickel 0-S90 0-350 0-485 0-486 
 
 Cobalt 0-180 0010 055 0146 
 
 Zinc 9-149 4-670 6.660 3012 
 
 Total 68-381 70-760 69-616 72-135 
 
 The rest embraces 23 to 27 per cent, of sulphur, and gen- 
 erally some manganese. This first matte is roasted in kilns 
 10.4 feet high, 4 feet wide, and 5 feet deep on the level of 
 the grate, and somewhat larger in section on the top. One 
 
 IC 
 
242 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 kiln will hold ten tons, and calcines 1.25 to 1.50 tons of 
 matte per day, 85 parts of partly roasted matte being 
 added to the raw matte, in order to prevent sintering. 
 The access of air is so regulated that the roasting gases con- 
 tain from 4.5 to 5.5 per cent, of sulphurous acid. The latter 
 is conducted into lead chambers for the manufacture of 
 sulphuric acid. The kiln is so run that a layer of sintered 
 matte is formed about three feet above the grate, so that the 
 roasting material can be drawn without causing the un- 
 finished material above to mix with it. After drawing, this 
 sintered layer is broken through, and the matte above it 
 descends quite uniformly. One ton of raw matte yields 
 1.015 to 1.070 tons of roasted material. The latter is 
 worked in reverberatory furnaces, built after the English 
 model. They are fired with coal, though recently a Groebe- 
 Lauermann gas producer is on trial. The Kupferkammer 
 works has ten furnaces, and the Eckardt works six, the 
 charge being respectively 2.8 and 2.5 tons of roasted matte, 
 616 and 440 pounds of sandy ores, and 808 and 220 pounds 
 of quartz, and some richer scrap, the time for a charge being 
 seven to nine and six to seven hours respectively. After 
 three to three and a half hours strong firing with luted doors, 
 the charge is rabbled three times, until there are no accretions 
 on the hearth. Then a portion of the slag is drawn out of 
 the working-doors, and the rest of it is tapped, together 
 with the matte. In 1880, the average working of the two 
 establishments referred to was as follows, respectively ; 
 Daily capacity, 8.02 and 9.34 tons; yield 902 and 1,188 
 pounds of second matte, and 1,250 and 1,100 pounds of slag. 
 The matte held 74.391 and 74.375 per cent, of copper, and 
 0.427 and 0.483 per cent, of silver. The consumption of coal 
 per ton of first matte was 2,174 and 1,888 pounds respectively. 
 The slag drawn from the furnace held 9 per cent, of copper, 
 and 0.036 per cent, of silver, and the slag tapped 4 and 2.943 
 per cent, of copper, and 0.01 and 0.0085 per cent, of silver 
 respectively. The slag held from 17 to 20 per cent, of silica 
 and as high as 50 per cent, of protoxide of iron, and being 
 so basic is used as flux in smelting raw ore. The percentage 
 of the second matte is roughly determined by its density ; 
 74 per cent, matte having a specific gravity of 5.76, and 75 
 per cent, matte, 5.80. Recent analyses of the second matte 
 gave the following result : 
 
 Copper . , . 
 Silver . . 
 Lead . . . 
 Iron 
 
 Nickel . . . 
 Cobalt . . 
 Zinc .... 
 Manganese . 
 
 1 
 
 2. 
 
 . 73-320 
 
 73-512 
 
 . 0-427 
 
 0-429 
 
 . 0-816 
 
 0-657 
 
 . 2-500 
 
 2-870 
 
 . 0-536 
 
 0-304 
 
 0-178 
 
 0-187 
 
 . 1-378 
 
 0-514 
 
 0-011 
 
 0-010 
 
 79-383" 
 
 The matte contained besides about 20 per cent, of sul- 
 phur. It is desilverized by the Ziervogel process, being 
 ground in mills and roasted in 13 reverberatory furnaces 
 with three hearths, one above the other, which together 
 have a capacity of 15,000 tons of matte per annum. The 
 silver is extracted after careful roasting as sulphate of silver, 
 and is precipitated as metallic silver by copper. The pre- 
 cipitated silver is treated with silver solution, to dissolve the 
 copper, washed, pressed, and melted into bars 999 to 999.4 
 fine. The residues from -this leaching process, when they 
 have less than 0.023 per cent, of silver, are worked for cop- 
 per directly. If they hold more, they are roasted over 
 again and are again extracted, then yielding residues carry- 
 ing 0.018 per cent, of silver. The residues, which contain 
 74 to 75 per cent, of copper as oxide, are mixed with 10 per 
 cent, of coal slack, dried and charged in lots of 10 tons into 
 reverberatory smelting-furnaces. In 9 to 9J hours the cop- 
 per is reduced and melted down, and a thick slag is drawn 
 off. Refining then begins with open doors, and Targe quan- 
 tities of sulphurous acid and zinc oxide escape. Iron, zinc, 
 lead, and finally nickel are slagged, the operation taking 
 from 1 J to 2 hours. The copper then begins to boil, in con- 
 sequence of the escape of sulphurous acid, which continues 
 for 2 to 2J hours, at the close of which samples show a con- 
 vex surface and little porosity. Two hours afterward, the 
 copper is ready for poling, which is followed by toughening, 
 the latter operation taking about 2 to 2 J hours. The copper 
 refined in this way is better than that made by first smelting 
 the residues of the Ziervogel process for " blister copper," 
 
 and then refining the latter. This was formerly done in the 
 Mansfeld District, and the following range of analyses will 
 show the difference fairly. No. 1 being the present metal, 
 and No. 2 that made between 1864 and 1868 : 
 
 Copper 
 Silver . 
 Lead . . 
 Iron . . 
 Nickel . 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 . 99-394 to 99-550 
 0-028 " 0-030 
 0-043 " 0-103 
 
 . 0-025 " 0-132 
 0-239 " 0-275 
 
 No. 2. 
 99-120 to 99-277 
 0-024 " 0-031 
 0-169 " 0-316 
 0044 " 0-069 
 0-337 " 0-468 
 
 The drosses from refining the copper are smelted in a 
 blast-furnace, and are toughened in a reverberatory. In 
 1880, the composition of this copper ranged within the fol- 
 lowing limits : 
 
 Copper 99-110 to 99-270 
 
 Silver . .... 0-015 " 0-020 
 
 Lead ■ . . . 0-134 " 0-259 
 
 Iron 0-019 " 0-02t 
 
 Nickel . . 0-314 " 0-405 
 
 Arsenic . . . . 0-101 " 0144 
 
 By adding lead or phosphor-copper, this metal is made 
 fit for rolling purposes. 
 
 — EnginenHng and Mining JoMmal. 
 
 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 I 
 
 N briefly calling attention in our last issue of CoAL to 
 the work just issued by Mr. Richard Meade, Assistant 
 Keeper of Mining Records, we stated that we would 
 endeavor to gather the main data of general interest in 
 a series of articles. The information at the disposal of Mr. 
 Meade is so extensive and in many points reaches so far 
 back that we can only attempt a brief summary. The fol- 
 lowing is the area of the coal-flelds of the United Kingdom : 
 
 Coal-fields. Area in 
 
 Englnnd : Square miles. 
 Durham and Northumberland 796 
 
 Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and Nottinghamshire . 
 
 Cumberland 
 
 Lancashire and Cheshire . 
 
 Leicestershire 
 
 ■Warvpickshire 
 
 Shropshire 
 
 North Staffordshire . 
 
 South Staftordshire 
 North Wales: 
 
 Anglesea, Denbighshire, and Flintshire . 
 South Wales : 
 
 Monmouthshire 
 
 Glamorganshire . . . 
 
 Brecknockshire 
 
 Caermarthenshire ... 
 
 Pembrokeshire 
 
 Gloucestershire (Forest of Dean) 
 
 Somersetshire (Bristol) ... 
 
 Scotlanfl . . . . 
 
 Ireland ... 
 
 Total 
 
 800 
 25 
 
 220 
 15 
 .30 
 28 
 75 
 93 
 
 90 
 
 104 
 
 518 
 
 74 
 
 228 
 
 76 
 
 34 
 
 150 
 
 1,7-20 
 
 2,800 
 
 7,876 
 
 According to the returns of the Inspectors of Mines, the 
 following was the product of the various coal-fields in the 
 years 1860, 1870, and 1881, the figures for the latter year 
 having been substituted by us for those of 1880, given by 
 Mr. Meade, the data for 1881 not having been published at 
 the date of his report : 
 
 :} 
 
 England : 
 Northumberland, North and South 
 
 Durham 
 
 Cumberland . .... 
 
 Westmoreland . 
 
 Cheshire 
 
 Lancashire, North, East, and West . . 
 Yorkshire, North Riding .... 
 
 " West Riding . 
 
 Derbyshire .... ... 
 
 Nottinghamshire . 
 Warwickshire . .... 
 
 Leicestershire 
 
 Staffordshire, North and South, and 
 
 Worcestershire 
 
 Shropshire 
 
 Gloucestershire, Somersetshire . . \ 
 Monmouthshire ... . . | 
 
 North Wales: 
 Flintshirf, Denbighshire 
 
 South Wales: 
 Glamorganshire, Brecknockshire, Pem- 
 brokeshire, and Caermarthenshire 
 Gloucestershire 
 
 1860. 
 
 18,244,708 
 1,171,052 
 
 750 600 
 11,360,000 
 
 1870. 
 
 27,613,5.39 
 1,408,-J35 
 
 '929,156 
 13,810,600 
 
 9,284,000 
 
 4,940,000 
 
 545,000 
 730,000 
 
 7,648,300 
 850,500 
 
 6,503,400 
 
 10,0116,604 
 
 f 5,102,265 
 
 I 2,115,372 
 
 047,640 
 
 609,460 
 
 13,230,062 
 1,343,300 
 1,965,910 
 4,364,342 
 
 1881. 
 
 35,592.420 
 
 1,769,213 
 
 1,860 
 
 782,000 
 
 18,500.810 
 
 7,036 
 
 18,287,141 
 
 8,608 923 
 
 4,758,060 
 
 1,133,419 
 
 1,145,265 
 
 14,858,070 
 
 89-2,500 
 
 1,301,396 
 
 6,412,840 
 
 1,750,600 2,329,030 2,070,597 
 
 6,254 813 0,209,770 
 
 l,.'>84,8a6 
 15,267,050 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 243 
 
 Scotland ; 
 EEntarn District, 'Western District . . 10,900,600 
 Jreladd 119,425 
 
 14,934,653 
 141 470 
 
 20,823,056 
 127,688 
 
 Total 
 
 84,042,698 110,431,192 164,184,300 
 
 The following statistics will show the developmeat of the 
 production of coal in the United Kingdom : 
 
 Year. 
 
 1660 . . . 
 
 I 1700 . . . 
 
 , 1760. . . 
 
 1770. . . 
 
 1780 . . 
 
 1790. . 
 
 J. 1800. . 
 
 1816 . . . 
 
 1864 . . . 
 1860 . . 
 
 1865 . 
 1870 . . . 
 1872 . . 
 1874. . . 
 18T6 . . . 
 
 1878 . . 
 
 1879 . 
 1880. . . 
 1881. 
 
 Production. 
 
 2,148,000 
 
 2,612,000 
 
 4,773,000 
 
 7,206,400 
 
 6,42*,970 
 
 7,618,760 
 
 10,080,300 
 
 27,020,116 
 
 64,661,401 
 
 84,042,698 
 
 97,160,687 
 
 110,431,192 
 
 123,497,310 
 
 126,067,916 
 
 133,344,766 
 
 132,607,866 
 
 134,008,228 
 
 146 969,409 
 
 154,184,300 
 
 London 
 consumption. Exports. 
 
 1,600,000 
 4,376,770 
 5,070,616 
 6,903,271 
 6,769,100 
 7,656,422 
 7,423,486 
 8,451,375 
 8,794,616 
 10,068,811 
 9,915,488 
 
 237,657 
 
 3,369,576 
 
 7)412,675 
 
 9,283,214 
 
 11,702,649 
 
 13,198,494 
 
 13,927,205 
 
 16,266,839 
 
 16,483,816 
 
 16,442,296 
 
 18,702,551 
 
 The quantity of coal available in 1880 is estimated to be 
 135,288,613,038 tons, or, at the present rate of production, 
 fully 900 years supply. Of this quantity, 79,015,613,038 
 tons exist at depths not exceeding 4000 feet in known coal- 
 fields, and 56,273,000,000 tons as the probable amount of 
 coal, under Permian and other overlying formations, at 
 depths of less than 4000 feet ; 40 per cent, being deducted 
 for loss and other contingencies. The following are the 
 data: 
 
 England and Wales . 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Total known coal-fields 
 Concealed coal-fields . . 
 
 Total coal available, 1880 
 
 . 69,192,066,317 
 
 9,669,172,612 
 
 154,384,079 
 
 . 79,015,613,038 
 . 66,273,000,000 
 
 . 136,288,613,038 
 
 The Great Northern Ooal-Fleld. — The earliest re- 
 cord of the use of coal of this great field is the receipt, in 
 852, of twelve cart-loads of coal by the abbey of Peterboro' ; 
 and in 1239, Newcastle coal was sent to London. The field 
 comprises an exposed area of 460 square miles and a con- 
 cealed area of 225 square miles, its length being nearly fifty 
 miles, while its greatest width is twenty miles. Beyond the 
 area above referred to, there is extending under the German 
 Ocean another area of 111 square miles known to be avail- 
 able. The coal measures are about 2000 feet thick, and they 
 are much intersected by faults in the immediate neighbor- 
 hood of which the beds have a high dip. Through the 
 greater part of the measures, however, the seams lie at a 
 gentle inclination. The principal seams are the High Main 
 and the Low Main or Mutton, both averaging six feet of 
 coal. It is an interesting fact that the latter seam, in dif- 
 ferent parts of the field, has the best description of those 
 varieties of coal suitable for purposes not at all similar to 
 each other, namely, the best household, the best gas, and the 
 best steam coal. The household coals of this field, of which 
 the choicest kinds are known as Wallsend coal, may be 
 illustrated by the following analysis : 
 
 Haswell. 
 
 Carbon 83-47 
 
 Hydrogen 668 
 
 Nitrogen 1-42 
 
 Sulphur 003 
 
 Oxygen . . . . . 8"17 
 
 Ash 0-20 
 
 The gas coals of the Northern field are obtained from the 
 lower seams on the Tyne, Wear, and Tees, and yield fi:om 
 10,000 to 11,000 cubic feet of gas per ton. The following 
 analyses show the character of this coal : 
 
 South 
 Peareth. 
 
 Carbon 81.41 
 
 Hydrogen 6'S3 
 
 Nitrogen 2"06 
 
 Sulphur 0.74 
 
 Oxygen 7.90 
 
 Ash 2-07 
 
 The steam coals of the field are found in the northern 
 
 
 Original 
 Hartley. 
 
 Hartley. 
 
 84-284 
 
 81.18 
 
 6-622 
 
 6-66 
 
 2-076 
 
 0-72 
 
 1-181 
 
 144 
 
 6-223 
 
 8-03 
 
 0-715 
 
 3-07 
 
 Bowden 
 
 Willing- 
 
 
 Close. 
 
 ton. 
 
 Garesfleld. 
 
 84-92 
 
 80-81 
 
 86.9 
 
 4-52 
 
 4-96' 
 
 
 96 
 
 1.05^ 
 
 6-4 
 
 0-06 
 
 0-SS 
 
 
 6-66 
 
 6-22 
 
 5-2 
 
 2-28 
 
 1-08 
 
 2-5 
 
 part, the constituents of the fuel being shown by the follow- 
 ing analysis : 
 
 Buddies Newcastle Haswell Seatoa 
 
 Hartley. Hartley. Sunderland. Burn. 
 
 Carbon 78 69 81-81 83-71 78-65 
 
 Hydrogen .... 6-00 5-60 5-30 4-65 
 
 Oxygen 10-07 2-68 2-79 13-06 
 
 ' Nitrogen 2-37 1-28 103 . . 
 
 Sulphur 1-51 X-69 1-21 0.55 
 
 Ash 1-36 7-14 5-93 249 
 
 The best coking coal of the district is obtained from the 
 lower seams of the Tyne and South Durham: together with 
 the ironstone of the region, it forms the basis of the devel- 
 opment of the great Cleveland iron-making district, the 
 greatest in the world. In South Durham alone, the produc- 
 tion of coke exceeds four millions of tons, and the total 
 number of ovens in Durham is estinjated to be nearly 14,000 
 bee-hive ovens. The following analyses will indicate the 
 nature of the coal. 
 
 Durham Average Busty Busty Brook- 
 best. Durham, upper. lower. well. 
 
 Carbon 93-150 84-92 81-22 7848 83-40 1 
 
 Hydrogen- - • ■ 0721 4-53 4.70 4-42 4-40 
 
 Nitrogen .... 1-276 0-961 „.., j,,™, -.,„ ' 
 
 Oxygen .... 0.905 6-66/ ^*^ ^^ ^^ ' 
 
 Sulphur .... . . 0-66 0-81 1-83 1-00 , 
 
 Ash 3-948 2-28 3-28 6-17 3-50 
 
 Water .' . . 0-85 0-99 0-99 
 
 The yield of coke varies widely, running from 53 to 72 
 per cent., the average, however, being 60 to 65 per cent. 
 The coke is very pure, the average of the best varieties 
 being 6 per cent, of ash and 0'6 per cent, of sulphur. The 
 time of coking ranges from 18 or 19 hours to as high as 96, 
 according to whether a light, soft, or hard and compact coke 
 is to be made. During the past yfears, efforts have been 
 made to save the gases given off in the ovens; but the suc- 
 cess so far has not been equal to what could be desired. At 
 several places, however, the waste heat of the coke ovens 
 has been utilized. Mr. Meade says that experience at Dur- 
 ham has taught him that to have good coke it is necessary 
 that the gases should have a free outlet and the ovens kept 
 burning in the ordinary way. To secure this object, ovens 
 were erected at Brownley Colliery, and the results attained 
 have been most favorable. The ovens were built back to 
 back, but with larger flues than usual between them. To 
 each stack — about 116 feet in height — were connected about 
 100 ovens, an equal number on each side, there being four 
 flues and boilers so arranged that the heat was carried past, 
 when cleaning or repairs were carried on, the connecting 
 flues being built compact and tight. There was great free- 
 dom from smoke, owing, no doubt, to the air-tight and per- 
 fect character of the flues, the small proportion of air pres- 
 ent not cooling the gases to a point below, by which the 
 hydrocarbons escaped imperfectly burnt. This was shown 
 to be the case by admitting the air, when flame was at once 
 seen. By this arrangement, no coal whatever was used for 
 the boilers, and the produce of the pits was drawn from a 
 depth of 600 yards and the water pumped, for which pur- 
 pose, before the new system was adopted, 600 tons per fort- 
 night were wasted. The amount of heat available for evap- 
 orative purposes was found to be very large. Mr. Stevenson, 
 of Durham, iu speaking of these ovens, states that 50 of 
 them coked at the rate of 230 tons of coal in 84 hours, which 
 yielded 50 per cent, of coke composed of 132"7 tons of carbon 
 to 5'3 tons of ash. He found the composition and the 
 weight of the material lost in coking to be : Carbon, 62'6 
 tons; hydrogen, 10'3 tons; nitrogen, 2'3 tons ; sulphur, 1'4 
 tons; and oxygen, 15'3 tons. At several places in Durham, 
 the coal is crushed to powder before going into the oven, 
 and this has been found to be beneficial, producing a larger 
 percentage of coke with less refuse. 
 
 The Midland Coal-Pield. — The second coal-field de- 
 scribed by Mr. Richard Meade, in his work on the Coal and 
 Iron Industries of the United Kingdom, is the Midland or 
 Yorkshire coal-field which has a known area of about 800 
 square miles. It extends from Bradford and Leeds, on the 
 north, for sixty-six miles, to Derby and Nottingham, on the 
 south, Shefiield occupying a position in its center. Its 
 breadth varies from 5 to 20,miles, and it is the most contin- 
 uous of the British coal-fields. In a section of 4500 feet 
 are fifteen seams over two feet thick, their aggregate being 
 43 feet of coal. Besides, there are numerous veins less than 
 
244 
 
 THE MINES, MINEKS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 two feet, equal in all to 53 feet of coal. Mr. Meade, follow- 
 ing his plan, has given three widely-separated chapters on 
 the various parts of this field: one covering that portion in 
 Yorkshire; another that in Nottinghamshire; and a third 
 in Derbyshire. This division has little or no significance 
 for American readers, and we shall therefore consider these 
 portions together. The lower coal measures contain only 
 unimportant veins of coal, but are remarkable for the occur- 
 rence of seams of ganister, a highly siliceous rock, which, 
 when ground down and mixed in some cases with powdered 
 fire-brick or similar materials, forms one of the best fire- 
 resisting materials known. The middle coal measures are 
 those which are particularly rich in coal, the seams of the 
 upper measures being less numerous and valuable. In the 
 northern part of the field, a number of veins, varying from 
 2 to 3 feet thick, are worked ; while in the southern part of 
 Yorkshire, the great seam is that of Barnsley, which so far 
 exceeds in thickness and value the other seams that, with 
 the exception of the Silkstone, it is the only one likely to 
 be touched until they are exhausted. This Barnsley coal, 
 which is about from 6 to 9 feet thick, derives its great value 
 from the fact that the middle portion of the vein is semi- 
 anthracite or steam coal, and is particularly adapted for use 
 ill locomotives, ships, and iron-smelting, on account of its 
 high heating-power. This portion of the bed is made up 
 of alternating layers of dull and bright coal. The "Silk- 
 stone," or, as it is called in the northern part of Yorkshire, 
 the " Blocking Bed " coal, is remarkable for its purity. It 
 is largely sent to London as a house coal, and is also em- 
 ployed for steel-making in Sheffield, as coke, and for gas 
 manufacture. In the Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire 
 fields, which are the southern extension of the Yorkshire 
 field, a number of veins, some of them averaging six feet, 
 are worked. 
 
 The following analyses are given by Mr. Meade for the 
 Yorkshire coals, the first five being from the Barnsley vein, 
 while the last is from Silkstone coal : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Constituents. 
 
 3 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 H 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 Pi 
 
 O 
 
 W 
 
 s 
 
 m 
 
 
 80-600 
 5-500 
 
 81-390 
 5-500 
 
 82-520 
 6026 
 
 81-30 
 5-19 
 
 82-190 
 6-173 
 
 80-46 
 
 Hydrogen . .... 
 
 5.0S 
 
 Oxvgen 
 
 0-205 
 
 V--15I 
 
 6-915 
 
 8-21 
 
 8-144 
 
 C-80 
 
 Nitrogen . . . . 
 
 1-802 
 
 1-490 
 
 2-120 
 
 1-89 
 
 1-730 
 
 1-67 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 1-833 
 
 2-100 
 
 1-144 
 
 1-21 
 
 1-637 
 
 1-65 
 
 Ash 
 
 4100 
 
 2-063 
 
 2-276 
 
 2-20 
 
 1-22C 
 
 3-30 
 
 Specific gravity ... 
 
 1-266 
 
 1-270 
 
 1-270 
 
 1-29 
 
 1-268 
 
 
 Coke, per cent 
 
 63-130 
 
 63-100 
 
 65-620 
 
 62-00 
 
 63-600 
 
 
 The compositionof the Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire 
 coals appears from the following analyses, the first three 
 belonging to the forraer field and the last two to the latter : 
 
 Constituents. Stavery. Loscoe. Lancley Sliireoaks. Portland. 
 
 Carbon 79-85 77-160 77-970 77-40 80-410 
 
 Hydrogen 4 84 4-860 5-588 4-96 4-650 
 
 Nitrogen 1-23 1640 800 1.55 1-590 
 
 Sulphnr 0.72 ISOO 1-140 0-<J2 0-860 
 
 Oxygen 10-06 12-410 9-890 7-77 11260 
 
 Ash 2-40 2.300 4-050 3-90 1230 
 
 Specific gravity . . 1-27 1-285 1-264 . . 1.301 
 
 Coke, per cent . . . 57-86 62-800 54-900 6318 60-900 
 
 The acreage of this Yorkshire or Midland coal is estima- 
 ted at 7,970,156 acres, of which 7,783,610 remain unworked, 
 which contain an estimated quantity of 18 406,799,433 tons 
 ' available for future supplies, or a total of 32,721,198,832 tons. 
 The production of the Midland coal-field has increased 
 from 17,824,241 tons to 29,804,763 tons. The average quan- 
 tity raised per man was 295 tons in 1880. 
 
 Cumberland Coal-Pield.— A small though, in sftme 
 respects, an important field is the Cumberland, in the north- 
 west of England. It is only twenty miles long, and at its 
 greatest width five miles broad. The coal measures in this 
 area attain a thickness exceeding 2000 feet, the middle 
 division containing seven workable seams of coal. In the 
 Workington District, the most important are the cannel, 
 from 4 to 6 feet, and the Baumck band, 5.J feet thick; the 
 Lower Main, from 3 to 4 feel ; and the Main, from 9 to 10 
 feet thick ; the total workable thickness being estimated at 
 
 35 feet. In the Whitehaven and, to some extent also, in the 
 Workington District, the colliery workings extend as far as 
 two or three miles under the sea. Mr. M. Dunn, describing 
 the dangers attending these under-sea operations from in- 
 undation, gives an account of a calamity which occurred in 
 this district in July, 1837, when 36 men and boys were killed, 
 the water having filled up the whole of the extensive work- 
 ings to the level of the sea in a few hours. The scene of the 
 accident was the Workington colliery, where the two pits 
 were sunk 90 fathoms deep, close to the seashore, and the 
 coal was worked to the distance of 1500 yards under the 
 Irish Sea, in a ten-foot seam. The workings were driven 
 considerably to the rise, at the rate of one in three, whicli 
 brought them within 15 fathoms of the bottom of the sea. 
 The bed of the sea gave way, flooding the colliery. 
 
 The following analysis of cannel coal from this field, made 
 with special reference to its adaptability for gas manufacture: 
 
 
 (■Gas, tar, etc . . . 
 
 52-65 
 
 Volatile matter 
 
 .; Sulphur 
 
 . . 0-06 
 
 
 Water (212° F) . . . . 
 
 l-lli— 54-47 
 
 
 Fixed carbon . . 
 
 . . . 26 25 
 
 Coke 
 
 .< Sulphur .... 
 
 . . 11-92 
 
 
 (.Ash 
 
 Total 
 
 . . 18-36—35-53 
 
 
 100.00 
 
 The quantity of gas per ton at 60 degrees Fahr. and 30 inches 
 barometer was 10,765 cubic feet; the illuminating power, 
 in standard sperm candles, by union jet consuming 5 cubic 
 feet per hour at 0.5 inch pressure, being 40.48 candles. In 
 1880, the production of the Cumberland coal-field was 
 1,680,841 tons, of which 654,763 were shipped coastwise. 
 
 The Lancashire Coal-Pield — This important coal- 
 bearing tract, most irregular in outline and greatly disturbed 
 by faults, has an estimated area of 217 square miles. The 
 chief centers of activity are Prescot, St. Helen's, Wigan, 
 Bolton, Bury, and Manchester, and the isolated tract of 
 Burnley. The South Lancashire area of the coal-field is 32 
 miles in length, its average breadth being about six miles. 
 The number of seams of workable coal, as also the character 
 of the strata in which they occur, vary considerably in the 
 different parts of the area ; thus, in the neighborhood of St. ' 
 Helen's, the number of coal seams exceeding two feet are 13, 
 compared with 17 in Wigan, and 18 in the Manchester 
 districts. A general thickening out of the coal measures 
 takes place toward the north-northeast, the same coal seams 
 being found farther apart at St. Helen's than at Prescot, and 
 at Wigan than at St. Helen's. The middle coal measures, 
 with a section of 3,500 feet, contain all the important seams 
 of coal, which vary from 3 to 9 feet, and under different 
 names can be traced over the whole district. The Burnley 
 basin lies to the north of the main coal-field: it is small but 
 rich. The Manchester field, farther south, is only four and 
 a half miles long, and its greatest breadth does not exceed 
 one and a half miles. The coals of this field are chiefly 
 used for steam and domestic purposes, and cannel coal fur 
 gas making. The following are a number of analyses ; 
 
 Bal- Blackley Ince Pembei> 
 
 Constituents. carres. Hurst. Hall. ton. Cannel. 
 
 Carbon 83 54 82-01 77-010 7i;.160 79-23 
 
 Hydrogen . 6"24 5-65 3-930 5-360 603 
 
 Nifrogeu .... 0-98 1-68 1-400 1-290 1-18 
 
 Sulphur .... 1-05 1-43 1-050 1060 1-43 
 
 Oxygen .... 6-87 5-28 6 620 10130 724 
 
 Ash 3-32 4-05 ll-OOO 6020 4-84 
 
 Specific gravity 1-26 1-26 1-2760 1-2S3 1-23 
 
 Coke, per cent. . 62-89 57-84 67-100 66-100 60 33 
 
 The production of the Lancashire coal-field, which was 
 9,080,000 tons in 1854, was 19,120,294 tons in 1880. Of this 
 large quantity only 763,804 tons were shipped coastwise, and 
 610,572 tons were exported in 1880, thus showing that the 
 consumption is almost entirely local. The coal area avail- 
 able for future supplies is estimated at 5,264,787 acres, in 
 which it is computed there are 5,436 millions tons, enough 
 to last 275 years at the present rate of production. The 
 Cheshire coal-field lies south of the Lancashire field, and is 
 closely allied with it. 
 
 The Leicestershire Coal-Pield.— This lies to the 
 south of the Midland field, and is irregular in form. It has 
 been divided into three districts. The middle measures are 
 the most productive, containing many seams of coal, ten of 
 which, exceeding two feet in thickness, are workable and 
 give a total average of from 40 to -45 feet of coal. The 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 245 
 
 central part of the measures is that containing the principal 
 beds. The main vein of the western or Moira District is 
 from 12 to 14 feet thick, while that of the eastern field is 6 
 to 8 feet. The following two analyses may serve to show 
 the character of some of these coals: 
 
 Constituents. 
 Cfti'boE . . 
 Hydrogec . . 
 Nitrogen . . . . 
 Oxygen . . . . 
 
 Sulpnur 
 
 Ash 
 
 Speeifie gravity . 
 Coke, per cent. . 
 
 Ihestock. Whitwick. 
 . 74-970 
 4-8:W 
 O-8:i0 > 
 11-8S0J 
 1-450 
 5-!)90 
 1-201 
 , 50-800 
 
 69-00 
 4.36 
 
 0-78 
 6-42 
 
 The production of this field has increased from 425,000 tons 
 in 1855 to 1,068,382 in 1880, the total tonnage still available 
 for consumption being estimated at 836,799,634 tons. 
 
 —From Coal. 
 
 THE GOLD FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 
 
 THE gold-fields of Nova Scotia occupy a district ex- 
 tending along the Atlantic coast from Cape Canso to 
 Yarmouth, and varying in width from 10 to 40 
 inches. The total area assigned to the auriferous 
 strata and the rocks most intimately connected with them 
 is estimated at from 6500 to 7000 square miles, of which 
 about one half is occupied by what is known as "granite" 
 rocks. The shore presents a low, rugged front, and the land 
 rises gradually to a height of 560 feet. 
 
 Geology. — The " granite " rocks of Nova Scotia may be 
 divided into two sections. The western one extends from 
 Halifax to Windsor, a distance of forty-five miles, and 
 stretches in a great belt, interrupted by occasional patches 
 of auriferous measures, nearly to Yarmouth. To the east- 
 ward, another band of less width stretches with several 
 interruptions from Waverly to the Cape of Canso. These 
 great masses are but little known and have never been 
 mapped. Some ingenious theories have been advanced as 
 to their being really of Laurentian age, based, it would ap- 
 pear, chiefly on the fact that they have in contact with 
 them at many places bands of gneisses, mica schists, etc., 
 which have been set down as Huronian, as they are more 
 metamorphosed than the ordinary auriferous strata. So far, 
 however, as these granites have been studied in their re- 
 lation to auriferous and newer strata, they serve to confirm 
 the view entertained by Dr. Dawson, that they are intru- 
 sive masses. Near Sherbrooke, as remarked by Dr. Daw- 
 son, the quartzite at the point of junction with the granite, 
 is slightly changed ia character, having apparently minute 
 hornblende and mica crystals developed in it; but the 
 granite sends numerous veins into it, and in them becomes 
 coarser in texture, and presents beautiful aggregations of 
 plumose mica. At Cochran's Hill, auriferous measures are 
 found lying close to one of the most persistent of the gran- 
 ite ranges, and are penetrated by bands of granite from one 
 inch to six feet in thickness. The measures have exhibited 
 a metamorphism equal to that found anywhere in the 
 coastal range. The slates have become perfectly crystalline. 
 Mica schists, or micaceous gneisses, with crystals of chias- 
 tolite, staurolite, have been developed in them. 
 
 Dr. Dawson similarly describes the granite of Nictaux, as 
 altering the Devonian beds and converting them, for a short 
 distance away from the junction into gneissoid rocks holding 
 farnet. The granite sends veins into the strata, and, near the 
 junction, holds numerous angular fragments of altered slate. 
 In the case of both the auriferous and Devonian strata, the 
 ."■radual passage from gneissoid rock into the normal metamor- 
 phosed quartzite andargillite can be frequently observed I he 
 Nova Scotia granite has all the characters of a plutonic 
 rock in its want of stratification, its frequent porphyritic 
 appearance, its passage into graphic granite, etc., and closely 
 resembles in lithological characters the intmsive granites 
 of the Eastern Townships of Quebec and of New England, 
 some of which belong to the Montalban series of Hunt, 
 while others are later than the Upper Silurian; and itdiflers 
 materially from the typical Laurentian of Canada. In the 
 
 latter, the gneisses are usually hornblendic, laminated, and 
 interatratified with diorites, pyroxene rock, limestone, ser- 
 pentine, etc. These granites are evidently older than the 
 Carboniferous ; for at Horton their debris is found in the 
 Lower Carboniferous. At Nictaux, they penetrate rocks of 
 Oriskany age. They are therefore much more recent than 
 the auriferous strata to which, as will be shown, a greater 
 age must be assigned. Around and between these granite 
 masses, the gold-bearing strata are spread, with a general 
 strike parallel to the line of the shore, and are now presented 
 in a series of undulations, such as would be expected from a 
 pressure acting against the trend of the coast. Denudation 
 on an immense scale has swept away the crests of the anti- 
 clinals, and presented the strata in a succession of elliptical 
 curves, the axes of which are variously inclined. The gold- 
 bearing strata may be divided into two great sections. The 
 upper is composed principally of black earthy pyritous slates 
 with few beds of ^uartzites, and not many quartz veins. 
 These veins are auriferous when exposed in the anticliuals 
 similar to those in the lower section, to be described farther 
 on. An instance of this auriferous character of the veins is 
 met at Lunenburg, but it is not known at what horizon 
 they occur. Its thickness has been estimated by Professor 
 Hynd to be about 3000 feet. The lower section is composed 
 of alternating beds of quartzites and compact sandstones, 
 sometimes felspathic, and argillites, and is estimated to be 
 9000 feet thick. It is to be regretted that the age of these 
 rocks can not as yet be definitely determined. There has 
 been no systematic survey of the district, and the strata can 
 not be continuously followed into connection with well- 
 defined horizons farther west. Mention has been already 
 made of the anticlinal folds of the auriferous measures, and 
 their denuded summits. The veins of auriferous quartz, 
 more particularly the subject of this paper, occur in them, 
 and run parallel to the strata, having usually quartzite on 
 one side and slate on the other. They follow the dips and 
 turns of the incasing rocks, and to a casual observer appear 
 to be really beds of quartz, formed at the same time as the 
 laeds containing them. They have, therefore, been consid- 
 ered by numerous writers to be true aqueous sediments. 
 Others, again, who have considered the reason of their for- 
 mation, and the characteristics of the deposits, afiirm with 
 great show of reason that they are true veins. Imagine these 
 alternating layers of slate and quartzite ridged up under the 
 influence of a pressure acting in a horizontal direction, and 
 possibly to some extent confined by the more unyielding 
 granite masses, it will be readily conceived that, at points of 
 least resistance, which would be the crests and sides of the 
 flexures, the strata would separate most readily at the junc- 
 tion of iDcds of difiering toughness, leaving fissures closely 
 following the outlines of the undulations. Denudation has 
 swept away the crests of these anticlinals, and now presents 
 these concentric fissures filled with quartz. A different 
 effect, however, is noticed when the ends of the anticlinals 
 are penetrated. Here the pressure acting on the layers not 
 capable of escaping the pressure by flexure as readily as 
 those already described has caused the beds to form corru- 
 gations, accompanied, doubtless, in many cases, by a slight 
 movement of one bed on another. The larger of these cor- 
 rugations, when filled with quartz, present the appearance 
 of logs of wood laid side by side and connected by threads 
 of the same mineral, and are called " barrel quartz." One 
 of these corrugated lodes, worked last year at Moose River, 
 varied in thickness from three quarters of an inch to four 
 inches, and presented the apex of an anticlinal dipping to 
 the east. The lode was accompanied by a similar one a few 
 inches below it. Both lodes carried gold, iron, and lead 
 sulphides, and a little calcite, and gold showed through the 
 intervening slates. The corrugations of the slates were 
 parallel to those of the lodes, and extended as far as a section 
 was exposed by the excavations. Similar but less strongly 
 marked corrugations occur in many of the straight-running 
 lodes, and in some instances their transverse axes point to 
 the line of pressure. Other effects are recognizable as caused 
 by this pressure. Thus, veins called " anglers" are observed 
 breaking abruptly across the quartzites and obliquely across 
 the slate-beds, and in some instances proving rich sometimes 
 in one rock and sometimes in the other. Numerous feeders, 
 sometimes auriferous, radiate from the lodes into the surr 
 rounding beds, and in some cases connect them. The thin 
 
246 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 layers of slate found in most instances on one side of the lode 
 are frequently so soft and broken as to be readily removed 
 by the miner's pick. The wider beds of slate are frequently 
 penetrated by several irregular veins, sometimes uniting and 
 again diverging, and the whole mass is filled with a net- 
 Avork of spurs and threads of quartz. 
 
 It is found, as a rule, that in wide bands of slate the veins 
 are feebly auriferous, as is also the case in massive sand- 
 stones, or in sections composed principally of quartzites. 
 The most productive veins are found where bands of quartz- 
 ite and slate of moderate thickness alternate. This may 
 possibly be due to the slates being readily penetrated by 
 solutions, owing to their original lamination, and its increase 
 by the pressure alluded to above, and to the fact that the 
 original deposition of the gold may have been dependent on 
 this alternation of beds of differing minerals. These remarks 
 apply to the lower section of the auriferous measures. The 
 overlying slates, although pyritous and containing numerous 
 quartz lodes, indistinguishable from those already considered, 
 nave not yet yielded any containing enough free gold to 
 warrant working by the present systems of milling. The 
 worked veins vary in thickness from half an inch to six 
 feet, the usual width being from four to eight inches. A 
 twenty-inch vein is considered a large one. The length 
 varies from a few hundred feet to over two miles. They 
 show frequently a banded structure with cavities filled with 
 quartz and calcite crystals. Other veins show a compact 
 oily quartz or are slightly granular, and break most readily 
 across the vein. Pieces of slate constantly occur in them, 
 and there are also "horses."' The fissures have been seen to 
 extend after the quartz filling them has run out. The undu- 
 lations of the auriferous strata were subsequently disturbed 
 on numerous faults. The Waverley gold-field is disturbed 
 by two heavy faults, running north and south, and throwing 
 the measures 180 to 570 feet. Numerous small faults are 
 met, and they are found, as a rule, to belong to either of two 
 sets of faults, the one having a north and south, and the 
 other an east and west course. These heavy faults seldom 
 hold veins; but there have been disturbances, subsequently 
 to the filling of the veins, which have produced fissures also 
 holding veins, sometimes themselves auriferous, and gener- 
 ally influencing the gold values of the veins they intersect 
 or touch. There seems to be but one true igneous dike 
 cutting the gold measures This occurs at Strawberry Hill, 
 Tangier, and is about 40 feet wide, and runs at right angles 
 to the measures, cutting the veins, without, to any appre- 
 ciable extent, influencing their positions or metallic contents. 
 Bedded diorite dikes are met in the Lunenburg District. 
 
 The period at which the veins were filled can not be pre- 
 cisely ascertained. From its occurrence in the Lower Car- 
 boniferous conglomerate, to be referred to, it would appear 
 that the greater part had been deposited previous to that 
 era. The date of the subsequent faults and of the filling by 
 quartz, etc., of the fissures they formed is not clear. There 
 are no measures in the province of date later than the 
 Triiissic sandstones of Truro, and it is not known if they are 
 faulted by the extensions of the sets of dislocations in the 
 gold-fielcb which have been described. It is known that 
 the strata succeeding the Carboniferous limestones up to a 
 period as late at the Upper or Permo-Carboniferous are in- 
 tersected by .sets of faults corresponding to those of the gold 
 districts. It may, therefore, be conjectured that the filling 
 of the second set of fissures was not earlier than the latest 
 period to which can be referred thase systems of faults. 
 
 The minerals usually associated with the gold are sul- 
 phides and arsenides of iron, galena, blende, copper pyrites, 
 oxide of iron, copper glance, molybdenite, native copper, 
 sulphur, chlorite, ieldspar, garnet, mica, calcite, felsite, etc., 
 not, however, in quantities of economic importance. The 
 presence of these minerals, especially of the sulphides and 
 arsenides of iron, appears to be essential to the value 
 of the lod&s. It is true that numbers of lodes have 
 been worked, causing but trifling quantities of pyrites, etc. ; 
 but if not present in the vein, they are found in the inclosing 
 walls, which, in this case, are sometime.s rich enough to war- 
 rant crushing. The gold occurs chiefly as free or coarse gold 
 in grains, visible to the naked eye, and in strings or filaments 
 between the planes of the quartz. A considerable quantity 
 is inclosedin the nodules and nests of the associated minerals, 
 as well as noticed farther on. Crystals have occasionally 
 
 been found not exceeding one-third of an inch in diameter. 
 One from Tangier was a rhombic dodecahedron with beveled 
 edges, and brilliant, finely striated faces. Others are octahe- 
 dra, sometimes elongated and flattened, with dull and round- 
 ed faces. The distribution of the gold in the veins is to a 
 certain extent capricious. Few lodes carry a uniform yield 
 over a space exceeding 500 feet. There is in almost every 
 vein one or more zones or " pay-streaks " of quartz much 
 richer than that surrounding it. These zones do not appear 
 to be the eflect of any law that has yet been applied to our 
 mines. They lie at every angle, and appear to be of very 
 varied length and width. At the Wellington mine, in Sher- 
 brooke, one of these streaks has been followed nearly 600 
 feet from the surface without showing signs of exhausting. 
 The surrounding quartz varied from 2 to 6 dwts. to the ton, 
 while the "pay-streak" ran as high as 20 ounces. 
 
 Mining. — In the earlier operations, many companies were 
 started with schemes too ambitious for their means, and 
 broke down before they could get into working order. Others 
 paid large dividends for a few years; but having no reserve 
 funds, abandoned the work, when they encountered the trial 
 of poor ore, which must be faced by every mine sooner or 
 later. Other properties, again, have been continuously 
 worked and have made handsome returns. On the failure 
 of many of the large companies, their properties were sub-let 
 to tributers, some of whom have done well by systematic 
 mining, and others have eflfected little beyond robbing the 
 richer parts of the lodes within a few yards of the surface. 
 
 During the past two years, a number of the more promis- 
 ing properties have been purchased by American capitalists, 
 and it is expected that their mining experience, gathered in 
 the Western States, will lead to a much larger output than 
 has been obtained for some years past. When it is deter- 
 mined to work a vein, a mine .shaft is sunk, at first, to a depth 
 of about 60 feet, and a shaft on each side from 50 to 150 leet 
 from the central one. At a depth of 40 feet, these shafts are 
 connected by levels, and stoping started from six points, and 
 continued, in some cases, to the surface. Then commencing 
 15 or 20 feet below the levels, a breast of two or more under- 
 hand stones is carried from shaft to shaft. Frequently, when 
 it is not desired to work to any depth, shafts are sunk at close 
 intervals, and the rock raised through several of them. All 
 these shafts are sunk on the vein, so that they vary from 
 perpendicular sinkings to slopes at various angles, as low as 
 45 degrees. 
 
 This work is continued as long as the quartz pays, and 
 some of the mines have reached a depth of 600 feet. 
 Usually, in the more systematically worked mines, each 
 stope has the following scaffold low enough to permit of 
 convenient stowage. Formerly, it was customary to take 
 out at one operation the lode and enough of the slate, etc., 
 to allow working room of from two to three feet. This was 
 found to lead to serious loss of gold, both by theft and by 
 mixture of the quartz with the rock, which had nearly all 
 to be sorted at bank. Now, the slate, etc., on one side of 
 the vein is first taken out, and the vein allowed to stand un- 
 touched until several hundred square feet of it are exposed. 
 Then it is removed at one operation, and sent directly to 
 the surface. This method costs rather more, as the width 
 of the ground removed is increased by the thickness of the 
 lode ; but the quartz is not so much exposed to the workmen, 
 and very little of it is lost. As might be expected from the 
 nature of the strata, the mines are as a rule very free from 
 water. It may be said that at a depth of 300 feet they are 
 perfectly dry whenever proper care has been taken to pud- 
 dle the shafts on the rock-beds, and not to carry the stopes 
 loo near the surface. The most noticeable exception to this 
 rule that has come under the writer's notice occurred re- 
 cently at the Rose mine, Montagu, where, at 150 feet, the 
 main shaft struck a flat throw to the south of three feet. 
 This throw evidently came to the surface under an adjacent 
 swamp, and passed the water so rapidly that the men had 
 immediately to leave their work, which was not resumed 
 until more powerful pumps had been setup. The pumps 
 used are of every variety, from Cornish patterns to steam 
 ejectors. 
 
 The explosive used is chiefly powder ; but in many of the 
 lodes narrow slate bands, or very tightly bound, dynamite is 
 used. Formerly, English dynamite and powder were ex- 
 clusively used, but local factories now supply both these 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 247 
 
 requisites at fair rates and of good quality. The drilling is 
 entirely two-handle, and the system of single-hand drills 
 never succeeded in establishing itself here. Machine drills 
 are but little used, and the narrow inclined workings which 
 necessarily characterize our gold mines almost forbid their 
 application except for driving levels, etc. They will, how- 
 ever, be found economical when attention is turned to the 
 broad belts of banded slate quartzite which are met in many 
 of the districts, and offer an abundant supply of low-grade 
 ores. The cost of extracting a ton of ore varies between wide 
 limits. In the narrow veins, it frequently costs as high as 
 $15 per ton of 2000 lbs., while in veins three feet wide and 
 upward, it is raised for $1.50 a ton, and in slate bands from 
 three to ten feet wide, the cost has been known not to ex- 
 ceed 95 cents ; the wages of minere being $1.25, and of 
 laborers 90 cents to a dollar a day. 
 
 Milling. — The quartzite from the mine is passed directly 
 to the stampmill. At the commencement of gold mining 
 here, attempts were made to roast the ores before they were 
 stamped ; but as the ordinary circular open kilns were used, 
 with wood for fuel, the heat was not more than sufficient to 
 drive off part of the sulphur in combination with the iron, 
 and to coat the free gold with arsenic from the almost om- 
 nipresent mispickel, and they were abandoned. The fine- 
 ness to which the quartz is crushed varies in different mills, 
 from a size passing through a mesh of 1 50 holes to the square 
 inch, down to one of 400 holes. The following estimate of 
 the cost of crushing is from actual performance, and a 
 mill of ten stamps driven by steam-power, which is also 
 utilized for driving a small pump : 
 Quartz cruslied to pass tliroiigh ftiiest Xwllled AVire Cloth. 
 
 Wood 2Vg cords at. 75 cents 81.57 
 
 One man by day, to fire and feed batteries, at . . l.BO 
 
 One man by night at . 1.50 
 
 One man by niglit at . 1.25 
 
 Ciiemicals and oil . . . . . .50 
 
 Wear and tear . . 75 
 
 Total ■ $7.07 
 
 Quartz crushed in 2t hours, 8 tons. 
 
 Cost per ton . $0,88?^ 
 
 The above is for quartz alone ; when, as is frequently the 
 case, slate is crushed with the quartz, the cost per ton would 
 be materially reduced. At the Ophir mill, at Renfrew, some 
 years ago, the cost per ton for quartz was 60 cents per ton 
 crushing at the rate of 600 tons per month. 
 
 In some mills, the use of plates in the "batteries" is not 
 adopted, but mercury is added at regular intervals to the 
 ore undergoing pulverization; the resulting amalgam ac- 
 cumulates around the circular dies on which the stamps fall, 
 and is taken out at the week's end. The use of mercury 
 traps and blankets is not as general as it might be. As the 
 gold is generally coarse, much of it is retained in the bat- 
 teries, and the loss is in the fine gold not caught by the 
 plates. Excluding the gold found in a state of minute sub- 
 division in the sulphurets, the mills as a rule do not extract 
 over 75 per cent, of the gold. The causes of this are the 
 casing of the gold by grease from lamj)s, dynamite, etc., and 
 the powdered silicates of alumina, which form an unctuous 
 slime, as well as the vibratory motion of the stamps, in- 
 ducing a crystalline condition of the gold unfavorable to 
 amalgamation, in addition to the flouring of the gold by the 
 stamping, so that it floats too rapidly o»er the plates to 
 permit of its being caught by the mercury. No process has 
 yet been found equal to the task of recovering the gold thus 
 lost. As already stated, considerable quantities of arsenical 
 pyrites and sulphurets of iron, lead, and copper are found in 
 the veins, usually in close connection with the gold. The 
 percentage present of these minerals varies very much. Some 
 veins and the incasing rocks are heavily loaded with them 
 up to a proportion, as high as 60 per cent. ; while in other 
 veins, equally auriferous, the (juantity will not exceed one 
 per cent. The average amount may be estimated at not less 
 than 5 per cent. They are presented as scattered crystals, 
 as films in the bands of the veins, and as irregular masses or 
 pockets frequently connected by threads. As an almost uni- 
 versal rule, they contain gold. A marked exception has been 
 noted at Mount Uniacke, where a number of small veins 
 containing large amounts of mispickel yielded but mere 
 traces of gold and silver. Beautifiil specimens of gold are 
 frequently secured by treating nodules of pyrites with acid 
 which presents the metal in curiously interlaced plates and 
 
 films, when by a previous examination no gold could be de- 
 tected. As yet, the treatment of these pyrites has been of 
 the most superficial character; they are passed through the 
 mills together with the quartz, and allowed to run away with 
 the tailings. The following assays of these ores, freed from 
 quartz, will show their value : 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Mine Harbor . 
 Sherbrooke . 
 
 Montagu . 
 Ovens . . 
 
 Area. 
 
 Provincial Co. 
 Boulder area. 
 
 Coburg " 
 Canada Co. 
 
 Meridian Co, . 
 
 O'Connor area 
 
 Belt lode . . 
 McCulloch lot 
 
 Ore. 
 
 Ar.«ienical pyrites . 
 Arsenical pyrites . 
 
 and galena . . . 
 Arsenical pyrites . 
 Mispickel and iron 
 
 pyrites 
 
 Mispickel and iron 
 
 pyrites 
 
 Mispickel and iron 
 
 pyrites ..... 
 Mispickel .... 
 Mispickel and iron 
 
 pyrites . 
 
 Yield per Ion o/2000 »«. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 4 1 16 
 1 12 16 
 
 45 
 1 12 16 
 
 12 12 22 
 100 
 
 Silvei: 
 
 x' 5 
 
 O 1=1 
 
 8 19 10 
 6 10 16 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 These results are confirmed by the assays of the same ores 
 from various districts made by the writer, who, on several 
 occasions, has found nickel and cobalt present up to 2 per 
 cent. The following assays of pyrites which have been con- 
 centrated from tailings show the inadequacy of the ordinary 
 process of stamping to extract the gold from them : 
 
 
 Area. 
 
 Yield per Ion of 2000 B». 
 
 District. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 
 Oj. Bwl. Gr. 
 
 Oz. Diot. (ir. 
 
 Tan|;ier 
 
 New York Co. . 
 Leary lode 
 
 6 5 
 4 14 4 
 6 14 1 
 2 10 
 
 2 4 
 
 ' 'o' id ' 
 
 Sherbrooke . . . 
 
 Average lots . . 
 
 
 The following table shows the assay values of several 
 samples of tailings and pyrites taken from waste-heaps not 
 concentrated, showing that much pure gold is lost in addition 
 to that carried away by the various pyrites, as already al- 
 luded to ; 
 
 
 Area. 
 
 Ore. 
 
 Yield per ton of 2000 lbs. 
 
 DiSTKICI. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 
 Oz. Dwt. Gr. 
 
 Oz. Dwt. Gr. 
 
 
 Barrel quartz. 
 Belt mill . . 
 
 Tailings 
 
 Tailings natural 
 concentration. 
 
 
 Waverley 
 Montagu. 
 
 Ooz. 7 
 
 15 
 
 16 13 
 
 3 
 
 dwt. 4 gr. 
 
 It would seem that no regular system of assays of the 
 values of the ore and pyrites before and after milling has 
 ever been carried out here. A few such experiments would 
 afford valuable data to replace the empirical and haphazard 
 method of treating the ores too frequently seen among our mi- 
 ners. At Montagu, a True vanner has been erected to treat 
 the tailings of that district, which are said to yield pyrites 
 averaging $60 to the ton. It is yet too soon to speak of its 
 practical working ; but should it equal the expectations of 
 the builder, there is a good field for this work, as about 
 412,700 tons have been crushed since gold mining began here. 
 Nova Scotia gold, like that of other countries, is an alloy, 
 of which silver forms the chief impurity. As a rule, it is of 
 a high degree of fineness. The following analyses represent 
 the character of the bullion : 
 
248 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 
 AOTITORITY. 
 
 
 Composition. 
 
 
 
 ( Locality. 
 
 Gold 
 
 Silvfir 
 
 Cop- 
 p«r. 
 
 7,\na. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Mooselaiid .... 
 Tangier, Field lode 
 
 « Leary " 
 ■W.irerley .... 
 Oveud 
 
 0. 0. Mareli .... 
 B.Silliman,. . . , 
 
 98.13 
 97.25 
 
 1.76 
 2.75 
 
 O.OS 
 
 
 99.94 
 100.00 
 
 H. Howe ... 
 A. Gesner . ... 
 
 94.09 
 93.06 
 
 4.74 
 C.BO 
 
 0.39 
 0.09 
 
 0.16 
 
 99.ns 
 
 99.7.1 
 
 Doubtless, the chief attention of tlie miners here, who as 
 a rule, possess little capital, will continue to be directed to 
 the small rich veins yielding quick returns, and it is to be re- 
 gretted that as a rule their operations are confined to work- 
 ing out the more accessible parts of the pay-streaks, and no 
 systematic scheme of work is attempted. It is anticipated, 
 however, that in the future the greatest reliance will be 
 placed, on the low grade ores. There are numerous belts 
 known to contain many thousands of tons of quartz and 
 slate, yielding by mill test up to seven pennyweights (6-70 
 dollars) of gold to the ton. From the costs of extraction 
 and milling already given, it will be seen that in many cases 
 these ores would yield good returns if worked on a fairly 
 large and careful system. This experiment is now practi- 
 cally being testing in the Sherbrooke District by parties who 
 propose adopting the usual treatment in stamp mills to 
 secure the coarse gold, and a systematic concentration of the 
 trailings which will yield considerable quanties of arsenical 
 and other pyrites. These would find a ready sale at the re- 
 duction-works of the Eastern States, and form an important 
 item in the returns. 
 
 The gold is held by the provincial government, which 
 grants areas of 250 by 150 feet for a term of twenty-one 
 years, with option of removal, for a fee of two dollars, and a 
 royalty of two per cent, on the gross value of the smelted 
 gold produced, which is valued at nineteen dollars an ounce 
 (from 20 to 60 cents less than its market value). The 
 royalty is collected from the mill owners, who are obliged 
 to give bonds, and make sworn returns of the quartz crushed 
 and the yield of gold. 
 
 Xova Scotia Gold-Flelds— General Amiual Summary. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 earnings per 
 
 Year. 
 
 Total ounces of 
 
 SiifJT 
 
 Yield per ton 
 
 TolaJ days 
 
 man pe 
 
 •day and 
 
 gold extracted. 
 
 crushed. 
 
 a/ 20U lOs. 
 
 labor. 
 
 year of 
 
 300 daffs 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 at 18 
 
 dollars 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 pe 
 
 • oj;. 
 
 
 6 
 
 (5 
 
 <S 
 
 Tons. 
 
 6| 
 
 <^ 
 
 
 s 
 
 $ 
 
 1862 
 
 7,275 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,473 
 
 1 2 
 
 11 
 
 156,000 
 
 .82 
 
 249 
 
 18G3 
 
 14,001 
 
 14 
 
 17 
 
 17,002 
 
 16 
 
 U 
 
 273,634 
 
 .92 
 
 276 
 
 1861 
 
 20,022 
 
 IS 
 
 13 
 
 21,431 
 
 18 
 
 IB 
 
 252,720 
 
 1.42 
 
 456 
 
 1805 
 
 25,454 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 26,423 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 121,966 
 
 2.15 
 
 745 
 
 18G6 
 
 25,204 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 32,101 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 312,796 
 
 2,14 
 
 642 
 
 18G7 
 
 27,314 
 
 31 
 
 11 
 
 :n,386 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 211,796 
 
 2 24 
 
 672 
 
 1868 
 
 20,541 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 32,202 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 241,462 
 
 1.63 
 
 469 
 
 1809 
 
 17,868 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 36,147 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 610,938 
 
 1.52 
 
 466 
 
 1870 
 
 10,860 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 .10,829 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 
 173,680 
 
 ■2.05 
 
 615 
 
 1871 
 
 19,227 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 30,791 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 162,994 
 
 1.12 
 
 636 
 
 1872 
 
 13,094 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 17,093 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 112,476 
 
 2.09 
 
 627 
 
 1873 
 
 11,852 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 17,708- 
 
 13 
 
 U 
 
 93,470 
 
 2.2S 
 
 684 
 
 1874 
 
 9.140 
 
 13 
 
 a 
 
 13,844 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 77,246 
 
 2.12 
 
 636 
 
 1875 
 
 11,208 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 14,810 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 91,698 
 
 2.20 
 
 660 
 
 1876 
 
 12,038 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 15,490 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 111,304 
 
 1.94 
 
 682 
 
 1877 
 
 16,8S2 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 17,367 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 123,666 
 
 2.46 
 
 738 
 
 1878 
 
 12,577 
 
 1 
 
 22 
 
 17,990 
 
 13 
 
 23 
 
 110,422 
 
 2.05 
 
 615 
 
 1879 
 
 13,801 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 15,930 
 
 17 
 
 8 
 
 93,002 
 
 2.24 
 
 702 
 
 1880 
 
 13,234 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 14,037 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 103,836 
 
 2.18 
 
 654 
 
 1881 
 
 10,756 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 16,566 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 126,308 
 
 1.62 
 
 456 
 
 Total 
 
 321,362 
 
 IS 
 
 7 
 
 422,741 
 
 
 3,167,.391 
 
 
 
 It is computed that about 8000 ounces were produced be- 
 fore that date, which would make the total amount to the 
 present date about 330,000 ounces. In addition to the 
 amount legitimately mined and crushed, there is reason to 
 believe that in every district a very considerable quantity 
 is stolen by the miners, theft being assisted by the common 
 occurrences of the gold in small nuggets or " sights '' in the 
 quartz. Much of the richest quartz from numerous veins 
 worked by two or three men is known to be reduced in 
 hand-mortars, and the resulting gold is surreptitiously sold, 
 
 so that the returns made to the department of mines may be 
 considered as by no means fully representing the amount 
 of gold extracted. 
 
 The tables also show the number of mills, which it may 
 be remarked, work only at intervals ; also the number of 
 days' labor performed at mining, prospecting, and surface 
 work, from which it would appear that business, although 
 small, is fairly remunerative. From the foregoing re- 
 marks, it will be seen that the area containing gold is 
 very large, and that the little work that has hitherto been 
 performed has shown that there are numerous lodes that 
 have yielded good returns. The district as. yet has not 
 shown the extensive alluvial deposits characterizing those 
 counti'ies which have become famous for their production of 
 gold, and the future development will, so far as can be judged 
 at present, be due to more extensive working of the veins. 
 The district affords good openings for men having capital 
 and experience, and as a rule such men have done well. 
 Companies have done equally well whenever their operations 
 have been controlled by competent agents, who have learned 
 to work on the systems experience has shown best adapted 
 to the country, and have not maintained the rules of min- 
 ing learned in wide lodes, etc. When cheapness of labor, 
 the abundance of water-power, a favorable climate, and the 
 accessibility of the district are considered, it may be fairly 
 anticipated that gradually the attention of miners and capi- 
 talists will be turned to Nova Scotia gold-fields : and that 
 with improved methods of treatment and accumulation of 
 experience in detecting and following the richer deposits, 
 this industry will become a leading one in the province. 
 
 • — CompiUd from a paper hy Edward Gilpen^ Inipertor of Mines, read before the 
 A'orf A of England hibCdtxte of Mininy and Me'chaniCul Engineers. 
 
 RARE MINERALS OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 PROF. WM. P. BLAKE has contributed the following 
 paper to the Mining Bureau of the State of Cali- 
 fornia. 
 New Mineral Ijocalities.—Erythyrite : Cobalt 
 Bloom. — In minute mammillary incru.stations, showing, 
 when broken, radial aggregations of silky, fibrous crystals. 
 Color : deep carmine or rosy red, also, peach blossom red. 
 Streak, the same color, but blue after the mineral has been 
 heated. It gives the usual reactions for cobalt, arsenic and 
 water. Occurs, also, in massive earthy aggregations, of 
 small fibrous crystals of a rose-pink color. It was associated 
 with an ore of silver and cobalt in dark colored earthy 
 masses, a mechanical mixture, assaying at the rate of 5,000 
 to 6,000 ounces of silver to the ton, but the precise nature 
 of which is not yet ascertained, in a gangue of heavy spar, 
 containing, also, nodular masses of chalcopyrite (yellow 
 copper ore). From the Bernardino range, Southern Cali- 
 fornia. This is believed to be the first observation of the 
 occurrence of this species in the United States. 
 
 Buhellite — Rose-colored Tourmaline. — This very interest- 
 ing mineral is now observed for the first time in California, 
 in the form of long tender crystals from one sixteenth to 
 one-eighth of an inch in transverse diameter, with the usual 
 triangular section. Color, a beautiful rose pink, contrasting 
 well with matrix of white lepidolite. When ignited the 
 color disappears and the mineral becomes perfectly white. 
 Infusible. Locality, Bernardino range Southern Cali- 
 fornia. 
 
 Lepidolite — occurs with the above in massive aggregations 
 of minute pearly scales, both colorless and purple-red in 
 color. It_ is traversed by the crystals of tourmaline. It 
 fuses readily to a white enamel and colors the flames next to 
 the assay a dark crimson-rod for a moment. 
 
 Cassiterite — " Wood Tin. " — A single specimen of wood- 
 tin, a segment of a botryoidal mass, with concentric struc- 
 ture and dark brown in color, was found by Mr. Thomas 
 Lane, of Laporte, in the. bed of the middle fork of the 
 Feather river, about three miles above Big Bar, Plumas 
 County. The mass is about five-eighths of an inch in diame- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 249 
 
 ter, and closely resembles the wood-tin brought from 
 Durango, Mexico, and that found in Idaho. The attention 
 of Placer miners should be directed to this, as other frag- 
 ments may be found in cleaning up sluices, and thus lead 
 to the discovery of the source of this valuable ore of tin. 
 
 £ociu#6— Variegated Copper Ore. — This beautiful ore cop- 
 per is found upon the claim of Mr. A. J. Ford, at Light's 
 Canyon, Plumas County, in a vein affording massive speci- 
 mens three inches or more thick. In the same region there 
 are veins of yellow copper ore and of massive Hematite. 
 
 Section from Merced to Coulterville and Big 
 Oak Plat. — From Merced station upon the Southern 
 Pacific railroad, the line of section described in this contri- 
 bution extends iu a northeasterly direction, nearly transverse 
 to the line of strike of some of the most interesting gold- 
 bearing rocks of the Sierra Nevada. Merced is situated 
 upon the alluvial plains of the San Joaquin. The level and 
 clay soil, noted for its fertility and adaiDtatiou to cereals, 
 extends without change to the Six -mile house, where gravel 
 begins to show itself and the soil is jjoorer and more arid. 
 Another six miles over a gentle rolling gravelly plain brings 
 us to the banks of the Merced. Crossing by ferry to the 
 right bank, we travel along the broad and rich bottom lands 
 to Snellings and Merced Falls, passing plantations of India 
 corn and cotton. 
 
 At Merced Palls, the first outcrop of the older rocks is 
 observed. It is a hard bar of compact black clay slate, like 
 roofing slate, very uniform in texture, in broad flat plates, 
 standing vertically on edge, trending in remarkably straight 
 lines northwest and southeast. This hard outcrop forms a 
 natural dam, upon which the rapidly flowing water of the 
 Merced has made but little impression. There is a fine 
 water power at all seasons, which is partially utilized by a 
 woolen mill. We here leave the river and ascend the hills 
 to the northeast. The black slates carry numerous veins of 
 white quartz which have not been much prospected. A few 
 miles beyond the falls, the surface rises rapidly, and the 
 slates give way to harder rocks. These are light bluisb- 
 greeu in color, weathering in places almost white. They 
 are evidently of sedimentary origin, though much altered 
 and change(i from their original condition. They form the 
 outlying belt of a series of heavily bedded conglomerates, 
 sandstones, and shales, which, being harder and less suscep- 
 tible to erosion than the slates, form the high hills and 
 ridges. These elevations trend northwest and southeast, and 
 are probably the northwestern extension of the Mount Oso 
 range, which traverses a large portion of Mariposa County, 
 and forms the western wall of Bear Valley, on the Mariposa 
 estate. The heavy and bold outcrops of the massive con- 
 glomerates composing this range are not readily recognized 
 as conglomerates. Their composite character is obscure. 
 Generally it is scarcely possible to recognize that the rock 
 is made up of rounded boulder-like masses. The boulders 
 which form these rocks are so much compressed, welded, 
 and united in one apparently homogeneous plasma, that the 
 dividing lines and contact surfaces are obliterated, and can- 
 not be seen except upon surfaces that have been weathered, 
 and sometimes upon broad surfaces of fracture. Occasion- 
 ally, where the metamorphic action has not been as strong 
 as in other places, the original forms of the boulders can be 
 made out, and the masses stand out from the general sur- 
 face. In decomposing, these old conglomerates reveal their 
 origin by yielding a vast amount of hard boulder-like 
 masses, elongated and lens-shaped spheroids, which are uti- 
 lized for fencing. These rocks are generally known and 
 described as " greenstone," the color being light bluish- 
 green, and the mineral composition of the boulders being 
 like the green stone?. They offer a very interesting subject 
 of study to the lithologist and to the student of dynamical 
 geology. They border on each side the belts of slates iu 
 which most of the quartz veins are found and have, next to 
 the granites, best withstood the denuding and wearing forces 
 of the elements, and thus have to a great extent determined 
 the topography of the Piedmont region of the. Sierra Nevada. 
 Upon the line of the section herein described, such con- 
 glomerates occur in a number of parallel outcrops with slaty 
 rocks between and belts ofsandstone, the exact succession of 
 which cannot be determined without painstaking investiga- 
 tion. The whole series occupies a breadth of about twenty 
 miles between the slates of Merced Falls and the similar 
 
 slates of Coulterville Valley. It includes at leasttwo bodies 
 of well-defined pebbly conglomerates, in which the pebbles 
 are small — not much larger than beans. These conglomer- 
 ate beds lie parallel with bodies of argillaceous slate, and 
 clearly demonstrate a succession of deposits formed in alter- 
 nating deep and shallow waters. Approaching Coulterville 
 we descend the hills of greenstone conglomerate and pass 
 suddenly upon the black slates of the valley. They greatly 
 resemble the outcrops at ]\Ierced Falls, and probably are a 
 repetition of that series. Here, however, they are especially 
 interesting, as the matrix of tlie two chief lines of gold-bear- 
 ing veins in California, the so-called " mother lode" of the 
 State. In this valley, as also upon the Mariposas and far- 
 ther north, there are two nearly parallel lodes of great size, 
 the croppings of which are so bold and prominent, crowning 
 the hills, as to be visible for miles. The western lode rises 
 between walls of black slate, and carries films and sheets 
 of the slates in its mass, giving to it a more or less stratified 
 form and a striped appearance when seen in cross sections, 
 or as it stands in the mines. Such quartz is technically 
 known as ribbon quartz, and is a great favorite with quartz 
 miners. In the mother lode proper, a short distance farther 
 cast, the quartz is more massive and solid, and is in close 
 proximity to a belt of serpentine, and for a great part of its 
 course follows and penetrates a stratum of magnesian rock, 
 referable to ankerite and magnesite. It is characterized by 
 rusty outcrojis and an abundance of a foliated, bright green 
 mineral to which the name "Mariposite" has been given. 
 It appears to owe its green color to chromium and iron 
 rather than to copper or nickel. The quartz penetrates this 
 magnesian rock so thoroughly as to form in many places a 
 complete network ofveinsbranchingoff from the chiefbody. 
 Beyond the veins and magnesian belt the slates are seen 
 again for a short distance, and are succeeded by greenstone 
 conglomerates. Beyond these, on the road to Big Oak Flat, 
 there is a heavy body of syenite forming a hilly region tra- 
 versed by the road for ten miles north and cast to Priest's, 
 on the Yosemite road. From Priest's, westward, theie is a 
 legion of massive, hard black slates, which appear to belong 
 to the series of formations in which the limestone belt of 
 Sonora and the Hite group of veins occur. I regard Hum 
 as older than the mother lode series of slates, and believe 
 that they belong to the period of the carboniferous ; the 
 reasons in part for this belief being their stratigrajihical 
 relations to other formations and the abundance of carbona- 
 ceous matter which they contain. 
 
 The mother lode slates have been t-hown to correspond in 
 age to the Jurassic period. I am inclined to refer the green- 
 stone conglomerate series to the trias. The whole series of 
 formations embraced in the section give satisfactory evi- 
 dences of extensive plication and subsequent erosion. The 
 dips are generally eastward and at a high angle. 
 
 Coulterville to Chinese Camp. — Leaving for the 
 present a notice in detail of the mother vein, we follow its 
 course approximately to Chinese Camp, near Sonora in 
 Tuolumne county. Crossing the line of the great vein at 
 Coulterville, the road leads for a short distance over an out- 
 crop of the heavy greenstone conglomerate, bordering the 
 slates on the west.. From that point to Priest's hotel, on the 
 Yosemite road, a distance of ten miles, the rock formations 
 are entirely difierent from those of the valley, being granite 
 and syenite. The hills rise higher and the topography 
 changes. The altitude at Coulterville is about 1,700 fe«t, 
 and the road, upon the granite formation, is about 2,500 feet. 
 Priest's is between 2,300 and 2,400 feet in altitude. The 
 hills are but sparsely timbered and generally are wholly 
 covered by a dense growth of chemisal. When this is in 
 blossom, it never fails to remind one of the heather-covered 
 downs of England, although it is comparatively gigantic in 
 growth. These high hills, which have been generally re- 
 garded as barren and worthless, are now being sought for 
 and utilized for grain-growing and vineyards. Wherever 
 water can be distributed over the surface, the grfinite soil 
 yields excellent crops of wheat. The vine takes kindly also 
 to this soil and particularly where there is an excess of iron 
 oxide, giving a red color to the earth. Probably the green- 
 stone conglomerate hills are better than the granite. It is 
 said that wherever the vines get v^ell started they do not 
 afterwards reqjuire irrigation. The fact that these tills can 
 be covered with vineyards is extremely important as greatly 
 
250 
 
 THE MINES, MINEE8 AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 extending the area of the vine-producing region of the State. 
 About midway between the points mentioned, the syenitic 
 granite gives way for a short distance to a thin belt of gneis- 
 sic rock and a metamorphic slate. These formations are 
 bordered by felsites, which, in decomposing, have formed 
 banks and layers of kaolin, out through by the graded road. 
 Near Priest's some gold-bearing quartz seams, or veins, have 
 been found traversing the granite. These probably hold 
 about the same relation to the veins of the slate belt as the 
 veins in the granite at West Point, farther north, do to the 
 veins in the slates of Amador county. At Priest's we pass 
 upon another and heavier belt of slaty rocks, which are 
 more massive, harder, and appear older than the Jurassic 
 slates of Coulterville. This formation extends east and 
 southeast from this point, and is probably the same body 
 of hard black slates reaching southeast to Hite's Cove and 
 beyond, carrying the celebrated Hite vein and others. These 
 slates are regularly stratified, and appear to be traversed by 
 dykes of trap or greenstone. 
 
 From Priest's to the Tuolumne river at Stephen's Bar the 
 road leads in a northwesterly direction. The granite and 
 syenite appear to thin out, for directly after leaving Priest's 
 the greenstone conglomerate takes its place. The road de- 
 scends rapidly between high chemisal covered hills, uuder- 
 laid by the conglomerates, to Culbertson's in the valley, only 
 a mile west of Priest's, and 1,300 feet lower. At this point 
 we are again upon the mother lode formation, and follow it 
 down Moccasin creek to the Tuolumne. Looking back to- 
 ward Coulterville, the view is interrupted by the Peak of 
 Penyon Blanco, the crest of which is formed by the massive 
 blocks of white quartz of the mother vein. About Culbert- 
 son's the vein is split up, and does not come boldly to the 
 surface. Lower down the valley it appears in the foothills 
 on the right bank, and on the left bank there are heavy out- 
 crops of serpentine, extending nearlyto the Tuolumne, where 
 the slates are found largely developed. The mouth of Moc- 
 casin creek is only about 700 feet above tide. Running 
 parallel as it does with the great vein for several miles, it 
 might be expected to be rich in gold, which was the fact. 
 It has been worked and reworked with profit, but now the 
 gravelly bed is being leveled, and vineyards and orchards 
 cover its surface and give a perpetual bonanza to the appre- 
 ciative sons of Italy. The wonder is that more of our 
 American young men and women do not avail of the many 
 -opportunities to make charming and profitable homes in the 
 forsaken gold fields of California. 
 
 We cross the river in a boat and follow the left bank for 
 about two miles to Jacksonville, noted years ago for its figs 
 and oranges. The general direction of tlie river corresponds 
 with the strike of the formations, but it soon turns abruptly 
 to the west and cuts across the slates and sandstones of the 
 chief gold belt. Conglomerates and outcrops of serpentine 
 with traces of the mother lode are also found ; and these 
 rocks continue, with a regular northwest trend, to Chinese 
 Camp, eight miles southeast of Sonora. This place is situated 
 in an open, gently rolling country, at an altitude of about 
 1,300 feet. Surface gold washings were very extensive in 
 this vicinity, and sustained a large population of miners for 
 many year3, but the diggings are now overgrown with grass, 
 and many of the once well-filled stores are vacant. 
 
 Chinese Camp to Sonora. — In my last communication 
 the course of the lode was followed from Coulterville to 
 Chinese Camp, and it was shown that for most of the dis- 
 tance northwest of Penyon Blanco the lode does not crop 
 out strongly, and appears at intervals only. The formations, 
 however, continue unchanged, and the line of the lode is east 
 of Chinese Camp. Leaving Chinese camp, and passing north- 
 eastward at right angles to the strike of the rocks, we first 
 cross the eroded outcrops of the conglomerates, and then 
 over a belt of slates standing on edge, but presenting an 
 almost flat surface, greatly resembling the outcrops at 
 Merced Falls. This smooth, and apparent planed-off out- 
 crop is in strong contrast with the sharply serrated edges of 
 the slates standing above the soil like tombstones, generally 
 known among the miners as "grave-stone slates." The 
 difference of surface is very likely due to a difference of 
 internal grain ; the absenue of the elongated structure made 
 by pulling or stretching the strata during the period of 
 plication, to which we may refer the sharp ellipsoidal out- 
 crops of the slates in a great part of the gold region. Beyond 
 
 these outcrops, north and west, there is a belt of greenstone 
 conglomerate, succeeded by serpentine; apparently the 
 prolongation of the serpentine belt traced northwestward 
 Irom Coulterville and along the Tuolumne. Pliocene 
 gravel also makes its appearance in remnants of a tableland 
 formation; and a short d;stance beyond, the lava-capped 
 beds of Table Mountain bound the view from north to west. 
 Thinly-bedded clay slates come to the surface east of the 
 serpentine, and continue up to the outcrop of the mother lode, 
 about one mile west of Jamestown. The lode of this place 
 crops strongly, and forms the crest of a ridge, upon the flanks 
 of which there are heavy deposits of quartz gravel, evidently 
 derived from the disintegration of the vein. The many pits and 
 trenches in this gravel clearly indicate its valuable auriferous 
 character, and at the same time, show that the vein is not a 
 mere barren outcrop of quartz. The vein is accompanied by 
 many branches and veinlets penetrating the adjoining 
 slates in various directions. It follows the formation and 
 trends northwest towards Table Mountain, under which it 
 disappears. It would be interesting to ascertain what the 
 fineness of the Table Mountain gold is, compared with the 
 fineness of the gold from the vein. There can be little 
 doubt that the Table Mountain deposit was greatly enriched 
 below the mother vein by the gold broken from its croppings 
 upon the banks and in the bed of the ancient river, along 
 which the deposits and lava overflow of the present moun- 
 tain were formed. 
 
 The lode is in the midst of the clay -slate formation which 
 extends to and beyond Jamestown. East of this place the 
 slates become harder, more massive, and are traversed occa- 
 sionally by quartz veins. All the formations trend toward 
 Table Mountain, and are there covered from view. As the 
 slates become harder, the surface of the country rises from 
 1,400 feet elevation at Jamestown to nearly 1,800 feet at 
 Sonora. This may be due in part to a very hard dyke of 
 dioritic rock just west of the town. Sonora is built upon 
 hard, massive black slates, resembling those beyond Priest's, 
 and at the Hite mine, belonging, I believe, to the most 
 eastern belt of slates of the Sierra ; these black argillaceous 
 slates are firm and hard enough to be quarried for building 
 purposes. They are gold-bearing, and at the present time, 
 there is a most notable development of a vein within the 
 town limits, from which fabitlous amounts of gold are taken 
 by two men, the metal being so abundant that but little 
 crushing in a hand mortar is required to free it from quartz. 
 The limestones at Sonora, bordering the slate formations 
 on the east, constitute one of the most interesting geological 
 formations of the State. They are here developed over a con- 
 siderable area and stretch for many miles to the northwest, to 
 Columbia, Shaw's Flat, Murphy's and beyond; and south- 
 eastward it is believed to reach to Hite's Cove and beyond it, 
 though I have not traced them in that direction. In a 
 section which I shall hereafter give, from Mariposa to Hite's 
 Cove, I shall show the similarity of the formations ; that 
 there are several distinct strata, or beds, and that some of 
 them abound in fossil encrinites. The Sonora outcrops have 
 failed, so far as I know, to give any evidence by fossils of 
 their age or place in the geological scale. There is no 
 doubt, however, of their deep-sea marine origin. They show 
 distinct stratification and alternate layers of gray, white, and 
 blue color. The stratification is nearly vertical and the beds 
 being of differing degrees of solubility now present a very 
 extraordinary and uneven surface, especially where in the 
 flats and valleys they were covered with alluvial gravels and 
 clays. In such places, notably in Columbia and Shaw's 
 Flat, the outcrop consists of a succession of sharp, irregular 
 bodies of limestone, separated by deep, fissure-like chasms. 
 The masses, in many instances, seem like loose boulders, and 
 where the soil and gravel were removed by mining, they 
 toppled over. Such a surfixce proved to be wonderfuUv 
 retentive of placer gold, and the harvest from this strangely 
 irregular surface of limestone was verv great. Miners have 
 worked the crevices to great depth, and there is reason to 
 believe that the bottom of many of tlie chasms has never 
 been reached. A similar formation occurs in the Ural 
 mountains, and was described by Sir Roderick Murchison. 
 A reference to this and a more complete notice of the Sonora 
 deposits, with figures, will be found in my report to the 
 United States Government in 1853 to 1855. The cause of 
 the uneven surface is net as generally supposed, mechanical 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 251 
 
 wearing away, or erosion, but is chjefly chemical. It is due 
 to the solvent action of carbonated yvater percolating through 
 the soil or standing in the undrai^ed and swamp-Like flats. 
 As the rock was dissolved the gravel and gold sank down 
 into the cavities and crevices faf below the surface upon 
 which they were originally laid down. 
 
 At the time of my first visit, in 1854, the whole limestone 
 belt was populous with miners, and many relics of the Plio- 
 cene age were brought to light ajid were often lost to history 
 and science. These for the most part consisted of teeth of 
 elephants, the mammoths, and pf the mastodons of primeval 
 days, when they roamed through the forests and glades of 
 California with the tapir and Ijipparion. Whether the pro- 
 genitors of the modern Digger Indians were " there to see " 
 IS still an open question, though some cracked skulls are 
 thought to bear evidence on tfiis part. 
 
 The late Dr. Snell, of Sonora, was an enthusiastic col- 
 lector of aboriginal stone implements and relics which have 
 been peculiarly abundant s^bout Table Mountain, and were 
 supposed by the doctor to Ije of great age, even antedating 
 the lava flow. This, however, is very doubtful. As the 
 subject is very interesting, and the facts are important in 
 the discussion of the antiquity of man upon the globe, I 
 propose to make them the basis of a second paper. 
 Since the death of Dr. Si^eU, his collection appears to have 
 been scattered. I did nqt find in Sonora any one who could 
 give me an account of ij;. Oasts of soms of the specimens 
 have been sent to the Smithsonian Institute ; and the doctor 
 presented me with a collection of specimens some years be- 
 fore his death. At the same time, I made exact drawings 
 of some of the more iinportant pieces. 
 
 Occurrence of Vanadates of Lead at the Castle 
 Dome Mines. — ^The occurrence of the rare metal vana- 
 ddnite at the Castle Dome mines is sufficiently interesting 
 to receive a speci3,l notice in this series, although the 
 losality is just beyond the line of the State, across the Colo- 
 rado river, and in the Castle Dome district, Arizona. Vana- 
 dinite, which occurs in considerable abundance in the claim 
 known as the " pailroad," is a rare mineral, and has not 
 hitherto been found in the United States, if we except some 
 minute microscopic crystals mixed with Wulfenite found in 
 the ores of the Wheatley mines, at Phcenixville, Pennsyl- 
 vania, and referred to the species Descloizite, also a vanadate 
 of lead. Th« vanadinite occurs in groups of hexagonal 
 prismatic crystals with curved sides, tapering at each end, 
 and closely resembling pyromorphite in form and grouping. 
 These crystp,ls are rarely over one-sixteenth of an inch in 
 diameter, being generally half that size and less than 
 three-sixteenths long. They are in confused aggrega- 
 tions, forming crusts and filling cavities in the decomposing 
 ores of lead, and also on fluor-spar. Some of the crystals 
 are cavernous, presenting the appearance often seen in 
 phosphate of lead. One side of a crust of crystals is often 
 in distinct hexagonal crystals, and the other consists of an 
 aggregation of minute crystals grouped in arborescent 
 forms, and differing in color from the coarser crystals. The 
 larger crystals are generally light-brown in color, with a 
 bronzy luster. The smaller crystals are lighter, and are of 
 various shades of orange-yellow, becoming in places nearly 
 white with a silvery wax-like luster, due possibly to a pel- 
 licle of some other mineral covering the surface. The yel- 
 lowish brown crystals have a wax-like appearance and luster. 
 The difference in appearance in the crystalline crusts their 
 difference of aggregation and color, suggest the probability of 
 several species. It is possible that Dechenite, Descloizite and 
 Mimetite are represented ; also Eusynchite. The behavior 
 with nitric acid is different, some crystals showing a distinct 
 separation of red vanadic acid, and others giving but a 
 slight reaction. The Wulfenite crystals in association are 
 extremely brilliant and light-yellow in color, pr(senting a 
 beautiful appearance upon a background of green fluor-spar 
 or white crystalline carbonate of lead. There is great need 
 of investigation of the composition of the many varieties of 
 yellow, red, and brown crystals from Castle Dome and silver 
 district, now usually referred to Wulfenite, though it is pro- 
 bable that several species are represented. 
 
 The Castle Dome vanadinite is totally different la appear- 
 ance from the red crystals of Silver district- At Castle 
 Dome the vanadium appears, to be present, in varying pro- 
 portions in the crystals of different appearance, though all 
 
 hexagonal, and to be associated with arsenic acid in the 
 mineral species, Mimetite. 
 
 Some of the specimens giving strong . arsenical odors on 
 coal and having the external characters of mimetite or 
 arsenate of lead, give also characteristic reactions for vana- 
 dic acid though not to the same degree, or so distinctly as 
 other crystals where the arsenical reactions are weaker. 
 The strongest reactions for arsenic, so far obtained, are from 
 the crusts of small aggregated crystals of a light brown or 
 straw-yellow color and wax-like luster. The deportment 
 with nitric acid varies, but all the varieties disolve 
 and give finally yellow solutions, which become green 
 and blue where deoxidized by organic acids or alcohol, 
 The occurrence of vanadic acid in mimetite is not 
 unknown, Domeyko having found it in mimetite fi-om 
 Mina Grande, Chile. In all of the specimens so far ex- 
 amined, whether the light yellow, barrel-shaped crystals, or 
 the long, tapering, hexagonal prisms, or the dendritic ag- 
 gregate, reactions for chlorine are obtained, and the yellow 
 nitric solutions become green by heating with alcohol. It 
 is interesting to note here that recent researches by M. 
 Bertrand go to show that the hexagonal crystals of mimetite 
 are compound crystals, made up by twining of orthorombic 
 crystals. This has been shown by the study of the optical 
 characters. While pyromorphite is truly hexagonal, show- 
 ing only one axis of symmetrical polarization, mimetite was 
 found to have two optic axes. K is possible that we may 
 find crystals large enough from Castle Dome or Silver dis- 
 trict to examine with the polariscope, and ascertain whether 
 they are in reality compounded or single. 
 
 Vanadinite also occurs in beautiful crimson red crj'Stals 
 in the Hamburg mine at Silver district. These ciystals are 
 small, but are beautifully distinct hexagonal prisms or 
 " berylloids," being similarly shaped, and are terminated by 
 a flat plane at right angles with the planes of the prism. 
 The terminal edges are replaced by a minute brilliant plane, 
 and in one or two of the crystals a plane replacing one of 
 the solid angles has been observed. The material at hand 
 is insufiicient to give me the best specimens for examination 
 by the goniometer, so as to accurately measure the inclina- 
 tion of these terminal planes to the base or sides. I have, 
 however, mounted one of the minute crystals in hand, 
 and the angles of the prism apparently equal, so there is 
 little doubt of its truly hexagonal form. The seemingly 
 partial termination or modification of the terminal edges in 
 some crystals raised the question whether, though appar- 
 ently hexagonal, the true form might not be rhombic. The 
 streak or powder of this mineral is salmon-colored or orange 
 red. It dissolves completely in dilute nitric acid, but in 
 strong nitric acid, if added in small quantities, there is a 
 separation of a red powder, which fioats off in the acid and 
 is then dissolved, giving a yellow solution, which, after 
 standing some hours, becomes green. It is also turned gi-een 
 in a few moments by the addition of a small quantity of al- 
 cohol, and this green solution, on boiling, turns blue. These 
 reactions are characteristic of vanadic acid. With micro- 
 cosmic salt in the outer blowpipe flame, we obtain a yellow- 
 ish green glass, which in the reducing flame is changed to 
 an emerald green when cold. With borax in the outer 
 flame an olive brown bead results. Strong reactions for 
 chlorine are obtained by the silver test. Some of the crys- 
 tals are light amber colored and are transparent, and some 
 of them are much darker in color near the terminal plane 
 than at the foot of the prism where it adheres to the gangue. 
 In the Red Cloud mine at Silver district and likewise at 
 the Silver Glance mine numerous flne specimens of tabular 
 crystal of Wulfenite have been procured from time to tune 
 for the past two years. These crystals are often half an inch 
 across, and are from one sixteenth to one eighth of an inch 
 thick. The chief peculiarity is their fine red color, very 
 different from that of ordinary molybdate of lead and con- 
 trasting strongly with the yellow Wulfenite crystals from 
 the same localities, and from those also of Castle Dome. 
 These red crystals I provisionally refer to the vanadiferous 
 variety of Wulfenite. A complete analysis is, however, 
 needed to show the composition of this and other allied 
 varieties found in other claims at Silver district, notably at 
 the mines opened by Bamber & Sons — " The Oakland Boys' 
 claim." The first red crystals of Wulfenite observed in the 
 United States were extremely small, being almost microsco- 
 
252 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 pic, and were implanted on the ores from the Wheatley 
 mine, at Phcenixville, Pennsylvania. They were found by 
 the writer, and the red color was at first supposed to be due 
 to chromic acid, but when the mineral was procured in quan- 
 tity sufiicient for analysis. Professor J. Lawrence Smith 
 showed that the red color was due to the presence of vana- 
 dic acid. The Silver district specimens now aiford suiBcient 
 material to permit of a quantitative determination of the 
 constituents. 
 
 Beautiful octahedral crystals, of a reddish-brown color, 
 are obtained at the Oakland Boy's claim. I regard these 
 as another vanadic mineral, possibly a vanadic variety of 
 Wulfenite ; though the form and the color are so different 
 from the form and color of undoubted Wulfenite in the dis- 
 , trict, I am inclined to regard it as a distinct species, or, at 
 least, a well characterized variety. I am indebted to Mr. 
 William P. Miller, the general superintendent of the Cas- 
 tle Dome mines and the smelting works at Melrose, for 
 assistance in procuring some of the specimens which I have 
 been describing. Some were obtained by me at the mines, 
 April, 1880, and others at the time of my last visit to the 
 mines in 1881. 
 
 INTERESTING STATISTICS FROM FOREIGN 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 IN Part III we have thought it advisable to introduce 
 certain statistics from foreign countries ; that while not 
 properly belonging to the mining interests of the Uni- 
 ted States are still of deep interest and necessary to know. 
 We begin the compilation with tables on the foreign 
 iron trade, from the admirable report of Mr. James M. 
 Swank, Secretary of the American Iron "and Steel Associa- 
 tion, a gatherer of statistics, who can always be relied upon. 
 
 General S\iminary for 1881 and 1882. — In our Annual 
 Report which was published in the summer of 1881 the 
 statement was made that the foreign iron and steel indus- 
 tries had been generally prosperous since the latter part of 
 the year 1879, when the influence of the revival of Ameri- 
 can prosperity began to be felt abroad. This favorable con- 
 dition continued, although in a modified degree, throughout 
 the whole of the year 1881, which, as has already been 
 stated, was also a year of great prosperity in the iron and steel 
 industries of our own country. Without a single important 
 exception every European country produced more iron and 
 steel in 1881 than any preceding year, while prices were in 
 the main satisfactory to producers. They were not, how- 
 ever, so high as in 1880. The production of British iron 
 and steel in 1881 was enormous, and exports were well main- 
 tained all through the year, the latter being slightly in excess 
 of the extraordinary exports of 1880. Among Continental 
 countries France, Germany, Belgium, Austria, and Sweden 
 could boast of active and prosperous iron and steel indus- 
 tries in 1881. The iron and steel manufacturers of France 
 especially enjoyed a very prosperous year. It is an interest- 
 ing coincidence that in many European countries — France, 
 Germany, and Austria particularly — the increased demand 
 for iron and steel in 1881 was largely due to the same activ- 
 'ity in railway building which prevailed in that year in oiir 
 own country. Iron and steel rails and railway rolling stock 
 were required in larger quantities in these countries in that 
 year than in any preceding year since 1872 and 1873. 
 During the first five months of the present year these re- 
 quirements were continued without serious abatement. 
 Naturally the stimulus imparted to general business by the 
 activity in railway building extended to other forms of iron 
 and steel than those mentioned. 
 
 While we are without positive information concerning the 
 probability of continued activity in the building of Continen- 
 tal railways, various other circumstances, already developed, 
 point to the conclusion that the European iron and steel 
 industries will not as a whole be so actively employed in 
 
 1882 as they were in 1881. The most important of these 
 already developed circumstances will readily occur to the 
 reader. The decline in the American demand for foreign 
 iron and steel unfavorably affects all foreign markets, but it 
 particularly affects the British iron market, compelling 
 British ironmasters to lower their prices, and leadiug them 
 to more sharply and severely compete vrith native manufac- 
 turers in the supply of the Continental markets. We obtain 
 a hint how severe this competition may be from a remark 
 recently made by the English metallurgical authority. Iron, 
 in referring to the influence of the Protective policy in Ger- 
 many. It said: "The Protective tariff which Germany 
 adopted in 1879 is unable to check the steady importation of 
 English pig if that description of metal is low enough in the 
 English market to bear the import duty and thus to make 
 its importation into Germany profitable." As the German 
 duty on pig iron is only $2.50 per ton, our American readers 
 will see that British pig iron at its present low prices is 
 altogether likely to find its way into German markets in 
 large quantities, or else it will so depress the price of German 
 pig iron that its manufacture can not be profitable. The 
 plain truth is that the German tarifi', although nominally 
 protective, is really too low to afford sufficient protection to 
 German iron and steel manufacturers whenever their British 
 rivals find it necessary to enter German markets. Some 
 other Continental countries do not have even so highly pro- 
 tective duties as Germany. British ironmasters, therefore, 
 lacking the large American demand this year to which they 
 have for two or three years been accustomed, will crowd their 
 products on Continental purchasers, to the injury ofiiiative 
 manufacturers. Even France, by its new duties, is not free from 
 the influence of British competition. The general adoption 
 of the Protective policy on the Continent has, of course done 
 much to develop Continental industries, but duties are as a 
 rule still too low to afford adequate protection in periods of 
 great depression. In many Continental countries they too 
 much resemble the duties imposed by American statesmen 
 upon foreign commodities in the early years of our history, 
 which for purposes of protection were more ornamental than 
 useful. 
 
 The action of France, in generally reducing duties on 
 imports by the law of May 7, 1881, is a reactionary step 
 which was certainly not expected from a country which has 
 been so pronounced an advocate of Protective policy, and 
 which has, as all the world knows and admits, been so greatly 
 benefited by it. The education in the duties on certain 
 forms of iron and steel is very marked, and this reduction 
 has been emphasized by the conclusion of a new treaty with 
 Belgium, whereby the duty on pig iron from that country 
 has been still further reduced five francs per ton. The same 
 rate of duty will apply to German pig iron, under " the most 
 favored nation clause " in a treaty between the two countries. 
 It will also, by the spontaneous act of the French Govern- 
 ment, apply to British pig iron. The effect of the new 
 duties on the French iron and steel industries can easily be 
 conjectured. The French journal, L'Ancre, in a recent issue, 
 thus describes it : 
 
 What cannot be clenied is that foreign eompetion causes home hon 
 manufacturers to be constantly on the look-out, and that they are 
 compelled to keep their eyes upon Germany, Belgium and England, 
 and to follow the movements and the tendency of the markets of 
 those countries. England and Luxemburg for pig iron, and Ger- 
 many and Belgium for manufactured iron, become to some extent 
 regulating markets which we must consult. The general position, 
 for instance, of our foreign neighbors does not inspire apprehension 
 of a reaotiou ; nevertheless, we must not forget that competition has 
 been made easier by the recent modifications of the customs tariffs. 
 We may expect them to take part, and be sometimes even success- 
 ful, in competitions for contracts given out both by the government 
 and private firms. 
 
 France, therefore, in lowering her duties on iron and steel 
 invites competition from all her neighbors — an experience to 
 which she has not been much accustomed. It is entirely safe 
 to predict that the new policy will not be well received by 
 the great iron and steel interests of France, and it is, we 
 think, equally safe to predict that it will not long continue 
 to receive the approval of the French Government itself. 
 The French iron and steel trades are now, however, very 
 active. The most recent information we have received from 
 other Continental countries represents a weakness in prices 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 253 
 
 and some difficulty in securing orders in the Belgian iron 
 markets ; activity in the manufacture of Bessemer steel rails 
 in Austria, but dullness in its finished iron markets ; depres- 
 sion in the pig iron trade of Germany, in consequence of 
 British competition, and a lack of animation in some other 
 branches of its iron trade, but continued activity in its various 
 steel works ; and stagnation in the Swedish iron markets, 
 relieved, however, by a decided improvement, originating a 
 year or two ago, in the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin steel 
 industries of the country. In the manufacture of locomo- 
 tives, railway cars, and machinery generally Austria, Bel- 
 §ium and Germany are well employed, as is also France, 
 weden is fortunate in having received numerous orders for 
 iron and steel ships for Russia, Denmark and Norway. The 
 iron trade of Russia does not prosper, but the manufacture 
 of steel is supposed to be increasing. In the remaing Con- 
 tinental countries comparatively little iron or steel is ever 
 made. The condition of the British iron trade in the early 
 part of May was described by the London Times in a leading 
 article from which we take the following; extracts. 
 
 " The iron trade of the United Kingdom is in an anomalous con- 
 dition at present, and much attention is, therefore being directed to 
 this enormous industry. The year opened with a strong buoyant 
 feeling, full of hope and expectation of a general expansion of our 
 home and foreign iron industries, great stress being laid on the cer- 
 tainty of another ' boom ' from America. As a consequence of 
 that feeling consumers and merchants bought all kinds of iron freely 
 and in large quantities in anticipation of the good time coming. 
 Scotch pig iron warrants in the beginning of January were quoted 
 53s., Bessemer iron 65s., and Cleveland pig 43s. To-day the res- 
 pective prices are 47s. 6d., Scotch, 52s. 6d., Bessemer, and 43s. 
 Cleveland. It will be noticed that a serious fall in values has 
 occurred in the two former, but the price of Cleveland remains the 
 [iame. The present depression in iron and steel is undoubtedly 
 traceable to the disappointment in the American demand. 
 
 Since the beginning of this year stocks of iron in Scotland have 
 increased by about 25,000 tons. Stocks of Bessemer iron have also 
 increased considerably. As a further indication of the demand 
 having to a large extent been overtaken by supply, it may be stated 
 that steel rails which were lately selling freely at £6 5s. can now be 
 purchased at 15s. per ton less and manufactured iron is from 
 10s. to 15s. per ton cheaper than the highest point touched 
 this year. The unprecedented demand for steam shipping alone 
 ' remains as the prop of the great iron industries of the North of 
 England. Her iron rail trade is a blank. But even in this im- 
 portant branch of trade we do not hear of the same number of new 
 steamers being placed on the Tyne, Wear, and Teas, or on the 
 Clyde^ as there was at the opening of the year. It is evident that 
 if shipbuilders do not get fresh work at the same rate as they 
 launch vessels their order-book which has been so full will 
 diminish, and bring about a change before long." 
 
 Since The Times gave these facts and opinions to the world 
 the price of Bessemer steel rails has fallen in England to 
 £4 15s. per ton. It is by constantly lowering her prices^ as 
 occasion demands that Great Britain succeeds in sending 
 such large quantities of her iron and steel products to other 
 countries. Her manufacturers are first to see and to act 
 upon, any tendency to reaction from prosperous times. In 
 this country manufacturers frequently insist on holding up 
 prices when every sign indicates that the tide has turned. 
 
 Great Britain. — Goal. Great Britain's production of 
 coal in 1881 was the largest in her history. According to the 
 statistics of the Inspectors of Mines it amounted to 154,184,- 
 300 gross tons. In 1880 the production, according to Mr. 
 Robert Hunt, Keeper of Mining Records, was 146,818,622 
 tons. The production of coal in each of these years was 
 twice that of the United States. The production of coal in 
 Great Britain from 1854 to 1880 is given as follows by Mr. 
 Hunt, to which we add the figures of the Inspectors of Mines 
 for 1881. (We may state here that Mr. Hunt is the official 
 government statistician, but that his statistics do not usually 
 appear annually until after the issue of our annual report.) 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Gross ton*. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Gross tons. 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Gross ions. 
 
 Tears 
 
 Gross Ions. 
 
 1854 
 
 64,661,401 
 
 1861 
 
 84,013,941 
 
 1868 
 
 103,141,157 
 
 1876 
 
 131,867,109 
 
 1855 
 
 64,453,079 
 
 1802 
 
 81,638,338 
 
 1869 
 
 107,427,567 
 
 1876 
 
 
 1856 
 
 66,645.460 
 
 1883 
 
 86,292,215 
 
 1870 
 
 110,431,192 
 
 1877 
 
 134,910,70.'! 
 
 1857 
 
 6,5,394,707 
 
 1864 
 
 T 92,787,873 
 
 1871 
 
 117,352,028 
 
 1878 
 
 132,607,866 
 
 1858 
 
 65,008,649 
 
 1865 
 
 98,150,587 
 
 1872 
 
 123,497,316 
 
 1879 
 
 
 1839 
 
 71,')79,76.^ 
 
 1866 
 
 ]01,630,.544 
 
 1873 
 
 , 127,016,747 
 
 1880 
 
 146,818,622 
 
 issn 
 
 80,042,6981 
 
 1867 
 
 104.500,480 
 
 1874 
 
 12'i,04?,"57 i 1881 
 
 154.184,400 
 
 The exports of coal from Great Britain to foreign countries 
 in 1881 amounted to 19,591,598 gross tons. In 1870 they 
 amounted to 11,702,649 tons. The increase from 1870 to 
 1881 was gradual. France is the leading importer of British, 
 coal — Germany, Italy, Russia, and Sweden and Norway 
 coming next in the order named. 
 
 Iron Ore. — Mr. Hunt gives the quantity of iron ore pro- 
 duced in Great Britain in 1880 as 18,026,049 gross tons, to 
 which were added in that year 427,730 tons of burnt ore " 
 from cupreous pyrites, and 2,632,601 tons of imported iron 
 ore. The approximate total of iron ore smelted in Great 
 Britain in 1880 was, therefore, 21,086,380 tons. The produc- 
 tion of iron ore in Great Britain in 1881 is not yet obtainable. 
 The imports of iron ore into Great Britain in 1881 aggregated 
 2,449,277 tons, the average cost of which to consumers was 
 from 15s. to 16s. per ton. Of the importations of the year 
 two million tons came from Spain. The imports of iron ore 
 in 1880 were, however, larger than in 1881, being 2,632 601 
 tons, of which 2,278,962 tons came from Spain. Mr. J. 8. 
 Jeans, the Secretary of the British Iron Trade Association, 
 says that in 1866 British imports of Spanish iron ore amounted 
 to onlv 27,619 tons, and that in 1870 they amounted to only 
 179,083 tons. 
 
 Piff Iron. — Great Britain's production of pig iron in 1881 
 exceeded the production of any previous year, even of 1880, 
 a year which saw a great advance upon any previous yearly 
 record. In 1880, according to Mr. Hunt, the production 
 amounted to $7,749,233 gross tons, while in 1881, according 
 to Mr. Jeans, it rose to 8,377,364 tons. To realize how 
 enormous was the production of pig iron by Great Britain 
 in these two years we need only to reflect that in each year 
 the production was more than twice that of the United 
 States, and yet our production in these two years far ex- 
 ceeded all our previous achievements. The following table, 
 compiled from statistics prepared priiLcipally by Mr. Hunt, 
 shows the growth of the pig iron industry of Great Britain 
 from 1740 to 1881. The figures for 1881 are by Mr. Jeans. 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Gross tons. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Gross tOTis. 
 
 1 
 Tears. 
 
 Gross tons. 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Gross tons. 
 
 1740 
 
 17,000 
 
 1835 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 1868 
 
 3,456,604 
 
 1870 
 
 6.963,515 
 
 1788 
 
 98,009 
 
 1839 
 
 1,347,790 
 
 1859 
 
 3,712,904 
 
 1871 
 
 6,627,179 
 
 1796 
 
 126,009 
 
 1840 
 
 1,396,400 
 
 1860 
 
 3,826,762 
 
 1872 
 
 6,741,629 
 
 1806 
 
 259,000 
 
 1842 
 
 1,099,138 
 
 1861 
 
 3,712,390 
 
 1873 
 
 6,666,461 
 
 1818 
 
 325,000 
 
 1844 
 
 1,999,608 
 
 1862 
 
 3,943,469 
 
 1874 
 
 6,991,403 
 
 1820 
 
 400,000 
 
 1845 
 
 1,512,600 
 
 1863 
 
 4,610,040 
 
 1875 
 
 6,366,462 
 
 1823 
 
 454,866 
 
 1847 
 
 1,999,608 
 
 1864 
 
 4,767,901 
 
 1876 
 
 6,555,997 
 
 1825 
 
 681,367 
 
 1852 
 
 2,700,000 
 
 1865 
 
 4,819,254 
 
 1877 
 
 6,608,664 
 
 1827 
 
 690,000 
 
 1854 
 
 3,069,838 
 
 1866 
 
 4,523,897 
 
 1878 
 
 6,381,051 
 
 1828 
 
 703,184 
 
 1865 
 
 3,218,151 
 
 1867 
 
 4,761,023 
 
 1879 
 
 5,995,337 
 
 1830 
 
 678,417 
 
 1856 
 
 3,586,377 
 
 1868 
 
 4,970,206 
 
 1880 
 
 7,749,233 
 
 1833 
 
 700,000 
 
 1857 
 
 3,659,477 
 
 1869 
 
 6,446,757 
 
 1881 
 
 8,377,364 
 
 Cleveland (Durham and North Yorkshire) and Scotland, 
 which are leading pig iron producing districts in Great 
 Britain, both increased their production in 1881, notwith- 
 standing an agreement by the ironmasters of both districts 
 to restrict production 12 J per cent, for six months commenc- 
 ing on the 1st of October. The production of Scotland 
 was 1,176,000 gross tons in 1881, against 1,049,000 tons in 
 1880 ; the production of Cleveland was 2,670,339 tons in 
 1881, against 2,510,853 tons in 1880. In the "West Cumber- 
 land district there was a large increase in 1881 as compared 
 with 1880 — the productioninl881being077,871 tons, against 
 751,871 tons in 1880. This district produces Bessemer pig 
 iron, and a large part of the increase in its production in 
 1881 was due to the increase exports in that year of this 
 class of pig iron to the United States. Mr. Jeans says that 
 the manufacture of spiegeleisen in Great Britain is largely 
 increasing, and now amounts to nearly 100,000 tons annu- 
 ally, of which the largest quantity is produced in South 
 Wales. He also says that nearly 3,000 tons of charcoal 
 pig iron are still made annually in Great Britain — all by 
 one firm with a few furnaces, which, as we learn from ano- 
 ther source, are located in Scotland and " over the border " 
 in Cumberland and Hampshire. 
 
 The stocks of British pig iron in the hands of makers or in 
 warrant stores at the close of 1881 were very large, amount- 
 ing to 1,736,262 tons — an increase of 194,851 tons on the 
 quantity held at the close of 1880. Some of the unimportant 
 districts decreased their stocks in 1881, but Scotland in- 
 creased its stocks 201,000 tons during the year, or from 739,- 
 
254 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 000 tons to 940,000 tons. Cleveland stocks increased 47,046 
 tons, or from 331,124 tons to 378,170 tons. With the excep- 
 tion of Scotland, stocks were reduced in all the leading 
 districts during the second half of 1881, but notwithstanding 
 this reduction they still amounted at the close of the year to 
 20 per cent, of the year's production. The exports of British 
 pig iron in 1881 were 152,147 tons less than in 1880. In 
 
 1880 they amounted to 1,732,343 tons, and in 1881 to 
 1,480,196 tons. . . 
 
 Prices of Pig Jron.— Prices of pig iron in Great Britain 
 varied greatly in 1881. Messrs. William Fallows & Co. say 
 of prices in the Cleveland district : " The year opened with 
 No. 3 at 41s., and the price gradually receded until 36s. was 
 accepted in Mav. From this time there was a slow but 
 gradual recovery until 43s. 3d. was reached by the close of 
 the year." Of prices in Scotland they say : " The condition 
 of the pig iron trade in Scotland was unsatisfactory. In 
 previous years this market had been very much stimulated 
 by the American demand, and as this was disappointing in 
 
 1881 there was a corresponding amount of depression. The 
 year opened with G. M.B. warrants at 533. 9d., but the small 
 shipments and restricted demand soon told upon prices,' and 
 45s. was reached by the end of May. A slight rally took 
 place in June and July, but in August the price had receded 
 t3 45s. 6d. In September the expectation of some reduction 
 in the output of Cleveland and Scotland led to a considerable 
 advance, and 51. lOH- was paid on 23d September, when 
 the agreement was finally concluded. The result of this 
 movement was to draw out buyers all round, both for pig 
 and manufactured iron, and the former advanced to 53s. 6d. 
 in October. After some reaction 53s. 6d. was again reached 
 by 9th December, and, after touching 50s. 9d., the year 
 closed at 51s. lOd." Mr. Jeans says that the average range 
 of prices for pig iron in 1881 was lower than for many years, 
 with the exception of 1878 and 1879, and submits the fol- 
 lowing table of average prices of Cleveland and Scotch pig 
 iron in the ten years from 1872 to 1881. 
 
 
 Yean. 
 
 Average price of 
 
 Average price of 
 
 
 Muldlesbrough No. 3. 
 
 Scotch warrants. 
 
 1872 . . 
 
 
 £4 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 £5 
 
 1 10 
 
 1873 . 
 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 16 H 
 
 1874 . 
 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 W% 
 
 4 
 
 7 6 
 
 1875 
 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 5 9 
 
 1876 
 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 *^ 
 
 2 
 
 18 6 
 
 1877 . 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 14 4 
 
 1878 
 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 8 5 
 
 1879 
 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 18S0 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 14 6 
 
 1881 . . 
 
 
 I 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 9 1 
 
 Mr. Jeans adds that in the statistics of the Scotch iron 
 trade it is necessary to go back to 1852 before as low an av- 
 erage of prices can be found as ruled in 1881, the years 
 1878 and 1870 excepted. " The average price of Cleveland 
 No. 3 iron over the last ten years has been £2 19s. 9id. per 
 ton, which is £1 Os. 7Jd. above the average of last year. 
 The average price of Scotch warrants over the same period 
 has been £3 lis. 9|d., being £1 2s. 8Jd. above that of 1881." 
 Manufacturers of pig iron in this country will now under- 
 stand more fully than heretofore why Great Britain was able 
 to send us so many tons of pig iron in 1881 and in the first 
 months of 1882. British ironmasters were not only burdened 
 with heavy stock, but their prices had fallen much lower 
 proportionately than the prices of American pig iron. 
 
 Manufactured Iron. — Mr. Jeans has been unable to obtain 
 complete returns of the production of manufactured iron in 
 Great Britain in 1881 or preceding years. The total pro- 
 duction of iron rails in 1881 was about 150,000 tons, of 
 which South Wales produced all but about 80,000 tons. 
 Nearly all the rails made were exported. Mr, Jeans pub- 
 lishes a very interesting series of tables which show the 
 variations in the quantities of each of the leading forms of 
 iron rolled in the Cleveland district in the ten years from 
 1872 to 1881 namely, rails, plates, bars and angles. The 
 changes in these ten years are clearly indicated in the follow- 
 ing summary of the percentages of total sales of these products 
 at the beginning and end of the decade mentioned. The 
 decline in the iron rail-trade of the district almost amounts 
 to its annihilation. 
 
 Articles — Percentage of Sales. 
 
 Bails 
 
 Plates 
 Bars . 
 Angles 
 
 1872. 
 
 49.01 
 29.16 
 12.28 
 9.S2 
 
 2.62 
 66.41 
 11.76 
 20.19 
 
 Difference. 
 
 46.39 
 
 36.25 
 
 .52 
 
 10.67 
 
 Prices of Manufactured Iron. — ^Mr. Jeans gives the 
 following comparative statement of the prices of manufac- 
 tured iron in 1881 and preceding years in the Cleveland dis- 
 trict : 
 
 With the exception of 1879 the past year has witnessed a lower 
 average range of prices than any twelve months since 1870. In the 
 former year the lowest prices realized for iron rails were those of 
 the second and third quarters, when £4 14s. 6d. and £4 14s. 8d. 
 respectively were brought out. Last year an average of £5 Is. 9d. 
 per ton was realized during the second quarter, being only 7s. more. 
 The lowest price realized for plates in 1879 was £5 4s.; in 1881 it 
 was £6 Is. 8d., or 17s. 8d. more. Bars touched their lowest quota- 
 tion at £5 5s. 9d. in the third quarter of 1879 ; in 1881 their lowest 
 average was £5 15s., so that the difference was 9s. 3d. in favor of 
 last year. Angles were £4 16s. lid. at their lowest in 1879, and 
 £5 8s. 5d. in 1881, giving an increase of lis. 6d. in the latter year. 
 
 Bessemer Steel.— As we have already stated in the 
 first part of this report, devoted to the iron and steel indus- 
 tries of the United States, and there used for comparison, 
 the production of Bessemer steel ingots in Great Britain in 
 1881 was 1,441,719 gross tons, and the production of Besse- 
 mer steel rails was 1,023,740 tons. In 1880 the production 
 of ingots was 1,044,382 tons, and that of rails was 739,910 
 tons. The increase in the production of ingots was 397,337 
 tons, and in the production of rails it was 283,830 tons. In 
 each year 70 per cent, of the ingots produced was manufac- 
 tured into rails. The largest increase in the production of 
 both ingots and rails was in the Cleveland district, but every 
 otjier district except Staffordshire also increased its produc- 
 tion. The leading Bessemer steel districts in Great Britain 
 now are, in the order named, Sheffield, South Wales, Cleve- 
 land, Lancashire, and Cumberland. Staffordshire makes an 
 inconsiderable quantity of Bessemer steel. At the close of 
 1881 there were ,82 Bessemer converters at work in Great 
 Britain, 27 unemployed, and 14 in course of erection. The 
 average yield of the converters at work was 17,582 tons. Mr. 
 Jeans selects from the whole number 21 especially well- 
 managed converters which produced 533,000 tons, or an ave- 
 rage of 25,400 tons for each converter. The best results ob- 
 tained were 64,861 tons with two converters, and 140,000 
 tons with a four-vessel plant. Of the production of 1,023,- 
 740 tons of Bessemer steel rails by Great Britain in 1881, 
 more than the half, or 594,419 tons, was exported, the re- 
 mainder being taken for home consumption. The statistics 
 of the production of Bessemer steel ingots and rails in Great 
 Britain in the last five year.;, compared with similar statis- 
 tics for the United States in the same period, are as follows : 
 
 .' 
 
 Gross 
 
 tons. 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Greal Britain. 
 
 United States. 
 
 
 Ingots. 
 
 Baas. 
 
 Ingots. 
 
 Rails. 
 
 1877 ... 
 18Y8 . . 
 
 1879 . .... 
 
 1880 . 
 
 1881 . 
 
 750,000 
 
 807,627 
 
 834,611 
 
 1,044,482 
 
 1,441,719 
 
 608,400 
 633,7.^3 
 619,718 
 739,910 
 1,023,740 
 
 600,625 
 
 653,773 
 
 829,439 
 
 1,074,202 
 
 1 374 247 
 
 385,865 
 491,427 
 610,682 
 852,196 
 1,187,770 
 
 The following additional details of interest concerning 
 the Bessemer steel industry of Great of Britain in 1881 are 
 taken from Mr. Jeans's report for that year : 
 
 No real progress has been made during the past year in the direc- 
 tion of employing Bessemer steel for shipbuilding purposes. The 
 total quantity of Bessemer plates made was 21,989 tons, being an 
 increase of only 489 tons on the preeding year, and an advance of 
 12,838 tons on the production of 1879. 
 
 Of tbe 400,000 tons of ingots which were used for other purposes 
 than rails in 1S81 a large part took the form of blooms for export 
 to the United States. The production of blooms in 1881 was about 
 100,000 tons in excess of that of any former year. About 500,000 
 tons of ingots were manufactured into tires, axles, and general 
 forgings ; and 15,000 tons were made into angles for shipbuilding 
 purposes, and so forth. 
 
 The coiu-.se of prices has been much more uniform in 1881 than it 
 was during the preceding year. Statistics with which we have been 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 255 
 
 furnished from some of the principal worlds show that in 1880 steel 
 rails were sold as low as £5 7a. 6a., and as high as jE9 15s. per ton. 
 During last year, however, the minimum was £5 Us. 4d., and the 
 maximum £.6 10s. per ton, so that between the two limits there was 
 a difference, by increase, of onlj; 17 per cent., as contrasted with the 
 difference of about 70 per cent, in the previous year. 
 
 Prices of Bessemer Steel Rails at the Works in 
 Wales. — Mr. Jeans gives the following table of the average 
 net realized pricea of Bessemer steel rails during the last 
 twelve years at the works in Wales. It shows that the ave- 
 rage of last year was the lowest of any year in the series 
 except two, an4 the average over the whole period was 
 £9 12s. lid., or £3 12s. lid. more than that of 1881. 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Fint half. 
 
 Secmid half. 
 
 Average of year. 
 
 1870 
 
 £10 2 G 
 
 £10 17 6 
 
 £10 10 
 
 1871 
 
 11 12 6 
 
 12 5 8 
 
 11 18 9 
 
 1872 
 
 13 17 6 
 
 13 17 6 
 
 13 17 6 
 
 1873 
 
 15 5 
 
 15 10 
 
 15 7 6 
 
 187i 
 
 13 18 6 
 
 9 17 6 
 
 11 17 6 
 
 1875 . _. 
 
 9 7 6 
 
 8 18 6 
 
 9 2 6 
 
 18711 ... 
 
 8 7 6 
 
 7 16 
 
 7 15 
 
 1877 
 
 6 15 
 
 6 8 6 
 
 6 11 3 
 
 1878 
 
 6 16 
 
 5 10 
 
 5 12 6 
 
 1879 ... 
 
 5 
 
 5 5 
 
 6 2 6 
 
 1880 
 
 7 10 
 
 6 10 
 
 7 
 
 1881 
 
 5 15 
 
 6 5 
 
 7 
 
 Open-hearth Steel.— The production of open-hearth 
 steel in Great Britain in 1881 was 338,000 gross tons ; in 
 1880 it was 251,000 tons. Of the whole quantity produced 
 in 1881 Scotland produced nearly one-half. South Wales is 
 now the next most important open-hearth district in Great 
 Britain ; in 1870 it was the leading district. The growth of 
 the open-hearth steel industry of Great Britain since 1873 is 
 shown in the following table. 
 
 r>ar/i. 
 
 Gross tons. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Gross Ions. 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Gross tons. 
 
 1873 . . . 
 
 1874 . . . 
 1876 . . . 
 
 77,500 
 90,500 
 88,000 
 
 1876 . . 
 
 1877 . . . 
 
 1878 . . . 
 
 128 000 
 137,000 
 175,500 
 
 1879 . . . 
 
 1880 . . 
 1681 . 
 
 175,000 
 251,000 
 338,000 
 
 The total number of open -hearth furnaces constructed in 
 Great Britain at the close of 1881 was 149, but, all of these 
 were not at work. Twelve additional furnaces were at that 
 date in course of construction. The average production of 
 the furnaces which were at work in 1881 was 2,925 tons, ac- 
 cording to Mr. Jeans. The Landore Siemens Steel Com- 
 pany, in South Wales, and the Steel Company of Scotland, 
 with 24 and 34 furnaces respectively, together produced 
 179,280 tons of open-hearth steel in 1881, or 53 per cent, of 
 the total product of the year. Open-hearth steel is put to a 
 great variety of uses in Great Britain. It is largely used 
 for plates, but much of it is used for rails, angles, forgings, 
 springs, castings, and tin plate. 
 
 Crucible Steel. — -The statistics of the production of cruci- 
 ble steel in Great Britain from year to year are not given by 
 Mr. Jeans, nor are they obtainable from any other source. 
 
 Tin Plate.— The statistics which Mr. Jeans gives of this 
 branch of the British iron trade are tantalizing, if not exas- 
 perating, to an American reader who remembers that his 
 own country does not make a single box of tin plate. Its 
 manufacture forms an important branch of the British iron 
 trade. The business employs over one hundred works, which 
 consumed in 1881 ftilly 225,000 tons of iron. But the worst 
 remains to be stated. The production of tin plate in Great 
 Britain has doubled since 1872, and doubled solely to supply 
 the American demand. The United States has for many 
 yeai-s taken annually about three-fourths of the tin plate 
 exported by Great Britain. In 1874 it Imported 1,585,944 
 boxes out of a total exportation of 2,143,468 boxes. The 
 American demand has since steadily increased. In 1880 we 
 imported 2,959,380 out of an exportation of 4,089,160 boxes. 
 
 Iron and Steel Shiphmlding.—We abbreviate from Mr. 
 Jeans's report the following information under this head. 
 
 The total tonnage of new vessels constructed in the United King- 
 dom during 1881 was, 1,013,208, as compared with a total of 796,221 
 tons launched in the preceding year, being an increase ot 2l(),9a7 
 tons These figures not only represent the largest amount ot ship- 
 building vet launched in any twelve months, bnt they also indicate 
 the greatest stride that -the industry has made in a single year. 
 
 The statistics already available do not indicate what proportion 
 of the total tonnage launched during 1881 was of iron and what of 
 timber ; but inasmuch as the statistics compiled by Lloyd's Regis- 
 try showed that, of 843,000 tons of new shipping contracted for at 
 the beginning of the year, only 8,769 tons, or 1.4 per cent, of the 
 whole, were of timber, it may be assumed that wooden shipbuilding 
 has now practically ceased to be carried on. 
 
 The effect of this process of change upon the iron trade has, of 
 course, been very important. In 1850 the total quantity of iron 
 plates required in the construction of the hulls of the 12,000 tons of 
 vessels built of that material would not exceed 7,000 tons. Last 
 year the quantity of ship-plates and angles used in the construction 
 of the hulls of the vessels built of iron and steel would not be less 
 than 600,000 tons, while nearly 200,000 tons more would be em- 
 ployed in the construction of tlie boilers, engines, and other machi- 
 nery. 
 
 The chief advance made during 1881 has occurred on the Clyde, 
 which shows an increase of 104,244 tons over the preceding year. 
 The Wear follows with an advance of 31,732 tons, tlien the Tyne 
 with an increase of 28,183 tons, and Barrow with an advance of 18, 
 661 tons — the last-named figure being more than double that of 
 1880. 
 
 Next to the enormous volume of work turned out, and the decay 
 of wooden shipbuilding, the most notable feature of the trade is the 
 tendency to increase of size in ocean-going vessels. The total num- 
 ber of vessels launched during the past year has been 662, which 
 divided into the 1,013,208 tons constructed, gives an average of 1, 
 530 gross tons for each vessel. The port producing the largest aver- 
 age size of vessel appears to be Barrow, which turned out ten vessels, 
 each of over 3,200 gross tons capacity. 
 
 The use of steel for naval construction has made substantial pro- 
 gress during the past year. Thirty-seven vessels in all were built 
 of this material, representing an aggregate of 71,533 tons. This is 
 an increase of 33,369 tons, or nearly 100 per cent., on the steel ton- 
 nage launched in the previous year. The total number of vessels 
 that were being built of steel on the 1st January, 1882, and are 
 likely to be completed this year, was, however, largely in excess of 
 the total tonnage launched during the preceding ten years: their 
 tonnage will amount to 183,818 tons. The number of vessels under 
 contract to be built of steel during the current year is 61,000 tons 
 more than the total tonnage of iron vessels laiinched in 1862. 
 
 At the beginning of the present year there were under construc- 
 tion 736 vessels of iron and steel, representing a gross aggregate 
 tonnage of 1,264,603 tons. 
 
 Exports. — ^The total exports of all kinds of iron and steel 
 from Great Britain from 1871 to 1881 were as follows, in 
 gross tons. 
 
 1871 . 
 1872 
 
 1873 . 
 
 1874 . 
 
 1875 . 
 
 1876 . 
 
 3,169,219 
 3,382,762 
 2,957,813 
 2,487,162 
 2,458,309 
 2,224,470 
 
 1877. 
 1878. 
 1879. 
 1880. 
 1881. 
 
 2,346,370 
 2,296,860 
 2,883,484 
 3,792,993 
 3,818,338 
 
 The exports of iron and steel from Great Britain to the 
 United States in the last three years are given in the follow- 
 ing table. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Pig iron ... 
 
 Bolt and rod . , . 
 
 Rails • • . . 
 
 Hoop'*, sheets and plates . 
 
 Tin plates 
 
 Old iron for manufacture . 
 other iron . . 
 Steel 
 
 1879. 
 
 Gross tans. 
 277,939 
 29,643 
 44,919 
 10,447 
 155,595 
 188,706 
 10,437 
 9,296 
 
 Total 
 
 717,986 
 
 Gross Ions. 
 
 614,005 
 51,413 
 
 221,131 
 4.5,237 
 
 164,167 
 
 197,653 
 20,464 
 44,066 
 
 1,358,136 
 
 1881. 
 
 GroH tons. 
 
 391,784 
 
 18,957 
 
 294,.378 
 
 36,125 
 
 179,744 
 
 99,974 
 
 6,222 
 
 135,275 
 
 ■ 1,162,459 
 
 Germany. — Production. — It appears, according to the 
 German Mining Bureau, that the production of pig iron in 
 the German Empire was 2,613,795 metric tons in 1880, and 
 2,784,037 tons in 1881 ; the increase in the latter year over 
 the former was therefore 170,242 ton.s. This statement of 
 production we find accompanied by another, in these words; 
 " Itisofflcially estimated, however, that if complete returns 
 had been received from all the works last year's produclion of 
 pig would have really stood at 2,907,000 tons, while the pro- 
 duction for 1880 ought to be increased to 2,729,000 tons. We 
 do not know whethor the.se statements include Luxemburg. 
 The production of steel of all kinds in 1 881 appears to have been 
 890,000 tons, of which 745,0011 tons were Bessemer, 121,000 
 
256 
 
 THE MINES, MINEHS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tons were open-tearth., and the remaining 24,000 tons were 
 made by minor processes. The production of steel in 1880 
 is stated to have been 650,000; the increase in 1881 was 
 therefore 230,000 tons, or about 35 per cent. The Bessemer 
 steel industry of Germany has steadily grown since 1871, 
 when the production was 143,305 tons. The production of 
 coal in Germany in 1881 amounted to 48,598,000 metric tons, 
 and the production of lignite 12,843,000 tons, making a total 
 of 61,541,000. In 1880 the production of coal was 46,972,000 
 tons, and the production of lignite was 12,136,000 tons; 
 total, 59,108,000 tons. The increased production of these 
 two classes of fuel in 1881 over 1880 was 2,433,000 tons. The 
 following statistics of the production of coal alone in Ger- 
 many from 1854^1881 are published by authority of the 
 Department of the Minister of Public Works at Berlin. We 
 would be glad to see an equally authoritative statement of 
 the production of pig iron and various kinds of steel in Ger- 
 many in recent years. 
 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 1859 
 1860 
 1861 
 1862 
 1863 
 1864 
 1865 
 1866 
 1867 
 1868 
 
 8,634,200 
 9,841,200 
 10,721,600 
 11,419,000 
 12,347,800 
 14,133,000 
 15,676 300 
 16,906,700 
 19,408,900 
 21,794,700 
 27,629,700 
 23,808,000 
 25,704,700 
 
 1S69 
 1870 
 1871 
 1872 
 1873 
 1874 
 1875 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 
 26,774,000 
 26,397,000 
 29,373,000 
 33,306,000 
 36,392,000 
 35 918,000 
 37,436,000 
 38,464,000 
 37,629,000 
 39,689,000 
 42,025,000 
 46,972.000 
 48,698,000 
 
 IHces. — Dr. Gurit, of Bonn, has contributed to the London 
 Iron a paper on the metallurgical progress of Germany in 
 1881, from which we compile the following general view of 
 the range of prices of iron and steel in that year. 
 
 We must remember that 1880 had begun with fair prices, which, 
 however, gave way in an alarming manner in the middle of the 
 year, and that they improved again in the last quarter. There 
 were, therefore, in the beginning of 1881, fair average prices with a 
 tendency upwards. In the middle of February a retrograde move- 
 ment set in with slight occasional oscillations, until the lowest point 
 was reached in June. Just at that time, when the German iron- 
 masters, in order to stay the downward current, had concluded the 
 convention to blow out a number of blast furnaces and to reduce the 
 output, another and healthier movement, with the rising tide, set in 
 from the other side of the Atlantic. It was followed by fresh orders 
 from home and abroad, so that many steel works have secured 
 contracts which will give them work up to and even after the mid- 
 dle of this year, 1882. The prices went gradually upward, and by 
 the end of the year they stood about the same as at the beginning, 
 or even slightly better ; during the first part of 1882 they have 
 rather continued in that tendency. 
 
 Iron Shipbuilding. — The Imperial Chancellor, Prince Bis- 
 marck, addressed an important memorial to the Keichstag 
 on the 6th of April, 1871, in relation to the necessity of ex- 
 tending government aid in building up the shipbuilding 
 and navigation interests of Germany. The immediate occa- 
 sion of the transmittal of this memorial was the passage by 
 the French Legislative Assembly on January 30, 1881, of an 
 act for the encouragement of the shipbuilding and naviga- 
 tion interests of France, The Chancellor took the most 
 advanced ground in favor of bounties to German shipbuilders 
 and ship-owners. We may expect some positive action to 
 result from the Chancellor s recommendations, especially as 
 the action of France would seem to render similar action by 
 Germany absolutely necessary as a measure of protection. 
 
 Luxemburg.— We are indebted to the London Iron for 
 information from which we glean the following summary 
 concerning the character of the iron industry of Luxemburg. 
 
 The grand-duchy of Luxemburg, situate to the east of the Belgian 
 province of the same name, is 998 square miles in extent, and has a 
 population of 210,000. The inhabitants are chiefly of German 
 origin, and speak a German patois. The use of French or German is 
 optional, but the higher education is carried on in the latter lan- 
 guage. Although the King of Holland is also Grand-duke of Lux- 
 emburg, the duchy is in no way connected with Holland, but has 
 its own government, consisting of a reeponsible ministry and a 
 chamber of deputies. By virtue of a treaty with Germany, Luxem- 
 burg forms part of the Zollverein "" ' ' " 
 
 Luxemburg consists in its deposits of oolitic limonite or ferruginous 
 schorl, which are divided by the river Else, or Alzette, into two 
 basins. It is estimated that there remain altogether about 270,000,- 
 tons of ore still to be extracted, which will admit of a production 
 rather over that of 1880 for a hundred years to come. About two- 
 thirds of the ore extracted is exported to neighboring countries. 
 Hitherto Belgium has been the largest consumer ; but now German 
 ironmasters are offering higher prices, and thus driving their Bel- 
 gian competitors out of the market. Besides five small furnaces for 
 reducing ore called foumiqueU, erected at the tool and machine 
 factories, and producing 1,579 tons of pig, there exist in the grand- 
 duchy twenty regular blast furnaces, sixteen of which were in blast 
 at the beginning of the present year, while one has since been blown 
 in. Besides the oolitic iron ore there are some deposits of alluvial 
 ore which form two distinct groups. These deposits are, however, 
 to a considerable extent worked out or abandoned. 
 
 From the same source we gather the following statistics of 
 the production of iron ore and pig iron in Luxemburg since 
 
 1877. 
 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 
 Iron ore — Metric iona. 
 
 Pig Iron — Metric ions. 
 
 1,262,825 
 1,407,617 
 1,623,392 
 2.173,463 
 2,166,881 
 
 216,388 
 248,377 
 291,236 
 260,666 
 293,616 
 
 Prance. — Production. The production ofpigironin France 
 in 1871 is olHcially stated to have been 1,894,861 metric tons. 
 The production in 1880 was 1,725,293 tons ; the increase in 
 1881 was therefore, 169,668 tons. The production of finished 
 iron in France in 1881 was, 1,019,170 tons, against 965,751 
 tons in 1880, an increase of 53,419 tons. Of the finished iron 
 produced in 1881 there were 28,411 tons of iron rails; in 
 1880 there were 42,325 tons of iron rails produced. The 
 production of all kinds of steel in France in 1881 was 418, 
 094 tons, against 388,693 tons in 1880, an increase of 29,401 
 tons. The statistics of Bessemer and Martin (or open-hearth) 
 steel in France are not kept separately ; hence we cannot 
 tell how much of each was produced in 1881, but other de- 
 tails are at hand. Of Bessemer and Martin steel the product 
 was 300,580 tons of rails ; 71,385 tons of bars ; and 17,075 
 tons of plates : total production of Bessemer and Martin steel, 
 389,040 tons. The remaining 29,054 tons of steel produced 
 in 1881 embraced puddled, cemented, and crucible steel, but 
 principally puddled steel. 
 
 Imports and Exports. — The Bulletin du Oomii& des Forges 
 de France gives the following statistics of the imports 
 and exports of iron ore by France in 1880 and 1881 : 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Algeria . 
 Germany 
 Belgium 
 Spain . . 
 
 Italy 
 
 Otlier countries 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 Imports — Metric tons. 
 
 242,494 
 348,488 
 130,822 
 419,097 
 121,920 
 25,049 
 
 1,287,870 
 
 826,368 
 279,286 
 97,961 
 332,207 
 1-6,314 
 4,375 
 
 1,106,606 
 
 Exports — Metric tons. 
 
 37,427 
 29,066 
 
 62,148 
 
 23,660 
 
 114,796 
 
 The imports of iron and steel by France in 1881 were 
 much larger than in 1880. They amounted in 1S81 to 861,- 
 046 tons, and in 1880 to 228,172 tons, a difference of 132,- 
 874 tons. The details are as follows : 
 
 Articles. 
 
 1881. 
 
 1880 
 
 Pig iron . . . 
 
 Finished iron 
 Steel .... 
 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 271,632 
 65,337 
 24,177 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 169,137 
 
 60,208 
 
 8,827 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 361,046 
 
 228,172 
 
 The exports of iron and steel to all countries in 1881 were 
 very nearly the same as in 1880, being 121,324 tons in 1881, 
 The chief mineral wealth of I against 121,895 tons in 1880. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 257 
 
 Goal and Gohe. — From the Bulletin, above quoted, we 
 learn that the production of coal in France was 19,361,564 
 metric Ions in 1880 and 19,909,057 tons in 1881. In 1881 
 the production of coal in the Pas-de-Calais was 5,320,616 
 tons, against 4,844,323 tons in 1880, an increase of 476,293 
 tons. The Nord production, however, was 3,668,733 tons, 
 ac^ainst 3,701,589 tons in 1880, a decrease of 32,856 tons. 
 The total output of the two districts in 1881 was 8,989,- 
 349 tons, against 8,545,912 tons in 1880, an increase of 
 443,437 tons. 
 
 The following table gives in metric tons the imports and 
 exports by France of coal and coke in the last three years. 
 
 
 Coal. 
 
 Coke. 
 
 Tean. 
 
 Imports. 
 Metric tont. 
 
 Hxporta. 
 Metric torn. 
 
 Imports. 
 Metric torn. 
 
 Exports. 
 Metric tons. 
 
 1879 . . ... 
 
 1880 ... 
 
 1881 . 
 
 8,662,.385 
 8,451,129 
 8,106,761 
 
 Ill 
 
 700,629 
 
 943,416 
 
 1,110,974 
 
 20,589 
 40,905 
 24,514 
 
 Nearly all the coal and coke imported by France is de- 
 rived from Great Britain, Belgium, and Germany. 
 
 Sted Rails. — The growth of the steel-rail manufacture in 
 France is shown in the following table. 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 1866 . . 
 
 3.687 
 
 1867 
 
 :o,967 
 
 1868 
 
 26,759 
 
 1869 . . 
 
 50,225 
 
 1870 . . 
 
 41,189 
 
 1871 •- . 
 
 22,613 
 
 1872 . . 
 
 62,104 
 
 1873 
 
 64,097 
 
 Tears. 
 
 1874 
 1876 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 
 Metric tmts. 
 
 102,227 
 120,660 
 130,681 
 136.549 
 196,240 
 253,742 
 279,847 
 300,580 
 
 Railroads. — ^The New York Railroad Gazette calls atten- 
 tion to the fact that the railroads of France have been very 
 Prosperous in 1880 and 1881. It adds: "If our railroads 
 ad earned as much per mile in 1880 as the French lines, 
 their gross receipts would have been $592,000,000 greater 
 than they actually were." 
 
 Shipbuilding. — ^The provisions of an act of the French 
 Government, passed January 29th, 1881, for the encourage- 
 ment of the shipbuilding interests of France, by the grant- 
 ing of bounties or subsidies, need not be recited in these 
 pages. The policy adopted has already given a decided 
 stimulus to the enlargement of the French mercantile marine. 
 
 The New Fre7ich Tariff. — A new general tariff was ap- 
 proved by the President of the French Republic on the 7th 
 of May, 1881, and formally promulgated on the 8th. We 
 give at the foot of this page the clauses which relate to iron 
 and steel, compared with corresponding clauses in the old 
 tariff and in the conventional, or treaty tariffs. The treaty 
 tariffs are practically superseded by the new tariff. The 
 famous British commercial treaty, negotiated with France 
 by Mr. Gobden, has at last come to an end. 
 
 Belgium. — Production. — The production of pig iron in 
 Belgium in 1881 was 631,764 metric tons, against 595,704 
 tons in 1880, an increase of 36,060 tons. The production of 
 pig iron in Belgium in any one year has never reached 
 700,000 tons, and since 1865 has not fallen below 400,000 
 tons. The mining of iron ore in Belgium has gradually de- 
 clined in the last ten years, mainly through the competition 
 of the cheaper iron ore of Luxemburg. The production of 
 finished iron in Belgium in 1881, including rails and plates, is 
 reported to have been 493,200 tons, against 489,366 tons in 
 1880. The production of steel of all kinds in 1881, according 
 to M. Max Goebel, of LiSge, was 138,076 tons. We are with- 
 out like statistics for 1880. The manufacture of steel is 
 increasing in Belgium, and the low price at which it can be 
 sold threatens serious interference at no distant day with 
 neighboring steel producers. A new Bessemer plant, owned 
 by Messrs. Caramin & Company, has recently gone into 
 operation at Thy-le-Chateau, the company rolling its first 
 steel rails in March last. These works are adapted to either 
 the acid or basic process. 
 
 Imports and Exports. — ^The total imports of pig iron, 
 other iron, and steel by Belgium in 1881 amounted to 
 242,747 metric tons, against 260,388 tons in 1880, a decrease 
 of 17,641 tons. The total exports in 1881 were 384,599 tons, 
 against 363,769 tons in 1880, an increase of 20,830 tons. 
 The sidururgical imports of Belgium consist principally of 
 pig iron, and the exports consist principally of finished iron 
 and steel. 
 
 Coal. — ^The statistics of the production of coal by Bel- 
 gium in 1881 are not yet accessible. In 1880 the production 
 
 Denotninalion of articles. 
 ■ IDiities in francs & centimes. One fraao=19.03 ets. One oentime=-19 ots. One kiIo=2.2 lbs.] 
 
 Cast iron ; 
 
 Eough, in masses weighing 15 kilograms or more . . . ... 
 
 Eefined, in masses weighing 15 kilograms or more 
 
 Other 
 
 Iron: 
 
 In masses or prisms containing slags (at least 6 per cent.) . . 
 
 Draw, in bars, angle and T rails, of every dimension . ■ . • 
 
 (Pig iron in bars, containing 6 per cent, or more of slags, shall pay the same duty as 
 "irripo'sed upon prisms sbillcontaining slags.) 
 Band and hoop iron : 
 
 Of more than 1 millimeter in thickness 
 
 Of 1 millimeter or less in thickness 
 
 Iron, called "nmchine, for manufacturing wires" 
 
 Sheet-iron, rolled or hammered, smooth, of more than 1 millimeter in thickness : 
 
 Not cut • ■ ■ 
 
 Cut, in whatever manner ,■■•',■. 
 
 Sheet-iron, thin and black iron plates, smooth, of 1 millimeter or less in diameter : 
 
 Not cut .... 
 
 Cut, in whatever manner . . - .■•■*,* j * ' * 
 
 Tin plates, galvanised or coated with copper, zinc, or lead 
 
 Iron wire, coated or not, with tin, copper, or lead: 
 
 Not more than A of 1 millimeter in diameter .... 
 
 Over A of 1 miflimeter in diameter 
 
 Steel in bars : 
 
 Eails 
 
 Other, all kind.s, and hoop and band steel .......... . . . . . ... . - ... 
 
 Steel, brown, in sheets or plates rolled when heated, of more than ^i millimeter in 
 thickness : 
 
 Not out 
 
 Out, In whatever manner 
 
 Of J^ millimeter or less in thickness : 
 
 Not out 
 
 Cut, in whatever manner ; • t" " ' ' lu"- ; 
 
 ; Steel, white, in sheets of plate, rolled when cold, of whatever thickness : 
 
 Not cut ; 
 
 Cut, in whatever manner • • ... 
 
 Steel wire for chords of instruments .... 
 
 Old and scrap iron ■ ■ 
 
 Old and scrap cast iron . 
 
 Iron dross and slag ... 
 
 Old general tariff. 
 Per 100 kilos. 
 
 Conventional tariff. 
 PerlOOkilo.i. 
 
 New general tariff. 
 Per 100 kilos. 
 
 4.99 
 
 8.74 
 
 Prohibited 
 
 2.00 
 2.75 
 2.75 
 
 2.0O 
 2.00 
 200 
 
 do.- 
 12.48 and 17.47 
 
 4.60 
 6.00 
 
 4.60 
 6.00 
 
 12.48 
 17.47 
 12.48 or 17.47 
 
 6.00 
 7.50 
 6.00 
 
 6.00 
 7.50 
 6.00 
 
 24.96 
 24.96 
 
 7.50 
 8.25 
 
 7.60 
 8.00 
 
 24.96 
 24.96 
 49 92 
 
 lO.OO 
 11.00 
 13.00 
 
 10.00 
 11.00 
 13.00 
 
 37.44 
 37.44 
 
 10.00 
 6.0O 
 
 10.00 
 6.00 
 
 37.44 
 37-44 
 
 9.00 
 9.00 
 
 600 
 9.00 
 
 62.40 
 62.40 
 
 11.25 
 11.25 
 
 9.00 
 9.90 
 
 93.60 4137.28 
 do. 
 
 15.00 
 15.00 
 
 15.00 
 16.60 
 
 93.60 
 137.28 
 
 87.36 
 9.98 
 4.90 
 1.04 
 
 16.00 
 15.00 
 20.00 
 ii.75 
 2.00 
 Free 
 
 15.00 
 16.60 
 20.00 
 2.00 
 
 2.00 
 Free 
 
258 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 was 16,866,698 tons. The production in the ten years end- 
 ing with 1880 was as follows ; 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Metric ttms. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 1871 
 
 1872 . . 
 
 1873 . . 
 
 1874 ... 
 
 1875 . 
 
 13,733,176 
 15,658,948 
 16,778,401 
 14,669,029 
 15,011,331 
 
 1870 
 1877 . 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 
 14.329,578 
 13,938,523 
 14,899,175 
 15,417,292 
 16,866,098 
 
 In 1880 Belgium exported 4,525,085 tons of coal, and 
 850,346 tons of coke. In the same year it imported 917,033 
 tons of coal and 19,217 tons of coke. 
 
 Austria and Hungary. — Herr Wilhelm von Lindheim, 
 of Vienna, reports to the London Iron that 1881 was a year 
 of greater animation in the Austro-Hungarian iron trade 
 than 1880, the construction of more miles of railway being 
 under way in 1881 than in 1880. Complete statistics of the 
 production of iron and steel in 1881 are, however, wanting. 
 Owing to a continuance of the activity in railway building, 
 and to the benefits expected to result from a slight increase 
 in the duties on iron and steel, to go into effect in June, the 
 production of 1882, especially of steel rails, is expected to 
 be larger than that of last year, although, in anticipation of 
 the increase in the duty on pig iron. Great Britain has since 
 the beginning of the year shipped large quantities of that 
 article to Austrian ports. From a report made to our Gov- 
 ernment by Consul-General Weaver, of Vienna, we obtain 
 the following interesting statistics of the production of Bes- 
 semer and Martin (open-hearth) steel in Austria and 
 Hungary in recent years. 
 
 Products. 
 
 1878. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 Bessemer steel ingots. 
 Martin steel ingots . . 
 
 Metric tons. 
 103,590 
 26,888 
 
 Metric tons. 
 86,465 
 35,22i 
 
 Metric torn. 
 101,369 
 27,368 
 
 Total 
 
 129,478 
 
 121,687 
 
 129,007 
 
 The first Bessemer steel works in Austro-Hungary were 
 erected in 1872, in the province of Styria, and in 1880 there 
 were eleven works in operation, producing as has been seen, 
 over 100,000 tons of Bessemer ingots. The production of 
 Martin steel dates from 1870, with two works, which in 1880 
 had increased to seven, with an aggregate production of 
 nearly 30,000 tons. The total production of Bessemer and 
 Martin steel in Austro-Hungary down to the close of 1880 
 is given in the following table. 
 
 Years. Martin steel. 
 
 1864. 
 
 1865. . 
 
 1866. . 
 1867 . . 
 1868. 
 1869 . . 
 1870. . 
 
 1871 . . 
 
 1872 . . 
 
 298 
 9,118 
 5,746 
 
 Besseyner steel. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 305 
 3,545 
 7,921 
 8,T56 
 14,479 
 20,717 
 29,076 
 49,724 
 56,444 
 
 Years. 
 
 1873. 
 1874. 
 1875. 
 1876. 
 1877. 
 1878. 
 1879. 
 1880 . 
 
 Martin steel. 
 
 Bessemer steel. 
 
 ^etric tons. 
 
 Metric tons 
 
 3,782 
 
 76,611 
 
 3,422 
 
 86,339 
 
 3,481 
 
 99,250 
 
 4,.'i04 
 
 93,668 
 
 13,468 
 
 104,119 
 
 26,888 
 
 10.),590 
 
 35,222 
 
 86,365 
 
 27,638 
 
 101,369 
 
 Sweden. — Production. — Professor Richard Akerman, of 
 Stockholm, furnishes in Iron the following details of the 
 production of iron and steel in Sweden in 1879 and 1880. 
 The statistics for 1881 are not yet published. 
 
 Ii'on ... . . 
 
 Pig iron 
 
 Bur iron, rods, and rollad w.re 
 
 Plates 
 
 Nails 
 
 Bessemer steel ... 
 Siemens-Martin steel . . 
 Bhflter and crucible .steel . . 
 
 Professor Akerman adds the following interesting com- 
 ments upon the above statistics, and particularly with refer- 
 ence to the increased production of Bessemer steel in 1880. 
 
 The production of ore was indeed somewhat greater in the middle 
 of the decade beginning 1870 and 1880, and the make of bar and 
 
 fine-grained iron also in one year, 1877, when it amounted to 224,- 
 818 metric tons, somewhat exceeded the figures of 1880, but the 
 make of pig iron and ingot metal during the last-named year con- 
 siderably exceeded the largest amount of production hitherto at- 
 tained in Sweden. Comparatively, it appears, the production of 
 Bessemer metal has most increased in Sweden during 1880. As 
 there are no rails made in the country, the Bessemer metal pro- 
 duced there is only used for nicer purposes, and it is in this circum- 
 stance that we have to seek for the reason why the Bessemer manu- 
 facture has increased so slowly as compared with what has been the 
 case in the countries where enormous quantities of rails have been 
 made of Bessemer metal. As the amount of 21,303 metric tons of 
 Bessemer metal produced in 1874 was not again reached during any 
 of tlie five following years, it even almost appeared as if the Bes- 
 semer manufacture of Sweden was not to undergo any further de- 
 velopment. Of this, however, there cannot now be any question, 
 for the Bessemer manufacture in Sweden, in 1880 exceeded by 54 per 
 cent, the annualmake during-the years 1875-'79, which, as hasbeeu 
 stated, wassomewhat less than that of 1874. The great increase during 
 1880 depends, in incomparably the greatest degree, on an aug- 
 mented use of Bessemer iron within the country, above all for boiler 
 and ship plates ; but also on an increased sale of Bessemer ingots 
 and blooms abroad, especially at Sheffield, where they now at least 
 appear to be beginning to find out that a Bessemer steel so pure as 
 the Swedish may not only equal but even surpass many a less pure 
 crucible steel. 
 
 Professor Akerman expresses the opinion that the produc- 
 tion of both Bessemer and Siemens-Martin steel in 1881 will 
 be found to have been larger than in 1880. He then adds : 
 
 The production which otherwise of recent years has made most 
 progress in Sweden is that of rods and rolled wire, but no exact 
 figures on this head can unfortunately be given. Yet this follows, 
 among other things, from the annually mcreased export of such 
 fine iron. The export in 1880 was, for instance, fully double that of 
 1875, viz., 52,162 metric tons, against 24,047 tons in 1875, when it 
 was, besides, considerably greater than in any of the preceding 
 years. 
 
 The old wooden shipbuilding of Sweden is now only in a lan- 
 guishing state; but, on the other hand, our iron shipbuilding yards 
 in recent times have to felicitate themselves on full employment 
 not only on native orders, but also on orders from the neighboring 
 countries — Kussia, Denmark, and Norway. It is also this fortunate 
 circumstance which has conduced most of all to the present im- 
 provement of the Swedish Bessemer manufacture. For incompara- 
 bly the greater part of both ship and boiler plates are now made 
 here of ingot iron, [steel] and only a very small quantity of pud- 
 dled plates is for the present manufactured in Sweden. 
 
 Exports and Imports — The exports of iron and steel from 
 Sweden during the last three years are shown in the follow- 
 ing table : 
 
 Iron ore . 
 Pig iron . 
 Blooms 
 
 Bar iron 
 
 Rods and rolled wire . 
 Plates . . 
 
 Nails 
 
 Ingot iron and steel 
 
 1879. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 12,570 
 
 34,569- 
 
 10,470 
 
 11(1,325 
 
 41,775 
 
 2,022 
 
 781 
 
 8,519 
 
 29,662 
 
 61,685 
 
 8,860 
 
 131,218 
 
 48,713 
 
 2,174 
 
 876 
 
 8,155 
 
 1881. 
 
 Metric ton^. 
 
 24,432 
 
 55,289 
 
 8,842 
 
 135,866 
 
 52,162 
 
 2,362 
 
 1,052 
 
 7,465 
 
 The imports during 1881 are not yet known ; but in 1879 
 and 1880 they were as follows : 
 
 Articles. 
 
 1879 
 
 1880. 
 
 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric Ions. 
 
 Pig iron . . . 
 
 
 11,314 
 
 16,972 
 
 Rails . . 
 
 
 19,804 
 
 9,971 
 
 Bar iron . . . 
 
 
 1,614 
 
 2,464 
 
 Hoop iron, etc. 
 
 
 2,180 
 
 2,821 
 
 Plates .... 
 
 
 2,166 
 
 3,080 
 
 Tinned plates . 
 
 
 1,067 
 
 369 
 
 Nails . . . 
 
 
 622 
 
 1,665 
 
 Steel . ... 
 
 
 484 
 
 652 
 
 Coal. — The mining of coal in Sweden is making some 
 progress. In 1879 over 200,000 tons were mined, and in 
 1880 almost as many tons were mined. We presume that 
 the mining operations were restricted to the district of country 
 in the southwestern part of Sweden, opposite the Sound, 
 Helsingborg, being the principal town. 
 
 Spam. — Iron Ore Exports. — In 1881 there were exported 
 from the district of Bilboa, according to the authority of Mr. 
 William Gill, in a paper read before the British Iron and 
 Steel Institute at its Blay meeting at London, 2,500,532 tons 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING IMTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 259 
 
 of iron ore. From all the iron ore districts of Spain, in- 
 cluding Cartagena and Malaga, the exports in 1881 slightly 
 exceeded 3,000,000, tons. The exports from Bilboa in 1880 
 amounted to 2,345,598 tons; in 1879 to 1,117,836 tons; and 
 in 1878 to 1,224,730 tons. In the first two months of the 
 present year the exports from Bilboa reached 458,000 tons, 
 against 390,000 tons in the corresponding period of 1880, a 
 gain of 68,000 tons. It is not probable, however, that this 
 year's exports from Bilboa will greatly exceed those of 1881 ; 
 they may not, indeed, equal them. 
 
 Prices of Iron Ore at Bilboa for Twelve Years. — In the fol- 
 lowing table Mr. Gill gives the average prices of iron ore, 
 free on board, in Bilboa river, from 1870 to 1881. (The 
 average price is not a mean of highest and lowest, but is that 
 which prevailed during each year.) 
 
 years. 
 
 Prices per ton. 
 
 rears. 
 
 Prices per Ian. 
 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 Minimum. 
 
 Avei-age. 
 
 Maximum 
 
 Minimum. 
 
 Average. 
 
 1870 . . 
 
 1871 . . 
 1872. . 
 
 1873 . . 
 
 1874 . / 
 187.5 . t 
 
 >. d. 
 6 6 
 6 6 
 10 
 12 
 Carlist 
 War. 
 
 ,.d. 
 
 6 6 
 
 \ f'^ 
 
 6 2 
 
 7 1 
 
 Carlist 
 War. 
 
 t. d. 
 
 6 10)4 
 
 5 8 
 
 6 7 
 9 
 
 Carlist 
 War. 
 
 1870. . 
 
 1877 . . 
 
 1878 . . 
 
 1879 . . 
 
 1880 . . 
 
 1881 . . 
 
 t. d. 
 10 
 
 8 
 7 11 
 6 6 
 
 15 9 
 
 9 9 
 
 1. d. 
 6 3 
 6 3 
 6 2 
 
 5 9 
 
 6 
 6 7 
 
 s. d. 
 
 8 
 
 6 10 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 Manufactures. — Spain makes but slow progress in de- 
 veloping the manufacture of iron and steel. The country is 
 largely dependent upon other countries for its supply of 
 these articles. 
 
 A National Exhibition. — An official notice has been pub- 
 lished relative to a mineralogical and metallurgical exhibi- 
 tion which is to be opened at Madrid on April 1, 1883, 
 under, the auspices of the Spanish Government. It may be 
 expected that the display of the extraordinary riches of 
 the country in iron ores will be complete. 
 
 Italy.— Production. — The most recent statistics of the 
 iron industry of Italy that we have noticed do not come 
 down to a later period than 1877, in which year the total 
 production of iron and steel is stated to have been about 
 76,000 tons. The most of this production was bar iron, made 
 principally in Catalan forges. We find the production of 
 1877 classified as follows : bar iron, 49,000 tons ; cast iron 
 4,600 tons ; rough iron, 20,278 tons ; steel, 2000 tons. Of 
 the total production 32,000 tons are credited to Liguria. 
 The following details we take from a European technical 
 journal: "The iron works of Vobarno, near the lake of 
 Garda, now yield 8,000 tons of iron per annum, fused in 
 Siemens furnaces, as against 3000 tons-in 1872. The fuel 
 used at these works is chiefly peat, procured either in the 
 neighborhood or from the peat beds of Fiavl, the Trentino. 
 The works belonging to Messrs. Masson, at Colle di Val 
 d'Elsaj are also provided with Siemens furnaces." 
 
 Coal.— The French journal, La Eouille, briefly describes 
 as follows the poverty of Italy in lacking a supply of coal as 
 a basis on which to build up manufacturing enterprises, 
 especially of iron. 
 
 " The kingdom of Italy and the islands dependent upon It are 
 very poor in mineral fuel. Coal, properly speaking, does not exist, 
 and the very rare carboniferous layers consist of anthracite and 
 lignites. These deposits of anthracite possessed by the country are 
 not very productive, and the chief of them are situated in the Valley 
 of the Piedmont. According to a recent report of the Belgian Con- 
 sul at Savona, the total production does not exceed 2000 tons. The 
 layers of lignite are more numerous, and all belong to the tfertiaiy 
 formation. The largest basins are found in Tuscany, Sardinia, Li- 
 guria, Vioentino, and Lombardy. M. Cappa, the Belgian Consul, 
 estimates their annual production at about 100,000 tons. In addi- 
 tion to this about 90,000 tons of peat are extracted annually. It 
 Italy were as rich in mineral fuel as in iron ores it would be able to 
 rival the most favored nations with respect to metallurgical in- 
 dustry, but fiiel being in default it is reduced to exporting most ot 
 its production of iron ore." 
 
 United States Consul Grain, of Milan, in a recent com- 
 munication to the Department of State makes the following 
 more hopefal statement of the prospects of Italian manufac- 
 tures. 
 
 The development of the manufacturing mdustries of Italy is 
 seriously impeded by the great cost of coal for steam-power. This 
 fuel not being produced in the country is brought prmcipally by 
 sea from England, and is so heavily burdened by ItaUan railway 
 
 freights as to discourage the erection of factories requiring steam 
 power. Hence, an active agitation is being carried on by capitahsts 
 For some measure of relief^ and the Milan Chamber of Commerce 
 has taken the initiative in making important recommendations. 
 All signs point to a rapid growth of manufacturing in this country, 
 and this, with the extension of the railway system must, in tlie 
 near future, vastly augment the consumption of coal. 
 
 The Chamber of Commerce of Milan states that Italian 
 manufecturers pay for coal three times as much as it costs 
 the competing English industries, and twice as much as it 
 costs these of France. The importation of coal into Italy in 
 recent years is increasing. In 1878 it amounted to 1,325,245, 
 in 1879 to 1, 623,676 tons; in 1880 to 1,737, 746 tons; and 
 in the first nine months of 1881 to 1,646,249 tons, agaiuf-t 
 1,256,249 tons in the corresponding period of 1880. Eng- 
 land and Wales supply most of the coal imported by Italy. 
 
 Iron Ore. — The quantity of iron ore mined in Italy 1877 
 amounted to 237,931 tons. The iron mines of the Island of 
 Elba are reported to have been lately transferred to an 
 Italian company represented by the National Bank of Rome. 
 The royalty to be paid to the government has been fixed at 
 5.25 fr. per ton of ore extracted. A communication which 
 we have just received from F. Regolini, of Turin, dated 
 May 20, 1882, informs us that it is proposed to estab- 
 lish in Italy a company of bankers, merchants, and other 
 capitalists for the manufacture of Bessemer steel from Elba 
 ores, and that the enterprise only awaits the engagement of 
 a competent director for the technical department. 
 
 Bussia. — Imports and Exports. — Notwithstanding its 
 high tariff Russia still remains a large importer of many 
 raw and manufactured products. The following table gives 
 the imports of iron and steel and coal in 1880 and 1881, in 
 metric tons. 
 
 Articles Imported. 
 
 188a 
 
 1881. 
 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Pig iron ... 
 
 243,8S4 
 
 234,864 
 
 Bar iron, etc . . . ... 
 
 105,109 
 
 71,761 
 
 Plates and sheets . . . .... 
 
 49,183 
 
 30,630 
 
 Iron rails ... 
 
 4,628 
 
 776 
 
 Bessemer steel rails 
 
 60,728 
 
 16,385 
 
 Machines 
 
 68,778 
 
 23,226 
 
 Coal 
 
 1,920,799 
 
 1,790,368 
 
 The exports of iron from Russia in 1880 were 133,371 tons ; 
 in 1881 they probably amounted to about the same quantity. 
 
 Production. — The following statistics of the productions of 
 iron and steel and coal in Russia in 1879 are extracted from 
 a report by Mr. Skalkofski, sub-director of the Russian 
 Department of Mines. No later statistics of production are 
 available. 
 
 Pig iron 
 
 " " eastings .... ... 
 
 Blister and puddled steel 
 
 Bessemer and Simens-Martin steel 
 Crucible steel . 
 Iron bars, angles, etc. 
 
 " slieets and plates . . 
 
 " rails ... 
 
 " wire .... - . - 
 
 Bituminous coal . 
 Anthracite " 
 Brown " . 
 
 429,865 
 
 60,974 
 
 3,084 
 
 203.636 
 
 4,284 
 
 206,438 
 
 69,326 
 
 6,1S1 
 
 1,899 
 
 2,378,138 
 
 477,972 
 
 16,157 
 
 Of the total quantity of Bessemer steel produced in 1879 
 there were 144,801 tons of rails. As compared with the sta- 
 tistics of production in the five years preceding 1879, Russia 
 had not in that year made any progress worthy of note in the 
 manufacture of pig iron, and no progress at all in the manu- 
 facture of finished iron, but in the manufacture of steel her 
 progress had been very rapid. From 1874 to 1879 the pro- 
 duction of steel was as follows, in metric tons. 
 
 Tears. 
 
 1874 . 
 
 1875 . 
 
 1876 . 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 8,466 
 12,684 
 17,577 
 
 1877 
 
 1878 . 
 
 1879 . 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 43,446 
 93,242 
 211,004 
 
260 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 At about 150 miles from the mouth of the Bosj>horus, on 
 the Asiatic coast of the Black Sea, there is a coal basin of 
 considerable extent and richness, known as the Heraclea 
 Baain, and near the Heraclea Pontia of the ancients. Sur- 
 veys have been made, which show that the beds extend over 
 an area of about 450 square miles, and are estimated to con- 
 tain 60,000,000 tons. During the Crimean war the British 
 Grovernment operated these mines to supply the allied squad- 
 rons operating against Sebastopol and their numerous steam 
 transports, and the works undertaken in the mountains south 
 of Zougal Daugh, 60 miles east of Heraclea, furnished nearly 
 all the coal consumed during the siege. After 1856 the work- 
 ing of the mines was left to the Ottoman Government. The 
 best quality of coal is obtaned at Koosloy, in the district of 
 Heraclea, where it is found in seams varying from 3 to 18 
 feet in thickness. The mines are the property of the govern- 
 ment, and in 1880 yielded about 33,000 tons. Turkey im- 
 ports annually from Great Britain about 20,000 tons of coal. 
 
 The annual consumption of coal in India by railways, 
 manufactories, and steamers amounts, in round numbers, to 
 1,500,000 tons, of which over one-third, or 600,000 tons, is 
 imported from Europe and Australia, and the remaining 
 two-thirds, or 1,000,000 tons, are raised in the country. 
 
 Coal is found in the Colony of New Zealand, and its pro- 
 duction is steadily increasing, while the importation of 
 foreign coal is decreasing, as will be seen bv the returns for 
 the years 1878, 1879, and 1380, which are "given in the fol- 
 lowing table : 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Itaiaed in tlie Colony. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 1878 
 
 1S79 . . 
 
 1B8U 
 
 Tona. 
 162,218 
 231,218 
 299,923 
 
 Tom. 
 174,148 
 138,076 
 123,278 
 
 At the Esk Bank Iron Works in New South Wales, the 
 ojily works of their kind that are now in operation in the 
 colony, 1,200 tons of pig iron and 800 tons of bar iron and 
 rails were made in 1880. This production is reported to 
 have exceeded that of any previous year by these works, 
 which are well managed but operated under difficultifes. 
 The pig iron produced in 1880 was valued at $20 per ton, 
 and the rolled iron at $50 per ton. 
 
 There has been organized in the United States a company 
 of capitalists which proposes to develop the iron ore deposits 
 of the celebrated iron mountain of Durango, in Mexico. 
 Hon. W. L. Helfenstein, of New York, is the president of 
 the company. Mr. John Birkinbine, civil engineer, of 
 Philadelphia, has recently accompanied Judge Helfenstein 
 to Durango, and since his return has published an elaborate 
 dejcription of the company's property. It is expected that 
 steps will be taken to utilize the vast resources of the iron 
 mountain, and this expectation is strengthened by the prob- 
 ability of railway communication between the United 
 States and Durango being soon accomplished. 
 
 Mr. Birkinbine tells us in the Journal of the United States 
 Association of Charcoal Iron Workers, of which he is the 
 editor, that during his visit to Durango he could not gather 
 much detinite information concerning the iron industry of 
 Mexico, He says that bar iron and ordinary iron castings 
 are sold at Durango and in Northern Mexico generally at 
 12} cents per pound. He adds: 
 
 We made diligent search for information concerning the charcoal 
 iron works of Mexico, but were able to obtain no reliable data. 
 There are several works which have been long in existence in 
 Southern Mexico ; but the only one above the Tropic of Cancer is 
 that near Durango, described below. 
 
 Five miles south of Durango, on the bank of the Rio Tunal, is 
 the plant of the Piedra Azul (Blue Stone) Iron Works, consisting 
 of a blast furnace, 35 feet by 8 feet ; a heating furnace ; a puddling 
 furnace; one tram of rolls ; two sinking fires ; one woocfen helve 
 hammer, and three smith fires. Power is obtained from a masoniy 
 dam across the Rio Tunal, giving a head and fall of seventeen feet. 
 There are four water-wheels— two over-shot, one under-shot and 
 one turbine. The blast furnace is built of stone. 
 
 In our last Annual Report allusion was made to an enter- 
 prise for the manufacture of both pig and bar iron, with 
 mineral fuel, which had been projected and undertaken iu 
 
 the State of Boyaca, in the United States of Columbia. We 
 now learn that this enterprise, after absorbing a large amount 
 of capital, said to be $400,000, has been abandoned, at least 
 for the present. 
 
 STATISTICS OF MINERAL PRODUCTION. 
 
 ALTHOUGH the following figures are a little more 
 than a year old they will be found necessary often 
 in reaching such conclusions as the latter tables 
 of Mr. Swank's report will suggest. They are compiled from 
 "The Progress of the World" by Michael G. Mulhall, F. S. 
 S., an exceedingly careful authority. 
 
 Minerals of the World. — During the present century 
 the mineral resources of the world have been developed 
 on a scale surpassing anything in history. 
 
 Coal. — Seventy years ago the world produced annually 9,- 
 000,000 tons of coal, or one-thirtieth of the present quanti- 
 ty, the only coal-fields then working being those of Eng- 
 land, although the mineral was known to exist in France, 
 Germany, and North America. Coming down to the year 
 of Queen Victoria's accession, we find the production had 
 then risen to 40 million tons, of which Great Britain stood 
 for four-fifths. Since the introduction of railways and 
 steamers the quantity raised has quintupled, viz. — 
 
 Great Britain. . 
 
 Uuited States 
 
 Germany 
 
 France. . 
 
 Belgium . 
 
 Austria . . . 
 
 Rus.sia 
 
 China, Spain, Australia. 
 
 1842. 
 
 1878-79. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 3.5 million 
 
 135 million 
 
 . 2 " 
 
 55 
 
 11 " 
 
 42 
 
 • 3M " 
 
 17 
 
 3 " 
 
 15 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 7 
 
 •IK" 
 
 7 
 
 In the last ten years the exports from Great Britain have 
 doubled, and the consumption increased 30 per cent. Ac- 
 cording to the report of the Parliamentary committee in 
 1871, there are still 90 milliard tons available, going no 
 deeper than 4000 feet :* at an average consumption of 150 
 million tons there is, therefore, enough for 600 years to 
 come. Electricity is, meantime, coming to supply in many 
 ways the place of coal, which will doubtless tend to reduce 
 the consumption. The average output per miner is greater 
 in England than in other countries, viz. — 
 
 
 Output. 
 
 Miners. 
 
 Per miner. 
 
 Great Britain 
 United States 
 Germany 
 France . 
 Belgium 
 
 135,000,000 Ions 
 65,000,000 " 
 42,000,000 " 
 17000,000 " 
 16,000,000 " 
 
 440,000 
 
 190,000 
 
 160,000 
 
 92,000 
 
 81,000 
 
 306 tons 
 288 " 
 202 " 
 185 " 
 185 " 
 
 Great Britain exports 20 million tons, which would suffice 
 to freight all the merchant navies of the world. In the 
 best years of California or Australia the yield of gold in 
 either of those countries never exceeded £15,000,000, 
 whereas the coal-fields of Great Britain produce £47,000,000 
 per annum. 
 
 Ii-on. — Men still living can remember when the world pro- 
 duced annually but 450,000 tons of iron : at present the 
 production reaches 14 million tons which is equivalent 
 to 35 million tons iron ore, the ordinary yield being 40 
 per cent. There is hardly a part of the globe in which 
 iron is not found, but it can be advantageously worked 
 only where fuel is cheap and transport easy. So plen- 
 tiful is the iron ore of England that the Cleveland dis- 
 trict possesses as much as would take all oui- coal-fields to 
 smelt. The production as compared with population, is 
 greatest in England, but the relative increase in other 
 countries, since 1850, exceeds ours ; we produce, nevertheless, 
 as much pig-iron as all the rest of mankind collectively, and 
 manufacture 40 per cent, of the steel of the world. In the 
 
 * The deepest coal-mine now working in Great Britain is Rose- 
 bridge, 2500 feet; the Lambert mine iu Col^-'-im goca down 3420 
 feet. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 261 
 
 subjoined Table is showu the production of pig-iron for 
 population : — 
 
 1850. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 United States 
 
 Germany 
 
 France 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Austria 
 
 Bussia 
 
 Average 
 
 182 lbs. per inhab. 
 
 65 " " 
 
 27 " 
 
 27 " " 
 
 80 " " 
 
 105 " 
 
 18 " " 
 
 1877. 
 
 225 Ihs. per inhab. 
 132 " 
 
 88 " " 
 
 96 " 
 190 " 
 170 " " 
 
 30 " " 
 
 11 " 
 
 110 
 
 Increase 
 
 24 p. o. 
 140 ■ 
 224 
 260 
 137 
 
 62 
 
 67 
 
 37 
 
 Copper. — In the Waterloo period the world depended on 
 Cornwall for this mineral, until the Chilian copper-fields 
 rose into importance. Subsequently, in 1842, some buffalo 
 hunters discovered a rich mine near Lake Superior, which 
 yielded 100,000 tons copper in twelve years. At present the 
 production is as follows : — 
 
 Chile and Peru . . 
 United States. 
 Australia . 
 Russia . . . 
 England .... 
 Other Countries . 
 
 . 34,000 tons 
 •15,000 " 
 . 14,500 " 
 5,600 " 
 . 5,200 " 
 . 19,000 " 
 
 93 300 
 
 The price of copper has fallen 33 per cent, since 1870, and 
 the industry seems rapidly declining. There is nothing of 
 . copper manufactures in modern times to compare with the 
 Colossus of Rhodes, the metal of which formed 900 camel- 
 loads on its removal. 
 
 Lead. — The world produces 140,000 tons per annum, of 
 which Cornwall gives one-half. The Spanish mines, near 
 Cordoba, are worked by English companies, yielding over 
 30,000 tons. Missouri first produced lead in 1854, and gives 
 at present 18,000 tons. This metal abounds in Bolivia and 
 the lower ranges of the Andes. 
 
 Tin. — Cornwall has now to compete with Australia and 
 Malacca in the production of this mineral. The tin factories 
 of the world consume 24,000 tons annually, of which Great 
 Britain stands for five-eighths. 
 
 Zinc. — Germany produces 60 per cent. Russia and Belgium 
 the rest. 
 
 Quicksilver. — ^The Almaden mines in Spain have been 
 famous since the time of the Romans, but are now surpassed 
 by the California mine. The annual production is as 
 follows : — 
 
 California . . . . 
 
 Spain 
 
 Other counti-ies . 
 
 . 2,000 tons 
 . 1,000 " 
 300 " 
 
 Summary. — The mining industries of all nations (not in- 
 cluding precious metals) give employment to 1,500,000 
 -miners, as shown in the following Table : 
 
 Miners. 
 
 United Kingdom . . 475,000 
 
 United States . . . 280,000 
 
 Germany . . . . 204,0U0 
 
 -France . . . 206,000 
 
 Austria ... . 9i,000 
 
 Belgium ... . . 105,000 
 
 Bussia . 80,000 
 
 Spain and Portugal 48,000 
 
 Italy . . 30,000 
 
 Scandinavia .... . . . 29,000 
 
 1,555,000 
 
 Products. 
 
 Per miner 
 
 Output. 
 
 £66,000,000 
 
 £139 
 
 326 tons 
 
 46,000,0110 
 
 11)5 
 
 220 ' 
 
 16,000,000 
 
 75 
 
 230 ■' 
 
 13,000,000 
 
 63 
 
 105 " 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 87 
 
 135 '■ 
 
 - 9,000,000 
 
 85 
 
 160 " 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 50 
 
 100 " 
 
 6 000,000 
 
 125 
 
 50 " 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 60 
 
 10 " 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 34 
 
 34 " 
 
 £171,000,000 
 
 £110 
 
 206 " 
 
 It appears from the above that Great Britain stands for 
 one-third of the mining industry of the world. The mor- 
 tality' of miners in this country in 1879 was 3 per 1000, say 
 i killed for 103,000 tons of coal or iron extracted. 
 
 Great Britain. — Hardware. — There are 530,000 opera- 
 tives engaged in hardware, cutlery, and the manufacture of 
 machinery. The raw material is valued at £20,000,000, and 
 the manufactured goods reach £100,000,000, of which one- 
 third is exported, the rest being kept for home consump- 
 tion. Until recently the hardware industry of Great Brit- 
 ain was equal to that of all the rest of the world put to- 
 gether. Although no longer without a rival, she is still far 
 ahead of all competitors. It was supposed that the inven- 
 tion of Bessemer steel would be almost fatal to our trade, 
 but the returns for 1877 show that out of 94 Bessemer fac- 
 
 tories in the world, there are 21 in Great Britain.* Such 
 has been the progress of steel, cutlery, and all species of 
 hardware f manufactures, that Sheffield and Birmingham 
 have quadrupled their population in a life-time — 
 
 Sheffield . . 
 Birmingham . 
 
 1811. 1880. 
 
 . .63,000 284,000 
 
 . . 86,000 380,000 
 
 The export of hardware and machinery has risen as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 1820 . 
 
 1840 
 
 1878 
 
 . . £1,920,000 
 
 8,793,000 
 
 . 37,200,000 
 
 The iron consumed in our manufactures is about 2,500,000 
 tons, or less than half the quantity we produce, the rest 
 being exported. We also use about 30,000 tons of superior 
 Swedish iron, and an equal quantity from Biscay, especially 
 suited for steel. Our copper manufactures consume £4,500- 
 000 sterling of this metal, which is imported from Chile and 
 United States. Our tin factories require 15,000 tons, worth 
 £3,000,000 sterling, two-thirds of which is imported from 
 Australia, East Indies, or Prussia. The total value of hard- 
 ware manufactures in 1801 was £16,500,000; it follows, 
 therefore, that the industry has multiplied six-fold. It ap- 
 pears that the total manufactures of the kingdom amount to 
 £665,000,000, the work of 2,930,000 operatives, say £224 per 
 head. Deducting the exports, the balance for home con- 
 sumption is about £460,000,000, or £14 per inhabitant. The 
 above, of course, includes minerals. 
 
 Minerals of Great Britain. — The value of coal and 
 iron extracted from the mines of Great Britain in twenty- 
 five years (1854^1879) has been £1,076,000,000, or nearly 
 equivalent to the yield of the gold and silver mines of Span- 
 ish America in three centuries. The development of our 
 mineral resources has been as follows : — 
 
 1800-1805. 1836 to 1840. 1875 to 1879. 
 
 Coal £3,000,000 £10,000,000 £47,000,000 per ann. 
 
 Iron 2,000,000 7,000,000 16,000,000 " 
 
 Copper, tin, salt, etc. . 1,000,000 3,000,000 3,000,000 " 
 
 Total £6,000,000 £20,000,000. £66,000,000 
 
 Coal. — The production has increased thirteen-fold, more 
 than keeping pace with our manufactures, which have 
 grown eleven-fold since the beginning of the century. The 
 output in 1801 to 1805 averaged 10,000,000 tons, of which 
 one-fourth was shipped at Newcastle and Sunderland, the 
 rest conveyed inland. The duty of 75 per cent, imposed by 
 William III. on coal, even for consumption in England, was 
 such an obstacle to the manufacturing and general industry 
 of the kingdom, that it was abolished in 1830. This caused 
 the price in London to fall from 50s. to 17s. per ton, where- 
 upon the consumption rose rapidly. At the same time the 
 invention of steamboats and railways increased the demand, 
 and in 1853 the output reached 54,000,000 tons. As foreign 
 countries constructed railways, the exportation of English 
 coal increased year by year, while the onward march of 
 British manufactures gave equal impetus to the home con- 
 sumption. At present the annual demand reaches 135,000,- 
 000 tons, viz. — 
 
 British factories .... . 46,000,000 tons. 
 
 Railways and steamer.s . . 25,000,000 '• 
 
 Gasand water companies . .14,000,01)0 " 
 
 Domestic use . . . . . . 30,000,000 " 
 
 Exportation ..... . 20,000,000 " 
 
 136.000,000 " 
 
 Great Britain raises one-half the coal consumed in the 
 whole world. It has been supposed that our coal-fields will 
 hardly last more than 200 years longer, but the result of the 
 Parliamentary inquiry rather indicated a sufficient supply 
 for six centuries to come. A new coal-field of Durham is now 
 worked some miles under the sea. Moreover, electricity 
 has begun to supplant coal-gas, and also to take the place of 
 steam as a motive power, which will reduce the demand 
 upon our coal-fields. 
 
 ® Before Bessemer's invention the annual production of steel in 
 Great Britain was only 51,000 tons; in 1873 it rose to 480,000 tons. 
 
 t The manufacture of pins averages 50,000,000 daily, or nearly 
 three times the quantity produced in 1840. 
 
262 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Iron. — In the earlier part of the century (1801-1805) we 
 imported 20 per cent, more iron than we exported. The in- 
 vention of Nelson's hot-blast, in 1828, gave an extraordinary 
 impulse to the industry, by cheapening the production of 
 pig-iron from ore. Previous to that time it required four tons 
 of coal for a ton of pig-iron ; but this was reduced by Nelson 
 almost one-half, and subsequent, improvements have caused 
 a still greater economy of fuel. The iron ore of England 
 gives about 40 per cent, metal — ^that is, 2J tons ore equal to 
 1 ton pig-iron. The relation which Great Britain bears to the 
 world is as follows : 
 
 
 Ore. 
 
 Pig-iron. 
 
 Great Britain . . 
 
 .16 million tons 
 
 ei^ million tons 
 
 Rest of World , 
 
 . . 22 
 
 sS " 
 
 15 
 
 The production of pig-iron in Great Britain has grown 
 as follows : 
 
 1802. . . 227,000 tons. 
 1848 ... . 1,998,000 " 
 1S77 6,608,000 " 
 
 This enormous increase was chiefly due to the construc- 
 tion of 150,000 miles of railway, in all parts of the world. It 
 was also, in some measure, caused by the building of steam- 
 ers and sailing vessels of iron instead of wood. The annual 
 consumption of iron in the United Kingdom is much greater 
 per inhabitant than in any other country. The weight of 
 coal and iron annually exported by Great Britain is over 
 twenty million tons — enough to freight all the vessels in 
 the world. 
 
 Copper, Lead, Tin. — These minerals are of secondary im- 
 portance, and their annual production may be briefly noticed 
 as follows: 
 
 1801-1806. 1877-1878. 
 
 Annual average. Annual average. 
 Copper . . £600,000 £340,000 
 
 Tin , 300,1100 700,000 
 
 Salt 100,000 ], 600,000 
 
 Lead, Silvei', etc. . 500,000 2,460,000 
 
 £1,500,000 
 
 Previous to 1823 salt was subject to a duty thirty times 
 its own value. Since the repeal of the duty the pro- 
 duction has increased tenfold, being now close on three 
 million tons. The average output of miners is increasing 
 as shown thus ; — 
 
 Mineral extracted. Miners. Per head 
 
 1876 149 million tons 615,000 290 tons. 
 
 1878 146 " " 476,000 3U7 " 
 
 The above includes not only coal and iron, but all other minerals. 
 
 Australia. — In the last thirty years the population has 
 multiplied five-fold, chiefly owing to the discovery of gold 
 in 1851, from which date, down to 1878, Australia produced 
 £247,000,000 of the precious metal, viz.— 
 
 18.52-1802 . 
 1863-1873 . 
 1874-1878 . 
 
 Production 
 
 . £110,760,000 
 
 101,310,000 
 
 34,930,000 
 
 £247,000,000 
 
 Per annum. 
 
 £10,070,u00 
 
 9,210,000 
 
 6,980,000 
 
 £9,200,000 
 
 During the last five years the gold fields* employed 48,500 
 miners and 1100 steam-engines, representing 24,000 horse- 
 power: the average product per miner was £144 per annum. 
 Gold-digging is now superseded by sheep-farming, as shown 
 by the exports of wool and those of gold in 1877. 
 
 Value of wool exported . . . , £19,460,(100 
 
 Do. of gold " . 7,490,(100 
 
 Surplus for wool . . . £11,860,100 
 
 New South Wales has produced more than £50,000,- 
 000 of gold, or one-fifth of the total exported. Wool has 
 been, however, in the last ten years, a more valuable staple 
 than gold : — 
 
 Ten years. 
 
 1808 77 exported gold . . . . £18,200,000 
 
 ' " " wool . . 30,410.000 
 
 Victoria.— A wandering party of sheep farmers from 
 lasmania, attracted by the beauty of the Yarra-Yarra river 
 
 » Some of the mines are very deep-.-the Magdala, for example 
 1990 feet, ■ - ' " ' 
 
 settled on its banks in 1835, on the spot where the superb 
 city of Melbourne now stands. Only a year before gold 
 was discovered the settlers obtained permission to consti- 
 tute themselves into a separate colony, for they now num- 
 bered 77,000 souls, and thus the colony of Victoria was 
 established in 1850, with a territory of 88,000 square miles, 
 or twice the area of the kingdom of Portugal ; this being the 
 smallest of all the Australian colonies except Tasmania. The 
 gold fields in 1851 gave an extraordinary impulse to every- 
 thing, the quantity of gold dust extracted in twenty-five years 
 exceeding £170,000,000 sterling. The gold fields produced 
 in 1879 over £3,000,000 sterling. Comparing the value of 
 gold dust and of wool exported in the last ten years, we 
 find as follows: 
 
 Gold dupt 
 Wool . . . 
 
 1868.77. 
 
 £49,000,000 
 
 61,000,000 
 
 At present the latter item stands for three times as much 
 as the former. 
 
 Prance. — Minerals and Metals. — These industries, which 
 were insignificant in the time of Buonaparte, now amount 
 to £36,000,000 per annum. The greatest development, 
 strange to say, has taken place since the removal of the 
 oppz'essive tariff against English coal and iron. 
 
 Coal. — In 1836 there were 170 coal-fields, employing 24,- 
 000 miners, who raised annually 3,000,000 tons, worth £1,- 
 200,000. At that time the supply of coal from England 
 averaged 1,000,000 tons. But, with the introduction of rail- 
 ways, an increased consumption imparted vigor to the 
 home production, as also to the imports, which have grown 
 as follows : — 
 
 
 Native coal. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Consumption. 
 
 1830-18W 
 
 2,700,000 tons 
 
 900,000 tons 
 
 3,600,000 tons per an. 
 
 1860-1865 
 
 10,200,000 " 
 
 7,300,000 " 
 
 17,600,000 " " 
 
 1875-1877 
 
 17,100,000 " 
 
 7,600,000 " 
 
 24,700,000 " " 
 
 The number of coal-fields now working is 623, which em- 
 ploy over 100,000 men. The value of coal raised is little 
 short of £10,000,000 per annum. 
 
 Iron. — Prohibitory duties upon foreign iron obliged people 
 to extract it from the mines at double the cost for which 
 English iron might have been imported. During many 
 years the average price of iron in France was £26 a ton, or 
 three times the price then ruling in England (£9 : 10s.) In 
 this manner the farmers and others lost £1,500,000 sterling 
 per annum for about thirty years, say £45,000,000. In fact, 
 iron was so dear that the peasants used wooden ploughs 
 until 1840. The production of iron rose to its highest iu 
 1860-64, but it has since fallen away one-fourth. 
 
 1820-25 . 
 1840-46 . 
 1860 64 . 
 1871-76. . 
 
 80,000 tons per annum. 
 150,000 " " 
 
 1,530,000 " " 
 
 1,170,000 " 
 
 There are over 2,000 iron mines and 1100 furnaces (inclu- 
 ding 600 blast-furnaces), employing 120,000 workmen. The 
 production of steel averages 260,000 tons per annum. The 
 various branches of this industry, from the extraction of the 
 ore from the mines to the finer classes of cutlery, represent 
 more than £20,000,000 sterling per annum. France pro- 
 duces one-fourth of the quantitv of iron that England (kies- 
 
 Lead. — This metal was imported, although known to exist 
 in France, until about 50 years ago, when some quantities 
 were extracted. In 1839 there were forty mines, producing 
 in the aggregate a value of £22,000 sterling, and employing 
 900 workmen. In late years the industry rose, until 1860-64, 
 when the average yield was 86,000 tons lead, but the pro- 
 duction since 1871 has been under 70,000 tons yearly. 
 
 Copper. — Another metal that was utterly neglected for 
 half a century. In 1839 there were two mines, employing 
 130 men, who produced 90 tons copper. 
 
 The returns since 1860 may be summed up thus: — 
 
 1860-64 . 
 1871-76 . 
 
 54,000 tons copper ore per ann. 
 108,000 " " 
 
 The ore is of inferior kind, say 5 per cent, copper, since it 
 takes 20 tons ore to produce one ton of copper. France 
 produces 6 per cent of the copper of the world. 
 
 Quarries.— ThMd are 24,000 in the various Departments, 
 employing altogether 88,000 workmen, and yielding about 
 £2,000,000.per annum. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 263 
 
 , Salt. — For an interval the duties were removed, and the 
 consumption rose to 1,000,000 tons yearly, but when they 
 were re-imposed the consumption fell to 100,000 tons, on 
 which the State levied the enormous tax of £18 per ton. 
 This industry, under modified duties, has so far recovered, 
 that it now employs 24,000 workmen, who produce 350,000 
 tons per annum, valued at £400,000. 
 
 Germany. — Ironworks and foundries are 1200 in number, 
 and employ 120,000 workmen, who produce merchandiseworth 
 £28,000,000 per annum. The quantity of iron and steel of 
 all descriptions manufactured is over 2,400,000 tons yearly. 
 Krupp's factory at Essen covers 10,000 acres, and employs 
 10,000 men, 286 steam-engines (9230 horse-power), and 71 
 steam-hammers of 220 tons weight. Germany imports 500,- 
 000 tons pig iron yearly, besides 2,000,000 tons produced from 
 native ore. This iron is used for the manufacture of 400,000 
 tons steel rails, plates and wire, and 2,000,000 tons of cast- 
 ings, rolled iron, etc. After supplying her own requirements, 
 Germany has still a surplus of steel and iron merchandise for 
 exportation, especially railroad bars, viz: 
 
 Exported .... 
 
 1872-75. 
 . 00,000 tons per annum. 
 
 1870-77. 
 185,000 tons per annum. 
 
 The exportation in 1877 was 225,000 tons, at a period when 
 the iron trade in Great Britain and the United States was 
 under great depression. 
 
 Coal. — The production is over 42,000,000 tons yearly, in- 
 cluding 9,000,000 tons brown coal or lignite. The following 
 table shows how rapidly this industry has advanced : 
 
 1805 . . 
 1822 . 
 
 1864 . . 
 
 1873 . . 
 
 300,000 tons 
 1,270,000 " 
 16,200,000 " 
 42,300,000 " 
 
 More than two-thirds are raised in Prussia, the rest in 
 Alsace and Saxony. There are 920 pits, which employ 160,- 
 000 miners, the output being valued at £10,000,000, includ- 
 ing £1,500,000 for Drown coal. The home consumption is 
 40,000,000 tons, leaving a surplus of 2,000,000 tons for ex- 
 portation. 
 
 Iron. — The production has multiplied flfleen-fold in half 
 a century. In 1830 the ore extracted gave but 120,000 tons 
 pig iron. At present there are 1071 mines, yielding over 
 4,500,000 tons ore, from which are obtained 2,000,000 tons of 
 iron. The miners number 20,000 hands, nine-tenths of the 
 iron mines being in Prussia. 
 
 Copper. — In 1830 the production barely reached 2,000 
 tons, or one-fourth of what it is at present. The mines are 
 in Prussia and Saxony. The ore is not very rich, 260,000 
 tons giving about 1,000 tons pure copper, say 3 per cent. 
 The 69 mines employ about 8,000 men, and the annual out- 
 put is valued at £300,000. 
 
 Zinc is produced by Prussia on a larger scale than in any 
 other part of the world, the production having multiplied fif- 
 teen fold since 1830. There are 77 mines, worked by 11,000 
 miners, who raise 350,000 tons ore per annum, worth £1 
 per ton. The ore gives 17 per cent, zinc, that is, 58,000 tons. 
 
 Lead and Silver are produced by Prussia and Saxony, the 
 former country standing for three-fourths. There are 168 
 mines, employing 11,000 miners, who raise 125,000 tons ore, 
 or six times the quantity raised in 1830. Almost half the 
 ore is lead, say 46 per cent. 
 
 (Sail— Actual production 1,000,000 tons, or seven times 
 what it was in 1830. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The mineral industries have grown as follows in thirty 
 years : — 
 
 1846 . 
 
 68.000 miners 
 
 1866 . 
 
 . 148,000 
 
 1876 . 
 
 . 205,000 " 
 
 The value of the minerals at the pit's mouth is about £15,- 
 500 000, or £75 for each miner. Prussia represents 80 per 
 cent, of the minerals produce of Germany, employing 160,- 
 
 000 miners. mi i, t 
 
 Belgmm.— Minerals and Manufactures.— Iheae branches 
 of industry employ 760,000 persons, Belgium having come 
 to rival Great Britain in certain manufactures, and employ- 
 ing comparatively more operators, with reference to popula- 
 tion, than any other country in the world. 
 
 Coal. — The production has multiplied six-fold in forty 
 years :— 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Miners. 
 
 Tons per miner. 
 
 1836 . . . 
 1850 . 
 1878 . 
 
 . , 2,100,000 
 
 . . 6,200,000 
 
 . . , 14.900,000 
 
 32,000 
 49.000 
 81,1X10 
 
 VO 
 
 126 
 185 
 
 The value was 17s. per ton in 1873, but has now fallen to 
 lis. The average profit is 3d. per ton, although it appears 
 that 82 mines do not cover expenses. Miners' wages have 
 been reduced from £46 to £37 per annum. The highest 
 output yet attained was at Hainault in 1872, say 206 tons 
 per miner. 
 
 Iron. — Mr. John Cockerill, from England, introduced the 
 system of smelting with coke in 1816, and established at 
 Seraing one of the finest ironworks in Europe. This gave 
 such an impetus to the trade that it grew as follows : — 
 
 1836. 
 1800 . 
 1873. 
 1878. 
 
 Ore. 
 
 , . 460,000 tons 
 
 . 900,000 „ 
 , . 1.700,000 „ 
 . . 1,300,000 „ 
 
 Pig-iron. Operatives. 
 160,000 tons 12,500 
 320,000 „ 25,000 
 
 607,000 „ 42.000 
 
 404,000 „ 24,000 
 
 Notwithstanding the depression in this trade, it is worthy 
 of remark, " that in so adverse a season of three years (1874- 
 77) not a single ironmaster in Belgium failed.'' The opera- 
 tives accepted a reduction of 60 per cent, in wages, and 
 thus enabled their masters to import pig-iron from England, 
 make it into girders, send it back to England, and sell it at 
 a profit.* Belgian ironmasters explain that they can under- 
 sell the British because their workmen are more thrifty and 
 live on lower wages, the price of provisions being also less 
 than in England. The value of the hardware industry of 
 Belgium may be measured by the fact that the exports 
 average £4,000,000 sterling, whereas ten years ago they 
 were barely one^^third. 
 
 Liege has grown up to be one of the great factories for 
 arms. The value ol this manufacture in 1829 was only 
 £120,000, and now it falls little short of £1,000,000. 
 
 There are manufactures of zinc, copper, and lead, amount- 
 ing in the aggregate to £2,000,000 per annum. 
 
 Glass has lately risen to great importance, as shown by 
 the exports of this article : — • 
 
 1867-68, average . 
 1877-76 ■' 
 
 . £690,000 per annum 
 . 1,560,000 „ 
 
 Sweden. — The decree of 1765 prohibiting all manufac- 
 tures, with the view of promoting agriculture, had a veiy 
 disastrous effect. Factories of steel and of silk were closed, 
 and the skilled artisans took refuge in Russia. After an in- 
 terval of twenty years the insane law was repealed, but the 
 country did not soon recover the blow. Prohibited duties 
 upon foreign merchandise existed in full force till 1828. No 
 sooner were they abolished than manufacture increased in a 
 surprising manner. In 1839 the official returns showed an 
 increase of 35 per cent, over ten years before. In 1876 the 
 Swedish manufactures reached £10,250,000 sterling, counting 
 merely the products of 2825 factories. 
 
 Coal abounds in Sweden, but costs more to raise than the 
 price of coal imported from England. Swedish iron has 
 long been considered the best in the world, and especially 
 suited for making Bessemer steel. This is partly from the 
 quality of ore, partly from the smelting with wood instead of 
 coal.' The supply of iron is inexhaustible. Tuberg, a hill 
 of 370 feet high, is simply a mass of ma,gnetic iron ; it is de- 
 scribed as " a source of riches to remotest posterity," although 
 the ore is not very pure, yielding from 20 to 30 per cent, 
 (which is consideraoly below the average of England). 
 Persberg is another mountain of ore, containing thirteen 
 mines ; but the best ore is that of Dannemora, which pro- 
 duces 4000 tons of iron annually, the shaft (500 feet deep) be- 
 ing worked by blasting. The production of iron has increased 
 as follows ; — 
 
 1812. 
 1850. 
 1870 . 
 1876 . 
 
 . 65,000 tons 
 . 140,000 ■' 
 . 292,000 " 
 . 340,000 » 
 
 * In 1877 Belgium imported from Great Britain 68,000 tons pig- 
 iron, and sent it back iu the form of 46,000 tons of girders. 
 
264 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 This does not include 78,000 tons Bessemer steel. The 
 total number of miners and hands in the 200 mines and 1400 
 smelting-works usually ranges from 18,000 to 20,000. Cop- 
 per-mines in Dalecarlia have been worked for a thousand 
 years, especially those at Fahlun. The yield, however, has 
 steadily declined, from 4000 tons per annum in the seven- 
 teenth century to 500 tons in recent years. The _ Fahlun 
 mines now count hut 500 workmen ; the ore is inferior. All 
 the copper-fields of Sweden now produce about 1400 tons, 
 say one per cent, of the copper-crop of the world. Silver exists 
 in" many parts of Sweden, mixed with lead. Konigsberg was 
 reputed the richest silver mine in Europe, having produced 
 a block, almost pure, weighing 600 lbs., and worth £1800 
 sterling. At present, 'the total yield of silver in Sweden is 
 under one ton per annum, say £6000 worth, or one day's 
 produce of the Nevada or Peruvian silver-fields. Zinc is of 
 .some importance, the yield being over 40,000 tons yearly. 
 There are numerous mines of lead, iron, and copper in Lap- 
 land, which can only be worked in midsummer, as the cold 
 at other times congeals the engines. 
 
 Russia. — Manufactures and Minerals. From the begin- 
 ning of the century until 1815 the industry of Russia was se- 
 riously checked by the Napoleon wars, but not altogether par- 
 alyzed. In 1808 there were 640 factories, chiefly at Moscow, 
 Kazan, and Tula, for the manufacture of cottons, linens, wool- 
 lens, leather, canvas, and cutlery, without counting the iron- 
 works of Perm and Olonetz, or the mines of Siberia. The Ural 
 mountains were said to be " the Potosi of Europe," yielding 
 in minerals £6,000,000 per annum, of which one-third con- 
 sisted of gold and silver. The iron of Dougua was esteemed 
 equal to the best Swedish, however little developed owing to 
 the difficulty of transport, sometimes taking three years to 
 reach St. Petersburg. A second epoch may .be said to date 
 from the opening of three main canals between the Caspian, 
 the Baltic, and the White Sea, almost coincident with the 
 accession (1825) of the Emperor Nicholas. Shubert, in his 
 report of 1828, sums up the total manufacture of Russia, 
 thus : — 96 million yards of cotton, woollen, and linen fabrics, 
 16,000 tons of sugar, 7000 tons of soap, 15 million glass 
 bottles, and £800,000 worth of silk manufactures. He took 
 no account of hardware, although thousands of operatives 
 were employed in the iron industries of Perm, Viatka, and 
 Nijni, which counted 900 furnaces, while Tula and Olonetz 
 produced large quantities of cutlery, arms, and artillery. 
 Tula was already known as the Sheffield of Russia, its 600 
 workshops and 7000 artificers being specially famous for 
 cutlery and snuff"-boxe3. At that time (1827-1832) iron was 
 so dear that the horses were unshod, and even the farming 
 implements were entirely made of wood. So rapidly did 
 industry progress after the peace with Turkey (1828), that 
 we find in 1840 there were 6850 factories, employing 413.000 
 operatives, besides 280,000 men engaged in the mines and 
 ironworks. A separate report on the cotton factories (1842), 
 shows 620 factories, of which 63 moved by steam, the whole 
 employing 47,000 looms and 96,000 operatives, whose yearly 
 product was over £5,500,000 sterling. The iron and copper 
 works at Perm counted 7400 furnaces, and the annual pro- 
 duction in all Russia was 4000 tons copper and 170,000 tons 
 iron. Mining industry was still far from being adequately 
 understood ; the coal-beds of Taganrog were said to be not 
 worth working, and salt was imported from England because 
 the carriage from Orenburg was so expensive. The first 
 time Russian coal came into use was in 1847, the yield 
 being only 50,000 tons. Tegebolzki the same year estimated 
 the manufactures of the empire at £72,000,000 sterling, but 
 this seems to have been above the reality, as we find that in 
 1856 the amount was only £35,000,000, not including the 
 minerals and metals. The production of iron between 1840 
 ^nd 1850 averaged 150,000 tons per annum. 
 
 The production of coal has in late years risen to 7,000,- 
 000 tons, or two-thirds of the required quantity for consump- 
 tion, the importation being close on 3,000,000 tons yearly. 
 Gold-digging usually employs 20,000 miners in Siberia ; the 
 annual yield varies from £3,000,000 to £6,000,000 sterling. 
 The iron-fields have yet to be fully opened up, the supply 
 being so far short of the demand that the importation of iron 
 and steel has grown six-fold in ten years, and now averages 
 300,000 tons per annum. The salt-works produce yearly 
 about 1,000,000 tons, besides which 250,000 tons are import- 
 ed. The progress of internal industry may be measured by 
 
 the returns of the great annual fair at Nijai-Novgorod, 
 viz. — • 
 
 Goods offered. Goods sold. 
 
 184t . . £8,000,000 £7,000,000 
 
 18S7 . . 13,000,000 12,000,000 
 
 1876 . . 30,000,000 28,000,000 
 
 The merchandise disposed of between the 100,000 traders 
 at this fair in 1876 consisted of; — 
 
 Cotton, linoDS, silks . 
 Ural metflJs 
 
 Flax, furs, leather, etc. . 
 Flour, fish, brandy, etc. ' 
 Tea and luxuries 
 
 . £8,000,000 
 . 7,000,000 
 7,000,000 
 . 3,000,000 
 . 3,000,000 
 
 £28,000,000 
 
 Austria-Hungary. — Exports have doubled in the la.st 
 ten years, silk factories consume 2,000,000 lbs. silk, of which 
 one-sixth is grown in the Tyrol, the rest imported. The fac- 
 tories are unable to supply enough silk fabrics for home use, 
 although the manufacture has multiplied five-fold in ten 
 years. The import of raw silk shows as follows : — 
 
 Average. 
 
 Raw silk. 
 
 1865-66 . 
 
 £292,000 
 
 1870-72 
 
 1,350,000 
 
 1875-76 • 
 
 1,490,000 
 
 Besides the home-made goods, Austria consumes imported 
 silk fabrics to the value of £3,000,000 yearly. 
 
 There are 100 glass factmes in Bohemia, and 70 in other 
 provinces, producing wares to the value of £1,000,000 sterl- 
 ing, three-fifths of which are exported. 
 
 Bohemia has 1000 breweries, and the other provinces in 
 proportion. The total product is 270,000,000 gallons, an in- 
 crease of 60 per cent, on the returns for 1852. The exporta- 
 tion averages 4,000,000 gallons, leaving 266,000,000 for home 
 consumption, or 7J gallons per head. 
 
 The sugar industry has increased as follows in twenty 
 years : — ■ 
 
 1857. 1878. 
 
 Sugar-mills ... 91 •217 
 
 Beet-root . . . 410,000 tons 3,700,000 tons. 
 
 The annual production of beet-sugar is over 300,000 tons, 
 worth £6,000,000 sterling, of which one-half is exported. 
 
 The growth of Austrian manufacturing industry in forty 
 years is shown by the consumption of coal. 
 
 1839 • . . . 600,000 tons 
 
 ]8fi4 .... 3,500,000 " 
 
 1878 .... 14,300,000 " 
 
 Minerals. — At the beginning of the century Transylvania 
 was called " the gold-mine of Europe," the yield of the 
 Kremnitz for 100 years averaging £300,000 per annum. Vari- 
 ous mines of iron, copper, etc., were also carried on with such 
 activity that Hungary had 45,000 miners, and at least as 
 many more were employed in Ulyria, Bohemia, and the salt- 
 mines of Galitzin. Thus the annual yield of mines was not 
 far short of £3,000,000 sterling in 1830, since which time it 
 has more than doubled. The mining interest reached its 
 highest point in 1873, when the total product was up to £9,- 
 000,000 ; but since then the iron industry has so much de- 
 clined that the minerals do not sum up £7,000,000 : — 
 
 Coal 
 Iron 
 Sundries 
 
 £3,320,000 
 1,710,000 
 1,770,000 
 
 £6,800,000 
 
 Coal is increasing, the output now averages 12,000,000 tons, 
 or 20 per cent, more than in 1873. The supply is, neverthe- 
 less, insufficient, and Austria has to import 3,000,000 tons 
 yearly. The production of iron, in like manner, is so far 
 short of the requirements, that the importation in the last 
 ten years averaged 400,000 tons per annum. Styria ore is 
 considered equal to Swedish in quality, and yields about 45 
 per cent, of metal. In the last century the Idria quicksilver 
 mines .averaged 600 tons per annum, but now they do not 
 reach one-third of that quantity. These mines formerly ex- 
 ceeded the yield of the Almaden mines in Spain. Copper- 
 mines in Hungary were advantageously worked before the 
 present century. Most of the works, however, had been 
 destroyed, the mines-lying idle for several years. The ore is 
 not rich, barely 4 per cent, being pure metal. 
 
z 
 
 Q 
 
 m 
 I 
 
 m 
 X 
 
 T> 
 
 r 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 z 
 
 o 
 
 ■n 
 m 
 
 D. 
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 T3 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 265 
 
 Tin is extracted in Bohemia, and lead in Illyria. Sixty 
 per cent, of the lead ore is metal. The salt mine of Wiel- 
 iczka in Galitzia, at the base of the Carpathians, is the 
 greatest in the world, extending six hundred miles, and 
 seeming inexhaustible. For six centuries it has given pro- 
 digious quantities of salt. The Government has a mo- 
 nopoly, and sells the salt at £10 for home consumption, or 
 £1 per ton for exportation. The works occupy 9,000 miners. 
 The various mining and furnace works employ 84,000 men, 
 6,000 women, and 2,100 children, the distribution of hands 
 being as follows : — 
 
 Hands. 
 
 Coal 
 Iron . 
 Silver . 
 Lead, etc. 
 
 62,r)r)i) 
 
 13,3till 
 
 B,3SU 
 
 10,710 
 
 92,100 
 
 ing 10,000 miners, who extract only 300,000 yearly; this is 
 barely one-third of the couHumption in Spain, the rest being 
 imported from England and Belgium. Previous to the dis- 
 covery of quicksilver in California this article was almost a 
 monopoly of Spain ; the Almaden mines have been worked 
 from the time of the Romans, and belong to the State ; they 
 employ 4000 miners, who raise 1500 tons yearly. Rio Tiuto, 
 near Sevill, is the most productive copper mine. There are 
 2000 silver mines, but the yield is trifling ; even the Sierra 
 Morena mines give less than in the eighteenth century. 
 
 Brazil. — There are various mining companies, but the 
 most successful is that of San Juan del Rey, the annual out- 
 put being 70,000 ounces of gold-dust, worth £220,000. The 
 average dividends for the last thirty -three years have been 
 23 per cent, per annum ; shares usually sell at four times their 
 nominal value. 
 
 The coal miners raise 12,000,000 tons a year, which repre- 
 sents £72 per miner. The iron miners and founders turn 
 out twenty tons, worth £120 a head. The product of the 
 lead mines is £80 each ; and the general average of all 
 mining £87 per head. Notwithstanding the depression, 
 especially in iron, which has prevailed for a couple of 
 years, it is likely mining will take strength, owing to the 
 better economy in working. Each miner now produces 
 much more than the average of 1873 : — 
 
 Coal. 
 Miners. Per head. 
 1873 . ... 60,742 153 tons. 
 1876 . ... 62,660 192 " 
 
 Increased yield per head 26 per cent. 
 
 Iron. 
 Operatives. Per Head 
 
 20,823 n^ tons. 
 
 13,360 201^ " 
 
 16 per cent. 
 
 In like manner the production of silver has in several 
 years increased 65 per cent, per head. The royalties on all 
 the mines in the empire were £70,000 in 1869, and at pre- 
 sent exceed £124,000 sterling. The miners have, in the last 
 seven years, constructed seven hundred miles of railway. 
 Steam power is aiding efficiently in the development of the 
 mines, the number of engines at work having nearly doubled 
 in seven years. 
 
 1869. 1876. 
 
 In coal mines 
 Ju other " 
 
 447 engines 
 63 " 
 
 842 engines. 
 118 '^ 
 
 I' 
 hi 
 
 Spain. — The miners are a prosperous and thrifty class of 
 eople. The masters provide them with schools, libraries, 
 .ospitals, etc., besides which the men have 355 joint stock 
 banks, holding an aggregate capital of £717,000 sterling. 
 
 Hardware. — Toledo swords are still unequalled for tem- 
 per, which some ascribe to the water of the Tagus. The 
 royal factory usually employs about 300 operatives. Fire- 
 arms are made at Valencia, artillery at Seville, nails, horse- 
 shoes, and copper utensils in Biscay. The muleteers of 
 Vittoria convey weekly a ton of horseshoes to the inland 
 provinces. 
 
 Minerals. — No country of Europe is richer in minerals, 
 yet the total number of miners employed is only 43,500. 
 There is no return of the value of minerals extracted, which 
 will probably reach £7,000,000 as the exports are over £5,- 
 000,000. This branch of industry has trebled in twenty 
 years, the exports of minerals in 1860-61 not exceeding 
 £1,400,000. The returns for 1875 to 1877 average as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 Lead . . 
 Coi>per . . . 
 Quicksilver 
 Iron 
 Zinc 
 
 . £2,050,000 
 
 1,650,000 
 
 780,000 
 
 460,000 
 
 240,000 
 
 £5,180,000 
 
 THE MINERAL PRODUCTION OF ITALY. 
 
 AMONG those countries on which we rarely obtain 
 statistics is Italy. We are indebted to a memoir 
 wiitten by MM. Jean Beco and Lean Thouard, two 
 well-known Belgian engineers, for the following 
 data taken from quite an elaborate table, accompanied by 
 many explanatory notes. The figures given are averages 
 for the period of 1875 to 1879 for the production, exports, 
 and imports: 
 
 Importe. 
 
 Iron ore . . . .- 
 
 Pig-ii'on .... 
 Wrought-iron ... 
 
 Ralls 
 
 Manganiferoua iron ore . 
 PeiTO-manganese 
 
 Manganese ore 
 
 Copper ore 
 
 Copper (imports include brass. 
 
 etc) 
 
 Zinc ores 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Lead ores 
 
 Lead . . . 
 Sliver ores . 
 Silver, kilos . 
 Gold, Kilos 
 Quicksilver 
 Iron p/rites . . 
 Graphite . . 
 Coal and coke 
 
 Anthracite 
 
 Lignite , . . 
 
 Asphalt 
 
 Sicilian brimstone .... 
 Romagnes refined sulphur 
 Other brimstone, . 
 
 Salt 
 
 -Boracic acid . ... 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 Soda 
 
 Niter 
 
 Superphosphates . '. . 
 Powder and dynamite . . . 
 Marble (Carrara, Masas Ser- 
 
 avessa) 
 
 Marbles, other localities 
 Pozzolana, cubic meters 
 
 'I'alc . . . 
 
 Strontianile ... 
 Ordinary lime . . . 
 Hydraulic lime 
 Cement .... 
 
 Plaster . ... 
 
 Produclion. 
 
 215,000 
 
 16,000 
 
 46,000 
 
 11,800 
 8,000 
 6,000 
 
 23,400 
 
 400 
 65,200 
 
 '35,600 
 
 10,000 
 
 750 
 
 15,000 
 
 100 
 
 109 
 
 4,000 
 
 740 
 
 ' 70O 
 120,000 
 6,000 
 . 282,000) 
 
 31,000 y 
 
 9,000 ) 
 
 321,000 
 
 2,680 
 
 13,000 
 
 15,900 
 
 1,700 
 
 4,500 
 
 1,500 
 
 132,000 
 
 46,000 
 
 230,000 
 
 7,300 
 
 1,000 
 
 . 680,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 130,000 
 
 Exports. 
 185,000 
 
 8,400 
 3,000 
 3,000 
 0,200 
 
 112 
 
 1,000 
 
 710 
 
 102,800 
 2,680 
 
 472 
 
 56,000 
 66,980 
 47,470 
 
 4,512 
 1,780 
 '3,'500 
 
 70 
 l,3iO,O0U 
 
 12,500 
 
 510 
 13,400 
 3,520 
 
 The iron of Biscay, being specially suited for Bessemer 
 steel and Krupp guns, is mostly exported to England and 
 Prussia. The largest iron works are those of two English 
 companies, and of Messers. Ibarra at Bilboa. The English 
 companies at Cordova and Grenada have extracted such 
 quantities of lead in the last twenty years, that other countries 
 have had to suspend working their mines. The most pro- 
 ductive coal-fields are those of Belmez and Seville, employ- 
 
 -Engineering and Mining Jou^ttal 
 
 Great Britain's Coal and Iron Output in 1881. 
 
 — The following statistics of the production of coal and 
 ironstone (from the coal measures only) in the United 
 Kingdom in 1881, has been supplied by the Home Office to 
 the British Iron Trade Association. The total number of 
 hands employed in and about the mines of the United King- 
 dom in 1881 was 495,477 as compared with 484,933 in 1880. 
 The number of mines at work in 1881 was 3,847 as compared 
 with 3,904 in 1880. 
 
 District. 
 Northumberland, Cumberland and North Durham 
 South Durham and Westmoreland .... 
 Ndrth Riding of Yorkshire and Cleveland 
 
 North and East Lancashire 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Coal 
 
 Ironstone. 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 15,830,720 
 
 705 
 
 21 532,773 
 
 
 7,036 
 
 6,474,484 
 
 9,326,722 
 
 
 127,58i5 
 
 
266 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 11,843,685 
 18,287,141 
 
 23,569 
 
 171,146 
 
 90,689 
 
 15,545,667 
 
 6.473,900 
 
 10;058,670 
 
 47,137 
 
 2,113,600 
 
 198,069 
 
 8,318,821 
 16,008,526 
 14,148,880 
 
 6,674,175 
 
 32,128 
 
 111,984 
 
 778,994 
 
 1,816,381 
 
 164,184,300 
 146,969,409 
 
 11,858,766 
 11,664,726 
 
 —Coal Trade Journal. 
 
 West Lancashire and North Wales . . 
 
 Yorkshire 
 
 Lineolnshire (Ironston*-) 
 
 Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire & 
 
 Warwiclcshire 
 
 North Stafford, Cheshire and Shropshire . 
 
 South Staffordshire and Worcestershire 
 
 Monmouth, Somerset, and parts of Glamorgan and 
 
 Breconshire ... 
 
 South Wales . 
 
 Scotland, East . . . 
 
 Scotland, West 
 
 Total 
 
 Ditto in the preceding yeur . . . 
 
 Consumption of Coal in Prance. — For the year 
 1880, tie consumption of coal in France was distributed as 
 follows, according to La Eouille. 
 
 Eailroads 
 
 OceaQ steamers 
 River steamers , 
 
 Mines 
 
 Other industries . . . 
 Iron and steel-works . . 
 Other metallurgical works 
 Salt-works .... 
 Domestic fuel . . 
 
 Quicksilver Production in Spain.— Through the 
 kind attention of his correspondent at Almaden, Spain, Mr. 
 J. B. Eandol, general manager of the New Almaden mines, 
 Santa Clara county, California, is enabled to place at our dis- 
 posal the accompanying statement of the production of quick- 
 silver at the famous Almaden mine for the year 1881. As usual 
 there was no work in June, July, August and September on 
 account of hot weather. It will be observed that the produc- 
 tion is given in kilograms, as 1,737,571,600 and dividing this 
 amount by the number of flasks — 50,853, we have as the 
 contents of each flask 34,507 kilograms, which, at 2.2046 
 lbs. avoirdupois to the kilogram, gives the contents of the 
 flask or bottle in English weight 76.07 lbs., or .403 of a pound 
 
 2,499,000 01 
 
 9'6 per 
 
 cent 
 
 . 450,000 " 
 
 1-8 " 
 
 " 
 
 . 112,000 " 
 
 0-4 " 
 
 " 
 
 . 1,112,000 " 
 
 4-4 " 
 
 *' 
 
 . 3,819,000 " 
 
 161 " 
 
 " 
 
 . 4,546,000 " 
 
 17-9 " 
 
 " 
 
 141,000 " 
 
 0-6 " 
 
 (( 
 
 . 115,000 " 
 
 0-5 " 
 
 
 . 12,606,006 " 
 
 49-7 " 
 
 " 
 
 less than is contained in the New Almaden " A " brand, 
 which latter have a guaranteed weight of 76.50 lbs. net. To 
 large consumers and close buyers this difference of weight 
 and quantity in favor of the product of the New Almaden 
 may be found worthy of note and we therefore call attention 
 to the. fact. 
 
 Q,uic]£silver Production of the Almaden Mine (Spain) during 
 tlie Year 1881. 
 
 Months. 
 
 Production in 
 Kilograms. 
 
 Equal in 
 masks. 
 
 January . 
 
 February . . . 
 
 March .... 
 
 April (29 days) 
 
 May (19 days) . . . . . 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 September .... 
 October (12 days) . 
 
 November 
 
 December 
 
 . . . 251,603,400 
 
 223.961,100 
 
 . . 273,743,200 
 
 . . 260,873,200 
 
 . . 192,490,200 
 
 7,288 
 6,490 
 7,933 
 7,270 
 6,578 
 
 ..... 96,5501300 
 
 . 220,876,700 
 
 227,573,600 
 
 2,798 
 6,401 
 6,695 
 
 Total 
 
 .... 1,737,571,600 
 
 60,353 
 
 Equal to 34,607 Kilograms per flask. 
 
 N. B. — 34,507 kilograms at 2.2046 fl)s. avoirdupoi8=76.07 ft»s. avoirdupois. 
 75 lbs. Spanish at 1.014331 lbs. avoirdupoi8=7ti.07 lbs. avoirdupois.— ilmin^ 
 & Scientijic Press. 
 
 Russian CoalfStatistics. — M. K. Shalkowsky, of the 
 Russian dspartment of mines, has officially published the 
 following statistics of the production of coal in Russia for 
 the year 1879. We have converted the figures on the basis 
 of 36.116 pounds to the Russian pound. 
 
 1874 
 
 1875 . 
 
 1876 . 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 . 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Nel tons. 
 
 78,813,137 
 
 1,423,245 
 
 104,348,067 
 
 1,884,313 
 
 111,302,028 
 
 2,009,941 
 
 110,120,064 
 
 1,988,647 
 
 154,024,302 
 
 2,781,363 
 
 178,238,013 
 
 3,218,661 
 
 
 —Coal 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 267 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 THE DI88EMINATI0N OF KNOWLEDGE, CONCERNING MINING 
 
 INTEBE8T8— COURSES OF ENGINEERING— SCHOOLS 
 
 OF MINES— MINING lOUBNALS—U. 8. 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 
 
 KNOWLEDGE was defined on 
 one occasion by one of 
 the Argonauts of '49 
 to be " the possession 
 of everything." Fol- 
 lowing out the Califor- 
 nian's idea the Mines, 
 Miners and Mining 
 Interests of the 
 United States 
 would not be complete 
 unless it supplied its readers with an outline or panoramic 
 view of what is being done in the country to forward a true 
 knowledge of mining matters and to prepare the mining 
 engineers for the duties before them. When in 1869 Pro- 
 fessor R. W. Raymond, who has done so much for the 
 honest growth of American mining, urged upon Congress 
 the necessity of government founding a national mining 
 school, it was done because he saw the great need of the 
 hour, and was afraid that private initiative would not 
 gratify it. Since then, though the government has taken 
 no steps in the matter, the American colleges have come to 
 the rescue, and where twelve years ago, a good outfit in 
 mining education was difficult to obtain, to-day there is 
 apparently some danger of overcrowding in the professions 
 of Mine Engineering and Metallurgy. 
 
 Their courses are full and complete, and thoroughly prac- 
 tical. The -wisdom of the old world has been drawn upon 
 wherever it would aid the altered condition of the new. 
 The student can, too, have his education for nothing. If 
 circumstances have given him only an heritage of poverty 
 the fullest and best courses in high technical education are 
 Sjill to be obtained at the cost only of hard work and earn- 
 est study. 
 
 In Part IV of our volume we furnish a good idea of the 
 course of instructions in our various colleges as far as we 
 have been able to obtain direct information from the 
 colleges, also some notes on Education at Freiburg ; Infor- 
 mation Concerning the American Institute of Mining Engi- 
 neers, the pioneer institution of its character ; a list of 
 prominent mining papers, the work of the U. S. Geological 
 Survey, the Denver Mining Exposition, and some topics of 
 .kindred interest are touched upon. 
 
 TECHNICAL EDUCATION, 
 
 IT is no doubt to the interest of a metallurgist to em- 
 ploy a skilled laborer who will prevent waste by 
 properly proportioning his materials; by regula- 
 ting the supplies of air and fuel ; by arranging his 
 plant in the most economical manner, and by disposing of 
 his products to the greatest advantage. The engineer is 
 benefited by selecting for his assistant a person able to 
 determine the values of his factors of safety for the same 
 materials in different forms and positions, avoiding expen- 
 sive suits for damages and cost of reconstruction ; he should 
 be able to so locate a road as best to fulfil the requirements 
 of a through traffic, and yet develop local industries. But 
 I need not multiply instances to show what all will readily 
 concede, viz.; the advantages of a theoretical education ; that 
 was fully demonstrated at the previous special meeting, but 
 it is still an open question whether the practical instruction 
 should precede, accompany, or follow the theory. 
 
 In carefully canvassing the opinions of the members* who 
 committed themselves on this subject, I find that eight were 
 inclined to favor the first arrangement, twelve the second, and 
 eight the last — giving a plurality in favor of the synchro- 
 nal combination of the two departments of study of thirty- 
 three per cent, over either of the other systems. Most of 
 the advocates of this middle course are men of experience in 
 both practical work and professional duties, and whose faith 
 in the ability of the schools to make it a practical success is 
 founded upon their knowledge of the requirements of both 
 theory and practice. Numerous precedents are established 
 in the technological schools of Russia, Germany, France, 
 England, Sweden, and other countries ; and so decided has 
 been the impression made in this country by the exhibits of 
 such institutions at the late Exhibition, that many of our 
 instructors and their enterprising boards of trustees are using 
 every effort to modify their rosters so as to embrace as large a 
 proportion of practical work as possible in their curricula. 
 A combined course conforms to the order of nature. From 
 the very inception of knowledge, the sound or name and the 
 thing are associated ; the senses and mind are co-laborers — 
 the first to glean, the second to direct, arrange, digest and 
 utilize the information thus obtained. The mind and hand 
 are essential to the engineer, and they are constantly called 
 upon to assist each other, and this interpreter of the mind, 
 the hand, gives exact expression to the imaginative and in- 
 ventive faculties in the only universal language, that of form, 
 as exemplified in drawings. But that the mind may direct 
 the hand intelligently, it must itself be cultivated, and thus 
 taught to know what is right or wrong, good or bad, safe or 
 
 * Members of the American Institute Mining Engineers. 
 
268 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 unsafe, practical or visionary, and such knowledge can only 
 be obtained by an intimate association with materials and 
 tools, and the methods of using them, by which is developed 
 their physical properties. To educate the mind simply by 
 reading, as in a purely theoretical course for a number of 
 years, and then to develop the practical requirements of one's 
 nature, is abnormal, and a waste of time ; the two assist each 
 other by giving substance to the idea and weight to the for- 
 mulas that may be used. 
 
 Another important consideration is the physical benefit 
 conferred by a small amount of labor. The diligent student, 
 without exercise, may graduate well, but it will be with an 
 impaired constitution, caused by constant confinement and 
 continuous and sometimes severe mental strain, which over- 
 taxes and hence weakens the intellect ; on the contrary, a 
 due percentage of shopwork not only flirnishes recreation 
 and physical exercise, but enables the student to appreciate 
 much better the practical advantage of his theory. It is 
 urged by some of the advocates for separating the courses, 
 that it is impossible to meet fully the requirements of prac- 
 tice in the schools. While this is undoubtedly true, much 
 more may be taught in a practical direction than is gen- 
 erally imagined. All practical knowledge is progressive, 
 and the sooner a student begins the better will be his 
 chance of success. It is only by knowing what has been 
 done and what has failed, with the reason why, that he 
 can proceed rapidly to add to the general fiind of in- 
 vention or discovery. The greater the number of elements 
 he possesses, the larger will be the number of possible 
 practical combinations ; and if the practical men will not 
 furnish these elements, they must not expect from the schools 
 such men as they desire to assist in developing their indus- 
 tries. The statement hais been made that " before eighteen or 
 twenty years of age the body is not generally sufficiently de- 
 veloped to endure the physical hardships of engineering." 
 My own experience was so totally at variance with this, that 
 I hope I may be excused the egotism of remarking that I 
 was but a boy fourteen years old, only four feet nine 
 inches high, and hardly more than an animated shadow, 
 from the effects of intermittent fever and too much study, 
 when my father took me from school and gave me a level 
 rod, almost as heavy as myself (at least so it seemed), and 
 so tall that I could not reach the target at the top, to oper- 
 ate on the Troy and Boston and Troy and Greenfield Rail- 
 roads, in Massachusetts, during some severe fall and winter 
 weather. Had I consulted my own comfort and convenience 
 I should have preferred anything else, but I was obliged to 
 weather it through whether I would oi not, and it was, 
 doubtless, the best school I ever attended. 
 
 A fellow-member remarks, of a blast furnace manager, 
 " though he may have efficient subordinates in various de- 
 partments, he must be able to understand and check their 
 work, and he will find it extremely useful to be something 
 of a mason, bricklayer, and carpenter, largely a surveyor, 
 engineer, and mechanic, and well up in the general princi- 
 ples of chemistry and metallurgy." This I can heartily in- 
 dorse, but I do not entirely approve the method proposed for 
 acquiring such varied knowledge, that has been : " After 
 the school practice." Graduates, as a rule, are above 
 mixing mortar, laying bricks, framing timbers, etc., but all 
 this they can be made to do willingly, if incorporated in 
 their course, and their tutor is the right sort of man, and 
 will show them how. But this introduces the difficult ele- 
 ment of finding capable teachers. It requires that they shall 
 be practical men as well as scholars, and it is one of the 
 chief obstacles to the successful establishment and operation 
 of technical schools. If a man is a successful practitioner, 
 and has the requirements of a good teacher, there are no 
 schools that can hold out sufficient inducements for him to 
 close his business and consent to teach. Again, there are 
 many who are too practical to teach, having, as they say, 
 "grown rusty on their mathematics," and most of those now 
 engaged in teaching have not the experience required to do 
 justice to so expanded a course of instruction. For the 
 present, however, the difficulty may be met by calling in the 
 ssrvice of some expert or foreman to explain the tools and 
 then- uses, and to direct students in their efforts to use them. 
 A few weeks of such practice, with carefully prepared notes 
 and sketches, would give them a fund of information they 
 could never gather from books, and would do much towards 
 
 breaking the ground for further cultivation by the profe.s- 
 sors. To accomplish this would require a small endowment, 
 to be disposed of in a manner similar to the Whitworth 
 scholarships in England. 
 
 Besides his practical knowledge, the engineer must be a 
 man of integrity and good judgment, with experience in the 
 management of men, and a financier. Most of these require- 
 ments can only be taught by combining theory and practice, 
 organizing students into squads, gangs, or parties, and ap- 
 pointing one of them foreman, who directs the workmen in 
 their several duties. By comparing the cost of a piece of 
 finished work with the estimates, they learn the value of 
 labor and materials; and so, in many other ways,, can the 
 workshop be made to supply a great defect in the older 
 methods of education. With reference to aesthetics and art 
 instruction, the greatest obstacle to progress arises from the 
 apathy of the class intended to be benefited, the manufac- 
 turers, who, to protect themselves from competition, hesitate 
 to furnish the information required to make such instruction 
 practical. Hence it is that the remark is often heard that 
 the designs of certain schools are pretty but impracticable. 
 To overcome this defect to a certain extent, the Franklin In- 
 stitute sent out the following circular to such of its members 
 as would be most apt to respond favorably, but in return 
 only a few drawings were received from a single firm : 
 
 Hall of the Fkanklin Institute, 
 
 Philadelphia, September, 1875. 
 Dear Sir : In view of the great demand for a better class of de- 
 signs in our American manufactured articles, it is proposed to give 
 especial attention to this subject in the Franklin Institute Drawing 
 Scliool during its coming sessions. In furtherance of this object, it 
 has been decided to request from manufacturers of textile fabrics, 
 paper-hangings, porcelain, etc., the donation of such articles as will 
 exhibit the necessary elements of design, such as structure, form, 
 color, etc., with any suggestion they may be pleased to make as to 
 any special requirement which must be fulfilled to make a design 
 of practical value. Donations are also requested from manufactur- 
 ers of machinery of all kinds, of drawings or models that will serve 
 as examples of mechanical drawing, representing modern practice 
 in machme building. Any services that you may render the In- 
 stitute, either by donation or information, will be properly ac- 
 knowledged. 
 
 Respectfully yours, 
 
 J. B. Knight, 
 Secretary. 
 
 Until we can have a better understanding and more perfect 
 co-operation between manufacturers, engineers, and teach- 
 ers, we cannot expect to make much progress in our efforts to 
 educate men who may practice successfully from the date of 
 their graduation. In conclusion, I have only to suggest that 
 it would be a step in advance if such organized societies as 
 this were to identify themselves with the educational insti- 
 tutions teaching kindred subjects, and by the appointment 
 of a committee on Technical Education see that such infor- 
 mation was placed within reach of those institutions as 
 would assist them in keeping up with the progress of the 
 age, and enable them to introduce, explain and exemplify 
 the latest advance in methods and processes, by giving pub- 
 lications, pamphlets, drawings, photographs, models, cres, 
 or manufactured articles to such schools ; prevailing upon 
 manufacturers to open their doors for visits of inspection by 
 students, and assisting the latter to secure positions after 
 graduating, by keeping a register of their names and ad- 
 dresses. 
 
 ~ Compiled from apcuper by Lewis W. Haupt, Professor of Citnl Engiiieerinrj, 7\uns- 
 actions Amtrican Inatitute of Mining En^iiums, 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 STUDENTS of Mining and Geology who aspire to an 
 education fitting them to the duties and trials of the 
 Mining Engineering profession will find a good 
 course of study easily available in the Towue Scienti- 
 fic School, of the University of Pennsylvania. Students are 
 practically under the supervision of Prof. George A. Konig, 
 who writes us concerning the course of study as follows: 
 
 "Special students for the course of three years, must be thorougly 
 prepared in the whole of Geometry, plane Trigonometry and 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 269 
 
 Algebra, innluding quadratic equations. Other knowledge outside 
 of plain English, is not required, however desirable. But I place 
 special stress upon a sure mathematical foundation, without which 
 uo satisfactory result can be obtained in matters belonging to Mining 
 En|;ineering. Another feature of my course, is the absence of reci- 
 tations from text books. My teaching is direct, as far from mechan- 
 ical learning as possible. Mineralogy in all its branches is treated 
 thoroughly, and altogether praoticaJQy. My lectures on ore deposits 
 I consider as very valuable facts, the specimens having all been 
 collected by myself on the spot. Ore dressing and the metallur- 
 gical treatment of ores, I have made a specialty of, and recommend 
 to the attention of all aspirants to the profession. Whilst the 
 course and its success rely mainly upon my personal exertion, they 
 are freely and wholly given to the earnest student." 
 
 The University of Pennsylvania is the outgrovpth and 
 successor of the College of Philadelphia, which was founded 
 chiefly through the influence of Dr. Benjamin Franklin 
 and Dr. William Smith. Dr. Smith was the first Provost, 
 and he is conspicuous in American college history as 
 having established here in 1757 the curriculum of study 
 which was adopted substantially by all the colleges of later 
 foundation, until scientific departments were attached to 
 them. The College of Philadelphia was chartered in 1755, 
 and is therefore the sixth in the order of succession pi 
 American Colleges. Instruction is now given in eight dif- 
 ferent departments, viz.: — 
 
 The Department of Arts, established in 1755 ; the Depart- 
 ment of Medicine, established in 1765 ; the Department of 
 Law, established in 1789 ; the Auxiliary Department of 
 Medicine, established in 1865 ; the Towne Scientific School, 
 established in 1872 ; the Department of Music, established 
 in 1877 ; the Department of Dentistry, established in 1878 ; 
 the Wharton School of Finance and Economv, established 
 in 1881. 
 
 Public commencements are held— (1.) For the Towne 
 Scientific School, on June 15th, or if this day falls on Sat- 
 urday or Sunday, on the previous Friday. The following 
 degrees are conferred : Bachelor of Science (B.S.) with men- 
 tion of special course of study pursued. The latter degree is 
 awarded to graduates of the Towne Scientific School. Post- 
 Graduate Degrees — Civil Engineer (O.E.), Mechanical En- 
 gineer (M.E.), Mining Engineer (JE.M.), to graduates in 
 Science of three years' standing; Bachelor of Science (B.S.), 
 in Sciences Auxiliary to Medicine, by the Auxiliary Faculty 
 of Medicine. 
 
 The college year in the Towne Scientific School is divided 
 into three terms : the first beginning on the 15th of Septem- 
 ber, and ending on the 24th of December; the second be- 
 ginning on the 2d of January, and ending on the Wednes- 
 day before Easter ; and the third beginning on the Tuesday 
 after Easter, and ending on the 15th of June (Commence- 
 ment Day). The annual tuition fee is $150, payable to 
 the treasurer of the university in three instalments, on 
 October 1st, January 1st and April 1st. The graduation 
 fee is $20. A separate charge of ten dollars per term 
 is made to the chemical and geological students of the 
 junior and senior classes in the Towne Scientific School, 
 tol chemicals and gas, and a like charge of five dollars 
 per term to students of the sub-junior class. Students 
 are required to have their own apparatus. Examina- 
 tions are held by the faculties of these departments, 
 partly in the month of January, and partly, for the senior 
 class in May, and for the lower classes at the close of the 
 college year in June. During the first and second terms, 
 private examinations by way of review may be held by each 
 professor. At the end of each term students who attain dis- 
 tinction are classed in order of merit. Students shown by 
 their term average to be deficient in any of their studies, 
 may be conditionally attached to their class until they prove 
 on re-examination that said deficiency has been fully made 
 up. In case of persistent neglect of study, great irregularity 
 of attendance, or evident inability to keep up with the class 
 from any cause, the student must be dropped from the rolls. 
 
 The Towne Scientific School occupies a building that has 
 a front on Locust street (between Thirty-fourth and Thirty- 
 sixth streets, Philadelphia) of 254 feet, by 102 feet 4 inches 
 in depth, exclusive of towers, bay windows, buttresses, &c., 
 with an additional projection of the center 21 feet 10 inches 
 beyond the wings. The cellar is arranged for the storage of 
 coal, and an apartment in connection, outside the building, 
 is provided for the boilers of the steam-heating apparatus. 
 
 The basement on the sides and rear is entirely above 
 ground, 15 feet high. There is an entrance in the rear for 
 students to the assembly-room, 44 feet by 50 feet, and 
 entrances on the east and west ends to a wide corridor, 
 which extends the whole length of the building, in all the 
 stories. The eastern wing contains: Laboratory, 30 by 45 
 feet, apparatus and store-room, 24 by 29 feet, metallurgical 
 laboratory, 30 by 50 feet, a fire-proof furnace-room, 24 by 34 
 feet, balance-room, 14 by 17 feet, as well as smaller rooms 
 for silver and gold assaying. The western wing contains t 
 Laboratory, 30 by 45 feet, and apparatus and diagram room, 
 24 by 29 feet, for the chemical-lecture room on first 
 floor, one laboratory, 30 by 50 feet, and one, 24 by 34 feet, 
 for the physical department. Apartment for janitor and 
 assistants are arranged on this floor, and for machinery, 
 storage, dumb-waiters, water-closets, &c. The first or prin- 
 cipal floor is 16 feet high. On the eastern side of the main 
 entrance is the faculty-room of the scientific department, 13 
 by 22 feet, professors' laboratory, 19 by 45 feet, preparing 
 laboratory, 21 by 24 feet, qualitative laboratory, 30 by 45 feet, 
 quantitative laboratory, 30 by 50 feet, laboratory for organic 
 analysis, 24 by 34 feet, two balance-rooms and two assis- 
 tants' rooms. On the western side is the reception and sec- 
 retary's room, 13 by 22 feet, trustees' and faculty-room, 19 
 by 37 feet, provost's recitation-room, 24 by 33 feet, and private 
 room, 14 by 18 feet, chemical-lecture room, 30 by 45 feet, 
 physical-lecture room, 30 by 50 feet, and apparatus-room, 24 
 tDy 34 feet. The library in center of rear, 44 by 50 feet, is 
 entered from a hall 34 by 40 feet. This part of the build- 
 ing is fire-proof. The second floor is 15 feet 6 inches high. 
 The chapel 50 by 80 feet, occupies the front of the center 
 building, and is 28 feet high. The eastern side contains lec- 
 ture-rooms for civil engineering, mining and metallurgy, 
 and mineralogy, and a large museum for these departmente. 
 The western side and center of rear is divided into six large 
 recitation-rooms, with adjoining private rooms. The third 
 floor is 14 feet high, and contains three large recitation- 
 rooms, lecture and model rooms for mechanical engineer- 
 ing, three large rooms for the study and practice of drawing 
 in the departments of civil and mechanical engineering, 
 architecture, &c. A large examination-hall is in the rear 
 of the chapel. The fourth floor, over the chapel, has two 
 society-rooms for students, each with an adjoining library. 
 The design is in the collegiate gothic style ; the material 
 used is Lieperville stone, for the basement, with base 
 course of Hummelstown brownstone. The walls above are 
 serpentine marble, with cornices, gables, arches, &c.,. of 
 Ohio stone. The entrance-porch is of Franklin stone, 
 with arch supported on polished red-granite columns, with 
 enriched capitals of Ohio stone. The windows of chapel 
 and gables are decorated with geometrical tracery. The 
 space devoted to the sciences more immediately connected 
 with mining and metallurgy is one-half of the building. 
 The chemical departments were planned by the late Prof. 
 Wetherell, of Bethlehem. 
 
 The Faculty.— William Pepper, M. D., LL. D., Pro- 
 vost of the University, and ex-officio President of the 
 Faculty. Rev. Charles P. Krauth, D.D., LL. D., Vice-Pro- 
 vost, and Professor of Intellectual and Moral Philosophy. 
 E. Otis Kendall, LL. D., Dean of the Faculty, Professor of 
 Mathematics. J. Peter Lesley, LL. D., Professor of Geo- 
 logy and Mining. Oswald Seidensticker, Ph. D., Professor 
 of the German Language and Literature. John G. K. 
 McElroy, A. M., Professor of Rhetoric and the English 
 Language. Rev. Robert E. Thompson, A. M., Professor of 
 Social Science. Frederick A. Genth, Ph. D., Professor of 
 Chemistry and Mineralogy. George F. Barker, M. D., Pro- 
 fessor of Physics. Lewis M. Haupt, C. E., Professor of 
 Civil Engineering. Thomas W. Richards, A. M., Professor 
 of Drawing and Architecture. George A. Koenig, Ph. D., 
 Assistant Professor of Chemistry, Instructing in Metallurgy, 
 Technical Chemistry, and Mineralogy. Samuel P. Sadtler, 
 Ph. D., Assistant Professor of Chemistry, instructing iu 
 General and Organic Chemistry. Joseph T. Rothrock, B. 
 S. M. D., Professor of Botany. William D. Marks, Ph. B., 
 C. E., Whitney Professor of Dynamical Engineering. Otis H. 
 Kendall, A. M., Assistant Professor of Mathematics. Andrew 
 J. Parker, M. D., Ph. D., Professor of Comparative Anatomy 
 and Zoology. John Welsh, Centennial Professor of History 
 and English Literature. 
 
270 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Instructors and Assistants. — Morton W. Easton, Ph. 
 D., Instructor in French and in Elocution. Henry W. 
 Spangler, Assistant Engineer U. S. N., Instructor on Marine 
 Engineering and Naval Architecture. Carl Hering, B. S., 
 Instructor in Dynimical Engineering. Frederick A. Genth, 
 Jr., M. S., Assistant in Analytical Chemistry. Herman A. 
 Keller, B. S., Assistant in Geology and Mining Engineering. 
 Lawrence B. Fletcher, Ph. D., Assistant in Physics. John 
 G. McElroy, Secretary. 
 
 In order that this professional training shall be complete 
 and systematic, and rest upon a broad basis, so that the 
 student at its close may not be a mere specialist, but a man 
 of liberal education as well, the course is comprehensive, 
 extending through five years.* The students are divided 
 into five classes, — Senior, Junior, Sub-Junior, Sophomore, 
 and Freshman. The first two years are devoted, not merely 
 to a thorough training in the preparatory and elementary 
 Mathematics, Chemistry, and the methods of scientific re- 
 search in general, but (for a considerable portion of the 
 time) to instruction in History, English Composition, and 
 Rhetoric, as well as to the Modern Languages and to Me- 
 chanical and Free-hand Drawing. At the close of these 
 two years, the student is presumed to be prepared for studies 
 of a strictly professional or technical character, and he then 
 selects one of six parallel courses, in which instruction is 
 given in this department. During the last three years, his 
 work is confined mainly to the studies of one or another of 
 these courses, in accordance with the plans he may have 
 formed in regard to his future profession. 
 
 Terms of Admission and Degrees. — Candidates for admis- 
 sion to the Freshman Class must pass an examination in the 
 following subjects : 
 
 Geogbapht. — Ancient and Modern Geography. (Mitchell's Nenv 
 Ancient Geography and Ancient Atlas are recommended.) 
 
 English. — Grammar, Composition, and Etymology (Greek and 
 Latin Roots.) 
 Abbott's How to Parse indicates the amount required in Gram- 
 mar, and Sargent's Manual the amount in Etymology. A com- 
 position, one (foolscap) page long, will be required on a theme 
 to be set at the time of the examination. 
 
 Mathematics. — Arithmetic (including the Decimal System of 
 Weights and Measures), Algebra (through Quadratic Equations,) 
 Geometry (th^ first four books of Cliauvenet or Wentworth). 
 
 The professional courses from which a student may select 
 are at present — I. A course in Analytical and Applied 
 Chemistry and Mineralogy. II. A Course in Geology and 
 Mining. III. A Course in Civil Engineering. IV. A 
 Course in Mechanical Engineering. V. A Course in Draw- 
 ing and Architecture. VI. A Course Preparatory to the 
 Study of Medicine. 
 
 On the completion of any one of these professional courses, 
 in addition to the studies pursued by the whole class during 
 the five years of the curriculum, and on the presentation of 
 a satisfactory thesis, the student is graduated Bachelor of 
 Science. Special students, not candidates for a degree, 
 may be received into any of the professional courses, when 
 the Professor in charge of that course is satisfied of their 
 competency to profit by his instruction. They take all the 
 studies that the Professor thinks necessary to the complete- 
 ness of the course, together with such others as the faculty 
 may require. At the end of the course, upon passing the 
 examinations required and presenting a satisfactory thesis, 
 they will receive a Certificate of Proficiency. Application 
 should be made to the Professor in charge of the department 
 in which the student wishes to study ; and definitive arrange- 
 ments may be made with him, — subject, however, to the ap- 
 proval of the Faculty. 
 
 Course, Methods, and Means of Study — Instruction is made 
 as practical as possible. It is given by lectures and recita- 
 tions, — and by daily exercise m the Laboratories and the 
 Drawing and Model Rooms. These are open to the students 
 all day, work being required of the higher classes in the 
 afternoon as well as in the morning hours. 
 
 • The four years' curriculum heretofore in force has been found 
 too short for the work required of undergraduates in this Faculty, 
 and it has accordingly been lengthened to five years. The state- 
 ments in the catalogue have been adapted to the new arrangement ; 
 but the Seniors, the Juniors, and one section of the Sophomore 
 Class, are pursuing the four years' course, whose requirements will 
 be found in the catalogue of 1879-80. 
 
 In the Department of Chemistry, the Sophomores have a 
 course of fully illustrated lectures, covering the whole 
 ground of Inorganic Chemistry. In the Sub-Junior year, 
 their woi'k commences in the Analytical Laboratories, while 
 they also attend lectures on Mineralogy and Metallurgy. In 
 the Junior and Senior years, Qualitative and Quantita- 
 tive Analysis and the making of Chemical Preparations are 
 combined with lectures on Organic Chemistry and practical 
 work on Metallurgical and Technical Subjects. 
 
 Students in Geology and Mining Engineering are trained 
 in drawing-rooms in the platting of original field-notes, in 
 contouring, in making relief maps of mineral properties, and 
 in constructing sections on an equal vertical and horizontal 
 scale, converting thereby their maps into clay and plaster 
 models, with coloring to show the structure of the country. 
 Solid models of underground work are made to show the 
 position of the veins and beds, and the connection of these 
 with the surface. To these are added illustrative diagrams 
 and pictures, calculations of quantity, and whatever else is 
 needed for the preparation of professional reports. 
 
 Students in Civil Engineering are instructed by recita- 
 tions, lectures, and practical work, so as to develop to the 
 best advantage the qualities required of the practical 
 engineer. The afternoons and Saturdays are devoted to 
 drawing and practical work in the shop, or to the surveying 
 or visiting public or private works, manufactures, etc. 
 
 The Course of Drawing includes the projection of maps; 
 various methods of representing Topography ; conventional 
 signs ; problems in shades, shadows and perspective ; details 
 of framing ; composition ; general drawings for constructions 
 in wood, stone, and iron ; special designs ; working draw- 
 ings for modelling ; platting; and drawing of profiles and 
 cross-sections. 
 
 In visiting shops and manufactories, students are required 
 to collect all the practical intbrmation possible, and to em- 
 body it in a written report, noting particularly any new or 
 special features for economizing time or materials, improved 
 methods of assembling parts, etc., as well as the general 
 plant, apparatus, and facilities for receiving and shipping 
 materials. 
 
 T:):yQ jidd practice embraces the various problems in chain 
 surveying, the measurement of areas, and the computation 
 of results; line surveys and location, cross-sections and 
 levels for estimating quantities, hydrography, topography 
 with the plane-table, and the solution of such geodetic 
 problems as relate to the orientation of maps. 
 
 Students of Dynamical Engineering are required to give 
 particular attention to the kinematics of mechanism, to the 
 conditions under which work and power act, and the means 
 of regulating and transmitting the same ; to the problems of 
 hydraulics or hydraulic motors, and to the mechanical 
 theory of heat, with its applications to the steam engine, 
 etc., as will appear from the detailed course of study given 
 elsewhere. 
 
 Special attention is given to the execution of drawings, 
 first from designs and models, and afterwards from calcula- 
 tions ; and also to the methods of casting and working 
 in iron, and of making and using machine tools. The 
 recent appointment to this department of an Instructor in 
 Marine Engineering and Naval Architecture provides for 
 instruction in these subjects. Weekly visits of inspection 
 will be made during two years of the course to blast fur- 
 naces, foundries, machine shops, iron and steel rolling-mills. 
 The instruction in Physics extends over three complete 
 years. In the Sub-Junior year, the subjects treated are 
 Elementary Mechanics and Sound, the exercises consisting 
 of recitations from a text-book, illustrated by experiments, 
 with occasional lectures. In the Junior year, the subjects 
 treated are Heat and Light, the instruction being by lectures, 
 with recitations and examinations. In the Senior year, 
 lectures are delivered on Electricity, and on Astronomical 
 and Terrestrial Physics. The Senior Class receives also 
 practical instruction in the Physical Laboratory throughout 
 the year. The education of the eye and hand which is thus 
 given, secures familiarity with apparatus and the knowledge 
 of methods of precise measurement. 
 
 The Rogers Engineering Library is composed of standard 
 works on the various sub-divisions of the profession, treat- 
 ing of drawing, mathematics, astronomy, physics, surveying 
 i and explorations, technical works on the roads, and strength 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 27i 
 
 and properties of materials, railroads, tunnels, canals, water- 
 supply, drainage, architecture, mechanics, navigation, 
 harbor improvements, park and landscape engineering, with 
 a valuable collection of Reports of American, English and 
 French Engineering Societies, and periodicals, Coast Survey 
 and hydrographic charts, maps, diagrams and drawings. 
 Letters of inquiry may be addressed to Professor E. 0. Ken- 
 dall, Dean of the Faculty, or to Professor J. G. E. McBLroy, 
 its Secretary, at the University. 
 
 CODRSB OF STUDY. 
 
 Freshman Year.— .ffiVo'^r.— Freeman's General Skelc/i of Bis- 
 
 lory. 
 English. — Abbott's Sow to Write Clearly, a,nd ilcElroy' a System 
 
 of PancluaUon. 
 French. — Collot's Pronoimciiig French Reader. Bregy'a Compen- 
 
 dimn of Grammnlical Rales (First Part). 
 Mathematics. — Thompson aud Quimby's Algebra. Chauvenet's 
 
 Geometry, Chauvenst's Plane Trigonometry. 
 J)raioi?ig.— Geometrical and Isometrical Drawing (Minifie), and 
 
 Drawing from the Flat. Free-Haud Sketching. Use of the 
 
 Scale and Protractor. Shading in India Ink. Graphical re- 
 presentations from Geometry. 
 German. — Schmitz's German Grammar; Elementary German 
 
 Header. 
 Sophomore Year.— .Enjfii's/i..— Elements of Ehetoric (Lectnres). 
 
 Haldeman's Outlines of Etymology. Lounsbury'a English 
 
 Language. Compositions and Declamations. 
 German. — Hodge's Course of Scientific German. Storm's Immensee. 
 
 Guide lo German Conversation. Translations into German. 
 J^reiic/i.^Souvestre's Un Philosophe sous les Toils. Bregy's Com- 
 
 pendiwmof Grammatical Rules. (Part II). 
 Mathematics. — Chauvenet's Spherical Trigonometry. Bowser's 
 
 Analytical Geometry. Descriptive Geometry. 
 Drawing. — Linear Perspective. Geometric and Isometric Drawing. 
 
 Projection of Shadows. Architectural Detail and Ornament. 
 
 Gothic Tracery. Shading in India Ink. Free-Hand Draw- 
 
 Chemistry. — Inorganic Chemistry (experimental Lectures). 
 
 STUDIES PURSUED BY THE ■WHOLE CLASS. 
 
 Sub-junior year — Chenmstry. — Exercises in Analytical Chem- 
 istry and recitations in analytical and general Chemistry. 
 
 Physical Science. — Mechanics (including Hydrostatics and Pneu- 
 matics), Sound. 
 
 Mineralogy. — Crystallography and General Description of Mine- 
 rals. 
 
 Mathematics. — Descriptive Geometry. Differential Calculus. 
 
 German. — Ber Mensch und die Natur Lessing's Nathan der 
 Weise. 
 
 French. — Racine or Corneille. 
 
 English. — Critical Reading of English Authors. Compositions 
 and Declamations. 
 
 1. Studies pursued by the Chemical Section. 
 Mineralogy. — Special description of species, and practical exercises 
 in determining minerals by their physical properties. 
 
 2. Studies pursued by the Geological and Mining Section. 
 Mineralogy.— Ssime as in 1st section. 
 
 3. Studies pursued by the Civil Engineering Section, 
 Engineering.— Spherical Projections. Graphical Statics. 
 J/ni/ifmaft'ci.— Differential Calculus. 
 
 Drawing. — Topographical Charts. Problems in map projections. 
 Perspective. Details of frames, joints, etc. 
 
 4. Studies pursued by the Dynamical Engineering Section. 
 
 Math emah'cs.— Differential Calculus. 
 
 Dalies. — The applicationof the principles of Statics to Rigid Bodies. 
 The Elasticity and Strength of Materials. Forms of uniform 
 strength. Theory of framed structures. Stability of structures. 
 Theory of the arch. Strains in parts of mechanism. The 
 Equilibrium and Pressure of fluids, as water, air, steam, etc. 
 The equilibrium of fluids with other bodies, stability of vessels; 
 determination of specific gravity ; use of Hydrometers, Mano- 
 meters, Gauges, etc. The Equilibrium of Funicular Struc- 
 tures. 
 
 Orowmj/.— Copies of bolts and nuts; riveting; gudgeons, pivots, 
 axles, shafts, couplings, pillow-blocks; shaft-hangers, pulleys, 
 sheaves, and gear-wheels ; connecting rods and cranks, working- 
 beams, crossheads, pipe-connections, valves, steam cylinders, 
 pistons, stuffing-boxes, glands, etc., etc. 
 
 STUDIES PURSUED BY THE WHOLE CLASS. 
 
 Junior YEAWi.— Physical Science.— Hea,t and Light. Lectures and 
 
 Recitations. „ , , ,, . ■^, ., 
 
 Philosophy.— Mwater's Logic. Intellectual and iloral Philosophy. 
 jPn^iisA.— Compositions and Declamations. 
 Descriptive and Determinate Mineralogy. 
 
 Elements of Geology. 
 
 Metallurgy.— Theory of Metallurgical Processes. Construction of 
 Furnaces. Dressing and Mechanical Treatment of Ores. 
 
 1. Studies pursited by the Chemical Section. 
 
 Organic Chemistry — Lectures and making of organic chemical pre- 
 parations and organic analysis. 
 
 Qualitative analysis By the blowpipe, in connection with reactions 
 in the humid way for the rapid determination of Minerals 
 and Ores. 
 
 Introduction to Metallurgy. — Theory of Metallurgical Processes ; 
 theory and construction of furnaces and other metallurgical ap- 
 paratus. Dressing of ores considered theoretically and practi- 
 cally. 
 
 Assaying of ores and fuels, with special application of volumetric 
 analysis. 
 
 Demonstration of the principal metallurgical processes by furnace 
 practice. 
 
 Instruction in the practical production of chemical salts, prepara- 
 tions, and simple substances in their greatest perfection and 
 purity ; and also according to the principles whicn govern their 
 manufacture on a large scale. 
 
 Qualitative Analysis of more complex substances, with practice in 
 determining the color and condition of products and in the 
 determination of minerals. 
 
 Qualitative Analysis and detection of the rarer elements and organic 
 constituents of bodies. Introduction of Quantitative Analysis. 
 Use of the spectro-scope in qualitative determinations. 
 
 2. Studies pursued by the Geological and Mining Section. 
 
 Lithology and Palseoutology. — Examination and determination of 
 Rocks and of Fossil Organic forms. 
 
 Mining Engineer. — Methods used in searching for and developing 
 deposits of valuable Minerals. Sinking of Shafts. Drifting 
 and Stopeing. 
 
 Drawing and Modelling. 
 
 Dynamical Engineeiing. — Statics and Dynamics of rigid bodies. 
 Determination of centres of gravity; moments of flexure, rup- 
 ture, etc. Practical exercises in constructing and drawing ma- 
 chines. 
 
 Surveying. — Same as Section 3. At the beginning of summer vaca- 
 tion a complete mine survey will be executed in the coal re- 
 gions. 
 
 Analytical Chemistry, Metallurgical Practice and Assaying. — The 
 same as the Chemical Section. 
 
 Field excursions into the neighboring mineral districts forthe demon- 
 stration of practical Geology. 
 
 3. Studies pursued by the Civil Engineeiing Section. 
 
 Mathematics. — Differential and Integral Calculus. 
 
 Surveying. — Field-Practice ; including Chain Surveying, Use of 
 Compass, Transit and Plane-Table in measuring lines and 
 areas, Traversing and Location of Roads, Drains, etc., on To- 
 pographical Charts. Recitations from Gillespie's Land and 
 Higher Surveying, Henck's Field-Book for Engineers, and 
 Earthwork Formnlse, 
 
 Drawing,— Toposra,phy in ink and colors, Studies in Contours. 
 Platting field-notes ; Shades, Shadows, and Perspective. 
 
 Architecture.— OrnSLment. History of Architecture. Decorations 
 and Shading. 
 
 Engineering. — Mechanics of Engineering, embracing the Statics of 
 Rigid Bodies, Determinations of the Centres of Gravity, Mo- 
 ments of Flexure, Rupture, Resistance, Torsion, Analysis of 
 Bridge and Roof Trusses, Strength and Properties of Mate- 
 rials, etc. 
 
 Modelling. — Construction of Scarfs and Joints used in Framing, 
 Centres, Caissons, Coffer-Dams, Trestles, Bents, etc., from work- 
 ing drawings. 
 
 4. Studies pursued by Dynamical Engineering Section. 
 
 Mathematics. — Differential and Integral Calculus. 
 
 Statics. — The application of the principles of Statics to Rigid Bodies. 
 The Elasticity and Strength of Materials. Forms of uniform 
 strength. Theory of framed structures. Stability of structures. 
 Theory of the arch. Strains in parts of mechanism. The 
 Equilibrium and Pressure of fluids, as water, air, steam, etc. 
 The equilibrium of fluids with other bodies; stability of ves- 
 sels ; determinations of specific gravity ; use of Hydrometers, 
 Manometers, Gauges, etc. 
 
 Kinematics.— haws of motion. Elementary combinations of Pure 
 Mechanism. Pulleys and belts. Trains of gearings and forms 
 of teeth of wheels. Parallel motions. Link and valve motions, 
 with a consideration of the various forms of valves, illustrated 
 by working models. 
 
 Drainng.-Frora the model and original design. 
 
 Construction and Practical -4p/>M(;a«4ons.— Weekly visits of inspec- 
 tion will be made to blast-furnaces, foundries, iron and steel 
 rolhng-mills, ship-yards, steam and hydraulic forges, etc. 
 
 5. Studies pursued by the Section in Drawing and Architecture. 
 Mathematics.— DiSerential and Integral Calculus. 
 Drawing and Architecture—The Study of Executed Works and of 
 Buildings in Progress. History of Architecture, illustrated by 
 
272 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 views of structures of all ages. Ornament. Shading in India 
 Ink. 
 Engineering. — Same as Section 3. 
 
 6. Studies in the Course preparatory to Medical Studies. 
 
 Ohemistrii. — Laboratory Practice in Qualitative Analysis. Organic 
 
 Ctiemistry (Lectures and practical analysis.) 
 Sotany. — Systematic Botany and Special Morphology. 
 Zoology. — Invertebrate Zoology and Embryology. 
 Latin. — Reading of Latin Authors. 
 
 SENIOR CLASS.— STUDIES PUKSUED BY THE WHOLE CLASS. 
 
 English. — Compositions. Declamations. 
 lEsiory. — Mediaeval History. Lectures. 
 Social Science. — International Law. Thompson's Social Science and 
 
 National Economy. 
 Astronomy. — Gummere's Astronomy. 
 Physical Science. — Electricity, Astronomical Physics, Practical 
 
 Physics (Instruction in the Physical Laboratory.) 
 Geology. — Structural Geology of North America with reference to 
 
 that of Europe, and with the principal minerals and fossils, 
 
 distribution of metals and fuels. History of Geology. 
 
 1. Studies pursued by the Chemical Section, 
 
 Lectures on the applications of Organic Chemistry in the useful arts. 
 Quantitative Gravimetric Analysis of the simple and coniplex salts 
 
 and minerals. Volumetric Analysis and preparation of normal 
 
 solutions. Gas Analysis. Manufacture, graduation, and use of 
 
 eudiometers. 
 Determination of the constituents of cast-iron and steel. Practice 
 
 in Agricultural Chemistry, and Analysis of Manures. 
 Determination of small amounts of impurities (adulteration and 
 
 poison in food and drinli) . Analysis of water of mineral springs. 
 
 Practice in production of Chemical preparations. Quantitative 
 
 Blowpipe Analysis. 
 Special Metallurgy — Gold, Silver, Lead, Copper, Zinc, Cobalt, 
 
 Nickel, etc. Metallurgy of Iron and Steel treated with special 
 
 attention. Metallurgical practice. Construction of plans for 
 
 metallurgical works, with estimates of cost. 
 Practical determination of minerals by their physical properties. 
 
 2. Studies pursued iy the Geological and Mining Section. 
 
 Geology. — The ore and Coal deposits of the United States in their 
 topographical and structural relations. 
 
 Mining Engineering. — -Ventilation and Drainage of Mines. De- 
 scription and construction of Mining Macliinery. 
 
 Dynamical Engineering. — Motors and Principles of Mechanism. 
 
 Surveying. — The survey made during the previous vacation will be 
 mapped. 
 
 MetiiUurgy, Analytical and Didactic Chemistry. — with Section 1. 
 
 Practice in Lithological Determination by means of microscopic sec- 
 tions and microchemieal tests. 
 
 Construction and Application of Geological Sections relating to pro- 
 blems of mining. 
 
 3. Studies pursued by the Civil Engineering Section. 
 
 Engineering. — Nomenclature of and Constructions in Masonry, 
 Timber, Iron and Steel, as applied to Lighthouses, Bridges and 
 Roofs, Depots, and other engineering structures. Strains in 
 Girders and similar structures. Equilibrium of Arches and 
 Retaining Walls. Tunnelling and Earthworks, with the re- 
 quired plant and organization. Sea-Coast and Harbor Improve- 
 ments. Canal and River Improvements. Transportation. 
 Hydraulics. Preparation of estimates and contracts. Reports 
 on Tours of Inspection. Thesis, etc. 
 
 Drawing. — Details of Engineering Works, Composition, Plans, 
 Sections, Elevations, Profiles and Cross-Sections. Working 
 drawings. Platting field notes and computations from data. 
 
 Surveying. — Eield Practice. Reconnoissance, Use of Prismatic 
 Compass, Level, Solar Transit, Repeating Theodolites, and 
 Heliotropes, Sketching ; Preliminary Surveys for and Locations 
 of Roads, Railroads or Canals ; Hydrography ; Laying Out of 
 Parks ; Use of Sextant, etc. 
 
 Geodesy. — Measurement of Bases, Triangulation, Determination of 
 Meridian, Latitude, Longitude, Time, and Azimuth. 
 
 Visits of Inspection to public and private works, with reports thereon. 
 
 Architecture.— BimAing, Decorations. History of Architecture (con- 
 tinued). 
 
 Metallurgy. — Technical Chemistry and Metallurgy. 
 
 Modelling.— Coxistfa<A\on of trusses for bridges and roofs, girders, 
 etc. Conducting experiments on strength of beams and trusses, 
 Problems in stone-cutting. Tunnels. 
 
 4. Studies pursued by the Dynamical Engineering Section. 
 
 Tlie Analysis and Synthesis of Mechanism. — Machine Tools and 
 their principles. Lectures on forging, riveting, pattern-making and 
 moulding, 
 
 Dynimiics. — Lectures on the conditions under which work and 
 power act, and the means of regulating and transmitting the same. 
 
 The Efflux of Fluids. The Flow of Fluids through pipes. The 
 Impulse and resistance of Fluids. Theory of Oscillation of Fluids. 
 Lines of least resistance. Hydraulic Motors Turbins, overshot, 
 breast, and undershot water-wheels. 
 
 Thermodynamics. — Value of Fuels. Strength, safety, and evap- 
 orative power of boilers. Steam and its properties. The Mechani- 
 cal Theory of Heat. Stationary, locomotive and marine Steam 
 Engine. Lectures on the proper proportions of the various parts of 
 the Steam Engine. 
 
 Lectures on, and Use of Instruments.- — Steam Engine Indicator. 
 Planimeter. Dynamometer. Odontograph. Slide Rules. Arith- 
 mometers. Trammel and Testing Macliines. Peaucelier's Com- 
 pound Compass. 
 
 Construction and Practical Applications. — Weekly visits of inspec- 
 tion wUl be made to blast-furnaces, foundries, machine shops, 
 iron and steel rolling-mills, ship-yards, steam and hydraulic 
 forges, etc., etc. 
 Drawing. — Original designs. Designs and calculations for special 
 
 machines. Detailed working drawings with specifications. 
 Metallurgy. — Chemical Technology and Metallurgy. 
 
 5. Studies pursued by the Section in Architecture and Drawing. 
 
 Engineering. — Calculation of the strength of roofs and bridges. 
 
 Foundations, retaining walls, arches. Same as Section 3. 
 Architecture. — Elements of designs and principles of composition. 
 
 Ornament of all styles. Sketching and measurement of works 
 
 executed and in progress, building materials and processes. 
 
 Specifications. Contracts. 
 Drawing. — Plans, Elevations, and Sections of original designs. 
 
 Exercises with perspective views. Water-color. 
 The students of the school for the academical year 1882-3 are as 
 follows : Post-Graduate, 1 ; Seniors, 24 : Juniors, 23 : Sophomores, 
 42 ; Freshmen, 49 ; Special Students, 33. Total Matriculates in 
 Towne Scientific School, 171. 
 
 The Lehigh University. — The Hon. Asa Packee of 
 Mauch Chunk, during the year 1865, appropriated the sum 
 of Five Hundred Thousand Dollars, to which he added one 
 hundred and fifteen acres of land in South Bethlehem, to 
 establish an educational Institution in the rich and beauti- 
 ful Valley of the Lehigh. From this foundation rose The 
 Lehigh University, incorporated by the Legislature of 
 Pennsylvania in 1866. In addition to these gifts, made 
 during his lifetime, Judge Packer by his last will secured to 
 the University an endowment of $1,500,000, and to the 
 University Library one of $500,000. The original object of 
 Judge Packer was to afford the young men of the Lehigh 
 Valley a complete technical education for those professions 
 which had developed the peculiar resources of the surround- 
 ing region. Instruction was to be liberally provided in 
 Civil, Mechanical and Mining Engineering, Chemistry, 
 Metallurgy, and in all needful collateral studies. French 
 and German were made important elements in the collegiate 
 course. A School of General Literature was part of the 
 original plan, together with tuition in the ancient Classics. 
 The Institution was freely opened to pupils from every part 
 of the country and the world. It will be observed tliat all 
 these educational facilities are provided without charge. 
 Through the generosity of the Founder, the Trustees were 
 enabled, in 1871, to declare tuition free in all branches and 
 classes. The Lehigh University is open to young men of 
 suitable talents and training from every part of our own 
 land and of the world. To this fact the attention of the pu- 
 pils of our public schools and of the graduates of classical 
 institutions is especially called. Thus is offered witlwut 
 charge, every facility for studying the professions of the 
 Civil, Mechanical and Mining Engineer, and of the Metal- 
 lurgist and Analytical Chemist. In the Classical and Sci- 
 entific departments of the School of General Literature 
 instruction is given to those who wish to become lawyers, 
 clergymen, physicians, editors, or merchants. 
 
 Expenses. — Tuition is free in all branches and classes. 
 Boobs, materials, paper, pencils, chemical materials used in 
 the analytical laboratory, and drawing instruments, are 
 furnished by the student. Rooms and board can be had in 
 University buildings, under the following rules: 
 
 1. The room-rent, for each term, must be paid in advance 
 to the Treasurer of the University. The price for board 
 must also be paid monthly in advance. 
 
 2. The charge for board and room-rent shall be $5 per 
 week. Where two students occupy a room jointly, the 
 charge shall be $4.50 per week for each. The charge for 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 273 
 
 room without board shall be $2 per week for each room. 
 These prices include gas and heat. 
 
 3. The choice of rooms shall be in order of the classes ; 
 in any class the first applicant to have the first choice. 
 
 4. Students may retain their rooms from year to year by 
 giving notice of their intention so to do'at the close of the 
 academic year, and by procuring their tickets therefor on or 
 before the first day of the next term. 
 
 5. Students are required to keep their rooms in order, or 
 to employ some proper person to do so for them. 
 
 6. No furniture for rooms will be provided by the Uni- 
 versity. 
 
 7. The use of kerosene, coal oil or burning fluid, in any 
 of the buildings, is prohibited. The following is an estimate 
 of the necessary expenses for the collegiate year, clothing 
 and traveling not included : 
 
 Board for 40 wepks 
 
 Room rent, with fuel and lights . 
 Care of room and use of furniture . 
 "Washing and incidentals . 
 Books, stationery, etc. . . 
 
 from $100 to S2on 
 
 " 40 " 80 
 
 " 6 ■' 20 
 
 15 " 30 
 
 •' 20 " 45 
 
 Total . . 8240 to *375 
 
 Note. — If clubs be formed the cost of board need not exceed $3.50 per 
 week. 
 
 Admission. — Application for admission into the Uni- 
 versity should be made to the President, from whom all 
 information may be obtained. Candidates for the Fresh- 
 man class are examined orally and rigorously. All candi- 
 dates must be at least sixteen years of age, must present 
 testimonials of good moral character, and satisfactorily pass 
 in the following subjects : 1. English Grammar, including 
 composition, spelling, and punctuation. It is recommended 
 that candidates have a knowledge of Latin Grammar, 
 although an examination in it is not required for any other 
 course than the classical. 2. Geography, general and politi- 
 cal. 3. Historyof the United States. 4. Physical Geography, 
 Mitchell's or Guyot's, or an equivalent. 5. Arithmetic, 
 including the metric system of weights and measures. 6. 
 Algebra, through equations of the second degree. 7. Chau- 
 venet's Geometry, or Davies' Legendre, six books, (Chauvenet 
 preferred). 
 
 All applicants for regular standing in the classes or 
 schools must be prepared to pass an examination according 
 to the programme of studies. A student may be admitted 
 at any time if able to pass a satisfactory examination in the 
 studies already pursued by the class that he proposes to enter. 
 The only exception will be in the case of a young man who 
 is very nearly but not thoroughly prepared to enter in full 
 standing and who may, at the discretion of the Faculty, be 
 admitted conditionally, to make up his deficiencies bjr extra 
 study. When they are made up, he will be received in fiill 
 standing into hia class. Young men who do not desire to 
 take a full regular course may enter, upon a satisfactory 
 examination, and select special shorter courses, with the 
 sanction of the Faculty. 
 
 Programme of Studies. — The following is presented 
 as the general programme of instruction, subject to such 
 modifications from time to time as the Faculty may deem 
 expedient, with the approval of the Trustees. The names 
 of the text-books studied are generally mentioned. The 
 number of exercises per week in each subject is indicated by 
 the figure in parenthesis immediately following. Two hours 
 of Drawing, three of work in the Laboratory, or three of 
 practice in the field, are equivalent to a recitation or lecture 
 of one hour's duration. 
 
 Faculty. — Robert A. Lamberton, LL.D., President. 
 Henry Copple, LL.D., Professor of English Literature, In- 
 ternational and Constitutional Law, and the philosophy of 
 History. William H. Chandler, Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of 
 Chemistry and Director of University Library. Benjamin 
 W. Frazier, A.M., Professor of Mineralogy and Metallurgy, 
 H. W. Harding, A.M., Professor of Physics and Mechanics. 
 James P. Kimball, Ph.D., F.G.S., Professor of Economic 
 Geology. C. L. Doolittle, C.E., Professor of Mathematics 
 and Astronomy. W. A. Lamberton, A.M., Professor of the 
 Greek Language and Literature. Mansfield Merrimau, C.E., 
 Professor of Civil Engineering. S. Ringer, U. J.D., Professor 
 of Modern Languages and Literatures and of History. Henry 
 C. Johnson, A.M., LL.B., Professor of the Latin Language 
 and Literature. The Rev. Frederic M. Bird, A.M., Chaplain 
 18 
 
 and Professor of Psychology, Christian Evidences and Rhet- 
 oric. Edward H. Williams, Jr., E.M., A.C., Professor of 
 Mining and Geology. J. F. Klein, D.E., Professor of Me- 
 chanical Engineering. Lectuber. — Traill Green, M.D., 
 LL.D., Lecturer on Physiology and Hygiene. Insteuc- 
 T0E8.—- Spencer V. Rice, C.E., Instructor in Drawing and 
 Civil Engineering. E. H. S. Bailey, Ph.B., Instructor in 
 Chemistry. A. E. Meaker, C.E., Instructor in Mathematics. 
 Lester P. Breckenridge, Ph.B., Instructor in Drawing and 
 Mechanical Engineering. A. W. Sterner, Clerk to the 
 Director of Library. 
 
 Caleudaiv-1882-83. 
 
 1882. 
 Sept. 4-5, Monday and Tuesday Examinations for Admission. 
 Sept. 6, Wednesday . . . First Term begins. 
 Oct. 12, Thursday . . . Founder's Day. 
 Nov. , Thursday .... Thanksgiving Day. 
 Dec. 20, Wednesday . . . First Term ends. 
 
 1883. 
 Jan. 10, Wednesday . . . Second Term begins. 
 
 The School of Technology. — This school includes 
 four distinct courses: I. The Course in Civil Engineering; 
 II. The Coursein Mechanical Engineering; III. The Course 
 in Mining and Metallurgy; IV. The Course in Chemistry. 
 These have the same curriculum of studies for the first 
 three terms (one year and a half.) At the end of that time 
 the student selecte his course and follows its programme. 
 
 riKST TERM. 
 
 Freshman class. — MatheiiMtics. — Chauvenet's Geometry, (com- 
 pleted). (5) 
 
 Physics. — Mechanics, with Lectures. (2) 
 
 German. — Otto's Grammar. Writing in German Text. Trans- 
 lations into English. (3) Or French. — Fasquelle's Introductory 
 Course. Chouquet's Reader. (3) 
 
 Dra/unng. — Elementary Projections, Shading and Lettering. 
 Free-Hand Drawing. (4) 
 
 Physiology and Health. — Lectures. (1) 
 
 English. — Essays and Declamations. (2) 
 
 SECOOTJ TEKM. 
 
 Mathematics. — Olney's University Algebra, Part III. (3) Plane 
 and Spherical Trigonometry and Mensuration. Use of Logarithmic 
 Tables. (2) 
 
 Chemistry. — ^Lectures. Fownes' Elementary Chemistry. (3) 
 German. — Otto's German Grammar. Translations. Ahn's Second 
 German Reader. (3) Or French. — Languillier and Monsanto's 
 Practical French Course. Translations. Keefcel's Analytical 
 Reader. (3) 
 Botany. — Lectures and Practice. Gray. (1) 
 Dramng. — Projection Drawing. Descriptive Geometry. (2) 
 English. — Essays and Declamations. (2) 
 
 THIRD TERM. 
 
 Sophomore Class. — Mathematics. — Analytical Geometry. Ol- 
 ney's General Geometry. (4) 
 
 Cftemis*™.— Lectures and Laboratory Practice. Galloway's Qual- 
 itative Analysis. (5) 
 
 Physics — Heat, Meteorology, Magnetism and Statical Electricity, 
 with Lectures. Laboratory Practice in these branches and Mechan- 
 ics. Barometrical leveling and Measurement of heights. (3) 
 
 German. — Otto's Grammar. Oral translations. Ahn's Reader. 
 (2) Or French — Languillier and Monsanto's Practical French 
 Course. Translations. Keetel's Analytical Reader. (2) 
 
 Drawing. — Isometric Drawing. Architectural Drawing. (2) 
 
 Eiiglish. — Essays and Declamations. (1) 
 
 The Course of Civil Engijieeriiig. — ^The general scope 
 of this Course comprises the higher branches of the applied 
 mechanics and mathematics, together with the principles 
 of construction and exercises in mapping, drawing and de- 
 signing. The student is made acquainted with the strength 
 of materials, including the theory of elasticity or flexure, 
 the principles of construction of roof- trusses, beams, girders 
 and bridges, the determination of their proper dimensions 
 and the preparation of working-drawings. Under this head 
 belong also the theory of the stability of structures, includ- 
 ing the theory of the arch and of retaining walls ; the prin- 
 ciples of hydrostatics and hydraulics with their applications 
 to vertical water-wheels and turbines. The theoretical 
 priciples are in all case3 illustrated by examples from actual 
 engineering practice. Much time is devoted to surveying 
 operations and to actual practice in the field. Profiles, 
 plans of topographical surveys, contour maps, and railroad 
 charts are made. The practical operations connected with 
 
274 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the reconnaissance, location and survey of roads, canals and 
 railroads, are fully illustrated in the field. Thorough in- 
 struction is given in drawing, the construction of working 
 drawings of structures, topography and hydrographical 
 charts. 
 
 A.ttention is also paid to the application of the general 
 principles of the science of engineering, or to engineering 
 construction, induing the composition and qualities of ma- 
 terials ; their dressing and preservation ; foundations, earth 
 and rock-work ; the drainage, collection and distribution of 
 water. Visits of inspection to engineering structures in the 
 Lehigh Valley and vicinity are regularly made. So much 
 of Mechanical Engineering is necessarily included, as refers 
 to the construction of bridges, and the special machinery 
 and appliances used in the erection of structures. There is 
 also thorough instruction in mineralogy and geology. The 
 course in astronomy in the Senior year includes practical 
 work in the observatory. Designs for and reviews of special 
 structures, specifications and estimates of quantities and cost, 
 and the preparation of a graduation thesis giving evidence 
 of satisfactory attainments, complete the course of study. 
 The graduate in this course will receive the degree of Civil 
 Engineer. (C. E.) 
 
 SECOND TERM. 
 
 Sophomore Class. — Mathematics. — Differential and Integral 
 Calculus : Olney. (4) 
 
 Physic. — Galvanism, Acoustics, Light, with Lectures and Labor- 
 atory Practice. (5) 
 
 German.— Systematic Readings. Translation. Dictation. (2) 
 Or French. — • Wall's Student's Grammar. Systematic Readings. 
 Dictation. (2) 
 
 Drawing. — Line Shading. Sketching. Drawing of Structures 
 from actual measurement. (2) 
 
 Surveying. — Use of Compass, Level and Transit. Maps of Farm 
 Surveys. Profile and Contour Maps. (3) 
 
 .English. Essays on Scientific subjects. Declamations. (1) 
 
 FIRST TERM. 
 
 Junior Class. — Mathematics. — Integeral Calculus : Courte- 
 nay. (2) 
 
 German. — Systematic Readings. Lectures on Syntax. Composi- 
 tions in German. {2) Or French. — Readings. Translations. Dic- 
 tation. (2) 
 
 Mechanics. — Smith. Mathematical Theory of Motion. Science 
 of Motion in General. Statics. Dynamics and Statics of Fluids. 
 Lectures on the Theory of Centre of Gravity and Momenti of 
 Inertia. (5) 
 
 Surveying. — Triangulation. Leveling. Topographical Surveys 
 and Maps. (4) 
 
 Construction. — Materials of Construction. Carpentry. Masonry. 
 Foundations. (1) 
 
 Cryslallography. — Lectures, with practical exercises in the deter- 
 mination of Crystals. (2) 
 
 Fnglish.— Essays on engineering subjects. Declamation. (1) 
 
 SECOND TEEM. 
 
 German — Systematic Readings. Compositions. (2) Or French. 
 Systematic Readings. Compositions. (2) 
 
 Strength of Materials.— Elastioity and strength of wood, stone, and 
 metals. Theory of columns, shafts, and beams. Testing of mate- 
 rials. (3) 
 
 Surveying. — Railroad Reoonnoissance and Location. Survey of a 
 Line, with profile, map and estimate of cost. (3) 
 
 Stone- Cutting. — "Working drawings of piers and arches. (2) 
 
 Construction. — Methods of construction and maintenance of 
 roads and railroads. (1) 
 
 Prime Movers.—Steam Engines and their accessories. (3) 
 
 Mineralogy. — Descriptive Mineralogy, with practical exercises In 
 the determination of minerals. (3) 
 
 Essays and Original Orations. 
 
 FIRST term. 
 
 Senior Class.— ^s«roreo)/it/.— Descriptive Astronomy: (3) 
 Roofs and Bridges. — Theories and calculation of strains in trusses. 
 
 (3) 
 Graphical Statics.— knaXysia of roof trusses and arches. (2) 
 Surveying.— Vse of plane table and sextant. Hydrographlc sur- 
 
 vejs and charts. Gauging of streams. Geodetic" surveying (3) 
 Construction and Design.— Study of bridge details. Reports on 
 
 stability of bridges. Design for a simple structure. (3) 
 
 Geo%2/.— Lithology, with practical exercises in determining 
 
 rocks. (3) 
 
 SECOND TERM. 
 
 Astronomy.— Fraotical Astronomy as applied to Geodesy and 
 Navigation. Lectures and Observatory work. Determination of 
 Latitude, Longitude and Azimuth. Practice with the Sextant 
 Transit and Zenith Telescope. ■ (2) 
 
 Surveying. — Mine Surveying, with practical work. (1) 
 
 Hydraulics. Flow of water In pipes and rivers. Water supply 
 engineering. Hydraulic motors. (3) - 
 
 Construction and Design. Speclfieations and Contracts, with 
 Designs and Estimates for Engineering Projects. Patent office 
 Rules and Regulations. (2) 
 
 Practical Dynamics. Machinery for transporting, handling, and 
 lifting materials. (2) 
 
 Geology. Historic, dynamic and economic. Dana. (3) 
 
 English Literature, Lectures. (2) 
 
 Christian Evidences. — Lectures. (1) 
 
 Preparation of Theses. 
 
 The Course in Mechanical Engineemng. — The ob- 
 ject of this course is the study of the Science of Machines ; 
 the principal subjects taught are: the nature, equivalence 
 and analysis of mechanisms, the mechanics or theory of the 
 principal classes or types of machinery. Mechanical Tech- 
 nology and the principles and practice of Machine Design. 
 
 That the students may obtain the practical engineering 
 data which they will most need when beginning their work 
 as mechanical engineers, they are required to pursue a course 
 of Shop Instruction which does not necessarily involve 
 manual labor and manipulation of tools but is principally 
 devoted to familiarizing them with those points in pattern- 
 making, moulding, forging, fitting and finishing, which they 
 need to know as designers of machinery. Particular atten- 
 tion is therefore directed to the forms and sizes of machine 
 parts that can be readily constructed in the various work- 
 shops, to the time that it takes to perform and the order of 
 the various operations, to the dimensions most needed by 
 workmen (in order that the students may learn to dimension 
 working drawings judiciously) and to the various devices — 
 ordinarily escaping the beginner's notice — for increasing 
 the accuracy of the work, durability of the parts, conveni- 
 ences of manipulation and safety of the workmen. This in- 
 volves acquaintance with the processes and machinery of 
 the workshops, but it is the foreman's and superintendent's 
 knowledge which is required rather than the manual dex- 
 terity and skill of the workman and tool-hand. The ac- 
 quirements peculiar to the latter are by no means despised, 
 and students are encouraged to familiarize themselves 
 therewith during leisure hours, but manual work in the 
 shops forms no regular part of the course. On the contrary, 
 the student enters the shop with hands and mind free to 
 examine all the processes, operations and machinery, and 
 ready at any moment at the call of the teacher, to witness 
 an operation of special interest or to examine into the causes 
 of and remedies for any sudden break down. Dressed in 
 overalls and provided with note-book, pencil, calipers and 
 measuring rule, the student sketches the important parts of 
 the various machine-tools, notes down the successive steps 
 of each of the important shop-processes as illustrated by the 
 pieces operated upon, and, having first obtained a clear idea 
 from the working drawings of what is about to be constructed, 
 follow pieces of work through the shops from the pig or 
 merchant form to the finished machine. 
 
 That the students may learn to observe carefully and be 
 trained to think and observe for themselves in these matters, 
 there is required of them a full description of the various 
 processes, operations and tools involved in the production of 
 each one of a series of properly graded examples of patterns, 
 castings, forgings and finished pieces which are not being 
 constructed in the shops at the time and the drawings or 
 blue prints for which have been given to them on entering 
 the shops. The student's work is directed not only by these 
 drawings and by the printed programme given him at the 
 start,_ but also personally by a teacher, who accompanies 
 him into the shops, gives necessary explanations, and who 
 tests the extent and accuracy of his knowledge by examining 
 the sketches and notes, and' by frequent questioning. Fi- 
 nally the results of these observations and the sketches made 
 are to be neatly embodied in a memoir. 
 
 During the course there are frequent visits of inspection 
 to engineering works, both in and out of town, with special 
 reference to such subjects as Prime Movers, Machinery for 
 lifting, handling and transporting, and Machinery for chang- 
 ing the form and size of materials. It is intended that eacli 
 of these excursions shall have some definite purpose in view 
 which must be fully reported by the students. The instruc- 
 tion in Machine Design, during the second term of Junior 
 year, consists in determining rational and empirical formu- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 275 
 
 las for proportioning such, machine parts as come under the 
 head of fastenings, bearings, rotating, sliding and twisting 
 pieces, belt and toothed gearing, levers and connecting rods, 
 also, in comparing recent and approved forms of these same 
 parts with respect to their advantages as regards iitness, 
 ease of construction and durability, and in making full 
 sized working drawings of these parts; all the dimensions 
 are determined by the students from the above mentioned 
 formulse, the data being given as nearly as possible as they 
 would arise in practice. During the first term of the Senior 
 year, the students undertake the calculations, estimates and 
 working drawings involved in the design of a simple but 
 complete machine, each student being engaged upon a diff- 
 erent machine. From the finished drawings of each machine, 
 tracings are to be made and then "blue prints" taken for 
 distribution among the other members of the class. During 
 the latter part of the term the whole class take up the de- 
 sign of a steam engine, every dimension being determined 
 by the students, and complete working drawings made. In 
 the case of the simple machines and of the steam engine, 
 the general plan or arrangement will be given to the stu- 
 dents in the form of either rough sketches, photographs or 
 wood-cuts. This work will continue to the middle of the 
 last term of the Senior year. From this time on the stu- 
 dents are expected to make original designs for simple mech- 
 anisms, whose object has been fully explained. Throughout 
 the course the work in the draughting room is carried on as 
 nearly as possible like that of an engineering establishment, 
 and special attention is paid to methods of expediting the 
 work of calculation by means of simple formulae, tables and 
 diagrams. The graduate in this course will receive the 
 degree of Mechanical Engineer (M. E.) 
 
 SECOND TEKM. 
 
 SoPHOMOKE Class. — Mathematics. — Differential and Integral 
 Calculus: Olney; (4) 
 
 Physics. Galvanism, Acoustics, Light, with Lectures and Lab- 
 oratory Practice. (5) 
 
 German. Systematic Readings. Translation. Dictation. (2) 
 Or French. Systematic Readings. Dictation. (2) 
 
 Drawing. Line Shading. Sketching, Drawing of Machines 
 from actual measurement. (2) 
 
 Kinematics. Nature and equivalence of mechanism. (3) 
 
 English. Essays on scientific subjects. Declamations. (1) 
 
 FIRST TEKM. 
 
 Mathematics. — Integral Calculus : Courtenay. (2) 
 
 German. Systematic Readings. Compositions. (2) Or French. 
 Systematic Readings. Compositions. (2) 
 
 Mechanics. Smith. Mathematical Theory of Motion. Science 
 of Motion in general. . Statics. Dynamics and Statics of Fluids. 
 Lectures on Theory of Centre of Gravity and Movement of Inertia (5) 
 
 Mechanical Technology. Shop instruotipn. Examination of the 
 processes and • appliances involved in pattern making, moulding, 
 forging, fitting and finishing, with sketches and reports. (7) 
 
 Essays and Declamations. (1) 
 
 SBCOiro TEEM. 
 
 German — Systematic Readings. Compositions in German. (2) Or 
 French. — Systematic Readings. Compositions. (2) 
 
 Strength of Materials. — Elasticity and strength of wood, stone and 
 metals. Theory of beams, shafts and columns. Experimental 
 tests. (3) 
 
 Prime Movers. — Steam Engines and their accessories. 
 
 Machine Design. — Proportioning of siich machine parts as come 
 under the head of Fastenings, Bearings, Rotating and Sliding 
 Pieces, Belt and Toothed Gearing, Levers and Connecting Rods. 
 (5) 
 
 Metallurgy. — Metallurgical Processes. Furnaces. Refractory. 
 Building Materials. Combustion. Natural and Artificial Fuels. 
 Metallurgy of Iron. (4) 
 
 Essays and Original Orations. 
 
 FIRST TERM. 
 
 Sbniob class. — Thermodynamics. — General principles ; applica- 
 tion Steam Engines and Air Compressors. (3) 
 
 Graphical Statics. — Geographical analysis of roof trusses and 
 girders. (2) 
 
 Machine Design. — Calculations and working drawings for the 
 following machines : Drills, Hoists, Pumps, and Shearing, Punch- 
 ing and Milling Machines. Design for a Steam Engine begun. (5) 
 
 Kinematics. — Diagrams of the changes of position, speed and 
 acceleration in mechanisms. Link and valve motions. Quick re- 
 turn Motions. f3) 
 
 Practical Dynamics.— Maxshinery for lifting, handling and- trans- 
 porting materials. (2) 
 
 Mechanical Engineering Instruments. — Appliances and apparatus 
 
 for gauging, recording and testing employed in shops and in ex- 
 perimental work. (2) 
 
 SECOND TERM. 
 
 Practical Dynamics. — Machinery for lifting, handling, and trans- 
 porting materials. (2) 
 
 Machine Design. — Design for a Steam Engine completed. Origi- 
 nal Designs. (5) 
 
 Hydraulics. — Flow of water in pipes and channels ; hydraulic 
 motors. (2) 
 
 Measurement of Power. - Indicating of Steam Engines ; deter- 
 mination of evaporative efficiency of boilers ; dynamometer experi- 
 ments. (1) 
 
 ifiWWori.— Setting of Machinery and transmission of power, (1) 
 
 ,^ec»/catioJts.— Contracts. — Requirements of Patent Office. (1) 
 
 English Literature.— hectVLrea. (2) 
 
 Christian Evidences. — Lectures. (1) 
 
 Preparation of Theses. 
 
 The Course in Mining and Metallurgy.— In addition 
 to the physics, chemistry, literature, higher mathematics 
 and mechanics necessary to all technical education, the 
 scheme of studies comprises courses in mining, metallurgy, 
 geology, mineralogy, dynamics, qualitative and quantitative 
 analysis, blowpipe analysis, topographical and mine survey- 
 ing and drawing. On account of the great number and scope 
 of the studies necessary to the completion of this course, it is 
 five years in length. The graduate in this course will re- 
 ceive the degree of Engineer of Mines. (E. M.) At the 
 completion of the fourth year of this course, the student 
 will receive the degree of Bachelor of Metallurgy. (B. M.) 
 
 In the courses of mineralogy, geology and analytical 
 chemisfiry, much attention is paid to the practical instruction 
 of the student in determining minerals by their crystallo- 
 graphical and physical properties, and, by the aid of blow- 
 pipe analysis, in the determination of rocks ; in the quali- 
 tative and quantitative examination of ores and metallurgi- 
 cal products and in the rapid methods of assaying ores by 
 the dry and wet ways employed in metallurgical laboratories. 
 The location of the University in the vicinity of the iron 
 works of the Lehigh Valley and especially of the extensive 
 establishment of the Bethlehem Iron Company, affords 
 unusual facilities for the practical study of iron metallurgy. 
 The processes for the manufacture of spelter and oxide of 
 zinc may be studied at the Bethlehem Zinc Works. The 
 facilities for the practical study of mining and economic 
 geology are not excelled by those of any other Institution in 
 the country. The zinc mines at Friedensville and the 
 brown hematite and slate deposits of the Lehigh Valley are 
 in the immediate vicinity, while within easy reach by rail 
 are the anthracite coal fields of Pennsylvania, the ii-on and 
 zinc mines of New Jersey, and the celebrated iron mines at 
 Cornwall, Pa. 
 
 SECOND TEKM. 
 
 SOPHOMOBB CLASS. — Mathematics. — Differential and Integi'al 
 Calculus ; Olney. (4) 
 
 Physics. — Galvanism, Acoustics, Optics, with Lectures and La- 
 boratory Practice. (5) 
 
 German. — Systematic Readings. Translation. Dictation. (2) 
 Or JVcncA.— Systematic Readings. Translation. Dictation. (2) 
 
 Assaying. — Including the Assay by the dry methods of Gold, Sil- 
 ver, Copper, Lead, Iron and Tin ores. Laboratory Work. Rieketts. 
 
 (1) 
 
 Chemistry. — Quantitative Analyses : Laboratory Work. Frese- 
 nius. (5) The following analyses are executed by the students. 
 
 1. Iron "Wire (Fe) 
 
 2. Bronze (Cu, Sn, Zn) 
 
 3. Silver Coin (Au, Ag, Pb, Cu) 
 
 4. Zinc Ore (Zu) By both Gravimetric and Volumetric Methods. 
 
 5. Copper Ore. (Cu) 
 
 6. Speigeleisen (Mu) 
 
 7. Lead Ore (PbS) 
 
 8. Ilemenite (TiO^) 
 
 FIRST TERM. 
 
 Junior class. — Mathematics.— InissraX Calculus: Courtenav. 
 (2) 
 
 Mechanics.— ^xaSxh. Mathematical Theory of Motion. Science 
 of Motion in general. Statics. Dynamics and Statics of Fluids. 
 Barometrical Leveling and Measurement of Heights. Lectures on 
 Theory of Centre of Gravity and Movement of Inertia. (5) 
 
 Chemical Philosophy. — Cooke. (5) 
 
 Kinematics. — Diagrams of the changes of position, speed and ac- 
 celeration in Mechanics. Link and Valve motions. Quick Return 
 motions. 
 
276 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 (?er7»Kire.— Systematic Readings. Compositions in German. (2) 
 Or French.— 'Reading. Translation. Dictation. (2) 
 
 SECOND TERM. 
 
 Metallurgy.— MetaXlurgicaX Processes. Furnaces. Eefractory 
 Building Materials. Combustion. Natural and Artificial Fuels. 
 Metallurgy of Iron. 14) 
 
 Blow-pipe Analysis.— Lecturea with Practice. Plattner, Brush, 
 or Nason and Chandler. (1) 
 
 Prime Movers. — Steam Engines and their accessories. (3) 
 
 Strength of Materials. — Elasticity and strength of Wood, stone 
 and metals. Theory of beams, columns and shafts. (3) 
 
 Surveying. — Use of Compass, Level and Transit. Maps of Farm 
 Surveys. Profiles and Contour Maps. (3) 
 
 Germaji.— Systematic Headings. Compositions in German. Or 
 French. — Systematic Readings. Compositions. (2) 
 
 Drawing. — Elements of Machine Design. Plans and Elevations 
 of Furnaces. (2) 
 
 FIEST TEEM. 
 
 SENIOR Class.— Metallurgy.— Ot Copper, Lead, Silver, Gold, 
 Platinum, Mercury, Tin, Zinc, Nickel, Cobalt, Arsenic, Antimony 
 and Bismuth. (5) 
 
 Crystallography. — Lectures with Practical Exercises in the deter- 
 mination of Crystals. (2) 
 
 Thermodynamics. — General Principles : Applications to Steam 
 Engines and Air Compressors. (3) 
 
 Practical Dynamics. — Machinery for lifting, handling and trans- 
 porting matter. (2) 
 
 Poofs and Bridges. — Theory and calculation of strains in framed 
 trusses. (3) 
 
 Chemistry.— Fresenms' Quantitative Analysis. (2) The follow- 
 mg analyses are executed by the students : 
 
 9. Iron Ore (Complete Analysis) 
 
 10. Limestone (Complete Analysis) 
 
 11. Coal (Volatile Matter,— Fixed Carbon, Ash, (HjO, S, P) 
 
 SECOND TEEM. 
 
 Mineralogy. — Descriptive Mineralogy, with Practical Exercises 
 in the Determination of Minerals : E. S. Dana. (3) 
 
 Blow-pipe Analysis — Practice. (1) 
 
 Hydraulics. — Flow of water in pipes and channels ; hydraulic 
 motors. (2) 
 
 Practical Dynamics. — Machinery for lifting, handling and trans- 
 porting matter. (2) 
 
 Measurement of Poww.— Indicator Cards. Determination of 
 Evaporative Efficiency of Boilers. Dynamometer Experiments. 
 
 Mill Work. — Setting of Machinery and Transmission of Power 
 
 English Literature — Lectures. (2) 
 Christian JSvidences. — ^Lectures. (1) 
 
 Chemistry. — Fresenius' Quantitative Analysis. (3) The follow 
 in» analyses are executed by the students : 
 
 12. Slag. (Complete Analysis). 
 
 13. Manganese Ore (MuOj) 
 
 14. Pig Iron (Complete Analysis) 
 
 15. Nickel Ore (Ni. Co) 
 
 16. Gas Analysis (Complete Analysis of Illuminating Gas) 
 Projects. — On Metallurgical Subjects. (1) 
 
 fiest teem. 
 
 Fifth Yeae. 
 (3) 
 
 Mining. — Modes of Occurrence of the Useful Minerals. Search- 
 ing for Mineral Deposits. Examination of Mining Properties. Bor- 
 ing. Mining Tools, Machines and Processes. Timbering and Masonrv 
 Gallon. Andre. (4) •'' 
 
 Geology.— hiiholo^y, with practical exercises in determining 
 Eooks. Cotta. Eutley. General Geological Definitions and Prin- 
 ciples. Dana. (4) 
 
 Zoology — Lectures. (2) 
 
 Surveying.— Tii2.ag\ila,twn. Levelling. Topographical Survevs 
 and Maps. (4) r a sf i 
 
 SECOND TEEM [tO EASTER.] 
 
 Mining.— 'a.atho As of "Working. Underground Transportation. 
 Hoisting, Drainage and Pumping, and Lighting. Ventilating. Me- 
 chanical Preparation of Ores. Coal Washing. (3) 
 
 Geology. — Historic, Dynamic and Economic. (4) 
 
 Mine Surveying. — Practice in the mines. Map Drawing. (2) 
 
 Astronomy. — Practical work. (2) 
 
 Drawing.— mning Plant. System of Timbering. Geological 
 Maps and Sections. (4) 
 
 Pro/ects.— In Mining, Geology and Metallurgy. (2) 
 third TERM [after EASTER.] 
 
 Astronomy. — Practical work. (2) 
 Notes on mining costs. 
 Excursions. 
 Theses. 
 
 -Astronomy. — Descriptive Astronomy ; Loomis. 
 
 Chemical Philosophy and Organic Chemistry being taught 
 by daily recitations in the Junior and Senior years. In an- 
 alytical Chemistry, the course of Qualitative Analysis in 
 the first term of the second year is followed by preparation 
 of Chemical Compounds and purification of Chemicals. 
 
 Subsequently, Quantitative Analysis is pursued to the end 
 of the course, including the Dry Assaying of Ores of gold, 
 silver, copper, lead, iron and tin, and the Wet Analyses, in- 
 cluded in the appended schedule. In addition, courses of 
 Lectures on Medical, Agricultural and Technical Chemistry 
 are given, and various industrial establishments in the 
 neighborhood and in Philadelphia and New York are visited 
 in the company of an instructor. The course also includes 
 thorough instruction in Physics and Mechanics, Mineralogy 
 and Blow-pipe Analysis, Metallurgy, Geology and Descrip- 
 tive Astronomy. The lastterm of the Senior year is mainly 
 devoted to the preparation of a Thesis on some subject, 
 selected by the professor, involving practical work in the 
 Laboratory, in addition to the literary labors, and each grad- 
 uate will thus make a contribution to the progress of the 
 science as a preliminary to the reception of his degree. The 
 course is thus seen to include thorough instruction in theo- 
 retical and applied chemistry, in their various branches, as 
 well as in those cognate sciences of such great value to the 
 chemist. 
 
 The Laboratories are under the immediate charge of the 
 Professor and his Assistant, and together with the Lecture- 
 room, are unsurpassed in excellence by any similar es- 
 tablishment in the country, being supplied with all the 
 modern improvements. The collections of apparatus, speci- 
 mens and models, illustrating theoretical and applied chem- 
 istry, are already important and rapidly increasing. ■ 
 
 Students are charged for the chemicals and apparatus 
 consumed. If the student is moderately careful, this ex- 
 pense need not exceed $60 per year 
 
 The graduate of this course will receive the degree of 
 Analytical Chemist. (A.C.) 
 
 SECOND TERM. 
 
 Sophomore C-lass.— Mathematics, Differential and Integral 
 Calculus ; Olney. (4) 
 
 PAj/sics.— Galvanism, Acoustics, Light : with Lectures and Lab- 
 oratory Practice. (5) 
 
 German Systematic Readings, Translations. Dictation. (2) 
 Or French. Systematic Readings. Translations. Dictation. (2) 
 
 Chemical Preparations. Including the Preparation of Chemical 
 Compounds and the Purification of Chemicals by Distillation, Sub- 
 limation, Fusion, Crystallization, Precipitation, etc. (2) 
 
 Assaying. Including the Assays by the dry methods of gold 
 silver, copper, lead, iron and tin ores. Ricketts. (1) ' 
 
 Blow-Pipe Analysis. Lecture with Practice. Plattner, Brush 
 or Nason and Chandler. (1) 
 
 Essays and Declamations. (1) 
 
 C5) 
 
 The Course in Chemistry.— This course of instruction 
 continues the subject of Theoretical Chemistry from the 
 general course of the two previous terms, the subject of 
 
 first teem. 
 Junior Class. Chemical Philosophy. Coke. 
 Toxicology. Otto on Poisons. (1) 
 
 Quantitative Analysis. Fresenius' Quantitative Analysis. (6) 
 The following analyses are executed by the students : 
 
 1. Iron Wire(Fe) 
 
 2. Potassic Dichromate (CraOs) 
 
 3. Baric Chloride (Ba, C1,H,0) 
 
 4. Magnesic Sulphate (MgO.SOa, HaO) 
 
 5. Hydro Di-Sodic Phosphate (PaOs) 
 
 6. Bronze (Cu, Sn, Zn) 
 
 7. Rochelle Salt (KaO, NajO) 
 
 8. Volumetric Determination of Chlorine. 
 
 9. Acidimetry (HCl, HaSO., HNO,) 
 
 10. Alkalimetry (KOH, NaOH, NH,OH) 
 
 11. Chlorimetry (Bleaching Powders) 
 
 12. Silver Coin (Au, Ag, Pb, Cu) 
 
 13. Zinc Ore (Zu) 
 
 Cri/siallography.— Lectures, with Practical exercises in the De- 
 termination of Crystals. (2) 
 
 German.— Systematia Readings. Compositions in German (2) 
 Or I< rench.— Systematic Readings. Compositions. (2) 
 Anatomy and Physiology.— Lectures. (1) 
 
 SECOND TERM. 
 Organic Chemistry. — Wohler. (3) 
 
 Quantitative Analysis.— Fresenim' Quantitative Analysis. (7) 
 1 he toUowing analyses are executed by the student • 
 
 14. Copper Ore (Cu) 
 
 15. Spiegeleiaen (Mn) 
 
 16. Lead Ore (PbS) 
 
 17. Ihuenite (TiOj) 
 
 18. Iron Ore (Complete Analysis) 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 277 
 
 20. Coal (Volatile Matter,— Fixed Carbon, Ash Ha O, S, P) 
 
 21. Slag. Complete Analysis. 
 
 Jlf««a«iM-3j/.— Metallurgical Processes. Furnaces. Refractory 
 Building Materials. Combustion. Natural and Artificial Fuels. 
 Metallurgy of Iron. (4) 
 
 Oerman. — Systematic Readings. Compositions in German. (2) 
 Or French — Systematic Readings. Compositions. (2) 
 
 Mineralogy. — Descriptive Mineralogy, with Practical exercises 
 in the Determination of Minerals. E. S. Dana. (3) 
 
 FIHSr TERM. 
 
 Senior Class. Metallurgy.— 01 Copper, Lead, Silver, Gold, 
 Platinum, Mercury, Tin, Zinc, Nickel, Cobalt, Arsenic, Antimony 
 and Bismuth. (5) 
 
 Quantitative Analysis. — Presenius' Quantitative Analysis. (8) 
 The following analyses ara executed by the student : 
 
 22. Guano (NHj, PjOs, HjO) 
 
 23. Clay (Com])lete Analysis) 
 
 24. Manganese Ore (MnOj) 
 
 25. Mineral Water (Complete Analysis) 
 
 26. Pig Iron (Complete Analysis) 
 
 27. Nickel Ore (Ni, Co) 
 
 28. Organic Analysis (C, H, O, N) 
 
 29. Gas Analysis (Complete Analysis of Illuminating Gas) 
 Astronomy, — Descriptive Astronomy : Loomis. ^3) 
 
 SECOND TEKM. 
 
 Chemistry Applied to the Arts. — Lectures. (3) 
 Medical Chemistry. — Lectures. (1) 
 Agricultural Chemistry. — Lectures. (1) 
 
 Geology. — Historic, Dynamic and Economic Geology. Lectures. 
 Dana. (41 
 
 Christian Evidences. — Lectures. (1) 
 
 English Literature and History . — Lectures. (2) 
 
 Preparation of Theses. 
 
 Graduating Theses. — Every student will be reguired to 
 present a thesis upon some topic connected witii his special 
 course, as a necessary portion of the exercises for his final 
 examination for a diploma. These theses shall be accom- 
 panied by drawings and diagrams, when the subjects need 
 such illustration. The originals will be kept by the univer- 
 sity, as a part of the student's record, for ftiture reference ; 
 but a copy maybe retained by the student, and be published, 
 permission being first obtained from the President. 
 
 Diplomas and Certificates. The diploma is given only to 
 those who have passed all the examinations in a regular 
 course and is signed by the President and Secretary of the 
 Board of Trustees and by the Faculty of the University. 
 For all partial courses a certificate is given showing what 
 the student has accomplished, and is signed by the President 
 and Secretary of the Faculty. 
 
 Graduate Students. — Graduates of the University wishing 
 to remain a year or more and pursue a course of studies as 
 candidates for another degree may do so with the sanction of 
 the Faculty. Graduates wishing to take special courses of 
 study will be afforded every facility in so doing. 
 
 Post Graduate Degrees. — M. A. — The Faculty will 
 recommend for the degree of Master of Arts candidates 
 otherwise properly qualified, who after taking at this Uni- 
 versity the degree of Bachelor of Arts, shall pursue for at 
 least two years, at the University, a course of liberal study 
 approved by the Faculty, pass a thorough examination in 
 the same, and present satisfactory theses. Ph. D. — ^The 
 Faculty will recommend for the degree of Doctor of Philos- 
 ophy, candidates otherwise properly qualified, who, after 
 taking at this University either of the degrees of Civil, 
 Mechanical or Mining Engineer, or Analytical Chemist, 
 shall pursue, for two years, at the University a course of ad- 
 vanced scientific study in the line of their profession, pass a 
 thorough examination in the same, and present satisfactory 
 theses. D. So. — The Faculty will recommend for the 
 degree of Doctor of Science, candidates otherwise properly 
 qualified, who, after taking at this University, the degree 
 of Bachelor of Science, shall pursue for at least two years, 
 ai the University, a course of scientific study, embrac- 
 ing two subjects approved by the faculty, pass a 
 thorough examination showing in one of the subjects 
 special attainments, and shall present satisfactory 
 theses in one of the subjects, based upon original scientific 
 investigation. Candidates for any of the above post grad- 
 uate degrees, who are not graduates of this University, must 
 ■give satisfactory evidenoe of having fulfilled the require- 
 ments for graduation in the corresponding undergraduate 
 course ; the acceptance of a certificate as evidence of pro- 
 
 ficiency, in lieu of examination, is at the discretion of 
 each professor as to the subjects in his department. The 
 requirement of residence may be omitted in special cases 
 by the Faculty. 
 
 Students' Societies. -The Chemical and Natural Eistory 
 Society. — This Society was organized in . the Fall of 
 1871, as " The Chemical Society," but was afterwards ex- 
 panded, as its present title indicates, and admits by election, 
 students from all departments of the University. The col- 
 lections of Chemical Preparations, and Botanical and 
 Zoological Specimens belonging to the Society are already 
 important. During the past years persons have been sent 
 to Texas and Brazil to collect specimens for these cabinets. 
 The Society has organized and maintained several courses 
 of public scientific lectures. Among the honorary members 
 of the Society are more than one hundred of the most dis- 
 tinguished scientists in Europe and the United States. 
 
 The Engineering Society — This Society was organized in 
 1873, and admits by election students in the Junior and 
 Senior Classes. Its meetings are held monthly. 
 
 LAFAYETTE COLLEGE, EASTON, PA. 
 
 THIS College furnishes in its Scientific Department an 
 opportunity to the student of acquiring that educa- 
 tion that will be the most useful to him in his en- 
 counter with mining and metallurgy. The faculty is 
 as follows : 
 
 Rev. William C. Cattell, D. D., LL. D., President, and 
 Professor of Mental and Moral Philosophy. (The Hon. 
 John I. Blair Foundation.) Traill Green, M. D., LL. D., 
 Professor of Chemistry. (William Adamson Professorship 
 of Analytical Chemistry.) Francis Andrew March, LL. D., 
 Professor of the English Language and Comparative Philo- 
 logy. Rev. John Leaman, A. M., M. D,, Professor (Emeri- 
 tus) of Human Physiology and Anatomy. Rev. Lyman 
 Coleman, D. D., Professor of Latin and of Biblical and 
 Physical Geography. Rev. Thomas C. Porter, D. D., LL. 
 D., Professor of Botany and ZoSlogy. (Jessie Chamberlain 
 Professorship of Botany.) Rev. Augustus A. Bloombergh, 
 Ph. D., Professor of Modern Languages. Rev. Robert 
 Barber Youngman, Ph. D., Professor of the Greek Lan- 
 
 fuage and Literature. Rev. Selden Jennings Coffin, Ph. 
 )., Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy. (George 
 Hollenback Professorship of Mathematics.) James W. 
 Moore, A. M., M. D., Professor of Mechanics and Experi- 
 mental Philosophy. Justus Mitchell Silliman, M. E., 
 (George B. Markle Professorship of Mining Engineering and 
 Graphics.) Joseph G. Fox, C E., Professor of Civil and 
 Topographical Engineering ; Rev. Addison Ballard, D. D., 
 Professor of Moral Philosophy and Rhetoric; Joseph 
 Johnston Hardy, A. M., Adjunct Professor of Mathematics ; 
 David Bennett King, A. M., Adjunct Professor of Latin ; 
 Wm. Baxter Owen, A. M., Adjunct Professor of Greek; 
 John G. Diefenderfer, A. M., Adjunct Professor of Modern 
 Languages; Edward Hart, Ph. D., Adjunct Professor of 
 Chemistry; Allen P. Berlin, C. E., A. M., Adjunct Pro- 
 fessor of Mathematics; Addison B. Clemence, B. S., Assist- 
 ant in Chemistry ; Traill Green, M. D., LL. D., Dean of 
 the Pardee Scientific Department; Francis Andrew March, 
 LL, D., Librarian ; Rev. R. B. Youngman, Ph. D., Clerk 
 of the Faculty ; Wm. H. Weaver, Janitor. 
 
 Pardee Scientific Department. — This department was 
 organized by the Trustees of the College in 1866, to car- 
 ry into effect the conditions of a donation from A. Pardee, 
 Esq., of Hazleton, Pennsylvania. In July, 1867, in re- 
 sponse to the growing wants of the Department, the original 
 donation was increased to $200,000. Inl871 Mr. Pardee made 
 another and still larger donation for the erection of a build- 
 ing designed for the use of the Scientific Department. This 
 building, costing with its scientific Equipment, nearly three 
 hundred thousand dollars, was completed in 1873, and upon 
 the 21st of October of that year was formally handed over 
 by the munificent donor to the Trustees. 
 
 It consisted of a centre building five stories in height, 
 fifty-three feet front and eight-six feet deep, and a lateral 
 
278 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 wing on each side of the centre building, measuring sixty- 
 one feet in length and thirty-one feet in width, four stories 
 in height, including a mansard roof, the whole terminating 
 in two cross wings forty-two feet front and eighty-four feet 
 deep, and four stories in height, the entire length of front, 
 in a straight line, being two hundred and fifty-six feet. In 
 determining what rooms were needed and the best arrange- 
 ment of them, similar buildings in Europe, as well as in 
 this country, were carefully studied, and liberal provision 
 has been made in all the departments of instruction for 
 every aid which has been devised for the most thorough and 
 attractive teaching, and also for the prosecution of original 
 researches. The original building was burned on the even- 
 ing of June 4th, 1879. It has been rebuilt on the same site, 
 of the same dimensions and external appearance. The ar- 
 rangement of the interior has been much improved as ex- 
 perience with the former building suggested. In addition 
 to its strictly scientific pro visions,, it contains suits of rooms 
 for the Literary Societies, and an Auditorium for the ora- 
 torical exercises of Commencement and similar occasions. 
 
 The reopening was celebrated with appropriate ceremonies 
 by a great concourse, on the 30th of November, 1880. An 
 assembly so distinguished has rarely gathered in honor of 
 any educational foundation in this country. His excellency, 
 Eutherford B. Hayes, President of the United States, with 
 members of his Cabinet, the General of the army, and the 
 Commissioner of Education, His Excellency, Henry M. 
 Hoyt, Governor of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, the 
 State Superintendent of Education, the Moderator of the 
 General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church, and the 
 Moderator of the Synod of Philadelphia, with many other 
 dignitaries of Church and State, took part in the addresses 
 of thanks and congratulation to the Founder of the Hall 
 and the friends of the College. 
 
 The Board intend that the whole Scientific Department 
 shall be impressed with the Christian character of the College. 
 In addition to the systematic and thorough study of the 
 Word of God in all the classes, special attention will be 
 given to the harmony of Science with revealed religion. 
 The Scientific Department of the College leading to the 
 Degree of B. S., is designed for those who wish to study the 
 Natural Sciences, Mathematics, Modern Languages and Lit- 
 erature, History, Ehetoric, Logic, and Mental and Moral Phil- 
 osophy, as 'thoroughly as they are studied in our Colleges, 
 and who would be glad to enjoy the cultivation and learned 
 habits and associations of College life, but who will not study 
 Greek and Latin. The Trustees of the College are deeply 
 impressed with the thought that our present collegiate sys- 
 tem has grown up under the fostering care of the church, 
 and that the relations of our old collegiate studies to manly 
 culture and religious training have been studied by genera- 
 tions of Christian educators. They have, therefore, taken 
 care that the new course shall not be removed from the old 
 landmarks, and that, as far as possible, the old approved 
 methods of instruction shall be used in all the departments 
 of study. It will be found that the new course includes all 
 the studies of the old, except the Ancient Languages, and 
 it is believed that the method of teaching English and other 
 modern Classics, which has been for some years in use in 
 the College, gives, in a good degree, the same kind of dis- 
 cipline that is derived from the study of Greek and Latin. 
 Latin, however, may be taken in this department if the stu- 
 dent elect ; the course then leading to the Degree of Ph. B. 
 Technical Studies. — Still further demands have been 
 made on this institution on account of its peculiar relations 
 to the industrial resources of our country. Lafayette College 
 is in the midst of the great mining and manufacturing region 
 of the Middle States. Every process used in the mining and 
 working of the various ores of iron, and in the manufacture 
 of iron into the thousand forms in which it is used, is going 
 on almost within sight. Near by are the coal mines which 
 supply the markets of Philadelphia and New York. Mineral 
 wealth abounds on all sides. The expert is continually called 
 on to examine new tracts of land, to analyze new ores, and 
 to devise new ways of working and handling them. Here 
 every resource of engineering is displayed in the works 
 connected with the preparation and transp'ort of lumber, and 
 the carrying of railroads and canals through the moun- 
 tains and over the rivers. Those who wish to prepare them- 
 selves to be working engineers in any of these departments, 
 
 come from all parts of the country to observe and study these 
 works, and it is most desirable that adequate means should be 
 provided for the prosecution of scientific studies in the midst of 
 them. In addition, therefore, to the General Course of the 
 Scientific Department, which is designed to lay. a substantial 
 basis of knowledge and scholarly culture, courses have been 
 arranged for those who may wish to devote themselves to 
 studies essentially practical and technical. 
 
 I. Enoineering, Civil, Topographical and Mechan- 
 ical. — This course is designed to give professional prepara- 
 tion for the location, construction and superintendence of 
 Eailways, Canals and other engineering works ; the design, 
 construction and use of Steam Engines and other Motors, 
 and of machines in general ; and the construction of geome- 
 trical, topographical and machine drawings. 
 
 II. Mining, Engineering and Metallurgy.— This 
 course offers the means of special preparation for exploring 
 undeveloped mineral resources, and for taking charge of 
 mining and metallurgical works. 
 
 III. Chemistry. — This course includes text-book study, 
 lectures, and laboratory practice, every facility for which is 
 found in the Laboratories. Provision is made for advanced 
 and special students who may wish to make original re- 
 searches, or to study any particular, department of Chem- 
 istry. 
 
 Post Graduate Department. — ^Eesident Graduates, 
 and others having suitable preparation, may pursue special 
 studies in any branch, either of the Classical or the Scien- 
 tific Department, under the Direction and Instruction of the 
 Professor in that branch, and have the use of the Laborato- 
 rieSj Apparatus, Collections and Libraries, while prosecuting 
 original researches. These studies and researches will not be 
 confined to any fixed Course. Particular information may be 
 obtained by addressing the President. 
 
 Admission.— Scientific Department.— Candidates for 
 admission to the Freshman Class for the Scientific Course are 
 examined in English Grammar ; Modern Geography ; Arith- 
 metic, including the metric system ; Algebra, through Quad- 
 ratic Equations ; Plane Geometry, two books ; (for Civil Eng- 
 neers Plane Geometry entire,) the elementary principles of 
 Natural Philosophy, and the outlines of History. Those 
 who elect the study of Latin are examined also in the 
 Latin required for admission to the Classical Course and 
 in Ancient Geography. It is expected that all candidates 
 for admission to the College will be acquainted with the 
 general contents of the Bible. 
 
 Technical and Special Studies. — Application for in^ 
 struction in Technical or special studies are examined on 
 such subjects connected with the study as have been gone 
 over by the class which they propose to enter. 
 
 Advanced Standing. — Candidates for advanced stand- 
 ing are examined in the preparatory studies, and also in the 
 studies gone over by the class which they propose to enter. 
 No student is admitted to the Senior Class after the begin- 
 ning of the second term. ' 
 
 Testimonials. — Testimonials of good moral character 
 are in all cases required; and those coming from other Col- 
 leges must produce certificates of dismission in good stand- 
 ing. All those who enter on scholarships must produce 
 certificates for the same, and have their entrance endorsed 
 thereon. 
 
 Matriculation. — No student is considered a regular 
 member of College until he has been matriculated, after a 
 probation of thirty days, during which time, however, he 
 is subject to the laws of the College. 
 
 FIRST TERM. 
 
 Civil Engineering Course. — Freshman Year. — Algebra (completed). 
 Elements of Industrial Drawing, English, March's Method, 
 French, Chemistry, Lectures on Health. 
 
 SECOND TERM. 
 
 Geometry (completed), Surveying, Plane Problems, Fi-enoh, Ger- 
 man, Problems iu Division of Land. 
 
 THIRD TERM. 
 
 Surveying, Field Work, Elementary Projections, Trigonometry and 
 
 Mensuration, French, German Analytical Chemistry. 
 Throughout the Year. — Declamations, Themes and the Bible. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 279 
 
 FIBST TERM. 
 
 Sophomore Year. — Analytical treoinetry (begun), Surveying, Field 
 Work, Elementary Projections, Mineralogy, French, German, 
 Study of Words, Trench. 
 
 SECOND TERJ[. 
 
 Analytical Geometry (completed ), Topographical Drawing, Botany, 
 Zoology, French, German, Siineralogy. 
 
 THIRD TERM. 
 
 Differential and Integral Calciilii'i, Descriptive Geometry, Botany, 
 
 Zoology, French, German, Determinative Mineralogy. 
 Throughout Che Year. — Declamations, Themes and the Bible. 
 
 FIRST TERM. 
 
 Junior Tfa/-.— Descriptive Geometry (General Orthographic Pro- 
 jections), Triangular Surveying, Field Work, Adjustment of 
 'instruments, French, Mechanics, Lithology, Practice with the 
 Blow-pipe. 
 
 SECOND TEEM. 
 
 Physics (begun). Road Engineering — ^Theory (begun.) Calculus 
 (continued). Colored Topography. Shades and Shadows. Hy- 
 drographical Surveying. 
 
 THIRD TERM. 
 
 Linear Perspective, Physics (completed), Analytical and Ap- 
 plied Mechanics, Topographical Surveying, Map of Topographical 
 Survey, Road Engineering — Theory (completed;. 
 
 Throughout the Year. — Declamations, Themes, written Debates 
 and the Bible. 
 
 FIRST TEEM. 
 
 Senior Year. — Water Supply, Road Engineering— Practice, 
 Plans, Profiles and Sections of Koad Surveys, Astronomy, Machine 
 Drawing, General Theory of Machines. Anatomy and Physiology. 
 
 SECOND term. 
 
 Stone Cutting, Machines and Motors. Strength of Materials, 
 Stability of Structures, Supply and Distribution of Water, Astrono- 
 my, Geology, Mineralogy, Political Economy. 
 
 thied term. 
 
 Bridge Drawing, Foundations, Retaining Walls, River and Canal 
 improvements, Designs for, and Reviews of Engineering Works, 
 Bridge and Roof Construction, Graphical Statics, History, Geology, 
 Graduation Theses. 
 
 Throiu/fiout the Year. — Themes, Speaking and Biblical Studies. 
 
 first term. 
 
 ^Mining En&inebring. — Tne Freshman and Sophomore years 
 are essentially the same in this as in the Civil Engineering Course. 
 
 FIRST TERM. 
 
 Junior Year.— Mechanics, Analytical Chemistry, Mine Survey- 
 ing, Adjustment of Instruments, French, Lithology, Practice with 
 the Blow-pipe. 
 
 SECOND TERM. 
 
 Physics, Colored Topography, Practice in Lithology, Analytical 
 Chemistry, German, Assaying, Maps of Survey. 
 
 THIRD TERM. 
 
 Topographical Surveying, Map of Topographical Survey, Ana- 
 lytical Chemistry, French or German, Analytical and Applied Me- 
 chanics. 
 
 Throughout the Fear.— Declamations, Themes, written ^Debates 
 and the Bible. 
 
 FIRST TERM. 
 
 Senior year. — Mining, Ore Deposits, Analytical Chemistry, 
 Machine Drawing, General Theory of Machines. 
 
 SECOND TERM. 
 
 Mining, Analytical Chemistry, Machinery and Motors, .Geology, 
 Mineralogy, Political Economy, Supply and Distribution of Water. 
 
 THIRD TERM. 
 
 Mining Metallurgy, Designs for, and Reviews of Special Metallur- 
 gical and Mining operations, History, Geology, Analytical Chemis- 
 try, Graduation Theses. , T,., ,• 1 Cl 1- 
 
 Throughout the yen/-.- Themes, Speaking and Biblical Studies. 
 
 Working Section,— Graduates of Schools of Science and Prac- 
 tical Engineers wishing to devote all their tiiiie to thorough prepa- 
 ration for professional employment in Civil Engineering, may enter, 
 without examination the Senior Class, which is organized as an 
 Enoineering Corps, and goes though all the necessary operations 
 
 for the construction of a Railroad from Easton to some selected ter- 
 minus. Others wishing to enter the Section mu=;t pass an examina- 
 tion on thestudies leading to the work of thesection. Those conyilet- 
 ing^ the work of the Section may obtain from the Faculty acertincate 
 to that effect. Further information may be had by addressing the 
 Dean of the Pardee Scientific Department. 
 
 Cheshstry — The study in this department begins with a 
 course of lectures on General Chemistry combined ^nth the 
 study of a text-book. In connection with these lectures each 
 student is required to work in the laboratory, under the di- 
 rection of the Professor; and he may pursue Analytical 
 Chemistry through the rest of the course. The Chemical 
 students of the General Scientific Course spend during their 
 last two years the greater part of their time in the labora- 
 tory, electing such chemical and related studies or investi- 
 gations as they may wish to pursue. The instruction is then 
 mainly individual, and a student's progress depends on his 
 ability and industry. Partial or special students may enter 
 the laboratories at any time, provided they have the neces- 
 sary knowledge of general chemistry to work advantageously. 
 Advanced students will be afforded opportunity for contin- 
 uing their studies, or for conducting investigations in organic 
 or inorganic chemistry. 
 
 Botany, Zoology, Geology. — Freshman year. Third 
 Term, Mineralogy. Sophomore year, Second and Third 
 Terms, Botany, Zoology. Junior i/ear, First Term, Zoology. 
 Senior year, First Term, Botany, Zoology. Second and Third 
 Terms, Mineralogy, Geology. 
 
 The exercises of the Freshman, Sophomore and Junior 
 years belong to the Scientific Course ; those of the Senior 
 year belong also to the Classical Course. The instruction 
 includes structural and descriptive Science — afield excursions 
 for observations and collection, preparation and care of spe- 
 cimens, drawing, the use of microscope, and other means of 
 refined observation. The collections in Botany are most 
 ample. There has been lately added to the College Herba- 
 rium the extensive collection of Professor Porter, the fruit 
 of thirty years' labor on his part, embracing the complete 
 Flora of Pennsylvania. In Geology, besides the text-lDook 
 study. Professor Porter delivers a course of lectures on the 
 connections between Natural Science and Revealed Religion. 
 In Mineralogy the classes have the advantage of the ad- 
 mirable cabinets prepared for the Technical Course of Metal- 
 lurgy and Mineralogy. 
 
 Religious Exercises — All the students attend prayers 
 in the College Chapel dally, and preaching on the Sabbath. 
 A daily social prayer meeting has long been maintained by the 
 students ; it is under the auspices of the Christian Brother- 
 hood of the College, an organization composed of professing 
 Christians, having for its object mutual helpftilness in right 
 living and usefulness. Thursday evening there is a divine 
 service in Brainerd Hall, conducted by the President, or one 
 of the Professors, to which all the students are invited. 
 
 Degrees. — The First Degree- Graduates of the Engineer- 
 ing Course receive the degree of Civil Engineer. Grad- 
 uates who have taken the special studies in Mining Engi- 
 neering, Metallurgy and Chemistry may receive certificates 
 of the same, or have the fact stated upon their Diplomas. 
 
 Certificates. — Students who have been admitted to any 
 Department of the College, and have passed satisfactory 
 examinations therein, may obtain certificates of the same, 
 if they have been in attendance not less than one year. 
 
 Libraries ajjd Reading-Room. — The College Library 
 is open Thursday, Friday and Saturday at nine o'clock, 
 A. M. ; the libraries of the Literary Societies, on Wednesday 
 afternoon; of the Brainerd Society and of the Scientific 
 Societies at the regular meetings. The Eastonian Hall is 
 fitted up as a Reading-room ; and is supplied with the best 
 newspapers, and periodicals of America, England, France, 
 and Germany. Dictionaries, cyclopsedias and other works 
 of reference belonging to the Library are also placed in this 
 rooni. It is kept open to all members of the College daily 
 (Sundays excepted), for consultation during study hours, 
 morning, afternoon and evening, and for general reading out 
 of study hours. It occupies the first floor of the east wing 
 of South College and the second story in galleries, making 
 a spacious, light and airy hall. It is adorned with literary 
 treasures and portraits of honored benefactors and officers 
 of the College. Among these collections is a Papyrus Scroll, 
 
280 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 five feet long, from a mummy at Thebes, with a hieratic in- 
 ssription pronounced by Seyffarth the finest he has seen, 
 presented by Hon. John W. Garrett, of Baltimore. There 
 is also a full-length portrait of Lafayette, painted by Healey 
 at the Chateau La Grange, from Ary Sheffer's famous paint- 
 ing, and presented by Dr. Ihomas W. Evans, of Paris. 
 
 College Societies. — The Chemical Society • has for 
 its object the preparation and discussion of papers on chemi- 
 cal or allied subjects. Laboratory students have the oppor- 
 tunity of working on original investigations and communica- 
 ting the results to the Society. The society of Physics and 
 Engineering, Professor Moore, President, has for its ob- 
 ject the investigation and discussion of subjects connected 
 with these departments. 
 
 Terms and Vacations. — The College year is divided 
 into three terms, with intervening vacations. All the 
 Classes are examined at the close of each term, and a re- 
 port sent to the parent or guardian. Students are required 
 to be present punctually at the beginning of each term, 
 and are not allowed during term-time to be absent from 
 town except by written permission from the president. 
 
 i^ensfis. — Tuition (to those not on scholarship) in the Classical or Gen- 
 eral Scientific Department, 815 00 a term 
 
 Tuition in Technical Studies ()r Chemical Sections, . . 25 00 ** 
 
 General Bxpenses, 8 00 " 
 
 Libraryanci Eeading-room, 2 00 " 
 
 The annual College charges are therefore, for those who 
 pay tuition in full, $75 for the Classical or General Scientific 
 Course ; and $105 for Technical Studies. Each student 
 pays $5 when he is registered on entering college, and $10 
 when he is matriculated thirty days afterwards. These fees 
 are appropriated to the Library fund, and to the increase of 
 the scientific collections and apparatus. No fees are charged 
 for diplomas. Apparatus for the use of students in the 
 Chemical Laboratories will be furnished and charged in their 
 account, and the charge canceled for that returned in good 
 condition. Chemicals and all other materials will be charg- 
 ed according to the average cost. A deposit sufficient to meet 
 these expenses is made on entering the laboratories. Mem- 
 bers of the Classical Department are admittsd to all the 
 privileges of the laboratories while studying General Chem- 
 istry, and for the present, without charge for the aid of the 
 Professor in attendance; each student will, however, pay for 
 chemicals which he uses, and for any apparatus which he 
 may break or injure. For the present the scholarships 
 securing free tuition in the Classical Course will hold good 
 for the Pardee Scientific department, unless the students shall 
 select Technical Studies, in which case he must pay each term 
 one-half of the regular fee for tuition. A number of scholar- 
 ships have been placed at the disposal of the Faculty, for the 
 benefit of young men of talents and good moral character. 
 Applications for these scholarships should be made to the 
 President. In all cases the place of boarding must be ap- 
 proved by the Faculty. The price of board in clubs manag- 
 ed by the students is from $2.00 to $3.50 per week.* Board, 
 including furnished rooms in private families, is from $5 to 
 $7 per week. Unfurnished rooms in the College building 
 may be had at a cost of from five to fourteen dollars a term 
 (average $3). Unfurnished rooms adjacent to the College 
 premises can be rented for from twelve to sixteen dollars a 
 term. Students obtain washing at 40 cents per dozen pieces. 
 The College charges must be paid each term in advance, 
 also the room rent, when the student occupies a room in the 
 College buildings. The Treasurer also, on behalf of the 
 Committee of Students, collects with the College bills at the 
 beginning of the first term $5, and of the second term $7, for 
 fuel. The unexpended balance is refunded by the Commit- 
 tee at the close of the year. For the last few years the 
 average cost for fuel to those in double rooms was $6.75, to 
 those in single rooms $10.07. A deposit of one dollar is also 
 made, at the beginning of each term, to pay for public dama- 
 ges, the unexpended balance of which is returned to the 
 students at the end of the year. Some money for books and 
 other incidental expenses will be needed ; but, with economy, 
 the total annual expenses — exclusive of tuition, clothing and 
 
 *'■ There are at the present time nine of these Clubs. The price of 
 board per week in each is as followa : (1) and (2) $2.00 ; (3), (4) and 
 (5), 82.25; (6). (7), and (8), $3.00 ; (9), $3.50. 
 
 traveling expenses— need not exceed $250, as will be seen 
 from the following summary : 
 
 . $24 00 
 . 6 OC- 
 
 -?30 00 
 
 Colhge Charges. 
 
 Genpral Expense, 
 
 Library and Reading-room, 
 
 /ncidcnlal Expenses. 
 
 Fees and dues, Literary and Scientific Societies (estimated), ^ 8 00 
 Text-books and Stationery (estimated), . 20 00 
 
 Personal Expenses. 
 
 Board for 39 weeks (at lowest club rates, see note below) 878 00 
 
 Room Rent average as above . ... .... 24 00 
 
 Fuel (average as above) . ... 6 75 
 
 Light and Washing (estimated) . 24 00 — $132 75 
 
 -828 00 
 
 8190 75 
 69 25 
 
 8250 00 
 
 Leaving a balance for contingencies. 
 Total as above. 
 
 Board at the highest club rates, $3.50 per week, would add 
 $58.50 to the above estimate, and still keep the annual ex- 
 penses within the two hundred and fifty dollars. Parents or 
 guardians at a distance may deposit funds with some mem- 
 ber of the Faculty, who will pay particular attention to the 
 pecuniary concerns of the student, settling his bills, and 
 transmitting an account of the expenditure, for which ser- 
 vices he will charge a commission. It is strongly recom- 
 mended that parents furnish their sons with little beyond 
 what will meet their necessary expenses. 
 
 Recent Additions. — An important addition has been 
 made to the Mineralogical Cabinet through the liberality of 
 Dr. Joseph Mixsell, of Easton, who has presented to the 
 College the large and valuable collection known as the 
 "Wagener Collection." This collection is the result of the 
 labors of the late Jacob Wagener, one of the founders of the 
 College, and is particularly rich in specimens of local in- 
 terest, like the collection of Dr. Joseph K. Swift, which was 
 purchased by the College in 1872. Mr. Wagener and Dr. 
 Swift were warm personal friends, and for many years were 
 interested in the same scientific investigations. It is believed 
 that their combined collections completely illustrate the local 
 mineralogy, while many of the specimens in Mr. Wagener's 
 collection are of remarkable beauty and interest, and were 
 obtained by him at a great expense. Another noticeable and 
 valuable feature of his collection is the large number of 
 minerals from Russia. This collection, upon the death of 
 Mr. Wagener in 1859, became the property of his widow, 
 who presented it to the donor. Dr. Joseph Mixsell. The 
 Mineralogical Cabinet has also been increased during the 
 past year bv a valuable contribution of minerals from Rev. 
 H. H. Beadle. 
 
 Calendak. — Vacation of Nine Weeks. 
 
 Sept. 12-13, Tuesday and Wednesday. — Examinations for admission. 
 
 Sept. 15, Thursday. — First term begins. 
 
 October 25, Wednesday — Founder's Day. 
 
 November 27, Monday. — Anniversary of the Franklin Literary 
 
 Society. 
 November 30, Thursday. — Thanksgiving Day. 
 December 20, Wednesday. — First term ends. 
 
 Vacation of Two Weeks. 
 1883. 
 January 4, Thursday. — Second term begins. 
 March 21, Wednesday. — Second term ends. 
 
 Vacation of Two Weeks. 
 
 THE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL FOR MINERS 
 
 AND MECHANICS, AT DRIFTON, 
 
 LUZERNE CO., PA. 
 
 AT the meeting of the American Institute, of Mining 
 Engineers, in February 1879, Mr. Eckley B. Coxe, 
 then president of the Institute, called attention 
 in his address to the subject of Secondary Techni- 
 cal Education, and gave an outline of a scheme for a school 
 for boys, which it was intended to start at Drifton, Pa., on 
 the general plan of the Steigerschulen of Germany. This 
 school was first opened on May 7th, 1879, when twenty-nine 
 applicants for admission, from 12 to 24 years of age, were 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 281 
 
 examined. Of these eleven were admitted, the others being 
 considered either too young or too deficient in primary educa- 
 tion to profit by the instruction. In order that parents might 
 be encouraged to send their children to the public schools, it 
 was thought best not to receive pupils under 15 years of age. 
 The number in each class was limited to sixteen, so that 
 each boy might receive proper attention. Of the first class 
 only eight passed through the full year's course. At the end 
 of the year, on June 29th, 1880, a public examination was 
 held with the most gratifying success. 
 
 The second year opened on the 1st of September, 1880. 
 Nine candidates were then admitted after examination, and 
 three more later in the course ; one pupil has been dis- 
 missed. The school now comprises nineteen pupils, seven 
 in the advanced and eleven in the preparatory class. There 
 h also one boy in attendance at the drawing lesson who is 
 too young for the other classes. Thus far the regular in- 
 struction has been given only for two hours each evening, 
 Sunday excepted. At times when the pits are closed the 
 pupils are requested to attend during the day from 9 to 12 
 A.M., and 2 to 5 P. m., the time being occupied in the draw- 
 ing-room or in solving problems, or in review. If a sufficient 
 number of boys from the regular classes are present, the 
 regular studies are pursued. Attendance during the day is, 
 however, voluntary. The limited, and to some extent un- 
 certain time devoted to instruction is a disadvantage to the 
 school, but it must be borne in mind that the school is as 
 yet an experiment, and that the boys and their parents have 
 to learn from experience that an education is worth the 
 pecuniary sacrifice w^hich would be involved in work- 
 ing half time and attending a day-school. The interest 
 evinced by the pupils thus far is very gratifying, as is shown 
 in the following figures, expressing their attendance and 
 progress during the first three months of the session : 
 
 For attendance — Grades, . 
 
 10 
 
 91 
 
 9 
 
 8i 8 
 
 7* 6i 
 
 Number of pupils, . 
 For progress — Grades, 
 
 4 
 91 
 
 3 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 8} 
 
 1 3 
 
 8 7 
 
 1 1 
 
 Number of pupils, . 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 5 3 
 
 
 A grade of 10 signifies " perfect " and 5 " indifferent." 
 The plan of instruction is, in general, as follows : 
 
 I. The Preparatory Glass.. — In this class English 
 branches are taught — spelling, reading, writing, grammar, 
 the elements of composition, arithmetic, and geography. 
 An assistant teacher has charge of these branches. Algebra 
 is studied as far as involution and evolution. In teaching 
 geometry, particular stress is laid on the names, properties, 
 and relations of geometrical figures in connection with 
 geometrical construction in drawing. Both freehand and 
 mechanical drawing are taught with especial regard to de- 
 veloping artistic perception and the power of correct ex- 
 pression. Object lessons are also given to stimulate the 
 reasoning faculties, which we often find but very imperfectly 
 developed. In this preparatory class it is intended to "admit 
 boys under 15 years, tnat they may be well drilled in the 
 elementary branches and better prepared for the next class. 
 
 II. The Junior Class. — In this class the English branches 
 are continued, particular attention being paid to composi- 
 tion. The elements of bookkeeping are also taught, which 
 serves, by the way, for an exercise in writing and arith- 
 metic. Algebra is continued to equations of the second 
 degree, with one or more unknown quantities, series and ex- 
 ponential equations including logarithms. The boys are 
 also drilled in mental arithmetic and algebra to develop the 
 power of quick perception and decision. The course in 
 geometry is completed, including trigonometry, mensura- 
 tion, and solid geometry. There is also provided an elemen- 
 tary course in analytical geometry, which is taught as alge- 
 braic projection in relation to geometrical projection and 
 mathematical drawing. Geometry is divided into two 
 parts — algebraic and practical geometry. In the first the 
 subject is developed algebraically, with the aid of the trigo- 
 nometrical properties of angles ; in the second, the practical 
 applications are seen in the solutions of problems and in 
 construction of figures both on the drawing board and in the 
 field. A course in geometrical projection aims to give the 
 pupil facility in drawing any figure in plan, elevation, or 
 section which may be called for, both with instruments and 
 free-hand. In the course of mathematical physics, instruc- 
 
 tion is given in the elements of natural philosophy. To 
 save time the mechanical portions, as for instance, the laws 
 of motion, centre of gravity, the mechanical forces, etc., are 
 treated mathematically, and the course becomes thus a com- 
 bination of elementarj' mechanics and natural philosophy. 
 AVhere feasible, experimental demonstrations are given. 
 Chemistry is taught so that the pupils may become ac- 
 quainted with names, properties, and combining proportions 
 of the most important elements, particularly with those 
 which enter into the composition of the common minerals. 
 Simple chemical tests for minerals are also taught. The in- 
 struction in mineralogy and lithology is confined to the 
 more generally occurring minerals and rocks, and those in 
 which the miner or manufacturer has the most immediate 
 practical interest. In this junior class a thorough know- 
 ledge of elementary mathematics and drawing is considered 
 the basis for all subsequent instruction. 
 
 III. The Senior Class. — The course of instruction laid out 
 for this class will include the writing of a plain, intelligent 
 report upon some practical subject, either directly from in- 
 vestigation or from memory. This concludes the instruction 
 in English branches. In the drawing-room the work will 
 include the elements of construction in wood, stone, and 
 metal, making working drawings, and designing simple 
 structures and machinery. Lectures will accompany this 
 course. The subject of mining is treated systematically 
 under the following heads : 
 
 I. Mining; including: 
 
 1. The useftil minerals and metals; their occurrence, 
 and the methods for their exploration. 
 
 2. The various means employed for the extraction of 
 ores, etc. 
 
 3. The opening and laying out of mines. 
 
 4. The method of exploitation. 
 
 5. The maintenance of mines in good order. 
 
 6. Transportation. 
 
 7. Drainage. 
 
 8. Ventilation. 
 
 9. Mine surveying and mapping. 
 
 10. Accidents in mines, and their prevention. 
 
 II. Mining accounts, contracts, and estimates. \ 
 12. Hygiene of mines, with the remedies to be adopted 1 
 
 in case of accident. ' 
 
 11. Preparation of the useful minerals for smelting or for 
 market, which will include the machinery used in ore-dress- 
 ing and in the mechanical preparation of coal. During the 
 senior year there will be practical exercises in the mine and 
 in the field, which will involve the presentation of reports 
 to the principal. It is possible that there may be formed a 
 fourth class, to be known as 
 
 IV. The Expert Class. — This class will enable pupils and 
 graduates at their leisure to continue their studies with the 
 instmctors outside of the regular cla'^e^, and thus perfect 
 themselves in certain branches already gone over, or take up 
 studies not provided for in the course. It is required that all 
 the pupils must have regular work in the mines or in the 
 shops, and, as far as possible, arrangements made to accom- 
 modate them. The instruction is entirely free, the pupils 
 providing only their books and materials. Annual public 
 examinations take place and prizes are awarded to the best 
 scholars. The school-rooms are in Cross Creek Hall, a 
 large building 106X51J feet, having a basement room 12 
 feet high and an upper hall 42 feet high. In the basement 
 are the office of the principal, 18x14 feet, two large class- 
 rooms, 31X22 feet and 32x15 feet, and a drawing-room 28x 
 18 feet. There are also a lecture-room, 49x30 feet, and a 
 reading-room with a library the same size, all for school 
 purposes. The reading-room is open every evening for the 
 use of the employes. A separate building, 34x16 feet, con- 
 tains the laboratory and lecture-room for chemistry and 
 mineralogy. The school-rooms are open all day and until 9 
 o'clock in the evening. They are all lighted by gas and 
 heated by steam. Collections of apparatus and minerals 
 for the purpose of instruction have been commenced, and 
 it is the aim to illustrate the lectures as far as possible by 
 facts from every-day practice. The instruction is given by 
 the principal, assisted by Mr. D. D. Davidson, a graduate of 
 Lafayette College, who teaches the English branches, book- 
 keeping, and elementary mathematics. It is in the highest 
 degree gratifying to record the praiseworthy conductand 
 
282 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 punctual attendance of tlie boys ; and the progress in their 
 studies has been very fair, considering their previous igno- 
 rance. The nationalities represented in the school are as 
 follows : 
 
 Americans (9 of Irish descent), 
 
 Welsh 
 
 Irish, 
 
 Swede, . . ... 
 
 French . . . . . . 
 
 12 
 3 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 
 A noteworthy change is noticed in the pupils with regard 
 to their appearance and dress, which are much improved by 
 their attendance at the school. The effect of the school is 
 also shown in the expressions of regret heard from many 
 young men that they had not entered the school at the start, 
 and some of the foremen deplore the fact that there was not 
 such a school when they were boys. The success of this 
 school, let us hope, will induce others in charge of large 
 works or mines to try the experiment. It is to be recom- 
 mended to start first, a preparatory class, say three evenings 
 a week, and, in addition, to use the day hours when the 
 mines or works are idle. When the boys are well prepared, 
 a day-school, every afternoon for two years is desirable, 
 the mornings being spent in practical work in the mines 
 or shops. They should not, however, be employed in rou- 
 tine duties, such as picking slate, pushing cars, tending 
 doors, etc. Such work tends to blunt the perceptions and 
 stupe^ the mind. If the suggestion above, of an expert 
 class, is carried out for boys who have passed through 
 the school, a very considerable technical training may be 
 accomphshed without taking an inordinate amount of time 
 from working hours, or any considerable expenditure of 
 money. The school must adapt itself to the works, which 
 in turn must give aid and encouragement to the school. 
 This co-operation is attained in some industrial sections of 
 Europe, and I do not see why it cannot be introduced with 
 us. The keynote of success, let me say in conclusion, is not 
 to endeavor to turn out young engineers, but to raise up in- 
 telligent foremen. 
 
 The above paper is from the Transactions of the Ameri- 
 can Institute of Mining Engineers, and was written by Mr. 
 Oswald J. Heinrich, principal of the school. In addition 
 Mr. Heinrich writes us under date of June 22nd : 
 
 I give you in addition the following statement in regard to the 
 " Drif ton Industrial School for Miners and Mechanics." The sec- 
 ond year's course was completed by an examination June, 1881, 
 with the following results up to Sept. 1st, 1881. 
 
 For attendance, Grades, . . 10, OU, 9, 8K. 8, 754, 6\i, 6. 
 
 Number of Pupils, 15 6, 3, 3, — 1, if 
 
 Grades for Progress . . 9J^, 9, 8%, 8J^, 8, 7. 
 
 Number of Pupils, 16, . 2, 6, 2, 3, 1, 2. 
 
 Seven prizes were awarded to the best scholars for attendance and 
 progress. The result of the third year's session is as follows : There 
 were thirty-four [34] candidates, for admission, of whom twenty-six 
 were Americans; five were Welshmen; one Scotch; one Irish; 
 one Polander. Of these sixteen were admitted to the preparatory 
 class, and two more joined during the session. Nine were admitted 
 te the Junior class. The school, therefore, stands now : 
 
 Classes. Admitted. 
 
 Preparatory . . .18 
 
 Junior ... 16 
 
 Remaining. 
 14 
 
 Senior . 
 
 Total 40 27 
 
 One scholar has been dropped from the roll for irregular attend- 
 ance. The balance were obliged to leave, either because of chang- 
 ing their place of work, or becoming discouraged on account of not 
 bemg able to attend regularly because of their duties at the works. 
 This last cause is one to be lamented, and a change for the better is 
 to be hoped for. The preparatory class is now under the charge of 
 Eugene B. "Wilson, formerly of Yale College, in elementary, physics 
 and algebra, and book-keeping for all three classes. The conduct 
 and interest shown by the scholars is still the same as stated before, 
 if not better, and all that is wanting is more time for recitations and 
 tuition. 
 
 SCHOOL OF MINES-COLUMBIA COLLEGE, 
 NEW YORK CITY. 
 
 THIS undoubtedly, one of our leading representative 
 institutions, furnishes the student in mining and 
 metallurgy as well as engineering, a most capital 
 course of instruction. The faculty of the School of 
 Mines is as follows : 
 
 Feedekick a. p. Barnaed, S.T.D., LL.D., L.H.D., 
 
 President of Columbia College. 
 
 Professors. — Thomas Egleston, E.M., Ph.D., LL.D., 
 Mineralogy and Metallurgy. Charles F. Chandler, Ph.D., 
 M.D., LL.D., Chemistry, Dean of the Faculty. William G. 
 Peck, Ph.D., LL.D., Mechanics. J. Howard Van Amringe, 
 A.M., Ph.D., Mathematics. Ogden N. Rood, A.M., Physics. 
 John S. Newberry, M.D., LL.D., Geology and Palseontology. 
 William P. Trowbridge, Ph.D., LL.D., Engineering. Will- 
 iam E. Ware, B.S., Architecture. Henry 8. Munroe, E.M., 
 Ph.D., Surveying and Practical Mining (Adjunct). Fred- 
 erick E. Hutton, C.E., Ph.D., Mechanical Engineering 
 (Adjunct). 
 
 Other Officers. — John K. Eees, A.M., E.M., Director 
 of the Observatory and Instructor in Geodesy. Frederick 
 Stengel, A.M., Instructor in German. Jules E. Loiseau, A. 
 B., LL.B., Instructor in French. Elwyn Waller, A.M., 
 E.M., Ph.D., Instructor in Quantitative Analysis. Pierre 
 DePeyster Eicketts, E.M., Ph.D., Instructor in Assaying. 
 James S. C. Wells, Ph.D., Instructor in Qualitative Analysis. 
 Jasper T. Goodwin, A.M., LL.B., Instructor in Mathematics. 
 Alfred D. Churchill, A.M., M.S., E.M., Ph.B,, Instructor in 
 Drawing. Alexis A. Julien, A.M., Assistant in Analytical 
 Chemistry. Charles A. Colton, E.M., Assistant in Minera- 
 logy. Louis H. Laudy, Ph.D., Assistant in General Chem- 
 istry. Nathaniel L. Britton, E.M., Assistant in Geology. 
 Henry C. Bowen, Assistant in Quantitative Analysis. C. 
 Herbert Torrey, Ph.B., Assistant in Qualitative Analysis. 
 Alford L. Beebe, Ph.B., Assistant in Assaying. William 
 W. Share, Ph.B., Assistant in Physics. James L. Greenleaf, 
 C.E., Assistant in Engineering. William G. Baker, Libra- 
 rian. George F. Fisher, Eegistrar. Eobert M. Eicketts, 
 Assistant Eegistrar. 
 
 Oeneral Statement. — The School of Mines was established 
 in 1864, for the purpose of furnishing to students the means 
 of acquiring a thorough knowledge of those branches of 
 science, which form the basis of the industrial pursuits that 
 are to play the most important part in the development of 
 the resources of the country. The system of instruction in- 
 cludes six parallel courses of study, viz.: 
 I. Mining Engineering. 
 II. Civil Engineering. 
 
 III. Metallurgy. 
 
 IV. Geology and Palseontology. 
 
 V. Analytical and Applied Chemistiy. 
 
 VI. Architecture. 
 
 During the first year the instruction given to all the stu- 
 dents of the First Class is the same; at the beginning of the 
 second year each student must elect which of the six 
 courses he intends to pursue, and must thenceforth abide by 
 his election unless permitted by the Faculty to make a 
 change. No student is permitted to pursue a special or par- 
 tial course. The plan of instruction includes lectures and 
 recitations in the several departments of study ; practice in 
 the chemical, mineralogical, blowpipe, and metallurgical, 
 laboratories ; field surveying ; practice in operative mining ; 
 projects, estimates, and drawings for the establishment of 
 mines, and for the construction of metallurgical, chemical, 
 and other works; reports on mines, industrial establish- 
 ments, and field geology. The course of instruction occupies 
 four years. There is an advanced course for graduates of 
 the school. The method of instruction is such that every 
 pupil may acquire a thorough theoretical knowledge of each 
 branch, of which he is required to give evidence, at the 
 close of the session, by written and oral examinations. At 
 the commencement of the following year he is required to 
 show, from reports of works visited, that he understands not 
 only the theoretical principles of the subjects treated, but 
 also their practical application— a point that is insisted ou 
 with great rigor. 
 
 Admission. — Candidates for admission to the First Class, 
 at its formation, must be of the age of seventeen years, com- 
 plete ; and, for admission to advanced standing, there will 
 be required a corresponding increase of age. Candidates for 
 the first class must pass a satisfactory examination in arith- 
 metic, including the metric system of wei^ts and measures; 
 in algebra, on the first ten chapters of Peck's Manual of 
 Algebra ; in geometry, on the first six books of Davies' 
 Legendre ; in French, on the equivalent of twenty-five les- 
 sons of Jewett's Ollendorff Grammar; in German, on the 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MIXING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 283 
 
 equivalent of twenty lessons of Otto's German Grammar ; 
 in English grammar, on the equivalent of Quackenbos's 
 English Grammar ; in composition and rhetoric, on the 
 equivalent of Quackenbos's Course of Composition and 
 Rhetoric ; in history, on the equivalent of Thompson's 
 History of England and Doyle's History of the United 
 States as contained in Freeman's Historical Course for 
 Schools ; in physical geography, on the equivalent of 
 Guyot's Physical Geography ; and in free hand drawing, 
 including the ability to sketch, both in outline and with 
 proper shading, ordinary objects, such as a tree, a house, a 
 simple piece of machinery, a piece of flat ornament from 
 a copy, a group of geometrical solids, etc. Candidates 
 for advanced standing must pass a satisfactory examina- 
 tion upon the studies named above, and also upon those 
 pursued by the class which they propose to enter. 
 
 From and after the beginning of the year 1883 candidates 
 for admission to the First Class will, in addition to the re- 
 quirements above .specified, be examined on — 
 
 1st. Physics, equivalent to Ganot's smaller Treatise 
 (Peck's Ganot's Natural Philosophy). 
 
 2d. The general principles of French Grammar, includ- 
 ing an ability to read Montmahon's " Cours d' Histoire Na- 
 turelle," or its equivalent. 
 
 3d. The general principles of the German Grammar, in- 
 cluding an ability to read Hans Andersen's " Marchen," or 
 its equivalent. 
 
 Candidates for admission after the opening of a term will 
 bs required to pass satisfactory examinations on the part of 
 the course already gone over by the class for which they 
 are applicants. No candidates are admitted later in the 
 course than the beginning of the third year. Graduates 
 and students of colleges and schools of science, who shall 
 have completed so much of the course as shall be equiva- 
 lent to the requirements for admission, may be admitted at 
 the beginning of the second year, or earlier, without ex- 
 amination, on presenting diplomas or certificates of good 
 standing and honorable dismissal satisfactory to the exam- 
 ining officers. The regular examinations for admission are 
 held annually, beginning on the Friday before commence- 
 ment, and on the Wednesday preceding the first Monday in 
 October. Candidates will, however, be examined during 
 the session, but not in vacation. The annual tuition fee is 
 two hundred dollars, payable one-half on the first day of 
 each session. 
 
 Free Students. — Whenever it appears to the satisfac- 
 tion of the President and the Treasurer of the college that 
 a student, who is of good moral character and industrious 
 habits, desires to pursue the studies of the school, but is un- 
 able to pay the usual fees for tuition, he may be admitted 
 without charge. Candidates for free tuition must fulfil the 
 following conditions : 
 
 1. He must present a certificate from some person of good 
 repute, that the writer is acquainted with the circumstances 
 of the applicant {his parent or guardian, if he has such) 
 and knows him to be unable to bear the expense of his edu- 
 cation if obliged to pay the tuition fee ; also, that he (the 
 writer) is not himself a relative of the applicant. _ A proper 
 blank will be furnished on application to the Hegistrar. 
 
 2. He must exhibit a proficiency in every subject of ex- 
 amination expressed by the number 6 of a scale in which 
 10 is the maximum. 
 
 3. He must maintain, subsequent to his admission, a 
 standing in scholarship, also in every branch, expressed by 
 the number 7 of a similar scale, failing which he will forfeit 
 his privilege. 
 
 Apparatus Supplies. — I. Students may purchase ap- 
 paratus of any of the dealers in the city. 
 
 II. To save inconvenience and expense to the students, 
 and to secure a proper selection, the school undertakes, at 
 considerable trouble and expense, to lend apparatus on the 
 following conditions': 
 
 1. Each student must make a deposit with the Registrar, 
 which deposit will be credited to him on the ledger. This 
 deposit will be $25 for students of the Second Class, $40 for 
 students of the Third Class, and $50 for students of the 
 Fourth Class. 
 
 2. Each student will be entitled, on presenting his receipt 
 at the supply room, to draw the regular set of apparatus for 
 qualitative or quantitative analysis, or for assaying, accord- 
 
 ing to his deposit, and from time to time to obtain ordinary 
 articles which he may need, and these will be charged to 
 him. At the end of the session he will be credited with 
 those articles which he returns in good order, and the value 
 of those which he has injured or broken will be deducted 
 from his deposit. 
 
 III. The supply room will be open for issuing supplies 
 every day at convenient hours. 
 
 IV. No charge is made for ordinary chemicals. 
 Excursions. — During the session, the students may visit 
 
 the different machine shops and metallurgical establishments 
 of the city and its environs. During the vacation, each 
 student is expected to visit mines, metallurgical and chemi- 
 cal 'establishments, and to hand in on his return, a memoir 
 on some subject assigned him. He is also required to bring 
 collections illustrating his memoir, which collections are 
 placed in the museum, reserved as a medium of exchange or 
 made use of in the laboratories. During the vacation fol- 
 lowing the close of the second year, students of .engineering 
 may join a volunteer class in practical mechanical engineer- 
 ing under the supervision of the Adjunct Professor of 
 Mechanical Engineering. During the vacation following 
 the close of the third year, students of mining engineering 
 visit a mine and engage in actual work or study under the 
 superintendence of the Adjunct Professor in Surveying and 
 Practical Mining. During the vacation following the 
 close of the third year, the students of civil engineering are 
 required to attend a summer class in Geodesy for six weeks. 
 The class is under the supervision of the Director of the 
 Observatory and Instructor of Geodesy. 
 
 Scholastic Year. — The year is divided into two sessions : 
 The first commences on the first Monday in October ; the 
 second, on the first or second Thursday of February. The 
 lectures close on the Friday of the fourth week before com- 
 mencement. 
 
 Examinations. — ^There are two examinations every year, 
 one commencing on the last Monday in January, and the 
 other on the Monday of the third week preceding com- 
 mencement. The latter is the final examination in each 
 department of all the classes for the year. The former em- 
 braces such subjects only as have been completed during 
 the first session. In addition to the examination above 
 noted, examinations are held monthly in all the classes, 
 and in every department, for the purpose of ascertain- 
 ing the proficiency of the students in their respective 
 studies. 
 
 Commencement and Vacation. — The annual com- 
 mencement is held on the second Wednesday in June, on 
 which occasion degrees are publicly conferred. A vacation 
 of all the classes extends from the day of commencement 
 until the first Monday in October, on which latter day the 
 regular course of study commences. The exercises of the 
 school are suspended on public holidays established by law, 
 on such days in each year as may be recommended by the 
 civil authority to be observed as days of fast or thanks- 
 giving, and for two weeks from the third (or fourth) Mon- 
 day in December. 
 
 Necessary Expenses. — Board, including room-rent, fire 
 and light, and washing, may be had in the city from six 
 and a half to nine dollars per week. Annual tuition fee, 
 $200. Text books about $15 for the first class, $30 for the 
 second class, $50 for the third class, and $20 for the fourth 
 class. Drawing materials $15 to $25 for each of the first 
 and second classes, and $5 to $10 for each of the others. 
 Laboratory apparatus $30 to $60 for each of the three years. 
 Travelling and board for summer class in Practical Mining 
 (Mining Engineers only) and for summer class in Practical 
 Geodesy (Civil Engin«ers only), $50 to $60. Graduation, 
 including Diploma, $5. The fees required of graduates of 
 the school, attending the school, are as follows : 
 
 1. Full fee, entitling the student to all the privileges of 
 the school per annum, $150. 
 
 2. For use of the library and cabinets, $25. 
 
 3. For attendance on lecture-room and other special in- 
 struction, per annum for each hour per week of^such in- 
 struction, $25. 
 
 Or for any number of hours per week as above specified, 
 $150. 
 
 4. For the use of the drawing academy, $25. 
 
 6. For the use of the laboratories, or either of them, $50. 
 
284 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Should the amount of fees jjayable by any student not ex- 
 ceed $100, the entire amount is payable at the beginning of 
 the academic year, or at the matriculation of the student. 
 Should the amount exceed $100, payment is required in two 
 equal instalments, one at the beginning of each session of 
 the academic year. 
 
 By-Laws. — Fulfilling Conditions. 1. Conditional stu- 
 dents must flilfill all conditions within two months of the 
 date of their admission. 
 
 Attendance. — 2. Prompt attendance is is required upon all 
 the exercises of the school. Each instance of tardiness will 
 be counted as half an absence. 
 
 3. Any student who shall have been absent from more 
 than ten per cent, of the exercises in any subject shall* not 
 be entitled to examination thereon. 
 
 4. Any students who, being present at the school, shall 
 absent himself from any exercise, or shall leave the grounds 
 during the hours at which his attendance is due, shall be 
 liable to removal from the roll of his class. 
 
 5. Students are required to attend all the exercises and 
 pass all the examinations of the class and course to which 
 they belong, unless specially excused by vote of the Faculty. 
 
 6. Students who obtain on examination a mark of eight 
 or more in any subject may be excused from attendance 
 upon the exercises in that subject. This rule to apply to 
 new students and also to those who repeat the studies of any 
 year. Reports of such standing must be filed with the Dean 
 of the Faculty, who alone is authorized to excuse students 
 from attendance. 
 
 7. Any student who shall have passed a satisfactory ex- 
 amination in the School of Arts of Columbia College in any 
 study forming a part of the regular course in the School of 
 Mines, will not be required to pursue that study in the 
 school. 
 
 8. Examinations. — ^Examinations will be held each 
 month, on all subjects taught in the school. 
 
 9. Examinations will be held at the end of the first term 
 (semi-annual), or at the end of the year (annual), on all 
 subjects taught in the school. 
 
 10. No student who absents himself from a regular ex- 
 amination is allowed to proceed with his class without a 
 special vote of the Faculty. 
 
 11. Any student who shall fail to pass in any of his studies 
 at the regular examination at the end of the academic year, 
 may present himself for a second examination during the 
 last week of the summer vacation. Failing to pass in this 
 second examination, he can only go on with his class by 
 special permission of the Faculty, and provided that he takes 
 private instruction approved by the Faculty, and within two 
 months from the beginning of the term, presenting to the 
 Faculty a favorable report of his progress from his instructor. 
 This will entitle him then to a third examination, failing in 
 which his name shall be dropped from the roll of the class. 
 
 12. Examinations at times other than here designated are 
 not held except by order of the Faculty. 
 
 13. Students deficient in any department are not allowed 
 to go on with their classes without a special vote of the 
 Faculty. 
 
 14. No student is entitled to a degree until he has passed 
 satisfactory examinations in all the studies of the course in 
 which he desires to graduate. 
 
 15. Any student who, at the close of the fourth year, may 
 have failed to complete a course required for graduation, 
 and desires to continue his studies in the school for a longer 
 time, is permitted to do so ; and, with the consent of the 
 Faculty, may have an examination for a degree at the close 
 of any subsequent term. 
 
 16. When a student fails to receive his degree with his 
 class, and returns at some later period to prasent himself for 
 examination for the same, he will be required to comply 
 with all the requirements at the later date, and the same 
 rule shall apply to students who have received one degree 
 and make application for another. 
 
 17. Standing. — Every ofiScer keeps a record of the 
 scholarship of each student. 
 
 18. The maximum mark is ten in each department, and 
 six is required to pass a student. 
 
 19. Free students must maintain a, standing of seven in 
 every branch of study, failing which they will forfeit their 
 privileges. 
 
 20. Change of Cottese. — No student shall be permitted 
 to change his course till he has passed in every study of the 
 course which he proposes to leave. 
 
 21. Analyses. — Analyses and Assays must be made on 
 material supplied or authorized beforehand by the Instructor 
 in charge of the laboratory, and the reports must be handed 
 in on the completion of the work. 
 
 22. Memoirs. — Each student, at the commencement of 
 his second, third, and fourth year, is required to present 
 memoirs on such subjects as may be assigned to him by the 
 Faculty. 
 
 23. Students of the Second, Third, and Fourth classes 
 who fail to hand in, on or before November 1st, the memoirs, 
 drawings, and other Summer work required of them under 
 the rules, shall be dropped from the roll of their respective 
 classes. 
 
 24. Projects and Dissertations. — Each student, be- 
 fore graduating is required to execute projects or disser- 
 tations on subjects assigned to him by the Faculty. These 
 projects or dissertations must be illustrated by drawings 
 made to a scale. 
 
 25. All memoirs, projects, dissertations, and drawings 
 executed in the drawing academy, may be retained by the 
 School. 
 
 26. Degrees. — Every student who has passed satisfactory 
 examinations in all the studies of a course, and completed 
 the required number of projects, dissertations, memoirs, 
 analyses, assays, and drawings, is recommended to the 
 Board of Trustees for the degree of Engineer of Mines, 
 Civil Engineer, or Bachelor of Philosophy. 
 
 27. Graduates of the school, who fulfil the following con- 
 ditions, are recommended to the Board of Trustees for the 
 degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 
 
 (1.) Each candidate shall pursue, for the term of at least 
 one academic year, a course of higher study, at the school 
 and under the direction of the Faculty, in two or more 
 branches of science, and shall pass an approved examina- 
 tion thereon. 
 
 (2.) He shall also present an acceptable thesis or disserta- 
 tion embodying the results of special study, research, or 
 observation, upon the subject previously approved and 
 accepted by the Faculty. 
 
 28. Speakers at Commencement. — A list of members 
 of the graduating class, from whom the speakers at com- 
 mencement may be chosen, will be made by the Faculty 
 and submitted to the class, who may select as speakers two 
 of the number, subject to the approval of the Faculty. 
 
 29. Library. — The library is open to students from 9:30 
 A.M. to 4 P.M. 
 
 30. Books taken from the library must be returned within 
 two weeks. 
 
 81. Students must give receipts for books taken, and are 
 responsible for their return in good condition. 
 
 32. The Laboratories and Drawing Academy. — 
 The analytical, assay, blowpipe, and mineralogical labor- 
 atories and the drawing academy, are open on week days, 
 except Saturdays and during vacations, from 10 A.M. till 4 
 P.M. 
 
 33. No student will be allowed in the laboratory or the 
 drawing academy at the time when his attendance there is 
 not due. During hours assigned for practical work in each 
 of the laboratories, in the drawing academy, and in practi- 
 cal surveying, the attendance of students will be required. 
 A record of the daily attendance and of the progress of 
 each student will be kept by the officer in charge. 
 
 34. Order.— Good order and gentlemanly deportment are 
 required of all students, as a condition of attendance upon 
 the exercises of the school. 
 
 35. Smoking is prohibited on the college grounds, as well 
 as in the buildings. 
 
 SYNOPSIS OF STUDIES. 
 FIRST SESSION. 
 
 First Year. Common to all the Courses.— Geometry — Plane, volu- 
 metric, and spherical ; Conic Sectiona. Text Docks : Davies' 
 Legcndre and Peck's Conic Sections. 
 
 ^^(/eftTO— Textbook; Peck's Manual of Algebra. 
 
 PAysics -Doctrines of heat, viz., expansion, conduction, radiation, 
 thermometry, latent heat, tension of vapors, steam. Lectures, 
 and " Atkinson's Qanot's Physios." 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 285 
 
 Chemistry — The non-metallic elements, through carbon. Lectures, 
 and " Roscoe's Elementary Chemistry." 
 
 Qualitative. Analysis— Lxiax&s, and " Fresenius' Manual of Quali- 
 tative Analysis." 
 
 French— TeTii books; Jewett's Ollendorff's French Grammar, 
 Montmahon's Cours d'Histoire Naturelle. 
 
 Gs?T»a«— Textbooks: Wershoven's Technical "Vocabulary, Schoed- 
 ler's Buoh der Natnr, Parts I., II. 
 
 Drawing— Vae of instruments; lettering, instrumental drawing; 
 projections, intersections, and developments. Text book : 
 Binn's Orthographic Projection. 
 
 SECOND SESSION. 
 
 Trigonometry and Mensuration, as contained in Davies' Legendre. 
 
 P.'iysics — Specific heat, magnetism, electricity static and dynamic, 
 thermo-electricity, induction, magneto-electricity, the electric 
 telegraph. Lectures, and " Atkinson's Ganot's Physics." 
 
 Chemistry — To the metals. Lectures, and " Roscoe's Elementary 
 Chemistry." 
 
 Qualitative Analgsis—Leaturea, and " Fresenius' Manual of Quali- 
 tative Analysis." 
 
 French — Text books: same as first session. 
 
 German — Text books : same as first session. 
 
 Drwwing — Same as first session. 
 
 1. COUKSE IN MINING ENGINEERING. 
 FIRST SESSION. 
 
 Second Y bae — Analytical Geometry — Text book : Peck's Analyti- 
 cal Geometry. 
 
 GrapAJcs^Desoriptive Geometry. Text book: Church's Descrip- 
 tive Geometry. 
 
 Chemistry — Metals. Lectures, and " Fownes' Manual of Chemis- 
 try." 
 
 Blowpipe Analysis — Qualitative. 
 
 Zoology — Lectures, and Nicholson's Manual of Zoology. 
 
 Botany — Lectures, and Gray's Botanical Text Book. 
 
 French — Fasquelle's French Grammar; Beudant's Geologic; La 
 bouohee de pain. 
 
 German — Text books : Wershoven's Technical Vocabulary ; Stoeck- 
 hardt's Schule der Chemie; Bernoulli's Vademecum des Me- 
 chanikers; Stoehr's Katechismus der Bergbaukuude ; Gurlt's 
 Bergbau- und Haettenkunde. 
 
 Drawing — Topographical drawing ; tinting and grading ; problems 
 in graphics. Text book : Honey's Perspective. 
 
 SECOND SESSION. 
 
 Differential and Integral Calculus — Text book: Peck's Practical 
 Calculu9. 
 
 Graphics — Shades and shadows, perspective, isometrical drawing. 
 Textbook; Church's Sliades and Shadows. 
 Stone Cutting. 
 
 CAfimisirT/^— Organic. Lectures, and " Fownes' Manual of Chem- 
 istry." 
 
 Crystallography — Lectures, and " Eglestou's Diagrams of Crys- 
 tals." 
 
 Zoology — Lectures, and Nicholson's Manual of Zoology. 
 
 Botany — Lectures, and Gray's Botanical Text Book. 
 
 French — Text books : same as first session. 
 
 Gennan — Text books : same as first session. 
 
 Drawing — Problems in graphics : architectural drawing. 
 
 First Session. 
 
 Third Year — Mechanics 0/ Solids — Including forces, moments, 
 equilibrium, stability, etc., and elementary machines; dyna- 
 mics, including uniform, varied, rectilinear and curvilinear 
 motion, rotation, vibration, impact, work done, etc. 
 
 Ungineering—Genntal principles relating to materials and struc- 
 tures, physically and mechanically considered. 
 
 1. Materials— Stone, cements, brick, metals, timber, treated 
 in regard to strength, durability, mode of preparation, de- 
 fects, tests of quality, and fitness for special uses. 
 
 2. Structures — Foundations and supports, superstructure, 
 joints, stability, strength and stiflness of parts; special 
 rules of construction for masonry of public buildings, 
 bridges, lelaiuing walls, arches, railroads, common roads, 
 and canals. 
 
 3. Theory of Strains and Strength of Materials— Elsisticity, 
 mechanical laws, application of principles of mechanics 
 to beams, girders aud roof trusses, under various conditions 
 of loading and supports. 
 
 Kinematics of Machinery— (1) General theory of motion, (2) uni- 
 form and varied motion, (3) compositions of motions, (4j 
 instantaneous centre, (5) rolling eentroids, (6) graphical and 
 analytical representations of machine motions, (7) line of ' 
 centres. 
 
 Surveying — Field work, with compass, sextant, hand level, and 
 pacing, use of solar compass in land and mineral surveys, ad- 
 justments and use of transit and levelling instruments, triau- 
 gulation aud traversing. 
 
 t^aclieul Mining or Miner:/ IFurA— Excavation, quarrying, drill- 
 ing aud blasting, tuuucliug. 
 
 Applied Chemistry — Air, water, fuel, artificial illumination. 
 
 Quantitative Analysis. 
 
 Stoichiometry. 
 
 Mineralogy — Determinative. 
 
 Geology, lAthological — Rocks and rock masses. 
 
 Metallurgy — General metallurCT', fuel, fiirnaces, etc. 
 
 Physics — Mechanical theory of neat, electrictiy. 
 
 Drawing — Constructions ; machines, furnaces, plans, etc. 
 
 Second Session. 
 
 Mechanics of Fluids — Including pressure, buoyancy and specific 
 gravities, motion in pipes and channels, undulation, capillarity, 
 tension and elasticity of gases, the atmosphere, the barometer, 
 barometric formulse, and hypsometry. 
 
 Engineering — Theory of Strains and Strength of Materials con- 
 tinued — Graphical methods of determining strains, deflection 
 of beams and girders ; quantity of material in braced girders 
 under various conditions of loading and supports; angle of 
 economy for bracing torsion; of shafts; crushing and tensile 
 strength of materials ; working strains and working load ; mode 
 of estimating cost of girder work. 
 
 Dynamics of Machinery — Forces of nature employed or acting in 
 all machines, dynamical laws, mathematical theorems, measure 
 of forces, work of forces, elementary machines and their combin- 
 tions, theory of efiicienoy, theory of flywheels, governors and 
 brakes, strength and proportions of parts of machines, dynamo- 
 meters. 
 
 Transmissive Machinery — 
 
 1. Transmission by rolling contact, frictiongear, and cams. 
 
 2. Transmission by sliding contact, spur, bevel screw, and 
 skew-bevel teeth, and cams. 
 
 3. Transmission by shafting. 
 
 4. Transmission by belts, ropes, chains, etc. 
 
 5. Transmission by links. 
 
 6. Transmission by fluids. 
 
 Practical Mining (or Miners' Work) — Excavation, quarrying, di-ill- 
 ing and blasting, tunneling. 
 
 Surveying — Topographical work with plane table, magnetic survey, 
 underground surveying. 
 
 Physics — Physical optics and the undulatory theory of light. 
 
 Applied Chemistry — Limes, mortars, and cements ; building stones : 
 decay and preservation ; timber and its preservation : pigments, 
 paints, essential oils, varnishes ; glass and ceramics ; explosives ; 
 gunpowder, guncotton, nitroglycerine, etc. 
 
 Quantitative Analysis. 
 
 Mineralogy — Determinative. 
 
 Metallurgy — Iron and steel. 
 
 Geology — llistorieal, including palaeontology, or a, systematic re- 
 view of recent and fossil forms of life. 
 
 Drawing — Constructions ; machines, furnaces, plans, etc. 
 
 WITHOUT distinction OF SESSIONS. 
 
 Fourth Year — Dyna/mics of Machinery completed — Prime Movers, 
 as driven by animal power, water power, steam power, com- 
 pressed or heated air, wind power, comprising the theory of 
 animal power, theory of water wheels, overshot wheels, under- 
 shot wheels, breast wheels, turbines, reaction wheels, centrifu- 
 gal pumps; properties and laws of heat as applied to the gene- 
 ration of steam and the construction of boilers ; properties of 
 steam and air in their relation to prime movers; mechanical 
 theory of heat applied to steam engines, hot air engines, com- 
 pressed air engines ; general description of heat engines of vari- 
 ous forms; description and theory of ventilating fans or blowers. 
 
 Mining Engineering — 
 
 1. Considered in its widest sense as a course of study. 
 
 2. Considered in reference to the application of general princi- 
 ples of engineering to the development and working of 
 mines. 
 
 3. Classification and nomenclature of mineral deposits ; de- 
 
 scriptions of lodes or veins, beds, masses, and irregular 
 deposits, with illustrations of the disturbances to which 
 they are subjected, as afiecting the work of mining. 
 
 4. Graphical representations of deposits, with examples show- 
 
 ing modes of occurrence and disturbances. 
 
 5. Prospecting or searching for mineral deposits. 
 
 6. Exploratory workings. 
 
 7. Establishing seats of extraction. 
 
 8. Description of typical methods of exploitation as applied to 
 
 wide veins or lodes, to narrow veins, masses, to Beds of 
 various thickness and degrees of inclination. 
 
 9. General principles relating to subterranean transportation. 
 
 10. Methods and machinery employed for extracting minerals 
 
 from the pits, and for facilitating ascent and descent of 
 workmen. 
 
 11. Drainage of mines; theory of infiltration of water, methods 
 
 of machinery for draining or freeing mines from water. 
 
 12. Ventilation of mines; causes of vitiation of the air of mines; 
 
 quantities of fresh air required under various circum- 
 stances; natural ventilation ; mechanical ventilation, by 
 fires and by ventilating machinery ; distribution of air 
 through galleries and workings. 
 
286 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 13. Graphical illustrations of exploratory workings; methods of 
 exploitation ; machinery for hoisting, pumping, ventila- 
 tion, and transportation, including the use of steam en- 
 gines and pumps, air compressors, air engines, pumping 
 engines, winding engines, centrifugal and other ventilat- 
 ing machines. 
 
 Practical Mining — 
 
 1. Boring, earth augers, driven wells, boring with rods and 
 
 cable tools, upward, inclined, and horizontal boring, dia- 
 mond drill and its use in prospecting. 
 
 2. Shaft sinking, shaft timbering and spiling, boring of shafts, 
 
 sinking of iron and masonry linings, cribbing, walling, 
 and tubbing. 
 
 3. Drifting of adits and levels, timbering and walling in levels 
 
 and working places. 
 
 4. Mining of coal and ores, coal cutting machines, hand and 
 
 machine drilling. 
 
 5. Handling of coal and ores in working places. 
 
 6. Tramming, cars, tracks, locomotive and wire rope haulage, 
 
 planes and gravity roads. 
 
 7. Accidents to miners, cause and prevention. 
 
 8. Organization and administration. 
 
 9. Time books, measurement of contracts, pay roll, analysis 
 
 and dissection of accounts, and cost sheets. 
 
 Ore Dressing. 
 
 1. Introduction, theory of separation, hand and machine dress- 
 
 ing, general principles governing crushing and sizing of 
 ores of different character. 
 
 2. Jigging — ^theory of, description of different forms of jigs and 
 
 methods of working, air jigs. 
 
 3. Slime treatment, classification of slimes in troughs, spitz 
 
 kasten, etc., and treatment on buddies and tables. 
 
 4. Description of crushing machinery, jaw crushers, rolls, 
 
 stamps, mills, etc. 
 
 5. Sizing apparatus, screens, riddles and trammels. 
 
 6. Description of coal washing plant ; anthracite breaker. 
 
 7. Description of American ore-dressing works. 
 
 8. Foreign ore-dressing works. 
 
 Hydraulic Engineering — Application of principles of mechanics, of 
 fluids to determining the discharge of water over weirs or 
 dams ; the dimension of conduit pipes ; discharge of canals and 
 rivers ; the effect of varying forms and sections of channels and 
 of obstructions to flow; the gauging of streams; retaining walls 
 for reservoirs. 
 
 Mechanical Engineering — 
 
 1. Steam boilers — construction, wear and tear, fittings, setting, 
 
 testing, care and management, firing, feeding, injectors, 
 pumps, etc. 
 
 2. Mechanism of engines — Valve gearing, link motions, gov- 
 
 ernors, etc. 
 
 3. Management of engines — Erecting, emergencies, special 
 
 types of engines, etc. 
 
 4. Proportions of engines, etc. 
 
 5. Testing efScieney of engines and boilers, etc. 
 
 6. Pnmps, hoisting engines, ventilating machinery, construc- 
 
 tion and management of hot air, gas, and petroleum, en- 
 gines, etc. 
 
 7. Machine tools. 
 
 Surveying. — Railroad surveying, reeonnoissance, location of line, 
 calculation of cuttings and embankments. 
 
 Economic Geology. — Theory of mineral veins, ores, deposits and dis- 
 tribution of iron, copper, lead, gold, silver, mercury, and other 
 metals; graphite, coal, lignite, peat, asphalt, petroleum, salt, 
 clay, limestone, cements, building and ornamental stones, etc. 
 
 Assaying. — Ores of lead, silver, gold ; and gold, silver, and lead 
 alloys. 
 
 Metallurgy. — Copper, lead, antimony, iron, copper, silver, gold, zine, 
 tin, mercury, etc. 
 
 Draioing. — Graphic statics and project. 
 
 FIEST SESSION. 
 
 II. — CoTJESB IN Civil Enginebeing. — Second Year.— Analytical 
 Geometry. — Text book : Peck's Analytical Geometry. 
 
 Graphics. — Descriptive Geometry. Text book : Church's Descrip- 
 tive Geometry. 
 
 Chemistry. — The Metals. Lectures, and " Fownes' Manual of Chem- 
 istry." 
 
 Blowpipe Analysis. — Qualitative. Text book ; Plattner's Blowpipe 
 Analysis. 
 
 Zoology — Lectures, and Nicholson's Manual of Zoology. 
 
 Botany. — Lectures, and Gray's Botanical Text Book. 
 
 French. — Textbooks: Fasquelle's French Grammar; Beudant's 
 Geologic ; La bouchee de pain. 
 
 German. — Textbooks: Werahoven's Technical Vocabulary ; Rtnpck- 
 hardt's Schule der Chemie ; Bernoulli's Vademecura des Me- 
 ohaniker's ; Stoehr's Katechismus der Bergbaukunde ; Gurlt's 
 Bergbau und Huettenkunde. 
 
 Drawing. — Topographical Drawing ; tinting and grading; problems 
 in graphics. Text book : Honey's Perspective. 
 
 SECOND SESSION. 
 
 Differential and Integral Calculus — Text book : Peck's Practical 
 Calculus. 
 
 Graphics. — Shades and Shadows, perspective, isometrioal drawing. 
 Text book : Church's Shades and Shadows. 
 
 Stone Cutting. 
 
 Chemistry. — Organic. Lectures, and "Fownes' Manual of Chemis- 
 try." 
 
 Crystallography. — Lectures, and Egleston's Diagrams of Crystals. 
 
 Zoology. — Lectures, and Nicholson's Manual of Zoology. 
 
 Botany. — Lectures, and Gray's Botanical Text Book. 
 
 French. — Text books ; same as first session. 
 
 German. — Text books ; same as first session. 
 
 Drawing. — Problems in graphics ; architectural drawing. 
 
 EIEST SESSION. 
 
 Third Year. — Mechanics of Solids, including forces, moments, 
 equilibrium, stability, etc., and elementary machines ; dyna- 
 mics, including uniform, varied, rectilineal and curvilinear 
 motion, rotation, vibration, impact, work done, etc. 
 Engineering. — General principles relating to materials and struc- 
 tures, physically and mechanically considered. 
 \. Materials — Stone, cements, brick, metals, timber, treated 
 in regard to strength, durability, mode of preparation, 
 defects, tests of quality, and fitness for special uses. 
 
 2. Structures — Foundations and supports, superstructure, 
 
 joints, strength and stiffness of parts; special rules of 
 construction for masonry of public buildings, bridges, 
 retaining walls, arches, railroads, common roads and 
 canals. 
 
 3. Theory of Strains and Strength of Materials — Elasticity, 
 
 mechanical laws, application of principles of mechanism 
 to beams girders, and roof trusses under various con- 
 ditions of loading and supports. 
 
 Kinematics of Machinery — (1) General theory of motion, (2) 
 uniform and varied motion, (3) composition of motions, (4) in- 
 stantaneous centre, (5) rolling centroids, (6) graphical and 
 analytical representations of machine motions, (7) line of cen- 
 tres. 
 
 Practical Mining — Excavation, quarrying, drilling and blasting, 
 tuuneling. 
 
 Practical Astronomy and General Principles of Geodesy. 
 
 Surveying — Field work, with compass, sextant, hand level, and 
 pacing, use of solar compass in land surveys, adjustments and 
 use of transit and levelling instruments, triangulation and tra- 
 versing. 
 
 Applied Chemistry — Air, water, fuel, artificial illumination. 
 
 Mineralogy — Determinative. 
 
 Geology — Lithological, cosmical, and physiographic. 
 
 Metallurgy — General metallurgy ; fuels, furnaces, etc. 
 
 Physics — Mechanical theory of heat, electricity. 
 
 Drawing — Constructions ; machines, furnaces, plans, etc. 
 
 SECOND SESSION. 
 
 Mechanics of Fluids, including pressure, buoyancy and specific 
 gravities, motions in pipes and channels, undulation, capillarity, 
 tension and elasticity of gases, the atmosphere, the barometer, 
 barometric formulae, and hypsometry. 
 
 Engineering — Theory of strains and Strength of Materials con- 
 tinued — Graphical methods of determining strains ; deflection 
 of beams and girders ; quantity of material in braced girders 
 under various conditions of loading and supports; angle of 
 economy for bracing ; torsion of shafts ; crushing and tensile 
 strength of materials; working strains and working load; mode 
 of estimating cost of girder work. 
 
 Dynamics of Machinery — Forces of nature employed or acting 
 in all machines, dynamical laws, mathematical theorems, mea- 
 sure of forces, work of forces, elementary machines and their 
 combinations, theory of efficiency, theory of flywheels, gover- 
 nors and brakes, strength and proportions of parts of macuines, 
 dynamometers. 
 
 Transmissive Machinery — 
 
 1. Transmission by rolling contact, friction gear, and cams. 
 
 2. Transmission by sliding contact, spur, bevel screw, and 
 
 skew-bevel teeth, and cams. 
 
 3. Transmission by shafting. 
 
 4. Transmission by belts, ropes, chains, etc. 
 
 5. Transmission by links. 
 
 6. Transmission by fluids. 
 
 Practical Mining — Excavation, quarrying, drilling and blasting, 
 
 tunneling. 
 Practical Astronomy and General Principles of Geodesy. 
 Surveying — T<ipographical work with plane table. 
 Physics — Physical optics a,nd theundulatory theory of light. 
 Applied Chemistry — Limes, mortars, and cements ; building 
 
 stones : deqay and preservation ; timber and its preservation : 
 
 ])igments, paints, essential oils, varnishes ; glass and ceramics ; 
 
 explosives : gunpowder, gun-cotton, nitroglycerine, etc. 
 Mineralogy — Determinative. 
 Metallurgy — Iron and Steel. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 287 
 
 Geolo^ — Historical including palaeontology. 
 
 Drawing — Constructions ; machines, furnaces, plans, etc. 
 
 Summer Vacation. — Memoir. 
 
 WITHOUT DISTINCTION OP SESSIONS. 
 
 FouETH Year — Dyncvmice of Machinery — Prime movers, as 
 driven by animal power, water power, steam power, com- 
 pressed or heated air, wind power, comprising the theory of 
 animal power, theory of water wheels, overshot wheels, 
 undershot wheels, breast wheels, turbines, reaction wheels, 
 centrifugal pumps ; properties and laws of heat as applied to 
 the generation of steam in steam boilers; properties of steam 
 and. air in their relation to prime movers ; mechanical theory of 
 heat, applied to steam engines; hot-air engines, compressed- 
 air engmes ; general description of heat engines of various forms ; 
 description and theory of ventilating fans or blowers. 
 
 Civil Engineering — Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineering, embrac- 
 ing water supplies for cities and towns, for the purposes of irri- 
 gation and improvement of lands; quantity and quality of 
 water required; rainfall, flows of streams, storage of water, ca- 
 pacity of water sheds, impurities of water ; practical construc- 
 tion of water works, pumping machinery; clarification of 
 water ; systems of water supply. 
 
 Principles of Sanitary Engineering — As regards necessity of sani- 
 tary measures, different systems of removing refuse and decom- 
 posing matters, warming and ventilation. 
 
 Works of Sewerage — Rainfall and sewers; influence of geological 
 and topographical features of the sites of towns and districts ; 
 discharge oisewers ; intercepting sewers ; forms, modes of con- 
 struction, and materials used ; flushing of sewers and ventila- 
 tion ; traps, outfaUs, tide valves ; subsoil and surface drainage 
 of towns; house drainage ; water closets; ventilation of houses, 
 in connection with sanitary measures. 
 
 Improvements of Rivers and Harbors — Action of tides and currents 
 in forming and removing deposits ; methods of protecting and 
 deepening harbors and channels. 
 
 Geodesy — Continued, witli lecture on figure of the earth, and prac- 
 tical illustration in the use of geodetic instruments, such as 
 measurement of ba.'ie lines, measurement of horizontal angles 
 for a primary, a secondary, and a tertiary triangulation ; signals, 
 astronomical determinations of time, latitude, longitude, and 
 azimuth of a direction. 
 
 Railroad Engineering — Permanent way; rolling stock; motive 
 power; administration, etc. 
 
 Hydraulic Engineering — Application of principles of mechanics of 
 fluids to determining the discharge of water over weirs or dams; 
 the dimensions of conduit pipes ; discharge of canals and rivers; 
 the effects of varying forms and sections of channels and of 
 obstructions to flow; the gauging of streams; retaining walls 
 for reservoirs. 
 
 Mechanical Engineering— {V) steam boilers: construction, wear 
 and tear, fittings, setting, testing, care and management, firing, 
 feeding, mjectors, pumps, etc.; (2) mechanism of engines, valve 
 gearing, link motions, governors, etc. ; (3) management of en- 
 gines, erecting emergencies, special types of engines, etc. ; (4) 
 proportions of engines, etc. ; (5) testing efficiency of engines 
 and boilers; (6) pumps, hoisting engines, ventilating machi- 
 nery ; (7) construction and management of hot air, gas, and 
 petroleum engines, etc. ; (8) machine tools. 
 
 Surveying — Railroad surveying : reconnoissance, location and sur- 
 vey of line with curves and slope stakes, calculations of cut- 
 tings and embankments. 
 
 Economic Geology— Theory of mineral veins, ores, deposits and 
 distribution of iron, copper, lead, gold, silver, mercury, and 
 other metals; graphite, coal, lignite, peat, asphalt, petroleum, 
 salt, clay, limestone, cements, building and ornamental stones, 
 etc. 
 
 Metallurgy — Supplementary lectures on iron and steel. 
 
 Drawing — Graphic statics and project. 
 
 FIRST SESSION. 
 
 III.— CouESE IN Metallurgy.— &co»rf Year. — Analytical Geo- 
 metry — Text book : Peck's Analytical Geometry. 
 
 OopAte— Descriptive Geometry. Textbooks: Church's Descrip- 
 tive Geometry. 
 
 Chemistry— The Metals. Lectures, and "Fownes' Manual of 
 Chemistry." 
 
 Quantitative Analysis— lieetyaes, and " Cairn's Quantitative Ana- 
 lysis." 
 
 Stoichiometry. 
 
 Blowpipe Analysis— (^■a.&Wca.tiTe. Text book: Plattner's Blow- 
 pipe Analysis. 
 
 Zoology — Lectures, and Nicholson's Manual of Zoology, 
 
 ^otomy- Lectures, and Gray's Botanical Text Book. 
 
 i?Ve«cA— Text books: Fasquelle's French Grammar; Beudant's 
 Geologie; La bouchee de pain. 
 
 Gcrmari— Text books : Wershoven's Technical Vocabulary; Stoeck- 
 hardt's Schule der Chemise; Bernoulli's Vademecum des 
 Mechanikers; Stoehr's Katechismus der Bergbaukunde ; Gurlt's 
 Bergbau-und Huettenkunde. 
 
 Dmmngr— Tinting and grading : topographical drawing ; problems 
 in graphics. Text book : Honey's Perspective. 
 
 SECOND SESSION. 
 
 Differential and Integral Calculus — Text book ; Peck's Practical 
 Calculus. 
 
 Graphics — Shades and shadows, perspective, isometrical drawing. 
 Text books : Church's Shades and Shadows. 
 
 Stone Cutting. 
 
 Chemistry — Organic, Lectures, and " Fownes' Manual of Chemistry." 
 
 QuamtitaMve Analysis — Lectures, and " Cairn's Quantitative Ana- 
 lysis." 
 
 Crystallography — Lectures, and illustrative diagrams. 
 
 Zoology — Lecture, and Nicholson's Manual of Zoology. 
 
 Botamy — Lectures, and Gray's Botanical Text Book. 
 
 French — Text books : same as first session. 
 
 German — Text books : same as first session. 
 
 Drawing — Problems in graphics ; architectural drawing. 
 
 Summer Vacation. — Memoir. 
 
 FIRST SESSION. 
 
 Third Year. — Mechanics of solids, including forceSj moments, 
 equilibrium, stability, etc., and elementary machines ; dyna- 
 mics, including uniform, varied, rectilineal and curvilinear mo- 
 tion, rotation, vibration, impact, work done, etc. 
 
 Applied Chenvistry — Air, water, fuel, artificial illumination. 
 Mineralogy — ^Determinative. 
 Geology — ^Lithological, cosmical, physiographic. 
 Metalhirgy — General Metallurgy ; niel, furnaces, etc. 
 Physics — Mechanical theory of heat, electricity. 
 Drawing — Constructions ; machines, furnaces, plans, etc. 
 
 SECOND SESSION. 
 Mechamics of Fluids, including pressure, buoyancy and specific 
 
 gravities, motion in pipes and channels, undulation, capillarity, 
 
 tension and elasticity of gases, the atmosphere, the barometer, 
 
 barometric formulae, and hypsometry. 
 Physics — Physical optics and the undulatory theory of light. 
 Applied Chemistry — ^Limes, Mortars and Cements; building 
 
 stones ; decay and preservation ; timber and its preservation ; 
 
 pigments, paints, essential oils, varnishes ; glass and ceramics ; 
 
 explosives ; gunpowder, guncotton, nitroglycerine, etc. 
 Quantitative Analysis. 
 Mineralogy — Determinative. 
 Metallurgy— Iron and Steel. 
 Geology — ^Historical, including palaeontology. 
 Drawing — Constructions ; machines, furnaces, plans, etc. 
 
 Fourth Year. — ( Without distinction of Sessions.) 
 
 Machines, including prime movers, as driven by (1) animal power, 
 (2) water power, (3) steam, (4) heated or compressed air, (5) the 
 winds ; comprising water wheels, turbines, and reaction wheels, 
 steam engines in tneir various forms, and air engines. 
 
 Principles of Heat applicable to these Engines. 
 
 Steam Boilers. 
 
 Mechanism and Management of Engines. 
 
 Machine Tools. 
 
 Assaying — Ores of Lead, silver, gold, platinum, tin, antimony, bis- 
 muth, copper, nickel, cobalt, iron, mercury and zinc ; and gold, 
 silver and lead bullion ; mattes, slags, etc. 
 
 Metallurgy — Copper, lead, silver, gold, zinc, tin, mercury, etc. 
 Supplementary lectures on iron and steel. 
 
 Economdc Geology — Theory of mineral veins, ores, deposits and 
 distribution of iron^ copper,, lead, gold, silver, mercury and 
 other metals ; graphite, coal, lignite, peat, asphalt, petroleum, 
 salt, clay, limestgne, cements, building and ornamental stones, 
 etc. 
 
 Applied Chemistry — I. Chemical manufactures ; acids, alkalies and 
 salts. (1) Sulphur, sulphurous acid, hyposulphite, sulphuric 
 acid, bisulphide of carbon, etc. (2) Common salt, soda ash, 
 hydrochloric acid, chlorine, binoxide of manganese, bleaching 
 powder, chlorimetry, etc. (3) Carbonate of potash, caustic pot- 
 ash, alkalimetry, acidimetry, etc. (4) Nitric acid and nitrates. 
 (5) Iodine, bromine, etc. (6) Sodium, aluminium, magnesium. 
 (7) Phosphorus, matches, etc. (8) Ammonia salts. (9) Cy- 
 anides. (10) Alum, copperas, blue vitriol, salts of magnesia, 
 baryta, strontia, etc. (H) Borates, stannates, tungstates, chro- 
 mates, etc. (12) Mercury salts, photography. (13) Electro- 
 Metallurgjr. (14) Oils, fat, soaps, glycerine. II. Food and 
 drink ; milk, cereals, starch, bread, meat, tea, coffee, sugar, 
 fermentation, wine, beer, spirits vinegar, preservation of food, 
 tobacco, etc. III. Clothing ; textile fabrics, bleaching, dyeing, 
 calico printing, paper, tanning, glue, India-Rubber, gutta per- 
 cha, etc. IV. Fertilizers ; guano, superphosphates, poudrettes, 
 etc. 
 
 Dra/wing. — Project and Theses Work. 
 
 FIRST SESSION. 
 
 IV. Courses in Geology and Palaeontology.— toorad Year. 
 — Graphics — Descriptive Geometry. Text book : Church's De- 
 scriptive Geometry. 
 
 Chemisiry-The Metals. Lectures, and " Fownes' Manual ' of 
 Chemistry." 
 
 QaanliUaMve Analysis— lieciaxes, and " Cairns' Quantitative Anal- 
 ysis." 
 
288 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 SloicMoTnetry. 
 
 Blowpipe ^raaij/sts— Qualitative. Text book; Plattner's Blow- 
 pipe Analysis. 
 
 Zoology — Lectures, and Nicholson's Manual of Zoology. 
 
 Botany — Lectures, and Gray's Botanical Text Book. 
 
 French — Text books: Fasquelle's French Grammar; Beudant's 
 Geologic ; La bouchee de pain. 
 
 German — Text books ; Wershoyen's Technical Vocabulary ; Stoeck- 
 hardt's Schule der Chemie ; Bernoulli's Vademecum des Me- 
 chanikers; Stoehr's Katechismus der Bergbaukunde ; Gurlt's 
 Bergbau und Huettenkunde. 
 
 Drawing — Topographical drawing ; tinting and grading ; problems 
 in graphics. Text book : Honey's Perspective. 
 
 SECOND SESSION. 
 
 Graphics — Shades and shadows, perspective and isometrical draw- 
 ing. Text book : Church's Shades and Shadows. 
 
 Chemistr.y — Organic. Lectures, and " Fownes' Manual of Chem- 
 istry." 
 
 Quantitative Analysis — Lectures, and Cairn's Quantitative Ana- 
 lysis. 
 
 Crystallography — Lectures and illustrative diagrams. 
 
 Botany — Lectures, and Nicholson's Manual of Zoology. 
 
 Zoology — Lectures, and Gray's Botanical Text Book. 
 
 French- — Text book : same as first session. 
 
 German — Text books : same as first session. 
 
 Drawing — Problems in graphics. 
 
 Summer Vacation. — Memoir. 
 
 FIRST SESSION. 
 
 Thibd Year — Geology — Lithological, cosmical, physiographic. 
 
 Surveying, with compass, sextant, hand level, and pacing, use of 
 solar compass in land and mineral surveys, adjustments and 
 vise of transit and levelling instruments, triangulation and tra- 
 versing. 
 
 Applied Chemistry — ^Air, water, fuel, artificial illumination. 
 
 Quantitative Analysis. 
 
 Stoichiometry. 
 
 Mineralogy — Determinative. 
 
 Metallurgy — General metallurgy, fuels, etc. 
 , Physics — Mechanical theory of heat, electricity. 
 
 Drawing — Geological drawings. 
 
 SECOND SESSION. 
 
 Geology — Historical, including palaeontology. 
 
 Surveying — Topographical work with plane table, magnetic sur- 
 vey. 
 
 Physics — Physical optics and the undulatory theory of light. 
 
 Applied Chemistry — Limes, mortars, and cements ; building stones ; 
 decay and preservation ; timber and its preservation : pigments, 
 paints, essential oils, varnishes ; glass and ceramics ; explosives : 
 gunpowder, guncotton, nitroglycerine, etc. 
 
 Quantitative Analysis. 
 
 Mineralogy — Determinative. 
 
 Metallurgy — Iron and steel. 
 
 Drawing — Geological drawings. 
 
 Summer Vacation. — Memoir. 
 
 WITHOUT DISTINCTION OF SESSIONS. 
 
 Fourth YDar — Economic Geology — Theory of mineral veins, ores, 
 deposits and distribution of iron, copper, lead, gold, silver, 
 mercury, and other metals ; graphite, coal, lignite, peat, asphalt, 
 petroleum, salt, clay, limestone, cements, building and orna- 
 mental stoneSj etc. 
 
 Surveying — Principles of Geodesy ; Railroad surveying ; reconnois- 
 sance, location of line, calculations of cuttings and embank- 
 ments. 
 
 FIRST SESSION. 
 
 v.— Course in Analytical and Applied CnBuisTUY.— Second 
 Fecw.-GVapAics— Descriptive Geometry. "Text books : Church's 
 Descriptive Geometry. 
 
 Chemistry — The Metals. Lectures, and " Fownes' Manual of Chem- 
 istry." 
 
 Quantitative Analysis — Lectures, and " Cairn's Quantitative Ana- 
 lysis." 
 
 Stoichiometry. 
 
 Blowpipe ^wa^i/ais— Qualitative. Text book : Plattner's Blowpipe 
 Analysis. 
 
 Zoology — Lectures, and Nicholson's Manual of Zoology. 
 
 .Botowu— Lectures, and Gray's Botanical Text Book. 
 
 French — Text books:. Fasquelle's French Grammar; Beudant's 
 Geolo"ie ; La bouchee de pain. 
 
 German — Text books : Wershoven's Technical Vocabulary ; Stoeok- 
 hardt's Schule der Chemie ; Bernoulli's Vademecum des Mccli- 
 anikers; Stoehr's Katechismus der Bergbaukunde: Gurlt's 
 Bergbau und Huettenkunde. 
 
 Drawing — Topographical drawing ; tinting and grading ; problems 
 in graphics. Text book : Honey's Perspective. 
 
 Metallurgy.- Copper, lead, silver, gold, zmc, tin, mercury, etc. 
 
 Drawing. — Dissertation and thesis work. 
 
 Supplementary lectures on iron and steel. 
 
 second SESSION. 
 
 Graphics — Shades and shadows, perspective and isometrical draw- 
 ing. Text book ; Church's Shades and Shadows. 
 
 Chemistry — Organic. Lectures, and "Fownes' Manual of Chemistry." 
 
 Quantitative Analysis — Lectures, and " Cairn's Quantitative Ana- 
 lysis." 
 
 Crystallography — Lectures, and Egleston's Diagrams of Crystals. 
 
 Zoology — Lectures, and Nicholson's Manual of Zoology. 
 
 Botany — Lectures, and Gray's Botanical Text Book. 
 
 French — Text Books : same as first session. 
 
 German — Text books : same as first session. 
 
 Drawing — Problem in graphics. 
 
 Summer Vacation. — Memoir. 
 
 FIRST SESSION. 
 
 Third Year. — Applied Chemistry — Air, water, fuel, artificial illumi- 
 nation. 
 Quantitative Analysis. 
 Mineralogy — Determinative. 
 Geology — Lithological, cosmical, physiographic. 
 Metallurgy — General metallurgy, fuel, ftirnaces, etc. 
 Physics — Mechanical theory of heat, electricity. 
 
 SECOND SESSION. 
 
 Applied Chemistry — Limes, mortars, and cements ; building stones ; 
 decay and preservation ; timber and its preservation; pigments, 
 paints, essential oils, varnishes ; glass and ceramics ; explo- 
 sives ; gunpowder, guncotton nitroglycerine, etc. 
 
 Mineralogy — Determinative. 
 
 Geology — Historical, including paleontology. 
 
 Metallurgy — Iron and steel. 
 
 Physics — Physical optics and the undulatory theory of light. 
 
 Quantitative Analysis. 
 
 Summer Vacation. — Memoir. 
 
 WITHOUT DISTINCTION OF SESSION. 
 
 Fourth Year. — Applied Chemistry.— 1. Chemical manufac- 
 tures; acid, alkalies and salts. (1) sulphur, sulphurous acid, 
 hyposulphites, sulphuric acid. Bisulphide of carbon, etc. (2) 
 Common salt, soda ash, hydrochloric acid, chlorine, binoxide 
 of manganese, bleaching powder, chlorates, chlorimetry, etc. 
 (3) Carbonate of potash, caustic potash, alkalimetry, acidi- 
 metry, etc. (4) Nitric acid and nitrates. (5) Iodine, bromine, 
 etc. (6) Sodium, aluminium, magnesium. (7) Phosphorus, 
 matches, etc. (8) Ammonia salts. (9) Cyanides. (10) Alum, 
 copperas, blue vitriol, salts of magnesia, baryta, strontia, etc. 
 (11) Borates, stannates, tungstates, chromates, etc. (12) 
 Mercury salts, silver salts, photography. (13) Electro-me- 
 tallurgy. (14) Oils, fats, soaps, glycerine. II. Food and 
 drink : milk, cereals, starch, bread, meat, tea, cofiee, sugar, 
 fermentation, wine, beer, spirits, vinegar, preservation of 
 food, tobacco, etc. III. Clothing: textile fabrics, bleaching, 
 dyeing, calico printing, paper tanning, glue. India-rubber, 
 gutta percha, etc. IV. Fertilizers: guano, superphosphates, 
 , poudrettes, etc. 
 
 Organic Chemistry. — Laboratory practice. 
 
 Assaying — Ores of lead, silver, gold, platinum, tin, antimony, 
 bismuth, copper, nickel, cobalt, iron, mercury, and zinc ; aiid 
 gold, silver, and lead bullion , mattees, slags, etc. 
 
 Metallurgy— Copper, lead, silver, gold, zinc, tin, mercury, etc. Sup- 
 plementary lectures on iron and steel. 
 
 Economic Geology— Theory of mineral veins, ores, deposits and dis- 
 tribution of iron, copper, lead, gold, silver, mercury, and other 
 metals ; graphite, coal, lignite, peat, asphalt, petroleum, salt, 
 clay, limestone, cements, building and ornamental stones, etc. 
 
 Drawing — Dissertation and thesis work. 
 
 first SESSION. 
 
 VI.— Course .in Architecture.— Second Year.— Analytical 
 Geometry— Text book ; Peck's Analytical Geometry. 
 
 Graphics — Descriptive Geometry. Problems. 
 
 Chemistry— The iMctals. Lectures, and " Fownes' Manual of Chem- 
 istry." 
 
 The Elements of Architecture—The forms and proportions of the 
 five orders, and of balustrades, steps, doors, windows, arches, 
 vaults, domes, roofs, spires, etc. 
 
 Greek Architectural History— ^eher's Historv of Ancient Art. 
 
 French— Te-^i books: Fasquelle's French Grammar; Beudant's 
 Geolotrie ; La bouchee de pain. 
 
 Germ.an-Te^i books : Wershoven's Toehnical Vocabulary ; Stoeck- 
 hardt's Schule der Chemie ; I!ornoulli's Vademecum dos Me- 
 clianikers ; Stoehr's Katechismus der Bergbaukunde ; Gurlt's 
 Bergbau und Huettenkunde. 
 
 Z);aM'/iif/— Tracing ; ornament ; plans, sections, and elevations. 
 Text book ; Honey's Perspective. 
 
 second session. 
 
 Differential and Integral Calculus — Text book : Peck's Practical 
 
 Calculus. 
 Graphics — Shades and shadows ; perspective, isometrical drawing 
 
 Problems. °" 
 
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THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 289 
 
 Stone CvMing. 
 
 The Elements of Architecture, continued. 
 Roman Architectural History. 
 French — Text books, same as first session. 
 German — Text books : same as first session. 
 
 Drawing — Ornaments from easts; details; perspective drawings. 
 Text books : Honey's Perspective. 
 
 PIKST SESSION. 
 
 Thikd Year — Summer Vacation — Memoir. 
 
 Mechanics of Solids — Including forces, moments, equilibrium, stabil- 
 ity etc., and elementary machines. 
 
 Engineering. — General principles relating to materials and struc- 
 tures, physically and mechanically considered. 
 
 1. Materials— Stoae, cements, brick, metals, timber, treated 
 in regard to strength, durability, mode of preparation, de- 
 fects, tests ofquality, and fitness for special uses. 
 
 2. Structures — Foundations and supports, superstructure, 
 joints, stability, strength, and stiffness of parts; special 
 rules of construction for masonry of public buildings, 
 bridges, retaining walls, arches, railroads, common roads, 
 and canals. 
 
 3. Theory of Strains and Strength of Materials — Elasticity, 
 mechanical laws, application of principles of mechanics to 
 beams, girders, and roof trusses under various conditions 
 of loading and supports. 
 
 Applied Chemistry — Air, water, fuel, artificial illumination. 
 Geology — Descriptive. 
 
 * Medixval Architectural History. 
 
 * The History of Ornament — Lectures and exercises. 
 
 * The Decorative Arts — Terra cotta, faience, stained glass, enamels, 
 
 mosaic, fresco, distemper. Lectures and sketoning. Excur- 
 sions. 
 
 ^Specifications and Working Drawings — Excavation, foundations, 
 piling, stone work, brick work, plastering, and stucco work. 
 Lectures and laboratory work. Excursions. 
 
 Architectural Design — Design by dictation. Problems. 
 
 Drawing from the Cast — Ornament and the human figure. 
 
 . SECOND SESSION. 
 
 Mechanics of Solids — Dynamics, including uniform, varied, rectili- 
 neal and curvilinear motion, rotation, vibration, impact, work 
 done, etc. 
 
 Engineering — Theory of Strains and Strength of Materials con- 
 tinued — Graphical methods of determining strains, deflection of 
 beams and girders ; quantity of material in braced girders 
 under various conditions of loading and supports ; angle of 
 economy for bracing ; torsion of shafts ; crushing and tensile 
 strength of materials; working strains and working load; 
 mode of estimating cost of girder work. 
 
 Applied Chemistry — ^Limes, mortars and cements ; building stones ; 
 decay and preservation ; timber and its preservation ; pigments, 
 paints, oils, and varnishes; glass and ceramics; explosives; 
 gunpowder, guncotton, nitro-glycerine, etc. 
 
 Geology. — Historical. 
 
 *Mediosval Architectural History. 
 
 *The History of Ornament — Lectures and blackboard exercises. 
 
 *The Decorative Arts — Embroidery, weaving, jewelry, metal work, 
 inlays. Lectures and sketching. Excursions. 
 
 * Specification and Working Drawings — Carpentry, painting, gla- 
 zing, plumbing, iron, lead, and copper work; tinning and 
 slating. Lectures and laboratory Work. Excursions. 
 
 Architectural Design — Alterations and Restorations — Problems. 
 
 Drawing — ^Water colors. 
 
 Summer Vctcation — Memoir. 
 
 WITHOUT DISTINCTION OF SESSIONS. 
 
 FOUETH Ybak. — Sanitary Engineering. 
 
 Sewerage. 
 
 Economic Geology — Clay, limestone, cements, building -and or- 
 namental stones. 
 
 Graphical Statics. 
 
 Book-Keeping — Time books, contracts, pay rolls, analysis of ac- 
 counts, and cost sheets. 
 
 ^Business Relations between architects, clients, mechanics, and 
 draughtsmen: office papers; competitions ; legal obligations ; 
 superintendence. 
 
 ^Estimates — Quantity, weight, time, labor, cost ; squaring. 
 
 ^Modern Architectural History. 
 
 '''The History of Painting and Sculpture. 
 
 *The Theory of Architecture— the theory of form, the theory of 
 color, the theory of composition. 
 
 Literature and Criticism — Themes, Reports. Abstracts of book. 
 
 Architectural Design — Problems. 
 
 Depaetments of Instruction. — Modern Languages.— 
 The design in this department is to teach the students to 
 
 * For convenience these subiects are given in alternate years, 
 third and fourth year students taking them together. 
 
 19 
 
 the 
 
 read French and German scientific books with facility. In- 
 struction is given for three hours a week in each of these 
 languages during the first year and two hours a week during 
 the second year. As the text-books employed in the class- 
 room are altogether works on science, the students can ac- 
 quire a sufficient vocabulary to enable them to use French 
 and German authors in all the departments of the school. 
 No attempt is made to produce accomplished scholars in all 
 branches of German and French literature, but attention is 
 concentrated upon the immediate wants of the young men. 
 In this way no time is lost, and the instruction is made 
 thoroughly practical. 
 
 Mathematics. — ^The students of the First Class attend four 
 hours per week throughout the year. In the first session, 
 they complete the subject of Geometry, plane, volumetric, 
 and spherical ; the parabola, ellipse, and hyperbola, geome- 
 trically treated ; and Algebra, including the general prin- 
 ciples and properties of logarithms and the logarithmic 
 series, the general theory of equations, embracing the prin- 
 cipal transformations and properties, derived equatioiis_ and 
 equal roots, Sturm's theorem and the solution of higher 
 equations. In the second session they are taught Trigono- 
 metry, plane, analytical, and spherical, with the solution of 
 many practical problems by formulae and by construction ; 
 and the Mensuration of surfaces and of volumes. The stu- 
 dents of the Second Class attend four hours per week through- 
 out the year. In the first session, they complete the subject 
 of Analytical Geometry, with applications to lines and sur- 
 faces of the second order ; and in the second, the Difiisrential 
 and Integral Calculus, with some of its applications to me- 
 chanics and astronomy, as centre of gravity, moment of 
 inertia, falling bodies, attraction of homogeneous spheres, 
 orbital motion, law of force, etc. 
 
 Mechanics. — This subject is taught during the third year. 
 The course of instruction embraces the following subjects : 
 Representation and measurement of forces: Composition, 
 resolution, and equilibrium of forces ; principles of moments 
 and virtual moments ; theory of parallel forces ; application 
 to centre of gravity ; stability. Elementary machines : fric- 
 tion, resistance to rolling, stiffness of cords, atmospheric 
 resistance. General equations of motion : rectilineal, uni- 
 form, and uniformly varied motion ; curvilinear motion, 
 free and constrained ; centrifugal force ; application of the 
 Governor ; vibratory motion ; application to the pendulum ; 
 motions of translation and rotation; moment of inertia, 
 principal axes, and ellipsoid of inertia; laws of impact; 
 centre of percussion ; general theorem of work ; accumula- 
 tion of work ; application to fly-wheel. Mechanics of fluids : 
 pressure due to weight; equal transmission of pressures; 
 application to hydraulic press ; buoyancy and flotation ; ap- 
 plication to specific gravity. Tension and elasticity of gases 
 and vapors : laws of variation ; application to pumps and 
 siphons ; investigation of the barometer formula ; motion 
 of liquids in pipes and open channels ; living force of fluids ; 
 application to hydraulic ram ; mechanics of capillarity. 
 
 Practical Astronomy and Geodesy. — Students of the Third 
 and Fourth Classes in the course of Civil Engineering are 
 required to attend the course of Practical Astronomy and 
 Geodesy. This course includes the theory and use of the 
 transit and sextant, and the determination of geographical 
 position ; also the theory and use of geodetic instruments. 
 Physics. — The students of the First Class are occupied 
 during the first term with the subject of heat including the 
 steam engine, and with acoustics; during the second term, 
 in the study of optics, voltaic electricity, magnetism, and 
 electro-magnetism. The courses are fully illustrated by ap- 
 propriate experiments, and practical problems are occasion- 
 ally proposed for solution. To the students of the Third 
 Class, courses of lectures are delivered on the laws of electro- 
 statics, on the mechanical theory of heat, on mathematical 
 optics, and on the undulatory theory of light. Portions of 
 these courses are accompanied by experiifiental demonstra- 
 tions. The cabinet of physical apparatus will rank with 
 the best on this continent, and extensive additions are made 
 to it each year. 
 
 Chemistry. — I. General Chbmistrt. — ^The First Class 
 attends three exercises a week in the general chemistry of 
 the non-metallic elements throughout the year. It is in- 
 tended to lay the foundation of a thorough knowledge of 
 the theory of the subject preliminary to the practical in- 
 
290 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 struction in the chemical laboratory. For this purpose the 
 students are drilled upon the lectures, with free use of a text- 
 book. They are expected to write out full notes. At the 
 end of the year, they must pass a rigid examination before 
 being admitted to a higher grade. The Second Class also 
 attends three times a week during the year, and receives 
 instruction in theoretical chemistry adapted to the wants 
 of special scientific students. In the first session, the 
 chemistry of the metals; in the second session, organic 
 chemistry. 
 
 II. Analytical Chemistry. — There is a laboratory 
 devoted to qualitative analysis, another to quantitative 
 analysis, and an assay laboratory. These laboratories are 
 provided with all the necessary apparatus and fixtures, and 
 each is under the special charge of a competent instructor 
 with an assistant. Each student is provided with a conve- 
 nient table, with drawers and cupboards, and is supplied 
 with a complete outfit of apparatus and chemical reagents. 
 During the first year, qualitative analysis is taught by lec- 
 tures and blackboard exercises, and the student is required 
 to repeat all the experiments at his table in the laboratory. 
 Having acquired a thorough experimental knowledge of the 
 reactions of a group of bases or acids, single members of the 
 group or mixtures are submitted to him for identification. 
 He thus proceeds from simple to complex cases till he is 
 able to determine the composition of the most diflBcult mix- 
 tures. When the student shows, on written and experi- 
 mental examination, that he is sufficiently familiar with 
 qualitative analysis, he is allowed to enter the quantitative 
 laboratory. During the second and third years, quantitative 
 analysis is taught by lectures, and the student is required to 
 execute in the laboratory in a satisfactory manner a certain 
 number of analyses. He first analyzes substances of known 
 composition, such as crystallized salts, that the accuracy of 
 his work may be tested by a comparison of his results with 
 the true percentages. These analyses are repeated till he 
 has acquired sufficient skill to insure accurate results. He 
 is then required to make analyses of more complex substan- 
 ces, such as coals, limestones, ores of copper, iron, zinc and 
 nickel, pig iron, slags, technical products, etc. — oases in 
 which the accuracy of the work is determined by duplicating 
 the analyses and by comparing the results of different anal- 
 yses. Volumetric methods are employed whenever they are 
 more accurate or more expeditious than the gravimetric 
 methods. In this way each student acquires practical expe- 
 rience in the chemical analysis of the ores and products 
 which he is most likely to meet in practice. 
 
 III. Oeganic CHEMiaTRY. — Organic chemistry is taught 
 by lectures in the second session of the second year. During 
 the fourth year the students in the course of Analytical and 
 Applied Chemistry devote their time in the laboratory to 
 organic chemistry. 
 
 IV. Stoiohiometry. — Stoichiometry, the arithmetic of 
 chemistry, is taught by lectures and blackboard exercises 
 as a part of the course of instruction in general chemistry 
 in the first and second years ; and its practical applications 
 are developed in lectures on quantitative analysis and 
 assaying. 
 
 V. Assaying. — During the fourth year, the student is 
 admitted to the assay laboratory, where he is provided with 
 a suitable table and a set of assay apparatus, and where ho 
 has access to crucible and muffle furnaces, and to volumetric 
 apparatus for the assay of alloys of gold and silver. The 
 general principles as well as the special methods of assaying 
 are explained in the lecture room, and at the same time the 
 ores of the various metals and their appropriate fluxes are 
 exhibited and described. The student is then supplied with 
 the diflerent ores, and is required to assay each one in du- 
 plicate under the immediate supervision of the instructor. 
 To facilitate the assay of ores of the precious metals a sys- 
 tem of weights has been introduced by which the weight of 
 the silver or gold globule obtained shows at once, without 
 calculation, the number of troy ounces in a ton of ore. 
 Students are also given an opportunity of testing the mill- 
 ing qualities of gold and silver ores, and are required to give 
 special attention to sampling and the mechanical assaying 
 of the ores of the precious metals. 
 
 VI. Applied Chemistry.— The instruction in applied 
 chemistry extends through the third and fourth years, and 
 consists of lectures illustrated by experiments, diagrams, 
 and specimens. 
 
 The subjects discussed are : 
 
 IN THE THIRD YEAR. 
 
 (For all Students.) 
 I. Air ; naturej sources of contamination, sewer gas, plumb- 
 ing, drainage, disinfection, ventilation. 
 II. Water; composition of natural waters, pollution, dispo- 
 sal of sewage and house refuse. 
 
 III. Fuel and its applications. 
 
 IV. Artificial illumination : candles, oils and lamps, petro- 
 
 leum, gas and its products, electric light, 
 v. Limes, mortars, and cements. 
 VI. Building stones ; decay and preservation. 
 VII. Timber and its preservation : pigments, paints, essential 
 oils, varnishes. 
 VIII. Glass and ceramics. 
 IX. Explosives, gunpowder, gunootton, nitroglycerine, etc. 
 
 IN THE FOURTH YEAR. 
 [For students in the course of Analytical and Applied Chemistry). 
 
 I. Chemical manufactures : acids, alkalies, and salts. 
 
 (1) Sulphur, sulphurous acid, hyposulphites, sulphuric acid, 
 bisulphide of carbon, etc. 
 
 (2.) Common salt, soda ash, hydrochloric acid, chlorine, binoxide 
 of manganese, bleaching powder, chlorates, chlorimetry, etc. 
 
 (3.) Carbonate of potash, caustic potash, alkalimetry, aeidimetry, 
 etc. 
 (4.) Nitric acid and nitrates. 
 f5.) Iodine, bromine, etc. 
 (6.) Sodium, aluminium, magnesium. 
 (7.) Phosphorus, matches, etc. 
 (8.) Ammonia salts. 
 (9.) Cyanides. 
 (10.) Alum, copperas, blue vitriol, salts of magnesia, baryta, stron- 
 tia, etc. 
 (11.) Borates, stannates, tungstates, chromates. 
 (12.) Mercury salts, silver salts, photography. • 
 
 (13.) Electro-metallurgy. 
 (14.) Oils, fats, soaps, glycerine. 
 
 II. Food and drink : milk, cereals, starch, bread, meat, tea, cof- 
 
 fee, sugar, fermentation, wine, beer, spirits, vinegar, pre- 
 servation of food, tobacco, etc. 
 
 III. Clothing : textile fabrics, bleaching dyeing, calico printing, 
 
 paper, tanning, glue. India-rubber, gutta percha, etc. 
 
 IV. Fertilizers : guano, superphosphates, poudrettes^ etc. 
 Geology and Palosontology. — The course of instruction in this de- 
 partment is as follows : 
 
 SECOND YEAR. 
 
 Botany arid Zoology, as an introduction to Palaeontology— lectures 
 throughout the year. 
 
 THIRD YEAR. 
 
 Lithology : Minerals which form_ rocks and rock masses of the 
 different classes — lectures and practical exercises. 
 
 Geology : Cosmical, physiography, and historical — ^lectures and 
 conferences throughout the year. 
 
 FOURTH YEAR. 
 
 Economic Geology : Theory of mineral veins ; ores ; deposits and 
 distribution of iron, copper, lead, gold, silver, mercury, and other 
 metals; graphite, coal, lignite, peat, asphalt, petroleum, salt, clay, 
 limestone, cements, building and ornamental stones, etc. 
 
 MINERALOGY AND METALLURGY. 
 
 1. Mineralogy/. — The studies in mineralogy continue 
 tlirough two years. During the first year the students are 
 instructed in the use of the blowpipe, in crystallography, 
 and in theoretical mineralogy. 
 
 The instruction in blowpipe is entirely practical, and lasts 
 through the first half of the year. It consists in instruction 
 liow to use the different flames, and in teaching the stu- 
 dents how to examine mixtures, alloys, and natural com- 
 pounds, so that they are able to determine with ease the 
 constituents of a mixture containing a large number of 
 simple substances. In order to do this, substances whose 
 composition they know are given to them, upon which they 
 are required to perform all the characteristic reactions 
 which take place in the different flames with different 
 fluxes. After they are sufficiently familiar with the be- 
 haviour of substances the composition of which they know, 
 they are given substances, the composition of which they 
 do not know, to determine. The collection of blowpipe 
 substances consists of four hundred alloys, mixtures, and 
 minerals. Students are taught to examine qualitatively 
 all the different commercial allovs and a large number of 
 the natural combinations which exist in minerals. The 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 291 
 
 blowpipe laboratory is a large, well-ventilated room, to 
 which the students have access at all hours of the day, 
 where each student has a drawer with a lock assigned to 
 him, which he retains until the close of the term. 
 
 At the commencement of the second term the lectures on 
 crystallography commence. They embrace the entire sub- 
 ject of crystallography, including the descriptions of both 
 normal and distorted forms, for the study of which the stu- 
 dents have access to a collection of over 300 models in wood, 
 embracing all the theoretical forms. Besides this collection 
 they have the use of the collection of 150 models in glass, 
 and have access to the collection of minerals, most of the spe- 
 cies of which are illustrated by models in wood, showing 
 the perfect and distorted crystallographic forms. Confer- 
 ences are held during the term, in which the students are 
 required to determine models of the theoretical forms as 
 well as those found in minerals. They are also taught the- 
 oretical mineralogy, including the optical and physical pro- 
 perties of minerals, which lectures are illustrated by tlie 
 very complete set of apparatus, presented by F. A. Scher- 
 merhorn, and a cabinet containing a large number of sec- 
 tions of minerals for lantern and instrumental use. For 
 the study of sections the students are taught the use of 
 Groth's and Soleil's Polariscopes, and of Goniometers. At 
 the commencement of the third year the students begin the 
 study of practical mineralogy. They are required to 
 determine minerals by the eye, or by asking questions with 
 regard to those characteristics which cannot be determined 
 without experiment. They are required to give the name, 
 the composition, the crystalline form, and the prominent 
 blowpipe chemical and physical characteristics of the mine- 
 ral they determine. To facilitate this work they have un- 
 restricted access to a collection of about 3,000 carefully 
 labeled specimens, on which they are allowed to make any 
 experiments. They have, besides, constant access to the 
 cabinet of minerals, which contains about 30,000 specimens, 
 arranged in table cases to show the different characteristics 
 of minerals, and about three thousand specimens, arranged 
 in wall cases to show their association. The crystals of 
 minerals are arranged upon pedestals in such a way that 
 they can be readily seen and examined by the students. At 
 the commencement of the second term of the third year 
 they are required to determine the minerals without asking 
 questions, by making the chemical and blowpipe tests on 
 specimens given to them for the purpose. Most of the in- 
 struments in this department were presented to the School 
 by D. Willis James, C. R. Agnew, and the late Gouverneur 
 Kemble. The collection of minerals was founded by a valu- 
 able collection presented as the first donation to the School 
 before it was opened in 1864, by the late George T. Strong, 
 of this city. It was shortly afterwards supplemented by 
 another collection, presented by the late Gouverneur Kem- 
 ble, containing many autographs and specimens from the 
 cabinet of Hauy. As these collections were both very rich 
 in duplicates, very many valuable additions have been made 
 to the cabinet by exchange. Collections were also made in 
 Europe during several years by the Professor in charge, 
 having the necessities of the collection of the school in 
 view, and were presented to the school through the gene- 
 rosity of Morris K. Jessup, Wm. E. Dodge, Jr., D. S. Egles- 
 ton, C. Lanier, and J. Crearer, of this city ; and the late 
 John H. Caswell, Wm. H. Aspinwall, and R. P. Parrot. 
 
 II. Metallurgy. — ^The lectures in metallurgy continue 
 through two years, and discuss in detail the methods in use 
 in the best establishments in this country and in Europe for 
 working ores. They embrace, in general metallurgy, the 
 subjects of combustion, fire-clays, fiirnaces, natural fuels — 
 wood, peat, lignite, bituminous and anthracite coals — artifi- 
 cial fuels, charcoal, peat charcoal, and combustible gases 
 manufactured in generators, chimneys, the different kinds of 
 blast engines, regulators, hot-blast ovens, and tuyeres. The 
 metallurgy of iron consists in discussion of the general prop- 
 erties of iron and its ores ; theory of the blast furnace pro- 
 cess—the causes of variation in the charge produced in the 
 furnace by the blast, by the fuels, by the variations in the 
 charge, and by the form of the furnace ; the effects of mois- 
 ture ; the methods of ascertaining the cost ; the calculations 
 of the heat developed and lost in the furnace ; moulding ; 
 melting the iron in crucibles, in cupolas, in reverberatory 
 furnaces ; methods of making the moulds ; precautions re- 
 
 quired in casting; and the manufacture of malleable cast 
 iron. In the manufacture of wrought from cast iron, the 
 German process and its modifications are discussed ; the Eng- 
 lish processes, including fining; the dry and boiling process 
 in puddling ; stationary and rotary furnaces ; shears ; ham- 
 mers ; squeezers ; saws ; rolls ; reheating in ordinary and re- 
 generator furnaces; two and three high trains; method of 
 caculating cost of wrought iron. In the manufacture of iron 
 from the ore, the Catalan processes and its derivatives are 
 discussed ; in the metallurgy of steel, low furnace processes, 
 puddled steel, cement steel, Bessemer steel, Siemens-Mar- 
 tin steel, crucible steel, the utilization of scrap-iron, manu- 
 facture of sheet iron, nails, wire, and rails. The lectures on 
 the metals include the treatment of native copper ; the treat- 
 ment of pure sulphurous ores by the Swedish, German, and 
 mixed methods in Europe and the United States ; the treat- 
 ment of rich pure ores ; the treatment of impure ores in the 
 Hartz mountains and in the United States; the treatment of '" 
 very poor ores by lixiviation; the treatment of rich and pure 
 ores by the English method in the reverberatory furnace in 
 the United States and Europe, and the treatment of impure 
 ores in the same furnace; method of making calculations lor 
 works treating a definite number of tons ; mixed method 
 treatment in Europe and in the United States ; treatment of 
 oxides of copper, wet methods ; treatment of ores of lead, 
 roasting and reaction in France, England, and the United 
 States; method of roasting and reduction; method by preci- 
 pitation in France, Germany, and the West; mixed method 
 in France, Germany, and the West ; refining of lead, extrac- 
 tion of silver by the ]?attinson method and by zinc; cupella- 
 tion; condensation of volatile products ; treatment of silver 
 ores in furnaces, in Germany and in the United States ; se- 
 parating of silver by amalgamation, Saxon method, Mexican 
 method, pan amalgamation, treatment in the wet way ; Au- 
 gustin's methods, Ziervogel's methods. Von Patera's method ; 
 refining silver ; treatment of gold ores, washing, sluicing, 
 hydraulic mining, Plattner's process, parting gold and silver ; 
 ti'eatment of tin, in shaft furnaces and in reverberatory fur- 
 naces ; treatment of ores q/ zinc, Silesian method, Belgian 
 method, English method, wet method ; treatment of ores of 
 mercury, method by precipitation, by roasting, in Europe 
 and in California, by the wet way ; treatment of ores of an- 
 timony; treatment of nickel and cobalt; treatment of ores of 
 bismuth. 
 
 It is designed to make these lectures as practical as possi- 
 ble, and for this purpose the economic details of cost are 
 given whenever they can be obtained from authentic 
 sources. Special details are given of the ores of this 
 country which are difficult to treat, to the solution of prac- 
 tical problems which may occur, and to changes which 
 different economic relati(Jns are liable to cause in the treat- 
 ment of the same ore in different localities. Nearly a 
 thousand lecture diagrams and the same number of photo- 
 graphic illustrations for use in the lantern have been pre- 
 pared to illustrate the furnaces, machines, and appliances 
 used in the different metallurgical works, as well as to 
 illustrate the construction of furnaces, etc. To the Fourth 
 or graduating Class is given a course of twelve supplemen- 
 tary lectures on the metallurgy of Iron and Steel, embracing : 
 (1) Steam engines, boilers and apparatus as adapted to iron 
 manufacture; hydraulic mchinery ; lifting and transporting 
 apparatus. (2) Heating and melting furnaces; the gas 
 furnace. (3) Direct processes ; the crucible steel processes ; 
 refractory materials. (4) Puddling, especially mechanical 
 puddling and refining by oxide of iron. (5) The Bessemer 
 plant and manufacture. (6) Open-hearth plant and manu- 
 facture. (7) Casting apparatus; the manufacture of cast- 
 ings in steel and iron. (8 and 9) Rolling mill ; roll turning. 
 (10) Forging machinery and rolling mill finishing ma- 
 chinery. (11) General arrangement of iron and steel works. 
 (12) Temper and treatment of steel. The collection illus- 
 trating the department of metallurgy includes models of 
 furnaces and a very large collection of drawings and tracings, 
 in most cases copies from the working drawings of establish- 
 ments in actual operation. This collection embraces several 
 hundred tracings collected from the best types of works in 
 this country and abroad, many of them being sufficiently 
 detailed to be used as construction drawings. The metal, 
 lurgical collection, properly speaking, embraces about 3,000 
 specimens, illustrating every stage of all the prominent 
 
292 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 metallurgical processes. Many of these specimens have been 
 analyzed and assayed. They are constantly open to the 
 inspection of the students. As an application of the lec- 
 tures the students are required to work out a project, and to 
 present working drawings and estimates for the erection of 
 works to treat a given ore under stated conditions. The 
 problems given are those which require solution in some 
 parts of the United States. 
 
 Enginebeinq. — -Engineering, in its widest sense, involves 
 applications of the sciences of physics, mechanics, and 
 chemistry to a great variety of problems met with in works 
 and enterprises of a public and private nature or of an in- 
 dustrial character, in which the employment of materials, 
 the building of structures, the use of machinery, the utiliza- 
 tion of natural resources, or the protection or improvement 
 of the ways of commerce, are essential and important 
 elements and conditions. The educated engineer, whatever 
 may be the branch of the profession to which he devotes 
 himself, should, therefore, have a thorough foundation of 
 knowledge in certain subjects of common application ; for 
 example, free-hand and instrumental drawing; mathema- 
 tics, physios, and mechanics, and the application of these 
 sciences to the resistance of materials to machinery, to struc- 
 tures of iron and wood and masonry ; the flow of streams in 
 artificial channels required for water-works, drainage, and 
 f )r sanitary purposes ; the theory of heat, as applicable to 
 air and steam in their various uses in ventilation, etc. 
 
 The courses in mining engineering and civil engineering 
 are, therefore, identical in all that pertains to these subjects. 
 It is essential, however, that in each of these branches of 
 engineering the subjects technically appertaining to each 
 should receive as great a share of the attention of the stu- 
 dents, in the courses in mining and civil engineering re- 
 spectively, as possible in the short period devoted to colle- 
 giate instruction. The mining engineer encounters in his 
 practice questions which are rarely met with in civil engin- 
 eering, for example, the results of experience in the search- 
 ing for, winning, and exploitation of mineral deposits, 
 special problems of ventilation, and drainage ; while, on the 
 other hand, he is seldom or never called upon to discuss 
 questions which are' common and important in the practice 
 of civil engineering, such as the supply of water to towns 
 and cities, and other sanitary works, on a large scale, the 
 erection of extensive public buildings, the improvement of 
 harbors and rivers, works of irrigation, the building of ex- 
 ten Jed bridges, etc. The arrangement of the two courses 
 in engineering has been made under the above view of the 
 subject, utilizing, as it does, in the best manner, the time of 
 the instructors, and avoiding a repetition of the same in- 
 struction to different classes. The collateral branches of 
 study for the engineering courses, chemistry, metallurgy, 
 geology, subjects quite as essential to mining and civil en- 
 gineers as physics and mechanics, have also been assigned 
 t J these two courses, in accordance with the general require- 
 ments of the respective professions. 
 
 I. Drawing, Desceiptive Geometey, etc. — The 
 course in drawing embraces instrumental drawing, descrip- 
 tive geometry, shades, shadows and perspective, stone cut- 
 ting, isometric drawing, topographical and geological draw- 
 ing, drawings of engineering constructions and machinery. 
 The first year is devoted to the elements of instrumental 
 drawing, the use of instruments, lettering, projections of ob- 
 jects, plans, sections, and elevations, intersection of solids 
 and of surfaces, and the development of surfaces. During 
 the vacation which follows, the execution of sketches from 
 nature and from engineering and architectural constructions 
 ij required. During the second year, the first session is 
 occupied in the study of descriptive geometry, in grading 
 and tinting as well as in topographical drawing. The in- 
 struction in these subjects requires all the problems and 
 illustrations to be carefully and neatly executed on the 
 drawing board, and the principles of construction explained 
 by the student in oral examinations. During the second 
 session, the subjects of shades and shadows, perspective and 
 isometrical drawing and stone cutting, are taken up in the 
 same manner. Practice is also given in drawing the simple 
 elements of architecture, such as the i)huis of private and 
 public buildings, showing the details of walls, floors, win- 
 dows, and door casings, etc. During the vacation which 
 follows, definite architectural plans are required. The 
 
 drawing of the third year includes elements of machine 
 construction, the drawing of maps from field work exe- 
 cuted by the students themselves, parts of engines, geo- 
 logical drawings, etc. During the vacation which follows, 
 the necessary drawings for memoirs and theses are made. 
 The drawing of the fourth year is limited to working draw- 
 ings of machines and engineering constructions, drawings 
 illustrating the principles of mechanism, and the execution 
 of plane table maps with contour lines, etc. The whole 
 course of drawing is progressive, and embraces nearly 100 
 sheets, each succeeding sheet being illustrative of a princi- 
 ple of construction or an advance towards more diflicult 
 methods or combinations ; and it is designed to qualify 
 students for the execution of all kinds of drawing and 
 the most difficult constructions. 
 
 II. Civil Engineering. — ^Instruction in civil engineering 
 extends through the third and fourth years. During the 
 third year, the more simple elements of civil engineering and 
 surveying are taught. In civil engineering the various sub- 
 jects are considered in the following order : First, Materials 
 — building-stones, limes, cements, mortar, concrete, brick, 
 wood, metals ; their properties and general qualities, mode 
 of preparation, and their respective uses, and combinations 
 in constructions, their strength and durability. Second, 
 Masonry — construction of masonry, retaining walls, arches, 
 etc. Third, Framing^structures of wood, carpentry. Fourth, 
 Stone and Wooden Bridges — descriptions of various kinds of 
 wood and iron trusses in use, suspension bridges, etc., gen- 
 eral principles of roof constructions. Fifth, Common Road 
 Construction — ^general principle of railway construction; 
 construction of canals, general principles of rivers, slack 
 water navigation, etc. The instruction in surveying embraces 
 a series of lectures on the principles of the subject and the 
 use and description of instruments, and the following order 
 of field work, viz. 
 
 1. At the beginning of the third year, the students are 
 divided into small squads of 3 to 6 each, each squad being 
 provided with an instrument. The field work begins with 
 instruction in general methods of ascertaining distances and 
 dimensions without instruments, by pacing and by employ- 
 ing the height of the body, the length of the arm, etc., for 
 obtaining rough measurements when instruments are not 
 available. 
 
 2. The use of the compass for topographical surveys and 
 for ascertaining areas ; the use of the hand-level for con- 
 touring or for determining differences of levels, use of sex- 
 tant, measurements with chain and tape, in making com- 
 pass surveys, a map of each survey being made by each 
 student. 
 
 3. Use of solar compass for U. S. land and mineral sur- 
 veys. 
 
 4. Use of transit ; measurement of angles, closed survey 
 by traversing ; calculation of coordinates ; city surveying. 
 
 5. Use of surveyor's level ; running line of "level, trigono- 
 metrical levelling, by measurements of vertical angles. 
 
 Spring work — -four or five weeks. 
 
 1. Use of plane table for a topographical survey of a por- 
 tion of Central Park. 
 
 2. Magnetic survey with solar compass and dipping nee- 
 dle, with determination of curves of equal deviation and 
 intensity. 
 
 Instruction in Practical Astronomy and Geodesy during 
 the third year embraces : 
 
 1. A course of general lectures on Astronomy, fully illus- 
 trated by lantern views. 
 
 2. Lectures on Geodesy; general outlines of Geodesy; 
 description and illustration of the different kinds of trian- 
 gulation, primary, secondary, and tertiary; description of 
 the United States Coast Survey primary base apparatus; 
 description of the United States Coast Survey secondary 
 base apparatus; measurement of subsidiary base lines; 
 reconnoissance surveys ; stations and signals ; observing tri- 
 pods and scaffolds; station marks, underground and sur- 
 face; observation of angles; instruments, direction and 
 repeating ; application of Legendre's Theorem to the solu- 
 tion of spheroidal triangles ; records and computations ; 
 latitude, longtitude, azimuth, and time observations and 
 computations. 
 
 3. Practical use, in the observatory, of the transit instru- 
 ment for time and zenith telescope,- for latitude^ and, in the 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 293 
 
 field, use of the sextant and reflecting circle for time, latitude, 
 and longitude approximations. During six weeks of the 
 summer vacation, at the close of the third year, the students 
 in Civil Engineering are required to make a geodetic survey 
 of some region. In the summer of 1882 a survey was made 
 of Otsego Lake, N. Y., at the request of the Director of the 
 New York State Survey. The results of this survey are 
 to be used by the State Board in constructing a map of that 
 region. 
 
 During the fourth year a line of railroad is surveyed, 
 locating the line on the ground, setting grade and slope 
 stakes, levelling, and calculation of cuttings and embank- 
 ments, drawings, and estimates. In addition, the course in 
 railroad engineering embraces a series of practical lectures 
 on permanent way, rolling stock, motive power, and ad- 
 ministration of railroads, with instruction in the economics 
 of location and transportation. The course in civil engineer- 
 ing in the fourth year embraces the principles of mechanics 
 applied to engineering constructions and to machinery, the 
 strength of materials, the theory of retaining walls and 
 arches, and the methods of determining the dimensions of 
 the parts of iron roof and bridge trusses, by means of the 
 stresses to which they are subjected, the tlieory of such struc- 
 tures and the details of practical construction ; the prin- 
 ciples of hydraulics applied to the improvements of rivers, 
 the water supply of towns, reservoirs, dams, etc., and the 
 general principles of sanitary engineering, drainage, sewers, 
 house drainage and ventilation. The students in the civil 
 engineering course are also instructed in the principles of 
 mechanisms beginning with the general theory of motion ; 
 the principles of transmission of motion, the various modes 
 of mechanical connection, the calculation of relative velo- 
 cities of moving pieces of machinery, valve gearing, and 
 the mechanism, movements, and construction of machinery 
 in practice ; the dynamics of machinery or the determination 
 of the relations between the forces which act upon machines, 
 and the general application of mechanics to machines ; the 
 study of prime movers, including steam-engines, hot-air 
 engines, and water-wheels ; the theory and construction of 
 steam boilers, and the general principles of heat, as applied 
 to air and vapors. Instructions in Geodesy continued, by 
 lectures and use of instruments^spirit levelling — trigono- 
 metric levelling — magnetic determinations — figure of the 
 earth. 
 
 III. Mining Engineering. — ^The course in mining en- 
 gineering is the same as that in civil engineering, in drawing 
 and surveying, except that the students of mining will have 
 additional instruction in underground surveying and geolo- 
 gical reconnoissance. The courses in mining and civil 
 engineering are also identical during the third year in all 
 that relates to materials and general principles of engineer- 
 ing constructions, excepting that the course in mining 
 engineering is intended to be more extended in the prin- 
 ciples of mechanism and construction of machinery, and 
 less extended in the detailed principles of roof and bridge 
 construction, hydraulics as applied to river improvements, 
 sanitary engineering, water supply of towns, etc. During 
 the third and fourth years, the course in mining engineering 
 embraces lectures on practical mining, or miners' work, in- 
 cluding excavation of clays, peat, bog iron ore, and other 
 easily worked materials ; quarrying for extraction of large 
 blocks of stone, marble, etc. ; blasting, drilling tools, hand 
 boring, use of explosives; well-boring, by hand for ex- 
 ploration, and machine-boring, sinking of shafts and slopes, 
 timbering and driving of adits and levels, in the use of 
 picks and gads in the mining of coal, salt, fire-clay, and 
 other soft rocks, coal-cutting machines, mining of ores and 
 hard rocks; handling of excavated mineral in working 
 places ; underground transportation, tramming by man or 
 animal power, mechanical haulage with chains or wire rope, 
 and by underground locomotives; accidents to men, their 
 cause and prevention ; organization and administration ; 
 mine book-keeping, accounts with men, time books, pay roll, 
 analysis and dissection of mine accounts and making out of 
 cost sheets. The instruction in mining engineering during 
 the fourth year is the same as for the civil engineers in all 
 that relates to the general dynamics of machinery, and to 
 the application of the principles of mechanics to engineer- 
 ing constructions. It is more extended in the application 
 of machinery to jnining purposes, especially in connection 
 
 with the use of compressed air, pumping and ventilating 
 machinery, and hoisting machinery. 
 
 It embraces also the study of mineral deposits, classifica- 
 tion and description of veins, beds, and masses, and their 
 geological characteristics, interruptions and intersections, 
 methods of prospecting, of reaching deposits, of prosecuting 
 the underground workings; and methods of makjng and 
 supporting excavations made for special purposes, junctions 
 of levels, chambers for machines, and of making and sup- 
 porting excavations in watery strata ; proper provisions for 
 pumping and ventilation; general principles to be observed 
 in laying out, opening and working mines, and methods ap- 
 plicable to special deposits, such as narrow and wide veins or 
 lodes, thick and thin seams of coal ; hydraulic mining, etc. ; 
 also instructions in the proper administration of mining 
 works, exterior transportation, mine regulations, etc. A 
 course of lectures on ore dressing includes the general prin- 
 ciples of ore dressing, preliminary hand dressing, and sort- 
 ing and preliminary cleansing and sizing ; crushing by hand 
 and with machinery ; cleansing in ditches and troughs, in 
 sieves, trommels, and by special machines ; sizing, bar grat- 
 ings, and other stationary screens, riddles, revolving screens ; 
 concentration of coarse and fine material by jigs, buddies, 
 tables, etc. ; illustrations from American and foreign practices ; 
 mechanical preparation of coal and other minerals, and the 
 concentration and purification of copper, lead, iron, and 
 other ores. A course of lectures on the machinery of the 
 plant for the manufacture of iron and steel includes the 
 engineering of blast engines and hoists, and all the hydraulic 
 machinery of the steel works, overhead-cranes, etc. 
 
 Architecture. — During the second year the time which is 
 given in the other courses to laboratory work is in this course 
 given to architectural drawing. This is so laid out as to in- 
 clude exercises in the ordinary processes of draughtsmanship, 
 the making of plans, elevations, sections, and details, both on 
 a large and on a small scale; using pencils and pens, brushes, 
 and colors, with auxiliary exercises in tracing and sketching. 
 The examples are so chosen as to make the student familiar 
 with the common-places of architectural form, and are ac- 
 companied by lectures upon the Elements of Architecture, 
 in which the forms and proportions of the Greek and Roman 
 Orders, of doors and windows, arches, staircases and balus- 
 trades, domes and vaults, roofs and spires, are set forth, and 
 the best ways of drawing them explained. At the same time 
 a series of illustrated lectures is given upon Egyptian, 
 Assyrian, Greek, and Roman Architectural History. Dur- 
 ing this year the students of architecture complete their ele- 
 mentary studies in Mathematics and Chemistry, French, and 
 German, following at the same time the work in Descriptive 
 Geometry, Stone Cutting, and Shades, Shadows, and Per- 
 spective, given in the Department of Engineering, and a por- 
 tion of the work in Geology. In the third and fourth years 
 the study of scientific construction is pursued in connection 
 with the classes of Engineering, most of the time, however, 
 being given to strictly professional work. This is for the 
 most part pursued by the two classes in common, one class 
 taking up in their fourth year what the next class takes in 
 the third, and vice versa, the whole thus forming a single 
 two years' course. These studies are arranged under four 
 heads: 
 
 I. Under the head of History, the architecture of the Mid- 
 dle Ages is taken up in one year, and that of the Renaissance, 
 and its more modern derivatives, in the next. On complet- 
 ing the study of ancient architecture, then, in the second 
 year, one class goes on directly to that of the Middle Ages in 
 the third year, and to that of the Renaissance in the fourth. 
 The next class passes at once from ancient classical architec- 
 ture to modern, finishing with the Mediaeval styles. 
 
 II. Under the general head of Ornament, etc., is compris- 
 ed the study of the decorative details of the different archi- 
 tectural styles, and of the contemporary forms in other 
 branches of art, especially the decorative arts employed in 
 building. The materials and processes employed in these 
 arts, and the theory of aesthetics, in form and color, come un- 
 der this head. 
 
 III. Under the head of Architecural Practice comes the 
 study of specifications and working drawings, so far as they 
 can be profitably studied in such a school, and of the 
 materials and processes employed in building- operations. 
 The buildings erected in the neighborhood will here serve 
 
294 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 as examples, and a special architectural laboratory will 
 afford opportunity for the study of oils and paints, cements, 
 mortars, etc., and for testing their quality. Experiments 
 upon the strength of materials will be made at the same 
 time by classes in Civil Engineering. 
 
 IV. Under the head of Drawing and Design is comprised 
 the practice of original composition in the working out of 
 problems, in design, from given data, as well as further 
 exercises in draughtsmanship, both free hand and with the 
 pencil, pen, or brush, illustrating the study of the special 
 topics enumerated above. The laboratory will be provided 
 with facilities for modelling in clay or wax,, and for working 
 in plaster. The students of the fourth year will give a 
 certain portion of time to exercises of a critical and literary 
 character, designed to practice them both in reading and in 
 writing. The buildings now in process of erection will 
 afford ample accommodation for this work, and for the 
 necessary collections of drawings, photographs, casts, and 
 books. 
 
 Memoirs, Prefects, and Dissertations — ^The following me- 
 moirs, projects, and dissertations required from students of 
 the several classes of the year 1881-82, are given simply to 
 illustrate the kind of work required by By-laws 22 and 24, 
 pages 14 and 15. Students of the Second Class in all the 
 courses were required to hand to the Instructor in Drawing, 
 on or before October 3, 1881, six free-hand sketches as follows: 
 
 No. 1. Hoisting Machine. No. 2. Stone Doorway. No. 3. 
 Bridge. No. 4. Staircase. No. 5. Steam Pump. No. 6. Railroad 
 Car. These sketches must be drawn fiom the objects themselves, 
 on sheets 15x22 inches, and location, date, and signature must be 
 given on each. 
 
 Course in Mining Engineering — Students of the Third Class are 
 required to hand to the Professor of Engineering, on or before Oc- 
 tober 3, 1881 : For those not attending the Summer School of Me- 
 chanical Engineering, six drawings (15x22) as follows ; No. 1. Or- 
 thographic view. Plan and Elevation of a Building, Dimensions, 
 etc., assigned in class. No. 2. Details — Doors, Windows, Stairs, 
 etc. No. 3. Tracing of No. 2. No. 4. Enlarged Plan and Eleva- 
 tion of principal entrance, with details. No. 5. Perspective view of 
 Exterior. No. 6. Isometric view of exterior. For those attending 
 the Summer School of Mechanical Engineering, descriptive and il- 
 lustrated memoirs upon shop practice. Students of the Fourth 
 Class were required to hand to the Professor of Engineering, on or 
 before October 3, 1881 : A Memoir upon some topic assigned to 
 each member of the class in connection with the Summer School in 
 Practical Mining; and on or before January 13, 1882, to hand in to 
 the Professor of Metallurgy : A Metallurgical Project on a subject 
 assigned by the Professor of Metallurgy. 
 
 Coiirse in Civil Engineering. — Students of the Third Class were 
 required to hand to the Professor of Engineering on or before Oct. 
 3d, 1881. 
 
 For those not attending the Summer School of Mechanical Engi- 
 neering, six drawings, 15x22 inches, as follows : 
 . No. 1. Orthographic View. Plan and Elevation of a Building. 
 Dimensions, etc., assigned in class. 
 
 No. 2. Details — Doors, Windows, Stairs, etc. 
 
 No. 3. Tracing of No. 2. 
 
 No. 4. Enlarged Plan and Elevation of principal entrance, with 
 details. 
 
 No. 5. Perspective View of Exterior. 
 
 No. 6. Isometric View of Exterior. 
 
 For those attending the Summer School of Mechanical Engineer- 
 ing, descriptive and illustrative memoirs upon shop practice. 
 
 Students of the Fourth Clas3 were required to hand the Professor of 
 Engineering, on or before October 3, 1881, descriptive memoir upon 
 engineering topics assigned to the member individually, embracing; 
 Eeclamation of Tide Lands at Green River Harbor, Mass.; Metliods 
 of Laying Out and Constructing Roadways on Pennsylvania Rail- 
 road ; Improvements of Charleston Harbor, S. C, and Cape Fear 
 River, N. C. ; Construction of New Railroad Bridge across the 
 Harlem River at 155th Street. 
 
 Course in Metallurgy.— Staients of the Third Class were re- 
 quired to hand to the Professor of Metallurgy, on or before October 
 3, 188L 
 
 A Memoir on one of the following subjects : 
 
 (1) The occurrence, preparation and properties of Ozone. (2) 
 The comparative certainty and delicacy of the diiferent qualitative 
 tests for Arsenic. (3) The occurrence and detection of Titanium. 
 (4) Qualitative detection and separation of Nickel and Cobalt. 
 
 Students of the Fourth Class were required to hand to the Pro- 
 fessor of Metallurgy, on or before October 3, 1881 : 
 
 A Memoir on one of the following subjects : 
 
 (1.) Regenerative Furnaces. (2.) Blair's Direct Process. (3 ) The 
 Siemens-Martin ;Proees3. 
 
 And on or before January 13, 1882 : 
 
 A Metallurgical Project on a subject assigned by the Professor of 
 Metallurgy. 
 
 Course in Geology and Palceontology. — Students of the Third 
 Class were required to hand to the Professor of Geology, on or be- 
 fore October 3, 1881 : 
 
 A Memoir on one of the following subjects: 
 
 (1.) Notes on the Fauna or Flora of any geographical district 
 visited. (2.) Observations on the structure, distribution, and habits 
 of any of our Fresh-water Fishes. (3.) Catalogues and collections 
 ofMoUusks inhabiting any lakes, rivers, or districts. (4.) Notes 
 on the economy of observed insects. (5.) Notes on tlie various 
 observed methods by which the Seeds of Plants are distributed. 
 
 Students of the Fourth Class were required to hand to the Profes- 
 sor of Geology, on or before October 3, 1881 : 
 
 A Memoir on one of the following subjects : 
 
 (1.) Report on the Geology of any district visited. Embracing : 
 a. Topographical features and their causes, b. Surface geology. 
 c. Sections of strata, with lithologieal character, tliickness, dip, 
 .strike, and fossils of each bed. Sketches of rock outcrops, d. Suites 
 of specimens of rocks and fossils, rocks 3 — 4 — 1 inches. 
 
 (2.) Report on any special formation which may be examined. 
 Embracing : a. The geographical area of its outcrops, b. Its mipe- 
 ral character and origin of the material composing it. c. Sets and 
 collections of its fossus. d. Reading of the history of its deposi- 
 tion. 
 
 (3.) Report on any examined deposits of ore or other useful mine- 
 rals : as, a. Tlie Magnetic Iron Ores of New York and New Jersey, 
 phenomena and history, b. The Limonite Ores of the Alleghany 
 Belt, character of deposits and age. c. The Zinc Ores of Franklin 
 and Friedensville. d. The Chromic Iron of the Alleghany Belt, 
 where and how it occurs. 
 
 And on or before the 15th of April, 1882 ; A Dissertation on one 
 of the following subjects : 
 
 (1.) The Mesozoic Sandstones of Nesw Jersey and the Connecticut 
 Valley ; their geological phenomena, history, and relations to the 
 associated trap rocks. 
 
 (2.) The Limonite Ores of the Alleghany belt ; their phenomena, 
 age, and origin, i. e.; Where and how they occur, when and how 
 they are deposited. 
 
 (3.) Eozoon Canadense; is it organic? 
 
 Course in Analytieal and Applied Chemistry. — Students of the 
 Third Class were required to hand to the Professor of Chemistry, on 
 or before November 3, 1881 ; 
 
 A Memoir on one of the following subjects : 
 
 (1.) Water Gas. (2.) Petroleum. (3.) Photo-Mechanical Pro- 
 cesses. (4.) Gun 'Cotton. 
 
 The Memoir must include a general account of the group : con- 
 stitution, formation, physical and chemical properties, and decom- 
 positions; together with a complete classified list of all the members 
 of the group, with the names of the discoverei-s, date of discoveries, 
 and references to original publications. 
 
 The students of the Fourth Class were required to hand in to the 
 Professor of Chemistry, on or before Novemoer 3, 1881 ; A Memoir 
 on one of the following subjects : 
 
 (1.) Artificial Stone. (2.) Artificial Indigo. (3.) Quinine and its 
 allies. (4.) Resins and Varnishes. 
 
 The Memoir must contain full references to authorities throughout 
 the text, a table of contents, and an index. 
 
 And on or before April 14, 1882. 
 
 A Chemical Dissertation on a subject which they may select, 
 subject to the approval of tlie Professor of Chemistry. All memoirs 
 and Dissertations must be written on paper 8x10 inches, with a 
 margin of one inch, and be illustrated by drawings made to scale, 
 on paper 24x36 inches in size, and accompanied, when possible, by 
 specimens. 
 
 Vacation Work. — During the vacation? at the close of 
 the first, second, and third years, students are required to 
 prepare memoirs on subjects assigned to them by the 
 Faculty. Specimens illustrative of the kind of work re- 
 quired in the memoirs have just been given. During the 
 vaction, a class in practical mining, composed of students 
 in the course in Mining Engineering who have completed 
 the third year, is required to visit a mine for practical mine 
 work. The class is under the immediate superintendence 
 of the Adjunct Professor in Surveying and Practical Min- 
 ing, and is occupied in this way from four to six weeks. 
 During the vacation, also, a volunteer class in practical me- 
 chanical engineering is formed from among the students of 
 either of the Engineering courses who have' completed their 
 second year, for the purpose of visiting foundries and ma- 
 chine shops in the city, and engaging in practical work and 
 study. This class is under the immediate supervision of the 
 Adjunct Professor of Mechanical Engineering, and is occu- 
 pied in this way four or five weeks of the months of June 
 and July. During the vacation a class in practical geodesy. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATED. 
 
 295 
 
 composed of studenta in the course of Civil Engineering 
 who have completed the third year, is required to make a 
 geodetic survey of some region. This includes measuring a 
 base line with a United States Coast Survey secondary base 
 apparatus — secondary and tertiary triangulation with eight 
 inch theodolite — ^trigonometric levelling with eight inch 
 theodolite, with vertical circle. Determinations of time, 
 latitude, and azimuth, using portable transit, zenith tele- 
 scope, and theodolite. Approximate determinations of time, 
 latitude, and longitude, with sextant and reflecting circle. 
 The class is under the immediate supervision of the Direc- 
 tor of the Observatory and Instructor in Geodesy. 
 
 Text Books. — The text books required by the first and 
 second classes are named in connection with the subjects in 
 the synopsis of studies. Books preceded by an asterisk (*) 
 are optional — the others are indispensable. 
 
 Third Class. — Peck's Mechanics (new edition). Murray's 
 Land Surveying. Newcomb's and Holden's Astronomy. 
 *Publications of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, relat- 
 ing to the fundamental geodetic operations. *Rankine's 
 Machinery and Mill Work. Mahan's or Wheeler's Civil 
 Engineering. Gillmore's Roads and Pavements. Stoney's 
 Theory of Strains. Searle's Henck's Field-book for Engin- 
 eers. *Davis's Formulae for Railroad Earthwork. Ritter's 
 Iron Bridges and Roofs. *Callon's Lectures on Mining. 
 Johnson's Fresenius's Quantitative Analysis. Dana's Man- 
 ual of Geology. Nicholson's Palseontology. Wagner's 
 Chemical Technology. *Kerl's Metallurgy. Plattner's 
 Blowpipe Analysis. Egleston's Lectures on Mineralogy. 
 Egleston's Tables for Determining Minerals. Egleston's 
 Metallurgical Tables. Egleston's Tables of Weights, Meas- 
 ures, Coins, etc. Von Cotta and Lawrence's Rocks. Cairn's 
 Quantitative Analysis. 
 
 Fourth Class. — Burat's Geologic Appliqufi. *D'Orbigny's 
 Palseontologie El^mentaire. Rickett's Manual of Practical 
 Assaying. *Whitney's Metallic Wealth of the United 
 States. *Kerrs Probirkunst. Egleston's Metallurgical 
 Tables. *Cotta'3 Treatise on Ore Deposits, by Prime. 
 Page's Economic Geology. Weisbach's Mechanics of En- 
 gineering. Gallon's Lectures on Mining. *Burat's Ex- 
 ploitation des Mines. *Rigg on the Steam Engine. Good- 
 eve on the Steam Engine. *Welsh's Designing Valve 
 Gearing. Rankine's Prime Movers. Rankine's Civil 
 Engineering. Rankine's Machinery and Mill Work. *Lot- 
 tner's Bergbaukunst. Stevenson on Harbors. Stevenson 
 on Canals and Rivers. *Vose's Railroad Engineering. 
 *Clarke's Geodesy. *Publications of the U. S. Coast and 
 Geodetic Survey, relating to the fundamental geodetic oper- 
 ations. *Gaetschsman's Aufbereitung. Fanning's Water 
 Supply Engineering. Diedrich's Theory of Strains. La- 
 tham's Sanitary Engineering. *R6ntgen's Thermodynamics, 
 Du Bois's Translation. *Plan£it on Warming and Ventila- 
 tion. *Joly, Warming and Ventilation. *Colyer's Hydrau- 
 lic Lifting and Press Machinery. *Rittinger's Die Auf ber- 
 eitungkunde. Allen's Introduction to the Practice of Com- 
 mercial Organic Analysis. Berthelot's Legons sur les 
 Methodes G6n6rales de Synthase en Chimie Organique. 
 Berthelot and Jungfleisch's Trait6 Ellmentaire de Chimie 
 Organique. Roscoe and Schorlemmer's Treatise on Chem- 
 istry (Organic Chemistry). Strecker's Short Text Book of 
 Organic Chemistry by Wislicenus. 
 
 LiBEAEY. — ^The Library of the School of Mines, estab- 
 lished when the school was founded, was especially de- 
 signed to assist the students in the course of studies pur- 
 sued in the various departments. Having at the time no 
 fund for the purpose, a portion of the college library appro- 
 priation was devoted to the purchase of a few books which 
 partially supplied the existing needs. To these were subse- 
 quently added about a thousand volumes removed from the 
 library of the School of Arts to another department, and a 
 further increase was soon after made by the addition of 
 books obtained in exchange for duplicate reports of Natural 
 History, Surveys of States and Territories, presented by 
 various authorities. Since then frequent donations, and a 
 gradually increasing annual appropriation, have raised the 
 number of volumes to about eighty-five hundred. The 
 number of volumes upon its shelves, however, affords by no 
 means a just measure of the value of the library, which 
 consists rather in the judicious selection of standard and 
 recent works in the various departments of science which, it 
 
 embraces, and in their adaptation to the specific wants of 
 the school. The catalogue contains the titles of about three 
 thousand monographs, rather more than one-half of which 
 are in the English language, and the remainder in German 
 and French. But the most important feature of the li- 
 brary, and that which places it in advance of others much 
 larger, is its valuable collection of periodical publications, 
 which now make up about half the number of volumes col- 
 lected. The present subscription list comprises a hundred 
 and fifty serials devoted to science and the arts, published 
 at the various literary and scientific centres of the world. 
 The early numbers of some of the most important 
 of these have been procured, and form complete series not 
 to be found elsewhere in New York, or, indeed, in the coun- 
 try. Valuable maps and volumes of plates have also been 
 added to the library by purchase and by generous donations 
 to which the School of Mines is Irequently indebted for im- 
 portant acquisitions. The appropriations made by the Trus- 
 tees for the increase of the library have gradually increased 
 from sums of less than five hundred dollars to two thousand 
 dollars per annum. The books are arranged upon the 
 shelves m alphabetical order, and in sections bearing labels 
 which indicate the subject to which each is devoted. A 
 catalogue was published in 1876, giving first, the systematic 
 works and periodical publications, arranged alphabetically, 
 without reference to subjects; and secondly, the same titles 
 repeated and classified according to a logical method. This 
 is supplemented by catalogues printed each session, con- 
 taining the list of books recently added. 
 
 Cabinets and Collections. — Collections of specimens 
 and models, illustrating all the subjects taught in the 
 school, are accessible to the students, including : 
 
 Crystal Models. 
 
 Natural Crystals, Pseudomorphs. 
 Ores and Metallurgical Products. 
 Models of Furnaces. 
 
 Collection Illustrating Applied Chemistry. 
 , Fossils. 
 Economic Minerals. 
 Rocks. 
 
 Olivier's Models of Descriptive Geometry, 
 Models of Mechanical Movements. 
 Models of Mining Tools. 
 Models of Mining Machines. 
 Casts, Antique Statuary, Animals, etc. 
 
 Crystal Models. — ^The lectures on crystallography are 
 illustrated by a collection of 150 models in glass, which 
 show the axes of the crystals and the relation of the derived 
 to the primitive form. This suit is completed by 400 models 
 in wood, showing most of the actual and theoretical forms. 
 
 Minerals. — The cabinet of minerals comprises about 
 30,000 specimens, arranged in cases. It includes a large 
 suit of pseudomorphs, and a collection illustrating crys- 
 tallography by natural crystals, showing both their nor- 
 mal and distorted forms. The minerals are accompanied 
 by a large collection of models in wood, showing the 
 crystalline form of each. Arranged in wall cases are 
 large specimens, showing the association of the minerals. 
 
 Ores and Metallurgical Products. — A very complete col- 
 lection of metallurgical products, illustrating the diflerent 
 stages of the type process in use in the extraction of each ' 
 metal in this country and in Europe, is accessible to the stu- 
 dents. This collection is constantly increasing. Most of 
 the specimens have been" analyzed and assayed. 
 
 Models of Furnaces. — An extensive collection of models 
 of furnaces has been imported. A very large number of 
 working drawings of furnaces and machines used in the 
 diflerent processes is always accessible to the students. 
 
 Applied Chemistry is illustrated by several thousand spe- 
 cimens of materials and products, arranged in a cabinet of 
 industrial chemistry, for exhibition at the lectures and for 
 inspection by the students. 
 
 the Geological Collection consists of over 80,000 speci- 
 mens (to which additions are constantly made), forming 
 the following groups: 
 
 1st. A systematic series of the rocks and fossils character- 
 istic of each geological epoch, numbering over 50,000 speci- 
 mens. 
 
 2d. A collection of ores, coals, oils, clays, building mate- 
 
296 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 rials, and other useful minerals, illustrative of the course of 
 lectures on economic geology, and believed to give the full- 
 est representation of our mineral resources of any collection 
 yet made. 
 
 3d. A collection of 5,000 specimens of rocks, and the 
 minerals which form rocks, to illustrate the lectures on 
 lithology. 
 
 4th. A Palseontological series, which includes collections 
 of recent and fossil vertebrates, articulates, mollusks, radi- 
 ates, and plants. In this series is to be" found the largest 
 collection of fossil plants in the country, including many re- 
 markably large and fine specimens, and over 200 species, of 
 which representatives are not known to exist elsewhere. 
 Also the most extensive series of fossil fishes in America, 
 including, among many new and remarkable forms, the 
 only specimens known of the gigantic Dinichthys ; a suit of 
 Ward's casts of extinct saurians and mammals : a fine skele- 
 ton of the great Irish elk, etc., etc. 
 
 Drawing Models. There are, for the use of students, 
 a large collection of flat models and of plaster casts; the 
 Olivier models, forming all mathematical surfaces by silk 
 threads, and admitting of a variety of transformations ; also 
 other models, illustrating general and special problems, of 
 descriptive geometry, shades and shadows, and stone cut- 
 ting ; photographs of plaster casts and of parts of machines 
 for use in free hand drawings ; drawings of machines and 
 parts of machines for studying and copying ; also landscapes 
 in crayon and in water color for instruction in sketching; 
 models of mining machines and mining tools, stationary 
 steam engines, single and double cylinders, sections of 
 steam cylinders, water wheels, turbines; shaking tables, 
 stamps, crushers, blowing machines, pumps, etc. 
 
 Civil Engineering is illustrated by a collection of 
 models of beams, beam joints, roof and bridge trusses, 
 masonry doorways, arches, walls, culverts, bridges, and 
 canal locks ; working models of overshot, breasts, under- 
 shot, and difiisrent kinds of turbine water wheels, a ma- 
 chine, made by Fairbanks & Co., for testing the strength ,of 
 materials; a five inch condensing steam engine, with a 
 stroke of six inches ; horizontal, vertical, and sectional steam 
 engines and valves, etc. There has recently been added to 
 the department of Engineering for the use of students in 
 Geodesy two four-metre compound bars with Borda's scales, 
 etc., for measuring base lines ; one standard four-metre bar ; 
 one eight-inch theodolite with horizontal and vertical cir- 
 cles for measuring horizontal angles and double zenith 
 distances. 
 
 Mining Engineering is illustrated by models of blow- 
 ing engines, ventilators, mine shafts, tunnels, galleries, 
 methods of walling, methods of tubbing shafts, methods of 
 measuring shafts, shaft house, hoisting engine, safety cages, 
 man-engines, ladders, shaking tables, washers, stamps, 
 crushers, mining machines, lamps and tools, artesian well- 
 borer, blasting apparatus, etc. Additions to the various 
 collections are constantly made. 
 
 Astronomical Observatory. — The Astronomical Ob- 
 servatory contains a set of portable astronomical instru- 
 ments ; a forty-six inch transit, by Troughton & Simms ; a 
 combined transit and zenith instrument for time and' lati- 
 tude determinations, an equatorially mounted refractor of 
 ■ five inches aperture, to which is attached a spectroscope 
 with the dispersive power of twelve flint glass prisms of fif- 
 ty-five degrees, by Alvan Clarke ; also a diffraction spectro- 
 scope with grating, by L. M. Rutherfurd, Esq. A set of 
 comparison apparatus, with electrodes, Plucker's tubes, coil, 
 etc., accompanies the spectroscope. Instruction in practical 
 astronomy is given in the observatory to students of the 
 Third and Fourth Classes in the course of Civil Engi- 
 neering. 
 
 Degrees. — Those who complete the required course of 
 studies will receive the degree of Engineer of Mines, Civil 
 Engineer, or Bachelor of Philosophy. Graduates of the 
 school who pursue for not less than one year a course of 
 study prescriljed by the Faculty, pass a satisfactory exami' 
 nation thereon, and present an acceptable dissertation cm 
 bodying the results of special study upon an approved sub 
 ject, receive the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 
 
 Calendar. — Examination for Admisaion begins, Wednesday, 
 Sept. 27th, 1882. 
 
 Dec. 
 1883— Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Oct. 2. — First Session begins, Monday. 
 Nov. 14. — Election Day, Holiday. 
 
 Thanksgiving Day, Holiday. 
 25. — Christmas Holidays begin, Monday. 
 8. — Lectures resumed, Monday. 
 29. — Examinations begin, Monday. 
 7.— Ash Wednesday, Holiday. 
 7. — First Session ends, Wednesday. 
 8. — Second Session begins, Thursday. 
 22. — Washington's Birthday, Holiday. 
 March 23. — Good Friday, Holiday. 
 
 26. — Easter Monday, Holiday. 
 May 21. — Annual Examinations begin, Monday. 
 
 30. — Decoration Day, Holiday. 
 June 13. — Commencement, Wednesday 
 
 A SUMMER SCHOOL OF PRACTICAL 
 
 MINING. 
 
 WE get a further insight into the excellent work 
 of Columbia College, in this direction from a 
 paper by Professor Henry S. Munroe of the 
 School of Mines, read before the American 
 Institute of Mining Engineers, which paper Professor Mun- 
 roe has corrected to date for this work. It is appended : 
 
 The plan of organizing a summer class of students of the 
 School of Mines, for practical study of mining and miner's 
 work, received at the outset the following cordial indorse- 
 ment: 
 
 " I have thought over the plan proposed by you of taking the 
 students to the mines during the summer, and of having them 
 actually take part, under the direction of skilled workmen, in all 
 the various kinds of mining work ; and of using them as a corps 
 of engineers to make inside and outside surveys, particularly 
 with a view to the detailed study of the geology of the mine. 
 I have no hesitation in saying, that if the students have been 
 previously instructed in the theoretical part of their studies, by 
 lectures and practice during the winter, the plan would be an 
 admirable one. Of course experience will suggest modifications 
 of detail. From the work you have done at our mines this spring, 
 1 feel sure that you would be perfectly competent to carry out 
 your plan, and I shall gladly aid you in any way I can. 
 
 " Yours, sincerely, E. B. CoxE." 
 
 The plan of the proposed summer school thns indorsed by 
 Mr. Coxe was adopted by the trustees of Columbia Col- 
 lege, and an appropriation of one thousand dollars, or so 
 much thereof as might be necessary, was voted for the ex- 
 periment. A volunteer class of thirteen students was 
 formed, and the first summer school was held at Drifton, in 
 July and August of that year (1877). The following extract, 
 from an editorial notice in the Engineering and Mining Jour- 
 nal, of August 11, 1877, will give an idea of the organization 
 of the school and the work required of the students. 
 
 " The students, on reporting to Professor Munroe, were divided 
 into squads of two or three men each, and on Monday, July 2d, 
 were assigned to the care of skilled miners, selected for the pur- 
 pose by tlie mine boss, for instruction in gangway work. Half 
 of the students worked in the morning, and the other half in the 
 afternoon, one squad at a time with each miner. The times of 
 going and coming to and from work were so arranged that each 
 student spent four to four and a half hours in the mine each day. 
 While in the mine, they assisted the miner to load his car, thereby 
 learning readily to distinguish 'slate' and 'bony' from good coal, 
 even in the uncertain light ailbrded by their mine lamps. They 
 were also instructed in the use of the drill and pick, boring 
 themselves the blast-holes, judging the quantity of powder re- 
 quired, making up the cartridge, tamping and firing the shot. 
 On coming out of the mine, each squad was required to make a 
 written report of the work done, with sketches showing the location, 
 direction, depth, etc., of each shot tired, and the effect produced. 
 Four <lay9 were (hus spent in the gangways learning the rudi- 
 ments of miners' work, and then the students were transferred to 
 the charge of other miners, selected by the mine-boss, working in 
 breasts of different degrees of pitch, spending one or two days with 
 each. From this time on less importance was attached to manual 
 labor on the part of the students as a necessary part of the scheme 
 of instruction, though most of (he students of their own choice still 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 297 
 
 continued to work more or less. The principal advantage gained 
 by this manual work was the breaking of the ice between the 
 student and the miner, placing them in pleasant relations and on 
 common ground, the student for the time becoming, to all intents 
 and purposes, the miner's 'butty,' and to be treated and instructed 
 as such. 
 
 "Another advantage gained was the knowledge of the different 
 conditions having influence on the ease or difficulty of working, 
 and thus some idea of the value of that most variable quantity — 
 a day's work. In addition to their work in gangways and breasts, 
 the students also spent some days with other skilled miners in 
 setting props and timbering gangways, building brattice and 
 driving airways, laying tracks and putting in switches on mine 
 roads, in getting coal by robbing, in artesian-well boring for 
 water, boring by hand for exploration, etc. 
 
 "After the students had spent in this way about twenty days at 
 diiferent kinds of work underground and in the 'breaker,' subjects 
 for more detailed study and investigation were assigned them. Each 
 student having chosen his theme, spent the remainder of his time 
 in collecting material for a memoir. ' Underground Haulage,' . 
 •Ventilation,' 'Mine Pumps,' 'Hoisting Engines,' 'Winning of 
 Coal in Breasts of Different Degrees of Pitch,' ' Artesian- Well 
 Boring,' ' Breaking and Sizing of Anthracite,' ' Separation of Slate 
 from Anthracite,' 'Water-supply for Boilers and for Household 
 Use, and Washing of Coal,' etc., were among the subjects thus 
 assigned. During the last few days trips were made to several mines 
 in the vicinity, at Hazleton, Ebervale, etc., spending a day under- 
 ground in each case with the mine-bosses, who explained in detail 
 the characteristics of their mines and their methods of working. 
 Mr. Coxe, also, daring their stay, gave the students several infor- 
 mal talks of great practical value ' on the mining of anthracite, 
 installation of machinery, management of men, necessity for scien- 
 tific bookkeeping, discussion and analysis of mine accounts, etc. 
 
 "The miners and the mine-bosses of the Cross Creek collieries 
 have taken great interest in the experiment, and to their cordial 
 and hearty co-operation in the carrying out of all the details of the 
 plan is due in no small degree the very gratifying success attained. 
 It is, however, to the interest taken by Mr. Eckley B. Coxe in 
 this new departure in mining education that its success is in a large 
 measure due, for he not only encouraged the idea when proposed, 
 but placed his collieries — probably the finest in this countiy — at 
 the service of the school, and gave such instructions as secured for 
 the student a favorable introduction to the miners. 'One of 
 the most notable and prominent features of this effort to in- 
 troduce the practical element into the studies of the School of 
 Mines has been the demonstration that the students are not ' a 
 nuisance' about the works, but, on the contrary, are welcomed by 
 the miners, and are found to make no trouble or interference with 
 the work of the colliery." 
 
 The experiment iaving proved successful, the trustees of 
 the college voted to make the summer class a part of the 
 regular course of study for the degree of Mining Engineer. 
 The next summer (1878) the school was held at Mineville, 
 N. Y., at the large magnetite mines of Witherbees, Sherman 
 and Co., and of the Port Henry Iron Ore Company. The 
 session of 1879 was held in the copper regions of Lake Supe- 
 rior, with headquarters at the Atlantic Mine, near Houghton. 
 In 1880 the field of operations was enlarged, and the time 
 devoted to practical work was divided between the Dicker- 
 son Mine (magnetite) of the Musconetcong Iron Company, 
 near Dover, ]S, J., and the mines of the Westmoreland Coal 
 Company, near Pittsburgh. Last Summer (1881) the time 
 was divided between the copper mines of Keweenaw County 
 and the iron mines of Marquette County, Michigan. The 
 present summer (1882) the class spent four weeks at the 
 Cross Creek Collieries of Messrs. Coxe Brothers & Co., and 
 one week at the Hibernian Iron Mines, Morris Co., New 
 Jersey. The plan of Work, as it has developed itself in 
 these five sessions of the school, begins with a detailed study, 
 on the part of each student of the plant and methods of 
 working at the mine selected for the summer school. The 
 students for this purpose are divided into squads of two or 
 three men, and each squad is assigued to the care of a skilled 
 miner and given each day some one subject for observation 
 and study. To aid the student in systematizing his work, 
 and to suggest lines of investigation, he is provided 
 with a printed scheme of study, which he is expected to 
 follow in making out his daily reports. The following 
 scheme of study was used (1880) at the Dickerson Iron 
 Mine. 
 
 Dickerson Mine, Fekbomont, Mobeis County, N. J., 
 
 June 14th, 1880. 
 Each student of the summer school will be required to make the 
 following reports : 
 
 1. ffand-drilling and Blasting. 
 
 Description from actual observation, of the method of blasting 
 in driving a cross-cut or drift. The report will include : 
 
 1. A description of the tools employed, illustrated by careful 
 sketches, half size, showing form and dimensions of each tool'. 
 
 2. The time of boring, number and size of drills used, and the 
 position, direction, and depth of each hole. To be illustrated by 
 drawings of the heading of the drift or cross-cut, on a scale of one- 
 twentieth, showing in three projections the position and direction 
 of each hole bored. Holes bored during the night shift, or in the 
 absence of the student, should be drawn in dotted lines, and the 
 order in which the holes were bored should be indicated by num- 
 bering them. 
 
 3. The kind and amount of powder and of tamping used in 
 each hole, and method of charging, tamping, and firing, 
 
 4. The reasons for the location and direction of each hole, and 
 the work intended and actually performed by the blast. The 
 failure of any blast to do the work expected, and holes which for 
 any reason have to be abandoned, should be carefully noted, with 
 the reason for such failure or abandonment, if possible. 
 
 5. The number of men employed at the work and duties of 
 each ; number and length of shifts ; amount driven during pre- 
 vious months, and average progress of drifts ; number of drills, 
 hammers, shovels, and other tools required, average number of 
 drills sharpened per day, wear of steel, consumption of powder, 
 oil or candles, etc. 
 
 2. Sloping of Ore. 
 
 Description, from actual observation, of the methods of stoping, 
 including the preparatory sinking or drifting, and the breaking 
 of the ore by machine or hand-drilling and blasting ; illustrated 
 by sketches of the stope in horizontal projection, with longitudi- 
 nal and cross-sections. 
 
 Sketches on a scale of one-twentieth, showing the location, 
 direction, and depth of several consecutive blast-holes, with de- 
 scription in detail of the boring, charging, tamping, firing of each 
 hole. 
 
 3. Machine Drills. 
 
 Description of machine drills, size, weight, pressure of air, and 
 size and shape of drilling-bits, etc. 
 
 Description of the work of boring one or more blast-holes, in- 
 cluding setting of machine, starting of hole, feeding of drill, 
 changing of bits, etc. Give time of each operation, noting delays 
 and their cause. Number of holes and total depth bored per 
 shift. Number of drills blunted per day. AYear of steel. 
 
 4. Timbering. 
 
 Description and sketches of the different forms of limbering 
 used in the mine, stulls and lagging, studdles, etc. 
 
 Sketches of details of skip-roads, showing different methods of 
 supporting track-timbers and ladders on stulls, etc. 
 
 Sketches of timbering of slope and of shafts. Supports of lad- 
 ders and pump-rods, details of landing-stage and soUars. 
 
 Arrangements for protecting men, machinery, etc., from blasts 
 and falling rock — batteries, pentice, etc. 
 
 Description and measurement, illusti-ated by careful sketches 
 and from actual observation, of the work of putting in one or 
 more stulls ; including cutting of hitches in rock, measuring and 
 cutting timber, lowering of timber from surface and handling it 
 in the mine, arrangement of tackle an(J hoisting of timber to 
 place, and wedging. 
 
 Kinds of timber used, whence obtained ; seasoned vs. green 
 timber ; stripping of bark ; renewal of timber, etc. 
 
 5. Pumps. 
 
 Details of pumping engines and of pumps, stroke, diameter, 
 speed, valve motion, etc. Sketches of pumps, pump-rods, bobs, 
 and methods of changing direction of rods. Manner of connect- 
 ing and supporting rods. Use of plunger, and of lift or jack-head 
 pumps. Repair and packing of pumps. Pumps, location and 
 size. Gallons of water pumped per day. Use of steam pumps in 
 the mine, support and covering of steam-pipes, disposal of ex- 
 haust steam. 
 
 6. Handling of Ore. 
 
 Description of the method of handling ore in the slopes, includ- 
 ing the getting down of ore after a blast with pick or bar, the 
 breaking up of large masses by block-holing or sledging, sorting 
 
298 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of ore from rock, loading of cars or barrows, dumping into skips, 
 etc. Sketches of tram-car, loading platform and chute, details of 
 track, turnouts, and switches, etc. 
 
 Description of hoisting engines, dimensions, speed, steam pres- 
 sure, valve motion, gearing, etc. Construction of hoisting drum, 
 diameter, length ; number of revolutions per minute, and to hoist 
 from bottom. Description of brake. Size and character of wire 
 rope. Tell-tales and signals. Number of skips of ore hoisted and 
 of timber lowered per day. Speed of buckets, skips, or cars. 
 Sketches of skip, and self-dumping devices. Sketches of sheaves, 
 and of guide rollers for wire rope, on surface and in the mine. 
 
 Handling of ore on the surface, loading of cars, breaking, 
 cobbing, and hand-picking. Transportation to market. 
 
 Handling and disposal of waste rock underground, and on the 
 surface. 
 
 Sketches of whims, poppet-heads, and other surface construc- 
 tions. 
 
 7. Surface Works. 
 
 Sketch map showing relative position of surface works, shafts, 
 tunnels, engine and boiler-houses, shops, change-house and other 
 buildings; railroad tracks, switches, turnouts, etc., tramways; 
 lines of steam, water, and air-pipes, and of surface drainage. 
 Description of above buildings, roads, etc. , and notes on source of 
 water-supply for boilers and for household use. General descrip- 
 tion of miners' houses, number, internal arrangements, etc. 
 Plans of change-house, shops, and other buildings. 
 
 8. Shops. 
 
 Sketches showing arrangement of blacksmith-shop, machine- 
 shop, carpenter-shop, etc. Description of the method of sharpen- 
 ing and tempering drills, picks, etc. Sharpening and repairs of 
 bits of machine drills. Work of machine-shop, repairs to pumps, 
 rock drills, and other machinery. Carpenter-shop, making of 
 ladders, tram-cars, and miscellaneous repairs. Number of men 
 required, etc. 
 
 The following scheme of study was prepared for the use of 
 the students at the mines of the Westmoreland Coal Com- 
 pany after the completion of their work at the Dickersou 
 Mines : 
 
 Wesimoreland Coal Mines, Irwin's Station, 
 
 Westmokeland Co., Pa., July 12th, 1880. 
 Each student of the summer school will be required to make the 
 following reports : 
 
 1. Shaft Sinking. 
 
 Description, from actual observation, of the method of blasting 
 in sinking a shaft. The report will include : 
 
 1. A description of the tools employed, illustrated by careful 
 sketches, half size, showing form and dimensions of each tool. 
 
 '2,. The time of boring, number and size of drills used, and the 
 position, direction, and depth of each hole. To be illustrated by 
 drawings of the bottom of the shaft, on a scale of one-twentieth, 
 showing in three projections the position and direction of each hole 
 bored. Holes bored during the night shift, or iu the absence of 
 the student, should be drawn in dotted lines, and the order in 
 which the holes were bored should be indicated by numbering 
 them. 
 
 3. The kind and amount of powder and of tamping used in 
 each hole, and method of charging, tamping, and firing. 
 
 4. The reasons for the location and direction of each hole, and 
 the work intended and actually performed by the blast. The 
 failure of any blast to do the work expected, and holes which for 
 any reason have to be abandoned, should be carefully noted, with 
 reason for such failure or abandonment, if possible. 
 
 5. The number of men employed at the work and duties of 
 each ; number and length of shifts ; amount sunk during previous 
 months ; and average progress of the sinking ; number of drills, 
 hammers, shovels, and other tools required, average number of 
 drills sharpened per day, wear of steel, consumption of powder, 
 oil or candles, etc. 
 
 2. Drifting. 
 
 Description of the method of driving entries, "bearing in" or 
 undercutting, "shearing," and wedging. Main entries and cross 
 entries; entries on the "face" and on the "end" or "butt" of 
 the coal; advantages of double entries. Cross-cuts or "out- 
 throughs." Section, to scale, of the coal seam, showing the 
 "bearing in" seam and the different slate partings. Inventory 
 and sketches of tools used in driving. Description of work, num- 
 
 uudercuttiug, shearing, breaking down, loading, taking up bottom 
 coal, laying track, etc. 
 
 3. Mining of Coal. 
 
 Description of method of getting coal in the rooms. Sketch, ti 
 scale, showing plan of room, with track, posts and slate heip, 
 stump, ribs, etc. Breaking down of coal by wedges or powder, 
 after undercutting and shearing. Precautions necessary for 
 safety. Manner of conducting the work so as to make a mini- 
 mum of fine coal or dirt. Separation and disposal of slate and 
 fine coal. Number of cars loaded per day, etc. 
 
 Getting of coal by robbing. Sketches showing method of 
 attacking ribs, with subsequent robbing of stumps and pillars. 
 Description of the work and precautions used for the safety of the 
 men and to avoid loss of coal. Number of men, length of shifts, 
 and amount of coal obtained and lost. 
 
 4. Venlilation. 
 Sketch map showing the course of the air through a section of 
 
 the mine, location of doors, stoppages, brattice, crossings, etc. 
 Sketches showing construction of fans employed, and the passages 
 by which they are connected with the air-ways of the mine. Ar- 
 rangement for reversing the ventilating current Description and 
 sketch of ventilating furnace. Details of doors, stoppings, brat- 
 tice, air-boxes, etc. Methods of measuring air and regulating and 
 dividing air-currents. R^sum^ of ventilation law, with object of 
 diflFerent requirements. 
 
 5. Drainage. 
 
 Description of the diflFerent methods of draining the mines. 
 Ditches in entries ; grade required, etc. Special water-courses. 
 Drainage of " swamps" by siphons, pumps, or water cars. Pump- 
 ing of acid waters and method of protecting water-column aud 
 the working parts of Ihe pumps from the action of the acid. 
 
 6. Timbering. 
 
 Timbering in shafts, entries, and rooms. Sketches showing 
 arrangement of timbers, manner of notching and wedging, etc. 
 
 7. Underground Haulage and Shipment of Coal. 
 
 Description and sketches of cars, size, weight, capacity, etc 
 Description of diflFerent kinds of track used, width of gauge, size 
 and weight of strap iron or rails, etc. Switches and crossings. 
 Maximum and minimum grade of track in main and cross entries. 
 Hauling by mules and locomotives, number of cars hauled at once 
 on different grades and on diflFerent tracks. Organization of trips. 
 
 Description of hoisting engines, dimensions, speed, steam pres- 
 sure, valve motion, gearing, etc. Construction of hoisting drum, 
 diameter, length, num,ber of revolutions, and time required to 
 hoist from bottom. Speed of cage. Description of brake. Size 
 and character of wire ropes. Tell-tales and signals. Number of 
 cars hoisted per day. Sketch of cage, showing safety catches, 
 hood, means of holding car on platform, etc. 
 
 Description and sketches of arrangements for screening and 
 weighing the coal and for the loading of railroad cars. Trans- 
 portation to market. 
 
 8. Surface Works and Shops. 
 
 Sketch map showing relative position of surface works, entries, 
 shafts, engine and boiler houses, shops, change-house and other 
 buildings: railroad tracks, switches, turnouts, etc., tramways; 
 lines of steam, water, and air pipes, and of surface drainage. 
 Description of above buildings, roads, etc., and notes on source 
 of water-supply for boilers and for household use. General de- 
 scription of miners' houses, number, internal arrangements, etc. 
 Plans of change-house, shops, and other buildings. 
 
 Sketches showing arrangement of blacksmith-shop, machine- 
 shop, carpenter-shop, etc. Description of the method of sharp- 
 ening and tempering drills, picks, etc. Work of machine-shop, 
 repairs to pumps, and other machinery. Carpenter-shop, making 
 of tram-cars and miscellaneous repairs. Number of men re- 
 quired, etc. 
 
 About four weeks was required for the detailed study in- 
 dicated in these schemes. By this time the student is familiar 
 with the ordinary routine of mine work, having spent from 
 two to four dayfe each with the minere engaged in sinking, 
 drifting, stoping, and timbering, making sketches and tak- 
 ing notes under ground, and each afternoon or evening re- 
 viewing carefully the work of the day as he makes out the 
 required report. In a similar manner he has examined and 
 studied the plant connected with the mine, pumps, engines, 
 
 her of men required, length and number of shifts, progress of etc., the timbering In the shafts, slopes, and gangways, the 
 work per shift and per month. Time required for each operation, | shops and other surface work, and has followed the coal or 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 299 
 
 iron ore from the time it is broken down by the miner, till it 
 is finally loaded on the railroad cars. This carefiil and de- 
 tailed examination of one mine finished, the student is pre- 
 pared with the information and insight thus gained to visit 
 other mines in the same district, for the purpose of studying 
 variations in practice, and differences in plant and methods 
 of working, by comparing similar work as carried on in other 
 mines and under diiferent conditions. A week or ten days is, 
 therefore, devoted to excursions to neighboring mines. Fi- 
 nally, each member of the class has assigned him a subject for 
 a memoir, either the description of the plant and workings of 
 some mine, or the machinery and methods of a stamp-mill or 
 dressing works, or some general subject connected with mi- 
 ning. In most cases he is instructed to describe in greater 
 detail some one or more machines or methods peculiar to the 
 place. In collecting the data for this descriptive memoir the 
 student spends about two weeks at one mine, or in visiting 
 different mines, as the subject assigned him may require ; the 
 class being divided into small parties, not more than two or 
 three men at a mine. The memoirs are illustrated by sketches, 
 tracings, and working drawings, and have in most cases been 
 compiled with great care. They are often exceedingly inter- 
 esting and valuable, containing much material descriptive of 
 plant and methods of working at the mines visited. Under 
 this plan of work it will be seen that the student makes a 
 carenil and detailed study of at least two mines, at first with 
 the class and under the instruction and superintendence of 
 the professor, and afterwards at another mine by himself, 
 in collecting the data for his memoir. The excursions 
 and visits to other mines supplement this detailed study, 
 and give the student a wider view of the practice of the 
 whole region. 
 
 THE STEVENS INSTITUTE OF TECH- 
 NOLOGY, HOBOKEN, N. J. 
 
 THIS institution was founded in accordance with the 
 will of Mr. Edward A. Stevens, of Hoboken, 
 who bequeathed for the purpose a large block 
 of land in that city, and a large sum amount- 
 ing, at the discretion of the trustees, to $650,000. 
 The Stevens Institute is especially a school of mechani- 
 cal engineering ; but the fact that chemistry, metallurgy, 
 and mineralogy, as well as the whole science of ma- 
 chinery, so important to mining e^igineers of the present 
 day, are taught here, and the magnificent completeness of 
 the buildings and apparatus of instruction, justifies us in 
 including it in the present chapter. The building is situ- 
 ated in the pleasantest portion of the city, its windows com- 
 manding a beautiful view of the surrounding country, as well 
 as of New York harbor and bay, and the edifice itself pre- 
 senting a fine appearance when viewed from the deck of the 
 ferryboat as we cross the river to visit it. The building is 
 very substantially built of blue trap-rock, with brown-stone 
 trimmings, from designs by Upjohn. It extends from street 
 to street, and has two wings in the rear. It is three stories 
 in height, and has a dry and roomy basement. 
 
 Faculty. — Henry Morton, Ph. D., President ; Alfred M. 
 Mayer, Ph. D., Professor of Physics ; Robert H. Thurston, 
 A. M., C. E., Professor of Mechanical Engineering; De 
 Volson Wood, A. M., C. E., Professor of Mathematics and 
 Mechanics; Charles W. MacCord, A. M., Professor of 
 Mechanical Drawing ; Albert R. Leeds, Ph. D., Professor of 
 Chemistry ; Charles F. Krceh, A. M., Professor of Lan- 
 guages; Rev. Edward Wall, A. M., Professor of Belles- 
 Lettres; James E. Denton, M. E., Instructor in Experi- 
 mental Machines and Shop-work ; Adam Riesenberger, M. 
 E. Instructor in Mechanical Drawing. 
 Plan of the Institution. — ^The plan of instruction 
 which has now been successixilly pursued for eleven years, is 
 sjch as will best fit young men of ability for positions of 
 usefiilness in the department of mechanical engineering, and 
 in those scientific pursuits from which this and all sister arts 
 are daily deriving such incalculable benefits. With this view 
 there is afforded : 
 
 L A thorough training in the elementary and advanced 
 branches of Mathematics, and their application to mechan- 
 ical constructions. 
 
 2. The subject of Mechanical Engineering, including 
 theory and practice in the construction of machines, forms a 
 distinct department, under the charge of a professor experi- 
 enced in the practical relations of his subject, who will devote 
 his entire attention to the branch. A Mechanical Labo- 
 ratory has been instituted as an adjunct to this depart- 
 ment, in which students, are permitted to study the ma- 
 terials of construction during the process of testing, 
 which is at nearly all times in progress, and frequently 
 to take part in such work. They are given opportunities 
 to take part in tests of steam engines, boilers, and other 
 commercial operations carried on in this laboratory, and 
 witness and take part in the construction of machinery 
 and other work done in the workshop. Much of this work 
 is made from designs produced by students, and some ma- 
 chines here used are the work of students entirely. 
 
 3. The subject of Mechanical Drawing (which may well 
 be called the language of engineering) forms a separate de- 
 partment, to which much time and attention is devoted. The 
 course comprises the U.-e of Instruments and Colors, De- 
 scriptive Geometry, Shades, Shadows and Perspective, and 
 the Analysis of M^chamcal Movements — the principles in- 
 volved being at once and continuously applied in the con- 
 struction of working drawings from measurements of ma- 
 chines already built, as well as in making original designs. 
 
 4. An extensive course of manual exercises in shojj prac- 
 tice is combined with a course of experimental mechanics, 
 to form a separate department, which aims to co-operate 
 with the departments of engineering, mechanics, and draw- 
 ing, so as to bear to them the same relation as the physical 
 and chemical laboratories do to the class-room work in 
 physics and chemistry. Its courses, aside from the introduc- 
 tion of the student to the function of tools, etc., are directly 
 supplemental to the department of mechanical drawing, by 
 familiarizing the student with the use of working drawings 
 in the shop, and by the embodiment of the theoretical prin- 
 ciples of mechanism in the form of exercises in gear cutting, 
 etc., and directly supplemental to the departments of engi- 
 neering and mechanics, by re-enforcing the apprehension of. 
 theoretical principles through the performance of exercises 
 in the course of experimental mechanics. 
 
 5. Arrangements of an unusually perfect character have 
 been made, to give a thorough, practical course of instruction 
 in Physics, by means of physical laboratories, in which the 
 student is guided by the Professor of Physics, in experiment- 
 al researches bearing upon the subjects of his special study. 
 Thus the student will experimentally study those methods 
 of making measures of precision which are used in all 
 determinations in Physics ; he will measure for himself the 
 tension of steam at various temperatures, and construct the 
 curve showing their relations ; he will determine the electri- 
 cal resistance of several conductors and insulators, and so on 
 through the subjects of Physics. By such means as these 
 not only will facts and laws be impressed in a manner 
 which no other process can approach, but a training will be 
 given in methods of investigation, which will be invalua- 
 ble for the mastery of the always new and varied problems 
 of actual work. 
 
 6. The subject of Chemistry is taught, chiefly by experi- 
 mental work in the laboratory, with accompanying lectures 
 and classroom instruction. It is believed that in this man- 
 ner only can students be made thoroughly conversant with 
 the subject. 
 
 7. The French and German languages form an essential 
 part of the course of instruction, since they are indispensa- 
 ble to the engineer and man of science as the vehicles of a 
 vast amount of information, and also as affording that kind 
 of mental culture which mathematical and physical science, 
 if followed exclusively would fail to supply 
 
 8. A department of Belles-Lettres fiirnishes the means of 
 cultivating literary taste and a facility in the graceful use of 
 language, both in speaking and writing, which are as desir- 
 able in the engineer and man of science as in the classical 
 student. 
 
 The Woekshop. — During the last three years the course 
 of workshop instruction has been greatly extended, and as a 
 result of this, a year since there came to be an urgent need 
 
300 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 for larger accommodation and an increase in the number of 
 machine and other tools. Fortunately, this need has been 
 supplied by a gift from President Morton, who fitted up the 
 building (formerly used as a lecture hall, and afterward as a 
 gymnasium), and stocked it with an engine of 20 horse 
 power, and numerous machine and other tools, at an aggre- 
 gate outlay of $10,000, and presented the same to the trus- 
 tees. The building occupied by the shop is 50 feet wide by 
 80 feet long, with a high open roof. Galleries have been 
 erected on all sides of it at a height of 12 feet, reaching out 
 15 feet from the walls, thus leaving a space 20 by 60 open 
 in the centre. The engine being placed about the middle 
 of the building, two lines of main shafting run along the 
 front of the galleries, and from these belts are carried off to 
 the counter shafts of the various machines. A spiral stair- 
 way gives access to the west gallery near its centre, where is 
 located the tool room, which is fully stocked with all the 
 small tools, mandrels, gauges, cutters, taps, dies and the 
 like, required for use with the machine tools. These are 
 given out to students on presentation of brass checks, as in 
 all large shops. Platforms run the whole length of the 
 room under the windows, and on these are placed, on 
 the east side, 10 carpenter benches, each with a locker 
 or cupboard above it, containing a set of carpenter's 
 tools. On the west side 10 benches are fitted up for vise 
 work. 
 
 Other Appliances for the Workshop Course. — 
 In the basement of the main building is a foundry, provided 
 with a ly cupola furnace, a 12'' brass furnace, a number 
 of moulders' benches, moulders' tools, and everything else 
 required for practical work in this direction. A large collec- 
 tion of carefully selected patterns are here provided, and each 
 student is required to make a good mould in sand of each of 
 thcsi, including the making and baking of the requisite 
 cores. Castings in iron are make likewise, by the students, 
 of a selected series of these patterns. Two forges, anvils 
 and sets of blacksmith tools, and a steam hammer are 
 provided for the course of instruction in this subject. 
 Two sets of steam fitter's tools and vises are arranged so 
 that two pair of students at once can work at the exer- 
 cises required in this subject. The large basement room, 
 formerly occupied as a workshop, is now provided with a 
 small engine and one line of shalting. Extra sets of shaft- 
 ing, hangers, couplings, pulleys, etc., of various styles, are 
 also provided, with which the exercises in this subject are 
 carried out. In one of the small rooms of the basement is a 
 vertical engine of 5-horse power, from the New York Safety 
 Steam Power Company, and the transmitting dynamometer 
 built in the Institute by the Class of 1879. Also absorbing 
 dynamometers, measuring tanks and calorimeters. These, 
 as well as the engine and other appliances of the old shop, 
 are used in the course of Experimental Mechanics. 
 
 Calendar. — The full course of the Stevens Institute of 
 Technology occupies the period of four years, each year 
 being divided into a Preliminary Term, during which the 
 Sophomore, Junior and Senior Classes devote eight hours 
 per day to the Department of Experimental Mechanics and 
 Shop Work, and three regular terms. 
 
 Preliminary Term. 
 
 Junior and Senior Classes, from Monday, September 4tli, 1882, to 
 
 Wednesday, September 27th, 1882. 
 Candidates for" admission to the Freshman Class should not present 
 
 themselves for examination prior to September 20th, 1882. 
 
 First Regular Term. 
 
 'From Wednesday, September 27th, 1882, to the Wednesday before 
 
 Christmas. 
 Public examination on the work of the term beffhia Wednesday, 
 
 December 13th, 1882. 
 
 Second Megular Term, 
 
 From Wednesday, January 3d, 1883, to Wednesday, March 21et, 
 1883. ^ _ Jt , 
 
 Public examination on the work of the term beo-ins Wednesdav 
 March 14th, 1883. ' 
 
 Tlwrd Regular Term, 
 From Monday, April 2d, 1883, to Wednesday, June 13th, 1883. 
 Public examination on the work of the term begins Wednesday 
 June 6th, 1883. '' 
 
 Commencement, Thursday, June 14th, 1883. 
 
 _ Examinations. — The examination of applicants for admis- 
 sion, and the re-examination of students deficient at the end 
 of the preceding college year, will be held between the hours 
 of 10 A. M. and 2 P. m., on September 20th, 21st, 22d, 23d, 
 25th, and 26th, 1882. Students will present themselves as 
 early as possible, in order that they may have ample time to 
 prepare answers to the questions assigned them. Examina- 
 tions in each department will be held in public at the end 
 of each term ; and, previous to graduation, a special exami- 
 nation, also in public, will be held, of the graduating class, 
 and from the combined results of all these examinations, the 
 questions of proficiency and qualifications for degrees will 
 be determined. The transfer of a student from a lower to a 
 higher class will depend in each case upon the result of the 
 examination of the year preceding the time of transfer, so 
 that no student can pass from a lower to a higher class until 
 he has given satisfactory evidence of his proficiency in the 
 studies of the former. The following days will be observed sm 
 Holidays : Thanksgiving Day (First Term), Washington's 
 Birthday (Second Term), and Decoration Day (Third Term). 
 Thanksgiving Day and Washington's Birthday falling on 
 Thursday, there will be no exercises on the Friday and the 
 Saturday following. 
 
 Requirements for Admission. — No applicant under 
 the age of seventeen years will be admitted to the examina- 
 tion, unless the Faculty be satisfied that he is able to bear 
 the burden of the Institute course, without detriment to his 
 health, nor will any applicant under the age of seventeen be 
 allowed to enter his class unless his examination show proof 
 of unusual proficiency. The examinations will be on the 
 following subjects : 
 
 Arithmeiic. — The preparation should be especially thor- 
 ough upon the properties of numbers, the operations in 
 common and decimal fractions, the methods of finding the 
 greatest common divisor, and the extraction of the roots of 
 numbers. 
 
 Algebra. — Simple equations, theory of radicals, equations 
 of the second degree, arithmetical and geometrical progres- 
 sion, permutations, binomial theorem, indeterminate coeffi- 
 cients, and the summation of series. 
 
 Geometry. — All of plane and solid geometry. The exam- 
 ination in this subject will be chiefly upon the definitions 
 and the statements of facts, as contained in the more im- 
 portant propositions; but the ability of the applicant to 
 make a logical demonstration will also be tested. 
 
 English Orammar. — The requirements are a practical 
 acquaintance with the parts of speech, their relations, agree- 
 ment, and government ; the proper use of tenses and moods ; 
 the construction and arrangement of sentences. On all these 
 points we desire exact knowledge of the principles deduced 
 from copious examples, and we attach no value to a minute 
 knowledge of subtleties and exceptions. The latter properly 
 belong to an advanced college course. 
 
 Geography. — The examination will be in the most im- 
 portant countries, cities, rivers, etc., most frequently occur- 
 ring in the perusal of the daily newspaper and in general 
 history. 
 
 Com'^osition. — An Essay upon some topic assigned at the 
 time of examination, and examined with reference to legible 
 hand-writing, correct spelling, punctuation, and proper ex- 
 pression. 
 
 Universal History. — In the examination in Universal His- 
 tory but little prominence is given to dates. The questions 
 relate to the great events ; their cause and effects. A con- 
 spicuous place is given in the questions to the History of 
 the United States. 
 
 Rhetoric. — The examination in Rhetoric will embrace all 
 parts of the subject which are contained in the text books 
 on Rhetoric. Candidates for admission to the higher classes 
 must be prepared to pass a satisfactory examination in the 
 studies previously pursued by the class which they enter. 
 Advanced students and men of science desiring to avail 
 themselves of the appliances of the laboratories of the 
 Stevens Institute, to carry on special investigations, may 
 make arrangements to that end with the President. 
 
 Degrees. — The Stevens Institute of Technology, as will 
 be seen from its secondary title, and from the account of its 
 general scope and plan of studies already given, is essen- 
 tially a School of Mechanical Engineering, and will there- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 301 
 
 fore confer upon its regular graduates the degree of Mechanical 
 Engineer, when due evidence of proficiency has been afforded 
 in the final examinations, and upon the presentation of 
 these, as described further on. Three years after graduation 
 an alumnus, who shall have creditably pursued the practice 
 of the profession, may, upon producing satisfactory evi- 
 dence of the fact, receive a post-graduate degree — the title 
 and the conditions of the conferring of which have not yet 
 been definitely determined. Five years or more after 
 graduation, a second and higher degree may be conferred, 
 where evidsnce of good professional standing and of the 
 performance of work of exceptional importance or excellence 
 shall show the candidate to be entitled to such distinction. 
 In certain cases, however, graduates from other institutions, 
 or meritorious students, of at least two years' standing, may 
 pursue a special course, from which they may graduate, 
 upon passing the requisite examinations, with the degree of 
 Bachelor of Science ; and such graduates, on presenting a 
 thesis embodying the. results of original investigation in the 
 subjects of chemistry and physics, may receive a further 
 degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 
 
 Expenses. — The fees for each year of the entire Course, 
 for instruction and the use of instruments, are one hundred 
 and fifty dollars, for students at the time residing in the 
 State of New Jersey. Those not so residing — {i. e.) coming 
 across the river each day from New York or the like — are 
 charged seventy-five dollars extra. This discrimination is 
 made necessary by a clause in Mr. Stevens' will. In the 
 Chemical Laboratory each student will be supplied with a 
 set of reagent bottles ; and an adequate quantity of chemi- 
 cals, and platinum vessels, agate and steel mortars, etc., 
 will be loaned to him from time to time, as his work may 
 make their use necessary. With reference to other appara- 
 tus, he is at liberty to furnish himself from any dealer, or 
 borrow from the supplies of the school. At the end of each 
 session he will be credited with those articles returned in 
 good order, while the cost value of those destroyed will be 
 deducted from his deposit. In the Drajving Department 
 each student will be expected to furnish his own instru- 
 ments and materials. In the Department of Shop Work 
 the student will be expected to pay for the material used ; 
 the total cost for the entire course will not exceed sixty -five 
 dollars. The student is advised not to make his purchases 
 before coming to the Institute, as arrangements have been 
 made by which the best articles can be had on advantageous 
 terms. The fees are payable in advance, at the beginning 
 of each term. Each student will be required on admission 
 to make a deposit of ten dollars to meet incidental expenses, 
 such as those for drawing materials or special chemical 
 supplies. This deposit can only be withdrawn when he 
 graduates or leaves the Institute. Boarding and commons 
 will not be supplied in connection with the Institute ; but 
 board, on reasonable terms, may be readily secured in 
 private families in the city, at a cost of from six to ten 
 dollars a week. 
 
 Scholarships. — One scholarship each year is given to 
 the graduate of the Stevens High School who passes the 
 best examination at the end of the Spring Term. The 
 candidates for these scholarships must have attended the 
 regular course in the High School for at least one year and 
 be in good standing. Three scholarships each year are 
 given to such graduates from the public schools of Hoboken 
 as are recommended by the officers of the same, provided 
 such candidates pass successfully the regular examinations 
 for admission to the Stevens Institute of Technology. A 
 scholarship confers the privilege of attending the entire 
 course of the Institute for four years, free of all charge for 
 tuition, provided, of course, the student holding the scholar- 
 ship keeps up in all cases with the standard of proficiency 
 and good conduct required. 
 
 Prizes. — A prize in Chemistry, known as the " Priestley 
 Prize," in honor of the renowned discoverer of oxygen, was 
 instituted in the year 1877, by means of funds contributed 
 by Mr. William W. Shippen, Rev. S. B. Dod, President 
 Henry Morton, and Prof. Leeds. The income, amounting 
 to twenty-five dollars, is annually bestowed as a prize upon 
 the student who has most distinguished himself in the 
 department of chemistry during the current year. Mr. Wm. 
 A. Macy has contributed one hundred dollars, the proceeds 
 of which are to be awarded to that student; entering the 
 
 College from vhe public schools of Hoboken, who has the 
 best standing at the end of the Freshman year. 
 
 The Cotirse of InBtraotion— Department of Mathe- 
 matics and Mechanics. — It is intended in this course to give 
 the student such a thorough knowledge of the several 
 branches of Mathematics as will enable him to use them 
 advantageously in the investigation of Practical Problems. 
 The Course for 1882-3 is arranged as follows : 
 
 First Year.— First Term— Trigonometry (Olney); Theory of Logar- 
 ithms and Theory of Equations. 
 Second Term. — Co-ordinate Geometry (Wood). 
 Third Term. — Differential CaJculus. 
 
 Differential and In- 
 
 CLASS OF 1885. 
 Second Year. — Co-ordinate Geometry (Wood) ; 
 tegral Calculus. 
 
 CLASS OP 1886. 
 Differential Calculus (continued). Integral Calculus, and Analytical 
 Mechanics (Wood). 
 
 CLASS OF 1885. 
 Third Year—kna\jt\ca\ Mechanics (Wood), and Kesistance of Ma- 
 terials (Wood) 
 
 CLASS OF 1886. 
 Analytical Mechanics (Wood) ; Eesistance of Materials (Wood) ; and 
 Theory of Bridges and Eoofs (Wood). 
 
 CLASS OF 1885. 
 Fourth Year. — First Term. — Theory of Bridges and Eoofs (Wood), 
 
 and use of the Transit and Level. 
 Second Term — Graphical Statics. 
 
 CLASS OP 1886. 
 -Theory and use of the Transit and Level. Graphical 
 
 First Term.- 
 Statics. 
 
 Department of Mechanical Engineering. — At the close of 
 the second year the student will be prepared to enter upon 
 the studies of the Department of Mechanical Engineering, 
 which will occupy the principal portion of his time during 
 the remainder of his course. The course of instruction 
 in Mechanical Engineering will commence with lectures 
 upon the nature of materials used in constructing, locat- 
 ing, and operating machinery; and the methods of ob- 
 taining them and preparing them for use, so far as such 
 instruction, is not included in the Course of Technical 
 Chemistry. The uses to which each material is specially 
 adapted are stated, the methods of testing their quality 
 and preserving them from decay are described, while 
 the principles and practical considerations involved in 
 the application of tools to the working of each are ex- 
 hibited in the work-rooms of the institute. A . Course of 
 Instruction in the Streiigth of materials follows, in which 
 the laws determining the forms of greatest strength are 
 deduced from experiment, and applied to the solution of 
 such problems as arise daily in engineering practice. In 
 the illustration of this portion of the Course^ samples ex- 
 hibiting the various qualities of each material are placed 
 before the student for his inspection ; models and drawings 
 illustrate the methods of their preparations ; and specimens 
 of materials, wrought into their strongest forms, impress 
 upon him the principles already learned of the strength of 
 materials, and their application in design. The mathe- 
 matical principles, and the theory of the strength of ma- 
 terials are taught in the Department of Mathematics. The 
 course is continued by the study, from the text-book and 
 lecture, of the Theory of Machinery, with detailed instruc- 
 tions in the use of tools and in designing machinery and 
 mill work ; care being taken to call the a.tteution of the 
 student to such modifications in design as are dictated by 
 difiiculties in forging, pattern-making, moulding, finishing, 
 and, "fitting- up." Finally, the course is completed by a 
 series of lectures and lessons from text-books, treating of 
 the prime movers, accompanied by exercises in planning 
 and estimating the cost of machinery, mills, and manufac- 
 tories. While studying heat engines, the steam engine is 
 made a subject of special and extended investigation in its 
 principles, and in the deta.ils of design, construction, and 
 management, according to the best and most recent practice. 
 Essays on professional subjects are written by the student at 
 stated intervals during his course, in which he is expected 
 to give concise and accurate statements of knowledge ac- 
 
302 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 quired by the course of reading accompanying his regular 
 studies. In some instances, reports and opinions relating 
 to the merits of mechanical devices, or to the economical 
 performance of machinery, are demanded, as an exercise of 
 essential importance. 
 
 Problems in design are presented to the student at inter- 
 vals during the course, which are made, as far as possible, 
 similar in character to those which meet the Mechanical 
 Engineer most frequently in the practice of his profession. 
 The student is informed of the exact result to be attained, 
 and of the conditions necessary, and means available for 
 reaching it. He is then expected to prepare his plans, and 
 submit them to the Head of the Department, together with a 
 report, oral or written, for criticism. A "graduating the- 
 sis " is demanded of the student at the close of his studies, 
 in which he is expected to exhibit his proficiency, by de- 
 signing and describing the construction and management of 
 some machine, or in planning a manufacturing establish- 
 ment, giving estimates of cost. The originals of these the- 
 ses are retained at the Institute, and deposited among the 
 manuscripts of its library. 
 
 TiiE Mechanical Labokatoey. — The Trustees have 
 established a Mechanical Laboratory in connection with 
 the Department of Mechanical Engineering. It is evident 
 that a Laboratory for Technical Research, or a "Testing 
 Laboratory," if properly organized, well equipped, and 
 effectively operated, must be of exceptional value in the 
 direct advancement of science, as well as in the promotion 
 of purely technical interests. The oflScers of our important 
 lines of railroad desire frequently to obtain dynamometric 
 determinations of the resistance of trains, and of the effi- 
 ciency of locomotives; to learn with precision the strength 
 and the various other hardly less important characteristics 
 of materials which it was proposed to use in construction ; 
 and to ascertain the value of fuel and of lubricating materials. 
 Iron and steel makers are equally desirous of obtaining 
 reliable and thoroughly accurate knowledge of the chemical 
 constitution of their products, and of their physical structure 
 and properties, and such knowledge of the relations existing 
 between these two sets of qualities as can only be secured 
 by careful comparison of the results of skilful and systematic 
 investigation. Manufacturers of machinery, and construc- 
 tors generally, are seriously in need of a recognized author- 
 ity, to which they may send the materials purchased, or 
 proposed to be purchased by them, with confidence that 
 their qualities shall be carefully determined and their value 
 ascertained, and that the deductions from experimental 
 examination shall be intelligently made, uninfluenced by 
 any private interest. Those members of the engineering 
 profession who are engaged in general practice, constitute 
 still another class of business men to whom such an institu- 
 tion would lend valuable aid ; and, in fact, every business 
 would derive, directly or indirectly, great advantage from 
 its establishment. This plan gives to the country an insti- 
 tion such as has never before been organized, and one whose 
 value will prove beyond estimation. The accumulation of 
 facts, the valuable application of science, and the directly 
 practical bearing of the work which may be done, will, in a 
 comparatively short time, be productive of rich results. It 
 will do most effectually that work which has hitherto been 
 too much neglected — the application of scientific knowledge 
 to familiar work and matters of business. It will do much 
 to close up the space which so widely separates the man of 
 business from the man of science, and will lead to a far 
 more perfect system of mutual aid than has yet existed ; it 
 must also aid in the development of the natural resources of 
 our country, stimulate the growth, in extent and perfection, 
 of its most important industries, and contribute in many 
 ways to the welfare of the people. The Trustees have 
 placed at the disposal of the Director of the Mechanical 
 Laboratory, for use where required, the machine shop and 
 tools of the Institute, and a considerable amount of appa- 
 ratus, including several testing machines, steam engine indi- 
 cators, dynamometers, and other instruments, of a total 
 value of about $5,000. They authorize the use of any avail- 
 able space within the buildings or upon the grounds, and 
 set apart a strip of laud adjacent to the buildings of the 
 Institute, not exceeding 200 ieet in length and 50 feet in 
 breadth, upon which any new buildings required may be 
 erected. 
 
 Depaetment or Mechanical Drawing. — In the or- 
 ganization of the department of mechanical drawing, the ob- 
 ject aimed at was to make the course of instruction thorough, 
 practical, of direct utility, and comprehensive. The require- 
 ments of many of the industrial arts at the present day are such 
 as to necessitate the delineation, not only of what already ex- 
 ists, but of what is yet to be made. Both demand a knowledge 
 of the science of drawing, and the latter especially involves 
 a certain exercise of the imagination, in order to form clear 
 physical conceptions of the particular design in contempla- 
 tion, not only in regard to ife appearance as a whole, but as 
 to the relations and proportions of its parts. This ability to 
 form a vivid and distinct mental image, as well as to fix it 
 permanently by accurate representations, though useful to 
 all, is more- emphatically so to the mechanical engineer, 
 who is daily called on, not to copy what has been done, but 
 to do what has not been. These considerations have been 
 kept distinctly in sight in the conduct of this department ; 
 the matter taught and the method of teaching having been 
 selected with the view of giving the student a firm grasp 
 of underlying principles, of developing and strengthening 
 his imaginative power, and of giving him direct practice in 
 the application of both. The course adopted to attain these 
 ends may be briefly outlined as follows : The foundation is 
 laid by practice in the simple drawing of lines, in order to 
 acquire facility in the manipulation of the instruments. 
 The exercises selected are such as will be of subsequent use, 
 arranged in a progressive order ; beginning with geometrical 
 constructions involving straight lines and circular arcs only, 
 and ending with the more complex curves, such as the 
 ellipse, helix, epicycloids, etc. Attention to symmetry, pro- 
 portion and arrangement is enforced from the first, the dia- 
 grams not being copied, but constructed, mostly from rough 
 sketches. Elementary studies of projection are then taken 
 up, the method adopted being that of beginning by making 
 the drawings of a solid object bounded oy plane surfaces, 
 such as a prism, in various positions, and proceeding by de- 
 grees to the similar treatment of more complex forms. The 
 relation between the drawing and the thing drawn is more 
 easily grasped at first, when the latter is not a mere abstrac- 
 tion, like a line or plane in space, but a definite and tangible 
 object ; and when the subject is presented in this manner, 
 no difficulty is experienced with the simpler problems of inter- 
 section and development, which not only brings the imagina- 
 tive faculty into play, but affords practical exercises of great 
 utility. The next step is to the drawing of parts of machines 
 from actual measurements. The student is at once set to 
 work as a draughtsman ; a part or the whole of some piece 
 of mechanism is assigned to him, which he is to study, to 
 measure, to sketch, and finally to draw ; the requirement 
 being, exactly as if he were employed in the drawing office 
 of an engineering establishment, that he shall produce com- 
 plete working plans, from which the original could be 
 replaced were it destroyed. He thus acquires some know- 
 ledge of details, and is taught to observe closely, while at 
 the same time his previously acquired skill and information 
 are practically applied. Simultaneously with this, descrip- 
 tive geometry is taken up as an abstract science, not as an 
 ultimate object, but its practical applications being kept 
 always in view, it is made a means to an end, and that 
 end is the acquirement of such a mastery of the princi- 
 ples of drawing, that the student shall be able to cope 
 with any problem when it arises in the course of his prac- 
 tice. The identity of the operations with those of Mechani- 
 cal Drawing is never lost sight of, and the problems are fre- 
 quently put in a practical form. This is not done exclu- 
 sively, however, because they afibrd, in the abstract, the 
 best possible exercise of the imaginative power. The study 
 is continued in application to shades and shadows and to 
 linear perspective; in connection with which the principles 
 of aerial perspective, as applied to the shading of mechani- 
 cal objects, are explained, and a little time is given to prac- 
 tice in the execution of finished drawings. But the ability 
 to make elaborately shaded pictures is regarded as the 
 least valuable of the qualifications of a mechanical draughts- 
 man. However great his skill in this way may be, the 
 accomplishment will serve him but little in his professional 
 career if it be acquired at the expenseof accuracy, or facility 
 in the construction of working plans. Therefore, while it la 
 designed to impart a thorough understanding of the princi- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 303 
 
 pies involved in making such drawings, comparatively little 
 time is devoted to their practical execution. The mechani- 
 cal engineer plans machines, and these move ; consequently 
 the study of the laws of their motions is an important 
 branch of his education ; and it is properly given a place 
 in this department, since to malse the drawings of a piece 
 of mechanism implies the making of them so that each 
 part shall move in harmony with the rest, and the depth 
 of engineering disgrace is reached when, through any over- 
 sight, one part interferes with another. This study might 
 also, especially when the more complicated mechanical 
 movements are considered, be regarded as a branch of 
 applied mathematics of the higher order. But, however 
 these laws may be investigated, this fact remains : that for 
 the purposes of the draughtsman the results must be trans- 
 lated into his language and expressed in a graphic form — 
 the ways of the analyst are not his ways, and the algebraic 
 formula must be replaced by a diagram. Fortunately, how- 
 ever, the investigations may be made, at least as applied to 
 by far the larger and more important part of the motions 
 . with which he has to deal, in his own language and by his 
 own methods. In this part of the course, therefore, the 
 geometry of mechanism is taught by graphical construction 
 alone, practical exercises in the platting of mechanical 
 movements, the drawing of the various forms of gearing, the 
 construction of curves representing varied motion and the 
 like, being introduced from time to time. 
 
 Further, the course includes some practice in actual plan- 
 ning. A subject being assigned or selected, the student pro- 
 ceeds to work it up as though already engaged in the active 
 pursuit of his profession ; making first a skeleton diagram 
 of the movement, and sketching in the proposed arrangement 
 of parts, he calculates the strength and proportion of these, 
 thus making the design an exercise in the Departments of 
 Engineering and Mathematics, modifying the original plan 
 when it is found necessary to do so by the results of these 
 calculations, then making drawings of each _part in detail, 
 and finally a general plan of the completed designs ; a general 
 supervision being exercised over the work while in progress, 
 and hints and suggestions as to details and arrangement be- 
 ing made as occasion arises. It should be stated, also, that 
 much care is taken throughout the course to form the habit 
 of correct judgment in determining what drawings to make 
 of any subject in hand, and how to arrange them most ad- 
 vantageously. Written instructions in regard to this are 
 exceedingly meagre, and yet it is a very important matter. 
 The object is to show the workman what to make and how 
 to make it ; and experience proves that it is very easy to 
 produce drawings which are perfectly correct, and yet do not 
 clearly illustrate the objects represented. Nothing facilitates 
 the operations of the mechanic more than to have a set of 
 working plans which are clear, easily read, and connectedly 
 arranged, and it is almost as important that the draughtsman 
 should know just what to draw, as that he should be able to 
 draw it well. From the first to the last, therefore, the student 
 is taught the necessity of exercising his judgment in this 
 direction, as well as care and forethought in all that he does ; 
 in a word, he is led to put his brains into his fingers, and 
 every precaution is taken to guard against the common and 
 offensive heresy that Mechanical Drawing is a simple matter 
 of rote and routine, and the draughtsman a mere animated 
 machine, to which a mind is superfluous. Summarily, then, 
 the object of the course is not merely to teach the student to 
 read and write certain set phrases of the graphic language 
 with ease and fluency, but to enable him to wield it with 
 power and for a purpose. He is taught not so much to 
 memorize as to compose ; he is encouraged to think for him- 
 self, and to acquire vigor and facility by giving expression 
 to new ideas ; his practice during the course being made as 
 nearly as possible to resemble that upon which he will enter 
 at its close. It would be impossible to state in detail all 
 that has been done in carrying out the design sketched above ; 
 but it is proper to mention some of the more meritorious 
 pieces of practical work in this Department, executed by the 
 students since its organization in 1871. The fact that some, 
 coming well prepared from other institutions to coniplete 
 their studies here, were able to undertake work of this de- 
 scription from the outset, gave at once an opportunity to test 
 the working of the system proposed, which has been such, 
 we think, as to entitle it to be considered fairly successful. 
 
 Department of Experimental Mechanics and Shop 
 Work. — The " work shop " course of the Institute is in- 
 tended to supply the student with a knowledge, as complete 
 as possible, of the best existing appliances, methods, and 
 processes neces.sary to the construction of such mechanical 
 designs as the theoretical part of the Institute's course will 
 enable him to originate. In accordance with this plan, the 
 Institute is provided with a machine and carpenter shop, an 
 iron and brass foundry, and a blacksmith's shop, in which 
 the student is first sufficiently familiarized with the working 
 ot wood and metal, to enable him to recognize and ap- 
 preciate differences in machines, tools, and methods of 
 manipulation in founding and blacksmithing, after which 
 he is taken to certain large manufacturing establishments, 
 so selected as to enable him to see and examine, on a large 
 scale, that with wjiich the Institute's shops have aftorded him 
 familiarity in an elementary and limited degree. In accord- 
 ance with this plan, a regularly organized inspection tour is 
 undertaken with each class. The following are the outlines 
 of the tours of the classes of 1882 : 
 
 Inspection Tours of Class of 1882. — After a day spent at 
 Iron Mines in observing the use of the Dijiping Needle, 
 Pumping, Hoisting and Rock Drilling Machinery, the Tim- 
 bering and Blasting Processes, a day at the Bethlehem Iron 
 and Steel and Zinc Works, Bethlehem, Pa., a day at the 
 Wire Rolling Mills of the Trenton Iron Co., at Trenton, and 
 visits to typical machine shops, an extended tour was made 
 as folio ws : Left New York on New Haven boat from Peck Slip 
 at 11 .30 P. M., Wednesday, April 5th. Every one took his own 
 means to be on board boat, where instructor had engaged 
 sleeping quarters. Arrived at New Haven, 6 a. m., April 
 6th. Took train immediately for Hartford and breakfasted 
 at Allyn House. Visited Pratt and Whitney Co. and Bil- 
 lings & Spencer Drop Forging Works, before dinner. After 
 dinner at Allyn House, visited Hartford Engineering Com- 
 pany's Works, Colt's Armory and Machine Works, and 
 Heating and Ventilating Plant in Hartford State House. 
 Remained at Allyn House over night, took train to Willi- 
 mantic where the Mills of the Willimantic Linen Company 
 were visited in order to inspect two pair of Porter-Allen 
 Engines running at very high speed, and also to observe the 
 processes of .spinning and weaving linen fabrics. Returned 
 to Hartford at 11.30 A. M. Dinner at Allyn House. Left 
 Hartford for Springfield at 2.12 p. m. Immediately upon 
 arriving at Springfield, took train for Holyoke, where the 
 Holyoke Water Power Constructions were inspected and a 
 return was made to Springfield, where the night was spent 
 at the Massasoit House. On the morning of April 8th, the 
 Springfield Arsenal was visited. Left Springfield at 
 12.28 P. M., for Worcester. Visited Pond Tool Works and. 
 Worcester Free Institute. Left for Boston at 5 P. M. Ar- 
 rived in Boston at 6 p. M., and put up at United States 
 Hotel until Monday April 10th. 
 
 On the morning of April 10th, Boston & Albany R. R. 
 for Watertown Arsenal to inspect large U. S. testing ma- 
 chine. Took dinner at arsenal, and took Fitchburg R. R. to 
 Waltham Watch Works. Returned by Fitchburg road to 
 Boston to United States Hotel. Tuesday, April 11th, visited 
 Boston sewage engines and South Boston Iron Foundry at 
 South Boston, and also the Massachusetts Institute of 
 Technology. Left same day at 5.30 P. M., from Boston and 
 Providence depot for Providence, arriving at Narragansett 
 House to supper. Wednesday, April 12th, visited Brown 
 Manufacturing Co. and Nicholson File Works in the fore- 
 noon, and the Cornish and Corliss five-cylinder pumping 
 engines in the afternoon. Thursday, April 13th, visited 
 Corliss Steam Engine Works in forenoon. Took dinner at 
 Pawtucket and visited Pawtucket pumping engine in after- 
 noon, returning by horse-cars to Providence to take steam- 
 boat train for New York at 7 P. m. Total Expense $40 per 
 head. Following this a trip was made to Philadelphia, 
 Chester, Edge Moor and Wilmington, to the Southwark 
 Foundry, Cramp's and Roach's Ship Yard, Sellers & Co., 
 Baldwin Locomotive Works, Ferris & Niles' Works, Bement's 
 Works, Betts Machine Co.'s Works, Morris, Tasker & Co.'s 
 Tube Mill, Edge Moor Iron Works, the Otto & Lange Gas 
 Engine Works, and the Works of I. P. Morris & Co. 
 
 The course, as a whole, is divided into two main sec- 
 tions, viz. : 
 
 I. Carpenter work and wood turning, millwrighting and 
 
304 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 steam fitting, which are pursued by the Freshman Class 
 during the three regular terms of the college year, and dur- 
 ing the Preliminary Term. 
 
 II. Machinist work, blacksmithing, moulding and found- 
 ing, and pattern making, which are pursued by the Sopho- 
 more Class during the Preliminary Term and three regular 
 terms, and by the Junior Class during a portion of the 
 regular terms. The student finishes the course in machinist 
 work by being sent: 1. To two of the leading machine tool 
 manufacturing establishments of the country, where he is re- 
 quired to prepare himself for examination upon a set of 
 questions with which he is provided, regarding the various 
 sizes, and the reasons for such variety of lathes, planers, 
 and shapers, boring and drilling machines, and also regarding 
 any general differences in the angles and rates of cutting of 
 such tools as he has used here. * 
 
 2. To a locomotive works, a rolling mill, three of our 
 large iron works, and two marine engine works, where he 
 will be required to acquire material for an examination upon 
 a set of questions regarding the kind and size of tools and 
 the methods used in the manufacture of certain large 
 machinery. 
 
 Course of Experimental Mechanics.-This is a course 
 given to the Senior Class during the Preliminary Term, and 
 during a portion of the regular terms, which is intended to 
 be supplementary to the work of the third year in Analytical 
 and Applied Mechanics, Resistance of Materials and Heat, 
 as well as preparatory to the study of the Steam Engine pur- 
 sued during the regular term of the fourth year. It involves 
 the following experimental tasks, at each of which a group 
 of three or more members of a class are simultaneously 
 engaged : 
 
 1. Dynamometrical Measurement of Power of Machine Tools. 
 
 2. Experimental determination of effects of different Fly 
 
 W heels upon steadiness of engine. 
 
 3. Determinations of Coefficients of Friction of Leather Belts 
 
 and of Lubricants. 
 
 4. Comparison of Huntoou, Porter, Pickering and common 
 
 Fly Ball Governors. 
 
 5. Test of Transverse Strength and Elasticity of Cast Iron, 
 
 Wrought Iron, Wood and Brass. 
 
 6. Test of Tensile Strength and Elasticity of Cast Iron, 
 
 Wrought and Steel. 
 
 7. Test of Compressive Strength of Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, 
 
 and Stone. 
 
 8. Test of Shearing Strength of Wrought Iron. 
 
 9. Test of Torsional S trength of Cast Iron, Wrought Iron and 
 
 Steel. 
 
 10. Test of Evaporative Power of Boilers, including Calori- 
 
 metrlcal test of Quality of Steam, measurement of Tem- 
 perature of Furnace and Chimney, and Pressure and 
 Velocity of Draught. 
 
 11. Experimental determination of Total Heat of Combustion 
 
 of Coal used in Boiler Test, and comparison of this heat 
 with that computed from the analysis of the coal. 
 
 12. Measurement of effect of boiler covering in preventing 
 
 radiation. 
 
 13. Measurement of Friction of Steam flowing through jjipes. 
 
 14. Comparison of Velocity of flow of Steam experimentally 
 
 determined, with velocity as computed from formulae. 
 
 15. Comparison of Efficiency of Steam Pump and Injector. 
 
 16. Setting of Engine Valves with Link Motion and Indepen- 
 
 dent Cut-off. 
 
 The Department of Physics. — This department offers 
 the students every facility for the acquisition of a thorough 
 knowledge of physics. During the first year the first term 
 is given to the study of the general properties of matter and 
 to inductive mechanics ; the second teim, to pneumatics and 
 to the laws of vibratory motions and acoustics ; the third 
 term to light. In the second year the first term is occupied 
 in the study of heat and meteorology ; the second and third 
 terms are spent in the study of magnetism and electricity. 
 During the third year the Professor of Physics delivers lec- 
 tures on the modes of making precise measures. He shows 
 the application of these measures in the various departments 
 of physicSj and explains the construction, the methods of 
 adjustment, and the manner of using instruments of preci- 
 sion. Tlh.Q fourth year the student spends in the physical 
 laboratories, pursuing experimental investigations, schedules 
 of which are prepared for him by the Professor of Physics. 
 In the organization of the Department of Physics, two ob- 
 jects were sought : First, to give thorough instruction to the 
 
 students by means of lectures and recitations on general 
 physics, aided by the most perfect illustrations, followed- by 
 practical experimental work in the physical laboratory ; and 
 secondly, to advance knowledge in this department of science 
 by original researches, conducted by the Professor of Physics. 
 This mode of work has been of eminent service to the stu- 
 dent, by causing a lively interest in his studies, as he veri- 
 fies and extends, by his laboratory experiments, the know- 
 ledge which he had previously derived irom lecturers and 
 text-books. The extensive cabinet of instruments which the 
 Institute possesses affords the student advantages which are 
 nowhere excelled. It would be proper to state in this con- 
 nection, that the facilities of the laooratories and cabinets 
 of the Institute will be extended to advanced students who 
 may wish to avail themselves of such means in carrying out 
 their investigations, on such conditions as may be determined 
 by arrangement in each special case. 
 
 Department of Chemistry. — The material employed 
 for purposes of instruction in this department, while em- 
 bracing too great a variety of substances and apparatus to be 
 particularly described, may be conveniently summarized 
 under its most important heads : 
 
 First. — Apparatus for purposes of demonstration and for 
 teaching, by means of lecture illustration, the principal topics 
 of general and applied chemistry. This includes the various 
 forms of apparatus, designed by Hofmann and others, for 
 elucidating the doctrines of modern chemistry. 
 
 Second. — Materials for qualitative, volumetric, and quanti- 
 tative analysis, including standard solutions and apparatus 
 for the determination of weight and volume, which have 
 been carefully calibrated and adjusted. As part of this^ma- 
 terial, should be mentioned, a cabinet of somewhat more 
 than 5,000 specimens of the principal ores, minerals and 
 rocks. 
 
 Third. — Instruments of precision, employed in the gradu- 
 ation of eudiometers, the measurement of crystals, in the 
 operations of gas analysis, etc. The study of chemistry is 
 begun by instruction in the subject of chemical physics, in 
 the laws of chemical combination, and in the principles in- 
 volved in the determination of atomic and molecular weights. 
 This is followed by the study of chemical notation and no- 
 menclature, with practice in stoichiometry. Afterward, the 
 subject of chemical structure is taken up, along with an ex- 
 amination of the chemical and physical properties of bodies, 
 as far as is involved in their identification and chemical 
 classification. Instruction in these general principles is ac- 
 companied by a course of lectures, the chief object of which 
 is to supply the experimental demonstrations required. In 
 the third year, the student enters upon a course of labora- 
 tory practice. He begins by acquainting himself with the 
 properties and reactions of the elements, and their most 
 generally occurring compounds. Then he proceeds to the 
 examination of more or less complex minerals and artificial 
 mixtures. This course of qualitative analysis is continued, 
 until it is believed that the student should have no difficulty 
 in ascertaining the composition of any ordinary mineral 
 substance. Practice is likewise given in the examination of 
 ores, with instruction in the chemistry of metallurgical pro- 
 cesses. Finally, it is required to understand the methods 
 involved in quantitative analysis, both gravimetric and 
 volumetric, and to determine the percentage composition of 
 certain salts and common minerals. 
 
 The course laid down above is to be pursued by students 
 proposing to obtain the degree of Mechanical Engineer. 
 For those desirous of fitting themselves for the profession of 
 chemistry, the time devoted to work and instruction in the 
 laboratory is greatly extended at the beginning of the 
 third year. The number and variety of the substances 
 which are required to be analyzed are much increased, and 
 it is expected that a student shall become qualified to ana- 
 lyze all the ordinary minerals and chemicals, and the most 
 important technical products.' In addition, some acquain- 
 tance with the methods employed in organic analysis is 
 imparted. A reasonable amount of proficiency in the var- 
 ious lines of work indicated will be required in order to ob- 
 tain the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy. If, after this 
 has been conferred, a research be undertaken, with the re- 
 sult of discovering new and important chemical compounds, 
 or of adding materialljf to the store of precise information 
 concerning the properties of bodies previously known, or of 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 305 
 
 originating or perfecting some important chemical metiiod, 
 and a thesis, embodying these results, be prepared and sub- 
 mitted to the Faculty, the student will be eligible to the 
 further d^ree of Doctor of Philosophy. Special arrange- 
 ments will be made for these advanced courses of study, 
 which, however, in all cases, must be prosecuted with the 
 approbation and under the direction ol the head of the de- 
 partment. 
 
 SHEFFIELD SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL, YALE 
 COLLEGE, NEW HAVEN. 
 
 THE Sheffield Scientific School is devoted to instruction 
 and researches in the mathematical, physical, and nat- 
 ural sciences, with reference to the promotion and 
 diflfusion of science, also to the preparation of young 
 men for such pursuits as require especial proficiency in these 
 departments of learning. It is one of the Departments of 
 Yale College, like the law, medical, theological, and art 
 schools, having its separate funds, buildings, teachers, and re- 
 gulations, but governed by the Corporation of Yale College, 
 which appoints the professors and confers the degrees. It is, 
 in part, analogous to the academic department, or classical 
 college, and, in part, to the professional schools. The in- 
 struction is intended for two classes of students : — 
 
 I, Graduates of this or of other Colleges, and other per- 
 sons qualified for advanced or special scientific study. 
 
 II. Undergraduates who desire a training chiefly mathe- 
 matical and scientific, in less part linguistic and literary, for 
 higher scientific studies, or for various other occupations to 
 which such training is suited. 
 
 The School was commenced in 1847. In 1860, a_ conve- 
 nient building and a considerable endowment were given by 
 Joseph E. Sheffield, Esq., of New Haven, whose name at 
 the repeated request of the Corporation of Yale College, was 
 afterward attached to the foundation. Mr. Sheffield has 
 since frequently and munificently increased his original 
 gifts. In 1863, by an act of the Connecticut Legislature, the 
 national grant for the promotion of scientific education 
 (under the congressional enactment of July, 1862) was 
 given to this department of Yale College. Since that time, 
 and especially since the autumn of 1869, numerous liberal 
 gifts have been received from the citizens of New Haven, 
 and from other gentlemen in Connecticut, New York, and 
 St. Louis, for the endowment of the School, and the increase 
 of its collections. The action of the State led to the desig- 
 nation by law of a State Board of Visitors, consisting of the 
 Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, three senior Senators, and 
 the Secretary of the State Board of Education; and this 
 Board, with the Secretary of the Scientific School, is also the 
 Board for the appointment of students to hold the State 
 scholarships. At the request of the Governing Board, the 
 Corporation of Yale College has also appointed a Board of 
 Councillors for the School, consisting of a number of gentle- 
 men who have taken a deep interest in its welfare. The 
 Governing Board consists of the President of Yale College 
 and the Professors who are permanently attached to the 
 School. There are several other instructors associated with 
 them, a part of whom are connected with other departments 
 of the College. 
 
 Buildings and Apparatus.— The two buildings in which 
 the work of instruction in the Scientific School is mainly 
 carried on are called Sheffield Hall and North Sheffield 
 Hall ; but instruction in Mineralogy, Geology, and Biology, 
 including Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, is now given 
 entirely in the Peabody Museum. These halls contain a 
 large number of recitation and lecture rooms, a hall for 
 public assemblies and lectures, chemical and metallurgical 
 laboratories, a photographical room, an astronomical observa- 
 tory, museums, a library and reading room, besides studies 
 for some of the professors, where their private technical 
 libraries are kept. The following is a summary statement 
 of the collections belonging to the School. 
 
 1. Laboratories and Apparatus in Chemistry, Metallurgy, Physics, 
 Photography and Zoology. 
 
 20 
 
 2. Metallurgical Museum of Ores, Furnace Products, etc. 
 
 3. Agricultural Museum of Soils, Fertilizers, useful and injurious 
 
 msects, etc. 
 
 4. Collections in Zoology. 
 
 5. Astronomical Observatory, with an equatorial telescope by Clark 
 
 and Sons of Cambridge, a meridian circle, etc. 
 
 6. A Collection of Mechanical Apparatus, constituting the " Collier 
 
 Cabinet." 
 
 7. Models in Architecture, Geometrical Drawing, Civil Engineer- 
 
 ing, Topographical Engineering, and Mechanics ; diagrams 
 adapted to public lectures ; instruments for field practice. 
 
 8. Maps and Charts, topographical, hydrographical, geological, etc. 
 
 The herbarium of Professor Brewer, and the astronomical instru- 
 ments of Professor Dyman, are deposited in the buildings. 
 Professor Eaton's herbarium, near at hand, is freely accessible. 
 Students also have access to the various laboratories and col- 
 lections in Natural Science in the Peabody Museum. 
 
 Students are also admitted, under varying conditions, to 
 the College and Society Libraries, the College Reading 
 Room, the School of the Fine Arts, and the Gymnasium. 
 
 Library. — The special technical library of the Scientific 
 School consists of about five thousand volumes. Included 
 in this is the " Hillhouse Mathematical Library " of twenty- 
 four hundred volumes, collected during a long series of years 
 by Dr. William Hillhouse, and in 1870 purchased and pre- 
 sented to the Institution by Mr. Sheffield. A catalogue of 
 this collection forms a supplement to the Annual Report of 
 the Governing Board for 1870. All the prominent scientific 
 journals of this country and of Europe, together with the 
 proceedings of foreign academies, and of scientific societies, 
 can be found either in this library or in the College Library, 
 to which students have access. 
 
 Instruction for Graduates and Special Students. — Persons 
 who have gone through undergraduate courses of study, 
 here or elsewhere, may avail themselves of the facilities of 
 the School for more special professional training in the physi- 
 cal sciences and their applications, gaining in one, two, or 
 three years the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy, or, in two 
 additional years of Engineering study, that of Civil Engi- 
 neer, or of Dynamic Engineer. . Or, engaging in studies of 
 a less exclusively technical character, they may become can- 
 didates for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The in- 
 struction in such cases will be adapted to the particular 
 needs and capacities of each student, and may be combined 
 with that given by the graduate instructors in" other depart- 
 ments of the Univei'sity. This degree is confen-ed upon 
 those who, having already taken a Bachelor's degree, en- 
 gage as students in the Department of Philosophy and the 
 Arts for not less than two years in assiduous and successful 
 study. It is not given upon examination to those whose 
 studies are pursued elsewhere. The requirements for it will 
 in some cases exact of the student more than two years of 
 post-graduate labor ; so, especially, wherever the course of 
 undergraduate study has been, as in the Scientific School, of 
 less than four years. The candidate must pass a satisfactoiy 
 final examination, and present a thesis giving evidence of 
 high attainment in the branches of knowledge to which he 
 has attended. A good knowledge of Latin, German and 
 French will be required in all cases, unless, for some excep- 
 tional reason, the candidate be excused by the Faculty. The 
 graduation fee is ten dollars. 
 
 Subjects likely to receive special attention are suggested 
 as follows : — Professor Norton will instruct in applied me- 
 chanics and in spherical astronomy. Professor Lyman, in 
 the use of meridional and other astronomical instruments. 
 Professor DuBois, in the principles of thermodynamics, and 
 utilization of heat as a source of power. Professor Brush, in 
 the analysis and determination of mineral species, and in 
 descriptive mineralogy. Professor Johnson, in theoretical, 
 analytical, and agricultural chemistry. Professor Brewer, in 
 agriculture and forest culture, in the use of the microscope, 
 and in physical geography. Professor Clark, in definite in- 
 tegrals, difierential equations, analytical mechanics, the the- 
 ory of numerical approximation, and the method of least 
 squares. Professor Eaton, in structural and systematic bo- 
 tany, with reference to both flowering and cryptogamous 
 plants. Professor Allen, in analytical chemistry, and in 
 metallurgy. Prof. Verrill, and Prof. Smith, in zoology and 
 geology. The same courses of study are open, for a longer 
 or shorter time, to graduate students who do not desire to 
 become candidates for a degree. 
 
306 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Students who have taken the degree of Bachelor of Phil- 
 osophy, may ohtain the degree of Civil or of Dynamic 
 Engineee at the end of two academical years, by pursuing 
 the following higher course of study and professional training. 
 
 The course of study for the degree of Civil Engineer 
 ■will comprise — 
 
 1. Higher Calculus. Higher Geometry. Theory of Nu- 
 merical Operations. 
 
 2. Analytical Mechanics. Mechanics applied to Engineer- 
 ing. 
 
 3. A Course of Construction and Design. Projects. 
 
 4. Practical Astronomy, with use of instruments, compu- 
 tations, etc. 
 
 This course will occupy one year. 
 
 To secure the requisite amount of professional knowledge 
 and practice, the candidate will be required to furnish a 
 comprehensive report of the results of an examination into 
 the existing condition of some special line of constructive 
 art ; or to present proper evidence that he has had actual 
 charge in the field, for several months, of construction or 
 surveying parties, or held some responsible position deemed 
 equivalent to this. An elaborate design must also be sub- 
 mitted of some projected work of construction, based upon 
 exact data obtained from careful surveys made by the candi- 
 date, and comprising all the requisite calculations, and the 
 necessary detailed drawings, and accompanied by foil speci- 
 fications of the work to be done, and the requirements to be 
 met by the contractor. The fee for this degree is five dollars. 
 The course of study for the degree of Dynamic Engineer 
 will comprise — 
 
 1. Higher Calculus. Higher Geometry. Theory of Nu- 
 merical Operations. 
 
 2. General Principles of Dynamics (Analytical Me- 
 chanics), including special application of these Principles to 
 Dynamical problems. 
 
 3. Construction of Machines. Designs. 
 
 4. Preparation of theses on special subjects in Dynamic 
 Engineering. 
 
 During the second year candidates will be permitted to 
 employ such a portion of their time as may be deemed advi- 
 sable or necessary in the examination of engineering works 
 and manufacturing establishments, and may also have the 
 privilege of entering upon professional practice, provided it 
 is done with the knowledge and consent of the Professor of 
 Dynamic Engineering, and under such circumstances as shall 
 appear to him to be favorable to professional progress. An 
 elaborate thesis on some professional subject, with an origi- 
 nal design, or project, accompanied by proper working 
 drawings, will be required at the end of the second year. 
 The fee for this degree is five dollars. 
 
 Special Students. — For the benefit of those who, being 
 fully qualified, desire to pursue particular studies without 
 reference to the obtaining of a degree, special or irregular 
 students are received in most of the departments of the 
 School ; not, however, in the Select Course or in the Fresh- 
 man Class. It should be distinctly understood that these 
 opportunities are not offered to persons who are incompetent 
 to go on with regular courses, but are designed to aid those 
 who, having received a sufficient preliminary education else- 
 where, desire to increase their proficiency in special branches. 
 
 Requirements for Admission.— Terms of Admis- 
 sion. — Candidates must be not less than fifteen years of age, 
 and must bring satisfactory testimonials of moral character 
 from their former instructors or other responsible persons. 
 For admission to the Freshman Class the student must pass 
 a thorough examination in the following subjects: 
 
 English. — Including grammar, spelling, and composition. 
 In grammar, Whitney's Essentials of English Grammar, or 
 an equivalent. 
 
 History of the United States. 
 
 Oeography. 
 
 Latin. — (1.) Simple exercises in translating English into 
 Latin. (Smith's " Principia Latina," Part I, or the First 
 and Second Latin Books of the Ahn-Henn Latin Series, 
 are named as indicating the nature and extent of this 
 requirement, and an acquaintance with one of these works 
 will be required unless some satisfactory substitute is 
 offered. In the last-named course one-third of each ex- 
 ercise may, if desired, be omitted.) (2) Csesar— six books 
 of the Gallic War, or their equivalent. (As advantageous 
 
 substitutes for the last three books of Caesar may be sug- 
 gested three books of Virgil's j3Sneid, or a similar quantity 
 of Ovid.) 
 
 Arithmetic. — Fundamental Operations, Least Common 
 Multiple, Greatest Common Divisor, Common and Decimal 
 Fractions, Denominate Numbers, including the Metric Sys- 
 tem of Weights and Measures ; Percentages, including In- 
 terest, Discount, and Commission ; Proportion, Extraction 
 of the Square and Cube Roots. 
 
 Algebra — Fundamental Operations, Fractions, Equations 
 of the First Degree, with one or several unknown quan- 
 tities ; Inequalities, Ratio and Proportion, Involution, in- 
 cluding the Binomial Formula for an entire and positive 
 Exponent ; Evolution, the Reduction" of Radicals, Equations 
 of the Second Degree, Progressions, Permutations and Com- 
 binations, the Method of Indeterminate Coefficients, Funda- 
 mental Properties of Logarithms, Compound Interest. 
 
 Geometry — Plane, Solid, and Spherical ; including funda- 
 mental notions of Symmetry, and examples of Loci and 
 Maxima and Minima of Plane Figures. 
 
 Trigonometry — Including the Analytical Theory of the 
 Trigonometrical Functions, and the usual formulae ; the 
 Construction and Use of Trigonometrical Tables ; and the 
 Solution of Plane Triangles ; so much, for example, as is 
 contained in Wheeler's Plane Trigonometry (Boston, 
 1877), or Richards's Plane Trigonometry (New York, 1878). 
 While no entrance examination is held in the History of 
 England, candidates for admission are urgently advised to 
 make themselves as familiar as possible with that sub- 
 ject; as a knowledge of it is essential to the most suc- 
 cessful prosecution of some of the studies of the course. 
 Candidates will be allowed the option of passing on the 
 above-named subjects in two successive years. In such a 
 case they must present themselves for examination at the 
 June examination of the first year in the following subjects 
 or parts of subjects : History of the United States, Geogra- 
 phy, Arithmetic, Plane Geometry, Algebra to Quadratic Equa- 
 tions. In order to have this preliminary examination 
 counted, candidates must pass satisfactorily on all the sub- 
 jects ; and notice must be given of the intention to divide 
 the examination to Professor G. J. Bush, Executive Officer 
 of the School, on or before June 15. 
 
 For preparation in Algebra and Geometry the recently 
 published text-books of Professor Newcomb on these subjects, 
 may, without indicating undue preference, be especially re- 
 commended. And to the candidate who prepares in other 
 works, they may serve to indicate the extent and kind of at- 
 tainments expected in the prescribed topics. Candidates who 
 prepare in the Geometry of this author, may for the present 
 omit the short chapters on the Ellipse, Hyperbola, and Para- 
 bola ; though they will find it advantageous to study them. In 
 his preparation in Geometry the candidate should, as far as 
 practicable, have suitable exercises in proving simple theo- 
 rems and solving simple problems for himself. It is im- 
 portant, too, that he should be accustomed to the numerical 
 application of geometric principles, and especially to the 
 prompt recollection and use of the elementary formulse of 
 mensuration. In Trigonometry he should be exercised 
 in applying the usual formute to a variety of simple reduc- 
 tions and transformations, including the solution of trigo- 
 nometrical equations. Readiness and accuracy in trigo- 
 nometrical calculations are also of prime importance to the 
 candidate. If the use of logarithms is postponed in his 
 preparation till Trigonometry is taken up (which is by no 
 means necessary or advisable), he should then have abun- 
 dant applications of them to all forms of calculation occur- 
 ring in ordinary practice, as well as those appearing in the 
 solution of triangles. Finally, in all of his calculations, he 
 should study the art of neat and orderly arrangement. In 
 Latin the student should have such continued training in 
 parsing as shall make him thoroughly familiar with declen- 
 sions and conjugations, and with the leading principles of 
 Syntax. To secure these results more effectually, the re- 
 quirement has been adopted of simple exercises in trans- 
 lating English into Latin. As this course of exercises is 
 designed solely as a preparation for reading, it should be 
 begun at the earliest stage of Latin study. A very large 
 proportion of the deficiencies in the Latin examination for 
 several years past has been due to the neglect of the sug- 
 gestions of this paragraph, and to attempt to read a Latin 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 307 
 
 author with totally inadequate grammatical preparation. 
 The examination for admission takes place at North Sheffield 
 Hall, on Tuesday and Wednesday, September 12, 13, 1882. 
 Opportunities for private examinations, may, in exceptional 
 cases, be given at other times. Candidates for advanced 
 standing in the undergraduate classes are examined, in 
 addition to the preparatory studies, in those already pursued 
 in the class they wish to enter. No one can be admitted 
 as a candidate tor a degree, later than at the beginning of 
 the Senior year. 
 
 The Courses of Insteuction, occupying three years, 
 are arranged to suit the requirements of the various classes of 
 students. The first year's work is the same for all ; for the 
 last two years the instruction is chiefly arranged in special 
 courses. The special courses most distinctly marked out are 
 the following : 
 
 (a.) In Chemistry ; (6.) In Civil Engineering. 
 
 (c.) In Dynamical (or Mechanical) Engineering ; 
 
 (d.) In Agriculture; (e.) In Natural History: 
 
 (/.) In Biology preparatory to Medical Studies ; 
 
 Ig.) In Studies preparatory to Mining and Metallurgy ; . 
 
 (A.) In Select studies preparatory to other higher studies. 
 
 The arrangement of the studies is indicated in the an- 
 nexed scheme. 
 
 Freshman year. — Introductory to all the Courses : — First 
 Term — German — Wnitney's Grammar and Reader. English — 
 Lounsbury's History of the English Language ; Exercises in com- 
 position. Mathematics — Plane Analytical Geometry. Physics — At- 
 kinson's Ganot, with experimental lecturer. Chemistry — Recita- 
 tions and Laboratory practice. Elementary Drawing — Practical 
 Lessons in the Art School. 
 
 Second Term — Language, Physics, an d Chemistry — as stated above. 
 Mathematics — Spherical Trigonometry (Wheeler's); Elements of 
 Mechanics. Physical Geography — Lectures. Botany — Elementary, 
 with Lectures. Draining — Isometric drawing, with application to 
 drawing from models and structures by measurement. Shading 
 and tinting. Principles of orthographic projection. Reading of 
 working drawings and isometric construction of objects from their 
 orthographic projections. Sections. 
 
 For the Junior and Senior years the students select for 
 themselves one of the following courses : 
 
 (a.) In Chemistry — Junior Year — First Term — Theoretical 
 Chemistry — Lectures and Recitations. Qualitative Analysis — Fre- 
 senius's. Laboratory Practice, Blowpipe Analysis. German. 
 French. 
 
 Second Term — Laboratory Practice — Qualitative Analysis, and 
 experimental work in Organic Chemistry. Mineralogy — Blowpipe 
 Analysis and determination of species. Lectures. French. Ger- 
 man. 
 
 Senior Year — First Terra — Organic Chemistry — Lectures and 
 Recitations. Agricultural Chemistry — -Recitations (optional). La- 
 boratory Practice — Volumetric and Mineral Analysis. Geology — 
 Dina's. Zoology — Lectures. French. 
 
 Second Term — Laboratory Practice — Analysis of Minerals and 
 Technical Products. Assaying (optional). Geology — Dana's Manual. 
 Metallargy (optional) Mineralogy (optional). French. 
 
 (h.) In Civil Engineering— Jimtor Fear— First Term — Ma- 
 thematics — Analytical Geometry of Three Dimensions; Elements of 
 the Theory of Functions ; Numerical Equations ; Differential Calcu- 
 lus. Surveying — Field Operations. Drawing — Descriptive Geo- 
 metry, begun. German. French. 
 
 Second Term — Mathematics — Integral Calculus. Rational Me- 
 chanics. Drawing — Descriptive Geometry, concluded. Topogra- 
 phical. Swrveying — Topographical. German. French. 
 
 Senior Year — First Term — Field Engineering — Laying out 
 Curves. Location of Line of Railroad, with calculations of Exca- 
 vation and Embankment. Henck's Field Book for Railroad En- 
 gineers. Civil Engineering — Resistance of Materials. Bridges and 
 Roofs, begun. Stone Cutting, with Graphical problems. Geology 
 — Dana's. Mineralogy — Blowpipe Analysis and Determinative 
 Mineralogy. French. 
 
 Second Term — Civil Engineering — Bridges and Roofs. Build- 
 ing Materials. Stability of Arches and Walls. Mahan's Civil En- 
 gineering. Dynamics — Principles of Mechanism. Steam Engine. 
 Hydraulics — Hydraulics and Hydraulic Motors. Drawing — Gra- 
 phical Statics. Astronomy — Loomis's Astronomy with practical 
 problems. Mineralogy. — Continued. Geology — Dynamic. French. 
 
 (c.) In" Dynamic Engineering — Junior Fear— First Term — 
 Mathematics — Analytical Geometry of Three Dimensions ; Elements 
 
 of the Theory of Functions; Numerical Equations; Differential 
 Calculus. Surveying — Field Practice. Drawing — Descriptive 
 Geometry, begun. German. French. 
 
 Second Term — Mathematics — Integral Calculus. Rational Me- 
 chanics, kinematics — General Theory of Motion and Principles of 
 Mechanism; Elementary Combinations of Pure Mechanism; Pulleys 
 and Belts ; Gearing and forms of teeth for Wheels ; Parallel Mo- 
 tions. Dra/wing — Descriptive Geometry, concluded. German. 
 French. 
 
 Senior Year — First Term — Statics — ^Application of the Principles 
 of Statics to Rigid Bodies; Elasticity and Strength of Materials; 
 Forms of Uniform Strength ; Stability of Structure ; Construction 
 of Roof Trusses, Girders, and Iron Bridges. Machine D'roAving — 
 Bolts and Nuts; Riveting; Journals, Axles, Shafts, Couplings, Pil- 
 low Blocks; Shaft-hangers, Pulleys ; Connecting Rods and Cranks; 
 Cross-Heads ; Pipe connections ; Valves ; Steam Cylinders ; Stuf- 
 fing Boxes, Glands, etc. Shop Visits. Blowpipe Analysis. French. 
 
 Second "Term — Hydrostatics arid Hydrodynamics — Equilibrium 
 and Pressure of fluids : Hydrometers, Manometers, Gauges, etc. ; 
 Water Pressure Engines and Water Wheels ; Construction of Water 
 Reservoirs and Conduits; Measurement of Water Supply; Dis- 
 charge of Pipes. Thermodynamics — General principles of Heat 
 employed as a source of power ; Theory of the Steam Engine ; Hot 
 Air Engines ; Gas Engines. Machine Designing — Proportioning of 
 Machine Parts, continued. Designing of Hoistmg Engines ; Shear- 
 ing and Pumping Engines ; Complete working drawings for a high 
 speed Steam Engine. Shop Visits and Reports. Metallurgy. 
 
 In Studies Preparatory to Mining and Mbtalluegy: — 
 Young men desiring to become Mining Engineers, can pursue the 
 regular course in Civil or Mechanical Engineering, and at its close 
 can spend a fourth year in the study of Metallurgical chemistry, 
 mineralogy, etc. 
 
 (b) In the Select Studies Prepabatoryto Other Higher 
 Studies: — Junior Year. — First Term — Mineralogy — Blowpipe 
 Analysis and Determinative Mineralogy. Astronomy. English — 
 Early English. Histm-y — Green's Short History of the English 
 People. French. German. 
 
 Second Term — Mineralogy — Lectures. Physical Geography — 
 Guyot; Lectures. Botany — Lectures; Excursions; Laboratory 
 Practice. English — Chaucer, Bacon, Shakspere. History — Green's 
 History, continued; History of the Umted States. German. 
 French. 
 
 Senior Year. — First Term. — Geology — Recitations and Excur- 
 sions. Zoology — Lectures and Excursions. Linguistics — Whitney's 
 Life and Growth of Language. English — Shakspere. Constitu- 
 tional Law of the United States. French. 
 
 Second T'ESM— Geology — continued. Meteorology — Lectures. 
 Political Economy — Recitations and Lectures. English — Shaks- 
 peare, Milton, Dryden, Pope, Gray, and later authors. French. 
 
 Exercises in English Composition are required during the 
 entire course from all the students. The preparation of 
 graduating theses is among the duties of the Senior Year. 
 Lectures on Military Science and Tactics are annually given 
 by General Abbot, and other officers of the Engineer Corps 
 of the United States Armjr. 
 
 Drawing. — The course in Drawing extends through the 
 three years. During the first term of the Freshman year, 
 the students practice free-hand drawing at the Art School 
 building, under the direction of Professor Niemeyer, of the 
 Yale School of the Fine Arts. After the Completion of the 
 course in free-hand drawing, instruction is given by Mr. F. 
 R. Honey, during the second term in the elementary princi- 
 ples of instrumental drawing, embracing Elementary pro- 
 jection drawing, Isometric drawing, and Descriptive 
 Geometry as far as Warped Surfaces. This course is obliga- 
 tory upon all. During the Junior and Senior years, instruc- 
 tion in drawing is obligatory only on the students in Civil 
 and Mechanical Engineering. In the former year the sys- 
 tem of instruction embraces shades and shadows, tinting, 
 perspective, and warped surfaces. By this method all the 
 problems in Descriptive Geometry are required to be worked 
 out on the drawing-board instead of the black-board. The 
 course extends through the entire year, and is under the 
 direction of Mr. Honey. In Senior year, students are re- 
 quired to apply the principles of drawing already obtained 
 to works of construction, under the general supervision of 
 the Professors of Civil and of Dynamic Engineering. 
 
 Methods of Instruction.— The instruction of this in- 
 stitution is given chiefly in small class rooms, in connection 
 with recitations and by familiar lectures, illustrated by the 
 apparatus at the command of the various teachers. In 
 many studies weekly excursions are made for the purpose of 
 collecting specimens and examining natural phenomena. 
 In Chemistry and Metallurgy the students work several 
 
308 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Lours daily in well-appointed laboratories, under the direct 
 superintendence of the instructors, and are guided through 
 systematic courses of quantitative and qualitative analysis, as- 
 saying, and the blow-pipe determination of minerals and ores. 
 
 In Geology excursions are made for the purpose of exam- 
 ining geological phenomena and making special collections 
 of rocks and minerals. Each student is required to pass a 
 satisfactory examination on his collections at the end of the 
 first term of Senior year. In Civil Engineering the students, 
 besides attending on Class recitations and lectures, pursue a 
 systematic course of exercises in the different branches of 
 Geometrical Drawing and Graphical Statics, and in the ap- 
 plication of the principles of drawing to works of construc- 
 tion; and have good practice in the operations of Surveying 
 , and Field Engineering^acquiring facility in the use and 
 adjustment of Surveying and Engineering Instruments. In 
 Topographical Surveying they are instructed in the use of 
 the Plane Table for topographical work, and are required to 
 prepare a detailed chart of the ground surveyed — exhibiting 
 the contour lines and all its topographical features. Nu- 
 merous problems of computation, and graphical exercises, are 
 included in the Course of Construction pursued in the 
 Senior year. A course of Blowpipe Analysis is also taken 
 by the Senior Class, that a more thorough knowledge'may be 
 gained of minerals and building stones. 
 
 In Dynamic Engineering the method of instruction is by 
 recitation and lectures, supplemented by work in the draw- 
 ing room, by shop visits, and visits of inspection in and out 
 of the city, and by tests with the indicator and dynamometer. 
 The lectures are illustrated by models, by large cartoons 
 adapted for the purpose, and by the complete collection of 
 working drawings of the Novelty Iron Works, owned by the 
 School. In the drawing room, detailed working drawings of 
 various-machines are made. A general sketch of the pro- 
 posed machine is given and complete detailed drawings are 
 required, in proper shape for the pattern-maker or machinist. 
 The student is taught the best practice, and his judgment is 
 trained in choosing relative proportions. The student is re- 
 quired to describe the steps to be followed in building the 
 machine, and to make as nearly as possible an estimate of 
 its cost. Pattern, foundry, blacksmithing and machine 
 work are studied in detail. In the visits, machinery and 
 processes are critically examined in detail, and sketches of 
 important machines with written descriptions are required. 
 In addition to the above, a course of lectures is given every 
 winter by the pi'ofessors of the schools and others, on topics 
 of popular interest. 
 
 Tuition Charges. — The charge for tuition for undergrad- 
 uate students is $150 per year, payable, $55 at the beginning 
 of the. first and of the second term, and $40 at the middle of 
 the second term. The student in the Chemical course has 
 an additional charge of $70 per annum for chemicals and 
 use of apparatus. He also supplies himself at his own ex- 
 pense with gas, flasks, crucibles, etc., the cost of which should 
 not exceed $10 per term. A fee of $5 is charged members 
 of the Freshman Class for chemicals and materials used in 
 their laboratory practice, and the same fee is required from 
 all (except Chemical students) who take the practical exer- 
 cises in Blow-pipe Analysis and Determinative Mineralogy. 
 A fee of $5 a term will also be charged to the students in 
 the Zoological laboratory, for materials and use of instru- 
 ments. An additional charge of 15 is annually made to 
 each student for the use of the College Reading Room and 
 Gymnasium. For graduate students the charge for tuition 
 is $100 per year. 
 
 Church Sittings. — Free sittings for students in this depart- 
 ment of Yale College are provided as follows : in the Central 
 Church (Congr.) ; in the Trinity (Episc.) ; and in the First 
 Methodist Church. _ Those who prefer to pay a sitting for a 
 year, more or less, in the churches above mentioned, or in 
 any other church of any denomination, will be aided on ap- 
 plication to the Secretary of the School. Sittings in the 
 Gallery of the College Chapel are free as heretofore to the 
 students of this department;. 
 
 Faculty and Assistants. — President .- Rev. Noah Por- 
 ter, D.D., LL.D. Chairman and Executive Officer : George 
 J. Brush. Professors : (arranged in the orderof their gradu- 
 ation) William A. Norton, Civil Engineering. Chester S. 
 Lyman, Physics and Astronomy, Theoretical and Practical. 
 William D. Whitney, Linguistics and French. George J. 
 
 Brush, Mineralogy. Samuel W. Johnson, Theoretical and 
 Agricultural Chemistry. William H. Brewer, Agricultural 
 (Norton Professor). John E Clark, Mathematics. Daniel 
 
 C. Eaton, Botany. Thomas R. Lounsbury, English. Oscar 
 
 D. Allen, Analytical Chemistry and Metallurgy. Addison 
 
 E. Verrill, Zoology and Geology. Sidney I. Smith, Com- 
 parative Anatomy. William G. Mixter, Chemistry. A.Jay 
 Dubois, Dynamical Engineering (Higgin Professor). Henry 
 W. Farnam, Political Economy and History. Albert S. 
 Wheeler, German. Mark Bailey, Elocution. John H. 
 Niemeyer, Professor in Yale School of Fine Arts, Free 
 Hand Drawing. Frederick R. Honey, Descriptive Geometry 
 and Projection Drawing. Herbert Miller, French. Thomas 
 W. Mather, Kinematics and Machine Design. Allen B. 
 Howe, Analytical Chemistry. Russell H. Chittenden, Phy- 
 siological Chemistry. Charles Hildebrand, Mathematics. 
 Samuel L. Penfield, Mineralogy. Marcus D. Munn, Analy- 
 tical Chemistry. 
 
 Degrees. — Students of this department,on the recommenda- 
 tion of the Governing Board, are admitted by the Corpora- 
 tion of Yale College to the following degrees. They are 
 thus conferred : 2. Civil Engineer and Dynamical En- 
 gineer. 
 
 Calendak.— September 12, 13, 1882, Tuesday, Wednes- 
 day, Examination for admission ; September 14, 1882, Thurs- 
 day, first term begins; December 21, 1882, first term ends. 
 
 LAWRENCE SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL, HAR- 
 VARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE, 
 MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 THE Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard College 
 offers a complete course of instruction in various de- 
 partments of science training. The faculty is as 
 follows: Charles W. Eliot, LL. D., President; 
 Henry L. Eustis, A. M., Dean and Professor of Engineer- 
 ing ; Joseph Lovering, LL. D., Professor of Mathematics 
 and National Philosophy; Josiah D. Whitney, LL. D., 
 Professor of Geology ; Wolcott Gibbs, M. D., LL. D., Pro- 
 fessor of Physics ; Josiah P. Cooke, A. M.', Professor of 
 Chemistry and Mineralogy, and Director of the Chemical 
 Laboratory; James M. Pierce, A. M., Professor of Mathe- 
 matics ; George L. Gondale, A. M., M. D., Professor of 
 Botany, and Director of the Botanic Garden ; Charles H. 
 Moore, Instructor in Drawing and Principles of Design ; 
 Nathaniel S. Shaler, S. D., Professor of Palseontology ; 
 John Trowbridge, S. D., Professor of Physics ; William G. 
 Farlow, A. M., M. D., Professor of Botany ; William James, 
 M. D., Assistant Professor of Philosophy; Charles L. 
 Jackson, A. M., Professor of Chemistry ; William M. Davis, 
 M. E., Instructor in Geology ; Henry B. Hill, A. M., Assis- 
 tant Professor of Chemistry ; Walter Faxon, A. B., S. D., 
 Assistant Professor of Zoology ; Edward L. Mark, Ph. D., 
 Instructor in Zoology ; Harry B. Hodges, Instructor in Ger- 
 man ; Francis W. Dean, S. B., Tutor in Engineering. Assis- 
 tants, Leonard P. Kinnicutt, S. B., Assistant in Chemistry ; 
 William H. Melville, Ph. D., Assistant in Mineralogy; 
 Charles F. Maberv, S. D., Assistant in Chemistry ; Harold 
 Whiting, A. M., Assistant in Physics ; John Eliot Wolff, A. 
 B., Assistant in Geology ; Henry Champion Jones, A. M., 
 Assistant in Botany; Charles Henry Moras, A. B., Assistant 
 in Biology ; Charles Robert Sanger, A. B., Assistant in 
 Organic Chemistry; 
 
 CouksbsofInstrttction— 7. Oim'land Topographical En fin ra-- 
 ing — Splierical Trigonoiiirlry and Analytic Qeometry — Wheeler's 
 and [lowison's. — Lectures. Additional examples. Five times a 
 week. Mr. Dean. 
 
 Descriptive Geometry and Perspective — Church's. Three times a 
 week. Prof. Eustis. 
 
 Elementary Physics — One lecture a week. Prof. Lovering. 
 
 Surveying, Plotting, and Topographical Drawing— GWlespie's 
 Land Surveying.— Gillespie's Higher Surveying.— Field-work. Sev- 
 en hours a week. Mr. Deau. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 309 
 
 Mechanical Dravying — Six hours a week. Mr. Dean. 
 Second Year — Differential amd Integral Calculus - Church's, 
 with numerous additional examples. Fi ye times a weelc. Prof. Eustif. 
 
 Elementary Physics — One lecture a week. Prof. Levering. 
 
 Elementary Chemistry — (Twenty lectures). Once a week. Prof. 
 Jacksou. 
 
 German — Sheldon's Grammar. — Translation from German into 
 English, and Elementary Exercises in translating into German. 
 Three times a week. Messrs. Sheldon and Lutz. 
 
 (Required of students who did not offer German at their examina- 
 tion for admission.) 
 
 French — Brachet (Grammaire fr^neaise). — Bocher's Reader. — 
 French Prose. Three times a week. Asst. Prof. Jacquinot. 
 
 (Required of students who did not oifer. French at their examina- 
 tion for admission.) 
 
 Mechanical Drawing — Six hours a week. Mr. Dean. 
 
 Levelling, Topographical Dra/ioing — Searle's Field Engineering — 
 Wellington's Economic Theory of the Location of Railways. Six 
 hours a week. Mr. Dean. 
 
 Third Yeak. — Mechanics. — Weisbach's Mechanics. — Wood's 
 Bridges and Roofs. Five times a week. Prof. Eustis. 
 
 jVencA— French Novels and Plays. — Exercises in Conversation 
 anil Composition. Three times a week. Asst. Prof. Jacquinot. 
 
 German — German Plays, Stories, and Essays. — Advanced Gram- 
 mar. Three times a week. Asst. Prof. Cook. 
 
 Mechanical Drawing — Four hours a week. Mr. Dean. 
 
 Free-hand and Water-color Drawing — Four hours a week. Mr. 
 Moore. 
 
 Fourth Year — Applied Mschwnics and Constructive Engin- 
 eering. Building Materials, and their applications in Railroads, 
 Canals, Bridges, etc. — Graphical Statics.— Hydraulics. — Discussions 
 of existing structures and working out of projects. — Rankine's 
 Applied Mechanics and Rankine's Civil Engineering. Five times 
 a week. Prof. Eustis. 
 
 Applications of Descriptive Geometry to Masonry and Stone-Cut- 
 ting. Lectures and Drawing. Prof Eustis. 
 
 Determinative Mineralogy and Jjithology (with study in the Mivr 
 eral Cabinet). Three times a week. Dr. Melville. 
 
 Preparation of Thesis. 
 
 Students who complete this course, pass the required examinations, 
 and present a satisfactory thesis, receive the degree of Civil En- 
 gineer, and are prepared to enter on the practice of their profession. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 First Year — Descriptive Chemistry (with laboratory work). 
 Three times a week. Prof. Jackson and Dr. Mabery. 
 
 Elementary Physics. One lecture a week. Prof Lovering. 
 
 German. Sheldon's Grammar. — Translation from German into 
 English, and Elementary Exercises in translating into German. 
 Three times a week. Messrs. Sheldon and Lutz. 
 
 (Required of Students who did not offer German at their exami- 
 nation for admission.) 
 
 French. Brachet (Grammaire francaise).— Bocher's Reader — 
 French Prose. Three times a week. Asst. Prof. Jacquinot. 
 
 (Required of students who did «o« offer French at their examina- 
 tion for admission.) 
 
 Quantitative Analysis, as the regular laboratory work of the 
 first half year. Eighteen hours a week. Aast. Prof. H. B. Hill 
 and Dr. Mabery. 
 
 Quantitative Analysis, as the regular laboratory work of the sec- 
 ond half year. Eighteen hours a week. Mr. Kinnicutt. 
 
 Second Year.— Technological Chemistry, including the manu- 
 facture of chemical products, organic as well as inorganic, dyeing, 
 calico printing, etc. Recitations and Excursions. Tnree times a 
 week. 
 
 Elementary Physics. One lecture a week. Prof. Lovering. 
 
 German. German Plays, Stories, and Essays. —Advanced Gram- 
 mar. Three times a week. Asst. Prof. Cook. 
 
 Quantitative Analysis, as the regular laboratory work for the year. 
 Twenty hours a week. This includes assaying, water and gas 
 analysis, and the more important commercial tests. Mr. Kinnicutt. 
 
 Third Year. — Physics. ^Practical exercises in the Laboratory, 
 including the use of instruments of precision in testing the laws of 
 Mechanics, Acoustics, Optics, Magnetism, and Electricity; and an 
 extended course in Electrical Measurements. Three times a week. 
 Prof. Trowbridge. 
 
 French. French Novels and plays.— Exercises m conversation 
 and composition. Three times a week. Asst. Prof. Jacquinot. 
 
 Determinative Mineralogy and Lithology Iwith work in the Min- 
 eral Cabinet'. Three times a week. Dr. Melville. 
 
 Organic Chemistry, as the regular labora-tory work for the year. 
 Eighteen hours a week. Asst. Prof. H. B. Hall. 
 
 Fourth Yvatl. -Cn/st-allography and the Physics of Orystals 
 (with workin the Mineral Cdbinet). Three times a weet Prot. Cooke. 
 
 Mechanical Draviinq. Four hours a week. Mr. Dean. 
 
 Laboratoiy Work. Twenty-three hours a week in preparatioif ot 
 
 This course is intended for students, preparing to become practi- 
 
 » Students who are not qualified for this course will take in place 
 of it the course in Physics prescribed for the first year's students in 
 Natural History. 
 
 cal chemists or teachers of the science ; and a student who com- 
 pletes the four years course, passes the required examinations, and 
 presents a satisfactory thesis, receives the degree of Bachelor of 
 Science. 
 
 The course is also open to " special students, " not candidates for 
 a degree. It has been so arranged that the studies of the first two 
 years constitute a special course in practical chemistry, including 
 all the details of chemical analysis. To those who finish satisfactorily 
 this partial course, and prove their competency by laboratory work 
 and by examination, certificates will be given stating the length of 
 time they have been members "of the school, and the extent of their 
 preparation in Practical Chemistry. 
 
 Natural History. — These couraes are designed to furnish a 
 special training in the departments of Geology and Biology. 
 The studies of the first year are common to hoth depart- 
 ments. Students are required to designate at the beginning 
 of the second year the departihents in which they intend to 
 take their degrees. 
 
 First Year. — Physical Geography and Meteorology. Three 
 times a week. Mr. Davis. 
 
 Descriptive Chemistry [with laboratory work). Three times a 
 week. Prof. Jackson. 
 
 Physics. Ganot's Physics— Lectures. Twice a week. Dr. Hall. 
 
 Botany. Three times a week. Prof Farlow. 
 
 Zoology. Twice a week. Dr. Mark. 
 
 German. Sheldon's Grammar — Translation from German into 
 English, and Elementary Exercises in translating into German. 
 Three times a week. Messrs. Sheldon and Lutz. 
 
 (Required of students who did not offer German at their exami- 
 nation for admission.) 
 
 French. — Brachet (Grammaire francaise) — Bocher's Reader. — 
 French Prose. Three times a week. Asst. Prof. Jacquinot. 
 
 (Required of students who did not offer French at tlieir examina- 
 tion for admission.) 
 
 Second Year. — German. German Plays, Stories, and Essays. 
 — Advanced Grammar. Three times a week. Asst. Prof Cook. 
 
 French. French Prose. — Exercises in Conversation and Compo- 
 sition. Three times a week. Asst. Prof. Jacquinot. 
 
 Geology. Three times a week. Prof. Shaler. 
 
 Biology. Three times a week. Prof. Farlow and Asst. Prof. 
 Faxon. 
 
 Free-hand and Water-color Drawing. Four hours a week, Mr. 
 Moore. 
 
 Geology. — Determinative Mineralogy and Lithology (loith work 
 im, the Mineral Cabinet.) Three times a week. Dr. Melville. 
 
 Biology.— iwytc. Three times a week. Asst. Prof. James. 
 
 Third Year. — Qualitative ' Analysis (with laboratory work). 
 Three times a week. Asst. Prof. H. B. Hill and Dr. Mabery. 
 
 Palceontology (with laboratori/ work). Twice a week. Prof. Shaler. 
 
 Free-hand and Water-color Drawing. Four hours a week. Mr. 
 Moore. 
 
 GK01.0GY.— Advanced Geology. Three times a week. Prof 
 Shaler and Mr. Davis. 
 
 Topographical Surveying. Seven hours a week. Mr. Dean. 
 
 Biology. — Advanced Zoology. Three times a week. Asst. Prof. 
 Faxon. 
 
 Advanced Botany. Lectures and laboratory work. Three tunes 
 a week. Prof. Farlow. 
 
 Fourth Year. — During the fourth year the student will be 
 expected to devote a considerable part of his time to some special 
 investigation, the results of which will be embodied in his thesis: 
 in the selection of a subject he will be advised by the Professors 
 whose courses he has followed in previous years. Students of geo- 
 logy will be encouraged to give as much time as possible to work in 
 the field, and a report of such work will form the best thesis that 
 can be presented. 
 
 The following courses, selected from those offered in the Univer- 
 sity during the present year, will serve to indicate the character of 
 the instruction of which the student may avail himself during the 
 last year of the Natural Histoiy course. 
 
 Geology. — Historical Geology (with laboratory work). Twice 
 a week. Prof. Shaler. 
 
 Geological Field-work ; for training in the principles of Geologi- 
 cal Surveying, with work in the field and in the preparation of re- 
 ports. Nine hours a week. Mr. Davis. 
 
 Economical Geology. Twice a week. Prof. Whitney. 
 
 Lithology. Lectures (with practical instruction in the Labora- 
 tory). Once a week. Prof. Whitney. 
 
 Quantitative Analysis (in the Laboratory). Three times a week. 
 Mr. Kinnicutt. 
 
 biology. 
 
 Advanced Morphology and Histology of Phanerogams. Three 
 times a week. Prof. Goodale. 
 
 Anatomy and Development of Higher CryptogaTns. Three times 
 a week. Prof. Farlow. 
 Embryology (vrith laboratory work). Once a week. Dr. Matk. 
 Agricultural Chemistry. Twice a week at the Bussey Institution. 
 Prof. Storer. 
 
 General Entomology (with laboratory work). Twice a, week. 
 Prof. Hagen. 
 
310 
 
 THE MINES, JIINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Applied Zoology (Anatomy and Physiology of Domestic Ani- 
 mals). Twice a week at the Bussey Institution. Prof. Slade. 
 
 Human Anatomy and Physiology. At the Medical School. Pro- 
 feasors Holmes and Bowditch and Doctors Beach and J. W. Warren. 
 Students are advised to attend Asst. Prof. James's lectures on 
 Physiology and Hygiene during some part of their resideiice in 
 Cambridge. Students who make good use of the opportunities af- 
 forded by the summer schools or who, during the long vacation, 
 pursue studies under the direction of the professors in their depart- 
 ments, may shorten this course of study to three years. Students 
 who complete either of the above courses, pass the required exami- 
 nations, and present a satisfactory thesis, will receive the degree of 
 Bachelor of Science. 
 
 Admission. — Candidates for admission to any one of the 
 regular courses in Engineering, Chemistry, Natural History, 
 or Mathematics, Physics, and. Astronomy, will be examined 
 in the following subjects : — 
 
 Modern Geography. — Miss Hall's Our World, No. 2. 
 
 English Composition. — Every candidate will be required 
 to write a short English composition, correct in spelling,* 
 punctuation, grammar, division by paragraphs, and expres- 
 sion, upon a subject announced at the the time of examina- 
 tion. In 1882, the subject will be drawn from one of the 
 following works : — 
 
 Shakspeare's Othello, and King John; Goldsmith's Vicar 
 of Wakefield, and Deserted Village; Carlyle's Essay on 
 Scott; Scott's Bride of Lammermoor ; George Eliot's Mill 
 on the Floss. 
 
 Every candidate is expected to be familiar with all the 
 books in this list. 
 
 Every candidate will also be required to correct specimens 
 of had English given him at the time of the examination. 
 
 In 1883, the subject will be drawn from one of the fol- 
 lowing works: — Shakspeare's Julius Csesar, and As You 
 Like It; the Sir Roger de Coverley Papers in the Spectator; 
 Macaulay's Essay on Addison ; Thackeray's Henry Esmond ; 
 and Scott's Marmion. 
 
 In 1884, the subject will be drawn from one of the follow- 
 ing works: — Shakspeare's Julius Caesar, and Merchant of 
 Venice; Thackeray's Henry Esmond; Irving's Sketch Book ; 
 Scott'sLady ofthe Lake; Carlyle'sEssay on Burns; Burns's 
 Cotter's Saturday Night. 
 
 French or German. — Translation at sight of easy French 
 prose, or of easy German prose, if the candidate prefer to 
 offer German. It is expected that a knowledge of the 
 language itself will be shown in examination, rather than a 
 knowledge of the grammar; but proficiency in elementary 
 grammar, a good pronunciation, or facility in speaking, will 
 be accepted as an offset for some deficiency in translation. 
 There will be no required examination in pronunciation, 
 but it is recommended that attention be given to pronuncia- 
 tion from the outset. Candidates who offer German will be 
 required to study French, and those who offer French will 
 be required to study German, during the Freshman year. 
 
 Latin. — Four books of Csesar's Commentaries, and four 
 books of the Aeneid of Virgil, or their equivalents; Latin 
 Grammar, as much as is contained in either Allen and 
 Greenough's or Harkness's Elementary Latin Grammar. 
 
 Arithmetic (including the metric system of weights and 
 measures, and the use and rudiments of the theory of 
 logarithms). — ^The examples requiring the use of logarithms 
 at the examinations will be adapted to a four-place table. 
 
 Elementary Algebra. — Through quadratic equations. 
 
 Elementary Oeometry. — The first five books of Chauvenet's 
 Geometry. 
 
 Plane and Analytic Trigonometry. — As much as is con- 
 tained in the first eight chapters of Chauvenet's Trigonom- 
 etry, or Wheeler's Elements of Plane Trigonometry. 
 
 Elementary Descriplioe Chemistry. — As much as is con- 
 tained in Nichols's abridgement of Eliot and Storer's 
 Manual. 
 
 Elementary Physics. — As much as is contained in Balfour 
 Stewart's Lessons in Elementary Physics. 
 
 For the Course in Engineering or in Mathematics, Physics, 
 and Astronomy. — -In addition to the above requisitions, can- 
 didates who propose to take either of these courses will be 
 examined in — 
 
 Advanced Algebra. — As much as is contained in the larger 
 works of Olney, Robinson, Todhunter, or Greenleaf. 
 
 » Worcester's Dictionary is the Standard. 
 
 Solid Geometry.— The last four books of Chauvenet's 
 Geometry. 
 
 Every candidate for admission to advanced standing will 
 be further examined in all the studies already pursued by 
 the class for which he offers himself. Graduates of Harvaid 
 College who have passed a satisfactory examination while 
 in College on the subjects of the first and second years of 
 the Engineering course, except Drawing and Surveying, will 
 be admitted to the third year of that course. Undergrad- 
 uates who intend to study Engineering are recommended by 
 the Scientific Faculty to take, as extras, the courses in 
 Drawing and Surveying in the Scientific School; but these 
 subjects may be made up in the third and fourth years. The 
 successful study of any subject in College will be taken as 
 an equivalent for the same subject in the Scientific School. 
 Two regular examinations for admission are held each year, 
 — one at the beginning of the summer vacation, and the 
 other at the beginning of the academic year in the autumn. 
 
 In 1882 the first examination will be held at the following 
 places on Thursday, Friday, and Saturday, June 29, 30, 
 July 1 : in Cambridge, in Lawrence Hall ; in Exeter, in 
 rooms of the Phillips Exeter Academy; in New York, in 
 the lecture-room of the Young Men's Christian Association, 
 Twenty-third Street, corner of Fourth Avenue; in Philadel- 
 phia, in the library hall of the Academy of Natural Sciences, 
 S. W. corner of Nineteenth and Race Streets ; in Cincinnati, 
 in the rooms of the Literary Club, 24 West Fourth Street, 
 second floor ; in Chicago, in the rooms of the Chicago Athe- 
 naeum, 50 Dearborn Street; in San Francisco, in rooms of 
 the Boys' High School, on Luther Street, between Gough 
 and Octavia Streets : the second examination will be held 
 in Cambridge only, on Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday, 
 September 27, 28, and 29. For each examination attendance 
 on the three days is required. Candidates will assemble 
 punctually at 8 o'clock, A. m. 
 
 Degrees. — The Degrees of Civil Engineer and Bachelor of 
 Science. — As already stated, the degree of Civil EuOiiNEEii 
 may be conferred upon any student who has completed the 
 prescribed course of study in Civil Engineering, passed the 
 required examinations, and presented a satisfactory thesis; 
 and the degree of Bachelor of Science may be conferred 
 upon any student who has fulfilled the above requirements 
 in Chemistry, Natural History, or Mathematics, Physics, 
 and Astronomy. The grades of the degree of Bachelor of 
 Science are cum laiide, magna cum laude, and stiwma cum 
 laude. The grade of the degree and the course of study for 
 which the degree is given will be specified in the Diploma. 
 The degree of Doctoe of Science is open to Bachelors of 
 Science of Harvard University, and to Bachelors of Science 
 and Bachelors of Philosophy of other institutions who shall 
 have satisfied the Faculty of the Lawrence Scientific School, 
 by examination, that the course of study for which they 
 received the Bachelor's degree is equivalent to that for 
 which the degree is given in Harvard University, or shall 
 have passed such additional examinations as that Faculty 
 may prescribe. The Academic Council will recommend for 
 the degree of Doctor of Science candidates otherwise prop- 
 erly qualified, who, after taking their Bachelor's degree, 
 shall reside at least two years at the University, and pursue 
 during three years a course of scientific study, embracing at 
 least two subjects, and approved by the Council, and shall 
 pass a thorough examination upon that course, showing in 
 one of the subjects special attainments, and shall also make 
 some contribution to science or some special investigation, 
 to be embodied in a thesis; provided, however, that a course 
 of study of two years only shall suffice for candidates who 
 are both Bachelors of Arts and Bachelors of Science of 
 Harvard University. In special cases the Academic Council 
 is authorized to remit the requisition of residence at the Uni- 
 versity to Bachelors of Arts or of Science of Harvard Uni- 
 versity. For the standing rules of the Academic Council, 
 relating to the higher degrees, see Harvard University Cata- 
 logue, or application may be made to Professor C. J. White, 
 Registrar, (Jambridge, Mass. 
 
 Instruction for teachers. — 1. The school also offers 
 facilities to teachers and to persons preparing to be teach- 
 ers, who desire to qualify themselves in the modern 
 methods of teaching science by observation and experi- 
 ment. A one-year's course oi study, adapted to this 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 311 
 
 purpose, may be selected from the elements of Natural His- 
 tory, Chemistry, and Physics, including any of the following 
 subjects : Physical Geography and Elementary Geology ; 
 General Chemistry and Qualitative Analysis; Mineralogy; 
 Physics ; Botany ; Comparative Anatomy and Physiology ; 
 Zoology. This course is flexible and comprehensive, the 
 instruction is mainly given in the laboratories and museums 
 of the University, and is of the most practical character, 
 every student being taught to make experiments and study 
 specimens. Botanical instruction is given at the botanical 
 laboratory. Dissecting microscopes are provided for stu- 
 dents, and the garden and greenhouses afford ample mater- 
 ial for the practical study of the science. All work is 
 under the special supervision of Professors Goodale and 
 Farlow. Similar facilities are aflforded for the study of 
 Zoology, Comparative Anatomy and Physiology, Geology, 
 and Paleontology, at the laboratories of the Museum of 
 Comparative Zoology, and of Mineralogy, at the Mineral 
 Cabinet. The instruction in Experimental Chemistry and 
 Physics is given in the laboratories, and the students are 
 shown the best methods of illustrating experimentally the 
 principles of these sciences. 
 
 2. Special courses in Botany, Chemistry, and Geology 
 are given during the vacation to teachers and others who 
 are unable to attend during term time. 
 
 3. There is no examination for admission to the Teachers' 
 Course. 
 
 Special Students. — Persons who are not candidates for 
 a degree, may enter the School as Special Students at any 
 time, without examination, and pursue any of the courses 
 of instruction, given in the school for which they are found 
 competent. Such students, who have been members of this 
 School for at least one year, shall be entitled to a certificate, 
 specifying the subjects in which they have proved them- 
 selves proficient either by examination or laboratory work. 
 
 Instruction in Other Departments of the Uni- 
 versity. — All students of the Scientific School may, if 
 found competent, pursue any of the courses of instruction 
 given in the other departments of the University, except 
 exercises carried on in the special laboratories, without 
 additional charge. 
 
 Scholarships. — Four University Scholarships, of the 
 annual value of one hundred and fifty dollars each, have 
 been established in the Scientific School. They are assigned 
 at the beginning of each academic year to meritorious stu- 
 dents standing in need of such assistance, who have been in 
 the School the whole of the preceding year, and propose 
 to remain in it the whole of the ensuing year. The award 
 is made by the Corporation on the recommendation of the 
 Faculty. One-third of the annual value of the Scholarships 
 is paid at the time of the award, one-third on January 12, 
 and one-third on April 12, following. Applications for 
 these scholarships must be addressed in writing, to the 
 Dean, by the first of June. There are also scholarships in 
 the Scientific School, not exceeding eight at any one time, 
 of the annual value of one hundred and fifty dollars each, 
 for the benefit of graduates of the State Normal Schools. 
 The manner in which these scholarships are divided among 
 the Normal Schools is determined by the State Board of 
 Education. The incumbents are originally appointed for 
 one year on the recommendation of the principals of the 
 schools from which they have been severally graduated ; 
 these appointments may be aimually renewed on the recom- 
 mendation of the Faculty of the Scientific School. 
 
 Fees and Expenses. — The tuition fee for the academic 
 year in any of the above departments or courses is $150. 
 The tuition fees for candidates for the degree of Doctor of 
 Science are stated in the Harvard University Catalogue, 
 and in the Circular relating to the Graduate Department. 
 The other expenses of a student for an academic year may 
 be estimated as follows : — 
 
 Boom from J30 to Sino 
 
 Board for thirty-eight weeka from 133 to 304 
 
 Books from 20 to 25 
 
 Fuel and lights . . from 15 to 35 
 
 Washing ... from 19 to 38 
 
 Total 8217toS502 
 
 Scientific School bills are payable in each year on January 
 12, April 12, and October 10 ; but the third bill of all can- 
 
 didates for degrees must be paid at least one day before 
 Commencement. . Each bill will contain one third of the 
 annual charges. When a student severs his connection with 
 the School, his whole bill becomes payable at once. Deduc- 
 tions from the full year's tuition fee will be made as follows : 
 If a student joins or leaves the School between January 1 
 and April 1, one third will be deducted. If a student joins 
 the School between April 1 and Commencement, or leaves 
 the School before January 1, two thirds will be deducted. 
 But no deduction will be made in case of a student leaving 
 the School, unless he gives immediate notice thereof, in 
 writing, to the Dean and to the Bursar. Students in the 
 Scientific School may obtain rooms in the College buildings 
 by applying to the Bursar, either by mail or in person. They 
 may also join the Harvard Dining Association, and board at 
 cost at Memorial Hall. Students in Chemistry are supplied 
 with all needed apparatus, but are required to restore it in 
 as good condition as when received. They are charged for 
 all damage or breakage, and also from ten to thirty dollars 
 per annum for chemicals and use of apparatus. Students 
 in Engineering provide their own drawing materials. The 
 Hemenway Gymnasium, the Scientific School Library, and 
 the College Library are open to members of this School 
 without extra charge. 
 
 Testimonials and Bonds. — All students admitted to 
 the Lawrence Scientific School must furnish satisfactory 
 evidence of good moral character ; give bonds in the sum of 
 $200, signed by two bondsmen, one of whom must be a citizen 
 of Massachusetts, for the payment of all dues to the Univer- 
 sity ; and register their names with the Dean of the Faculty 
 of the School. Instead of filing a bond, a student may de- 
 posit with the Bursar such a sum of money as may be deemed 
 sufiicient to secure the payment of all dues to the University. 
 Students engaging College rooms, or boarding at Memorial 
 Hall, will be required to file the same bond as undergraduateff 
 of the College ($400), or to pay rent for the year in advance, 
 and deposit the sum of $200 as security for the payment of 
 their board ; and they hold the rooms subject to the regula- 
 tions of the Parental Committee, in the same manner as if 
 they were undergraduates. No officer or student of the 
 University will be accepted as bondsmen. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECH- 
 NOLOGY, BOSTON. 
 
 THE Massachusetts Institute of Technology provides a 
 series of scientific and literary studies and practical ex- 
 ercises, embracing pure and applied mathematics, the 
 physical and natural sciences, with their applications, 
 drawing, the English language, history, political economy, 
 international and business law, French and German, with 
 other modern languages, if desired. These studies and ex- 
 ercises are so arranged as to offer a liberal and practical edu- 
 cation in preparation for active pursuits, as well as a thorough 
 training for most of the scientific professions. The follow- 
 ing regular courses have been established : 
 
 1. A Course in Civil and Topographical Engineering. 
 2. A Course in Mechanical Engineering. 3. A Course in 
 Mining Engineering, or Geology and Mining. 4. A Course 
 in Building and Architecture. 5. A Course in Chemistry 
 6. A Course in Metallurgy. 7. A Course in Natural History. 
 8. A Course in Physics. 9. General Courses {A, B, and C). 
 The first five of these courses are of a distinctly profes- 
 sional character, the one in Metallurgy is similar to that in 
 Chemistry, but has more particular reference to the produc- 
 tion and working of the metals. The course in Natural 
 History affords an appropriate general training for those 
 whose ulterior object is the special pursuit of geology, miner- 
 alogy, botany, zoology, pharmacy, or rural economy. It is 
 specially suitable for those who intend subsequently to enter 
 the medical profession. The course in physics is based on 
 the mathematical and physical sciences, and offers a suit- 
 able preparation for persons desirous of fitting themselves to 
 teach physical science, as well as for those desiring to enter 
 upon the pursuit of the various practical applications of 
 Physics, as in electrical engineering, or in making physical 
 
312 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tests of materials. In addition to the foregoing, certain 
 general courses have been established far such as may not 
 intend to adopt a distinctly scientific profession, yet desire 
 to obtain an education through studies of a predomina:ntly 
 scientific character. These courses are especially recom- 
 mended in the case of young men whose purpose it is to 
 become merchants, manufacturers, or bankers, and who de- 
 sire a preparation for active life, which shall be liberalizing 
 in its tendencies, but without any influence to alienate them 
 from the ideas, tastes, and habits which are appropriate to 
 practical business pursuits. 
 
 Each of these courses contains a solid body of scientific 
 study, and of scientific field or laboratory work. In the 
 first. Physics, with the requisite Mathematics, predominates 
 among the scientific studies ; in the second. Chemistry, with 
 the closely related sciences of Botany and Physiology ; in 
 the third, Geology, with Botany and Zoology, forming a 
 thorough course in Biology, with field work and laboratory 
 practice, especially with the microscope. While, in all the 
 courses, it is intended to secure to the student a liberal cul- 
 ture, as well as the more strictly techical education which 
 may be his chief object, in the courses under consideration, 
 far more time will be devoted to the study of language, 
 literature, history, and political, social, and industrial science 
 than is found compatible with the requirements of the pro- 
 fessional courses. The time which, in the latter, is given to 
 the special technical study and work essential to the 
 architect, the engineer, the naturalist, or the chemist will, in 
 the courses under consideration, be given to more general 
 studies which are of a nature to enlarge the views and enrich 
 the life of the man of businesss. All the regular courses of 
 the Institute, whether professional or general, extend through 
 four years, and for proficiency in any one of them the degree 
 of S. B., Bachelor of Science, is conferred. Students who 
 find it advantageous to take fewer studies in any year than 
 are prescribed in a single course may continue in the school 
 a fifth year to make up the studies required for a degree. 
 Advanced courses of study may be pursued, and the grant- 
 ing of the degree of Doctor of Science has been authorized 
 by a vote of the Corporation. Provision is also made for 
 persons who desire to pursue special portions only of any 
 of the regular courses. At the request of the Woman's 
 Education Association of Boston, and with their generous 
 co-operation, special laboratories have been provided for the 
 instruction of women. The design is to afford them facilities 
 for the study of Chemical Analysis, Industrial Chemistry, 
 Mineralogy, and Biology. The instruction is arranged for 
 such students as may be able to devote their whole time to 
 the work, as well as for those who, by reason of other 
 engagements, can spend only a few hours a week in the 
 exercises. Instruction will also be given to women in other 
 subjects so far as suitable arrangements can be made for 
 them. The Institute also provides afternoon and evening 
 courses of instruction, scientific and literary, open to both 
 sexes. At present the courses are free, being supported by 
 the Trustees of the Lowell Institute. Fuller details are 
 given under " Free Courses of Instruction. 
 
 FIKST TEKM. 
 
 Regular Courses. — All Courses— First Yeiir. — Algebra con- 
 tinued; Solid Geometry ; General Chemistry; Chemical Labora- 
 tory ; Rhetoric ; English Composition ; French ; Mechanical 
 Dravfing. Free Hand Drawing; Military on drill. 
 
 SECOND TERM. 
 
 Plane and Spherical Trigonometry ; General Chemistry; Quali- 
 tative Analysis ; Chemical Laboratory ; English History ; English 
 Literature ; French ; Mechanical Drawing ; Free Hand Drawine : 
 Military Drill. *" 
 
 CIVIL ENGINEERING. 
 
 Second Year.— Krs«' TVrm.— Elementary Surveying. Field 
 Practice. Plotting from Notes. Topography. Analytic Geome- 
 try. Descriptive Geometry. Physics. Descriptive Astronuray. 
 English History and Literature. German. 
 
 Second Term. — Advanced Surveying. Leveling. Field Practice. 
 Plans and Profiles. Differential Calculus. Physics. Physical 
 Geography. English History and Literature. German. 
 
 Third Year.— J^irsi Term.— Roads and Railroads. Field Prac- 
 tice. Engineering Drawing. Integral Calculus. General Statics. 
 Physics; Lectures and Laboratory work. Structural Geology. 
 Constitutional History. German. 
 
 Second Teriw.— Graphic Statics. General Hydraulics. Rivers 
 and Harbors. Locks, Dams, and Canals. Field Practice. En- 
 gineering Drawing. Strength of Materials. Kinematics and Dy- 
 namics. Physics ; Laboratory Work. Historical Geology. Polit- 
 ical Economy. German. 
 
 Fourth Year.— iTiVs^ rc?-m.— Framed Structures. Water Sup- 
 ply. Sewerage of Cities and Towns. Drainage and Irrigation. 
 Details of Construction. Study of actual works. Practice in De- 
 sign. Strength of Materials. Metallurgy. 
 
 /SfcOJitZ Tcrai.— Details of Construction". Study of actual works. 
 Specifications and Contracts. Practice in Design. Theory of 
 Elasticity. Dynamics comjileted. Building Materials. History 
 of Engineering, Thesis Work. 
 
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. 
 
 Second Year. — First rerm.— Setting of Machines. "Trans- 
 mission and Production of Power. Maohme Drawing. Carpentiy 
 (shopwork). Analytic Geometry. Descriptive Geometry. Phy- 
 sics. Descriptive Astronomy. English History and Literature. 
 German. 
 
 Second Term. — Kinematics of Machines. Graphical Kinematics 
 of Machines. Machine Drawing. Pattern and Foundry Work 
 (shopwork). Differential Calculus. Physics. Physical Geogra- 
 phy. English History and Literature. German. 
 
 Third Year. — First Term. — Combustion of Fuel. Steam Gen- 
 erators and Steam Engines. Machine Drawing. Steam Engineer- 
 ing Laboratory. Blacksmithing (shopwork). Integral Calculus. 
 General Statics. Physics ; Lectures and Laboratory Work. Con- 
 stitutional History. German. 
 
 Second Term. — Machine Design. Elements of Thermodynamics. 
 Machine Drawing. Steam Engineering Lalioratory. Chipping 
 Filing (shopwork). Perspective. Strength of Materials. Kine- 
 matics and Dynamics. Physical Laboratory. Political Economy. 
 German. 
 
 Fourth Ybah,.— First Term. — Machine Design. Measurement 
 and Regulation of Power. Machine Drawing. Abstracts from 
 Memoirs. Steam Engineering Laboratory. Blacksmithing (shop- 
 work). Strength of Materials. Hydraulics. Metallingy, 
 
 Second Term. — Thermodynamics of Steam and other Heat En- 
 gines. Pumping Engines, Hydraulic Motors, Machines, and Regu- 
 lators. Steam Engineering Laboratory. Machine Design. JIacliine 
 Drawing. Engine Lathe work (shopwork). Hydraulics. Theoi-y 
 of Elasticity. Dynamics completed. Building Materials. Thesis 
 Work. 
 
 MINING ENGINEERING. — A. 
 
 Second Year. — First Term. — Blowpipe Analysis, Crystallogia- 
 phy, and Determinative Mineralogy. Qualitative Chemical Anal- 
 ysis. Use of Surveying Instruments. Surveying. Field Practice. 
 Drawing. Analytic Geometry. Physics. German. 
 
 Third Year. — Second Term. — Quantitative Chemical Analysis, 
 Lectures and Laboratory work. Differential Calculus. Physics. 
 Physical Geography. English History .and Literature. German. 
 
 First Term. — Quantitative Chemical Analysis. Mining Engi- 
 neering, Sinking, Timbering, Hoisting, Pumping, Ventilating, 
 etc. Integral Calculus. General Statics. Physics ; Lectures and 
 Laboratory work. Structural and Chemical Geology. Constitu- 
 tional History. German. 
 
 Second Tenn.— ilimng Engineering continued. Assaying by Fire 
 and by Wet Methods. Quantitative Chemical Anaylsis. Strength 
 of Materials. Kinematics and Dynamics. Physical Laboratory. 
 Historical Geology. Political Economy. German. 
 
 Fourth Year.— J<"i>s< 7"om.— Quantitative Chemical Analysis. 
 Mining Laboratory : — work upon Gold, Silver, Copper and Lead 
 Ores in Quantity. Metallurgy, Lectures. Drawing. Strength of 
 Materials. Dynamics completed. Memoirs. 
 
 Second Term. — Quantitative Chemical Analysis, Slining Labor- 
 atory as in 1st term. Metallurgy, Lectures. Ore dressing. Lec- 
 tures. Welding and Temjieriug (shop-work). 
 
 GEOLOGY and MINING.- B. 
 
 Second Year.- 
 
 Firsl Teiiii.- Blowpipe Analysis. Crystallogra- 
 phy, and Determinative Mineralogy. Qualitative Chemical 
 Analysis. Use of Surveving Instruments. Surveying. Field 
 Practice. Drawing. English History and Literature. Physics. 
 German. 
 
 Second Term — Quantitative Chemical Annlysi.s, Lectures and 
 Laboratory work. Physics. Physical Geography. Zoology. Palieon- 
 tology. Botany. English History and Literature. German. 
 
 Third Year. — First 7V»-»i.— Mining Engineering. Sinking 
 Timbering, Hoisting, Pum])ing, ■ Ventilating, etc. Quantitative 
 Chemical Analysis. Zoology. Palaiontologv. Physics. Lectures 
 and Lalioratory work. Structural and Chemical Geology. Consti- 
 tutional History. German. 
 
 Second Term. — Mining Engineering continued. Assayin" by 
 Fire and Wet Methods. Quantitative Chemical Analysis. Indus- 
 trial Chemistry. Physical Laboratory. Historical Geology. Poli- 
 ticiil Economy. German. 
 
 Fourth Ykav.— First rerm— Quantitative Chemical Analvsia 
 Mining Laboratory :— work upon Gold, Silver, Copper and Lead 
 Ores in quantity. Metallurgy, Lectures. Drawing. Applied Phy- 
 sics. Memoirs. 
 
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THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 3J3 
 
 Second Term — Quantitative Chemical Analysis. Mining Labora- 
 tory as in 1st term. Metallurgy, Lectures. Ore Dressing, Lectures. 
 Welding and Tempering (shopvrork). Building Materials. Thesis 
 work. 
 
 CHEMISTRY.— A. 
 
 Second Year — First Term — Qualitative Analysis, Blowpipe 
 Analysis, Crystallography and Determinative Mineralogy, Analy- 
 tic Geometry, Physics, English History and Literature, German. 
 
 Hecond Term — Quantitative Analysis, Lectures, ' and Laboratory 
 work, Chemical Philosophy, Differential Calculus, Physics, Eng- 
 lish History and Literature. German. 
 
 Thikd Year — First Term — Quantitative Analysis, Laboratory 
 work, Quantitative Analysis, Special Methods, Work with the Mi- 
 croscope, Physics ; Lectures and Laboratory work. Constitutional 
 History, German. 
 
 Second Term — Quantitative Analysis, Laboratory work, Industri- 
 al Chemistry, Lectures, Drawing, Assaying, Physical Geography, 
 Physical Laboratory, Political Economy, German. 
 
 FonRTH Year — First Term — Organic Chemistry, Lectures, Or- 
 ganic Cheraistrjr, Laboratory work, Metallurgy, Lectures, Ab- 
 stracts of Memoirs, Applied Phj^sics, Ojjtional Studies. 
 
 Second Term, — Studies for this term, including Thesis work, will 
 be specially assigned to each student. 
 
 Chemistry. — B and C. — Second Year — First Term — Qualitative 
 Analysis. Blowpipe Analysis. Crystallographj^, and Determina- 
 tive Mineralogy. Descriptive Astronomy. Physics. English His- 
 tory and Literature. German. 
 
 Second Term — Quantitative Analysis, Lectures, and Laboratory 
 work. Chemical Philosophjr. Botany, Systematic and Structural. 
 Physical Geography. Physics. English History and Literature, 
 German. 
 
 Third Year. — First Term.- Quantitative Analysis, Laboratory 
 work. Quantitative Analysis. Special Methods. Biology, Physics ; 
 Lecture and Laboratory work. Structural and Chemical Geology. 
 Constitutional History, German. 
 
 Second Term. — Quantitative Analysis, Laboratory work. Indus- 
 trial Chemistry, Lectures,. Drawing. Assaying. Physical Labora- 
 tory. Historical Geology. Political Economy. German. 
 
 Fourth Year— First Term.— Cowrae B. — Organic Chemistry, 
 Lectures. Chemistry. Laboratoiy work. Metallurgy, Laboratory 
 work. Metallurgy, Lectures, Abstracts of Memoirs, Applied Physics, 
 Optional studies. 
 
 Course C. — Organic Chemistry, Lectures. Chemistry, Laboratory 
 work. Industrial Chemistry, Laboratory work. Metallurgy, Lec- 
 tures. Abstracts of Memoirs. Applied Physics. Optional Studies. 
 
 Fourth Year — Second rcnn— Studies for this term, including 
 Thesis work, will be specially assigned to each student. _ 
 
 Candidates for the degree in Chemistry may elect either of the 
 courses A, B, or C. Course A is for those who wish to continue the 
 study of mathematics beyond the first year. Course B is for those 
 who prefer a larger amount of the natural science; and course C for 
 those whose aim is the pursuit of Industrial Chemistry. 
 
 SIetallurgy.— Second Year. — First Term — Blowpipe Analysis, 
 Crystallography, and Determinative Mineralogy. Qualitative Che- 
 mical Analysis. Descriptive Astronomy. Physics. English His- 
 tory and Literature. German. Drawing. 
 
 Second JTerTft— Quantitative Analysis; Lectures, and Laboratory 
 work. Chemical Philosophy. Botany. Zoology and Palaeonto- 
 logy. Physical Geography. Physics. English History and Liter- 
 ature. German. 
 
 Third Year — First Term — Quantitative Analysis, Lectures. 
 Quantitative Analysis, Laboratory work. Biology. Physics-; Lec- 
 tures, and Laboratory work. Structural and Chemical Geology. 
 Drawing. Constitutional History. Zoology. Paleontology. German. 
 
 Second Jferm— Quantitative Analysis, Laboratory work. Indus- 
 trial Chemistry, Lectures. Physical Laboratory. Historical Geo- 
 logy. Political Economy. German. Assaying. 
 
 Fourth Year.— First Term. — Quantitative Analysis, Laboratory 
 work. Metallurgy. Metallurgical Laboratory : — Work upon Gold, 
 Silver, Copper, and Lead Ores in quantity. Drawing. Applied 
 Physics. Blaoksmithing (shopwork). Abstracts of Memoirs. 
 
 Second Term. — Quantitative Analysis. Laboratory work. Metal- 
 lurgy and Ore-dressing. Mining Laboratory as in 1st term. Thesis 
 Work. Building Materials. Drawing. 
 
 Advanced Courses. — The particular course of study which 
 a candidate for the degree of Doctor of Science wishes to 
 pursue must be submitted to the Faculty in writing, and 
 must meet their approval. The minimum term of residence 
 of candidates for this degree will be two years ; but occa- 
 sional short absences, when the time is spent upon i)rofes- 
 sional work by advice of the Faculty, will not be considered 
 as interruptions of the student's residence. Final examina- 
 tions will be held, and the candidate will be required to 
 present at least one printed thesis on some subject embraced 
 IB his course. 
 
 Conditions of Admission. — Regular Courses. — To be ad- 
 mitted as a regular student of the first year's class, the 
 applicant must have attained the age of sixteen years, and 
 must pass a satisfactory examination in :- 
 
 Arithmetic — (Including the metric system of weights and meas- 
 ures); 
 
 Algebra — Through equations of the second degree; 
 Plane Geometry. 
 
 i?Ve?u;A— Grammar through irregular verbs®; and the first two 
 books of Voltaire's "Charles XII.," or an equivalent; 
 English grammar and composition ; 
 Geography. 
 
 In general, the training given in the best high schools and 
 academies will be a suitable preparation for this school ; but 
 applicants must be thoroughly prepared in the three Mathe- 
 matical subjects above named. 
 
 Students will find their progress in Physics and Chemis- 
 try facilitated by making themselves thoroughly familiar 
 with so much of Physics as is contained in Balfour Stewart's 
 Primer of Physics. 
 
 A knowledge of the Latin language is not required for 
 admission ; but the study of Latin i.s strongly recommended 
 to persons who purpose to enter this school, as it gives a bet- 
 ter understanding of the various terms used in sciences, 
 and greatly facilitates the acquisition of the modern lan- 
 guages. 'Those who intend to take a course in Natural His- 
 tory will find it advantageous to acquire also the elements 
 of Greek. 
 
 In June, 1883, the requirements adopted by the New 
 England Association of Colleges in Algebra ; viz.: Algebra 
 through Quadratics, including Arithmetical and Geometrical 
 Progressions, the Binomial theorem with positive integral 
 exponents and proportion ; will be adopted as requirements 
 for admission to the Institute. To be admitted as a regular 
 student of the second year's class, the applicant must be at 
 least seventeen years of age, and, besides passing the examina- 
 tion for admission to the first year's class, must pass a satis- 
 factory examination in the first year's studies ; and a like 
 rule applies to the case of applicants for admission into the 
 classes of the succeeding years. Graduates of Colleges will, 
 in general, be presumed to have the requisite attainments for 
 entering the third year as regular students, and may do so 
 on satisfying the Faculty that they are prepared to pursue 
 the proposed studies to advantage. Such students, if defi- 
 cient in any of the scientific studies of the first two years, 
 will have opportunities for making them up without extra 
 charge, and will be required to pass an examination in them 
 before entering upon the studies of the fourth year. Should 
 they be already proficient in any of the general studies of the 
 third and fourth year, they may be excused from attendance 
 on the exercises in these subjects. 
 
 Special Students will be allowed to enter special divisions 
 of either of the courses — as, for example, the classes of 
 mathematics, chemistry, physics, drawing, engineering, me- 
 tallurgy, architecture, natural history, etc. — on giving satis- 
 factory evidence to the Faculty that they are prepared to 
 pursue with advantage the studies selected. Information 
 respecting the requirements for admission to each special 
 course of study maybe obtained on application to the Secre- 
 tary. Examinations for the above-mentioned class of stud- 
 ents will be held at the times of the regular entrance exam- 
 inations as stated below. An examination for admission to 
 the first year's class will begin at 9 A. M.,on the Tuesday 
 preceding the last Monday in September, and continue two 
 days. Attendance on both days is required. Applicants for 
 advanced standing must present themselves for further ex- 
 amination -at 9 a.m., on the Thursday following the entrance 
 examination. Applications for admission to the regular or 
 special courses at other times than the above will be received 
 only when sickness or some other equally good cause has 
 prevented attendance on the days prescribed. 
 
 Advanced Courses. — Graduates of the Institute may enter 
 on these courses without examination. Bachelors of Arts, 
 Science, or Philosophy, of any other Institution, may enter 
 on giving satisfactory evidence^ by examination or otherwise, 
 that they are qualified to pursue the course selected. 
 
 Methods and Apparatus of Instruction — Ordinary 
 Exercises. — Instruction is given by lectures and recitations, 
 and by practical exercise in the field, the laboratories, and 
 the drawing-rooms. Text-books are used in many, but not 
 in all departments. A high value is set upon the educational 
 effect of laboratory practice, drawing, and field work. 
 
 Wriiten Examinations. — Besides oral examinations in con- 
 nection with the ordinary exercises, written examinations 
 are held from time to time. Near the close of the months of 
 
 * Part I of Otto's French Grammar represents what is required. 
 
314 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 January and May general examinations are held. After the 
 examinations, the standing of the student in each distinct 
 subject is reported to his parent or guardian. The examina- 
 tions of January and May form the basis of admonition or 
 advice irom the Faculty in the cases of students who are not 
 profiting by their connection with the school. 
 
 The Instruction in Mathematics. — Great importance is 
 attached to the study of mathematics both as a means of 
 mental discipline and as affording a necessary basis for far- 
 ther instruction in the professional courses. In the first 
 year all regular students continue Algebra, and also study 
 Solid Geometry, Plane and Spherical Trigonometry. In 
 the following years, students in most of the courses receive 
 instruction in Analytic Geometry, and in the DiflFerential 
 Integral Calculus. 
 
 The Instruction in Drawing. — During the first year, instruc- 
 tion is given to all regular students in the principles of Free- 
 Hand and Mechanical Drawing and a large amount of 
 time is devoted to practice in the drawing room, to enable 
 the student to acquire the necessary skill and to prepare 
 him for his future work. In subsequent years. Drawing is 
 continued in connection with the professional studies. 
 
 The Instruction in Descriptive Geometry/ and Stereotomy. — ■ 
 The exercises in Descriptive Geometry are of two kinds. 
 In the lecture room instruction with models and diagrams 
 is combined with testing th« student's knowledge as gained 
 from the text book. In the drawing room the student aims to 
 construct such problems, each week, from the lessons for that 
 week, as shall, during the course, give him practice in all 
 the usual operations belonging to the subject. The instruc- 
 tion in Stereotomy is given by means of lectures, and draw- 
 ing exercises, illustrating a variety of problems in Stone 
 Cutting, on plane, double-curved, and warped surfaces. 
 The application of Descriptive Geometry is extended to the 
 construction of the oblique arch, and winding staircases of 
 various forms, so as to include a large number of useful and 
 practical problems. 
 
 The Instruction in Chemistry, — In the laboratories provi- 
 sion is made for teaching General Chemistry, Qualitative 
 Analysis, Quantitative Analysis, Organic Chemistry, Assay- 
 ing, Determinative Mineralogy, Metallurgy, and Industrial 
 Chemistry, the use of the blowpipe, as well as the use of 
 the microscope, spectroscope, and other optical apparatus. 
 Instruction in General Chemistry is given to all regular 
 students by recitations and lectures, and by practical exer- 
 cises in the laboratory, where every one is provided with a 
 desk and the necessary apparatus, and is required to perform, 
 under the supervision of the professor, a large number of 
 experiments, selected to illustrate the laws of chemical action 
 and the properties and relations of all the more important 
 chemical elements. This is followed by a systematic course 
 of instruction in Qualitative Analysis, with laboratory 
 practice. In the second year those who require a fuller 
 knowledge of chemistry continue Qualitative Analysis, and 
 take up Chemical Philosophy, and Mineralogy with the use 
 of the blowpipe. The principal subjects of study in the 
 third and fourth years are volumetric and Gravimetric 
 Analysis, Organic Chemistry, Gas Analysis, Assaying, the 
 Preparation of Chemical Products, Metallurgy, and Indus- 
 trial Chemistry. A large portion of the time is alloted to 
 work in the laboratories; In the third year, lectures are 
 given on Quantitative Analysis, and on Physiological and 
 Industrial Chemistry. In the fourth year the lecture room 
 exercises are devoted to Organic Chemistry and Metallurgy. 
 During the last two years the student is required to make 
 reference to standard works and original memoirs in English, 
 French, and German. Both regular and special students 
 are encouraged to undertake experimental researches, and 
 assist in bringing them to useful results. Arrangements 
 will be made, as far as practicable, for the accommodation 
 of students who wish to devote themselves to special sub- 
 jects, such _ as Toxicology, Food .and Water Analysis, 
 Gas _Analysi_s,_ Dyeing, Tanning, and other chemical arts. 
 Special provision has been made for giving women ample 
 opportunities for laboratory work in Chemistry, Mineralogy, 
 aud Biology. Each study may be pursued by itself, or in 
 connection with studies in other departments of the Institute. 
 
 The Instruction in Theoretical and Applied Mechanics. — 
 This instruction, which is given to all regular students of 
 the courses of Engineering and Architecture, is begun about 
 
 December 1st of the third year. During the third year the 
 subjects studied are the composition and resolution of forces, 
 the general laws of Kinematics and Dynamics mathemati- 
 cally discussed, the principles governing the determination 
 of the stresses in the different members of trusses, centre of 
 gravity, moment of inertia, and the ordinary principles of 
 the strength of materials, this latter subject occupying fully 
 half the time devoted to Applied Mechanics in the third 
 year, and being subsequently completed in the fourth year. 
 In this course the methods of the differential and integral 
 calculus are freely used whenever they are the most conve- 
 nient. In the fourth year's classes the subjects pursued by 
 the students of each professional course are arranged with 
 reference to the special wants of that course, and then two 
 or more classes are taught together whenever the instruction 
 to be given covers the same ground. This instruction em- 
 braces the completion of the study of Strength of Materials ; 
 Theory of Elasticity ; main principles of the stability or 
 arches and domes; Hydraulics, Thermodynamics, and 
 special study of Dynamics. Through the kindness of certain 
 friends of the Institute, a testing machine of 50,000 pounds 
 capacity has been provided, capable of testing the tensile 
 strength of specimens not more than 20 inches long, as well 
 as the compression of small cubes, and it is now being 
 arranged to test the transverse strength of beams 25 feet 
 long. The classes are divided into small sections for the 
 purpose of making, by the use of this machine, investiga- 
 tions on the strength and elastic properties of the materials 
 used in construction. 
 
 The Instruction in Civil Engineering is given by means of 
 lectures and recitations, and by practice in the field and in 
 the drawing rooms. The use of the various instruments for 
 measuring lines and angles, and of the level, plane-table, 
 etc., is taught mainly by actual work in the field. The field- 
 work embraces the various kinds of land surveying. Topog- 
 raphy, Hydrography, and the several operations with the 
 level and transit involved in Railroad, Hydraulic and 
 Sanitary engineering. The work in the drawing room con- 
 sists in representing upon paper the surveys made in the 
 field, and in making both working drawings and finished 
 plans from direct measurements of actual engineering struc- 
 tures, a large number of which are found in the immediate 
 neighborhood of the Institute. The regular course in Civil 
 Engineering embraces Roads, Railroads, Bridges, Rivers, 
 Harbors, Canals, Water Supply and Sewerage, Drainage and 
 Irrigation. In the lower classes, the studentisheld closely to 
 the best text-books, but, as he advances, he works more and 
 more without these aids ; and during the last part of his 
 course, while he makes constant reference to the best engi- 
 neering books of this and other countries, he is, at the same 
 time, brought into continual and direct contact with actual 
 works in process of construction, and is made to see the ex- 
 act connection between his theoretical acquirements and the 
 real engineering practice of the day. In this manner he 
 not only becomes familiar with the practical details of con- 
 struction, but a new interest is given to the purely theoreti- 
 cal part of his studies. 
 
 The Instruction in Mechanical Engineering is given by 
 means of lectures and recitations, and by practice in the 
 drawing rooms, and in the I^aboratory of Steam Engineering. 
 Occasional excursions are made to enable students to 
 witness running machinery, and manufacturing processes. 
 The instruction in Mill-work treats of placing machinery in 
 the manufactory, and of the distribution, measurement, and 
 regulation of force and power. The instruction in the 
 Kinematics of Machines treats of the motions and changes 
 of motions which occur in machines, of those problems in 
 machine design which relate to motions that machines are 
 to produce, and of the comparative examination of equivalent 
 mechanisms. The first term instruction in Machine Design 
 treats of those dimensions of elements of machines that 
 depend upon the force which a pair of elements may trans- 
 mit, or upon the work-shop processes by which the elemen- 
 tary parts are produced. It also involves the application of 
 principles of kinematics and dynamics of machines, in 
 determining stresses and their fluctuations in machines and 
 motors, and the applications of the principles of strength of 
 materials, and of work-shop practice to the proper propor- 
 tioning of the various parts. The instruction in Steam 
 Engineering treats of the fundamental laws of thermody- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 315 
 
 namics, and their application to steam and other heat 
 engines, of the combustion of fuel, of steam generators and 
 their construction, of the mechanism of the steam engine, 
 and of the charactei-istic features of typical steam, and 
 other heat engines. The instruction in designing the parts 
 of the steam engine is given under the head of Machine 
 Design. The instruction in Hydraiilie Motors and Machines 
 treats of water-wheels, and of water pressure engines and 
 machines. The practice in Drawing is carried on in 
 conjunction with the lectures, and text-book study. It 
 comprises tracing, copying, sketching from the structure, 
 machine or motor, scale drawing from sketches, and the 
 representation by curves of the results of experiments or of 
 mathematical investigations ; to which is added the repro- 
 duction of drawings by the " Blue Process." The Labor- 
 atory of Steam Engineering affords an opportunity of 
 becoming acquainted, by expeiiment, with fundamental 
 laws which imderlie the practice of Steam Engineering. It 
 also provides practice in adjusting, testing, and managing 
 steam machinery and apparatus. 
 
 The Instruction in Mining is given to students of the third 
 year by a course of eighty lectures on the general character 
 of the various deposits of useful minerals, and on the theory 
 and practice of mining operations, such as prospecting, 
 boring, sinking of shafts, driving of levels, different methods 
 of working, hoisting, pumping, ventilation, etc. These 
 lectui'es are illustrated by drawings, and by a set of models 
 from Freiberg, Saxony, which show in detail the methods of 
 working underground, by underhand and overhand sloping, 
 the timbering and walling of shafts and levels, the arrange- 
 ment of pumps, man engines, ladder ways, hoisting ways, 
 the sinking of shafts, etc. In the fourth year ore-dressing 
 and metallurgy are taken up in a course of sixty lectures. 
 This is accompanied by a series of continuous practical 
 exercises in the concentration and smelling of ores in the 
 Mining and Metallurgical laboratories. The professors in 
 this department hope to give each student of Mining and 
 Metallurgy at least one chance during bis course of study 
 to join a party organized for visiting some of the more 
 interesting mining regions. The valuable scientific library 
 of the late Prof. Henry D. Rogers, of the University of 
 Glasgow, presented to the Institute by JMra. Rogers, is ac- 
 tensible to the students in Geology and Mining. 
 
 Tlie Jlining and Metallurc/ical Laboratories. — These labo- 
 ratories furnish to students in Mining and Metallurgy the 
 means for studying experimentally the various processes of 
 ore'-dtessing and smelting. Ores of different kinds may be 
 here subjected, on a small scale, to the same modes of treat- 
 ment .IS have been adopted at the best mining and metallur- 
 gical establishments. The experimental worlc of the labo- 
 ratory is carried on by Lhe students, under the immediate 
 charge of an instructor. A sufBcienlly large quantity of 
 ore is assigned to each student, who first examines it for its 
 component minerals, sorts and samples it, and determines 
 its character and value by analysis and assays, and makes 
 such other preliminary examinations as serve to indicate 
 the proper method of treatment. He then treats the given 
 quantity, makes a careful examination of the products at 
 each step of the process, ascertains the amount of power, 
 water, chemicals, fuel, and labor expended, wherever prac- 
 ticable, and thus learns approximately the effectiveness and 
 economy of the method adopted. Each student is assisted 
 in ^vorking his ore by his classmates, who have an opportu- 
 nity in this way to run the boiler, engine, machines, and fur- 
 naces. The Institute is from time to time receiving ores of 
 gold, silver, lead, copper, antimony, zinc, iron, etc., from 
 various localities. These ores are worked, and reports sent 
 to those who contribute them ; and it is ho])ed that, by the 
 cc-operation of tho-.e wlio wish to have examinations made, 
 the laboratory will continue to receive the necessary amount 
 and variety of ores. 
 
 Models etc., relating to the Engineering courses. — The col- 
 lections under this head consist of models in wood, in 
 metal, and in plaster, besides lithographs, photographs, 
 and drawings collected in the United Stales and in Europe. 
 They illustrate the following subjects: — General descrip- 
 tive Geometry, Linear Perspective, Shades, Shadows and 
 Reflections, Masonry and Stone Cutting, Joints, Girders 
 and Trusses for wood and Iron Structures, Furnaces and 
 Boilers, Steam and Water Motors, Machines and their details. 
 
 The Instruction in 3Iineralogy. — Determinative Mineral- 
 ogy is taught by the study of crystalline forms and the phy- 
 sical properties of minerals, and use of the blowpipe, and 
 by the handling of specimens. The collection of minerals 
 in use for instruction is placed in the study room of the 
 Mining department, and is thua ready for reference at any 
 time. 
 
 Tlie Instruction in Geology and Physical Geography. — The 
 instruction in these branches has been so arranged that the 
 topics to be taught may be presented in the order of their 
 logical succession. 
 
 I. Forty-live lessons in Physical, including Dynamical 
 Geology, are given during the second term of lhe second 
 year. It is the aim of these lessons to lead the student to a 
 scientific knowledge of the principal features of the earth's 
 surface, their characteristics, classification, geographical 
 relation, and the changes which they have experienced 
 within the historic period. Fiosts, glaciers, rains, streams, 
 tides, volcanoes, earthquakes, plants, animals, etc., are con- 
 sidered as geological agencies, and also in their bearing 
 upon navigation, the construction and maintenance of roads, 
 and various works of improvement. The instructions of 
 this term are likewise an important preparation for the 
 studies in Structural and Historical Geology of the next 
 year. 
 
 II. Thirty exercises in Structural Geology, including a 
 systematic course in Lithology, are next given during the- 
 first; term of the third year. Oral instruction and labora- 
 tory work are combined, the aim being to place in the hands 
 of each student a specimen of each type to be considered. 
 The principal structural features characterizing large mas- 
 ses of rocks, embracing stratification, joint structure, faults, 
 folds, slaty cleavage, veins, dikes, etc., are taught as practi- 
 cally as circumstances will allow. This instruction is sup- 
 plemented by frequent excursions to localities of geological 
 interest in the vicinity of Boston. Fifteen lessons in 
 Chemical Geology and the history of crystalline formations 
 are then given, which comprise the formation, alteration, 
 and decay of rocks, the origin of vein-stones and ore de- 
 posits, of rock-salt and mineral waters, and of coal and pe- 
 troleum, also a general sketch of the chemical forces which 
 co-operated with physical agencies in the formation of the 
 earth. 
 
 III. Forty-five lessons in Historical Geology are then 
 given during the second term of the third year. In 
 these the outlines of the physical history of the earth are 
 taught, and special attention is given to American geologi- 
 cal history. The geological positions of ores and other eco- 
 nomic products, and the modes of their occurrence, are 
 taught in connection with the geological formations in 
 which they are found. The instruction is made as practi- 
 cal as its limits will admit. A collection of specimens and 
 a series of pictorial representations are employed in the 
 illustration of this branch. During the summer vacations 
 excursions of a few weeks are often made to regions where 
 the fossiliferous formations are well developed. The instruc- 
 tion in Meteorology and Industrial Geography provides 
 for an advanced course of study in the fourth year. It in- 
 cludes the outlines and industrial applications of Meteoro- 
 logical science, also the influences of geographical positions, 
 physical features, climates, etc., upon the resources of coun- 
 ti'ies, and upon the character and prosperity of nations. 
 
 The Instruction in Shop Work. — Shops or laboratories have 
 been provided, and furnished with the more important hand 
 and machine tools, so that the student may acquire a direct 
 knowledge of the nature of metals, and woods, and some 
 manual skill in the use of tools. Practical instruction in 
 the nature of the materials of construction, and in the typi- 
 cal operations concerned in the arts, is considered a very 
 valuable adjunct to the theoretical treatment of professsional 
 subjects. Students in the course of Mechanical Engineer- 
 ing are required to devote a considerable amount of time to 
 work in Carpentry, Wood Turning, Pattern Making, Mould- 
 ing and Casting, Forging, Chipping and Filing, and Plan- 
 ing and Turning the metals, the design being to learn the 
 principles., and not to manufacture articles for sale or use. 
 Students in other departments will be allowed to take shop 
 work when the time can be arranged so as not to interfere 
 with their regular studies. 
 
 Excursions. — In aid of the practical studies of the school, 
 
316 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and as a means of familiarizing students witli the actual 
 details of work, they are required, in term time, to make 
 visits of inspection to machine-shops, engines, mills, fur- 
 naces, and chemical works, and to important buildings and 
 engineering constructions within convenient reach. In the 
 vacations more extended excursions are made for the survey 
 of mines and geological features, and for the study of metal- 
 lurgical works and noted specimens of engineering. In past 
 years parties of students have in this way visited mines, fur- 
 naces, and engineering works in Nova Scotia, Vermont, 
 New York, Western Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Colorado, 
 Missouri, and the Lake Superior copper and iron regions. 
 During the past summer the students of Mining En- 
 gineering and Metallurgy, accompanied by two of the pro- 
 fessors, made an excursion to the zinc mines of Franklin, 
 N. J., the zinc and iron works at Bethlehem, Pa., the zinc 
 ;aines at Friedensville, the burning coal mine at Summit, 
 the coal mines and washers at Drifton, Pa., the coal mines 
 and breakers at Wilkesbarre, the wire-cable works at Wilkes- 
 barre, the Ashley Planes, the iron and steel works at Steel- 
 ton, the extensive works of the Cambria Iron Co. at Johns- 
 town, iron, steel, and glass-works at Pittsburg, the great 
 iron-ore banks at Lebanon, the extensive bridge-works, the 
 pottery, and the copper-woTks at Phoenixville, Pa., the cop- 
 per, zinc, and chemical works at Bergenpoint, N. J. 
 
 Occasional Lectttees. — In addition to the instruction 
 given by the permanent corps of teachers, gentlemen in 
 active life who are eminent in their respective professions 
 will, from time to time, be invited to give courses of lectures 
 on subjects of practical importance. 
 
 SCHOIAESHIPS.— -A scholarship for regular students has 
 been founded by the English High School Association, in 
 memory of the late Thomas Sherwin, who, for more than 
 thirty years, was the distinguished Master of the English 
 High School in the City of Boston. Mr. Sherwin was also 
 an active and influential member of the Corporation of the 
 Institute. The pupil, to receive the benefit of this scholar- 
 ship, is to be a graduate of the English High School in the 
 city of Boston. Two scholarships were founded by the late 
 James Savage, LL.D., the benefit of which is given to 
 meritorious students on recommendation of the Faculty. 
 Five advanced scholarships have been established, and will 
 be awarded to such applicants as are recommended by the 
 Faculty. 
 
 Degrees aud Diplomas. — ^The degrees corresponding 
 to the regular courses are as follows : — I. A Degree in Civil 
 and Topographical Engineering. II. A Degree in Me- 
 chanical Engineering. III. A Degree in Mining Engineer- 
 ing, or in Geology and Mining. IV. A Degree in Building 
 and Architecture. V. A Degree in Chemistry. VI. A 
 Degree in Metallurgy. VII. A Degree in Natural History. 
 VIII. A Degree in Physics. IX. A Degree in the General 
 Course. To be entitled to any one of these degrees, the 
 student must have passed satisfactory examinations in all 
 the prescribed studies and exercises; and, in addition, a 
 final or degree examination, embracing all the subjects which 
 particularly relate to his course. He must, moreover, pre- 
 pare a dissertation on some subject included in his course 
 of study ; or an account of some research made by himself ; 
 or an original report upon some machine, work of engineer- 
 ing, industrial works, mine, or mineral survey ; or an original 
 architectural design accompanied by an explanatory memoir. 
 This thesis or design must be approved by the Faculty. 
 Persons who have been admitted to departments of instruc- 
 tion in the school may, should they so desire, be examined 
 for a degree, and, if found qualified to pass, under the pre- 
 scribed conditions, they will be entitled to the appropriate 
 diploma. The examinations for Degrees are held in the 
 month of May. The title of the degree in each of the courses 
 is S. B., or Bachelor of Science. The degree of S. D., or 
 Doctor of Science, is awarded for proficiency in complete 
 Advances of study. Besides the diplomas of the Regular 
 and Advanced Courses, certificates of attainment in special 
 subjects are given to such students as, on examination, are 
 found to have the required proficiency in them. 
 
 Regulations of the School. — School-year. — The first 
 term begins on the last Monday in September. There is a 
 recess of one week after the semi-annual examinations, and 
 the second term begins on the first Tuesday in February, 
 
 On legal holidays, and on the Friday and Saturday following 
 Thanksgiving day, the exercises of the school are sus- 
 pended. 
 
 Bond or Deposit. — Every student is required, on entering 
 the school, either to give a bond for two hundred dollars to 
 pay all charges accruing under the regulations of the school, 
 or to deposit, if he prefer so to do, the sum of two hundred 
 dollars with the Bursar, to be accounted for at the end of 
 the school-year, or whenever the depositor leaves the school, 
 in case he leaves it before the end of the year. This de- 
 posit must be renewed at the beginning of each year. The 
 bond must he executed by two bondsmen, satisfactory to 
 the Bursar, one of them being a citizen of Massachusetts ; 
 and it must be filed within ten days after the date at which 
 the student joins the school. 
 
 Fees. — The fee for regular students is $200 per year, $125 
 at the beginning, and $75 at the middle (First Tuesday in 
 February) of the school-year. For one-half, or any less 
 fraction, of the school-year, the fee is $125. Payment is 
 also required of the cost of apparatus broken, or used up in 
 the laboratories. Special students pay, in general, the full 
 fee ; but when a few branches only are pursued, and the 
 time required for instruction is limited, some deduction may 
 be made. The fee for students in the advanced courses is 
 the same as that for regular students. 
 
 Attendance. — Regular students are expected to attend all 
 the exercises of their several courses. Special students are 
 expected to attend all the exercises in the subjects they have 
 selected, unless excused by special vote of the Faculty. 
 Students entering a lecture room, drawing room, or labora- 
 tory more than five minutes after the hour designated for 
 the beginning of the exercise will be marked tardy. Stu- 
 dents are, in general, expected to devote themselves to the 
 work of the school between the hours of 9 A. M. and 4.80 
 P. M., except during the interval for dinner. There are no 
 exercises on Saturday afternoon, and the rooms are closed. 
 
 Discipline. — While within the limits of the Institute, stu- 
 dents are expected to behave with decorum, to obey the 
 regulations of the school, and to pay a due respect to its 
 ofBcers. Every student will be held responsible lor the fur- 
 niture which he uses, and the cost of repairing any damage 
 thereto will be charged to him. In case of injury to the 
 building, or to any of the furniture, apparatus, or other pro- 
 perty of the Institute, the damage will be charged to the 
 student or students known to be immediately concerned ; 
 but if the persons who caused the damage are unknown, the 
 cost of repairing the same will be assessed equally upon all 
 the students of the school. Conduct inconsistent with the 
 general good order of the school, if repeated after admoni- 
 tion, will be followed by suspension or dismissal. It is the 
 aim of the Faculty so to administer the discipline of the 
 school as to maintain a high standard of integrity, and a 
 scrupulous regard for truth; and the attempt of any student 
 to present as his own the work of another, or to pass any 
 examination by improper means, is regarded as a most ser- 
 ious offence, and renders the offender liable to immediate 
 expulsion. 
 
 Residence and Expenses. — As the exercises of the school 
 begin at nine o'clock in the morning, and end at half-past 
 four or five o'clock in the afternoon, students may conven- 
 iently live in any of the neighboring cities or towns on the 
 lines of the various railroads, if they prefer to do so. The 
 cost of board and rooms in Boston, and the neighboring cities 
 and towns need not exceed from six to eight dollars a week. 
 The cost of board at the Institute restaurant is three dollars 
 and fifty cents per week, and conveniently located rooms 
 may be found at a cost of two dollars and upwards additional 
 per week. The cost of books, drawing instruments, paper, 
 exclusive of chemical breakage, is from twenty-five to 
 thirty-five dollars a year. 
 
 School of Mechanic Arts.— A School of Mechanic 
 Arts, in which special prominence is given to manual in- 
 struction, has been established for those who wish to enter 
 upon industrial pursuits rather than to become scientific 
 engineers. This school is designed to afford such students 
 as have completed the ordinary grammar-school course an 
 opportunity to continue the elementry scientific and literary 
 studies, together with mechanical drawing, while receiving 
 instruction in the use of the typical tools for working iron 
 and wood. The shop is conducted upon a plan designed at 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 317 
 
 the Imperial Technical School of Moscow, Russia, and 
 carried out there with satisfactory results. Its exact and 
 systematic method affords the direct advantages of training 
 the hand and eye for accurate and efficient service with the 
 greatest economy of time ; and the instruction in the use of 
 tools and materials has also proved a valuable aid in intel- 
 lectual development. The shop courses of the school are as 
 follows : — 
 
 First year: — I, Carpentry and Joinery; II, Wood Turaing ; III, 
 Pattern making; IV, Foundry Work. 
 
 Second year: 
 Tool Work. 
 
 -I, Iron Forging; 11^ Vise Work; III, Machine 
 
 The fiiU course includes two years of theoretical and prac- 
 tical studies combined, and students who successfully com- 
 plete it will receive a certificate, Students will be received 
 for shorter times, and for special portions of the course. 
 When it is desired, such provision wiil be made for advanced 
 and specific shop work as is consistent with due attention 
 to the regular classes. Students in this school are recom- 
 mended to attend the exercises in Military Drill, and hours 
 will be so arranged as to allow them to do so without detri- 
 ment to their studies. 
 
 Applicants for the regular course must be at least fifteen 
 years of age, and must pass a satisfactory examination in 
 arithmetic, geography, and English composition. The tuition 
 is $150 a year, with no extra charge for the use of tools, or 
 materials, used in regular exercises. Special students, 
 taking the same amount of shop work only as the regular 
 class shop work, will be charged less. The student is en- 
 titled to the products of his work. Students while on the 
 premises of the Institute, are expected to remain in the 
 study room, except when at recitations or in the work shops. 
 A monthly return of absences is made to the parent or 
 guardian. 
 
 First Year. — First Term. — Shop Work. Carpentry. Algebra 
 commenced. English composition. Meclianical and Free hand 
 Drawing. 
 
 Second Term. — Sliop Work. Wood Turning, Pattern Making, 
 Foundry Work. Plane Geometry. English Composition. Me- 
 chanical and Free hand Drawing. 
 
 Second Year. — First Term. — Shop Work. — Forg-iug. Algebra 
 completed. Elementary Physics. English Composition. Mechan- 
 ical Drawing. 
 
 Second Term. — Shop Work. — Vise Work, Machine Tool Work. 
 Geometry. Physics. English Composition. Mechanical Draw- 
 
 The beginning and ending of the school-year and the 
 days of entrance examinations are the same as in the School 
 of Industrial Science. The two scholarships, founded by this 
 Association, are awarded to sons of present or past members 
 of the Association, on recommendation by the President 
 and Secretary of the Association. The scholarship entitles 
 the student to free tuition in the School of Mechanic Arts. 
 
 Free Courses of Instruction. — The Trustee of the 
 Lowell Institute has established, under the supervision of 
 the Institute of Technology, courses of instruction, generally 
 given in the evening, and open to students of either sex, free 
 of charge. These courses are imore or less varied from year 
 to year by the omission or interchange of particular subjects, 
 but include in their entire scope instruction in mathematics, 
 mechanics, physics, drawing, chemistry, geology, natural 
 history, biology, English, French, German, history, naviga- 
 tion, and nautical astronomy, architecture, and engineering. 
 The subjects, and the extent of the several courees, will be 
 made known in October of each year. As it is the object of 
 these courses to provide substantial teaching rather than 
 merely popular illustrations of the subjects treated, it is ex- 
 pected that all persons attending these courses will come 
 with a serious purpose of improvement, and that they will 
 cheerfully comply with such rules as may be prescribed in 
 regard to attendance and to order in the class or lecture-room. 
 The conditions of attendance on these gratuitous courses are 
 as follows : — 
 
 1. Candidates must have attained the age of eighteen years. 
 
 2. Their applications must be made in writing, addressed to the 
 Secretary of the Faculty, specifying the course or courses 
 they desire to attend ; mentioning their present or prospec- 
 tive occupations; and, when the course is of a nature de- 
 manding preparation, stating the extent of their prelimi- 
 nary training. 
 
 The number of students in each class is necessarily limited. 
 
 Calendar.— Entrance Examinations, Tuesday, Sept. 19, 1882, 
 and Wednesday, Sept. 20, 1882. Examinations for Advanced 
 Standing, Thursday, Sept, 21, 1882. The next School year will be- 
 gin Monday, Sept. 25, 1882. 
 
 Officers of Instruction. — Francis A. Walker, Ph. D., 
 LL. D., President. William B. Rogers, LL. D., Professor 
 Emeritus of Physics and Geology. John D. Runkle, Ph. 
 LL. D., Walker Professor of Mathematics. William P. At- 
 kinson, A. M., Professor of English and History. George 
 
 A. Osborne, S. B., Professor of Mathematics. John M. Ord- 
 way, A. M., Professor of Metallurgy and Industrial Chemis- 
 try. Robert H. Richards, S. B., Professor of Mining Engi- 
 neering, and Director of the Mining and Metallurgical 
 Laboratories. William Ripley Nichols, S. B., Professor of 
 General Chemistry. Charles P. Otis, A. M., Ph. D., Pro- 
 fessor of Modern Languages. Charles H. Wing, S. B.. Pro- 
 fessor of Analytical and of Organic Chemistry. Alpheua 
 Hyatt, S. B., Custodian of Boston Society of Natural History, 
 Professor of Zoolo^ and Palajontology. William H. Niles, 
 Ph. B., A. M., Professor of Geology and Geography. Chan- 
 ning Whitaker, S. B., Professor of Mechanical Engineering. 
 Charles R. Cross, S. B., Thayer Professor of Physics. Gae- 
 tano Lanza, S. B., C. E., Professor of Theoretical and Applied 
 Mechanics. George L. Vose, A. M., C. E., Hayward Pro- 
 fessor of Civil and Topographical Engineering. Theodore 
 M. Clark, A. B., Professor of Architecture. Eugene Letang, 
 Assistant Professor of Architecture. Jules Luquieus, Ph. 
 D., Assistant Professor of Modern Languages. William P. 
 P. Longfellow, Adjunct Professor of Architectural Design. 
 Charles Kastner, Lowell Instructor in Practical Design. 
 Henry K. Burrison, S. B., Instructor in Mechanical and 
 Free-Hand Drawing. Clarence W. Fearing, A. M., In- 
 structor in the School of Mechanic Arts. Ellen H. Rich- 
 ards, A. M., S. B., Instructor in Chemistry and Mineralogy 
 in the Woman's Laboratory. Silas W. Holman, S. B., In- 
 structor in Physics. William 0. Cro.'iby, S. B., Instructor in 
 Geology, Palaeontology, and Mineralogy. Colonel John C. 
 Chadwick, Instructor in Military Tactics. George F. Swain, 
 S. B., Instructor in Civil Engineering. Wm. Henry Beech- 
 ing, S. B., Assistant in Mechanical Engineering. W. ICelt- 
 ner Robbins, M. S., Assistant in Quantitative Analysis. 
 Wm. H. Pickering, S. B., Assistant in Physics. Charles L. 
 Adams, Instnictor in Drawing in the School of Mechanic 
 Arts. John Duff, Jr., S. B., Assistant in the Mining and 
 Metallurgical Laboratory. William B. Lindsay, S. B., As- 
 sistant in General Chemistry and Qualitative Analysis. 
 James Lund, S. B., Assistant in Quantitative Analysis. 
 Evelyn M. Walton, S. B., Assistant in Chemistry and Biolo- 
 gy. Frank W. Whitney, A. B., Assistant in General Chem- 
 istry and Qualitative Analysis. Artemas L. Tyler, Assist- 
 ant in General Chemistry and Qualitative Analysis, George 
 L. Perry, S. B., Assistant in Drawing. Charles M. Wilkes, 
 
 B. B., Assistant in Applied Mechanics. Thomas Foley, In- 
 structor in Iron Working. George Smith, Instructor in 
 Wood Working. Arthur W. Sanborn, Assistant in Iron 
 Working. William C. Fisher, Assistant in the Weaving 
 Department of the Lowell School of Practical Design. 
 
 The instruction in Political Economy and in International 
 Law is given by the President ; that in Descriptive Geome- 
 try and Stereotomy. by Professor Osborne ; that in Descrip- 
 tive Astronomy by Prof. Cross; and that in Botany and 
 Biology hj Prof: Ordway. The instruction in Quantitative 
 Analysis in the Woman's Laboratory is also in charge of 
 Prof. Ordway. 
 
 Faculty.— Francis A. Walker, President, William B. 
 Rogers, John D. Runkle, Willian P. Atkinson, George A. 
 Osborne, John M. Ordway, Chairman, Robert H. Richards, 
 Secretary, William Ripley Nichols, Charles P. Otis, Charles 
 H. Wing, Alpheus Hyatt, William H. Niles, Channing 
 Whitaker, Charles R. Cross, Gaetano Lanza, Jules Lu- 
 quiens, George L. Vose, Theodore M. Clark. 
 
318 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 A MINING LABORATORY. 
 
 A CLEARER insight into the work being accom- 
 plished at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- 
 nology is afforded by the following paper on the 
 Mining Laboratory connected with the Institute, 
 read before the American Institute of Mining Engineers, by 
 R. H. Richards, Professor of Mining, at the Institute. 
 
 Whether it was wise or not to establish a mining school 
 so far from the principal mining centres, does not now enter 
 into the question. Given, a mining school already begun, 
 how shall it be made most efficient in developing engineers 
 who are trained to think for themselves as well as versed in 
 the works of others? This is the question with which we 
 have had to deal. In considering the bearing of this labo- 
 ratory work upon the students' preparation, it will be con- 
 venient to take it up under five difierent heads : 
 
 1. The methods and aims of the laboratory. 
 
 2. The advantage to students of having a part, at least, of 
 their practical work in the curriculum of their school. 
 
 3. The advantage to be derived by mines and works. 
 
 4. Degree of accuracy which may be attained in working 
 ores on a small scale. 
 
 5. Results of work in the laboratory. 
 
 1. The Methods and Aims of the Lahoratory. — Perhaps the 
 aims of the laboratory can be most clearly shown by illus- 
 tration. Many young engineers leave school thinking that 
 they know everything. They go to the works, and expect 
 to teach the superintendent something and the men a good 
 deal, regardless of the fact that it is this spirit that has 
 prejudiced workmen against schoolmen. They are often 
 more trouble than they are worth for a considerable period 
 of time. They have simply learned metallurgical processes 
 from books, but they have not derived from them a realizing 
 sense of the meaning of the word economy, nor do they 
 understand how to carry it out in actual practice. They are 
 too apt not to perceive that the profit of works lies in the 
 little savings in material, in labor, in time and power, etc., 
 and that the difference between making these little savings 
 and in not making them is almost always the diiference be- 
 tween profit and loss, or between success and failure. In 
 fact, our young engineers are not, as a rule, fully enough 
 aware of the fact that failures in mines and works are quite 
 as often the result of errors in judgment as they are from 
 poverty of the deposit or process. The aim of this laboratory 
 is to correct this state of things, and to turn out men who 
 have learned somewhat of the value of economy ; who have 
 found out by thdr own experience that little losses, taking 
 place here and there and everywhere in their work, mount 
 up enormously in their final account of stock. 
 
 For the sake of example, we will suppose that a silver-lead 
 ore is given to a student who is entirely inexperienced in 
 such matters, and who is inclined to be self-sufficient. On 
 reading up, he finds that such ores, when worked on the 
 large scale, are subject to a loss, which we will say is 15 per 
 cent, of the silver, and which takes place largely in the 
 smelting. He is surprised at this, and thinks it is a large 
 loss, and expects to do as well or better. On taking account 
 of stock, however, we will suppose he finds his losses are : 
 silver in dust while crushing and handling, 2 per cent. ; 
 roasting, 15 per cent. ; agglomerating, 3 per cent. ; smelting, 
 15 per cent. ; fume in refining, 2 per cent. ; handling in re- 
 fining, 6 per cent. ; fume in cupelling, 4 per cent. ; parting 
 and recovering, 3 per cent.; total, 50 per cent. He is 
 astonished to find that his total loss amounts to 50 per cent, 
 and that by carelessness in handling alone, he has lost 11 
 per cent., the whole of which might have been obviated as 
 well as not; that in roasting he used too high a heat, and in 
 cupelling the same ; that by having large condensing flues, 
 he might have saved a large portion of the loss in smelting 
 and refining. In fact, this man has either learned a lesson 
 in the economy of metal working that will last him his life, 
 or he has failed to learn it. In either case, whatever may 
 be the risk incurred by a works in taking an untried man 
 from a school, the risk is in some degree lessened by this 
 test of the man. We believe that ability to offer to works a 
 selection of men is all the incentive we need for developing 
 this laboratory. We hold that the school owes a duty to the 
 works as well as to the student, and that the supplying of 
 
 works with good men is fully as important a duty of the 
 school as the finding of places for the student. 
 
 The methods of working the laboratory will best be given 
 by a brief description of the last year's work. The course 
 began in February with a class of thirteen students. The 
 work was allotted so that each student had the entire respon- 
 sibility of a whole process or of a part of a process. A 
 quantity of low grade ore from the Merrimac Mine, weigh- 
 ing 41- tons, was treated first. Two students, A and B, took 
 charge of the mineral examination, and of the crushing and 
 washing. They were assisted in the washing by their whole 
 class, who had this opportunity to operate the washers, and 
 to make themselves familiar with the principles on which 
 they work. The class came on, five men at a shift, and they 
 worked ten shifts of four hours each ; in this way every man 
 had an opportunity to work and to study every machine. 
 The captains, A. and B., meantime took charge on the 
 alternate shifts, so that one of them was always on hand to 
 keep watch, and to see that waste did not take place, that 
 samples were taken at the proper intervals, and that every- 
 thing went on as it should. When the work was through, 
 they dried, weighed, sampled, and assayed all the final pro- 
 ducts. They found out then whether the refuse was poor 
 enough to throw away. They found out which machine did the 
 greatest work, and which the least. In fact, they were in condi- 
 tion to report upon the economy of the process from beginning 
 to end. They afterward made numerous tests on sands falling 
 into water, and speculated on possible alterations which 
 would be desirable if the washers were to be used exclu- 
 sively for the ore in question. These tests were rendered 
 possible by means of a series of samples which had been 
 taken at every stage of the process. A, reported especially 
 upon the crushing machines and the washing jigs, while B, 
 reported upon the spitzkasten and on the tables which were 
 used in washing. Three products were the result of this 
 treatment : 
 
 1. Smelting ore. 2. Middle-grade ore. 3. Refuse. 
 C and D. took charge of the smelting ore ; this was first 
 roasted in reverberatory furnaces. The whole class came on 
 by shifts of four hours each, and the operation went on 
 night and day continuously until finished. The total time 
 required was 52 hours. C and D. then agglomerated the 
 ore, sampled it, analyzed it, and also their fluxes (limestone, 
 tap cinder, magnetic iron ore, etc). They planned their 
 smelting to obtain a given slag, matte, and metal. When it 
 was smelted in the shaft furnace all the class came on by 
 shifts, and by means of this run, and several others during 
 the term, every man was able to serve in every place, ana 
 thus to learn the principles which underlie the whole opera- 
 tion, as well the details by which it is carried on in the labo- 
 ratorv. Thissmelting yielded — 
 1. Lead. 2. Matte. 3. Slag. 
 
 0. followed up the metal, and turned out silver, lead, and 
 gold. D. followed up the matte, and turned out copper, 
 lead, and silver. Their reports consist of a detail of the 
 operations, results of analyses, and tables showing where, 
 when, and how the losses took place, with suggestions as to 
 how they would mitigate them another time. E. and F. under- 
 took to work the middle-grade ore, and they tried the Ziervo- 
 gle, Augustin, "Von Patera, *as well as roast, chlorination with 
 amalgamation, and a number of other methods. They di- 
 vided the processes, one taking the responsibility of a part, 
 the other of the rest. They report moderate success in 
 some and dead failures in others. A sulphuretted ore was 
 allotted to G. and H. This ore, as a matter of course, re- 
 quired to be first roasted. We have two methods of roast- 
 ing, by reverberatory furnace and by kiln. But as a kiln 
 had never been tried in the laboratory, and as it was to a 
 certain extent doubtful whether it could be made to work, a 
 division was made. G. took the kiln roasting followed by 
 the subsequent smelting, roasting and smelting, etc., while 
 H took the method by reverberatory furnace, followed by 
 the subsec[uent processes. This work was carried on in the 
 same spirit as before indicated. 
 
 K. took up nickel, looked up the published methods, and 
 experimented upon its extraction 
 
 li. worked a gold ore by Atwood's amalgamators, concen- 
 tration, and gas chlorination. This method is still in its 
 experimental condition with us. 
 M. had a barrel of quartz galena assigned to him. 
 
THE ^fINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 319 
 
 N. had a barrel of silver ore assigned him, which was to 
 be treated by pan amalgamation. 
 
 0. worked oujt a problem on a copper ore from a mine at 
 Santa Fe. The question to be settled was whether it would 
 pay best to turn out a slag lean in copper, and at the same 
 time a pure copper pig, or to turn out a pure copper pig, 
 and at the same time allow some metal to enter the slag. 
 His results are very interesting. 
 
 Thus it will be seen that every student who has worked in 
 the laboratory during the last year has not only had a defi- 
 nite work of his own to do, but has also had the opportunity 
 to watch or to assist in a very considerable variety of other 
 work. 
 
 2. Advantage to the Student of having apart of his Prac- 
 tical Work in the curriculum of his School. — We learn by our 
 mistakes. Men can try, and fail ; can find out usually why 
 they failed ; can repeat the work with the failure in part or 
 in whole corrected. They can learn economy by their own 
 lack of it. Large works cannot afford to spoil a charge to 
 show a student what happens from a little carelessness. A 
 well-regulated establishment may go on a long time without 
 such a slip, and unless the superintendent is ased to giving 
 instruction, and takes pleasure in it, the student may be 
 months at a works without finding out what the key to the 
 success of the establishment is. Again, a student learns the 
 value of chemistry as a check upon metallurgical work. 
 Who would attempt to run a blast furnace on lead ores or on 
 iron ores without knowing something about the composition 
 of slags and of the fluxes at hand ? The students here plan 
 the proportion of the fluxes to be used from their own 
 analyses of the same. And if they find from their reading 
 that a slag of 30 per cent. SiO^, 45 per cent. FeO, 15 per 
 cent. CaO, 10 per cent. AI2O3, should give a good fusion and 
 a slag clear of lead, they put in fluxes containing these ele- 
 ments in the above proportions, and when they get through 
 they analyze their slag, to see if they got what they tried for 
 and to see if it was as lean in lead as they wished it to be. 
 But perhaps the greatest advantage of all to the student, 
 and the one which will stay with him through his whole 
 life long, is the spirit of investigation which is awakened by 
 his work, and which is made evident by the questions he 
 asks, and by the zest and intelligence with which he carries 
 on his work. This we consider has been proved beyond all 
 question. We wish to disclaim any pretensions which we 
 may be supposed to have that this laboratory is in any 
 sense of the word a substitute for the works. What we do 
 claim is that it prepares students (o go into works and profit 
 by them. 
 
 3. Advantage to Works. — We have already noticed one 
 advantage, viz., that the men have had a chance to test 
 themselves and find out where they are weak. There is, 
 however, another advantage which may grow out of their 
 experience in the laboratory. These men are used to testing 
 processes on a small scale, and if they are, when older, called 
 upon to erect costly works and to devise new and expensive 
 processes, they will naturally spend a thousand or two dol- 
 lars in trying the process practically. Most of us are famil- 
 iar with large and costly failures which might have been 
 prevented if the process had been studied in this way. For 
 while work on the small scale does not pretend to deal with 
 the relation between the cost of production, of transporta- 
 tion, and the market value, it does test most thoroughly .the 
 chemical and mechanical principles on which the process 
 must depend. Again, this practical work enables us to 
 make a far more just division of hand-men from head-men 
 than could possibly be made from recitations and examina- 
 tions alone. And if we have an application for a man who 
 may by-and-by be needed to superintend, we recommend a 
 very different man from what we do when we were asked 
 for an analyst or a surveyor. 
 
 Advantage to Mines of having their own Ores treated in the 
 Laboratory. — We will cite one example. The Merrimac 
 Mine of Newburyport has recently called an engineer from 
 a distance to systematize their smelting works. He informs 
 me that the figures famished by the students were of very 
 great value to him in planning his ore charge. And again, 
 as soon as the mine is prepared to establish washing-works, 
 and the matter is under consideration at the present time, 
 the results of our washers will be at their service. To sum 
 up what has been said ; We believe that such a course of 
 
 instructions will bring out latent originality if a student has 
 anything of it in his composition, and that, if he is nothing 
 but a copyist, his instructors, as well as the man himself, 
 will be convinced of the fact before he leaves his school ; 
 and again, that such instruction will enable him to profit 
 far more by his visits to works, or studies in them, than he 
 otherwise would. The testimony of graduates of the school 
 and of their employers bear us out in the above statements. 
 
 4. Degree of Accuracy of working Ores nn the Small 
 Scale as compared with the Large Scale. — On the large scale 
 the operations are continuous. If a little is left by one 
 charge, it is taken up by the next one, and does not 
 affect the total. On the small scale, however, what is lost 
 in one charge by carelessness is not picked up by the next, 
 because there is no next charge to follow it. In large 
 works men are chosen to fill places by their skill or apt- 
 ness for those places. On the same scale the students 
 spend a part of the time of doing the work in learning 
 how to do it. To be sure they learn vastly quicker than 
 the ordinary hands who are usually employed for such 
 work ; but still this does not wholly make up for their lack 
 of skill in the first instance, nor does it make the small 
 works quite on a par with the large ones in this respect. 
 
 5. Results of Work in the Laboratory. — ^The following ex- 
 ranples will serve to show the kind of work that is done by 
 the students, as well as the scale of it and the degree of ac- 
 curacy attained. A lot of poor ore from the dump heap 
 of the Merrimac Mine of Newburyport, weighing 8485 
 pounds, was crushed and washed to separate the argenti- 
 ferous materials from the gangue rock, and yielded these 
 proportions : 
 
 1. A smelting ore 
 
 2. A middle-grade ore 
 
 3. Refuse 
 
 weighing 624i poiinda. 
 
 18234 
 
 " 6016i " 
 
 Referring this yield to one ton of crude ore, the intrin- 
 sic value of the metals in the products obtained from it 
 would be: 
 
 1. Smelting ore, 147.14 lb'., containing 
 
 39.4 per cent, lead, or 57.92 lb., or $3 47 
 
 0.7 " silver, or .103 " 1 73 
 
 .0024 " gold, or .00353 " 1 06 
 
 $6 26 
 2. Middle-grade ore, 429.8 lb., containing 
 
 9.11 per cent, lead, or 39.15 lb., or $2 35 
 .031 " silver, or .133 " 2 13 
 .00114 " gold, or .0049 " 1 47 
 
 $5 95 
 
 3. Refuse, 1418.06 lb. containing 
 
 1.25 per cent, lead, or 17.72 lb. or $1 06 
 .0116 " sUver, or .1645 " 2 63 
 
 $3 69 
 
 Total $13 37 
 
 The ore itself was valued for lead and silver, but not 
 for gold, with this result: 
 
 1 ton contained 5.23 per cent, lead, 104.6 lb. $6 28 
 .02 per cent, silver, .4 " 6 42 
 
 The values of the above products would be 
 1 ton smelting ore, 
 
 $12 70 
 
 ».4 per cent, lead, 788 lb. $47 28 
 .07 " silver,20.41 oz. 23 47 
 
 .0024 " gold, .6998 oz. 14 42 
 
 1 ton middle-grade ore, 9.11 per cent, lead, 182 lbs. $10 92 
 .031 " silver, 9.039 oz. 9 94 
 .00114 " gold, .3324 " 6 85 
 
 -S85 17 
 
 1 ton refuse 
 
 1.25 per cent, lead, 25 lb. $1 50 
 .0116 " sUver, 3.382 oz. 3 72 
 
 -$26 49 
 
 ■$5 22 
 
 A lot of lead ore, composed chiefly of galena with a little 
 pyrite, blende, quartz, and feldspar, from ore of the veins 
 crossed by the Burleigh tunnel of Georgetown, Colorado, 
 was roasted, agglomerated, smelted, refined, and cupelled. 
 It gave the following results : 
 
320 
 
 THE MINES, MINEBS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Ore, .... 1100 lb. at 67.37 per cent, lead, 675-07 lb. 
 
 .095 '' silver, 15.24 oz. 
 
 After roasting and agglom- 
 erating . . . 996i lb. at 60.68 per cent, lead, 604.52 lb. 
 
 .086 " silver, 12.48 oz. 
 
 After smelting and refining 
 to soft lead . . 429.75 lb. at 98.95 per cent, lead 425.24 lb. 
 
 1.97 '' silver, 12.33 oz. 
 
 From which it appears that the loss in roasting and 
 agglomerating was 70.55 pounds lead and 2.76 ounces silver ; 
 smelting and refining was 179.28 pounds lead, and .15 ounce 
 silver. This loss in silver is too little to represent the truth, 
 as 12.33 ounces is known to be too high, the sample was 
 taken from the tops of the pigs. The zincing was accom- 
 plished by stirring in one per cent, of zinc with melted lead 
 and then casting it in ingots and sweating it. This opera- 
 tion was repeated three times, and each time yielded a rich 
 argentiferous zinc dross and a poorer zinciferous lead ; the 
 actual weight of silver in each of these six products is here 
 given : 
 
 429.75 pounds refined lead, at .197 per cent, contains 12.33 oz. silver. 
 1st. Argentiferous dross, 9.73 oz. silver (a little high), sample poor. 
 
 1st. Sweated lead, - ' 3.09 
 2d. Argentiferous dross, 2. 895 
 2d. Sweated lead, - .195 
 3cl. Argentiferous dross, .145 
 3d. Sweated lead, - .059 
 
 by assay. 
 
 (by difierence). 
 
 by assay. 
 
 (by diftereuce). 
 
 by assay. 
 
 This last sweated lead contained but .001 per cent, of sil- 
 ver. The distilling and final cupelling were not as success- 
 ful as the rest, as from breaking of the cupel and other mis- 
 haps only 9.73 ounces of pure silver were obtained. A 
 copper ore from Santa Fe was worked by a student who 
 was preparing himself to go to the mine. His main ob- 
 ject was to experiment on slag, to find out a suitable 
 composition that would yield soft, clean copper in the 
 blast furnace. The ore was composed of malachite, chry- 
 socoUa, cuprite, atacamite, with a very large quantity of 
 grossularite (lime garnet), and also quartz, calcite, and a 
 little pyrolusite. Its chemical composition is given in the 
 table below. The run was divided into halves; after the 
 first was through, the furnace was run out and then charged 
 up again with a new mixture. During the first run the 
 slag was planned to carry a high per cent, of iron, during 
 the second run it was planned for a high per cent, of lime. 
 The results are as follows : 
 
 
 rirst-run 
 
 Slags. 
 
 Second-rur 
 
 Slags. 
 
 Ore. 
 
 (is 
 
 plaoned. As oblaiaed. 
 
 As plauued. 
 
 As obtained 
 
 SiOj, . . . 38.40 
 
 
 40 
 
 46.07 
 
 46. 
 
 49.90 
 
 Al,03, . . . 14.95 
 
 
 16 
 
 20.92 
 
 17.5 
 
 10.53 
 
 FeA, ■ • • 1311 
 
 
 
 • . . . 
 
 • . > ■ 
 
 
 FeO, 
 
 
 34 
 
 16 65 
 
 15. 
 
 14.17 
 
 Cao, . . . 10.63 
 
 
 10 
 
 7.01 
 
 . 21.05 
 
 20.61 
 
 MgO . . . trace 
 
 
 
 trace 
 
 
 .20 
 
 MnO, ... .80 
 
 
 , . 
 
 2.35 
 
 .... 
 
 .43 
 
 Cu, .... 12.32 
 
 
 
 1.23 
 
 
 1.55 
 
 H2O & COii, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 undetermined. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 It will be noticed at once in the first-run slag as obtained a 
 monstrous deficiency in FeO. This will be accounted for 
 by the pig copper from this run, which contained 18 per 
 cent. iron. The second run was much more nearly adjusted 
 to suit the furnace reactions, as is shown by the slag, which 
 is not very far from the plan, and also by the copper, which 
 was soft and malleable, and contained but .3 per cent. iron. 
 
 CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. 
 
 THE existence of Cornell University is due to the 
 bounty of the United States and of Ezra Cornell 
 On the second of July, 1862, Congress passed an act 
 granting public lands to the several states which 
 should "provide at least one college where the leading ob- 
 ject shall be, without excluding other scientific and classical 
 
 studies, and including military tactics, to teach such branches 
 of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic 
 arts." Thirty thousand acres for each of its senators and 
 representatives in Congress were appropriated to every state; 
 and the share of the State of New York was nine hundred 
 and ninety thousand acres in land scrip. On the twenty- 
 seventh of April, 1865, the legislature of New York incor- 
 porated "The Cornell University," appropriating to it the 
 income arising from the sale of this land scrip. The most 
 important conditions were, that Ezra Cornell should give to 
 the University five hundred thousand dollars ; that it should 
 give instruction in branches relating to agriculture, mechanic 
 arts, and military tactics; and that it should receive, with- 
 out charge for tuition, one student annually from each 
 assembly district. Mr. Cornell fulfilled the first requirement 
 of the charter, and made an additional gift of more than two 
 hundred acres of land, with buildings, to be used as a farm 
 in connection with the department of agriculture. The act 
 of incorporation satisfies the condition of the congressional 
 grant by providing for instruction in such branches of learn- 
 ing as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, and 
 in military tactics, "in order to promote the liberal and 
 practical education of the industrial classes in the several 
 pursuits and professions of life." And it further declares 
 that "such other branches of science and knowledge may 
 be embraced in the plan of instruction and investigation 
 pertaining to the University, as the trustees may deem use- 
 ful and proper." The University, organized in accordance 
 with the requirements of its charter, was opened on the sev- 
 enth of October, 1868. 
 
 Faculty. — (Arranged, with the exception of the Officers 
 of the Faculty, in the order of seniority of appointment), 
 Hon. Andrew Dickson White, LL.D., President, Professor 
 of History. Kev. William Dexter Wilson, DD., LL.D., 
 L.H.D., Registrar, Professor of Moral and Intellectual 
 Philosophy. Daniel Willard Fiske, A.M., Ph.D., Librarian, 
 Professor of North European Languages. George Chapman 
 Caldwell, B.S., Ph.D., Professor of Agricultural and Analy- 
 tical Chemistry, and Secretary of the Faculty. Burt Green 
 Wilder, B.S., M.D., Professor of Physiology, Comparative 
 Anatomy, and Zoology. James Law, F.K.C.V.S., Professor 
 of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery. Albert Nelson Pren- 
 tiss, M.S., Professor of Botany, Horticulture, and Arbori- 
 culture. John Lewis Morris, A.M., C.E., Sibley Professor 
 of Practical Mechanics and Machine Construction. Thomas 
 Frederick Crane, A.M., Professor of Spanish and Italian, 
 and Acting Professor of French. Ziba Hazard Potter, A.M., 
 M.D., LL.B., Assistant Professor of Mathematics, and 
 Medical Examiner. Charles Ashmead Schaefler, A.M., 
 Ph.D., Professor of General and Analytical Chemistry, and 
 of Mineralogy. Frederick Otto Louis Rcehrig, Ph.D., M.D., 
 Professor of Sanskrit and Living Asiatic Languages, and 
 Assistant Professor of French. Hiram Corson, A.M., LL.D., 
 Professor of Anglo-Saxon and English Literature, ^^'ater- 
 man Thomas Hewett, A.M., Ph.D., Assistant Professor of 
 German. Bela Phillips Mackoon, A.M., Associate Professor 
 of German. Alfred Stebbins, A.M., Assistant Professor of 
 South European Languages. Lucien Augustus Wait, A.B., 
 Associate Professor of Mathematics. Isaac Flagg, Ph. D., 
 Professor of the Greek Language and Literature. Charles 
 CUauncy Shackford, A.M., Professor of Rhetoric and 
 General Literature. Rev. Charles Babcock, A.M., Professor 
 of Architecture. James Edward Oliver, A.M., Professor of 
 Mathematics. William Arnold Anthony, Ph.B., Professor 
 of Physics and Experimental Mechanics. Estevan Antoni 
 Fuertes, Ph.B., C.E., Professor of Civil Engineering. Edwin 
 Chase Cleaves, B.S., Associate Professor oi" Freehand Draw- 
 ing and Mechanical Drawing. Isaac Phillips Roberts, 
 M.Agr., Professor of Agriculture. Abram Adam Brenemau, 
 B S., Professor of Industrial Chemistry, and Assistant Pro- 
 fessor of Analytical Chemistry. Charles Lee Crandall,C.E., 
 Assistant Professor of Engineering. Irving Porter Cliurch, 
 C.E., Assistant Professor of Engineering. Horatio Stevens 
 White, A.B., Professor of the German Language and Liter- 
 ature. John Henry Comstock, B.S., Assistant Professor of 
 Entomology, and Lecturer on the Zoology of Invertebrates. 
 William Russell Dudley, M.S., Assistant Professor of Botany. 
 James Brattle Burbank, Brevet Maj. 3d Art., U.S.A. Pro- 
 fessor of Military Science and Tactics. George William 
 Jones, A.M., Assistant Professor of Mathematics. Samuel 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 321 
 
 Gardner Williams, A.M., Ph.D., Professor of General and 
 Economic Geology. Henry Shaler Williams, Ph.D., Assis- 
 tant Professor of Palceontology. William Rufus Perkins, 
 A.B., Assistant Professor of Latin and Greek. George Syl- 
 vanus Moler, B.M.E., Assistant Professor of Physics Wil- 
 liam Gardner Hale, A.B., Professor of the Latiii Language 
 and Literature. Walter Craig Kerr, B.M.E., Assistant Pro- 
 iessor of Mechanics. John Burkitt Webb, C.E., Professor 
 of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Mechanics. Simon 
 Henry Gage, B,S., Assistant Professor of Physiology, and 
 Lecturer on Microscopical Technology. William Edward 
 Lucas, Ph,B., Assistant Professor of Rhetoric and Composi- 
 tion. Charles Francis Osborne, Assistant Professor of Ar- 
 chitecture. Moses Coit Tyler, LL.D., Professor oi' American 
 History and Literature. 
 
 Lecturers and Non-Resident Professors. — Goldwin Smith, 
 LL.D., L.H.D., Lecturer on English Constitutional History. 
 Charles Hallet Wing, B.S., Non-Resident Professor of Or 
 ganic Chemistry. Herbert Tuttle, A.M., Non-Re.sident Pro- 
 fessor of International Law. Henry Carter Adams, Ph.D., 
 Non-Resident Professor of Political Economy. Charles 
 Kendall Adams, LL.D., Non-Resident Professor of English 
 Constitutional History. Edward Augustus Freeman, D.C.L., 
 Oxon., Lecturer (for the current year) on General European 
 History. 
 
 Instructors. — Madison Monroe Garver, B.S., Instructor in 
 Chemistry and Mineralogy. Stephen Moulton Babcock, 
 Ph.D., Instructor in Chemistry. George Lincoln Burr, 
 A.B., Instructor and Examiner in Modern History. 
 
 Other Officers. — Wesley Newcomb, M.D., Curator of the 
 Newcomb Collection of Shells. George William Harris, 
 Ph.D., Assistant Librarian. Spencer Baird Newbury, E.M., 
 Ph.D., Chemical Analyst to the Agricultural Station. Ben- 
 jamin Hermon Smith, Director of the University Press. 
 George W. Tailby, Foreman of the Farm. Miles Lorin 
 Clinton, Foreman of the Machine Shop. Albert Franklin 
 Matthews, Master of the Chimes, William Ogden Kerr, 
 Meteorological Observer. Ernest Emmery Russell, Janitor. 
 
 Chemistry and Physics. — The President, Professor Schaef- 
 fer. Professors Anthony, Caldwell, Breneman, and Moler. 
 
 Civil Engineering. — The President, Professor Fuertes 
 Professors Anthony, Babcock, Morais, Oliver, Schaeflerj 
 Church, and Crandall. 
 
 Mathematics. — The President, Profe.ssor Oliver, Professors 
 Anthony, Babcock, Fuertes, Morris, Webb, Wait, Jones, 
 and Potter. 
 
 The Sibley College of Mechanic Arts. — The President, Pro- 
 fessor Morris, Professors Anthony, Babcock, Fuertes, Webb, 
 Oliver, Kerr, and Cleaves. 
 
 Admission. — All candidates for admission, except those 
 provided with certificates or diplomas as specified below, are 
 examined as follows : 
 
 1. In English Grammar; Whitney's Essentials of the 
 English Grammar is the standard. A short compo.sition is 
 required as a test of the candidate's knowledge of spelling, 
 punctuation, the use of capitals, and elementary English 
 construction. 
 
 2. In Geography, voV\t\c2\ and physical ; as much as is con- 
 tained in Harper's School Geography, or in Warren's Com- 
 mon School Geography. 
 
 3. In Physiology; as presented in the smaller text-books 
 upon the subject, exclusive of the nervous system and the 
 names of bones and muscles. 
 
 4. In ^rittTOeiic, including the metric system of weights and 
 measures ; as much as is contained in the larger text-books. 
 
 6. In Plane Geometry ; as much as is contained in the first 
 five books of Chauvenet's Treatise on Elementary Geometry, 
 or in the first five books of Wentworth's Elements of Plane 
 and Solid Geometry, or in the first five books of Newcomb's 
 Elements of Geometry. 
 
 6. In Elementary Algebra, through quadratic equations,'and 
 including radicals and the theory of exponents ; as much as 
 is contained in the first twelve sections of Loomis' s Treatise 
 on Algebra, or in Olney's Elementary Course in Algebra, or 
 in the first five sections of Robinson's University Algebra. 
 
 In place of these examinations certain certificates or 
 diplomas are received as follows : 
 
 1. Certificates issued by the Regents of the State of New 
 York are accepted instead of the examinations in English 
 Grammar, Geography, and Arithmetic. 
 21 
 
 2. O'-rtificates issued by the Superintendent of Public 
 Instruction of the State of New York, and Diplomas issued 
 by the state normal schools, and by those academies and high 
 schools of the State of New York whose requirements for 
 graduation have been approved by the Faculty, and whose 
 course of study requires Physiology and Plane Geometry, 
 are accepted instead of the examinations in all the subjects 
 named above except Algebra. 
 
 3. Diplomas issued by the Regents to graduates from the 
 high schools and academies of the State of New York are 
 accepted instead of the examinations in all the subjects 
 named. 
 
 Candidates must be of good moral character and at least 
 sixteen years of age, or, if women, seventeen. 
 
 The requirements for admission to the courses in Agricul- 
 ture, Architecture, Civil Engineering and Mechanic Arts, are 
 the same as those for admission to the University ; but for 
 admission to any of the other regular courses of study, the 
 examinations, in addition to the Primary Examinations are 
 as follows: 
 
 2b tlie Courses in Science, Science and Letters, Mathematics, 
 and Chemistry and Physics. 
 
 In addition to the primary Examination, an examination 
 in any one of the following sets of subjects; 
 
 1. In French, the principles of French Grammar, the 
 translation of English into French, and three books of 
 Voltaire's Charles XII or its equivalent; or, 
 
 2. In German, the whole of Whitney's German Grammar, 
 translation of German at sight, the translation of English 
 into German, and one hundred pages of Whitney's Reader, 
 including two of the longer prose extracts or an equivalent , or 
 
 3. In Mathematics, Solid Geometry and Conic Sections, as 
 much as is contained in Newcomb's Elements of Geometry ; 
 Advanced Algebra, as much as is contained in Olney's Uni- 
 versity Algebra, or in Newcomb's Algebra; and Trigono- 
 metry, Plane and Spherical, as much as is contained in 
 Wheeler's Elements of Trigonometry, or in the unstarred 
 portions of Oliver, Wait, and Jones's Treatise on Trigono- 
 metry. 
 
 Admission to Special Departments. — Any person at least 
 twenty-one years of age, and having satisfactory attainments, 
 may be admitted without examination, by a vote of the Fac- 
 ulty, to any of the Departments in which either laboratory 
 work or drafting is required, on the recommendation of the 
 professor in charge of the department. Such special stu- 
 dents are required to devote at least fifteen hours a week to 
 the work of the department which they have entered, and to 
 renew their application for admission at the end of each 
 year. 
 
 Admission to Advanced Studies. — Candidates for admission 
 to advanced studies in any course are required to pass, in 
 addition to the entrance examinations for that course, ex- 
 aminations in the work already performed by the classes 
 which they design to enter. 
 
 Candidates from Other Colleges. — Certificates of honorable 
 dismissal from other colleges are received in place of the 
 Primary Examination only, and when offered by those who 
 have passed at least one terrns examinations at the insti- 
 tution granting such dismissal. No person, whether from 
 another college or not, is admitted to advanced studies ex- 
 cept after examination as above stated. 
 
 Admission to Graduate Study. — Students are admitted to 
 graduate study after having taken a baccalaUreate degree in 
 this University, or on presenting the diploma of any equiva- 
 lent degree conferred elsewhere ; they are at liberty to attend 
 lectures, recitations, or other exercises of undergraduates, 
 and to use the library, museums, etc. They are expected to 
 pursue some study of advanced character under the direction 
 of a professor or a special faculty. 
 
 Mechaxic Akts.— In 1870, Hon. Hiram Sibley, of Roch- 
 ester, N. Y., provided for the erection of a suitable lauilding 
 for the Department of Jlechanic Arts. He also gave ten 
 thousand dollars for increasing its equipment of tools, 
 machines, etc., and has since made a further gift of thirty 
 thousand dollars for the endowment of the professorship of 
 the Practical Mechanics and Machine Construction. Still 
 later, he provided the means for erecting and fitting up a 
 brass and iron foundry, and a blacksmith shop. Closely 
 
322 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 connected with the lecture-rooms are the rooms for freehand 
 and mechanical drawing, the designing of machinery, and 
 pattern-making, and the machine shop. The shop practice 
 embraces work requiring the use of all hand-tools and the 
 machines employed in the ordinary )nachine shops. Each 
 student in the department is required to devote two hours a 
 day to work in the shop ; but such students as have, before 
 entering, acquired sufficient practical knowledge, are admit- 
 ted to advanced standing. Attendance is required upon ten 
 lectures or recitations a week, or their equivalent, in addition 
 to two hours daily drawing, two hours daily shop-work, and 
 the passing of the examinations at the close of each term. 
 
 The machine shop is used for the sole purpose of giving 
 instruction in practical work. It is supplied with lathes of 
 various kinds, planers, grinding machinery, drillingmachines, 
 shaping machines, a universal milling machine fitted for 
 cutting plane, bevel, and spiral gears, spiral cutters, twist 
 drills, with additional tools and attachments for graduating 
 scales and circles, and for working various forms and shapes. 
 In addition to the hand and lathe tools of the usual kinds 
 there are tools of the greatest accuracy, consisting of stand- 
 ard surface-plates, straight-edges, and squares of various 
 sizes, a standard measuring machine, measuring from zero 
 to twelve inches by the ten-thousandth of an inch, a univer- 
 sal grinding machine for producing true cylindrical and coni- 
 cal forms, and a set of Betts's standard gauges. In the iron 
 and brass foundry and the blacksmith shop, instruction is 
 given in molding, casting, and forging. The cupola used 
 is one of Colliau's improved, with a capacity of melting one 
 ton of iron per hour. For the purpose of instruction in ex- 
 perimental work there is a twenty-ton Riehle testing machine, 
 arranged for testing the strength of materials by tension, 
 compression, and transverse strain ; Richards's and Thomp- 
 son's steam-engine indicators, and Amsler's planometer; 
 Schaeffer & Budenberg's revolution counter, steam-gauges, 
 injector, inspirator, pop-valve, steam pump; Baldwin's link 
 and valve motion, experimental valve motion, together with 
 a large collection of brass, iron, and wooden models illus- 
 trative of mechanical principles. The course of instruction 
 in mechanical drawing is progressive, from geometrical draw- 
 ing to the designing of machines and the making of complete 
 working drawings. The appliances for instruction consist of 
 several hundred drawings selected from those of technical 
 schools abroad, and from representative American steam- 
 engine makers and others; of photographs, models, and 
 machines; and of apparatus used in copying by the "blue 
 print process." 
 
 The Course in Mechanic Arts. — Leading to the Degree of 
 Bachelor of Jlecbanical Engineering. 
 
 First Year — First I'c.nn — German, 5 ; geometry and conic sec- 
 tions, 5; freeiiand drawing, 3; shop- work, 3. 
 
 Second 2'erm— German, 5 ; algebra, 5 ; freehand drawing, 3 ; 
 shop-work, 3. 
 
 Third Term — German, 5; trigonometry, 5; geometrical drawing, 
 3 ; shop-work, 3. 
 
 Second Year. — First Term — German, 3 ; rhetoric, 2 ; analyti- 
 cal geometiy, 5 ; experimental mechanics and heat, 3 ; shoii- 
 work, 3. 
 
 Second Term — German, 3 ; rhetoric, 2 ; calculus, 5 ; electricity 
 and magnetism, 3 ; shop-work, 3. 
 
 Third Term — Calculus, 5, descriptive geometry, text and draw- 
 ing, 4; mechanical drawing, 2; building materials, 3; sliop-work,3. 
 
 Third Year — First Term — Calculus and analyticalgeometry,5; 
 descriptive geometry, text and drawing, 6; mechanism, 3; shop- 
 work, 3. 
 
 Second Term — Mechanics of engineering, 5 ; mechanism, 3 ; 
 physics, laboratory work, 3 ; chemistry, 3 ; shop-work, 3. 
 
 Third Term — Mechanics of engineering, 5; mechanical drawin:^, 
 with shades, tinting, and perspective, 3 ; physics, laboratory worlc, 
 3 ; chemistry, 3 ; shojvwork, 3. 
 
 Fourth Year. — First Term — Mechanics of engineering, 5; 
 mechanical and working drawin.;s, 3 ; physics, laboratory work, 3 ; 
 steam-engine, 3; shop-work, 3. 
 
 Second Term — Mechanical drawing, 4 ; steam-engine, 3 ; metal- 
 lurgy, 2; experimental work with indicators, governors, pump-:, 
 amriujectors, 3 ; shop-work, 3. 
 
 Third Term — Graphical statics^ 3 ; field practice and the use of 
 instruments, 3; industrial chemistry, 3; technical reading and 
 preparation of thesis, 3; shop-work, 3. 
 
 Graduate CouRSE.—First Te/™ — Machines for regulating, 
 counting, etc., 3 ; mechanical or physical experiments, or oliciniitry, 
 3 ; riparian laws, contracts, patent office laws, etc., 2. Elective, 7. 
 
 Second Term — Machines for change of form, 3; mechanical or 
 physical experiments, or chemistry, 3 ; technical reading, 2. Elec- 
 tive 7. 
 
 Third Term — Locomotive machines, hoists, cranes, etc., 3; me- 
 chanical or physical experiments, or chemistry, 3 ; shop systems and 
 accounts, 2. Elective, 7. 
 
 The elective studies are hydraulics, assaying, mineralogy and 
 blow-pipe analysis, chemical laboratory practice, physics facoustics 
 and optics), motors other than steam, architecture, civil engineer- 
 ing, sliop-work, mathematics, botany, French, rhetoric, history, 
 literature. 
 
 The White Architectural Library contains over one thou- 
 sand volumes, and the photographic gallery nearly two 
 thousand prints, all accessible to the student. SeVen 
 hundred drawings, and about two hundred models in wood 
 and stone have been prepared to illustrate the constructive 
 forms and peculiarities of the different styles. 
 
 Civil Engineering. — The instruction is given by means 
 of lectures and recitations, with drafting and field laboratory 
 practice. The field work embraces the usual operations and 
 the more recent methods of land, railroad, and subterranean 
 surveying, together with hydrography and geodetic prac- 
 tice; and since 1874 the Department of Civil Engineering 
 has been engaged in the surveys of the hydrographic basin 
 of central New York, as a contribution to the goedetic sur- 
 veys of the United States Government. Laboratory practice 
 is provided in chemistry, mineralogy, metallurgy, geology, 
 physics, and civil engineering. The .students of this de- 
 partment receive instruction in an extended course of 
 mechanics, as applied to engineering, and their professional 
 preparation comprises the following subjects : The location 
 and constructions of railroads, canals, and water-works ; the 
 construction of foundations, in water and on land, and of 
 superstructures and tunnels; the surveys, improvements, 
 and defenses of coasts, harbors, rivers, and lakes ; the deter- 
 mination of astronomical co-ordinates; the application of 
 mechanics, graphical statics, and descripti-ve geometry to 
 the constructions of the various kinds of right and oblique 
 arch bridges, roofs, trusses, and suspension bridges; the 
 design, construction and application of wind and hydraulic 
 motors ; air, electric, and heat engines, and pneumatic 
 works ; the drainage of towns and the reclaiming of lands ; 
 the preparation of plans and specifications, and the proper 
 selection and tests of the materials used in constructions. 
 As a part of their instruction, students have frequent prac- 
 tice in the preparation of papers on subjects of professional 
 importance. An elementary course of lectures is given in 
 engineering and mining economy, finance and jurispru- 
 dence. To meet the growing demand for special training, 
 the five-year course has been arranged, allowing consider- 
 able option and diversity of studies to students wishing to 
 pursue special lines of study in bridge architecture, or in 
 railroad, mining, topographical, sanitary, geographical, elec- 
 trical, or industrial engineering. The five year course also 
 offers lines of continuous study of a historical, literary, or 
 scientific character, which may alternate with the prescribed 
 studies, and with architecture, general science and technology. 
 The special library of the department possesses many valu- 
 able works, among them the extensive publications recently 
 presented to it by the French government; and in addition, 
 the resources of the general library are available for the 
 purposes of the department. The engineering laboratories 
 contain various machines, models, and appliances for engi- 
 neering investigations. The engineering museum contains 
 the following collections, which receive regular additions 
 from yearly appropriations : 
 
 \. 'The Muret collection of models in descriptive geometry 
 and stone-cutting. 
 
 2. The De Lagrave general and special models in topogra- 
 phy, geognosy, and engineering. 
 
 3. A nearly complete collection of the Schroeder models 
 in descriptive geometry and stone-cutting, with some of the 
 Oliver models, and others made at the University. 
 
 4. The Grund and Sohn collections of bridge and track 
 details, roofs, and trusses, supplemented by similar models by 
 Schroeder and other makers. 
 
 5. A complete railroad bridge of one-hundred feet span, 
 the model being one-fourth of the natural scale. 
 
 6. The Digeon collection of working models in hydraulic 
 engineering. 
 
 7. Several collections of European photographs of en- 
 gineering works during the process of construction; and 
 many other photographs, diagrams, and models. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 323 
 
 8. The following instruments of precision for astronomical 
 purposes: a Troughton & Simms' transit, a universal in- 
 strument by the same makers reading to single seconds, 
 three sextants, two astronomical clocks, chronographs, chro- 
 nometers, two small equatorials, the larger of four and a half 
 inch aperture, made by Alvan Clark, and other instruments 
 necessary to the equipment of a training laboratory. 
 
 9. For geodetic work, a secondary base-line apparatus, 
 made under the direction of the Geodetic and Coast Survey 
 Office, and all the portable astronomical and field instru- 
 ments needed, including sounding machines, deep-water 
 thermometers, heliotropes, etc. 
 
 10. Among the coarser field instruments there is nearly 
 every variety of engineers transits, theodolites, levels aud 
 compasses; such modern instruments as omnimeters, ta- 
 cheometers, and tachometers, with a large number of special 
 instruments, such as planimeters, pantographs, eliptographs, 
 arithmometers, pocket altazimuths and sextants, hypsome- 
 ters, and meteorological instruments of all descriptions. 
 
 THE COITRSES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING. 
 
 /. A Four- Year Course.^Leading to the Degree of Baclilelor of 
 Civil Engineering. 
 
 FIRST YEAR. 
 
 First Term. — French or G2rman, 5 ; rhetoric, 2 ; geometry and 
 conic Sections, 5 ; freehand drawing, 3 ; hygiene, six lectures. 
 
 Second Term. — French or German, 5 ; rhetoric, 2 ; algebra, 5 ; 
 freehand drawing, 3; linear drawing 2. 
 
 Third Term. — Fteneh or German, o ; trigonometry, 5 ; descriptive 
 geomatry, text and drawing, '1 ; botany, 3; experimsntal mechanics 
 and heat, 3. 
 
 SECOND YEAR. 
 
 First Term. — French or German, 3 ; analytical geometry, 5 ; de- 
 scriptive geometry, text and drawing, 6; experimental mechanics 
 and heat, 3. 
 
 Second Term. French or Garman, 3; calculus, 5; pen topo- 
 graphy, 2 ; tinting an J shading, 2 ; electricity aud magnetism, 3 ; 
 chemistry, 2. 
 
 T/drd Ta'm. Calculus, 5 ; land surveying, 4 ; acoustics and op- 
 tics, 3 ; Chemistry, 3 ; teehuieal essays, 1. 
 
 Third Year.— J^Vrs* Term. Calculus, 5 ; shades, shadows aud 
 perspective. 3; topographical, majjping and sketching, 2 ; lettering, 
 1; kinematics, or physics, laboratory work, 3 ; teclmieal essays, 1. 
 
 Second Term. Mechanics of engineering, 5 ; detail drawing and 
 graining, 2 ; physics, laboratory work, 3 ; mineralogy or metallurgy, 
 2 ; geology, 3. 
 
 Third Term. Mechanics of engineering, 5 ; railroad surveying, 
 5 ; colored topography, 3 ; lettering, 2. 
 
 Fourth Year. — First Term. Mechanics of engineering 5; 
 spherical astronomy, 5 ; practical astronomy, night observations, 2 ; 
 Egyjitian, Greek and Roman architecture, or physics, laboratory 
 work, 3 ; stereotomy aud original problems, 3 ; civil engineering, 2 ; 
 technical essays, 1. 
 
 Second Term. Hydraulics, 5 ; higher geodesy, 5 ; mineralogy or 
 metallurgy, 2 ; stone-cutting and original problems and practice, 5. 
 
 Third Term. Hydraulic motors, 2 ; civil engineering, 3 ; eagin- 
 eering economy, 2 ; bridge stresses, 5 ; hydrographic surveying, chart- 
 making and geodesy, field-work, 3 ; preparation of thesis. 
 
 Students in the courses in civil engineering are required to write 
 memoirs upon professional subjects of their own selection before the 
 close of the spring term, and these memoirs are presented on the 
 first Friday of the following term. The memoir of the last two 
 years must contain original investigations. On the satisfactory 
 completion of the above four-year course, students take the degree 
 of Bachelor of Civil Engineering, and become entitled to all the 
 privileges of resident graduates. 
 
 11. A Fjve-year Cottese. — Leading to the degree of Civil 
 Engineer. — The first four years are the same as in the four-year 
 course. Tlie choice of electives in the fifth year is subject to the 
 approval of the dean of the department. Students in the fifth year 
 pay no tuition fees aud have all the privileges of resident graduates. 
 
 Fifth Year. — First Term. Riparian rights and law of con- 
 tracts, 3 ; bridge construction and details, 3 ; projects, designs and 
 specifications, 3, 
 
 Elcctim, 9 ; Greek history, 2 ; modem history, 3 ; psychology, 
 2; American history, 2 or 3; physiology and zoology, 5; lan- 
 guages, 2 ; technical reading, 2 ; renaissance architecture, 3 ; chem- 
 istry, laboratory work, 3 ; engineering, laboratory work, 3 ; physics, 
 laboratory work, 3; rock drills and air compressors, 3; the steam- 
 engine, 3 ; mining projects, 3 ; geology, 3 ; industrial chemistry, 3 ; 
 mathematics, 3. 
 
 Second Term. River and harbor improvements, 3 ; advanced as- 
 tronomy and geodesy, 3; technical reading, 2 ; projects, designs and 
 specifications, 2. 
 
 Elective, 8; Roman history, 2; American history 2 or 3; politi- 
 cal economy 2 ; languages, 2 ; pure or applied mathematics, 5 ; 
 zoology, 3; metallurgy, or mineralogy, 3; chemistry, laboratory 
 work, 3; Engineering, laboratory work, 3; Physics, laboratory 
 
 work, 3 ; Romanesque architecture, 3 ; the steam-engine, 3 ; mining 
 lirojects, 2 ; industrial chemistry, 3; geology, 3. 
 
 third Tei-m. Sanitary engineering, 3 ; locomotive machines, etc., 
 3 ; projects, designs and specifications, 2. 
 
 Elective, 6; Roman history, 3; American history, 2 or 3; lan- 
 guages, 3; pure or applied matl)euiatics, 4 ; historical or technical 
 reading, 3; geology, 3; chemistry, laboratory work, 3; Engin- 
 eering, laboratory "work, 3; Physics, iaboratoiy work, 3; Gothic 
 architecture, 3; pum)w and small machinery, 2; industrial chem- 
 istry, 3; mining j>rojects, 4 ; arch ribs, 3; geodesy, field-work. 
 
 MiNiNfi Engineering. — Although no department of Mi- 
 ning Engineering ha'3 yet been formally establi.shed, all the 
 main instruction required by a mining engineer is now 
 given, as follows : The professor of civil engineering and 
 his associates pay special attention to the needs of those in- 
 tending to connect themselves with the mining industries, 
 giving lectures on tunneling and on the theory and practice 
 of such constructions as are common to the professions of 
 the civil and mining engineer; the professor of mechanical 
 engineering and his associates pursue a like course, giving 
 instruction in mining machinery ; the professors of general 
 chemistry and mineralogy, of analytical chemistiy, and of 
 industrial chemistry, give instruction in metallurgy, assay- 
 ing, chemical analysis, and cognate subjects ; ths professors 
 of geology and palaeontology give instruction in the theory 
 and classification of ores, and in those branches relating to 
 chemical geology. It is intended, at an early day, to sup- 
 plement the existing force by the appointment of such 
 additional professors and lecturers as are necessary to the 
 establishment of a mining school for the most advanced 
 work, both as regards theory and practice. As it is, the 
 University, by its existing pro\'i.sion in the departments 
 named above, is enabled to give such instruction that a stu- 
 dent graduating in them can, in a very short time, make 
 himself acquainted with the practical processes; and, in all 
 probability, by the time any student now entering the exist- 
 ing departments shall be sufficiently advanced to need in- 
 struction in the more elaborate special processes connected 
 with mining, provision will have been fully made to give it. 
 
 The CouRSe op Mathematics — Leading to the Degree of 
 Bachelor of Science — First Term — French, 5, aud German, 3, or 
 German, 5, and French, 3; rhetoric, 2; geometry and conic sections, 
 5; hygiene, six lectuies. 
 
 Second Term — French, 5, and German, 3, or German, 5, and 
 French, 3 ; rhetoric, 2 ; algebra, 5 ; linear drawing, 2. 
 
 Third Term — French, 5, and Gei-man, 3, or German, 5, and 
 French, 3 ; I'hetoric, 2 ; trigonometiy, 5. 
 
 Second Year — First Term — Analytical geometiy, 5; mathe- 
 matical essays, 1 ; freehand drawing, 3 ; exi)enmeutal mechanics 
 and heat, 3; physiology, 3; composition and elocution, 1. 
 
 Second Tenn — Calculus, 5; mathematical es.says, 1; freehand 
 drawing, 3; electricity and magnetism, 3; cliemistry, 3; composi- 
 tion and elocution, 1. 
 
 Third Term — Calculus, 5 ; mathematical essays, 1 ; descriptive 
 geometry, text and drawing, 4; acoustics and 0]>tics, 3 ; chemistry, 
 3 ; composition aud elocution, 1. 
 
 Third Year — First Term — Calculus and analytical geometry, 
 5; determinants, 2; deseri])tive geometry, text aud drawing, 6; phy- 
 sics, laboratory work, 3 ; essays, 1. 
 
 Second Term — Difierential equation, 5; projective geometry, 3; 
 descriptive astronomy, 3; mathematical essays, 1; physics, lahora- 
 torv work, 3 ; essays aud orations, 1. 
 
 Third Term — DifTerential equations and finite diiferences, 5; ])hy- 
 sical astronomy, 3 ; mathematical essays, 1 ; physics, laboratory 
 work, 3 : botany, 3; essays and orations, 1. 
 
 Fourth Year — First Term — Imaginaries and elliptic functions, 
 3 ; mecauique analytique, 2 ; mathematical essays, 1 ; shades, sha- 
 dows, and ])erspective, 3; geology, 1; modern iiistory, 3; English 
 literature, 2. 
 
 Second Term — Imaginaries and e]li])tic functions, 3 ; mecanique 
 analytique, 2 ; quaternions, or modern methods in analytical geo- 
 metry, or applied mathematics, 5 ; mathematical essays, 1 ; philoso- 
 phy of history, 3; English literature, 2. 
 
 Third Term — Imaginaries and elliptic functions, 3; mecanique 
 analytique, 2 ; quaternions, modern or methods in analytical geo- 
 metry, or applied mathematics, 3 ; mathematical essays, 1 ; logic, 3 ; 
 Constitution of the United States, twelve lectures ; English litera- 
 ture, 2. 
 
 For most of the studies not closely connected with the Mathema- 
 tics substitutes are allowed. 
 
 To graduates and special students, instruction is offered in theory 
 of numbers, quantities, and celestial mechanics. 
 
 I. DESCRIPTIVE AND THEORETICAL CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Chemistry and Mineralogy.— The instruction be- 
 gins with lectures on inorganic chemistry in the second year, 
 
324 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and continues through two terms. Three lectures a week 
 are given on the theoretical principles and the general study 
 of the chemistry of inorganic bodies. During the first term 
 of the third year, a course of lectures is given on the chemis- 
 try of organic bodies. In addition to the final examination 
 at the end of the term, occasional examinations are held 
 during the term, of which no previous notice is given, the 
 students being expected to hold themselves in readiness lor 
 such an examination at all times. For laboratory instruc- 
 tion in this branch of the .subject a course of introductory 
 practice is given in the third term of the second year. This 
 course is required of students in the course in Science, and 
 of students in the course in Chemistry and Physics, and in 
 Agriculture ; it is required, further, of all students in other 
 courses who take chemical practice as an optional study, in 
 the beginning of their practice, except those who can give 
 only the minimum amount of the time (seven and a half 
 hoursaweek) for two or three terms, and who for sufficient rea- 
 sons desire to devote all that time to chemical analysis. This 
 introductory practice consists in the performance by the 
 student of a series of experiments illustrating the more im- 
 portant general principles of the science. The details of the 
 manipulation of each experiment are carefully described, 
 but the results to be obtained are not given. For the better 
 cultivation of the student's powers of observation he is re- 
 quired to observe and describe these results for himself, and 
 trace their ccmnection with the principles which they are 
 intended to illustrate. The instruction in theoretical chem- 
 istry is continued in the course in Chemistry and Physics by 
 recitations in chemical philosophy, and by lectures on 
 organic chemistry. 
 
 Metallurgy and Mineralogy. — During the second term two 
 lectures a week are devoted to each of these subjects in alter- 
 nate years. The course in Metallurgy is intended to give 
 the students in the technical courses a general idea of fuels, 
 ores, and the most important methods of extracting the var- 
 ious metals which are especially used in construction, the 
 metallurgy of iron claiming naturally the most atten- 
 tion. A certain amount of laboratory work in blowpipe anal- 
 ysis, with jjractioe in the identification of crystalline forms, 
 is required in connection with the lectures on mineralogy. 
 In the course in Civil Engineering a course of practice in 
 blowpipe analysis is provided, which is intended to give to 
 engineers such facility in the use of the blowpipe in deter- 
 minative mineralogy as will enable them to avail themselves 
 of this useful instrument in their field work, for the deter- 
 mination of the character of rocks and minerals. 
 
 Chemical Laboratory. — A new building for the department 
 of Chemistry and Physics has recently been begun, and will 
 be ready for occupation about January, 1883. This building 
 will contain all the necessary space for a museum, a library, 
 laboratories, lecture-rooms, and other rooms, and will be 
 thoroughly equipped with the most recent and approved ap- 
 pliances for the proper prosecution of the work of the 
 department. The chemical laboratory now iu use contains, 
 besides two lecture-rooms and the private laboratories of the 
 professors, laboratories for students, with accommodations 
 for two hundred. It is provided with gas and a full supply 
 of apparatus for wet analysis, dry assaying, blowpipe, spec- 
 troscopic, and all other branches of chemical analysis. Its 
 reading-room contains the best English, French, and Ger- 
 man works of reference, and the current numbers of the 
 chemical journals. 
 
 The Course in Chemistry and Physics.— Leading to the 
 Decree of Bachelor of Science. 
 
 FlKST Yeak.— /'"/>s< 7'frm— French, 5, and Gernjan, .•?, or Ger- 
 man, 5, and French, 3 ; rhetoric, ? ; geometry anJ eonic sections, 5 ; 
 hygiene, six lectures. 
 
 'iSecond Term— French, 5; and Qernjan 3, or Gc-rman, 5, ami 
 French, 3 ; rhetoric, 2 ; algebra, 5, 
 
 T/iird Term — French, 5, and Gei-maH, 3, or German, 5, and French, 
 3; rhetoric, 2; trigonometry, 5. 
 
 Second Ysa-r.— First Term— French or German, 3 ; composi- 
 tion and elocution, 1 ; analytical geometry, 5 ; experimental me- 
 chanics and heat, 3 ; chemistry, laboratory work, 3. 
 
 Second Term — French or German, 3; electricity andmigneti.sm, 
 3; chemistry, lectures, 3; laboratory work, 8. 
 
 Third JV'/m— French or German, 3 ; acoustics and optics, 3 ; 
 chemistry, lectures, 3, laboratory work, 5 ; botany, 3. 
 
 Third Year. — First T'eo/i—Phy.sics, laboratory work, 3; chemi- 
 cal i)hilosophy, 3 ; chemistry, laboratory work, 7 ; geolii;.,'y 3. 
 
 Second Term, — Physics, laboratory work, 3; chemical philosophy, 
 
 3; organic chemistry, 1 ; chemistry, laboratory work, 5; minera- 
 logy or metallurgv, 2 ; economic geology, 3. 
 
 ^hird Term— Physics, laboratory work, 3; cheuiical philosophy, 
 3; industrial chemistry, 2; cliemistry, laboratory work, 7 
 
 Fourth Year. — First Term — Physics, laboratory \york, 4; 
 organic chemistry, 1 ; chemistry, laboratory work, 8 ; history of 
 ])hilosophv, 3. 
 
 Second 'Tenn^-'Ph.ysics, laboratory work, 4; organic chemistry, 
 2 ; chemistry, laboratory work, 8 ; metallurgy or mineralogy, 2. 
 
 Third Terjn— Industrial chemistry, 2; chemistry, processes, 2, 
 laboratory work, 8; organic chemistry, 1. 
 
 Instruction is given in general and economic Geology 
 and Lithology by means of lectures, laboratory practice, 
 and field work. The lectures consist of a course on general 
 Geology in the first term, a course on economic Geolo- 
 gy in the second term ; and, in the third term, a course 
 on physical geography, designed to show the action of geo- 
 logical agencies in fitting the earth for human habitation. 
 The laboratory work consists of a progressive series of 
 exercises in determinative mineralogy and lithology ; and 
 of exercises in the preparation of geological sections and 
 maps from the data furnished by government reports. Dur- 
 ing the first and third terms there are frequent excursions 
 and lessons in field work. To advanced students, oppor- 
 tunities are offered for the microscopic investigation of min- 
 erals and rocks, and for the extended study of important 
 mineral districts, with the preparations of reports thereon, 
 and discussions of the metallurgical methods and applian- 
 ces adapted to their products. The rocks of Ithaca and 
 its neighborhood afford ample material for study and origi- 
 nal research. 
 
 Laboeatory. — The laboratory is furnished with the ap- 
 pliances needful for successful study, and these appliances 
 have been greatly increased during the past year. Among 
 other things, it has numerous maps, wall tablets, engravings 
 of geological objects, and magic-lantern slides. Large and 
 important additions have also been made to the lithological 
 collections. 
 
 The Library. — The Library contains about forty thou- 
 sand volumes, besides fifteen thousand pamphlets. It is 
 made up chiefly of the following collections : A selection 
 of about five thousand volumes purchased in Europe in 
 1868, embracing works illustrative of agriculture, the me- 
 chanic arts, chemistry, engineering,, the natural sciences, 
 ])hysiology, and veterinary surgeryj The Authon Library, of 
 nearly seven thousand volumes, consisting of the collection 
 made by the late Professor Charles Authon, of Columbia Col- 
 lege in the ancient classical languages and literature, besides 
 works in history and general literature ; the Bopp Library, 
 of about twenty-five hundred volumes, being the collection 
 of the late Professor Franz Bopp, of the University of Ber- 
 lin, relating to oriental languages, oriental literature, and 
 comparative philology ; the Goldwin Smith Library, of 
 thirty-five hundred volumes, presented in 1869 to the Uni- 
 versity by Professor Goldwin Smith, comprising chiefly his- 
 torical works, and editions of the English and ancient clas- 
 sics — increased during later years by the continued liberality 
 of the donor; the publications of the Patent Office of Great 
 Britain, about three thousand volumes, of great importance 
 to the student iu technology .and to scientific investigators ; 
 the White Architectural Library, a collection of over a 
 thousand volumes relating to architecture and kindred 
 branches of science, given by President White; the Kelly 
 Mathematical Library, comprising eighteen hundred vol- 
 umes and seven hundred tracts, presented by the late Hon. 
 William Kelly, of Rhinebeck ; the Cornell Agricultural 
 Library, bought by the Hon. Ezra Cornell, chiefly in 1868; 
 the Sparks Library, being the library of the late Jaied 
 Sparks, President of Harvard University, consisting of 
 upwards of five thousand volumes and lour thousand pam- 
 phlets, relating chiefly to the history of America; the May 
 Collection, relating to the history of slavery and anti- 
 slavery, the nucleus of which was formed by the gift of the 
 library of the late Rev. Samuel .1. May, cf Syracuse. By 
 the establishmeat of the McGraw Library Fund, the income 
 of which will be available after the present year, and which 
 is to be a|)plied to the support and increase of the Univer- 
 sity Library, the eflicieucy of the Library, both as regards 
 the number of books and the facilities for their use, 
 will be greatly enlarged. Beginning this year, it is pro- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 325 
 
 posed to issue a serial containing classified lists of recent 
 iiccessions and of books ia various departments, as well i\s 
 other bibliographical matter intended to assist students in 
 their use of the Library. The Library is a circulating one, 
 so far as the members of the Faculty are concerned, and a 
 library of reference for students. Undergraduates have free 
 access to a collection of cyclopoedias, dictionaries, and works 
 of reference in the various departments of study, but they 
 apply to the librarians for other works desired. Graduate 
 students are admitted to the alcoves. 
 
 Graduation. — No person may receive a baccalaureate 
 degree who has not spent four entire years in the University, 
 unless he has pursued elsewhere part of the studies of his 
 course Students admitted to advanced studies must, before 
 the close of their first year, pass examination on the pre- 
 vious work of the classes they enter. Each student is re- 
 quired, before taking a degree, to submit to the Faculty a 
 satisfactory oration, poem or essay on some subject in science 
 or literature, and to deposit a copy in the Library. The 
 degree of Bachelor of Science is conferred after the satisfac- 
 tory completion of any one of the following courses : 
 Science, Science and Letters, Chemistry and Physics, 
 Mathematics, and Natural History. The particular course 
 is specified in the diploma. The degrees of Bachelor of 
 Arts, of Literature, of Philosophy, of Agriculture, of Archi- 
 tecture, of Civil Engineering, and of Mechanical Engineer- 
 ing are conferred after the satisfactory completion of the 
 corresponding courses. The degree of Bachelor of Philoso- 
 phy is also conferred after the satisfactory completion of the 
 course in History and Political Science. The degree of 
 Bachelor of Veterinary Sciense is conferred only after the 
 completion of a full course of four years in that department. 
 No person is allowed to receive more than one degree at the 
 same Commencement. 
 
 Advanced Degrees. — Graduate courses of study leading 
 to advanced degrees are provided for in the following 
 general departments : Chemistry and Physics, Mathematics, 
 Natural History ; History and Political Science ; Compara- 
 tive Philology, Ancient Classical Langua^s and Literature, 
 Modern European Languages and Literature, Oriental 
 Languages and Literature ; Philosophy and Letters. A 
 graduate who desires to take an advanced degree should ap- 
 ply to the Faculty to be admitted as a candidate for that 
 degree and in his application should state in what depart- 
 ments he wishes to work. The degree of Master of Arts or 
 Master of Science is conferred on those who have taken the 
 corresponding baccalaureate degree here, or elsewhere where 
 ' the requirements for that degree are equal to those of this 
 University, on the following conditions : 
 
 1. The candidate must spend at least one year at the 
 University in a course of study marked out for him by the 
 Faculty, must present a satisfactory thesis, and pass an ex- 
 amination. 
 
 2. The same degrees are conferred without residence on 
 graduates of this University only, on conditions the same in 
 all respects as above, except that the degree is not given until 
 three years after the baccalaureate degree has been conferred 
 
 3. Any person who has taken a baccalaureate degree in 
 this University may become a candidate for either of the 
 above second degrees by passing such additional examina- 
 tion as may be required for the corresponding first degree. 
 
 The degree of Master of Science is conferred on graduates 
 in the course in Philosophy on the same conditions as if 
 they had been graduated in the course of Science. The de- 
 gree of Civil Engineer is conferred (1) on bachelors of Civil 
 Engineering, after two years of study and practice, on pass- 
 ing the requisite examination and presenting a satisfactory 
 thesis ; (2) on those who have completed the five-year 
 course, at their graduation. The degree of Doctor of Veteri- 
 nary Medicine is conferred on bachelors of Veterinary Sci- 
 e.ice after two years of additional study, on passing the re- 
 quisite examination. The degree of Doctor of Physiology is 
 conferred on graduates of this University, and of other uni- 
 versities and colleges whose requirements for the baccalaure- 
 ate degree are equal to those of this University, on the follow- 
 ing conditions : 
 
 1. In order to become a candidate the applicant must 
 have, over and above what is required for graduation in the 
 course in Philosophy, a knowledge of Greek equal to that 
 required for admission to the course in Arts. 
 
 2. The candidate must spend at least two yeare at the 
 University pursuing a course of study marked out by the 
 Faculty as leading to this degree. 
 
 3. He must, at least six weeks before Commencement, 
 present a meritorious thesis upon some subject included in 
 the course, and pass the requisite examination. 
 
 The degree of Doctor of Science is conferred on graduates 
 of this University, and of other universities and colleges 
 whose requirements for the baccalaureate degree are equal 
 to those of this University, on the following conditions ; 
 
 1. In order to become a candidate the applicant must 
 have a knowledge of Latin and Greek at least equal to that 
 required for admission to the course in Natural History ; a 
 knowledge of French and German equal to that required for 
 graduation in the course in Science ; a knowledge of science, 
 of literature, and of philosophy equal to that required for 
 graduation in the course in Philosophy, 
 
 2. The candidate must spend at least three years, two of 
 them at this University, in the study of not less than two 
 scientific subjects, approved by the Faculty, in one or more 
 of the departments of Chemistry and Physics, Mathematics, 
 and Natural History. 
 
 3. He must pass an examination upon these subjects, 
 showing in one of them special attainments, and must pre- 
 sent a meritorious thesis based on special investigations, or 
 make some other contribution to science. 
 
 Candidates for the degree of Doctor are required to print 
 their thesis and deposit ten copies in the Library. Other 
 candidates for advanced degrees are required to deposit one 
 copy. No student in a graduate course is allowed to take 
 two degrees for the same course, to take any inferior degree 
 for any part of the study that leads to a higher one, or to be 
 a candidate for more than one degree at the same time. 
 Candidates for a second degree are required to make appli- 
 cation to the Registrar and present their thesis at least 
 -twenty days before Commencement. The examinations for 
 advanced degrees are held during the second week before 
 Commencement. 
 
 Miscellaneous Information. — ^The academic year is 
 divided into three terms, and there are three vacations. 
 Commencement day is the third Thursday in June. The 
 first term begins, after a vacation of thirteen weeks, on the 
 Tuesday following the eleventh day of September, and ends 
 on the Friday after the fourteenth day of December. The 
 second term begins on the Tuesday after the second day of 
 January ; except when, in leap-year, that Tuesday is the 
 third day of January, in which case it begins on the Tues- 
 day after the third day. It ends on the Friday after the 
 twenty-third day of March. The third term begins on the 
 second Saturday after the end of the second term, the in- 
 struction begins on the Monday following, and continues 
 until Commencement. For the terms and vacations of the 
 present academic year, see the calendar. Persons wishing 
 more detailed information than is given here as to 
 courses of study, methods of instruction, and the like, may 
 address the professor in charge of the department concerned. 
 Candidates for admission will obtain permits for examina- 
 tion at the Registrar's office (in the south University build- 
 ing), and the results of examinations may be ascertained 
 from the Registrar. Each person, upon admission, receives 
 a copy of the " Rules for the Guidance of Students," and is 
 thereafter supposed to be acquainted with its contents. The 
 registration day for each term is indicated in the calendar. 
 On that day each student qualified for admission, whether 
 previously a member of the University or not, is required 
 to give notice of his studies for the term to the Registrar in 
 person and obtain a ticket of registration. No person is 
 allowed to register at any other time, except by permission 
 of the Faculty. In order to join any class, the student must 
 show his registration ticket to the instructor in charge. A 
 printed schedule of the University exercises is issued at the 
 beginning of each term. Most of the lectures and recita- 
 tions occur between the hours of 8 A. M. and 1 P. M., from 
 Monday to Friday inclusive. Eveiy student is required to 
 take the equivalent of fifteen hours of recitations a week, 
 exclusive of military drill. Two and a-half hours of labora- 
 tory practice, or three hours of drafting or shop-work, are 
 regarded as the equivalent of one recitation. The regular 
 examinations in all studies are held at the end of each term. 
 Failure at examination entails forfeiture of position in the 
 
326 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 class, or exclusion from the course, or, in some cases, from 
 the University. The course-hook affords the student an op- 
 portunity of preserving a record of his examination ; it is 
 procurable at the bookstores, and the entries in it are made 
 by the Registrar, or by tlie heads of departments. The fee 
 for tuition is $25 a term, payable within ten days after re- 
 gistration. Tuition is free to state students, to resident gra- 
 duates, and to students pursuing either of the prescribed 
 courses in Agriculture, and intending to complete that course. 
 Every person taking laboratory practice in Chemistry, Phys- 
 ics, Zoology, or Entomology, must deposit with the Treasurer 
 security for the materials to be used in the laboratory. 
 Students residing in the University buildings are required 
 to pay their rooiii-bills one term in advance. All members 
 of the University are held responsible for any injury done 
 by them to its property. A fee of $5, to cover expenses of 
 graduation, degrees, etc., is charged to each person taking 
 the baccalaureate degree ; a fee of $10, to each person tak- 
 ing an advanced degree. These fees must be paid at least 
 three days before Commencement. 
 
 Expenses ov Residence — The following U a fair estimate of 
 the yearly expenses : Tuition, $25 a terra, $75; Koom, board, lights, 
 fuel, and laundry, about $200 ; Text-books, etc., about .$25 ; Total, 
 $300. 
 
 The cost for board, rent of furnished room, fuel and lights 
 at the Sage College, varies from $5 to $6.50 a week. A stu- 
 dent occupying alone one of the most desirable rooms, pays 
 $6 50 a week. If two occupy such a room together, the 
 price is $5.75. Those occupying less desirable rooms, with 
 two in a room, pay $5 a weelc each. The entire building is 
 warmed by steam, and, in most cases, the sleeping apartment 
 is separate from the study-room. The expense of living in 
 Ithaca varies, for board, room, fuel, and lights, from $4 to 
 $7 a week. In many cases students, by the formation of 
 clubs, reduce their expenses to sums ranging from $2.60 to 
 $3.50 a week for board. In the year 1881, the sum of forty- 
 five thousand dollars was bequeathed by Mrs. Jenny Mc- 
 Graw Fiske as a provision for the care of students who may 
 fall ill during their attendance at the University. It is pro- 
 posed that a portion of this sum be devoted to the erection 
 of a cottage hospital, made comfortable and attractive, and 
 thoroughly equipped in all respects ; and that a trained nurse 
 be attached to it, who shall be ready to give attention the 
 moment it is needed. 
 
 State Scholarships.— The laws of the State of New 
 York [chap. 585, ?9, chap. 654, ?1 1 prpvide that the Univer- 
 sity '"shall annually receive students, one from each assem- 
 bly district in the State, to be selected as hereinafter pro- 
 vided, and shall give them instruction in any or in all the 
 ])rescribed branches of study in any department of said insti- 
 tution, free of any tuition fee, or of any incidental charges, 
 to be paid to said university, unless such incidental charges 
 shall have been made to compensate for damages needlessly 
 or purposely done by the students to the property of said 
 university." There are one hundred twenty-eight assembly 
 districts, and therefore one hundred twenty-eight free schol- 
 arships, each good for four years. The law provides that 
 " the candidates in each county or city shall meet at such 
 place and time in the year as the school commissioner or 
 commissioners of the county and the boards of education of 
 the cities in those counties which contain cities, shall ap- 
 point; and the said commissioner or commissioners, and the 
 said board of education, or such of them as shall attend and 
 act, shall j^roceed to examine said candidates and determine 
 which of them are the best scholars. The law is mandatory 
 and imposes upon school commissioners of counties and 
 boards of education of cities the duty, which they cannot 
 avoid, of holding such competitive examinations once each 
 year. It is understood to confer a right upon every person 
 who is qualified to enter the examination, and who desires 
 to obtain the scholarship, to have such an examination hold ; 
 and it is believed that any such candidate for the scholarship 
 can enforce his right, if need be, by an appeal to the proper 
 state authorities. The law which requires the examination 
 to be held, requires also, by implication, that due public 
 notice shall be given of the time and place. When it shall 
 be held and where it shall be held, is left to the discretion 
 of the commissioners and the boards of education; but 
 
 doubtless it ought to be held in the summer after the close 
 of the public schools for the season, and before the begin- 
 ning of the fall term of the University. Only one examina- 
 tion can be held during the year in any o'ne county, and, 
 except to fill vacancies as below, appointments can be made 
 but once a year. I'he law does not designate the studies 
 upon which candidates shall be examined, nor have the 
 trustees of the University expressed any opinion on the 
 subject. 
 
 The law provides that "the said free instruction shall 
 moreover be accorded to said students in consideration of 
 their superior ability, and as a reward for superior scholar- 
 ship in the academies and public schools of this state. . . . 
 In making these selections preference shall be given (where 
 other qualifications are equal) to the sons of those who have 
 died in the military or naval service of the United States; 
 consideration shall be had also to the physical ability of the 
 candidate. . . . But in no case shall any person having al- 
 ready entered the said university be admitted as one of such 
 candidates." The trustees of the University understand the 
 law to mean that candidates must have been educated in 
 the academies or public schools of the state, and in the 
 county in which they offer themselves for the competition. 
 Not that they must necessarily be residents of the county 
 in which they seek the scholarship, but only that they have 
 attended an academy or public hchool long enough to be 
 entitled to be regarded as having obtained their education, 
 or at least a large part of it, in the county. The lengtli of 
 time is not fixed by law. They do not understand that a 
 person otherwise qualified to be a candidate, can be debarred 
 from entering the examination, in consequence of having 
 finished his studies and been out of school for one or two 
 years ; especially if during this time he has been occupied 
 in providing the means of defraying his expenses while 
 attending the University. Nor do they think that the lact 
 of his having been engaged out of the county during this 
 time and for the purpose above mentioned ought to work to 
 his disadvantage. 
 
 If, however, a person has been attending school, whether 
 a public or a private school, out of the county, for the 
 period which intervenes between his attendance upon the 
 schools in the county and his application to be received as a 
 candidate, this, they think, ought to exclude him from the 
 examination in that county. 
 
 The law provides that the school commissioners of coun- 
 ties and boards of education of cities shall determine by 
 the competive examination above noted which of the duly 
 qualified candidates " are the best scholars. " It says : 
 " And they shall then select therefrom to the number of 
 one from each assembly district in said county or city, and 
 furnish the candidates thus selected with a certificate of 
 such election, which certificate shall entitle said student to 
 admission to said university, subject to the examination 
 and approval of the faculty of said university." In decid- 
 ing upon the merits of the competitors and awarding the 
 certificates, no regard need be paid to the assembly district 
 in which the candidate has his residence, or has attended 
 school, but the certificate must name the district for which 
 the appointment is made. The certificate of scholarship 
 must in all cases be awarded on the basis of the competitive 
 examination, and not on any examination held otherwise 
 or elsewhere, or on any testimonials obtained from any 
 other source. In all cases of contested or duplicate certifi- 
 cates, the trustees have decided, and instructed their treas- 
 urer, to accept the first certificate that is regular on its face 
 and granted by the proper authorities. The University 
 proposes to leave all questions as to the regularity of (he 
 proceedings and the rights of the respective claimants to be 
 adjusted in the county from which the student comes. No 
 allowance is made for absence or non-attendance upon the 
 Universityby a student holding a state scholarship. His cer- 
 tificate secures him free tuition for only that part of the four 
 years during which he is in attendance upon his University 
 duties. Whenever any student selected as above described 
 shMll have been from any cause removed from the University 
 before the expiration of the time for which he was selected, 
 then one of the competitors to .his place may be selected Ut 
 succeed him therein, as the school commissioner or commis- 
 sioners of the county or the board of education of the city 
 may direct. Preference is rightly given to competitors iu 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 327 
 
 the order of the superiority of their scholarship. A certifi- 
 cate is good for four years from the time when the examina- 
 tion is held, and in case of a new certificate to fill a vacancy, 
 that certificate will be accepted for only that portion of the 
 four years which remains unexpired. No appointment can 
 be made from one county to fill a vacancy in another coun- 
 ty. Neglect to appoint does not create a vacancy which can 
 be legally filled. 
 
 Calendar. — Sept. 19-21, Tuesday-Thursday, Entrance 
 Examinations. Sept. 21, Thursday, Registration Day, Sept. 
 22, Friday, Instruction begins. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR. 
 
 IN 1875 the State Legislature took the first step towards 
 organizing at the University a school to be called 
 " The School of Mines," but subsequently a different 
 arrangement was effected and the instruction designed 
 for those students who intend to become mining engineers is 
 now given in connection with that given to other students 
 of engineering. 
 
 Members of the Faculties. — James B. Angell, LL. D., 
 President. Henry S. Frieze, LL. D., Acting President, and 
 Professor of the Latin Language and Literature. Alonzo 
 
 B. Palmer, M. D., LL. D., Professor of Pathology and the 
 Practice of Medicine and Clinical Medicine. Corydoa L 
 Ford, M. Dj LL. D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiolo- 
 gy. Hon. James V. Campbell, LL. D., Marshall Professor 
 of Law. Hon. Thomas M. Cooley, LL. D., Jay Professor 
 of Law, and Professor of Constitutional and Administra- 
 tive Law in the School of Political Science. Edward 01- 
 ney, LL. D., Professor of Mathematics. Charles K. Adams, 
 LL. D., Professor of History. Charles A. Kent, A. M., 
 Fletcher Professor of Law. Rev. Benjamin F. Cocker, D. 
 D., LL, D., Professor of Psychology, Speculative Philoso- 
 phy, and Philosophy of Religion. Albert B. Prescott, M. 
 D., Professor of Organic and Applied Chemistry and Phar- 
 macy. Rev. Martin L. D'Ooge, Ph. D., Professor of the 
 Greek Language and Literature. Charles E. Greene, A. 
 M., C. E., Professor of Civil Engineering. George E. Froth- 
 ingbam, M. D., Professor of Materia Medica, Ophthalmic 
 and Aural Surgery, and Clinical Ophthalmology. Donald 
 Maclean, A. M. M. D., Professor of Surgery and Clinical 
 Surgery. Edward S. Dunster, A. M. M. D., Professor of 
 Obstetrics and Diseases of Women and Children, and Clin- 
 
 "ical Gynsecology. William H. Pettee, A. M„ Professor of 
 Mineralogy, Economic Geology, and Mining Engineering. 
 Jonathan Taft, M. D., D. D. S., Professor of the Principles 
 and Practice of Operative Dentistry. John A. Waiting, D. 
 D. S., Professor of Clinical and Mechanical Dentistry. 
 John W. Langley, S. B., M. D., Professor of General Chem- 
 istry. William P. Wells, A. M., Kent Professor of Law. 
 Charles I. Walker, LL. D., Filling the Chair of Kent Pro- 
 fessor of Law in the absence of Professor Wells. Edward 
 
 C. Franklin, M. D., Professor of Surgery and Clinical Surg- 
 ery in the Homceopathic Medical College. Mark W. Har- 
 rington, A. M., Professor of Astronomy, and Director of the 
 Observatory. Joseph B. Steere, Ph. D., Professor of Zool- 
 ogy, and Curator of the Museum. Edward L. Walter, Ph. 
 D., Professor of Modern Languages and Literatures. 
 Alexander Winchell, LL. D., Professor of Geology and Pal- 
 eontology. William H. Payne, A. M., Professor of the 
 Science and the Art of Teaching. Hon. Alpheus Felch, 
 LL. D., Tappan Professor of Law. Thomas P. Wilson, M. 
 D., Professor of the Principles and Practice of Medicine, 
 Ophthalmology, and Otology in the Homoeopathic Medical 
 College. Isaac N. Demraon, A. M., Professor of English 
 and Rhetoric. George S. Morris, Ph. D., Professor of 
 Ethics, History of Philosophy, and Logic. William H. 
 Dorrance, D. D. S. Professor of Prosthetic Dentistry and 
 Dental Metallurgy. Elisha Jones, A. M., Associate Profes- 
 sor of Latin. Albert H. Pattengill, A. M., Associate Pro- 
 fessor of Greek. Mortimer E. Cooley, Assistant Engineer, 
 U. S. N., Professor of Mechanical Engineering. Charles 
 
 .K. Wead, A. M., Acting Professor of Physics. Byron 
 W. Cheever, A. M., M. D., Acting Professor of Metallurgy. 
 
 Volney M. Spalding, A. B., Acting Professor of Botany. 
 Joseph B. Davis, C. E., Assistant Professor of Civil Engi- 
 neering. Wooster W. Beman, A. M., Assistant Professor of 
 Mathematics. Charles N. Jones, A. B., Assistant Professor 
 of Mathematics. Richard Hudson, A. M., Assistant Pro- 
 fessor of History. Olis C. Johnson, A. M., Assistant Pro- 
 fessor of Applied Chemistry. William J. Herdman,Ph. B., 
 M. D., Assistant Professor of Pathological Anatomy, and 
 Demonstrator of Anatomy. Victor C. Vaughan. Ph. D., 
 M. D., Assistant Professor of Physiological Chemisti-y. 
 Charles H. Stowell, M. D.. Assistant Professor of Histology 
 and Microscopy. Benjamin C. Burt, A. M., Assistant Profes- 
 sor of English and Rhetoric. Calvin Thomas, A. M., As- 
 sistant Professor of German and Sanskrit. Charles S. Den- 
 ison, M. S., C. E., Acting Assistant Professor of Mechanical 
 and Free Hand Drawing. Raymond C. Davis, A. M., 
 Librarian. Henry C. Adams, Ph. D., Lecturer on Political 
 Economy. Henry C. Allen, M. D., Lecturer on Materia 
 Medica, Pharmacology, and Clinical Medicine in the Ho- 
 moeopathic Medical Collsge. Henry Sewall, M. D., Lecturer 
 on Physiology. P. R. B. de Pont, A. B.. B. S., Instructor 
 in French. Alfred Hennequin, A. M., Instructor in French 
 and German. Calvin B. Cady, Instructor in Music. 
 Charles M. Gayley, A. B., Instructor in Latin. Theodore 
 John Wrampelmeier, A. B., Instructor in Analytical Chem- 
 istry. Louis Reed Stowell, M. S., Assistant in Microsco- 
 pical Botany. Elizabeth M. Farrand, Assistant Librarian. 
 Dennie J. Higley, A. M., Assistant in Museum. Douglas A. 
 Joy, E. M., M. D., Asssistant in General Chemistry. John M. 
 Schaeberle, C. E., Assistant in the Observatory. George A. 
 Hendrics, M. D., Assistant Demonstrator of Anatomy, and 
 Curator of the Medical Museum of the Department of 
 Medicine and Surgery. Aaron R. Wheeler, M. D., Resi- 
 dent Physician and Surgeon in the Homoeopathic Hospital. 
 Uriah D. Billmeyer, D. 1). S., Assistant to the Professor of 
 Clinical Dentistry, George F. Heath, M. D., Resident 
 Physician and Surgeon in the University Hospital. Arthur 
 W. Potter, Assistant in Mathematics. Geordie Z. Whitney, 
 A. B., Assistant in Mathematics. Joseph F. Geisler, Ph. 
 
 C, Assistant in Qualitative Chemistry. George L. Field, 
 
 D. D. S., Demonstrator of Continuous Gum Dentures. 
 Lorin Hall, M. D. Assistant to the Professor of Obstetrics 
 .and the Diseases of Women and Children. Thomas J. Sul- 
 livan, M. D., Assistant to the Professor of Surgery. John 
 G. Kennan, M. D., Assistant to the Professor of Materia 
 Medica and Ophthalmic and Aural Surgery. Calvin S. 
 Case, D. D. S., Assistant in Prosthetic Dentistry. Lucius 
 L. Van Slyke, A. M., Assistant in Chemical Laboratory. 
 Seward W. Williams Ph. C, Asssistant in Chemical Labo- 
 ratory. Oscar Textor, Ph. C, Assistant in Quantitative 
 Analysis. Richard Gay De Puy, A. B. M. D., Asssistant to 
 the Professor of Surgery in the Homoeopathic Medical Col- 
 lege. Charles P. Pengra, M. D., Assistant in the Chemical 
 Laboratory. Albert B. Halsted, M. D., Assistant to the 
 Professor of the Principles and Practice of Medicine in the 
 Homceopathic Medical College. Willis P. Polhemus, M. 
 D., Assistant to the Lecturer on Materia Medica in the 
 Homceopathic Medical College. Kate Crane Johnson, Ph. 
 C, Dispensing Clerk in the Chemical Laboratory. Charles 
 F. Dight, M. D., Assistant to the Professor of Pathology, 
 and the Practice of Medicine. Schuyler C. Graves, M. D., 
 Assistant Demonstrator of Anatomy. Lena C. Leland, M. 
 D., Assistant Demonstrator of Anatomy. 
 
 The University of Michigan is a part of the public edu- 
 cational system of the State. The governing body of the 
 Institution is a Board of Regents, elected by popular vote 
 for terms of eight years, as provided in the constitution of 
 the State. In accordance with the law of the State, the 
 University aims to complete and crown the work that is 
 begun in the public schools, by furnishing ample facilities 
 for liberal education in Literature, Science, and the Arts, 
 and for thorough professional study of Medicine, Pharmacy, 
 Law, and Dentistry. Through the .aid that has been re- 
 ceived from the United States and from the State it is en- 
 abled to offer its _ privileges, without charge for tuition, to 
 all persons, of either sex, who are qualified for admission. 
 Its relation to the public schools of the State has been, 
 since the year 1871, when students were for the first time 
 admitted on diploma from approved high schools, even 
 closer and more vital than ever before. While Michigan 
 
328 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 has endowed her University primarily for the higher educa- 
 tion of her own sons and daughters, it must be -understood 
 that she also opens the doors of tlie Institution to all stu- 
 dents, wherever their homes. It is in this broad, generous, 
 and hospitable spirit, that the University has been founded, 
 and that it endeavors to do its work. The University com- 
 prises the Department of Literature, Science, and the Arts 
 (including the School of Political Science), the Depart- 
 ment of Medicine and Surgery, the Department of Law, 
 the School of Pharmacy, the Homoaopathic Medical College, 
 and the College of Dental Surgery. Each of these Depart- 
 ments and Colleges has its Faculty of Instruction, who are 
 charged with the special managejnent of it. The Univer- 
 sity Senate is composed of all the Faculties, and considers 
 questions of common interest and importance to them all. 
 In the Department of Literature, Science and the Arts, 
 different lines of study lead to the attainment of the degrees 
 of Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Let- 
 ters, the corresponding Masters' degree, the degree of Doc- 
 tor of Philosophy, and the degree of Civil Engineer, Mechan- 
 ical Engineer, and Mining Engineer. When the same degree 
 is given for different lines of study, this fact is indicated in 
 the diploma. Students that do not wish to become candi- 
 dates for a degree may, if they are jjrepared to enter the Uni- 
 versity, pursue selected studies for such time, not less than 
 one semester, as they may choose. In the Professional 
 Schools the instruction is given largely by lectures.* De- 
 grees are given to graduates as follows : In the Department 
 of Medicine and Surgery, the degree of Doctor of Medi- 
 cine ; in the Department of Law, the degree of Bachelor of 
 Laws ; in the School of Pharmacy, the degree of Pharma- 
 ceutical Chemist and of Master of Pharmacy.; in the Ho- 
 myopathic Melical College, the degree of Doctor of Medi- 
 cine ; in the College of Dental Surgery, the degree of Doctor 
 of Dental Surgeiy. Students in any Department of the 
 University may enter the classes in any other, upon obtain- 
 ing permission from the Faculties of the respective Depart- 
 ments. 
 
 The Libraries. — The Libraries of the University acces- 
 sible to the students contain in the aggregate about 89,150 
 volumes, and 10,000 pamphlets. The General Library con- 
 tains about 32,250 volumes, and 9,000 pamphlets. In 1871 
 it was enlarged by the addition of the library of the late 
 Professor Ran, of the University of Heidelberg, Germany. 
 The Rau library was purchased and presented to the Univer- 
 sity by Mr. Philo Parsons, of Detroit. It contains, with the 
 recent additions made by Mr. Parsons, about 4,325 volumes 
 and over 5,000 pamphlets. It is especially rich in European 
 works on the Science of Government, Statistics, Political 
 Economy, and the cognate subjects. An appropriation of 
 five thousand dollars for the increase of .the University 
 Library was made by the Legislature at its last session. 
 The catalogue consists of two parts, a catalogue of titles on 
 slips arranged in the alphabetical order of the names of the 
 authors, and a catalogue of the subjects treated in all the 
 books, reviews, and magazines in the Library. The cata- 
 logue is accessible to readers. One hundred and forty-three 
 American and European periodicals are taken ; and sixty 
 magazines and newspapers, representing nearly every part 
 of the country, are kept upon the tables by the Students' 
 Lecture Association. The Library is open every day except 
 Sundays and holidays, from 9 o'clock A. m. to 5 p. m., and 
 from 7 P. M. to 9J P. m., during the academic year, and for a 
 large part of the day during the summer vacation. It is 
 free to all persons. 
 
 The Museums.^The collections in the University 
 Museums are illustrative of Natural History, Agriculture, 
 Archaeology, Ethnology, The Fine Arts, History, Anatomy, 
 and Materia Medica, and are constantly increasing. The 
 whole of the valuable collection made by Professor Steere 
 during his five years' exploration in South America, For- 
 mosa, and the East Indies, has become the property of the 
 University. A considerable addition to this collection was 
 made by Professor Steere, as a result of his visit to the mouth 
 of the Amazon in the summer of 1879. The collections 
 
 ■■'A knowledge of stenoejraphy, thouL,'h not indispensable, and 
 not insisted on as a condition for admission, will lie of great advan- 
 tage to students of these schools. Students of the Department of 
 Literature, Science and the Arts, will also find siieh knowledge useful. 
 
 are arranged in such a way as to render them accessible 
 both to students and to visitors. The University aflbrds a 
 secure depository for objects of value and curiosity, and it is 
 therefore hoped that frequent gifts will be made to its several 
 Museums. The new Museum building, erected in 1879-80, 
 by means of a special legislative approjjriation, now contains 
 the collections in Mineralogy, Geology, and Zoology. The 
 following description will indicate the character of the several 
 collections belonging to the University: I. The Mineral- 
 ogical Collection comprises about ,6,000 specimens. It 
 embraces about 2,500 specimens (principally European) 
 purchased of the late Baron Lederer, and known as the Le- 
 derer Collection ; and, besides others, a rich collection of the 
 Mineral Species of Michigan, including all varieties of cop- 
 per ore and associated minerals from the different localities 
 of the Lake Superior mining district 
 
 The Geological Collection consists of: 1. The large and 
 complete series of lithological and jialseontological speci- 
 mens, brought together by the State Geological Surveys, of 
 which over a hundred fossil species have already become the 
 types of original descriptions. 2. The White Collection, 
 consistingof 1,018 distinct entries, 6,000 specimens. 3. The 
 Rominger Collection, embracing about 2,500 entries, 6,000 
 specimens, mostly from the mesozoic formations of central 
 Europe. This collection embraces about 500 specimens of 
 mesozoic ammonites. 4. Smithsonian Depcsits, consisting, 
 for the present, of a collection of specimens of foreign and 
 domestic building stones, and twenty-three specimens of 
 fossils from the Upper Missouri. 5. Miscellaneous Dona- 
 tions,and Collections, including a series illustrative of the 
 metalliferous regions of the Upper Peninsula, collected by 
 Professor Winchell, and an interesting collection of fossils, 
 chiefly cretaceous, from the Yellowstone Valley, presented 
 by the late General Custer, U. S. A. The entire Geological 
 Cabinet is estimated to contain about 14,000 distinct entries, 
 41,000 .specimens. 
 
 The Laboratories. — In the several Laboratories of the 
 University opportunities are provided for practical instruc- 
 tion in Physics, Chemistry, Geology, Zoology, Botany, 
 Physiology and Histology, Mechanical Engineering, and 
 Dentistry. 
 
 /. The Physical Laboralory. — This Laboratory was estab- 
 lished in the year 1877 with the aid of a special appropria- 
 tion of the Legislature. It is in charge of the Acting Pro- 
 fessor of Physics, and is now used principally by students of 
 the Department of Literature, Science, and the Arts. Ap- 
 paratus has already been provided for the accurate determina- 
 tion of weights and measures, specific gravity, elasticity, 
 strength and stiflhess of beams and simple structures, such 
 as trusses and bridges ; for determining the laws regulating ' 
 the flow of liquidsand gases : for measuring rates of vibration 
 in sounding bodies , for measuring indices of refraction, length 
 of waves of light, intensity of light, strength of galvanic bat- 
 teries, electricity resistance, and specific and latent heat ; 
 and for the investigation of other physical problems. The 
 course of instruction is designed to give the student famili- 
 arity with the manipulation of physical apparatus, and a 
 clear understanding of the methods used in the construction 
 of physical tables. Provision is made to meet the wants of 
 advanced students, as well as of undergraduates. 
 
 //. The Chemical Laboratory. — In this Laboratory, which 
 was enlarged in the summer of 1880 by the addition of a 
 second story, better facilities than ever before are now 
 provided for systematic instructions in laboratory methods 
 of study, general chemistry, analytical and applied chemistry, 
 physiological chemistry, pharmacy, metallurgy, and assay- 
 ing, and for original investigations in nearly all of these 
 branches. Earnest encouragement and cooperation are 
 promised to all those, who, with due preparation, will enter 
 upon original work. In addition to the lecture-rooms and 
 balance-rooms, there are eleven distinct working-rooms, in- 
 dependent of those used by the oflncers, or required for the 
 storage of material niid apparatus. Two hundred and sixty- 
 nine students can be provided with tables for work at the 
 same time. The Laboratory is open to all students of the 
 University, and is regularly used by all Departments except- 
 ing ilie Department of Law. The Laboratory is also open 
 to any person who wishes to pursue special studies therein, 
 provided he comply with the requirements for admission' 
 and with the regulations of that Department of the Univer- 
 
WESTERN SCENERY-A SIDE CANON-CANONS OF THE COLORADO. 
 
 rROM REPORT OF u. W. POWELL. 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 329 
 
 sity to which the desired special studies properly belong. 
 In all these courses of instruction there are recitations and 
 lectures in the class-room, giving direction daily to the 
 student at his table, and demanding constant study of the 
 work undertaken. This method of teaching makes it 
 indispensable that the student begin with a class. The 
 Laboratory is open to students through the college year in 
 the afternoon from one to five o'clock, and, after the first of 
 April, from one to six o'clock. 
 
 The Geological and Zoological Laboratories. — 
 Opportunity for practical work in Geology and Zoology is 
 provided in rooms set apart for this purpose in the new 
 Museum. The rooms are furnished with microscopes, 
 photographic instruments, cutting and polishing lathes, and 
 other apparatus for the preparation of specimens. Special 
 encouragement and assistance are given to students wishing 
 to carry on original investigations. 
 
 The Mechanical Laboratory. — With the aid of a 
 special appropriation of the Legislature, a building has been 
 erected and furnished for the accommodation of students 
 desiring instruction in the use of tools for working in wood 
 and in metal, as well as on the nature of the most common 
 materials used for manufacturing purposes. Complete sets 
 of hand tools have been provided for pattern-making, 
 machinists' and blacksmiths' work, and moulding. Steam- 
 power and a few of the most essential machine tools have 
 also been provided. A cupola and brass furnace have been 
 added, so that students may have the actual charge of both 
 during operations of casting in iron and in composition. 
 The instruction is made thoroughly practical. 
 
 The Hospitals. — During the past few years the facilities 
 for clinical instruction in the two Medical Schools connected 
 with the University have been largely increased. By the 
 liberality of successive Legislatures, aided by contributions 
 from the city of Ann Arbor, ample hospital accommodations 
 have been provided. The University Hospital is under the 
 direction of the Faculty of the Department of Medicine and 
 Surgery ; the HomcEopathic Hospital is connected with the 
 Homoeopathic Medical College. Further information in re- 
 gard to the Hospitals is given in connection with the 
 descriptions of the Medical Schools. 
 
 Fees and Expenses. — Every student, before entering any 
 Department of the University, is required to pay a matric- 
 ulation fee. This fee, which, for residents of Michigan, is 
 ten dollars, and, for those who come from any other state or 
 country, twenty-five dollars, is paid but once and entitles 
 the student to the privileges of permanent membership in 
 the University. In addition to the matriculation fee, every 
 student has to pay an annual fee for incidental expenses. 
 This fee is paid the first year of residence at the University, 
 and every year of residence thereafter. Eesident graduates 
 are required to pay the same annual fee as under-graduates. 
 Beginning with the academic year, 1882-83, the annual fee 
 in ,the several departments of the University will be, in 
 accordance with action taken by the Board of Eegents since 
 the publication of the last annual calendar, as follows: 
 Department of Literature, Science, and the Arts : for resi- 
 dents of Michigan, twenty dollars ; for non-residents, thirty 
 dollars. The matriculation fee and the annual fee must be 
 paid at the beginning of the college year. A By-Law of the 
 Board of Eegents provides that no student or graduate shall 
 be allowed to enjoy the privileges of the University until he 
 has paid all fees that are due. The fee for the diploma 
 given on graduation is ten dollars^ and the By-Laws of the 
 Board of Eegents prescribe that no person shall be recom- 
 mended for a degree imtil he has paid all dues, including 
 the fee for diploma. Students who pursue laboratory courses 
 of study are also required to pay for the materials and appa- 
 ratus actually consumed by them. The deposits required in 
 advance are different for the different courses, ranging from 
 one dollar to twenty dollars. The laboratory expenses of 
 students will vary with their produce and economy. Ex- 
 perience has shown that in the Chemical Laboratory the 
 average expense is about one dollar and twenty cents a 
 week for all courses. Students obtain board and lodging in 
 private families for from three to five dollars a week. Clubs 
 are also formed, in which the cost of board is from one dol- 
 lar and a half to two dollars and a half a week. Eoom-rent 
 varies from seventy-five cents to two dollars a week for each 
 student. There are no dormitories and no commons con- 
 
 nected with the University. Students on arriving at Ann 
 Arbor can obtain information in regard to rooms and board 
 by calling at the Steward's office. The annual expenses of 
 students in the Literary Department and in the Medical 
 Schools, including clothing and incidentals, has been, for 
 the last few years, on the average, about three hundred and 
 seventy dollars. The expenses of the Law students and 
 the Dental students are from one hundred and fifty to two 
 hundred dollars for a term of six months. It is proper to 
 say, in answer to numerous inquiries, that the University 
 does not undertake to furnish manual labor to students ; yet 
 a small number find opportunities in the city for remunera- 
 tive labor. 
 
 Relation of Students to the City Government. — Students are 
 temporary residents of the city, and, like all other residents, 
 are amenable to the laws. Whenever guilty of disorder or 
 crime, they are liable to arrest, fine, and imprisonment, and 
 can claim no peculiar exemption from public disgrace and 
 legal penalties. 
 
 Admission. — Candidates for admission must be at least 
 sixteen years of age, and must present satisfactory evidence of 
 good moral character. They must be provided with creden- 
 tials from their last instructor, or from the last institution 
 with which they have been connected. These credentials 
 must be presented to the President, at his ofiice, before the 
 candidate can enter upon the examination. Students who 
 desire to pursue studies in this Department, and do not 
 desire to become candidates for a degree, will be admitted 
 on the following conditions : 
 
 1. All persons under twenty-one years of age must pass 
 the entrance examinations required of candidates for some 
 degree. 
 
 2. Persons over twenty-one years of age must pass the 
 entrance examination in English required of candidates for 
 the degree of A. B. Students thus admitted may then enter 
 any of the classes upon first giving satisfactory evidence to 
 the Professor in charge that they are prepared to pursue 
 profitably the study they may desire to take up. 
 
 Adjiission of Candidates foe a Degree. 
 
 Students who desire to become candidates for a degree 
 must, unless admitted on diploma, pass examinations * as 
 follows : 
 
 Candidates for the Degree of Bachelor of Science. — The 
 University provides different lines of study leading to this 
 degree: 1. A Course in General Science. 2. Courses in 
 Engineering, Civil, Mechanical, and Mining. The di- 
 plomas given in the latter courses indicate the Tine of study 
 pursued. 
 
 1. THE COUKSElN GENERAL SCIENCE. 
 
 Candidates will be examined in the following subjects : 
 
 1. English Language, Geography, and Mathematics. — 
 lu all, the same as for the degree of Bachelor of Arts. 
 
 2. "History. — An outline of General Histoiy ; an Outline of the 
 History of the United States, to the close of the Revohitlouary 
 War. A year's study ought to be given to ])reparation in Histor)'. 
 
 3. French, Geiiman, and Latin.— Candidates may offer either 
 French or German ; French and Latin ; or German and Latin ; — 
 two of these three languages being required. The reriuirements in 
 each are as follows : 
 
 French. — The whole subject of French Grammar. The candi. 
 date will be expected to be thoroughly familiar with the formation 
 and use of French verbs, to read at sight easy French, and to trans- 
 late correctly into French simple English sentences. Two yeai-s 
 ought to be given to this purpose, the first year being spent on the 
 grammar, and the second devoted to reading good modem French, 
 accompanied by grammatical analysis anil exercises in writing. 
 Hennequin's French text-books are especially recommended ; pre- 
 paration in Fasquelle or Otto will be accejited. 
 
 German. — The whole subject of German Grammar. The candi- 
 date will be expected to read easy German at sight and to translate 
 simple sentences from English into German. To this end he should 
 have devoted two years to the study ; one year to the grammar, 
 reader, and the writing of exercises, and a second year to the read- 
 ing of complete works of literary art. As a text for the second 
 year's study works in dramatic form, and especially the classical 
 plays of Schiller, are recommended. 
 
 * Requests for specimen copies of examination papers are often 
 made to the University authorities. As the examinations for ad- 
 mission are chiefly oral, it is not practicable to comply with these 
 requests. 
 
330 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Latin. — Jones' First Latin Book, or Harkness's Latm Reader, or 
 an equivalent amount in any other text-book ; four books of Caesar's 
 Commentaries, and one of Cicero's Orations. It is expected that 
 about two years will be given to preparation in Latin. 
 
 4. Natural Philosophy. — An amount represented by one year 
 of study, with experimental illustrations. Avery's Natural Philo- 
 sophy is recommended as a text-book. 
 
 5. Botany. — The elements of Vegetable Anatomy and Physiol- 
 ogy, as given in the first twenty-seven chapters of Gray's Lessons, 
 or the First and Second Parts of Wood's Class Book of Botany ; 
 also an analysis and written descriptions of fifty species of Phanero- 
 gams. 
 
 6. Cheihstry, Geology, Zoology, and Physiology.— The 
 candidate may offer any one of these subjects. The requirements, 
 intended to cover a halt year's work in each subject are as follows : 
 
 CAemiSiri/.— Nichols's Abridgment of Elliot andStorer's Manual, 
 or an equivalent. 
 
 Geology. — Candidates who offer themselves in Geology must have 
 a good acquaintance with the subjects treated in at least the first 
 three parts of Dana's Text-book of Geology. 
 
 Zoology. — Packard's Zoology, or Nicholson's Manual of Zoology 
 
 Physiology. — Martin's The Human Body. 
 
 CoTJESES OP Instetjctioit. — The University provides a 
 large number of courses of study in the various branches 
 of learning, from which the student may choose his stud- 
 ies. The studies chosen may be pursued in any order, 
 subject only to certain regulations prescribed by the fac- 
 ulty. The courses offered are subject to change from year 
 to year. Those offered for the year 1882-83 are as follows : 
 
 Mathematics. — First Semester. — 1 Advanced Algebra. Mon- 
 day, Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday, Sec. I., 5; Sec. II., 
 i-h. Assistant Professor Bemau. 
 
 2. General Geometry and Calculus. Monday, Tuesday, Wed- 
 nesday, and Thursday. Sec. I. 3-4 ; Section II. 4-5. Professor 
 Olney. 
 
 3. Advanced General Geometry and Calculus. Five times a 
 week, -5-6. Professor Olney. 
 
 4. Determinants. Tuesday and Thursday, llj-12i. Assistant 
 Professor C. N. Jones. 10. Plane and Spherical Trigonometry- 
 Monday and Wednesday, See. I„ 9i-10> ; Sec. Ill,, lOJ-lli ; Sec. 
 v., lli-12i ; Tuesday and Thursday, Sec. II;, 9i-10i; See. IV.; 
 lOi-lli. Assistant Professor C. N. Jones. 
 
 12 Loci of Equations— Ffiiaj, Sec. I., 9i-10i ; Sec. II., lOi-lli ; 
 
 Sec. III., lli-12i. Assistant Professor C. N. Jones. 
 
 13 General Geometry and Calculus— Five times a week, 3-4. As- 
 
 sistant Professor Beman. 
 17 Mathematical Heading — Five times a week, 2-3. 
 
 SECOND SEMESTER. 
 
 5 Advanced Geometry; Plane and Spherical Trigonometry. Mon- 
 
 day, Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday, Sec. I., 4-5; Sec. II., 
 5-6. Assistant Professor Beman. 
 
 6 General Geometry and Cata(/i(s— continuation of Course 2. 
 
 Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday, Sec. I., 3-4; Sec. 
 II., 4-5. Professor Olney. 
 
 7 Modern Geometry and Trilinear Co-ordinates — Tuesday and 
 
 Thursday, 2-3. Assistant Professor Beman. 
 
 8 Calculus of Variutions—lSot given this year. Professor Olney. 
 
 9 QitoternioM— Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday, 5-6. Pro- 
 
 fessor Olney. 
 11 Analytical Mechanics— Five times a week, 9i-10i. Assistant 
 Professor C. N. Jones. 
 
 14 Advanced Algebra— Uonda.y, Wednesday, Sec. I., lOi-lI i ; Sec. 
 
 II., 11J-12J ; Sec. IIL, 2-3. Assistant Professor C. N. Jones. 
 
 15 Geomelry—Taeaday and Thursday, Sec. I., lOi-Hi; Sec. 11., 
 
 lli-12i; Sec. III., 2-3. Assistant Professor C. N. Jones. 
 
 16 General Oeomelry and Calculus— continuation of Course 13. 
 
 Five times a week, 3-4. Assistant Professor Beman. 
 
 17 Mathematical Reading — Five times a week, 2-3. 
 
 Courses, 2, 4, and 13 cannot be taken till after Courses 10, 12, 14 
 and 15, or Courses 1 and 5 have been completed. Course 3 cannot be 
 taken till after Course 6 or Course 16 has been completed. Course 7 
 cannot be taken till after Course 4 and either Course 6 or Course 16 
 have been completed. Course 8 cannot be taken till after Course 3 
 has been completed. Course 9 cannot be taken till after Course 6 
 or Course 16 has been completed. Course U requires a knowledge 
 of Integral Calculus; it will be given hereafter in the first semester, 
 and will be followed in the second semester by a more extended 
 Course in Dynamics. Course 17 is designed to give advanced 
 students an opportunity to read with members of the Mathematical 
 1 acuity such standard Mathematical works as Salmon's Higher 
 Algebra, Frost's Solid Gcometiy, Scott's Determinants, Price's In- 
 tegral Calculus, Tait's Quaternions, and Routh's Rigid Dynamics. 
 
 MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. 
 FIRST SEMESTER. 
 
 1 Short Coarse— Tuesday and Thursday, 10i-12i. Professor Pet- 
 tee. 
 
 2 Mineralogy and Zithology— Five times a week, 2-4. Professor 
 Pettee. 
 
 SECOND SEMESTER. 
 
 2 Mineralogy a/iid LAthology — Five times a week, 8i-10i. Professor 
 Pettee. 
 For Course 1 an elementary knowledge of Chemistry is desirable. 
 Course 2 can be taken only by those who are taking or have taken, 
 a Course in Analytical Chemistry ; it will not be given in the first 
 semester hereafter. 
 
 n. GEOLOGY — FIRST SEMESTER. 
 
 1 Succession of Geological Events— F,mhracing in their relations, 
 
 the elements of geological dynamics, continent-building and 
 sculpturing, rocE-classification, geographical geology, time 
 divisions, and palseontology. Part I , Facts and Doctrines. 
 Monday and Wednesday, 3-4. Professor Winchell. 
 
 2 Oral Exercises — Supplementary to Course 1, and parallel with 
 
 it; being a review, with exercises on the geological map, and 
 in various specific geological problems. Friday, 3-4. Profes- 
 sor Winchell. 
 
 3 Advanced Geology and Palceonlology — Lectures, reading, and 
 
 museum study. Tuesday and Thursday, 3-4. Professor Win- 
 chell. 
 
 4 Palaontological Investigations — Laboratory work, with reading, 
 
 and such instruction as the student may require. Five times a 
 week, 2-4. Professor Winchell. 
 
 [8 Economic Geology — Twice a week. Not given this year. Pro- 
 fessor Pettee.] 
 
 9 Geology of the United States — Tuesday and Thursday, 4-5. Pro- 
 fessor Pettee. 
 
 SECOND SEMESTER. 
 
 5 General Geology — Part II. Theories. Jlonday, 3-4. Professor 
 
 Winchell. 
 
 6 Oral .Ecercises— Parallel with Course 5. Friday, 3-4. Professor 
 
 Winchell. 
 7. Palseontological Investigations, as in course 4. Professor Win- 
 chell. 
 Course 2 is intended to accompany Course 1 ; it may be taken, 
 however, by any person somewhat acquainted with the elements of 
 Geology. Course 3 is intended for students who have taken Course 
 1, or who enter the University with thorough preparation in the 
 elements of Geology. Course 5 can be taken only by those who 
 have had Course 1, or an equivalent. Course 6 is intended to ac- 
 company Course 5 ; it may be taken, however, by any person some- 
 what acquainted with the elements of Geology. Course 7 is intended 
 for students aspiring to proficiency in Geology; it must follow 
 Course 1, and also Courses 1 to 5 in Zoology. Course 8 must be 
 preceded by Course 2 in Mineralogy. Course 9 requires some pre- 
 vious knowledge of General Geology. Course 3 or 5 may be taken 
 as an advanced Course by students who have passed an entrance 
 examination in Geology. 
 
 SURVEYING. 
 FIRST SEMESTER. 
 
 1 Surveying — Use of Transit and Level. Monday, Wednesday, 
 
 Friday, 8i-12}. Assistant Professor Davis. 
 
 2 Surveying with Compass— Solar Compass ; U. S. Surveys. Tues- 
 
 day and Thursday, 81-12i. Assistant Professor Davis. 
 
 SECOND SEMESTER. 
 
 3 Higher Surveying— Viane Table; Sextant; Earth-work. Five 
 
 times a week, 2-6. Assistant Professor Davis. 
 
 4 Field Work — Four weeks entire, 8-12 and 1-5. Assistant Pro- 
 
 fessor Davis. 
 Courses 1 and 2 presuppose a knowledge of Plane Trigonometry. 
 Course 3 must be preceded by Courses 1 and 2. 
 
 ENGINEERING. 
 I. CIVIL ENGINEERING— FIRST SEJIESTER. 
 
 1 Strength and Resistance of Materials — Monday and Wednesday, 
 
 9i-10i. Professor Greene. 
 
 2 Engineering— Theory of Construction. Friday, 9i-10i Profes- 
 
 fessor Greene. 
 
 3 Graphical Analysis of Struclures—Taesiaj and Thursday 9J- 
 
 lOi. Professor Greene. 
 
 4 Engineering Design— Daily, three hours a day ; to count as one 
 
 full course. Professor Greene. 
 
 5 Mechanism and Machine Drawing— Tnesi&Y and Thursday, 8i- 
 
 lOi. Assistant Professor Denison. 
 
 6 Machinery and Prime Movers— Vf a,ter Wheels and Steam En- 
 
 gines. Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, lOi-lli. Professor 
 M. E. Cooley. 
 
 SECOND SEMESTER. 
 
 3 Graphical Analysis of Structures— Tnesdny and Thursday, lOi - 
 11 J. Professor Greene. 
 
 8 .Bnfl'meermjr— Theory of Construction. Monday, Tuesday, Thurs- 
 
 day , and Friday, 9i-10i. Professor Greene. 
 
 9 Hydranhcs—Water Supply and Sewerage. Wednesday, 9i-10J- 
 
 Professor Greene. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 331 
 
 10 Slereoloiiiy. — Tuesday and Thursday, 8i-104. Assistant Professor 
 
 Denisou. 
 Course 4 accompanies 1, 2, and 8. Course 10 must be jireceded 
 by Course 5 in Drawing. 
 
 II. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING — PIEST SEMESTER. 
 1 Workshop Appliances and Processes, Pattern Making, Mouldintj, 
 
 and Founding. Monday and Friday, lli-12i. Professor AI. 
 
 E. Cooley. 
 [2 Mechanical Laboratory work — Tuesday and Thursday, 2-4. Not 
 
 given this year. Professor M. E. Cooley.] 
 
 5 The same as Course 5 in Civil Engineering. 
 
 6 The same as Course 6 in Civil Engineering. 
 
 7 Machine Design — Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, Si-UJ. Pro- 
 
 fessor M. E. Cooley, and Assistant Professor Deuison. 
 [10 Naval Architecture — Tuesday and Thursday, 4-5. Not given 
 this year. Professor M. E Cooley.] 
 
 SECOND SEMESTER. 
 
 8 Mechanical Laboratory work — Tuesday and Thursday, 2-4. Pro- 
 
 fessor M. E. Cooley. 
 4 Machinery, Machine Construction, and Drawing — Monday, 
 
 Wednesday, and Friday, 81-lli. Professor M. E. Cooley, and 
 
 Assistant Professor Denison. 
 [8 Thermodynamics — Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, 11J-12J. 
 
 Not given this year. Professor M. E. Cooley.] 
 
 9 Original Design, Estimates, Specification, and Contracts. Tues- 
 
 day and Thursday, 8i-10V. Professor M. E. Cooley. 
 
 11 Naval Architecture — Tuesday and Thursday, 4-5. Professor M. 
 
 E. Cooley. 
 Course 5 precedes Course 6. Course 6 and 10 must be preceded 
 by Course 11 in Mathematics. Course 7 must be preceded by 
 Courses 4 and 5, and must precede Course 9. Course 10 precedes 
 Course 11. 
 
 ni. MrNING ENGINEERING — SECOND SEMESTER. 
 
 1 Mining. — Five times a weelj. Professor Pettee. 
 
 METALLURGY. 
 FIRST SEMESTER. 
 
 1 Fuel and Refractory Material, Iron, Steel, Copper, and Zinc. 
 
 —Tuesday and Thursday, lOi-llJ ; Wednesday, 115-124 ; Fri- 
 day, 4-5. Professor Cheever. 
 
 SECOND SEMESTER. 
 
 2 Lead, Silver, Gold, Mercury, and other metals. — Twice a week 
 
 Hours to be arranged with the insti'uotor. Professor Cheever. 
 
 Requirements for Graduation. — Five exercises a 
 week during a semester, whether in recitations, Laboratory 
 work, or lectures, constitute a Full Course of /Study. The 
 completion of Twenty-four Full Courses is necessary to 
 obtain the recommendation of the Faculty for the degree of 
 Bachelor of Arts, or of Bachelor of Science (for the courses 
 in Civil, Mechanical, or Mining Engineering). The com- 
 pletion of Twenty-six Full Courses is necessary to obtain 
 the recommendation for the degree of Bachelor of Science 
 (for the course in General Science), or of Bachelor of Letters. 
 It is not essential that the exercises constituting a Full 
 Cotirse shall be in one and the same branch of study. Thus, 
 a part (two for instance) may be in Mathematics, a part (say 
 two) in Greek, and a part (say one) in Latin, making a total 
 of five. 
 
 Thk Degree of Bachelor of Science. — Of the 
 twenty-six Full Courses that the student is required to com- 
 plete before he will be recommended by the Faculty for the 
 degree of Bachelor of Science for the course in General Science 
 thirteen and Jour- fifths Full Courses are prescribed as follows; 
 
 Courses 10, 12, 14, 15, in Mathematics, Courses 2, 6, in French, 
 Course 1, 3, in German, Courses 1 or 7, and 2 or 8, in English, 
 Couree 3, in Philosophy, One Full Coui-se in Physios, One Full 
 Course in General Chemistry, One Full Course in Zoology, or in 
 Botany, Five Full Courses in Organic Sciences, or Five Full 
 Courses in Inorganic Sciences. 
 
 In addition to these the student must choose and complete from 
 the other Courses ofl'ered enough to make in all Twenty-Six Fall 
 Courses. 
 
 Some of the Courses in Professional Studies. — 
 It is thought desirable to add fuller statements than are 
 given on the preceding pages concerning certain branches of 
 study that lead to the professions of Engineer, Chemist, and 
 Teacher. 
 
 I. Engineering. — The University is now better prepared 
 than ever before to give complete courses of instruction in 
 all branches of engineering, civil, mechanical, and mining. 
 
 In Civil Engineering the University oflFcrs to persons that 
 wish to become professional engineers a thorough course of 
 study extending over about four years. The aim in thi.-> 
 course of study is to lay a foundation of sound theory, suf- 
 ficiently broad and deep to enable its graduates to enter 
 understandingly on the further investigation of the several 
 specialties of the profession ; and at the same time to impart 
 such a knowledge of the usual practice of an office, and of 
 an engineering party, bs shall make its students useful in 
 any position to which they may be called. While the adap- 
 tation of theory to practice can be thoroughly learned only 
 by experience, there are many matters in which the routine 
 work of an engineering field party, office, or drafting room 
 can be carried out on a greater or less scale in a training 
 school. In all such particulars the civil engineering course 
 of the University will embody as close an imitation of Wie 
 requirements of active labor as the instructors who have the 
 several branches in charge can devise. AH the technical 
 branches are under the direct care of those who have had 
 professional experience as well as a full scientific training. 
 In Mechanical Engineering the course of study though to 
 some extent parallel with that in civil engineering, includes 
 such, a range of special studies as will enable the graduate 
 to enter understandingly on the practice of his profession. 
 Theory and practice are combined as far as possible, and no 
 efforts are spared to make the relation between them plainly 
 evident. The special work will be mainly under the direc- 
 tion of Professor Mortimer E. Cooley, assistant engineer in 
 the United States navy, who has been recently detailed by 
 the Navy Department for this purpose. In Mining Engi- 
 neering and Metallurgy the course of instruction, which is 
 intended to cover about four years of study, includes a part 
 of that provided for students in civil and in mechanical 
 engineering, though more especial attention is paid in the 
 latter part of the course to mineralogy, geology, and Chem- 
 istry. The instruction in the technical branches is arranged 
 so as to meet the wants, both of those whose purpose it is to 
 confine their professional work more closely to metallurgy, 
 and of those who intend to engage in the practice of mining 
 and metallurgy combined. 
 
 Requirements for Admission. — Candidates for a degree in 
 any of the courses in engineering must pass examinations 
 for admission as follows : 
 
 1. English Language, Geography, and Mathematics. — In 
 all, the same as for the degree of Bachelor of Arts. 
 
 2. History and Natural Philosophy. — In both, the same as 
 for the degree of Bachelor of Science. 
 
 3. English Literature. — The same as for the degree of 
 Bachelor of Letters. 
 
 4. Chemistry, Geology, Zoology, or Physiology. — In any 
 two of these subjects, the same as for the degree of Bachelor 
 of Science. 
 
 5. French or German. — The same as for the degree of 
 Bachelor of Science. A candidate who has had no op- 
 portunity for preparation in French or German will 
 not be rejected for lack of knowledge of those subjects. 
 If satisfactory examinations are passed in the other subjects, 
 the candidate may be admitted, but will be required to 
 make up the deficiency in French or German. 
 
 Students not candidates for a degree may be admitted to 
 pursue such studies as they prefer, provided they are found 
 prepared to join the classes in those studies. They will be 
 expected to attend all the lectures, recitations and exami- 
 nations iu the branches prescribed for the regular students, 
 and will be required to take enough work to occupy them 
 profitably. 
 
 Courses of Instruction. — The studies pui'sued in the ear- 
 lier parts of the course, common to all students in engineer- 
 ing, will comprise, in Mathematics, algebra, geometry, plane 
 and spherical trigonometry, general geometry, and the ele- 
 ments of differential and integral calculus ; in French and 
 German, an amount covering in all about two years of 
 study, the choice depending upon the language presented 
 at the examination for admission ; in English, a course in 
 higher English grammar and composition ; in Physics and 
 in General Chemistry, the study of the elementary princi- 
 ples; and, in Drawing, practice in geometrical and in 
 mechanical drawing, and the study of de.scriptive geometry. 
 The more technical subjects are taken up in the latter 
 part of the course. Some of these subjects are of equal 
 
332 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 value to all classes of engineering students, such as analyt- 
 ical and applied mechanics, the strength and resistance of 
 materials, and the metallurgy of the useful metals, espe- 
 cially iron and steel ; others are adapted more particularly 
 to the wants of the special students in the several courses. 
 Their general scope may he seen from the following de- 
 scriptive outline : 
 
 1. Drawing. — A very complete course in mechanical 
 drawing is given, emhracing plane projection drawing, 
 isometric drawing, descriptive geometry, and the elementary 
 principles of coloring and shading, with original problems 
 executed in the drawing room. Students of mechanical 
 engineering are required to sketch pieces of machinery, and 
 afterwards? to make working drawings suitable for use in 
 the shop. Problems peculiar to mining practice are also 
 given. Examples from numerical data are always given in 
 all branches, and copying from the flat is avoided. Instruc- 
 tion is also given in free-hand drawing, topographical draw- 
 ing, ornamentation and lettering, shades and shadows, linear 
 perspective, and drawing for stone-cutting. The plans of 
 surveys, plane-table work, maps, designs in engineering 
 construction, and the thesis drawings naturally come under 
 this head. The work in drawing occupies the student a 
 part of almost every day throughout the course. 
 
 2. Surveying. — The work in surveying combines theory 
 and practice. A course of lectures and text book work, in 
 daily exercises, covers so much of one year as is not given 
 to field work : the theory of instruments, and all the opera- 
 tions of surveying, laying out work, and computing are 
 explained in detail. Every student is afforded abundant 
 opportunity for becoming familiar, by actual use, with the 
 excellent and full assortment of instruments owned by the 
 University, embracing those usually employed in actual 
 work, and numbering enough to well equip the parties. The 
 classes in surveying are drilled in all the field work that 
 pertains to that branch of engineering ; they make surveys, 
 traverse them, calculate contents, divide areas, and solve 
 problems in heights and distances from data taken by them- 
 selves. They also determine the meridian, and take obser- 
 vations for latitude. This work is done during the fall 
 months ; the finished plans of the surveys are made during 
 the winter. The classes in railroad engineering have prac- 
 tice in running levels and curves of different kinds, and in 
 the measurement of earthwork. In the month of June they 
 are taken into the field as a railroad party, for a space of 
 four weeks continuously, where, under competent supervi- 
 sion, they go through all the field-work for a projected line ; 
 doing all the work up to the point of actual construction, 
 such as reconnoissance, preliminary and location surveys, 
 cross-sectioning, staking out, contouring, and topography. 
 A plan and profile, carefully made in the field by each stu- 
 dent from the notes of the party, completes this portion of 
 the subject, and serves to fix the practical application of the 
 principles obtained from the text-books and lectures. In 
 the above work are usually included a plane-table survey, 
 triangulation, and some hydrography when the selected 
 locality is favorable. The principal text-books used in this 
 work are Henck's Field- Book for Engineers, and Rankine's 
 Civil Engineering. 
 
 3. Civil Engineering : Theory of Structures. — The study of 
 the strength of materials and the theory of construction 
 covers a course of recitations and lectures for an entire year. 
 The text-book used is Rankine's Manual of Civil Engineer- 
 ing, supplemented with full explanations, additional lec- 
 tures, examples, and problems. A complete course of in- 
 strucdon is also given in the graphical analysis of roof and 
 bridge trusses and arches, as recently developed and applied. 
 The student is made familiar with both the analytical and 
 graphical methods of treatment, and thus possesses ready 
 proof of the accuracy of his calculations. 
 
 4. Machinery and Prime Movers. — A course of instruction 
 is given in mechanism, or the general pi-inciples of machine- 
 ry, involving the study of gearing, cams, screws, cranks and 
 levers, the dynamics of machinery, the strength and con- 
 struction of machinery, and the materials used in construc- 
 tion. Careful attention is given to the principles of me- 
 chanics as applied in the construction of various kinds of 
 machinery, and in the erection of blast-furnaces, foundries, 
 rolling mills, and steel-works. In the study of the prime 
 movers special attention is given to turbinca and other wa- 
 
 ter-wheels, and to the steam engine. Lectures are given on 
 the different types of engines and boilers, links and valve 
 motions, condensers, pumps, and propelling instruments, 
 the theory and practice of the use of steam, combustion and 
 fuel, and the efficiency of furnace, boiler, and engine. The 
 care'and management of engines and boilers, both in use and 
 out of use, are also discussed. Additional lectures are given 
 on the designing of the different parts of both the simple 
 and the compound engine and boiler, and their various at- 
 tachments. 
 
 5. Designs in Engineering and in Machine Construction. — 
 Contemporaneously with the study of theory, students are 
 required to work out problems in design. They are fur- 
 nished with the usual data for a design, and the kind or type 
 of structure or machine will be indicated. They are then 
 expected to make the necessary calculations, paying parti- 
 cular attention to proportioning the different parts, so as to 
 secure strength, simplicity, and effect, and to present, at a 
 specified date, complete working drawings, giving fiill de- 
 tails, accompanied by bills of materials, estimates, and spe- 
 cifications. 
 
 6. A course in Thermodynamics embraces the study of 
 the principles governing the action of heat engines in 
 general. 
 
 7. Mechanical Engineering and Laboratory work. — The 
 elementary courses in mechanical engineering embrace the 
 explanation of the principles governing the action of cut- 
 ting tools, and a description of the principal machine and 
 hand tools used in the work-shop. They also treat of the 
 usual and more important processes employed in the shop. 
 Lectures are given on pattern making, moulding, and found- 
 ing, covering the principal features of each. The Laboratory 
 work is intended to cover the application of principles pre- 
 viously studied. It comprises the actual manipulation of 
 the tools used in working metal and wood, and in moulding. 
 The student is required to do work in pattern making, and 
 moulding in green sand, in dry sand, and in loam, and will 
 charge and have the management of the cupola and brass 
 furnace during the operations of casting. Careful attention 
 is given to the selection of sands for different purposes, and 
 to making composition metals for specific purposes. The 
 student is also required to put in practice, at the blacksmith's 
 forge, his knowledge of the elementary principles of forging, 
 and to forge and temper his own cutting tools. By working 
 with iron and steel of different qualities, the student 
 becomes familiar with all grades of those materials. Prac- 
 tice is also afforded in soldering, brazing, and steam-fitting. 
 The principal text-books and books of reference used in the 
 work in mechanical engineering are Rose's Practical Machinist 
 and Pattern Maker's Assistant, Shelley's Workshop Appli- 
 ances, Spretson's Casting and Founding, Rankine's Ma- 
 chinery and Mill-work, Rankine's Steam Engine, Sonnet's 
 Dictionnaire des Mathematiques Appliqu^es, Uuwin's Ele- 
 ments of Machine Design, Marks's Proportions of the Steam 
 Engine. 
 
 9. Economic Geology. — Particular attention is paid to the 
 geology of minei and mineral districts, and to the modes of 
 occurrence and distribution of mineral substances that have 
 an economic or commercial importance. 
 
 10. Mining. — In this branch the instruction is given main- 
 ly by lectures. The machines in use at the best mines are 
 described, and the mutual relations of parts explained and 
 illustrated with the aid of plates and diagrams. The differ- 
 ent operations connected with the discovery, opening, de- 
 velopment, and working of mines are all studied in their 
 proper order. 
 
 11. Metallurgy. — A complete course of instruction by lec- 
 tures and recitations is given upon the subjects of fuel, re- 
 fractory material, iron and steel, copper, zinc, lead, gold, 
 silver, and other metals, extending over an entire year. The 
 lectures arc illustrated by charts ami drawings of" the furna- 
 ces and appliances used, and by samples of furnace products. 
 In connection with this course of study, the student is re- 
 quired to work out problems in heat, furnace construction, 
 ore mixtures, blast furnace slags, and blast engines, and to 
 write out the chemical reactions that take place in the differ- 
 ent metallurgical operations. Certain days are devoted to 
 laboratory work, and the student is required to determine 
 by actual tests the heating value of different fuels, to make 
 tests of fire-proof material, and, from data and material 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 333 
 
 furnished, to produce slags whose composition shall corres- 
 pond to a given formula. 
 
 12. Visits of Inspection. — As often as may be practicable, 
 visits will be paid to the neighboring manufacturing estab- 
 lishments for the purpose of acquiring a knowledge of the 
 methods emplojed in building, and in the construction of 
 machinery and ships. It is hoped, also, that provision will 
 soon be made for a regular course of study, during the sum- 
 mer vacation, among the mines and furnaces of the Upper 
 Peninsula. 
 
 Facilities for Instruction. — The collections for illustrating 
 the instruction given comprise models, drawings, photo- 
 graphs, and lithographs, representing trusses, arches, and 
 details of construction in iron, wood, and stone ; also shapes 
 of iron, working models of turbines and engines, and work- 
 ing drawings of a number of bridges. These collections are 
 receiving additions from year to year, by gift and purchase, 
 aud are invaluable to the student. The mechanical labora- 
 tory, for the erection and equipment of which the sum of 
 twenty-five hundred dollars was appropriated by the last 
 Legislature, has been built and is now ready for occupancy. 
 There is also a large and convenient metallurgical labora- 
 tory connected with the chemical laboratory, amply supplied 
 with assay furnaces and other appliances such as are usually 
 found in laboratories of this description. The latest and 
 best books on professional subjects are added yearly to the 
 library, where they are accessible to all ; and frequent refer- 
 ences are made to them in the class-room as the various sub- 
 jects are brought forward. 
 
 Examinations. — Examinations, usually in writing, are held 
 at the end of each semester ; but the classes are liable to be 
 examined at any time, without notice, on any portion of 
 their previous work. 
 
 REQUiBEMBisrTS FOB, Gkaduation. — Upon the comple- 
 tion of a prescribed course of study, amounting to twenty- 
 four Full Courses, as ^iven below, and the presentation of 
 a satisfactory thesis, the student receives the degree of 
 Bachelor of Science. The diploma given indicates the line 
 of study pursued. Bachelor of Arts, of Science, and of 
 Letters, of this University, and graduates of any other 
 reputable University or College, will be recommended for 
 the same degree with the regular students, after attendance 
 on, and a satisfactory examination in, the technical 
 subjects alone of the several courses. These studies can be 
 completed in two years. The culture imparted by classical 
 or other liberal training will be found to have its uses for 
 one engagedin engineering work, and the previous discipline 
 of the faculties in exact research will enable the professional 
 student to master more easily the requirements of the course. 
 All the time the student can devote to general studies be- 
 fore taking up specialties will be well spent. The require- 
 ments for the several degrees as follows: 
 
 1. Civil Engi7ieering . — ^To obtain the recommendation of 
 the Faculty for the degree of Bachelor of Science, for a 
 course in Civil Engineering, the student must complete 
 
 Courses 1, 3, 5, 11, 13, 16, in Mathematics. 
 
 Courses 2, 6, in French. 
 
 Courses 1, 3, in German. 
 
 Course 1 or 7, in English. 
 
 Course 10, in Physics. 
 
 Course 2, in General Chemistry. 
 
 Course 1, in Mineralogy. 
 
 Course 3, in Astronomy. 
 
 Courses 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, in Drawing. 
 
 Courses 1, 2, 3, 4, in Surveying. 
 
 Courses 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, in Civil Engineering. 
 
 These make twenty and four fifths Full Courses. From 
 
 the other Courses offered he must choose and complete three 
 
 and one fifth Full Courses, making twentyfour Full Courses 
 
 in all. He must also prepare a satisfactory thesis. 
 
 2. Mechanical Engineering. — To obtain the recommenda 
 tion of the Faculty for the degree of Bachelor of Science, 
 for a course in Mechanical Engineering, the student must 
 complete 
 
 Courses 1, 3, 5, 11, 13, 16, in Mathematics. 
 Courses 2, 6, in French.* 
 Courses 1, 3, in German.* 
 
 *ror students who passed an admission examination in German 
 instead of French the prescribed Courses are 1 and 5 in French, and 
 2 and 6 in German 
 
 Course 1 or'7, in English. 
 
 Course 10, in Physics. 
 
 Course 2, in General Chemistry. 
 
 Course 1, in Mineralogy. 
 
 Courses 1,2, 4, 5, 6, in Drawing. 
 
 Courses 1, 3, 10, in Civil Engineering. 
 
 Courses 1 to 9 inclusive, in Mechanical Engineering. 
 
 Course 1, in Metallurgy. 
 These make twenty and two fifths Full Courses. From the 
 other Courses offered he must choose and complete three and 
 three-fifths Full Courses, making twentyfour Full Courses in 
 all. He must also prepare a satisfactory thesis. 
 
 3. Mining Engineering. — To obtain the recommendation 
 of the Faculty for the degree of Bachelor of Science, for # 
 course in Mining Engineering, the student must complete 
 one of the two following sets of requirements : 
 
 I. 
 
 Courses 1, 8, 5, 11, 13. 16, in Mathematics 
 
 Courses, 2, 6, in French.* 
 
 Courses 1, 3, in German.* 
 
 Course 1 or 7, in English. 
 
 Course 10, in Physics. 
 
 Course 2, in General Chemistry. 
 
 Courses 1, 5a, 9, 10, in Analytical Chemistry. 
 
 Course 2, in Mineralogy. 
 
 Courses 8, 9, in Geology. 
 
 Courses 1, 5, in Drawing. 
 
 Courses 1, 2, in Surveying. 
 
 Courses 1, 3, 5, 6, in Civil Engineering. 
 
 Course 1, in Mining. 
 
 Course 1, in Metallurgy. 
 
 These make twenty-three Full Courses. From the other 
 Courses offered he must choose and complete one Full Course, 
 making twenty-four Full Courses in all. He must also 
 prepare a satisfactory thesis. 
 
 II. 
 
 Courses 10, 12, 14, 15, in Mathematics.* 
 
 Courses 2, 6, in French.^ 
 
 Course 1, in German.f 
 
 Course 1 or 7, in English. 
 
 Course 10, in Physics. 
 
 Course 2, in General Chemistry. 
 
 Courses 1, 5a, 5a', 9, 10, in Analytical Chemistry. 
 
 Course 2, in Mineralogy. 
 
 Courses 8, 9, in Geology. 
 
 Courses 1, 3, 5, in Drawing. 
 
 Courses 1, 2, 3, in Mechanical Engineering. 
 
 Course 1, in Mining. 
 
 Courses 1, 2, in Metallurgy. 
 
 These make nineteen and three fifths Full Courses. From 
 the other Courses offered he must choose and complete four 
 and two-fifths Full Courses making twenty-four Full Courses 
 in all. He must also prepare a satisfactory thesis. 
 
 Eequirements for the Degkees of Civil Engineer, 
 Mechanical Engineer, and Mining Engineer. — The 
 conditions on which the degree of Civil Engineer, as a sec- 
 ond degree, is conferred, are as follows : The degree of 
 Civil Engineer may be conferred upon Bachelors of Science 
 of this University who have taken the degree for a course in 
 Civil Engineering, if they furnish satisfactory evidence that 
 they have pursued further technical studies for at least one 
 year, and, in addition, have been engaged in professional 
 work, in positions of responsibility, for another year. The 
 first of the above requirements may be satisfied by pursuing 
 at the University, under the. direction of the Faculty, a pre- 
 scribed course of study for an amount of time, not necessarily 
 consecutive, equivalent to a college year. If the candidate 
 does not reside at the University, his course of study must 
 be approved in advance by the Professor of Civil Engineer- 
 ing, and he must prepare a satisfactory thesis on some 
 engineering topic, to be presented, together with a detailed 
 account of his professional work, one month, at least, before 
 the date of the Annual Commencement at which he expects to 
 receive the degree. The conditions on which the degrees of 
 
 * Instead of these Courses the student may take Courses 1 and 5. 
 
 t For students who passed an admission examination in German 
 instead of French, the prescribed Courses are 1 and 5 in French, 
 and 2 and 6 in German. 
 
334 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Mechanical Engineer and Mining Eiigineer, as second 
 degrees, will be conferred are not yet fully determined, 
 though they will probably be similar to those required for 
 the degree of Civil Engineer. 
 
 Analytical and Applied Chbmistey.— Students 
 desiring to qualify themselves for research and educational 
 service in chemical science; or for the profession of an 
 analytical and consulting chemist, can, by making a 
 judicious choice of elective studies, accomplish this object, 
 and at the same time satisfy the requirements for the degree 
 of Bachelor of Science. The prescribed general studies, those 
 namely, in Mathematics, French, German, English, Philoso- 
 phy, Physics, and Zoology or Botany, amount to seven and 
 "four-fifths Full Courses, and leave eighteen and one-fifth Full 
 Courses to be completed by the student, of which one Full 
 Course must be taken in General Chemistry, and five Full 
 Courses either in Organic or in Inorganic Sciences. 
 
 Students wishing to complete a professional course in 
 Chemistry are recommended to take the following Courses, 
 which amount in all to twelve and four-fifths Full Courses : 
 
 Course 3, in Physics. 
 
 Courses 3, 6, in General Chemistry. 
 
 Courses 1, 2, 4, 5a, 5a', 7, 9, 10, 11, 14, in Analytical 
 
 One Full Course, in Drawing. [Chemistry. 
 
 To those students who wish to pursue special subjects, the 
 following Courses, in addition to the above, are recommended : 
 
 I. For Mineralogical and Metallurgical Chemistry : 
 Course 2, in Mineralogy. 
 One Full Course, in Geology. 
 One Full Course, in Metallurgy. 
 These make three Full Courses. 
 
 For Mdnufacluring Applications: — Course 13, in Analytical 
 Chemistry. Course 2, in Mineralogy. One Full Course, in Metal- 
 lurgy. These make iwo-and four-fifths Full Courses. 
 
 3. For Medical Chemistry and Biology : - Course 8, in Analytical 
 Chemistry. One Full Course in Zoology. Course 1, 2 in Physiology. 
 These make two and three-fifths Full Courses. 
 
 4. For Sanitary Chemistry, the examination of foods, and the de- 
 tection of adulterations : — Courses 4, oa" in Analytical Chemistry. 
 Course 2 in Botany. These make Three Fall Courses. 
 
 Calendar. — September 21-25. Examination of Candidates for 
 admission to the department of Literature, Science and the Arts. 
 
 September 25, 26. Examination for admission to the School of 
 Pharmacy. First year's work begins. 
 
 September 25-30. Examination for admissions to the Department 
 of Law. 
 
 September 27. First Semester begins. 
 
 September 28-30. Examination for admission to the Department 
 of Medicine and Surgery, the Homoeopathic Medical College, and the 
 College of Dental Surgery. 
 
 October 2. Professional school opens. 
 
 November — . Thanksgiving Recess of three days, beginning 
 Tuesday evening, in the Department of Literature. Science and the 
 Arts, the department of Medicine and Surgery, the School of Phar- 
 macy, and the Homceopathic Medical College; recess of one day 
 Thursday, in the department of Law, and in the College of Dental 
 Surgery. 
 
 December 22. (Evening.) Holiday Vacation begins for all de- 
 partments. 
 1883. 
 
 January 9. Exercises resumed. 
 
 February 16. (Evening.) First Semester closes. 
 
 February 18. Second Semester begins. 
 
 March 28. Commencement in the department of Law, and in the 
 College of Dental Surgery. 
 
 COLORADO STATE SCHOOL OF 
 GOLDEN, COLORADO. 
 
 MINES, 
 
 THE State School of Mines of Colorado was established 
 by act of the Legislative Assembly, approved Feb- 
 ruary 9th, 1874. The General Assembly of 1879 
 recognizingthat the highest interests of theState were 
 best subserved by enabling the School of Mines to occupy a 
 position and accomplish a work worthy of its object and 
 aims, wisely granted a decided increase to the former appro- 
 priation for the Institution, thus putting it into the power of 
 
 the Board of Trustees to re-organize and equip the School 
 on a basis which would insure a competent preparation of 
 its students to fill any department of practical work in Mi- 
 ning and Metallurgy. In harmony with this action the Boai'd 
 of Trustees during the summer of 1880, erected a new and 
 commodious building in Golden, within three minutes' walk 
 of the centre of business, in a convenient location, and sup- 
 plied it with every facility requisite for the most successful 
 prosecution of work in the various departments of study 
 The faculty was at the same time re-organized and greatly 
 increased. Large additions were made to the library and 
 chemical apparatus and the Assay and Chemical Laboratory 
 were fitted up according to the most approved plans, and a 
 scale sufficient to meet the increased demands made upon 
 the Institution. The School re-opened in the new building, 
 which is illustrated on the next page, on Wednesday, Octo- 
 ber 13th, 1880, and has already met with the most unquali- 
 fied success under its present organization. An additional 
 building is now in process of erection to be connected with 
 the present one, making the capacity of the whole three 
 times that of the building represented in the cut. This has 
 been necessitated by the rapid increase in the number of stu- 
 dents during the past two years, and by the present enlarged 
 sphere of work of the institution. 
 
 The building represented in our cut is of brick manufac- 
 tured from the excellent clay of the neighborhood. Its 
 location, style and proportions give it a very pleasing effect : 
 while its windows command views in every direction of 
 surpassing beauty. The plan of its interior was the result 
 of careful study on the part of the Board of Trustees, under 
 the advice of the Faculty, and, in points of convenience 
 and adaptation to the purposes in view, is well-nigh per- 
 fect. Two stories in height, the front, on each floor, is 
 devoted to halls, offices and recitation rooms. The main 
 part below affords a spacious chemical laboratory, besides 
 three rooms in the rear occupied by the Assay department. 
 The corresponding space upon the upper floor constitutes a 
 large lecture room, the center being furnished with seats, 
 sides and one end occupied by cases containing the various 
 cabinets, while the remaining end furnishes room for the 
 lecture-stand, fitted with pneumatic cisterns and every 
 modern convenience. The advantages of location at Golden 
 are threefold, viz. : 1st, it is easily accessible by rail from all 
 parts of the State ; 2d, Golden is situated at the very foot 
 of the mountains, at a point affording most remarkable oppor- 
 tunities for illustrating studies in geology, nearly all the 
 formations known to the geology of Colorado being well 
 represented in the neighborhood. Mines, also of coal, fire- 
 clay lead, silver and gold are either immediately at hand or 
 to be reached withm a few miles by rail. 3d. The establish- 
 ment here of various reduction works for treating ores 
 
 access to which is freely accorded the students — furnishes 
 invaluable aid in acquiring a knowledge of metallurgy 
 that shall not be merely theoretical but eminently prac- 
 tical. 
 
 FACULTY.— Albert C. Hale, A. M., E. M., Ph. D., Presi- 
 dent, Professor of Chemistry and Assaying. Milton Ross, 
 Ph. D., Professor of Mineralogy and Metallurgy. Arthur 
 Lakes, Professor of Geology and Drawing. Gregory Board 
 E. M. Treatment of Colorado Ores. Magnus C. Ihlseng', 
 E. M., C. E., Ph. D., Professor of Engineering, Mathemat- 
 ics and Physics. Eri P. Rice, Secretary, and Assistant 
 in Chemistry. Carlton H. Hand, Assistant in As- 
 saying. 
 
 Admission. — Candidates for admission to any of the 
 regular courses are expected to be at least seventeen years of 
 age, to have had a liberal education in the English branches 
 and to sustain a thorough examination on the first five 
 chapters of Peck's Manual of Algebra and on the first four 
 books of Wentworth's Geometry or an equivalent of Davies' 
 Legendre. Candidates for advanced standing will be ex- 
 amined upon all the studies of the course below the class 
 they purpose to enter, as well as upon the subjects required 
 for admission. A certificate from other institutions bearing 
 satisfactory evidence that the candidate has completed anv 
 or all of the required subjects, will be accepted in lieu of ail 
 examination upon the same. Special students are received 
 at any time during the regular sessions, provided their age 
 and attainments are sufficient for the studies they wish to 
 pursue. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 335 
 
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336 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Courses of Study. — There are three regular courses of 
 study, viz: Mining Engineering, Civil Engineering and 
 Metallurgy — each covering a period of four years. Students 
 who complete any of the courses and pass the required 
 examination in all the studies of the same will be entitled to 
 receive a State Diploma in recognition of their attainments. 
 Those in the course of Mining Engineering receive the 
 degree Engineer of Miaes (E. M.) in Civil Engineering, 
 that of Civil Engineer (C. E.), and those in Metallurgy the 
 degree Bachelor of Philosophy (Ph. B.) 
 
 Special Courses of Study. — It being the aim of the Insti- 
 tution to adapt itself to the Mining aud Metallurgical inter- 
 ests of the State, students who wish to pursue special courses 
 of study in Assaying, Chemical Analysis, Geology, Miner- 
 alogy or Surveying, will find superior advantages lor doing 
 so under the advice and direction of the Faculty, and every 
 opportunity for study and practice will be afibrded those 
 iwio wish to prepare themselves thoroughly to do successful 
 work as prospectors, assayers or surveyors. Special students 
 attend lectures with the regular classes so far as possible, 
 and all receive individual instruction in the laboratories. 
 
 Expenses. — The charges are twenty dollars ($20 00) per 
 term for the regular courses of study, and the same for 
 special courses in which the student is engaged in laboratory 
 work. As tuition is free the fee is simply to defray the cost 
 of chemicals, apparatus, fuel, etc. Students can obtain 
 board and suitable accommodations in Golden ata cost aver- 
 aging from six to seven dollars per week. 
 
 Course in Mining Engineering. — First Year. — Mrst Term. 
 Algebra, Physics, Chemistr)', Drawing, fres hand, French. 
 
 Sec-ond Term. — Algebra, Physics, Chemistry, Drawing, free hand, 
 French. 
 
 Third Term. — Algebra, Geometry, Physics, Chemistry, Drawing 
 free hand. Botany (optional), French. 
 
 Vacation. — Memoir on subject assigned by the Faculty. 
 
 Second Year — First Term — Geometry, Qualitative Analysis, 
 Assaying, Drawing, Crystallography, German. 
 
 Second Term — Trigonometry, Mensura'.ion, Conic Sections, 
 Qualitative Analysis, Drawing, Assaying, Mineralogy, Blowpipe 
 Analysis, German. 
 
 Third Term — Descriptive Geometry, Surveying, Stoichiometry, 
 Qualitative Analysis, Drawing, Determinative islineralogy, Zoology, 
 (optional) German. Vacation Memoir. 
 
 Third Year — First Term — Analytical Geometry, Surveying, 
 Quantitative Analysis, Applied Chemistry, Drawing, Shades, Shad- 
 ows and Perspective, Geology. 
 
 Second Term — Cafculus, Geodesy, Quantitative Analysis, Applied 
 Chemistry, Drawing, Civil Engineering, Stone Cutting, Geology. 
 
 Third Term — Calculus, Mechanics, Metallurgy, Applied Chem- 
 istry, Drawing, Civil Engineering, Economic Geology, Spanish 
 (Optional). Vacation Memoir. 
 
 FOTTRTH Year — First Term — Kinematics, Mechanics, Metal- 
 lurgy, Practical Mining, Drawing, Mining Law, Theory of Strains 
 and strength of materials, Spanish, (optional.) 
 
 Second Term — Dynamics, Hydraulic Engineering, Metallurgy, 
 Practical Mining, Drawing, Mining Engineering, Plans, Construc- 
 tions, and Estimates. 
 
 Third Tei-m — Mechanical Engineering, Ore Dressing, Mining 
 Engineering, Thesis Work, including Plans, Estimates and Draw- 
 ings. 
 
 CotTKSB IN Civil Engineering — First Year — First Term — 
 Algebra, Physics, Chemistry, Drawing, free hand, French. 
 
 Second Term — Algebra, Physics, Chemistry, Drawing, free hand, 
 French. 
 
 Third Term — Algebra, Geometry, Physics, Chemistry, Drawing, 
 free hand, Botany, (optional,) French. 
 
 Vacation — Memoir on subject assigned by the Faculty. 
 
 Second 'iEA.'R— First TVrm— Geometry, Qualitative Analysis, 
 Assaying, Drawing, Cryutallography, German. 
 
 Second Term — Trigonometry, Mensuration, Clonic Sections, Quali- 
 tative Analysis, Drawing, Assaying, Mineralogy, Blowpipe Analysis, 
 German. 
 
 Third Term — Descriptive Geometry, Surveyins;, Stoichiometry, 
 Qualitative Analysis, Drawing, Lithology, Zoology, (optional), 
 German. 
 
 Vacation Memoir. 
 
 Third Year— FtVse Term — Analytical Geometi-y, Surveying, 
 Quantitative Analysis, Quarrying, etc., Drawing, Sliades, Shadows 
 and Perspective, Geology. 
 
 Second Term — Calculus, Geodesy, Excavation and Tunneling, 
 Applied Chemistry, Drawing, Civil Engineering, Stone Cutting, 
 Geology. 
 
 Third Term — Calculus, Mechanics, Metallurgy, Architecture, 
 Drawing, Civil Engineering, Economic Geology, Spanish, (op- 
 tional.) 
 
 Vacation Memoir. 
 
 Fourth Year. — First Term. Kinematics, Mechanics, Railroad 
 
 Equipment, Architecture, Spanish (optional). Drawing, Lectures on 
 Laws pertaining to railroads and their management. Theory of 
 Strains and Strength of Materials. 
 
 Second Term. Dynamics, Hydraulic Engineering, Problem in 
 Graphics, Drawing, Mining Engineering, Plans, Constructions and 
 Estimates. 
 
 Third Term. Mechanical Engineering, Sewage and Sanitary 
 Engineering, Thesis Work, including Plans, Estimates and Draw- 
 ings, Bridges, Aqueducts, etc. 
 
 Course in Metai^ldrgy. — First Year. — First Term. Al- 
 gebra, Physics, Chemistry, Drawing, free hand, French. 
 
 Second Term. Algebra, Physics, Chemistry, Drawing, freehand, 
 French. 
 
 Third Tern. Algebra, Geometry, Physics, Chemistry, Drawing, 
 free hand. Botany, (optional), French. 
 
 Vacation. Memoir on sul^ject assigned by the Faculty. 
 
 Second Year — First Term — Geometry, Qualitative Analysis, 
 Assaying, Drawing, Crystallography, German. 
 
 Second Term — Trigonometry, Mensuration, Conic Sections, Quali- 
 tative Analysis, Drawing, Assaying, Mineralogy, Blowpipe Anal- 
 ysis, Analysis, German. 
 
 Third Term — Descriptive Geometry, Metallurgy, Stoichiometry, 
 Quantitative Analysis, Drawing, Determinative Mineralogy, 
 Zoology (optional), German. Vacation Jlemoir. 
 
 Third Year — First Term — Analytical Geometry, Metallurgy, 
 Quantitative Analysis, Applied Chemistry, Drawing, Determina- 
 tive Mineralogy, Shades, Shadows and Perspective, Geology. 
 
 Second Term — Calculus, Metallurgy, Quantitative Analysis, 
 Drawing, Stoichiometry, Geology, Applied Chemistry. 
 
 Third Term — Calculus, Mechanics, Metallurgy, Applied Chem- 
 istry, Drawing, Quantitative .Analysis, Economic Geology, Spanish 
 (optional). Vacation Memoir. 
 
 Fourth Year — First Term — Kinematics, Mechanics, Furnace 
 Products, Practical Mining, Drawing, Mining Law. Theory of 
 Strains and Strength of Material, Spanish (optional). 
 
 Second Term — Dynamics, Hydraulic Engineering, Problems in 
 Graphics, Drawing, Constructions and Estimates, Practical 
 Mining. 
 
 Third Term — Mechanical Engineering, Ore Dressing, Thesis 
 Work, including Plans, Estimates and Drawings. 
 
 Mathematics and Mechanics. — In this department the stu- 
 dent is given such an accurate knowledge of mathematics, 
 pure and applied, as will enable him readily to solve diffi- 
 cult practical problems. The subjects are pursued in the 
 following order, viz. : Review and completion of Algebra 
 and Geometry ; Trigonometry and Mensuration ; Conic 
 Sections; Analytical Geometry; Calculus and Analytical 
 Mechanics. 
 
 Drawing.— Roth. Free Hand and Mechanical Drawing are 
 f aught. The object of Free Hand Drawing is to ftir'nish 
 that skill of the hand and eye which will enable the student 
 promptly and effectively to illustrate any object with suita- 
 ble sketches. In Mechanical Drawing the aim is to render 
 the student a reliable and efficient draughtsman. The 
 various methods of graphical expression are carefully in- 
 vestigated, and the principles therein embodied are put 
 into practice in the formation of plans and in the execution 
 of detailed drawings both from copies and original designs. 
 
 After devoting one year to Free Hand Drawing, the stu- 
 dent is taught lettering, coloring, and the use of instru- 
 ments. This is succeeded by a thorough course in 3Iechan- 
 ical Drawing. Descriptive Geometry; Shades, Shadows 
 and Perspective ; Masonry and Stone-Cutting are taken up 
 in their proper order. The students arc also instructed in 
 Topographical and Architectural Drawing and in the re- 
 production of drawings by the " Blue Process." The laht 
 year will be employed in making plans and designs for fur- 
 naces, mills, engines, machinery, etc., which are executed 
 upon paper in the most careful and detailed manner in con- 
 nection with Thesis work. These drawings are required to 
 be presented upon paper 19 x 27 inches, to be preserved in 
 the Institution for subsequent reference and inspection. 
 The public will be allowed to examine and make copies of 
 these, subject to such conditions as will insure their careful 
 preservation. 
 
 PAyi'ics.— The students of the first vear will be occupied 
 for three hour.i per week with this subject. During this 
 time the class will have, by lectures and recitations, amply 
 illustrated by experiments, a complete course, embracing 
 the following : The Principles of Mechanics; Elementary 
 Machines; Optics, Acoustics, Heat, and Electricity, anil 
 also the application of the same to practical questions of 
 every day life. 
 
 Sui-ifyini?.— Surveying is taught in the most practical 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 337 
 
 manner, the student becoming thoroughly familiar with the 
 use of compass, transit, aneroid and hypsometer. Instruc- 
 tion is given in railroad and canal surveying, in sewage and 
 street extension, in chain and underground surveying, and 
 in Geodesy. The student learns to anticipate the various 
 problems which he is likely to encounter in subsequent ex- 
 perience, and is carefully prepared by the selection of such 
 as will be of special importance in his work as mining or 
 civil engineer. His field and underground work are plotted 
 under the personal supervision of the Professor. 
 
 Engineering. — This subject is systematically pursued 
 through three years under the following heads : Strength 
 of Materials ; Civil Engineering ; Hydraulic Engineering ; 
 Kinematics; Dynamics of Machinery, and Mining Engin- 
 eering. Strength of Materials will occupy a term in the 
 determination of dimensions of parts of roof, bridge, 
 trusses, etc., by means of the stresses to which they are sub- 
 jected. Civil Engineering will embrace the nature, elasti- 
 city and tests of materials ; construction of retaining walls ; 
 trestles, bridges, canals, etc., estimation of quantities of 
 materials required for the same ; sewage and Sanitary En- 
 gineering. Hydraulic Engineering includes mechanics of 
 fluids, gauging of streams, and the calculation for water sup- 
 ply, reservoirs, conduits, pipes, etc. In the study of Kine- 
 matics and Dynamics the student investigates the theory and 
 construction of boilers, machinery, motors, pumps, teeth, 
 cams, and also the transmission of power. The distinction 
 between Mining Engineering and Civil Engineering being 
 only in the difference of application, Mining Engineering 
 proper will embrace, apart from the general subjects of en- 
 gineering, the following branches, viz. : Practical Mining, 
 which will consist of lectures and recitations upon prospect- 
 ing, excavations, blasting, tunneling, shafting and timber- 
 ing, hydraulic and placer mining, with details of construc- 
 tion and economy of pipes; also riffles, sluices, ditches, 
 dams, etc; and Mine Engineering, which treats of the 
 modes of exploitation, drainage and ventilation of mines ; 
 machinery for hoisting and pumping, ground plant and ore 
 dressing in principle and detail, which is treated according 
 to both the American and European methods and plans. 
 The class accompanied by the Professor will visit prominent 
 mines and mining regions after which each student is re- 
 quired to hand in a written report of his observations. 
 
 Chemistry. — A large amount of time is devoted to Chemis- 
 try, general, analytical and applied. A knowledge of the 
 principles of the science, the nature of the most important 
 elements and their compounds, their behavior with 
 re-agents, and their deportment m Assaying and Metal- 
 lurgical processes is regarded as indispensable to the 
 successful metallurgist, and of great value to the engin- 
 eer, prospector, and practical miner. It also affords a solid 
 foundation upon which to build the sciences of Mineralogy 
 and Geology. The Chemical Laboratory is capable of ac- 
 commodating forty-five students at a time. Each student is 
 provided with a convenient desk with shelves of re-agents 
 and drawers and cupboards for apparatus. The more rare 
 and costly chemicals are kept in special cases in the Labo- 
 ratory rooms, and are accessible to students as they need them. 
 The Laboratory is well lighted and ventilated, and is furnished 
 with hoods to carry off poisonous and offensive gases. 
 The building is furnished throughout with gas and water. 
 Theoretical and Experimental Chemistry are taught during 
 the whole of the first year, the students repeating in the 
 Laboratory so far as possible the experiments shown in the 
 Lecture room, and also testing the behavior of the most im- 
 portant elements and compounds towards the ordinary 
 re-agents, thus preparing the way for the strictly analytical 
 work which follows, and which, with Applied Chemistry is 
 • continued until the fourth year — students in Civil Engineer- 
 ing, however, do not pursue the subject so far. In Qualita- 
 tive Analysis the most reliable and direct methods are 
 adopted. The student is required to write out accurately 
 the formula expressing the reaction and also to give a full 
 explanation of the same. In Quantitative Analysis the 
 student first analyzes salts of known composition, thus being 
 able to test the accuracy of his work by comparing his results 
 with the true percentages calculated from the chemical for- 
 mula. When sufficient skill is acquired in this way, more 
 complex substances are investigated, the accuracy of work 
 being determined by comparing the results of duplicate 
 
 22 
 
 analyses. The substances analyzed are principally ores, 
 metallurgical products, comprising slag, matte, etc., products 
 of economical geology, such as building stone, cement, clays, 
 mineral waters, and other substances of commercial impor- 
 tance. 
 
 Assaying. — -A course in assaying following the most 
 approved and practical methods for the determination of 
 gold, silver, lead, copper, zinc and iron, may be completed in 
 two months. During the same time instruction is given in 
 the assay of coals and in Blowpipe Analysis sufficient to en- 
 able the student to determine the presence of valuable metals 
 contained in minerals and approximately the (quantity of silver. 
 Those pursuing the regular courses of Mining Engineering 
 and Metallurgy are expected to acquire a more extended 
 knowledge of the subject. The instruction is principally 
 oral in connection with Laboratory work. The rarnace can 
 be used any time from 8:30 a.m. until 5 p.m. 
 
 Mineralogy, Orystallography and Blowpiping.— 
 This course embraces instruction in Crystallography, in De- 
 scriptive Mineralogy and in the determination of minerals by 
 actual examination of the physical properties of individual 
 Specimens and by Blowpipe tests. In Blowpiping the stu- 
 dent first becomes familiar with the oxidizing and reducing 
 flames and their effects. He is then given simple substances 
 of known composition and, after he has studied their deport- 
 ment under the Blowpipe, unknown mixtures of the same 
 compounds, and finally, alloys and minerals — the latter com- 
 prising all the important ores of the various metals. A 
 certain amount of time is also devoted to the determination 
 of minerals by sight, aided only by such tests as can be made 
 without the use of special apparatus and re-agents. A care- 
 fully selected collection of mineral is kept on hand for the 
 use of the students who are allowed to make upon them such 
 tests as are necessary in studying the nature and properties 
 of the specimens. The School possesses also a good collec- 
 tion of models to illustrate the forms and systems in which 
 the different minerals crystallize. These models are at all 
 times accessible, to the students. 
 
 Metallurg:y. — Metallurgy is taught by class-room lec- 
 tures and conferences, also by frequent visits to the smelting 
 works under the guidance of the Professor. The various 
 processes for the reduction of gold, silver, lead, and copper 
 ores are in'this way learned by observation as well as theo- 
 retically, and samples of the products are collected for 
 examination. The course of metallurgy begins with the 
 study of fuels and refractory materials. Then follows the 
 discussion of fiirnaces, engines, and the various other con- 
 structions and appliances of metallurgical establishments 
 When the student is familiar with these, the treatment of 
 the ores of the different metals is taken up successively in 
 detail, all the well-known and important processes being 
 thoroughly studied, and their relation and applications to the 
 reduction of the ores of the western states and territories are 
 particularly considered. Students in Civil Engineering attend 
 the lectures on fuel, refractory materials, furnace construc- 
 tions, etc., devoting one term to the work. Those in Mining 
 Engineering pursue a more complete course, becoming fa- 
 miliar with the most important processes used in the reduc- 
 tion of the principal ores ; while those in the Metallurgical 
 course devote four terms to an exhaustive study of the whole 
 subject, and after acquiring a comprehensive knowledge of 
 Metallurgy and having considerable experience in Chemical 
 work, one term is spent in the examination of the nature of 
 the different furnace products, and in making quantitative 
 analyses of the same. 
 
 Geology. — ^The advantage of a thorough knowledge of 
 Geology can hardly be over-estimated. It is important for 
 the prospector and the practical miner to be able to distin- 
 guish properly the different rooks in which the minerals lie. 
 Mining is not wholly of a haphazard nature. Every district 
 has its own special character and certain formations in 
 which the ore principally occurs, and in which it is dis- 
 tributed according to certain laws. The knowledge of this 
 local character can be more readily acquired when the gen- 
 eral principles of Geology are understood. Few regions 
 present greater advantages for the study of this science than 
 the Rocky Mountains. The appreciation of this fact and 
 of the mineral importance of this region is evinced by the 
 many expeditions sent out here by the United States Gov- 
 ernment and by Eastern Colleges. The State School of 
 
338 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Mines of Colorado is particularly favored by being located 
 in one of the most remarkable Geological sections of this 
 region. Nearly the whole series of the Rocky Mountains is 
 represented in this vicinity. It abounds in fossils, and amongst 
 them the enormous Dinosaurs discovered by Professor Arthur 
 Lakes and brought into world- wide celebrity through his 
 labors in connection with Professor Marsh and others. Our 
 Table Mountains, capped with basaltic lava, abounding in 
 zeolites and other volcanic minerals, beneath which lie the 
 finest typical fossil impressions of leaves of the Lignitic 
 group that have been discovered, afford rare opportunities 
 for the geologist and the mineralogist. Economic Geology 
 is also well represented by beds of coal, fire-clay, and quar- 
 ries of freestone and limestone. The course pursued at the 
 School of Mines comprehends Theoretical Geology supple- 
 mented by a study of specimens characteristic of the dif- 
 ferent rock formations, also field work to verify the instruc- 
 tion of the class-room, and to encourage original research. 
 Connected with this is the collecting of specimens, and 
 making geological sections and maps of the surrounding 
 country. The weekly excursions, which have proven an 
 unfailing source of healthful and instructive enjoyment, 
 will be continued every Saturday as heretofore. During 
 the past year the most important points of the " Foot Hills " 
 . and adjacent formations from Morrison to Fort Collins, a 
 distance of eighty miles, were carefully studied by students 
 who took part in these excursions. The Geology of Colo- 
 rado thus receives special attention, and frequent reference 
 is made to materials gathered by the Professor and students. 
 Botany and Zoology. — ^These two subjects are studied 
 mainly as aids to the better understanding of the fossils 
 found in the various rook formations described in Geology. 
 Each is pursued but one term, and the lectures have constant 
 reference to the practical end to be attained. 
 
 Meteorology. — There is, connected with the department of 
 Physics, a recording observatory in communication with 
 the U. S. Signal Service, to which monthly reports are sent. 
 Modern Languages. — No separate professorships have as 
 yet been established in this department. French and Ger- 
 man are taught, however, by members of the Faculty in 
 other departments, who have enjoyed special facilities for 
 perfecting themselves in these languages by many years of 
 study and travel in the respective countries. The object of 
 instruction in French and German is to teach the students 
 to read works on science in these languages, and to this end 
 elementary scientific works in French and German will be 
 read in the class-room as soon as sufficient knowledge of the 
 grammar is acquired. The study of Spanish is made op- 
 tional in all the regular courses for the purpose of enabling 
 those students who desire it to acquire the means of ready 
 communication with the Spanish speaking population of 
 Colorado and adjacent territories. 
 
 3Iaseum.^La,rge additions have been made to the Mu- 
 seum during the past year. A choice collection of the 
 most important minerals and ores, arranged according to 
 Dana, has been procured lately, and is displayed in suitable 
 cases. The geological collection, which includes many of 
 the best fossil specimens found in the formations along the 
 base of the '' Foot Hills," is exhibited in a suitable manner, 
 and there are separate cases for the ores from the different 
 mining sections of the State. It is proposed that this de- 
 partment of the Museum shall represent the typical fossils 
 and rocks of Colorado. Owners of mines and others are in- 
 vited to contribute to this collection. Specimens of both 
 the average and richest yields of the mines are desired, also 
 of crystals and associated minerals. Contributions of the 
 gangue and of the ore with inclosing contact rock are like- 
 wise solicited. These should be plainly labeled with the 
 name of the mine, its location, and the name of the donor, 
 that the various mining interests of the State may be fairly 
 represented. Such a collection would be of great interest 
 and importance both to the scientist and to the capitalist 
 desirous of investment. Quite a good beginning has already, 
 been made in this direction, but it is specially desired that 
 all the prominent mining properties of the State be well 
 represented. Fossils, characteristic rock from any portion 
 of the State, specimens of coal, clay, etc., are desired for 
 the Geological" section ; and all specimens should be 
 clearly and fully labeled and of uniform size, preferably 4 
 by 5 inches. 
 
 Library AKD Apparatus — The Institution possesses a 
 good library of standard scientific works, and is liberally 
 provided with apparatus. Among the most important pieces 
 of apparatus may be enumerated the following, viz. : A full 
 set of surveying instruments, including an aneroid barome- 
 ter and two very superior mining transits ; a fine projection 
 apparatus, consisting of lantern with triple condenser and 
 vertical attachment for use either with the oxy-hydrogen 
 lime light or with the electric arc, for which a battery of 
 fifty Grove cells has been purchased; 21 inch Toepler 
 Holtz machine ; a large Ruhmkorff coil, length of wire 
 forty -four miles ; hydraulic ram ; air pump ; dipping bat- 
 tery ; full set of meteorological apparatus ; Crooke's tubes ; 
 Geissler's tubes ; large gasometers for oxygen and hydro- 
 gen; several very accurate chemical and bullion balances; 
 ore Ijalances ; Blake's laboratory crusher ; and a full equip- 
 ment of muffle and wind furnaces provided with all neces- 
 sary appliances. 
 
 Lectures. — Prominent members of the legal profession 
 will be engaged to deliver a series of lectures upon mining 
 and railroad law, with special reference to the wants of the 
 students. During the school year a course of scientific lec- 
 tures is delivered upon subjects of popular interest by the 
 members of the Faculty and others. These lectures, to 
 which the public are invited, are given in the evening and 
 are illustrated by experiments, drawings and lantern pic- 
 tures. 
 
 Memoirs and Thesis — Each student in the regular course 
 is required , during the summer vacation, to execute a Memoir 
 on some subject assigned by the Faculty. The subject is chosen 
 so far as possible, with direct reference to the practical end 
 the student has in view in his course of study. A minimum 
 of actual work, adequately described and illustrated by draw- 
 ings, is insisted upon. Careful inspection of mines, metal- 
 lurgical works, etc., furnishes the student material from 
 which to make his estimates and calculations. Early in the 
 fourth year the student is assigned a subject for a graduating 
 thesis. Such data are given as would be met with in practi- 
 cal experience. The student after careflil consideration, 
 selects what he regards as the best method of treatment, giv- 
 ing his reasons for the same with estimates and drawings. 
 When finally completed, the thesis is presented to the Fac- 
 ulty for approval. 
 
 SciENTiFif: AND Literary Society. — A Society known 
 as the School of Mines Athenseum has been organized for the 
 purpose of scientific and literary culture. This society, 
 which is composed of students, members of the Faculty and 
 prominent persons in the city, holds its regular meetings in 
 the lecture hall of the School of Mines every Friday evening. 
 Special entertainments, both literary and social, are occa- 
 sionally given. 
 
 1882-83. 
 Calendar. Fall Term begins September 27th, 1882 ; 
 ends December 15th, 1882. Winter Term begins January 
 1883 ; ends March 21st, 1883. Spring Term begins March 
 
 3d 
 
 26th, 1883 ; ends June 1st, 1883. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
 T' 
 
 HE University of California is an integral part of the 
 public educational system of the State. As such it 
 aims to complete the work begun in the public 
 schools. It offers the best opportunities in the 
 State for a higher education. Through aid from- the State" 
 and the United States, and by private munificence, it fur- 
 nishes ample facilities for instruction in Science, Literature, 
 and the professions of Law, Medicine, Dentistry, and Phar- 
 macy. In the undergraduate courses, i. e., in the Colleges 
 of Letters, Agriculture, Mining, Mechanics, Civil Engineer- 
 ing, and Chemistry, in the Literary (!ourse, and m the 
 Course in Letters and Science, these privileges are offered 
 without charge for tuition, and to all persons residents of the 
 State, who are qualified for admission. Persons from other 
 States are admitted to equal privileges upon the pay- 
 ment of a small matriculation and tuition fee. The 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 339 
 
 professional courses, being self-sustaining, require as reason- 
 able tuition fees as possible. All courses are open to all 
 persons without distinction of sex. The Constitution of the 
 State provides for the perpetuation of the University under 
 ita present form of government. With this guarantee of 
 security from change, it looks forward to an era of ampler 
 development and greater usefulness. The departments of 
 instruction comprise the following : 
 
 (1.) ieWers araei /Science, including the College of Letters 
 or Classical Course, and Colleges of Agriculture, Mechanics, 
 Mining, Civil Engineering, and Chemistry, the Literary 
 Course, the Course in Letters and Science, and certain 
 irregular courses. 
 
 (2.) Law. — The Hastings College of the Law. 
 
 (3.j Medicine. — TheToIand College of Medicine. 
 
 (4.) Dentistry. — The College of Dentistry. 
 
 (5.) Pharmacy. — The College of Pharmacy. 
 
 The general funds of the University are devoted to the 
 Colleges of Letters and of Science. The Colleges of Medi- 
 cine, Dentistry, and Pharmacy are self-supporting. The 
 College of Law has a separate endowment. The distinctive 
 characteristics of the various Colleges are given, both in 
 general statements and in detail, upon subsequent pages of 
 the Register. 
 
 The University was instituted by a law which received the 
 approval of the Governor, March 23, 1868. Instruction.? 
 were commenced in Oakland in the Autumn of 1869. The 
 commencement exercises of 1873 were held at Berkeley, 
 July 16th, when the University was formally transferred to 
 its permanent home. Instructions began at Berkeley in the 
 Autumn of 1873. The College of California, which had been 
 organized several years before the University, transferred 
 its property and students upon terias which were mutually 
 agreed upon, and closed its work of instruction in 1869. 
 This College was incorporated in 1855, and through its 
 agency a part of the Oakland property of the University, 
 and the Berkeley site, now owned and occupied by the 
 University of California, were secured. The site of the 
 University, at Berkeley, is a domain of about two hundred 
 acres, situated on the slope of the Contra Costa hills, about 
 five miles from Oakland, facing the Golden Gate. It is 
 traversed by two water-courses, is much diversified in aspect, 
 and is adapted to a great variety of culture. A part of the 
 site is reserved to illustrate the work of agriculture and 
 horticulture, and is now under cultivation. The under- 
 graduate colleges were the only ones included in the original 
 organization ; the professional colleges were added from 
 time to time. These latter are all located in San Francisco. 
 
 The University of California is a State institution, estab- 
 lished by the Legislature in accordance with the Constitu- 
 tion, and intrusted to the care of a Board of Regents, which 
 includes the Governor, the Lieutenant-Governor, the 
 Speaker of the Assembly, the State Superintendent of Public 
 Instruction, the President of the State Agricultural Society, 
 the President of the Mechanics' Institute of San Francisco, 
 the President of the University, and sixteen other Regents 
 appointed by the Governor and approved by the Senate. To 
 this body of Regents the State has committed the adminis- 
 tration of the University, including the finances, care of the 
 property, appointment of teachers, and determination of the 
 interior organizations in all particulars not already deter- 
 mined by law. The Provisions of the Constitution, of the 
 laws of the State, and of the Congressional enactment of 
 July 2, 1862, which pertain to the government of the Uni- 
 versity, together with the terms of affiliation of the profes- 
 sional colleges, and other regulations, are published in a 
 separate pamphlet. The instruction and Government of the 
 students at Berkeley are intrusted to two Faculties, which 
 have hitherto acted as one body — the Faculty of Science and 
 the Letters. The Faculties of Law, Medicine, Pharmacy, 
 and Dentistry, in San Francisco, are distinct bodies. All 
 the Professors and Instructors of the University constitute 
 what is termed by law the Academic Senate, the meetings 
 of which are expected to be infrequent, and restricted to 
 matters of general concern. 
 
 Funds. — The resources from which the University is 
 maintained are derived from various sources, and in- 
 clude the following endowments : 1. The Seminary Fund 
 and Public Building Fund, granted to the State by Con- 
 gress. 2. The property received from the College of Cali- 
 
 fornia, including the site at Berkeley. 3. The fund derived 
 from the Congressional land grant of July 2, 1862. 4. The 
 Tide Land Fund, appropriated by the State. 5.. Specific 
 appropriations by the Legislature, for buildings, current ex- 
 penses, etc. 6. The gifts of individuals. 
 
 Faculties of Colleges of Science and of Letters. — William 
 T. Reid, A. M., President of the University; William Ash- 
 burner, Honorary Professor of Mining; Geo. Woodbury 
 Bunnell, A. M., Professor of the Greek Language and Litera- 
 ture; George Davidson, A. M., Honorary Professor of 
 Geodesy and Astronomy ; Stephen J. Field, LL. D., Hono- 
 rary Professor of Law; Frederick G. Hesse, Professor of 
 Industrial Mechanics ; Eugene W. Hilgard, Ph. D., Profes- 
 sor of Agriculture, Agricultural Chemistry, General and. 
 Economic Botany ; Martin Kellogg, A. M., Dean, and Pro- 
 fessor of the Latin Language and Literature ; John LeConte, 
 M. D., LL. D., Professor of Physics ; Joseph LeConte, M. 
 D., LL. D., Professor of Geology and Natural History ; 
 Bernard Moses, Ph. D., Professor of History and Political 
 Economy. Willard B. Rising, Ph. D., Professor of Chemis- 
 try; Edward R. Sill, A. M., Professor of the English Lan- 
 guage and Literature; Frank Soul6 Jr., (U. S. Military 
 Academy), Professor of Civil Engineering and Astronomy ; 
 
 , Agassiz Professor of Oriental Languages and 
 
 Literatures ; , Mills Professor of Mental and 
 
 Moral Philosophy and Civil Polity ; John W. Bice, Ph. B., 
 Instructor in Engineering ; Ross E. Browne, Instructor in 
 Mechanical and other Branches of Instrumental Drawing ; 
 Samuel B. Christy, Ph. B., Instructor in Mining and Metal- 
 lurgy ; John B. Clarke, Ph. B., Assistant Instructor in 
 Mathematics; George C. Edwards, Ph. B., Instructor in 
 Mathematics and Colonel Commanding University Corps of 
 Cadets; A Wendell Jackson, Jr., Ph. B., Instructor in 
 Mineralogy, Petrography, and Economic Geology; Henry 
 
 B. Jones, Instructor in French ; Wm. Carey Jones, A. M., 
 Recorder of the Faculties and Instructor in Latin ; Edmund 
 
 C. O'Neil, Ph. B., Assistant Instructor in Chemistry ; Albin 
 Putzker, Instructor in German ; Joseph C. Rowell, A. B., 
 Librarian ; Josiah Royce, Jr., Ph. D., Instructor in the Eng- 
 lish Language and Literature ; E. H. Sears, A. B., Instruc- 
 tor in Latin and Greek ; F. Slate, Jr., Superintendent of the 
 Physical Laboratory, and Instructor in Physics and Mechan- 
 ics ; John M. Stillman, Ph. B., Instructor in Chemistry ; 
 George B. Willcutt, Ph, B., Assistant Instructor in Chemis- 
 try; Charles H. Dwinelle, Ph. B., Lecturer on Practical 
 Agriculture ; Myer E. Jaffa, Ph. B., Assistant in Agricul- 
 tural Chemistry ; Frederick W. Morse, Ph. B., Assistant in 
 Viticultural Laboratory; J. J. Rivers, Curator of the 
 Museum ; Abel Whitton, Manager of University Press. 
 
 Library. — The General Library, a very valuable collection, 
 particularly for reference, contains nineteen thousand five 
 hundred volumes. It receives a large number of periodical 
 publications — literary, scientific, and general. It is being 
 constantly augmented, by gift and purchase, especially from 
 the income of the Reese Fund of $50,000. The private col- 
 lection presented by Mr. H. D. Bacon has been shelved, and 
 is now ready for use. It comprises twelve hundred volumes, 
 bound, with few exceptions, in full yellow calf, hand-tooled, 
 with fine examples of tree and grained calf, full gilt, bound 
 by Bedford, Riviere, and others. The Library is placed in 
 the new Bacon Library and Art building. 
 
 The Collections of the ?7m'!!ej-sii<y.— The collections belong- 
 ing to the University, though still incomplete, are both 
 large and valuable. Those at Berkeley are made up from 
 material derived mainly from the following sources : The 
 State Geological Collection, the entire material of which has 
 been placed at the disposal of the University ; the Voy Col- 
 lection, consisting of a large number of California fossils, 
 minerals, rocks, etc., collected by Mr. C. D. Voy, and pre- 
 sented to the University by D. O. Mills, Esq. ; the Pioche 
 Collection, an extensive miscellaneous collection of miner- 
 als, rocks, ores, shells, etc., from all parts of the world, and 
 especially from South America, presented to the University 
 by the late F. L. A. Pioche ; the Hank's Collection, consist- 
 ing of miscellaneous minerals and rocks, presented by James 
 R. Keene, Esq., of San Francisco ; selections from the Ward 
 Series of Casts, purchased by the University ; and current 
 donations. The following description will show the general 
 character of the collections at Berkeley : 
 
 The Museum of Historical Geology is in process of for- 
 
340 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 mation. The Museum of Palaeontology contains a full suite 
 of the fossils of California, both animal and vegetable. 
 Most of these have been already described and figured ; the 
 animals in the State Geological Reports of Professor J. D. 
 Whitney, and the plants, recently, by Mr. Lesqtiereux, in 
 the Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Anatomy of 
 Harvard. The palseontological material from the Voy Col- 
 lection has, however, never been worked up, and offers, con- 
 sequently, to the student an excellent field for original work. 
 There are, also, selections from the series of Wm-d Casts. 
 The Museum of Petrography contains many foreign rocks, 
 but is especially rich in California material, collected by the 
 corps of the State Geological Survey and by Mr. C. D. Voy. 
 Plenty of case room is at disposal, and the rocks are being 
 arranged as fast as determined. The rocks are arranged 
 systematically and geographically, so that, as the collection 
 becomes more complete, the geographical distribution of the 
 rocks of the Pacific Coast will be known with great accuracy 
 and detail. It is designed to issue, as soon as possible, a 
 descriptive catalogue of the rocks of California. The Mu- 
 seum of Economic Geology, although so recently founded, 
 is already assuming proportions, and is in frequent receipt 
 of valuable acquisitions from all parts of the Pacific Coast. 
 The importance and value of this collection can scarcely be 
 overestimated. It will subserve two purposes ; on the one 
 hand, it renders possible a course of instruction in ore 
 deposits, which is of essential importance to those who 
 intend to pursue the profession of mining engineer; and on 
 the other hand, the ore deposits of this coast will be col- 
 lected together, for the first time in one institution, where 
 they can be subjected to careful and critical comparative 
 investigation, to the end that the laws of their occurrence 
 may, as far as possible, be determined. To this end an 
 elaborate blank book has-been devised, in which are care- 
 fully tabulated the name, locality, form, thickness, dip, 
 strike, wall rocks, etc., of every ore deposit on the coast, as 
 soon as accurate information upon these points can be 
 obtained. The mass of statistics thus obtained will be made 
 the basis of the above mentioned investigations. The Mu- 
 seum of Mineralogy is very large and fully arranged, and 
 is supplied with ample case room. It fully illustrates the 
 instruction in Mineralogy and offers inexhausitible material 
 for investigation, facilities for which are freely placed at the 
 disposal of the student. All of the foregoing museums are 
 open at all times to the public, Mr. Rivers being in constant 
 attendance to show visitors through the various collections. 
 Chemical Laboratories. — ^The chemical Laboratories were 
 planned after the most careful study of the newest and best 
 arranged laboratories of this country and of Europe, with 
 the aid and advice of many experienced teachers of analy- 
 tical chemistry. They are commodious, convenient, well 
 lighted, ^yell ventilated, and adapted to the study of analyti- 
 cal chemistry in all its branches, and to the carrying on of 
 original research. There are two principal laboratory rooms, 
 one for qualitative analysis, the other for quantitative analy- 
 sis, each having accommodations for thirty-two students. 
 They contain a number of evaporating niches, sand and 
 steam baths, drying ovens, filter apparatus, etc. ; there are 
 rooms all well equipiaed for fusions, organic analysis, gas 
 analysis, etc. ; also, a balance room supplied with balances 
 from the best makers. Such apparatus as is needed for the 
 study of analytical chemistry is loaned to the students 
 without charge, if returned in good order. There is a good 
 supply of apparatus for carrying on original investigations. 
 Metallurgical Laboratories. — These laboratories are de- 
 signed to offer every facility for the assays of ores, bullion, 
 slags, mattes, etc., and for experiments in treating ores. 
 Tliey contain rooms devoted to special work, as will appear 
 from the following enumeration : A crushing and sampling 
 room, provided with large iron mortars, rubbers, sieves, and 
 a sampling table ; a furnace room, containing four iron-clad 
 crucible furnaces built into the wall, three mufile furnaces 
 constructed in a similar manner, together with all the neces- 
 sary work benches and tools ; besides these permanent fur- 
 naces there is a full assortment of movable French clay, 
 muffle tubs, and crucible furnaces ; a weighing room con- 
 taining ore scales for weighing out charges, also hoods and sand 
 bath for parting gold and silver; two separate balance rooms 
 for the finer assay balances ; one room specially arranged 
 with yellow glass windows for the humid or mint assay of 
 
 silver bullion ; two rooms devoted to volumetric work and 
 special investigations. All the appliances are of the most 
 improved pattern, and the laboratories offer excellent facili- 
 ties for instruction and original research. 
 
 Mineralogical Laboratory. — This laboratory is provided with 
 a large collection of unlabeled minerals, which students 
 determine by their physical properties. A separate course 
 on blowpipe analysis is offered by the Chemical Depart- 
 ment. 
 
 Petro graphical Lahm-atm-]). — Every facility is furnished for 
 the study of rooks, both by the ordinary processes of miner- 
 alogical investigations and by the preparation of thin rock 
 sections and examination under the microscope. The labor- 
 atory possesses six first class microscopes. The student has 
 access at all times to the facilities provided for this work, 
 and the material to be investigated is practically inexhaust- 
 ible. 
 
 Courses of Instruction. — The Colleges of Letters and of 
 Science comprise the College of Letters, embracing a 
 classical course ; the College of Science, embracing. Agri- 
 culture, Mechanics, Mining, Engineering, and Chemistry; a 
 Literary Course ; a Course in Letters and Science ; and 
 certain irregular courses not leading to ^ degree. The com- 
 pletion of any of the following named courses requires four 
 years. 
 
 The Courses in Science : Agricultural, Mechanics, Mining, En- 
 gineering and Chemistry lead to the degree of Bachelor of Science, 
 and are lomided for training those who wi.sh to prepare themselves 
 for the industrial professions. Each College gives to the student a 
 good English education, such instruction in either French or Ger- 
 man as will insure a reading power of one of the modern languages, 
 and an introduction to the principles of modern science, together 
 with special instruction preparatory to a fuller course of profes- 
 sional study in the particular department he may choose. Neither 
 Latin nor Greek is required for these courses, but a preparatory 
 course in Latin is recommended. 
 
 The Course in Mechanics is designed for students who wish to be- 
 come mechanical engineers or machinists (so far as tliey are con- 
 structors of machiueiy), or to devote their energies to such techni- 
 cal and industrial pursuits as involve a knowledge of machinery. 
 
 The Course in Mining is designed for students who wish to become 
 mining or metallurgical engineers, or to engage in one of the many 
 pursuits connected with the mining industries, such as the survey- 
 ing and mapping of mines, the assaying and working of ores, the 
 designing and use of mining machinery, or the exploitation of 
 mines. 
 
 The Course in Engineering is designed for students who wish to 
 adopt civil engineering as a profession, and to engage in such work 
 as the survey of lands, leveling, topogra})hical engineering, trian- 
 gular or geodetic surveying, the location and construction of roads, 
 railways, and canals, tlie designing and construction of bridges of 
 wood, iron, or stone, the building of dams, reservoirs, and systems 
 of water supply, drainage, and sewerage, and the improvement of 
 rivers, harbors, and sea coasts. 
 
 The Course in Chemistry is designed for students who wish to 
 become professional chemists, either as teachers or investigators, or 
 manufacturers in chemical industries, and also for those who wish 
 to Ix'come expert chemists preparatory to the pursuits of medicine 
 phannacy, etc. ' 
 
 lEEEGULAE COURSES KOT LEADING TO A DEGKEK. 
 
 N. B.— Written application to be allowed to fake cither of the 
 three following named courses must, in all cases, and from year to 
 year, be made at the Recorder's office. In this application the rea- 
 sons for wishing to take the course must I)e given, and no student 
 will be admitted to either of these courses without a certificate fi-om 
 the President. Students pursuing either of these courses are not 
 enrolkd in either of the college classes. Students who wish a 
 thorough and systematic education are advised to take one of the 
 eiglit regular courses. 
 
 The Student at large Course does not lead to any degree ; but 
 students in tliis course may, by vote of the Faculty, be recommend- 
 ed to a degree upon the satisfactory completion of studies equiva- 
 lent to those pursued in one of tlie regular courses. It is designed 
 for students who wisli to take a full but a purely elective course. 
 They may select studies from any of tlie courses, provided they satis- 
 fy the Faculty that they are fitted to take the studies selected. Can- 
 didates for this course are required to pass one of the regular 
 admission examinations, and, upon admission, to take studies 
 enough to malce up the full iiumberof exercises required of students 
 pursuing a regular course. Stmlente who fail to maintain their 
 standni!,' as regular students will not be admitted to this course. 
 The Special Course does not lead to a degree, but students in 
 this course may, upon leaving the University, receive a certificate 
 of proficiency in the studies whieli they have pursued and in 
 whicli they have attained marked scholarship. It is designed for 
 students who are mature, and wlio wish to pursue some one line of 
 
THE MINES, MINEKS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 341 
 
 special study aud correlated brauehes. Students under age 
 will not ordinarily be admitted to this course. Applicants who 
 fail on tlie admission examinations, or students who fail lo 
 maintain their standing as regular students, will not be ad- 
 mitted to this course. The Partial Course does not lead to a degree, 
 Out students in this course may, upon leaving the University, receive 
 a certificate of proficiency in tlio studies which they have pursued 
 and in which they have attained marked scholarship. It is de- 
 signed for students who, because of ill health or other disability, are 
 able to pursue only a limited number of studies, or to remain at the 
 University only a short time. Applicants will not be admitted to 
 this course until they have passed a satisfactory examination on 
 such jireparatory subjects as may be thought necessarjr to fit them 
 for the studies they wish to ]>ursue. Certificates of proficiency must 
 be presented to the President before he will issue permission to be 
 enrolled in this course. Applicants who fail on the admission 
 examinations, and students who fail to maintain their standing as 
 regular students, will not be admitted to this course, and the privi- 
 leges of the course will be summarily withdrawn from students 
 whose attainments or conduct indicate a want of earnestness. 
 
 Note.— Before entering upon the examinations for admission, 
 candidates will be asked to make known the course they wish to 
 take. It is very desirable that the choice should be made as early 
 in their preparation as possiblCj and under the best advice attain- 
 able. After entering upon their University Course students will 
 not be allowed to change their course except for the most urgent 
 reasons; and students will not under any circumstances, be allowed 
 to change until all deficiencies in the course previously taken are 
 made U|>. 
 
 Admission. — N. B. — All examinations are conducted in 
 writing, except such as must of necessity be oral, such as 
 leading and the pronunciation of a foreign language. Can- 
 didates must be at least sixteen years of age, and must pre- 
 sent certificates of good moral character. AH candidates for 
 courses leading to a degree, and candidates for the Student 
 at Large Course, must pass a satisfactory examination in the 
 five following named subjects : 
 
 1. English. — Candidates will be required to write a com- 
 position of about two pages (foolscap), correct in spelling, 
 punctuation, grammar, and division into paragraphs, upon a 
 subject announced at the time of the examination. It is 
 suggested that the candidate write such a composition or 
 essay as he would write to a friend who knows nothing of 
 the subject, and to whom he wishes to give as clear and as 
 enjoyable an idea of it as possible. The candidate should 
 have acquired the elements of grammar, so as to distinguish 
 the parts of speech and explain the relations of words and 
 phrases in ordinary sentences, aud the elements of prose 
 composition, as found in such a book as Kellogg's Text Book 
 on Rhetoric. Much composition Avriting is indispensable. 
 The subjects for 1882 will be taken from one of the follow- 
 ing works: Tom Brown's School Days at Rugby, Scott's 
 Marmion, Charles and Mary Lamb's Tales from Shakspeare, 
 Shakspeare's Merchant of Venice. As the examination will 
 be given upon subjects taken from but one of the books, 
 candidates must be familiar with all the books in the list. 
 In 1883 the subjects will be taken from one of the following 
 works : Tom Brown's School Days at Rugby ; Charles and 
 Mary Lamb's Tales from Shakspeare; Irving's Sketch 
 Book; Dickens' Christmas Stories and David Copperfield; 
 Scott's Marmion and Quentin Durward ; Shakspeare's Mer- 
 chant of Venice and Julius Ca3sar. 2, 3, 4. Mathematics. 
 (2) Arithmetic. Higher Arithmetic, including the metric 
 system, but omitting the technical parts of commercial 
 arithmetic. (3) Algebra, through quadratic equations, ex- 
 cept for applicants for the Classical and the Literary Courses, 
 who will be examined to quadratics. (4) Plane Geometry, as 
 much as is contained in Wentworth's Plane Geometry, omit- 
 ting Isoperimetrical Polygons and Symmetry, except for ap- 
 plicants for the Classical and the Literary Cours.°s, who will 
 be examined in the equivalent of four books of Wentworth's 
 Geometry. 5. History and Geography. History of the 
 United States, the general facts of Physical and Political 
 Geography. Barnes'.s Brief History of the United States, 
 and the geographies used in first grade grammar schools, 
 will serve to indicate the amount of knowledge expected. 
 
 (6) Mineralogy.— The elements of Mineralogy. A 
 good knowledge of the physical properties of minerals in 
 general. Ability to determine, by their physical properties 
 alone, twenty-five of the commonest minerals, and to give 
 reasons for determination: First seventy-two pages of 
 
 Nicol's Manual of Mineralogy, or first seventy-five ])age.s of 
 Dana's third edition. Applicants who pass with honors in 
 Chemistry will be put in an advanced division. 
 
 Course in Letters and Science and the Courses in Science. — 
 Candidates for the Course in Letters aud Science, and for 
 either of the Courses in Science, viz. : Agriculture, Me- 
 chanics, Mining, Engineering, and Chemistry, must pass a 
 satisfactory examination on subjects 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 11, and 12, 
 as above, and subjects 13 and 14, as follows : 
 
 18. HisTOKY. — History of England ; Anderson's, Lancas- 
 ter's or Dickens' will indicate the amount. 
 
 14. English. — The examination in English will be of a 
 more critical character than that given under Subject 1, and 
 will include whatever geographical, biographical, historical, 
 grammatical, or other questions (including derivation and 
 definition) may be necessary to a full understanding of the 
 selection. The candidate must, in addition, be prepared to 
 write in good English such an essay on any one of the 
 selections, including biographical sketches, as would con- 
 vey to one not acquainted with the selection named a clear 
 idea of its character and scope. A bad failure in this exam- 
 ination alone will be considered sufficient to reject a candi- 
 date for admission to the course in Letters and Science. The 
 examination will be given upon the following named selec- 
 tions: American Prose, American Poems, Shakspeare's 
 King Lear, Hawthorne's Our Old Home, Milton's L'Alle- 
 gro and II Penseroso, Byron's Prisoner of Chillon, Gold- 
 smith's Deserted Village and Traveller, Burns' Cotter's Sat- . 
 urday Night, To a Mouse, and To a Mountain Daisy, Scott's 
 Lay of the Last Minstrel, Bacon's Essay of Truth, of Re- 
 venge, of Envy, of Boldness, of Travel, of Riches, and of 
 Studies, and Macaulay's Essay on The Pilgrim's Progress. 
 In 1882, American Prose, American Poems, and King 
 Lear will be accepted. 
 
 [American prose, and American poetry published, by 
 Houghton, Mifllin & Co., Boston ; any well annotated edi- 
 tion of Shakspeare, such as the single play editions of the 
 Clarendon Press, Rolfe, etc. The selections are found in a 
 series entitled " English Classics," at ten cents a copy, pub- 
 lished by Clark & Maynard, New York ; most of the selec- 
 tions may be found in the text-books on English literature 
 used in most High Schools, j 
 
 In 1884, readings from English history, by J. R. Green, 
 will also be required. Candidates who pass without condi- 
 tions will be credited with honors on subjects on which they 
 pass with special excellence; but honors will not be given 
 to a student who enters with a condition. 
 
 Preliminary Examinations. — Any candidate for admis- 
 sion to the University may, at his option, pass the entire 
 examination at one time as heretofore, or he may pass a 
 preliminary examination on a part of the requirements aud 
 be examined on the remaining subjects the following year; 
 but neither the preliminary examination nor the final com- 
 pletion of the examination may be divided between the June 
 and the August examinations. Candidates will not be 
 admitted to the preliminary examinations without certificates 
 from their teachers that they are prepared. These certificates 
 should be sent to Recorder Wm. Carey Jones, Berkeley, at 
 least two weeks before the examination. No certificate of 
 proficiency will be given by the University unless the can- 
 didate passes upon at least six of the eight subjects prescribed 
 for the preliminary examinations. 
 
 Expenses. — Tuition in the Colleges of Sciences and of 
 Letters is free to residents of California. Students from 
 other States pay a matriculation fee of twenty-five dollars, 
 and a tuition fee of fifty dollars a year. A small charge is 
 made for chemicals in the chemical laboratory. This is often 
 met by rendering services. Upon graduating, a fee of ten 
 dollars is charged for a diploma. Board and lodging may be 
 obtained in private families at Berkeley and Oakland, at 
 from eighteen dollars to thirty dollars a month. The hours 
 of recitation are such that many students reside in Oakland 
 and San Francisco. Steam connection brings San Francisco 
 within fifty minutes, of the University. The gymnasium, 
 erected by Mr. A. K. P. Harmon, at his own expense, and 
 presented to the University, is well equipped and provides 
 all the students with opportunities for exercise. Students in 
 the College of Agriculture can frequently find work in con- 
 nection with the Instruction in Agriculture and Horticulture. 
 Some students are employed in the University printing 
 
342 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 office at a fair compensation. It is expected that students 
 may earn something by work upon the grounds. ' Work is 
 often obtained on Saturdays and in vacations away from the 
 University. 
 
 Examinations. — Examinations are held at the close of each 
 term and of each year. For students taking the complete 
 course the four annual examinations constitute the examina- 
 tions for degrees. Students from other colleges, academies, 
 or schools may present themselves for a general examina- 
 tion for degrees. The degree for the classical course is A. 
 B., Bachelor of Arts. For all the scientific courses it is B. 
 S., Bachelor of Science. For the Literary Course, and for 
 the Course of Letters and Science it is L. B., Bachelor of 
 Letters. The higher professional degree of Ph. D., 0. E., 
 M. E., Mech. E., etc., will be given only on the completion 
 of prescribed courses of higher study. The University Medal, 
 by direction of its founders, is bestowed upon the most dis- 
 tinguished scholar of the graduation class of each year. 
 
 The Early English Text Society and the New 
 Shakspeaee Society, through the courtesy of Mr. A. G. 
 Snelgrove, Honorary Secretary of the two societies, oifer an 
 annual prize of certain of their publications, for the encour- 
 agement of studies in those lines. The prize is open to all 
 regular students, and is awarded upon written examination 
 under the direction of the Professor of English Literature. 
 
 The Mathematical Prize op Fifty Dollars is offer- 
 ed by Mr. John B. 01ark,'Instructor in Mathematics, for the 
 , best essay on any subject connected with the advanced 
 courses in Modern Higher Algebra and the Calculus of 
 Quaternions. 
 
 College of Mechanics. — Objects of the Course. — -This 
 College will educate mechanical engineers, and others who 
 wish to devote their energies to such professional pursuits 
 as involve a knowledge of machinery. If such is not the 
 aim of the student, he will receive the advantage of such 
 instruction as will enable him to follow any vocation based 
 on the applied or pure exact sciences. 
 
 Course of Study. — The course of instruction directly re- 
 lated to the College during the junior and senior years, will 
 be as follows : 
 
 Junior Year. — I. Kinematics of a point, plane, system, 
 and rigid system in space; that is, motion considered in the 
 abstract, without reference to its cause. 2. Dynamics of a 
 material point, and of a system of masses, considering the 
 actual causes which produce motion. 3. Statics of a material 
 point, and of a rigid body or system of bodies. The subject 
 is treated as a special application of Dynamics. 4. Applica- 
 tion of number three to the determination of strains in 
 stractui-es. 5. Graphostatics, applications in the determi- 
 nation of centers of gravity, moment of inertia, and stresses 
 on structures. 
 
 Senior Year. — 1. Strength of materials, entering in detail 
 upon the analysis of inner strains. 2. Hydrostatics and 
 Hydrodynamics. Theory of hydraulic motors and their 
 construction. 3. Regulators and accumulators of motion. 
 4. Kinematics and applications in the construction of ma- 
 chines. 
 
 Post-Qraduate Year. — 1. Thermo-Dynamics. Theory and 
 construction of steam and heat engines. Heat engines in 
 general. 2. Theory and construction of machines for trans- 
 mission. Mining machines, etc. 
 
 Department of Draioing. — -The instruction in this depart- 
 ment is a direct application of the course, especially in 
 Graphostatics as applied to the analysis of stresses in roof 
 and bridge structures, and in the designing of simple ma- 
 chines, water-wheels, etc. 
 
 College of Mining.— 06Jecf of the College.— This, Col- 
 lege is designed for students who wish to become Mining or 
 Metallurgical engineers, or to engage in one of the many 
 pursuits connected with the mining industry, such as the 
 surveying and mapping of mines, the assaying and working 
 of ores, the designing and use of mining machinery, or the 
 exploitation of mines. 
 
 Undergraduate Course. — This course includes a thorough 
 preparation in the modern physical sciences, training in 
 English, and in a reading power of German. It may be 
 completed by the average student in four years. It leads to 
 the degree of Bachelor of Science. Instruction is given ac- 
 cording to the nature of the subject, either by lectures and 
 
 recitations, or by practical exercises. The lectures are illus- 
 trated by numerous experiments, apparatus, tables, collec- 
 tions, drawings and sketches, whenever required by the 
 nature of the subject. The practical exercises consist of 
 laboratory and field work with instruments, apparatus and 
 collections, in which each student does the work for him- 
 self, under proper guidance. The following is an outline of 
 the course in addition to English and German : 
 
 Mathematics, including Algebra, Geometry, Trigonome- 
 try, Analytical and Descriptive Geometry, Differential and 
 Integral Calculus. The whole course is illustrated by 
 numerous practical problems and applications. 
 
 Physics. — A general course whicla will be supplemented 
 during the coming year, as soon as the physical laboratory 
 is established, by a special course in heat and electricity. 
 
 Chemistry. — Lectures and recitations on Inorganic Chemis- 
 try, particular attention being paid to the chemistry of the 
 metals as introductory to metallurgy. Both this course and 
 the one on Physics are illustrated by experiments. Also, 
 laboratory practice in Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis 
 of rocks, ores and metallurgical products. Blowpipe Analysis 
 is taught in connection with this work. 
 
 Mineralogy. — Lectures on Crystallography and the Phys- 
 ical Properties and uses of the most important ore, gangue, 
 and rock-forming minerals. The course is illustrated by 
 numerous crystal models and a collection of over ten thou- 
 sand minerals. Considerable time is devoted to practice in 
 the Determination of Minerals by the use of the knife, lens, 
 and streak plate. The working collection for this purpose 
 alone contains over two thousand specimens. 
 
 Geology. — A course of lectures on Dynamical, Structural, 
 and Historical Geology. The course is illustrated by nu- 
 merous drawings, casts, and models of fossils. 
 
 Mechanics. — ^Lectures on Analytic Mechanics, Strength of 
 Materials with applications to framing, timbering, and ma- 
 chine construction. Hydraulics, pressure of water in dams 
 and reservoirs, flow of water in pipes and ditches, hydraulic 
 motors. The course is illustrated by numerous problems 
 and applications. 
 
 Mechanical Drawing and Construction. — These are made, 
 as far as possible, an application of the course in Mechanics 
 to Mining Engineering. Instruction is given in Designing 
 Machinery and Fixed Structures for mining and metallur- 
 gical work. . 
 
 Surveying. — This course includes : Land and Topographi- 
 cal Surveying and Leveling ; Laying out roads, tramways, 
 ditches, pipe lines, mining claims; Underground work; 
 extensive Practice in the Field with compass, transit, level, 
 and plane table, and the Plotting of Field Notes and Con- 
 struction of Maps and Sections. The instruments and 
 grounds of the University furnish excellent facilities for 
 this work. 
 
 Mining. — Nature and mode of occurrence of Ores ; Pros- 
 pecting and Exploring Ore Deposits ; United States laws,, 
 governing location of claims ; Open Cut and Quarry Work ; 
 Hand and Machine Drilling; Explosives; Blasting; Tun- 
 neling, with methods of Excavation and Timbering ; Shaft- 
 sinking, Timbering, and Walling; Stoping ; Tramming; 
 Hoisting; Pumping, and Drainage; Lighting; Hydraulic 
 Mining ; General Organization and Administration. The 
 course is illustrated by drawings, sketches, data, and refer- 
 ence to typical mines in operation on the coast. 
 
 Metallurgy. — General Pari : Classification of ores and pro- 
 cesses ; Crushing and sampling ores ; Fuels; Fluxes; Re- 
 fractory Materials ; Furnaces ; Accessory Machinery ; Me- 
 tallurgical Products. Special Part : The metals selected are 
 the ones at present most important on this coast — Gold, Sil- 
 ver, Lead, and Quicksilver. Both wet and dry methods of 
 reduction are taken up and discussed in detail. The illus- 
 trations and data are drawn, as far as possible, from actual 
 work on the coast. 
 
 Assaying. — The fire assays accompany each metal in the 
 course in Metallurgy, and the instruction is made, as far as 
 possible, to illustrate the methods used on the large scale. 
 Each student has sufiicieut practice to become skilled in the 
 assays of the above metals. The Metallurgical Laboratory 
 is well equipped for such work, and contains four crucible 
 furnaces, three muffle furnaces, and all the necessary ap- 
 paratus. 
 
 Thesis. — The undergraduate course concludes with the 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 343 
 
 preparation of an original Tliesis on some subject connected 
 with Mining or Metallurgy. 
 
 Excursions. — Students are urged to use their holidays and 
 shorter vacations throughout the course to visit and study 
 the many large machine shops, foundries, rolling mills, 
 powder, smelting, and other technical works in the vicinity 
 of Berkeley, Oakland, and San Francisco. They are also 
 urged to use their Smnmer vacation of two months, and their 
 Winter vacation of three weeks, to visit and study various 
 typical mines and reduction works at a greater distance. 
 The importance of the above is insisted upon. Students 
 who earnestly and systematically pursue the above plan not 
 only do better and more intelligent work at college, but 
 make acquaintances and acquire a fund of information that 
 is afterwards of great practical use to them. 
 
 Post- Graduate Course. — This course is intended for those 
 students who have completed the previous course. It com- 
 prises such special technical studies as are necessary for the 
 professional degrees. Information concerning this course will 
 ije furnished in the next Register. 
 
 College of Civil Engineering' — Object of the College. 
 — The object of this College is to give thorough instruction 
 in those studies which pertain to the profession of the Civil 
 Engineer. To a very considerable extent, these studies are 
 likewise preliminary to the profession of an Architect. They 
 are also serviceable to all who wish proficiency in the appli- 
 cation of Mathematics and Physics. 
 
 Special instruction in Engineering begins with the Sur- 
 veying Course in the Junior year, and includes Land Sur- 
 veying, Levelling, Topographical Surveying, Use of the 
 Plane Table, Eoad and Eailroad Surveying and Construc- 
 tion, and computations of earth-work required by excava- 
 tions, tunnels, and embankments. A large amount of time 
 is allotted to practice in the field, and to the use of instru- 
 ments, such as the compass, level, field transit, plane table, 
 etc., and to the working up and plotting of field notes. 
 Topographical drawing and map-making are taught in con- 
 nection with this part of the course. During the present 
 year an accurate topographical survey has been made, by 
 the class, of the ground immediately surrounding the Uni- 
 versity buildings. This will be mapped by them, and the 
 work continued by successive classes till the entire tract 
 shall have been accurately plotted. The use of the Aneroid 
 and Mercurial Barometers is taught, and practice given in 
 the determination of heights, etc. Journeys over the adja- 
 cent roads are made for the purpose of constructing itiner- 
 aries, and of measuring and estimating distances by the eye 
 alone, or by ordinary available means. Sketches will be 
 made of the surrounding country, and directions of hill 
 ranges, streams, etc., will be taken as the bases of reconnois- 
 sance maps. Students proficient in this course will be well 
 fitted to undertake the work of the field Engineer. In the 
 Senior year the characteristics and properties of the various 
 building materials, wood, stone, iron, steel, mortar, mastic, 
 etc., their strengths, uses, and different methods of employ- 
 ment in structures, are discussed. The rules governing the 
 construction of works of masonry, including foundations 
 in dry and wet soils, and under water, of stone bridges, 
 dams, sewers, culverts, and retaining walls, are acquired. 
 Problems relating to the more difiicult constructions of 
 masonry, such as groined, cloistered, askew and rampant 
 arches, domes, and walls bounded by warped surfaces, etc., 
 are solved in the engineering draughting room. The princi- 
 ples and practice of framing, bridge and truss building, and 
 of the construction of estimates and working plans, are in- 
 vestigated ; and the solution of a problem in engineering, 
 selected or approved by the Professor of Engineering, termi- 
 minates the undergraduate course, leading to the Degree of 
 Bachelor of Science (B. S.) A practical bearing is given to 
 the instruction of this year by the solution of interesting 
 problems, connected with the subjects taught ; and by visits 
 to important accessible structures, completed or in process of 
 construction. A post-graduate course of three years' length, 
 embracing the higher subjects of engineering study, leads to 
 the degree of Civil Engineer (C. E.) A valuable collection 
 of surveying instruments, including rods, steels, tapes, chains, 
 hand and Y levels, theodolites, transits, solar and surveyor's 
 compasses, plane tables, etc., is in the possession of this de- 
 partment. There is an excellent assortment of models in 
 wood of the various bonds of masonry, and of difierent walls. 
 
 arches, gate ways ; of joints and fastenings in carpentry, and 
 framework, and of bridge and roof trusses. Diagrams of 
 various European and American engineering structures and 
 the hypsometrical and surveying apparatus formerly belong- 
 ing to the California Geological Survey, are in the collection. 
 Advantage is taken of the beautifully varied nature of the 
 grounds at and about the University, for practice in the 
 various kinds of surveying. 
 
 College of Chemistry. — Objects of this College. — The 
 course of instruction in the College of Chemistry is designed 
 for those who wish to become professional Chemists, either as 
 teachers and investigators, or as analytical chemists and 
 manufacturers in chemical industries; and also for those 
 who wish to become expert chemists preparatory to the 
 pursuits of medicine, pharmacy, mining, etc. The special 
 teaching in Chemistry may be thus described: Instruction 
 will be given in General and Theoretical Chemistry, by lec- 
 tures, recitations, and laboratory practice. This elementary 
 course will extend through a whole year. An advanced 
 course of lectures will be given to the members of the Soph- 
 omore Class on General and Theoretical Inorganic Chemis- 
 try, embracing a discussion of the general principles of 
 the science, and their application to Analytical and Metal- 
 lurgical Chemistry, and to Mineralogy. A like advanced 
 course will be given to the Senior Class on Organic Chemistry. 
 Each course will extend through the whole year, and will 
 be given with the expectation of presenting to students, in 
 a comprehensive form, the fundamental principles of the 
 science. 
 
 Analytical Chemistry. — The chemical laboratories will be 
 open daily to students. The course of instruction in quali- 
 tative analysis will include the analysis of simple and com- 
 plex substances in the wet way, their analysis by the use of 
 the blow-pipe and flame reactions. Students will be re- 
 quired to keep a careful record of their work, and to submit 
 the same to the inspection of the Professor. Upon passing 
 a satisfactory examination in qualitative analysis, students 
 may pass to the quantitative laboratory. In the quantita- 
 tive laboratory instruction will be given in the quantative 
 gravimetric analysis of simple and complex salts, minerals, 
 ashes of plants, mineral waters, etc. ; in volumetric analysis, 
 including acidimetry, alkalimetry, chlorimetry, etc. ; in or- 
 ganic analysis ; in gas analysis ; in the preparation of inor- 
 ganic and organic compounds, and in the carrying out of 
 original investigations. Practical instruction in electro-me- 
 tallurgy will be given to such students as desire it. Students 
 in agriculture will receive special instruction in the analysis 
 of manures, including the determination of phosphoric acid 
 and nitrogen^ etc. So far as practicable, students will be 
 employed in the preparation of chemicals used in the la- 
 boratories, the object being to give them as much practice 
 in Manufacturing Chemistry as is possible. Special train- 
 ing in the analysis of mineral waters will be given to such 
 of the advanced students in Chemistry as may desire it. 
 Careful lists of waste products, minerals, etc., which may 
 be utilized, will be kept, and students instructed in meth- 
 ods of saving them. 
 
 Organic Chemistry. — This course is by lecture — about sev- 
 enty lectures in the course. It comprises the Chemistry of 
 the Compounds of Carbon ; Organic Analysis ; Principles of 
 Chemical Structure ; General Properties, Methods of Prepa- 
 ration, and characteristic reactions of the principal classes 
 of Organic Compounds ; Relations of Chemical Structure to 
 Physical and Chemical Properties ; and the more important 
 technical processes connected with the manufacture or use 
 of organic compounds. 
 
 Visits to Chemical Establishments. — It is the intention of 
 the Professor of Chemistry to encourage the students to 
 visit the various chemical and metallurgical works in the 
 vicinity, so far as this is practicable. Among the special 
 advantages which such students may avail themselves of at 
 the Universitjr may be mentioned a special course of lec- 
 tures on Physiological Chemistry ; also one on Toxicology 
 and Urine Analysis. Opportunities for laboratory practice 
 in the last named suWects will be given. 
 
 Spedal Students in Chemistry. — The advantages of the lab- 
 oratory and lectures are open not only to those who pursue 
 a full course of instruction, but to those who wish for a 
 short period to pursue some special course, or carry on some 
 special investigation. For admission to the Chemical De- 
 
344 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 partment they will be required to pass an examination in 
 the elements of chemistry, and to show that they have suffi- 
 cient general culture to profit by the opportunities here 
 afforded. 
 
 Advanced Instruction. — Courses of lectures on Inorganic 
 Chemistry ; Organic Chemistry ; Physiological Chemistry ; 
 Agricultural Chemistry ; Toxicology ; Urine Analysis ; 
 Thermo-Chemistry ; Fundamental Principles in Analytical 
 Chemistry. Laboratory Instruction and Assistance. 
 
 Laboratory Faciliiies. — Convenient Rooms, with suitable 
 equipment and apparatus for carrying on quantitative anal- 
 ysis and special experiments of various kinds. A very 
 complete supply of ^;!<)-e reagents, including many rare ones. 
 A good supply of apparatus, balances, glassware, etc. The 
 equipment is ample lor the investigation of minerals, min- 
 eral waters, and organic products. 
 
 Petkography. — The instruction covers the following ground : 
 (1) The dlfterent methods of rock investigation, viz., physical and 
 chemical; (2) roeli texture and rock structure; (3) the different 
 foi-ms in which rook masses occur ; (4) classification and nomencla- 
 ture of the leading systems proposed ; (5) descriptive petrography, 
 special attention being gi ven to the rocks of California ; (6j petro- 
 genesis, or the origin of rocks ; (7), changes and decompositions 
 which rocks undergo. The laboratory is well equipped, and the 
 student has every opportunity for practice in the determination of 
 minerals by the microscope and ordinary mineralogical methods. 
 A large field for original research is open to tlie student in the 
 museum of Petrography. The course is, open to all students who 
 have completed the university course in mineralogy, or an equiva- 
 lent course elsewhere. A course of lectures is in preparation. It 
 will consist, (1) of a considei-ation of the geological nature of ore 
 deposits; (2) a special description of the ore deposits of this coun- 
 try, with references to the most instructive examples of foreign ore 
 deposits. The first part will be delivered during the first term of 
 1882-3. 
 
 Calejjdak. ^August 9, 10, 11 — Examinations for admission to Col- 
 leges of Science and of Letters, in Berkeley ; to College of 
 Law, in San Francisco. 
 
 August 10 — First Term in Colleges of Science, of Letters, and of 
 Law begins. 
 
 August 11 — Assignment of exercises to uppi'r classes in Colleges of 
 Science and of Letters. 
 
 August 15 — Assignment of exercises to Freshman class in Colleges 
 of Science and of Letters. 
 
 October 9-16. — Fall Recess of one week in Colleges of Science, of 
 Letters, and of Law. 
 
 October 21. — Semi-annual Field Day. 
 
 October 27. — Junior Day in Colleges of Science and of Letters. 
 
 October 30 — Regular term in Colleges of Medicine, Dentistry, and 
 Pharmacy ends. 
 
 November — Commencement in College of Medicine. 
 
 November — Commencement in College of Pharmacy. 
 
 November 23, 24, 25 — Thanksgiving Eecess of three days. 
 
 Dtc-ember 20 — End of First Term in Colleges of Science, of Letters, 
 and of Law. Vacation of three weeks. 
 
 AMERICAN STUDENTS OF MINING IN 
 GERMANY. 
 
 A3 AMERICAN students of mining, philosophy, 
 philology, music, history, or art have found "it 
 necessary or highly advantageous to supplement 
 their course of study at home by a residence 
 of some years at a foreign university, so, ever since mining 
 has been practiced in this country in any other than a 
 rude and wasteful manner, many American students of 
 mining have sought in London or Paris, but chiefly in the 
 Academy of Freiberg, Clausthal, or Berlin, such information 
 and experience as would give them conlidence in themselves, 
 and make them worthy of the confidence of those wishing 
 the services of mining engineers. But a broad distinction 
 must be observed. Medicine, philosophy, philology, history, 
 and art are universal sciences ; their theories and ajsplica- 
 tions are much the same throughout the civilized world ; 
 moreoyer.the principles of justice which underlie law, and 
 the principles of matheiuatics, mechanics, chemistry, and 
 geology, upon whicli the sciences of civil, mechanical, and 
 mining engineering arc founded, are also universal, but their 
 practical application depends upon local conditions. The 
 economy of mining is ii ftinction of such variables as govern- 
 ment, labor, wages, distance, quantity and kind of ore, tim- 
 ber, water, and transportation, and to many it seems as 
 
 absurd to attempt to obtain in any other country the know- 
 ledge to fit one to practice mining in America, as it would be 
 to attempt, by studying law in a German university, to fit 
 one's self for practice in the New York courts. 
 
 A young man who has decided to fit himself as a mining 
 engineer is at a loss how to begin. On the one hand, he is 
 told that our schools are not practical enough, that practical 
 miners do not find the graduates capable of doing what they 
 jjrofess, and that he should study abroad, where theory and 
 practice are united. On the other hand, he is informed that 
 American methods differ from the foreign so fundamentally 
 that, if he studies abroad, he must afterwards unlearn, eveiy- 
 thing, and to learn mining he is advised to "go West,' which 
 now celebrated advice is somewhat indefinite. Truer but 
 hardly less sweeping and discouraging is the opinion of the 
 Commissioner of Mining Statistics, who said of the graduates 
 of foreign schools, " Every such graduate has to reconstruct, 
 alone and for himself, the whole art which he has learned— 
 a work requiring genius as well as intelligent perseverance." 
 It is, nevertheless, a fact that a large part of the prominent 
 mining and metallurgical engineers and profes.sors of our 
 country have been students abroad, mostly in Germany, and 
 it is fair to assume that their training was an important 
 element or cause of their success; and since the annual 
 exodus still continues, the belief is evidently widespread that 
 our schools do not yet furnish all that is necessary, nor even 
 the most important part. In view of the immense mineral 
 wealth of the country, in view of the present enormous pro- 
 duction and the more enormous waste, in view of the fact 
 that mining industries will always remain among the most 
 important sources of our national wealth and prosperity, the 
 subject of the education of miners and mining engineers de- 
 mands of this society earnest thought, thorough discussion, 
 and, what is not to be forgotten, subsequent action. More- 
 over, the subject should be considered by itself, and not in 
 connection with mechanical and civil engineering. In dis- 
 cussing education in general, we may come to general con- 
 clusions; in discussing technical education, to more definite 
 conclusions, and in discussing mining technical education, 
 we may reach still more definite and directly applicable re- 
 sults. 
 
 If civil, mechanical, and mining engineering are distinct 
 enough to form three independant professions, the proper 
 preparatory courses for each have points of distinction 
 enough to warrant an independent discussion. We have 
 had tlie general discussion — what we need is the special. 
 How, then, do our schools correspond to our mineral re- 
 sources and existing appliances ? Are American methods 
 of mining and metallurgy, or foreign methods, or any defi- 
 nite methods taught in them ? Are the attractive courses 
 of the various catalogues and prospectuses given to students 
 in reality ? Are the requirements for the degree of mining 
 engineer sufficiently exacting in theories and practice? 
 These questions are asked in no spirit of criticism, but for 
 information, with the hope of obtaining it for the benefit of 
 present and future students, on the one hand from engin- 
 eers of t;he Institute who are in practical life, and on the 
 other hand from the professors in our schools.- These ques- 
 tions are suggested to promote discussion, that the students 
 may learn what is desired and will be expected of them as 
 young engineers ; that they may be told where and from 
 whom they may learn what they lack ; that the faculties of 
 our schools may know what changes to introduce to make 
 the courses more efficient, and that out of this discussion 
 may be devised some means of establishing some connec- 
 tion between the schools and the mines and metallurgical 
 works, so that our students may enjoy some such advantages 
 as they are lavored with abroad. It may be well to consider 
 some of the advantages and disadvantages of the German 
 instruction, and to give S(jnie of the actual experiences of 
 the American student in Germany. For this purpose the 
 academy at Freiberg will be considered, because it is there 
 that the greater numbor of our jiast students have studied; 
 the greater number of those now abroad are there, and it is 
 the school with which the writer is best acquainted. 
 
 Admission to the academy is verv easily obtained. If the 
 applicant from a foreign country can understand what the 
 director says to him when he makes personal application, 
 and can speak a very moderate amount of German, and can 
 produce a diploma awarded to him by any college or tech- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 345 
 
 nical school, that is sufficient. Not having a diploma, he may, 
 instead, pass an easy examination, much similar to that re- 
 quired by our own technical schools for admission. In the 
 statutes we read, " In suitable cases, especially in the case of 
 applicants from foreign countries, the director may dispense 
 with the admission examination." We also read " Older and 
 independent persons, and such as have already completed 
 higher technical studies elsewhere, may be permitted by the 
 Director to attend lectures and practical exercises, upon the 
 payment of the regular fees," etc. Such students are called 
 Hospitanten, and correspond to our special students. Under 
 these liberal regulations, there is no difficulty in entering. 
 I have heard of one American, some years ago, who could 
 not gain admission, but he was so totally deficient that he 
 has not learned anything to this day. It seems to be the 
 desire to make the entrance easy, not for the sake of secur- 
 ing students, but to avoid throwing hindrances in the way 
 of those wishing to learn ; and, in general, the kindness of 
 the director .and of the professors to all foreign students is 
 very marked and gratefully acknowledged. This leniency, 
 often a desirable accommodation for the mature student, is 
 often a serious disadvantage to the young student not famil- 
 iar with the German language. Not being able to under- 
 stand much of the lectures, and his previous education not 
 having been such as to enable him to pursue intelligently 
 the mathematical studies of the course, he quickly becomes 
 discouraged and lazy, and often yields to the manifold temp- 
 tations of Freiberg life. At all events the foundation being 
 poorly laid, the superstructure is insecure. Too easy en- 
 trance examinations are not a peculiarity of foreign schools. 
 The theoretical instruction is mainly imparted by lectures, 
 a system which is perhaps the best for highest instruction of 
 the universities, but which in a technical school, where 
 hardly more than the elements can be given, is very wasteful 
 of time and unsatisfactory. If a professor has something 
 original or new to offer, or if his subject is one on which 
 good books are rare or expensive, then lectures are justifi- 
 able and necessary; but to give entirely by lectures a 
 course on ordinary mathematics, mechanics, surveying, 
 mining, theoretical chemistry, or any subject on which there 
 are scores of good and inexpensive books, is a wicked waste 
 of the time of professor and students. To illustrate, let us 
 suppose the subject is mining, and the particular subject for 
 the day is power drills. The lecturer gives, perhaps, a short 
 history of the invention of the steam or compressed-air drill, 
 and then proceeds to discuss the various systems ; he makes 
 elaborate freehand drawing of a steam drill, and lectures 
 while he draws. Now the student may take his choice ; 
 either he may copy the drawing as well as he may, being, 
 perhaps, a poor draughtsman, or he may write the descrip- 
 tion and criticism ; but, recognizing the uselessness of hav- 
 ing one without the other, he generally tries to get both, 
 and if he writes an intelligible description he may have time 
 to copy half the drawing itself before the figure is rubbed 
 out to make room for something else. Or perhaps the stu- 
 dent devotes his main energy to the drawing and keeps pace 
 with the professor, when suddenly the latter discovers that 
 he is making his drawing out of proportion, and with a 
 stroke he erases a, third of his work. The student, who is 
 working with ink or pencil, cannot introduce changes so 
 easily and neatly. He scratches or rubs out or begins again, 
 and perhaps gets a passable drawing and a fair description. 
 Meanwhile the professor has drawn and described another 
 drill, and closes his lecture with the remark : this last drill 
 is in general use ; the one before it has long since gone en- 
 tirely out of use. Let us suppose the student hears lectures 
 on some mathematical study. At his room he conscientiously 
 rewrites and studies his notes, and finds that he has omitted 
 important steps in the reasoning ; he misses a lecture per- 
 haps, and not being able to make good the deficiency without 
 copying the probably imperfect notes of some friend, he 
 loses his enthusiasm, goes to lectures less frequently, or finally 
 not at all. These are not fanciful examples, but such as are 
 occurring constantly. It requires much more determination 
 and perseverance than can reasonably be expected of a 
 young student, though he starts with resolution and enthus- 
 iasm, to Write, rewrite, and annotate a whole treatise on each 
 of the studies he pursues. And when he has it all done, he 
 may find nine-tenths of it more fully given and better ex- 
 pressed in any of the excellent text-books. Add to these 
 
 objections, which apply in the case of all students, the fact 
 that the art of writing German rapidly, of paraphrasing a 
 lecture, is not easy for a foreigner to acquire, and we may 
 imagine how little good our students would acquire if the 
 main benefit of a residence at Freiberg were to be gained 
 from the lectures. 
 
 Connected with some of the courses of lectures there are 
 weekly recitations which are very thinly attended, some- 
 times as few as two or three or even none out of a lecture 
 division of thirty or forty being present. This non-attend- 
 ance proceeds from various causes ; some students may have 
 been irregular at lectures, many do not take the trouble to 
 read their notes, at least for months or till just before the 
 final examinations ; some are not willing to make an exhi- 
 bition of bad German, and some have not been able to get 
 enough out of the lectures to be questioned on. 
 
 As regards discipline, the school is conducted on the 
 most liberal principles, the student being allowed to select 
 such lectures and practical exercises as he wishes, and to 
 attend or not as he may choose. The only exception to vol- 
 untary attendance which appears in the statutes is con- 
 tained in the following extract, "Students who receive 
 scholarships, or from whom the fees have been entirely or 
 in part remitted, are required [verpjlichtet) to attend the 
 recitations," which significant clause implies that recita- 
 tions are important, and so important that mild coercion is 
 justifiable. As foreign students receive no pecuniary assist- 
 ance, but are charged $25 a year more than other students, 
 this restriction does not apply to them. Moreover, students 
 are not required to give any proof of progress unless they 
 are candidates for a degree, and then only at the end of 
 their course. In consequence of this freedom, many who 
 are registered as students scarcely ever attend any lectures 
 or other exercises. Sometimes an example is made and a 
 young man is sent away, ostensibly for neglect, but in such 
 cases it will be found that he was otherwise a bad character, 
 and had made himself notorious in the town. This laissez 
 /aire principle may be allowable for the oldest and best 
 students, but for the greater number, especially for those 
 away from the supervision of home and the more exacting 
 social restraints of our country, it is certainly pernicious. 
 It is seeking for itself a foothold here, but it is to be hoped 
 we shall stand by our practice of requiring proof of pro- 
 gress, regularly and frequently. It is said that a student 
 who is required to prepare a certain number of pages for a 
 recitation, or a certain subject for an examination, does not 
 have the proper object of study placed before him ; that he 
 ought to be encouraged to study for the love of knowledge. 
 This is perhaps the kind of suasion to apply to those who 
 are destined to become ardent lovers and devotees of ab- 
 stract science ; but becoming a successful engineer is prob- 
 ably as lofty an object as the ordinary student of mining 
 will appreciate, and the advisability of showing him from 
 time to time just how far advanced he ought to be, and 
 whether he is actually up to the mark, is a sufficient reason 
 for recitations and isxaminations. Habits of industry, as 
 well as facts and theories of science, are to be inculcated 
 and maintained. The German school acts on the assump- 
 tion that such habits have already been inculcated in the 
 preparatory school, an assumption not justified by experience. 
 We cannot aflFord to allow a promising but lazy fellow to go 
 to ruin through neglect, and we ought, for the interest of all 
 concerned, to weed out, long before the end of the course, 
 such as nature plainly intended to shine in some other 
 sphere of usefulness. It is also said that our young men are 
 too old and manly to be treated longer as schoolboys, and, 
 now that it has been suggested to them, the young men 
 themselves feel that their dignity as gentlemen is wounded. 
 But at West Point or at the Naval School, where honor is 
 generally assiduously cultivated and carefully guarded, the 
 young men still continue to bear up under the degradation 
 of being obliged to turn out early and make their own beds, 
 or stand up stifi" and straight before a blackboard and de- 
 monstrate a proposition in military style. A certain amount 
 of discipline is necessary for efficiency in any body of men, 
 be they men or really boys, and especially is strict discipline 
 necessary for those who expect afterwards to exercise 
 authority. 
 
 In what, then, does the superiority of the German mining 
 schools consist? Why do our young men pass by our mag- 
 
346 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 nificently endowed and appointed schools without entering, 
 or pass from them to spend two or three years at considerable 
 expense and discomfort at Freiberg ? It is mainly because 
 the Freiberg Academy gives its students the union of science 
 and art ; because it furnishes them with ample facilities for 
 learning, either within its walls or in the neighboring works, 
 or somewhere in Saxony, or somewhere in Germany, the 
 practice of the various processes of mining, concentration 
 and smelting. Moreover, it is distinctly a school for mining 
 and metallurgy, untrammelled by any connection with me- 
 chanical or civil engineering ; its professors are specialists, 
 generally of the highest ability ; there are no fancy courses 
 in its instruction, and no more than two or three courses 
 which might perhaps be considered superfluous. The fol- 
 lowing is a list of the professors, the subjects of instruction, 
 the number of hours of lecture given weekly in each subject, 
 and the practical exercises : 
 
 Gretsehel. — Higher Mathematics (Trigonometry, Analytic Geo- 
 metry, and Calculus), 6; Selections from the Higher Mathematics, 
 2 ; Descriptive Geometry, 4 ; Introduction to the Theory of Deter- 
 minants, 1 ; Graphic Calculation, 1. 
 
 Undeutsch. — Mechanics, 6; Mining Machinery, 4; Machine 
 Drawing, part first, 4; Machine drawing, part second, 4. 
 
 Viertel. — Geodesy and Mine Surveying, 3 ; Practical Exercises in 
 the field (Summer term), J day; Practice in Surveying, including 
 Mine Surveying, i day. 
 
 Wmkler. — Inorganic Chemistry, 4 ; Organic Chemistry (Summer 
 term), 2; Chemical Technology, 2 ; Quantitative Analysis, 1 ; Prac- 
 tice in Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis, from 9 to 6 daily ex- 
 cept Saturday ; Volumetric Analysis, 1. 
 
 Blehter. — General Metallurgy, 4 ; Assaying, 1 ; Practice in As- 
 saying, i day ; Blowpipe Analysis, 2 ; Practice in Blowpipe Analy- 
 sis, 2. 
 
 Ledebur. — Metallurgy of Iron, 4 ; Metallurgical Technology, 4; 
 Salt Works (Summer term), 1 ; Assaying of Iron (Winter term), 1 ; 
 Practice in Iron Assaying (Summer term), i day. 
 
 Welsbach. — Mineralogy, with one hour recitation, 5 ; Practice in 
 Determining Minerals, 4; Mathematical Crystallography (Winter 
 term), 1 ; Practice in Determining Crystals (Summer term), 1 ; 
 Pseudo-morp'iology (Summer term,) 1. 
 
 Stelznar — Geolo;jy, with one hour recitation, 5 ; Ore Deposits, 2 ; 
 Petrifaction, 2 ; Microscoijio Examination of Minerals and Stones, 
 1 ; Practice in the same, 1 ; Practice in Determining Rocks (Sum- 
 mer term), 1. 
 
 Erhard. — Experimental Physics, 5; Practice in Physical Manipu- 
 lations, 2; Fuels and Furnaces, 2; Meteorology (Winter term), 2; 
 Mathematical Examination of the Physical Properties of Gases, 2. 
 
 Kreischer. — Mining;, part firdt, with one hour recitation, 5; Mi- 
 ning, part second, with one hour recitation, 5. 
 
 Mailer. — Construction of Buildings (Winter term), 3; Estimates 
 for Mining and Smelting Buildings (Summer term), 3; Designing 
 and Drawing of Mining and Smelting Buildings, 4. 
 
 Freiesleben. — General Law (Winter term), 4; Mining Law (Sum- 
 mer term), 4. 
 
 Scliober. — Political Economy, 2. 
 
 Walther. — Hygiene of Minors and Smelters, 2. 
 
 Ostuxkenberg. — Freehand Drawing, 4. 
 
 Great satisfaction is universally expressed with the lec- 
 tures and practical exercises under Richter, Gretsehel, Wink- 
 ler, Weisbach, Stelzner, Viertel, and Ledebur. These de- 
 partments are the strong attractions of the school, and better 
 instruction than is given in the practice of wet and dry 
 assaying, blowpipe analysis, chemical analysis, mineralogy, 
 geology, surveying, and survey plotting, could not be asked. 
 Moreover, the large and valuable collections of minerals, 
 geological specimens, and models of machinery are accessible 
 ibr inspection or study. With the professor of mining, or 
 machinery, or geology, or iron, the students occasionally 
 perhaps two or three times in a year with each, have the 
 opportunity of visiting works or making geological tours in 
 and out of Saxony. 
 
 These trips are sometimes of profit professionally, but a 
 crowd of twenty studants spending several hours only in 
 large and complicated works, passing rapidly from one 
 thing to another, cannot be expected to carry away much 
 definite information or many lasting impressions. The geo- 
 logical trips are perhaps the most useful and enjoyable ; the 
 study of Quadersandstein of Saxon Switzerland is not so en- 
 grossing that the beauties of this charming region pass unad- 
 mired ; the wonderfiil formation of the Prebisthor does not 
 preclude an appreciation of its beer, and the tramp over its 
 wooded hills or through its cultivated valleys is enlivened 
 by those glorious German student song^. 
 
 But thus far our schools offer as much, and there is no 
 
 reason why they may not actually give as much, as the Frei- 
 berg Academy. We have larger, more convenient, and bet- 
 ter appointed buildings ; we have more money ; we have 
 equal facilities for laboratory and field practice, except in 
 mine surveying ; we have visits to works, geological trips, 
 and summer excursions. Nay even, our schools ought, fnr 
 the American student, to be very superior to any German 
 school. American methods and machinery are hardly men- 
 tioned at Freiberg, and certainly do not receive the attention 
 and discussion which their importance and the presence of a 
 large number of American students might justiiy. Ameri- 
 can pumps, drills, engines, waterwheels, amalgamating ma- 
 chinery, and metallurgical processes are quite ignored, and 
 American hydraulic mining is disposed of in about five 
 minutes, with some apparently fabulous accounts of hun- 
 dreds of miles of ditches and the washing away of whole 
 hills. In fact, the student gets nothing peculiarly Ameri- 
 can from his course, and hence what he learns outside of 
 general principles he must unlearn, or at least reconstruct. 
 But the one great advantage overtopping all others and out- 
 weighing all deficiencies is the intimate connection of the 
 academy with the works of the vicinity and the permission 
 to visit and study similar works, which is granted through- 
 out Germany, and also in Austria, to the holder of the 
 Freiberg student's card. Almost no limits or restrictions 
 are placed upon the student ; he may, on proper application, 
 either before his theoretical course or during it, make what 
 is called a practical course. In this case he is placed under 
 the direction of a mining captain, who puts him through all 
 the different operations of mining, giving him information 
 on each operation, answering cheerfully all questions, and 
 assigning him a place to work in this or that gang of mi- 
 ners, who are also invariably very kind and willing to assist 
 by information or example. Or he may make an inde- 
 pendent course, and visit any of the mines in the vicinity 
 every d^y, or as often as he likes. In the same way he has 
 perfect liberty to visit and work in the ore-dressing estab- 
 lishments about Freiberg, or in the excellently managed 
 coal mine and washer at Zaukeroda, near Dresden. He may 
 study in similar manner at the Muldner and Halsbriickner 
 smelting works, and as a good foundation for such study a 
 practical smelting course is given during the first two weeks 
 in August at the works by the professor of metallurgy or his 
 assistant, which any student upon application may attend. 
 Nor are less advantageous facilities granted outside of Sax- 
 ony. It was the privilege of the writer, with one or two 
 companions, to spend some two or three weeks in the sum- 
 mer of 1875 in the ore-dressing works of the Harz, at Claus- 
 thal and the neighboring towns, Grund, Lautenthal, and St. 
 Andreasberg, and in the summer of 1876 some two weeks iu 
 the mines and ore-dressing works at Pzibram, in Bohemia ; 
 again two weeks in the Harz, and about the same length of 
 time in works near the Rhine, at Laurenburg, Ems, Mecher- 
 nich, and Cologne. At no place was permission to examine 
 the works refused. On the contrary, the directors and over- 
 seers were everywhere willing to impart any information in 
 regard to their works, and spent much time and pains in so 
 doing. Permission was given to make sketches, take notes 
 and dimensions, copy working drawings of machines, and 
 statistics as regards cost of working and working capacity. 
 The Germans and Austrians are particularly kind to foreign- 
 ers, and they ask and expect nothing in return except the 
 appreciation on the part of the student. Other young men, 
 who were studying coal and iron in other places, were 
 equally well received ; the testimony from all sources is the 
 same. Herein lies thegreat advantage of studying in Ger- 
 many, and in spite of discomforts an~(i expense, and objec- 
 tions such as have been mentioned, our students will con- 
 tinue to go thither till some definite, sure, and permanent 
 connection is established between our schools and the mines 
 and metallurgical works. 
 
 In 1876 there were at Freiberg Academy 139 students, as 
 follows: from Germany 64, including 42 Saxons ; from Wal- 
 lachia, Spain, Portugal, Holland, Asiatic Turkey, 1 each; 
 from Switzerland and Japan, 2 each ; from Italy and No> 
 way, 3 each ; from Greece, 5 ; from England, ; from Rus- 
 sia and Poland together, 11; from Austria-Hungary, U ; 
 from America, 24. Of the 24 from America, 1 was from 
 Canada, 2 were from Chili, 3 from Mexico, and 18 from the 
 United States. Of these 18, 1 came from each of the States 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 347 
 
 of Alabama, Connecticut, Iowa, Louisiana, Maryland, Mas- 
 sachusetts, Michigan, and Ohio ; 2 came from California, 3 
 from Pennsylvania, and 5 from New York. Of the 18, one 
 was pursuing especially the study of mineralogy, one the 
 study of iron, two of coal, four general metallurgy, and ten 
 raining and concentration, or were not pronounced. Of the 
 18 perhaps a half were hard workers, a part of the remain- 
 der worked easily, the rest made no pretensions, but were 
 going to begin. In general, the reputation of the students 
 from the United States is good among the professors, at the 
 works, and in the town. Together with the English and 
 Canadian students, with whom they stand on terms of inti- 
 macy and friendship, they form the largest distinct foreign 
 element, being about one-flfth of the whole number — a 
 very creditable element, exhibiting the robustness and 
 energy which characterize the English-speaking people 
 everywhere. Thither, also, they carry their fondness for, 
 and proficiency in, outdoor athletic sports, which are not 
 cultivated by the other students. In skating they have no 
 rivals or competitors, and in other games, such as base-ball 
 and foot-ball, they have the field alone. Although this 
 muscular development is not mental training, it is neverthe- 
 less conducive to mental activity, and the vigor and origi- 
 nality of the English race are largely due, perhaps, to phys- 
 ical health and freshness caused by the active outdoor sports 
 practiced from boyhood up to and into manhood. 
 
 The principal subjective drawbacks to the progress of the 
 American student in Germany are youth, an insufficient 
 previous training in habits of study, and want of a working 
 knowledge of the language. The first two generally go to- 
 gether, and often all three are combined ; in which case the 
 young man easily falls into ways of idleness and dissipation, 
 which make his stay in Germany worse than useless, if they 
 do not prove his utter ruin. To obviate these objections, it 
 may be allowable to suggest as a course of study a collegiate 
 course followed by two years in a mining school at home, 
 and then one or two years abroad j or, what would be a sav- 
 ing of time and obviate the course abroad, a college course 
 followed by two years in one of our mining schools, the time 
 from the first of May or June till October in each of these 
 years being spent at mines or works. It is now generally 
 acknowledged that a liberal education is the best foundation 
 for a professional training, and certainly, if the profession 
 of mining engineering is to rank with the other liberal pro- 
 fessions and be acknowledged by them, such a foundation is 
 necessary, even if it does require as much time as is required 
 by the other professions. Under the first plan a young man 
 would be ready to reconstruct his art at the age of 25 or 26, 
 and in the second case to begin work at 23 or 24, or one year 
 later if it should be considered expedient to require another 
 year' of steady work after the two summer courses already 
 indicated. The preparatory schools for our best colleges are 
 the best training schools for boys, for the one reason, if no 
 others, that they not only have a definite and not insignifi- 
 cant amount of instruction to impart, but that this instruc- 
 tion is to be tested by the broad and strict examination for 
 admission to college, and it is a fact, unpalatable indeed, 
 that those who, by reason of physical or mental weakness or 
 indolence, are not capable of being brought up to this stan- 
 dard, deviate to a technical school, where they are nursed 
 for a year or two till they are strong enough to leave and go 
 into business. While in college the student may, besides 
 attending faithfully to his literary subjects, anticipate the 
 mathematics, chemistry, physics, modern languages, a part 
 of the geology and mechanics, and some other studies, so 
 that in two years at most he may finish the course in one of 
 our mining schools. Then, if he wishes to study in Ger- 
 many, he has a character all formed, a liberal and technical 
 drill, and a good knowledge of the language. 
 
 The devising of a plan for the union of the schools and 
 works is full of difiiculties. The conditions are so widely 
 different here from what they are in Germany that the intro- 
 duction of the German system without important modifica- 
 tion is practically impossible. There both schools and mines 
 are, to a great extent, directly under the control of the gov- 
 ernment. It grants to the student the right to assume the 
 responsibility of an engineer only after he has served as 
 " practicant," and requires the mines to receive its students 
 in such capacity. As our schools and works are all private 
 enterprises no other than a voluntary arrangement can be 
 
 made here. There competition is not so sharp and specula- 
 tion is not so wild as here ; the richness of good mines does 
 not have to be concealed to freeze out undesirable owners, 
 poor mines do not have to be puffed to efiect a sale, and 
 patent machines and secret processes are not so common, 
 consequently permission to visit works is more readily ob- 
 tained. Moreover, our schools are more numerous, and are 
 already established far distant from the important works, 
 which are scattered far and wide, separated by many hun- 
 dreds or thousands of miles, and often difficult of access. 
 Very strong arguments were presented, as you remember, 
 by the United States Commissioner of Mining Statistics, in 
 1868, and again in 1869, in favor of a national school of 
 mines. As yet the government has not seen fit to act accord- 
 ing to the suggestions, and I am not aware that the subject 
 is likely to receive the attention of Congress. It would be 
 impossible to locate such a school anywhere in this country 
 as advantageously as the German institutions are situated, 
 from which in a few hours, or in a day or two at most, any 
 of the large mines or works may be reached. In considera- 
 tion of this fact, and the possibility that, on account of 
 State or local jealousy or interests, or political jobbing, or 
 for other reasons, the foundation of a national school west or 
 east of the Rocky Mountains may be delayed indefinitely, 
 and of the fact that we already have millions of dollars 
 invested in magnificently equipped mining schools, is it not 
 advisable, instead of seeking other millions, to endeavor to 
 increase the usefulness of those already invested? We cer- 
 tainly have schools enough, more perhaps than we have 
 teaching ability to supply. One great and just criticism on 
 American education is that we have so many institutions 
 that the instruction is too dilute. Two or three good pro- 
 fessors in a mining school cannot of themselves make that 
 school satisfactory, and drawing away a good professor from 
 this school and that to found another weakens those drawn 
 upon, and generally adds another to the long list of moder- 
 ately efficient attempts. 
 
 The works generally consider that they only grant favors 
 and receive no good in return, and perhaps from their pre- 
 vious experience they have reason to consider the students 
 nuisances. But it is not so abroad, and there is no reason 
 why it should be so here. The labor of the study would not 
 be worthless, and, indeed, to secure the owners against im- 
 position or loss, and to insure diligence on the part of the 
 student, the power of discharging an unfeithful young man 
 would, of course, be one of the rights reserved by the works. 
 Moreover, the works, always having several young men mak- 
 ing a practical course, would have an excellent opportunity 
 to select from the number some who would be valuable men 
 to employ permanently, first as assistants and eventually as 
 engineers. Moreover, as part of the compact, the schools 
 might agree, as some return for the kindness of the owners, 
 to furnish essays, or analyses, or geological opinions, or sur- 
 veys, or plans, or drawings, or render some other assistance 
 to the engineer of the works. It is by no means a case in 
 which the favors are of necessity all on one side. To begin 
 on something definite, the circular might contain a prelim- 
 inary plan of operations, and might ask each mine on indus- 
 trial work and each school whether, on the proposed basis or 
 on any basis, it would co-operate ; it might invite criticism 
 and suggestions for improvements on the plan, and from 
 the discussions before the Institute, and from the answers to 
 the circulars, a final arrangement might be made and put 
 into operation. 
 
 Compiled from apaper by J. C BartleU, A. ST., 
 
 TrOTurficWons Amet-ican InstUiUe of 
 Mining Engineers. 
 
 THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING EN- 
 GINEERS. 
 
 THIS now famous Institute that has done so much for 
 the mines and miners of this country had its origin 
 in. the following : 
 
 Wilkes-Bakre, Pa., April, 1871. 
 The great deveIopm.ent of the mines and metallurgical works of 
 this country during the last few years, accompanied as it has been 
 by the investment of enormous sums of money in purchasing lands 
 and in the erection of improvements, requires that advantage should 
 
348 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 be taken of the accumulated knowledge of engineers, superinten- 
 dents, and others, in mastering the problems which are constantly 
 presenting themselves for our action. Among those may be men- 
 tioned the consideration of more economical systems of mining in 
 our coal and metalliferous mines, improved methods of transporta- 
 tion above and below ground, unwateiing and ventilating mines, the 
 mechanical preparation of coal and other minerals, the various 
 metallurgical processes, and, in fact, every question tending to the 
 attainment of two great objects : 
 
 1st. The more economical production of the useftil minerals and 
 metals. 
 
 2nd. The greater safety and welfare of those employed in these 
 industries. 
 
 In European countries, where the arts of mining and metallurgy 
 have long been the subject of the most careful study, no means have 
 been found so effectual in attaining the end above proposed as the 
 free interchange of experience among those actually engaged in 
 these industries, and this object has oeen accomplished, mainly, 
 through the medium of institutes, associations or societies, composed 
 of those engaged in these occupations, and by the periodical publi- 
 cation of essays or papers communicated to such societies by 
 their members. It mnst be evident to all practical men that 
 the interchange of the varied experience of those engaged in such 
 occupations in this country could not fail to advance very materially 
 the desired objects ; it is, therefore, proposed to establish an Ameri- 
 can Institute of Mining Engineers, which will hold its meetings 
 periodically in the great mining and metallurgical centres, where 
 works of interest, such as mines, machine shops, furnaces, and other 
 metallurgical works, can be inspected, and the members exchange 
 their views, and consult for mutual advantage upon the difficulties 
 encountered by each ; these transactions or proceedings, when pub- 
 lished, would form a most valuable and greatly-needed addition to 
 our professional literature. It is proposed that a meeting of those 
 sympathizing with the object above mentioned shall be called for 
 the purpose of organizing such an association, the place and time of 
 meeting being Wilkes-Barre, Pa., and the month of April or May. 
 
 Communications indicating the opinion and wishes of all, both 
 as to these points, and also as to the organization and objects of the 
 Institute, will be gladly received by anjf of the undersigned, and a 
 notice of the date of meeting, which will be arranged to suit the 
 greater number, will be duly communicated. Any one who may 
 have devoted himself to a particular subject connected either with 
 mining or metallurgy, and who may be possessed of new facts in ref- 
 erence to it, would greatly aid in furthering the object of the pro- 
 posed association by preparing a paper giving the result of his ex- 
 perience, to be communicated at the first meeting. It is expected 
 that the desire for the advancement of professional knowledge, com- 
 bined with the attractions of a visit to the most beautiful of our 
 coal fields, the Wyoming Valley, will insure a large attendance from 
 all parts of the counti-y. 
 Signed, 
 
 EcKLEY B. CoxE, Drifton, Pa. 
 
 R. P. ROTHWELL, Wilkes-Barre, Pa. 
 
 Martin Coryell, Wilkes-Barre, Pa. 
 
 The foregoing circular having been extensively circulated 
 by mail, and also by publication in the leading engineering 
 papers, the following named gentlemen assembled in Wilkes- 
 Barre, Pa., May 16th, 1871, and organized the American In- 
 stitute of Mining Engineers : 
 
 Bramwell, J. H., 
 Daddow, S. Harries, 
 Drinker, H. S., 
 Drown, Thomas M., 
 Gaujot, E., 
 Haight, Ogden, 
 Hick, W. B., 
 Hoffman, Daniel, 
 Jones, Lewis S. 
 McNair, Thomas S., 
 Mercur, Fred., 
 Neal, R. C, 
 Petherick, Thomas, 
 Raymond, R. W., 
 Roth well, R. P. 
 Silliman, Prof J.M. 
 Sturdevant, W. H 
 Symons, W. R., ' 
 Thomas, James, 
 Timpson, James, A., 
 Ward, Willard P., 
 Williams, T. M., 
 
 Fairchance, Fayette Co., Pa, 
 St. Clair, Pa. 
 Philadelphia, Pa. 
 Philadelphia, Pa. 
 Pottsville, Pa. 
 
 New York. 
 Wilkes-Barre, Pa. 
 
 Pottsville, Pa. 
 Wilkes-Barre, Pa. 
 
 Hazleton, Pa. 
 
 Wilkes-Barre, Pa. 
 
 Bloomsburg, Pa. 
 
 Pottsville, Pa. 
 
 New York. 
 
 Wilkes-Barre, Pa. 
 , Easton, Pa. 
 
 Wilkes-Barre, Pa. 
 
 Pottsville, Pa. 
 
 Wilkes-Barre, Pa. 
 
 Wilkes-Barre, Pa. 
 
 New York. 
 
 Wilkes-Barre, Pa. 
 
 Mr. R. P. Rothwell was elected temporary Chairman, and 
 Mr. R. W. Raymond temporary Secretary. 
 
 A Committee appointed to prepare rules for the Institute 
 reported a series of rules, which, after some discussion, were 
 adopted in the following form : 
 
 Adopted May 16th, 1871. 
 
 1. The objects of the American Institute of Mining Engineers are 
 to enable its members, comprising Mining Engineers and other 
 jiersoiis interested in mining and metallurgy, to meet together at 
 fixed periods for the purpose of reading papers upon and discussing 
 sulijects which have for their aim the economical production of the 
 useful minerals and metals, and the safety and welfare of those em- 
 ployed in these industries, and to circulate among its members, by 
 means of its publications, the information thus obtained. 
 
 2. The Institute shall consist of Members, Honorary Members, and 
 Associates. Members and Honorary Members shall be mining En- 
 gineers. Associates includes other persons interested in mining and 
 Metallurgy. All these classes shall be equally entitled to the privi- 
 leges of Membership except as herein provided. 
 
 3. The annual subscription of each member and associate shall 
 be ten dollars, which shall be payable in advance at each annual 
 meeting or immediately after his election. 
 
 4. Any member who shall make a donation of one hundred dol- 
 lars, or upwards, shall become ^ Life Member, and any associate 
 who shall make a like donation shall become a Life Associate, and 
 shall not be liable for any further annual subscription. 
 
 5. Honorary members shall not be called upon to pay any annual 
 subscription. The number of honorary members shall not exceed 
 twenty. 
 
 6. Persons desirous of becoming members or associates of the 
 Institute shall be proposed by at least three members or associ- 
 ates, approved by the Council, and elected by ballot at a regular 
 meeting upon receiving at least three-fourths of the votes east. 
 
 7. Every person proposed as an honorary member shall be re- 
 commended by at least ten members of the Institute, approved by 
 the Council, and be elected by ballot on receiving nine-tenths of 
 the votes cast. 
 
 8. The oflicers who shall constitute a Council for the direction of 
 the affairs of the Institute, shall consist of a President, who shall 
 be a Jlining Engineer, six Vice-Presidents, at least four of whom 
 shall be mining Engineers (the word " Mining Engineers" in these 
 rules comprehend Engineers connected either with mining or met- 
 allurgy), nine Managers, at least six of whom shall be Mining 
 Engineers, a Secretary and Treasurer. All these officers shall be 
 members or associates of the Institute, and shall be elected at the 
 annual meeting (except in cases of vacancies), and shall be eligible 
 for re-election, with the exception of any President or Vice-Presi- 
 dent who may have held office for the three immediate preced- 
 ing years, an! such two Managers of the Mining Engineers and one 
 other Manager who shall attend the fewest Council meetings dur- 
 ing the past year, but such members shall be eligible for re-election 
 afterbeing one year out of oiBce ; and such election shall be made 
 in the manner following : A. — Any member of the Institute shall 
 be at liberty to nominate in writing, and send to the Secretary, not 
 less than thirty days prior to the annual meeting, a signed list of 
 such persons as are considered suitable to fill the various offices ; 
 which list, having been duly stamped, with the Institute seal, to- 
 gether with the list of such officers as shall be eligible for re-election, 
 and a copy of this Rule, shall be posted, at least ten days previous 
 to the annual meeting, to all members of the Institute, who must 
 strike out or add to such list so as to leave a record of their votes 
 for Officers, not exceeding the number to be elected; but nothing 
 .shall prevent any member nominating -in writing subsequently 
 (specifying the classes as aforesaid), and up to, and on the day of, 
 and prior to the election taking place, any other member or mem- 
 bers to fill the various offices, nor shall anything prevent the mem- 
 bers, whether presenter absent, from having power to vote for any 
 other member or members, although he may not be nominated as 
 before provided for. The voting papers, being so filled up, must be 
 returned through the post, addresse(l to the Secretary, or be handed 
 to.him or to the Chairman, in all cases so as to be received before 
 the hour fixed for the election of officers. B. — The Chairman shall, 
 in all cases of voting, appoint scrutineers of the lists, and the 
 scrutiny shall commence on the conclusion of the other business of 
 the meeting, or at such other time as the Chairman may appoint. 
 On the conclusion of the scrutiny the voting papers shall be de- 
 stroyed, and the List, prepared and verified by tliescrHtineers,shall 
 be kept until the next annual meeting. C. — In the event of any 
 vacancies occurring in the number of officers subsequent to the 
 annual meeting, such vacancy or vacancies shall be filled by the 
 Council. D.— At meetings of the Council five shall be a quorum. 
 
 9. General meetings of the Institute shall take place on the 
 third Tuesday of February, May, August and November, and the 
 May meeting shall be considered the annual meeting, at which a 
 report of the proceedings of the Institute and an abstract of the ac- 
 counts shall be furni.shed by the Council. Special meetings may 
 be called whenever the Council .sec fit ; and the Secretary shall call 
 a special meeting on a requisition signed by fifteen or more members. 
 The notices for special meetings shall state the business to be trans- 
 acted, and no other shall be entertained. 
 
 10. Every question which shall come before any meeting of the 
 Institute shall be decided by the votes of the majority of the mem- 
 bers then present. 
 
 11. The funds of the Institute shall be deposited in the hands of 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 349 
 
 the Treasurer, and shall be disbursed by him according to the 
 directions of the Council. 
 
 12. All Papers sent for the approval of the Council shall ba ac- 
 companied by a short abstract of their contents. 
 
 13. The Council shall have power to decide on the propriety'of 
 communicating to the Institute any papers which may be received, 
 and they shall be at liberty, when they think it desirable, to direct 
 tliat any paper read before the Institute, shall be printed in the 
 Transactions. Intimation, when practicable, shall be given at each 
 general meeting of the subject of the paper or papers to be read and 
 of the questions for discussion at the n(;.xt meeting, andnotice thereof 
 shall bj posted toallmembers. The readingofpapersshall not be de- 
 layed beyond such hour as the President shall think proper, and if 
 the election of members or other business shall not be despatched 
 soon enough, the President may adjourn such business until after 
 the discussion of the subject for the day. 
 
 14. Members elected at any meeting between the annual meet- 
 ings shall be entitled to all papers issued that year. 
 
 15. The copyright of all papers communicated to and accepted 
 by the Institute snail be vested in it, unless otherwise agreed upon 
 between the Council and the author ; and such communications 
 shall not be published for sale or otherwise without the permission 
 of the Council. 
 
 16. All proofs of discussion forwarded to members for correction 
 must be returned to the Secretary not later than seven days from 
 the date of their receipt, otherwise they will be considered correct 
 and printed. 
 
 17. The Institute is not, as a body, responsible for the facts and 
 opinions advanced in the papers which may be read, nor in the ab- 
 stracts of the conversations which may take place at the meetings of 
 the Institute. 
 
 18. The author of each paper read before the Institute shall be 
 allowed twelve copies of such paper (if ordered to be printed) for his 
 own use, and shall have the right to order any number of copies at 
 the cost of printing and paper, provided they are not intended for 
 sale. 
 
 19. Any member of the Institute shall have power to introduce a 
 stranger to any meeting, but the latter shall not take part in any 
 discussion without the consent of the meeting. 
 
 20. Any member who has not paid his subscription for the space 
 of one year after it is due, shall not be'entitled to vote at elections, 
 or to receive a copy of the Transactions of the Institute. 
 
 21. The place of holding the general meetings for the ensuing 
 year shall be fixed at each annual meeting, by a vote of the Insti- 
 tute ; or, in default of such determination "by the Council ; the 
 place for special meetings shall be fixed by the Council ; and notice 
 of all such meetingsshall be given by mail or otherwise to all mem- 
 bers and associates, at least twenty days before the time appointed 
 for said meeting. 
 
 22. No alteration shall be made in any of the Laws, Rules, or 
 Regulations of the Institute except at the annual meeting. 
 
 The following resolution was then offered and passed : 
 
 Sesolved, That the Chairman appoint a committee of five, to 
 whom all applications from persons not present at this meeting, de- 
 siring to be connected with the Institute, shall be presented, and the 
 said committee shall report at the meeting to-morrow a list of suit- 
 able names so nominated ; and that all persons who have recorded 
 their names at this meeting, and all persons who shall be so re- 
 ported by the said committee, and all persons elected at the present 
 series of sessions, constituting the May meeting of the Institute, 
 shall be considered as Associates of the Institute ; and the Council 
 to be hereafter elected under the rules shall report at the Augu,st 
 meeting the said persons in two lists, as Members and Associates, for 
 adoption by the Associates then present ; and that all persons to 
 . be permanently classed as Members or Associates shall signify the 
 same to the Council before the August meeting. 
 
 The committee appointed, as provided by this resolution, 
 reported at the subsequent sessions, May I7th and I8th, the 
 following names with approval : 
 
 Robert Allison, Pottsville, Pa.; Jesse Beadle, Shickshinny, Pa.; 
 W. P. Blake, New Haven, Conn.; John F. Blandy, Philadelphia, 
 Pa.; David Coghlan, Scranton, Pa.; Martin Coryell, Wilkesbarre, 
 Pa.; W. S. Coulter, Ashley, Pa.; W. M. Courtis, Wyandotte, Mich.; 
 Eckley B. Coxe, Drifton, Pa.; A. B. De Saules, Orange, N. J.; 
 Prof. T. Egleston New York; Anton Eilers, New York; E. B. 
 Ely, New York ; Prof P. Frazer, Jr., Philadelphia, Pa.; N. Fried- 
 rich, Drifton, Pa ; J. H. Harden, Wilkes-Barre, Pa.; C. E. Hawley, 
 Wilkes-Barre, Pa.; J. B. Hoffman, Pottsville, Pa.; John Hoise, Ta- 
 maqda, Pa.; Theo. P. Jenkins, New York ; George Johnson, Pitts- 
 t6n. Pa.; W. W. Kenrich, Wilkes-Barre, Pa.; Prof. G. W. Maynard, 
 Troy, N. Y.; Arthur McClellan, Drifton, Pa.; Paul A. Oliver, 
 Wilkes-Barre, Pa.; Chas. Parrish, Wilkes-Barre, Pa.; C. W. Par- 
 sons, Wilkes-Barre, Pa.; Edmund C. Pechin, Dumbar, Pa.; Prof 
 W. B. Potter, St. Louis. Mo.; Prof F. Prime, Jr., Easton.Pa.; Prof. 
 Raphael Pumpelly, Cambridge, Mass.; C. E. Richter, Philadelphia, 
 Pa.; R. Bruce Rioketts, Wilkes-Barre, Pa.; W. H. Roberts, Mauch 
 Chunk, Pa.; I. H. Stearns, Wilkes-Barre, P.; W. S. Stewart, Wilkes- 
 Barre, Pa.; J. H. Swoyer, AVilkes-Barre, Pa.; David Thomas, Ca- 
 
 tasauqua, Pa.; Samuel Thomas, Catasauqua, Pa.; H. Wentz, Wilkes- 
 Barre, Pa.; John White, New York , S. B. Whiting, Pottsville, Pa.; 
 Pryor J. Williams, Wilkes-Barre, Pa.; Morgan B. Williams, Wilkes- 
 Barre, Pa.; W. D. Zehner, Summit Hill, Pa. 
 
 An election for permanent officers of the Institute resulted 
 in the choice of the following : 
 
 President : — David Thomas, Catasauqua, Pa. 
 
 Vice-Presidents : — R. W. Raymond, New York ; E. B. Coxe, 
 Drifton, Pa.; W. R. Symons, Pottsville, Pa.; W. P. Blake, New 
 Haven, Conn.; J. F. Blandy, Philadelphia, Pa.; J. H. Swoyer, 
 Wilkes-Barre, Pa. 
 
 Managers :—&. P. Rothwell, Wilkes-Barre, Pa.; T. S. McNair, 
 Hazleton, Pa.; G. W. Maynard, Troy, N. Y.; Raphael Pumpelly, 
 Cambridge, Mass.; Thomas Petherick, Scranton, Pa.; T. M. Wil- 
 liams, Wilkes-Barre, Pa.; Thomas Egleston, Jr., New York; E. 
 Gaujot, Pottsville, Pa.; Frederick Prime, Jr., Easton, Pa. 
 
 Secretary: — Martin Coryell^ Wilkes-Barre, Pa. 
 
 Treasurer : — J. Pryor Williamson, Wilkes-Barre, Pa. 
 
 Since that time, the Institute has prospered exceedingly. 
 It numbered on July 1st 1882, six honorary members, 914 
 members, 121 associates, 51 foreign members. The oflScers 
 in July 1st, were as follows : 
 
 President. — R. P. Rothwell. Vice-Presidents. — J. P. Kim- 
 ball, W. H. Pettee, C. O. Thompson, (Term expires Feb- 
 ruary, 1883.) T. N. Ely, Charles Macdonald, J. W. Powell, 
 (Term expires February, 1884.) Managers. — James 0. 
 Bayles, W. S. Keyes, Percival Roberts, Jr., (Term expires 
 February, 1883.) J. S. Alexander, H. S. Munroe, J. C. F. 
 Randolph, (Term expires February, 1884.) William Burn- 
 ham, Anton Eilers, A. S. McCreath, (Term expires February, 
 1885.) Secretary. — Thomas M. Drown, Easton,Pa. Treas- 
 urer. — Theodore D. Rand, Philadelphia. 
 
 The following are the rules as amended to July 1, this 
 year: 
 
 I. Objects. — The objects of the " American Institute of Mining 
 Engineers " are to promote the Arts and Sciences connected with 
 the economical production of the useful minerals and metals, and 
 the welfare of those employed in these industries, bjr means of 
 meetings for social intercourse, and reading and discussion of pro- 
 fessional papers, and to circulate, by means of publications among 
 its members and associates, the information thus obtained. 
 
 II. Membership. — The Institute shall consist of Members, 
 Honorary Members, and Associates. Members and Honorary 
 Members shall be professional mining engineers, geologists, metal- 
 lurgists, or chemists, or persons practically engaged in mining, 
 metallurgy, or metallurgical engineering. Associates shall include 
 all suitable persons desirous of being connected with the Institute 
 and duly elected as hereinafter provided. Each person desirous of 
 becoming a member or associate shall be proposed by at least three 
 members or associates, approved by the Council, and elected by 
 ballot at a regular meeting upon receiving three-fourths of the 
 votes cast, and sliall become a member or associate on the payment 
 of his first dues. Each person proposed as an honorary member 
 shall be recommended by at least ten members or associates, ap- 
 proved by the Council and elected by ballot at a regular meeting on 
 receiving nine-tenths of the votes cast ; Provided, that the number 
 of honorary members shall not exceed twenty. The Council may 
 at any time change the classification of a person elected as associate, 
 so as to make him a member, or vice versa, subject to the 
 approval of the Institute. All members and associates shall be 
 equally entitled to the privileges of membership ; Provided, that 
 honorary members shall not be entitled to vote or to be members of 
 the Council. 
 
 Any member or associate may be stricken from the list on recom- 
 mendation of the Council, by the vote of three-fourths of the mem- 
 bers and associates present at any annual meeting, due notice 
 having been mailed in writing by the Secretary to the said member 
 or associate. 
 
 III. Dttbs. — The dues of members and associates shall be ten 
 dollars per annum, payable in advance at the annual meeting ; 
 Provided, that persons elected at the meeting following the annual 
 meeting shall pay eight dollars, and persons elected at the meeting 
 preceding the annual meeting shall pay four dollars as dues for 
 the current year. Honorary members shall not be liable to dues. 
 Any member or associate may beconie, by the payment of one 
 hundred dollars at any one time, a life member or associate, and 
 shall not be liable thereafter to annual dues. Any member or 
 associate in arrears may at the discretion of the Council be deprived 
 of the receipt of publications, or stricken from the list of members 
 when in arrears for one year ; Provided, that he may be restored to 
 membership by the Council on payment of all arrears, or by re- 
 election after an interval of three years. 
 
 IV. Officers. — The afiairs of the institute shall be managed 
 by a Council, consisting of a President, six Vice-Presidents, nine 
 Managers, a Secretary and a Treasurer, who shall be elected from 
 among the members and associates of the Institute at the annual 
 meetings, to hold office as follows : 
 
350 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Tlie President, the Secretary, and a Treasurer for one year (and 
 no person shall be eligible for Immediate re-election as President 
 ■who shall have held that office subsequent to the adoption of 
 these rules, for two consecutive years), the Vice-Presidents for 
 two years, and the managers for three years; and no Vice-President 
 or Manager shall be eligible for immediate re-election to the same 
 office at the expiration of the term for which he was elected. At 
 each annual meeting a President, three Vice-Presidents, three 
 Manager3,a Secretary and a Treasurer shall be elected, and the 
 term of office shall continue >intil the adjournment of the meeting 
 at which their successors are elected. 
 
 The duties of all officers shall be such as usually pertain to their 
 offices, or may be delegated to them by the Council or the 
 Institute ; and the Council may in its discretion req uire bonds to 
 be given by the Treasurer. At each animal meeting the Council 
 shall make a report of proceedings of the Institute- together witli 
 a financial statement. 
 
 Vacancies in the Council may occur by death or resignation ; or 
 the Council may by vote of a majority of all its members declare 
 the place of any officer vacant, on his failure for one year, from in- 
 ability or otherwise, to attend the Council meetings or perform the 
 duties of his office.' All vacancies shall be filled by the appoint- 
 ment of the Council, and any person so appointed shall hold office 
 for the remainder of the term for which his predecessor was 
 elected or aj)pointed ; Provided^ that the said appointment shall not 
 render him ineligible at the ne.xt annual meeting. 
 
 Five members of the Council shall constitute a quorum, but the 
 Council may appoint an E.tecutive Committee, or business may be 
 transacted at a regularly called meeting of the Council, at which 
 less than a quorum is present, subject to the approval of a majority 
 ol' the Council, subsequently given in writing to the Secretary, and 
 recorded by him with the minutes. 
 
 V — Elections. — The annual eleetic^n shall be conducted as fol- 
 lows : Nominations may be sent in writing to the Secretary, accom- 
 panied with the names of the proposers, at any time not less than 
 thirty days before the annual meeting; and the Secretary shall, not 
 less than two weeks before the said meeting, mail to every member 
 or associate (except honorary members), ali.st of all the nominations 
 for each office so received, stamped with the seal of the Institute, 
 together with a copy of this rule, and the names of the persons 
 ineligible for election to each office. And each member orassociate 
 qualified to vote, may vote, either by striking from or adding to the 
 names of the said list, leaving names not exceeding in number the 
 officers to be elected, or by preparing a new list, signing said altered 
 or prepared ballot with his name, and either mailing it to the Secre- 
 tary, or presenting it in person at the annual meeting Provided, 
 that no member or associate, in arrears since the last annual meet- 
 ing, shall be allowed to vote until the said arrears shall have been 
 paid. The ballots shall be received and examined by three Scruti- 
 neers, appointed at the annual meeting by the presiding officer; and 
 the persons who shall have received the greatest number of votes for 
 the several offices, shall be declared elected, and the Scrutineers 
 shall so report to the presiding officer. The ballots shall be 
 destroyed, and a list of the elected officers, certified by the Scruti- 
 neers, shall be preserved by the Secretarv. 
 
 VI— Meetings.— The annual meeting of the Institute shall take 
 place on the third Tuesday of February, at which a report of the 
 proceedings of the Institute, and an abstract of the accounts, shall 
 be furnished by the Council. Two other regular meetings of the 
 Institute shall be held in each year, at such times and places as the 
 Council shall select. Special meetings may be called whenever the 
 Council sees fit, and tlie Secretary shall call a special meeting on a 
 requisition signed by fifteen or more members. The notices for spe- 
 cial meetings shall state the business to be tiausacted, and no other 
 shall be entertained. 
 
 Every question which shall come before any meeting of the 
 Institute, shall be decided, unless otherwise provided by these Rnles, 
 by the votes of the majority of the members then present. The 
 place of meeting shall be fixed in advance by the Institute, or, in 
 default of such determination, by the Council, and notice of all 
 meetings shall be given by mail, or otherwise, to all members and 
 associates, at least twenty days in advance. Any member or asso- 
 ciate may introduce a stranger to any meeting, but the latter shall 
 not take part in the proceedings without the consent of the meeting. 
 
 VII— Papeks.— The Council shall have ])ower to decide on the 
 propriety of communicating to the Institute any papers which may 
 be received, and they shall be at liberty, when they thint it desir- 
 able, to direct that any paper read before the Institute shall be 
 printed in the Transactions. Intimation, when practicable, shall be 
 given at each General Meeting, of the subjectof the paper or papers 
 to be read, and of the questions for discussion at the next meeting. 
 The reading of papers shall not be delayed bevond such hour as the 
 presiding officer shall think proper; and the election of members or 
 other business may be adjourned by the presiding officer, to iiermit 
 the reading and discussion of papers. 
 
 The copyright of all papers communicated to, and accepted by the 
 Institute, .shall be vested in it, unless otherwise agreed between the 
 Council and the author. The author of each paper read before the 
 Institute shall be entitled to twelve copies, if printed, for his own 
 use, and shall have the right to order any number of copies at the 
 cost of paper and printing, provided said copies are not intended for 
 sale. The Institute is not, as a body, responsible for the statements 
 
 of fact or opinion, advanced in papers or discussions, at its meetiugs, 
 and it is understood that papers and discussions should not include 
 matters relating to politics, or purely to trade. 
 
 VIII — Amendments. — These rules may be amended, at an an- 
 udal meeting, by a two-thirds vote of the meml)ers jiresent, pro- 
 vided that written notice of the pro])Osed amendment shall have 
 been given at a previous meeting. « 
 
 THE NATIONAL MINING EXHIBITION AT 
 DENVER, COLORADO. 
 
 THE National Mining and Industrial Exhibition, 
 which opened at Denver on Tuesday, August 1, 1882, 
 with an address by the Hon. William D. Kelley, of 
 Pennsylvania, was first suggested by Jlr. J. W 
 Ryckmau in the Chicago Industrial World. The sugges- 
 tion was adopted readily and the work of organizing 
 began. The reason for this is found in the National ignor- 
 ance upon mining matters. Denver was particularly inter- 
 ested. It -was felt that the necessity existed for removing the 
 many erroneous impressions prevalent, and showing in the 
 most convincing and satisfactory manner that Colorado in- 
 stead of being in one portion a barren desert, and in another 
 a mass of snow-clad mountains, really contains a soil 
 encouraging to the agriculturist, and a marvelous diversity 
 of native minerals, only awaiting the introduction of manu- 
 facturing facilities to find an active market. It was believed 
 too that in mining, inventors would be stimulated by the 
 demand for new processes that will make low grade ores 
 more profitable; in manufactures, capitalists and skilled 
 labor would find every inducement for the establishment ol' 
 new industries. The remoteness irom Eastern sources of 
 supply acts as a jirotective tanflf to the producer in Colorado, 
 where crude material exists in profusion, and it is compara- 
 tively neglected. To bring capital face to face with these 
 opportunities for investment, and with skilled labor, to more 
 rapidly develop the country, is the aim and purpose of the 
 Exposition, and the display now shown is designed especially 
 to hasten the establishment of extensive and flourishing in- 
 dustrial communities; 
 
 The principal events in the history of the Great West — 
 more particularly those events which induce exploration and 
 settlements — are of comparatively recent date. California, 
 as described by Mr. Dana in " Two Years Before the JIast," 
 treats of no commerce save that in hides, and suggests no 
 idea of auriferous wealth. When the results of the Mexican 
 war changed the boundary line between the United States 
 and Mexico, and the discovery of placer gold in California 
 became known, the bright visions of sudden wealth drew 
 thousands towards the Pacific slope by the tedious sea voy- 
 ages "around the Horn" or through the pestilential and 
 deadly marshes of the Isthmus route. Those who feared the 
 one or dreaded the other sought the overland routes and 
 found ample op))orluuities to test their skill and endurance. 
 Many perished by the way, but the movement did not cease. 
 In 1858 news reached the East of gold discoveries in what 
 was known as the Pike's Peak region, and a fresh impetus 
 was given to immigration. The most important advance 
 was made when railway facilities were inaugurated and the 
 country became easily accessible to all who chose to visit it. 
 With these facilities available the tide has continued year 
 after year. Explorers have been and are still seeking new 
 fields and announcing fresh discoveries The country west 
 of the Missouri river is now easy of access, and in its strik- 
 ing contrasts and glorious scenery, furnishes fresh sensations 
 to the pleasure seeker ; while its great natural resources and 
 remarkable climate are a strong inducement to those seeking 
 new homes. It can be visited easier and more comfortably 
 than Europe, even from the Atlantic seaboard, and every 
 citizen of America should be conversant with the attractions 
 of his own land before seeking recreation abroad. The popu- 
 lation, as a class, combine all that is energetic and eff'ective 
 in pushing to satisfactory results whatever it undertakes. 
 Intelligence is the rule, and public schools, equal to any in 
 the country, exist in profusion. These remarks apply to the 
 entire region covered by the great mineral belt. In natural 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 351 
 
 resources the Rocky Mountains contain a varied and prac- 
 tically inexhaustible supply. The number is only limited 
 by the incomplete examinations which have been made from 
 time to time. Each year brings to light new deposits, not only 
 of precious metals but of other mineral substances of great 
 commercial value. There is no portion of the world that 
 possesses equal advantages or surer highways to fortune than 
 these mountain States, and many of these paths are to-day 
 awaiting their particular pioneers. There is a reason for 
 this, and an honest reason, too. It is because everything 
 has been made subordinate to mining for precious metals. 
 That prompted the early settlement and induced the follow- 
 ing immigration to a great extent. All miners are not success- 
 ful, and necessitjr has driven those who failed in mining 
 into other pursuits. Horace Greeley declared the country 
 capable of great things in agriculture, and received only 
 jeers in return, until the harvests of Weld, Larimer, Boulder 
 and other Counties in Colorado, portions of Utah, New 
 Mexico and otherTerritories, to say nothing of the vast cropsof 
 cereals annually produced in California, justified his opinion 
 in the most positive manner. Farmers in the great valleys 
 of the Mississippi and its tributaries contend with frosts, 
 drought, floods and hurricanes ; all prominent factors in his 
 annual calculations, but entirely unknown to the husbandman 
 here. The dry atmosphere prevents killing frosts, and re- 
 moves the danger from floods ; the lofty mountain ranges 
 send the hurricanes high overhead, and the extensive sys- 
 tems of irrigation that are constantly increasing, enable him 
 to feed his growing crops as regularly as he feeds himself. 
 When his grain is ready for the harvest he fears no danger 
 from soaking rains. His wheat is always of high grade, his 
 barley clean and bright, and his root crops swell to enor- 
 mous proportions in the rich virgin soil. His market is at 
 home — because, in spite of the annual increase in acreage, 
 the rapid increase in population keeps in the lead and 
 absorbs more than has been produced. There are thousands 
 of acres yet laying idle, capable of splendid crops. The value 
 of the cereals annually produced in the Pacific Seaboard 
 States is far in excess of that of the precious metals, and 
 other portions of the mountain region have equal advantage. 
 Within this wide region there are many native products, 
 besides precious metals, all with more or less commercial 
 value, that are now wholly or partially neglected. With a 
 view to bringing these hidden treasures to light, and to leam 
 their full value is one- of the great purposes of the Mining 
 and Industrial Exposition. With their worth ascertained, it 
 is confidently believed that new industries will be established 
 convenient to the sources of supply and a market. Practical 
 men will be encouraged to embark in these new enterprises 
 wherever they may choose to locate them in our midst, and 
 will have the benefit of the distance and cost of transpor- 
 tation from other sources of supply to protect their wares 
 from competition. 
 
 In the selection of Denver as the place for the Exposition, 
 many weighty reasons justify the choice. It is the largest 
 city between the Mississippi Valley and the Pacific Coast. 
 It has railway facilities radiating in every direction, affording 
 easy communication with Wyoming, Utah, Idaho, Montana, 
 New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, California, Kansas and Ne- 
 braska. It is the objective point of summer travel from the 
 Eastern States, and is visited by thousands of Americans and 
 Europeans annually. It thus possesses superior opportuni- 
 ties for displaying our undeveloped means where they can 
 be critically examined by capitalists and their values care- 
 fully tested. These considerations should prompt every one 
 resident in the west to strive earnestly for a complete repre- 
 sentation from his own locality, and thus make a fitting ex- 
 hibit for the benefit of investors. 
 
 That an idea may be obtained of the size of these mining 
 States and territories, a few comparative figures may be 
 given. The area of the great western territory interested in 
 mining, aggregates 1,196,084 square miles, or nearly one third 
 of the whole area of the United States, Alaska included. 
 Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah and Wyoming to- 
 gether have an area of 521,976 square miles, or over one 
 seventh of the entire nation. With the Exposition replete 
 with exhibits of crude material, accompanied by the neces- 
 sary statements of locality and quantity, many neglected 
 deposits will be brought into prominence, and lay_ the 
 foundations for industrial advancement. As the Exposition 
 
 is repeated year after year, it will become a vivid record of 
 progress not only of the general prosperity of the great 
 west, but it will also show that the people are constantly 
 being taught to know new uses for crude material existing 
 in Colorado, and are adding to their prosperity by all the 
 rapid methods of manufacture, that spring from the invent- 
 ive brain of an intelligent people- 
 As soon as the matter was actively pushed. Congress (on 
 April 7th, 1882) pas.sed the following law :— " That all ar- 
 ticles which shall be imported for the sole purpose of ex- 
 hibition at the National Mining and Industrial Exposition 
 to be held in the city of Denver, in the year 1882, shall be 
 admitted without the payment of duty or custom fees, or 
 charges, under such regulations as the Secretary of the 
 Treasury shall prescribe. Provided, that all such articles 
 as shall be sold in the United States, or withdrawn for con- 
 sumption therein, at any time after such importation, shall 
 be subject to the duties, if any, imposed upon like articles 
 by the revenue laws in force at the date of importation. 
 And provided further, that in case any articles imported 
 under provisions of this act shall be withdrawn for con- 
 sumption, or shall be sold without payment of duty as re- 
 quired by law, all the penalties prescribed by the revenue 
 laws shall be applied and enforced against such articles, and 
 against. the persons who may be guilty of such withdrawal 
 or sale." 
 
 Officers for 1882.— H. A. W. Tabor, President ; Herman 
 Silver, Vice-President ; W. A. H. Loveland, Treaserer ; S. 
 T. Armstrong, Secretary ; H. D. Perky, General Manager ; 
 Hon. F. W. Pitkin, Governor of Colorado, and State and 
 Territorial Governors, Honorary Vice-Presidents. Direc- 
 tors.—W. A. H. Loveland, H. A. W. Tabor, H. D. Perky, 
 H. S. Wicks, John W. Knox, S. T. Armstrong, O. L. Has- 
 kell, Herman Silver, J. T. Cornforth, A. C. Hunt. Executive 
 Commitlee.—O. L. Haskell, S. T. Armstrong, H. D. Perky. 
 Geo. A. Crofutt, Sole Agent for the Bureau of Tourists and 
 Excursions. 
 
 The exposition building, of which the accompanying 
 engraving is a literal fac-siinile, is a superb edifice of brick 
 and stone, in the shape of a Maltese cross, having about two 
 hundred thousand square feet of exhibition space. It is a 
 permanent structure of 600 feet in length and 316 feet wide, 
 designed particularly for the purpose. It will be furnished 
 with the proper refreshment and retiring rooms necessary to 
 the comfort of visitors and exhibitors. It is a great ornament 
 to Denver and occupies an elevated position in the picturesque 
 suburbs of the city, overlooking a stretch of three hundred 
 miles of the Rocky Mountains. The Mineral exhibit will 
 be a permanent feature ; increased from time to time as new 
 discoveries will demand, and is intended to present a faithful 
 object lesson of the mineral deposits, not only of the Western 
 States, but of the whole Union. It is under the immediate 
 supervision of Prof. J. Alden Smith, State Geologist of 
 Colorado. The following were the rules adopted at the 
 outset : 
 
 1. The building will be open for the reception of articles 
 on and after July 15th, and all exhibits must be in position, 
 and machinery ready for operation on the opening day. 
 
 2. Machinery and manufactured articles must be entered 
 in the name of the manufacturer. Entries will be permitted 
 by manufacturers' agents. Mineral specimens may be en- 
 tered by mine owners and through their accredited repre- 
 sentatives. 
 
 3. The driving engines will be ready to furnish power to 
 the main shafts ten days before the opening free of charge ; 
 but exhibitors must make their own attachments. 
 
 4. The entry clerk will furnish each exhibitor with an 
 original and duplicate tag, the duplicate to be securely at- 
 tached to the article exhibited when it is placed in position, 
 the original will be kept by the exhibitor during the Exposi- 
 tion, and be surrendered to the entry clerk when the articles 
 are removed from the building. 
 
 5. All articles on exhibition must remain until the Ex- 
 position closes. Removal will not be permitted except upon 
 the written consent of the Board of Directors. Every facility 
 for making sales of articles to be delivered at the close of the 
 Exposition will be extended. 
 
 6. An efficient police will be provided for the care of arti- 
 
352 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
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 8 
 
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 M 
 
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THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 353 
 
 cles both day and night, but exhibits will be entirely at the 
 owner's risk. Insurance against loss by fire will be efl'ected 
 when desired at the cost of the exhibitor. 
 
 7. To preserve harmony in the general effect of the display 
 the Board reserves the right to regulate the position of all 
 articles and the size of signs. 
 
 8. Space will be allotted in the order of application, and 
 exhibitors notified as early as practicable. But space not 
 occupied, either by the arrival of the goods or otherwise, 
 one week before the opening day will be reassigned by the 
 board. 
 
 9. As there will be no charge made to exhibitors, for en- 
 tries or space, admission tickets will only be furnished to 
 such exhibitor or to one employ^, or both, when it is shown 
 that the attendance of the exhibitor or employ^ is actually 
 necessary. For these tickets five dollars each will be 
 charged. These tickets will be registered, and fori'eited if 
 used by any other person than the one to whom they are 
 issued. 
 
 10. The Board of Directors will take charge of all article.^ 
 upon which the freight is prepaid, and remove them to the 
 Exposition building at the expense of the exhibitor. 
 
 11. All unclaimed articles left by exhibitors fifteen days 
 after the close of the Exposition will be stored and disposed 
 of according to law. 
 
 12. All platforms and other temporary structures erected 
 bjr exhibitors must be removed from the building by them 
 within fifteen days after the close of the Exposition. No 
 attachments to the floor by nails, screws, or otherwise, will 
 be permitted. This does not include permanent exhibits. 
 
 13. There will be three lines of shafting in Power Hall, 
 one 2i'5 inches in diameter, for light machinery, will be 
 driven at a speed of 150 revolutions per minute. The others 
 will be 2|| inches in diameter, with a speed of 200 revo- 
 lutions per minute. Driving pulleys as required, also coun- 
 ter-shafts and pulleys, belts and hangers, will be furnished 
 for exhibitors at cost, if timely notice is given. They 
 should be ready to be placed on the shafts before the 25th 
 July. 
 
 The custom of awarding premiums has been so freely con- 
 demned that it has been omitted here. The action of igno- 
 rant or biased jurors will thus be avoided. Exhibitors will 
 appreciate this feature, as it leaves them free to win success 
 among the people, who will prove the claims of inventors by 
 actual tests. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 Department A — Mineralogy — Gold ores, class 1 ; Silver ores, 
 class 2 ; Iron ores, class 3 ; Lead ores, class 4 ; Copper ores, class 5 ; 
 Fire, potters', and other clays, class 6 ; Bituminous coals, class 7 ; 
 Anthracite coals, class 8 ; Cannel coal, class 9 ; Lignite, class 10 ; 
 Other metalliferous specimens not enumerated above, class 11. 
 
 Department B — Geology — Marbles, class 1 ; Lithographic stone, 
 class 2 ; Limestone, class 3 ; Miscellaneous building stone, class 4 ; 
 Fossils, class 5 ; Gypsum, class 6 ; Precious stones and crystals, class 
 7 ; Native chemicals, class 8. 
 
 Department C— Hardware, edge tools, cutlery, and all cast and 
 wrought iron goods, including stoves^ safes, and metallic house- 
 hold utensils. Foundry productions, including all heavy castings, 
 stoves, ranges, etc., class 1 ; All the light cast products, builders' 
 hardware, plumbers' good ;, brass goods, iron fencing^ etc., class 2 ; 
 House furnishing goods, edge tools, cutlery, iron safes, and other 
 wrought iron goods, class 3 ; Grates and mantels, lamps and gas 
 fixtures, class 4. 
 
 Department D — Metallurgical Machinery — Reverberatory roast- 
 ing furnaces, blast and reverberatory smelting furnace, cupel, retort 
 and other furnaces for separating base and precious metals, class 1 ; 
 Stamp mills for free gold ores, stamp mills for free silver ores, stamp 
 mills for dry crushing, and furnaces for roasting refractory gold or 
 silver ores, class 2 ; Pans and settlers for amalgamation, leaching 
 vats for leaching process, concentrators for crude ore or tailings, 
 classS; Other devices not included in the aboveclassification,class4. 
 
 Department E — Agricultural and HortiouUural Products and 
 Floral Displays — Cereals in half bushel samples, class 1 ; Fruits 
 and roots, class 2 ; Plants and shrubbery, class 3 ; Cut flowers and 
 transient exhibits, for which special arrangements will be made, 
 class 4 ; Dairy products, class 5; Miscellajieous, class 6. 
 
 Department F — General Machinery including Steam, Engines 
 and Machine Toofo— Stationary and portable engines and locomo- 
 
 23 
 
 tives, class 1; Metal and wood working machinery, tools and ap- 
 pliances, class 2 ; Printing machinery, leather working machinery, 
 pneumatic machinery, class 3 ; Miscellaneous machinery and ma- 
 chines tool, class 4 ; Laundry Machinery, class 5. 
 
 Department G — Agricultural and HoHiculturul Implements 
 and Machinery, Carriages, Wagons, and other vehicles — Tlireshing 
 machines, mowers, reapers, harvesters, ditching machines, hay 
 rakes, feed cutters, etc., class 1 ; Plows, drills, planters, and other 
 implements used in seeding, class 2 ; Farm vehicles of all descrip- 
 tions, carriages, etc., class 3 ; Miscellaneous agricultural tools, class 
 4. 
 
 Department H — Textile Fabrics, Leather and their products — 
 Wools (in fleeces) and other crude textile materials, class 1 ; Cotton, 
 linen and woolen goods, bagging, rope and twine, class 2 ; Manu- 
 factured articles, clothmg, hats, caps, etc., class 3 ; Leather, boots, 
 shoes, harness, belting, furs and their manufactured products, class 
 4. 
 
 Department I — Household Goods, Watches, Jewelry, Ornamental 
 Articles, Optical and Scientific Instruments, Ceramics, etc — Furni- 
 ture and bedding, etc., class 1 ; Watches, jewelry, ceramics, bronze 
 ornaments, etc., class 2 ; Optical and scientific instruments, class 3 ; 
 China, glass and stone table ware, class 4; Wooden, willow, and 
 wire goods, class 5 ; Paper hanging, etc , class 6. 
 
 Department M— Liberal Arts, Natural Science, and Education 
 — Typography and bookbinders' work, class 1 ; }Iusical instru- 
 ments, class 2 ; Photography, lithography, etc., class 3; Stationers' 
 goods, class 4 ; Books and miscellaneous prints, educational devi- 
 ces, etc., class 5. 
 
 Department L — Food Preparations and Miscellaneous Articles 
 used in Domestic Economy, Miners^ Supplies, etc. — Flour, meal, etc., 
 in sacks, class 1 ; Canned goods, class 2 ; Special food preparations 
 not otherwise classified, class 3. 
 
 Department M — Chemical and Medicinal Preparations (Pa- 
 tent Medicines excepted) Illuminating and Lubricating Oils — 
 Chemical preparations, class 1; Medicinal articles, class 2; Illu- 
 minating and lubricating oils, class 3 ; Misceyaneous articles in 
 chemistry, not enumerate above, class 4. 
 
 Dkpabtjient M — Miscellaneous Unclassified Articles, 
 
 THE U 
 
 S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
 AND ITS WORK. 
 
 THE literature of geology has grown to large propor- 
 tions. To obtain a detailed and comprehensive 
 knowledge of the reported facts and the discussions 
 based thereon is a task of magnitude. In territories 
 governed by civilized nations geologic research is actively 
 prosecuted, and geologists are penetrating the lands inhab- 
 ited by savage and barbaric tribes; and thus a large body of 
 men are engaged in geologic investigations. From year to 
 year more refined methods of study are introduced, and new 
 classes of facts are discovered; and the old fields are ever 
 becoming new fields for examination. So the literature, 
 already great, is rapidly increasing, and its prospective mag- 
 nitude is such as to demand of geologists the adoption of all 
 methods and devices that will secure economy of time and 
 thought to scholars and students. The U. S. Geological 
 Survey is working exactly within the limits and ambitions 
 of this spirit. The last published report by the able di- 
 rector of the survey, Mr. John W. Powell, of Illinois, is 
 for the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1881, and forms 
 the second annual report, From its pages w^e learn that 
 the following reports exhaustively made were printed or 
 about to be printed. 
 
 Tertiaey Histoky of the Grand Canon District of 
 Colorado by Captain C. E Dutton. In his report he does 
 not undertake to give an exhaustive account of the entire 
 range of the geology of the district, but limits himself to the 
 discussion of its Tertiary history and of the problems of 
 physical geology involved therein. This work is illustrated 
 by Mr. W. H. Holmes. 
 
 The History of Lake Bonneville by Mr. G. K. Gilbert. 
 Mr. Gilbert's study of Lake Bonneville, the lake which dur- 
 ing Quaternary time occupied the desert basin of western 
 Utah, was begun ten years ago, at which time he was at- 
 tached to the geographic corps of Capt. George M. Wheeler, 
 
354 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the United States Engineers. Since that time his duties 
 as a member of the Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region 
 have carried him repeatedly to the same district and per- 
 mitted him to continue his study of the ancient lake. He 
 liad thus accumulated before the organization of the present 
 Survey a considerable body of facts, and had already pub- 
 lished an outline of the subject. As a member of the new 
 organization he has devoted his time almost exclusively to 
 this research, complementing the material previously gath- 
 ered and setting at rest the greater number of the questions 
 that had been raised. His field investigation was completed 
 in 1880, and he has now finished a monograph on the subject. 
 
 Geology of the Eureka District by Mr. Arnold Hague. 
 The field of Mr. Hague's researches, known as the "Eureka 
 District," is in Central Nevada, and embraces a tract about 
 twenty miles square. Mr. Hague's report will constitute an 
 important contribution to structural geology and will con- 
 tain valuable information in economic geology. 
 
 Geology of Leadville by Mr. S. F. Emmons. From the 
 date of its organization the Geological Survey has been en- 
 gaged in prosecuting investigations in economic geology; 
 that is, in researches having in view questions of immediate 
 and direct importance to the mining industries of the coun- 
 try. All wisely conducted geologic investigations ultimately 
 result in a practical benefit to mining and correlated indus- 
 tries. The influence of general geology — that is, structural 
 geology, with the aid of paleontology — is indirect, while that 
 of mining geology is direct. But mining geology is super- 
 ficial and almost valueless unless it has a solid foundation 
 in structural geology. The occurrence, magnitude, and 
 value of all ore deposits are primarily related to geologic 
 structure. The laws of this relation are but partly known, 
 as the science of mineral deposits is but imperfectly devel- 
 oped, but every "year adds new facts, and many of these 
 which will be contributed during 1882 will be from (he ad- 
 mirable researches of Mr. Emmons. .An abstract of his work 
 can be found in another part of this volume. 
 
 Geology of the Comstock Lode by Mr. G. F. Becker. 
 The Comstock Lode is in every respect a remarkable occur- 
 rence. The fact of its enormous production is familiar, but 
 it is not equally well known that its vertical workings are 
 carried to a greater depth than any in the world except those 
 of Przibram, in Bohemia. It also presents scientific prob- 
 lems of equal obscurity and interest, which have attracted 
 great attention. It would be a reproach to American geology 
 to leave the character of so prominent a mining district unset- 
 tled, and the present investigation was undertaken in the 
 hope that the additional facilities presented by the great ex- 
 tension of the mine workings during late years and by recent 
 advances in science would permit a more satisfactory solution 
 than has yet been reached. 
 
 New Method of Hypsometky by Mr. G. K. Gilbert. 
 Not only the present Geological Survey but its predecessors 
 in the same field have been compelled to make maps for 
 their own use, and in this way have come to perform an 
 amount of geographic work which has proved even more 
 expensive than the geologic investigations to which it is 
 accessory. Although a geologist by profession, Mr. Gilbert 
 has been called upon from time to time, and especially as a 
 member of the Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, to 
 conduct geographic work, and this paper is the embodiment 
 of the results of a series of investigations initiated in connec- 
 tion with those duties. 
 
 The adoption of a nomenclature is to an important extent 
 an attempt to establish the categories of classification; but 
 every stage in the progress of knowledge is marked by a 
 stage in the progress of classification, and any attempt to fix 
 permanently the categories for a nascent science must be 
 futile. In so far, then, as proposed uniform methods of 
 nomenclature and representation are designed to establish 
 the fundamental -categories, no good can be accomplished. 
 On the other hand, useful results can be obtained by the 
 employment of a uniform nomenclature and system of repre- 
 sentation in the presentation of like facts. From time to 
 time new classifications will be advanced, and new terms for 
 more refined distinctions must be multiplied ^an passu with 
 the growth of the science, but diverse terms for the same 
 classes and distinctions should be eradicated. A multiplica- 
 tion of means for like purposes in the presentation of scien- 
 tific subjects is a characteristic of low development, in the 
 
 same manner as is the multiplication of organs for like pur- 
 poses in a living being. Economy of time and thought is 
 the goal to be attained. As of interest, in this connection, 
 we present here the General Scheme adopted in all of its 
 work and publications : 
 
 Era or SYSTEir. 
 
 Era of Man Quaternary . 
 
 Period or Group. 
 
 Cenozoic or Tertiary ■ 
 
 'Pliocene.. 
 
 Mesozoic. 
 
 Paleozoic. 
 
 Minoceue. 
 
 Eocene . 
 
 Cretaceous.. 
 
 Jurassic . 
 
 Epoch or Formation. 
 
 To be formulated in 
 various districts as 
 the facts demand. 
 
 Triassic . 
 
 iPermian.. 
 
 Carboniferous- 
 
 Devonian . 
 
 Silurian.. 
 
 Archsean.. 
 
 Cambrian., 
 
 Hui'onian ?.. 
 
 Laurcntian?., 
 
 The cost of the work prosecuted by the Survey was given 
 as follows during the fiscal year, June 30, 1880, to June 30, 
 1881. 
 
 Amount appropriated by Congres.s for the use of the Geo- 
 logical Survey for the fiscal year ending June 30, 
 1881 $156,000 00 
 
 Expended during the fiscal year 150,948 47 
 
 Remaining on hand June 30, 18S1 (required to meet out- 
 standing liabilities) 6,051 53 
 
 The following is a classification of the expenditures : 
 
 Amount.. 
 
 Salary of Director $6000 00 
 
 Servioesof assistants and employes 101,392 43 
 
 Rent of offices 3,760 93 
 
 Repair of ofiices 101 35 
 
 Office furniture 2,495 52 
 
 Fuel 1,034 04 
 
 Gas ... 217 80 
 
 Ice 63 47 
 
 Telegrams.., 858 14 
 
 Rent of telephones 82 00 
 
 Rent of post-office boxes 60 00 
 
 Stationery 1,695 62 
 
 Drawing material 277 45 
 
 Books 171 35 
 
 Instruments purchased 1,171 03 
 
 Instruments repaired 
 
 Laboratory supplies 
 
 Photographic material... 
 
 Publication of maps 
 
 Illustrations for reports- 
 Job printing 
 
 285 30 
 1,998 63 
 256 03 
 175 00 
 727 OOi 
 36 00 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 355 
 
 Transportation of assistants aud properties 7,825 40 
 
 Traveling expenses 6,768 94 
 
 Purchase of horses 240 00 
 
 Purchase of mules 930 00 
 
 Camp and field equipage 1,190 51 
 
 Subsistence 6,626 90 
 
 Forage 2,338 83 
 
 Pasturage 597 94 
 
 Tollage 32 47 
 
 Storage 331 93 
 
 Apprehension and delivery of lost public property 95 00 
 
 Miscellaneous 1,131 46 
 
 Total 150,948 47 
 
 THE MINING AND SCIENTIFIC PRESS OF 
 THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 SOME of our readers will doubtless want to know just 
 where to lay their hands on the publications that 
 pertain strictly to mining interests and matters 
 of science. We therefore fiirnish here some facts 
 concerning the mining and mechanical press of the United 
 States, which is not, perhaps, as full as it could be made. 
 We also add some notes upon publications that can hardly 
 be said to belong to the mining press and yet are of great 
 importance. The publications of the Government are very 
 elaborate works abounding in exact scientific information, 
 but the volumes are often exceedingly difficult of attain- 
 ment, and their size prevents any general circulation. Some 
 documents are to be had for the asking, in cases where the 
 applicant is the least bit interested. Prominent among these 
 are the 
 
 Anjtual Report upon the Production of Precious 
 Metals is the United States, by Horatio 0. Burchard, 
 Director of the Mint. Thia volume is full of information 
 gathered by Government officials. It will be published in 
 September, 1882, and covers the production of precious 
 metals between Jan. 1, 1881 and Jan. 1, 1882. To be had 
 free at Washington. 
 
 The Annual Report of the Director of the Mint. 
 Covering the coinage of the country, and various reports on 
 the coinage of other countries. This is issued in Novem- 
 ber of each year for the fiscal year, ending oB the previous 
 30th of June. To be had free at Washington. 
 
 Annual Report of the American Iron and Steel 
 Association. Prepared by James M. Swank, Secretary, 
 and published annually in June. This is always able and 
 reliable. To be had at 261 south Fourth street, Philadel- 
 phia, price, $2.00. Tenth annual issue this year. 
 
 The Coal Trade — By Frederick E. Saward. A handy 
 compilation containing facts and figures regarding the Coal 
 Trade. Issued annually in April. This year is the ninth 
 year of publication. Price 60 cents. Published at 111 
 Broadway, New York. 
 
 Annual Review of the Copper and Iron Pro- 
 duction OF Lake Superior. — Issued annually in July by 
 A. P. Swineford & Co., Marquette, Michigan. Price 50 cents. 
 
 Transactions of the American Institute of Mining 
 Engineers. — ^These very valuable publications are issued 
 yearly by the Institute. Now in the tenth year of publica- 
 tion. Contains the papers read by the Members of the Insti- 
 tute at the different meetings. To be had from the Secre- 
 tary, Easton, Pa. Price $5.00 per volume. 
 
 The Iron Age.— A Review of the Hardware, Iron and 
 Metal Trades. Published every Thursday by David 
 Williams, 83 Reade Street, New York City. Now in its 
 29th volume. This in the Iron Trade is the leading paper. 
 Price $4.50 a year. 
 
 The Engineering and Mining Journal. — Published 
 every Saturday by the Scientific Publishing Company, 27 
 Park Place, New York City, Richard P. Rothwell, C. E. 
 M. E., Eossiter W. Raymond, Ph. D., Charles Kirchoff, J. 
 M. E., editors. In the 34th volume. The leadmg paper in 
 its line. $4.00 a year. 
 
 The Mining Record. — Published every Saturday by A. 
 R. Chisolm, at 61 Broadway, Mr. Thomas Jordan, editor. 
 
 Publishes a good deal of news and is an ardent advocate of 
 Bi-Metalism. Now in its 12th volume. $4.00 a year. 
 
 Van Nostrand's Engineering Magazine. — Published 
 monthly. Now in its 26th volume. Established in 1869. 
 Published by D. Van Nostrand, 23 Murray and 27 Warren 
 Streets, New York City. $5.00 a year. 
 
 Bullion. — Published monthly at 42 Broad Street, New 
 York City. A Monthly Statistical Review of labor, trade 
 and money. In its 7th volume. $3.00 a year. 
 
 Maine Mining Journal. — Published every Friday at 
 28 West Market Square, Bangor, Maine. $2.00 a year. A 
 paper representing the Mining Interests of Maine, New 
 England and Nova Scotia. 
 
 The Economist.— Published every Saturday at Boston 
 and New York. A financial, political, railway, trade and 
 mining weekly. In its 7th volume. $3.00 a year. R. E. 
 Straine Proprietor, 31 Milk Street, Boston. 
 
 The Bullion Miner. — Published every Saturday by 
 The Bullion Miner Publishing Co., 123 S. 3d street, Phila- 
 adelphia. In its 5th volume. $3.00 a year. 
 
 The Mining Journal. — Published every Saturday by 
 The Mining Journal Co., 330 Walnut street, Philadelphia. 
 In its 3d volume. $2.50 a year. 
 
 Chicago Mining Journal. — Published monthly by the 
 Western Mining Bureau, 78 Dearborn street Chicago. In 
 its 2d volume. $1.00 a year. 
 
 The Mining Review. — Published every Saturday by 
 the Mining Review Co., Times Building, Chicago. In its 
 7th volume. $3.00 a year. 
 
 The Mining Journal. — Published every Saturday by 
 A. P. Swineford & Co., Marquette, Michigan. Devoted to 
 the Iron and Industrial Industries of the County of Mar- 
 quette. Established in 1846. $3.00 a year. 
 
 Mining Index. — Published every Saturday by A, F. 
 Wuensch, No. 300 Harrison Avenue, Leadville, Colorado. 
 In its 2d volume. $4.00 a year. 
 
 Rocky Mountain Mining Review. — Published eyery 
 Thursday by James R. Ives, 422 Curtis Street, Denver, Col- 
 orado. In its 6th volume. $4.00 a year. 
 
 Mining and Scientific Press. — An illustrated Journal 
 of mining, popular science and general news. Published 
 every Saturday by Dewey and Co., 202 Sansom street, San 
 Francisco. In its 40th volume. $4.00 a year. 
 
 Coal. — A weekly Journal of the coal trade. Published 
 every Wednesday by the Scientific Publishing Co., 27 Park 
 Place, New York City. In its 1st volume. $2 a year. 
 
 The Coal Trade Journal. — ^Published every Wednes- 
 day by Frederick E. Saward, at 111 Broadway, New York 
 City. A valuable organ of the coal trade. Established in 
 1869. Now in its 21st volume. $3.00 a year. 
 
 The Scientific American and Scientific American 
 Supplement. — Published every Saturday by Munu & Co., 
 261 Broadway, New York City. Now in its 47th volume. 
 Scientific American $8.20 a year. Supplement $5.00 a 
 year. 
 
 The Virginias. — ^Published monthly by Jed Hotchkiss 
 at 346 E. Main street, Staunton. Virginia. A Mining In- 
 dustrial and Scientific Journal. In its 4th volume. $2.00 
 a year. 
 
 In addition to these all of the daily papers of the extreme 
 Western States, furnish Mining News and most of the East- 
 em dailies do the same. A further list of somewhat similar 
 publications to the above is furnished here : 
 
 American Journal of Science and Arts (monthly), Scien., 
 New Haven. Forest, Forge and Farm (monthly), Mech., 
 Ilion, N.Y. American Gaslight Journal (semi-mo), Scien., 
 New York. Engineering News, Mech., New York; Illus- 
 trated Scientific News (monthly), Sci. and Mech., New 
 York. Mechanical Engineer (bi-weekly), Mech., New 
 York. Mechanical News (semi-mo.). New York. Mechan- 
 ics, Mech., New York. Metal Worker, Mech., New York. 
 Science, Scien., New York. Scientific Man, Scien., New 
 York. Transactions of the American Society of Civil En- 
 gineers (monthly), Eng., New York. Young Scientist 
 (mo.), Scien., New York. Journal of the Franklin Institute 
 (monthly), Scien., Philadelphia. North American Manu- 
 facturer, Mech., Philadelphia. American Manufacturer 
 and Iron World, Mech., Pittsburg. Brick, Tile, and Metal 
 Review (monthly), Pittsburg. Mechanic, Mech., Smith- 
 ville. Mechanical Journal (mo.), Mech., Indianapolis. 
 
356 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 American Engineer (monthly), Mech., Chicago. Journal of 
 Science (mo.), Scien., Chicago. Northwestern Mining Jour- 
 nal, Mech., Hancock. Portage Lake Mining Gazette, 
 Mech., Houghton. Miner, Mech., Ontonagon. Review of 
 Science and Industry (monthly), Scien., Kansas City. Age 
 of Steel, St. Louis. Wood and Iron (mo.), Mech., Minne- 
 apolis. Scienlilic Canadian, Mech., Montreal. 
 
 THE CALIFORNIA MINING BUREAU. 
 
 THE California State Mining Bureau is the creation of 
 the twenty-third Legislature of the State of Califor- 
 nia. The bill — which is given in full below — origina- 
 ted in the Assembly. It was introduced by Honorable 
 Joseph Wasson, representing the counties of Mono and Inyo : 
 
 AN ACT TO PKOVIDE FOR THE ESTABLIS?IMENT AND MAINTEN- 
 ANCE OF A MINING uuEEAcr.— Approved April 16, 1880. 
 
 Tlie People of the Slate of Califonda, represented in Senate and 
 Assembly do enact as folio tvs: — • 
 
 Section 1. There shall be and is hereby established in this 
 State, a Mining Bureau, tlie ])iincii)al office of which sliall be main- 
 tained in the City of Sau Frauoisco, at which place tliere shall l)e 
 collected by the State Hiueralogist and preserved for study and 
 reference, specimens of all tlie geological and mineralogical sub- 
 
 . stances, including mineral waters, found in this State, especially 
 tliose possessing economic or commercial value, which s]>ecimens 
 sliall be marked, arranged, classified, and described, and a record 
 thereof preserved, showing the character thereof, and the place from 
 whence obtained. The State Jlineralogist shall also, as he has 
 opportunity and means, collect, and in like manner preserve at said 
 office, minerals, rocks, and fossils of other States, Territories, and 
 countries, and the collections so madeshall at all reasonable hours be 
 ojien to public ins])ection, examination and study. 
 
 Sec. 2. It shall be the duty of the Governor to a])poiut a citizen 
 of this State having a practical and scientific knowledge of mining 
 and mineralogy, to the officeof State Jlineralogist, to hold his said 
 office for the term of four years, or until the appointment and quali- 
 fication of his successor, who shall take and subscribe the oath of 
 otiice prescribed by the Constitution, and who shall receive for his 
 services a salary of three thousand dollars ]>er annum, to be paid as 
 other officers of the State are paid, and shall also receive his necessary 
 travelling expenses, when travelling on the bu.siness of his office, to 
 be allowed and audited by the Slate Board of Examiners, the whole 
 to be ))aid out of the Mining Bureau Fund hereinafter provided for, 
 and not otheiwise. 
 
 Sec. 3. In addition tp the collection, classification, arranging, 
 and preservation of specimens, as provided in the first section of 
 this Act, it shall be the duty of the State Mineralogist to make ana- 
 lytical assays as required ; and when the funds in the Mining Bureau 
 !■ und are sufficient therefore, to provide and maintain a library of 
 works on mineralogy, geology, and mining ; to arrange in cases such 
 specimens as he may collect ; to procure and preserve models and 
 drawings of mining machinery, and of nulling machinery used in 
 tlie prodaction of ores ; to correspond with established schools of 
 mining and metallurgy, and obtain and preserve for public inspec- 
 tion and use, such information respecting improvements in mining 
 and mining machinery as will be of practical value to the people of 
 this State; to visit the several mining districts of each county of the 
 State, from time to time, ascertain and record their history, describe 
 their geological formation and altitudes, the character of the mines 
 and ores, and the general develojjment of the district. At the close 
 of each year he shall make a rejjort in detail to the Governor, show- 
 ing the amount of disbursements of the Bureau under his charge, 
 the number of specimens collected, and giving such statistical in- 
 formation in reference to mines and mining as shall be deemed im- 
 portant. 
 
 , Sec. 4. The State Mineralogist may, from time to time, and as 
 
 , the funds in the Mining Biifcau Fund will permit, appoint such as- 
 sistants as he may deem necessary and proper for the carrying out of 
 the objects of this Act, and the efficient provision and maintenance 
 of a Bureau of mining information and statistics, and may procure 
 and maintain the necessary rooms and furniture for the office and 
 uses of the Bureau in San li'ranoisco; but the entire expenses of the 
 Bureau for salaries, assistance, rents, furniture, fuel and all other 
 things pertainino; to the Bureau, must not, in any one year, be greater 
 than can be paid out of the mining Bureau Fund herein provided 
 for. 
 
 Sec. 5. For the purpose of pstablishing a fund for the mainten- 
 ance of the said Mining Bureau, it shall be the duty of the Tax Col- 
 lectors in the several counties in this State, and of the License Col- 
 lector of the City and County of San Francisco, on the second Mon- 
 
 , day in January, April, July aud October, in each year, to transmit 
 by express to the State Treasurer all money collected by them from 
 
 mining corporations, or from corporations formed for milling ores, 
 or for supplying water for mining purposes, under or by virtue of 
 the Act entitled "An Act imposing a tax on the issue of certificates 
 of stock corporations," approved April first, eighteen hundred and 
 seventy-eight, and to forward to the State Controller by mail a cer- 
 tificate showing the amount of money so forwarded to the State 
 Treasurer, and the date when the same was transmitted, and also 
 showing the names of the several corporations from which the same 
 was received, and the amount received from each. The State Treas- 
 urer shall receive the amounts so transmitted, and give duplicate 
 receipts therefor, one of which shall be filed with the State Control- 
 ler, aud the other shall be returned by mail, or return express, to 
 the Collector from whom the money was received ; and aftei- paying 
 out of the money so received the charges for the transmission thereof, 
 the amount of which shall be noted on the receipt filed with the 
 State Controller, he shall retain the remainder in his hands as a 
 separate fund, to be known as the Mining Bureau Fund, to be used 
 only in payment of drafts made for the expenses of the Mining Bu- 
 reau established under the Act, and out of which all the expenses 
 of said Bureau shall be paid. 
 
 Sec. 6. Such Tax Collectors and License Collectors shall here- 
 after be required to pay into the couuty treasuries of their respec- 
 tive counties only that portion of the moneys collected by them under 
 the Act of the Legislature mentioned in the last preceding section, 
 which is collected from corporations other than those mentioned in 
 section five of this Act. 
 
 Skc. 7. This Act shall take elfectand be in force from and after 
 its passage. 
 
 The present State Mineralogist, Henry G. Hanks, was 
 appointed by the Governor in May following the passage of 
 the bill, his commission bearing the date of May fifteenth, 
 eighteen hundred and eighty. The first step taken toward 
 the establishment of the Bureau was the temporary occupa- 
 tion of a small room, in the building number six hundred and 
 nineteen Montgomery street. It was found difficult to obtain 
 rooms suitable for the use of the Bureau. After examining 
 many, a suite was finally selected which, although falling far 
 below the requirements of a Museum worthy of the great 
 State of California, is perhaps the best available at the 
 present time for the purpose. The rooms at present occupied 
 by the Bureau are on Pine street, number three hundred 
 and thirteen, south side, between Sansome and Montgomery. 
 They consist of a large main hall, lighted from above by a 
 skylight, a spacious olBce and reception room for the State 
 Mineralogist, an adjoining room, containing the nucleus of 
 the reference library, a large storeroom, and one serving the 
 double purpose of a chemical laboratory and for the prepara- 
 tion of specimens for the Museum. As it is expressly 
 understood that the building Is soon to be torn down and 
 rebuilt, the (Jtcupation is considered as temporary, aud no 
 cases or fixtures have been or will be constructed which can- 
 not be readily removed. Immediately on taking possession 
 of the Pine street rooms, the following circular was prepared 
 and extensively distributed, not only in California but also 
 in the adjoining States and Territories. Another setting 
 forth briefly the objects and plans of the State Mining 
 Buieau, aud containing the full text of the bill, was sent to 
 scientific institutions and individuals, both in the United 
 States and in foreign countries : 
 
 CALii-on.NiA State Mining Bureau, I 
 Office of Stale Mineralogist, San Francisco, j 
 
 Dear Sib: By an Act of the Twenty-third Legislature there has 
 been established in the City of San Francisco a Stale Jlining Bu- 
 reau, aud a State Jiineraloi^ist appointed by the Governor, authoi-- 
 ized to carry out the provisions of the law. As it is an institution 
 new to the iieople, this circular is prepared to set forth the objects 
 and aims of the Bureau, and at the same time to request theco-opera- 
 tion of all who are interested in the development of the mining in- 
 terests ol' the State. The law would on first thought seem exclu- 
 sive, yet its sco|ie is liberal as to the mining interests of "other 
 States, Territories, and countries," as the tax for the support of the 
 institution comes from the stock of the companies operating in the 
 world at large, but who have their transfer and chief offices in the 
 mining metropolis and cosmopolitan city of California. It is pro- 
 posed to make the State Bureau of Jliiiiug a depository of useful 
 and interesting information in every department. 
 
 Heretofore, mining in California, and throughout the country 
 generally, has been chiefly confined to the precious metals, while 
 the State and coast at large are rich in manv other minerals pos- 
 sessing great economic value in connection with the arts aud manu- 
 factures. Now that railroads arc being built which offer increased 
 facilities for transportation, the utilization of mineral substances 
 hitherto considered worthless, is no longer a problem. Old mines 
 and mining districts that were abandoned because inaccessible and 
 for want of cheap and rapid, transportation, are again attracting at- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 357 
 
 tention. As speedily as possible everything bearing on these sub- 
 jects in the way of practical and reliable information will be 
 gathered into the State Bureau, to whloli the public will have free 
 access at reasonable hours during every legal day of the year. 
 The State Mineralogist is empowered to employ scientific and 
 practical assistants, as the fundswill permit, to operate in the field, 
 and there will be new and interesting matter constantly added, such 
 as maps, statistics, reports, surveys, etc., besides a collection of all 
 the ores, minerals, fossils, rocks, metallurgical products, building 
 stones, etc., of the Pacific Coast, with models of mining machinery 
 in use and newly invented, and a general collection of ores and 
 minerals of otlier countries for reference. It is intended to include 
 everything that pertains to practical and legitimate mining. 
 
 The Bureau will constitute an historical repository, and all maps, 
 reports, volumes of newspapers, copies of district laws and records, 
 however old and seemingly out of date, will be sought for and pre- 
 served ; many, if not all such documents, will be found to possess 
 value outside of their rarity, involving as they may, questions of 
 title to valuable property, neglected or idle. The Museum of Prac- 
 tical Geology will be made a special feature of the Bureau, and all 
 contributions will be duly accredited, displayed, and preserved. A 
 feature of leading interest will be the procuring and exhibiting of 
 models of mining machinery ; all that is interesting, whether old 
 or new, will be carefully preserved and shown. Inventors are 
 specially requested to exhibit models in the rooms of the Bureau, 
 which will also include a reading-room, where the press will be 
 represented, and a reference library of works on mineralogy, geology, 
 metallurgy, and kindred subjects will be collected. The State 
 Mineralogist has secured for an indefinite period the central, com- 
 modious, and well appointed rooms formerly occupied by the San 
 Francisco Art Association, No. S13 Pine street, near Sansome, which 
 he will occupy on the first of June. Satisfactory arrangements with 
 the principal transportation and express companies have been made, 
 whereby persons contributing articles of value and interest can for- 
 ward such without expense to themselves. The law requires that 
 all mineral waters or springs throughout the State be examined, 
 their value and characteristics ascertained, and the information duly 
 published. This will materially increase the interest of the world 
 at large in California as a health resort. 
 
 It is desired to make the ethnology of the Pacific Coast a feature 
 of the Museum. All Indian relics, recent or prehistoric^ will find a 
 place, and their collection will no doubt throw much light on the 
 ancient history of the State. It is the intention of the Bureau 
 to make sooner or later, a thorough industrial survey of the 
 State. As every county is, to a certain extent, a mining coun- 
 ty, all should be represented, and the prominent men of each 
 are requested to see that the State Museum is provided with a 
 full representation of the mineral resources of the county in 
 which they reside. As every article of value sent to the Bureau 
 will become the property of the State for the ijse and benefit of the 
 public, and will be carefully preserved in the State Museum, and as 
 it is desirable to make it as instructive and attractive as may be, 
 donations of other articles of interest, such as views, pictures, point- 
 ings, curiosities, and works of art — in short, anything which would 
 add to the general interest of the Bureau and tend to malce the 
 Museum a popular resort for information and study, are solicited. 
 The Bureau commences wiih a large and valuable donation of ores, 
 rocks, fossils, reports, books, etc., the entire collection and property 
 of the State Geological Society. Miners and prospectors are re- 
 quested, when new finds are made, for better determination as to 
 value and character, to always accompany ores with samples of the 
 wall and country rocks, with written descriptions of the same. It 
 is desirable that every mine in the State and adjoining States and 
 Territories, which has a name, should be represented in the Bureau. 
 
 When anything occurs in the working of the Bureau that is of 
 special or immediate interest, it will be given to the public through 
 the medium of the press. Annual reports to the Governor will be 
 printed for general distribution. These reports should be valuable 
 for permanent reference. 
 
 The California State Geological Society was 
 organized in January, 1877, and incorporated under the 
 laws of the State. The following is an extract from the By- 
 Laws of the Society : 
 
 Article I— Name. The Society shall be known as the " Califor- 
 nia State Geological Society." 
 Article II— Objects. The objects of the Society are : 
 
 1. To make a Pacific Coast geological collection, to be offered to 
 the State of California gratis, upon such terms and conditions as the 
 Society may determine, and as may be agreed upon. 
 
 2. To encourage the study of geology in all its branches. 
 
 Article Ill^Conditions. Among the conditions which shall be 
 required by the Societv before such collection mentioned in the 
 preceding article shall be presented to the State of California, are 
 the following : , , , , 
 
 The State of California shall provide suitable rooms where the 
 collection may be kept, and shall provide cases to contain the 
 same. 
 
 The collection shall remain in the City and County of San Fran- 
 cisco, and shall not be removed therefrom. 
 
 It shall always be open to the inspection of the public free of 
 charge, during seasonable hours. 
 
 It becoming possible for the State to accept the collection 
 upon these terms by the institution of the State Museum the 
 whole property, including the collection aforesaid and the val- 
 uable library, were turned over to the State by the Society. 
 The collection embraces one thousand three hundred and 
 twenty-seven specimens from all parts of the Pacific Coast ; 
 many of them are of special value. The library numbers 
 seventy-eight volumes and twenty-five pamphlets, including 
 testimony, arguments, and decisions in the case of the 
 Eureka Consolidated Mining Company vs. Richmond Mi- 
 ning Company, of Nevada, a large volume, of which there 
 were but twelve copies published. The identical specimens 
 used in Court in this important suit are included in the 
 mineral collection, and have been placed in a separate case 
 for ready reference. The collection represents a large 
 amount of labor and money expended in acquisition and 
 preparation of the specimens. The donation is therefore 
 very valuable, and it is to be hoped will be followed by 
 others. The Geological Society retains its organization, but 
 all specimens, publications, and other collections made in 
 the future will revert to the State Museum. The mineral 
 interests of the State were represented at the Paris Exposi- 
 tion of eighteen hundred and seventy-eight. The collec- 
 tions attracted much attention, and won for the State a gold 
 medal. The greater portion was donated to the French 
 Government, in the name of the State of California, and is 
 now in the Museum of the Ecole des Mines, in Paris. The 
 specimens returned to the State after the Exposition natu- 
 rally came into the possession of the Bureau. Both collec- 
 tions above referred to were delivered to the Mining Bureau 
 packed in boxes. Although partially arranged, it required 
 considerable labor to prepare them for the new Museum. 
 This work was immediately commenced by the State Miner- 
 alogist and Lewis G. Larsen, who had been appointed Janitor. 
 
 The following is a correct showing of the contents of the 
 cases : Four cases California minerals, two cases California 
 gold ores, one case California silver ores, one case California 
 lead ores and products of lead manufacture, one case Cali- 
 fornia quicksilver ores, one case California chromic iron and 
 products, one case California fossils, five cases California 
 rocks, one case California copper ores and products, two 
 cases Nevada minerals, one case Nevada rocks, one case 
 Nevada ores, one case IS'evada ores, Comstock mines ; one 
 case Nevada ores, illustrating suit between Eureka Con. and 
 Richmond; one case Oregon and Washington Territory 
 ores, minerals, and fossils ; two cases Arizona ores and min- 
 erals, two cases ethnological, including Egyptian and other 
 antiquities ; two cases foreign minerals, three cases Eastern 
 States minerals and ores, one case foreign paleontology, one 
 case casts of rare fo -sils, two cases corals and shells, three 
 cases not classified, owing to lack of case room. 
 
 On the tenth of June, Mr. Joseph Perkins was appointed 
 Secretary and Accountant. From the commencement spe- 
 cimens of minerals began to come in and a general interest 
 on the part of the citizens became manifest. Correspon- 
 dence has also gradually increased, and questions on matters 
 within the province of the Bureau are asked and answered 
 daily. On the first of August, Mr. Edward Booth was ap- 
 pointed chemist, and the foundation of a chemical labora- 
 tory laid, which should be made in the future the best pos- 
 sible, as this department is of the highest importance. It 
 has been the policy of the Bureau to collect maps of the 
 counties of the State, and geological and mining maps gen- 
 erally, which has resulted in the acquisition of a large num- 
 ber. Some of them are now placed on the walls of the 
 Museum, .Library, and Ofiice, for reference. While the 
 work of the Bureau has been in progress several scientific 
 gentlemen have been employed to prepare manuscript for 
 publication on various subjects, all within the requirements 
 of the Mining Bureau bill. The science of geology, to 
 which all others are tributary, is so vast in its scope that no 
 one humafti mind can ftilly grasp it in detail. It has been found 
 necessary to divide the science into departments, and in 
 many cases to subdivide into specialties. There are, in 
 California, gentlemen who have devoted their lives to these 
 departments, and to them the special work of the Bureau 
 should be intrusted. Owing to the great amount of time 
 and labor required to institute the Bureau, and to set the 
 
358 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Museum in operation, but little field work has been at- 
 tempted. The State Mineralogist has, however, found time 
 to visit the locality of " roscoelite," near Coloma, Eldorado 
 County, (a new mineral, of which but little is known), and 
 to commence the study of the valuable iron deposits near 
 Clipper Gap, in Placer County. He also visited a number 
 of limestone quarries in the same county, the granite quar- 
 ries at Penryn, and at Rocklin, the Thermal Springs, at Cal- 
 istoga, in Napa County, and a number of mines in the 
 counties of Placer and Eldorado, reports of which will ap- 
 pear in future publications. 
 
 In obtaining information relating to mines and mineral 
 deposits in California, care has been taken to obtain the exact 
 locality — section, township and range — ^with a view to place 
 them eventually on a sectional map of the State. When 
 any new discovery is announced in the columns of the 
 press, or any information obtained otherwise by the Bureau, 
 it has been the custom to write for specimens and more ac- 
 curate information. Experience has shown that while many 
 are willing to send desired specimens, but few are compe- 
 
 tent to do so. Many important things are overlooked that 
 would attract the attention of a person of experience 
 Still the Museum has received many valuable additions by 
 carrying out this plan. When any feature of special interest 
 is thus developed, a memorandum hai? been made with a 
 view to a thorough personal examination when time and 
 the condition of the funds will permit. There have been 
 many visitors to the Museum, but there is no way of esti- 
 mating the number. Visitors do not register unless spe- 
 cially requested to do so. When the Museum becomes more 
 important and extensive, there will be an attendant in 
 charge, whose duty it will be to receive visitors, give infor- 
 mation, and to keep a general supervision. When this is 
 the case, no person will enter without registering name and 
 residence. There seems to have been an impression that 
 the Museum is a place suited only for mining men, while it 
 is specially desirable that ladies and children, students of 
 both sexes, strangers in the city, and the public generally, 
 should make free use of it. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 359 
 
 PART V. 
 
 STATISTICS OF AMERICAN COINAGE— HOW MONEY IS MADE 
 
 —THE MONEY QUESTION— MONEY AND BI-METALISM 
 
 —GOLD PRODUCTION— RELATIVE VALUES 
 
 OF GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 ERHAPS that thing among the vital 
 necessities of our daily life about 
 which we know the least is money. 
 That is, for an object so precious 
 and so striven after, it is singular 
 how little is known concerning what 
 it is and how it is made, and what 
 effect it has upon the course of pro- 
 gress from an economic standpoint. 
 The high-sounding platitudes that 
 . are constantly being uttered in daily 
 papers upon the question of " remonetization," " douljle 
 standard," " single standard," "bi-metalism '' and "mono- 
 metalism," are seldom understood by the writers of them, 
 to say nothing of the readers. 
 
 In Part V. of the Mines, Miners And Mining Inter- 
 ests OF THE United States we present our readers with 
 the last annual report of the Director of the Mint, the Hon. 
 Horatio C. Burchard, which furnishes a good deal of in- 
 formation concerning coinage, both here and abroad. From 
 Mr. Burchard's report we pass naturally to the silver ques- 
 tion, which we endeavor to present clearly. The proceedings 
 of the Assay Commission are also given, and the laws 
 authorizing it. A number of important tables from various 
 sources which supplement the coinage question conclude 
 the part. 
 
 THE REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR OF THE 
 
 MINT. 
 
 THE annual report of Horatio C. Burchard, Director 
 of the Mint for the year ending June 30, 1881, con- 
 tains the following : The bullion and coin received 
 and operated upon during the year, at all the mints 
 and assay offices, including redeposits, contained $193,- 
 371,101.01 of gold and $32,854,421.45 of silver, a total 
 $2^,225,522.46, exceeding in value the receipts of any 
 previous year bjr more than $50,000,000. The reports and 
 accounts submitted to this bureau show, during the year, 
 deposits of gold of domestic production, $35,815,036.55; 
 of plate jewelry, and worn coin, $1,784,207.90; and of for- 
 eign coin and bullion, $93,233,858; being a total of 
 $180,833,102.45, and thirty-two millions in excess of the 
 gold deposits of last year. The silver bullion deposits and 
 purchases, including partings from gold, amounted at the 
 coining value to $30,791,146.66, of which $28,477,059.21 
 consisted of domestic bullion, $2,046,576.80 of foreign com 
 and bullion, and $267,510.65 of plate, jewelry, and Amen 
 
 can coin. The following table shows the amount and char- 
 acter of the deposits: 
 
 Domestic production . 
 United States coin . 
 Foreign bullion .... 
 Foreign coin .... 
 Old jewelry, plate, &c. 
 
 Total . . 
 
 Gold. 
 
 $35,815,036 66 
 
 440,776 97 
 
 37,771,472 26 
 
 55,462,385 74 
 
 1,343,430 93 
 
 Silrer. 
 
 828,477,059 21 
 
 7,307 40 
 
 1,312,144 68 
 
 734,432 22 
 
 260,203 25 
 
 Total. 
 
 $64,292,095 76 
 
 448,084 .37 
 
 .39,08.3,616 84 
 
 66,196,817 66 
 
 1,603,634 18 
 
 . S13Q,833,102 45 % 30,791,146 66j8161,6Z4,249 11 
 
 A portion of these deposits were manufactured at the 
 institutions receiving them into bars, which were again de- 
 posited or transferred to other institutions for treatment or 
 coinage. The redeposits for this purpose amounted to $62,- 
 537,998.56 in gold, and to $2,063,274,79 m silver. At the 
 commencement of the fiscal year the coinage mints and 
 assay offices held $40,724,337.91 of uncdned gold bullion. 
 The deposits of the year, amounting to $130,833,102.45, in- 
 creased the stock of bullion available for coinage to $171,- 
 557,440.36. The value of the total gold coinage of the year 
 was $78,733,864, and of the gold bullion uncoined at its 
 close, $86,548,696.96, a portion of the deposits having been 
 paid in fine bars. The silver coinage amounted to $27,649,- 
 966.75, of which $27,637,955 were silver dollars, and 12,011.- 
 75 proof silver coins of other denominations. The coinage of 
 gold into smaller denominations than heretofore executed 
 was continued, only $15,345,520 in double eagles having 
 been struck, while the eagles and half eagles amounted 
 to $63,371,230. Nearly all the gold produced on the Pacific 
 coast was deposited and coined at the San Francisco Mint, 
 while the principal part of the gold coined at the Philadel- 
 phia Mint consisted of New York Assay Offic^bars manu- 
 factured from imported bullion and coin. The number of 
 pieces and the value of the total coinage were as follows : 
 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 Value, 
 
 Gold. . . 
 
 Silver 
 
 Minor . . ... ... 
 
 10,111,115 
 27,698,820 
 38,336i665 
 
 $78,733,864 (K) 
 
 27,649,966 75 
 
 405,109 95 
 
 Total. . 
 
 76,145,600 
 
 $100,788,940 70 
 
 The comparative values of the coinage of go] 
 minor coins executed during the fiscal year an 
 dar year 1880 are as follows : 
 
 d, silver, and 
 d the calen- 
 
 
 Calendar Year 
 1880. 
 
 Fiscal Year 
 1881. 
 
 Gold 
 
 Silver ... 
 
 162,308,279 00 
 27,409,706 75 
 
 $78,733,864 W 
 27,649,966 75 
 
 Total ...'.. 
 Minor .... . . 
 
 889,717,985 75 
 391,395 95 
 
 $106,383,8.30 75 
 406,109 95 
 
 Total coinage 
 
 $90,109,381 70 
 
 $106,788,940 70 
 
360 
 
 THE MINES, 
 
 MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The gold coinage of the mints prior to the year 1873 has 
 been grouped and tabulated into three divisions. The trst 
 embracing the forty years from the co'lnmencement ot com- 
 ao-eat the Philadelphia Mint in 1834 to the time ol the 
 change in the ratio of gold and silver and the reduced valua- 
 tion of the gold dollar to correspond therewith, during 
 which period $11,915,890 of.gold were coined. The second 
 from 1834 to 1849, when gold from California first began to 
 arrive at the mints, adding $64,425,550 to the gold coinage. 
 
 The third from 1849 to 1873, during which time 1740,- 
 564,438.50 were coined. The coinage of silver before 1873 
 is separated into two periods : The first containing the coinage 
 prior to 1853, during which time all the silver coins amounting 
 in value to$79,213,371.90, were full weight and unlimited legal 
 tender. The second from 1853 to 1873, when fractional silver 
 of reduced weight and limited tender to the amount of $60,- 
 389,564.70 was coined on government account ; but, although 
 the mints were open to individuals for the coinage of lull- 
 weight silver dollars, only $5,538,948 of the latter were 
 coined. Fine, 'standard, sterling, and i°P^'^^'^.^^^?, !^/q ^ 
 manufactured during the year to the value of $100,750 649.- 
 94 in gold and $6,542,232.35 in silver. At the New York 
 Assav Office $89,643,135.29 of gold deposits were made into 
 bars "for conversion into coin at the mint at Philadelphia. 
 The value of fine gold bars manufactured at the mints and 
 assay offices was $10,041,482.78 and of the unparted bars 
 $1,066,031.87. Of the silver bars $5,857,276.98 were fine 
 $77,611.39 were standard and sterling, $88,296.45 unparted 
 and $519,047.53 made at the New York Assay Office and 
 transmitted to Philadelphia for coinage. During the yea,r, 
 11,449,704.19 gross ounces of bullion, containing both gold 
 and silver or base metals, were sent to the acid refineries of 
 the coinage mints and assay office at New York for parting 
 or refining, from which were separated or refined 1,295,443,- 
 259 ounces of standard gold and 9,774,730.86 ounces of 
 standard silver. The following table exhibits in detail the 
 gross ounces of bullion sent to the respective refineries and 
 the ounces of standard gold and silver received therefrom : 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Mint or assay office. 
 
 Philadelphia . 
 Sau Fraacisco 
 
 Carson 
 
 New Orleans 
 New York . . . 
 
 Total . . 
 
 Gross. Standard gold. Standard silver. 
 
 635,770 27 
 6,607,702 50 
 
 625,785 05 
 
 13,886 37 
 
 3,866,500 00 
 
 ,11,149,704 19 
 
 126,700 460 
 
 612,429 779 
 
 27,819 476 
 
 2,793 645 
 
 626,700 OOO 
 
 1,295,443 269 
 
 9,774,730 86 
 
 "Value. 
 
 Mint or assay office. 
 
 Philadelphia. . 
 San Francisco 
 Carson . . . 
 New Orleans . 
 NerfYork . . . 
 
 Total . 
 
 Gold. 
 
 I 2,338,613 21 
 
 11,394,042 40 
 
 617,671 62 
 
 61,972 93 
 
 9,799,069 76 
 
 $24,101,260 92 
 
 Silver. 
 
 J 453 373 47 
 
 6,606,022 98 
 
 690,804 94 
 
 13,801 78 
 
 3,800,629 09 
 
 $11,374,232 26 
 
 $2,791,986 68 
 
 17,900,665 38 
 
 1,108,376 66 
 
 65,774 71 
 
 13,608,698 85 
 
 $36,476,502 18 
 
 At the commencement of the last fiscal year there were on 
 hand in the coinage mints and New York Assay Office 
 5,403,980 ounces of standard silver bullion, worth at its coin- 
 ing value, $6,283,613. This bullion in part consisted of 
 1,750,000 standard ounces procured prior to the passage of 
 the resumption act, under the provisions of section 3545 of 
 the Revised Statutes, and held as part of the bullion ftind 
 for the immediate payment of silver deposits in Silver bars. 
 A further portion, amounting to 2,500,000 standard ounces, 
 had been purchased subsequent to January 14, 1875, the date 
 of the resumption act, for the coinage of subsidiary silver, 
 under the provisions of that act, or had been parted from 
 
 gold or received in payment of charges on silver bullion, 
 under sections 3520 and 3506. The remainder, about 1,400,- 
 
 000 standard ounces, was obtained by direct purchase lor the 
 coinage of the standard dollar, or in the settlement lor silver 
 parted from gold, and in payment of charges on silver de- 
 posits. Notwithstanding the regular monthly coinage of 
 2 300 000 and upwards of silver dollars, the purchases and 
 deposits had increased the silver bullion on hand January 
 
 1 1881, to 6,553,350 standard ounces, the cost of which was 
 $7,145,487, and its coinage value $7,625,717. Of this 
 amount, 2,928,752.49 standard ounces were at the Philadel- 
 phia Mint. The limit of subsidiary coinage having been 
 reached, no necessity existed for keeping on hand any silver 
 for such coinage. It was, therefore, considered advisable by 
 the Secretary of the Treasury to use in the silver-dollar 
 coinage the balance of silver that had been procured for the 
 subsidiary coinage, and to reduce the amount of monthly 
 purchases, especially at the Philadelphia Mint, where, in 
 view of the heavy amount of gold coinage required, it was 
 thought that sufficient silver bullion had already been ac- 
 cumulated for the probable silver coinage of that mint dur- 
 ing the remainder of the fiscal year. By including the 
 2,250,000 ounces of standard silver as belonging td the 
 account of purchased silver, to be used in the coinage of the 
 standard dollar, it became necessary to reduce the amount on 
 hand, so that not more than $5,000,000 above the resulting 
 coinage should be invested in such purchases. The weekly 
 purchases of the department were, therefore much lighter 
 during February and the succeeding months of the year. 
 In the month of May, owing to the higher prices asked and 
 the small amounts ofiered for delivery at the Pacific coast 
 mints, the weekly purchases of silver bullion were reduced 
 for San Francisco and resumed at the Philadelphia Mint. To 
 enable the Philadelphia Mint to employ as much of its force 
 as possible in the coinage of gold, the monthly allotment of 
 silver coinage for the New Orleans Mint was increased and 
 that for the Philadelphia Mint lessened, and to procure suffi- 
 cient bullion to execute the required coinage at the New 
 Orleans Mint, the owners of silver bullion were solicited to 
 bid and send their bullion for delivery at that mint. 
 
 The prices for delivery in lots of less than ten thousand 
 ounces at the New Orleans Mint were also fixed from time 
 to time by the Director of the Mint, slightly below the 
 equivalent of the London price, and notices of the rates and 
 changes were given to the smelting and refining works in 
 the Western States nearest to the mint^ with the hope of 
 inducing them to deliver their silver bullion at New Orleans. 
 Two of these refineries have availed themselves of the ad- 
 vantages of direct shipment, saving the previous expense of 
 double transportation to and from the Atlantic sea-board 
 and benefiting the Government as well as themselves. The 
 purchases during the year, of silver bullion, were 21,904,- 
 351.54 standard ounces, at a cost of $22,339,728.67. The 
 silver received for charges and parted from gold and yaid 
 for as provided by sections 3520 and 3506 of the Revised 
 Statutes, costing $239,183.05, was 232,568.85 standard ounces, 
 making the total amount purchased 22,136,920.39 standard 
 ounces, at the cost of $22,578,911.72. From the silver pur- 
 chases of the year and the 2,250,000 standard ounces, directed 
 to be used and carried into the silver purchase account, 23,- 
 751,368 standard ounces, exclusive of silver bullion wasted 
 and sold in sweeps, were consumed in the coinage of 27,- 
 633,955 standard dollars, being an average monthly coinage 
 of $2,303,166. The London price of silver, during the year, 
 averaged 51i8 pence, which with exchange at par ($4.8665) 
 equals $1.13852 per ounce, and at the New York average 
 monthly price of sight exchange on London (4.847) equals 
 $1.13508 per ounce fine. The New York average price of 
 silver during the year was $1.12957 per ounce fine. The 
 following statement shows the purchases at the coining mints 
 and the New York Assay Office. 
 
 Mint or assay office al which delivered. 
 
 Purchases, 
 
 Partings and received for 
 charges. 
 
 Total purchased. 
 
 Standard 
 ounces 
 
 Cost. 
 
 $ 6,458,004 31 
 
 10,412,623 64 
 
 4,964,763 78 
 
 613,847 01 
 
 Standard 
 ouncGs. 
 
 Cost. 
 
 Standard 
 ounces. 
 
 Cost. 
 
 Philadelphia. 
 San Francisco 
 New Orleans . 
 Carson City . . 
 New York . 
 
 0,322,103 90 
 
 10,236,666 17 
 
 4,839,862 28 
 
 60.4,810 19 
 
 21,726 01 
 
 73,373 67 
 
 967 11 
 
 1912 89 
 
 134,609 27 
 
 $ 2\,T2e, 01 
 
 73,029 04 
 
 !l,'-)7 47 
 
 1,912 69 
 
 140,957 64 
 
 «,343,829 91 
 
 10,309,968 74 
 
 4,840,809 3ll 
 
 607,723 08 
 
 134,599 27 
 
 S 0,480,3.30 M 
 
 10,486,152 68 
 
 4,955,711 25 
 
 616,759 90 
 
 140,967 04 
 
 Total . 
 
 2i,tin4,:f.i 54 
 
 .'?2'-',339,72S 67 
 
 232,568 85 1 $239,1 R3 06 
 
 22,136,920 39 
 
 $2?,.578,911 72 
 
ANNUAL PRODUCT of the WORLD. 
 
 (POLITICAL DISTRIBUTION.) 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^f^nnnn Cknn _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * .TO oon nnn - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i^Aftnnn nnf\ _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 -- 
 
 — ^ 
 
 ' 
 
 a — 
 
 — 
 
 1— 
 
 1 
 
 ^— 
 
 1—1 H M Ml ~ 
 
 *70.00O.O0O 
 
 '60.000.000 
 
 *50.00O.0OO 
 
 *i0.000.000 
 
 '3O.000.000 
 
 ^20.000.000 
 
 ^10.000.000 
 
 i 2 3 4: 5 6 7 8 9 XO 11 12 03 It 15 16 
 
 I. United States, z. Australia. 3. Russia. 4. Mexico. 5. Germany. 6. Colombia. 7. Austria.. 8. South America, 
 
 EXCEPTING Colombia and the Argentine Republic. 9. Europe, excepting Russia, Germany, Austria, 
 
 Norway, Italy and Sweden. 10. Africa. 11. Japan. 12. British Columbia. 
 
 13. Argentine Republic. 14. Norway. 15. Italy. 16. Sweden. 
 
 The areas in old gold indicate gold, those in light blue, silver; the relative totals being shown by the extreme 
 
 height of each column. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 361 
 
 Including the amounta paid out at the mints and ex- 
 changed for gold as provided by law, $17,706,924 of the 
 27,637,955 silver dollar coinage of the year, have been trans- 
 mitted and distributed. The amount of standard dollars in 
 the mints at the close of the fiscal year, including $2,000,000 
 received at the New Orleans Mint, and $1,000,000 at the 
 Philadelphia Mint from assistant treasurers, was $23,341,- 
 000.60, of which nearly $16,000,000 was in the San Francisco 
 Mint. The coinage and distribution at each mint, as shown 
 by their statements to this bureau, appear in the following 
 table : 
 
 expenses, from the 1st of July, 1876, to June 30, 1881, as 
 shown by the books of the Treasury Department, amounted 
 to $121,238.90. 
 
 The commission appointed by the President to test the 
 weight and fineness of the coins reserved for the annual 
 assay, performed the duty at the time designated by law, and 
 the records of their proceedings show that all the coins tested 
 by them were found to be within the limits of exactness re- 
 quired by law, as to weight, and that very few varied from 
 the standard by one-half the tolerance. 
 
 As to fineness, the record states that in all cases, both in 
 
 
 Pliilmklphia. 
 
 Sati Francisco. 
 
 Carncnt. 
 
 Neio Orleans. 
 
 Toua. 
 
 On hand .Jane 30,1880 ■ • . 
 
 Coinage of year 
 
 8 875,942 
 9,113,955 
 
 $ 5,409,709 
 11,460,000 
 
 81,119,700 
 539,000 
 
 82,944,618 
 0,625,000 
 
 810,410,029 
 27,037,965 
 
 Total. 
 
 In mints June 30,1881 
 
 89,989,897 
 * 1,250,802 
 
 10,929,769 
 15,941,135 
 
 81,058,700 
 1,060,991 
 
 89,469,018 
 t6,088,132 
 
 838,047,984 
 23,341,060 
 
 
 
 Distributed 
 
 $9,739,095 
 
 8 988,034 
 
 8 597,709 
 
 8 0,381,486 
 
 817,706,924 
 
 •Includes 81,000,000 transferred from the Treasury. 
 
 Besides the standard dollars remaining in the mints at 
 the close of the year, considerable amounts had been depos- 
 ited in the Treasury for the payment of outstanding silver 
 certificates. The following table, compiled from the Treas- 
 urer's monthly statements of assets and liabilities, shows in 
 six months' periods from the commencement until the close 
 of the last fiscal year and up to November 1st, 1881, the 
 amount (including that in the mints) in the Treasury, held 
 for the payment of silver certificates and for other purposes 
 and the amouut in general circulation : 
 
 
 Total 
 
 coinage. 
 
 In the Treasury. 
 
 
 Ptrfcd. 
 
 IJl 
 iff 
 
 r 
 
 1 
 
 -: 
 
 
 July 1, 1880 , . . 
 January 1, 18S1. . 
 Jalyl, 1881. . . . 
 November 1, 1881. 
 
 803,734,750 
 77,-453,005 
 91,372,705 
 
 100,072.705 
 
 85,789,569 
 86,127,711 
 39,110,729 
 68,838,770 
 
 838,035,740 
 12,062,807 
 23,433,993 
 7,737,008 
 
 844,425,315 
 48,190,518 
 62,544,722 
 66,570,378 
 
 $19,309,435 
 29,263,487 
 28,827,983 
 34,096,327 
 
 The total appropriations for the support of the mints and 
 assay otfices during the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1881, 
 amounted to $1,178,250, out of which the sum of $1,160,- 
 347.71 was expended. In addition $97,311.60 was expended 
 on account of the mints and $7,440.14 at the Treasury De- 
 partment, a total of $104,751.74 from the appropriation con- 
 tained in the act of February 28th, 1878, authorizing the 
 coinage of the standard silver dollar. 
 
 During the year $255,939.78 was collected from depositors, 
 and $274,784.64 paid on account of parting and refioing bul- 
 lion. The following statement shows the amount collected 
 for parting and refining, and the payments for expenditures 
 in those operations, including that portion of the operative 
 officers' wastages and the loss on sale' of sweeps properly 
 chargeable to that fund. A much larger amount, consisting 
 of undeposited refinery earnings of previous years, was de- 
 posited in the Treasury to the credit of the appropriation. 
 Included in the payments are expenses for railroad freight 
 incurred in prior years, the bills for which were not rendered 
 until the last fiscal year. 
 
 ImtUulion. 
 
 Cftarges collected. 
 
 Expenditures. 
 
 Philadelpnia Mint .... 
 
 San Francisco Mini 
 
 Carson Mint 
 
 Hew Yorli As^ay Otiice 
 
 83,399 89 
 
 161.441 22 
 
 9,008 33 
 
 80,090 34 
 
 89,753 05 
 170,276 04 
 10,397 79 
 84,3.56 86 
 
 Total 
 
 255,939 78 
 
 274,784 04 
 
 The net excess of the earnings of the refineries over the 
 
 t Includes 82,000,000 transferred from the Treasury. 
 
 mass and single pieces, the coins from Philadelphia, San 
 Francisco, and New Orleans were found to be correct, and 
 safely within the limits of tolerance. But the committee on 
 assaying reported that, in the case of the Carson Mint, they 
 found the assay of mass melt of silver to be very low, but 
 within tolerance, and that one single piece showed a fineness 
 below the limits of tolerance. This feet was reported to the 
 President, as required by law. 
 
 The assayer of the Mint Bureau, in October, 1880, in his 
 assay of the coins required monthly to be forwarded to the 
 Director for test, had discovered that a silver coin of the 
 Carson Mint, from the coiner's July delivery of that year, 
 was below the legal limit of tolerance. The superintendent 
 of that mint was immediately directed not to pay out, but to 
 retain in his possession all of the coins of that delivery, and 
 to seal up, until further orders, all packages which might 
 contain any of such coins, after selecting and forwarding to 
 the Director sample coins from each package for further test. 
 Ninety-six packages, each containing one thousand dollars, 
 were thus sealed up and reserved for further assays at the 
 bureau, and a special examination made by Andrew Mason, 
 melter and refiner of the New York Assay Office, in con- 
 formity with the order of the President to investigate the 
 matter, confirmed the previous assays, and demonstrated 
 that the fineness of a certain bar of bullion, about to be 
 melted for coinage, had been incorrectly stated to the melter 
 and refiner of the Carson Mint, and that ingots of defective 
 fineness made therefrom had afterward passed the assay de- 
 partment of that mint without detection. It did not appear 
 that the error had occurred through the neglect of the assay- 
 eHs subordinates, and as the assayer himself had died shortly 
 after the first discovery of the defective coinage, it became 
 unnecessary to take any further action, except to order all 
 the coins contained in the 96 packages to be remelted for 
 coinage, which was done. 
 
 Estimation of the Values of Foreign Coins. — The values of 
 foreign coins were estimated by the Director of the Mint, and 
 proclaimed by the Secretary of the Treasury on the first of 
 January of the current year, as required by law. The com- 
 putation of their values was made in the same manner as that 
 of the previous year. No change in the value of the gold 
 coins will be found, excepting that resulting from more accu- 
 rate information or recent modifications of the law prescri- 
 bing their weight and fineness. The commercial value of 
 silver bullion for the time the estimation was made having 
 fallen about 1.56 per cent, from its value for a like period 
 of the preceding year, the value of silver coins based on 
 the market rate of silver were correspondingly reduced. 
 The usual examinations and settlements were made at the 
 close of the fiscal year at all the mints and at the New York 
 Assay Office. The magnitude and importance of these set- 
 tlements are evident when it is known that they covered for 
 the last year transactions and actual transfers between the 
 fuperinlendent and operative officers of gold and silver bul- 
 lion -to the value of $603,230,121, and that bullion and 
 funds amounting at the time of settlement to $128,318,274 
 were examined, counted, or weighed, and their value ascer- 
 
362 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tained. At each institution the superintendent, after the 
 delivery to him of the bullion in the hands of the operative 
 officers, was, upon taking account of the coin, bullion, and 
 other moneys in his possession, found to hold the amount 
 required by his accounts with the Treasury. The wastage 
 of each of the operative officers was found to be within the 
 legal limit, and the total wastage during the year was, con- 
 sidering the amount received and worked, much less than 
 that of the preceding year. The total amount operated 
 upon in the melter and refiner's department of the mints 
 and the New York Assay Office was, of gold bullion, 
 16,319,460 standard ounces, on which the legal limit of 
 wastage was 16,319 standard ounces and the actual wastage 
 1,608 standard ounces, and, of silver bullion, 54,798,707 
 standard ounces, on which the legal limit of wastage was 
 82,198, and the actual wastage only 4,453 standard ounces. 
 The amount operated upon in the coining department of the 
 mints was, of gold bullion, 10,514,159 standard ounces, 
 upon which the legal limit of wastage was 5,257 standard 
 ounces, and the actual wastage 367 standard ounces ; and of 
 silver bullion, 48,182,982, upon which the legal limit of 
 wastage was 48,183 standard ounces, while the actual wast- 
 age was only 4,021 standard ounces, being heavier in gold 
 and less in silver than that of last year. The total wastage 
 during the year was $36,767.14 gold and $8,576.83 silver, a 
 total of $45,343.97, which was no greater than that of the 
 previous year, although three times as much gold was 
 melted. Bullion, however, of the value of $8,406.12 was 
 recovered during the year, from the deposit melting-rooms, 
 and the melter and refiner of the New York Assay Office 
 returned, on settlement, surplus bullion of the value of 
 $24,733.24, making a total of $33,139.36 bullion gained. The 
 net actual loss to the government on the immense amount 
 received, redeposited, and reworked during the year, was 
 only $12,204.16. Loss and wastage in the handling, melt- 
 ing, separating, refining, and coinage of the precious metals 
 is unavoidable. It is contemplated and provided for by 
 law, which limits and authorizes an allowance to be made 
 in favor of the melter and refiner's accounts, to the extent 
 of one thousandth of gold and one and a half thousandths 
 of the silver, and, of the coiner's accounts, one-half thou- 
 sandth of the gold and one thousandth of the silver de- 
 livered to them, respectively, during the year if the super- 
 intendent is satisfied there has been bona fide waste of the 
 precious metals. At the last, as well as the preceding set- 
 tlement, the melter and refiner's gold wastages at the Phila- 
 delphia and San Francisco Mints, although far within the 
 legal limits, were heavier than the usual loss of those offi- 
 cers. During the last two years large amounts, aggregating 
 $90,t)00,000 of foreign coin and bullion, received and 
 melted at the New York Assay Office, were transmitted to 
 the Philadelphia Mint in the form of gold mint-bars alloyed 
 with copper. The melter and refiner of that mint attributed 
 his wastage, in part, to insufficient deductions on these bars 
 for oxide of copper and other adhering, impurities, the 
 weight of which would occasion a loss in his accounts, but 
 increase, to a corresponding extent, the surplus at the New 
 York Assay Office, and, therefore, cause no real loss to the 
 government. The melter and refiner's wastage at the San 
 Francisco Mint can, in part, be accounted for by greater 
 deposits during the year of brittle, fine gold bars and unre- 
 fined gold bullion, containing refractory and volatile base 
 metals, in the elimination of which loss of gold is a fre- 
 quent, if not a necessary consequence. How far this cause 
 has operated to produce the wastage of that mint is under 
 consideration ; but, as yet, sufficient examination and 
 analysis have not been made of the records and transcripts 
 obtained for a comparison of the character of the deposits 
 and the methods of weighing, assaying, and reporting the 
 fineness of gold bullion, with those of previous years and of 
 other mints and assay offices. 
 
 Philadelphia Mint. — On account of the continued heavy 
 import of foreign gold coin and the payment of its value 
 immediately upon assay in American coin, it became neces- 
 sary to increase the monthly gold coinage at the Philadelphia 
 Mint to supply the Treasury with coin thus paid out. Its 
 gold coinage had averaged previous to the heavy gold import 
 of 1880 less than $10,000 000, but in 1881, besides coining 
 $9,125,966.75 silver and $405,109.95 minor coins, its gold 
 coinage amounted to $49,809,274, and at the close of the fiscal 
 
 year the mint held $23,023,206.62 of uncoined gold bullion. 
 This increased coinage necessitated the employment of a 
 larger working force and extra hours of labor, and also much 
 heavier purchases of copper and other supplies. By reason 
 of these greater expenditures and in order to execute the 
 monthly silver coinage required by law, it became necessary 
 to make advances to the mint and use during the year $78,- 
 712.48 from the appropriation contained in the act author- 
 izing the coinage of the standard silver dollar. The follow- 
 ing presents a comparison of the operations of the last and 
 preceding fiscal year : 
 
 
 1880. 
 
 1881. 
 
 Deposits . 
 
 Gold coinage 
 
 Silver coinage . ... 
 Minor coinage 
 
 Total coinage . . 
 
 Gold coinage ... . . 
 
 Silver coinage 
 
 Minor coinage . • . . 
 
 Total coinage ... . . . 
 
 Gold bars .... 
 
 Silver bars ... . . 
 
 Total bars 
 
 Gold operated upon by melter and refiner . . 
 Silver operated upon by melter and refiner 
 
 Gold operated upon by coiner 
 
 Silver operated upon by coiner 
 
 Gold wastage of melter and refiner . 
 Silver wastage of melter and refiner . 
 
 Valut. 
 $53,309,250 60 
 
 Value. 
 $70,651,442 91 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 3,789,820 
 15,223,400 
 26,831,850 
 
 Pieces. 
 7,275,926 
 9,174,820 
 38,335,665 
 
 46,845,070 
 
 64,786,411 
 
 Value. 
 $27,639,445 00 
 15,194,437 50 
 209,971 60 
 
 Value. 
 $49,809,274 00 
 9,125,966 75 
 406,109 95 
 
 43,103,854 00 
 
 59,340,350 70 
 
 Value. 
 $145,200 85 
 83,688 67 
 
 Value. 
 $236,141 78 
 00,123 09 
 
 228,889 52 
 
 296,264 87 
 
 Stajidard ozs. 
 
 3,951,316 
 26,640,003 
 
 3,694,227 
 26,326,668 
 
 Standard ozs. 
 
 7,669,139 
 16,551,054 
 
 7,233,415 
 16,259,728 
 
 677 
 
 362 
 1,060 
 
 Silver wastage of coiner . . ... 
 
 3,047 
 
 1,869 
 
 On the large amount operated upon during the last year 
 the wastage of the melter and refiner was, on gold, 4.5 per 
 cent, of the legal limit of the allowance and 4.2 per cent, on 
 silver, and of the coiner on gold 5.4 per cent., and on silver 
 11.4 per cent. 
 
 San Francisco Mint — A much larger amount of work 
 was executed at this mint, both in coinage and in the refinery, 
 during the past fiscal year than in 1880, the number of pieces 
 of gold coined being nearly half a million more, and of sil- 
 ver about three and a half millions more. The comparative 
 values of the deposits, number of pieces coined, and bullion 
 operated on in the refinery during the last and preceding 
 years are : 
 
 
 1S80. 
 
 1881. 
 
 Deposits ....... 
 
 Valut. 
 $39,387,949 
 
 Value. 
 $41,959,062 71 
 
 
 Gold coinage - . . 
 
 Silver coinage ... 
 
 Pieces. 
 2,284,960 
 7,910,000 
 
 Pieces. 
 2,774,000 
 11,460,000 
 
 Total coinage 
 
 10,194,960 
 
 14,231,000 
 
 Gold coinage 
 
 Silver coinage . 
 
 Value. 
 $28,143,000 
 7,910,000 
 
 Value. 
 $28,600,000 
 11,460,000 
 
 Total coinage 
 
 36,053,000 
 
 39,060,000 
 
 Gold Bars 
 
 Silver bars • • . 
 
 Value. 
 
 ' $2,365,262 07 
 
 Value. 
 $8,700 65 
 1,110,046 7* 
 
 Total bars 
 
 2,355,252 07 
 
 1,118,746 29 
 
 
 Gold received from the refinery . . 
 Silver received from the refinery 
 
 Standard ozs. 
 624,229 
 4,887,291 
 
 Standard ozs. 
 612,429 
 5,591,629 
 
 Gold operated upon by melter and rofinor . 
 Silver operated upon by mylter and refiner 
 
 Gold operated upon by the coiner 
 
 Silver operated upon by the coiner 
 
 2,902,878 
 15,733,815 
 
 2,918,714 
 13,497,416 
 
 3,236,755 
 22,471 .8S2 
 
 1,230,718 
 20,969,005 
 
 Gold wastage of the melter rnd refiner . . 
 Silver wastage of the melter and refiner . . 
 Gold wastage of the coiner . . 
 Silver wastage of the coiner 
 
 283 
 
 18,054 
 
 118 
 
 102 
 
 1,228 
 
 2,498 
 
 168 
 
 942 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 363 
 
 At the annual settlement, the raelter arfd refiner's wastage 
 in gold was 40 per cent, of the legal limit of allowance, and 
 his silver wastage was 7 per cent. His silver wastage was 
 much less, but the gold wastage heavier than that of the 
 preceding year. The coiner's gold wastage was 13ij per cent., 
 and his silver wastage 4J per cent, of the amount allowed by 
 law. Improvements have been made at this mint in refining 
 bullion by the use of the sulphuric acid process. The 
 charges for parting and refining the higher grades of bullion 
 were, near the beginning of the year, reduced, yet, as a 
 greater amount of bullion requiring to be parted or refined 
 was deposited during the year, the charges collected for these 
 operations exceed those of the preceding year. The ex- 
 penses of the refinery, however, owing to the large amount 
 of work performed, were slightly increased. Besides this 
 heavier expenditure, the sum of $6,000 was expended in 
 procuring apparatus and fixtures and making the necessary 
 arrangements for operating the sulphuric acid refinery, and 
 nearly $4,000 was paid on account of freight WUs of the pre- 
 vious year. These necessary but unusual expenditures made 
 the payments during the year for expenses on account of 
 parting and refining some $8,000 more than the charges 
 collected. 
 
 Carson Mint. — Coinage at the Carson Mint, which had 
 been suspended in May, 1880, was resumed July 1, 1880, and 
 was continued from that date until April 1, 1881, during 
 which period $883,590 were coined, when, from lack of suffi- 
 cient bullion, it was again discontinued, and so remained 
 uutil the close of the year. The mint, however, was kept 
 open for the reception and purchase of bullion, and payment 
 was made, as usual, on deposits and purchases as soon as the 
 value could be ascertained. No inconvenience or delay was 
 therefore occasioned to depositors or to the mining interests 
 of that portion of the country. The work at this mint dur- 
 ing the year compares with that of the previous year, as 
 follows : 
 
 Doposita . . 
 
 Gold coinage . . . 
 Silver coiuEige . . 
 
 Total coinage 
 
 Gold coinage . . . 
 SilTcr coinage . .• 
 
 Total coinage 
 
 Gold operated upon by melter and refiner 
 Silver operated upon by melter and refiner 
 Gold operated upon by coiner . 
 Silver operated upon by coiner . 
 
 Gold wastage of melter and refiner 
 Silver wastage of rnelter and refiner 
 Gold wastage of coiner . . 
 Silver wastage of coiner 
 
 1880. 
 
 Vtilue. 
 $990,4CG 39 
 
 Pisces. 
 
 39,567 
 408,000 
 
 447,607 
 
 Value. 
 
 $246,790 00 
 
 408,000 00 
 
 664,790 00 
 
 Standard ozs. 
 
 35,421 
 869,478 
 
 25,735 
 704,486 
 
 7 
 135 
 
 2 
 138 
 
 Value. 
 $1,108,376 65 
 
 Pieces, 
 
 63,189 
 539,000 
 
 592,189 
 
 VabK. 
 $344,590 00 
 639,000 00 
 
 883,590 00 
 
 aULndard oza. 
 
 49,133 
 1,129,365 
 
 40,467 
 1,010,406 
 
 24 
 
 249 
 
 3 
 
 148 
 
 Depcsits 
 
 Gold coinage 
 Silver coinage 
 
 Total coinage . 
 
 Gold coinage 
 
 Silver coinage 
 
 Total coinage 
 
 Gold operated upon by melter and refiner 
 Silver operated upon by melter and refiner 
 Gold operated upon by coiner . . . . 
 Silver operated upon by coiner 
 
 Gold wastafce of melter and refiner . . . 
 Silver wastage of melter and refiner . . 
 Gold wa*;tage of coiner . . . 
 Silver wastage of coiner 
 
 Value. 
 1,599,895 64 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 10,525 
 4,430,000 
 
 4,410,525 
 
 Value. 
 $128,500 
 4,430,000 
 
 Value. 
 $6,439,052 39 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 8,000 
 6,625,000 
 
 6,633,000 
 
 Value. 
 
 $so,onn 
 
 6,62.5,000 
 
 4,563,500 
 
 Standard ozs. 
 
 16,326 
 7,925,875 
 
 16,310 
 7,773,352 
 
 At the annual settlement the wastages of the operative 
 offices were as follows : of the melter and refiner, on gold, 
 49 3 per cent, of the legal limit, and on silver, 14.7 per cent.; 
 of'the coiner, 15.7 per cent, on gold and 14.7 per cent on 
 silver. The assay er of the mint, William P. Prescott, died 
 December 5th, 1880, and Josiah M. Hetrich was appointed 
 to the position December 21, 1880 and entered upon duty 
 January 4, 1881. 
 
 New Orleans Mint.— The work of this mint has been 
 principally confined to the manufacture of standard silver 
 dollars for which the demand through the South continued 
 heavy during the year and nearly equalled the coinage The 
 monthly allotment of silver coinage was raised to 500,000, and 
 occasionally to 600,000 standard dollars, and executed ^ylth 
 dispatch and little additional expense under the efficient 
 management of the officers of the mint. The following table 
 exhibits the deposits and purchases of bullion and coinage 
 of the year compared with the fiscal year of 1880 : 
 
 807 
 
 6 005,000 
 
 Statidard ozb. 
 
 11,850 
 
 9,976,250 
 
 9,564 
 
 9,952,845 
 
 4 
 
 656 
 
 1,062 
 
 The wastage during the year of the melter and refiner was, 
 on gold, 31.5 per cent, of the legal limit, and on silver 4.3 ; 
 and of the coiner, nothing on gold, and on silver 10.6 of the 
 legal limit. Notwithstanding the amount of work performed 
 at this mint during the year many necessary repairs were 
 made in the rolling and coining rooms, and to the machi- 
 nery ; and it is expected that other repairs will be completed 
 during the present fiscal year. 
 
 New York Assay Office. — The business of the New 
 York Assay Office assumed immense proportions during the 
 year, owing to the continued and increased importation of 
 foreign gold. The gold deposits were the largest in the his- 
 tory of the institution, $91,497,168.61 of the amount being 
 foreign coin and bullion The following table exhibits the 
 value of deposits and bars manufactured at the New York 
 Assay Office during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1880, and 
 June 30, 1881 : 
 
 Deposits and lars. 
 
 Gold deposits . . . 
 Silver deposits . . 
 
 Total deposits 
 
 1880. 
 
 68,273,628 
 4,491,416 
 
 72,705,044 
 
 Gold, fine bars, manufactured . 
 Gold, mint bars, manufactured . . 
 Si'ver, fine bars, manufactured . . 
 Silver, sterling bars, manufactured 
 Silver, mint bars, manufactured . . 
 
 Total bars manufactured . 
 
 11,378,980 
 
 57,368,701 
 
 4,372,705 
 
 24,347 
 
 73,144,795 
 
 $99,635,644 46 
 5,286,716 57 
 
 104,921,360 03 
 
 9,805.028 07 
 
 89,643,1:35 29 
 
 4,763,189 08 
 
 1,418 03 
 
 619,047 63 
 
 104,731,818 00 
 
 There were paid during the year to depositors $99,603,- 
 605.42 in gold coin and bars, and $4,976,641.10 in silver coin 
 and bars, making the aggregate payments $104,580,246,52, 
 and gold bullion of the value of $61,560,816.10 was trans- 
 ferred to the mint at Philadelphia, for conversion into coin. 
 On the annual settlement of his accouuts the nielter and re- 
 finer returned 1,329,100 standard ounces of gold bullion of 
 the value of $24,727,44, and 498 standard ounces of silver 
 bullion, valued at $5.80, in excess of the amounts with which 
 he was charged, having recovered the same in his operations. 
 The aggregate of those sums, $24,733.24, has been deposited 
 in the Treasury of the United States. But, although the 
 amount appears as an earning of the assay office, it is not 
 available for payment of expenses, and was not credited to 
 the appropriation for parting and refining, as, by law, only 
 the charges collected from depositors for parting and refi- 
 ning bullion are authorized to be used for dei'raying the ex- 
 penses of those operations. 
 
 Denver Mint and Assay Offices at Charlotte, Helena, Boise 
 City and St. Louis. — The assay offices were established for 
 the local convenience and development of the mining in- 
 terests in their vicinity and to affiird miners and those own- 
 ing, operating and prospecting for mines facilities for ascer- 
 taing the value of ores and bullion, and for the exchange of 
 their gold bullion for coin. The work done by each during 
 the year, including the Denver Mint (which, by law, can 
 only be operated as an assay office) was ; 
 
364 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Gold deposits . . 
 Silver deposits . . 
 Unparted bars mfd 
 Charges-collected : 
 
 Oa deposits . 
 
 On ore assays 
 Total earnings. . . 
 Total expenses . . 
 
 Denver. 
 
 GharloUe. 
 
 Selena. 
 
 Boite. 
 
 $235,137 15 
 
 3,80577 
 
 238,94292 
 
 23917 
 
 92100 
 
 1,043 21 
 
 24,968 37 
 
 $86,919 59 
 6,626 80 
 87,546 39 
 
 133 94 
 
 260 35 
 
 995 37 
 
 3,750 00 
 
 8568,525 13 
 
 84,314 97 
 
 652,810 10 
 
 666 05 
 1,718 Oii 
 2,651 77 
 25,163 81 
 
 il63,469 86 
 
 2,828 50 
 
 166,298 36 
 
 185 10 
 
 186 00 
 441 69 
 
 7,940 15 
 
 $1,059,051 V3 
 
 81,576 04 
 
 1,146,527 77 
 
 1,224 26 
 3,085 35 
 5,631 83 
 61,821 83 
 
 The St. Louia Assay Office was established so near the 
 close of the fiscal year that nothing could be done except to 
 have suitable rooms set apart in the United States building 
 at St. Louis, and to commence fitting them up and procuring 
 the necessary fixtures and apparatus for the use of the office. 
 Mr. E. 0. Jewett was appointed assay er July 1, 1881, and 
 has been placed in charge. The appointment of melter was 
 delayed until his services should be required, and the office 
 ready for the reception of bullion. 
 
 Coin Oireulation of the United States. — In the last annual re- 
 port of the United States coin was estimated from the amount 
 previously on hand, and the annual coinage and import of 
 United States coin to have been on the 30th of June, 1880, 
 $358,958,691 of gold and $142, 597,020 of Silver. The net 
 gain during last year from coinage and import was, in gold 
 coin, $84,118,062, and in silver coin, $28,937,746. This 
 would make the total circulation of United States coin on 
 the 30th of June, 1881, $443,077,023 gold, and $171,534,766 
 silver. Heretofore no reduction has been made for coin 
 used in manufactures and the arts, as it was believed that it 
 should be offset by the excess of United States coin brought 
 by immigrants upon their persons above the sums in like 
 manner taken out of the country by travelers ; but the cir- 
 culation of United States gold coin, and its consequent abra- 
 sion and use in the arts, have largely increased, while the 
 amount held abroad has, as shown by its diminished import, 
 become depleted, so that much less American coin than 
 heretofore is obtained and brought into the country by im- 
 migrants. It seems proper, therefore, that allowance should 
 be made for use in the arts to the extent of the sum reported 
 to this bureau to have been used by manufacturers, which 
 was, for the last fiscal year, in round numbers, $3,300,000 
 gold, and $75,000 silver. This would reduce the circulation 
 of Unit'fed States gold coin at the close of the fiscal year to 
 about $440,000,000, and of silver coin to $175,500,000. Dur- 
 ing the first four months of the current fiscal year there has 
 been a further coinage of $26,544,000 and a net import of 
 $2,172,474 gold, and a coinage of $9,300,000 and net import 
 of $310,858 United States silver coin, making a total gain to 
 
 the first of November, 1881, in the circulation, of $28,609, 
 000 gold and $9,600,000 .silver. This, added to the amount 
 estimated to be in circulation June 30, 1881, makes the coin 
 circulation of the country, November 1, about $469,000,000 
 gold and $181,000,000 silver, a total of $650,000,000. At the 
 latter dates the mints and assay office at New York held of 
 bullion $94,076,744 gold and $4,966, 741 silver, swelling the 
 stock of coin and bullion available for coinage to $563,000, 
 000 gold and $186,000,000 silver, a total of $749,000,000, 
 being 3. per capita of $14.93. 
 
 The following table shows the gain in the coin circulation 
 of the United States from June 30, 1880, to June 30, 1881, 
 and to October 31, 1881 : 
 
 United States com. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Wver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Circulation June 30, 1880 
 
 Coinage, leas deposits for recoinage. 
 
 8358,968,691 
 
 78,293,087 
 
 5,824,975 
 
 8142,597,020 
 
 27,642,660 
 
 1,295,086 
 
 $601,665,711 
 
 105,936,747 
 
 7,130,061 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Less amount used in tlie arts . 
 
 443,076.763 
 3,300,000 
 
 171534,766 
 75,000 
 
 614,611,519 
 3,375,900 
 
 Circulation July 1 1881 
 
 Coinage to Novemner 1,1881 . . 
 
 Net imports to November 1, IS81 . . . 
 
 439,776,753 
 26,544,000 
 *2,172,474 
 
 171,459,766 
 
 9,300,000 
 
 310,858 
 
 611,236,519 
 35,844,000 
 2,483,332 
 
 Circulation November 1, 1881 
 
 468,493,227 
 
 181,070,624 
 
 649,563,851 
 
 * Imports for October at the port of New York only. 
 The coin circulation of the country, according to the re- 
 ports of the Treasurer for the amount of coin in the Treasury 
 on the 1st of November, and of the Controller of the Cur- 
 rency for the amount held by National banks on the 1st of 
 October, 1881, estimated for other banks, appears to have 
 been held by the banks, Treasury, and private parties as 
 follows : 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 SUuer. 
 
 
 [HeU in— 
 
 Legal tender. 
 
 Subsidiary 
 
 Total 
 
 Treasury .... 
 National banks . 
 Other banks 
 Private hands. . 
 
 $ 76,036,377 
 
 102,000,369 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 270,963,254 
 
 * $7,737 ,608 
 3,000,000 
 
 1 t 89,862,392 
 
 $25,984,787 
 
 2,450,387 
 
 61,964,920 
 
 $109,758 672 
 107,450,756 
 
 . 432,790,57» 
 
 Total .... 
 
 469,000,000 
 
 100,600,000 
 
 1 80,400,000 
 
 ' 650,000,000 
 
 * Excess above amount held for payment of outstanding silver cerlificates. 
 ■}■ Including amount for which silver certificates are outstanding. 
 t Includes |7,00a,()00 trade dollars. 
 
 Deposits and Furcliases or Gold and Silver Bullion during 
 
 tUe fiscal year ended June 30 
 
 , 1881. 
 
 
 
 Minis. 
 
 Assay offices. 
 
 
 Deecrtplion, 
 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 San Prancisco. 
 
 Ccirson. 
 
 Denver. 
 
 Wew Orleans 
 
 New York. 
 
 Boise. 
 
 Helena. 
 
 aiarlolU. 
 
 ToUil. 
 
 GOLD. 
 
 United States bullion (do- 
 mestic production) 
 United States coin 
 
 $184,062 47 
 177,254 16 
 44,276 69 
 124,240 45 
 435,485 21 
 
 $27,196,124 35 
 
 990 66 
 
 368,162 96 
 
 1,128,727 24 
 
 28,534 10 
 
 $517,571 62 
 
 $2.35,137 16 
 
 $2,639 72 
 
 7,427 48 
 
 2,393 10 
 
 66,401 34 
 
 29,171 42 
 
 86,875,980 43 
 
 254,674 36 
 
 37,356,639 51 
 
 64,142,529 10 
 
 849,016 31 
 
 $163,469 86 
 
 $556,322 08 
 
 $83,728 87 
 430 31 
 
 $36,816,036 55 
 
 440,776 97 
 
 37,771,472 26 
 
 66,462,385 74 
 
 1,343,430 93 
 
 
 
 
 Foreign coin 
 
 Jev7elers' bars ,oId plates, &c 
 
 
 
 487 61 
 1,224 89 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 965,318 98 
 
 61,660,816 09 
 
 682,767 03 
 
 28,722,639 31 
 
 617,571 62 
 
 235,137 16 
 
 108,033 06 
 
 99,478,838 71 
 
 103,409 86 
 
 656,322 08 
 
 85,871 68 
 
 130,833,102 45 
 61 560 816 09 
 
 Eedeposits { S'„- ;?f/J b^ 
 
 124,368 73 
 
 
 
 
 156 805 7;j 
 
 
 12,208 05 
 
 1,047 91 
 
 977,182 47 
 
 Total gold received and 
 operated upon .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 63,208,902 10 
 
 28,846,898 04 
 
 617,571 62 
 
 23S,137 16 
 
 108,033 06 
 
 99,63^,644 46 
 
 163,469 86 
 
 668,625 13 
 
 86,919 69 
 
 193,371.101 01 
 
 8HVEB. 
 
 United States bullion, do- 
 mestic production .... 
 United States coin . . 
 
 6,958,320 61 
 4,392 19 
 3,237 05 
 45,798 62 
 54,021 76 
 
 11,172,626 92 
 
 1,268 85 
 
 1,038,398 86 
 
 164,370 43 
 
 1,611 62 
 
 690,805 03 
 
 3,805 03 
 
 6,029,261 85 
 
 1,638 70 
 
 18,281 44 
 
 402,507 42 
 
 25,095 46 
 
 4,635,027 41 
 
 2,828 60 
 
 83,946 77 
 
 637 45 
 7 66 
 
 28,477,069 21 
 
 7,307 40 
 
 1,312,144 ,58 
 
 734,432 22 
 
 260,203 25 
 
 Foreign bullion .... 
 
 262,227 24 
 121,747 47 
 179,403 78 
 
 
 Foreign coin, 
 
 Jewelers* bars, old plates, &c 
 
 
 
 
 8 28 
 70 64 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 7,066,770 12 
 
 373,828 26 
 
 2,942 43 
 
 12,378,176 l>7 
 
 733,633 14 
 
 365 86 
 
 690,805 03 
 
 3,805 77 
 
 5,476,784 87 
 854,834 46 
 
 6,188,406 90 
 21,666 40 
 76,753 27 
 
 2,828 60 
 
 83,946 77 
 ' 368, 20 
 
 624 03 
 ■ '2' 77 
 
 
 Eedeposits.{S'-,,tdbars 
 
 1,983,862 26 
 79,422 53 
 
 
 
 Total silver received and 
 
 
 
 
 operated upon 
 
 7,442,640 81 
 
 13,112,104 67 
 
 590,805 03 
 
 3,805 77 
 
 6,331,619 33 
 
 5,285,715 57 
 
 2,828 60 
 
 84,314 97 
 
 626 80 
 
 32,864,421 45 
 
 Gold and silver deposits and 
 purchases * • . 
 
 Eedeposits. {0°ttr-; ! ! ! 
 
 8,921,089 10 
 
 62,243,583 12 
 
 376,770 69 
 
 41,106,714 98 
 124,358 73 
 733,989 on 
 
 1.108,376 66 
 
 238,942 92 
 
 5,586,817 93 
 's.M.Ssi 46 
 
 104,667.244 61 
 156,805 75 
 97,309 67 
 
 166,298 36 
 
 640,268 85 
 
 12,203 05 
 
 36S 20 
 
 86,495 71 
 
 1,047 91 
 
 2 77 
 
 161,624,249 11 
 
 62,637,998 66 
 ■ 2,063,274 79 
 
 ceived and operated 
 
 70,651,442 91 
 
 41,969,002 71 
 
 1,108,376 05 
 
 238,942 92 
 
 6,439,662 39 
 
 104,021,366 03 
 
 166,298 36 
 
 652,840 10 
 
 87,546 39 
 
 
 
 226,225,522 46 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 365 
 
 Deposits or Gold of Domestic Production 
 
 during the Ascal year ended Jujie 30, 188f. 
 
 
 
 
 MiiiUi. 
 
 
 Assay offices. 
 
 ' 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Pluladelphia.'San Fi'anciaco. 
 
 Cd/rton. 
 
 Denver. 
 
 New Orleiiis. 
 
 New York. 
 
 Boise. 
 
 HeUua. 
 
 CharloUe. 
 
 
 
 i 451 26 
 
 
 
 
 
 $ 147 76 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 $ 699 02 
 
 Alaska 
 
 $ 1.353 06 
 
 351,930 46 
 
 7,439,616 68 
 
 
 
 
 1,353 0-> 
 
 366,758 44 
 
 7,665,«29 89 
 
 1,914,620 64 
 
 3,409,739 89 
 
 117,705 49 
 
 646,937 59 
 
 40 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' $1,'673 06 
 
 14,827 98 
 
 20,418 94 
 
 1,687,982 23 
 
 3,386,241 49 
 
 79,876 61 
 
 
 
 
 California . 
 
 30.064 54 
 
 1,183 29 
 
 14,687 69 
 
 18,734 69 
 
 6,100 35 
 
 40 13 
 
 S 75,()30 73 
 
 
 
 8225,53'3 12 
 9,002 03 
 
 
 
 DakotB 
 
 
 
 S 208,78 
 
 
 '819,155 '29 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Idaho 
 
 
 
 36t,876 39 
 
 
 
 
 111-996 93 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 190' 94 
 808,816 02 
 161,026 63 
 
 
 
 
 195 91 
 
 
 2,401 73 
 315 78 
 4,630 89 
 8,200 48 
 6,249 25 
 313 56 
 1,368 44 
 
 24,051 69 
 
 103,607 88 
 
 775 16 
 
 
 
 
 669 e9 
 
 « 560,322 08 
 
 1,452,261 11 
 706,733 41 
 64,940 88 
 68,047 19 
 779,538 16 
 17,887 61 
 
 Nevada 
 
 441,883 22 
 
 
 
 
 
 49,534 73 
 2,8-17 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 46,999 53 
 
 Oregon 
 
 723,693 46 
 
 
 
 
 60,595 46 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 17,574 05 
 
 
 
 
 
 130 88 
 6,957 19 
 6,152 80 
 
 
 
 1,489 32 
 
 22,112 97 
 
 10,769 00 
 
 27,904 99 
 
 6,615 14 
 
 16,308,702 96 
 
 2,321,025 79 
 
 124,372 93 
 
 Utah 
 
 16,155 78 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Washington Territory . 
 
 Wyoming • 
 
 Refined gold 
 
 Parted from silver . . . 
 Other sources 
 
 6,616 20 
 
 ■ ■4,964 60 
 
 '4,335 11 
 76,494 68 
 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 27,904 99 
 
 359 61 
 
 16,167,623 91 
 
 1,940,590 14 
 
 47,878 25 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 57 67 
 
 
 852 89 
 113 77 
 
 380 47 
 151,179 06 
 376,977 77 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total gold 
 
 184,062 47 
 
 27,196,124 35 
 
 617,671 62 
 
 235,137 15 
 
 2,639 72 
 
 6,875,980 43 
 
 163,409 86 
 
 666,322 08 
 
 83,728 87j35,816,036 55 
 
 Deposits and Purchaseu of Sliver of Domestic Production During 
 
 tbe FUcal Year Ended June 30, 18§1. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Minus. 
 
 Ansay Offices. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 San Francisco. 
 
 Carson. 
 
 Denuer. 
 
 New OrUan-s. 
 
 New York. 
 
 ' £oj<ie. 
 
 Helena. 
 
 Charlotte. 
 
 
 $2,515 96 
 13 31 
 1 23 
 
 J50 08 
 
 3,414,392 68 
 
 618,136 75 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 $60 08 
 
 
 
 
 
 $227,926 21 
 
 9,228 88 
 
 974,029 30 
 
 
 
 
 3,644,833 85 
 
 
 $9,820 33 
 
 
 
 637,198 27 
 
 974,556 71 
 
 154 68 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . 
 
 
 164 68 
 
 
 
 
 Georgia .... 
 
 Idaho . 
 
 11 71 
 
 67 02 
 
 2,843 38 
 
 248 20 
 
 4,866 46 
 
 3 46 
 
 7 80 
 
 28 88 
 
 2 13 
 
 I 99 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 $68 78 
 
 79 78 
 
 24,659 33 
 
 
 
 
 52,413 00 
 40,800 86 
 862,974 02 
 108,569 01 
 262,191 43 
 
 $447 11 
 
 
 77,486 46 
 
 Michigan (Lake Superior) . . . 
 
 
 
 
 43,644 24 
 
 20'9,344' 08 
 
 4,634,292 36 
 
 17 77 
 
 
 
 
 
 $83,940 77 
 
 
 '4'27 58 
 
 1,166,513 07 
 
 Nevada 
 
 680,984 26 
 
 
 
 5,328,712 07 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 262,212 66 
 
 
 
 
 
 435 38 
 
 Oregon 
 
 South Caroliaa 
 
 16,280 21 
 
 
 .. . 
 
 
 13,969 44 
 
 
 
 29,278 63 
 43 93 
 
 
 
 41 80 
 
 
 93,626' 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 99 
 
 Utah 
 
 
 
 
 1,157,854 72 
 43 50 
 
 
 
 
 1,251,380 97 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 43 50 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Washington Territory . . 
 Wyoming 
 
 30 65 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 65 
 
 110 96 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 110 96 
 
 46 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 14 
 
 6,928,536 20! 1,497,652 12 
 16,964 90 48,486 80 
 
 
 S5,0'28,160' 71 
 1,111 14 
 
 813,618 53 
 111,409 51 
 
 
 
 
 14,207,967 66 
 
 177,972 35 
 
 6,660 98 
 
 Faited from gold 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,279 69 
 
 2,381 39 
 
 
 
 
 2,018' 87 616,722 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 618,741 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total sliver 
 
 6,958,320 51 
 
 11,172,626 92 
 
 690,806 03 
 
 3,805 77 
 
 6,029,261 85] 4,635,027 41 
 
 2,828' 50 
 
 83,946 77 
 
 537 45128,477,069 21 
 
 
 
 
 Coinage Executed During Uie Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 18S1. 
 
 
 Philadelphia.. 
 
 San Francisco. 
 
 Carson. 
 
 New Orleans. 
 
 Total 
 
 
 Pieces 
 
 Falue. 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 Falue. 
 
 OOLD. 
 
 Double-eagiea 
 
 Eaples 
 
 Half eagles . 
 Three cfoliars . . 
 Quarter-eagles . . 
 Dollars . r 
 
 2,276 
 2,684,176 
 4,680,976 
 1,566 
 3,666 
 3,276 
 
 $45,520 00 
 
 26,841,760 00 
 
 22,901,880 00 
 
 4,698 00 
 
 9,140 00 
 
 3,276 00 
 
 1 
 766,000 1115 .300 flflO 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 767,276 
 
 3,338,906 
 
 5,996,436 
 
 1,566 
 
 3,666 
 
 3,276 
 
 $15345,520 00 
 
 33,389,060 00 
 
 29,082,180 00 
 
 4,698 00 
 
 9,140 00 
 
 3,276 00 
 
 631,000 
 1,378,000 
 
 6,,S10,UOU 00 
 6,890,000 00 
 
 15,729 
 37,460 
 
 $157,290 00 
 187,300 00 
 
 8,000 
 
 $80,000 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 !;.;;:: . : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total gold 
 
 7,275,926 
 
 49,809,274 00 
 
 2,774,000 
 
 28,500,000 00 
 
 53,189 
 
 3-14,600 00 
 
 8,000 
 
 80,000 00 
 
 10,111,115 
 
 78,733,864 00 
 
 SI1.VEE. 
 
 Dollars 
 
 Half-dollars 
 
 Quarter-dollars . . 
 Dimes ... 
 
 9,113,965 
 9,355 
 M,655 
 30,956 
 
 9A13,965 00 
 4 677 51) 
 
 11,460,000 
 
 11,460,000 00 
 
 639,000 
 
 639,000 00 
 
 6,.525,000 
 
 6,526,000 00 
 
 
 27,637,9.55 
 9,355 
 14,-555 
 36,055 
 
 27,637,955 00 
 4,677 50 
 3,638 75 
 3,696 60 
 
 3,638 76 
 3,695 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ! - . - - 
 
 Total silver .... 
 
 9,174,820 
 
 9,125,966 75 
 
 11,460,0001 11,460,000 00 
 
 639,000 
 
 639,000 00 
 
 6,525,000 
 
 6,525,000 00 
 
 27,698.8-20 
 
 27,649,966 75 
 
 UINOB. 
 
 Five cents 
 
 Three: cents . 
 
 3,.556 
 
 1,080,658 
 
 37,261,656 
 
 177 75 
 
 32,416 65 
 
 372,516 65 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,656 
 1,080,.565 
 37,2.51,556 
 
 177 75 
 32,416 05 
 372,615 55 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 Total minor .... 
 
 38,335,685 
 
 405,109 95 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 33,335,665 
 
 405,109 95 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total coinage. . 
 
 51,786,411 
 
 - 59,340,350 70 
 
 14,231,000 
 
 39,960,000 OU 
 
 692,189 
 
 883,690 00 
 
 0,633,000 
 
 6,605,000 00 
 
 76,145,600 
 
 100,788,910 70 
 
366 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 
 Coinage Xlxecitted during tlie calendar year ended l>eccm1icr-31, 
 
 1S80. . 
 
 
 
 
 PhUadelphia. 
 
 San Francisco. 
 
 Carson. 
 
 New Orleans. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 Talue. 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 Valve. 
 
 GOLD. 
 
 Double-eagles 
 
 61,456 
 1,644,876 
 3,166,436 
 1,036 
 2,996 
 1,636 
 
 $1,029,120 00 
 
 16,448,760 00 
 
 16,832,180 00 
 
 3,108 00 
 
 7,490 00 
 
 1,636 00 
 
 836,000 
 
 606,250 
 
 1,348,900 
 
 $16,720,000 00 
 6,062,.5OO 00 
 6,744,500 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 887,466 
 
 2,171,616 
 
 4,666,353 
 
 1,036 
 
 l|636 
 
 $17,749,120 00 
 
 Eagles 
 
 Half-eagles ... ... 
 
 Three dollars . . 
 
 11,190 
 51,017 
 
 jiii.gW 6b 
 
 256,085 00 
 
 9,200 
 
 $92,000 00 
 
 21,716,160 00 
 
 22,831,765 00 
 
 3,108 OO 
 
 7,490 00 
 
 1,636 00 
 
 
 
 Quarter-eagles 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hollars 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total gold 
 
 4,868,436 
 
 33,322,294 00 
 
 2,691 160 
 
 28,527,000 00 
 
 62,207 
 
 366,985 00 
 
 9,200 
 
 92,000 00 
 
 7,630 993 
 
 62,308,279 00 
 
 6ILTEB, 
 
 Dollars 
 
 12,601,365 
 
 9,755 
 
 14,955 
 
 37,366 
 
 12,601,365 00 
 4,877 60 
 3,738 76 
 3,735 50 
 
 8,900,000 
 
 8,900,000 00 
 
 691,000 
 
 691,000 00 
 
 6,305,000 
 
 5,305,000 00 
 
 A39T,355 
 
 9,765 
 
 14,955 
 
 37,356 
 
 27,397,365 00 
 4,877 60 
 3,738 75 
 3,735 60 
 
 Half-dollars 
 
 Quarter-dollars 
 
 Dimes 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total silver 
 
 12,636,420 
 
 12,613,706 75 
 
 8,900 00 
 
 8,900,000 00 
 
 691,000 
 
 691,000 00 
 
 5,306,000 
 
 5,305,000 00 
 
 27,459,420 
 
 27,409,706 75 
 
 MmoE. 
 
 19,956 
 
 24,965 
 
 38,964,956 
 
 997 75 
 
 748 66 
 
 389,649 65 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19,956 
 
 24,956 
 
 38,964,9r)6 
 
 997 75 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 748 65 
 389,649 65. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 39,009,865 
 
 391,395 95 
 46,327,396 70 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 39,009,865 
 
 391,396 95 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total coinage 
 
 66,541,721 
 
 11,591,160 
 
 37,427,000 OO 
 
 653,207 
 
 957,985 00 6,314,200 
 
 6,397,000 00 
 
 74,100,278 
 
 90,109,381 70 
 
 Proof trade dollars, 1,987. 
 
 Bar§ Manufactured during the flacal year ended Jnne 30, 1881. 
 
 
 Mints. 
 
 Assay ojjices. 
 
 
 Description. 
 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 Son 
 Francisco. 
 
 Carson. 
 
 Denver. 
 
 New Orleaas. 
 
 New York. 
 
 Boise. 
 
 Helena. 
 
 ChurloUe. 
 
 Total. 
 
 GOLU. 
 
 Fine bars . . . 
 
 $236,141 78 
 
 
 
 
 $312 93 
 
 $9,80.6,028 07 
 
 
 
 
 $10,041,482 78 
 
 1,066,031 87 
 
 89,643,135 29 
 
 Unparted bars . . 
 
 8,700 56 
 
 
 8238,416 74 
 
 103,469 86 
 
 $568,625 13 
 
 86,919 59 
 
 
 89,64.1,135 29 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total gold . ... 
 
 236,141 78 
 
 8,700 56 
 
 
 238,416 74 
 
 312 93 
 
 99,448,163 36 
 
 163,469 86 
 
 568,.626 13 
 
 86,919 69 
 
 100,750,649 94 
 
 SILVER. 
 
 60,123 09 
 
 l,0.'i3,904 81 
 76,080 93 
 
 
 
 
 4,763 189 08 
 1,418 03 
 
 
 
 
 6,857,276 98 
 
 77,611 39 
 
 88,296 46 
 
 519,047 63 
 
 standard bars 
 
 
 ' ' 626 18 
 
 112 43 
 
 Unparted bars . . 
 
 2,828 60 
 
 84,314 97 
 
 626 8(1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 519,047 63 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total silver .... 
 
 60,123 09 
 
 1,110,046 74 
 
 
 526 18 
 
 112 43 
 
 5,283,654 64 
 
 2,828 50 
 
 84,314 97 
 
 626 80 
 
 6,642,232 35 
 
 Total gold and silver . 
 
 296,264 87 
 
 1,118,746 29 
 
 
 238,942 »2 
 
 425 36 
 
 104,731,818 00 
 
 166,298 36 
 
 6.62,840 10 
 
 87,546 39 
 
 107,292,882 29 
 
 Statement ot Eamlngs and Kxpenditures ot the Vnlted States lUlutg and Assay Offices for tbe fiscal year ended 
 
 June 30, 1881. 
 
 
 Mnts. 
 
 Assay OJices. 
 
 
 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 San Fran- 
 cisco. 
 
 New Orleans. 
 
 Carson. 
 
 Denver. 
 
 New Tori. 
 
 Boise. 
 
 Charlotte. 
 
 Helena. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Parting and refining charges .... 
 
 Melting, alloy, and bar charge.i .... 
 
 Profits on standard and silver dollars 
 
 coined 
 
 $5,399 89 
 926 24 
 
 1,079,104 25 
 2,120 66 
 
 274,423 73 
 
 2,619 06 
 228 60 
 
 1,346 43 
 
 $101,441 22 
 4,669 56 
 
 1,431,130 66 
 
 $200 00 
 632 77 
 
 771,023 73 
 
 »9,008 33 
 60 66 
 
 65,691 36 
 
 ' $239 17 
 
 $80,090 34 
 4,513 40 
 
 
 
 
 $256,139 78 
 12,016 88 
 
 3,.'i46,949 99 
 2,120 66 
 
 274,423 73 
 
 2,519 06 
 3,993 86 
 
 9,343 29 
 
 24,733 24 
 
 a51 40 
 2,239 05 
 
 $185 10 
 
 $133 94 
 
 $666 06 
 
 Profits on subsidiary silver coined . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Profits on the manufacture of minor 
 coins 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Profits on the manufactnre of medals 
 and proof coins 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Amount received from assays of ores . 
 Grains, fiuxes, and sweepings from de. 
 
 posit melting room 
 
 Surplus bullion returned by melter and 
 
 refiner in settlement 
 
 161 00 
 1,414 61 
 
 24 00 
 216 33 
 
 16 00 
 
 921 00 
 462 76 
 
 490 00 
 
 5,430 85 
 
 24,733 21 
 
 186 00 
 70 69 
 
 20O 35 
 326 64 
 
 1,718 00 
 77 28 
 
 Grains on bullion shipped the mint for 
 coinage 
 
 
 
 
 
 19 28 
 
 
 241 74 
 
 32 80 
 
 90 38 
 
 Proceeds of sale of old material .... 
 
 811 69 
 
 1.251 66 
 
 143 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 772,238 83 
 
 74,765 34 
 
 1,642 21 
 
 1116,267 83 
 
 441 CO 
 
 996 37 
 
 2,561 71 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,934,839 92 
 
 EXPENDITURES. 
 
 Salaries Of officers and clerks . . 
 Wages of vporkmen 
 
 34,8.'i0 CO 
 346,061 18 
 
 111,148 73 
 
 9,674 03 
 
 67,960 61 
 13,126 41 
 7,362 07 
 23,763 4G 
 
 24,900 00 
 205,296 97 
 
 80,764 92 
 
 104,108 09 
 
 6,720 77 
 29,481 90 
 11,126 48 
 
 21,2.16 88 
 84,938 76 
 
 40,832 22 
 
 14,102 65 
 1,832 94 
 
 23,,346 61 
 71,606 30 
 
 22,261 88 
 
 10,217 17 
 
 2,702 34 
 903 73 
 
 10,8.35 80 
 0,998 76 
 
 4,133 82 
 
 32,900 00 
 21,770 00 
 
 8,663 90 
 
 84,360 86 
 
 3,000 00 
 .... 
 
 4,916 30 
 
 2,750 00 
 1,000 00 
 
 6,940 73 
 10,968 60 
 
 8,267 92 
 
 169,765 02 
 
 Contingent expenses, not including 
 wastage and loss on sweeps .... 
 
 Parting and defining expenses, not in- 
 cluding wastage and loss on sweeps. 
 
 Expense of distributing standard silver 
 dollars 
 
 800,636 62 
 
 287,869 69 
 
 268,266 76 
 
 90,476 38 
 45,.343 98 
 22,926 17 
 23,763 46 
 
 23 86 
 
 Wastage of the operative oflicers 
 Loss on sale of sweeps 
 
 
 ' 4,41)7 62 
 
 
 
 
 Expense of distributing minor coins . 
 
 Loss on buHion shipped the mint for 
 
 coinage 
 
 
 
 
 . . ■ 
 
 
 . . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 23 86 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 612,836 09 
 
 687,389 13 
 
 162,943 46 
 
 131,03703 
 
 24,968 37 
 
 162,034 38 
 
 7,940 16 
 
 3,760 00 
 
 26,163 31 
 
 1,708,061 92 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 367 
 
 Wastages and liOSS on Sale of Sweeps, 1681. 
 
 Melter and refiner's gold wastage . 
 
 Comer's gold wastage 
 
 Melter and refiner's silrer wastage 
 
 Coiner's silver wastage 
 
 Loss on sale of sweeps 
 
 Total 
 
 Paid as follows : 
 
 From contingent appropriation 
 
 From parting and refining appropriation 
 
 From profit and loss 
 
 From silver profit fund 
 
 Total . 
 
 PhUadelphitt 
 Mint. 
 
 $6,542 66 
 3,663 98 
 1,049 67 
 1,869 10 
 7,362 07 
 
 20,487 48 
 
 14,366 38 
 272 47 
 
 6,858 63 
 
 20,487 48 
 
 San FroTi- 
 dgco mint. 
 
 3,118 86 
 
 2,640 97 
 
 968 19 
 
 11,126 48 
 
 40,608 38 
 
 24,132 36 
 6,168 85 
 1,414. 50 
 8,892 67 
 
 40,608 38 
 
 Caraon 
 Mint. 
 
 $446 71 
 
 69 64 
 
 249 41 
 
 148 06 
 
 387 98 
 180 62 
 
 903 72 
 
 New Orleans 
 mint. 
 
 $69 04 
 
 1 87 
 
 672 20 
 
 1,089 23 
 
 1,832 94 
 
 62 68 
 
 8 83 
 
 1,761 43 
 
 1,832 94 
 
 New York 
 assay office. 
 
 $4,437 62 
 
 4,437 62 
 
 4,437 62 
 
 ToUd. 
 
 $29,922 90 
 
 6,844 24 
 
 4,512 26 
 
 4,064 68 
 
 22,926 17 
 
 68,270 14 
 
 38,876 72 
 6,684 62 
 6,860 95 
 
 16,847 85 
 
 18,270 14 
 
 Statement of tile Numlier of Melts of Ingots made and 
 tile nnmlier condemned at each mint from 1874: to 1881. 
 
 
 
 PliiULdOphia. 
 
 San Francisco. 
 
 Carson. 
 
 Nem 
 Orleans. 
 
 Fiecol yeare. — 
 
 i 
 
 iJ 
 
 i 
 
 !■»• 
 
 i 
 
 i-s 
 
 i 
 
 §•?■ 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Il 
 
 i 
 
 fei 
 
 
 
 1874. . . . 
 
 1,204 
 
 226 
 
 813 
 
 6 
 
 92 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1873 
 
 
 191 
 
 89 
 
 926 
 
 15 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 1876 
 
 
 260 
 306 
 327 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 2 
 
 942 
 1,141 
 1,393 
 
 981 
 
 6 
 3 
 
 19 
 
 125 
 
 77 
 36 
 
 6 
 3 
 
 
 
 1877 
 
 
 
 1878 
 
 
 
 1S79 
 
 
 314 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 
 722 
 
 4 
 
 931 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 1881 
 
 
 1,328 
 
 2 
 
 1,033 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 4,652 
 
 307 
 
 8,169 
 
 61 
 
 469 
 
 11 
 
 14 
 
 
 Average per 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 year . . . 
 
 
 6.6.p.ct. 
 
 
 .7p.Cl. 
 
 
 2.3 p. et. 
 
 
 
 1874 
 
 3,678 
 2,677 
 4,429 
 6,070 
 6,970 
 7,057 
 8,646 
 5,316 
 
 401 
 127 
 103 
 62 
 57 
 85 
 51 
 20 
 
 2,648 
 4,378 
 9,454 
 13,210 
 13,610 
 12,789 
 8,104 
 12,617 
 
 10 
 15 
 11 
 8 
 14 
 14 
 14 
 38 
 
 323 
 2,709 
 2,996 
 2,963 
 2,410 
 1,680 
 392 
 555 
 
 17 
 
 138 
 
 79 
 
 46 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 1876 
 
 
 
 1877 . ... 
 
 
 
 1879. . . . 
 
 1880 
 
 1881 
 
 196 
 971 
 1182 
 
 2 
 11 
 10 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 Average per 
 
 year . . . 
 
 45,442 
 
 9U6 
 
 76,810 
 
 124 
 
 14,023 
 
 314 
 
 2348 
 
 23 
 
 
 1.9p.0t. 
 
 
 .lp.ot. 
 
 
 2.2p.et. 
 
 
 .9 p.ct 
 
 Percentage of Coin produced ftvm Gold and Silver op«rated 
 upon lay tlLe CJoluers of tlie niintm, 1874 to 1881. 
 
 OOLD COIN. 
 
 Fiscal year. 
 
 FliOadelphitt. 
 
 San Fnmdsco. 
 
 Carson. 
 
 New Orleans. 
 
 
 Percent, 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Percent. 
 
 Percent. 
 
 1874 
 
 40.1 
 
 55 
 
 50.4 
 
 
 1875 
 
 41.5 
 
 61 
 
 52.7 
 
 
 1876 
 
 46.1 
 
 61.6 
 
 53.2 
 
 
 1877 
 
 416 
 
 60 
 
 52.9 
 
 
 1878 
 
 41.1 
 
 61.2 
 
 609 
 
 
 1879 
 
 41.5 
 
 63.2 
 
 47.7 
 
 
 1880 
 
 40.2 
 
 62.9 
 
 51.1 
 
 46.1 
 
 1881 
 
 37.1 
 
 48.2 
 
 45.7 
 
 44.9 
 
 Average . . . 
 
 41.16 
 
 61.62 
 
 50.57 
 
 45 
 
 SIITBB COIN. 
 
 1874 ... 
 
 42.8 
 
 64 
 
 51.4 
 
 
 1875 
 
 49.4 
 
 62 
 
 62.9 
 
 
 1876 ... 
 
 47.1 
 
 49 
 
 48.3 
 
 
 1877 
 
 47.8 
 
 50 
 
 52.8 
 
 
 1878 
 
 48 
 
 62.7 
 
 4«.6 
 
 
 1879 
 
 48.2 
 
 62.2 
 
 45.9 
 
 44.9 
 
 1880 . . . . 
 
 49.5 
 
 51.6 
 
 49.7 
 
 49.1 
 
 1881 
 
 48.2 
 
 47.8 
 
 46.7 
 
 66.3 
 
 Average . 
 
 47.62 
 
 51.16 
 
 49.63 
 
 50.1 
 
 Crold and Silver ot I>oiiiefttlc Production Deposited at the 
 mints -and Assay Offices fiM>in their Organization to the 
 close of the fiscal year ended June 30, 1881. 
 
 LocaUly. 
 
 GoW. 
 
 Silier. 
 
 Total.. 
 
 Alabama ... 
 
 Alaska . . . . 
 
 Arizona 
 
 California .... 
 Colorado ... 
 
 Dakota 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 $220,471 97 
 
 31,225 63 
 
 2,623,600 60 
 
 709,624,600 24 
 
 37,332,138 18 
 
 10,644,852 78 
 
 7,816,847 62 
 
 24,683,354 70 
 
 40 13 
 
 693 06 
 
 ' ' ' ■$5 08 
 
 6,761,561 49 
 
 2,314,748 72 
 
 21,158,446 27 
 
 21,276 22 
 
 5.37 98 
 
 804,781 06 
 
 '917 'so" 
 
 3,477,.319 02 
 5,627,897 19 
 77,435,742 76 
 
 ' 2',483,697 W 
 
 46,016 71 
 
 33,684 91 
 
 74 37 
 
 1 99 
 
 10,288,337 98 
 
 43 60 
 
 36 65 
 
 110 96 
 
 11,798 00 
 
 57,057,970 43 
 
 '6)991,451 '19' 
 
 526,284 79 
 
 31,956,946 16 
 
 $220,471 97 
 
 31,330 61 
 
 8,386,0.51 99 
 
 711,939,348 96 
 
 68,490,684 45 
 
 10,666,129 (HI 
 
 7,816,386 60 
 
 26,488,136 66 
 
 40 13 
 
 693 06 
 
 917 66 
 
 Michigan (Lake Superior) 
 
 123 99 
 
 50,141,267 20 
 
 16,139,056 96 
 
 11,020 65 
 
 1,624,413 02 
 
 10,671,398 29 
 
 16,194,047 73 
 
 1,419,732 91 
 
 86,766 67 
 
 467,246 68 
 
 10,981 27 
 
 1,683,436 70 
 
 236,864 36 
 
 723,681 61 
 
 217,364,618 22 
 
 16,295,800 68 
 
 9,322,268 97 
 
 3,477,443 01 
 
 63,669,164 39 
 
 92,574,798 72 
 
 11,020 55 
 
 4,108,110 31 
 
 10,717,415 00 
 
 16,227,732 04 
 
 1,419,807 28 
 
 85,757 56 
 
 10,736,684 66 
 
 11,024 77 
 
 1,683,467 33 
 
 236,976 .32 
 
 735,379 61 
 
 274,422,.'i88 65 
 
 16,295,800 68 
 
 9,322,268 97 
 
 6,991,461 19 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Oregon 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Utah 
 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Washington Territory 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 Refined bullion . . 
 Parted from silver 
 Contained in silver . . 
 Parted from gold . . 
 
 
 
 Other sources 
 
 10,367,104 26 
 
 42,323,049 42 
 
 Total 
 
 1,144,735,442 48 
 
 225,898,672 18 
 
 1,370,634,114 66 
 
 Statement of Coinage trom the Organlxation of tbe Mint to 
 the Close of the fisc^al year ended June 30, 1880. 
 
 GOLD COINAGE. 
 
 Pmod. 
 
 Dotihle 
 Eagles. 
 
 Eagles. 
 
 Balf 
 Eaglet. 
 
 Three 
 Dollars. 
 
 Quarter 
 Eagles. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1793 to 1795. 
 1796. . . 
 
 
 $27,950 
 69,340 
 83,230 
 79,740 
 174,830 
 269,650 
 292,540 
 150,900 
 89,790 
 " 97,930 
 
 $43,533 
 
 30,980 
 
 18,045 
 
 124,336 
 
 37,255 
 
 68,110 
 
 130,030 
 
 265,880 
 
 167,330 
 
 152,375 
 
 165,915 
 
 320,463 
 
 420,463 
 
 277,890 
 
 169,375 
 
 601,436 
 
 497,906 
 
 290,435 
 
 477,140 
 
 77,270 
 
 3,175 
 
 ':'.'. 
 
 $2,470 60 
 2,147 50 
 1,536 00 
 1,200 00 
 
 ..... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1800 
 
 
 
 
 
 1801 ... . 
 
 1802. . 
 
 1803. .. . 
 
 
 6,630 00 
 1,067 50 
 8,317 60 
 4,452 50 
 4,040 00 
 17,030 00 
 6,775 00 
 
 
 1806 
 
 
 
 1806 
 
 
 
 
 1807 
 
 
 
 
 1808 . 
 
 
 
 
 1809 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1810 . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1811 . . 
 
 
 
 
 1812 . . 
 
 
 
 
 1813 . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1814 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 1815. . . 
 
 1816. . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1817 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1818 . . 
 
 
 
 242,940 
 
 268,615 
 1,319,030 
 
 173,205 
 88,980 
 72,425 
 86,700 
 
 146,300 
 
 
 
 
 1819 . . . 
 
 . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 1820. . 
 
 
 
 
 1821 . 
 
 
 16,120 00 
 
 
 1822 . . 
 
 
 
 
 1823 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1824 .... 
 
 
 
 
 6,500 00 
 11,086 00 
 
 
 1825 . . . 
 
 
 
 
868 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 statement at Coinage from tlie Organization of the Mint to the Close of the flscal year ended June 30, lSSO.—Ck>nUnued. 
 
 QOLD OOINAGE. 
 
 1826 . 
 1827. 
 1828. 
 1829 . 
 1830. 
 1831. 
 1832 . 
 18:b. 
 1834. 
 1836 . 
 
 1836 . 
 
 1837 . 
 1838. 
 1839. 
 1840. 
 1841 . 
 1842. 
 1843. 
 1844. 
 
 1845 . 
 
 1846 . 
 
 1847 . 
 1843. 
 1849. 
 
 1850 . 
 
 1851 . 
 1862 . 
 1853 . 
 1864. 
 
 Double- 
 eagles. 
 
 $26,226, 
 48,043, 
 44,860, 
 26,646, 
 18,052, 
 
 Eagles. 
 
 72.000 
 
 382,480 
 
 473,380 
 
 656,310 
 
 1,089,070 
 
 2,.'i06,240 
 
 1,260,610 
 
 736,630 
 
 1,018,750 
 
 14,337,640 
 
 1,813,340 
 
 6,776,180 
 
 3,489,610 
 
 4,39a,280 
 
 2,811,060 
 
 2,622,6.30 
 
 2,306,760 
 
 Half- 
 eagles. 
 
 Three- 
 dollars, 
 
 90,346 
 
 124,665 
 
 140,146 
 
 287,210 
 
 631,765 
 
 702,970 
 
 787,435 
 
 968,150 
 
 3,660,846 
 
 1,867,670 
 
 2,765,735 
 
 1,035,605 
 
 1,600,285 
 
 802,745 
 
 1,048,.360 
 
 380,725 
 
 656,330 
 
 4,276,425 
 
 4,088,275 
 
 2,743,640 
 
 2,736,155 
 
 5,401,685 
 
 1,863,560 
 
 1,184,646 
 
 860,160 
 
 2,661,966 
 
 3,689,635 
 
 2,305,096 
 
 1,513,195 
 
 $491,214 
 
 Qiiarter- 
 eugles. 
 
 1,900 00 
 7,000 00 
 
 8,507 
 
 11,350 
 
 11,300 
 
 11,000 
 
 10,400 
 
 293,426 
 
 328,605 
 
 1,369,965 
 
 112,700 
 
 137,310 
 
 170,660 
 
 1.53,562 
 
 54,562 
 
 89,770 
 
 1,327,132 
 
 89,346 
 
 276,277 
 
 279,272 
 
 482,060 
 
 98.612 
 
 111,147 
 
 896.647 
 
 3 867,3.37 
 
 3,283,827 
 
 3,619,615 
 
 1,896,397 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 $936,789 
 511,301 
 3,658,820 
 2,201,145 
 4,384,149 
 1,657,012 
 
 1855 . 
 1856. 
 1857 . 
 1868 . 
 18,'j9 . 
 1860, 
 1861 . 
 1862. 
 1863. 
 1864. 
 1866. 
 1866. 
 
 1867 . 
 
 1868 . 
 
 1869 . 
 1870. 
 1871 . 
 1872. 
 1873 . 
 1874. 
 1875 . 
 1876. 
 1877. 
 1878. 
 1879 . 
 1880. 
 
 Total 
 
 Double- 
 eagles. 
 
 Eagles. 
 
 24.636,820 
 30,277,560 
 14,056,300 
 28,038,300 
 16,2,36,720 
 15,468,800 
 69,316,420 
 36,247,,500 
 20,387,720 
 21,466,640 
 24,879,600 
 27,494,900 
 27,926,400 
 17,705,8(10 
 21,270,600 
 22,018,480 
 20,919,240 
 19,798,500 
 34,765,600 
 48,283,900 
 32,748,140 
 37,896,720 
 43,941,700 
 61,406,340 
 37.234,340 
 21,616,360 
 
 919,754,480 
 
 1,487,010 
 1,484,900 
 129,160 
 629,900 
 146,000 
 342,1.30 
 662,060 
 972,990 
 126,680 
 
 85,800 
 
 93,760 
 370,1(K) 
 
 51,150 
 166,6((0 
 209,8.60 
 
 89,130 
 163,250 
 264,600 
 204,660 
 383,480 
 699,840 
 163,610 
 
 66,200 
 165,490 
 1,031,440 
 ^,836,320 
 
 Baif- 
 
 18, 
 
 ,2.57,090 
 ,761,666 
 673,610 
 772,776 
 406,710 
 361,145 
 462,690 
 ,287,160 
 117,010 
 61,600 
 86,075 
 300,750 
 164,475 
 163,750 
 228,925 
 94,625 
 168,625 
 243,700 
 237,526 
 8(]9,780 
 20;i,655 
 71,800 
 67,835 
 688,680 
 ,442,130 
 ,790,860 
 
 Three- 
 duUars, 
 
 171,465 
 
 181,630 
 
 3t,496 
 
 66,177 
 
 34,672 
 
 61,206 
 
 18,216 
 
 17,3.55 
 
 117 
 
 16,470 
 
 10.005 
 
 12,090 
 
 7,876 
 
 14,700 
 
 7,676 
 
 10.606 
 
 4,020 
 
 6,090 
 
 75 
 
 126,460 
 
 60 
 
 136 
 
 4,464 
 
 137,860 
 
 109,182 
 
 9.090 
 
 Quarter- 
 eagles. 
 
 600,700 00 
 
 1,213,117 60 
 
 320,465 00 
 
 616,632 50 
 
 213,010 00 
 
 128,980 00 
 
 3:36,440 00 
 
 3,208,122 60 
 
 62,475 00 
 
 23,185 00 
 
 30,502 50 
 
 122,976 00 
 
 73,062 50 
 
 7-4,125 00 
 
 105,862 50 
 
 35,137 60 
 
 63,400 00 
 
 72,676 00 
 
 39.062 60 
 
 516,150 00 
 
 2,260 00 
 
 53,062 50 
 
 5,780 00 
 
 408,900 00 
 
 1,166,800 00 
 
 3,075 00 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 824,883 
 
 1,788,996 
 
 593,632 
 
 230,361 
 
 259,065 
 
 93,215 
 
 16,521 
 
 1,799,259 
 
 1,950 
 
 6,750 
 
 7,225 
 
 7,130 
 
 5,225 
 
 10,560 
 
 6,925 
 
 9,335 
 
 3,940 
 
 1,030 
 
 2,525 
 
 323,920 
 
 20 
 
 3,645 
 
 2,220 
 
 1,720 
 
 3,020 
 
 3,030 
 
 76,730,470 87,334,485 1,556,164[28,374,526 00 19,353,1 
 
 Statement of Coinage Avm the Organization of the Mint, Jtc.,— Continued. 
 SILVER COINAGE. 
 
 Period. 
 
 Trade-dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Half-dollars. 
 
 Quarter- 
 doUftrs. 
 
 Tujeiily-ceuts. 
 
 Dimes. 
 
 Half-dimes. 
 
 Tkree-cenlt. 
 
 1793 to 1796 . . 
 
 
 $204,791 
 
 72,920 
 
 7,776 
 
 . 327,636 
 
 423,515 
 
 220,920 
 
 54,454 
 
 41,660 
 
 66,064 
 
 19,570 
 
 321 
 
 $161,572 00 
 1,969 00 
 
 
 
 
 $4,320 80 
 
 611 60 
 
 2,226 36 
 
 
 1796 ... ... 
 
 1797 . . 
 
 1798 
 
 $1,473 60 
 63 00 
 
 
 $2,213 .60 
 2,626 10 
 2,765 00 
 
 2,176 00 
 3,464 00 
 1,097 60 
 3,304 00 
 826 60 
 12,078 00 
 
 
 1799 . . 
 
 1800 . . .... 
 
 1801 . 
 
 .' .' .' '.'.'.'. 
 
 15,144 60 
 
 14,945 00 
 
 15,857 50 
 
 78,259 60 
 
 105,801- 00 
 
 419j788 00 
 
 525,788 00 
 
 684,300 00 
 
 702,905 00 
 
 638,138 00 
 
 601,822 00 
 
 814,029 60 
 
 620,961 50 
 
 619,637 60 
 
 23,575 00 
 
 607,783 60 
 
 980,161 00 
 
 1,104,000 00 
 
 375,661 00 
 
 652,898 50 
 
 779,786 60 
 
 847,100 00 
 
 1,7.52.477 00 
 
 1,471,583 00 
 
 2,C]02,OilO 00 
 
 2,716,700 00 
 
 1,537,600 00 
 
 1,866,078 00 
 
 2,382,400 00 
 
 2,936,830 00 
 
 2,398,600 00 
 
 2,603,000 00 
 
 3.206.002 00 
 
 2.676.003 00 
 3,273,100 00 
 1,814,910 00 
 1,733,000 00 
 1,717.280 80 
 1,146,054 00 
 
 355,500 00 
 1,484,882 00 
 3,056,000 00 
 1,880 600 00 
 1,341 600 00 
 2,267,000 00 
 1,870,000 00 
 1,880,000 00 
 1,781,000 00 
 1,341,600 00 
 301 ,.376 00 
 110.666 00 
 2,430,364 00 
 4,111,000 00 
 
 
 
 1,200' 00 
 
 1,695 60 
 
 650 50 
 
 1,892 60 
 
 
 1802 ... ... 
 
 1803 
 
 1804 ... . ... 
 
 ' 1,684 60 
 30,348 ,50 
 51,531 00 
 56,160 75 
 
 
 
 1805 . . 
 
 
 
 780 00 
 
 
 1806 .... . . 
 
 
 
 1807 . . . . 
 
 1808 ... . . . 
 
 
 
 
 10,500 00 
 
 ' 4,471 do 
 
 635 60 
 
 6,618 00 
 
 
 
 1809 . . . . .^ . 
 
 
 . . . . .-J 
 
 
 
 
 1810 , 
 
 
 
 1811 . . 
 
 
 
 
 1812 . . . . . 
 
 
 
 
 1813 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1814 ... . . 
 
 42,160 00 
 
 
 
 1816 
 
 
 
 
 17,308 00 
 6,000 74 
 
 .■96,293 60 
 36,000 00 
 31.861 00 
 641212 76 
 16,020 00 
 4,460 00 
 
 
 
 1816 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 1817 
 
 1818 ... 
 
 1819 .... 
 
 
 
 
 1820 
 
 1821 . . . .... 
 
 1822 
 
 
 94,268 70 
 118,651 20 
 10,000 00 
 44,000 00 
 
 • '••■■ — 
 
 
 1823 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1824 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 1826 
 
 42,000 00 
 
 
 51,000 00 
 
 
 
 1827 ... . 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,000 00 
 26,500 00 
 
 
 121,600 00 
 12 600 00 
 
 77,000 00 
 
 61,000 00 
 77,136 00 
 62,260 00 
 48,500 00 
 63,600 00 
 141,000 00 
 119,000 00 
 104,200 00 
 2,39,493 00 
 229,471 50 
 263,358 00 
 363,000 00 
 390,760 00 
 162,000 00 
 7,250 00 
 198,600 00 
 3,130 00 
 24,500 00 
 46,150 00 
 113,9((0 00 
 244,160 00 
 142,660 00 
 190,660 00 
 1,327,301 00 
 624,000 00 
 
 
 
 182S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1829 .- 
 
 
 
 
 
 61,500 00 
 
 62,000 00 
 
 62,135 OO 
 
 48,260 00 
 
 68,500 00 
 
 74,000 00 
 
 138,000 00 
 
 95,000 00 
 
 113 800 00 
 
 112,760 00 
 
 100,457 60 
 
 113.954 25 
 
 98,250 00 
 
 68,250 00 
 
 58,250 00 
 
 32,600 00 
 
 78,200 00 
 
 1,3,50 00 
 
 63,700 00 
 
 63,400 00 
 
 72,450 00 
 
 82,250 00 
 
 82,060 00 
 
 68,025 00 
 
 785,251 00 
 
 365,000 00 
 
 ....... 
 
 1830 ..... ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18:^1 
 
 1832 ... . 
 
 
 
 
 
 99,600 00 
 
 80,000 00 
 
 39,000 00 
 
 71,600 00 
 
 488,000 00 
 
 llS.OflO 00 
 
 63,100 00 
 
 208,000 00 
 
 122,786 60 
 
 163,331 76 
 
 143,000 00 
 
 213,250 00 
 
 403,400 00 
 
 290,300 00 
 
 230,500 00 
 
 127,600 00 
 
 280,500 00 
 
 36,600 00 
 
 86;000 00 
 
 , 160,700 00 
 
 62,000- 00 
 
 68,265 00 
 
 4,146,656 00 
 
 3,466,000 00 
 
 
 
 
 1833 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 1834 
 
 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 300 
 
 61.005 
 
 173,000 
 
 184,618 
 
 166,100 
 
 20,000 
 
 24,600 
 
 160,600 
 
 140,760 
 
 16,(K)0 
 
 62,600 
 
 47,500 
 
 1,300 
 
 1,100 
 
 46,110 
 
 33,146 
 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 . . . . . 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 1843 . 
 
 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 . 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1860 
 
 1851 . 
 
 1852 . 
 
 1853 
 
 
 
 ■$186,022 00 
 669,905 00 
 
 1854 
 
 342,000 00 
 
 
 
 
 20,130 00 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 369 
 
 statement ot Coinage from tlie Orgfaulzatlon ot the Mint, Ae, {Continued.) 
 
 SILVER COINAGE. 
 
 Period. 
 
 1856 
 1866 
 1857 
 1868 
 11859 
 1800 
 1861 
 1862 
 1863 
 1864 
 1865 
 1866 
 1867 
 1868 
 1869 
 1870 
 J871 
 1872 
 1873 
 1874 
 1876 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 
 Brought over . , 
 
 Total 
 
 Trade-doUare. 
 
 S3 688,900 
 5,697,500 
 6,132,0.50 
 9,162,900 
 
 11,378,010 
 
 35,969,360 
 
 26,000 
 63,500 
 94,000 
 
 288,600 
 
 600,630 
 
 669,900 
 
 1,750 
 
 31,400 
 
 23,170 
 
 32,900 
 
 58,660 
 
 57,000 
 
 54,800 
 
 231,350 
 
 e88,.308 
 
 657,929 
 
 1,112,961 
 
 977,150 
 
 8,673,500 
 27,227,500 
 27,933,750 
 
 71,780,688 
 
 Balf-dollan. 
 
 2,284,726 00 
 
 1,903,600 00 
 
 114,000 00 
 
 4,430,000 OO 
 
 4,006,500 00 
 
 1,627,400 00 
 
 ■ 969,660 00 
 
 1,786,425 00 
 
 98:),630 00 
 
 483,985 00 
 
 563,100 00 
 
 679,525 .00 
 
 897,460 00 
 
 946,760 00 
 
 661,676 00 
 
 1,009,376 00 
 
 1,242,771 00 
 
 1,486,492 60 
 
 1,199,776 00 
 
 1,438,930 00 
 
 2,863,600 00 
 
 4,985,626 00 
 
 9,740,350 00 
 
 3,876,265 00 
 
 225 00 
 
 3,275 Oil 
 
 122,748,295 60 
 
 Quarter 
 dollars. 
 
 861,360 00 
 
 2,129,600 00 
 
 683,000 00 
 
 3,019,760 00 
 
 1,428,000 00 
 
 330,460 00 
 
 771,560 00 
 
 730,937 50 
 
 113,965 00 
 
 22,492 60 
 
 27,650 00 
 
 9,712 60 
 
 18,176 00 
 
 37,475 00 
 
 23,137 00 
 
 23,047 50 
 
 29,971 76 
 
 56,096 26 
 
 174,362 60 
 
 468,615 50 
 
 623,950 00 
 
 4,106,262 60 
 
 7,684,176 00 
 
 3,703,027 60 
 
 112 60 
 
 3,837 60 
 
 Twenty-centg. 
 
 J5,858 00 
 
 263,.560 on 
 
 1,440 00 
 
 142 00 
 
 38,481,099 00 271,000 00 
 
 Jlajf-dimee, 
 
 207,600 00 
 
 696,000 00 
 
 489,000 00 
 
 226,000 00 
 
 229,000 00 
 
 98,600 00 
 
 167,300 Ou 
 
 168,405 00 
 
 34,071 00 
 
 14,037 00 
 
 17,160 00 
 
 21,065 00 
 
 13,670 00 
 
 73,315 00 
 
 23,905 00 
 
 98,186 00 
 
 10,707 60 
 
 222,471 60 
 
 419,010 00 
 
 497,266 80 
 
 889,660 00 
 
 3,639,106 00 
 
 2,066,070 00 
 
 760,891 00 
 
 45 00 
 
 1,576 00 
 
 16,904,297 30 
 
 117,600 00 
 
 299,000 00 
 
 197,000 00 
 
 327,000 00 
 
 196,000 00 
 
 96,600 00 
 
 139,360 00 
 
 117,627 50 
 
 8,223 00 
 
 4,518 60 
 
 . 4,880 00 
 
 10,732 60 
 
 4.35 00 
 
 24,290 00 
 
 627 60 
 
 48,222 60 
 
 14,396 25 
 
 162,761 76 
 
 176,442 60 
 
 4,006,946 90 
 
 Three-centM. 
 
 4,170 00 
 43,740 OO 
 
 37,980 00 
 
 41,400 00 
 
 16,440 00 
 
 7,960 OO 
 
 18,256 m 
 
 2,803 80 
 
 11 10 
 
 618 00 
 
 679 60 
 
 141 00 
 
 120 00 
 161 60 
 116 75 
 
 121 05 
 61 50 
 25 60 
 
 1,281,850 20 
 
 
 
 Minor coinage. 
 
 
 
 
 Total coinage^ 
 
 
 
 Fice'CenU. 
 
 Three-cents. 
 
 TiBO-cenU. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Halfcenls. 
 
 GoU. 
 
 saner. 
 
 Minor. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1793 to 1795 
 
 
 
 
 810,660 33 
 
 9,747 00 
 
 8,97.'; 10 
 
 9,797 00 
 
 9,045 86 
 
 28,221 76 
 
 13,628 37 
 
 34,351 OQ 
 
 24,713 63 
 
 7,668 38 
 
 9,41116 
 
 3,480 00 
 
 7,272 21 
 
 11,090 00 
 
 2,228 67 
 
 14,685 00 
 
 2,180 26 
 
 10,755 00 
 
 4,18a cm 
 
 3,578 30 
 
 8712 67 
 577 40 
 533 24 
 
 ' '60'83 
 1,057 66 
 
 ' ' 71 83 
 
 489 50 
 6,270 56 
 4,072 32 
 1,780 on 
 2,380 00 
 2,000 00 
 5,772 86 
 1,075 00 
 
 315 70 
 
 871,486 00 
 102,727 50 
 103,422 60 
 205,610 00 
 213,285 00 
 317,760 00 
 422,570 00 
 423,310 00 
 258,377 50 
 258,642 60 
 170,367 60 
 324,605 00 
 437,495 00 
 284,665 00 
 169,376 00 
 601,4:36 00 
 497,906 00 
 290,136 00 
 477,140 00 
 77,270 00 
 3,175 00 
 
 . 8370,685 80 
 
 79,077 60 
 
 12,591 45 
 
 330,291 00 
 
 423,515 00 
 
 224,296 00 
 
 74,768 00 
 
 68,343 00 
 
 87,118 00 
 
 100,340 60 
 
 149,388 60 
 
 471,319. 00 
 
 697,448 76 
 
 684,300 00 
 
 707,376 00 
 
 638,773 50 
 
 608,340 06 
 
 814,029 50 
 
 620,951 50 
 
 661,687 50 
 
 17,308 00 
 
 28,576 76 
 
 607,783 60 
 
 1,070,464 60 
 
 1,140,000 00 
 
 601,680 70 
 
 826,762 46 
 
 80.%806 60 
 
 895,660 00 
 
 1,752,477 00 
 
 1,664,583 00 
 
 2,002,000 00 
 
 2,869,200 00 
 
 1,676,600 00 
 
 1,994,678 00 
 
 2,496,400 00 
 
 3,176,600 no 
 
 2,579,000 00 
 
 2,759,000 00 
 
 3,416,0n2 00 
 
 3,443,003 00 
 
 3,606,100 00 
 
 2,096,010 00 
 
 2,:i3;i,243 00 
 
 2,176,299 00 
 
 1,726,703 00 
 
 1,132,750 00 
 
 2,332,760 00 
 
 3,834,760 00 
 
 2,236,660 00 
 
 1,873,200 00 
 
 2,658,680 00 
 
 2,379,460 00 
 
 2,040,050 00 
 
 2,114,960 00 
 
 1,866,100 00 
 
 774,397 00 
 
 999,410 00 
 
 9,077,571 00 
 
 8,610,270 00 
 
 3,501,246 00 
 
 6,135,240 00 
 
 1,477,000 00 
 
 8,040,730 00 
 
 6,187,400 00 
 
 2,769,920 00 
 
 811,,373 00 
 ' 10,324 40 
 . 9,510 34 
 9,797 00 
 9,106 68 
 29,379 40 
 1.3,628 37 
 34,422 83 
 25,203 03 
 12,844 94 
 
 13.483 48 
 5.260 00 
 9,662 00 
 
 19,090 00 
 8,001 63 
 
 15,6' on 
 
 2,495 96 
 10,765 00 
 4,180 00 
 3,678 30 
 
 '28,209 82 
 
 39.484 00 
 31,670 00 
 26,710 00 
 44,075 50 
 
 3,890 00 
 20,723 39 
 
 'l2,6"20' do 
 14,926 00 
 16,344 26 
 23,577 32 
 28,636 24 
 16,680 00 
 17,115 00 
 33,603 60 
 2.3,620 00 
 18,160 00 
 29,151 00 
 39,489 00 
 23,100 no 
 66,683 00 
 6.3,7.02 00 
 31,286 61 
 24,627 00 
 1.5,973 67 
 23,833 90 
 24,283 20 
 23,987 62 
 38,948 04 
 41,208 00 
 61,836 09 
 64,157 99 
 41,984 32 
 44,467. 60 
 99,635 43 
 50,630 94 
 67,059 78 
 42,638 36 
 16,030 79 
 27,106 78 
 63,510 46 
 234,000 00 
 ,307,000 00 
 342,000 00 
 
 8453,641 80 
 
 1796 ; 
 
 
 
 
 192,129 40 
 
 1797 
 
 
 
 
 125,624 29 
 
 
 
 
 
 646,698 00 
 
 1799 
 
 
 
 
 646,006 68 
 
 1800 . . 
 
 
 
 
 671,336 40 
 
 1801 
 
 
 
 
 510,956 37 
 
 
 
 
 
 516,075 83 
 
 1803 
 
 
 
 
 370,698 63 
 
 18U4 ~. 
 
 
 
 
 371,827 94 
 333,2.39 48 
 
 
 
 
 
 801,084 00 
 
 1807 
 
 
 
 
 1,044,595 96 
 
 
 
 
 
 982,n,65 00 
 
 
 
 
 884,762 53 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,155,868 60 
 
 18U 
 
 
 
 
 1,108,740 95 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,116,219 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,102,271 60 
 
 1814 
 
 
 
 
 642,635 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 20,48;j 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 28,209 82 
 39,484 00 
 31,670 00 
 26,710 00 
 44,075 50 
 3,890 00 
 20,723 39 
 
 
 66,785 67 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 647,267 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 242,940 00 
 
 268,616 00 
 
 1,319,030 00 
 
 189,326 00 
 
 88,980 00 
 
 72,425 00 
 
 93,200 00 
 
 166,385 00 
 
 92,246 00 
 
 131,565 00 
 
 140,145 00 
 
 295,717 50 
 
 643,105 00 
 
 714,270 00 
 
 798,436 00 
 
 978,560 00 
 
 3^54,270 00 
 
 2,188,175 00 
 
 4,135,700 00 
 
 1,148,306 00 
 
 1.809.696 00 
 1,366,885 00 
 1,676,302 60 
 
 1.091.697 60 
 1,834,170 00 
 8,108,707 60 
 6,428,2)0 00 
 3,750,447 50 
 4,034,177 60 
 
 20,221 ,,385 00 
 
 3,776,512 60 
 
 9,007,761 60 
 
 31,981,738 60 
 
 026,614,492 50 
 
 56,846,187 50 
 
 39,377,909 00 
 
 26,915,918 60 
 
 28,977,968 00 
 
 36,697,768 50 
 
 15,811,663 0( 
 
 30,253,726 60 
 
 17,296,077 00 
 
 16,445,470 00 
 
 1,345,064 .tO 
 
 1819 
 
 
 
 
 1,426,325 00 
 
 1820 
 
 
 
 
 1,864,786 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,018,977 45 
 
 1822 
 
 
 
 
 916,609 89 
 
 1823 . 
 
 
 
 
 967,975 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 12,620 00 
 14,011 00 
 16,174 26 
 23,677 32 
 22,606 24 
 14,145 00 
 17,115 00 
 33,692 60 
 23,620 00 
 27,390 OQ 
 18,651 00 
 
 38.784 00 
 21,110 00 
 66.683 00 
 63,702 00 
 31,286 61 
 24,627 00 
 
 ■ 16,973 67 
 
 23,833 90 
 ' 24,283 20 
 
 23,987 52 
 ' 38,948 04 
 
 41,208 00 
 • 61,836 69 
 
 64,157 99 
 
 41.785 00 
 44,268 44 
 98,897 07 
 60,630 94 
 66,411 31 
 42,36156 
 15,743 29 
 26,904 63 
 63,334 66 
 
 234,000 00 
 307,000 01 
 342,000' 00 
 
 ■ '315 00 
 1,170 00 
 
 ■ 3,030' 00 
 2,435 00 
 
 'ii'ob 
 
 770 «l 
 
 600 00 
 
 705 00 
 
 1,990 00 
 
 ' ']'99'3'2 
 199 06 
 738 36 
 
 648' 47 
 276 79 
 282 60 
 202 15 
 175 90 
 
 1,868,297 00 
 
 1825 
 
 
 
 
 1,735,894 00 
 
 1826 
 
 
 
 
 2,110,679 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,024,342 32 
 
 1828 .... 
 
 
 
 
 1,741,381 24 
 
 
 
 2,306,875 60 
 
 1830 . 
 
 
 
 
 3,166,620 00 
 
 1831 
 
 
 
 
 3,92J,473 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,401,066 00 
 
 1833 
 
 
 
 
 3,766,710 00 
 
 
 
 
 7,,388,42:J 00 
 
 
 
 
 6,668,667 00 
 
 1836 
 
 
 
 
 7,764,900 00 
 
 1837 
 
 
 
 
 3,299,898 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 4,206,640 00 
 
 1839 
 
 
 
 
 3,563,467 61 
 
 1840 
 
 
 
 
 3,426,632 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,240,321 17 
 
 1842 
 
 
 
 
 4,190,753 90 
 11,967,830 70 
 
 
 
 
 
 7,687,767 52 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,668,695 64 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,63.3,965 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 22,662,671 69 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,879,720 49 
 
 
 
 
 
 11,164,695 82 
 33,892,306 00 
 
 1850 
 
 
 
 
 1851 ... . • 
 
 
 
 63,488,624 93 
 
 
 
 
 57,896,228 44 
 48,522,639 78 
 
 
 
 
 
 1^:::::: ::;:■;: 
 
 
 
 34,677,826 83 
 32,495,243 70 
 41,860,115 28 
 17,362,073 46 
 38,628,465 60 
 23,790,477 00 
 19,657 ,396 00 
 
 1867 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
370 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 
 Statement of Coinage from the Organization of the 9Iint, &.C. 
 
 (Continued. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mbior 
 
 Coinage, 
 
 
 Total coinafje. 
 
 
 T%ve-cf^ilif. 
 
 Three-cents. 
 
 Two-cenls. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 Half-emls. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 JlTmor. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1861 
 
 1802 
 
 1863 ... 
 
 1864. ... 
 
 1865 
 
 1866 . ■ • . 
 
 1867 
 
 1868 
 
 1869 
 
 1870 
 
 ' $66,240 00 
 
 1,502,500 00 
 
 1,H5,100 00 
 
 1,101,250 00 
 
 487,600 00 
 
 171,950 00 
 
 89,200 00 
 
 352,400 00 
 
 244,350 00 
 
 94,650 00 
 
 132 700 00 
 
 25,250 00 
 
 80 00 
 
 1,175 00 
 
 1,247 60 
 
 '8105,930 do 
 270,270 00 
 133,410 00 
 108,390 00 
 64,380 00 
 42,690 00 
 27,630 00 
 18,330 00 
 34,,-!20 00 
 29,640 00 
 12,540 00 
 7,560 00 
 
 ' 836,460 00 
 535,600 00 
 122,980 00 
 69,880 00 
 61 ,330 00 
 34,6]5 00 
 22,890 00 
 22,105 00 
 6,170 00 
 
 101,600 00 
 
 116,000 00 
 
 478,460.00 
 
 427,360 00 
 
 541,800 00 
 
 187,080 00 
 
 113,760 00 
 
 98,665 00 
 
 78,810 ,00 
 
 68,365 00 
 
 62,075 00 
 
 9,320 00 
 
 107,330 00 
 
 137,936 00 
 
 123,185 00 
 
 120,090 00 
 
 36,915 00 
 
 30,566 00 
 
 96,6,39 00 
 
 267,741 50 
 
 
 60,693,2.'57 00 
 45,632,386 60 
 20,696,862 00 
 21,649,346 00 
 25,107,217 60 
 28,313,946 00 
 28,217,187 60 
 18,114,425 00 
 21,828,037 50 
 22,267,312 50 
 21,302,475 00 
 20,.376,495 00 
 3o,249,.337 50 
 50,442,690 00 
 33,663,965 00 
 38,178,962 60 
 44,078,199 00 
 52,798,980 00 
 40,986,912 00 
 56,167,735 00 
 
 2.606.600 00 
 2,812,401 60 
 1,174,082 80 
 
 648,214 10 
 
 636,308 00 
 
 680,264 60 
 
 986,871 flO 
 
 1,136,760 00 
 
 840,746 60 
 
 1,767,253 60 
 
 1,965,905 26 
 
 3,029.834 06 
 
 2,945,795 60 
 
 6.983.601 30 
 10,070,368 00 
 19,126,602 60 
 28,649,935 00 
 28,290,825 60 
 27,227,882 50 
 27,942,437 60 
 
 101,660 00 
 
 116,000 00 
 
 478,450 00 
 
 463,800 00 
 
 1,183,.3.30 00 
 
 646,570 00 
 
 1,879,540 00 
 
 1,713,386 00 
 
 1,279,056 00 
 
 611,445 00 
 
 283,760 00 
 
 123,020 00 
 
 494,060 00 
 
 411,925 00 
 
 230,375 00 
 
 260,360 00 
 
 62,105 00 
 
 30,694 00 
 
 97,798 00 
 
 269,971 50 
 
 63,400,597 00 
 48,660,788 00 
 22,348,,394 80 
 22,661,359 10 
 26,926,855 60 
 29,640,779 60 
 31,083,.598 60 
 20,964,560 00 
 23,948,430 00 
 24,636,011 00 
 
 1871 
 
 1872 
 
 1873 
 
 1874 
 
 1875 
 
 1876 
 
 1877 
 
 1878 
 
 1879 .... 
 
 1880. . . . . 
 
 23,642,140 25 
 23,529,.349 05 
 38,689,183 00 
 56,838,216 30 
 43,864,708 00 
 67,665,815 00 
 72,690,299 00 
 
 48 00 
 984 00 
 982 60 
 
 
 81,120,499 60 
 08,312,692 60 
 84,370,144 00 
 
 Total 
 
 6,776,592 60 
 
 857,104 60 
 
 912,020 00 
 
 5,698,523 94 
 
 39,926 11 
 
 1,133,103,322 00 
 
 292,,333,436 90 
 
 13,283,107 06 
 
 1,438,719,925 05 
 
 Kstlmate of Values of Foreign Coins. 
 
 Country. 
 
 Austria 
 
 Belgium . . . 
 
 Bolivia 
 
 Brazil 
 
 British Posaeasiona in North America . 
 
 Chili 
 
 Cuba' 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Ecuador ... , 
 
 Egypt . ■ • 
 
 Prance 
 
 Great Britain ... 
 
 Greece 
 
 German Empire ... . . . 
 
 India 
 
 Italy ... 
 
 Japan 
 
 Liberia 
 
 Mexico ... . 
 
 I*Jetherlands .... . . . . 
 
 Norway 
 
 Peru . ... 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Russia 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden 
 
 •Switzerland 
 
 Tripoli 
 
 Turltey 
 
 United States of Colombia 
 
 Venezuela .... 
 
 Mojief-anj vnit. 
 
 Florin .... ... 
 
 Franc 
 
 Boliviano 
 
 Milreis of 1,000 reis . . 
 
 Dollar 
 
 Peso 
 
 do 
 
 Crown ." . 
 
 Peso 
 
 Piaster 
 
 Franc 
 
 Pound sterling 
 
 Drachma 
 
 Mark 
 
 Rupee of IG annas . . 
 
 Ijira 
 
 Yen . . . . . . , 
 
 Dollar , 
 
 do • . 
 
 Florin 
 
 Crown . 
 
 Sol 
 
 Milreis of 1,000 reis . . 
 Rouble of 100 copecks 
 
 Dollar 
 
 Peseta of 100 centiknes 
 Crown . . 
 
 Franc 
 
 Mahbub of 20 piasters , 
 Piaster .... 
 
 Peso 
 
 Bolivar 
 
 Silver .... 
 Gold and silver 
 Silver . . 
 Gold .... 
 
 do 
 
 Gold and silver 
 do 
 
 Gold 
 
 Silver . . 
 
 Gold 
 
 Gold and silver 
 
 Gold 
 
 Gold and silver 
 
 Gold 
 
 Silver .... 
 Gold and silver 
 Silver . . 
 
 Gold 
 
 Silver .... 
 Gold and silver 
 
 Gold 
 
 Silver . 
 Gold . . 
 Silver 
 
 Gold 
 
 Gold and silver 
 
 Gold 
 
 Gold and silver 
 Silver , 
 
 Gold 
 
 Silver .... 
 Gold and silver 
 
 Value in 
 U. States 
 money. 
 
 $0 40. 
 10; 
 82- 
 54. 
 1 00 
 91. 
 93. 
 26. 
 82. 
 04. 
 19. 
 4 8(). 
 19. 
 
 2y. 
 
 39 
 
 19. 
 
 88. 
 1 00 
 
 89. 
 
 40. 
 
 2G. 
 
 82. 
 1 08 
 
 65. 
 1 00 
 
 19. 
 
 26. 
 
 19, 
 
 74. 
 
 04. 
 
 82. 
 
 19.: 
 
 5, 10 and 20 francs. 
 Boliviano. 
 
 Standard coin. 
 
 .2 Condor, doubloon, and escudo. 
 '2 A, }4-.]4j }4i and 1 doubloon. 
 
 10 and 20 crowns. 
 ,3 Peso. 
 
 ,9 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 piasters. 
 ,3 5, 10, and 20 francs.. 
 M}4 ]4. sovereign and sovereign. 
 ,3 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 drachmas. 
 
 5, 10, and 20 marks. 
 
 . 10, 20, 50, and 100 lire. 
 1, 2, 5, 10, and 20 yen; gold and silver yen. 
 
 Peso or dollar, 5, 10, 25, and 50 ceniavo. 
 
 10 and 20 crowns. 
 
 Sol. 
 
 2, 5, and 10 milreis. 
 
 /-ii Mi **^d 1 rouble. 
 
 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 pesetas. 
 10 and 20 crowns. 
 5, 10, and 20 francs. 
 
 25, 50, 100, 250, and 500 piasters. 
 
 Peso. 
 
 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 Bolivar. 
 
 Average Montltly Price of Fine Silver Bars at London, &>c 
 
 Bate. 
 
 1879. 
 
 July . . . 
 August . 
 September 
 October . 
 November 
 December 
 
 July . . . . 
 August . 
 September . 
 October . . 
 November . 
 December 
 
 1881. 
 
 January . 
 February 
 March . . 
 April . . . 
 May . . 
 June . . . 
 
 Average 
 
 •■21 
 1% 
 
 Pence. 
 61% 
 61 A 
 61 A 
 62A 
 63?^ 
 62ft 
 
 62H 
 62A 
 62A 
 
 '^. 
 51H 
 
 61K 
 61« 
 62fl, 
 52-A, 
 6IH 
 61A 
 
 61H 
 
 5.3 . 
 
 ^S 
 
 ^ « CO 
 
 w 
 
 
 — sw 
 
 
 .4^S 
 
 ^1 
 III 
 
 Sis' 
 
 ill 
 
 1^^ 
 
 81 13.167 
 
 $4 87.7 
 
 1 13.030 
 
 4 84.6 
 
 1 13.030 
 
 4 84.1 
 
 1 14.674 
 
 4 83.7 
 
 1 17.S03 
 
 4 83.8 
 
 1 15.222 
 
 4 84.7 
 
 1 15.496 
 
 4 80.1 
 
 1 14.400 
 
 4 84.6 
 
 1 14.674 
 
 4 84.3 
 
 1 14.400 
 
 4 84.4 
 
 1 13.441 
 
 4 8,3.4 
 
 1 13.678 
 
 4 82.6 
 
 1 12.346 
 
 4 83.6 
 
 1 13.678 
 
 4 86.7 
 
 1 14.400 
 
 4 83.2 
 
 1 14.126 
 
 4 84.7 
 
 1 13.304 
 
 4 87.1 
 
 1 12.482 
 
 4 80.7 
 
 1 13.862 
 
 4 84.7 
 
 81 13.412 
 1 12..634 
 1 12.439 
 1 13.98 
 1 16.319 
 1 14.761 
 
 1 16.348 
 1 14.873 
 1 14.246 
 1 13.798 
 1 12.698 
 1 12.669 
 
 1 11.821 
 1 13.407 
 1 13.616 
 1 13.097 
 1 13..396 
 1 12.532 
 
 1 13.508 
 
 1 
 
 $1 13.468 
 1 12.600 
 1 12.192 
 1 13.810 
 1 15.818 
 1 14.404 
 
 1 16.126 
 1 14.524 
 1 13..375 
 1 12.932 
 1 11.906 
 1 11.660 
 
 1 11.604 
 1 12.818 
 1 13.226 
 1 13.019 
 1 13.020 
 1 12.285 
 
 1 12.967 
 
 Table Showing the Relative Market Value of Gold to 
 Silver, from tile Date of the Passage of tlie Resumption 
 Act hy monthly and yearly averages. 
 
 [Based on London price of silver bnllion.] 
 
 Late. 
 
 1875. 
 
 1876. 
 
 1877. 
 
 1S78. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 January. . 
 
 1 to 16.38 
 
 1 to 16.10 
 
 1 to 10.36 
 
 1 to 17.51 
 
 1 to 18.81 
 
 1 to 17.90 
 
 February . 
 
 16.41 
 
 17.48 
 
 16.61 
 
 17.,31 
 
 18.90 
 
 18.02 
 
 March. . . 
 
 16.,33 
 
 17.66 
 
 17.14 
 
 17,36 
 
 19.02 
 
 IS.U 
 
 April . . . 
 
 16.47 
 
 17.64 
 
 17.36 
 
 17.44 
 
 18.93 
 
 18.13 
 
 May. .. . 
 
 10.61 
 
 17.79 
 
 17.42 
 
 17.63 
 
 18.71 
 
 IS.U 
 
 June . . . 
 
 10.93 
 
 18.49 
 
 17.65 
 
 17.73 
 
 18.13 
 
 17.90 
 
 July . . . 
 
 16.91 
 
 19.48 
 
 17.42 
 
 17.91 
 
 18.26 
 
 17.90 
 
 August. . . 
 
 16.74 
 
 18.09 
 
 17.40 
 
 17.91 
 
 18.28 
 
 17.91 
 
 September 
 October . . 
 
 16.02 
 16.66 
 
 18.26 
 17.95 
 
 17.33 
 17.11 
 
 18.22 
 18.69 
 
 18.28 
 18.02 
 
 18.00 
 18.08 
 
 November 
 
 10.60 
 
 17.43 
 
 17.30 
 
 18.65 
 
 17.66 
 
 
 December 
 
 16.72 
 
 16.69 
 
 17.46 
 
 18.86 
 
 17.94 
 
 
 Average. 
 
 16.606 
 
 17.739 
 
 17.204 
 
 17.934 
 
 18.411 
 
 18.18 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 371 
 
 EXPORTS (domestic.) 
 
 -PorU. 
 
 NBW YOUK. 
 
 July, 1879 . . . 
 Augiisit, 1879 . . 
 S8ptember,1879 
 October, 1879 . . 
 November, 1879 
 December,! 1879 
 January, 1880 . 
 February, 1880 . 
 March, 1880 . . 
 April 188i) . . . 
 jMay, 1880 . . . 
 June, 1880 . . . 
 
 Total . 
 
 eA.N FRANOISCO. 
 
 July, 1879 . . . 
 August, 1879 . . 
 September, 1879 
 October, 1879. . 
 November, 1879 
 December, 1879 
 January, 1880 . 
 February, 1880 . 
 March, 1880 . . 
 April, 1880 . . . 
 May, 1880 . . . 
 June, 1880 . . . 
 
 Total. 
 
 ALL OTHIB POSTS. 
 July, 1879 . . . 
 August, 1879 . . 
 September, 1870 
 October, 1879. . 
 November, 1879 
 December, 1879 
 January, 1880 . 
 February, 1880 . 
 March, 1880 . . 
 April, 1880 . . . 
 May, 1880 . . . 
 Jane, 1880 . . . 
 
 Total 
 
 "fotal domes- 
 tic e-vports . 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Btlllion. 
 
 610 
 971 
 600 
 
 45,787 
 
 1,280 
 3,080 
 2,645 
 13,035 
 8,615 
 8,801 
 
 1,307 
 286 
 550 
 
 87,066 
 
 6,000 
 
 3,325 
 
 108,400 
 
 5,650 
 
 7,000 
 
 381 
 
 112,700 
 
 12,400 
 
 14,025 
 
 15,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 25,413 
 
 317,294 
 
 39,360 
 !26,788 
 11,398 
 40 230 
 63,872 
 91,800 
 11,915 
 18,207 
 14,373 
 31,0*2 
 48,513 
 55,534 
 
 443,032 
 
 .300,000 
 
 316,500 
 
 8,600 
 
 220,311 
 
 34,762 
 
 30,822 
 
 4,600 
 
 838 
 
 2,314 
 
 .500 
 
 2,500 
 
 927,647 
 
 1,687,973 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 307,4.51 
 18?,600 
 155,612 
 190,415 
 135,000 
 305,315 
 245,000 
 192,000 
 108,000 
 15,000 
 95,000 
 311,500 
 
 2,248,893 
 
 155,009 
 804,622 
 629,838 
 347,804 
 192,718 
 1,154,738 
 419,665 
 269,125 
 
 17,7110 
 ■ 7^,001 
 669,299 
 
 34,452 
 
 4,663,971 
 
 6,912,864 
 
 Trade 
 fiollfirg. 
 
 7,962 
 7,-390 
 13,326 
 11,900 
 1,406 
 400 
 
 'i.obo 
 
 43,383 
 
 43,383 
 
 65,660 
 82,885 
 48,0.53 
 67,100 
 9,350 
 7,516 
 22,625 
 
 5,000 
 15,000 
 
 323,088 
 
 21,400 
 
 240 
 
 'i,o'uo' 
 
 500 
 
 19,226 
 
 102,600 
 
 5CX) 
 
 9,000 
 
 21,600 
 
 176,066 
 
 1,641 
 
 670 
 
 725 
 
 3,8-57 
 
 1,800 
 
 315 
 
 20,336 
 
 29,368 
 
 14,426 
 
 6,857 
 
 12,703 
 
 24,7-55 
 
 117,453 
 
 610,607 
 
 Totitl. 
 
 313,100 
 186,896 
 330,172 
 284,950 
 190,063 
 372,796 
 367,050 
 211,915 
 188,217 
 30,000 
 ,108,000 
 361,913 
 
 2,936,062 
 
 225,011 
 841,880 
 667,206 
 413,809 
 256,611 
 1,256,739 
 4.32,080 
 308,925 
 134,959 
 104,093 
 723,812 
 112,606 
 
 5,367,731 
 
 301,641 
 
 317,170 
 
 9,226 
 
 230,168 
 
 36,-562 
 
 31,137 
 
 24,936 
 
 30,206 
 
 16,740 
 
 7,367 
 
 16,203 
 
 24,766 
 
 1,045,100 
 
 9,347,893 
 
 Paris. 
 
 NEW YOKK. 
 July, 1879 . . . . 
 August, 1879 - . . 
 September, 1879 - 
 October, 1879 . . 
 November, 1879 . 
 December, 1879 . 
 January, 1880 
 February, 1880 . . 
 March, 1880 . . . 
 April, 1880 . . . . 
 May, 1880 - . . . 
 June, 1880 . . . . 
 
 Total 
 
 tfAN FRANCISCO. 
 
 July, 1879 .... 
 August, 1879 . . . 
 September, 1879 . 
 October, 1879 - . 
 November, 1879 . 
 December, 1879 . 
 January, 1880 . . 
 February, 1880 . . 
 March, 1880 . . . 
 April, 1880 .... 
 May, 1880 .... 
 June, 1880 .... 
 
 Total ■ 
 
 ALL OTHCn PORTS. 
 
 July, 1879 
 
 August, 1879 . . . 
 September, 1879 . . 
 October, 1879- . . . 
 November, 1879 . . 
 December, 1879 . . 
 January, 1880 . . . 
 February, 1880 .... 
 March, 1880 . . . . 
 
 April, 1880 
 
 May, 1880 
 
 June, 1880 
 
 BXPOKTS (fOBEION.) 
 
 Total 
 
 Total foreign ex- 
 ports 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 $1,500 
 
 102,704 
 
 104,204 
 
 104,204 
 
 $1,000 
 
 1,750 
 
 300 
 
 96,990 
 
 116,800 
 
 989,310 
 
 42,100 
 
 47,484 
 
 459,394 
 
 2,452 
 
 4,442 
 
 212 
 
 1,760,782 
 
 Stiver. 
 
 $■16,703 
 199,725 
 40,000 
 
 17,681 
 
 4,600 
 2,000 
 
 13,000 
 
 324,509 
 
 Coin. 
 
 $162,493 
 
 144,089 
 239,803 
 458,424 
 267,068 
 362,729 
 274;i07 
 349,481 
 122,633 
 323,286 
 203,608 
 
 2,968,633 
 
 157,490 
 212,421 
 149,308 
 324,730 
 146,205 
 251,622 
 140,214 
 325,913 
 206,231 
 110,300 
 487,747 
 102,819 
 
 2,613,900 
 
 l,-326 
 
 22,600 
 
 23,998 
 
 6,606,631 
 
 Tolat. 
 
 $210,696 
 270,648 
 186,089 
 239,803 
 477,865 
 267,:!68 
 464,219 
 393,107 
 
 1,441,495 
 164,633 
 370,769 
 662,902 
 
 i,l:i8,674 
 
 173,380 
 212,421 
 149,308 
 234,7.30 
 146,206 
 253,974 
 140,214 
 326,913 
 206,2-31 
 110,300 
 487,747 
 102,819 
 
 2,6-32,242 
 
 1,3-25 
 
 385 
 22,'50b 
 
 24,210 
 
 7,795,020 
 
 Statement of Imports and Exports of Gold and Silver during tlie fiscal year ended Jane 30, 1881. 
 
 of the Bureau of Imports Statistics.) 
 
 (Reported by the Clilef 
 
 Ports. 
 
 July, 1680 . . . 
 August. 1880 . 
 September, 1880. 
 October, 1880 . . 
 November, 1880 . 
 Depember, 1880 . 
 January, 1881 . 
 February, 1881 
 March, 1881 
 April, 1881 ... 
 May, 1881 . . . 
 June, 1B8L . . . 
 Total 
 
 July, 1880 . . 
 August, 1880 . . . 
 September, 1880 . 
 October, 1880 . . 
 November, 1880 . 
 December, 1880 . 
 January, 1881 . . 
 February, 1881 . . 
 -March, 1881 . . . 
 April, 1881 . . . 
 May, 1881 .... 
 June, 1881 .... 
 Total 
 
 July, 1880 . . . . 
 August, 1880 . . 
 September, 1880 
 October, 18S0 . - 
 November, 1880 . 
 December, 1880 . 
 -lahuary, 1881 . . 
 P'ebruary, 1881 
 March, 1881 . . . 
 April, 1881 . . . 
 May, 1881 . . . . 
 June, ISSl ... . 
 
 Total 
 
 Total imports 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 S25,liS0 
 542,294 
 ,690,854 
 194,160 
 ,649,231 
 ,409,791 
 ,527,662 
 
 94,-534 
 ,495,004 
 ,197,766 
 
 15,731 
 9,128 
 
 14,219 
 113,439 
 127,719 
 126,784 
 491,108 
 4.3,875 
 .30,414 
 49,913 
 16,764 
 
 36,779 
 63,410 
 
 1,114,424 
 
 1,233 
 3,957 
 4,541 
 
 2,552 
 2,758 
 1,187 
 2,297 
 880 
 861 
 
 11,788 
 606 
 
 32,660 
 
 30,998,919 
 
 American. 
 
 J49,603 
 
 159,833 
 
 88,100 
 
 1,716,887 
 
 2,482,195 
 
 804,586 
 68,787 
 64,602 
 37,953 
 
 271,643 
 65,-336 
 44,086 
 
 6,823,670 
 
 47,017 
 3,672 
 6,205 
 
 17,892 
 
 4,147 
 '3,190 
 15,591 . 
 
 98,014 
 
 1,250 
 
 3,063 
 
 62,240 
 
 1,310 
 
 471,542 
 
 725,326 
 
 l,(i90 
 
 21.5,300 
 
 100,210 
 
 65,-593 
 
 7-,406 
 
 10,808 
 
 1,655,738 
 
 7,577,422 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 $82,370 
 
 8,300,031 
 
 15,8.53,819 
 
 14,038,-372 
 
 3,273,882 
 
 0,358,126 
 
 925,346 
 
 82,336 
 
 1,462,697 
 
 8,662,389 
 
 1,142,-558 
 
 27,419 
 
 60,209.945 
 
 139,061 
 
 174,241 
 
 112,248 
 
 186,435 
 
 58,000 
 
 63,257 
 
 160,495 
 
 40,500 
 
 150,765 
 
 1,06.5,892 
 
 22,958 
 18,501 
 23,520 
 18,140 
 10,434 
 46,740 
 3,781 
 6,262 
 3,028 
 4,096 
 6,079 
 16,943 
 
 179,081 
 
 61,454,918 
 
 SlLVKR- 
 
 $312 
 3,239 
 1,873 
 
 2,500 
 
 42 
 
 384 
 
 1,404 
 
 2,946 
 
 12,200 
 
 67,906 
 
 60,175 
 
 270,516 
 
 262,946 
 
 140,282 
 209,192 
 201,192 
 166,452 
 193,630 
 164,808 
 212,029 
 
 1,938,127 
 
 64,097 
 20,053 
 41,050 
 13,813 
 
 4,-535 
 74,826 
 53,723 
 23,249 
 23,1-59 
 17,780 
 22,997 
 
 3,863 
 
 Trade tloUars 
 
 353,145 
 
 $27 
 
 12,316 
 6,689 
 22,299 
 19,466 
 
 60,797 
 
 16,000 
 13,600 
 
 1,000 
 1,000 
 
 31,600 
 
 92,397 
 
 Other. 
 
 $213,067 
 
 125,096 
 
 96,609 
 
 97,-524 
 
 96,946 
 
 77,181 
 
 71,078 
 
 87,642 
 
 167,226 
 
 101,707 
 
 10,5,900 
 
 105,522 
 
 1,3;«),.588 
 
 6,7-55 
 11,9-54 
 13,361 
 32,175 
 12,745 
 26,0-50 
 39,296 
 74,252 
 10,493 
 6,071 
 6,086 
 2,389 
 
 240,615 
 
 10,300 
 14,926 
 
 0,704 
 10,391 
 11,466 
 39,109 
 19,445 
 
 8,873 
 10,718 
 
 6,789 
 30,004 
 
 4,526 
 
 _ 17.3,860 
 1,750,0-53 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 $181,213 
 341,1:12 
 119,175 
 189,276 
 737,2:14 
 630,422 
 120,704 
 269,037 
 156,108 
 147,288 
 90,048 
 127,941 
 
 :i,fl08,878 
 
 143,-551 
 89,076 
 138,583 
 34-3,065 
 12:1,700 
 147,766 
 3-36,-506 
 217,:i84 
 lS8,:i39 
 32:i,683 
 118,:il8 
 35,891 
 
 2,235,914 
 
 12:1,553 
 38,398 
 
 119,444 
 
 154,900 
 50,-567 
 
 222,701 
 80,029 
 4-1,538 
 94,533 
 64,766 
 21,881 
 
 148,224 
 
 1,153,-524 
 
 6,398,316 
 
 $552,272 
 
 9,472,525 
 18,850,020 
 16,248,535 
 
 9,248,077 
 16,202,447 
 
 4,723 427 
 589,615 
 
 7,307,988 
 15,383,7;« 
 
 1,409,673 
 314,096 
 
 100,302,913 
 
 279,447 
 278,316 
 672,:i74 
 926,423 
 801,794 
 474,367 
 806,:3:i2 
 
 646,:a2 
 
 434,3.56 
 673,879 
 866,490 
 464,477 
 
 6,724,586 
 
 213,391 
 98,897 
 247,499 
 201,106 
 651,302 
 l,lW),a89 
 100,965 
 299,102 
 232,509 
 149,013 
 100,365 
 183,970 
 
 3,547,998 
 
 110,576,497 
 
372 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Statemeut of Imports and Slxports, ^E&c. — Continued. 
 EXPOKTS (domestic). 
 
 ParU. 
 
 NEW TOBK. 
 
 July, 1880. . . 
 August, 1880 . . 
 September, 1880 
 Oelober, 1880 . 
 November,lS80 . 
 December, 1880 . 
 January, 1881 . . 
 February, 1881 . 
 March, 1881. . . 
 April, 1881 . 
 May, 1881 . . . 
 June, 1881 . 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 SAN FBANC18CO. 
 
 July, 1880. . . . 
 August, 1880 . . . 
 September, 1880. . 
 October, 1880 . . . 
 November, 1880 . . 
 December, 1880 . . 
 January, 1881 . . . 
 February, 1881 . . 
 March, 1881. . 
 April, 1881 . . . . 
 May, 1881. . . . 
 June, 1881 . . . . 
 
 Total . . , - 
 
 ALL OTHEB FOBTS. 
 July, 1880. .... 
 August, 1880 . . . 
 
 September, 1880 
 October; 1880 . 
 November^ 1880. . 
 December,' 1880 . 
 January, 1881 . 
 February, 1881 
 
 March, 1881 
 
 April, 1881 ... 
 
 May, 1881 
 
 June, 1881 . . 
 
 Total. . . . 
 
 Total domestic } 
 exports ... J 
 
 Geld. 
 
 BulUon 
 
 60,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 170 
 600 
 
 33,883 
 
 1,060 
 
 |6,760 
 
 "4,00b 
 11,100 
 5,500 
 61,600 
 17,100 
 190,400 
 139,100 
 39,200 
 8,900 
 27,660 
 
 81'6 
 
 31,942 
 
 600 
 
 60,961 
 
 9,170 
 
 43,623 
 
 7,780 
 
 121,291 
 
 10,544 
 
 164,160 
 
 3,373 
 
 82,381 
 
 600 
 
 4,820 
 
 300 
 
 15,610 
 
 21,236 
 39,069 
 36,460 
 23,^ 
 
 633,886 
 
 18,368 
 16,087 
 2,000 
 ■27,700 
 24,600 
 1,600 
 4,135 
 669 
 
 1,000 
 
 602,400 
 
 697,269 
 
 $238,000 
 
 76,000 
 
 71,000 
 
 694,100 
 
 460,500 
 
 1,232,320 
 £56,650 
 815,400 
 
 l,l'01,800 
 
 1,016,600 
 486,200 
 918,100 
 
 7,865,670 
 
 67,243 
 
 83,416 
 
 75,443 
 
 1,246,557 
 
 62,347 
 
 58,960 
 
 304,855 
 
 377,496 
 
 14,800 
 
 669,630 
 
 866,300 
 
 270,378 
 
 3,986,326 
 
 800 
 200 
 
 1,000 
 
 11,862,995 
 
 Coin. 
 
 .^"■^ Other, 
 dollars 
 
 $41,227 
 
 2&,hsi 
 
 ■2,100 
 22,500 
 17,700 
 27,500 
 28,342 
 52,085 
 3,468 
 500 
 
 Total. 
 
 76,000 
 
 100,581 
 
 707,300 
 
 488,500 
 
 1,311,620 
 
 900,250 
 
 1,034,142 
 
 1,192,985 
 
 1,059,258 
 
 495,600 
 
 995,659 
 
 8,646,882 
 
 1,000 
 25,000 
 
 600 
 3,000 
 
 16,000 
 2,000 
 10,000 
 
 76,600 
 
 1,722 
 
 4,268 
 
 ■ 990 
 
 '6,582 
 
 ■3,637 
 
 • '7,686 
 
 3,817 
 
 20,863 
 
 134,774 
 
 12,672 
 
 45,408 
 
 8,^ 
 
 260,129 
 
 647,622 
 
 100,001 
 136,977 
 163,2.36 
 1,375,628 
 227,561 
 147,714 
 310,176 
 408,426 
 38,036 
 618,769 
 901,350 
 313,741 
 
 4,730,614 
 
 20,090 
 
 19,345 
 
 2,990 
 
 34,282 
 
 28,137 
 
 9,186 
 
 8,752 
 
 21,132 
 
 134,774 
 
 13,672 
 
 45,408 
 
 511,680 
 
 849,448 
 
 Statement bjr Countries of tKe Net Imports ot American 
 Silver Coin for tbe Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1881. 
 
 [JVom (he Report of the Bureau of BUiti^ice.'] 
 
 Cmmlriee. 
 
 Dottan. 
 
 CouiUriea. 
 
 ■ Dollare. 
 
 Central American States . 
 
 188,184 
 40,279 
 82,760 
 1,267 
 
 1,783 
 90,691 
 93,268 
 
 31,420 
 
 6,417 
 
 2,679 
 
 136,506 
 
 3,843 
 
 60,643 
 
 7,800 
 
 713,362 
 
 7,291 
 
 
 116,701 
 22,376 
 
 898 
 106,214 
 49,689 
 80,720 
 
 China 
 
 Dutch West Indies .... 
 
 Azore, Madeira, and Cape 
 Verde Islands 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 United States of Colom- 
 bia 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 All other countries and 
 ports in South America 
 not elsewhere specified. 
 
 All other countries and 
 ports in Africa not else- 
 where specified .... 
 
 Total imports .... 
 Total exports 
 
 Danish West Indies . . . 
 
 France 
 
 French possessions, all 
 
 Germany . . ■ 
 
 England 
 
 Nova Scotia, New Bruns- 
 wick, and Prince Ed- 
 ward's Island 
 
 Quebec, Ontaria, Manito- 
 ba, and the Ivortbwest 
 Territory 
 
 Newfoundland and Lab- 
 rador , 
 
 British West Indies . . . 
 
 120,206 
 76,435 
 
 300 
 
 1,850 
 
 British Honduras . . 
 
 British possessions in 
 Africa and adjacent 
 islands 
 
 Hawaiian Islands . . . 
 
 Hayti ... 
 
 Japan 
 
 •1,842,460 
 tl,842,460 
 
 1,294,808 
 
 * Includes 92,397 trade dollars. f Includes 20 trade dollars. 
 
 Statement of Imports and Exports, 4&c. — Continued. 
 EXPORTS (foreign). 
 
 Porta. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Sttver. 
 
 Total 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 Coin. 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 Coin. 
 
 NEW YOBK. 
 
 July, 1880 
 
 August, 1880. . . . 
 September, 1880 . 
 
 October, 1880 
 
 November, 1880 . . . 
 December, 1880 . 
 
 
 $5,000 
 24,261 
 22,121 
 2,000 
 16,046 
 
 "3,860 
 64,600 
 460 
 6,997 
 669,548 
 12,166 
 
 '$65,"900 
 "5,40b 
 '4,'260 
 
 $168,530 
 299,768 
 121,663 
 486,743 
 177,946 
 300,442 
 114,499 
 
 70,441 
 103,487 
 134,312 
 104,-950 
 
 30,736 
 
 $173,530 
 324,029 
 143,784 
 487,743 
 193,991 
 356,342 
 118,359 
 140,341 
 103,937 
 147,726 
 674,498 
 42,902 
 
 February, 1881 .... 
 March, 1881 . 
 
 
 April, 1881 
 
 IMay, 1881 
 
 $2,157 
 
 June, 1881 . ... 
 
 
 Total 
 
 2,157 
 
 726,948 
 
 65,560 
 
 2,112,617 
 
 2,907,182 
 
 BAN FBANCIBCO. 
 
 July, 1880 
 
 
 
 
 136,663 
 
 56,048 
 
 162,218 
 
 218,973 
 
 288,719 
 
 187,967 
 
 70,245 
 
 286,816 
 
 69,614 
 
 282,666 
 
 271,538 
 
 120,713 
 
 135,663 
 
 August, 1880 
 
 
 
 
 66,048 
 162,218 
 218,973 
 
 
 
 
 
 October, 1880 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . . . 
 
 
 
 288,719 
 
 December, 1880 . . 
 
 9,720 
 
 
 197,687 
 70,245 
 285,815 
 59,614 
 282,665 
 271,538 
 120,713 
 
 January, 1881 - 
 
 February, 1881 
 
 March, 1881 
 
 ■ • 
 
 April, 1881 . ... 
 
 
 
 
 May, 1881 
 
 June, 1881 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tot-al . . .' 
 
 
 9,720 
 
 
 2,140,078 
 
 2,149,798 
 
 
 
 ALL OTHEE POETS. 
 
 July, 1880 ... 
 
 
 
 
 6,388 
 
 6 388 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 September, 1880 . . . 
 
 
 
 
 3,636 
 
 
 October, 1880 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 November, 1880 . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 December, 1880. . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 January, 1881 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 February, 1881 . 
 
 
 
 
 107,968 
 
 107,968 
 
 March, 1881 
 
 
 
 
 April, 1881 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 May, 1881 
 
 
 
 
 5,632 
 
 5,633 
 
 June, 1881 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 122,923 
 
 122,923 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total for'n exports. 
 
 2,157 
 
 736,668 
 
 65,560 
 
 4,375,518 
 
 5,179,903 
 
 Table Exhibiting tbe Value and Cbaracter of the Gold and 
 Silver used In Manufactures and the Arts In the tTnlted 
 States During tbe Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1881, as 
 Reported lay Persons and Firms engaged In the Manufac- 
 tures nanted. In Response to Circular Inquiries Addressed 
 from tbe Bureau of the Mint. 
 
 Manu/aciuret. 
 
 Instruments. 
 Chemicals . . 
 Leaf and foil. 
 Pens . . . . 
 
 Plate 
 
 Spectacles. . 
 Watch-oases . 
 Jewelry, &o . 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 197 
 
 .328 
 
 63 
 
 34 
 
 390 
 
 229 
 
 48 
 
 5,138 
 
 6,417 
 
 77 
 
 142 
 
 28 
 
 18 
 
 159 
 
 98 
 
 17 
 
 1,900 
 
 2,439 
 
 22 
 17 
 28 
 9 
 
 119 
 28 
 17 
 
 903 
 
 120 
 186 
 26 
 16 
 231 
 131 
 31 
 3,238 
 
 3,978 
 
 Gold. 
 
 $1,520 
 4,861 
 96,692 
 27,111 
 60,062 
 10,199 
 693,460 
 2,626,997 
 
 3,315,882 
 
 $522 
 
 12,031 
 
 434,927 
 
 15,652 
 
 41,269 
 
 22,232 
 
 1,796,600 
 
 3,849,084 
 
 6,171,317 
 
 ■|l4 
 
 $1,969 
 1,620 
 
 65,469 
 3,240 
 5,627 
 7,260 
 
 39,309 
 485,140 
 
 599,624 
 
 $4,011 
 
 18,602 
 
 686,078 
 
 46,0ll.<i 
 
 102,8,58 
 
 39,691 
 
 2,428,359 
 
 6,861,221 
 
 10,086,723 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 373 
 
 Table exltlbitliig tile Value and Character of the Gold 
 
 and Silver used In Manufactures and tKe Arts in 
 
 the United States, d&c. — Coytliiiued, 
 
 ManufttdnreB, 
 
 Tnstrnments . 
 Chemicftis . 
 Leaf and foil 
 Pens . . . . 
 Plate . . . . 
 Spectacle!) . . 
 Watcb-caf>es . 
 Jewelry, &c . 
 
 Total . . 
 
 Bilcer.* 
 
 17 
 3,336 
 85 
 788 
 1,443 
 4,312 
 61,513 
 
 72,190 
 
 »1,744 
 
 361,133 
 
 22,903 
 
 4,027 
 
 1,035,241 
 
 3,303 
 
 1,418,985 
 
 290,086 
 
 3,127,432 
 
 .2»3 
 
 $1,188 
 27,188 
 4,344 
 1,045 
 46,369 
 
 1,' 
 42,944 
 64,232 
 
 33,«28 
 
 378,338 
 
 30,683 
 
 6,157 
 
 1,082,398 
 
 6,236 
 
 1,466,241 
 
 415,841 
 
 188,799 3,388,421 
 
 *7,G39 
 
 396,840 
 
 616,661 
 
 61,160 
 
 1,185,256 
 
 45,926 
 
 3,894,600 
 
 7,277,062 
 
 the entire clock and watch trade of France in 1880 is esti- 
 mated at 57,000,000 francs, and something like 60,000 work- 
 men are engaged in this industry, of which the greater part 
 are employed at Besanjon. In Paris there are 6,000 watch- 
 makers. 
 
 ******* 
 
 According to M. Saunier, England contributes to this art 
 in money value about one-fifteenth of the production of the 
 world. The following table, showing the total annual man- 
 ufacture of horological instruments in the various nations, 
 does not give the year covered by the estimate : 
 
 France, clocks and watches . - . . .... $13,000,000 
 
 Switzerland, watches ... ... 12,000,000 
 
 America, clocks and watches . . 6,400,000 
 
 Germany, clocks . . . . 6,000,000 
 
 England, chronometers and watches . ... ... .3,200,000 
 
 Austria, clocks . . .... 2,000,000 
 
 Total 
 
 13,475,144 
 
 •Silver calculated at its coining value, Jl.lO/r per ounce, standard (000 
 fine). 
 
 United States Assay Office at New York, 
 
 September 14, 1881. 
 
 SiE : — Deposits of gold and silver bullion, for bars which 
 have probably been issued in the arts and manufactures dur- 
 ing the fiscal year from July 1, 1880, to June 30, 1881, 
 appears as follows, viz : 
 
 Of foreign coin . . 
 Of foreign bullion . 
 Of domestic bullion 
 Of plate, &a . . . . 
 
 Total . 
 
 $167,368 00 
 
 1,380,416 00 
 
 3,(i53,136 00 
 
 622,918 00 
 
 5,723,838 00 
 
 $120,791 00 
 260,207 00 
 
 4,67»,-99t 00 
 177,940 00 
 
 5,128,932 00 
 
 Very respectfully, 
 
 THOS. C. ACTON, Superintendent 
 
 Horological Productions of Various Countries. — 
 Watches to the value of $2,135,000 were imported into Great 
 Britain in 1880. From a Swiss journal we learn that in 
 1880 there were produced atBesan^on, France, 146,047 gold 
 and 267,783 silver watches, being 3,860 gold and 26,618 
 silver watches less than during the preceding year. The 
 total value of this trade for 1880 is estimated at 19,108,170 
 francs. The falling off in the product is attributed to in- 
 creased importations of watches from Switzerland into 
 France, the Swiss having been able to reduce the wages of 
 mechanics considerably, owing to the falling off of the 
 American demand for Swiss watches. In 1872 there were 
 imported into the United States 366,000 watches; in 1876 
 only 75,000. In these four years the industry had been so 
 developed, and its products so cheapened, that we had 
 become large exporters of watches, and could beat the Swiss 
 watchmakers on their own ground. This led the Swiss 
 manufacturers to change their tactics. As the Americans 
 could surpass them iii the finer grades of watches, they 
 began to cheapen their -productions, and were thus able 
 again to bring up their export trade quite largely, until in 
 1880 that country excelled her best previous record, her expor- 
 tations of watches having reached a total value of $2,000;000. 
 There were imported into France in 1880, 32,082 gold and 
 51,592 silver watches, exceeding by 20 per cent, the import- 
 ations of 1879. The total number of watches represented in 
 the Geneva trade of 1880''was : 
 
 41,700,000 
 
 — Watc/tmaJcer & Metal Worker, 
 
 Average and Comparative Prices of the Principal Doinestic 
 
 Coiiimoditles Ejxported from the United States from 
 
 declared values at time of export* 
 
 Watches from Besanijon 
 
 Watches from other French towns 
 Foreign 
 
 413,832 
 
 800 
 
 83,674 
 
 Total 
 
 498,306 
 
 Formerly, Switzerland sent to France watches to the 
 value of over 4,000,000 francs ; but France now sends a 
 large number of watches into Switzerland. The value of 
 
 Acids . . . 
 
 Hogs 
 
 Horned cattle . 
 Horses 
 Mules . . 
 
 Sheep 
 
 Ashes, pot and pearl . 
 Beer: 
 
 In bottles . . 
 
 In casks 
 
 Bones and bone.dlKit . 
 Bone-black, lamp-black 
 
 Barley 
 
 Bread and Biscuit . .. 
 
 Indian corn 
 
 Indian-oorn meal 
 
 Oats 
 
 Rye 
 
 Eye-flou]- . . . 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Wheac-fiour . 
 Bricks 
 
 Candles 
 
 Coal: 
 
 Anthracite 
 
 Bituminous 
 
 Copper, pigs and bars 
 Cordage, rope, twine . 
 Cotton : 
 
 Sea-isl.'ind . . . 
 
 Other . . 
 
 Colored 
 
 Unoolored 
 Apples, dried . 
 Ginseng . . 
 
 Glue 
 
 Hay 
 
 Hemp cables, cordage . 
 
 Hops 
 
 Ice 
 
 India-rubber boots, &c . 
 Iron: 
 
 Pig 
 
 Bar 
 
 B' tiler-plate . 
 
 Railroad bars .... 
 
 Sheet, band, &c. . . 
 
 Car-wheels 
 
 Nails and spikes . 
 
 Steel, ingots 
 
 Leather, sole and upper 
 Boots and slices . . . 
 Lime and cement . . 
 Bosin and turpentine . 
 Tar and pitch . . . 
 
 Oil cake 
 
 Mineral oil crude . - 
 Naphthas. Benzine, &c. 
 Tlluminati'g oil . . . . 
 Lubricating oil . 
 Lard oil . . . 
 Neat's-foot oil . 
 Sperm oil . . . 
 
 Whale oil 
 
 Cotton-seed oil. . 
 Linseed oil . . 
 Gunpowder . . . 
 
 . pound. 
 
 . piece. 
 
 . . do . 
 
 .do. 
 
 .do. 
 
 .do. 
 
 pound. 
 
 . dozen. 
 . gallon. 
 
 . cwt 
 pound, 
 bushel. 
 , pound, 
 bushel. 
 .. barrel. 
 busheL 
 . .do. 
 . barrel, 
 bushel. 
 . barrel. 
 
 . . M. 
 . pound. 
 
 . . ton. 
 
 .do 
 pound. 
 
 . do . 
 
 pound. 
 
 . do . 
 . yards. 
 
 . do . 
 pound. 
 
 . do . 
 
 .do. 
 . . ton. 
 . . cwt. 
 pound. 
 . . ton. 
 . . pair 
 
 pound. 
 . do . 
 .do. 
 
 . .do. 
 
 . .do. 
 . piece 
 
 pound 
 . do . 
 
 . .do. 
 
 , . pair, 
 barrel. 
 
 . .do. 
 
 . .do. 
 
 . pound 
 gallon 
 ..do 
 .do 
 .do 
 .do 
 
 . . do. 
 
 . .do 
 
 . .do 
 
 . .do 
 .do. 
 
 . pound. 
 
 ^ 
 
 1880. 1881. 
 
 SO 2.8 
 
 5 89.7 
 
 72 34.6 
 
 144 61.0 
 
 90 00.0 
 
 2 50.4 
 
 07.6 
 
 1 74.8 
 37.8 
 
 2 68.0 
 07.4 
 46.5 
 
 4.2 
 51.5 
 
 2 78.1 
 42.2 
 
 '83.6 
 
 4 26.0 
 1 27.3 
 
 5 69.9 
 8 Ol.O 
 
 12.1 
 
 4 33.0 
 
 3 07.2 
 29.3 
 14.3 
 
 26.2 
 
 11.6 
 
 8.0 
 
 8.6 
 
 7.1 
 
 1 35.8 
 15.7 
 
 18 05,4 
 
 $11 01.9 
 
 25.3 
 
 2 97.5 
 1 95.3 
 
 $0 04.2 
 
 11 96.3 
 
 71 19.6 
 
 105 89.2 
 
 76 69,2 
 
 4 51.6 
 00.3 
 
 1 38.0 
 35.7 
 
 2 50.0 
 23 2 
 66.1 
 
 4.3 
 66.7 
 
 2 90.5 
 47.2 
 
 1 11 .."i 
 
 5 93.8 
 
 1 17.2 
 5 75.4 
 7 76.0 
 
 11.2 
 
 4 67.4 
 
 2 99.0 
 16.3 
 11.4 
 
 24.6 
 
 10.9 
 
 7.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 6.1 
 
 1 62.3 
 
 14-3 
 
 18 54.:} 
 
 $12 91J 
 
 19.1 
 
 3 00.1 
 1 46.6 
 
 $0 02.0 $0 03.0 
 
 5 04 .Ol 7 38.6 
 
 73 01.6' 77 02.2 
 
 220 OSJiilll 07.5 
 
 1.1 
 3.9 
 3.5 
 1.6 
 6.4 
 
 9 96.8 
 3.6 
 14.4 
 22.1 
 
 1 17.7 
 
 1 30.5 
 
 2 70,5 
 2 15.9 
 
 1.3 
 7.7 
 6.6 
 9.2 
 21.0 
 64.0 
 79.2 
 1 02.2 
 35.9 
 44.6 
 78.0 
 13 4 
 
 II 
 
 18S0. 1881. 
 
 1870. 1880. 
 
 56.5 103.3 
 46.81146.3 
 49.31105.4 
 132.7' .iO.3 
 
 102 41.B 
 
 4 20.8 
 
 8.9 
 
 1 7S:8 
 32.6 
 
 1 42.0 
 -.5:2 
 69:6 
 
 4:6 
 54:2 
 
 2 70:8 
 ■10:2 
 81:1 
 
 4 76:4 
 1 24.3 
 
 5 87:6 
 7 78.4 
 
 12.1 
 
 3 47.1 
 3 12.2 
 
 l.'i.S 
 ll.O 
 
 33.2 
 11.5 
 
 7.8 
 
 110 35.9 
 
 4 23.8 
 
 8.0 
 
 1 77.9 
 27.4 
 
 2 68.7 
 
 3.2 
 62.0 
 
 4.6 
 .55.2 
 
 2 92.0 
 43.9 
 97.7 
 
 5 40.8 
 1 11.3 
 5 66.9 
 8 32.0 
 
 11.8 
 
 4 62.6 
 
 3 87.1 
 16.1 
 11.5 
 
 29.6 
 11.2 
 7.3 
 
 1.6 
 3.7 
 5.2 
 3.7 
 3.7 
 10 93.2 
 3.3 
 11.4 
 20.2 
 1 25.4 
 
 1 62.0 
 
 2 81.1 
 2 51.2 
 
 1.5 
 7.4 
 9.2 
 9.0 
 21.7 
 77.8 
 83.5 
 86 6 
 42 5 
 30.5 
 67.4 
 16 7 
 
 6.0 
 
 1 36.2 
 15.0 
 
 15 06.3 
 
 $10 91.4 
 
 26.4 
 
 2 99.3 
 2 00.8 
 
 1.8 
 3.4 
 3.5 
 
 V O J. 
 
 . S S 
 5>SL5: 
 
 I'M 
 
 Jo w C 
 Oh -So. 
 
 78.2 
 76.2 
 lU.l 
 
 61.3 
 76.7 
 
 163.3 
 68.0 
 
 112.9 
 80.7 
 .59.7 
 .58-3 
 69.7 
 86.3 
 98.0 
 86.3 
 92.7 
 74.9 
 71.9 
 
 68 2 
 82.1 
 92.5 
 56.0 
 
 5.5.1 
 47.6 
 42.9 
 
 107.7 
 99.2 
 89.8 
 
 99.5 
 
 84.0 
 
 189.2 
 
 C1.5 
 
 89.2 
 
 100.0 
 
 101.8 
 
 104.3 
 
 104.2 
 
 120.4 
 
 113.5 
 
 89.5 
 
 90.4 
 
 106.8 
 
 97.5 
 
 130.4 
 123.9 
 101.9 
 104.5 
 
 89.1 
 97.4 
 93.5 
 
 !.l 
 5.2 
 7 92.5 
 3.9 
 11.5 
 23.2 
 1 16.6 
 
 1 25.2 
 
 2 27.0 
 2 05.5 
 
 1.3 
 
 6.8 
 
 6.4 
 
 8.6 
 
 20.2 
 
 .54.1 
 
 77,4 
 
 1 01.0 
 
 34.1 
 
 46.0 
 
 81.2 
 
 14.7 
 
 5.4 
 66.0 
 16.0 
 44.3 
 14.7 
 22.4 
 97.8 
 40.7 
 
 1.4 
 3.7 
 3.2 
 
 22 
 4.6 
 
 94.9 
 174.7 
 
 64.0 
 105.8 
 
 73.0 
 146.4 
 
 73.2 
 
 43.3 
 
 87.5 
 75.0 
 69.5 
 01.1 
 85.1 
 
 34 
 
 10.8 
 
 22.5 
 
 1 26.3 
 
 1 45.2 
 
 2 47.0 
 2 34.1 
 
 1.4 
 7.6 
 9.8 
 10.3 
 21.7 
 66.7 
 77.8 
 96.4 
 38.2 
 45 9 
 671 
 16.2 
 
 90.0 
 121.1 
 106.6 
 122.4 
 102.1 
 84.8 
 99.5 
 70.0 
 
 77.7 
 108.8 
 
 914 
 104.7 
 .4 
 
 .59.6 87.1 
 90.7 93.9 
 79.2 96.9 
 
 83.1 108.3 
 73.5116.9 
 81.1108.5 
 77.3113.9 
 69.0|107.l! 
 36.81111.7 
 
 94.2 15.3.1 
 
 33.7 
 
 48.5 
 60.0 
 60.6 
 52.0 
 
 6.3.4 
 103.1 
 
 119.7 
 107.9 
 123.2 
 100.3 
 95.4 
 112.0 
 99.8 
 82.R 
 110.2 
 
374 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Average and Comparative Prices, A-c. — {Continued.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I Percent, of 
 
 
 
 Average price 
 
 Average price' the pricenof 
 
 
 
 during montli of 
 
 during year ended 
 
 year 1881 
 
 Commodities. 
 
 
 June — 
 
 
 June 30— 
 
 to prices of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hie years — 
 
 
 1880. 
 
 1881. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1881. 
 
 1870. 
 
 1880. 
 120.8 
 
 Bacon and hams. . . 
 
 . pound. 
 
 li.8 
 
 9.0 
 
 6.7 
 
 8.1 
 
 61.5 
 
 Freah beef .... 
 
 . .do. 
 
 8.6 
 
 9.6 
 
 8.7 
 
 9.3 
 
 129.1 
 
 106.8 
 
 Salted beef . 
 
 . .do. 
 
 6.4 
 
 7.6 
 
 6.3 
 
 6.5 
 
 147.7 
 
 103.1 
 
 Butter 
 
 . .do. 
 
 17.6 
 
 17.2 
 
 17.0 
 
 19.8 
 
 67.6 
 
 116.4 
 
 Cheese 
 
 . . do . 
 
 11.4 
 
 10.1 
 
 9.6 
 
 11.0 
 
 71.8 
 
 116.7 
 
 
 . dozen. 
 . . cwt. 
 
 11.8 
 3 90,9 
 
 17.3 
 4 21.5 
 
 16.4 
 4 11.9 
 
 17.1 
 3 95.2 
 
 43-2 
 76.1 
 
 104.-2 
 95.9 
 
 Fish:— Dried . . 
 
 Pickled. . . 
 
 . barrel. 
 
 6 29.7 
 
 5 68.1 
 
 6 23.1 
 
 5 08.1 
 
 B2.0 
 
 97.1 
 
 Lard 
 
 . pound. 
 
 7.4 
 
 10.9 
 
 7.4 
 
 9.3 
 
 66.3 
 
 126.6 
 
 Mutton, fresh .... 
 
 . . do . 
 
 6.9 
 
 8.1 
 
 7.6 
 
 7.8 
 
 
 1U4.0 
 
 Pork.. 
 
 . .do. 
 
 6.3 
 
 8.1 
 
 6.1 
 
 7.6 
 
 !)6.'8 
 
 124,6 
 
 Onion* . . . ■ 
 
 . bushel. 
 
 1 43.9 
 
 1 02.9 
 
 90.7 
 
 1 29.6 
 
 77.3 
 
 142.8 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 .do. 
 
 70.5 
 
 79.5 
 
 74.9 
 
 72.0 
 
 103.3 
 
 94.1 
 
 Quicksilver 
 
 . pound. 
 
 38.3 
 
 38.5 
 
 38.0 
 
 41.4 
 
 101.9 
 
 108.9 
 
 Kags 
 
 .do. 
 
 1.4 
 
 2.0 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.0 
 
 22.4 
 
 Ul.l 
 
 Bice 
 
 . .do. 
 
 7.0 
 
 6.1 
 
 7.2 
 
 6.6 
 
 Ills 
 
 91.6 
 
 Salt 
 
 . bushel. 
 
 41.0 
 
 1 30.7 
 
 29.8 
 
 33.1 
 
 82.6 
 
 111.1 
 
 Cottonseed". . . 
 
 . pound. 
 
 .8 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.3 
 
 
 118.1 
 
 Soap 
 
 .do. 
 
 4.4 
 
 5.0 
 
 4.7 
 
 4.8 
 
 60.0 
 
 102.1 
 
 Average and Comparatl-ve Prices, &c. — (Continued.) 
 
 Commodities. 
 
 Spermaceti ... . . pound 
 
 Spirits; — Grain . . . .gallon. 
 Molasses . ■ . . do . 
 
 Spirits turpentine do . 
 
 Starch pound. 
 
 Sugar :— Brown pound. 
 
 Refined . ... do . 
 
 Molasses gallon. 
 
 Tallow pound. 
 
 Tobacco, leaf do . 
 
 Varnish -gallon 
 
 Wax, bees pound. 
 
 Boards, planks M. feet. 
 
 Timber, sawed . . . cubic feet. 
 
 Wool, raw . pound 
 
 Zinc : — Ore cwt. 
 
 Plates, bars. . . pounds. 
 Average 
 
 Average price 
 during the month 
 of June — 
 
 1880. I 1881. 
 
 20.1 
 20.0 
 33.1 
 27.4 
 4.8 
 6.8 
 9.2 
 21.1 
 6.7 
 8.9 
 
 2 61.8 
 33.1 
 
 16 84.3 
 14.1 
 16.7 
 
 3 60.0 
 
 2 22. 
 
 27. 
 
 18 34. 
 
 16. 
 
 \ Percent, of 
 Average price the piicesof 
 
 during year ended 
 J«?ie$0— 
 
 1880. 
 
 22.7 
 
 25.5 
 
 30.9 
 
 30.0 
 
 4.3 
 
 6.3 
 
 9.0 
 
 15.0 
 
 6.2 
 
 7.5 
 
 2 11,6 
 25.2 
 
 14 80.8 
 13.5 
 37.5 
 
 3 22.7 
 
 8.7 
 
 1H81. 
 
 34.1 
 
 20.6 
 
 35.4 
 
 85.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 8.1 
 
 9.2 
 
 24.7 
 
 7.0 
 
 8.2 
 
 1 79.6 
 
 24.6 
 
 16 19.7 
 
 14.6 
 
 26.f 
 
 1 44.0 
 
 8.P 
 
 year 1881 
 to prices of 
 the years — 
 
 103.6 
 100.1 
 47.3 
 83.7 
 66.0 
 72..') 
 73.6 
 82. 
 69. 
 72.6 
 113.1 
 61.8 
 78.1 
 84.8 
 74.6 
 27.0 
 92.7 
 
 160.2 
 80.7 
 114.5 
 116.6 
 160.9 
 128.6 
 102.2 
 164.6 
 112.9 
 109.3 
 81.8 
 97.2 
 109.3 
 107.4 
 71.4 
 44.G 
 102:3 
 
 77.31105.3 
 
 Table showing the Annual Average Qold and Corrency Prices of Staple Articles in the Tfevr York Market from 1885 to 
 
 1880, and the Mean Gold Price of each for the 'Whole Period. 
 
 [Currency prices in black figures.] 
 
 
 Flour. 1 
 
 Bye 
 Flmir. 
 
 Com 
 Meal. 
 
 Wheat. 1 
 
 Bye. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Com. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 CajuUes 
 
 Coal. 1 
 
 Cofee. 1 
 
 Copper 
 pig. 
 
 Bate. 
 
 Sup'rfinel 
 
 Western. 
 
 l^orthern 
 
 Weslern. 
 
 Mould. 
 
 Sperm. 
 
 Anthror 
 cite. 
 
 Lioei-- 
 pool. 
 
 Rio. 
 
 Java. 
 Pr. lb. 
 
 
 Per bhl. 
 
 Per bbl. 
 
 Per bbl. 
 
 Oer bbl. 
 
 Per bmh 
 
 Per bujh 
 
 Per bush. 
 
 Pr. bush. 
 
 Pr. bash. 
 
 Per bush 
 
 Pr. lb. 
 
 Pr. lb. 
 
 Pr. (oil. 
 
 Pr. chald 
 
 Pr. lb. 
 
 Pr. lb. 
 
 1825. 
 
 S6 13,0 
 
 S3 79.5 
 
 S2 93.0 
 
 $2 88.0 
 
 80 92.0 
 
 
 ?0 53.8 
 
 88 31.7 
 
 $1 55.0 
 
 
 JO 11.5 
 
 $0 34.0 
 
 89 16.6 
 
 812 10.0 
 
 88 17.0 
 
 JO 19.4 
 
 80 211.0 
 
 1826. 
 
 4 81.0 
 
 4 86.0 
 
 3 66.0 
 
 3 90.5 
 
 94.0 
 
 
 70.7 
 
 47.5 
 
 76.5 
 
 
 12.2 
 
 33.0 
 
 10 91.5 
 
 10 91.5 
 
 15.0 
 
 16.6 
 
 18.5 ■ 
 
 1827 . 
 
 5 14.0 
 
 5 a3.6 
 
 3 53.5 
 
 3 24.5 
 
 99.2 
 
 
 08.0 
 
 40.5 
 
 61.0 
 
 
 1.3.0 
 
 80.0 
 
 11 33.6 
 
 10 44.5 
 
 14.2 
 
 16.1 
 
 17.8 
 
 1828. 
 
 6 58 
 
 5 74.0 
 
 2 98.0 
 
 2 88.0 
 
 1 21.8 
 
 
 63.6 
 
 30.0 
 
 52.6 
 
 
 11.7 
 
 26.0 
 
 10 91.5 
 
 11 40.6 
 
 13.U 
 
 16.0 
 
 18.1 
 
 1829 . 
 
 6 46.2 
 
 6 72.5 
 
 3 76.0 
 
 2 77.0 
 
 1 24.6 
 
 
 60.0 
 
 36.6 
 
 66.6 
 
 
 10.6 
 
 23.8 
 
 10 72.5 
 
 11 15.6 
 
 12.3 
 
 14.4 
 
 18.2 
 
 1830. 
 
 4 98.6 
 
 6 31.0 
 
 3 39.5 
 
 2 76.0 
 
 1 07.0 
 
 
 65.0 
 
 29.6 
 
 56.0 
 
 
 (J9.6 
 
 23.0 
 
 9 06.0 
 
 9 43.5 
 
 11.2 
 
 14.0 
 
 17.7 
 
 1831 . 
 
 5 71.0 
 
 6 01.0 
 
 3 97.2 
 
 3 60.6 
 
 1 18.6 
 
 
 78.2 
 
 37.6 
 
 69.6 
 
 
 11.2 
 
 28.0 
 
 7 08.6 
 
 10 20.5 
 
 11.2 
 
 11.5 
 
 18.0 
 
 1832 . 
 
 6 77.0 
 
 6 23.5 
 
 4 44.0 
 
 3 44.6 
 
 1 26.0 
 
 
 83.0 
 
 46.6 
 
 68.0 
 
 
 12.5 
 
 31.5 
 
 10 21.0 
 
 12 02.0 
 
 12.5 
 
 13.1 
 
 17.6 
 
 1833. 
 
 6 66.5 
 
 5 89.(1 
 
 3 93.0 
 
 3 85.0 
 
 1 19.3 
 
 
 80.0 
 
 40.5 
 
 73.5 
 
 
 12.6 
 
 33.6 
 
 6 82.0 
 
 10 16.0 
 
 12.3 
 
 12.7 
 
 16.5 
 
 1834. 
 
 4 98.0 
 
 5 21.5 
 
 3 44.0 
 
 3 45.0 
 
 1 06.8 
 
 
 66.2 
 
 35.7 
 
 66.9 
 
 
 12.1 
 
 30.6 
 
 6 00.0 
 
 9 12.0 
 
 11.5 
 
 12.3 
 
 16.2 
 
 1835 . 
 
 6 85.5 
 
 7 49.5 
 
 6 23.0 
 8 12.0 
 
 4 39.5 
 
 5 81.0 
 
 4 07.6 
 "4 72.0 
 
 1 22.0 
 
 
 91.0 
 1 04.0 
 
 48.2 
 62.9 
 
 90.6 
 96.0 
 
 
 11.3 
 12.5 
 
 32.3 
 33.6 
 
 6 71.0 
 8 64.6 
 
 9 59.6 
 10 97 5 
 
 11.9 
 11.5 
 
 12.6 
 1.3.2 
 
 16.5 
 
 1836 . 
 
 1 78.0 
 
 
 20.5 
 
 1837 1 
 
 8 74.7 
 
 9 64.6 
 
 
 4 66.6 
 
 1 69.8 
 
 
 1 07.6 
 
 50.2 
 
 1 00.0 
 
 
 12.5 
 
 30.6 
 
 9 26.3 
 
 10 12.6 
 
 10.1 
 
 13.0 
 
 17.7 
 
 9 14.0 
 
 10 08.0 
 
 
 4 87.5 
 
 177.5 
 
 
 1 12.6 
 
 52.6 
 
 104.5 
 
 
 131 
 
 32.0 
 
 9 68.0 
 
 58.0 
 
 10.6 
 
 18.6 
 
 18.5 
 
 1838 
 
 7 88.4 
 
 
 5 i3.8 
 
 3 82.5 
 
 1 90.2 
 
 
 1 03.6 
 
 39.1 
 
 83.4 
 
 
 14.8 
 
 32.0 
 
 7 81.9 
 
 10 26.6 
 
 10.3 
 
 12.2 
 
 16.8 
 
 7 95.6 
 
 
 5 18.5 
 
 3 86.0 
 
 192.0 
 
 
 104.6 
 
 39.5 
 
 84.2 
 
 
 15.0 
 
 32.3 
 
 7 89.0 
 
 .0 36.0 
 
 10.4 
 
 12.4 
 
 17.0 
 
 1839 . 
 
 7 30.0 
 
 
 4 83.5 
 
 4 04.0 
 
 1 24.5 
 
 
 96.8 
 
 47.0 
 
 86.6 
 
 
 15.0 
 
 39.6 
 
 8 10.0 
 
 10 16.6 
 
 10.8 
 
 12.6 
 
 17.5 
 
 1840. 
 
 5 29 5 
 
 
 3 16.6 
 
 3 22.6 
 
 1 05.5 
 
 
 69.8 
 
 34.0 
 
 67.0 
 
 
 12.8 
 
 39.6 
 
 7 14.5 
 
 8 26.0 
 
 10.1 
 
 12 8 
 
 18.2 
 
 1841 . 
 
 5 6'!.5 
 
 . . . .. 
 
 3 36.5 
 
 3 10.0 
 
 1 18.5 
 
 
 63.8 
 
 44.0 
 
 62.5 
 
 
 12.6 
 
 37.8 
 
 7 66.0 
 
 8 67.6 
 
 10.0 
 
 ,11.7 
 
 18.0 
 
 1812. 
 
 5 67.0 
 4 85.6 
 
 
 3 62.5 
 3 17.5 
 
 2 72.0 
 2 76.6 
 
 1 14.0 
 
 
 65.5 
 62.1 
 
 36.6 
 29.0 
 
 69.5 
 66.0 
 
 
 10.5 
 10.1 
 
 28.0 
 26.5 
 
 6 35.0 
 6 11.0 
 
 6 93.5 
 
 7 97.5 
 
 08.3 
 07.2 
 
 11.0 
 11.0 
 
 17.0 
 
 1843. 
 
 98.1 
 
 
 17.0 
 
 1844. 
 
 4 67.0 
 
 
 3 22.0 
 
 2 60.0 
 
 97.5 
 
 
 67.5 
 
 31.8 
 
 60.0 
 
 
 10.6 
 
 30.3 
 
 5 06.0 
 
 8 61.6 
 
 06.5 
 
 lo.p 
 
 17.6 
 
 1846 . 
 
 4 93.6 
 
 
 3 36.0 
 
 2 70.6 
 
 1 04.0 
 
 
 68.6 
 
 38.0 
 
 54.8 
 
 
 10.1 
 
 28.0 
 
 4 83.0 
 
 9 30.6 
 
 06.7 
 
 08.2 
 
 17.2 
 
 1816 . 
 
 6 96.0 
 
 
 3 60.5 
 
 3 65.0 
 
 1 08.5 
 
 
 74.6 
 
 39.5 
 
 68.0 
 
 
 10.0 
 
 27.0 
 
 6 72.6 
 
 7 58.0 
 
 07.0 
 
 08.3 
 
 17.H 
 
 1847 . 
 
 6 68.6 
 5 96.0 
 
 
 4 82.5 
 3 75.6 
 
 4 19.6 
 2 86.0 
 
 1 36.6 
 
 
 99.0 
 73.6 
 
 49.0 
 41.4 
 
 85.6 
 63.5 
 
 
 110 
 12.3 
 
 30.0 
 31.6 
 
 6 70.5 
 5 39.0 
 
 7 84.6 
 
 8 72.0 
 
 07.0 
 06.0 
 
 07.7 
 07.1 
 
 18.1 
 
 1848 . 
 
 1 17.6 
 
 
 18.0 
 
 1849 . 
 
 4 51- 
 
 
 3 05.0 
 
 2 95.0 
 
 1 24.0 
 
 
 60.1 
 
 38.7 
 
 62.7 
 
 
 11.5 
 
 36.0 
 
 6 69.0 
 
 8 29.0 
 
 06.9 
 
 06.6 
 
 17.1 
 
 1860. 
 
 6 66.0 
 
 
 2 99.0 
 
 2 97.0 
 
 1 27.5 
 
 
 64.7 
 
 43.0 
 
 62.5 
 
 
 11.6 
 
 41.5 
 
 6 73.0 
 
 8 31.5 
 
 10.6 
 
 12.0 
 
 17.2 
 
 J851 . 
 
 4 62.0 
 
 
 3 47.5 
 
 3 08.5 
 
 1 07.6 
 
 
 73.0 
 
 43.5 
 
 61.7 
 
 
 11.6 
 
 44.0 
 
 5 22.0 
 
 7 43.0 
 
 09.0 
 
 11.6 
 
 17.5 
 
 1852. 
 
 6 00.5 
 
 
 3 60.5 
 
 3 43.6 
 
 1 10.6 
 
 
 81.6 
 
 430 
 
 67.5 
 
 
 11.6 
 
 39.6 
 
 6 44.6 
 
 7 99..5 
 
 08.5 
 
 10.8 
 
 19.5 
 
 1853. 
 
 6 78 
 
 
 4 16.0 
 
 3 42.6 
 
 1 39.0 
 
 
 92.0 
 
 47.6 
 
 71.0 
 
 
 12.2 
 
 31.h 
 
 5 72.0 
 
 9 63.5 
 
 09.2 
 
 11.2 
 
 23.6 
 
 1854. 
 
 8 94.5 
 
 
 6 86.6 
 
 00.0 
 
 2 21.0 
 
 
 1 19.6 
 
 54.0 
 
 84.6 
 
 
 14.6 
 
 29.4 
 
 6 91.5 
 
 11 18.0 
 
 lO.l 
 
 li.\ 
 
 29.3 
 
 1855. 
 
 8 76.0 
 
 
 6 66.0 
 
 4 64.6 
 
 2 43.5 
 
 .... 
 
 1 33.6 
 
 69.5 
 
 99.0 
 
 
 14.8 
 
 32.0 
 
 6 36.0 
 
 8 32.0 
 
 10.0 
 
 13.5 
 
 24.0 
 
 1856 . 
 
 6 42.0 
 
 
 3 96.6 
 
 3 64.5 
 
 1 75.5 
 
 
 96.0 
 
 43.2 
 
 70.5 
 
 
 14.2 
 
 39.0 
 
 6 87.5 
 
 7 81.0 
 
 10.7 
 
 14.2 
 
 26.0 
 
 1857. 
 
 5 78,6 
 
 
 4 09.6 
 
 3 62.6 
 
 1 67.6 
 
 
 94.0 
 
 62.6 
 
 81.0 
 
 
 12.0 
 
 41.5 
 
 6 11.0 
 
 7 69.6 
 
 11.0 
 
 16.4 
 
 24.7 
 
 1858 . 
 
 4 29.5 
 6 11.0 
 
 
 3 23.6 
 3 81.0 
 
 3 60.0 
 3 89 
 
 1 32.5 
 1 43.6 
 
 
 72.0 
 85.5 
 
 45.0 
 48.0 
 
 811.6 
 
 
 
 39.5 
 40.7 
 
 5 22.5 
 
 6 31.0 
 
 7 34.0 
 7 97.0 
 
 10.3 
 11.2 
 
 16.8 
 14.6 
 
 23.2 
 
 1859 . 
 
 86.2 
 
 
 
 
 1860 . 
 
 6 19.0 
 
 .... 
 
 3 67.5 
 
 3 57.5 
 
 1 49.5 
 
 
 82.6 
 
 41.7 
 
 74.0 
 
 
 
 n.i 
 
 5 62.0 
 
 8 87.0 
 
 13.6 
 
 15.5 
 
 
 1801. 
 
 4 69.5 
 
 
 3 17.0 
 
 2 88.0 
 
 1 42.6 
 
 
 70.0 
 
 35.6 
 
 61.0 
 
 
 
 31.0 
 
 5 24.5 
 
 6 19.5 
 
 13.7 
 
 17.6 
 
 
 1862- 
 
 4 56.0 
 
 .... 
 
 3 26.7 
 
 2 80.3 
 
 1 29.7 
 
 
 70.1 
 
 42J3 
 
 65.2 
 
 
 
 25.6 
 
 6 02.8 
 
 5 34.6 
 
 19.4 
 
 23.9 
 
 
 6 16.6 
 
 3 92.0 
 
 ' 4 630 
 
 8 70.0 
 
 2 99.0 
 
 3 17.5 
 
 3 01.0 
 
 1 39.0 
 
 1 12.9 
 
 
 79.5 
 
 73.3 
 
 48.0 
 
 62.9 
 
 62.5 
 
 
 
 29.0 
 
 26.6 
 
 6 69.5 
 
 5 97.0 
 
 6 05.5 
 
 5 86.3 
 
 22.0 
 
 20.8 
 
 27.0 
 
 25.1 
 
 
 1833 
 
 61.3 
 
 
 
 
 6 69.0 
 
 6 72.0 
 
 4 34.0 
 
 4 37.0 
 
 1 64.0 
 
 
 106.5 
 
 76.8 
 
 89.0 
 
 
 
 8.72 
 
 8 60.E 
 
 8 51.0 
 
 30.3 
 
 36.5 
 
 
 1864 
 
 3 96.6 
 
 4 03.6 
 
 3 82.9 
 
 3 43 8 
 
 95.6 
 
 $IJ 98.4 
 
 77.4 
 
 46.6 
 
 73.9 
 
 80 84.4 
 
 
 
 4 93.6 
 
 
 20.4 
 
 23.4 
 
 
 8 06.2 
 
 4 90.1 
 
 8 20.2 
 
 5 52.6 
 
 7 78.3 
 4 30.4 
 
 98.U 
 3 76.2 
 
 1 94.2 
 
 1 37.3 
 
 2 00.0 
 
 1 26.2 
 
 157.6 
 
 75.8 
 
 92.7 
 
 46.9 
 
 1 50.2 
 
 78.0 
 
 1 71.6 
 
 
 
 10 03.1 
 
 7 26.0 
 
 
 41.5 
 
 15.6 
 
 47.6 
 
 19.2 
 
 
 1805 1 
 
 90.3 
 
 
 
 
 7 70.6 
 
 8 «8.» 
 
 76.8 
 
 5 91.6 
 
 2 16.0 
 
 1 96.9 
 
 1 91.2 
 
 73.8 
 
 1 28.6 
 
 1 42.1 
 
 
 
 11 41.6 
 
 
 24.5 
 
 30.3 
 
 
 1866 j 
 
 5 .62.3 
 
 7 20.1 
 
 4 36.3 
 
 3 36.7 
 
 2 09.0 
 
 1 67.8 
 
 74.6 
 
 38.0 
 
 64.2 
 
 76.9 
 
 
 
 6 76.5 
 
 
 14.6 
 
 18.6 
 
 
 7 92.0 
 
 10 14.3 
 
 6 13.1 
 
 4 74.3 
 
 2 94.5 
 
 2 36.0 
 
 1 050 
 
 63.6 
 
 90.4 
 
 1 08.4 
 
 
 
 9 50.0 
 
 
 20.7 
 
 26.2 
 
 
 1807' 
 
 B 63.4 
 
 8 18.9 
 
 6 65.8 
 
 4 36.6 
 
 2 05.8 
 
 1 62.7 
 
 1 07.2 
 
 65.3 
 
 87.6 
 
 86.4 
 
 
 
 6 21.2 
 
 
 1.1.4 
 
 17.9 
 
 
 9 16.4 
 
 5 66.4 
 7 91.2 
 
 11 31.2 
 
 6 67.8 
 9 82.7 
 
 7 81.6 
 
 6 96.3 
 
 8 32.9 
 
 6 01.6 
 
 4 24.6 
 5 98.1 
 
 2 84.4 
 1 81.9 
 2 54.1 
 
 2 24-8 
 1 63.4 
 2 14.5 
 
 1 48.1 
 
 1 36,0 
 1 76.1 
 
 75.0 
 
 68.4 
 81.6 
 
 1 21.0 
 
 84.6 
 1 18.2 
 
 1 19.4 
 
 
 
 7 20.0 
 
 5 63.9 
 7 75.0 
 
 
 18.5 
 12.0 
 16.9 
 
 , 24.8 
 16.7 
 28.4 
 
 
 1808 1 
 
 1 60.7 
 
 
 
 
 2 10.5 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 30.6 
 
 4 84.0 
 
 4 32.5 
 
 S 68.C 
 
 1 24.1 
 
 1 08.; 
 
 97.C 
 
 64.8 
 
 76.2 
 
 1 24.3 
 
 
 
 6 64.2 
 
 
 09.3 
 
 17.3 
 
 
 
 5 72.6 
 
 4 37.5 
 
 6 02.9 
 6 23.8 
 
 5 85.2 
 
 5 52.6 
 
 6 21.0 
 
 6 13.4 
 
 6 43.7 
 
 4 73.9 
 
 5 44.8 
 
 5 09.2 
 
 6 86 
 
 6 13.2 
 6 89. 
 
 6 92.6 
 
 5 76.2 
 
 4 61.4 
 5 30.4 
 
 4 72.2 
 5 27.7 
 
 4 40.2 
 4 94.7 
 
 4 83.8 
 
 4 89.4 
 
 4 38.9 
 6 04.5 
 
 4 62.2 
 4 04.8 
 
 3 16,4 
 3 55.6 
 
 2 96.6 
 
 1 66.1 
 
 1 19.4 
 1 37.8 
 
 1 41.4 
 1 68.1 
 
 1 68.4 
 1 78.0 
 
 1 68.0 
 
 1 44.1 
 
 98.4 
 1 13.2 
 
 1 30.-^ 
 1 52.2 
 
 1 49.6 
 168.0 
 
 1 47.0 
 
 1 29.8 
 
 88.9 
 
 1 02.2 
 
 89.1 
 09.B 
 
 81.8 
 92.0 
 
 84. k 
 
 73.0 
 
 62.2 
 60.0 
 
 63.7 
 60.0 
 
 42.7 
 48.0 
 
 43.0 
 
 1 61.4 
 
 84.8 
 97.5 
 
 68.1 
 76.1 
 
 611.7 
 68.3 
 
 66.1 
 
 1 65.5 
 
 
 
 8 88.3 
 4 38.1 
 
 6 03.0 
 
 6 48.8 
 
 7 25.0 
 4 33.6 
 
 4 87.8 
 
 4 36.6 
 
 
 12.6 
 
 13.3 
 15.4 
 
 14.7 
 16.6 
 
 17.3 
 19.6 
 
 47.5 
 
 23.1 
 
 18.3 
 21.1 
 
 18.3 
 ,20.5 
 
 18.0 
 21.3 
 
 19.7 
 
 
 1870- 
 
 84.6 
 
 
 
 
 97.2 
 
 
 
 
 1871- 
 
 86.3 
 
 
 
 
 90.5 
 
 
 
 
 
 77.6 
 
 
 
 
 
 87.1 
 
 
 
 
 1873 
 
 1 u.o 
 
 
 
 
 5 84.1 
 
 t 61.2 
 5 30.2 
 
 4 28.1 
 
 6 74.1 
 
 6 13.3 
 6 71.0 
 
 4 76.7 
 
 6 60.4 
 
 4 77.6 
 
 5 31.2 
 
 4 03.'/ 
 
 3 30.4 
 
 3 74.7 
 
 4 16.8 
 
 3 47.4 
 
 1 78.7 
 1 36.3 
 1 51.7 
 
 1 22.( 
 
 187.3 
 
 1 29.7 
 144.3 
 
 1 07.7 
 
 95.1) 
 
 91.P 
 1 02.2 
 
 84.!) 
 
 49.0 
 
 67.4 
 75.0 
 
 54.6 
 
 02.6 
 
 80.6 
 89.7 
 
 70.2 
 
 1 26.S 
 
 
 
 4 96.6 
 
 5 10.3 
 
 5 67.7 
 
 6 02.8 
 
 
 19.9 
 
 19.7 
 22.0 
 
 IC.O 
 
 22.3 
 
 23.0 
 
 26.6 
 
 22.6 
 
 
 187J- 
 
 1 50.9 
 
 
 
 
 1 70.1 
 
 1 18.'< 
 
 
 
 
 1875 
 
 
 
 
 4 92.1 
 
 5 48.0 
 
 4 63.6 
 
 3 9»4 
 
 1 40.i 
 
 123.( 
 
 07.( 
 
 02.8 
 
 80.7 
 
 1 30.0 
 
 
 
 6 78.0 
 
 
 18.4 
 
 26.0 
 
 
 1876 
 1877- 
 1878 
 
 4 37.3 
 
 5 40.3 
 6 66.4 
 
 
 4 01.11 
 
 2 65.3 
 
 1 IS..' 
 
 1 00.( 
 
 71.: 
 
 36.1 
 
 61.2 
 
 86.0 
 
 
 
 4 19.0 
 
 
 14.0 
 
 18.8 
 
 
 6 80.7 
 
 6 32.6 
 6 03.0 
 
 4 47.6 
 
 4 27.4 
 4 48.1 
 
 2 84.3 
 
 2 82.2 
 
 2 95.9 
 
 1 32.0 
 
 1 60.7 
 1 68.6 
 
 1 18.1 
 
 1 43.4 
 150.4 
 
 79.6 
 76.0 
 79.7 
 
 40.2 
 
 42.4 
 44.5 
 
 57.1 
 
 6R.3 
 61.2 
 
 96.5 
 
 
 
 4 66.7 
 
 3 38.7 
 3 55.1 
 
 
 16.8 
 16.8 
 18.6 
 
 27.0 
 
 22 6 
 23.6 
 
 
 oo.c 
 63.(1 
 
 
 
 
 3 95.6 
 
 4 10.6 
 4 13.6 
 
 4 76.3 
 4 80.2 
 
 4 38.1 
 4 66.3 
 
 3 11.8 
 8 14.4 
 
 2 90.9 
 
 3 61.fi 
 
 2 41.4 
 2 48.4 
 
 2 43.6 
 2 80.4 
 
 1 24.2 
 1 25.2 
 
 4 22.3 
 1 25.3 
 
 1 12.6 
 1 13.6 
 
 1 12.9 
 1 21.3 
 
 64.1 
 04.7 
 
 68..-! 
 93.4 
 
 32.8 
 88.1 
 
 38.6 
 43.8 
 
 51.3 
 61.8 
 
 49 
 64.7 
 70.0 
 
 40.7 
 47.1 
 
 
 
 3 54.9 
 3 57.8 
 2 89.8 
 
 
 13.;; 
 18.7 
 
 14.' 
 12.! 
 
 22.2 
 22.4 
 
 24.0 
 21.6 
 15,.'! 
 
 
 
 67.0 
 75.8 
 92.9 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 08.9 
 
 
 
 Aver. 
 
 5 44.8 
 
 6 72.61 3 99.U 
 
 3 40.0 
 
 1 34.9 
 
 1 28.2 
 
 79.4 
 
 43.7 
 
 la.o 
 
 32.0 
 
 36.61 8 98.( 
 
 12.' 
 
 lilO 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEEST8 OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 375 
 
 Table alioivliig the Annual Average Gold and Currencj' Prices of Staple Articles, Continued. 
 
 [Currency prices in blacli letters.] 
 
 
 Copper. 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 FM. 
 
 ^ 
 
 FruU. 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 Chmpovjder. 
 
 ffemp. 
 
 Dale. 
 
 i 
 
 s 
 
 J 
 
 ..^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 |. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 f 
 
 1 
 
 kj 
 
 1825 . 
 
 Pr. lb. 
 
 'so 27.7 
 66.3 
 
 31.7 
 499 
 
 32.9 
 46.4 
 
 26.7 
 36.9 
 
 23.8 
 33.3 
 
 25.2 
 33.6 
 
 27.2 
 31.0 
 
 29.0 
 32 5 
 
 38.6 
 43.4 
 
 37.0 
 42.1 
 
 29.5 
 32.9 
 
 26.1 
 30.0 
 
 28.7 
 32.0 
 
 29.5 
 31.0 
 
 27.7 
 28.0 
 
 25.1 
 
 30.0 
 
 Pr.lb. 
 to 30.4 
 29.7 
 26.2 
 24.7 
 23.5 
 22.0 
 22.2 
 22.6 
 23.0 
 23.6 
 23.6 
 27.0 
 26.8 
 
 27.0 
 25.2 
 
 26.5 
 24.5 
 24.5 
 
 :25.0 
 22.7 
 21.2 
 21.5 
 22.7 
 23.6 
 23.2 
 21.6 
 21.6 
 21.6 
 20.5 
 23.5 
 29.1 
 30.2 
 29.7 
 31.2 
 30.1 
 26.0 
 26.1 
 36.2 
 24.2 
 26.5 
 
 30.0 
 28.6 
 
 41.6 
 27.4 
 
 66.8 
 34.9 
 
 65 
 32.9 
 
 46.4 
 25.9 
 
 35.9 
 22.8 
 
 31. 9 
 24.4 
 
 32.5 
 25.7 
 
 29.6 
 27.2 
 
 30.4 
 37.2 
 
 41.9 
 35.6 
 
 40.5 
 24.2 
 
 2T.0 
 25.2 
 
 29.0 
 27.8 
 
 81.0 
 27.6 
 
 29.0 
 25.8 
 
 26.0 
 23.1 
 28.0 
 
 Pr.lb. 
 to 18.2 
 11.1 
 09.7 
 10.0 
 09.0 
 10.0 
 09.0 
 09.5 
 12.5 
 12.5 
 16.7 
 16.0 
 11.5 
 
 12.0 
 106 
 
 10.7 
 13.3 
 08.7 
 09.8 
 08.0 
 06.6 
 06.6 
 OQ.l 
 07.3 
 10.3 
 06.1 
 08.0 
 12.3 
 10.2 
 09.0 
 10.0 
 09.0 
 09.2 
 10.6 
 14.0 
 130 
 11.4 
 10.5 
 16.1 
 36.3 
 
 41.2 
 51.2 
 
 74.3 
 
 66.8 
 
 1 13.6 
 
 37.6 
 
 59.2 
 
 ■ 28.2 
 
 39.8 
 19.7 
 
 27.3 
 19.3 
 
 27.0 
 22-4 
 
 29.9 
 18.5 
 
 21.3 
 16.0 
 
 1T.9 
 18.4 
 
 20.7 
 16.5 
 
 18.8 
 14.8 
 
 16.5 
 13.0 
 
 16.0 
 10.5 
 11.7 
 11.1 
 11.7 
 10.7 
 
 10.8 
 114 
 12.1 
 
 Pr. cwl. 
 
 S2 49.0 
 
 2 26.0 
 
 2 97.5 
 
 2 88.6 
 
 • 2 51.5 
 2 33.0 
 2 77.5 
 2 87.5 
 2 72.0 
 2 38.5 
 
 2 79.5 
 
 3 36.5 
 3 27.7 
 
 3 42.6 
 3 47.8 
 
 3 61.0 
 3 74.6 
 2 61.0 
 2 58.5 
 2 27.0 
 2 46.0 
 2 67.0 
 2 62.5 
 
 2 82.6 
 
 3 58.0 
 2 96.6 
 5 52.0 
 2 60.0 
 
 2 74.0 
 
 3 44.5 
 3 32.0 
 3 40.6 
 3 84.0 
 3 86.0 
 3 77.6 
 
 3 38.0 
 
 4 11.5 
 3 48.6 
 3 05.0 
 3 42.6 
 
 3 88.0 
 3 98.5 
 
 5 78.5 
 
 3 7U.1 
 
 7 52.4 
 
 5 34.6 
 
 8 40.6 
 
 4 98.8 
 7 02.6 
 
 4 91.9 
 
 6 79.6 
 
 4 70.6 
 
 6 57.2 
 
 5 59.2 
 
 7 43,7 
 5 93.1 
 
 6 81.8 
 5 18-2 
 
 5 T9.1 
 
 5 10.7 
 
 6 73.0 
 
 6 32.4 
 6 06.7 
 
 4 77.2 
 
 5 30.9 
 6 43.4 
 
 6 24.7 
 6 79.2 
 
 6 45.1 
 6 03.8 
 
 6 33.0 
 6 65.4 
 
 6 70.0 
 
 5 27.7 
 5 99.6 
 
 Pr. bbl. 
 
 $5 33.5 
 6 19.6 
 6 32.6 
 5 36.6 
 
 5 51.0 
 
 6 83.(1 
 6 30.0 
 
 5 64.5 
 
 6 62 
 
 6 24.6 
 
 7 16.0 
 9 61.5 
 9 40.7 
 
 9 83.0 
 U 23.3 
 
 11 33.5 
 13 51.0 
 
 12 82.0 
 
 13 55 
 
 10 65.0 
 9 25.0 
 
 10 78.6 
 
 12 56.6 
 10 64.5 
 
 9 99.0 
 
 8 44.5 
 10 65.6 
 10 79.6 
 
 9 .94.0 
 
 10 06.0 
 
 13 45.5 
 16 91.6 
 20 10.0 
 20 80.6 
 20 50.0 
 
 11 68.0 
 
 15 93.0 
 
 16 71.0 
 
 11 63.5 
 13 52.7 
 
 16 32.0 
 
 12 02.0 
 
 17 .0 
 7 00.6 
 
 14 23.» 
 11 97.0 
 
 18 82.2 
 
 13 80 
 
 19 43.7 
 13 93.1 
 
 19 24.3 
 15 08.0 
 
 21 06.2 
 20 44.4 
 
 27 18.7 
 22 18.5 
 
 25 50.0 
 13 79.7 
 
 16 41.6 
 
 11 92.1 
 
 13 39.6 
 15 71.2 
 
 17 87.6 
 
 12 75.4 
 
 14 18.7 
 
 15 10.3 
 
 17 36.0 
 
 16 88.2 
 
 18 80.0 
 19 65.7 
 
 20 50.0 
 
 18 65.0 
 18 70.0 
 
 19 40 
 
 Pr. ft. 
 
 '. '. 
 
 jo' 10.9 
 22.2 
 
 13.2 
 20.8 
 
 14.6 
 20.5 
 
 13.9 
 19.4 
 
 14.1 
 19.7 
 
 15.7 
 20.9 
 
 12.7 
 14.7 
 
 13.2 
 14.8 
 
 14.6 
 16.6 
 
 14.9 
 17.0 
 
 Pr.lb. 
 
 $0 i6.'5 
 ll.O 
 11.5 
 14.6 
 15.3 
 16.5 
 22.5 
 16.0 
 12.3 
 12.7 
 12.6 
 14.6 
 
 16.5 
 15.9 
 
 23.2 
 
 PrBox. 
 83 66.5 
 3 25.0 
 2 46.0 
 2 74.0 
 2 96.6 
 2 48.0 
 2 47.6 
 2 96.0 
 2 10.6 
 
 1 61.0 
 
 2 09.5 
 2 32.0 
 1 04.3 
 
 1 09.0 
 1 63.0 
 
 1 64.6 
 1 32.6 
 1 52.0 
 1 85.0 
 1 34.5 
 
 1 70.0 
 
 2 26.6 
 2 46.0 
 2 03.5 
 1 71.6 
 1 66.6 
 
 1 97.0 
 
 2 55.5 
 2 01.5 
 
 Pr.a. 
 *0 08.6 
 09.6 
 09.2 
 07.6 
 08.3 
 06.6 
 07.0 
 09.5 
 04.5 
 06.1 
 07.5 
 06.8 
 05.2 
 
 05.6 
 08.2 
 
 08.3 
 12.1 
 08.6 
 07.1 
 07.1 
 08.6 
 09.1 
 08.7 
 10 8 
 10.1 
 10.6 
 12.0 
 17.0 
 
 Pr. Vb. 
 
 8011.6 
 14.7 
 11.1 
 11.2 
 19.1 
 17.7 
 17.2 
 16.6 
 18.2 
 09.8 
 12.5 
 10.1 
 07.6 
 08.0 
 11.8 
 12.0 
 11.6 
 09.2 
 
 ' i2.'5 
 10.8 
 
 Pr. lb. 
 
 4 93.6 
 
 5 28.5 
 4 86.5 
 
 6 81.0 
 
 7 10.0 
 6 46.6 
 6 34.0 
 4 66.5 
 4 27.0 
 4 36.0 
 
 4 50.0 
 
 5 20.5 
 4 30.6 
 
 4 60.0 
 4 45.9 
 4 60.0 
 4 50.0 
 3 60.0 
 3 37.0 
 3 00.0 
 3 00.0 
 3 00.0 
 3 06.0 
 2 54.0 
 2 25.0 
 2 26.0 
 2 25.0 
 2 26.0 
 2 25.0 
 2 25.0 
 2 00.0 
 1 36.6 
 1 30.5 
 1 42.0 
 1 78.5 
 1 12.0 
 1 29.6 
 1 10.0 
 1 10.0 
 1 29.8 
 . 1 47.0 
 1 90.5 
 2 76.5 
 
 iV100/( 
 86 17.6 
 6 24.0 
 6 12.6 
 12.6 
 6 12.5 
 6 12.6 
 6 12.0 
 6 12.0 
 6 12.0 
 5 75.0 
 5 10.0 
 
 5 37.0 
 
 6 50.2 
 
 5 76.0 
 6 69.8 
 
 6 75.0 
 6 75.0 
 
 5 75.0 
 
 6 76.0 
 
 5 75.0 
 
 6 75.0 
 . 5 76.0 
 
 ' 6 12.0 
 6 12.0 
 6 12.0 
 6 12.0 
 6 12.0 
 6 12.0 
 5 75.0 
 5 75.0 
 
 5 76.0 
 
 6 83.0 
 6 39.0 
 6 49.0 
 6 25.0 
 6 25.0 
 6 25.0 
 6 66.4 
 
 6 29.0 
 6 44.2 
 
 9 36.0 
 5 35.6 
 
 10 88.6 
 
 8 21.4 
 12 91.6 
 
 9 08.0 
 12 79.0 
 
 9 12.6 
 
 12 60.4 
 8 36.6 
 
 1168.6 
 
 10 69.0 
 14 08.3 
 
 12 83.2 
 14 76.0 
 
 13 20.1 
 
 14 T5.6 
 13 62.7 
 
 15 31.2 
 15 96.7 
 
 18 16.6 
 17 22.8 
 
 19 16.4 
 17 09.5 
 
 19 66.0 
 17 78.0 
 
 19 80.0 
 15 83.6 
 
 16 60.0 
 
 13 39.2 
 
 13 50.0 
 
 14 62.0 
 13 02.0 
 
 Pr25» 
 $4 64.0 
 4 52.0 
 4 50.0 
 4 50.0 
 4 60.0 
 4 60.0 
 4 50.0 
 4 60.0 
 4 60.0 
 4 50.0 
 4 50.0 
 4 60.0 
 4 30.6 
 4 50.0 
 4 45.9 
 
 so.o 
 
 4 60.0 
 4 00.0 
 3 87.5 
 3 87.5 
 3 87.5 
 3 87.5 
 3 12.0 
 2 76.0 
 2 75.0 
 2 75.0 
 2 76.0 
 2 76.0 
 2 75.0 
 2 75.0 
 2 64.5 
 
 2 62.6 
 
 3 29.0 
 
 4 46.5 
 
 P*-96tt 
 86 61.5 
 6 42.5 
 
 Pr. 25 «w. 
 
 Pr.Um. 
 
 Pr.ton. 
 
 
 
 
 1827 
 
 6 37.5 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 20.5 
 
 
 
 
 1829 . 
 1830. 
 
 4 87.5 
 4 87.^ 
 4 87.5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1833 
 
 4 87.5 
 4 87.6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1835 
 
 4 87 6 
 4 87.5 
 4 66.6 
 4 87.6 
 4 83.1 
 
 
 
 
 1836 
 
 
 
 
 1837 
 1838- 
 
 1839. 
 1840. 
 
 
 
 
 4 87.6 
 
 
 
 
 18 50.0 
 18 60.0 
 
 
 
 
 1842. 
 1843. 
 1844. 
 1846. 
 
 1846 . 
 
 1847 . 
 1848. 
 1849 . 
 1850. 
 
 18 50.0 
 
 
 
 
 18 50.0 
 18 50 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 17 57.5 
 
 
 
 
 17 32.5 
 
 
 
 
 17 60.0 
 17 50.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 17 SO.O 
 
 
 
 
 17 60.0 
 17 60.0 
 
 
 
 
 1852. 
 1853 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 88.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1864. 
 
 2 75 
 
 
 
 
 2 71.5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1S56. 
 1867. 
 1858 . 
 1869. 
 1860. 
 1861 . 
 
 3 36 
 
 
 
 
 4 05 
 
 
 
 5 37.5 
 
 5 28.5 
 
 6 30.6 
 5 12.5 
 5 12.5 
 
 5 69.9 
 6 45.6 
 
 4 76.4 
 
 6 91.5 
 
 4 03.8 
 8 20.8 
 
 6 51.1 
 8 66.6 
 
 5 60.2 
 
 7 76.0 
 
 5 00.7 
 6 91.6 
 
 4 66.4 
 6 60.0 
 
 4 88.8 
 6 60.0 
 
 6 38.2 
 18.7 
 
 5 14.6 
 
 5 T5.0 
 5 24.6 
 
 6 89.6 
 
 3 88.1 
 4 41.6 
 
 5 51.0 
 6 12.9 
 
 4 28.4 
 
 4 92.5 
 
 4 84.9 
 6 46.0 
 
 6 15.1 
 6 40.0 
 
 5 46Ji 
 
 5 49.7 
 
 6 65.0 
 6 00.0 
 
 • • ■ 
 
 S3 69.5 
 3 68.0 
 
 
 
 2 20.6 
 2 26.6 
 
 
 
 
 3 06.0 
 3 14.0 
 
 
 
 2 46.0 
 1 82.5 
 
 
 
 
 3 250 
 
 
 
 3 46.1 
 
 .... 
 
 
 1862 
 1863- 
 
 3 34.0 
 
 2 80.0 
 
 4 06.5 
 
 ' io.'3 
 
 15.0 
 
 
 3 92.0 
 
 ■ 2 96.5 
 
 4 29.0 
 
 2 89.9 
 6 89.3 
 
 4 23.9 
 6 66.6 
 
 3 81.6 
 
 5 37.5 
 3 22.7 
 
 4 45.8 
 
 2 86.4 
 4 00.0 
 
 3 00.8 
 4 00.0 
 
 3 11.7 
 3 58.3 
 
 2 68.5 
 3 00.0 
 
 2 96.6 
 3 33.3 
 
 3 26.9 
 3 70.8 
 
 3 27.3 
 3 64.1 
 
 2 46.8 
 2 83.7 
 
 2 60.4 
 
 2 90.0 
 
 3 00.5 
 
 3 16.0 
 3 12.4 
 
 3 15.0 
 3 15.0 
 3 15.0 
 
 
 
 1864 
 1865 
 
 SI 61 72.0 
 
 ■308 37.5 
 
 195 03.9 
 
 306 66.6 
 
 244 80.1 
 344 79.1 
 
 264 66.1 
 366 41.6 
 
 219 67.2 
 306 66.6 
 
 225 60.2 
 298 54.1 
 
 247 04.9 
 281 66.6 
 
 245 75.1 
 274 68.3 
 
 201 36.2 
 226 26.0 
 
 186 .32.2 
 210 83.3 
 
 184 48.2 
 205 20.8 
 
 195 81.9 
 225 08.0 
 
 172 95.4 
 192 60.0 
 
 171 40.5 
 179 67.0 
 
 171 12.0 
 172 60.0 
 
 156 85.0 
 
 261 00.0 
 
 884 35.6 
 171 46.7 
 
 116 33.4 
 182 91.6 
 
 178 38.7 
 
 1866 
 1867 
 1868 
 1869' 
 1870 
 1871 
 1872 
 
 
 
 
 • • • ■ 
 
 251 26.0 
 
 193 67.0 
 267 60.0 
 
 138 57.5 
 193 64.1 
 
 148 83.2 
 197 91.6 
 
 166 82.2 
 191 76.0 
 
 155 87.8 
 174 16.6 
 
 121 44.7 
 136 46.8 
 
 107 31.1 
 
 1873 { 
 
 
 
 
 
 122 08.3 
 
 
 14 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 130 91.6 
 
 1874 1 
 
 16.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 145 62.6 
 
 
 12.7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 139 26.9 
 
 1876- 
 
 14.7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 160 08.0 
 
 
 12 5 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 115 12.3 
 
 1876 ■ 
 
 14.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 128 20.0. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 126 99.2 
 
 1877- 
 
 15.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 133 00.0 
 
 
 14 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 129 45.6 
 
 1878- 
 
 16.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 130 50.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 128 00.0 
 
 
 17 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 168 00.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aver. 
 
 29.2 
 
 25.9 
 
 14.6 
 
 3 71-5 
 
 12 26.6 
 
 13.7 
 
 15.0 
 
 2 32.7 
 
 8.7 
 
 12.8 
 
 3 24.8 
 
 8 07.3 
 
 4 37.4 
 
 10 97.8 
 
 3 16.6 
 
 205 48.8 
 
 138 19.2 
 
 Table edilMtlns the Valme and Character o* the Gold and SUverusedln Mannfectnres and the Arts In the TTnited States 
 d«rt«ithe?lcal year Sided Jnne 30, 1§80, as lUported by Persons and Firms Engaged in the Mann&ctnres Mamed, in 
 response to circular inquiries addressed from the Bureau of the Mint.. 
 
 ^lanvfactwres of 
 
 
 Watches and jewelry 
 
 Watch cases and manufactures. 
 
 Gold leaf and plate 
 
 Chemicals 
 
 Instruments 
 
 Totals . 
 
 6,444 
 309 
 
 84 
 120 
 
 !,451 
 
 110 
 
 163 
 
 35 
 
 42 
 
 2,791 
 
 1,172 
 
 77 
 
 103 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 1,381 
 
 2,821 
 122 
 
 77 
 40 
 68 
 
 3,118 
 
 Gold. 
 
 fill 
 
 !,005,983 
 
 203,180 
 
 183,520 
 
 14,575 
 
 1,510 
 
 2,408,768 
 
 ■i|i-s 
 
 ■ri|ii 
 
 83,901,352 
 947,641 
 
 34,636 
 4,060 
 
 5,611,047 
 
 $610,651 
 
 52j061 
 
 44,040 
 
 6,200 
 
 1,4.36 
 
 714,378 
 
 $6,517,986 
 
 1,202,872 
 
 850,929 
 
 56,410 
 
 8,63.4,193 
 
 Silver. 
 
 ■•B ii 
 
 $104,460 00 
 
 420,912 50 
 
 14,746 00 
 
 25 00 
 
 1,691 00 
 
 541,834 60 
 
 ■i S~ K 
 I o b s S 
 
 $777,483 
 
 1,351,901 
 
 641,696 
 
 76,494 
 
 1,616 
 
 2,749,190 
 
 $77,699 00 
 44,434 60 
 49,887 00 
 
 1,125 00 
 
 173,145 60 
 
 1' 
 
 $959,642 
 1,817,248 
 
 76,519 
 4,432 
 
 3,464,170 
 
 $7,477,628 
 
 3,020,120 
 
 1,467,268 
 
 131,929 
 
 11,428 
 
 12,098,363 
 
376 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Table showing the Annual Average Crold and Cnrrency Prices of Staple Artlelea, <tc. (Contiauedt). 
 
 (Cuprency priceB in hlaxk figures,) 
 
 DM: 
 
 1825. 
 1826. 
 1827. 
 1828. 
 1829. 
 1830 , 
 1831. 
 1832. 
 1833. 
 1831. 
 1835. 
 1836. 
 
 1837 I 
 
 1838 I 
 
 1839 . 
 
 1840 . 
 1841. 
 1842. 
 1843. 
 1844. 
 1845. 
 1846- 
 1847. 
 1848. 
 1849. 
 
 1850 . 
 
 1851 . 
 
 1852 . 
 
 1853 . 
 
 1854 . 
 
 1855 . 
 
 1856 . 
 
 1857 . 
 
 1858 . 
 1869 . 
 
 1860 . 
 
 1861 . 
 
 1862 1 
 1863 I 
 1864 1 
 1805 1 
 1806 1 
 1867 1 
 1868 
 1879 
 1870 
 1871 
 1872 
 1873 
 1874 
 IStSj 
 1876 1 
 1877 I 
 
 1878 1 
 
 1879 . 
 
 1880 . 
 
 Aver. 
 
 05 . 
 
 $251 12.4 
 510 41.0 
 
 303 42.4 
 177 08.3 
 
 264 26.8 
 358 13.5 
 
 257 47.2 
 355 62.5 
 
 201 82.1 
 281 87.5 
 
 191 44.6 
 254 58.3 
 
 215 32.5 
 247 50.0 
 
 207 52.8 
 231 87.5 
 
 193 94.5 
 217 91.6 
 
 191 18.2 
 217 60.0 
 
 202 88 7 
 225 «S.I 
 
 192 36.5 
 221 11.0 
 ;i83 37.1 
 
 204 20.0 
 196 50.7 
 
 206 98.3 
 200 S8.0 
 
 202 60.0 
 196 80.0 
 179 32.8 
 
 Hides. 
 
 Per lb. 
 
 JO 17.7 
 16.7 
 , 16.6 
 16.5 
 15.0 
 16.3 
 16.0 
 14.4 
 13.8 
 12.7 
 13.7 
 13.4 
 13 
 13.6 
 14.1 
 14.3 
 
 15.0 
 
 14 
 
 14-3 
 
 12.5 
 
 12.3 
 
 12.1 
 
 12.6 
 
 11.6 
 
 11.5 
 
 09.1 
 
 10.0 
 
 12.5 
 
 13.6 
 
 14.7 
 
 17.S 
 
 21.2 
 
 21.4 
 
 26.5 
 
 32.7 
 
 24.3 
 
 26.5 
 
 23.5 
 
 19 5 
 
 31.6 
 
 24.5 
 19.7 
 
 28.6 
 15.6 
 
 31.8 
 15.7 
 
 24.8 
 14,0 
 
 19.8 
 15.1 
 
 20.9 
 14.8 
 
 20.8 
 lfi.8 
 
 22.4 
 19.8 
 
 22.8 
 22.7 
 
 25.4 
 23.8 
 
 26.8 
 22.9 
 26.1 
 22.6 
 
 25.2 
 19.7 
 
 22.7 
 17.7 
 19.8 
 21.3 
 
 22.4 
 20.2 
 
 20.4 
 24.1 
 211 
 
 212 92.2 17.2 16.4 
 
 Per a. 
 $0 13.2 
 
 12.0 
 . 10.7 
 
 11.5 
 . 11.0 
 
 11.3 
 
 13.2 
 . .11.3 
 - 10.7 
 
 09.7 
 
 13.3 
 11.2 
 10.9 
 
 10.8 
 
 09.8 
 10.3 
 07.8 
 08.3 
 10.6 
 11.6 
 11.7 
 15.0 
 16.0 
 17.0 
 21.7 
 29.9 
 20.1 
 22.7 
 20.7 
 16.5 
 18.9 
 
 21.5 
 16.6 
 
 24.1 
 15.0 
 
 30.6 
 14.0 
 
 22.1 
 12.1 
 
 17.1 
 13.9 
 
 19.2 
 14.7 
 
 20.6 
 16.4 
 
 21.9 
 10.7 
 
 22.7 
 21.4 
 
 24.0 
 23.3 
 
 26.2 
 22.9 
 
 26.1 
 21.7 
 
 24.2 
 18.8 
 
 21.6 
 16.g 
 
 18.5 
 19.6 
 
 20.6 
 18.4 
 
 18.6 
 22.6 
 19.B 
 
 PerXb. 
 $0 17.7 
 16.7 
 13.5 
 6.5 
 7.4 
 13.0 
 11.6 
 18.5 
 28.2 
 14.9 
 14.5 
 14.6 
 07.1 
 07.5 
 08.1 
 08.2 
 16,9 
 37.5 
 24 3 
 13.5 
 09.7 
 08.6 
 15.1 
 19.6 
 09.8 
 050 
 08.8 
 13.8 
 37.6 
 30.6 
 25.2 
 33.6 
 19.1 
 07.7 
 08.6 
 00.5 
 11.8 
 13.2 
 20.5 
 14.6 
 16.5 
 
 15.1 
 
 22.0 
 
 12.5 
 
 25. 5 
 22.9 
 
 30.1 
 34.7 
 
 48.9 
 41.3 
 
 67.2 
 26. 
 
 37.6 
 11.5 
 
 16.3 
 14.7 
 
 17.0 
 14.4 
 16.1 
 46.1 
 • 60.7 
 38.6 
 
 44.0 
 25,5 
 
 28.4 
 14.9 
 17.2 
 17.6 
 10.5 
 11,4 
 12.0 
 10 5 
 10.0 
 27.5 
 19.7 
 
 17.9 
 
 Per a. 
 
 $2 19.7 
 
 1 63.6 
 
 1 71.5 
 
 1 31.6 
 
 1 05.6 
 
 92.0 
 
 90.7 
 
 93.6 
 
 92.5 
 
 99,0 
 
 1 01.6 
 
 1 02.5 
 
 99.0 
 
 1 03.6 
 
 1 06.1 
 
 1 07.1 
 
 1 23.5 
 
 1 07.5 
 
 99.0 
 
 76.6 
 
 74.5 
 
 76.0 
 
 70.5 
 
 61,5 
 
 73.0 
 
 64.5 
 
 62.5 
 
 69 4 
 
 72.0 
 
 72.0 
 
 74.5 
 
 81.0 
 
 82.0 
 
 81,8 
 
 76.0 
 
 73.0 
 
 85.5 
 
 81,0 
 
 87,6 
 
 1 02,4 
 
 1 10.0 
 
 76.8 
 
 1 11.5 
 
 68.8 
 
 1 40.0 
 
 83.6 
 
 1 31.4 
 
 71.1 
 
 1 00.2 
 
 60.7 
 
 84.1 
 
 69.4 
 
 83.1 
 
 67.6 
 
 89.8 
 
 91.0 
 
 1 04.7 
 
 1 00.4 
 
 1 12.1 
 
 88.7 
 
 09.7 
 
 69.9 
 
 70.6 
 
 67.4 
 
 Per ton. 
 
 $60 10.0 
 
 61 04.0 
 
 61 50.0 
 
 62 21.0 
 49 37.5 
 43 96.0 
 43" 33.0 
 43 23.0 
 41 69.0 
 41 39.6 
 40 25.0 
 62 68.5 
 59 74.0 
 
 5197.5 
 43 14.8 
 
 43 54.0 
 38 62 
 35 18.5 
 34 85.0 
 
 28 06.0 
 26 12.5 
 32 66.0 
 
 37 97.5 
 
 38 21.5 
 34 44.0 
 
 29 10.5 
 24 37.0 
 22 33.0 
 
 21 31.0 
 
 22 71.6 
 34 52.0 
 38 47.6 
 
 28 75.0 
 32 41.6 
 
 31 12.6 
 
 24 47.5 
 
 25 27.0 
 
 23 51.0 
 22 25.0 
 22 96.3 
 
 25 99.5 
 
 25 60.6 
 37 16.5 
 
 26 15.7 
 63 16.6 
 
 32 68 
 61 22.7 
 
 34 52.4 
 48 62.5 
 
 31 31.3 
 43 25.0 
 
 29 59.4 
 41 33.3 
 
 .30 36.2 
 40 37.6 
 
 30 01.6 
 34 60.0 
 
 30 3B.1 
 
 33 81.2 
 
 43 38.7 
 
 48 76.0 
 
 45 03.0 
 
 61 22.0 
 
 38 18.1 
 
 76.0 42 47.1 
 
 01 6 1 29 78.0 
 
 70.7 
 
 64.0 
 72.0 
 
 69,9 
 73.3 
 
 72.7 
 73.3 
 
 75.0 
 
 76.0 
 
 88,1 
 
 34 23.0 
 
 25 87.1 
 28 81.0 
 
 25 98.7 
 27 24.0 
 
 24 23.8 
 24 43.4 
 
 27 13.4 
 
 24 48.9 
 
 .34 G1.3 
 
 Per ton. 
 $106 00.0 
 94 47.6 
 
 86 43.0 
 80 10.0 
 79 48.0 
 74 93.5 
 72 12.5 
 72 62.5 
 74 64.6 
 71 71.0 
 
 69 37.0 
 94 04.0 
 91 00.8 
 
 95 72.5 
 
 87 43,6 
 88 23.0 
 
 88 44.0 
 
 70 62.6 
 
 68 35.0 
 57 08 8 
 56 98.0 
 61 09.0 
 74 68.0 
 78 25.0 
 7J 29.0 
 
 69 06,0 
 47 12.6 
 41 87.6 
 36 49.6 
 39 80.6 
 65 14.0 
 
 , 71 12.6 
 . 58 76.0 
 69 39.0 
 . 66 14,0 
 , 51 89.0 
 . 45 46,0 
 . 42 44,0 
 . 43 89.6 
 . 62 09.7 
 
 69 00.0 
 60 68.9 
 
 73 57.0 
 77 38.7 
 167 29.1 
 , 82 41.4 
 129 68.3 
 . 78 64,3 
 110 62.6 
 
 71 87.1 
 99 27.0 
 
 63 39.6 
 88 54.1 
 . 06 74.0 
 88 75.0 
 . 66 3.3.7 
 TO 26.0 
 , 03 24.6 
 
 70 06.6 
 88 42.6 
 
 99 36.4 
 77 T1.7 
 
 88 41.0 
 67 89.2 
 
 75 52.0 
 
 Pern. 
 
 $0 07.9 
 08.3 
 07.6 
 07.0 
 07.3 
 07.3 
 07.3 
 07.3 
 07.0 
 03.6 
 
 07.0 
 ,06.9 
 7.2 
 97.4 
 06.6 
 00.5 
 00.5 
 06.5 
 
 Perth. 
 
 to 13.6 
 11.5 
 12.4 
 11.7 
 11.5 
 11.5 
 11.7 
 11.9 
 13j5 
 13,5 
 10.8 
 11.2 
 02.6 
 15.9 
 
 . 16,3 
 12,0 
 12,0 
 
 . J0,7 
 13,2 
 16,1 
 13,6 
 16.5 
 12.0 
 17.6 
 
 06.9 
 
 Percwt. 
 $6 88.0 
 6 00.0 
 6 00.0 
 5 12.5 
 3 75.0 
 
 3 00.0 
 
 4 12.5 
 
 5 60.0 
 
 5 4a.^ 
 
 4 87,6 
 
 6 00,0 
 
 5 87,5 
 
 6 74,2 
 00.0 
 
 4 12.5 
 3 06.2 
 
 3 37.5 
 
 4 15.5 
 4 31.5 
 4 18,6 
 4 65.5 
 4 71.5 
 4 69.5 
 
 4 73.0 
 
 6 68.0 
 .6 75.0 
 ,6 44.S 
 
 7 02.5 
 .7 03.0 
 ,6 J0.6 
 .6 69.5 
 .6 .70.0 
 .6 60.5 
 .6 24.8 
 
 7 07.7 
 .6 01.7 
 
 8 73.3 
 ,6 69.3 
 
 13 39.6 
 ,711.8 
 U 19.2 
 
 5 ,74.8 
 8 09.7 
 
 . 4 .89.8 
 78.U 
 . 4 .76.2 
 6 63.S 
 . 4 .95.7 
 69.2 
 . 5 ,60,4 
 6 44.2 
 6,68.1 
 S2.6 
 
 6 84.2 
 6 56.6 
 
 6 04,6 
 6 87.9 
 
 6 00.0 
 6 07.5 
 
 5 12.2 
 6 88.8 
 
 6 79,2 
 46.1 
 
 6 26.7 
 6 62.1 
 
 3 68.0 
 8 71.0 
 
 5 13.6 
 
 4 23.3 
 
 ■s 
 
 Per n. 
 $0 23.2 
 21.0 
 20.1 
 21.0 
 20 2 
 20.0 
 21,7 
 20.2 
 17.6 
 16.2 
 17.1 
 18.5 
 18.1 
 
 10.0 
 18.4 
 
 18.0 
 21.6 
 18.6 
 20,7 
 
 17. r 
 
 16.2 
 15.1 
 14.5 
 12.8 
 15.7 
 13.7 
 15.6 
 15.7 
 14.6 
 16.2 
 18.6 
 21.0 
 22.5 
 26.5 
 26.6 
 23.0 
 24.5 
 21,6 
 19,6 
 20.3 
 
 23.1 
 20.0 
 
 29.1 
 18.3 
 
 87.2 
 23.0 
 
 30.2 
 24.4 
 
 84.4 
 22,1 
 
 20,1 
 28.3 
 
 22 5 
 
 so.o 
 
 30.4 
 86.0 
 
 25.6 
 28.6 
 
 252 
 28.4 
 
 24.6 
 27.9 
 
 24:8 
 27.0 
 
 23, 
 20.9 
 
 19.7 
 22.0 
 
 22. 
 23.5 
 
 20.1 
 20. 
 
 24. 
 
 21.2 
 
 12.6 6 32.3 
 
 LiqiwrB. 
 
 Per gal 
 $1 27.2 
 1 S 
 1 63.6 
 1 41.0 
 1 26.6 
 1 28.0 
 1 84.5 
 1 6.3.5 
 1 05.0 
 1 68.0 
 1 66.0 
 1 76.6 
 1 45.4 
 1 52.0 
 1 66.0 
 1 57.5 
 1 68.5 
 1 70.0 
 1 61.5 
 
 1 60.6 
 
 2 16.6 
 2 46.5 
 2 68.0 
 2 82.6 
 2 80.5 
 2 62.0 
 2 60.5 
 2 78.0 
 2 73.0 
 2 78.0 
 
 4 77.0 
 
 5 36.0 
 
 6 10.0 
 6 29.0 
 6 19.0 
 4 85 5 
 4 94.0 
 6 50,0 
 6 60.0 
 6 19.6 
 
 6 88.6 
 6 26.0 
 
 7 02.0 
 
 Per gal. 
 SO 26.6 
 29.0 
 29.6 
 22.6 
 23,3 
 25,2 
 31.6 
 30.6 
 30.7 
 26.0 
 33.6 
 37.0 
 34.9 
 
 36.6 
 36.8 
 
 36.2 
 36.6 
 25,0 
 21,4 
 18.6 
 22.0 
 23. 
 23.0 
 21.7 
 28.3 
 23.0 
 24.0 
 25.3 
 23,3 
 22.5 
 24,6 
 32.1 
 37.7 
 32.5 
 27.1 
 22.2 
 26.5 
 22.2 
 18.1 
 24 9 
 
 28.8 
 3i.3 
 
 61 
 
 27.1 
 
 Molasaes. 
 
 s 
 
 Per gal. 
 $0 35.0 
 33.0 
 36.5 
 33.0 
 29.7 
 29.7 
 28.6 
 30,0 
 .32.0 
 29.0 
 31.7 
 44,0 
 35,4 
 
 37.0 
 ,30,0 
 
 37.0 
 34.5 
 26,1 
 26.6 
 20.7 
 22,6 
 29,7 
 29.7 
 29.6 
 33.7 
 24.6 
 26.0 
 27.0 
 30.7 
 29.2 
 28.6 
 24.6 
 30.6 
 61.0 
 66.6 
 38.8 
 39.0 
 46.6 
 39.5 
 37.0 
 
 42.0 
 33.9 
 
 49.3 
 40.4 
 
 94.3 
 
 72.3 
 
 113.7 
 
 68.7 
 
 90.8 
 61.4 
 84.8 
 69.3 
 
 82.9 
 59.9 
 
 79.7 
 72.2 
 
 83.0 
 60 4 
 
 60.4 
 68.4 
 
 05.7 
 60.3 
 
 68.7 
 68.6 
 
 76.3 
 68.6 
 
 67.3 
 52.7 
 
 B8.7 
 49.1 
 61.6 
 44.1 
 
 44.5 
 63 6 
 37.0 
 
 40.3 
 
 Per gal. 
 $0 42.6 
 46.5 
 46.1 
 38.2 
 38.6 
 37.2 
 26.6 
 27.8 
 31.0 
 27.1 
 30.0 
 39.2 
 33.9 
 
 35.5 
 34.1 
 
 34.6 
 29.0 
 22.0 
 23.5 
 18.1 
 21.5 
 27.0 
 27.7 
 24.6 
 27.0 
 21.5 
 23.6 
 24.3 
 24.0 
 22.6 
 22.5 
 23.5 
 29.0 
 41.6 
 45.6 
 26.6 
 26.6 
 27.5 
 18.3 
 20.7 
 
 23.5 
 29.9 
 
 43.4 
 37.4 
 
 76.1 
 34.0 
 
 63.6 
 35.6 
 
 60.2 
 35.9 
 
 61.0 
 34.6 
 
 48.5 
 37.9 
 
 60.5 
 S3.3 
 
 38.3 
 31.7 
 
 35.5 
 27.4 
 
 30. 
 26.6 
 
 S0.8 
 25.8 
 
 28.7 
 
 .4 
 
 Per gal. 
 
 $0 29.0 
 
 26,7 
 
 sas 
 
 29.2 
 . 24.6 
 23.6 
 24.7 
 26.0 
 28.5 
 23.6 
 26.9 
 30.1 
 33.0 
 34.5 
 
 30.4 
 
 30.7 
 
 31.7 
 25.5 
 19.6 
 15.9 
 19.0 
 24.5 
 24.0 
 18.8 
 21.8 
 18.5 
 20.6 
 21.0 
 19,6 
 18.6 
 21.0 
 22.3 
 27.2 
 38.2 
 40.0 
 22.6 
 23,0 
 21.5 
 22.0 
 24.7 
 
 28.0 
 25.5 
 
 37.0 
 31.2 
 
 63.6 
 28.4 
 
 44.7 
 29 7 
 
 41.9 
 3.30 
 
 46.7 
 30.7 
 
 43.0 
 34.4 
 
 46.8 
 29.2 
 
 33.6 
 28.0 
 
 31.3 
 24.8 
 
 27.9 
 24.0 
 28.1 
 24.8 
 
 27.0 
 38.0 
 
 43.7 
 
 $0 07.5 
 0.71 
 06.6 
 05.6 
 05.8 
 05.0 
 05.5 
 06.0 
 06.5 
 06.2 
 
 00.5 
 05.9 
 
 06.0 
 06.2 
 06.6 
 06.5 
 04.0 
 04.5 
 04.5 
 04.6 
 04.5 
 04.5 
 04.5 
 04.O 
 03.5 
 03.5 
 03.2 
 04.6 
 04.1 
 04.0 
 03.5 
 03.3 
 03.0 
 03.0 
 03.0 
 03.0 
 02.7 
 
 03.1 
 33.4 
 
 05.0 
 0.38 
 
 07.8 
 04.7 
 
 07.4 
 04.9 
 
 07.0 
 04.3 
 
 06.0 
 (13.7 
 
 05.2 
 03.0 
 
 04.8 
 03.8 
 
 04.4 
 04.1 
 
 04.0 
 04.3 
 
 04.9 
 04.3 
 
 04.9 
 03.6 
 
 04.0 
 03.3 
 
 03.8 
 03.1 
 
 03.6 
 03.0 
 
 03.2 
 02.8 
 
 02.9 
 04 3 
 03.1 
 
 04.3 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 377 
 
 Table aliOYving the Annual Average Gtold and Currency Prices of Staple ArtlcleSf SlCm, Continued* 
 
 [Currency prices in blaclc figures.] 
 
 1825 . 
 
 1826 . 
 
 1827 . 
 
 1828 . 
 
 1829 . 
 
 1830 . 
 
 1831 . 
 1832. 
 183:1 . 
 18!4 . 
 1835 . 
 1846 . 
 
 . 1837 . 
 
 1838 . 
 
 1830 . 
 
 1840 . 
 
 1841 . 
 
 1842 . 
 
 1843 . 
 1844. 
 
 1845 . 
 
 1846 . 
 1817 . 
 
 1848 . 
 
 1849 . 
 
 1850 . 
 
 1851 . 
 
 1852 . 
 
 1853 . 
 
 1854 . 
 
 1855 . 
 
 1856 . 
 18.57 . 
 1868 . 
 
 1859 . 
 
 1860 . 
 
 1861 . 
 
 1862 . 
 1863! 
 1864! 
 
 1865 . 
 
 1866 . 
 1867. 
 
 1868 . 
 
 1869 . 
 
 1870 . 
 
 1871 . 
 1872. 
 1873 . 
 1874. 
 187."; . 
 1870. 
 1877. 
 
 1878. 
 
 1879. 
 1880. 
 Aver- 
 
 NailB. 
 
 Per lb. 
 
 80 13.5 
 13.1 
 13.0 
 13.0 
 13.0 
 13.0 
 12.0 
 12.0 
 12.5 
 f 12.9 
 \ 13.5 
 f 13.0 
 t 13.2 
 13.5 
 13.6 
 13.5 
 11.6 
 11.0 
 11.0 
 11.0 
 11.0 
 12.(1 
 10.2 
 09.0 
 09.0 
 09.0 
 07.0 
 08.5 
 09.3 
 09.6 
 06.6 
 05.9 
 04.7 
 03.6 
 04 2 
 ■ 04.!? 
 f 03.8 
 1 04 3 
 
 {■': 
 
 04.4 
 05.1 
 
 04.3 
 04.8 
 
 04.3 
 0.46 
 
 04.4 
 04.6 
 
 0S.6 
 
 04.5 
 
 
 Per gal. 
 
 SO 40.6 
 .30.2 
 36.6 
 37.6 
 36.0 
 29.2 
 29.2 
 36.5 
 41.5 
 47.1 
 64.8 
 66.0 
 37.3 
 30 
 31.7 
 32.0 
 33.8 
 27.6 
 30.0 
 i35.0 
 ,34.7 
 34.7 
 43.5 
 48.0 
 41.6 
 37.6 
 34.3 
 32, 
 30.0 
 45.3 
 61.0 
 66.5 
 42.5 
 40.3 
 46.5 
 46.6 
 47.7 
 42.5 
 87.0 
 
 1 64.9 
 1 75 6 
 
 2 12.9 
 3 00.0 
 
 1 48.2 
 
 3 01.4 
 
 106 9 
 
 1 66.6 
 
 60.9 
 
 84, 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 37.6 
 
 '52,0 
 
 35.2 
 
 40-9 
 
 37.4 
 
 43.1 
 
 49.2 
 
 55.0 
 
 66.1 
 
 - 63.1 
 
 44.2 
 
 60.3 
 
 36.1 
 
 40.2 
 
 31.3 
 
 36 
 
 31.7 
 
 35.3 
 
 34.4 
 
 36.1 
 
 29.4 
 
 29.1 
 
 38.3 
 
 30.8 
 
 Per m. 
 U 49.6 
 1 46.0 
 1 49.5 
 1 45.5 
 1 4,3.5 
 1 41.0 
 1 37.0 
 1 37.0 
 1 43.6 
 1 68.6 
 1 71.0 
 1 73.6 
 1 61.2 
 1 68.5 
 1 65.0 
 
 1 66.5 
 1 83.1 
 1 60.6 
 1 35.0 
 1 17.5 
 
 89.0 
 69.0 
 68.6 
 65.6 
 64.0 
 84.5 
 1 01 .0 
 
 1 16.(1 
 
 2 48.fi 
 
 3 36.0 
 3 79.6 
 3 36.0 
 3 12.0 
 3 86.0 
 
 6 68.6 
 5 32.5 
 i 46.6 
 3 09.0 
 5 03.5 
 
 12 ,54.7 
 14 21.0 
 
 19 48.1 
 28 27.5 
 
 17 69.1 
 35 95.8 
 
 7 97.6 
 12 54. 
 
 2 88.6 
 4 06.6 
 
 2 75.4 
 3 80.5 
 
 2 01.6 
 
 2 81.7 
 1 71.9 
 
 2 28.? 
 
 1 73.6 
 
 1 99.6 
 
 2 76.0 
 
 3 08.4 
 
 3 67.2 
 
 4 01.4 
 2 77.6 
 
 3 15.9 
 2 18.4 
 
 2 43.0 
 1 64.2 
 
 1 88.8 
 1 74.3 
 
 1 94.1 
 1 84,1 
 
 1 93.0 
 1 48.3 
 
 1 49.5 
 1 66.9 
 1 39.7 
 
 09.2 
 
 49.0 
 
 2 98.3 
 
 OU. 
 
 Per gal. 
 $0 26.8 
 27.5 
 32.5 
 32.5 
 31.0 
 34.0 
 3.i.0 
 28.5 
 26.1 
 26.7 
 37.0 
 46.6 
 33.1 
 
 34.6 
 .31.9 
 
 32.2 
 32.0 
 30.0 
 32.3 
 34.6 
 34.3 
 36.4 
 33.7 
 32.9 
 .35.3 
 32.5 
 39.7 
 48.6 
 46.1 
 68.7 
 68.0 
 68.0 
 71-0 
 78.5 
 72.6 
 63.5 
 61.6 
 48.6 
 44.5 
 62.1 
 
 69.0 
 66.1 
 9.0 
 
 Per gal. 
 
 $0 68.6 
 
 66.5 
 
 63.0 
 
 61.5 
 
 66.6 
 
 09.7 
 
 74.6 
 
 83.6 
 
 90.0 
 
 76.8 
 
 84.5 
 
 89.5 
 
 83.2 
 
 87.0 
 
 83.4 
 
 84.2 
 
 1 0-.4 
 
 1 02.8 
 
 94.7 
 
 72.1 
 
 63.1 
 
 90.2 
 
 89.6 
 
 91.3 
 
 1 07.0 
 
 1 06.5 
 
 1 10.2 
 
 1 18.5 
 
 1 24.5 
 
 1 27.5 
 
 1 31.4 
 
 1 66.0 
 
 1 95.5 
 
 1 82.0 
 
 1 40.5 
 
 1 20.5 
 
 1 33.6 
 
 1 41.6 
 
 1 31.0 
 
 1 26.8 
 
 1 42.5 
 
 1 11.9 
 
 1 62.5 
 
 1 03.2 
 
 Per gal. 
 
 $0 66.6 
 
 71.5 
 
 72.0 
 
 70.0 
 
 70.0 
 
 80.2 
 
 90.0 
 
 95.5 
 
 1 01.3 
 
 94.1 
 
 96.6 
 
 98.7 
 
 61.4 
 
 95.6 
 
 92.6 
 
 93.5 
 
 1 161 
 
 1 12.8 
 
 1 07.6 
 
 85.3 
 
 73.0 
 
 04.5 
 
 94.8 
 
 95.6 
 
 1 13.2 
 
 1 14.6 
 
 1 17.0 
 
 1 23.5 
 
 1 30.0 
 
 1 31.7 
 
 1 35.5 
 
 1 60.2 
 
 2 01.5 
 1 90.5 
 1 60.0 
 1 31.0 
 1 39.0 
 1 51.0 
 1 ,54.0 
 1 69.1 
 
 1 91.5 
 
 1 34.1 
 
 1 94.5 
 
 94.9 
 
 1 93.0 
 1 40.9 
 
 2 21.6 
 1 79.8 
 
 2 6; 
 
 1 71.2 
 2 36.6 
 
 1 40.9 
 1 96.8 
 
 1 40.1 
 1 8U.3 
 
 1 17.8 
 1 35.5 
 
 1 16.6 
 1 30.3 
 
 1 32.9 
 1 49.3 
 
 1 31.0 
 1 49.1 
 
 1 44.0 
 1 60.2 
 
 1 43.8 
 1 65.4 
 
 1 20.7 
 1 34.5 
 
 1 15.8 
 
 1 21.4 
 
 92.6 
 
 93.4 
 
 1 00.5 
 83.8 
 
 Per gal. 
 
 $0 93.5 
 
 83.0 
 
 97.0 
 
 79.0 
 
 80.0 
 
 96.5 
 
 92.5 
 
 97.2 
 
 1 03.6 
 
 94.U 
 
 1 17.6 
 
 1 11.6 
 
 91.8 
 
 96.0 
 
 1 09.6 
 
 1 10.5 
 
 76.2 
 
 69.9 
 
 86.3 
 
 89.0 
 
 80.6 
 
 76.0 
 
 91.0 
 
 88.1 
 
 1 16.6 
 
 1 06.7 
 
 93.6 
 
 94.2 
 
 80.0 
 
 1 05.0 
 
 1 24.5 
 
 1 25.6 
 
 1 19.6 
 
 1 21.0 
 
 1 26.0 
 
 1 04.6 
 
 1 12.0 
 
 1 26.0 
 
 1 13.6 
 
 1 17.4 
 
 1 33.0 
 
 1 24.0 
 
 1 80.0 
 1 11.9 
 
 2 27.5 
 1 67.3 
 
 2 63.1 
 1 27.9 
 
 1 80.2 
 1 17.6 
 
 1 62.5 
 1 63.4 
 
 2 28.3 
 1 19.5 
 
 1 58.9 
 
 1 21.1 
 1 39 
 
 1 08.7 
 1 21.5 
 
 1 16.0 
 1 30.3 
 
 1 06.3 
 1 21.0 
 
 1 05 
 1 17.7 
 
 1 02 7 
 1 18.1 
 
 1 10.8 
 1 23.4 
 
 1 13.7 
 1 19.2 
 
 1 14.5 
 1 16.5 
 
 1 00.0 
 
 1 06.6 
 
 1 17.6 
 
 1 06.9 
 
 Per gnl 
 
 $0 78.6 
 
 76.'l 
 
 73.5 
 
 72.7 
 
 78.0 
 
 79.5 
 
 96.0 
 
 91.0 
 
 91.2 
 
 90.6 
 
 1 09.5 
 
 1 02.5 
 
 78.9 
 
 82.5 
 
 78.2 
 
 79.0 
 
 1 05.5 
 
 1 09.0 
 
 1 31.6 
 
 92.0 
 
 84.4 
 
 92.6 
 
 73.8 
 
 74.3 
 
 66.0 
 
 58.7 
 
 63.7 
 
 78.6 
 
 74.0 
 
 63.7 
 
 65.6 
 
 77.6 
 
 86.6 
 
 86.0 
 
 76.6 
 
 , 63.6 
 
 60.5 
 
 67.8 
 
 69.0 
 
 79.5 
 
 99.0 
 
 94.0 
 
 1 36.6 
 
 76.9 
 
 1 66.6 
 
 88.7 
 
 1 39.6 
 
 1 11.1 
 
 1 66.5 
 
 91.8 
 
 1 26.0 
 
 78.0 
 
 1 09.0 
 
 75.1 
 
 99.9 
 
 80.3 
 
 92.3 
 
 74.9 
 
 83.7 
 
 74.3 
 
 83.5 
 
 74.6 
 
 94.8 
 
 79.0 
 
 87.9 
 
 68 2 
 
 60.9 
 
 61.0 
 
 66.8 
 
 60.4 
 
 63.4 
 
 69.4 
 69.9 
 
 67.9 
 66.1 
 
 79.3 
 
 Paint. 
 
 Per cwl. 
 $9 47.5 
 9 81." 
 9 47.0 
 9 25.0 
 7 32.0 
 6 74.0 
 6 65.0 
 6 76.0 
 6 64.6 
 
 6 60.0 
 
 7 00.0 
 
 7 87.6 
 
 8 61.3 
 9 00.0 
 
 8 42.3 
 
 8 50.0 
 7 88.0 
 7 .5i.(.0 
 7 50.0 
 6 12.6 
 
 5 60.0 
 
 6 60.0 
 
 5 60.0 
 
 6 *.fl 
 
 5 60.0 
 
 6 50.0 
 6 26.0 
 6 50.0 
 
 5 60.0 
 
 6 50.0 
 
 7 25.0 
 7 75.0 
 7 37.5 
 7 75.0 
 7 16.5 
 7 00.0 
 7 00.0 
 6 26.0 
 6 25.0 
 
 6 05.3 
 
 7 87.5 
 
 7 40.6 
 
 10 76 
 
 8 50.7 
 17 29.1 
 
 9 76.5 
 15 35.4 
 
 8 91.9 
 
 12 56.2 
 
 8 45.5 
 
 11 67.7 
 
 7 860 
 10 .9 
 
 8 16.2 
 10 86.4 
 
 8 44.9 
 
 9 70.0 
 8 09.1 
 
 9 04.1 
 7 93.5 
 
 8 91.6 
 
 7 99.8 
 
 9 10.0 
 
 8 09.1 
 OilO.O 
 
 7 26.8 
 8 35.5 
 
 7 36.3 
 8 20.0 
 
 7 82.2 
 8 20.0 
 
 8 89.8 
 8 97.0 
 
 6 66.0 
 
 7 90.0 
 
 $8 1.3.8 
 16 64.1 
 
 10 14.9 
 16 96.8 
 
 11 47.7 
 16 1 6 
 
 10 31.7 
 
 14 26.0 
 
 9 42.6 
 
 11^ 
 
 9 99.4 
 
 13 29.0 
 
 9 91.8 
 
 11 40.0 
 
 10 14.3 
 
 11 33.3 
 
 10 15.1 
 
 11 40.6 
 
 10 10.8 
 
 11 60.0 
 
 10 1.6.8 
 
 11 30.0 
 
 9 47.4 
 
 10 89.0 
 
 9 39.3 
 
 10 46.0 
 
 9 25.3 
 
 9 70.0 
 
 8 03.6 
 
 8 10.0 
 
 8 80.0 
 
 7 40.0 
 
 Per gal. 
 
 9 54.9 
 
 10 19.9 
 40 6 
 
 26 
 40.9 
 
 10.1 
 27.0 
 
 12.7 
 17.6 
 
 13.8 
 19.3 
 
 17.0 
 22.7 
 
 15.8 
 18.2 
 
 12.7 
 14.3 
 
 16.4 
 17.4 
 
 (J7.3 
 08.3 
 
 0..64 
 
 06.0 
 
 05.5 
 06.4 
 
 11.2 
 12.6 
 
 08.4 
 08 9 
 
 06.2 
 06.3 
 
 03.7 
 
 04.7 
 
 "g. 
 
 05 
 
 PergalJ 
 
 1Z.0 
 
 $0 33.6 
 68.3 
 
 48.3 
 76.1 
 
 42.9 
 60.5 
 
 32.2 
 44.6 
 
 26.6 
 35.8 
 
 24.2 
 32.2 
 
 22.7 
 26.1 
 
 22.0 
 24.6 
 
 21.2 
 23.9 
 
 16.4 
 18.7 
 
 12.3 
 13.7 
 
 11.2 
 12.9 
 
 21.3 
 23.8 
 
 14.9 
 16.7 
 
 10.6 
 10.7 
 
 09.0 
 
 08.0 
 
 Fori. 
 
 Per hil. 
 ?13 7.3.5 
 
 11 39.5 
 
 12 96.0 
 
 13 60.0 
 
 12 65.0 
 
 13 21.5 
 13 90.5 
 
 13 46.0 
 
 14 68.0 
 
 13 71.6 
 
 16 39.0 
 
 22 46.5 
 
 20 17.3 
 21 08.0 
 
 21 18.2 
 
 21 37.6 
 19 35,5 
 
 14 30.6 
 
 11 12.6 
 
 8 41.5 
 
 9 90,0 
 9 30.0 
 
 12 46.0 
 
 10 78.0 
 14 43.5 
 
 11 11.0 
 10 78.6 
 10 62.6 
 14 01.6 
 
 17 20.0 
 16 09.5 
 
 13 77.6 
 
 16 06.0 
 
 18 56.6 
 21 89.5 
 
 17 OI.O 
 
 16 38.5 
 
 17 98.6 
 16 89.5 
 
 10 84.8 
 
 12 28.5 
 
 9 92.1 
 14 40.0 
 
 16 03.8 
 30 56.7 
 
 19 00.6 
 29 88.6 
 
 20 9.3.5 
 29 48.6 
 
 16 18.2 
 
 22 35.2 
 16 76.9 
 
 23 42. 
 
 21 29.8 
 28 32.2 
 
 23 59.3 
 27 II 
 
 14 97.9 
 16 73.7 
 
 12 29.1 
 
 13 81 
 
 14 73.6 
 16 76.5 
 
 16 6.3.7 
 18 39.5 
 
 16 16.3 
 18 57.9 
 
 16 45.0 
 
 18 31.9 
 13 21.1 
 
 13 84.8 
 
 11 47.5 
 
 11 66.8 
 
 12 47.6 
 
 10 14.3 
 
 Per bhl. 
 $10 15.0 
 
 7 86.6 
 
 8 47.0 
 
 9 81.6 
 10 10.6 
 
 9 65.0 
 
 10 81.6 
 
 11 04.6 
 
 11 20.6 
 9 74,0 
 
 12 61.6 
 
 17 16.5 
 
 14 96.9 
 15 64.2 
 
 15 S8.5 
 1603.0 
 
 15 46.0 
 
 12 58.0 
 9 12.0 
 
 6 23.5 
 
 8 17.0 
 
 7 31.5 
 
 9 63.11 
 
 8 87.5 
 11 41.0 
 
 8 44.0 
 
 8 96.0 
 
 8 48.7 
 
 11 50.0 
 
 15 55.0 
 
 13 6.5.5 
 11 96.0 
 
 16 48.0 
 16 22.6 
 
 18 47.5 
 13 87.0 
 11 99.6 
 13 22.5 
 11 10.5 
 
 8 79.9 
 
 9 96.6 
 
 7 98.2 
 
 11 58.6 
 
 22.1 14 87.0 11 41.0 
 
 Be^. 
 
 Ferhhl. 
 
 $8 78.5 
 9 16.0 
 B 02.0 
 9 14.6 
 8 21.5 
 ,8 99.5 
 
 8 49.0 
 46.6 
 38.6 
 
 9 17.6 
 
 11 08.0 
 
 10 97.6 
 
 12 91.4 
 
 13 49.5 
 14 66.2 
 
 14 69.5 
 14 31.0 
 12 25.0 
 
 9 01.0 
 7 39.0 
 
 7 15.5 
 
 6 67.5 
 
 8 27.0 
 
 7 64.0 
 
 11 44.0 
 
 9 88.6 
 11 68.5 
 
 9 08.6 
 
 8 80.0 
 10 72.0 
 
 9 37.0 
 
 10 94.5 
 
 11 47.0 
 9 46.6 
 
 12 37.5 
 
 10 48.6 
 
 7 69.0 
 6 17.0 
 6 67.0 
 6 92,2 
 
 7 84.0 
 4 72.6 
 
 6 86.0 
 6 21.7 
 
 10 60.4 
 9 91.7 
 
 15 59.3 
 
 12 08.4 
 
 17 02.0 
 
 13 04.6 
 
 18 02.0 
 
 11 67.9 
 16 31.2 
 
 8 91.8 
 
 11 86.0 
 11 36.3 
 
 13 06.2 
 
 11 06.6 
 
 12 36.4 
 
 8 07.4 
 
 9 07.2 
 6 04.3 
 
 6 87.5 
 
 10 21.6 
 11 36.4 
 
 9 89.6 
 11 37.4 
 
 10 12.0 
 
 11 27.0 
 
 12 84.0 
 
 13 46.0 
 
 11 93.0 
 
 12 03.0 
 
 10 60.0 
 
 11 19.9 
 
 Per hhl. 
 85 81.0 
 
 4 91,6 
 6 27.0 
 
 6 44.6 
 
 7 13.5 
 6 90.0 
 6 53.0 
 6 59.6 
 6 76.5 
 
 6 86.0 
 
 7 66.0 
 
 7 15.6 
 
 8 11.5 
 8 48.0 
 10 98.0 
 
 11 08.0 
 10 45.5 
 8 80.5 
 
 5 62.5 
 4 08.5 
 
 4 87.5 
 
 3 66.0 
 
 5 32.5 
 
 6 30.5 
 8 23.5 
 
 5 78.0 
 8 500 
 
 6 79.6 
 6 09.6 
 6 34.6 
 6 31.6 
 
 6 50.0 
 
 8 86.6 
 
 7 72.6 
 
 9 78.0 
 7 18,0 
 6 06.0 
 
 4 14.5 
 4 45.5 
 4 89.1 
 
 5 64.0 
 
 3 48.6 
 
 5 06.0 
 
 9 66.4 
 
 Per a. 
 $0 09.2 
 090 
 10.6 
 09.5 
 «9.5 
 09.8 
 10.7 
 09.5 
 09.3 
 09.0 
 09.7 
 12.7 
 11.9 
 
 12.5 
 12.1 
 
 12.2 
 12.0 
 
 6 37.0 
 
 07.5 
 06.3 
 
 08.0 
 076 
 10.7 
 07.8 
 08..5 
 08.0 
 08.1 
 09.1 
 08.8 
 07.6 
 09.0 
 091 
 10.5 
 08.4 
 08.T 
 09.6 
 06.2 
 04.8 
 O-'i.S 
 06.5 
 08.0 
 07.8 
 15.9 
 12.2 
 19.3 
 12.1 
 17.1 
 10.0 
 13.8 
 11.2 
 15.9 
 13.4 
 17.8 
 15.3 
 17.6 
 11.0 
 12.3 
 09.3 
 11.0 
 09.8 
 11.2 
 10.4 
 11.6 
 10.7 
 12.4 
 11.2 
 12 6 
 09.4 
 09.9 
 08.4 
 08.6 
 
378 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Table Slio-niiig tlie Aunaal Average Gold and Currency Prices of Staple Articles &c, — Continued. 
 
 [Currency prices in black figures.] 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sail. 
 
 Seeds. 
 
 SodjJ. 
 
 Spicte. 
 
 Sphila. 
 
 jSuf/ar. 
 
 Date. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■s 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 »■ 
 
 .1 
 05 
 
 ;! 
 
 ^«o 
 
 i 
 
 K 
 
 si 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1? 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 Per a. 
 
 Per lb. 
 
 Perm. 
 
 Per a. 
 
 Percwt. 
 
 Per sack. 
 
 Per huah. 
 
 Pr.lb. 
 
 Pr. bmh. 
 
 Per lb. 
 
 Per lb. 
 
 Per m. 
 
 Per a. 
 
 Per gat. 
 
 Per gal. 
 
 80 79.1 
 
 PerTb. 
 
 PerXh. 
 
 1825 . 
 
 
 SO 08.6 
 
 $ 15.1 
 
 SO 07.3 
 
 82 59.6 
 
 «2 65.0 
 
 $0 61.6 
 
 
 
 80 06.5 
 
 80 10.5 
 
 $0 17.6 
 
 81 73.0 
 
 $0 89.7 
 
 80 08.2 
 
 80 09.3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10.5 
 10.9 
 
 16.6 
 16.3 
 
 1 38.5 
 1 38.7 
 
 97.0 
 1 07.0 
 
 78.6 
 93.7 
 
 08.3 
 08.0 
 
 08.2 
 08.5 
 
 1827 . 
 
 
 08.6 
 
 17.0 
 
 07.3 
 
 3 27.0 
 
 2 24.0 
 
 67.0 
 
 
 
 06.6 
 
 3828. 
 
 
 06.8 
 
 15.5 
 
 06.1 
 
 3 15.0 
 
 2 66.5 
 
 49.7 
 
 
 
 05.8 
 
 11.5 
 
 16.6 
 
 1 33.0 
 
 1 22.5 
 
 97.0 
 
 07.8 
 
 08.6 
 
 1829 . 
 
 
 05.6 
 
 13.8 
 
 06.2 
 
 3 00.5 
 
 2 30.6 
 
 48.6 
 
 
 
 06.6 
 
 lo.a 
 
 13.5 
 
 1 42.0 
 
 1 24.5 
 
 96.6 
 
 07.1 
 
 Q7.6 
 07.0 
 
 1830. 
 
 
 08.0 
 
 13.5 
 
 06.7 
 
 2767.0 
 
 1 99.0 
 
 46.5 
 
 $0 08.2 
 
 
 06.0 
 
 10.0 
 
 13.8 
 
 1 42.0 
 
 1 13.0 
 
 1 02.5 
 
 07.2 
 
 1831 . 
 
 
 09-0 
 
 14.8 
 
 06.0 
 
 3 10.6 
 
 1 91.0 
 
 50.7 
 
 09.5 
 
 
 06.5 
 
 ll.C 
 
 14.0 
 
 1 49.0 
 
 1 08.0 
 
 1 14.6 
 
 06.0 
 
 06.8 
 
 1832. 
 
 
 08.6 
 
 16.6 
 
 06.0 
 
 3 36.5 
 
 2 00.0 
 
 48.6 
 
 09.5 
 
 82 85.7 
 
 05.5 
 
 12.8 
 
 14.8 
 
 1 49.0 
 
 1 08.0 
 
 1 15.0 
 
 06.2 
 
 06.5 
 
 1833 . 
 
 
 08.6 
 
 15.6 
 
 07.0 
 
 3 22.0 
 
 1 83.5 
 
 43.5 
 
 11.7 
 
 3 07.7 
 
 06.5 
 
 11.5 
 
 09.5 
 
 1 27.0 
 
 1 03.2 
 
 1 15.5 
 
 06.3 
 
 07.2 
 
 1834. 
 
 
 07.8 
 
 141 
 
 07.1 
 
 3 91.0 
 
 1 66.0 
 
 38.6 
 
 07.0 
 
 2 42.6 
 
 05.5 
 
 12.0 
 
 06.8 
 
 1 21.6 
 
 1 09.5 
 
 1 10.5 
 
 06 2 
 
 07.1 
 
 18:» . 
 
 
 09.4 
 
 17.3 
 
 07.2 
 
 3 49.5 
 
 1 77.6 
 
 36.2 
 
 08.0 
 
 2 74.4 
 
 06.6 
 
 14.5 
 
 07.3 
 
 1 40.6 
 
 1 13.6 
 
 1 11.6 
 
 07.2 
 
 07.8 
 
 1836. 
 
 
 14.5 
 
 19.5 
 
 08.8 
 
 3 68.6 
 
 1 91.0 
 
 37.6 
 
 09.0 
 
 3 12.6 
 
 05.5 
 
 13.0 
 
 08.0 
 
 1 29.0 
 
 1 26.6 
 
 1 09.1 
 
 09.1 
 
 oa.0 
 
 1837 
 
 
 10.0 
 
 17.2 
 
 09.0 
 
 3 83.7 
 
 1 90.9 
 
 36.8 
 
 09.9 
 
 2 78.6 
 
 05.2 
 
 12.4 
 
 06.9 
 
 1 16.1 
 
 1 26.3 
 
 1 14.8 
 
 06.3 
 
 06.7 
 
 
 10.5 
 
 18.0 
 
 09.5 
 
 4 01.0 
 
 1 99.5 
 
 38.5 
 
 10.4 
 
 2 94.2 
 
 05.5 
 
 13.0 
 
 07.2 
 
 121.4 
 
 131.0 
 
 1 20.0 
 
 06.6 
 
 07.0 
 
 1838 
 
 
 10.5 
 
 19.8 
 
 07.9 
 
 4 31.6 
 
 1 93.7 
 
 39.1 
 
 11.4 
 
 3 06.7 
 
 05.4 
 
 12.8 
 
 07.1 
 
 1 10.6 
 
 1 32.3 
 
 1 18 9 
 
 06.6 
 
 06.8 
 
 
 10.6 
 
 20.0 
 
 08.0 
 
 4 .35.5 
 
 1 95.5 
 
 39.5 
 
 11.6 
 
 3 09.5 
 
 05.6 
 
 13.0 
 
 07.2 
 
 111.7 
 
 133.6 
 
 1 20.0 
 
 06.7 
 
 06.9 
 
 1839 . 
 
 
 11.8 
 
 19.0 
 
 09.1 
 
 4 36.5 
 
 1 74.2 
 
 37.3 
 
 21.5 
 
 3 42.8 
 
 06.0 
 
 12.8 
 
 08.7 
 
 1 02.8 
 
 1 ii.b 
 
 1 16.5 
 
 06.8 
 
 06.8 
 
 1840. 
 
 
 10.0 
 
 17.5 
 
 07.1 
 
 3 38.0 
 
 1 62.6 
 
 34.7 
 
 12.1 
 
 2 84.4 
 
 06.6 
 
 11.6 
 
 07.1 
 
 86.2 
 
 1 66.0 
 
 1 18.5 
 
 06.7 
 
 06.8 
 
 1841 . 
 
 
 07.3 
 
 11.9 
 
 06.7 
 
 3 46.0 
 
 1 59.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 08.3 
 
 3 95.2 
 
 06.6 
 
 13.7 
 
 07.1 
 
 79.2 
 
 1 60 6 
 
 1 1.3.5 
 
 06.0 
 
 06.0 
 
 1842. 
 
 
 06.2 
 
 11.7 
 
 07.0 
 
 2 80.0 
 
 1 67.0 
 
 25.1 
 
 08.1 
 
 2 79.9 
 
 06.5 
 
 11.2 
 
 07.1 
 
 81.6 
 
 149.0 
 
 1 09.2 
 
 04 4 
 
 04.6 
 
 1843. 
 
 
 06.2 
 
 08.6 
 
 05.2 
 
 2 64.5 
 
 1 46.5 
 
 
 06.9 
 
 2 65.8 
 
 06.6 
 
 11.7 
 
 08.1 
 
 86.7 
 
 1 46.0 
 
 1 22.6 
 
 05.3 
 
 05.7 
 
 1844. 
 
 
 0.57 
 
 09.9 
 
 04.6 
 
 3 03.0 
 
 1 40.5 
 
 
 08.1 
 
 .2 45.6 
 
 05.3 
 
 09.1 
 
 10.1 
 
 1 01.2 
 
 1 53.0 
 
 1 22.5 
 
 06.2 
 
 06.2 
 
 1845 . 
 
 
 07.3 
 
 13.5 
 
 06.8 
 
 3 81.0 
 
 1 37.0 
 
 37.5 
 
 07.1 
 
 2 33.0 
 
 07.4 
 
 08.1 
 
 10.0 
 
 1 19.0 
 
 1 62.5 
 
 1 23.5 
 
 05.8 
 
 06.9 
 
 1846 . 
 
 
 06.7 
 
 13.0 
 
 06.8 
 
 3 66.5 
 
 1 34.0 
 
 33.0 
 
 07 6 
 
 2 63.4 
 
 04.8 
 
 08.7 
 
 10.0 
 
 1 21.5 
 
 1 60.6 
 
 I 30.0 
 
 06.3 
 
 08.6 
 
 1847 . 
 
 
 09.5 
 
 16.0 
 
 06.9 
 
 4 12.5 
 
 1 36.6 
 
 30.0 
 
 06.9 
 
 3 18.6 
 
 04.4 
 
 11.1 
 
 06.4 
 
 1 29.5 
 
 1 66.0 
 
 1 36.6 
 
 06.5 
 
 07.7 
 
 1848 . 
 
 
 07.5 
 
 16.0 
 
 06.7 
 
 3 17.0 
 
 1 39.0 
 
 25.2 
 
 06.2 
 
 2 25.6 
 
 06.2 
 
 10.7 
 
 05.4 
 
 1 16.6 
 
 1 84.5 
 
 1 32.6 
 
 03.8 
 
 06.7 
 
 1849 . 
 
 
 06.6 
 
 15.0 
 
 06.0 
 
 2 96.6 
 
 1 29.0 
 
 24.2 
 
 06.0 
 
 3 34.1 
 
 04.5 
 
 09.6 
 
 06.0 
 
 93.9 
 
 1 68.0 
 
 1 21.6 
 
 04.7 
 
 06 9 
 
 18.50 . 
 
 
 06.4 
 
 15.1 
 
 06.2 
 
 3 18.6 
 
 1 36.5 
 
 23.4 
 
 06.8 
 
 3 28.9 
 
 04.6 
 
 09.0 
 
 07.4 
 
 1 08.6 
 
 1 66.0 
 
 1 08.0 
 
 05.1 
 
 07.4 
 
 1861 . 
 
 
 08.1 
 
 14.2 
 
 06 7 
 
 3 02.5 
 
 1 34 
 
 22.6 
 
 08.6 
 
 3 16.7 
 
 04.6 
 
 09.0 
 
 08.5 
 
 99 6 
 
 1 46.0 
 
 91.0 
 
 05.2 
 
 07.6 
 
 1862. 
 
 
 10.0 
 
 19.2 
 
 07.0 
 
 3 71.5 
 
 1 20.0 
 
 21.5 
 
 08.0 
 
 3 14.2 
 
 04.8 
 
 09.3 
 
 09.0 
 
 90.0 
 
 1 49.6 
 
 86.0 
 
 04.3 
 
 07.0 
 
 1853 . 
 
 
 10.5 
 
 18.0 
 
 08.5 
 
 3 93.6 
 
 1 34.5 
 
 34.0 
 
 09.7 
 
 3 11.4 
 
 06.0 
 
 1(1.7 
 
 10.6 
 
 1 03.6 
 
 1 39.5 
 
 1 17.5 
 
 04.7 
 
 07.2 
 
 1854. 
 
 
 09.7 
 
 19.6 
 
 09.5 
 
 4 39.0 
 
 1 69.6 
 
 47.0 
 
 09.6 
 
 3 22.6 
 
 06.0 
 
 10.7 
 
 10.4 
 
 1 07.5 
 
 1 62.0 
 
 1 34.6 
 
 04.7 
 
 06.7 
 
 1855 . 
 
 
 10.3 
 
 21.8 
 
 99.5 
 
 4 61.6 
 
 1 03.6 
 
 44.6 
 
 10.9 
 
 2 99.6 
 
 05.7 
 
 40.6 
 
 10.6 
 
 94.0 
 
 1 80.0 
 
 1 37.5 
 
 05.6 
 
 07.2 
 
 1856 . 
 
 
 11.5 
 
 21.6 
 
 08.6 
 
 4 16.5 
 
 92.6 
 
 29.2 
 
 13.2 
 
 3 45.5 
 
 06.7 
 
 10.3 
 
 10.8 
 
 88.7 
 
 1 83.6 
 
 1 56 
 
 07.8 
 
 09.8 
 
 18.57 . 
 
 
 13.6 
 
 21,6 
 
 09.4 
 
 4 34.0 
 
 79.7 
 
 23.1 
 
 11.5 
 
 3 75.6 
 
 05.6 
 
 11. 1 
 
 11.3 
 
 73.3 
 
 1 95.6 
 
 1 29.0 
 
 10.0 
 
 11.8 
 
 1858 . 
 
 
 10.2 
 
 18.5 
 
 06.8 
 
 3 26.5 
 
 65.5 
 
 18-6 
 
 08.3 
 
 2 34.6 
 
 0S,6 
 
 11.3 
 
 08.2 
 
 66.6 
 
 1 49.5 
 
 99.0 
 
 06.5 
 
 08.7 
 
 18.59 . 
 
 
 10.7 
 
 10.0 
 
 08.3 
 
 3 66.5 
 
 83.0 
 
 18.6 
 
 08.7 
 
 2 60.6 
 
 05.7 
 
 09.2 
 
 08.2 
 
 49.6 
 
 1 37.6 
 
 94 5 
 
 06.3 
 
 07.8 
 
 1860 . 
 
 
 11.2 
 
 16.7 
 
 09.8 
 
 4 08.0 
 
 90.5 
 
 18 5 
 
 07.8 
 
 3 30.0 
 
 06.5 
 
 08.5 
 
 07.2 
 
 43.0 
 
 1 40.6 
 
 90.0 
 
 07.1 
 
 08.5 
 
 1861 . 
 
 
 09.0 
 
 15.0 
 
 07.2 
 
 6 02.5 
 
 73.0 
 
 '20.1 
 
 07.8 
 
 2 76.0 
 
 05.6 
 
 18.8 
 
 08.1 
 
 43.6 
 
 1 39.5 
 
 1 07.5 
 
 06.0 
 
 07.6 
 
 1862 J 
 
 
 07.3 
 
 15.4 
 
 06.6 
 
 6 36.2 
 
 97.5 
 
 25.1 
 
 07.0 
 
 1 79.6 
 
 04.8 
 
 12.3 
 
 13.8 
 
 61.9 
 
 1 49.2 
 
 1 47.4 
 
 07.8 
 
 09.0 
 
 
 
 08.3 
 
 17.5 
 
 07.5 
 
 T 20.5 
 
 1 10.6 
 
 28.5 
 
 08.0 
 
 2 03.5 
 
 .6 
 
 4.0 
 
 15.7 
 
 T0.2 
 
 1 69.0 
 
 1 67.0 
 
 08.9 
 
 10.2 
 
 1863 1 
 
 
 
 15.1 
 
 68.0 
 
 4 19.2 
 
 1 01.9 
 
 27.3 
 
 06 5 
 
 1 66.3 
 
 
 11.3 
 
 18.4 
 
 68.1 
 
 1 90.9 
 
 2 06.3 
 
 07.4 
 
 07.2 
 
 
 10.2 
 
 22.0 
 
 1J.6 
 
 6 08.5 
 
 1 48.0 
 
 39.7 
 
 09.5 
 
 2 40.0 
 
 
 16.6 
 
 2 60.7 
 
 84.3 
 
 2 77.1 
 
 98.0 
 
 10.8 
 
 10.5 
 
 1864 1 
 
 06.5 
 
 08.3 
 
 18.7 
 
 08.2 
 
 6 41.2 
 
 1 27.4 
 
 33.3 
 
 08.3 
 
 2 06.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 08 6 
 
 13.2 
 
 09.9 
 15.6 
 
 17.0 
 
 13.2 
 20.9 
 
 38.2 
 
 19.3 
 
 30.4 
 
 16.8 
 
 10.1 
 
 15.9 
 
 11 00.0 
 
 7 70.4 
 
 12 11.4 
 
 2 59.1 
 
 1 82.8 
 2 08.9 
 
 67.8 
 
 34.7 
 54.7 
 
 17.0 
 
 14.6 
 23.0 
 
 4 19.3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 17.5 
 
 1865 1 
 
 3 19.8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 02.9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14.3 
 
 1866] 
 
 10.8 
 15.3 
 
 12.5 
 17.7 
 
 23.5 
 33.2 
 
 12.6 
 17.7 
 
 10.3 
 12 82.2 
 
 1 32.2 
 1 86.2 
 
 34.6 
 
 48.8 
 
 08.6 
 12.2 
 
 3 42.3 
 4 82.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 07 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10.6 
 
 1867- 
 
 07.3 
 10.2 
 
 09.3 
 12.9 
 
 1.5.6 
 21.5 
 
 11.0 
 15.2 
 
 7 83.6 
 10 82.3 
 
 1 42.0 
 1 96.2 
 
 36.7 
 60.8 
 
 09.7 
 13.4 
 
 2 31.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 19.1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10.0 
 
 1868 
 
 08.2 
 
 11.6 
 
 22.1 
 
 10.2 
 
 7 34.0 
 
 1 51.2 
 
 33.2 
 
 08.8 
 
 1 98-7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11.5 
 
 16.3 
 
 31.0 
 
 14.3 
 
 10 20.2 
 
 2. 
 
 46.6 
 
 12.5 
 
 .77.5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11.0 
 
 1869 -f 
 
 10.6 
 14.2 
 
 13.7 
 18.3 
 
 19.3 
 25.8 
 
 12.3 
 16.5 
 
 6 64.0 
 8 69.7 
 
 1 .39.2 
 1 85.2 
 
 35.2 
 46.8 
 
 10.3 
 18.7 
 
 3 12.2 
 4 15.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 08 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11.1 
 
 
 10.7 
 12.3 
 
 06.1 
 06.9 
 
 05.3 
 06.0 
 
 13.7 
 15.8 
 
 09.9 
 11.1 
 
 08.0 
 09.0 
 
 20.1 
 23.1 
 
 16.1 
 18.1 
 
 16.1 
 17.0 
 
 12.8 
 14.8 
 
 09.9 
 11.1 
 
 10.6 
 11.9 
 
 6 63.4 
 
 7 61.1 
 
 7 64.3 
 
 8 42.9 
 7 76.9 
 
 8 71.9 
 
 2 04.6 
 2 35.1 
 
 2 22.9 
 2 49.1 
 
 2 12.4 
 1 38.7 
 
 34.8 
 40.0 
 
 .39.8 
 44.5 
 
 35.6 
 40.1 
 
 11.6 
 13.4 
 
 09.6 
 10.8 
 
 08.8 
 09.0 
 
 6 03.8 
 5 79.1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 07.9 
 09.1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 10.0 
 5 58.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 08.8 
 
 07.4 
 
 1872 
 
 3 09.2 
 9 47.5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 08.4 
 
 
 06.3 
 07.2 
 
 06.8 
 0T.6 
 
 07.3 
 08.4 
 
 10.6 
 11.7 
 
 18.2 
 20.8 
 
 25.4 
 28.3 
 
 11.3 
 12.9 
 
 10.7 
 12.4 
 
 7 40.9 
 8 42.9 
 
 7 26.5 
 8 01.5 
 
 1 77.2 
 2 01.6 
 
 1 00.4 
 1 11.7 
 
 31.0 
 35.3 
 
 26.1 
 29.1 
 
 08.1 
 09.1 
 
 08.9 
 09.9 
 
 3 30.6 
 3 70.1 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 08.0 
 
 
 2 76.1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 06.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 07.8 
 
 1876 1 
 
 
 12.0 
 
 18.9 
 
 09.4 
 
 6 47.0 
 
 83.2 
 
 22.4 
 
 10.1 
 
 2 32.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 07.0 
 8.1 
 
 08.2 
 
 09.2 
 
 {13.8 
 
 21.8 
 
 10.9 
 
 7 43.7 
 
 95.7 
 
 25.8 
 
 11.6 
 
 2 66.7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1876 
 
 07.0 
 07.8 
 
 09.6 
 10.6 
 
 20.4 
 22.8 
 
 09.4 
 10.5 
 
 6 28.0 
 6 88.0 
 
 80.1 
 89.2 
 
 24.4 
 27.2 
 
 13.6 
 16.1 
 
 1 98.3 
 2 20.9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 09.2 
 
 08 6 
 
 1877 
 
 06.4 
 .8 
 
 08.9 
 09.4 
 
 24.0 
 25.2 
 
 11.6 
 12.2 
 
 6 80.6 
 6 08.6 
 
 73.2 
 76.8 
 
 27.1 
 28.4 
 
 12.2 
 12.8 
 
 1 70.0 
 1 78.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 08.9 
 
 07.2 
 07.8 
 
 07 6 
 
 1878. 
 
 
 06.9 
 
 23.3 
 
 09.9 
 
 6 16.0 
 
 66.0 
 
 26.3 
 
 07.3 
 
 1 .30.9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 05.0 
 
 06.7 
 04.9 
 
 07.0 
 
 0.78 
 06.6 
 
 23.5 
 
 23.7 
 23.0 
 
 10.0 
 
 11.2 
 07.6 
 
 6 20.0 
 
 6 60.0 
 6 69.0 
 
 65.0 
 
 73.8 
 69.0 
 
 26.6 
 
 28.8 
 30.5 
 
 07.4 
 
 07.7 
 07.1 
 
 1 32.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1879 . 
 1880. 
 
 2 76.7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 78.9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 07.0 
 
 Aver. 
 
 07.3 
 
 09.1 
 
 17.5 
 
 08.2 
 
 4 60.7 
 
 . 1 45.7 
 
 33.6 
 
 09.2 
 
 2 86.1 
 
 06.6 
 
 ,10.9 
 
 10.1 
 
 106.2 
 
 1 42.3 
 
 1 16.3 
 
 06.4 
 
 07.4 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 379 
 
 Table Sliowing the Annual Average Gold and Corrency Prices ot Staple Articles, Ac, — Continued. 
 
 ^Currency prices in black figures.] 
 
 
 Sugar, 
 
 TaUota. 
 
 Tea. 
 
 Tohaeeo. 
 
 Wine. 
 
 Wool. 
 
 DaU. 
 
 t 
 
 ■^ 
 
 t 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 Per Jb. 
 
 Per lb. 
 
 Perth. 
 
 Per a. 
 
 Per lb. 
 
 Per lb. 
 
 Perth. 
 
 Perth. 
 
 Perth. 
 
 Per lb. 
 
 Perth. 
 
 ^erlb. 
 
 Perth. 
 
 Perth. 
 
 Per a. 
 
 Perth. 
 
 Perth. 
 
 1825. 
 
 SO 18.0 
 
 $3 07.9 
 
 $0 07 
 
 5 $0 99.2 
 
 
 to 62.5 
 
 il 34.0 
 
 $0 05.8 
 
 $0 16.7 
 
 
 $0 23.6 
 
 $1 75.0 
 
 $2 75.0 
 
 $23 83.0 
 
 $0 33.S 
 
 $0 68.5 
 
 $0 32.6 
 
 1826. 
 
 17.8 
 
 ^ 09.0 
 
 09 
 
 ) 92.0 
 
 
 58.7 
 
 1 25.0 
 
 06.2 
 
 12.3 
 
 
 30.1 
 
 1 73.0 
 
 2 76.0 
 
 23 91.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 49.6 
 
 28.7 
 
 1827. 
 
 18.0 
 
 09.3 
 
 09 
 
 96.6 
 
 
 66.6 
 
 1 28.0 
 
 04 6 
 
 11.6 
 
 
 40.6 
 
 106.5 
 
 2 75.0 
 
 22 46.6 
 
 26.0 
 
 39.0 
 
 21.6 
 
 1828. 
 
 18.0 
 
 07.8 
 
 08 
 
 2 93.3 
 
 
 62.6 
 
 1 16.5 
 
 04.0 
 
 11.6 
 
 
 41.2 
 
 1 700 
 
 2 62.5 
 
 22 00.0 
 
 26.0 
 
 37.0 
 
 24.0 
 
 1829 . 
 
 18.0 
 
 06.4 
 
 07 
 
 7 92.0 
 
 
 62.0 
 
 1 18.5 
 
 05.6 
 
 11.6 
 
 
 30.3 
 
 1 34.0 
 
 1 99.6 
 
 19 33.0 
 
 216 
 
 34.6 
 
 26.0 
 
 1830. 
 
 18.0 
 
 07.6 
 
 06 
 
 2 88.5 
 
 
 60.0 
 
 1 16.0 
 
 m.s 
 
 10.6 
 
 
 26.0 
 
 1 lo.p 
 
 1 90.5 
 
 17 00.0 
 
 22.0 
 
 39.0 
 
 28.6 
 
 i8;n . 
 
 16.8 
 
 C9.0 
 
 07 
 
 5 97.7 
 
 
 63.6 
 
 1 22.0 
 
 04.5 
 
 10.7 
 
 
 22.5 
 
 1 1O.0 
 
 1 876 
 
 24 37.0 
 
 27.6 
 
 63.6 
 
 550 
 
 1832. 
 
 15.5 
 
 09.0 
 
 ,07 
 
 6 88.0 
 
 
 60.0 
 
 1 15.0 
 
 04.0 
 
 ■ 11.0 
 
 
 16.7 
 
 1 16.0 
 
 1 71.5 
 
 21 96.6 
 
 27.5 
 
 47.5 
 
 42.7 
 
 1833 . 
 
 16.8 
 
 09.2 
 
 'o7 
 
 5 74.6 
 
 
 36 6 
 
 92.0 
 
 04.7 
 
 11.0 
 
 
 [16.7 
 
 1 28.6 
 
 1 68.6 
 
 17 20.5 
 
 31.6 
 
 49.0 
 
 46.7 
 
 1831. 
 
 16.8 
 
 07.0 
 
 07 
 
 6 61.0 
 
 
 30.0 
 
 80.0 
 
 06.6 
 
 12.0 
 
 
 .17.7 
 
 1 23.0 
 
 1 66.5 
 
 14 33.6 
 
 30.2 
 
 48.8 
 
 46.3 
 
 183.5 . 
 
 16.0 
 
 Og.2 
 
 08 
 
 6 62.8 
 
 
 27.6 
 
 81.6 
 
 08.0 
 
 13.0 
 
 
 23.6 
 
 1 23.7 
 
 1 67.0 
 
 16 25.0 
 
 33.7 
 
 63.9 
 
 47.1 
 
 1830 . 
 
 16.2 
 
 09.2 
 
 
 63.7 
 
 
 32.0 
 
 82.6 
 
 08.2 
 
 16.6 
 
 
 26.6 
 
 1 30 8 
 
 1 62.6 
 
 15 29.0 
 
 42.8 
 
 68.6 
 
 62.7 
 
 1837 
 
 14 8 
 
 09.9 
 
 
 58.8 
 
 
 29.1 
 
 77.7 
 
 06.2 
 
 15.3 
 
 
 20.0 
 
 1 61.2 
 
 1 66.6 
 
 15 06.8 
 
 41.6 
 
 40.6 
 
 40.3 
 
 16.6 
 
 10.4 
 
 
 61.5 
 
 
 80.6 
 
 81.2 
 
 06.6 
 
 16.0 
 
 
 21.0 
 
 1 68.6 
 
 1 62.5 
 
 16 74.5 
 
 43.5 
 
 42.4 
 
 42.2 
 
 1838 
 
 16.3 
 
 10.2 
 
 
 57.4 
 
 
 27.2 
 
 76.8 
 
 07.5 
 
 16.6 
 
 
 19.4 
 
 1 29.4 
 
 1 65.1 
 
 15 60.8 
 
 30.4 
 
 37.7 
 
 34.3 
 
 16.6 
 
 10.3 
 
 
 68.0 
 
 
 27.6 
 
 77.5 
 
 07.6 
 
 16.7 
 
 
 19.6 
 
 1 30.6 
 
 1 66.6 
 
 16 T5.0 
 
 30.7 
 
 38.1 
 
 84.7 
 
 1839 . 
 
 16.6 
 
 11.6 
 
 11 
 
 3 63.3 
 
 
 27.6 
 
 77.5 
 
 13.0 
 
 20.6 
 
 
 19.1 
 
 1 30.0 
 
 2 OOO 
 
 20 00.0 
 
 38.6 
 
 51.2 
 
 42.5 
 
 1840 . 
 
 12.6 
 
 08.7 
 
 08 
 
 67.7 
 
 
 45.6 
 
 77.0 
 
 08.6 
 
 13.7 
 
 
 19.5 
 
 1 16.0 
 
 1 70.0 
 
 19 16.5 
 
 28.0 
 
 39.1 
 
 28.2 
 
 1841. 
 
 12.0 
 
 07.6 
 
 
 V4.9 
 
 
 68.9 
 
 76.5 
 
 08.2 
 
 13.5 
 
 
 20.3 
 
 1 06.0 
 
 1 67.0 
 
 15 00.0 
 
 27.0 
 
 44.2 
 
 33.0 
 
 1842 . 
 
 10.0 
 
 07.0 
 
 
 64.0 
 
 
 49.4 
 
 60.7 
 
 05.0 
 
 U6 
 
 
 26.1 
 
 95.0 
 
 1 68.4 
 
 12 71.0 
 
 19.3 
 
 32.0 
 
 29 J) 
 
 1843 . 
 
 10.7 
 
 06.8 
 
 l08 
 
 6 60.0 
 
 
 43.0 
 
 60.0 
 
 04.7 
 
 12.6 
 
 
 36.6 
 
 87.6 
 
 1 25.0 
 
 12 75.0 
 
 20.6 
 
 30.6 
 
 23.0 
 
 1844. 
 
 11.0 
 
 06.6 
 
 07 
 
 6 60.0 
 
 
 37.0 
 
 63.0 
 
 04.0 
 
 12.6 
 
 
 40.7 
 
 1 08.6 
 
 1 62.0 
 
 19 00.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 40.0 
 
 32.0 
 
 1845. 
 
 11.4 
 
 06.7 
 
 07. 
 
 5 59.6 
 
 
 36.5 
 
 67.2 
 
 04.5 
 
 12.6 
 
 
 35.3 
 
 97.5 
 
 1 44.5 
 
 22 50.0 
 
 27.0 
 
 35.1 
 
 29.7 
 
 1841). 
 
 11.0 
 
 07.2 
 
 
 68.0 
 
 
 39.0 
 
 64.0 
 
 04.7 
 
 12.5 
 
 
 34.0 
 
 1 13.0 
 
 1 65.0 
 
 22 00.0 
 
 23.6 
 
 32.3 
 
 23.6 
 
 1847 . 
 
 10.0 
 
 08.7 
 
 
 62.0 
 
 
 66.0 
 
 56.0 
 
 04.8 
 
 13.1 
 
 
 307 
 
 1 62.6 
 
 1 80.5 
 
 26 77.0 
 
 26.2 
 
 36.2 
 
 28.0 
 
 1848. 
 
 08.0 
 
 08.0 
 
 
 48.5 
 
 
 27.0 
 
 49.5 
 
 06.3 
 
 13.6 
 
 
 25.6 
 
 1 50.5 
 
 1 83.0 
 
 28 17.0 
 
 26.1 
 
 34.3 
 
 26.0 
 
 1849. 
 
 08.5 
 
 07.6 
 
 
 47.6 
 
 
 34.7 
 
 61.6 
 
 06.1 
 
 14.0 
 
 
 32.3 
 
 1 60.6 
 
 1 88.6 
 
 23 60.0 
 
 29.2 
 
 36.1 
 
 27.6 
 
 1850. 
 
 09.5 
 
 06.8 
 
 
 49.6 
 
 
 40.0 
 
 68.5 
 
 08.2 
 
 21.0 
 
 
 34.2 
 
 1 25.0 
 
 1 88.6 
 
 23 50.0 
 
 32.6 
 
 40.0 
 
 32..'i 
 
 1851. 
 
 09.0 
 
 06.7 
 
 
 61.3 
 
 
 34.3 
 
 57.6 
 
 08.1 
 
 26.6 
 
 
 34.5 
 
 1 33.6 
 
 1 90.0 
 
 23 5O.0 
 
 36J 
 
 42.5 
 
 34.7 
 
 1852. 
 
 08.0 
 
 08.1 
 
 
 50.6 
 
 
 30.6 
 
 64.0 
 
 06.6 
 
 19.5 
 
 
 64.0 
 
 1 37.6 
 
 1 90.0 
 
 23 50.0 
 
 32.0 
 
 39.7 
 
 32.7 
 
 1853 • 
 
 08.3 
 
 08.8 
 
 
 45.0 
 
 
 27.0 
 
 43.5 
 
 07.0 
 
 20.2 
 
 
 
 1 38.0 
 
 1 92.0 
 
 23 50.0 
 
 41.0 
 
 50.0 
 
 40.0 
 
 1854. 
 
 09.0 
 
 11.6 
 
 
 42.5 
 
 
 23.0 
 
 24.0 
 
 08.0 
 
 18.6 
 
 
 36.0 
 
 1 67.6 
 
 2 14.0 
 
 32 83.0 
 
 32.4 
 
 42.1 
 
 30.8 
 
 1855. 
 
 08.6 
 
 11.7 
 
 
 36.8 
 
 
 21.0 
 
 22.5 
 
 09.4 
 
 19.7 
 
 
 41.0 
 
 2 21.0 
 
 2 33.0 
 
 43 33.0 
 
 29.8 
 
 37.0 
 
 2.5.0 
 
 1856. 
 
 10.7 
 
 11.0 
 
 
 37.6 
 
 
 17.7 
 
 24.1 
 
 11.0 
 
 22.0 
 
 
 66.7 
 
 2 80.0 
 
 2 86.6 
 
 50 00.0 
 
 33.6 
 
 44.6 
 
 31.1 
 
 1857. 
 
 12.6 
 
 10.7 
 
 
 42.0 
 
 
 28.7 
 
 33.2 
 
 14.1 
 
 27.7 
 
 
 89.0 
 
 3 00.0 
 
 3 37.5 
 
 50 00.0 
 
 36.8 
 
 49.0 
 
 32.8 
 
 1858. 
 
 10.0 
 
 09.3 
 
 
 35.5 
 
 
 26.6 
 
 29.0 
 
 10.6 
 
 24.0 
 
 
 90.0 
 
 2 95.0 
 
 3 29.0 
 
 56 66.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 39.0 
 
 24.8 
 
 1859 . 
 
 09.6 
 
 10.5 
 
 
 22.7 
 
 
 29.6 
 
 28.8 
 
 08.8 
 
 23.0 
 
 
 70.5 
 
 2 92.6 
 
 3 60.0 
 
 52 60.0 
 
 38.0 
 
 49.2 
 
 32-0 
 
 1860 . 
 
 09.3 
 
 10.0 
 
 
 25.0 
 
 
 30.0 
 
 32.6 
 
 08.1 
 
 19.7 
 
 
 81.6 
 
 2 95.0 
 
 3 68.6 
 
 62 60.0 
 
 36.7 
 
 60.0 
 
 29.4 
 
 1861. 
 
 08.0 
 
 08.8 
 
 
 43.0 
 
 
 27.0 
 
 47.5 
 
 09.1 
 
 24.0 
 
 
 69.5 
 
 2 80.0 
 
 4 25.0 
 
 52 50-0 
 
 32.6 
 
 43.0 
 
 26.5 
 
 1862 
 
 10.1 
 
 08.2 
 
 
 64.3 
 
 
 38.8 
 
 67.6 
 
 13.2 
 
 37.5 
 
 
 74.6 
 
 2 42.8 
 
 3 76.2 
 
 46 36.7 
 
 44.1 
 
 46.7 
 
 36.2 
 
 11.6 
 
 0».3 
 
 
 61.6 
 
 
 44.0 
 
 76.6 
 
 10.5 
 
 42.5 
 
 
 84.5 
 
 2 76.0 
 
 4 25.0 
 
 52 60.0 
 
 50,0 
 
 63.0 
 
 41.0 
 
 1863 
 
 10.0 
 
 07.7 
 
 
 38.7 
 
 
 40.7 
 
 44.0 
 
 14.4 
 
 39.0 
 
 
 1 06.9 
 
 2 12.2 
 
 2 92.8 
 
 47 94.0 
 
 46.6 
 
 51.4 
 
 40.3 
 
 14.6 
 
 11.2 
 
 
 56.T! 
 
 
 69.1 
 
 64.0 
 
 21.0 
 
 57.5 
 
 
 1 65.2 
 
 3 08.0 
 
 4 25.0 
 
 69 68.0 
 
 67.6 
 
 74.7 
 
 68.6 
 
 1864 
 
 09.9 
 
 07.6 
 
 
 44.9 
 
 80 63.4 
 
 47.1 
 
 
 13.1 
 
 
 $0 61.8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 43.7 
 
 43.3 
 
 20.2 
 
 16.3 
 
 
 91.4 
 
 1 08.6 
 
 96.8 
 
 
 20.7 
 
 
 1 25.6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 88.9 
 
 88.1 
 
 
 11.6 
 18.3 
 
 08.7 
 13.7 
 
 
 63.9 
 1 00.6 
 
 69.8 
 1 09.8 
 
 59.2 
 93.1 
 
 
 11.8 
 18.7 
 
 
 76.1 
 
 
 
 
 
 25.3 
 39.9 
 
 61.3 
 80.7 
 
 48 7 
 
 1865 
 
 1 18.1 
 
 
 
 
 
 76.6 
 
 1866 
 
 10.7 
 
 08.7 
 
 
 66.3 
 
 79.8 
 
 64.7 
 
 
 09.6 
 
 
 62.7 
 
 
 
 
 
 24.2 
 
 47.3 
 
 41.3 
 
 16.1 
 
 12.3 
 
 
 92.0 
 
 1 12.6 
 
 91.2 
 
 
 13.5 
 
 . 
 
 88.4 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 34.2 
 
 66.7 
 
 68.2 
 
 
 10.5 
 14.6 
 
 08.2 
 11.4 
 
 
 62.9 
 87.0 
 
 76.2 
 1 03.9 
 
 70.7 
 97.7 
 
 
 08.7 
 12.1 
 
 
 47.3 
 
 
 
 
 
 23.3 
 32.2 
 
 44.3 
 61.2 
 
 36.7 
 
 1867 ■ 
 
 65.4 
 
 
 
 
 
 60 8 
 
 1868 ■ 
 
 10.5 
 
 08-6 
 
 
 67.0 
 
 73.9 
 
 70.9 
 
 
 07.9 
 
 
 57.3 
 
 
 
 
 
 21.4 
 
 41.1 
 
 33.3 
 
 14.8 
 
 12.1 
 
 
 93.6 
 
 1 03.3 
 
 99.1 
 
 
 11.1 
 
 
 80.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 30.0 
 
 57.6 
 
 46.0 
 
 1869 
 
 11.2 
 
 08.5 
 
 
 72.4 
 
 69.3 
 
 67.9 
 
 
 07.5 
 
 
 64.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 22.4 
 
 44.7 
 
 330 
 
 16.0 
 
 11.4 
 
 
 »«.3 
 
 92.2 
 
 90.3 
 
 
 10.0 
 
 
 86.5 
 
 
 
 
 
 29.8 
 
 59.5 
 
 43.9 
 
 
 11.0 
 
 
 
 73.4 
 
 70.9 
 
 73.1 
 
 
 08.1 
 
 
 66.9 
 
 
 
 
 
 19.6 
 
 48 2 
 
 34.3 
 
 
 12-7 
 
 09.6 
 
 
 84.4 
 
 81.5 
 
 84.1 
 
 
 09.4 
 
 
 77.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 22.6 
 
 65.6 
 
 39.6 
 
 
 11.2 
 
 081 
 
 
 42 8 
 
 62.6 
 
 61.8 
 
 
 07.6 
 
 
 74.1 
 
 
 
 
 
 28.3 
 
 63.7 
 
 86-9 
 
 
 12.6 
 
 09.1 
 
 
 47.9 
 
 70.0 
 
 69.1 
 
 
 08.5 
 
 
 82.8 
 
 
 
 
 
 31.7 
 
 60.0 
 
 41.3 
 
 1872 
 
 10.5 
 
 08.1 
 
 
 41.1 
 
 62.3 
 
 62.2 
 
 
 10.7 
 
 
 90.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 31.1 
 
 63.1 
 
 56.6 
 
 11.8 
 
 09.1 
 
 
 46.2 
 
 68.8 
 
 68.7 
 
 
 12.1 
 
 
 1 01.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 35.0 
 
 71.0 
 
 63.6 
 
 1873 1 
 
 09.1 
 
 07.3 
 
 
 48.8 
 
 41.1 
 
 40.8 
 
 
 10.6 
 
 
 81.4 
 
 
 
 
 
 27.7 
 
 50.4 
 
 42.7 
 
 10.4 
 
 08.3 
 
 
 56.6 
 
 46.8 
 
 46.6 
 
 
 12.1 
 
 
 92.7 
 
 
 
 
 
 31.6 
 
 57.4 
 
 48.6 
 
 
 09-3 
 
 07 2 
 
 
 449 
 
 64.2 
 
 38.9 
 
 
 09.7 
 
 
 67.7 
 
 
 
 
 
 26.0 
 
 61.6 
 
 41.7 
 
 
 10.4 
 
 08.7 
 
 08.0 
 
 07.9 
 
 
 62.0 
 
 43.6 
 
 60.4 
 
 36.6 
 
 43.3 
 
 39.0 
 
 
 10.8 
 
 
 76.3 
 
 
 
 
 
 29.0 
 
 57.1 
 
 46 4 
 
 1876 
 
 
 
 11.8 
 
 
 81.3 
 
 
 
 
 
 26.1 
 
 48.7 
 
 38.8 
 
 10.1 
 
 09.1 
 
 
 60.2 
 
 42.1 
 
 44.9 
 
 
 13.6 
 
 
 03.6 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 28.9 
 
 66.0 
 
 44.6 
 
 1876 
 
 09.3 
 
 07.4 
 
 
 33.2 
 
 38.7 
 
 42.6 
 
 
 09.8 
 
 
 88.9 
 
 
 
 
 
 22.7 
 
 39.9 
 
 31.2 
 
 10.4 
 
 09.7 
 10.2 
 
 08.8 
 
 08.3 
 
 07.6 
 01.9 
 
 06.9 
 
 
 37.0 
 
 36.2 
 37.0 
 
 25.8 
 
 43.1 
 
 41.9 
 44.0 
 
 32.9 
 
 47.5 
 
 45 3 
 
 
 11.0 
 
 
 99.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 26 3 
 
 44 5 
 
 34 8 
 
 
 
 
 09.8 
 
 
 91.5 
 
 
 
 
 
 267 
 
 48 8 
 
 36 2 
 
 1877 
 
 
 47.6 
 
 34.4 
 
 
 10.3 
 
 
 96.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 61 2 
 
 88.0 
 
 33.6 
 
 1878 1 
 
 
 
 07.1 
 
 
 87.5 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 24.1 
 
 41.6 
 
 08.9 
 
 09.0 
 08.6 
 
 07.0 
 
 06.2 
 06.3 
 
 
 26.1 
 
 31.3 
 
 23.4 
 
 33.2 
 
 28.8 
 29.8 
 
 34.7 
 
 
 07.2 
 
 
 88.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 24.3 
 
 42.0 
 
 33.9 
 
 41.4 
 34.9 
 
 1879. 
 1880. 
 
 
 
 08.0 
 
 
 90.9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 32.6 
 
 
 07.7 
 
 
 92.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 26.4 
 
 41.4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aver. 
 
 11.7 
 
 08.3 
 
 08 
 
 60.7 
 
 63.6 
 
 43.0 
 
 70.0 
 
 07.9 
 
 17.1 
 
 76.3 
 
 39-9 
 
 1 63.5 
 
 2 21.4 
 
 27 35.3 
 
 29.6 
 
 44.5 
 
 36.0 
 
380 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Table comparing the Perceiita«e of Yearly Gold and Cnr- 
 renay Prices to the Mean Crold Prices of Staple Articles in 
 the Hew YorJi Blarket for 58 years from 1835 to 1S80, 
 ■wllh the Circulation and Its Ratio to the Population and 
 ■Wealth of the United States as estimated for each year 
 from the Census Returns of 1850, 1860, 1870, and 18*(0. 
 
 
 Percentage to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mean gold 
 price for 
 56 years of 
 
 Circulation, 
 millvme. 
 
 
 
 Ratio of to- 
 tal circu- 
 lation to — 
 
 
 yearly — 
 
 
 
 <0 
 
 K 
 1 
 
 », 
 
 
 Tears, 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .e 
 
 
 Oi 
 
 to" 
 
 
 
 
 jf 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 .^ 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 .Q 
 
 
 .8 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 K 
 
 «> 
 
 
 
 .*? 
 
 «■ 
 
 .2 
 
 
 1 
 
 iS 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 & 
 
 1825 
 
 104.4 
 
 104.4 
 
 ai9 
 
 
 
 11.2 
 
 83,273 
 
 
 
 1826 . ... 
 
 102.2 
 
 102.2 
 
 J7 
 
 
 
 11.5 
 
 3,377 
 
 
 
 1827 
 
 101.2 
 
 101.2 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 11.9 
 
 3,484 
 
 
 
 1828 
 
 98.9 
 
 98.9 
 
 22 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 12.2 
 
 3,594 
 
 
 
 1829 
 
 96.6 
 
 96.6 
 
 22 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 12.5 
 
 3,708 
 
 
 
 1830 
 
 02.6 
 
 92.6 
 
 25 
 
 ttoi 
 
 ma 
 
 12.9 
 
 3,825 
 
 6.66 
 
 .22.4 
 
 1831 
 
 97.4 
 
 97.4 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 13.3 
 
 3,946 
 
 
 
 1832 . . . . 
 
 99.0 
 
 99.0 
 
 33 
 
 , . 
 
 
 13.6 
 
 4,071 
 
 
 . . 
 
 18:i3 
 
 96.1 
 
 96.1 
 
 36 
 
 86 
 
 121 
 
 14.0 
 
 4.200 
 
 8.64 
 
 .29.2 
 
 1834 
 
 88.6 
 
 88.6 
 
 +1 
 
 95 
 
 136 
 
 14.4 
 
 4,333 
 
 9.44 
 
 .31.3 
 
 1835 .... 
 
 99.1 
 
 99.1 
 
 67 
 
 104 
 
 161 
 
 14.8 
 
 4,470 
 
 10.87 
 
 .36.0 
 
 1836 
 
 109.6 
 
 109.6 
 
 64 
 
 140 
 
 204 
 
 15.2 
 
 4,012 
 
 13.42 
 
 .44.2 
 
 1837 
 
 104.7 
 
 100.2 
 
 73 
 
 149 
 
 222 
 
 16.7 
 
 4,769 
 
 14.14 
 
 .46.6 
 
 1838 
 
 101.9 
 
 101.0 
 
 77 
 
 116 
 
 193 
 
 16.1 
 
 4,900 
 
 11.98 
 
 .39.4 
 
 1839 
 
 108.8 
 
 108.8 
 
 92 
 
 135 
 
 227 
 
 16.6 
 
 6,066 
 
 13.67 
 
 .44.8 
 
 1840 
 
 95.3 
 
 95.3 
 
 SS 
 
 107 
 
 196 
 
 17.1 
 
 6,226 
 
 11.40 
 
 .37.3 
 
 1841 
 
 92.6 
 
 92.6 
 
 R9 
 
 107 
 
 196 
 
 17.6 
 
 5,392 
 
 11.13 
 
 .36.3 
 
 1842 . ... 
 
 81.0 
 
 81.0 
 
 84 
 
 84 
 
 168 
 
 18.2 
 
 5,563 
 
 9.23 
 
 .30.2 
 
 1843 
 
 80.0 
 
 80.0 
 
 R3 
 
 .59 
 
 142 
 
 18.7 
 
 5,739 
 
 7.69 
 
 .24.7 
 
 1844 
 
 82.7 
 
 82.7 
 
 103 
 
 75 
 
 178 
 
 19.3 
 
 6,922 
 
 9.22 
 
 .30.0 
 
 1845 
 
 86.3 
 
 86.3 
 
 10^1 
 
 90 
 
 192 
 
 19.9 
 
 6,109 
 
 9.64 
 
 .31.4 
 
 1846 . . 
 
 85.7 
 
 85.7 
 
 98 
 
 106 
 
 204 
 
 20.5 
 
 6,302 
 
 .9.95 
 
 .32.3 
 
 1847 
 
 92.6 
 
 92.6 
 
 98 
 
 106 
 
 ao4 
 
 21-2 
 
 6,.501 
 
 9.62 
 
 .31.3 
 
 1848 . . 
 
 82.8 
 
 82.8 
 
 125 
 
 129 
 
 264 
 
 21.8 
 
 6,707 
 
 J1.65 
 
 .37.8 
 
 1819 
 
 83.5 
 
 83.6 
 
 no 
 
 lift 
 
 236 
 
 22.6 
 
 6,918 
 
 10.44 
 
 .;i3.9 
 
 1850 
 
 88.9 
 
 88.9 
 
 134 
 
 131 
 
 266 
 
 23.2 
 
 7,136 
 
 11.42 
 
 -.37.1 
 
 1851 
 
 89.3 
 
 89.3 
 
 172 
 
 1.55 
 
 327 
 
 24.0 
 
 7,981 
 
 13.62 
 
 .40.9 
 
 1852 . . . 
 
 91.9 
 
 91.9 
 
 20S 
 
 170 
 
 875 
 
 24.8 
 
 8,838 
 
 16.12 
 
 .42.4 
 
 1863 . . ... 
 
 99.4 
 
 99.4 
 
 228 
 
 196 
 
 424 
 
 25.7 
 
 9,708 
 
 16.60 
 
 .43.6 
 
 1864 
 
 107.0 
 
 107.0 
 
 266 
 
 206 
 
 471 
 
 26.6 
 
 10,591 
 
 17.77 
 
 .44.4 
 
 1856 . ... 
 
 111.1 
 
 111.1 
 
 295 
 
 187 
 
 482 
 
 27.3 
 
 11,488 
 
 17.65 
 
 .41.9 
 
 1856 . . 
 
 112.2 
 
 112.2 
 
 296 
 
 196 
 
 491 
 
 28.1 
 
 I2,.396 
 
 17.47 
 
 .39.6 
 
 1867 . 
 
 119.8 
 
 119.8 
 
 316 
 
 216 
 
 530 
 
 28.9 
 
 13,318 
 
 18.33 
 
 ..39.8 
 
 1868 . . . 
 
 99.7 
 
 99.7 
 
 287 
 
 155 
 
 442 
 
 29.S 
 
 14,262 
 
 14.83 
 
 .31.0 
 
 1859 
 
 100.6 
 
 100.6 
 
 ,307 
 
 193 
 
 500 
 
 30.6 
 
 16,200 
 
 16.33 
 
 .32.9 
 
 1860 
 
 100.3 
 
 100.3 
 
 280 
 
 207 
 
 487 
 
 31.6 
 
 16,160 
 
 15.46 
 
 .30.1 
 
 1861 . 
 
 98.0 
 
 98.0 
 
 248 
 
 202 
 
 460 
 
 32.1 
 
 17,013 
 
 14.01 
 
 .26.4 
 
 1862 . . . . 
 
 126.4 
 
 111.6 
 
 ,310 
 
 218 
 
 528 
 
 32.7 
 
 17,906 
 
 16.14 
 
 .29.5 
 
 1863 ... 
 
 173.3 
 
 119.4 
 
 .341 
 
 ,539 
 
 880 
 
 33.4 
 
 18,838 
 
 26.34 
 
 .46.7 
 
 1864 
 
 223,8 
 
 llO.l 
 
 ,3,36 
 
 636 
 
 972 
 
 34.1 
 
 19,809 
 
 28 60 
 
 .49.0 
 
 1865 
 
 193 4 
 
 123.0 
 
 269 
 
 888 
 
 1,167 
 
 34.8 
 
 20,820 
 
 33.24 
 
 ..55.5 
 
 1866 . 
 
 167.8 
 
 119.1 
 
 248 
 
 946 
 
 1,193 
 
 35.5 
 
 21,809 
 
 33.00 
 
 .64.6 
 
 1807 
 
 166.1 
 
 113.0 
 
 216 
 
 868 
 
 1,074 
 
 36.3 
 
 22,958 
 
 29.58 
 
 .46.7 
 
 1808 . . . 
 
 16S.3 
 
 107.6 
 
 206 
 
 757 
 
 963 
 
 ,37.0 
 
 24,086 
 
 26.02 
 
 .40.0 
 
 1869 
 
 143.9 
 
 108.2 
 
 166 
 
 762 
 
 908 
 
 37.8 
 
 25,253 
 
 24.02 
 
 .36.9 
 
 1870 
 
 135.6 
 
 118.1 
 
 1.59 
 
 743 
 
 902 
 
 ,38.6 
 
 t26,460 
 
 23.36 
 
 .340 
 
 1871 . . . 
 
 120.7 
 
 108.1 
 
 169 
 
 746 
 
 915 
 
 .39.6 
 
 27,861 
 
 23.10 
 
 .32.8 
 
 1872 . 
 
 126.5 
 
 112.6 
 
 139 
 
 751 
 
 890 
 
 40.6 
 
 29,308 
 
 21.92 
 
 .30.3 
 
 1873 . . 
 
 122.4 
 
 107.6 
 
 140 
 
 749 
 
 889 
 
 41.7 
 
 30,831 
 
 21.32 
 
 .28.8 
 
 1874 
 
 118.7 
 
 106.8 
 
 171 
 
 778 
 
 949 
 
 42.8 
 
 32,420 
 
 22.17 
 
 .29.2 
 
 1876 .... 
 
 112.9 
 
 98.3 
 
 167 
 
 783 
 
 940 
 
 44.0 
 
 34,074 
 
 21.36 
 
 .27.6 
 
 1876 . . . 
 
 105.0 
 
 94.2 
 
 186 
 
 763 
 
 049 
 
 4,6.2 
 
 35,794 
 
 20.99 
 
 .26.6 
 
 1877 . . 
 
 102.7 
 
 98.0 
 
 246 
 
 714 
 
 960 
 
 ;46.4 
 
 37,579 
 
 20.68 
 
 .25.6 
 
 1878 . . 
 
 88.7 
 
 88.0 
 
 328 
 
 690 
 
 1,018 
 
 47.6 
 
 39,430 
 
 21.38 
 
 .25.8 
 
 1879 
 
 94 7 
 
 94.7 
 
 399 
 
 687 
 
 1,086 
 
 48.9 
 
 41,347 
 
 22.20 
 
 .26.2 
 
 1880 .... 
 
 90.3 
 
 90.3 
 
 602 
 
 705 
 
 1,207 
 
 60.2 
 
 43,300 
 
 24.04 
 
 .27.9 
 
 ♦Estimated for 1825 to 1850 from census returns of 1850 and offioial valua- 
 tion of houses, lands, and slaves in 1816, vide Pitliin's Statistics, p. 313. 
 tEeduced to gold valuation. 
 
 GREAT BBITAIN — GOLD IN THE ARTS. 
 
 Professor Suess, in his book, " Die Zukunft des Goldes," 
 says: "In order to get some reliable information on the 
 consumption of gold in the arts in Great Britain, I wrote to 
 the chamber of commerce in Birmingham, a principal seat 
 of that industry. Its .secretary, Mr. H. J. Harding, has been 
 kind enough to procure an answer from Mr. John Bragg, a 
 very competent expert, who writes, under date of January 
 10, 1877, as follows: "The amouiit of bullion, including 
 sovereigns, which are melted every day in large quanties, is 
 from 250,000 to 300,000 ounces annually. In the year 1874 
 120,000 ounces passed the Birmingham assay office. This 
 amount has risen for several years 20,000 ounces annually, 
 and may be now from 150,000 to 160,000 ounces. As we 
 know for certain that not one-half passes this office, it is 
 reasonable to conclude that the amount is to-day near 
 300,000 ounces, to which figure an eminent bullion dealer 
 consents. This single place consumes therefore about 
 
 Tahle comparing the Ratio of Circulation to Population 
 and IVealth ^vlth the Currency and Gold Prices of Staple 
 Articles in the Weiv 'York Market for years named, taking 
 the Ratios and Prices of 1890 as 100. 
 
 Tears. 
 
 1860 
 
 1861 
 
 1852 
 
 1863 . 
 
 1864 
 
 1865 
 
 1856 . 
 
 1867 . 
 
 1868 . 
 
 1859 . 
 
 1860 . 
 1801 
 1862 . 
 1863 , . 
 1864 
 
 1865 . 
 
 1866 . 
 
 1867 . 
 1868 
 
 1869 . 
 1870 
 
 1871 . 
 
 1872 . 
 
 1873 . 
 
 1874 . 
 
 1875 . 
 
 1876 . 
 18T7 . 
 187? 
 1879 . 
 1880 
 
 Percentageof ratio 
 of circulation to — 
 
 Popular 
 
 tion. 
 
 100.0 
 119.2 
 132.4 
 144.4 
 155.6 
 164.5 
 152.9 
 160.5 
 129.8 
 143.0 
 136 3 
 122.6 
 141.3 
 230.6 
 249.5 
 291.0 
 294.2 
 269.0 
 227.8 
 210.3 
 204.5 
 202.2 
 191.9 
 186.7 
 194.1 
 187.0 
 183-8 
 181.0 
 187.2 
 194.2 
 210.5 
 
 Jl.OOOo/ 
 wealth. 
 
 100.0 
 110.2 
 114.2 
 117.5 
 119.6 
 112.9 
 106.7 
 107.2 
 83.5 
 88.6 
 81.1 
 71.1 
 79.5 
 125.8 
 132.0 
 149.5 
 146.9 
 125.8 
 107.8 
 96.7 
 91.6 
 88.4 
 81.6 
 77.6 
 78.7 
 74.1 
 71.4 
 68.7 
 69.5' 
 70.6 
 75.2 
 
 ^1 
 
 100.0 
 114.7 
 123.3 
 130.9 
 137-6 
 133.7 
 129.8 
 133.8 
 106.6 
 115.8 
 108.2 
 96.8 
 110.4 
 178.2 
 190.7 
 220.2 
 220.6 
 192.4 
 167.8 
 163.5 
 148.0 
 145.3 
 136.7 
 132.1 
 136.4 
 130.5 
 127.6 
 124.8 
 128-3 
 132.4 
 142.8 
 
 Percentage to aver- 
 age price of I8b0 of 
 yearly average — 
 
 Currency 
 
 Oold 
 
 prices. 
 
 pnces. 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.4 
 
 100.4 
 
 103.3 
 
 103.3 
 
 111.8 
 
 111.8 
 
 120.3 
 
 120.3 
 
 125.0 
 
 126.0 
 
 126.2 
 
 126.2 
 
 134.7 
 
 134.7 
 
 112.1 
 
 112.1 
 
 113.1 
 
 113.1 
 
 112.8 
 
 112.8 
 
 110.2 
 
 110.2 
 
 142.1 
 
 126.5 
 
 194.9 
 
 134.3 
 
 251.7 
 
 123.8 
 
 217.5 
 
 138.3 
 
 188.7 
 
 134.0 
 
 176.6 
 
 127.1 
 
 169.0 
 
 121.0 
 
 161.8 
 
 121.7 
 
 152.6 
 
 132.8 
 
 135.7 
 
 121.0 
 
 142.2 
 
 126.6 
 
 137.6 
 
 121.0 
 
 133.5 
 
 120.1 
 
 138.2 
 
 110.6 
 
 118.1 
 
 106.0 
 
 115.5 
 
 110.2 
 
 99.7 
 
 98.9 
 
 106.5 
 
 106.6 
 
 101.5 
 
 101.6 
 
 80,000,000 of francs annually, with an increase of 2,000,000 
 per year. It seems to follow from this that the opinion oi 
 an annual consumption of gold in England of from 4,000,000 
 to 5,000,000 sterling for use in the arts, for abrasion and for 
 recoining, is probably far below the truth." 
 
 Some information on this subject may be gathered from the 
 hall marks, which are registered according to law, and from 
 the amounts of duty on manufactures from gold and silver, 
 which is 17s. for the ounce of gold. Manufactures of a low 
 degree of fineness (of 15, 12, and 9 karats) are not subject 
 to that duty, and not also gold u.sed for the production of 
 foil and thread, and that used in gilding porcelain, etc. It 
 follows from this that the information cannot be exact, and 
 is only apt to show the proportional increase in the course 
 of years. There was subject to this duty on gold manufactures : 
 
 1807-1814 . 
 
 1815-1823 . 
 
 1831-1836 
 
 1836-1840 . 
 
 1841-1846. 
 
 1846-1860 
 
 1851-1855 , 
 
 1856-1860 
 
 1861-1866 
 
 1866-1870 
 
 1871-1876 
 
 1876 . . . 
 
 1877 . . . 
 
 Total 
 oviices. 
 
 60,750 
 51,321 
 27,991 
 35,428 
 34,678 
 38,200 
 49,919 
 56,716 
 55,021 
 09,983 
 110,161 
 
 Average 
 ounces. 
 
 6,344 
 6,415 
 5,590 
 7,086 
 6,915 
 7,640 
 9,960 
 11,142 
 lll,004 
 13,997 
 22,032 
 23,850 
 
 Tahle sho-n^lng the Anniu&l Consumption of Gold in the Arts. 
 
 Coaniries. 
 
 Gross gold 
 consump- 
 tion. 
 
 United State.s 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Austro-HunKary 
 
 Italy 
 
 Russia 
 
 All above countries . . . 
 Otiier civilized countries 
 
 Tota 
 
 Deduotions 
 for old ma- 
 terialreused. 
 
 Kg.f. 
 
 15,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 21,000 
 
 14,700 
 
 16,000 
 
 2,900 
 
 6,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 97,600 
 5,000 
 
 102,600 
 
 Net gold 
 consumption 
 
 Per cent. 
 10 
 16 
 20 
 20 
 25 
 15 
 26 
 20 
 
 Kg. f. 
 
 13,500 
 
 17,000 
 
 16,900 
 
 11,760 
 
 11,250 
 
 2,465 
 
 4,600' 
 
 2,400 
 
 79,776 
 4,000 
 
 83,775 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 381 
 
 Proportion of production of gold and silver from 1493 to 1880. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 S 
 
 
 k 
 
 
 
 
 ^•f 
 
 
 ^■s 
 
 i^ 
 
 
 vg 
 
 
 
 
 2 " 
 
 
 1! 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 
 Period. 
 
 
 Silver. 
 
 ■s-S 
 
 Oold. 
 
 •s>i 
 
 ^fe 
 
 Year. 
 
 
 
 
 S (S 
 
 
 s 5; 
 
 il 
 
 
 l-s. 
 
 
 
 
 ?: w. 
 
 
 ^ &i 
 
 'S- 
 
 
 „3 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 S'S' 
 
 
 S'S' 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 Is. 
 
 
 ;« 
 
 
 a; 
 
 
 £, 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 rounds. 
 
 
 Foundn. 
 
 
 Pounds 
 
 
 
 1493-1520 
 
 28 
 
 2,895,200 
 
 89 
 
 367,280 
 
 11 
 
 3,262,666 
 
 1493-1620 
 
 10.5—11. 1 
 
 15-21-1544 
 
 24 
 
 4,762,660 
 
 93 
 
 378,048 
 
 7 
 
 6,140,608 
 
 1521-1644 
 
 11.25 
 
 1345-1560 
 
 16 
 
 10,968,320 
 
 97 
 
 299,552 
 
 3 
 
 11,267,872 
 
 1545-1560 
 
 11.30 
 
 1561-1580 
 
 20 
 
 13,178,000 
 
 98 
 
 300,960 
 
 5 
 
 13,478,960 
 
 1561-1680 
 
 11.50 
 
 1581-1600 
 
 20 
 
 18,431,600 
 
 98 
 
 324,720 
 
 2 
 
 18,756,320 
 
 1581-1600 
 
 12.1 
 
 1001-1620 
 
 20 
 
 18,607,600 
 
 98 
 
 374,880 
 
 2 
 
 18,982,480 
 
 1601-1620 
 
 12.5 
 
 1621-1040 
 
 20 
 
 17,318,400 
 
 98 
 
 305,200 
 
 2 
 
 17,683,600 
 
 1621-1640 
 
 14.0 
 
 1641-1660 
 
 20 
 
 16,117,200 
 
 98 
 
 385,880 
 
 2 
 
 16,503,080 
 
 1041-1060 
 
 14.50 
 
 1661-1680 
 
 20 
 
 14,828,000 
 
 97 
 
 407,440 
 
 3 
 
 15,235,440 
 
 1661-1680 
 
 16.0 
 
 1081-1700 
 
 20 
 
 15,043,600 
 
 97 
 
 473,060 
 
 3 
 
 15,617,260 
 
 1081-1700 
 
 14.98 
 
 1701-1720 
 
 20 
 
 15,646,400 
 
 97 
 
 504,080 
 
 3 
 
 16,210,480 
 
 1701-1720 
 
 16.21 
 
 1721-1740 
 
 20 
 
 18,972,800 
 
 96 
 
 839,520 
 
 4 
 
 19,812,320 
 
 1721-1740 
 
 14.71 
 
 1741-1760 
 
 20 
 
 23,458,380 
 
 96 
 
 1,082,840 
 
 4 
 
 24,541,220 
 
 1741-1760 
 
 14.71 
 
 1761-1780 
 
 20 
 
 28,720,560 
 
 97 
 
 911,020 
 
 3 
 
 29,631,580 
 
 Wei-1780 
 
 14.64 
 
 1781-180(1 
 
 20 
 
 38,678,640 
 
 98 
 
 782,760 
 
 2 
 
 39,401,400 
 
 1781-1800 
 
 14.76 
 
 1801-181C 
 
 10 
 
 19,671,300 
 
 98 
 
 391,116 
 
 2 
 
 20,062,416 
 
 1801-1810 
 
 15.42-15.61 
 
 1811-182C 
 
 10 
 
 11,890,940 
 
 98 
 
 251,790 
 
 2 
 
 12,148,73011811-1820 
 
 16.64 
 
 1821-1830 
 
 10 
 
 10,132,320 
 
 97 
 
 312,752 
 
 3 
 
 ]0,448,072!l821-1830 
 
 15.80 
 
 1831-1840 
 
 10 
 
 13,121,90C 
 
 97 
 
 440,358 
 
 3 
 
 13,668,268|1831-1840 
 
 15.77 
 
 1841-1850 
 
 10 
 
 17,169,131 
 
 93 
 
 1,204,698 
 
 7 
 
 18,373,8281841-1850 
 
 15.75-15.60 
 
 1851-1855 
 
 5 
 
 9,747,266 
 
 82 
 
 2,172,665 
 
 18 
 
 ll,919,930!l851-18S5 
 
 16.42 
 
 1866-1860 
 
 5 
 
 9,954,89( 
 
 81 
 
 2,266,638 
 
 19 
 
 12,221,52811866-1800 
 
 18 30 
 
 1861-1805 
 
 5 
 
 12,112,650 
 
 86 
 
 2,036,353 
 
 14 
 
 14,149,003 1861-1865 
 
 15 38 
 
 1886-1870 
 
 5 
 
 14,729,935 
 
 87 
 
 2,110,900 
 
 13 
 
 16,840,8351866-1870 
 
 15.55 
 
 1871-1875 
 1876-1880 
 
 b 
 5 
 
 21,663,676 
 21,756,250 
 
 92 
 92 
 
 1,877,425 
 1,668,760 
 
 8 
 8 
 
 23 641,100 
 23,426,000 
 
 11871-1875 
 11876-1880 
 
 15.98 
 18.20 
 
 
 388 
 
 419,583,515 
 
 96 
 
 22,687,285 
 
 6 
 
 442,170,976 
 
 
 Note. — The average price of silver in London for 1876-'80 may be taken as 
 62%'L the ounce, and the value for thai period is calculated at that ratio. 
 
 Table shovring the Annual ConBumptlon of^ Silver In tlie Arts 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Gross con- 
 sumption. 
 
 Deductions 
 for old ma- 
 terial — re- 
 used. 
 
 Net silver 
 consump- 
 tion. 
 
 United States 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Au.'*tro-Hungary . . . ... 
 
 Italy . .. 
 
 Russia 
 
 Kg.f. 
 
 120,000 
 90,000 
 100,000 
 10 ',000 
 32,000 
 40,000 
 25,000 
 40,000 
 
 Per cent. 
 15 
 20 
 
 25 
 25 
 25 
 20 
 25 
 20 
 
 Kg. f. 
 102,000 
 72,000 
 75,000 
 76,000 
 24,000 
 32,000 
 19,000 
 32,000 
 
 All above countries 
 
 Other civilized countries 
 
 547,000 
 53,000 
 
 
 431,000 
 40,000 
 
 Total 
 
 600,000 
 
 
 471,000 
 
 To an inquiry of the Chamber of Commerce, the following 
 sums are given as representing the value of the industries 
 
 named in Paris alone for 1860 : Manufactures of gold and 
 silver thread, 3,469,190 francs ; gold and silver foil, 13,607,300 
 francs; fine jewelry, 69,213,700 francs; chains, 14,837,760 
 francs. In the official statistics for 1879, the following state- 
 ments occur: Export of gold jewelry, 4,694 kilograms, value 
 25,798,000 francs ; gold foil, 1,185 kilograms, value 3,793,000 
 francs ; gold thread 3,882 kilograms, value 3,885,000 francs. 
 
 A note from an expert, in my possession, states that from 
 60,000,000 to 80,000,000 of francs, fine gold, is used in the 
 arts annually in Paris. 
 
 The last figure may be too high, but it is clear that the 
 consumption of gold has increased very much in France, 
 which IS in this respect much above almost every other 
 country. This circumstance goes far to explain the great 
 difference between import and export of gold in France. 
 The following are the figures for it : 
 
 1847-18.56. 1857-1866. 1867-1876. 
 
 Import 
 Export 
 
 JiUoB. 
 131,498 
 60,762 
 
 Import greater by 49,319 87,623 64,746 
 
 [Extract from Verweitdung des Goldce und Silbers. Statistiscke JJutersuchung 
 von I}r. Adolf Soeibeer.] ' 
 
 The French gold coinage from 1851 to 1875 reached the 
 enormous sum of 6,464 millions of francs, for which were 
 required 1,762,600 kilograms gold, on the average 70,000 
 kilograms annually. It is evident that for industrial uses 
 coin was melted to a large extent. All these circumstances 
 duly considered, it will come near the truth if we assume the 
 use of gold in the arts at 21,000 kilograms for France. 
 
 Decrease of amount of precious metals in the civilized world by the absorption 
 of Asia. Kilos. 
 
 1851-1800, annua) average 10,000 
 
 1861-1870, annual average .... . . . ... 30,000 
 
 1871-1880, annual average 12,000 
 
 France. — Table No. 1. — Statement of the total production of precious 
 metals from 1493 to 1875. 
 
 [Converting kilograms into pounds avoirdupois^ as 2.2=1 pound. 
 
 Countries, 
 
 Germany 
 
 Austro-Hungary 
 
 Various European countries . 
 
 Russian Empire 
 
 Africa 
 
 Mexico 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Peru 
 
 Potosi (Bolivia) 
 
 Chili 
 
 Brazil * 
 
 United States . . . . . 
 
 Australia ... 
 
 Various countries . 
 
 Total . 
 
 According to iveight. 
 
 SUuer. 
 
 Pounds. 
 17,390,802 
 17,094,297 
 16,240,400 
 5,343,668 
 
 167,651,880 
 
 68,-688,400 
 
 i 82,978,720 
 
 6,739,800 
 
 11,597,300 
 4,4o6,o'oo' 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Pounds 
 
 1,018,430 
 
 2,274,041 
 
 1,609,520 
 
 583,088 
 
 2,671,900 
 
 369,810 
 
 646,800 
 
 679,920 
 
 2,281,510 
 
 4,4.57,420 
 
 3,986,400 
 
 333,620 
 
 20,797,359 
 
 Table ghoivlng the mo-vement of Specie In France, Production, Congnmptlon, and Increase per Annnm, fi-om 1S50 to 1878. 
 
 GOLTi. 
 
 Excfss 
 ']f imports 
 over ex- 
 ports. 
 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 1864 
 1855 
 1866 
 1857 
 1868 
 1869 
 1860 
 1861 
 1862 
 1863 
 1864 
 1865 
 1866 
 1867 
 
 Francs. 
 16,989,000 
 84,602,000 
 16,903.000 
 289,059,000 
 416,122,000 
 218,243,000 
 375,253,000 
 445,822,000 
 487,106,000 
 .539,343,000 
 311,699,000 
 
 166,038,000 
 11,976,000 
 125,142,000 
 150,824,000 
 465,252,000 
 408,674,000 
 
 1868 212,863,000 
 
 1869 274,354,000 
 
 1870 
 1871 
 1872 
 1873 
 1874 
 1875 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 
 119,766,000 
 
 431,260,000 
 470,320,000 
 503,652,000 
 455,7.36,000 
 236,404,000 
 
 Excess 
 of exports 
 ovet im- 
 ports. 
 
 Pr'd'c'n 
 of Metal- 
 lurgical 
 Works. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 23,734,000 
 
 213,814,000 
 52,892,000 
 108,639,000 
 
 Consumed 
 
 in arts 
 
 and manur 
 
 factures. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 823,000 
 247,000 
 260,000 
 326,000 
 263,000 
 1,765,000 
 1,590,000 
 1,733,000 
 1,700,000 
 2,602,000 
 2,723,000 
 2,447,000 
 2,.531,000 
 2,603,000 
 2,591,000 
 1,178,000 
 1,213,000 
 1,408,000 
 3,001,000 
 2,913,000 
 3,288,000 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Gain 
 
 during iht 
 
 year. 
 
 Losi 
 
 during the 
 
 year. 
 
 35.330,000 
 36,460,000 
 48,485,000 
 45,960,000' 
 40,815,000 
 48,060,000 
 46,605,000 
 51,120,000 
 54,616,000 
 62,880,000 
 51,226,000 
 50,626,000 
 49.920,000 
 49,735,000 
 49,500,000 
 36,075,000 
 31,245,000 
 49,720,000 
 43,415,000 
 47,165,000 
 49,650,000 
 44,646,000 
 44,626,000 
 64,086,000 
 
 Francs. 
 
 16,989,000 
 
 84,002,000 
 
 16,908,000 
 
 289,069,000 
 
 416,122,000 
 
 183,736,000 
 
 340,050,000 
 
 397,697,000 
 
 441,471,000 
 
 498,791,000 
 
 266,404,000 
 
 115,661,000 
 
 74,864,000 
 102,322,000 
 417,074,000 
 361,286,000 
 165,731,000 
 227,445,000 
 
 84,869,000 
 
 386,998,000 
 424,068,000 
 459,107,000 
 411,111,000 
 182,319,000 
 
 Francs. 
 
 68,649,000 
 
 40,939,000 
 
 243,846,000 
 101,204,000 
 149,053,000 
 
 Total in- 
 crease. 
 
 Francs. 
 16,089,000 
 101,591,000 
 118,499,000 
 407,568,000 
 823,680,000 
 1,007,416,000 
 1,347,466,000 
 1,745,063,000 
 2,186,634,000 
 2,686,326,000 
 2,950,729,000 
 2,882,080,000 
 2,997,731,000 
 2,956,792,000 
 3,031,656,000 
 3,133,978.000 
 3,561,052,000 
 3,912,337,000 
 4,078,068,000 
 4,305,513,000 
 4,390,382,000 
 4,146,636,000 
 4,045,332,000 
 3,896,279,000 
 4,283,277,000 
 14,707,335,000 
 1,5,166,442,000 
 16,677,653,000 
 16,759,872,000 
 
 Excess 
 of imports 
 over ex- 
 ports. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 72,584,000 
 
 77,969,000 
 
 72,686,000 
 44,965,000 
 189,649,000 
 109,276,000 
 111,42.5,000 
 36,467,000 
 16,516,000 
 102,250,000 
 181,498,000 
 360,934,000 
 185,343,000 
 140,355,000 
 105,960,000 
 118,834^000 
 
 Excess I Pi-od^ct'n 
 
 of expo-rts 
 over im- 
 ports. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 2,447,000 
 
 116,885,000 
 
 163,694,000 
 
 197,160,000 
 
 283,623,000 
 
 359,820,000 
 
 14,940,000 
 
 171,623,000 
 
 157,243,000 
 
 61,813,000 
 
 86,181.000 
 
 68,341,000 
 
 42,474,000 
 
 10,197,000 
 11,716,000 
 10,959,000 
 10,991,000 
 
 of metal- 
 lurgical 
 works. 
 
 Consumed 
 in arts 
 & manu- 
 factures. 
 
 Gain Loss 
 
 during the,dur^ngthe 
 
 year, year. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Francs. 
 72,584,000 1 
 
 Francs. 
 
 1,982,000 18,396,000 
 7,013,000 20,970,000 
 
 18,690,000 
 18,206,000 
 18,350,000 
 19 615,000 
 
 9,140,000 19,360,000 
 4,931,000 19,110,000 
 
 9,766,000 
 7,441,000 
 7,072,000 
 7,096,000 
 6,996,000 
 9,685,000 
 
 10,112,000 
 8,070,000 
 6,209,000 
 7,577,000 
 7,095,000 
 
 10,155,000 
 9,787,000 
 
 18,655,000 
 15,.550,000 
 15,235,000 
 15,515,000 
 15,246,000 
 16,875,000 
 14,815,000 
 9,910,000 
 11,685,000 
 19,006,000 
 22,005,000 
 15,250,000 
 16,965,000 
 16,435,000 
 16,800,000 
 16,260,000 
 
 64,423,000 
 
 36,546,000 
 
 181,401,000 
 
 102,986,000 
 
 106,722,000 
 
 33,627,000 
 
 10,140,000 
 
 90,762.000 
 
 166,688,000 
 
 356,839,000 
 
 178,166,000 
 
 123,920,000 
 
 90,160,000 
 
 102,584 000 
 
 2,447,000 
 116,885,000 
 163,694,000 
 213,573,000 
 297,680,000 
 368,313,000 
 
 21,429,000 
 178,914,000 
 165,867,000 
 
 72,033,000 
 101,260,000 
 
 77,230,000 
 
 50,683,000 
 
 Decrease. 
 
 Francs. 
 
382 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Table showlns the Specie and Paper Circulation in Prance from 1850 to ISTS, together ivlth Comparative Prlc'e or 
 Exports and Inipox-ts for Uic years stated on tlie Basis of Prices for tlie same coninnodities in tlie year 1S62. 
 
 
 Gold circula- 
 
 Silver circular 
 tim. 
 
 Paper circula- 
 tion. 
 
 Specie (gold and 
 silver) eircalor 
 
 Total specie and 
 paper circula- 
 
 }^luctuation 
 in price of 
 
 Fluctuation 
 in price of 
 
 Average of 
 imports and 
 
 
 
 Hon. 
 
 tion. 
 
 imparts, i 
 
 exporta. ^ 
 
 exports. 
 
 
 Franos. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Franca. 
 
 
 
 
 1850 
 
 2,126,607,000 
 2,111,2(19,000 
 
 3,326,146,000 
 3,404,106,000 
 
 511,900,000 
 602,900,000 
 
 6,452,753,000 
 6,615,314,000 
 
 5,964,663,000 
 6,218,214,000 
 
 82 
 80 
 
 91 
 90 
 
 86.5 
 
 1851 
 
 85 
 
 1862 
 
 2,228,117,000 
 
 3,4(11,668,000 
 
 672,000,000 
 
 6,629,776,000 
 
 6,301,776,000 
 
 81 
 
 98 
 
 89.5 
 
 1853 
 
 2,617,176,000 
 
 3,284,773,000 
 
 632,000,000 
 
 5,801,949,000 
 
 0,433,949,000 
 
 88 
 
 109 
 
 98.5 
 
 1854 ... ... 
 
 2,933,298,000 
 
 3,121,079,900 
 
 628,300,000 
 
 6,064,377,000 
 
 6,682,677,000 
 
 91 
 
 108 
 
 99.5 
 
 1855 . 
 
 3,117,034,000 
 
 2,907,506,000 
 
 592,800,000 
 
 6,024,640,000 
 
 6,617,340,000 
 
 95 
 
 104 
 
 99.5 
 
 1856 . .... 
 
 3,457,084,000 
 
 2,609,926,000 
 
 683,100,000 
 
 6,067,010,000 
 
 6,650,110,000 
 
 106.5 
 
 111.5 
 
 109 
 
 1857 .... 
 
 3,864,681,000 
 
 2,241,613,000 
 
 532,300,000 
 
 6,096,294,000 
 
 6,628,694,000 
 
 106 
 
 110 
 
 107.5 
 
 1858* 
 
 4,296,162,000 
 
 2,220,184,000 
 
 687,300,000 
 
 6,616,336,000 
 
 7,203,636,000 
 
 92 
 
 102 
 
 97 
 
 1859 . . 
 
 4,794,943,000 
 
 2,041,270,000 
 
 678,600,000 
 
 6,836,213,000 
 
 7,514,713,000 
 
 95 
 
 109 
 
 102 
 
 1860 
 
 6,060,347,000 
 
 1,876,403,000 
 
 747,200,000 
 
 6.936,750,000 
 
 7,682,960,000 
 
 98 
 
 105 
 
 1015 
 
 18C1 • 
 
 4,991,698,000 
 
 1,803,370,000 
 
 715,800,000 
 
 6,796,008,000 
 
 7,610,868,000 
 
 99 
 
 99 
 
 99 
 
 1862 ... ... 
 
 6,107,349,000 
 
 1,702,110,000 
 
 781,600,000 
 
 6,809,469,000 
 
 7,591,059,000 
 
 +100 
 
 tioo 
 
 fioo 
 
 1803 . . ... 
 
 6,066,41 0;000 
 
 1,624,880,000 
 
 764,900,000 
 
 6,691,290,000 
 
 7,446,190,000 
 
 102.6 
 
 100.8 
 
 101.6 
 
 1864 . 
 
 5,141,274,000 
 
 1,574,297,000 
 
 722,300,000 
 
 6,715,671,000 
 
 7,437,871,000 
 
 104.5 
 
 101.3 
 
 102.6 
 
 1865 . 
 
 6,243,596,000 
 
 1,638,720,000 
 
 879,700,000 
 
 6,882,316,000 
 
 7,762,016,000 
 
 99.2 
 
 97.8 
 
 98.5 
 
 1866 . 
 
 6,660,670,000 
 
 1,675,266,000 
 
 936,900,000 
 
 7,335,936,000 
 
 8,272,836,000 
 
 93.5 
 
 91.5 
 
 92.5 
 
 1867 . . 
 
 6,021,966,000 
 
 1,856,666,050 
 
 1,122,600,000 
 
 7,878,621,000 
 
 9,001,221,000 
 
 89.7 
 
 87 
 
 88.3 
 
 1868 . . . . 
 
 6,187,686,000 
 
 1,959,651,000 
 
 1,382,800,000 
 
 8,147,337,000 
 
 9,530,137,000 
 
 87.2 
 
 83 6 
 
 85.3 
 
 18G9 . . . 
 
 6.415,131,000 
 
 2,066,373,000 
 
 1,398,600,000 
 
 8,481,604,000 
 
 9,880,104,000 
 
 80.6 
 
 82.9 
 
 84.7 
 
 1870 . . . . 
 
 , 16,500,000,000 
 
 {2,100,000,000 
 
 
 8,600,000,000 
 
 
 89.3 
 
 81.2 
 
 85.2 
 
 1871 . 
 
 6,266,154,000 
 
 2,110,140,000 
 
 2,326,400,000 
 
 8,.366,294,000 
 
 10,691,694,000 
 
 93.9 
 
 81.4 
 
 87 6 
 
 1872 
 
 6.164,950,000 
 
 2,200,902,000 
 
 2,666,300,000 
 
 8,356,862,000 
 
 11,012,162,000 
 
 97.3 
 
 83.3 
 
 90.3 
 
 1873 ... . . 
 
 6,005,897,000 
 
 2,367,490,000 
 
 2,807,700,000 
 
 8,373,387,000 
 
 11,181,087,000 
 
 901 
 
 80.3 
 
 88.2 
 
 1874 
 
 6,392,895,000 
 
 2,72:3,329,000 
 
 2,644,800,000 
 
 9,116,224,000 
 
 11,761,024,000 
 
 89.9 
 
 76.6 
 
 83.2 
 
 1875 . . .... 
 
 6,816,953,000 
 
 2,901,494,000 
 
 2,438,000,060 
 
 9,718,447,000 
 
 12,166,447,000 
 
 86.7 
 
 73.8 
 
 80.2 
 
 1876 . . 
 
 7,276,060,000 
 
 3,025,414,000 
 
 2,662,700,000 
 
 10,301,474,000 
 
 12,804,174,000 
 
 87.5 
 
 76.9 
 
 81.7 
 
 1877 . . ... 
 
 7,687,171,000 
 
 3,116,.574,000 
 
 2,468,300,000 
 
 10,802,746,000 
 
 13,271,045,000 
 
 85.2 
 
 72.9 
 
 79 
 
 1878 . 
 
 7,869,490,000 
 
 3,218,158,000 
 
 2,207,300,000 
 
 11,087,648,000 
 
 13,294,948,000 
 
 78.8 
 
 67.3 
 
 73 
 
 * War with Russia. f Comparison made on basis of 100 in 1862. 
 
 X Mr. Ernest Seyd, in his testimony before the Select Committee of Parliament on Depreciation of Silver, estimated the quantity of gold money 
 present before 1871 at £260,000,000 ; full legal-tender silver £70,000,000, and subsidiary change £14,000,000. (Report of Committee, p. 66.) 
 g Journal of the Statistical Society, December, 1879, p. 863. 
 
 The following seems to be a fair estimate of the use of 
 gold in the arts in Germany : 
 
 Kilograms, 
 itfanufaeture of gold wares in Southwestern Germany .... 10,000 
 
 In rest of Germanv . . , 2,000 
 
 Gold foil .... ." 1,400 
 
 Other gilding material . . 1,300 
 
 Total 14,700 
 
 As to export of gold manufactures, Germany is almost 
 the first country in the world ; the reason why it uses less 
 gold in the arts than England and France is to be sought in 
 the fact that it makes only few gold watch-cases, for which 
 large quantities of gold are needed in the other countries. 
 
 [Extract from Verwenduny dee Guides und Silbei-s. Statistieche VniersucJiwng von 
 X>r. Adolf Soetbeer.] 
 
 Germany. — Production of the precious metals in the 
 years from 1876 to 1879. From official sources it appears 
 that the production of gold and silver in Germany was as 
 follows : 
 
 1871-76, average 
 
 1876, average . . 
 
 1877, average , . 
 
 1878, average . . 
 
 1879, average . 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Weight. Value. 
 
 kUog'ms. 
 t284.4 
 281.3 
 307.9 
 378.5 
 466.7 
 
 Marks. 
 778,921 
 784,658 
 867,846 
 1,056,338 
 1,302,398 
 
 Weight. 
 
 KUotjrama. 
 143,080 
 139,779 
 147,612 
 167,660 
 177,607 
 
 Value. 
 
 Murkn. 
 24,929,200 
 21,969,415 
 23,812,066 
 26,390,332 
 26,618,123 
 
 Price per 
 Icilogram. 
 
 Marks. 
 174.19 
 167.17 
 161.32 
 151.44 
 149.39 
 
 Part of this production is from ores mainly imported from 
 the west coast of South America. For the year If 79 there 
 were produced from such ores 1,000 kilograms in Mansfeld, 
 19,500 in Stolberg, 12,000 kilograms in the Hartz, 10,000 
 kilograms in Freiberg, and in other places 1,000 kilograms. 
 The proportion of reduction of silver from the two sources 
 (native and foreign ores) is the following : 
 
 Years. 
 
 1871 . . 
 
 1872 . . . 
 1873. 
 
 1874 . . . 
 
 1875 . . . 
 1870 . . . 
 1879 . . . 
 
 Prom native ores. 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 90,886 
 
 92.7 
 
 100,742 
 
 79.3 
 
 92,253 
 
 62.1 
 
 109.820 
 
 70.6 
 
 134,066 
 
 86.3 
 
 123,148 
 
 88.1 
 
 134,000 
 
 76.6 
 
 Fi-om foreign or&i. 
 
 Kilogranw. 
 
 Per cent 
 
 7,215 
 
 7.3 
 
 20,265 
 
 20.7 
 
 84,968 
 
 47.9 
 
 46,032 
 
 29.5 
 
 23,162 
 
 14.7 
 
 10,033 
 
 11.9 
 
 43,600 
 
 24.5 
 
 Note.— Throughout the kilogram of gold is valued at 2,790 
 marks, ajid the kilogram of silver at 180 marks. 
 
 AUSTRIA. Statement of tlie Precious Metals used In Austria, 
 from 1867-1880, incluslv^e, foi- the manufacture of dllTerent 
 objects, and of gold and silver tluread. 
 
 
 Precious Metals. 
 
 
 
 Designation. 
 
 Sum total from 1807 to 1880. 
 
 
 
 WeviM— 
 kdos,Jine. 
 
 Value in 
 flmint. 
 
 Kilos^Jine. 
 
 Value in 
 forins. 
 
 GOLD. 
 
 Different objects . 
 Thread . . . 
 
 19,540.078 
 829,977 
 
 27,268,409.00 
 1,167,817.00 
 
 1,395,719 
 59 284 
 
 1,947,029.110 
 82,701.00 
 
 Total 
 
 20,370.066 
 
 28,416,220.110 
 
 1,455,004 
 
 2,029,730.00 
 
 6ILVEB. 
 
 Different objects . . 
 Gold thread . . 
 Sliver thread . . . 
 
 290,712,767 
 60 220,488 
 13,904,535 
 
 26,164,148.00 
 4,519,843.92 
 1,251,408.15 
 
 20,765.196 
 
 3,687,177 
 
 893,181 
 
 1,868,807.04 
 322,845.99 
 89,380.20 
 
 Total 
 
 354,837,780 
 
 31,935,400.00 
 
 26,346,564 
 
 2,281,100.00 
 
 Manufactured Gold. — An imperial order of May 26, 
 1866, prescribes that every newly manufactured article of 
 gold or silver is to be registered. The legal degrees of fine- 
 ness are .920, .840, .750, and .580. No article is permitted 
 to be made of less fineness than .580 ; the fineness of Aus- 
 trian articles is on the average between .620 and .660. 
 Foreign articles are likewise inspected as to their fineness. 
 The following are the ofiicial figures : 
 
 1870 
 1871 
 1872 
 1873 
 1874 
 1876 
 1870 
 1877 
 1S78 
 1879 
 
 GoU. 
 
 Home-made 
 
 Imported 
 
 articles. 
 
 articles. 
 
 KUoqrams. 
 
 ioii 
 
 KUoqrams. 
 
 630 
 
 2,486 
 
 822 
 
 3,618 
 
 1,489 
 
 3,017 
 
 1,493 
 
 2,490 
 
 1.001 
 
 2,354 
 
 1,104 
 
 1,806 
 
 812 
 
 1,714 
 
 866 
 
 1,913 
 
 1,046 
 
 2,008 
 
 1,316 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 383 
 
 Gilded silver thread was declared at the main registering 
 office to the amount of 4,183 kilograms in 1870, and 2,269 
 kilograms in 1879. Eight large establishments in Vienna 
 and Prague, melted in 1870, 35,050 ducats (121 kilograms) 
 for making gold foil. Gold for gilding may be used to the 
 • amount of 250 to 350 kilograms, annually. Schwicker esti- 
 mates the value of gold and silver wares manufactured 
 annually in Hungary, at 1,000,000 florins. 
 
 1870. 
 1871. 
 1872. 
 1873. 
 1874 . 
 1875. 
 1876. 
 1877. 
 1878. 
 1879 . 
 
 Some-made 
 
 Foreign 
 
 silverware. 
 
 silverware. 
 
 KUograma. 
 
 Kdogramg, 
 
 21,166 
 
 3,271 
 
 25,681 
 
 4,209 
 
 38,342 
 
 7,768 
 
 35,224 
 
 8,31 '0 
 
 26,6:i4 
 
 6,233 
 
 26,664 
 
 4,901 
 
 21,796 
 
 3,691 
 
 20,838 
 
 4,673 
 
 23,455 
 
 5,485 
 
 27,199 
 
 6,684 
 
 Silver wire. 
 
 KUograms. 
 6,148 
 6,140 
 6,642 
 6,341 
 4,627 
 3,764 
 3,147 
 2,620 
 3,864 
 2,g24 
 
 Norway and Sweden. — In answer to the question 
 presented by the honorable delegate of Switzerland Mon- 
 sieur Lardy, (International Monetary Conference, held in 
 Paris in 1881) at the meeting of the 10th of May, 1881 : 
 " What is the importance of the use, for industrial purposes, 
 of the precious metals, especially of gold ? " I, Dr. O. J. 
 Broch, have the honor to present to the Conference the fol- 
 lowing table, upon the employment of silver and of gold, ex- 
 cept their consumption by photography. The silver used 
 always consists of bars ; articles of silver, melted and re- 
 made into utensils or jewels, are not included. Gold usually 
 consists of the coinage of the country, or of foreign coins. 
 Neither imported silver nor gold jewelry is included. • 
 
 IxidnstiHal iBmployment of Silver and Gold. 
 
 1870 . . . 
 
 1871 . . 
 
 1872 . . . 
 
 1873 . . 
 
 1874 . 
 1876 . 
 
 1876 . . . 
 
 1877 . . . 
 
 1878 . . 
 '1879 . . . 
 1880 . . . 
 
 Annual average l,i 
 
 Fine 
 silver. 
 
 KUog. 
 1,400 
 1,340 
 1,680 
 1,940 
 2,440 
 2,200 
 1,700 
 1,680 
 1,400 
 1,480 
 1,470 
 
 Tine 
 gold. 
 
 KUog. 
 20' 
 18 
 21 
 20 
 28 
 29 
 24 
 22 
 21 
 19 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 Statement of the monetary situation of the Kingdom of 
 Norway, before and after the change from the standard of sil- 
 ver to the standard of gold. — ^The ancient monetary system 
 of Norway was regulated by the law of the 14th of June, 
 1816. This system was based on the single standard of sil- 
 ver. The unit was the " speciesdaler," thirty-seven pieces 
 of which, 875 thousandths fine, were made from four marks 
 of Cologne of fine silver. The value of the mark of Cologne 
 was fixed in Norway, by the law of weights and measures, 
 of July 28, 1824, as follows : 1 pound=2 marks of Cologne, 
 being equal to 123,144.5 gram, Norwegian weights of com- 
 merce, which gives for the mark of Cologne the value of 
 238.99335 grammes. In Denmark and in Hamburg the 
 mark of Cologne was valued at a little less, that is 233.85489 
 grammes. In Prussia it is valued at 233.8555 grammes. 
 The ancient ounce of Charlemagne was equivalent to 
 30.9504 grammes, and the mark of eight ounces was then 
 originally equivalent to 244.752 grammes. The Norwegian 
 " speciesdaler " thus would weigh 28.9104 grammes, 875 
 thousandths fine, and contain 25.2966 grammes fine silver. 
 In comparison with the piece of five francs, silver, the 
 " speciesdaler " is valued at 5 firancs 62 centimes. As current 
 moneys, having full circulating power, they still coin 
 moneys of the same fineness, equivalent to J, |, 3^, and-jV- 
 speciesdaler. The speciesdaler was divided into 120 
 skillings. 
 
 — Extract from Verwenduug d^s Ooldes und Sllbers Statische Untersuchung, 
 
 von Dr. Adolph Soetbeer. 
 
 In Sweden and in Denmark they coin money similar to 
 the Norwegian speciesdaler and of the same fineness ; but 
 the weight, and consequently the amount, of fine silver con- 
 tained difier somewhat. 
 
 The Swedish species contain . 
 
 The Danish species 
 
 The Norwegian species . . 
 
 .... 25.6045 gramines fine silver. 
 .... 26.2816 grammes fine silver. 
 .... 26.2966 grammey fine silver. 
 
 The Danish species coincides with the reichsthaler Ham- 
 burger-banco, or 3 marks-banco, the unit of account, not 
 coined; then 59y marks-banko represents 500 grams of fine 
 silver. In Sweden the monetary unit being the "riksdaler" 
 =\ Swedish speciesdaler, which they divide into 100 " ore." 
 In Denmark the monetary unit is the "rigsdaler"=J Da- 
 nish " speciesdaler " that they divide into 6 " mark," and the 
 mark into 16 " skilling," and the rigsdaler into 96 Danish 
 skillings. In current moneys having full circulating power 
 there was coined in Norway, in conformity with the law of 
 1816, until the end of the year 1873 a sum of 3,934,355 spe- 
 ciesdaler 16 skilling, as follows : 
 
 In 1 speciesdaler for . 
 
 In ^ speciesdaler for . 
 
 In \ speciesdaler for . . . . 
 
 In -^ speciesdaler for 
 
 In ^ speciesdaler for 
 
 Spd. Sk. 
 
 ... . 2,518,155 
 
 439,462 50 
 
 462,102 96 
 
 . 462,860 60 
 
 .... 64,774 40 
 
 Total sum 3,934,355 16 
 
 This coinage was almost exclusively done on account of 
 the Bank of Norway. The seignorage paid for the coinage 
 of moneys at Konigsberg was 2 per cent, for the 1 and the J 
 " speciesdaler," and 2 J per cent, for the |, -^, and -^ " spe- 
 ciesdaler." A part of the " speciesdaler" had from time to 
 time been exported into Hamburg and transformed into 
 bullion at the Bank of Hamburg. The current Swedish and 
 Danish moneys circulate side by side. The real circulation, 
 outside of the national bank, was almost exclusively on 
 trust, with bank notes, reimbursable at sight, in 5, 10, 50, 
 and 100 speciesdaler. The current coins of J, \, ^ and jV 
 speciesdaler are the only real circulation. Even the pieces 
 of the J "speciesdaler" are rare. In small transactions they 
 often calculate in ^ speciesdaler called " ort," which may 
 thus be called the popular unit. In Sweden and Norway 
 the real circulation was also, by preference, on trust. The 
 smallest bank note then in Sweden was the note of the rigs- 
 daler, and in Denmark the note of 5 rigsdaler. The cash in 
 hand of the Bank of Norway was in a great part in Danish 
 speciesdalers and in silver ingots. The bank is allowed to 
 place even a third of its cash in circulation with its agents. 
 The bank buys drafts upon a foreign bank, and then sends 
 them at once to its correspondents to be cashed. At the same 
 time the bank sells drafts, always short dated, upon its 
 agents. The bank maintains by these operations an ex- 
 change of drafts upon the principal places with which Nor- 
 way has trade, within certain restricted limits. When the 
 payment of the commercial balance of the country demands 
 exportations of silver, the bank itself often sends to its 
 agents upon whom it sells time drafts. The paper circula- 
 tion of the Bank of Norway the only bank of issue, was, to- 
 ward the end of the year 1878, 11,794,633 speciesdaler. The 
 monetary circulation outside of the bank, in current silver 
 money, and in money of silver with copper, at the same 
 time, can be valued at 1,000,000 speciesdaler, comprising 
 Swedish and 'Danish moneys which circulate in Norway. 
 The total circulation, outside of the cash in hand of the 
 bank, was then 12,800,000 speciesdaler. The population of 
 Norway was estimated at the same time at 1,780,000 inhabi- 
 tants. The paper and coin circulation was therefore 7.2 spe- 
 ciesdaler, or 40 francs 40 centimes per each inhabitant. The 
 cash in hand of the Bank of Norway at the same time was 
 8,593,435 speciesdaler," comprising the amount invested 
 abroad. The change from the single standard of silver to 
 the single standard of gold took place in Norway January 1, 
 1874, in accordance with a law of June 4, 1873. A law of 
 June 17, 1869, the result of the international monetary con- 
 ference at Paris in 1867, had already authorized the Bank of 
 Norway to change a part of its cash in hand into gold. The 
 administration of the bank profited by this to sell, from 
 time to time, silver and buy gold. This change took place 
 principally in sending silver money to Hamburg, where it 
 was recoined into the "Hamburger-banco-mark" in the 
 proportion of 118§ mark to a kilogram of fine silver. By the 
 
384 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 monetary reform of Germany the " Hamburger-banco-mark" 
 was afterward changed to gold in the proportion of 2 mark- 
 banco=3 reichsmark, or in the proportion of 15.674 to 1. 
 The cash of the bank, including the capital in the hands of 
 the agents of the bank at Copenhagen, Hamburg and Lon- 
 don, was, near the close of the years — 
 
 
 1871. 
 
 1872. 
 
 1873. 
 
 Silver 
 
 Gold 
 
 Spd. 
 
 6,483,136 
 
 105,827 
 
 Spd. 
 
 6,839,.308 
 
 722,002 
 
 Spd. 
 1,635,448 
 7,057,987 
 
 Total cash 
 
 6,588,063 
 
 7,561,310 
 
 8,693,435 
 
 The transition to the single standard of gold took place 
 simultaneously in the three Scandinavian kingdoms. With- 
 out discussion and without mention in the Scandinavian 
 monetary convention of December 18, 1872, it was recog- 
 nized as a right, also an unquestionable international duty, 
 that each state was responsible for the money that was coined 
 at its mint and that was stamped with its coat of arms, and 
 that in case of demonetization and change from silver to 
 gold, it should withdraw these current moneys, also the frac- 
 tional money of silver or copper, and change them for gold. 
 Thus already in the autumn of 1873 the Government of Den- 
 mark received from the Bank of Norway 2,200,003 species- 
 daler of Danish silver that it redeemed in gold. By the law 
 of June 4, 1873, the former silver moneys were, from January 
 1, 1874, reduced to fractional moneys with circulating power 
 limited to 5 speciesdaler or 20 crowns. The Government is 
 obliged, not only to receive them in unlimited payment, but 
 also to change them for gold money. 
 
 The demonetization of the former circulation of silver and 
 copper, and the coinage of new fractional currency appro- 
 priate to the new system of crowns, took place April 17, 
 1875. The "speciesdaler" was converted into 4 kroher, or 
 crowns, according to the new monetary system. Pieces of 
 
 fold of 10 or 20 crowns were struck according to the law of 
 une 4th, 1873, and of April 17th, 1875, of the fineness of 
 .900 ; there were, therefore, struck from a kilogram of fine 
 gold 248 pieces of 10 crowns and 124 pieces of 20 crowns. 
 Eight of these pieces of gold were then exactly equivalent to 
 9 German pieces of gold of designation similar to the mark. 
 A Scandinavian crown is, then, exactly equivalent to 1^ 
 mark of Germany. In comparison with the French gold 
 pieces the Scandinavian crown is equivalent to y^ francs. 
 They thus have in gold: 100 francs=81 German marks=72 
 Scandinavian crowns. The conversion of silver into gold 
 then took place according to the following proportion : 
 
 . . 25.2966X5X0.124=16.684 
 ... . ... 25-2816X5X0.124=15.675 
 
 26.5046X5X0.124=16.813 
 
 In Norway , . . 
 In Denmark , 
 In Sweden . . . 
 
 The difference between the former silver coinage of the 
 three Scandinavian kingdoms disappeared by the conversion 
 into gold according to these different proportions. At the 
 time of the simultaneous proposition for the transition from 
 the silver to the gold standard in the three kingdoms, in the 
 month of December, 1872, that proportion was according to 
 the London market, 15.79 to 1. In Norway they have suc- 
 cessively withdrawn from circulation the following old 
 coinage : 
 
 1 spd. for 
 }/i spd. for 
 i spd. for 
 A spd. for 
 A spd. lor 
 
 Spd. Sk. Crowns. Ore. 
 
 765,986 00 conve rted into 3,063,944 00 
 
 109,543 00 converted into 438,172 00 
 
 .322,422 24 converted into . ... 1,289,688 00 
 
 327,900 60 converted into 1,311,602 00 
 
 17,469 00 converted into 69,876 00 
 
 . 6,173,282 00 
 . 692,302 64 
 . 188,517 47 
 
 Total in coined money 1,543,320 84 converted info 
 Amount in silver bars . 148,075 76 converted into . . 
 Copper money ... . 47,129 44 converted into 
 
 Total of old coinage 1,738,525 84 changed into . ... 6,954,102 81 
 
 Current silver moneys were melted into ingots and sold at 
 London — 
 
 . . 2,636,000 crowns in proportion of md. to 69W per st. oz 
 . . 1,000,000 crowns in proportion of bid. per st. o-l. 
 
 In 1874 . 
 
 In 1879 . . . x,uuu,uuu crowns in proportion of 52d. per 
 
 In 1880 . . . 400,000 crowns in proportion of 62}^. per st. oz. 
 
 Total sum 4,036,000 crowns, or 1, 009,000 speciesdaler sold in the form 
 01 Ingot:^. 
 
 There has also been melted and sold the sum of 65,533 
 crowns 08 ore in ancient copper coinage. Finally, there 
 has been used in the manufacture of new fractional money 
 debased coin of silver and copper — 
 
 2,413,045 crowns 34 Ore in ancient silver moneys. 
 38,983 crowns 67 ore in ancient copper moneys. 
 
 Sum realized, 6,553,662 
 
 81 
 
 The loss in weight of the curreut moneys produced by 
 the circulation has been found to be as follows : 
 
 For the 1 .speciesdaler 
 For the y^ speciesdaler , 
 For the i speciesdaler 
 For the ^ speciesdaler 
 
 Per cent, 
 . . . 0.188 
 . . 0.416 
 . . .1.749 
 . . . 2.279 
 
 On the other hand, the standard has been found to aver- 
 age a little higher than it was according to the former legis- 
 lation. The scale of 4,036.000 crowns in the old currency 
 gave place to a loss of 319,179 crowns 05 ore, including com- 
 missions, expense of transportation, &c.. The sale of copper 
 accruing from 65,533 crowns 80 Ore, in old copper money, 
 caused a loss of 41,677,72. The sum of 2,413,045 crowns 34 
 ore, foriner circulation of silver, and 38,983 crowns 67 ore of 
 debased copper coin, converted into change at the mint lo 
 be used as the basis of the new fractional money, was valued 
 upon the basis of the price of silver at London, and of cc p- 
 i3er in trade, at the time of the different changes, caused a 
 loss of 322,664,48. The usual expenses of collection of the 
 former coinage, and transportation, were 3,376,72. Thus the 
 total loss from the conversion of 6,553,562 crowns 81 ore of 
 old system of coinage was estimated at 686,897,97. On the 
 other hand, the profit of the manufacture during the years 
 1874^1879, of 5,040,000 crowns in new money of silver and 
 copper, resulting from that monetary reform has been esti- 
 mated upon the same bases at 774,172,84 ; therefore the ex- 
 cess of profit was 87,274 crowns 87 ore. The 400,540 crowns 
 of the old coinage of silver and copper which still remained 
 in the state treasury served for the coinage of the debased 
 money of the new monetary system, and consequently gave 
 place only to an insignificant profit or loss. The 1,0C 9,000 
 speciesdaler, or 4,033,000 crowns, contain 25,000 kilograms 
 of fine silver that the monetary reform in Norway during the 
 years 1874-79 threw upon the London market. The former 
 current silver money contained 26,2966 grammes of fine sil- 
 ver to the speciesdaler, or 6.82415 grammes fine silver to the 
 crown, while the new fractional silver money contains only 
 6 grams of fine silver to the crown. The exchange at the 
 mint of the old silver coinage for the new fractional silver 
 coinage thus gave place to a profit of 5 J per cent. The re- 
 demption took place according to the proportion of 15,684 
 to 1 for gold to silver, while the coinage of new fractional 
 money was in the proportion of 14.880 to 1. The greatest 
 paper circulation took place near the end of June, 1874 : it 
 was then 50,111,925 crowns. There were coined in Norway, 
 previous to the end of the year 1880, in gold — 
 
 12,686,480 crowns in pieces of 20 crowns. 
 141,130 crowns in pieces of 10 crowns. 
 
 Total sum, 13,127,610 crowns in gold equivalent to 18,232,792 francs. 
 
 As material for coinage, ingots of gold purchased at Lon- 
 don were exclusively used. The exchange of each coin was 
 done at the mint. The paper circulation of the bank of 
 Norway was, toward the end of the year 1880, 38,713,675 
 crowns in notes of 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, and 1,000 crowns. The 
 metallic reserve of the bank in money and in gold ingots 
 was at the same time 33,721,357 crowns of which 10 330 572 
 crowns were with the agents of the bank abroad. The mone- 
 tary circulation outside of the bank might at the same time 
 have been estimated at 7,000,000 crowns, the greatest part in 
 fractional money. Thus the whole sum outside of the bank 
 was 45,700,000 crowns. The population of the kingdom of 
 Norway at that time was estimated at 1,890,000 inhabitants. 
 Thus the paper and coin circulation was 24 crowns 18 6re 
 or 33 francs 58 centimes, per each inhabitant. ' 
 
r 
 
 "n 
 
 
 
 'i.o 0,0 00,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "! 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 50,000,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'iO,000000 — - 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s-_ 
 
 
 
 *30,000,000 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .' 
 
 
 
 ■ • 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 (!'' 
 
 . 
 
 ^20,000,000 — ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 r 
 
 
 Ik 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 MM 
 
 <■ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 ■' 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 ,' 
 
 
 
 ; 
 
 '- 
 
 t 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 1 n f\f\r% f\Ckc\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 — 1 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 if 
 
 
 1 Mm 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 M r-r^ 
 
 
 i 
 
 ! 
 
 
 i ^ 
 
 ANNUAL BULLION 
 PRODUCT of the WORLD. 
 
 (CONTINENTAL DISTRIBUTION.) 
 
 1. North America. 
 
 2. Europe, including Russia in Asia. 
 
 3. Australia. 
 
 4. South America. 
 
 5. Africa. 
 
 6. Japan. 
 
 T^g areas in old gold indicate gold^ those in light blue, 
 silver, the. relative totals being shown by the extreme height 
 of each column. 
 
 12 3 1 5 & 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 385 
 
 Articles of i^old manufactured In or Imported Into Sweden 
 from 184:8 to 1880, according to the rollt» of tl&e oMce of 
 tbe comptroller. 
 
 Years. 
 
 1818 
 1849 
 1860 
 1851 
 1852 
 1833 
 1854 
 1855 
 1850 
 1857 
 1858 
 1859 
 1860 
 1861 
 1862 
 1863 
 1864 
 1865 
 1866 
 1867 
 1868 
 1869 
 1870 
 1871 
 1872 
 187S 
 1874 
 1875 
 1870 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 
 
 Kilograms. 
 48.806 
 47.446 
 43.877 
 43.651 
 41.411 
 , 42.486 
 63.375 
 53.207 
 57.050 
 65.820 
 48.577 
 62,804 
 55.416 
 50.893 
 48.007 
 60.292 
 44.201 
 42.239 
 40.822 
 31.601 
 29.010 
 32.378 
 33.379 
 40.092 
 .61.976 
 68.032 
 91.749 
 92.6^1 
 79.099 
 77.400 
 61.804 
 65.026 
 65.544 
 
 I" 
 
 4^ 
 
 Kilograms. 
 0.385 
 3.708 
 3131 
 8.459 
 11.706 
 4.8.'J9 
 21.873 
 26.479 
 27.400 
 9.489 
 6.122 
 14.684 
 11.896 
 16.427 
 9.9*1 
 4.123 
 8.458 
 12.083 
 6.176 
 J1.7.')0 
 8.430 
 5.300 
 6.949 
 22.313 
 25.194 
 34.893 
 63.491 
 33.671 
 4*;637 
 26.051 
 20.221 
 22.789 
 48.759 
 
 |§j 
 
 KUograjma, 
 
 52.210 
 
 62.318 
 
 62.809 
 
 • 63.924 
 
 53.133 
 
 54.980 
 
 71.433 
 
 78.059 
 
 93.683 
 
 88.813 
 
 83.158 
 
 96.388 
 
 101.847 
 
 114.078 
 
 111.068 
 
 .11.3.959 
 
 108.837 
 
 110.673 
 
 102.812 
 
 88.559 
 
 85.884 
 
 103.644 
 
 108.104 
 
 131.784 
 
 165.679 
 
 . 196.824 
 
 226.010 
 
 218.403 
 
 222.224 
 
 218.592 
 
 182.596 
 
 161.574 
 
 188.710 
 
 111 
 
 Kilogramia. 
 1U1.4P1 
 103.532 
 99.817 
 100.034 
 107.260 
 101.324 
 146.681 
 158.345 
 178.193 
 154.122 
 137.857 
 163.876 
 109.159 
 181.398 
 170.566 
 168.374 
 161.490 
 164.996 
 148.810 
 131.890 
 12.3.324 
 141.228 
 148.432 
 194.189 
 240.848 
 300.349 
 381.858 
 344.725 
 345.960 
 322.703 
 264.681 
 239.789 
 303.013 
 
 According to the protocol of the comptroller's office. 
 
 Articles of sll-rer manufactured in or Imported Into Siveden 
 from 184:8 to 1880, according to the rolls of the office of 
 the comptroller. 
 
 SILVER. 
 
 Years. 
 
 1818 . . 
 
 1849 . 
 
 1850 . . 
 
 1851 . . 
 
 1862 . 
 1853 . . 
 1864 . . 
 1855 . 
 1850 . . 
 
 1857 . . 
 
 1858 . . 
 
 1859 . . 
 
 1860 . . 
 
 1861 . . 
 18.62. . 
 
 1863 . . 
 1864. . 
 18S5 . . 
 1800 . . 
 
 1867. . 
 
 1868. . 
 1869 . . 
 1870. . 
 1871 . . 
 1872. 
 1873. . 
 
 1874 . . 
 
 1875 . . 
 
 1876. . 
 
 1877. . 
 1878 ■ • 
 1S19. 
 1880 . 
 
 •ss 
 
 
 Kilograme. 
 
 2,211.452 
 
 2,201.705 
 
 2,163.671 
 
 2,199.165 
 
 1,985.619 
 
 1,630.720 
 
 1,975.320 
 
 2,120.338 
 
 2,379;783' 
 
 2,388.541 
 
 1,644.202 
 
 1,961.333 
 
 1,854.437 
 
 1,643.416 
 
 1,392.366 
 
 1,302.721 
 
 1,339.209 
 
 1,2D9;083 
 
 976.931 
 
 648.044 
 
 446.849 
 
 711.161 
 
 742.139 
 
 887.974 
 
 889.262 
 
 992.129 
 
 178.827 
 
 958..301 
 
 88a65S 
 
 721.261 
 
 667.069 
 
 615 495 
 
 704.935 
 
 4« 
 
 KHogramg. 
 19.947 
 17.683 
 18.831 
 44.61S 
 26.471 
 13.599 
 73.996 
 109.042 
 86.108 
 69.040 
 39.181' 
 96.645 
 25.462 
 66.646 
 31.391 
 26.684 
 44.179 
 51.714 
 16.983 
 33.227 
 62.156 
 46.627 
 82.097 
 184.671 
 216.678 
 307.402 
 690.057 
 438.ii04 
 352.257 
 364.080 
 270.670 
 257.027 
 313.752 
 
 1^ 
 
 E 3 O 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 2,187.021 
 2,206.409 
 2,195.588 
 2,228.550 
 2,292.292 
 2,282.186 
 2,768.672 
 3,300.812 
 3,778.593 
 4,256.293 
 2,474;781 
 2,752.406 
 2,835.848 
 2,930.832 
 2,722.970 
 2,502.831 
 2 064.066 
 1,966.089 
 1,800.179 
 1,463.631 
 1,376.775 
 1,314.320 
 1,495.613 
 1,643.963 
 2,002.619 
 2,146.170 
 2.3.31.027 
 2,105.907 
 1,943.765 
 1,737.284 
 1,362.160 
 1,049.917 
 1,081.617 
 
 §4 - 
 
 e c 
 
 Kilograms. 
 4,419.020 
 4,485.097 
 4,378.090 
 4,472.220 
 4,303.282 
 3,935.606 
 4,817.988 
 6,530.192 
 6,244.434 
 5,714.474 
 4,157.164 
 4,810.384 
 4,715.747 
 4,630.993 
 4,146.916 
 3,922.136 
 3,448.044 
 3,226.886 
 2 794.093 
 2,144.902 
 1,885.780 
 2,072.108 
 2,319.849 
 2,716.608 
 3,108.559 
 3,445.701 
 4101.111 
 3,.500.712 
 3,176.576 
 2,812.025 
 2,199,899 
 1,822.4.39 
 2,100.304 
 
 Gold and Sliver In Sweden. 
 
 1869. 
 1870. 
 1871. 
 
 1872. 
 1873 . 
 1874. 
 1876. 
 
 1876 . 
 
 1877 . 
 
 1878 . 
 
 
 s: 
 
 •s 
 
 f i 
 
 
 Fi 
 l|-i 
 
 II 
 1 
 
 ■ fe .'S 
 
 0-5 
 
 1 
 
 
 Ȥ 
 
 b 
 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 KOos. 
 
 Kilo,. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 9 
 
 415 
 
 420 
 
 130 
 
 88 
 
 10 
 
 97 
 
 85 
 
 141 
 
 
 6 
 
 99 
 
 635 
 
 171 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 949 
 
 1,466 
 
 215 
 
 34 
 
 6 
 
 2,049 
 
 l,:«8 
 
 265 
 
 928 
 
 3 
 
 1,443 
 
 2,841 
 
 818 
 
 3,643 
 
 4 
 
 852 
 
 2,161 
 
 311 
 
 3,062 
 
 6 
 
 737 
 
 2,361 
 
 345 
 
 2,619 
 
 4 
 
 202 
 
 1,1.52 
 
 823 
 
 1,726 
 
 
 1,263 
 
 1,777 
 
 264 
 
 1,976 
 
 1870. 
 1871. 
 1872. 
 1873. 
 1874. 
 1875. 
 1876,. 
 1877. 
 1878. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1 
 
 ■ 3 
 
 814 
 1,066 
 604 
 .29 
 302 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 iH 
 
 IS'" 
 
 Kilos 
 
 411 
 
 386 
 
 962 
 
 2,684 
 
 . 6,014 
 
 6,400 
 
 7,997 
 
 7,783 
 
 7.218 
 
 6,072 
 
 As nearly as can be calculated, there must have been in the beginning 
 of 1878 about 6,500,000 crowns gold in circulation in the country. 
 
 
 
 .s 
 
 •? . 
 
 ? - 
 
 
 
 Is 8 
 
 fe 
 
 
 s i 
 
 •w 
 
 Years. 
 
 l|i- 
 
 >^ 
 
 1- 
 
 Si 
 
 i3 
 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1809 
 
 1,236 
 
 -1,327 
 
 13,373 
 
 2,025 
 
 8.141 
 
 1870 
 
 1,190 
 
 ■ 7 
 
 9,619 
 
 2,2.37 
 
 4,360 
 
 1871. . 
 
 974 
 
 8,«46 
 
 19,159 
 
 2,531 
 
 9,973 
 
 1872 .... . . 
 
 742 
 
 36 
 
 28,963 
 
 2,871 
 
 76 
 
 1873. ... . . . . 
 
 705 
 
 18,651 
 
 1,109 
 
 .3,137 
 
 1,463 
 
 1874 
 
 739 
 
 1,657 
 
 2,3.36 
 
 3,510 
 
 4i738 
 
 1875 
 
 7.36 
 
 6,274 
 
 1,627 
 
 3,061 
 
 29,492 
 
 1870 . . 
 
 797 
 
 4,177 
 
 1,639 
 
 3,176 
 
 23,719 
 
 1877 . . . . 
 
 850 
 
 63 
 
 954 
 
 2,812 
 
 7,093 
 
 1878. ... . 
 
 
 234 
 
 1,044 
 
 2,199 
 
 4,.539 
 
 1870. 
 
 1871. 
 
 1872 . 
 
 1873 . 
 1874. 
 
 1875 . 
 
 1876 . 
 1S77 . 
 1878 . 
 
 ■5 
 
 .S 
 
 1' = 
 
 ■fjs 
 
 feB 
 
 
 
 1' 
 KUos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 5,966 
 
 10,814 
 
 6,899 
 
 627 
 
 12j324 
 
 167 
 
 628 
 
 43 
 
 12,599 
 
 6,204 
 
 l5,iro 
 
 23,888 
 
 862 
 
 . 8 
 
 6,400 
 
 8,!i36 
 
 
 .34 
 
 90 
 
 255 
 
 lis 
 
 Tito. 
 66,208 
 56,340 
 72,144 
 97,290 
 86,616 
 63,432 
 69,430 
 2.3,652 
 23,646 
 31,224 
 
 As nearly as can v>e calculated, the amount of sih'er coin in circulation 
 in the country at the beginning of 1678 was 11,000,000 crowns. 
 
 Amount of circulating Bank Notes. 
 
 Crowns. 
 
 1869 61,868,000 
 
 1870 69,400,000 
 
 ihl :....:..:.: 79,000,000 
 
 lS72 . . .... 102.600,000 
 
 1873. 
 
 1874. 
 1875 . 
 1876. 
 1877. 
 
 Crowns. 
 104,488,000 
 96,004,000 
 91,321,000 
 77,718,000 
 
 111,938,000 1878 72,785,000 
 
 Gold, Silver and paper money in Norway.— The 
 
 B.ank of Norway had at the end of each year froih 1872 to 
 1878, in balance of coined gold or gold in bars : 
 
 Crowns. 
 1872 2,121,200 
 
 1873 17,498,000 
 
 1874 . . ■ 19,461,600 
 
 1875 . . . ., 14,520,000 
 
 Crowns. 
 1876 22,286,800 
 
 1877 14,662,000 
 
 1878 12,064,800 
 
 f According to the protocol of thS comptroller's office, 
 25 
 
 Before 1872, Coined gold or gold in ingots was not used 
 in Norway. The treasury had no gold balance. The amount 
 of gold then in the Bank ofNorway, and in other banks of 
 circulation, cannot be stated, but may be regarded as incon- 
 siderable. 
 
386 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The Bank of Norway's balance of coined silver or silver 
 in ingots at the end of each year from 1858 to 1878 was as 
 follows : 
 
 1S5S 
 1850 
 1860 
 1861 
 1862 
 1863 
 1864 
 1865 
 1866 
 1867 
 1868 
 
 Crowns. 
 
 11,960,000 
 
 9,987,200 
 
 9,921,600 
 
 8,765,600 
 
 10,178,400 
 
 11,844,800 
 
 12,300,400 
 
 16,575,600 
 
 12,720,400 
 
 14,827,600 
 
 11,886,200 
 
 1869 
 1870 
 1871 
 1872 
 1873 
 1874 
 1875 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 
 Crowns. 
 
 11,861,200 
 
 12,405,600 
 
 17,993,400 
 
 18,529,600 
 
 1,969,600 
 
 1,419,600 
 
 240,000 
 
 196,000 
 
 161,000 
 
 1,164,900 
 
 The treasury's balance of coined silver at the end of each 
 year from 1875 to 1878 (before that time the treasury's metal 
 balance was inconsiderable) : 
 
 1875 
 1876 
 
 Crowns. I 
 1,166,400 1877 
 1,617,500 I 1878 
 
 Crowns. 
 
 1,499,300 
 
 770,500 
 
 The amount of silver in other banks and in the Norwegian 
 Bank, or the amount of coined silver in circulation, which 
 cannot with accurracy be given, may be said to be, approxi- 
 mately at the end of each year from 1874 to 1878, as follows : 
 
 Crowns. 
 1874 4,600,000 
 
 1875 . . 4,450,000 
 
 1876 . . 4,600,000 
 
 1877 
 1878 
 
 Crowns. 
 4,900,000 
 4,600,000 
 
 The amount of bank notes in circulation at the end of 
 each year from 1858 to 1878, as follows : 
 
 18.58 . 
 
 1859 . 
 
 1860 . 
 
 1861 . 
 1862 
 
 1863 . 
 
 1864 . 
 
 1865 . 
 
 1866 . 
 
 1867 . 
 
 1868 . 
 
 Crowns. 
 
 . 26,323,300 
 24,207,000 
 26,847,000 
 
 . 24,648,800 
 27,819,200 
 26,643,300 
 26,596,600 
 28,624,200 
 
 . 27,944,800 
 29,094,600 
 
 . 26,436,900 
 
 
 Crowns. 
 
 1869 ... . 
 
 27,162,600 
 
 1870 . . 
 
 . . . 28,388,000 
 
 1871 . . . 
 
 . . . 33,982,200 
 
 1872 . 
 
 .... 38,516,900 
 
 1873 
 
 . . 47,178,500 
 
 1874 . . . 
 
 .... 45,869,700 
 
 1875 
 
 . . . 37,229,500 
 
 1876 . . 
 
 . . 39,668,800 
 
 1877 . . 
 
 . 36,309,000 
 
 1878 .... 
 
 . . . 30,967,700 
 
 No gold is produced in Norway. The quantity of silver 
 from Konigsberg silver mine — the only silver mine in Nor- 
 way — ^was from 1858 to 1878 as follows : 
 
 1868 
 1869 
 1880 
 1861 
 1862 
 1863 
 1864 
 1866 
 1866 
 1867 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 
 .... 4,970 
 
 1868 
 
 . . . . 4,818 
 
 1869 
 
 .... 4,269 
 
 1870 
 
 3,469 
 
 1871 
 
 . . . . 3,091 
 
 1872 
 
 . . . . 3,216 
 
 1873 
 
 . 3,053 
 
 1874 
 
 .... 3,682 
 
 1875 
 
 . . . 3,498 
 
 1876 
 
 ... . 3,487 
 
 1877 
 
 Kilograms. 
 . . . . 3,835 
 
 3,680 
 
 3,685 
 . 3 457 
 
 3,703 
 . 3,658 
 . 3,348 
 . 4,067 
 
 4,007 
 . 4,524 
 
 The coinage of gold commenced in 1874. There has been 
 coined in — 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 1874 1,696 
 
 1875 . .... . . 847 
 
 1876 882 
 
 1877 
 1878 
 
 Kilograms. 
 . . 391 
 . . . 1,120 
 
 The amount of gold used in arts and industry from 1870 
 to 1878, as follows : 
 
 1870. 
 1871. 
 1872. 
 1873. 
 1874. 
 
 kilograms. 
 
 
 . . 20 
 
 1S75 
 
 . . 18 
 
 1876 
 
 21 
 
 1877 
 
 20 
 
 1878 
 
 . . 28 
 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 It may be remarked here that a considerable portion of 
 the gold articles sold in Norway are imported ready made, 
 and are not included in the above estimate. The amount of 
 silver coined from 1862 to 1878 is as follows : 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 1862 2,242 
 
 1864 3 063 
 
 1865 ••-" 
 
 1867 
 
 1868 ... 
 
 1870 , 
 
 1871 . 
 
 2,705 
 1,696 
 2,126 
 1,703 
 360 
 1,262 
 
 1872. 
 1873 . 
 1874. 
 1876 . 
 
 1876 . 
 
 1877 . 
 1878. 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 . . . 648 
 
 . . . 1,684 
 
 . . . . 1,200 
 
 . . 0,600 
 
 . . 6,280 
 
 . . . . 8,572 
 
 . . . . 4,147 
 
 In the above coinage estimate were included about 14,- 
 700 kilograms manufactured from old coins remelted. The 
 amount of silver used in art and industry from 1870 to 1878, 
 is as follows : 
 
 1870 . . 
 1871 
 
 1872 . . 
 1873 
 
 Kilograms. 
 . . 1,400 
 
 . . . 1,340 
 1,580 
 1,940 
 
 1874 2,440 
 
 1875 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 
 Kilograms. 
 . 2,201) 
 . . . 1,700 
 . . 1,680 
 . . 1,400 
 
 The information in regard to the importation and expor- 
 tation of gold and silver which we are able to give is far 
 from satisfactory, partly because we cannot distinguish be- 
 tween gold and silver, partly because the custom-house re- 
 port of this question of foreign trade has shown itself to be 
 unreliable. The following estimates are taken from the offi- 
 cial table of commercial statistics, which gives our exporta- 
 tion and importation of gold and silver in the form of coin 
 and ingots. It must therefore be used with care. 
 
 Imported Silver. 
 
 Crowns. 
 
 1866 630,000 
 
 1867 1,344,000 
 
 1868 1,193,000 
 
 1869 
 1870 
 1871 
 
 Exported Silver. 
 
 1866 402,000 I 1870 . 
 
 1867 181,000 187] . 
 
 1868 • • ■ 1,142,000 I 1872 . 
 
 1869 506.000 1873 . 
 
 Crowns. 
 2,432,000 
 1,425,000 
 4,947,000 
 
 34,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 284,000 
 
 . 14,997,000 
 
 Imported Gold. 
 
 1872 3,202,000 
 
 1873 . . ... 15,346,000 
 
 1874 .... 3,238,000 
 
 1875 118,000 
 
 1876 . 
 
 1877 . 
 
 1878 . 
 
 Exported Gold. 
 
 1874. . • • • 27,000 
 
 1875 2,807,000 
 
 1876 788,000 
 
 1877. 
 1878. 
 
 768,000 
 1,306,000 
 3,646,000 
 
 5,000 
 568,000 
 
 Any reliable information as to the importation and ex- 
 portation of gold and silver in other forms than as coins and 
 ingots cannot be given. 
 
 Q,uantit^ ot Gold In Siveden 
 
 Description 
 
 Received from the mines . 
 Inoported : 
 
 Cfoined . . . 
 
 In ingots 
 
 Used for the arts, Ac. . . 
 Coined 
 
 . kilograms 
 
 . . . do . . 
 
 . . do . . 
 
 . . . do . . 
 
 .do. . 
 
 1,253 
 
 1,777 
 
 264 
 
 1,976 
 
 1879. 
 
 3 
 
 4,175 
 
 1,075 
 
 217 
 
 606 
 
 ^uantltjr of Silver In Sw^eden. 
 
 . kilograms 
 
 Received from the mines . . 
 Imported : 
 
 Coined do . 
 
 In ingots do . 
 
 Used for the arts, Ac do . 
 
 Coined . . . do . 
 
 1,268 
 
 234 
 1,044 
 2,199 
 4,539 
 
 1,502 
 
 500 
 
 486 
 
 1,565 
 
 464 
 
 Amount of gold in 1879 exported. — Coined in 1879, 443 
 kilograms ; 1878, 302 kilograms ; coin in state treasury and 
 banks at end of 1879, 8,552 kilograms ; in 1878, 6,072 kilo- 
 grams. In circulation probably no particular change has 
 taken place since the end of 1878, when it was estimated at 
 5,500,000 kronors. 
 
 Amount of silver in 1879 exported. — Coined in 1879, 447 
 kilograms; in 1878, 90 kilograms; 1879, in ingots, 15 kilo- 
 grams; 1878,255 kilograms; silver coin in the State treas- 
 ury and banks at the end of 1879, 35,275 kilograms ; in 
 1878, 31,224 kilograms. In circulation probably no particu- 
 lar change has taken place since the estimate at the close of 
 1878, when the total amount was 11,000,000 kronors. 
 Amount of bank notes in circulation at the end of 1879, 
 80,811,090 kronor.i ; at the end of 1878, 72,785,000 kronors. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 387 
 
 Russia— Ciu-rency In Clrcnlatlon. 
 
 Dale. 
 
 
 Roubles. 
 
 January 1, 1874 
 January 1, 1876 
 January 1, 1876 
 January 1, 1877 
 January 1, 1878 
 
 
 770,319,056 
 764,600,008 
 761,117,547 
 707,605,904 
 1,014 266,694 
 
 Production at tlie Mines. 
 
 Dale. 
 
 1874, 
 
 1876 . 
 1.S76 . 
 
 1877 . 
 1878. 
 
 
 GOLD, 
 
 
 
 SILVER. 
 
 Poods. 
 
 Pouwk. 
 
 ZoM. 
 
 Poods. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 2,020 
 
 31 
 
 17 
 
 720 
 
 14 
 
 1,990 
 
 28 
 
 15 
 
 601 
 
 4 
 
 2,053 
 
 8 
 
 70 
 
 683 
 
 7 
 
 2,501 
 
 30 
 
 70 
 
 681 
 
 17 
 
 2,569 
 
 39 
 
 63 
 
 668 
 
 12 
 
 Zolot. 
 
 1874. . 
 
 1876, , 
 1876. 
 
 1877, , 
 
 Imports and Exports of Gold and SUver. 
 
 GOLD, 
 
 
 Erpiyrted. 
 
 ToUd. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 
 
 In bars. 
 
 In coin 
 
 In bars. 
 
 In com. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1874 . . 
 
 1875 . . 
 
 1876 . . . 
 1877. , . 
 
 Roubles. 
 
 '8,826,000 
 176,000 
 
 Roubles 
 17,054,000 
 27,576,000 
 93,018,000 
 65,735,830 
 
 Roubles. 
 17,054,000 
 27,576,000 
 101,844,000 
 66,9fl,830 
 
 Roubles. 
 365,000 
 215,000 
 175,000 
 119,000 
 
 Roubles. 
 6,198,000 
 1,606,000 
 1,313,000 
 
 .9,284,000 
 
 Roubles. 
 6,663,000 
 1,721,000 
 1,488,000 
 9,403,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 82,000 
 718,000 
 
 430,000 
 
 469,000 
 
 1,328,000 
 
 15,492,800 
 
 442,000 
 
 469,000 
 
 1.410,000 
 
 16,210,800 
 
 9,436,000 
 
 4,106,000 
 
 3,242,000 
 
 767,000 
 
 642,000 
 616,000 
 695,000 
 780,000 
 
 10,077,000 
 4,720,000 
 3,936,000 
 1,647,000 
 
 
 Gold and SUver Coined In the St. Peterslinrg Mint. 
 
 
 
 
 1874. 
 
 1875. 
 
 1876. 
 
 1877. 
 
 1878. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold 
 
 8ilTer,83J proof 
 
 Silver, 48 proof 
 
 Roubles. 
 24,810,027 
 
 700,005 25 
 4,276,001 50 
 
 Roubles, 
 20,300,024 
 700,005 ?5 
 4,400,001 60 
 
 Roubles. 
 30,189,040 
 800,008 75 
 5,217,002 50 
 
 Roubles. 
 33,160,024 
 
 7,884,005 26 
 2,263,001 60 
 
 Roubles. 
 34,682,048 
 8,918,010 60 
 7,44.3,263 
 
 Roubles. 
 143,031,163 
 19,002,0a5 
 23,699,260 
 
 Deposits of Gold and Silver coin and bars on hand January 1, in the Treasurjr at the Empire, the Mint, the Government 
 
 Bank, and Branches of these Institutions. 
 
 GOLD. 
 
 DaU. 
 
 BeUmging to imperial treas- 
 wy, the differen tbranches, 
 and in Bt. Pelenburg 
 mint. 
 
 In Imperial Banh. 
 
 In St. Petersburg mint, be- 
 longing to different de- 
 par Imt-nt 8 and different 
 people. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total 
 
 
 In coin. 
 
 In bars. 
 
 In coin. 
 
 In bars. 
 
 In coin. 
 
 In bars. 
 
 In coin. 
 
 In bars. 
 
 
 1875 
 
 1876 . 
 
 1877 
 
 1878 . 
 
 Roubles, 
 1,946,542 
 2,043,479 
 2,73§,008 
 6,456,466 
 
 Roubles, 
 
 3,655,085 
 
 4,458,196 
 
 4,720,031 
 
 167,733 
 
 Roubles, 
 146,069,100 
 160,166,142 
 75,668,448 
 90,168,284 
 
 Roubles. 
 57,814,739 
 57,482,667 
 48,775,968 
 41,830,079 
 
 Roubles. 
 
 4,223,890 
 
 783,300 
 
 6,463,745 
 
 6,406,215 
 
 Roubles. 
 10,399,452 
 14,672,930 
 7,046,574 
 8,020,010 
 
 Roubles. 
 
 162,239,532 
 
 162,992,921 
 
 84,857,201 
 
 103,029,965 
 
 Roubles. 
 71,769,276 
 76,614,793 
 60,641,563 
 50,017,822 
 
 Roubles. 
 
 224,008,808 
 229,607,714 
 146,398,764 
 153,017,787 
 
 SILVER. 
 
 1875 . 
 
 1876 . 
 
 1877 , 
 
 1878 . 
 
 917,695 
 
 824,122 
 
 10^,003 
 
 1,130,628 
 
 1,996,047 
 2,104,649 
 1,604,478 
 
 11,606,137 
 
 11,663,404 
 
 9,885,086 
 
 6,060,638 
 
 19,156,262 
 17,858,305 
 16,891,172 
 11,709,657 
 
 6,011 
 
 656,.618 
 
 645,318 
 
 632,849 
 
 83,839 
 
 12,623,832 
 12,387,526 
 9,987,098 
 7,187,177 
 
 21,807,827 
 20,608,172 
 18,928,400 
 11,793,396 
 
 34,331,669 
 32,995,698 
 28,916,588 
 18,980,673 
 
 Note 1,— In the above tables only banco silver of 83}^ proof 
 into account. 
 
 Note 2. — Besides the silver shown in the above tables, there 
 silver on hand, 48 proof, as follows : 
 
 1S74 
 1875 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 
 U taken 
 is other 
 
 Roubles. 
 
 1,186,624 
 
 2,299,325 
 
 . 3,434,283 
 
 . 4,823,006 
 
 . 4,421,466 
 
 Amount of coin in the Russian State Bank, which forms 
 its circulation from the time of its establishment. 
 
 1881 ... . '. 
 18li2 . '. . 
 
 188;i 
 
 1804 
 
 1805 . .... 
 
 
 1806 
 
 1807 . .... 
 
 
 1808 
 
 1809 . 
 
 1870 
 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Roubles. 
 
 84,300,000 
 
 81,100,000 
 
 80,600,000 
 
 56,300,000 
 
 56,400,000 
 
 67,800,000 
 
 57,700,000 
 16§,O0O,0O0 
 132,400,000 1879 
 141,800,000 1880 
 
 1871 . 
 1872. 
 1873. 
 1874. 
 1875. 
 1876. 
 1877. 
 1878. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Bovhles. 
 141,800,000 
 156,300,000 
 196,000,000 
 217,300,000 
 229,400,000 
 229,400,000 
 149,000,000 
 147,800,000 
 147,000,000 
 173,200,000 
 
 The proportion in 1879 was : Gold, 137,200,000 roubles, or 
 92.8 per cent. ; silver, 10,600,000 roubles, or 7.2 per cent. 
 The quantity of paper money of the State Bank in circu- 
 lation and in the bank was as follows ; 
 
 1871 
 1872 
 1873 
 1874 
 1875 
 
 Boxtbles. 
 715,800,000 
 724,200,000 
 774,700,000 
 792,300,000 
 797,300,000 
 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Roubles. 
 
 797,300,000 
 
 790,000,000 
 
 1,041,000,000 
 
 ■,189,300,000 
 
 1,163,700,000 
 
 In the last two years the amounts in bank and in circula- 
 tion were as follows : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Bank. 
 
 Circulation. 
 
 Bank. 
 
 Circula- 
 tion. 
 
 1879 
 
 1880 
 
 Roubles. 
 
 35,600,000 
 
 33,800,000 
 
 Eonbles. 
 1,163,700,000 
 1,129,900,000 
 
 Per cent 
 3 
 3 
 
 Per cent. 
 97 
 97 
 
 Gold has been the principal metal mined since 1825. 
 Systematic mining of gold commenced in 1751. Since then 
 the production has been 80,000 puds. During the ten years 
 from 1868 to 1877 amounts have been — 
 
 Years. 
 
 Puds. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Puds. 
 
 1868 ■. . 
 
 1,710 
 
 1873. . 
 
 2.020 
 
 1869 
 
 2,010 
 
 1874. 
 
 2,030 
 
 1870 . . ■. 
 
 2,160 
 
 1875. 
 
 2,000 V 
 
 1871 
 
 2,400 
 
 1876 . .... 
 
 2,060 
 
 1872 
 
 2,330 
 
 1877. . . . . . 
 
 2,620 
 
388 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Production of silver during the ten years from 1868 to 
 1877 as follows : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Piids. 
 
 Yean. 
 
 Pads. 
 
 1868 
 
 1,120 
 
 1S73 . 
 
 610 
 
 1869 . 
 
 1,770 
 
 1874 . . . 
 
 720 
 
 1870. ... 
 
 870 
 
 11876 ... . . . 
 
 600 
 
 1871. ... ... 
 
 830 
 
 11876 ... 
 
 680 
 
 1872. . . 
 
 T50 
 
 Il877 . 
 
 i 
 
 680 
 
 Imports and exports of gold and silver (not shown separ- 
 ately) as fc^ows: 
 
 1869 . 
 1870. 
 1871 . 
 1872. 
 1873. 
 1874. 
 1875. 
 1876. 
 1877. 
 1878. 
 
 Imports. EseportB. 
 
 Roubles. 
 
 2,600,000 
 
 2,700,000 
 
 7,400,000 
 
 13,000,000 
 
 20,600,000 
 
 16,600,000 
 
 6,400,000 
 
 5,400,000 
 
 10,900,000 
 
 16,600,000 
 
 Roubles. 
 
 • 15,700,000 
 23,900,000 
 
 ■ 17,700,000 
 7,900,000 
 14,700,000 
 17,500,000 
 28,000,000 
 
 103,300,000 
 19,300,000 
 14,200,000 
 
 The quantity of the precious metals consumed in the arts 
 and manufactures cannot be ascertained. 
 
 Coinage of gold since ISOO. 
 
 Period. 
 
 Sottbles. 
 
 Period. 
 
 Roubles. 
 
 1800-1809 
 
 1810-1819 
 
 1820-1829 . . 
 1830-1839 
 
 4,300,000 
 29,700,000 
 31,800,000 
 65,400,000 
 
 1840-1849 . . . 
 1830-1869 . . . . 
 1860-1869 . . . 
 1870-1878 . ... 
 
 137,300,000 
 ^00,500,000 
 221,000,000 
 201,700,000 
 
 Coinage ot gold from 1869 to 1878 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 Half imperials. 
 
 Three roubles. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Baubles. 
 
 1869 . . . 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 19,600,000 
 
 140,000 
 
 420,000 
 
 19,920,000 
 
 1870 . 
 
 5,000.000 
 
 25,000,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 26,600,000 
 
 1871 . 
 
 800,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 4,600,000 
 
 1872 . 
 
 2,4O0,(K)O 
 
 12,0.0,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 12,300,000 
 
 1873 . 
 
 ■8,000,000 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 • 80,000 
 
 240,IW0 
 
 16,240,000 
 
 1874 . 
 
 4,R00,I100 
 
 24,000,000 
 
 270,000 
 
 810,000 24,810,000 
 
 1875 . 
 
 4,0110,000 
 
 20jOOO,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 300,000 20,300,000 
 
 1876 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 30,000,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 180,000 30,180,000 
 
 1877 . . 
 
 6.000,000 
 
 33,000,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 150,000 33,160,000 
 
 1878 . .... 
 
 6,800,'JOO 
 
 34,000,000 
 
 190,000 
 
 570,000 34,670,000 
 
 Silver coinage from 1869 to 1878. 
 B'dy^ zolotinka fine. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Roubles. 
 
 Balf- 
 roublee. 
 
 Quarter- 
 roubles. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1869 . 
 
 1870 . ... 
 
 1871 . . . 
 
 1872 
 
 1873 
 
 1874 
 
 1875 . ... 
 
 1876 
 
 Roubles. 
 300,000 
 400,000 
 900,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 700,000 
 700,000 
 700,000 
 800,000 
 
 6,900,000 
 
 8,100,000 
 
 Roubles. 
 10,000 
 6,000 
 10,000 
 10,000 
 20,000 
 10,000 
 S,000 
 10000 
 520,000 
 390,000 
 
 Roubles. 
 
 6,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 t 6,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 111,000 
 
 ■10,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 460,000 
 
 440,000 
 
 Roubles. 
 316,000 
 41.6,000 
 916,000 
 
 1,020,000 
 730,000 
 720,000 
 710,000 
 820,000 
 
 1877 . . : : 
 
 1878 . ... 
 
 7,870,000 
 8,930,000 
 
 Total ... 
 
 20,500,000 
 
 990,000 
 
 965,000 
 
 22.445,000 
 
 SUver coinage from 1869 to 1878. 
 
 (48 zolotinks fine.) 
 
 Years. 
 
 Twenty 
 
 Fifteen 
 
 Ten 
 
 Five 
 
 Total 
 
 copecks. 
 
 copecks. 
 
 copecks. 
 
 copecks. 
 
 roubl s. 
 
 1869 
 
 3,400,000 
 
 1,220,000 
 
 370,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 1870 . . 
 
 3.250,000 
 
 1,410,000 
 
 330,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 1871 . ... 
 
 3,370,000 
 
 1,420,000 
 
 420,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 5,220,000 
 
 1872 ... 
 
 2,400,000 
 
 880,000 
 
 210,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 3,500,000 
 
 1873 . . . 
 
 3,040,000 
 
 1,190,000 
 
 260,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 4,600,000 
 
 1874 . .... 
 
 2,970,000 
 
 l't)40,000 
 
 250,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 4,270,000 
 
 1875 .... 
 
 2,910,000 
 
 1,120,000 
 
 360,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 4,400,000 
 
 1876 
 
 3,250,000 
 
 1,460,000 
 
 490,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 6,210,000 
 
 1877 . . 
 
 1.390,000 
 
 650,000 
 
 210,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 2,260,000 
 
 1878 . . . 
 
 5,070,000 
 
 1,670,000 
 
 690,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 7,440,000 
 
 Total 
 
 Total silver coin- 
 age (roubles) . 
 
 31,060,000 
 
 12,060,000 
 
 3,590,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 46,800,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 69,246,000 
 
 Table showing amount of Gold coined In lilsbon, Fortngal. 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 In pieces of — 
 
 
 
 
 10,000 reis. 
 
 5,000 reis. 
 
 2,000 mi. 
 
 1,000 reis. 
 
 Total 
 
 From December 12, 1865 to September 30, 1874* 
 
 From October 1, 1874, to September 30, 1875 . . . . 
 
 From October 1, 1876, to September 30, 1876 . . 
 
 From October 1, 1870, to September 30, 1877 
 
 From October 1, 1877, to September 30, 1878 . . ... 
 
 Prom October 1, 1878, to September 30, 1879 
 
 l"87',020,bob 
 243,010,000 
 
 3,524,515,000 
 45,000,000 
 61,000,"00 
 76,000,000 
 42,000,000 
 
 1,092,900,000 
 7,000,000 
 4,000,000 
 6,500,000 
 43,000,000 
 
 68,057,000 
 
 4,685,472,000 
 
 52,000,000 
 
 65,000,000 
 
 82,500,000 
 
 272,020,000 
 
 243,010,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 430,030,000 
 
 3,748,515,000 
 
 1.1S3,400,000 
 
 68,057,000 
 
 5,4011,002,000 
 
 *NoTE BY lEANStiTOE.— Thi^ amount is the aggregate of table published on p. 452, " Report of the Silver Commission," vol. 1, used for convenience. 
 
 Table sbowlng amount of Sliver coined In L.l8bon, Portugal, 
 
 
 In pieces of— 
 
 
 600 reis. 
 
 200 reis. 
 
 100 r«M. 
 
 60 reis. 
 
 Total 
 
 From July 29, 1854, to September 30, 1874* .... . . 
 
 From October 1, 1874, to September 30, 1875 . . 
 
 From October 1, 1873, to September 30, 1876 
 
 From October 1, 1870, to September 30, 1877 . . . ... 
 
 From October 1, 1877, to September 30, 1878 
 
 From October 1, 1878, to September 30, 1879 
 
 7,107,605,000 
 
 "210,000,000 
 25,000,000 
 
 3'4,3',990.bob 
 
 773,030,000 
 14,000,000 
 16,000,000 
 6,000,000 
 3.4-0,000 
 1,560,000 
 
 213,270,000 
 25,000,000 
 22,000,000 
 10,000,000 
 6,000,000 
 18,000,000 
 
 66,622,200 
 3,000,000 
 
 ' ' ' " seoo.odb 
 
 1,600,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 8,100,436,400 
 
 42,000,000 
 
 248,000,000 
 
 49,600,000 
 
 9,950,000 
 
 367,560,000 
 
 Total 
 
 7 636.595,001 
 
 764,049.000 
 
 293,270.200 
 
 73,522,200 
 
 8,814,436,400 
 
 •Note m teansiatob.— This amount is the aggregate of table published on p. 453, " Report of the Silver Commission," 
 
 Statement slio-vrlng Imports of Gold and Silver Into 
 Portugal. 
 
 Statement slioivlng Kxports of 
 Portugal. 
 
 vol. 1, used for convenience. 
 Gold and Silver from 
 
 Years. 
 
 1869 . 
 1870. 
 1871 . 
 1872. 
 1873. 
 1874. 
 1875 . 
 1876. 
 1877. 
 1878. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 Reis. 
 498,000 
 560,000 
 
 1,200,00 
 1,120,000 
 
 120,000 
 2,590,000 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Reis. 
 2,051,000 
 1,036,000 
 2,289,000 
 103,000 
 1,671,000 
 
 5,.32O,000 
 61,0.60,000 
 16,765,000 
 
 9,120,000 
 
 Coin. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Reis. 
 
 301,087,500 
 1,140,892,000 
 3,591,404,000 
 1,795,256,000 
 3,007,103,000 
 1,448,234,000 
 2,493,663,000 
 4,326,105,000 
 
 718,824,000 
 3,262,380,000 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Reis. 
 
 7,123,000 
 
 1,(38,000 
 
 28,291,000 
 
 167,000 
 
 21,137,000 
 
 67,766,000 
 
 38,696,000 
 
 109,852,000 
 
 42,326,000 
 
 326,595,000 
 
 1869 . 
 1870. 
 
 1871 . 
 
 1872 . 
 
 1873 . 
 1874. 
 1875. 
 1876. 
 1877. 
 1878 . 
 
 E^orts. 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 Odd. 
 
 200,000 
 
 save. 
 
 Reis. 
 
 117,235,000 
 
 34,056,001) 
 
 18,467,000 
 
 18,115,000 
 
 8,369,000 
 
 67,747,000 
 
 32,626,000 
 
 1,224,000 
 
 B,650,0l'0 
 
 6,460,000 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver^ 
 
 Reis. 
 
 Jleis. 
 
 126,266,700 
 
 226,498,000 
 
 68,763,000 
 
 192,066,0('0 
 
 44,627,000 
 
 101,050,000 
 
 2,620,000 
 
 20,673,000 
 
 32,896,000 
 
 28,411,000 
 
 39,781,000 
 
 3,403,000 
 
 66,466,000 
 
 17,937,000 
 
 1,664,005,000 
 
 26,986,000 
 
 1,407,838,000 
 
 97,893,000 
 
 1,688,356,000 
 
 194,912,000 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 389 
 
 Table showing tHe amonnt ot ^old and sUver coined, under 
 tl&e metric decimal system In Italy. 
 
 Year. 
 
 1803 . 
 
 1804 . 
 
 1805 . 
 180G . 
 
 1807 . 
 
 1808 . 
 
 1809 . 
 
 1810 . 
 
 1811 . 
 
 1812 . 
 
 1813 . 
 
 1814 . 
 
 1815 . 
 1810 . 
 1817 
 JS18 . 
 
 1819 . 
 
 1820 . 
 
 1821 . 
 
 1822 . 
 
 1823 . 
 
 1824 . 
 
 1826 . 
 1820 . 
 
 1827 . 
 1828 
 
 1829 . 
 
 1830 . 
 
 1831 . 
 
 1832 . 
 
 1833 . 
 
 1834 . 
 1836 . 
 1836 . 
 1837 
 
 1838 . 
 
 1839 . 
 J840 . 
 
 1841 . 
 
 1842 . 
 
 1843 . 
 1844 
 1845 , 
 1846 
 1847 , 
 1848 
 
 1849 , 
 
 1850 . 
 1851 
 1862 
 1863 
 1854 
 1855 
 1850 
 1857 
 1858 
 1869 
 1860 
 1801 
 1862 
 1863 
 1864 
 1866 
 18G6 
 1807 
 1868 
 1809 
 1870 
 1871 
 1872 
 1873 
 1874 
 1875 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 M79 . 
 
 Sold 900 
 Jine, 
 
 Silver. 
 
 &-tire. 
 
 90afim. 
 
 16,760 
 
 2,668,320 
 
 195,080 
 
 10,300,140 
 
 2,668,760 
 
 8,599,760 
 
 6,731,660 
 
 3,300,600 
 
 3,037,220 
 
 3,528,320 
 
 4,717,700 
 
 3,357,300 
 
 7,227,660 
 
 8,129,000 
 
 6,329,600 
 
 4,317,860 
 
 4,720,480 
 
 799,400 
 
 1,034,300 
 
 881,340 
 
 3,647,180 
 
 10,178,960 
 
 7,299,000 
 
 4,416,500 
 
 2,451,240 
 
 3,324,540 
 
 3,221,040 
 
 3,667,660 
 
 3,013,610 
 
 12,796 170 
 
 4,638,860 
 
 2,787,830 
 
 1,840,400 
 
 3,407,760 
 
 3,221,220 
 
 4,529,980 
 
 6,973,370 
 
 2,646,970 
 
 1,587,260 
 
 1,623,900 
 
 1,678,440 
 
 1,880,360 
 
 1,697,090 
 
 2,796,780 
 
 3,391,660 
 
 4,109,100 
 
 9,175,600 
 
 2,997,600 
 
 3,593,260 
 
 3,777,130 
 
 3,820,600 
 
 3,516,920 
 
 2,691,290 
 
 6,604,470 
 
 12,811,600 
 
 5,992,540 
 
 3,209,410 
 
 28,608,760 
 
 76,514,100 
 
 12,172,600 
 
 68,706,190 
 
 3,926,020 
 
 5,525,830 
 
 6,807,940 
 
 3,707,100 
 
 1,095,400 
 
 470,160 
 
 66,100 
 
 20,404,140 
 
 6,919,420 
 
 2,244,440 
 
 2,154 560 
 
 4,947,960 
 
 6,345,280 
 
 2,929,320 
 
 Fractional. 
 
 900 fine. 
 
 49,735 
 
 104,056 
 
 57,280 
 
 119,235 
 
 196,386 
 
 16,630,63) 
 
 13,596,956 
 
 3,065,086 
 
 17,640,110 
 
 11,311,910 
 
 6,507,160 
 
 632,780 
 
 468,220 
 
 373,145 
 
 868,180 
 
 884,880 
 
 326,660 
 
 706,455 
 
 290,780 
 
 238,700 
 
 177,160 
 
 892,840 
 
 2,059,680 
 
 6,983,185 
 
 14,306,200 
 
 7,009,890 
 
 4,544,305 
 
 10,183,290 
 
 2,650,130 
 
 2,170,425 
 
 1,674,230 
 
 939,636 
 
 2,026,740 
 
 3,233,706 
 
 1,972,085 
 
 1,744,660 
 
 1,731,460 
 
 1,214,370 
 
 1,639,960 
 
 1,392,010 
 
 4,120,310 
 
 6,070,390 
 
 1,723,675 
 
 1,650,470 
 
 895,070 
 
 4,886,590 
 
 4,207,100 
 
 • 3,892,700 
 
 1,828,460 
 
 2,438,410 
 
 977,270 
 
 1,790,675 
 
 680,850 
 
 470,835 
 
 270,700 
 
 203,005 
 
 302,810 
 
 188,130 
 
 979,665 
 
 964,436 
 
 7,155 
 34,965 
 
 39,349.76 
 36,889.26 
 1,414,038.25 
 1,653,635 
 2,137,281.26 
 3,824,507.25 
 2,308,244 
 3,440,214.50 
 687,981.75 
 658,171 
 125,200 
 
 98,644.75 
 
 601,935 
 4,010,835 
 2,351,780 
 
 07,328 
 015,939.50 
 1,844,704.60 
 2,431,467.60 
 1,339,567.60 
 689,003.60 
 1,177,694 
 298,406 
 166,216.60 
 41,566.26 
 70,449 
 70,329 
 81,815.60 
 61,684.50 
 61,382 
 37,082 
 
 43,804 
 
 30,778 
 
 46,462 
 148,565 
 154,031.60 
 
 61,614 
 
 45,567 
 
 33,860 
 9,365 
 
 16,698 
 - 40,106 
 135,875.60 
 
 64,498.50 
 
 60,936 
 
 36,278 
 
 74,010 
 
 38,988.50 
 
 20,108 
 
 17,047 
 5,479,280.50 
 1,412,222.60 
 
 833 fine. 
 
 19,975,230 
 30,729,280 
 36,116,695 
 35,611,920 
 42,273,9.36 
 60,000,000 
 60,000,000 
 36,000,000 
 18.000,000 
 9,000,000 
 20,000,000 
 
 3.^,960.50 
 31,751,913.20 
 30,696,351.10 
 41,937,106.80 
 35,501,070.60 
 16,630,145.80 
 1,252,452 
 
 Total. 
 
 56,890 
 139,020 
 57,28(1 
 168,564.75 
 232,274.25 
 18,044,668.25 
 16,160,690 
 5,192,306.25 
 21,434,617.26 
 13,620,154 
 9,007,364.50 
 1,220,761.75 
 1,126,391 
 498,.345 
 868,180 
 884,880 
 424,204.75 
 705,455 - 
 290,780 
 238,700 
 177,100 
 990,109 
 2,975,519.50 
 8,827,049.60 
 16,737,657.50 
 8,349,487.60 
 5,233,308.50 
 11,300,984 
 2,84S,6;i6 
 2,341,640.60 
 1,716,786.25 
 1,009,084 
 2,097,009 
 3,315,.iS0.60 
 2,024,26tf.60 
 1,796,942 
 1,768,542 
 1,214,370 
 1,683,7.54 
 1,422,788 
 4,166,772 
 6,218,956 
 1,8V7,706.50 
 1,012,084 
 940,637 
 4,919,460 
 4,216,456 
 3,909,488 
 1,868,560 
 2,674,285.60 
 1,041,768.60 
 1,841,611 
 416,128 
 644,851 
 309,688.50 
 223,113 
 319,857 
 6,667,410.50 
 2,391,787.50 
 1,295,395.50 
 31,751,913.20 
 31,298,286.10 
 45,947,941.80 
 37,862,830.60 
 16,530,146.80 
 1,252,452 
 19,976,2.30 
 30,729,280 
 36,110,695 
 35,611,920 
 42 273,936 
 60,1100,000 
 60,000 000 
 36,000,000 
 18,000,000 
 
 9,ooo,ddo 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 25 . . . 
 
 40 . ... 
 
 60 
 
 loo . . ... 
 
 200 
 
 260 
 
 500 
 
 1,000 
 
 Bank of the Four Legations 
 Bills ol' the old form . . . 
 
 Total . 
 
 1877. 
 
 Number. 
 
 149,367 
 
 6,937 
 
 1,891,167 
 
 2,376,881 
 
 102,009 
 
 317,840 
 
 602,901 
 
 260,196 
 
 Value. 
 
 Lire. 
 
 3,733,926 
 
 237,480 
 
 94,668,350 
 
 237,688,100 
 
 20,401.800 
 
 79,460,01 '0 
 
 251,460,600 
 
 260,196,000 
 
 2,128 
 
 9,489 
 
 1,.568,560,692 
 
 Number. 
 
 74,791 
 
 3,992 
 
 2,071,754 
 
 2,276,814 
 
 90,912 
 
 342,943 
 
 518,789 
 
 305,374 
 
 Value. 
 
 lAre. 
 
 1,869,775 
 
 169,680 
 
 103,587,700 
 
 227,681,400 
 
 18,182,400 
 
 86,735,760 
 
 259,394,600 
 
 305,374,000 
 
 2128 
 
 i 1,612,283,318 
 
 [Copy of a notepf the Minister of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce, 
 dated October 29, 1879. No. 13.0.30 gives information as to the amount 
 of gold and silver in Italy, ai reported by tiie Minister of Finance, in 
 reply to letter of July 31, 1879.] 
 
 It is imposflible to reply with entire certainty to all the 
 inquiries of the Ministry as to the quantity of gold and sil- 
 ver, or ingots, supposed to be in circulation in the Kingdom 
 of Italy, the production of the mines, and the annual con- 
 sumption in the arts and manufactures. The reserve in 
 gold and silver in the treasury, with which is included that 
 of analogous institutions, amounts to a sum total of about 
 120,000,000 of lire. As to the reserve of gold and silver 
 existing outside of the treasury, it would be impossible to 
 furnish any positive information ; even an estimate would 
 have a purely hypothetical character. 
 
 If an amount should be required (taking into considera- 
 tion all the researches made as to the approximate issue) 
 of the reserve held by individuals, and of bank issues, it 
 may be placed at something more than 100,000,000 of lire, 
 making the total of gold and silver coin existing in Italy to 
 be about 300,000,000 lire. As regards the production of the 
 gold and silver from our mines, it may be stated that for 
 the three years from 1875-77 the production of gold and 
 silver has been as follows; 
 
 1876. 
 1876 
 1877. 
 
 £ 80,000 
 286,000 
 376,000 
 
 The production of silver in Tiiscany has been for — 
 
 1875. 
 1876. 
 1877. 
 
 £131,000 
 92,000 
 93,000 
 
 It would be impossible to furnish any approximate esti- 
 mate of the annual consumption of gold and silver in the 
 arts and manufactures. 
 
 Italian Coinage A-om 1§6!9 till 187§. 
 
 491,009,620 543,681,770 '33,557,842 156,000,000 I 733,239,612 
 
 icirculatlon Including tlie different kinds of notes at the 
 
 company and institutions for emission to tlie close of the 
 
 years 1877 and 1878. 
 
 Years. 
 
 0.50 
 
 1 . 
 
 2 . 
 .r, 
 
 10 . 
 20 . 
 
 .1877. 
 
 NumJber. 
 
 22,755,368 
 38,743,338 
 .32,634,724 
 40,662,393 
 25,686,289 
 2,287,875 
 
 1878. 
 
 Numhtrr. 
 
 Value. 
 
 45,757,500 
 
 22,745,842 
 38,427,733 
 32,076,123 
 40,781,731 
 24,846,841 
 2,203,801 
 
 Lire. 
 
 11,372,921 
 38.427,733 
 64,152,246 
 203,908,655 
 248,458,410 
 44,076,020 
 
 1862 . . •. 
 1863. . . 
 1864 . . . 
 1865. 
 
 1866 . . 
 
 1867 . . 
 186J . . 
 1869. 
 1870 . 
 '871 . . 
 1872. 
 1873 . . 
 1874. 
 
 1875 . . 
 
 1876 . . . 
 
 1877 . . . 
 
 1878 . . . 
 
 Gold- 
 
 Of-ft%. 
 
 Pieces of 100, 
 60, 20, 10, 5 
 lire. 
 
 £28,608,760 
 
 76,614,100 
 
 12,177,600 
 
 68,705,190 
 
 3,020,020 
 
 6,526,830 
 
 0,807,940 
 
 3,707,100 
 
 1,095,400 
 
 470,160 
 
 66,100 
 
 20,404,140 
 
 6,919,420 
 
 2,244,440 
 
 2,154,560 
 
 4,947,960 
 
 0,345,280 
 
 Silver^ 
 
 Of ^di- 
 
 Pieces -of 5 
 lire. 
 
 Pieces of 2 
 and 1 lire— 60 
 and 20 cents. 
 
 Total . 
 
 249,615,000 
 
 £964,436 
 
 66l,S35 
 4,010,835 
 2,351,760 
 
 19,976,230 
 30,729,280 
 35,210,695 
 85,611,920 
 42,273,935 
 60,000,000 
 50,000,000 
 36,000,000 
 18,000,000 
 9,000,000 
 
 344,637,925 
 
 os-m,. 
 
 £330,960.60 
 31,751,913.20 
 30,696,351.10 
 41,937,106.80 
 3.3,501,070.60 
 16,630,146.80 
 
 1,252,452. 
 
 Remailcs. 
 
 From 1874 the cir- 
 culation of 6-lire 
 pieces was annu- 
 ally limited. 
 
 The circulation of 
 silver coins of ^'i 
 is limited. 
 
 166,000,000 
 
390 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Switzerland— Summary of the coinage of the Sffiss mints from the 
 year 1850 to the end of 1879. 
 
 Talm. 
 
 Fineness. 
 
 Number of 
 pieces. 
 
 Nominal 
 value . 
 
 6 francs 
 
 2 francs . . . . 
 
 1 franc . . ... 
 J^ franc . . 
 
 2 francs 
 
 1 franc . 
 
 2 francs .... 
 1 franc . 
 
 ^ franc 
 
 900-1,000 
 900-1,000 
 900-1,000 
 900-1,000 
 800-1,000 
 800-1,000 
 835-1,000 
 835-l,0"0 
 835-1,000 
 
 2,096,650 
 2,500,000 
 6,750,000 
 5,600,000 
 3,500,760 
 3,617,668 
 4,000,000 
 6,066,600 
 4,000,000 
 
 Francs. 
 
 10,478,250 
 6,000,000 
 5,760,000 
 2,260,000 
 7,001,620 
 3,517,668 
 8,000,000 
 6,066,500 
 2,000,000 
 
 Total ... . . 
 
 50,052,828 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 centimes . . 
 10 centimes . 
 S centimes 
 
 Old alloyage. 
 .do ... 
 . do . . . 
 
 New alloyage 
 .do 
 
 15,883,608 
 17,694,848 
 26,624,566 
 
 1,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 
 3,176,721.60 
 1,769,484.80 
 1,326,228.30 
 
 Total . ; . . 
 
 6,272,434.70 
 
 10 centimes . . ... 
 6 centimes 
 
 100,000 
 60,000 
 
 Total ... 
 
 160,000 
 
 2 rappen 
 1 rappen . 
 
 
 14,613,300 
 23,063,997 
 
 290,266 
 230,539.97 
 
 Total 
 
 520,805.06 
 
 Brltlsli India. — Imports, exports, and coinage of gold and silver of British 
 India, and government paper circulation issued by Bengal, Madras, and Bom- 
 bay presidencies. 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Coinage. 
 
 Paper cur- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rency. 
 
 
 Bold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Bold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 SUver. 
 
 
 1836-'36 
 
 £333,399 
 
 £1,833,673 
 
 £3,481 
 
 £221,777 
 
 £197,494 
 
 £2,329,020 
 
 
 1836-'37 
 
 421,694 
 
 1,646,840 
 
 1,970 
 
 307,958 
 
 6,816 
 
 3,872,189 
 
 
 1837-'38 
 
 463,588 
 
 2,216,020 
 
 31,718 
 
 248,076 
 
 26,426 
 
 3,375,576 
 
 
 1838-'39 
 
 266,531 
 
 2,850,380 
 
 7,606 
 
 205,250 
 
 34,473 
 
 3,970,619 
 
 
 1839-'40 
 
 231,223 
 
 1,937,022 
 
 4,580 
 
 286,661 
 
 79,156 
 
 3,069,967 
 
 
 1840-'41 
 
 137,884 
 
 1,707,483 
 
 572 
 
 395,813 
 
 56,772 
 
 2,924,570 
 
 
 1841-'42 
 
 166,360 
 
 1,678,086 
 
 737 
 
 394,858 
 
 23,101 
 
 3,760,264 
 
 
 1842-'43 
 
 212,441 
 
 3,235,011 
 
 1,280 
 
 282,666 
 
 
 3,294,787 
 
 
 1843-'44 
 
 407,038 
 
 4,713,740 
 
 516 
 
 1,048,298 
 
 16,634 
 
 4,672,703 
 
 
 1844-'46 
 
 719,453 
 
 3,176,048 
 
 9,363 
 
 1,187,487 
 
 26,339 
 
 4,696,814 
 
 
 1845-'46 
 
 551 906 
 
 1,901,357 
 
 7,490 
 
 1,028,867 
 
 30,142 
 
 3,866,218 
 
 
 1846-'47 
 
 852,839 
 
 2,087,082 
 
 6,890 
 
 708,833 
 
 42,734 
 
 2,920,862 
 
 
 1847-'48 
 
 1,048,778 
 
 922,185 
 
 9,662 
 
 1,416,376 
 
 46,291 
 
 1,782,267 
 
 
 1848-'49 
 
 1,401,748 
 
 2,798,628 
 
 52,830 
 
 2,484,724 
 
 70,470 
 
 2,578,866 
 
 
 1849-'50 
 
 1,159,548 
 
 2,235,792 
 
 42,555 
 
 962,186 
 
 44,147 
 
 2,411,208 
 
 
 1850-'51 
 
 1,155,310 
 
 2,656,498 
 
 2,016 
 
 539,273 
 
 123,717 
 
 2,616,417 
 
 
 1861-'52 
 
 1,3.38,778 
 
 3,713,280 
 
 71,165 
 
 847,923 
 
 82,563 
 
 4,248,491 
 
 
 1862-'53 
 
 1,341,106 
 
 6,490,227 
 
 168,805 
 
 885,203 
 
 
 5,509,966 
 
 
 1863 -'54 
 
 1,078,708 
 
 3,770,643 
 
 17,265 
 
 1,464,899 
 
 145,679 
 
 5,263,437 
 
 
 1864^'55 
 
 882,721 
 
 1,145,137 
 
 151,431 
 
 1,116.537 
 
 2,676 
 
 1,366,901 
 
 
 1855-'56 
 
 2,608,35:i 
 
 8,792,793 
 
 2,108 
 
 698,418 
 
 167,863 
 
 6,973,669 
 
 
 1856-'57 
 
 2,176,002 
 
 12 237,695 
 
 84,788 
 
 1,164,448 
 
 128,302 
 
 10,779,286 
 
 
 1857-'68 
 
 2,830,084 
 
 12,986,332 
 
 47,011 
 
 766,384 
 
 43,783 
 
 12,551,303 
 
 
 1868-'59 
 
 4,437,339 
 
 8,379,692 
 
 10,886 
 
 651,3,50 
 
 132,273 
 
 6,642,267 
 
 
 1859-'60 
 
 4,288,037 
 
 12,068,926 
 
 3,803 
 
 921,303 
 
 64,307 
 
 10,677,924 
 
 
 1860-'61 
 
 4,242,441 
 
 6,434,636 
 
 9,872 
 
 1,106,627 
 
 66,038 
 
 6,192,328 
 
 
 1861-'62 
 
 6,190,432 
 
 9,761,545 
 
 6,007 
 
 675,089 
 
 58,667 
 
 7,070,830 
 
 £3,690,000 
 
 1862-'63 
 
 6,881,566 
 
 13,627,398 
 
 33,410 
 
 1,077,243 
 
 130,666 
 
 9,251,468 
 
 4,926,000 
 
 1863-'64 
 
 8,926,412 
 
 14,037,167 
 
 27,106 
 
 1,240,352 
 
 64,364 
 
 11,477,426 
 
 6,360,000 
 
 1864-'66 
 
 9,875,032 
 
 11,48S,320 
 
 36,068 
 
 1,409,522 
 
 96,672 
 
 10,368,423 
 
 7,427,327 
 
 1865-'66 
 
 6,372,895 
 
 20,184,408 
 
 648,419 
 
 1,515,234 
 
 17,665 
 
 14,507,049 
 
 6,898,481 
 
 1866-'67 
 
 4,927,339 
 
 9,670,712 
 
 739,144 
 
 1,734,019 
 
 27,725 
 
 6,118,867 
 
 8,090,868 
 
 1867-'68 
 
 4,773,786 
 
 6,997,937 
 
 166,4.57 
 
 839,948 
 
 21,534 
 
 4,313,285 
 
 9,069,669 
 
 1868-'69 
 
 5,176,976 
 
 9,978,978 
 
 17,624 
 
 1,377,966 
 
 26,166 
 
 4,207,031 
 
 9,969,296 
 
 1869 -'70 
 
 5,690,399 
 
 8,204,408 
 
 98,282 
 
 946,264 
 
 78,510 
 
 7,473,560 
 
 10,472,883 
 
 1870-'71 
 
 2,785,976 
 
 2,602,237 
 
 600,453 
 
 1,720,313 
 
 4,143 
 
 1,718,197 
 
 10,437,291 
 
 1871-'72 
 
 3,573,778 
 
 8,007,626 
 
 8,434 
 
 1,487,209 
 
 16,412 
 
 1,690,394 
 
 13,167,917 
 
 1872-'73 
 
 2,622,371 
 
 1,914,214 
 
 79,009 
 
 1.219,07C 
 
 31,795 
 
 3,980,927 
 
 11,136,061 
 
 1873-'74 
 
 1,648,807 
 
 4,143,726 
 
 206,169 
 
 1,647,902 
 
 15,498 
 
 2,370,007 
 
 9,249,761 
 
 1874-'75 
 
 2,089,236 
 
 6,061,810 
 
 215,701 
 
 1,409,608 
 
 14,034 
 
 4,896,884 
 
 11,2.36,438 
 
 1876-'76 
 
 1,836,381 
 
 3,464,341 
 
 291,250 
 
 1,908,986 
 
 17,150 
 
 2,550,218 
 
 10,999,927 
 
 1876-'77 
 
 1,443,712 
 
 .0,992,408 
 
 1,236,362 
 
 2,793 536 
 
 
 6,271,122 
 
 11,617,811 
 
 1877-'78 
 
 1,578,927 
 
 1.6,774,522 
 
 1,110,798 
 
 1,100,197 
 
 15,636 
 
 16,180,326 
 
 13,674,750 
 
 1878-'79 
 
 1,463,049 
 
 6,693,699 
 
 2,359,223 
 
 1,623,005 
 
 
 
 11,423,645 
 
 
 
 
 Amount ot gold and silver coin and bullion held in the gov- 
 ernment treagnrtes In British India on Slst March of each 
 year from 1870 to 1S79. 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 
 Coin. 
 
 BaUion. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Coin. 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1870 . . 
 
 £4,720 
 
 £11,240 
 
 £15,960 
 
 £11,657,351 
 
 £248,631 
 
 £11,905,882 
 
 1871 . . 
 
 797 
 
 34,081 
 
 34,878 
 
 13,719,363 
 
 437,151 
 
 14,156,514 
 
 1872 
 
 688 
 
 36,667 
 
 ?7,255 
 
 17,799,345 
 
 632,403 
 
 18,431,748 
 
 1873 . . 
 
 868 
 
 36,725 
 
 37,693 
 
 14,904,716 
 
 638,612 
 
 16,443,328 
 
 1874 
 
 866 
 
 34,447 
 
 35,312 
 
 10,064,364 
 
 1,034,665 
 
 11,099,009 
 
 1875 
 
 607 
 
 34,629 
 
 35,136 
 
 12,011,880 
 
 571,984 
 
 12,683,834 
 
 1876 
 
 25,546 
 
 16,813 
 
 42,369 
 
 13,351,331 
 
 826,885 
 
 14,178,216 
 
 1877 . 
 
 19,894 
 
 27,380 
 
 47;274 
 
 10,278,857 
 
 823,517 
 
 11,102,374 
 
 1678 
 
 20,517 
 
 104 
 
 20,621 
 
 11,221,720 
 
 260,443 
 
 11,472,163 
 
 1879 
 
 17,398 
 
 18 
 
 17,416 
 
 9,733,467 
 
 238,362 
 
 9,971,829 
 
 Coin and 1>nlllon, almost all silver, held at the hanks ot 
 Beng^al, Madras, and Bombay, on the 3lBt March ot each 
 year fi*oni 1875 to 1879. 
 
 
 Bengal. 
 
 Madras. 
 
 Bombay. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 | = « 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 •HS^ 
 
 
 rt*^ 
 
 
 ■f* 
 
 
 
 
 
 III 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 Fs 
 
 Buttion. 
 
 Ns 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 Coin. 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 CQ 
 
 
 CQ 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rupees. 
 
 Rupees. 
 
 Rupees. 
 
 Rupees. 
 
 Rupees. 
 
 Rupees. 
 
 Rupees. 
 8,171,187 
 
 Rupees. 
 
 1876 . 
 
 3,270,576 
 
 46,000 
 
 3,381,083 
 
 
 1,519,529 
 
 
 46,000 
 
 1876 . 
 
 3,664,005 
 
 20,000 
 
 2,065,840 
 
 
 3,585,961 
 
 
 9,305,806 
 
 20,000 
 
 1877 . 
 
 1,499,610 
 
 616,000 
 
 4,808,197 
 
 
 4,984,790 
 
 
 11,292,497 
 
 615,000 
 
 1878 . 
 
 1,742,670 
 
 
 2,166,391 
 
 
 1,672,036 
 
 
 5,580,996 
 
 
 1879 , 
 
 1,642,625 
 
 
 1,793,587 
 
 
 2,675,833 
 
 
 6,111,945 
 
 
 Cape ot Good Hope — Imports and exports of specie. 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 
 Geld. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1825-'66 . 
 
 1866 . . 
 
 1867 . . . 
 1868 
 
 1869 . . 
 1870 
 
 1871 . . 
 
 1872 . . . 
 1873 
 
 1874 . . . 
 18T6 . . 
 
 1876 . . . 
 
 1877 . . . 
 
 1878 . . . 
 
 1879 . . . 
 
 1880 . . . 
 
 £3,412,510 
 
 10,000 
 
 36,000 
 
 100,352 
 
 26,000 
 
 199,000 
 
 661,735 
 
 1,8I8,'230 
 
 310,670 
 
 166,669 
 
 19,677 
 
 267,889 
 
 282,776 
 
 436,366 
 
 880,666 
 
 369,500 
 
 £280,980 
 100 
 
 ' io,'7ob 
 
 172,100 
 33,847 
 
 il.MT 
 6,346 
 
 16,304 
 
 616 
 
 3,210 
 
 57,310 
 
 £3,699,490 
 
 10,000 
 
 35,000 
 
 100,462 
 
 25,000 
 
 199,000 
 
 672,426 
 
 1,990,330 
 
 344,417 
 
 166,569 
 
 31,324 
 
 273,235 
 
 298,080 
 
 436,982 
 
 583,876 
 
 426,810 
 
 £1,067,738 
 11,892 
 19,162 
 11,916 
 40,162 
 28,872 
 61,812 
 62,433 
 99,679 
 248,984 
 180,973 
 136,569 
 26,245 
 76,447 
 261,949 
 147,218 
 
 £120,670 
 1,929 
 2,053 
 1,712 
 1,314 
 4,840 
 2,676 
 10,262 
 3,737 
 6,202 
 4,753 
 1,542 
 2,132 
 103 
 131 
 637 
 
 £1,188,409 
 13,821 
 21,215 
 13,628 
 61,476 
 33,712 
 54,387 
 72,695 
 103,416 
 256,186 
 185,726 
 137,111 
 28,377 
 76,550 
 262,080 
 147,865 
 
 Total . 
 
 8,696,840 
 
 597,160 
 
 9,293,000 
 
 2,471,052 
 
 164,592 
 
 2,636,644 
 
 Amount of coin in circulation (including copper and 
 bronze) : 
 
 Imports of coin to end of 1880 . . £9,302,280 
 
 Exports of coin to end of 1880 2,636,149 
 
 Balance 6,666,131 
 
 The coin in the coffers of the banks on Slst December, 1880, 
 
 amounted to 1,492.432; 
 
 Bank Reserve and Paper Circulation. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Coin in banks. 
 
 Notes outstanding. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Deo. 31,1875 . . 
 Dec. 31, 1876 . 
 Deo. 31,1877 . . . 
 Dec. 31, 1878 . . . 
 Dec. 31, 1879 . . . 
 Deo. 31. 1880 .... 
 
 £ 8 d 
 833,070 8 4 
 1,038,176 16 1 
 1,084,888 2 3 
 1,057,026 3 
 1,314,490 10 10 
 1,492,431 17 8 
 
 £ « d 
 69,'i,106 10 
 4801,109 
 518,918 
 886,206 
 721,469 
 858,501 
 
 £ I d 
 1,528,176 16 4 
 i;3I8,282 16 1 
 1,603,806 2 3 
 1,742,231 3 
 2,0.35,959 10 10 
 2,390,932 17 8 
 
 Aggregate . . 
 
 6,820,082 15 6 
 
 3,969,305 \0, 
 
 10,779,388 6 6 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 391 
 
 Aiutralasla.— Gold and stiver coin, bullion, and paper 
 currency In tlie banks ot Australasia. 
 
 For the quarter ended June 30th, 1879. 
 
 Colony. 
 
 Gold, silver, 
 and otfter coin. 
 
 OiM and rilver 
 bullion. 
 
 Notes in drew- 
 lation. 
 
 Victoria 
 
 New South Wales . . 
 New Zealand .... 
 South Australia . . . 
 
 Queensland 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 Western Australia . 
 
 $11,810,436 
 11,891,760 
 7,810,411 
 3,069,321 
 8,866,454 
 1,429,768 
 387,782 
 
 $1,333,105 
 
 372,711 
 
 800,223 
 
 64,053 
 
 496,188 
 
 $5,622,452 
 6,389,439 
 4,905,086 
 2,238,673 
 1,583,778 
 637,142 
 90,036 
 
 Total 
 
 40,266,922 
 
 3,066,280 
 
 20,466,605 
 
 For the quarter ended September 30, 1879. 
 
 Victoria 
 
 New South Wales . . 
 New Zealand . . 
 South Australia . 
 Queensland ... 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 Western Australia . . 
 
 $13,444,548 
 12,446,862 
 8,450,633 
 3,129,534 
 4,605,169 
 1,583,423 
 402,581 
 
 $1,211,029 
 
 617,572 
 
 897,733 
 
 26,479 
 
 466,352 
 
 $4,978,347 
 6,246,875 
 4,292,024 
 2,090,617 
 1,S35,048 
 615,880 
 84,190 
 
 Total .... 
 
 44,062,750 
 
 3,119,166 
 
 18,842,873 
 
 For the quarter ended December 31, 1879. 
 
 Victoria 
 
 New South Wales . 
 New Z( aland . 
 South Australia . 
 Queensland . 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 Western Australia 
 
 Total . . 
 
 $16,351,691 
 13,229.473 
 9,401,494 
 2,981,413 
 6,151,117 
 1,574,917 
 461,490 
 
 48,141,695 
 
 $1,561,071 
 
 442,611 
 
 893,296 
 
 31,365 
 
 512,136 
 
 3,440,368 
 
 $5,308,184 
 6,692,830 
 4,298,560 
 2,167,208 
 1,685,919 
 612,362 
 96,488 
 
 19,661,531 
 
 For the quarter ended March 31, 1880. 
 
 Victoria 
 
 New South Wales . 
 New Zealand .... 
 South Australia . . . 
 Queensland . . . . 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 Western Australia . 
 
 Total 
 
 $18,212,988 
 16,092,876 
 9,524,417 
 3,349,841 
 6,125,490 
 1,680,733 
 478,051 
 
 63.464,396 
 
 $1,427,846 
 316,371 
 782,898 
 38,737 
 476,873 
 
 3,042,725 
 
 $S,-758,257 
 5,684,033 
 4,416,120 
 2,485,881 
 1,579,165 
 635,278 
 102,445 
 
 21,661,179 
 
 Statement of average amount of coin held by the London Ohartered Banh of 
 Auetralasia inVictoria during the past three years. 
 
 Gold coin £155,856 
 
 Silver coin 20,420 
 
 Total 176,275 
 
 Average coin held by the Colonial Bank of Australasia for each half year 
 from April 1, 1876, to March 31, 1879. 
 
 For half year ending — 
 
 Si'ver. Gold. 
 
 September ,30, 1876 .... £13,710 £96,630 
 
 March 31, 1877 ... . . 14,140 132,710 
 
 September 30, 1877 . . . 12,230 140,990 
 
 March 31, 1878 13,250 111,570 
 
 September 30, 1878 . 14,670 89,140 
 
 March 31, 1879 .... ... 16,820 84,700 
 
 Average of coined gold, silver, and copper held by the Oriental Sank Corpora- 
 tion, Victoria, during the years 1876, 1877, 1878 and 1879. 
 
 Year. 
 
 
 
 Haff year ending — 
 
 
 June 30. 
 
 December 30. 
 
 ( 
 
 Gold 
 
 £ s d. 
 
 132,013 3 4 
 
 6,138 13 7 
 
 109 15 8 
 
 177,842 
 
 4,490 7 9 
 
 216 14 8 
 
 166,229 3 4 
 
 6,037 6 7 
 
 312 17 9 
 
 136^838 
 
 7,896 11 
 
 225 14 
 
 £ t. d. 
 168.169 3 4 
 
 1876 -i 
 
 Silver . 
 
 4,331 7 10 
 
 1877. . . -| 
 
 Copper ... 
 
 Gold 
 
 Silver . . ... 
 C6DDer 
 
 279 6 5 
 
 130,612 11 8 
 
 5,385 14 1 
 
 210 18 1 
 
 1 
 
 Gold . . 
 
 
 120,668 6 8 
 
 1878 i 
 
 Silver. . 
 
 
 6,879 5 6 
 266 7 6 
 
 1879 -! 
 
 Gold 
 
 Silver . . 
 
 Copper 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Memorandum of average amounts of coin held by the Union Bank of Aus- 
 tralia in Victoria for the following half yearly periods. 
 1876. £ s. d. £ .. d. 
 
 June 30. Gold 22.3,506 00 OO 
 
 Silver .... ... 10,614 3 1 
 
 234,120 3 1 
 
 Dec. 31. Gold .... 233,093 00 00 
 
 Silver . . 9,912 19 10 
 
 233,605 19 10 
 
 1877. 
 
 June 30. Gold . . 202,672 00 00 
 
 Silver 9,347 10 00 
 
 212,019 10 00 
 
 Dec. 31. Gold ... 175,020 00 00 
 
 Silver . . 7,487 18 11 
 
 182,507 18 11 
 
 1878. 
 
 June 30. Gold 225,130 00 00 
 
 Silver 8,646 2 8 
 
 233,776 2 8 
 
 Dec. 31. Gold . . . 215,397 Ob 00 
 
 Silver . 9,028 18 00 
 
 224,425 18 00 
 
 1879. 
 
 June 30. Gold 317,800 00 00 
 
 Silver 9,567 16 2 
 
 327,367 16 1 
 
 Average amount of gold and silver coin held by the Commercial Bank of 
 
 Australasia {limited) for the half years ending — 
 
 1876. 
 
 Dec. 31. Gold £80.764 
 
 Silver 6,884 
 
 £86,638 
 
 June 30. Gold . 
 Silver . 
 
 Dec. 31. Gold . 
 Silver . 
 
 . 86,258 
 
 . 6,699 
 
 . 74,498 
 
 , . 6,361 
 
 79,859 
 
 TSexr Sontb AVales. — Imports and exports of gold by sea and land. 
 
 
 1876. 
 
 1877. 
 
 1878. 
 
 Export: 
 
 Gold epin , 
 
 £1,676,876 
 76,840 
 
 £1,816,495 
 61,940 
 
 £1,663,911 
 138,62(1 
 
 Gold dust and bars .... 
 
 Total 
 
 1,652,716 
 
 1,868,435 
 
 1,792,532 
 
 Imports: 
 
 Gold in bars 
 
 Gold coin . ... 
 Total. ... 
 
 1,175,373 
 111,130 
 
 1,098,592 
 106,291 
 
 1,064,877 
 118,633 
 
 1,286,503 
 
 1,204,883 
 
 1,183,410 
 
 The German consular reports from Sydney contain the 
 following remarks, 1877 : "^During 1876 were received in 
 the mint of Sydney, from the colony of New South Wales, 
 126,788 ounces = £479,133." This sum decreases with 
 every year ; the highest amount was delivered in 1872, viz : 
 £1,513,186. 1878 : " During 1877 were received only 97,582 
 ounces = £366,329." 1879 : " The amount received in 1878 
 was 75,492 ounces = £279,166, all produced by the colony," 
 the whole amount delivered in the mint of Sydney for 
 coinage during 1878 was 107,347 ounces, of a value of 
 £382,741. 
 
 The gold production of 1879 is given in the report of the 
 department of mines as follows : Delivered in the mint of 
 Sydney, from the various mining districts,106,900 ounces 
 gold; there were exported 2,750 ounces gold, together 109,- 
 650 ounces, valued at £407,219, while the production of the 
 previous year had been 119,655 ounces. Of the production 
 of 1879, three-fourths came from the gravel mines, one-fourth 
 from quartz veins. Up to the year 1878 there were produced 
 434,379 ounces of silver in New South Wales (mostly from 
 copper ores). The production of 1878 was 60,563 ounces; 
 that of 1879 already 83,164 ounces, and for 1880 more than 
 100,000 ounces have been produced in all probability ; it is 
 to be concluded with great certainty that many new gold- 
 fields may still be found." The report for 1878 says : " Mining 
 industry in Queensland is still in its infancy ; nevertheless, 
 the export of gold alone is nearly equal to that of wool, our 
 staple article of export, viz : about £1,000,000." According 
 to this, the expectations of a few years ago were not 
 realized. 
 
 — Extractpom " Znr Slatistik der EdetmetaUe in den Jahren 1876.80," von Dr. Adolf 
 Soetbeer. •' 
 
392 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE tiNITED STATES. 
 
 Nevr Zealand. 
 
 
 
 
 1876. 
 
 1877. 
 
 1878. 
 
 Export of gold . . 
 
 . «1 ,268,599 
 104,802 
 
 £1,476,312 
 425,059 
 
 £1,244,192 
 333,135 
 
 
 
 
 Some gold still found in Tasmania. 
 
 On the total export of gold by the Australian colonies, 
 and the net export after deduction of inter-colonial import, 
 we find the following figures in the " Statistical Abstract: " 
 
 
 1876. 
 
 1877. 
 
 1878. 
 
 Total gold export 
 
 Gold export after deductions 
 of colonial import . . 
 
 £8,212,368 
 5,793,236 
 
 £10,248,024 
 7,699,887 
 
 £8,877,171 
 5,828,951 
 
 The direct import of gold into England from Australia was — 
 
 Eilogrflms. 
 1871-1875, on the average, £7, 097,800=52,000 
 
 1876, on the average, " 4,956,800=35,500 
 
 1877, on the average, 6,656,438=48,700 
 
 1878, on the average, 6,680,600=41,000 
 
 1879, on the average, 3,184,600=23,300 
 
 1880, on the average, 3,614,200=26,400 
 
 As the annual report of gold alone is no sure indication 
 of the production of the corresponding year, I paid attention 
 to other reports in making the following table of gold pro- 
 duction in the Australian colonies : 
 
 Victoria 
 
 New South W.ales . . 
 Queensland . ... 
 New Zealand .... 
 
 Total . . 
 
 1876. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 34,100 
 
 4,000 
 
 .11,700 
 
 9,-300 
 
 69,100 
 
 1877. 
 
 .Kilos. 
 
 26,200 
 
 3,100 
 
 . 13,200 
 
 10,800 
 
 62,300 
 
 1878. 
 
 Kilos. 
 'i3,580 
 
 3,720 
 . 8,900 
 
 9,100 
 
 46,300 
 
 1«79. 
 
 Kilos. 
 23,000 
 3,400 
 ? 
 ? 
 
 39,000 
 
 The following table shows the Australian gold production 
 for twenty-four years : 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 ' 80,700 
 
 1856-1860 . . 
 1861-18G5 . 
 1S66-1870 . . . 
 
 1871-1875 . 
 
 1876 . . 
 
 1877 . 
 
 1878 
 
 1879 (incomplete) 
 
 '. 77,700 
 . 70,400 
 . 69,900 
 .69,100 
 . 62.300, 
 . 45,300 
 . 39,000 
 
 The above table shows an extraordinary diminution of 
 the Australian gold production during the last twenty years, 
 which fact contributed a great deal to raise doubts respecting 
 a full supply of gold in the future, as they found expression 
 in the book of Professor Siiss, "Die Zukunft des Goldes." 
 It will be of interest to learn the views of a mineralogist on 
 the future production of gold in Australia, which are in no 
 way influenced by views on the question of standard. Mr. 
 Ulrich writes from Dunedin, New Zealand, November, 1878, 
 to the News Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie, &c., 1879 : " I can- 
 not agree with Professor Siiss when he speaks despondingly 
 of the Australian gold production. It cannot be denied 
 that the yield in Victoria has decreased since a number of 
 years, and that it will continue to decrease. But it is just 
 equally probable that the yield of New South Wales, South 
 Australia, Tasmania, and above all of Queensland, will not 
 only make up for the deficit of Victoria, but will swell the total 
 amount of Australian gold production. In Victoria the 
 alluvial gold deposits are nearly exhausted, and the quartz 
 reefs are already worked. There are in all probability large 
 deposits of gold under a thick layer of basalt, the working 
 of which will be costly and can only take place slowly, not 
 influencing much the annual yield of gold in Victoria. It 
 has been proved that the richness of the strata diminishes 
 with their depth. All things considered it seems probable 
 that the yield of gold in Victoria will decrease down to 
 600,000 to 700,000 ounces ; but at that point it will remain 
 stationary for a longer time. All depends on the number of 
 miners, which was diminished by 20,000 to 30,000, as new 
 land laws made them take up land. This thirst for land 
 being stilled, we may count upon a greater stability in the 
 number of miners. As to New Zealand, I can state thut the 
 discovery of many new alluvial diggings may be foreseen 
 with great certainty, and a large immigration is, of course, 
 a good source for miners. For Queensland the prospccta 
 
 are all excellent. The veins of Gyrapie and Gilbert arid 
 other old mines still yield well, and promise well for the 
 fliiure, and every mail brings news of discovered alluvial 
 and quartz mines. There seems to exist a broad gold-con- 
 taining zone, of various breadth, through the whole of Queens- 
 land, up to the gulf of Carpentaria, where it meets the gold 
 fields of Port Darwin, in the northern territory of South 
 Australia. There is certainly a great improvement for 
 vigorous working of these mines ; the climate is unfavorable 
 for white persons. The Chinese prosper there, but recent 
 legislation has put obstacles in the way of a large Chinese 
 immigration. Besides this the natives are troublesome. 
 
 In South Australia are the just mentioned mines of Port 
 Darwin, remarkable for their rich quartz veins and for 
 numerous alluvial mines, but the climate is even more 
 unfavorable to white miners than that of Queensland. As 
 the veins occur in primary rocks they may be considered of 
 a stable nature. Tasmania is beyond doubt a colony rich 
 in metals. Its richness in gold, doubted a few years ago, is 
 now proved by new discoveries and great yields. The gold 
 occurs mainly in rich quartz veins, yet alluvial diggings are 
 by no means rare ; they only wait for legislation, as they 
 mostly occur on private lands. As to New Zealand, the 
 reports of the State geologist promise an increase of gold 
 production for the northern island. I know the province of 
 Otago well, and am sure of an increased production of gold 
 there. The older alluvial diggings are certainly well-nigh 
 exhausted, but there are other deposits in conglomerates, so- 
 called cements, which promise a good yield for a long' tilne 
 to come. The main cause of the decrease of the gold pro- 
 duction in New Zealand is the fertile soil and climate favor- 
 able to agriculture which allured the miners to the easy task 
 of the husbandman. Increased immigration, however, will 
 bring new miners to the gold deposits. The report of the 
 mining department in Sydney quoted above and dated 
 September, 1880, goes far toward cori-oborating the views of 
 Mr. Ulrich. It says that the decrease in the Australian 
 yield is mainly caused by the preference for agriculture and 
 industrial pursuits evinced by the miners. "The production 
 would rise immediately if capital was applied to the mines 
 in larger proportion, bringing with it new miners and more 
 rational methods of mining. Old mines deserted for their 
 unproductiveness could be restored in this way to new life, 
 as we see it indeed not very rarely." Thus it will be seen 
 that testimony is not wanting which may be opposed to the 
 theory of an unavertable decline of the Australian cold 
 •fields. 
 
 Victoria. 
 
 Export: 
 Gold uncoined . . 
 Gold coin . 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 Import : 
 Gold uncoined . . . 
 Gold and silver coin 
 
 1876. 
 
 £2,103,591 
 1,687,104 
 
 3,690,095 
 
 563,821 
 14,110 
 
 1877. 
 
 £2,090,112 
 2,814,907 
 
 4,905,019 
 
 433,961 
 50,850 
 
 1878 
 
 £1,495,449 
 2,399,741 
 
 3,895,190 
 
 673,370 
 327,800 
 
 [Extraci from " Zur stati^tick der Edtl,„etaJle in denjahern 1875-1880, t'Oii Dr. 
 Adolf Soelbeer."'] 
 
 The following figures on the gold production of Victoria 
 are given in the German Consular Reports of Melbourne: 
 
 Production of quartz mines 
 Production of allnvial mines 
 
 Total production . 
 
 Mined in quartz mines . 
 Mined in alluvial mines . 
 
 Average annual earnings in 
 quartz mines 
 
 Average annual earnings in 
 alluvial mines .... 
 
 New mining companies 
 
 Nominal capitfll 
 
 Eatitnaterl value of steam 
 engines and other inven 
 tory in the gold mines . . 
 
 1876. 
 
 1877. 
 
 1878. 
 
 Ounces. 
 606,869 
 357,901 
 
 Ounces. 
 618,899 
 289,754 
 
 Ounces. 
 493,587 
 264,453 
 
 1,095,787 
 
 809,663 
 
 758,040 
 
 14,4.52 
 26.658 
 
 14,690 
 23,316 
 
 14,13" 
 22,504 
 
 £ a. d. 
 
 160 17 n% 
 
 61 10 7 
 
 £ s. d. 
 139 12 oyi 
 
 47 8 05i 
 
 £ 8. d. 
 138 7 7K 
 47 3' 6^ 
 
 94 
 
 . , , 60 
 
 81 
 
 £1,349,606 
 1.089,500 
 
 £667,316 
 2,029,962 
 
 . £791.960 
 1,903,494 
 
 1879. 
 
 Ounces. 
 466,637 
 293,310 
 
 14,784 
 22,769 
 
 £ 8. (i. 
 118 8 7 
 48 10 3^ 
 
 167 
 
 £1,286,674 
 
 1,899,788 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 393 
 
 The quantity of gold exported from Victoria in a form 
 other than coin and that coined in the colony from the dis- 
 covery of gold to December 31, 1879, is officially given as 
 48,719,930 ounces, valued at £194,879,722. In 1879 mines 
 of more than 2,270 feet depth were successfully worked. 
 The production of gold during 1880 is estimated at 800,000 
 ounces, about 40,000 ounces more than in the two preceding 
 years. The production of silver up to the end of 1879 was 
 151,267 ounces. 
 
 Queensland. 
 
 1876. 
 
 1877. 
 
 Export of gold dust ... 
 
 Export of gold bars . . . 
 
 £1,284,165 
 143,764 
 
 £1,452,396 
 168,707 
 
 Total 
 
 1,427,929 
 
 1,611,103 
 
 Import of gold coin 
 
 181,650 
 
 
 The German Consular Report for 1876 says : " Gold is the 
 main metal exported from Queensland. The gold export 
 amounted to 374,776 ounces, valued at £1,427,929. Gympie, 
 on the Mary River, is here the oldest gold field. The shafts 
 are now sunk deeper, and very rich strata have been found 
 in this way. In the north, on the rivers Normanby, Laura, 
 and Palmer, gold washing is prosecuted with good success, 
 and some deep shafts have been sunk, which meet numerous 
 gold veins in quartz. On the rivers are still found, besides 
 dust, large chunks of gold of several pounds weight. Almost 
 every day brings new gold discoveries, and since we have 
 many hundreds of square miles in the mountains that have 
 never been prospected, we may conclude that new gold 
 fields will still be found. 
 
 Dominion ot Canada. — General abstract showing the notea and specie 
 of the banks of Britisk Q}lmnbia in circulation for the quarter endiny 31si 
 March, 1880. 
 
 Name of Bank, 
 
 Specie. 
 
 Dominion 
 notes. 
 
 Notes in eir- 
 euXaiion. 
 
 Total, Ontarioadd Quebec. . 
 
 Total, Nova Scotia 
 
 Total, New Brunswick . 
 
 8 5,686,130 81 
 448,95610 
 162,808 62 
 
 8 8,713,914 46 
 576,745 90 
 221,083 00 
 
 818,529,362 60 
 
 1,509,760 41 
 
 664,662 60 
 
 Aggregate 
 
 6,297,894 53 
 
 9,611,743 36 
 
 20,793,775 41 
 
 Circulation and Specie. 
 
 
 July 1, 1870. 
 
 December 31, 
 1879. 
 
 March 31, 1880. 
 
 Fraotionals 
 
 Sl.and 82 
 
 85, 810 and 820 
 
 850 and 810U 
 
 $600and81,000 
 
 8 113,685 73 
 
 2,890,830 75 
 
 89,059 98 
 
 633,850 00 
 
 7,327,000 00 
 
 8118,423 48 
 
 3,446,841 76 
 
 85,721 68 
 
 703,860 00 
 
 7,957,000 00 
 
 8119,618 73 
 
 3,295,903 25 
 
 84,242 65 
 
 702,900 00 
 
 8,270,000 00 
 
 Total 
 
 11,054,426 46 
 
 12,310,836 81 
 
 12,472,664 63 
 
 Fractional notes . . . * ' .... ... 
 
 Provincial notes . . . . .'. . 
 
 Montreal issue ... 
 
 Toronto issue ... ... . . 
 
 Halifax issue . . . . . 
 
 St. John issue .... . . - 
 
 Victoria issue 
 
 Notes in circulation according to the following dales . 
 
 Specie held at Montreal February 7 
 
 Specie held at Toronto February 7 . . . 
 
 Specie held at Halifax February 7. . . . 
 
 Specie held at St. John February 7 
 
 Specie held at Winnipeg Janu^try 31 
 
 . . 8119,618 73 
 . 202,010 15 
 . 6,708,281 50 
 . 4,018,097 I 
 . 1,600,111 50 
 . .750,583 76 
 . .4,982 00 
 .12,390,524 31 
 
 . 82,24vS,042 51 
 . . .717,054 11 
 . . .555,097 86 
 . . 171,068 78 
 . . . 2,486 66 
 
 20 percent, on $9,000,000 81,«('">00<' W 
 
 60 per cent, on 83,000,000 1,500 000 00 
 
 100 per cent, on $390,524.31 390,524 31 
 
 3,693,739 92 
 
 3,690,524 31 
 
 Excess of specie 3,215 61 
 
 Japan.— Imports and Exports of Specie and Bullion into and from Japan 
 during fiscal year ended June 30, 1881. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Country. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Coin. 
 
 BuUion. ; 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Yen. Sen. 
 
 Yen. Sen. 
 160 00 
 
 Yen. Sen. 
 160 00 
 
 United States . . _ 
 
 ■ ■ : 
 
 
 China 
 
 693 19.6 
 
 
 693 l!i.5 
 
 Total 
 
 5a3 19.5 
 
 150 00 
 
 743 19.3 
 
 Country. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 United States 
 
 East Indies and Siam . 
 
 China 
 
 Total .... 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Coin. 
 
 * 209,434 00 
 
 390 00 
 
 634,169 30 
 
 843,993 30 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 Yen. b'cn. 
 662 60 
 21,063 76 
 
 599.494 38.8 
 
 621,220 63.8 
 
 Total. 
 
 Yen. Sen. 
 
 662 50 
 
 230,497 76 
 
 390 0« 
 
 1,233,564 68.8 
 
 1,466,214 93.8 
 
 • Mexican dollars. 
 Sxports. 
 
 Oowatry. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 
 Coin. 
 
 BulUon. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Yen. Sen. 
 578,349 68 
 
 863,399 00 
 222 09.6 
 4,653 73.4 
 1,745 64.1 
 
 Yen. Sen. 
 .226,853 82.1 
 
 Yen. Sen. 
 804,203 60.1 
 
 859i920 46.5 
 
 United States : 
 
 Japanese 
 
 English 
 
 American 
 
 
 
 China 
 
 France 
 
 Russia 
 
 448,927 11.6 
 145 14.7 
 
 
 448,927 11.6 
 145 14.7 
 
 Total 
 
 1,887,342 40.7 
 
 226,863 82.1 
 
 2,113,196 22.8 
 
 
 
 Silver. 
 
 
 Coin. 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Yen. Sen. 
 
 Yen. Sen. 
 
 Yen. Sen. 
 
 United States: 
 Japanese .... ... 
 
 
 
 American .... 
 
 1,505 92.3 
 
 
 1,605 92.3 
 
 East Indies and Siam . . 
 China ... 
 
 1,965,972 00 
 4,089,086 56.9 
 
 ' 7,o6o' 6o' 
 
 
 1,965,972 00 
 4,089,086 56.9 
 
 Russia 
 
 
 7,000 00 
 
 Total 
 
 6,063,564 59.2 
 
 
 6,063,564 69.2 
 
 Mexico. — Deposits of gold and silver at the mints ef Mexico during 
 the fiscal year ended June 30, 1878. 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Locality of production. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Chihuahua 
 
 Durango. . . 
 
 Guanajuato 
 
 Guerrero. . . 
 
 Hidalgo 
 
 .Jalisco . . 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 4.215 
 
 25.402 
 
 448.156 
 
 .276 
 
 74 985 
 
 $2,713 31 
 
 16,346 62 
 
 288,401 48 
 
 177 93 
 
 48,265 61 
 
 KOograms. 
 
 27,060.793 
 
 22,421.001 
 
 110,509.028 
 
 2,194.106 
 
 85,398.428 
 
 36,619.728 
 
 4,982.894 
 
 11,386.732 
 
 3,2 '3.375 
 
 333.676 
 
 121.186 
 
 53,614.190 
 
 20,380 584 
 
 49,090 117 
 
 ]2>S522.294 
 
 1,735.625 
 
 81,058,320 18 
 
 '876,862 80 
 
 4,321,897 67 
 
 86,809 29 
 
 3,339,847 11 
 
 1,393,051 89 
 
 194,875 83 
 
 445,284 58 
 
 126,845 13 
 
 13,049 73 
 
 4,739 46 
 
 2,092.886 41 
 
 797,084 25 
 
 1,919,865 37 
 
 4,713,506 32 
 
 67,878 55 
 
 Michoacan . . 
 
 Oaxaca 
 
 Puebla ... 
 
 214.428 
 
 ' 4.201 
 
 1.717 
 
 137,991 21 
 2,703 45 
 1,105 26 
 
 San Luis Potosi . 
 
 Sinaloa 
 
 Sonora 
 
 Zacatecas 
 
 Plate, &c 
 
 66.287 
 56.623 
 54.355 
 79.165 
 8.061 
 
 36,222 76 
 36,374 18 
 34,979 01 
 50,926 61 
 5,188 46 
 
 Total 
 
 1,027.761 
 
 661 385 79 
 
 648,512.757 
 
 21,451,784 47 
 
 Deposits of gold and silver at the mints of Mexico during the fisPal 
 year ended June 30, 1879. 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silfer. 
 
 Locality of production. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Chihuahua 
 
 Durango . . ... 
 Guanajuato . 
 Guerrero . 
 
 Hidalgo 
 
 Jalisco 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Michoacan ... 
 Oaxaca . . 
 
 Puebla 
 
 Queretaro ... _ . . . 
 
 San Luis Potosi 
 
 Sinaloa 
 
 Sonora" . . . ". 
 Zacatecas . . 
 Plate, &e . . 
 
 Parted 
 
 Unknown sources . 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 72.169 
 
 31.936 
 
 422 047 
 
 .717 
 
 78 846 
 
 5.644 
 
 29.610 
 
 .71.847 
 
 7.029 
 
 10.104 
 
 .003 
 
 109.844. 
 
 19.046 
 
 38.641 
 
 63.649 
 
 40.860 
 
 27.181 
 
 ; .357 
 
 846,442 83 
 
 20,551 52 
 
 271,559 48 
 
 461 95 
 
 60,739 03 
 
 3,632 66 
 
 19,064 87 
 
 46,235 71 
 
 4,522 94 
 
 6,602 21 
 
 2 21 
 
 70,687.79 
 
 12,256 42 
 
 24,866 82 
 
 40,958 15 
 
 26,288 15 
 
 17,491 76 
 
 229 93 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 27,925.968 
 
 28 534.697 
 
 105,311.621 
 
 2,005.612 
 
 95,601.983 
 
 34,222.216 
 
 8,909.615 
 
 6,D76.003 
 
 3,810.244 
 
 712.991 
 
 230.872 
 
 ,67,838.861 
 
 ]1-,705.015 
 
 32,917.049 
 
 117,417.861 
 
 2,128.973 
 
 2,008.573 
 
 66.762 
 
 $1,092,157 43 
 
 1,115,965 10 
 
 4,118,632 27 
 
 78,437 99 
 
 3,734,986 90 
 
 1,338,392 70 
 
 348.446 11 
 
 237,626 01 
 
 149;014 81 
 
 27,884 27 
 
 9,029 15 
 
 2,663,109 62 
 
 467,771 44 
 
 1,287,362 89 
 
 4,692,097 90 
 
 83,261 96 
 
 78,563 24 
 
 2,610 99 
 
 Total . ... . . . 
 
 1,029.519 
 
 662,524 42 
 
 547,324.905 
 
 21,405,330 78 
 
394 
 
 THE MINES MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Coinage of tlie mints of Mexico lay fiscal years, 
 
 GOLD. 
 
 Mint. 
 
 1875. 
 
 1876. 
 
 1877. 
 
 1878. 
 
 1879. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Zacatecas 
 
 Guanajuato 
 
 Mexico 
 
 San Luis Potosi . . . . 
 
 Guadalajara 
 
 Alamos . . . .... 
 
 Cliihuahua ... . . . 
 
 Culiacan 
 
 Durango . .... 
 
 Hermosillo 
 
 Oaxaca 
 
 $42,999 00 
 386,000 00 
 224,000 00 
 
 7,100 00 
 16,440 00 
 13,600 00 
 60,529 00 
 26,180 00 
 87,640 00 
 
 8,140 00 
 
 »60,731 50 
 323,900 00 
 284,000 00 
 
 $30,765 00 
 307,600 00 
 268,500 00 
 
 $23,720 00 
 299,000 00 
 290,000 00 
 
 ■5,235 00 
 l.KM) 00 
 40,923 00 
 17,410 00 
 11,730 00 
 2,880 00 
 
 $50,111 00 
 207,840 00 
 304,500 00 
 
 3,830 bo' 
 13,700 00 
 
 ' 49,'23b 00 
 23,936 00 
 1,360 00 
 3,700 00 
 
 $198,317 50 
 1,524,240 00 
 1,370,500 00 
 
 ' 10,930 "00 
 
 6.420 00 
 21,920 00 
 65,920 00 
 19,480 00 
 40,270 00 
 
 6,760 00 
 
 6,520 00 
 1,900 00 
 52,790 00 
 17,725 00 
 6,830 00 
 4,720 00 
 
 47,315 00 
 38,520 00 
 249,392 00 
 104,730 00 
 147,830 00 
 26,200 00 
 
 Total 
 
 862,619 00 
 
 809,401 50 
 
 696,750 00 
 
 691,998 00 
 
 658,206 00 
 
 .3,717,974 60 
 
 Zacatecas . . 
 Guanajuato 
 Mexico .... 
 San Luis Potosi 
 Guadalajara 
 Alamos . . 
 Chihuahua 
 Culiacan .... 
 Durango . . 
 Hermosillo . . 
 Oaxaca . . . 
 
 Total 
 
 $5,013,000 00 
 
 4,297,000 00 
 
 2,761,000 00 
 
 2,275,856 00 
 
 1,154,535 00 
 
 948,804 75 
 
 893,431 00 
 
 726,339 75 
 
 718,233 00 
 
 469,929 00 
 
 128,821 00 
 
 19,386,968 60 
 
 $5,027,614 00 
 
 4,301,976 00 
 
 3,336,000 00 
 
 1,936,500 00 
 
 1,143,380 00 
 
 771,480 50 
 
 977,812 00 
 
 746,396 60 
 
 673,670 00 
 
 410,641 00 
 
 129,884 00 
 
 19,454,054 00 
 
 $4,791,600 00 
 
 4,464,000 00 
 
 4,611,000 00 
 
 2,091.964 00 
 
 1,321,585 00 
 
 920,114 00 
 
 658,264 00 
 
 771,412 00 
 
 868,195 00 
 
 783,065 60 
 
 133,929 00 
 
 21,416,128 60 
 
 $4,492,000 00 
 
 4,625,000 00 
 
 4,488,700 00 
 
 2,010,126 00 
 
 1,462,960 00 
 
 1,050,583 75 
 
 910,506 00 
 
 846,439 00 
 
 8.60,106 75 
 
 866,268 00 
 
 132,514 00 
 
 22,084,203 60 
 
 $4,775,000 00 
 
 4,321,000 00 
 
 5,116,000 00 
 
 2,519,110 00 
 
 1,413,161 00 
 
 766,598 15 
 
 806,025 00 
 
 891j951 00 
 
 864,882 50 
 
 555,650 00 
 
 163,610 00 
 
 22,162,987 65 
 
 $24,649,214 00 
 21.908,976 00 
 20,311,700 00 
 10,833,565 00 
 6,495,621 00 
 4,447,681 16 
 4,246,038 00 
 3,981,638 25 
 3,964,987 25 
 3,085,563 50 
 678,658 00 
 
 104,503,332 15 
 
 Coinage of the Sllnts of Mexico by fiscal years (pieces and -ralue.^ 
 
 GOLD. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Twenty dollars. 
 
 Ten dollars. 
 
 Five dollars. 
 
 Two and a half 
 dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Total value. 
 
 1875 . . . . .... 
 
 1876 .... 
 
 1877 ... 
 
 1878 ... 
 
 1879 ... ... 
 
 Pieces. 
 37,940 
 87,316 
 32,716 
 31,768 
 28,252 
 
 Pieces. 
 8,363 
 5,065 
 2,277 
 3,656 
 8,099 
 
 Pieces. 
 3,223 
 
 . 1,736 
 3,332 
 2,816 
 1,984 
 
 Pieces. 
 400 
 821 
 400 
 1,100 
 400 
 
 Pieces. 
 3,074 
 1,699 
 1,000 
 3,248 
 1,256 
 
 $862,619 00 
 809,401 50 
 695,750 00 
 691,998 00 
 668,206 00 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Dollar. 
 
 60 centavos. 
 
 25 centavos. 
 
 10 centavos. 
 
 6 centavos. 
 
 Total value. 
 
 1876 
 
 1876 
 
 Pieces. 
 18,946,214 
 18 814,662 
 20,886,007 
 21,420,974 
 21,488,699 
 
 Pieces. 
 354,584 
 687,271 
 473,620 
 606,350 
 686,855 
 
 Pieces. 
 820,305 
 951,782 
 970,002 
 1,263,183 
 1,129,142 
 
 Pieces. 
 377,868 
 308,140 
 .382,740 
 216,160 
 620,508 
 
 Pieces. 
 411,799 
 540,140 
 230,740 
 604,855 
 740, t97 
 
 $19,386,958 50 
 19,464,064 00 
 21,416,128 60 
 22,084,203 50 
 22,162,987 65 
 
 1878 
 
 1879 . 
 
 Total Coinage of the mints of Alexlco from their estahllshinent to June 30, 1879. 
 
 COLONIAL. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Oold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 $8,497,960 
 19,889,014 
 40,391,447 
 
 $752,067,456 54 
 441,629,211 46 
 888,663,089 45 
 
 $200,000 00 
 342,893 37 ' 
 
 $760,765,406 54 
 461,618,226 45 
 929,298,329 82 
 
 Columnaria (pillar), 1732-1771 
 
 Busto (head), 1772-1821 
 
 Total 
 
 68,778,411 
 
 2,082,260,667 44 
 
 542,893 37 
 
 2,161,681,961 81 
 
 INDEPENDENT. 
 
 Bust of Iturbide, 1822-23 .... 
 
 $.567,392 00 
 46,907,372 11 
 3,717,974 50 
 
 $18,676,569 69 
 769,092,562 58 
 104,603,332 15 
 
 
 $19,132,961 69 
 810,261,068 29 
 108,340.372 69 
 
 Eepublio (eagle). 1824 to June 30, 1874 
 
 July 1, 1874, to June 30, 1879 
 
 $5,261,143 60 
 119,066 04 
 
 Total 
 
 60,182,738 61 
 
 882,171,464 42 
 
 5,370,209 64 
 
 937,724,402 67 
 
 KEOAPITULATION. 
 
 Colonial .... $2,161,681,961 81 
 
 Independent 937,724,402 67 
 
 Total 3,089,806,364 48 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 395 
 
 MINES. 
 
 Value of the gold yielded by the mines of the republic, approxi- 
 mately «989,161 
 
 Value of the silver produced by the mines, approximately . . 26.167,763 
 Value of the gold coined at the various mints of the republic 689,161 
 Value of the silver coined at the same mints 23,667,763 
 
 The standard value of pure gold is $675.41 per kilogram. 
 The standard value of pure silver is $40.91 per kilogram. 
 These values have been deduced from the quantity of pure 
 metal, which according to law, must be contained in a piece 
 of gold of the value of $20 and the weight of silver. 
 
 Table sHoivlng tlie amount of gold and silver coined Ity 
 tbe mints of the Republic during the year 1879. 
 
 Mints. 
 
 Almos 
 
 Chihuahua 
 Culiaoan . . 
 Durango .... 
 Guadalajara . . 
 Guanajuato . . 
 Hermosillo . . 
 Mexico .... 
 
 Oaxaca 
 
 San Luis Potosi 
 Zacatecas . . . 
 
 Total 
 
 Silver' 
 Gold. 
 
 Total 
 
 Silaer. 
 
 *770,776 50 
 
 827,339 00 
 
 886,048 00 
 
 090,919 60 
 
 1,480,619 00 
 
 4,606,000 00 
 
 576,135 00 
 
 5,616,300 00 
 
 163,000 00 
 
 2,666,665 00 
 
 6.285,000 00 
 
 23,667,763 00 
 
 23,667,763 -00 
 689,161 00 
 
 $10,780 00 
 
 ,50,236 00 
 
 24,665 00 
 
 2,000 00 
 
 164,040 00 
 
 290,600 00 
 2,100 00 
 
 689,161 00 
 
 24,256,924 00 . 
 
 Salvador. — Statement shovring the gold and silver coined in 
 the republic fi-om the year XSHO to 1877. 
 
 Yean. 
 
 1820. 
 
 1830 . 
 
 1831 . 
 
 1832 . 
 
 1833 . 
 1834. 
 1836. 
 
 1836 . 
 
 1837 . 
 
 1838 . 
 
 1840 . 
 
 1841 . 
 
 1842 . 
 1844. 
 
 1845 . 
 
 1846 . 
 1847. 
 
 1848 . 
 
 1849 . 
 1860. 
 1861 . 
 1862. 
 1863 . 
 1864. 
 1855 . 
 
 1866 . 
 
 1867 . 
 
 1868 . 
 1859. 
 1882-'63 
 186^'65 
 1866-'67 
 1867-'68 
 1868-69 
 18f9-'70 
 1870-'71 
 1871-'72 
 1872-"73 
 1873-'74 
 1876-'76 
 1876-'77 
 
 Total . . 
 
 Oold. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 
 :s 
 
 3:i7 
 261 
 179 
 203 
 236 
 127 
 162 
 146 
 101 
 
 2,051 
 
 264 
 
 335 
 
 161 
 
 128 
 
 111 
 
 119 
 
 189 
 
 222 
 
 192 
 
 327 
 
 177 
 
 66 
 
 66 
 
 457 
 
 329 
 
 129 
 
 2,085 
 
 99 
 
 179 
 
 67 
 
 40 
 
 391 
 
 992 
 
 351 
 
 1,780 
 
 1,981 
 
 368 
 
 123 
 
 261 
 
 407 
 
 132 
 
 iS 
 
 Value. 
 
 00 
 
 04 
 
 05 
 
 09 
 
 07 
 
 02 
 
 00 
 
 04 
 
 09 
 
 00 
 
 01 
 
 00 
 
 01 
 
 07 
 
 2109 
 
 203 
 
 003 
 
 606 
 
 . 409 
 
 1829 . . 
 
 1830 . . 
 
 1831 . . 
 
 1832 . . 
 
 1833. . 
 
 1834. . 
 1836. . 
 
 1836 . . 
 
 1837 . . 
 
 1838 . . 
 
 1839 . . 
 
 $321,673 00 
 34,974 00 
 44,732 00 
 24,495 25 
 19,403 37 
 17,344 2> 
 18,692 62 
 29,527 86 
 34,356 26 
 29,.592 75 
 49,887 30 
 26,957 75 
 8,547 82 
 8,849 70 
 70,514 76 
 60,860 80J 
 20,048 30 
 
 321,623.00 
 16,362 70 
 27,642 OO 
 .9017 80 
 6,383 00 
 60,739 00 
 
 217,910 00 
 55.020 00 
 
 278,905 00 
 
 310,695 00 
 58,288 00 
 24 270 00 
 37,427 60 
 63,897 00 
 20,846 00 
 
 2,318,381,76 
 
 1840. . 
 
 1841 . . 
 
 1842 . . 
 1844. . 
 
 1845 . . 
 
 1846 . . 
 
 1847 . . 
 
 1848 . . 
 
 1849 . . 
 
 1850 . -. 
 
 1851 . . 
 1862 . . 
 
 1853 . . 
 
 1854 . . 
 
 1855 . . 
 1858 . . 
 
 1857 . . 
 
 1858 . . 
 1862-'63 
 1864-'65 
 1866-66 
 l860-'67 
 1867-68 
 1869-'70 
 1870-'71 
 1871-'72 
 1874-'76 
 187e-'77 
 
 Total. . 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Wei-jhl. 
 
 
 306 
 106 
 289 
 246 
 132 
 101 
 183 
 337 
 144 
 
 3,710 
 
 659 
 
 3 
 
 2,078 
 37 
 16 
 
 149 
 
 80 
 
 26 
 
 46 
 
 6,139 
 
 6,026 
 
 6,446 
 
 284 
 
 107 
 
 1,016 
 
 190 
 
 11, 820 
 
 40,708 
 
 52, 842 00 
 
 1,000 00 
 
 2, 732 38 
 
 2,246 00 
 
 1, 205 60 
 
 930 18 
 
 1,703 66 
 
 3, 130 68 
 
 1,339 83 
 
 36, 684 06 
 
 6, 376 88 
 
 774 88 
 
 18,931 36 
 
 386 04 
 
 160 26 
 
 789 80 
 
 1,365 63 
 
 736 87 
 
 232 63 
 
 427 60 
 
 66, 690 75 
 
 65. 132 70 
 
 58,352 60 
 
 2,684 00 
 
 994 30 
 
 9,318 95 
 
 1, 757 40 
 
 107,901 75 
 
 302 60 
 
 373, 919 88 
 
 Statement of Exports and Imports of Bullion from and 
 into London from and to the undermentioned places 
 during the twelve months ending June 30, 1880 and 
 1881, compiled from semi annual circulars issued by 
 Messrs. Pixley and Abelly rating the pound sterling 
 oi85. 
 
 Gold Bullion. 
 
 Imparls. 
 
 Belgium . . . 
 
 France 
 
 Germany . ... 
 
 Holland 
 
 Sweden and Denmark .... 
 
 Russia . 
 
 Spain and Portugal 
 
 Gibraltar .... 
 
 Malta ... 
 
 Alexandria 
 
 Aden ... 
 
 India . . 
 
 China .... . . ... ... 
 
 Manilla . .... .... 
 
 Japan 
 
 Cai)e V^rde, Cape of G. Hope, Sierra Leone, &c. 
 
 United States 
 
 Mexico, South America, West Indies. 4c 
 
 Brazil ■ 
 
 Australia and New Zealand 
 
 British North America ... 
 
 Total.. 
 
 Belgium 
 
 France ... 
 
 Germany . . . . .... 
 
 Holland 
 
 Sweden and Denmark 
 
 Spain and Purtugal ... 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Malta 
 
 Alexandria 
 
 India . 
 
 China ; 
 
 Japan 
 
 Cai>e of G. Hope, Cape Verde, Sierra Leone. &c. 
 
 United States 
 
 Mexico, South America, West Indies, &c. . . . 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Australia and New Zealand 
 
 British North America 
 
 Total 
 
 82,792,,500 
 
 9,770,000 
 
 1,002,500 
 
 124,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 604,000 
 243,660 
 56,250 
 263,.360 
 
 427,750 
 968,.500 
 
 4,128,500 
 
 612,500 
 
 232,760 
 
 3,952,500 
 
 1,702,750 
 
 9,370,000 
 
 2,260 
 
 36,238,000 
 
 J2,298,500 
 
 15,2:«,000 
 
 1,.577,000 
 
 2,654,600 
 
 4,260 
 
 229,000 
 
 82,725 
 
 355,600 
 
 1,713,960 
 
 36,900 
 
 108,800 
 
 4,018,760 
 
 1,860,500 
 
 " 181,000 
 
 3,110,635 
 
 816,750 
 
 25,921,000 
 
 60.101,760 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Excess of Excess of 
 goldimports. Quid exports. 
 
 »86,100 
 2,590,750 
 8,173,000 
 
 567,600 
 1,277,600 
 
 6 042,600 
 
 11.6,000 
 
 656,050 
 
 11,696,90ft 
 
 25,000 
 
 2,261,640 
 
 312,600 
 
 2,666,.37» 
 
 36,223,000 
 
 6,197,126 
 
 2,605.760 
 
 60,450 
 
 776,000 
 
 80,223 240 
 
 «24,000 
 3,593,.600 
 342,600 
 , 17,245 
 268,000 
 40,017,600 
 
 337,750 
 3,499,500 
 4,867,680 
 
 1,084,760 
 
 48,519,500 
 
 4,001,2.'i0 
 
 2,491,900 
 
 200 
 
 82,706,400 
 7,179,260 
 
 968,500 
 
 3,810 01)0 
 
 9,319,660 
 
 24,098,350 
 
 82,27-.?,.'i0O 
 
 11,941,600 
 
 1,224,400 
 
 2.637,255 
 
 '82.726 
 17,750 
 
 108,800 
 
 4,018,760 
 
 775,750 
 
 $7,170,500 
 
 443,600 
 
 1,272,600 
 
 4,438,500 
 
 '499,860 
 
 11,443,640 
 
 26,000 
 
 1,833,890 
 
 2,053,875 
 
 34,990,260 
 
 2,244,625 
 
 903,000 
 
 573,750 
 
 67,892,830 
 
 $2.68,760 
 3,786,600 
 
 1,786,660 
 4,831,780 
 
 48,338,500 
 
 890,616 
 
 1,675,150 
 
 443,060 
 
 Silver Bullion. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 $84,500 
 
 10,070,600 
 
 1,761,760 
 
 30,886 
 
 350 
 
 1,036,000 
 111,850 
 18,000 
 85,050 
 
 499,000 
 338,860 
 
 1,610 
 
 468,000 
 
 4,944,.500 
 
 16,05C.,000 
 
 873,600 
 
 635,500 
 
 43,760 
 
 37,639,655 
 
 $219,000 
 
 9,127,.500 
 
 1,711,000 
 
 17,685 
 
 149,600 
 30,600 
 4.3,600 
 38,600 
 1,036,500 
 71,380 
 
 Exports. 
 
 $89,000 
 
 2,387,600 
 
 3,831,600 
 
 722,250 
 
 2,860 
 
 6,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 69,750 
 
 33,160,035 
 
 4,617,405 
 
 2,500 
 
 617,500 
 
 776,260 
 
 1,276,600 
 
 2,500 
 
 1,002,500 
 
 20,000 
 
 48,633,040 
 
 Excess of sU- Excess of sih 
 vcr imports, ver exports. 
 
 $8,283,000 
 
 976,000 
 111,850 
 18,060 
 16 300 
 
 4,168,250 
 
 14,779,600 
 
 871,000 
 
 23,760 
 
 29,248,320 
 
 7.3,498,.375 
 
 48,600,2301 62,004,845 
 
 319,500 
 
 10,968,000 
 
 10,954,000 
 
 1,084.260 
 
 285,2.50 
 
 21,160 
 
 36,067,216 
 
 $129,000 
 
 2.667,260 
 
 4,579,500 
 
 1,487,000 
 
 6.6,660 
 
 1,135,000 
 
 250 
 
 5,000 
 
 121,370 
 
 16,106,800 
 
 4,196,360 
 
 69,000 
 
 696,600 
 
 19i,«00 
 
 1,109,600 
 
 4,065 
 
 1,034,000 
 
 703,500 
 
 $90,000 
 6,460,260 
 
 $4,600 
 
 2,079,750 
 
 691,366 
 
 2,600 
 
 6,000 
 
 32,651,035 
 
 4,278,.565 
 
 2,600 
 
 367,000 
 
 40,241,705 
 
 30,260 
 38,500 
 
 10,763,400 
 9,844,500 
 1,080,185 
 
 .34,204,7351 28,307,085 
 
 $2,868,600 
 
 1,469,816 
 
 66,560 
 
 985,600 
 
 82,870 
 
 16,070,300 
 
 4,124,970 
 
 69,000 
 
 277,000 
 
 748,760 
 682,350 
 
396 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 'IVorld's Froductton of Gold and Silver. 
 
 [Calendar years, except for United States and Japan.] 
 
 
 1877 
 
 1878. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 United States . . 
 
 Russia. . . . . 
 
 Kilos. 
 70,666 
 40,967 
 43,633 
 1 1,600 
 308 
 * 1,800 
 *4 
 
 109 
 
 DoUar/i. 
 
 46,897,390 
 
 27,226,668 
 
 29,018,223 
 
 996,898 
 
 204,097 
 
 1,196,278 
 
 2,658 
 
 72,375 
 
 Kilos. 
 9.57,321 
 11,296 
 
 Dollar.'!. 
 39,793,573 
 476,814 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 77,048 
 
 *42,127 
 
 143,663 
 
 11,500 
 
 |(l313 
 
 2 1,824 
 
 9 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 51,206,.360 
 
 27,997,889 
 
 29 018.223 
 
 999,898 
 
 208,019 
 
 1,222,230 
 
 6,001 
 
 Kilos. 
 1,089,343 
 
 Dinars. 
 45,281,385 
 474,876 
 
 Mexico . . 
 
 Germany . ... 
 
 Austria . . . , . 
 
 Sweden . . 
 
 Norway ... . 
 
 Italy 
 
 Rept of Europe . . . . ... 
 
 Argentine Republic ... 
 
 Colombia ... 
 
 Bolivia, Chili, Brazil, and Peru 
 Japan .... ... 
 
 Africa 
 
 t 650,000 
 147,612 
 
 * 51,000 
 
 1,300 
 
 4,524 
 
 432 
 
 t 50,000 
 
 * 10,109 
 24,067 
 
 X 250,000 
 
 * 17,000 
 
 27,018,900 
 
 6,l:l5,877 
 
 2,119,948 
 
 64,038 
 
 188,052 
 
 17,949 
 
 2,078,.S80 
 
 * 420,225 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 1,03D,1"0 
 
 706,(;49 
 
 + 650,000 
 
 ? a 125,745 
 
 g 48,662 
 
 1,268 
 
 1 4,000 
 
 f432 
 
 t 60,000 
 
 1 10,109 
 
 24,057 
 
 § 260,000 
 
 17,534 
 
 .•27,018,940 
 
 5,227,219 
 
 2,022,879 
 
 52,708 
 
 166,270 
 
 tl09 
 
 72,375 
 
 17,949 
 2,078,380 
 
 *118 
 6,019 
 
 t. 3,000 
 *400 
 
 1 3,000 
 
 ■' 78,546 
 4,000,0I» 
 1,993,800 
 
 266,840 
 1,993,800 
 
 t 118 
 
 6,019 
 
 1269 
 
 446 
 
 g 3,000 
 2,741 
 
 78,646 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 172,136 
 
 295,746 
 
 1,993,800 
 
 1,821,564 
 
 420,225 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 10,392,600 
 
 728,846 
 
 
 
 
 Canada . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 171,453 
 
 113,947,173 
 
 2,171,610 
 
 81,040,665 
 
 179,175 
 
 119,092,786 
 
 2,282,573 
 
 94,882,177 
 
 
 
 1879 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 1880. 
 
 
 Countries. 
 
 OoH. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 United States 
 
 Russia. .... 
 Australia ... . . 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 58,631 
 
 * 42,960 
 
 t 43,633 
 
 1,488 
 
 ?<I388 
 
 1,598 
 
 3 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 38 399,858 
 
 28,.551,()28 
 
 29,018,223 
 
 989,101 
 
 257.865 
 
 1,062,031 
 
 1,194 
 
 Kilos. 
 981,825 
 * 11,391 
 
 Dollars. 
 40,812,132 
 473,519 
 
 KUos. 
 
 64,168 
 
 t 42,960 
 
 t 46,251 
 
 II 1,488 
 
 a 350 
 
 II 1,698 
 
 II 3 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 36,000,000 
 
 28,551,028 
 
 30,1 '73,815 
 
 989,161 
 
 232,610 
 
 1,062,031 
 
 1,994 
 
 Kilos. 
 942.987 
 1 11,391 
 
 Dollars. 
 39,200,000 
 473,019 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Germany .... . ... 
 
 Austria . . . . ..... 
 
 Sweden .... . . 
 
 Norway . . 
 
 665,469 
 
 g a 134,007 
 
 48,180 
 
 1,602 
 
 + 4,000 
 
 t432 
 
 50 000 
 
 10,109 
 
 24,067 
 
 8 260,000 
 
 22,046 
 
 25,167,763 
 
 5,570,380 
 
 2,002,727 
 
 62,435 
 
 166.270 
 
 17,949 
 
 2,078,380 
 
 420,226 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 10,392,600 
 
 910,400 
 
 II 606,469 
 
 a 134,162 
 
 II 48,180 
 
 J 1,602 
 
 ( 4,000 
 
 g432 
 
 t 50,000 
 
 II 10,109 
 
 II 24.057 
 
 t 2.50,000 
 
 II 22,046 
 
 26,167,763 
 
 6,576,699 
 
 2,002,727 
 
 62,435 
 
 166,270 
 
 17,949 
 
 2,078,380 
 
 420,225 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 10,392,600 
 
 916,400 
 
 Italy .... . . 
 
 Best of Europe .... . . . 
 
 t 109 
 
 72,376 
 
 11109 
 
 ll'iis 
 
 II 6,019 
 1569 
 1702 
 
 1 3,000 
 3,423 
 1,226 
 
 72,375 
 
 78,646 
 4,000,000 
 1 378,157 
 
 4«h,648 
 1,993,800 
 2,274,692 
 
 815,089 
 
 Argentine Republic ... 
 
 Colombia 
 
 118 
 6,019 
 1569 
 
 702 
 
 g 3,000 
 
 2,431 
 
 78,546 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 378,167 
 
 466,548 
 
 1,193,800 
 
 1,615,835 
 
 Bolivia, Chili, Brazil, and Peru. . 
 
 Japaa 
 
 Africa 
 
 Venezuela. . . . . 
 
 
 
 Canada. ..... . . 
 
 1,641 
 
 68,205 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total . . . . . 
 
 161,.579 
 
 107,385,421 
 
 2,143,018 
 
 89,080,080 
 
 160,984 
 
 106,989,846 
 
 2,106,966 
 
 87,543,072 
 
 * Official estimate " L'Economiste Frangais," July, 1881, p. 112. 
 t Estimated. 
 
 X Victoria and New South Wales official ; the other colonies estimated as producing the same amounts reported officially for 1877. 
 g Dr. A. Soetbeer. 
 II Estimated as the same as 1879. 
 o From total production 17 per cent, of gold and 25 per cent, of silver deducted for foreign ores. 
 
 Coinage of Various Countries. 
 
 fCalendar years, with the exception of Japan, India, and Portugal. Foreign coins converted into United States money at the values estimated by 
 
 the Director of the Mint, January 1, 1881-1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1877. 
 
 1878. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Siher. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 iSUva: 
 
 Gold. 
 
 SUver. 
 
 United States . 
 
 Mexico ... 
 
 Colombia . . . ... 
 
 
 
 
 $43,999,864 
 
 096,760 
 
 334,720 
 
 20,8.16 
 
 4,776,314 
 
 15,108,881 
 
 $28,393,045 
 
 21,415,128 
 
 167,273 
 
 302 
 
 2,048,643 
 
 30',5i8,4l'6 
 7,210,788 
 8,036,093 
 3,177,607 
 
 ' 3,474,000 
 
 58,160 
 
 6,266,0.30 
 
 $49,786,062 
 
 691,998 
 
 68,320 
 
 828,518,860 
 
 22,084,203 
 
 309,973 
 
 $39,080,080 
 658,206 
 
 $27,568,235 
 22,162,987 
 
 $02,308,279 
 
 527,409,706 
 
 Central America. . ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Great Britain . 
 
 AuBtraliu. . . . . 
 
 
 
 10,376,671 
 
 16,908,684 
 760,927 
 
 29,742,879 
 2,600,563 
 
 36,766,393 
 
 9,863,844 
 
 1,224,6.39 
 
 199,260 
 
 27,564,736 
 
 2,990,104 
 
 78',741,'5,56 
 
 1,662,463 
 
 13,906,268 
 
 361,634 
 
 170,671 
 
 20,210,674 
 
 402 
 
 11,643,120 
 
 1,001,592 
 
 6,494,834 
 
 2,671,971 
 28il22,"oo'4 
 i2',869,"78'4 
 
 20,196,2^ 
 
 22,161 ,!«4 
 
 69,670 
 
 6,662,163 
 
 2,408,029 
 
 8,706,878 
 
 India . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 '4o',o62,'l7"3 
 
 Germany . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 20,784,401 
 3.725,801 
 
 49,249,960 
 
 22,797,430 
 
 954,966 
 
 4,488,341 
 
 26,432,484 
 
 Austria . . 
 France . . 
 
 
 
 
 8,373,663 
 
 Belgium. . . ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Netherlands. . ... 
 Russia . ... 
 
 
 k 
 
 1,737,000 
 
 .58,160 
 
 6,974,170 
 
 605,365 
 2,403,223 
 
 3,800,000 
 44,806 
 
 
 
 
 
 259,313 
 
 40,200 
 
 Norway. . , ...'.'.'.'. 
 
 
 
 259,'8.58 
 
 1,447,099 
 
 89,100 
 
 690,602 
 
 ' '350,317 
 
 300,036 
 
 63,460 
 
 3,896,136 
 
 '744,362 
 
 1,317.555 
 
 293,762 
 
 .396,087 
 
 ' '172,381 
 262,397 
 
 * 9,314,143 
 
 * 4,803,725 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . • . . 
 
 
 Japan ', ] 
 
 
 10,746 
 4,522,118 
 
 262,451 
 609,942 
 
 396,964 
 2,327,847 
 
 262,440 
 460,365 
 
 192,240 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 201,616,466 
 
 114,359,332 
 
 188,380,611 
 
 101,191,913 
 
 00,714,493 
 
 TZ ::' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 104,888,313 
 
 [ 114,837,811 
 
 1 
 
 81,951,354 
 
 * Coinage lor 1876, 1877, and 1878, to March 31, 1879. 
 
THE MINES, MINEK8 AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 397 
 
 Circulation. 
 
 CoHjttrieB. 
 
 United States . . 
 Great Britain 
 . Canada . . 
 Australia . . . 
 India . . 
 Germany 
 France . 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Switzerland . 
 Greece . . 
 Italy ... 
 Austria .... 
 Sweden . . 
 Norway . . . 
 Denmark .... 
 Netherlands 
 Russia . . 
 Spain . 
 Portugal . 
 
 Turicey 
 
 Mexico . . 
 
 Colombia 
 
 Peru 
 
 Brazil ... 
 Venezuela . . 
 Central America . 
 Argentine Republic . 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Japan ... 
 Algiers .... 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Cape of Good Hope . 
 
 Population. 
 
 1880 
 
 1871 
 
 1830 
 
 1880 
 
 I 1880 
 
 I 1880 
 
 1876 
 
 1878 
 
 ! 1880 
 
 I 1879 
 
 I 1880 
 
 I 1880 
 
 I 1870 
 
 1875 
 
 1880 
 
 1877 
 
 1876 
 
 1877 
 
 1881 
 
 1880 
 
 1873 
 
 1870 
 
 1870 
 
 1872 
 
 1880 
 
 1880 
 
 1880 
 
 1877 
 
 1874 
 
 1877 
 
 1877 
 
 1875 
 
 Latent census 
 or estimate. 
 
 Total 
 
 50,152. 
 
 31,028! 
 
 *4,076, 
 
 2,749: 
 
 191,096: 
 
 4.'),194, 
 
 36,905, 
 
 5,476, 
 
 2,840, 
 
 1,079, 
 
 *27,769, 
 
 37,741, 
 4,568, 
 1,800, 
 1,980, 
 .3,8S6j 
 
 80,9.'J2, 
 
 16,625, 
 4,160, 
 *21,000. 
 9,343, 
 2,951, 
 2,703, 
 
 10,108. 
 2,080: 
 
 *2,600; 
 
 *2,000, 
 1,394, 
 
 33,023. 
 
 2,867: 
 
 *572: 
 
 720: 
 
 ,866 
 ,338 
 ,000 
 ,852 
 ,603 
 ,172 
 ,788 
 ,668 
 ,102 
 ,775 
 ,476 
 ,413 
 ,901 
 ,900 
 ,075 
 ,450 
 ,347 
 ,809 
 ,000 
 ,000 
 ,470 
 ,311 
 ,070 
 ,291 
 ,000 
 ,000 
 ,000 
 510 
 ,319 
 ,020 
 ,000 
 1,984 
 
 Date /or 
 which eirctUa- 
 turn is stated. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 July 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Deo. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 July 
 
 June 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Deo. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Jan 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 June 
 
 Sept. 
 
 June 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 Dee. 
 
 Dee. 
 
 1, 1881 
 
 — , 1881 
 
 31, 1880 
 
 31, 1881 
 
 — , 1881 
 
 31, 1880 
 
 6, 1881 
 
 29, 1881 
 — , 1881 
 — , 1879 
 — , 1881 
 
 30, 1881 
 
 31, 1879 
 31, 1880 
 31, 1879 
 31, 1880 
 31, 1881 
 31, 1881 
 
 1, 1879 
 31, 1880 
 
 — , 1879 
 
 — , 1879 
 
 — , 1879 
 30, 1879 
 
 — , 1881 
 
 30, 1880 
 
 — , 1880 
 
 29, 1881 
 
 30, 1880 
 — , 1881 
 
 31, 1880 
 31, 1880 
 
 Paper. 
 
 8780,506,128 
 
 207,001,444 
 
 41,562,711 
 
 (123,606,739 
 
 655,874,880 
 
 276,8;i7,li58 
 
 (1511,328,021 
 
 03,4.34,827 
 
 10,694,000 
 
 12,890,000 
 
 323,975,402 
 
 296,611,687 
 
 21,657,372 
 
 110,375,265 
 
 19,028,000 
 
 83,836,901 
 
 120,237,000 
 
 453,867,288 
 
 6,023,360 
 
 21,871,289 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 1,896,343 
 
 13,098,820 
 
 91,000,000 
 
 260,900 
 
 103,347 
 
 373,470,000 
 
 n48,943,457 
 
 147,288,081 
 
 11,194,000 
 
 4,129,230 
 
 aold. Sdverf^ni^ saver limit- y^, 
 
 gal tender. ed tender. 
 
 8563,076,743 
 
 602,331,571 
 
 9,026.000 
 
 160,440,708 
 
 387,14,3,742 
 
 6874,876,000 
 
 43,000,000 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 4,500,000 
 
 24,000,000 
 
 50,000,000 
 
 7,158,000 
 
 9,037,324 
 
 9,316,000 
 
 29,304,722 
 
 119,209,784 
 
 130,000,000 
 
 48,000,000 
 
 16,000,000 
 
 10,000.000 
 
 500,000 
 
 62,085 
 
 *10,00O,00O 
 
 2,318,381 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 n49,000,000 
 
 99,852,138 
 
 10,071,773 
 
 30,000,000 
 
 * Batimated. 
 
 t Bank reserve only. 
 
 a Uaa&er's Magazine, (Lon ), Oct., '81, p. 818. 
 
 bMonotary Conference, 1 81, p. 205. 
 
 cUascdoQ Btatemcutofdircctorur Calcutta mint 
 
 3,644,113,660 3,221,223,971 2,115,169,997 
 
 8106,666,741 
 
 cl,015,000,000 
 
 119.000,000 
 
 e545;286,000 
 
 55,438,000 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 ' 20,960^060 
 40,400 000 
 
 26,488,551 
 ' 40,060,060 
 
 40,000,000 
 'l,8i9,'933 
 
 373,919 
 2,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 60,661,878 
 6,234,976 
 6,000,000 
 
 880,400,000 
 
 92,263,973 
 
 1,020,000 
 
 101.048,835 
 67,900,000 
 8,562,000 
 4,700,000 
 .3,000,000 
 13,000,000 
 
 4,'623,'ei'6 
 1,870,000 
 4,803,000 
 
 30,000,000 
 
 12,000 000 
 
 *689,828 
 
 4,060,060 
 
 *1,000,000 
 
 *2 440,726 
 
 8749,042,484 
 
 694,595,544 
 
 10,046,000 
 
 t6O,440,708 
 
 01,015,000,000 
 
 607,792,577 
 
 1,478,062,000 
 
 /107,000,00fl 
 
 J34j700,000 
 
 47,600,000 
 
 57,900,000 
 
 t90,400,000 
 
 11,681,616 
 
 10,913,324 
 
 il4,l 79,000 
 
 85,793,273 
 
 H10,209,784 
 
 (200,000,000 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 16,689,828 
 
 450,000,000 
 
 4,500,000 
 
 1,882,018 
 
 11,000,000 
 2,692,300 
 6,000,000 
 
 50,000,000 
 160,514,016 
 
 16,306,748 
 5,000,000 
 
 32,440,726 
 
 423,787,078 5,760,181,946 9,404,295,596 
 
 Total paper 
 
 cvrrency and 
 
 specie. 
 
 81,529 548,612 
 
 901,596,988 
 
 51,608,711 
 
 84,047,447 
 
 1,070874,880 
 
 884,190,235 
 
 1,989,390,021 
 
 170,434,827 
 
 61,294,000 
 
 20,390,000 
 
 381,876,402 
 
 380.011,687 
 
 3 (,338,988 
 
 21,288,589 
 
 33,207,000 
 
 169,6311,174 
 
 246 448,784 
 
 253867,288 
 
 »!66'023,360 
 
 37,461,117 
 
 51,500,000 
 
 6,395,343 
 
 14,980,838 
 
 91,000,000 
 
 11,260.900 
 
 2,86,5,647 
 
 379,470,000 
 
 98,943,457 
 
 297,802,697 
 
 27,500,748 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 36,569,968 
 
 Per capita. 
 
 Paper, hpecie. 
 
 814 93 
 
 21 05 
 2 46 
 
 22 CO 
 6 31 
 
 13 46 
 40 05 
 19 63 
 12 10 
 
 4 40 
 2 OS 
 2 39 
 
 2 55 
 
 6 05 
 
 7 10 
 22 18 
 
 1 37 
 12 03 
 
 14 42 
 71 
 
 5 36 
 1 53 
 
 70 
 
 ' i 29 
 1 00 
 
 3 00 
 35 79 
 
 4 47 
 
 5 68 
 
 8 75 
 45 oO 
 
 for '79, (p. 4:1, UeportorDepreciatloaofSllver) 
 witb coinage forteuyears, 1869 to iS79 added. 
 
 d Economist, Oct. 8, 1881, p. 1254. 
 
 sEstimated fVom amountinlastreportExports, 
 Imports, and Consumption )a tile Arts, &c. 
 
 /tteport of ibe French Commission, p. 130. ./Report of tbe French GomiDlsBlou, p. 89. 
 g'H. Wetli President Swiss Confederation, lA Economist, Sept. 10, 1881, p. 1138. 
 
 "Odd and Silver," p. 193. USilver Commission, p. 510. 
 
 h Report for 1879. fn Silver Commission . p. 475. 
 
 ^Monetary Conference, 1S81, p. 58. InBanker's Mag. <Ncw ITorlt), July, 1881, p. 18. 
 
 Table of Government and Bank-Paper Issue and Metallic Reserves. 
 
 
 iHiti 
 referred to. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 Metallic reserve. 
 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Government „ , . 
 
 Total. 
 
 Treasury. 
 
 Bank. 
 
 Aggregate. 
 
 
 issue. 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Siloer. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 United Stales . 
 Great Britain . 
 
 Nov. 1, 1881 
 July— ,1881 
 JDec. 31,1880 
 Mar. 31,1881 
 Jan. — 1881 
 Deo. .31, 1880 
 Oct. 6,1881 
 Sep. 29, 1881 
 July— ,1881 
 June — ,1879 
 Sep. — , 1881 
 June30,1879 
 Sep. 30, 1881 
 Dec. 31, 1879 
 Deo. 31, 1880 
 Dec. 31, 1879 
 
 *8420,161,878 
 
 i4;234,453 
 
 "(i65',8'74,'880 
 37,070,958 
 
 "(?i86,o6o,boo 
 
 1 128,860,965 
 
 8300,344,250 
 207,001,444 
 27,328,36S 
 023,606,739 
 
 ' 239',820,76o 
 /611,328,021 
 /63,434,827 
 16,594,000 
 12,890,000 
 6143,975,402 
 
 /106,760,622 
 
 21,657,372 
 110,375,265 
 19,028,000 
 79,816,901 
 >126,237,000 
 M3,867,288 
 5,023,360 
 
 8780,506,128 
 
 207,001,444 
 
 41,562,711 
 
 23,606,739 
 
 55,874,885 
 
 276,597,658 
 
 611,328,021 
 
 63,434,827 
 
 16,594,000 
 
 12,890,600 
 
 323,976,402 
 
 295,011,687 
 21,657,372 
 10,375,265 
 19,028,000 
 83,836,901 
 126,237,000 
 63,867,288 
 6,023,360 
 - 21,871,'289 
 
 $172,089,829 
 
 895,985,641 
 
 $268,975,470 
 
 a41 0-2,000,369 
 
 a85,460,387 
 
 8107,450,756 
 
 6150,217,667 
 
 5,900,000 
 
 060,440,708 
 
 e3'060,000 
 
 146 355,482 
 
 /3.'53,042,164 
 
 /17,903,8.54 
 
 /6,735,23fc 
 
 4,500,000 
 
 626,799,815 
 
 /90,400,000 
 
 7,150,947 
 9,037,324 
 7,000,000 
 60,221,488 
 W19,209,784 
 444,106,089 
 9.508,109 
 
 8376,426,226 
 150,'217,667 
 
 Canada. 
 Australia .... 
 
 ,026,000 
 
 120,000 
 
 3,146,000 
 
 6,500,000 
 
 60,440,708 
 
 50,000 
 
 400,000 
 '3,600,060 
 
 9,046,000 
 60,440,708 
 
 India 
 
 Germany 
 
 France 
 
 Belgium .... 
 
 
 32,480,289 
 
 (£32,486,289 
 
 35,636,289 
 
 146,355,482 
 
 363,042,164 
 
 17,903,854 
 
 7,124,181 
 
 4,500,000 
 
 26,799,815 
 
 90,400,000 
 
 7,150,947 
 9,243,818 
 7,000,000 
 
 80,221,468 
 119,209,784 
 
 44,106,089 
 
 
 " • • 
 
 
 117,188,921 
 
 235,863,243 
 
 302,0 15 1 86,850 
 
 388,895 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Italy 
 
 Austria. . . -j 
 Sweden . . . 
 
 
 
 
 fti4,o6o,o6o 
 
 050,000,000 
 
 6,683,650 
 J9,037,324 
 7,000,000 
 16,163,458 
 0110,000,000 
 
 7112,799,815 
 
 040,400,000 
 
 1,467,297 
 
 ' 33,768,060 
 
 69,209,784 
 
 044,105,089 
 
 
 
 
 Norway . . 
 
 
 206,494 
 
 206,404 
 
 Netiierlands . . 
 Russia ... 
 
 Dee. 31, 1880 
 Oct. 3,1881 
 Aug. 31,1881 
 Jan. 1,1879 
 Mar. 31, 1880 
 Nov. — , 1879 
 Aug. — , 1879 
 Mar. 1,1879 
 June 30,1879 
 Sep. — , 1881 
 June30.1880 
 Mar.— 1880 
 Mar. 26, 1881 
 June 30,1880 
 Jul.'v--,1SS1 
 Deo. 31, 1880 
 
 4,020,0l;0 
 
 2l',871,289 
 
 13^098,820 
 91,000,000 
 
 ' 180',127,696 
 
 Spain 
 
 Portugal .... 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Mexico .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 01,500,000 
 1,895,343 
 
 '250,960 
 
 163,347 
 
 373,470,000 
 
 J48,943,457 
 
 ■ 17,161,085 
 
 11,195,000 
 
 4,129,230 
 
 1,600.000 
 
 1,896,.343 
 
 13,098,820 
 
 91,1106,000 
 
 250,960 
 
 163,347 
 
 373,470,000 
 
 .48,943,467 
 
 147,288,681 
 
 11,194,000 
 
 4,129,230 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : : : : 
 
 
 
 
 200,000 
 1,819.933 
 
 200,000 
 1,882,018 
 
 200 000 
 
 Peru' 
 
 Brazil 
 
 
 
 62,085 
 
 1,882,013 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Argentine Rep.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 !24,ooo,noo 
 
 955,988 
 4,053,000 
 7,262,920 
 
 " 399,174 
 2,026.500 
 
 24,000,000 
 1,355,162 
 6,079,600 
 7,'262,920 
 
 24,000,000 
 
 16,894,489 
 
 6,270,748 
 
 7,262,020 
 
 Japan 
 
 Algiers .... 
 Cape of 6. Hope 
 
 10,399,026 
 .36,773 
 
 4,1.30,701 
 166,475 
 
 14,539,327 
 191,'248 
 
 
 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 1,096,326,739 
 
 0,547,786,911 
 
 3,644,113,650 
 
 186,752,273 
 
 133,180,4.50 
 
 319,933,723 
 
 533,688,423 
 
 j390,899,222 
 
 1,259,808,053 
 
 1,679,741,776 
 
 • Includefl £66,327,670 ill silver c^rtiGcates idMooetarf Cooferpuce, 1881, p. 205. 
 n.^atioaal banks only, Oct. 1, 1881. e Estimated. fVom last report. 
 
 & Banker's Mag., London, Oct. 1881, p. 86.^. /London Economist, Got. 6, 1881, p. 1254. 
 c Banker's Mag., i^ondou, Oct., 1881, p. 8l8.{g London Economist, July 16, 1881, p. 887. 
 
 'Jb Estimated from statement in London £cuno-ift London EcoDomist, Sept. 10, 1881, p. 125i. 
 mist, July 16, 1881, p. 888. UBanker'a Mag.„Nevr York, July, 1881, p. 18. 
 
 iMonetary Conference, 1881, p. 58. 
 ^London Economist, Oct. 15, 1881, p. 1281. | 
 
 Table shoivftiig the Total Paper and Specie Circulation In each of the Principal Countries of the "World, the 
 Amount of Specie in Banka and Xational Treasuries, and the Amount of Active Circulation. 
 
 [Compiled from the two preceding tables.] 
 
 Countries. 
 
 POptl^ 
 
 lation. 
 
 Total paper 
 and metallic 
 circulation. 
 
 Amount of 
 specie in 
 
 banks and 
 national 
 
 treasuries. 
 
 Active Cir- 
 culation. , 
 
 8M53,i22;3S6 
 
 751,379,321 
 
 42,562,711 
 
 23,606,739 
 
 1,036,.338,591 
 
 738,.334,753 
 
 1,636,347,857 
 
 152,530,973 
 
 44,169,869 
 
 15,890,000 
 
 355,075,587 
 
 295,611,587 
 
 26,188,941 
 
 12,044,771 
 
 26,207,000 
 
 119,408,716 
 
 126,237,000 
 
 til 
 |il 
 
 22.99 
 
 23.76 
 
 10.44 
 
 8.59 
 
 5.42 
 
 16.34 
 
 44.34 
 
 27.85 
 
 15.52 
 
 9.46 
 
 12.79 
 
 7.83 
 
 5.73 
 
 6.67 
 
 13.23 
 
 30.73 
 
 1.45 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Spain . . 
 Portugal . 
 Turkey . . 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Colombia . 
 
 Peru 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Venezuela .... 
 Central America . 
 Argentine Repub. 
 Cuba . . 
 Japan . . . 
 Algiers . . 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Capeof Good Hope 
 
 Popula- 
 tion. 
 
 Total paper 
 and metallic 
 circulation. 
 
 Amount of 
 specie in 
 
 banks and 
 national 
 
 treasuries. 
 
 Active Cir- 
 culation. 
 
 |ll 
 
 United States . 
 Great Britain . 
 Canada . . 
 Australia .... 
 
 India 
 
 Germany . . . 
 France ... 
 Belgium .... 
 Switzerland . . . 
 Greece . . 
 Italy . . 
 
 Austria 
 
 Sweden . . 
 Norway . . 
 Denmark . . . 
 
 60,162,866 
 
 31,628,338 
 
 *4,075,000 
 
 2,749 852 
 
 191,096,603 
 
 46,194,172 
 
 30,905,788 
 
 5,476,608 
 
 2,846,102 
 
 1,679,775 
 
 *27,7S9,475 
 
 37,841,413 
 
 4,668,901 
 
 1,806 900 
 
 1,980,675 
 
 3,8li6,456 
 
 86,952,317 
 
 81,529,.648,612 
 
 901,590.988 
 
 51,608.711 
 
 84,047,447 
 
 1,070,874 880 
 
 884,690.235 
 
 1,989,390,021 
 
 170,434,827 
 
 61,294,000 
 
 20,390,000 
 
 381,875,402 
 
 386,011,587 
 
 33,338,988 
 
 21,288,689 
 
 33,207,000 
 
 109,630,174 
 
 245,4'16,784 
 
 8370,426,226 
 
 150,217,667 
 
 9,046,000 
 
 60,440,708 
 
 35,636,289 
 
 146,355,482 
 
 353,042,164 
 
 17,903,854 
 
 7,124,131 
 
 4,500,000 
 
 20,709,815 
 
 90,400,000 
 
 7,150,947 
 
 9,243,818 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 50,221,458 
 
 119,'209,784 
 
 10,625,669 
 4,160,800 
 *21,ii00,000 
 0,343,470 
 2,951,311 
 2,703,070 
 
 l"il08,291 
 2,080,000 
 
 *2,600,00O 
 
 *2,000,000 
 1,.394,610 
 
 33,623,319 
 
 2,867,626 
 
 *572,000 
 
 720,984 
 
 253,867,288 
 65,023,360 
 37,461,117 
 51,500 000 
 ^395,343 
 14,980,838 
 91,000,000 
 11,250,900 
 2,855,647 
 
 379,470,000 
 9.S,943,467 
 
 297,802,697 
 
 27,500,748 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 36,569,966 
 
 44,105,089 
 9,508,169 
 
 '260^160 
 1,882 018 
 
 24|o6o,Oo'o 
 
 15,894,489 
 
 6,270,748 
 
 '7i262,92b 
 
 209,762,199 
 ,65,615,191 
 37,461,117 
 51,500,000 
 6,195,343 
 13i098,820 
 91,000,000 
 11,260,900 
 2,855,647 
 
 379,470,000 
 74,943,467 
 
 281,908,208 
 21,230,000 
 5,000,000 
 29,307,1136 
 
 12.62 
 
 13.34 
 1 78 
 5.51 
 2.10 
 4.86 
 9.00 
 5.41 
 1.10 
 189.74 
 
 53.76 
 8.38 
 7.40 
 8.74 
 
 40.70 
 
 Russia 
 
 
 9,404,296,690 
 
 1,679,741,7761 7,824,653,82o' 
 
 * Estimated. 
 
398 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 HISTORICAL MEMORANDA CONCERNING 
 GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 the 
 
 FOR the following we are indebted to the valuable 
 " History of the Precious Metals," by Alexander 
 Delmar. Nothing more forcibly illustrates the al- 
 most purely accidental character of supplies of 
 precious metals than the discovery of the gold pla- 
 cers ; indeed, the whole settlement and working of Califor- 
 nia as a great mining country. The Spaniards, solely in- 
 tent upon obtaining the precious metals, had discovered and 
 partly explored this country so early as the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. They colonized and held possession of it for three 
 centuries, established missions, pacified and converted the 
 Indians, whom they used as domestic servants and work- 
 men, and cultivated many of its arable vallejrs. They in- 
 troduced into it all of the cereal grains known in Spain, and 
 even transplanted the grape, the fig, the pomegranate and 
 the artichoke. Persuaded from the outset that it was a 
 country rich in the precious metals they never ceased to look 
 for them. Occasionally they found some particles of gold, 
 but Qot enough to warrant further search. The few adven- 
 turers who were attracted thither from time to time by stories 
 of its mineral wealth, generally found their way back, dis- 
 appointed and impoverished, to Mexico, whence, for the 
 most part, they had come. A few remained to turn ranch- 
 eros, and settle down with the mission fathers and the semi- 
 Christianized Indians into a sort of pastoral community, 
 which eventually became a race of half-breeds, given to 
 apathetic habits and the pursuit of pleasure 
 
 Such were the economical and social conditions of Cali- 
 fornia when the adventitious "success of the Democratic 
 party (of the United States) in the close presidential elec- 
 tion of 1844 " ' led to the independence of Texas, the war 
 with Mexico, the annexation of California, and to its settle- 
 ment by Americans. But for these events, which have 
 no necessary connection with mining or the search for the 
 preciouj metals, Alta California might have remained as 
 Lower California has to this day, a province of Mexico, and 
 might still have been the remote and undeveloped country 
 that it was under the Spanish mission fathers. The existence 
 of Gold in Lower California was known to Cortes, who fit- 
 ted out an expedition from Mexico in 1537, and returned 
 with some small quantities of the precious metal. Its ex- 
 istence in Alta California was discovered in 1577-79 by 
 Drake's expedition, and noticed in Hakluyt's account of the 
 region.' The finding of gold was mentioned in 1690 in a 
 work published in Spain by Loyola Cavello, a priest at the 
 mission of San Jos§, in the bay of San Francisco. Captain 
 Shelvocke in 1721 noticed signs of gold in the soil. The 
 histoiico-geographical dictionary of Antonio de Alcedo, 
 1786-89, positively affirms the abundance of gold, and 
 speaks of lumps weighing from five to eight pounds. In 
 1837 a priest from California went to Guatemala, and in- 
 duced a Mr. Young Anderson, a Scotch gentleman, to en- 
 deavor to obtain English capital for the purpose of mining 
 gold, which, he averred, was to be found not far from San 
 Francisco. The favorable geological appearance of the 
 country for gold was noticed by Prof. J. D. Dana, and re- 
 corded in his report on California. In April, 1847, a Mr. 
 Sloat made a very decided statement of this kind in Hunt's 
 "New York Merchants' Magazine." At this time the Mor- 
 mons connected with the army, together with some Mexi- 
 cans and Indians, were engaged in searching for gold upon 
 the banks of the streams. In January, 1848, some of these 
 men gathered a quantity of gold on Mormon Island, near 
 Sacramento, and within a few miles of the rich placers after- 
 wards discovered. 
 
 And yet none of these observations or operations led to the 
 great discovery, which was made by a child, the daughter of 
 one Marshall, the overseer of Captain Sutter's mill. While 
 a race was being dug for this niill on the American fork of 
 the Sacramento, the child found a lump of gold which she 
 showed to her father as a pretty stone. That lump was the 
 
 1 "Report of the U. S. Monetary Commission," p. 43. 
 
 2 The report of the U. S. Mining Commissioner, Nov. 24, 1866, p. 
 268, contains other references to early discoveries of gold in Cali- 
 fornia. 
 
 beginning of over two hundred and twenty million pounds 
 sterling, ($1,100,000,000) which the California placers have 
 yielded to the world. 
 
 During the first few years after the discovery of the placers 
 the entire precious metal product of the coast was derived 
 from this source, and consequently consisted entirely of gold. 
 Hydraulic mining was commenced in a small way so early 
 as 1854, but it did not assume material proportions until 
 after the close of the American Civil War. Vein mining 
 was begun in California at about the year 1860. It has not 
 even yet become important. It has, however, assumed enor- 
 mous dimensions in the adjoining State of Nevada, where it 
 was commenced at about the same time, and where the chief 
 part of the product, in quantity though not in value, is silver. 
 The principal, but by no means the only locality of this 
 industry has been the Comstock lode, upon which Virginia 
 city is built, many of the mines being directly beneath the 
 town. The principal ones are thirty in number, and at the 
 present time are being worked at an average depth of 2,- 
 000 feet, though some few of them are down nearly half a 
 mile. From the following table it will be seen that the 
 placers reached their maximum productiveness almost im- 
 mediately after their discovery, the greatest yield having 
 been in the year 1853, when sluicing and hydraulic mining 
 had already been commenced. Since the year 1853 the 
 production has steadily fallen off, until at the present time it 
 certainly does not equal £4,000,000, and may not exceed 
 £3,000,000 a year. 
 
 Production of Grold In the State of California Proper. 
 
 Sums ill MUlions of Pounds Sterling and Decimals. 
 
 Year. 
 
 1843 
 1849 
 1850 
 1851 
 1862 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 
 Produclion. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Production 
 
 Year. 
 
 £2-0 
 
 1859 
 
 £10-0 
 
 1870 
 
 8-0 
 
 1860 
 
 9-0 
 
 1871 
 
 10-0 
 
 1861 
 
 816 
 
 1872 
 
 11-0 
 
 1862 
 
 7-0 
 
 1873 
 
 12.0 
 
 1863 
 
 6-4 
 
 1874 
 
 13-0 
 
 1864 
 
 7-0 
 
 1875 
 
 12-0 
 
 1865 
 
 7-0 
 
 1S76 
 
 H-0 
 
 1866 
 
 5-0 
 
 1877 
 
 11-0 
 
 1867 
 
 S-0 
 
 1878 
 
 110 
 
 1868 
 
 4-4 
 
 
 100 
 
 1869 
 
 4-5 
 
 
 Production. 
 
 £50 
 4-0 
 3-8 
 3-6 
 4-06 
 8-52 
 3-72 
 30 
 3-4 
 
 Turning from the statistics of the State of California pro- 
 per to those of the Pacific coast generally — and this means 
 substantially all of the United States, for the production of 
 the precious metals on the Atlantic coast i\ too insignificant 
 to merit consideration in this connection- -we have the fol- 
 lowing results : — 
 
 Production of the Precious Metals in all the United States. 
 
 The production of gold from 1776 up to and including 1847 
 is estimated at £4.000,000. From 1848 to 1860 inclusive the 
 productions of California shown in the preceding table will 
 answer as well for that of all the United States. 
 
 The production of silver from 1776 up to and including 
 1858 is estimated at £200,000. For 1859 it is estimated at 
 £20,000, and for 1860 at £30,000.' The annual production 
 of gold and silver, respectively, from 1861 to 1878 inclusive 
 is shown in the following table : 
 
 Annual Production In the United States of Gold and 
 Silver, respectively, trom 1861 to 18T8 Inclusive. 
 
 Year. 
 
 BoU. 
 
 Sih' r. 
 
 Fear." 
 
 Qotd. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 1801 
 
 '£8,600,000 
 
 »f400,000 
 
 1870 
 
 ȣ6,760,0'-0 
 
 <£3,200,000 
 
 1862 
 
 »7,840,000 
 
 2900,000 
 
 1871 
 
 '6,879,000 
 
 «,622,270 
 
 1863 
 
 28,000,000 
 
 "1,700,000 
 
 1872 
 
 87,621,879 
 
 *3,7U,315 
 
 1864 
 
 !0,2-Z0,000 
 
 22,200,000 
 
 1873 
 
 87,841,311 
 
 *5,020,292 
 
 1865 
 
 no,64o,ooo 
 
 22,260,000 
 
 1874 
 
 »7,693,297 
 
 <5,080,476 
 
 1866 
 
 210,700,000 
 
 22,000,000 
 
 1875 
 
 a7,!193,039 
 
 <6,041,897 
 
 1867 
 
 i'10,84fl,000 
 
 22,710,000 
 
 1876 
 
 88,577,387 
 
 <7,636,870 
 
 18G8 
 
 89,600,000 
 
 22,400,000 
 
 1877 
 
 88,900,000 
 
 <7,600,000 
 
 1809 
 
 89,900,000 
 
 22,000,000 
 
 1878 
 
 87,500,000 
 
 <7,000,000 
 
 • R. W. Raymond, formerly Mining Commissioner, in Hewitt's 
 " Centurv of Mining," pamphlet, Philadelpliia, 1876, p. 31. 
 
 8 R. W. Raymond in Hewitt's " Century of Mining.^' 
 8 John . I. Valentine's Amended Estimates, published in "Report 
 of U. S. Monetary Corarais,sion," vol. i. app. 22. 
 
 * Returns from the mines to the present writer on behalf of U. S. 
 j Monetary Commission ; " Report," voU i. app. pp. 13, et seq. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 399 
 
 All the above estimates, except those based upon the re- 
 turns from mines, are excessive. Both Mr. "Valentine's esti- 
 mates and Mr. Raymond's, which are based upon them, 
 contain many duplications, which were, perhaps, unavoid- 
 able from the method employed to obtain returns. They 
 also contain (except those marked"'") the precious me- 
 tals produced on the west coast of Mexico and in British 
 Columbia, which are shipped to San Francisco for market. 
 The estimates marked ^" are free from these objections. 
 The details of the returns from the mines are given at length 
 in the Appendix to Report of the United States Monetary 
 Commission, vol. i., pp., 1 to 60 inclusive. The following 
 table showing the estimated annual production of gold and 
 silver together, by States, is derived from Mr. Valentine's 
 original estimates, which, although excessive in its total 
 sums by about one-flfth, or at least one-sixth, ' is given 
 here in order that a rough view may be had of the quanti- 
 ties produced in the various districts mentioned. The sums 
 are in millions of pounds sterling and decimals. 
 
 tributary of the river Loddon, Victoria;' on the 20th of 
 July at Mount Alexander, Victoria; on the 8th of August 
 at Mount Buninyong, Victoria ; aild on the 8th of Septem- 
 ber at Ballarat, Victoria. In the month of October up- 
 wards of 7,000 miners were at work. By the end 0/ the.year 
 the number of persons in all the placers of Australia was 
 from 15,000 to 17,000, and some £900,000 worth of gold 
 (mint value) had been taken out.* In 1852 the number of 
 miners had swollen to something like 160,000 (including 
 about9,000 ticket-of-leave convicts s), vvhen, notwithstanding 
 the extraordinary and unequalled production of that year, 
 it was found that on the average gold-digging was unprofit- 
 able, and many persons left the workings to engage in other 
 pursuits. Although gold-fields were subsequently discovered 
 in several other of the Australian colonies,* both the total 
 production and the number of miners employed declined 
 after the year 1852 with little interruption,' until, at the 
 present time, the former scarcely exceeds £4,000,000 a year, 
 and the latter 50,000 men. 
 The following table shows the estimated annual produc- 
 
 Statea or 
 Territories. 
 
 1869 
 
 1870 
 
 1871 
 
 1872 
 
 1873 
 
 1874 
 
 1875 
 
 1876 
 
 1877 
 
 1878 
 
 tion of gold in all the Australian Colonies from the discovery 
 of the first placers in 1851 to the present time, and is chiefly 
 from the tables, presented to the British Parliamentary Com- 
 mission on Silver in 1876, by Sir Hector Hay. The esti- 
 mates for the years 1851, 1876, 1877, and 1878 are by the 
 present writer. 
 
 Annual Production of Gold in all Australia, 1851 to 18T8 
 
 incluBive, cliieily- aiter Sir Hector Hay. Sums in 
 
 pounds sterling. 
 
 Arizona 
 
 California . . . 
 Colorado . . 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Montana . , 
 Nevada ... . 
 New Mexico . , 
 Oregon and ) 
 Washington f • 
 Wyoming .... 
 Utah .... . 
 
 ■2 
 4-6 
 
 ■8 
 1-4 
 1-8 
 2-8 
 
 •1 
 
 * .6 
 •1 
 
 •16 
 6-0 
 
 •74 
 1^2 
 1^82 
 3-2 
 
 •1 
 
 •6 
 
 •02 
 •26 
 ■1 
 
 •16 
 4-0 
 
 •94 
 1^0 
 1^6 
 4-6 
 
 •1 
 
 •5 
 
 •02 
 •46 
 •06 
 
 •12 
 3.8 
 
 •94 
 
 •54 
 1-22 
 6^1 
 
 •1 
 
 •4 
 
 •02 
 •48 
 •06 
 
 •1 
 
 3^6 
 
 •8 
 
 •5 
 1-04 
 706 
 
 •1 
 
 •32 
 
 •76 
 •04 
 
 •1 
 
 4^06 
 1^04 
 
 •38 
 
 •76 
 7^1 
 
 ■1 
 
 ■IB 
 
 •78 
 •02 
 
 14-5 
 
 ■02 
 3^52 
 1.26 
 
 •32 
 
 •72 
 8^1 
 
 ■08 
 
 ■24 
 
 ru 
 
 •02 
 13-42 
 
 •22 
 3^72 
 1^4 
 
 •34 
 
 •56 
 9^86 
 
 •OS 
 
 ■22 
 
 1^04 
 •02 
 
 17^46 
 
 ■48 
 S^64 
 
 rss 
 
 •36 
 
 •52 
 
 10-32 
 
 •08 
 
 •24 
 
 1^62 
 •3 
 
 19^14 
 
 •46 
 
 3^78 
 
 1^24 
 
 •38 
 
 •76 
 
 704 
 
 •1 
 
 •24 
 
 1^2 
 
 •44 
 
 IS 64 
 
 Other sources . 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Prodvction. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Productiwi. 
 
 Year. 
 
 
 Totals . 
 
 
 12-3 
 
 13.2 
 
 13-34 
 
 12^78 
 
 14-32 
 
 
 
 18516 
 1852' 
 1863 
 
 £ 
 . 900,000 
 20,600,IX)0 
 14,140,000 
 
 1854 
 1856= 
 1866 
 
 ■ £ 
 9,540,000 
 12,000,000 
 1-4,280,000 
 
 1867 
 1868 
 1869 
 
 £ 
 
 Valentine's ") 
 amended >- . 
 totals ». . J 
 
 Correct totals '. . 
 
 125 
 
 10^22 
 9-96 
 
 10.05 
 
 11^62 
 11^34 
 
 13^34 
 12-86 
 
 13.64 
 12-78 
 
 14-32 
 14^04 
 
 16^44 
 16-2 
 
 18^14 
 16^5 
 
 14^94 
 14-6 
 
 11,400,000 
 10,680,000 
 10,820,000 
 
 
 
 
 The annual production of gold in British Columbia, nearly 
 all of which finds its way to San Francisco, and is included 
 in Mr. Valentine's original estimates, and therefore also in 
 Mr. Raymond's, is given by the Colonial Minister of Mines 
 in his report dated Victoria, February 1, 1878, as follows. 
 (Sums in pounds sterling): — 
 
 Year. 
 
 Production. 
 
 Year. 
 
 ProduclioH. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Production. 
 
 1860 
 1861 
 1862 
 1863 
 1864 
 1865 
 1866 
 
 £ 
 10,500,000 
 9,760,000 
 9,360,000 
 8,880,000 
 9,140 000 
 8,820,000 
 8,840,000 
 
 1867 
 1868 
 1869 
 1870 
 18719 
 1872 
 1873 
 
 £ 
 6,920,000 
 7,640,000 
 6,320,000 
 6,840,000 
 6,600,000 
 5,800,000 
 6,300,000 
 
 1874 
 1875 
 1876 
 18T7 
 1878 
 
 £ 
 6,000,000 
 6,760,000 
 6,200,000 
 4,800,000 
 4,000,000 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Production. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Production. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Production. 
 
 
 1864 
 1865 
 1866 
 1867 
 1868 
 
 From 
 that the 
 States r 
 in 1876, 
 the grea 
 have yi( 
 have rec 
 look for 
 developi 
 of both 
 
 Aust 
 River, N 
 of June 
 diggins. 
 
 >SeeM 
 U. S. Mo 
 include n 
 each yea 
 Valentint 
 £700,000 
 
 '"V.S 
 port. 187S 
 
 'As ne 
 as gold p< 
 
 £ 
 740. 
 700, 
 540, 
 600, 
 480, 
 
 these 
 produ 
 eached 
 and th 
 it Min 
 jided t 
 ently a 
 the fu 
 nents, 
 metals. 
 ralia.- 
 ew Soi 
 follow 
 On 
 
 r. Valei 
 n. Com. 
 early a 
 r in silv 
 's repoi 
 to £1,00 
 . Monel 
 . 
 
 irly as ( 
 irtion. 
 
 Don 
 
 300 
 100 
 )00 
 TOO 
 
 state 
 
 CtiOD 
 
 its c 
 at it 
 
 3S0f 
 
 le pj 
 Imos 
 ture 
 )oinl 
 
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 the 
 
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 er (b£ 
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 0,000 
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 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 
 men 
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 has 
 the 
 rinci 
 t ce 
 unl 
 s to 
 
 d M^ 
 Vales 
 there 
 10th 
 
 s evi 
 . i. J 
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 se) b 
 1878, 
 aye 
 om. 
 
 ! ascE 
 
 69 
 70 
 71 
 72 
 73 
 
 ts ai 
 
 the 
 
 X as 
 
 sine 
 
 Com 
 
 }al s 
 
 ased 
 
 BSS i 
 
 a sti 
 
 'as 
 
 i, in 
 wei 
 of 
 
 ienc< 
 Lpp. 
 unds 
 ullio 
 whe 
 ar, si 
 Eep. 
 
 rtaii 
 
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 pp. i 
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 ed at 
 
 £ 
 
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 guref 
 
 ous 
 
 jldii 
 
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 ruarj 
 ware 
 s it 
 
 n be 
 
 2-48 
 
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 valu 
 
 873. 
 
 i.pp. 
 
 pres 
 
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 e, 
 fb 
 )di] 
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 re 
 
 d 
 
 1;; 
 
 Wi 
 
 for 
 
 IVOI 
 
 d., 
 
 e 
 22 
 ent 
 
 t 
 
 )t£ 
 85 
 A 
 w 
 ot 
 Id 
 h 
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 8f 
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 IS 
 
 Ml 
 
 th 
 
 fl 
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 1874 
 1875 
 1876 
 1877 
 
 will 
 lis ii 
 3, ai 
 tthe 
 lich 
 hgo 
 ive, 
 y th 
 ctioi 
 
 1 th 
 
 )1, a 
 
 1,00 
 
 disc 
 
 le w 
 ■. Va 
 of 
 jestio 
 hisle 
 
 ind\ 
 
 Pro! 
 
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 M 
 
 b 
 
 me 
 
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 er, 
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 107 
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 en 
 
 .ly 
 
 £ 
 360,( 
 600,( 
 360,C 
 320,C 
 
 obse 
 3 Ut 
 to s 
 sent 
 ite J 
 id si 
 the 
 V mi 
 the c 
 
 acqi 
 ythf 
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 ed 
 
 in " 
 
 e's fc 
 conta 
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 plac 
 
 tine's 
 
 exce 
 
 00 
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 KK) 
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 rved 
 lited 
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 time 
 'ears 
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 ning 
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 larie 
 
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 the 
 
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 Eep. 
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 ined 
 Mr. 
 3d at 
 
 Ee- 
 
 ssive 
 
 The total production from the discovery to the present 
 time has amounted to upwards of £240,000,000, a greater 
 sum than that obtained from either of the previous notable 
 gold-fields, of which the following table affords a rough com- 
 parison : — 
 
 ' New South Wales and Victoria were made separate colonies in 
 1856. 
 
 2 " App. Cyc," viii. 346, and " Progress of Victoria," by Wm. 
 Henry Archer Melbourne, 1867, p. 50. 
 
 3 " App. Cyc," ii. 383. 
 
 * New Zealand, 1852 ; South Australia and Tasmania about 1852 ; 
 Queensland, 1857. 
 
 5 " Eeport of Mr. Consul James F. McGuire, " " U. S. Commer- 
 cial Eelations, " 1860, p. 53. 
 
 6 This estimate for 1851 is based on the statement in the " Prog- 
 ress of Victoria, " p. 50, that 145,137 oz. of gold were exported in 
 that year from Melbourne alone. " App. Cyc, " viii. 351, gives a 
 nearly equal amount for the production in that year of New South 
 Wales. 
 
 ' This figure seems excessive ; but it has been retained only after 
 a careful comparison of several authorities. The Melbourne gold- 
 brokers, who had every opportunity of being well informed on the 
 subject, state that, in the earlier years, large amounts of gold were 
 carried away in private hands without being reported in the exports 
 at the Custom House. See " Progress of Victoria, " p. 50 ; also 
 Appleton, viii. 346, where it is stated that " the product of both 
 colonies decreased annually from 1852. " 
 
 8 Vein mining, now successfully established in Victoria, produced 
 in this year one-eighth of the entire yield of the colony. "App. 
 Cyc, " viii. 347. 
 
 9 Vein minmg began in New South Wales in 1871. "Progress 
 and Eesources of New South Wales," Sydney, 1871, p. 21. 
 
400 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Comparative Yield of the Great Gold Fields ot the Modem 
 World. 
 
 CouTitry. 
 
 • 
 
 Period during which the pro- 
 duct was not generally lees 
 than f 1,000,000 a year. 
 
 Total Product of 
 gold from hegiti- 
 ni'ig to end. 
 
 Japan 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Russia^ 
 
 California Properi 
 Australia! , . , . 
 
 1680 to 1639—60 years 
 1710 to 1789—80 years 
 1840 to 1878—39 years 
 1848 to 1878—31 years 
 1861 to 1878—28 years 
 
 £40,000,000 
 180,000,000 
 160,000,000 
 220,000,000 
 240,000,000 
 
 Totals . . 
 
 238 years 
 
 £840,000,000 
 
 It has been frequently claimed that it was owing to the 
 observations of Sir Roderick Murchison, in 1844, concerning 
 the similarity between the geological formation of the Aus- 
 tralian and the Ural mountains, that gold was discovered in 
 Australia.^ But this was no more the fact than that it was 
 owing to either of the following observations : — 
 
 A despatch of the Lieutenant-Governor of the Colony to 
 the Secretary of State dated September 2, 1840, enclosed a 
 report from Count Strzelecki stating that he had discovered 
 auriferous pyrites in the vale of Clwydd in 1839 ;' and the 
 Rev. Mr. Clark, a geologist, announced his discovery of the 
 metal in the same colony in 1841. The Indians knew of 
 it ; and made their arrow-heads of gold. The white shep- 
 herds found some ; but wisely refrained from searching for 
 more.* The fact is, that the discoveries of 1851 were not 
 owing to any of these observations, but to the chance pros- 
 pecting of a California miner named Hargreaves. Australia 
 was not a solitude when Hargreaves visited it. The abori- 
 gines had roamed its mountains and encamped upon, its 
 auriierous river banks from time immemorial, without troub- 
 ling themselves about its gold. It had been a penal colony 
 of Great Britain since 1788, and at the period of the discov- 
 ery of gold contained a permanent population of nearly 
 400,000 wJiite persons, a large portion of whom were free 
 colonists engaged in agriculture and sheep farming, whose 
 settlements stretched in every direction : who, before the 
 gold discoveries, had been engaged among other industries, 
 in mining copper ; and who, therefore, had a motive for 
 prospecting the country for metals. Yet more than sixty 
 years had passed after the colony was established before its 
 auriferous deposits came to light.' 
 
 The "Western -World's Production. — The following 
 statistics of the production of gold and silver in the Western 
 world relate to America, Europe, and those portions of Africa 
 open to European commerce, With the exception of the 
 £100,000,000 obtained from Japan by the Portuguese and 
 Dutch they comprise nearly all the precious metals acquired 
 by the European world since the discovery of America to 
 the beginning of the present century. ° 
 
 /. Showi-m^ chiefly by decades, the estimated aoerai/e annual Prodttctiort nf Gold 
 and Silver by the mines of America from the I)lBcovery to the beginmng of the 
 nineteenth century. Prom the works of Baronvon Humboldt, tile Abbe Ray- 
 nal; Mr. Ward, and the Compiler of Mxecutiue Document, No. 117, Isi Ses- 
 sion, ZlBt Congress, V. S. A. 
 
 Sums lii Pounds Sterling, 
 Average Annual. Production. 
 
 Period. 
 
 Period. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 1493 to 1645 (63 years) . . 
 
 '1546 to 1656 
 
 1666 to 1670 (15 years). . 
 
 f 340,000 
 600,000 
 540,000 
 
 £ 120,000 
 23,400,000 
 1,400,000 
 
 1 These gold-fields are still yielding " over £1,000,000, " to wit, 
 about £4,000,000 a year each. 
 
 2 Eeport of the Commissioners of the International Congress of 
 Australian statistics in 1861, published in Phillips on "ifininE " 
 p. 102. '" 
 
 ' The Count afterwards stated that he was urged by the Governor 
 to keep the discovery secret, for fear it would impair the discipline 
 of the 45,000 convicts on the island. " Thirty Years in New South 
 Wales and Victoria," quoted by Phillips. 
 
 * Some of the shepherds had picked up pieces of gold in Victoria 
 but they wisely paid no further attention to the matter. Phil- 
 lips, 103. 
 
 » Porter's "Progress," ed. 1851, p. 770. 
 
 « These data were originally compiled by the author for the U S 
 Monetary Commission, and published in its report, vol. i. Add d 
 61, el secj. ^^' ^ 
 
 ' Discovery of Potosi. 
 
 1671 
 
 11581 
 1691 
 1601 
 1611 
 1621 
 1631 
 1641 
 1651 
 1661 
 1671 
 1681 
 1691 
 
 21701 
 1711 
 1721 
 1731 
 1741 
 
 »1761 
 1761 
 
 n771 
 1781 
 1791 
 
 to 1680 . 
 to 1690 . 
 to 1600 . 
 to 1610 . 
 to 1620 . 
 to 1630 . 
 to 1640 . 
 to 1660 . 
 to 1660 . 
 to 1670 . 
 to 1680 . 
 to 1690 . 
 to 1700 . 
 to 1710 . 
 to 1720 . 
 to 1730 . 
 to 1740 . 
 to 1750 . 
 to 1760 . 
 to 1770 . 
 to 1780 . 
 to 1790 . 
 to 1800 . 
 
 Totals, 308 years . 
 
 Gold. 
 
 400,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 600,010 
 
 660,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 660,000 
 
 560,000 
 
 660,000 
 
 660,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 n,H 0,000 
 
 2,400,000 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 62,000,000 
 
 £393,120,000 
 
 Silver. 
 
 1,400,000 
 
 12,800,000 
 2,800,000 
 2,300,000 
 2,300,000 
 2,440,000 
 2,600,000 
 2,600,000 
 2,440,000 
 2,440,000 
 2,440,000 
 2,440,000 
 2,300,000 
 2,000,000 
 2,200,000 
 2,400,000 
 2,600,000 
 3,200,000 
 
 33,800,000 
 3,800,000 
 
 *5,000,000 
 6,600,000 
 
 •6,490,000 
 
 £745,260,000 
 
 According to Mr. William Jacob, the gold and silver pro- 
 duced in America, Europe, and Africa, and supplied to the 
 commercial world from 1492 to 1809 was £1,360,600,000. 
 Of this amount he credits Europe and Africa with £137,- 
 000,000, leaving £1,223,600,000 for the production of Amer- 
 ica alone. Deducting £83,200,000 for the production of the 
 nine years 1801-1809 inclusive, would leave £1,140,400,000 
 for the production of America during the period 1492-1800 
 inclusive. The £1,360,600,000 he disposes of as follows : 
 
 Exported to Asia 
 
 Converted into articles of use and ornament . 
 
 Lost by abrasion, casualties, &e 
 
 Left for coin in Europe and America . ... 
 
 . £399,000,000 
 
 440,000,000 
 
 , 175,000,000 
 
 , 346,600,000 
 
 The last-named sum, added to the estimated stock of coin 
 on hand in Europe in 1492, viz., £33,400,000, amounts to 
 £380,000,000, which is his estimate of the stock of coin in 
 the Western world in the year 1809. Mr. Danson's esti- 
 mate of the production of the precious metals in America 
 during the period 1492-1803 is £1,122,000,000. Deducting 
 £25,600,000 for the production of the three years 1801-1803, 
 would leave £1,096,400,000 for the production of America 
 during the period 1492-1800 inclusive. The quotient of 
 Table I. given above is £1,138,380,000. It is, therefore, 2,- 
 020,000 less than Mr. Jacob's estimate, and £41,980,000 in 
 excess of Mr. Danson's. While Mr. Danson's estimate for 
 this period is probably nearest the truth, the figures given 
 above are preferred, because they show the production by 
 details of gold and silver separately, and by decades of 
 years, which is not the case with either Jacob's or Danson's 
 tables. 
 
 II. Showing the estimated Production of Silver in the Western 
 World (America, Europe, and Africa) annually, since the 
 comimencement of the nineteenth century. 
 
 The figures for the year 1800 to 1829 inclusive are constructed on 
 the foUowinghasis:— The amounts coined at all the legal mints of 
 Mexico, brought to the royal mint of Potosi, and raised in and ex- 
 ported from Coquimbo. are put together, and to the quotient £2,- 
 000,000 are added each year for tiie conjectured production of all 
 other countries in Euiope and America. This conjectuieis war- 
 ranted by Sir Hector Hay and employed in his tables of produc- 
 tion. 
 
 The figures for the year 1830 to 1851 inclusive are from various 
 compilations indicated in the foot-notes. When not otlierwise in- 
 dicated, they are from Danson's compilation, " Loudon Statistical 
 Journal," xiv. 23. 
 
 The figures for the years, 1852 to 1874 inclusive are from Sir Hec- 
 tor Hay. 
 
 The figures for 1875 and 1876 are compiled by the present writer, 
 and for 1877 estimated. 
 
 ' Amalgamation process first employed in America by Medina in 
 1567. Consult Tooke, vi. 358. This process, however, was well 
 known to the ancients. 
 
 ' Brazilian gold-washings begin to be productive. 
 ' Exploration of Biscaina and Sombrerote, Mexico. 
 
 * Exploration of Valenoiana, Mexico. 
 
 * Ex. Doc. 117, note. « Broguiart, " De Mineralogie." 
 
:33 
 m 
 
 < 
 m 
 
 00 
 
 T) 
 
 :d 
 O 
 D 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 O 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 CO 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 401 
 
 Sums in millions of pounds sterling. 
 
 rear. 
 
 ]8on 
 
 1801 
 1802 
 1803 
 1804 
 1805 
 1806 
 1807 
 1808 
 1809 
 
 ProductJon, 
 
 Year. 
 
 Productioi\. 
 
 Year. 
 
 •6.56 
 
 1810 
 
 6.28 
 
 1820 
 
 "6.18 
 
 1811 
 
 6.28 
 
 1821 
 
 16.28 
 
 1-812 
 
 4.26 
 
 1822 
 
 7.16 
 
 1813 
 
 4.54 
 
 1823 
 
 7.90 
 
 1811 
 
 4.64 
 
 1824 
 
 7.8* 
 
 1815 
 
 3.28 
 
 laas 
 
 7.36 
 
 1816 
 
 4.20 
 
 1826 
 
 0.88 
 
 1817 
 
 4.16 
 
 1827 
 
 6.68 
 
 1818 
 
 4.82 
 
 1828 
 
 7.50 
 
 1819 
 
 4.88 
 
 1829 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 .^0 years. 
 
 Production. 
 
 t.ni 
 3.90 
 4.54 
 4.20 
 1.26 
 4.10 
 4.04 
 4.32 
 4.30 
 4 56 
 
 1830 
 1831 
 1S32 
 1833 
 18:14 
 1835 
 18.36 
 1837 
 
 4.40 
 
 18.38 
 
 4.00 
 
 1845 
 
 4.40 
 
 ■ 1839 
 
 4.4fl 
 
 1866 
 
 4.20 
 
 1840 
 
 4.S0 
 
 1847 
 
 4.20 
 
 1841 
 
 6.0(1 
 
 1848 
 
 4.20 
 
 1842 
 
 6.10 
 
 1849 
 
 4.00 
 
 1813 
 
 6.60 
 
 1850 
 
 4.00 
 
 184-1 
 
 6.40 
 
 1851 
 
 4.00 
 
 
 Totfl 
 
 
 , 22 years. 
 
 6.00 
 S6.30 
 0.80 
 7.80 
 7.60 
 »8.78 
 «8.10 
 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 1868 
 1859 
 1860 
 
 8.12 
 
 1861 
 
 8.54 
 
 1870 
 
 S.12 
 
 18C2 
 
 9.04 
 
 1871 
 
 6.12 
 
 1863 
 
 9.44 
 
 1872 
 
 8.12 - 
 
 1864 
 
 10.14 
 
 1873 
 
 8.14 
 
 1865 
 
 10.40 
 
 1874 
 
 8.14 
 
 1866 
 
 10.14 
 
 1876 
 
 8.14 
 
 1867 
 
 10,84 
 
 1876 
 
 8.16 
 
 1368 
 
 10.04 
 
 1877 
 
 8.16 
 
 1869 
 
 9.46 
 
 
 Total, 26 years. 
 
 According to the preceding^ table the production of silver 
 throughout the Western world during the period 1800-1829 
 was £159,820,000, and during the period 1830-1851, inclu- 
 sive £120,080,001). Deducting £24,480,000 for the three 
 years 1849-1851 would leave £255,420,000 for the period 
 1800-1848 inclusive. For the period 1803-1848 inclusive 
 Mr. Danson estimates the American production of silver at 
 £249,000,000, and Tooke the European and African produc- 
 tion at £30,000,000. If to these sums there be added £20,- 
 000,000 for the production of the three years 1801-1803, 
 the total sum of production, 1800-1848 inclusive, according 
 to Danson and Tooke, would be £299,000,000; but for 
 reasons similar to those adverted to in a subsequent part of 
 this chapter, relating to the gold production since 1800, Mr. 
 Danson's estimates of the American production of silver are 
 regarded as excessive, and the figures of the foregoing table 
 are preferred. 
 
 III. Showing the estimated production of GOLD in the Western 
 World (America, Europe, and Africa), annually since' the 
 commencement of the nii^eteenth century. 
 
 [The figures for the years 1800 to 1847, inclusive, are derived frorn 
 estimates by the following authorities : — Humboldt, Raynal, Duport, 
 Brogniart, Ward, Jacob, Danson's compilation. Price's and Tooke's 
 " History," vol. vi. For this period the statistics are unsatisfactory, 
 and are more reliable by groups of ten years than for any single year 
 taken by itself. The figures for the years 1848 to 1876, inclusive, 
 are from the authorities quoted in the foot-notes.] 
 
 Sums in millions of pounds sterling. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Production. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Production. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Production. 
 
 1800 
 
 62-00 
 
 1816 
 
 1-20 
 
 1832 
 
 2-40 
 
 1801 
 
 «2-60 
 
 1817 
 
 1-20 
 
 1833 
 
 2 40 
 
 1802 
 
 1-80 
 
 1818 
 
 1-40 
 
 1834 
 
 2-40 
 
 1803 
 
 1-60 
 
 1819 
 
 1-80 
 
 1835 
 
 3-00 
 
 1804 
 
 2-00 
 
 1820 
 
 1-60 
 
 1836 
 
 8-00 
 
 1805 
 
 2-00 
 
 1821 
 
 2-OU 
 
 18.37 
 
 a-00 
 
 . 1806 
 
 2-20 
 
 1822 
 
 , 1-80 
 
 18J8 
 
 3-00 
 
 1807 
 
 2-00 
 
 1823 
 
 1-80 
 
 1839 
 
 ,3-00 
 
 1808 
 
 2-0O 
 
 1824 
 
 2'20 
 
 1840 
 
 '400 
 
 1809 
 
 2-00 
 
 1825 
 
 2-00 
 
 1841 
 
 4-00 
 
 1810 
 
 . 2-00 
 
 1826 
 
 2-00 
 
 1842 
 
 4-00 
 
 1811 
 
 .2-00 
 
 1827 
 
 .2-20 ' 
 
 1843 
 
 4-00 
 
 1812 
 
 1-20 
 
 1828 
 
 2-00 
 
 1844 
 
 4-00 
 
 1813 
 
 1-40 
 
 1829 
 
 2-60 
 
 1845 
 
 40O 
 
 1814 
 
 1-40 
 
 1830 
 
 2-60 
 
 1846 
 
 6-84- 
 
 1815 
 
 1-20 
 
 1831 
 
 ,2-40 
 
 Total, 
 
 1847 
 48 years 
 
 8-00 
 
 
 120-24 
 
 ' Brogniart, " De Mineralogie." ' Birkmyre. 
 * Philips. * "Journal des Economistes." 
 
 ' Brogniart. • Birkmyre. ' Prussian gold-washing productive. 
 26 
 
 Year. 
 
 1848 
 1849 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 18.53 
 1854 
 1865 
 1856 
 1857 
 
 Production. 
 
 113 50 
 17-40 
 21S-64 
 '•24-00 
 238-74 
 '31-(l0 
 '25-40 
 327-00 
 »20-52 
 '26-66 
 
 1858 
 1856 
 1860 
 1801 
 1862 
 1863 
 1864 
 1866 
 1866 
 1867 
 
 <28-92 
 428-98 
 423-80 
 <122'76 
 *21-56 
 421-40 
 422-60 
 626-14 
 424-44 
 422-80 
 
 Total, 29 ypars 
 
 1868 
 1869 
 1870 
 1871 
 1872 
 1873 
 1871 
 1875 
 1876 
 
 Production. 
 
 421-94 
 421-24 
 421-38 
 421-40 
 ■•19-92 
 4|,,-44 
 418-16 
 419-60 
 18-00 
 
 076-30 
 
 It should be stated in reference to the period of forty-eight 
 years, 1800 to 1847 inclusive, which foots up £120,240,000, 
 that this sum is considerably less than that assigned by 
 Danson to America alone. His figure for the period of 
 forty-five years, 1804-1848, is £142,179,411. If the produc- 
 tion for the years 1800-1803, namely, £8,000,000, be de- 
 ducted from, and the figures for the year 1848, namely, 
 £13,500,000, be added to, the total shown in the above table, 
 so as to make it agree with the period shown in Danson's, 
 the total will only amount to £125,740,000, or to £16,439,411 
 less than Danson's estimates. An analysis of the latter, 
 however, will hardly stand the test of criticifim, and the fig- 
 ures are evidently excessive. For example, on the strength 
 of five years' custom-house returns of exports of gold from 
 Buenos Ayres during the period 1822-1826, Mr. Danson 
 assumes the same average, namely, £71,836 per annum, for 
 the- entire period, 1809 to 1848 inclusive, and adds— quite 
 gratuitously — 266f per cent, to this for smuggling to make a 
 total from Buenos Ayres of £10,535,976. On the strength 
 of an incidental remark by the British consul, in 1831, to 
 the effect that the exports of specie from Montevideo in 1803 
 and 1804 may betaken as the ordinary shipments, he makes 
 out a total export Irom that port during the perif>d 1809- 
 1848 of £40,000,000, of which he arbitrarily assumes 47 per 
 cent., or £18,800,000, to have been in gold. These two 
 results, together with £4,802,282 determined, upon a little 
 better basis, to have been otherwise produced, in, Buenos 
 Ayres, give a grand total of £34,138,258 as the production of 
 gold in that country during the period 1809-1848, whereas 
 one-tenth of the amount would probably be much nearer the 
 truth. In a similar manner, on the sole basis of returns of 
 £8,825,149 of gold coined at the mints of Bogota and Po- 
 payan, in Columbia, during the period 1804-1829, which 
 gold is believed to have consisted entirely of old coin and 
 plate, he makes out a production of gold for that country 
 during the period 1804-1848 of £40,851,066. Not to pursue 
 these palpable exaggerations any further, it need only be 
 stated that while the statistics for this period are very unsat- 
 isfactory, the figures of Humboldt, Ward, and Jacob are a 
 sufiicient warrant for keeping the average production of the 
 period under £2,000,000 a year until the opening of the 
 Russian' gold- washings, and then at very little over £2,000,000 
 a year until these washings began to make a comparatively 
 important addition to the then very limited supplies of gold 
 to the world ; and this did not occur until after the year 
 1840, when for the first time the Russian product amounted 
 to so much as £1 ,000,000 a year. 
 
 Jacob's estimate of the average production of gold during 
 the period 1809-1829 is £1,598,000 per annum, and this in- 
 cludes £720,000 per annum for Europe and Asia, leaving 
 but £878,000 per annum for all America. A compilation 
 published in U. S. Ex. Doc. 1 17, 1st Session, 21st Congress, 
 1830, estimates the annual production of gJld in the world 
 from 1801 to 1810 at £2,000,000 a year, and from 1811 to 
 1825 at £1,540,000 a year. From these evidences and the 
 details contained in Humboldt, Jacob, Ward, Tooke, &c., it 
 is believed that the figures of the above table are approxi- 
 mately correct, at least for any group of ten years, and, if at 
 all wrong, that they are excessive.. It will be observed that 
 the lowest point of production is assigned to about the year 
 1816. MacCulloch differs from this in ascribing the lowest 
 point to about the year 1829 ; but there is reason to believe 
 that in this respect, and because he judged rather from the 
 receipts of new metal in Europe than from the production at 
 the mines, that eminent author placed the date of the min- 
 
 1 " Westminster Review," January, 1876. 
 
 3 " Journal des Economistes." 4 gj^ Hector Hay. 
 
 2 MacCulloch. 
 ^ Blake. 
 
402 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 imum production a few years behind the true time, 
 general results of the foregoing tables are as follows : — 
 
 Sums ill Millions ot Founds Sterling. 
 
 Silver. 
 Prodaetion of America during the period 1493 — 1800 745'26 
 Production of America. Europe, and Africa supplied to 
 
 the Western World during the period of 1801—1870 827-70 
 
 The 
 
 OoU. 
 393-12 
 
 Totals . 
 
 1272-96 1187-66 
 
 or twelve hundred and seventy-two million nine hundred 
 and sixty thousand pounds in silver, and eleven hundred 
 and eighty-seven million six hundred and sixty thousand 
 pounds in gold. 
 
 The following table shows the estimated production of 
 gold and silver, respectively, throughout the world, by 
 countries during the years 1877 and 1878. 
 
 Sums In Millions ot Pounds Sterlins:. 
 
 United States 
 
 British America (Colombia and 
 
 Kova Scotia 
 
 Mexico and South America . . . 
 
 Australia , . 
 
 Russia 
 
 Other countries 
 
 Total . 
 
 1877. 
 
 Goll. 
 
 0-S 
 0-8 
 4-8 
 3-8 
 0-6 
 
 Silver. 
 
 0-1 
 2-0 
 
 1878. 
 
 7-5 
 
 0-6 
 0-6 
 4-0 
 3-6 
 0-4 
 
 lG-7 
 
 Silver. 
 
 4-0 
 
 01 
 20 
 
 With reference to the probable fiiture supplies of the 
 precious metals and their relation to the population and 
 commerce of the world, the former must be expected to de- 
 cline both relatively and absolutely. The population and 
 commerce of the Western World are both increasing. At 
 the same time the mines of all the principal producing 
 countries, the United States, Mexico, South America, Aus- 
 tralia, and Russia, are all declining in productiveness ; and 
 unless new and unforeseen discoveries — and it is difficult to 
 conjecture in what quarter of the world such discoveries can 
 be made — should put a different face upon the matter, the 
 production of both gold and silver will continue to diminish. 
 This conclusion should, however, iiirnish no ground for 
 alarm. Since the beginning of the eighteenth century the 
 precious metals have become less and less the general 
 Measure of Value that they once were throughout the 
 Occidental world, and more and more the measure of the 
 Measure of Value ; which latter is now the whole sum of 
 intrinsic coin, plus the sum of token or subsidiary coin, plus 
 the sum of bank and government and other paper employed 
 as money. The precious metals are merely the foundation 
 of this edifice, and for a very considerable portion of the 
 superstructure, to wit, the irredeemable or unredeemed paper 
 currencies of many countries, the precious metals afford no 
 basis whatever. Whether the partially nuraerary systems 
 in vogue in these countries (Brazil is the only one among 
 them whose monetary system appears to be entirely numer- 
 ary) will last, and so permanently reduce the requirement 
 for the precious metals or not, is a problem for which it is 
 no part of the design of this article to offer a solution. 
 
 There unfortunately exists no means of determining with 
 any reasonable precision the amount of the consumption of 
 the precious metals for other purposes or in other ways than 
 for the purpose of money. Efforts of this sort have been 
 made by Mr. Jacob and other writers, but they are not only 
 too rude to be depended upon : those which, like Mr. Jacob's, 
 have been made with any care, are antiquated, and would 
 not afford any guide to the present disposition of these 
 metals. The only satisfactory view which can be had of the 
 subject is the limited one obtained by deducting from the 
 total supplies since the discovery of America, the stock on 
 hand as money at the present time. The remaining sum 
 will necessarily be that of the meanwhile total consumption 
 of the precious metals in the arts, shipments to Asia loss by 
 accident, and wear and tear by the abrasion of coin The 
 total sum of the supplies to Europe up to 1878 inclusive 
 
 were about £2,627,800,000.' To this must be added £33,- 
 400,000 for the amount of specie estimated to have been in 
 use as coin in Europe at the period of the discovery of 
 America. The total of these two sums is £2,661,200,000. 
 The amount of coin estimated to have been in the Western 
 World in 1876 was £700,000,000, and at the present time it 
 is from £600,000,000 to £700,000,000. It follows that of the 
 total supplies nearly £2,000 000,000, or over seventy per 
 cent, has been lost, consumed in the arts, or exported to Asia.^ 
 Similar calculations, made up to previous dates, determine 
 the proportion of consumption to production to have been 
 as shown in the following table : — 
 
 Sums in millions of pounds sterling^. 
 
 1675 
 1700 
 1775 
 1808 
 1828 
 1838 
 1860 
 1860 
 1870 
 1876 
 
 Oitriulative sup- 
 plies to date. 
 
 8509 
 592 
 1,064 
 1,314 
 1,441 
 1,610 
 1,675 
 2,040 
 2,365 
 2.564 
 
 Slocli at 
 date. 
 
 260 
 297 
 275 
 380 
 313 
 270 
 400 
 660 
 720 
 740 
 
 Ownulatlie 
 conmynption 
 
 259 
 
 295 
 
 779 
 
 935 
 
 1,128 
 
 1,240 
 
 1,275 
 
 1.480 
 
 1.645 
 
 1,824 
 
 Per cent, of con- 
 
 sumpiicn to t-iip- 
 
 plies eince laet 
 
 date. 
 
 60 
 50 
 74 
 71 
 78 
 82 
 76 
 72 
 70 
 71 
 
 From this calculation it appears that, within the past 
 century, the consumption in the arts, &c., and for exporta- 
 tion to Asia has never fallen below 70 nor risen above 82 
 per cent, of the total supplies, and this only at one period of 
 unusual metallic dearth. These results appear to afford 
 ground for the opinion that, hereafter as heretofore, this 
 consumption will amount to about three-fourths of the sup- 
 plies ; but such an opinion, though possibly correct, should 
 not be adopted without further examination. The first in- 
 fluence that would seem to govern the distribution of the 
 precious metals is the requirement for coin, for upon the 
 quantity coined appears to hang the most important conse- 
 quences, to wit, the general level of prices, and therefore the 
 relations of exchange, which means most of those of society. 
 But this is by no means the case. Coin has been superseded 
 to so great an extent in the transaction of exchanges, that 
 although it continues to form the basis of them in several of 
 the leading countries of the world,* its actual use has been 
 dispensed with to a very considerable degree. Hence 
 whether more or less of it is used as money, or it is allowed 
 to be superseded by acceptable forms of paper, are facts that 
 do not appear to be essential to the maintenance of prices, 
 or the existing relations of exchange and society. Thus' 
 some £40,000,000 of metal are said to have been accumulated 
 in the United States within the past few years with the view 
 to resumption this year (1879). If this be true it would 
 seem that £40,000,000 which would otherwise have been 
 consumed in the arts, &c., have been reserved for coin; but 
 the fact, if it is one, does not seem to have influenced prices 
 one way or another. These continue generally to be the 
 same as before. The employment of bank cheques, bank 
 and government notes, and other forms of paper is so exten- 
 sive, that the monetary circulation of the commercial world 
 has_ become highly elastic; and it is only when the specie 
 basis is dangerously low, as in the years previous to 1838, or 
 needlessly and superfluously high, as in those previous to 
 
 > This includes £103,400,000 from Japan. 
 
 2 The flow of specie to Asia since thediscovery of America is diffi- 
 cult to determme the principal obstacle lying in the uncertainty 
 which attended this movement during the eighteenth century 
 Accordmgto Jacob, supplemented by other estimates which include 
 the flow before and smoe the period treated by him, the total flow 
 ^,.„ .!L'i??„ ''?^°. "R"«^?''<ls of £700,000,000. Allowance for the 
 £103,000,000 obtamed from Japan, would reduce the net flow to 
 Asia to £600,000,000. It has therefore absorbed about one-third of 
 the whole amount not reserved for coin in the European world 
 
 8 Inoludmg the £103,000,000 from Japan. 
 
 * It will be born in mmd that, except Great Britain and Germany 
 no leading country of the world was, until quite recently, paying 
 specie. The United States suspended m 1862: Austria in 1865 • 
 Italy in 1866 ; and France in 1870. Spain, Turkey, Russia and 
 Japan have also, in fact, suspended. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 403 
 
 1870 (vide the above table) that the value or purchasing 
 power of the precious metals is affected enough to change 
 the usual course of their distribution. For it must be con- 
 sidered that the enormous stock on hand, say £600,000,000 
 to £700,000,000 at the present time, acts as a powerful con- 
 servator of prices. Substantially not an ounce of this metal 
 can change its purchasing power until that of the whole 
 mass is changed, and the mass is so magnified by the use of 
 paper substitutes that such change is slow and gradual. The 
 miner can no more afford to wait until specie goes up, before 
 he sells, than the silver and goldsmith can afford to wait 
 until it goes down before he buys; consequently the one sells 
 and the other buys, from time to time, without the least ref- 
 erence to the world's stock of coin, and without being at all 
 affected (except at periods of extremity) by its fluctuations. 
 
 It would therefore seem to follow, that the distribution of 
 the supplies of the precious metals is not primarily governed 
 by the requirement for coin, but, owing to the elasticity of 
 the demand for coin, rather by the requirement for the arts. 
 Another consideration is involved in the fact that, turned 
 into coin, metal affords no profit, while as used in the arts it 
 does. Hence the prime tendency of the consumption of the 
 precious metals should be, and indeed is, towards the latter. 
 In selling his metal to the mint the miner has to compete 
 with the spoliations and servile labor of past ages, for he 
 can obtain no more for his product than the current value of 
 an equal amount of gold or silver, the bulk of which was 
 stolen from conquered races, or forced from the labor of 
 slaves. But in devoting it to the arts, or what is the same 
 thingj shipping it to Asia, he, or rather the silversmith, 
 gold-beater, or merchant, who now acts for him, can dispose 
 of it to better advantage, and this fact is enough to turn 
 the scale in favor of its general flow towards the arts. Still 
 another matter for thought lies in the fact that while there 
 may be no loss in melting coin, there is a very serious one 
 in melting plate, or reducing other works of art to crude 
 gold and silver. Hence, while it is quite a common thing 
 to do the former, it is a very rare one to do the latter.' In 
 many forms of art, as in gilding, dentistry, photography, &c., 
 the precious metals cannot be reduced to crude forms, and 
 are, indeed, practically irrecoverable. This is much the 
 case, also, with reference to the shipments of specie to Asia. 
 This specie goes into circulation there at a much lower level 
 of prices than that in Europe, or else it is melted down and 
 used in the arts, for bangles and other jewelry, for gilding 
 crockery, lacquer-ware, &c., or in the manufacture of those 
 beautiful bronzes for which the Orient is famous, and nearly 
 •all of which contain some alloy of silver. The general re- 
 sult is that what metal goes into the arts in Europe, or is 
 shipped to Asia, remains there,' and as it goes there in the 
 first place without reference to the scarcity or plentifiilness 
 of coin in the European world, it remains there with equal 
 indifference to that important consideration. Upon a gen- 
 eral review of the subject it would appear that now, at 
 least, not coin, but the arts, are the first and principal 
 attraction that determines the distribution of the precious 
 metals, and that it is only after the demand for the arts has 
 been satisfied that the supplies of specie are permitted to 
 accumulate as coin. 
 
 World's Stock of the Precious Metals.— The main 
 purpose of Mr. William Jacob's history of the precious 
 metals, and that one in the pursuit of which he was led into 
 those many interesting digressions which contribute to 
 greatly enhance the value of the work, was to examine " the 
 source of those large accumulations of gold and silver which 
 are represented to have existed in the early ages of the 
 world, of their gradual increase in quantity, and the causes 
 of the disappearance of a large portion of them." Unaware, 
 or careless of the fact, that in many of the States of anti- 
 quity, notably Greece, Carthage, and Rome, numerary motl- 
 eys were employed as currency in certain periods of their 
 progress, the gifted author was led to assume that gold and 
 silver alone, or at least principally, were used as measures of 
 
 1 " Not one-hundredth part of what passes through their (the 
 lion dealers') scales, consists of gold and silver that had before 
 manufactured." Jacob, vol. ii. p: 316. 
 
 2 The only notable exceptions to this rule were the melting of 
 plate during the Spanish and Spanish-American revolutions, and 
 the return of silver from India to England during the years 1832 
 and 1833. 
 
 bul- 
 been 
 
 value, and in consequence he was induced to estimate the 
 accumulated stocks of these metals in ancient times at sums 
 which, in the light of this and other considerations, seem 
 far too excessive. Avoiding any precise estimate of these 
 sums until the Augustan age, he begins for that period 
 with the assumption that the stock of the precious metals in 
 the Roman Empire, which he regards as tantamount to all 
 the European world, amounted to about £358,000,000. 
 Having made this assumption he next proceeds to calculate, 
 from the conditions of supply and consumption, particularly 
 from the ascertained loss in the weight of coin from abra- 
 sion,' the vicissitude of this stock of metal, from time to 
 time, that is to say, every thirty-six years until the year a.d. 
 806, and afterwards every one hundred years until the be- 
 ginning of the present century ; and arrives at conclusions 
 which, ever since they were published, have commanded 
 the respect of the learned world.^ It is not proposed to 
 question these calculations for any period subsequent to the 
 discovery of America, because for these periods such abun- 
 dance of evidence is advanced by Mr. Jacob and others 
 concerning the supplies and accumulations of the precious 
 metals as to leave no room for doubt concerning their rea- 
 sonable accuracy. With regard to the previous periods the 
 considerations above advanced, together with some others 
 presently to be set forth, render it quite evident that Mr. 
 Jacob's hypothetical calculations are untenable. The 
 basis of these will now be given in the author's own words. 
 Says Mr. Jacob : " We find in Suetonius that Vespasian, 
 when he succeeded to the imperial dignity, asserted that a 
 sum equivalent to £322,916,600* was necessary to support 
 the commonwealth. This amount could not have reference 
 either to the annual revenue or to the accumulation in the 
 public treasury ; for the produce of neither of those depart- 
 ments at any period could have yielded so large a sum. It 
 is not, however, unreasonable to suppose that it bore refer- 
 ence to the whole mass of coined money at that time 
 known, or believed, or supposed to be in circulation, within 
 the boundaries of the republic. Assuming then that this 
 sum was nearly the amount of the whole stock of current 
 money, we may, without relying on its precise accuracy, 
 venture to make use of it as the foundation of an estimate of 
 the loss created by abrasion in the course of the period we 
 have brought under consideration. Vespasian began his 
 reign, and uttered the opinion we have stated, about two 
 years after the death of Nero. In the time of Nero the 
 aureus had declined in value, from the reign of Augustus, 
 at the rate of somewhat more than ten per cent., and we now 
 assume that the coined money, in this period, had decreased 
 in nearly the same proportion. With these views we should 
 calculate the quantity of money in the time of Augustus to 
 have been about £358,000,000.'"' It is to be objected to this 
 hypothesis — 1st, that the sum mentioned by Suetonius refers 
 quite plainly to the revenues which were required to support 
 the State, and these may have included a requirement for 
 the payment of debts during an understood term. This 
 term may have been of one, two, five, or ten years, according 
 to the custom of the period. Estimates of this character are 
 often made in modern States for a period of several years 
 together, and it is therefore not at all necessary to suppose,' 
 as Mr. Jacob has done in this case, that, if to the revenue at 
 all, it referred to the " annual " revenue of Rome. 
 
 2d. Although long previous to the period of Vespasian, 
 A.D. 70-79, the copper numerary system of the Roma^n Com- 
 
 ^ Upon the basis of numerous experiments, made in the British 
 Mint, the details of whicli are published in the appendix to Mr. 
 Jacob's work, he determined this to be equal to about one three- 
 hundrediand-sixtieth part annually, or a. thirty-sixth part in ten 
 years. Jacob, vol. i. p. 224. 
 
 2 Humboldt, " Fluctuations of Gold," says that Mr. Jacob's work 
 deserves the highest consideration. Tooke (Newmarch) vi. 359, 
 considers it " the highest authority to which we can appeal." 
 
 a " Quadrigenties millies (scilicet H. S. Vespasianus) statim initio 
 sui principatus opus esse professus est, ut republiea stai-e posset." — 
 Suetonius in Vespasiano, cap. xvi. This passage reads: "He 
 ( Vespasian, understood) said, at the outset of his reign that, in order 
 that the State should be able to stand, therewasneed of four hundred 
 thousand" {hundreds of thousands of sesterces, understood). Four 
 hundred thousand hundreds of thousands equal forty thousand 
 million ; and this is the sum of numerary sesterces which Ar- 
 buthnot, Adam, and Jacob have converted into sterling gold. 
 * Jacob, vol. 1, p. 224. 
 
404 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 monwealth had perished and givea way to a silver, and 
 afterwards, in Caesar's time, to a gold intrinsic currency, yet 
 there are uot wanting evidences tiiat during the Dictator's 
 reign coppers had again become uuraeraries — at least that 
 they were highly overvalued. There is no other explanation 
 for the fact that Caligula, a.d. 37-11, hastened to coin 
 enormous quantities of them, and without consent of the 
 Senate.! It is probable that during the period when they 
 were wholly or nearly intrinsic (from B.C. 207 to b.c 46 or 
 thereabouts) the copper coins of Rome were exported in 
 large quantities to Spain and the other provinces, and that 
 the resulting scarcity at Rome had converted them once 
 more into numeraries, or at least rendered or left them highly 
 overvalued As the sum mentioned by Suetonius is named 
 . in (understood) sesterces, and as the sesterce of this period 
 was of copper,^ and therefore highly overvalued, the rate at 
 which it has been converted by Jacob into intrinsic pounds 
 sterling of gold is erroneous; for this conversion (after 
 Adam and by him Arbuthnot)' is made upon the basis that 
 the sesterce was always a silver coin, or at least a sum of 
 intrinsic silver, that is to say, silver coined at its bullion 
 value. Dr. Adam says that the sesterce was a silver coin, 
 the value of which was two asses and a half, " and often called 
 absolutely nummus, because it was in most frequent use."' 
 The fact that it was called " nummus," a numerary, should 
 have guarded this learned author against the view that it 
 was an intrinsic coin ; but unfortunately it did not. Pliny, 
 who must be regarded as better authority on the subject, 
 informs us not only that the sesterce was of copper, but also 
 that it was made of " aurichalcuin," a peculiar sort of copper 
 (probably to guard against counterfeiting), while the as was 
 made of the common copper of Cyprus.* Mr. Noel Hum- 
 phreys published fac-similes of the copper sesterces, vast 
 numbers of which are still extant in the cabinets of numis- 
 matists. 
 
 At the period of Vespasian there were also sesterces of 
 silver (chiefly from previous reigns*): just as at the present 
 time the Americans have three-cent pieces of nickel and 
 silver. But this fact does not help Mr. Jacob, for at this 
 period all the silver coins of Rome were of limited and 
 qualified legal tender, and overvalued. In other words, a 
 given sum of sesterces, whether they were of copper or 
 silver, would purchase more gold before than after being 
 melted ; just as at the present time a given sum in either the 
 niclsiel or base-silver tliree-cent pieces of the United States 
 will purchase more gold before than after being reduced 
 to crude metal. These three-cent pieces are token coins, 
 and so were the Roman sesterces, their value being due not 
 to the metal they contained, but to the stamp of the govern- 
 ment, and the law which made them limited legal tenders. 
 On the general subject of the modern misapprehension 
 of sums in ancient Roman money, the Marquis Garnier, who 
 devoted a life of study to Roman antiquities, says that the 
 translations of these sums are simply preposterous. 
 
 3d. The Roman method of notation was extremely liable 
 to eiTor. In the sum mentioned by Jacob, not only is 
 "sesterces'' inferred or understood, but so also is "hun- 
 dreds of thousands of;" the only portion of the supposed 
 ijum actually written in the original being " four hundred 
 thousand." 
 
 4th. The f-um which Jacob assumes to have represented 
 the stock of money in Europe at the Vespasian period of 
 tlie Roman Empire, when viewed as such, is inadmissible. 
 The population of Europe at this period, according to Meri- 
 vale, did not exceed 60,000,000, and this number, when 
 divided into the sum assumed by Jacob, gives for result an 
 intrinsic gold or silver currency equal ill amount to six 
 pounds sterling per head of population. As even after the 
 
 ' Noel Humphreys' " Ancient Coins/' p. 155. 
 
 ' " Though the sestertius was originally a silver coin, its value 
 was estimated in copper." Adam Smith, bk. i. eh. 5. The copper 
 sesterce was first issued in the time of Augustus, and almost imme- 
 diately became nearly the only monetary unit used in calculation." 
 Humphreys' " Manual of Coins," i. 301". 
 
 ^ " The statements of Ai-buthnot are not much to be depended 
 upon." J. R. MacCulloch. " Com. Die," ed. 1856, p. 1063. 
 
 * " Roman Antiq.," p. 427. 
 
 ' Pliny's " Nat. jBlist.," hk. xxxiv. eh. 2 ; Bohn's ed. vol. vi. p. 119. 
 
 " The silver sesterce had almost disappeared during the rei"-u of 
 Augustus. Humphreys' " Manual," ])p. d02-3. 
 
 opening of Potosi Europe never possessed a stock of the 
 precious metals amounting per capita to much more than 
 one-half of this, the result arrived at by Mr. Jacob must be 
 regarded as excessive.' There is no doubt that Mr. Jacob's 
 general conclusion that the European stock of specie gradu- 
 ally diminished from whatever it was in the days of the 
 Empire to about the sum he estimates it to have amounted 
 to at the period of the discovery of America, is correct; 
 it is only his estimate of the .stock in the ancient times that 
 is doubted. As to the stock at the period of the discovery, 
 we have, in addition to Mr. Jacob's estimate, a statement 
 made by Mr. Gregory King in 1696, which, although it was 
 published at the time that Jacob wrote, is not alluded to 
 by that writer, and probably escaped his researches. This 
 statement affords support to and contirms the substantial 
 accuracy of Mr. Jacob's view with regard to the stock 
 at the period mentioned. Mr. King estimated the European 
 stock of coin, bullion and plate, at the tim^ of the discov- 
 ery of America at £45,000,000. Mr. Jacob estimated the 
 coin alone at £34,000,000. 'This is regarded as a substantial 
 agreement.'' 
 
 Following Mr. Jacob for the various periods between A. 
 D. 1492 and 1828, and the most credible authorities for sub- 
 sequent dates, and following other credible authorities for 
 estimates of the population of the Western World, we have 
 the following comparative view of the progress of gold and 
 silver money and population at the periods named. 
 
 Tab/e showing the estimated stork of Gold and Sdver Coin, and the Population 
 of I he European world from ttme to lime since the Discoue-rj/ of America. 
 
 Piriod. 
 A.D. 
 
 Anthority for 
 Poptdutum. 
 
 Poptdation. 
 
 Anthority 
 
 for 
 
 Sloclc of Coin. 
 
 StoclcfCiu. 
 
 Stocl- Iter 
 O'lulii. 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ >. d. 
 
 1192 
 
 Estimate 
 
 40,000,000 
 
 .lacob 
 
 31,000.000 
 
 16 
 
 IMO 
 
 Estimate 
 
 80,00(1,00(1 
 
 Estimate 
 
 24<l,0(X),0O0 
 
 3 
 
 IC'JI) 
 
 Petty..lacob 
 
 8,">,ll00,00() 
 
 Jacob 
 
 2.00,000,000 
 
 3 
 
 1700 
 
 Voltaire 
 
 90,000,000 
 
 Jacob 
 
 297,000,000 
 
 3 6 
 
 1771! 
 
 Voltaire 
 
 110,000,000 
 
 Jacob 
 
 275,000,000 
 
 2 8 
 
 1808 
 
 Humboldt 
 
 200,000,000 
 
 Jacob 
 
 380,000 000 
 
 1 18 
 
 ISiS 
 
 Balbi 
 
 210,0o0,(K)0 
 
 Jacob 
 
 313.000,000 
 
 1 li 
 
 1S:!S 
 
 Humboldt. 
 
 2(50,000,000 
 
 Estimate 
 
 270,000,000 
 
 10 
 
 ls;i!) 
 
 MacCulloch 
 
 265,000,000 
 
 Storch 
 
 284,000,900 
 
 10 
 
 IKfjII 
 
 Putnam 
 
 3(K),000,00« 
 
 MacCulloch 
 
 400,000,000 
 
 17 
 
 1800 
 
 Stat. Journal 
 
 330,000,000 
 
 Estimate 
 
 660,000,000 
 
 1 U 
 
 1S7I) 
 
 Behm & Wagner 
 
 370,000,000 
 
 Seyd 
 
 720,000,000 
 
 1 18 
 
 1877 
 
 Beljm & Wagner 
 
 400,((00,000 
 
 Estimate 
 
 700,000,000 
 
 1 15 
 
 1871) 
 
 hf-timate 
 
 410,000,000 
 
 Estimate 
 
 650,000,000 
 
 1 12 
 
 The bases for many of the foregoing figures will be found 
 set forth in the Minute on the Population and Specie of 
 the Western World, published in the Report of the Mone- 
 tary Commission, and the authorities therein quoted.' They 
 are omitted from this work from considerations of space. 
 The basis for the last line will be found in Appendix B to 
 this chapter. In order to make the dates in the population 
 estimates tally with those in the estimates of coined money, 
 proper allowances have been calculated, and the estimate as 
 thus amended has been credited to the author who furnished 
 its foundation. In a similar way additions have been made 
 for the European population of America, &c., to estimate of 
 
 • In A. D. 1700 the stock per capita was £3 6s., and shiee that 
 period it has never been so great. It is now about £1 16s. per capita. 
 
 2 Concerningsubsequent dates these writers disagree. The follow- 
 ing table affords a coinpanson of theircstinintes: — 
 
 King. 
 
 1488 
 1688 
 1688 
 
 14(12 
 
 ii'iini 
 
 1699 
 
 King. 
 
 King. 
 
 Cuin, bullion and j Coin nnd hntlion 
 phde. i only. 
 
 f4,'),fl00,000 
 100,000,0110 
 226,000,001) 
 
 £146,000,000 
 
 Coin only. 
 
 £34,000,000 
 1:10,000,000 
 297,000,00(1 
 
 Mr. .Jacob having devoted much greater consideration to the sub- 
 ject, and having had before him the very elaborate data of Baron 
 von Humboldt, has been preferred as an authority in these pages. 
 Mr. King's statement was first rqjrinted by Mr. Chalmers in 1801, 
 and has since been re|iublished by Mr. Newinarch in 'Tooke's " His- 
 tory of Prices," vol. vi., p. 667. 
 
 •'• Some clerical errors wliich crept into the original publication 
 (" Report," App. p. 71) are herein corrected. Some alterations are 
 also introduced. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 405 
 
 the population of Europe proper. The fact that the stock 
 of coin in 1776 is put at less than that in 1700 may lead to a 
 doubt of its correctness ; but it seems to be well authenticat- 
 ed that until the development of the great silver lodes of 
 Biscaina, Sombrerete, and Valenciaua, in Mexico, towards 
 the end of the last century, the supplies of the precious me- 
 tals were not only inadequate to the demands of commerce, 
 but that the stock of coin in Europe and America absolutely 
 declined. The falling-oflf of the stock from 1808 to 1839 has 
 been admitted by Humboldt, Jacob, MacCuUoch, Tooke, and 
 other writers on the subject. Referring now to the general 
 and comparative aspects of the foregoing table, it will be 
 observed that at the period of the discovery of America the 
 Western World started with a stock of coin amounting to 
 about 16s. per liead of populatiori, and that this proportion 
 continued to increase until the opening of the eighteenth 
 century, when it amounted to £3 6s. per capita. During this 
 period plundering, discovery, and commercial adventure 
 were stimulated to the extremest limits. The seas and bays 
 of the entire world were explored, commerce was extended 
 info the Americas, Africa, India, China, Japan, and the 
 islands of the South Sea, and colonies were founded all over 
 the world. The social organism was stimulated into the 
 greatest activity. This was the period of the Revolution, 
 Habeas Corpus Act, and Bill of Rights, in England; of the 
 numerous risings of the peasantry, the Edict of Nantes, and 
 the Fronde in France ; of the Republic in the Netherlands ; 
 of the Protest and Thirty Years' War in Germany ; and of 
 the Reformations throughout Western Europe generally. 
 After this period the stock of coin diminished from £3 6s. 
 per capita in 1700 to £2 8s. per capita in 1776, £1 18s. per 
 capita in 1808, £1 6s. per capita in 1828, and £1 per capita 
 in 1838. It is noticeable that coincidently with this fall 
 of the stock of coin the Western World exhibited all the 
 marks of arrested development and social perturbation. 
 
 This was the period duiing which all the great national 
 debts arose ; when France, England, Russia, Germany, the 
 Papal States, the American Colonies, the United States, 
 Brazil, and many other countries, suspended specie pay- 
 ments, and when Europe and America were almost con- 
 stantly shaken with insurrection and wars. It was the 
 period of the American and French revolutions; of the 
 separation of Mexico and the South American colonies from 
 Spain ; of the Chartist agitation and riots in England ; and 
 of popular commotion in all the countries of the Occident. 
 Assignats, wild-cat banks, ruinous paper experiments, and 
 the open repudiation of their debts by great corporations 
 and States were the financial characteristics of the period. 
 Before the eighteenth century the stock of coin and of 
 money was the same, for there was little circulating paper 
 in Europe beyond the confines of the Italian republics. 
 After the beginning of the eighteenth century the stock 
 of coin was not the same as the stock of money, but only 
 the basis of it. At that time the Bank of England began to 
 issue circulating notes, and this example was soon followed 
 by other institutions. In 1716 circulating notes were issued 
 by the Royal Bank of France ; but between 1720, when this 
 institution failed, and the issue of assignats by the French 
 revolutionary government in 1789, no paper issues of any 
 considerable amount were made in Europe proper ; though, 
 since the beginning of the century, they had become quite 
 common in the American colonies. Substantially, there- 
 f')re, the stock of coin and of money were much the same 
 from the beginning of the eighteenth up to nearly the be- 
 ginning of the present century. After that period they 
 began to differ very considerably. 
 
 Of the stock of coin estimated to have been in existence 
 in 1870 about one-third consisted of silver. The demoneti- 
 zations of this metal which since that date have been effected 
 in several of the leading countries of the world, have re- 
 sulted in reducing the general stock of coin, which, at the 
 present time, is something below its amount in 1877. The 
 progress of the demonetization of silver threatens to reduce 
 this stock still further, and the present tendency is there- 
 fore towards a smaller stock of specie in the European world. 
 With regard to the stock of coin in particular countries 
 the author has examined a great number of authorities, and 
 from these has compiled the data on the subject to be 
 found elsewhere in this book. From these it will be seen 
 that at the prcseiit time the stock of coin in the Western 
 
 World amounts to over £600,000,000, and that two-thirds 
 of this amount are held in France, Great Britain, and the 
 North German Empire. Estimates of the stock of coin ex- 
 isting in given countries are usually founded upon statistics 
 of coinage and foreign commerce, and as a rule are exces- 
 sive. For example, it is considered very doubtful that 
 either France, Great Britain or Germany contains at the 
 present time any such stocks of coin as are usually credited 
 to them, and as quite probable that, could the truth be as- 
 certained, these would exhibit a considerable reduction. 
 
 The Ratio of Ancient Times. — If our view is extended over 
 the entire range of history — both ancient and modern — it 
 will be found that the relation of value, or ratio between 
 gold and silver has varied from 1 silver = 10 gold, to 1 gold 
 ^20 silver. An instance of the first-named ratio belongs to 
 the Orient, and carries us back more than fifteen centuries 
 before our era. The second belongs to the London market 
 during the silver panic of July, 1876.' In a fragment of the 
 works of Agatharchides — a Greek geographer who lived at 
 the time of Ptolemy VI., Philometer, King of Egypt (B. c. 
 181 — 145) — we are informed that at one time the value of 
 silver in ancient Arabia was tenfold that of gold.^ No date 
 accompanies this statement, but since we are assured by 
 other evidences that so early at least as the eighth centuiy 
 before Christ, gold in the valley of the Tigris was thirteen 
 times the value of silver, we may, without fear, assume that 
 Agatharchides writes of a period long previous to this. If 
 we may trust to the deduction of a German savant, silver 
 was cheaper than gold diu'ingthe seventeenth century before 
 Christ. But, although this may yet prove to have been the 
 fact, it is deemed hardly safe to infer it from the evidence 
 advanced.* The superior vahie of silver must have disap- 
 peared when the silver mines of Greece were opened, and 
 the Phoenician traders exchanged their exuberant metallic 
 produce for the freights of the Orient. This occurrence must 
 be assigned to a very high antiquity, and with the greatest 
 probability to the era of Cadmus, some fifteen centuries 
 before Christ. Xenophon, who lived 443 — 355 b. c, says of 
 the antiquity of these mines: "No one ever pretended from 
 tradition or the earliest accounts of time, to determine when 
 these mines first began to be wrought, which is a proof of 
 their antiquity."* And with reference to their bearing upon 
 the value of silver he says :— 
 
 "The divine bounty has bestowed upon us inexhaustible 
 mines of silver, an advantage which we enjoy above all our 
 neighboring cities, by sea and land, who never yet could 
 discover one vein of silver ore in all their dominions." * 
 From these evidences there seems to be some warrant for 
 concluding that the superior value ofsilver to gold, vouched 
 for by Agatharchides, existed at some period previous to 
 the fifteenth century before Christ. It was doubtless con- 
 fined to the East. Some explanation of the high value of 
 silver in the Orient, and particularly in Arabia, at this re- 
 mote period, is found in the following named facts. 1st. In 
 the absence of accounts of any important siver mines, or the 
 knowledge of reducing silver ores in the Orient, coupled 
 with the working of the gold sands of the Indian rivers, 
 and the placer and quartz mines of ancient Arabia,5 we are 
 justified in inferring that previous to the discovery of the 
 Greek silver mines there had accumulated in the Oriental 
 
 ' The writer was informed by one of the parties to the trausac- 
 tions, that shortly after the discovery of gold in California, it was 
 often sold by the miners for its weiglit in silver coins, or at the ratio 
 of about 1-1. This, however, was quite an exceptional circumstance, 
 and local to California. 
 
 ^ Jacob, vol. i. p. 97. The superior value of silver to gold in very 
 ancient times is asserted by Boeckh, " Polit. Econ. .^then.," book i. 
 chap. 6. 
 
 " Brandis, on the tribute lists of Thutmosis, sculptured upon the 
 monuments of Thebes (Karnak). The date, however, appears to be 
 inferred from a passage in Herodotus relating to a period " eleven 
 centuries later. Consult Brandis as quoted by Raymond, U. S. 
 Mining Com. Ee]!.," 1874, p. 473, and Herodotus, book iii. and 
 Boeckh, p. 12. 
 
 * Xenophon on the Revenues of Athens ; Walter Moyle's transla- 
 tion, D'Aveuant's Work.s, ed. 1771, vol i. p. 316. 
 
 * According to Captain Burton's recent work, "The Gold Mines 
 of the Land of Midian,"' Arabia, in remote times, was devasted in 
 tlie search for gold as thoroughly as the Roman provinces were in 
 later ones. 
 
406 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 world — and of this Arabia formed an important part' — a 
 considerable mass of gold with comparatively little silver. 
 Without any reference whatever to cost of production, the 
 presence of a considerable quantity of one metal, and of a 
 very limited quantity of the other, may have rendered the 
 latter the more valuable. This we know to have been some- 
 what the case in Peru, where, previous to the landing of the 
 Spaniards, gold was less valuable than copper.^ The nar- 
 rowness of the ratio in Japan, i. e., 6 to 7, before the Portu- 
 guese opened it to the influence of the Western ratio, and 
 the relapse of the ratio from 12 or 14, during the era of Por- 
 tuguese commerce, to 6 or 7 after the ports of Japan were 
 closed in 1639, affords other confirmation of the correctness 
 of this view. 
 
 In the Occidental world, gold seems to have been 
 the more valuable metal from the remotest historical 
 period. We are iaformed that, by the laws of Menes the 
 value of gold was fixed in E^ypt at two and a half times 
 that of silver.' The era of Menes has been placed at the 
 thirty-seventh to the thirty-ninth century before Christ; and 
 if credit be accorded to these statements and dates, it would 
 seem that between the eras of Menes and of Cadmus, either 
 very little commercial intercourse existed between Egypt and 
 Arabia, or else that for some reason, perhaps the use of 
 numerary money, very little commerce in the precious 
 metals took place between them ; or else that the Oriental 
 ratio, not differing materially from the Occidental in the 
 time of Menes, had gradually accorded a higher value to 
 silver, until this movement was reversed again through the 
 influence of the Greek mines-. It is, however, very much 
 more easy to believe that the ratio quoted from the code 
 of Menes belongs to a later date than Menes himself. Like 
 other great codes of law, this one was doubtless greatly 
 modified in time; and, though always passing by the 
 name of Menes, contained provisions that were incorpo- 
 rated into it centuries subsequent to the epoch of its author. 
 This is the case with the Roman codes, and many others. 
 In turning from these remote eras and insecure hypo- 
 theses to the more satisfactory accounts of the classical 
 historians, it becomes desirable to ascertain beforehand, 
 so far as we may, what are the principal influences that 
 govern the relation of value between the precious metals. 
 By this means it is hoped that a more satisfactory connec- 
 tion may be traced between the scattered fragments of an- 
 tiquity.* 
 
 The common view of this matter is that the ratio is gov- 
 erned by the relative cost of the production of these metals ; 
 but after what is elsewhere advanced by the present writer 
 concerning the fallacy of this view, so far as it relates to the 
 value of each metal compared with other commodities, it need 
 scarcely be repeated that it is equally fallacious in its appli- 
 cation to the value of one metal compared with the other. 
 The suddenness and rapidity of many of the changes of ratio 
 — for example, those which followed the conquests of 
 Alexander the Great, Julius Cae-iar, Cortez, and Pizarro,^ 
 and even the late change from the long time ratio. of 15} to 
 the present one of 18 — also prove that it cannot be due to 
 cost of production ; for these changes, and many others, 
 took place without any corresponding changes in the condi- 
 tions of production. Referring to the conclusions elsewhere 
 reached with respect to the influences which control the 
 value of the precious metals, it is only necessary to say in 
 this place that quantity is the primal element'that deter- 
 mines the value of money, whether it consists of the pre- 
 cious metals or any other substances, or these combined with 
 other substances ; and as to the value of one metal in the 
 other, it depends on quantity as effected by legal regula- 
 tions. 
 
 I. Quantity is related to the stock of each metal on hand 
 in the world, monetized, or physically and legally suscepti- 
 ble of being monetized, plus all numeraries, tokens, bank 
 
 ' As to the commercial importance of Arabia in very ancient 
 times, consult Baldwin's " Prehistoric Races," " Tlie Land of 
 Cush." 
 
 2 Helps, " Spanish Conquest," iii. p. 478. 
 
 ' Leon Faucher in Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians," chapter viii. 
 * See Buckle's " Essay on Liberty," as to tlie higher value con- 
 ferred upon facts by the discovery of their relations. 
 ' See table of the ratio appended to this cliapter. 
 
 notes, or other money, whether of paper or other substances. 
 Quantity also involves consideration of the current and pro- 
 spective supplies ,of metal or other moneys, either from 
 conquest, mining, or legal monetization, and the proportion 
 of such supplies to the combined stock of monetized metals, 
 and other substances or tokens used as money. Taking 
 this to be the meaning of quantity as related to money, it 
 may be accepted as an entirely safe doctrine that it is this, 
 and this alone, which primarily regulates its value. When 
 this quantity is subordinate to the will of man, and that will 
 subject without restraint to individual self-interest, then, in- 
 deed is the value of the thing thus produced due to cost of 
 production ; but not otherwise. For example, the quantity 
 of cotton cloths which may be produced this year through- 
 out the world is subordinate.to the will of man. The exer- 
 cises of this will is subject, without practical restraint, to 
 the influence of individual self-interest. Any man who has 
 the means may produce as many cotton cloths as he pleases ; 
 nor, as things stand, can the combined will of society stop 
 him. There is no interdict upon the production of cotton 
 cloths. Cotton cloth may, therefore, be produced in practi- 
 cally illimitable quantities, or its production may be aban- 
 doned altogether. Cost of production alone determines 
 what quantity of it shall be produced. But this is not the 
 case with the precious metals. Their production cannot be 
 indefinitely increased ; mines cannot always be found ; nor, 
 when found, worsed ; nor, when worked, made to yield 
 metal. The vast quantity of the precious metals accumu- 
 lated and on hand in the world cannot be disposed of; and 
 this quantity is so vast compared with the utmost current 
 production, that a long period must elapse before the latter 
 could sensibly affect the value of the former. Nor are the 
 precious metals alone in these respects. Improved land 
 stands in the same category of commodities which are not 
 amenable to the law of cost of production. Its quantity 
 cannot be increased indefinitely ; and the vast areas already 
 in the possession of man must necessarily have a powerful 
 conservative influence upon its price. Therefore, although 
 the cost of taming wild lands were to fall to-day to a mere 
 fraction of its previous cost, the fact would have no appre- 
 ciable influence upon the value of land. Indeed, it may 
 be said, broadly, that no commodity whose production is not 
 amenable to the influence of individual interest derives its 
 value from the cost of production. 
 
 For example, though to artificially produce water — a com- 
 modity for which there is no substitute, and with the ac- 
 quisition of which society does not interfere — by the chem- 
 ical union of hydrogen and oxygen, might make it worth a 
 thousand dollars per cubic inch ; yet so long as the earth is 
 as full of it as it is to-day, that liquid will remain not without 
 the highest worth, but without the slightest value. Were 
 it conceivable that the springs and rivere were dried, and 
 man were compelled to resort to the laboratory for his sup- 
 plies of water, then, and not until then, would the cost of 
 its production determine its value. And so, in a similar 
 way, it may be said, that when there are no substitutes for 
 gold and silver, when their production is entirely amenable 
 to the will of man, not only socially, but individually, and 
 every man may produce as much or little of them as he 
 chooses, then, and not till then, will their value be deter- 
 mined by the cost of their production. 
 
 II. Legal regulations, first, concerning the ratio itself, 
 and second, concerning money at all, are, next to quantity, 
 the most potentof all the influences that determine the ratio 
 of value between the precious metals. So potent are they 
 that, under certain circumstances— as those of universal 
 specie money and tolerably ec^ual quantitative stocks and 
 supplies, the regulation of a single important nation, or of 
 several nations combined, might be sufficient to render 
 the market ratio of the world whatever may be desired — 
 for example, 1 gold = 1 silver— and to keep it there for 
 ever, entirely irrespective of cost or of quantity. With 
 regard to the influence of legal regulations upon the 
 relative value of gold and silver, it is to be observed that 
 it was exerted in three ways— firstly, through the effect of 
 such legal regulations upon quantity ; secondly, through dis- 
 criminating taxes or mint charges upon the metels, after 
 they shall have been extracted trom the earth, or obtained 
 from conquered nations (no matter what the cost of original 
 production), and introduced into the markets at their cur- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 407 
 
 rent value ; thirdly, by the mere force of law, irrespective 
 of quantity or of discriminating charges. These operations 
 of law will be treated in their turn. 
 
 A. The effect of law upon quantity, and of quantity upon 
 ratio. 
 
 The monetization or demonetization of either metal, or a 
 change of standard, as it is called, will diminish the supply 
 compared with the demand of the monetized metal. Such 
 an act will enhance the demand, without increasing the sup- 
 ply, and thus render the monetized metal dearer, and con- 
 trariwise the demonetized metal cheaper. The most recent 
 notable instance of this kind is that afforded by the German 
 Imperial mint laws of 1871. The limitation or extension 
 of coinage facilities will produce similar results — as witness 
 the effects of the recent closing of the French mints to the 
 coinage of ecus.' Like results will follow the suspension 
 or resumption of specie payments by any important 
 country, or the substitution of numeraries, tokens, or 
 bank notes for specie, or of specie for numeraries, to- 
 kens, or bank notes. Such legal regulations will cause the 
 supply of the precious metals to change its proportion to 
 the demand for them, and will thus alter their value relative 
 to other commodities. Several instances of this sort have 
 occurred within late years, as when the United States sus- 
 pended specie payments in 1862, Italy in 1866, and France 
 in 1870.2 
 
 B. Effect.of mint charges upon ratio. 
 
 The imposition of discriminating mint charges has an 
 important influence upon the ratio. If the latter stood at 
 1 gold := 1 silver, and the same rate were levied upon one 
 metal as the other, it would make no difference how mine 
 charges were imposed, whether by weight or value. But 
 when the ratio is unequal, an ad valorem mint charge, as 
 though apparently similar for both, becomes in reality a dis- 
 criminating charge in favor of one metal, and against the 
 other. Thus, suppose the ratio to be, as it was in the days 
 of Herodotus, 1 : 13, a mint charge of, say five, or any other 
 per cent, ad valorem upon both metals would amount to 
 thirteen times as much in weight upon silver as gold. The 
 charge upon gold would be "05 of gold, and upon silver "65 
 of silver, which is thirteen times as much. If, instead 
 of this, the mint charge were five per cent, of the weight 
 of the metal coined, it would be equally the same for both. 
 Thus it would amount to .05 pound of gold upon each 
 pound of gold, and .05 pound of silver upon each pound 
 of silver. Hence it makes an important difference whether 
 mint charges are imposed ad valorem, or by weight. The 
 tendency of ad valorem charges is to widen the ratio ; that of 
 weight charges, as far as the ratio is concerned, is nil. When- 
 ever debts have to be paid abroad, commercial competition 
 obliges the shipper of metal to select the one upon which the 
 lighter mint charges are levied, in order that, upon being 
 recoined in the country of its destination (history knows 
 nothing of universal coinage or uniform coinage), it should 
 yield him the greater net result in coined metal. One of 
 the metals would thus become more desirable than the other. 
 Since the opening of the Greek and Spanish silver mines, 
 this metal has been gold ; and the tendency of discriminat- 
 ing mint charges has been to continually widen the ratio. 
 Every time the metals passed from one country to another — 
 that is to say, every time they had to be recoined — more mint 
 charges had to be paid upon silver than gold (for the charge, 
 so far as we know, has always been ad valorem), and but for 
 the almost entire failure, at certain times, of the supplies of 
 both metals, and their relatively limited stock at all times, 
 it is believed that this influence alone would have so greatly 
 widened the ratio as to have rendered silver, ere this, almost 
 worthless for the purposes of specie or "intrinsic" money. 
 Previous to the era of the silver mines alluded to, the tend- 
 ency of the mint charges was doubtless the other way, 
 namely, to render gold less and less valuable. At the present 
 time, the substitution of Government and bank notes for 
 coins in the various mixed currencies of the world deprives 
 silver of the protection which the limitation of new supplies 
 has afforded to its value, against the encroachments of the 
 mint charge ; and the ratio, which now stands at 1 : 18, must 
 
 • " Report U. S. Silver Com." 
 
 2 1bid. pp. 21, 22. 
 
 be expected to widen to 1 : 20, and further. Nothing seems 
 likely to avert this result, short of one or two measures. 
 Either the mint charges of all the principal countries em- 
 ploying the precious metals for money must be levied upon 
 weight instead of value, or else a number of powerful nations 
 must combine together to sustain the value of silver by arbi- 
 trary decree. 
 
 0. Arbitrary decree. 
 
 Theoretically, arbitrary decree can make the ratio what- 
 ever may be desired, irrespective of either quantity or mint 
 charges; practically, arbitrary decree is unattainable. To 
 render such decree effective, it must be that of several im- 
 portant nations combined. It is easy enough for nations to 
 resolve ; but what motive beyond their own interest is there 
 to induce them to execute ? None but their own sense of 
 right ; and among nations — but few of which have as yet 
 clearly passed beyond the feudal stage, and thrown off the 
 influences of Church and caste — this can hardly be relied 
 upon too implicitly. Supposing, however, that such co- 
 operations were attainable, and, for example, the combined 
 nations of Europe and America decree, and remained stead- 
 fast to the decree, that the ratio of gold and silver should 
 henceforth be as 1 : 1, it is difficult to conceive how this ratio 
 could ever be changed, either by the operation of quantity, 
 mint charges, or any other influence. Relative demands of 
 the precious metals for the arts could not change it, for even 
 supposing everybody preferred gold plate to silver — a prefer- 
 ence which under such circumstances cannot be admitted — 
 this would not change the ratio. As no atom of gold could 
 become money again, except at a par with silver, it is im- 
 possible to imagine that any scarcity of the one metal, or 
 plentifulness of the other, could impair their equal value. It 
 would not matter if, other things aside, gold were preferable 
 to silver for use in the arts, or not. The law of nations, 
 making them, when coined, equal as money, and all con- 
 tracts dischargeable, all debts payable in the same weight of 
 one as the other ; and the conversion of both, from coin to 
 bullion, and from bullion to coin, being unlimited, and sub- 
 ject to the same terms of seignorage, it necessarily follows 
 that their value would be the the same. 
 
 Nor could the vicissitudes of production effect a change 
 in the ratio. Though but a pound of gold a year were pro- 
 duced against millions of pounds of silver, still would the 
 ratio remain unchanged. Nobody would pay more than a 
 pound of silver for a pound of gold, when the former could 
 discharge the same amount of indebtedness, past, present, 
 and future. Nor would the demands of commerce change 
 it. If debts were due from one country to another, the 
 shipment of one metal would answer all the purposes which 
 could be subserved by a shipment of the other, seeing that 
 both metals, when coined, would be equally legal tender in 
 all countries, and that coinage everywhere would be unlim- 
 ited, and subject to the same charges for both metals. Ncr 
 would the condition of the stock on hand alter the ratio. 
 Although this stock consisted nearly entirely of silver, and 
 very little of gold, still would a pound of silver always buy 
 a pound of gold, so long as the universal law rendered the 
 one equally as effective as the other in the payment of debts, 
 the market and the legal price would always be the same.' 
 
 Some familiar examples of the operations of law upon the 
 value of the precious metals may seem desirable in this 
 place. Until the passage of the recent law of the United 
 States, remonetizing the silver dollar, that coin, always 
 weighing the same, viz., 371} grains pure, was sold to the 
 exchange brokers of San Francisco for about 90 cents in 
 gold — i. e., nine-tenths of 23.22 grains of pure gold. 
 
 1 On a previous oceasinn the writer reached the same conclusion 
 from even a narrower basis, i. e. upon the assumption of a fixed 
 ratio, and unlimited coinage, by a single important commercial coun- 
 try, instead of, as herein, from the point of view afforded by the 
 supposition of a common law on the subject between all nations. 
 Jle said : — 
 
 " A legal ratio between the precious metals adopted in an impor- 
 tant country, if coupled with full legal tender, and unrestricted coin- 
 age, at brassage, or a moderate seignorage, constitutes in effect, a 
 standing offer to purchase all the current supplies of one metal at a 
 fixed price in the other . . . It follows that the free mint prices, 
 when the mints are competent to deal with the supplies, make the 
 market ratio." " U. S. Silver Report," Appendix, 66. 
 
408 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Upon the enactment of the law the silver dollar rose 
 to par. The law simply enlarged the legal tender function of 
 the coin from |!5 to an unlimited amount. At the present 
 time, while this dollar is at par in gold, the metal it contains 
 can be purchased in the market for 90 cents or less. Again, 
 the trade dollar, which contains 378 grains pure, is not 
 worth as much in the market as the silver dollar of 371 J- 
 grains; becauie the law makes the latter an unlimited legal 
 tender, and the former not. Finally, two half-dollars — 
 weighing, if coined between 1853 and 1873, only 345'6 
 grains, and if coined since 1873, only 347.22 grains — are 
 worth in the market more than a trade dollar of 378 grains, 
 the former being legal tender for 110, and the latter not.' 
 The operation of law shown by these examples is of a; 
 purely local character, and is probably not susceptible of' 
 further extension, without incurring the risk of being de- 
 feated by counterfeiting. Indeed, it is believed to be already 
 beyond this limit.'' It is useless to discuss the probability 
 of the adoption by international convention of any general 
 and radical reform, concerning the legal ratio between the 
 metals. Such an event seems too remote ; and, before it 
 happens, it is probable that attempts will be made to solve 
 the monetary problem, through the adoption of purely nu- 
 merary systeuis. 
 
 Reviewing what has been adduced concerning the influ- 
 ences which practically determine the ratio of value between 
 gold and silver, it may be said, briefly, that among these 
 influences, cost of production finds no place at all ; that the 
 principal ones are the stock of the precious metals, and the 
 laws concerning, money ; and that among the latter is one 
 (the discriminating mint charge against the cheaper metal) 
 which has always had the tendency to render the dear metal 
 dearer and the cheap metal cheaper. Resuming our history 
 which may now be read by the light afforded by these con- 
 clusions, it is to be observed that a considerable portion of 
 Western Asia, which in the earliest times belonged, by 
 political relations and commercial intercourse, to the Ori- 
 ental world, had afterwards, through the influence of PhcB- 
 nician commerce, become attached to the Occidental. Thus, 
 while at the period alluded to by Agatharchides, Arabia 
 belonged to the Eastern world ; at the date next to be men- 
 tioned, it was fully within the Western, which now also em- 
 braced the empires of Assyria and Persia. The earliest 
 instance, of the western ratio is derived from the cuneiform 
 inscription at Nineveh (Korsabad) on the Tigris, and is at- 
 tributed to the year B.C. 708. This ratio is 1 gold = 13-33 
 silver. A more satisfactory instance is found in Herodotus, 
 and relates to Persia, about the year B.C. 500. This ratio 
 is derived from the payment of the Egyptian tribute to 
 Darius, and is given at 1 gold = 13 silver.' 
 
 From this period to the fourth century B.C. silver fell in 
 value, and the western ratio widened until it stood in Greece 
 atl gold=15 silver; and this was probably also something 
 near the ratio in all Levantine Europe and Asia Minor. 
 From the fourth , century B.C. to the discovery of America, 
 gold fell in value, and the western ratio gradually narrowed 
 until, in a.d. 1492, it stood at about 11 throughout Europe. 
 The ratio in England was fixed by the Act of 22 Edw. IV. 
 (1483), at 11-158 ; ' North Germany by the Lubeck mint rule 
 of 1463 at 11-60 ;6 France, by the law of 1388, at 10-75 ;6 
 Spain, by the law of 1483, at 11^575 ; in Italy it stood about 
 10 J ;' in South Germany, Russia and the Levant the ratio 
 cannot be determined from the authorities at command.' 
 Spain and France were at that time among the most import- 
 ant commercial countries in Europe, and the legal ratios 
 
 ' Section 3,586 of the revised statutes, wliich for a time made the 
 trade dollar legal tender for $5, has been rejjettled. 
 
 " The writer publicly expressed this view, upon the day after the 
 passage of the silver bill ; and in less than a week afterwards coun- 
 terfeit dollars, which could not be distinguished from the genuine 
 were fourad to be in circulation. ' 
 
 8 Herod., iii, 95. Boeckh, book i, chap. iv. 
 
 * Tooke, yi, 417. 'Soetbeer. 
 
 " Humboldt's " New Spain," iii, 400, and Balch in " Penn Moutli- 
 ly," Philadelphia, March, 1877, p. 198. 
 
 ' Soetbeer. 
 
 adopted by those countries went farthest to determine the 
 general market rate throughout Europe. With a tendency 
 of the western ratio, both from the continual accumulation 
 of the stock of silver, and the influence of ad valorem mint 
 charges, to always widen — in other words, with a tendency 
 of silver always to fall in value, as compared with gold— 
 the narrowing of the western ratio, or rise of silver, from 
 the time of Alexander the Great to that of Columbus, must 
 have been due to some excsptional cause, having no connec- 
 tion with the principles already adduced. This cause will 
 be found in the influence of the eastern ratio. Next in 
 antiquity to the instance related by Agatharchides is 
 probably that one mentioned by Strabo, who states in his 
 sixteenth book that in a country bordering on that of the 
 Sabseans, gold has two-fold value of silver, and three-fold 
 that of bronze.' No date is connected with this circum- 
 stance, but it may fairly be inferred to have related to a 
 period long previous to the era of the great geographer.* 
 In the fifth century B.C., as we are assured by another au- 
 thority, gold in the East stood as 1 to 5, or 6 of silver.' 
 
 From the fifth century B.C. to the seventeenth century of 
 our era, no satisfactory accounts have been met with of the 
 ratio in the Orient, but the direction of the flow of silver 
 furnishes an assurance that the ratio must always have been 
 narrower than in the Occident. Said Sir Isaac Newton in 
 1717, "In China and Japan one pound weight of fine gold 
 is worth but nine or ten pounds weight of fine silver, and in 
 the East Indies it may be worth twelve." The closer inter- 
 course with the Orient which followed the Portuguese and 
 Dutch maritime discoveries of the sixteenth century, doubt^ 
 less contributed to widen the eastern ratio from its position 
 at the period of the discovery of America ; and at this period 
 it may be conjectured to have stood generally at about 1 :6 
 in Japan to 1:7 in China and India, though probably the 
 difference in localities was very great. It may be noticed 
 here, in parenthesis, that the ratio both in Japan and China 
 has undergonegreat perturbations. In Japan it probably stood 
 at 1:6 to 1:7 at the period when intercourse was opened Ijy 
 the Portuguese. A century later it stood, according to New- 
 ton, at 1 : 9 or 1 : 10. In 1860, sliortly after the second open- 
 ing of commerce with Europe, it stood 1:6 (Grifiis, "Mika- 
 do's Empire," p. 602). According to Alcock, ii. 548, and 
 Williams' " Commercial Guide," which follows Alcock in 
 this particular, the ratio in 1854 was 1.4; and this conclu- 
 sion, which is said to have been derived from " the face 
 value of their gold and silver coins," has been repeated in 
 many works of reference. But no confirmation has been 
 found of it, and it conflicts with the special report on the 
 subject by the pursers of Perry's expedition. In China the 
 ratio in a.d. 1285 was 1 : 10. In 1375 it is said to have been 
 1:4, but this statement lacks confirmation, and is impro- 
 bable. Lecompte, a Jesuit, who wrote in 1690 (London, 
 1697) gave the ratio in China at 1 ; 10, whereas, says he, 
 " among us (in Europe), it is as 1 : 15." Newton (in 1717 
 gave it at 1 : 9 to 1 : 10. Turgot, in 1776, gave it at 1:12.* 
 
 In 1779 the ratio at Peking is said to have been 1 : 17^ ; 
 but this, if true— for it lacks confirmation — was probably 
 merely temporary and local. In 1810 it was 1 : 10 at Can- 
 ton. In 1821 it was 1:18 in Peking; in 1844, 1:17 at 
 Canton ; and in 1845, 1:16 at Canton ; these three ratios, 
 lacking authority, and, if true, probably merely local or 
 temporary. From 1849 to 1860 the ratios at Shanghai com- 
 pared with the annual average rates at London are given 
 herewith from Rondot's article on Chinese weights and 
 moneys in the "Dictionary of Commerce and Navigation " 
 published by Guillaumin at Paris, in 1861, quoted by United 
 States Minister George F. Sewai-d, from whose valuable com- 
 munication to the Monetary Commission* many of the 
 above ratios in mediaeval and modern China are also obtained. 
 
 ' Boeckh, book i, chap, vi, note. 
 
 '' Strabo wrote during the fii-st century before Christ. 
 
 9 "App. Cyc," xiv, 658. Consult Leon Faucher. 
 
 * Turgot, " Wealth of Nations," ed. Loudon, 1793, p. 49. 
 
 » Uopoi-t, i. Aju). 5il-570. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 409 
 
 1849 
 1860 
 1861 
 1862 
 1863 
 1864 
 
 Shanghai. 
 
 ; 16-5 
 ; 14-1 
 ; 14-4 
 ; 14-4 
 ; 16-6 
 ; 14-0 
 
 London^ 
 
 16-83 
 15-83 
 16-46 
 16-57 
 16-33 
 16-33 
 
 1865 
 1866 
 1867 
 1868 
 1869 
 1860 
 
 Shanghai. 
 
 1 : 12-8 
 
 1 : 13-4 
 
 1 : 14-2 
 
 1 : 14 7 
 
 1 : 14-9 
 
 1 : 16-9 
 
 1 : 15-36 
 
 1 : 16-33 
 
 1 : 15-27 
 
 1 : 15-36 
 
 1 : 16-21 
 
 1 : 16-30 
 
 Returning now to the consideration of the general subject 
 of the ratio in ancient times, it is to be observed that while 
 during the twenty centuries previous to the discovery of 
 America the western ratio was narrowing from about 1 : 14 
 to 1 : 11, it widened in the east from about 1:5^ to 1 : 6 or 
 1:7. 
 
 Apart from any other consideration it seems probable that 
 as commerce progressed, and intercourse between Europe 
 and Asia grew more intimate, each ratio was modified by 
 the other, until they both came to the same level, which 
 they did in the early part of the present century.'' The in- 
 fluence exercised by the eastern upon the western ratio was, 
 however, not merely to attract the latter from a stationary 
 condition towards the former, but to modify a tendency of 
 the western ratio to widen from 1:14 to a lower value of 
 silver and confine it to 1:11. In other words there existed a 
 tendency of the western ratio to continually widen. This 
 tendency had widened it from 1:13J in 708 b. c. to 1:14 or 15 
 in the fourth century B. c. It was at this period that active 
 intercourse and commerce was open between Europe and 
 farther Asia. The Persian expeditions into Europe occurred 
 during the fifth century b. c. The expedition of Alexander 
 into India during the fourth century ; afterwards the Greeks, 
 Carthaginians,' and Romans maintained regular commercial 
 intercourse with the Orient. One of the results of this in- 
 tercourse was that the tendency of the western ratio to 
 widen was counteracted by the eastern ratio; and thence- 
 forth the former, instead of continuing to widen, slowly nar- 
 rowed. That the western ratio had by itself a tendency to 
 widen, will hardly be disputed, when it is remembered that 
 during the period under review, viz., from the fourth century 
 B. c. to the discovery of America, the principal one of the 
 two precious metals produced in the Western World was 
 silver, and that the stock; though it declined after the ex- 
 haustion of the Spanish mines By the Romans, became more 
 and more argentiferous, and less and less auriferous. Dur- 
 ing this period the Greek silver mines of Laurion, the 
 Spanish silver mines, and the German and Hungarian silver 
 mines, exhibited their highest productiveness; while the 
 little gold acquired by Europe was derived from a remote 
 commerce with the East. Aside from all other re^ons-^ 
 for there was another — here was an insurmountable one for 
 silver to fall in value, compared with gold ; and that it did 
 not fall, but on the contrary rose, is solely attributable to 
 the influence of the Oriental trade. The moment that the 
 supplies of the precious metals to Europe from America be- 
 came so ample that, instead of seeking for gold in the Orient, 
 the former could afibrd to export silver to Asia, the modify- 
 ing influence of the eastern ratio was destroyed ; and the ten- 
 dency of the western ratio to widen was left without restraint. 
 This widening has gone on until from 1 : 11 at the period of 
 the discovery, the rate has now reached 1 : 18. So long as 
 silver continued to be the principal metal supplied to Europe 
 this movement is easily accounted for. It is attributed to 
 the continual increase of the stock of silver in Europe, and 
 the continual relative diminution of the stock of gold. But 
 when Brazil,! and afterwards Japan, Russia, California, and 
 Australia were opened, these conditions were reversed. It 
 was now gold that became more plentiful, and silver rela- 
 tively scarcer. Why, then, did silver still continue to fall 
 in value ? This question has already been answered. The 
 constant tendency of silver to fall in value is found in the 
 laws of money : in the long-time custom of levying mint 
 charges by value. This alone has furnished a constant pres- 
 sure, which has been upon silver, and promoted its de6a- 
 dence ever since man first learnt to extract it from its ores, 
 and which, without radical reform in the mint laws of lead- 
 ing nations, must ultimately unfit that metal for money. 
 
 'These ratios (at London) differ slightly from those given farther 
 on, but not enough to warrant farther attention. 
 
 ' Except in Japan which had been almost closed to Western com- 
 merce since 1639. 
 
 Tables of tlle Ratio In Ancient Tlmcg* 
 
 I. Table showing the EaUo of value between gold and silver in the EaaUm 
 and Western Worlds, respeeticety, from the mo6i remote times tj the bth 
 Century b. c. 
 
 Eastern Ratio. 
 
 Western BaUo. 
 
 Vale. 
 
 Salio. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Dale. 
 
 Ratio. 
 
 Eemarks. 
 
 Uncertain 
 Uncertain 
 
 6th Cent. 
 B.C. 
 
 1 S : 10 G 
 IG : 2 S 
 
 1 G : 5 or 
 
 6S 
 
 Arabia, 
 Agathar- 
 
 chides. 
 The East, 
 
 Strabo. 
 
 App. Cyc.' 
 xiy. 658. 
 
 Uncer- 
 tain 
 
 B.C. 708 
 
 B.C. 600 
 B.C. 490 
 
 B.C. 420 
 
 B.C. 400 
 
 ! B.C. 400 
 B.C. 400 
 B.C. 400 
 
 1 G : 2%B 
 
 1 G : 13J^ S 
 
 1 G : 13 S 
 1 G : 12K S 
 
 1 G , iS}4 S 
 
 1 G : 12 S 
 
 1 G : 12 S 
 1 G : 13U S 
 1 G : 15 S 
 
 Egypt. Laws of 
 Menes. 
 
 Assyria. Cuneiform 
 
 inscriptions at 
 
 Nineyeh. 
 Persia Herod. Ill 
 
 95. 
 Sicily. Time of 
 
 Gelon. Boeckh, 
 
 44. 
 Asia Minor. Xen. 
 
 Anabasis. 
 Greece. Hippar- 
 
 chus. Plato. 
 1 Various author- 
 >- ities quoted by 
 J Boeckh. 
 
 11. 
 
 Table showing the Western Ratio from the 5th Century b. c. to the Dis- 
 covery of America. 
 
 404-336 
 
 •336 J. 
 
 340 
 338-326 
 343-323 
 
 300 
 
 207 
 189 
 186 
 
 58-49 
 
 64 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1-37 
 
 37-41 
 
 54-68 
 
 69-79 
 
 81-96 
 
 138-161 
 
 312 
 
 138 
 
 864 
 
 1260 
 1344 
 1349 
 1356 
 1401 
 1421 
 1464 
 1465 
 1470 
 1482 
 1361 
 1375 
 1403 
 1411 
 1461 
 1463 
 1465 
 
 to 
 1494 
 1336 
 1388 
 1492 
 
 1475 
 1480 
 1483 
 1497 
 1492 
 
 12.00 
 13.00 
 1,3.33 
 }4,00 
 11.50 
 12.50 
 10.00 
 
 13-70 
 
 8.93 
 11.91 
 
 10.97 
 12.17 
 11.80 
 11.64 
 11.30 
 11.98 
 14.40 
 14.40 
 
 12.00 
 
 12.60 
 12.09 
 11.67 
 11.16 
 11.16 
 10.33 
 10.33 
 11.16 
 11.16 
 11.16 
 12.30 
 12.40 
 12.80 
 12.00 
 11.70 
 11.60 
 
 10.50 
 
 The coinage somewhat 
 debased so that the 
 actual ratio was gene- 
 rally about as 1 : 11. 
 
 1 Values in Greece from the Peloponnpsian war to the 
 > time of Alexander; according to allusions in various 
 j Greek writers. 
 Greece. Time of Demosthenes. Boeckh, book i. chap. tI. 
 
 Special contracts in Greece. 
 
 Egypt under the Ptolemies. 
 
 Greece. Fall of gold, caused by influx of Alexander's 
 spoil. 
 
 Rome. Boeckh, book i. chap. vi. Overvalued gold 
 
 scruples coined at the i-ate oi^l gold to 17.143 silver. 
 
 Rome. Ratio in tax payments. Polyb^us, xxii. 15, g S. 
 
 Livy, xxxvii. 11. 
 Rome. The long-time ratio (of 13 and over) diminished 
 
 one-third in two months by extraordinary supplies «'f 
 
 gold from Aquileia. Strabo, iv. vi. 12. Polybius, xxiv. 
 
 10. Sueton., " Ciesar," 64. [from Gaul. 
 
 Rome. Fall of gold oecaslonedby influx ofCeesar's spoil 
 Rome. Coinage ratio. Boeckh, book i. chap. vi. 
 
 Rome. Reigns of Augustus and Tiberius, 
 
 Rome. Reign of Caligula. 
 
 Rome. Reign of Nero. 
 
 Rome. Reign of Vespasian. 
 
 Rome. Reign of Domitian. 
 
 Rome. Reign of Antoninus. ^ 
 
 Byzantium. Reign of Constantino. 
 
 Rome and Byzantium. Theodo.«ian Code (Boeckh, 
 
 book i. chap. vi. alludes to some coinage in a. d. 422, 
 
 at the ratio of 1 : 18.) 
 Probable ratio under the Carlovingian dynasty as shown 
 
 by the Edictum Pistense. 
 Average ratio in the Commercial Cities of Italy. 
 
 England. Mint Indentures. Tooke, vi. 417. 
 
 North Germany. Rules of Lubeek Mint. 
 
 .According to the accounts of the Teutonic order of 
 Knights. 
 
 "Holland. Humboldt's "New Spain," iii. 400. 
 France. Ibid. 
 
 France. Minister Gaurtin, as quoted by Mr. Thos. 
 Balch in " Penn Monthly," for March, 1877, p. 198. 
 
 Spain. "Memorias de la Real Academia de Historia," 
 tome vi. Madrid, 1821. 
 
 Year of the discovery of America. Average of tne Mln t 
 ratios of England, France, Germany, Lubeek, ana 
 Spain. 
 
 The Ratio in Modem Times. — Above it was shown that in 
 
 very ancient times silver was more valuable than gold ; that 
 
 afterwards gold became more valuable than silver, first in the 
 
 Western World, and afterwards in the Easter* ; and that 
 
 I the western and eastern ratios remained distinct up to a 
 
410 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 very recent date, silver having been always more valuable in 
 the East than the West. The time when gold became more 
 valuable than silver was assigned to the period of the open- 
 ing of the Greek and Spanish silver mines by the Phoeni- 
 cians ; the equalization and unity of the eastern and western 
 ratios was stated to have taken place during the present cen- 
 tury. It was also shown that the ratio was produced by two 
 influences, the first of which was the quantity of money in 
 existence (irrespective of the material of which it was 
 formed, but provided that some portions of it were of silver 
 and gold) and the second the prevailing legal regulations 
 respecting money ; and that the relative cost of producing 
 the precious metals had no bearing whatever upon their 
 value. So long as there were two ratios in the commercial 
 world, a third influence was added to the two above men- 
 tioned. This was that of each ratio upon the other. 
 
 Although for the sake of perspicuity and convenience the 
 relation of value between gold and silver has been classified 
 into two great divisions, the eastern and western ratios, it 
 should be stated that in point of law and fact there has 
 been no such thing as either an eastern or a. western ratio; 
 the ratio in every locality being difierent and each country 
 being a law to itself in this respect. Nevertheless, although 
 thus independent, it does not escape the influence of sur- 
 rounding countries; and with the intimate commercial 
 intercourse that now exists between the various countries of 
 the Occident, it results, as a matter of fact, that the ratio in 
 London, the most important market in the world for the 
 precious metals, is a pretty faithful repreientative of the re- 
 sult of all conflict on the subject, both economical and 
 legislative, and is therefore a substantial indication of the 
 average ratio of the Western world. At the period of the 
 discovery of America, the (average) ratio throughout Eu- 
 rope stood at about 1:11. The first important act of legis- 
 lation upon the subject after this date was the Edict of 
 Medina, issued by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1497, and fix- 
 ing the ratio in the coins of Spain at 1:10"755. As at one 
 period previous to the discovery of America, viz., in 1483, 
 the ratio in Spain had been fixed at 1:11'675, it has been 
 imagined by some' that the Edict of Medina was occasioned 
 by uncommonly large supplies of gold, which are assumed 
 to have been obtained from America during the years which 
 first followed the discovery. A glance at the statistics of 
 these supplies should be sufficient to dispel this assumption. 
 Up to 1497, and indeed for many years after, the amount of 
 gold obtained in America did not exceed an annual average 
 of £340,000, and everywhere throughout the correspondence 
 between Columbus and the Court we find intimations of the 
 disappointment of the latter at the trifling amount of metal 
 obtained. It now remains to be shown that the Edict of 
 Medina has been entirely misunderstood, and that instead 
 of according a new ratio to the precious metals, it merely 
 re-aflSrmed an old one. The following table shows the mint 
 ratios of Spain for upwards of three centuries : 
 
 Mint Ratios of Spain. 
 
 Yuar. Ratio. 
 
 1476 
 
 10-!)75 
 
 1480 
 
 11-665 
 
 1483 
 
 11-676 
 
 1497 
 
 10-765 
 
 16— 
 
 
 
 1641 
 
 14-00 
 
 16—1 
 
 16 00 
 
 1730 
 
 16-00 
 
 1772 
 
 16 00 
 
 1786 
 
 16.38 
 
 Authority. 
 
 "Memorial de la Real Academia de Historia,' 
 vi. Madrid, 1821. 
 
 Moran on Money, p. 44; and John Locke on Money, 
 
 ed. 1823, vol. V. p. 20fi. 
 Sir Isaac Newton. Silver undervalued. 
 
 (Kelly's "Combist.'' 
 [ to silver. 
 
 Kelation of gold in the doubloon 
 
 From this table it appears that the ratio aflirmcd in 1497 
 w.;s one that had been previously affirmed in 1475, seven- 
 teen years before the discovery of America or the new sup- 
 
 1 Humboldt, " rinctantions of Gold," p. H. 
 ' Mr. Rice Vau,?!ian in ii nvoiIc i.inblislied in 1675saya that " Spain 
 to raieea tribut-; on (lie ])eoplo, hath extremely falsified the intrin- 
 sic value" cf ter oins; but it does not appear whether gold or 
 silver was over-valued. Consult Harris on Coins," ii. p. 122. 
 
 plies of gold ; and that therefore it probably had nothing to 
 do with either event, but, instead, had flowed from the mint 
 ratios of the Italian commercial cities of the Middle Ages, 
 and found its support in the average ratio which prevailed 
 in the principal countries of Europe at the time of its 
 adoption. This ratio, as stated in a previous chapter, was 
 about 1:11, or, omitting Spain, about l:10f. 
 
 Starting from this point, viz. the period of the discovery 
 of America with the European or western ratio at 1:11, 
 there is no difficulty in perceiving the cause why silver has 
 since almost continually fallen in value, so that now the 
 ratio is little better than 1:18. The mint charges in all 
 countries have invariably been in. favor of gold and against 
 silver, varying at first fi-om about 1 to 2j per cent, on the 
 former, and from about 2 J to 5 per cent, on the latter; to, 
 latterly, nothing, or at most J to 1 per cent, on the former, 
 and 1 to 2J^ per cent, on the latter. There is no room what- 
 ever to doubt that this discrimination against silver, exer- 
 cised for centuries in the mints of every country of Europe 
 and operating upon enormous sums of coin, has been fully 
 competent to produce the result observed. Every time 
 specie had to be shipped to complete the exchanges between 
 European countries, gold was always preferred for the pur- 
 pose on account of the lower mint charges upon it, and 
 the inferior loss sustained by the shippers upon its reduction 
 to the coin of the country of its destination. To this rule 
 there has been an occasional exception. In the shipments 
 of silver from America, to Germany, Holland, Eu-jsia, India, 
 and such other countries as at various times adopted and 
 sustained the single standard of silver, the metal was con- 
 veyed, directly, or indirectly, from the countries that pro- 
 duced it, to those that consumed it ; it was coined or re- 
 coined but once, and therefore was not subject to discrimi- 
 nating mint charges. But the mass of international ex- 
 changes in Europe and America have been effected with 
 gold ; not because the carriage of gold costs less than that 
 of silver — it does not, freight charges upon the precious 
 metals being predicated upon their value and not their bulk 
 or weight ;' but because the seignorage exacted upon gold 
 coins being less than that upon silver ones, the loss sustained 
 by the shipper upon melting the former, either previous to 
 or after shipment, was less than his loss would have been to 
 melt the latter. As to obtaining his supplies from the un- 
 coined bullion, there is seldom enough of this to be had : 
 the demand for coin always tending to attract all disposable 
 metal to the mints. 
 
 Within a comparatively recent period the influence of 
 quantity upon the relative value of the precious metals has 
 been exercised through two comparatively new and vei-y 
 powerful agencies, the extensive substitution of bank paper, 
 and afterwards of government paper for coins ; and altera- 
 tions of the metallic basis, or "changes of standard." 
 These agencies came into play at about the same period — the 
 beginning of the eighteenth century. The first circulating 
 bank notes in Europe (except a few by the Bank of Stock- 
 holm, established in 1668) were issued by the Bank of Eng- 
 land, which was established in 1694. " The first govern- 
 mental circulating notes in Europe since those of the 
 Mediaeval Italian republics were those (if governmental 
 they may be called) of the Eoyal Bank of France, under the 
 administration of John Law. The first formal change of 
 the metallic standard in modern times took place in Portu- 
 gal in 1688, and nominally in England in 1717.^* It has al- 
 ready been shown that (owin^ to the practice of enacting 
 mint charges which discriminate against silver), when a 
 nation, at least when a modern nation, parts with its me- 
 tallic stock, gold is the metal preferred by exportei-s, and 
 this metal is therefore always the first to be exported. This 
 gold being recoined in the country to which it has flowed, 
 it there enters into the circulation and assists to raise tho 
 level of prices therein. As its subsequent withdrawal 
 would, other things aside, occasion a fall of prices to their 
 
 1 This is strictly correct as to ocean freights, and generally as to 
 land freights. Consult Cernusehi. As to express freights west of 
 the Rocky Mountains of the United States, it seems that the ad 
 valorem fi-eight charge upon silver is about half as much again as 
 upon gold. See examination before the present writer of Mr 
 ,Iohn J. Valentine, questions 126 and 127. "Report of U. S. 
 Monetary Commission, " vol. i. App, p. 47. 
 
 '' See " History of Money, " by the writer. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 411 
 
 previous level, this withdrawal is usually resisted by every 
 influence of law or commerce which the spirit of the times 
 or the institutions of the country permit. Some authors 
 maintain that the ancients never forbade the exportation of 
 the precious metals,' but this is incorrect.^ At all events 
 such restrictions were universal during the mediaeval ages ; 
 formed the basis of the mercantile system of two centuries 
 ago; wfcre maintained in most countries down to a late 
 period ; and, in some countries, are in force to-day. When 
 the agency of export restriction cannot be employed to pre- 
 vent the outflow of gold, recourse is had to arbitrarily rais- 
 ing the rate of interest in government banks, and so of 
 increasing the difiiculty of obtaining gold to export. This 
 is the method employed at present in Great Britain, France, 
 Germany, and other countries. 
 
 The country which has parted with its gold now has but 
 a single means of getting it back. This is to widen the 
 ratio, to cheapen silver, to enhance the value of gold, to pay 
 more for this last-named metal, and thus to buy it back at a 
 value higher than that at which it was parted with. It was 
 doubtless the perception of this great principle (aided by 
 the product of Brazil, and the Methuen treaty which en- 
 abled England to obtain the benefit of and handle this pro- 
 duct) that led that country, after Portugal, to adopt Sir Isaac 
 Newton's advice, and effect such a disposition of its mint 
 laws as practically to render gold coin its only money ; an 
 arrangement which was ratified by subsequent legislation, 
 particularly and finally by the Act of 1816, and the re- 
 sumption of specie payments in 1823. Newton's sagacity 
 enabled him, perhaps, to foresee that so long as England 
 continued to remain, as she had already become, the bank- 
 ing centre of ths world, she would profit by every exchange 
 of bullion that passed between other countries ; because by 
 their own mint laws these exchanges would naturally and 
 inevitably always be eflTected in gold. Thus, other things 
 aside, gold will continually rise in value ; and England, by 
 adopting it for money, keeping a large stock of it always on 
 hand, and making her contvacts payable in the same metal, 
 would continually profit by the operation. But what has 
 benefited England has injured the world at large.^ 
 \ Take the United States, for example. Between the ter- 
 mination of the American Revolutionary war in 1783, and 
 the resumption of specie payments in England in 1823, 
 there had accumulated in the States some £3,600,000 or 
 £4,000,000 in gold.* These had been purchased at the 
 ratio of 15 ; for this was the ratio which had been adopted 
 by the United States government in .1790. Between the 
 peace of February, 1815, and the year 1820 all this gold 
 must have been exported to. England ; for we are informed 
 that from 1820 to 1834 the only coins circulating in the 
 United States were of silver.' In order to introduce gold 
 into the currency the Americans raised its price. This they 
 did by widening the ratio in 1834 to 16, and at this price 
 was purchased the whole of the 50 millions which are 
 estimated to have been in the country upon the breaking 
 out of the Civil War of 1861, to say nothing of a sum of 
 gold, probably equally great, which was meanwhile used up 
 m the arts. Between 1862 and 1863 they sold the bulk of 
 this gold at the equivalent in merchandise of 16 in silver, 
 and were recently purchasing some of it back by giving for 
 it eighteen or nineteen times its weight in silver, until this 
 absurd policy was temporarily arrested by the passage of the 
 so-called Silver Bill. If this bill, however, is held not to 
 permit the government to pay its debts in silver dollars, they 
 
 'Boeckh, book i. chap. ix. 
 
 ^ " Exportari aurum non oportere, cum ssepe antea senatus, turn 
 me consule, gravissime judicavit." Cicero, Orat. i^ro L. Flacco. 
 cap. 28. 
 
 ' As ageneral rule of statesmanship — ^to which there are, of course, 
 exceptions — measures of fiscal policy which fit tlie aflfairs of Eng- 
 land, are ill suited to other countries, because, being the possessor 
 of the greatest reserves of coal (mechanical power) and wealth 
 (capital), she has become the creditor of all the world. In order to 
 counteract Sir Isaac Newton's system of money, the best policy for 
 other nations would have been to adopt the single silver standard ; 
 and, so long as England retains the smgle gold standard, this will 
 continue to be their best policy. 
 
 * Gallatin's " Reports on the Finances.'' 
 
 5 Report of Mr. White, Ho. Rep. 21st Gong. 2nd Sess., No. 95. In- 
 deed, Mr. White says there was no gold in circulation so early as 
 1817; that it had been shipped to England. 
 
 will have to be paid in gold, and this gold will have to be 
 purchased at a ratio, which, notwithstanding the supposed 
 tendencies of the Silver bill, will be sure to continually 
 widen in future as it has widened in the past. If it be asked 
 why the ratio took nineteen centuries to narrow from 14 or 
 15 to 11, while it has only taken three centuries to widen 
 from 11 to 18, the answer is, that after the Roman Empire 
 had passed the meridian of its power, until the discovery of 
 America, that is to say from the third century to the fifteenth 
 but comparatively few coins of gold and silver were minted 
 in Europe ; and whatever were the mint rules or other laws, 
 or conflict of laws, that, as it is assumed, occasioned the 
 general narrowing of the ratio from the period of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war to the discovery of America, their practical 
 operation was limited to a comparatively small amount of 
 coin. Moreover, as except between the coasts of the Medi- 
 terranean, there was little or no commerce between nations 
 during this period, and no exchanges to effect in specie, 
 unless with India, the consequence of changing the stand- 
 ard was not understood or had been forgotten after Julius 
 Caesar made gold the standard in Rome ; for even Pliny, 
 who wrote but a few years after him, though for other rea- 
 sons he anathematizes the author of the change, does not 
 perceive in it any bearing upon the future history of money 
 or of the world. It should also be remembered that up to 
 1873 the ratio stood at 15 J, a point to which it was held by 
 the mint laws and the vast coinages of France, and still 
 more by the rules of the Latin Monetary Union of 1867, 
 which provided a means of obviating the necessity of melt- 
 ing any gold coins that might thereafter be paid between the 
 countries which were parties to that Convention. 
 
 Long previous to this date, however, many of the legal 
 supports that had contributed to uphold the existing ratio 
 of Europe had been one by one knocked away, so that at 
 this date it depended chiefly on the mint ratio and open 
 mints of the Latin Union. Its other legal supports had 
 perished with the suspension of specie payments in Russia, 
 Austria, the United States, Italy, Spain, etc., and the prac- 
 tical closure of the mints of those countries to silver. 
 Consequently, when the important events next to be men- 
 tioned took place, the European ratio fell in a few years 
 as far as, otherwise, it would probably have fallen only 
 during the course of a century. These events grew out 
 of the Franco-German war. Germany in 1870 announced 
 her intention to change from silver to the gold standard. 
 This act by itself could have made no impression on the 
 ratio; which, next to quantity, is chiefly affected by dis- 
 criminating seignorages between the metals and the inter- 
 national movement of gold occasioned by such discrimina- 
 tions. But it induced France and the Latin Union to 
 paralyze the operation of their mint laws (of 15J) upon 
 the general ratio of the world, by suspending the free 
 coinage of full legal tender silver. This was doubtless 
 done to compel Germany to pay a higher price for the gold 
 she would require, for it is creditable to French statesmen 
 to say that, among all Europeans, they appear best to 
 understand the technism of this intricate matter. The 
 closure of the mints of the Latin Union removed the re- 
 maining barrier opposed to the fall of silver, deprived it of 
 the most active means it possessed of being coined into 
 money, and left it to the depressing tendencies of heavy 
 seignorages in the few countries that continued to employ 
 it for subsidiary coins. As for the influence upon the ratio 
 which has been attributed to the extraordinary production 
 of the Nevada mines, and the diminished flow of silver 
 to India — occurrences alleged to have occurred during 
 this period — these arguments were answered so fully in 
 the course of the investigation upon the subject under- 
 taken by the author in connection with the U. S. Monetary 
 Commission, that it is hardly worth while to devote any 
 space in this work to it. The substance of this answer was 
 that the world's normal product of silver had not increased, 
 nor had the normal flow of silver to India diminished.' The 
 existing conditions of the accumulated stock, the current 
 production and the commercial demand for the precious 
 metals, for the present preclude quantity from exercising 
 any noticeable influence upon their value. That value 
 
 1 See examination of this question in " Report U.S. Monetary 
 Commission," i. app. 81-89. 
 
412 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 therefore, both as it exists and evidently tends in the future, 
 has its basis, substantially, in the conflict of the mint laws 
 of nations, and in the operations of domestic mintage and 
 international exchange. 
 
 Tables of the Ratio in Modern Times. — The time 
 covered by this Minute is limited to the year 1760, for the 
 reason that no annual average quotations at one place are 
 attainable for anterior dates, and also because of the want 
 of any comprehensive summary of the mint codes of leading 
 commercial countries for an earlier period. A legal ratio 
 between the precious metals adopted in an important 
 country, if coupled with full legal tender and unrestricted 
 coinage at brassage or a moderate seignorage, constitutes, in 
 effect, a standing offer to purchase all the current supplies of 
 one metal at a fixed price in the other. Hence the free- 
 mint prices of important countries — ^that is to say, of coun- 
 tries whose practical ability to purchase metal is equal to, 
 and whose mints are capable of coining all that may be 
 offered — control the market ratio, and, except so far as 
 modified by discriminating seignorages, by demand for the 
 arts, for token coinage, and for export to Asia, they control 
 it almost exclusively. It is, therefore, essential to the 
 understanding of a table of fluctuations between the 
 metals to know what were the legal ratios in, or standing 
 prices for, the metals offered by leading countries ; and the 
 capacity of their mints during the period covered by such 
 fluctuations. The following is a rough summary of these 
 details relating to France, England, and the United States, 
 the two former countries, with Spain and her colonies, hav- 
 ing been the principal double-standard countries during the 
 period under review. Reliable details relating to the Span- 
 ish and German coinage systems of the last century are not 
 within reach. 
 
 France. — ^The optional standardi at 14 J prevailed up to 
 the year 1785, when it was changed to 15J. This ratio was 
 ratified in 1803, and is the one now nominally existing. 
 The conditions of coinage up to 1803 are not set forth in any 
 of the papers submitted to the writer. In 1803 the mints 
 were thrown open unreservedly to both metals at the charge 
 of brassage. In 1873 they were closed to silver. The capa- 
 city of the French mints, as indicated by the greatest coin- 
 age of any single year, was as follows : Gold, year 1859, 
 702,697,690 fr.; silver, year 1811, 256,399,040 fr. 
 
 England. — The optional standard at 15.2 prevailed nom- 
 inally from 1717 to 1816, when it was changed to gold, 
 which is the standard now existing. The coinage through- 
 out this period has always been called " free,'' but in point 
 of fact it costs a trifle more than the French charges of 
 brassage." In 1797 the mint was closed to free silver. The 
 capacity of the British mint, as indicated by the greatest 
 coinage of any single year, was as follows : Gold, year 1853, 
 £11,952,391 ; silver, year 1817, £2,436,298. 
 
 United States. — From and before 1760 to 1792 the silver 
 standard prevailed in the American States, but no silver was 
 coined by the Government until 1794. From 1792 to 1874 
 the optional standard prevailed — from 1792 to 1837 at 15, 
 and from 1837 to>1874 at 16 ; coinage unrestricted for both 
 metals at charge of brassage up to 1873, when the mints 
 were closed to silver. In 1878 the Government commenced 
 a limited coinage of unlimited tender silver dollars at the 
 ratio of 16, and for its own account. The capacity of the 
 American mints, as indicated by the greatest coinage of any 
 single year up to 1876, was as follows : Gold, year 1851, 
 £12,522,898 ; silver, year 1876, £3,825,300. ■ It may be ad- 
 ded that the American mints can easily be rendered ca- 
 pable of coining the entire current production of the 
 world, and as much may be said, perhaps, of the French 
 and British mints. The following tables exhibit the average 
 annual market ratio between gold and silver from 1760 to 
 1878 inclusive, and the average monthly ratio from 1873 
 to the present time. 
 
 ' Commonly called the double standard, that is when coins of 
 either gold or silver are legal tenders to an unlimited amount. 
 
 2 See vol. i. app. p. 230 of the " Report of tlie U. S. Monetary 
 Commission." 
 
 Table showing Ike average annual Ratio of Value bettoten Gold and SiU-er 
 — ci-pressed. as is cuslomari/, in Quantities of pure silver to one of gold — in the 
 London market from 1760 to 1878 inclusive. Up to 1829. from Ex. Doc. 117, 
 JFHrst Session^ Twenty-jirst Congress; froTn 1833 to 1875, from Puileif and 
 AhelVs circulars ; since lS7fi, from the weekly gold quotations of slandaid sil- 
 ver in the London '■^ EconomisV- 
 
 170O 
 
 14.29 
 
 179U 
 
 16.01 
 
 1820 
 
 15.71 
 
 1850 
 
 1761 
 
 13.'J4 
 
 1791 
 
 14.95 
 
 1821 
 
 15.98 
 
 1851 
 
 1762 
 
 14.63 
 
 1792 
 
 14'43 
 
 1822 
 
 15.91 
 
 1862 
 
 1763 
 
 14.71 
 
 1793 
 
 15.01 
 
 1823 
 
 16.91 
 
 1863 
 
 1764 
 
 14.91 
 
 1794 
 
 16.32 
 
 1824 
 
 16.64 
 
 18.54 
 
 1765 
 
 14.69 
 
 1795 
 
 14.77 
 
 1825 
 
 15 69 
 
 1856 
 
 1766 
 
 14.41 
 
 1796 
 
 14.77 
 
 1826 
 
 16.69 
 
 18.56 
 
 1767 
 
 14.45 
 
 17D7 
 
 16.45 
 
 1827 
 
 15.77 
 
 1867 
 
 1768 
 
 14.68 
 
 1798 
 
 16.45 
 
 1828 
 
 16.77 
 
 1868 
 
 1769 
 
 14.45 
 
 1799 
 
 14.29 
 
 1829 
 
 16.96 
 
 1859 
 
 177U 
 
 14.35 
 
 1800 
 
 14.81 
 
 1830 
 
 65..37 1 
 
 1860 
 
 1771 
 
 14.35 
 
 1801 
 
 14.47 
 
 1831 
 
 16.73 1 
 
 1861 
 
 1772 
 
 14.19 
 
 18(12 
 
 16.23 
 
 1832 
 
 16.73 1 
 
 1862 
 
 1773 
 
 14.73 
 
 1803 
 
 14,47 
 
 1833 
 
 15.93 
 
 1863 
 
 1774 
 
 15.05 
 
 1804 
 
 14.67 
 
 1834 
 
 15.73 
 
 1804 
 
 1775 
 
 14.62 
 
 1805 
 
 16.14 
 
 1836 
 
 15.79 
 
 1865 
 
 1776 
 
 14.34 
 
 1800 
 
 14.25 
 
 1836 
 
 15.71 
 
 1S66 
 
 1777 
 
 14.04 
 
 1807 
 
 14.46 
 
 1837 
 
 15.83 
 
 1867 
 
 1778 
 
 14.34 
 
 1S08 
 
 14.79 
 
 1838 
 
 15.86 
 
 1868 
 
 1779 
 
 14 89 
 
 1809 
 
 16.26 
 
 1839 
 
 16.61 
 
 1S69 
 
 17S0 
 
 14 43 
 
 1810 
 
 10.15 
 
 1840 
 
 15.61 
 
 1870 
 
 1781 
 
 13.33 
 
 1811 
 
 15.72 
 
 1841 
 
 15.70 
 
 1871 
 
 17S2 
 
 13.54 
 
 1812 
 
 15.04 
 
 1842 
 
 16.86 
 
 1872 
 
 1783 
 
 13.78 
 
 1813 
 
 14.53 
 
 1843 
 
 15.93 
 
 1873 
 
 1784 
 
 14.90 
 
 1814 
 
 15.85 
 
 1844 
 
 15.85 
 
 1874 
 
 178S 
 
 15.21 
 
 1815 
 
 16.30 
 
 1846 
 
 15.91 
 
 1875 
 
 1786 
 
 14.89 
 
 1816 
 
 13.64 
 
 1846 
 
 15.89 
 
 1876 
 
 17S7 
 
 14.83 
 
 1817 
 
 15.58 
 
 1847 
 
 16.79 
 
 1877 
 
 1788 
 
 14.71 
 
 1818 
 
 15.42 
 
 1848 
 
 16.S5 
 
 1878 
 
 1789 
 
 14.89 
 
 1819 
 
 15.82 
 
 1849 
 
 15.78 
 
 
 16.70 
 15.46 
 15.58 
 16.33 
 15.33 
 15.38 
 15.38 
 15.27 
 1.5.38 
 16.19 
 16.28 
 16 50 
 16.35 
 16.36 
 16.36 
 16.44 
 15.42 
 16.57 
 15.58 
 15.60 
 15.57 
 16.68 
 15.63 
 16.92 
 16.16 
 16.69 
 17.83 
 17.20 
 17.94 
 
 Table showing the acernge monthly Ratio of Value between Gold and Silver — 
 e-cpressedj as is customary, in quantities of pure silver to one of gold — in the Lon- 
 don market during the years 1873 to 1878 inclusive, calculated froyn. the weekly goUl 
 quotations of standard silver in the London " Economist.''* 
 
 Month. 
 
 January . 
 
 February 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May . . , 
 
 June . 
 
 July . . . , 
 
 August 
 
 September 
 
 October . 
 
 November , 
 
 December 
 
 Average 
 
 1873. 
 
 1874. 
 
 1875. 
 
 1876. 
 
 1877. 
 
 15.76 
 
 16.19 
 
 16.46 
 
 17.08 
 
 16 36 
 
 15.76 
 
 16.05 
 
 16.41 
 
 17.66 
 
 16.60 
 
 15.77 
 
 15.80 
 
 16.60 
 
 17.82 
 
 1722 
 
 15.78 
 
 16.01 
 
 16.47 
 
 17.57 
 
 17.39 
 
 15.81 
 
 10 07 
 
 16 55 
 
 17.81 
 
 17.46 
 
 15.87 
 
 16.06 
 
 16 88 
 
 18.21 
 
 17 53 
 
 15.89 
 
 16.16 
 
 16.97 
 
 19.26 
 
 17.37 
 
 15.98 
 
 16.26 
 
 16.92 
 
 18.11 
 
 17.40 
 
 16.99 
 
 16.31 
 
 16.74 
 
 18.25 
 
 17.32 
 
 16.06 
 
 16.34 
 
 16.74 
 
 17.95 
 
 17.12 
 
 16.26 
 
 16.26 
 
 16.76 
 
 17.49 
 
 17.31 
 
 16.17 
 
 10.40 
 
 16.89 
 
 10.71 
 
 17.49 
 
 15.92 
 
 10.16 
 
 16.69 
 
 17.83 
 
 17.20 
 
 17.,52 
 17.38 
 17.25 
 17.44 
 17.65 
 17.76 
 17.92 
 17.92 
 18.24 
 18.69 
 18.65 
 18.88 
 
 17.94 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE RELATIVE VALUES 
 OF GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 THE topic is one of peculiar interest, because cf the 
 general use of these two metals as standards of 
 value in the exchange of commodities. Neither of 
 them is suitable to be, for the political economist, 
 a real standard of value. That standard is rather to be 
 sought in some more universal product of labor, such as 
 wheat— the relation of which to the rate of wages is said, 
 on high authority, " to have been substantially unaltered 
 through centuries, one bushel of wheat representing one 
 day's labor. But the most convenient measure of exchange 
 has been furnished by the precious metals, and hence these 
 have been employed as standards of value. Unfortunately 
 the use of both of them as standards has involved a new 
 element of complexity— the fluctuation in the relative value. 
 It is this element, which I wish to trace here, quite 
 independently of the general relation between money and 
 labor and other commodities. Not the purchasing power of 
 the precious metals measured in terms of wages or supplies 
 but the purchasing power of each of them measured in 
 terms of the other, is the question to be considered; and the 
 use of these metals as currency gives to the inquiry more 
 
 ' " Report of the Director of the United States Mint, 1876 " p 47 
 No other authority has been found for the ratios eiveu'for the 
 years 1830, 1831, and 1832. 
 
 ' I owe the suggestion to a conversation with Mr. Abram S. Hewitt 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 413 
 
 than a merely speculative interest. For the attempt to 
 maintain a double standard involves the perpetual readjust- 
 ment of the relation by law, and the alteration of coinage 
 accordingly. Hence the civilized nations have gradually 
 come, with few exceptions, to the adoption of gold as the 
 standard, and the employment of silver as the material for 
 subsidiary or token coinage. The illustration of this principle 
 is scarcely required ; yet a simple statement may not be out 
 of place. If the law says that I may offer in all payments 
 requiring dollars, either gold dollarts or silver dollars, as I 
 choose, then both coins are legal tender, and there is a 
 double standard. At the same time the lav^^ must have fixed, 
 for the protection of my creditors, the exact amount of fine gold 
 in the gold dollar and of fine silver in the silver dollar; in 
 other words it must fix, for the purpose of coinage, the rel- 
 ative value of these metals. Now so long as this is also the 
 market value, or nearly so, it is a matter of indifference to 
 me whether I give and take silver or gold. But there may 
 be a change in the market value. For instance, a great 
 deal of silver may be wanted by manufacturers, or for ship- 
 ment in commerce to countries like India, where gold is not 
 available for the purpose; and the parties desiring silver 
 may be willing to pay more than a gold dollar for the silver 
 dollar, in order that they may melt or export the latter. In 
 that case I would prefer, of course, to sell ray silver dollar, 
 pay to my creditor the gold dollar, and keep the surplus. 
 Everybody feeling the same impulse the silver coinage dis- 
 appears, and is melted or exported. If the silver coins 
 smaller than a dollar are also of the same fineness and 
 relative value, this disappearance of silver causes great in- 
 convenience, because people can no longer " make change ;" 
 and the natural result is the general use of tokens, dinner 
 tickets, shinplasters, etc., a fractional currency, in short, 
 which is not legal tender at all, and which, when it pro- 
 ceeds from individuals or private corporations, has but a 
 Jocal circulation. Recognizing this evil all governments 
 provide for a regular token currency for small units of 
 money, which shall be legal tender for small amounts only ; 
 but is redeemable by the mints in larger amounts. There 
 is not a cent's worth of nickel or copper in the cent, or a 
 dime's worth of paper in the ten-cent note of postal curren- 
 cy. The same principle is extended to the smaller silver 
 coins of most nations, and constitutes, in fact, a recognition 
 of the law of political economy that there should be bnt 
 one standard of value in coinage. What is universally 
 done with regard to small coins should be done for all silver 
 coins. They should be subsidiary or token coins, legal ten- 
 der only in small amounts, and redeemable in gold at the 
 mint. 
 
 But whether the token coinage is confined to the smallest 
 denominations or includes all silver coinage, the question 
 remains. How shall it be maintained ? How shall its value 
 be fixed ? In this country, we have seen how the copper 
 cent disappeared, because the price of copper rose until a 
 hundred copper cents could be sold in the market for more 
 than a dollar. The same fate will inevitably overtake any 
 coinage which is undervalued by law. Hence, to prevent 
 the evils resulting from this source, it is necessary to fix 
 upon the subsidiary coinage a. value which shall be perma- 
 nently in excess of its market value as metal. Yet, on the 
 other hand, it is, for reasons which I will not fully 
 discuss here, not ad visible to debase a silver coinage or re- 
 duce its weight so far as to ignore entirely its real value. 
 This may be done with the smallest coins ; but it should not 
 be done, for instance, with dollars and half dollars. A very 
 important reason for this is the increased temptation and 
 facility thus afforded to counterfeiting. The imitation of a 
 die is not a diflicult matter ; and the security of the public 
 against counterfeit coins is not so much in the design upon 
 the coin, the workmanship of which may be, when genuine, 
 much defaced by wear, as in the easily ascertainable weight 
 and fineness of the metal, and in the fact that it would not 
 pay individuals to manufacture coins of the same weight 
 and composition. For any coin of higher denomination 
 than five cents, a considerable overvaluation would lead to 
 extensive and dangerous counterfeiting by the use of the 
 genuine metallic alloy, or one nearly approaching to it in 
 fineness. 
 
 We have then our two limits for the legal valuation of 
 coins ; and the problem is to get as near as possible to the 
 
 relative market value of gold and silver, and yet keep al- 
 ways on the snfe side, which is, as we have seen, the side of 
 the overvaluation of tlie silver or subsidiary coinage. These 
 considerations render the history of the relative values of 
 gold and silver an important study. 
 
 I am indebted, in the investigation of this subject, to va- 
 rious financial and economical authorities, including the 
 Parliamentary Blue Books and Reports, from the days of 
 Sir Isaac Newton, and Congressional documents, from the 
 famous report of John Quincy Adams down to our own day. 
 With these preliminary remarks, I present several tables, 
 and remarks upon them, illustrating the history of the rela- 
 tive value of gold and silver. 
 
 ANCIENT PERIOD. 
 
 AulhovUij, 
 
 Date B. C. 
 
 Kiitio. 
 
 ICOO 
 
 13.33 
 
 708 
 
 13.33 
 
 
 13.33 
 
 440 
 
 13. 
 
 400 
 
 13.33 
 
 400 
 
 12. 
 
 404 
 
 12. 
 
 to 
 
 13. 
 
 336 
 
 13.3:1 
 
 338-326 
 
 11. .w 
 
 323-43 
 
 12.,'jO 
 
 218 
 
 17.14 
 
 100 
 
 11.91 
 
 100 
 
 8.00 
 
 58-49 
 
 8.93 
 
 20 
 
 12 00 
 
 A.D. 
 
 
 1-37 
 
 11.97 
 
 37-41 
 
 1217 
 
 64-08 
 
 11.81) 
 
 69-79 
 
 11.54 
 
 81-06 
 
 11 30 
 
 138-101 
 
 11.98 
 
 312- 
 
 14.40 
 
 Ipscriptlona at Karnak, Tribute lihta of ThiUmosia 
 (Brandis). 
 
 Cuneilbi-m inscriptions on plates found in foundation 
 of Khoraobad. 
 
 Ancient Persian ooinn Gold Darics at 8.3 grams ^0 
 silver siglos, a bf) grams. 
 
 Herodotna'account of Indian ti'ibutes, 300 gold talcntq 
 =4(580 silver. 
 
 Standard in Asia, according to Xenophon, 
 
 Standard in Greece according to Hipparchus," an 
 alleged es.say by Plato 
 
 Values in Greece, from the Peloponnegian war to 
 the time of Alexander, according to hints in Greek 
 writers. There were variations under special con- 
 tracts. Unit, the silver drachma. 
 
 Spei-ial contracts in Greece. 
 
 Standard in Egypt, under the Ptolemies. 
 
 Rate at Rome, fixed for coinage of gold scruples. 
 Violent and temporary 
 
 General rate of gold pound to silver sesterces at Rome 
 to date. 
 
 About this time, sudden influx of gold from Aquilcjn, 
 temporarily reducing the relative value of the metal. 
 
 Great sums of gold brought by Cresar from Gaul. 
 
 Normal rale in the last days of the Republic. 
 
 Rate under Augustus and 
 
 Tiberius. 
 Rate under Caligula. 
 Rate under Nero. 
 Rate under Vespapian. 
 Rate under Domitian. 
 Rate under Antoninu=i |^ 
 Rate according tc coinage of Constantine and his sue 
 
 ccssors. Temporary (?) 
 
 Duringthe reigns of these 
 emperors^ however, the 
 silver coinage was' de- 
 based Hence the value 
 of the precious metals, 
 pure, was 1:11, and less, 
 
 Note.— Tn all these tables the figures in the second colum,n show how 
 many times as valuable as a given weight of fine silver would be an 
 equal weight of fine gold. 
 
 Kema eks. — It appears from a study of this table that the 
 ancient and long-established relation between silver and 
 gold in the Orient was 1 : 13.33. The stability of this rela- 
 tion must be referred probably to the limited nature of 
 commerce, and its control by the sovereigns. Gold, by 
 reason of its specific gravity, and non-liability to oxidation 
 is found, as silver is not, in alluvial deposits ; and would 
 naturally be first brought into use among barbarous nations. 
 But the production of silver by rude metallurgical processes 
 (requiring much lower temperature than the metallurgy of 
 iron) would not be a difficult discovery: and we find that 
 at a \ery early period this metal also was in general use. 
 The greater scarcity of gold and its superior qualities, espe- 
 cially at a time when the chief uses of both metals were for 
 jewelry and ornament, naturally established for it a higher 
 value ; and in the absence of sudden demands or fluctua- 
 tions in supply, such as active industry and free commerce 
 would produce, the relative value of the two metals might 
 remain, for the purposes of trade or tribute, where it was 
 once fixed by arbitrary authority. We see, however, that in 
 Greece, Egypt and Italy, the value referred to did not vaiy, 
 as a rule, very far from the ancient ratio; and this may jus- 
 tify us in supposing that the relation of 1: 12 or 1 : 13 
 approximately represented the cost of producing silver, as 
 compared with gold. The variations from this ratio, notes, 
 in the table, are generally due either to the sudden influx 
 of gold from new quarters, or to the arbitrary action of gov- 
 ernments for purposes of profit in coinage. In those days 
 the laws of political economy were not so well understood 
 as now ; and, indeed, until a very recent period, tampering 
 with coinage has been a favorite method of replenishing the 
 treasury of the sovereign. 
 
414 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The Mlcldle Ages. 
 
 Dale. 
 
 llatio. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 
 SM 
 
 12 
 
 llOi— 1494 
 
 9-12 
 
 1260 
 
 10.5 
 
 1351 
 
 12.3 
 
 1375 
 
 12.4 
 
 1«3 
 
 12.8 
 
 1411 
 
 12.0 
 
 1451 
 
 11.7 
 
 1463 
 
 11.6 
 
 1455—1404 
 
 10.6 
 
 140!)— 1508 
 
 9.2 
 
 1497 
 
 10.7 
 
 1500 
 
 10.5 
 
 Authority. 
 
 Probable ratio, as shown by the Edictum Pistaiiae, under 
 
 the Carlovingian dynasty. 
 Variable and apparently arbitary British mint-edicts. 
 Average ratio in the eoiiimeruiai cities of Italy. 
 
 Ratio in North Germany, as shown by very accurate 
 rules of the Liibecli mint, corroborated in the main 
 by the accounts of the Teutonic Order of Knights, 
 averaged in periods of foi-ty years. 
 
 1 Ratio according to the accounts of the Teutonic Order 
 J of Knights. 
 Ratio established by Isabella, in Spain. (Edict of 
 
 Medina.) 
 Ratio in Germany, according to Adam Riese's Arith- 
 metic. 
 
 Bemarks. — The data on which this table is constructed are 
 not all of equal authority. Particularly in England, there 
 appears to have been a considerable undervaluation of gold 
 for purposes of coinage. This would tend to keep the silver 
 coinage at home, and to repay to the government the cost of 
 obtainining silver for that purpose. But it is not necessary 
 here to discuss the special meaning of the British figures. 
 It is safe to say that, down to the fifteenth century, the gen- 
 eral market ratio of silver to gold was not far from 1 : 12. 
 The serious variation shown in the thirteenth century, when, 
 according to Italian economists, the average ratio in Milan, 
 Florence, Lucca, Rome, and Naples, was as low as I : 10.5, 
 indicates a much greater supply of gold in that region, at 
 th it time, than was available in the more warlike and less 
 commercial parts of Europe. Indeed, at the period referred 
 to, these Italian cities were notably prosperous in trade and 
 manufactures ; and we may well believe that gold flowed in 
 abundance to them, as to points where it could be safely 
 and profitably invested. There is no doubt, however, that 
 during the fifteenth century the relative value of gold de- 
 clined from about 12 to the neighborhood of 10, probably by 
 reason of the scanty supply of silver, and the growing 
 demand for that metal in manufactures (especially by the 
 silversmiths) and in Oriental commerce. The ancient 
 source of silver in Thessaly and Spain had been to a great 
 extent exhausted ; the New World had not begun to yield 
 its argent treasure ; and the mines of Saxony and Bohemia 
 had not reached their maximum productiveness. It will be 
 seen in the following period, as at others in this history, that 
 the development of new fields and new methods of industry 
 checked the tendency created by the currents of commerce 
 and restored the balance of value so seriously disturbed. 
 
 Prom tlie Dlsco-rery ot America to tlie Openlif of 
 the Mlues In Callforuia. and Australia, " 
 
 Date. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1526 
 1543 
 
 1561 
 1575 
 1651 
 1559 
 1604 
 1612 
 1619 
 1623 
 1640 
 1665 
 1667 
 1669 
 1670 
 1679 
 IGSO 
 
 1687—1700 
 1701—1720 
 1721—1740 
 1741—1790 
 1791—1800 
 1801—1810 
 1811—1820 
 1821—1830 
 1831—1840 
 1841—1850 
 
 Ratio. 
 
 11.30 
 11.10 
 
 11.70 
 11.68 
 11.17 
 11.44 
 12.10 
 13.30 
 13.35 
 11.74 
 13.61 
 16.10 
 14.15 
 15.11 
 14.60 
 16.00 
 16.40 
 
 14.97 
 16.21 
 16.08 
 14.74 
 16.42 
 16.61 
 15.51 
 K.iU 
 15.67 
 16.83 
 
 Authority. 
 
 Apparent relation of market value, aa deduced from 
 the British mint regulations, some absurd and unsuc- 
 cessful experiments in coinage being disregarded. 
 
 • French mint regulations. 
 
 •German Imperial mint regulations. 
 
 British mint regulations— experiments disregarded. 
 Upper German regulations. 
 French mint regulations. 
 
 Upper German regulations. 
 British regulations. 
 
 • French regulations. 
 
 Ratios calculated from the bi-weekly quotations of the 
 Hamburg prices current, giving the value of the gold 
 
 ducats of Holland m silver thalera, down to 1771, and 
 after that, in fine nUvv burs. The nominal par of 
 exchange during tins period was i :]4.S(]; nnd the 
 quotations show the variations of the market rate in 
 percentage above or beloiv this. At par, 6 silver 
 marks banco were equivalent to one ducat— (iS?S 
 ducats coiitalninK one mark (vveight) of fine mlfl 
 
 ?wfi ^?, ","%'' ""^l'''" '"'>"™ containing one mark 
 (weight) of fine silver. Hence, U X 6818.^"7?_iJ|!|(i 
 the par ratio. 47 'j i^.ou. 
 
 Remarks. — The first part of this table, like those which 
 precede it, is compiled from imperfect data, in the absence 
 of such direct evidence of ruling market values as is fur- 
 nished from 1687 to 1840 by the Hamburg quotations, the 
 appearance of which is a significant indication of the exten- 
 sion of commerce and manufactures. All conclusions drawn 
 from the mint regulations of countries maintaining a double 
 standard are affected with a double uncertainty. In the first 
 place, the frequent practice of enforcing, for reasons of state, 
 arbitrary relations of value in coinage may mask the real 
 market ratio ; and, in the second place, the lack of free 
 commerce and swift intercommunication among the. nations 
 may retard the evils resulting from such arbitrary action, 
 and postpone the necessity of legislative remedy. Hence 
 the change, as shown by the mint regulations, may appar- 
 ently occur some time after the real change in the relative 
 value of the metals. Certain wild experiments with the 
 coinage, particularly in England, have been omitted from 
 the table, as having no real connection with the actual rela- 
 tive value. But if we do not scan the dates too closely, nor 
 lay too much significance upon the maintenance of a certain 
 rate in one country alter it had been abandoned in another, 
 the figures above given, down to 1680, may furnish us an 
 instructive picture of the effect of the discovery, conquest, 
 and plunder of South America upon the commercial rela- 
 tions of Europe. 
 
 The earliest effect of this discovery was the shipment of 
 gold to Spain during the first quarter of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. At the beginning of that century, as shown in Table 
 II, the ratio of silver to gold was about 1 : 10.7, or 1 : 10.5. 
 The average annual influx of gold to Spain, down to 1527, 
 probably did not exceed $400,000. But this supply, though 
 it seems small to us now, would doubtless have depressed 
 still further the value of gold, but for the remarkable pro- 
 ductiveness of the Bohemian and Saxon silver mines. The 
 joint result of both causes was a notable increase of the 
 amount of precious metals in circulation, and hence a rise 
 in general prices, with which we have here nothing to do. 
 The effect on the ratio between gold and silver was a gradual 
 increase in the value of gold. About 1550, the annual sup- 
 ply of gold may be roughly estimated to have been $400,- 
 000, and that of silver $2,600,000. By 1600, the production 
 had become about $1,200,000 gold and $10,000,000 silver- in 
 1650, about $2,300,000 gold and $15,000,000 silver. This 
 increase in the supply of gold is largely due to the develop- 
 ment of the Guinea Coast, and the productiveness of the 
 Hungarian gold mines. The increase in the supply of silver 
 is due to the introduction of amalgamation, and its use 
 principally in the form of the patio process, for the cheap 
 production of silver in Peru and Mexico. It is scarcely ne- 
 cessary to point out that the relative value of the two niefcils 
 is not in the simple inverse ratio of their supply. The 
 question of cost of production and of superiority in quali- 
 ties adapting them for different purposes of currency, ex- 
 portation, ornament, and manufacture, must always play an 
 important part; and, even after all these elements have been 
 calculated, it would be difficult to fix or foretell the relative 
 price of the metals, since the local, temporary, and fluctu- 
 ating demands, and so-called " movements of specie " come 
 in as disturbing phenomena of that incalculable element 
 the human will. 
 
 .J^\^^ Y^,^"<i*^* '" the latter half of the sixteenth, and 
 the first half of the seventeenth, century the production of 
 silver was about seven times as great as that of gold The 
 drain of silver to the East Indies had already begun and a 
 larce part of the product of South America found 'its way 
 thither, returning in varied forms of wealth and luxury to 
 enrich and enervate the Mediterranean nations. Yet the 
 remainder of the silver product was great enough to cause 
 an increasing surplus of* that metal, and a consequent fall 
 in Its relative price. It was, moreover, in many countries a 
 period of war, and the large expenditure incurred led to a 
 general increase in the gold coinage. The sudden and vio- 
 ent changes shown by some of the continental mint regu- 
 lations are indicative rather of financial and legislative 
 necessities than of commercial changes. The English regu- 
 lations seem to have been, on the whole, more stable ttnd 
 represent probably with greater accuracy the steady en- 
 hancement of gold, the value of which, as compared with 
 silver, advanced during the seventeenth century about 80 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 415 
 
 per cent., and during the sixteenth and seventeenth centu- 
 ries together, about 45 per cent. A general tendency in the 
 same direction is visible in the eighteenth century; but here 
 there is much greater stability, and the rise of gold is fre- 
 quently checked. 
 
 Aided by the exact data drawn from the Hamburg quo- 
 tations, we can trace the causes of fluctuation more ac- 
 curately than in former years. I repeat that we are not 
 here concerned with the general rise in prices produced by 
 the greater volume of metallic currency, and the multipli- 
 cation of its efficiency through banking and credit. Our 
 object is to study simply the agencies at work upon the rela- 
 tive value of the metals, and we find in this period, as in 
 former ones, counteracting causes with a general resultant 
 effect. The influx of silver from South America to Europe 
 was continued and increased down to the beginning of the 
 nineteenth century; but the export to Asia of piastres, 
 coined from American silver, assumed colossal proportions, 
 averaging, as Prof Soetbeer estimates, from 1690 to 1800, 
 about $6,000,000 annually. Moreover, there was a consider- 
 able importation of gold from Asia, in return, to Spain and 
 England. In China and Japan, according to the celebrated 
 report of Sir Isaac Newton, Master of the British Mint in 
 1717, the pound of fine gold was worth but nine to ten 
 pounds of fine silver, while the ratio in Europe was about 
 1 : 15. A merchant buying his goods in India with silver, 
 and selling them in Europe for silver or for gold, with which 
 he purchased silver again for a new venture, would gain 50 
 per cent, in exchange alone, besides the fair profit of the 
 trade ; and, of course, it would be worth while for him, after 
 completing in the East his cargo of bulkier products, to lay 
 out the remainder of his cash capital in the purchase of gold, 
 which could be easily stowed and transported. This explains 
 why, in the piracy and naval warfare of those times, the 
 East Indiamen, going or coming, were considered so desirable 
 as prizes. In either case, they were tolerably certain to carry 
 rich booty of silver or of gold. 
 
 But besides the exports of silver to India, and the imports 
 of gold from India, there was, for a short period, a notable 
 influx of gold from America, principally from New Granada 
 and Brazil. The Brazilian supply was greatest from 1749 to 
 1761, and at that period occurred the unusual phenomenon 
 of a rise of more than 4 per cent, in the relative value of 
 silver, due to this cause. From 1701 to 1748 the average 
 ratio was 1 : 15.19 ; from 1751 to 1755 it was but 1 : 14.63. 
 This reaction, on the other hand, was checked by the de- 
 mand for gold in the United Kingdom for the purpose of 
 coinage, and for the payment of heavy war subsidies to the 
 continental nation during the struggle with Napoleon. The 
 Bank of England, it is true, suspended specie payments 
 from 1797 to 1819, and during this period the circulation of 
 gold in Great Britain was reduced, but the subsidies and 
 hoarding kept up its price, and the resumption of specie 
 payments caused a sharp rise, so that the average ratio for 
 1821 was 1 : 15.95. The contemporaneous falling off in the 
 supply from America, Africa, and India, would doubtless 
 have carried this movement still further, but for the unex- 
 pected development of a new source of production in Siberia 
 and the Ural. In the absence of the political and commer- 
 cial causes already enumerated as operating to enhance 
 gold, this sudden influx of it would have mightily dimin- 
 ished its price. In fact, however, the ratio of value was not 
 essentially changed, though the proportion of production 
 was for the time being revolutionized. At the end of the 
 eighteenth century, the whole annual product was estimated 
 at about $15,000,000 gold and $40,000,000 silver. In 1846, 
 on the other hand, by reason of the supply from Russia, the 
 gold product was estimated at about $43,000,000 while the 
 silver had not increased — had, in fact, slightly fallen off. 
 At the b^inning of the nineteenth century, in other words, 
 the production of the precious metals was about 27.8 per 
 cent, gold, and 72.2 per cent, silver. By 1846 it had become 
 , about 52.3 per cent, of gold to 47.7 of silver. Yet the rela- 
 tions of value had not greatly changed. The average of 1846 
 shows a ratio of 1 : 15.66. From 1851 to the present time 
 the relative values are calculated from the London quota- 
 tions, as explained fully below. To this table I invite 
 attention, as the ratio of modern times and its economic 
 effect is something we can more readily appreciate than in 
 foregone centuries. 
 
 From 1851 to l§r4: Inclusive. 
 
 DaU 
 
 Ratio. 
 
 
 ISfil 
 
 15.46 
 
 
 1852 
 
 15.57 
 
 
 1853 
 
 15.33 
 
 
 1S54 
 
 15.33 
 
 
 1S5S 
 
 16.36 
 
 
 ISfiR 
 
 15.33 
 
 
 ISflT 
 
 15.27 
 
 
 1S58 
 
 15.36 
 
 
 1859 
 
 15.21 
 
 
 IRfiO 
 
 15.30 
 
 
 18B1 
 
 15.47 
 
 
 imi 
 
 15.36 
 
 
 1863 
 
 1638 
 
 
 1864 
 
 16.40 
 
 
 1865 
 
 15.33 
 
 
 1866 
 
 16.44 
 
 
 1867 
 
 16.57 
 
 
 1R6S 
 
 15.60 
 
 
 1869 
 
 15.60 
 
 
 1870 
 
 15.60 
 
 
 1871 
 
 16.59 
 
 
 187!J 
 
 15.63 
 
 
 187a 
 
 16.90 
 
 
 1874 
 
 15.15 
 
 
 Aitlhoriti/. 
 
 The London quotations. These give'the price of a given 
 weight of standard silver in shillings and pence sterling. 
 Bearing in mind that there is in Great Britain no charge 
 for coinage, and, hence, that the price referred to varies 
 exactly as the marie et value of the metals, we can calculate 
 ratio as follows : The .standard gold is \i fine, and its value 
 is fixed at 77s. 10 J^A, or 934.5 pence perounce Troy. Hence 
 the value of an ounce of fine gold is M of this sum, or 
 1019.45 pence. The standard silver on the other hand, is 
 3a fine ; hence an ounce of fine silver is worth 1.081 times 
 as much as an ounce of standard silver. If the fixed value 
 of an ounce of fine gold be divided by 1.081 times the quoted 
 price of an ounce of standard silver,the quotient is the ratio 
 desired; Thus, if x be the quoted price perounce in pence, 
 1019 45 943 
 
 " =' — (very nearly) is the ratio. Briefly, dividing 
 
 943 by the price in pence of an ounce of standard silver 
 
 fives the ratio correctly to the second decimal place. Lon- 
 on being the acknowledged centre of the commercial 
 world, this ratio determines the relative value of the 
 metals among civilized nations. 
 The table shows annual averages only. The lowest montJily 
 value of gold was 15.12 in May, 1869, and the highest, 16.35, 
 in Oct., 1874. The annual average for 1874, here given is cal- 
 culated upon the prices of eleven months, ending Nov. 30. 
 
 Remarks. — The discovery of gold in California in 1847, 
 and in Australia in 1851, threw an unexampled quantity of 
 this metal into circulation. While the annual product at 
 the beginning of the century had been only about $15,000,- 
 000, and in 1846 had been .swelled by the Russian placers to 
 the then astonishing amount of $43,000,000, it had reached 
 in 1853, according to Prof. Soetbeer, a value of more than 
 $165,000,000, while the annual silver product was scarcely 
 more than $40,000,000. This enormous disproportion, 
 coupled with the continuance of vast shipments of silver to 
 India, naturally caused many economists to anticipate a 
 serious and permanent depreciation of gold. It appears 
 from the table that this did not take place in such a degree 
 as expected — and for two reasons. First, the supply of the 
 precious metals, particularly silver, on hand in Europe was 
 so great that even the immense production of the gold mines 
 in California and Australia could not immediately cause an 
 overwhelming revulsion. General prices, of course, advanced ; 
 but that is not the point now in question. Chevalier esti- 
 mates that the gold production from 1500 to 1847, inclusive, 
 had been nearly $3,000,000,000, of which (according to other 
 authorities) something less than $2,000,000,000 had come 
 from Spanish America, which had furnished in the same 
 period about $5,000,000,000 in silver. Of the latter, perhaps 
 $1,000,000,000 had been exported to India; but the stock of 
 iDOth metals still remaining in Europe was large; and the 
 introduction of silver-plated wares liberated much silver 
 which had been kept in the form of solid ware. But this 
 would not long have sufficed to retard the fall of gold but 
 for another cause — namely, the enormous coinage of gold in 
 the countries employing the French system. Before dis- 
 cussing this important element, it is well to point out that 
 the gold production of California and Victoria suffered ,a 
 diminution, through the exhaustion of the richest superficial 
 placers, say about 1860, which was but partially compensated 
 iDy the new discoveries in New Zealand, Idaho, Montana, 
 etc. Moreover, after 1866 the shipments of silver to India 
 notably declined; and finally, che production of silver from 
 Nevada and other Territories advanced to colossal propor- 
 tions. It was in the period preceding these changes that 
 the French coinage system exercised its restraining influence 
 against the depreciation of gold. By the French law of 
 1803, the franc was fixed at five grammes of standard silver, 
 9-10 fine, and it was provided that the kilogramme of stan- 
 dard gold, of the same fineness, should be coined into 155 
 twenty-franc pieces. In other words, the relative value of 
 the metals was established by law as 1 : 15.5. By the pay- 
 ment of a small coinage-charge, any one could obtain at 
 Paris coin of either metal in exchange for fine bars of the 
 same. Now, by reference to Table III above, it will be seen 
 that the ratio between gold and silver in the market (which 
 had been up to. the beginning of the nineteenth century 
 always less than 15.5) ranged steadily, during the first half 
 of the century, above that point. Hence, there was no in- 
 ducement to coin gold. The gold coins themselves com- 
 manded a premium for melting. From 1825 to 1848, inclu- 
 
416 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 sive; tlie French coinage was only 268,000,000 francs in gold, 
 against 2,380,000,000 francs in silver. The law of 1803 had 
 been passed at an unlucky period, and its effect for nearly 
 fifty years was to drive gold from circulation and flood 
 Western Europe 'with a redundant silver currency. But it 
 undoubtedly operated, during that period, to check the de- 
 pi'eciation of silver by employing an excess of it as currency, 
 and by diminishing the similar employment of gold, and 
 thus increasing the available supply of that metal for other 
 u es. 
 
 The reaction caused by the influx of American and Aus- 
 tralian gold was immediate. So soon as fine gold was enough 
 cheaper in the market than 31-t4:S francs per kilogramme 
 to make it profitaJDle to holders of it to take coin for it at 
 that rate. The amount of gold presented for coinage in 
 France was immense. From 1851 to 1867 there were coined 
 in that country more than 5,806,000,000 francs gold against 
 383,000,000 francs silver; and the silver coinage rapidly dis- 
 appeared. Of $800,000,000 silver shipped to India in the 
 period just named, probably more than half was melted 
 down from the coinage of the franc-using countries — France, 
 Italy, Belgium and, Switzerland. Thus the new supplies of 
 gold found a new application, and the Eastern demand for 
 silver found a partial supply : so that the value of gold was 
 kept at 15.09 to 15.21, in spite of the excessive influx of it, 
 which would otherwise have caused it to sink much lower. 
 The practical abolition of the double standard by the United 
 States in 1853, and the increased gold coinage of Great 
 Britain and her colonies, were subordinate causes assisting 
 this tendency. But the French system, serving for a while 
 as a breakwater against the natural efiects of great commer- 
 cial facts, was itself swept away by the tide. The disappear- 
 ance of a silver coinage is more inconvenient to the masses 
 than the lack of •gold. The lack of silver for currency 
 brought about the famous Convention of December, 1865, 
 at which France, Italy, Belgium and Switzerland united in 
 the attempt to regulate again the relative values of the 
 metals in coinage. But for the obstinacy of France, the 
 cumbrous and fluctuating system of a double standard would 
 have been given up. What was done was to diminish the 
 * value of the silver coinage, or, rather to establish a coinage 
 of pieces from a half-franc to two francs, which being legally 
 as coins worth more than they were worth actually, could 
 not be remelted or exported with profit. It was a pity that 
 even a measure of this kind was carried out in the most un- 
 fortunate way. By changing at that time the weight of the 
 gold instead of the silver coinage, the franc-countries might 
 have obtained a system in which the weights of coins would 
 have borne a dire&t relation to the metric system; and, if 
 the double standard had been definitely abolished, and gold 
 adopted as the sole standard, a foundation would have been 
 laid for that international system which still appears an un- 
 attainable blessing — a system, namely, by which the different 
 nations, each coining its own money, might maintain a cer- 
 tain uniform fineness in gold coinage, and accept as legal 
 tender all gold coins according to their weight in metric 
 units, The gramme of standard gold would then be the in- 
 ternational unit of money, with which all coins would grad- 
 ually be brought into simple integral relations. 
 
 But the Convention of 1865 chose a different course, and 
 it had hardly taken the step of debasing the silver coinage, 
 to counteract the effects of the enhancement of silver, when 
 a revolution took place, and a depreciation of silver was in- 
 augurated, which has continued to the present time. The 
 causes of this change, some of which have been already allu- 
 ded to, deserve closer attention. The exports of silver 
 to India, down to 1856, were to pay for products of the 
 East, exported to Europe and America. During our 
 civil war, the extraordinary production of cotton in India 
 increased this balance of trade, and thus augmented the 
 drain of silver in that direction. Moreover, between 1856 
 and 1866, large sums of silver went to India as loans, 
 to be employed in the construction of an extensive railway 
 system. These special causes ceased after 1866, and the i)ay- 
 ment of the interest on the Indian lo;ins is now, so far as it 
 goes, an element on the other sidc^ of the balance of exchange. 
 The demand of silver in- India is, however, by no means ex- 
 tinct ; and one effect of the increased development of internal 
 trade and industry in that region will be to maintain this 
 demand. Prof. Soetbeer, in proof of the intimate relation 
 
 between the rate of Indian exchange and the ratio of silver 
 to gold in London, calculates the following five-year aver- 
 ages from the London prices, and the Calcutta quotations tor 
 6-month drafts : 
 
 Average of Period. 
 
 1850-60 
 
 1881-05 
 
 1866-70 
 
 1873 
 
 Draflu nn London 
 in Calcutta. 
 
 Pence per rupee. 
 25 
 23 
 
 Price of the ounce 
 
 Blandard silver in 
 
 London. 
 
 Pence. 
 
 61 '4 
 6nl| 
 
 Ratio of gold to silver. 
 
 15.33 
 
 16.40 
 15.50 
 16 91 
 
 The second great cause of depreciation of silver was the 
 colossal production from the United States. The product of 
 this country, as I have shown, was in 1861 but $2,000,000. 
 From 1862 to 1866, inclusive, it was $45,000,000, or an aver- 
 age of $9,000,000 per annum. In 1867, it was $13,500,000 ; 
 in 1868, $12,000,000; in 1869, $13,000,000; in 1870 
 $16,000,000; in 1871, $22,000,000; in 1872, $25,750,000; in 
 1873, $36,500,000. The declared importations into Great 
 Britain were : 
 
 1870, 
 1871, 
 1872, 
 1873, 
 
 . £5,387,000 
 5,689,000 
 4,675,000 
 5,992,000 
 
 The great honanzas discovered in the Comstock lode of 
 Nevada have been the chief cause of the latest increase ; but 
 the extraordinary and rapid development of the silver-lead 
 smelting industry in Nevada (Eureka) and Utah has also 
 been an important factor. A third cause of the depreciation 
 of silver was the abandonment by Germany, after the Franco- 
 German war, of the silver standard, and the issue of a stand- 
 ard gold coinage for the Empire. Prof. Soetbeer estimates 
 that in November, 1874, there was .still in circulation in the 
 different German States about $230,000,000 in silver coin, 
 less than half of which would probably remain in circulation 
 after recoinage — the remainder being thrown upon the 
 market for exportation. The effect of the change is twofold — 
 the liberation of silver from circulation as coin, and the in- 
 creased demand for gold. The amount of Imperial gold 
 coinage resolved upon in 1871 was 400,000,000 thalere (about 
 $290,000,000), of which 362,000,000, had been coined up to 
 November, 1874. It was evident, however, that at least 
 500,000,000 thalers would be required ; and this would tend 
 to continue the special demand for gold. 
 
 The countries of the franc-system, with double standard, 
 have, however, again furnished a check to the prevailing 
 tendency which has, doubtless, greatly modified the fall in 
 silver. In these countries, the ratio being fixed at 15.50 by 
 law, it has been, since 1866, profitable to have silver coined. 
 In 1872, the coinage of silver in the Netherlands was 
 33,540,945 florins; in 1872 and 1873, all the states of the 
 franc-system coined some 200,000,000 francs in silver. But 
 this could not continue, and in 1874 a limit was provision- 
 ally set to the coinage of five-franc pieces. The deprecia- 
 tion of silver may be retarded, if the coinage of it as a le- 
 gal tender currency, at a rate above its market value, is 
 continued. But this policy, whatever its immediate con- 
 veniences, is contrary to the true principles and tendencies 
 of political economy. Th6 demonetization of silver, and 
 the universal adoption of gold as a standard currency, 
 with silver as a material of subsidiary-coinage, is that to 
 which all nations must come. The ratio of 15.5 is too 
 near the average market ratio for the last centurv, to be 
 safely adopted. But the ratio of 15, as proposed ' by Mr. 
 Elliott and other American writers on this subject, and 
 partly adopted in our coinage, is reasonably certain to 
 remain permanently below the market ratio, and hence to 
 serve satisfactorily in coinage, while it possesses practical 
 value as an integer, simply related to the decimal system. 
 
 A review of the whole history shows us that the" natural 
 tendency has been, since industry and commerce were or- 
 ganized, towards a depreciation of silver; that this tendency 
 has been periodically counteracted by three great causes: 
 
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 m 
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 z 
 
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 m 
 
 z 
 m 
 
 < 
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 C 
 < 
 
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 r 
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 _w 
 
 CD 
 
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 00 
 
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 CO 
 
 I f 
 
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 F I 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 417 
 
 the successive discovery of new gold fields (Africa, Brazil, 
 the Ural, California, Australia, New Zealand, Idaho, Mon- 
 tana, etc.); the exportation of silver to the East; and its 
 elastic employment for coinage. It is highly improbable 
 that new Californias will be opened, though the present 
 production from quartz and hydraulic mines, in this country 
 at least, is likely to be maintained and even increased; the 
 demand for India will not be augmented, but by growing 
 reciprocity of commerce, probably decreased, though slowly; 
 and the use of silver in coinage will probably also remain 
 stationary or decline. On the other hand, the production of 
 silver will probably increase — though the enormous rein- 
 forcements from this or that great bonanza will be temporary 
 in their effects. Looking at the subject on a larger scale, it 
 is not this or that single mine, but the vast era of silver- 
 bearing territory in this country and Mexico which may be 
 expected to develop and maintain an increased production. 
 What may be the metallic treasures of Asia, we scarcely 
 know as yet; but their exploration will, at all events for 
 many years to come, produce nothing that the vast popula- 
 tion of that region will not immediately swallow up. 
 
 All general considerations, so far, seem to point to a per- 
 manent depreciation of silver. Not that the price of No- 
 vember, 1874 — the lowest ever reached in history by the free 
 action of commercial and industrial causes — will be main- 
 tained or further decreased; but that the ratio ruling a 
 dozen years ago is not likely to be regained, and the low 
 price of silver must be accepted by miners and metallurgists 
 as a part of the economical problems submitted to them. 
 When I say that the gross product of a silver mine to-day is 
 worth in gold nine per cent, less than it would have been in 
 1859, you will see that this is a question intimately con- 
 nected with profits and dividends. Indeed, the probable 
 suspension of mining and metallurgical operations which 
 cannot afford this loss will, perhaps, be one reaction tending 
 to diminish the production, and thus check the depreciation 
 of silver. In whatever way the general current flows, it is 
 sure to be interrupted by such eddies, the results, indirectly, 
 of its own motion. 
 
 — Compiled from apaper byR. W. Jiaymond^ Ph.D. — Tramactiona American 
 JnBtUute of Mining EngineerSj 1S75. 
 
 COMMONPLACE FALLACIES CONCERNING 
 MONEY. 
 
 FEW questions have been so frequently discussed by 
 competent writers . as that of money and currency ; 
 and, at the same time, there is no other subject on 
 which opinions so diverge. As Mr. Bonamy Price, 
 professor at the University of Oxford, states it, "It may 
 almost be said that every man contradicts every other 
 man about money, about what money is and what it 
 is not, what it can and what it cannot do. In no 
 other subject which occupies the thoughts of men does 
 anything approaching the same disorder exist.'" I hope, 
 therefore, I shall not be accused of presumption if I endeavor 
 to point out that many of the principles put forward by the 
 deductive school of political economy, and accepted by the 
 English public as being evident truths and clear axioms, are 
 in reality demonstrable errors, and in total contradiction to 
 facts and events of daily occurrence. I will examine some of 
 these axioms as they have been formulated by writers of 
 well-deserved authority, and who may be taken best to ex- 
 press the generally accepted ideas. 
 
 The point which I think first needs to be elucidated is the 
 following : — Is there an advantage in a community's possess- 
 ing more or less money, or, rather, more or less of what may 
 be styled monetary metal ? It is known that the upholders 
 of "the mercantile system " believed the principal riches of 
 a nation to consist in the amount of precious metal it pos- 
 sessed. Everything, they urge, must be therefore done to in- 
 crease that amount ; and, to that end, a favorable balance 
 must be created by stimulating exportations, and also by im- 
 peding as much as possible the importation of merchandise, 
 so as to force foreigners«to pay the difference of the commer- 
 cial balance in precious metal. These notions, however, were 
 early contested in England. In the year 1682, Petty maiu- 
 
 1 " Practical Political Economy," p. 360. 
 27 
 
 tained that it was an advantage to export coin, when goods 
 of a greater value were secured from foreign countries in ex- 
 change for it (" Quantulumcunque concerning Money"). 
 Again, North, in 1691, says that a fortune in coin is no gain, 
 as coin in itself is unproductive : therefore, no State should 
 feel uneasy about its provisions of gold or silver. A rich 
 country, he observes, will never lack either ( " Discourse upon 
 Trade," 11.17). Berkeley assumes that a greater error cannot 
 exist than that of estimating the wealth of a State by the 
 quantity of gold or silver in its possession ("Querist," 1735). 
 If we turn to the father of the Physiocratic School, Quesney, 
 he labors to prove that it is impossible exportation can ever 
 permanently and absolutely exceed importation ; for, he says, 
 
 Every purchase is a sale, and everi/ sale is a purchase" 
 (" Dialogues sur le Commerce "). Finally, Adam Smith, in 
 his treatise, completely overthrew the mercantile doctrine, 
 and molded into clefinite shape the ideas which have remained 
 current from his day until the present time. But the case 
 might even be put more strongly. J. B. Say considers the ex- 
 portation of coin as still more advantageous than that of any 
 other merchandise, for he alleges it is the value of coin 
 which constitutes its utility, and the value of what coin re- 
 mains in the country increases in proportion to the amount 
 exported. I borrow from Mr. Bonamy Price a statement of 
 the opinion prevailing at the present time on this subject. 
 It is couched in the most definite terms, and may be sum- 
 marized as briefly. Professor Price first lays down that 
 coinage is indispen.sable amongst civilized nations. It 
 serves as a means of exchange, and is the common measure- 
 ment of values ; but it is quite useless to accumulate more 
 of it than is necessary for this end. Gold is merchandise, 
 and is only to be obtained by the exchange of other mer- 
 chandise of equal value in its stead. In this exchange, the 
 person who receives the precious metal is no better off than 
 the one who receives the commodities. It is therefore ab- 
 surd to believe that a nation gains when what is called 
 the " commercial balance" is in her favor ; that is to say, 
 when she has an excess of exportation, and foreign coun- 
 tries are obliged to pay her by a consignment of precious 
 metals. Gold brings no advantage to the person possessing 
 it, except at the moment when he parts with it, to purchase an 
 object he can consume, or in someway enjoy. 
 
 Coin is a tool, a machine, a vehicle of interchange, like a 
 ship or a wagon. It is a means, not an end ; it transfers 
 possessions and the right of property, just as a van transports 
 bales. Who would think of accumulating wagons in his 
 sheds solely for the satisfaction of feeling that he possessed 
 them? Why, then, was so much joy exhibited on the 
 arrival of bullion from California ? It did not increase the 
 wealth of England to the amount of one single pound ster- 
 ling, for she paid for it all with her produce, value for value. 
 Would agriculturists raise shouts of joy if it were announced 
 to them that a whole cargo of plows had been imported ? At 
 a given moment a country requires a certain quantity of cash 
 to accomplish exchanges, but all in excess of that quantity 
 is useless, and is even burdensome ; for gold, when remain- 
 ing inactive, eats its own interest. It is a noticeable fact 
 that the further a country has advanced economically, the 
 less requirement it has for precious metals. No country has, 
 in comparison to the importance of her business transactions, 
 so little of it as England. Less civilized nations have, on 
 the contrary, a large amount of gold and silver — ^firstly, be- 
 cause they treasure it up ; and secondly, because a sale is 
 never effected save for ready money. But can a countiy 
 suffer through a lack of cash, diminishing its economic 
 activity ? By no means ; it is not with cash as with other 
 necessary instruments of production. If there were fewer 
 plows some agricultural land would remain unplowed; 
 harvests would diminish there, and the well-being of the 
 country would be affected. Were there less cash there would 
 be no diminution whatever in the production of commodities. 
 Exchanges would be accomplished as before, either because 
 credit would become more general, or because the gold re- 
 maining in the country would be enhanced in value, and 
 would, therefore, serve to transfer the ownership of a 
 greater quantity of goods. A fall in the value of any special 
 merchandise — tea, for instance — increases the well-being of 
 a community, for a larger amount of it is consumed. A fall 
 in the value of cash, as a result of its superabundance, would 
 be productive only of difficulties. The cheapness of precious 
 
418 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 metals would entail, as a necessary consequence, the being 
 obliged to tender a heavier weight of them. Money would 
 thus become very inconvenient to carry about, and bank 
 notes and checks would be largely substituted in its place. 
 When, after a bad harvest, gold is seen to emigrate abroad, 
 people get alarmed ; doing so quite unreasonably. This gold 
 brings in exchange what supports our workmen and laborers. 
 Far from seeing a calamity in this, we' should rejoice at it as 
 a benefit for the nation. It is supposed that a drain of gold 
 would thus cause a scarceness and "depreciation" of the 
 monetary metal, and that a fall in prices would ensue as a 
 natural result. These are unjustified fears. The power and 
 the value of gold are about equal in all civilized countries, 
 and the fall in prices would soon bring back the gold, and 
 in that way re-establish the former level in prices. 
 
 The language of our merchants, of our bankers, of our 
 financial papers, is still tainted with mercantile error ; they 
 always speak, of " favorable and unfavorable balances," 
 " favorable and unfavorable exchanges." One would almost 
 say that Adam Smith had published in vain his book, " The 
 Wealth of Nations." The exportation and importation of 
 gold are watched by attentive and, frequently, by anxious 
 eyes, as if it were the one riches, ^ar excellence. If we ex- 
 j)ort much iron or coal there are rejoicings. If we export 
 much gold it is just the reverse : we find lamentations and 
 fears expressed in every financial paper. Whence this diflFer- 
 ence of opinion ? Is not gold just as much merchandise as 
 iron or coal ? Those who propagate these ridiculous ideas 
 really deserve to be buried, as Midas was, beneath the gold 
 for which they clamor so madly. There is no necessity for 
 uneasiness concerning the circulation of gold; it will dis- 
 tribute itself in different countries, according to the needs 
 and requirements of each. It is even true that the more a 
 country imports gold, the poorer she becomes. For, says 
 Mr. Price, " what becomes of it when brought in by an ex- 
 cess of exports? So long as they remain, let us say, in 
 England, they are locked in the Bank of England's vaults ; 
 they are wealth annihilated for the time. Meanwhile, how 
 has it fared with England in respect of the exports for which 
 there is so much rejoicing. They consumed a vast amount 
 of wealth in making ; food and clothing for laborers were 
 used up, and all is gone. What has England in return ? 
 Some metal locked up in cellars. As long as it remains in 
 England she is the poorer for these exports. The wealth 
 returns only when the buried gold goes abroad to buy, and 
 when the imports will exceed the exports, and the country 
 is made the richer. Imports alone enrich a country, not 
 exports. To buy gold which cannot be used is as pure an 
 impoverishment for the time as if the purchasing goods had 
 been given away for nothing."^ The above is a short state- 
 ment of what Mr. Bonamy Price teaches us on the subject of 
 currency, summarizing, as clearly as possible, the doctrine of 
 the deductive school. Can a more complete contradiction 
 be conceived than that existing between these doctrines of 
 speculative political economy and the language of the writers 
 of the money market articles in the daily and financial 
 jiapers? In spite of the remonstrance of Mr. Bonamy Price, 
 and of other economists, they follow with the greatest atten- 
 tion every movement of the precious metals. When they 
 flow in excess toward foreign countries, cries of alarm are 
 niised; when, on the other hand, they return, or come in 
 first, they at once announce prosperous times It is sufficient 
 to have read the columns of the Economist, the Statist, the 
 BuUionist, or the financial report in the Times, or any other 
 daily paper, during the last two months, to be struck by this 
 strange contradiction.^ Who is right, and who wrong? 
 
 1 " Buying and Selling :" Journal of t/ie Society of Arts, May 6, 
 1881. 
 
 ' Here is an example of what can be read every day ill all the 
 financial papers of the world : — " In their last summary of the 
 state of the New York money market, Messrs. Melville, Evans, & 
 Co., mention 25 to 30 million dollars of gold as the probable import 
 requirement of the State between August 1 lastand January 1 next. 
 This was the current estimate in New York a fortnight ago, and we 
 think it not unlikely to prove an under estimate should the specu- 
 lation fever break out to the degree anticipated. But five or six 
 million sterling is a large enouL^h sum to alarm iis on this side in 
 the present state of European bullion stores and gold requirements, 
 for one million more witlidrawn from the Bank ijf England would 
 agitate our market, and cause rates to advance to at least 5 per cent, 
 —no very serious rate for sound business, but a destructive one to 
 
 Economists are not wrong in abstracto ; but one should also 
 say that financial editors must be right, for they grasp eco- 
 nomic life in its daily reality. Is it possible that merchants, 
 bankers, and writers of the newspaper money-market articles 
 should all be led astray by the sophism of " mercantilism," 
 so as to understand nothing of the transactions occurring 
 under their eyes ? On the other hand, is it possible that the 
 most eminent economists should be completely deceived on 
 this subject? We can allow of neither hypothesis. The 
 apparent contradiction arises from the fact that the problem 
 has been regarded from different standpoints. It has been 
 viewed in the " static" condition by economists, and in the 
 " dynamic" aspects by capitalists and men of business, phe- 
 nomena being looked upon at a given moment by the first as 
 being at rest, in their development and as in movement by 
 the second. Let us explain this: England, for instance, 
 could easily effect all her exchanges with £80,000,000, or 
 with £40,000,000 in gold, instead of the £120,000,000 she 
 now employs ; for, as J. B. Say remarks, the value of gold, 
 as compared to that of merchandise, would increase as the 
 quantity of the former diminished ; or, in other words, the 
 prices, calculated in money, would diminish as money be- 
 came scarcer. If I have one shilling instead of two, it makes 
 little difference to me if I can now purchase as much with 
 my shilling as I could formerly with two. Double, triple, if 
 you will, the amount of precious metal in a country, that 
 country will be none the richer. The number of useful 
 objects which constitute its real wealth will have remained 
 the same, only two or three times as high a price in money 
 will be put on each one. All these are evident facts, and 
 hitherto the reasoning of the economists is perfectly sound ; 
 but as soon as we attempt to carry these abstract ideas into 
 practice, they are completely contradicted by facts which are 
 daily reported by the financial papers accused of " mercan- 
 tilism." This is what we will next endeavor to show. 
 
 In the world of actual affairs all contracts, whether for a 
 long or short date, the terms of loans made by banks, the 
 rate of discount, in fact all business, are based on certain 
 prices aud on the availability of a certain amount of cash. 
 If this amount of cash, or the prices which it determines 
 either increases or diminishes, the basis of all business trans- 
 actions becomes necessarily modified. This is the important 
 fact that economists have neglected to examine in its conse- 
 quences. What are these consequences ? That is the ques- 
 tion we must weigh with the greatest attention. Let us sup- 
 pose, first, that gold increases in quantity ; what happens ? 
 Here we are by no means reduced to speculative reasoning 
 on a hypothesis. This phenomenon occurred and assumed 
 colossal proportions under our own eyes subsequently to the 
 year 1850. Compared with the year 1840, the production of 
 gold increased tenfold after the discovery of the placas ot 
 California and Australia, and the production of gold and 
 silver combined is fifteen times what it then was. The con- 
 sequences of this unheard-of change, have been perfectly 
 analyzed in the well-known work of Tooke and Newmarch, 
 " History of Prices." When this extraordinary influx of 
 precious metal reached Europe, Michel Chevalier raised a 
 cry of alarm, which Cobden repeated, and which greatly im 
 pressed the different Governments. Prices, it was commonly 
 said, would double, and this would lead to profound eco- 
 nomic disturbance ; gold should, therefore, be at once re- 
 jected, a silver standard being adopted. But Newmarch 
 explained that this danger was not at all to be dreaded be- 
 cause the gold, in arriving, would stimulate fresh economic 
 activity, and in thus making for itself greater employment, 
 would prevent its own depreciation. What followed proved 
 that Newmarch was right and Chevalier wrong. After some 
 few years, prices rose a little, to the extent of about 15 per 
 cent., according to Mr. Jevons. The rise, however, was of 
 short duration, and a fall ensued, although the total produc- 
 
 mnch of the speculation now sustained here and on the Continent " 
 —Pall Mall Gazette, Sep. 22, 1881. 
 Mr. Bonamy Price and all the orthodox economists tell us that 
 
 perhaps upset, the money market in all Europe. Can there be a 
 more com))lete contradiction ? Why should not political economv 
 lose its credit, as a science, when its statements are in such 
 open opposition to the most undeniable facts ? 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 419 
 
 tion of gold and silver has maiutained itself at about £38,- 
 000,000. Thus the predictions of Michel Chevalier and of 
 Cobden were not borne out by facts. The banker had made 
 sounder deductions than the economists. From the begin- 
 ning, the prodigious development of the gold-producing coun- 
 tries, California and Australia, brought fresh stimulus to the 
 industry and commerce of the whole world. These new 
 countries did not send us the produce of their labor for 
 nothing. For every million of gold received in Europe an 
 equal quantity of goods was returned to them. These 
 goods had to be made and transported, and thus fresh out- 
 lets for labor were created, This new opening for trade in 
 the gold countries and the increased production in Europe 
 which was needful to supply the wants arising — these occa- 
 sioned more exchanges and therefore led to a more extensive 
 employment of the precious ores, which are the metallic 
 means of exchange and the basis of all fiduciary circulation. 
 Gold arriving in Europe is deposited in banks where it finds 
 its prices fixed by the mints, and so those sending it get im- 
 mediate remuneration. This accumulation of cash of course 
 leads to a fall in the rate of interest. After 1850, discount 
 fell IJ, and even to 1 per cent. A fall in the rate of inter- 
 est stimulates the spirit of enterprise and the creation of 
 new companies of all kiijds, both at home and abroad. The 
 surplus money must find employment for itself somewhere. 
 Besides, when capital can be obtained at the moderate rale 
 of 2 or 3 per cent., a great many undertakings may prosper 
 which would never do so where the rate of interest is 4 or 5 
 per cent. I will here borrow a very just comparison made 
 by Mr. Bonamy Price, when he says that cash is a convey- 
 ance, but I draw it from a totally opposite conclusion. 
 
 When vehicles are plentiful they can be hired cheap, and, 
 as a natural consequence, everybody uses them, and there 
 is an extraordinay circulation. You see this at Naples, 
 where the hire of a decent carriage is fivepence, and even 
 tne beggar rolls in a, corricolo, at a penny. So, too, when the 
 monetary mediums of conveyance are abundant, they also 
 are lent cheap. Circulation is active, and business is " brisk," 
 as people say. Certainly the capital lent and borrowed is 
 not in reality " money." Capital truly consists of all the 
 materials requisite and necessary to production. Still, cash 
 is the means of obtaining these materials. It is with gold 
 that they are pa/d for, and it may be said to be gold which is 
 necessary for every exchange. It follows therefore that, 
 when gold is plentiful, the real capital is easily brought into 
 action, and th^n production is developed. 
 
 The first eflfect of an influx of gold certainly is a fall in 
 the rate of (Jiscount. But the phenomenon does not stop 
 there. This fall promotes a movement of economic expan- 
 sion until ttie demands for capital exceed the disposable 
 quantity, aijd then the rate of discount rises. This was ob- 
 servable during the period of prosperity, from 1853 to 1870. 
 The average rate of interest was high, in spite of the abun- 
 dance of gold, because the prodigious development of pro- 
 duction iorwhich this period is noticeable caused an endless 
 demand for capital. It was during this period that railways 
 were largely made in all parts of the habitable globe ; canals 
 were opened, isthmuses cut, mountains pierced, and works, 
 factories, and banks innumerable started. Mr. Newmarch 
 only gives expression to general opinion when he says that 
 the gold of the placers was the chief cause of this wondrous 
 development. The second result of an exceptional influx 
 of the precious metals is to produce an average rise in prices, 
 Gold, which gives facility to the creation of fresh business 
 enterprises, occasions a greater demand for everything. In 
 works and factories, in railways, in all sorts of concerns 
 undertaken on all hands, workmen, and iron, and wood, and 
 every kind of raw material are wanted in greater numbers 
 and in larger quantities than previously. The increase of 
 demand produces necessarily a rite in value. This rise 
 takes place gradually, and the result of it is to produce that 
 state of the market which we call "brisk." All who are 
 engaged in producing profit by this. Workmen, being more 
 sought after, are better paid ; they consume more in the way 
 of fuel, food, &c., and thus raise the price of the articles of 
 common necessity, which naturally brings benefit to those 
 who produce or manufacture them. Manufacturers, making 
 more profit, buy more, and the prices of the articles they 
 want rise in their turn ; and in this way profit flows in upon 
 a second category of manufacturers and tradesmen. The 
 
 buyers of raw materials for the purpose of their conversion 
 into manufactured goods almost invariably gain by a gen- 
 eral rise in prices ; for this raw material, flax, cotton, wool, 
 iron, is worth more when resold than when it was purchased. 
 The economic and commercial world thus forms one immense 
 chain of causes and effects in which the value of each link is 
 heightened by the activity imparted to labor, the true source 
 of all riches. It may even happen that an "industrial" fall 
 occurs in the price of many articles, great enough to coun- 
 terbalance in the increase " monetary value ;" because, 
 thanks to the multiplication of fresh enterprises and the 
 introduction of fresh machinery, these commodities are pro- 
 duced at a much cheaper rate. These are the many favor- 
 able results which follow on an influx of the precious metals. 
 But, it will be said, these advantages are also attributed 
 by inflationists to an abundant issue of paper money made 
 legal tender. Doubtless this may be so ; but the factitious ,• 
 excitement caused by the inflation is dearly bought, as it 
 rests on no firm basis, and is brought about by an abuse of 
 legislative power. It occasions a depreciation of the cur- 
 rency, the degradation of exchanges, and the permanent dis- 
 turbance of foreign trade ; and, sooner or later, large sacri- 
 fices have to be made in order to revert to the metallic cir- 
 culation. It is quite otherwise when the impulse given to 
 business springs from a natural source — viz., an increase in 
 the amount of precious metal, the real basis of exchanges, 
 and, at the same time, the true equivalent of every value. 
 In this case, there is neither depreciation of currency nor 
 disastrous reaction. All that could in any way occur would 
 be a general rise in prices resulting from the large amount 
 of cash suddenly thrown into circulation; but, as we ex- 
 plained, even this will probably not take place, for owing to 
 the number of business transactions rapidly and permanently 
 increased by the economic development which the abun- 
 dance of cash will have stimulated, gold wild find further 
 employment. The demand for it will increase in about the 
 same proportion as the supply. The precious metals will 
 lose nothing of their powers of purchase, and prices will not 
 rise. This is exactly what has occurred since the year 1850. 
 The average annual production of the precious metals during 
 the decade 1840-1850 was 362,000,000 francs. From 1850 to 
 the present time, the average production has tripled, having 
 risen to from 900,000,000 to 1,000,000,000 francs annually; 
 and, in spite of this, if prices have risen for a time a trifle, 
 they have fallen again to about what they were formerly. 
 Thus the extraordinary influx of precious metal which com- 
 menced 30 years ago, has been most beneficial in increasing 
 economic activity all over the world, and this great advan- 
 tage has been unaccompanied by drawbacks oi: difliculties. 
 So long as I thus limit myself to stating only undeniable 
 facts, I hope I shall not be thought guilty of either " mer- 
 cantilism" or of " inflationism." I merely give a summary of 
 Newmarch's chapters, 'and he, I imagine, is not likely to be 
 accused of any such heresies. 
 
 Let me now examine the opposite phenomena — the 
 scarcity of cash — and try to ascertain its effects. The ex- 
 portation of gold is a purely indifferent matter, says Mr. 
 Bonamy Price, for exchanges are just as well effected with 
 little as with much money .'^ Let us rather say, writes J. B. 
 Say, that the exportation of gold is an advantage, for in 
 exchange for gold, which is dead capital, useful goods are 
 obtained, and the gold remaining in the country is rendered 
 more serviceable ; since, to pay for the same number of 
 articles a less weight is given and received, according as the 
 quantity has diminished, its value being increased. If these 
 
 • It is useful to read with attention the chapters devoted by Mr. 
 Newmarch, in Tooke's " History of Prices," to the study of the 
 effect produced by the gold of California and Australia during the 
 period: 1848-1856. 
 
 ' At the close of his book, " Practical Political Economy," Mr. B. 
 Price publishes, as an appendix his corresi)ondence with Mr. Henry 
 Gibbs, ex-Governor of the Bank of England, on the question as to 
 whether the Bank, in fixing the rate of discount, should, as a gen- 
 eral rule, be guided by the amount of its reserve in gold. Of coui-se, 
 Mr. B. Price is strongly against this line of conduct, which is con- 
 trary to his theory. Mr. H. Gibbs replies that if the learned Oxford 
 Professor were a " practical man" and a banker, he would under- 
 stand the question better. How should not political economy lose 
 its authority when it thus places itself in opposition to the most evi- 
 dent daily business necessities ? 
 
420 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 propositions (which, not long since, all the economists of 
 the deductive school were fully prepared to vouch for), be 
 exact, we must conclude that the entire business of the 
 world, the Bank of England, merchants, bill brokers, specu- 
 lators, and all the writers of financial articles in the news- 
 papers, must be suffering under the strangest hallucinations. 
 All these authorities afiBrm that the crisis which has so long 
 depressed the money market, and which becomes just now 
 more acute, was in great part brought about by a monetary 
 contraction, and recently by the exportation of gold to 
 America, and argue that it became more or less serious as 
 gold left us in larger or smaller quantities for the opposite 
 shores of the Atlantic. It is, of course, economists who are 
 mistaken, they having made a superficial analysis, basing it 
 . solely on abstract ideas. The study of the phenomenon 
 must be recommenced by paying special attention to facts as 
 they really exist. Here, again, we have only to recollect 
 what has recently taken place beneath our very eyes. When 
 gold is to be exported it is taken from the banks of issue, 
 because in their hands a large stock is always to be found 
 ready at the command of all holders of bank notes or of 
 all well guaranteed commercial drafts. Banks, being com- 
 pelled to have sufficient cash in hand to guarantee the 
 fiduciary circulation, raise the rate of discount. That is 
 exactly what is now going on (September, 1881). In a 
 general way a rise of 1 or 2 per cent, is sufficient to bring 
 back the precious metal by diminishing the price of all 
 commodities, shares, debentures, and stocks in State funds, 
 and by raising the hire of money ; but sometimes (and it 
 has been noticed that this happens about every nine or ten 
 years) the outflow of gold induces a sharp crisis. Mr. Jevons 
 connects these periodical crises with the spots on the sun. I 
 have endeavored, in a work especially on this subject, " Le 
 Marche Mon^taire depuis cinquante ans," to prove that 
 they are brought about by the agency of three circum-. 
 stances. 1st, the very general use of instruments of credit," 
 which in turn causes the immense mass of fiduciary circula- 
 tion, notes, checks, promissory bills, and unpaid accounts, to 
 rest on a very small metallic basis ; 2d, the existence in the 
 market of a great many term engagements, the result of the 
 multiplication of fresh enterprises, of increased purchases of 
 goods, and of the general speculation fever which invariably 
 accompanies a period of expansion and prosperity ; 3d, and 
 finally, the still more decisive cause is to be found in the 
 exportation of cash, necessitated either by the bad harvest, 
 as in 1847, by foreign investments, as in 1825 and again in 
 1856, or by exceptional purchases of certain goods, as hap- 
 pened after the cotton famine in 1864. Indeed, whatever 
 may be the minor causes which work toward a crisis, it is 
 always determined by the exportation of cash, which in- 
 duces either the shrinkage or else the complete collapse of 
 credit, which follows on a sudden and too high a rise in dis- 
 count. These exportations of cash are generally occasioned by 
 some disturbance in the balance of trade. Mr. Bonamy Price 
 and other economists make gentle fun of the balance of 
 trade, and speak of it as an " exploded fallacy." Nevertheless 
 the Economist and other special newspapers continue to 
 write about it and to follow its course with the greatest care 
 and attention. Here, again, business men are right. It is 
 evident that the balance of trade can no longer be estimated, 
 as it was formerly, by a mere calculation of exported and 
 imported merchandise. The amount of money invested 
 abroad, and the interest gained upon it, has now assumed 
 immense proportions, and this, of course, modifies the bal- 
 ance, without the tables of the Custom House showing any 
 record of it. The richest countries, England and France, 
 for instance, are creditors of other countries for many mil- 
 lions sterling. The interest of these hundreds of millions, 
 represented in goods, occasions imports to be made without 
 any return exports. It follows, therefore, that rich countries 
 import regularly much more than they export, and this 
 without occasioning any disturbance in the balance of trade. 
 Here are the figures for England : 
 
 1877 1878 1879 1880 
 
 In millions sterling. 
 
 Imports 34Q-41 .... 368-77 . . . 362-99 .... 411-22 
 
 Exports 262-34 . . . 246-48 .... 248-78 .... 208-41 
 
 Imports exceeding 
 
 exports by 07-07. . . .123-29.. . .114-21. . . .142.81 
 
 This excess of imports naturally includes, besides the in- 
 terest of money lodged in investments abroad, the immense 
 
 sums for freights of merchandise, and for wares of all kinds 
 which English vessels transport to all parts of the world, and 
 also the profits of trade on the national and foreign produce 
 that English merchants sell everywhere. The following is 
 a calculation made on this subject by Mr. G. Medley. (See hia 
 work, "The Eeciprocity Craze.") 
 
 Profits on Ocean Carrying Trade £45,000000 
 
 Insurance 3,500,000 
 
 Interest on Capital in Foreign Tr^de . .... 6,000,000 
 
 Merchants' Fronts . ... 17,600,000 
 
 Income from Foreign Investments 55,000,000 
 
 Total . . . £126,000,000 
 
 But if the state of things thus established, with an excess 
 of imports for the creditor country, be troubled by the neces- 
 sity of completing fresh foreign investments, or by an ex- 
 ceptional purchase of corn being needed after a bad harvest, 
 ihe result will be an unusual exportation of cash, followed 
 by a crisis more or less severe. These sharp crises have some- 
 times most disastrous consequences. All shares fall in the 
 market; bankruptcies may be counted by thousands; work- 
 shops are closed ; workmen find themselves without employ- 
 ment, and want and suffering become very great. It cannot 
 be maintained, therefore, that even in such a case as this, the 
 exportation of the precious metals is a matter of indifference. 
 All that can be meant is that its advantageous effects are 
 but transient, commerce and industry quickly again pre- 
 senting their habitual aspect. Prices rise, and two or three 
 years' practice of economy suffices to repair what losses may 
 have been sustained. A fresh period of prosperity, of ex- 
 pansion and speculation soon commences, which generally 
 terminates in another crisis. The effects of a slow and 
 steady reduction of the stock of money are of a different 
 character. They come into operation almost insensibly, 
 being unaccompanied by any violent disturbance. Indeed, 
 the <cause of the evil is usually ignored, or else disputed. 
 Instead of a burning fever it is a decline with which the 
 social body is afflicted. A crisis of this description first 
 occurred in the period 1816-40, and it has been repeated 
 from 1873 to last year. Each was brought about by identi- 
 calljr similar circumstances. They may be thus specified — 
 1st, insufficiency of the production of the precious metals ; 
 2d, exceptional demand for gold. Let us examine the facts. 
 1st, from 1816 to 1822, England, abandoning paper money, 
 established the gold standard, and took from the general 
 circulation of the world £20,000,000 sterling. This was an 
 immense sum for that period, for it corresponded to ten 
 times the then annual production;' 2d, the average annual 
 production which was from. 1801 to 1810, 259,000,000 francs, 
 fell from 1811 to 1820 to 159,000,000 fr., sank still further to 
 151,000,000 fr. from 1821 to 1830, and amounted only to 
 202,000,000 fr. in the period from 1831 to 1840. After 
 1873 the United States, Germany, and the Scandinavian 
 States, by adopting the gold standard, absorbed from 300,- 
 000,000 fr. to 400,000,000 fr. of gold. The production of 
 both the precious metals taken together has not decreased ; 
 but silver, being no longer received in any mints, save for 
 the currency in India, the monetary stock has had to be fed 
 by gold alone, the production of which has diminished by 
 one-third. The annual influx into circulation of the precious 
 metal has thus fallen one-half— viz., from £40,000,000 to 
 £20,000,000. Added to this, during these last three and a 
 half years, America has taken from us £50.000,000 of gold. 
 These three circumstances combined have produced subse- 
 quently to 1873, as they did also after 1816, a monetary con- 
 traction. It is that phenomenon, exactly the reverse of the 
 expansion after 1858, which has been neglected by econo- 
 mists, and it is this which we must now study. This has not 
 yet been systematically done, though striking references to 
 it are to be found in different works, notably in Alison's 
 "England in 1S15 and in 1845 ; or a Sufficient and a Con- 
 tracted Money ; " D. Lub6, " Argument against one Gold 
 Standard ; " * " Report of the Monetary Commission of the 
 
 1 Albert Gallatin, whose authority is frequently cited on these 
 questions, wrote in 1 829: "Not only has England by that experi- 
 ment, in the face of the universal experience of mankind, gratui- 
 tously subjected herself to actual iuoonvenieuce, for the sake of ad- 
 hering to an abstract principle, but, in so doing, she has departed 
 more widely from known principles, and from those which regulate 
 a sound metallic currency." 
 
 ' The following are a few passages from these writings.—" Is 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 421 
 
 Senate of the United States, 1876 ; " Dana Horton, "Silver 
 and Gold;" R. Giffln, "Ttie Recent Fall in Prices," Jour- 
 nal of Statist. Soc, March, 1879. 
 
 In the case of a slow monetary contraction crisis, the 
 precious metals are not suddenly taken away from the banks 
 in large quantitie-s, as is the case in sharp crises ; credit is not 
 shaken, and monetary stock diminishes almost insensibly by 
 the industrial consumption of the precious metals, since the 
 stock, not being fed as usual, does not. keep up to the level 
 of the growth of the economic development. Then com- 
 mences an almost imperceptible fall in prices, spreading 
 from one article to another. The unfortunate consequences 
 of this circumstance, left unnoticed by Mr. Bonamy Price 
 and by other economists, are as follows : During the fall in 
 prices merchants and tradesmen frequently lose, for they are 
 often obliged to sell cheaper than they bought. Enterprises 
 no longer bring in profit; on the contrary, they have often 
 to be abandoned at a loss. Merchants, their hearts failing, 
 relinquish part of their business, new undertakings of any 
 kind become rare. Workmen, le^s and less sought after, see 
 their wages lessened. They, in turn, consume less, and thus 
 the manufacturers who provide for their wants have to reduce 
 their productions. Merchants and tradesmen, making small 
 or no profits, do not live so well, and here again the manu- 
 facturers who work for the middle classes also suffer. There 
 is a general decrease in economic activity. Capital, sunk 
 into inactivity, lies in the banks, and the rate of interest 
 falls, the demand for advances being few and small. Cash 
 does not appear to be lacking, and, indeed, is not wanting, 
 for, as J. B. Bay said, the quantity, if it is diminished abso- 
 lutely or comparatively, is "appreciateid." Each unit is 
 worth more and efiects more exchanges. Reduce as much 
 as you will the monetary stock, it will always remain suffi- 
 cient, for, as prices fall, in proportion its value rises, and it 
 will always buy and pay for the same amount of goods. 
 When the" fall in prices is at an end, the period of suffering 
 resulting from it finishes, and the economic world gradually 
 regains its normal condition. Only the transition is often 
 tedious and accompanied by many cruel trials, as we have 
 had occasion to see during the last few years. 
 
 The question now is whether when exchanges are effected 
 with less cash, and consequently on a lower scale of prices, 
 will the situation be what it formerly was, as the economists 
 who reason on abstract principles pretend ? I venture to 
 say, not at all. The pressure of previously contracted debts 
 will have increased exactly in the same ratio as prices will 
 
 there one man of sense and reflection whose mind is not sometimes 
 occupied, and whose imagination is not startled by the actual and 
 prospective state of the country? The monetary standard of Eng- 
 land was what it is now and has always been tnroufjhout the rest 
 of Europe — silver. Monstrous and incredible delusion ! We are 
 now told that the question is settled forever. But with a gold stan- 
 dard, circulation cannot increase ; so it opposes an effectual barrier 
 to all improvement. By the gold standard the currency has been 
 reduced below the point that would afford remunerative prices with 
 the present taxes." — Argwment Against One Gold Standard, D. 
 Lube, M. A., Trinity College, Dublin. In 1832, Lube strongly ad- 
 vocated the silver standard. This is what Sir Archibald Alison says 
 on the subject of monetary contraction : — " The distress among the 
 mercantile classes for years after the dreadful crisis of 1825, of the 
 agricultural interest during the lowering of prices from 1832 to 1835, 
 andof the whole community from 1835 to 1842 was extreme. The 
 investment of capital in agriculture was, during this distress, every- 
 where grievously abridged, and in many places totally annihilated. 
 Ireland, during the whole period, has been in a state of smothered 
 insurrection. The heart sickens at the evidence, numerotis and in- 
 controvertible, which the Parliamentary reports for the last ten 
 years have accumulated of wide spread and often long-enduring suf- 
 fering amongst the laboring poor of England." After having de- 
 scribed the progress of this state of things Alison adds : " Some ex- 
 ternal cause must therefore have paralyzed and blighted the wealth 
 of the country in the midst of such an mcreasing growth of the na- 
 tional resources. Since the Peace, the all-important question arises, 
 what was it which had this effect? The answer is, it was the con- 
 traction of the currency which was mistakenly made to accompany 
 the resumption of cash payments by the Bill of 1819 that has been 
 the chief cause of all these effects." Alison gives a perfectly com- 
 plete description of the unfortunate results of the monetary contrac- 
 tion, the rial cause of which generally passes unobserved. " It is as 
 difficult to get the great bulk of men to understand that it is the 
 currency itself that is shifting in value when great changes of price 
 are going on around it, as it is to make them comprehend that the 
 earth is moving rapidly through the heavens." — England in 1816 
 and 1845; or, A Sufficient and a Contracted Money, 1846, page 51. 
 
 have fallen. In fact, to obtain the same amount of money, 
 more goods or more labor will have to be given, as these will 
 be worth less. The nation in general, that is to say, tax- 
 payers, mortgagees, public companies who have issued de- 
 bentures, landed proprietors bound to pay fixed yearly in- 
 comes, pensions of one sort or another, all will be burdened 
 and the bond holders alone will benefit. Some people will 
 say. What does it matter ? Some gain what others lose. 
 
 This was a mischievous mistake. It matters greatly, for 
 production is sacrificed in favor of the fund holding class, or, 
 88 John Stuart Mill puts it, active capital is sacrificed for 
 idle capital.' As already most European communities are 
 taxed to the extreme limit, the consequence of any indirect 
 increase of the burden which these loans lay upon them 
 would inevitably be the misery of the populations, if they 
 continued to pay, or general bankruptcy in the event of 
 their refiisingto do so. It opens up a vision of the world of 
 Stock Exchange towering over the crushed ruins of the 
 working world. Finally it may also happen that the two 
 sorts of crisis, that which may be called the " anaemic " 
 crisis, that is to say, the one which is due to a slow decrease 
 of monetary stock, and the sharp crisis, due to the sudden 
 and considerable outflow of gold, graft themselves so to 
 speak one on the other, as they are doing at the present time. 
 The exportation of metal to New York is impoverishing fur- 
 ther our store of precious metal, and so is doubly disastrous. 
 It retards the impetus of business which seemed to be spring- 
 ing again into life, and at the same time it keeps down prices 
 which are already merely remunerative. We thus see to 
 what extent the abstract ideas of the deductive school are 
 contradicted by a simple statement of facts. But these 
 economists ask, Is it then not true that produce is ex- 
 changed for produce? If that be so, gold is as much a pro- 
 duce as anything else. The merchant exporting it has ob- 
 tained in exchange goods of a higher value, or he would not 
 have consented to the transaction. Therefore, if the mer- 
 chant has gained, it is not possible that his country loses. 
 All these axioms, which seem so clear and evident on paper, 
 are nevertheless daily contradicted by experience. In 
 reality, 1st, a great deal depends on the nature of the ob- 
 jects exchanged; and, 2ndly, it is not true that the metal of 
 which money is composed is a merchandise like any other. 
 Some very simple example' will serve to prove these two ob- 
 servations. Hunters are out in a forest in the far west of 
 America, and live on the game they shoot. The Indians 
 they meet propose to give them in exchange for their guns 
 furs of at least double their value ; they accept the offer, for 
 economists have persuaded them that produce must be 
 always exchanged for produce, and that it is always a gain 
 to obtain articles of a higher for those of a lower value. 
 Their want of forethought, however, is speedly punished. 
 They are very soon nearly dying of hunger. To get back their 
 guns, they would now be willing to transfer not only their 
 furs, but everything else they possess into the bargain. 
 Again, a manufacturing town has suflBcient cars and wagons 
 
 ' All the leading economists agree in thinking that abundance of 
 money is more favorable to the progress of mankind than scarcity. 
 Here are some quotations on the subject: " In fine," says Michael 
 Chevalier, "a fall in the value of money will profit those who live by 
 present labor, it will injure those who live on the fruits of past labors 
 be it their own or that of their fathers. In this respect it will act 
 in the same direction with the greater part of those evolutions 
 which are accomplished by virtue of the great law of civilization, 
 to which ordinarily we assign the noble name of progress." La 
 Monnaie, 2d edition, 1866, p. 760. J. R. MacCnlloch, in his dis- 
 cussion on the effect of the great increase in the world's stock of 
 gold after 1850, says in conclusion : " Though like a fall of rain 
 after a long course of dry weather, it may be prejudicial to certain 
 classes, it is beneficial to an inoompara,bly greater number, in- 
 cluding all who are actively engaged in industrial pursuits, and is, 
 speaking generally, of great public or national advantage." — Enty- 
 clopaedia Briiamiica, Art, " Precious Metals. W. Roscher, the 
 learned professor of Leipzig, points out that the gold discoveries, by 
 preventing a dearth of money, which without them would have 
 probably occurred, saved the nation from a grievous malady. On 
 the other hand, he explains, in the same sense as MacCnlloch and 
 Chevalier, how a fall in the value of money may stimulate to a 
 notable increase of national production — Grundlagen der Nation- 
 atoekonorme, 1 141. All the more known German economists — 
 Nasse, O. Arendt, Adolph Wagner, Lexis, SchafHe, and even Soet- 
 beer — express the same opinion. Vide for example, Erwin Nasse, 
 Der Bimetallismus und die Wahrungsfrage. Holtzendorff . Bren- 
 tano, Jahrbucher II. 1. 
 
422 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 to effect all necessary transports ; foreigners buy from them a 
 part of these at a very high price. The sellers profit by many 
 thousands of pounds, and it seems a splendid business ex- 
 change of produce for produce, with clear gains on their 
 side. But the vehicles having disappeared from the wharves 
 and streets, there is no means of conveying goods from 
 place to place. The manufacturers, no longer able to ob- 
 tain raw materials, are obliged to stop working their ma- 
 chinery and to discharge the workpeople. A general crisis 
 arises, there being a dead-lock as regards production, and 
 misery continues to spread among the laboring classes until 
 fresh wagons are made or got. The loss in this way incom- 
 parably exceeds the gains which were obtained from the 
 sale of the vehicles. Exactly the same thing occurs when 
 gold goes off in too great quantities. He who exports it in 
 payment of goods purchased in exchange does a good stroke 
 of business, but the community suffers for it. Pieces of money 
 are, for practical purposes, conveyances by means of which 
 products are exchanged. If there be an insufficient quan- 
 tity of these, the circulation becomes impeded ; commerce 
 and industry have to face difficulties in buying and selling ; 
 a crisis ensues. It is, therefore, not correct that the precious 
 metals are as much a merchandise as anything else, and that 
 it is a matter of indifference whether they are exported or 
 imported. 
 
 But, Mr. Bonamy Price will say, you will not deny the 
 truth of the following proposition, which, with several 
 others, Mr. Mill has very clearly explained : A country has 
 always as much money as it needs ; in fact, it is impossible 
 that one country should export, and that another, with 
 which it trades, should, at the same time, import cash for 
 any lengthened period. Prices will fall in the country 
 where gold is leaving, and will rise where it is accumulating. 
 It would soon be to the advantage of the former country to 
 buy where things are cheaper, and thus the excess of imports 
 would quickly bring back the gold, and the balance would 
 be again established. I beg, first, to remark that thij 
 reasoning is neither more nor less than an application of the 
 theory of the " Balance of trade," so described by recent 
 economists. On the other hand we find here again the same 
 use of abstract ideas, leading to conclusions in which falsity 
 is mixed with truth. Contemplating this purely superficial 
 analysis, one is led to suppose that gold can pass from one 
 country to another, in a similar manner to water passing 
 from basin to basin seeking its level, and that neither 
 advantage nor disadvantage is likely to accrue to either 
 nation from the transfer. It is not so by any means. And, 
 first of all, there is one very great exception to be taken as 
 to the general axiom given us by Mr. Bonamy Price and 
 Mill — an exception which plays a very important part in 
 the general movement of the precious metals on our globe. 
 I speak of India. From antiquity to the present time, an 
 uninterrupted current has always carried silver to the far 
 East. A rise in prices there, such as would have induced 
 the Indians to buy more goods in Europe, and discouraged 
 Europeans from buying from the Indians, has never taken 
 place. And why? Because the silver on arriving in Asia 
 is made into jewels and idols, and is, further, lost and hidden 
 away by a population in India of 300,000,000, and of 400,- 
 000,000 in China, and so does not remain in circulation ; 
 thus, having no influence whatever on prices. The fact of 
 the balance being always favorable to Asia is explained by 
 the circumstance that Europe needs much commodities from 
 thence, while the East takes very little of our produce. 
 Between European nations the balance is generally pretty 
 equal ; any momentary inequality is quickly set to rights by 
 the variations in the rate of exchanges, and very little 
 precious metal actually passes from country to country. In 
 this case current economical theories find their application ; 
 but let us consider the example of a balance where the 
 tendencj; is persistently unfavorable, and where a constant 
 exportation of precious metal becomes necessary. For the 
 study of this phenomenon we have only to examine facts in 
 connection with the trade between Europe and America. 
 Here, as in the case of India, an unfavorable balance seems 
 likely to become persistent. Since the United States re- 
 established a metallic circulation, Europe is obliged to send 
 them each year a growing quantity of gold. In 1879-1880 
 it amounted to 75,000,000 dollars, and in 1880-1881 to 91,- 
 000,000 dollars. The reasons tending to the production of this 
 
 unfavourable balance for Europe are the same as in the case 
 of India. We are absolutely forced to take certain produce 
 from America; for instance, corn, meat, petroleum, and 
 cotton. On the other hand, as industry becomes developed 
 in the United States, thanks to the more general employment 
 of machinery, and to the higher intelligence of their work- 
 men, they are less in need of our products and manufactures. 
 The difference, in this way, of the commercial balance that 
 we owe to the United States, we are obliged to pay (silver 
 being refused there) entirely in gold. Hence, these exports 
 of cash, which occur generally in the largest quantities in 
 the autumn, and greatly disturb the European money-market. 
 It is certain that these exceptional exports will cease some day, 
 sooner or later. With a yearly drain of £15,000,000 to £18,- 
 000,000 sterling, there would soon be no gold left in Europe, 
 for it produces none ; and already her stock is very much 
 reduced. On the other hand, as the Americans do not hoard 
 their gold, or make anklets or bangles of it, as the Indians 
 do with silver, the gold they receive, and that which they 
 produce, by swelling the circulation, will raise the prices 
 there, while they will fall in Europe, as a natural result of 
 the diminution of the monetary stock. But to what famine 
 prices will European produce have to fall before being able 
 to pass the protectionist barrier — the. American Custom- 
 House — in quantities sufficient to turn the scale in our 
 favor? For this to occur, the European market must be 
 depressed severely — an event deeply to be deplored, what- 
 ever economists may say about it. One circumstance, which 
 may singularly retard the reflow of gold to Europe is, that as 
 soon as it reaches the opposite shores of the Atlaintic, it finds 
 immediate employment in creating new railways, new farms, 
 fresh works of all kinds, fresh centers of production in the 
 Far- West; for in these far-off regions the pioneers who 
 people them love " hard money." As the financial chroni- 
 clers say, the New York market is insatiable ; gold coming 
 from Europe evaporates there like water on heated sands. 
 It scarcely is landed before it starts off westward. The 
 United States are now enjoying the monetary advantages of 
 that period of economic expansion which Europe experienced 
 after 1860. European Banks are to them now what the 
 California '" placers " there were to us then. 
 
 Gold can, however, return to the country where it has 
 accumulated to the one whence it flowed, in another manner. 
 In the impoverished country the fall in prices does not affect 
 goods only ; it extends, in some degree, to investments. It 
 is therefore advantageous to lend money there; and the 
 country where gold is plentiful, and where, consequently, 
 everything is very dear, will not fail to do this. These 
 exceptional purchases produce a reverse balance: gold obey- 
 ing the fall in the rate of exchange, flows back again, and 
 the equilibrium tends to re-establish itself. The economist 
 theorem, stated by Mill and Mr. Bonamy Price, is thus 
 verified; but an important change has taken place, which 
 economists completely ignore. The country wnich, thanks 
 to its gold, will have been able to invest money in the 
 country momentarily impoverished, will hereafter be entitled 
 to receive from the latter, as a kind of tribute, interest for 
 the capital invested. It is thus that England has enriched 
 herself, and that she can annually import a surplus of about 
 £100,000,000 sterling in commodities, a large proportion of 
 which represents the dividends of stocks, shares, bonds, &c., 
 due to her by foreign nations. In 1847, France, in order to 
 cover the deficit of a bad harvest, was forced to send large 
 quantities of gold to Russia, and a crisis ensued. The 
 Emperor Nicholas sent 50,000,000 francs to France. The 
 gold returned, but Russia continued the Creditor of France 
 to this amount. Only, here again it must be noted that the 
 flowing back of gold from America to Europewillnotbe easy, 
 because many years must elapse before capital can be more 
 advantageously placed in Europe than in the United States. 
 
 Let us sum up these remarks on the movements of the 
 precious metals._ The real balance of trade, when all the 
 facts are taken into account, is a very important point. It 
 is that which determines the fluctuations in the riite of ex- 
 change, which again leads, when it passes the gold point, to 
 the export of this metal. Under the influence of the varia- 
 tions in the exchanges, the balance generally regains its 
 equilibrium, and thus the exports of precious metals are very 
 nearly balanced. But when, after bad harvests, by large 
 imports without compensating exports, or on account of 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 423 
 
 freights or interest due, a country loses some of its monetary 
 stock, it does not regain it without suffering some damage. 
 The country in receipt of this excess of gold parts with it 
 only to pay for goods at a cheap rate, or to purchase stock, 
 the price of which has fallen through the scarceness of the 
 metal, or as a result of the monetary crisis. I will finally 
 examine one remaining question: — To what extent is it true, 
 as orthodox economists allege, that it is a matter of indiffer- 
 ence whether a nation be abundantly or scantily provided 
 with the precious metals ? I will restate their propositions. 
 Precious metals, they say, are not essential to any absolute 
 requirement. It is the abundance of useful or agreeable 
 objects that constitutes the wealth of a nation. The more 
 plentiful cash is, the higher each article will be priced ; but 
 this will add nothing whatever to individual well being. The 
 only result will be that money payments will be heavier, 
 because, in order to obtain the same number of objects, a 
 greater weight of gold and silver will have to be given in 
 exchange. These propositions are perfectly true, if we con- 
 sider one country only, or are speaking of the entire world ; 
 but it ceases to be so when we examine the relations of one 
 nation with others. This is what we must now make clear. 
 It is necessary, preliminarily, to explain the meaing at- 
 tached to the words " abundance of cash." It refers to 
 abundance in comparison with what is requisite for ex- 
 changes, and not to absolute abundance. Thus, it is certain 
 that the more highly a country becomes economically devel- 
 oped, the less precious metal it makes use of in accomplishing 
 the same amount of exchanges ; firstly, because the monetary 
 media, better employed, circulates more rapidly; and second- 
 ly, because cash payments are replaced by an extensive 
 credit system. England, for instance, does more business 
 than France, with half the quantity of cash. But yet, al- 
 lowing for the necessity England is under always to maintain 
 a certain quantity of the metallic means of exchange, it can 
 be truthfully said that she is always abundantly lurnished 
 in that particular. The greater portion of the precious 
 metals produced in the entire world passes through the 
 London market, which reserves for itself only what it 
 requires. All the nations of Western Europe are rich 
 countries, cash is not wanting, means of circulation are 
 plentiful and prices are consequently high. The nations of 
 Eastern Europe are, on the contrary, countries where gol4 
 and silver are scarce, the circulation slow, and consequently 
 prices there are very low. 
 
 This difference in the prices of commodities is of very 
 little consequence for the inhabitants of one or other of these 
 groups of communities in their relations between them- 
 selves ; everything there is dear or cheap. But it makes it- 
 self felt in any question of trade or intercourse between the 
 highprice group and the low. The first can buy of the sec- 
 ond at will ; but the second, in their turn, cannot buy of the 
 first. If I sell a chicken in London for 3«., I could procure 
 three in Bucharest for the same money. A thousand pounds 
 sterling in England would give me a triple power of pur- 
 chase in Roumania or Bulgaria. An Englishman could, 
 therefore, if it suited his convenience, buy up everything 
 there is to be had in a poor country, he being ready to pay a 
 price that no one there would give. It is for this reason 
 that everything of the finest and most costly description is 
 sent to London and to Paris from the producing countries. 
 It is on this account also that so many Englishmen settle 
 abroad. Their income gives them there a much higher 
 power of purchase, and they can live in a much higher style 
 than in their own land. On the other hand, an inhabitant 
 of Kief or of Sojjhia, wishing to come to London or Paris, to 
 enjoy the value in his country of, say, forty or fifty quarters 
 of corn, would have to sell double that quantity there to en- 
 aljle him to pay for the same enjoyment in the cities of 
 Western Europe. The workman who in New York earns a 
 dollar for one day's work, could for that sum get five men to 
 work for him where the wages are a mark a day, as in 
 Silesia, and ten where the remuneration is 5d., as in India. 
 An Anglor Indian civil service functionary there keeps an es- 
 tablishment with ten or fifteen servants, wages being very 
 low. Poor countries — poor in cash, or where the scale of 
 charges is at a medium— are therefore, in truth, under the 
 economic domination of rich countries where prices are 
 high. 
 
 From all that has been said, therefore, I think it may 
 
 safely be concluded that all the theories concerning the 
 currency put forward in classic works need to be recon- 
 sidered and revised. They are superficial. They contain 
 as much mistake as truth ; and this portion of error has 
 done much harm in preventing certain nations — England, 
 for instance, and, quite recently, Germany and the Scandi- 
 navian States — from adopting a more rational monetary 
 system. The "mercantile" school was right in maintain- 
 ing that an influx of precious metal stimulates commerce 
 and industry, while its withdrawal throws both into difficulty 
 and induces crisis. It was also not in the wrong when it 
 affirmed that gold and silver are not a merchandise like any 
 other. These metals serve as conveyances to all other pro- 
 ducts ; consequently, when they are in insufficient quanti- 
 ties, circulation, which is the life of the economic world, 
 stops or languishes. But from these true observations, con- 
 firmed by daily experience, and relied upon by all business 
 men and money-market chroniclers, the " mercantilist " 
 reasoners have deduced erroneous conclusions : for instance, 
 that gold and silver are the only riches, and that, conse- 
 quently, in order to accumulate the largest possible amount 
 of them, high protective duties must be imposed, so as to 
 put an obstacle in the way of foreign import, and bonuses 
 be offered for the purpose of stimulating exports. Econo- 
 mists were right in stating the true riches of a nation to 
 consist in an abundance of useful objects, not of precious 
 metals ; but they made a mistake, and a very grievous one, 
 in drawing the inference that it was a matter of indifference 
 — in fact, it was rather advantageous than otherwise, to 
 export cash. It suffices to reflect for one moment on the 
 disturbance occasioned from time to time in the economic 
 and financial world by the draining of gold and the ensuing 
 crises, in order to see how grave is their error. Nevertheless, 
 the deductive school continues imperturbably to repeat its 
 abstract axioms, although experience too frequently gives 
 them flat contradiction. What is to be desired in respect of 
 currency, is that the monetary stock should be maintained at 
 the level of the wants of circulation, and consequently that 
 it should increase in proportion to the development of the 
 exchanges effected in the world, so as to offer to all con- 
 tracts, whether for a short or a long term, as stable a basis as 
 possible. In spite df history, to reduce civilized nations to 
 make use of gold only, when Nature has placed two mone- 
 tary metals at their disposal, and when it is evident that the 
 yellow metal is produced in too small and too variable 
 quantity, is to provoke a series of disastrous crises, shack- 
 ling commerce, and completely strangling free trade. 
 
 The question I will now proceed to examine is this: 
 What determines the value of money? As Mr. Dana Hor- 
 ton. United States delegate at the Paris Monetary Confer- 
 ences of 1878 and 1881, has clearly shown, two extreme 
 opinions exist on this subject — that of free trade, which is 
 not applicable here ; and that of the Jiat money theory, 
 which maintains that it is the will of the legislator which 
 creates and regulates the value of money. These two theo- 
 ries are evidently erroneous. Let the law once establish — 
 as it has done from all time — a coin as legal tender, and 
 there can be no longer free trade in this matter. There 
 exists an enormous difference between gold as a simple com- 
 modity, and gold as a legal measure of value, and, at the 
 same time, legal means of payment for any debt or purchase. 
 Mr. Thomas Baring has mentioned the fact that, in the 
 crisis of 1847, one sovereign was not to be procured in London 
 for £60,000 in silver : and that in Calcutta, during the crisis 
 of 1864, a merchant possessing £20,000 in gold became 
 bankrupt, because he could not exchange it for silver ru- 
 pees, the only legal tender. Mr. Dana Horton has clearly 
 set forth the absurdity of attempting to introduce free trade 
 where it is really not a question of it: — 
 
 " Free trade In legal tender may have existed in the primitive 
 days of unsophisticated barter, and certainly must flourish in 
 Utopia; but when we ask how it can be materialized to-day, we 
 find ourselves in confusion. Can payees demand, or can payors 
 give in payment, whatever merchandise they prefer? In what 
 merchandise do men express their taxes and appropriations, salar- 
 ies and fees, fines, official appraises and sales ? Is it a matter of in- 
 difference, or a matter of choice, with payor or payee, whether all 
 these obligations are fulfilled with saw-logs, whale's blubber, raw 
 hides, or loads of gravel ? Do men take up a bill of exchange, with 
 freestone, or pay for postage stamps with dynamite ? Now, all these 
 questions occur naturally, and must be answered aflirmatively, if we 
 
424 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 admit that free trade in legal tender is present in the flesh. Evidently 
 the thinker who materializes ideal free trade in money in the 
 nineteenth century, in the interests of science, must likewise be 
 prej)ared to be done by as he does, and when he asks for bread to 
 receive a serpent, and when he asks for fish to receive a stone." — 
 Gold and Silver, p. 172. 
 
 1 thiak we may conclude, from what we have just quoted, 
 that those who speak oi free trade in money do not know 
 what they are talking about. The word " legal " tender in 
 itself ought, however, to warn them of their error. The 
 theory of fiat money — which is, at the bottom, the theory of 
 the iniJationist and of the partisans of paper money — is 
 not less absurd when pushed to the extreme. Mr. Dana 
 Horton gives us a curious example borrowed from Iwan 
 Possoschkof, a Russian reformer of the time of Peter the 
 Great : — " The foreigners estimate their money according to 
 the quantity of metal it contains, and not according to the 
 power of the monarch who issues it. But we honor our 
 
 . monarch as God, and most zealously obey his will. We do 
 not look at the weight of the money, but upon the inscrip- 
 tion. It is not the copper that is valuable to us , it is the 
 name of our Czar." In truth, in former times, when sover- 
 eigns and statesmen were for ever' changing the current 
 value of money, or the proportion of precious metal in each 
 coin, their ideas must have been very similar to Possos- 
 chkof s. To cite only one example, the following are the 
 terms in which Phillip Valois, king of France, proclaims 
 his absolute power with regard to the coinage of his realm, 
 in an ordinance dated January 16, 1347: — " Aucun ne pent 
 faire doute qu'a nous appartienne seulement et pour le tout 
 en notre Royaume, le fait, la provision et toute I'ordon- 
 
 . nance de la monnaie et de faire monnayer telles monnaies 
 et donner tel cours comme il nous plait." Lord Liverpool, 
 whose ideas as to the nature of money were so clear and 
 just, does not overlook the predominating influence of law 
 in the matter. He says, in his famous treatise on the 
 " Coins of the Realm " : — "Coins ought always to pass in 
 tale, according to the rate or value which the Sovereign 
 puts upon them in his Mint Indentures." (Bank of Eng- 
 land edit., p. 177). 
 
 It is as little correct to pretend that the law can do every- 
 thing with regard to money, as to say that it can do nothing. 
 The following are the arguments of those who maintain the 
 latter opinion : Doubtless the law can decree that a pound 
 sterling shall be equal to forty shillings, as it can also di- 
 minish by one half the amount of pure gold contained in a 
 sovereign, but in such a case the value of the new sovereign 
 would be only half that of the old— that is to say, it would 
 pay for only half the quantity of goods, prices having 
 doubled themselves. Thus the step taken by the legislator 
 would prove of no avail ; it must, indeed, always come to 
 naught, when we consider existing economic conditions 
 which enforce themselves. The value of everything de- 
 pends on the law of demand and supply, and not on the 
 will of either Sovereigns or Parliaments. This argument 
 is irrefutable, but does not at all prove that the law can 
 have no influence whatever on the value of monetary metals, 
 and consequently on that of money. In reality the influence 
 of the State is not contrary to economic laws, but in accord- 
 ance with them ; for it is the State which, by opening the 
 mints, occasions the chief demand for the precious metals. 
 The value of gold and silver arises from their being used, 
 firstly, for making either useful objects or objects of luxury, 
 
 jewelry, etc.; and, secondly, for making coin. The monetary 
 exceeds in influence the industrial demand — in the first in- 
 stance, because it is of greater importance; in the second, 
 because it fixes the price of the precious metals. If mints 
 were completely closed, the value of the proscribed metal 
 would fall to at least one-half Gold would be worth no 
 more than platinum— that is to say £24 to £30 a kilo, and 
 its price would be as vai-iable as the price of this rare metal. 
 Silver has lost one-fifth of its former value ; and this fact is 
 entirely due to the legislators of civilized countries having 
 forbidden its- being freely coined in the mints. If the United 
 States were to suspend the Allison Bill, which imposes a 
 monthly coinage of at least two million dollars, and if India 
 were also to close her mint, to what price would silver then 
 fall ? To one-half— or, perhaps, even one-third— of what it 
 was recently worth. If, on the other hand, free coinage 
 were to be re-established in those countries where it formerly 
 
 existed, silver would certainly regain its former value. 
 Thus we see that the power of law with regard to money 
 consists in fixing its value by creating, suspending, or an- 
 nulling the demand for the precious metals of which money 
 is composed.^ The law in itself does not entirely create this 
 value, though very nearly so. Were the demand from the 
 mints to cease completely, industry alone would, it is true, 
 suffice to retain for the precious metals a portion of 
 their present value, but the influence of law is certainly very 
 great, for were the monetary employment of either metal 
 entirely to discontinue, that metal would be oflfered to indus- 
 try in double and triple quantities, and the price of it would 
 consequently be enormously depreciated. In the corres- 
 pondence between Mr. Gibbs and Mr. T. H. Farrer,' the lat- 
 ter sums up current opinion in the following passage: — 
 
 " What is a pound ? Not merely a thing to which law has attached 
 any particular value, but a bit of gold stamped to show its weight 
 and fineness. The value of gold depends in no way on the stamp. 
 It depends, on the one hand, on the supply — i. e., cost, or rather 
 difficulty, of production ; on the other handi, on the demand, i. e., 
 on the extent to which men desire to use it. Over the supply law 
 has no power whatever; over the demaLd law has some power, just 
 as it has over the demand for other commodities." 
 
 All th&se afiirmations, which have a seeming foundation, 
 are, in reality, contrary to facts. Law has an influence over 
 the demand for gold quite different from that which it exer- 
 cises over the demand for any other commodity, for the 
 State buys gold in unlimited quantities and at a fixed price. 
 This it certainly does for no other merchandise. Will the 
 State accept iron, corn, or tea, upon these conditions ? It 
 exercises also an indirect but decided influence on the sup- 
 ply, thatis to say, on the production, for it determines the 
 price which can be paid at the mines. If the State cease to 
 fix the price, or if it lower it, the production will, of neces- 
 sity, diminish. " A gold sovereign," says Mr. T. H. Farrer, 
 " is, within a trifling fraction, worth as much in exchange, 
 when melted down, as when it has the Queen's head on it." 
 This is true, but why? Because the law allows you to 
 change your melted sovereign back again into a sovereign 
 " legal " standard, and this at the expense of the Mint. " It 
 is, therefore, the law which maintains the bullion value of 
 the melted sovereign. Let the law only close the Mint, and 
 your gold as bullion would lose a large proportion of its 
 value. Here is a proof of this. In France, at the present 
 time, five francs in silver have the same power in buying 
 and paying as five francs in gold. Melt a silver five-franc 
 piece, and it will then be worth only four. Why? Because 
 silver, as bullion, may not be changed back into coin. If the 
 French mint were once more opened to silver coinage, five 
 francs in bullion may be worth as much as five francs in 
 money, just as with a sovereign. 
 
 Mr. Bonaray Price, and those who, like him, affirm that 
 rnoney is as much merchandise as any other article, or a 
 piece of machinery, a tool, a wagon, or a cart, do not ob- 
 servethat the free coinage at the Mint in itself establishes 
 a radical difference between the monetary metals and any 
 other commodity. If you make too much cast-iron, or too 
 much cloth, you .cannot sell it all, your stock accumulates 
 too largely, and you are a loser, for it eats up the interest 
 
 1 In favor of the opinion that the value of money comes not from the 
 law, but from the intrinsic value of Its metal, Michel Chevalier, Bo- 
 namy Price, and other economists, quote these words of Aristotle : "It 
 was agreed to give and receive in exchange a substance which, useful 
 m itsslf, was easy of handling for the uses of men, such as iron, for ex- 
 ample, or silver, or some other substance, of which the size and weight 
 wasfirst determined ; and, finally, in order to avoid the trouble of con- 
 tinual measuring, it was marked with a stamp iu sign of its value." 
 Theyomittheconclusiouof the passage, which runs thus: "But of 
 itselfmoney is an empty thing; ith&svalueonlyby law, and not by 
 nature, for a change of agreement among those using it can depreciate 
 itentirely, andrenderitentirely unfit to satisfy our needs." The con- 
 sequence of what Germany had done in 1873, in accepting no more 
 silver as legal tender^ isan example of the truth of Aristotle^s remark. 
 Mr. Dana Horton, in his remarkable book, " Gold and Silver " p 
 118 quotes another jjassage of Aristotle even more explicit :- 
 
 Money {<'6T^a) ,s as it were, a substitute for demaud (xp«'a) or the 
 thing needed ; and hence it has the same ' nomisma,' because it 
 is not so by nature, but by law {''6^«>), and because it is in our 
 power to change it and render it\ia&less."—mchomachean Ethics, 
 book 5, chap. 5. 
 
 ' •' The Double Standard," by II. Gibbs, Appendix, p. 18. 
 
THE MINES, MIISrEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 425 
 
 of the value it represents. This is not at all the case with 
 monetary metal ; you can never have too much of that ; 
 thanks to free coinage, it can always be converted into mo- 
 ney, and then you immediately draw a revenue from it. 
 Monetary metal is never a dead capital ; with money you 
 can purchase, and pay for, any and everything. You are 
 lord of the market. With goods you must wait to sell be- 
 fore purchasing or paying. This is the difference between 
 money and tools or plows. If you possess the latter in ex- 
 cess it is dead capital, while this can never be the case with 
 monetary tools, for you can always send them into circula- 
 tion, and employ them in procuring your productive capital, 
 consols for instance. 
 
 Mr. Bonamy Price thinks that surplus monetary convey- 
 ances will lie idle in the banks, like surplus plows in a shed. 
 This is a mistake. Every piece of money will be sent into 
 circulation, let them be ever so numerous ; for, if they ac- 
 cumulate in banks, the rate of interest will fall. The low- 
 ered rate of interest will urge men to fresh enterprises, from 
 which will spring an increased demand for goods of all 
 kinds, and, as a natural result, a rise of prices will ensue. 
 Higher prices will necessitate the use of more money, and 
 thus the surplus coinage will find employment. Coin is, 
 therefore, to its owner a living capital, current everywhere, 
 and capable of being employed immediately, or of being 
 put out to profit according as its possessor desires. This is 
 an exclusive privilege of money, and when business men, 
 whom economists scoff at, give it pre-eminence over all other 
 merchandise, they are wholly in the right. According to 
 Mr. Bonamy Price, and all the economists of the deductive 
 school, the value of gold and silver depends on what it has 
 cost to produce these metals. " The gold," they say, " buys 
 by means of its cost of production." This maxim is daily 
 contradicted by facts, as we will endeavor to prove, but this 
 discussion needs great attention, because it is not easy to 
 explain the changes in the value of money, which would 
 appear unchangable as long as the coins contained a fixed 
 quantity of precious metal. For instance, an ounce of gold, 
 standard fineness, which can always be exchanged at the 
 Bank of England for £3 ITs. lOJi., would appear to retain 
 always the same value. This is, however, not the case. 
 Without taking into consideration the abstract theory of 
 value, we can say, with economists, that the value of an ob- 
 ject is represented by the quantity of other objects to be ob- 
 tained in exchange for it. Thus it is admitted that the value 
 of the precious metals has fallen to a quarter of .what it was 
 in the thirteenth century, because the same weight of gold 
 or silver will now only purchase a quarter or a fifth of corn 
 or other commodities. If bank notes and silver were simul- 
 taneously and universally suppressed in favor of gold, it is 
 certain that the value of gold would enormously increase, 
 although the amount of labor necessary to the production of 
 an ounce of gold would in no ways have changed or dimin- 
 ished. Silver, after 1873, and notably in 1875 and 1876, lost 
 suddenly a large proportion of its value. The price of this 
 metal fell from 60 to 61 pence per ounce, to 50, and even for 
 a time as low as 46, and now the average price is about 52 
 pence. Has the cost of producing silver suddenly fallen a 
 fifth or fourth? No one will attempt to maintain such a 
 statement. Mr. Otto Arendt has proved with most accu- 
 rate figures ("Die vertragsmassige Doppelwahrung") that 
 the fall in the price of silver was occasioned by Germany, 
 selling it, combined with the prohibitions against its free 
 coinage in all civilized countries. 
 
 The price of articles depends principally — and this will 
 not be denied — on the demand; and as the demand for sil- 
 ver from the Mints ceased all at once, how could this metal 
 not fall considerably in the market? If the free coinage of 
 this metal were re-established in France, the United States, 
 and Germany, on the basis of a fixed ratio of 1 to 15 J be- 
 tween ^old and silver, is it not evident that silver would 
 immediately regain its former value ? When Belgium and, 
 later on, Germany adopted nickel in place of copper coin, 
 the value of that metal tripled. Had the cost of its produc- 
 tion increased? Not at all ; but the demand increased, and 
 as nickel cannot be produced at will, the tripled price main- 
 tains itself. Suppose that men again attempted to make 
 money out of platinum, as was once done in Russia, that 
 metal, instead* of being worth from £12 to £14 a pound, 
 would rise to four or five times that value. If, on the other 
 
 hand, the coinage of gold were everywhere to be suppressed, 
 it would certainly fall to half its present value. The value 
 of gold depends so little on the cost of production, that we 
 learn from those of competent authority, who have given the 
 question their time and attention, that the average cost of 
 each ounce obtained is the price of two. It will be asked : 
 Why, then, is such a losing business carried on ? It cannot 
 be possible ! The explanation is very simple. Certain mines 
 make very large profits, and those who work at a loss hope, 
 some day, to strike a rich vein, a " bonanza," and they work 
 on, cheered by that hope, until they have expended all their 
 resources. Sometimes they succeed, and their good fortune 
 stimulates others to similar labors. At Monaco, an analogous 
 state of things may be observed. It is quite certain that for 
 the totality of players the gaming there is a losing operation, 
 for the yearly profits made by the bank amount to a con- 
 siderable sum. Therefore, each franc gained by the mass of 
 players cost them more than a franc. But the gambling 
 goes on, each individual believing he will one day be the 
 favorite of fortune — and there are, indeed some wlio prove 
 to be so. It is most essential with the precious metals to 
 distinguish very carefully between price and value. The 
 price of the precious metals is determined by the Mints. 
 The " market price of gold " is an expression in constant 
 >use, especially in England. The market price of gold is no 
 other than the Mint price. This price enforces itself, and 
 for a self-evident reason, which is this. Mints are not only 
 the principal consumers, but are, at the same time, insatia- 
 ble, for they buy up all monetary metal at a price fixed by 
 themselves. Why, in any part of the world should gold 
 be sold under £3 17». lO^d., due deduction being made for 
 transport expenses, as this price can always be obtained at 
 the Bank of England? Grold will never be sold cheaper 
 while the Mint in London maintains its price. It cannot 
 either fetch a higher price as long as a sovereign remains in 
 circulation, for industry has but to melt sovereigns for £3 
 17*. lOid., and it will secure an ounce standard, and will 
 therefore pay no higher price in the market. Certain writ- 
 ers imagine that if silver were universally received as stand- 
 ard money, with a ratio as to gold of 1 to 15 J, the dearer 
 metal, that is to say, gold, would be gradually withdrawn, 
 and would no longer remain in circnlation. But then, what 
 would become of this metal ? Could it be treasured up in- 
 definitely? Impossible; for it would consume its own in- 
 terest. Could it be sold to industry at a higher price than 
 that fixed by the legal ratio ? More impossible still ; for, 
 goldsmiths and jewelers being able to draw, at will from 
 the monetary stock, at the price fixed by the Mint, would 
 refuse to pay higher. The producers and holders of gold 
 would therefore be forced to resign themselves to accept the 
 price imposed by the Mint, for they would be unable to 
 dispose more advantageously of their metal elsewhere. 
 Gold could only disappear if the production were to be re- 
 duced one-half or two-thirds. But then, of course, gold 
 could be no longer the monetary metal of the world. Let 
 us suppose that the cost of the production of gold dimin- 
 ishes suddenly very much, as jt probably did when the 
 placers of California and Australia were first worked after the 
 year 1850. The price of gold would not fall on that account, 
 for the bank would still continue to pay £3. 17s. lOid. 
 
 The value of the monetary metals, that is to say their 
 power of purchase of other objects, is a more complicated 
 subject. It depends on the connection existing between the 
 exchanges to be effected, on the one hand, and the total 
 quantity of metallic money, or other mediums of exchanges 
 substituted for this metal, on the other. For instance, bank 
 notes, fulfilling precisely the same mission as gold or 
 silver coin, compete with these metals and, at all events, 
 render them less essential, and, consequently, diminish 
 their utility and their value. This diminution of value, 
 or of power of purchase, occasions a rise in prices. Sup- 
 press bank notes everywhere, and the value of metallic 
 money will considerably increase, for each monetary unit 
 will be more sought after, and its power of purchase will 
 augment in proportion as prices fall, although the cost for 
 the production of the precious metals will have remained 
 identically the same. On the other hand, if more bank 
 notes be issued, gold and silver will be depreciated in value. 
 For instance, when the United States and Italy adopted 
 paper money, and allowed their monetary stock to pass 
 
426 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 into other hands, a marked depreciation in the value of 
 coinage was observable all over the world. On the con- 
 trary, since these countries, wishing to re-establish a metal- 
 lic currency, are drawing to themselves a portion of the 
 world's monetary stock, they have occasioned a consider- 
 ble increase in the value of money, by a fall in prices. 
 These changes in the value of gold and silver are entirely 
 independent of the cost of production. The cose of produc- 
 tion of the precious metals can only influence their value in 
 the long run, and that insomuch as it has the power to 
 limit or increase the amount produced. Let us suppose 
 that the excavation of an ounce of gold from a mine costs 
 double what it now does ; the majority of mines, commenc- 
 ing, of course, with the poorest, would be abandoned. The 
 monetary stock would diminish and prices would fall. The 
 value of goods would increase. But this fall in the price of 
 everything, including also labor, would probably diminish 
 the cost of excavation and allow of the abandoned mines be- 
 ing reopened. If, on the other hand, precious metals could 
 be obtained at a less cost, it would probably happen that a 
 larger quantity would be extracted from the mines and a 
 diminution in their value might ensue, which would mani- 
 fest itself by a rise in prices. At all events, this influence, 
 never other than feeble, which the increase or diminution of 
 the cost of production can exercise over the value of gold and 
 silver has been often counteracted and annulled by circum- 
 stances other than those we have previously mentioned. 
 Firstly, money, gold and silver, cannot be regarded as corn, 
 coal, or such commodities. One cannot, at will, secure any 
 amount of gold. Miaes must be found to be worked, and these 
 mines are very rapidly exhausted. During the first fifty years 
 of this century the value of gold rose considerably without 
 occasioning any corresponding growth in the amount pro- 
 duced. "The discovery of the placers of California and Aus- 
 tralia increased extraordinarily the annual produce of the 
 yellow metal. This abundance of gold, and the great dimi- 
 nution of the cost of production at the gold-fields, occasioned 
 but a transitory fall in its value ; indeed, the price of gold 
 very quickly regained its previous level, as I have already 
 endeavored to prove ; and this was due to the fact of there 
 being fresh demands for it, — a necessary consequence of the 
 extraordinary activity of commerce and industry all over 
 the world. 
 
 Another consideration which must not be overlooked is, 
 that while ordinary commodities are more or less rapidly 
 consumed, the precious metals are preserved and accumu- 
 late. Therefore a difference in the annual production, un- 
 less it were to continue during a prolonged period, would 
 have a scarcely perceptible influence on their value, for this 
 influence would become deadened on losing itself in the 
 immense monetary stock, the result of the labor of cen- 
 turies. History proves that the value of gold is not at all 
 regulated by the abundance of production, as economists, 
 following Lord Liverpool, generally aflirm. The latter 
 writes in his famous book, " The Coins of the Realm," chap, 
 iii. : — " This variation (in the value of gold and silver ) is 
 occasioned by the greater or less quantity that may happen 
 to be at different times in the market or in circulation." 
 We will now show that this aflSrmation is contradicted by 
 facts, and, if this be the case, as a reduction in the cost of 
 production can only affect value by increasing the pro- 
 duction, we think the error of the thesis of Mr. Bonamy 
 Price, ' The gold buys by means of its cost of production" 
 will then be clearly proved. The value of gold in past cen- 
 turies can be estimated by comparing it with that of silver ; 
 for, until the year 1816, silver was everywhere the principal 
 standard, and the common measure of value. It will be 
 seen, by the figures given below and borrowed from Mr. 
 Soetbeer, that the value of the precious metals is in no way 
 determined by the cost of production, but solely by the 
 prices fixed at the Mints of the preponderating countries. 
 
 Average annual production in millions of Oerman marks (a mark is 
 worth about a shiUing), 
 
 1501-80. 
 
 1581-1600. 
 
 1601-20. 
 
 1621-40. 
 
 1641-eo. 
 
 1661-80. 
 
 1081-1700. 
 
 Gold . . 19 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 . 30 
 
 Silver . 63 
 
 . 76 . 
 
 76 
 
 . 70 
 
 65 
 
 60 
 
 . 61 
 
 Relative " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 vala e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of gold 
 to sil- 
 
 11-60 
 
 . 11-80 
 
 11.25 
 
 . 1400 
 
 . 14-60 
 
 . 160O 
 
 . 14-96 
 
 ver. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 We see that from 1561 to 1600, the annual production of 
 silver rose from 53 to 75 millions of marks ; while that of 
 gold remains almost stationary. The value of silver ought 
 to have fallen. It did not, however, do so, for the relative 
 value of gold only rose from 11..50 to 11.80. From 1600 to 
 1700 the production of silver diminished : it fell from 76 to 
 61 million marks : while that of gold rose from 20 to 
 30 million marks. The value of silver should therefore 
 have increased, and that of gold comparatively have dimin- 
 ished. We see, however, instead of this, that the value of 
 gold rises from 11.80 to 14.96. The cost for the production 
 of gold must have fallen, as the produce was more abun- 
 dant. Why, then, has its value so increased ? Because the 
 Mint indentures of different States fixed a higher and higher 
 value on it. Are economic laws at fault here ? Not at all ; 
 but they have been badly expounded by economists. It is 
 the demand of those insatiable consumers, Mints, which has 
 brought about the rise in the value of gold. During the 
 18th century, the production of silver enormously increased, 
 thanks to the facility with which the rich mines of Mexico 
 were able to be worked. According to the theory of the 
 cost of production of Mr. Bonamy Price, the value of silver 
 ought to have lessened. The contrary took place. Here, 
 again, I borrow the figures of Mr. Soetbeer, which are 
 generally admitted to be the most accurate we have — 
 
 Average annual production in millions of German Tnarks. 
 
 
 1701-20. 
 
 1720-40. 
 
 1741-60. 
 
 1761-81. 
 
 1781-1800 
 
 Gold. . . 
 
 35 
 
 53 
 
 68 
 
 57 
 
 49 
 
 Silver . : 
 
 46 
 
 77 
 
 95 
 
 117 
 
 168 
 
 Eatio be-' 
 
 16-27 
 
 15.09 . 
 
 . 14-93 
 
 . 11-81 
 
 . 14-76 
 
 twe en 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 gold and 
 
 16-15 . 
 
 15 07 . 
 
 . 14-50 
 
 14-64 . 
 
 16-42 
 
 silver. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thus, from 1700 to 1800, the production of gold increased 
 very little — from 35 to 49 millions of marks ; while that of 
 silver grew enormously — from 64 to 158 millions ; and, at 
 the same time, until the year 1780, the relative value of 
 gold fell, and that of silver rose. A kilo of gold (about two 
 lbs.), which was worth, in 1700, 15.27 kilos of silver, would 
 only fetch $14.76 in 1780. If gold in 1880 attained the 
 ratio of 1 to 15.42, it was on account of the French Minis- 
 ter, De Calonne, having established a ratio of 1 to 15}, 
 which was higher than the value known as the commercial 
 value, and determined, before this date, by the price at the 
 English Mint. 
 
 Facts which occurred subsequently to the year 1850, give 
 a still more formal contradiction to the theory which asserts 
 that the value of the precious metals depends on the cost 
 and amount of production. The average annual production 
 of gold which was, from 1840 to 1850, about £2,800,000, rises 
 suddenly after 1850 to £32,000,000, or to an average of about 
 £28,000,000 for the period 1850-60. In the twenty-five years 
 following 1850, more gold is produced than in the 358 years 
 between 1493 and 1850. What a prodigious change in all 
 the elements of production of this metal ! If the theory of 
 Mr. Bonamy Price be correct, its value ought to decrease 
 enormously. But no. The ratio of gold to silver scarcely 
 changes. From 1851 to 1875 it is quoted at 15.53. Thus we 
 see that the diminution in the cost of production and the 
 more than extraordinary growth of production produced no 
 effect on the relative value of gold. These facts give a deci- 
 sive negative to the theories of economists ; but they are in 
 strict accordance with true economic laws. Let us suppose 
 an unlimited demand for any commodity at a fixed price. 
 This price will of necessity be forced upon the market. The 
 free coinage of a monetary metal, at a fixed price by the 
 Mint, constitutes an unlimited demand for that metal ; the 
 price of the Mint will become consequently the established 
 price, if the State be sufficiently powerful to absorb all that 
 IS produced. In the event of the production increasing very 
 considerably all that could ensue would be a depreciation 
 of the monetary units, and consequently a rise in prices. 
 Stuart Mill stated and proved the following principle : " Al- 
 terations in the cost of production of the precious metals do 
 not act upon the value of money except just in proportion as 
 they increase or diminish its quantity, which cannot be said 
 of any other commodity." ' 
 
 It is now time to examine if a rise or fall in prices is 
 always in proportion to the growth or diminution in the 
 
 ' Principles of Political Economy, People's Edition, p. 306. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 427 
 
 quantity of money. This is what German economists call 
 the " Quantiiats Theorie." I borrow also from Stuart Mill the 
 statement of this theory : " The value of money, the other 
 things being the same, varies inversely as its quantity, every 
 increase of quantity lowering the value, and every diminu- 
 tion raising it in a ratio exactly equivalent." The great 
 Roman jurist, Paulus, already understood this law, when he 
 said, speaking of money,' " tlsum dominiumque, non tarn ex 
 substantia prcebet, quam ex quanti{ate." Mr. Cernuschi has 
 given expression to the same idea, with his usual precision, 
 111 the Proposals which he submitted to the Monetary Con- 
 gress of 1881 : — " Money is a legal and mathematical value ; 
 legal, for the material from which it is made is fixed upon 
 by legislators, and its enforced currency is also imposed by 
 them ; mathematical, for the value of money varies inversely 
 as its mass ; that is to say as the quantity existing." This 
 theory is correct if we add to it, as Stuart Mill did, cceteris 
 paribus, or " the other things remaining the same." If, re- 
 ferring to Hume's hypothesis, we imagine that, one morning, 
 every one wakes up finding in his pocket twice as much 
 cash as the day before, it is certain that every commodity 
 would be worth twice as much, for each one could offer 
 twice as much cash in order to obtain what he wanted. But 
 the " quantity" monetary theory is contradicted by facts, if 
 other things do not remain the same. Now, many circumstan-, 
 ces may alter. For instance : Firstly, the circulation of money 
 may become more rapid, and, consequently, each coin, ope- 
 rating more exchanges, the quantity of money may be re- 
 duced, without any proportionate fall in prices occurring. 
 Secondly, a similar effect is produced if money is replaced 
 by means of credit. Here, again, the quantity of money 
 may diminish, or the number of exchanges increase, without 
 being followed by a fall in prices. So it is well known thi3,t 
 in England and America, nine-tenths of all the great trans- 
 actions are settled by credit and banking. Thirdly and 
 finally, an increase, even very great, in the quantity of 
 money does not produce a rise in prices, if its effect be, as 
 is generally the case, to stimulate the creation of fresh enter- 
 prises, and thus to increase the amount of merchandise to be 
 exchanged and transactions to be settled. We see now in 
 what way facts contradict the maxim generally accepted in 
 England, and thus stated by Mr. Bonamy Price : " The mar- 
 ket value of the sovereign is what it cost to produce." As 
 Mill has proved, the cost of production of the precious met- 
 als does not act upon the value of money except in proportion 
 as it increases or diminishes its quantity. In its turn, the 
 quantity of money does not influence the value, save in a 
 manner by no means mathematical, rather irregular, and 
 frequently in total opposition to anything the "quantity 
 theory" would have led one to contemplate. I now apjjroach 
 the question which is occasioning such lively discussion at 
 the present time. Should money, legal tender, be made of 
 only one metal, or can it be made of either gold or silver, a 
 ratio of value between these two metals being fixed by law ? 
 Until quite recently the question had been very little studied 
 in England, and opinions there were almost unanimously in 
 favor of a single metal — i. e., gold monometallism. Lord Liv- 
 erpool's book, " The Coins of the Realm," was considered 
 decisive authority, and, in all respects, it well deserved to be 
 so. Both theoretical arguments and historical facts are 
 there clearly and perfectly stated. I will endeavor to prove 
 from the premises of Lord Liverpool, and of other authors 
 whom he quotes in his work, that a bimetallic coinage is 
 better calculated to fulfill the conditions necessary to a good 
 legal tender than a monometallic. When Lord Liverpool, 
 contrary to universal custom, reduced England to the exclu- 
 
 1 The passage from Paulus, whence these words are quoted, so ad- 
 mirably sums up the whole monetary theory, that we think we 
 cannot do better than reproduce it in its entirety :— " Origo emendi 
 vendendique a permutationibus coepit. Olim enim non erat num- 
 mus; neque aliud Merx, alid Pretium vocabatur ; sed unusquisque, 
 secundum necessitatera temporum ac rerum, utilibus inutilia per- 
 mutabat ; quando plerumque evenit ut quod alteri superest, alteri 
 desit. Sed quia non semper nee facile concurrebat, ut, quum tu 
 haberes quod ego desiderarem, invidem haberem quod tu aceipere 
 velles, electa materia est, cujus publica ac perpetua estimatio diffi- 
 cultatibus permutationum, aequalitate quantitatis subveniret : eaque 
 materia forma publica percussa, usuni dominiumque, non tarn ex 
 substantia prabet, quam ex quantitate. Nee ultra Merx utrumque; 
 sed alteram, Pretium vocatur."— Dig. xviii. 
 
 sive adoption of gold as money, he was guided by two chief 
 considerations. The first, borrowed from Petty, Locke, and 
 Harris, was this : It is impossible to establish a fixed ratio 
 between two sorts of merchandise, gold and silver ; therefore, 
 in accepting these two metals at a time as a legal tender, we 
 run a double risk of variations in its value. The second, 
 which Lord Liverpool gathered chiefly from the monetary 
 history of England, is as follows : It is impossible to main- 
 tain two metals in circulation. The most sought after is 
 exported abroad or melted by industry. This law is what is 
 called the Gresham law,' which might also be named " the 
 law of alternation.'* The following are Lord Liverpool's 
 authorities: — Sir William Petty ("Political Anatomy of 
 Ireland," chap, xi,) observes, "that money is understood to 
 be the uniform measure of the value of all commodities," 
 and then adds, " that the proportion of value between pure 
 gold and fine silver alters, as the earth and industry of men 
 produce more of one than the other, so there can be but one ' 
 of the two metals of gold and silver to be a fit matter for 
 raoney." Locke says that two metals, that is, gold and 
 silver, cannot be the measure both together in any country, 
 because the measure of commerce must be perpetually the 
 same, invariable, and keeping the same proportion of value 
 in all its parts." 
 
 Mr. Harris says, " that one only of these metals, gold or 
 silver, can be the money, or standard measure of commerce, 
 in any country ; for the standard measure must be invaria- 
 ble, and keep the same proportion of value in all its parts," 
 — ("The Coins of the Realm," Bank of England edit. p. 
 129.) Lord Liverpool allows that gold, as well as silver, 
 varies in value, and that " coins, on that account, are an 
 imperfect measure, though they are made of one metal 
 only." " But," says he, " if coins are made of two of these 
 metals, a second imperfection is then introduced ; for any 
 two of these metals, in successive periods, vary in value 
 with respect to each other." Thus, what causes Lord Liv- 
 erpool, and the authorities he quotes — Petty, Locke, and 
 Harris — to prefer a monometallic coinage, is the opinion 
 that a legal tender of only one metal is more stable in value. 
 Stability in the value of money is its most essential quality. 
 Both Aristotle and Locke recognized this : " The measure of 
 commerce must be perpetually the same, and invariable." 
 
 This ideal of permanent value being unattainable, as Lord 
 Liverpool himself admits, the next point to examine is 
 which legal tender approaches nearest to it, bimetallic or 
 monometallic? We may say, at the present time, that it is 
 a scientific truth, demonstrated by both arguments and facts, 
 that a legal tender formed of two precious metals, gold and 
 silver, is more stable in value than one formed exclusively 
 of either gold or silver. This truth was clearly set forth in 
 1809, by Adam Miiller in his book, " Elemente der Staats 
 
 1 " Gresham law" liad already been observed in Greece. Aristo- 
 phanes speaks of it very wittily iu his comedy, " The Frogs.' Dur- 
 ing the extreme distress caused by the Peloponnesian war, Athens 
 had, for the first time, issued a debased gold coinage ; the conse- 
 quence was that the good money immediately disappeared from cir- 
 culation. Aristophanes (" Frogs," 665) says : " The State has very 
 often appeared to us to be placed in the same position toward the 
 good and noble citizens as it is in regard to the old currency and the 
 new gold. For we make no use at all, either at home or abroad, of 
 those which are not adulterated but the most beautiful of all money 
 as it would seem, wliich are alone well coined and ring properly, 
 but of this base copper, struck only yesterday, and recently, of a 
 most villainous stamp. And such of the citizens as we know to be 
 well born and prudent, and honorable gentlemen and educated in 
 the palaestra and chorus and liberal knowledge, we insult; but the 
 Impudent and foreigners, and the base bom, and the rascals, and 
 the sons of rascals, and those most recently come, we employ." Sir 
 Thomas Gresham was a rich merchant of the City of London, a 
 mercer who negotiated Flemish loans for Henry VIII, and for Eliz- 
 abeth. He interested himself greatly in monetary matters, and gave 
 very sound advice to the Queen on this subject. He remarked that 
 good and bad coin cannot circulate together, and that the good coin 
 is always withdrawn from the circulation, where speculators in the 
 precious metals leave only the bad. Vide " The Life and Times of 
 Sir Thomas Gresham," by John William Burgon ; and "Dictionary 
 of Political Economy," p. 46, by Macleod. Fide " Aristophanes." 
 Montesquieu states the facts observed by Gresham, but without 
 knowing their cause : " L'or disparait quand I'argent est eommun 
 parceque chacun en a pour le cacher ; 11 reparait quad I'argent est 
 rare parcequ on est oblige de le retirer de ses retraites. C'est done 
 une regie : l'or est eommun quand I'argent est rare, et l'or est rare 
 quand I'argent estcommun." — Espirit des Lois, liv, xxii, chap. 70. 
 
428 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Kunst." It was still more plainly demonstrated by Sismondi, 
 in 1827, in his "Nouveau Principes x d'Economie Politique," 
 t. ii, p. 60. These two authors make use of a comparison 
 often reproduced since, that of the "compensated pendulum." 
 "The way," says Sismondi, "to diminish the chances of 
 fluctuation in the value of money is to employ gold and sil- 
 ver simultaneously, as common measure, and to establish a 
 legal proportion between them. In the same way, in order 
 to have a pendulum unvarying in length, the rods are made 
 of diflferent metals, so that the expansion of one, produced 
 by heat, may be counteracted by that of another, and thus 
 the equilibrium is maintained." The essential truth which 
 governs the whole monetary question has been demonstrated 
 by Mr. Jevons, aided by diagrams and comparisons, with a 
 clearness which defies all dispute: — 
 
 "In the first place," remarks Mr. Jevons, " I have no doubt 
 whatever that M. Wolowski is theoretically quite correct in what 
 he says about the compensatory action of the double standard sys- 
 tem. English writers seem completely to have misunderstood the 
 question, asserting that the system exposes us to the extreme fluc- 
 tuations of both metals." [Here Mr. Jevons inserts his diagram, 
 showing that the fluctuations in value of both metals, taken to- 
 gether, do not proceed to so great an extent as those of either gold 
 or silver. And then he goes on saying] "Nor is this the whole error 
 of English writers ; a little reflection must show that MM.Wolowski 
 and Courcelle Seneuil are quite correct in urging that a compensa- 
 tory or, I should prefer to call it, equilibratory action, goes on under 
 the French currency law, and tends to maintain both gold and 
 silver more steady in value, than they would otherwise be. Imag- 
 ine two reservoirs of water, each subject to independent variations 
 of supply and demand. In the absence of any connecting pipe, the 
 level of the water in each reservoir will be subject to its own fluctu- 
 ations only. But if we open a connection, the wat«r in both will 
 assume a certain mean level, and the effect of any excessive supply 
 or demand will be distributed over the whole area of both reservoirs. 
 The mass of the metals, gold and silver, circulating in Western Eu- 
 rope, in late years, is exactly represented by the Water in these 
 reservoirs, and the connecting pipe is the French law of the 7th 
 Germinal; An. XL, which enables one metal to take the place of 
 the other as an unlimited legal tender." — Money, pp. 137-140. 
 
 Another example may serve to demonstrate the general 
 principle that the price of two sorts of merchandise, which 
 can replace each other, will be steadier than that of a mer- 
 chandise without a substitute. For instance, in a country 
 where the nourishment is both rye and wheat, the price of 
 food, and even the price of each of these cereals, will be less 
 subject to variation than in a country where the consump- 
 tion is entirely of one or the other. The figures concerning 
 the production of gold and silver prove that the comparison 
 made by Mr. Jevons is perfectly exact. The table of 
 figures reproduced here' shows that the production of either 
 gold or silver, taken separately, is subject to very 
 
 1 Annual production of Gold and Silver from 1849 io 1879, according to English 
 and American statistics. 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Siher. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1849 
 
 5,420,000 
 
 7,800,000 
 
 13,220,000 
 
 1860 
 
 8,890,000 
 
 7,800,000 
 
 16,690,000 
 
 1861 
 
 13,520,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 21,620,000 
 
 1862 
 
 20,650,000 
 
 8,120,000 
 
 34,670,000 
 
 1853 
 
 31,090,000 
 
 8,120,000 
 
 39,210,000 
 
 1854 
 
 25,490,000 
 
 8,120,000 
 
 33,010,000 
 
 1855 
 
 27,015,000 
 
 8,120,000 
 
 36,135,000 
 
 1856 
 
 29,520,000 
 
 8,130,000 
 
 37,650,000 
 
 1867 
 
 26,055,000 
 
 8,130,000 
 
 34,785,000 
 
 1858 
 
 24,930,000 
 
 8,130,000 
 
 33,060,000 
 
 1859 
 
 24,970,000 
 
 8,150,000 
 
 33120,000 
 
 1800 
 
 23,860,000 
 
 8,160,000 
 
 32,010,000 
 
 1861 
 
 22,760,000 
 
 8,540,000 
 
 31,300,000 
 
 1862 
 
 21,550,000 
 
 9,040,000 
 
 30,690,000 
 
 1863 
 
 21,390,000 
 
 9,840,000 
 
 31,230,000 
 
 1864 
 
 22,600,000 
 
 10,340,000 
 
 32,940,000 
 
 1866 
 
 24,040,000 
 
 10,390,000 
 
 34,430,000 
 
 1866 
 
 24,220,000 
 
 10,145,000 
 
 34,366,000 
 
 1867 
 
 22,806,000 
 
 10,845,000 
 
 33,660,000 
 
 1868 
 
 21,946,000 
 
 10,045,000 
 
 31,990,000 
 
 1869 
 
 21,246,000 
 
 9,600,000 
 
 30,746,000 
 
 1870 
 
 21,370,000 
 
 10,316,000 
 
 31,085,000 
 
 1871 
 
 21,400,000 
 
 12,210,000 
 
 33,610,000 
 
 1872 
 
 19,920,000 
 
 13,060,000 
 
 32,970,000 
 
 1873 
 
 19,240,000 
 
 17,850,000 
 
 37,000,000 
 
 1874 
 
 18,160,000 
 
 14,300,000 
 
 3!2,460,00O 
 
 1875 
 
 10,600,000 
 
 16,100,000 
 
 36.600,000 
 
 1876 
 
 19,000,000 
 
 14,800,000 
 
 33,800,000 
 
 1877 
 
 19,400,000 
 
 10,200,000 
 
 35,600,000 
 
 1878 
 
 19,000,000 
 
 17,000,000 
 
 30,000,000 
 
 1879 
 
 18,000,000 
 
 16,000,000 
 
 84,000,000 
 
 great and frequent fluctuations, while that of the two 
 metals, taken together, gives a remarkably stable total. 
 If J^here exist in the world, as is generally supposed, a stock 
 of precious metal amounting to 2,000 millions sterling, half 
 gold, half silver, it is evident that the variations in the 
 annual productions would have less influence on the value 
 of money, and consequently on prices, if the monetary stock 
 were formed of 2,000 millions, gold and silver together, 
 instead of 1,000 millions either gold or silver. For instance, 
 in comparing the year 1849 with 1853, we find that the pro- 
 duction of gold increased sixfold, while that of the two 
 metals combined only tripled. All economists agree in 
 admitting that if, in 1850, the gold standard had been in 
 force in all civilized countries, the increase in the production 
 of gold, from £5,420,000 in 1849, to £31,090,000 in 1853, it 
 would have occasioned considerable disturbance everywhere, 
 while, thanks to French bimetallism, the effect of this sud- 
 den increase was very much neutralized. As M. Michal 
 Chevalier proved, by a very just comparison, the unlimited 
 coinage of gold and silver in France acted as a " parachute." 
 In conclusion. Lord Liverpool was right in seeking, above 
 all else, stability in the legal tender; only at the present 
 time it has been scientifically proved that this is more easily 
 attainable with a double than with a single standard. The 
 second motive which induced Lord Liverpool to advise the 
 adoption of a single standard had better foundation. It 
 was, as we have previously stated, the Gresham law, or '" law 
 of alternation, which means that when gold and silver are 
 simultaneously in use as money, the depreciated metal only 
 remains in circulation. At the period from which Lord 
 Liverpool deduces his historic examples, the different coun- 
 tries were constantly modifying and changing the ratio of 
 value between gold and silver,^ and the result of this was 
 that a country where the two metals were allowed to be freely 
 coined was liable to lose all she possessed of either which 
 had, for the time being, the higher value at foreign Mints. 
 Lord Liverpool proves, by referring to the monetary history 
 of England, that the Gresham law has in fact been a reality. 
 At the beginning of the reign of James I. gold was valued 
 too low, and was consequently exported. This monarch 
 then, by successive proclamations, raised the value of gold 
 in his coins, so that the silver coins were, in their turn, ex- 
 ported. In 1663, under Charles II., when a new estimate 
 was made of the relative value of gold and silver at the 
 English mint, that of gold was underrated ; but gold was 
 received at a higher rate, so it remained in circulation. Af- 
 ter the great recoinage in the reign of William III., gold 
 was estimated at a higher value than on the Continent, so 
 the new silver coins were immediately exported. In confor- 
 mity with the advice of Newton, the value of the guinea was 
 lowered sixpence. But it was not enough to recall silver. 
 
 1 Here are some examples of variations in the ratio of value be- 
 tween gold and silver produced, not by trade, as is generally imag- 
 ined, but by the indentures of the Mint. Spain, who in the sixteenth 
 century, adopted a ratio of 1 to 13} raised it in 1730 to 16. The re- 
 sult was that silver, being estimated at a lower value than elsewhere, 
 was exported, and was always at a premium of even six per cent. 
 To remedy this, the ratio was lowered to 14AV, and then raised 
 again to 16 in 1779. In the Netherlands, the ratio was 11 J in 1589, 
 12i toward the year 1640, 14iU in 1663, and 148? toward the close of 
 the eighteenth century. In France the ratio, which was 1 to 11-88 
 in 1602, was raised in 1631 to 13-62, in 1679 to 14-91, and finally in 
 1785 Calonne fixed it at 15-50. Calonne himself explains that the 
 ratio existing in France was more unfavorable to gold than that of 
 15i, which was the market value, and so gold being exported, in 
 order to call it back he proposes fixing it at 15K What he calls the 
 commercial price is the price fixed by the English Mint. Formerly 
 the Gresham law could act but slowly, because, save in England, 
 coinage was not free. Depreciated metal could not therefore be 
 brought into any country to be made into money, the more valuable 
 metal being taken out in exchange. In 1679 Colbert decreed the 
 free coinage of the two metals in France, the Mint giving, weight 
 for weight, cash for gold or silver ingots. Rut this measure, which 
 according to Leblanc, attracted unexampled quantities of gold and 
 silver to the country, was retracted in 1869. Mr. Cernuschi has 
 clearly demonstrated that two bimetallic systems with a different 
 ratio between gold and silver, cannot coexist. Silver would accu- 
 mulate in the country where it is estiinateil tlie highest, and gold in 
 the other. For instance the United State'<, having adopted a differ- 
 ent ratio from that in force in France, first, 1786, that of 1 to 15, 
 then, in 1834, 1 to 16, had in the first place, nothing but silver, and 
 afterward nothing but gold. Vide " Bimetallism in England and 
 Abroad : Letter to Henry Hucks Gibbs," by II. Cernuschi, 1879 p. 8. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 429 
 
 Gold remained in England as the cheaper metal, and silver 
 was smuggled to the Continent by the Dutch as the dearer 
 metal, as was shown in a speech in the House of Lords, on 
 the 23d of January, 1718, by Lord Stanhope, who proposed 
 to lower again the value of gold. After 1785, when Calonne 
 raised in France the ratio between gold and silver to 15J, 
 
 fold was exported to Paris and silver returned to London, 
 'o stop this, under the influence of Lord Liverpool, the free 
 coinage of silver was prohibited in England, in 1798, till the 
 Privy Council should have time to consider all the questions 
 relating to the monetary circulation in the United Kingdom. 
 This summary of English monetary events clearly shows the 
 . power of the Gresham law, and it also proves that, at this 
 period, when it was impossible to think of determining, by 
 international treaty, a fixed ratio of value between the two 
 metals, the only means of avoiding the alternative with- 
 drawals of gold and silver was, as Lord Liverpool maintained, 
 to permit the free coinage of only one metal. This advan- 
 tage being in all probability of greater practical importance 
 than the maintaining a steady value in coinage, by making 
 use of two metals, it follows that, at the time he wrote. Lord 
 Liverpool was not wrong in recommending monometallism. 
 Nevertheless, he might have known that Newton had al- 
 ready indicated the means of maintaining the " equilibra- 
 tory " action of the double standard, remedying at the same 
 time the diiSculty of alternation entailed by the Gresham 
 law. These means are, that the Mints of all the prepondera- 
 ting nations fix the same ratio of value between gold and 
 silver. 
 
 "If," says Newton, "gold in England, or silver in East India, 
 could be brought downsolowasto hear the same proportion to one 
 another in both places, there would be here no greater demand for 
 silver than for gold to be exported to India ; and if gold were low- 
 ered only so as to have the same proportion to the silver money in 
 England which it has to silver in the rest of Europe, there should be 
 no temptation to export silver rather than gold to any part of 
 Europe." — (Reports made by Sir Isaac Newton, Master of the Mint, 
 concerning the state of the gold and silver coins, 1717 : Vide " Mon- 
 etary Documents, published by order of the Congress of the Uni- 
 ted States," by Dana Horton, p. 317. 
 
 As long as gold was worth 15:25 in England and only 15 
 on the Continent, as during the eighteenth century, the 
 flow of gold must evidently be to England and that of sil- 
 ver to the Continent. This result was as inevitable as that 
 of the electric battery, which attracts one metal toward the 
 positive, and the other toward the negative pole. When, in 
 1785, France adopted the ratio of 1 to 15:50, England began 
 losing her gold and winning back silver. But if England and 
 France had both adopted the ratio of 15:50, these two coun- 
 xries would have formed but one, from a monetary point of 
 view, and all reason for exporting or importing the one 
 metal in preference to the other would have disappeared. 
 The laws of universal bimetallism, as expounded by New- 
 ton, are no less mathematically evident than the law of grav- 
 itation and of universal attraction. If all the principal 
 states were to adopt the same ratio, the Newton law would 
 completely put an end to the Gresham law. These are 
 truths which have so clearly demonstrated in the luminous 
 writings, amongst others, of Mr. Cernuschi, that they may 
 be considered as acquired by economic science, and he alone 
 will attempt to deny their veracity who has never taken the 
 pains really to study them. 
 
 From what precedes, I think, we may draw the following 
 conclusions: — Considering that the quality Lord Liverpool 
 especially wished to secure to money was steadiness in 
 value ; that this steadiness is much more easily attainable 
 by the simultaneous employment of gold and silver; and 
 that, at the present day, the inconveniences arising from the 
 alternations of the Gresham law could be easily remedied 
 by an international treaty, it follows that Lord Liverpool 
 and his authorities. Petty, Locke, and Harris, would now 
 declare themselves in favor of a bimetallic coinage, for pre- 
 cisely the same reason that they rejected it in their time. 
 To elucidate this question as completely as possible, we will 
 now examine the oBjections which have been raised against 
 the solution we consider the best. The question of a 
 bimetallic coinage must have been very little discussed in 
 England, or such eminent economists as Mr. Bonamy Price 
 . and Mr. Robert Gifien would not put forth objections on 
 this subject so strange that they quite amaze one. Accord- 
 
 ing to Mr. B. Price, if England were to join a monetary 
 union with the principal civilized nations, for the purpose 
 of establishing a legal and simultaneous circulation of both 
 gold and silver with a ratio of 1 to 15J, the following de- 
 plorable results would ensue: — First, in any conceivable 
 case, many silver-producing nations would be left out, and 
 they would ruin the projected scheme. They would make 
 silver coins for the Monetary Union States, forged, but all of 
 full silver weight, introduce them easily into these coun- 
 tries, and deluge them with these coins, with immense profit 
 to themselves." ' We give here Mr. Bonamy Price's own 
 words, otherwise it would be hard to believe that such an 
 objection could have been brought forward. Bimetallism 
 being established, what rea-son could there be in silver-pro 
 ducing countries, making money of full weight, and fraud- 
 ulently introducing it into the circulation of the Monetary 
 Union ? Everywhere in the United States and in Europe, the 
 Mints would accept silver in unlimited quantities and at its 
 full value of 60J pence. A false coinage would entail great 
 expense, and its issue would not be unattended with danger, 
 while all the States of the Monetary Union would be ready 
 to receive silver at a price as high as fraud could obtain for 
 it, and would even give the money in return almost gratui- 
 tously. It would be a very strange undertaking. It is now, 
 when Mints are closed to silver, and when, at the same time, 
 silver pieces are standard money, as is the cas.e in France, 
 that the danger Mr. Price warns us of really exists, for by 
 forging these pieces 15 or 16 per cent, could be made ; as sil- 
 ver can be bought at 52 pence, and sold as coin at 60 J 
 pence. In England, the benefit made by forging shillings 
 and half-crowns might be still greater. If the Americans do 
 not make shillings, half-crowns, and crowns, now that silver 
 costs 52 pence, what inducement would there be for them to 
 commence, if its price were 60 or 61 pence, and when their 
 own Mint would be ready to pay for it at that rate ? The 
 truth is then quite the reverse of what Mr. Bonamy Price 
 states. The danger of false coinage which exists at the 
 present time, on account of the depreciation of silver 
 through its proscription, would entirely disappear if a free 
 coinage were introduced. 
 
 According to Mr. Bonamy Price, the second unfortunate 
 consequence of the free and simultaneous coinage of the two 
 metals would be that " all goods would have two prices, one 
 in gold, the other in silver, and this last would vary with 
 all the fluctuations of the worth of the metal." The 
 learned Oxford Professor has certainly traveled in France 
 or Belgium, in Switzerland, Spain, or Holland. In all these 
 countries bimetallism is in force. All debtors and buyers 
 can pay in either gold or silver. Are there, then, two 
 prices? Not at all. Let Mr. Price go to Paris and buy ten 
 thousand francs' worth of goods, or invest a million in the 
 public funds, or pay his bill at the hotel, no one will say to 
 him, " It is so much ; but if you pay in silver, the price is 
 different ; it is 15 per cent, more." Mr. Price would pay in 
 bank notes, if for a large sum, and his small bills in gold or 
 silver, as he prefers. No one has observed fluctuations in 
 the white metal in France. India and England alone lose 
 by the exchange of silver. In France, as in England, large 
 payments are made in bank notes ; these notes are guai'an- 
 teeed, for the greater part, by,, the stock of silver at the 
 Banque de France. No one objects to receive it, in spite of 
 silver being very much depreciated, which would not have 
 happened if men were not so mad as to proscribe it, although 
 it is endowed in the highest degree with monetary qualities. 
 
 The third grievance which Mr. Bonamy Price has discov- 
 ered is quite as extraordinary as the two preceding ones. If 
 England, says he, were to adept bimetallism, debts would 
 be paid in silver shillings instead of sovereigns, twenty 
 shillings to a pound sterling; and the shillings would be 
 worth much less, for one would be able to procure nearly 
 twenty-four shillings for a gold sovereign. The eminent 
 professor here supposes a state of things which, were it 
 really to occur, would be a direct contradiction to all eco- 
 nomic laws — viz., that silver, being worth 52 pence, at the 
 present time, should remain at the same price, when the 
 Mints of all the great countries would be ready and willing 
 to purchase it at 60| pence, the equivalent of the ratio of 1 
 
 ' " Buying and Selling," Journals of the Society of Arts, Mav C, 
 1881, p. 531. ' - • 
 
430 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 to 15J which is supposed to be adopted. Is it not inconsis- 
 tent to pretend that silver would not rise in value if, instead 
 of being proscribed everywhere, it were to be received at all 
 the Mints? Mr. Henry Gibbs, whom Mr. Bonamy Price es- 
 teems so highly, and justly so, states, in his remarkable work, 
 " The Double Standard," that the very day France readmits 
 the free coinage of silver on its ancient footing of 200 francs 
 the kilogramme, that metal will again rise to its former 
 price in the London market — i. e., to 60f pence, the equiva- 
 lent of the French price. Why should silver be sold at 52 
 pence, when in Paris nearly 61 could be obtained for it? As 
 free coinage in France has sufficed during seventy years to 
 maintain silver at a price of 60 or 61 pence, the little varia- 
 tions being occasioned solely by the fluctuations in the ex- 
 change, as demonstrated by Mr. Ernest Seyd, is it not abso- 
 lutely certain that this price would be maintained far more 
 easily if all the greater nations were to agree to it and adopt 
 the ratio of 1 to 15 J? But, says Mr. Bonamy Price, by adopt- 
 ing the ratio of 1 to 15J, instead of 1 to 18, which is the 
 one now in existence, you give "an excessive, unnatural, 
 unreal, and purely artificial value to silver." On the con- 
 trary, it is the present value of silver which is ''unnatural 
 and artificial," for it is the result of the legislative measures 
 taken recently by Germany and France and all civilized 
 nations. To re-establish a free coinage for silver, as before 
 1873, would be but to restore to this metal its normal 
 value, which it had preserved from the end of the last 
 century. 
 
 "The bimetallists," says Mr. Price, "do not deny that by 
 the adoption of the ISJ ratio the creditor would be wronged, 
 but they think they have found the remedy in limiting the 
 coinage of silver, so as to make it pass for what they please." 
 Two errors in a single sentence are a great deal. Bimetal- 
 lists have never admitted that creditors would be wronged. 
 Far from that, they believe that silver would regain its for- 
 mer value, and that creditors would be indifferent whether 
 the debts owed them were paid in gold or silver, or, rather, 
 they would receive payment in bank notes, representing 
 indifferently the one metal or the other, as now in France. 
 Still less do bimetallists, desire, in any way, to limit the 
 coinage of silver, for, as Mr. Price himself writes, some lines 
 before the passage just quoted, " bimetallism consists in au- 
 thorizing any quantity of silver to be coined into shillings." 
 Mr. Price imagines that, contrary to all economic laws, 
 bimetallists, wishing to raise the value of silver, would limit 
 the coinage, or, in other words, restrict the demand; while, 
 far from that, they desire to raise the demand to the level of 
 the supply, by decreeing a free coinage — that is to say, crea- 
 ting an unlimited demand. It is certain that if the learned 
 Oxford professor had deigned seriously to study the pith of 
 the question, and the consequence of the doctrine he combats, 
 he would have refrained from raising objections which are 
 groundless, or even contradictory. He speaks of bimetallism 
 as a thing unheard of, unknown, unimaginable, which would 
 bring incalculable evils upon England. Is he not aware 
 that it has existed in France since the beginning of the 
 century, and that that country has been in possession of an 
 abundant and easy circulation, much less disturbed by crises 
 than that of England? None of the difficulties predicted by 
 Mr. Price have arisen there. Mr. Robert Giffen published 
 in the Fortnightly Review (Aitgust 1st, 1879) the best article 
 which has yet appeared in opposition to bimetallism. But, 
 in our opinion, the concessions he makes there are very im- 
 portant, while his objections are contrary either to his own 
 premises or to facts. 
 
 To mention one or two examples. Mr. Giffen admits that, 
 in periods of transition, bimetallism increases the steadiness 
 of value of gold and silver, by means of the equilibratory 
 action, so well described by Mr. Jevons. But, he says, this 
 influence soon ceases. Thus, " after 1850, French bimetal- 
 lism was powerless to stop the fall in the value of gold, be- 
 cause there was no silver in exchange for it. In the same 
 way, from 1820 to 1850, it could not stop the fall in silver, 
 because France was then practically a silver-using country." 
 Mr. Giffen's observation is, in the first place contradicted 
 by facts, for there are many gold pieces still in circulation 
 bearing a date between the years 1803 and 1850, and after 
 1850 France was very far from losing all her stock of silver; 
 for, of the 824,987 five-franc pieces found in the offices of 
 account (19,511 in number), on the 14th of August, 1878, 
 
 572,916 had been coined before 1851."' So if the same per- 
 centage of 62 per cent, hold good for the entire French stock 
 of five-franc pieces, it would appear that France holds to-day 
 something like 300,000,000 of these pieces coined before the 
 drain of silver commenced. But, as Mr. H. Gibbs proves, 
 even supposing France to be completely deprived of gold, the 
 compensatory action of her bimetallism would not be an- 
 nulled : — 
 
 " If, for example, France were to restore to-morrow the full 
 operation of her bimetallic law, there can be no doubt that, on the 
 same day, the exchange being about par, the price of silver here 
 would be at its old value. It would be wholly a question of ex- 
 change. So, let us suppose France, under the operation of a bime- 
 tallic law operative in France alone, to be absolutely denuded of 
 gold ; still for 15J ounces of pure silver remitted to my correspon- 
 dent at Paris^ and delivered by him to the Mint, I should be able 
 to draw on him for the equivalent, i. e., for 107.1342 francs coined 
 for and delivered to him by the Mint. My draft would sell on 
 Change for £4 4s. lljd in gold, if the exchange between the two 
 countries were at par ; and the exchange, I need not say, depends 
 on the balance of trade between the two countries — on there being, 
 or not, a demand for bills for remittance, or England being, or not, 
 for the moment, a debtor to France." * 
 
 The truth of what Mr. H. Gibbs states is clearly borne out 
 by facts. France prevented a fall in gold, not by giving up 
 her silver, but by importing gold in exchange for merchan- 
 dise she sold to other countries. France coined, between the 
 years 1851 and 1875, 6,745,565,000 francs worth of gold. 
 She, therefore, absorbed more than half the total amount 
 produced by California and Australia, and she only lost, 
 through excess of importations, 1,800,000,000 francs of silver. 
 The compensatory action of bimetallism displays itself by 
 throwing open a free field of employment to the metal, the 
 production of which is increasing ; and this effect would be 
 the greater as more States adopted bimetallic law. " But," 
 Mr. Giffen says, "this is not the truth. If all bimetallic 
 countries had the same ratio, and the cheaper metal tended 
 to become still cheaper, they would simply be as one 
 country." Yes, but as a country of 300 or 400 millions of 
 inhabitants, instead of one of 36 millions, like France. If 
 the superabundant metal, whether gold or silver, were to 
 increase tenfold, would its value not be better sustained by 
 bimetallism being adopted in the leading States. Bimetal- 
 lism, in force in France only, was able, during seventy years, 
 to maintain a ratio of 1 to 15 J : is it not certain, therefore, 
 that a Monetary Union, comprising the principal States, 
 would render this ratio infinitely steadier still? Mr. Giffen 
 does not deny that the suspension of bimetallic law pro- 
 foundly disturbs the rate of exchanges with silver countries ; 
 which latter, we must recollect, represent three-quarters of 
 the British trade. But, he says, on this subject: " Even 
 serious evils may have to be endured, because, relatively, 
 they are unimportant, compared with the great objects pro- 
 posed in a sound currency." But, then, what is " a sound 
 currency ?" Is it not the one which gives the most steadi- 
 ness to the value of money and to the rate of exchange, and 
 is it not a bimetallic standard which answers best those two 
 desiderata? Mr. Giffen supposes that, in 1696, England 
 freely chose gold in place of silver, against the law. Nothing 
 could be less exact. England was deprived of the silver she 
 wished to preserve by the Gresham law, and gold took its 
 place as the overvalued money, against the wishes of the 
 country in general. To assure oneself of this fact it suffices 
 to read the Royal Proclamation, dated December 22, 1771.* 
 
 ' " Exhib. A. 7th Session of the Monetary Conference of 1878." 
 
 2 " The Double Standard, " p. 32. 
 
 ' " Q. R.— Whereas .... the overvaluation of gold in 
 the current coins of this realm hath been a great cause of carrying 
 out and lessening the species of the silver coins thereof, which is 
 highly prejudicial to the trade of the kingdom." 
 
 ^' The 22d of January, 1718, the Lords, in a grand committee, 
 took into consideration the state of the nation, in relation to the 
 gold and silver coins. The Lord Bingley, having represented the 
 great prejudice that trade received from the scarcity of silver, said 
 it was a matter of wonder a remedy had not seasonably been applied 
 to so great an evil. Lord Stanhope answered that the scarcity of 
 the silver species was owing to several causes : 1st. The increasing 
 luxury in relation to silver plate. 2d. To the vast exports of 
 bullion to the East Indies, 3dly. To the clandestine trade that 
 had lately been carried on of exporting silver and importing gold 
 to and from Holland, Germany, !ind other -paxis."— Monetary Dot- 
 uments of the Conference of Paris, 1878, by Dana Horton, pp. 316- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 431 
 
 Mr. Giffen appears to imagine that if one State of the 
 Monetary Union were to adopt paper-money, the whole bi- 
 metallic edifice would fall to the ground, as was the case, he 
 says, with the Latin Union when Italy was obliged to rein- 
 troduce paper after 1866. All this is inexact. The other 
 countries of the Union were not in the least inconvenienced 
 by this Italian forced currency, and they only put a stop to 
 the coinage of silver when Germany demonetized that metal. 
 Let us suppose that one of the States of the great Bimetallic 
 Union has recourse to an inconvertible paper currency, 
 the result would be that its metallic coin would return to 
 the other countries. This ia, in fact, exactly what took place 
 when the United States issued their greenbacks. Was Eng- 
 land, at that time, embarrassed by American gold ? " The 
 only chance for bimetallists," says, again, Mr. Giffen, "is 
 universal bimetallism. But what a wild dream ! Who is to 
 draw the treaty? What power of persuasion will bring all 
 Governments to accept this Gospel ?" I answer, the power 
 of reason and the pressure of necessity, or, rather, I will let 
 the most competent authority on this matter speak for me. 
 "If our Government," writes Mr. Henry" Gibbs, "could say, 
 ' England is willing,' no one would doubt that France, with 
 the Latin Union, Austria, Holland, Spain, and the United 
 States would at once agree, and it is asserted that Germany 
 would also. If so, the impossibility is at once overcome, 
 that installment of universality being quite sufficient for the 
 purpose." 
 
 —Emile de Lauelaye in the" Contemporary Beoiew, " 
 
 THE FUTURE OF GOLD. 
 
 AFTER the year 1850, when California and Australia 
 were sending out into the world annually about 
 thirty-five millions sterling in gold, Michael 
 Chevalier and Cobden raised the cry of alarm : 
 the world would be completely submerged by a deluge of 
 gold. After 1867, the production of gold rapidly diminish- 
 ing, an entirely opposite fear gradually gained ^ound 
 amongst far-seeing business men. In 1869, in the review of 
 the preceding year, the Sconomist wrote : " It may safely 
 be affirmed that the present annual supply of £30,000,000 of 
 gold is no more than sufficient to meet the requirements of 
 the expanding commerce of the world. The real danger is 
 that the present supply should fall off, and amongst the 
 greatest and most salutary events that could now occur 
 would be the discovery of rich gold deposits." In 1871, 
 after the decision of Germany to proscribe silver, the un- 
 easiness of the Economist increases, and it writes thus : 
 "As the annual supply of gold is reckoned a little more than 
 £20,000,000, and the annual demand for miscellaneous pur- 
 poses is very large, it follows that if the German Govern- 
 ment perseveres in its policy, the strain upon the exist- 
 ing stocks and currency will be most severe. Unless the. 
 annual production of gold should suddenly increase, the 
 money markets of the world are likely to be perturbed by 
 this bullion scarcity." 
 
 What the Economist foresaw has taken place. The scarcity 
 of gold has induced so great a fall in prices that they are 
 now lower than in 1850. Mr. Robert Giffen clearly showed 
 this in an excellent study which has never been disputed, 
 but which has, on the contrary, been confirmed by such 
 men as Thorold Rogers, Patterson, Samuel Smith and Wil- 
 liamson, of Liverpool, John Hector, T. Smith, and many 
 others. Who can doubt that the present crisis from which 
 the entire world is suffering is due to the scarcity of gold .» 
 Up to the present time, exchanges have been effected in civ- 
 ilized countries by means of two metals, gold and silver ; 
 to-day, the coinage of silver having been suspended, except 
 in India, the stock of money in the world is now only fed 
 by gold, and at the same time the production of gold is 
 yearly diminishing, and, what is worse, for the last three 
 years America has taken for herself more than sixteen 
 millions annually — that is to say, the whole total production, 
 less four millions, which do not suffice to cover even indus- 
 
 trial wants. Bagehot estimated that England absorbed 
 yearly for industry and coinage from four to five millions 
 sterling. On the contrary, in 1879 England exported a sur- 
 plus of gold, amounting to £2,389,826 and in 1880 £4,249,- 
 449. The coinage in Europe has now sunk to almost 
 nothing. In France the coinage of gold, which amounted 
 in 1877 to 271,645,425 francs, and in 1878 to 189,139,520 
 franca, sank in 1879 to 24,610,540 francs. In England last 
 year (1881) the amount of gold coined was quite insignificant, 
 £35,000 only. Silver can no longer, as recently, help the 
 circulation and effect exchanges, for it is no longer admitted 
 at mints. The production of gold, which was thirty-five 
 millions annually some years ago, does not now exceed 
 nineteen or twenty millions. It is clearly evident that 
 these circumstances united — ^viz. Ihe proscription of silver, 
 the decrease in the production of gold, and the draining of 
 gold to America — have led to an appreciation of gold, a fall 
 in prices, and to the present crisis, as the inevitable conse- 
 quence of monetary contraction. This being the case it is 
 of the highest importance that we should careflilly ex- 
 amine if the production of gold is destined to increase or 
 diminish, for the economic conditions of the whole civilized 
 world are dependent on this. If more gold be not found, 
 silver still being proscribed, prices will continue to fall. 
 Prices falling, the burden on all those owing gold will in- 
 crease, for they will be forced to sell more articles to obtain 
 the same quantity of gold ; farmers will have more and 
 more difficulty in paying, for the produce of their farms will 
 lose in value ; manufacturers will be exposed to heavy 
 losses, for while converting the raw material into manufac- 
 tured goods, the general fall in prices will make itself felt, 
 and the manufacturer will in all probability find himself 
 working at a loss. 
 
 It would be rash to predict, with too great certainty any- 
 thing definite with regard to the future of gold ; neverthe- 
 less, taking as a basis ascertained historical facts, and geo- 
 logical researches with respect to the earth's crust, it ia not 
 impossible to arrive at certain conjectures which may be at 
 least looked upon as probabilities. This is what an eminent 
 professor at the University of Vienna, Dr. Suess, has at- 
 tempted to do in a work entitled Die Zukunfi des Goldes 
 [The Future of Gold.) This book attained a very high 
 reputation throughout Germany, and has been successful in 
 convincing some of the most able economists that it is 
 essential to restore to silver its attribute of money, of which 
 it never should have been deprived. The conclusions Dr. 
 Suess reaches are as follows : The production of gold will 
 in the fliture diminish and the mines become exhausted the 
 more rapidly as the present means of working them are 
 more perfected and powerful. The discovery of new mines 
 in hitherto unexplored regions may, for the time being, stop 
 this exhaustion, but the expanse of new country where we 
 may hope to meet with these mines is rapidly diminishing, 
 and in the parts previously colonized, mines once very pro- 
 ductive are being one after another abandoned. We will 
 examine how Dr. Suess treats these different points. 
 
 Gold and silver are essentially the " precious metals" 
 from the mere fact of their being rare. The scarcity of 
 gold is certainly the chief cause of its value. But can it be 
 explained why gold is so rare? According to Dr. Suess, it 
 is because gold is one of the heaviest metals. Three metals 
 are noted for their extreme density — iridium, platinum, 
 and gold. .Their weight compared to water taken as a unit 
 isrepresentedby the following figures: iridium 22'23, pla- 
 tinum 21-50, gold 19"253. With the exception of that 
 strange and also rare metal, mercury, the density of which 
 is 14"49, gold and platinum weigh more than any other 
 metals ; for, as an instance, lead reaches 11"35, silver 10'47, 
 bismuth 9'82, copper 8'80, nickel 8.27, and iron only 7'84. 
 Is there a- connection of cause and effect between these two 
 facts, that gold is a rare metal, and, at the same time, one of 
 the heaviest that exist? One would be inclined to think 
 that there is, if one admit that the earth was first in a gase- 
 ous and afterward in a liquid state. In this case the heavi- 
 est matters must have occupied the centre of the globe in a 
 smelting condition. If it be true that our whole planetary 
 system has been formed from matter which constituted in the 
 beginning an immense nebula, it follows that the planets the 
 nearest the centre must be the heaviest. These ideas were 
 brought forward by the great German philosopher Kant 
 
432 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 about the middle of the last century, and have been from 
 time to time referred to since. " The great weight of pla- 
 tinum and gold," says a German naturalist, Petzholdt, " is 
 the reason for these metals being so scarce on the surface of 
 the globe, for the greater quantity of them is contained in 
 the still liquid kernel of the earth there shielded from men's 
 greediness." Some observations that have been made help 
 to support these ideas. The spectrum analysis reveals no 
 gold in the sun ; we may therefore conclude that it is quite 
 in the center, hidden from view by other lighter bodies in a 
 gaseous state forming the photosphere. The planets may be 
 divided according to their weight into two groups. The 
 planets in the interior of the circle of asteroids are compara- 
 tively heavy, those exterior are comparatively light. Mer- 
 cury, the nearest to the sun, weighs almost seven times as 
 much as water ; Venus, the Earth, and Mars, five times as 
 much ; while Jupiter weighs barely as much as water ; 
 Saturn 0'73, and Uranus 0"84, therefore less than water. The 
 density of Neptune, which has not quite been accurately 
 determined, is at all events very trifling. So we see that in 
 our planetary system the heaviest bodies are the nearest to 
 the center, and this leads us to assume that the same distri- 
 bution of matter will be found in each planet. As the rocks 
 forming the surface of our globe weigh on an average 2 J 
 times as much as water — limestone 2'6 to 2'8, granite and 
 gneiss 2*54 to 27, and lava or basalt 2"7 to 3 — and as, on the 
 other hand, the specific gravity of the globe is five, we are ne- 
 cessarily led to conclude that the interior must be composed 
 of heavy matter, far exceeding in weight the earth's average 
 of 5. The existence of gold in the central strata of our globe 
 appears, therefore, very probable. But if this be the case, 
 how can we account for gold and platinum being found on 
 the surface of the earth? It can be explained by the action 
 of hot springs and volcanoes. These two heavy metals are 
 always found amongst rocks of an igneous origin — ^here 
 where volcanic rocks have pierced through and scattered 
 earlier formations, and there where granite has broken up 
 schists. Platinum, which has only been found in abundance 
 in the washings of Nijni-Tagil in the Ural, comes from the 
 serpentine, a rock coming from the depths. Gold is chiefly 
 found in quartz veins. These veins appeared to have been 
 formed in the following manner. As a natural consequence 
 of the contraction of the earth's solid crust, and of the up- 
 heaval and disturbance of the previous formations, crevasses 
 have formed themselves. They have become filled with 
 quartz, sometimes auriferous, either by the action of hot 
 springs or by sublimation. In these veins, usually poor, ex- 
 ceptionally rich zones are here and there to be found. Ger- 
 man miners call them "edle Saulen" (noble columns), and 
 American "bonanzas." It is the working of these bonanzas 
 that renders veins profitable, which generally contain, apart, 
 from them, so little gold that the miner literally works at a 
 loss. If the work be continued it is in the hope of coming 
 upon one of those rich zones, which sometimes far more 
 than compensate for any former deficit. The extreme scarce- 
 ness of gold that can be dug up is therefore a fact, and a 
 fact easily accounted for when we consider its distribution 
 and the geological origin of this metal. Let us now recall 
 some historical facts which lead Dr. Suess to conclude that 
 the production of gold will diminish in the future. The soil 
 from which we obtain gold may be placed under three heads : 
 auriferous rocks, auriferous veins, and auriferous alluvium. 
 
 I. The first group comprises rocks rich in magnesium and 
 with gold scattered through them. A good example of this 
 is the mines of Nijni-Tagil in the Ural, where platinum is 
 also found. As a transition between this division and 
 the next may be cited the auriferous minerals contained in 
 some rocks of an igneous origin, as, for instance, the gold 
 that is to be found in the granite of the west coast of South 
 America and in certain parts of Brazil. Granite containing 
 tin in the Erzgebirgen, in Bohemia, is a similar formation. 
 This division of auriferous grounds, very interesting from a 
 geological, is less from an economic point of view, for it 
 contributes but very slightly to the product of gold. 
 
 II. The next group, the auriferous veins, comprises all the 
 veins that have filled up, by means of hot springs or geysers, 
 the fissures in ground upheaved and broken. These veins 
 may be subdivided into three categories according to the 
 different natures of the soil in which we find them. (A.) 
 
 Veins of recent volcanic rocks, principally the propylite. 
 Gold is here found mixed with silver, and it is only in this 
 division that those exceptionally rich seams — ^the bonanzas — 
 are met with. To this category belong the Comstock Lode, 
 in Nevada, which is the most noteworthy example ; the 
 auriferous beds of Queensland, some in New Zealand and 
 those of Schemnitz in the Carpathian range of Hungary. 
 The gold is found sometimes in spangles and as "electrum," 
 or silver and gold combined, or, again, mixed with copper 
 or sulphur. (B.) Veins in more ancient volcanic rocks, 
 especially diorite. The gold here is not, as in the pre- 
 ceding divisioii, mixed with silver, but, on the other hand, 
 there are no bonanzas. The best example of this category 
 are the veins of Victoria. (C.) Veins in the schists, where 
 they meet with granite, or even in granite itself, even distant 
 from volcanic regions. It is supposed that in this case 
 granite has been the eruptive force which has brought the 
 gold with it. These veins are sometimes very extensive : as, 
 for instance, the famous Mother Lode in California, which 
 spreads itsfelf over a vast region ; but experience proves 
 that they are seldom sufficiently productive to repay a 
 miner's toil. Silver is never found here, and gold only in 
 the same circumstances as in the preceding divisions. Ex- 
 amples of this class are to be found in California, in New 
 Caledonia, in Tasmania, and in the Pennine Alps. 
 
 III. Auriferous alluvium. This alluvium is formed by 
 the decomposition of difierent rocks containing gold, but it 
 has been remarked that recent volcanic regions give much 
 less than other classes of grounds. The veins richest in 
 precious metals are, therefore, not those which produce de- 
 posits containing the most. Gold is in this instance gener- 
 ally found as spangles or quite tiny grains, and sometimes as 
 nuggets, of the size of a hen's or even turkey's egg. An 
 extraordinary point is that the gold found in this alluvium 
 is purer than the metal found in the veins from which it 
 comes, though, of course, this must have proceeded from 
 them originally. Neither this phenomenon nor the forma- 
 tion of nuggets has yet been satisfactorily accounted for or 
 explained. The "placers" of California, Australia, and 
 Siberia are the most remarkable examples of auriferous allu- 
 vium. This latter can also be divided into two categories : 
 (A.) that found on the surface of the earth, on river banks, 
 where gold can be almost picked up, sifted from the soil and 
 washed in the most primitive fashion ; and (B.) that of an 
 earlier date, covered over by more recently deposed soil, 
 and which can only be reached by labors which frequently 
 entail large expense. In California these ancient deposits 
 named " deep leads," are sometimes covered with basalt or 
 lava. They are then generally worked by hydraulic pres- 
 sure. Water, inclosed in dykes at a higher level, is made to 
 flow in the direction of the works by means of pipes ; then 
 branch pipes are put which carry it with great force on to 
 the auriferous deposit, and reduce the whole bed to a state 
 of liquid mud. This runs away in wooden troughs, so ar- 
 ranged that the particles of gold are stopped in their pass- 
 age. The " deep leads " worked at Ballarat, in Australia, 
 are most curious. They are covered by 400 feet of relatively 
 recent soil, amongst which are four layers of lava proceed- 
 ing from a neighboring volcano, now extinct. These " deep 
 leads " are the banks and alluvium beds of ancient water- 
 courses now hidden under successive layers of sediments. 
 The wealth of these deposits is very unequal, and the amount 
 they produce most uncertain. The capital point in these 
 views concerning the production of gold is that by far the 
 greater amount proceeds from these alluvium beds. In 
 1854, Whitney estimated that nine-tenths of the gold in the 
 possession of men had this origin. Dr. Suess has made a 
 calculation for the period from 1848 to 1875 with the follow- 
 ing result : — 
 
 Value of gold in millions of franca derived from 
 
 Million francs. 
 
 I. Veins: 
 
 Modern volcanic .... . 769 
 
 Ancient volcanic . 822 
 
 Schist and granite ... . . 240 
 
 1,831 
 
 II. Alluvium beds . . 14,973 
 
 Total 16,804 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 433 
 
 We learn from these figures that of the whole sum of gold 
 produced between the years 1848 and 1875, the working of 
 rocks has produced an average of 12.02, and that of allu- 
 vium beds 87.98. During the last few years, as the quan- 
 tity of gold procured from the placers has rapidly dimin- 
 ished, the gold that the miners' work extracts from veins 
 has taken a more important place. But, in spite of this, 
 according to Dr. 8uess,the future production of gold depends 
 almost entirely on the riches of alluvium beds. The finding 
 and extracting of gold from the earth goes on always in the 
 same way. Some explorers arrive in an unknown region and 
 find on the banks of a river some gold-dust or may be some 
 nuggets. The good tidings are spread abroad at once, 
 and adventurers from all sides arrive in crowds. The 
 surface sand is very quickly washed and produces a large 
 quantity of gold, but the more active the workers, the 
 sooner is all the superficial gold taken. Individual labor 
 is no longer of avail. Large capitals must be employed to 
 establish necessary apparatus for the working of the " deep 
 leads," or for sinking shafts in volcanic or granite rocks. 
 The " deep leads " are in their turn worked out, and the 
 working of the veins brings but scant profit, in a general 
 way, if one have not the good fortune to fall on a bonanza, 
 which is rare. 
 
 These mines are thus all abandoned, one by one, and fresh 
 regions must be resorted to, to take their place. While the 
 working of silver continues sometimes for centuries in the 
 same region, that of gold cannot be counted upon ; it is al- 
 ways of far shorter duration. It follows, therefore, that 
 gold mines are constantly to be found, and, in fact, generally 
 are situated at the extreme limits of civilization. This 
 curious fact had already been remarked by Herodotus (III. 
 106). After having spoken of the quantity of gold-dust 
 sent to Darius by the inhabitants of India as tribute, he 
 adds that, for one reason or another, it generally happens 
 that the rarest and most precious metals come from the re- 
 motest corner of the inhabited globe, and Humboldt has 
 taken this passage of Herodotus as an epigraph to his studies 
 on the variations in the production of gold. The discovery 
 of fresh countries is often the cause of an influx of 
 the precious metal, and this is in itself frequently an in- 
 centive to the colonization of countries hitherto uninhabited, 
 as we have seen in California, Australia, and Siberia. The 
 old countries have completely ceased producing gold, and it 
 only in regions as yet unexplored that we can hope to 
 
 discover fresh veins. A rapid epitome of the history of 
 gold-workings will serve to confirm this law of the contin- 
 uous exhaustion of auriferous beds. 
 
 In ancient times gold was, comparatively speaking, abun- 
 dant. It proceeded principally from the washings of the 
 rivers of Asia. The sands of Pactolus, the golden fleece con- 
 quered by the Argonauts, the gold of Ophir, the fable of 
 King Midas, all contribute to show the Eastern origin of the 
 yellow metal. According to Pliny, Cyrus brought back 34,- 
 000 Roman pounds in gold, a sum corresponding to nearly 
 two millions sterling. The treasures Alexander the Great 
 took from Persia amounted to 351,000 talents, or eighty mil- 
 lions sterling. Gold came also from Arabia and, by the 
 Nile, probably from the center of Africa. One may read 
 too of^the rivers of Spain and of the mountains of Dacia. 
 In Abrudbania, in the center of Transylvania, galleries are 
 to be found that date from the time of the Romans, in rocks 
 that are still being worked at the present time, but produc 
 ing only insignificant quantities of metal. Roman writers 
 speak of the quantity of gold found in the Tagus and the 
 Douro. Pliny mentions Asturias as the country producing 
 the largest amount of gold. At Indanha Velha, in Portu- 
 gal, a tablet has been found bearing the following inscrip- 
 tion : " Claudius Rufus returns thanks to Jupiter for his 
 having caused him to find 130 pounds of gold." Ti. Claudius 
 Rufus Join Optimo maxima oh raperta auri pond. CXXX 
 votum lubens solvit. 
 
 During the middle ages these sources of riches dried up, 
 and the attempts made by several English companies to re- 
 sume the workings were ineffectual. Bohemia, Silesia, Mo- 
 ravia, the Tyrol have all produced gold, and fortunes have 
 formerly been made there. Gneiss, above Gastein, the re- 
 treat of the glaciers has brought to light old workings and at 
 the present day a little metal is still to be found there. On 
 the Italian side of Monte Rosa, in Val Sesia, and in theVal 
 28 
 
 Ansasca, at Pestanera, auriferous veins are worked, but the 
 production is insignificant. The only workings in Europe 
 at all worth mentioning are those of Schemnitz in Hungary. 
 In fact, our continent may be fairly regarded as exhausted. 
 After the discovery of America, the Antilles, principally 
 Hispaniola and the western coast of the Gulf of Mexico 
 yielded a great deal of gold. It is from Hispaniola that the 
 gold ofiered to Alexander VI., and which he employed for 
 the gilding of Santa Maria Maggiore, came, as the following 
 inscription proves : " Quodprimo Catholici reges ex India re- 
 ceperant.'' Very soon these mines ceased to produce. Some 
 curious facta relating to the production of gold during the 
 sixteenth century are to be found in a Dutch book published 
 in " Amsterdam," 1590 : " Gold comes," it says " from difier- 
 ent countries — from the mountains of Bohemia, from the 
 rivers of Pannonia and Sweden. More than 20,000 pounds 
 weight of gold came from Spain every year, but now these 
 mines are exhausted. Gold arrived afterward from the east 
 Spanish Indias, from San Domingo, at first, and then from 
 other parts ; but all that is now a matter of the past. Ac- 
 tually gold comes to us from Peru, some time ago for three 
 millions yearly, and now for five, six, and eignt millions. 
 But as time goes on these mines will be exhausted and aband- 
 oned, as the others have been." This prediction of the old 
 book, TYesoir van de Maten ende Gewitchen, which resumes 
 all in Suess's theory, has come to pass, and now no more 
 gold is yielded by these parts of the world. 
 
 Humboldt had great hopes for New Granada and Colum- 
 bia, where precious metal was to be found on all sides, but, 
 in spite of English capital which brought over the mostper- 
 fected means of working the mines, the gold yielded annually 
 does not amount to more than £600,000. Before the arrival 
 of the Conguistadores, the Indians had gathered from the 
 river sands large quantities of gold in Peru, Chili, and along 
 the whole western coast of South America. Later these 
 countries produced a considerable amount of silver, but 
 very little gold ; to-day the production is ten or twelve times 
 less than when Humboldt visited them. From 1500 to 1875, 
 the total production of gold in South America, with the sole 
 exception of Brazil, has been £260,000,000 sterling. Nowhere 
 can the typical history of the working of gold mines be so 
 well followed as in Brazil. At the close of the sixteenth 
 century, the inhabitants of the province of 8. Paulo, ap- 
 prised of the presence of gold by the nuggets with which 
 the savages adorned themselves, commenced washings. In 
 1697 Bartholomeo Bueno found rich deposits of gold in the 
 province of Minas Geraes. Adventurers quickly reached 
 the spot and war broke out between the Paulists and the 
 Portuguese of the coast. Finally, the governor succeeded in 
 re-establishing peace and order, and the collecting of the 
 precious metal was set on foot on a firm basis and developed 
 with extraordinary rapidity. Towns were built, and amongst 
 others Villa Rica. After the year 1720, the province of 
 Matto Grasso begins to yield up her treasures. In the eigh- 
 teenth century the placers of Brazil played a similar part to 
 that of California in the nineteenth. Minas Geraes alone 
 gave, in the middle of this century, about £1,200,000 a year 
 and Brazil more than £2,000,000 sterling, but the alluvium 
 beds were soon exhausted. The working of the veins was 
 then commenced, but with no profit. Toward the year 1820 
 the total production of Brazil had fallen to £100,000. Since 
 that date, English capital has paid for the working of many 
 mines, and notably those of Jacotinga and of St. John 
 d'Elrey, but in each case the money has been all or in great 
 part lost. Only the last-named mine yielded recently (in 
 the year 1876) a sum worthy of mention, £200,000, but al- 
 most without profit. The yieldings of the mine Don Pedro 
 North Del Rey are regularly diminishing; here are the fig- 
 ures— 1875, £34,992; 1877, £28,172; 1879, £4,956. It fol- 
 lows, then, that Brazil, which a hundred years back exceeded 
 in riches all other auriferous countries became impover- 
 ished in fifty years, and may now be considered as ex- 
 hausted. The total production of gold in Brazil from the 
 end of the sixteenth, century till now is estimated to be 
 £140,000,000. 
 
 In ancient times, and in the middle ages, Africa was 
 noted as the country of gold. Herodotus speaks of the 
 gold gathered by the Carthaginians from beyond the col- 
 umns of Hercules. The Arabian geographer El Edrisi 
 (a. d. 1154) speaks of the gold produced by the Wangafa 
 
434 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 country, from where the river Niger rises ; and the Moor 
 baptized by Leo X., Leo Africanus, who had scoured the 
 interior of Africa, also speaks of the gold of Wangara and 
 of Timbuctoo. It is thence that the Moors of Spain and of 
 North Africa procured the precious metal. Recently the 
 French from Senegal have occupied this gold country, and 
 have in reality found " deep leads " and veins in diorite, as 
 in Victoria, but the produce is too small to be remunerative. 
 All the famous Gold Coast does not yield £80,000 a year. 
 The golden sand, washed by the negroes, is saflOlcient to re- 
 ward them for the labor they bestow during their leisure 
 hours, but not to pay a proper interest to any European un- 
 dertaking. 
 
 The Egyptians obtained large quantities of gold from the 
 Upper Nile and from Ethiopia. An inscription under 
 Thutmes III., 18th dynasty (b.o. 1600), speaks of gold com- 
 ing from the land of Mayu. Another inscription, of the 
 time of Ramses I L, 19th dynasty, tells us that the king, 
 seated on a golden throne, issued orders for the opening of 
 gold mines in the land of Atika. A papyrus now at Turin 
 contains a detailed account and map of these workings. 
 Mummies are often found with necklets and jewels in 
 massive gold. Gilding was in noways spared. Herodotus 
 tells us of a king of the Ethiopians attacked, but not de- 
 feated, by Cambyses, who loaded his prisoners with golden 
 chains, this metal being commoner than bronze. At Sofala 
 also gold was very plentiful in the middle ages. The geo- 
 grapher Edrisi tells us that copper was worn as an ornament 
 in preference to gold. At Daghouta still more gold was 
 found than at Sofala. When, in the year 1867, the German 
 traveler Mauch discovered near Sofala ancient alluvium 
 workings, and even remains of the masonry of shafts and 
 traces of ancient Israelitish worship, it was believed that we 
 had discovered the biblical Ophir, and the more so as in 
 ancient maps Sofala is written Sophir. However that may 
 be, neither on this coast, nor in the Transvaal, nor in the 
 Orange Free State, have any of the attempts at workings 
 which have been made proved a great success. The riches 
 in gold of the African continent is a thing of the past. The 
 marvellous necklace of the Queen Aah-Topeh which is ex- 
 hibited in the museum of Bulak, and which dates 3600 
 years back ; the golden chains of the Abyssinian captives 
 in the time of Cambyses ; the treasures brought by the 
 Queen of Sheba to the temple of Solomon 2860 years ago ; 
 the masses of gold hanging on to the throne of the King 
 of Gh4na, of which Edrisi speaks, 700 years ago, and which 
 weighed 300,000 mithkal (value £175,000)— all these memo- 
 ries or legends prove beyond a doubt that in ancient times 
 the "dark continent" produced a great deal of gold, What 
 it yields to-day is of very little importance, at most £240,- 
 000 a year. The total production since 1495 is estimated — 
 we must say, upon very uncertain authorities — at £100,000- 
 000 sterling. The whole of North Africa to the Sahara and 
 the falls of the Nile is formed of a sedimentary soil which 
 has never yielded precious metals, but in the center of the 
 continent ancient rocks are to be met — granite, gneiss, sye- 
 nite, hornblende — with quartz veins containing gold, and 
 thus auriferous alluvium has been formed. Only it appears 
 that antiquity and the middle ages have exhausted it all. 
 According to remarks made by M. Jevons, the aborigines 
 have always been the first to discover and take advantage 
 of auriferous sands. It is certainly possible that in the cen- 
 ter of Africa rich golden veins and even bonanzas may be 
 found, failing rich " placers " which must not be counted 
 on, for, did they exist, their produce would already have 
 reached the coast. At all events, when we consider that 
 the workings of rocks have not yielded one-fifth of the 
 total produce in gold, we cannot expect that, in this in- 
 stance, the continent of Africa will give the lie to the 
 general law. What China and Japan produce is far from 
 sufiioing for their own consumption. 
 
 The three important centers of production at the jncs- 
 ent time are Siberia, the United States, and Australia; 
 but the two latter are already beginning to fall off. Let 
 us first examine Siberia. Here the auriferous' alluvium 
 spreads itself over an enormous space, from the Ural to 
 the region of the Amour River. In Siberia the work is 
 less active than in the Australian or Californian placers. It 
 is carried on either by laborers who pay the privileged con- 
 tractors, or by convicts. The severity of the climate and 
 
 the frosts make any washings out of the question during the 
 greater part of the year. Accordingly, progress is ndt so 
 rapid, and exhaustion will not come so soon. The washings 
 are found in the volcanic districts of the Asiatic Ural Mount- 
 ains and in the syenite, the gneiss and the hornblende, at 
 Jenisei, at Tychovo-Sadomsk on the Nigra, in the valley 
 of Chomolcko, and on the banks of the Muza, in the 
 government of Nertschink ; finally, in Upper Amour, and 
 quite recently in a very remote region on the banks of 
 the Nyman and Olga rivers. Here, as in California, gold 
 is nearly always found where granite comes in contact 
 with the schists. In Siberia the washings are slowly falling 
 off, as elsewhere. Those of Jenisei fell from 1000 puds in 
 1850 to 300 during the last few years. Only, as the allu- 
 vium is to be found more or less everywhere spread about 
 over an immense territory, fresh workings take the place of 
 those that are no longer productive, and the total yield 
 tends rather to increase. In 1869 it amounted to £4,500,000 
 sterling. In 1876 it had risen to £4,650,000 ; in 1877 to 
 £5,700,000 ; in 1878 to £5,850,000 ; and in 1879 to £5,550,- 
 000 sterling. The total contribution of Russia to the gold 
 stock of the world is estimated at £120,000,000 sterling. 
 
 It is North America which has produced in the latest 
 years the greatest amount of gold. The rapidity with 
 which the production of this metal has developed itself 
 there is really prodigious. This was due to two causes : 
 first, the natural riches of the country ; and secondly, the 
 extraordinary energy displayed by the Americans in making 
 the best of these riches. The precious metal is to be found 
 in that long double chain of mountains which extends be- 
 tween the coasts of the Atlantic and the plains of the cienter. 
 In this great range, which is called the Rocky Mountains, 
 the upheaval of the earth's crust by eruptive rocks have 
 brought near the surface both gold and silver. In British 
 Columbia even, the washings of Cassiar, of Omenica, and of 
 Cariboo, have produced annually about half a million ster- 
 ling in gold. The States of Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and 
 Washington yielded in the year 1870 about a million 
 sterling. In Montana the annual production has very 
 soon considerably decreased. In 1866 it amounted to 
 $18,000,000 ; to-day it is not more than $2,500,000. From 
 1864 to 1871 Idaho produced annually from five to seven 
 million dollars ; in 1880 the production had fallen to $510,- 
 546. In 1868 Oregon and Washington yielded $4,000,000 ; 
 in 1879 they did not reach more than $1,275,000. Dakota 
 slightly increased from $2,000,000 in 1877 to $2,420,000 in 
 1879. Colorado sustains an average annual production of 
 about $3,000,000. California has passed through the three 
 habitual periods of the gold production. After the year 
 1848 the washings of the river sands produced immense 
 quantities of gold ; now, only the Chinese find this sufii- 
 cient to procure them sustenance. The superficial wash- 
 ings were soon exhausted, and excavation of the •' deep 
 leads " and veins were then proceeded with. 
 
 The whole highest ridge of the Sierra Nevada, running 
 parallel with the Atlantic, is granite, but half-way down the 
 slope of the chain, toward the west, strata of schist and 
 limestone are found amongst the granite. At the point of 
 contact there extends from north to south of the State a 
 zone, about eight to nine miles in width, which contains all 
 the auriferous veins of this country. This stratum, brought 
 to light by erosion, forms in many places an almost perpen- 
 dicular wall, overhanging the forests spread out at its feet. 
 The " Mother Lode " commences in Mariposa, and passes 
 the limit of the State at the north, where it is covered by 
 the lava of the powerful and as yet unextinct volcanoes 
 Pilot Peak and Lassen Peak. This lava has also covered 
 ancient alluvium soil with basaltic streams, from 50 to 200 
 feet thick, which form the present "Table Mountains." 
 This formation is also found more south in the Sierra Neva- 
 da, not far from the " Big Trees." The alluvium beds, 
 covered by basalt, and resting on the strata of granite and 
 of schist in the chain, contain gold, and it is from there that 
 the lower, supeiflcial, and now exhausted auriferous sands 
 were washed away by the force of the mountain streams and 
 torrents. These " deep leads," and the veins of the Mother 
 Lode combined, have taken the place of the river " placers," 
 and so the Californian production is still from fifteen to sev- 
 enteen million dollars. 
 
 It was in Nevada that the famous Comstock Lode was 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 435 
 
 discovered, which, quite recently, was supposed to be going 
 to inundate the world with a complete overflow of gold. 
 Parallel to the west of the Sierra Nevada runs a chain, the 
 Virginia Range, which is composed of comparatively recent 
 volcanic rocks. These rocks have submerged the lower part 
 of the mountains, and principally Mount Davidson, which 
 rises to a height of 7827 feet, and which is composed of 
 older syenite. At the point where the more modern volcanic 
 rock, known as propylite, terminates, at an altitude of from 
 6800 to 6000 feet, appear the veins of the Comstock Lode. 
 A crack was formea between the more ancient mountain 
 and the rock covering it. This rent extends for a dis- 
 tance of 22,000 feet. Its width varies a great deal : some- 
 times it reaches 200 feet, and sometimes it is very much 
 narrowed by the two walls of propylite on the one side and 
 syenite on the other. Broken pieces falling from these walls 
 fill it up in places ; the rest is occupied by the auriferous 
 quartz, where the " rich chimneys," the bonanzas, are 
 found. 
 
 The most powerful of these is the bonanza of Gold Hill, 
 which descends to a depth of 700 feet. Several companies 
 are engaged in the excavation of this marvelous vein. The 
 most favored has been the Virginia Consolidated, which, out 
 of twenty-five million dollars produced by the Comstock in 
 1875, yielded seventeen million. The richness of the vein was 
 ascertained at a depth of 1600 feet. Shafts have been sunk 
 to 2500 feet, and one has been commenced which it is hoped 
 will descend to 4000 feet. A tunnel, the total length of 
 which is to be 20,000 feet, has been bored in the side of the 
 mountain to enable the vein to be worked from underneath, 
 and the water to be carried off without using pumps ; but 
 this gigantic undertaking, which is being directed by the 
 engineer, Sutro, has, to all appearances, been commenced too 
 late. On the one hand, the vein, contrary to all expecta- 
 tions, is poorer as the workings attain a greater depth ; and 
 on the other hand, the heat at the bottom of the shaft is 
 simply intolerable, viz. 46° Centigrade, and the hot springs 
 that are found there have a still higher temperature, accord- 
 ing to the close proximity to the center fire. The workmen, 
 who work quite naked, are instantaneously in a bath of 
 perspiration; they can scarcely breathe, and are obliged to 
 rest every ten minutes. Under these circumstances the price 
 of labor is of course extremely high, and unless a fresh bo 
 nanza be found, the mine will finally be abandoned. The 
 rapid diminution in the amount of production, and the 
 alarming fall in the value of the shares, do not allow one to 
 count on a brilliant future. This prodigious vein has exceeded 
 in riches all that had ever been found previously in as great 
 a degree as the placers of California surpassed any ancient 
 washings. In ten years it has produced two hundred million 
 dollars,ninety millions of which were gold. The adventurer 
 who in 1869 discovered the famous hoard of riches, Henry 
 Comstock, after having sold his claim committed suicide. The 
 " fdria Americana " which has been displayed in the work- 
 ing of this mine has contributed to accelerate its exhaustion. 
 The Comstock Lode, which in IS77 yielded $37,911,000 of 
 which $17,771,000 were gold, fell off, in 1878, to $10,404,000 
 silver and $9,825,000 gold, total $20,230,000 ; in 1879, to $5,- 
 190,000 silver and $3,639,000 gold, total $8,830,000 ; and, in 
 
 1880, to $2,634,000 silver and $2,678,000 gold, total $6,312,000. 
 The production of the first quarter of 1881 shows a still 
 greater decrease ; the total is only $426,400, against $,7,549,- 
 000 in 1877, and $1,616,800 in 1880. The aggregate value 
 of the twenty-eight principal mines on the Comstock Lode, 
 which was, in 1875, $271,059,200, was on the 1st of May, 
 
 1881, only $14,030,058. This rapid diminution has affected 
 the total production of gold in the United States, which, ac- 
 cording to official estimation, amounted to $47,266,107 in 
 1878, $38,900,000 in 1879, and $36,000,000 in I88O.1 
 
 The traveler who visits the American gold country sees 
 everywhere works abandoned, buildings in ruins, and locali- 
 ties, which were but recently flourishing, with scarcely an 
 inhabitant. Many of the mines established on the Mother 
 Lode are no longer worked. Fortunately new ones are dis- 
 covered, but they will be exhausted in their turn. The 
 director of the Mint of the United States, Mr. Burchard, 
 thinks that the number of mines worked exceeds a thousand, 
 but many of them leave the workers at a loss. It is m the 
 
 11881, $34,700,000. 
 
 north of the Rocky Mountains that one still hopes to make 
 happy discoveries. It is estimated that North America has 
 contributed £14,000,000 sterling of the stock of gold of the 
 world. The production of gold in Australia has followed 
 pretty much the same course as in California. There, also, 
 they have passed from the river sands to the deep alluvium, 
 to arrive at last at the direct working of the veins ; but firom 
 that moment the produce has gradually diminished. The 
 chain of mountains which extends in Australia from north 
 to south, parallel to the east coast, is formed of sedimentary 
 strata, interspersed in many places with volcanic and erup- 
 tive rocks. Numerous veins, "quartz reels," are visible, 
 and contain gold. It is of their fragments that the aurife- 
 rous alluviums are formed, which one meets with on all sides. 
 These alluviums are easily worked, and yielded to the prov- 
 ince of Victoria, as soon as they were discovered^a quantity 
 of precious metal. After Campbell in 1850, and Hargreaves 
 in 1851, had found the first nuggets, there was a rush to the 
 gold fields. In 1852 the production had already risen to 
 1,974,975 ounces. In 1865 it attained to 2,497,723 ounces ; 
 in 1856 it reached its maximum with 2, 985,991 ounces, of a 
 value of about £12,000,000 sterling. Since then, although 
 gold has been found in New South Wales, Queensland,. Tas- 
 mania and New Zealand, the supply has continually decreased. 
 For Victoria the yield was, in 1876, 1,095,787 ounces, of 
 which 605,859 came from the veins, and 357,901 from the 
 alluviums, and, in 1879, only 758,947 ounces, of which 465,- 
 637 from the veins, and 293,310 from the alluvium. The 
 number of miners has already considerably diminished. In 
 1850 there were 147,358, of whom 33,673 were Chinese. In 
 1873 there were not more than 37,453, of whom 14,784 
 worked at the veins, and 22,769 at the alluviums. 
 
 In the province of New South Wales the mountains con- 
 tain veins and the rivers auriferous sands. They were worked 
 in all directions in a zone of at least 180 miles breadth; but 
 the veins were not remunerative, and the alluviums were 
 soon exhausted, so that the product regularly lessened. In 
 1871 It rose, according to Daintree, to 535,492 ounces.' For 
 the later years I borrow the figures from the excellent report 
 of the German Consul at Sidney, reproduced by M. Soet- 
 beer.^ 
 
 It says : " The gold received at Sidney, at the Mint of the 
 Colony, from New South Wales, in 1876 rose to 126,780 
 ounces, of the value of £479,133. These figures diminish 
 each year. In 1872, the year which yielded the most, the 
 produce was £1,513,186. In 1878, as I have remarked in my 
 report of last year, the production of gold continued to 
 decrease. In 1877 the Mint only received 97,582 ounces, of 
 the value of £366,329. In 1879 the gold receipts (as pro- 
 ceeding from the workings of New South Wales) have fallen 
 to 75,492 ounces, of the value of £279,166. The yield of 
 gold from all sources amounts to 109,347 of the value of 
 £382,741. Three fourths of the ore are obtained from 
 washings." The chain of Australian mountains on enter- 
 ing Queensland, widens, and with its lateral ridges attains a 
 breadth of twenty-five miles. Here, also, volcanic rocks, 
 diorite and even granite, have brought gold to the surface. 
 In many of the rivers, auriferous sands and large nuggets 
 have been discovered, and already the veins are heavily 
 worked. The richest mine, the " Comstock " Lode, of that 
 Colony, is that of Gympie, to the north of Brisbane, on the 
 Mary river. At the end of 1868 this mine yielded nearly 
 84,000 ounces, and 70,852 ounces in 1869. Since then the 
 produce has been maintained tolerably regularly. The works 
 have already reached a depth of 600 feet. Queensland also 
 has had its period of promising discoveries. Thus in 1874, 
 the Palmers' gold fields, where 6000 men were collected, pro- 
 duced 175,000 ounces. The German Consul of Brisbane 
 gave the following figures for this province : £1,429,929 in 
 1876, and £1,611,105 in 1879. He added, "As fresh dis- 
 coveries continue to be daily made, and as this district con- 
 tains hundreds of square miles where no white man has yet 
 planted his foot, still further discoveries of rich gold fields 
 may be hoped for." This hope, although not without foun- 
 dation, is not yet realized, as from the most recent reports 
 the exportation of ore from Queensland had fallen to about 
 one million sterling in 1878. South Australia and Tasmania 
 
 1 Queensland 1873. 
 
 2 Jahrbwcher fur national Okonomie, 1881, 4 Heft, p. 370. 
 
436 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF' THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 have also produced a little gold, the total value being about 
 £40,000 in 1878. 
 
 New Zealand yielded about forty millions sterling of pre- 
 cious metal between 1857 and 1879. The northern island 
 has not contributed more than five millions, found principally 
 in the- veins of the peninsula of Coromandel, which have not 
 formed auriferous alluviums. In the southern island, on the 
 contrary, which has produced seven times more (or thirty- 
 five millions), the gold was found almost exclusively in au- 
 riferous sand and deep leads, which, strange to say, were 
 discovered on the declivity of the mountains ; here they also 
 employed, as in California, hydraulic power for the working, 
 and the process of exhaustion resembles that of the other 
 gold countries. The growth is rapid, and the decline 
 equally speedy ; thus a gold field near Otago gives, in 1861, 
 187,695 ounces; in 1863, 580,233 ounces, and falls in 1869 to 
 149,364 ounces. The production of the two isles diminished, 
 though slowly, of late years. The value of the gold exported 
 was in 1874, £1,500,000 ; in 1875, £1,400,000 ; in 1S76, £1,- 
 268,599 ; in 1877, £1,-476,312 ; and in 1878, £1,244,192. 
 
 The foUoTving table, prepared from the very careful 
 calculations of M. Soetbeer, shows the progressive decline of 
 the total production of gold in Australia, which has fallen to 
 the half of what it was twenty years ago : 
 
 Yearly average. 
 Kilogrammes. Value : German marks. 
 
 1856-60. . . 
 
 . 86,700 
 
 241,893,000 
 
 1861-65 . . . 
 
 . 77,700 
 
 216,783,000 
 
 1866-70 . . . . 
 
 . . 70,400 
 
 196,416,000 
 
 1871-75 . . . 
 
 . .59,900 
 
 167,121,000 
 
 1876 
 
 . 59,100 
 
 164,889,000 
 
 1877 . . 
 
 . . 52,300 
 
 145,917,000 
 
 1878 
 
 . 45,300 
 
 126,387,000 
 
 1879 . . 
 
 . 39,000 
 
 108,810,000 
 
 The exportations of metal to England have diminished 
 still more rapidly and more abruptly. This seems to prove 
 that Australia absorbs the metal, partly for her home circu- 
 lation, and partly for her direct commerce with the Indies, 
 China, and Japan. From 1871 to 1875 England received 
 from Australia an average each year of £7,097,800 of gold • 
 in 1878, £5,680,000; in 1879, only £3,180,600; and in 1880, 
 £3,614,200. These are the actual facts, and they are not re- 
 assuring for the future. Certain mineralogists, as, for ex- 
 ample, G. Ulrich of Dunedin in New Zealand, Director of 
 the Mining Department of Sydney, do not share the gloomy 
 forebodings of Dr. Suess. After all, they say, if the produc- 
 tion of gold diminishes in Australia, it is not for lack of 
 metal, but because the workmen prefer to buy the land for 
 agricultural purposes, or for the rearing of cattle. So it is, 
 but that is precisely what Dr. Suess affirms. When the gold- 
 fields are exhausted, it is necessary to excavate the veins 
 and then the work generally ceases to be remunerative' 
 though some continue to work for a time, encouraged by the 
 exceptional success of some miners. Hope and the gamb- 
 ling fever stimulate them to work at a loss, but at length 
 they become discouraged and stop. According to M. del Mar, 
 on an average, each dollar drawn from the earth costs two! 
 Australia still supports herself by the gold-fields and the 
 deep leads ; but when the miner shall be reduced to the 
 " quartz reefs," the produce will certainly be reduced to one 
 half. M. Ulrich himself, notwithstanding his sanguine 
 views, admits that Victoria will fall to 600,000 ounces— that 
 IS, to half of what she has recently produced. It is estimated 
 that Australia has supplied £260,000,000 sterling in gold to 
 the world. The reader will, no doubt, have been fatigued 
 with the uniformity of these details, but it is in that that 
 the instruction consists. It is this identical repetition of 
 the same facts which enables Dr. Suess to predict that the 
 production ofgold is fatally destined to decrease. He ad- 
 mits that one may perhaps still discover, in the less explored 
 regions of the Rocky Mountains, of Central Africa or in 
 Australia, gold-fields as rich as those of California or veins 
 as marvelous as the Comstock Lode; but the more powerful 
 our present process of working, the more rapid the exhaus- 
 tion of the new mines. It has been so in the past, and it 
 will not be otherwise in the future. 
 
 From all these facts Dr. Suess concludes that the desire 
 to make everywhere gold the nnly coinage, to the exclusion 
 of silver, is pure madness. Geology opposes it. There does 
 not exist in the world gold enough for that purpose. The 
 true money metal is silver. Locke was right in saying " Sil- 
 ver is the instrument and measure of commerce in all the 
 civilized and trading parts of the world "; and Bagehot ex- 
 pressed the same opinion before the Silver Commission of 
 1876 (Question 1389): "Silver is the normal currency of the 
 world." In proportion as the people become wealthy and 
 industrious, they require more and- more gold, so that the 
 diminishing production of gold will be barely sufficient for 
 the use of the arts and manufactures, and the yellow metal 
 will disappear, little by little, from circulation. ' At all times 
 gold has been a subsidiary money — a money of luxury. It 
 was a consequence of natural laws. Economical necessities 
 will oblige men to submit to them. That which has 
 passed since the date of the publication of Dr. Suess' 
 book (1877) has plainly confirmed his predictions. Al- 
 ready the scarcityof gold has created an appearance of dis- 
 quietude. One cannot be surprised at it, when one thinks 
 of the small quantity of gold which is at man's disposal. 
 The total quantity of this metal produced since the dis- 
 covery of America is calculated to be £1,400,000,000. A 
 learned professor of the University of Rome, Messedaglia 
 (Storia e Statistica dei Metalli preziosi), has calculated that 
 this sum, equivalent to 535 cubic metres, would be sufficient 
 only to cover the pavement under the cupola of the Pan- 
 theon or of St. Paul's with a bed of gold of 37 centimetres, 
 or one foot in depth, and the annual production would add 
 to it barely one centimetre. Of this quantity what remains 
 under the form of money and ornaments? Perhaps one 
 milliard sterling. M. Soetbeer shows that there exists as 
 money in civilized countries (less India and the extreme 
 East) 13,400,000,000 German marks (£670,000.000) of gold, 
 and 8,400,000,000 marks (£420,000,000) of silver. That 
 which singularly aggravates the economical situation is that 
 the world's currency, which was maintained yearly, till 1873 
 by gold and by silver united — that is to say, by a total value 
 of £35,000,000 sterling — is now to be kept up by gold 
 alone, of which the production does not attain more than 
 £20,000,000 each year. 
 
 Trade consumes certainly from twelve to fourteen millions 
 sterling; for official reports show that manufactures and 
 arts require, in the United States, 10,000,000 dollars or two 
 millions sterling, the same amount in France (54,000,000 
 francs in 1878), and even ipore in England; that is, six or 
 seven millions for these three countries alone. India takes 
 away_ every year between two and three millions, so what 
 remains for the requirement of the coinage in all the civi- 
 lized nations ? We must not forget that, according to M. 
 Soetbeer's calculations, there has been coined in the last 
 twenty-five years, from 1851 to 1875, £800,000,000 ster- 
 ling gold, and £440,000,000 silver. Deduct what you will 
 for recoinage, there remains certainly, taken yearly by the 
 i^int, a sum immensely superior to the four or five mil- 
 lions gold that the arts leave for the monetary requirements. 
 Even supposing that the absorption of gold by America 
 will suddenly stop— and it amounted in 1879-1880 to $75,- 
 891,391, in 1880-1881 to $91,168,650, or for these two years 
 nearly 34 millions sterling, th.at is the third of all the gold 
 coin of England— it is beyond all doubt that if silver re- 
 mains proscribed, there will not be gold enough for the 
 monetary and industrial uses of Europe. Already at the 
 very moment these lines are written, the gold scarcity be- 
 gins to be seriously felt on the money market. The Stock 
 Exchange is looking with anxiety to every withdrawal of 
 metal from the Bank. What the late Mr. Bagehot used to 
 call Apprehension Point" is veiy near. Soon the senti- 
 ment of living under the perpetual fear of lacking the 
 breathing air of commerce— i. e. of the means of exchange 
 —will become intolerable, long before the exhaustion of the 
 gold washings predicted by Dr. Suess will be realized. It 
 becomes every day more evident that the dream of using 
 gold alone as universal money is a mere impossibility. The 
 two precious metals, gold and silver, are not even sufficient 
 for the rapidly growing wants of trade and luxurv through- 
 out the world " 
 
 Emile de Lavdayt in The Nineteeuth (XntKry. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 437 
 
 WHY GOLD AND SILVER ARE USED FOR 
 MONEY. 
 
 GOLD and silver were adopted as standards of value 
 long before the beginning of the historical era ; 
 and their fitness for money was evident, even to bar- 
 barians. They are hard and not subject to oxidation, 
 and therefore they can be kept and handled with compara- 
 tively little loss. They have a brilliant lustre, suitable for 
 articles of ornament ; and the peculiarity of the lustre, 
 color, and high specific gravity, renders thera easily dis- 
 tinguishable from other substances, and makes imitations 
 difficult. They are fusible and malleable, so that they can 
 be made into any form, or stamped with any impression, 
 and the hardness will protect the form or impression from 
 wearing out. Both metals are found pure, so that savages 
 would become accustomed to their use before learning to 
 smelt the ores of iron, copper, and lead. Both metals are 
 rare, and thus a small quantity has served to represent a 
 large value of other articles ; and wealth in the form of 
 gold and silver could readily be concealed, or transported 
 from one country to another. There are other hard, rare, 
 and lustrous metals, but they cannot be refined, or their 
 lustre is not peculiar, or the supply is not regular, or they 
 have no recognized value in the arts ; and thus gold and 
 silver are to-day, as they were five thousand years ago, the 
 best of all metals for the purposes of money. 
 
 The Quantity of the Precious Metals in Greece 
 and Home. — The quantity of precious metals was small 
 when Athens began to throw the brilliancy of her intelli- 
 gence and geniui over the ancient world. About the year 
 600, B. C, nine bushels of wheat could be bought for an 
 ounce of silver in Greece ; or, in other words, a bushel of 
 wheat cost fifteen cents of our money. The advance of 
 civilization was accompanied by an increased production of 
 gold and silver. There were mines of both metals in 
 Egypt, Thrace, Armenia, Spain, and the dominions of 
 Attica. Spain had the richest mines, and the placers in 
 the Asturias produced $4,000,000 annually for a time, and a 
 silver mine at Guadalcanal yielded three hundred pounds 
 of metal daily. The spoils of Persia added greatly to the 
 stock of the precious metals in Greece, and after the death 
 of Alexander an ounce of silver would buy only three 
 bushels of wheat, or only one-third as much as three cen- 
 turies earlier. In Italy, previous to the first Punic war, 
 gold and silver were still very scarce and high in price, but 
 when "the senate and- people of Rome" became masters of 
 the. world, wealth poured in upon them from all the borders 
 of the Mediterranean, and the bushel of wheat which cost 
 the twentieth of an ounce of silver 350 B. C, cost an ounce 
 and a third in the midd'e of the first century. The annual 
 revenue of the empire in the time of Augustus, was 
 $200,000,000, and that emperor received $150,000,000 in 
 legacies from his friends. Cicero received $800,000 in fees, 
 a sum which has probably never been paid to any modern 
 lawyer. 0. 0. Isidores, besides large estates and four thou- 
 sand slaves, had $15,000,000 coin at the time of his death, 
 calculating the value of the money according to weight. 
 Jacobs estimates the total stock' of coin in the Roman 
 empire in 40, A. D., at.$l,.750,060,600. 
 
 The Principal Epochs in the Modern Produc- 
 tion of the Precious Metals. — As civilization declined 
 the quantity of the precious metals decreased, and Alaric con- 
 sented to spare Rome for $1,500,000, aud forty years later 
 the Eternal City had some difficulty in raising $1,200,000 
 to buy off Attila. The annual average wear of coin is esti- 
 mated at about one part in 360 ; and when this continues_ for 
 centuries with no new supply it makes a great reduction. 
 According to the estimate of Jacobs there were in 1492 only 
 $170,000,000 of the precious metals in Christendom. Pre- 
 vious to the conquest of Mexico the new world yielded only 
 about a quarter of a million dollars annually to Spain, the 
 government of which lost considerably by the discovery, 
 until Cortes succeeded in overthrowing the government 
 of the Montezumas. The Aztecs washed gold from the 
 placers and smelted silver from the ores, and had a con- 
 siderable stock of precious metals on hand when Cortes 
 came. He, of course, took all he could get, and he and his 
 associates soon commenced the working of the lodes known to 
 
 his subjects. Among these were Tasco, Zultepec, Tlalpuja- 
 hua, and Pachuca, all in the vicinity of the capital. The 
 annual shipment to Spain from 1519 to 1545 was $3,150,000. 
 In the latter year the mines of Potosi were discovered, and 
 their yield was so great for that age that a wonderful im- 
 pulse was given to mining industry throughout the new 
 world. In 1548 Zacatecas began to produce its treasures ; 
 Sombrerete in 1555, and Guanajuato in 1558. In 1557 a 
 miner named Pachuca, made a discovery that was more 
 important to silver mining than even the opening of Potosi. 
 He found that silver could be extracted from the common 
 ores by mixing the pulverized mineral with water, salt, and 
 copper pyrites, and it was a process that required very 
 little water, no fuel, little machinery, no mechanical skill, 
 and few buildings. It was a method of reduction peculiarly 
 adapted to the treeless and waterless mountains, and to the 
 ignorant mining population of Mexico and Peru. Pre- 
 viously all the silver had been obtained by smelting in a 
 very expensive and wasteful manner, the furnaces being 
 small and very numerous ; so that it was impossible to 
 prevent great loss, both by incompetency and dishonesty. 
 
 Some years elapsed before the amalgamation process was 
 extensively adopted, but within ten years it had oeen intro- 
 duced into all the mining districts of Spanish America ; and 
 the workmen became expert, and as the mine-owners iound 
 the separation of the metal on a large scale could be super- 
 vised by one or two men, and that thus waste and thieving 
 could be prevented to a much greater extent than before, 
 they made renewed exertions to extend their works. The 
 production of Potosi was six times as great in 1585 as it had 
 been twelve years before, owing partly to the general use of 
 amalgamation, which was first introduced there in 1570, 
 and was not generally accepted until some years later. The 
 copper-pan or cazo amalgamation was discovered in 1590, 
 at Potosi, by Alonzo Barba, but its use was confined to a 
 few districts. It was during the last decennium of the 16th 
 century that Potosi was in its most prosperous condition, 
 producing $7,500,000 per annum. In 1630 the mines of Cerro 
 Pasco were discovered. In the years 1726 and 1727 the 
 Vizcaina and Jacal mines of Zacatecas yielded $4,500,000. 
 The great bonanza of Real del Monte was opened in 1762, 
 yielding $15,000,000 in twenty-two years. The great wealth 
 of the Veta Madre was demonstrated in 1768, and Guana- 
 juato rose almost to the leading position among the ar- 
 gentiferous districts. The production of silver in Mexico 
 increased very rapidly from 1770 until the beginning of the 
 revolution ; and the increase was owing to various causes, 
 including the reduction of the royal tax Irom 20 to 10 per 
 cent, on the gross yield, the reduction in the price of quick- 
 silver, the opening of commerce to Spain, merchant vessels 
 from numerous ports instead of confining the trade to vessels 
 from only two ports, the reduction of the price of blasting 
 powder from 75 to 50 cents per pound, the abolition of the 
 alcabala, an article needed at the mines, (an odious and 
 oppressive tax on internal trade), and the purchase of bars 
 by the provincial treasury. The fact that the country could 
 produce $10,000,000 annually from 1760 to 1770, as it did, 
 in spite of all these restrictions, furnishes conclusive proof 
 of the wonderftil wealth of the mines, and also of the in- 
 dustry of the people. A tax of 20 per cent, on the gross 
 yield would paralyze every branch of British and American 
 mining, and would entirely stop the production of the pre- 
 cious metals in many districts of California and Australia. 
 Quicksilver, of which more than a pound was lost for every 
 pound of silver extracted, cost 80 cents per pound in 1750, 
 and was reduced in 1767 to 62 cents, and in 1777 to 41 cents. 
 The purchase of bars by the provincial treasuries was of 
 great benefit to the miners, who previously had to sell their 
 bullion at a loss of 20, 30, or in remote districts even 40 
 per cent. There were few merchants, and those few ex- 
 pected to make great profits from their transactions. The 
 mines of Hualgayo in Peru were found in 1771, and three 
 years later the placers of the Ural, which were known in 
 the time of Herodotus, were rediscovered. It was estimated 
 in 1777 that two-fifths of the silver of Mexico was obtained 
 by smelting, but this was probably an exaggeration, and 
 when Humboldt was in the country only one-seventh was 
 taken out by the means of fire. The mines of Catorce were 
 opened in 1778, and proved to be very rich, the mine of 
 Padre Flores yielding $1,600,000 the first year. The mines 
 
438 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of Guarisamey, near Durango, became productive in 1788. 
 For two centuries the pulp in the yard amalgamation pro- 
 cess, made with pulverized ore, quicksilver, salt, pyiites, 
 and water, was mixed by the treading of men, who, not- 
 withstanding the cold, moisture, and mercury, were gener- 
 ally healthy. Singular as it may seem, it was not tilll 1783 
 that mules and horses were introduced to this work ; and, 
 although the change saved 75 per cent, of the expense on 
 that branch of the working, still it would probably not have 
 been adopted when it was, but for the greatly increased 
 production of silver in Mexico, and the difficulty of getting 
 Indian repasadores in some districts. The great bonanza of 
 Ramis,that yielded $18,000,000 in nine years, was opened in 
 1798. The mines of Mexico continued to increase in pro- 
 ductiveness until the revolution, which was a war of races, the 
 Mexicans against the Spaniards, the latter being in a small 
 minority, but possessing most of the wealth, mining and 
 commercial knowledge and enterprise in the country. They 
 were driven out, and with them went three-fourths of the 
 men who had the money and brains to conduct large mining 
 operations. The production fell from $22,000,000 to less 
 than one-third that amount, but it soon began to increase 
 again, and from 1850 to 1860 it was as large as from 1795 to 
 1805. When the independence of Mexico was recognized 
 and peace was restored, it was expected that the production 
 would soon rise far beyond its former figure. The most 
 brilliant hopes were excited in England, and they were 
 based on many plausible considerations, but they were des- 
 tined to bitter disappointment. Many of the best mines 
 were offered for sale for about the amount which they pro- 
 duced annually. They had been well opened ; their value 
 had besn proved ; they had been abandoned while in full 
 production, with large bodies of rich ore in sight ; some of 
 them had not suffered much by standing idle ; their pro- 
 duction had been increased at the average rate of three 
 per cent, annually for 40 years before the revolution, and 
 the workmen familiar with all the processes of mining and 
 reluction were still numsrous. And if such production 
 and increase occurred under the oppressive policy of the 
 Spanish government, and under the ignorant management 
 of the Spanish mine owners, what might not be expected 
 under a liberal republic and English engineering? The 
 mines would no longer be burdened with the payment of 
 one-tenth of the gross yield, over and above all the costs of 
 refining and coining. The ore would no longer be carried 
 up to the surface from depths of 1,500 or 2,000 feet on the 
 backs of Indians, nor would it be packed 6, 10, or 20 miles 
 on mules to the reduction works, nor would the water be 
 hoisted up in raw-hide buckets by horse whims, nor would 
 mules and horses drive the arrastras and stamps. Steam 
 would pumi5 the water, hoist the ore, and drive the pul- 
 verizing machinery. Wagons would do the transportation. 
 Skilful engineers would direct the cutting of adits, shafts, 
 and working levels, and educated metallurgists would have 
 charge of the amalgamation. The production should rise 
 to $50,000,000 or $100,000,000 a year, and those companies 
 which could get possession of the best mines should make 
 princely fortunes for all their shareholders. Great care 
 should be exercised in the purchase of the property ; only 
 those mines should be bought which had been visited by 
 Humboldt in 1803, and were mentioned in his book, and 
 were known to have continued productive up to the revolu- 
 tion. On these principles, it was supposed that failure 
 would be impossible. But failure was possible, and it came. 
 England during the silver fever spent $50,000,000, for which 
 she got little return save dear experience. Independence 
 did not prove a great blessing to Mexico. Peace never 
 came, and without peace there could be no success, for silver 
 mining above all other pursuits demands peace. Forced 
 loans were levied by the government on the productive 
 mines, and the silver bars while on the way to the coast 
 were taken by highway robbers. The steam machinery 
 could not be taken to the mines till roads had been made 
 and wagons imported ; the roads cost immense sums ; when 
 the engines were in place native engineers could not be 
 found, and foreign engineers were murdered ; English su- 
 perintendents and Mexican miners could not get along 
 together ; the mines were found in a much worse condition 
 than that in which they were at the time of sale represented 
 to be ; and in a few years the mines of Mexico were, with a 
 
 few exceptions, rnequi vocally abandoned to the Mexicans. 
 The most notable mining districts opened in the 19th 
 century have been the placer district of San Francisco in 
 Sonora, in 1803 ; the-Melkowka placers in Siberia, in 1816 ; 
 the silver district of Fresuillo, in l"824 ; the silver district of 
 Chafiarcillo, Chili, in 1832 ; the silver district of Guadalupe 
 y Caloo, in 1834 ; the silver district of Guadalcafial, in 
 Spain, about 1880 ; the placers of the Altai mountains, in 
 Siberia, in 1830 ; the placers of the Sacramento basin, in 
 1849 ; the placers of Australia, in 1851 ; the placers of New 
 Zealand, in 1857; the placers of British Columbia, in 1858; 
 the placers of Colorado, in 1859 ; the silver district of Washoe, 
 in 1859 ; the Nevada iron pan amalgamation, in 1860 ; the sil- 
 ver and gold of Idaho in 1861 ; the placersof Montana in 1862. 
 Stock of Precious Metals. — The stock of coin in 
 Christendom in 1492, and at various epochs since, may be 
 thus estimated : 
 
 Stock of gold and silver coin in Europe in 1493 $170,000,000 
 
 Production of 108 years, leas loss by wear $090,000,000 
 
 Used in arts »14O,000,000 
 
 Sent to Asia 70,000,000 
 
 Deductions 210,000,000 
 
 Net gain from 1492 to 1600 . 480,000,000 
 
 050.000,000 
 
 . 4,000,000,000 
 
 Stock at end of 1600 
 
 Production of the XVIIth century 1,687,000,000 
 
 Sent to Asia 165,000,000 
 
 Used in the arts 300,000,0^!0 
 
 Abrasion and los^ 385,000.000 
 
 Deductions for the XVIIth century 810,000,000 
 
 Net-gain of the XVIIth century 
 
 Stock at end of 1700 
 
 Production of the XVIIIth century . . . 
 
 Sent to Asia 400,000,000 
 
 Used in the arts 800,000,000 
 
 Wear and loos 600,000,000 
 
 T.ital deductions for XVIIIth cen- 
 tury 1 800 000,000 
 
 Net gain of XVIIIth century . . . 
 
 Stock at end of 1800 _. 
 
 Production of 1st quarcer XiXtli century. . . . 750,000,000 
 Wear and loss . . . . ]75,fl00,000 
 
 Used in the arts 200,000,000 
 
 Sent to Asia 125,000,0li0 
 
 Deductions for 1st quarter XlXth 
 
 century 600,000,000 
 
 Net gain of 1st quarter XIX century . . .... 
 
 Stock at end of 1825 
 
 Production 2d quarter XIX century 1,200,000,000 
 
 Wear and loss 200,000,000 
 
 Used in the arts 3.50,000,000 
 
 Sent to Asia 176,000,000 
 
 Deductions 2d quarter XlXth cen- 
 tury ■ 725,000,000 
 
 Net gain 2d quarter XlXih ceutury . . 
 
 Stock at end of 1850 
 
 Pioduction from 1851 to 1866, inclu- 
 sive 2,500,000,000 
 
 Wear and loss ... . . . 26ii,000,00J 
 
 Used in the arts . 600,000,000 
 
 Sent to A-iia 800,000,000 
 
 Total deductions for 16 years. . . 1,750,000,000 
 
 Net gain from 1831 to 1866 . . . . 
 
 837,000,000 
 1,487,000,000 
 
 ■ 2,200,000,000 
 
 3.687,009,000 
 
 3,937,000,000 
 
 475,000,000 
 4,412,000,000 
 
 Stock at end of 1806 . 
 
 750,000,000 
 
 5,162,000,000 
 
 The following is Jacobs' estimate, as given in Vol. II, pp. 70, 131, 214 and 322 : 
 
 Stock on hand in 1402 £34,000,000 
 
 Production 1493-1599 over loss and 
 
 wear £138,000,1X10 
 
 Used in the arts £28,000,000 
 
 Sent to Asia 14,000,000 
 
 Total deductions 1493-1599 . . . 42,000,000 
 
 Net gain 1493-1509 96,000,000 
 
 Stock on hand at the f^nd of 1599 130,000,000 
 
 Productions of XVIIth century 337,5uu,000 
 
 Sent to Asia , . . . . ... - 32,-J30,000 
 
 Used in the arts . . .... 60,250,000 
 
 Wear and loss 77,oOO,OJO 
 
 Total deduction for XVIIth century 170,500,000 
 
 Net gain of XVIIth century 167,000,000 
 
 Stock on hand at the end of l'i99 297,000,000 
 
 Produetio'i of 1700 to 1809 880,000,000 
 
 Sent to Asia a5v^,000,000 
 
 Used in the arts ... . . 362,000,000 
 
 Wear and loss . . 93,000,000 
 
 Total deductions 1700 to 1800 . . . 797,000,000 
 
 Net gain from 1700 to 1S09 83,000,000 
 
 Stock on hand at end of 1809 380,000,000 
 
 Production from 1810 to 1629 . 103,736,000 
 
 Sent to A-ia 40,000,(.X)0 
 
 Used in the arts 112,252,220 
 
 Wear and loss 18,096,220 
 
 Total deductions from 1810 to 1829 170,343,440 
 
 Decrease from 1810 to 1829 
 
 Stock oi\ hand at end of 1820 . 
 
 66,611,440 
 
 313,.3S8,660 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 439 
 
 It has been customary to make estimates of the amount 
 of precious metals in Christendom at various times by 
 deducting the quantity shipped to China and Hindostan, 
 and the quantity used for plate; but there is a constant 
 change from coin to plate and from plate to coin, and the 
 wide line which once separated China and Hindostan from 
 European trade has now disappeared, and those Asiatic 
 countries are within the pale of civilized commerce, and are 
 almost as near to London and New York as California and 
 Victoria. Whitney, in his Metallic Wealth of the United 
 States, says that in 1853 the Russian empire produced 
 64,000 pounds Troy of gold; Austria, 5,700; the remainder 
 of Europe, 100 ; Southern Asia, 25,000 ; Africa, 4,000 ; South 
 America, 34,000 ; and the United States, (exclusive of Cali- 
 fornia,) 2,200. The gold production of Chili in 1845 (the 
 statistics for later years not being obtainable at the time) 
 was 2,850 pounds Troy; of Bolivia, 1,200; of Peru, 1,900; 
 of New Grenada, 13,300 ; of Brazil, 5,100 ; and of Mexico, 
 9,900. The yield of silver in 1850 is thus stated : Russian 
 Empire, 60,000 pounds Troy ; Scandinavia, 20,400 ; Great 
 Britain, 48,500 ; Harz Silver District, 31,500 ; Prussia, 
 21,200; Saxony, 63,600 ; other German states, 2,500; Aus- 
 tria, 87,000 ; Spain, 126 ; France, 5,000 ; Australia, 10,000 ; 
 Chili, 238,500; Bolivia, 130,000; Peru, 303,150; New 
 Grenada, 13,000; Brazil, 675; Mexico, 1,650,000; Califor- 
 nia, 17,400 ; total 2,817,425 pounds Troy. 
 
 The effects of Prosperous Mining'.— The first ef- 
 fect of the production of the precious metals in rich mines 
 is that it enriches the individual engaged in mining, or at 
 least gives him an opportunity to enrich himself A large 
 proportion of mankind are so stupid, so imprudent, so waste- 
 ful, or so indifferent to the value of money, that they can- 
 not make money when they have the best chances, or keep 
 it after they get it. The wages of miners are higher than 
 those of other laborers, and when the mines are very rich 
 the proprietors become possessed of immense sums. In the 
 mining districts nearly every man when he goes out walk- 
 ing over the hills keeps a lookout for " indications," in hope 
 of finding some vein that may make him a millionaire. The 
 second effect of the production of the precious metals is to 
 enrich the nation which possesses the mines, or to give it an 
 opportunity to enrich itself. Nearly all mining districts are 
 poor, although they consume luxuries which can elsewhere 
 be afforded only by the wealthiest. The finest silks and the 
 most costly wines went to Virginia City during the great 
 bonanza in 1862, and similar extravagance had been wit- 
 nessed before at Potosi, Cerro Pasco, Guanajuato, and Zaca- 
 tecas. The owner of a rich mine cannot dig out the pure, 
 precious metal with a shovel unassisted ; he must employ a 
 great number of laborers, and his money runs all through 
 the community and stimulates every branch of industry. 
 The whole nation feels rich, and it purchases for one day's 
 work the productions oa which other nations have spent two 
 day's. The gold and silver are sent abroad to purchase 
 those things which can be made cheaper abroad where labor 
 has not felt the stimulus. The third effect of the produc- 
 tion of the precious metals in large quantities is that the 
 prices of other articles generally are affected. We want gold 
 and silver for coin and for use in the arts, and the smaller 
 the supply relatively to the demand the higher the value. 
 The experience of ancient as well as of modern times has 
 proved this principle. After Alexander conquered Persia, 
 and enriched Greece with the spoils of Asia, three times as 
 much silver was required to pay for a day's work as before ; 
 and now it requires in average years six ounces of silver to 
 purchase as much wheat in Europe as could be bought in 
 1490 for one ounce. The cause of the change is the great 
 relative increase in the supply of silver while there is no 
 relative increase in the supply of wheat. The result of the 
 great yield of the silver mines of Peru and Mexico in the 
 16th century was that between 1550 and 1600 wheat trebled in 
 price. The production of the 16th century was about $690,- 
 000,000, whereas, the production of $4,000,000,000 in the 18th 
 century added only 50 per cent, to the price which wheat 
 bore in 1600, but more than 200 ^er cent, of the price which 
 it bore in 1500. When we compare ancient with modern 
 times we see that the rise in prices was very much greater 
 relatively in Rome after she became mistress of the world 
 than it has been in modern Europe since the mines of Amer- 
 ica, Australia and Russia have yielded their treasures. The 
 
 difference is owing partly to the fact that a large portion of 
 the laborers in the Roman Empire were slaves, and the num- 
 ber of those who used money and could possess plate was 
 comparatively small, and civilization was confined within 
 narrow limits. The decrease of prices was less in propor- 
 tion to the production of the precious metals in the 17th 
 than in the 16th, and less in the 18th than in the 17th cen- 
 tury, because business has increased with much greater ra- 
 pidity in late times than before. Commerce, manufactures, 
 and intelligent agriculture have grown wonderfully. Many 
 branches of trade conducted mainly by barter several cen- 
 turies ago are now managed exclusively with money. The 
 laborers are all free, and each needs a stock of coin with 
 which to make purchases in case of necessity. The use of 
 silver table ware and of gold ornaments is very extensive, 
 and large quantities of both gold and silver are used in va- 
 rious kinds of manufacture. The introduction of steam in 
 mills, boats and cars has doubled the productive capacity of 
 mankind, and far more than doubled the demand for mon- 
 ey. The speed and cheap communication between all coun- 
 tries has added vastly to the general wealth, and has in- 
 creased the demand for the representatives of wealth. The 
 remotest parts of the world are now brought to our doors, 
 and China and Hindostan open their laps to receive our 
 gold and silver and prevent it from falling in value by be- 
 coming too abundant in our hands. One of the best indi- 
 cations of the increase of trade and the spread of civiliza- 
 tion is the relative value of the precious metals, and we see 
 that a net increase of $500,000,000, or an addition of 250 
 per cent, to the stock in the 16th century, trebled prices in 
 half a century, while a net increase of $5,800,000,000, or 
 900 per cent., since the year 1600, has not trebled prices in 
 250 years. 
 
 — Compiled from U. W. Raymond's Beports. 
 
 BIMETALLISM: SINGLE AND DOUBLE 
 STANDARDS. 
 
 THE purpose of this work and the references to coin- 
 age in the preceding paper of this part compel an 
 examination into the great question of bi-metallism, 
 and the maintenance of single or double standards. 
 The following clear exposition of mono-metallism though 
 printed for private circulation, is too good to be lost in such 
 a way, and is condensed here. 
 
 That there is a wide-spread misapprehension on the part 
 of the public as to what constitutes the true value of the 
 precious metals, as well as to the nature and functions of 
 metallic money, and even among economists and financiers 
 who have given the subject special attention; no one can, 
 for a moment doubt, who has had occasion to examine the 
 various theories upon the subject. The high estimation in 
 which the precious metals have been held, in all ages and in 
 all countries, and the avidity with which they have been 
 sought by all manner of men, is, perhaps, more universal in 
 its extent and influence, and uniform in its history, than 
 that of any other object which relates to the aspirations or 
 industries of mankind. And the pursuit of them has, appa- 
 rently, always possessed a fascination which no other object 
 could inspire, and which no danger or privation could re- 
 press. We trace back this thirst for gold not only to the re- 
 motest antiquity, and to the very confines of authentic his- 
 tory ; but passing beyond these limits, we find it interwoven 
 with all the traditions and legendary myths of prehistoric 
 times, and coeval with the very creation of Gods and men.* 
 Whether we trace back civilization through Aryan or Se- 
 
 ■*SIr John Lubbock supposes, in hia " pre-historic Times," that 
 
 gold was the first metal discovered and utilized by man. This is 
 iglily probable, as other metals are usually found as ores, com- 
 bined with other substances; whereas, stream and placer gold is 
 always found in metallic form, and from its native lustre, must 
 have at once attracted attention. 
 
 The Hesiodic and Homeric Theogonies are full of references and 
 allusions to the precious metals. And according to the ""Works 
 and Days," the successive races of men arc named after the metals. 
 
440 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 mitic channels, or attempt to penetrate the antiquity of the 
 several families of the human race, as they successively come 
 within the sphere of its progress and expansion ; we every- 
 where find accumulated evidence of the fact that it was 
 among the first objects to attract the attention of man and 
 stimulate his industry. The human mind is sometimes 
 almost appalled in contemplating the magnificence and 
 opulence of the royal and commercial cities of those re- 
 mote periods, as depicted by sacred and profane history, and 
 the fabulous amounts of the precious metals accumulated in 
 them, or expended in their construction and embellishment. 
 We read the story in the hieroglyphics of the pyramids — in 
 the ruined temples of the magnificent cities of the Thebaid — 
 in the cuneiform inscriptions upon the walls and tablets 
 found among the splendid ruins of Assyria — in the more 
 classic ground of the Troad and the Peloponnesus — among 
 the buried sepulchres of the Homeric heroes, of Illium and 
 Mycen£e — and even in those mysterious abodes, the tumuli 
 of prehistoric man. Before the birth of commercial art, be- 
 fore the dawn of proprietary rights among men, the splendor 
 of these metals had attracted the admiration and incited the 
 acquisitive passions of mankind. In all ages historians have 
 written and poets sung of their matchless properties and 
 transcendent beauties, and the imagination and fancy have 
 borrowed from them their happiest similes of all that is ex- 
 cellent in nature or admirable in art. And to tell us that 
 these metals, for whose acquisition man, in all ages, has de- 
 voted the highest energies of his nature, and not unfrequently 
 bartered his soul, possess no value except that bestowed 
 upon them in subsequent ages, as money, is a travesty on 
 the facts of history, which defies all dispassionate criticism. 
 It is well known that from the remotest antiquity down 
 to the building of the Temple, and for several hundred 
 years subsequent thereto, the quantity of the precious 
 metals in existence far exceeded that, of which, modern 
 times furnish us any account prior to recent discoveries. In 
 all these hundreds, we may say thousands of years, before 
 the precious metals — especially gold — were employed as 
 current money; they were even more highly prized than now ; 
 if we measure their values by that of other commodities, or 
 the wages of labor, as they existed in those days. Though 
 they were then especially produced by slave labor, and be- 
 longed to the royal treasuries, and consequently, " their cost 
 of production " was but a nominal element of value. In the 
 ruder stages of society men dealt in exchange mainly by the 
 simple barter of the products of their labor. As this be- 
 came more subdivided, and its products more diversified, 
 their exchangeable values became more incommensurable, 
 and hence, the invention or origin of money, as a medium 
 of exchange. At first, this usually consisted of some pro- 
 duct of labor, possessed of general utility — then came the 
 useful metals and their alloys — next came silver, and finally 
 came gold ; but not until some centuries subsequent to the 
 invention of coined money. It is important to observe in 
 this connection, that while the quantity of gold appears to 
 have been greatly in excess of that of silver, it was then, as 
 now, much the more valuable metal. And though we do not 
 find that it was ever employed as a currency, until after the 
 invention of coined money, it was doubtless employed in 
 exchange and sold by weight — just as silver is to-day in Eng- 
 land — long before it was made legal tender, or became cur- 
 rent as money of account. We are told that Abraham 
 returned from Egypt " rich in cattle, gold apd silver," and 
 somewhere about 1890 years B. C, we find him purchasing 
 a burial ground from Ephron, for which he " weighed out 
 to him four hundred shekels of silver, current money, with 
 the merchant." This is the earliest mention we have of a 
 precious metal as " current money." The shekel was both a 
 coin and weight, and though the shekel of gold is frequently 
 
 The :egend of the " Golden Fleece, " in which the exploits of Gods, 
 Demi-eods, and men, are so hopelessly mixcid up, is supposed to be 
 typical of the great wealth of Kolcliis, and was a sort of prospect- 
 ing party in quest of the golden sanils of its famous rivers. 
 
 Zeus, the father of the gods, we are told,was " rocked in agolden 
 cradle," and penetrated the " brazen prison " of the coy Dana) in a 
 shower of golden dust^not an unsuccessful method, by the way in 
 more modern timi^s, of propitiating the favors of that " fiiscinat'in" 
 mischief," which he indicted upon mankind as a "|)iMii»liment to 
 mortals " for being outwitted in a little ti'ade by Prometheus their 
 progenitor. ' 
 
 referred to in the Old Testament, and that metal seems to 
 have been excessively abundant ; we no where find it spoken 
 of as current money. Indeed, we no where find that it was 
 so employed prior to the invention of coined money, as 
 already stated. And the Jews are said not to have adopted 
 coined money until so late as the days of the Maccabees. 
 The use of gold as money seems to have been first adopted 
 by the Lydians, but to a very limited extent, and not until 
 some 1200 years subsequent to the employment of silver for 
 that purpose. And it was several hundred years subsequent 
 to this, before it was so employed by the Greeks or Romans. 
 At the time of the building of the Temple, which was 
 about 1000 years B. C, and still several centuries before we 
 find any mention of gold as money ; the metals had be- 
 come excessively abundant, and, although silver was the 
 current money of the day, and gold only a commodity, the 
 former was but little better than a nuisance, and we are 
 told that it was " in Jerusalem as stones * * for 
 abundance," and that it was nothing accounted in the days 
 of Solomon." It is true that some commentators undertake 
 to explain this, by saying that it was so regarded for the 
 purpose of art, but give us no authority for such an inter- 
 pretation; whereas, Josephus tells us emphatically, that 
 " there was nothing then to be sold or bought for silver," 
 and elsewhere gives us a minute account; of the enormous 
 amount of that metal that was employed in the construction 
 and decoration of the Temple. Economists tell us that 
 the value of commodities arise from the " cost of pro- 
 duction;" assuming labor as the true and ultimate mea- 
 sure of value. But practical miners and metallurgists 
 know very well that the "cost" of producing .silver is 
 greater than that of gold ; and that this great disparity 
 of value between the metals existed for centuries be- 
 fore they were employed as money, or before it was at- 
 tempted to "regulate" that value by "law." If there is 
 any one thing well understood among all well informed 
 economists — it is the nature and functions of money as ex- 
 pounded by Aristotle ; and which has been made the basis 
 of every definition of money by every subsequent writer 
 who has represented it as an intrinsic equivalent possessing 
 inherent value, as well as measure and sign of value.* 
 
 STANDARD MEASURE OF VALUE. 
 
 THE term "value," when applied to money as a stand- 
 ard, can only be taken in its mathematical sense, 
 as meaning "quantity." When a standard of value 
 has been once established, you may express the 
 "relation" of value between other moneys, or between 
 money and commodities, in terms of coin, made in accor- 
 dance with such a standard ; but you can convey no idea of 
 the value of standard money in terms of itself, and can only 
 do so by reference to some unit of physical magnitude or 
 
 * Among all modern writers, none are comparable to Locke in 
 defining the nature and functions of monev, or seem to have so 
 clearly apprehended its true relations to human industry or stated 
 them with such terse and philosophical precision. 
 
 Men, in their bargains, contract not for denotninations or sounds, 
 but for intrinsic value, which is the quantity of silver by public 
 authority, warranted to be in pieces of such denominations. And it 
 is by having a greater quantHy of silver that men thrive and grow 
 richer, and not by having a greater number of denominations 
 which, when they come to need their money, will prove but emntv 
 sounds." » » » » iS » ■» 
 
 '' Money is the measure of commerce and the rate of everything ; 
 it is the thing bargained for, as well as the measure of the bargain, 
 being equivalent to the thing sold ; it is not only the measure of 
 value ofthe commodity it is applied to, but is given in exchange 
 for it as of equal value." * * * » ■» 
 
 " The intrinsic value of silver, cmmdered as money, is that esti- 
 mate which common consent has placed upon it, whereby it is made 
 eqiiinilcnt to all other things, and consequently is the universal bar- 
 ter or exchange which men sive and receive for other thinn-s which 
 they would purchase or part with for a mlnablc const deration. "— 
 Lopke. Montesquieu, Count de Verri, MeCulloch, Chevalier and 
 others have emlrodicd this essential idea of lutritisic cquimlait in 
 their definitions of money ; but in all of them we recognize the 
 original idea of Aristotle, as something "really valuable itself" 
 

 ft. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 441 
 
 "quantity." To say that a Sovereign shall be of the value 
 of twenty shillings, or that an Eagle shall be of the value of 
 ten dollars; gives us no idea of what either a Sovereign, a 
 shilling, an Eagle, or a dollar is ; but when we learn that a 
 Sovereign contains 113.001 grains of pure gold, and an Eagle 
 contains 232ft grains; we, for the first time, form a definite 
 idea of the value or "quantity" which they express. Justi- 
 nian evidently understood this, and what he meant by "per- 
 petual value" of the "material," was its inherent or intrinsic 
 value ; and what he meant by the "power " of money, which 
 he says depends upon its "quantity," was its purchasing 
 power/ and which, as before said, is entirely correct. For 
 if it were enacted that hereafter a Sovereign should be worth 
 forty shillings, or an Eagle should be worth twenty dollars; 
 it would not, in the slightest degree, change the " value " or 
 purchasing power of the Sovereign or the Eagle; but would 
 simply reduce the weight or " quantity," and consequently the 
 "value" of the shilling and the dollar. This is shown by the 
 fact that when we want to over value a coin, as in the case of 
 subsidiary money, we simply reduce the weight or "quantity" 
 of fine metal in it. It is surprising that the bimetallists do 
 not detect the palpable inconsistency of their own arguments 
 or interpretations. They endeavor to prove' that money 
 "has value only by law," and not " by Nature," and that the 
 " value " of money consists in its quantity," and that the 
 "quantity is exactly that which Nature produces." And it 
 must follow, therefore, that " law " has nothing to do with 
 the creation of " value," in the material of which money is 
 made. But if the " value " or " power " of money " resides " 
 only in the " quantity," and that "quantity is exactly that 
 which Nature produces ;" then it must be the " substance " 
 only which the "law" creates; and as that substance is 
 known to be gold, we have, at last, got a solution of the 
 alchemist's problem, and the scare about the "insufiiciency " 
 of that met£U is wholly sensational and unnecessary. 
 
 It seems almost puerile to comment seriously upon such 
 statements as these ; but it is just such material as this, fur- 
 nished by " high authority," that has involved this whole 
 question in such hopeless confusion, and by which these bi- 
 metallic enthusiasts attempt to establish the necessity of 
 adqpting the policy recommended by them. To any well 
 informed person it will be scarcely necessary to state that 
 not only did the precious metals have a high and well estab- 
 lished value for centuries before they were employed as 
 money; but when subsequently, they were so employed; 
 their values, as such, were' necessarily made to conform 
 approximately to their previously established exchangeable 
 values, for the very obvious economic reason, that any ma- 
 terial over valuation, or under valuation, would either lead to 
 an undue inflation of prices, or to expel them from circula- 
 tion by over importation. And as the volume of money is 
 but a very small percentage of the volume of commodities, 
 whose exchange and distribution are affected by it — you 
 would thereby either defeat the essential purpose of its crea- 
 tion, or prodtice disastrous results to the industries of the 
 country. It would be a violent presumption, but no argu- 
 ment, to reason in reference to the value of any product or 
 commodity, by assuming what the effect upon that value 
 would be by suddenly throwing upon the markets of the 
 world the entire stock of that commodity, which had been 
 produced or accumulated for hundreds of years. This would 
 simply be abrogating or suspending the operation of the 
 laws of supply and demand ; and would prove nothing. No 
 product of industry would possess value by this process of 
 illustration or reasoning. 
 
 It being abundantly evident then, from all the attested 
 facts of history, ai well as from the established principles of 
 economic law, which imparts to and governs the value of 
 the products of industry, that the precious metals possess 
 an inherent value founded upon their utility, and have 
 maintained this value in all ages and countries, with a 
 greater uniformity than any other product in the pursuit of 
 which men engage ; we have next to examine to what ex- 
 tent that value is affected by their employment as money, or 
 controlled by laws adopted for its regulation. 
 
 The Value of the Precious Metals but Slightly Affected by 
 their Employment as Money. — From the quotations already 
 made, it will be preceived that: the phenomenal decline in 
 the value of silver, which occurred in 1876, and from which 
 it has but partially recovered, is specifically charged to 
 
 the demonetization of that metal by Germany in 1873, and 
 its so-called demonetization in this country by the act of 
 February 12th, in the same year. It may be stated here, 
 that so far as the recent disturbance in the relations of value 
 of gold to silver is concerned ; all the factors which enter 
 into that problem have arisen since the discoveries of gold in 
 this country and Australia. And to extend the investiga- 
 tion beyond this period. Is only to ascertain the analogies 
 afforded, in illustrating the principles of economic law, from 
 which this disturbance has resulted. To show how entirely 
 disproportioned this result has been to its alleged cause ; we 
 may state the following statistical facts as instructive upon 
 this point, and which, at the same time, will have a bearing 
 upon what follows further on. According to the elaborate 
 report of the Goschen Committee of the British Parliament, 
 it appears that for the twenty-one years ending December 31, 
 1871, the coinage of silver by the States now constituting 
 the German Empire, had averaged about $20,600,000 per 
 annum, and that the total amount remaining in circulation 
 at that date was variously estimated to be from $225,000,000 
 to $296,000,000. For the purpose of argument, we will as- 
 sume the maximum estimate. Of this amount $103,200,000 
 had been provisionally reserved for subsidiary coinage, of 
 which $58,500,000 had been already coined to June 7th, 
 1876. The total amount called in to that date, was about 
 $105,600,000, of which $29,200,000 had been sold within the 
 three years since demonetization, leaving apparently, $17,- 
 900,000 on hand ; and $171,560,000 still in circulation and 
 performing all the functions of legal tender money. Of the 
 $207,300,000 on hand or in circulation, $44,640,000 still re- 
 mained subject to the reservation for subsidiary currency — 
 leaving $162,660,000 as the extreme amount which might be 
 called in and sold. Which, however, the committee state in 
 their summary, might be as low as $40,000,000, with a 
 "possibility" of exceeding $100,000,000. To determine to 
 what extent this demonetization of silver has contributed 
 to its decline in value ; or whether, as an alleged cause of 
 that decline it is at all adequate to the results pro- 
 duced, we may summarize the material facts as follows: 
 Prior to the discovery of silver in the State of Nevada, the 
 production of the world had been unusually uniform for a 
 number of years, and at the time of that discovery was about 
 $40,000,000 per annum. From 1860 to 1875, both inclusive, 
 the aggregate production was about $905,000,000, being an 
 average of something over $65,000,000 per annum; and 
 which, for the sixteen years gives us a gross excess of pro- 
 duction of $240,000,000 or $15,000,000 per annum, as com- 
 pared with the production prior to this discovery. We have 
 already seen that about $30,000,000 had been sold by Ger- 
 many from 1873 to 1876 ; or an average of $10,000,000 per 
 annum. And that she had ceased to purchase silver for 
 coinage to the extent of $20,600,000, which, had been her 
 previous average consumption. The estimates of the pro- 
 duction of the precious metals at remote periods are but 
 little better than the wildest romance ; and indeed, in our 
 day, are extremely unsatisfactory. But for the purpose of 
 illustration, we will here state the relative produce of the 
 two metals at different periods as given by the most usu- 
 ally quoted authorities. For the periods stated, both years 
 are inclusive.^ 
 
 • We may state here generally, that all statements we make epn- 
 ceriiing the production of the precious metals since 1850, are from 
 tables compiled by us within the past thirty years, and which we 
 have carefully compared with other original authorities, so far aa 
 they relate to foreign countries. From 1492 to 1800, we have sub- 
 stantially adopted Prof. Soetbeer's estimates, as he is now the most 
 frequently quoted authority; although they appear to us very in- 
 accurate, and we have been unable to discover upon what ground 
 he has altered so materially, the estimates of Humboldt and others, 
 whom we have been so long accustomed to regard as authorities 
 best informed upon the subject. From 1800 to 1849, we have also 
 followed compilations of our own from the best original sources ac- 
 cessible. As for this period. Prof. Soetbeer's estimates are so pal- 
 pably erroneous that we were compelled to reject them. It may be 
 observed that while there are many apparently irreconcilable dis- 
 crepancies between the usuallv quoted authorities as to the produc- 
 tion of the precious metals ; when compared by single years, or short 
 periods: there appears to be a sort of compensating principle of 
 error running through them, which, when applied to periods of fif- 
 teen or twenty years, eliminate these discrepancies, and the grand 
 totals for such periods, as given by leading authorities, are, for all 
 practical purposes, sufficiently accurate. 
 
442 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Gf/ld. Silver. Ratio. 
 
 Prior to 1492 $5,260,000,000 $3,430,000,000 69@40 per cent. 
 
 From 1493 to 1799, 307 y'rs. 2,360,000,000 6,030,000,900 32@68 " 
 
 " 1800 to 1849, 50 " . 780,000,000 1,360,000,000 36@64+ 
 
 Total two last periods, 357 y's $3,110,000,000 $8,380,000,000 33@67 + 
 From 1850 to 1876, 26 years, If3,125,000,000 1,310,000,000 70}:^@29j^ 
 
 It will be perceived that for tlie twenty-six years ending 
 with 1875— or the year before the great decline in silver oc- 
 curred — more gold had been produced than in the previous 
 three hundred and fifty-seven years ; and that the ratio of 
 production had been more than reversed, as compared with 
 the period prior to 1492. For the fifty years ending 1849, 
 the average had been — 
 
 Average price of Silver, 
 
 605i(i.=16.63@l 
 
 Gold — $15,000,000 per annum=36 per cent. 1 
 Silver— 27,000,000 " 64 " / 
 
 For the twenty-six years ending 1875, the averages were, 
 respectively — 
 
 Gold — $120,000,000 per annum=70U per cent. ) Average price of silver. 
 Silver- 60;384,000 " =29^ " / m%d.=16.6i@l 
 
 It will be observed that in the latter period the ratio of 
 production was more than reversed, as compared with the 
 preceding period — and the aNjerage excess production of gold 
 per annum was seven hundred per cent. Under ordinary con- 
 ditions this great disturbance in the relative production, 
 should have caused a marked decline in gold, as compared 
 with silver. Whereas, by a remarkable coincidence, the mean 
 of the yearly averages for the two periods was precisely the 
 same. [For extreme fluctuations of each decade, see note, 
 further on.] We shall presently attempt to explain the 
 causes of this abnormal condition of things. In the mean- 
 ' time, it will be in the line of this explanation to briefly 
 notice the circumstances existing in this country at the time 
 of the so-called demonetization of silver by the Act of Feb- 
 ruary 12th, 1873 ; to which the late Silver Commission at- 
 tributed such disastrous results to our commercial and 
 industrial interest, and such dire consequences to the entire 
 human family. The reasons which led to the demonetiza- 
 tion of silver in this country, we will state more in detail 
 a few paragraphs beyond. For the present it will suffice to 
 utite that this demonetization practically took place in 1853, 
 when the fractional silver coins were reduced at the rate of 
 28J grains standard weight to the dollar, or nearly seven per 
 cent.. From that date to 1872 inclusive, a period of twenty 
 years preceding the alleged demonetization of 1873, some- 
 thing over $4,500,000 only of these dollars were coined — 
 being an average of $225,000 per annum, or about half a 
 cent per capita on the mean population for that period. But 
 being undervalued, however, about 3J per cent., they never 
 went into circulation, but were exported ; and never consti- 
 tuted any effective portion of the currency of the country. 
 But for some twelve years prior to this alleged demonetiza- 
 tion, it is well known that specie payments in the United 
 States were suspended, and no kind of metallic money was 
 in efiective circulation — except on the Pacific coast — or had 
 any monetary relations whatever to the current business of 
 the country, during that period. But as the demand for, or 
 consumption of silver is one of the effective factors in this 
 question of its market price or value, as it relates to that of 
 its demonetization — it may be stated, that, for the four years, 
 from 1873 to 1876, both inclusive, the trade dollar and sub- 
 sidiary silver coinage, amounted to over $65,000,000, or more 
 than the entire silver coinage of the country for the previous 
 twenty-five years ; and therefore, the coinage of that metal 
 in this country was much more effective in sustaining its 
 market price, than it had ever been at any previous period. 
 Now, taking thi^ condition of things in connection with 
 that existing in Germany', what do we observe? We find 
 the average price of silver in the London market for the 
 year 1873, in which demonetization took place, to have been 
 59Jd. per standard ounce, corresponding to a ratio of 15'91 
 to 1 of gold, which is equivalent to a discount of 2^^ per 
 cent, on the ratio of 15J to 1, and something less than J per 
 cent, premium on our ratio of 15.988 to 1.* This average, 
 
 * To ascertain ratio from any given price of silver per English 
 standard ounce — 
 As one oz. of fine gold, at the Mint rate of 77i par standard ounce, 
 
 by coincidence, corresponds exactly with that of the year 
 1845, some five years prior to the commencement of the ex- 
 traordinary production of gold already referred to. No 
 marked or sudden decline of silver occurred during the 
 three years following this demonetization. But in the first 
 six months of 1876 it declined from 56Jrf. in January, to 
 46Jd. in July, equivalent to 16 J per cent. Assuming the 
 stock of silver in coin and plate among Occidental nations 
 at that date, to have been $3,800,000,000 ; this depreciation 
 would be equal to $627,000,000, or the entire product of the 
 world for the previous ten years, and nearly four times the 
 whole amount that Germany was supposed to have for sale. 
 It is scarcely necessary to observe that we utterly fail to 
 discover in this condition of things, any cause, at all ade- 
 quate to such startling results. When, therefore, Mr. Seyd tells 
 us, that because Germany had, in three years, sold 30,000,000 
 of silver, and some 160,000,000 more which she might sell at 
 some future time ; that this great and unprecedented decline 
 was due to the demonetization, "and that only;" and when the 
 distinguished gentlemen who constituted the late Silver 
 Commission, repeat to us, that this demonetization, in con- 
 nection with the fact that the United States had ceased to 
 distribute among the people the enormous amount of a half 
 a cent per capita of an old theoretical coin, which had never 
 been in eflTective circulation; though coining silver to a 
 greater extent than ever before : that not only was this de- 
 preciation due to these facts, but that it was also the cause 
 of the wide-spreading commercial depression and industrial 
 distress which had swept over two continents ; paralyzing 
 the energies of industry and trade in its course, and well- 
 nigh bankrupting the Caucasian race, we are fairly appalled 
 at the stupendous absurdity of the whole thing, and can but 
 look upon it as — 
 
 " Resembling ocean into tempest wrought, 
 To waft a feather, or to drown a fly." 
 
 This great depreciation in the value of silver was un- 
 doubtedly due, to some extent, to the scare gotten up in re- 
 lation to its probable excessive production in this country ; 
 which in that year reached a maximum not before attained. 
 This is measurably confirmed by the fact, that from the low 
 price of 46|cf. in July, it rose again in December of 
 the same year, to 57d. or nearly 17J per cent. — ^being equiva- 
 lent to an appreciation of stock, of 660,000,000. The average 
 for the year, however, was as low as 52f rf. Since that time, 
 the fluctuations have not been violent^ but the price has 
 gradually gravitated downward, notwithstanding the unpre- 
 cedented export to the East, in 1877, and the restoration of 
 the double standard in this country in 1878. It reached its 
 lowest annual average of 51}rf. in 1879 — equivalent to a 
 ratio of 18.40 to 1, or about 18 per cent, discount on the 
 ratio of \f>\ to 1. From this point of depression it has 
 slightly recovered, and has now, for some time past, fluctu- 
 ated between 52 and 53d. 
 
 Now, that Germany is no longer a seller, and the United 
 States, for the past four years having become a much larger 
 consumer than that country had ever been ; and therefore, 
 more than an offset to her abandonment of the double stan- 
 dard : and as the present production of the two metals ap- 
 proximate each other more nearly than at any former 
 period, this steadiness of price would seem clearly to indi- 
 
 is worth 1019.4546 pence ; and as one oz. of fine silver is equal to 
 1.081 0Z3. of standard silver j the formula usually employed is — 
 
 1019.4546 
 1081 X Price. 
 
 =Eatio. 
 
 But as both the dividend and the divisor are fractional — a some- 
 what more accurate formula is this : The penny or jiu part of a 
 sovereign contains 0.47084 grains of fine gold without a fraction, and 
 the oz. of English standard silver contains 444 grains of fine sdver 
 without a fraction ; hence — 
 
 444 
 
 0.47084 X Price. 
 
 =Ratio. 
 
 To ascertain 'price per oz. of standard silver from any given ratio, 
 wo have the formula — 
 
 1019.4546 
 Ratio +925. 
 
 - =Price. 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 443 
 
 cate thct there must be some more potent reason for the 
 continued depression of silver than German demonetization 
 affords. We are satisfied that it arises from a more deep- 
 seated cause ; and that it is the effective result of economic 
 laws which have acquired vitality and been brought into 
 active operation by recent radical changes in the commer- 
 cial methods of the world, and by which the relative ex- 
 changeable values of the two metals are being adjusted in 
 accordance with their relative utility, under existing commer- 
 cial and industrial conditions. This, undoubtedly, is the 
 true key to the solution of this perplexing problem. And 
 this great decline in the value of silver is almost entirely due 
 to the fact that its utility, upon which its exchangeable value 
 is founded, has been impaired, if not superseded by the 
 great abundance of gold, which has become more nearly ad- 
 equate to the entire demands of commerce than at any 
 former period, and performs all the functions of money more 
 economically, and in that respect, as well as in others, more 
 effectively: and is therefore, the preferred metal. This is a 
 
 Elain proposition, entirely susceptible of proof by indisputa- 
 le statistical facts, concerning the production and move- 
 ment of the precious metals, and requires no far-fetched 
 theories of conspiracy, or imputations of insidious motive 
 in the policy which any nation has adopted, or may think 
 proper to pursue. Self-interest dominates the policy of na- 
 tions as well as the acts of individuals, and it is a weakness 
 in which none will indulge except visionary enthusiasts, to 
 suppose that either will be controlled by the dictates of a 
 more elevated principle. For the purpose of elucidating 
 this theory, it will be necessary to state the essential facts 
 concerning the production and movement of the metals, 
 and the changes in business methods which they indicate. 
 Having already stated this production down to 1850, we 
 will only here repeat that of the last period for the purpose 
 of illustration and comparison with those which follow. 
 For the periods stated, both years are inclusive. 
 
 Productions of Precious Itletals during tJle Undermentioned 
 Periods. 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Ratio. 
 
 laoo to 1849, 60 years . 
 
 $750,000,000 
 
 81.360,000,000 
 
 36 ©64 
 
 1850 to 1864, 15 years . . . 
 1865 to 1879, 15 years . . 
 
 81,v25,000,0OO 
 1,616,000,000 
 
 8 625,000,000 
 1,015,000,000 
 
 61>|@383^ 
 
 Totals for 3D years . 
 
 83,640,000,000 
 
 $1,640,000,000 
 
 my^si]4 
 
 1850 to 1866, 17 years . 
 1867 to 1879, 13 years . 
 
 82,160,000,0001 $730,000,000 
 1,380,000,000| 910,000,000 
 
 
 Annual averages of production by quintuple periods: 
 
 1850 to 1854 ... 
 1855 to 1859 ... 
 1860 to 1864 ... 
 
 Totals for 15 ye^rs . 
 1865 to 1869 ... 
 1870 to 1874 .... 
 1875 to 1879 
 
 Totals for 15 years . 
 Totals for 30 years . 
 Averages for 50 years, endia 
 
 1849 
 
 Excess of annual averages . . 
 
 Percentage inerea^e of averages 
 Estimated annual Increase of 
 
 population of Occidental 
 
 countries . . 
 
 Oold. 
 
 8128,000,000 
 189,000,000 
 118,000,000 
 
 $117,000,000 
 107,000,000 
 99,000,000 
 
 8107,666,666 
 
 8118,000,000 
 
 .$5;000.n00 
 
 8 103,000,000 
 700 per cent. 
 
 1^ per' cent. 
 
 Silver, 
 
 $40,000,000 
 40,000,000 
 45,000,000 
 
 $41,666,666 
 
 166,000,000 
 67,000,000 
 81,000,000 
 
 $67,606,066 
 
 $64,666,666 
 
 $27,000,000 
 
 $27,666,666 
 102^ per cent 
 
 13^ per cent. 
 
 Total. 
 
 -$108,000,000 
 179,000,000 
 163,000,000 
 
 8170,000,000 
 
 8172,000,000 
 174,000,000 
 130,000,000 
 
 8175,333,333 
 
 $172,666,666 
 
 $42,000,000 
 
 $130,666,666 
 311 per cent. 
 
 1^2 per cent. 
 
 X^xports of Silver to the Elast from Great Britain and 
 Ittediterranean ports.* 
 
 1850 to 1866, 17 years .... $1,015,000,000 Average per annum $69,800,000 
 Production for same period 730,000,900 " " 43,000,000 
 
 Excess of exports . . $285,000,000 " " $16,800,000 
 
 For the most active movement during this period, we have : 
 
 Prom 1853 tn 1866, 14 years . $963,000,000 Average per annum $68,700,000 
 Production for same period 610,000,000 " " 43,60D,00O 
 
 Excess of exports . . . $353,000,000 
 
 From 1867 to 1879, 13 years . $560,000,000 
 
 Product for same period 910,000,000 
 
 Excess of product . $350,000,000 
 
 $25,200,000 
 43,000,000 
 70,000,000 
 
 $27,000,000 
 
 * These statements of the exports of silver are taken from the 
 report of the Goschen Committee. - The year 1850, from the table 
 of Messrs. Pixley & Abell, page 20; and from 1851 to 1875, both in- 
 clusive, M. de Quetteville, p. 185, column 12. From 1876 to 1879, 
 from the bullion circular of Messrs. Pixley & Abell, which, how- 
 
 The exports of silver into India, approximate very nearly 
 the exports from Eurype, though a considerable portion of 
 these imports comes from China and other points of the 
 East to which they were originally consigned. 
 
 The gross and net importe into this country, for the 15 
 years from 1835 to 1849, both inclusive, were as follows : 
 
 Per annum. Net. Per annum. 
 
 Gross $180,141,085 $12,010,000 $122,264,595 $8,150,000 
 
 Produced. . 390,000,000 26,000,000 390,000,000 26,000,000 
 
 Excess . . $209,888,315 813,990,000 $167,735,406 $17,860,000 
 
 Sale of India Council Bills, prior and subsquent to the 
 opening of the Suez Canal, in 1869: 
 
 From 1860 to 1869, 20 years . $369,000,000- Average per annum $18,460,000 
 " 1870-71@1879-80, 10 y's. 605,000,000 " " 60,500,000 
 
 Difference $236,000,000 " " $42,050,000 
 
 Gold Coinage. — The coinage of gold by Great Britain, 
 France, Russia, the United States and Australia, for the 26 
 years ending with 1875, and just preceding the great decline 
 in silver, was about $3,100,000,000. But the coinage of the 
 last three named countries was so largely exported, and has 
 undoubtedly entered so largely, by recoinage, into that of 
 the two first named countries, that we take no account of 
 it, nor of that which may have been coined by other Occi- 
 dental nations, though, doubtless, it was very considerable. 
 The total produce of gold for this period was about $3,143,- 
 000,000, being but slightly in excess of the coinage of the 
 five countries mentioned. We, therefore, confine ourselves 
 to the coinage of Great Britain and France, as probably 
 representing the effective supply of gold, which took the 
 place of silver drawn from Europe during this period: 
 
 1850 to 1866— coinage of gold $1,575,000,000 From 1850 to 1875 $2,007,150,000 
 Exports of silver to the East 990,000,0Ci0 " " 1,296,000,000 
 
 Excess in supply of gold . $585,000,000 " " $711,150,000 
 
 Total production of gold . . 2,160,000,000 " " 3,143,000,000 
 
 " • " silver . 730,000,000 " " 1,300,000,000 
 
 Silver Stoclsed "by Western Nations. 
 
 Average annual exports of silver to the East for 17 years 
 
 ending 1866 $59,800,000 
 
 Average annual produce of silver in the world for same 
 
 period— say . . . . . 43,000,000 
 
 Lo88 of stock per annum $16,800,000 
 
 Amount exported annually for 9 years ending 1875 $34,000,000 
 Amount produced annually for same period— ^8ay . 61,000,000 
 
 Gain in stock . . . $27,000,000 $27,000,000 
 
 Difference per annum in amount of silver stocked $43,800,000 
 
 The foregoing figures show some phenomenal results in 
 the production and movements of the precious metals. It 
 will be observed that the produce of gold for the thirty years 
 ending 1879 has been equal to that of the 400 years preceding 
 1850. It reached its annual maximum of $170,000,000, in 
 1852 * the greatest quintuple maximum of $755,000,000 in 
 1852-56, and the greatest decennial maximum of $1,405,- 
 000,000 in 1852-61. We further observe that after adding 
 to the stock of precious metals over $4,500,000,000 in twenty- 
 five years, an amount exceeding by $1,000,000,000, the pro- 
 duct of any previous period of 100 years ; the aggregate an- 
 nual production of both metals during the last five years of 
 this period of thirty years, exceeded, and is now exceeding, 
 that which occurred during the period of the maximum gold 
 production. It will also be perceived that simultaneously 
 with this extraordinary production of gold, there also com- 
 menced the most remarkable export of silver to the East 
 which has been witnessed in modern times. There appears 
 to be no logical commercial connection between the two 
 facts, and though their simultaneous occurrence is to be 
 regarded sjmply as a coincidence, we shall presently see 
 that it satisfactorily accounts for certain phenomena that 
 would otherwise be very perplexing. 
 
 This unprecedented export of silver to the East continued 
 
 ever, onl/state the export for these years from Great Britain. The 
 exports of silver from the United States to the East are not included, 
 but would not probably change materially the proporWon existing 
 between the exports of the two periods. 
 
 *The "Journal des Economistes," and others, state this product at 
 $182,500,000; but it includes the product of Australia for the {rex- 
 tional year 1851, which We have included in that year. 
 
444 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 with unabated activity until 1866. The most active move- 
 ment was for the 14 years from 1853 to 1866, during which 
 the exports were over $960,000,000, which exceeded, by some 
 $350,000,000, tke entire produce of the world for the same 
 period. In the meantime, the discovery of extensive silver 
 mines in this country occurred; the produce of which, at 
 the close of the period under consideration, reached $40,- 
 000,000 per annum, thus doubling the production of the 
 world prior to its discovery. For the subsequent 13 years, 
 comprised in the period from 1867 to 1879, both inclusive ; 
 these exports to the East fell to $560,000,000, while the 
 world's produce for that period amounted to $910,000,000, — 
 and which, without regard to the German supply, added 
 $350,000,000, or $27,000,000 per annum, to the stock of 
 Western nations, instead of a deficit of $353,000,000, as com- 
 pared with the preceding period. This increase in silver, 
 coming upon the enormous accumulation of gold which had 
 been taking place while the former metal was being absorbed 
 by the East, amounting to $585,000,000 ; gave an access of 
 supply of nearly $1,000,000,000 to the current production of 
 the two metals, then aggregating over $170,000,000 per 
 annum ; could not fail to produce abnormal relations in the 
 value of the metals. If, now, in connection with this exces- 
 sive stocking of the precious metals by Western nations, we 
 consider the important and radical changes in the commer- 
 cial methods of those nations as they related to Oriental 
 exchanges, and which, by another coincidence, occurred at 
 a period immediately following the cessation of the extraor- 
 dinary exports of silver in 1866 ; we shall clearly understand 
 why it was, that from 1850 to 1866, notwithstanding the 
 enormous and excessive production of gold, as compared 
 with that of silver, there was no corresponding disturbance 
 of their relative values ; and why it was, that the effective 
 economic law, which controls their relations of value, did 
 not assert itself, or develop its action until 1876. 
 
 Consumption of Silver as Affected by Important 
 Chang'es in Methods of Oriental Exchange.— It 
 must be borne in mind that, prior to 1866, when the exports 
 of silver so suddenly declined, the commerce of the Western 
 world with the great silver absorbing nations of the Orient, 
 was carried on by sailing vessels around the Cape of Good 
 Hope and Cape Horn. The commercial and financial cen- 
 tres of the Western world were thus in comparative igno- 
 rance of the condition of the Eastern markets, and the re- 
 ceipt of advices was usually months after date. The busi- 
 ness with those remote quarters was carried on almost wholly 
 by direct exchange and remittances, and it required from six 
 to nine months to complete a commercial transaction and 
 receive final returns. But within three years following this 
 cessation of excessive exports of silver, which occurred in 
 1866, a complete revolution in the methods of business took 
 place. In that year, the Atlantic cable connected Europe 
 with the United States, and was rapidly followed by the 
 completion of the transcontinental railway and the estab- 
 lishment of the China Steamship Company's line of steam- 
 ers, as a branch of the Pacific Mail. Almost simultaneously 
 with this, came the opening of the Suez Canal, in Novem- 
 ber, 1869, and the establishment of telegraphic communica- 
 tion with all parts of the East, via Cape de Galle. Thus, 
 within a few years bringing the entire Western world in 
 daily communication with the Orient. By these means 
 business men in Europe and this country were kept'daily 
 advised of the exact condition of the exchange market of 
 the East, as it related to inter-colonial as well as foreign 
 exchange; and were thus enabled to utilize all the advan- 
 tages of cross and arbitrated exchanges, in valuations on east- 
 ern markets, and the adjustment of balances. The advan- 
 tages afforded by this new order of things is precisely the 
 same with reference to foreign exchange — that clearance 
 houses secure in local business. They obviate the necessity 
 of the movement of bullion, just as the latter does the move- 
 ment of coin ; and it is only the final net balance that is to 
 be covered, and not each separate intermediate balance, as 
 must be the case where direct exchange only is employed.* 
 
 * A single cxampls of the many important changes in the me- 
 chanism and course of exchange arising from these increased facili- 
 ties, will suffice to indicate the saving in time and movement in bul- 
 lion effected thereby. Instead of requiring from six or nine months 
 as formerly, to make a remittance to China, for example, via Cape 
 of Good Hope from London, and receive returns; a London banlier 
 
 Concurrently with these radical changes in the channels of 
 commerce, we notice some marked changes in the course of 
 eastern exchange. For twenty years prior to the opening of 
 the Suez Canal, the sale of India Council Bills, against the 
 government revenues of India, had amounted to something 
 less than $370,000,000, or an average of $18,000,000 per 
 annum ; whereas, for the ten years subsequent to that date, 
 these sales amounted to over $600,000,000, or an annual 
 average of $60,000,000; making a difference of some $42,- 
 000,000 per annum between the two periods. These sales 
 obviated the movement of just so much silver, and in the 
 latter period exceeded in amount, the entire produce of silver 
 in the world for ten years prior to that event. 
 
 In pursuing this line of analysis, we further find that, for 
 the twenty-six years ending with the year 1875, just before 
 the great fall in the price of silver ; the produce of that 
 metal in the entire world had been $1,300,000,000, and the 
 exports of the East for the same period amounted to $1,296,- 
 000,000 from Europe alone, thus practically absorbing the 
 entire amount of that produce. For this same period of 
 twenty-six years, the produce of gold had been over $3,140,- 
 000,000 ; and to say nothing of other mints, those of Great 
 Britain and France alone, had coined and put in circulation 
 in Europe over $2,007,000,000 of gold coin, in lieu of the 
 $1,296,000,000 of silver coin and bullion withdrawn ; an ex- 
 cess of over $710,000,000. In addition to this great accu- 
 mulation of gold, and its current annual production, still some 
 580 per cent, in excess of the fifty years prior to 1849 — comes 
 an enormous addition to the stock of silver also, already 
 noted. We here find an entirely rational solution of two 
 problems. First, why it was that, notwithstanding the ex- 
 cessive production of gold from 1850 to 1866, there was but 
 barely a perceptible appreciation of silver, as measured by 
 gold. And secondly, why it was, that in 1876, and subse- 
 quently thereto, silver declined in value in a much greater 
 ratio than the relative production of the two metals would 
 require, as compared with their former relations of produc- 
 tion and value. 
 
 The True Cause of the Depreciation of SUver.— 
 This brings us directly to the consideration of the ques- 
 tion of the relative " utility " of the two metals as the true 
 underlying cause of this great disturbance of relative values. 
 As already stated, from 1850 to 1875, both inclusive, the 
 East drew from Europe alone, an amount of silver equiva- 
 lent to the entire produce of the world for that period. And 
 from 1863 to '66 it not onlv absorbed the entire produce of 
 the world, but drew from' Europe $350,000,000 of its old 
 stock, but as fast as a vacuum was thus formed by this 
 enormous withdrawal of silver, it was at once filled by the 
 influx of gold from this country and Australia. And when 
 it abated in 1866, its place had notonlybeen entirely filled by 
 gold, but the mints of England and France alone had supplied 
 Europe with $585,000,000 of gold coin, in excess of all the 
 silver withdrawn. This was largely more than was necessary 
 to keep pace with any increase of population or expansion 
 of commerce which had occurred, and had served to fami- 
 liarize the business world with the superior advantages of 
 gold as a medium of exchange for all large transactions. It, 
 moreover, affords an ample explanation of the apparent sus- 
 pension of the economic law, which regulates and adjusts the 
 relative exchangeable values of commodities to their re- 
 spective volumes and uses. The area of modern commerce 
 is so extensive, and the diversities of human industry so 
 great and complex, that the evidence of the effective opera- 
 tion of economic law is very slow in manifesting itself, in 
 unmistakable industrial and commercial phenomena. It 
 has been said that it was nearly 150 years after the discov- 
 ery of America, before the full effect of the great increase 
 
 can now telegraph his correspondent in San Francisco to remit fine 
 silver or Mexican dollars for his account, to Hong Kong or Shang- 
 hai, as the local rates there may su^'s?est, and to draw on London. 
 Within twenty odd days the shipment reaches its destination. In 
 the meantime the San Francisco banker can remit his sterling to 
 New York or London direct, as prevailing rates may make most 
 advantageous; and thus, from two to three times the amount ot ex- 
 change win be effected within thirty days on one movement of bul- 
 lion, that under the old methods required, as stated, from six to 
 nine months. In the meantime, the London banker, being daily 
 advised of local rates at all points in the Orient, can utilize all the 
 advantages whioli arbitrated rates between those points afford. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 445 
 
 in the precious metals, which followed that event, was at- 
 tained. When, therefore, in 1866, and subsequent thereto, 
 silver also began to accumulate rapidly — ^and coming upon 
 markets abundantly supplied with gold for all legitimate 
 commercial purposes, and its stock stfll increasing — it neces- 
 sarily took some little time for the marked change in the 
 supply of the metals which had occurred, as well as the 
 important changes noticed in the commercial methods of 
 distributing them ; to manifest themselves by a correspond- 
 ing change in their relative values. But it having now 
 occurred, we think the facts stated clearly indicate that it is 
 the legitimate result of effectual economic laws, whose ope- 
 rations for a time, acting with inverse momenta, counter- 
 balanced each other ; now reasserting themselves, and re- 
 adjusting the relative values of the metals in accordance 
 with the ratios of production and their relative utility under 
 ' important changes of industrial and commercial conditions 
 And that German demonetization has been altogether a 
 secondary factor in producing this result. As already stated, 
 utility is that inherent property possessed by commodi- 
 ties which enables them to fulfil some specific requirement 
 or purpose of human economy. And while it is the source 
 and basis of exchangeable value, it is in no wise afiected 
 thereby. Its only test is its effectivenese as an instrumen- 
 tality, compared with other substances possessing similar 
 functions. The utility of metallic money, therefore, must 
 be measured by the security it afibrds as a " storage of value," 
 and the effectiveness with which it performs the operations 
 of commercial exchange and distributes the products of in- 
 dustry. These functions become necessarily impaired, as 
 its volume becomes unnecessarily, or disproportionately 
 increased, as compared with the services to be performed by it, 
 or with the expansion of commerce and increase of material 
 wealth. It not unfirequently occurs, that by new discoveries 
 or . improvements in commercial and mechanical arts, the 
 utility of a substance is materially impaired by limiting its 
 sphere of usefulness — and may be altogether superseded, 
 and disappear from among the products of human industry. 
 If now we -compare the enormous supply of gold for the 
 last thirty years with the material progress of the Western 
 world, we shall see that it has been greatly in excess of what 
 that progress required, and out of all proportion to the rela- 
 tions previously existing between the metallic money in 
 circulation among commercial nations, and the volume of 
 their commercial transactions. And this excessive supply is 
 abundantly shown by the enormous circulation of idle capi- 
 tal in all the financial centres of the Western world — and 
 the unprecedented rates of interest, as shown by the marked 
 advance in all interest-bearing securities, and the low rates 
 obtainable for new loans — as well as by the speculative 
 mania manifesting itself everywhere, and paving the way 
 for over-production and commercial and industrial revul- 
 sion, at no distant day. While it may be true that recent 
 political events and certain exceptional commercial exigen- 
 cies have temporarily produced an abnormal movement and 
 distribution of the gold of commerce ; in view of the undis- 
 puted statistical facts produced, it is but reasonable to 
 demand, at the hands of the advocates of bi-metallism, 
 something a little more specific as to the insufficiency of the 
 supply of gold, than the mere gratuitous statements of 
 prominent financiers — however exalted their positions may 
 be — unsupported by any statistical facts, either as they 
 relate to the production of 1;hat metal, or to the increased 
 volume of commercial transactions relatively thereto. With 
 this stock of gold already largely in excess of the requirements 
 of legitimate industries and commerce, and its annual supply, 
 far in excess of any necessary increase of metallic money to 
 keep pace with them, for years to come; to have some 
 $350,000,000 of silver added to this stock within the last 
 thirteen years, and its annual produce of $80,000,000, and 
 prospective increase to be hereafter added thereto — is cer- 
 tainly sufficient to produce a great disturbance in the rela- 
 tive values of the two metals : and there cannot be a doubt 
 that the utility of silver for the purposes of money, has been 
 greatly impaired by the great abundance of gold and the 
 marked advantages it possesses for all such purposes. The 
 development and progress of human industry have long 
 since established the fact that its effective results are largely 
 in excess of the increase of instrumentalities employed — and it 
 is a well Recognized law of financial economy, founded upon 
 
 this observation of fact, that the increment of money which is 
 necessary to ke^ pace with the increase of population and ex- 
 pansion of commerce, is but a very small per centage of such 
 increase and expansion. And the great increase in the fecili- 
 ties of communication and rapidity with which exchanges 
 are effected, are daily reducing the ratio of that relative 
 
 The Increase of Money Needed.— The factors which 
 enter into this question of the quantity of money required 
 for the legitimate purposes of commerce, and the ratio of its 
 increase, are so numerous, that it becomes .a very complex 
 one, and it is practically impossible to establish any uniform 
 rule upon the subject. First, we have the abnormal increase 
 in the volume of money which expensive wars have, at some 
 time within the past century, entailed upon all commercial 
 nations, and which has arisen to a greater or less extent fi-om 
 the suspension or interruption of commercial intercourse, as 
 well as from the necessity of increased disbursements. Then 
 we have periods of high speculation, giving great activity to 
 large volumes of money without adding, in any way, to the 
 material wealth of ;the country, representing its progress, or 
 distributing its products. But independently of these, we 
 have the more legitimate variations in the quantity of money, 
 and increase required ; arising from differences in the nature 
 and character of the commercial pursuits and industries of 
 different nations, and their respective facilities of communi- 
 cation and exchange. The mere increase of population 
 seems to be the least important factor which enters into the 
 question ; though it may furnish a convenient basis for com- 
 puting the quantity, or indicating the ratio of increase. 
 
 Every man of family, and those who have had occasion to 
 maintain large bodies of men, know that the increase in the 
 expense of such maintenance, is not at all proportionate to 
 the increase of numbers so maintained. It is also a well 
 established fact that the percentum increase of material 
 wealth and expansion of commerce, among leading commer- 
 cial nations, is largely in excess of the increase of popula- 
 tion, and is a much more important factor in the question of 
 the increased supply of money which is necessary to keep 
 pace with them. This again, however, is more or less modi- 
 fied by the nature of the industries pursued by each. Com- 
 mercial nations seem to require much more money, per 
 capita of population, than those engaged principally in agri- 
 cultural and pastoral pursuits. And those which combine 
 with commerce, manufacturing industries, involving minute 
 subdivisions of labor and multiplied transactions ; require 
 still more. There are numerous other conditions which 
 modify, to a greater or less extent, the final result. This will 
 at once become apparent, upon a glance at the population 
 and volume of money of Western nations, as shown by the 
 most recent estimates : — The United States, Great Britain, 
 Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Denmark, 
 and Spain, aggregating 224,500,000 population, average, per 
 capita, $9.44 in paper money, and $15.69 in specie, making a 
 total of $25.15. Among the highest are France and the 
 Netherlands, being $53.10, and $39, respectively. And the 
 lowest are Italy and Spain, being $13, and $13.77 respec- 
 tively. Russia, Austria, Portugal, Sweden, Norway, Switzer- 
 land, and Greece— population 141,800,000. Paper, $7.93; 
 specie, $3.15 ; total, $11.08. Ganada, Mexico, Colombia, 
 Peru, Central America, and Venezuela — population 24,600,- 
 000. Paper, $2.03 ; specie, $3.50 ; total, $5.53. Making a 
 grand total of 391,000,000 population, with an average of 
 $8.44 paper, and $10.88 specie, or $19.32 per capita. For 
 Brazil and Chili we are unable to obtain, at the moment, 
 any authentic data. The United States have in paper, $14, 
 and in specie, $12, or a total of $26 per capita. Great 
 Britain, $5.85 and $18.57, respectively, or $24.42 ^er capita. » 
 
 In 1860 the population of the United States was 31,400,000, 
 with a circulation of $6.70 in paper, and $8.30 in specie, 
 making $15. We now have a population of over 50,000,000 ; 
 and have therefore, had, within the past twenty years, an 
 increase of 60 per cent, in population, with only an increase 
 
 ' With some modifications in the statement of population, based 
 upon more recent estimates, we have taken the anove figures from 
 the report of the Director of the mint for 1880, which was obtained 
 by extensive correspondence through the State Department, with 
 our diplomatic and consular representatives in the several countries. 
 
446 
 
 THE MINES MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of 44 per cent, in metallic money — if so much.' And not- 
 withstanding the great revival of business, and the gigantic 
 speculative mania attending it; money is, relatively, far 
 more abundant, and rates of interest much lower than they 
 were in 1860. Money, undoubtedly, has an immense reserve 
 power of measuring values, and its capacity is but partially 
 developed by the greater or leas activity of trade, and the 
 momentum of its circulation, limited only by the facilities 
 of exchange. The improved methods in this direction, which 
 have taken place within the past twenty years, have greatly 
 increased this power, and account for the fact, not unfre- 
 quently observed, of a largely iircreased business being 
 effected with a diminished supply of money. In the vast 
 extent of sparsely populated territory and limited credit sys- 
 tem, this country is, undoubtedly, much below Great Britain 
 and Continental Europe in those conditions which tend to 
 reduce the volume of money required, as well as the ratio of 
 its necessary increase. It will be, therefore, entirely safe to 
 assume that it is above the average of the entire Western 
 world in its monetary necessities. And if we admit the 
 estimates of M. Chevalier, who has investigated thesubject 
 quite exhaustively, and which are undoubtedly high, we 
 shall reach a conclusion that the alleged insufficiency of gold 
 is wholly without foundation. He estimates that the increase 
 of population is one-and-a-half per cent, per annum, and 
 concedes, for safety, that money should increase ^aW^assu 
 with it. This gives us for the last thirty years an increase 
 in population of 45 per cent, to provide for. We have 
 already seen that for that period the average annual increase 
 of gold has been 700 per cent, in excess of what it had been 
 for the previous fifty years, and the increase of both metals 
 had been 311 per cent. And that the increase of gold alone 
 has been 181 per cent, in excess of that of both metals for the 
 period prior to 1850. Now, if we assume that one-half oi all 
 the gold produced is consumed in the arts, it will still leave 
 us 90 per cent, increase of that metal over that of both gold 
 and silver for the previous period, which would be 100 per 
 cent, in excess of the amount required by the inorease of popu- 
 lation at this full estimate of M. Chevalier, to say nothing 
 whatever of the amount of silver produced and stocked tor 
 the same period.* 
 
 But we believe it has been much greater ; for after re- 
 peated investigations7 we have been unable to find any au- 
 thentic data which at all justifies such an estimate as to the 
 quantity of gold consumed in the arts, including losses and 
 abrasion. The amount of the precious metals employed in 
 
 the arts is regulated by the demands of trade, rather than 
 by the vicissitudes affecting their production. A-ud no im- 
 petus was given to this trade, following the discovery of 
 gold in this State and Australia ; at all commensurate with 
 its enormous production. We find an apparent confirma- 
 tion of this in the coinage of the metals. We have already 
 seen, that, for the twenty-flve years from 1850 to 74, an im- 
 perfect statement of the gold coinage of five mints, only, 
 was nearly equal to the entire produce of the world. From 
 1875 to 1879, we have a more complete return, though that 
 for the last year of this period is still incomplete. The pro- 
 duce of the world for this period was $495,000,000, whereas, 
 the reported coin of nineteen States was 1887,875,000 ; show- 
 ing an excess over production, of $392,825,000. or eighty per 
 cent. This, of course, is due to re-coinage. But if we only 
 take the most iproiament producing States, we have, for this 
 period, a gold coinage by the United States, Russia and 
 Australia of $412,000,000. This is over eighty-three per 
 cent, of the entire produce. But Australia apparently only 
 coined about one-half of her production. The re-coinage 
 of foreign coins by the United States was about the same 
 as her export of uncoined domestic gold. It will, therefore, 
 be entirely safe to assume that at least $45,000,000, or ninety 
 per cent, of the produce of this period was converted into coin. 
 For the same period the produce of silver was $405,000,000, 
 and the coinage of the same Mints $640,000,000 ; or an ex- 
 cess of sixty per cent. In view of all these facts, we cannot 
 escape the conclusion, already stated, that, notwithstanding 
 the statement of so many eminent authorities to the con- 
 trary ; the supply of gold alone has been adequate to all the 
 legitimate requirements of commerce, and its present and 
 probable future produce, for a long time to come, abundant- 
 ly suflScient to provide for any required increase. And that, 
 therefore, the utility of silver for the purpose of money has 
 been greatly impaired, if not superseded ; and, as its ex- 
 changeable value is founded upon that utility, its impaired 
 usefulness is the true cause of its depreciation in the markets of 
 the world. There has been a marked tendency for the past 
 two hundred years for silver to gravitate downward, as com- 
 
 duction of the precious metals for the several periods stated, and 
 hia statement of the specie stocked during the same : 
 
 Tlie Western AVorld. 
 
 1 The above statement is based upon an estimate of about 
 000,000 of metallic money in eireulation in 1860. This amount has 
 been variously estimated from two to three hundred millions. We 
 are rather disposed to accept the latter figures. The production of 
 gold in this country from 1850 to 1859, inclusive, was $630,000,000. 
 The coinage of gold for the same period was $345,000,000, and of 
 silver, $45,000,000, making $390,000,000. In the exports of specie, 
 which from 1850 to 1854, amounted to 119,165,000, coin is not sep- 
 arated from bullion. From 1855 to 1859, they consisted of $150,- 
 429,000, bullion, and $107,725,000, coin. The pr.-sumption is that 
 much the larger portion of the 119,165,000 was bullii n, as there 
 are $285,000,000 of the $630,000,000 produced to be accounted for ; 
 and after deducting the 107,725,000 specified as coin, we have only 
 $269^594,000 as the total export in all forms. The coinage apparently 
 left in the country was 283,000,000, exclusive of any stock tliat may 
 have been on hand in 1850. And as returning travelers and emi- 
 grants are supposed tobringmorecoin into the country than is taken 
 out by that means, the specie in the country in 1860 was probably 
 nearer $3,000,000 than the amount assumed, and which would re- 
 duce the percentage of increase, as stated. 
 
 'Senator Jones, in his speech of April, 1876, asserts that the in- 
 crease of money should maintain a slightly increasing ratio to that 
 of population, which is the converse of the proposition we have 
 asserted and attempted to illustrate. In support of this theory he 
 furnishes a number of statistical statements of population and 
 stocks of specie at stated periods. These statements, when analyzed, 
 and taken in connection with the production of the world for the 
 corresponding periods, which he does not give, produce such dis- 
 cordant results, that it is impossible to deduce from them any 
 feneral law or rule governing the question. For instance, he gives 
 acob as authority for the statement that the stock of specie in the 
 Western world in 1700 was $1,445,000,000. And in 1839, it was, 
 according to Storch, $1,420,000,000. This shows an actual loss of 
 $25,000,000 in 140 years, during which population must have more 
 than doubled, and the snpply of the precious metal to the Western 
 world had been $3,510,000,000, after exporting $2,510,000,000 to the 
 East, and tcAicA is wholly wnaccounted for. We here give thepj-o- 
 
 Specie Blocked. 
 
 1493 to 1700 . . . $2,935,000,000 $1,280,000,000 = 43 per cent. 
 
 1701 to 1803 . . 2,485,000,000 365,000,000 = 14 " 
 
 1804 to 1839 . . 1,025,000,000 = 
 
 1840 to 1852 . . 1,000,000,000 700,000,000 = 70 '■ 
 
 1854 to 1872 . . . 2,056,000,000 1,100,000,000 = 53 
 
 Total supply . . $9,490,000,000 Total stocked $3,435,000,000 = 30 per cent; 
 . To be aooounted for 6,055,000,000 = 04 " 
 
 The Kastem World. 
 
 Supply. 
 . . $2,610,000,000 
 
 676,000,000 
 . . 200,0110,000 
 . . 1,210,000,000 
 
 Specie stocked. 
 $700,000,000 = 27 per rent. 
 
 100,000,000 = 17 " 
 
 100,000,000 = 60 
 1,200,000,000 = 99 " 
 
 1493 to 1803 
 1804 to 1839 
 1840 to 1853 
 1864 to 1872 
 
 Total supply . . 14,495,000,000 Total stoolced $2,100,000,000 = 47 per ct nf. 
 To be accounted for 2,396,000,000 = 63 " 
 
 For the last period we have taken the actual exports of silver to 
 the East, which exceeded the entire produce of the world — some 
 $285,000,000. For the preceding periods we have taken these ex- 
 ports at one-half the produce. 
 
 The inconsistencies, however, as to the amount of money re- 
 quired do not end here. He tells us that " it has been calculated 
 tnat specie measures ten thousand times its own value every year," 
 and that it "will last, as against abrasion, loss by accident, etc., 
 about one thousand years." 
 
 Elsewhere, however, in stating the stock of specie in Asia in 
 1872, to be $2,100,000,000, he tells us that " merely to keep this 
 stock reserved from the effects of abrasion and loss, Asia requires 
 some $30,000,000 of silver every year." This would allow only 
 the longevity of coin. In another place he makes it a little less 
 than sixty-seven years. The measuring power of money, as stated, 
 seems equally wide of the mark. If we take the population of the 
 Western world at 400,000,000, and the amount of money at $20 per 
 capita, we shall have $200,000 per annum, or nearly $600 per day,Sun' 
 days included, as the business transactions represented by every «ia», 
 woman and child in it. And at this rate, we have no doubt, that a 
 vast majority of people would be glad to compromise and talce the 
 equivalent of one year's operations for the balance of their natural 
 lives. We scarcely think that such a data is sufficiently reliable to 
 form the basis of any tlieory as to the monetary necessities of the 
 commercial world, or to justify any important change of national 
 policy concerniug it. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 447 
 
 pared with gold. Bnt prior to the discovery of the latter in 
 this country and Australia ; its supply was so limited, that, 
 after satisfying the demand for the arts, the balance, when 
 distributed among commercial nations, was so inadequate to 
 the demands of commerce, that this growing preference for 
 it could exercise no practical influence upon the relative 
 values of the two metals, as it could never be said to have 
 been in effective circulation as money. It is within the re- 
 collection of most of us, when a gold coin was regarded 
 rather as a curiosity, and only to be worn as a vade mecum. 
 But the phenomenal production of this metal which fol- 
 lowed these discoveries, has not only familiarized the busi- 
 ness world with it, but has demonstrated its many advan- 
 tages over silver, as a medium of exchange. And notwith- 
 standing all the absurd sentimentality in which the silver 
 advocates indulged over the restoration of the dollar of our 
 fathers, as some one has justly observed, it is now "always 
 taken with a grudge, and given with a chuckle." 
 
 Depreciation of Silver but Slightly Affected by- 
 its Demonetization. — In view of the foregoing facts and 
 considerations, it is scarcely necessary to say that Mr. Ern- 
 est Seyd's emphatic declaration,- that the decline in the 
 value of silver is due to German demonetization, and " that 
 only;" is not only unsupported by fact, but is wholly illogi- 
 cal, as a deduction from principles of economic law. No 
 one knows better than that gentleman, that England, from 
 her extensive commercial relations with the silver produc- 
 ing, as well as silver consuming countries of the world, has, 
 for many years, and until the discovery in this country ; 
 controlled nearly its entire produce of silver, and that all 
 other nations have directly or indirectly drawn their sup- 
 plies from her. Yet, when she demonetized silver in 1816, 
 it at once advanced in price, and for five years following that 
 event, averaged some If per cent, more than it had done for 
 the five years preceding it. And for the 10 years subsequent 
 to 1820, when the Bank of England had commenced accu- 
 mulating gold, preparatory to the resumption of specie pay- 
 ments, it never declined beyond that percentage, below the 
 average price, from 1811 to '15 inclusive. Just why, then, 
 aa he tells u", that " so long as Germany maintained silver, 
 the equilibrium was maintained," and when she abandoned 
 it " that equilibrura was lost ;" we utterly fail to discover, 
 when we consider the relative commercial importance of 
 the two countries, and the diametrically opposite results 
 which followed their respective changes of^ policy. It is 
 only another illustration of the influence which hobbyism, 
 or preconceived theories, will often exercise over the most 
 intelligent minds, and the illogical positions in which it will 
 betray them. Since the discovery of America, there has 
 been no corresponding period in which the valtle of sil- 
 ver has continued so steady and uniform, as that of the fifty 
 years following the demonetization by England in 1816.' 
 
 1 The following extreme fluctuations of each decade since 1760, 
 clearly proves this fact : 
 
 1761— 67 1 d 1*oz.=13 94tol. „ Jg, «; foil 
 176t-63 J d •» oz-14.91 tol- " «» ^ '*"• 
 
 1774— 62 I d ^oz.=15.05tol. g VA, ^ rise 
 1777— 67Ad 14oz.=14.04tol. » i^ ^ use. 
 
 1781-70 id ^ oz.=l.'i.33 to 1 • 14 jL a^ rise 
 1786-61 Id* oz.=15.21 to 1 . 1* A «)> rise. 
 
 1797— 61^ d ^ oz.=16.46 to 1 
 1799—65 d ^ oz.=14.29 to 1 
 
 1806—66 d 
 1809—68 
 
 7 i d ^ rise. 
 
 d ^oz.=14.26tol- ... J, f ,, 
 
 a *oz =16.26 tol- ^* ^ '""• 
 
 1810— 68 1 d K0Z.=16.16t0l- 1= 114 ^ rise 
 
 1816-69 Id V> oz.=13.64 to 1- 1^ «* !* "^^■ 
 
 1821— 69 d ^0Z.=] 5.98 tol- „ vs. d. riaR 
 
 1824—60 Ad* oz.=15.64 to 1 • ' '■^^ "'"■ 
 
 1833— 59Ad ^OZ.=15.93 to 1- „ _n, i rj<ie 
 
 1839-60 1 d *oz.=15.61to 1- ^ ™ ^•"^^• 
 
 1840—601 d ^oz.=16.61to 1- 9 oji a; foil 
 
 1843-59 Ad |oz.=16.93tol- ^''^o * '^*"- 
 
 1850— 60Ad fioz.=15.70to 1- •, i a; risp 
 
 1869=62 Sd *oz.=15.19tol- ^ * ^ ™^- 
 
 1860— eOfJlJ 1» oz. =15.28 to 1- o 9 .«; f,]! 
 
 1869=60A'* *oz.=16.60tol- '' "' * '^"• 
 
 1870— fiOA"* * oz.=15.67 to 1 . ,„ J, J f ,1 
 
 1879-51 I d f> OZ.=1S.40 to 1 . ^* ^"J 5"*"' 
 
 We think now it should be abundantly evident that the 
 precious metals have, and always have had, 'an inherent 
 value wholly independent of that derived from the " legal 
 fact'' that they are "legal tender," notwithstanding Mr. 
 Cemuschi's assertion to the contrary. And that also, the 
 " quantity produced," is a very important factor among the 
 causes which produce "variation" in the relations of value 
 they bear each other. And that any proposition for the re- 
 habilitation of silver, founded upon the theory that such is 
 not the case ; but that it is entirely within the control of 
 legislative enactments, must end in disastrous failure. 
 
 As unamenable, as the advocates of such a proposition 
 evidently are, to any statement of facts, or enunciation of 
 economic principles tending to the demonstration of such a 
 result; it may not be altogether uninteresting to state some 
 of those historical analogies arising from the various experi- 
 ments which other nations have made from time to time un- 
 der much more favorable conditions, to accomplish the same 
 thing in a modified form. The uniform result of all these 
 experiments must go far to demonstrate to every dispassion- 
 ate mind, the truth of what has been already stated — that 
 there are, in this bi-metallic problem, elements of inherent 
 antagonism arising from the operations of the economic 
 and physical laws involved ; which must forever prevent its 
 furnishing either an effective medium of exchange, or an 
 equitable standard of value.' 
 
 Why Double Standards have always failed, 
 and must continue to do so. — Prior to the discovery 
 of America, the production of gold had been about 60 per 
 cent, as to 40 per cent, of silver; whereas, from 1492 to 1850, 
 the ratio had been only 32 per cent, as to 68 of silver. We 
 accordingly see that during the former period silver was, rel- 
 atively, higher to gold than in the latter. The apparent 
 suspension oi the laws which regulates these relations of 
 value, from 1850 until about 1875-6, has already been ex- 
 plained. But having again become effective, though still 
 apparently not mathematical in the results produced ; it is 
 a question, as already suggested, whether the phenomenal 
 relations of production and the revolution in commercial 
 methods have not essentially altered their practical utility; 
 and consequently their relative exchangeable values which 
 are founded upon it? If this be true, it necessarily follows 
 that all attempts to establish definite monetary relations be- 
 tween the two metals which do not exist between, or are 
 inconsistent with their relative utilities for such purposes, 
 must from a well-known principle of commercial exchange 
 and the operation of physical law, result in failure. It is a 
 maxim among cambists, that in the operations of exchange, 
 remittances, by which bills or balances are to be covered, 
 should always be such — the security being equal, as have the 
 highest value, relatively to the par of exchange, at the point 
 where the bill is to be paid ; as compared with its cost at the 
 point where the bill is drawn. Under this law the under- 
 valued metal, or better currency, will invariably be expelled 
 
 ' " As the values of gold and silver perpetually vary,_ not only 
 relatively to other things, but also to eacti other, it is impossible 
 arbitrarily to fix them by Mint regulations. * * The 
 
 absurdity of employing two metals as legal tender, or a stand- 
 ard of value, was unanswerably demonstrated by Locke and 
 Harris, and have been noticed by every subsequent writer." — 
 McCulloch. 
 
 " Two metals, such as gold and silver, cannot serve at the same 
 time, in the same country, for the medium of exchange, because this 
 medium ought to be always the same and retain the same proportion- 
 ate value. To adopt, as a measure of the exchangeable value of 
 commodities, substances which have no fixed or unvariable relation 
 to each other, is as if we were to choose for a measure of length an 
 object which was subject to the process of distending and contract- 
 ing itself. In each country there should be but one metal to serve 
 for money of account, the payment of contracts, and the measure of 
 value." — -Locke. 
 
 " What, then, shall be said of measures that are not only dis- 
 cordant and unprecise, but fluctuating also ? What would be said 
 of a bushel that alternately contracted and expanded, and con- 
 tracted more than it expanded ; of a rule of elastic rubber, or a pair 
 of scales with a shifting fulcrum? And what shall be said of a 
 fluctuating measure of value." — Senator Jones. 
 
 Echo answers what ? As this is precisely to what the Senator has 
 been devoting the highest energies of his intellect to accomplish, it 
 would perhaps be edifying to the "fledglings of political economy, 
 the charlatans of monetary conventions, and the numerous other 
 dupes of Lombard street," if he would answer his own conun- 
 di-ums. 
 
448 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 from circulation, and leave only the inferior one, for local or 
 domestic purposes. ' 
 
 This is not only theoretically and technically true, but the 
 history of every experiment of the kind which has heretofore 
 been made, furnishes overwhelming evidence, not only of its 
 practical illustration, but of the endless vexation and annoy- 
 ance in business transactions. But even if the vicissitudes 
 of mining industries and the laws of commercial exchange 
 did not defeat every attempt of tliis kind; the physical law 
 of abrasion would be abundantly sufficient to produce the 
 same result. This arises from the great disparity between 
 the wearing surfaces of gold and silver coins as compared 
 with their relative units of valuation and velocities of circula- 
 tion. It is wsU known that coins of small denominations 
 change hands much more frequently than larger ones — but 
 even if this circulation was uniform, there would still be an 
 immense difference in the relative abrasion. To show the 
 extent of this disparity of wearing surfaces, we will here state 
 the proportions of the relative areas in square inches, of the 
 gold and silver coins of the United Stdtes, as compared with 
 their units of valuation : ^ 
 
 To $1 Gold To tame To same To mme To same 
 
 in Doiible Eagle, m Eagle, in J^ Eagle, in % Eagle, in Gold Dollar. 
 
 Silver Dollars . . . 24.08 19.77 16.31 11.60 6.70 
 
 2 Half Dollars . . . 30.87 25.36 19.63 14.74 8.59 
 
 4 Quarter Dollars . . 38.52 31.63 24.49 18.40 10.72 
 
 10 Dimes . . . ..62.33 42.97 33.27 26.00 14.56 
 
 So far as this question relates to the laws and usages of com- 
 mercial exchange, as already stated, these disparities of 
 wearing surfaces and the unequal abrasion arising there- 
 from, are practically confined to the silver dollar and the 
 double Eagle and Eagle ; and between them, it will be seen, 
 the difference is from twenty to twenty-four times greater 
 to the unit of silver than to that of gold ; and the relative 
 abrasion is doubtless still greater, and is amply sufficient to 
 destroy, in a very short time, their relative standard weights, 
 and, consequently, their relative exchangeable values as bullion 
 for the purposes of export or use in the arts. Indeed, this 
 physical law has heretofore been much more effective in pro- 
 ducing the results indicated, than the economic law which 
 relates chiefly to the question of supply and demand. Let 
 us now, for a moment, see what has been the practical effect 
 of these laws, as exemplified by the experience of the lead- 
 ing commercial nations who have heretofore attempted to 
 maintain double standards. The first experiment of this 
 kind affording any practical illustration of the action of 
 these laws, was that made by England in 1663. Prior to 
 that time silver had been, practically, the only legal tender, 
 and, indeed, the commerce of the world at that period was 
 almost entirely carried on by means of that metal. In that 
 year, however, the guinea was for the first time coined, and 
 we find the " irrepressible conflict" at once inaugurated. By 
 the Act 2, Ohas. I, in 1626, twenty shillings of gold had been 
 made to contain 128,780 grains of pure metal, and the 
 seignorage on silver was reduced from 2s. 6d. to 2s. on the 
 pound troy of standard silver. This was equivalent to a 
 ratio of 13,346 to 1 by Mint indentures, and to 13,431 in the 
 market rate of silver. By the Act 18, Chas. II, in 1666, the 
 weight of the guinea was fixed at 118,651 grains of pure 
 gold; being a reduction of 10,129 grains, or nearly eight per 
 cent. By the same Act the seignorage on silver was entirely 
 removed, thus practically raising its market value some 3J 
 per cent., and making the ratio to gold as 14,485 to 1 ; being 
 a rise of 8.45 per cent, on the former ratio of fine metal in 
 the coins, or 7i per cent, on that of the market price of 
 silver. By this alteration of proportions of fine metal con 
 
 1 This is frequently called the " Gresham law," from the fact that 
 Sir Thomas Greshanl was supposed to have flr.rt c;\lled attention 
 to it. But the principle is doubtless as old a'l commercial art, 
 and has always Tseea m effective operation. We might as well 
 designate the law of gravitation an 1 attraction m the " Newton 
 law." But apples have been fallin ,' to the earth over since " the 
 fruit of that forbidden tree * » » brought death into the 
 world " ; and the law is cceval with the creation of matter itself. 
 ' Tiie above ratios of wearing surfaces to units of valuation of 
 the several coins, are computed frcjm their areas, as determined in 
 square inches, by careful measurement of their discs and rims 
 kindly made for me by Prof. Geo. Davidson, of the U. S. Coast and 
 Geodetic Survey, and whose name is an ample guarantee of their 
 accuracy. 
 
 tained in the coins, gold was undoubtedly over-valued. In 
 the meantime, the silver currency was in a most wretched 
 condition, and prior to the great re-coinage under William 
 III, the guinea had become current at from 28 to 30 shil- 
 lings — equal to a discount in silver of from forty to fifty per 
 cent. And even after the re-coinage, though only rated at 
 20s. by Mint indentures, it continued to circulate by com- 
 mon consent and usage, at 21«. 6rf., or some 7J per cent, 
 premium on its nominal value. The consequence was, that 
 the new silver coins disappeared as soon as put in circula- 
 tion, and gold, as the over-valued metal, became practically 
 the only legal tender. Subsequently, upon the recommen- 
 dation of Sir Isaac Newton, the value of the guinea was 
 fixed at 21». by proclamation in 1717, and its weight of fine 
 metal was reduced ^-^ part, or 5,650 grains, which made its 
 ratio to silver as 1 to 15,209, at which it remained until 1816, 
 when the latter metal was demonetized, except as a sub- 
 sidiary currency with limited legal tender capacity. 
 
 During this long period of 100 years, from 1717 to 1816, 
 we are told that " no silver coins of legal weight were found in 
 circulation," and nothing but the minor coins in a most de- 
 graded condition were current ; and had been as fai- back as 
 1774 limited as legal tender by tale to payments of £25, and 
 for larger sums only by weight. And to show how utterly 
 non-effective was this metal, either as a currency or as a 
 standard measure of value ; we have the authority of Lord 
 Liverpool for the statement that, for 83 years of this period, 
 less than $35,000 per annum of silver was coined, and that 
 for forty years prior to the suspension of specie payments by 
 the Bank of England in 1797, less than $8,000 a year had 
 been coined. And at that date, the half crowns in circula- 
 tion were degraded, by abrasion, about nine per cent, below 
 legal weight— the shillings twenty-four per cent., and the six- 
 penny pieces thirty-eight per cent. Thus, we perceive, that 
 for 150 years prior to 1816, and, indeed, we may say for the 
 entire period over which this experiment extended ; the two 
 metals were never in concurrent and effective circulation, nor 
 did they ever furnish anything approaching an effective or 
 equitable standard of value, and were only productive of 
 endless vexation and annoyance, unexampled in the financial 
 history of that country. When now, we remember that the 
 fruits of this experiment were just what her ablest econo- 
 mists had pointed out, as the inevitable results of such a 
 violation of economic principles; and it was such eminent 
 statesmen and practical financiers as Liverpool, Huskisson, 
 Harris and others, who, with these disastrous results before 
 them, recommended the adoption of a policy more consistent 
 with the principles of economic and financial science, and 
 which would obviate the inherent and self-asserting antago- 
 nisms of a double standard : we can well afford to be amused 
 at the diatribes against England and her statesmen, of the 
 financial charlatans whom this discussion has brought to the 
 surface, and who, by some inscrutable and perverse ordina- 
 tion in the fitness of things; find themselves in positions 
 sufficiently elevated to attract, if not to monopolize public 
 attention with their driveling inanities. 
 
 Now let us look to France, whose example is so often re- 
 ferred to by double standard advocates. Here the condi- 
 tion of things was the converse of that which existed in 
 England. But the operation and effective results of the un- 
 derlying economic law were precisely the same. Prior to 
 1785, tho louis d'or, or twenty-franc gold piece, was under- 
 valued about one livre and ten sols, or 6} per cent. And 
 the result was, according to the authority of the eminent 
 economist, M. Jean Baptiste Say, that all gold was expelled 
 from circulation, and silver only remained. To remedy this, 
 tho weight of the louis d'or was reduced •^, which tempor- 
 arily assimilated the legal and market ratios of value be- 
 tween the two metals, But before any effective restoration 
 of circulation could take place, the revolution which was to 
 convulse the world, was in.augurated, and specie was super- 
 seded by that valuable fat currency, so memorable in her 
 financial history, under the names of assignats and mandats. 
 And before this nuisance could be fully abated, we find 
 France iigain tinkering her metallic money by the celclsrated 
 law of 7 Germinal, year 11 (28 March, 1803). This law is 
 memorable, as atBrming that inspired ratio of 15J to one, 
 which seems to possess such a mysterious potency, and to 
 be founded upon jprinciples of such eternal justice— that is 
 but little short of sacrilege to intimate the propriety of its 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 449 
 
 abrogation ; although we cannot find that it ever corres- 
 ponded with the relative exchangeable^ values of the 
 metals in the markets of the world, except occasionally 
 by accident. Up to this time there had evidently been noth- 
 ing like an effective double standard. Soon after the res- 
 toration of peace, however, financial matters began to assume 
 something of their former normal relations ; but after such 
 gigantic revulsion as that which had swept over Europe for 
 twenty-five years, it was necessarily slow. No sooner, how- 
 ever, do we find preparations for the resumption of specie 
 payments being made, than this irrepressible conflict of the 
 standard reappears. 
 
 In 1816, some five years before the Bank of England re- 
 sumed specie payments, silver had been demonetized, as we 
 have seen. For five years prior to that date, the average 
 ratio of the two metals, as determined by their market prices, 
 had been 15.49 to 1 — equivalent to 60id. per English stan- 
 dard ounce, and which is the nearest approximation we ever 
 find for any similar period, to the French standard ratio of 
 15}. For five years immediately following demonetization, 
 contrary to all the theories we now hear from bi-metallists, 
 silver advanced to 61^f rf. per ounce, corresponding to a ratio 
 of 15.23 to 1, and equal to a premium of If per cent, on that 
 of 15J to 1. In 1819, the Bank of England commenced 
 preparing for resumption, which became effective in 1821. 
 Gold being now her only standard, the demand thus created 
 for that metal, favored, at a later period, by the political 
 disquietude felt in France, and which culminated in the 
 revolution of 1830 ; caused it to advance in price. And we 
 find, for the decade ending 1829, a mean average of 59^(t 
 per ounce for silver, equivalent to a ratio of 15.88 to 1, or to 
 a discount on silver of 1 -^-g per cent, at the ratio of 15J, as 
 against a premium of If per cent, for the five years ending 
 with 1820. For the decade ending 1839, silver slightly re- 
 covered, averaging 59r|d. per ounce, equivalent to 15.74 to 
 1, and being 1% per cent, discount on the French ratio. As 
 small as these divergencies were from that ratio, they were 
 quite sufficient to expel all the gold from France. The official 
 statements, show, that for the twenty-four years ending with 
 1839, and following demonetization by England, France ex- 
 ported through the customs alone, an excess over her imports, 
 of $105,000,000— to say nothing- of what must have been 
 taken out of the country by private means, or was consumed 
 in the arts. And her coinage of gold for this whole period 
 averaged less than two millions and a half per annum, which 
 is altogether too insignificant, in view of the hoarding ten- 
 dencies of the working classes of that country, to afford any- 
 thing like an adequate and effective currency. We do not 
 find, therefore, that for any considerable portion of this 
 whole period of fifty-five years following 1785, up to which, 
 silver had been the currency, that she possessed anything 
 like an effective double standard. Now let us come to our 
 own experience. By the Act of April 2d, 1792, our standard 
 was first established, and the ratio of the metals was fixed at 
 1 to 15. Under London market rates, this corresponded 
 approximately, to 62ffrf. per English standard ounce. The 
 average ratio in that market, however, for that year, was 
 14.43 to 1, equivalent to 65|f(i. In fixing the ratio at 15 to 
 1, it was consequently, undervalued some 4| per cent. The 
 next year, however, "it fell to 15.01 to 1, or very nearly the 
 exact standard ratio which had been adopted by this country. 
 For the following fifteen or twenty years, from political and 
 financial disturbances in Europe, it was subject to many 
 fluctuations, more or less marked, but its general tendency 
 was downward ; and for the forty -two years, from 1792 to 
 1834, the average was 15.37 to 1 of &l^^d. per English stan- 
 dard ounce by this ratio, therefore silver was overvalued 
 some 2 J per cent, as compared with the average market 
 rates, and 3J per cent, as compared with the French*ratio of 
 15J to 1, which was -tin per cent, below the average market 
 value. This overvaluation of silver should, by the opera- 
 tion of ordinary economic laws, have retained it in circula- 
 tion, and have expelled the ^old ; and doubtless did expel 
 what little we had, as gold coin was still a curiosity in this 
 country at a much later date. The real conflict was there- 
 fore, between the new silver dollar and the old abraded 
 Spanish and Spanish-American silver, which constituted 
 the major portion of our circulation ; and which had been 
 made legal tender at the same ratio but which, from its de- 
 graded condition, was the overvalued metal, and effectually 
 29 
 
 expelled all full weighted coins as soon as put in circula- 
 tion. 
 
 About 1828, however, gold began to be produced in ap- 
 preciable quantities in several of the Southern States, and 
 to assume more importance in the currency of the country. 
 And in 1834, Congress reduced the weight of fine gold con- 
 tained in the eagle, some 15J grains, or about 6J per cent. ; 
 thus establishing a new ratio of 16 to 1. By the general 
 Mint Act of 1837, both gold and silver were required to con- 
 tain •Ij, of fine metal. Previously, the silver dollar had con- 
 sisted of 4.16 grains, 892.4 fine, making 871.25 grains of pure 
 silver; .and the eagle contained 258 grains, 899.225 fine, 
 making 232 grains of pure gold. The gross weight of 
 the silver dollar was reduced to 412J grains, which, at 900 
 fine, gave 371i grains of pure silver, being the same as be- 
 fore ; but the weight of the eagle, not being changed, the 
 increase of fineness raised the amount of fine gold ^ of a 
 grain, which made a new ratio of 1 to 15.988. This ratio is 
 practically equivalent to 59rf. per English standard oz. 
 (58.979.) But the average price in the London market for 
 that year, was 59^j(i., (15.83 to 1), and ior the following six- 
 teen years, and until the parts of the dollar were reduced to 
 subsidiary currency by the Act of 1853 ; the mean of the 
 annual averages was 59Jf rf., equal to a ratio of 15.73 to 1, 
 which would be equivalent to an undervaluation of the sil- 
 ver coin of 1^ per cent. As small as it was, it was quite 
 sufficient to expel every dollar from circulation, and for 
 several years prior to 1853, the Secretary of the Treasury 
 had regularly called the attention of Congress to the 
 urgent necessity of some legislation to supply the demand 
 for small change for retail transactions. Although the sil- 
 ver dollar was, and had been, wholly non-effective as a circu- 
 lating medium, it was the stipulated consideration in most 
 existing contracts and obligations ; and Congress supplied 
 this want by demonetizing the parts of the dollar only, by 
 reducing them some seven per cent, in weight, and limiting 
 them to the payment of sums not exceeding |5. In the 
 meantime, gold becoming abundant, the coinage of the sil- 
 ver dollar became wholly non-effective. Here, then, we have 
 the practical results of the three most noted examples 
 which the history of commercial nations furnishes, of at- 
 tempts to establish and maintain a double standard ; and in 
 every case we see only disastrous failure. And its advocates 
 may well be called upon to point to a tingle example in the 
 whole range of commercial history, of any nation, ever main- 
 taining successfully an effective circulation of both metals. We 
 invariably find, in every instance, the overvalued metal only 
 in effective circulation, in conjunction with the minor coins 
 of the undervalued metal in a most degraded condition ; and 
 in no wise ftirnishing anything approaching a uniform and 
 equitable standard of value, or an effective currency. Yet, 
 in face of the fact that history furnishes no example of an 
 effective double standard, where there was a difference of 
 even two per cent, hetvieen the exchangeable market values 
 of the two metals ; and in violation or disregard of every 
 principle of economic and commercial law : we find these 
 distinguished gentleman in Paris seriously discussing the 
 proposition to overvalue one metal some eighteen per cent., 
 and claiming that with a "free and unlimited coinage,'' they 
 can be made to circulate effectively, at such radically dis- 
 proportioned values. The only conceivable result of such 
 an experiment would be, as already intimated, the rapid con- 
 centration of all the overvalued silver anumg the nations hav- 
 ing credit balances, and of which we have a striking illus- 
 tration in the example of France, which has accumulated, 
 since 1871, an amount of silver equivalent to nearly the 
 entire amount stocked by the Western world since 1867, when 
 exports to the East so perceptibly decreased.^ 
 
 The advocates of bi-metallism, would perhaps, consider it 
 as an attempt to evade what they regard as the most impor- 
 tant example of all the experiments which have been made 
 to maintain a double standard ; if we failed to notice that of 
 France in 1853. As already stated, silver had been the 
 
 ' In 1870, the reserves of the Bank of France were $13,700,000 
 in silver, $85,740,000 in gold : a ratio of $13.8 to 82.2. In 1880, 
 they were $245,789,000 in silver, to $116,140,000 in gold: a ratio 
 of 68.3 to 31.7. In 1876, however, she held as much as $306,- 
 080,000 gold : a loss of $189,940,000 of gold in five years, with a 
 gain of $236,089,000 of silver in ten years. 
 
450 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tfective currenq/ of that country up to that time, and was its 
 standard measure of value, as declared by the law of March 
 28th, 1803. But in consequence of the enormous withdrawal 
 of silver for Eastern account, which had then actively set in ; 
 she undertook to supply its place by the substitution of gold. 
 This experiment has attracted much attention, and has been 
 widely commented upon by subsequent writers on financial and 
 economic questions. The distinguished economist, M. Wol- 
 owski, especially draws attention to it, as a practical illus- 
 tration of the " compensatory" theory of a double standard 
 which he espouses. It is claimed by him that a bi-metallic 
 standard possesses an inherit principle of self-adjustment. A 
 sort of automatic back-action, by which it maintains a per- 
 fect equipoise in the value of the two metals. That, as one 
 metal has a tendency to fall below its legal relation Of value 
 to the other ; by coining more largely the " cheaper*' metal, 
 the increased demand for it thus created, affects correspond- 
 ingly, their relative market values, restores the equilibrium, 
 and keeps the standard measure uniform. As an economic 
 postulatum, this theory is not without its attractions ; but 
 when we come to analyze its practical utility, we not only 
 find it subject to insuperable objections, but that M. Wol- 
 owski is very unfortunate in the illustration by which he 
 seeks to demonstrate its utility and practical effect. The 
 uncertainty, expense, and annoyance of constantly alter- 
 nating from one metal to the other, would be a sufficient 
 obstacle to its adoption ; but the factors to be utilized are, 
 unfortunately, not within the control of those who may de- 
 sire to adopt it. A nation, may make laws for the regulation 
 of its currency, but this question is subject to the laws of 
 commerce and not to Mint regulations. A nation whose 
 commercial balances are all favorable, might maintain a 
 double standard when the divergencies from the legal ratio 
 of the metals did not exceed, or only slightly so, the cost of 
 transportation, loss of interest and commissions, or broker- 
 age. But the net balance in favor of any commercial nation 
 is usually the difference, only, between its favorable and un- 
 favorable, or, adverse balances. And as, under a well- 
 known law of commercial exchange, already referred to. 
 balances or bills are always paid in that metal which has 
 the highest value at the point where payable, relatively to the 
 cost of the remittance at the point where drawn ; the 
 "cheaper" metal cannot be obtained, when wanted, in 
 sufficient quantities, as suggested by M. Wolowski, without 
 going into foreign markets and buying it ; and the expense 
 of doing so, fully offsets the supposed profit, if, it does not 
 exceed it. And this is precisely what France had to do in 
 this particular instance, and with precisely this result. 
 
 As already stated, this change of policy was a matter of 
 necessity, rather than choice ; growiug out of the extraor- 
 dinary withdrawal of silver for the East. The drain upon 
 her reserves was so great that it became, almost, if not quite 
 impossible to maintain them in silver. For the eight years 
 ending 1860, she exported $296,000,000 of her coined silver, 
 or $35,760,0(<)0 per annum, and $170,000,000 in bullion, or 
 $21,250,000 per annum— making together $476,000,000, or 
 an average of $67,000,000 per annum, being 40 per cent, more 
 than the entire produce of the world for the same period. Now, 
 the average price of silver in the London market for 1853, 
 when this extraordinary export of silver, and coinage of 
 gold, commenced, was 61Jc/., corresponding with a ratio of 
 15'33 to 1, and equivalent to a discount of about one per 
 cent, on gold, on the basis of 15J. The Bank of France 
 went into the London market and made immense contracts 
 for the purchase of gold to replace her silver. According 
 to M. Chevalier, she paid as high as 15 per mille premium 
 (1 J per cent.) for much of this, and for the two and a half 
 years ending December 31st, 1857, she paid $2,707,700 pre- 
 mium on $262,000,000 of gold purchased. This was equiva- 
 lent to an average of 1-03 per cent., to which, if we add the 
 i per cent, as the cost of coinage, we make the cost of the 
 new coin J per cent, greater than it was in the legal ratio of 
 15J to 1. And instead of this extraordinary coinage of 
 $767,000,000 of gold for this period, restoring'the equilibrium, 
 according to the "compensatory" theory of M. Wolowski, 
 it continued to decline, and reached its lowest price in 1859J 
 just when this coinage reached its maximum of $135,000,000^ 
 in a single year. In the meantime, we find that in 1852^ 
 just before these extraordinary movements of the precious 
 metals were inaugurated, the reserves of the Bank of France 
 
 consisted of 86 per cent, of silver to 14 per cent, of gold, 
 whereas in 1866, when the excessive report of silver ceased, 
 they were 19 per cent, of silver to 81 of gold, and for this 
 whole period the coinage of 5 franc pieces had averaged less 
 than $1,000,000 per annum. In 1871 these reserves were 
 only 13 per cent, of silver against 87 per cent, of gold, thus 
 a little more than reversing the condition of things as it ex- 
 isted in 1852, and showing clearly, that gold was the effective 
 cutrrency during this period, silver being comparatively nomi- 
 nal, and performing but little tnore than the functions of a sub- 
 sidiary currency. Thus, we see that the only theory advanced 
 by the advocates of bimetallism, possessing the slightest 
 plausibility, and not absolutely absurd upon its face, signally 
 fails to accomplish what is claimed for it; and when tested 
 by the practical operations of economic law and commercial 
 usage, IS proven to be wholly non-effective, except under 
 conditions which would destroy the advantages upon which 
 the theory of its supposed benefits is founded. 
 
 Monetary Functions of Coin only local, and 
 affect but slightly the Exchangeable Value of 
 the Precious Metals.— We think, now, it has been 
 shown that no such thing as an effective double standard 
 has ever existed in any country or in any age, and for the 
 sufficient reason that it carries with it an inherent element of 
 self-destruction arising from antagonisms of economic and phy- 
 sical laws, which, from their nature, are beyond the control of 
 legislative enactments or conventional agreements. But while 
 it is true that all these various attempts to make the metals 
 circulate together as legal tender money, have signally 
 failed ; it is important to observe that they have scarcely 
 exercised any appreaiahle influence upon their relative ex- 
 changeable values in the markets of the world, or impaired 
 their utility for the purpose of effecting comme>-cial exchanges. 
 This is especially noticeable in the example afforded by the 
 experience of England. We have already seen that when 
 she demonetized silver, it made a material advance in mar- 
 ket value, instead of declining. Of course, it would be ab- 
 surd to claim that this advance was due to such a fact ; it 
 was doubtless due to other causes, and only goes to show 
 th&t the inherent value of the precious metals is founds upon 
 a utility so universal throughout the world, that the policy of 
 no one country, however important in the family of nations, 
 can materially affect it. It is well known that in times of 
 great monetary stringency, especially when arising from 
 financial or commercial revulsion ; all inconvertible com- 
 modities suffer great depreciation or depression in prices 
 and are often wholly unavailable as a means of relief. Now,' 
 while silver has had no monetary function in England for 
 some sixty-five years, except as a subsidiary currency, to 
 the extent of £2 ; yet, she has continued to control, through 
 her exchanges, the silver produce of the world, and to sup- 
 ply the wants of all other countries. An examination of the 
 various financial panics, or periods of unusual monetary 
 pressure, which have convulsed the London money market 
 within the last fifty years, discloses the significant fact that 
 m no instance did silver bullion decline in value, but in nearly 
 every one a marked advance occurred, and reached its highest 
 point when the alarm was most intense. Thus showing, that 
 its utility for the purposes of exchange or the storage of 
 value, was in nowise impaired by the fact that it was not a 
 legal tender. And we cannot escape the conclusion, there- 
 fore, thus made apparent, that the importance of clothing 
 both metals with specific monetary functions, has been im- 
 mensely exaggerated by the advocates of bi-mctallism, and 
 that it is really a question of only local or domestic financial 
 policy. 
 
 The coined money of all nations is treated only as bullion 
 in foreign markets, and its local monetary valuation in nowise 
 affects its exchangeable value in those markets, or its utility 
 in the operations of foreign exchange. The whole trouble 
 arises from the reluctance of commercial nations to realize 
 and charge off the loss on their stocks of silver, which has 
 resulted from its impaired utility and consequent deprecia- 
 tion of exchangeable value; in the vain hppe that by some 
 device or expedient, that exchangeable value can be main- 
 tained at a ratio to gold wholly inconsistent icith the respective 
 volumes of the two metals, and their relative utiliti/ for the 
 purposes of commerce. We think now that we have pre- 
 sented facts amply sufficient to sustain the theory that, con- 
 trary to the general popular impression, the depreciation of 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 451 
 
 silver has been but slightly affected by German demonetiza- 
 tion, and is really due to a loss of utility, arising from the 
 excessive accumulation of gold. We have, also, stated all the 
 essential facts relating to the production and movement of 
 the precious metals, and the economic eflfect of the laws of 
 commerce and industry which control them ; to demonstrate, 
 clearly, that no such thing as an effective double standard 
 has ever existed, and from the nature of the antagonisms 
 involved, never can exist ; and that it is wholly beyond the 
 control of statutory regulation. 
 
 OmpUed from Louis A. Qnmett'a "The Parie Monetary/ Conference and 
 
 Bi-Melallism." 
 
 MR. MULHALL'S ESTIMATES. 
 
 MR. MICHAEL G. MULHALL, F.S.S., who has 
 won considerable praise for his careful calcula- 
 tions furnishes some tables upon this matter that 
 throw a few side lights upon the subject. Upon 
 gold and silver he says : These two metals, which have ma- 
 terially aided the cause of progress, have suffered such mu- 
 tations of fortune in the nineteenth century, that it may be 
 worth while to Study their antecedents. Michael Chevalier 
 is of opinion that at the period of the discovery of America 
 the total amount of gold in Europe was only £12,000,000, 
 and of silver £28,000,000. At that time an ounce of gold 
 was worth ten oif silver, but as soon as the conquest of Mex- 
 ico and Peru by the Spaniards poured a flood of silver into 
 Europe this metal lost one-third of its value. In the seven- 
 teenth and eighteenth centuries gold stood for fifteen times 
 the value of silver. A new epoch occurred with the dis- 
 covery of gold in California and Australia, but silver never 
 recovered its position as a precious metal. The following 
 table shows the progress of both metals since the time of 
 Columbus : — 
 
 Date. 
 
 1492 
 
 1700 ... . . 
 
 1800 . . 
 
 1R48 
 
 1880 
 
 During 300 years of the Spanish dominion in America 
 the mines of Mexico, Peru, and Brazil yielded a little over 
 £1,200,000,000, of which three-fourths were silver. Since 
 Marshall's discovery of gold in California (1848) there has 
 been an increase of £950,000,000 in precious metals, as 
 follows: — 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Tolal. 
 
 £20,000,000 
 227,000,000 
 440,000,000 
 560,000,000 
 1,220,000,000 
 
 £40,000,000 
 
 520,000,000 
 
 1,026,000,000 
 
 1,322,000,000 
 
 1,612,000,000 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 747,000.000 
 
 1,466,000,000 
 
 1,882,000,000 
 
 2,832,000,000 
 
 United State<i . . 
 Australia . . . 
 Spanish America 
 
 Russia 
 
 other countries . 
 
 £282,000,000 
 
 252,000,000 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 93,000,000 
 
 11,000,000 
 
 Silver. 
 £74,000,000 
 
 166,000',00O 
 3,000,000 
 65,000,000 
 
 Tolal. 
 
 £356,000,000 
 
 252,000,000 
 
 180,000,000 
 
 96,000,000 
 
 66,000,000 
 
 £658,000,000 £292,000,000 £950,000,000 
 
 By a strange coincidence the annual yield of California 
 and Australia has averaged the same amount, namely 
 £9,000,000, and in each case the highest year reached 
 £15,000,000, the number of diggers being also about equal, 
 and their gains averaging from £100 to £150 per man per 
 annum. The biggest nugget was found in Australia, namely 
 the "Welcome" nugget, found at Ballarat, June 11th, 1858, 
 weighing 2020 ounces, worth £8376 sterling. Siberia pro- 
 duces at least £8,000,000 per annum, possibly double that 
 amount, as the Russian Government is little anxious to pub- 
 lish the actual yield. Spanish America, during the last 
 thirty years, has averaged from £5,000,000 to £6,000,000 
 sterling of silver, but the Nevada mines, in the United 
 States, have recently eclipsed Mexico and Peru. Since the 
 discovery of the Nevada fields, in 1862, the production of 
 silver has rapidly increased, while the gold-flelds of the 
 world are rapidly declining in equal ratio. The official re- 
 turns since 1848 may be summed up thus:— 
 
 Although the stock of gold in the world is more than 
 double what existed in 1848, and silver shows an increase 
 of only 25 per cent., the purchasing power of these metals has 
 declined in different ratio. Thus gold seems to have lost but 
 20, and silver fully 38 per cent. It appears, meantime, from 
 the mint returns of the various countries, that, owing to the 
 increasing demands of trade, the amount of coin issued 
 since 1848 has been three times as much as then existed in 
 the world (based on the estimates of the best authorities of 
 thirty years ago) : — 
 
 Gold Coin. SOxer Coin. Tolal. 
 
 Stock in 1848 
 
 . . £120,000,000 
 
 £240,000,000 
 
 £360,000,000 
 
 English mint . . . 
 
 . . 148,000,000 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 160,000,000 
 
 Indian " .... 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 156,000,000 
 
 156,600,000 
 
 Australian -" 
 
 . . 38,000,000 
 
 
 38,000,000 
 
 United States " . . 
 
 186,000,000 
 
 17,000.000 
 
 203,000,000 
 
 rrencli " ... 
 
 270,000,000 
 
 42,000,000 
 
 312,000,000 
 
 German " ... 
 
 70,005,000 
 
 45,000,000 
 
 116,000,000 
 
 Austrism " 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 27,000,000 
 
 39,000,000 
 
 Bud-ian " 
 
 . . 84,000,000 
 
 16,000,000 
 
 99,000,000 
 
 Belgian " 
 
 . . 15,000 000 
 
 18,000,000 
 
 33,000,000 
 
 Italian " . . " : 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 18,000,000 
 
 28,000,000 
 
 Holland, Sweden, etc. 
 
 Total 
 
 . . 5,500,000 
 
 31,000,000 
 £620,000,000 
 
 36,000,000 
 
 . . £969,600,000 
 
 £1,579,500,000 
 
 Thus the quantities coined since 1848 sum up £1.220,000,- 
 000, which is £270,000,000 more than the world has pro- 
 duced of precious metals in these thirty years. In fact we 
 had to fall back ou the uncoined bullion existing in 1848, 
 to the extent of £180,000,000 gold and £90,000,000 silver, 
 viz. — 
 
 Gold. Silver. Tolal. 
 
 Coined since 1848 
 Yield of mines . . 
 
 £840,000,000 
 660,000,000 
 
 £180,000,000 
 
 £380,000,000 
 290,000,000 
 
 £90,000,000 
 
 £1,220,000,000 
 950,000,000 
 
 How much coin has been melted down' or reminted it is 
 impossible to judge, but we know that India has absorbed 
 since 1840 no less than £10,000,000 of gold and £238,000,- 
 000 of silver, together forming a greater value than the gold 
 taken either from California or Australia. It is generally 
 supposed that India is to blame for the fall of silver from 
 63 to 50 pence per ounce ; if this be so, how comes it to pass 
 that in 1877-78, when India absorbed £22,000,000 of silver, 
 the price of this metal was lowest? The sale of German 
 silver tended so much to its depreciation that Prince Bis- 
 marck, after selling £32,000,000 at a loss of 15 per cent., 
 judged proper to stop the sale in June 1879. Meantime, the 
 United States continue to mint £4,000,000 of silver yearly, 
 but most of it finds its way to China. The total coinage 
 now in use in the world is approximately as follows : — 
 
 Total. 
 £1,100,000,000 
 430,000,000 
 
 £1,630,000,000 
 
 Europe 
 
 America, Atsia, etc. . 
 
 Gold. 
 
 £725,000,000 
 
 230,000,000 
 
 £965,000,000 
 
 Silver. 
 
 £376,000,000 
 
 200,000,000 
 
 £575,000,000 
 
 1848 to 1851 , 
 1852 to 1861 , 
 1862 to 1871 
 1872 to 1878 , 
 
 Goiu. SiLVEE. 
 
 Anniud Production. Annual Production. Total 
 
 £14 000,000 £9,000,000 £23,r00,00O 
 
 27,000,000 8,000,000 35,000,000 
 
 21000 000 10,000,000 31,000,000 
 
 16000,000 12,000,000 28,000,000 
 
 About one-sixth of the bullion of the world is locked up 
 in banks, and the actual circulation compares, as follows, 
 with population : — 
 
 Total Specie. In Bank. Circulation. Per Inhab. 
 
 United Kingdom . . . £120,000,000 £32,000,000 £88,000,000 65 shillings 
 
 France . . . 310,000,000 90,000,000 220,000,000 120 " 
 
 Germany 123,000,000 27,000,000 96,000,000 45 " 
 
 Austria . . 50,000,000 16,000,000 34,000,000 18 " 
 
 Italy 48,000,000 3,000,000 46,000,000 33 " 
 
 Belgium . 37,000,000 4,000,000 33,000,050 140 " 
 
 Spain and Portugal . . 63,000,000 8,000,000 65,000,000 65 " 
 
 Russia 110,000,000 26,000 000 84,000,000 22 " 
 
 Holland, Greece, etc. . 239,000,000 17,000,000 222,000,000 . " 
 
 Europe £1,100,000,000 £223,000,000 £877,000,000 64 " 
 
 United States 70,000,000 41,000,000 29,000,000 14 " 
 
 Australia, Asia, etc. . . 360,000,000 20,000,000 340,000,000 " 
 
 £1,530,000,000 £289,000,000 £1,241,000,000 20 
 
 The official returns of bullion imports and exports show 
 that in the last ten years Europe has imported a surplus of 
 £327,000,000, viz.— 
 
 From United States £108,000,000 
 
 " Australia 81,000,000 
 
 " South America, etc 138,000,000 
 
 £327,000,000 
 
 1 The annual wear-and-tear of gold, between jewellers and ship- 
 wreck^ is usually estimated at £6,000,000. From 1840 to 1850 the 
 Paris jewellers consumed per annum 5i tons of gold, worth £720,000, 
 and 99 tons of silver, worth £500,000 sterling. 
 
452 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 In the following Table are shown the countries which have 
 absorbed the above amount, Russia being the only country 
 in Europe which exports precious metals : — 
 
 Russia 
 France . . 
 Great Britain 
 Austria , 
 Italy 
 Spain ... 
 
 Scandinavia 
 
 Low Countries and Ger- 
 many 
 
 Imports. 
 
 £20,000,000 
 
 272,000,000 
 
 314,000,000 
 
 33,000,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 26,000,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 £40,000,000 
 
 136,000,000 
 
 268,000,000 
 
 33,000,000 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 Surplus. 
 Imports. 
 
 £136,'0OO,000 
 46,000,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 24,000,000 
 3,000,000 
 
 Surplus 
 
 Exports. 
 
 £20,000,000 
 
 239,000,000 102,000,000 137,000,000 
 
 £916,000,000 £589,000,000 £347,000,000 £20,000,000 
 
 AVhile the above Table shows the shipments of bullion 
 between the various countries, there is no way of ascertain- 
 ing, even approximately, how far the passenger traffic tends 
 to restore equilibrium, or how much the precious metals may 
 accumulate in Europe in a given period. 
 
 Banks and Paper Money. — The Chinese invented 
 bank-notes in the ninth century, and called them " flying 
 money," but the currency became so inflated, that two cen- 
 turies later a £20 note would only purchase a pound of rice. 
 When .Sir John Mandeville visited China, in the fourteenth 
 century, the Emperor issued leather money ( " which His 
 Majesty spends outrageously"), and some years later the 
 currency was transferred to a joint-stock bank of Chinese 
 merchants, who ultimately failed, and paid only two shil- 
 lings in the pound. In Europe the first bank was founded 
 by two Jews at Venice, in the thirteenth century, but no 
 regular bank of emission seems to have been established till 
 that of Mr. Palmstruck, in Sweden, a few years before Pat- 
 terson founded the Bank of England. At the beginning of 
 the nineteenth century paper money was in bad repute, be- 
 cause people remembered in Paris when a pair of boots cost 
 £350 in the currency of the French Republic. Confidence 
 was again shaken in 1836, when the " wild-cat " banks of 
 the United States caused such widespread disaster. At 
 present paper money is of general use throughout the world, 
 summing up a total of almost £900,000,000, which is about 
 equal to the total stock of existing gold coin. It consists of 
 two kinds, convertible for gold and inconvertible,, the latter 
 increasing so fast that it doubles in ten years. The actual 
 issues are — 
 
 Convertible for gold . 
 Inconvertible . . 
 
 £385,000,000 
 505,000,000 
 
 £890,000,000 
 
 The following Table shows the convertible paper money, 
 and its ratio to population : — 
 
 United States . 
 
 France 
 
 United Kingdom 
 Germany .... 
 Lov? Countries . . 
 Scandinavia . . . 
 Spain and Portugal 
 Switzerland . . 
 British Colonies 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 Amount of issue. Eatio to popitlaiioii. 
 £132,000,000 60 eliillings 
 
 90,000,000 
 
 50 
 
 47,000,090 
 
 28 
 
 42,000,000 
 
 19 
 
 29,000,000 
 
 CO 
 
 9,000,000 
 
 20 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 8 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 25 
 
 25,000,000 
 
 3 
 
 £386,000,000 
 
 20 
 
 As regards the inconvertible currency, it varies so much 
 that its value for gold can only be given approximately. 
 The following Table, moreover shows how the issue has in- 
 creased since 1868 : — 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 Italy . . 
 
 Brazil . . 
 
 Japan 
 
 Cuba .... 
 Peru .... 
 Chili ... 
 River Plata 
 
 mount in 1868. 
 
 Amount in 1880. 
 
 Value 
 
 in gold 
 
 £108,000,000 
 
 £211,000,000 
 
 60 per cent. 
 
 
 100,000,000 
 
 60 
 
 " 
 
 40,000^000 
 
 04,000,000 
 
 09 
 
 
 36,000,000 
 
 36,000,000 
 
 89 
 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 28,000,000 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 28,000,000 
 
 87 
 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 13,000,000 
 
 4'i 
 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 60 
 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 SO 
 
 n 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 9,000,000 
 
 72 
 
 " 
 
 £219,000,000 
 
 £605,000,000 
 
 
 
 Emsian paper money dates from the time of Catherine 
 II., and its progress has been as follows : • 
 
 Issue. 
 
 Value in gold 
 
 £6,1.00,000 
 
 97 per cent. 
 
 134,000,000 
 
 25 
 
 101,000,000 
 
 95 " 
 
 128,000,000 
 
 75 
 
 211,000,000 
 
 60 
 
 ^i 
 
 1788 . 
 1817. 
 1864 . 
 1875 . 
 1880 . 
 
 In 1843 the Empire declared bankruptcy by calling in 
 the paper money, and giving thirty new roubles for one 
 hundred old ones. The recent war with Turkey has in- 
 creased the issue by 60 per cent, yet the depreciation has 
 only been 20 per cent, showing the elastic nature of paper 
 money and its temptation to reckless financiering. The specie 
 reserve of the Imperial Bank is £26,000,000 sterling. 
 
 The United States have the next largest issue after Russia, 
 one-half emitted by Government, the other half by the 
 banks. Paper money was first used by Gen. Washington to 
 
 ay his troops, but the present issue dates from the Civil 
 
 "ar of 1862, as follows : — 
 
 1862 
 
 1804-1865 . . 
 1868 . . . 
 1880 
 
 Since the resumption of specie payments in December 
 1878, the country has entered on a new era of prosperity. 
 Turkey comes next in amount of paper money, but every- 
 thing regarding Ottoman finances is involved in obscuritv. 
 In France the monopoly of emission is held by the Bank of 
 France, with limit, £128,000,000. Since the foundation of 
 the bank by Buonaparte, in 1803, it has twice been compel- 
 led to suspend specie payments, but its notes only declined 
 5 per cent, for a brief interval. The issue has doubled in 
 fifteen years, although the growth of trade has been only 20 
 per cent. 
 
 1860-1870. 1875-1879. 
 
 Cfurrenoy. 
 
 Value in gold,min 
 
 30,000,000 
 166,000,000 
 137,000,000 
 132,000,000 
 
 97 per cent. 
 35 
 
 75 « 
 100 " 
 
 Average issue 
 Trade .... 
 Issue to trade 
 
 £44,000,000 
 306,0000,000 
 15 per cent. 
 
 £101,000,000 
 368,000,000 
 27 per cent. 
 
 At present the issue and specie reserves are almost equal — 
 about £90,000,000. Austrian currency consists partly of 
 Government notes, partly of the issue of the Imperial Bank. 
 The first emission was in 1762,, since which time the growth 
 of paper money has been thus: — 
 
 1762 
 1811 . 
 1814 
 1841 
 1879 . 
 
 Issue. 
 £1,200,000 
 106,000,000 
 25,000,000 
 46,000 000 
 64,000,000 
 
 Valite in gold. 
 100 per cent. 
 
 20 
 
 40 " 
 
 30 
 
 The Empire twice declared bankruptcy, first in 1811, when 
 new notes were exchanged for the old ones at the rate of one 
 florin for five, again in 1814, giving two florins for five, 
 so that the holder of £1Q0 in 1810 was holder of 
 £8 in 1814. The Imperial Bank re-modelled the currency 
 in 1841, putting it on a better footing, since which time (ex- 
 cept during the war with Prussia) it has steadilv improved, 
 and is now almost at par . Specie reserve £15,000,000. The 
 United Kingdom shows a total issue of £47,000,000, made 
 up as follows : — 
 
 Bank of England 
 other banks . . 
 
 £29,000,000 
 18,000,000 
 
 £47,000,000 
 
 In forty years the issue has only risen 35 per cent, while 
 the increase of trade has been 400 per cent. Germany has 
 an ordinary issue of £42,000,000, but the Reichsbank has 
 power to emit £9,500,000 more than at present. The cur- 
 rency stands thus : — 
 
 £30,500,000 
 5,600,000 
 
 Reichsbank .... 
 Small banks . . . 
 Goverument notes . 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 £42,000,000 
 
 The specie reserve of the Reichsbank is 70 per cent, or up- 
 wards of its issue. Italy dates her inconvertible currency 
 from April 1866, when war was declared against Austria. 
 The war lasted twenty days, and cost £10,000,000 of paper 
 money, emitted by the National Bank. According to law 
 this bank may emit up to £40,000,000, and other banks an 
 aggregate of £20,000,000 ; but it is believed the total circu- 
 lation does not exceed £36,000,000. Specie reserve £3 000 - 
 000. Brazil has £25,000,000 of Government notes besides 
 £3,250,000 emitted by banks. Since 1872 specie payments 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 453 
 
 are suspended. Peru, Chili, Buenos Ayres, and Montevideo 
 have also £25,000,000 of inconvertible notes, making a total 
 of £53,250,000 for South America. Japan owes the recent 
 inflation of her currency to the Satsuma rebellion, the notes 
 being now 13 per cent, below par, and the specie reserve un- 
 certain. The Low Countries have £29,000,000 convertible 
 notes, the Netherlands Bank having a minimum specie re- 
 serve of 40 per cent, and the National Bank of Belgium 33 
 per cent. Scandinavia emits £9,000,000 in the following 
 manner: — 
 
 Danish Kiks-bank ... 
 Swcdieh RikB-buDk . . . . 
 EuBkilda juint-stock banks 
 
 £4,000,000 
 1,700,000 
 3,.'JOO,000 
 
 £9,000,000 
 
 The Danish Riks-bank has the sole right of emission in 
 Denmark, keeping a minimum specie reserve of 40 per cent. 
 The Bank of Sweden, founded by Mr. Palmstruck in 1656, 
 suspended payments in the last century, compounding 
 for 70 per cent, and again in 1834 it compounded for 
 40 per cent, of its liabilities. Swiss currency comprises the 
 issue of thirty-five banks, the specie reserve ranging from 
 45 to 50 per cent. The British colonies emit £25,000,000, as 
 follows : — 
 
 India . 
 Canada . , 
 Australia . 
 Soutli Africa 
 
 £12,300,000 
 
 7,720,000 
 
 4,340,000 
 
 610,000 
 
 £24,870,000 
 
 Great Britain and her colonies stand for one-third of the 
 banking-power of the world, as shown in the following 
 Table, which expresses, moreover, the ratio for population 
 and for the estimated capital value of each country : — 
 
 BanJcmg power. Per inhabitant. Balio io capital. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 United States . , 
 
 France . . ... 
 
 Germany , . 
 
 Austria 
 
 Bnssia 
 
 Italy 
 
 Low Countries .... 
 Scandinavia 
 
 Australia 
 
 India 
 
 Soutli America . 
 
 Canada 
 
 Spain and Poitugal . . 
 
 £780,000,000 
 
 £33 
 
 9 
 
 620.000,000 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 340,000,000 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 280,000,000 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 170,000,000 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 146,000,000 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 62,000,000 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 85,000,000 
 
 6 
 
 2! 
 
 40,000,000 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 22 
 
 
 40,000,000 
 
 
 . 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 2 
 
 
 28,000,000 
 
 7 
 
 
 30,000,000 
 
 li 
 
 '2 
 
 £2,600,000,000 
 
 £8 
 
 
 per cent. 
 
 Bank rate of interest rules cheaper in England than in 
 other countries, which as Mr. Mundella observes, is one of 
 the secrets of England's greatness. The following Table 
 shows approximately the value of money in England, 
 France and Germany, during a term of thirty-three years 
 ending with 1878 
 
 1846-1853 
 1854-1869 
 1870-1873 
 
 England. 
 3i per cent. 
 4J " 
 38 " 
 
 France. 
 
 4 per cent. 
 
 4» " 
 4J •' 
 
 Germany. 
 41 per cent. 
 4J 
 4J " 
 
 Average . 
 
 Savings banks (although first instituted at Brunswick in 
 1765) may be said to belong to the nineteenth century. So 
 rapidly have they increased in the last twenty years, that 
 Europe now counts more than 14,000 of these banks, with 
 nearly 14,000,000 depositors, viz. — , 
 
 
 Savinqt. 
 
 
 
 banks. 
 
 DeposUort. 
 
 United Kingdom . . . 
 
 6,068 
 
 1,668,000 
 
 Germany 
 
 Austria-Hungary . . . 
 
 1,687 
 
 4,033,000 
 
 657 
 
 1,639,000 
 
 France 
 
 2,221 
 
 2,853,000 
 
 Italy 
 
 3,627 
 
 1,116,000 
 
 Scandinavia 
 
 847 
 
 1,099,000 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 312 
 
 642,000 
 
 Belgium and Holland . 
 
 260 
 
 273,000 
 
 Russia 
 
 120 
 
 260,000 
 
 
 Ratio for 
 
 Amount. 
 
 population. 
 
 £74,640,000 
 
 44 shillings 
 
 76,680,000 
 
 36 
 
 79,150,000 
 
 44 " 
 
 40,430,000 
 
 22 
 
 28,094,000 
 
 20 " 
 
 21,305,000 
 
 60 " 
 
 11,581,000 
 
 84 " 
 
 6 550,000 
 
 15 " 
 
 3,100,000 
 
 1 " 
 
 14,689 13,482,000 £341,430,000 25 
 
 In Australia, if the deposits in banks be regarded as sav- 
 ings, we find 64,000 depositors, with £52,617,000,— a sum 
 equal to £20 per head for the population of those colonies. 
 The total deposits in banks of all descriptions in the United 
 States amount to £384,000,000, or about £9 per inhabitant. 
 
 Summing up all the various banks of the world including 
 branches and savings banks, we find as follows : — 
 
 Great Britain . . . 
 European Continent 
 United States . . 
 Britisti Colonies . . 
 Ottier Countries . . . 
 
 8,701 banks 
 
 15,847 
 
 " 
 
 6,450 
 
 " 
 
 815 
 
 " 
 
 298 
 
 '* 
 
 32,117 " 
 
 The banking business of Great Britain has multiplied 
 threefold since 1850. 
 
 Finances and Wealth. — Sixty years ago after peace 
 had been restored in Europe, the expenditure of all nations 
 summed up £239,000,000 : at present it reaches £778,000, 
 having more than trebled in the interval. 
 
 1820. 
 
 Natiorud Shillings 
 expenditure, per inhab. 
 
 Grpat Britain £54,000,000 51 
 
 France . . . 27,000,000 19 
 
 Germany 8,000,000 8 
 
 Russia 23,000,000 11 
 
 Austria 16,000,000 11 
 
 Italy 8,000,000 8 
 
 Low Countries . . . 5,000,000 16 
 
 Turkey and Egypt . 4,000,000 7 
 
 Spain and Portugal 9,500,000 13 
 
 Scandinavia 2,600,000 12 
 
 Switzerland and Greece 1,000,000 7 
 
 Europe £167,000,000 16 
 
 United States ... . 5,000,000 14 
 
 South America . . ' 2,000,000 3 
 
 India 20,000,000 2 
 
 China and Japan . . . 64,500,000 3 
 
 British Colonies . . . 500,000 10 
 
 Total £239,000,000 6 
 
 1879. 
 
 
 National 
 
 BhUUngi 
 
 ezpenditure. 
 
 per inhab. 
 
 £8,3,000,000 
 
 49 
 
 111,000,000 
 
 60 
 
 86,000,000 
 
 40 
 
 73,000,000 
 
 18 
 
 66,000,000 
 
 37 
 
 69,000,000 
 
 41 
 
 20,000000 
 
 42 
 
 , 29,000,000 
 
 14 
 
 34,000,000 
 
 34 
 
 8,500,000 
 
 21 
 
 3,600,000 
 
 16 
 
 £572,000,000 
 
 34 
 
 48,000,000 
 
 22 
 
 33,000,000 
 
 26 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 4 
 
 49,000,000 
 
 3 
 
 26,000,000 
 
 66 
 
 £778,000,000 
 
 16 
 
 Europe has quadrupled her taxation, the ratio per inhab- 
 itant having doubled or trebled in all countries except 
 Great Britain, which shows a reduction of 4 per cent. The 
 enormous increase of taxation in Europe and America 
 arises from the accumulation of public debt and from war 
 expenditure. If the interest on all existing debts in Europe 
 were duly paid, it would absorb one-third of the total reve- 
 nue. Compared with 1820, we find the burthen of public 
 debt as follows : — 
 
 Great Britain .... 
 European Continent 
 
 1820. 
 
 Interest per 
 
 inhabitant. 
 
 25 shillings 
 
 3 " 
 
 1880. 
 
 Interest per 
 
 inhabUanL 
 
 14 shillings 
 
 11 " 
 
 Thus the relative weight of our debt is reduced nearly 
 one-half, while that of the Continent has quadrupled. The 
 growth of debt from 1820 to 1848 was slow, the total amount 
 in the latter year not exceeding £1,720,000,000, equal to an 
 increase of £9,000,000 per annum. Since 1848 the average 
 increase has been £130,000,000 a year, the principal causes 
 of outlay being shown in the subjoined Table: — 
 
 National debts in 1848 £1,720,000,000 
 
 Crimean War 192,000,000 
 
 Italian V?ar 105,000,000 
 
 United States War 490,000,000 
 
 - Brazil and Paraguay, etc.. War . 86,000,000 
 
 Austro-German War . . . . ... 90,000,000 
 
 Franco-German War 370,000,000 
 
 Kusso-Turkish War 210,000'000 
 
 Armaments 1,607,000,000 
 
 Railways, Docks, Telegraphs 575,000,000 
 
 £5,444,000,000 
 
 The only countries that have reduced their public debt 
 since 1820 are Great Britain and the Low Countries, as ap- 
 pears from the following statement : — 
 
 Imports. Exports. Total. 
 
 1815 £8,136,000 2,666,000 £10,702,000 
 
 1830 5,679,000 4,087,000 9,766,000 
 
 1863 67,200,000 60,900,000 118,100,000 
 
 1877 67,900,000 82,975,000 150,876,000 
 
 Exports are usually £10,000,000 a year over imports, and 
 all the chief products are increasing in the following man- 
 ner: — 
 
454 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 
 1868. 
 
 1878. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 Opium . . 
 
 £12,330,000 
 
 £12,374,000 
 
 
 Bice aud Grain , 
 
 3,780,000 
 
 9,790,000 
 
 150 per cent. 
 
 Cotfee . . 
 
 3,310,000 
 
 6,060,000 
 
 80 " 
 
 Tei . . 
 
 . . . 730,000 
 
 3,062,000 
 
 320 " 
 
 Hides .... 
 
 988,000 
 
 3,757,000 
 
 275 " 
 
 Jute 
 
 1,601,000 
 
 3,518,000 
 
 120 " 
 
 Sundries ... ... 
 
 . . . . 20,461,000 
 
 37,365,090 
 
 66 " 
 
 
 £43,200,000 
 
 £75,916,000 
 
 76 " 
 
 Cotton . .... 
 
 . . . . 20,100,000 
 
 9,384,000 deer. 53 " 
 
 Total . . . . 
 
 . . £63,300,000 
 
 £85,300,000 incr. 35 " 
 
 Trade has, moreover, been facilitated by the introduction 
 of paper money in 1861, the emission rising to £5,000,000 
 in 1864, and at present exceeding £12,000,000. The coin 
 mostly in use is silver, the Government having coined £40,- 
 000,000 of this metal in the last ten years, say £4,000,000 
 per annum. Previous to 1870 India used to absorb £20,- 
 000,000 of bullion, chiefly silver, every year, but since that 
 date the influx of precious metals has fallen : — 
 
 1864-1870 
 1871-1870 
 1877-1878 
 
 . £138,000,000 
 . 53,000,000 
 . 22,200,000 
 
 £19,700,000 
 8,770,000 
 
 This is by some ascribed to poverty, partly resulting from 
 famine, partly from the taxation having been increased 18 
 per cent, in the last ten years. 
 
 The rise of public debt has been as follows : — 
 
 1814. 
 1857. 
 1802. 
 1879. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 . £18,000,000 
 . 60,0u0,000 
 . 100,000,000 
 . 139,000.000 
 
 Per inhabitant. 
 
 5s. 
 lOs. 
 15s. 
 14s. 
 
 The service of the debt costs £5,500,000 per annum, or 9 
 per cent, of the revenue ; the latter averages 6s. per inhabi- 
 tant. 
 
 The number of Europeans is very small, the returns of 
 population for 1877 showing as follows : — 
 
 Hindoos 140,000,000 
 
 Mahometans . . 41,000,000 
 
 Buldhists, etc. . 10,000,000 
 
 British troops .... . .... 65,000 
 
 civilians 64,000 
 
 191,129,000 
 
 1521 down to the discovery of gold in California was as fol- 
 lows, in millions sterling: — 
 
 Before 1803. 
 
 Mexico £406 
 
 Peru and Chili ■ 482 
 
 Brazil 171 
 
 Venezuela, etc 82 
 
 £1141 
 
 1803 to 1848. 
 
 £164 
 
 168 
 
 19 
 
 40 
 
 £397 
 
 Total. 
 
 £570 
 05O 
 190 
 123 
 
 £1538 
 
 The above total waa distributed thus : — 
 
 WoreWm. isott^m. ^"^ 
 
 Gold £301 £142 £443 
 
 Silver 840 265 1095 
 
 MillioDB sterling £1141 £397 £1538 
 
 The annual production of precious metals at difierent 
 epochs in the present century is shown as follows : — 
 
 Gout. Siher. ^tXi°'' 
 
 1801 19 tons. 850 tons. 1 to 45 
 
 1846 42 " 727 " 1 to 17 
 
 1850 134 " 778 " 1 to 7 
 
 1852 242 " 1027 " 1 to 4 
 
 1879 90 " 1000 " 1 to 12 
 
 The actual production of precious metals is estimated 
 thus:^ 
 
 Gold. Siteer. Total. 
 
 United States £5,000,000 £0,000.000 £11,000,000 
 
 Australia 3,000,000 .... 3,000,000 
 
 Siberia, etc 4,000,000 .... 4.000,000 
 
 Spanish America 3,000,000 3,000,000 
 
 £12,000,000 £9.000.000 £21,000,000 
 
 The British are therefore less than 1 in 1000 of the popu- 
 lation. The annual mortality among British troops in India 
 was 69 per 1000 (say 7 per cent.) previous to 1850; the im- 
 provements introduced by order of Parliament have reduced 
 the rate since 1870 to 20 per 1000, which savet 3500 soldiers' 
 lives yearly. In 1877 the rate was only 13 per 1000. The 
 annual expenditure for the garrison of white troops is £15,- 
 000,000, or £250 per soldier. In India there are at present 
 644 newspapers, of which 600 are published in the various 
 vernacular languages— chiefly in Bengali, Urdu, Marathi, 
 Gujarati, Tamil, and Telugu. There are 40 journals pub- 
 lished in English. The universities of Calcutta, Madras, 
 and Bombay educate 6000 youths, and there are also State 
 schools in the various provinces. India has 17,900 miles of 
 telegraph constructed at a cost of £3,000,000 sterling. 
 
 Sir Hector Hay, in his examination before the House of 
 Commons, estimated the production of precious metals from 
 1852 to 1875 as follows :— 
 
 The first bank is now said to have been at Barcelona. 
 The Bank of England was founded by a Scotch clergyman, 
 Rev. William Patterson, in 1694 ; the founder died in ex- 
 treme misery. 
 
 Sweden was the first country to establish a regular bank 
 of emission, and is still, according to an eminent English 
 economist, the only country in Europe that can present a 
 complete annual balance-sheet. In 1656 Mr. John Palm- 
 struck obtained the right of emission for .his bank, now 
 known as the Riks-bank. It was forced to suspend pay- 
 ments in 1745, but resumed in 1776, on paying 14s. in the £ 
 for its notes. It again stopped payment in 1818, and again 
 resumed in 1834, this time compounding for 7s. 6d. in the 
 £, say 37 per cent. Since then it has always paid gold for 
 its notes on demand. In 1852 its metallic reserve was £2,- 
 750,000, but in October 1877 it had fallen to £640,000. Its 
 dividends for twelve years have averaged 7 per cent. In 
 1830 the first of the Enskilda or joint-stock banks of issue 
 was authorised, and in a few years their number multiplied. 
 At present there are twenty-eight banks of issue (indepen- 
 dent of the Riks-bank, which nave 153 branches all over 
 Sweden, the country people preferring the notes to gold. 
 The notes range from 5 shillings to £30, and the metallic 
 reserve varies from 35 to 50 per cent, of the emission. Each 
 bank of issue must have at least thirty-three shareholders, 
 all Swedes ; minimum capital £55,000 all paid up, each sub- 
 scriber being liable for all the bank's obligations. These 
 banks have been so well managed that their profits every 
 year range from 4 to 20_ per cent. There are also fifteen 
 joint-stock banks of limited liability, without right of emis- 
 sion, and 324 savings banks. 
 
 Gold 
 Silver 
 
 £572,196,000 
 241,890,000 
 
 £814,085,000 
 
 According to Humboldt's estimates in 1803, and others 
 carried down to 1848, the yield of Spanish America from 
 
 FIGURES AND FACTS IN CONSUMPTION 
 AND DISTRIBUTION OF PRE- 
 CIOUS METALS. 
 
 T 
 
 HE excellent little compilation issued annually by 
 Messrs. Fisk & Hatch contains the following, which 
 are valuable for their form, though taken from ta- 
 bles printed elsewhere. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING IISTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 455 
 
 PRESKNT laONKTART STANDARDS OF THK NATIONS OF THE IVORLiD. 
 
 1— Gold Standard Countrleg. 
 
 *. e. — Gold Coin of full value and legal tender. Silver Coin of debased value and restricted tender. 
 
 
 Date for which 
 
 dreulaiionis 
 
 given. 
 
 CIRCULATION.? 
 
 Country. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 Gold Coin. 
 
 Silver Coin. 
 
 Total Specie. 
 
 Total Specie and 
 Paper. 
 
 Per Capita. 
 
 
 Pull Value. 
 
 Full Value. 
 
 Subsidiary De- 
 based value. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 Specie. 
 
 
 Mar. 31, '81 . . 
 June,30,'79 . . 
 Deo. 31, '80 . . 
 Deo. 31, '80 
 Dee. 31, '79 . . 
 
 823,606,739 
 91,000,000 
 41,662,711 
 4,129,200 
 19,028,000 
 
 $60,440,708 
 
 
 
 [60,440,798 
 
 $84,047,447 
 91,000,000 
 61,608,711 
 36,669,956 
 33,207,000 
 
 9 8.68 
 
 9.0O 
 
 10.20 
 
 5.86 
 
 9.61 
 
 $ 22.00 
 
 
 
 
 Canada 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 JDenmark .... 
 
 9,026,000 
 
 *30,000,000 
 
 9,316,000 
 
 
 $ i,oi6,6o6 
 
 *2,440,726 
 4,863,000 
 
 $ 10,046,000 
 32,440,726 
 14,179,000 
 
 2.46 
 
 46.00 
 
 7.16 
 
 fGerman Empire . 
 Great Britain . . 
 fGreece 
 
 Deo. 31, '80 . 
 July— ,'81 . . 
 June—, '79 . . 
 
 276,897,668 
 
 207,001,444 
 
 12,890,000 
 
 387,143,742 
 
 602,331,671 
 
 4,600,000 
 
 $119,000,000 
 
 101,648,835 
 92,263,973 
 3,000,000 
 
 607,792,677 
 
 «94,696,644 
 
 7.500,000 
 
 884,690,235 
 901,596,988 
 20,390,000 
 
 6.11 
 
 665 
 7.67 
 
 13.45 
 21.95 
 4.46 
 
 JNorway 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Dec. 31, '80 . . 
 Jan. 1, '79 . . 
 
 10,376,265 
 5,023,360 
 
 9,037,324 
 48.000,000 
 
 
 1,876,000 
 12,1100,000 
 
 10,913,.324 
 60,000,000 
 
 21,288,689 
 66,023,360 
 
 6.94 
 1.21 
 
 6.06 
 14.42 
 
 j^weden 
 
 ■Turkey 
 
 Dec. 31, '79 . . 
 Mar. 31, '80 . . 
 
 21,657,372 
 21,871,289 
 
 7,158.000 
 '*16,000,000 
 
 
 4,523,616 
 * 589,828 
 
 11,681,616 
 16,689,828 
 
 3?,338,988 
 37,461,117 
 
 4.74 
 1.00 
 
 2.65 
 .71 
 
 Total 
 
 735,043,068 
 
 1,181,963,345 
 
 119,000,000 
 
 224,226,978 
 
 1,525,179,323 
 
 2,260,222,391 
 
 
 
 
 
 II Bank reserve only. J These three Scandinavian kingdoms concluded a monetary convention, May 27, and October 18, 1873, based on a single 
 old standard and on a common system of paper money, of gold money, and of subsidiary money in debased silver and in bronze. * Estimated. 
 See note "a." ^ Greece has been ranked heretofore under the double standard, but her delegate to the recent Monetary Conference, spoke of 
 imself " as a representative of a nation which had adopted mono metallibu," &c. § Amounts are those given in the United States Mint Report, 1881. 
 
 II.-COIJNTRISS HAVING DOUBLK STANDARD. 
 
 t, e. — Gold Coin of fiill value and legal tender. Silver Coin,/uH value and legal tender. Silver Coin of debased value and restricted tender. 
 
 
 Date for which 
 
 circulation is 
 
 given. 
 
 J CIRCULATION. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 Oold Coin. 
 
 Silver Coin. 
 
 Total l^ecie. 
 
 Total Specie and 
 Paper. 
 
 Per Capita. 
 
 
 Full Value. 
 
 Full Value. 
 
 Subsidiary De- 
 based Value. 
 
 1 
 
 ." 
 
 United States 
 Algiers .... 
 Argentine"' . . 
 Belgium . . . 
 France .... 
 
 ' Italy 
 
 Switzerland . 
 Cuba 
 
 Nov.. 1,'81 . . 
 July — , '81 . . 
 Mar. — , '80 . . 
 Sept. 29, '81 . . 
 Oct. 6, '81 . . 
 Sept.— ,'81 . . 
 July— ,'81 . . 
 Mar. 26, '81 . . 
 
 8780,506,138 
 
 11.194,000 
 
 373,470,000 
 
 63,434,827 
 
 611,328.021 
 
 323,976,402 
 
 16,694,000 
 
 48,943,457 
 
 $663,075,743 
 10,071,773 
 4,000,000 
 43,000,000 
 874,876,000 
 24,000,000 
 20,900,000 
 49,000,000 
 
 $105,566,741 
 
 6,234,976 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 65,438,000 
 
 646,286,000 
 
 20,900,000 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 $80,400,000 
 
 '8,562,000 
 57,900,000 
 13,000,000 
 4,700,000 
 
 $749 042,484 
 
 16,306,748 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 107,00(1,000 
 
 1,478,062,000 
 
 67,900,000 
 
 34,700,000 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 $1,629,548,612 
 
 27,500,748 
 
 379,470,000 
 
 170,434,827 
 
 1,989,390,021 
 
 381,876,402 
 
 61,294,000 
 
 98,943,457 
 
 $16.66 
 3.90 
 186.70 
 11.68 
 13.86 
 11.66 
 5.83 
 36.08 
 
 $14.93 
 6.08 
 3.00 
 19.53 
 40.05 
 2.98 
 12.19 
 36.79 
 
 Netherlands . 
 
 Dec. 31, '80 . . 
 
 83,836,901 
 
 29,304,722 
 
 66,488,661 
 
 
 '86.793,273 
 
 169,630,174 
 
 21.68 
 
 22.18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tSpain .... 
 
 Aug. 31, '81 . . 
 
 63,867,288 
 
 130,000,000 
 
 40,000,000 
 
 30,000,000 
 
 200,000,000 
 
 253,867,288 
 
 3.24 
 
 12.03 
 
 IVenezuela . . 
 
 Sept.— ,'81 . . 
 
 260,900 
 
 1110,000,000 
 
 
 11,000,000 
 
 11,000,000 
 
 11,250,900 
 
 .12 
 
 6.29 
 
 Total 
 
 2,267,400,934 
 
 1,757,328,238 
 
 842,914,267 
 
 195,662,000 
 
 2,795,804,606 
 
 5,063,205,429 
 
 
 * These States compose the Latin Union. They receive each others coins at a valuation of 1 to 15}^ of gold to silver. By agreement of January, 
 1874, and Deoember, 1879, their silver coinage is now limited exclusively to subsidiary coins. 
 
 t Silver Coinage, except on Government account, ceased by Law of 1876. | Estimated. ** No statistics obtainable, g Amounts are those given 
 in the U. S. Mint Report, 1881. 
 
 III.— COUNTRIES HAVING SI1.VER STANDARD. 
 
 i. e.— SiLVEB Coin ot full value and legal tender. Gold Coin of full value but not legal tender. Silver Coin of debased value and restricted tender. 
 
 
 Date for vihich 
 
 circulation w 
 
 given. 
 
 CyiOULATION.f 
 
 Name. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 Gold Coin. 
 
 Silver Coin. 
 
 Total Specie. 
 
 Total Specie and 
 Paper. 
 
 Per Capita. 
 
 
 Full Value. 
 
 \ 
 Full Value. 
 
 Subsidiary. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Austria .... 
 
 Sept. 30, '81 . . 
 
 $295,611,687 
 
 $60,000,000 
 
 $40,000,000 
 
 
 ||$90,400,000 
 
 $386,011,587 
 
 $7.83 
 
 $2.39 
 
 Columbia . . . 
 
 Aug.-,'79. . . 
 
 1,896,243 
 
 600,000 
 
 
 $4,000,000 
 
 4,500,000 
 
 6,396,343 
 
 64 
 
 1.53 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Haytl . . 
 
 India 
 
 Japan . . 
 Mexico . . 
 Pern .... . 
 Russia ... 
 Tripoli 
 
 
 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 1,016,000,000 
 
 60,661,878 
 
 40,000,000 
 
 1,819,933 
 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 1,016,000,000 
 
 150,514,016 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 1,882,018 
 
 1119,209,784 
 
 5,060,000 
 
 1,070,874,880 
 
 297,802,697 
 
 61,600,000 
 
 14,980,838 
 
 245,446,784 
 
 ■ '.29' 
 
 4.38 
 
 .16 
 
 4.84 
 
 1.45 
 
 8.74 
 
 Jan. — , '81 . 
 June 30, 'SO . . 
 Nov. — , '79 . . 
 Mar. — , '79 . 
 Aug. 31, '81 . . 
 
 65,874,880 
 
 147,288,681 
 
 1,600,000 
 
 13,098,820 
 
 {126,237,000 
 
 '99',852,'l3'8 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 62,086 
 
 119,209,784 
 
 6.31 
 4.47 
 535 
 .70 
 1.37 
 
 
 . . 
 
 641,606,311 
 
 279,624.007 
 
 1,152,881,811 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 1,436,605,818 
 
 2,078,012,129 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ** No statistics obtainable. || Bank reserve only, f Amounts are those given in the U. S. Mint Report, 1881. % Bank circulation only. The total 
 circulation is given in the U. S. Mint Report for 1880 at $778,514,300. 
 
456 
 
 THE MINES MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The introduction into Germany of the single gold stan- 
 dard instead of the silver standard, which prevailed up to 
 1871, in most of the German States, was decreed by the 
 laws of the 4th of Dec. 1871, and 9th July, 1873. The gold 
 mark is the nfcs part of a pound of gold (of 500 grammes= 
 7.716.25 grains troy) nine-tenths fine, and it is coined into 
 gold pieces of 20, 10, and 5 marks. Silver, nickel and cop- 
 per coins are used as subsidiary coins. 
 
 The total amount of silver coin must not, under the pres- 
 ent laws, exceed ten marks per head of population. Silver 
 money is a tender only to the extent of 20 marks ($4^') ; 
 but these coins are received in payment without limit of 
 amount at the German Imperial and State Treasuries, and 
 can at will, be changed for gold at a certain number of offi- 
 ces appointed for this purpose. 
 
 As it was impossible to withdraw from circulation all at 
 once the former coins of the different States, and also to 
 make the new Imperial money circulate in them suddenly, 
 the lawj in question ' established temporarily a regime like 
 that of the double standard ; and under it the former coins 
 of the States were recognized as legal tender for payment, 
 at the rate of one thaler for three gold marks, a rate which 
 is based on the proportion of 1 to 15^ as the value of the 
 two metals. Up to the end of 1880, the amount of sil- 
 ver withdrawn from circulation on account of the Empire, 
 was 1,080,486,138 marks. 
 
 Of this sum there have been — 
 
 1. Delivered to the mints for coinage of new Imperial 
 silver money. 
 
 Marks. 
 
 (a) On account of the Empire 382,501,331 
 
 (6) On payment of its yaliie (2,034 pounds of fine silver.) .... 183,510 
 
 2. Melted into ingots of silver 697,797,069 marks, which 
 have produced 7,474,644 pounds of fine silver. 
 Of this quantity there have been— 
 
 Pounds of Fine Silver. 
 
 (a) Sold on account of the Empire ... 
 
 (6) Used in coinage of new silver money . . 
 
 Leaving a residue in possession of Government of . 
 
 . 7,102,862 
 . 32,429 
 
 7,135,291 
 389,353 
 
 The sale of these 7,104,896 pounds of silver {i. e., the above 
 7,102,862 plus the 2,034 pounds given to the mints on pay- 
 ment of their value) has realized as follows — 
 
 Year, 
 
 1873 
 1874 
 1876 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 (till May.) 
 
 Total . 
 
 Pounds of Fine 
 Silver Sold. 
 
 106,923,372 
 
 703,685,175 
 
 214,898,694 
 
 1,211,769,204 
 
 2,868,095,533 
 
 1,622,696,403 
 
 377,744,712 
 
 7,104,896,993 
 
 Total in MarkH 
 
 Per Pound of 
 Fine Silver in 
 Marks. 
 
 9,296,686.77 
 61,136,676.29 
 18,208,449.08 
 93,936,482.37 
 230,424,238.51 
 126,203.862.08 
 27,934,417.89 
 
 *667,139,992.99 
 
 Pit . 
 Ounce of Stan- 
 dard Stiver in 
 Pence. 
 
 S7.n 
 86.88 
 84.69 
 77.62 
 80 34 
 77.77 
 73.96 
 
 79.82 
 
 59A 
 58k 
 67g 
 52^ 
 54^ 
 
 50 
 
 63}| 
 
 * Value in United States money, $134,978,318.3'', taking the Mark at 23.8 
 cents. The cost of the Monetary Eeform to Germany may be thus stated. 
 
 Marks. 
 7,104,896 pounds of fine silver received into the Treasury, 663,621,109 
 Proceeds of sales of .same as per previous table . . . . 567,139,993 
 
 Loss 96,481,116 
 
 To this must be added the other costs of the reform (mint- 
 age, loss on copper, &c.) . . 29,316,438 
 
 Total 126,797,654 
 
 On the other side must be credited the profits resulting 
 
 from tlie monetary reform (viz; mintage, Ac.) . . 81,758,134 
 
 Net cost of the reform to the Empire 44,069,420 
 
 [t. 6., 810,488.622.] 
 
 The estimated amount of silver yet to be withdrawn, 
 including the bullion balance in the vaults of the 
 Imperial ^Bank, is from 410 to 500 millions of marks. If 
 sales were resumed the Government would only have 
 to get rid of that part of the 410 (or 500) millions of silver, 
 which it could not employ to increase the subsidiary silver 
 money. The Government therefore estimates the amount 
 which would finally be left for sale, at from 337 to 427 mil- 
 lions of marks (i. e. 3,740,000 to 4,740,000 pounds of fine 
 silver). 
 
 [Note. — The authority for the above account of the German Monetary 
 Reform is a paper entitled a "Statement of the Monetary Situation in 
 Germany," submitted by the German Imperial Government at the Inter- 
 national Monetary Convention held in Paris in 1881.] 
 
 Amomit of Silver Withdrawn^ Sold and Beminted by Danish Qovemment. 
 
 Withdrawn $11,397,500 
 
 Sold 6,882,160 
 
 Reminted 4,516,350 
 
 The Demonetization of silver was accomplished October 1, 1876. 
 
 On tHe Production of Gold and Sll-ver. L^Kstimated Production ot tile AVorld. 
 
 Table 1. — Production of Gold and Silver since the discovery of America up to 1879, according to Dr. Soetbeer, of Goitin^en (1879 and 1880). 
 
 
 g 
 
 1 
 
 ANNUAL AVEKAOE PRODVCTION. 
 
 Periods. 
 
 By weight in Kilograms. 
 
 By value in Francs, 
 
 By value in Dollars 
 
 , taking 6 fcs. to SI. 
 
 
 Fine Gold. 
 
 Fine Silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 ■surer. 
 
 1493-1600 
 1601-1700 
 1701-1800 
 1801-1850 
 1861-1879 
 
 108 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 60 
 
 29 
 
 6,990 
 
 9,123 
 
 19,001 
 
 23,698 
 
 187,973 
 
 211,406 
 372,340 
 670,350 
 664,480 
 1,312,300 
 
 24,070,000 
 31,430,000 
 65,440,000 
 81,620,000 
 647,620,000 
 
 46,280,000 
 82,760,000 
 126,720,000 
 146,420,000 
 313,840,000 
 
 4,814,000 
 
 6,286,000 
 
 13,088,000 
 
 16,324,000 
 
 129,504,000 
 
 9,256,000 
 16,650,000 
 26,344,000 
 29,084,000 
 62,768,000 
 
 1493-1879 
 
 387 
 
 
 TOTAL PRODUCTION. 
 
 By WeiglUin Kilograms. 
 
 By Value in France. 
 
 By Value in Dollars. 
 
 Average proportion 
 of the value of 
 
 Fine Gold. 
 
 Fine Silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold and of Sil- 
 vev in Europe, 
 
 7.54,800 
 
 012,300 
 
 1,900,100 
 
 1,184,900 
 
 6,451,200 
 
 22,836,600 
 37,234,000 
 67,036,000 
 32,724,000 
 40,957,000 
 
 2,600,000,000 
 3,143,000,000 
 6,644,000,000 
 4,081,000,000 
 18,778,000,000 
 
 6,074,000,000 
 8,276,(JM),000 
 12,672,000,000 
 7,271,000,000 
 9,101,000,000 
 
 620,000,000 
 628,600,000 
 
 1,308,800,000 
 816,200,000 
 
 3,765,600,900 
 
 1,014,800,000 
 1,656,000,000 
 2,634,400,000 
 1,454,200,000 
 1,820,200,000 
 
 11.05 
 14.00 
 16.00 
 15.07 
 16.86 
 
 10,203,300 
 
 190,785,000 
 
 35,146,000,000 
 
 42,393,000,000 
 
 7,029,200,000 
 
 8,478,600,000 
 
 

 m 
 
 CO 
 
 H 
 m 
 
 3] 
 
 z 
 
 en 
 O 
 m 
 
 z 
 m 
 
 D 
 
 m 
 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 ■D 
 
 > 
 
 30 
 7s 
 
 I 
 
 Q 
 X 
 > 
 
 z 
 
 D 
 O 
 
 Is 
 
 o 
 
 z 
 
 D 
 CO 
 
 H 
 X 
 
 O 
 
 H 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 457 
 
 Production of Gold and Silver since the discovery of America up to 1878, according to Mr. Alexander *Mardle, M. E., formerly Director of the StatiS' 
 
 tical Department of the United States (London, 188U). 
 
 
 Number 
 of Years. 
 
 ANNUAL AVEEAOE PRODUCTION. 
 
 Periods. 
 
 Bi/ Weight in Kilograms. 
 
 By Value in Francs. 
 
 By value in dollars taking 6 francs to $1. 
 
 
 Fme Gold. 
 
 Fine Silver. ' 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 1493-1600 
 1601-1700 
 1701-1800 
 1801-1850 
 1861-1878 
 
 108 
 100 
 100 
 50 
 28 
 
 3,260 
 
 4,760 
 
 20,600 
 
 21,900 
 
 173,300 
 
 139,000 
 275,800 
 419,900 
 602,000 
 1,176,400 
 
 11,200,000 
 16,400,000 
 70,600,000 
 84,600,000 
 597,000,000 
 
 30,200,000 
 
 61,300,000 
 
 93,300,000 
 
 133,800,000 
 
 261,400,400 
 
 2,240,000 
 
 3,280,000 
 
 14,120,000 
 
 16,920,000 
 
 119,400,000 
 
 6,040,000 
 12,260,000 
 18,660,000 
 26,760,000 
 84,280,000 
 
 1493-1878 
 
 386 
 
 
 TOTAL PRODUCTION. 
 
 By Weight in Kilograma. 
 
 Bij Value in Francs. 
 
 Bi/ Value in Dollars. 
 
 Fine Gold. 
 
 Fine Silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Sdver. 
 
 352,400 
 
 475,600 
 
 2,060,000 
 
 1,096,600 
 
 4,863,400 
 
 16,012,000 
 27,680,000 
 41,996,000 
 30,105,000 
 32,944,000 
 
 1,214,000,000 
 1,640,000,000 
 7,063,000,000 
 4,231,000,000 
 16,716,000,000 
 
 3,336,000,000 
 6,129,000,000 
 9,333,000,000 
 6,689,000,000 
 7,320,000,000 
 
 242,800,000 
 328,000,000 
 
 1,412,600,000 
 846,200,000 
 
 3,343,000,000 
 
 667,200,000 
 1,226,800,000 
 1.866,600,000 
 1,337,800,000 
 1,404,000,000 
 
 8,828,300 
 
 147,636,000 
 
 30,863,000,000 
 
 32,807,000,000 
 
 6,172,600,000 
 
 6,661,400,000 
 
 ' So in B. C. Tupp's Report of the Proceedings of tlis Paris Conference, probably a misprint for Del Mar. 
 
 Production of Gold and Silver for the years 
 chard. Director of the U. S. Mint, (1881 
 
 named, as given by Mr. Bur- 
 
 
 By Weight in Kilograms. 
 
 By Value 
 
 in DoUara. 
 
 
 Gold.- 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 1877 . . 
 
 1878 
 
 1879 . . 
 
 1880 
 
 171,453 
 179,175 
 161,679 
 160,984 
 
 2,174,610 
 2,282,673 
 2,143,018 
 2,106,966 
 
 113,947,173 
 119,092,786 
 107,385,421 
 106,989,846 
 
 81,040,665 
 94,882,177 
 80,080,680 
 87,643,072 
 
 Note Explanatory of the Foregoing Tables. — Last j-ear we 
 gave in these notes the estimates of Gold and Silver Pro- 
 duction, published in the Report of United States Monetary 
 Commission (1877). This year, for purpose of comparison, 
 we present the estimates submitted to the International 
 Monetary Conference held at Paris in 1881. They will be 
 found to differ somewhat one from the other, as well as from 
 the estimates made by Mr. DelMar, and this leads us to re- 
 mark, that, at the best, the figures of gold and silver pro- 
 duction must be looked upon as careful estimates, made 
 from the best obtainable data, in the manner more fully set 
 forth in Note D, rather than exact statements of facts. 
 
 II.- 
 
 -Production of Gold and Silver in the United States, according to the 
 Mint Reports of 1874 and 1881. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 1843 
 
 $10,000,000 
 
 »60,000 
 
 1865 
 
 $53,225,000 
 
 $11,250,000 
 
 1849 
 
 40,000,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 1866 
 
 63,600,000 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 1850 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 1867 
 
 61,726,000 
 
 13,600,000 
 
 1851 
 
 65,000,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 1868 
 
 48,000,000 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 1862 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 1869 
 
 49,600,000 
 
 13,000,000 
 
 1853 
 
 65,000,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 1870 
 
 50,000,000 
 
 16,000,000 
 
 1854 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 1871 
 
 43,500,000 
 
 22,000,000 
 
 1855 
 
 56,000,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 1872 
 
 36,000,000 
 
 25,760,000 
 
 1856 
 
 56,000,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 1873 
 
 36,000,000 
 
 36,750,000 
 
 1857 
 
 65,000,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 *1874 
 
 33,490,902 
 
 37,324,594 
 
 1858 
 
 50,000,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 1875 
 
 33,467,856 
 
 31,727,560 
 
 1859 
 
 50,000,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 1876 
 
 39,929,166 
 
 34,783,016 
 
 1860 
 
 46,000,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 1877 
 
 46,897,390 
 
 39,793,573 
 
 1861 
 
 43,000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 1878 
 
 51,206,360 
 
 45,281,386 
 
 1862 
 
 89,200,000 
 
 4,600,000 
 
 1879 
 
 38,899,858 
 
 40,812,132 
 
 1863 
 
 40,000,000 
 
 8,500,000 
 
 1880 
 
 36,000,000 
 
 39,200,000 
 
 1864 
 
 46,100,000 
 Total, 18 
 
 11,000,000 
 
 1881 
 
 36,500,000 
 
 42,100,000 
 
 
 48-1881 
 
 1,567,141,532 
 
 501,072,260 
 
 Total Gold and Silver, 82,058,213,792. 
 
 * 1874-1881 Fiscal Years ending June 30. 
 
 Note.— The figures presented under this head last year, were taken 
 
 from the Report of the United States Monetary Commission (1877) as 
 
 compiled by Mr. Alexander DelMar. - 
 
 For the purpose of comparison, we now present the fig- 
 ures given in the Mint Reports. We do not attempt to ex- 
 plain the evident discrepancy between the two statements. 
 The present director, Mr. Burchard, in his " Special Report 
 to Congress on the Production of the Precious Metals in the 
 United States," (1880), says of the estimates from 1848 to 
 1873, inclusive, which were prepared by R. W. Raymond, 
 U. S. Commissioner of Mining Statistics, "I am unable at 
 present to review the data from which this table was pre- 
 pared, or to vouch for its accuracy." 
 
 C. — On tlie ConsnmptloiL oi Gold and Silver. 
 
 /. By India and the East. Excess of Imports of Silver. 
 
 Year. 
 
 1836 
 1837 
 1838 
 1839 
 1840 
 1841 
 1842 
 1843 
 1844 
 1846 
 1846 
 1847 
 1848 
 1849 
 1860 
 1851 
 1862 
 1853 
 1864 
 1865 
 1866 
 1867 
 1868 
 
 Net Imports. 
 
 $8,069,480 
 
 6,694,410 
 
 9,834,720 
 
 13,225,660 
 
 8,252,365 
 
 7,008,360 
 
 6,416,140 
 
 14,762,225 
 
 18,477,210 
 
 9,942,805 
 
 3,662,860 
 
 6,891,245 
 
 2,470,965 
 
 1,569,620 
 
 6,368,035 
 
 10,586,126 
 
 14,326,785 
 
 23,026,120 
 
 11,628,720 
 
 148,000 
 
 40,971,875 
 
 66,366,235 
 
 61,094,740 
 
 Year. 
 
 1869 
 1860 
 1861 
 1862 
 1863 
 1864 
 1866 
 1866 
 1867 
 1868 
 1869 
 1870 
 1871 
 1872 
 1873 
 1874 
 1876 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 
 Net Imports. 
 
 $38,641,710 
 56,737,815 
 26,640,046 
 46,432,280 
 62,750,776 
 6.3,983,695 
 60,398,990 
 93,343,365 
 34,816,370 
 27,969,805 
 43,006,110 
 36,601,685 
 
 4,709,685 
 32,564,135 
 
 3,623,220 
 12,266,915 
 23,211,010 
 
 7,776,775 
 36,994,360 
 73,381,670 
 10,853,400 
 
 //. Am(yunt in use as Coin in Thirty-one of the Principal Countries of the world 
 as estimated by the Director of the Mint, in his la^ Annual Seportj at — 
 
 Silver— Full value $2,116,169,997 
 
 Subsidiary 423,787,978 
 
 Total Silver $2,638,967,975 
 
 Gold . . 3,221,223,971 
 
 Grand Total $5,760,181,946 
 
 These figures do not include the circulation of China, 
 which must be large, but of which it is impossible to make 
 a reliable estimate. 
 
 III. Amount Annually used in the Arts as Estimated by the Director of the Mint 
 (1881) at— 
 
 Silver. . . $35,000,000 
 
 Gold $76,000,000 
 
458 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AINO MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 On the Stock or 6old and SUver now In the tVorld. 
 
 Estimates of the production of the precious metals since the discovery 
 of America, and of the stock in existence before that event (compiled 
 from various sources), by R. B. Chapman (1881), and submitted to the 
 Paris Conference. 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 tbs. Troy. 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 Lbs Troy. 
 
 In existence in 1492* 
 
 87,870 
 
 235,420 
 
 3,222,395 
 
 8,633,833 
 
 Produced elsewhere than in 
 Extra Asia, 1493-1848*. . . 
 
 Produced in Extra- Russian 
 Asia, 1493-1847* ... . 
 1849-1850* 
 
 4,415,498 
 
 1,288,768 
 102,515 
 
 11,829,856 
 
 3,452,827 
 274,656 
 
 134,660,078 
 
 3,107,309 
 2,971,5.39 
 
 360,750,000 
 
 8,325,000 
 5,660,000 
 
 ■ Total 1493-1850 
 
 1851-1875t 
 
 1876-18781 .... 
 
 5,806,781 
 
 4,821,775 
 
 410,062 
 
 15,567,339 
 12,918,339 
 1,098,626 
 
 139,828,926 
 
 31,003,825 
 
 5293,934 
 
 374,625,000 
 83,064,414 
 14,183,333 
 
 Grand Total 
 
 11,126,488 
 
 29,809,724 
 
 179,349,080 
 
 480,606,080 
 
 Values in sterling money in 1878 : Gold £1,619,482,000 
 
 Silver at SOd. an oz. troy . 1,298,665,000 
 At 60(J. ditto . . 1,558,398,000 
 
 *Tooke and Newmareh, Vol. VI., pp. 141, 142, 150, 231. 
 tSoetbeer, Production of the Precious Metals (1879). 
 JSir Hector Hay, Statistical Society's Journal, 1879, p. 436. 
 
 Note. — All the authorities who have shared in the compi- 
 lation of these statistics concur in the warning that the fig- 
 ures, especially before 1848, must be taken with reserve. 
 They are in fact, at the best, only guesses carefully made by 
 competent observers, after examining all kinds of data. 
 
 Even as such they are open to the following criticisms 
 and remarks : 
 
 I. The estimate of the metal already won in 1492, avow- 
 edly, only includes the stock in Europe, Russia in Asia, and 
 Mediterranean Africa. It does not include the stores already 
 won from the earth in America, Asia and the rest of Africa. 
 Even the European stock seems probably much under-esti- 
 mated ; and it is likely that the Asian store was already 
 large. 
 
 II. The estimate of the produce of Extra-Russian Asia 
 between 1493 and 1847 is by a Russian authority, M. Otres- 
 chkoff. It does not apparently include India or Japan ; yet 
 there are indications that the production of gold in India 
 may, in the past, have been considerable. 
 
 III. The statistics since 1847 apparently include little or 
 nothing for Extra-Russian Asia; and the greater part of 
 Africa is thoroughly excluded. But Jacob speaks of consid- 
 erable produce in Africa, and values the produce of Asia in 
 gold at £1,235,000 a-year, and in silver at £165,000 (Jacob, 
 On the Precious Metals [1831] chapter xxvii). Otreschkoff 
 estimated the gold production of China at £600,000 a-year, 
 and of Sumatra, Java, Borneo and the Archipelago at £2,- 
 400,000, and the silver production of China at £188,000 
 a-year (Tooke and Newmareh, vol. vi., p. 762). Chevalier 
 estimated the yearly produce, before 1865, of Extra-Russian 
 Asia and the Asiatic Archipelago and Africa at no less than 
 80,000 kilos, of gold (nearly £11,000,000), and 500,000 kilos, 
 of silver (about £4,300,000) {Money, edition 1866, p. 557). 
 
 IV. On the other hand, the figures in this Table since 
 1492 allow for no waste and no losses, as for example, by 
 shipwrecks, fires, forgotten hoards, and the like. Perhaps, 
 these several omissions may be set against each other, and 
 the weight of the precious metals now in existence estima- 
 ted as follows : 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver . 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 . 11,200,000 
 . 179,200,000 
 
 LbB. troy. 
 
 30,000,000 
 480,000,000 
 
 Amount in existence in 1878^ ozs. troy . . 
 Amount produced in 1879 " ... 
 
 1880 " . . 
 
 1881 " ... 
 
 Total in existence at the end of 1881 375,647,034 6,964,311,640 
 
 Gold. Silver. 
 
 360,000,000 6,760,000,000 
 
 5,194,764 68,898,028 
 
 6,176,636 67,706,806 
 
 6,175,635 67,706,806 
 
 Equivalent in gold dollars : Gold $7,763,223,772 
 
 Silver, at 51 +M. an oz. troy (the average 
 value for the year 1881) 6,767,843,025 
 
 Total Gold and Silver $14,621,066,797 
 
 The weight of gold in existence— the above estimate being 
 correct — is to the weight of silver as : — 1 : 15.88. 
 
 The average ratio of the market value of gold to silver for 
 the year 1881 was as 1 : 18.24. 
 
 On the Relative Value of Gold to Silver. — 
 
 Table 1.— As stated by Lord Liverpool in his letter to the King of 
 England. 
 
 In Persia, according to Herodotus ... 1 : 11| 
 
 In Greece, at same period ... . ... . . . • 1 : 13 
 
 In Greece, in the time of Plato 1 : 12 
 
 In Greece, it is stated by Xenophon at 1 : 10 
 
 After the plunder of gold from the temple of Apollo, accord- 
 ing to Menander, it wa^ ... . . 1 : 10 
 
 In the reign of Alexander the Great, it was 1 : 10 
 
 In Rome, according to Pliny the elder .... .... 1 : 1453 
 
 •In Rome, after the tribute from the Italians 1 : 10 
 
 The plunder of gold from the Gauls by Julius Cie^ar, reduced 
 
 the propornons to 1 : 7J^ 
 
 In the reign of Claudius, Tacitus states it at . . . . . . 1 : 12j| 
 
 Until the reign of Alexander Severus, it continued . ... 1 : 1Z}| 
 
 In the reign of Constantino the Great 1 : lOJ^ 
 
 The disorders in the Roman Empire under Arcadius and 
 
 Honorius, raised it to 1 : 14| 
 
 From which it appears that gold, unless when depressed by 
 sudden and unusual occurrences or enhanced by a dread 
 of public insecurity, may be stated to have been for up- 
 wards of nine hundred years, in the proportion of . . 1 : 10 or 13 
 
 Table 2. — According to Dr. O. J. Broch, International Monetary 
 Conference, 1878. 
 
 In the middle ages the relation in the price of Gold and 
 that of Silver was from 10 J to 12. 
 
 According to the various monetary laws, this relation 
 should have been : 
 
 In the year 1526, in England . 
 
 1642, '^ 
 
 " " 1551, in Germany . 
 
 1659, 
 " " 1561, in France . 
 " " 1576, " 
 
 1 : 11.30 
 
 1 : 11.10 
 
 1 : 11.17 
 
 1 : 11.45 
 
 1 : 11 70 
 
 1 : 11.68 
 
 It was only after the discovery of the rich mines of Silver 
 at Potosi in 1545, and still more after the invention of the 
 method of cold amalgamation in 1557, that Silver began to 
 fall as compared with Gold. 
 
 According to monetary laws, the relation was : — 
 In the ye 
 
 1604, in Great Britain 
 
 
 12.16 
 
 1612, " 
 
 
 13.20 
 
 1619, " ... 
 
 
 13.35 
 
 1640, in France .... . . 
 
 
 13.61 
 
 16G7, in Germany 
 
 
 14.16 
 
 1669, " 
 
 
 15.11 
 
 1670, in Great Britain 
 
 
 14.50 
 
 
 
 16.00 
 
 1685, " 
 
 15.10 
 
 According to the Exchanges quoted at Hamburg, with 
 reference to Dutch Ducats, the following relation is calcu- 
 lated : — 
 
 But these estimates probably err in the direction of being 
 too low. Adopting these figures as correct for the end of 
 1878, and adding to them the amounts estimated to have been 
 produced in 1879 and 1880, according to Mr. Burchard, in the 
 Mint Report, 1881, and assuming that the production for 
 1881 approximated that of 1880, we arrive at the following 
 figures as the amount of the precious metals in existence at 
 the end of 1881 : 
 
 1687-1700, average 
 1701-1720, 
 1721-1740, " 
 
 1 : 14.97 I 1741-1709, average ... 1 : 14.74 
 1 : 16.21 179'.l-1800, " . . . 1 ; 15.42 
 
 1 ; 15.08 I 
 
 In the XlXth century the relation of the price of gold and 
 that of silver, has been in the London market : — 
 
 1801-1811, average 
 1811-1820, 
 1821-1830, " 
 
 1 : 15.60 
 1 : 16.61 
 1 : 16.80 
 
 1831-1840, average 
 1841-1850, 
 
 1 : 15.07 
 1 : 15.83 
 
 After the discovery, in 1848, of rich gold beds in Califor- 
 nia, and later in Australia, the relation in the London mar- 
 ket was : — 
 
 I860, average 
 
 1851, 
 
 1862, " 
 
 1853, 
 
 1864, 
 
 1866, 
 
 1860, " 
 
 1867, 
 
 1858, " 
 
 1 : 16.70 
 
 1 : 15.46 
 
 1 ; 15.69 
 
 1 : 16.33 
 
 1 : 15..33 
 
 1 : 15.30 
 
 1 : 16.33 
 
 1 : 15.29 
 
 1 : 15.36 
 
 1859, average . . . 
 
 
 15.21 
 
 I860, " ... 
 
 
 15.27 
 
 1861, " ... 
 
 
 16.50 
 
 1862, " . . 
 
 
 15.35 
 
 1863, 
 
 
 15.38 
 
 1864, " . . 
 
 
 15.35 
 
 1865, 
 
 
 • 16.46 
 
 1860, 
 
 
 : 15.41 
 
 After the discovery of rich silver mines in California, in 
 Nevada, Arizona, and Colorado, the price of silver began to 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 459 
 
 fall, and the fall was accelerated by the introduction of the 
 Gold Standard in the place of the Silver Standard in Ger- 
 many in 1872, and in the Scandinavian countries in 1873. 
 The relation of Gold to Silver in the London Market 
 
 was: — 
 
 In the year 186T, average . 1 : 16.67 
 
 " 1868, " 1 : 15.60 
 
 " 1869, " . 1 : 16.60 
 
 " 1870, " . 1 : 16.68 
 
 1871, " 1 : 15.68 
 
 " 1872, " . 1 : 16.63 
 
 In the 
 
 le year 1873, average . 1 : 16.92 
 
 " 1874, " 1 : 16.17 
 
 1875. " 1 : 16.68 
 
 1875, 
 187B, 
 1877, 
 
 1 : 16.68 
 . 1 : 17.48 
 . 1 : 17.01 
 
 The lowest price of Silver in rslation to Gold was reached 
 in July, 1876 ; the price of Silver, a fine, had then fallen in 
 London to 4G|d. per ounce, a price which corresponds with 
 the relation of 20.17 between the price of Gold and that of 
 Silver of the same fineness. 
 
 Relation of the price of Gold to that of Silver according to the 
 Monthly Average Price of Silver in the London Marlcet, submitted to 
 the Paris Conference (1881) by Dr. O. J. Broch. 
 
 1845 
 1816 
 1847 
 1848 
 1849 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 1864 
 1856 
 1866 
 1867 
 1858 
 1869 
 1860 
 1861 
 1862 
 1863 
 1864 
 1865 
 1866 
 1867 
 
 1870 
 
 1871 
 
 1872 
 
 1873, 
 
 1874 
 
 1875 
 
 1876 
 
 1877 
 
 1878 
 
 1879 
 
 1880 
 
 15.86 
 15.90 
 15.68 
 16.95 
 16.97 
 16.82 
 16.30 
 15.52 
 15.36 
 15.27 
 15.33 
 1S.40 
 16.19 
 16.35 
 16.24 
 16.18 
 16,38 
 16.:)6 
 16.29 
 15.23 
 15.33 
 16.32 
 15.49 
 15.62 
 16.63 
 16.57 
 15.57 
 15.60 
 15.75 
 16.05 
 16.38 
 16.98 
 16.36 
 17.53 
 18.84 
 17.96 
 
 15.92 
 16.92 
 16.62 
 16.90 
 16.78 
 16.82 
 
 15 82 
 16.69 
 
 16 38 
 16.29 
 15.32 
 15.38 
 1.5.24 
 16,27 
 15.27 
 16.19 
 11.41 
 15.32 
 16.33 
 16 33 
 15.36 
 16.43 
 16.53 
 15.69 
 16.49 
 16.60 
 15.68 
 15.45 
 15.76 
 16.05 
 16.42 
 17.38 
 16.54 
 17.38 
 18.88 
 18.06 
 
 ^ 
 
 16.96 
 15.92 
 15.62 
 16.93 
 15.72 
 15.82 
 16.33 
 16.62 
 16.36 
 16.26 
 15.36 
 16.47 
 16.27 
 16.32 
 15.26 
 16.18 
 15.24 
 15.38 
 15.33 
 15.33 
 16.41 
 16.47 
 16.62 
 15.54 
 15.57 
 15.59 
 16.61 
 15.51 
 15.76 
 16.00 
 16.61 
 17.67 
 17.16 
 17.30 
 19.03 
 18.14 
 
 16.22 
 15.98 
 16.98 
 15.97 
 15.76 
 16.82 
 15.43 
 16.76 
 16.41 
 16.27 
 16.43 
 15.43 
 16.33 
 15.33 
 15.12 
 15.30 
 15.43 
 16.40 
 16.38 
 16.46 
 15.64 
 16.32 
 15.56 
 1.5.59 
 15.66 
 16.60 
 16.66 
 15.68 
 15.82 
 16.06 
 16.61 
 17.80 
 17.42 
 17.62 
 18.47 
 16.09 
 
 16.98 
 15.98 
 16.97 
 16.85 
 16.82 
 16.82 
 16.43 
 16.73 
 16.46 
 16.36 
 16.33 
 16.43 
 16.26 
 16.33 
 15.19 
 15.40 
 16.67 
 15.33 
 15.35 
 15.40 
 15.57 
 16.19 
 16.69 
 16.62 
 16.68 
 16.60 
 15.63 
 15.70 
 16.88 
 16.06 
 16.74 
 17.24 
 17.69 
 17,76 
 18.18 
 17.97 
 
 >^ 
 16.96 
 16.97 
 15.92 
 15 85 
 16.82 
 16.78 
 15.52 
 16.64 
 16.36 
 16.36 
 16.33 
 15.40 
 15.29 
 15.44 
 15.13 
 15.44 
 15.67 
 16.46 
 15.44 
 16.41 
 16.56 
 15.35 
 16.59 
 15.61 
 16.64 
 16.45 
 15.57 
 16.68 
 16.90 
 16.96 
 16.90 
 19.59 
 17.44 
 17.92 
 18.18 
 17.90 
 
 16.88 
 15.95 
 15.73 
 15.77 
 15.77 
 16.73 
 16.49 
 15.62 
 15,30 
 15.40 
 16,33 
 16,36 
 15.24 
 16.47 
 16.21 
 16.36 
 15.64 
 15.41 
 15.46 
 16.38 
 15.64 
 16.67 
 16.60 
 16.64 
 16.64 
 16.69 
 15.54 
 15.68 
 16.96 
 16.26 
 16.76 
 18.07 
 17.42 
 17.97 
 18.29 
 17.90 
 
 ,8' 
 to 
 
 16.88 
 
 15.96 
 
 16.78 
 
 16.78 
 
 16.80 
 
 16.72 
 
 16.67 
 
 15.62 
 
 15.21 
 
 16.36 
 
 16.29 
 
 16.24 
 
 16.32 
 
 15.61 
 
 15.27 
 
 15.30 
 
 15.67 
 
 10.38 
 
 16.43 
 
 16.33 
 
 15.61 
 
 16.61 
 
 16.63 
 
 16.66 
 
 15.60 
 
 15.62 
 
 16 62 
 
 15.61 
 
 16.00 
 
 16.32 
 
 16.63 
 
 18.21 
 
 17.32 
 
 18.33 
 
 18.29 
 
 18.02 
 
 15.82 
 16.92 
 15.92 
 16.77 
 16.88 
 15.65 
 1.5.66 
 15.49 
 16.40 
 16.40 
 15.36 
 15.21 
 16.26 
 16.40 
 16.21 
 15.29 
 16.52 
 15.33 
 15.38 
 16.46 
 15.44 
 15.46 
 15.61 
 16.64 
 16.61 
 15.59 
 15.60 
 16.70 
 16.06 
 10.33 
 16.66 
 17.96 
 17.13 
 18.71 
 18.11 
 18.11 
 
 15.80 
 16.73 
 16.95 
 16.83 
 16.85 
 16.62 
 16.82 
 16.32 
 16.14 
 16.36 
 16.41 
 16.15 
 15.29 
 16.29 
 16.21 
 15.32 
 15.47 
 15.21 
 15.35 
 16.47 
 16.10 
 15.47 
 16.66 
 16.69 
 16.59 
 15.66 
 16.50 
 15.86 
 16.20 
 16,26 
 16.61 
 17.60 
 17.30 
 18.66 
 17.66 
 18.22 
 
 15.92 
 16.68 
 15.96 
 15.85 
 15.85 
 15.33 
 15.62 
 16.35 
 15.27 
 16.32 
 15.36 
 15.18 
 15.26 
 15.30 
 15.21 
 15.35 
 16.48 
 16.29 
 15.35 
 15.39 
 16.32 
 16.49 
 15.61 
 15.54 
 16.59 
 15.58 
 15.62 
 15.79 
 16.26 
 16.40 
 16.74 
 16.66 
 17.20 
 18.87 
 17.94 
 18.19 
 
 1^ 
 
 15.93 
 15.91 
 16.82 
 15.87 
 16.81 
 16.72 
 15.46 
 16.68 
 16.33 
 16.33 
 16.36 
 16.34 
 16.27 
 16.36 
 16.21 
 15.30 
 16.48 
 15.36 
 16.38 
 16.39 
 15.43 
 16.44 
 16.57 
 15.61 
 15.60 
 15.60 
 16.58 
 15.64 
 15.93 
 16.16 
 16.63 
 17.80 
 17.19 
 17.96 
 18.39 
 18.06 
 
 According to Dr. SoStbeer of Gdttingen, (1879 and 1880). 
 
 Table Showing the Value of the Standard Silver Dollar in U. S. Gold 
 Coin, also the Relative Value of Gold to Silver, based on the yearly 
 average Price of Silver in the London Market, 1860-1881. 
 
 
 Price of SUver 
 
 
 
 
 per oz.f U. S. Siavdardf 
 
 Value of a Silver 
 
 
 Dale. 
 
 It. e., 480 grains 
 Ji/ia, Fine) 'in U. S. 
 
 Dollar oftlihi Grains, 
 
 Bel itive Value of 
 
 
 ^S Mne, in U. S. 
 
 Gold to Silver. 
 
 
 Gold Coin. 
 
 Gold Cknn. 
 
 
 
 VenU. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 
 1860 . . 
 
 121.70 
 
 104.68 
 
 1 : 16.28 
 
 1861 . . 
 
 119.98 
 
 103.10 
 
 1 : 15.60 
 
 1862 . . 
 
 121.21 
 
 104.10 
 
 1 : 16.35 
 
 1863 . . 
 
 121.09 
 
 104.06 
 
 1 : 15.36 
 
 1864 . . 
 
 121.09 
 
 104.00 
 
 1 : 15.36 
 
 1866 . . 
 
 120.47 
 
 103 63 
 
 1 : 16.44 
 
 1866 . . 
 
 120.59 
 
 lli3,63 
 
 1 : 16.42 
 
 1867 . . 
 
 119.48 
 
 102.67 
 
 1 : 16.57 
 
 1868. . 
 
 119.36 
 
 102..57 
 
 1 : 16.58 
 
 ' 1809 . . 
 
 119.24 
 
 102.47 
 
 1 : 15.60 
 
 i 1870 . . 
 
 119.48 
 
 102.67 
 
 1 : 16.67 
 
 1871. . 
 
 119.36 
 
 102.57 
 
 1 : 16.58 
 
 1872. . 
 
 118.99 
 
 102.25 
 
 1 : 15.63 
 
 *1873 . . 
 
 116.90 
 
 100.46 
 
 1 : 16.91 
 
 tl874. . 
 
 116.04 
 
 98.86 
 
 1 : 16.17 
 
 11875 . . 
 
 112.21 
 
 96.43 
 
 1 : 10.58 
 
 111876. . 
 
 104.07 
 
 89.22 
 
 1 : 17.87 
 
 1877. . 
 
 108.01 
 
 92.83 
 
 1 ! 17.22 
 
 **1878 . . 
 
 103.82 
 
 89.21 
 
 1 .• 17.92 
 
 111879. . 
 
 101.07 
 
 86.86 
 
 1 : 18.40 
 
 gl880 . . 
 
 103.06 
 
 88.67 
 
 1 : 18.02 
 
 al881. . 
 
 101.97 
 
 87.63 
 
 1 : 18.24 
 
 •Germany, Denmark, Sweden and tJiP United States demonetize silver. 
 
 t The Latin Union agree to limit their silver coinage exclusively to sub- 
 sidiary coins. 
 ■ X Holland determines to coin silver only on Government account. 
 
 II Spain stops silver coinage except on Government account 
 
 **The United States remonetize silver, again adopting the double 
 standard. 
 
 If The Latin Union renewed for another term of years. 
 
 « Germany contemplating the remonetization of silver. Japan adopts 
 pilver as a_ptandard. 
 
 a Paris Monetary Conference adjourns, (without Uefluite action), to 
 April, 1882. 
 
 108 years 1:11.5. 
 
 100 years, 1 : 14.00 
 
 100 years, 1 : 16.00 
 
 60 years, 1:16.7 
 
 29 years, 1 : 16.85 
 
 1493-1620 . 
 1521-1644 . 
 1646-1560 . 
 1661-1680 . 
 1581-1600 . 
 1601-1620 . 
 1621-1640 . 
 1641-1660 . 
 1661-1680 . 
 1681-1700 . 
 1701-1720 . 
 1721-1740 . 
 1741-1760 . 
 1761-1780 . 
 1781-1800 . 
 1801-1810 . 
 1811-1820. 
 1821-1830 . 
 1831-1840. 
 1841-1860 . 
 1861-1855 . 
 1866-1860. 
 1861-1866 . 
 1866-1870 . 
 1871-1876 . 
 1876-1879 . 
 
 . 28 . 
 .24. 
 . 16 . 
 . 20. 
 .28 . 
 
 .20. 
 .?0. 
 . 20. 
 
 .20 . 
 . 20. 
 . 20. 
 . 20. 
 . 20. 
 .10. 
 . 10 . 
 . 10. 
 .10. 
 
 .10. 
 6. 
 6. 
 6. 
 6. 
 6. 
 4. 
 
 . . .11.3 
 
 . . . 11.2 
 . . 11.3 
 
 . . .11-7 
 . . 119 
 
 . .13.0 
 . .13.4 
 .13.8 
 .14.7 
 . 16.0 
 . 16.2 
 .16.1 
 .14.8 
 . 14.8 
 . 16.1 
 . 16.0 
 .16.5 
 .16.8 
 .15.7 
 .15.8 
 .16.4 
 . 16.3 
 .16.4 
 .15.6 
 .16.0 
 .17.4 
 
 III.— Table Showing the Average price of Silver for the Years in which 
 tile various Loan Acts of the United States were Passed. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Act. 
 
 rriceof Silver 
 
 per oz. 
 
 U.S. Standard 
 
 (i. e., 480 Grains, 
 
 A% Mne) in 
 V. «. Gold Coin. 
 
 Value of a surer 
 
 Dollar o/4ia^ 
 
 Grawu, f^ Fine, 
 
 in V. S. Gold 
 
 Coin. 
 
 March 2, 1861 . . 
 Feb. 8, 1861 . . . 
 July 17, 1861. 
 Aug. 6, 1861 . . . 
 March 3, 1863 . . 
 March .3, 1865 . . 
 July 1,1862 . . 
 July 2, 1864 . . . 
 March 3, 1864 
 March 18, 1869. . 
 
 July 14, 1870. . . 
 
 Jan. 20,1871. . . 
 Jan. 14, 1876. . . 
 
 Oregon War Loan. 
 
 lsix)( Bonds of 1881. 
 
 Six jf Bonds of 1881. 
 Five Twenties. 
 Currency Sixes, 
 do do \ 
 Ten Forties. f 
 Public Credit Act. 
 (Five* of 1881.1 
 ■^4><^of 1891. y 
 (.Four)* of 1907. J 
 do do 
 Resumption Act. 
 
 119.98 
 
 119,98 
 
 121.09 
 120.47 
 121.21 
 
 121.09 
 
 119.24 
 
 119.48 
 
 119.36 
 112.21 
 
 103.10 
 
 103.10 
 
 10-1.06 
 103.62 
 104-16 
 
 104.06 
 
 102,47 
 
 102.67 
 
 102.57 
 96.43 
 
 * Minute on the Standard ortHe UuKed States. 
 
 Act. 
 
 Coins. 
 
 WeigMin 
 
 Troy 
 
 Grains of 
 
 Pure Metal 
 
 in Coined 
 
 Dollar. 
 
 Extent of 
 Legal Tender. 
 
 Legal 
 Belation. 
 
 Approxi- 
 mate 
 London 
 Market 
 
 Belation. 
 
 April 2, 1792. 
 
 Silver dollar. 
 
 371.6 
 
 Unlimjtedl 
 
 
 
 
 t Multiples of 
 Gold dollar. 
 
 24.75 
 
 Do J 
 
 15.00000:1 
 
 14.4:1 
 
 July 31, 1834. 
 
 Silver dollar. 
 
 371.25 
 
 Do ) 
 
 
 
 
 t Multiples of 
 
 
 V 
 
 16.00216:1 
 
 16.7:1 
 
 
 Gold dollar. 
 
 23.20 
 
 Do j 
 
 
 
 July 18, 1837. 
 
 Silver dollar 
 
 371.25 
 
 Do 1 
 
 
 
 
 and fractions.? 
 
 
 > 
 
 15.08837:1 
 
 16.8:1 
 
 
 t Multiples of 
 
 23.22 
 
 Do j 
 
 
 
 
 Gold dollar. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Feb. 24, 1863. 
 
 Silver dollar. 
 
 371.25 
 
 Do 1 
 
 
 
 
 Gold dollar 
 
 
 } 
 
 15.98837:1 
 
 15.3:1 
 
 
 and multiples. 
 
 23.22 
 
 Do ) 
 
 
 
 
 Fractions of 
 
 346.60 
 
 Five Dolls. 
 
 
 
 
 Silver dollar. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Feb. 12, 1873. 
 
 Silver dollar. 
 
 371.25 
 
 (Unlimited 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 < coinage 
 
 V 16.98837:1 
 
 15.9:1 
 
 
 
 
 (.interdicted 
 
 J 
 
 
 Dec. 1, 1873. 
 
 Silver dollar. 
 Fractions of 
 
 371.26 
 
 Five Dolls. 
 
 
 
 
 Silver dollar. 
 
 347.22 
 
 Do 
 
 
 
 
 Silver trade 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 dollar. 
 
 378.00 
 
 Do 
 
 I 
 
 16.2:1 
 
 
 Gold dollar. 
 
 23.22 
 
 Unlimited. 
 
 f 
 
 
 and multiples. 
 
 
 
 ) 
 
 
 July 22, 1876. 
 
 Silver trade 
 
 378.00 
 
 Legal tender 
 character 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 dollar. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 taken avfay. 
 
 Unlimited 
 
 tender. 
 
 
 
 Feb. 28, 1878. 
 
 Silver dollar. 
 Gold dollar 
 
 371.26 
 23.22 
 
 1 16.98837:1 
 
 17.9:1 
 
 
 and multiples. 
 
 
 
 
 
 * From the Report of the United StatesMonetary Commission, 1877. 
 
 t Eagles, half-eagles and quarter- eagles. 
 
 The weights above given are for the amount of pure metal in the coin. 
 All the full value coins are (since 1837) .900 fine, i. e., there is .100 of alloy 
 to -900 of pure metal. The 371.26 of pure silver given in above table is the 
 equivalent of the 412J^ grain dollar of coined silver. 
 
 g Half dollars, quarters, dimes and half dimes. 
 
460 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 HOW MONEY IS MADE. 
 
 ALTHOUGH the United States Mint is a never- 
 failing attraction to visitors, it is probable that 
 but a few obtain more than a very superficial 
 glimpse of the manifold chemical and delicate 
 mechanical manipulations through which the precious 
 metals must pass before evoluting into the noble double 
 eagle or the bright new silver dollar; and it is perhaps 
 with a slight feeling of disappointment that the visitor, 
 after completing the circuit of the operating rooms which 
 are open to public inspection, is ushered into the cabinet of 
 coins, and politely invited by the guide to make himself 
 , perfectly at home, stay as long as he likes, and " look at the 
 coins of all nations and specimens of gold from all parts of 
 the world." It ia with a view of partially satisfying the 
 curiosity which may have been whetted by such a visit that 
 this descriptive article is written, and it is proposed to give 
 the reader a little glimpse behind the scenes, and to initiate 
 him into some of the delicate means by which the noble 
 metals are prepared to receive the impress of the Ameri- 
 can Eagle. The early history of the precious metals 
 forms an exceedingly interesting subject of research, but an 
 attempt to explore this tempting by-path of knowledge 
 would be impossible within the brief space of one article. 
 The precious metals are never found in the pure state, and 
 they are deposited at the mint alloyed with other metals and 
 in a great variety of forms, such as native grains, dust, 
 amalgam, bars or pigs, old jewelry, etc. The mixed metals 
 are known under the generic name of " bullion." The bul- 
 lion is first weighed in the " deposit weigh-room," where 
 several balances are kept for the purpose ; the largest of these 
 will weigh as much as ten thousand ounces in one draught, 
 and the scale will readily turn, even when loaded to its full 
 capacity, with a weight of one-hundredth part of one ounce. 
 The metal is then placed in a box provided with a cover 
 and lock and taken to the " deposit melting room." Here 
 it is put in a crucible which has been previously heated in 
 the melting furnace, and covered with a thin coating of 
 borax, which forms a sort of fluid glass, acting as a hermetic 
 cover to protect the metal, when it is molten from the oxi- 
 dizing influence of the air. A stalwart workman, wearing a 
 pair of large canvas mitts (somewhat resembling boxing- 
 gloves) stands guard, and grasping, with a pair of iron tongs, a 
 rod or stick made of plumbago, he stirs the now fluid mass 
 back and forth, up and down, round and round , for the purpose 
 of rendering it thoroughly homogeneous ; the metal is then 
 cast into an iron mould called a shoe." It is plunged into 
 water to cool, as well as to dissolve ofi" any particles of the 
 borax glass which may have adhered to its surface. It is 
 now returned to the weigh-roora and reweighed. A slight 
 loss in weight usually occurs owing to a practical refining 
 out of the base metals, and the new weight is the amount 
 with which the depositor is credited. Let us suppose that 
 a depositor brings a miscellaneous assortment of old gold ; 
 watch-cases, jewelry, dentist's plates, etc., representing every 
 grade of fineness or proportion of pure gold, desiring to 
 obtain its equivalent in coin. We will follow in imagination 
 the usual course pursued. After the metal has been re- 
 turned from the melting-room (where it was cast into the 
 shoe mould ) and the bar reweighed, a small chip is cut off 
 from one end of the bar and taken to the assay laboratory. 
 
 The Analysis. — The sample is laminated or rolled into 
 a thin ribbon and stamped with the number of the deposit 
 which it represents, it is then assayed to determine the pro- 
 portion of gold, silver, and base metal, and so accurate are 
 the processes of assay, that the exact value of a deposit, 
 frequently aggregating many thousands of dollars in value,. 
 is determined to the fraction of a cent by calculations baaed 
 on the assayer's report. The largest weight which the as- 
 sayer uses in making an analysis of gold bullion is the 
 French half-gramme (or about seven and three-quarter grains 
 Troy). The balances used in this work are marvels of 
 mechanical construction; they are so sensitive that a 
 weight of one-twentieth of a milligramme (less than one- 
 thousandth of a single grain) will cause the indicator needle 
 to deflect a very appreciable distance from the zero point on 
 the graduatedscale marking the equilibrium. These little 
 balances are inclosed in glass cases, provided with sliding 
 
 windows to exclude any draught of air. The beam is 
 usually made of "aluminum, one of the lightest metals, and 
 the knife edges rest on jewels. The weights are made of 
 gold, silver and aluminum, and are graduated from the half 
 gramme, which is arbitrarily denominated " 1,000," down to 
 the ten thousandth degree. The assayer first determines 
 approximately the relative proportions of the metals exist- 
 ing in the alloy, and from this bases his more careful 
 determinations ; he weighs out on the balance exactly one- 
 half gramme, or 1000 parts of the alloy ; he wrapa this in an 
 envelope of pure lead and rolls it into the form of a 
 " bullet." The bullet is then placed in a small "cupel " or 
 cup, made of calcined bone-dust, which has been brought to 
 a white heat in the muffle or oven of the assay furnace. 
 The mass melts immediately, and the lead oxidizes rapidly 
 by absorbing oxygen from the heated air which passes con- 
 tinually over its surface, and on account of the extreme flu- 
 idity of the oxide it sinks into the pores of the cupel, which 
 absorbs it as readily as a sponge absorbs water; the lead also 
 carries with it all the base metals which may be originally 
 combined in the alloy, but the precious metals not being 
 oxidizible, simply melt, and are not so fluid as to be capable 
 of sinking into the cupel. A preparation thus takes place, 
 and at the moment when all the base metal is removed a 
 beautiful " flash " is observed to take place on the surface 
 of the metal; the "button" of purified gold and silver re- 
 sulting from this operation is then removed from the cupel, 
 returned to the balance, and weighed ; the loss indicates the 
 proportion of base metal. Another weighing of the sample 
 is then made, to which is added pure silver in the form of 
 fine granules, in the proportion of about two parts of silver 
 to one of gold, the alloy is enclosed in a sheet of lead and 
 cupelled as before ; the silvery button remaining is lami- 
 nated, coiled into a roll called a " cornet," and boiled in 
 nitric acid. The acid dissolves the silver, leaving a little 
 roll of pure gold. This gold cornet is then annealed in the 
 furnace to give it toughness, and is finally weighed ; this 
 weight represents the proportion of pure gold. The propor- 
 tion of silver is ascertained by subtracting the weight of the 
 pure gold plus the weight of the base metal from the origi- 
 nal weight of the assay sample. Silver was formerly assayed in 
 the same way, but it was long known that the result was not 
 quite accurate, owing to a partial volatilization of the metal 
 when exposed to the high temperature of the fire. Experiments 
 were some years since instituted by the French government 
 to overcome this difliculty, which resulted in the beautiful 
 "humid process"- devised by a celebrated chemist, Gay 
 Lussac. This is one of the most accurate methods known 
 to chemical science, and so complete was Gay Lussac's ori- 
 ginal description that but little room has been left for any 
 improvements, and many thousands of dollars' worth of 
 silver bullion are rapidly and accurately determined every 
 day in the mint in this way. The rationale of Gay Lussac's 
 method is very simple, viz. : a given amount of chlorine gas 
 will precipitate a definite proportion of pure silver from its 
 solution in nitric acid. The assayer prepares two solutions of 
 common salt-water (chloride of sodium) ; one is known as 
 the " normal solution," and the other as the " decimal solu- 
 tion." One begins and the other finishes the assay. The 
 sample of silver to be assayed is weighed out, as in the case 
 of gold, the assayer taking care to place a sufficient weight 
 of the alloy in the scale-pan to contain at least one gramme 
 (a little over fifteen grains) of pure silver; the weighed 
 sample is then placed in a glass bottle, and a charge of nitric 
 acid is added to it ; the acid is caused to boil, and in a short 
 time the silver alloy is completely dissolved. A charge of 
 the normal salt solution is then allowed to flow into the 
 bottle from a glass "pipette," which is made of such a capa- 
 city that it shall contain just enough salt-water to precipi- 
 tiite one gramme of pure silver ; the chlorine in the Sfilt- 
 water conibining instantly with the silver, precipitates it in 
 the form of a white cloud ; the bottle is agitated rapidly for 
 a few moments, when the precipitate settles to the bottom, 
 leaving a clear solution above; the assayer next allows a 
 charge of the " decimal solution," which is one-tenth the 
 strength of the normal solution, to flow into the bottle from 
 a glass tube with graduated divisions, each division mark- 
 ing one hundredth the capacity of the large pipette. If any 
 silver rcMnains in the solution a cloud will be observed on 
 the surface. Now, as this decimal charge is one-tenth the 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 461 
 
 strength and one-hundredth the volume of the large pipette, 
 it will, of course, precipitate just one-thousandth as much 
 silver, or one milligramme. The bottle is again agitated 
 to settle the precipitate, and successive charges of the 
 " decimal solution " are added until all the silver is pre- 
 cipitated, and then a simple rule of three sum gives the 
 exact proportion of pure silver contained in the original 
 weight of the alloy. The assayer guards against all pro- 
 bable sources of error by an elaborate system of checks, and 
 each set of assays is accompanied in all its mutations by one 
 or more " proofs " or synthetic assays, made either from pure 
 metal or from alloys of known composition. After the exact 
 proportions of gold, silver, and base metal constituting the 
 alloy are reported by the assayer to the superintendent the 
 value of the deposit is calculated and the depositor is paid 
 the full equivalent, less the charges for refining, the amount 
 of charges depending, of course, upon the nature of the 
 bullion. 
 
 Hie Refining Process. — ^The metal now passes into the hands 
 of the melter and refiner." We will suppose that the 
 representative deposit that we have already alluded to con- 
 tains a small percentage of base metals, such as tin and lead, 
 which tend to make the alloy brittle or "short," rendering 
 it unfit for coin. The first operation to which it is subjected 
 is intended to eliminate these impurities, and is called 
 " toughening." The metal is melted in a crucible and an 
 oxidizing flux (saltpetre) is added to it while fluid, the 
 saltpetre or niter decomposes and liberates oxygen gas; 
 the oxygen seizes the base metals forming oxides ; these rise 
 to the surface and are dissolved in the flux ; the flux, when 
 sufficiently thick, is skimmed off, and the purified metal, 
 consisting only of gold and silver, is cast into a bar or poured 
 into ice water to form granulations. The next operation is 
 designed to remove the silver ; this is effected by boiling in 
 nitric acid, when the silver dissolves, leaving the gold in a 
 finely divided state. The "plant" used for this purpose 
 consists of a number of large porcelain jars capable of 
 holding about fifty gallons of nitric acid each. These are 
 arranged in a double row and heated by steam pipes ; they 
 are inclosed in a chamber provided with sliding doors to 
 prevent the escape of the noxious fumes, which are carried 
 into a tall chimney from which they issue in a yellowish 
 cloud. The dissolved silver is drawn off by means of a 
 large siphon made of native California gold (valued at three 
 thousand dollars) and transferred to a vat made of wood, 
 resembling those used in breweries.. The vat contains 
 several hundred gallons of salt water, and the silver is pre- 
 cipitated by the chlorine, a workman facilitating the opera- 
 tion by agitating the liquid with a large paddle provided 
 with a long handle. 
 
 The precipitated silver is drawn off into large filters placed 
 on trucks and thoroughly washed by running water until the 
 test of litmus paper shows that all trace of acid has been 
 removed. The chloride of silver now resembles pure white 
 cottage cheese. It is transferred to another vat lined with 
 lead. Zinc (which has been previously granulated by pour- 
 ing while melted into cold water) is added to the silver, 
 together with a little sulphuric acid ; the chlorine deserts 
 the silver for the baser metal, forming a soluble salt of zinc. 
 The solution is allowed to flow off, and the precipitated silver 
 is pressed into round cakes called cheeses, dried in an oven 
 and melted in the furnace ; it is finally cast into a bar, and is 
 found to be uncontaminated with its former base associates. 
 The gold which remained in the porcelain jars is in the 
 form of fine powder, and resembles sifted gravel as nearly as 
 may be. It is also pressed into cheeses, dried, and melted 
 under a covering of borax or charcoal, and is cast into a bar 
 of nearly pure gold. All that now remains for the melter 
 and refiner to do is to weigh out the requisite amount of 
 copper to form the coin standard, which is nine parts of gold 
 or silver (as the case may be) and one part base metal. In 
 other words, our coin standard is nine-tenths fine. The 
 alloy is melted in large crucibles made of plumbago and 
 constantly stirred to render the mass homogeneous. The 
 standard metal is cast into flat bars called ingots, twelve 
 inches long, one-quarter of an inch thick, and from three- 
 quarters to one and a half inches wide ; the ingots are filed 
 to remove the ragged edges, and the rough tops are cut off 
 with large steam shears. Two samples from each melt are 
 assayed, and if the alloy is found to be of the proper fine- 
 
 ness and of uniform composition, they are delivered to the 
 coiner. 
 
 The Mechanical Process. — The coiner transfers the ingots 
 to the rolling mill, and when they have been sufficiently 
 laminated by successive roiling and annealing, the strips are 
 passed through a machine called the "draw bench," for the 
 purpose of reducing them to the exact thickness required 
 for the coin; this operation is similar in principle to the 
 wire drawing, and consists simply in squeezing the flat 
 strips of metal between two stationary steel cylinders set to 
 the desired gauge. The strips are now passed to the cutting 
 press, which consists essentially of a round punch, the size 
 of the "planchet," or blank required for the coin, working 
 up and clown very rapidly into a hole on the steel bed plate. 
 The strips are passed by hand through the press, and the 
 blanks fall into a box below. The unused portion of the 
 strips, or "clippings," is returned to the melter and refiner 
 and remelted. The planchets are next taken to the " adjust- 
 ing room," where may be seen a number of ladies seated at 
 a long table, each one provided with a little balance and a 
 file. Every lady is supplied with a pile of planchets, and 
 she proceeds very deftly to weigh each one against a pro- 
 perly adjusted counter-weight. The planchets that are too 
 light are thrown into a separate pile and returned to the 
 melter and refiner, to be remelted with the clippings, while 
 those that are too heavy are adjusted by filing on the edge. 
 Within a very few years a novel automatic adjusting ma- 
 chine, designed by Mr. Ludwig Seyss, of Vienna, has been 
 introduced for the purpose of facilitating the work and di- 
 minishing the necessity of hand labor. It is an exceed- 
 ingly beautiful and ingenious piece of mechanism, but is too 
 complicated to admit of an intelligible description without 
 the aid of sectional drawings. A description of this instru- 
 ment will be found in the Journal of the Franklin Institute. 
 It not only weighs the blanks automatically, but separates 
 them into three kinds ; those that are too heavy falling into 
 one box, the light ones into another, and those of the right 
 weight into a third. The machine never makes a mistake, 
 and will weigh and assort as many pieces in an hour as five 
 expert ladies can do by hand, but when we consider that 
 there are ten balances in the machine engaged in weighing at 
 the same time, and only five used by the ladies, they must 
 be awarded the palm for expedition. The machine also 
 requires the constant attention of one person to supply the 
 blanks or planchets, and when the additional cost of steam- 
 power and wear and tear of the parts are added to the origi- 
 nal expense of the apparatus, its merit from an economical 
 point of view is not so great as would at first sight appear. 
 The next operation to which the blank pieces are subjected 
 is to impart the raised edge, technically called " milling." 
 The machine used for this purpose is an American invention, 
 and is admirable for its simplicity as well as for the rapidity 
 with which it accomplishes the work. The blanks are fed by 
 an attendant into a tube, and they are drawn horizontally, 
 in single file, through a gradually narrowing channel formed 
 by a groove in the periphery of a rapidly revolving disk on 
 one side, and a stationary segment of corresponding curve 
 on the other, keyed a little closer to the wheel at one end. 
 The blanks are in this way compressed on the rim, acquiring 
 the " milled edge." This machine is capable of milling as 
 many as 1,200 pieces per minute. The blanks are now taken 
 to the pickling vats, where they are immersed for a couple of 
 minutes in weak sulphuric acid for the purpose of removing 
 the black oxide of copper; they are then washed in pure 
 water and placed in a rotating cage filled with sawdust. 
 This rapidly dries the blanks, and when removed to the 
 coining room they have acquired a fiile, bright surface. 
 
 The Coining. — The early methods of coining were exceed- 
 ingly crude and imperfect. The metal was hammered into 
 a thin plate ; pieces of irregular size were cut out and 
 beaten into a bullet shape ; this bullet was placed on a sort 
 of anvil having the reverse die cut upon its face. The 
 obverse die was held in the hand like a punch, and by the 
 aid of a heavy hammer the bullet was flattened out and 
 coined at the same time. There are many interesting speci- 
 mens of this antique coinage to be seen in the mint cabinet. 
 The oldest pieces are to be found in the case devoted to coins 
 of the Greek Republic, dating back to seven centuries before 
 the Christian era. It was not until the middle of the six- 
 teenth century that the forge and hammer were succeeded 
 
462 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 by more scientific methods. In the British mint the coins 
 are struck in the presses worked by a screw ; but we have 
 adopted the admirable invention of a Frenchman, named 
 Thenollier, which has been further improved upon by the 
 skill of a former coiner, the late Mr. Franklin Peale. This 
 machine operates ou the mechanical principle of the " toggle 
 joint" (of which the elbow-joint is a familliar example). 
 It is controlled by a lady who feeds it with the blanks, 
 which she places in a vertical tube. A pair of " feeders " 
 catch the bottom piece and carry it forward, where it rests 
 in the " collar '' between the upper and lower dies ; the lever 
 is now descending with the upper die while the lower die 
 remains fixed ; the pressure increases with perfect unifor- 
 mity up to the maximum, which is equivalent to about ten 
 tons for the dime, 80 tons for the double eagle, and 120 tons 
 for the silver dollar. The pressure gradually decreases 
 again by reason of the relaxation of the upper joint, the 
 lower die pushes the piece out of the collar into which it has 
 expanded, and from which it acquires the " reeded edge." 
 Meanwhile, the feeders have provided another blank, and 
 as they bring it forward they push the coined piece into a 
 channel, through which it slides into a box beneath the ma- 
 chine. The coins are then inspected by the foreman, and 
 any cracked or defective pieces set aside. The larger de- 
 nominations of coin are counted by hand, and the smaller 
 pieces, as well as the "bronze" and "nickels," are numbered 
 by means of a simple and ingenious arrangement called the 
 counting board. After the coins have thus been counted 
 and weighed, they are tied up in linen bags and delivered to 
 the treasurer in drafts of $5,000 each. The accuracy of the 
 adjustment of the weight is so nice that there is rarely a 
 deviation from the true standard weight of as much as one 
 hundredth of an ounce in any delivery of either gold or 
 silver coin. As a final precaution, the assayer is required by 
 law to select at random one coin from every lot of twenty 
 thousand dollars ; these are sealed in envelopes, numbered, 
 and placed in a strong box provided with two locks ; the 
 key of one is kept by the treasurer and the other by the 
 assayer. These sample pieces are called the '" pyx." They 
 remain sealed until the commissioners appointed by the 
 President assemble at the annual " assay " in February of 
 each year to test their purity and weight ; and it has rarely, 
 if ever, happened that any piece has been found to ex- 
 ceed the small limit of " tolerauce " allowed by law. 
 
 The manufacture of the dies for coin requires a high or- 
 der of artistic and mechanical labor, involving "the talent 
 of the designer and the skill of the engraver and sculptor." 
 A detailed description of the processes involved would ne- 
 cessarily extend this article beyond the limits assigned to it. 
 A brief outline must, therefore, suffice. The artist first 
 makes a free sketch on paper, he then models his design in 
 wax upon a glass plate, and it is probably five times the size 
 intended for the coin ; from this he takes a cast in plaster, 
 which serves, when coated with plumbago, as a matrix from 
 which an electrotype in copper is obtained. The electrotype 
 relievo, after being finished by hand, is used as the model 
 from which the steel die is cut by means of a reducing pan- 
 tographic cutting machine, somewhat similar to those used 
 for reproducing designs for steel rolls used in making 
 printed fabrics. A traveling pointer attached to the long 
 arm of a lever is caused to move back and forth over all 
 portions of the raised model, and a steel drill attached to the 
 short arm irj thus caused to cut an intaglio design in a block 
 of steel corresponding in all its details to the model, but re- 
 duced to the proper diameter for the coin ; the stars and let- 
 tering are now added, and the whole is finally touched up 
 by the hand. The intaglio is not used for coining, but from 
 it a relievo called the hub " is made. A block of steel 
 having been softenened by annealing, is placed in a screw 
 press carrying the " hub," and by a succession of blows, 
 followed by frequent annealings, the die from which the 
 coin is to be made is produced. It is possible (owing to the 
 great value of the raw material) to bring the processes in- 
 volved in our gold and silver coinage to the perfection which 
 would not perhaps be found profitable in any ordinary 
 industry, and this fact, together with the national pride 
 which is felt in the matter, should offer encouragement to 
 the invention of all practicable methods of producing per- 
 fect work and preventing losses. 
 
 —A. E. Outerbridge, Jr., in the Scientific American. 
 
 PROCEEDINGS OFTHE ASSAY COMMISSION 
 OF 1882. 
 
 Wednesday, February 8, 1882. 
 
 THE Commissioners appointed by and under the 
 provisions of section 3547 of the Revised Statutes 
 of the United States, met in conformity therewith 
 for the purpose of making the annual trial of the 
 coins reserved at the mints at Philadelphia, San Francisco, 
 Carson, and New Orleans, during the year 1881. The direc- 
 tor of the mint having announced that a quorum was pres- 
 ent, Hon. William Butler, judge of the district court for the 
 eastern district of Pennsylvania, took the chair, and the 
 director's clerk was designated as secretary. The letter of 
 the President appointing the following special commission- 
 ers was then read : 
 
 Hon. William B. Allison, U. S. Senate; Hon. William S. 
 Rosecrans, House of Representatives ; Prof. John Towler, 
 Hobart College, Geneva, N. Y.; Hon. Paul A. Chadbourne, 
 Mass. ; Prof. Chas. E. Munroe, Naval Academy, Annapolis, 
 Md.; Prof. J. E. Hilgard, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey ; 
 Dr. Wm. Pepper, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 
 Pa.; Dr. Le Baron Russell, Boston, Mass. ; Dr. W. P. Law- 
 ver, Assayer, Mint Bureau ; Anthony J. Drexel, Esq., 
 Philadelphia, Pa.; Thomas Donaldson, Esq., Philadelphia, 
 Pa.; Hon. Horatio G. Fisher, chairman of the House Com- 
 mittee on Coinage, &c.; Hon. J. B. Belford, chairman of the 
 House Committee on Expenditures in the Treasury Depart- 
 ment; George W. Chikls, Esq., Philadelphia. Senator 
 Allison, Professor Towler, Doctor Russell, and Mr. Drexel 
 declined the appointment. The ex-officio members of the 
 Commission were Hon. Wm. Butler, judge of the district 
 court of the United States for the eastern district of Pennsyl- 
 vania ; Hon. John Jay Knox, Comptroller of the Currency, 
 and Herbert G. Torrey, Assayer of the U. S. Assay Office at 
 New York. The Director of the Mint and all the members 
 of the Commission who accepted the appointment answered 
 to the roll-call except Hon. J. B. Belford. 
 
 On motion of Mr. Donaldson, the reading of the section 
 of law under which the Commission is constituted, the sev- 
 eral sections bearing upon the duties of the Commissioners, 
 the rules for the organization and government of the Board, 
 and the minutes of the last preceding assay was dispensed 
 with. 
 
 On motion of Professor Hilgard, the chairman appointed 
 and announced the following committee : 
 
 On Counting — Messrs. Donaldson, Fisher, and Pepper. 
 
 The chairman then announced the following committees : 
 
 On Weighing — Messrs. Hilgard, Fisher, Donaldson, 
 Knox, and Childs. 
 
 On Assaying — Messrs. Rosecrans, Torrey, Chadbourne, 
 Pepper, Munro^p, and Lawver. 
 
 On motion of Professor Hilgard, it was ordered that upon 
 the reserved coins being produced, selections should be 
 made by the committees on weighing and assaying of a 
 sufficient number of pieces for their purposes, and the num- 
 ber and dates of the deliveries from which pieces were 
 taken should be minuted, and the selected coins be kept dis- 
 tinct from each other until the examination be completed. 
 The Commission then took a recess subject to the call of the 
 chairman. 
 
 Thursday, February 9, 1882. 
 The Commission convened at 3 p.m., at the call of the 
 chairman, and came to order. Present : Messrs. Butler, 
 Torrey, Rosecrans, Chadbourne, Munroe, Hilgard, Lawver, 
 Donaldson, and the Director of the Mint. The committee 
 on Counting submitted the following report, viz.: 
 
 The Committee on Counting reports that all the packages of 
 reserved coins were opc-ned and counted by it, or in its presence, 
 and that the count verified the respective amounts exhibited by the 
 abstract sheets from the books of the mmts. A sufficient number 
 of each denomination of coin of the coinai;e of the several mints was 
 taken from the ri^siTved coins by the Connnittees on Weighing and 
 Assaying. The remaining coins from all the mints were at once 
 delivered to the Superintendent of the Philadelphia Mint. The 
 coins selected and weighed by the Committee on Weighing have 
 also been delivered to said Superintendent, as well as the bullion 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 463 
 
 made from the coins selected, assayed, or melted by the Committee 
 on Assaying. All the packages oi reserved coins from the several 
 mints delivered to the Assay Commission of 1882, have, after use in 
 the manner provided by law, been returned to and placed in the 
 charge of the Superintendent of the Philadelphia Mint. 
 
 Thomas Donaldson. 
 
 H. G. FiSHEK. 
 
 On motion of Professor Hilgard, the report was adopted. 
 
 The Committee on Weighing submitted the following re- 
 port, viz : The Committee on Weighing beg leave to report 
 that they have concluded the examination intrusted to them 
 in accordance with the order of proceedings adopted by the 
 Commission. Single coins taken at random from the re- 
 served coins of various deliveries throughout the year, kept 
 separate and distinguished as to their origin and date, were 
 accurately weighed; the gold_ coins to tto grain, the silver 
 to yV grain. The aggregate weight of gold coins, similarly 
 selected, but not kept separate, to the amount of $1,000, was 
 also ascertained, as well as that of $100 standard silver dol- 
 lars of each mint. In addition, the standard weights used 
 for the verification of those in constant use in the Mint have 
 been verified by comparison with the verified copy of the 
 troy pound designated by law, (which itself should not be 
 used oftener than once in ten years,) and have been found 
 entirely satisfactory. 
 
 The following are the results of the selected coins : 
 
 Plxlladelpllla gold mass -vvelgllts. 
 
 131 eagles Standard freight ..... , 72.025 oz. 
 
 Actual weight . . 72.023 oz. 
 
 153 half eagles Standard weight .... .... 41,119 oz. 
 
 Actual weight 41.111 oz. 
 
 Plilladelplila — Single pieces. 
 
 ' Denomination, 
 
 Eagles 
 
 Half eagles . 
 
 Date of delivery. 
 
 January 4 . . 
 January 14 . . 
 January 14 
 February 5 . . 
 February 26 . 
 February 28 . 
 March 2 . . . 
 March 7 . . 
 March 28 . . . 
 April 7 . . 
 April 8 . . . . 
 April 27 . . . 
 May 3 . , . . 
 May 11 . . . . 
 May 25 ... . 
 June 2 . 
 June 3 . . . 
 June 27 ... . 
 August 22 
 August 26 . . 
 August 27 
 September 13 . 
 September 15 . 
 September 20 . 
 October 8 . . . 
 October 29 , _ 
 November 4. . 
 November 3D . 
 December,5 . 
 December 7 . 
 December 29 . 
 January 14 . . 
 January 15 . . 
 January 20 . . 
 February 2 . . 
 February 19 . 
 February 28 . 
 March 9 . . 
 March 25 . . . 
 Starch 30 . . . 
 April 5 . . . . 
 April 6 . . . . 
 April 11 ... . 
 April 23 ... . 
 April 25 . . . . 
 May* . . . . 
 May 17 . . . . 
 May-26 . . . . 
 June 6 . 
 June 21 . . . 
 June 27 ... . 
 August 31 . 
 October 12 
 November 9 
 November 17 
 December 8 
 December 22 
 
 Heavy. 
 
 Qraine. 
 
 .19 
 '.12 
 
 .16 
 .04 
 
 .01 
 
 .23 
 .24 
 
 .13 
 .11 ' 
 
 .15 
 
 .17 
 
 .11 
 .12 
 .02 
 
 Light. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 .08 
 Standard. 
 .10 
 .11 
 .14 
 .04 
 .14i 
 .06 
 .13 
 .01 
 .16 
 .02 
 .03 
 
 .03 
 
 Standard. 
 
 .03 
 .07 
 .04 
 Standard. 
 .04 
 
 Standard. 
 
 Standard. 
 
 .01 
 .02 
 .12 
 
 .08 
 .07 
 .08 
 .07 
 
 Standard, 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 .04 
 .10 
 
 
 Plilladelpma=SUver mass w^elght. 
 
 
 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Actual weight 
 
 42.998 
 
 Philadelphia — Single pieces. 
 
 Denominatton. 
 
 Dollars 
 
 Date of Delivery. 
 
 January 7 . . . 
 January 7 . . . 
 January 27 . . 
 January 27 . . 
 February 15 . 
 February 15 
 February 23 
 February 23 . 
 March 1 . . . 
 March 1 . . . 
 March 22 . . 
 March 22 . . . 
 April 14 .... 
 
 April 14 
 
 April 22 . . 
 April 22. . 
 May 12 .... 
 May.l2 .... 
 
 May 18 
 
 May 18 ... 
 
 June 7 
 
 June 7 . .- . . 
 June 21 ... . 
 
 June 21 
 
 July 17 
 
 July 17 . . 
 July 26 . . . 
 July 26 . 
 August 6 . . * . 
 August 6 . . 
 August 12 . . 
 August 12 . . . 
 September 16 . 
 September 16 . 
 September 23 . 
 September 23 . 
 October 4 . . . 
 October 4 . 
 October 24 . . 
 October 24 . . 
 November 11 . 
 November 11 
 November 22 . 
 November 22 . 
 December 10 . 
 December 10 . 
 December 20 . 
 December 20 . 
 
 Seavy. 
 
 Graim. 
 
 San f^rancisco — Single pieces. 
 
 Denominalion. 
 
 Double eagles 
 
 Date of Delivery 
 
 April 6 . . . . 
 April 7 . . . . 
 April 16 . . . 
 
 May9 
 
 May 10 . . . . 
 Mayl7 . . . . 
 Junel . . . . 
 June 9 . 
 June 17 . . 
 July 16 . . . 
 July 27 . . . . 
 July 30 . . . . 
 August 1 . . 
 August 12 . . . 
 August 13 . . 
 November 10 
 November 16 
 December 13 , 
 December 19 
 December 20 
 
 Seavy. 
 
 Qraine. 
 
 .10 
 .01 
 
 .13 
 .06 
 .02 
 
 Light. 
 
 Grains. 
 Standard. 
 
 Standard. 
 
 Standard. 
 
 Standard. 
 
 Standard. 
 
 Standard. 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.0 
 .5 
 
 San Francisco — Gold mass ivetghts. 
 
 
 
 
 Ouncee. 
 
 67 double eagles - .■ 
 48 eagles ...... 
 
 68 half eagles . . . 
 
 Standard weight ... 
 
 Actual weight 
 
 Standard weight 
 
 Actual weight 
 
 Standard weight .... 
 
 Actual weight . ... 
 
 61.275 
 61.272 
 25.80 
 25.798 
 16.5876 
 Standard. 
 
 Light 
 
 Graim. 
 
 Standard. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 .07 
 Standard. 
 
 .04 
 .10 
 .30 
 
 .06 
 
 Standard. 
 
 .20 
 .17 
 .01 
 .18 
 
464 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 
 
 Denomination. 
 
 Date of Delivery. 
 
 Heavy. 
 
 Light. 
 
 
 
 Grains. 
 
 .01 
 
 Eagles 
 
 January 25 . . 
 
 
 
 January 28 . . . 
 
 .01 
 
 .15 
 
 
 
 
 
 February 16 . . 
 
 
 .06 
 
 
 February 17 .... 
 
 .02 
 
 .06 
 
 
 February 18 . . 
 
 
 
 March 18 
 
 .03 
 
 .07 
 
 
 March 20 ... 
 
 
 
 March 30 . . . 
 
 .06 
 
 
 
 
 August 22 
 
 
 
 
 August 24 
 
 .09 
 
 .12 
 
 
 
 
 
 September 2 . ... 
 
 
 .15 
 
 .06 
 
 
 September 28 
 
 
 
 September 30 . . 
 
 .05 
 
 .... 
 
 
 October 8 
 
 
 
 
 Octdber 19 
 
 
 .11 
 
 
 October 26 
 
 .02 
 
 
 
 
 
 .25 
 
 
 
 
 .02 
 
 Half eagles .... 
 
 January 11 
 
 
 .04 
 
 
 January 17 . . 
 
 
 
 
 January 22 
 
 
 
 
 February 18 . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 February 26 ... 
 March 1 . ... 
 
 
 
 
 .04 
 
 
 
 April 22 
 
 
 Standard. 
 
 
 April 27. . 
 
 
 do. 
 
 
 April 30 
 
 
 
 
 May3 
 
 .03 
 
 
 
 Mays 
 
 
 Standard. 
 
 
 May 13 
 
 
 do. 
 
 
 September 16 
 
 .01 
 
 
 
 
 
 .01 
 
 
 September .24 
 
 .01 
 
 
 
 November 22 
 
 .04 
 
 
 
 November 30 . 
 
 
 .15 
 
 
 December 3 . ... 
 
 
 .06 
 
 
 December 27 
 
 
 .01 
 
 
 December 30 . . . 
 
 .06 
 
 
 Sam Francisco— Silver mass weights. 
 
 
 
 
 Ouncet. 
 
 60 dollars . . . . 
 
 Standard weight 
 
 Actual weight 
 
 42.96875 
 42.963 
 
 San Francisco— Single pieces. 
 
 Denomination. 
 
 Dollars . 
 
 Date of delivery. 
 
 January 6 . 
 January 6 . . 
 January 18 . 
 January 18 
 February 11 . 
 February 11 . 
 February 26 . 
 February 26 
 March 3 . . 
 March 3 . 
 March 10 
 March 10 . . 
 April 4 . 
 April 4 . . 
 April 20 . . 
 April 20 . . 
 May 5 . . 
 May 6 . 
 May 16 
 May 16 . . 
 June 3 . . 
 June 3 . . 
 June 18 . . . 
 June 18 ... , 
 July 13 ... 
 July 13 . . . , 
 July 26 
 July 26 . . 
 August 5 . 
 August 5 . 
 August 16 . . . 
 August 16 . . . 
 September 1 . 
 September 1 
 September 22 , 
 September 22 , 
 October 6 . . , 
 October 6 . . 
 October 27 . 
 October 27 . 
 November 1 . 
 November 1 . 
 November 19 
 November 19 
 Decembers . 
 December 5 . 
 December ID 
 December 10 
 
 Heaoy. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 .2 
 1.2 
 
 .5 
 1.1 
 
 .4 
 1.0 
 
 .5 
 
 Light. 
 
 Standard. 
 
 .1 
 
 .7 
 
 1.0 
 
 Standard. 
 
 Standard. 
 
 Standard. 
 
 
 Carson— Single pieces. 
 
 
 Denomination. 
 
 Dale of delivery. 
 
 Heavy. 
 
 Light. 
 
 Eagles . ... 
 
 January 14 . . ... 
 
 .January 14 
 
 March 17 
 
 Grains. 
 
 '.oi ' 
 
 Grains. 
 
 .18 
 
 '.12 
 
 
 March 17 . , 
 
 
 .02 
 
 
 November 5 
 November 5 
 November 14 
 November 14 
 November 30 
 November 30 
 December 8 
 December 8 
 December 22 
 December 22 
 December 30 
 December 30 
 February 3 . 
 February 3 . 
 February 3 . 
 November 11 
 November 11 
 
 
 .10 ' 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .03 
 .16 
 
 
 
 .20 
 
 .17 
 
 
 
 
 .2 
 
 
 
 
 .3 
 
 Half eagles .... 
 
 
 .04 
 .14 
 .01 
 .03 
 .03 
 
 .04 
 
 .06 
 
 Silver dollars . . . 
 
 November 11 
 December 15 
 December 16 
 December 15 
 January 8 . 
 January 8 . . 
 January 29 
 January 29 
 February 16 
 February 16 
 February 28 
 February 28 
 March 31 . . 
 >Iarch31 . . 
 November 28 
 November 28 
 November 29 
 November 29 
 December 13 
 December 13 
 
 
 '.04' 
 
 Standard. 
 .20 
 .01 
 .10 
 .2 
 .4 
 .4 
 
 
 
 ' .'7 
 .2 
 .2 
 
 .'2' 
 
 .7 ' 
 
 .6 
 Standard. 
 
 .3 
 
 .7 
 
 Standard. 
 .8 
 
 
 December 30 
 December 30 
 
 
 
 .1 
 .2 
 
 NcfV Orleans — Single pieces. 
 
 Denominaiion. 
 
 Eagles 
 
 Date of Delivery. 
 
 May 5 
 
 May 6 . . . . 
 
 May 6 
 
 May 5 . . . . 
 
 May 5 
 
 May 5 . . 
 October 7 . . . 
 November 23 . 
 November 23 . 
 
 Heavy. 
 
 .17 
 .16 ' 
 
 Light. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Standard. 
 
 .20 
 
 .09 
 
 .23 
 
 .24 
 
 
 New Orleans — Silver mass weight. 
 
 
 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 60 dollars 
 
 Standard weight 
 
 Actual weight. 
 
 42.96875 
 42.970 
 
 
 New Orleans— Single 
 
 pieces. 
 
 
 Denomination. 
 
 Date of Delivery. 
 
 Heai;y. 
 
 Light. 
 
 Dollars 
 
 January 4 
 
 January 4 
 
 Grains. 
 1.0 
 
 Grains. 
 Standard 
 
 
 January 26 
 
 January 28 
 
 February 5 
 
 .3 
 .3 
 
 
 
 February 5 
 
 February 25 
 
 February 25 
 
 .3 
 
 .7 
 
 1 ' 
 
 
 March 16 
 
 March 16 
 
 March 28 
 
 .'5 ' 
 
 .7 
 
 
 March 28 . . , 
 
 
 
 
 April 8 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 Aprils 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 April 29 
 
 
 
 
 April 29 
 
 
 Y 
 
 
 May 3 
 
 May 3 
 
 .1 
 
 1 
 
 
 May 24 
 
 .1 
 
 
 
 May 24 
 
 
 
 June 10 
 
 June 10 
 
 June 16 
 
 
 .5 
 .1 
 .7 
 
» 
 
 4^ 
 
 « 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 U 
 
 ►i' . 
 
 Cl 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 b 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 e >S 
 
 to 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 r- 
 O 
 
 > 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 (A, 
 
 
 » 
 
 ^i! 
 
 "D 
 
 «■ 
 
 
 :o 
 
 s 
 
 Oo 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 •s, 
 
 
 o 
 
 "S. 
 
 -^ 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 s^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 > 
 
 H 
 
 Ci. 
 
 1 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 m 
 O 
 
 w 
 
 > 
 
 m 
 
 0) 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 465 
 
 Neiv Orleans — Single pieces. — Continued. 
 
 Denomiriation. 
 
 Date of delivery. 
 
 June 16 
 
 July 20 
 
 July 20 
 
 July 30 
 
 July 30 
 
 August 3 . . . . 
 August 3 . . 
 August 8 . . . 
 August 8 . . . 
 8ept«mber lu 
 September 10 
 September 21 . 
 September 21 . . 
 October 6 . . . 
 
 October 6 
 
 October 22 . . . . 
 October 22 . . . 
 November 4 . 
 November 4 . . . . 
 November 23 . ." . 
 November 23 . 
 December 1 . . . 
 December 1 . . . . 
 December 23 . . 
 December 23 . 
 
 Beavif. 
 
 Oraine. 
 
 1.1 
 
 ' .2 ' 
 
 Light. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Standai'd. 
 .2 
 .1 
 .4 
 .1 
 
 .4 
 .8 
 .5 
 .6 
 .2 
 .5 
 
 From the foregoing weighing it appears that all the coins 
 weighed are within the limits of exactness required by law, 
 and that, in fact, very few vary from the standard by one- 
 half the tolerance. The results are therefore entirely satis- 
 factory. 
 
 J. E. HlLQARD. 
 
 Thomas Donaldson. 
 
 H. G. FiSHEE. 
 
 Jno. Jay Knox. 
 Geo. W. Childs. 
 
 On motion of Professor Munroe, the report was adopted. 
 
 The Committee on assaying submitted the following rejjort, 
 viz: That in conformity with the law and regulations 
 governing this Commission they have taken the gold and 
 silver coins reserved from the several mints, to wit, Phila- 
 delphia, San Francisco, Carson City and New Orleans, the 
 same being samples representing each delivery made during 
 the year 1881, in the several mints named, from the coiners 
 to the superintendents, and have assayed the same in mass, 
 and also the individual coins, with the following results : 
 
 Gold— Fblladelpllla. 
 
 So. 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 
 16 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 19 
 20 
 21 
 
 Mass. ' 
 
 Denomination. 
 
 Eagle 
 
 Half eagle. . . 
 
 Do.. . 
 Eagle 
 
 Do. . . . 
 Half eagle . . 
 
 Do. . . 
 Eagle . . . 
 Half eagle . . 
 Double eagle 
 Eagle .... 
 
 Half eagle . . 
 
 Do 
 
 Eagle 
 
 Half eagle . . 
 
 Eagle 
 
 Do. . . . 
 Half eagle . . 
 
 Eagle 
 
 Half eagle . . 
 
 Eagle 
 
 Half eagle . . 
 2D0 half eagle! 
 100 eagles . . 
 
 Bate. 
 
 January 5. . . 
 January 20. . . 
 February 2 . . 
 February 24. . 
 March 2. . . . 
 March 30 . . . 
 April 6 . . . . 
 
 April 27 
 
 May 7 
 
 May 14 . . . 
 May 23 ... . 
 June 3 . . . . 
 
 June 17 
 
 August 20. . . 
 August 27. . . 
 September 6 . 
 September 20 , 
 October 8. . . 
 October 25 . . 
 November 4 . 
 November 17 . 
 Decembers . 
 December 22 . 
 
 FinenesB. 
 
 900.1 
 899.9 
 899.9 
 900.0 
 900.2 
 900.1 
 900.2 
 900.0 
 900.0 
 
 900.2 
 900.2 
 900.2 
 900.2 
 900.O 
 900.1 
 900.2 
 899.8 
 900.2 
 900.0 
 900.2 
 900.1 
 
 
 San Francisco. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 January 24. . 
 February 19 . . . 
 
 March 30 
 
 April 19 
 
 Ua.y2A 
 
 June 14 
 
 July 28 
 
 August 9 
 
 September 29 . . 
 October 1 . . . . 
 November 18. . . 
 December 15 . . 
 
 899.7 
 
 2 
 
 Half eagle 
 
 899.6 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 6 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 
 Double eagle ,. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do. 
 
 Eagle 
 
 900.0 
 899.8 
 899.9 
 899.9 
 900.0 
 899.7 
 899.6 
 
 10 
 
 Do 
 
 899-7 
 
 11 
 12 
 1 
 
 Double eagle 
 
 Do 
 
 889.7 
 899.6 
 
 Mass. . i 
 
 100 eagles 
 
 100 half eagles. 
 
 
 I 900.0 
 
 30 
 
 Carson. 
 
 Eagle . . . 
 Half eagle . 
 Eagle . . . 
 
 Do! ; ! ; 
 
 Half eagle , 
 Eagle . . . 
 
 November 5 . 
 November 11. 
 November 14. 
 November 30. 
 December 8 . 
 December 15 
 December 22 
 December 30 
 
 ^ SILiVESR^-FbUadelpbla. 
 
 San Francisco. 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 
 Mass. . 
 
 Standard dollars 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 240 dollars. . 
 
 January 10 
 February 18 . 
 March 23 
 April 19 . 
 May 7 . . 
 June 2 . . 
 July 28 . 
 August 18 
 September 24 
 October 26 . 
 November 8 
 Decembers 
 
 "New Orleans. 
 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 Mass. . . 
 
 Standard dollars 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 240 dollars. . 
 
 .January 31 . 
 February 17 . 
 March 11. . . 
 March 12. . . 
 May 6 . . . . 
 June 2 . . . . 
 July 29 . . . 
 July 26 . . . 
 August 23 . . 
 September 7. 
 September 6 . 
 October 6 . . 
 October 29. . 
 November 1 . 
 December? . 
 December 29 
 August 12 . . 
 
 
 
 Netv Orleans. 
 
 
 JVo. 
 
 Demominaivm. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Finenese. 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 '"^■.■.■...■. 
 
 May 12 
 
 October 7 , . . . 
 November 23 . . 
 
 899.8 
 899.9 
 900-1 
 
 3 
 
 Do 
 
 900.1 
 899.9 
 900.1 
 J.7 
 900 
 899.8 
 900.3 
 900.2 
 
 1 
 
 Standard dollar 
 
 January 22 . . . 
 
 899.2 
 
 1 
 
 Do. 
 
 February 16. . . 
 
 900.O 
 
 3 
 
 Do. 
 
 March 14.. . . . 
 
 900.7 
 
 4 
 
 Do. 
 
 April 18 . . . . 
 May 2 
 
 899.5 
 
 5 
 
 Do 
 
 900.0 
 
 6 
 
 Do. 
 
 June 1 
 
 900.7 
 
 7 
 
 Do 
 
 July 21 . . 
 
 900.0 
 
 8 
 
 Do. 
 
 August 9 .... 
 
 899.0 
 
 9 
 
 Do. 
 
 September 21 . . 
 
 90O.1 
 
 10 
 
 Do. 
 
 October 28 . . . 
 
 899.7 
 
 11 
 
 Do 
 
 November 26 
 
 900.7 
 
 12 
 
 Do. 
 
 December 12 . . 
 
 899.5 
 
 Mass. . . 
 
 240 dollars 
 
 
 900.0 
 
 899.8 
 899.1 
 899.3 
 899.3 
 899.7 
 899.3 
 899.1 
 899.1 
 900.4 
 90U.9 
 899.1 
 899.1 
 
 898.9 
 900.0 
 
 899.3 
 90U.2 
 899.1 
 899.8 
 900.0 
 890.6 
 899.3 
 899.5 
 900.9 
 890.1 
 899.6 
 
 1 
 
 Standard dollars .... 
 
 January 29 . . . 
 
 899.2 
 
 2 
 
 Do. 
 
 February 8 
 
 898.5 
 
 3 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 
 February 16 . 
 
 901.6 
 
 4 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 
 February 28 . . . 
 
 899.6 
 
 6 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 
 
 March 31 
 
 900.4 
 
 6 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 
 
 March 28 . . . . 
 
 900.4 
 
 7 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 
 
 November 28 
 
 
 «898.6 
 
 8 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 
 
 December 13 
 
 
 • 899.1 
 
 9 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 
 
 December 30 
 
 
 899.8 
 
 10 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 
 
 November 29 
 
 
 *899.3 
 
 11 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 
 November 29 
 
 
 *898.9 
 
 Mass. . . 
 
 75 dollars . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 899.8 
 
 * Made from condemned coin of 1880. 
 
 From the foregoing, it will be seen that the greatest ex- 
 cess in the assay value of the gold coinage above the stan- 
 dard at the different mints, as stated in the following table, 
 while the limit of tolerance is one-thousandth, is — 
 
 At Philadelphia, .2 of one-thousandth. 
 At San Francisco, .0 of one-thousandth. 
 At New Orleans, .1 of one-thousandth. 
 At Carson, .3 of one-thousandth. 
 
 The greatest deficiency below the standard, the limit of 
 tolerance being one-thousandth, is — 
 
 At Philadelphia, .2 of one-thousandth. 
 At San Francisco, .4 of one-thousandth. 
 At New Orleans, .2 of one-thousandth. 
 At Carson, .3 of one-thousandth. 
 
466 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 For silver, the maximum assays abovfe the standard, the 
 limit of allowance being 3 one-thousandth, is — ■ 
 
 At Philadelphia, 1.1 one-thousandth. 
 At San Francisco, 0.9 one-thousandth. 
 At New Orleans, 0.9 one-thousandth. 
 At Carson, 1.5 one-thousandth. 
 
 The greatest deficiency below the standard, the tolerance 
 being the same, 3 one-thousandth — 
 
 At Philadelphia, 0.8 one-thousandth, 
 At San Francisco, 1.7 one-thousandth. 
 At New Orleans, 1.6 one-thousandth. 
 At Carson, 1.5 cue-thousandth. 
 
 Hence, the greatest deviation from the standard in the 
 coinage examined is far within the limits allowed by law, 
 and exhibits a remarkable degree of uniformity in mixture, 
 while there appears a very great perfection of workmanship. 
 An analysis of the copper alloy present shows that it is 
 substantially in accordance with the law and regulations. 
 
 w. s. rosecrans. 
 Chas. E. Munroe. 
 W. P. Lawyer. 
 
 H. G. TORREY. 
 
 On motion of Mr. Chadbourne, the report was adopted. 
 On motion of Mr. Donaldson, the following resolution 
 was adopted : 
 
 "Resolved, That the Assay Commission having examined and 
 tested the reserved coins of the several mints for the year 1881, and 
 it appearing that these coins are within the tolerance prescribed by 
 law, the trial is considered and reported as satisfactory." 
 
 On motion of General W. S. Roseerans, the following reso- 
 lutions were adopted : 
 
 " Resolved, That the thanks of the Commission he and are hereby 
 tendered to Hon. A. Loudon Suowden, Superintendent of the Phila- 
 delphia Mint, for his kindness and attention to them during their 
 meetings. 
 
 " Resolved, That the thanks of the Commission are also tendered 
 t» the officers and other employees of the mint who assisted in the 
 annual assay of 1882." 
 
 On motion, the Board adjourned to meet at 10 A. M., 
 Friday. 
 
 Friday, February 10. 
 
 The Board convened at the hour appointed. 
 
 Present ; Messrs. Butler, Knox, Roseerans, Munroe, Hil- 
 gard, Lawver, Donaldson, Fisher, Torrey, Childs, and the 
 Director of the Mint, Hon. Horatio C. Burchard. On motion 
 of Dr. Lawver, seconded by Professor Munroe, the following 
 resolution was adopted : 
 
 " Resolved, That the Assay Commission of 1882, in recognition of 
 the long services of William E. DuBois, assayerof the United States 
 Mint at Philadelphia, who entered the Mint in September, 1833, 
 died July 14, 1881, after a service of forty-seven years, and of Charles 
 B. Hare, foreman of the Assay Office of the said Mint, who entered 
 that institution in 1830, died May 29, 1881, aftera continuous service 
 of fifty-one years^^enter this mmute upon the records of the Assay 
 Commission of 1882, in appreciation of the faithfulness of these effi- 
 cient officers." 
 
 On motion, the Commission adjourned sine die. 
 
 Wm. Btttler. 
 Jno. Jay Knox. 
 H. G. Torrey. 
 
 W. S. RoSECRANS. 
 
 Paul A. Chadbourne. 
 Chas. E. Munroe. 
 
 J. E. HiLGARD. 
 
 William Pepper. 
 W. P. Lawyer. 
 Thomas Donaldson. 
 H. G. Fisher. 
 George W. Childs. 
 Present : 
 
 Horatio C. Burchard, 
 
 Director of the Mint. 
 
 Laws Relating to the Reservation 01? Coins for the 
 
 A-NJ^VAL Assay.— Revised Statutes, June 22, 1874. Title XXX- 
 VII. — Coinage, Weight, and Measures. 
 
 Standard Weight of Gold Coins.— Sec. 3.511.— The gold coins of 
 the United States shall be a one-dollar piece, which, at the standard 
 weight of twenty-five and eight-tenths grains, shall be the unit of 
 value; a quarter-eagle, or two-and-a-half-dollar piece; a three- 
 dollar piece ; a half-eagle, or five-dollar piece ; an eagle or ten- 
 dollar ; and a double eagle, or twenty dollar piece. And the stan- 
 dard weight of the gold dollar shall be twenty-five and eight-tenths 
 grains ; of the quarter-eagle, or two-and-a-half-dollar piece, sixty- 
 four and a half grains; of the three-dollar piece, seventy-seven 
 and four-tenths grains'; of the half-eagle, or five-dollar piece, one- 
 hundred and twenty-nine grains ; of the eagle, or ten-dollar piece, 
 two hundred and fifty-eight grains ; of the double eagle, or twenty 
 dollar piece, five hundred and sixteen grains. 
 
 Standard Weight of Silver Coins. — Sec. 3513. — The silver coins of 
 the United States shall be a trade.dollar, a half-dollar, or fifty-cent 
 piece, a quarter dollar, or twenty -five cent piece, a dime or ten-cent 
 piece ; and the weight of the trade-dollar shall be four-hundred and 
 twenty grains troy ; the weight of the half-dollar shall be twelve 
 grams (grammesjand one-half of a gram, (gramme;) the quarter- 
 dollar and the dime shall be, respectively, one-half and one-fifth of 
 the weight of said half-dollar. 
 
 AN ACT to authorize the coinage of the standard silver dollar, 
 and to restore its legal-tender character. 
 
 Se it enacted by the Senate and Mouse of Representatives of the 
 United States of America hi Congress assembled, That there shall 
 be coined at the several mints of the United States, silver dollars of 
 the weight of four hundred and twelve and a half grains troy of 
 standard silver, as provided in the act of January eighteenth, 
 eighteen hundred and thirty-seven, on which shall be the devices 
 and superscriptions provided by said act. « » » 
 
 Standard of Fineness. — Sec. 3514. — The standard for both gold 
 and silver coins of the United States shall be such that of one 
 thousand parts by weight nine hundred shall be of pure metal and 
 one hundred of alloy. The alloy of the silver coins shall be of 
 copper. The alloy of the gold coins shall be of copper, or of cop- 
 per and silver ; but the silver shall in no case exceed one-tenth of 
 the whole alloy. 
 
 Allowed Deviations from Standard Fineness and Weight. — Sec. 
 3533. — No ingotsshall be used for coinage which differ from the legal 
 standard more than the following proportions, namely : In gold 
 ingots, one-thousandth ; in silver ingots, three-thousandths. 
 
 Sec. 3535. — In adjusting the weights of the gold coins the fol- 
 lowing deviations shall not be exceeded in any single piece : In 
 the double-eagle and the eagle, one half of a grain; in the half- 
 eagle, the three-dollar piece, the quarter-eagle, and the one dollar 
 piece, one fourth of a grain. And in weighmg a number of pieces 
 together, when delivered by the coiner to the superintendent, and 
 by the superintendent to the depositor, the deviation from the 
 standard weight shall not exceed one-hundredth of an ounce in five 
 thousand dollars in double-eagles, eagles, half-eagles, or quarter- 
 eagles, in one-thousand three-dollar pieces, and in one-thousand 
 one-dollar pieces. 
 
 Sec. 3536. — In adjusting the weight of the silver coins the fol- 
 lowing deviations shall not be exceeded in any single piece : In the 
 dollar, the half and quarter-dollar, and in the dime, one and one- 
 half grains ; and in weighing a large number of pieces together, 
 when delivered by the coiner to the. superintendent, and by the 
 superintendent to the depositor, the deviations from the standard 
 weight shall not exceed two hundredths of an ounce in one thou- 
 sand dollars, half-dollars or quarter-dollars, and one-hundredth of 
 an ounce in one-thousand dimes. 
 
 Coins to be Reserved for the Annual Assay.— &ec. 3539. — At every 
 delivery of coins made by the coiner to a superintendent, it shall be 
 the duty of such superintendent, in the presence of the assayer, to 
 take indiscriminately a certain number of pieces of each variety 
 for the annual trial of coins, the number for gold coins being not 
 less than one piece for each one thousand pieces or any fractional 
 part of one thousand pieces delivered; and for silver coins one 
 piece for each two thousand pieces or any fractional part of two 
 thousand pieces delivered. The pieces so taken shall be carefully 
 sealed up in an envelope, properly labeled, stating the date of the 
 delivery, the number and denomination of the pieces inclosed, and 
 the amount of the delivery from which they were taken. These 
 sealed parcels containing the reserved pieces shall be deposited in a 
 pyx, designated for the purpose at each mint, which shall be kept 
 under the joint care of the superintendent and assayer, and be so 
 secure that neither can have access to its contents without the pres- 
 ence of the other, and the reserved pieces in their sealed envelopes 
 from the coinage of each mint shall be transmitted quarterly to the 
 mint at Philadelphia. A record shall also be kept at the same 
 time of the number and denomination of the pieces so taken for the 
 annuiil trial of coins, and of the number and denomination of the 
 pieces represented bv them and so delivered, a copy of which record 
 shall be transmitted quarterly to the Director of the Mint. Other 
 pieces may, at any time, be taken for such tests as the Director of 
 the Mint shall prescribe. 
 
 ConstitMion of Commission. — See. 3547. — To secure a due con- 
 formity in the gold and silver coins to their respective standards 
 of fineness and weight, the judge of the district court for the eastern 
 di.strict of Pennsylvania, the Comptroller of the Currency the 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 467 
 
 Assayer of the Assay Office at New York, and such other persons 
 as the President shall, from time to time, designate, shall meet as 
 Assay Commissioners at the Mint in Philadelphia, to examine and 
 test in the presence of the Director of the Mint, the fineness and 
 weight of the coins reserved by the several mints for this purpose, 
 on the second Wednesday in February, annually, and may con- 
 tinue their meeting by adjournment, if necessary. If a majority 
 of the Commissioners fail to attend at any time appointed for their 
 meeting, the Director of the Mint shall call a meetmg of the Com- 
 missioners, at such other time as he may deem convenient. If it 
 appears by such examination and test that these coins do not differ 
 from the standard fineness and weight-by a greater quantity than is 
 allowed by law, the trial shall be considered and reported as satis- 
 factory. If, however, any greater deviation from the legal standard 
 or weight appears, this fact shall be certified to the President ; and, 
 if, on a view of the circumstances of the case, he shall so decide, the 
 officers implicated in the error shall be thenceforward disqualified 
 from holding their respective offices. 
 
 Standard Weights of the Mint — See. 3548. — For the purpose of 
 securing a due conformity in weight of the coins of the United 
 States to the provisions of the title, the brass troy-pound weight 
 procured by the minister of the United States at London, in the 
 year eighteen hundred and twenty seven, for the use of the mint, 
 and now in the custody of the Mint in Philadelphia, shall be the 
 standard troy -pound of the Mint of the United States, conformably 
 to which the coinage thereof shall be regulated. 
 
 Sec. 3548. — It shall be the duty of the Director of the Mint to 
 procure for each Mint and Assay office, to be kept safely thereat, a 
 series of standard weights corresponding to the-standard troy- 
 pound of the Mint of the United States, consisting of a one-pound 
 weight and the requisite subdivisions and multiples thereof from 
 the Hundredth part of a grain to twenty-five pounds ; and the troy- 
 weights ordinarily employed in the transactions of such mints and 
 assay offices shall be regulated according to the above standards at 
 least once in every year, under the inspection of the Superintendent 
 and Assayer ; and the accuracy of those used at the Mint at Phila- 
 delphia shall be tested annually, in the presence of the Assay Com- 
 missioners, at the time of the annual examination and test of coins. 
 
 EULES OF THE BOARD OF ASSAY COMMISSIONBES. — Adopted 
 by the Board in 1880. — I. At the hour appointed for meeting by the 
 Director of the Mint, if a quorum appears to be present he shall so 
 announce, and the judge of the district court of tne United States 
 for the eastern district of Pennsylvania, or in case of his absence, 
 such member as the commissioners present may designate shall take 
 the chair, and the Director's clerk, unless otherwise ordered by 
 the board, shall act as secretary. 
 
 II. The letter of the President, or the Director of the Mint, 
 naming the commissioners who have been specially designated by 
 the President of the United Sta,tes, will be read, and the roll of the 
 members, ex-officio, and of the others accepting the appointment, 
 will be called. 
 
 III. A quorum being present, the secretary will read section 3547 
 of the Revised Statutes of June 22, 1874, under which the commis- 
 sion is constituted ; the several sections bearing upon the duties of 
 the commissioners ; the rules for the organization and government 
 of the board ; and the minutes of the last preceding assay. 
 
 IV. The " reserved coins " having been produced by the officers 
 in charge of them, the several packages in which they are contained 
 will be opened in the presence of the commissioners, or of a com- 
 mittee for that purpose appointed, who shall report to the commis- 
 sion for confirmation, and the coin distributed by them in parcels 
 with reference to their places of coinage and their metallic charac- 
 ter as follows : 
 
 1. Gold coins from the mint at Philadelphia. 
 
 2. Silver coins from the same. 
 
 3. Gold coins from the mint at San Francisco. 
 
 4. Silver coins from the same. 
 
 5. Gold coins from the mint at Carson. 
 
 6. Silver coins from the same. 
 
 7. Gold coins from the mint at New Orleans. 
 
 8. Silver coins from the same. 
 
 But when it shall be made known to the board that at either of 
 the mints there has taken place, during the year, a change in any 
 of the officers that are responsible for the coinage, the coins made 
 during the terms of the respective incumbents wUl be distributed in 
 separate parcels. 
 
 V. The coins contained in each parcel having been examined and 
 counted, the number will be compared with the number reported as 
 "reserved," and having been verified, the secretary will note the 
 results on the minutes of the commission. 
 
 VI. The chairman will then "arrange the members of the board 
 in two committees ; one to take charge oi the- weighing, the other of 
 the assaying; with power to associate members interchangeably, 
 and to require the manipulatory aid of the officers of the mint. 
 
 VII. Of the Weighing. — a. The committee on weighing shall 
 take from each parcel of the coins, as distributed, two or more piles 
 — each of ten or more pieces, and embracing two or more denomi- 
 nations, and five or more single pieces of two or morj different 
 denominations. 
 
 6. They shall arrange the piles, and the single pieces thus taken 
 out, with the mint marks downwards, in such order that the par- 
 ticular place of mintage shall be known only to the members of the 
 committee. 
 
 c. The piles, and the single pieces shall then be severally weighed 
 under the scrutiny of the committee, and their respective weights 
 ascertained ; the piles to one-thousandth of an ounce, the single 
 pieces to the eighth of a grain ; and the results shall be noted, 
 with a special reference as to any that may be found without the 
 legal limits of weight. 
 
 d. The committee shall then examine the weights ordinarily 
 employed in the mint, and shall attest their accordance with the 
 standards prescribed by law. 
 
 VIII. Of the Assaying. — e. The committee on assaying shall 
 receive the residues of the several parcels of reserved coins ; and 
 adding to them — if it shall be necessary, but not otherwise — from 
 the piles in the possession of the committee on weighing, shall 
 first cause a portion of each parcel to be melted into an mgot of 
 convenient size ; and from each of the ingots so made they shall 
 take test-samples for assay. 
 
 /. They shall then select a convenient number, not less than 
 three, of single pieces of diverse denominations fi:om each parcel ; 
 from which they shall take test-samples for assay. 
 
 g. They shall then arrange all the test-samples in such order as 
 shall be known only to the members of the committee ; and in 
 that order such samples shall be assayed, the silver first, and the 
 gold afterwards. 
 
 h. Should the operations of the assay be not consummated before 
 the adjournment of tlie board for the day, the parcels of reserved 
 coins, ingots, and test-samples wiU remain in a chest or vault, under 
 the joint and separate charge of the chairman and the Director of 
 the Mint. 
 
 IX. The weighings and assayings having been completed under 
 the scrutiny of the committees, respectively, ^^^ committees will 
 report fully and specially, as to the coins of each mint. 
 
 X. And thereupon the commissioners will proceed to declare 
 their judgments by an open vote ; and full record thereof, and of 
 all their doings, having been engrossed by the secretary, it will be 
 signed by all the members, and delivered to the Director of the 
 Mint. After which the board will be adjourned sine die. 
 
 The foregoing rules are subject to such modifications or altera- 
 tions as a majority of the board may at any time during each annual 
 assay, deem expedient and proper. 
 
468 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 PART VI. 
 
 8 TO QK EXQHA NGMS—THE LAW OF STOCK BR OKEBA GE— RE- 
 VIEWS OF THE STOCK AND METAL MARKETS- 
 PRICES FOR EIGHTEEN MONTHS— 
 THE FUTURE. 
 
 , F all the facts of the Mines, Miners and 
 Mining Interests of the United 
 States, Part VI., will be the one to 
 which, possibly, the majority of our 
 readers will turn. The fascinations, 
 the misfortunes, the fortunes, the rise 
 and fall of the Stock Market, the state 
 of Trade, are absorbing studies to the 
 majority of business men. These are 
 vital interests, and in such way have we 
 considered them. The part opens with some points of law that 
 are necessary to a full understanding of the situation. Then 
 follow careful, elaborate, thoroughly able reviews of the 
 Mining Stock Market of the United States, with such data 
 concerning the various stock exchanges as will serve as col- 
 lateral information to aid in forming a correct judgment 
 upon the points covered in this part. The matter of the re- 
 views was furnished for all markets except Philadelphia, by 
 Mr. L. E. Thome, of New York. That for Philadelphia, by 
 Mr. J. V. Sears. Other matter is added by the compiler. 
 The reviews of the metal markets were also written by Mr. 
 Thorne. 
 
 LAW OF MINING STOCK BROKERS 
 MINING STOCK EXCHANGES. 
 
 AND 
 
 MR. J. R. Dos Passos has recently published a vol- 
 ume entitled, "Law of Stock Brokers and Stock 
 Exchanges," which has received most favorable 
 recognition. From its pages we take the following 
 as of interest to the rights of purchasers of mining stocks. 
 Touching the origin of stock brokers and stock exchanges 
 Mr. Dos Passos says : There is a great diversity of opinion 
 respecting the origin of the word "broker," some of the au- 
 thorities maintaining that it was originally applied to those 
 who broke up goods into small pieces — retail dealers ; while 
 others contend that the term is derived from the Saxon word 
 broc, misfortune, and that the name " broker " comes from 
 one who is a broken trader by misfortune, which is often a 
 true reason for a man's breaking, and that none but that 
 class of persons were formerly admitted to that employment 
 in London.! g^^ ^j^g statutes passed in the reigns of Ed- 
 
 > Jacob's Law Diet., tit. "Brokers." " The etymology of the term 
 Broker has been variously given. Bjr some it has been derived from 
 the Saxon hroe, misfortune, as denoting a broken trader ; the occu- 
 pation being formerly confined, it is said, to unfortunate persons of 
 that description (Tomlins). According to others, it was formed 
 from the French broieur, a grinder or breaker into small pieces ; a 
 Broker being one who beats or draws a bargain into particulars 
 (Termes de la Ley, Cowell). The law Latin from obrocator, how- 
 
 ward the First and James the First, hereafter referred 
 to, would seem to indicate that the latter view can hardly 
 be correct. In England, the term " broker " occurs in an 
 Act of Parliament as early as the year 1285.' It recites, 
 in substance, that whereas divers persons do resort unto 
 the city (London) from parts beyond the sea, fiigitives 
 from their own lands, and of these some become " brokers," 
 hostlers and innkeepers, etc., and they do wear fine clothing, 
 and do eat costly meat and food, etc. ; it therefore enacts 
 that " there shall be no broker in the city except those who 
 are admitted and sworn before the warden, mayor, or alder- 
 men." It is evident from a perusal of this statute, that 
 the occupation of brokers in those days was subverted by 
 persons who used the name as a cover to transact a species 
 of disreputable pawnbroker's business, and hence the severe 
 penalties of the second section of the act, which provided 
 that " if any other innkeeper or broker be found within the 
 city, or any other of whom there is evil suspicion, he shall 
 be arrested by the warden or mayor, or the sheriffs, or the 
 alderman of the ward, and punished, viz. : innkeepers and 
 brokers shall be incapable of their freedom and adjudged to 
 prison, and the others shall be punished by imprisonment or 
 otherwise."^ 
 
 The next statute, passed in the reign of James the First, 
 more than three hundred years alter that just recited,' regu- 
 
 ever, seems to point distinctly to the Saxon abrcecan {to break), as 
 the true root, which in the old word abbrochment (q. v.) or abrgach- 
 merit, had the sense of breaking up goods, or selling at retail. A 
 Broker, therefore, would seem to have originally been a retailer, and 
 hence we find the old word auctionarius (q. v. ) used in both these 
 senses" (Burrill's Law Diet., tit. "Broker"). Wharton gives, as 
 the derivation of the word, the French broceur, and the Latin tritor, 
 a person who breaks into small pieces (Whar., Law Diet., tit. " Bro- 
 ker"). Webster gives as its derivation, the old English brocotir, 
 Norman French broggour, French brocanteur. Under the word 
 " broke," to deal in second-hand goods, to be a Broker, Webster 
 says it is probably derived from the word bi-ock. Worcester de- 
 rives it from the Anglo-Saxon brucan, to discharge an office ; bro- 
 ciam, to oppress ; and the French broyer,to grind. See "Broke" 
 and " Broker. " The word " Broker " seems first to occur in litera- 
 ture in Piers Ploughman, " Among burgeises have I be Dwellyng 
 at London. And gart Backbiting be a brocour. To blame men's 
 ware." It clearly means here a fault-finder, as in Provencal brae 
 is refuse. The broker was originally one who inspected goods and 
 rejected what was below the standard (Wedge-wood). 
 
 » 13 Ed. L, Stat. Civ. London, 1285. 
 
 2 See also 2 Crabb's Dig. of Stat., tit. " Broker," 261. There were 
 a class of persons known to the Romans, wlio were deemed public 
 officers, and who united the functions of bankers, exchangers. Bro- 
 kers, commissioners, and notaries all in one, under the description 
 of proxenetm. (Whar., Law Diet., tit. ''Brokers;" Story on Ag. 
 ? 20 Dig. Lib. 50, tit. 14, oh. 2.) Spelman, cited in Gibbons vs. 
 Rule, 12 JIoo. 539, 543. There is very high authority, however, for 
 asserting that the term proxenetoe does not occur in any Latin au- 
 thor before the first century after Christ. See Freund's Latin Dic- 
 tionary, revised by Lewis and Short where proxenHir is thus given : 
 "negotiator, factor, broker, agent, Sen. Ep. 119; Mart, 10. 3. 4; Dig. 
 
 » 1 Jao. I. u. 21, 1604. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 469 
 
 lates the calling of Brokers with greater detail than the iirst 
 act, and clearly shows, by the use of the words " merchandise 
 and wares," that down to this period the Broker in money, 
 stock and ftinds had no recognized legal existence. The 
 preamble to the statute also indicates that the regular call- 
 ing was and had been a favored one : "Forasmuch as of 
 long and ancient time by divers hundreds years there have 
 been used within the City of London and Liberties thereof, 
 certain Freemen of the city to be selected out of the Com- 
 panies and Mysteries whereof they are free and Members, 
 and the same persons to be presented at least by six ap- 
 proved and known honest persons of the same Mystery to 
 the Lord Mayor of London for the time being, and to the 
 Aldermen his Brethren, and to be recommended by such 
 Presentors to be persons for their known approved Honesty, 
 Integrity, and Faithfulness, Persons meet for to be Broker 
 Brokers." It was not until the latter part of the seventeenth 
 century, when the East India Company came prominently 
 before the public,' that trading or speculating in stock be- 
 came an established business in England ; and the term 
 " Broker," which had then a well-understood meaning, was 
 promptly transferred to those persons who were employed 
 to buy and sell stock or shares, and who thenceforth became 
 known as "Stock-brokers." In 1692, William the Third 
 having adopted, for the first time in England, the system of 
 raising funds'* for governmental purposes by creating a 
 national debt, speculations in the " funds " and the sharjss 
 of the East India Company at once became general ;' and in 
 1697 the Brokers and Stock-jobbers, to borrow from the 
 language of the statute passed in that year, had been guilty 
 of such " unjust practices and designs" in selling and dis- 
 counting tallies, bank stock, bank bills, shares and interest 
 in joint stock, that it became necessary to pass a stringent 
 act, by which no persons except regular sworn appointees 
 were appointed to act as Brokers ; and the latter were com- 
 pelled to keep a register in which all contracts were to be 
 entered within three days after they were made, and their 
 compensation was fixed at ten shillings per centum.* And 
 Best, C. J., in commenting upon this statute, says : " The 
 statute 8 and 9 William III., ch. 20, by which the first go- 
 vernment loan was raised, speaks of a new description _ of 
 ' Brokers ' — persons employed in buying and selling tallies, 
 the government securities of those days : these have since 
 been called Stock-brokers." s Several other similar statutes 
 were passed in the subsequent reigns of Anne and George.* 
 
 An early legal writer gives the following account of Stock- 
 brokers, which is interesting in this connection : " Stock- 
 brokers are persons who confine their transactions to the 
 buying and selling of property in the public funds and other 
 securities for money, and they are employed by the proprie- 
 tors or holders of the said securities. Of late years, owing 
 to the prodigious increase of the funded debt of the nation, 
 commonly called the stock, they are become a very numer- 
 ous and considerable body, and have built by subscription, 
 a room near the Bank, wherein they meet to transact busi- 
 ness with their principals, and with each other ; and to pre- 
 pare and settle their proceedings iDcfore they go to the trans- 
 fer-offices at the Bank, the South Sea, and India houses, 
 thereby preventing a great deal of confusion at the public 
 offices, where the concourse of people is so great, during the 
 hours of transferring stock, that if the business was not pre- 
 pared beforehand, it would be impossible to transact it 
 within the given time."' The whole business of stock-job- 
 bing being contrary to law, except as the persons acting as 
 Brokers were licensed, under the act of 6 Anne, ch. 16 ; and 
 as many other persons, irrespective of the requirements of 
 
 'This company was incorporated by Queen Elizabeth in 1600. 
 
 'The system of obtaining money for government purposes by 
 loans is said to have originated in the fifteenth century m Venice. 
 It was next adopted in Holland, and was introduced into England 
 shortly after the Revolution of 1688 (Tit. "Funds," Cyclopedia of 
 Com. [Waterston] ) . 
 
 3 Francis's Chronicles and Characters of the Stock Exchange, 
 24. 
 
 *8 & 9 Wm. Ill, c. 32, 1697, continued by 11 and 12 Wm. III. c. 
 13. 
 
 6 Gibbons vs. Rule, 1827, 12" Moo. 539 ; 4 Bing. 301. 
 
 6 6 Anne, c. 16, 1707 ; 10 ibid. c. 19, 1711 ; 12 ibid. Stat. 2, c. 16 ; 6 
 Geo. I. c. 18, 1719; 3 Geo. II. c. 31, 1730; 7 Geo. II. c. 8, 1734. 
 
 ' Beaw. Lex. Mer. 620. 
 
 the statute, acted as Stock-brokers without having received 
 a license as such, a silver medal was given to each licensed 
 Broker, having the king's arms on one side, and the arms of 
 the city of London on the reverse, with the Broker's name, 
 which he was ordered to produce upon every occasion when 
 he should be required to show his qualification ; and, to give 
 further publicity to the names of the regular Brokers, a list 
 of the licensed Brokers was annually printed by the order 
 of the Lord Mayor and the Court of Aldermen, which was 
 hung up in the walks of the Royal Exchange and in Guild- 
 hall, and at most of the reputable cofiee-houses near the Ex- 
 change. This was before the Brokers left the Royal Ex- 
 change and located their business in Change Alley.' By an 
 act passed in 1870," called the " London Broker's Relief Act," 
 the restrictions and guards which were formerly placed upon 
 Stock-brokers were removed, and the jurisdiction of the 
 Court of Aldermen over Brokers ceased. The efiect of this 
 act is practically to enable any person to exercise the calling 
 of Broker in London, outside of the Stock Exchange ; and 
 this result seems to be justly deplored in the Report of the 
 Roval Stock Exchange Commission presented to Parliament 
 in 1878. 
 
 The advantage of employing brokers as intermediaries, in 
 the purchase and sale of property, seems to have been early 
 recognized among the merchants ; and a very old writer on 
 the law merchant says, " It is an old proverb, and very true, 
 that between what will you buy ? and what will you sell? 
 there is twenty in the hundred differing in the price, which 
 is the cause that all the nations do more effect to sell their 
 commodities with reputation by means of brokers than we 
 do ; for that which seems to be gotten thereby is more than 
 double lost; another way. Besides, that by that course many 
 differences are prevented which arise between man and 
 man in their bargains or verbal contracts ; for the testimony 
 of a sworn broker and his book together is sufficient to end 
 the same. "a 
 
 The Venetians, says Malynes, had an office called Messa- 
 caria (Messageria?), cbnsisting only of brokers who dealt 
 between man and man ; " and in Spain they are of such es- 
 timation that they ride on horseback, upon their foot-cloths ; 
 and, having the invoices of merchants' goods, they will deal 
 for great matters at a time, against the lading of the fleet 
 from Nova Espagna, and the islands of the West Indies, to 
 be paid partly ready money and partly at the return of the 
 said fleet ; and these afterwards let you understand their 
 merchant."* The origin of stock-certificates — dealings in 
 which, at the present date, constitute the main business of 
 Stock-brokers — cannot in England be satisfactorily traced 
 beyond the middle of the seventeenth century. Such spe- 
 cies of property was altogether unknown to the law in 
 ancient times, nor, indeed, was it in usage and practice 
 until a short period antecedent to the passage of the Bubble 
 Act in the reign of George the First.' 
 
 Although it is fully established that mercantile or com- 
 mercial corporations existed among the Romans,* and 
 
 1 " Jonathan's " Coflfee-house, in Change Alley, the general mart 
 for Stock-jobbers, was the precursor of the present Stock Exchange 
 in Capel Court.— Addison in Sir R. De Coverley. 
 
 2 33 and 34 Vict. c. 60. 
 
 3 Mai. Lex Mer. 143 (1622). 
 *MaLLexMer. 143. 
 
 6 Garrard vs. Hardey, 5 Man & G. 471, 483. 
 
 6 Ang. & Ames on Corps. (10th ed.) ch. 18, g 26 : " A Collegium 
 Mercatorum existed at Rome 493 B.C. ; but the modern bourse, from 
 the Latin bursa, a purse, originated about the fifteenth century. 
 Bourges and Amsterdam contend for the honor of having erected 
 the first bourse. The Paris Bourse was erected in 1808 " (Johnson's 
 New Univ. Cyclop., tit. " Bourse "). " A Rome, malgre que le com- 
 merce n'y fut pas en grande consideration, nous trouvons ce meme 
 usage publiquement pratique. Tit« Live nous apprend, en efiet, 
 qu'en I'an 259 de sa foundation, sous le consnlat d'Appius Claudius 
 et de Publius Servilllus, on construisit un vaste edifice, dont les ves- 
 tiges portent encore le nom de Loggia, et qui, sous la denomination 
 de Collegium Mercatorum, avait une destination analogue a celle de 
 nos bourses actuelles " (Droit Commercialj " Bourses de Conimerce,'* 
 par Bedarride). But, according to Livy (li 27), the Collegium Mer-. 
 catorum does not belong to this period, Livy s£^ys that when the 
 consuls were disputing which of them should have the honor of 
 dedicating a temple to Mercury, the question was referred to the 
 people; and the Senate decreei} tbat whicl^soever of the consuls 
 should be chosen should also form a " Collegiumi Mercatorum," or. 
 association of oorA-^esilers, to help hinn and the priest in religion^ 
 
470 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES: 
 
 though much light has been thrown upon the character and 
 mode of conducting these bodies,' there is an utter dearth 
 of, information respecting the form and manner by which 
 ownership in the corporate property was attested and estab- 
 lished. The Roman law required three persons to organize 
 a corporation r^ and as each body had at least that number 
 of members, if not more, it would seem but natural that a 
 certificate or some other substantial muniment of title, should 
 have been issued by the corporation to its respective mem- 
 bers, in which the proportion of interest of each in the cap- 
 ital or corporate property of the Association appeared. But 
 whether a certificate was, in fact, issued, and, if so, was 
 regarded as property capable of sale or other negotiation, 
 and of vesting in the representatives of the owner, on his 
 decease, or whether the corporations were all of the nature 
 of guilds conferring upon the members mere personal rights 
 — all of these questions seem now to be incapable of solu- 
 tion ; and the Roman law, which sheds such floods of light 
 upon commercial subjects, apparently leaves the above mat- 
 ters in total darkness. 
 
 In England, stock-certificates were not introduced into 
 the courts of law for many years after they had become es- 
 tablished in the mercantile community ; for Lord Mansfield, 
 in 1770,' in a case wherein it was contended that such cer- 
 tificates were money, in deciding against that view, said : 
 " This is a new species of property arisen within the compass 
 of a few years. It is not money.* The Bubble Act ^having 
 been repealed,' it was held' that the formation of a company, 
 the stock in which should be transferable, was not an of- 
 fense at common-law. And this doctrine was subsequently 
 affirmed.' A Stock Exchange or Bourse, in the sense in 
 which it is considered in this article, is also a creation of 
 modern times. An Exchange was erected in Cornhill, Lon- 
 don, in 1571, but it was used exclusively by dealers and 
 Brokers in merchandise. This structure was destroyed in 
 the great fire of 1666 ;' but it was not until several years 
 after, when it was rebuilt, that the Brokers in funds and 
 stock were assigned a portion of the building for the trans- 
 action of business. 
 
 In 1698, the Stock-jobbers, annoyed by the objections made 
 to their remaining in the Royal Exchange, and finding their 
 numbers seriously increased removed to Change Alley, a large 
 and unoccupied space, where extensive operations might be 
 carried on."" In the United States there seems to be no trace 
 of a Stock Exchange until about the beginning of the present 
 century, at which time there existed in Philadelphia a Board 
 of Stock-brokers, possessing a formal organization and regu- 
 lar constitution, which the Brokers in New York, in 1817, 
 used as a model in framing the rules of their own Exchange." 
 Although there is in the archives of New York Stock Ex- 
 change a document bearing date May 17, 1792, signed by a 
 number of Brokers, in which it is, inter alia, stated that 
 " We, the subscribers. Brokers for the purchase and sale of 
 public stock, agree to do business at not less than one- fourth 
 of one per cent.," no organization appears to have been 
 formed in the City of New York until the year 1817, 
 when a constitution was adopted, which is no longer in 
 
 and mercantile matters related to the temple. But the plan fell 
 through, and it does not appear that the " Collegium " was ever 
 formed ; nor that it would have had, if formed, anything but a re- 
 ligious significance. Accordmgly, the above citations seem to be 
 unfounded. 
 
 ' Brown's Lect. Civ. Law (2d ed.), 141. 
 
 2 Tres fadunt collegium, Ang. & Ames on Corps, ch. 18, ? 26 
 (10th ed.) ; Ortolan's Hist. Roman Law, 606. Though in Rome, it 
 seems, corporations did notrequire charters from the State, the latter, 
 by virtue of its police power, suppressed those which appeared to 
 he dangerous, mostly those of a political character. In order to de- 
 termine whether such a corporation existed, the words treafaciunt 
 collegium were used. But that a corporation could exist-with only 
 one member left is well settled (1.7,2,D.3,4). Gaudsmit Pandects, 
 I. 71, 1 ; Windscheidt, I 60, 3 ; Arndta, 44, 2. 
 
 » Nightingale vs. Devisme, 5 Burr. 2589. 
 
 * To same effect, Jones vs. Brinley, 1 East. 1. 
 
 6 6 Geo. I. c. 18. 8 6 Geo. IV. c. 91. 
 
 ' Garrard vs. Hardey, 5 Man. and G. 471. 
 
 8 Harrison vs. Heathorn, 6 Man. and G. 81 ; 1 Pars. Con. (6th ed.) 
 144. 9 Johnson's New Univ. Cyclop., tit. " Stock Exchange." 
 
 '» Francis's Chronicles and Characters of Stock Exchange! 24 ; 
 see also report of Royal Stock Exchange Commission, July 1878' 
 and post, p. 248. ' 
 
 " Medbery's Men and Mysteries of Wall Street, 286. 
 
 existence, it having been destroyed in the great fire of 1853.' 
 It appears that in the beginning, the dealings of the Stock- 
 brokers in this country were confined to speculations in Con- 
 tinental money ; but when, in 1812, the United States gov- 
 ernment issued Treasury notes and negotiated loans to the 
 amount of many millions of dollars, the dealings embraced 
 all these securities, besides operations in the stocks of banks, 
 which were being rapidly formed in all parts of the country. 
 From the year 1820, when the real history of the New York 
 Stock Exchange may be said to have commenced, it has gone 
 on steadily increasing in its members, power and influence, 
 until to-day it can be safely affirmed to be the most powerful 
 organization of the kind in the world ; and by forming a 
 mart where all kinds of securities can be promptly converted 
 into cash, it has largely contributed to the development and 
 wealth of the country by encouraging and sustaining our 
 great railroad systems, which have brought all parts of the 
 Republic into a closer relation to each other, and firmly 
 strengthened the union and prosperity of the States. 
 
 Legal Relation of Stock-broker .to his Client. — 
 In the United States, the business of buying and selling 
 stocks and other securities is generally transacted by Brokers 
 for a commission agreed upon or regulated by the usages of the 
 place ; and although any person may enter into such an oc- 
 cupation, no license to perform it being necessary,' such 
 
 ' " The earliest annals of the New York Stock Exchange are 
 meagre, the fire of 1835 having destroyed the record of the consti- 
 tution adopted in 1817, the date of its first regular organization. A 
 tablet in the wall of the present room recites that the Exchange was 
 foupded in 1792, but the evidence of that exists only in a document 
 still preserved among its archives " (Johnson's New Univ. Cyclop., 
 tit. " Stocji; Exchange," by Strong Wadsworth). 
 
 The following account is from Medbery's Men and Mysteries of 
 Wall Street, 286 : .... when Washington was President, and 
 Continental money was worth a trifle more as currency than as 
 waste paper, some twenty New York dealers in public stock met 
 together in ^ Broker's ofiioe,and signed their names, in the bold,strong 
 hand of their generation, to an agreement of the nature of a protective 
 league. The date of this curious paper is May 17, 1792. The volume 
 of business of all these primitive New York Brokers could not have 
 been much above that of even the poorest first-class Wall Street 
 house in our time. The Revolutionary ' shinplasters,' as the irre- 
 verent already styled them, were spread over the land in such plenty 
 that there wqre a hundred dollars to each inhabitant. Something 
 was to be made, therefore, from the fluctuations to which they were 
 liable. Indepd, one of the greatest Broker firms of subsequent 
 years derive^ its capital from the lucky speculations of its senior 
 member in this currency. " The war of 1812 gave the first genuine 
 impulse to speculation. The government issued sixteen millions 
 in Treasury notes, and put loans amounting to one hundred and 
 nine millions on the market. There were endless fluctuations, and 
 the easy-going capitalists of the time managed to gain or lose hand- 
 some fortunes, Bank stock was also a favorite investment. An 
 illustration of one of the sources of money-making to Brokers at 
 this period is found in the fact that United States 6's of 1814 were at 
 50 in specie and 70 in New York bank currency. 
 
 " In 1816 one could count up two hundred and eight banks with 
 a capital of $82,000,000." ..." One day in 1817, the New York 
 stock-dealers ipet in the room of an associate, and voted to send a 
 delegate over pn the stage line to investigate the system adopted in 
 the rival city. The visit was successful ; and the draft of a consti- 
 tution and by .laws, framed from that of the Philadelphia Board, 
 received the fipal approbation of a sufficient number of the Brokers 
 to enable the j^ew York Stock Exchange to become a definite fact. 
 Three years after, on the 21st of February, 1820, this preliminary 
 code of a thorough revision, and the organization was strengthened 
 by the accession of some of the heaviest capitalists in the city. In- 
 deed, with 1820, the real history of the Exchange may properly be 
 said to commence." 
 
 . " By the statutes of Pa., the occupation of Stock-broker is regu- 
 lated by statute (Brightly's Purd. Dig. 42), the substance of which 
 is here given : 
 
 1. Stock-brokers to be licensed, etc. • 
 
 5. License to be renewed annually, etc., to enure for the benefit 
 of assignees or legal representatives. Proceedings m such cases: 
 Brokers not to use more than one place of Business. The same 
 person may be licensed as Stock, Exchange, and Bill Broker. 
 
 6. Penalty for actinj^ without license. 
 
 9. Tax on Broker's license. Three per cent, on commissions, etc 
 
 10. To be appraised. 
 
 11. How classified, 
 
 12. To make annual returns on oath. 
 
 13. Statement of name of Broker or firm, location of business, 
 and amount of capital engaged to be reported to the Attorney- 
 general. 
 
 14. Penalty for neglect. 
 
 15. Power of Auditor-general in relation to penalties. 
 
 16. Tax to be additional to lieense. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 471 
 
 business is now generally restricted to those Brokers who are 
 members of the Stock Exchanges, there being one of these 
 bodies in several of the principal cities of the Union.' 
 
 Considerable discussion has arisen in the cases, especially 
 those in the State of New York, as to the precise relation 
 which exists, where a Broker with his own money purchases 
 or sells stocks, etc., for his Client, for the purpose of specula- 
 tion. Does the Stock-broker in such a transaction, in the 
 absence of an express agreement defining the relation, unite 
 in himself the characters of " Broker," " pledgee" and " trus- 
 tee V The importance of this question is obvious, because, 
 if it be answered affirmatively, it would seem to follow that 
 all of the incidents and consequences of those characters 
 would attach to the Broker, in his dealings with his Client; 
 but, on the other hand, if the question be answered nega- 
 tively, the simple relation of debtor and creditor, arising out 
 of a breach of contract, would exist. The embarrassment of 
 the question arises from the fact that, in the case of an or- 
 dinary purchase of stocks for speculation, on a margin, the 
 Stock-broker, without literally filling the technical defini- 
 tions of "Broker," " pledgee," or " trustee," comes within 
 the purview of all those terms. He is a Broker because he 
 has no interest in the transaction, except to the extent of his 
 commissions ; he is a pledgee, in that he holds the stock, 
 etc., as security for the repayment of the money he ad- 
 vances in its purchases ; so he is a trustee, for the law charges 
 him with the utmost honesty and good faith in his transac- 
 tions ; and whatever benefit arises therefrom enures to the 
 cestui que trust. The circumstances attendant upon an ordi- 
 nary transaction between a Broker and his Client in a stock 
 speculation are carefully described by Hunt, Ch. J., in a 
 leading case in the State of New York ■? 
 
 " The customer employs the Broker ... to buy certain 
 stocks for his account, and to pay for them, and to hold them 
 subject to his order as to the time of sale. The customer ad- 
 vances ten per cent, of their market value, and agrees to keep 
 good such proportionate advance, according to the fluc- 
 tuations of the market. . . . 
 " The Broker undertakes and agrees : 
 " 1. At once to buy for the customer the stocks indicated. 
 " 2. To advance all the money required for the purchase, 
 beyond the ten per cent, furnished by the customer. 
 
 " 3. To carry or hold such stocks for the benefit of the 
 customer,'so long as the margin of ten per cent, is kept good, 
 or until notice is given, by either party, that the transaction 
 must be closed. An appreciation in the value of the stocks 
 is the gain of the customer, and not of the Broker. 
 
 " 4. At all times to have in his home, or under his control, 
 ready for delivery the shares purchased, or an equal amount 
 of other shares of the same stock. 
 
 " 5. To deliver such shares to the customer, when rec[uired 
 by him, upon the receipt of the advances and commissions 
 accruing to the Broker ; or, 
 
 " 6. To sell such shares, upon the order of the customer, 
 upon payment of the like sums to him, and account to the 
 customer for the proceeds of such sale. 
 " Under this contract the customer undertakes : 
 " 1. To pay a margin of ten per cent, on the current mar- 
 ket value of the shares. 
 
 "2. To keep good such margin according to the fluc- 
 tuations of the market. 
 
 " 3. To take the shares so purchased on his order whenever 
 required by the Broker, and to pay the differences between 
 the percentage advanced by him and the amount paid there- 
 for by the Broker."' 
 
 It may be well to set forth the history of an ordinary trans- 
 action between a Client and a Broker; even with a little more 
 detail than that contained in the foregoing contract. The 
 ordinary margin paid on opening an account with a Broker 
 — ^that is, in ordering him to buy or sell securities — is ten per 
 cent.^ The margin may be less than this or frequently none 
 is advanced, according to the confidence which the Broker 
 has in the ability of his Client to respond to ultimate loss. 
 But, whether the Broker advances all or only the principal 
 
 1 Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Boston. 
 'Markham vs. Jaudon, 41 N. Y. 235. 
 ' See also Brass vs. Worth, 40 Barb. 648. 
 * Markham vs. Jaudon, 41 N. Y. 235. 
 
 portion of the sum invested in the securities, the relation of 
 the parties is unchanged. The fact exists that the Broker 
 looks to the principal for an indemnity upon the entire trans- 
 action. The Client having given the Broker an order to buy 
 or sell, either in writing or verbally, the next step in the 
 transaction is, that the Broker goes into the Stock Exchange 
 and executes the business, making a verbal contract therefor 
 with another Broker. Frequently the Broker, upon receiv- 
 ing an order, deputes another, or subordinate, Broker to do 
 the business. This is contrary to the general principle of ' 
 law, that an agent cannot delegate his business to another — 
 " delegata potestas nonpotest delegari /" ' but it is justified by 
 the general usage of Wall Street, of which the Client has ex- 
 press or implied knowledge. The exact transaction in the 
 Stock Exchange is as follows: The selling Broker offers for 
 sale his securities, and if there is a Broker present who wishes 
 to purchase, the contract is completed, upon his assenting to 
 the terms mentioned. 
 
 Where the number of shares is not named by the selling 
 Broker, it shall be considered to be for one hundred shares of 
 stock, of the par value of one hundred dollars, or ten thous- 
 and dollars of bonds.' 
 
 Some rules of the Stock Exchange are here given, which 
 further illustrate the transaction in the Stock Exchange : 
 " All ofiers made and accepted shall be binding." 
 " Offers to buy or sell shall be entitled to the floor in the 
 following order : 
 
 " 1. Bids 'seller three days,' and offers to sell 'buyer three 
 days,' shall take precedence of cash and regular. 
 
 " 2. ' Cash ' and ' regular ' bids and offers may be made 
 
 simultaneously, as being essentially different propositions. 
 
 " 3. Offers to buy and sell on longer options than three 
 
 days may be made at the same time with offers to buy or sell 
 
 ' buyer or seller three.' 
 
 "4. In offers to buy on seller's option, or to sell on buyer's 
 option, the longest option shall have the precedence.' 
 
 " In offers to buy on buyer's option, or sell on seller's op- 
 tion, the shortest option shall have the precedence." 
 
 " No party to a contract shall be compelled to accept a 
 principal other than the member offering to contract, unless 
 the name proposed to be substituted shall be satisfactory, or 
 shall be declared at the time of making the offer." * 
 
 " Whenever there is a disputed claim for the purchase or 
 sale of a security, made during the sessions of the Exchange, 
 the presiding officer shall decide the same, or he may appeal 
 to the board for their decision. If an appeal be made from 
 the decision of the presiding officer, and seconded by two 
 members, the question shall be put to a vote." * 
 
 " In any disagreement between members, growing out of 
 the purchase and sale of a security or securities, as soon as 
 the same is ascertained, if not settled by mutual agreement, 
 the money difference shall be established forthwith by pur- 
 chase or sale by an officer of the Stock Exchange, wherever 
 the Exchange may be at the time convened." * 
 
 "All purchases and sales shall be settled for on the next 
 business day, unless expressed to the contrary." ' 
 
 Sales for " cash " are settled for immediately after the pur- 
 chase, upon the delivery of the same.* 
 
 In all deliveries of stocks, bonds, etc., the party delivering 
 shall have the right to require purchase-money to be paid 
 at the time and place of delivery.' 
 
 By Article XXX. of the By-laws of the New York Stock 
 Exchange, transactions may be made in government securi- 
 ties for the "account" for two "settling days" — viz., the 
 15th and last days of each month. Provision is also made 
 for securing and carrying out such contracts, but, as a mat- 
 ter-of-fact, this system of dealing is rarely if ever used. 
 
 But to continue : the Brokers, in making transactions with 
 one another, do not know for whom they are made, the names 
 
 ' Leask's Dig., Law of Cont. 462. 
 
 2 Art. V. i 2, of By-laws, N. Y. 
 
 3 Art. V. ] 3, id. 
 •Art. V. ? 4, id. 
 5Art. VII. Jl, id. 
 
 6 Art. VII. i 2, of By-laws, N. Y. Stock Exchange. 
 ' Art. XII. § 1, id. 
 
 8 Art. XVII. Constitution. 
 
 9 Id. 
 
472 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the principals being jealously concealed. One Broker 
 looks to the other contracting Broker to carry out the trans- 
 action, and in practice there is no attempt made to enforce 
 any liability against the principal should he become known. 
 Here another question arises, whether there is any liability 
 on the part of the unknown principal for the default of his 
 Broker? Is there any privity between him and the other 
 contracting Broker ? We shall not attempt to answer these 
 questions in this place, but they are suggested as they arise 
 in the history of the transaction.' There is no written con- 
 tract, as a general rule, between the Brokers, each one 
 merely dotting down the transaction made, and report- 
 ing it to his office, at which place, later in the day, the 
 business is confirmed by comparisons made by each side. 
 The Statute of Frauds here looms up to destroy such con- 
 tracts ; but the rules of the board make them inviolable be- 
 tween the members in the tribunal known as the " Arbitra- 
 tion Committee." 
 
 On the following day, if the transaction is made " regu- 
 lar," the stocks are duly delivered at the office of the pur- 
 chasing broker by the selling broker, who receives payment 
 for them. If the sale be made on time, the transaction is 
 completed when the time expires. The stock,when received, 
 remains in the office of the purchasing broker to await the 
 liirther orders of the client. Sometimes the stock is held by 
 the broker with merely a general power of attorney in 
 blank attached to or endorsed on it. 
 
 " In the delivery of stock, of which but one transfer 
 in a day is allowed, the receiver shall have the option 
 of receiving said stock by certificate and power irrevocable 
 in the name of, witnessed or guaranteed by, a member 
 of the exchange, or a firm represented at the exchange, 
 resident or doing business in New York, or by transfer 
 thereof."" 
 
 "In all transactions exceeding one hundred shares, 
 where the delivery is by certificate and power, the pur- 
 chaser shall have the right to require the delivery in certi- 
 ficates of not more than one hundred shares each."' 
 
 "Powers of attorney, or substitution, signed by trustees, 
 guardians, infants, executors, administrators, or attorneys, 
 shall not be a good delivery."' 
 
 Sometimes the stock is transferred on the books of the 
 company in the name of the Broker, rarely in the name of 
 the principal. This stock is considered as the client's, 
 subject only to the lien of the Broker for advances and 
 commissions. The Broker collects the dividends, and pays 
 assessments upon it, if any be levied, and the same remains 
 in his hands through the whole transaction until it is sold, 
 the client never having possession of, and rarely ever see- 
 ing, the stock. Upon the purchase of the stock, the Broker 
 sends a notice to his client, giving the price and the name 
 of the Broker from whom he has purchased.' What effect 
 this would have upon a contest between the unknown prin- 
 cipal and the other or selling. Broker is still another ques- 
 tion. Frequently a Broker is himself a speculator, and, in 
 executing an order for his principal, unites a purchase or 
 sale on his own account. Finally, the Broker in many in- 
 stances may have two clients, who, at the same time, give 
 him counter-orders, the one to buy and the other to sell, 
 which the Broker frequently executes at the market price, 
 but without any real sale or purchase, merely making cross 
 entries in his books. In the absence of any fraud or any 
 damage to the clients, can such transactions stand ? Dur- 
 ing the time the stock or securities remain in possession of 
 the Broker, he uses them to raise money with which to carry 
 on his business, and no attempt is made to keep the stocks 
 separate, or to keep the identical certificates on hand, the 
 client usually being satisfied if the Broker is able to deliver 
 the number of shares purchased, without any regard to par- 
 ticular certificates. According to the strict legal definition 
 It IS manifest that a Stock -broker, in transactions such as 
 
 '■ See this subject considered, Ch. X. 
 J Art IX. ? 1, of By-laws N. Y. Stock Exchange. 
 * Art. IX. a 2, id. ° 
 
 « Art. IX. I 3, id. 
 
 ■^^nMlr^r ^^S'^^*^ '" Hoffman vs. Livingston, 46 N. Y. Supe- 
 rior Ct. (14 J. & S.) 552, that a failure of the Broker to give tills 
 notice was such negligence as to preclude him from recovering hia 
 commissions. >>-""ig uia 
 
 those described above, is not embraced within the term 
 " Broker." 
 
 " Brokers " have been defined by a standard legal lexicog- 
 rapher to be " those who are engaged for others in the nego- 
 tiation of contracts relative to property with the custody of 
 which they have no concern ; " ' and " Stock-brokers " as 
 those employed to buy and sell shares of stocks in incorpo- 
 rated companies and the indebtedness of governments." ' 
 
 The distinction between a Stock-broker and an ordinary 
 Broker are tersely summarized by Woodruff, J., in his dis- 
 senting opinion in the well-known case of Slarkham vs. 
 Jaudon,^ in this language : " In the first place, the Stock- 
 dealer who is employed, though called a Stock-broker, does 
 not act as Broker in this transaction. It is no part of the 
 office or duty of a Broker to pay the price. Itis no part of 
 the office or right of a Broker to receive the property, still 
 less to take the title in his own name.* " In this transaction 
 he acts in a peculiar business, in his own name and on his 
 own responsibility, protected against loss by the indemnity 
 furnished, or by the agreement to be furnished to him. The 
 idea of mere agency ordinarily suggested by the name 
 Broker does not, therefore, arise out of the fact that the 
 dealers in stocks for account of others, as to profit and loss, 
 are called Stock-brokers, In the next place, the transac- 
 tion, according to the intent and purpose of the employment 
 of the Broker, does not contemplate that the customer will 
 ever receive the stock, or own it. It may be that if the 
 Broker desires to close his connection with the transaction, 
 the customer, if he pays the cost, interest, and all commis- 
 sions which the Broker has earned, or is entitled to earn, 
 will receive the stock, whether he may so insist or not is a 
 collateral question ; and, if he be so entitled, it will never- 
 theless be true that this is not in pursuance of the arrange- 
 ment, but a departure from it ; for the intent is, that the 
 stock shall be carried by the Broker until directed to be 
 sold, the customer never having the title to the stock at all. 
 And, finally, in my opinion, the transaction is an executory 
 agreement for a pure speculation in the rise and fall of stock, 
 which the Broker, on condition of perfect indemnity against 
 loss, agrees to carry through in his own name and on his own 
 means or credit, accounting to his customer for the profits, 
 if any, and holding him responsible for the loss."' 
 
 Notwithstanding these technical differences, the decided 
 inclination of the courts has been to visit a Stock-broker 
 
 1 1 Bouv. L. Diet., title •' Broker. " Ewall's Evans on agency, 4 
 et seq. 
 
 2 Ibid. See also Clark vs. Powell, ] Nev. & M. 494, arguments 
 of counsel pro and con. Ab. L. Diet., title " Broker. " As to liabi- 
 lity of Broker to pay taxes, etc., see ? 3407, Eev. Stat. V. S. (2d ed. 
 18781, which provides as follows: 
 
 " J 3407. Every incorporated or other bank, and every person, firm, 
 or company having a place of business where credits are opened 
 by the deposit or collection of money or currency subject to be paid 
 or remitted upon draft, check, or order ; or where money is ad- 
 vanced or loaned on stocks, bonds, bullion, bills of exchange, or 
 promissorynotes;orwherestocks, bonds, bullion, bills of exchange, 
 or promissory notes are received for discount or for sale, shall be 
 regarded as a bank or as a banker." 
 
 By the subsequent § 3408, a tax of one twenty-fourth of one per 
 cent. IS imposed each month upon the average amount of deposits ; 
 and a like amount on the capital employed. 
 
 See also, for interpretation of this law. Northrnp vs. Shook, 10 
 Blatchf. 243; Clark vs. Bailey, 12 id. 156, s. c. affirmed 21 Wall. 
 (U.S.) 284; Warren vs. Shook, 91 U. S. 704; United States vs. 
 Cutting, 3 Wall. 441; United States vs. Fisk, id. 445; Clark vs. 
 Gilbert, 5 Blatchf. 330; Bankers' Cases, 11 Op. Att'ys Gen. 482; 
 Seldeu vs. Equitable Trust Co. 94 U. S. 419 
 
 Ml N. Y. 256 ; Northrup vs. Shook, supra. 
 
 A Broker has not the custody of tlie goods of his prinoipal; he 
 
 IS merely empowered to effect the contract of sale or purchase on 
 
 his behalf. , Chitty on Cont. (Uth Am. ed,) 274 ; Paley on Ag. 13 ; 
 
 Story on Ag. (8th ed.) ? 28 et seq. " • } 8 . 
 
 6 In the case of Wood vs. Hayes, 81 Mass. 375, it was held that 
 wtiere a Stock-broker advances his own money in the purchase of 
 stocks for another, and holds the shares in his own name, the trans- 
 action stands on the footing of contract, which is strictly conditional 
 to deliver so many shares on payment of so much money. " A 
 Broker is an agent simply. He transacts business not for himself, 
 but tor another. He is a middle-man, a negotiator between other 
 persons tor a compensation. A stock-broker deals in stocks of 
 moneyed corporations and other securities for his principal. It is 
 a calling of great responsibilities, in which punctuality, honesty, 
 and knowledge are required." Per Van Vorst, J., White vs. 
 Brownell,3 Ab. (N. Y.) Pi. (n. s.)326. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 473 
 
 with all of the responsibilities of a Broker and pledges, and, 
 as we shall hereafter see, to confer upon him all of the ad- 
 vantages of those relations. It is conceded by Mr. Justice 
 Woodruff, and all of the advocates of his view of the law, 
 that where the Stock-broker makes purchases of stock, etc., 
 for his principal ybr- investment, with money furnished by 
 the latter, the relation of pledgor and pledgee exists.' 
 It is also conceded that when stock, etc., is purchased on 
 a margin for the Client, it instantly becomes the property 
 of the latter,^ together with all of its future dividends and 
 earnings ;' and that the Client is entitled to the posses- 
 sion of such stocks, etc., upon paying the money represent- 
 ed in their purchase, with the commissions of the Broker.* 
 
 So it has been decided that a pledgee of stock is not liable 
 for a loss occasioned by his neglect to sell the stock, it having 
 depreciated in his hands till it became worthless, when, by 
 the contract between the parties, the right to sell the stock 
 had been conferred upon the pledgee or a third person ; and 
 the pledgee has never refused to transfer the stock for the 
 purpose of a sale, and the pledgor has never requested that 
 a sale should be made.* It has also been held that a Stock- 
 broker is not liable where spurious securities are purchased 
 by him for a Client in the regular course of business. And 
 if he sell stocks or securities for his principal, which turn 
 out to be spurious, and the Broker, in consequence, repays 
 the purchase-money to the buyer, he can recover the same 
 from the principal." 
 
 So if the pledge be stolen from the Broker, he is not liable 
 unless the theft arose from, or was connected with, a want 
 of ordinary care on his part.' Again, if assessments or 
 " calls" are made upon stocks which a Broker holds for a 
 Client, the liability to pay them, if any, is that of the prin- 
 cipal, and not the Broker.' In fine, all of the benefits, lia- 
 bilities, and disadvantages of ownership are attached to the 
 principal, while the Broker has no interest in the transaction 
 except to the extent of his commissions. In view, there- 
 fore, of these considerations, the better doctrine would seem 
 to be to hold the Broker to the responsibilities of that re- 
 lation ; in fact, it appears difficult to conceive of any other 
 relation which could so fully harmonize with the circum- 
 stances as that of Broker and pledgee. And this now seems 
 to be the established law." The leading case of Markham 
 vs. Jaudon was expressly overruled on the question of the 
 measure of damages in an action for the conversion of stocks 
 by a Broker.'" It should also be noticed that there were two 
 elaborate dissenting opinions by Woodruff and Grover, J J., 
 on the question of the relation which existed between the 
 Broker and the Client, the two judges just mentioned hold- 
 
 ' Markham vs. Jaudon, 41 N. Y. 235, at 257 and 258; also 
 Grover, J., s. o. at 2i7. See also Baker vs. Drake, 53 N. Y. 211. 
 at 216. 
 
 2 Id. 
 
 sid. 
 
 * Howard vs. Brigham, 98 Mass. 133 ; O'Neill vs. Whigham, 87 
 Pa. St. 394. 
 
 ^Lamert vs. Heath, 15 M. & W. 486 ; s. o. Lambert vs. Heath, 15 
 L. J. Exch. 298; Mitchell vs. Nevvhall, 15 M. & W. 308; Westropp 
 vs Solomon, 8 C. B. 373. 
 
 2 Pars, ou Cont. (6th ed.) 112; Abbott vs. Frederick, 56 How. 
 Pr. (N. Y.) 68. See Arent vs. Squires, 1 Daly, 347. 
 
 ' McCalla vs. Clark, 55 Ga. 53. 
 
 'See the above questions considered elsewhere. 
 
 "Gruman vs. Smith, 81 N. Y. 25; Markham vs. Jaudon, 41 N. 
 Y. 235 ; Morgan vs Jaudon (Ct.of App.), 40 How. Pr. (N. Y.) 366 ; 
 Stenton vs. Jerome, 54 N. Y. 480; Baker vs. Drake, 53 N. Y. 211 ; 
 id. 66 N. Y. 518 ; Eitter vs. Cushman, 7 Robt. (N. Y.) 294; Read 
 vs. Lambert, 10 Ab. Pr. (n. s.) 458 ; McNeil vs. Tenth National 
 Bank, 55 Barb. (N. Y.) 59 (reversed on other points in 46 N. Y. 
 325) ; Clarke vs. Meigs, 22 How. Pr. N. Y.) 648 ; Andrews vs. 
 Clarke, Bosw. 585; Taylor vs. Ketchum, 5 Robt. (N. Y.) 507; 
 Taussig vs. Hart, 58 N. Y. 425 ; Thompscm vs Toland, 48 Cal. 99 ; 
 Kenfield vs. Latham, 2 Cal. Leg. Eec. 235 ; Gilpin vs Howell, 5 Pa. 
 St. 41 Wynkoop vs. Seal, 64 Pa. St. 361 ; Esser vs. Linderman, 71 
 Pa. St. 76 ; Maryland Fire Ins. Co. vs. Dalrymple, 25 Md. 242 ; 
 Baltimore Ins. Co. vs. Dalrymple, id. 269; Child vs. Hugg, 41 
 Cal. 519. The same rule would seem to exist in England : Brook- 
 man vs. Rothchild, 3 Sim. 153, afif'd by House of Lords in 5 Bli. 
 (n. s.) 165. Contrary to this view are Hanks vs. Drake, 49 Barb. 
 (N. Y.) 186; Schepeler vs. Eisner, 3 Daly, 11 ; Sterling vs. Jaudon, 
 48 Barb. (N. Y.) 459, which have all been expressly overruled in 
 the State of New York. See also Wood vs. Hayes, 81 Mass. 385. 
 
 '0 Baker vs. Drake, 53 N. Y. 211. 
 
 ing that the Brokers were not pledgees, but that they held 
 the stock under a contract which enabled them to sell upon 
 the failure of the Client to furnish margins. When this 
 question came again before the court of last resort in New 
 York,' Commissioners Earl and Reynolds both wrote opinions 
 affirming the judgment on the specific ground that the 
 Brokers were pledgees. But in the case of Baker vs. Drake'' 
 (which was not adverted to in the preceding case), over- 
 ruling Markham vs. Jaudon upon the question of the measure 
 of damage, Mr. Justice Rapallo, in alluding to the latter 
 case, said : " It seems to me, after as full an examination of 
 the subject as circumstances have permitted, that the dis- 
 senting opinions (per Woodruff and Grover, J.I., alluded to 
 above) embody the sounder reasons." Yet, when Baker vs. 
 Drake came before the Court of Appeals again in September, 
 1876," the court expressly reiterated and reaffirmed three 
 propositions laid down in the case of Markham vs. Jaudon, 
 the principal one being that " the relation of Broker and 
 Client, under the ordinary contract for a speculative purchase 
 of stock, is that of pledgee and pledgor." From this view 
 Rapallo and Allen, JJ., dissented. 
 
 The doctrine of Markham vs. Jaudon was again distinctly 
 reaffirmed in the last-mentioned respect in Gruman vs. 
 Smith.* The theory that the relation which exists between 
 a Stock-broker and his Client in an ordinary speculative 
 transaction is not that of pledgor and plegee, is mainly based 
 upon the argument ah inconvenienti. It is said that as 
 stocks are a fluctuating species of property, whose value is 
 liable to be wiped out in a moment, the burden should not 
 be put upon a Broker to give his Client notice of a decline 
 or rise, as the case may be, and to make a demand for fur- 
 ther margins. But this argument is just as forcible when 
 applied to the undisputed case of a pure pledge, where it is 
 conceded that there must be notice to the pledgor before a 
 sale can be made, as where the owner of stocks pledges them 
 to secure borrowed money. In this instance, although the 
 stocks are liable to a decline and leave the lender without 
 security, it is clear that, in the absence of express agreement, 
 they could not be sold without legal notice.^ So it has been 
 held that where, instead of money, the Client deposits 
 stock, etc., as margin, the relation of pledgor and pledgee 
 exists." 
 
 The Broker may always, in the outset, protect himself 
 against the fluctuations of an advance or decline in the 
 market by exacting sufficient margins to meet the contin- 
 gencies of speculation ; and if he neglect to do this, he 
 should not expect the law to aid him. But, finally, the 
 Broker may always fully insure himself by making a special 
 contract with his Client,' which will enable him to dispose 
 of securities in any manner and at any time that may be 
 agreed upon without notice, and such contracts the law will 
 uphold and carry out.' Upon the whole, while it must be 
 conceded that there are incongruous features in the rela- 
 tion, there seems te be no hardship in holding that a Stock- 
 broker is a pledgee ; for, although it is true that he may 
 advance all or the greater part of the money embraced in 
 the speculation, if he acts honestly, faithfully and prudently, 
 the entire risk is upon the Client, and may be enforced 
 against him as a personal liability, irrespective of the value 
 of the securities, which are the subject of the transaction. 
 To introduce a different rule would give opportunities for 
 sharp practices and frauds, which the law should not invite ; 
 and if it be true, as Mr. Justice Woodruff' puts it, that " the 
 transaction is an executory agreement for a pure speculation 
 in the rise and fall of stock, which the Broker, on condition 
 of perfect indemnity against loss, agrees to carry through in 
 his own name and on his own means," accounting to the 
 Client for the profits, it is very questionable whether all the 
 transactions of Wall Street could not be set aside as mere 
 
 ' Stenton vs. Jerome, 54 N. Y. 480. 
 2 53 N. Y. 211. 
 8 66 N. Y. 518. 
 
 * N. Y. 25, reversing 12 J. & S. 
 
 * Schouler on Bailm. 206 et seq. 
 
 " Lawrence vs. Maxwell, 53 N. Y. 19 : see also Vaupel vs. Wood- 
 ward, 2 Sandf. Cfi. 143. 
 
 ' See in this connection remarks of Hunt, Ch. J., Markham vs. 
 Jaudon, 41 N. Y. 244. 
 
 ' Post, subdivision (V.) of this chapter, p. 169. 
 
 ' Markham vs. Jaudon, 41 N. Y. 256 ; ante, p. 109. 
 
474 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 wagers. But, as we bave seen, the cases most emphatically 
 condemn this view, except those in Pennsylvania, in one of 
 which — viz.. North vs. Phillips^ — ^the Supreme Court of 
 Pennsylvania held that the peculiar facts there developed 
 showed that the dealings between the Client and the Bro- 
 kers were in " differences" and "margins " and the purchase 
 and sale of the stock were a mere pretense ; but it is plain, 
 from reading the opinion of the leai'ned judge in that case, 
 that not only was no effect given to the verdict of the jury, 
 which found that the purchases of stocks had been made 
 honafide, but the different elements which made up the 
 transaction between the Brokers and their Client were com- 
 pletely overlooked — viz., that stock was actually purchased 
 for the Client ; that it was held subject to his orders ; that 
 he would have been entitled to the dividends thereon ; that 
 he could have insisted upon the instantaneous delivery of 
 the stock to him upon tendering the purchase-money re- 
 maining due; that, if the Brokers had failed, the stock 
 would not have passed to their assignees ; and that, in fine, 
 the Brokers were only interested in the transaction to the 
 extent of their commissions. With great respect, therefore, 
 we think that this case is not entitled to rank as an author- 
 ity upon the question involved, especially as it appears to 
 be directly opposed to the previi>us cases of Esser vs. Lin- 
 dermani and Wynkoop vs. Seal,' where similar transactions 
 were upheld.' 
 
 Definitions of Terms used. — There are a number of 
 technical or well-known terms used in Wall Street which 
 should be defined here. When a person is said to be "long" 
 of stocks, it is meant that he has purchased stock through 
 his Brokers or otherwise, in the expectation of a rise or 
 advance in the market ; he is then called a " bull." 
 
 To be "short" of stocks is where one sells stocks which 
 he does not own or possess, and borrows the number of 
 shares which he has sold from some third person to deliver 
 to his vendee, expecting to be able to buy the stocks at a 
 lower figure, and then return them to the person from whom 
 he has borrowed them ; he is called a " bear."* 
 
 To " carry " stocks means where a Broker or other person 
 advances the money, or a principal part thereof, with which 
 to purchase stocks, and holds the same subject to the orders 
 of his Client.6 
 
 A " corner" in stocks is where the owners or holders (i. e. 
 bulls) refuse to loan stocks to the " bears," with which to 
 carry out their short contracts, in which event the " bears," 
 being unable to deliver, are compelled to go into the market 
 or Exchange and buy the stocks at any price at which they 
 can obtain them.^ 
 
 " Wash sales" are not real sales, but are made by persons 
 interested to each other, for the purpose of giving a fictitious 
 value to the stock.' 
 
 A " shave" is a consideration for carrying stock for a cer- 
 tain time.' 
 
 A "call" is a contract by which the party signing or 
 making the same agrees, in consideration of a certain sum, 
 to deliver, at the option of a party therein named, or his 
 order or bearer, securities therein mentioned, at a certain 
 day for a certain price.' 
 
 1 89 Pa. St. 250. 
 
 2 71 Pa. St. 81. 
 ' 64 Pa. 361. 
 
 ' White vs. Smith, 54 N.Y. 522 ; Enowlton vs. Fitch, 52 N.Y. 289. 
 6 Price vs. Gover, 40 Md. 103 ; Salters vs. Genin, 3 Bosw. (N. Y.) 
 250,260. 
 
 « Cameron vs. Durkheim, 55 N. Y. 425, 438. 
 
 ' Byran vs. Baldwin, 52 N. Y. 232, 236 ; afFg 7 Lans. (N. Y.) 174. 
 
 « North V8. Phillips, 89 Pa. St. 250-255. 
 
 ' The following is a copy of the call commonly used: 
 
 " New York, 1882. 
 
 " For value received, the bearer may call on me for shares of 
 the common stock of the Railroad Company at per cent, 
 
 any time m days from date. The bearer is entitled to all divi- 
 
 dends or extra dividends declared during the time. 
 " Expires 1881, at IS P. M. 
 
 '^Signed, 
 
 By the usage of Brokers, it is negotiable, and it has been declared 
 valid by certain courts. 
 
 A " put" is also an option contract, except the party hold- 
 ing the same has the option of delivering securities to the 
 maker.' 
 
 A " straddle," or " spread-eagle," combines the advan- 
 tages of a " put" and a " call," being a contract by which the 
 holder has the right or 6ption either to deliver or have de- 
 livered to him certain stocks at prices designated in the 
 writing.' 
 
 Commission. — In respect to the commission or compensa- 
 tion which a Stock-broker is entitled to receive for trans- 
 acting the business of the Client, the amount thereof rests 
 either upon an express or an implied agreement. Of course, 
 whenever there is an express agreement by which the 
 amount of the commission is definitely fixed, all greater or 
 other rates are excluded.' But frequently, in employing a 
 Stock-broker, nothing is said as to the amount of his com- 
 missions, in which case they must be ascertained by other 
 means. There is a uniform rate fixed by the New York 
 Stock Exchange which is generally observed by the Brokers 
 in dealings with their Clients.* And the law seems to be 
 that where a broker is employed, and no special compensa- 
 tion is agreed upon, the rate of brokerage customarily 
 charged for the same services is the proper measure of dam- 
 ages. The parties are then presumed to have contracted in 
 reference to the usage.* The law is that where there is a 
 general usage in any particular trade or branch of business, 
 parties having knowledge of the usage are presumed to con- 
 tract in reference to it ; and, if the usage does not conflict 
 with the terms of the contract, it will be deemed to enter 
 into and constitute a part of it. Knowledge of the usage 
 may be established by presumptive as well as by direct evi- 
 dence. It may be presumed from surrounding facts, as the 
 
 1 It is as follows : 
 
 " New York, 
 
 1882. 
 
 " For value received, the bearer may deliver me shares of 
 
 the common stock of the Railroad Company at per cent., 
 
 at any time in days from date. The undersigned is entitled to 
 
 all dividends or extra dividends declared during Sie time. 
 
 " Expires at If P. M. 
 
 " Signed, 
 
 2 Harris vs. Tumbridge, Ab. New Cas. 209 ; aff'd S3 N. Y. 92, where 
 the court, in speaking of a " straddle," said " The word, if not elegant, 
 is at least expressive. It means the double privilege of a ' put ' and 
 a ' call,' and secures to the holder the right to demand of the sel- 
 ler at a certain price, within a certain time, a certain number of 
 shares of specified stock, or to require him to take at the same price, 
 within the same time, the same shares of stock." 
 
 The following is the form of a " straddle :" 
 
 New York, 1882. 
 
 " For value received, the bearer may call on the undersigned for 
 shares of the common stock of the Railroad Company at per 
 
 cent., any time in. days from date. Or the bearer" may, at &is 
 option, deliver the same to the undersigned at per cent., any time 
 within the period named. All dividends or extra dividends declared 
 during the time are to go with the stock in either case ; and this in- 
 strument is to be surrendered upon the stock being either called or 
 delivered. 
 
 " Expires at 1| P. M. 
 
 Signed, _" 
 
 ' Wharton on Ag. § 323 ; Bower vs. Jones, 8 Bing. 65 ; Ware vs. 
 Hayward Rubber Co., 85 Mass. 84. 
 
 * Art. XVIII. Const. U 1, 2, and 3. By these rules a commission of 
 one eighth ofone per cent, is chargeable on all transactions in securi- 
 ties made for all parties not members of the Exchange, other than 
 gold, government bonds, and exchange. The minimum rate to 
 members of the Exchange is one thirty-second of one per cent., ex- 
 cept m certain cases, when it may be one fiftieth of one per cent. 
 The rates are based upon the par value of the securities. 
 
 On mininff stocks selling in the market at not over $5 per share 
 the commission shall be ,?3.12i ; on shares selling at not over $10 
 and above $5 per share, $6.25 ; on shares selling above $10 per share, 
 $12.50 per 100 shares. The minimum commission to members of 
 the Exchange shall be $1 per $100 on all shares selling at $10 and 
 below. But in all other eases the rate shall be the same as directed 
 in this article to Railroad stocks. 
 
 6 Morgan vs. Mason, 4 K. Ti. Smith (N. Y.), 636 ; Miller vs. Ins. 
 Co. of North America, 1 Ab. New Cas. id. 470, and note, which 
 contains a collection of cases on the extent to which usage is admis- 
 sible to establish a rate of compensation ; see also Erben vs Loril- 
 larj 2 Keyes (N. Y.), 667 ; Adams vs. Capron, 21 Md. 18(3 ; Deshler 
 vs. Beers, 32 111. 368. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 475 
 
 uniformity, long continuance, and notoriety of the same. 
 And it is held' that an agreement between Broliers to share 
 commissions earned by one on information given by the 
 other is legal. 
 
 But it seems that a Broker or Agent is not always entitled 
 to a commission, although he may have performed the work 
 or transacted the business for which he was employed. Mr. 
 Parsons lays down a proposition" which seems to be very 
 generally accepted by the courts, that " neither a factor nor 
 a Broker can have any valid claim for his commissions or 
 other compensation if he has not discharged all the duties 
 of the employment which he has undertaken with proper 
 care and skill and entire fidelity." This necessarily em- 
 braces all acts of bad faith on the part of the Broker ; and 
 it even applies where a Broker, without fraudulent intent, 
 receives commission from a conflicting interest.^ In the 
 State of New York, however, it has been held that where a 
 trustee wrongfully invested trust funds in securities not au- 
 thorized by law, such act did not deprive him of his right 
 to commissions ; and Mr. Justice Woodruff doubted whether 
 even misconduct or gross negligence would operate to debar 
 trustees of their authorized compensation, where no impu- 
 tation of fraud rests upon them.* A Broker is never en- 
 titled to commissions for unsuccessful efforts, even though, 
 after his failure and the termination of his agency, his labor 
 proves of use and benefit to his principal. He does not, 
 however, lose his commissions where his efforts are rendered 
 a failure by the fault of his principal, or where the purchaser 
 declines to complete because of a defect which is the fault 
 of the principal.' What constitutes a faithful performance 
 of the Broker's duty depends greatly upon the nature of the 
 business committed to his hands. It has been held, for 
 instance, that he is obliged to keep and render a correct ac- 
 count of the business transacted.* And, although he may 
 not absolutely forfeit his commission by a failure to do this, 
 it may be construed as a failure of duty on his part, or as 
 a suppression of evidence.' The case of Hoffman vs. Liv- 
 ingston' peculiarly illustrates the question of a right of a 
 Stock-broker to recover his commissions. The plaintiff 
 there sued to recover his commissions or transactions in 
 stocks made for account of defendant. The transactions 
 were conducted by the plaintiff under an arrangement by 
 which the latter speculated for the defendant under a dis- 
 cretionary order, buying and selling whenever he deemed it 
 advisable. Under this arrangement plaintiff made numer- 
 ous transactions, resulting in a loss to the defendant of a 
 large sum, more than one-half of which was for commis- 
 sions. Notice of each transaction was not given to the de- 
 fendant in accordance with the custom of Brokers. The 
 action was contested on the ground that the circumstances 
 showed that the operations were made with a view of merely 
 yielding commissions for the benefit of the Broker, and it 
 was held that the failure of the latter to give notice to his 
 Client of each transaction was a neglect of duty which was 
 a sufficient bar to the recovery of commissions. The rule 
 of law is that if the Broker's services are wholly abortive, 
 or executed in such a manner that no benefit results from 
 them, he is not entitled to recover either his commissions or 
 even a compensation for his trouble. That the question is 
 one of due diligence and ordinary skill, and the want of 
 this may be the result of an inattention or incapacity. It is 
 not necessary in such case for defendant to show actual 
 fraud. It has also been held that a Broker employed to 
 
 » McLaughlin vs. Barnard, 2 E. D. Smith (N. Y.I, 372. 
 
 ^Pars. on Con. (6th ed.) *100, and authorities cited. 
 
 ' Wharton on Ag. ? 336 ; Story on Ag. ? 331 ; Levy vs. Loeb, N. Y. 
 Ct. App. Oct. 1881, not yet reported. 
 
 * King vs. Talbot; 40 N. Y. 76 ; Vanderheyden vs. Vanderheyden, 
 2 Paige Y, N. Norsworthy, 1 Sand. Ch. (id.) 406 ; Meacham vs. 
 Stearns, 9 Paige (id.), 405. 
 
 'Sibbald vs. Bethlehem Iron Co. (N. Y. Ct. App.), 11 N. Y. Week 
 588 ; Rapalje vs. Dig. 445. 
 
 ' Clark vs. Moody, 17 Mass. 145. 
 
 'Lupton vs. White, 15 Vesey, 432, 640; Hart vs. Ten Eyck, to 
 Johns. Ch. 42, 108. 
 
 8 14J. &S.(N. Y.)552. 
 
 purchase government bonds for a Client cannot act in the 
 same transaction a.s agent for the seller, and receive com- 
 missions from both sides, although this may be done where 
 the Client expressly assents to the same.i 
 
 THE NEW YORK MINING STOCK MARKET. 
 
 THE great distance of the gold and silver mines on the 
 Pacific coast, and the difficulty of obtaining trust- 
 worthy information regarding them, prevented, for a 
 long time, the establishment of a mining stock exchange 
 in New York, or any of the other Eastern cities. It is true, 
 that ever since the California gold fever of 1849, but, more 
 especially, since the completion of the Pacific railroads and 
 the trans-continental telegraph, more or less business has 
 been done by eastern capitalists in mining stocks, purchases 
 being made at first, however, in the San Francisco market. 
 An effort was made to create a mining excitement in the 
 east, as a forerunner to the establishment of a recognized 
 mining exchange, but it met with only spasmodic success, 
 and the investments that were made proved, as a rule, so 
 unprofitable that the business fell into great disrepute, and 
 few persons making any pretensions to financia,l acumen 
 could be found bold enough to advocate dealings in mining 
 securities, or admit that they were interested in mining 
 properties. So great, indeed, was the distrust in securities 
 of this class that it was a decided injury to a business man's 
 financial standing to be known to be dealing in them, and 
 mining stocks were generally classed with lottery tickets. 
 The foisting of some worthless properties on a credulous 
 public was the principal cause for this unsavory reputation. 
 However, the wonderful product of the Comstocks, and the 
 princely fortunes made by a few persons connected with the 
 development of those and some other rich mines, were too 
 great not to excite the envy of speculators in every part of 
 the known world. Furthermore, from year to year, more 
 trustworthy information regarding the mines in the far west 
 was obtainable, and a more thorough knowledge as to the 
 most profitable manner of working the mines was acquired 
 by the managers. This has been followed recently by the 
 discovery of some remarkably rich deposits in Colorado, and 
 a better understanding as to the character and most econom- 
 ical means of developing true fissure veins, some of which 
 have been discovered in various sections of the west, and 
 proved to be very valuable. These discoveries and develop- 
 ments, coming at a time when there was an unusual amount 
 of surplus capital in the country, which, in many cases, had 
 been lying comparatively idle for a long time, and when the 
 country was rallying from the sad effects of the panic of 1873, 
 resulted, very naturally, in awakening an interest in gold 
 and silver mining altogether unknown in the previous history 
 of the eastern States, as is shown by the prominence which 
 dealings in mining stocks have assumed at the exchanges in 
 New York, and other Atlantic coast cities within the past 
 three or four years. Prior to that time the transactions 
 were not sufficient to be made a matter of record in the daily 
 newspapers, or even in the usual forum of printed lists. 
 During 1879, however, the total reported sales of mining 
 stocks, at the New York Mining Stock Exchange, were 
 15,851,878 shares, being an average of over 50,000 shares a 
 day for each business day of the year. In the month of 
 March alone-of that year the transactions amounted to more 
 than 2,100,000 shares. In 1880, the sales at the two mining 
 exchanges, (one of them being in operation only seven 
 months), were 20,012,825 shares, and in 1881, they were 
 43,027,426 shares, while for the first six months of the cur-, 
 rent year (1882), they have aggregated 28,211,052 shares. 
 
 Mining Stock Exchanges. — ^Regular dealings iii 
 mining stocks throua:h the medium of a recognized exchange 
 were first established in New York in 1865, three years after 
 the organization of the first mining exchange in San Fran- 
 cisco. At that time a number of prominent brokers, acting 
 under an adopted constitution, began to deal in mining, 
 stocks in a part of the bo^rd room of the New York Stock 
 
 • Levy vs, I<oeh, ?(.. Y- ^t. of App., not yet reported, Oct, 1881. 
 
476 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Exchange where the transactions in railroad, government 
 and other securities took place. The sales of mining stocks 
 were principally those of California and Nevada companies. 
 Many m'embers of the Stock Exchange belonged to the or- 
 ganization, and for a short time it gave great promise of 
 success. It proved, however, to be short lived, owing to 
 some of the unprofitable ventures that were made and the 
 inability of its members longer to secure the patronage of 
 the speculative public. Although its corporate existence 
 was maintained, the calls of stocks were abandoned and no 
 business was done for several years. It was, in fact, nearly 
 ten years later before the subject of a mining board was 
 again revived. In June, 1876, a card in the financial col- 
 umns of the New York Herald invited gentlemen interested 
 in mines and mining stocks to meet at the oifice of Mr. 
 William Ward for the purpose of taking the necessary steps 
 towards the formation of a mining exchange. The scheme 
 met with unexpected favor, and on August 19, of the same 
 year, the American Mining Board, as the new exchange 
 was named, was formally organized, the constitution and 
 by-laws (modeled afber those of the New York Stock Ex- 
 change) were adopted and the following officers were elected : 
 president, William Ward ; first vice president, Lawrence P. 
 Bayno ; treasurer, Daniel Butterfield ; secretary, H. J. Hub- 
 bard; and assistant secretary, Walworth Ward. At that 
 time 112 applications for membership had been received and 
 prominent among the members were William M. Burgoyne, 
 Gabriel Netter, Francis B. Forster, John F. Scott, George P. 
 Townsend, Joseph T. Thompson, John T. Daly, William 
 Brandreth, N. P. Henderson, H. J. Hubbard, Calixte Har- 
 vier, Walter Browne, Jr., James Campbell, Joseph T. Rook, 
 Samuel S. Rutzky, Henry Lohly and Francis H. Fogg. By 
 October 1, the number of applications had reached 650, and 
 270 persons had been elected to membership, including some 
 of the large and wealthy firms of New York, Philadelphia, 
 Baltimore, Virginia City and San Francisco. Meanwhile 
 the initiation fee had been raised from $100 to $250. The 
 new board secured rooms at the corner of Nassau and Pine 
 streets, where it began business on October 3, 1876, when 
 forty-five stocks were called, nearly all of Nevada and Cali- 
 fornia companies. Applications were received from many 
 other companies for the placing of their stocks on the board 
 list, but they were rejected by the Governing Committee. 
 
 Subsequently the name of the new organization was 
 changed to " The American Mining and Stock Exchange," 
 and a new constitution and by-laws were adopted on Novem- 
 ber 29, of the same year which provided among other things 
 that the Exchange should deal in all mining, railway and 
 miscellaneous securities which might be approved by the 
 Committee on Securities. This was a direct blow at the 
 old New York Stock Exchange which had a monopoly of 
 the transactions in all active securities except those of mining 
 companies, and as a number of the members of the Mining 
 Exchange were also members of the New York Stock Ex- 
 change, it was not long before the Governing Committee of 
 the latter board adopted a resolution prohibiting its mem- 
 bers from belonging to any other board, except the old 
 New York Mining Stock Exchange that was organized in 
 1865, and still retained its corporate existence, being re- 
 garded as a child of the New York Stock Exchange. The 
 result was a consolidation of the two mining exchanges, 
 which was effective on June 14, of the following year, the 
 name adopted for the consolidated exchange being : "The 
 New York MiningStock Exchange." The union was recogniz- 
 ed by the old Stock Exchange, it having been agreed that the 
 Mining Exchange, would not deal in other than mining 
 securities. At the time of the union there were nearly 500 
 members of whom 154 were also members of the New York 
 Stock Exchange. On June 15, 1882, the membership in 
 good standing numbered 465, and a seat commanded about 
 $1,000, while sales have been made within the past two 
 years as high as $3,000. The call room occupied by the 
 board is on the ground floor at No. 62 Broadway, and it ex- 
 tends through to New street (No. 23,) the room being SSx 
 130 feet, a portion of which is set apart for visitors. The 
 first president of the consolidated exchange was George B. 
 Satterlee, who served from July 20, 1877 until June 1880, 
 when he was succeeded by S. V. White who still retains the 
 position. The presentofficers.who were elected June 12, 1882 
 are as follows : President, S. V. White ; Vice President, C. F. 
 
 Woods; Treasurer, J. M. Stanton; Secretary, E. H. Gal- 
 laher, Jr., and Chairman, A. W. Peters. The following are 
 
 the Committees: 
 
 GOVERNING COMMITTEE. 
 To serve one Year. 
 
 P. K. Dickinson, 
 George B. Satterlee, 
 J. A. Macpherson, 
 A. L. Seton, 
 
 R. M. Shaw, 
 F. B. Whitfield, 
 Louis Haight, 
 W. W. Hawly, 
 
 P. P. Robinson. 
 
 To serve two years. 
 R. M. MoJimsey, J. H. Tucker, 
 
 E. P. Mitchell, W. C. Budd, 
 
 John F. Scott, George F. Mann. 
 
 C. F. Woods, W. E. Cox, 
 
 E. S. Munroe. 
 
 To serve three years. 
 R. K. Coolie, H. Dunham, 
 
 A. L. Faria, E. L. Clarkson, 
 
 L. J. Werner, A. Lexon, 
 
 0. H. Badeau, George W. Hoagland, 
 
 T. L. Watson. 
 
 GEATUITY FUND TRUSTEES. 
 
 To serve one year R. M. Shaw. 
 
 To serve two years C. O. Morris. 
 
 To serve three years George Phipps. 
 
 To serve four years E. S. Munroe. 
 
 To serve five years R. M. MeJimsey. 
 
 And the President and Treasurer. 
 
 FINANCE COMMITTEE. 
 
 Louis Haight, A. L. Seton, 
 
 George F. Mann, 
 And the President and Treasurer. 
 
 COMMITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP. 
 R. M. Shaw, Louis Haight, 
 
 J. A. Macpherson, H. Dunham, 
 
 R. K. Cooke, E. L. Clarkson, 
 
 C. H. Badeau. 
 
 COMMITTEE ON ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 R. K. Cooke, T. L. Watson, 
 
 F. B. Whitfield. 
 
 COMMITTEE ON SECURITIES. 
 G. F. Mann, J. F. Scott, 
 
 W. W. Hawly, L. J. Werner, 
 
 P. P. Robinson, J. A. Macpherson. 
 
 A. L. Paris. 
 
 ARBITRATION COMMITTEE. 
 
 George B. Satterlee, R. M. Shaw, 
 E. S. Munroe, W. E. Cox, 
 
 G. W. Hoagland, C. F. Woods, 
 
 A. Lexon. 
 
 LAW COMMITTEE. 
 
 S. V. White, George B. Satterlee, 
 
 J. H. Tucker, John Stanton, 
 
 R. M. MeJimsey. 
 
 COMMITTEE ON COMMISSIONS. 
 R. K. Dickinson, . H. Dunham, 
 
 W. C. Budd. 
 
 COMMITTEE ON MISCELLANEOUS SECURITIES. 
 E. L. Clarkson, A. Lexon, 
 
 II. Dunham. G. W. Hoagland, 
 
 J. F. Seott 
 
 The present Constitution and By-Laws of the New York 
 Mining Stock Exchange are as follows : 
 
 CONSTITUTION. 
 
 Article I. — Title — The name and title of this Association shall 
 be " The New York Mining Stock Exchange," and its business shall 
 be limited to furnishing facilities to its niembers for the purchase 
 and sale of the stocks and other securities of Mining, Manuiuetur- 
 ing and Insurance Companies, and also the stocks and other securi- 
 ties of companies not Hated on the New York Stock Exchange. 
 
 Article l\.— Officers. Section 1.— The whole government of 
 the Association shall be vested in a Governing Committee, com- 
 posed of the President and Treasurer of the Association and twenty- 
 seven (27 ) members, divide<i into three classes of nine (9) each, who 
 shall be elected in the manner hereinafter provided. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEE8TS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 477 
 
 Section 2. — There shall also be elected annually, a Chairman, 
 Secretary and Assistant Secretary, wlio shall receive such com- 
 pensation as the Governing Committee may determine. 
 
 Section 3. — The Governing Committee at their first meeting after 
 the annual election shall choose from their own members a Vice- 
 President of the Association. 
 
 Article III. — Elections. — Section 1. — The President, Treasurer, 
 Chairman, Secretary, and Assistant Secretary shall be elected by 
 ballot on the second Monday in June in each year There shall be 
 elected at the same time nine (9) members of the Governing Com- 
 mittee, to fill the vacancies oocasioned by the expiration of the 
 term of the out-going class, and also members to fill any vacancy 
 or vacancies in the other classes for the unexpired term. The can- 
 didate or candidates receiving the largest number of votes shall be 
 declared elected. 
 
 Section 2. — In case a vacancy shall occur in either of the offices 
 of President, Treasurer, Chairman, Secretary, or Assistant Secretary, 
 a new election by ballot shall be held to fill such vacancy. In case 
 a vacancy shall occur in the Governing Committee, by resignation 
 or otherwise, it shall be filled by said Committee until the next an- 
 nual election. In case a vacancy shall occur in the office of Vice 
 President the same shall be filled by the Governing Committee at 
 their next meeting. 
 
 Section 3. — No person shall be eligible to any office in this asso- 
 ciation who shall not be, at the time of his election, a member in 
 good standing. 
 
 AUTIOLB IV. — Governing Committee. — Section 1. All powers 
 necessary for the goverment of the Association shall be vested in 
 the Governing Committee. They shall have power to try all of- 
 fences under or against the laws of the Association, and all charges 
 against members, and their decision shall be final. They sliall 
 have power to fix the amount of salary that shall be paid to any 
 officer of the Association and shall have power to terminate the con- 
 tract of the Association witli any such salaried officer by a vote of 
 two-thirds of their number, 
 
 Section 2. — The Governing Committee may, at any time during 
 the pendency of a case before any of the Standing Committees, ask 
 for such information and give such instructions as they may deem 
 proper. 
 
 Section 3. — Any member of a Standing Committee, before which 
 a case may be pending, shall have the right, during the considera- 
 tion of such case, or within two days after a decision has been made 
 thereon, to demand, a reference of the same to the Governing Com- 
 mittee, for final adjudication ; and the Chairman of the Standing 
 Committee shall notify the President of the Governing Committee 
 of such reference at the next regular meeting. No member of the 
 Governing Committee shall participate in the adjudication of a case 
 in which he is personally interested. 
 
 Section 4. — The President may call a meeting of the Governing 
 Committee at any time. He shall call a meeting at the request of 
 five (5) members. In the absence of the President, any five (5) 
 memljers of the Governing Committee may call a meeting by an- 
 nouncement from the rostrum. 
 
 A majority of all the members of the Governing Committee, or 
 of any sub-committee shall be necessary to constitute a quorum. 
 
 Section 5. — Any member of the Governing Committee, who, ex- 
 cept in case of illness or leave obtained from the Presiding officer, 
 shall absent himself from the meetings of the Committee during 
 three consecutive regular meetings, shalU, ipso facto, cease to be a 
 member of the Governing Committee, and the vacancy so occurring 
 shall be filled as provided in Art. Ill of the Constitution. 
 
 Article V. — Standing Committees. — As speedily as possible after 
 each annual election, the Governing Committee sliall appoint from 
 their own members the followin" Standing Committees for the year. 
 
 Ist. — A Finance Committee of three (3), in addition to which the 
 President and Treasurer shall be members, ex officio. 
 
 2d— A Committee on Membership, to consist of seven (7). 
 
 3d — A Committee of Arrangements to consist of three (3). 
 
 4th^A Committee on Securities to consist of seven (7). 
 
 5th. — An Arbitration Committee to consist 'of seven (7). 
 
 6th. — A Law Committee to consist of five (5). 
 
 7th. — A Committee on Commissions, to consist of three (3). 
 
 Sth. — A Committee on Miscellaneous Securities, to consist of five 
 (5). 
 
 Should special exigencies require, the President shall have the 
 right to appoint Committees ad interim, to act until the regular 
 appointments are made. 
 
 Article VI. — Duties of Standing Committees. Finance Com- 
 mittee.— Section 1. — It shaU be the duty of the Finance Committee 
 to supervise the finances of the Association, to audit the accounts 
 of the Treasurer, and to direct the investment of any surplus funds 
 in his hands, as they may deem advisable for the interests of the 
 Association. 
 
 Committee on Membet-ship.— Section 2.— The Committee on Mem- 
 bership shall have jurisdiction over all admissions to membership 
 in the Association. All applications for membership should be 
 addressed to the Chairman of the Committee and must be seconded 
 by at least two members of the Association. The name of the ap- 
 plicant and the names of his endorsers shall be conspicuously posted 
 in the business room of the Association, with a notice requesting 
 the members to inform this Committee, in writing, of any objections 
 they may have to the person named, such communication to be 
 
 duly considered in Committee and to be held confidential. The 
 Committee shall make diligent inquiry as to the qualifications of 
 the applicant, and if at the expiration of not less than ten (10) busi- 
 ness days, five (5) members of said Committee shall be in favor of 
 admission, they shall so report to the Governing Committee, and 
 unless further inquiry is demanded by said Committee, the Presi- 
 dent, or in his absence, the Chairman, sliall declare the said ap- 
 plicant duly elected a member of tliis Association, provided tliat 
 within ten (10) business days after being elected, he shall sign the 
 Constitution, and pay the initiation fee, and the contribution to the 
 Gratuity Fund provided in Art. 23, Sec. 2, otherwise his election 
 sliall be null and void. Wlienever any member of said Association 
 shall desire to discontinue his membership and to nominate a suc- 
 cessor, he shall send a written communication to the Chairman of 
 the Committee on Membership stating the fact, with an official 
 nomination of a successor, who shall pay to the Chairman of tlie 
 Committee the amount of consideration for said nomination. The 
 Committee shall then cause a notice to be posted in the busirfess 
 room of the Association which shall state the name of the member 
 desiring to withdraw and invite the filing of claims against said 
 member, and if after the expiration of ten (10) days from the first 
 posting of sucli notice the nominated successor shall have been 
 elected to membership in the manner prescribed in the preceding 
 section of this article, the money deposited with the Chairman shall 
 be distributed by him in the followingmanner, i. e. : 
 
 1st. — To this Aasociation to the extent of any money due it. 
 
 2d. — In payment, pro rata, of claims filed by members and ad- 
 judicated as valid. 
 
 3d. — The remainder, if any, to the retiring member, or his legal 
 representatives. And on the first posting of the notice of with- 
 drawal of such member, he shall discontinue active membership 
 and the making of new contracts with members, and when the suc- 
 cessor shall be admitted to membership the prior membership shall 
 cease and be void, but if the nominee shall be rejected or fail to 
 qualify, the member may name another successor, or may resume 
 active membei'ship, provided that there shall be no claims against 
 him. 
 
 No minor shall be eligible to membership. 
 
 Committee of Arrangements. — Section 3. — It shall be the duty of 
 the Committee of Arrangements to enforce all rules and regulations 
 necessary for good order and the comfort of the members. 
 
 They shall determine the number, duty and pay of all employees 
 other than the officers and shall have a general supervision of all 
 the Departments of the Exchange. 
 
 Committee on Securities. — Section 4. — Tlie Committee on Securi- 
 ties shall examine and report upon all stoclcs or other securities 
 entered, or to be entered upon the lists of the Association, and all 
 applications to place securities upon the lists shall be made to 
 them. 
 
 Arbitration Committee. — Section 5. — It shall be the duty of the 
 Arbitration Committee to take cognizance of, and exercise juris- 
 diction over, all claims and all matters of difference between mem- 
 bers of the Association, and their decision shall be binding ; pro- 
 vided, however, that an appeal from the judgment of the Arbitration 
 Committee may be taken to tlie Governing Committee in any case 
 involving one thousand dollars or over, upon the condition that 
 notice shall be given by the appellant to the appellee within one 
 week of the rendition of the verdict of the Arbitration Committee 
 of his intention to appeal the case. 
 
 The Chairman of the Arbitration Committee shall have power, 
 and it shall be his duty, to call meetings of that Committee, for the 
 settlement of differences or disputes between members, and he shall 
 preside thereat, and he shall be entitled to a fee of ten (10) dollars 
 for every case tried, which shall be paid by the losing party. 
 
 Law Committee. — Section 6. — It shall be the duty of the Law 
 Committee to consider all questions of law affecting the interests of 
 the Association, and report to the Governing Committee. 
 
 Committee on Commission. — Section 7.— It shall be the duty of 
 the Committee on Commissions to see that the rules relating to 
 commissions are complied with and report to the Governing Com- 
 mittee any violation thereof. 
 
 Call of Meetings. — Section 8. — In the absence of the Chairman 
 of any committee except the Governing Committee, the Secretary 
 of the Association may call a meeting of the committee at the 
 written request of two of its members, and a quorum present maj 
 choose a chairman pro tern. 
 
 Article VII. — Duties of Officers. — Duties of the President and. 
 Vice-President. — Section 1. — It shall be the duty of the President 
 to see that the several provisions of the Constitution and By-Laws 
 are enforced, and to have a care of the general interests of the As- 
 sociation. 
 
 He shall be entitled to preside over the Association during debate 
 or whenever he may elect so to do, and he shall be a member and 
 President of the Governing Committee. 
 
 The Vice-President shall, in the absence of the President, assume 
 all the functions and powers, and discharge all the duties of 
 President. 
 
 In case of the temporary absence or inability to act of both the 
 President and Vice-President, the Governing Committee may choose 
 from their own number an acting President of the Association. 
 
 Duties of the Treasurer.— Section 2. — The Treasurer shall receive 
 and talie charge of the moneys due the Association and shall hold 
 
478 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the same subject to the order of the Finance Committee. He shall 
 on the second Monday in June in each year, render to the Associa- 
 tion a detailed account of the receipts and expenditures of the Asso- 
 ciation since the date of the last account rendered by him, and also 
 report to the Governing Committee at any other t! me that they may 
 direct. He shall specify particularly from what source or sources 
 the receipts have been derived and for what purpose or purposes the 
 expenditures have been incurred. He shall also state the balance 
 then in the treasury, and how the same is invested. He shall in- 
 vest the surplus funds of the Association in such securities and at 
 such times as the Finance Committee shall direct. 
 
 Duties of Chairman and Vice Ohairman. — Sec. 3. — It shall be 
 the duty of the Chairman to preside over the association whenever 
 it shall be assembled for business ; to call the Stocks and Bonds, 
 maintain order, enforce the rules, aud perform such other duties as 
 the Governing Committee may regard as properly pertaining to the 
 office. The Secretary of the Association shall be vioe-Chairmau, 
 and in the absence of the Chairman shall assume all his duties and 
 functions. 
 
 Neither the Chairman nor the Vice-Chairman shall be permitted 
 to operate in Stocks during the period he is jiresiding. In the ab- 
 sence of both, the President may appoint, or the members present 
 may choose, a Chairman pro tern., with full powers. 
 
 The Presiding Officer shall determine all questions of order. 
 
 Duties of the Secretary. Sec. 4. — It shall be the duty of the 
 Secretary, or his Assistant, to record all purchases or sales made at 
 the business sessions of the Association, and to prepare a report of 
 the same for the press ; also to keep a faithful record of all proceed- 
 ings of the Association in a book of minutes prepared for the pur- 
 pose ; also carefully to keep and preserve all books and papers of 
 the Association, and of the several committees thereof, not properly 
 belonging to the department of the Treasurer. 
 
 He shall prepare and keep a record of alLthe mambers of the 
 Association, the place of business of each, and the name of the 
 firm, if any, to which each belongs; and shall also record and 
 charge all fines, dues, and fees which may be imposed, and report 
 to the treasurer on the first day of each month the amount charged 
 against each member for the preceding month. He shall also, dur- 
 ing the first week in each month, collect and pay over daily to the 
 treasurer, all fines, and if any member shall refuse or neglect 
 to pay the fines, dues or fees charged to him, he shall report the 
 same to the Treasurer, who shall, after giving reasonable notice to 
 the delinquent, report the fact to the President of the Association 
 who shall at once suspend such member until such dues, fees, or 
 fines are paid. 
 
 He shall also act as Secretary to the Governing Committee when 
 required so to do, and discharge such other duties as the Governing 
 Committee may regard as properly pertaining to the office. 
 
 Duties of the Assistant-Secretary. — Section 5. — In the absence of 
 the Secretary, the Assistant Secretary shall perform all the duties 
 pertaining to that office; and at times such other duties as the 
 Governing Committee may assign to him 
 
 Article VIII. (See Amendments.) Applications for Member- 
 ship, Eligibility, Initiation Fee, &c. — Section 1. — All applications 
 fjr membership must be made in accordance with the provisions of 
 Article 6, Sec 2. 
 
 Section 2. — Any member of the New York Stock Exchange in 
 good standing shall be eligible to membership in this Association, 
 and the fact of such membership in the New York Stock Exchange 
 shall be equivalent to the approval of the applicant by the Commit- 
 tee on Membership. 
 
 Section 3. — The initiation fee of the members admitted by elec- 
 tion shall be one thousand dollars, and that for successors of 
 members shall be two hundred and fifty dollars, but the Governing 
 Committee may change the amount of the initiation fees from time 
 to time. 
 
 Article IX. — Misstatements of Applicants. — Whenever it shall 
 appear to a majority of the Committee on Membership that a wil- 
 ful misstatement upon a material point has been made to them by 
 an applicant for admission or re-admission, they shall report the 
 case to the Governing Committee, who may, by a two-third vote of 
 the members present, deprive the ofifending party of his member- 
 ship, or declare him forever ineligible for admission, as the case 
 may be. 
 
 Article X.— Withdravml of Members. — Any member shall have 
 the right to withdraw from the Association and to nominate a suo- 
 cjssor by complying with the provisions of Article 6, Section 2. 
 
 Article X.I— Nomination of Successors.— Section 1.— When a 
 member dies his right to nominate a successor shall be disposed of 
 by the Committee on membership within a period of twelve months ; 
 and after satisfying the claims of the members of the Association, 
 they shall pay any balance to the legal representatives of the de- 
 ceased. 
 
 Section 2. — In every case where a member is deprived of his mem- 
 bership, or declared meligible for re-admission by the Governing 
 Comnaittee, hy reason of any offense against or under the laws of the 
 Association, his right to nominate a successor shall be disposed of 
 hy the Committee on Membership and the proceeds thereof dis- 
 tributed in accordance with the preceding section. 
 
 Article XII.— ParteersAips.— Whenever a member shall form a 
 partnership with any other member or person he shall immediately 
 give notice thereof to the Secretary. In like manner, notice must 
 be given of any dissolution of partnership, and it shall be the duty 
 
 of the Secretary to keep a record of all partnerships and dissolutions. 
 No member of this Association shall be allowed to take as partner 
 any suspended member thereof, during the period of his suspension, 
 or to form a partnership with any insolvent person. 
 
 Article XIII. — Expulsion for Fraud. — Should any member of 
 this Association be guilty of obvious fraud— of which the Governing 
 Committee shall be judge— he shall, upon conviction thereof, by a 
 vote of eighteen (18) of the members of said Committee be expelled. 
 
 In event of charges of fraud or false pretense being preferred be- 
 fore the Governing Committee or in the Courts, the Committee, if 
 the evidence " prima fcu:ie" seems to a majority to warrant such 
 action, may suspend the member at their discretion, pending the 
 adjudication of the charges. 
 
 Articb XIV. — Obligations of Members in Signing the Constitu- 
 tion. — The signing of the Constitution of this Association shall be 
 construed as an obligation and pledge of each member to abide by 
 the same, and also by all By-laws, Rules or Regulations which may 
 be hereafter adopted ; and any member refusing to comply with the 
 Laws of the Association, shall be reported to the Governing Com- 
 mittee and may have a hearing, and if said Committee decide, by a 
 vote of eighteen (18) of their number that the complaint is proven, 
 they may declare him no longer a member of the Association. 
 
 The property, leases, contracts, etc., paid for by this Association 
 shall be held by the President and Treasurer of the Association — 
 forthe joint usage and interests of the Association as a whole, but 
 no member shall have any individual or separate usage in, or 
 of, the same, apart from his privileges while an active member 
 under the rules of the Association, nor shall he have any de- 
 visable interests in, or claim to the said assets, excepting as to the 
 members, at the time being, in case of any dissolution and sale 
 of the proceeds of such property. 
 
 The payment of the initiation fee shall be an absolute contri- 
 bution to the Association for the privilege of membership under 
 the rules . and shall confer no right of property except to mem- 
 bers at the time of any dissolution, but a membership not for- 
 feited to the Association, shall confer the right to nominate a suc- 
 cessor, subject to the arbitrary election of such successor to member- 
 ship in the Association. 
 
 Article XV. — Suspended Members, Re-Admission, Claims of 
 Creditors, Etc. — Section 1. — Any member who may fail to comply 
 with his contracts or who shall become insolvent, shall be sus- 
 pended until he has settled with his creditors. 
 
 Such member shall immediately inform the President in writing, 
 that he is unable to meet his engagements ; and it shall be the 
 duty of the presiding officer, thereupon to give notice, from the 
 chair, of the suspension of such member. The Secretary shall 
 record the failure of such member in a book kept for that purpose. 
 In default of giving such information, the party, on application 
 for re-admission, shall not be entitled to a reference of his case to 
 the Committee on Membership, unless two-thirds of the members 
 of the Governing Committee present shall vote in favor of such 
 reference. 
 
 Section 2. — When a suspended member applies for re-admission, 
 he shall be required to furnish to the Chairman of the Committee 
 on Membership, a list of his creditors and a statement of the 
 amounts owing, and the nature of his settlement in each case. 
 The Committee shall give notice, for three consecutive days 
 through the presiding officer of the Association or by posting the 
 same on the bulletin board provided for that purpose, of the time 
 and place of meeting to consider the application of the suspended 
 member and the claims of creditors. Upon the applicant present- 
 ing satisfactory proof of his settlement with all nis creditors the 
 Committee shall proceed to ballot for him, in accordance with its 
 prescribed rules and regulations. Failing of a re-election the appli- 
 cant shall be entitled to be balloted for at any five subsequent regu- 
 lar meetings of the Committee, to be designated by himself Provided, 
 however, that the six ballotings to which the applicant shall be en- 
 tided shall be within one year from the time of his first application 
 for readmission. If after six ballotings as aforesaid, the candidate is 
 rejected he may appeal, within sixty days thereafter, to the Govern- 
 ing Committee, whose action in the case shall be final. If rejected 
 by the Governing Committee, he shall cease to be a member of the 
 Association, and his name shall forthwith be stricken from the roll, 
 and his right to nominate a successor shall be disposed of by the Com- 
 mittee on Membership. The question on appeal, however, shall 
 not be taken unless at least twenty-one members of the Governing 
 Committee are present, and it shall require an affirmative vote of 
 at least seventeen members to re-instate the applicant. 
 
 Section 3. — If any suspended member shall fail to settle with his 
 creditors and apply for re-admission within one year from the time 
 of his suspension, his membership shall cease and the nomination of 
 a successor shall be disposed of by the Committee on Membership 
 and the proceeds paid jyro rata to his creditors in the Association. 
 The Governing Committee may, by a vote of two-thirds of the 
 members present, extend the time for settlement and for applica- 
 tion for re-admission, of sucli suspended member. No claims grow- 
 ing out of transactions between partners shall be admitted to share 
 in the proceeds of the membership of one of such partners until 
 after the claims filed by other creditors who are members of the 
 Association shall have been satisfied. 
 
 Section 4.— Any creditor failing to file with the Secretary of the 
 Committee on Membership a written statement of his claim against 
 a member, prior to the transfer of the right to nominate a successor 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 479 
 
 of Buch member shall forfeit all right to a distributed share of the 
 proceeds of the sale of such right. 
 
 Section 5. — No member of the Association shall be allowed to 
 take as partner any suspended member thereof, during the period 
 of his suspension, or to form a partnership with any insolvent per- 
 son or with any person who may have previously been a member 
 of the Association, and against whom any member may hold a 
 claim arising out of transactions made during the time of such 
 membership, and which has not been settled or released in accord- 
 ance with the laws of the Association. 
 
 Abticlb XVI. — Elections, Quorums, Members of a Firm Voting, 
 etc. — Section 1. — Any member of the Association shall be entitled 
 to vote at an election for Officers. 
 
 Section 2. — The members present at the daily sessions of the As- 
 sociation shall constitute a quorum for the settlement of disputes 
 growing out of the purchase and sales made during such sessions. 
 When the Association shall be assembled to vote on questions other 
 than the above, a majority of all the members of the Association 
 shall be necessary to a quorum. 
 
 Section 3. — Only one member of a firm shall be allowed to trans- 
 act business in the same security, at' the same time, or vote on the 
 questions of dispute referred to in Sec. 2. 
 
 Article XVII. — Annual Dues. — Each member of this Associa- 
 tion shall pay semi-annually the sum of fifteen dollars to the Trea- 
 surer of the Association on or before the first Monday in January 
 and July. Any member neglecting or refusing to make this pay- 
 ment at the time named, unless for some reason that may be satis- 
 factory to the Governing Committee, may be suspended from the 
 privileges of this Association. 
 
 Aeticlb XVIII. — Commissions. — The rates of Commissions 
 shall be such as may be fixed from time to time by the Governing 
 Committee. Any member doiug_ business for less than the rates 
 so fixed shall be liable to suspension by the Governing Committee 
 for a period of ninety days, and for the second offense may be ex- 
 pelled by the vote of a majority of the Governing Committee. Pro- 
 vided, however, that nothing in this article shall prevent mem- 
 bers from doing business for one another without restriction as to 
 commissions. 
 
 Article XIX. — Fictitious Sales. — No fictitious sales shall be 
 made by any member of this Association, and any member contra- 
 vening this Article, shall, upon conviction, be suspended for such 
 term as the Governing Committee shall declare in his case. 
 
 Article XX. — Deposits may he Oalled. — On all contracts other 
 than cash, either party may call at any time during the continu- 
 ance of the contract for a mutual deposit of twenty per cent, on the 
 contract price. 
 
 Whenever the market price of the stock shall change from con- 
 tract price, either way, the party in whose favor the cliange occurs 
 may call on the other party for " marginal " deposits from time to 
 time, to secure the contract to the market price, as in cases of bor- 
 rowed stocks ; the " marginal deposits to be made with the caller, 
 unless the payer shall elect to deposit with an agreed tliird party. 
 
 In cases where deposits are called for before 2 o'clock, they shall 
 be made, at, or before half past 2 o'clock of the same day ; if called 
 after 2 o clock they shall be made before noon of the next day. 
 
 In case either party should fail to comply with a demand for a 
 deposit, in accordance with the provisions of this ArticlCj it shall be 
 at the option of the other party to elect whether to close in the man- 
 ner provided in Article 22 of this Constitution, or to continue said 
 contract, and if no deposit shall have been made previously on the 
 contract, he may even elect to annul the contract, which election 
 sliall be announced to the Association in open sesjion, and a minute 
 made thereof in the records. 
 
 Whenever there is a difference between contractors as to the 
 place of deposit, it shall be made in the Union Trust Comjjany. 
 
 Whenever the seller of a stock shall deposit in the Union Trust 
 Company a margin equivalent to one hundred per centum of the 
 contract price and a further deposit is called, it shall be at his op- 
 tion either to deliver the stock, or to make further deposit. Or the 
 seller may deposit the stock covered by the contract in lieu of all 
 deposits on his behalf to guarantee its delivery by him. 
 
 In the calling of deposits on stock, also dealt in on the San Fran- 
 cisco Stock and Exchange Board the prices at this exchange shall 
 be first appealed to, but if offers and bids do not approximate to 
 furnish a market price, then the prices at said San Francisco Ex- 
 change shall be taken and a rate for this market for such purpose 
 be officially established therefrom, as this Association may provide. 
 
 Article XXI. — Tf'Sere Contracts are not Fulfilled. — Should any 
 member refuse to fulfill his contract on the day it becomes due, the 
 party contracting with him, may employ the presiding officer to buy 
 or sell the stock, as the case may be, at the business room of the As- 
 sociation during the open session, and he shall in all cases, where 
 the stocks are bought or sold under this rule, but in such manner as 
 in his judgment will secure the stock at the lowest price ; and when 
 instructed to sell stock under the rule, to sell in such a manner as 
 will in his judgment secure the highest price, provided that such 
 contracting party shall first have notified the other party personally 
 or by leaving written notice at his office, of the intended time of 
 sale or purchase ; accounting to the member in default for any sur- 
 plus or charging him with any deficiency. 
 
 If such party has no office and cannot be found after suitable 
 search, then such stock may be bought or sold without notice. 
 
 " In cases of default in delivering stocks sold for ' the account,' 
 and which are also dealt in at the San Francisco Stock and Exchange 
 Board," the seller may elect, instead of being " bought in" at this 
 Exchange to settle the difference at the market price of the stock 
 on the said San Francisco Exchange, adding such commission ex- 
 pense and penalty as may be established by this Association the hour 
 and method of fixing such price to be also so established. 
 
 " Puts " and " Calls" shall be recognized in the same manner as 
 other contracts ; but bids or offers on them during the call are pro- 
 hibited. 
 
 Article XXII. — In order to provide for the families of deceased 
 members of this Association a special fund is hereby established, to 
 be styled " The Gratuity Fund of the New York Mining Stock Ex- 
 change," which fund shall be maintained and administered in the 
 manner hereinafter provided. 
 
 Section 1. — The management and distribution of the said fund, 
 and the execution of the jirovisions of this Article, shall be under 
 the charge of a Board of Trustees, to be known as " The Trustees 
 of the Gratuity Fund," and to consist of the President and Trea- 
 surer of the Association and of five other Trustees, who shall (ex- 
 cept in the first instance) hold office for five years, and one of whom 
 shall be elected by the Association at each annual election. 
 
 In case any vacancy should occur in the Board of Trustees, the 
 Governing Committee shall fill the same until the next annual 
 election, when the members of the Association shall fill the said 
 vacancy for the unexpired term. 
 
 It shall be the duty of the Tiustees of the Gratuity Fund to keep 
 securely invested, in accordance with the Laws of the State of New 
 York regulating Trust Funds, all moneys paid to them for the 
 Fund, together with the annual interest andaccretions arising from 
 the same. They shall have ])owi;r to choose their own chairman, 
 and adopt such by-laws as may be needful, subject to the approval 
 of the Governing Committee, and they shall make an aunual'report 
 to the Association of the condition of the Fund. 
 
 Section 2. Every member of this Association shall be subject to 
 the conditions and entitled to partake of the benefits of the Gratuity 
 Fund hereby established, and upon the adoption of this Article the 
 sura of Five Dollars shall be charged against each member as tlie 
 first contribution to said fund, and shall be paid to the Treasurer 
 of the Association, and paid by him to the Trustees of the Gratuity 
 Fund. Upon the death of any member of the Association, there 
 shall be levied and assessed against each surviving member the sum 
 of Ten Dollars, which shall thereupon become due from him to the 
 Association, and charged against the membership of such surviving 
 member, to be collected as other fines and dues are, or may then be 
 collected, and paid over to the Trustees of the Fund. 
 
 Eveiy person who shall become a member of the Association 
 after the adoption of this Article, shall pay into said fund the sum 
 of Ten Dollars before he shall be admitted to the privileges of 
 membership. 
 
 Section 3. The Trustees of the said Gratuity Fund shall, with- 
 in one year after proof of death of any member pay out of the 
 money so collected, the sum of Four Thousand Dollars, or so much 
 thereof as may have been collected to the persons named in this 
 section, as_ lierein provided. Which money sh^l be paid as a gratuity 
 from the surviving members of the Association, free from all debts, 
 charges or demands whatever. 
 
 Should the member die leaving a widow and no children, then 
 the whole sum shall be paid to such widow for her own use. 
 
 Should the member die leaving a widow and children, then one- 
 half shall be paid to the widow for her separate use, and one-half 
 to the children for their use, share and share alike, provided that 
 the share of minor cliildren- shall be jiaid to their guardian, and 
 that the issue of any deceased children shall be entitled to receive 
 the share whicli said deceased child would have received, if living ; 
 if of age directly, or if minors, through his, her or their guardian or 
 guardians. 
 
 Should the member die leaving children and no widow, then the 
 whole sum shall be paid to the children as directed in the preceding 
 section to be done with the moiety. 
 
 Should the member die leaving neither widow or children, then 
 the whole sum shall be paid to the next of kin of the deceased. 
 
 In all cases, a certified copy of the proceedings before a Surro- 
 gate or Judge of Probate shall be accepted as proof of the rights of 
 the claimants, be deemed ample authority to this Association to 
 pay over the money, shall protect the Association in so doing and 
 shall release the Association from all further claims or liability 
 whatsoever. 
 
 Section 4. Nothing herein contained shall ever be taken or con- 
 strued as a joint liability of this Association or its members, for the 
 payment of any sum whatever; the liability of each member, in law 
 or equity, being limited to the. payment of Ten Dollars only, on the 
 death of any other member, and Five Dollars tipon the adoption of 
 this article, the liability of the Association being limitea to the 
 payment of the sum of Four Thousand Dollars (or such part there- 
 of as may be collected,) after it shall have been collected from the 
 members, and not otherwise. 
 
 Section 5. — Nothing herein contained shall be construed as con- 
 stituting any estate in esse, which can be mortgaged or pledged for 
 the payment of any debts , but it shall be construed as a solemn 
 agreement of every member of this Association to make a voluntary 
 gift to the family of each deceased member, and of the Association 
 
480 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 to collect and pay over to such family the said voluntary gift ; it 
 being understood and hereby expressly declared, that the provisions 
 of this article 23 of the Constitution, shall only be in force in, and 
 applied to cases of death, which shall take place after its adoption. 
 
 Section 6.— Whenever the surplus funds invested by the Treasur- 
 er under the direction of the Finance Committee, amount to the 
 sum of One Hundred Thousand Dollars, then and thereafter, one- 
 half of the surplus income of the Association shall be paid over to 
 the Trustees of the Gratuity Fund, either to increase individual in- 
 surance, or to reduce the assessment levied upon the death of each 
 member as may then be determined by the Governing Committee. 
 
 Whenever the number of deaths of the members of the Associa- 
 tion shall exceed seven in any one year, it shall be the duty of the 
 Trustees of the Gratuity Fund to pay out of the Fund to the credit 
 of the surviving members, in reduction of their payments to the 
 Gratuity Fund for that year, such sums as may be requisite to limit the 
 total payments of eash member, under this article, in any one year, 
 the sum of Seventy Dollars, provided, however, that the Fund in 
 the hands of the Trustees shall never be thus reduced below the 
 sum of Four Thousand Dollars; and that the liability of each mem- 
 ber to make payments in excess of Seventy Dollars, (after the money 
 so authorized to be paid by the Trustees is exhausted), shall not 
 thereby be impaired, but on the contrary shall remain in full force. 
 
 Whenever the accumulations of the Gratuity Fund shall amount 
 to One Hundred Thousand Dollars, the Trustees shall divide the 
 annual income thereof, among the members, in reduction of their 
 payments under this Article. 
 
 Section 7. — The provisions of this Article shall not extend to any 
 member who shall not have severed his connection with the Associ- 
 ation by the transfer of his membership, whether the same is made 
 voluntarily or involuntarily, nor to any member who now is, or 
 hereafter may be expelled by the Governing Committee; but shall 
 extend to suspended members. 
 
 After the decease of a member, and until a successor to his mem- 
 bership is admitted, the Treasurer shall pay the contribution of 
 Ten Dollars on all other deaths occurring during such interim, de- 
 ducting the same from proceeds of the sale of the nomination to the 
 successor. 
 
 Nothing herein contained shall apply to the associate members 
 of this Association, it being hereby understood that this article shall 
 apply to actual membership only, and not to associate members. 
 
 Aeticlb XXIII. — By-Laws. — For the purpose of maintaining 
 order on the fioor, and establishing rules for conducting business 
 between members, the Governing Committee shall make such re- 
 
 fulations and orders as they may deem proper, which shall be 
 nowu as the " By-Laws" of the Association, and may be altered 
 or amended from time to time at the discretion of the Governing 
 Committee. 
 
 Article XXIV. — Legal Interference with Officers or Commit- 
 tees. — Any member of this Association who shall himself or whose 
 partners shall apply for an injunction or legal process restraining 
 anj^ Officer or Committee of tlie Association from performing his or 
 their duty under the Constitution and By-Laws, shall, by that act, 
 cease to be a member of the Association. 
 
 Article XXV. — Other Stock Boards. — No member of this Asso- 
 ciation shall be a member of any other association or organization 
 whose members deal in stocks, bonds, etc., in this city, and any 
 member uniting, directly or by partner, with such an organization, 
 shall cease to be a member of this Association. 
 
 This rule shall not apply to the New York Stock Exchange. 
 
 Article XXVI. — Constitution m,ay be Amended. — This Constitu- 
 tion shallbe amended only by the affirmative vote of a majority of the 
 Governing Committee and any member of the Association, may pro- 
 pose an Amendment in writing at a business session of the Association 
 which amendment shall be referred by the presiding officer to the Gov- 
 erning Committee without debate, and it may, at the option of said 
 Committee, be reported back to the Association, amended or other- 
 wise, and whenever the Governing Committee shall report an amend- 
 ment of the Constitution passed aa aforesaid it shall stand as the Law 
 of the Association, unless within one week, it shall be disapproved 
 of by a majority of the members, exclusive of those residing in the 
 States west of the Mississippi, but no alteration of the Article now 
 known as Article 23 shall ever be made which sliall impair, in any 
 essential particular, the obligation of each member to contribute as 
 therein provided to the provision for the families of deceased 
 members. 
 
 BY-LAWS. 
 
 Article I. — Hours for Business. — Section 1. — Tlie Exchange or 
 business room of the Association shall be open for dealinf,'3 on every 
 business day between the hours of 10 o'clock A.M. and 3 o'clock P. 
 M., unless otherwise ordered by the Governing Committee. 
 
 Section 2. — No member of this Association shall be permitted — 
 directly or indirectly— to make any transactions in the Stocks or 
 other securities on the lists of the As-inoiation either in the Exchange 
 or its vicinity during the hours in which the same shall be closed, 
 under such a penalty as the Governmg Committee may impose. 
 
 Section 3.— 1st— First call of tlie regular list of stocks, at 10.30 A.M. 
 
 2d — Miscellaneous business. 
 
 3d-CaIls of the regular or special list of stock, as may be from 
 time to time established by the Association. 
 
 Article 11.— Offers and Bids.Svction 1.- All offers to buy or 
 sell securities shall be binding and no member may withdraw an 
 
 offer, except in an audible voice to the presiding officer ; but a sale 
 shall take all offers off the floor. No offer or bid shall be recog- 
 nized between partners or members of one firm. 
 
 All offers to buy or sell shall be per share ; and at such percenta- 
 ges of difference as the Governing Committee shall fix for the deal- 
 ings in the various stocks, and, when not otherwise stated, shall be 
 considered as made for the regular way, and for lots of one hun- 
 dred shares. 
 
 Section 2. — Offers to buy or sell shall be entitled to precedence 
 in the following order : 
 
 1st. — Bids " seller three days " and offers to sell " buyer three 
 days," shall take precedence of " cash " and " regular." 
 
 2d. — " Cash " and " regular " bids and offers may be made simul- 
 taneously, as being essentially different propositions. 
 
 3d. — Offers to buy or sell on longer options than three days, may 
 be made at the same time with offers to buy or sell " buyer " or 
 "seller three." 
 
 4th. — In offers to buy on seller's option or to sell on buyer's op- 
 tion, the largest option shall have precedence. 
 
 6th. — In offers to buy on buyer's option or sell on seller's option, 
 the shortest option shall have precedence. 
 
 No other bids or offers shall be permitted, or have any standing 
 upon the floor. 
 
 No contracts beyond sixty days shall be made. 
 
 Section 3. — No party to a contract shall be compelled to accept a 
 principal other than the member offering to contract, unless the 
 name proposed to be substituted shall be satisfactory, orshall be de- 
 clared at the time of making the offer. 
 
 Article III. — Interest. — All contracts over three days shall bear 
 interest at the rate of six per cent, per annum, except when bought 
 or sold " flat." 
 
 All other contracts shall bear no interest. 
 
 The word "flat" shall be understood to mean free of interest only, 
 and shall have no reference to dividends or assessments. 
 
 Article IV. — Deliveries. — Section 1. — All securities shall be de- 
 livered before quarter past two o'clock P. M. ; and when deliveries 
 are not made by that time the contract may be closed under the rule, 
 after due notice to the defaulting party, in the manner provided in 
 Art. 22 of the Constitution. Such notice, however, must be given 
 not later than half past two o'clock, and the contract must be closed, 
 without delay, unless the time for so doing be extended by mutual 
 consent. In absence of any notice or agreement the contract shall 
 continue without interest until the following day. 
 
 This rule shall apply to the receipt and delivery of borrowed se- 
 curities, and any party failing to perform his contract in such se- 
 curities, shall be liable for the damage that may accrue. AH con- 
 tracts over three days shall require one day's notice, at or before two 
 o'clock. 
 
 Section 2. — All contracts maturing during the regular closing of 
 the transfer books, shall be delivered by power and certificate, in 
 lots of not over one hundred shares. 
 
 Section 3. — All purchases and sales shall be settled on the next 
 business day, unless expressed to the contrary ; and all contracts 
 falling due on Sundays, or on such holidays as are observed by the 
 Banks shall be settled on the preceding day. 
 
 Section 4. — Wiien two holidays occur on consecutive days, as 
 when Sunday immediately precedes or follows a legal holiday, con- 
 tracts falling due on the first of such holidays, shall be settled upon 
 the business day immediately preceding, and those maturing upon 
 the second of such holidays shall be settled upon the business day 
 next following the same. 
 
 Sections. — Deliveries shall be made either by transfer, or by 
 power and certificate of stocks, when more than one transfer a day- 
 is allowed on the same stock. On stocks when onlv one transfer a 
 day is allowed, deliveries shall be made by power' and certificate 
 only, and in lots of not over one hundred shares. 
 
 Section 6. — In delivery of stock by power and certificate, the re- 
 ceiver shall have the right to demand that the certificates shall be 
 in the name of, witnessed or guaranteed by a member of the Asso- 
 ciation, excepting as to stocks admitted from the California market, 
 which have no transfer offices in this city. In such cases, the stock 
 shall stand in the name of such persons as may be approved of and 
 designated by the Governing Committee. 
 
 Section 7. — Powers of Attorney ; or substitution, signed by Trus- 
 tees, Guardians, Executors, Administrators or Attorneys, shall not 
 be a good delivery. This rule shall not apply to raining and manu- 
 facturing shares in the name of a trustee. Detached powers of at- 
 torneyj or substitution, must be attestedbyanotary public underseal. 
 
 Section 8. — In the delivery of any security dealt in at the Ex- 
 change, the seller may require payment in a duly certified check on 
 a city bank, or in lawful money upon delivery. 
 
 Section 9.— Reclamations for irregularities in deliveries of stocks, 
 when such irregularities do not affect their validity, but onlv cur- 
 rency in the market, will not be considered unless made within ten 
 days from the day of delivery. 
 
 Section 10. — All corporations whose stock is dealt in at this Ex- 
 chanu'e shall be required to give thirty davs notice in writing, prior 
 to any increase in the capital stock of such company or the creation 
 of any mortgage or deed of trust on its projicrty, said notice to be 
 read publicly by the presiding officer and postiul within the Exchange 
 Room ; and no increased stock shall be a good delivery upon con- 
 tracts made previous to such notice, and the stock of any company 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 481 
 
 violating this provision shall be striken from the list of stocks, at 
 the discretion of the Governing Committee. 
 
 Article V. — Dividends. — Section 1. — On the day of closing the 
 transfer books of any stock for a dividend, transactions in such 
 stock for cath shall be " dividend on " up to the time officially des- 
 ignated for the closing of the books ; all transactions other than for 
 cash shall be " dividend off" after a quarter past two P. M. or after 
 the closing of the books, should they close before that hour. 
 
 Section 2. — When a dividend isdeclared on a security, during the 
 pendency of a contract, the seller shall collect, hold, allow interest 
 on, and pay the same to the buyer on the settlement of the contract. 
 
 Section 3. — Members may charge one per centum for collecting 
 and paying dividends. But when a scrip or stock dividend has 
 been declared by a company, the one per cent, shall be upon the 
 market value, and not upon the par value of the scrip or stock. 
 
 Section 4. — No offer to buy or sell dividends on stocks shall be 
 made publicly at the Exchange. 
 
 Article v I. — Defaults. — Section 1. — In all cases where an officer 
 may be directed to buy or sell securities, under the provisions of 
 Article 22 of the Constitution, the name of the member defaulting 
 as well as that of the member giving the order shall be announced. 
 
 Section 2. — No order for the purchase or sale of securities, under 
 the rule, shall be executed, unless made out in writing over the sig- 
 ng.ture of the party giving the order, who shall state the reason 
 therefor, and it shall be the duty of the officer who executes the 
 order to endorse thereon the name of the purchaser or seller, the 
 price and the hour at which the contract is closed, and hand the 
 same to the Secretary of the Association, who shall, within twenty- 
 four hours ascertain whether the party for whose acQount the order 
 was given has paid the difference, if any, arising from the transac- 
 tion. If not paid the Secretary shall report the default to the Presi- 
 dent. The duty devolving upon the officers of the Association under 
 this rule, shall be performed^ without charge. 
 
 Section 3. — No party shall be permitted to supply offers to buy or 
 sell securities closed for his account under the rule. 
 
 Section 4. — When a contract is closed under this rule, any action 
 of the defaulter, direct or indirect, by which the prompt fulfillment 
 of such contract is delayed, hindered or evaded, to the detriment of 
 the other contracting party, shall subject the offending party to sus- 
 pension for not less than thirty days, or expulsion from the Asso- 
 ciation^ in the discretion of the Governing Committee, by a vote of 
 two-thirds of the members present at a meeting. 
 
 Section 5. — Should any stock thus sold not be delivered until the 
 next day, the contract shall continue, but the party defaulting shall 
 be liable to pay such damages as may be assessed by the Arbitration 
 Committee. 
 
 Section 6. — The same rule as to notice, time and place, that governs 
 defaults in other contracts, shall apply to borrowed securities, which, 
 on non-delivery or receipt, must be borrowed or loaned in open 
 market except in case of actual default in receiving or delivering, 
 after notice to close the loan, then the same are to be bought or sold, 
 as the case may be, for account of the defaulter, in the manner pro- 
 vided in Article 22 of the constitution. 
 
 Section 7. — In case of a failure of a creditor to close the contract 
 as above, the price shall be fixed by the price current at the time 
 such contract ought to have been closed under the rule. 
 
 ^Article YIL— Contested Claims.— Section 1. — The Presiding 
 Officer shall decide all contested claims for sales or purchases, when 
 he has sufficient cognizance of the transaction to form an intelligent 
 opinion ; but an appeal from his decision shall be entertained, pro- 
 vided it be seconcfed by a disinterested member, a,nd the question 
 shall be for sustaining or reversing the decision of the Chair. If the 
 presiding officer has not sufficient knowledge of the transaction to 
 decide the case, he shall take the vote of the members present. 
 
 Section 2. — During the settlement of disputes as to claims of pur- 
 chases and sales, only claimants shall be allowed to speak without 
 consent of the presiding officer, and all others who may interrupt 
 shall be fined. 
 
 Article VIII. — President may inflict penalties. — Section 1. — No 
 member shall use indecorous language to the presiding officer or to 
 agy fellow member ; nor shall any member interrupt the presiding 
 officer while performing the duties of the Chair, or any other member 
 while speaking. 
 
 ..Section 2. — As a means of preserving order, the presidii^ officer 
 may indict a fine not to exceed Five Dollars for all cases of infrac- 
 tion of this rule, or of disorder of any kind, from which there shall 
 be no appeal; and no member shall be permitted to consume the 
 time of the Association by questioning the propriety of the fines 
 inflicted. 
 
 Section 3.— It shall be the dutv of ev^ry member, by the practice 
 of order and decorum, to do all m his power, to facilitate the trans- 
 action of business; and any member who shall habitually violate 
 this duty, and indulge in acts of insubordination and unseemlv con- 
 duct, to the injury of the interests of the Association, shall be ad- 
 monished before the Association by the President, of the necessity of 
 a, reformation, and if, after that, he shall continue the obnoxious 
 conduct, the Governing Committee may suspend him from the privi- 
 leges of the Exchange for a period not exceeding one year. 
 
 Article IX.-riJ«te.— Section 1.— Every member while dealing 
 in stocks, shall remain within the area appropriated to members; 
 and no member, except officers on duty, shall Tbe permitted on the 
 Rostrum during any session of the Association. 
 31 
 
 Section 2. — Any member bidding for or offering stock while on 
 the Rostrum, shall be fined, at the discretion of the presiding officer, 
 not to exceed One Dollar for each offense. 
 
 Section 3. — Any member smoking in any part of the Exchange, 
 where the Committee of Arrangements may decide to prohibit the 
 same, shall be fined not less than One Dollar or more than Five 
 Dollars. 
 
 Section 4. — No persons, other than regular members of the Asso- 
 ciation, shall be allowed to buy or sell stocks or other securities with- 
 in the Exchange at any time. 
 
 No persons other than members shall at any time be admitted 
 within the area, without consent of the presiding officer, or Chair- 
 man of the Committee of Arrangements. 
 
 Article X. — Dealing with Non-Members. — Any member of this 
 Association, dealing with a person not a member, in the rooms of 
 the Exchange, shall be subject to the penalty of suspension for not 
 less than sixty days, nor more than twelve months. 
 
 Article Xl.^Commissions. — Section' 1. — Any member doing 
 business for less than the rates fixed by the Governing Committee, 
 shall be liable to suspension by the Governing Committee for a 
 period of thirty days, and for a second offense, may be expelled by 
 a vote of a majority of the Governing Committee. 
 
 Provided, however, that nothing in this Article shall prevent 
 members from closing business for one another without restriction as 
 to commissions. 
 
 Section 2. — The Governing Committee shall hear all cases of 
 alleged violation of this Article and determine as to the truth of the 
 charge from the evidence brought before them. 
 
 Article XII. — Transacting Business through other Exchanges. 
 — Any member of this Association trading directly or indirectly in 
 any other organization in N. Y. City where mining stocks are dealt 
 in, shall be subject to the penalty of suspension for sixty days for the 
 first offense, and expulsion for the second offense, provided that 
 eighteen members of the Governing Committee find him guilty. 
 This rule shall not apply to the N. Y. Stock Exchange. 
 
 Article XIII. — Places of Business. — Section %• — Every member 
 must have in the vicinity of the Exchange, a place of business other 
 than the Exchange, where comparisons may be made upon the day 
 of the transaction and where all notices may be served ; and it shall 
 be the duty of every member to keep filed with the Secretary a 
 written notice, designating such place of business, and similarly to 
 give notice of any change thereof 
 
 Section 2. — Any member neglectingto comply with this rule, may 
 be considered in default on his contracts and such contracts may bie 
 closed out under the rule. 
 
 Following are the names of the stocks listed at the New 
 York Mining Stock Exchange and called regularly : 
 
 American Flag Eureka Con. Quicksilver, Pfd, 
 
 Amie Findley Rappahanock 
 
 Albion Father de Smet Robinson Con. 
 
 Alice Gold Placer Rising Sun 
 
 Alta Montana Grand Prize Red Elephant 
 
 AUouez Copper Goodshaw San Pedro 
 
 Argenta Great Eastern Savage 
 
 Bechtel Green Mountain Sierra Nevada 
 
 Belle Me Gold Stripe Standard 
 
 Belch Granville Silver Cliff 
 
 Beauce Hale & Norcross Silver King 
 
 Best & Belcher Homestake Silver Islet 
 
 Bodie Hukill Sutro Tunnel 
 
 Buckeye Horn Silver Spring Valley 
 
 Bulwer Harshaw Stormont 
 
 Bassick Hibernia South Bodie 
 
 Bull Domingo Hortense South Bulwer 
 
 Bonanza Chief Independence South Hite 
 
 Boulder Con. Iron Silver South Pacific 
 
 Boston Con. Lacrosse State Line, 1, 
 
 Big Pittsburg La Plata " 2, 
 
 Bradshaw Leadville, Con. " 3, 
 
 Calaveras Little Pittsburg " 4, 
 
 Calaveras Water Lucerne State Line, 1 & 4 
 
 Caledonia B. H. Little Chief State Line 2 & 3. 
 
 California Mariposa St. Joseph Lead 
 
 Climax '' Preferred Tip Top 
 
 Con. Imperial Maybelle Tioga 
 
 Con. Pacific Mexican Tuscarora 
 
 Cou. Pay Rock Moose Silver Union Cons. 
 
 Con. Virginia Moose Unadilla 
 
 Copper Queen Miner Boy Vizina Con. 
 
 Chrysolite Mono Yellow Jacket 
 
 Cen. Arizona Navajo Willshire 
 
 Cherokee Northern Belle Washington 
 
 Catalpa North Belle Isle Jocuistita 
 
 Crescent Noonday 
 
 Caribou North Standard Minas Nuevas 
 
 Clarence Ontario Sierra Apache 
 
 Dahlonega Opihir " Bella 
 
 Durango Oriental & Miller " Grande 
 
 'Dunderberg Overman " Plata 
 
 Diinkin Plumas 
 
 Decatur Quicksilver 
 
482 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 A NEW MINING STOCK EXCHANGE. 
 
 THE decline in the business about the San Francisco 
 stock exchanges following the failure of the Com- 
 stocks, as dividend paying mines, and legislation 
 averse to the interests of the brokers on those ex- 
 changes ; at a time, too, when the East was beginning to 
 awaken to the influences of the " boom " in all classes of 
 securities that had started, drove many of the San Francisco 
 operators to New York. While a very few of them had 
 amassed large fortunes, a large majority of the Pacific Coast 
 speculators who found their way to the East, were little 
 more than adventurers — persons of some Pine street ex- 
 perience, but very little money. In the spring of 1880 the 
 Mutual Trust Company was organized, for the avowed pur- 
 pose of fostering speculation in mining securities and a new 
 mining exchange was established under the auspices of the 
 Trust Company, most of the active members of which were 
 Californians. The name adopted for the new board was : 
 " The American Mining Stock Exchange." It was formally 
 opened at No. 63 Broadway on June 2, 1880, at which time 
 the membership numbered one hundred and sixty-nine, and 
 the listed ; stocks thirty-one. George W. Smiley, formerly 
 chairman of the San Francisco Stock and Exchange Board of 
 San Francisco, was made Chairman of the American Board, 
 and E. D. Barnes, another Californian, Secretary. Among the 
 prominent members of the Board at the time of its organ- 
 ization, were C. T. Christensen, Mark L. McDonald, Augus- 
 tus Ebert, William Belden. A. E. Reynolds, L. M. Lawson, 
 S. M. Blatchford, George Chaprhan, Lewis Leland, John 
 Gray, Joseph Aaron, and John J. Marvin. The Board has 
 sufiered for want of heavy capitalists interested in its opera- 
 tions, and of persons who were able to secure a large pa- 
 tronage from the public. At times, however, its reports of 
 transactions have made a very creditable showing for a new 
 organization. Within the past year an eflbrt was made to 
 infuse increasd life into the dealings by calling railroad 
 stocks and other securities, but the plan failed, for the same 
 reason that a larger business was not done in mining stocks 
 — want of sufficient capital. At present there are two hun- 
 dred members, and the market value of the seats is about 
 two hundred dollars ; this includes a certificate of stock in 
 the Mutual Trust Company for $1,000. In April, 1882, Mr. 
 Smiley was elected the first president of the Exchange. 
 The officers now are : President, George W. Smiley ; Chair- 
 man, John R. MuUany ; Secretary, W. J. OAorn, and Re- 
 cording Secretary, John Robb. Unlike the other Board, a 
 record of the purchases and sales is kept, and read at the 
 close of each call. Following is the Governing Committee. 
 C. G. Wilson, Geo. W. Smiley, J. R. Mullany,. W. J. Os- 
 born, Samuel M. Blatchford, J. H. Gafney, O. C. Frost, R. M. 
 Mitchill, Jr„ 0. E. Orvis, W. S. Warner, R. F. Handy, J. 
 R. LaTouviette, C. S. Sternberger, H. H. Marks, Thomas 
 Marshall, W. E. Leavitt, H. W. Nichols, R. S. Masterton. 
 
 The By-Laws and rules and regulations governing the 
 American Mining Stock Exchange are as follows : 
 
 Article I. — Title of Association. — The title of this Association 
 is the " American Mining Stock Exchange." 
 
 Article JI. — Membership. — Sec. 1. All applications for mem- 
 bership shall be made to the Secretary of the Exchange, who shall 
 refer the same to the Committee on Admissions. 
 
 The name of the applicant must be posted ten days before action 
 can b^ taken by said committee. 
 
 Sec. 2. Every applicant for membership must be at least twenty- 
 one years of age. 
 
 Sec. 3. When it shall appear to the majority of the Committee on 
 Admission that a willful mis-statement upon a material point has 
 been made to them by an applicant for admission or re-admission, 
 they shall report the case to the " Governing Committee," who 
 shall, by a two-thirds vote of the members present, deprive the of- 
 fending party of his membership or declare him forever ineligible 
 for admission, as the case may be. 
 
 Sec. 4. In every case where a member is deprived of his member- 
 ship, or declared ineligible for readmission by the Governing Com- 
 mittee, by reason of any oifense against or under the laws of the Ex- 
 change, his membership, in case there are any claims against the 
 member, shall be disposed of forthwith by the Committee on Admis- 
 sions, and after satisfying the claims of the members of the Stock 
 Exchange and Mutual Trust Company, they shall pay any balance 
 to said member or to his legal representatives. 
 
 In no case shall any transfer of membership be permitted until 
 all dues to the Mutual Trust Company and to the Stock Exchange 
 shall have been paid in full, said dues being hereby declared a prior 
 lien upon the proceeds, to be satisfied in full before any distribution 
 shall be made. 
 
 Sec. 5. When a member dies his membership may be disposed of 
 by the Committee on Admissions by and with the consent of his 
 legal representatives, and after satisfying the claims of the Trust 
 Company and the members of the Stock Exchange, they shall pay 
 any balance to the legal representatives of the deceased. 
 
 Sec. 6. Any member shall have the right to transfer his member- 
 ship under the provision of Section 1, providing he has no uncan- 
 celed contracts with members of the Exchange or the Trust Company. 
 Sec. 7. All fees for admission and membership shall be paid to 
 the Mutual Trust Company, and the name of an original member or 
 a transferee shall not be placed on the Exchange Roll until such 
 payment has been made. 
 
 Article III.— Elections, Officers, etc.- Sec. 1. The officers of the 
 Exchange shall consist of a Chairman and Secretary, to be elected 
 at their annual election. 
 
 Sec. 2. The whole internal government of the Exchange shall be 
 vested in a Governing Committee consisting of twenty members, five 
 of whom shall be elected annually, by ballot, on the second Mon- 
 day of April in each year, to serve four years. 
 
 Sec. 3. In case any vacancy shall occur in the Governing Commit- 
 tee by resignation or otherwise it shall be filled by said Committee 
 until the next annual election, when the Stock Exchange will fill 
 the vacancy for the unexpired term. 
 
 Sec. 4. This committee shall have power to try all offenses under 
 or against the laws of the Exchange and all charges against mem- 
 bers, and their decision shall be final. 
 
 Sec. 5. The Governing Committee may, at any time during the 
 pendency of a case before any of the Standing Committees, ask for 
 such information and give such instructions as they may deem 
 proper. 
 
 Sec. 6. Any member of a standing committee before which a case 
 may be pending, shall have the right, during the consideration of 
 such case, or within two days after a decision has been made there- 
 on, to demand a reference of the same to the Governing Committee 
 for final adjudication ; and the Chairman of the standing committee 
 shall notify the Chairman of the Governing Committee of such re- 
 ference at the next regular meeting. No member of the Governiug 
 Committee shall participate in the adjudication of a case in which 
 he is personally interested. 
 
 Sec. 7. The Chairman of the Governing Committee may call a 
 meeting of said Committee at any time. He shall call a meet- 
 ing at the request of five members of the Exchange. In the 
 absence of the Chairman, any five members of the Governing Com- 
 mittee may call a meeting by written announcement from the ros- 
 trum. 
 
 Sec. 8. Any member of the Governing Committee who (except in 
 case of illness or leave. obtained from its presiding officer) shall ab- 
 sent himself from the regular meetings of the committee, shall pay 
 a fine of $1, and if absent three consecutive regular meetings, shall, 
 ipso facto, cease to be a member of the Governing Committee, and 
 the vacancy so occurring shall be filled as provided in Article II. of 
 the By-Laws. 
 
 Article IV. — Standing Committees.— See. 1. As speedily as pos- 
 sible after each annual election, the Governing Committee shall ap- 
 point from its own members the following standing committees for 
 the year : 
 
 First. A Committee on Management and Arrangements, consist- 
 ing of three members, to whom shall be referred the enforcement of 
 all rules and regulations necessary to good order and the comfort 
 of the members. They shall determine the number and duty of all 
 employees other than the officers, and shall have a general super- 
 vision of all the departments of the Exchange. 
 
 Second. A Committee on Arbitration, consisting of five members, 
 to whom shall be referred all claims and matters of difference be- 
 tween members of the Exchange, arising from transactions in stocks 
 or other securities, or from any transactions in money. Provided, 
 however, that the Arbitration Committee shall, on the application 
 of either one of the parties, or at their discretion, have the power to 
 dismiss the case and refer the parties to their legal remedy. They 
 shall also adjudicate such claims arising from differences, as afore- 
 said, as may be preferred against members by non-members, when 
 such non-member shall agree to abide by the rules of the American 
 Mining Stock Exchange in such cases provided. ( Vide Rules and 
 Regulations, Art. XXV.) The decision of this Committee shall be 
 final in all cases, unless an appeal be taken by a member of the 
 committee, as provided in Section 2 of this article, or in cases in- 
 volving a sum of $1,500 or over, when either party may appeal 
 within ten days to the Governing Committee for afinal adjudication. 
 The members of the Arbitration Committee present shall receive 
 Five Dollars each for hearing a case that shall be heard and decided 
 at one meeting. For all cases occupying the attention of the com- 
 mittee at more than one meeting. Ten Dollars. No compensation 
 to be paid any member absent from the meetings of the committee. 
 The losing party in all adjudicated cases to pay the expenses. 
 
 Third. A Committee on Admissions, consisting of five members, 
 to whom shall be referred all new applications for membership, 
 and also of suspended members for re-admission. But no applica- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 483 
 
 tion for admission or re-admission of a person wiio lias ceased to be 
 a member of the Exchange through violation of its By-laws or Rules 
 and Regulations shall be referred to said committee unless he has 
 first obtained the consent of two-thirds of the members of the Gov- 
 erning Committee present when such application is considered. 
 
 They shall determine the manner and form in which their pro- 
 ceedings shall be conducted. Two-thirds of the committee ap- 
 proving, the candidate shall be declared elected or re-elected to a 
 membership in the Exchange. 
 
 The Chairman of the committee, after ratification by the Govern- 
 ing Committee, shall inform the presiding officer of the Exchange 
 of the admission or re-admission of any applicant, and the said 
 presiding officer shall announce the same to the Exchange. 
 
 It shall also be the duty of this committee to consider and dis- 
 jwse of all applications for the transfer of membership under Ar- 
 ticle XIi of the By-Laws of this Exchange. 
 
 Fourth. A Committee on Stock List and Securities, consisting 
 of seven members, to whom shall be referred the arrangement of the 
 calls of Stocks, Bonds, etc., and all the applications for placing 
 Stocks, Bonds, etc., on the list dealt in at the Exchange. 
 
 They shall nave referred to them for adjudication all disputed 
 questions as to the regularity of Stock Certificates, Bonds, etc., 
 dealt in at the Exchange. 
 
 Fifth. A Law Committee, consisting of three members. 
 
 Sec. 2. The action of all standing committees shall be final, unless 
 some member of said committee should hot concur in any decision 
 made by any standing committee ; then, and in that event, an ap- 
 peal may be made in writing to the Governing Committee, except- 
 ing the Admission and Stock List Committee, whose action shall 
 be reported to the Governing Committee for approval or disap- 
 proval. 
 
 Akticle V. — Provision for the Families of Deceased Members.^ 
 Every member of the American Mining Exchange shall be subject 
 to the conditions, and entitled to partake of the benefits of the plan 
 providing for the families of deceased members hereinafter set 
 ibrth. 
 
 First. By and with the concurrence of the Mutual TrustCompany, 
 an additional number of seats, not to exceed thirty, shall be sold 
 for th« sum of Two Hundred Dollars each,the proceeds of the same, 
 after deducting the necessary expenses attending the sale of the 
 said seats, shall be received hj the Trustees of the Insurance and 
 Gratuity Fund, and be deposited in the Mutual Trust Company to 
 the credit of the Trustees of the Insurance and Gratuity Fund of 
 the American Mining Exchange ; the said funds, together with the 
 annual interest and accretions arising from the same, and all fines 
 that may be collected from members of the Exchange, all transfer 
 fees, if any, and, in fact, any revenue that may be collected by said 
 Trustees, to be invested from time to time by said Trustees, in ac- 
 cordance with the laws of the State of New York regulating trust 
 funds. 
 
 Second. The management and distribution of the Insurance and 
 Gratuity Fund, and the execution of the provisions of this article, 
 shall be under the charge of a Board of Trustees, to be known as 
 the Trustees of the Insurance and Gratuity Fund of the American 
 Mining Exchange, and to consist of five members, the first three to 
 serve one year, and the other two to serve two years, selected by the 
 Governing Committte. In case of any vacancy occurring, the same 
 shall be filled by the Governing Committee for the unexpired 
 terra. 
 
 Third. The said Trustees shall have power to adopt such by-laws 
 as they may think proper, subject to tlie approval of the Governing 
 Committee, and shall make an annual report to the Exchange of 
 the condition of the fund, and shall, at anjr time when called upon 
 by the Committee, make a report of condition of said fund to the 
 Governing Committee. 
 
 Fourth. Upon the death of any member of the Exchange, there 
 shall be levied and assessed against each surviving member the sura 
 of Ten Dollars, which thereupon becomes a due from him to the 
 Exchange, and charged against the membership of such surviving 
 member, to be collected as other fines and dues are or may then be 
 collected. 
 
 Fifth. The faith of the American. Mining Exchange is hereby 
 pledged to pay, within three months^ after proof of death of any 
 mamber, out of the money so collected, the sum of Fifteen Hun- 
 dred Dollars, or so much thereof as may have been collected, to the 
 persons named in the next section, as therein provided, which 
 money shall be paid as a gratuity from the surving members of the 
 Exchange, free from all debts, charges or demands whatever. 
 
 Sixth. Should the member die leaving a widow and no children, 
 then the whole sum shall be paid to such widow for her own use. 
 
 Should the member die leaving a widow and children, then one- 
 half shall be paid to the widow for her separate use, and one-half 
 to the children for their use, share and share alike ; provided, that 
 the share of minor children shall be paid their guardian, and that 
 the issue of any deceased child shall be entitled to receive the share 
 which said child would have received if living ; if of age, 
 directly, or if minors, through his, her or their guardian or guar- 
 dians. 
 
 Should the member die leaving neither wido.w nor children, the 
 whole sum shall be paid to the next of kin of the deceased. 
 
 In all oases a certified copy of tha proceedings before a Surrogate 
 or Judge of Probate shall be accepted as proof of the rights of the 
 
 claimants, be deemed ample authority to the Exchange to pay over 
 the money, shall protect the Exchange in so doing, and shall re- 
 lease the Exchange forever, from all further claimor liability what- 
 soever. 
 
 Seventh. Nothing herein contained shall ever be taken or con- 
 strued as a joint liability of the Exchange or its members for the 
 payment of any sum whatsoever ; the liability of each member at 
 law or in equity being limited to the payment of Ten Dollars only 
 on the death of any other member, and the liability of the Ex- 
 change being limited to the payment of the sum of Fifteen Hun- 
 dred dollars (or such part thereof as may be collected), after it shall 
 have been collected from the members, and not otherwise. 
 
 Eighth. Nothing herein contained shall be construed as con- 
 stituting any estate in esse which can be mortgaged or pledged for 
 the payment of any debts ; but it shall be construed as the sol- 
 emn agreement of every member of the Exchange to make a vol- 
 untary gift to the family of each deceased member, and of the Ex- 
 change to collect and pay over to such family the said voluntary 
 gift ; it being underdtood and hereby expressly declared, that the 
 provisions of this Article shall only be in force in, and apply to, 
 cases of death which shall take place after its adoption. 
 
 Ninth. The provisions of this Article shall not extend to any 
 member who shall have severed his connection with the Exchange 
 by the transfer of his membership, whether the same is made vol- 
 untarily or involuntarily, nor to any member who now is, or here- 
 after may be, expelled by the Governing Committee. 
 
 Tenth. The membership of a deceased member from the date of 
 his death until sold, shall be subject to the same assessments, under 
 the provisions of this Article, as the memberships of the surviving 
 members during that period. 
 
 Eleventh. Upon the death of any member, if more than Fif- 
 teen Hundred Dollars shall be called from the members by a.ssess- 
 ment of Ten Dollars on each survivor, then the surplus shall be 
 added to the Insurance and Gratuity Fund and invested by the 
 Trustees as before mentioned. 
 
 Twelfth. On and after November 1st, 1881, any one becoming a 
 member of the American Mining Exchange by transfer shall pay to 
 the Trustees of the Insurance and Gratuity Fund of the Exchange 
 the sum of Twenty-Five Dollars before he shall be admitted to the 
 privileges of membership, but this provision shall not apply in 
 cases of sale or transfer of delinquent seats. 
 
 Article VI. — Sec. 1. — At 10 o'clock precisely the presiding 
 officer shall announce from the rostrum that the Exchange is opened 
 for the transaction of business, and it shall remain open lor such pur- 
 pose until 3 o'clock, P. M., when the presiding officer shall sim- 
 ilarly announce it closed. 
 
 Sec. 2. — It shall be the duty of the Chairman to preside over the 
 Exchange whenever it shall be assembled for business, and to re- 
 main in the chair during business hours, to call stocks, maintain 
 order, enforce the rules, and perfom such other duties as the Gov"- 
 erning Committee may regard as properly pertaining to the office. 
 In the absence of the Chairman, the members present may choose 
 a Chairman pro tern., with full powers. 
 
 The presiding officer shall determine all questions of order. 
 
 Duties of the Secretary. — Sec. 3. — It shall be the duty of the Sec- 
 retary to keep complete minutes of the proceedings of the Exchange, 
 and to take charge of the books and papers of the Association. He 
 shall conduct the correspondence of the Exchange, and keep a re- 
 cord of the closing and opening of the transfer books for dividends, 
 elections, etc., of the various corporations whose stocks are dealt in 
 at the Exchange, the amount of such dividends, and when payable, 
 and shall post the same on the bulletin board. He shall also keep 
 a book containing the names of all the members, with date of ad- 
 mission, by purchase or otherwise, and all transfers of membership ; 
 also a list or suspended members. 
 
 Article VII. — Suspended Members, Re-admission, Claims of 
 Creditors, etc. — —Sec. 1. — Any member who fails to comply with 
 his contracts, or who becomes insolvent, shall be suspended until he 
 has settled with his creditors. Such member shall immediately in- 
 form the presiding officer, in writing, that he is unable to meet his 
 engagements; and it shall be the duty of the presiding officer there- 
 upon to give notice from the chair of the suspension of such member. 
 The Secretary shall record the feilure of such member in a book 
 kept for that purpose. 
 
 In default of giving such information, the party, on application 
 for re-admission, shall not be entitled to a reference of his case to the 
 Committee on Admissions, unless two-thirds of the members of the 
 Governing Committee present shall vote in favor of such reference. 
 
 Section 2. — When a suspended member applies for re-admission he 
 shall be required to furnish to the Chairman of the Committee on 
 Admissions a list of his creditors and a statement of the amounts 
 owing, and the nature of his settlement in each ease. 
 
 The committee shall give notice, for three consecutive days, 
 through the presiding officer of the Stock Exchange, and by posting 
 the same on the bulletin board provided for that purpose, of the 
 time and place of meeting to consider the application of the sus- 
 pended member and the claim of crfeditors. Upon the applicant 
 presenting satisfactory proof of his settlement with all his creditors, 
 the committee shall proceed to ballot for him in accordance with it^ 
 prescribed rules and regulations. Failing of a re-election, the ap^ 
 plicant shall be entitled to be balloted for at any five subsequent 
 regular meetings of thg poijiraitt,gg, \o be designed by himself. Prp^ 
 
484 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 vided, however, that the six ballotings to which the applicant shall 
 be entitled shall be within one year from the time of his first appli- 
 c-ition for readmission. If, after six ballotings, as aforesaid, tlie 
 candidate is rejected, he may appeal, within sixty days thereafter, 
 to the Governing Committee, wliose action in the case shall be final. 
 
 The question on appeal, however, shall not be taken unless at 
 least sixteen members of the Governing Committee are present, and 
 it shall require an affirmative vote of at least thirteen members to 
 reinstate the applicant. 
 
 If rejected by the Governing Commit'ee, he shall cease to be a 
 member of the American Mining Stock Exchange, and his name 
 shall forthwith be stricken from the roll, and his membership shall 
 be disposed of by the Committee on Admissions. 
 
 Sections. — If anysuspended member fails to settle with his credi- 
 tors within one year from the time of his suspension, his member- 
 ship ehaU be disposed of by the Committee on Admissions, and the 
 proceeds paid, pro rata, to his creditors in the Trust Company and 
 ' Exchange. The Governing Committee may, by a vote of two-thirds 
 of the members present, extend the time for settlement of such 
 suspended member. 
 
 No claims growing out of transactions between partners shall 
 be admitted to share in the proceeds of the membership of one 
 of such partners until after the claims filed by other creditors 
 who are members of the Exchange shall have been satisfied. 
 • Section 4. — ^Any creditor failing to file with the Secretary of the 
 Committee on Admissions a written statement of his claim against a 
 member, prior to the transfer of the right of membership of such 
 member, shall forfeit all right to a distributive share of the pro- 
 ceeds of such membership. 
 
 Section 5. — No member of the Exchange shall be allowed to take 
 as partner any suspended member thereof during the period of his 
 suspension, or to form a partnership with any insolvent person, or 
 witn any person who may have previously been a member of the 
 Exchange, and against whom any member may hold a claim 
 arising out of transactions made during the time of such member- 
 ship, and which has not been settled or released in accordance with 
 the laws of the Exchange. 
 
 Section 6. — No claims made against members of this Exchange 
 by others than the Trust Company and members of the Exchange 
 shall be reco^ized, nor shall any cognizance of the same be taken 
 unless the said claim is made on account of stock transactions made 
 on the floor of the Exchange. 
 
 Article VIII. — Elections, Quorum, M:mbers of a Firm Voting, 
 etc. Section 1. — Any member of the Exchange in full standing shall 
 be entitled to vote at an election for officers. 
 
 Section 2. — The members present at the daily sessions of the 
 Exchange shall constitute a quorum for the settlement of disputes 
 growing out of the purchases and sales made during such sessions. 
 
 When the Exchange shall be assembled to vote on questions other 
 than the above a majority of all the members of the Exchange 
 shall be necessary to a quorum. 
 
 Section 3. — But one member of a firm shall be allowed to transact 
 business in the same security at the same time, or vote on the ques- 
 tions of dispute referred to in Section 2. 
 
 Abticle IX. — Fictitious Sales, Bids and Ojfers.— Section 1. — 
 No fictitious s^les shall be made. Any member contravening this 
 section shall, upon conviction, be expelled. 
 
 Section 2. — Any member wlio shall make fictitious or trifling bids 
 orofiers shall, upon conviction, be subject to suspension or such 
 other penalty as the Governing Committee shall impose. 
 
 Abticle X. — Payments and Deliveries in Certain Cases to be 
 Simultaneous. — In all deliveries of stocks, bonds, etc., the party de- 
 livering shall have the right to require the purchase money to be 
 paid at the time and place of delivery. 
 
 Article XI. — Segulating Commissions. — Sec. 1. The commis- 
 sion on Mining Stocl£s selling in the market shall be as follows : 
 
 Stocks selling under 50c. p. sh., com. 50c. p. 100 shs. 
 
 " at 50c p. sh. and under $1.00 com. $1 00 p. 100 shs. 
 
 " at $1.00" " 
 
 " at 2.00" " 
 
 " at 5.00" " 
 
 " at 10.00" " 
 
 " at 20.00 " and over, 
 
 When one member merely buys or sells for another (giving up 
 his principal on the day of the transaction), and does not receive or 
 deliver the stock, his commission shall be one-half the above 
 rates. 
 
 On all stocks selling at $1 and under, bids and offers must not be 
 less than one cent apart. 
 
 On all stocks sellmg over $1 and under $5, bids and offers must 
 not be less than £ve cents apart. 
 
 On all stocks selling above $5, bids and offers must not be less 
 than one-eighth apart. 
 
 Article XU.—Mem,bers Guilty of Obvious Fraud.— Sho\M any 
 member be guilty of obvious fraud, of which the Governing Com- 
 mittee shall be the judge, he shall upon conviction thereof by a vote 
 of two-thirds of the members of said committee present, be declared 
 by the Chairman of the Exchange to be expelled and his member- 
 ship shall be disposed of, and after paying all dues and claims due 
 members and the Mutual Trust Company, the balance, if any, shall 
 be paid to the expelled member or his representatives. 
 
 2.00 
 
 
 2.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 
 3.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 
 5.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 
 6.25 
 12.50 
 
 Article 'Kill.— Obligation to Abide by the By-laws and Rides 
 of the Exchange. — Sec. 1. Any member reported to the Governing 
 Committee for refusing to comply with the laws of the Exchange, or 
 for any violation thereof, shall be allowed an opportunity of being 
 heard before them ; and if said committee decide that the complaint 
 is proved, they shall inflict such penalty as may be prescribed by 
 the By-laws or Rules and Regulations ; or where no penalty is spe- 
 cified, such as they may deem proper, according to the gravity of 
 the offense. 
 
 Sec. 2. No expulsion or suspension of a member shall affect the 
 rights of creditors as hereinbefore provided. 
 
 Article XIV. — Legal Interfe/rence with Officers or Committees. — 
 Any member of the American Mining Stock Exchange who shall 
 himself, or whose partner or partners shall apply for an injunction 
 or legal instrument restraining any officer or committee of the Trust 
 Company or Exchange from performing his or its duties under tlie 
 By-Jaws, shall by that act cease to be a member of the Exchange. 
 
 Article XV. — Fee for Placing Mining Stocks on the Regular 
 Jjist. — The fee for placing mining stocks on the list shall be de- 
 posited with the Mutual Trust Company when the application is 
 made, and returned in case the same is not approved. All stocks 
 remaining on the list over one year shall pay an annual fee of fifty 
 dollars in advance. 
 
 The Exchange reserves the right to suspend the calling of any 
 stock, at any time, by a two-thirds vote of the members present. 
 
 Article XVI. — Dues and Fines. — Section 1. — The dues of all 
 members of the Exchange shall be $50 per annum, exclusive of 
 fines, and shall be paid to the Mutual Trust Company quarterly, in 
 advance, on the 1st days of May, August, November and February. 
 
 Section 2. — ^Any member who shall neglect to pay dues or fines for 
 ten days after they become payable shall be suspended for twenty 
 thereupon, after three days' notice by mail to his last regis' 
 
 tered address, he shall no longer be considered a member and his 
 membership shall be forthwith disposed of by the Committee on Ad- 
 missions, except in the case of non-residents, who shall have thirty 
 days' notice. 
 
 Section 3. — ^All fines collected shall be placed to the credit of the 
 Insurance and Gratuity Fund of the American Mining Exchange, 
 subject to the control of Trustees elected by and from the Governing 
 Committee. 
 
 Article XVIII. — These By-laws may be changed by the Govern- 
 ing Committee at any regular meeting, notice having been given in 
 writing at least one meeting previously of the proposed change, sub- 
 ject, however^ to ratification by the Mutual Trust Company of all 
 mattersaffectmgfinancesdirectlyor indirectly, except such as relate 
 to the. Insurance and Gratuity Fund. 
 
 Rules and Regulations op the American Mining Stock 
 Exchange. — Article I. — Hours of Business. — Section 1.— The 
 Exchange shall be opened for the entrance of members upon every 
 business day, at ten minutes before ten o'clock, A. M. 
 
 At ten o'clock precisely the presiding officer shall announce from 
 the rostrum that the Exchange is opened for the transaction of busi- 
 ness, and it shall remain open for such purpose until three o'clock, 
 P. M., when the presiding officer shall similarly announce it closed. 
 
 Dealings shall be limited throughout the entire year to the inter- 
 val between the, hours named, unless otherwise ordered by tlie Gov- 
 erning Committee, and a fine of fifty dollars for each offense shall be 
 imposed upon any member who ^all, directly or indirectly, make 
 any transaction publicly in stocKs or bonds before or after these 
 hours in the Exchange or its vicinity. 
 
 Section 2. — The Exchange shall not be closed at anytime between 
 the hours above named, except by order of the Governing Com- 
 mittee. While so closed, the samfe penalty shall apply to dealings 
 outside of the Exchange as during the regular time of closing. 
 
 Article II.— CaHs.— Section 1.— The regular calls shall be at 
 ten A. M., eleven A. M., twelve M. and 2 p. M.,and the order of busi- 
 ness at such regular calls shall be as follows, viz. : 
 
 1. Calling the regular list of stocks or bonds. 
 
 2. Calling stocks or bonds at the request of members. 
 
 3. Reverting to stocks or bonds at the request of members. 
 
 Section 2. — After the call, any security may be recalled once with- 
 out a fine, and afterwards by the payment of a fine of twelve and 
 one-half cents each time. 
 
 Article III.— Bids and Ojfers.— Section 1.— All offers made and 
 accepted shall be binding ; and incase there are two or more claim- 
 ants for the purchase or sale, the presiding officer shall decide the 
 same, or he may appeal to the Exchange for their decision. 
 
 Section 2.— In all offers to buy or sell, the offer shall be accom- 
 panied with some specific number of shares, and where no number 
 IS named, the bid or offer shall be considered to be for one hundred 
 shares of stock. 
 
 Section 3.— Offers to buy or sell shall be entitled to the floor in the 
 following order : 
 
 1. Bids, " seller three days," and offers to sell, " buyer three 
 days," shall take precedence of cash and regular. 
 
 2. " Cash " and " regular " bids and offers may be made simul- 
 taneously, as being essentially different propositions. ' 
 
 3. Offers to buy or sell on longer options than three days may be 
 made at the same time, with offers to buy or sell, " buyer or seller 
 three." 
 
 4. In offers to buy on seller's option, or to sell on buver's optwn, 
 the longest option shall have precedence. 
 
THE MINES, MINEBS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 485 
 
 5. lu offers to buy on buyer's option, or sell on seller's option, the 
 shortest option sh^U have precedence. 
 
 No other bids or offers shall be permitted, or liave any standing 
 upon the floor. 
 
 Members violating the provisions of this section may be fined by 
 the presiding officer, and on repeating or persisting in tlie offense, 
 may be cited to appear before the Governing Committee, who may, 
 in their discretion, suspend the offender for a period of not more tlian 
 ten days. 
 
 Section 4. — No party to a contract shall be compelled to accept a 
 principal other than the member offering to contract, unless th« 
 name proposed to be substituted shall be satisfactory, or shall be 
 declared at the time of making the offer. 
 
 Section 5. — No sale of securities shall be made on which a deposit 
 shall be offered as the limit of liability. 
 
 Article IV. — J7rf«re««.— Section 1.— No purchase or sale at the 
 option of the buyer or seller, for three days, or " at three days," 
 shall bear interest. All purchases and sales beyond that time shall 
 be with interest, unless otherwise agreed. 
 
 Section 2. — In all time bargains, the rate of interest shall be six 
 per cent, per annum, to be calculated by days, according t» hauls 
 usage. 
 
 Section 3. — The accrued interest on all stocks and bonds shall go 
 to the purchaser. 
 
 Article V. — Applicaliona to Place Stocks^ etc., on the List, — All 
 applications for placing stocks on the list shall be made to the Com- 
 mittee on Stock List and Securities, who shall report on the same 
 to the Governing Committee within ten days, with a full statement 
 of capital, number of shares, resources, etc. No stock or bond shall 
 be placed on the list of stocks called at the Board except by a vote 
 of a majority of members of the Committee on Stock List and Se- 
 curities present, or by order of the Governing Committee. 
 
 ARTiCLBVI.—flei/Mtr^o/iStocAs.— Section 1.— The Exchange will 
 not call or deal in any active speculative stock of any company, a 
 registry of whose stock is not kept in some responsible bank, trust 
 company or other satisfactory agency, and which shall not give 
 public notice, at the time of establishing such registry, of the num- 
 ber of shares so. entrusted to be registered, and shall not give at least 
 thirty days' notice through the newspapers, and in writing to the 
 presiding officer of the Exchange, of any intended increase of tte 
 number of shares, either direct or through the issue of convertible 
 bonds, and shall not at the same time give notice of the object for 
 which such issue of stock or bonds is about to be made. 
 
 Section 2. — All certificates of California and Nevada mining stocks 
 which are not registered and wiiich have no transfer office in the 
 city standing in the following names : 
 
 E. A. Richardson, IVustee^ Bank of California, S. F. ; 
 E. R. Grant, Trustee, Agency Bank of California, S. F. , 
 Nat. Stein, Trustee, Wells, Fargo & Co., S. F.; 
 H. B. Parsons, Trusiee, Wells, Fargo & Co., N. Y.; 
 !^ G. B. Bayley, Trustee, Nevada Bank. S. F. ; 
 Jas. Coffin, Jr., Nevada Bank ; • 
 C. Minzesheimer & Co., Trustees, N. Y. ; 
 
 which names can be verified at the respective agencies in New York, 
 shall constitute and be considered a good delivery on this Exchange. 
 
 Article \11.— Settlement of Contracts. — Section 1. — All pur- 
 chases and sales shall be settled for on the next business day, unless 
 • expressed to the contrary, and except in the cases referred to in the 
 following section : 
 
 Section 2.— All contracts falling due on Sundays, or on such holi- 
 .days as are observed by the banks, shall be settled on the preceding 
 day. 
 
 But where two holidays occur on consecutive days, as where Sun- 
 dav immediately precjdes or followsalegal holiday, contracts falling 
 due upon the first of siioh holidays shall be settled upon the busi- 
 ness (fey immediately^ preceding; and those maturing upon the 
 second of such holidays shall be settled upon the business day next 
 following the same. 
 
 Article 'Vlll.— Hours for the Delivery of Securities. — Section 
 1.— All deliveries of securities must be made before 2.15 o'clock, 
 p. M. ; and in cases where a broker fails to make his deliveries within 
 fifteen minutes after that time, his contracts may be closed under the 
 rule after due notice to him (the defaulting party); in the manner 
 provided in Article XVII., 
 
 Section 2.— This rule shall apply to borrowed andloaned securities. 
 
 Section 3.—" Due notice " is hereby defined to be, a notice in 
 writing delivered at the office of the broker, or if he has no office, 
 .then at the post-office, addressed to the address last given by him to 
 the Secretary. 
 
 Section 4.— In case of borrowed and loaned securities, wherever 
 notice is given to the borrower before 11.30 A. M. for the return of 
 the stock, such stock must be delivered before 12.45 P. M. of the 
 same day. 
 
 Article JX.— Settlement of IKspiites as to Purchase or Sale of 
 Securities.— Section 1.— In anv disagreement between members, 
 growing out of the purchase and sale of stocks, as soon as the same 
 is ascertained if not settled by mutual agreement, the money dif- 
 . ference shall be established forthwith by purchase or sale by an 
 officer of the Exchange. 
 
 Article X.— Contracts Maturing during closing of Transfer 
 . Books; Due Mils.— All contracts in stocks falling due during the 
 
 regular closing of the transfer books of any company, shall be settled 
 at maturity by the delivery of a certificate and power of attorney, as 
 defined in article XI. ; and contracts, at the option of the buyer of 
 seller, may be notified for settlement, as if the books were open ; and 
 in case the books are closed for a dividend, the party entitled thereto 
 shall receive a due bill therefor, signed or endorsed by the seller or 
 tlie stock ; but the party entitled to the dividend shall have the 
 right to require a deposit in a trust company, payable to the joint 
 order of the purchaser and seller of the amount of each due bill. 
 
 Article XI. — JTow Deliveries shall be made when Transfer 
 Books are closed by legal Impediment. — Whenever the transfer 
 books of any company shall be closed by any legal impediment, so 
 as to render their being open again uncertain, then tne deliveries 
 of stock of such company, in satisfaction o{ contract, shall be made 
 by certificate, and power of attorney irrevocable, with notarial ac- 
 knowledgment and seal^ and containing assignment and bill of sale 
 satisfactory to the recipients, or passed upon by the Committee on 
 Stock List and Securities. 
 
 Article XII. — Deliveries of Stock by Certificate and Power. — 
 See. 1. In the delivery of stock of which but one transfer in a day is 
 allowed, the receiver shall have the option of receiving said stock 
 by certificate and power irrevocable, in the name of, witnessed or 
 guaranteed by a member of the Exchange, or a firm represented 
 at the Exchange, resident or doing business in New York, or by 
 transfer thereon 
 
 Section 2. — In all transactions exceeding one hundred shares, 
 where the delivery is by certificate and power, the purchaser shall 
 have the right to require the delivery in certificates of not more 
 than one hundred shares each. 
 
 Section 3. — Powers of attorney, or substitution, signed by Trus- 
 tees, Guardians, Infants, Executors, Administrators or Attorneys, 
 shall not be a good delivery. 
 
 Detaclied powers of Attorney, or substitution, must be attested by 
 a notary public under seal. 
 
 Article XIII. — Contracts. — Section 1. — No contracts for the pur- 
 chase or sale of securities beyond sixty days shall be made in the 
 Exchange. 
 
 Section 2. — In all contracts on time over three days, made at the 
 option of the buyer or seller, one day's notice shall Be given before 
 securities can be delivered or demanded, and such notice shall be 
 given at or before two o'clock, p. M. 
 
 ArticleXIV. — Dividends. — Section 1. — On the day of closing the 
 transfer books of any stock for a dividend, transactions in such stock 
 for cash shall be "dividened on " up to the time officially designated 
 for the closing of the books ; all ti-ansactions other than for cash 
 shall be " dividend off " after a quarter past two o'clock, p. M., or 
 after the closing of the books, shoidd they close before that hour. 
 
 Section 2. — When a dividend is declared on a security, during 
 the pendency of a contract, the seller shall collect, hold, allow in- 
 terest on, and pay the same to the buyer on the settlement of the 
 contract. 
 
 Section 3. — Members may charge one per centum for collecting 
 and paying dividends. But wheiif a scrip or stock dividend has 
 been declared by a company, the one per cent, shall be upon the 
 market value, and not upon the par value, of the scrip or stock. 
 
 Section 4. — No offers to buy or sell dividends on stocks shall be 
 made publicly at the Exchange. 
 
 Article XV. — Payment and Transfer. — In all sales of stocks, 
 transferable in this city, either party shall have the right to require 
 the purchase money to be paid at the time and place of transfer. 
 
 In the delivery of stocks not transferable in this city, the pur- 
 chaser shall have the right to require the deposit of the purchase 
 money in some local bank, to be agreed upon by the contracting 
 parties, or named by the presiding officer of the Exchange ; such 
 money to be held in trust until official notification oi the transfer 
 sliall have been received. 
 
 Article XVI. — Mutual Deposits on Contracts. — Section 1. — In 
 any contract, eitlier party may call, at any time during the con- 
 tinuance of the same, for a, mutual deposit of twenty per cent. And 
 whenever the market price of the^securities shall change, so as to 
 reduce the margin of said deposit "either way below ten per cent., 
 the party whose margin is so reduced shall, upon notice in writing, 
 deposit sufficient to restore the margin to twenty per cent., and this 
 may be repeated as often as the margin may be so reduced. Such 
 additional marginal deposit to be made with the caller unless 
 the payer shall elect to deposit with an agreed third party or with 
 the Mutual Trust Company. 
 
 The seller of the stock may, if he so desire, deposit the stock 
 sold called for by the contract, which shall be in full for all 
 margins. 
 
 In all cases where deposits are called before two o'clock, p. m., 
 they shall be made at or before two and a half o'clock, p. M., the 
 same day. If called after two o'clock, p. M., they shall be made 
 at or before eleven o'clock, A. M., of the following day. 
 
 Section 2. — In case either party shall fail to comply with a de- 
 mand for a deposit, in accordance with the provisions of this article, 
 the party calling, after having given due notice, may report the 
 default to the presiding officer of the Exchange, who shall pur- 
 chase or resell the security forthwith in the Exchange, and any 
 difference that may accrue shall be paid over to the party entitled 
 thereto. 
 
 Section 3. — Where there is a difference of opinion as regards the 
 
486 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 place of deposit, for the security of purchases and sales, the same 
 shall be made in the Mutual Trust Company. 
 
 Section 4. — No assignment of any contract made between mem- 
 bers of this Exchange will be recognized by the Exchange, except 
 made by mutual consent endorsed on the memorandum of contract. 
 
 Article XVII. — Default-Contract, Closing under tJie Rules. — 
 Section 1. — Should any member neglect to fulfil his contract on the 
 day it becomes due, the party or parties contracting with him shall, 
 after giving notice, as required by Section 2 of the preceding 
 article, employ an officer of the Exchange to close the same forth- 
 with in the Exchange, by purchase or sale, as the case may require, 
 unless the price of settlement has been agreed upon by the con- 
 tracting parties. 
 
 In case of a failure of a creditor to close the contract as above, the 
 price shall be fixed by the price current at the time such contract 
 ought to have been closed under the rule. 
 
 In all cases where an officer may be directed to buy or sell 
 securities under this rule, the name of the member defaulting, as 
 well as that of the member giving the order, shall be announced. 
 
 No order for the purchase or sale of securities, under this rule, 
 shall be executed unless made out in writing over the signature of 
 the party giving the order, who shall state the reason therefore ; and 
 it shall be the duty of the officer who executes the order to endorse 
 thereon the name of the purchaser or seller, the price and the hour 
 at which the contract is closed, and hand the same to the Secretary 
 of the Exchange, who shall, within twenty-four hours, ascertain 
 whether the party for whose account the order was given has paid 
 the diflTerence, if any, arising from the transaction. If not paid, the 
 Secretary shall report the default to the presiding officer of the 
 ' Exchange. The duty devolved upon the officers of the Exchange 
 under this rule shall be performed without charge. 
 
 No party shall be permitted to supply oifers to buy or sell securi- 
 ties closed for his account " under the rule." 
 
 When a contract is closed under this rule, any action of the de- 
 faulter, direct or indirect, by which the prompt "fulfilment of such 
 contract is delayed, hindered or evaded, to the detriment of the other 
 contracting party, shall subject the offending party to suspension 
 for not less than thirty days, or expulsion from the Exchange in 
 the discretion of the Governing Committee, by a vote of two-thirds 
 of the members present at a meeting. 
 
 When contracts are closed out under the rule, any member apply- 
 ing the bid or offer, and not duly receiving or delivering the stock, 
 as the case may be, renders himself liable to prosecution under 
 this article. 
 
 Should any stock thus sold not be delivered until the next day, 
 the contract shall continue ; but the party defaulting shall be liable 
 to pay such damages as may be assessed by the Arbitration Com- 
 mittee. 
 
 Section 2. — The sama rules as to notice, time and place that 
 govern default in other contracts, shall apply to borrowed securities, 
 which, on non-delivery or receipt, must be borrowed or loaned in 
 open market^ except in case of actual default in receiving or deliver- 
 ing after notice to close the loan ; then the same are to be bought 
 or sold, as the case may be, for account of the defaulter, in the 
 manner provided in this article. 
 
 Article XVIII. — Access to the Minutes. — No person shall have 
 access to the minutes of the Exchange except the members. 
 
 Article XIX. — Communications Influencing the Market. — No 
 communications having a tendency to influence the market shall be 
 read to the Exchange without the consent of the Chairman or pre- 
 siding officer. 
 
 Article XX. — Indecorous Language, Disorderly Conduct, etc. — 
 Punishment. — Section 1. — Any member who shall, during- the ses- 
 sion of the Exchange, use indecorous language to another member 
 or who shall be guilty of conduct subversive of good order and de- 
 corum, or of any act or acts whereby the personal comfort or safety 
 of other members is seriously interfered with, may be fined at the 
 discretion of the presiding officer, in a sum not excee'ding ten dollars. 
 
 Section 2.^Any member interrupting the presiding officer wliile 
 calling stocks, by speaking, or otherwise, shall pay a fine of not less 
 than twenty-five cents for each offense, at the discretion of the pre- 
 siding officsr, from which there shall be no appeal. 
 
 The levying of all fines shall rest exclusively with the presiding 
 officer. 
 
 Article XXI. — Special Meetings. — Ayes, Noes, etc. — Section 1. 
 — Except by unanimous consent, no business shall be transacted 
 previous to the first call of stocks. 
 
 Section 2. — When any special meeting of the Exchange shall be 
 appointed, the fine for non-attendance may, by a vote of two-thirds 
 of the members present, be fixed at a sum not exceeding five 
 dollars. 
 
 Section 3. — No notice will be taken of any resolution or resolu- 
 tions, unless submitted in writing. 
 
 Section 4. — No member shall sppak more than twice on any 
 question under discussion by the Exchancte, without permission 
 from the presiding officer, nor shall any member interrupt another 
 while speaking. 
 
 Section 5.— The presiding officer shall not participate in any 
 discussion arising in the Exchange, while occupying the chair. 
 
 Section 6.— The ayes and noes shall not be called for upon any 
 question, excepting at the request of one-fifth of the members of the 
 Exchange present. When the ayes and noes are ordered, a ballot- 
 
 box shall be placed on the Secretary's desk, and kept open for the 
 reception of votes from 10.30 A. M. until 2 P. M» The vote shall be 
 taken by the deposit of a ballot, endorsed by the member voting, 
 and containing his vote, aye or no. Said ballot shall be placed on 
 file in alphabetical order, and preserved for fifteen days. The votes 
 shall be entered upon the roll, opposite to the names of the mem- 
 bers who have voted, and such roll shall be placed on the Secre- 
 tary's desk for the inspection of members. 
 
 Article XXII. — Smoking Forbidden. — Any member smoking 
 in the business rooms of the Exchange, or any other part of the 
 "building where the Committee on Management and Arrangements 
 may prohibit the same, shall be fined five dollars. 
 
 Article XXIII. — Injuring Property of the Exchange Employees, 
 etc. — Section 1. — If a member injures or destroys the property of the 
 Exchange, it shall be repaired or replaced under the direction of the 
 Committee on Management and Arrangements, and the expense 
 charged to such member, in addition to any fines which may be im- 
 posed by the presiding officer for the offense, under A rticle XX. 
 
 Section 2. — If any employee of the Exchange shall deface the buil- 
 ding or injure the property of the Exchange, he shall be discharged 
 forthwith ; and if any employee of a member of the Exchange, or 
 if any visitor or subscriber shall deface or destroy the property of the 
 Exchange, or be guilty of rude or improper conduct, he shall be ex- 
 cluded from the rooms of the Exchange. 
 
 Article XXIV. — Dealings with JVon-Members.— Any mevabei of 
 the Exchange dealing with a person not a member, in the rooms of 
 the Exchange, shall be subject to suspension for not less than sixty 
 days, nor more than twelve months. 
 
 Article XXV. — Arbitration of Claims of Non-members. — Any 
 person shall have the right to bring a claim against a member of the 
 Exchange before the Arbitration Committee, arising from transac- 
 tions in bonds, stocks or other securities, on the conditions following, 
 and not otherwise : 
 
 The person making such a claim shall execute a full release of his 
 claim against said member, duly signed, sealed and stamped, and 
 shall deliver the same to the Chairman of the Arbitration Commit- 
 tee, to be held in trust, to abide the event of the suit before the said 
 committee. 
 
 Form op Release.— .Kmow aXl Men by these Presents : That I, 
 
 , for and in consideration of the sum of 
 
 one dollar, to me in hand paid by , the 
 
 receipt of which is hereby acknowledged, have remised, released 
 and forever discharged, and by these presents I do hereby remise, 
 
 release and forever discharge the said of 
 
 and from any and all demands heretofore existing and due and ow- 
 ing to me, and the said is hereby fully 
 
 released and discharged from the same. 
 
 Sealed with my seal, and dated at New York this day of 
 
 ■ , 18- 
 
 The Chairman of the Arbitration Committee shall keep the said 
 release in trust, to abide the result of said suit, and shall deliver the 
 same to the defendant in either.of the three following cases : 
 
 1st. In case the claimant shall not present his claim to the Arbi- 
 tration Committee within twenty days after executing said release. 
 
 2d. In case judgment shall be rendered for said defendant by thfe 
 Arbitration Committee. 
 
 3d. In case the defendant shall pay, or offer to pay, to such claim- 
 ant the amount of judgment rendered in favor of said claimant. 
 
 In case judgment shall be rendered against any member of the 
 Exchange which he is unable or unwilling to pay, then such re- 
 lease shall be cancelled and returned to such claimant. 
 
 Article XXVI. — Regarding Suspension of Members and Legal 
 Proceedings.^ln all cases where, and in accordance with the provi- 
 sions of Article XXV., a judgment has been or shall be rendered 
 against any member of the Exchange by the Exchange, such mem- 
 ber shall, without further action of the Exchange, stand suspended 
 from the time of the rendition of such judgment until the same is 
 fully paid or satisfied, or tendered, or refused. 
 
 Whenever any creditor of a member of this Exchange, or any 
 person asserting a claim against a meiilber of this Exchange, has 
 voluntarily or shall voluntarily resort to any legal tribunal, or has 
 voluntarily instituted or shall voluntarily institute any legal pro- 
 ceedings against such member concerning his claim, "such claim 
 shall not be recognized or enforced by this Exchange. 
 
 Article XXVII.— Assessments.— In all sales of stocks, whether 
 on time or for cash, the buyer shall pay any assessments levied and 
 not delinquent at time of sale ; provided, that the levying of such 
 assessment bv any company shall have been previously announced 
 by the presiding officer in open Exchange; but no assessment, 
 whether payable instanter or otherwise, shall be considered delin- 
 quent until thirty days from the day on which it is levied, excepting 
 on California stocks, which shall "become delinquent here fifteen 
 days earlier than in California. 
 
 Where an assessment is levied on a stock and made payable 
 monthly, or in different periods in installments, each payment shall 
 be governed by this article, and become delinquent as follows : The 
 first payment in thirty days from this levy ; the second in thirty 
 days from tlie day on which it is made payable; the third the same, 
 and so on. The day on which an assessment is levied Is not counted 
 as one of the thirty days. 
 
 Article XXVlll.— Limitations for Rcclimation for Assessments 
 of Stock.— No reclamation for unpaid assessments upon stock sold 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 487 
 
 by members of this Exchange, the transfer office of which is in this 
 city, shall be allowed, unless the same is presented witliin five days 
 from the date of delivery ; and when the transfer office is out of the 
 city, the demand must be made witliin twenty days from the date of 
 delivery. 
 
 In the event of stock which has been sold for assessment being 
 delivered in error, the broker receiving it shall be entitled, within 
 five days from the date of delivery, to demand transferable stock in 
 lieu thereof; and in case sueh demand is not made within five days, 
 then the broker who delivered the stock may settle with him by re- 
 turning the amount which he paid for the stock. 
 
 No reclamation for any stoclc delivered shall be made after the 
 expiration of thirty days, if the transfer office is in the city ; and 
 not after sixty days if the transfer office is out of the city. 
 
 Article XXIX. — Rescinded Assessments. — On all time sales of 
 stock, after an assessment becomsi delinquent, and is thereafter re- 
 scinded, the buyer may, upon delivery, deduct the amount of said 
 assessment from the contract price of said stock. 
 
 Article 'K.X.X.— Black List. — Each and every member shall 
 report publicly to the Exchange the name of every person who shall 
 violate his engagements with him as a broker, after employing him 
 to execute business on commission, or who shall have refused satis- 
 factory settlement of any contract made with or by said broker on 
 his account ; and it shall be the duty of the Secretary to keep a 
 book for the purpose of registering the name of every person re- 
 ported as a defaulter (together with his address), and the name of 
 the broker who shall complain, there to remain until the debt that 
 may have accrued through the medium of the member, in his ca- 
 pacity aa a broker, be liquidated. So long as the name of said de- 
 faulter or defaulters continues registered upon the books of the Ex- 
 change, no member shall execute, or cause to be executed, any busi- 
 ness for him or them, under pain of immediate suspension. 
 
 Suspended members who have not settled are subject to above 
 penalties. 
 
 The stocks listed and called regularly at the American 
 Mining Stock Exchange are as follows. 
 
 Advanced, 
 
 Alice, 
 
 Amie, 
 
 Alta Montana, 
 
 Barcelona, 
 
 Barbee & Walker, 
 
 Bassick, 
 
 Best & Belcher, 
 
 Bear Creek, 
 
 Big Pittsburg, 
 
 Black Jack, 
 
 Bodie, 
 
 Bonanza Chief, 
 
 Bondholder, 
 
 Boston Con., 
 
 Bradshaw, 
 
 Breece, 
 
 Bull Domingo, 
 
 Bulwer, 
 
 Buckeye, 
 
 Bye and Bye, 
 
 Calaveras, 
 
 California, 
 
 Carbonate Hill, 
 
 Central Arizona, 
 
 Cons. Virginia, 
 
 Columbia Cons., 
 
 Con. Pacific, 
 
 Chapparal, 
 
 Climax, 
 
 Crowell, 
 
 Cherokee, 
 
 Chrysolite, 
 
 Mo M Co, 
 
 Dunderberg, 
 
 Dunkin, 
 
 Durango, 
 
 . Eureka Cons., 
 Empire, Utah, 
 Enterprise Cons., 
 Evening Star, 
 Father de Smet, 
 Freeland, 
 Glass Pendery, 
 Great Eastern, 
 Goodshaw, 
 Girard, 
 Globe Copper, 
 Green Mountain, 
 Gold Stripe, 
 Hale & Norcross, 
 Harshaw, 
 Hibernia, 
 Highland Chief, 
 Homestake, 
 Horn Silver, 
 Hortense, 
 Hukill, 
 
 Indian Q'n M. & M. Co, 
 Index, 
 Iron Silver, 
 Leadville Qpns., 
 Little Chief, 
 Little Pittsburg, 
 Lucerne, 
 Mayflower, 
 Mexican, 
 Miner Boy, 
 Michoacau Syndicate, 
 Mono, 
 
 Napa Quicksil'r M.Co 
 Decatur, 
 Navajo, 
 
 Nevada Syndicate, 
 Noonday, 
 Northern Belle, 
 Ontario, 
 Ophir, 
 
 Oriental & Miller, 
 Quartz Creek, 
 Red Elephant, 
 Retort M.& M.Co., 
 Rising Sun, 
 Robinson Cons., 
 State Line No. 1, 
 State Line No. 2, 
 State Line No. 3, 
 State Line No. 4, 
 State Line Nos. 1 & 4, 
 State Line Nos. 2 & 3, 
 Starr Grove, 
 Standard Cons., 
 Silver Cliff, 
 Silver Islet, 
 .Silver King, 
 Sierra Nevada, 
 Stormont, 
 Sutro Tunnel, 
 South Bulwer, 
 South Hite, 
 South Noonday, 
 South Pacific, 
 Taylor-Plumas, 
 Tuscarora, 
 Tombstone, 
 Union Cons., 
 .Van De Water, 
 Virginia Cons., 
 Washington, 
 
 The Mining Stock Market. — ^Notwithstanding the 
 prejudice that existed a few years ago among Eastern capi- 
 talists • against all gold and silver mining enterprises, cir- 
 cumstances combined to aid the persons engaged in pro- 
 moting the development of this great industry in bringing 
 about a change in public sentiment two or three years 
 ago, and it is not to be denied that that prejudice was very 
 quickly and very thoroughly removed from the minds of a 
 large number of the monied men of the country, and a more 
 cordial and welcome support was extended to the mining busi- 
 ness. Millions upon millions of dollars rapidly found their 
 way not only from the bank accounts of wealthy capitalists 
 and speculators, but, as is well known by those who are 
 
 familiar with the inside history of the offices of the Eastern 
 mining corporations, large amounts in the aggregate came 
 from the old stockings and the little savings bank accounts 
 of a much poorer class of people, who were induced by the 
 wonderful stories that were told them to tn' their luck in 
 this wheel of chance. But how has the confidence thus be- 
 stowed been requited? The history of the mining stock 
 market in New York and other eastern cities for the past 
 two or three years, is not what it might have been ; is not 
 what it should have been, and not what good judgment and 
 shrewd business foresight on the part of a few leading ope- 
 rators would have made it. The practice of killing the 
 goose in order to get possession of all the golden eggs 
 at once has been repeated so often by persons who were 
 intimately acquainted with the real condition of the bird 
 and of its capabilities while living, that their course 
 is wholly incomprehensible. Certain it is that better 
 opportunities were never offered to business men in this 
 country. The result of the course that was followed is 
 shown by the present condition of the stock market at the 
 mining stock exchanges in this city. The year 1880 opened 
 full of promise. The possibilities of the future were not to 
 be measured, but there were hosts of sanguine believers in a 
 genuine "boom" that was to last for years. Persons who 
 in the past could not have been induced to admit that they 
 had ever seen a certificate of.mining stock or gazed into the 
 mysterious depths of a mining shaft, were found advocating 
 earnestly the investment of hard-earned sayings in mining 
 shares ; conservative bank presidents gave ear to the state- 
 ments of the promoters and fiinds to the cofiers of mining 
 enterprises ; mining stocks made rapid advances at the ex- 
 changes, and poor men became rich — on paper. Thus the 
 gold and silver mines of the far west were suddenly trans- 
 ported to the Atlantic coast. Had the properties floated 
 upon the eastern market been good dividend payingmines, and 
 had the statements put forth in regard to them been within 
 reasonable distance of the truth, all might have been well. 
 Unfortunately both these conditions were wanting. The 
 first shock to a market that was gaining day by day the 
 confidence of the public came with the failure of Little 
 Pittsburg. It had been a property paying very large divi- 
 dends, but it had been grossly misrepresented and wilfully 
 so, as was glaringly apparent at a later date to the suffering 
 stockholders, who had bought at high figures the very 
 stock of those who deceived them. 
 
 The development of the Little Pittsburg management 
 was the first disclosure of a policy that seems to have been 
 adopted by a few persons early in the introduction of 
 mining properties to the eastern market, and since carried 
 out with only the ordinary variations common to stock job- 
 bery and with a persistency that is at once startling on 
 account of its audacity, and marvelous when the cupidity of 
 the public in furnishing the necessary assistance to its fulfil- 
 ment is considered. The most serious result of this policy 
 was not, however, the loss sustained in the purchase of the 
 manipulated stocks at unreasonable prices, although this 
 loss amounted to many millions of dollars. It was neces- 
 sary to the complete success of the manipulations that the 
 stocks should be listed on the mining stock exchanges and 
 the numerous "deals" that have been made there during 
 the past two years in the stocks of properties about which 
 the most positive assurances from what appeared to be emi- 
 nently trustworthy sources were given, as to their great value, 
 none of which, however, were realized, and the disposition 
 of all stocks, good and bad, to sympathize with the course 
 of the market in its ups and downs, have led to the impres- 
 sion, which has become general, that there are no good 
 stocks listed at the exchanges, or, at least, that it is unsafe 
 to purchase stock so listed. The latter may be true, if the 
 purchase is for speculation only, but it will not do to adopt 
 such a rule, if mining stocks are to be bought for invest- 
 ment. The product of the mines, as shown elsewhere, 
 many of which are listed on one or more of the stock ex- 
 changes of the country, furnishes the most positive confirma- 
 tion of this statement. It is true, nevertheless, that the 
 large transactions reported daily at the mining stock ex- 
 changes, consist principally of purchases and sales of non- 
 dividend paying mines for speculative purposes. This is 
 illustrated by the fact, which is cited only as an illustration, 
 that the sales of the stock of the Standard mine of Bodie 
 
488 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 at the two New York exchanges last year were only 3,320 
 shares and the dividends paid amounted to $975,000 ; while 
 the sales of the Amie were over 2,000,000 shares and it paid 
 no dividend. 
 
 The total number of all stocks dealt in at the two New 
 York exchanges last year, was 191 and the total number of 
 shares reported sold was 43,027.426, but of this amount 28,- 
 636,688 shares or more than 66 per cent, were divided among 
 24 stocks, leaving the business done in the remaining 167 
 stocks at only 14,390,738 shares, in no case in which were 
 the aggregate sales for the year equal to 600,000 shares. The 
 transactions in 12 stocks exceeded 1,040,000 shares each, 
 and in four stocks, 2,000,000 shares each, while the sales of 
 Robinson Consolidated amounted to over 3,178,000 shares. 
 Of these 24 properties, only four paid dividends during the 
 year to their stock holders, ($1,000,000) although the divi- 
 dends paid during this year by companies whose stock were 
 dealt in at the exchanges were about .19,000,000. The fol- 
 lowing table exhibits the closing price on December 31, 
 1880, the highest and lowest prices at which the stock sold 
 during 1881, and the closing price on December 31, 1881, 
 together with the number of shares of each stock sold dur- 
 ing the year at the two New York Mining Exchanges of the 
 24 stocks above referred to : 
 
 
 Closing. 
 
 Mange of prices 
 
 1881. 
 
 Ntime of Co. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1880. 
 
 Highest. 
 
 Lowest. 
 
 Final. 
 
 C3on. Virginia . . 
 
 2.00 
 
 3.30 
 
 .95 
 
 1.05 
 
 Oriental & Miller .... 
 
 
 4.50 
 
 .29 
 
 .35 
 
 State Line 1 & 4 
 
 
 3.95 
 
 .21 
 
 .27 
 
 State Line 2 & 3 . . . 
 
 
 14.00 
 
 .90 
 
 1.60 
 
 Vandewater ..... 
 
 .51 
 
 .77 
 
 .23 
 
 .34 
 
 Amie 
 
 ..50 
 
 .64 
 
 .12 
 
 .15 
 
 Chrysolite ... 
 
 5.50 
 
 8.88 
 
 3.60 
 
 4.00 
 
 Hibernia 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.80 
 
 .17 
 
 .25 
 
 Leafiyille Con 
 
 .50 
 
 2.15 
 
 .44 
 
 .90 
 
 Iiittle Chief .... 
 
 .82 
 
 2.60 
 
 .65 
 
 .88 
 
 Miner Boy 
 
 .69 
 
 2.00 
 
 .05 
 
 .11 
 
 Bald Mountain . 
 
 .10 
 
 .12 
 
 .05 
 
 .05 
 
 Lacrosse .... 
 
 .28, 
 
 .42 
 
 .21 
 
 .25 
 
 Moose 
 
 1.40 
 
 2..30 
 
 .25 
 
 .26 
 
 Bobinsou Con. . . . 
 
 8.00 
 
 14.-0 
 
 196 
 
 2.75 
 
 Boston Con 
 
 .87 
 
 1.50 
 
 .02 
 
 .42 
 
 North Standard . . 
 
 .71 
 
 .00 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 Calaveras 
 
 .19 
 
 .27 
 
 .08 
 
 .06 
 
 Mineral Creek . . . . 
 
 .40 
 
 1.95 
 
 .06 
 
 .06 
 
 Silver Nugget, old . . 
 
 .12 
 
 1.30 
 
 .05 
 
 .05 
 
 Silver Nugget, new 
 
 
 1.25 
 
 .06 
 
 .11 
 
 Copper Knob . . 
 
 .08 
 
 .12 
 
 .05 
 
 .01 
 
 Crowell 
 
 .06 
 
 ..35 
 
 .05 
 
 .05 
 
 Great Eastern 
 
 .23 
 
 .32 
 
 .07 
 
 .10 
 
 All other stoci^s . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total number shires sold in 1881 . 
 " " " " 1880 . 
 
 Increase in 1881 
 
 No. shares 
 sold. 
 
 1,001,266 
 
 2,037,605 
 
 1,294,380 
 
 2,907,040 
 
 1,000,290 
 
 2,024,730 
 
 609,387 
 
 1,131,211 
 
 545,643 
 
 751,034 
 
 1,661,400 
 
 645,960 
 
 848,200 
 
 812,210 
 
 3,178,265 
 
 669,986 
 
 631,390 
 
 657,173 
 
 1,176,680 
 
 898,200 
 
 528,331 
 
 1,673,700 
 
 1^090,160 
 
 962.600 
 
 14,390,738 
 
 43,027,426 
 20,012,825 
 
 23,014,601 
 
 During the early part of the year prices were pretty well 
 mainta'ne'il, as compared with final quotations of the preced- 
 ing year, with a good demand for the better class of securities. 
 The Leadville stocks were then the leading speculative 
 fancies, and a wonderful future was predicted for them, 
 especially for Hibernia. This was followed by a heavy de- 
 cline in the prices of these stocks and subsequently by the 
 listing in April of the State Lines and Oriental and Miller, 
 which soon absorbed a large portion of the speculative trans- 
 actions. It was undoubtedly due in a great measure to the 
 remarkable manipulation of those stocks and the succeeding 
 decline, that the mining stock market became so greatly un- 
 settled during the latter part of the year. Stocks of all kinds, 
 good and bad alike, steadily and persistently declined. 
 This drooping of prices was further aided by the announce- 
 ment that the Robinson Consolidated mine, of Leadville, 
 was exhausted. The fluctuations in that and other stocks 
 are indicated in the table given above. A large percentage 
 of the business reported in the Robinson Consolidated stock 
 was done during the latter part of the year after the dam- 
 aging reports about the property began to be circulated. 
 Assurances had been overwhelming that the stock was one 
 of the safest on the list, when in November the manager of 
 the mine telegraphed that there was neither money nor ore 
 with which to pay the next dividend. At first it was believed 
 
 by many stockholders to be a stock jobbing canard and 
 the price actually advanced ; but it soon became apparent 
 that the telegram cpntained only the truth and only a part 
 of that, and this was followed by a scramble to unload. The 
 Comstocks were feverish and unsettled throughout the year, 
 being affected by the repeated promises of a "boom "and 
 although the promise was not fulfilled, the fluctuations 
 were less violent and the declines not so marked as in many 
 other stocks. The business at the exchanges throughout 
 the year was well distributed, the smallest number of sales 
 being in February and the largest number in December. 
 The tbllowing table shows the number of shares sold at the 
 two exchanges during each month of the year 1881 : 
 
 January . 
 February . 
 March . . 
 April . . 
 May . . . 
 June . . 
 
 . 3,277,800 
 . 2,782,209 
 . 4,105,241 
 . 4,125,022 
 . 4 020,601 
 . 3,536,365 
 
 July . . . 
 August . . 
 September 
 October . 
 November 
 December 
 
 . 2,932,384 
 . 3,646,194 
 . 2,890,220 
 . 3 591,245 
 . 3,560,705 
 . 4,670,540 
 
 The number of shares reported sold from month to month 
 at the New York Board was nearly twice as large as the re- 
 ported transactions at the Americaa Board. The total trans- 
 actions in all stocks dealt in at the two exchanges are shown 
 by the following table which exhibits the closing prices on 
 December 31, 1880, the highest and lowest prices at which 
 the stocks sold during the past year, and the closing prices 
 on December 31, 1881, together with the number of shares 
 of each stock sold during the year at the two mining ex- 
 changes : 
 
 Name of Co, 
 
 Comstoek Lode. 
 
 Alta . . . 
 Belcher .... 
 Best and Belcher 
 
 California 
 
 Con. Virginia . . 
 Crown Point . . 
 Gould and Curry 
 Imperial . 
 
 Julia 
 
 Leviathan . 
 Mexican . . 
 
 Ophir 
 
 Original Keystone 
 Sierra Nevada . 
 Sntro Tunnel . . 
 
 Savage 
 
 Union Con. . . 
 "tellow Jacket . . 
 
 Tuscarora District. 
 
 Belle Isle 
 
 Grand Prize , . ■ . 
 Independence . . 
 
 Navajo 
 
 North Belle Isle . : . 
 Tuscarora . ; . . , 
 
 Others in Nevada. 
 
 Argentft 
 
 Bullion 
 
 Parcelona 
 
 Eureka ....... 
 
 Hale ct Korcross 
 
 Kossuth 
 
 Malachite 
 
 Martin White . . 
 Northern Belle . 
 Oriental & Miller . 
 State Line 1 & 4 . 
 State Line 2 A 3 . . , , 
 State Line No. 1 . 
 State Line No. 4 
 
 Potosi 
 
 Vandewater 
 
 Nevada Syndicate . . 
 
 Leadmlle District. 
 
 Amie 
 
 Big Pittsburg . . ■ . 
 
 Breece 
 
 Chrysolite . . 
 
 Climax 
 
 Dunkin 
 
 Glass Pendory . 
 
 Hibernia 
 
 Iron Silver 
 
 La Plata 
 
 Leadville . . . ■. 
 Little Chief . . ■ . 
 Little Pittsburg . . 
 Miner Boy .... 
 
 Closing Ra^ge of Prices in 1881. 
 
 1880. High. Low. Fi'ial. Adv. Dec: 
 
 8.13 
 1.56 
 2.00 
 
 6.13 
 6.25 
 1.90 
 8.13 
 1.35 
 
 10 38 
 2.10 
 
 .60 
 1.10 
 
 .26 
 1.15 
 
 .45 
 
 .29 
 
 5.60 
 
 .52 
 
 1.60 
 
 1.60 
 
 3.a5 
 
 9.26 
 
 .50 
 
 .82 
 
 2.16 
 
 .09 
 
 7.50 
 3.30 
 
 15.50 
 
 1.70 
 
 3..30 
 
 2.45 
 
 8.38 
 
 .31 
 
 .65 
 
 .40 
 
 14.60 
 
 10.00 
 1.90 
 
 30.00 
 2.60 
 4..35 
 
 20.00 
 6.50 
 
 .80 
 2.00 
 
 .49 
 4.00 
 
 .67 
 
 .52 
 
 .70 
 1.25 
 2.00 
 
 36..50 
 
 4.75 
 
 .18 
 
 1.30 
 
 3.00 
 
 21.60 
 4.60 
 3.95 
 
 14.00 
 4.96 
 8.90 
 4.06 
 .77 
 1-40 
 
 .64 
 
 4.70 
 l.DO 
 8.88 
 .80 
 1.90 
 2.50 
 1.80 
 4.40 
 9.38 
 2.16 
 2.60 
 2.13 
 2.00 
 
 200 
 
 1.20 
 
 7.50 
 
 .29 
 
 .06 
 
 1.30 
 
 5.16 
 
 .06 
 
 .56 
 
 .01 
 
 4.90 
 
 3.80 
 
 l.OO 
 
 5.25 
 
 .90 
 
 l.OO 
 
 6.50 
 
 2.00 
 
 .07 
 .07 
 .10 
 .06 
 .20 
 .03 
 
 .10 
 
 .65 
 
 .10 
 
 10.88 
 
 2.90 
 .10 
 .25 
 .40 
 
 8.00 
 .29 
 .21 
 .90 
 .06 
 .36 
 
 2.25 
 .23 
 ,96 
 
 .12 
 
 .51 
 .68 
 
 3.60 
 .17 
 .38 
 
 1.70 
 .17 
 
 1.66 
 
 6.00 
 .44 
 .fiS 
 
 1..5I] 
 
 4.75 
 
 3.(J0 
 
 7.88 
 
 .32 
 
 1.06 
 
 1.30 
 
 7.63 
 
 .07 
 
 .55 
 
 .36 
 
 9.89 
 
 6.88 
 
 1.60 
 
 9.00 
 
 .90 
 
 1.9(> 
 
 14.75 
 
 3.70 
 
 .15 
 
 .10 
 .10 
 .17 
 .30 
 .16 
 
 .10 
 
 1.25 
 
 .22 
 
 12.26 
 
 4.75 
 
 .12 
 
 .45 
 
 3.00 
 
 8.60 
 
 .36 
 
 .27 
 
 1.60 
 
 .26 
 
 .36 
 
 4.06 
 
 .34 
 
 .99 
 
 .16 
 1.00 
 
 .68 
 4.00 
 
 .21 
 
 .40 
 1.70 
 
 .25 
 2.10 
 9.38 
 
 .90 
 
 .88 
 1.50 
 
 .11 
 
 I 
 
 3.7C 
 '.87 
 
 4.37 
 1.60 
 
 .25 
 
 \:a 
 
 .95 
 
 35 
 l.OO 
 .15 
 .98 
 .15 
 .13 
 
 160 
 
 Jl 
 
 1.10 
 
 1.26 
 1.25 
 
 Shares 
 Son. 
 
 700 
 
 560 
 
 25,9l'5 
 
 417,137 
 
 1,001,266 
 
 500 
 
 1,400 
 
 308,712 
 
 200 
 
 21,850 
 
 28,795 
 
 33,680 
 
 8,925 
 
 58,031 
 
 392,550 
 
 5,560 
 
 50,632 
 
 2,996 
 
 40,275 
 28,720 
 44,940 
 
 183,140 
 33,500 
 
 143,050 
 
 8,900 
 
 1,800 
 
 450,670 
 
 34,416 
 
 860 
 
 3,300 
 
 54,025 
 
 2,425 
 
 24,160 
 
 2,037,605 
 
 1,294,380 
 
 2,907,J40 
 
 66,850 
 
 '380 
 
 1,000,290 
 
 28,530 
 
 2,024,730 
 
 230,228 
 
 41,250 
 
 609,387 
 
 412.147 
 
 282,635 
 
 169,250 
 
 l,l:il,2ll 
 
 62,973 
 
 3,200 
 
 645,648 
 
 761,034 
 
 8,329 
 
 l,5r.l,460 
 
3EB FAST Z. 
 
 WESTERN SCENERY-KANAB CANON-GRAND CANON DISTRICT. 
 
 FROM U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY REPORT. 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 489 
 
 others in Colorado. 
 American Flag . . . . 
 
 Black Jack 
 
 Bald Mountain . . . . 
 
 Bas^iok ......... 
 
 Boulder .... 
 
 Bull Domingo . . 
 Gatalpa .... 
 
 Colorado Prince . . 
 
 Crescent 
 
 Colorado Central . . . 
 
 Caribou 
 
 Carbonate Hall . . . . 
 
 Dunderberg 
 
 Freeland 
 
 Gold Placer .... 
 Highland Chief . . . . 
 Hukill ....... 
 
 Hortense 
 
 Head Centre .... 
 
 Lacrosse 
 
 Lowland Chief 
 
 Lucerne 
 
 May Belle 
 
 May Flower 
 
 Moose ........ 
 
 Moose' Silver ....'. 
 
 Pay Bock 
 
 N. y. & Colorado . . . 
 Red Elephant . . . 
 Robinson Con. 
 
 Silver Cliff 
 
 Unadilla 
 
 Willshire 
 
 Bodie District. 
 
 Bodie 
 
 Boston Con. . . . 
 
 Bulwer 
 
 Bechtel 
 
 Con. Pacific 
 
 Glyndale 
 
 Goodshaw . 
 
 Mono 
 
 North Standard . . . 
 South Bodie . . 
 
 South Bulwer 
 
 South Hite . . . 
 South Hite, new 
 
 Standard 
 
 Tioga 
 
 Others in California. 
 
 Auburn & Rock Creek 
 
 Buckeye 
 
 Calaveras 
 
 Calaveras W. & M. 
 
 Cherokee 
 
 Dardanelles .... 
 Excelsior ..... 
 
 Gold Stripe 
 
 Green Mountain . . 
 
 Mariposa 
 
 Mariposa, pref. .... 
 
 Nana,Q. S 
 
 Noonday . . , . 
 
 Plumas 
 
 Quicksilver .... 
 Quicksilver, pref. 
 
 Rising Sun 
 
 Spring Valley .... 
 
 Arizona. 
 Bye and Bye . . 
 Central Arizona 
 Empire . . . 
 Globe Copper . 
 Harshaw .... 
 Mineral Creek . 
 Old Dominion 
 San Pedro ... 
 Silver King . 
 Silver Nugget . . . 
 Silver Nugget, new . 
 Tip Top .... 
 Tombstone 
 
 MUicellaneous. 
 Alice, Utah ... 
 Albion ... 
 Allouez, Mich. . . . 
 Alta-Montana, Mont. 
 Atlantic Copper, Mich 
 
 American 
 
 Battle Creek, Da. . . 
 
 Bradshaw 
 
 Barbee & Walker, U. 
 Bondholder . . . 
 Bear Creek .... 
 Bbnanza^Chief, Mon. 
 Cosette, N, M. 
 Chapperal . . . 
 Cedar Tree . . . 
 Clarence .... 
 Caledonia, B. H., Da. 
 Cheyenne, Da. . . ■ 
 
 Closing Range of Prices in 1881. 
 
 1880. High. I Low. Fmal. Adv. I Dec. 
 
 .10 
 
 12.00 
 
 .30 
 
 3.40 
 
 .41 
 i.46 
 
 .49 
 
 8.00 
 
 3.80 
 
 .11 
 
 .96 
 
 6.38 
 .87 
 
 1.45 
 .90 
 
 1.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 4.95 
 
 .66 
 
 1.95 
 3.U0 
 
 .31 
 1.65 
 
 .12 
 13.00 
 1.26 
 4.20 
 2.96 
 1 20 
 1.85 
 
 .71 
 3.15 
 
 .48 
 1.60 
 2.00 
 
 .47 
 9.00 
 1.66 
 
 .38 
 4 15 
 ■ .42 
 
 .33 
 
 .17 
 
 .28 
 
 .ii 
 2.30 
 2.50 
 2.05 
 1.35 
 
 .50 
 
 14.6U 
 
 6.88 
 
 .17 
 1.60 
 
 10.63 
 
 1.50 
 
 3.72 
 
 1.90 
 
 I.IO 
 
 .07 
 
 l.-'iO 
 
 2.75 
 
 .60 
 
 .37 
 
 .51 
 
 .60 
 
 1.35 
 
 26.25 
 
 .95 
 
 .40 
 
 .28 
 .27 
 .76 
 2.30 
 7,88 
 6.00 
 3.20 
 7.38 
 9.00 
 9.88 
 5.00 
 2.0 
 2.00 
 12.88 
 67.00 
 3.10 
 4.10 
 
 6.25 
 2.00 
 2.65 
 
 15.50 
 1.95 
 
 12.50 
 4.8J 
 
 23.13 
 1.30 
 1.25 
 6.00 
 6.00 
 
 8.63 
 
 4.011 
 
 3.86 
 
 2.30 
 
 17.50 
 
 .40 
 
 2.75 
 
 3.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 .76 
 
 .87 
 
 .37 
 
 2.76 
 
 .36 
 
 2.90 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.56 
 
 20.00 
 
 .04 
 .26 
 .06 
 .26 
 .03 
 .40 
 
 1.(10 
 .76 
 
 1.00 
 .38 
 .20 
 .08 
 .CO 
 
 1.70 
 .37 
 
 7.00 
 .50 
 .10 
 
 3.26 
 .21 
 .26 
 .06 
 .05 
 .05 
 .25 
 .25 
 .75 
 ..90 
 .08 
 
 1.95 
 
 1.95 
 .06 
 .48 
 
 2.00 
 .02 
 
 2.00 
 .02 
 .05 
 .06 
 .20 
 
 1.65 
 
 as 
 
 •09 
 .16 
 .12 
 18.00 
 .06 
 
 .11 
 
 .02 
 
 .06 
 
 .30 
 
 .60 
 
 6.60 
 
 6.00 
 
 .14 
 
 1.90 
 
 .60 
 
 1.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 .46 
 
 .10 
 
 12.88 
 
 67.00 
 
 .65 
 
 2.25 
 
 .05 
 1.20 
 
 .47 
 1.10 
 9.30 
 
 .06 
 
 7.76 
 
 1.25 
 
 13.76 
 
 .06 
 
 .05 
 2.00 
 3.35 
 
 2.80 
 
 1.75 
 
 2.76 
 
 1.65 
 
 17.00 
 
 .40 
 
 .60 
 
 .46 
 
 1.50 
 
 .69 
 
 .20 
 
 .12 
 
 1.26 
 
 .08 
 
 2.15 
 
 .60 
 
 .50 
 
 .15 
 
 .04 
 .27 
 .06 
 10.00 
 ."7 
 .43 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.00 
 .35 
 
 2.25 
 .22 
 .70 
 
 1.95 
 .38 
 
 7.00 
 .63 
 .14 
 
 3.26 
 .25 
 .29 
 .06 
 .05 
 .95 
 .26 
 .70 
 
 1.60 
 .36 
 .10 
 
 2.76 
 
 2.30 
 .12 
 .48 
 
 2.75 
 .42 
 
 2.35 
 .40 
 .05 
 .07 
 .36 
 
 1.65 
 .02 
 .20 
 .16 
 .36 
 .12 
 19.25 
 .06 
 
 .26 
 
 .03 
 
 .06 
 
 .30 
 
 .32 
 
 7.38 
 
 6.00 
 
 .16 
 
 2.10 
 
 335 
 
 4.60 
 
 6.00 
 
 .46 
 
 .19 
 
 12.83 
 
 66.43 
 
 .65 
 
 3.50 
 
 .05 
 1.55 
 
 .50 
 1.45 
 15.50 
 
 .06 
 
 laoo 
 
 1 
 
 19.25 
 
 .05 
 
 .11 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.45 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.60 
 
 315 
 
 1.95 
 
 17.60 
 
 .40 
 
 2.76 
 
 .61 
 
 2.26 
 
 .70 
 
 .76 
 
 .08 
 
 2.76 
 
 .08 
 
 2.70 
 
 UO 
 
 .60 
 
 .20 
 
 1.40 
 
 .20 
 
 .Of) 
 2.CJ0 
 
 .23 
 2.97 
 
 5.26 
 1..50 
 
 .48 
 
 2.62 
 .45 
 
 1.33 
 
 2.36 
 2.86 
 
 1.; 
 
 i.30 
 
 Shares 
 Sold. 
 
 128,500 
 
 126,990 
 
 646,950 
 
 5,240 
 
 418,400 
 
 339,825 
 
 34,200 
 
 2,800 
 
 26,200 
 
 6,160 
 
 4,220 
 
 64,400 
 
 26,400 
 
 900 
 
 53,060 
 
 1,300 
 
 293,670 
 
 303,830 
 
 3,600 
 
 848,200 
 
 3,im 
 
 260,200 
 
 7,550 
 
 7,390 
 
 812,210 
 
 12,420 
 
 76,300 
 
 2,840 
 
 311,800 
 
 3,178,265 
 
 458,146 
 
 410,300 
 
 121,908 
 
 64,667 
 
 669,986 
 22,545 
 38,117 
 
 232,601 
 300 
 
 156,894 
 1,465 
 
 631 390 
 13,300 
 46.500 
 76,816 
 
 409,725 
 
 3,320 
 
 39,870 
 
 1,200 
 
 406,600 
 
 657,173 
 
 12,620 
 
 218,940 
 
 7,800 
 
 715 
 
 99,310 
 
 160,625 
 
 89,330 
 
 25,825 
 
 1,100 
 
 6,890 
 
 8,426 
 
 100 
 
 700 
 
 124,130 
 
 26,630 
 
 432,500 
 
 75,528 
 
 3,760 
 
 13,600 
 
 300 
 
 1,176,680 
 
 2,350 
 
 23>60 
 
 3,110 
 
 898,200 
 
 528,331 
 
 14,270 
 
 4,876 
 
 6,5,680 
 
 9,400 
 
 2,330 
 
 260,946 
 
 200 
 
 1,600 
 
 3,000 
 
 295,000 
 
 7,600 
 
 69,000 
 
 207,900 
 
 134,600 
 
 22,600 
 
 42,600 
 
 42,460 
 
 15,935 
 
 25,953 
 
 122,560 
 
 Copper Knob, N. C. . . 
 Copper Queen . . . . 
 
 Catskill 
 
 Crowell, N. C 
 
 Calumet 4 Hecla, Mich. 
 Dahlonega, Ga. . . 
 
 Durango, Ga 
 
 Father de Smet, Da. . . 
 
 Exchequer 
 
 Enterprise 
 
 Exchange Silver .... 
 
 Findley, Ga 
 
 Granville N. C 
 
 Great Ea- tern. Da. . . . 
 Homestake, Da. .... 
 
 Index 
 
 Horn Silver, Utah . . . 
 
 Virginia Con 
 
 North Horn Silver . '. . 
 North Horn Silver, Pref. 
 
 Indian Queen 
 
 LeedsiUtah . . 
 
 Legal Tender, Mon. . . 
 Michoacan Syndicate . . 
 
 North State 
 
 Ontario 
 
 Overman 
 
 Rappahannock, Va. . 
 South Pacific . . . 
 
 Silver Islet, Can. . . 
 
 Sonora, Con 
 
 Seaton 
 
 St. Jose (lead,) Mo. . 
 Stormont Utah ... 
 Starr-Grove, Utah . . . 
 Taylor Plumas . . . 
 
 Tabor 
 
 Utah 
 
 Washington 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 Cloiing Range of Prices in 1881. 
 
 1880. High. Low. Final. Adv. I Dec. 
 
 .12 
 
 6 88 
 
 11.00 
 
 .35 
 
 248.60 
 
 .11 
 
 .20 
 
 14.50 
 
 1.45 
 
 .73 
 
 1.00 
 
 .40 
 
 1, 
 
 .32 
 
 28.75 
 
 1.10 
 
 18.d0 
 
 2.90 
 
 2,50 
 
 2.50 
 
 2.65 
 
 .25 
 
 27.00 
 
 12.50 
 
 .54 
 
 39.00 
 
 2.10 
 
 .28 
 
 14.63 
 
 46.88 
 
 .50 
 
 2.30 
 
 7.00 
 
 i.l6 
 
 9.00 
 
 .35 
 
 1.00 
 
 9.00 
 
 1.20l 
 
 .05 
 
 e.r>i) 
 
 6.60 
 
 .05 
 
 216.00 
 
 .04 
 
 .08 
 
 7.00 
 
 .75 
 
 Jl 
 
 1.00 
 
 .20 
 
 .02 
 
 .07 
 
 14.76 
 
 1.00 
 
 9.00 
 
 1.60 
 
 .40 
 
 1.50 
 
 2.60 
 
 .20 
 
 .67 
 
 10.00 
 
 .10 
 
 33.50 
 
 2.00 
 
 .13 
 
 3.00 
 
 29.60 
 
 .75 
 
 2.30 
 
 6.76 
 
 1.00 
 
 3.25 
 
 .06 
 
 .90 
 
 7.26 
 
 .15 
 
 SharCM 
 Sold 
 
 .06 
 
 . 6.60 
 
 ll.lJO 
 
 .06 
 216.00 
 
 .04 
 
 .08 
 7.00 
 
 .90 
 
 .70 
 1.00 
 
 ..30 
 
 .02 
 
 .10 
 . 16.60 
 1.00 
 17.00 
 2.85 
 2.25 
 2.25 
 2.60 
 
 .20 
 2.20 
 12.50 
 
 .10 
 32.60 
 2.10 
 
 .15 
 4.25 
 40.50 
 
 .82 
 2.30 
 7.00 
 1.60 
 3.25 
 
 .07 
 
 .92 
 7.26 
 
 .15 
 
 1,673,700 
 
 1,860 
 
 20,376 
 
 1,090,160 
 
 415 
 
 136,050 
 
 231,622 
 
 3,486 
 
 16,645 
 
 289,500 
 
 100 
 
 116,460 
 
 439,800 
 
 962,61 
 
 1,225 
 
 26,700 
 
 70,579 
 
 40,760 
 
 5,600 
 
 3,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 3,700 
 
 114,700 
 
 240 
 
 132,.500 
 
 445 
 
 460 
 
 318,0.50 
 
 318,260 
 
 4,416 
 
 23,550 
 
 400 
 
 2,700 
 
 34,471 
 
 16 3.59 
 
 122,960 
 
 19,800 
 
 100 
 
 51,900 
 
 . 43,027,426 
 
 Considerable business has also been done in mining stocks 
 at the old New York Stock Eychange, which is devoted 
 principally, however, to dealings in railroad stocks and 
 bonds, government, state, and other securities. An earnest 
 effort was made to secure the listing of the leading mining 
 stocks on that exchange, where, it was claimed, there was 
 sufficient capital to insure a good business. Some of the old, 
 conservative members of that exchange, nevertheless, always 
 opposed the revival of dealing in mining stocks and the 
 members of the New York Mining Stock Exchange, or at 
 least those who were not members of the New York Stock 
 Exchange, did not, of course, favor the movement, as it 
 would necessarily interfere with the business of the Mining 
 Exchange. Following the disastrous results of investments 
 in Little Pittsburg, Leadville, Eobinson Con., and, in fact, 
 almost everything on the list, a mutual understanding was 
 finally arrived at by which, while future transactions in 
 mining stocks at the old New York Exchange were not for- 
 bidden, most of the orders now given to its members for the 
 purchase and sale of mining stocks are executed at the 
 New York Mining Board. When sales are made at the old 
 exchange by persons who are not members of the mining 
 exchange, the prices are necessarily about the same as those 
 at the New York Mining Exchange. There are also occa- 
 sional transactions in the stocks of coal companies at the 
 New York Exchange, these stocks not being listed at the 
 mining exchange. 
 
 The following table exhibits the closing prices in Decem- 
 ber, 1879 and 1880, the range of prices and closing quotations 
 at which sales were made in 1881, together with the number 
 of shares sold in 1881 of the mining stocks dealt in at the 
 New York Stock Exchange : 
 
 ; 
 
 aosing Dec. 
 
 Range prices 
 in 1881. 
 
 •|S 
 
 No. 
 
 
 1879 
 
 1880 
 
 t 
 % 
 
 ft 
 
 1 
 
 Shares soU 
 
 in 
 
 1881. 
 
 American Coal 
 
 ^^ 
 
 50 
 62 
 36 
 .36 
 23 
 
 63 
 
 67 
 46 
 40K 
 
 39 
 
 60 
 53 
 35 
 31 
 10 
 25 
 39 
 
 62 
 
 73' < 
 42V 
 37 ' 
 39'4 
 
 1,900 
 
 10,120 
 
 697,733 
 
 18,347 
 
 5,980 
 
 214,411 
 
 2,000 
 
 
 Consolidated Goal 
 
 Cumberland Coal 
 
 Cameron, Coal 
 
 33 
 
 Elk Lick Coal .■ 
 
 Lehigh and JWilkesbarre . 
 Maryland Coal .... 
 New Central Coal . 
 
 '25' 
 34 
 
 24 
 S9 
 
 ^i 
 
 11^ 
 
 '^^^ 
 
 356,8KQ 
 46,365 
 
490 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 FennsyWaDia Goal .... 
 Caribou. . . . . 
 
 Central . . 
 Deadwood . . 
 
 Excelsior 
 
 Holmestake .... 
 Little Pittsburg .... 
 
 La Plata 
 
 Leadrille , 
 
 Mariposa 
 
 Mariposa, preferre J . 
 Ontario .... 
 Robinson Con. . . 
 Silver Cliff. . . 
 Standard Con. . . . 
 StormoQt . . . 
 Sutro Tunnel ... 
 
 Quicksilver 
 
 Quicksilver, preferred . 
 
 Total number shares sold . 
 
 Closi 'g Dec. 
 
 No. 
 shares sold 
 
 3,076,489 
 
 The New York Stock Exchange— The whole 
 government of the New York Stock Exchange is vested 
 in a Governing Committee, composed of the president 
 and treasurer of the Exchange and of forty members, one- 
 fourth of whom are elected annually for four years. The 
 members of the Governing Committee, together with the 
 vice-president and secretary, are the officers of the Ex- 
 change. Various committees are appointed annually by 
 the Governing Committee among which are the following : 
 A Committee on Finance ; Arrangements ; Admissions ; 
 Securities (other than those of the United States Govern- 
 ment), Government Securities; Stock List; Arbitration; 
 Law ; Printing ; Commissions, and Insolvencies. 
 
 Every member must have a place of business in the 
 vicinity of the Stock Exchange and other than the Stock 
 Exchange where comparisons may be made at any time 
 during the day, after the expiration of one hour from the 
 time of the transaction, and where all notices may be served. 
 Article XIV of the constitution provides for suspended 
 members, re-admissions, claims of creditors, &c., as follows : 
 
 Section 1. — Any member who fails to comply with his contracts, 
 or who becomes insolvent, shall be suspended until he has settled 
 with his creditors. Such member shall immediately inform the 
 President, in writing, that he is unable to meet his engagements ; 
 and it shall be the duty of the presiding officer thereupon to give 
 notice, from the chair, of the suspension of such member. The 
 Secretary shall record the failure of such member in a book kept 
 for that purpose. In default of giving such information, the 
 party; on application for re-admission, shall not be entitled to a 
 reference of his case to the Committee on Admissions, unless two- 
 thirds of the members of the Governing Committee present shall 
 vote in favor of such reference. 
 
 Section 2. — When a suspended member applies for re-admission, 
 he shall be required to furnish to the Chairman of the Committee 
 on Admissions a list of his creditors and a statement of the 
 amounts owing, and the nature of his settlement in each case. 
 The Committee shall give notice, for three consecutive days, 
 through the Presiding Officer of the Stock Exchange, and by 
 posting the same on the bulletin-board provided for that purpose, 
 of the time and place of meeting to consider the application of the 
 suspended member and the claims of creditors. Upon the appli- 
 cant presenting satisfactory proof of his settlement with all his 
 creditors, the Committee shall proceed to ballot for him, in accord- 
 ance with its prescribed rules and regulations. Failing of a re- 
 election, the applicant shall be entitled to be balloted for at any 
 five subsequent regular meetings of the Committee, to be desig- 
 nated by himself. Provided, however, that the six ballotings to 
 which the applicant shall be entitled shall be within one year 
 from the time of his first application for re-admission. If, after 
 six ballotings, as aforesaid, tlie candidate is rejected, he may ap- 
 peal, within sixty days thereafter, to the Governing Committee, 
 whose action in the case shall be final. 
 
 If rejected by the Governing Committee, he shall cease to be a 
 member of the New York Stock Exchange, and his name shall 
 forthwith be stricken from the roll, and his membership shall be 
 disposed of by the Committee on Admissions. The question, on 
 appeal, however, shall not be taken unless at least thirty-five 
 members of the Governing Committee are present, and it shall 
 require an affirmative vote of at lea'^t twenty-nino members to 
 reinstate the applicant. Whenever the Governing Committee 
 
 shall determine upon the report of the Committee on Insolvencies, 
 that the failure of a member has been caused by his doing busi- 
 ness in a reckless and unbusiness-like manner, he may be de- 
 clared ineligible for re-admission, by a majority vote ofthe entire 
 Governing Committee. 
 
 Section 3. — If any suspended member fails to settle with his 
 creditors within one year from the time of his suspension, his 
 membership shall be disposed of by the Committee on Admissions, 
 and the proceeds paid, pro rata, to his creditors in the Stock 
 Exchange. The Governing Committee may, by a vote of two- 
 thirds of the members present, extend the time for settlement of 
 such suspended member. 
 
 No claims growing out of transactions between partners shall 
 be admitted to share in the proceeds of the membership of one of 
 such partners until after the claims filed by other creditors who 
 are members ofthe Exchange shall have been satisfied. 
 
 Section 4. — Any creditor failing to file with the Secretary of 
 the Committee on Admissions a written statement of his claim 
 against a member, prior to the transfer of the right of membership 
 of such member, shall forfeit all right to a distributive share of 
 the proceeds of such membership. 
 
 Section 5. — No member of the Exchange shall be allowed to 
 take as partner any suspended member thereof, during the period 
 of his suspension, or to form a partnership with any insolvent 
 person, or with any person who may have previously been a, 
 member of the Exchange, and against whom any member may 
 hold a claim arising out of transactions made during the time of 
 such membership, and which has not been settled or released in 
 accordance with the rules of the Exchange. 
 
 The rate of commission that the members are required to 
 charge persons or firms who are not members of the ex- 
 change, is i of one per cent, of the par value, of stocks and 
 bonds, bought or sold, and the constitution provides that 
 " any member violating this article, directly or indirectly, 
 shall, upon conviction, cease to be a member of the Stock 
 Exchange, and his membership shall escheat to the Ex- 
 change." 
 
 Should any member be guilty of obvious fraud, of which 
 the Governing Committee shall be the judge, he shall, upon 
 conviction thereof by a vote of two-thirds of the members 
 of said Committee present, be declared by the President to 
 be expelled, and his membership shall escheat to the Ex- 
 change. 
 
 The Exchange is open from 10 o'clock A. M. to 3 P. M. on 
 every business day between which hours dealings by mem- 
 bers within the vicinity of the Exchange are limited. The 
 by-laws provide that " all applications for placing securities 
 on the regular or free list shall be made to the Committee 
 on Stock List, who shall report the same to the Governing 
 Committee, with a full statement of capital, number of 
 shares, resources, &c." 
 
 The Stock Exchange will not call' or deal in any active 
 speculative stock of any company a registry of whose stock 
 is not kept in some responsible bank, trust company, or 
 other satisfactory agency, and which shall not give public 
 notice at the time of establishing such registry of the num- 
 ber of shares so entrusted to be registered, and shall not give 
 at least thirty days' notice through the newspapers, and in 
 writing to the President of the Stock Exchange, of any in- 
 tended increase of the number of shares, either direct or 
 through the issue of convertible bonds, and shall not at the 
 same time give notice ofthe object for which such issue of 
 stock or bonds is about to be made. All delivery of securi- 
 ties must be made before 2-15 P. M., and where deliveries 
 are not made by that time the contract may be closed under 
 the rule ; such notice must be given, however, by 2'30 P. M., 
 and the contract must be closed without delay, unless the 
 time is extended by mutual consent. The by-laws contain 
 the following provisions respecting the deliveries of stock by 
 certificate, the closing of transfer books, &c. : 
 
 In the delivery of stock of which but one transfer in a day is 
 allowed, the receiver shall have the option of receiving said 
 stock by certificate and power irrevocable, in the name of, wit- 
 nessed or guaranteed by, a member of the Exchange, or a firm 
 represented at the Exchange, or by transfer thereof.* 
 
 In all transactions exceeding one hundred shares, where the 
 
 * In the oa«e of Powers of Attorney, or substitution, not executed, or 
 witnessed by a member of the Exchanjte, or a firm represented at the 
 Exchange, the endorsement of a member or such a firm is to be con- 
 sidered a gunrantee of the correctness of the signature ofthe party exe- 
 cuting the Bame.— Resolution Oov. Com., May 24, \ST> 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 491 
 
 delivery is by Certificate and Power, the purchaser shall have 
 the right to require the delivery in Certificates of not more than 
 one hundred shares each. 
 
 Powers of Attorney, or substitution, signed by Trustees, Guar- 
 dians, Infants, Executors, Administrators or Attorneys, shall not 
 be a good delivery. Detached Powers of Attorney, or substitu- 
 tion, must be attested by a Notary Public under seal. 
 
 Whenever the transfer-books of any company shall be closed 
 by any legal impediment, so as to render their being open again 
 uncertain, then the deliveries of Stock of such company, in satis- 
 faction of contracts, shall be made by Certificate and Power of 
 Attorney irrevocable, with notarial acknowledgment and seal, 
 and containing Assignment and bill of sale, the papers to be sat- 
 isfactory to the recipients or passed upon by the Committee on 
 Securities. 
 
 Reclamations for irregularities in deliveries of Stocks or Bonds, 
 when such irregularities do not affect their validity, but only 
 currency in market, will not be considered unless made within 
 ten days from the day of delivery. 
 
 All purchases and sales shall be settled for on the next business 
 day, unless expressed to the contrary, and except in the cases 
 referred to jn the following section, 
 
 All contracts falling due on Sundays, or on such holidays as 
 are observed by the Banks, shall be settled on the preceding day. 
 But where two holidays occur on consecutive days, as where 
 Sunday immediately precedes or follows a legal holiday — con- 
 tracts falling due upon the first of such holidays shall be settled 
 upon the business day immediately preceding, and those matur- 
 ing upon the second of such holidays shall be settled upon the 
 business day next following the same. 
 
 All contracts in Stocks falling due during the regular closing 
 of the transfer-books of any Company, shall be settled at matu- 
 rity by the delivery of a Certificate and Power of Attorney, as 
 defined in Article IX, of the By-Laws ; and contracts, at the 
 option of the buyer or seller, may be notified for settlement, as if 
 the books were open ; and in case the books are closed for a div- 
 idend, the party entitled thereto shall receive a due-bill therefor, 
 signed or endorsed by the seller of the stock ; but the party en- 
 titled to the dividend shall have the right to require a deposit in 
 a Trust Company, payable to the joint order of the purchaser and 
 seller, of the amount of such due-bill. 
 
 No contracts for the purchase or sale of Securities beyond sixty 
 days, shall be made in the Stock Exchange. 
 
 In all contracts on time over three days, made at the option of 
 the buyer or seller, one day's notice shall be given before Securi- 
 ties can be delivered or demanded, and such notice shall be given 
 at or before 2 o'clock, p. m. 
 
 In any contract, either party may call, at any time during the 
 continuance of the same, for a mutual deposit of ten per cent. 
 And whenever the markei price of the Securities shall change, so 
 as to reduce the margin of said deposit either way below five per 
 cent., either party may call for a deppsit sufficient to restore the 
 margin to ten per cent., and this may be repeated as often as the 
 margin may be so reduced. In gJl cages where deposits are called 
 before 2 o'clock p, m.J they sfiati be made at or before 2J 
 o'clock p. M., the same day. If called after 2 o'clock P. 
 M., they shall be made at or before 11 o'clock a. m., on the 
 following day. 
 
 In case either party shall fail to comply with a demand for a 
 deposit, in accordance with the provisions of this article, the 
 party calling, after having given due notice, may report the de- 
 fault to an Officer of the Exchange, who shall repurchase or resell 
 the Security forthwith in the Exchange, and any difference that 
 may accrue shall be paid over to the party entitled thereto This 
 notice shall be either personal or shall be left in writing at the 
 office of the party to be notified, or in case he has no office, then 
 by public announcement whenever the Exchange may be in ses- 
 sion. Where there is a difference of opinion as regards the place 
 of deposit, for the security of purchases and sales, the same shall 
 be made in the New York Life and Trust Company. 
 
 Should any member neglect to fulfill his contract on the day it 
 becomes due, the party or parties contracting with him shall, 
 after giving notice, as required by Section 2, of the preceding 
 Article, employ an Officer of the Board to close the same forth- 
 with in the Exchange by purchase or sale, as the case may re- 
 quire, unless the price of settlement has been agreed upon by 
 the contracting parties. In case of a failure of a creditorto 
 close the contract as above, the price shall be fixed by the price 
 current at the time such contract ought to have been closed 
 under the rule. In all cases Vhere an Officer may be directed 
 to buy or sell Securities under this rule, the name of the mem- 
 ber defaulting, as well as that of the member giving the order, 
 shall be announced. 
 
 Any member uniting, directly or by a partner, with any or- 
 
 ganization where Stocks, Bonds, &c,, are dealt in, shall cease to 
 be a member of this Exchange. This rule shall not apply to 
 the N. Y. Mining Stock Exchange while its transactions are 
 limited to the class of Securities at present dealt in at that 
 Exchange. Any member of the Exchange dealing with a person 
 not a member, in the rooms of the Exchange, shall be subject 
 to the penalty of suspension for not less than sixty days, nor 
 more than twelve months. 
 
 No communications having a tendency to influence the mar- 
 ket shall be read to the Exchange without the consent of the 
 President or Presiding Officer. 
 
 No member shall introduce a stranger on the floor of the Ex- 
 change unless by permission of the President or Presiding Officer. 
 Following are the forms usually adopted by dealers in privi- 
 leges : 
 
 "PUT." 
 
 New Yoek, 18 
 
 Fob VaIue Received, the Bearer may PELIVER ME . 
 
 .... Shares of the ... Stock ol the 
 
 ... Company, 
 
 at . per cent., any time 
 
 in days from date. 
 
 The undersigned is entitled to all dividends or extra dividends declared 
 during the time. 
 
 Expires . .18 
 
 M. 
 
 " CALL." 
 
 New Yohk . 
 
 . .18 
 
 for . 
 
 Fob VAifE Received, the Bearer may CALL ON ME 
 
 .Shares of the Stoelc of the 
 
 Company, 
 
 at per cent., at any time 
 
 in days from date. 
 
 The bearer is entitled to all dividends or extra dividends declared dur- 
 ing the time. 
 
 Expires 18 
 
 M. 
 
 "STRADDLE." 
 
 New Yobk 18 
 
 Foe Vaitje Received, the Bearer may CALL on the 
 undersigned for . . . . . Shares of the 
 
 at." . percent., any time in 
 
 days from dat*^. 
 
 OK, THE BEARER MAY, at his option, DELIVER the same to the un- 
 dersigned at per cent., any time within the time nameH. 
 
 ALL DIVIDENDS OE EXTRA DIVIDENDS declared during the time 
 are to go with-the stock in either ease, and this instrument is to be sur- 
 rendered upon the stock being either called or delivered. 
 Expires : . 
 
 The present officers of the New York Stock Exchange 
 
 President. 
 F. N. Lawrence. 
 
 Chairman. 
 James Mitchell. 
 
 Secretary. 
 B. O. White. 
 
 Vice President. 
 F. K. Sturgis. 
 
 Vice Chairman. 
 Alexander Henriques. 
 
 Trea^irer. 
 D. C. Hays. 
 
 BuUioa Production for 1882. — The following com- 
 panies have reported for the first six months of this year 
 the amount of bullion set opposite their names. 
 
 *AIice, o. 8 
 
 Alta-Montana, o . . . . 
 Barbee & Walker, s . . 
 
 Betty O'Neal, s 
 
 *Blaek Bear, c . . . . 
 
 Bodie, a. s 
 
 ^Boston & Montana, a . 
 *Caledonia, o . . . 
 
 ♦Caribou, s 
 
 Central Arizona, s . . 
 
 *Christy, s 
 
 *Chrysolite, s. l . . . . 
 *Cons. Bobtail, a. . . . 
 
 ♦Contention, s 
 
 Crismon-Mammouth, g . 
 
 *Cu3ter, G. 8 
 
 *Deadwood-Terra, a . . 
 *Derbec Blue G-rav., o . 
 
 
 Mont . . 
 
 Utah . 
 Nev 
 Cal. . 
 (( 
 
 Mont. 
 Dak . 
 Colo . 
 Ariz . 
 Utah. 
 Colo . 
 
 '(' 
 Ariz . 
 Utah . 
 Idaho 
 Dak . 
 Cal. . 
 
 
 ([375,905 
 
 115,464 
 
 52,906 
 
 31,893 
 
 15,650 
 
 225,021 
 
 «5,p39 
 
 23,116 
 
 68 430 
 
 ^7,287 
 
 133,606 
 
 265,$72 
 
 84,177 
 
 808,329 
 
 54,729 
 
 489,642 
 
 328,851 
 
 t Official. 
 
492 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 *Eureka Con., g. s. l . 
 Evening Star, s. l . . 
 Father de Smet, G . . 
 Girard, s . . . . 
 Grand Central, s . 
 Head Center, s . 
 *HomeBtake, o , . . 
 Horn-Silver, s. l . 
 *Hope, G . . . 
 Idaho, G . . . . 
 ^Indian Queen, g , 
 Inyo Cons, G . 
 Ingersoll, b . 
 Iron Silver, s . . . . 
 *Joeuista, s 
 
 *tLeedsj s 
 
 Little Pittsburg, s. l . 
 Manhattan, b . . 
 MorniDff Star, s. L . 
 Mount Diabolo, s. . 
 Noonday, g . . 
 North Noonday, g . 
 Northern Belle, s . . 
 *JOntario, s. l . . 
 Ophir, g. 8 . . . 
 
 Pascoe, B 
 
 Robert E. Lee, s . 
 Savage, s . . . . 
 ♦Silver Bow, g. s . 
 Silver King, s . 
 Standard, a . . 
 Star, s . . . 
 Stormont, s 4 . . 
 
 Syndicate, g 
 
 Tintic M, and M. Co . 
 *Tip Top, 8 . . . 
 ♦Tombstone, g. s . 
 Union Con., s . 
 Virginia, s . . . 
 
 Nev . 
 Colo . 
 Dak . 
 Ariz . 
 
 Dak. 
 Utah. 
 Mont. 
 Cal. . 
 Nev . 
 Cal. . 
 Ariz . 
 Colo . 
 Mex . 
 Utah. 
 Colo. 
 Nev . 
 Colo. 
 Nev . 
 Cal. 
 
 Nev . 
 
 Utah. 
 
 Nev . 
 
 Utah. 
 
 Colo. 
 
 Nev 
 
 Mont. 
 
 Ariz . 
 
 Cal. 
 
 Nev 
 
 Utah . 
 
 Cal. . 
 
 Utah. 
 
 Ariz . 
 
 Nev . 
 Ariz . 
 
 668,870 
 642,5 aO 
 208,854 
 
 90,964 
 598,646 
 
 14,860 
 
 602,656 
 
 1,806,610 
 
 113,110 
 
 313,513 
 
 97,906 
 
 77,000 
 
 90,000 
 641,328 
 J301,600 
 
 11,983 
 105,585 
 
 64,300 
 a3S,126 
 179, J4S 
 
 60,480 
 
 61,992 
 
 893,562 
 
 1,380,059 
 
 22,059 
 4,.575 
 292,550 
 3,600 
 124,654 
 169 087 
 601,200 
 
 33,772 
 166,088 
 
 19,429 
 
 26,634 
 174,383 
 {690,286 
 217,623 
 143,200 
 
 Total amiunt of shipments to date $14,003,318 
 
 * Official, t Net. J Assay value. G. Gold. S. Silver. L. Lead. 
 
 The following companies have levied assessments and paid 
 or declared dividends as indicated: 
 
 Nabie asd Location of 
 Company. 
 
 Ali e, Mon 
 
 Amie Con., Co. . . 
 Atlantic, Mich. 
 
 Argenta, Ne 
 
 Barbee and Walker, Ut. 
 
 Bassick, Co 
 
 Belle Isle, Ne 
 
 Black Bear, Ca. 
 
 Bslkner, Ne 
 
 Bodie Cons., Ca. . . . 
 Boston and Mon, Mon. 
 
 Breece, Co 
 
 Bulwer, Ca 
 
 California, Ne. . . . 
 Cal. and Hecla. Mich. . . 
 Caribou, Con., Co. . . . 
 Carolina Q'n, N. C. 
 Castle Creek, Id. 
 
 Catalpa, Co 
 
 Chrysolite, Co. . . 
 Climax, Co. . . 
 Cons. G. Mg., Ga. . 
 Cons. Va., Nt>. . . 
 Copper Queen, Ar. 
 Crown Point, Ne. 
 D'dw'd-Terra, Dk. , 
 Dunkin, Co . . . 
 Eureka Cons., Ne. . 
 Evening Star, Co. . 
 Excelsior, Ca. . . 
 Fa. de Smet, Dk. . 
 Findley, Ga. . . . 
 Freeland, Co. . . . 
 Glass-Pend., Co. . . 
 Gold Stripe, Ca. . . 
 Gold and Curry, Ne. 
 Grand Prize, Ne. . 
 Great Eastern, Dk. 
 Gr. Mountain, Ca. . 
 Hale and Nor., Ne. 
 Hall-And's'n, N. S. 
 Hecla Con., Mon. 
 
 Assessments. 
 
 >3 
 
 65 
 
 16 
 
 2510 
 
 125 
 
 7:15 
 
 * 
 
 2673 
 * 
 * 
 
 100 
 * 
 30« 
 
 3422 
 370 
 
 
 May '82 
 Sep. '79 
 Apl. '82 
 Dec. '81 
 
 Dec. '77 
 Jun. '82 
 
 Jan. '82 
 
 Feb. '82 
 
 May '711 
 
 Jan. '82 
 
 May '82 
 Jun. '82 
 
 May '82 
 
 1 00 
 1 00 
 
 D[v 
 
 
 ■« 
 
 401) 
 
 306 
 
 140 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 25 
 
 300 
 
 865 
 
 16397 
 
 1200 
 
 28U 
 
 2 
 
 90 
 
 31.320 
 
 21860 
 
 50 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 180 
 
 1600 
 
 ISO 
 
 56 
 
 42930 
 
 375 
 
 11688 
 
 t740 
 
 200 
 
 1175 
 
 875 
 
 470 
 
 8 
 
 60 
 
 26 
 
 76 
 
 3826 
 
 460 
 
 10 
 
 212 
 
 1698 
 
 7 
 
 342 
 
 
 Dec. 
 
 May 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Deo. 
 
 Apl. 
 
 Apl. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 May 
 
 Feb. 
 
 July 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 July 
 
 July 
 
 May 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 July 
 
 Aug. 
 
 July 
 
 Jan. 
 
 July 
 
 Jiin. 
 
 July 
 
 July 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 July 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 July 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Apl. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Apl. 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 2 00 
 20 
 10 
 25 
 25 
 30 
 
 1 00 
 25 
 10 
 1 
 10 
 50 
 
 1 00 
 10 
 02 
 
 3 
 20 
 60 
 30 
 04 
 50 
 40 
 
 2 00 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 1 00 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 15 
 16 
 
 '26 
 01 
 
 6 00 
 05 
 50 
 
 Name and Location of 
 Company. 
 
 Hibernia, Co . . 
 Homestake, Dk. 
 Horn-Silver, Ut. . . . 
 Hukill, Co. . . 
 Indep., Ne. . . 
 In. Queen, Ne. . . . 
 
 Inyo, Ca 
 
 Iron Mlver, Co. . . 
 Jocuista, Mex. . 
 La Plata. Co . . . 
 Leadville C, Co. . . 
 Leeds, Ut. . . . 
 Little Chief, Co. . . 
 Little Pitts., Co. . 
 Martin White, Ne. . . 
 
 Moose, Co 
 
 Morning Star, Co. . . 
 Navajo, ^e. ..... 
 
 N. Y. and Colo., Col . 
 N'h'n Belle, Ne.. . . 
 
 N. Belle Isle, Ne. . . 
 
 Ontario, Ut 
 
 Ophir, Ne 
 
 Osceola, Mich. . . . 
 
 Plumas, Ca 
 
 Quicks. Pref., Ca. 
 '* Com., Ca. 
 Quincy, Mich. . . . 
 
 Rising Sun, Ca. 
 Robinson C, Co! . 
 Robt. E. Lee, Co. . . 
 Savage, Ne. . . 
 Sierra Nev., Ne. . 
 Silver King, Ar. . . . 
 
 Silver King, Co. . . 
 Socorro, N. Mex. ; . 
 Spr'g Valley, Ca. 
 Standard, Ca. . 
 Starr-Grove, Ne. . . . 
 
 Stormont, Ut. . . . 
 
 St. Joseph, Mo. 
 
 Tip Top, Ar. ..... . 
 
 Tombstone, Ar. . 
 
 Vizina, Ar 
 
 Yellow Jacket 
 
 Shares. Assessments. 
 
 300 
 100 
 400 
 200 
 100 
 126 
 100 
 500 
 100 
 200 
 400 
 60 
 200 
 200 
 100 
 200 
 100 
 100 
 SO 
 60 
 100 
 150 
 100 
 60 
 100 
 43 
 67 
 40 
 150 
 200 
 500 
 112 
 100 
 100 
 600 
 2.5 
 200 
 100 
 200 
 200 
 100 
 100 
 600 
 200 
 120 
 
 26 
 100 
 
 26 
 5 
 100 
 2 
 5 
 
 20 
 100 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 100 
 
 60 
 100 
 100 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 100 
 
 20 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 26 
 
 10 
 100 
 100 
 
 25 
 6 
 
 60 
 600 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 2 
 100 
 1 
 100 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 100 
 25 
 25 
 100 
 
 3 
 
 , s a 
 
 Apl. '78 
 
 5664 
 4950 
 
 170 
 
 Feb. '82 
 Nov. '79 
 
 Jun. '82 
 
 May '82 
 
 Mar. '82 
 
 July '82 
 
 Blur. '82 
 
 Jun. '82 
 May '82 
 
 Feb. '82 
 
 D1VIUEND8. 
 
 el 
 
 15 
 1 00 
 
 60 
 I 00 
 
 180 
 
 1612 
 
 1400 
 
 210 
 
 225 
 
 360 
 
 45 
 
 700 
 
 350 
 
 660 
 
 210 
 
 78 
 
 700 
 
 1360 
 
 90 
 
 660 
 
 490 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 2200 
 
 30 
 
 4476 
 
 1596 
 
 710 
 
 151 
 
 664 
 
 151 
 
 3230 
 
 62 
 
 575 
 
 50 
 
 4460 
 
 102 
 
 1000 
 
 60 
 
 4 
 
 60 
 
 3825 
 
 160 
 
 155 
 
 350 
 
 100 
 
 1360 
 
 140 
 
 2184 
 
 cs § ? 
 
 July 
 
 July 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Dee. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 July 
 
 Apl. 
 
 Jun. 
 
 May 
 
 July 
 
 Jun. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 July 
 
 Mar. 
 
 July 
 
 Mar. 
 
 July 
 
 Apl. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 July 
 
 Jan. 
 
 July 
 
 July 
 
 Jun. 
 
 Jun. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 May 
 
 Nov. 
 
 July; 
 
 Jun. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 July 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 July 
 
 Jun. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Jun. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Apl. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 40 
 40 
 75 
 10 
 25 
 05 
 06 
 20 
 
 1 50 
 10 
 05 
 15 
 60 
 50 
 30 
 25 
 25 
 26 
 10 
 60 
 16 
 50 
 
 1 00 
 
 1 00 
 8 
 
 6 00 
 40 
 
 5 00 
 
 'K 
 
 60 
 
 10 
 
 3 00 
 
 1 00 
 26 
 10 
 
 % 
 25 
 75 
 10 
 05 
 20 
 20 
 10 
 10 
 
 2 50 
 
 * Non-assesbable. f The Deadwood has previously paid. 
 
 Little more need be said of the mining stock market for 
 the first six months of 1882, than that it was a continuation 
 of the transactions of the preceding year. There were far- 
 ther heavy declines in nearly everything on the list, with 
 very active trading in a few of the speculative favorites, the 
 prices of which in some cases went practically out of sight. 
 There were few new properties introduced, and with one 
 or two exceptions the active business was confined to the 
 manipulation of stocks listed prior to the first of last Jan- 
 uary. The total sales reported for the six months under re- 
 view, reached the unprecedented figures of 28,211 ,052 shares, 
 but of this business 20,262,838 shares were distributed 
 among 29 stocks and over one-half the latter number among 
 three stocks. The sales of State Line Nos. 2 and 3 alone 
 were over 5,000,000 shares, and of South Pacific, over 4,000,- 
 000 shares, which is much the largest business in any single 
 stock that has ever been reported for a whole year in the 
 previous history of the mining exchanges. It must not be 
 inferred, however, that these figures represent the purchases 
 made for the public. Never before since the revival of deal- 
 ings in mining securities on the eastern coast have the pur- 
 chasers for investors and non-professional speculators, been 
 as light as during the past six months. There were many 
 sales of some of the active stocks made for the account of 
 deluded inve.stors who listened to the flattering reports that 
 were circulated about those properties during the past year, 
 and, by their purchases then, furnished the promoters of 
 those gigantic swindles with an opportunity to market their 
 stocks at high figures, but the purchases at the reduced 
 quotations have been made principally by the professional 
 manipulators. A large percentage of the reported transac- 
 tions is also to be credited to " washed " sales, or dealings 
 between brokers for the purpose of advancing or forcing 
 down prices, without holding each other responsible for the 
 differences thus established. 
 
 Perhaps the best history of the market is furnished by 
 giving the course of prices of a few of the most active 
 stocks, for the rest, good and bad alike, followed those lead- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING IISTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 493 
 
 era, nor was it possible in many cases to arrest the down- 
 ward tendency of the stocks of the old and regular dividend 
 paying properties. The State Lines which played a very 
 active part in the market during a considerable portion of 
 
 1881, were still prominent, especially Nos. 2 and 3, at the 
 opening of the current year. After closing last year at 
 $1.70, Nos. 2 and 3 by the middle of February was down 
 to 66 cents from which there was a slight rally, and it 
 did not break again below 65 until the latter part of March 
 when it sold at 58 cents, and on April -1st, at 50 cents and 
 the next day at 39 cents. Again it rallied to 69 and then 71, 
 and with sales for the month of over 1,700,000 shares it 
 hovered between 60 and 70 cents until April 24th, when the 
 quotations were 64 @ 39 @ 43 cents with sales of 152,000 
 shares for the day ; before the month closed it touched 32 
 cents, and on April 1st, 29 cents. It then took another 
 stand at 30@33 cents until May 19th, when it sold at 22 
 cents. Another drop came on May 26th, when it fell to 18 
 cents. On June 4th it touched its lowest price — 13 cents, 
 and it has since rallied to 34 cents and closed on June 30th 
 at 30 cents. It was the evident policy of the manipulators 
 of this stock, instead of letting it down gradually to force it 
 lower suddenly, a step at a time, and then furnish the support 
 necessary to hold it there long enough to induce, if possible, 
 the unwary fish to bite again, in the hope of recovering some of 
 that which had been lost. It is not probable, however, that 
 they were ordinarily successful in their operations. State 
 Line Nos. 1 and 4 followed closely in the wake of Nos. 2 and 
 3, but reached its lowest point — 05 cents— in the latter part of 
 May, and has since sold at 15 cents, closing at 10 cents. 
 
 Another wild speculative stock has been South Pacific 
 which closed last year at $4.25, and during the early part of 
 
 1882, was marked up to $8.25. The stock was extremely 
 feverish, undergoing wide fluctuations from day to day, and 
 by the middle of February was selling at $2.45 ; it did not 
 go below $2.35 unt'l March 14, when the quotation was $2 35 
 @ $1.30, and on the day following it fell to $1.00. After 
 selling at 98 cents, it rallied by the close of the month to 
 $1.45, but early in April it fell back again to 99 cents, and 
 wa? tolerably, or at least comparatively, steady at about 
 $1.00 until April 19, when it sold at $1.05 @ 70 cents. At 
 this decline it again halted until May 3, when the transac- 
 tions were reported at 65 @ 20 cents, from which it fell later 
 to 07 cents, and closed at 09 cents on June 30. The sales 
 for the six months were over 4,000,000 shares. It is not 
 known that the stock has any intrinsic value. 
 
 Robinson Con., which proved to be an unusual disappoint- 
 ment to a great many people last year, including some 
 prominent members of the old New York Stock Exchange, 
 took an upward turn during the latter part of February, ad- 
 vancing to $3.65, and on March 6 it sold at $4.50, from which 
 it declined spasmodically, having frequent, sudden fluctua- 
 tions, until on May 31, it was down to $1.05, and on June 4, to 
 84 cents. It has since fluctuated between the price last men- 
 tioned and $1.05. Moose has served on several occasions as the 
 tool of stock-brokers in manipulating a " corner." In March 
 and April it advanced from 95 cents to $1.80. On May 7 it 
 touched $2.00, an! then stood at $1.90 @ 2.00,until May 11, 
 when it sold at $2.85, and at 50 cents, closing at 60 cents, The 
 ' ' corner " was broken, and, also, as it subsequently proved, the 
 leading operator in the stock. On May 12 it sold at 80 @ 28 
 cents, audit has been dull since that time, and as low as 11 cts., 
 but closed at ^20 cents. Moose Silver fell from 30 cents to 01 
 cent on May 11, and has since recovered to 30 cents. North 
 State has gone out of sight, declining to 01 cent in May, and 
 passing June without sales, but the reported transactions for 
 the last six months foot up 243,300 shares, and during that 
 time the stock sold at 14 cents ; last' year it was as high as 
 54 cents. 
 
 Among the more recent fancies are Decatur, Quartz 
 Creek and Navajo. The stock last mentioned was dull until 
 about the middle of March, when it sold at 18 cents. On 
 March 28 it was up to 57 cents, and on March 30 to $1.10. 
 It then went back suddenly tOj,65 cents, and remained dull 
 again between that price and $1.00, until the latter part of 
 April, when it rose quickly to $2.00, and for some time was 
 extremely feverish between $1.35 and $2.00. On May 18 it 
 sold at 2.45, from which it persistently advanced to $4.75, at 
 which it sold on June 29, and at ^.20 on June 30. The 
 sales have not been as large as of some of the other prominent 
 
 stocks, amounting only to 118,110 shares; Decatur took its 
 position on the stock board in March, selling at 90 cents, 
 from which it rose to $2.50, by June 6, but two days later it 
 was selling again as low as 60 cents, and most of the time 
 since that date it has fluctuated between $1.00 and 90 cents. 
 The dealings in Quartz Creek have been confined to the 
 American board, where it sold in February and March at 
 20 @ 15 cents. It then took an upward course under the 
 influence of unadulterated manipulation, reaching 50 cents by 
 May 18, and 85 cents on June 11 ; it has since sold at 50 cents 
 and at 65 cents ; during May and June the reported trans- 
 actions amounted to 285,000 shares. 
 
 As an illustration of how little business has been done in 
 the stocks of the strong dividend paying mines that are 
 known to be Al, it is only necessary to cite the sales of On- 
 tario, which, for the six months under review, were 60 shares 
 at an advance of 25 cents ; Standard, 5,400 shares, during 
 which the price declined from $19,25 to $13.50, following the 
 stoppage of the works for a short time for repairs. The reg- 
 ular dividend was not stopped, however, and the stock closed 
 at $18.50, a net decline of 50 cents ; Copper Queen, 400 shares 
 at $6.50 @ 5.25, closing at $5.50, a decline of 11.00, and La 
 Plata, 50 shares at $10.00, a gain of 62 cents. With a very 
 few exceptions the lowest prices were reached in May or the 
 early part of June, since which time, if there was any life 
 left in the stock, there has been an apparently healthy im- 
 provement. For the last two or three weeks in June, brokers 
 report more inquiry from the public, and there is something 
 more than a faint hope that the " bottom " has been reached. 
 During the past six months the dealings at the mining ex- 
 changes have been confined to 156 stocks against 191 stocks 
 traded in last year. A few stocks are now in the list that 
 were not there at the close of 1881, and a number of stocks 
 included in last year's list have been dropped. Of the 156 
 stocks referred to 105 show declines, as compared with De- 
 cember 31, 1881, ranging from. 01 cent to $41.66, and 38 
 stocks are higher than they were six months ago, the great- 
 est advance being $3.63. Taking the past six months, the 
 largest business was done in May and the smallest in January. 
 
 A comprehensive idea of the market may be obtained from 
 the following table, showing the closing prices at which sales 
 were made last year, the highest, lowest and final prices for 
 the first six months of the current year, the advances or de- 
 clines, and the number of shares reported sold of each stock 
 dealt in during those six months : 
 
 Advance . . 
 
 Albion 
 
 Alice 
 
 Allouez . 
 Alpha .... 
 Alta Montana . . 
 
 Amie 
 
 American Flag . . 
 Argenta .... 
 Bald Mountain . 
 Barbee & Walker . 
 Barcelona . . 
 Baasick .... 
 Bear Creek . . . 
 
 Beauce 
 
 Bechtel 
 
 Belcher .... 
 Belle Isle . 
 Belvidere .... 
 Best & Belcher . . 
 Big Pittsburg 
 Black Jack . . 
 Bodie .... 
 Bonanza Chief 
 Bondholder . . . 
 Boston Con. . . . 
 Boulder Con. . . . 
 Bradjihaw 
 
 Breece 
 
 Bufkeye . . . 
 Bull Domingo . . 
 
 Bullion 
 
 Bulwer ... 
 Bye & Bye . . 
 Calaveras .... 
 Calaveras, W * M. 
 Caledonia, B. H. . 
 California . . 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 RANGE OP PRICES. | 
 
 
 i 
 
 Jan. 1, 
 
 oJtily 
 
 1, 1882 
 
 it 
 
 » 
 
 
 
 tt 
 
 g 
 
 .J 
 
 _, 
 
 1 
 
 S s" 
 
 ■g 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 
 
 |l 
 
 1 
 
 t 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 .59 
 
 .45 
 
 .57 
 
 
 3.50 
 
 3.00 
 
 1.70 
 
 1.70 
 
 — 1.80 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.35 
 
 2.25 
 
 2.50 
 
 — .60 
 
 3.15 
 
 3.56 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.00 
 
 — .15 
 
 
 1.15 
 
 1.15 
 
 116 
 
 
 1.95 
 
 l.W 
 
 .58 
 
 .58 
 
 -1.37 
 
 .15 
 
 .40 
 
 .16 
 
 .20 
 
 + .05 
 
 .01 
 
 .12 
 
 .04 
 
 .05 
 
 + .01 
 
 .10 
 
 .26 
 
 .10 
 
 .12 
 
 + .02 
 
 .05 
 
 .10 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 — .04 
 
 2.26 
 
 2.00 
 
 .10 
 
 .20 
 
 — 2.05 
 
 .22 
 
 .23 
 
 .06 
 
 .08 
 
 — .14 
 
 10.00 
 
 7.50 
 
 5.00 
 
 7.50 
 
 — 2.50 
 
 .75 
 
 .60 
 
 .60 
 
 .60 
 
 — .15 
 
 
 2.00 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.45 
 
 
 .40 
 
 .67 
 
 .20 
 
 .20 
 
 — .20 
 
 3.00 
 
 1.60 
 
 .49 
 
 .49 
 
 — 2.51 
 
 .15 
 
 .70 
 
 .04 
 
 .70 
 
 + .56 
 
 
 .44 
 
 .12 
 
 .12 
 
 
 Y.88 
 
 7.76 
 
 3.26 
 
 600 
 
 — 2.88 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.10 
 
 .55 
 
 .55 
 
 — .46 
 
 .27 
 
 .30 
 
 .24 
 
 .30 
 
 -1- .03 
 
 2.75 
 
 6.00 
 
 2.25 
 
 4.88 
 
 -1-2.13 
 
 .08 
 
 .36 
 
 .03 
 
 .03 
 
 — .06 
 
 .70 
 
 .09 
 
 .02 
 
 .06 
 
 — .65 
 
 .42 
 
 .51 
 
 .01 
 
 .23 
 
 — .19 
 
 .1)7 
 
 .07 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 — .06 
 
 .64 
 
 .68 
 
 .07 
 
 .07 
 
 — .67 
 
 .68 
 
 .33 
 
 .25 
 
 .25 
 
 — .43 
 
 .03 
 
 .16 
 
 .02 
 
 .OS 
 
 
 
 .43 
 
 .46 
 
 .09 
 
 .13 
 
 - .30 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.00 
 
 .75 
 
 .86 
 
 — .40 
 
 2.85 
 
 2.95 
 
 1.70 
 
 1.90 
 
 — .95 
 
 .05 
 
 .12 
 
 .02 
 
 .02 
 
 — .03 
 
 .06 
 
 ■15 
 
 .14 
 
 .09 
 
 -t- .03 
 
 .30 
 
 .6( 
 
 .24 
 
 .27 
 
 — .03 
 
 .50 
 
 1.25 
 
 .4C 
 
 .66 
 
 + .05 
 
 Ai 
 
 .43 
 
 .06 
 
 .14 
 
 — .18 
 
 78,200 
 
 2,740 
 
 39,785 
 
 1,100 
 
 100 
 
 84,890 
 
 1,492,505 
 
 2,900 
 
 1,800 
 
 18,800 
 
 30O 
 
 350,800 
 
 100 
 
 1,300 
 
 68,120 
 
 1,100 
 
 750 
 
 18,120 
 
 7,500 
 
 23,110 
 
 32,750 
 
 2,200 
 
 29,740 
 
 28,100 
 
 1,000 
 
 188,330 
 
 80,080 
 
 183,600 
 
 7,700 
 
 143,683 
 
 32,165 
 
 500 
 
 19,075 
 
 86,300 
 
 65,460 
 
 88,400 
 
 25,540 
 
 267,900 
 
494 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 California, W. & M. Co. 
 Carbonate Hill 
 Catskill .... 
 Central Arizona 
 Chapparal 
 Cherokee . 
 Cheyenne 
 Chrysolite 
 Clarence . . . 
 Climax . . ... 
 
 Con. Pacific . . 
 Con. Pay Rock . 
 Con. Virginia . 
 Copper Knob-. . . 
 Copper Queen 
 
 Crowell 
 
 Crown Imperial . . 
 Dahlonega . .• 
 
 Decatur . . 
 Dunderberg 
 Dunkin 
 Durango . . . 
 Empire .... 
 Enterprise (J m. 
 
 Eureka 
 
 Father de Siuec 
 Findley 
 Freeland . . . 
 Globe Copper . 
 Gold Placer . 
 Gold Stripe . ... 
 Goodshaw . . 
 Gould & Curry . . 
 Grand Prize . . 
 
 Granville 
 
 Great Jilastrirn . . . 
 Green Mountain 
 Hale & Norcross 
 Harshaw ... 
 Hibernia . . . 
 Highland Chief . 
 Homestake . 
 Horn Silver . . 
 Hortense . . 
 Hukill . . . . 
 Imperial . . . 
 Independoncd 
 
 Index 
 
 Iron Silver . . . 
 Lacrosse. . . 
 Leadville . . 
 Little Chief. . 
 
 La Plata 
 
 Little Pittsburg 
 Lucerne 
 
 Mariposa 
 
 Mariposa, preferred 
 Martin White 
 May Belle ... 
 May Flower . . 
 Mexican .... 
 Michoaran Synd. . 
 Miner Bpy . . 
 Mineral Creek . . . 
 
 Mono 
 
 Moose ... 
 
 Moose Silver . . . 
 
 Navajo . 
 
 Noonday 
 
 Northern Behe . . 
 North Belle Isle . 
 North Standard , 
 North State . . 
 Ontario ... 
 Ophir. . . . 
 Overman .... 
 Oriental & Miller . 
 
 Plumas 
 
 Potosi ... 
 Qiaartz Creek . . 
 
 Quick Silver 
 
 Quick Silver, preferred 
 Bappahannocl^ . . 
 Red Elephant . . 
 
 Retort 
 
 Rising Sun . . . . 
 Robinson Con. 
 
 Sierra Nevada . . 
 Silver Cliff ... 
 Silver King . . . 
 Silver Nugget . . . 
 Sonera Con. . , 
 South Bodie . 
 South Bulwer . . . 
 South Hite . . . 
 South Pacific .... 
 Spring Valley . . . 
 Standard ... 
 Starr Grove . 
 State Line No. 1 
 State Line No. 4 . . 
 State Line Nos. 1 & 4 
 
 RANGE OF PRICES. 
 Jan. 1, to Jidy 1, 1SS2. 
 
 .22 
 
 11.01) 
 
 1.65 
 
 .08 
 
 .32 
 
 .20 
 
 4.00 
 
 1.10 
 
 .22 
 
 .05 
 
 1.60 
 
 1.05 
 
 .05 
 
 6.50 
 
 .05 
 
 .04 
 
 .70 
 
 .41 
 
 .08 
 
 .50 
 
 .70 
 
 12.26 
 
 7.00 
 
 .30 
 
 1.95 
 
 1.45 
 
 .38 
 
 .16 
 
 .35 
 
 7.63 
 
 .10 
 
 .02 
 
 .10 
 
 2.10 
 
 4,75 
 
 15.50 
 
 .25 
 
 7.00 
 
 15 50j 
 
 17.00 
 
 .14 
 
 .65 
 
 .07 
 
 .10 
 
 1.10 
 
 2.10 
 
 .26 
 
 .90 
 
 1.50 
 .06 
 
 3.35 
 
 4.50 
 
 3.00 
 .06 
 .95 
 
 9.88 
 
 12.50 
 
 11 
 
 .06 
 
 1.65 
 .26 
 .70 
 .17 
 .46 
 
 8.50 
 
 .30 
 
 .02 
 
 .10 
 
 33,50 
 
 6.88 
 
 2.10 
 .S'i 
 .19 
 
 4.05 
 
 ViM 
 
 66.63 
 
 .15 
 
 .10 
 
 .65 
 
 2.75 
 
 1.90 
 
 9.00 
 
 2.30 
 
 10.26 
 
 .11 
 
 .32 
 
 .20 
 
 .16 
 
 .12 
 
 4.25 
 
 3.60 
 
 19.2'i 
 
 3,25 
 
 .26 
 
 .35 
 
 .27 
 
 .48 
 .86 
 
 6.00 
 
 1.60 
 .07 
 .66 
 .05 
 
 6.38 
 
 1.60 
 .46 
 .45 
 .60 
 
 1.25 
 .03 
 
 6 50 
 .20 
 .05 
 .03 
 
 2.50 
 .76 
 
 1.15 
 .56 
 
 2.00 
 
 1.25 
 24.00 
 
 7.00 
 .26 
 
 .47 
 
 .48 
 
 .80 
 
 3.60 
 
 .30 
 
 .04 
 
 .10 
 
 2.65 
 
 l.U 
 
 3.31 
 
 .27 
 
 1.76 
 
 20.00 
 
 17.76 
 
 .30 
 
 .76 
 
 .15 
 
 .16 
 
 .51 
 
 2.5 -> 
 
 .30 
 
 .90 
 
 1.15 
 
 10.00 
 
 2.56 
 
 .116 
 
 3.25 
 
 2.50 
 
 7.00 
 
 .24 
 
 .24 
 
 12.00 
 
 12.50 
 
 . .10 
 
 .06 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.85 
 
 .30 
 
 4.75 
 
 1.00 
 
 12.63 
 
 .35 
 
 .30 
 
 •14 
 
 35.75 
 
 7.8» 
 
 .76 
 
 .40 
 
 .25 
 
 .70 
 
 .86 
 
 14.26 
 
 62.00 
 
 .43 
 
 .19 
 
 .90 
 
 .71 
 
 4.06 
 
 1.76 
 
 10.00 
 
 2.80 
 
 20.00 
 
 .11 
 
 I.IO 
 
 .16 
 
 .27 
 
 .20 
 
 8.25 
 
 4.20 
 
 19.13 
 
 3.25 
 
 .27 
 
 .36 
 
 .29 
 
 .46 
 .20 
 6.00 
 .48 
 .02 
 .19 
 .05 
 2.90 
 .03 
 .19 
 .03 
 .20 
 .28 
 .01 
 
 5.26 
 .05 
 .05 
 .02 
 .60 
 .42 
 .3 J 
 05 
 .98 
 .GO 
 11.75 
 
 6.00 
 .11 
 .86 
 .10 
 .30 
 .15 
 .16 
 
 2.00 
 .05 
 .02 
 .03 
 
 1.3.) 
 .96 
 
 2.26 
 .06 
 
 1.40 
 14.75 
 
 9.M 
 .12 
 .34 
 .01 
 .01 
 .48 
 
 1.95 
 
 .09 
 
 .50 
 
 .50 
 
 lO.OJ 
 
 1.25 
 .03 
 .06 
 .40 
 
 2.10 
 .10 
 .10 
 
 5.00 
 
 12.38 
 
 .03 
 
 .01 
 
 1.30 
 .11 
 .01 
 .16 
 .25 
 
 6.00 
 
 .15 
 
 .10 
 
 .01 
 
 33.75 
 
 2.26 
 .75 
 .14 
 .05 
 .70 
 .16 
 
 8.76 
 26.00 
 .16 
 .09 
 .75 
 .20 
 .84 
 .78 
 
 4.06 
 .32 
 16.00 
 .05 
 .10 
 .12 
 .15 
 .06 
 .07 
 
 2.90 
 13.60 
 .30 
 .08 
 .14 
 .05 
 
 .45 
 .76 
 6.00 
 .80 
 .06 
 .28 
 .05 
 
 3.60 
 .04 
 .21 
 .35 
 .20 
 .46 
 .02 
 
 6.60 
 .07 
 .05 
 .02 
 .91 
 .60 
 .35 
 .12 
 
 1.35 
 .97 
 
 15.00 
 
 6.00 
 .11 
 .85 
 .23 
 .30 
 ■ .40 
 .16 
 
 2.00 
 .25 
 .02 
 .05 
 
 2.30 
 
 1.13 
 
 2.25 
 .10 
 
 1.40 
 17.88 
 10.00 
 .17 
 .40 
 .03 
 .35 
 .48 
 
 2.00 
 
 .16 
 
 .70 
 
 .00 
 
 10.00 
 
 1.45 
 .03 
 
 1.60 
 .60 
 
 + .64 
 
 — 5.00 
 .76 
 .02 
 .04 
 .15 
 .40 
 
 — 1.06 
 
 — .01 
 + .30 
 
 — 1.40 
 
 — .60 
 .03 
 
 1.00 
 + .02 
 
 — .02 
 
 — .20 
 
 — .05 
 + .04 
 + .85 
 + .27 
 + 2.75 
 
 — 1.00 
 ,19 
 
 — 1.10 
 
 — 1.22 
 ,08 
 ,25 
 
 — .20 
 
 — 6.63 
 + .16 
 
 
 
 — .0-5 
 + .-0 
 
 -3.62 
 ■13.26 
 - .15 
 
 — 5.60 
 + i.38 
 
 7.00 
 
 ,03 
 .26 
 .04 
 .26 
 .02 
 .10 
 .10 
 .20 
 .28 
 .0: 
 .06 
 .03 
 1.85 
 4.00 
 
 6.63 + 3.63 
 
 .10 
 
 .10 
 
 6.60 
 
 12.33 
 
 + .06 
 
 — .85 
 
 — 3.38 
 
 — .12 
 .04 1— .07 
 
 .04 
 .16 
 ,06 
 ,65 
 ,03 
 ,68 
 
 .02 
 1.60|— 
 
 .20]- 
 
 .15- 
 4.2ni + 
 1.13] + 
 lO.OOl + 1.50 
 
 .30 
 
 .20:+ .18 
 
 .01 
 
 33.76 
 
 3.38 
 
 .75 
 
 .31 
 
 .05 
 
 .70 
 
 .66 
 
 13.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 .18 
 
 .11 
 
 .90 
 
 .71 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.26 
 
 6.76 
 
 .62 
 
 16 25 
 
 .08 
 
 .11 
 
 .12 
 
 .16 
 
 .14 
 
 .09 
 
 2.90 
 
 18.50 
 
 .33 
 
 .12 
 
 .22 
 
 .10 
 
 — .09 
 + .25 
 
 — 2..50 
 
 — 1.35 
 
 — .04 
 
 — .16 
 
 — 3.36 
 
 + .12 
 -41.66 
 
 + 
 
 + .01 
 
 + .06 
 
 — 1 
 
 — .65 
 
 — 2 25 
 1.78 
 
 — 4.00 
 
 — .05 
 
 — .21 
 
 — .08 
 
 — .01 
 + .02 
 
 — 4.16 
 .00 
 
 — .76 
 2.92 
 
 .14 
 
 — .13 
 .17 
 
 2,300 
 
 36,243 
 
 100 
 
 99,476 
 
 424,600 
 
 102,345 
 
 600 
 
 279,916 
 
 60,128 
 
 106,450 
 
 10,400 
 
 2,272 
 
 298,822 
 
 325,850 
 
 4O0 
 
 165,3.50 
 
 1,000 
 
 44,900 
 
 118,620 
 
 6,600 
 
 117,457 
 
 602,700 
 
 24,800 
 
 272,000 
 
 3,590 
 
 .3,.305 
 
 9,800 
 
 100 
 
 213,300 
 
 2,100 
 
 66,600 
 
 49,550 
 
 310 
 
 2,900 
 
 66,200 
 
 171,933 
 
 106,780 
 
 1,130 
 
 12,700 
 
 352,080 
 
 600 
 
 1,010 
 
 60,932 
 
 24,900 
 
 34,670 
 
 60,050 
 
 14,160 
 
 300 
 
 153,733 
 
 31,000 
 
 36,731 
 
 212,363 
 
 50 
 
 30,807 
 
 3,700 
 
 13,286 
 
 3,175 
 
 865 
 
 800 
 
 23,200 
 
 16,895 
 
 200 
 
 621,760 
 
 319,600 
 
 1,150 
 
 290,446 
 
 6,600 
 
 118,810 
 
 6,200 
 
 15,826 
 
 4,495 
 
 24,600 
 
 243,300 
 
 60 
 
 1,160 
 
 10 
 
 640,455 
 
 2,000 
 
 200 
 
 383,200 
 
 11,300 
 
 1,.300 
 
 171,090 
 
 28,626 
 
 9,800 
 
 116,320 
 
 967,700 
 
 1,096 
 
 37,.367 
 
 74,620 
 
 1,760 
 
 229,625 
 
 14,600 
 
 200 
 
 7,960 
 
 96,240 
 
 4,068,695 
 
 6,327 
 
 5,400 
 
 6,200 
 
 1,925 
 
 1,600 
 
 410,060 
 
 
 
 BANGE OF PRICES. 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Jan. 1, 
 
 to Jn 'ij 
 
 1, 1882. 
 
 !? 
 
 S ' 
 
 
 •s 
 
 
 
 ■s 
 
 ■^^ 
 
 i 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 s 
 
 5»^ 
 
 1 ' 
 
 
 1 
 
 1.60 
 
 1 
 
 >3, 
 
 1 
 
 
 4 ,. 
 
 State Line Nos. 2 & 3 . . 
 
 1.80 
 
 .15 
 
 .30 
 
 — 1.30 
 
 6,165,648 
 
 St. Joseph, Lead . 
 
 7.00 
 
 7.50 
 
 7.60 
 
 7.60 
 
 + .50 
 
 300 
 
 Stormont . . 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.60 
 
 .20 
 
 .78 
 
 — .82 
 
 84,445 
 
 Sutro Tunnel 
 
 .96 
 
 1.00 
 
 .28 
 
 .39 
 
 — .57 
 
 809,645 
 
 Taylor Plumas ....', 
 
 .07 
 
 .86 
 
 .06 
 
 .16 
 
 + .08 
 
 418,600 
 
 Tioga 
 
 .05 
 
 .40 
 
 .05 
 
 .1(1 
 
 + .06 
 
 17,565 
 
 Tip Top 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.60 
 
 2.50 
 
 2.60 
 
 -1..50 
 
 1,950 
 
 Tombstone 
 
 4.46 
 
 4.60 
 
 .81 
 
 .81 
 
 — 3.64 
 
 5,100 
 
 Tuscarora ... 
 
 .16 
 
 .26 
 
 .06 
 
 .24 
 
 + .08 
 
 81,600 
 
 Unadilla .... 
 
 .12 
 
 .16 
 
 .07 
 
 .09 
 
 — .03 
 
 118,905 
 
 Union Con. . . ... 
 
 14.76 
 
 17.60 
 
 8.38 
 
 9.60 
 
 — 6.25 
 
 14,135 
 
 Vandewater 
 
 .34 
 
 .40 
 
 .19 
 
 .20 
 
 — .14 
 
 262,650 
 
 Virginia 
 
 
 2.90 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.15 
 
 
 34,460 
 
 ■Washington 
 
 .15 
 
 .16 
 
 .05 
 
 .05 
 
 — .10 
 
 24,000 
 
 Yellow Jacket 
 
 3.70 
 
 3.15 
 
 .70 
 
 .70 
 
 —3.00 
 
 1,605 
 
 Total sales for fi months, 1882 
 
 28,211,052 
 43,027,426 
 
 " " " 12 months, 1881 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 THE PHILADELPHIA MINING STOCK EX- 
 CHANGES AND THE PHILADELPHIA 
 MARKET 
 
 PHILADELPHIA is the metropolis of the most 
 extensive coal and iron producing region in the 
 world, and a history of the mining interest centering 
 in Philadelphia would he coincident with a history 
 of the material progress of Pennsylvania. William 1 enn, 
 the founder of the commonwealth was interested in the pro- 
 duction of iron in England, and early gave of his time and 
 means to, the promotion of mining industries ; the first 
 record of his moving in the matter being dated the year 
 following his landing, namely in 1683. The development 
 of the mineral resources of Pennsylvania attracted the cap- 
 ital and enterprise of the Penn colonists from the first, and 
 very early in the eighteenth century the foundations were 
 laid of the several allied industries that have since given the 
 commonwealth so large a measure of manufacturing and 
 commercial importance. It is a noteworthy fact that Phila- 
 delphia names identified with these interests from the 
 beginning are still prominent in current records. The old 
 families connected with the first attempts to mine iron ore 
 and to set up iron furnaces in 1715 to 1770 have representa- 
 tives in various departments of the vast iron industries 
 of 1882; the Putters, Potts, Thomas, Logans, Morris, 
 Nutts, Bransons, Taylors and Walkers who made the initial 
 ventures having direct descendants among the leading iron 
 masters of to-day. 
 
 The conversion of nature's mineral treasures into avail- 
 able wealth being a leading factor of Philadelphia's pros- 
 perity, mines and mining have always received marked 
 attention, and ventures in this direction have been hos- 
 pitably entertained and favorably considered. The lead 
 deposits of Galena, the copper veins of Lake Superior and 
 the gold fields of the Carolinas give evidence of me intelli- 
 gent liberality of Philadelphia capital and the persistenpe 
 of Philadelphia enterprise. The finding of gold in California 
 awakened an immediate excitement in that city, before the 
 importance of the discovery was realized elsewhere. Among 
 the Argonauts and Forty-niners were considerable numbers 
 of Philadelphians, and it is not too much to say that these 
 furnished a large proportion of the worth and respectability 
 of the first emigration. Men of character and means weiit 
 out and became leaders in bringing order and civilized 
 society out of the chaotic condition which obtained when the 
 "diggings " were first opened. They early occupied the field 
 of business too— Philadelphia stocks of goods making 
 prompt appearance whenever new camps were formed. 
 
 Returned Californians, nearly all of them successful and 
 prosperous, have for many years constituted a noticeable 
 element in Philadelphia society, and have aided in sustain- 
 ing an animated interest in the production of the precious 
 metals. This interest has been conspicuous in the develop- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 495 
 
 ment of that vast silver production beginning with the 
 opening of the Comstock Lode in 1859 and extending 
 since then through half-a-dozen of our Rocky Mountain 
 Territories, which has made this country a larger con- 
 tributor to the world's annual output of silver than all 
 other countries together. In Nevada, Idaho, Montana, 
 Arizona, Utah, Colorado and New Mexico, Philadelphia 
 skill, energy and money have accomplished their full snare 
 in bringing forth the hidden riches of the earth. President 
 Lincoln characterized the Rocky Mountains as the strong- 
 box of the nation. In unlocking this depository and de- 
 voting the precious contents to the service of commerce and 
 the arts, no people in the country have been more active 
 and successful than the quiet denizens of the Quaker City. 
 Gold mining in the early days of gulch and placer finds 
 was carried on by individual enterprise, the miners' labor, 
 
 Eick and pan constituting the only capital invested, and his 
 uckskin belt retaining all the dividends. In the White 
 Pine district silver also gave good returns to the individual 
 miner for a time, but silver deposits are generally too refrac- 
 tory to be dealt with by private means. To mine silver 
 successfully has required the use of large capital and the 
 force of corporate organizations, and the business has there- 
 fore been carried on by joint stock companies from the 
 beginning. Since the exhaustion of the placer diggings, 
 gold mining has been conducted in the same manner, so 
 that it may now be said that the production of the precious 
 metals is practically in the hands of corporate companies. 
 
 On the discovery of a new mine, the claim is frequently 
 sold as an integral property, thereafter it usually passes into 
 the possession of a company, and transfers of ownership are 
 made by the purchase and sale of the company's stocK. 
 Beside representing the fee of the property in stock, these 
 companies commonly issue stock also for development pur- 
 poses and for working capital. In railroad construction, 
 which is also carried on almost invariably by corporate com- 
 Psinies, capital is commonly obtained in these days by issuing 
 bonds secured by mortgage ; the stock frequently represent- 
 ing only the equities in the properties and good will of the 
 business, so to speak, that is, the capacity of the road to 
 earn dividends after meeting the bonded interest ; but in the 
 development and working of mines, the issue of bonds is 
 seldom resorted to, as a mortgage on a mine could hardly be 
 made an attractive security, and the pepiodic payment of 
 interest might at any time become an onerous burden even 
 on the biggest of bonanzas hidden underground. The fee 
 of the property, the cost of development and working 
 capital of all mining enterprises are therefore represented 
 by stock. 
 
 The production of silver has increased very rapidly, as 
 above indicated within the past twenty years. The Centen- 
 nial Exhibition brought to Philadelphia not only an im- 
 mense collection of ore samples of all grades and descrip- 
 tions but also a large number of prospectors and property 
 holders, each with a project or two on hand, promising rich 
 returns on comparatively small investments ; and this gave 
 an additional impetus to mining enterprise, so that within 
 the past six years, especially, an important interest in bul- 
 lion has grown up here. Mining companies have been 
 formed literally by the hundreds and thousands of people 
 have invested money in them. In 1880 there were nearly 
 100 companies, mostly silver companies, either organized 
 in Philadelphia, or brought there for investment, and the 
 number started in other years has been correspondingly 
 large, so that within the period embraced between July 
 1876 and July 1882 not less than 300 companies have been 
 either formed or introduced in Philadelphia. 
 
 The dealings in the stocks of these companies were for a 
 long time confined to private hands, but as the shares were 
 more widely distributed throughout the community, the need 
 of some centre of trade where those who wished to buy and 
 those who wished to sell could meet on common ground be- 
 came more and more clearly defined. The auction rooms 
 served this purpose in a not altogether satisfactory manner 
 for a time, and finally the dealings attained sufficient im- 
 portance to attract the notice of the Philadelphia Stock Ex- 
 change. Most of the leading brokers were dealing in Min- 
 ing shares to some extent as early as 1878 and 1879, and in 
 the spring of 1880 application was made to the stock ex- 
 change to place certain mining stocks on the sales list, and 
 
 in course of that year, Girard, Iowa Gulch, Orion and one 
 or two others were listed. 
 
 There are about 150 stocks, beside a long list of bonds, 
 regularly dealt in at the Board and the brokers who buy 
 and sell these representations of value are obliged to keep 
 themselves informed as to the condition and prospects of 
 each property and business named on the list. These stocks 
 and bonds are for the most part railroad issues, and to fol- 
 low the fortunes of a railroad is an undertaking involving 
 a good deal of skill, attained by long practice, and con- 
 stant attention to daily details of business. Mining matters 
 embrace a range of facts of an entirely difierent character, 
 and after mining stocks had been dealt in at the Board for 
 a time, it was evident that brokers who would give them 
 undivided attention could handle them to better advantage 
 than could those who were mainly occupied with railroad 
 investments. The desirability of a separate exchange for 
 transactions in mining stocks became plainly apparent, and 
 during the summer of 1879 propositions were discussed 
 among parties interested in such transactions for the estab- 
 lishment of a Mining Stock Board. 
 
 The Philadelphia Mming and Stock Exchange. — 
 About the middle of August preliminary steps were taken 
 which resulted in the organization of the Philadelphia 
 Mining and Stock Exchange. On the 15th of that month, 
 Frederick Schuellermann, a gentleman largely interested in 
 Mining venture, invited several others, similarly situated, to 
 meet in conference respecting the matter, and at that meet- 
 ing Mr. Schuellerman, in co-operation with Mr. L. Emig 
 and Mr. G. W. Powell, drew up a prospectus which served 
 as a basis for the new undertaking. Subscribers to the 
 number of fifty were immediately found and a compact or- 
 ganization was effected under the title above given. A con- 
 stitution and by-laws similar to those of other Mining Ex- 
 changes were adopted, and the following officers elected : 
 
 President, William M. Capp ; First Vice-President, Ed- 
 ward A. Green; Second Vice-President, Fred. Schueller- 
 mann ; Treasurer, Samuel W. Powell ; Secretary, Geo. A. 
 Q. Miller; Clerk, Geo. W. Powell. 
 
 Governing Committee, Samuel W. Powell, William N. 
 Viguers, Chas. Kane, Fred. Schuellermann, Lawrence Emig 
 and Chas. Gladding. 
 
 Standing Committee, Samuel M. Capp, William Davis, 
 Sparta Fritz, William Wilson and Samuel Gladding. 
 
 The Board was ready for business by the 1st of Septem- 
 ber, but owing to the difficulty of securing suitable premises, 
 the opening of the exchange was seriously delayed. The 
 most desirable location to be considered was the rotunda of 
 the Commercial Exchange Building, and as this room was 
 practically vacant at the time, negotiations were at once 
 entered into for a lease. Sundiy and various obstacles arose 
 to prolong these negotiations, until, after nearly two months 
 of uncertainty, the purpose of leasing the rotunda was 
 finally abandoned. The building No. 310 Chestnut street 
 was then rented, and, being on the main thoroughfare, near 
 the Stock Exchange and the financial centre of the city, the 
 location proved to be a very advantageous selection. The 
 place had been used for banking purposes, and required 
 alterations involving further delay. Possession was taken 
 in November, and on the 4th of December, 1879, the first 
 mining stock exchange in Philadelphia was formally opened 
 for business. 
 
 The stocks traded in were the Argent, Orion, Iowa Gulch, 
 Sara Avis, and others. The business done did not at first 
 meet the expectations that had been formed, but after the 
 first of the year 1881, a noticeable improvement set in and 
 the members of the Exchange soon found ample reason to 
 be satisfied with their venture. New stocks were added to 
 the list, the membership increased nearly one half during 
 the spring, and the trade in mining stocks assumed quite an 
 important aspect as a factor of the city's commerce. 
 
 During the summer of 1880 some new groups of mines in 
 Arizona and in Colorado were brought before the Philadel- 
 phia community with a good deal of iclat about the time 
 that interest in mining was fully awakened here. Several 
 of the leading business men of the city invested in these 
 properties and took an active part in the formation of com- 
 panies upon them. City politicians of prominence also be- 
 came identified with new ventures in the regions above 
 mentioned. The production of the precious metals took on 
 
496 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 quite a marked " boom," and stock operations in connection 
 with extending developments were stimulated to animated ac- 
 tivity. As often happens, the success of the new Exchange re- 
 sulted in the springing up of a factional feeling, some of the 
 later comers being ambitious and wanting more control than 
 their position gave them. The disturbing element joined 
 hands with the Arizona and Colorado interests above alluded 
 to, and resolved to organize another exchange in which 
 they could exercise the sway which they considered they 
 were entitled to by virtue of the magnitude of their oper- 
 ations and the extent of the prospective mineral wealth they 
 represented. Toward the close of 1880, the plans of the 
 faction were matured, and the purpose to withdraw was pub- 
 licly announced. The movement was made with a decided 
 show of vigor, and several gentleman of high repute in the 
 community were induced to take part in it. The name of 
 the National Mining Exchange was adopted and nearly 
 three-quarters of the members of the old Board went over 
 to the new. 
 
 The National Mining and Stock Exchange. — The 
 National Mining and Stock Exchange was finally organized 
 January 3d, 1881, at a meeting held in the Continental 
 Hotel. The subscribing roll numbered 54 names, and the 
 organization was perfected by the election of the following 
 officers : president, Samuel Disston ; vice president, William 
 B. Dalton ; treasurer, Joseph W. Thompson ; secretary, G. 
 A. Q. Miller ; trustees, T. Henry Ashby, W. J. Cheney and 
 Charles Disston. Subsequently the following committees 
 were appointed; auditing committee, J. K. Vallance, F. 8. 
 Bond, W. R. Hunt, Thomas J. Stewart and Andrew Hazlet ; 
 listing committee, Julius Hirshfield, L. S. Ganz and William 
 Wilson; membership committee, H. Burgen, John Tracy, 
 Charles Kane and L. Gilbough. The subscription price 
 of seats in the National Exchange was fixed at $750, but 
 as the membership rapidly increased the price was ad- 
 vanced to $1000, when the list numbered 75 members. 
 The rotunda of the Commercial Exchange Building, at 
 Third and Walnut streets, was leased for business, at $3000 
 per year. This chamber was used for many years previous 
 to 1876 by the old established Board of Brokers, and is ad- 
 mittedly one of the finest exchange rooms in the country. The 
 National organization expended a considerable sum in fit- 
 ting up the place in the best manner for the uses intended, 
 and opened it for business on Tuesday, the 1st of February, 
 1881, celebrating the event with appropriate ceremonies. 
 Business started off" in a very encouraging manner, and it 
 was hoped that the National Exchange was destined to at- 
 tain a position of permanent importance. The Philadelphia 
 Exchange having recruited its membership, however, still 
 held the largest share of the trade, and, subsequently, when 
 the Mining Annex was opened, it was found that with three 
 Eichmonds in the field the trade was very seriously cut up. 
 Overtures were made for a consolidation with the Phila- 
 delphia Exchange, or rather were made to each of the Ex- 
 changes, by gentlemen who had joined the new organization, 
 while still retaining their seats in the old one. Some diffi- 
 culty was experienced at first in bringing the members to 
 agreement, personal feeling and rivalry standing in the way, 
 but eventually the impediments were all removed, the dif- 
 ferences adjusted and the National Board united with the 
 Philadelphia, taking the title of the latter, and removing to 
 the " old stand," No. 310 Chestnut street. This union was 
 efiected in July, 1881, leaving the Philadelphia Exchange 
 and the Mining Annex to compete for the trade. 
 
 The Mining Annex. — The organization of a special 
 mining exchange encountered a good deal of opposition 
 from the members of the regular stock exchange, and there 
 was, furthermore, a noticeable sentiment of hostility, always 
 more or less active among the conservative habitufe of 
 Third street. It was held that trade in stocks, if legitimate, 
 could be, and should be carried on at the regular Board, and 
 if not legitimate should be altogether discountenanced. 
 The more successful and important the Mining Exchange 
 became, the more decided were the expressions of opinion 
 that the regular Board ought to bring the business under its 
 own cognizance and control. With this view, a Mining 
 Annex was opened in connection with the stock exchange, 
 about the middle of March, 1881. Business was opened in 
 the basement of No. 310 Chestnut street, immediately under 
 the Philadelphia Mining Exchange. The brokers resorted 
 
 there occasionally, whenever they had mining stocks to buy 
 or sell, but with two other exchanges in operation the annex 
 did not flourish very abundantly, and no great impression 
 was made, either on mining stock traders, or on the public. 
 The annex was, however, the acknowledged authority in the 
 business, fixing prices, and giving character to stocks ; the 
 other exchanges adopting the annex quotations, and the pub- 
 lic looking with distrust upon those stocks not listed there. 
 Many influential members of the independent exchanges 
 freely admitted that it would be an advantage if the pur- 
 view of the annex could be extended with sufficient liber- 
 ality of administration to cover their dealings without re- 
 stricting them to narrower limits than they could work in. 
 After the Philadelphia and the National Exchanges were 
 united, the question of consolidating with the annex was 
 discussed with freedom, and during the spring of 1881 active 
 measures were taken looking to practical results. Commit- 
 tees were appointed on each side, conferences were held, 
 and reports made, and after several months of negotiating, 
 the consolidation was finally consummated in October, 1881. 
 The staid, conservative and reputable old Philadelphia 
 Board of Stock Brokers, the oldest exchange in America, 
 took the entire business of handling mining stocks into its 
 care, retaining the title of its branch, the Mining Annex, 
 and submitting the business to regulations established by its 
 governing committee. The members of the independent ex- 
 changes were admitted to membership in the annex on satis- 
 factory terms, the honor of belonging to the Philadelphia 
 Board of Brokers probably being a valued though not an ex- 
 pressed consideration. The business was moved again to 
 the rotunda of the Commercial Exchange Building, which 
 desirable location the Annex still occupies. 
 
 By-Laws for the Mining Annex. 
 
 Article I. — Membership.— Section 1. — Every applicant for 
 membership must be at least twenty-one years of age, and a citi- 
 zen of the United States. 
 
 Section 2. — The initiation fee of members admitted by election 
 shall be one thousand dollars ; and of those admitted by purchase, 
 fifty dollars. In all cases where Initiation fees shall not be paid 
 within five days after the election, and proper notification by the 
 Secretary (except in cases of sickness or absence from the city), 
 such election shall be void. 
 
 Section 3. — Any member wishing to sell his membership, shall 
 have the right to do so, provided he has no unsettled contracts 
 with, or claims against him, by any member of the Stock Lx- 
 ohange or Mining Annex, for transactions arising in or relating 
 to the business of banking, or a stock or exchange broker ; but 
 where the Arbitration Committee shall determine that any claims 
 or contracts exist, the Governing Committee may, except in cases 
 of insolvency, refuse to permit the seat to be sold, until such 
 claims or contracts are in its opinion satisfactorily settled. 
 
 The proceeds of the seat, if sold, shall, after deducting all 
 charges (determined, in case of controversy, by tlie Arbitration 
 Committee to be) due to the Stock Exchange or Mining Annex, 
 belong to its owner's creditors, being members of the Stock Ex- 
 change or Mining Annex, in proportion to the amount of their 
 respective claims, determined by the Arbitration Committee. The 
 claims of members, so ascertained, shall be paid in full; and what 
 remains, if anything, shall be paid to the owner. 
 
 Section 4.— When a member dies, his seat shall, within one 
 year thereafter, be sold or transferred; and the proceeds thereof, 
 after deducting all charges (determined, in case of controversy, 
 by the Arbitration Commi'tee to be) due to the Stock Exchange 
 and Mining Annex, shall belong to its owner's creditors, being 
 members of the Stock Exchange or Mining Annex, in proportion 
 to the amount of their respective claims. The claims of members, 
 so ascertained, shall be paid to them in full ; and what remains, 
 if anything, shall be paid to the legal representatives of the de- 
 ceased. The seat of a deceased member shall be liable for all 
 assessments which may be made, by the Governing Committee, 
 from the day of his death until such times as his seat is sold and 
 transferred. 
 
 Section 6.— In case any member shall have begun legal pro- 
 ceedings against the Stock Exchange or Mining Annex, and shall 
 not have prosecuted the same to a successful termination, all 
 expenses incurred by the Exchange or Mining Annex, in and 
 during the prosecution of (lie suit, including counsel fees, costs 
 of Court, printing, etc., shall constitute a charge against the scat 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 497 
 
 of said member, the collection of which shall be enforced in the 
 same manner as that now provided for the collection of fines ; 
 and upon the sale of the member's seat, during his lifetime, or 
 after his death, the said charge shall, in all respects, be treated 
 as an ordinary fine. 
 
 Section 6. — No member of the Stock Exchange or Mining An- 
 nex shall be allowed to take as partner any suspended member, 
 during the period of his suspension, or to form a partnership 
 with an insolvent person. 
 
 Article II. — Elections. — Section 1. — All elections for members 
 of the Mining Annex shall be held by the Governing Committee 
 of the Philadelphia Stock Exchange. 
 
 Section 2. — No rejected candidate shall be eligible for member- 
 ship, for six months after his rejection, without the unanimous 
 consent of the Governing Committee. » 
 
 Akticle III. — Insolvency. — Section 1. — Any member who fails 
 to comply with his contracts, or who becomes insolvent, shall 
 immediately inform the Pre^dent of the Stock Exchange, or 
 Chairman of the Annex, of the fact, whose duty it shall be to give 
 notice forthwith of the failure of such member to the Stock Ex- 
 change and Mining Annex ; and such notice shall forthwith work 
 a suspension of the insolvent from the privileges of the Annex, 
 unless a settlement is made as hereinafter provided. In case of 
 the neglect of the insolvent to make such report to the President 
 or Chairman, it shall be the duty of any member having know- 
 ledge of the fact, to report the same forthwith to the Governing 
 Committee, or to the President, or Chairman, who shall thereupon 
 appoint a committee of three members to inquire into the fact, 
 and report thereon without delay to the Mining Annex ; and if 
 said committee report the charge to be true, and no appeal from 
 the said report be taken within seven days ; or, where an appeal 
 having been taken, the report shall have been confirmed by the 
 Governing Committee, said member shall from that time be held 
 to be suspended, and notice be posted in the Stock Exchange and 
 Mining Annex. In case of the insolvency of any member, he 
 shall within three (3) days make good to the full amount thereof 
 all friendly loans of cash or sto(^s from members, or any over- 
 draft on any bank; but seven (7) days shall be allowed him in 
 which to settle stock contracts. 
 
 Section 2. — Members holding securities deposited by the insol- 
 vent, as margins on his contracts, are authorized, upon the appli- 
 cation of the creditor or creditors, for whose benefit such margin 
 has been deposited, to sell the same; and, after satisfying the 
 claim of such creditor or creditors, to pay over the remainder, if 
 any, as directed by the Governing Committee. Such securities 
 as are saleable at the Stock Exchange or Mining Annex, must be 
 sold by the presiding officer, at a regular session of the Stock 
 Exchange or Mining Annex ; and all other securities under the 
 direction of the Governing Committee. When » difference be- 
 comes due by a sale of collaterals which had been held to secure 
 a loan, the difference so created shall be treated as an unseitled 
 contract, and not as a friendly loan of cash, and seven (7) days 
 shall be allowed to settle the same. On the failure of a member 
 of the Annex, all claims existing against him must be reported in 
 writing to the Secretary; and it shall be his duty to record the 
 same in a book kept for that purpose. The terms of all settle- 
 ments must be reported to the Stock Exchange and Mining An- 
 nex when made. Any settlement made with a member unable to 
 meet his contracts, and not, at the time, reported to the Stock 
 Exchange and Mining Annex, shall, in case of a further failure, 
 debar such creditor from any claim on the seat of the debtor until 
 all subsequent claims are settled in full. 
 
 Section 3. — Any member who shall be declared a bankrupt, 
 shall, ipso facto, be suspended from the Mining Annex ; but a 
 suspended member, presenting a certificate of discharge under 
 the United States Bankrupt Law, becomes eligible under the 
 rules for re-instating suspended members. 
 
 Section 4. — If any suspended member fails to settle with all 
 his creditors within one year from the time of his suspension, his 
 membership shall be sold by the Secretary, and the proceeds, 
 after deducting all charges (determined, in case of controversy, by 
 the Arbitration Committee to be^ due to the Stock Exchange or 
 Mining Annex, shall belong, and be paid^ro rata to his creditor< 
 in the Stock Exchange or Mining Annex. The amount due said 
 creditors shall be determined by the Arbitration Committee. 
 
 Section 5. — Hereafter, all claims against the proceeds arising 
 from the sale of the membership of insolvents, must be presented 
 to the Treasurer within thirty (30) days from day of notice, which 
 will be given on three (3) successive days, by the Chairman. 
 After the expiration of said thirty (30) days, all claims, not pre- 
 sented, will be debarred. 
 
 Section 6. — On an application for re-admission, a suspended 
 member may be restored to his membership, provided his name 
 fchall have been acted upon by the Committee on Admissions, and 
 
 32 
 
 re-elected, as provided for in Article on Elections. The applicant 
 must, at the request of the committee, give full explanations on 
 any disputed or unsatisfactory transactions, and free access to his 
 hooks and papers for that purpose. 
 
 Section 7. — A suspended member shall, before he is re-instated, 
 pay all fines due at the time of suspension. 
 
 Article IV. — Hours of Busincss.^Section 1 . — The Mining An- 
 nex shall be open for the entrance of members on every business 
 day, at ten minutes before 10 o'clock a.m. At 10 o'clock, pre- 
 cisely, the presiding officer shall announce, from the rostrum, 
 that the Annex is open for the transaction of business, and it 
 shall remain open for such purpose until 3 o'clock p. M., when 
 the presiding officer shall similarly announce it closed. 
 
 Section 2. — Dealings shall be limited, throughout the entire 
 year, to the interval between the hours above named, unless 
 otherwise ordered by the Governing Committee of the Stock Ex- 
 change, and a fine of $50 for each offence shall be imposed, with- 
 out excuse or appeal, upon any member who shall directly or 
 indirectly make or offer to make any transactions in stock, before 
 or after those hours, in the Mining Annex. 
 
 Section 3.— The Mining Annex shall not be closed at any time 
 between the hours above named, except by orders of the Govern- 
 ing Committee of the Stock Exchange. While so closed, the same 
 penalty shall be imposed as in Section 2. 
 
 Article V. — Section 1. — At II o'clock a. m., the first regular 
 session shall commence, when the Chairman shall call the regular 
 list. While the call is progressing, the members may call up the 
 various stocks on the regular list of the Mining Annex. A charge 
 of ten cents will be made for all calls. 
 
 Section 2. — The second regular session shall commence at I2J 
 p. M. The third regular session shall commence at 2 p. M., and 
 close at 2.30 p. m. At these sessions, the Chairman shall call 
 such stocks as the members may request in writing, without 
 charge, and such as are requested orally, at a charge often cents. 
 
 Section 3. — At the last sessions, the oral request shall in all 
 cases have precedence. 
 
 Article VI. — Commissions. — Section 1.— On the shares of Min- 
 ing Companies : 
 
 Selling under $1.00 per share — one cent per share. 
 
 Selling at $1.00 and up to $2.00 per share— two cents per share. 
 
 Selling at $2.00 and up to $5.00 per share — three cents per 
 share. 
 
 Selling at $5.00 and up to $10.00 per share — ^five cents per 
 share. 
 
 Selling at $10.00 and over — twelve and a half cents per share; 
 and no charge of less than twenty-five cents shall be made on 
 any one transaction. 
 
 Section 2. — Commissions in conformity with the above rates 
 must be charged on all purchases and sales for non-members, and 
 on all transactions for joint account, in which a non-member is a 
 co-partner; and no arrangement having in view, directly or indi- 
 rectly, a rebate upon the regular rates hereby established, shall 
 be allowed. Any member who shall transact business for a less 
 commission than the rates set forth as above, (except in cases 
 provided for,) shall, for the first offence, be fined one hundred 
 dollars, and shall be suspended at the pleasure of the Governing 
 Committee of the Exchange; and for the second offence, he shall 
 be fined five hundred dollars and suspended for a period not 'less 
 than one year. But nothing in the foregoing section shall be 
 construed to apply to full business partners of members of the 
 Stock Exchange. But members may transact business for chari- 
 table objects without charge. 
 
 Section 3. — Commissions may be halved with banks and bank- 
 ers, having their place of business as such outside of the limits of 
 the city, also with members of Stock Exchanges of other cities; 
 and with stock and exchange brokers in cities where there is no 
 Stock Exchange, also with brokers whose names are on the half- 
 commission list. 
 
 Article VII. — Record of Sales. — Section I. — No person is per- 
 mitted to enter sales in the books of record, except the Chairman, 
 the Clerks, or a member acting as such, under the authority of the 
 Chairman. No alteration in the record shall be made, except 
 with the consent of the members present, while the Annex is in 
 session; and whenever any objection to the record is made, the 
 objection shall be held in abeyance, if either of the principals to 
 the transaction be absent. 
 
 Section 2. — The record of sales shall be kept in a book provided 
 for that purpose. Sales between members, made out of the An- 
 nex, may be recorded in this book, unless objected to by a ma^ 
 jority of the members present. 
 
 Section 3. — In all time sales, it shall be the duty of the seller 
 to furnish the contract. 
 
 Section 4. — Any member altering or tampering with the book 
 
498 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of record of sales, shall be fined one hundred dollars, and be sus- 
 pended at the pleasure of the Governing Committee. 
 
 Abticlk VIII.— Sids and O/er.i.— Section 1.— During the ses- 
 sion of the Mining Annex, bids and offers mtiy be made either for 
 cash, or for the next business day (commonly termed the regular 
 ■way), or for any number of days, not exceeding sixty. 
 
 Section 2.— From the moment the Chair calls any one stock, 
 until he passes to another, all bids and offers remain in full force, 
 unless a member audibly announces that he is out of the market. 
 In case of a doubt, whether a member is out or not, the concur- 
 rent testimony of five members, that they heard him call out in 
 time, is sufficient to establish the fact. It is understood, that 
 only the last bid or offer of a member is binding upon him, as 
 superseding former ones ; but a bid does not supersede an offer, 
 nor vice versa. 
 
 Section 3. — Any member calling a stock, is entitled to the 
 market on that particular stock, on the terms and time finl pro- 
 posed by him, if he makes a prompt bid or offer, or both, although, 
 in the first moment, he may have been anticipated. This prefer- 
 ence, however, is lost the moment he varies his bid or offer in any 
 way. 
 
 Section 4. — Bids and offers on all stocks selling at twenty-five 
 cents or under, one cent per share ; from twenty-five cents to five 
 dollars per share, two and one half cents ; from five dollars to ten 
 dollars, five cents per share ; from ten dollars andupward, twelve 
 and a half cents. 
 
 Section 5. — A member making several sales, need not report 
 until he has finished selling on that call. 
 
 Section 6. — In all offers to buy or sell during a session, when- 
 ever the words "the most," "the lowest," "all I have," "all I 
 want," or others of the same import are used, they remain binding 
 on the member, while the stock remains before the Annex. Any 
 variance from his terms applying to amount, or price, but not to 
 time, subjects a member to a tine of one dollar ; and any transac- 
 tion made with him, in consequence of his^original declaration, 
 or which may be affected by his subsequent change from it, may 
 be cancelled at the option of the other party. This rule applies, 
 when a bid or offer is made for another member. 
 
 Section 7. — Any member who shall, either in or out' of the 
 Annex, buy, or sell, or offer to buy or sell, any amount of stock 
 at a certain price, and any other amount of the same stock at 
 another price, making one purchase or sale depend on the other, 
 shall be fined five dollars. 
 
 Section S. — Any member guilty of dealing with a person in the 
 room, not a member of the Annex, shall be fined one hundred 
 dollars, without excuse or appeal; and for a repetition of the 
 offence, shall be suspended at the pleasure of the Governing Com- 
 mittee of the Stock Exchange. It shall be the duty of any mem- 
 ber, having a knowledge of the violation of this rule, to report 
 the same, without delay, to the Chairman, or to the Governing 
 Committee of the Stock Exchange. 
 
 Section 9. — Any member bidding for, or offering to sell stocks 
 any number of days over three, flat, shall be fined five dollars. 
 
 Section 10. — No fictitious purchase, sale, or contract, shall be 
 made, under a penalty of suspension at the pleasure of the Gov- 
 erning Committee of the Stock Exchange. 
 
 Akticlb IX. — Transactions on Time. — Section 1. — Sales and 
 purchases "on time" are not to be made over sixty days, Sundays 
 to be counted in the same manner as in promissory notes ; con- 
 tracts maturing on Sunday, or on a legal holiday, must be settled 
 the day previous, interest to be charged to the date of payment 
 only. 
 
 Section 2. — No purchase or sale of stock, except beyond three 
 days, shall bear interest. Sundays and legal holidays being 
 counted. 
 
 Section 8. — All purchases and sales of stocks beyond three days, 
 shall be with interest. All days, whether working days or not, 
 being counted. 
 
 Aktiole X. — Notifying for Delivery. — Section 1 . — In contracts 
 made, buyer's or seller's option, a notification for delivery, by the 
 party having the option, must be given on the preceding business 
 day, before the first regular session. When the option is without 
 notice, notification must be given before the first regular session 
 on the day of delivery. 
 
 Section 2. — A contract made before the first session, buyer or 
 seller three days without notice, may be notified for the same day. 
 A contract with interest must run at least one day. 
 
 Section 3. — On a contract, where the buyer or feller's option 
 is after a certain number of days, the option commences only after 
 the specified number of days has elapsed ; for instance, on a con- 
 tract, sixty days buyer after ten, the buyer cannot claim the stock 
 until the twelfth day; if, however, the contract is without notice, 
 he can claim it on the eleventh day. 
 
 Section 4.— Every member must have, in the vicinity of the 
 
 Annex, a place of business other than the Annex, where all 
 notices must be served; and it shall be the duty of every member, 
 to keep filed with the Secretary of the Stock Exchange, a written 
 notice designating such place of business, and also to give notice 
 to the Secretary of any change thereof. A failure to comply with 
 these requirements, for thirty days after notice by the Secretary, 
 shall subject the member to suspension. 
 
 Article XI.— Contracts in Stocks not Fully Paid.— In all contracts 
 on time for stocks not fully paid up, the seller shall charge any 
 instalment that may be called for, and paid between the day of 
 sale and that of delivery, with interest from the day on which 
 said instalment has been required to be paid. 
 
 Article XII. — Contracts Due when Books are closed. — In the 
 event of contracts for the delivery of an even hundred or hun- 
 dreds of shares of stock maturing during the closing of the trans- 
 fer books, the delivery shall be made by certificate and power at 
 the maturity of the contract. But contracts for the delivery of 
 odd amounts of stocks, so maturing, may be extended, at the re- 
 quest of either party, until the opening of the transfer books ; 
 the terms, in all cases, remaining the same as in the original 
 transactions. 
 
 Article XIII. — On Dividends. — Section 1. — All dividends de- 
 clared on stocks go to the purchaser, until regularly announced at 
 the Annex, or by due notice in public papers. When a contract 
 for the delivery of stock becomes due on the day on which a divi- 
 dend has been officially announced, or between that day and the 
 day on which the dividend is made payable, the seller shall deduct 
 said dividend from his bill, or deliver his due bill for the same, at 
 his option. Members have the right to demand security on such 
 due bills. 
 
 Section 2. — Any member reporting as the dividend of any Mining 
 Stock Company, a rate of percentage which proves erroneous, shall 
 be fined twenty-five dollars. 
 
 Article XIV. — Certificate and Power. — Section 1. — All stocks 
 sold in hundreds, may be delivered certificate and power, in certifi- 
 cates of not more than one hundred shares each, and the seller must 
 guarantee the power, when requested to do so. Either party may 
 demand a transfer. 
 
 Section 2. — Whenever the transfer books of any company shall 
 be closed by any legal impediment, so as to render their being open 
 again uncertain, then the deliveries of stock of such company, in 
 satisfaction of contracts, shall be made by Certificate and Power of 
 Attorney irrevocable, the papers to be satisfactory to the recipients 
 or passed upon by the Arbitration Committee. 
 
 Article XV. — Irregularities of Deliveries. — Reclamations for 
 irregularities in deliveries of stocks, when such irregularities do not 
 affect their validity, but only currency in the market, will not be 
 considered unless made within five days from the day of delivery. 
 
 Article XVI. — Payments and Transfers. — Section 1. — Stocks 
 must be delivered before 2.30 P. M., or the buyer may demand that 
 they shall lie over untU the next day without interest. When a 
 sale has been made for cash after 2 P. M., the seller shall have 
 until 3 P. M. to make his delivery. 
 
 Section 2. — Payments may be demanded in current bank notes, 
 or a due bill of one of the associated banks. 
 
 Article XVII.— 0/ Bon-owing Stocks, etc. — Section 1. — Stocks 
 borrowed against money shall be considered the same as stock con- 
 tracts. 
 
 Section 2. — Stocks borrowed without au equivalent, shall be con- 
 sidered as friendly loans. 
 
 Section 3. — Where money is borrowed upon stocks, the collateral 
 cannot be used by the holder. 
 
 Article XVIII. — Operating for Another JIfemfter.— Section 1.— 
 A member bidding for, or offering stocks for another member, must 
 mention his name with the bid or offer, or be responsible for the 
 contract. The party accepting the name must compare with the 
 principal before 4 p. M. on the same day, or else &\\ claim on said 
 principal shall be forfeited. 
 
 Section 2. — Members have the privilege of trading for members 
 suspended for insolvency, at any rate of commission they may 
 choose to charge or agree upon, for three months from the date o"f 
 their suspension. Full commission must be charged to all other 
 suspended members. 
 
 Any member who shall execute any order for the purchase or sale 
 of stocks for any person in the employ of another member, without 
 first obtaining the consent of the employer, shall, for the first oft'ence, 
 be fined one hundred dollars, and for the second, shall be suspended 
 at the pleasure of the Governing Committee of the Stock E.xchange. 
 
 Article XIX.— 0/ i>ejoosi««.— Section 1.— At any time while a 
 contract is pending, a mutual deposit may be called by either party 
 to secure the same. No additional deposit can be required, except 
 from the party against whom the contract rules. The deposit of the 
 stock on the part of tiio seller shall, in all oases, be considered sufli- 
 cient security. In case of dispute, as to the amount, character of 
 security, or place of deposit, the matter shall be referred to the Ar- 
 bitration Ciuuraittee of the Stock Exchange, whose decision shall 
 be final. 
 
 Section 2.— Where deposits are called before half-past 10 o'clock 
 A. M., they shall be made before 1 o'clock p. M., the same day; if 
 called before 2 o'clock, they shall be made before quarter of 3 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 499 
 
 o'clock P. M., the same day ; if called after 2 o'clock, they shall be 
 made on or before half-past 10 o'clock A. M., the following day. 
 
 Section 3. — Should the call not be responded to, within the pre- 
 scribed time, the Chairman shall, upon proper notification from the 
 member making the call, forthwith close the contract upon which 
 the deposit has Deen called. 
 
 Section 4. — Parties depositing margins shall name the security 
 deposited, designating the amount and market value of the same, 
 that the party t<i be secured may be able to accept or to reject such 
 security. 
 
 Section 5. — Any deposit of money as a margin is strictly a trust, 
 and cannot be used by the party receiving it in his business, except 
 by special agreement. 
 
 Article XX. — Advertising Stocks, etc. — Section 1. — No member 
 shall have the right to advertise, by circular, or in the papers, any 
 particular loans, stocks, or bonds (Government securities excepted) 
 which are current at the Stock Exchange or Annex, under a penalty 
 of one hundred dollars for the first offence, and for the second, sus- 
 pension, at the pleasure of the Governing Committee of the Stock 
 Exchange. 
 
 Section 2. — Special permission may be given to members of the 
 Annex, by the Stock List Committee of the Exchange, to advertise 
 any new loan or series of bonds received, or to be received, from 
 any mining company issuing the same; the decision of that com- 
 mittee to be subject to an appeal to the Governing Committee of 
 the Stock Exchange. And parties obtaining such permisjion, shall 
 sell to members of the Annex at least one-quarter per cent, cheaper 
 than they sell to the public. Penalties for violating, same as Sec- 
 tion 1. 
 
 Akticle XXI. — Application to have Stocks, Bonds, or Loans 
 Placed upon the List. — Section 1. — Application to have a stock, 
 bond, or loan placed upon the list, must be made to the Stock List 
 Committee of the Stock Exchange, in writing, and signed by at 
 least five members of the Annex. 
 
 Section 2. — If a stock, the application must state the amount of 
 authorized capital, par value of the shares, whether assessable, 
 amount paid in, whether dividend paying, and if so, time and place 
 of dividend, address of transfer office, amount of funded and floating 
 debt, all of which must be certified to by the officers, with the seal 
 of the company attached. In each case, a listing fee of two hundred 
 dollars must accompany the application ; to be returned if the ap- 
 plication is refused. 
 
 Section 3.— If a bond or loan, the application must state the 
 amount authorized, the amount outstanding, when due, percentage 
 of interest, when and where payable, whether taxable, whether 
 guaranteed, and by whom, and name of trustee, if any. 
 
 Section 4. — If the List Committee approve the application, they 
 shall report to the Governing Committee of the Stocic Exchange for 
 final action. 
 
 Article XXII. — Against uniting with other organizations. — 
 Section 1. — Xo member shall be directly or indirectly (through a 
 partner or clerk) connected with any other organization in this 
 city, where mining stocks, bonds, etc., are dealt in. The penalty, 
 for the first offence, shall be a fine of one hundred dollars, and sus- 
 pension by the Governing Committee, for a period of not less than 
 sixty days. For a repetition of the offence, a fine of five hundred 
 dollars, and suspension for at least six months. 
 
 Section 2. — ^Any member giving or accepting orders to be executed 
 at any other such organization in this city, shall be subject to the 
 same penalties as in Section 1 ; this rule not to apply to sales of 
 stocks or bonds made at public auction, in the reading room of the 
 Merchants' Exchange. 
 
 Article XXIII. — Fines for Disorder, etc. — Section 1. — Any 
 member guilty of indecorous language or conduct towards the pre- 
 siding officer or a member, while in the Annex, shall be fined five 
 dollars, without excuse or appeal, and for a repetition of the offence, 
 shall, by a vote of two-thirds of the Governing Committee of fhe 
 Stock Exchange, be suspended for not less than one mouth, nor for 
 a longer period than three months. 
 
 Section 2. — Any member interrupting the presiding officer while 
 calling stocks, by speaking or otherwise, shall pay a fine of not less 
 than twenty-five cents for each offence, at the discretion of the pre- 
 siding officer, from which there Shall be no excuse or appeal. 
 
 Section 3. — In all cases where a fine is inflicted by the presiding 
 offiser for loud talking, the member so fined shall not be excused 
 by simply denying it, unless he denies talking, the presiding officer 
 being the judge whether or not the session is disturbed. 
 
 Section 4. — Any member who shall be guilty of an act or acts, 
 which shall endanger the person of a member, shall be subject to 
 a fine of not less than ten dollars, or more than one hundred dollars. 
 
 Section 5. — Any member having his coat off' in the Annex shall 
 he fined fifty cents. 
 
 Section 6. — No member shall smoke in the Annex, until after the 
 last regular session, under a penalty of five dollars, except in a 
 special room, provided by the Committee on the Building. 
 
 Section 7. — Any member who shall, at any time, in the Annex, 
 be guilty of conduct subversive of good order and decorum, shall be 
 fined, at the discretion of the presiding officer, in a sum not exceed- 
 ing five dollars. 
 
 Section 8. — When a member is fined for an alleged violation of 
 the rules, and he denies it, and the offence is proven by the testi- 
 mony of others, the fine shall be doubled. 
 
 Section 9. — Any member who shall inquire of the presiding officer 
 what he was fined for, in a case involving a simple fine, shall be 
 fined double, unless he denies the commission of the offence. 
 
 Section 10. — No fine can be ordered to be taken off' by the presid- 
 ing officer, except while the Annex is in Session. 
 
 Section 11. — A fine of one dollar shall be imposed on any mem- 
 ber carrying a cane or umbrella about the room, unless said mem- 
 ber is lame. 
 
 Section 12. — Any member who shall stand upon, oe put his 
 foot upon the furniture, recline upon a lounge, or in anyway injure 
 the furniture, shall be subject to a fine of not less than one dollar, 
 nor more than five dollars, without excuse or appeal, and shall be 
 charged with the cost of all necessary repairs. 
 
 Section 13. — A fine when no special mention is made of the 
 sum, means ten cents, without appeal. 
 
 Section 14. — Any member swearing, or using profane-language in 
 the Annex, shall be fined five dollars. 
 
 Article XXIV.— 0/ Appeals. — Section 1.— On an appeal from 
 a fine, no debate is allowed. No motion to excuse a member from 
 a fine can be entertained by the Chair, after an appeal has been 
 made by the member, and decided in the negative. When the ' 
 Chair has once declined fining a member, no appeal from that de- 
 cision to the Annex shall be entertained. 
 
 Section 2. — A member may, upon a motion, be excused from his 
 fines, by a vote of two-thirds of the members present. 
 
 Article XXV. — Yearly Dues. — Section 2. — In case the revenue 
 of the Mining Annex shall be insufficient to meet the current ex- 
 penses for the year, the Governing Committee shall levy an asses- 
 ment of one-half on members of the Annex, other than members of 
 the Philadelphia'Stock Exchange. 
 
 Article XXVI. — Non-Paymeni of Fines and Dues. — Any mem- 
 ber neglecting to pay his fines or assessments for the period of 
 three months, shall be notified by the Secretary of the Stock Ex- 
 change ; and continuing in his neglect for one month thereafter, 
 shall be suspended until the payment of the same. 
 
 Article XXVIL— JJwZfts in Force at all Times. — Rules for the 
 behavior of members during the sessions of the Annex are in force 
 in the buildings at all times, whether the Annex is in session or not; 
 and it shall be the duty of the Chairman to enforce them without 
 waiting for a formal complaint against the off'ender. 
 
 Article XXVIII. — Admission of Strangers and Non-Members, 
 — No member shall introduce a stranger or non-member in the in- 
 closure of the Annex, unless by permission of the Chairman, or a 
 member of the Governing Committee. The clerks of brokers are 
 not permitted to enter the inclosure at any time. 
 
 Article XXIX. — Dissolution and Change of Firms, etc. — It 
 shall be the duty of every member of the Annex, to notify the 
 Secretary of the Stock Exchange at once of any change in the 
 constitution of the firm, and upon failure to comply with the pro- 
 vision of this article for a period of ten days, shall be fined twenty- 
 five dollars. 
 
 The Philadelphia Mining Board of Trade.— After 
 the consolidation of Mining Exchange with the Stock Ex- 
 change, in the Mining Annex, it was found that a good deal 
 of business was left without a local habitation, so to speak, 
 by the exclusive restrictions of the Annex rules. Corporate 
 companies carrying on legitimate undertakings of various 
 kinds, not only mining, but manufacturing and commercial, 
 whose stocks were handled on the street, were not listed at 
 the Exchange, and the parties interested in them were 
 therefore constantly subjected to more or less inconvenience, 
 the dissatisfaction arising from these circumstances 
 suggested the idea of forming another Exchange for the 
 trading in railroad, mining and miscellaneous stocks. The 
 brokers who were opposed to the merger of the Mining 
 Board with the Annex, took an active interest in this sug- 
 gestion, and in the autumn of 1881, a plan was formulated 
 for the new venture. A number of gentlemen associated 
 and applied for a charter in November, and early in Decem- 
 ber the instrument was obtained, the grant being made to 
 The Philadelphia Mining Board of Trade. This is believed ' 
 to be the only instance on record in Pennsylvania of a char- 
 ter grant to a commercial body of this description. The pro- 
 visions of the charter are very liberal and permit the Board 
 to trade in anything and everything coming within the 
 scope of legitimate enterprise. Upon receipt of the charter, 
 the association was regularly organized under the above 
 title, and the following ofBcers were elected: President, 
 James B. Anderson ; Vice-President, A. L. Garver ; Secre- 
 tary, A. H. Woodman ; Treasurer, W. B. Keen ; Chairman 
 of Calls, Edwin Faxon ; Clerk, James W. Mulford. Listing 
 Committee, H. S. Twining, C. H. Woodruff, W. J. Radcliff'. 
 Room Committee, E. M. Harris, J. W. Mulford, S. H. 
 Jenkins. Committee on Membership , Charles I. 'Fireno 
 W. H. Wade, K. H. Wilson. Committee on Finance, w' 
 B. Keen, A. L. Garver, T. H. E. Gruel. Directors James 
 B. Anderson, C. I. Fireno, A. L. Garver, E. M. Harris W 
 
500 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 B. Keen, W. H. Wade, J. W. Mulford, A. H. Woodward, 
 F. J. Moody, W. J. Radcliff, W. S. Turner, C. H. Wood- 
 ruff, H. S. Twining, K. H. Wilson. 
 
 The premises No, 239 Chestnut street were leased and 
 fitted up as an Exchange, the place affording pleasant and 
 suitable accommodation in an accessible location. Formal 
 possession was takefa December 27th, 1881, and the Ex- 
 change was opeu for business, after addresses by the Presi- 
 dent and other officers. The Exchange opened with 63 
 members, and the original subscription fee was $25. The 
 membership has steadily increased, numbering 103, July 1st, 
 1882 ; and the fee has been advanced to $75. Any stocks 
 of whatever description can be listed and dealt in at 
 this Bnar3, provided they represent valid enterprises with 
 bona fide business and can pass the Listing Commit- 
 tee's examination as to capital, responsibility and char- 
 acter of management. The purpose is to rigidly ex- 
 clude all wild cat corporations, and the concerns whose re- 
 sources consist mainly of a desk and chair, but to extend 
 liberal facilities to sound companies of good standing 
 whether listed in other Exchanges or not. The business 
 done during the first six months has been mostly in 
 mining shares, though other stocks have also been han- 
 dled. Trade has been growing in volume slowly, but on 
 the whole satisfactorily, and the promoters of the enter- 
 prise are convinced that it is gradually attaining a po9i- 
 tion of assured permanency. On the 1st of July, 1882, the 
 Board was found to be in excellent financial condition, and 
 future prosperity looked fairly promising. 
 
 The Philadelphia Stock Market. — The several Min- 
 ing Stock Exchanges have afforded facilities rather more 
 than ample, for the buying and selling of mining stocks, 
 and in this have rendered the public valuable service. Fur- 
 thermore, they have enabled the promotion of mining enter- 
 prises to bring their properties and projects before the pub- 
 lic and to solicit investments therein. A method commonly 
 pursued in getting a mining company under way is to 
 reserve a portion of the stock for working capital. This 
 stock, called " treasury stock," is sold at the best price that 
 can be obtained, and the avails supply the means for carry- 
 ing on the undertaking until it can be made self-sustaining. 
 This is the theory, and although it has not been found to 
 work satisfactorily in practice, it is still defensible as a the- 
 ory, and is generally followed in the promotion of mining 
 companies. The Stock Exchanges have been used as agen- 
 cies for the distribution of " treasury stock" among invest- 
 ors, and it must be plainly said that in the performance of 
 this office, public confidence has been outrageously abused. 
 It is true that the Exchanges have established rules and 
 regulations looking to the exclusion of fraudulent concerns 
 and abortive undertakings, and it is true also that no wisdom 
 can provide against the misfortunes to which mining vent- 
 ures are proverbially liable, but, after all allowance is made, 
 the fact remains that through the Mining Exchanges of 
 Philadelphia a vast amount of utterly worthless stock has 
 been foisted on the public. An astonishing number of 
 companies have sprung up whose principal and often 
 only resources have resided in their treasury stock," and 
 the palming off of this stock has been the sole busi- 
 ness contemplated. Even in cases where the companies 
 have been honestly based on good properties in the be- 
 ginning, the facility with which the public could be fleeced 
 by operations in the stocks on 'change, has again and again 
 tempted the managers to convert bona fide undertakings into 
 schemes for swindling. The history of dealing in mining 
 shares during the past three years is largely a history of the 
 decline and extinction, so far as market price is concerned, 
 of stocks originally issued with a flourish of trumpets at any- 
 where from a dollar to five dollars per share. Not less than 
 $60,000,000 of nominal capital has been wiped out of the 
 market during this time, and there are unquestionably still 
 further reductions to be made. What actual loss investors 
 have been subjected to it is of course impossible to esti- 
 mate, and it is also impossible to determine what part of 
 the lo34 has been due to misfortune and the actual ex- 
 haustion of mineral deposits, but it is certain that an 
 appallingly large proportion is attributable directly to 
 fraud. It is to be noted too that unavoidable business 
 losses are met with fortitude in mining as in any other 
 branch of human affairs, while the wholesale swindles here 
 
 referred to have resulted in desperate depression, insanity 
 and suicide. 
 
 The Share Market for ISSl.^During the early months 
 of 1881 business in mining stocks was carried on both at the 
 stock exchange and at the mining exchanges. Of the com- 
 panies listed at the stock exchange only Tombstone, Gira/rd, 
 Oriora and Iowa Quick showed much activity. Prices re- 
 mained fairly steady on limited transactions at the Mining 
 Exchange. The active stocks at the beginning of the year 
 were Fairview consolidated, Iowa Oulch, Rara Avis, Buena. 
 'Dauntless, and Argent. Tlie daily dealings at the Mining 
 Exchange averaged 20,000 to 30,000 shares, gradually grow- 
 ing lighter towards the close of January. The variations 
 in prices were not important except in the case of Iowa 
 Gulch, which opened for the year at $1.00 at $1.10 and 
 dropped to 35 during the last week of January, returning to 
 85 early in February. 
 
 On Tuesday, February 1st, 1881, the National Mining 
 and Stock Exchange was opened in the rotunda of the 
 Commercial Exchange Builditig, the chamber formerly 
 occupied by the Philadelphia Stock Exchange. The occa- 
 sion was marked by an entertainment tendered by the mem- 
 bers of the New Exchange to the brokers, leading business 
 men, distinguished citizens and the press. Speeches were 
 made by Colonel A. Lowden Snowden, Director of the Mint, 
 General Hartranft, Collector of the Port, Governor Safford 
 of Arizona, and others, and, through press reports, the pro- 
 ceedings attracted a good deal of public attention. With 
 this send off, business in mining shares took on increased 
 activity and received more general notice both from specu- 
 lators and from inventors. There were in February three 
 Boards dealing in mining shares, namely, the popular old 
 established stock exchange, the Philadelphia Mining Ex- 
 change and National Mining and Stock Exchange. The 
 total dealings during February ran from about 120,000 to 
 200,000 shares daily. Of this aggregate the new National 
 Exchange contributed from about 40,000 to 100,000 shares. 
 Besides the stock listed elsewhere, the National traded ac- 
 tively in the shares of several new companies, the Home- 
 stake and the Standard being the most prominent. Toward 
 the beginning of March the general market began to mani- 
 fest noticeable weakness and prices showed a declining ten- 
 dency, Iowa Quick, the most sensitive stock, returning to 
 372. 
 
 As the spring advanced trade improved in character, 
 though not in volume, and the higher priced stocks were 
 now freely handled. Tombstone, & regular dividend payer 
 at this period, became a favorite, Gunnison Improvement was 
 bought out and commanded respectable figures, and Denver 
 (My consolidated presented quite a substantial appearance 
 as compared with the long list of trashy stocks selling at a 
 few cents per share. 
 
 The market continued fairly active and without special 
 feature requiring notice here, until after the middle of April, 
 the fluctation in prices not being very important, the gen- 
 eral tendency being slowly downward. During the third 
 week in April Tombstone began to break off, slightly at first 
 and subsequently with alarming rapidity. As the Tomb- 
 stone company was the most solid and reputable corporation 
 of its kind in Philadelphia, and as the stock had always 
 stood at the head of the market, this break excited marked 
 attention not only in mining circles but throughout the com- 
 munity. It was attributed to a disagreement among the 
 managers of the company. The general market was a good 
 deal demoralized by the weakness of Tombstone, and grow- 
 ing distrust was reflected in lighter dealings and lower quo- 
 tations. The close of the spring season, however, found the 
 market improving again. A change having been made in 
 the management of Tombstone, the stock revived somewhat 
 and though never fully recovering its former place was yet 
 in fair investment demand at a range 20 to 30 percent, lower 
 than in its palmy days. The managers of this company 
 were men of high standing in the community and a great 
 many investors were satisfied to put money into the stock 
 merely on the strength of the well known names at the head 
 of it._ The early summer trade was characterized by apathy 
 and inertia, throughout. The general tendency of prices 
 was steadily toward lower figures, and, many of the 
 stocks of more speculative than actual value, slowly sank 
 out of sight, their places on the share list knowing them no 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 501 
 
 more. Iowa Oulch, heretofore cited as an illustration of 
 the market and admittedly one of the most important stocks 
 so far as traffic is concerned, wavered irregularly downward, 
 and in July ranged from 35 to 45 cents per share. Tomb- 
 stone held steady during this period at the lower range of 
 $5.00 to $5.50. The Mining Annex of the old established 
 stock exchange was opened at this season, but comparatively 
 little trading was done then. 
 
 About the end of July and beginning of August there 
 was a mid-summer access of activity, and with heavier deal- 
 ings prices generally improved. The low grade stocks how- 
 ever continued to droop and the list of two cent stocks would 
 have grown longer but that the poorest of them dropped be- 
 low a cent a share and so out of the market. The improve- 
 ment in the market was attributed in part to the consolida- 
 tion of the Mining Stock Exchange with the Mining Annex 
 of the Philadephia Stock Exchange which took place July 
 11th. The effect of this consolidation was to give the trade 
 iu mining stocks an appearance of greater stability and im- 
 portance, and transactions in "100 shares at three cents 
 buyer 60," no longer made such a noticeable not to say 
 ridiculous feature of the sales reports. The stock sales at 
 the Mining Annex, as the consolidation continued to be 
 called, amounted to a daily average of over 150,000 shares. 
 The receipts of bullion from Arizona especially were large 
 aud continuous, and the solid metal coming in large quanti- 
 ties had a stimulating eifect on mining investments. There 
 was a good demand for stocks in fair repute and Philadel- 
 phia claimed the credit for the moment of the best min- 
 ing share market in the country. 
 
 Late in September and during the first weeks of October, 
 investment traffic declined and speculation followed suit, 
 the dealings at the Annex falling off to 75,000 or 80,000 
 shares daily. Prices drooped and though rallying fitfully 
 at times did not at any moment recover the August range. 
 During October and part of November the market exhib- 
 ited signs of improvement. The commission trade, which 
 is the basis of stock dealing, was larger and prices occasion- 
 ally reached an almost buoyant character. Several of the 
 older companies that had been in difficulties owing to in- 
 competent management, effected salutary changes during 
 the autumn and presented more hopeful prospects; and 
 rumors of the decline of other companies, the Tombstone for 
 example, were hqjd to be disproved by continued dividends. 
 The improvemants did not hold through December, the 
 market resuming its gravitating course, turning very dull 
 and ruling heavy toward the holidays. Distrust of Tomb- 
 stone was again manifested and although the 20th monthly 
 dividend was paid in December, the stock dropped $2.00 
 per share. Iowa Gfulch fell to 30 cents and the entire list 
 was decidedly lower. The year came to a close with the 
 market in a weak and yielding state. The result of the 
 dealings for 1881 may be summed up in the statement that 
 some 20 companies were wiped out of the market and the 
 ran3;e of prices was let down 25 to 80 per cent. 
 
 The Share Market in 1832. — An important event in 
 the opening of 1882 was the watering of the stock of Iowa 
 Gulch. This was important, not only to the company and 
 to the parties immediately interested, but to the entire 
 mining community. Iowa Gulch occupied a prominent 
 position in the share market, and the proposal to increase 
 the stock attracted general attention. There had been a 
 strong disposition manifested during the latter part of 1881 
 to protest against the capitalization of mining companies at 
 absurdly inflated figures, and against the abuses incident to 
 the issue of " Treasury stock." The capital of Iowa Gulch 
 was already 500,000 shares, and this proposal was to put out 
 100,000 shares more. The issue was professedly proposed 
 for the purpose of procuring more working capital ; that is 
 to say, it was another issue of " Treasury stock." It was 
 hoped that the shareholders would refuse to sanction the 
 project, but there was very little opposition, and the addition 
 of 20 percent, to the nominal capital was duly made. 
 It is not too much to say that this instance of persistence 
 in demoralizing practices tended seriously to injure the 
 mining share market, as it unquestionably gave an impetus 
 to the subsequent decline in the stock of this company. 
 This decline during January reached 27 cents per share 
 from a range of 35 to 45. 
 
 During the -first month of the year, reports began to be 
 
 heard that the deposit on which the prosperity of Tombstone 
 had been based was exhausted. Furthermore, it was admit- 
 ted that the company had a large floating debt to be pro- 
 vided for instead of a considerable surplus fund as previously 
 claimed. An important law suit threatened to terminate 
 adversely to the company, and altogether the model com- 
 pany of Philadelphia seemed to be in a bad way. The Jan- 
 uary dividendwas, however, paid on time, and the stock 
 which had been down to $8.80 rallied to $4.50 before the 
 close of the month. Outside of the regular market, the 
 'Gunsight comjjany, a Philadelphia concern, with a promi- 
 sing property in Pima county, Arizona, began to attract 
 investments. The Lake Valley mines. Dona Ana Co., New 
 Mexico, owned by Philadelphians, and since attaining wide 
 celebrity as wonderfully rich properties, on which the 
 Sierra companies have been located, also came conspicuous- 
 ly before the public, early in the year. 
 
 The general market was very quiet during the late winter 
 and early spring, in sympathy with stock speculation of- 
 every description. Beside this reason for lighter dealings, 
 the decline of prices for a ninnber of stocks on the list to 
 very low figures tended to check operations. There is very 
 little inducement to trade in a stock after it has sunk to a 
 range of 3 or 4 cents a share. In February and March 
 Tombstone made its regular dividends, and maintained its 
 price at about the same figures, although it was tolerably 
 evident that large blocks of stock were being distributed on 
 the market. The Sierra mines were not listed, but were 
 selling outside at about $2.50 for Sierra Apache, $3.00 for 
 Sierra Bella, and $6.00 for Sierra Grande and Sierra Plata. 
 The Philadelphia Mining and Smelting Company and the 
 Little Wood River Mining and Smelting Company axe also 
 Philadelphia organizations, whose stock, though unlisted, 
 attracted increasing attention during the spring months. 
 The stocks sold during the spring at $5.00 to $6.00 per share. 
 An incident of the month of March occasioning a notice- 
 able excitement was the arrest of the ex-secretary of 
 the Grand Union Gold and Silver Mining Company, to- 
 gether with two mining stock brokers on charges of conspir- 
 acy to defraud by over issues and bogus transfers to the ex- 
 tent of 135,000 shares of the Grand Union Company's stock. 
 This event occasioned the more commotion as it was a mat- 
 ter of common report that the stock of other companies had 
 been tampered with in similar ways. The first attempt to 
 bring punitive measures to bear on wild cat stock opera- 
 tions had the effect of putting a check on the bringing 
 out of "paper" companies, and hastened the retirement 
 of others already on the market. It also awakened at- 
 tention to the desirability of making the registration of 
 stock compulsory on all listed companies. There was some 
 discussion of a proposal for compulsory registration among 
 the brokers during the spring and early summer, but up to 
 present writing nothing practical has come of it. 
 
 The Tombstone April dividend was paid as usual, but the 
 annual statement of the company showed a discouraging 
 state of affairs, the conditions revealed being even more 
 hopeless than the street gossips anticipated. From a range 
 above $4.00 per share the stock fell below $2.00 before the 
 close of April, and predictions were freely ventured that no 
 further dividends could be made. During this period, Iowa 
 Crulch declined below 25 cents per share and was in conse- 
 quence relegated to a place among the "penny shares," after 
 having been for a considerable period at the head of the list. 
 The general market continued very dull and the sagging 
 tendency above noted ruled through the list, with two or 
 three exceptions. The unlisted stocks were in better de- 
 mand in April and May and it became evident that a better 
 business was growing up in these stocks than the regular call 
 could command. Prices for the Sierras and Little Wood River 
 companies shares remained firm at about the same figures. 
 In May the dealings on 'change declined still" further, the 
 average amounting to about 60,000 shares daily ; sometimes 
 dropping to half that volume, and, moreover, a large propor- 
 tion of the transactions were in the " penny" stocks. Of the 
 higher priced shares. Tombstone, and Girard a neighboring 
 concern, furnished more than half the business. On the 
 26th of May a great fire occurred in the Tombstone settlement 
 and Tombstone stock fell to 1.27J. The rest of the list 
 seemed to be gradually wearing out the respect and even 
 the patience of the community. With one or two excep- 
 
502 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tions, prices were at figures so low that shares had to be 
 handled by the basketful to make any show of business, and 
 even the most persistent operators showed evidences of 
 weariness and di^ust with the old list of worn, frayed-out, 
 and too often worthless " penny " shares. The principal 
 listed companies at the close of June, 1882, are Tombstone, 
 selling at $1.02 J to $1.10; Leaver City, at .30; Silver 
 Cord, at 62}; Iowa Oulch, at .22; Oirard, at .33; Oun- 
 nison, at .95; Argent, at .20; Pembina, at fl.' 2} ; Bara 
 Avis, at $1.45; (rovernor's Group, at .24; Buena, at .11 j 
 Penn Breckenridge, at AO ; Compromise, at .27 J; Cincinnati, 
 at .13. Beside these there are 66 other companies listed, 
 in various stages of decline, from 25 cents to 1 cent per share. 
 The principal unlisted companies are the Philadelphia 
 Mining and Smelting, selling at about $6.00 ; the Little Wood 
 Biver, at $5.50 ; Sierra Grande, at .$6.50 ; Sierra Platte, at 
 $5.75 ; Sierra Bella, at $2.25 ; and Sierra Apache, at $1.70. 
 
 The amount of live Philadelphia capital in gold and silver 
 mining at this date is estimated at $50,000,000, though the 
 considerable number of private ventures making no public 
 exhibit whatever, renders the extent of investment somewhat 
 uncertain. The receipts of bullion from the mines owned here 
 are larger than ever before and are gradually increasing. The 
 prospects of valid enterprises are in most cases very favor- 
 able, and their stocks, nearly all of which are unlisted, are 
 likely to meet with fair investment demand. But as to the 
 trade in the list now handled at the Mining Annex, no one 
 can deny that it seems to be "peetering out." Unless a rad- 
 ical improvement is made very soon, the Mining Annex 
 will become as moribund as some of the old stocks it still 
 clings to. 
 
 THE BOSTON MINING AND STOCK 
 EXCHANGE. 
 
 THE deep interest taken in Boston and throughout 
 New England in the revival of the mining interest 
 on the Eastern coast, led in Sept. 1880, to the organ- 
 ization of a separate exchange in Boston for dealings 
 in mining securities. The name adopted was the "Boston 
 Mining and Stock Exchange," a number of the younger 
 and active brokers of the city joined the exchange, and for 
 a time the board was very popular and the business trans- 
 acted was large. The repeated disappointments of the pub- 
 lic brought about by misplaced confidence in the managers 
 of mining schemes, have finally had their decided effect 
 upon this exchange, however, and the 'business transacted 
 on it from day to day is much smaller than formerly. Fol- 
 lowing are the constitution and by-laws of the exchange 
 revised to March of the current year: 
 
 Constitution of the Boston Mining Stock Exchangb. 
 — The subscribers associate themselves together for the purpose of 
 establishing at Boston a place where mining and other stocks may 
 be bought and sold, after the manner usual in a stock exchange ; 
 and to this end we hereby adopt the following Constitution ; 
 
 Akticle I. — Name. — The name of the association shall be "The 
 Boston Mining and Stock Exchange." 
 
 Article II. — Annual and Special Meetings. — The annual meet- 
 ing of the members shall be held on thethird Tuesday of September, 
 at twelve o'clock noon, in the rooms of the Exchange at Boston. 
 
 Notice of the time and place of meeting shall be mailed to each 
 member at his place of business by the Secretary, not less than seven 
 davs prior thereto. 
 
 Special meetings may be called whenever the President or Stand- 
 ing Committee deem expedient, and shall also be called upon the 
 written request of not less than ten members, addressed to the Secre- 
 tary, stating the object of the meeting. 
 
 Notice of special meetings shall be given by the Secretarv in 
 manner aforesaid, not less than two days prior thereto,and shall stale 
 the object of the meeting. AU meetings maybe adjourned from 
 time to time for the purpose of acting upon unfinished business, 
 but no business shall be transacted at any adjourned meeting which 
 would not have been in order at the meeting originally called. 
 
 Aeticle III. — Quorum.— Fifteen members shall be necessary to 
 constitute a quorum for the transaction of any business ; except that 
 in the regular daily sessions for the buying and selling of stocks, no 
 quorum of members shall be requisite. 
 
 Akticle IV. — Votes and Proxies. — At all meetings each member 
 shall be entitled to one vote. 
 
 Voting by proxy shall be allowed only at the annual election of 
 officers. 
 
 Article V. — Officers. — At each annual meeting, there shall be 
 chosen by ballot from among the members a President, Vice-Presi- 
 dent, Treasurer, Secretary, Chairman of the Exchange, a Standing 
 Committee, Finance Committee, and a Committee on Securities ; each 
 of the said committees to consist of five persons. The President and 
 Vice-President shall be members ex^fficio of the Standing Committee; 
 the President and Treasurer shall be members ex-officio of the Finance 
 Committee ; and three members shall be chosen at large as aforesaid, 
 upon such committees, to complete their number. The Committee 
 on Securities shall be chosen at large from the members. 
 
 Any vacancy occurring in any of the foregoing offices from death, 
 resignation, permanent absence, disability, or otherwise, shall forth- 
 with be filled by election by ballot, at a special meeting of the 
 members of the Exchange to be called for that purpose. 
 
 Article VI. — Duties of the President. — The President shall pre- 
 side at all meetings of the members except at the regular daily ses- 
 sions for buying and selling stocks. He shall have the custody of 
 the Treasurer's bonds ; he shall be ex-officio chairman of the Stand- 
 ing and Finance Committees, and preside over their meetings ; he 
 shall have a casting vote in case of tie ; and his decision upon points 
 of order shall be final unless, upon an appeal being taken, he is 
 overruled by a two-thirds vote of the members present and voting. 
 
 Article VII. — Duties of the Vice-President. — It shall be the duty 
 of the Vice-President to perform the duties of the President in the 
 absence of the latter. And in ease of the absence or disability to 
 act, of the President or Vice-President, the Chairman of the Ex- 
 change shall preside at all meetings regularly called, excepting the 
 annual meeting, and shall be possessed in this particular of all the 
 powers now vested in the President or Vice-President, excepting 
 that of casting a vote in case of a tie. 
 
 Article YIIl.^Duties of the Treasurer. — The Treasurer shall 
 have charge of the money and funds of the Exchange, shall deposit 
 the same apart from all other money in his name as Treasurer, or 
 in the name of the association, as shall he determined by the Fi- 
 nance Committee, in some bank to be designated by said committee, 
 and shall pay the current bills of the Exchange upon the approval 
 of the Finance Committee. He shall keep accurate books of ac- 
 count, showing the receipts, expenditures, and funds of the Ex- 
 change, which shall upon all reasonable times be open for the in- 
 spection of all the other officers and members. At each annual 
 meeting he shall render a statement in writing, showing the finan- 
 cial condition of the Exchange. He shall give such bonds for the 
 faithful performance of his duty as the Finance Committee may by 
 vote require. He shall perform such other duties as the Finance 
 Committee shall from time to time assign him. 
 
 Article IX. — Duties of the Secretary. — The Secretary shall 
 give notice of all annual and special meetings of the Exchange in 
 the manner aforesaid, and shall keep a correct record thereof, 
 which shall at all reasonable tim^s be open for the inspection of 
 any member, and shall keep a list of fines, recording all sales and 
 purchases made at the Exchange, and such other transactions be- 
 tween members as may be reported to him in writing by the par- 
 ties respectively interested, and shall perform such other duties as 
 may from time to time be assigned him by the Standing Committee. 
 
 Article X — Duties of the Chairman. — Section 1. — It shall be the 
 duty of the Chairman of the Exchange to preside during the daily 
 sessions, to call stocks at the hours which may be fixed from time 
 to time by the Exchange, to settle all questions of order and enforce 
 the by-laws, rules and regulations during such session ; and to this 
 end he is authorized in his discretion to impose reasonable fines, 
 from which there shall be no appeal. The Chairman shall be a 
 member of the Exchange, ex-officio. 
 
 Section 2. - No member shall speak more than twice on any 
 question under discussion by the Exchange without permission from 
 the presiding officer ; nor sliall any member interrupt another while 
 speaking, except when raising a point of order. 
 
 Article XI.— Duties of the Standinff Committee.— The Stand- 
 ing Committee shall define the powers and duties and shall fix the 
 salaries of all the ofiicers and servants of the Exchange. "They 
 shall have the general management of all the business of the Ex- 
 change, except as herein otherwise provided ; they shall keep min- 
 utes of their proceedings, and shall, when required, sulimit the 
 same for examination at any meeting of the Exchange; to them 
 shall be referred all applications for membership, for such recom- 
 mendations to the Exchange as they shall see fit to make thereon. 
 They shall hold monthly meetings, and in addition thereto shall 
 meet at any time upon the call of the Chairman or any member 
 whose grievances arc laid before them. Any action of the Standing 
 Committee may be reversed by vote of a majority of the members 
 present at any regular or special meeting. 
 
 Article XU.-Duties of the Finance Committee.— -The Finance 
 Committee shall have general charge of the finances of the Ex- 
 change, shall determine tlie bank and manner in which the Treas- 
 urer sliall deposit its funds, and the method of checking out the 
 same. They shall also invest any surplus which may accumulate 
 from time to time not needed for the payment of expenses, at their 
 discretion, in the name and foi- Kie benefit of the Exchange, unless 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 503 
 
 otherwise ordered by a three-fourths vote at a meeting called to act 
 upon the disposal of the surplus fund, and no appropriation exceed- 
 ing the sum of one hundred dollars shall be made (except for ordi- 
 nary expenses) without three days' notice being given, unless by 
 the vote of a majority of the members of the Exchange present at 
 any regular or special meeting. 
 
 They shall keep minutes of their doings, which when required 
 shall be submitted to the Exchange for examination ; they shall 
 also require from any officer or servant such bonds as they shall 
 see fit. 
 
 Article XIII. — Duties of the Committee on Securities. — The 
 Committee on Securities shall examine and report upon all stocks 
 and other securities entered or to be entered upon the regular list 
 of the Exchange, and all applications to place securities upon the 
 list shall be mswJe to them ; and on a favorable report by a majority 
 of the committee, such stocks and securities shall be placed upon 
 the regular list. Every company on making application shall pay 
 a fee of one hundred dollars at the time of application, to be retained 
 by the Exchange, whether the stock is accepted or rejected. The 
 . committee shall also designate what stocks or bonds shall be placed 
 upon the/r«« onAfine lists, with power to revise the same whenever 
 in their judgment it shall be deemed advisable, subject, however, to 
 the approvEU of the Exchange. 
 
 Article XIV. — Election of Members. — The nurabSr of members of 
 the Exchange is limited to one hundred and fifty ; election of mem- 
 bership shall be by ballot; and no person shall be eligible thereto 
 who is not a stock broker or dealer in stocks at the time of appli- 
 cation, except as hereinafter provided. The application must be 
 indorsed by at least two members of the Exchange, and receive the 
 approval of the Standing Committee, after which the name of the 
 applicant and parties indorsing him shall be conspicuously posted 
 in the Exchange Room at least five days before election ; and six 
 black balls shall exclude. After such rejection of any person, no 
 new application for his election shall be entertained within thirty 
 days, nor be voted upon within ten days from the date of the new 
 application. Whenever it shall be made to appear to a majority of 
 tli3 Standing Committee that a wilful misstatement upon a material 
 point has been made to them by an applicant for admission or re- 
 aJmissiou, they shall report the case to the Exchange, and the 
 offending party shall be deprived of his membership, or declafed 
 forever ineligible for admission, as the case may be, by a vote of 
 two-thirds of the members present. 
 
 Article XV. — Fees. — Every person admitted by election to 
 membership, before doing business at the Exchange, shall pay an 
 initiation fee of not less than two hundred dollars ; and all members 
 admitted by transfer shall pay a fee of twenty dollars. In all cases 
 where the initiation or transfer fee shall not be paid within five days 
 after the admission of a member and his notification by the Secre- 
 tary, such admission shall be declared void. Every member shall 
 pay annual dues of not less than fifty dollars, payable quarterly in 
 advance. These dues may be advanced by a majority vote of mem- 
 bers of the Exchange, at a meeting specially called to consider the 
 subject of such advances, or the same may be reduced, but not 
 below the figures before stated, by a like vote, at a meeting espe- 
 c'ally called to consider the subject of such reduction ; provided, 
 however, that no such advance or reduction shall take place until 
 the next following year or quarter, as the case may be. Non-pay- 
 ment of quarterly dues continuing over fifteen days shall subject the 
 member to pay an additional amount of ten per cent, to be added 
 to his bill ; and at the expiration of thirty days the Secretary shall 
 notify such delinquent member that if his dues are not paid within 
 five days from the date of such notice, his membership will be ter- 
 minated, and he shall not be reinstated unless he can furnish some 
 ■ reasonable excuse for non-payment of said dues. 
 
 Akticlb XVI. — Transfer of Membership. — Section 1. — When- 
 ever any member wishes to transfer his membership, the name of 
 the party to whom he proposes to transfer shall be submitted to 
 the Standing Committee, and his election shall be made by ballot, 
 as provided in Article 14 ; but no transfer shall be made provided 
 the member transferring has unsettled contracts with any member 
 of the Exchange. 
 
 Section 2. — If any suspended member fails to settle with his 
 creditors, and apply for readmission within three months of the 
 time of nis suspension, his membership shall be disposed of by the 
 Standing Committee, and the proceeds paid pro rata to his creditors 
 in the Exchange. 
 
 Section 3. — In every case where a member is deprived of his mem- 
 bership or declared ineligible for rsadmission by reason of any 
 offence against or under the laws of the Exchange, his membership 
 may be disposed of forthwith, and the proceeds covered into the 
 treasury of the Exchange. 
 
 Section 4. — Any creditor falling to file with the Secretary a writ- 
 ten statement of his claim against a member, prior to the transfer 
 of the right of membership of such member, shall forfeit all right 
 to a distributive share of the proceeds of such membership. 
 
 Section S. — When a member dies, his membership may be dis- 
 posed of by the Standing Committee ; and, after satisfying the 
 claims of the members of the Exchange, they shall pay any bal- 
 ance to the legal representatives of the deceased. The Standing 
 Committee shall have full power to determine the price at (not less 
 than the market price) which the seat of the deceased shall be sold. 
 
 Article XVII. — Commissions. — No member shall charge a less 
 commission on sales than the rate established by the Exchange, 
 nor make nor cause to be made any purchase or sale whatever for 
 any person who is not a member of the Exchange, without charg- 
 ing full commission. A division of commissions, however, may be 
 made with members of any other Stock Exchange offering a like 
 privilege. Any member violating this article shall be fined twenty- 
 five dollars for his first offence, and shall be deprived of the privi- 
 lege of membership until his fine is paid ; for any subsequent 
 violation he shall be suspended from the Exchange for three 
 months, and shall pay a fine of fifty dollars. 
 
 Article XVIII. — Contracts. — When the principals on time con- 
 tracts are surrendered and accepted, it shall be done in writing. 
 No party to a contract shall be compelled to accept a principal 
 other than the member offering to contract, unless the name pro- 
 posed to be substituted shall be declared at the time of making 
 the offer. 
 
 Article XIX. — Insolvency. — Any member who fails to comply 
 with his contracts or becomes insolvent shall be suspended until he 
 shall have settled with all his creditors. On his application for re- 
 admission, a special committee of five members shall be appointed to 
 investigate his conduct and the cause of his failure, who shall report 
 the same to the Exchange ; and if, after three days' notice two-thirds 
 of the members present in voting are in favor of re-instating him, he 
 shall be again entitled to his seat : provided, however, that, after a 
 second failure, a vote of three-fourths of the members present and 
 voting shall be required for his readmission the votes in each case 
 to be taken by ballot ; and no person after his suspension shall be 
 allowed to take his seat at the board until all of his dues accruing 
 during his suspension shall have been paid. 
 
 Article XX. — Fictitious Sales. — No fictitious sale or contract 
 shall be made at this Exchange ; and any member violating this 
 articleshall be suspended during the pleasure of the Exchange upon 
 a majority vote of members present and voting. 
 
 Article XXI. — Indecorous Conduct. — Any member of the Ex- 
 change who shall be guilty of indecorous language or conduct to- 
 ward another member while the Exchange is in session shall be sus- 
 pended by a majority vote of members present and voting, for not 
 less than one week nor more than one month ; repetitions of the of- 
 fence shall subject the party so offending to expulsion upon two- 
 thirds vote of members present and voting by ballot, after which he 
 shall not be re-admitted except upon a like two-thirds vote. 
 
 Article XXII. — Powers to mo.ke By-laws. — The Exchange shall 
 have power to make such by-laws, rules and regulations not repugnant 
 hereto, as its members, by two-thirds vote of those present and vot- 
 ing, shall from time to time deem requisite for the orderly and effi- 
 cient conduct of its affairs. No such by-law, rule or regulation 
 shall be altered, amended or repealed, except upon a like two-thirds 
 vote ; nor shall the proposition to pass, alter, amend, or repeal any 
 by-law, rule or regulation be acted upon, except at a meeting spe- 
 cially called for the purpose by the Secretary of the Exchange, upon 
 motion of five members. 
 
 Article XXIII. — Signing the Constitution. — This Constitution 
 shall he signed by each member before transacting business at the 
 Exchange ; and each one thereby pledges himself to be governed by 
 the provisions thereof, and to keep and obey such by-laws, rules, 
 and regulations as may from time to time be adopted by the Ex- 
 change. 
 
 Article XXIV. — Refusal to Comply with the Constitution, By- 
 Iniws, etc. — Any member charged with violating any article of this 
 Constitution, or any by-law, rule or regulation of the Exchange, 
 shall be entitled to a hearing bythe Exchange; and if he be found 
 guilty of the offense, the penalty for which or the vote imposing 
 which is not herein specifically provided for, he shall be fined, sus- 
 pended, or expelled, as shall be determined by two-thirds of the 
 members present and voting by ballot. 
 
 Article XXV. — Non-Liability of Members. — ^Nothing in this 
 Constitution shall be construed as creating between members a part- 
 nership in any stock transaction, nor as imposing on them any pecun- 
 iary liability whatever for each other's contracts in buying, selling or 
 delivering any stock ; but the entire liability of each and every 
 member is hereby declared to be expressly limited to his proportionate 
 share of the necessary current expenses of maintaining and conduct- 
 ing the Exchange. 
 
 Article XXVI. — Changing the Constitution or By-laws — Any 
 article in the Constitution or By-laws may be altered, amended or 
 repealed by a two-thirds vote of the members present and voting at 
 a special meeting to be called for the purpose, on notice mailed by 
 the Secretary to each member at his place of business, not less than 
 seven days prior thereto, and stating the object of the meeting. 
 
 Article yixyil.— Gratuity Fund.— V-^on the death of anymem- 
 ber of the Exchange there shall be levied and assessed against each 
 surviving member the sum of ten dollars, and the amount 
 collected from such assessment shall be paid as a gratuity to the 
 representatives of the deceased, on the conditions as follows : 
 
 i^i««.— Should the member die leaving a widow and no children 
 the whole amount collected shall be paid to such widow for her own 
 use. 
 
 /Secodrf.— Should the member die leaving a widow and children 
 
504 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 then one half of the sum coUeotsd shall be paid to the widow for her 
 separate use, and one half to the children for their use, share and 
 share aJlke, provided that the share of minor children shall be paid 
 to their guardian. 
 
 r/iird— Should the member die leaving children and no widow, 
 then the whole sum collected shall be paid to the children, as di- 
 rected in the preceding section. 
 
 J'ourtA.— Should the member die leaving neither widow nor chil- 
 dren then the whole sum collected shall be paid to such person or 
 persons as he may especially designate ; and in case of his decease 
 without any special designation as to the amount, it shall be paid to 
 his heirs-at-law. ,. j 
 
 Fifth.— Nothing herein contained shall ever be taken or construea 
 as ajoint liability of the Exchange, or its members, for the payment 
 of any sum whatever, beyond the amount collected, as heretofore 
 stated, it being distinctly understood that the amount paid is a gra- 
 tuity. All payments and assessments shall be charged against each 
 member of the Exchange, and shall be collected in the same man- 
 ner and have the same priority as all other fines, assessments and 
 dues. 
 
 BY-LAWS. 
 
 Article I.— Opening of the Exchange.— The Exchange shall be 
 open every business day at 10 o'clock A. M., and continue open 
 until 3.30 o'clock p. M. The regular calls for stocks and bonds 
 shall be at 11 o'clock A. M. and 2 o'clock P. M., which hours may 
 be changed by the vote of a majority of the members present. 
 One or both of the sessions may be omitted at any time by a like 
 vote; provided, however, that the Exchange shall not adjourn 
 for more than one day, without the consent of two-thirds of the 
 members present. 
 
 Akticle 11.— Calls. — The order of business at the regular calls 
 shall be as follows : 
 First.— CaXl of the regular list of stock or bonds. 
 Second. — Call of the free list. 
 Third. — Call of the fine list. 
 
 Fourth. — Call of the stocks or bonds at the request of members. 
 Fifth. — Reverting to stocks at the request of the members. 
 Akticle III. — All Offers Binding. — All offers made and accept- 
 ed shall be binding, whether reported by the Chairman or not. 
 
 No offers to buy and sell privileges, to take or deliver securities, 
 shall be made publicly at the Exchange. 
 
 No bids or offers shall be allowed on stocks selling under one dol- 
 lar per share of less than one per cent, per share, and on stocks sell- 
 ing at one dollar and under two dollars of less than two and a half 
 cents per share, and on stocks selling over two dollars of not less 
 than five cents per share. 
 
 Aetiole IV. — Offers to Buy or Sell must state Amount. — Any 
 member offering to "buy or sell stocks or other securities at the Ex- 
 change shall state the number of shares or the amount: and no one 
 shall be allowed to withdraw an offer which he has made, unless it 
 be done in an audible voice. All previous offers shall be considered 
 as withdrawn after a sale, or when the Chairman has passed to an- 
 other stock. Any sale or purchase made when the amount was not 
 stated shall be considered for one hundred shares. Any member of- 
 fering stock who refuses to name the amount shall be fined, and the 
 bid offered shall not be entertained bj the Chairman. 
 
 Article V. — When Offers are not Allowed. — No offer allowed 
 while the Chairman is reporting sales. 
 
 After a sale has been made and while the Chairman inquires the 
 terms, no member shall propose a new bargain until the Chairman 
 has actually stated the result for the purpose of record by the Sec- 
 retary ; and when any stock is under consideration after the list has 
 been regularly called, no member shall be allowed to call any other 
 stock imtil the Chairman has said, "Any other stock ?" 
 
 Article VI. — Claimants for Purchase or sale of Stocks. — In case 
 there are two or more claimants for the purchase or sale of stock, 
 the Chairman shall decide the same, or he may appeal to the Ex- 
 change for their decision ; if an appeal is made from the decision of 
 the Chairman, and the appeal is seconded by five members, the ques- 
 tion shall be put to vote. 
 
 Article VII. — Settlements. — All purchases and sales shall be 
 settled on the next business day unless expressed to the contrary ; 
 and all contracts falling due on Sunday, or such holiday as is ob- 
 served by the banks, shall be settled on the preceding day ; or when 
 two holidays occur on consecutive days, as when Sunday immediately 
 precedes or follows a holiday, a contract falling due on the first of 
 such holidays shall be settled upon the business day immediately 
 preceding, and those maturing upon the second of such holidays 
 shall be settled upon the business day next following, together with 
 whatever interest may be due to the day of settlement ; and when- 
 ever the Exchange shall adjourn for a day, all contracts maturing 
 on that dajr shall be settled on the day following. In all sales or 
 contracts for stock between members of the Exchange, the party who 
 has to receive the same shall not be bound to take it after 1.30 
 o'clock, p. M ., but may postpone payment, without being charged 
 interest, to the following day. 
 
 Article VIII. — Rights to take or Deliver. — When a contract is 
 made for the right to take or deliver stock on or before a certain 
 day, the right shall cease at 2 o'clock on the last day ; but the 
 
 settlement shall be made on the next day ; and the usual grace is to 
 be allowed on such contracts, if at one month or more, as in ordi- 
 nary sales on time. Contracts for " the right to take or deliver " 
 bear no interest, but shall, if consummated be regarded in all other 
 respects as regular contracts on time, and be governed by the same 
 rules. 
 
 Article IX. — Notices forthe demandor delivery on TimeSales. — 
 In all contracts on demand or on time, at the option of the buyer 
 or seller, one day's previous notice shall be given before the stock 
 can be demanded or delivered ; and such notice must be given at or 
 before 2 o'clock P. M. 
 
 Article X. — Payments and Transfer of Stocks. — On the sales of 
 stocks which are transferable in Boston, either party shall have the 
 right to require the purchase money to be paid at the time and place 
 of transfer, and of stocks transferable elsewhere, at the time of de- 
 livering the certificates, in the name of satisfactory parties, with 
 powers of attorney or other necessary documents. 
 
 Article XI. — Contracts maturing during the close of Transfer 
 Books. — Contracts for stock which may arrive at maturity while the 
 transfer books are closed shall be extended until the opening ; and 
 where interest has been allowed, it shall continue until the opening 
 of the transfer books. Contracts to be settled at the opening shall 
 carry interest, unless the books are opened within three days. 
 Margins may be called on such sales or purchases as in time con- 
 tracts. 
 
 Article XII. — PTow deliveries shall be made when Transfer 
 Books are closed by Legal Impediment. — Whenever transfer books 
 of any company shall be closed by any legal impediment, certificates 
 properly indorsed shall constitute a delivery. 
 
 Article XIII. — Dividends. — Section 1. — On the day of closing 
 of the transfer books of any stock for the purpose of dividend, any 
 such stock sold for cash shall be "dividend on" previous to the 
 time officially designated for the closing of books. AH transactions 
 shall be " dividend off" after the day of closing the books. 
 
 Section 2. — When a dividend is declared during the pendency of 
 the contract, the seller shall collect, hold, allow interest on, and 
 pay the same to the buyer at maturity of the contract. 
 
 Section 3. — And when new stock shall be created in any existing 
 corporation, the stock of which has been sold on time, or where 
 shares shall be entitled to similar privilege, the purchaser of any- 
 stock entitled to such new stock or other privilege may take such 
 new stock and pay for it, unless the seller's security would be 
 thereby impaired; in which case the purchaser shall give additional 
 security, or make some other satisfactory arrangement, it being 
 understood that a sale on time gives to the purchaser all the colla- 
 teral advantages, and that said purchaser assumes all responsibili- 
 ties which he would have had if he had actually taken delivery of 
 the stock, the seller being considered as holding it as security for 
 the payment of the purchase money. 
 
 Section 4. — When any assessment shall become due on stock sold 
 on time, the seller shall pay such assessment, which shall be re- 
 funded by the buyer on settlement of the contract. 
 
 Article XIV. — Time Contracts. — Sales made on three days or 
 less carry no interest; sales of over three days carry interest; sales 
 of less than thirty days carry no grace ; sales on thirty and sixty 
 days shall be considered as one and two calendar months ; sales of 
 thirty days and over carry grace, and also interest to the day of 
 settlement. 
 
 Article XV. — Tendering of Stocks. — In all time contracts it shall 
 be the duty of the seller to tender stocks sold at the expiration of 
 the contract; and, in case of neglect so to do it shall be the duty of 
 the buyer to notify the seller the following day, and if such notifi- , 
 cation is not given within three days, no further liability shall be 
 attached to either party. 
 
 Article XVI. — Notification on time siles of Stocks. — Buyers of 
 stocks on time shall be entitled to one day's notice, said notice to he 
 given before 2 o'clock on the day previous. Borrowers and lenders 
 of stocks shall be entitled to the same notice for the return of the 
 stocks ; and any failure to respond to such notice shall be considered 
 a violation of contract. 
 
 Article XVII. — Proxies. — In all sales on time, the seller shall 
 have the option to give proxies or not, as he may elect. 
 
 Article XVIII. — Bids for turning Stock.— When a party bids 
 for regular stock " for the turn," the sale of the regular stock shall 
 not cut off the buyer bid on the Exchange. 
 
 Article XIX. — Clerk shall read Sales. — At the close of any call 
 where there have been several transactions, the clerk shall read 
 such sales at the request of any member. 
 
 Article XX. — No Bids or Offers received while Members are 
 Seated. — No bids or offers shall be received from members while 
 seated ; a fine of twenty-five cents shall be imposed upon any mem- 
 ber making such bids or offers ; but bids and offers may be made 
 from any part of the floor by members while standing. 
 
 Article XXI. — Sales to be Reported.^kW sales made at the Ex- 
 change shall be reported unless objected to by three members; and 
 such objection is sustained by a majority of the membei-s present. 
 
 No person shall have access to the records of the Exchange except 
 members, their partners or clerks, and no member shall inform any 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 505 
 
 one, except other members, their partners or clerks, or for the pur- 
 pose of notifying principals, by whom any sale, or offer to buy or 
 sell, has been made at the Exchange, under a penalty of twenty-five 
 dollars for each offence. 
 
 Article XXII. — F%nefor Smoking. — Any member smoking in 
 the rooms of the Exchange during the sessions of the board shall be 
 subject to a fine of one dollar for each offence. 
 
 Article XXIII.— /Siocfe quoted " Self to Self."— When any 
 member quotes stock as bought or sold " self to self," it shall cut off 
 his bids, but shall not affect any other bids or offers on the board at 
 the time. 
 
 Article XXIV. — Deposits on Contracts. — On all contracts for 
 stocks or bonds sold on time, either party may require a deposit of 
 • thirty per cent, of the contract price ; and in case of variation in the 
 market price of the securities bought or sold, a further deposit shall 
 be made if called for by either party to keep the thirty per cent, 
 good during the existence of the contract. In case of default by 
 either party to make any additional deposit which may be required, 
 or in case of non-fulfillment at expiration, the contract may be 
 closed, by purchase or sale, as the case may be, on the following 
 day. The seller shall always have the privilege of depositing the 
 whole amount of the stock sold, in lieu of the cash ; in which case 
 the margins shall be paid to him by the buyer, and the amount 
 credited on the contract, and bear the same rate of interest as speci- 
 fied in the contract. Margins called before half past twelve o'clock 
 p. M. shall be deposited before two o'clock of the same day ; if called 
 after half past twelve o'clock p. M., shall be deposited before eleven 
 o'clock the next morning. All margins shall be placed in the 
 "American Loan Trust Company," when requested by either party. 
 
 Article XXV. — Default. — Closing Contracts under the Sule. — 
 Should any member neglect to fulfil his contract on the day it be- 
 comes duCj the party or parties contracting with him shall, after 
 giving notice, employ an officer of the Exchange to close the same 
 before half past twelve o'clock p. M. on the following day in the Ex- 
 change, by purchase or sale, as the case may require, accounting 
 with the member in default for any surplus, or charging him with 
 any deficiency. 
 
 jfu case of a failure of a creditor to close the contract as above, the 
 price shall be fixed by the price-current at the time such contract 
 ou"ht to have been closed under the rule. 
 
 In all cases where an officer may be directed to buy or sell securi- 
 ties under the rule, the name of tne member giving the order shall 
 be announced. No order for the purchase or sale of securities under 
 this rule shall be executed unless made out in writing, over the sig- 
 nature of the party giving the order, who shall state the reason 
 therefore ; and it shall be the duty of the officer who executes the 
 order to indorse thereon the name of the purchaser or seller, the 
 price, and the hour at which the contract is closed, and hand the 
 same to the Secretary of the Exchange, who shall, within twenty- 
 four hours, ascertain whether the party for whose account the order 
 was given has jjaid the difference, if any, arising from the transac- 
 tion. If not paid, the Secretary shall report the default to the Chair- 
 man, whose duty it shall be to announce the facts to the board at the 
 next regular session. The duty devolving upon the officers of the 
 Exchange, under this rule, shall be performed without charge. 
 
 When a contract is closed under this rule, any action of the de- 
 faulter, direct or indirect, by which the prompt fulfilment of such 
 contract is delayed, hindered or evaded, to the detriment of the other 
 contracting party, shall subject the offending party to suspension 
 for not less than thirty days, or he may be expelled from tne Ex- 
 change by a vote of two thirds of the members present at any meet- 
 ing. When contracts are closed out under the rule, any member 
 supplying the bid or offer, and not duly receiving or delivering the 
 stock, as the case may be, renders himself liable to prosecution under 
 this article. 
 
 Should any stock thus sold not be delivered until the next day, 
 the contract shall continue ; but' the party defaulting shall be liable 
 to pay such damages as may be assessed by the Standing Committee. 
 
 - 'The same rules, as to notice,. time and place, that govern defaults 
 in other contracts shall apply to borrowed securities, which, on non- 
 delivery of receipt, must oe borrowed or loaned in open market, ex- 
 cept in case of actual default in receiving or delivering after notice 
 to close the loa,n ; then the same are to be bought or sold, as the 
 case may be, for account of the defaulter, in the manner provided 
 in this article. 
 
 Article XXVI. — Dealings with Non-members. — Any member 
 dealing with a person not a member in the rooms of the Exchange, 
 without demanding of him the name of a member of the Exchange 
 who shall act as his broker in the transaction, shall be subject to a 
 suspension for not less than sixty days, nor more than twelve 
 months. 
 
 Article XXVII. — Codling Stocks. — Any member shall be al- 
 lowed to call any stock regularly listed or called at any other stock 
 board ; and the caller of any stock shall be entitled to the first bid 
 or offer. 
 
 Article XXVIII. — Fine List. — Any stock j^laced upon the fine 
 list by the Committee on Securities and dealt in at the Exchange, 
 shall subject the seller to one fine of twenty-five cents for all sales 
 he may make in such stock during the session of the baard. All 
 fines shall be due and payable monthly. 
 
 Article XXIX. — Dispute or Disagreement among Members. — 
 In case of dispute or disagreement between members of the Ex- 
 change, or in which a member of the Exchange is a party in inter- 
 est, the matter in question shall be referred to a committee of three 
 persons, two of wliom shall be selected by the respective parties, 
 and the third chosen by the two thus selected ; and the decision of 
 this committee, if unanimous, shall be final and binding upon the 
 parties, otherwise the committee shall report the case to the Ex- 
 change for their decision. 
 
 Article XJi.X..-^Failure. — In case of the failure of any mem- 
 ber of the Exchange, a committee of three members (if so requested 
 by said member or by any creditor) shall be appointed to take into 
 consideration any or all of his unsettled contracts, and to adjust the 
 same in such manner as may appear to said committee to be equit- 
 able, unless the insolvent party shaU, within three days of the time 
 of failure, give satisfactory security for the fulfilment of his con- 
 tract or contracts at maturity. 
 
 The insolvent member shall not, however, be precluded from an 
 appeal from the decision of tlie committee, nor shall the committee 
 be allowed to surrender the settlement of said member's affairs 
 into his hands without authority from the Exchange ; and all 
 balances collected by said committee shall be paid over to the 
 Treasurer of the Exchange, to be held by him as a fund, separate 
 and distinct from all other money in his hands, until such time as 
 the Standing Committee may deem it safe and proper to distribute 
 the same, when it shall be returned by the Treasurer to the chair- 
 man of the first-named committee, to be paid by him, after deduct- 
 ing the necessary expenses, to the respective parties entitled 
 thereto. 
 
 Article XXXI. — Neglect to Pay Fines. — Any member who 
 shall neglect to pay his fines for fifteen days after they become 
 payable, shall, after due notice, pay an additional amount of ten 
 per cent., to be added to his bill ; and if not paid at the end of 
 thirty days, he shall no longer be considered a member, and his 
 membership may be disposed of by the Standing Committee. 
 
 Article XXXII. — Annual Assessments. — The annual assess- 
 ments on each member shall be fifty dollars, payable in advance 
 installments, Jan. 1, April 1, July 1, Oct. 1. 
 
 Article XXXIII. — Rescinded Assessments. — On all time sales 
 of stock, after an assessment becomes delinquent, and is thereafter 
 rescinded, the buyer may, upon delivery, deduct the amount of 
 of said assessment from the contract price of said stock. 
 
 Article XXXIV. — Commissions. — Stocks selling under fifty 
 cents per share, the commission shall be fifty cents per hundred 
 shares. 
 
 Stocks selling at fifty cents and under one dollar, commission 
 shall be one dollar per hundred shares. 
 
 Stocks selling at one dollar per share and under two dollars, 
 commission shall be two dollars per one hundred shares. 
 
 Stocks selling at two dollars and under five dollars per share, 
 commission shall be three dollars per hundred shares. 
 
 Stocks selling at five dollars and under ten dollars, commission 
 shall be five dollars per hundred shares. 
 
 Stocks selling at and over ten dollars per share, commission shall 
 be ten dollars per hundred shares. 
 
 Lots of less than one hundred shares of stocks selling at and 
 under five dollars per share, commission shall be same as for one 
 hundred shares. 
 
 These commissions may be changed at any time by the vote of 
 two-thirds of the members present at a meeting called for that 
 purpose. 
 
 Article XXXV. — Members not Bound to Sell other than 
 Specified Lot Offered. — When a specific lot of stocks is offered for 
 sale or purchase, the member offering the same shall not be obliged 
 to sell or buy any part, although the amount in the aggregate should 
 equal the amount of his bid or offer. 
 
 Article 'K.^^Nl.— Conditional Bids Not Allowed. — No sale of 
 securities shall be made on which a deposit shall be offered as the 
 limit of liability. 
 
 Article XXXVII. — Partnerships. — No member of the Ex- 
 change shall be allowed to take as partner any suspended member 
 thereof during the period of his suspension, or to form a partnership 
 with any insolvent person, or with any person who may have pre- 
 viously been a member of the Exchange, and against whom any 
 member may hold a claim arising out of transactions made during 
 the time of such membership and which has not been settled or 
 released in accordance with the laws of the Exchange. 
 
 Article XXXVIII. — Claims between Partners. — No claims 
 growing out of transactions between partners shall be admitted to 
 share the proceeds of the membership of one of such partners, until 
 after the claims filed by other creditors who are members of the 
 Exchange shall have been satisfied. 
 
 Article XXXIX.— Length of Time Contracts Limited to Sixty 
 Days. — No time contracts longer than sixty days shall be allowed 
 at the calls of the Exchange. 
 
 Article XL. — Suspension of By-Laws. — Any one of these By- 
 Laws may be temporarily suspended by the unanimous consent of 
 all the members present. 
 
506 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 OTHER MINING STOCK EXCHANGES. 
 
 FOLLOWING the "boom" in mining securities, 
 several leading brokers opened commodious offices 
 in Chicago and other large cities where quotations 
 were furnished visitors gratuitously, by recording 
 them on a blackboard, and, in .some instances, private 
 wires connecting with the New York market were under 
 the control of the brokers. Some of the Chicago capitalists 
 became large holders of mines and mining securities, and 
 finally it was decided that Chicago should have an ex- 
 change of its own. A charter was granted to the " Chicago 
 Mining Exchange" on April 7, 1882, and by-laws, rules and 
 regulations were adopted. At present, there is one call per 
 day, extending from 11.00 to 12.30, which is held in the 
 room of the Provision, Grain and Stock Board on Calhoun 
 street. The membership is limited to 250, and there are al- 
 ready 215 members enrolled. The first 100 seats were sold 
 at $50 each ; the next 50 seats, $100 each, and then 50 seats 
 at $250 each. The price of the last 60 seats (of which 15 
 have been sold) was fixed at $500 each. Some seats have 
 been resold at from $100 to $250 each. The charge for ex- 
 amination and listing the stock of a company is $60 per 
 annum. The stocks of the following companies have been 
 listed : 
 
 ^tna, Col. 
 
 Abington, Col. 
 
 Barcelona, Col. 
 
 Baskin, Col. 
 
 Camp 61, Col. 
 
 California, Cal. 
 
 Central, Arizona. 
 
 Columbia, Col. 
 
 Durango, Col. 
 
 Dyer, Col. 
 
 Frisco Con. Utah. 
 
 Golden Comet, Arizona. 
 
 Hailstorm. 
 
 Hooker, Col. 
 
 Hibernia, Col. 
 
 Iron Mountain, Col. 
 
 Joslyn Con., Col. 
 
 Little Chief, Col. 
 
 Laxey (Iron) Mining Co., Mich, 
 
 Minnehaha, Col. 
 
 Palmyra, Col. 
 
 Quartz Mountain, Cal. 
 
 Robinson Con., Col. 
 
 Stormont, Utah. 
 
 Sutro Tunnel, Nevada. 
 
 Silver Group, Cal. 
 
 Treasury, Col. 
 
 Vernon, Arizona. 
 
 Wisconsin and San Juan, Col. 
 
 Amie, Col. 
 
 Anglo-American, Col. 
 
 Breece, Col. 
 
 Buckeye, M. & T. Co Col. preferred. 
 
 Chrysolite, Col. 
 
 Ceiro Gordo, Utah. 
 
 Central, Colorado. 
 
 Dunkin, Col. 
 
 Denver City, Col. 
 
 Fiskdale, Col. 
 
 Globe Copper, Arizona. 
 
 Girard, Col. 
 
 Hayden. 
 
 Horn Silver, Utah. 
 
 Iron Silver, Col. 
 Iowa Gulch, Col. 
 
 Kokomo, Col. 
 
 Leadville and Gunnison, Col. 
 . New York Hematite (iron), Mich. 
 
 Ocean Wave, Col. 
 
 Quartz Creek, Col. 
 
 Kice and Wheeling, Col. 
 
 Eara Avis, Col. 
 
 Silver Cliff, Col. 
 
 Silver Cord, Col. 
 
 38 Stars, Col 
 
 Tombstone, Arizona. 
 
 Vandewater, Utah. 
 
 Whalen Con. (copper), Nevada. 
 
 The officers are as follows: Geo, E. Vernon, President; 
 Erwin E. Wood, Treasurer, and Edward M. Greene, Secre- 
 tary. 
 
 St. Louis Mining and Stock Exchange. — Accord- 
 ing to the announcement made by circular letter under date 
 of August 10, 1880, the growing importance of Mining and 
 Stock interesta of this country, and the intimate relations of 
 St. Louis and St. Louis Capital to them, are among the rea- 
 sons that have led to the formation of this Board at this cen- 
 ter of trade. The St. Louis Mining and Stock Exchange 
 is a stock company organized under the laws of the State of 
 Missouri ; and the stock is all owned by St. Louis men. The 
 organization was recently completed by the election of the 
 following Board of Directors : 
 
 G. W. Chadbourne. 
 Chas. F. Orthwein. 
 Frank T. Iglehart. 
 J. W. Paramore. 
 
 J. W. Noble. 
 
 D. P. Roland. 
 Thomas Richeson. 
 
 E. S. Chester. 
 T. W. Heman. 
 
 W. R. Allen. 
 D. R. Francis. 
 James Baker. 
 Jno. £. Ennis. 
 
 The officers and committees were as follows : 
 
 James Baker— President. T. W. Ilema.n.—SecrHaru 
 
 Thomas Richeson— Vice President. Frank T. Iglehart.— rreosurcr. 
 
 Hxecutive Committee. 
 Thomas Richeson. G. W. Chadbourne. 
 
 Jno. W. Noble. Theo. W. Heman. 
 
 D. P. Rowland. 
 
 Finance Committee. 
 
 W. E. Allen. D. R. Francis. 
 
 Jno. £. Ennis. 
 
 Membership Committee. 
 
 D. P. Rowland. F. T. Iglehart. 
 
 D. R. Francis. 
 
 Stock Cormnittee. 
 3. W. Paramore. E. S. Chester. 
 
 Chas. F. Orthwem. F. T. Iglehart. 
 
 T. W. Heman. 
 
 The charges to mining companies for listing their stocks 
 on the exchange were $150 each. 
 
 Application was made by mail to the officers of the St. 
 Louis Exchange for fuller and later information in regard to 
 its affairs and standing, but no response whatever was re- 
 ceived from them. 
 
 The Bico Mining Exchange. — There is a mining ex- 
 change at Rico, Colorado, known as the " Rico Mining Ex- 
 change " which was incorporated March 13, 1882. Follow- 
 ing are the officers : Julius Thompson, President ; J. W. 
 Winkfield, Vice-President ; Harry Calm, Treasurer ; F. R. 
 Lewis, Secretary ; B. F. Klee, Corresponding Secretary, and 
 Charles A. Jones, Assistant Corresponding Secretary. 
 
 Denver Stock Exchange. — A mining stock exchange 
 has also been established at Denver, Colorado, at which 
 regular calls of listed stocks, which number about twenty, 
 are made daily, and a fair amount of business is transacted. 
 
 THE MINING INTERESTS OF THE WEST. 
 
 FROM statements published in the San Francisco 
 Mining and Scientific Press, during the early part 
 of the current year, the following statistics of the 
 mining interests of the west, and comments upon 
 the output and business of the past year, are taken : 
 
 Never before in the history ,of the country has there been 
 a year so marked for advance in the mining industry as that 
 of 1881. This is not so much noticeable in the bullion pro- 
 duct, for 1881 only exceeds 1880 by $4,366,481 ; but in the 
 increase of area of the territory under process of develop- 
 ment. Idaho, Montana, Arizona and New Mexico are M 
 widening their fields of labor. Some of the camps in these 
 regions have very much increased in importance within the 
 year, noticeably, Tombstone, Butte and Wood River. Up 
 to within the past few years the states of California and 
 Nevada have overshadowed all others in the mining interests. 
 Now these two states are by no means so much ahead of 
 others. Colorado heads the list, California comihg second 
 and Nevada third. 
 
 The Bullion Product. — The Superintendent of the U. S. 
 Branch Mint at San Francisco furnishes the following, 
 showing the bullion product for the fiscal year ending June 
 30,1881: 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saner. 
 
 ToM. 
 
 California 
 
 Nevada . 
 
 $17,986,323 
 
 2,634,792 
 
 664,517 
 
 1,641,662 
 
 763,613 
 
 90,000 
 
 i,noo 
 
 $757,626 
 7,706,818 
 7,796,306 
 1,068,916 
 79,671 
 
 $18,743,848 
 
 10,311,610 
 
 8,350,823 
 
 2,620,568 
 
 823,284 
 
 90,000 
 
 1,900 
 
 
 
 Wasningtou 
 
 Alaska 
 
 Total 
 
 $23,462,797 
 
 $17,679,236 
 
 $40,942,033 
 
 
 A peculiar significance of this table lies in the fact that 
 it is made up of figures from the actual returns made by 
 mine owners to the Superintendent of the U. S. Mint. . It is, 
 therefore, free from the " estimates,'' which may be more or 
 less carefully made. 
 
 The following returns of the, bullion product of 1881 are 
 fiirnishdfl by Mr. John J. Valentine, General Superinten- 
 dent of Wells, Fargo & Co. : 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND 'MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 507 
 
 StAtement oftKe Amonnt of Precloaa Sletala Produced In the 
 States and Territories AVest of the Allssoarl River, Includ- 
 ing British Columbia (and Receipts in San Francisco by 
 Xlxpress from the AVest Coast of Mexico), durlns: the Year 
 1§81. 
 
 StaUaand Territories 
 
 California . . . . . 
 
 Nevatfa 
 
 Oreeon 
 
 Washington . . . . 
 
 Alaslsa . . 
 
 Idaho . . . . . . . 
 
 Montana ...... 
 
 Utah 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Mew Mexico . . . 
 
 Dakota 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Mexico (west coast) 
 British Columbia . . 
 
 $16,349,216 
 
 95,492 
 
 560,931 
 
 67,309 
 
 " 1,04«,64'8 
 
 1,136,290 
 
 99,959 
 
 1,907,160 
 
 32,944 
 
 3,225,950 
 
 396.697 
 
 343,127 
 
 757,600 
 
 O O U 
 
 SI 
 
 3S 
 
 $817,460 
 
 '580,000 
 
 33,854 
 
 13,000 
 
 410,000 
 
 227,268 
 
 10,336 
 
 325,000 
 132,232 
 
 115,000 
 
 'J. IS' 
 
 $548,682 
 
 7,865,674 
 
 48,684 
 
 370,540 
 
 2,305,723 
 
 3,563,610 
 
 2,820,000 
 
 77,000 
 
 6,278,895 
 1,699,216 
 
 $26,019,223 $2,663,940 $25,667,824 $30,263,430 $84,504,417 
 
 3 a, 
 
 ■S.S'S, 
 
 $306,421 
 3,896,498 
 
 1,007,386 
 
 689,800 
 
 3,637,383 
 
 18,230,000 
 
 706,000 
 
 1,390,942 
 391,000 
 
 Total. 
 
 $18,020,679 
 
 lli847,564 
 
 1,189,616 
 
 100,963 
 
 13yQ0O 
 
 2,834,474 
 
 4,369,071 
 
 7,311,288 
 
 22,957,166 
 
 814,944 
 
 3,550,960 
 
 8,198,766 
 
 2,433,343 
 
 872,600 
 
 Compared with the report of the same authority for 1880, 
 California shows a decrease in gold of $579,069, and an in- 
 crease in silver of $323,582. Nevada shows a total falling 
 off of $3,184,057 ; the yield from the Comstock being only 
 $1,726,162, as against $5,312,592 in 1880, a decrease of $3,- 
 586,430. The product of Eureka district is $4,127,265, as 
 against $4,639,025 in 1880, a decrease of $511,760. Utah 
 shows an increase of $860,335. Colorado shows an increase 
 of $1,672,171 ; and Arizona $3,726,395 over the report of last 
 year. 
 
 The following table shows, with the authorities, the total 
 yield of precious metals in California from 1848 to January! 
 1, 1882 : 
 
 Precious Metals 
 
 Amount, 
 . . . $15,000,000 
 
 Year,. 
 18481 
 
 1849/ 
 
 1850 44,000,000 
 
 1861 76,000,000 
 
 1852 85,000,000 
 
 1863 75,000,000 
 
 1864 65,000,000 
 
 1856 65,600,000 
 
 1866. . 65,000,000 
 
 1857 67,600,000 
 
 1858 60,000,000 
 
 1869 50,000,000 
 
 1860 45,000,000 
 
 1861 ...:... ... 40,000,000 
 
 1862 . 34,700,000 
 
 1863 30,000,000 
 
 1864 26,600,000 
 
 in California. 
 
 Year, Amount, 
 
 1865 . 28,600,000 
 
 1866 26,600,000 
 
 1867 25,000,000 
 
 1868 22,000,000 
 
 1869 .... 22,500,000 
 
 1870 25,000,000 
 
 1871 19,679,224 
 
 1872 19,060,098 
 
 1873 18,025,722 
 
 1874 20,300,631 
 
 1876 . . 17,753,151 
 
 1876 18,815,807 
 
 1877 18,174,716 
 
 1878 18,920,461 
 
 1879 18,190,973 
 
 1880 18,276,166 
 
 1881 18,020,679 
 
 OoH, Silver. 
 
 1848 to 1857, Garnett $348,100,000 
 
 1858 to 1870, Kaymond 424,800,000 
 
 1871 to June 30, 1881, Valentine 190,096,076 $14,914,462 
 
 $1,162,992,076 $14,914,452 
 14,914,452 
 
 Total $1,177,906,528 
 
 This makes an aggregate of nearlj^ 1178 millions. 
 
 Of Nevada County the San Francisco Transcript says : 
 
 " The quartz mining interests of Nevada County are in a 
 
 most encouraging condition. In this district, by which we 
 
 mean Nevada township, nearly 200 stamps are dropping, and 
 
 the number is being increased from month to month. The nu- 
 
 merous live enterprises, old and new,that are adjacent to Grass 
 Valley, are mostly prospering, and several new producers 
 will be opened there also before many months. In all other 
 parts of the county, where auriferous quartz deposits abound, 
 the same indications of activity in this branch prevail. Even 
 the Meadow Lake country is gradually passing from under 
 the cloud that has hung over it so long, and before long, we 
 hope to chronicle that the ores there, which have heretofore 
 proved so rebellious, are yielding up their treasure at the 
 touch of science. The drawbacks that beset the hydraulic 
 mining will be removed soon, we trust. The scarcity of 
 water this winter is not satisfectojy, but our people are hope- 
 ful, and find consolation in turning their faces towards the 
 near fiituie, Which is bright with hope. 
 
 " In this county is the representative gold mine of this 
 State — the Idaho mine. For something over thirteen years 
 the mine has been paying regular monthly dividends, having 
 in that time disbursed to stockholders 4'3,101.550, out of a 
 gross product of$6,780,296.60 ; the total number of dividends 
 being 148, in value to lOOOJ per cent, upon the capital stock. 
 The past year has been one of great prosperity with the 
 mine, being the best since 1874, and the third best since the 
 mine commenced paying dividends. In 1873, the product 
 was $1,010,612.20 ; in 1874, $669,023.03, and in 1881, $640.- 
 107,58. The product of 1881 was $199,761.59 greater than the 
 yield of 1880, showing the improved condition of the mine in 
 its deepest workings, which have extended down to the 12th 
 level; over 1,600 feet on the incline, and over 1,300 feet in per- 
 pendicular depth. At these depths the ledge has continued to 
 hold ite average width, and has decidedly improved in quality 
 as shown by the yield of the ore for 1881, the average per ton 
 being $22.95i, as against $15.82 per ton for 1880 : while the 
 average cost per ton for mining and milling has but slightly 
 increased, being 9.29J per ton in 1880, and 9.51 1-9 per ton 
 in 1881. AH the profitable ores of the mine for the past 
 year have been from the No. 11 and the No. 12 levels, and 
 the stopes connected therewith, as the levels above are nearly 
 exhausted. The history of the mine is sufficient to demon- 
 strate the value of the mineral resources of the district." 
 
 Bodie district, in Mono County^ vies with Nevada County 
 in bullion yield. As to the yield of bullion, the Free Press 
 of the 10th ' iilst. said : The bullion shipments froni Bodie 
 during the year just closed were the largest of any year since 
 the revival of the district. They amounted to the sum of 
 $3,173,000. This is an increase of more than $100,000 over 
 those of 1880, of more than $600,000 over those of 1879, and 
 of more than $1,000,000, over those of 1878, which was 
 the year of greatest excitement in Bodie mines. The ship- 
 ments for the five years ending December 31, 1881, have 
 been as follows : 
 
 1877 . . . $979,022 80 
 
 1878 ... . 2,129,732 68 
 
 1879 . 2,556,847 58 
 
 1880 3,063,699 13 
 
 1881 . . . . ; . 3,173,000 00 
 
 Total $11,952,302 09 
 
 Before the middle of the present month Bodie district will 
 have made the grand record of $12,000,000 added to the per- 
 manent wealth of the world. We are of the opinion that the 
 yield of the present year will be fully equal to that of 1881, and 
 there is a good reason to anticipate that it will be larger. 
 The prospects of opening up a new bonanza are exceedingly 
 good, particularly in the south end of the camp. Outside 
 
 Annual Products of I<ead, Capper, Silver and Gold In the States and Territories IVest of the Missouri River, 1870-81. 
 
 
 Products as per 
 W. F, i Cb.'s Staie- 
 
 menie, including 
 amounts from British 
 Columbia ami West 
 
 Coast of Mexico. 
 
 Products after 
 deducting Amounts 
 
 from British 
 Columbia and West 
 
 Coast of Mexico. 
 
 The net product of the States and Territories west of the Missouri. Biver, 
 exclusive of British Columbia and West Coast of Mexico, divided, is as follows : 
 
 
 Lead, 
 
 Copper. 
 
 saver. 
 
 QoU. 
 
 1870 
 
 1871 . 
 
 1872 
 
 1873 
 
 $54,000,000 
 58,284,000 
 62,2.36,959 
 72,258,693 
 74,401,046 
 80,889,067 
 90,875,173 
 98,421.754 
 81.154,622 
 76,349,601 
 80,167,936 
 84,504,417 
 
 $62,160,000 
 55,784,000 
 60,351,824 
 70,139,860 
 71,965,610 
 76,703,433 
 87,219,859 
 95,811,682 
 78,276,167 
 72,688,888 
 77,232,512 
 81,198,474 
 
 $1,080,000 
 2,100,000 
 2,250,000 
 3,460,000 
 3,800,000 
 6,100,000 
 5,040,000 
 5,086,260 
 3,452,000 
 4,185,769 
 5,742 390 
 6,361,902 
 
 
 $17,320,000 
 19,286,000 
 19.924,429 
 27,483,302 
 29,699,122 
 31,635,239 
 39,292,924 
 46,846,109 
 37,248,137 
 37,032,857 
 38,033,065 
 42,987,613 - 
 
 $33,750,000 
 34,398,000 
 38,177,395 
 39,206,658 
 38,466,488 
 39,968,194 
 
 44;880;22? 
 87,576,030 
 31,470,262 
 32,559,067 
 30,653,959 
 
 ' • ' ■ • 
 
 1876 
 
 
 
 
 1877 
 
 
 
 
 1879 
 
 
 1880 
 
 1881 
 
 $898,000 
 1,195,000 
 
508 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 districts in the neighborhood of Bodie are attracting much 
 attention, and more activity than usual is anticipated in 
 Homer district during the coming seasons, where several new 
 combinations of capital will enter into mining operations. 
 The Sweetwater mines, about twenty miles north of Bodie in 
 an air line, it is confidently predicted, will create a furore of 
 excitement during the present season. The Aurora mines will 
 have an opportunity of making a stir under the impetus of 
 milling facilities, as the Humboldt mill will be in operation 
 before the end of the present month. Altogether, there is 
 every probability of an unusually brilliant year in mining in 
 Bodie and the surrounding country. 
 
 The Georgetown Gazette says of El Dorado County : " The 
 mining outlook is certainly brighter than it has been for 
 years, particularly quartz mining. No less than 30 quartz 
 locations have been recorded in this district alone during the 
 past year, and locations are still being made. The California 
 W. & M. Co. continues to carry forward its great work of 
 permanent improvements upon its ditch property. Kelsey, 
 Garden Valley, Greenwood and Volcano districts are all 
 making progress in the quartz mining industry. These dis- 
 tricts have all added new mills, and started up idle ones 
 within the past year, and we hear of more mills and mining 
 machinery which are to be added to all of those mining dis- 
 tricts within the next six months. The mines of Spanish Dry 
 Diggings continue to hold their own. Georgetown district 
 is not behind, in fact, present indications are that this dis- 
 trict will stand ahead of any in the county before the close 
 of 1882." The Mountain Democrat, of the same county, 
 says : " The mining industry is greatly revived. More quartz 
 mills and hoisting works have been put up within the past 
 year than within any other year since the county was organ- 
 ized, and the number of new mining enterprises started 
 within the year is without a precedent." 
 
 In his testimony before the Superior Court of Sacramento 
 County, in the case of the People vs. the Gold Run Ditch 
 and Mining Co., J. B. Hobson, a miner of Iowa Hill, testified 
 in reference to the extent of the mining operations in that 
 district, and the yield to date of various Iowa Hill mines as 
 follows : " There has been mined into the North Fork, above 
 Rice's bridge 3,585,800 cubic yards of material from the Iowa 
 Hill mines — about 31 acres. At the mine on Independence 
 Hill, during the three seasons, we worked 278 days, and used 
 500 inches of water. We took out $66,529. The expenses 
 of the mine were $35,450, and the net proceeds $30,977. The 
 following amounts have been taken out of that vicinity: 
 North Star and Weisler claim at Iowa Hill proper, $2,000,- 
 000 ; Wolverine mine at Roach Hill, $800,000 ; Shelby, $105,- 
 000 ; Columbus, $100,000 ; Dayton, $156,000 ; Phillips, 
 $80,000 ; Morning Star mine at Morning Star Hill, $250,- 
 000 ; Bird's Flat mines, $200,000 ; Strawberry Flat, $100,- 
 000; -Wisconsin Hill, $550,000; Grizzly Flat mines, 
 $350,000; Sucker Flat, $250,000; total from Indepen- 
 dence Hill mines, $100,000 ; Mountain Gate at Damas- 
 cus, $1,500 000; total, $6,541,000. The production of the 
 Mountain Gate mine at present varies from $3 to $5 per loa(J 
 —about $40,000 per acre." 
 
 Nevada. The yield of Nevada last year, $11,847,564, shows 
 a total falling off of $3,184,057 ; the yield from the Comstock 
 being only $1,726,162, as against $5,312,593 in 1880. a de- 
 crease of $3,586,430. The product of Eureka district is $1,- 
 127,265, as against $4,639,025 in 1880, a decrease of $511,760. 
 
 In 1880 the Consolidated Virginia mine alone yielded $1,- 
 756,536, which is more than all the mines in the lode turned out 
 in 1881 ; in addition, California produced $880,515, the two 
 mines yielding an aggregate of $2,647,151. This is the sec- 
 ond year only when Nevada has not been the leader in bul- 
 lion product for many years, and it is even now third, fol- 
 lowing California and being over three millions and a half 
 ahead of Arizona, which comes next to it. 
 
 The great need of Nevada at present is a means of work- 
 ing low-grade ores. There are thousands of tons of such 
 ores all over the state, and more particularly on the Com- 
 stock, but by processes at present known it is impossible to 
 work them at a profit. They contain, however, sufficient 
 metal for a profit if worked at a low price. 
 
 The sources of the Nevada yield are indicated in the fol- 
 lowing table, which shows the results of mining product for 
 twelve months, ending September 30, 1881, and is that from 
 which the tax levy is based : 
 
 Cmtniies. 
 
 Quantity worlesd. 
 
 Gross Yield or 
 Value. 
 
 Net YUld on 
 
 
 
 Levied. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 
 Ores. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Elko 
 
 3,333 
 
 1,473 
 
 S221,906.08 
 
 $64,344.35 
 
 Esmeralda . . . 
 
 37,388 
 
 1,297 
 
 1,490,457.42 
 
 466,898.78 
 
 Eureka 
 
 77,005 
 
 191 
 
 3,168,543.91 
 
 918,655.94 
 
 Humboldt . . 
 
 6,448 
 
 830 
 
 74,920.05 
 
 1.3,546.41 
 
 Lander . . 
 
 7,036 
 
 460 
 
 860,419.05 
 
 403,082.96 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 3,-i06 
 
 686 
 
 97,904.76 
 
 19,028.41 
 
 Nye 
 
 18,088 
 
 1,167 
 
 466,269.14 
 
 15,572.48 
 
 Storey . . 
 
 88,609 
 
 1,284 
 
 1,505,000,98 
 
 344,976.76 
 
 White Pine . . . 
 Total Ores 
 
 8,297 
 
 369 
 
 365;952.30 
 
 76,189.11 
 
 248,316 
 
 1,647 
 
 $8,409,373.64 
 
 $2,322,394.20 
 
 Tailings. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Humboldt 
 
 6,833 
 
 666 
 
 $20,170.15 
 
 $8,170.05 
 
 Lincoln . . ^ . 
 
 8,094 
 
 1,663 
 
 83,109.43 
 
 12,333,98 
 
 Lyon . ... 
 
 77.096 
 
 . . . -. 
 
 346,031.02 
 
 60,607.15 
 
 Ormsby . ... 
 
 41,005 
 
 
 179,406.02 
 
 66,370 54 
 
 Storey . ... 
 
 37,912 
 
 1,000 
 
 176,660.64 
 
 26,027,11 
 
 Washoe 
 
 6,256 
 
 
 39,533.42 
 
 4,036,15 
 
 White Pine .... 
 Total tailings . . . 
 
 12,834 
 
 
 41,740.44 
 
 4,174,05 
 
 188,841 
 
 1,329 
 
 $886,641.12 
 
 $162,709.04 
 
 ScM, Elc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Esmeralda . . . 
 Grand total for year . 
 1877. 
 
 15,570 
 
 691 
 
 $209,956.61 
 
 $66,268.36 
 
 462,728 
 
 1,667 
 
 $9,505,971.41 
 
 $2,842,370,50 
 
 
 
 
 
 Grand total ores . . . 
 
 728,810 
 
 194 
 
 $42,295,076.05 
 
 $23,738,726.79 
 
 1878. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Grand total ores . . . 
 
 134,382 
 
 1,444 
 
 6,257,225.57 
 
 3,194,032.70 
 
 1879. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ores, tailings, salt. . 
 
 183,220 
 
 1,338 
 
 5,112,176.12 
 
 2,161,961.34 
 
 1880. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ores, tailings, sa't. . 
 
 560,579 
 
 1,643 
 
 13,665 967.86 
 
 4,496,738.91 
 
 Eureka this year takes the lead. The Sentinel points, with 
 gratification, to what has been .done in the two mines that 
 have been most prominent in the history of Eureka district 
 so far. The Eureka Con. has disbursed in dividends |4,- 
 705,000. The payment of dividends was suspended Novem- 
 ber 1, and the surplus funds on hand retained to pay for 
 improvements that are being made — the sinking of a new 
 shaft, and the erection of new, extensive and costly works. 
 The Richmond Company has paid dividends up to the pres- 
 ent, aggregating $3,564,000. This company has also a sub- 
 stantial reserve fund to meet all demands. 
 
 On the Comstock, the .great bonanza mines, as they are 
 called, found no extensi-ve or rich bodies of ore either in 1880 
 or 1881. Vigorous prospecting has been carried on, how- 
 ever, not only in these two mines, but in the other more 
 prominent ones on the lode. To show the expensive nature 
 of the work going on, it is only necessary to quote from the 
 report of one or two mines for the year. 
 
 The famous California mine for the year ending December 
 31, 1881, turned out 6,175 tons of ore, yielding bullion to the 
 value of $122,107.26, or an average of $19.77 per ton, milling 
 79 per cent, of assay value. Ther6 was gold in bullion to 
 the value of $82,146,10, and silver to the value of $39,961.16. 
 There were raised 13,299 tons of waste rock. All the work 
 done was of a preparatory nature. The following figures 
 show receipts and expenditures of the mine : 
 
 Receipts. 
 
 Bullion on hand at last annual statement 
 Cash on hand at la'-t annual statement . . 
 Samples on hand at last annual statement . 
 Gross product of mine for 1881 . 
 
 Assessment No. 1 
 
 Overdraft Jan. 18, 1882, at Nevada Bank . 
 
 Total ...... 
 
 • Disbursements. 
 
 Overdraft at last annual statement . . . 
 
 Salaries and wages . 
 
 Supplies . . 
 
 Hoisting . . . . ... 
 
 Comprpssed air ... 
 
 Sutro tunnel royalty ... 
 
 Suction fan . . 
 
 Assaying account . . 
 
 Team account 
 
 Taxes 
 
 PumpintE expense 
 Bullion fr'ight .... 
 Virginia City expense 
 
 C. and C. joint shaft - 
 
 Real estate Virginia City 
 
 Interest and exchange 
 
 Legal expense . . . .... 
 
 Advertising .... 
 
 Discount on bullion 
 
 t 34,359.03 
 
 903.42 
 
 66.91 
 
 122,182.32 
 
 162,000.00 
 
 74,630.25 
 
 $394,140.93 
 
 $ 9,804,50 
 
 65,680.76 
 
 30.381.47 
 
 16,006.63 
 
 6,097.60 
 
 3,058.30 
 
 3,706.11 
 
 745.68 
 
 148.7S 
 
 2,85«.14 
 
 756.00 
 
 465.20 
 
 1,330.08 
 
 126,200.00 
 
 1,326.00 
 
 6,027.02 
 
 11,923.80 
 
 4,657.25 
 
 10,104.91 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 609 
 
 Refining charges on bullion . 
 San Francisco office expense 
 Books and stationery . . . . 
 
 Cash on hand 
 
 Samples on hand 
 
 997.74 
 3,757.96 
 
 580.20 
 
 1,174.52 
 
 14.36 
 
 Total . 
 
 8394,140.94 
 
 The Consolidated Virginia mine turned out 6,435 tons of 
 
 ore in the year, yielding $144,064.10 or $21.13 per ton. 
 
 There were also 8,307 tons of waste rock taken out. The re- 
 ceipts and expenditures were : 
 
 Receipts. 
 
 Dec. 31, 1880, cash on hand 81,569 60 
 
 Samples on hand 154.40 
 
 Assaying 6,284.19 
 
 Supplies 11,382.33 
 
 Best and Belcher joint work 14,029.94 
 
 Drafts on secretary 320,366.05 
 
 Samples produced 104.47 
 
 Suction fans 13,903.10 
 
 Total 
 
 8367,792.98 
 
 DlsliiirBeinents. 
 
 86,000, 
 83,079, 
 
 7,793. 
 
 6,647. 
 
 2,240. 
 
 6,966. 
 
 6,441, 
 707. 
 
 6,906, 
 
 3,588. 
 284. 
 
 3,517. 
 
 1,443, 
 
 3,676. 
 
 15,466, 
 
 61,361 
 
 126,200. 
 
 3,134. 
 
 1,373 
 
 1,458. 
 
 777. 
 
 16,676, 
 
 258. 
 
 2,069. 
 
 1,980. 
 
 Salaries 
 
 Wages . 
 
 .Timber 
 
 Ice ....'., 
 
 .Cftndles . ". .' 
 
 Pbwder, fuso and caps 
 
 Miscellaneous supplies 
 
 Office expenses 
 
 ■Assay office wages ....-..; • 
 
 Assay office supplies 
 
 Team expense 
 
 Legal expense 
 
 Tax on real estate 
 
 Tax on proceeds of bullion ... 
 
 Hoisting 
 
 Reduction 
 
 One-half expense C. & C. ."^haft 
 
 One-half royalty to Sutro Tunnel Co . . 
 
 Interest and exchange . - • 
 
 Transportation and hauling . 
 
 Best and Belcher joint winze ■ * . . 
 
 Suction fans ... 
 
 Samples shipped ... 
 
 Compressed air 
 
 Cash on hand, Dec. 31, 1881 
 
 Total .: : 8367,792.98 
 
 As to the cost of sinking deep shafts on the Comstock, it 
 will be well to note the cost of the C. & C. shaft during the 
 year. This was in January, ISi 0, about 194 feet below the 
 2300 level, and had been sunk (the first of January 1882) 33 
 feet below the 2500 level. A large sump drift has been run 
 out a distance of 50 feet from the bottom. Stationary double 
 plunger pumps have been put in at the 2400 level and 2500 
 level, with the necessary balance bobs and tanks to complete 
 the main pumping system to that level. To do this work 
 cost $377,200, as will be seen by thefollowing record of dis- 
 bursements for this shaft for the year : 
 
 Office supplies and repairs .." $1,418 19 
 
 Miscellaneous supplies . ... 28,460 33 
 
 Candles . . 6,736 70 
 
 Powder, caps and fuse .... 18,977 60 
 
 Timber 19,890 24 
 
 Wood -r 106,671 99 
 
 Oils ,.. ..4,364 68 
 
 Ice • . . 24,724 85 
 
 Water 9,600 00 
 
 Wire cable . . 2,373 44 
 
 Salaries . ; 1,800.00 
 
 Wages 112,125 34 
 
 Real estate 760 00 
 
 Team ex(>ense 77. 00 
 
 Contribution account 90 00 
 
 -Interest and exchange ... . ... 333 &6 
 
 Taxes 4,073 58 
 
 Pumping 10,037 50 
 
 Surveying 1,800 00 
 
 Legal expenses 20,410 50 
 
 Transportation and hauling 3,027 10 
 
 Balance cash on hand ^7 70 
 
 Total 
 
 , . $377,200 05 
 
 The following, from the White Pine News, shows that the 
 bullion shipment from Cherry Creek, Nevada, through 
 Wells, Fargo & Co.'s office for the year ending December 
 31, 1881, the December shipment being pretty closely 
 approximated : 
 
 January $ 23,020 
 
 February 33,072 
 
 March 23 040 
 
 April 39,490 
 
 May 41,685 
 
 June 39,767 
 
 July 32,700 
 
 August . . . 
 September. 
 October . . 
 November. 
 December . 
 
 Total 
 
 27,150 
 26,465 
 21,950 
 31,367 
 33,000 
 
 Of this amount the Star shipped $363,031.91, the balance 
 coming from the Exchange, Tea2up, Silver Cafion, and 
 Shellburn. 
 
 The shipments of Tuscarora bullion for the year 1881, as 
 furnished by the books of Wells, Fargo & Co. at that place,' 
 are given as follows: 
 
 January $ 25,026 04 
 
 February 39,224 76 
 
 March 97,590 06 
 
 Anril 31,276 13 
 
 May 20,747 43 
 
 June 24,028 28 
 
 July 16,8388 6 
 
 August 69,972 90 
 
 September 14,091 00 
 
 October. . . ... 9,146 01 
 
 November 37,207 14 
 
 Total $387,196 34 
 
 With the December shipments already made, and those to 
 come, it is estimated that the amount will reach a total of 
 $422,396. 
 
 Colorado. — Colorado ranked all the States and Territories 
 last year as a bullion producer. The Denver Tribune pre- 
 sents a statement of the bullion product of Colorado by 
 counties for the year 1881, showing a grand total of $22,680,- 
 900, an increase of $859,000 over 1880. Lake county, in 
 which the famous Leadville district is located, is credited 
 with $13,502,000 by that paper, while Clear Lake county is 
 credited with $2,205,000, Gilpin county $2,150,700, and 
 Summit county $1,820,000. Fourteen other counties figure 
 in the list, the three most noteworthy being Bowlder, Custer 
 and Gunnison, the aggregate yield of which was $1,670,300, 
 about equally divided. The product of Leadville is given 
 by the Leadville Herald at $13,170,600, in quarterly state- 
 ments, as follows : 
 
 First quarter $3,097,800 
 
 Third quarter 3,170,300 
 
 Second quarter $3,404,000 
 
 Fourth quarter 3,498,500 
 
 Total $13,170,600 
 
 Last year the Democrat reported the coin value of gold, 
 silver and lead produced by the Leadville mines at $15,095,- 
 200. The decrease of $2,000,000 for the past year is not 
 encouraging. The yield of the Leadville camp has been 
 remarkable. The total for the past five years has been as 
 follows : 
 
 In 1877 $ 565,30f 
 
 In 1879 10,189,600 
 
 In 1881 13,100,800 
 
 In 1878 i 3,152,900 
 
 In 1880 15,095,200 
 
 Total $42,093,700 
 
 The camp has only come into prominence during the past 
 four years. Up to tiie close of 1876 the total yield has only 
 been a little over $6,000,000. The product for the past 
 two years has exceeded that of any otner mining camp in 
 the whole country. 
 
 The list by Colorado counties is as follows : 
 
 County. 'V. 
 
 Bowlder :. $635,482.88 
 
 Clear Creek 2,204,980.00 
 
 Dolores 126,000.90 
 
 Gilpin 2,106,700.00 
 
 Gunnison 636,033.00 
 
 Lake 13,502,029.00 
 
 Ouray - 78;000.00 
 
 Pitkin 120,000.00 
 
 Saguache 40,000.00 
 
 Total. 
 
 Chaffee $100,000.00 
 
 Custer 608,649.37 
 
 Fremont 14,536.50 
 
 Grand 10,000.00 
 
 Hinsdale 187,376.00 
 
 La Plata and San Juan . 40,000.00 
 
 Park 360,000.00 
 
 Rio Grande 251,000.00 
 
 Summit 1,828,000.00 
 
 Grand Total 
 
 . $22,680,685.00 
 
 These figures include gold, silver, copper and lead. 
 Following is a statement of the business from Colorado 
 smelting works for 1881 : 
 
 Boston and Colorado Worlcs, Airgo. 
 
 . $375,680 
 
 Counties, 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gilpin 
 
 398,000 
 29,000 
 48,000 
 3,000 
 
 $ 76,000 
 518,000 
 
 23,000 
 128,000 
 220,000 
 
 72,000 
 728,000 
 
 16,000 
 
 33,000 
 388,000 
 
 14,000 
 
 $ 89,000 
 
 13,000 
 
 1,008 
 
 3,000 
 
 '5,000 
 
 ' ■i74,bdo 
 
 12,000 
 
 $ 663,000 
 660,000 
 
 72,000 
 134,000 
 220,000 
 
 77,000 
 728,000 
 
 79,000 
 
 37,000 
 573,000 
 
 Clear Creels 
 
 Bowlder 
 
 Park 
 
 Lake 
 
 Chaffee & Gun 
 
 Custer 
 
 San Juan 
 
 Montana 
 
 63,000 
 4,000 
 11,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 Utah, etc 
 
 38 000 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 • 8508,000 
 
 $2,216,000 
 
 $297,000 
 
 3,081,000 
 
 
510 
 
 THE MINES, MINESS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Moore Mining and Smelting Co., Colden. 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Cks. 
 Gold. 
 
 Oza. 
 Siloer. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Gilpin 
 
 Clear Creek 
 
 Lake 
 
 Otlier souroea .' . 
 
 3,906 
 
 2,900 
 
 414 
 
 ■ 902 
 
 5,739 
 168 
 
 69,260 
 
 327,216 
 
 21,664 
 
 52,302 
 
 $183,377 
 
 403,713 
 
 26,956 
 
 64,456 
 
 Total 
 
 1,122 
 
 5,907 
 
 460,421 
 
 $678,505 
 
 Golden. Smelting Company. 
 
 Counti/, 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 TotaU. 
 
 Gilpin ... 
 
 Clear Creek 
 
 Bowlder 
 
 Lake 
 
 $144,016.13 
 
 561.06 
 
 36,421.96 
 
 $258,624.74 
 184,686.96 
 43,487.37 
 38,326.59 
 34,423.70 
 26,868.80 
 2,088.98 
 
 $ 8,282.96 
 29,671,62 
 
 ' 16,98i.36 
 
 7,929.44 
 
 33,513.02 
 
 782.40 
 
 $210,823.83 
 214,809.64 
 78,909.33 
 54,307.95 
 42,353.14 
 
 Summit 
 
 
 Custer . . 
 
 Other sources 
 
 449.36 
 
 60,381.82 
 3,320.74 
 
 
 1664,906.36 
 
 Total No. of tons, 8,081. 
 
 Tons bought in 1880 — 5,012 ; value, $586,044.26. 
 
 Tons bought in 1879—3,006 ; value, $310,062.69. 
 
 The following table represents the amount of ore pur- 
 chased by the Miners' Smelting and Reduction Co. since 
 
 Oregon — The state of Oregon is credited with a yield 
 for 1881 of $1,189,615, all of which was gold, except $48,684. 
 Oregon in 1880, produced $1,059,644. 
 
 Eastern Oregon is just in a transition stage from a placer 
 mining section to a quartz producing region. It comprises, 
 says the Oregonian, the five counties of IJnion, Grant, Baker, 
 and Wasco, all containing quartz ledges of various import- 
 ance, and Umatilla, which has no mining except the Chinese 
 rocker claims along the Columbia. Baker county has pro- 
 duced the largest value of bullion; Grant next, while 
 Union and Wasco are known to have ledges of argentiferous 
 galena, which have not yet been suflSciently developed to 
 determine their value. Those of Union lie in the Eagle 
 Creek range, which divides Wallowa valley from that of 
 the Grande Ronde, while those of Wasco are on the head 
 waters of the Ochoco. Baker county has placer gold dig- 
 gings on Burnt and Powder rivers and their tributaries, 
 chief among which is Auburn creek, which at one 
 time gave employment to over 2,000 miners. Strange 
 to say, no quartz ledges of any width or specific 
 value have been discovered on the headwaters of that 
 stream. On Burnt river, about 30 miles from Baker City, 
 is a new ledge, owned by Capt. J. C. Ainsworth, of Oakland, 
 Cal., and Theodore Wygant and Capt. Joseph Myrick, of 
 Portland, the latter gentleman being Superintendent. The 
 Conner Creek mine is located on that stream, about 50 miles 
 
 T] IT n 'TT'T^Tr 
 
 , (f« I 1 ' I Iff „ jjj i W}, i ' I 
 
 ^li| 
 
 THE EOCKER. 
 
 commencing business in May, 1881. In a few weeks their 
 furnace capacity at Golden will be doubled : 
 
 County. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Copper, 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gilpin 
 
 Clear Creek 
 
 Other sources 
 
 $ 68,833.61 
 
 36,306.00 
 
 6,169.00 
 
 $ 11,734.00 
 
 184,006.85 
 
 7,100 00 
 
 $7,663.00 
 11,600.00 
 12,436.00 
 
 $ 78,230.61 
 230,011.85 
 25,696.00 
 
 Totals 
 
 $100,297.61 
 
 $202,840.86 
 
 $31,699.00 
 
 $334,837.46 
 
 According to the figures given above of bullion produc- 
 tion by counties the total is $500,000 short of last year. Lake 
 falls short $1,500,000; Clear Creek, $800,000 ; Gilpin, $500,- 
 000; Bowlder, $250,000; Custer, $200,000, and Park $50,000. 
 Summit has gained $1,400,000 ; Gunnison and Pitkin, $900,- 
 000; Chaffee, $50,000, and San Juan country, $700,0C0. The 
 total output of the mines falls short of expectations, yet the 
 results are very satisfactory. A number of the once heavy 
 producing mines of Lake, Gilpin and some other counties 
 nave taken out very little ore for various reasons. 
 
 from Baker City, and is owned by S. G. Reed and John 
 Faull, the latter being Superintendent. 
 
 The celebrated "Virtue mine, formerly called the Rockfel- 
 low, is also located in Baker county, but has produced no 
 bullion for several years, and ita shafts are full of water. It 
 has always been an expensive mine to run for that reason. 
 The Rye Valley mine, at one time owned by Fiske & Thiel- 
 sen, of this city, but now the property of a Boston company, 
 is under the supervision of J. D. Locke, but we have no 
 date of its output. Grant county contains a greater diver- 
 sity of valuable minerals than any other county in the 
 State, though the production of bullion is below that of 
 Baker. The chief placer mines are on Canyon and Prairie 
 creeks, both of which have paid enormously in the past 20 
 years. These diggings were struck by a party of prospectors 
 from Yreka, Cal., who were bound to Boise Basin. Two or 
 three of the wealthiest firms in San Francisco got their start 
 in Canyon City, the diggings of which extend a distance of 
 two miles down to John Day town. Every foot of this 
 ground has paid enormously, and some of it has been worked 
 half a dozen times over. Near Prairie City, on the oppo- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 611 
 
 site side of John Day valley, irregular bodies of auriferous 
 (quartz have been found, easy to work and free from rebel- 
 lious sulphurets. Over on Granite creek are several small 
 ledges of antimonial silver, the best of which is the " Bea- 
 gle," situated about three miles from the "Monumental," 
 tamed for its dividends of the Fenian persuasion. All this 
 rock is cased in granite, which does not speak well for its 
 durability, but the grade of ore is very high. Down in the 
 John Day river, below the South Fork, are deposits of red 
 manganese, which is used in the manufacture of gold and 
 silver ware as a polishing agent. Carbonates of lead, carry- 
 ing a small portion of silver, are also found in the extreme 
 north end of the county, but no thoroughly developed ledge 
 a3 yet exists. Small deposits of cinnabar have been found 
 in the southern end of the county. 
 
 Southern Oregon Mines. — In southern Oregon raining is the 
 great special industry. All the mines operated in Jackson 
 county are placers, and in the winter they present the 
 unsightly appearance of scars upon the country, very much 
 resembling abandoned brickyards. There are several fine 
 quartz ledges in the county, but to operate them mills must 
 Be employed, and none have yet been put in. The dust is 
 used as a circulating medium among the miners ; part of it is 
 sold at the Jacksonville bank, part is traded at the stores, 
 part is shipped bjf registered packages, part is shipped by 
 express, and part is carried out by the miners themselves. 
 Fully one-half of the men engaged in mining are Chinese 
 and one of the principal mining bosses and proprietors is a 
 Chinaman. The mining season commences in November or 
 December, with the winter rains, and lasts till May, the 
 miners generally making enough during these months to 
 keep them the rest of the year. Every process of water 
 mining, from the old-fashioned rocker to the most approved 
 hydraulic methods, are employed in these mines. 
 
 Mining is the great and almost the only industry of 
 Josephine county. They are similar to the mines of Jack- 
 son. The annual gold production of the various districts in 
 Josephine is estimated at $192,500. The number of men 
 engaged in these diggings is about five hundred, more than 
 250 beingChinamen. The various hydraulic methods are 
 in use. The mines of Douglas county are mostly quarte, 
 and are undeveloped. 
 
 For more than thirty years black sand mining has been 
 carried on along the beach south of Coos Bay. The Lane 
 mine was first worked sixteen years ago, and is now under 
 the management of Mr. Baily, to whom it is leased. The 
 works represent an investment of $25,000, and employ six- 
 teen men. The Eagle company spent $50,000 in building 
 works, etc., and after conducting a failing business for some 
 time sold out for $40,000 to a California company, which 
 spent $25,000 more and then abandoned the claimt First 
 and last a good deal of gold was taketi out of the Eagle, but 
 the business never was profitable. Miners working by hand 
 along the beach have always made good wages, and some 
 few have picked up fortunes. "Big Mac" took $100,000 
 out of the sand in a few weeksy spent it in a few months, and 
 is now keeping a hotel in Crescent City. 
 
 Arizona.— The Yuma Sentinel, of Arizona, speaking of 
 bullion product, says : From her small output of less than 
 $400,000 of gold and silver in 1875, Arizona's yearly output 
 has been steadily augmenting until it has reached, in 1881, 
 over $9,000,000. The output for 1880, up to June 30th, was 
 $2,400,000, of which $2,000,000 was silver. The gain from 
 this last date to June 30, 1881, was $6,950,823, of which 
 $5,796,306 was silver. These amounts are authorized 
 estimates, which of course, do not include segregated small 
 amounts not statistically reported. From one stamp mill in 
 1868, the increase has been to 55, of from 1 to 100 stamps 
 each, aggregating 785 stamps, besides some 10 others that 
 are now oeing put up. 
 
 The Arizona Stour, in summing up the bullion product, 
 says : The output of the precious metals in 1880 Aom 
 Arizona did not exceed $4,000,000. For the year 1881, so far 
 as heard from, the output has been $9,101,179.66. This does 
 not include the output north of the Tiptop mine, nor that of 
 the 80 stamp mill of the Vulture ; nor Silver King concen- 
 trationsj and the large quantity of highTgrade ores shipped 
 Out, of the Territory, all of which will, at a conservative es- 
 timate, add at least $1,000,000 to the total amount. 
 • Tabulated, the statement is as follows : 
 
 Tombstone $5,149,120.63 
 
 Silver King 1,800,000.00 
 
 Harshaw Co 
 
 Ore from Harshaw District . . 
 
 Yuma and Moiiare gold 
 
 " " silver 
 
 Tiptop 
 
 Dos Cobezas 
 
 Globe District via Ca«a Grande 
 
 Total product of Pima county gold dust 
 
 Silver baliion, Pima 
 
 Galeyville 
 
 779,600.00 
 40,000X10 
 64,000.00 
 
 103,000.00 
 
 293,612.32 
 27,862.81 
 
 726,000.00 
 40,169.00 
 61,616.00 
 15,600.00 
 
 Making a total of $9,101,179.66 
 
 To which add a value of copper 1,663,011.40 
 
 And from all other sources . . 1,000,000.00 
 
 And we have a total of . $11,664,191.00 
 
 The totalproduct of Harshaw Co $1,165,154.00 
 
 Total of Tiptop 1,212,022.60 
 
 TOMBSTONE MINES. 
 
 T. M. & M. Co $2,704,936.00 
 
 Contention 2,703,144.39 
 
 Grand Central 1,050,876.30 
 
 Head Center 191,620.00 
 
 Vizina 626,716.00 
 
 Total for Tombstone, since discovery of district, . . 
 
 Corbin Mill 40,000/10 
 
 Ingersoll , . 16,000.00 
 
 Sunset 16,000.00 
 
 Boston Mill 112,007.83 
 
 . $7,3S9,200.83 
 
 DIVIDENDS. 
 
 T. M. & M. Co $1,100,000.00 
 
 Contention 1,376,000.00 
 
 Grand Central . 
 Vizina 
 
 Total dividends . 
 
 . 600,000.00 
 80,000.00 
 
 . $3,166,000.00 
 
 The most prominent camp in Arizona is Tombstone, and 
 this has produced the largest supply of bullion. The record 
 of the district from the dropping of the first stamp in June, 
 1879, to Jan. 1, 1882, is given by the Epitaph as follows : 
 
 TOMBSTONE M. AND H. CO. 
 Total to Nov. 1, 1881 . . $2,462,843.60 
 For November . . . . . 112,092.73 
 For December 130,000.00 
 
 Total $2,704,926.33 
 
 Dividends 1,100,000.00 
 
 WESTERN (now CONTENTION.) 
 
 Total to Nov. 1 $2,437,144.39 
 
 For November ... . 130,000.00 
 For December ... . 136,000.00 
 
 Total $2,703,144^9 
 
 Dividends 1,376,000.00 
 
 To Nov. 1. $424,693.00 
 
 For November , 
 For December . 
 
 Total . . . 
 Dividends . 
 
 67,023.98 
 45,000.00 
 
 To Dec. 1st . 
 
 . $526,716.98 
 . 60,000.00 
 
 . $112,007.31 
 
 GRAND OENTBAI. 
 To Nov. 1 .... . ... $848,176.48 
 
 For November. . . . ; .| 97,698.84 
 
 For.December 106,000.00 
 
 Total . ;■ . . ; . . . . $1,050,875.30 
 
 Dividends J $3041,000.00 
 
 Repayment original outlay 
 
 300,000.00 
 
 Total 
 
 . $600,600.00 
 
 HEAD CENTER. 
 
 To Nov. 1 $156,620.52 
 
 For November 20,000.00 
 
 For December ...... 15,000.00 
 
 Total . . . ^ $191,520.62 
 
 SUNDRIES. 
 
 Corbin Mill . . . .$40,000.00 
 
 Ingersoll 16,000.00 
 
 Sunset 16,000.00 
 
 Total , 
 
 . $70,000.00 
 
 The Boston mill has reduced all the ore of the Vizina 
 Co., therefore the actual production of the mill has been 
 1638,724.29. 
 
 BECAPITITLATION. 
 
 Tonjbstone M. & M. Co . 
 Western (Contention) . . 
 
 Grand Central 
 
 Vizina 
 
 Head Center 
 
 Boston Mills 
 
 Corbin Mills 
 
 Ingersoll 
 
 Sunset 
 
 Total 
 
 . . .$2,704,936.33 
 
 . 2,703,144.39 
 
 . . . 1,050,876.30 
 
 . . 626,716.96 
 
 101,620.62 
 
 . . . 112,724.» 
 
 40,000.00 
 
 . . . 15,000.00 
 
 15,000.00 
 
 . . .$7,359,917.81 
 
 DIVIDENDS. 
 
 Tombstone M. & M. Co . $1,100,000.00 
 
 Western (Contention) .... 1,375,000.00 
 
 Grand Contral— repayment 300,080.00 
 
 Grand Central— dividends 300,000.00 
 
 Vizina . : . . 60,000.00 
 
 Total $3,135,000.00 
 
 To show the yield per ton, etc., and yield of ore from two 
 or three prominent mines, the following is given : 
 
 The Contention Con. property from March 8, 1880, to 
 Dec. 31, 1881, produced bullion to the value of $2,678,327, 
 and paid dividends to the amount of $1,475,000, and all re- 
 sulting from a total ore product of 38,720 tons, which is a 
 trifle over the rate of $59 per ton. 
 
 The Grand Central ore output for the eight months and 
 thirteen days of 1881, foots up a total 22,115 tons, and from 
 its reduction resulted $l,061,8f5, being at the rate of $48 
 per ton. Its declared dividends foot up $300,000, besides the 
 $300,000 refunded to those who advanced them for the con- 
 
512 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES'. 
 
 struction of the mill and hoisting works and the opening of 
 the mine, making thus $600,000 in all paid by this very 
 profitable mining venture. 
 
 The Head Center mine, from April 15, 1881, to Dec. 31, 
 1881, yielded 7,450 tons of ore, from the reduction of which 
 resulted $206,853, being at the rate of $27.66 per ton. 
 
 The Virginia Con. Co., up to Jan. 1, 1882, produced 6,887 
 tons of ore and shipped $547,886, in bullion as the result, 
 giving at the rate of $93 per ton. 
 
 Pioneer district, where the famous Silver King is, de- 
 mands more than passing notice. Pinal Drill says : Pioneer 
 district stands pre-eminent to-day in our young Territory. 
 We have risen, within the last couple of years, from a per- 
 fect terra incngnita to a shining mark amongst our sister 
 districts. Pioneer district is the first bullion -producing dis- 
 trict in the Territory. With us mining is a sober, steady 
 business, and no farming community in the country is more 
 free from crimes and misdeeds. Solid, substantial develop- 
 ment, regular and permanent production and profit, mark 
 the onward progre3s of Pinal. The Silver Queen, the Mount 
 View, the Wide Awake, the Pinal Con., the Eastland, the 
 North King, the Oxford and Dover, the Lewis, iihe Good- 
 enough, the Specie Paying, the Arizona and Massachusetts, 
 the Hudson and the Hastings Con., are all incorporated 
 companies in addition to the Silver King. Besidas these 
 incorporations, individual owners of mines have, during 
 1881, expended large sums of money, and done much work. 
 The contiguous camps on Mineral Hill, Belle Air, Silver 
 Kirig, Queen Creek, Happy Camp, Peachville, Rogers, Cole 
 and Randolph districts, all centering at Pinal, are of im- 
 mense value. 
 
 New Mexico. — New Mexico is credited by Wells, Fargo 
 & Co., with a production of $814,944 for the year 1881. The 
 year before it produced $711,300 
 
 Very little has been done in the way of developing the 
 mineralogical resources, as may be seen from the following 
 table, which aifords a close estimate of the yield since New 
 Mexico became a portion of the territory of the United 
 States : 
 
 1848 to 1868 
 
 1808 
 
 1869. 
 
 1870. 
 
 1871 . . . 
 
 1872. 
 
 1873 . . . 
 
 1874. . 
 
 1S75 
 
 1876 to 1880 . -. 
 
 1880 . . 
 
 1881 
 
 Total 
 
 82,500,000 
 260,000 
 500,000 
 600,000 
 600,000 
 500,000 
 600,000 
 300,000 
 325,000 
 2,200,000 
 711,300 
 814,944 
 
 9,601,244 
 
 It has been very difiicult to get correct statistics of pro- 
 duction of New Mexico. Even as late as 1880, there was a 
 great difference in the estimate of production made by Wells, 
 Fargo & Co., and the director of the mint. The latter puts 
 the product for calendar year 1880 at $555,000, of which 
 $425,000 is silver. Wells, Fargo & Co., fix the figures at 
 $711,300. 
 
 New Mexico expects before long to exceed all other 
 regions as a copper producing coun^. The New Mexico 
 Mining World says: An investigation of the copper re- 
 sources of New Mexico leads to the belief that the deprecia- 
 tion in the value of copper, which will follow in the develop- 
 ment of the New Mexican mines, will practically exclude the 
 other mines in the United States, if not, indeed, the most of 
 those in the world, from competing with the Territory. One 
 of the richest deposits is at Clifton, 93 miles almost due west 
 from Silver City, and between 60 and 65 miles from Coronada. 
 The ore seems almost unlimited in quantity — in fact there is 
 a solid mountain of copper. To prove this, the first develop- 
 ment was by tunnel at the base, an 1 from which drifts were 
 carried in all directions, shafts in the meantime being sunk 
 from above, the ores from the top showing fully as rich as 
 those at the bottom. In Silver City, Grant county, there 
 are four stamp mills and two smelters now in operation. 
 At the Lake valley mines a $100,000 plant for reducing 
 the vast quantities of ores of the Philadelphia companies is 
 to be erected. At Socorro the Torrence stamp mill is now 
 in operation. The mine bus nearly 700 ft. of levels and 
 430 ft. of shafts, with considerable bodies of free mining ore 
 in sight. The La Joya and New Orleans smelter at this 
 
 point is completed and has made several successful runs of 
 ore from the adjacent districts already. 
 
 The Los Cerillos Reduct on and Mining Co., are buying 
 ores with great diligence in all parts of the Territory, es- 
 pecially in the Magdalens, where their agent is daily mak- 
 ing contracts. In the Cerillos, the Diiryea furnace and 
 other reduction works are almost ready to turn out bullion. 
 White Oaks has a 10-stamp mill, and the Homestake com- 
 pany has a large plant on the ground, to be erected and 
 working in a few weeks. 
 
 The San Pedro and Canyon dc-l Aqua companies, in the 
 placers, are doing a great deal of work, and will doubtless 
 ship a large amount of bullion in the coming year. 
 
 The Black range is a section which has attracted great at- 
 tention. It is situated in Socorro county, in the southwest- 
 ern part of the Territory, and constitutes a portion of the 
 main Rocky mountain chain, dividing the drainage of the 
 Cuchilla, Negra and Gila rivers. The more elevated por- 
 tion is densely timbered with pine and juniper, and presents 
 in the distance that somber appearance, which first suggests 
 the name. The most important mines are on the eastern 
 slope of the mountains, or Wild Horse, Turkey, Dry, Min- 
 eral and Chloride gulches. The district is 65 miles from San 
 Marcial, on the Atchinson, Topeka and Santa Fe railroad. 
 
 Utah. — Utah Territory, made last year a good showing in 
 its bullion product, having turned out $7,311,288 as against 
 $6,450,953, in 1880. The following _ table is taken from the 
 Salt Lake Tribune. 
 
 'Wellg, Fargo, & Co.'s Statement of tbe Mineral Product of 
 Utah ror 1881. 
 
 Bme Bullion. 
 
 Lbs. Lead 
 Bef'd. 
 
 Lbs. Lead 
 Unrefined. 
 
 Ouncen 
 SUver. 
 
 Ounces 
 Gold. 
 
 Frisco M. & S. To 
 
 GermaniaS. & R. Woiks 
 
 Hanauer • • . 
 
 ■ 2,645,373 
 
 3,023,213 
 3,687,284 
 3,015,228 
 16,343,995 
 11,997,649 
 1,634,697 
 
 221,846 
 234,260 
 176,320 
 1,259,903 
 437,176 
 66,680 
 
 425 
 191 
 438 
 
 Horn Silver Mining Co., 
 
 
 
 Mingo Furnace Co. 
 
 Other Smelters 
 
 
 S,S2 
 
 
 
 
 Deduct Ba.se Bullion purchased for 
 Germania Refining Works . . 
 
 2,645,373 
 
 39,681,966 
 386,365 
 
 2,386,185 
 18,427 
 
 2,101 
 39 
 
 
 
 
 Net Product Base Bullion 
 
 39,296,601 
 2,895,026 
 
 2,367,758 
 276,141 
 
 
 Lead, Silver and Gold in Ores 
 Shipped 
 
 
 660 
 
 Total Ref d Lead Ores and- Base 
 Bullion. . . 
 
 2,646,373 
 
 42,191,627 
 
 2,643,899 
 
 2,622 
 
 JDore Bars. 
 
 Ounces 
 
 saver. 
 
 Ounces 
 Gold. 
 
 Germania Refining Works 
 
 115,219 
 1,909,870 
 
 614,368 
 73,031 
 43,804 
 
 
 Ontario Silver Mining Co 
 
 Silver Reef Mills .... . ... 
 
 . ... 
 
 
 Tintio M. & M. Co 
 
 Other Mills and Placers 
 
 406 
 4,613 
 
 Total Dore Bars 
 
 
 2,756,292 
 
 6,336 
 
 RECAPrrTTLATION. 
 
 2,645,373 fts. Refined Lead, at 6V^c per ft ... 
 42,191,625 lbs, Unrefined Lead, atleo per ton . . 
 6,400,191 ozs. Silver, at Sl.ll . ..... 
 
 7,958 ozs. Gold, at ?20 
 
 Total Export Value 
 
 $ 145,495 51 
 
 1,054,790 67 
 
 6,994,212 01 
 
 169,160 OO 
 
 87,363,658 19 
 
 The above includes the ores received from Idaho, Mon- 
 tana and Nevada, aggregating 3,969,440 lbs. lead, -441,846 
 ounces of silver, and 976 ounces of gold. Computing the 
 gold and silver at the Mint valuation, and lead at its value 
 at the seaboard, it would increase the value of the product 
 to $9,401,475.56. The Ontario mine produced the past year 
 1,909,870 ounces silver ; in 1880 it produced 1,439,542, an in- 
 crease of 470,228 ounces, or $521 ,953.08. A gross production 
 for this mine of $2,119,955.70 during the year 1881 is consi- 
 derably in excess of the yield of any other single concern. 
 Its yield, moreover, is pure silver. 
 
 The great Horn Silver comes next in volume of produc- 
 tion. In 1881 it produced 16 343,995 lbs. of lead, and 
 1,259,903 ounces of silver, or a total export value of $408,600 
 for lead, and $1,398,492,33 for silver, an aggregate produc- 
 
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THE MINES, MINEKS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 513 
 
 tion of $1,807,092.33. This is an increase in valuation of 
 ^=942,290.93 over 1880, or more than 100 per cent. In all 
 these reckonings the value of lead is computed at $50 per 
 ton for each year, but the value of silver was computed at 
 $1.10 in 1880, and $1.11 in 1881. The Germania smelter 
 has made a remarkable increase. Its production of un- 
 refined lead rose from 1,722,865 lbs. in 1880, to 3,687,284 
 lbs. in 1881 ; of silver, from 162,909 ozs. to 234,260 ozs., 
 and of Dore bars from 36,422 oz. to 115,219 ozs. Its pro- 
 duction of fine lead fell from 2,892,498 lbs. in 1880, to 
 2,645,378 lbs. in 1881. Its production for 1881 represents 
 a value of $145,495.51 of refined lead, $92,200 of unrefined 
 lead, $260,028.60 of silver, and $127,893.09 of Dore bars— an 
 aggregate production the past year to the volume of $725,- 
 617.20 against $364,394.80 in 1880, being very close to an 
 increase of 100 per cent. The Mingo smelter also made 
 a surprising gain. It'produced 11,977,649 lbs. of lead and 
 437,176 ozs. of silver m 1881, as against 6,464,382 lbs. of 
 lead and 272,832 ozs. of silver in 1880. The export value 
 of the product of 1881 is $784,705.86 against a value of 
 $461,715.20 In 1880. The Mingo smelter is the only one 
 which shows an increased gold product in 1881 over 1880. 
 For 1881 it produced 832 ozs. of gold as against 675 the year 
 before. 
 
 The Frisco smelter produced 3,023,213 lbs. of lead in 1881, 
 and 221,846 ozs of silver, against 2,017,991 lbs. of lead and 
 125,722 ozs. of silver in 1880. Value of product in 1881, 
 $321,799.06; value in 1880, $190,570.20. The Hanauer 
 smelter (last year Morgan smelter) proJuced in 1881, 
 3,015,229 lbs. of lead and 176,320 ounces of silver, as 
 against 2,733,782 lbs. of lead in 1880, and 157,374 ounces 
 of silver. Value of the product of 1881, $271,095.20; in 
 1880, $236,451.40. The most remarkable increase in any 
 one item is in that of " lead,.silver and gold in ores shipped," 
 which jumped from 831,600 lbs. lead, 24,024 ounces silver and 
 23 ounces gold to 2,895,026 lbs. lead, 276,141 ounces silver 
 and 560 ounces gold. The Silver Eeef mines fell off in pro- 
 duction on account of the strike, which caused a long torpor 
 in the Stormont, and perhaps from other causes, from 846,- 
 062 ounces silver, in 1880 to 614,368 ounces in 1881. The 
 Tintic M. & M. Co. made a handsome increase from 41,923 
 ounces silver in 1880 to 73,031 ounces in 1881. 
 
 Montana. — ^Montana stands credited for the past year with 
 a total yield of $4,359,071, against $3,822,379 in 1880. This 
 increase is mainly from the large and growing camp of Butte, 
 the bullion output of which, as shown by the books of the 
 Pacific Express Co., for the year 1881, was as follows : 
 
 January . . 
 February . . 
 March . . . 
 April .... 
 May . . . . ■ 
 June .... 
 July .... 
 August . . . 
 September 
 October . .■ . 
 November . 
 December . 
 
 Weiriht. 
 
 8,441 
 11,252 
 13,036 
 12,835 
 11,738 
 10,409 
 
 9,873 
 13,556 
 
 9,015 
 11,035 
 
 9,951 
 10,641 
 
 131,787 
 
 VulUG. 
 
 671,635.82 
 112,400.35 
 131,483-01 
 129,292.24 
 106.599.47 
 99,988.93 
 98,613.41 
 129,966.17 
 78,520.11 
 94,239.28 
 82,491.13 
 94,060 14 
 
 $1,229,180.06 
 
 To this amount, says the Miner, must be added $500,000, 
 which was shipped through other sources. The output of 
 the smelters is not given in the above table. It is reasona- 
 ble to suppose that it will bring the grand total up to $3,- 
 000,000, as the product of the mines of Butte for the year 
 18S1. The following is a list of the mills, smelters and 
 arai ras in But e and vicinity : 
 
 Alice— new mill . 60 stamps 
 
 Alice— old mill . . ... 20 ■ 
 
 Moalton . . ■ ■ 40 
 
 Silver Bow . . . . .30 
 
 Dexter . . ... . . .15 
 
 Lexington . . . .... 10 
 
 Centennial 10 
 
 Gagnon 10 
 
 Burlington . • • .10 
 
 Clipper ... • • • 10 
 
 Grove Gulch ... ■ 5 
 
 McMinn's .... 1 
 
 Total • ■ 221 stamps 
 
 33 
 
 Smelters. 
 
 Montana Copper Co. . . 
 Colorado and Montana . 
 
 Parrot 
 
 Bell 
 
 Total daily capacity 
 Suprenant's. 
 
 Capacity. 
 50 tons 
 
 40 " 
 80 " 
 60 " 
 
 Abastbas. 
 
 . . 220 tons 
 Smith & Kessler's. 
 
 Three million, five hundred thousand pounds of ore and 
 matte, and 2,000,000 pounds of bullion were shipped out of 
 Montana during the year 1881 by the Utah & Northern rail- 
 way. 
 
 The following table shows the value of gold and silver 
 bullion deposited at the U. S. Assay Office, Helena, Mon- 
 tana, during the year ending Dec. 31st, 1881. 
 
 
 1 GoU. 
 
 Bitaer. 
 
 January ... . '. . . 
 
 February 
 
 March .... . . 
 
 April ... 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 September .... 
 
 October .... .... 
 
 November .... 
 
 December 
 
 * 28,093 05 
 23,354 63 
 19,733 12 
 22,844 93 
 41,614 17 
 61,361 02 
 104,792 02 
 63,654 69 
 64,732 59 
 63,828 28 
 69,628 23 
 17,000 00 
 
 % 4,364 86 
 
 3 878 04 
 
 10,395 11 
 
 14,348 24 
 
 4,715 29 
 
 3,427 60 
 
 10,685 02 
 
 6,443 87 
 
 4,190 47 
 
 9,310 3Z 
 
 13,955 22- 
 
 13,000 00 
 
 Total . . 
 
 8570,536 63 
 
 ([98,714 04 
 
 Year ending Dec. 31 et. 
 
 1877 . . . 
 
 1878 . 
 
 1879 . . . . 
 
 1880 . 
 
 1881 . . 
 
 Total 
 
 GoU. 
 
 $379,481 18 
 298,081 77 
 612,809 15 
 495,155 19 
 670,636 63 
 
 $2,256,663 92 
 
 SHveTt 
 
 $241,197 12 
 404,667 98 
 175,732 93 
 97,924 60 
 98,714 04 
 
 81,018,136 67 
 
 There is shown a very great discrepancy in the figures of 
 production from this district. The Inter-Mountain gives the 
 foUowing: 
 
 The total amount of silver, copper and gold product in 
 the Butte district in 1880 reached $1,428,088.26. An intelli- 
 gent idea of the rapid rate at which the mining industry of 
 the Butte district has increased since that time can be 
 obtained from the following table of production during the 
 year 188i;: 
 
 Alice Company ... $1,120,937 60 
 
 Montana Copper Company . . 1,042,640 00 
 
 Colorado Company . ... .... 864 000 00 
 
 Silver Bow Company . . 600,000 00 
 
 Lexington Mill ... . . 147,000 00 
 
 Dexter Mill 76,293 00 
 
 Centennial & Clipper <estimaled) .... 25,000 00 
 
 Copper ore shipped 197.000 00 
 
 Gold shipped through banlis ..... . 102,280 20 
 
 Total $4,075,150 70 
 
 To this amount should be added the value of 5,000 tons 
 of copper-silver ore extracted during the year and now at 
 the Colorado smelter awaiting reduction. Estimating the 
 value of this ore at an exceedingly low figure — say $55 per 
 ton — we have $276,000 as its cash valuation. At the Alice 
 mine is an extracted reserve of 4,000 tons which, at $40 per 
 ton is worth $160,000. On many other mines of the district 
 many hundreds of tons of high and low grade ore have 
 accumulated, and the most conservative statistician would 
 not estimate the value of the unworked ore extracted during 
 the past year at less than $600,000, which added to the 
 above tabulated statement of silver-copper matte and gold 
 production gives as the value of the total output of the 
 Butte district for the year $4,675,150.70. There are at least, 
 300 good mines being worked at Butte. The silver creek 
 mines, where placer mining is still carried on, have now 146 
 stamps at work on quartz The Dnim, Lummon, Belmont, 
 Cotter and Hickey, Whippowill and Gloster are the princi- 
 pal ones. Ten-Mile, district is stituated on the west side of 
 Red mountain, on the upper portion of Ten-Mile creek, and 
 in the southwest corner of Lewis and Clarke county. The 
 district embraces an area of about 16 miles, and is about 20 
 miles distant from Helena. The main cluster of mines of 
 
514 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 this camp forms a network along the western slope of Eed 
 mountain. 
 
 Idaho. — Idaho bullion returns foot up according to Wells, 
 Fargo & Co. $2,834,474, against $1,894,747 in 1880. During 
 1881 the "Wood river country made rapid advances. The 
 re'^ion attracted more attention than other and older regions 
 of the Territory. Up to last year ores were shipped to Salt 
 Lake City, and even in 1881 there have been shipped to Salt 
 Lake City from Eastern Idaho, 5,728,741 lbs. of ore during 
 the season of 1881. This contained 3,851,807 lbs. lead, 
 361,811 ozs. silver, and 645 ozs. gold. The base bullion 
 product of Eastern Idaho, from local smelters, was 796,319 
 lbs., containing 80,856 ozs. silver and 112 ozs. gold. 
 
 A large portion of the ores in Saw Tooth and Smiley dis- 
 tricts are milling and of high grade. In the districts on 
 Wood river below Galena City, galena and carbonate ores 
 predominate, the general average of which is about 100 ounces 
 per ton of silver and 60 per cent. lead. The experience of 
 smelting on Wood river proves the fact that there is no 
 difficulty in reducing raw ores of the section with water- 
 jacket furnaces. Lime and iron are the principal fluxes 
 needed, of which there are plenty to be had, of the best 
 quality. 
 
 Dako' a.— Dakota sends for 1881, $8,550,000, as against 
 $4,123,081 in 1880, a marked decrease in view of the total 
 sum. This is almost entirely from the Black Hills region. 
 
 Dividend and Assessments.-Before giving any figures 
 it is well to state that though they serve as a basis for compar- 
 ison between one year and another, they are by no means to 
 be considered as reliable indications of the state of the mining 
 industry. There are hundreds of mines in every direction 
 which neither advertise their assessments nor their divi- 
 dends, and the figures from these mines are therefore never 
 made public. In California particularly there are hundreds 
 of mines which are paying their owners good profits, but 
 which are never heard of by outsiders, and which make no 
 figure at all in the dividend returns as published. Mines 
 which are owned by incorporated companies, or which have 
 stock which is quoted on the boards are those which appear 
 in the list of dividends and assessments. The following 
 tables will, however, give a good idea of this branch of the 
 suWect. The total assessments levied for the year amount 
 to $7,497,510, of which at least two-thirds have been levied 
 by companies operating on the Comstock lode. On the 
 other hand, the dividends for the year foot up $15,047,068. 
 
 Following is a list of assessments for the year : 
 
 Nevada. 
 
 Storey County. 
 
 The Comstock, 6\ minea . 
 
 $5,355,800 
 
 Elko County. 
 
 Argenta .... .... $40,000 
 
 Bella Isle 25,000 
 
 Blue Belle Con 20,000 
 
 Grand Prize ... ... 115,000 
 
 Howe $10,000 
 
 Independent ... . 35,000 
 
 Navajo 45,000 
 
 Tuscarora 30,000 
 
 Total . 
 
 . $320,000 
 
 Esmeralda County. 
 
 Equator 925,000 
 
 Holmes 26,000 
 
 Juniata Con . ... 2,000 
 
 Lodi. . 15,000 
 
 Metallic 12,500 
 
 Total 
 
 Mt. Potosi Con 
 Real del Monte 
 Tilden. . . 
 Vanderbilt . . 
 
 . $10,000 
 . . . 76,000 
 
 . ; . 10,000 
 
 . . . 10,000 
 
 . $179,500 
 
 $6,000 
 
 Eureka County. 
 Albion Con $202,500 | Phenix. . 
 
 Total $207,600 
 
 Humboldt County. 
 
 ParadisB Valley $7,000 
 
 Lander County. 
 
 Betty O'Neal $75,000 
 
 Lincoln County. 
 
 Day ... $30,000 I Meadow Valley 48,ono 
 
 Hillside ... . 100,000 1 
 
 Total . . . $178,000 
 
 Lyon County- 
 
 Silver City $6,310 
 
 Nye County. 
 
 Alexander .... . . $150,000 I Gila $25,000 
 
 Belmont . 26,000 1 Liguria 25,000 
 
 Total. . 
 
 . $225,000 
 
 Martin White, 
 Star . . . 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 White Pine County. 
 
 $45,000 I Ward Beeoher . 
 40,000 
 
 $20,00 
 . $105,000 
 
 California. 
 
 Mono County. 
 
 Addenda 
 
 Bechtel 
 
 Belvidere* . . . 
 Blackhawk . , 
 Boston Con . 
 Con. Pacific. . . . 
 Champion .... 
 Befiauce .... 
 Double Standard.. 
 Goodsaw 
 
 Jupiter . ... 
 
 Total . . . • ■ 
 
 $10,000 
 25,000 
 30,000 
 15,000 
 50,000 
 65,000 
 25,000 
 6,000 
 2-1,000 
 80,000 
 16,000 
 
 Maybelle . . . . 
 McClinton . 
 Mono. . . . 
 
 Noonday .... 
 North Noonday. 
 
 Oro 
 
 Red Cloud. . . 
 South Bulwer. 
 Spaulding . . 
 Syndicate . . . 
 
 $36,000 
 3,000 
 
 176,000 
 76,000 
 75,000 
 73,400 
 
 200,000 
 25,000 
 10,000 
 25,000 
 
 $808,400 
 
 Head Center . . 
 Northern King . 
 Total . . 
 
 Arizona. 
 
 830,000 I San Pedro . 
 25,000 
 
 .... $10,000 
 
 . . . $65,000 
 
 Grand Total $7,497,510 
 
 THE mVIDENDS. 
 
 Following is the dividend record for the year, embracing 
 the copper mines of Lake Superior and the mines of Colo- 
 rado : — 
 
 Arizona, 
 
 Copper Queen . 
 Grand Central . 
 Silver King . . 
 Tiptop. . . 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 $150,000 
 260,000 
 800,000 
 120,000 
 
 Tombstone 
 Vizina. , 
 
 Western. . 
 
 Black Bear ... 
 
 Bulwer Con 
 
 Gold Stripe ... 
 Great Western, Q. S. 
 Green Mountain . . 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Inyo Con 
 
 Magalia. 
 
 Napa Con., Q. P. 
 
 NcvYork Hill. 
 
 Total. . . . 
 
 California. 
 
 Plumas Eureka .... 
 Plumas W. & M. Co . . 
 Quicksilver Mii iig Co. 
 
 Rising Sun 
 
 Sierra Buttes 
 
 South Yuba 
 
 Spring'Valley . 
 
 Standard 
 
 Tuba. 
 
 $46,000 
 10,000 
 65,500 
 26,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 263,600 
 36,000 
 16,000 
 90,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 Colorado. 
 
 Bonanza Develop. Co. . . 
 Catalpa .... 
 
 Chrysoline 
 
 Dunkin 
 
 Evening Star ^. 
 
 Gem 
 
 GlasB-Pendery . . . . 
 
 Hibernia 
 
 Iron Silver 
 
 Total 
 
 $135,000 
 180,000 
 500,000 
 110,000 
 425,000 
 3,760 
 25,000 
 150,000 
 400,000 
 
 Leadville Con. 
 La Plata. . 
 Morning Star. . 
 Moore M. S. Co. 
 Polonia. . . . 
 Robert E. Lee. . 
 Robinson. . . 
 Silver King . . 
 
 Deadwood Terra . 
 
 Father de Smet . 
 
 Total 
 
 Dalcota. 
 
 $000,000 I Homeetake. 
 130,000 I 
 
 Oeorgla* 
 
 Con. Gold 
 
 Total . 
 
 Joouista 
 Total 
 
 Slexlco. 
 
 Calumet & Hecia . 
 Central Copper . 
 Lake Superior . 
 Total 
 
 St. Joseph's Lead 
 Total 
 
 Alice 
 
 Boston & Montana . 
 
 Michigan. 
 
 $2,000,000 I Osooola. 
 120,000 Quincy 
 100,000 I 
 
 Missouri. 
 
 Montana. 
 
 $400,000 1 Ga<rnon. . 
 100,000 I Hecla Con. 
 
 $600,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 776,000 
 
 $2,266,000 
 
 $135,469 
 
 7,501 
 
 525,395 
 
 25,870 
 
 76,250 
 
 82,610 
 
 50,000 
 
 976,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 $2,636,985 
 
 $20,000 
 180,000 
 60,000 
 36,000 
 12,000 
 50,000 
 450,000 
 60,000 
 
 . $2,776,750 
 
 $360,000 
 $1,390,000 
 
 $28,00" 
 
 $28,000 
 
 $200,000 
 $200,000 
 
 $225,000 
 320,000 
 
 $2,765,000 
 $60,000 
 
 Total . 
 
 Nevada. 
 
 Brown & Urton. . . 
 
 Eureka Con 
 
 Exohanee S. M. Co. 
 Indian Queen. . . . 
 
 Navafo 
 
 Total 
 
 $8,333 
 255,000 
 25,000 
 63,760 
 26,000 
 
 Northern Bell^. 
 North Belle Isle . 
 Richmond . . . . 
 Star-Grove. . . . 
 
 $60,000 
 
 $5,000 
 76,000 
 
 $640,000 
 
 $400,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 810,000 
 
 120,000 
 
 $1,682,083 
 
 Christy . . . 
 Horn Silver . 
 
 Utah. 
 
 $30,0(» I Ontario. . 
 300,000 I Stormont. 
 
 . . . $860,000 
 
 .... 20,000, 
 
 Total $1,194,000 
 
 Grand Total $15,662,068 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 515 
 
 THE SAN FRANCISCO MINING STOCK MAR- 
 KET AND EXCHANGE. 
 
 ACTIVE trading in mining securities in San Francisco 
 began almost immediately after it became known 
 that a bonanza had been discovered in the Corn- 
 stock Lode. At that time purchases and sales were 
 made by feet and inches, the value of amine being measured 
 by the depth of the shaft sunk. Although there was a Board 
 of Brokers prior to 1862, the principal business transacted 
 at it was in gas and water stocks, bonds and other similar 
 securities. There were no headquarters for transactions in 
 mining stocks, but some of the large mine -owners were in 
 the h£3)it of meeting early in the day, at which prices for 
 the day were agreed upon. Necessarily such a crude system 
 was open to great deception and fraud and this was further 
 aided by the practice of issuing additional stock from time 
 to time as the depth of a mine increased. The first effort, 
 however, to organize an exchange for dealings in mining 
 securities was not successful, some of the large mine-owners 
 regarding this movement as prejudicial to their interests, as 
 it would open the speculative field to a much larger number 
 of operators and would also more readily expose their un- 
 warrantable transactions in marketing worthless properties. 
 The first meeting was attended by only five persons, but the 
 promoters of the movement were in earnest and finally the 
 signatures of twelve subscribers to preliminary articles of 
 agreement were obtained, the plan of organization proposed 
 being similar to that of the New York Stock Exchange. 
 Among the most active promoters of the enterprise were J. 
 
 B. E. Cavallier, R. 0. Page, Joseph Grant, Samuel Bruce, 
 Franklin Lawton, Theodore C. Sanborn, E. J. Santa Mar- 
 ina, Henry Schmeidell, John Perry Jr., and T. W. Teacle. 
 Following is a copy of the first agreement, and the names 
 of the signers obtained previous to the organization : 
 
 San Francisco, Sept. 1, 1862. 
 For the purpose of facilitating the purchase and sale of 
 stock, and mutual security, we, the undersigned, propose to 
 organize a San Francisco Stock Exchange, on the plan of 
 the New York Stock Exchange Board. In futherance of 
 which object we do each agree to pay into the hands of the 
 Treasurer, when chosen, the sum of $100 : J. Perry Jr., T. 
 
 C. Sanborn, S. Heydenfeldt, Geo. R. Barclay, H. C. Logan, 
 Robert C. Page, C. H. Wakelee, Joseph Grant, J. B. E. Cav- 
 allier, S. C. Bruce, P. C. Hyman, Henry Critcher, P. B. 
 Cornwell, N. A. Watson, Wm. L. Higgins, E. J. de Santa 
 Marina, Simon Mayer, Franklin Lawton, D. C. Williams, 
 Henry Schmeidell, H. P. Wakelee, E. W. Teacle, O. Ab- 
 bott, R. E. Brewster, A. Maruis Chapelle, E. Dupre, A. J. 
 Shipley, R. H. Sinton, T. A. Talbert, Wm. Wilson Lawton, 
 Frank M. Pixley, David Henriques, Wm. H. Parker, Wm. 
 R. Garrison, J. Downe Wilson, A. Van Lokeren, Chas. K. 
 
 Smith. J, ■ ■ , 
 
 The first meeting called for the purpose of organizing the 
 new board was held Sept. 8th, 1862, at 428 Montgomery 
 street, at which time temporary oflScers were elected, as fol- 
 lows: Henry Schmeidell, Chairman ; and Frank Lawton, 
 Secretary. The following committee was also chosen to 
 draft a constitution and by-laws : John Perry, Jr., Theodore 
 C. Sanborn, Henry Critcher, Robert C. Page, David Henri- 
 ques and Frank Lawton. At the next meeting, which was 
 held three days later (Sept. 11th, 1862,) the committee re- 
 ported a constitution which was adopted by the meeting. 
 The name adopted for the new board was the San Francisco 
 Stock and Exchange Board, and permanent officers were 
 elected as follows: 
 
 President, J. B. E. Cavallier ; Vice President, E. W. 
 Teacle 
 
 Secretary, Frank Lawton ; Treasurer, Henry Schmeidell. 
 
 On the following day the by-laws were adopted. At the time 
 of the organization the admission fee was $100, only_ $50 of 
 which was then collected. A small room was rented in Mont- 
 gomery Block for the use of the board which was furnished 
 with a plain table, in horse-shoe form and desks for the pres- 
 ident secretary, &c. The members were at first inexper- 
 ienced in dealing in stocks on an exchange, and for a time 
 business was very dull. The following statement taken 
 
 from the records of the board at that time, and showing the 
 transactions lor the first five days, illustrates how few were 
 the transactions at the beginning : 
 
 
 
 
 Friday, Beplember 26, 
 
 1862. 
 
 Pprry 
 
 Logan 
 
 8600 
 
 Starr 
 
 377 J^ 
 
 Marina 
 
 Sanborn 
 
 10 feet 
 
 Chollar 
 
 185 
 
 Perry 
 
 Pixley 
 
 fiO shares 
 
 Mt. Davidson 
 Baturday, September 26, 
 
 8 
 1862. 
 
 Perry 
 
 Logan 
 
 5 shares 
 
 Cal. Navigation 
 Monday, Beplember 29 
 
 39J^ 
 ,1862 
 
 Perry 
 
 Logan 
 
 3000 
 
 S. F. Bonds 
 
 VOK 
 
 Wilson 
 
 Perry 
 
 6 feet 
 
 Esmeralda 
 Tuesday, Beplember 30, 
 
 50 
 1862. 
 
 Logaa 
 
 Cavallier 
 
 60 feet 
 
 Desert 
 
 12H 
 
 Sanborn 
 
 Cavallier 
 
 10 feet 
 
 Potosi 
 
 Wedtietdiiy, October I, 
 
 187 
 1862. 
 
 Marina 
 
 Cavallier 
 
 15 feet 
 
 Chollar 
 
 17S 
 
 E. H. Wakelee 
 
 Mayer 
 
 10 feet 
 
 Sierra Nevada 
 
 140 
 
 Perry 
 
 Shipley 
 
 20 shares 
 
 Mt. Davidbou 
 
 &A 
 
 Logan 
 
 Perry 
 
 10 feet 
 
 Meredith 
 
 20 
 
 Logan 
 
 Hyman 
 
 36K feet 
 
 Meredith 
 
 20 
 
 Perry 
 
 Sanborn 
 
 7 shares 
 
 Bensley Water Co. 
 
 35 
 
 It was not long, however, before there was a large increase 
 in the purchases and sales from day to day, and the fresh 
 applications for membership were also numerous. It was 
 decided to increase the number of members, which was 
 originally forty, and at the same time the membership fee 
 was raised to $250 ; later it was further increased to $500, 
 and finally to $1,000. The number of members was limited 
 to eighty until about six years ago when it' was increased to 
 one tundred. It was not long until the room originally 
 occupied in Montgomery Block was found to be entirely too 
 small to accommodate the members and the board moved to 
 the opposite side of the street to the building belonging to 
 Michael Reese. Again a few months later it removed to a 
 room over the Metropolitan Theatre. About the same time 
 the Bank of California moved to the new building on Cali- 
 fornia street, and other monied institutions followed, thus 
 making that locality the financial centre of the city. When 
 the Merchants Exchange building on California street be- 
 tween Montgomery and Sansome street was constructed, it 
 was therefore arranged that the mining stock board should 
 occupy a portion of it, and the board contributed to the 
 erection of the building to the extent of $20,000. After 
 occupying the rooms set apart for the board, the location 
 and accommodations were found to be unsatisfactory, and 
 once more it sought new quarters, this time in Duncan's 
 Building at No. 411J California street. The final move of 
 the board was made on Oct. 1st, 1877, when it left the place 
 last above named for the San Francisco Stock and Exchange 
 Building on Pine street. 
 
 For some time after the board was organized no charge 
 was made for listing and calling mining stock, but as the 
 business increased and the number of mining stocks seeking 
 the benefits to be derived from the exchange was greatly 
 enlarged, it became necessary to exact a fee for the listing 
 of stocks. The amount charged at present is $1,000. 
 
 Mr. J. B. E. Cavallier who was elected president of the 
 board at the time of its organization Sept. 11th, 1862, was 
 re-elected from year to year and continued to serve in that 
 capacity without interruption, until Jan., 1872, when E. P. 
 Peckham was elected for one year. The succeeding presi- 
 dents have been as follows : William Burling, two years — 
 1873 and 1874; J. R. Keene, from Jan. to August, 1875 
 when he resigned and was succeeded by Coll Deane; John 
 W. Coleman, one year, 1876; E. P. Peckham, three years, 
 1877, 1878 and 1879, and since the last date mentioned. 
 G. T. Mayre, Jr. 
 
 The present officers and standing committees of the board 
 are as follows: 
 
 President, Geo. T. Marye, Jr. Vice-President, S. B. Wakefield. 
 Chairman, B. H. Cott. Secretary, Chas. S. Neal. Treasurer, 
 3. M. Shotwell. 
 
 Stakding Committees. — Exeoutive Committee.— Jimaer S. 
 King, H. L. Van Wyck, M. Herman, Geo, C, HickoJc, A. F. Coffin, 
 
 Finance Committee. — Geo, I. IvesJE, E, Pewey, J, H, Jlahojiy, Jr. 
 
 Stock List Co»wftiM«e.— M. J. McDonald, .Joseph Marks, W. E. 
 Hale, L. T. Lazure, D. Z. Yost. 
 
 Omnkittee on Commissions. — E. C. Hooker, H . H. Noble, C. A. 
 Kenijey. 
 
316 
 
 THE MINES MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Committee on Membership. — Samuel Dixon, M. P. Hall, Jno. 
 Scott Wilson, C. H. Stouten borough, C. W. Fox, O. V. Walker, S. 
 B. BosweU. 
 
 CONSTITUTION. 
 
 Article I.— Title of the Assodation.^The title of this Associa- 
 tion shall be " The San Francisco Stock and Exchange Board." 
 
 Article II. — Number of Members. — The number of members of 
 this Board is limited to one hundred. 
 
 Article III. — Title to property of the Association, and effect of 
 suspension of a member on his interest in the same. — The legal title 
 and ownership of all property, effects, and assets of the Association, 
 shall vest in the officers named in Article IV, in trust for the benefit 
 and enjoyment of its members. 
 
 Whenever a member shall be suspended from or deprived of the 
 privileges of membership, such suspension or deprivation of the 
 privileges of membership, until removed by the action of the Board, 
 shall operate as a full release of all his right, title and interest in 
 and to the property and assets of the Association. 
 
 No member, under any circumstances, shall be deemed to have, 
 or claim, or possess any individual right, title or interest in the 
 property or assets of the Association, e.'ccept when the same shall 
 be finally dissolved and its affairs wound up by its then remaining 
 members. 
 
 Article IV. — Officers, Elections, cic— The officers of this Asso- 
 ciation shall consist of a President, Vice-President, Chairman, Sec- 
 retary, and Treasurer, who shall be elected by ballot, annually, on 
 tine second Monday in January; and in case of any vacancy, a new 
 election shall be held forthwith for the unexpired term. 
 
 Any officer may be removed by a vote of two-tliirds of the mem- 
 bers of this Association. 
 
 Article V. — Duties of the President and of the Standing Com- 
 mittees and Officers appointed by him. — It shall be the duty of the 
 President to see that the several provisions of the Constitution and 
 By-Laws are enforced, and have a care of the general interests of 
 the Board. He shall appoint all committees, and preside at all 
 meetings except the calling of stocks ; and he shall be, ex-ojfficio, a 
 member of all committees. 
 
 He shall, at each annual election, appoint the following commit- 
 tees,* viz : An Executive Committee of five members, to whom shall 
 be referred all applications for donations, and all matters affecting 
 the interests of the Board not otherwise specially provided for in 
 the Constitution and By-Laws. 
 
 A Finance Committee of three members, to have the general 
 supervision, management and control of all financial affairs of the 
 Board ; to whom shall be presented all bills and demands against 
 the Board, and by whom the same shall be audited and approved 
 before payment ; to whom shall be reported by the Secretary, all 
 moneys collected, and the sources from wliich they are collected ; 
 to whom shall be reported by the Treasurer, the amount of money 
 received, and from what sources; to whom shall be reported by the 
 Eoll-Keeper, aU fines ; and a record of whose proceedings and of 
 said bills, demands, collections, dues and fines sliall be kept by the 
 Secretary of the Board, acting as Secretary of the Committee. Said 
 Committee shall meet on the first Monday of every month, and at 
 other times when business may require. The Secretary, Treasurer, 
 and Roll-Keeper shall repoft, as herein required, on the fi;rst Mon- 
 day of every month, and at other times when required by the Com- 
 mittee. The Committee shall make at least quarterly statements 
 to the Board. 
 
 A Stock List Committee of five members, to whom shall be re- 
 ferred all applications of companies to be placed on the regular list. 
 
 He shall appoint such Assistant Secretaries as may be required, 
 at such salaries as may be fi.'ced upon by the Board. 
 
 A Roll-Keeper, at a salary not to exceed two liundred dollars per 
 month, whose duty it shall be to record all fines, and report 
 monthly to the Secretary the amount levied upon each member. 
 
 A Sergeant-at-Arms, and such other assistants as may be required. 
 
 All appointments made by the President shall be subject to the 
 approval of the Board. 
 
 Article VI. — Duties of the Vice-President. — In the absence of 
 the President the Vice-President shall perform all the duties per- 
 tainhig to the office of President. 
 
 Article VII. — Duties of the Chairman. — The Chairman shall 
 call stocks at such hours as the Board may from time to time di- 
 rect, maintain order and enforce the rules. He shall receive such 
 salary as may be fixed upon by the Board: it being stipulated that, 
 before entering upon the duties of ihe office, he shall bind Irmwlf 
 by a solemn pledge to the Board, through its President, not to act 
 as a broker, or be interested, directly or indirectly, in the purchase 
 or sale of stocks. In the absence of the Chairman the members 
 present may choose a Chairman pro tem. 
 
 Article Will.— Duties of the Secretary, Record of Transactions, 
 List of Delinquent Members, etc.— It shall be the duty of the Sec- 
 retary to keep a full and faithful record of the purchases and sales 
 — which record shall be considered binding on the members; to 
 keep complete minutes of the proceedings of the Board, and to 
 take care of the books and papers of the Association ; to collect all 
 moneys due, and pay the sami} weekly into the hands of the Treas- 
 urer, and to perform such other duties as the Board may direct. He 
 
 * See also Articl ; XXXIV of By.Laws. 
 
 shall also furnish, on the first of each month, to the members of tlie 
 Board, a list of all parties delinquent to them.* 
 
 Article IX. — Duties of the Treasurer. — It shall be the duty of 
 the Treasurer to take charge of all the moneys belonging to the As- 
 sociation, subject to such regulations as the Board may from time to 
 time determine. 
 
 Article X. — Proposals for Membership. — Any member pi-opos- 
 ing the name of an applicant for membership in this Board, shall, 
 at the time of his nomination, state in open Board the nanxe of the 
 person to whose seat said applicant desires to succeed. 
 
 Article XI. — Election of Members — Committee on Membership 
 — no Member to belong to any similar Organization. — At each an- 
 nual election a committee of seven members shall be elected, five of 
 whom shall constitute a quorum, who shall be known as the Com- 
 mittee on Membership, to whom shall be submitted all proposals 
 for membership, and who shall scrutinize all objections to appli- 
 cants. The Committee shall decide by ballot the question of admis- 
 sibility ; and if the whole or a majority of the Committee report in 
 favor of the applicant, he shall be balloted for, and not otherwise, 
 at the next executive session of the Board ; provided, that five days 
 shall have elapsed between the day of nomination and the submis- 
 sion of their report to the Board. Should the Committee report in 
 favor of the candidate, twenty negative votes shall exclude. 
 
 The name of the applicant shall be conspicuously posted in view 
 of the members, at trie desk of the Secretary, from the day of nom- 
 ination to the day of election. No election shall be valid unless 
 fifty votes are cast. 
 
 If any member of the Committee on Membership shall be for any 
 reason incapacitated from serving for the period of one month con- 
 tinuously, his office shall become vacant, and the President shall 
 immediately appoint his successor, subject to confirmation by the 
 Board. 
 
 At the election, the ballot-box shall be placed in charge of three 
 tellers, who shall be appointed by the President, one of whom shall 
 be the member proposing the candidate, or his seconder. The Sec- 
 retary sliall then call the roll, and each member as his name is 
 called shall deposit his ballot in the box. The poll shall remain 
 open until the conclusion of the executive session. The tellers shall 
 then count the ballots, and the President shall declare the result. 
 Any member who was not present at roll-call, may vote before the 
 close of business by announcing his intention to the Secretary. 
 
 Should any discrepancy be discovered between the tallies and the 
 number of ballots in the box, a special meeting of the Board will 
 be held after tlie next business session, when a new ballot shall be 
 taken. 
 
 No member of this Board sliall belong to any similar organiza- 
 tion in this State, under penalty of immediate expulsion ; and any 
 member of this Board who joins or belongs to any similar organiza- 
 tion elsewhere than in this State, shall forfeit all the rights and 
 benefits given him by Article XXII of this Constitution and (he 
 right to share in any dividends paid by the Board during the period 
 of his connection with such other organization ; he shall remain at 
 all times subject to all assessments, dues, or claims, including those 
 contemplated by Article XXII of the Constitution which may 
 accrue against him by reason of his membership in this Board. 
 
 Article XII. — Suspended Members — Re-election, etc. — Any 
 member failing to meet his engagements In the Board shall be sus- 
 pended until he has settled with his creditors. 
 
 If he applies for re-admission within six months of his failure in 
 the Board, a committee of three members shall be appointed by the 
 President to inquire into the causes of his failure, who shall report 
 before his seat is forfeited by limitation, and on their presenting a 
 favorable report, announcing that hg has settled with his creditors, 
 he may resume nis seat in the Board, upon the assent, by ballot, of 
 two-thirds of the members then present. 
 
 Article XIII. — Sale of Seat upon Retirement, Death or Delin- 
 
 ?uency of a Member — Members of the Hoard preferred Creditors.— 
 n case of retirement of a member in good standing, he shall have 
 the right to dispose of his privileges in the Board, and to nominate 
 a successor to fill the vacancy occasioned by his retirement ; pro- 
 vided, that no nominee of a retiring member shall acquire any right 
 or privilege until elected in the manner and form prescribed by this 
 Constitution, it being distinctly understood and agreed between the 
 Board and each member thereof that the Bosmi reserves the right 
 to reject any nominee. 
 
 In the event of the death of a solvent member, the Board will dis- 
 pose of the vacant seat to the best advantage for the benefit of his 
 widow and children, or those persons who shall be designated hj 
 him in his last will and testament. But no person shall be desig- 
 nated aSj or permitted to become successor to tlie privileges of nieili- 
 bership in the Board by virtue of any instrument in the nature of a 
 will. 
 
 Any member who has been suspended for six months, and who 
 has not made a satisfactory settlement of his contracts in the Board 
 during that time, shall be deprived of all privileges of membership, 
 and his seat shall revert to the Board, and be appropriated to satisfy 
 his creditors in the Board as follows . 
 
 Whenever any member shall have been deprived of all privileges 
 of membership, pursuant to this arti<de, or shall voluntarily sur- 
 render his membership for the benefit of his creditors in the Board, 
 
 * See also Article XLIII of By-Laws. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 517 
 
 the President of the Board shall call a meeting of the creditors in 
 the Board, of such person, who shall thereupon present to him their 
 several claims against the delinquent, and the President in all such 
 cases shall be ex-officio a trustee tor such person and for his creditors 
 in the Board, and the said trustee shall be vested with all the rights 
 and privileges formerly held by such person in the Board, and shall 
 dispose of the same in the same manner that a person retiring in 
 good standing may dispose of his seat and privileges. The proceeds 
 of any such disposition so made shall be devoted by the trustee to 
 discharging the obligations due by such pereon to members of the 
 Board, and any surplus remaining shall, after having satisfied all 
 other claims against him, be delivered to the delinquent or to any 
 person authorized to receive the same. If the amount received 
 by said trustee shall be insufficient to discharge all the obligations 
 in the Board of such person in full, then the trustee shall apportion 
 it ratably among the creditors in the Board, paying to each creditor 
 in the Board such proportion of moneys realized by him as the claim 
 of each creditor bears to the total amount of claims proved by the 
 creditors in the Board against such person. 
 
 The Board may, however, by a vote of two-thirds of the members 
 present, extend the time for settlement of any suspended or delin- 
 quent member for a period not exceeding thirty days. 
 
 Akticle XIV. — Delinquents may Voluntarily Surrender Seats. — 
 Any delinq^uent member may waive his right of redeeming his 
 privileges in the Board. He may do so by notifying the President 
 in writing that he is unable to meet his engagements with members 
 of the Boardj upon contracts for the sale or purchase of stocks, and 
 requesting him to call a meeting of his creditors in the Board, stating 
 them ; the President shall thereupon take such action as is required 
 by Article XIII., to be taken by him in respect to one deprived oi all 
 privileges of membership pursuant to said Article, and the like pro- 
 ceedings for the sale of his seat and distribution of proceeds shall be 
 had as in a case arising under said Article XIII. 
 
 Article XV. — Sales of Seats Jor Account of Delinquent Mem- 
 bers — Members of the Board Preferred Creditors. — In sales of seats 
 for account of delinquent members, pursuant to Article XIII. of 
 this Constitution, the proceeds shall be applied to the benefit of the 
 members of the Board exclusive of outside creditors, unless there 
 shall be a balance after the claims of members are paid in full. And 
 the seat and privileges of every member shall be deemed and taken 
 to be, from the time of his admission and as long as he remains a 
 member, a continuing security to all members of the Board with 
 whom he may deal, according to its rules, for the performance of 
 his contracts and the fulfillment of his engagements. 
 
 Article XVI. — Quorum. — In all cases a majority of the Board 
 shall be necessarv to do business, except the calling of stocks. 
 
 Article XVII. — Maximum Mates of Commission — The rates of 
 commission charged by members of the Board shall not be higher 
 than the following : 
 
 Legal Tender Notes on par i per cent. 
 
 Funded Debt on par j n " 
 
 Bank Stocks ^ u i, 
 
 Insurance Stocks on par j (i u 
 
 Wharf Stocks on par 1 " " 
 
 Bailroad Stocks on par j^ » « 
 
 Gas Stocks on par ^ <• n 
 
 Steamboat Company Stocks on par i n n 
 
 Telegraph Company Stocks on par , . . 1 " " 
 
 Water Company Stocks on par ^ ',', ',', 
 
 Bills of Exchange on net amount j « <( 
 
 Mint Certificate on net amount j <i •< 
 
 Specie on net amount j « " 
 
 Mining Shares over $500 1 ' 
 
 Article :K.\111.— Fictitious Sa.les.—'No fictitious sales or con- 
 tracts shall be made at this Board. Any member or members con- 
 contravening this Article may, upon conviction thereof, be sus- 
 pended. 
 
 Article XIX. — Payment for and Delivery of Stock. — Inallsales 
 of stocks transferable in this city, either party shall have the right to 
 require the purchase-money to be paid at thetimeand place of trans- 
 fer. In the delivery of stocks not transferable in this city, the 
 purchaser shall have the right to require the deposit of the purchase- 
 money in some local bank, to be agreed upon by the contracting par- 
 ties, or named by the President of the Board ; such money to be held 
 intrust until official notification of the transfer shall have been re- 
 ccivcd. 
 
 Article XX. — Penalty for Non-compliance vnth Constitution or 
 By-laws.— Any member refusing to comply with any Article of this 
 Constitution or of the By-laws, may have a hearing before the Board, 
 and if he shall persist in refusing, two-thirds of the members present 
 may declare him no longer a member, and he shall thereupon lose 
 all the rights and privileges given by this Constitution. 
 
 Article XXI.— Altering Constitution or By-laws.— No motion 
 for altering the Constitution or By-laws shall be acted upon until at 
 least five days after the motion has been submitted in writing, unless 
 by the unaminous consent of the Board, and none shall be made ex- 
 cept by the consent of two-thirds of the members present. In all 
 cases the Article proposed to be altered or amended shall be stated. 
 
 Article XXII.— Donation in case of Death of Member.— Vpon 
 the death of a member of the Board, the Finance Committee may 
 pay from the funds of the Board, to such person or persons as may 
 have been designated in writing by such deceased member, the sum 
 
 of ten thousand dollars, in United States gold coin. In case there 
 be no such written disposition made, then to the widow of such de- 
 ceased member the sum of ten thousand dollars in United States 
 gold coin. In case there shall be no widow, and a child or children 
 of such member, then to such child or children equally, share and 
 share alike. If there shall be neither widow, child or children sur- 
 viving such deceased member, entitled to receive said money, nor 
 any disposition made of the same, as herein above provided, then 
 there shall be no payment or provision made under this article. 
 
 The payments herein provided for shall be deemed absolute dona- 
 tions to the persons, or for the object to which the same are made 
 or applied, free from all claim or control from any other source or 
 persons. 
 
 In case the Finance Committee shall not have sufficient funds or 
 moneys to meet the donations herein provided for, as the same shall 
 be needed, the deficit shall be made good at once, by assessments, 
 pro rata, upon the members of the Board, and collected in like 
 manner and under the same penalties as other dues or fines. 
 
 Article XXIII. — Manner of Acquiring Eight to Participate in 
 Benefits of Article XXII. — No member of this Board admitted after 
 this date (June 8, 1875) shall have any claim or interest in the priv- 
 ileges and benefits provided by Article XXII. of this Constitution, 
 until he shall have filed with the Secretary a certificate from the 
 Medical Examiner attesting his fitness to be accepted by this Board 
 as a participant in such benefits, and no member admitted since 
 June 8, 1875, and who had not filed his Medical Certificate before 
 August 2, 1876, as hereinbefore provided, shall be deemed to have 
 acquired any claim or interest underthe provisions of ArticleXXII. 
 of the Constitution, excepting under the following conditions : 
 
 A duly qualified physician shall be appointed by the President as 
 Medical Examiner of the Board, who shall be considered as an ap- 
 pointee thereof, and whose fees shall be paid out of the general fund 
 m like manner as other ordinary expenses. The candidate for ad- 
 mission to the benefits of Article XXII. of the constitution must 
 submit to such examination as may be required by said Medical 
 Examiner, who shall transmit to the President a sealed report con- 
 taining a detailed statement of the physical state of health of said 
 candidate, as well as his opinion concerning the fitness of said ap- 
 plicant to become a participant in the advantages of said Article 
 XXII. of the Constitution. 
 
 The President shall, upon receipt of said report, immediately call 
 a meeting of the Executive Committee, and shall refer the same to 
 them for their consideration. The said Committee shall thereupon 
 decide by ballot whether th« Board is justified in admitting the 
 said member to such benefits, and the decision of said Committee 
 shall be reported to the Board at its next ensuing executive session. 
 Provided, that the application of such membertopartioipate in such 
 benefits shall not be considered to have been admitted or rejected 
 until the affirmative or negative action of the Executive Committee 
 upon the same shall have been approved and ratified by this Board. 
 
 By-Laws. 
 
 Article I. — Order of Business. — The Board shall meet daily, 
 Sundays and legal holidays excepted, and excepting also a summer 
 vacation, not to exceed five days, at and including the Fourth of 
 July adjournment ; the duration of said vacation, within the five 
 days limit above stated, and the time of its commencement, to be 
 determined by a vote of two-thirds of the members, after, five days' 
 written notice of intention to move Such adjournment. 
 
 The hours of business shall be: Morning session at 11 o'clock; 
 afternoon session at 3 o'clock — except on Saturday, when there 
 shall be held but one session, commencing at 11 o'clock A. M. The 
 order of business shall be as follows : 
 
 1. Reading the minutes of the preceding day, other than pur- 
 chases and sales, if called for by two members. 
 
 2. Notices of Election. 
 
 3. Calling the regular list of stocks. 
 
 4. Calling stocks at the request of members. 
 
 The hour for business at the 3 o'clock afternoon session may be 
 postponed fifteen to thirty minutes, according to the judgment of 
 the Chairman, and when publicly announced by him to the Board 
 at its preceding session. 
 
 Article II. — Stocks to be Called — Application to Place Stock on 
 List. — No stock or bond shall be placed on the list of stocks, etc., 
 regularly called at the Board, except by a vote of a majority of the 
 members present; and application for the placing of stocks on the 
 regular list shall be made directly to the Board by parties interested, 
 subject to all rules and regulations of the Board, with full state- 
 ment of the capital, number of shares, resources, etc., certified to 
 and signed by said parties ; but the stock of no company or corpor- 
 ation shall be placed on said list unless first referred to the Stock 
 List Committee. 
 
 Article III. — Pees for Placing and Keeping Mining Stocks on 
 the List. — The fee for placing mining stocks on the regular list shall 
 be five hundred dollars each. This Board reserves the right to 
 suspend the calling of any stock, at any time, by a two-thirds vote 
 of the members present. All mining stocks remaining on the list 
 over one year shall pay one hundred dollars per annum in advance. 
 And the said annual fee shall become due on the first day of Jan- 
 uary, and any stock upon which said fee shall remain unpaid on 
 the third Tuesday in February, shall be stricken from the list by a 
 majority vote ; and no stock so stricken from the list shall be re- 
 placed, except by a two-thirds vote. 
 
518 
 
 THE MINES, MINEKS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Article IV. — Stocks may be called up when on the list. — After 
 the regular list has been onee called over by the Presiding Officer, 
 any stock upon the list may be called up, the party calling having 
 the privilege of making the first offer. 
 
 No bid or oflfer for the purchase or sale of shares of stock shall be 
 entertained for fractions of a dollar of less than one-quarter where 
 the value of the same is $25 and over ; of less than one-eighth where 
 the value is $5 and less than $25 ; and of less than one-twentieth 
 where the value is under $5. The above rules shall govern the 
 informal as well as the regular sessions of the Board. 
 
 Article \.—All offers binding — The presiding officer's decision 
 Jmal — Recording sale not made on call. — All offers for stock, etc., 
 made and accepted, shall be binding whether called by the Presi- 
 ding Officer or not; and in case there are two or more claimants for 
 the purchase or sale, the Presiding Officer shall decide the same, or 
 he may appeal to the Board for their decision. No sale shall be 
 recorded unless made on the call, except by unanimous consent. 
 
 Akticle VI. — Specific Number of Shares to be Offered. — In all 
 propositions to buy or sell, the offer shall be accompanied with 
 some specific number of shares, the par value of which, other than 
 mining stocks offered, shall not be less than five hundred dollars. 
 Article VII. — Reading the Minutes. — After the call of each 
 .stock, if any transactions nave been made, the record of purchases 
 and sales may be read, which reading shall confirm the same. 
 
 Article VIII. — Fine for interrupting the Presiding Officer. — 
 Any member interrupting the Presiding: Officer while calling stocks, 
 by speaking or otherwise, shall pay a fine of not less than twenty- 
 five cents, and not more than five dollars for each offense, at the 
 discretion of the Presiding Officer, from which there shall be no 
 appeal. The levying of ail fines shall rest exclusively with the 
 Presiding Officer. 
 
 Article IX. — Informal Sessions. — Section 1. — No assembly of 
 members of this Board outside of the Bjard-rooms, for the transac- 
 tion of stock business, shall at any time be allowed, and the said 
 rooms shall remain open for the holding of Informal Sessions be- 
 tween 10 and 10.30 A. M., and between 2 and 2.30 P. M., excepting 
 on Saturday .when only the morning informal session shall be neld. 
 All transactions made during such infcrmal sessions shall be re- 
 corded in a book kept for the purpose, and shall be binding in the 
 same manner as those of the Regular Sessions. Any adjournment 
 of the Board shall affect its Informal, as well as its Regular Ses- 
 sions, and the Board-rooms shall remain closed during the whole 
 time of such adjournment. 
 
 Section 2. — The Chairman of the Board shall preside at its Infor- 
 mal as well as its Regular Sessions, for the preservation of order 
 and decorum — by the imposition of fines, for the settlement of dis- 
 putes, and for the supervision of the records to be kept of the 
 transactions made. 
 
 Section 3. — The Assistant-Secretary shall be in attendance during 
 the Informal Sessions of this Board, to record all transactions at 
 the request of members, under direction of the Presiding Officer. 
 
 Article X. — Contracts Falling due on Holidays. — All sales 
 made at this Board shall be settled the following day, unless ex- 
 pressed to the contrary, and all contracts falling due on such holi- 
 days as are observed by the banks, shall be settled on the preceding 
 day. All stocks falling due on Sunday will be carried over until 
 Monday. 
 
 Abticlb XI. — Hour before which Stocks can be Called for or 
 Delivered. — In all sales of, or contracts for stocks between members 
 of the Board, the party to receive the same shall not be bound to take 
 them after 2.30 p. M., but may postpone the same, without 
 the charge of interest, to the following day; and any member hav- 
 ing a right to call on another for stock shall demand the same 
 before the hour above specified, or be subject to a continuance of 
 the contract until the following day. 
 
 _ Article XII. — Notice on Time Contracts. — In all contracts on 
 time, made at the option of buyer or seller, one day's notice shall 
 be given before stocks can be delivered or demanded before matu- 
 rity, and such notice shall be given at or before 3 o'clock p. M. 
 
 Article XIII. — JVo Contracts to be made over Ninety Days.— No 
 contracts, for the receipt or delivery of stock, etc., beyond ninety 
 days, shall be made at this Board. 
 
 Article XIV.— ^ Deposit on Contracts may be Required.— 
 On all time transactions made at the Board, either of the contracting 
 parties may require a deposit of twenty per cent, on the amount of 
 purchase money as security for the fulfilment of the contract. 
 Should the stock contracted for vary in price to within five per 
 cent, of the margin of said deposit, either party may call for an 
 additional deposit of ten per cent., and may continue to do so as 
 often as the latest deposit may be exhausted by change of price ; it 
 being fully understood that either party may draw down any excess 
 of twenty per cent, that may be in his favor. 
 
 When the seller deposits his stock, the deposit paid by the buyer 
 shall go to the seller. t- r j j 
 
 When a member of this Board neglects or refuses to put up the 
 U3ua,i deposit on time contracts, after due notice of requirement, it 
 snau Be at the option of the opposite contracting party to close the 
 same by purchase or sale through the Presiding Officer, with some 
 other member, on his account ; the defaulting party to be held 
 responsible for any differences. When any member neglects or 
 tails to meet his contracts upon which deposits are made and in 
 bank, the said deposits of money or stock shall be due and payable 
 
 to the other party, upon the signature of the President or Vice 
 President of the Board. 
 
 Article XV. — Right of Broker to demand further Deposits — 
 Sales of Delinquent Stock of Non-Members. — Where stocks are bought 
 or sold on time, or where money is advanced on stocks by a broker 
 he may call on his principal for an additional deposit, sufficient to 
 maintain the original margin, but in the event of the margin at 
 any time being reduced to within twenty per cent, of the market 
 price of the stock, then the broker shall have the right to sell out 
 or buy in such stocks, through the Presiding Officer, with or with- 
 out notice to his principal. 
 
 The Secretary shall make a record in a book kept for the purpose 
 of all such sales or purchases, with the name of the broker and 
 principal for whose account they were made. 
 
 All sales of delinquent stock made on account of any person not 
 a member of this Board, and without the order of such person, 
 shall be made by the Presiding Officer in the Board-room, at public 
 auction, immediately after the adjournment of any session, and all 
 persons (irrespective of membership) shall be at liberty to bid for 
 the same. 
 
 Upon all purchases so made, a deposit of twenty per cent, shall 
 be made at the time, and failing such deposit, the stock shall be re- 
 sold forthwith. 
 
 Article "KNl.- Place of Deposit on time Sodes.— yfhen deposits 
 are made on time sales, the seller shall have the privilege of designa- 
 ting the banking-house in which the deposits shall be made. The 
 seller shall be responsible for the money deposited, and for the de- 
 livery of the stock. Should the purchaser object to the place of 
 deposit, the President of the Board shall designate some other place 
 of deposit, in which case the responsibility shall be mutual, as be- 
 tween buyer and seller. 
 
 Article 'X.Y II.— Limitation of Contracts. — This Board will 
 take no cognizance of contracts that remain unsettled five days 
 after they become due, unless continued by mutual consent. 
 
 Article XVIII.— Owtside Contracts. — This Board will not 
 recognize or enforce any time contracts made by members outside 
 of the Board, unless the same shall be reduced to writing within 
 three days : and any member of this Board having stock transac- 
 tions with a party not a member, must, for his own protection, ask 
 for a broker, otherwise the transaction must stand on its own basis, 
 and the Board will not take any action in the matter. 
 
 Article XIX. — Assignment of Contracts. — No assignment of any 
 contract made between members of this Board will be recognized 
 by the Board, except made by mutual consent, indorsed on the 
 memorandum of contract. 
 
 Article XX. — Payments. — All payments shall be gold coin 
 of the United States, unless otherwise agreed to by the Board. 
 
 Article XXI.— ifo Stock to be Called when Transfers are 
 not allowed in the usual hours. — No stocks shall be called at 
 the Board, the transfer of which is not allowed to be made within 
 the usual hours of business as frequently as may be desired by the 
 stock-holders. 
 
 Article XXII. — How Stocks are to be Delivered when, the 
 Transfer Books are CteetJ.- Whenever the transier books of a com- 
 pany shall be closed by any legal impediment, so as to render the 
 time of their being open again uncertain, then the deliveries of 
 stock of such company, in satisfaction of contracts, shall be made 
 by notarial power-of-attorney, irrevocable, containing assignments, 
 and bill of sale, and certificate ; the papers to be satisfactory to 
 recipient, or passed upon by the Board. 
 
 Article ^'X.III.— Stock Privileges. — When any member agrees 
 to pay a sum of money for the privilege of receiving or delivering 
 stock at his option, the premium bid for the privilege shall be paid 
 on the next business day. No member of the Board shall be 
 allowed to bid for or offer privileges on any stock during the session 
 of the Board. 
 
 Article XXIV.— Jm case of failure, contracts closed at the 
 Market price of the Day.— In case of the failure of any member of 
 the Board, the President shall adjust all outstanding contracts with 
 him at the average prices of the day he failed, if the failure is an- 
 nounced before 2 o'clock p. M. ; and if net, then at the average 
 prices of the ensuing business day. 
 
 Article XXV.— Default mwst bereportedwithin forty-eight hours 
 and Claims filed vnthin Thirty Days Thereafter. — In cases where a 
 member of the Board shall fail to comply with his stock contracts, 
 it shall be the duty of his creditors to report said default to the 
 President of the Board within forty-eight hours after said defalca- 
 tion becomes known to them. No claim or contract, unless so re- 
 ported, shall ever after be recognized or enforced by this Board. 
 During tlie suspension of a member, no such report shall be required. 
 All claims of members and non-members against said delinquent 
 member, must be filed with the Secretary of the Board within thirty 
 days after he has been reported, and must be accompanied with a 
 detailed statement of the account.* 
 
 No claims, unless so filed, shall ever after be recognized or en- 
 forced by this Board. 
 
 Article XX\I.— Preferred Indebudness.—When n member of 
 this Board fails, and is re-admitted to his seat, all subsequent accru- 
 ing indebtedness shall be considered preferred. 
 
 Article XXYIl.—Sale of Dividends not Allowed.— JHo pur- 
 chases or sales of dividends will be permitted at the Board. 
 ♦See also Article 45 of the By-laws. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 519 
 
 Article XXV-III. — Dividends declared and interest accrued 
 after Sale. Script Dividends. — In all sales, dividends declared after 
 the sale and before the payment and delivery shall go to the pur- 
 chaser. 
 
 When the seller draws the dividend on stocks sold on time con- 
 tracts, the amount of said dividend shall be deducted from the price 
 of said stock, and the dep6sits made accordingly. 
 
 Should a stock upon which a dividend has been declared be 
 delivered whilst the transfer books of the Company are closed, the 
 purchaser shall have the right to deduct the dividend. 
 
 When mining companies make stock or scrip dividends, the stock 
 or scrip so divided shall go with the original stock for ninety days 
 from date of distribution. 
 
 The accrued interest on all stocks and bonds, not especially ex- 
 cepted in the By-Laws, shall go to the purchaser. 
 
 Akticle XXIX. — Assessments, when delinquent, and by whom 
 paid. — In all sales of stocks, whether on time or for cash, the buyer 
 shall pay any assessments levied and not delinquent at time of sale; 
 provided, that the levying of such assessment by any company shall 
 liave been previously announced by the Presiding Officer in open 
 Board ; but no assessment, whether payable instanter or otherwise, 
 shall be considered delinquent until thirty days from the day on 
 which it is levied. 
 
 Where an assessment is levied on a stock and made payable 
 monthly, or at different periods, in installments, each payment shall 
 be governed b^ this article, and become delinquent as follows : the 
 first payment in thirty days from the date of levy ; the second, in 
 thirty days from the day on which it is made payable ; the third, 
 the same, and so on. The day on which an assessment is levied is 
 not counted as one of the thirty days. 
 
 Article XXX. — Resditded Assessments. — On all time sales of 
 stock after an assessment becomes delinquent, and is thereafter re- 
 scinded, the buyer may, upon delivery^ deduct the amount of said 
 assessment from the contract price of said stock. 
 
 Article XXXI. — Charges on Stock advertised for Assessments. 
 — ^The seller of stock shall pay all the charges for advertising de- 
 linquent assessments, etc., pending the settlement of time contracts. 
 Article XXXII. — Limitations of Claims for unpaid Assess- 
 ments, and of other Demands. — No reclamation for unpaid assess- 
 ments upon stock sold by members of this Board, the transfer office 
 of which is in this city, shall be allowed, unless the same is presented 
 within five days from the date of delivery ; and when the transfer 
 office is out of the city, the demand must be made within twenty 
 days of the date of delivery. 
 
 In the event of stock which has been sold for assessment being 
 delivered in error, the broker receiving it shall be entitled, within 
 five days from the date of delivery, to demand transferable stock in 
 lieu thereof ; and in case such demand Is not made within fivedayj, 
 then the broker who delivered the stock may settle with him by 
 returning the amount which he paid for the stock. 
 
 No reclamation for any stock delivered shall be made after the 
 expiration of thirty days, if the transfer office is in the city ; and 
 not after sixty days, if the transfer office is out of the city. 
 
 Article XXXIII. — No Appropriations except hy Ballot. — No 
 appropriation of any moneys for any person or object whatever, 
 ower than ordinary expenses of the Board, as provided by the Con- 
 stitution and By-Laws, shall be made, unless two-thirds of the 
 members present shall, by vote, concur therein. • Notice of any such 
 appropriation shall be made in writing, and shall lie over one day, 
 and vote thereon shall be by ballot. 
 
 Article XXXIV. — Establishing a uniform rate of Commission. 
 — No mamber of this Board shall transact any business as a stock 
 broker upon commission at a less rate than one-half (i) of one per 
 cent; provided, that upon each and every transaction* in any one 
 stock not exceeding in amount $200, the commission shall not be 
 less than one dollar, except for another member, when the com- 
 mission shall not be less than i of one per cent. Nor shall any 
 member be permitted to avoid the effect of this By-law in either 
 of the aforesaid cases by means of any rebate, deduction, or allow- 
 ance ; not charging commission on joint-stock transactions, or on 
 all purchases or s^es in every account, whether on behalf of mem- 
 bers or non-members, or in any other manner whatever, susceptible 
 of proof to the satisfaction of the Board, of an intention, either di- 
 rectly or indirectly, to evade its provisions ; ^romded, that no mem- 
 ber shall be compelled to charge commission where the occasion of, 
 or the service rendered is of an exceptional or casual nature. 
 
 Whoever shall violate this by-law shall be subject to the following 
 penalties, and there shall be no power in the Board or its officers 
 to modify or remit any part thereof, except by a vote of two-thirds 
 of the members present : For the first offense, a fine of five thou- 
 sand dollars in United States gold coin shall be imposed, the 
 amount thereof to be equally divided between the complainant and 
 the general fund. The party convicted shall be suspended from all 
 the privileges of the Board until the fine be paid. If the fine shall 
 be not paid within.one week from the date of its being imposed, 
 the suspended member shall be considered as delinquent to the 
 Board in the amount thereof, and subject to all the provisions of 
 Article XIII of the Constitution, and Article XXV of the By- 
 
 *This proTiaion of Article XXXIV of the By-laws has reoeived the 
 official construction of the Board in executive session, and it was then 
 held that the commission should be rwt less than one dollar on every 
 Older in each stock. See minutes of Executive Session of May 12th, 18S0. 
 
 Laws, respecting suspended members and the filing of claims against 
 the same, and tne amount of said fine shall be deemed as preferred 
 indebtedness over any and all claims which may be presented 
 against the seat of said delinquent. 
 
 Upon all second or more convictions under this by-law, in addi- 
 tion to the penalty already prescribed as aforesaid, and which shall 
 be similarly applied, the offending member, if the said fine be paid 
 at any time before his seat sliall have reverted to the Board, shall be 
 suspended for one month after such payment, from all his rights of 
 membership. No memb"r, however, shall be deemed to have lost 
 the right of participating in the benefits of Article XXII of the 
 Constitution, by reason of any conviction or penalty imposed under 
 this by-law, until the forfeiture of his seat shall have been accom- 
 plished through the operation of Article XIII of the Constitution. 
 The President shall appoint a committee of three members to 
 whom complaints for infringement of this by-law shall be made. 
 Said committee shall investigate the same under oath, and decide 
 by ballot as to the guilt or innocence of the accused, and report the 
 result of said investigation to the Board. 
 
 Article XXXV. — No Business before Calling Stoclcs.—Excepthj 
 unanimous consent, no business shall be transacted previous to call- 
 ing stocks. 
 
 Article XXXVI. — Communications having a Tendency to In- 
 fluence the Market. — No letters or communications having a tendency 
 to influence stocks shall be read publicly at the Board, without first 
 being presented to the President. 
 
 All communications addressed to the Board, affecting the state of 
 the mines or mining stocks, shall be read instanter. 
 
 Article XXXVII. — Receipts and Deliveries must he Made be- 
 tween Members. — All receipts and deliveries required by the pur- 
 chase and sale of shares of stock must be made directly between the 
 members of this Board ; and any member who shall, in completion 
 of such stock transactions, either receive the certificates from or de- 
 liver them to any person other than a member of this Board, shall 
 be fined five hundred dollars for the first offense, and for the second 
 shall be expelled. 
 
 Article XXXVIII. — Penalty for Employment of non-Members. 
 — No member of this Board shall employ, directly or indirectly, a 
 non-member to buy and sell mining stocks dealt in at the Board, 
 under a penalty of one thousand dollars for each offense. 
 
 Article XXXIX. — Indecorous Language or Conduct— Smok- 
 ing — Punishment. — Any member who shall be guilty of indecorous 
 language or conduct during the session of the Board, shall be fined 
 not less than five nor exceeding one hundred dollars, or shall, by a 
 vote of two-thirds of the members present, be suspended from his 
 seat for not less than one week nor more than one month ; and a 
 repetition of the offense shall subject the party so offending to ex- 
 pulsion, and he shall not again be admitted unless by consent of 
 two-thirds of the members present. 
 
 A fine of five dollars shall be imposed upon any member who 
 shall stand upon the desks or chairs in the Board-room, either dur- 
 ing the session of the Board or after. 
 
 Smoking shall not be allowed in the Board-room. Any member 
 violating this rule shall be fined twenty-five dollars. 
 
 Article ^T^.— Fine for non-attendance at a Special Meeting. — 
 When a special meeting of the Board shall be called, the fine for 
 non-attendance may, by a vote of two-thirds of the members present, 
 be increased to a sum not exceeding five dollars. 
 
 Article XLI. — Neglect to Pay Fines for Three Months — Pen- 
 alty. — Any member who shall absent himself from the Board, and 
 omit to pay his fines for the period of three months, may be de- 
 clared no longer a member. A list of members delinquent for fines 
 shall be furnished the Sergeant-at-Arms, and he is ordered to refuse 
 admittance to the Board-room to all members who fail to pay their 
 bills before the 21st of each month. The Secretary shall notify 
 delinquent members to this effect. 
 
 Article XLII. — Access to the Minutes. — No person shall have 
 access to the minutes of the Board except the members and their 
 clerks. 
 
 Clerks admitted to the business sessions of the Board are pro- 
 hibited making abstract and duplicate lists of sales for other than 
 their employer. 
 
 Article XLIII. — Black List. — Each and every member shall 
 report publicly to the Board the name of every person who shall 
 violate his engagements with him as a broker, after employing 
 him to execute business on commission, or who shall have refused 
 satisfactory settlement of any contract made with or by said broker 
 on his account ; and it shall be the duty of the Secretary to keep a 
 book for the purpose of registering the name of every person re- 
 ported as a defaulter (together with his address), and the name of 
 the broker who shall complain, there to remain until the debt that 
 may have accrued through the medium of the member, in his ca- 
 pacity as a broker, be liquidated. So long as the name of said de- 
 faulter or defaulters continue registered upon the books of the 
 Board, no member shall execute, or cause to be executed, any busi- 
 ness, for him or them, either as principal or agent for any other 
 person, under pain of immediate suspension. 
 
 Suspended members, who have not settled, are subject to above 
 penalties. 
 
 Article XhlY.— Arbitration of Claims of Non-members.— Any 
 person not a uiemher of the Board shall have the right to bring a 
 claim against a member of said Board arising from anv transaction 
 
520 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 in stocks, or money loaned during his membership, on the condi- 
 tions following, and not otherwise : 
 
 The person making such claim shall execute a full release of his 
 claim against said member, duly signed, and shall deliver tlie same 
 to the President, to be held in trust to abide the event of the suit 
 before said Board. 
 
 The President shall keep the said release in trust, to abide the re- 
 sult of said suit, and shall deliver the same to the defendant on the 
 happening of either of the three following events : 
 
 1st. In case the claimant shall not present his claim to the Board 
 within twenty days after executing said release. 
 
 2d. In case judgment shall be rendered for said defendant by the 
 Board. 
 
 3d. In case the defendant shall pay, or offer to pay, to such claim- 
 ant the amount of judgment rendered in favor of said claimant. 
 
 In case judgment shall be rendered against any member of the 
 Board, which he is unable or unwilling to pay, then such release 
 shall be canceled and returned to such claimant. 
 Form of Release. — Know ail Men by these Presents : — That I, 
 
 for and in consideration of the sum of 
 
 one dollar, to me in hand paid by — , the 
 
 receipt of which is hereby acknowledged, have remised, released 
 and forever discharged, and by these presents I do hereby remise, 
 
 release and forever discharge the said of 
 
 and from any and all demands heretofore existing and due and ow- 
 ing to me, and the said is hereby fully re- 
 leased and discharged from the same. 
 
 Sealed with my seal, and dated at San Francisco, this 
 
 day of — , 18—. 
 
 Article XLV. — Segarding Suspension of Members and Legal 
 Proceedings. — In all cases where and in accordance with the pro- 
 visions of Article XLIV. of the By-laws, a judgment has been or 
 shall be rendered against any member of the Board by the Board, 
 such member shall, without further action of the Board, stand sus- 
 pended from the time of the rendition of such judgment until the 
 same is fully paid or satisfied, or tendered and refused. 
 
 Whenever any creditor of a member of this Board, or any person 
 asserting a claim against a member of this Board, has voluntarily 
 or shall voluntarily, resort to any legal tribunal, or has voluntarily 
 instituted, or shall voluntarily institute any legal proceedings against 
 such member concerning his claim, such claim shall not be recog- 
 nized or enforced by this Board. 
 
 Aeticle XLVl. — Prohibiting Connections and Transactions 
 with Similar Organizations.— All members of this Board shall cease 
 all partnership connections in any way with members of any similar 
 organization. And also cease executing orders, either directly or 
 indirectly, through clerks or otherwise, in any similar organization, 
 under penalty of suspension. - 
 
 Article XLVII. — Providing a Safeguard between Brokers and 
 their Clerks. — First. All clerks and employees of the members of 
 this Board shall be registered in a book j)rovided for that purpose by 
 this Board ; said book to be open to the inspection of members only. 
 Second. Any member of this Board trading with a clerk or em- 
 ployee of any other member of this Board, after said clerk or em- 
 ployee has been registered, in accordance with section one of this by- 
 law, and not reporting his transactions with said clerk or employee 
 to his employer before the next session of the Board, shall, for the 
 first offense, by a majority vote of the members of this Board, be 
 suspended from and deprived of all his rights and privileges as a 
 member of this Board for the period of thirty days, and fined in the 
 sum of five thousand dollars ($5,000), and said suspension to con- 
 tinue until the fine is paid. And for the second offense, under this 
 rule, he shall be expelled. 
 
 Third. Like j)enalties shall be imposed on any member of this 
 Board doing business for any other member of this Board suspended 
 under this resolution. 
 
 Fourth. All fines collected under this resolution shall be placed 
 to the credit of the general fund of this Board. 
 
 Fifth. It shall be the duty of all members of this Board to re- 
 port immediately all changes in the clerical department of their 
 business. 
 
 Sixth. The Secretary of the Board shall furnish each member 
 with a printed copy of said book in which the names are registered, 
 and shall report to the members all changes in the clerical force as 
 reported to him. 
 
 Seventh. Brokers' clerks shall not be allowed to trade on the 
 floor of this Board. 
 
 Article XLVllI. — Amounts due the Board for Moneys paid on 
 Death of Members. The amounts due to the Board by the forfeited and 
 suspended seats of members for assessments levied in the manner pre- 
 scribed by Article XXII.- of the Constitution, shall be paid out of 
 the general funds, and charged to each seat respectively. 
 
 Article XLIX. — Investigation of Claims by Arbitrating Com- 
 mittees.~k\\ differences, investigation of claims, or settlement of 
 accounts between members, or between members and non-members 
 shall be referred to the President, unless otherwise ordered, to Com- 
 mittees of Arbitration, consisting of at least throe members. Said 
 committees shall report in writing within fifteen days from date of 
 appointment, unless further time be granted ; and their report if 
 adopted, shall stand as the award of the Board. ' 
 
 Article L.—Bids and Offers Confined to MemJiers.— The bids or 
 offers for the purchase or sales of shares of stock ghall, during all 
 
 sessions of the Board, be exclusively confined to members thereof, 
 and anything contained in these By-laws conflicting herewith is 
 hereby rescinded. 
 
 Article LI.— TVcfete of Admission.—Section 1.— Tickets of ad- 
 mission of visitors of this lioard shall have the following printed on 
 the backs of said tickets : 
 
 " This ticket is issued on condition that the holder thereof will 
 abide by all rules and regulations of the San Francisco Stock and 
 Exchange Board, and for any violation thereof the Board reserves 
 the right to cancel the same, and deny the holder admission to the 
 rooms of the Board." 
 
 Section 2. None but ticket-holders shall be admitted to the Board- 
 room, and no person whatever, excepting members or employees 
 of the Board, shall be permitted to enter within the railings on the 
 floor of the same during any of its sessions. 
 
 Free admission for ladies and their escorts to the galleries of the 
 Board-room shall only be granted by cards issued by members. 
 
 Article LII. — Authority of Treasurer to Pay Drafts.— The 
 Treasurer is hereby authorized to pay all drafts signed by the Pres- 
 ident and Secretary. 
 
 resolutions and micellaneous rulings. 
 Pesolution Adopted May 7, 1872. 
 Resolved, That the written record, after being correctly copied 
 immediately after the adjournment of the Board, from the phono- 
 graphic report, and certified to by the Secretary and Assistant Sec- 
 retaries, be, and is hereby acknowledged as the official record. 
 Resolution Adopted October 3, 1877. 
 Resolved, That mining companies that have been stricken from 
 the list for non-payment of annual dues, can only be reinstated by 
 paying the usual fee of five hundred dollars. 
 
 Resolution Adopted February 13, 1878. 
 Resolved That the secretaries of all mining companies be requested 
 to inform this Board of all dividends declared on their capital stock 
 at the time of their declaration. ' 
 
 Ruling of President Regarding lAabUity of Partners Adopted as a 
 Rule of the Board, August 25, 1880. 
 " Under the Constitution and Rules of the Board, the seat of every 
 partner member of the Board is responsible for every check signed 
 and given by his partner or partners in business, in payment or 
 satisfaction of any contract or transaction made by him in the 
 Board." 
 
 Ruling of the Chair, September 14, 1881 ; Adopted as a Rule 
 of the Board. 
 
 That where a transaction is claimed to have been made during 
 any regular hr informal session of the Board, and on the call 
 of the stock alleged to have been dealt in, and the transaction 
 should have been recorded, but has not been, through the error or 
 omission of the parties, or through the omission of the recording 
 officer of the Board, and the omission of the Recording officer has 
 pot been corrected or sought to be corrected at the time of the read- 
 ing of the record, the parties to the transaction, or the one who after- 
 wards demands its performance, must compare, or seek to compare it 
 before leaving the Board-room after the expiration of the session, 
 or the Board wUl not enforce the transaction. 
 
 This ruling does not apply to cases where the record has been cor- 
 rectly read, but the recording officer has afterwards made a mistake 
 in filling it out. 
 
 Other California Exchanges —It was not to be ex- 
 pected that a close corporation like the San Francisco Stock 
 and Exchange Boara whose membership was limited to 
 eighty and with a remarkably jirosperous business, could 
 exist for a great length of time without more or less dissat- 
 isfaction among those who could not secure admission, and 
 without an effort to create a rival exchange. This was not 
 accomplished, however, until in January, 1872, nearly ten 
 years after the organization of the first mining board. Just 
 after the development of the bonanza in the Crown Point 
 and Belcher mmes had been made, it was decided by a 
 number of " outsiders" to organize a new board, the forty 
 charter members of which were as follows : John Middletou, 
 T. J. L. Smiley, Jackson McKenty, S. Barrell, S. Hyneman, 
 W. W. Lawton, M. D. Townsend, W. H. Wriglit, H. S. 
 Fitch, Charles L. Weller, E. L. Smith, A. C. Chick, Joseph 
 Klopenstine, Joseph de Sta. Marina, H. C. Logan, M. Eudes- 
 dale, J. P. Cantin, W. H. Brown, Wm. Jay Smith, T. J. 
 Poulterer T. C. Sanborn, J. F. Crossctt, A. Diffot, R. F. 
 Kent, F. Wolf, E. S. Tibbey, R. Broderick, E. J. Baldwin, 
 C. 0. Harvey, W. J. Williams (since deceased), J. B. Bourne, 
 J. R. Maxwell, Louis Lacour and J. Tilden. The name 
 selected was the "California Stock Exchange Board," and 
 at the organization T. J. Poulterer was elected President; 
 T. J. L. Smiley, Vice-President; W. W. Lawton, Secretary ; 
 E. J. Baldwin, Treasurer; James Tilden, Caller; and John 
 Gray, W. J. Williams, and Joseph Tilden, members of the 
 Executive Committee. 
 
THE MINE8, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 521 
 
 The first session of the new board was held on February 
 1, 1872. The number of members authorized by the Con- 
 stitution was seventy, and the remaining thirty seats were 
 quickly taken ; subsequently, however, the limit was reduced 
 to sixty-two, at which it remained for a long time. The 
 market value of a seat in this exchange in the early part of 
 1875 was fully $2000, but the organization of a third board 
 about that time, caused twenty-six of its most active mem- 
 bers to withdraw, and others followed. However, the va- 
 cancies were filled by new members and the board continued 
 to do business. When the Bank of California suspended, it 
 was the only board to continue its daily sessions during the 
 trying times which followed, and this fact gave it consider- 
 able prestige. It was compelled to succumb, however, 
 in 1880. 
 
 In the spring of 1875 a movement was made to organize 
 a mining exchange which should include among its mem- 
 bers all the leading and at that time very rich operators on 
 the Pacific coast. The plan also embraced a scheme for the 
 loaning of money on mining securities as collateral. An 
 agreement was signed by forty persons, among whom were 
 such prominent stock operators and brokers as E. J. Bald- 
 win, Wm. M. Lent, H. J. Booth, Capt. James M. McDonald, 
 Geo. S. Dodge, Andrew J. Moulder, George C Hickox, 
 Henry P. Wood, M. D. Townsend, Gen, Thomas H. Wil- 
 liams, George Hearst, George W. Grayson, Paul Moroney, 
 Philip S. Fay, John F. Boyd, Gustave Sutro. The name 
 selected was the Pacific Stock Exchange. In May, 1875, 
 the forty charter members completed their organization by 
 selecting forty other members, a number of whom were 
 prominent brokers in the California Board, as above men- 
 tioned. The eighty members forming the organization paid 
 in $5,000 each, thus creating a cash capital of $400,000. 
 The movement was very popular, as much as $10,000 being 
 offered for a seat, before tne last forty members were chosen, 
 and the applications for membership were twice as many as 
 the vacancies to be filled. The permanent organization of 
 the exchange was effected on May 6, 1875, by the election 
 of the following officers: President, E. J. Baldwin; Vice- 
 President, Geo. S. Dodge ; Secretary, Andrew J. Moulder ; 
 Chairman, Joseph Tilden ; Treasurer, Geo. C. Hickox. On 
 May 24, William M. Lent, H. J. Booth and James M. Mc- 
 Donald were elected a Trust Fund Committee, which was 
 one of the features of the new exchange, the committee 
 being entrusted with all its funds which were to be loaned 
 to members on stock collaterals. The first meeting for the 
 purchase and sale of stocks was held on June 7, 1875, in the 
 large hall in the Halleck building, on the corner of San- 
 some and Halleck streets. In recognition of their services 
 in promoting the great mining interests of the Pacific coast, 
 the following gentlemen were elected honorary members at 
 that meeting : Wm. Sharon, J. C. Flood, Jno. W. Mackay, 
 Wm. S. O'Brien, James G. Fair, Robt. F. Morrow, J. D. 
 Fry, Jno. P. Jofles. 
 
 It was necessary that a company should be incorporated 
 under the laws of the State for the purpose of holding and 
 managing the property of the Pacific Stock Exchange, and 
 for this purpose the " Pacific Exchange" was incorporated 
 oa Oct. 5, 1875, the first directors being : E. J. Baldwin, 
 George S. Dodge, George C. Hickox, William M. Lent, 
 George W. Grayson, T. J. L. Smiley, and J. L. Hunt. After 
 the organization was completed, T. J. L. Smiley, C. L. Wel- 
 ler and J. L. Hunt were appointed a Building and Finance 
 Committee. Meanwhile, the Pacific Stock Exchange had 
 purchased (on May 24, 1875) the property now occupied by 
 it on Montgomery street for $325,000 gold, on which, under 
 the direction of the Building and Finance Committee, the 
 present building was erected. The new hall has a frontage 
 of fifty-two feet on Leidesdorff street, running back 100 feet, 
 and communicating with an exquisitely ornamented rottlnda, 
 and that with a spacious vestibule, elaborately decorated, 
 opening upon Montgomery street. o i -n 
 
 The Constitution and By-Laws of the Pacific Stock Ex- 
 change are substantially the same a.s of the San Francisco 
 Stock and Exchange Board. The charges for placing a 
 mine on the list of the Pacific Stock Exchange are $500, and 
 an annual fee for renewal of $100. 
 
 Dealings in the Comstook Shares.— As has been 
 stated, the excitement in mining shares on the San Francisco 
 market, and for that matter, throughout the financial world, 
 
 rose to fever heat about the time of the discovery of the 
 Comstock bonanza. Respecting theComstock properties the 
 San Francisco Bulletin has the following : 
 
 " Mining property is about the most uncertain kind of a 
 possession. Its value depends on circumstances entirely 
 beyond the control of the owners. This is especially true 
 where the mines have become stock-jobbing enterprises. 
 The value is fixed without much regard to laws or analogies. 
 It is often the case that the shares are rated below what the 
 assets would bring, independent of the mine ; and it is just 
 as often that they are rated at fabulous figures. There is a 
 wonderful amount of sympathy between contiguous mines. 
 What sends the value of shares in one to a high or low 
 figure has a corresponding influence on adjacent claims with- 
 out the least regard to merit. Because one good body of ore 
 is found in a certain locality, it is taken for granted that 
 equally good discoveries are certain in all contiguous mines 
 for miles around. This is contrary to all precedent, and yet 
 the influence still exists. Good mines do not go in schools 
 like fish, nor graze in groups like sheep. The Comstock has 
 never had more than one or two good mines in operation at 
 the same time. The same is true of other sections in that 
 State and other States and Territories. The one mine of 
 Utah is the Ontario, and the one mine of Dakotah is the 
 Homestake. 
 
 " It is now nearly five years since it was whispered that the 
 Consolidated Virginia would pass its dividend. Such an 
 event had been anticipated by those on the inside for some 
 months previously, but to the great majority of operators in 
 stocks the news was a surprise and a disappointment. It 
 naturally had a depressing efiect on values. The mine had 
 been paying continuously for thirty-two months, and for 
 the last twenty-two months at the rate of $1,080,000 per 
 month. Besides, for the last eight months, its companion, 
 the California, had been paying at the rate of $1,080,000. 
 Many believed that those disbursements could be kept up for 
 a long period. But when January, 1877, passed, and no 
 dividend from the Consolidated Virginia, faith in the per- 
 petuation of a bullion product from the Comstock Lode was 
 very much shaken. The fact that California kept up its 
 dividends softened the disappointment, but it did not en- 
 tirely heal the breach. Consolidated Virginia resumed di- 
 vidends in May, 1877, and kept them up until June, 1878. 
 It also paid dividends of 50c. per share in 1879, and two of 
 the same kind in 1880. 
 
 "California commenced paying in May, 1876, and kept 
 up its dividends monthly until August, 1878, though the last 
 two were at the rate of $1 per share. It subsequently paid 
 two of the same amount in December, 1878, and January, 
 1879, and four others at 50c per share at irregular intervals 
 in 1879. The last dividend by the California was in De- 
 cember, 1879, and the last by the Consolidated Virginia was 
 in August, 1880. These two mines have been the mainstay 
 of the Comstock for the past nine years, during which they 
 have produced over $100,000,000 in gold and silver and paid 
 $74,250,000 ill dividends. The note of warning sounded in 
 the ears of the public by the passage of the dividend of the 
 Consolidated Virginia in January, 1877, and the subsequent 
 irregularity of its disbursements and those of the California 
 have had an important influence on Comstock values in the 
 past four years. 
 
 " The leading Comstock mines have been steadily deprecia- 
 ting in value rer the past three years or more ; and at times 
 they have appeared to be unusually depressed. Some think 
 that even now they are at bed rock prices. But take them 
 right through they are not so low as they have been this 
 year and in previous years. Considering the limited amount 
 of bullion produced by them during the past year and their 
 present condition, it is, perhaps, remarkable that values 
 should have been kept up as well as they have. In Novem- 
 ber, 1870, according to the rating of shares in this market, 
 $4,696,700 would have purchased all the leading mines on 
 the Comstock from Utah on the north to Alta on the south, 
 a section of nearly two miles of mining claims. A little more 
 than four years later on, say in January, 1875, a check for 
 $271,000,000 for the same mines would doubtless have been 
 refused. In May, 1877, these mines fell to $27,658,900. A 
 ye.ir later they were worth $36,261,000, and in September, 
 1878, they were rated at $114,260,000. This was during the 
 excitement in Sierra Nevada and Union. 
 
522 
 
 THE MINES, MINEBS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 "The highest and lowest prices of twenty-nine of the 
 principal claims for this interval are given in the annexed 
 tables : 
 
 Highest Prices of Comstock Shares In Pour years. 
 
 Mines. 
 
 Utah, per share . 
 Sierra Nevada . 
 Union Con . 
 Mexican ... 
 
 Ophir 
 
 California 
 
 Con. Virginia. . . 
 Beat & Belcher 
 Gould 4 Curry . . 
 
 Savage 
 
 Hale & Norcross . 
 
 Chollar 
 
 Potosi ..." 
 Julia Con. . . . 
 
 Bullion 
 
 Exchequer . . . . 
 Alpha Con . . 
 Con. Imperial . . 
 Confidence . . 
 Yellow Jacket . 
 
 Kentuck 
 
 Crown Point . . . 
 
 Belcher 
 
 Overman 
 
 Caledonia 
 
 Justice 
 
 Silver Hill . 
 
 Alta 
 
 Benton Con. . 
 
 18T8. 
 
 86600 
 270 00 
 196 00 
 99 00 
 98 00 
 
 15 75 
 17 00 
 40 00 
 3160 
 30 00 
 39 00 
 36 00 
 35 00 
 
 9 87 
 3000 
 1160 
 2400 
 
 190 
 1400 
 4200 
 10 26 
 13 00 
 
 16 00 
 29 00 
 
 600 
 
 12 oo; 
 
 400 
 26 00 
 
 13 00 
 
 1879. 
 
 $32 00 
 88 60 
 99 00 
 47 75 
 46 00 
 1160 
 9 78 
 
 26 00 
 10 50 
 18 00 
 2125 
 
 9 37 
 7 00 
 626 
 1176 
 1200 
 3260 
 195 
 2300 
 
 27 OO 
 800 
 
 7 00 
 9 62 
 
 1400 
 360 
 6 00 
 3 00 
 
 15 00 
 
 8 87 
 
 1S80. 
 
 $18 76 
 28 00 
 63 00 
 23 61) 
 22 60 
 
 4 60 
 
 6 00 
 15 00 
 
 7 37 
 
 8 60 
 
 9 50 
 9 60 
 
 5 75 
 
 3 26 
 
 6 75 
 
 4 25 
 
 12 25. 
 
 1 05 
 9 00 
 
 13 37 
 4 25 
 
 7 00 
 13 76 
 
 3 33 
 
 2 75 
 
 3 80 
 
 2 00 
 20 50 
 
 3 75 
 
 1881. 
 
 S14 25 
 
 29 00 
 
 19 76 
 
 14 75 
 
 10 00 
 
 2 15 
 
 4 90 
 
 16 75 
 
 9 37 
 
 4 60 
 
 7 62 
 
 4 25 
 
 4 95 
 
 70 
 
 2 50 
 
 2 10 
 6 75 
 
 30 
 
 6 60 
 
 7 60 
 a 25 
 
 3 46 
 3 90 
 3 00 
 
 80 
 1 40 
 
 60 
 6 60 
 1 25 
 
 IjOivest Prices of Comstock Shares in Pour Years. 
 
 Mines. 
 
 1878. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1881. 
 
 Utnh, per share 
 
 «6 76 
 
 $6 no 
 
 $6 00 
 
 $6 00 
 
 Sierra Nevada 
 
 2 GO 
 
 14 75 
 
 6 60 
 
 4 85 
 
 Union Con . 
 
 3 00 
 
 25 00 
 
 8 26 
 
 6 37 
 
 Mexican ... 
 
 7 00 
 
 13 25 
 
 6 50 
 
 4 15 
 
 Ophir 
 
 24 60 
 
 14 75 
 
 5 00 
 
 3 10 
 
 California ... ... 
 
 7 75 
 
 2 70 
 
 1 60 
 
 40 
 
 Con. Virginia 
 
 7 00 
 
 3 00 
 
 2 05 
 
 1 05 
 
 Best & Belcher . 
 
 10 12 
 
 6 87 
 
 6 00 
 
 6 00 
 
 Gould & Curry ... 
 
 4 00 
 
 3 76 
 
 2 60 
 
 2 25 
 
 Savage 
 
 7 76 
 
 3 37 
 
 1 00 
 
 75 
 
 Hale & Norcross . . . 
 
 4 SO 
 
 4 75 
 
 2 50 
 
 1 66 
 
 Chollar 
 
 11 00 
 
 4 60 
 
 1 60 
 
 1 15 
 
 Potosi . . . . . 
 
 10 25 
 
 2 60 
 
 1 40 
 
 1 00 
 
 Julia Con 
 
 1 26 
 
 66 
 
 26 
 
 10 
 
 Bullion 
 
 3 00 
 
 2 50 
 
 85 
 
 25 
 
 Exchequer. ... 
 
 1 90 
 
 1 80 
 
 80 
 
 76 
 
 Alpha Con. . , 
 
 6 75 
 
 6 00 
 
 2 20 
 
 2 39 
 
 Con. Imperial. ... 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 Confidence 
 
 3 00 
 
 6 75 
 
 2 75 
 
 200 
 
 Yellow Jacket . 
 
 5 00 
 
 6 37 
 
 2 00 
 
 1 60 
 
 Kentuck 
 
 2 00 
 
 1 00 
 
 1 00 
 
 46 
 
 Crown Point . 
 
 3 00 
 
 86 
 
 1 00 
 
 60 
 
 Belcher . .- . . 
 
 2 10 
 
 1 00 
 
 95 
 
 80 
 
 Overman 
 
 7 26 
 
 2 00 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 Caledonia 
 
 1 25 
 
 61) 
 
 10 
 
 S 
 
 Justice 
 
 3 60 
 
 60 
 
 26 
 
 35 
 
 Silver Hill 
 
 30 
 
 56 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 Alta 
 
 3 00 
 
 1 90 
 
 1 00 
 
 75 
 
 Benton Con . 
 
 60 
 
 85 
 
 66 
 
 36 
 
 " The highest prices in 1878 occurred during the month of 
 September. The cause for that advance was the reported 
 discovery of a body of ore in Union Consolidated and Sierra 
 Nevada that was as much larger and richer than that found 
 in Consolidated Virginia in 1874 as that was larger and 
 richer than that found in Belcher in 1871. That reported 
 discovery was one of the gravest mistakes ever made in the 
 history of mining in that section, or it was one of the most 
 stupendous frauds. Either horn of this dilemma is far from 
 being flattering to those who fabricated the one or perpe- 
 trated the other. The history of that affair now reads like 
 a fairy tale, which no one is expected to believe. Experts 
 tested the assays and with diamond drills pierced the im- 
 mense ore body, the dimensions of which could only be 
 conjectured. In the height of the excitement a private sale 
 of 5,000 shares Union Consolidated was closed at $200 per 
 share, and the buyer actually paid $1,000,000 to the pur- 
 chaser, presumably for the above stock. 
 
 "Over three years have since elapsed, and no bonanza 
 has been developed in either Sierra Nevada or Union Con- 
 solidated, and there is no show that any such body of ore 
 exists there, and there is less reason to believe that one will 
 be found. Still, in mining, all things are supposed to be 
 possible. The completion of the Sutro Tunnel upwards of 
 a year ago, and the facilities it affords for working at great 
 
 depths, ars having a fair trial in these north end mines. 
 Heat and water are great obstacles in the way of success, 
 and expenses increase with depth. But a large body of ore 
 averaging as high as that in the Consolidated Virginia 
 would offset all these diflSculties. The question simply lies 
 in the finding of such an ore body. Experience rather 
 favors the theory that there is considerable pay ore in the 
 Comstock Lode that has not yet been penetrated. It is 
 because of this faith and the mystery surrounding the loca- 
 tion of the deposit that interest in the work of development 
 is kept up and money advanced. 
 
 " It will be noticed that all attempts to restore values to 
 the high plane of September, 1878, have failed. The best 
 general average for 1879 was considerably below the best 
 ratings in 1878. In 1880 the scale was still lower, and in 
 1881 a still lower level was reached. The cost of a single 
 share in each of the foregoing mines, if purchased at the 
 highest rating of each this year, would have been only 
 $184.75. It would have taken twice that amount of money 
 to have made a similar purchase on the same basis in 1880. 
 In 1879, double the sum for 1880 would have been needed 
 to accomplish the same end, while for 1878 the difference 
 was still greater. The same law applies to the minimum 
 rates for each year, though not to the same extent. The 
 minimum rates for 1881 are on a lower level than for any 
 time in several years, though the difference between this 
 year and last year, in this respect, is not so very great. 
 
 "The number of shares of stock in the twenty -nine com- 
 panies above mentioned, and the highest and lowest value 
 of each as measured by the market price in San Francisco 
 of those shares during the year 1881, was as follows: 
 
 
 Shares. 
 
 Mighest 
 
 Lowest. 
 
 Utah 
 
 20,000 
 
 $ 286,000 
 
 $100,000 
 
 Sierra Nevada . 
 
 100,000 
 
 2,900,000 
 
 486,000 
 
 Union Con .... 
 
 100,000 
 
 1,976,000 
 
 637,500 
 
 Mexican 
 
 100,800 
 
 1,486,800 
 
 583,200 
 
 Ophir . . . 
 
 100,800 
 
 1,008,000 
 
 312,480 
 
 California . . . 
 
 640,000 
 
 1,161,000 
 
 189,000 
 
 Con. Virginia . . . 
 Best & Belcher . . 
 
 640,000 
 
 2,646,000 
 
 640,000 
 
 100,800 
 
 1,083,600 
 
 604,800 
 
 Gonld & Curry . 
 
 108,000 
 
 1,012,600 
 
 243,000 
 
 Savage 
 
 112,000 
 
 615,200 
 
 84,000 
 
 Hale & Norcross 
 
 112,000 
 
 854,000 
 
 184,800 
 
 Chollar 
 
 112,000 
 
 476,000 
 
 123,200 
 
 Potosi 
 
 112,000 
 
 664, too 
 
 112,000 
 
 Julia Con 
 
 110,000 
 
 77,000 
 
 11,000 
 
 Bullion 
 
 100,000 
 
 260,000 
 
 26,000 
 
 Exchequer 
 
 Alpha Con 
 
 100,000 
 
 210,000 
 
 75,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 172,500 
 
 69,000 
 
 Con. Imperial 
 
 500,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 Confidence 
 
 25,000 
 120,000 
 
 162,600 
 900,000 
 
 60,000 
 180,000 
 
 Yellow Jacket ... 
 
 Kentuck 
 
 30,000 
 
 97,500 
 
 13,500 
 
 Crown Point . . ... 
 
 100,000 
 
 345,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 Belcher ... 
 
 104,000 
 
 405,600 
 
 83,200 
 
 Overman 
 
 116,200 
 
 345,600 
 
 57,600 
 
 Caledonian 
 
 100,0C0 
 
 80,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 Silver Hill 
 
 108,000 
 
 54,000 
 
 6,400 
 
 Justice 
 
 106,000 
 
 147,000 
 
 86,760 
 
 Alta 
 
 108,000 
 
 394,000 
 
 81,000 
 
 Benton 
 
 108,000 
 
 135^00 
 
 37,800 
 
 Totals 
 
 4,021,600 
 
 818,983,200 
 
 $5,028,900 
 
 " If each of the above mines had been sold at its highest 
 market value this year, the sum of $20,000,000 would nave 
 been sufficient to have taken them all in, while if purchased 
 at their lowest valuation, a -check for $5,000,000 would have 
 been nearly sufficient. A variation of over $14,000,000 has 
 been the incentive to business." 
 
 THE SAN FRANCISCO SHARE MARKET 
 IN 1882. 
 
 FROM Jan. 1st, to July 1st, 1882, there was little 
 change in the condition of the market. In nearly 
 every instance prices experienced a further decline 
 and the business done was extremely light. To this 
 rule, however, Bodie and Eureka Con. were exceptions, the 
 former advancing $2.00 and the latter $2.25. But the clos- 
 ing prices on June 30th, were not generally the lowest for 
 the six months. For some weeks prior to that date there 
 was a better tone to the mining stock market in all parts of 
 the country, including California, and, while the improve- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 523 
 
 ment was not sufficiently marked to cause any great changes 
 in quotations, there seems to be reason for the hope, that 
 bottom prices for good properties have been reached, and 
 that the tendency for a time, at least, will be in the direc- 
 tion of higher figures. 
 
 The following is of interest as showing the highest prices 
 at which some of the prominent mining stocks have sold in 
 their history and their closing prices on June 30th, 1882, at 
 the San Francisco stock exchanges : 
 
 Name of Company. 
 
 Highest price at which stock 
 lOtM sold. 
 
 Olosinq prife 
 June 30, 1882. 
 
 Alia 
 
 $26.00, August, 1878 
 
 .75c 
 
 Alpha . . 
 
 77.00, March, 187G . . . 
 
 .60 
 
 Argeota 
 
 8.75, September, 1878 . . 
 
 t .20 
 
 Andes 
 
 16,00, January, 1876 
 
 .30 
 
 Bulwer 
 
 22.00, April, 1879 
 
 1.80 
 
 Belmont 
 
 16.00, January, 1876 .... 
 
 .80 
 
 Benton 
 
 10.50, July, 1879 
 
 .30 
 
 Bodie Con 
 
 83.00, July, 1878 
 
 4.76 
 
 Best & Belcher 
 
 89.00, January, 1876 . ... 
 
 6.12J^ 
 
 Bullion 
 
 67,60, February, 1876 
 
 .35 
 
 California 
 
 780.00, January, 1875 
 
 .JO 
 
 Crown Point 
 
 47.50, January, 1876 . ... 
 
 .40 
 
 Con. Virginia 
 
 700.00, January, 1878 
 
 .45 
 
 Chollar 
 
 165.00, March, 1876 ... . 
 
 .60 
 
 Confidence 
 
 59.00, January, 1875 
 
 ,65 
 
 Eureka Con 
 
 74.00, May, 1875 
 
 14.75 
 
 Exchequer ... 
 Grand Prize 
 
 425.00, January, 1875 
 
 21.00, November, 1877 . . 
 
 .10 
 
 .20 
 
 Gould and Curry . . . 
 
 72.00, January, 1875 
 
 Z.40 
 
 Hale and Norcross 
 
 79.00, January, 1876 . . 
 
 1.05 
 
 Julia 
 
 41.00, August, 1876 
 
 .06 
 
 Justice 
 
 18.U0, January, 1876 . . . 
 
 .30 
 
 Martin White 
 
 10.00, September, 1878 .... 
 
 4.12H 
 
 Manhattan 
 
 14.25, January, 1877 
 
 1.00 
 
 Mexican 
 
 85.00, January, 1875 ... 
 
 6.60 
 
 Mono 
 
 14.50, June, 1879 
 
 .90 
 
 Mt. Diablo 
 
 15.00, November, 1879 .... 
 
 4.28 
 
 Northern Belle .... 
 
 50.00, April, 1876 
 
 9.25 
 
 Ophir 
 
 315.00, January, 1875 
 
 3.30 
 
 Occidental 
 
 8.00, January, 1875 ..... 
 
 l.OO 
 
 Overman 
 
 119.00, January, 1877 . . . . 
 
 .30 
 
 Potosl 
 
 7.00, June, 1879 
 
 .40 
 
 Sierra Nevada . . . 
 
 - 270.00, July, 1878 ... 
 
 6.62}^ 
 
 Syndicate 
 
 10.76, July, 1879 . . 
 
 .16 
 
 Savage 
 
 Seg. Belcher ... 
 
 190.00, January, 1876 .... 
 
 .76 
 
 166.00, January, 1876 . . . . 
 
 2.00 
 
 Scorpion 
 
 23.00. August, 1879 
 
 .75 
 
 Silver King 
 
 20.00, August, 1878 
 
 14.26 
 
 Tioga 
 
 7.76, July, 1879 
 
 34;00, March, 1876 
 
 198.no, August, 1878 
 
 05 
 
 Utah 
 
 
 Union Con 
 
 9.87K 
 
 THE FUTURE FOR MINING SHARES. 
 
 NOTWITHSTANDING the very unsatisfactory con- 
 dition of the mining stock market, as reflected by 
 the dealings at the stock exchanges during the 
 past eighteen months, the fact is not to be 
 ignored that the public is deeply interested in the develop- 
 ment of raining properties, and that investors are still to be 
 found who are ready to put their money into mining schemes 
 that give unmistakable promises of fair returns. Capital is 
 continually finding its way into this channel. At present, 
 the plan which is meeting with a good deal of favor is the 
 formation of small syndicates, in which the contributors are, 
 or are supposed to be, all favorably known to each other. 
 The property is investigated by one or more of them, in 
 whom the others have full confidence, and the work is done 
 in the same way. Manipulation of stock is thus avoided, 
 the motives for misrepresentation are much reduced, dis- 
 honest management is quickly detected, and, if the enterprise 
 prove unsuccessful the probabilities are that the reasons for 
 this failure are limited to those contingencies which eafch 
 member of the syndicate understood to exist before invest- 
 ing his money, and there can be little or no fault finding. 
 If, on the other hand, the investment proves successful, the 
 profits are to be divided among a very few persons,' and the 
 chances are that the individual gains will thus be very large. 
 Many properties are being quietly worked in this way, the 
 results of which the public knows little or nothing about. 
 It is also to be remembered that large sums of money were 
 invested in prospective mines from two to three years ago, 
 the distinct understanding then being that the development 
 of the property would require cpusiderable time.. Dividends 
 
 were not looked for immediately, and no one has been dis- 
 appointed, but the work thus done has, to the present time, 
 yielded no returns. A large amount of work of this kind 
 was begun about the time that the " mining fever" first made 
 itself manifest in 1879 and 1880. The bullion output, there 
 is every reason to believe, will be largely increased, at no 
 distant. day, on account of this development work. In a 
 number of instances it is known that the managers of such 
 properties have continued the shafts and cross-cuts through 
 rich ore without any stoping or the bringing of more ore to 
 the surface than was necessary. Meanwhile stamps and 
 other machinery have been erected, and the active produc- 
 tion of bullion in large quantities must soon begin. The 
 success which has attended this plan of developing the west- 
 ern mines has been so satisfactory that other similar asso- 
 ciations are being continually formed among eastern capi- 
 talists, making manifest a determined disposition not to . 
 abandon again a field in which statistics demonstrate so' 
 much has been gained, and when the chances of large 
 profits following careful, judicious management are so great 
 as is afibrded in the mining of gold and silver. 
 
 But persons who invest in the manner above described, 
 seldom put their money into mining stocks dealt in at the 
 stock exchanges. When investments are made at the latter 
 places, the money generally comes from persons of limited 
 means who are financially unable to form private associa- 
 tions or syndicates, but who are also the least able to sufler 
 loss. It is safe to presume that this condition of affairs will 
 continue just so long as the leading operators on the mining 
 exchanges confine their transactions to manipulation of 
 worthless stocks. As long as one-half the total reported 
 sales at the mining boards from day to day are limited to 
 one or two stocks, about which the public knows little or 
 nothing, except from the stories furnished from the offices of 
 the companies, a continuation of the present unsatisfactory 
 condition of the stock exchange markets may be expected. 
 There are some signs, however, of an improvement in the 
 mode of managing the business at the exchanges. In a few 
 instances, stocks known to be worthless have been stricken 
 from the lists, and promises of further reform in this direc- 
 tion from persons prominent in the councils of the ex- 
 changes are not wanting. The pruning-knife will work 
 wonders if dexterously applied. There is not any doubt 
 whatever, that, for the perfect development of the mining 
 interests of the country, mining stock exchanges are valuable 
 adjuncts ; are, in fact, necessary. It is only by such means 
 that the masses are enabled to take a hand in the work — a 
 work which under proper management promises returns as 
 sure as that furnished by the soil to the agriculturist. But 
 there must be a change in the management of those ex- 
 changes. The slight evidences of a movement in this direc- 
 tion are not the only assurances that a change may be 
 brought about at an early day. To live, the mining broker 
 must have- customers —the public must buy and sell. Under 
 the present condition of affairs the commissions fall within 
 such narrow limits that necessity, the mother of inventive 
 genius, will compel a resort to such a course as will re-estab- 
 lish public confidence, or an abandonment of the business. 
 The fact that many of the brokers have given the subject 
 sufficient attention to discover the cause of the present 
 trouble, ftirnishes assurance that the remedy will be applied. 
 The present condition of the crops, the relations existing be- 
 tween the managers of the principal railroads of the country, 
 and other known conditions affecting the question, furnish a 
 reasonably trustworthy indication of the course of the rail- 
 road stock market for some time to come. This is true, at 
 least, within comparatively narrow limits. But who would 
 dare forecast the course of any of the speculative mining 
 stocks dealt in on the New York stock exchanges during the 
 next six months, unless he possessed sufficient means to 
 make the price by manipulation whatever he desired it to 
 be ? In the inscrutable wisdom (?) of the managers of the 
 dealings in the stock of the Chrysolite company, it was made 
 to sell at $40 a share, and honest investors paid that price 
 for it, while to-day it is a foot-ball on the exchanges at less 
 than one-fifteenth part of that quotation. And yet Chryso- 
 lite has a measureable, intrinsic value apart from all specu- 
 lation. This serves as a,n illustration of the condition of 
 many stocks on the exchange lists. The change, if it is t» 
 come, cannot be made too quickly, and it will be heartily 
 
524 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 v/elcomed by a host of honest and honorable brokers in 
 mining stocks, as well as by the public. 
 
 THE 
 
 NEW YORK IRON AND METAL 
 EXCHANGES. 
 
 AN Iron and Metal Exchange was oi-ganized in 
 New York, in June of the current year (1882), 
 the object of which is set forth in the by-laws 
 given in full below. It is proposed to hold daily 
 sessions of the Exchange at which the standard manufac- 
 tures of iron and other metals will be called. Already the 
 promoters of the enterprise have received applications for 
 membership, from considerably more than 200 persons. 
 The officers and board of managers are as follows : 
 
 President. — Edward P. White, 55 Fulton street. 
 
 Vice-President. — Maurice B. Flynn, 624 E. Fourteenth street. 
 
 Treasurer. — T. Delafield, 95 Liberty street. 
 
 Board of Managers. — William W. Snow, Ramapo, N. Y. ; Carl 
 Mayer, 112 Pearl street; B. B. Lemau, 64 Wall street; Henry A. 
 Rogers, 19 John street; J. P. Robinson, Jr., 14 Coenties Slip; All- 
 ston Gerry, 68 Wall street; John D. Fraser, 109 Beeliman street ; 
 Edward Hill, 101 Wall street; H. B. Moore, 70 Wall street; Geo. 
 V. Tompkins, 22 Burling Slip; A. G. A. Hamiokell, 83 Maiden 
 Lane ; J. H. Whitney, 32 Chambers street. 
 
 Secretary. — Edward J. Shriver. 
 
 STANDING COMMITTEES. 
 
 Executive. — T. Delafield, chairman; Geo. V. Tompkins, Maurice 
 B. Flynn. 
 
 Finance. — Carl Mayer, chairman ; Allston Gerry, B. B. Leman. 
 
 Floor.— Usury A. Rogers, chairman; A. G. A. Harniekell, Geo. 
 V. Tompkins. 
 
 Law. — Maurice B. Flynn, chairman; John D. Eraser, J. H. 
 Whitney. 
 
 Warehouse. — J. P. Robinson, Jr., chairman; H. B. Moore, A. G. 
 A. Harniekell, Allston Gerry, T. Delafield. 
 
 Information and Sliiti^ics. — Carl Meyer, chairman ; Edward 
 Hill, Edward J. Sliriver, J, A. Flynn, S. Mendel. 
 
 Trade. — B. B. Leman, chairman; Carl Mayer, John E. White, 
 J. G. Sibbald, H. C. Marval, 
 
 The following by^lqws have been adopted : — 
 
 Title. — Section 1. — The title of this association shall be the New 
 York Iron and Metal Exchange. 
 
 Objects.- See. 2. — The objects of this association are to provide 
 and regulate suitable rooms or premises for an Iron and Metal Ex- 
 change in the City of New York ; to inculcate just and equitable 
 principles in trade ; to establish and maintain uniformity in com- 
 mercial usages; to acquire, preserve and disseminate valuable busi- 
 ness information, and to aijj ust cpotroversies and misunderstand- 
 ings between its members. 
 
 Members. — Sec. 3. — .\ny respefitabje person, on the proposal of 
 one member, seconded by ajjother, and on presentation of a written 
 application stating the nature of his business and such other facts 
 as the Board of Managers may require, after ten days' notice of such 
 application has been conspicuously posted upon the Exchange, 
 shall be admitted to membership if elected by the Board of Mana- 
 gers on the payment of the initiation fee, hereinafter mentioned, or 
 on presentation of a certificate of membership duly assigned to him, 
 and on the signing qf an agreement to abide by the by-laws and 
 rules of the Exchange, and all amendments that may be made 
 thereto. The initiation fee for the first two hundred members shall 
 be $100 each, and thereafter the initiation fee shall be $600. 
 
 Sec. 4.— Each member shall be entitled to receive a certificate of 
 membership, bearing the signatures of the President and Secretary, 
 which shall be transferable upon the books of the Exchange to any 
 person eligible to membership, upon the payment of a transfer fee 
 of $2, and any unpaid assessments due tberegp, The certificate of q, 
 deceased member may be transferred by his legal representatives, 
 In case of the absence of a member through sickness, or for any 
 other urgent or proper reason, the Board of Managers may cause to 
 be issued to his bona fide partner or clerk, a temporary ticket of 
 
 admission to the Exchange, for the purpose of transacting said 
 member's business only, the same to be canceled on the return of 
 the member to the Exchange, or at the pleasure of the Board of 
 Managers. The member shall be responsible for the violation by 
 such representative of any by-law, or rule, in the same manner as 
 for such violation by himself, and shall also be answerable for all 
 acts and contracts of the representative. 
 
 Annual Election. — Sec. 5. — There shall be an annual election by 
 ballot, held at the Exchange on the first Wednesday in May, for 
 the Officers and Managers of the Association. The polls shall be 
 opened at 11 o'clock and closed at 2 o'clock, and every person duly 
 admitted a member, and holding in his own name a certificate of 
 membership, shall be entitled to a vote thereat. 
 
 Sec. 6. — A majority of votes cast shall constitute a choice. No 
 proxies shall be allowed. 
 
 Inspectors of Election. — Section 7. — The members of the Ex- 
 change, at their annual election, shall choose by ballot a Board 
 of Inspectors of Election, to consist of three inspectors, whose duty 
 it shall be to receive the votes at each election held during their 
 term, to canvass them immediately after each election, and make a 
 return thereof immediately to the President and Secretary, and 
 such return shall be posted at once in the Exchange. The In- 
 spectors shall send a certificate of election to each of the members 
 elected to office. 
 
 Sec. 8. — Any vacancy that may occur among the Inspectors of 
 Election, from any cause, or the temporary absence of any Inspec- 
 tor when such Inspectors are required to act as a Board, may be 
 filled or supplied by the President, or, in his absence, by the re- 
 maining Inspectors present. 
 
 Board of Managers. — Sec. 9. — The property, affairs, business and 
 concerns of the Exchange shall be vested in a Board of Managers, 
 consisting of a President, Vice-President, Treasurer, and twelve 
 Managers, who shall be elected in the manner provided in the by- 
 laws, and be subject only to the provisions thereof. Any vacancies 
 that may occur, from any cause, in the Board may be filled by the 
 remaining members. The Board of Managers shall receive no pay 
 for their services. 
 
 Sec. 10. — The Board of Managers shall provide and regulate 
 suitable rooms for the Exchange, and cause them to be provided 
 with such proper and useful things as, in, their judgment, will 
 tend to promote the best interests of the Exchange. They shall 
 appoint such clerks, counsel and other agents as they may deem 
 necessary, and shall fix the compensation of same. They may also, 
 at their discretion, require from any such appointee a good and 
 sufiicient bond for the faithful performance of his duties, such bond 
 to be made payable to the President and his successors in office. 
 
 Meetings of the Board. — Sec. 11. — Regular meetings of the Board 
 of Managers shall be held on the first Thursday of each month, ex- 
 cept when the same shall fall on a legal holiday, in which case it 
 shall be held on the following Tuesday, but the President may, 
 when he deems neces.sary, or at the request of three members of tlie 
 Board, call special meetings of the Board. Six members pres- 
 ent at such meetings shall constitute a quorum for the transaction 
 of business. 
 
 Sec. 12. — The following order of business shall be observed at all 
 meetings of the Board of Managers, and no business shall be taken 
 out of the regular order, except by unanimous consent, viz ; 
 
 1. Calling of roll. 
 
 2. Reading minutes of preceding meeting. 
 
 3. Report of Treasurer. 
 
 4. Reports of standing committees. 
 
 5. Reports of special committees. 
 
 6. Unfinished liusiness. 
 
 7. Resolutions, motions and notices. 
 
 8. Miscellaneous business. 
 
 Sec. 13.— If any member of the Board of Managers shall absent 
 himself from two consecutive -regular meetings of the Board without 
 sending a communication to the President stating a good and suffi- 
 cient reason for so doing, his seat in the Board may lie declared va- 
 cant by the Board. 
 
 Sec. 14.— No officer or member of the Board of Managers shall 
 contract any debt on behalf of the Exchange, or in any manner or 
 to any extent render the association liable for the payment of any 
 sum, unless the same shall first have been directed by the Board of 
 Managers ; and no debts shall be contracted, or money expended, 
 either by the Boai-d of Managers or by the Exchange, except for 
 the legitimate business of the Exchange, as set forth in Sec. 2 of the 
 by-laws, and no appropriation of money for any purpose .shall be 
 voted except by the Exchange. 
 
 Sec. 15.— Special committees, and all committees required by the 
 rules and regulations made by the Board of Managers for the gov- 
 ernment of the trades carried on by the members of the Exchange, 
 shall be appointed by the President, subject to the approval of the 
 Board, unless directed to be chosen bv liallot; and shall consist of 
 such number as may be ordered at the time of their appointment, 
 or provided by the rules and regulations before mentioned ; which 
 committees shall hold office at the pleasure of the Board. 
 
 Section 16. — Reports of committeesshall be made in writing to the 
 Board of Managers, and signed by a majority of the members tiiereof. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 525 
 
 Minority reports may be submitted. A majority of any standing 
 or special committee shall constitute a quorum for transaction of 
 business, and a majority decision of such quorum shall be valid. 
 Vacancies that occur in any of the committees shall be filled in the 
 same manner that such committee was originally appointed or 
 chosen. 
 
 President. — Sec. 17. — The President shall preside at the meetings 
 of the Exchange and of the Board of Managers, and shall be a 
 member ex-officio of all standing committees (except the arbitration 
 committee). He shall also, at the annual meeting of the members 
 of the Exchange, and at such other times as he shall deem proper, 
 communicate to the Exchange or to the Board of Managers such 
 matters as may, in his opinion, tend to promote the prosperity and 
 welfare and increase the usefulness of the Exchange, and shall 
 
 ?erform such other duties as are necessarily incident to the ofiS.ce of 
 resident of the Exchange. 
 
 Vice-President. — Sec. 18. — In case of the death or absence of the 
 President, or of his inability from any cause to act, the Vice-Presi- 
 dent shall perform the duties of the President, and in case of the 
 absence of^both President and Vice-President, then the Board of 
 Managers shall appoint one of their number to perform the duties 
 of president for the time being. 
 
 Treasurer. — Sec. 19. — The treasurer shall receive all sums due to 
 the Exchange, and, under the direction of the Board of Managers, 
 shall invest, deposit and disburse the same. He shall not pay out 
 any of the funds of the Exchange unless authorized by the Board, 
 and then under the direction of the Finance Committee. All dis- 
 bursements, amounting to $10 or more, shall be made bjr checks 
 signed by the Treasurer and countersigned by the President, or 
 some member of the Finance Committee. He shall keep regular 
 books of accounts, and carefully preserve all vouchers for the pay- 
 ment of money, and all bonds and securities of every kind belong- 
 ing to this association. He shall render a monthly account at each 
 regular meeting of the Board of Managers, and an annual report to 
 the Exchange at the annual meeting thereof, all of which reports 
 shall be audited and approved by the Finance Committee before 
 presentation. The funds, books, vouchers and securities in his 
 liands, shall at all times be under the supervision of the Board of 
 Managers, and subject to its inspection and control. He may be 
 required by the Board to execute a bond, with two sufficient sure- 
 ties, approved by the Board, in a penal sum to be fixed by the 
 Board of Managers, for the faithful performance of his duties, and 
 at the expiration of his term of office shall transfer all funds, books, 
 papers and other property of the Exchange in his possession to his 
 successor. 
 
 Secretary. — Sec. 20. — At the first meeting of the Board of Mana- 
 gers after their election they shall appoint a Secretary of the Ex- 
 change, who shall not be a member of the Board, and who shall 
 hold ofSoe during its pleasure. He shall keep a record of the 
 proceedings of the Board of Managers and of all meetings of the 
 Exchange; shall immediately post conspicuously upon the bulle- 
 tins of the Exchange all reports from the Inspectors of Election ; 
 shall conduct the correspondence of the association, and of the 
 Board of Managers, under the direction of the President; and shall 
 have custody of the seal of the association. He shall, under the 
 supervision of the Executive Committee, have charge of the build- 
 ings or rooms occupied by the Exchange, and shall cause them to 
 be supplied with the necessary stationery, and to be properly heated, 
 cleaned, ventilated and kept in order and repair. He snail also 
 have charge of the books and documents of the Exchange (except 
 those pertaining to the Treasurer), and shall cause all information, 
 statistics, and notices pertaining to the business of the Exchange to 
 be posted upon the bulletins in a neat, correct and orderly manner. 
 He shall, with the advice and consent of the Executive Committee, 
 appoint such clerks, messengers, &c., as are requisite to the proper 
 transaction of the business of the association ; and shall, jjerform 
 such other duties incident to his office as may, from time to time, be 
 required of him by the Board. 
 
 Committees.— Sec. 20.— At the first meeting of the Board of Man- 
 agers after their election the President shall, subject to their 
 approval by the Board, appoint the following committees, viz : 
 
 1. A Finance Committee, to consist of three members of the Board 
 of Managers. 
 
 2. An Executive Committee, to consist of three members of the 
 Board of Managers. 
 
 3. A Law Committee, to consist of three members of the Board 
 of Managers. 
 
 4. A Floor Committee, to consist of three members of the Board 
 of Managers. 
 
 5. A Complaint Committee, to consist of three members of the 
 Board of Managers. One member of this committee shall retire at 
 each regular meeting of the Board, and the President shall there- 
 upon appoint another member of the Board in his place. 
 
 6. A Warehouse Committee, to consist of five members of the 
 Board of Managers. 
 
 7. A Committee on Trade, to consist of five members, two of 
 whom, including the chairman, shall be members of the Board of 
 Managers. The other three to be selected from among the mem- 
 bers of the Exchange who are not members of the Board. 
 
 8. A Committee on Information and Statistics, to consist of five 
 members, to be composed and appointed in the same manner as the 
 Committee on Trade. 
 
 These several committees shall hold office at the pleasure of the 
 Board, and perform such duties as may be necessarily incident to 
 the purposes of their appointments, as hereinafter prescribed, and 
 such as may be required of them, from time to time, by the Board 
 of Managers. 
 
 Finance Committee. — Sec. 21. — The Finance Committee shall 
 audit all bills or claims against the Exchange; shall direct all 
 payments, deposits and investments authorized by the Board of 
 Managers, anil shall audit the accounts of the Treasurer monthly, 
 and also his annual account, before presentation to the Exchange. 
 
 Floor Committee. — Sec. 22. — The Floor Committee shall have 
 general supervision over the rooms used by the Exchange during 
 'change hours ; see that proper order is kept, and that no unauthor- 
 ized persons are admitted on the floors of the Exchange. All ap- 
 plications for membership to the Exchange shall be referred to 
 them, and they shall report on the same to the Board of Managers 
 for their action. 
 
 Committee on Information and Statistics. — Sec. 23. TheCommittee 
 on Information and Statistics shall, unless otherwise directed, have 
 charge of all matters pertaining to supply of newspapers, market 
 reports, and telegraphic and statistical information for the use of 
 the Exchange ; and it shall be the duty of said committee to organ- 
 ize plans for obtaining regularly, and at the earliest moment, such 
 reliable information as may affect the value of articles dealt 
 in by the members of the Exchange. They shall organize and 
 maintain a system for recording, in books to be provided for 
 that purpose, such statistics of the movement and prices of iron and 
 other metals at the city of New York and other prominent points 
 as may be of general interest to the members of the Exchange, or 
 may have any bearing on the question of transportation as identir 
 fiecl with the interests of the city and state of New York. 
 
 Law Committee. — Section 24. — The Law Committee shall have 
 charge of all legislation that may be required by the Exchange, in- 
 cludmg the presentation of memorials to the city, to the State Legis- 
 lature, or to the general government. They shall nominate to the 
 Board for their approval suitable counsel to represent and protect 
 the interests of the Exchange in any suits at law that may arise, or 
 for the examinations of titles to real estate of which the Iron and 
 Metal Exchange may become possessed, and to render general legal 
 services. An amendment proposed to the By-laws shall be sub- 
 mitted to them for their consideration, and they shall report on the 
 same to the Board. 
 
 Executive Committee. — Section 25. — The Executive Committee 
 shall have, subject to the Board, general supervision of the property, 
 business and affairs of the Exchange, and shall make sucA reports 
 and recommendations as, in their judgment, will best promote its in- 
 terests ; shall have the direction and supervision of^ all appointed 
 officers and employes in the discharge of their respective duties, and 
 see that all rooms provided are suitably furnished and kept in good 
 order for the accommodation of the Exchange, the Board of 
 Managers and committees. 
 
 Wiirehouse Committee. — Section 26. — The Warehouse Committee 
 shall examine into^ and pass upon, all applications for licenses as 
 warehousemen, weighers, inspectors, truck-owners and owners of 
 lighters, and refer the same to the Board of Managers with their 
 recommendation for their action; shall adopt such rules and 
 regulations for the guidance of licensed parties as they may deem 
 necessary, and shall report the same to the Board of Managers. 
 Upon complaint of misconduct on the part of any person licensed 
 by the Exchange (which complaint must be reduced to writing, and 
 verified by the party making it), they shall summon the accused 
 and accusers before them, and shall sit as a Court of Inquiry in 
 such case or cases, take testimony, and submit the same, together 
 with their recommendation, to the Board of Managers for its action. 
 The committee may, in its discretion, suspend the license of any 
 person or persons pending the final action of the Board. 
 
 Committee on Trade.- Section 27. — The Committee on Trade 
 shall consider, and from time to time report to the Board of Mana- 
 gers for its action, such rules and regulations as to the purchase, sale, 
 transportation and custody of iron and other metals as they may 
 consider beneficial to the interests of the members of the Exchange. 
 They shall,so far as practicable, establish relations with similar as- 
 sociations at leading commercial points in our own and other coun- 
 tries, to the end that uniformity of practice and usage may be at- 
 tained in all matters of common interest. 
 
 Complaint Committee. — Section 28. — Any member of the Ex- 
 change who shall be accused of a wilful violation of the By-laws, or 
 fraudulent breach of contractor of any proceeding inconsistent with 
 just and equitable principles of trade, or of any other misconduct, 
 shall, on complaint, be summoned before the Complaint Committee, 
 when, if he desires, he shall be heard in his defense. Should the 
 committee be unable to conciliate the disputants, or induce them to 
 arbitrate, and the circumstances seem to warrant, the complaint 
 should be referred to the Board of Managers, when both parties shall 
 have an opportunity to be heard again in person, prior to final ac- 
 tion in the case ; and if, in the opinion of the board, the charge or 
 charges against said defendant are sufficient and be substantiated, it 
 
526 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 may, by a vote of not less than two-thirds of all the members present, 
 censure, suspend or expel such member from the Exchange. 
 
 Section 29.— All complaints which may be made against members 
 of the Exchange shall be made in writing, and addressed to the 
 chairman of the Complaint Committee, who shall cause a copy 
 thereof to be transmitted to the member against whom the complaint 
 shall have been entered, previous to his being summoned to appear 
 before said committee, as provided for in section 28. 
 
 Section 30.— To reinstate an expelled member, it shall require the 
 affirmative vote of three-fourths of the members of the Board of 
 Managers present and voting at the meeting at which the applica- 
 tion for such reinstatement shall be acted upon ; but a suspended 
 member may be reinstated by a majority vote at any meeting of the 
 Board of Managers. 
 
 Settlement by and with Members who fail to meet their Contracts. 
 —Section 31.— It shall be the duty of any member failing to meet 
 his contracts with or to any other member of this Exchange, to im- 
 mediately notify the president in writing of such failure, and the 
 president shall thereupon cause the following notice to be posted on 
 the official bulletin : 
 
 " Members of this Exchange are hereby notified of the inability of 
 to meet his (or their) mercantile obliga- 
 tions. All contracts with him (or them) must therefore be closed as 
 provided in section 33 of the By-laws." 
 
 Section 32. — In case any member so falling shall notify the 
 President, as thus provided, it shall be the duty of the Complaint 
 Committee, upon satisfactory proof to them of such failure being 
 made, to notify the President in writing, and the President shall 
 thereupon immediately call a meeting of the Board of Managers, 
 who shall proceed to investigate the case in the same manner as pro- 
 vided in cases of complaints in section 28 of these By-laws. In case 
 of satisfactory proof of failure, the President shall be instructed by 
 the Board of Managers to post the same notice as provided in section 
 31, and such member may be suspended or expslled at the same or 
 any subsequent meeting of the Board of Managers by a vote of two- 
 thirds of the members present. 
 
 Section 33. — All outstanding contracts between members so fail- 
 ing and other members of the Exchange, in cases where official no- 
 tice of failure has been given, may be closed by settlement at the 
 marliet price of any of the five business days next succeeding the 
 day of such official notice of failure, upon at least one business day's 
 notice in writing to said member so failing. In case no such notice 
 is given to said member so failing, the settlement shall be made at 
 the marliet price of the fifth business day succeeding the day of 
 official notice of failure, provided, however, that no contract shall 
 thereby be extended beyond its maturity. Disputes as to the marliet 
 price of any of said days shall be finally determined by the Com- 
 mittee of Information and Statistics. 
 
 Annual Assessment. — Section 34. — For the pui-pose of defraying 
 the expenses of the Exchange, the Board of Managers shall annually 
 assess upon each certificate of membership such sum as it shall deem 
 necessary, but not' to exceed $25. 
 
 The amount of such assessment shall be payable at the office of 
 the Exchange at sucli time as the board may designate ; and any 
 person who shall fail to pay the same after five days' written notice 
 by the Treasurer so to do, shall be suspended from the privileges of 
 the Exchange until the same shall have been paid. 
 
 If the amount of such assessment shall remain unpaid for the 
 period of six months after a notice to pay tlie same, signed by the 
 Treasurer, shall have been sent by mail to the last-known residence 
 or place of business of the member in whose name such certificate 
 shall stand on the books of the Exchange, he shall cease to be a 
 member of the Exchange. 
 
 The Board of Managers shall thereupon direct such certificate, 
 and all interests therein, to be sold at public auction at the Ex- 
 change, after notice of such sale, and of tne time and place thereof, 
 shall be published in two of the daily papers of New York City once 
 in each week for four successive weeks, and posted on the bulletin 
 of the Exchange four successive weeks, and a copy of such notice 
 sent by mail at least twenty days before such sale to the last-known 
 residence or place of business of the per.son in whose name such cer- 
 tificate stands. 
 
 In case the Exchange shall be notified of the death of the member 
 or person in whose name such certificate shall stand, then such no- 
 tices, as before prescribed shall be sent by mail to his legal repre- 
 sentatives, or either of them, with the same effect as if sent to such 
 member or person if living. Any person may attend suon sale, and if 
 not a member, facility for attending shall be furnished him by the 
 Board of Managers, but the purchase of such certificate shall not 
 entitle the purchaser to membership in the Exchange, nor shall it 
 be transferred upon the books of the Exchange, except to a person 
 duly approved and entitled to membership, as provided in these by- 
 laws. 
 
 The purchaser of such certificate shall, however, be entitled to 
 a memorandum of such sale and purchase, signed by the Treasurer, 
 
 and upon the presentation of such memorandum, duly indorsed by 
 a person approved and otherwise qualified for membership, a new 
 certificate shall be issued to him upon the payment of the trans- 
 fer fee prescribed in these by-laws, and the certificate so sold shall, 
 after such sale, be considered cancelled and shall be void. 
 
 From the proceeds of such sale the Treasurer shall pay the ex- ' 
 penses of publishing said notices and of said sale, together with the 
 assessments due on said certificate, and the balance shall be paid to 
 the person in whose name the certificate so sold stood in the said 
 books, or to whomsoever shall be entitled to receive the same. 
 
 Meetings of the Exchange^ — Sec. 35..— The annual meeting of the 
 members of the Exchange shall be held at their rooms on the first 
 Wednesday in May, at half-past one o'clock, p. m., (of which at 
 least one week's previous notice shall be given by the Secretary), 
 for the purpose of receiving the reports of the Board of Managers 
 and the Treasurer, and for the transaction of such other business 
 connected with the affairs of the association as may be presented 
 for consideration. 
 
 Sec. 36. — The President may, and upon the written request of a 
 majority of the Board of Managers or 25 members of the Exchange 
 shall, call special meetings of the members of the Exchange for 
 the transaction of business directly connected with the affairs of 
 the Association, of which at least twenty-four hours' notice shall be 
 given by the Secretary. Such notice shall state explicitly the object 
 of such meeting, and at such meeting such business only shall be 
 transacted as shall have been mentioned in the call. Meetings for 
 other important purposes may be called by the President upon flie 
 written request of a majority of the Board of Managers, similar 
 notice being given and observed. The Board of Managers may, in 
 their discretion, upon like notice, submit to the members for their 
 approval by ballot any question directly connected with afiairs of 
 the Association not otherwise provided for in tliese by-laws, and a 
 majority of the votes cast shall determine such question. 
 
 Sec. 37. — The President may, and at the request of the Com.' 
 mittee of any trade, or upon a petition satisfactory to the Presi- 
 dent, shall call meetings of any of tlie several branches of the trade 
 represented on the Exchange, to consider matters directly con- 
 nected with the affairs of that trade. : Such meetings. shall be called 
 at not less than twenty-four hours notice, setting forth the specific 
 object of the meeting, and in case it is proposed to adopt a new 
 rule, or modify any existing rule, not less than forty-eight hours 
 notice shall be given of such meeting, stating the purport of the 
 proposed new rule or amendment. 'These meetings shall be called 
 to order in the same manner as provided for other meetings of the 
 Exchange, but the meeting may be organized by the appointment 
 of one its members as chairman, who shall certify to the record of 
 its proceedings. 
 
 Sec. 38. — At all meetings of the members of the Exchan.ge called 
 under Sections 35 and 36, twenty-five members present shall consti- 
 tute a quorum for the transaction of business, and at all meetings 
 called under Section 37 the quorum shall consist of such number 
 of members as shall be prescribed by the rules governing the 
 respective branches of trade ; but in either case a less number than 
 the prescribed quorum shall have power to adjourn to a future time, 
 which time shall be stated. 
 
 Exchange Open. — Sec. 39. — The Exchange shall be open for busi- 
 ness daily, except Sundays and legal holidays, during such hours 
 and under such rules as the Board of Managers may establish ; 
 but the Exchange may be closed for one day at any time, when the 
 Boards of Managers shall direct a vote of the members to be taken 
 thereon by ballot, of which, at least, twenty -four hours' notice shall 
 be given by the President, provided two-thirds of all the votes cast 
 shall be in favor of such closing. 
 
 Notices.— Seo. 40. — Notices of meetings of the Exchange, and of 
 all other matters intended for the information of members, shall be 
 given by posting the same conspicuously on the bulletin boards of 
 the Exchange, and no notices shall be" posted upon the Exchange 
 except such as relate to the affairs of the Association, unless by con- 
 sent of the Floor Committee. 
 
 Visitors. — See. 41. — No persons, except members and their tem- 
 porary representatives, as jirovided for in Section 4 of the by-laws, 
 shall oe admitted on the floor of the Exchange for purposes of busi- 
 ness. Members, however, may introduce their friends as visitors, 
 by entering their respective names in a book kept for that purpose, 
 and may obtain for such visitors a card of admission for seven con- 
 secutive days in each current year. This privilege shall not be 
 extended, except with consent of the Floor Committee; and should 
 any person so introduced violate the rules of the Exchange by the 
 transaction of business, the member introducing such person shall 
 become liable to pay a fine of not less than $25, nor more than $50, 
 for each oflFense, at the discretion of the Board of Managers, and be 
 subject to the same penalty for non-payment as provided for in Sec- 
 tion 34 of the by-laws. 
 
 Bules.— Sec. 42 —All rules adopted by the Board of Managers 
 shall, after having been posted on the bulletin of the Exchange ten 
 days, be in force and binding on the members ; and the rules in 
 force shall govern all oases to which they may be applicable, pro- 
 vided they do not conflict with any specific provisions of a contract. 
 
 Amendment of By-Laws.— Seo. 43.— These by-lavrs shall not be 
 altered nor Amended, unless the proposed alteration or amendment 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 527 
 
 has been approved by a vote of two-thirds of the Board of Managers 
 and ratifiea ly a majority vote of members voting by ballot, at a 
 meeting held for the purpose, of which ten days' notice shall have 
 been given, stating specifically the alteration or amendment proposed. 
 
 Code of Rules. 
 
 The following code of rules governing transactions in iron 
 and Bteel on the floor of the New York Iron and Metal Ex- 
 change and between meinbers, has been adopted : 
 
 Rules Governing Transactions in Pig Iron between Members of the 
 New York Iron and Metal Exchange. 
 
 Committee on Pig Iron. — Rule 1. — At the first meeting of the 
 Board of Managers after the election, the President shall (subject to 
 theapprovalof the Board) appoint as a Committee on Pig Iron the 
 members of the Exchange,wno are known as manufacturers, dealers 
 or brokers in jjig iron. It shall be the duty of this committee to grade 
 and classify pig iron, and to them shall be reported all cases of com- 
 plaint against inspectors, and also any question or dispute in regard 
 to the inspection, quality, grade or weight of pig iron. A majority 
 of the committee shall constitute a quorum, and a decision of a 
 majority present at any hearing shall oe final and binding. They 
 shall keep a record of their proceedings, and a fee of $9.00 shall be 
 paid the committee for each reference case heard by them, to be paid 
 by the party adjudged to be in fault, unless otherwise ordered by the 
 committee. 
 
 Classification of Pig Iron. — Rule 2. — The kinds of pig iron to be 
 dealt in shall he American, Scotch, English and spiegel iron; and 
 as soon as practicable after their appointment the Committee on Pig 
 Iron shall determine the classification, respectively, of No. 1, No. 2, 
 Gray Forge, Mottled and White American Anthracite pig iron, and 
 No9. 1 and 3 Scotch and English pig iron, and shall, if deemed prac- 
 ticable, cause samples of each grade to be placed in the Exchange, 
 which samples shall be the standard of comparison, as hereinafter 
 provided for. 
 
 Deliveries. — Rule 3. — Foreign pig iron, " ex-store," shall be good 
 deliverjr only (unless otherwise stipulated at time of sale) free to ves- 
 sel or lighter from such warehouses as are designated by the Ware- 
 house Committee of the New York Iron and Metal Exchange ; when 
 sold " on dock " it may also be delivered ex-ship, and free to vessel 
 or lighter. 
 
 Rule 4. — American pig iron shall be good delivery, free to vessel 
 or lighter, from warehouses designated by the Warehouse Commit- 
 tee of the New York Iron and Metal Exchange, or at the shipping 
 ports of Perth Amboy, Elizabethport, Hobokeu or Jersey City. 
 When pig iron is sold g. m. b. (good merchantable brand), only such 
 irons shall be good delivery as may, from time to time, be designa- 
 ted as such by the Committee on Pig Iron. 
 
 Rule 5. — Spiegel iron, to be a good delivery, shall, unless by spe- 
 cial agreement average 20 per cent, of manganese, and shall be 
 delivered, free to vessel or lighter, in the port of New York, ex-ship, 
 or a warehouse designated by the Warehouse Committee of the New 
 York Iron and Metal Exchange. 
 
 Rule 6. — When buyers are notified by sellers of proposed delivery 
 of pig iron, it shall be the duty of buyers to immediately inspect 
 such iron, and in case buyer claims that the iron is not of grade and 
 quality called for in contract, he can demand an inspection, expense 
 of such inspection to be borne by the party adjudged to be in fault; 
 but buyer must give notice of his desire for inspection in time to 
 allow seller to have said inspection made, so as not to postpone set- 
 tlement contemplated under Rule 8 (general rules of iron and steel). 
 The inspector to be licensed by the New York Iron and Metal Ex- 
 change. Inspector's fees shall be as follows : on 100 tons or less, 
 $5 ; for every additional 100 tons or fraction thereof, 50 cents. 
 
 Rules Ooveming Transactions in Old Iron and Steel between Mem- 
 bers of the New. York Iron and Metal Exchange. 
 
 Committee rni Old Iron and Steel. — Rule 1. — At the first meeting 
 of the Boai"d of Managers after their election, the President shall 
 (subject to the approval of the Board) appoint as a Committee on 
 bid Iron' and- Steel three members of the Exchange, who are known 
 as manufacturers, dealers or brokers in old iron and steel, and to 
 them shall be reported all cases of complaint against inspectors, and 
 also any question or dispute in regard to the inspection, quality, 
 grade or weight of old iron or steel. A majority of the committee 
 shall constitute a quorum, and a decision of a ma-jority present at 
 any hearing shall oe final and binding. They shall keep a record 
 of their proceedings, and a fee of $9 shall be paid to the committee 
 for each reference case heard by them, to be paid by the party ad- 
 judged to be in fault, unless otherwise ordered by the Committee. 
 
 Classification. — Rule 2. — As soon as practicable after their 
 appointment, the Committee on Old Iron and Steel shall make a 
 cfassificatioa of scrap iron as " No. 1, No. 2 and No 3, New York 
 Iron and Metal Exchange classification," and also a classification of 
 old rails, old car wheels and old steel, and on all contracts under 
 these riiles only such iron and steel shall constitute a good delivery 
 for the grade called for by the contract as shall fully comply with 
 
 the oflicial specification (unless by special agreement at time of 
 sale), which specification shall be posted conspicuously on the 
 Exchange, and copies thereof furnished to any member who may 
 apply for them. 
 
 Deliveries.— Rule 3.— Deliveries of old iron and steel shall, 
 unless by special contract, be ex-ship, or from a warehouse desig- 
 nated by the Warehouse Committee of the New York Iron and 
 Metal Exchange, free to vessel or lighter. On contracts for delivery 
 at Philadelphia or Baltimore, deliveries shall be made ex vessel 
 or warehouse, and free to vessel or lighter. 
 
 Inspection. — Rule 4.— On all deliveries of old rails, scrap iron, 
 old car wheels and old steel, inspection to be governed as in pig iron. 
 
 Rules Governing Transactions in Manufactured Iron and Steel 
 Between Members of the New York Iron and Metal Exchange. 
 Bak Ikon. — Rule 1. — Merchant Bar Iron, to be good delivery, 
 must be in accordance with the Eastern Classification of Regular 
 Sizes and Extras; must be of strictly neutral quality, neither cold 
 or red-short. Bars must be of uniform lengths, from 15 to 17 feet 
 long for sizes, 1 to 6 inches wide by S to 2 inches thick for flats, I 
 to 4 inches rounds and squares (unless otherwise specified.) All 
 flat and square bars to have good square edges. Round bars to be 
 uniformly round. All bars to be free from defects, such as flaws, 
 seams, cracks, &c., and practically straight, and rolled true to size. 
 Other sizes than above specified to be manufactured and packed as 
 buyers may desire. Any disputes as to quality or specification of 
 bar iron shall be settled by a special committee of three, to be ap- 
 pointed by the president of the New York Iron and Metal Exchange. 
 Steel Blooms.— Rule 2.— Steel blooms, to be a good delivery, 
 shall, unless by special contract, be of good homogeneous steel, free 
 from flaws, 7 inches square, and not more than 610 pounds, or less 
 than 590 pounds in weight, and shall be delivered free to vessel or 
 lighter in the port of New York, ex-ship, or a warehouse designated 
 W the Warehouse Committee of the New York Iron and Metal 
 Exchange, and delivery order must be accompanied by a certificate 
 of analysis by an approved chemist at point of manufacture. Any 
 disputes as to quality to be settled by a special committee of three, 
 to be appointed by the president of the New York Iron and Metal 
 Exchange. 
 
 General Rules Governing Transactions in Iron and Steel Between 
 Members of the New York Iron and Metal Exchange. 
 Calls.— Rule l.— There shall be two public calls each day, at 11 
 A. M and 1.30 P. M., (except Saturdays, on which there shall only 
 be the morning call,) on Scotch, English and American anthracite 
 pig iron, Bessemer pig iron, spiegel iron, old rails, steel rail cross 
 ends, scrap iron, old car wheels and steel blooms, to be conducted 
 by the Secretary of the Exchange, or in his absence by a person to 
 be selected by a majority of the members present. On pig iron, 
 only such brands shall be called separately as may be designated 
 from time to time by the Committee on Pig Iron. Spot shall be 
 called first, and then the months in their order for each article. No 
 ofler to buy or sell shall be entertained at a less difference than 25 
 cents per ton on pig iron, old rails and scrap iron, or for a smaller 
 quantity than 100 tons. The first offer to buy or sell at a price shall 
 be accepted before subsequent offers at the same price may be 
 placed. Subsequent offers to buy at a higher or sell at a lower 
 price shall vacate prior offers to buy at lower or sell at higher 
 
 § rices. A transaction shall vacate all previous bids and offers. All 
 isputes as to offers, acceptances or withdrawals shall be decided 
 on the spot by the person presiding at the time, subject to an appeal 
 to the members present. The appeal must be promptly taken, and 
 a mjyority of the members present and voting shall settle the dis- 
 puted point finally. The secretary shall immediately, after each 
 call, cause to be posted on the bulletin of the Exchange the results 
 of the call, setting forth the bidding and selling prices of the several 
 articles dealt in. At the close of each call, settling prices of iron 
 and steel shall be announced by the person conducting the calls, 
 subject to the trade there assembled ; and the prices so fixed shall 
 govern all calls for margins. These prices shall also be used for 
 settlements of contracts and of differences on deliveries under con- 
 tracts in accordance with Section 34 of the By-Laws, and of Rule 6 
 of the general trade rules on iron and steel. 
 
 Margins. — Rule 2.— Either party to a contract, prior to or upon 
 signing the same, shall have the right to call an original margin of 
 $2.50 per ton on iron, and either party may call for margins to meet 
 variations in the market. All margins on contracts shall be de- 
 posited in one of such trust companies, banks incorporated by the 
 State or National Banks, as may have been designated for this pur- 
 pose by the Finance Committee of the New York Iron and Metal 
 Exchange. When margins are called before 12 o'clock M..they 
 must be deposited before 3 o'clock p. M. the same day ; if after 12 
 o'clock M., they must be deposited before 11 o'clock A. M. the next 
 day. 
 
 Rule 3.— In case of failure to deposit as above; then the party 
 calling the margins shall notify in writing the party on whom the 
 margins were called of his or their failure to make the required de- 
 posit, and if the party in default fails to give the notice required 
 in Section 32 of the By-laws the party collecting the margins 
 shall have the right to cover his or their contract at dis- 
 cretion for account of party failing to respond to the call 
 for margin, and if covered, give notice in writing to that effect to 
 the party in default. In case of failure of any bank or trust com- 
 
528 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 pany in which such margins have been deposited, it shall be the 
 loss of the party or parties to whom it may be found to be due, tak- 
 ing the average price of like deliveries on the day such bank or trust 
 company failed as a basis of settlement. When margins are called, 
 original or for variations in the market, certified checks must be 
 drawn to the order of the bank or trust company in which they are 
 to be deposited. Checks must be sent to the Secretary of the New 
 York Iron and Metal Exchange, who shall deposit them and get a 
 certificate of deposit made payable on the order of Secretary of the 
 New York Iron and Metal Exchange, and to the order of the buyer 
 and seller. As soon as the Secretary has received the certificate, he 
 shall send it to the party making the deposit, and an abstract of the 
 same to the party calling the margin. In settlement, the Secretary 
 siiall ascertain the amount due each of the parties at interest, and 
 shall indorse the amount due eacli one on the certificate over his 
 own signature, as instructed by both parties. In case the two par- 
 ties do not agree as to the amount due on a margin receipt, either 
 of them may refer the matter to the Committee on Pig Iron or Old 
 Iron and Steel, as the case miybe, for decision, which shall be final. 
 On the decision of said commtttee, the Secretary of the New York 
 Iron and Metal Exchange, on being informed thereof, shall promptly 
 indorse to each party the amount each shall be entitled to by such 
 decision. In case of the absence of the Secretary ,the President of the 
 New York Iron and Metal Exchange, or the Chairman of the Fin- 
 ance Committee, shall act in his stead under this rule. 
 
 Form of Contracts.— Rvie 4. — The following shall be the form of 
 contracts for pig iron and old iron and steel sold for future de- 
 livery : 
 
 Pig Iron Contract :— 
 
 New York,- 
 
 -188 
 
 In consideration of $1, in hand paid, the receipt of which is here- 
 by acknowledged, have this day sold to (or bought 
 
 from) ■ about ■ tons 
 
 -of- 
 
 pig iron, brand, at- 
 
 dollars per ton, deliverable at seller's option. 
 
 This contract Is made in view of, and in all respects subject to 
 the by-laws and rules established by the New York Iron and Metal 
 
 Exchange, in force at this date, . 
 
 Sale through , Broker. 
 
 Old Material Contract : — 
 
 New York, 188 
 
 In consideration of $1, in hand paid, the receipt of which is here- 
 by acknowledged, have this day sold to (or bought 
 
 from) about tons of old 
 
 at dollars per ton, deliverable at seller's option. 
 
 This contract is made in view of, and in all respects subject to the 
 by-laws and rules established bj the New York Iron and Metal Ex- 
 change in force at this date, . 
 
 Sale through- 
 
 -, Broker. 
 
 The ton of iron or steel shall be 2240 pounds, avoirdupois weight. 
 On all future contracts, 25 per cent., more or less, maybe delivered, 
 but any deficiency or excess greater than 10 per cent, must be set- 
 tled for at the market price on day of delivery. 
 
 Settlement of Contracts.— R\i\e .5.— Contracts shall not be trans- 
 ferable, and any diflference found to be due on settlement shall 
 apply on account between the parties to the contract. Any party 
 holding a ;contract against another, corresponding in all respects 
 (except as to price) with one held by the other party against liim, 
 may close or cancel both by giving notice in writing to said party ; 
 and where it appears that several parties have contracts correspond- 
 ing (except as to price), and that a " ring settlement" can be made, 
 the party finding said ''ring" shall notify all parties thereto, giving 
 names, time of delivery, quantity, and settlement price (which price 
 must be within twenty-five cents of the market), and get their 
 acknowledgments, from which time the said "ring" shall be in 
 force, and cannot be broken by the failure of any of the parties 
 therein; and all parties thereto shall be compelled to settle their 
 differences on said contract with each other on the basis of the set- 
 tlement price. Where settlements of contracts for a specified month 
 are made before maturity of said contracts, the legal rate of interest 
 shall be allowed on the differences paid up to the first day of the 
 maturing month. All offers to buy iron or steel openly, for future 
 delivery, on the floor of the Exchange, must be open to the mem- 
 ber first accepting such offer. Verbal contracts, when satisfactorily 
 proven, shall have the same standing as written contracts ; but the 
 claim under such contracts must be made on the day of the alleged 
 transaction, or on thS next business day thereafter. Parties hold- 
 ing an option may, by giving the necessary notice or order, require 
 the other party to receive or deliver on the first business day of the 
 option, subject to the same conditions as on any other day covered 
 by the contract. 
 
 Removal and Rejection of Goods sold on Corad-ac*.— Rule 6 —Iron 
 and steel sold on contract must be removed by the buyer before 5 
 p. M. of day of delivery ; if not so removed, all risk and expense 
 must be assumed by buyer. 
 
 Rule 7.— When iron or steel is rejected under final appeal if ten- 
 dered on a seller's option, all expenses shall be paid by the seller 
 and it shall be held that no tender has been made If under a 
 buyer's option, the seller shall, within twenty-four hours tender 
 
 another lot to the buyer, and pay all damages that the buyer has, 
 in the opinion of the proper special committee, sustained. 
 
 Rule 8. — The foregoing rules shall apply to all iron or steel sold 
 by contract or to arrive. When specific lots are sold to arrive, how- 
 ever, rejections are not required to be replaced. When, under sales 
 for future shipment of iron and steel, specific lots and vessels con- 
 taining them are then named, sellers are released on such lots as 
 may be rejected on arrival for cause. 
 
 Notice of Delivery. — Rule 9. — On spot sales of iron and steel, the 
 buyer shall be allowed forty-eight hours, exclusive of Sundays and 
 legal holidays, in which to make the proper inspection and remova 
 the property. On contracts forty-eight hours' written notice for in- 
 spection and delivery shall be given, exclusive of Sundays and legal 
 holidays. When sales are made to arrive, the seller shall give the 
 name of the vessel or vessels as soon as known to him, and, on arri- 
 val, notice to be given buyer in writing. All such notices shall be 
 given between the hours of 11 A. M. and 2 P. M. Payments shall be 
 made 6n transfer of documents conveying title before 2 P. M. of the 
 day on which delivery is to be made. 
 
 Private Arbitration. — Rule 10. — In case of disputes arising under 
 any contract which are not otherwise provided for under the mles, 
 unless the same shall be submitted to the Arbitration Committee of 
 the Exchange, or any other provision made for their settlement, it 
 shall be the duty of the parties thereto promptly to agree to the 
 appointment of two arbitrators, and these shall appoint a third. 
 The question in dispute shall be submitted to them, and their deci- 
 sion snail be final and binding. Said arbitrators shall be appointed 
 from the branch of trade out of which the dispute may have arisen, 
 and shall declare, before considering the question, that they know 
 nothing of its merits from conversation with the principals, or 
 otherwise ; and they shall be paid $2 each for each hearing by the 
 party adjudged by them to be in fault. 
 
 Inspectors. — Rule 11. — All inspectors and weighers of iron and 
 steel for deliverv on sale or contract, under the Rules of the 
 Exchange, must De licensed by the Board of Managers, and must 
 obligate themselves not to be interested in any parcel they are 
 licensed to inspect or weigh. They sliall be licensed only upon 
 written application, stating the location of thdir place of business, 
 which must be within the harbor of New York, or the cities 
 connected therewith. Provided, however, that the certificate of 
 inspection of those furnace companies, whose grading may be 
 approved by the Board of Managers of the New York Iron and 
 Metal Exchange, shall be valid for American pig iron, delivered at 
 shipping port, and not stored. All licenses shall expire annually 
 at such time as the Board of Managers may designate, and they 
 may revoke said licenses at any time for cause. Fees of inspec- 
 tors and weighers must be paid by the party employing them, 
 or as under Rule 6 of Pig Iron Rules. 
 
 Rule 12. — The buyer of any article shall have the right to 
 designate an inspector, but the seller shall have the right to appeal 
 to the Committee on Pig Iron or Old Iron and Steel, as the case may 
 be, whose decision shall be final and binding. All appeals from in- 
 spectors must be made before the property leaves the city or place 
 of delivery. Weights and quality of iron and steel must be settled 
 at place of delivery, unless otherwise agreed upon. 
 
 Payments. — Rule 13. — On sales of iron and steel, made for cash, 
 seller shall have the right to demand payment at the time of passing 
 title. 
 
 Maturity of Contracts. — Rule 14. — When a contract shall mature 
 on Sunday, or a legal holiday, delivery on such contract shall be 
 made on the preceding business day. On contracts maturing on any 
 other day upon which the Iron and Metal Exchange does not hold 
 a business session, deliveries shall be made on the following business 
 day. 
 
 Brokerage. — Rule 15. — The brokerage on merchant bars and nails 
 shall be 2i per cent., and on all other articles of iron and steel 1 per 
 cent., and shall be due and payable at the time of passing contracts. 
 
 Weighing. — Rule 16. — On all foreign iron and steel the United 
 States Custom House weights shall oe taken to decide quantity, 
 whenever the entire lot shall be delivered as originally entered. On 
 all other lots of iron and steel any sworn weigher's certificate at 
 point of delivery (whose fees shall lie paid by seller) shall be a good 
 tender in proof of weight ; but, in any case, either buyer or seller 
 shall have the right to demand a rcweight by a ^weigner licensed 
 by the New York Iron and Metal Exchange, whose fee shall be 
 paid by the party demanding such rcweight. 
 
 Defaults. — Rule 17, Section 1. — In case iron or steel be not deliv- 
 ered at maturity of contract, the purchaser shall notify in writing 
 the special committee on that kind of iron or steel of the failure to 
 deliver, and the committee shall, at the next call, publicly read 
 such notice, and buy in the property for account of the party 
 directing the purchase ; but no unreasonable price shall be paid, 
 arising from manipulated or fictitious markets, or unusual detention 
 in transportation. Any legitimate loss resulting to the buyer shall 
 be paid Dy the party in delault, and the property so bought in shall 
 be a good delivery on defaulted contracts maturing that day. 
 
 Section 2. — In case iron or steel contracted for delivery benot 
 received and paid for when properly tendered, it shall be the duty 
 of the seller, in order to establish a claim on the purchaser, to sell 
 it on the market at any time during the next 24 liours, at his dis- 
 cretion, after such default shall have been made, notifying the pur- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 529 
 
 chaser within one hour after such sale ; and any loss resulting to 
 the seller shall be paid by the party in default. 
 
 Kule 18. — When a member buys from or sells to another member, 
 and the names of principals are not given up by the one to the 
 other within 24 hours, those members shall be to each other as 
 merchants or principals in such transactions, with claims on each 
 other only, and liabilities to each other only, and notwithstanding 
 that it shall afterward be shown that such members (either or both) 
 were acting as brokers. 
 
 Rule 19. — Fictitious sales or false reports of sales are positively 
 forbidden, and will render the parties concerned liable to suspension 
 or expulsion from the New York Iron and Metal Exchange. 
 
 Rule 20. — All rules as to iron and steel must be justly and liber- 
 ally construed, and no property shall be rejected or condemned for 
 merely technical reasons. 
 
 Amendments: — Rule ^l.^-No change shall be made in these 
 rules by any special committee before submitting the same to a 
 meeting of tne trade interested, properly called, at which 10 mem- 
 bers shall constitute a quorum. 
 
 Following is the form of certificate that has been adopted : 
 
 Jfew York Iron and Metal Exchange. — This certifies that 
 is a member of the New York Iron and 
 M ital Exchange at the time of the date hereof, and this certificate 
 of membership may be transferred upon the books of the Exchange 
 to any person eligible to membership, provided all assessments 
 hereon shall be paid at the time of sncn transfer and the provisions 
 of the by-laws relating hereto fully complied with. 
 
 New York, . _ 1882 
 
 President. 
 Secretary. 
 
 On the back of this appears the following endorsement : 
 
 At the Oily of New York, on this _ day of 188 , 
 
 for value received, I hereby assign, transfer and set over to 
 all my right, title and interest in and to the 
 
 within certificate, and all rights of membership vested in me by 
 
 virtue of the said certificate. 
 
 Witness 
 
 The Iron and Metal Exchange Company, 
 Limited.^This is an outgrowth of the same want that 
 gave birth to the " Iron and Metal Exchange." The by- 
 laws were adopted April 4th, this year (1882), and the 
 following officers were elected in the following month: 
 
 Officers of The Iron and Metal Exchange Company. — Presi- 
 dent, James B. Brinsmade ; Treasurer and Secretary, Edwin 
 F. Bedell ; Assistant Secretary, Wm. Allen Smith. Direc- 
 tors, May, 1882. ' Jas. B. Brinsmade, of E. Bech and Oo. ; 
 Benjamin G. Clarke, of The Thomas Iron Co. ; Frederick L. 
 Lehmann, of Naylor and Co. ; Edwin F. Bedell, of Cooper, 
 Hewitt and Co. ; William H. Wallace, of Wm. H. Wallace 
 and Co. ; Edwin S. Wheeler, of B. S. Wheeler and Co. ; 
 John B. Cornell, of J. B. and J. M. Cornell ; Chester 
 Griswold, of The Albany and Rensselaer Iron and Steel Co, ; 
 Thomas J. Pope, of Thomas J. Pope and Bro. The by- 
 laws are as follows : 
 
 I. The business of this Corporation shall be managed by a 
 Board, consisting of nine Directors. 
 
 II. The term of oifice of such Directors shall be pne year. 
 
 III. Vacancies among Directors and Officers may be filled a;t 
 any meeting of the Board, by a majority vote by ballot, two-thirds 
 of the whole Board being present. 
 
 IV. The Annual Meeting shall be held on the first Tuesday in 
 April, at three o'clock in the afternoon, at the office of the Com- 
 pany in the city of New York. 
 
 V. Special Meetings of stockholders shall be called by the 
 President or Secretary whenever a majority of the stockholders 
 shall request him to call such meeting. The President, or in his 
 absence the Treasurer, or in his absence the Secretary, shall pre- 
 side at such meeting. 
 
 VI. In owler to constitute a quorum for the transaction of any 
 business at any meeting of stockholders, a majority, in shares, of 
 the stockholders must attend in person or by proxy. But, in 
 case there shall not be present a majority within fifteen minutes 
 after the time named for the meeting, the same may be called to 
 order, and, by vote, adjourned to another time. 
 
 VII. The officers of the Corporation shall be a President, a 
 Treasurer, and a S cretary, all of whom shall be elected by the 
 Board from their own number, by ballot, to serve one year, or 
 until the meeting of the Board next succeeding an election of 
 Directors, and they shall not be entitled to any compensation for 
 their services. It shall be the duty of the President to preside at 
 the meetings of the Board and of the stockholders ; to sign cer- 
 tificates of stock ; to have a general supervision of the affairs of 
 the Company; to audit all bills against the Company which he 
 
 3t 
 
 shall find to be correct, and to perform the acts which are usually 
 incident to the office. 
 
 It shall be the duty of the Treasurer to have the care and cus- 
 tody of all the funds of the Company, to deposit the same in such 
 bank as the Board may direct ; to sign and indorse checks, drafts, 
 and orders necessary for the collection, custody, and disbursement 
 of the funds of the Company, subject to the direction of the Presi- 
 dent ; to present to each annual meeting of the stockholders, and 
 at any other meeting if he shall be required to do so, a report 
 showing the receipts and disbursements, and the financial condi- 
 tion of the Company ; and to exhibit his books and accounts to 
 any stockholder, whenever requested so to do ; and to counter- 
 sign certificates of stock. He shall give a bond in the penal sum 
 of three thousand dollars, with two sureties, to be approved by 
 the President, conditioned for the faithful discharge of his duties. 
 
 It shall be the duty of the Secretary to keep the minutes of the 
 meetings of stockholders and of the Board ; to have the custody 
 of the seal of the Company, and to affix the same to certificates of 
 stock, and, on the order of the Board, to any other paper or docu- 
 ment; to keep the stock certificate book, transfer book, ledger> 
 and such other books as the Board may require, and to exhibit 
 the same at the request of any stockholder ; to collect statistics 
 and other information which may be useful in the Company's 
 business, and keep the same in good order for permanent 
 presertation and reference ; tb take charge of and safely pre- 
 serve the papers of the Company ; to take general supervision 
 of the rooms of the Company, and see that the same are well 
 kept; that the comfort of those who have a right to the use 
 of the rooms ia provided for; that the rules of the rooms are 
 duly observed and obeyed, and to report all violations of such 
 rules to the Board ; and to give and serve such notices of meet- 
 ings as may be required. 
 
 There shall also be an Assistant Secretary, to be appointed by 
 vote of the Board by ballot, whose duty it shall be to be in con- 
 stant attendance at the rooms of the Company during the open 
 hours of the same, to perform such of the duties of the Secretary 
 as that officer shall delegate to him, and to render for the Com- 
 pany such services as shall be required of him by the Board or 
 the President. He shall hold office only during the pleasure of 
 the Board, and shall be entitled to such compensation as the Board 
 shall determine. 
 
 VIII. Three Inspectors Of Election shall be appointed by the 
 Board, and it shall have power to determine how the vacancy shall 
 be filled, in case any inspector so appointed shall fail to attend 
 a meeting at which an election is to be held. 
 
 IX. The Board shall, as soon as practicable, secure the use of 
 a room or rooms, to be called the Iroti aUd Metal Exchange 
 Rooms, and it shall prescribe rules and regulations designating 
 what persons, and on what terms, shall be entitled to admission 
 to the same, and to the enjoyment of its privileges, and also rules 
 and regulations to be observed by such persons as a condition of 
 their having and retaining a right to admission to said rooms. 
 But no person shall be entitled to such £idmiSsion except by fote 
 of the Board, and three ballots against his admission shall exclude 
 him. 
 
 In the government of said room it shall be the duty of the Board 
 to make every effiirt possible to make the same a convenient and 
 desirable place of resort during suitable hours, on every business 
 day, for producers and consumers, and sellers and buyers of iron 
 and other metals, for selling and buying for actual consumption, 
 and by all means in the power of said Board to discourage and 
 prevent buying and selling on speculation ; to exclude from the 
 privileges of the room any person who shall be dishonest or dis- 
 honorable in any business dealing, or who shall fail to fill any con- 
 tract or pay any debt. 
 
 The Board shall also discourage litigation, and shall organize 
 an Arbitration Committee, to be composed of persons who are not 
 Directors, and shall prescribe such rules and regulations for said 
 Committee as may make it efficient to settle disputes, correct mis- 
 understandings, and preserve harmony among those who choose to 
 submit any question in difference to such committee. 
 
 X. The stockholders shall be entitled to dividends of six per 
 cent, per annum, if the profits of the Company shall warrant it. 
 The Board may appropriate any part of the surplus profits, not 
 necessary for the due maintenance of the rooms, in such way 
 as they may think proper, to promote social acquaintance and 
 good fellowship among those having a right to the use of the rooms ; 
 or, it may accumulate such surplus towards providing a fund for 
 the purchase or erection of a suitable building for the purposes of 
 the Company ; or, may make such other disposition of said surplus 
 as it may deem best to subserve the interests of the Company. 
 
 XI. These By-Laws may be amended by a majority of the stock- 
 holders at any meeting of the same, two-thirds of the stock being 
 represented either in person or by proxy. 
 
530 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 A REVIEW OF THE IRON MARKET FOR 
 
 THE EIGHTEEN MONTHS ENDING 
 
 JUNE 30, 1882, 
 
 IN hia review of the iron trade in this country for 1881, 
 Mr. James M. Swank, secretary of the American Iron 
 and Steel Association, says : "The prosperity which 
 was restored to the American iron trade in the spring 
 of 1879, and which was continued in 1880, attained its 
 highest development in 1881. This was the most prosperous 
 year American iron and steel manufacturers have ever 
 known. The demand for their products was very active all 
 through the year, production was greatly stimulated, and 
 prices were in the main satisfactory. It was notably a year 
 of uniform prosperity ; not characterized by spurts and 
 reactions, but by a steady demand at good prices in all 
 branches except in some pig iron districts in the summer 
 months, when the demand for pig iron weakeried slightly in 
 consequence of the large quantities of foreign pig iron that 
 were pressed upon the market. From this local depression 
 there was, however, a complete recovery in the autumn. 
 With this temporary variation in the general situation the 
 demand for all forms of iron and steel was active and even 
 urgent all through the year. The production was far in 
 advance of that of any previous year, and it all passed into 
 consumption. The stocks on hand at the beginning of the 
 year were also consumed. Never has there been a healthier 
 business done by our iron and steel manufacturers than 
 they did in 1881. The year ended with more orders on their 
 books than were entered when it began, and at prices that 
 were generally higher than were then obtained." The aver- 
 age monthly quotations for the year for the articles men- 
 tioned, he also gives, as follows : 
 
 Mmthi. 
 
 1* 
 
 35 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 1. 
 
 la 
 
 05 
 
 .January ... 
 
 February . 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 Jfay. . . . 
 
 June ... . ... 
 
 July. ... . . . . 
 
 August . . ... . ... 
 
 September ... 
 
 October 
 
 November 
 
 December .... . . 
 
 $46.60 
 47.60 
 47.00 
 47.00 
 46.60 
 46.60 
 46.75 
 47.00 
 47.76 
 47.60 
 47.75 
 48.00 
 
 $60.00 
 62.00 
 62-50 
 63.00 
 63.09 
 65.00 
 61.00 
 60.00 
 60.00 
 60.00 
 61.60 
 60.60 
 
 $25.00 
 23.60 
 26.00 
 25.00 
 25.00 
 24.00 
 24.60 
 24.60 
 25.25 
 25.50 
 25.75 
 26.00 
 
 2.60 " 
 
 2.60 
 
 2.60 
 
 2.40 
 
 2.40 
 
 2.4c 
 
 2.450 
 
 2.560 
 
 2.7o 
 
 2.80 
 
 2.90 
 
 2.90 
 
 At the beginning of 1881 there were 456,658 tons of pig 
 iron in stock with producers, and of foreigu iron the amount 
 was stated at over 800,000 tons, all of which, as Mr. Swank 
 says, was consumed during the year. The production in 
 the United States was 4,641,564 net tons. The following 
 table shows the highest and lowest prices by months for the 
 year in New York, of the articles named : 
 
 The following is a comprehensive statement of the Besse- 
 mer steel works in this country: 
 
 Names of Companies. 
 
 Albany and Rensselaer Iron and Steel Co., Troy . . . 
 
 Bethlehem Iron Co., Bethlehem . . 
 
 Pennsylvania Steel Co., Steelton 
 
 Lackawanna Iron an<l Coal Co., Scranton 
 
 Cambria Iron Co., Johnstown 
 
 Carnegie Bros. & Co., Limited, Bessemer 
 
 Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Co., Limited, Homestead . 
 Pittsburgh Steel Casting Co., Pittsburgh . . . . . 
 Cleveland Rolling Mill Co., Cleveland ... 
 North Chicago Rolling Mill Co., Oiiicago 
 
 Union Iron and Steel Co., Chicago 
 
 Joliet Steel Co., Joliet 
 
 Vulcan Steel Co., St. Louis 
 
 Scranton Steel Co., Scranton 
 
 Colorado Coal and Iron Co., South Pueblo . . . . 
 
 Total . 
 
 Converters. 
 
 two 6Vi-ton. 
 four 7-ton. 
 iwo 63.^-ton. 
 three 8-ton. 
 two 7J^-ton. 
 two 6-ton. 
 three 10-ton. 
 two 4-ton. 
 one 7-ton. 
 two 6^-ton. ■ 
 two 10-ton. 
 two 63^-ton. 
 two 5)^-ton. ' 
 two 5U-ton. 
 two G%-toin. 
 two 4-ton. 
 two 6-ton. 
 
 There were indications before the close of the year that 
 the remarkable prosperity which had attended the iron 
 business for the preceding twelve months, could not be 
 expected to continue throughout 1882. Indeed, there were 
 unmistakable signs of a decreased demand and of lower 
 prices in December. The over-speculation in railroad 
 stocks, short crops in the west reducing the east bound ton- 
 nage, and the reduced rates prevailing, all pointed to a more 
 conservative management of the railroads already built and 
 hesitancy and delay in carrying out or undertaking new 
 schemes. Just at a time when the country had demonstrated 
 its ability to furnish a large increase in the supply of steel 
 rails, there was a falling off in the demand. The prospects 
 of last winter respecting the condition of the trade this year 
 have been fully verified. Steel rails on December 15, 1881, 
 were quoted at |60, and by Jan. 1, at 158. On May 15, of 
 this year orders could be easily placed at 150. Iron rails 
 were $48 on Jan. 1, and only |44 in May. On July 1, steel 
 rails are quoted at $47.50 to 150.00, but there is nothing doing, 
 and there is not even a reliable quotation for iron rails. At 
 the close of the six months the quotations for pig iron are 
 as follows: No. 1 foundry, 125.00 ; No. 2, $23.00 ; gray forge, 
 $22.00 Scotch pig; Eglinton, 122.75 to $23.00; Glengamock, 
 $24.75; Gartsherrie, $25.56 to $26.00, and Coltness, $26.50 
 to $27.00. These prices are in the face of a strike in the 
 mills at Pittsburg, Wheeling, the Mahoning and Shenango 
 valleys, Chicago and St. Louis that has existed for nearly 
 three months. AVith none but the mills in the Cincinnati 
 district running, those in operation are complaining of the 
 condition of trade. In commenting on the present maiket 
 for furnishing iron the Iron Age of New York, in its issue 
 of June 29, says : " It will be remembered that the chief 
 point of difference at the conference between the iron 
 manufacturers and the workingmen was as to the ability of 
 the former to pay any advance in wages at the present time, 
 owing to the state of trade. The manufacturers stated that 
 there was no trade, that prices were declining, stocks were 
 accumulating, and that they would soon have to reduce pro- 
 
 Montha. 
 
 January. . 
 February . 
 March. . . 
 April . . . 
 May. . . . 
 June . . . 
 July . . . 
 August . . 
 September 
 October . . 
 November 
 December 
 
 American Pig-iron. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 Forge. 
 
 $ 
 
 $ 
 
 8 $ 
 
 9 
 
 28 
 
 ©26 
 
 21 ©23 
 
 20 
 
 'Z5 
 
 @26 
 
 22 ©23 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 @26 
 
 22 ©23 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 @26 
 
 22 ©23 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 ©25 
 
 2XV@22 ■ 
 
 19 
 
 24 
 
 © . . 
 
 22 @ . . 
 
 19 
 
 24 
 
 @25 
 
 2114©22 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 ©25 
 
 22 ©23 
 
 20 
 
 ^ym2s]4 
 
 22M@23 
 22U©23 
 22>|@23 
 
 20 
 
 26 ' 
 
 ©26 
 
 21 
 
 26 
 
 ©27 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 ©27 
 
 23 @26J^ 
 
 22 
 
 ©21 
 
 ©21> 
 ©22 
 ©21 
 @W]4 
 
 Scotch Pig-Iron. 
 
 OoUnesB. 
 
 Eglinton. Ulengamock. 
 
 Gartsherrie, 
 
 Iron. 
 
 $ 9 
 
 46 ©62 
 
 47 ©62 
 
 48 ©50 
 46K@60 
 
 46 ©60 
 
 44 ©48 
 
 45 ©60 
 
 47 ©60 
 47J^©50 
 
 47 ©60 
 
 48 ©60 
 47>^@60 
 
 SleeL 
 
 67H(S62 
 "' ©66 
 
 62 ©65 
 69 ©67 
 60 ©61 
 66 ©62>^ 
 65 ©60 
 ©68 
 " 12 
 
 60 ©r,2 
 
 Old 7i. OldD. Ih. Scrap. 
 
 28' ©28!^ 
 27^©28 
 26 @27V$ 
 26 ©27 
 26 ©261, 
 
 26 ©261. 
 20?i@27V 
 
 27 ©28 
 ,2714©29 
 
 61 @C2l^l28V4©29 
 66 @62 |29 © , . 
 
 WrougJti. 
 
 g 
 
 25 ©31 
 
 30 ©32 
 
 30 ©81 
 
 30 ©32 
 27 ©30 
 
 26l|@271/^26 ©30 
 
 — — myMw 
 
 27 "©30 
 
 27 ^©30 
 
 28 ©31 
 
 31 ©32M 
 30 ©32}^ 
 
 The average prices in Philadelphia for a number of years 
 of No. 1 anthracite pig iron, and also of bar, iron rails and 
 Bessemer »teel rails, are given in Mr. Swank's report, printed 
 in another part of this volume. 
 
 duction. The workingmen denied this, claiming that it was 
 a cry that was always heard about this time of the year, and 
 that it was uttered for effect. They asserted that the reports 
 in certain newspapers showed that prices were not declining, 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 531 
 
 that consumption was up to production, and that manufac- 
 turers could afiford to pay the advance asked. Of course 
 there was no doubt among manufacturers and those posted 
 in what might be called the secrets of the iron trade, as to 
 the correctness of the statement of the manufacturers, and 
 this has now become apparent to all on-lookers ; and even 
 the hot-heads among the workingmen, who insisted that the 
 manufacturers' statement was not true, are becoming con- 
 vinced that it was true. It is a strange fact that with all of 
 the Pittsburg, Mahoning and Shenango valleys. Wheeling, 
 Chicago and St. Louis mills virtually idle, and with only 
 the mills in the Cincinnati district running, the Cincinnati 
 mills are complaining of bad trade, and it is a fact, also, 
 that this statement is not made for effect. The Cincinnati 
 mills are finding it difficult to secure orders to run their 
 mills. So, also, immediately after the strike many Pitts- 
 burg manufacturers who wished certain sizes of bar to sort 
 up with, wrote East to endeavor to secure the iron. They 
 were answered, almost without exception, that it would be 
 impossible for Eastern mUls to fill orders before the middle 
 of August or the first of September. Soon, however, 
 the Eastern mills took a very different turn. One Pittsburg 
 iron manufacturer, for example, who two weeks before could 
 not get quotations on the little iron that he wanted, received 
 in one day offers from four different parties in the East of 
 100 tons of iron delivered in Pittsburg at less than card 
 rate at Pittsburg. Another manufacturer who wished 
 some pipe iron with which to sort up some sizes, failed at 
 first to get quotations. In the second week of the strike he 
 received a telegram offering him 100 tons of the size he 
 wished at mill, delivered at less price than he had been 
 selling the iron for before the strike. The same is true 
 regarohng English iron. As we have stated above, consider- 
 able of No. 20 sheet iron, which is largely used at Pitts- 
 burg in connection with the manufacture of oil tanks, has 
 been placed with English parties. The card rate at Pitts- 
 burg on this iron is 4.1. The English iron, which is equal 
 to the Pittsburg iron, has been laid down in Pittsburg at 
 3.5. All these facts go to show not only that the manufac- 
 turers' statement was correct, but also that they were fully 
 justified, in view of the condition of the market, in refusing 
 to pay the advance demanded. Further, it shows that the 
 present stoppage will be of very great importance and profit 
 to the manufacturers. With this condition of things exist- 
 ing, it certainly is evident that if the manufacturers had 
 continued running, iron must have gone down materially in 
 price, and it probably is true that if the mills were to start 
 to-morrow iron would be selling at two cents before many 
 weeks had passed. No doubt a belief in this is what 
 made the manufacturers so united in their determination 
 to resist the demands of the workingmen, and no doubt also 
 led consumers to refuse to placfr orders except for imme- 
 diate delivery. Further, the Sprmg of 1882, while in some 
 respects, was a good time for the workingman to strike — 
 fuel, clothing and food not being needed to the extent that 
 they are in the winter, and the opportunities for outside 
 labor being much greater-^-it is also true that it was a good 
 time for the manufacturers. The railroads were doing noth- 
 ing. The other large consumers of iron, that is the manu- 
 facturers of agricultural implements, were doing very 
 little. They were finishing up machines that were being 
 manufactured, and had not yet begun to manufacture 
 for next year, and, in view of the state of the iron 
 trade, they certainly will not place their orders at this time." 
 Writing in the middle of May, Mr. Swank says: — "The 
 fact may as well be accepted philosophically, if reluctantly, 
 
 that we have again entered upon a cycle of low prices for 
 iron and steel. We do not think this result is greatly to be 
 regretted, if we consider that some remedy is needed to 
 check our enormous importations of these articles. Were 
 these importations to be continued for a few years longer 
 upon the scale which has existed during the past three years, 
 our iron and steel industries would suffer the most serious 
 consequences, which would be felt for a generation. * * * 
 Importations of iron and steel had, therefore, to be checked, 
 in some way, if we would not prevent the future prosperity 
 of the domestic producers of these articles. Low prices may 
 be a distasteful remedy for our manufacturers and their 
 workmen,,and for iron ore producers, but no other remedy 
 is available. It is a pity that good use was not made of it a 
 few months ago." 
 
 In some respects the western Iron market is peculiar, 
 although with the exception of certain brands, such as car- 
 wheel iron, it sympathizes with the general market of the 
 country. But in the Lake Superior and Missouri ore re- 
 gions, which control the ore trade of the West, it is custom- 
 ary to contract with the blast furnaces early in the year for 
 the entire season's wants at a fixed price. This usually ren- 
 ders the market devoid of features of interest, except such 
 as may relate to the output, or such as come from the ad- 
 vance in price of the ores not contracted for, as was the 
 case in 1880, when the Republic Iron Co. sold some of its 
 ore as high as $15 on the docks at Cleveland. The chief 
 feature of the trade in 1881, was the enormous production 
 of ore during the year, far exceeding that of any previous 
 year. The total production of Lake Superior iron ore in 
 1881 was the largest in the history of the district, being 
 2,336,335 gross tons against 1,987,598 tons in 1880, and 
 1,414,182 tons in 1879. For the first six months of 1882, 
 the total lake shipments were 1,161,148 tons against 727,185 
 tons for the same time last year. There has also been a 
 large increase in the output of the Missouri mines as well 
 as those in the vicinity of Pittsburg and other sections of 
 the country. The region known in iron circles as the 
 "West" has within the past few years become not only the 
 largest producer, but the largest consumer of pig iron of 
 any of th« sections of the country. It produces and con- 
 sumes considerably more than one half of the pig iron j)ro- 
 duct of the United States, the consumption being larger 
 than the production. But little pig iron comes from the 
 West to the East, and that is only charcoal iron, while the 
 West draws largely from the East and South. This condi- 
 tion of the market has been especially manifested for more 
 than a year past. The quotations of pig iron in the West 
 are generally on forge irons at four months' time. The 
 market opened in January with a medium quality of forge 
 iron, selling at $23 @ $24 and $26 @ $27 for all ore red 
 short irons. These grades advanced to $25 @ $25.50 and 
 $27 @ $28, respectively, by the middle of February. From 
 this point prices dropped to $24 @ $25 and $26.50 @ $27.50 
 in April, and to $22.50 @ $23 and $25 @ $26 in August. 
 In September the market became much firmer, and the 
 medium quality sold up to $23.50. From this point the 
 advance was gradual until the close of the year, when it 
 bounded to $24 @ $25.50 for medium, and all ore-red shorts, 
 $26 @ $28. Since the beginning of the current year, prices 
 have followed the general course of the market, notwith- 
 standing the mills have, generally been idle for several 
 months. The following table, compiled from actual sales, 
 shows the range of prices at Pittsburg of gray forge coke 
 or bituminous irons made in whole or in part from Lake 
 Superior ores. The prices are on four months' time : 
 
 Month. 
 
 1881. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1878. 
 
 1877. 
 
 1876. 
 
 1875. 
 
 1874. 
 
 1873. 
 
 January. . 
 
 J22.00 @ 24.00 
 
 837.00 @ 45.00 
 
 $16.50 @ 19.50 
 
 $17.60 @ 21.00 
 
 {20.50 @ 22.50 
 
 $21.60 @ 23 00 
 
 $23.00 @ 24.00 
 
 825.00 @ 32.00 
 
 $38.50 @ 43.00 
 
 February . 
 
 25.00 @ 27.60 
 
 45.00 @ 46.00 
 
 16.60 @ 19.60 
 
 17.60 @ 20.00 
 
 20.00 @ 22.50 
 
 22.00 @ 22.50 
 
 23.00 @ 24.00 
 
 28.00 @ 32.00 
 
 38.50 @ 43.00 
 
 March. . , 
 
 25.00 @ 27.50 
 
 38.00 @ 43.00 
 
 16.50 @ 19.50 
 
 17.00 @ 19.50 
 
 19.50 @ 22.50 
 
 21.00 @ 23.00 
 
 23.00 @ 26.00 
 
 27.00 @ 30.00 
 
 38.60 @ 43.00 
 
 AprU . . . 
 May. . . . 
 
 24.60 @ 27.00 
 
 29.00 @ 40.00 
 
 17.00 @ 19.60 
 
 17.00 © 19.60 
 
 18.50 @ 22.00 
 
 21.00 @ 22.00 
 
 22.00 @ 26.00 
 
 26.00 @ 29.00 
 
 38.50 ©43.00 
 
 23.50 @ 26.00 
 
 23.00 @ 29.00 
 
 17.50 @ 20.00 
 
 17.00 @ 19.00 
 
 18.00 @ 22.00 
 
 21.00 @ 22.50 
 
 23.00 @ 26.00 
 
 25.00 @ 28.25 
 
 37.50 @ 43.00 
 
 June . . . 
 
 23.50 @ 25.00 
 
 19.00 @ 23.50 
 
 17.60 @ 20.00 
 
 17.00 @ 19,00 
 
 18.00 @ 21.60 
 
 21.60 @ 22.50 
 
 24.00 @ 26.00 
 
 25.00 @ 28.00 
 
 35.00 ©38.00 
 
 July. . . . 
 
 22.50 @ 24.50 
 
 19.00 @ 22.00 
 
 17.50 @ 21.00 
 
 17.00 @ 19.00 
 
 18.00 @ 21.60 
 
 21.00® 22.50 
 
 24.00 @ 26.00 
 
 28.00 @ 28.00 
 
 33.00 © 36.00 
 
 August . . 
 
 22.50 @ 24.50 
 
 22.50 average 
 
 18.00 @ 22.00 
 
 16.50 @ 19.00 
 
 18.00 @ 21.50 
 
 21.00 @ 22.00 
 
 24.00 @ 25.00 
 
 24.00 @ 27.00 
 
 32.60 © 36.00 
 
 September 
 
 22.50 ® 26.60 
 
 22.50 average 
 
 22.00 @ 30.00 
 
 16-50 @ 19.00 
 
 17.60 @ 21.00 
 
 21.00 @ 22.50 
 
 22.00 @ 24.00 
 
 26.00 @ 28.00 
 
 32.00 © 35.00 
 
 Oetober. . 
 
 23.00 @ 27.00 
 
 22.50 average 
 
 28.00 @ 32.00 
 
 16.60 @ 19.60 
 
 17.50 @ 21.00 
 
 21.00 @ 22.00 
 
 23.00 @ 24.00 
 
 26.00 @ 28.00 
 
 28.00 © 34.00 
 
 November. 
 
 23.50 @ 27.00 
 
 22.50 average 
 
 29.00 @ 33.00 
 
 W.,™ @ 19.60 
 
 17.60 @ 21.00 
 
 21.00 @ 22.00 
 
 23.00 @ . . 
 
 24.00 @ 27.00 
 
 26.00 © 30.00 
 
 December. 
 
 23.50 @ 28.00 
 
 20.00 @ 21.00 
 
 31.00 @ 36.00 
 
 16.50 @ 19.60 
 
 17.60 @ 21.00 
 
 20.60 @ 22.00 
 
 21.00 @ 24.00 
 
 23.00 @ 24.50 
 
 24.00 @ 30.00 
 
532 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The Iron Age publishes returns from the blast furnaces 
 quarterly. In its summary of the reports for the quarter, 
 ending July 1, 1882, it gives the following : 
 
 -Rimace*. 
 
 Jiilid 
 
 , 1882. 
 
 January 
 
 1, 1882. 
 
 InhUA. 
 
 Out of blast. 
 
 Xn blast. 
 
 Out of bloat. 
 
 Charcoal . . 
 Anthracite . .... 
 Bituminous . 
 
 151 
 
 164 
 119 
 
 126 
 72 
 109 
 
 165 
 169 
 142 
 
 117- 
 67 
 78 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 43i 
 
 307 
 
 466 
 
 262 
 
 For the last six years the relative condition of the furnaces 
 on July 1 was reported as follows : 
 
 Furnaces In Blast Jvly 1. 
 
 
 1877. 
 
 1878. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1881. 
 
 1882. 
 
 Charcoal . . ... 
 Anthracite .... 
 Bituminous .... 
 
 87 
 87 
 85 
 
 64 
 95 
 89 
 
 81 
 101 
 96 
 
 131 
 167 
 115 
 
 147 
 146 
 144 
 
 161 
 164 
 119 
 
 Total 
 
 259 
 
 248 
 
 277 
 
 413 
 
 437 
 
 434 
 
 Furnaces out or Blast July- 1. 
 
 
 1877. 
 
 1878. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1881. 
 
 1882. 
 
 Charcoal 
 
 Anthracite . . . . 
 Bituminous' . 
 
 181 
 139 
 
 ■■ 123 
 
 202 
 130 
 128 
 
 176 
 125 
 107 
 
 1.36 
 
 68 
 
 109 
 
 125 
 90 
 
 77 
 
 126 
 
 72 
 
 ' 109 
 
 Total 
 
 443 
 
 460 
 
 408 
 
 313 
 
 292 
 
 307 
 
 In the above tables the columns " in blast " and " out of 
 blast" show only the stocks from which the journal quoted 
 received repoxts, and their footings for different periods 
 when added, will not always agree. The following table 
 prepared by Mr. Joseph Nimmo, Chief of the Bureau of 
 Stiatistics at Washington, shows the quantity and value of 
 iron ore imported into the United States during the year 
 ended December 31, 1881, by countries : 
 
 Counti-iea. 
 
 Brazil .... . , 
 
 France 
 
 French. Possessions in Africa and. adjacent istanUs 
 
 Germany . .... 
 
 England . . ...... 
 
 Scotland '. 
 
 Ireland t . . .' 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward 
 Island . ; . . 
 
 Quebec,. Ontario, Manitoba, Bupert's Land and North- 
 west Territorj^ 
 
 British Columbia ...,,.. 
 
 British Possessions in Africa and adjacent i.'^lands 
 
 Italy ., 
 
 Portue;al 
 
 Russia, on the Baltic and. White Seas , ...... 
 
 Spain ...... , , . 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Turkey in Africa , 
 
 Uruguay ... . ..... 
 
 Total 
 
 Tom. 
 
 800 
 
 >44,466 
 
 147,165 
 
 1,034 
 
 67,640 
 
 2,247 
 
 14,959 
 
 1,600 
 
 44,222 
 
 1,100 
 
 716 
 
 89,226 
 
 23,946 
 
 *967 
 
 327,848 
 
 *2,(i87 
 
 2;B60 
 
 605 
 
 782,887 
 
 Value. 
 
 $2,002 
 103,449 
 444,965 
 
 17,933 
 286,463 
 
 10,636 
 
 34,263, 
 6,539, 
 
 37 
 
 143,446 
 
 1,622 
 
 2,867 
 
 260,930 
 
 63,379 
 
 30,812 
 
 753,373 
 
 66,029 
 
 5,317 
 
 1,700 
 
 2,222,652 
 
 ♦Correct per certified invoices, This ore, or the moat part of it is im- 
 port^d.by onrome. works for cliromio acid. 
 
 A REVIEW OF THE COAL MARKET FOR THE 
 
 EIGHTEEN MONTHS ENDING JUNE 3Q, 
 
 1882. 
 
 THE demand for anthracite coal during 1881, exceeded 
 anything heretofore known in the history of the 
 coal trade. This was due partly to the prosperous 
 condition of all kinds of business, and especiallv 
 the manufacture of iron in which large quantities of coal 
 were consumed, and partly to the feet that the low nricps 
 for coal which prevailed for some time prior to the last com- 
 bination of the leading anthracite coal companies, led to the 
 introduction of anthracite coal into new fields and espe 
 
 cially the West as far as the Mississippi river. There are 
 reasons for believing that anthracite coal will gradually be- 
 come more and more a house fuel throughout the country, 
 while the softer coals wiU in time take the place of anthra- 
 cite in the manufactures. In commenting on some figures 
 showing the amount of anthracite coal still available 
 for use in the Schuylkill, Lehigh and Wyoming districts, 
 Mr. Frank Wilkinson says: "In less than forty years, if 
 coal be produced at the rate of 30,000,000 tons per annum, 
 anthracite will be an article of luxury, and the price it 
 will bring will exclude the poor people from its use." Any 
 danger of this kind, however, had no appreciable effect 
 upon pi^ices, except such as may have arisen from the 
 gradual introduction of bituminous coal into manufecturing 
 districts, w.here the harder coal geographically controlled 
 the field. 
 
 It is a remarkable fact that there was no change in the 
 circular prices of the leading companies during the whole 
 of 1881, except one of 10 to 25 cents in March of that year, 
 and for the first six months, of the current year, the only 
 changes were a reduction of 10 to 15 cents in January 
 caused by the light consumption on account of the un- 
 usually mild winter, and a restoration of the old prices in 
 June. This steady condition of the market has been 
 brought about by an agreement between the coal companies 
 that they wiU regulate the output so as not largely to ex- 
 ceed the consumptive demand from month to month, 
 by a stoppage of work whenever required. The producing 
 capacity of the mines still exceeds th& demand for con- 
 sumption, and consequently frequent suspensions of work 
 occurred during the past eighteen months. The average 
 circular prices of anthracite coal were only two cents higher 
 in 1881 than in 1880, but as prices were not as well main- 
 tained in 1880 as 1881, it is probable that the average prices 
 actually received were as much as 25 cents higher last year 
 than during the year preceding. It is practically impcssible 
 to maintain fiill circular rates throughout the year, but the 
 fluctuations, except as stated above, consisted in the shading 
 of the published schedule rates, which was not so great as toi 
 cause a rupture of the mutual understanding .between the 
 companies as to output 
 
 The shipments in round figureswere 5,000,000 tons greater 
 in 1881 than in 1880; and during the last six months of 
 1881, they were about 16,000,000. tons, which was Leaily 
 equal to the carrying capacity of the railroads and vessels 
 by which the coal is moved. A potent influence whith is 
 operating upon the anthracite coal trade in its extension 
 to the Western States, is the condition of the through 
 traffic of the trunk line railroads. Freightage to the 
 sea-board from the West has been largely in excess of the 
 shipments on the return tripa of the cars, and conse- 
 quently many cars had to be hauled back empty. The 
 expense of drawing a loaded car from New York to 
 Chicago is little more than if the same car were taken un- 
 loaded. Consequently the railroads can afford to carry 
 freight, not liable to, damage, by transportation, such as 
 coal, from the east to the west at a very low figure. This 
 they are now doing, and the extension of the anthracite coal 
 consuming territory may thus be much greater than could 
 possibly be brought about if the coal had to pay its fiill cost 
 of transportation. This demand from remote sections of 
 the country must, of course, be limited to household pur- 
 poses. 
 
 • ■^i'^Z®^'' ^^^^ opened with a stock of only 500,273 tons 
 in the hands of the companies, and a very unusually large 
 demand caused by the severe winter weather. The water 
 routes were frozen up, and dealers and others who supposed 
 they had laid in a full supply for the winter months, already 
 tound their stocks running low. Large shipments had to be 
 made by rail, and prices consequently stiffened. An agree- 
 ment which had been made in the previous month to work 
 only three days in each week during the remainder of that 
 month and January had to be abandoned for the third week 
 in January to meet the requirements of consumers. During 
 00 0?°"*'^ ^^^ stocks held by the companies were reduced 
 82,387 tons. In February there was trouble witli the trans- 
 portation companies on account of heavy snow storms and 
 the coal companies were consequently unable to move as- 
 much coal as there was a demand for. The retailers ad- 
 vanced their prices in New York 50 cents a tou and the 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 533 
 
 companies made no effort to curtail production. The stocks 
 were further reduced leaving the coal in the hands of the 
 companies at the end of the month at only 395,286 tons or 
 a little more than one-half a week's production. There was 
 milder weather in March and prices were a shade lower at 
 the opening of the month. On March 17, at a meeting of 
 the presidents of the leading companies, it was resolved to 
 work only three days a week during the following two 
 weeks. As lower prices were expected, buyers held off or 
 made only light purchases. The companies had been un- 
 expectedly slow in coming to a mutual agreement to regu- 
 late trade, which had the effect of destroying confidence in 
 the stability of the market.. Soon after the meeting at 
 which it was decided to reduce the output, the Pennsylvania 
 Coal Company issued a circular making a reduction in its 
 prices, and the other companies followed with a reduction 
 ranging from 10 to 25 cents a ton. The shipments from the 
 mines tor the first three months of the year exceeded the 
 shipments for the corresponding period of 1880 by 1,208,903 
 tons, and the stocks at the end of March were 563,063 tons, 
 la April it was found that all the coal that &e trade de- 
 manded could be produced by working only three days in 
 each week, and a failure to observe this rule for the fourth, 
 week, had the effect of weakening the market. On April 15 
 the Western Association established prices 55 and 60 cents 
 a ton lower than those which prevailed immediately pre- 
 ceding that time, but the schedule prices at the east re- 
 mained unchanged. During three weeks of May, the com- 
 panies worked only half time, and by June some of the com- 
 panies were so well supplied with orders that they would 
 not consent to more than six days, curtailment The busi- 
 ness for June was remarkably good for that season of the 
 year, and the month closed with a scarcity of vessels and 
 indications of higher prices, for coal. For the first six 
 months of the year the shipments were 12,467,406 tons 
 against 10,312,120 tons for the corresponding avs. months of 
 1880, an increase of 2,155i376 tons while the stocks in the 
 companies' hands at the end- of the half year were 598,565 
 tons; a gain of 180,680 over the amount on hand at the be- 
 ginning of the year. 
 
 The last stoppage for the year to control production was 
 made in July (3 days), and at the end of the month the 
 stocks amounted to 674,716 tons, but the demand in the fol- 
 lowing month far exceeded expectations, that from the West 
 being greater than the companies could get transportation 
 to meet. The total shipments amounted to 2,733,548 tons. 
 In September there was some trouble on account of a scar- 
 city of water and of labor at the mines. Transportation; 
 was also limited, there being a want of cars for the West 
 and of vessels at the seaboard. The Delaware and Hudson 
 Canal Company sold some- coal whi<;h it called " off-color " 
 at a concession and prices were somewhat irregular. The 
 Western Association, however, advanced- the price of egg, 
 stove and chestnut sizes 25 cents a ton. Throughout Octo- 
 ber the demand was ahead of the supply and prices were 
 well maintained. The want of cars to supply the western 
 trade caused shipments to be made by the Erie Canal to 
 Buffalo, and in some instances more than schedule rates 
 were paid for certain sizes. November opened with current 
 prices 15@25 cents a ton higher than circular rates (which 
 were not changed) for stove and chestnut sizes, but the extra 
 demand was supplied during, the month, while during De- 
 cember the larger sizes accumulated with some of the com- 
 panies, and prices were consequently weak. During this 
 month vessels were in fair supply and freights reasonable. 
 'The mild weather which prevailed up to the close of the 
 year,, led to apprehensions that a stoppage of work at the 
 mines in order to curtail, production would soon havcrta be 
 resorted to again. 
 
 The year was iii.some respects the most remarkable in the 
 history of the anthracite coal trade of the country. The 
 total production for the year was 28,500,017 tons, an increase 
 over 1880 of 5,062,775 tons, while.the stock on hand at the 
 close of the year was 497,024 tons, a slight reduction for the 
 twelvemonths. "TJie desperate .determination among^ the 
 managers of the companies to maintain prices at what they 
 regarded as living rates, was never more conspicuous, and 
 they were successful in burying all differences which would 
 prevent the consummation of this end. At the same time th^ 
 absence of any fluctations in prices- or of uncertainty as.to 
 
 what would be the probable cost of fuel in the near future, 
 gave general satislaction to the public. Where formerly 
 all wa-s confusion and doubt and complaints were conse- 
 quently abundant, no matter how low the prices might be, 
 under the present system the coal trade has ceased to be a 
 subject of daily interest to the public and the officers of 
 companies and consumers alike appear happy. 
 
 The trade during the past six months — the first half 
 of 1882 — has been less satisfactory to the coal companies 
 and coal dealers. The remarkably mUd weather which pre- 
 vailed throughout the winter, and the absence since then of 
 an active demand until recently, have kept prices weak and 
 the market dull. A reduction of 10 to 15 cents early in 
 January did noi immediately improve matters, but this ac-- 
 companied by a stoppage at the mines for three days in the 
 latter part of the month, had a tendency to stiffen quota- 
 tions, but notwithstanding the companies kept the mines 
 idle nine working days in February, prices fell below the 
 schedule rates. The managers of the companies began to lose 
 confidence in each other, and by the enci of the month there 
 was a manifest disposition among them to take what busi- 
 ness they could get at the best figures obtainable. It is also 
 to be remembered that February is always a poor month in 
 thecoal trade. It wasevident that the stocks were not heavy 
 in March, but the demand continued Hght with no improve- 
 ment in prices until toward the end of the month when a 
 slight improvement was noticeable. The total prodnctfon 
 for the first three months of the year amounted to 4,897,703 
 tons^ against 5,565,210 tons for the corresponding period of 
 the preceding year, a decrease of 667,507 tons. 
 
 During the latter part of March it was agreed that the 
 companies would suspend work three days in the early part 
 and three days near the last of April, but the market was 
 extremely dull, closing heavy at a considerable reduction from 
 the published rates, in prices actually obtained. The west- 
 em demand sympathized with the eastern market in being 
 dull and prices weak. There was a stoppage again of nine 
 days in Ma-y^ and. by the end of the month a slight improve- 
 ment in quotations was observable. The only suspension of 
 work in June was for three days in the first week. The low 
 I stocks and apprehension that the trouble which had broken 
 out in some other trades,, might extend to the coal mines, 
 ; led many persons to regard the time as a good one in which 
 to increase their supplies and the- demand very much im- 
 proved. Prices were advanced 10 to 15 cents early in the 
 month and the condition of the trade during the month 
 gave evidence that another advance might be expected soon. 
 Following is a comparative statement of the production of 
 anthracite coal for the first six months of 1881 and 1882 : 
 
 Tom of 2240 »«. 
 
 1882. 
 
 1881. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Wi/oming Region, 
 n. & H. Canal Co ... . 
 
 I). L. & W. R.R. Co. . 
 
 Penna. ooaJ Go. . 
 
 L. V. B. C. Co 
 
 P. & N. Y. B. R. Co. . 
 
 r. R.R. of N. J. . .... 
 
 Penua. Canal Co. . 
 
 I,.'i39,120 
 
 2,014,9-21 
 
 581,205 
 
 512,000 
 
 95,184 ■ 
 
 ■ 1,093,045 
 
 173,287 
 
 1,661,298 
 
 1,960,377 
 
 686,883 
 
 542,830 
 
 39,449 
 
 1,107,664 
 
 163,724 
 
 Lehigh Beqion. 
 
 h.\. R.R. Co. 
 
 e. R.R. of N. J. - . • 
 
 S. H. &. AV. B. R.R 
 
 6,008,762 
 
 2,171,322 
 996,574 
 20,000 
 
 6,062,225 
 
 2,041,830 
 
 942,405 
 
 1,224 
 
 Schmjtkill Begibn. 
 
 P. & R, RR. Co 
 
 Shamokiii.&-Lykens Val 
 
 3,187,890 
 
 2;922,568 
 546,017 
 
 2,985,469 
 
 3,054^759 
 454,224 
 
 SiUHvmn Begfaih 
 St. Line & Sul. R.R. Co 
 
 3,468,585 
 27,070 
 
 3,508,983 
 31,017 
 
 T lal 
 
 12,692,313 
 
 12,677,084> . 
 
 IncreaBO ... 
 
 - 114,629 
 
 
 The above table does not include the amount of coal con- 
 sumed and sold at the mines, which is about six per cent, of 
 the whole production. The total production compares with 
 the first six months of previous years as follows : 
 
534 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Years. 
 
 1877 
 
 1878 
 
 Tons. Years. 
 9,915,120 1879 . 
 7,212,665 1880 . 
 
 Tom. 
 . 12,033,998 
 . 10,321,876 
 
 The annual report of the Department of Internal Affairs 
 of the State of Pennsylvania gives the following information 
 respecting the mining of anthracite coal in the State in 
 1881: 
 
 Total number of collieries 
 
 Average number of days worked during year . 
 
 Total number employees 
 
 Total amount paid in wages during the year 
 Total production of anthracite for 1881, tons . . 
 Average amount per ton paid in wages .... 
 Average amount of coal produced per employee . 
 
 319 
 
 276.01 
 
 75,169 
 
 827,454,781.36 
 
 27,929,128.18 
 
 $11,655 
 
 373.1* 
 
 A similar table for the bituminous fields shows the follow- 
 ing : 
 
 Total number of collieries 
 
 Average number of days worked during the year .... 
 
 Total number of persons employed 
 
 Total amount paid in wages during the year 
 
 Total production of bituminous coal for the year ended 
 
 December 31, 1881, tons 
 
 Total number of coke ovens . ..,. 
 
 Total production of coke for the year, tons 
 
 Average amount per ton paid in wages 
 
 Average amount of coal produced to each employee 
 
 35, 
 $14,540, 
 
 16,692, 
 
 6, 
 
 2,176, 
 
 382 
 217.07 
 ,5,30 
 ,067.50 
 
 ,923.12 
 
 ,640 
 
 ,403.08 
 
 D.92.05 
 
 442.47 
 
 The Connellsville coke region furnishes a remarkable 
 illustration of the development of an industry that was 
 practically unknown only a few years ago. The manufac- 
 ture of coke was begun just before the war and amounted at 
 first to a car-load a week, and it gave but little promise of 
 becoming an item of importance, until 1870. To-day there 
 are at least four firms in the coke regions whose output is 
 over 100 cars a day and one that equals 200 cars. The de- 
 velopment since 1878 has been marvelous ; at the beginning 
 of that year there were about 3578 ovens, with a daily pro- 
 duct of 4500 tons ; the close of 1881 found a total of nearly 
 8000 ovens in the region, with a product of 11,000 tons a 
 day, and it is reported that contracts are out or in progress 
 that will raise the total to nearly 10,000 ovens. There 
 seems to be a demand for all of this immense production. 
 In the West not only has the output of blast furnaces, 
 classified as coke furnaces, largely increased, both by an 
 increased output at old furnaces and by the output of newly- 
 built furnaces, but many of the furnaces that formerly used 
 raw coal have either changed to coke entirely or are using 
 a large percentage of coke by reason of the largely increased 
 output it gives. The same is and has been increasingly 
 true of anthracite furnaces ; there is hardly an anthracite 
 furnace that can procure it that does not use some coke. It 
 is becoming true of charcoal furnaces and bloomaries. It is 
 a fact, not generally known, that charcoal pig and charcoal 
 blooms are made with, in many cases, a large percentage of 
 coke as fuel. Coke is also entering more largely into con- 
 sumption for domestic purposes. 
 
 . The production of the Connellsville region the past year 
 was considerably below its capacity, and it seriously in- 
 convenienced furnaces. This arose, not from a lack of 
 demand, but from the impossibility of securing cars for trans- 
 porting the coke. Usually no coke is stored in the region ; 
 the ovens are discharged upon the "wharf" or platform at 
 the mouth of the ovens, and the coke is loaded imrtiediately 
 upon cars. During the past year, in some cases, large 
 piles of coke were stored waiting for transportation, but 
 in this case but little coke can oe stocked, owing to its 
 bulk and the yards, not being prepared for storing, being 
 too small. Regarding the production of coke in Western 
 Pennsylvania no reliable statistics have yet been published, 
 and but few figures of any kind. The railroads that convey 
 most of the coke are chary about giving any statistics of the 
 amount transported, which would include nearly all made. 
 Estimates can be made with some degree of accuracy based 
 on the number of ovens and the output. These estimates 
 make the amount produced in 1880 about 2,500,000 tons and 
 in 1881, 3,000,000. The prices were remarkably steady last 
 year, being in this respect like 1879 rather than 1880. In 
 
 1879, the prices to furnaces did not vary more than 15 cents 
 @ 25 cents a ton the whole year. In 1880 the price fluc- 
 tuated between $1.50 and |5 a ton. Opening with $1.50, 
 it advanced to $4 @ $5 in March and April and fell to $1.50 
 @ $1.75 at the' close of the year. In 1881, the price to fur- 
 naces on yearly contracts was $1.50 @ $1.65 on cars at 
 ovens. For foundry purposes and occasional orders the 
 price was $1.75 @ $2. The price to furnaces for 1882 was 
 fixed at $1.65 @ $1.85. 
 
 In the bituminous regions the number of days worked in 
 the year is much less than in the anthracite regions. One 
 reason of this is, probably, that the demand supplied from 
 the bituminous regions is more local than that from the 
 anthracite districts. The number of days' work in a large 
 section of the West Pennsylvania bituminous field depends 
 upon the state of water in the Ohio River, which was not 
 favorable to shipments, and consequently to mining, last 
 year. The greater ease of mining bituminous coal has made 
 the output per man much greater than in the anthracite 
 region. 
 
 Mr. John H. Jones, accountant, of Philadelphia, has com- 
 piled some interesting statement, principally from official 
 sources, showing the distribution of anthracite coal in 1881, 
 as follows : 
 
 Competitive — Including tonnage parsing out of Capes of Dela- 
 ware, toNewYork Harbor; to points on Hudson 
 River, Long Island Sound, and Atlantic Coast, 
 North of Port .Judith 12,169,030 
 
 Western — Including tonnage to United States points west of 
 Buffalo and the Detroit River, Erie, Pittsburg, 
 and Baltimore 2,079,134 
 
 Canadian — Including all tonnage by lake and rail to points in 
 
 Dominion of Canada 694,423 
 
 Southern — Estimated tonnage to all points in Delaware, Maryland 
 and the territory bounded by the Ohio and Mis- 
 sissippi River on the north and west and the 
 Gulf of Mexico on the South 800,000 
 
 Pacific Coast — .... 16,000 
 
 Local— Embracing all eoal consumed in Pennsylvania, New 
 
 York, and New Jersey . . 12,742,424 
 
 Total production in 1881 28,500,016 
 
 The shipments to Western United States points were as 
 follows : 
 
 By lake from Buffalo 839,465 
 
 rail " " and the Bridges 616,044 
 
 lake " Erie .... 85,030 
 
 rail " " 166,258 
 
 " " Pittsburg, Baltimore, Salamanca, Dun- 
 kirk, etc 309,191 
 
 From Lake Ontario ports through the Welland Canal . 63,146 — 2,079,1.34 
 
 A review of the Copper Market for the 
 eighteen months ending June 30, 1882. — The 
 
 Encyclopedia Britannica for 1879 gives the maximum pro- 
 duction of metallic copper throughout the world at 130,000 
 tons, and Professor Davies, for the same year, makes the 
 following distribution of the output : 
 
 Japan metallic copper 
 
 Russia " .... 
 
 Spain " .... 
 
 France " 
 
 Austria " ... 
 
 German Empire " . ... 
 
 Norway & Sweden " ... . , 
 
 Cubaand West Indies, about . . . . . 
 
 Chili, about ... . . 
 
 Australia, about . . . . ... 
 
 United States, about 
 
 Leaving for England and all other countries 
 
 Total 
 
 3,000 
 6,600 
 6,000 
 2,000 
 3,000 
 2,000 
 2,000 
 2,500 
 39,000 
 5,000 
 26,000 
 34,000 
 
 130,000 
 
 The following table shows the product (refined copper) of 
 the Lake Superior copper mines for each year since 1854, 
 together with the average value : 
 
THE MINES, MINERS ANP MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 535' 
 
 Tear. 
 
 1864 and previous 
 
 1865 
 
 1856 
 
 1857 
 
 1838 ... 
 
 1859 ... 
 
 1860 . ... 
 1861 
 
 1863 
 1864 
 1865 
 
 I 1866 
 1867 
 1868 
 1869 
 1870 
 1871 
 
 , 1872 
 1873 
 1874 
 1876 
 1876 
 1877 
 
 ; 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 
 Total . . 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 6,992 
 
 1,727 
 
 ■■ 2,904 
 
 1,334 
 
 4,108 
 
 1,392 
 
 4,765 
 
 830 
 
 4,57tf 
 
 1,916 
 
 4,463 
 
 1,995 
 
 6,034 
 
 375 
 
 7,519 
 
 837 
 
 6,793 
 
 328 
 
 6,492 
 
 1.344 
 
 6,245 
 
 1,965 
 
 7,197 
 
 583 
 
 6,878 
 
 63 
 
 8,763 
 
 1,607 
 
 10,467 
 
 124 
 
 13,312 
 
 1,300 
 
 12,311 
 
 849 
 
 12,873 
 
 349 
 
 12.276 
 
 1,523 
 
 16,045 
 
 1,505 
 
 17,166 
 
 1,389 
 
 18,019 
 
 1,497 
 
 19,135 
 
 997 
 
 19,513 
 
 671 
 
 20,845 
 
 1,266 
 
 21,425 
 
 1,529 
 
 24,869 
 
 367 
 
 20,274 
 
 1,708 
 
 328,328 
 
 1,370 
 
 $4,146,400 
 1,686,160 
 2,218,320 
 2,382,500 
 2,129,235 
 2,239,591 
 2,654,960 
 3,487,995 
 3,634,255 
 4,415,600 
 6,870,300 
 5,635,616 
 4,629,376 
 4 442,841 
 4,940,424 
 9,230,016 
 5,096,762 
 5,728,486 
 7,979,400 
 8,726,100 
 8,009,366 
 8,180.626 
 7,998,430 
 7,327,888 
 6,920,540 
 7,327,350 
 9,947,673 
 9,955,321 
 
 $152,671,468 
 
 The yield of the Lake Superior copper mines in 1881 was 
 distributed as follows : 
 
 Name of mine. 
 
 Adventure . . 
 
 Allouez 
 
 Arcadian ... 
 
 Ash Bed 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 Aztec 
 
 Calumet & Hecia . 
 Central ... 
 Cliff .... . . . 
 
 Concord 
 
 Conglomerate . . 
 Copper Falls . . . 
 Evergreen Bluff , 
 Flint Steel River . 
 
 Franklin 
 
 Grand Portage . . 
 Hancock 
 
 3 
 
 736 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 6,264 
 
 4 
 
 15,580 
 
 709 
 
 39 
 
 14 
 
 193 
 
 334 
 
 2 
 
 1,338 
 
 13 
 
 285 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1,600 
 
 1,007 
 
 267 
 
 1,984 
 
 9| 
 784! 
 781] 
 465 
 
 1,382' 
 849 
 91 
 
 1,121 
 968 
 
 1,400 
 
 1,932 
 264 
 
 1,897 
 
 Name of mine. 
 
 Huron 
 
 lisle Royal .... 
 
 {Madison 
 
 Mass 
 
 iMinnesota ... 
 iMinong . . 
 iNonesuch . . . 
 
 Ogima 
 
 Osceola . . 
 
 Pewabic 
 
 Phcenix 
 
 luinoy 
 
 •idee 
 
 iStieldon Columbian . 
 
 Star 
 
 St. Glair 
 
 Total 
 
 127 
 23 
 
 233 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 69 
 
 8 
 
 22,089 
 
 938 
 
 200 
 
 2,753 
 
 117 
 
 6 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 515 
 1,308 
 1,534 
 1,684 
 
 227 
 1,397 
 1,397 
 
 775 
 1,976 
 
 244 
 1,357 
 
 848 
 
 1,606 
 
 31 
 
 758 
 1,493 
 
 37,274 1,708 
 
 The special features of the copper market during the past 
 18 months have been the absence of speculative influences 
 upon prices, the development of mines in Arizona, New 
 Mexico, Colorado, and other portions of the far west to an 
 extent sufficient to affect materially the total output, and 
 the increased consumption, which promises to assume large 
 proportions in the near future, for electrical purposes. The 
 continued troubles between Chili and Peru prevented 
 Europe from obtaining a full supply from that source last 
 year, and in this country the excess of exports over imports 
 amounted to about £7,000,000 against an excess of imports 
 in 1880. The Chilian product was only 38,000 tons against 
 an average of 45,239 tons fot the preceding twenty years, 
 and 54,867 tons for the exceptional year 1869. The domestic 
 product during the past two years has been as foUows, 
 approximate figures being given for 1881 : 
 
 
 1880. 
 
 1881. 
 
 Micliigan . ,' 
 
 Maine 
 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 46,830,262 
 
 83,080 
 
 164 640 
 
 230,717 
 
 1,640,001 
 
 476,608 
 
 2,647,894 
 
 18,087 
 
 5,764,460 
 
 Powids. 
 
 63,000,000 
 100,000 
 100,000 
 100,000 
 1,000,000 
 600,000 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Missouri 
 
 
 
 
 Pennsylvania - ... 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Colorado, Arizona, Idaho and 
 nia and other western terri 
 
 Califor- 
 .ories. 
 
 } 
 
 2,600,000 
 60,000 
 
 12,760,000 
 
 Total 
 
 66,855,640 
 
 71,200,000 
 
 Of the quantity given above, Arizona produced alone last 
 year 8,000,000, and Colorado 1,750,000 pounds. 
 
 The year 1881 opened with a quiet market, which, how- 
 ever, was firm at 19J cts. for Lake Superior. In London 
 Chili Bars were £62 and Best Selected £67. During Janu- 
 ary the price rose to 19^ cts. and the market continued dull 
 at steady quotations until March when the quotation fell to 
 19J. The sales at New York in January were only about 
 750,000 pounds ; in February 500,00fi, and in March 1,000- 
 000 pounds. In April the market became still duller, the 
 sales not exceeding 500,000 pounds at 18J to 18J. The 
 principal Lake Superior companies came to the relief of the 
 situation by large export sales amounting to about 3,000 
 tons, the London market meanwhile having declined to 
 £59 for Chili Bars and £66 for Best Selected. The ap- 
 proach of the season when a fresh supply from the Lake 
 region would be thrown upon the market, accompanied by 
 reports of the wonderful production of the copper mines in 
 the west and south-west prevented purchases for anything 
 more than the amount required to supply immediate wants, 
 and the May sales were again limited to 1,000,000 pounds. 
 Confidence in the richness of the western mines, both in 
 quantity and in high grade ores, and the fact that some 
 large contracts had been made for supplying the metal from 
 that region, led to a quick and decided decline in June. 
 During the latter part of May the quotation in New York 
 for Lake Superior copper was 19 to 18| cts.-; on June 3 it 
 sold at 18}, on June 10 at 18 cts., on June 17 at 17 cents, 
 and a week later at 16J cts. The sales for this month were 
 about 1,200,000 potinds; but early in July a number of 
 manufacturers, including the leading consumers of copper, 
 purchased fully 20,000,000 pounds, deliverable throughout 
 the rest of the year at 16 cts., an extremely low figure. 
 Later in the month some .small sales were made amounting 
 4n the aggregate to 200,000 at 16} to 16^ cts. Meanwhile 
 Chili Bars having fallen in the latter part of June in London 
 to £58, it was shown that the charters on the west coast (of 
 South America) for the year ending June 30 had only 
 35,250 tons against 48,350 tons during the preceding twelve 
 months, and this was followed by a recovery of prices in 
 London to £59 10s. An active market was not to be ex- 
 pected after the heavy transactions above referred to, but 
 prices stiffened somewhat, closing at the end of August at 
 16| with sales for the" month not exceeding 500,000 pounds. 
 
 From this time forward there was a radical change in the 
 condition of the market, prices steadily but persistently 
 advancing upon what under the circumstances was an un- 
 precedented demand from consumers, and on account of 
 rising quotations in London. The transactions in Sep- 
 tember reached 1,500,000 pounds, and the price 18| cts. 
 The supply in first hands had been well taken up, and there 
 was therefore no urgency on the part of producers to sell ; 
 as a result the market remained steady until the latter part 
 of November, with only slight fluctuations from the quota- 
 tions last given. The October sales were 1,000,000 pounds. 
 But the total sales during the first nine months of the year 
 included 6,685,788 pounds for export against only 312,371 
 pounds during the corresponding period of the preceding 
 year, and in November a speculative movement in London 
 carried Chili Bars to £66 10s., the quotation being £63 10s. 
 in October. In the New York market the price advanced 
 to 19i with sales for the month of 1,200,000, and during 
 December further decided advances were made on sales of 
 about 1,000,000 pounds on the spot and 4,500,000 to be de- 
 livered in January and February. The closing quotation 
 was 21 cts., at which considerable business was done, and 
 wMch is the highest price at which the metal has sold in 
 the past eighteen months. Meanwhile the London market 
 advanced to £70 10s. for Chili Bars and £76 for Best Se- 
 lected. The predicted production of the territory west of 
 the Mississippi river for 1882 of twenty to twenty-five mil- 
 lions jjounds was offset by the wonderful increase in con- 
 sumption which promised to continue. 
 
 Notwithstanding the very bad management of some of the 
 leading gold and silver mining properties introducecTwithin 
 the past three years to eastern capitalists, and the unwise 
 investments in other cases, eastern men have not been dis- 
 couraged easily, the best evidence of which is to be found in 
 the avidity with which they still seize upon any mining en- 
 terprise that can show a fair prospect of making returns for 
 the investment asked. The promoters of some of the copper 
 mining companies have met with fiattering success in 
 
536 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 placing their properties on the New York and other eastern 
 markets during the past year or two. Probably never before 
 in the history of the country has the copper market at- 
 tracted as much attention as during the past six months. 
 The new elements that have begun to affect the market are 
 also of such an uncertain quantity that experienced dealers 
 are much at sea as to the future. While the domestic cpn- 
 sumption last year was about 64,000,000 pounds, it was 
 estimated until recently that the American product for 1882 
 would not fall much, if any, short of 90,000,000 pounds, and 
 it would require a heavy increase in the amount of the home 
 consumption as well as a heavy falling off of Chilian ship- 
 ments to England and other parts of Europe, to take care 
 of this excess of products ; otherwise a break in prices was 
 inevitable. During the month of June the price declined, 
 it is true, from 21 cts., at which it closed last year, to 20 cts., 
 and this on light sales. At the same time Chili Bars had 
 fallen in London to £66 10s. and Best Selected to £73 10s. 
 With a dull market and lighter sales this decline con- 
 tinued slowly until April when the quotation for spot cop- 
 per was 17t to 18 cts., and about the middle of the month 
 fully 6,000,000 pounds were sold to brass manufacturers, to 
 be delivered during the next four months at 18 cts. The 
 London quotation for Chili Bars was then £65, and for Best 
 Selected £70 10s. In May spot copper was a shade firmer, 
 prices ranging between 18 and 18| cts. ; during the latter 
 part of the month over 1,200 tons were sold for export, prin- ; 
 cipally on French account, at 16 cts. It. became apparent 
 about this time, however, that both the United States and 
 Chilian supplies would fall considerably short of the early 
 estimates. The panic in some of the mining districts of 
 Arizona, from which region amuchlargersupply than for 1881 
 was expected, owing to the Indian depredations, has caused' 
 some of the miners to desert the camps. The English pro- 
 duction from domestic ores declined from 14,823 tons in 
 1862 to 3,500 tons in 1881. 
 
 The falling off in Chili and England within the last few 
 years has been compensated for in part by the Rio Tinto 
 mines in Spain, which Bremen and London capitalists pur- 
 chased some six years ago when the Spanish Government 
 was in financial distress. Since then, French capitalists 
 have likewise become interested there, and Rio Tinto has 
 become a great producer by turning out something like 
 10,000 tons of metallic copper per annum. Besides the Rio 
 Tinto mines, there is the Tharsis Copper Co., of Spain. 
 Australia and the Cape, as well as Japan and minor pro- 
 ducers, contribute about the same amount as for years past. 
 These have not been suflBcient, however, to compensate for 
 the decline in the Chilian and English products and the 
 increased consumption abroad, so that the foreign demand 
 for our copper may be expected to continue and the in- 
 creased consumption in America is enormous. According 
 to the English Board of Trade returns the total imports and 
 exports into and from that country for the first five months 
 of the following years were : 
 
 Imports. 
 
 
 1880. 
 
 1881. 
 
 1882. 
 
 Copper in ores 
 
 Copper regulua and precipitate . 
 
 Bars, cake and ingots 
 
 In pyritea, estimated 
 
 Tons. 
 
 6,150 
 11,222 
 16,609 
 
 7,682 
 
 Ton). 
 
 3,953 
 11,658 
 10,992 
 
 6,803 
 
 Ton>. 
 
 4,201 
 11,017 
 14,034 
 
 6,938 
 
 Total ... 
 
 40,669 
 
 32,334 
 
 36,193 
 
 
 Kxports. 
 
 
 
 
 English copper— wrought and unvvrought 
 
 Foreign copper— unwrought 
 
 Yellow metal .... 
 
 11,895 
 6,606 
 6,158 
 
 13,28': 
 4,575 
 6,170 
 
 10,788 
 4,813 
 7,644 
 
 Total .... 
 
 24,069 
 
 24,032 
 
 23,245 
 
 According to advices from Valparaiso, the comparative 
 exports of fine Copper from Chili and Bolivia to all parts of 
 the world during the first three mouths of the following 
 years were : 
 
 1882, 
 10,764 
 
 1881. 
 8,200 
 
 1880. 
 11,898 
 
 1879. 
 12,422 
 
 1S78. 
 11,909 
 
 1877. 
 12,699 
 
 The increase this year will be noticed. The old Cobre 
 
 Mining Co., of Santiago de Cuba, previous to the Cuban 
 rebellion a most productive English Copper mining enter- 
 prise on the East Coast of Cuba, has been taken in hand 
 again by its owners. 
 
 The market was dull throughout the month of June, but 
 prices at New York were firm at 18]^ @, 18 @ 18J. In 
 London at the close of the month. Chili Bars were quoted at 
 £67 5s. and Best Selected nominally at £74 10s. 
 
 The following table shows the value of ingot Co;pper at 
 New York in currency (cents per pound) for the years in- 
 dicated : 
 
 January . . 
 February . 
 March . . . 
 April . . 
 May . . . 
 June . . . . 
 July . . 
 Auga-'t . . 
 September 
 October . . 
 November . 
 December . 
 
 1874. 
 
 1875. 
 
 1876. 
 
 1877. 
 
 1878. 
 
 26 
 
 23M' 
 
 ■ 23 
 
 ■ 193< 
 
 11(1 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 ii 
 
 19 
 
 24J^ 
 25 
 
 21W 
 ■221I 
 
 I9S 
 I9V 
 
 1?H 
 
 26 
 
 23 
 23 ■ 
 
 S 
 ,25^ 
 
 .2.0 ^ 
 ' 20§ 
 
 IQl/f 
 
 21 
 2lt< 
 
 19U 
 
 18 
 18 
 
 16l^ 
 
 23k 
 23i| 
 
 21 
 
 ■20^ 
 
 20 
 
 " * 
 
 I7g 
 
 16 
 
 1879. 
 
 IdM 
 I5II 
 16i 
 16 
 
 lev 
 
 21 
 211. 
 
 2H 
 
 And the following table gives the lowest and highest 
 prices for Lake Superior copper at New York, in cents per 
 pound for the period mentioned : 
 
 January. . 
 
 February . 
 March . . 
 April . . . , 
 May. . . . 
 June . . 
 July. . . . 
 August . . 
 September . 
 October . , 
 November . 
 December . 
 
 1880. 
 
 21 @ 25 
 
 '24 @ 24^ 
 
 ,21 @ 2214 
 
 ■n% @ 20J? 
 
 18 @ 18%' 
 
 1881. 
 
 19 @ 19.u!l9?i @ 201^ 
 195^ @ lak 19 @ 20 
 
 18}^ @ 18|J;ilV 
 
 19 @ 19.; 
 18V< @ 19. 
 18l| @ 19 
 
 I65S 
 
 Wli 
 
 19 @ 19}^ 
 17% @ 19 
 18 @ 181^ 
 18 @ 18j| 
 
 . _ %,!» @ 18U 
 
 im @ isjgiisK @ 19k 
 
 18% @ 19 19f| @ 21 
 
 REVIEW OF THE TIN MARKET FOR THE 
 EIGHTEEN MONTHS ENDING JUNE 1882. 
 
 DURING the past year there has been a very active 
 speculation in the London tin market, a fact which 
 has attracted all the more attention because it did 
 not belong to a class of merchandise which 
 one would expect to be selected for speculative purposes. 
 For this very reason, however (that it had become a specu- 
 lative commodity abroad) it has attracted less than the usual 
 amount of attention in this country. The year 1881 opened 
 at New York with a visible supply of 5,000 tons at 19 cents 
 for Straits. In.London the pnce stood at £93. The pro- 
 duct of the world has increased 75 per cent, during the pa.>t 
 eight years, this enormous increase being due principally to 
 the steadily increasing output in Australia proper and Tas- 
 mania. In 1872 the Australian product began with 150 
 tons, but it rose at once in 1873 to 2,990 tons ; in 1874 it was 
 5,800 tons ; in 1878, 9,500 tons ; in 1879, 8,458 tons ; in 
 1880, 9,149 tons and in 1881, 10,084 tons. The increase in 
 the Australian output has come principaliv from the island 
 of Tasmania or Van Dieman's Land, whicli lies to the south 
 of Australia and forms one of its colonies, and which has 
 developed its tin mines with great energy and corresponding 
 success ; it is, in iact, becoming almost as important as the 
 main land. A very large increase in consumption in this 
 country saved the market from a heavy decline, on account 
 of the steady increase in the world's product, until it was 
 taken in hand by the speculators. The import^ of tin into 
 the United States in 1880 amounted to 13,346 tons, worth 
 $6,120,316 against 10,186 tons in 1879, worth $3,605,614. 
 From the Straits alone the shipments to the United States 
 
WESTERN SCENERY-A MIDSUMMERDAY'S DREAM-JURASSIC-ON THE COLOB. 
 
 GRAND CANON DISTRICT, 
 
 SEE PART X. 
 
 -FROM U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY REPORT. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 537 
 
 were 8,650 tons in 1880; 7,800 tons in 1879: 4,140 tons in 
 1878, and 4,204 tons in 1877. During the early part of the 
 year the shipments from the Straits were light to the United 
 States and correspondingly heavy to England and Holland ; 
 consequently the price rose here to 20 @ 20J^ cents, and 
 declined in - London to £88. By the close of April the 
 visible supply here was reduced to 1,400 tons, while the 
 price was steady throughout March and April at 20 and 
 20J cents. In London on May 1, 1881, Straits tin was worth 
 £87 10s. against £82 for the corresponding period of the pre- 
 ceding year, £68 10s. on May 1, 1879, and £61 in 1878. An 
 unexpected dullness and corresponding weakness . "was 
 developed in May, and iii some instances resales were made 
 here by discouraged holders, thus forcing prices still lower. 
 The quotation went as low as 19| cents and in London, 
 £86 10s. The result was a speculative movement begun in 
 June, which has not yet culminated, although, the highest 
 prices were reached some time ago. The visible supply was 
 increased by July • 1, in New York to 3,480 tons, and the 
 price had advanced to 20|, and in London to £89 lOs. In 
 July little was done, but in August, owing to the light ship- 
 ments to the United States for the first six months of the 
 year, the price rose to 21} cents; in London it also advanced 
 to £92. The speculative movement showed more strength 
 in London during September, and the price was pushed up 
 to £96; there was also a gain hereof ^ cent to 21 J cents. 
 By November 1, the visible supply here again reached 6,000 
 tons, and it became necessary in the interest of speculators 
 to send a portion of this supply to Europe. At the same 
 time the price was advanced in London and Holland by the 
 purchase of some large lots, bought to be held from the 
 market for a time. The speculation was a complete success, 
 so far as obtaining control of the market and running up 
 prices were concerned, notwithstanding it was carried on at a 
 time of the yeiar that the heaviest shipments are made from 
 Australia. In November Straits tin advanced in New York 
 to 2^ cents, and in London, after some fluctuations, to £107 
 10s. There was a virtual cessation of shipments irom the 
 Straits this way in November and December, by whicLthrough 
 a concerted movement between London and New York, an 
 artificial famine was created, thus giving to the speculation 
 its strongest support. Prices advanced here during Dec 
 to 24J cents and in. London to £108 10s. @ £110 lOs. for 
 spot and futures. 
 
 The following table shows the product of the world for 
 several years past : 
 
 
 1881. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1878. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 2bM. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tom: 
 
 England 
 
 ■ 8,620 
 
 8,907 
 
 9,600 
 
 10,106 
 
 Banca . . . - . ; .■ . 
 
 ■ 4i385 
 
 3,638 
 
 4,263 
 
 3,9«0 
 
 Billiton ... 
 
 4,000 
 
 4^000 
 
 3j259 
 
 3^17 
 
 Straits .... 
 
 11,324 
 
 ■11,000 
 
 11,369 
 
 8,350 
 
 Australia 
 
 10j084 
 
 9,149 
 
 8,458 
 
 •sisu 
 
 Bolivia . . . ; . 
 
 ■ 300 
 
 - 200 
 
 300 
 
 • -250 
 
 
 38,123 
 
 ■ 36,994 
 
 37.539 
 
 ■35,597 
 
 , , Consumption last year is estimated, to have been 32,000 
 tons in Europe and 9,000 tons in this country. The total 
 visible supply in Europe and America on January 1, 1882, 
 was 18,736 tons, against 20,938 tons at the beginning of 
 the preceding year and 23,500 tons on January 1, 1880. 
 In Europe one of tlie greatest "items of consumption is the 
 manufacture of tin plates, and' the strongest argument in 
 favor of higher prices is the increase of Welsh tin plate 
 exports Jrpm 118,800 tons in 1872-to 242^400 tons in 1881. 
 The world's consumption of tin plate is dependent, however, 
 to a considerable extent upon the cheapness of the article, 
 and the. unnatural advance in tin that has taken place 
 during the past year must have a very decided efiect. upon 
 the demand. , , , 
 
 There was no halt in prices in January of the current year 
 when sales were made as high as 25J cents here for spot, 
 with no transactions in futures at the highest figures, while 
 in London the price rose to £114 5s. for spot and £115 15s. 
 for future delivery, an extensive business being done in the 
 latter place ; the market was, however, feverish and wide 
 fluctuations were frequent. Quotations remained steady 
 here at 25 @ 25 J cents until the latter part of February, 
 
 when, in sympathy with the London market where most of 
 the speculative trading was done, the price declined about J 
 cent, and continued dull at this decline throughout the 
 greater part of March. As compared with former years the 
 price of Straits tin at the beginning of March was as follows 
 in this market: 1882, 25@ 25J cents; 1881, 19J cents; 1880, 
 22} ; 1879, 16J, and 1878, 14|. After a dull market these 
 figures were succeeded by a heavy decline about the middle 
 of April. In a single day, April 14, London prices fell from 
 £106 to £96, and by April 19 the quotations were down to 
 £91 and back to £94. Several failures occurred and the 
 market became very unsettled. There was very little busi- 
 ness done here, and quotations could be considered only 
 nominal at about 22J @ 23 cents. By the middle of May, 
 with a dull market, prices were down, to 22 @ 22} cents, and 
 on June 1, to 21 J^ @, 21| cents. A little better feeling has 
 prevailed here during the latter part of June and, partly 
 owing to the threatened closing of the Suez Canal, a decided 
 improvement in prices has taken place, sales being made as 
 high as 22J cents, but the general dullness in all kinds of 
 metals has prevented a realization of the full effect of the 
 Eastern troubles. The imports of tin into the United States 
 for the ten months ending April 30, were 7,879 tons against 
 7,304 tons for the corresponding period last year. 
 
 The following table indicates the prices in New York for 
 the period indicated : 
 
 Stralto Tin. 
 
 Sept. 78 . 
 Oct. '78 . 
 
 Nov. 
 Deo. 
 Jan. 
 Feb. 
 Mar. 
 
 '78 
 
 '78. . 
 '79. . 
 '79. 
 '79 
 
 April, '79 . 
 
 May, '79 . . 
 
 June, 79 . 
 
 July, '79 . . 
 
 Aug. '79 . . 
 
 Sept. '79 . . 
 
 Oct. '79 
 
 Nov. 
 Dee. 
 Jan. 
 Feb. 
 Mar. 
 
 '79. . 
 '79. 
 
 April, '80 
 
 '80. . 
 '80. . . 
 
 24}^C 
 
 For the past six months the prices have been as follows: 
 
 Jan. '82 . 
 Feb. !82. 
 March, '82 . 
 
 . mi ® 2SJ^| April, 
 . 241 @ 25k May, 
 . 24^ @ 26>||Jaue. 
 
 '82 21 W @ 2«i 
 
 '82 21 V| @ 22V4 
 
 '82 21}^ @ 21% 
 
 Prices of Banca tin in Holland since 1873, in guilders, 
 per 50 kegs, have been as follows : 
 
 January 1 . 
 
 February 1 . 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 September 1 
 
 October 1 . . 
 
 November 1 . . 
 
 X>ecember 1 . 
 
 1 . . 
 1 . . 
 1 . . 
 1 . 
 1 . 
 I. 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 62 
 
 53 
 
 57 
 
 58K 
 
 60 
 
 87 
 
 56M 
 58 
 SSYa 
 
 67'4 
 66J4 
 54 , 
 
 soM 
 
 50 , 
 
 1878. 
 
 SS'A 
 
 It 
 
 
 43 
 
 62'/^ 
 
 40W 
 391? 
 
 50!i 
 431^ 
 
 39 
 
 49 
 
 ^U 
 
 5S 
 
 64>^ 
 
 45 
 
 62 
 
 57 
 
 64Vi! 
 
 66 
 
 56 1^ 
 
 1881. 
 
 53 
 
 53W 
 
 52j| 
 
 62 
 
 64H 
 
 65 
 
 6514 
 
 88H 
 
 64 
 
 i The following tables will be found interesting as illustra- 
 ting the enormous increase in the consumption of tin plate 
 in this country for several years past. The Board of Trade 
 returns of the United Kingdom show the following general 
 export of the article : 
 
 Yean.' 
 
 1867 . 
 
 1868 . 
 
 1869 . 
 
 1870 . 
 
 1871 . 
 
 Tans. 
 
 79,000 
 
 88,400 
 
 . 96,700 
 
 . 99,900 
 
 . 119,600 
 
 483,600 
 
 Yearn. Tone. 
 
 1872 118,900 
 
 1873 120,600 
 
 1874 123,000 
 
 1875 138,000 
 
 1876 132,400 
 
 632,500 
 
 Tears. Tons. 
 
 1877 . ... 163,100 
 
 1878 1.56,100 
 
 1879 197,800 
 
 1880 217,700 
 
 1881 242,400 
 
 966,100 
 
 There was, as is here shown, an increase of 31 per cent, 
 from 1871 to 1876 in the exports from the producing country, 
 and of 52 per cent, from 1876 to 1881. The imports into 
 
^538 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 this country have increased even more rapidly, as indicated 
 by the following figures : 
 
 Net Import of Tin In the United States. 
 
 CaUndar Year. 
 
 1S76 
 1S77 . . 
 1878 
 1879 
 
 1880 . . 
 
 1881 . . 
 
 1882 . . 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Value. 
 
 89,617 
 111,907 
 1(17,055 
 154,054 
 157,554 
 182,617 
 
 65,997 
 
 89,376,956 
 10,624,575 
 
 9,001,464 
 13,208,980 
 16,428,558 
 14,838,246 
 
 6,138,651 
 
 The importations have thus doubled within the past five 
 years. But notwithstanding this great increase in the 
 American consumption, the price of coke tin has fallen to 
 about one-half of what it was before the panic as shown by 
 the following table giving the price of coke tin in Liverpool 
 on January 1, 1873—1882 inclusive : 
 
 This decline was due on the one hand to cheaper raw 
 material, and on the other to the fact that the output was all 
 along in excess of the demand, notwithstanding the rapid 
 increasp. of consumption. 
 
 REVIEW OF THE LEAD MARKET FOR THE 
 
 EIGHTEEN MONTHS ENDING, JUNE 30, 
 
 1882. 
 
 THE production of lead during 1881 was remarkably 
 heavy, the total output amounting fully to 440,000 
 tons, of which the United States contributed 111,000 
 tons and of which fully two-thirds were desilverized 
 metal. Some of the western cities have very rapidly be- 
 come prominent as lead markets, at the head of which 
 stand St. Louis and Chicago. A number of desilveriz- 
 ing works were erected during the year at various points, 
 and there is a growing tendency to arrest the flow of bullion 
 from the Rocky Mountains to the east, not only to supply 
 the local demand, but also to compete with eastern refiners. 
 The market opened in New York quiet and weak, early in 
 January, Common Domestic selling at $4. 30. This very 
 low price, however, attracted the attention of manufacturers, 
 and some good sales were made before the month closed at 
 $4. 75 @ $5.00. There were also 700 tons refined disposed 
 of at $5. 25. From San Francisco there had been shipped 
 by sea in 1880 altogether 9276 tons, of which 9190 came to 
 New York ; the previous year the total shipments had been 
 6113 tons, of which 6182 were for New York. The import 
 of lead into England had been 96,000 tons in 1880, against 
 102,100 in 1879, and 100,233 in 1878, while there had been 
 exported 33,000 tons, against 37,007 and 34,385. England's 
 production from native mines was 60,000 in 1880, against 
 61,635 in 1879 ; 58,020 in 1878 ; 61,403 in 1877, and 58,667 
 in 1876. In 1871 it had been 69,037 tons. The import of 
 Pig Lead into the United States in 1880 was 2884 tons, 
 against 1633 in 1879. The export of Pig Lead from Spain 
 in 1880 was 92,400 tons, against 100,336 tons the previous 
 year. 
 
 In February prices were barely steady, but by March the 
 long winter began to tell upon the spring trade and before 
 the month closed quotations had drooped to $4.62J. The 
 succeeding month gave no better assurances of an increased 
 demand from consumers, although the reported sales 
 amounted to about 4,000 tons for spot and futures, while the 
 price declined further to $4. 50. The decline was assisted 
 by some leading operators, who sought to break the market 
 in order to buy up stock at low figures. At St. Louis the 
 price fell to $4. 12J. There was an earnest effort made by 
 large holders in May to rally prr'ces, which were pushed up 
 to $4. 62i, only to react again, however, in the absence of 
 a consumptive demand, and the market closed flat at $4. 25. 
 
 Owing to some heavy purchases by Russia (20,000 tons) a 
 better feeling was created in London, and common English 
 pig advanced to £14 lOs. @ £14 15s. Nevertheless reports 
 of a large yield in the west held the American market down, 
 St. Louis declining as low as $4. 05. The New York market 
 was quiet. June was, however, more active and sales of 4,000 
 tons were made at $4. 25 @, $4. 37J. In July the quotation 
 touched $5.00 in New York and $4. 30 in St. Louis, the 
 building demand for lead during that month and August 
 being very active, and there was also a brisk movement in 
 shot. Estimates were published during the summer showing 
 that the probable consumption in the United States for the 
 year would not fall much short of 120,000 tons. The visible 
 supply was rather light, the price rose to $5. 37J, and a few 
 imports were made from Europe. But notwithstanding the 
 available supply of lead continued light, the price fell in 
 O.ctober to $5.00, large consumers depending on the supply 
 on hand and the arrival of some shipments from California. 
 The mild weather of November and December favored con- 
 sumption which proved equal to the earlier prognostications, 
 and the supply consequently remained light, out the pur- 
 chases were not heavy. In November the range of prices 
 was $4. 87J @ 15. 25, while during the last month common 
 became so scarce that it was dearer than refined, selling at 
 $5.00 @ $5. 25, with a few transactions as high as $5. 37^. 
 
 The winter of 1881-2 continued remarkably mild, and 
 there was therefore little check to consumption, which gave 
 unusual strength to prices at that season of the year. From 
 January 1 to March 4 quotations did not fall below J5.05, 
 and they ranged between those figures and $5.25. The 
 market was extremely dull during March, and sales were 
 made as low as $4.90, and at $4.85 just at the close of the 
 month. This weather continued, and common lead has 
 since sold as low as $4.60, but most of the transactions have 
 been at $4.85 to $5.00, except during the latter part of May 
 and early in June, when it touched the low price here 
 quoted. The further decline that was then threatened was 
 checked by the burning of the Grant Smelting Works at 
 Leadville, which was not as disastrous to the trade as was 
 at first imagined, but was sufficient to arrest the decline. 
 The market in the meantime has been dull, sales being con- 
 fined principally to jobbbers. 
 
 The average price of common domestic lead at New York, 
 in cents per pound for the periods indicated, has been as 
 follows : 
 
 January . 
 February 
 March . . 
 April . . 
 May .... 
 June . 
 July . . 
 August . . , 
 September. 
 October . 
 November . 
 December . 
 
 1877. 
 
 1878. 
 
 4i 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3% 
 
 4 
 
 r» 
 
 s% 
 
 5?l 
 
 1880. 
 
 6% 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 6k 
 
 The quotations for the first six months of the current year 
 are as follows : 
 
 January . . . . 86.05 @ 85.26 April . 
 
 February b.M]^ ® 6,20 May . 
 
 Marcli .... 4.86 @ 6 16 June . 
 
 . 84.85 SI 85.121^ 
 4.60 @ 4.90 
 4.60 ® 4.86 
 
 REVIEW OF THE SPELTER MARKET FOR 
 
 THE EIGHTEEN MONTHS ENDING JUNE 
 
 30, 1882. 
 
 THE year opened with a fair demand for spelter in 
 this country and an effort in Europe to force 
 prices higher ; the result was that Common Dor 
 mestic advanced in New York during January from 
 5 cts. to 5J cents., while Silesian was steady at 5J cts. The 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 539 
 
 expected demand from India did not come, however, to 
 the relief of the London market, and prices began to droop 
 in February both here a:ud abroad, accompanied by light 
 orders. No relief whatever came until in April, when 
 news was received from the West that production had di- 
 minished there somewhat, and a little better feeling pre- 
 vailed for a short time. But this was succeeded by extreme 
 dullness both here and in Europe, and by the end of May 
 the price had declined to 41 to 5 cts. Production in Ger- 
 many was shown to have been 100,000 tons in 1880 against 
 97,000 tons in 1879. The imports of Calamine from Spain 
 into England had been 32,491 tons in 1880 against 27,631 
 tons in 1879. The condition of the English market is 
 easily shown by the statement that the London quotation 
 on May 1, 1881, was £15 7s. 6d. against £19 15s. at the cor- 
 responding period of the preceding year ; £14 15s. on May 
 1, 1879; £18 on May 1, 1878; £20 6s. May 1, 1877, and 
 £24 on May 1, 1876. It finally became apparent by July 
 that the use of galvanized goods was greater than had been 
 generally estimated, and a somewhat better feeling followed 
 on both sides of the Atlantic, while the subject of tbrming a 
 syndicate to control the market was again revived. The 
 price rose here to 5 to 5i cts., but with this advance dullness 
 again ensued. Thereafter the market continued barely 
 steady at 5J to 51^ cts. for Domestic and 5f to SJ cts. for Sile- 
 sian, until October, when a decided improvement set in 
 caused by the increased demand -for galvanized goods and 
 by greater activity in the rolled metal. A good demand 
 came from consumers who laid in their supplies without the 
 aid of the proposed syndicate. The European stock was 
 low, and with the approach of winter only a light supply was 
 to be expected from the Silesian mountains ; the result was 
 a better feeling in the European market as well as in 
 American. Meanwhile the price advanced in New York to 
 5| cents. During November there was a ftirther advance to 
 6| cents., and the volume of business was restricted only by 
 the supply. London also gained £1 to £17 12s. 6d. Sheet 
 zinc had gradually risen during the year from 7 cts. to 8 cts. 
 In December the market was steady at 5 J to 6 cts. for Common 
 Domestic and Silesian, while Sheet zinc sold at one time as 
 high as 8 J cts., but declined again to 8 to 8 J cts., on receipt 
 of a supply from Europe. The London quotation for Spelter 
 advanced to £18 10s. 
 
 . England's production of Zinc Ore in 1881 was 27,548 
 tQnS;, from which 7,162 tons of metallic Zinc were made. 
 Besides this, 43,177 tons of ore were imported, Italy sending 
 11,028 tons ; Greece, 11,485, and Algeria, 17,578 tons, the 
 remainder probably coming from the North of Spain. The 
 import of crude Spelter was 33,301 tons, 13,480 coming from 
 Germany, 7,993 tons from Holland in transit, and 9,402 tons, 
 from Belgium. There were also 16,677 tons of manufactures 
 received, Germany contributing 3,797 tons ; Holland, in 
 transit, 6,675, and Belgium, 5,907 tons. The export of 
 Spelter and manufactures was 12,237 tons, of which British 
 India took 7,640 tons. Estimating the yield of slab metal 
 from foreign imported ore at the same figure as the do- 
 mestic British, there was a production of 11,225 tons of 
 metallic Zinc, and adding the im'port of Spelter and its 
 manufactures, the total quantity obtained from abroad was 
 92,203 "tons, of which 12,237 tons were re-exported. The 
 exports of Calamine from Spain have been as follows : 
 
 1880. 
 
 Tons. Vahie in franca. 
 
 32,491 1786,995 
 
 1879. 
 
 1878. 
 
 Ttnw. Value in francB.'.Tom, Value m francs. 
 
 27,613 1,507,781 '33,532 2,011,954 
 
 The Silesian output of metallic zinc has increased; of late 
 years at the rate of about tien per cent, per annum, or 
 10,000 tons a year. But the large exports of Sheet zinc from 
 Silesia to Russia have greatly fallen ofif of late, caused by an 
 increase in the tariff imposed by the latter country for the 
 purpose of protecting the Polish production. Poland now 
 produces between 4,000 and 6,000 tons of Spelter, but under 
 protection this amount may be doubled. The total imports 
 by the United States in 1881 were only 3,643 tons, as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 In blocks . 
 In sheets . 
 
 Total 
 
 Lesa re-export — 
 Sheets . ... 
 
 Net import . 
 
 Equal to tons 
 
 Lhs. 
 2,511,203 
 2,676,790 
 
 1880. 
 
 Lbt. 
 6,160,653 
 4,288,028 
 
 3,187,993 
 27,611 
 
 8,160,382 
 
 3,64$ 
 
 10,448,681 
 74,598 
 
 10,374,083 
 
 During the past six months much more attention has 
 been given to the Spelter market than in 1881. At the en- 
 hanced price Domestic Spelter has shown great steadiness. 
 It would not unlikely have advanced beyond six cents but 
 for the heavy importation of Silesian, of which some 3,500 
 tons arrived during the first quarter of the year. The price 
 of Domestic Spelter remained tolerably steady under these 
 heavy arrivals, whereas some brands of Silesian are said to 
 have sold in February as low as 5} cts. on the dock. The 
 firmness of the domestic product in the face of these unex- 
 pectedly large imports was due, on the one hand, to the 
 reduced output at the West, in consequence of the failure 
 and stoppage of works, and on the other, to increased con- 
 sumption in this country since September last year. The 
 increase noticed was not only in brass manufacture and for 
 rolling purposes, but especially for galvanizing, notably 
 fence wire. It is estimated that the present annual output 
 in the United States does not exceed 18,000 tons, while the 
 consumption' this year may not fall much if any short of 
 30,000 tons. This would require an importation of 12,000 
 tons assuming that the stock to be carried into next year is 
 to be as great as that carried over from 1881 — 2,000 tons. 
 
 The market continued .strong throughout the first quarter 
 of the year at 5? to 6 cts. against 5 cte. @ 5| @ 5J cts. for 
 the corresponding period in 1881 ; but for the past three 
 months dullness accompanied by lower prices has beeii the 
 prominent feature of the market, and there is still no im- 
 provement. The quotations for both Domestic and Silesian 
 are 5f to 5J cts, and in London, £16 15s. to £17. This is 
 the condition of affairs at the end of the first six months of 
 the year, notwithstanding a syndicate was formed in Europe 
 on April 19, representing two-thirds of the European output, 
 for the purpose of controlling the market. 
 
 The following table exhibits the lowest and highest prices 
 in cents per pound of Common Spelter at New York for the 
 periods in4icated : 
 
 ^% @ 4M|6 @ 6l|[^ @ 4% 
 
 The daily output of the different furnaces in Kansas and 
 Missouri when m active operation, is given as follows : 
 
 Pittsburgh, Kan., 10 furnaces . 
 "Wier City, Kan., 8 furnaces . 
 Joplin, Mo., 4 furnaces .... 
 Rich Hill, Mo., 1 Siemens gas . 
 Rich Hill, Mo., 1 Siemens gas . . 
 
 At Carondelet : 
 Missouri Zinc Co., 14 furnaces . . 
 Glendale Zinc Co., 8 furnaces . . 
 Carondelet Zinc Co., 4 furnaces . 
 
 22,500 
 
 18,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 8,500 
 
 8,500 
 
 24,000 
 18,000 
 6,500 
 
 ■ 48,500 
 
 ■ Total daily in Kansas and Missouri 115,500 
 
 Oollinsville, 111., 3 furnaces ...•■•. . . . . . . . 5,500 
 
 Total 120,500 
 
 This makes a total output of 60 tons per day or 22,000, 
 tons per annum. There are also works at Lasalle and Peru, 
 in Illinois, which are capable, it is stated, of producing 50 
 tons per day, but the zinc at the two places last mentioned, 
 is generally rolled into sheets. 
 
540 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OP THE UNITED STATES 
 
 REVIEW OF THE QUICKSILVER MARKET 
 FOR THE EIGHTEEN MONTHS END- 
 ING JUNE 30, 1882. 
 
 THE Ibtalproduction of quicksilver in California in 
 1881 was 60,851 flasks against 59,453 flasks during 
 the preceding year. Tlie exports by sea in 1881 
 were 35,269 .flasks, valued, at $1,027,508, of whicli 
 about 17,000 went to China and 15,141 flasks to Mexico. 
 In its. review of the quicksilver market the San Fran- 
 cisco T^urld says : " The production during 1881 has not 
 materially valried, compared with former years, neither in 
 California nor in Europe, say about 60,000 flasks here and 
 50,000 in Europe. Stocks here are moderate, it being the 
 policy of our producers genera,]ly to meet thedeinand under 
 reasonable restrictions. Probably our whole available stock is 
 about 5000 flasks, while in London it wias 84,000 on the 28d 
 of last November, according to the statement Of the agents 
 of the Almaden Mine (Spain), the Rothschilds,they holding 
 13,000 bottles and speculators 71,000 bottles. It is safe to 
 say that this large quantity has all accumulated during the 
 past six or seven years, aiid 10,000 to 20,000 flasks are riow 
 being added yearly, which will give in London by the close of 
 the present year 100,000 flasks or over. Prices during the year 
 were tolerably steady at 37 cts. to 38 cts., except on or about 
 the 26th of September, when advices came from London of 
 a sharp advance there from £6 5s. to £6 lOs. per bottle, and 
 a few days later to £6 17s. 6d. to £7. The price here was 
 advanced and carried as high as 42 cts. per pound, at 
 which sales were reported. It is, however, to be noted that 
 considerable quantities were taken by speculators, they pay- 
 ing from 37 cts. to 39 cts. per pound. Subsequently the 
 price declined in London, and when the semi-official state- 
 inent was made of stocks there on the 23d of Noveniber, the 
 inarket fairly collapsed and £6 5s. to £6 2s. 6d. per flask was 
 the asking price, less 3 per cent. Hence the price dropped 
 to the old figures. With an average production, both nere 
 and in Europe, it is difficult to see how prices can be per- 
 manently advanced, unless new uses can be found for the 
 article or valuable bodies of silver-hearing ore be discov- 
 ered involving large consumption. As with silver product, 
 doubtless China would take all offered at the same price, 
 but as purchasers for that country, both in silver and mer- 
 cury, are largely made as a means of investing surplus 
 wealth — another term for speculation — no permanent relief 
 would follow in the matter of stocks of this article, and 
 any advance in prices would be, at the bett, only spasmodic. 
 The producer here can hardly be expected, after^elHng at 
 moderate figures, to hold his stock out of the market and 
 aid the London speculators to work off" their large stock 
 at high figures. All indications point to steadiness in price 
 and moderate figures^" 
 
 The following table shows the production of the difierent 
 mines of California in 1881, and also the highest *iid low- 
 est prices for the year. The compilation was made by Mr. 
 J. B. Kandol, manager of the New Almaden Mines/ which, 
 it will be observed, lead all th,e rest: 
 
 The product of the first six months of the curreiTt year 
 has been much below the corresponding period of last 
 year, as is shown by the following table, also from the 
 same source: 
 
 New Almaden . . , 
 Napn Gon.461idated 
 Great WeBtern ; ! , 
 Sulpliur Bank . : . 
 
 New Idria 
 
 Guadaloupe . . . 
 Beddington ... 
 Cireat Eastern . . . 
 Various . . . . , 
 
 1881. 
 
 . 1.882. 
 
 Flasks. 
 
 Flasks. 
 
 12,845 
 
 12,608 
 
 2,914 
 
 ' 3,076 
 
 3,179 
 
 2,711 
 
 *,962 
 
 2,683 
 
 1,266 
 
 - 977 
 
 3,447 
 
 732 
 
 1,224 
 
 909 
 
 , 606 
 
 621- 
 
 163 
 
 111 
 
 31,206 
 
 24,128 
 
 DiffereiJCP: 
 Flasks. 
 
 Decrease. 
 Inctfease. 
 Decrease. 
 
 Increase. 
 Decrease. 
 
 Decrease. 7,078 
 
 Notwithstanding this heavy reduction in the California 
 production, there has been an increased demand from China. 
 
 Almadea Mine, in Spain, turned out last year 50,353 
 flasks, weighing, net, 1,737,572 kg., 'or 34 J kg.' per flask, 
 76.07 pounds, English. The New Almaden (California) 
 flask nets 76.50 pounds. Between January 1 and April 27, 
 1882, the export by sea from San Francisco was only 11,- 
 639 flasks, against 14,029 during the corresponding time in 
 1881, but the price, nevertheless, gradually improved thei'e 
 from 36J cts. on January 1 td 38J cts. Aptil 27, 1882. 
 
 Since 1850 California up to the first of the current year, 
 produced altogether some 1,250,000 flasks, and exported of 
 that amount 890,000' flasks. Toward this amounit Of pro- 
 duction the Ne* Alinaden mine alone contributed no less 
 than 710,729 flasks,' while the Almaden, iniiie of Spain has 
 turned out, altogether, 902,364 flasks. The highest price 
 was reached in California in 1874ri5,> when Quicksilver com- 
 manded as much as $1.55, and the lowest in 1879, when 
 it fell to 33 cts. In London it advanced to £26 per flask 
 in 1874, and receded to $5 17s. 6d. in 1879, since which time 
 the highest figure attained -was £7 15s., again receding to 
 £6 53., from vraich price it has fluctuated but little. 
 
 The Spanish Grovernment at the time of the renewal of 
 the lease of the Alinaden mine to the Rothschilds, a Couple 
 of years ago, came to an understanding with the lessees 
 that the price should be regulated by the' one ruling in 
 London, but £6 was fixed as a minimum. ' Betweeil £6 and 
 £8 the difference is shared jointly, and if the price rises 
 above £8, Spain receives two-thii:ds of the difference be- 
 tween £6 and the price obtained, while the Rothschilds 
 only get one-third! The interest of the latter firm in a 
 high ruling at London is therefore considerable, and the 
 only obstacle in the way is excessive production in Califor- 
 nia. The consumption of quicksilver for gold and silver 
 mining purposes has decreased since 1878, and with the 
 very large output that is constantly taking place, produc- 
 tion runs ahead of consumption. Spanish quicksilver has 
 also of late entered into a more active competition for the 
 Hong Kong and other Chinese markets, as well as that of 
 New York. For mere technical purposes, exclusive of 
 
 1881. 
 
 January. . . 
 February . . 
 March . . . 
 AprU . . . . 
 May . . . . 
 June . . . . 
 July . . . . 
 August'. . . 
 September ■ 
 October. . . 
 November . . 
 December. . 
 
 Total . . 
 
 2,269 
 2,187 
 2,466 
 2,607 
 1,346 
 1,780 
 2,208 
 2,260 
 2,090 
 2,233 
 2,672 
 2,162 
 
 
 803 
 635 
 1,100 
 706 
 1,163 
 1, 
 1,057 
 1,139 
 1,076 
 
 361 
 
 26,060 11,152 
 
 451 
 399 
 400 
 447 
 681 
 801 
 714 
 685 
 457 
 414 
 ■434 
 458 
 
 6,241 
 
 430 
 233 
 605 
 466 
 659 
 621 
 481 
 490 
 692 
 485 
 310 
 
 6,552 
 
 1,300 
 600 
 360 
 357 
 600 
 340 
 265 
 300 
 201 
 400 
 375 
 250 
 
 168 
 200 
 201 
 110 
 209 
 212 
 140 
 677 
 261 
 
 6,228 2,775 
 
 140 
 32 
 354 
 ' 284 
 218 
 196 
 160 
 190 
 187 
 165 
 180 
 83 
 
 179 
 123 
 97 
 94 
 47 
 ■57 
 113 
 106 
 166 
 70 
 
 2,194 1,066 
 
 23 
 25 
 23 
 108 
 88 
 6 
 12 
 
 370 
 
 
 6,861 
 4,261 
 6,560 
 5,071 
 4,889 
 5,564 
 6,188 
 6,350 
 4,965 
 4,966 
 6,232 
 3,946 
 
 Price in San 
 Praneieco. 
 
 60,851 41}.^ S^li 
 
 ^ 
 ^ 
 
 73 a 
 
 a rt 
 
 t>,OQ 
 
 46,790 
 
 7,288 
 6,400 
 7,933 
 7,270 
 6,678 
 
 2,798 
 6,401 
 6.595 
 
 Prices m London. 
 
 £ e. d. 
 
 6 15 
 
 7 00 
 6 16 
 6 10 
 6 10 
 6 5 
 6 10 
 6 10 
 
 6 10 
 
 7 00 
 6 12 6 
 6 6 
 
 60,353 £7 00 £6 26 
 
 £ B. d. 
 6 7 6 
 6 15 
 6 7 6 
 6 2 6 
 6 6 
 6 6 
 6 6 
 6 5 
 6 6 
 6 10 
 6 5 
 6 6 
 
 ' Production in California during 1881,-60,831 flasks, each of 70,60 pounds avoirdupois. 
 Aasks, each of 76.07 pounds, avoirdupois.) 
 
 Production iu Spain during 1881, 1,737,671,600 kg. (50,353 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 541 
 
 mining, quicksilver is not very important outside of China, 
 where it is used extensively in the preparation of paints, 
 etc. Since quicksilver entered this country duty free, 
 Rothschild has thrown on the New York market, in 1879, 
 5441 iiasks; in 1880, 200 flasks, and in 1881, 3005 flasks, 
 competing advantageously with California dealers here on 
 account of the high freights from the Pacific coast to the 
 New York market. 
 
 The world's production of quicksilver was last year 115,- 
 600 flasks, which include Idria, in Austria, and some other 
 minor localities, while the actual consumption for 1881 has 
 been estimated at 110,000 flasks. On January 1, 1882, the 
 stock in London had gradually accumulated to no less than 
 92,000 flasks, of which only 12,000 flasks were in first hands, 
 the remainder being held by speculators, having fieen 
 bought long since at higli prices. 
 
542 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 PART VII. 
 
 MINING LAW8 AND REGULATIONS— THE LAND OFFICE 
 AND ITS PREROGATIVES— U. 8. MINING LEGISLATION- 
 STATE LAWS— THE DEBRIS QUESTION. 
 
 AW and legal diflSculties are to many en- 
 gaged in mining business little 
 short of a terror. There has been 
 so much misery and anxiety 
 caused by the uncertainties of 
 titles, by the ups and downs of le- 
 gal decisions and the irrepressible 
 conflict of laws that we doubt not 
 Part VII of the Mines, Miners 
 AND Mining Interests of the 
 United States, will fee very wel- 
 come to mining men, furnishing, as it does, a elear statement 
 of all laws touching mineral lands passed up to July 1, 1882. 
 An account of the powers and duties of the Land Office is 
 added, and the Part is appropriately begun with a paper 
 on the relations of government to mining, which, though 
 it appeared in 1870, in Mr. Rossiter W. Raymond's report, 
 is still timely from an historical point of view. The Debris 
 question, a much vexed issue upon the Pacific coast, having 
 recently begun what promises to be a long squabble in the 
 courts, is therefore properly placed in the part devoted to 
 law. The various forms that are necessary to the successful 
 legal prosecution of a mining company's business are also 
 included here. 
 
 MINING AND MINING LAW AMONG THE 
 ANCIENTS. 
 
 THE main subject of the present discussion being (he 
 history of mining jurisprudence, and the consider- 
 ation of that subject being limited as far as possible 
 to its bearings on the immediate problems of legis- 
 lation in the United States, I shall not attempt to collect, in 
 this chapter, all that is known of the practice of ancient 
 nations in regard to the arts of mining and metallurgy. The 
 theme is an exceedingly attractive one. Our knowledge of 
 the legislation of earlier times has to be, however, in great 
 part inferred from circumstantial evidence, or from the rec- 
 ords which remain of ancient practice. A frequent reference 
 to the history of mining, as distinguished from that of mining 
 law, is unavoidable ; yet this account must not be considered 
 as even a complete outline, much less a comprehensive sum- 
 mary of all that is known to antiquarians on this interesting 
 subject. In comparison with the literature concerning the 
 dress, language, mythology, and poetry of the ancients, we 
 have very few books about the much more important ques- 
 tions connected with their proficiency in the mechanical 
 arts, and especially the arts of mining and metallurgy. 
 
 Authorities. — Two books published during the last century 
 are the only ones which have come to my knowledge in 
 
 which the indications and fragmentary facts contained in 
 ancient literature or existing ruins, observed by travellers, 
 have been collected and systematically arranged. One is 
 the work of Caryophilus, De Auri et Argenti Fodinig Veterum, 
 of which I have not yet been able to find a copy in this 
 country, though it is accessible in several libraries abroad ; 
 the other is a dissertation in the German language, by Dr. 
 J. F. Reitemeier, published in Gottingen, 1785, and entitled 
 Geschichte des Bergbaues und Hiittenwesens bei den alien 
 Volkern. This admirable essay received the prize of the 
 Royal Society of Sciences at Gottingen. There is a copy in 
 the city library of Boston, to the superintendent of which I 
 am indebted for the courtesy with which he placed the book 
 at my disposal. Ancient authorities are more numerous, but 
 not so satisfactory, since, they give us mostly mere allusions 
 or accidental revelations. * Among them we may mention 
 the Bible, Herodotus', Strabo, Pliny, Diodorus, Agatharcides, 
 clement of Alexandria, Airistotle, (de mirabilibus, de cura rei 
 familiaris, etc.,) Dioscorides, Livy, and Polybius, not to 
 mention a multitude of 'classic writers from whose works 
 intimations of importance can be gleaned, such as Xenophon, 
 Csesar, Plutarch, and even the legendary poems of Homer 
 and Hesiod. To these sources of information must be added 
 the works of various mediaeval and modern travellers, and 
 the researches- of antiquarian scholars in special fields of in- 
 quiry, too numerous to be catalogued here. 
 
 The origin of mining. — The art of mining is linked with so 
 many others, which are the fruit of civilization only, and 
 must be practiced under so many natural diflSculties, which 
 only advanced science has been able to overcome, that we 
 may naturally believe it to have had neither a very early 
 nor a very rapid development. No doubt the first races 
 were led to the discovery of one metal after another by 
 accident rather than systematic study of nature. Probably 
 the first metals used bj^ men were those occurring in a native 
 state — such as gold, silver, and copper. The discovery of 
 bronze, or the secret of hardening copper by rude metallur- 
 gical processes and mixture with other metals, was a step in 
 the progress of the human race so important that it marks 
 an epoch of pre-historic time, known as the age of bronze. 
 The peculiar properties of gold and silver — their beauty, 
 malleability, and above all their resistance to oxidation, 
 which rendered their preservation possible through long 
 periods, were undoubtedly the ground of that high esteem 
 m which they have always been held, and which is at the 
 present day enhanced by their relative scarcity, and the 
 difficulty of obtaining them. The knowledge of these metals 
 seems to have been indigenous in all countries where they 
 occur, whether among the tribes of Asia, of Siberia, or of 
 North America. Gold and silver are the A and B of the 
 alphabet of metallurgy ; and, although the mastery of the 
 whole alphabet and its combinations in the literature of 
 civilization has been the laborious work of ages, and is not 
 yet complete, these first letters of it were beneficently made 
 easy for man to discover. The rudiments of mining are first 
 found in those countries where the human race itself pro- 
 bably had its origin. The Bible informs us that even before 
 the Ifoachian deluge, some of the peoples of Asia understood 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 543 
 
 the use of iron — ^but this knowledge does not appear to have 
 been propagated among other nations. The Siberians and 
 the Peruvians most certainly did not possess it, and other 
 nations have made the discovery at a comparatively late 
 period; but this only corroborates what we have already 
 said, that the knowledge of metals was not, in the beginning, 
 transmitted from one nation to another, but was the child of 
 circumstances and accidental discovery in different parts of 
 the world. At any given epoch of the first historic eras, be- 
 fore commerce and literature had produced an interchange 
 of commodities and ideas, it is to be supposed that some 
 nations would be more advanced than others in these re- 
 spects. K the use of iron was confined to the race destroyed 
 by the flood, then it perished with them. 
 
 At a much later period we learn that the Chaldeans and 
 Assyrians possessed gold, silver, and " brass." The Phoe- 
 nicians had also an abundance of metals ; and it is more 
 certain, in their case, that they obtained their supply from 
 some sort of systematic mining. Their country itself was 
 not rich in mineral wealth. Possibly they worked the cop- 
 
 Eer mines at Sarepta, but these were their only mines at 
 ome. But their extended commerce brought them into 
 connection with other countries abounding in the treasure 
 they sought ; and they went to islands of the Mediterranean 
 for gold and other metals, including iron, of which they 
 understood the use, ascribing its discovery to two of their 
 mythical heroes. They are known also to have mined in 
 Spain, (probably for " Tyrian lead" and silver,) and they 
 even touched the distant shores of Britain in their bold ex- 
 plorations, and gathered the tin ore of Cornwall and Devon. 
 But at least an e:iual antiquity, and a much greater elabora- 
 tion and system, must be recognized in the mining of the 
 Egyptians. Under the reign of Osiris, the Egyptian mines 
 of copper, silver, and gold were in productive operation. 
 Poth on the Ethiopian and the Arabian border, and near 
 Saba, (which may or may not be Sheba of the Bible,) they 
 worked the ores of their country. The Sinaitic desert, 
 through which the Israelites travelled, contains to this day 
 the ruins of mining works, the origin of which is shrouded 
 in mystery, but may well be ascribed to that wonderful 
 people the Egyptians, the extent of whose achievements in 
 many directions the world is just bsginning to estimate 
 aright. They did not learn the use of iron so early as that 
 of some other metals. Abraham found gold and silver used 
 for instruments, ornaments, and currency among them, but 
 no mention is made of iron. In the time of Moses, however, 
 as is evident from two passages in Deuteronomy, the Egyp- 
 tians smelted iron. 
 
 Mines of the Persians and Egyptians.— In the early times, 
 as in all subsequent periods, conquest was one of the foes of 
 mining. The Egyptians were twice conquered by the 
 Ethiopians, and had several Assyrian wars, which must not 
 only have produced such a disturbed condition of affairs as 
 prevented the prosecution of mining, but also have drawn 
 into the military service the classes of laborers employed_ in 
 that business. The final establishment of the Persian 
 dominion removed the disturbances from without, but the 
 tyranny of the provincial governors produced numerous re- 
 volts, which doubtless had a disastrous effect upon mining. 
 The Persians, however, amassel much treasure from their 
 conquests, and obtained from the Egyptian mines, in par- 
 ticular,, the finest silver. The strength which wealth im- 
 parted to this dynasty was painfully felt by the Greeks, in 
 the vast armies which invaded their territory and the bribes 
 •with which their leaders were corrupted. The first period 
 in the history of mining closes with the overthrow of the 
 Persian empire by Alexander, and the transfer of the 
 treasure and resources of the Orient into European hands. 
 Meagre as are our data for this period, we are nevertheless 
 led to a reasonably certain conclusion with regard to the 
 tenure and authority under which mining was carried on. 
 We hear of kings, like Croesus, enriching themselves from 
 the product of the mines ; but there is no indication that 
 !these sources of wealth were open to private citizens. The 
 immense quantities of gold and silver employed by govern- 
 ments, and their use in constant wars, also confirm our con- 
 jecture that the mines of Asia and Africa were the property 
 of the rulers, and that they were worked by slaves. This 
 was certainly the case in Egypt, in the following period. It 
 .is probable, therefore, that the doctrine of ownership by the 
 
 crown of the metals in the earth was originally established 
 by tyranny, and that before its establishment mining, like 
 agriculture, was carried on by the citizens. The story of 
 Joseph, in the Bible, shows by what means the despot of 
 Egypt was able to destroy the individual industry of agri- 
 culture, and to turn the whole kingdom into his own farm. 
 Doubtless the process of " consolidation" in mining followed 
 a similar course: 
 
 In the second period there was apparently still greater 
 activity and extent of mining operations ; at least our in- 
 formation on the subject is more satisfactory. Gold, silver, 
 copper, and iron were obtained in Ethiopia, and iron at least 
 in Libya. Possibly the recent discoveries of gold in Africa, 
 which are now attracting considerable attention from the 
 English, are but rediscoveries of the fields worked centuries 
 before Christ. India and Caramania produced gold, and the 
 latter country also silver, copper, and cinnabar. The 
 people, however, are said by Strabo to have been very igno- 
 rant of the art of working metals. The Derbse did not know 
 how to melt their gold dust into lumps, and the Indians sold 
 crude specimens of rich ore to foreigners. The Chalybeans, 
 on the other hand, became famous as workers in iron, and 
 derived their principal revenue from this source. In Asia 
 Minor the gold mines formerly owned by Croesus were worked 
 down to the times of Xenophon, but Strabo says that in his 
 day they were exhausted, and only traces of them remairied. 
 There were iron mines and skilled workmen in Palestine. 
 Arabia Felix is celebrated by many ancient writers as pos- 
 sessing very rich gold and silver mines, but no traces of 
 them now remain, nor have modern travellers observed 
 auriferous sands in any of the streams of that countrjj. 
 Historical testimony on the subject is, however, quite posi- 
 tive and unanimous, and the matter may be considered as 
 still in doubt. It is not impossible that the ancient writers, 
 who were not always exact in such statements, mistook the 
 treasure obtained by the Arabians through their Indian 
 commerca for a product of their own soil. We may well be- 
 lieve that this wide-spread development of mining, accom- 
 panied as it was with a diffusion of government, brought 
 about some change in the mining law. The loosely-strung 
 empire of Alexander fell to pieces after his death, and no 
 doubt the mines became the property of governors, generals, 
 nobles, and wealthy citizens. We have, however, in Egypt 
 a type of the general systems which obtained, on a greater 
 or smaller scale, throughout the petty despotisms which 
 divided the world. Diodorus gives us a picture of Egyptian 
 mining, partly taken fi:om the earlier work of Agatharchides. 
 According to this account the mines of Egypt were the 
 property of its kings, who obtained immense sums from 
 them. 
 
 Those were in one sense the palmy days of mining ; for 
 the king got his mining ground gratis, worked only the 
 richest deposits, captured or reduced to slavery the necessary 
 laborers, and levied contributions on his kingdom for the 
 necessary food and other mining supplies. Rich mines, 
 worked at no expense, naturally paid handsome dividends. 
 Machines were not employed to any extent, since human 
 power was cheaper. The Egyptian monuments which re- 
 main to us represent the most stupendous works of engineer- 
 ing, as accomplished by the labor of countless multitudes of 
 men. The labor of the mines was performed by prisoners of 
 war, convicts, and purchased slaves. As the Egyptians were 
 not a warlike people, and seldom returned from battle vic- 
 torious, it is not likely that their prisoners were numerous. 
 Neither could the convicts have supplied their extensive 
 mines. It is probable that the greater portion of their 
 miners were purchased slaves. We are, in fact, informed 
 that the workmen in the Egyptian mines spoke different 
 languages. To prevent conspiracies and escapes the differ- 
 ent gangs were placed under overseers who were not their 
 countrymen, and all hope of flight was finally extinguished 
 by fetters, by constant confinement in contracted caverns, 
 and by the nature of the region itself, which offered no 
 opportunity for successful escape. The lot of these unhappy 
 creatures in the mines and furnaces was indeed a hard one. 
 They were forced to labor day and night, without rest or 
 hope, and under the most dreadful hardships and cruelties. 
 They were entirely naked, and neither age nor sex, sickness 
 nor wounds, excused them from the severity of discipline. 
 The stronger ones hewed the rock in the mines, the half- 
 
544 
 
 THE'MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 grown youths carried the ore to the surface, persons over 
 thirty years (so soon was their vigor destroyed) were set at 
 the easier task of crushing it in mortars, and the women and 
 old men ground it fine in hand-mills. The historian adds, 
 with laconic pathos, that they continued to labor until they 
 dropped dead beneath their burdens. 
 
 Ancient Mining in Siberia and Europe. — The far northern 
 country of the Massagetes is said by ancient writers to have 
 produced gold and copper, but no silver nor iron. This is 
 the nearest approach to a mention of mining operations in 
 Siberia which history presents. But the observations of 
 travellers, especially those recorded by Pallas, Lepechin, 
 Gmelin, and Rytchkow,* afford convincing evidence of the 
 existence of extensive workings for gold and copper in Sibe- 
 ria. The tradition of the -Russians, that these early miners 
 were Scythians, is groundless. Tartars they were not, since 
 they were unacquainted with iron, which the former knew hpw 
 to use. A nomadic race they are believed to have been, since 
 no traces of buildings or masonry remain in those regions. 
 All that we can conclude with probability is that, before the 
 irruption of the Tartars into Siberia, very extensive but rude 
 mining operations were carried on in tha,t country by tribes, 
 not far removed in culture from the aborigines of North 
 America. The tools which they employed were either of 
 stone or copper — never, so far as has yet been discoveied, of 
 iron. The smelting of copper appears to have been success- 
 fully carried on, even with somewhat refractory ores. Traces 
 of mining accidents, of the voluntary abandonment of very 
 hard rocks, of great economy of labor in " dead work," &c., 
 taken together with the indications above mentioned of the 
 social condition of this unknown people, prove to us that 
 they carried on their mining operations by individual enter- 
 prise, as freemen, and probably without reference to par- 
 ticular ownership of the soil. Although this system (if sys- 
 tem it may be called) stands in favorable contrast, pn 
 grounds of humanity, with the cruel and tyrannical prac- 
 tices connected with mining in the southern Orient, and 
 especially in Egypt, yet it is evident that its result was super- 
 ficial exhaustion, abandonment, and flnallyburial in oblivion 
 of the mines. From the very dawn of history, therefore, 
 these two representative voices of Egypt and Siberia warn 
 us that neither mining by the crown, nor nomadic, super- 
 ficial mining by the individual, is the true method of utili- 
 zing with econom^r the mineral resources of any country. 
 The first is inconsistent with liberty, and the second with 
 stable industry. 
 
 Concerning the earliest beginnings of mining in Europe 
 little can be said. The civilization of the East, a^ is well 
 known, communicated itself first to the Mediterranean 
 nations. As mining is an essential condition to the pro- 
 gress of civilization, so we may reasonably conjecture the 
 progress of mining at any given period from the culture of 
 the people. We are justified, therefore, in assuming that 
 mining in Europe takes its rise with the emergence froiti 
 barbarism of the Mediterranean tribes. Strabo, Pliny, and 
 Herodotus declare, that Cadmus, a Phoenician, opened tbe 
 first gold and copper mines in Thrace — a statement which is 
 philosophically, if not historically, true. The Phoenicians 
 certainly carried on mining in the islands of the Mediter- 
 ranean, and even along the coast of distant Spain. But it is 
 not probable that their operations contributed much to the 
 spread of the art among the barbarians ; since they not only, 
 with characteristic selfishness, carried away all the products 
 of their industry to enrich their own land, but kept to them- 
 selves whatever knowledge they acquired. They cannot be 
 regarded as the teachers of European nations, in this art — ^a 
 credit which belongs rather to fugitives and exiles from 
 other parts of Asia, who opened mines, or communicated the 
 knowledge of mining, in the regions where they took refuge. 
 The nature of the laws or customs regulating mining differed, 
 therefore, according to the source of the art. The labors of 
 the Phoenicians seem to have derived extent and compara- 
 tive permanence from the conservative influence of com- 
 merce rather than tyranny. 
 
 Mining in GVeece.— The mining works of ancient Greece 
 
 * The treatise of Pallas is found in Actis Soc. Imp. 1780 pub- 
 lished at St. Petersburg, 1784; and that of Rytchkow in Busehing's 
 Magazine, part 8. 
 
 are remarkable for extent, antiquity, and improved arrange- 
 ment. The Greeks mined in the mother country and in 
 their eastern and western colonies,'and maintained through 
 many centuries this industry, improving it by their own ex- 
 perience, and even studying it by scientific methods. The 
 works of Theophrastus and Philo on metals are unfortunately 
 lost, as is that of Strabo on machines and methods of part- 
 ing metals. The remains of Greek mines are too nearly 
 obliterated to afford us any evidence. We must learn what 
 we Can from incidental passages in Greek literature, and 
 these refer almost entirely to the mines of Attica. The 
 history of Greek mining may be divided into three periods. 
 The first includes the activity of the mines upon the islands, 
 the oldest of which belonged to the Phoenicians ; the second 
 period comprises the operations of the Greeks themselves, 
 on the main land; and the third is ciaracterized by the 
 working of new and productive mines in the provinces of 
 the Macedonian Philip, which finally, with the rest of the 
 Greek mines, fell into the hands of the Romans. The oper- 
 ations of the first period must be mainly inferted from pas- 
 sages in the Iliad and Odyssey; and these are of course to 
 be interpreted with due allowance for their poetic form. 
 When it is said that Helios, or the sun, invented ^old, and 
 the mythical, not to say allegorical, Erycthpnius discovered 
 silver, while copper was brought to light by the investiga- 
 tions of workmen directed by the gods, we may infer that 
 the order in which these metals became known to the Greeks 
 was siihilar to that which, as we have already seen, obtains 
 in thie history of other peoples. Iron is said by an old Greek 
 inscription to have been discovered at a period correspond- 
 ing to 1431 B. C. of our calendar. These gleams of early 
 history help us to understand how gold and silver, more 
 than any other metals, have come to be considered the 
 property of sovereigns. They were the earliest known, and 
 that at a time when sovereigns took all they could get and 
 could get almost anything they wanted, fiomer's dfescrip- 
 tions of the magnificence of Greek princes, if we may inter- 
 pret them as historical, indicate no small surplus of gold 
 and silver in Greece. It is to be remembered, however, that 
 in the absence of that diffusive action which commerce 
 maintains, and of that great demand for the precious metals 
 to which tl)eir use as currency gives rise, the accumulation 
 in a few hands of a comparatively small amount of gold and 
 silver might well jiistifif the glowing descriptions of Homer; 
 and also that if the rich, men of the present day were to 
 spend their wealth, not on the means of comfort and enjoy- 
 ment, not on books and works of art, not on public improve' 
 ments, but only on plate, armor, jewelry, and chariots, they 
 could far outshine the splendor of Homeric heroes. The 
 islands in which the Greeks carried on mining operations 
 included Crete, (iron,) Thasos, (gold,) Euboea, (iron and cop- 
 per,^ Cyprus, (gold, and silver, copper, andiron,) Delos, (cop- 
 per,) Rhodes, (copper, iron, and lead,) Milo, (alum and 
 sulphur,) Seriphos, (iron,) and Siphnos, now (Siphanto, 
 very rich gold and, silver mines.) Trom the mines of the 
 latter island one-tenth of the product was sent every year to 
 the shrine of Delphi. In later times, this payment having 
 been discontinued, the mines were drowned by the rising of 
 the neighboring sea ; and this disaster was ascribed to the 
 wrath of Apollo at being deprived of his divine royalty ! In 
 addition to these mines upon the eastern islands, there were 
 others, probably of later origin, upon the islands near Italy. 
 Pithecusa, opposite Cuma, was rich in gold ; Sicily and the 
 Liparian Islands were also famous for various oreg. The 
 petty rulers of the islands were the only or principal owners 
 of the mines, and the labor was doubtless performed by 
 slaves, according to rude and simple methods. 
 
 The second period of Greek mining, comprising the op- 
 erations on the mainland, in Greece proper, is better known 
 and more important. The Spartans, under the influence of 
 their political system, established no important industry of 
 this, or, indeed, of any kind.; but the Athenians became 
 distinguished in the administration of the rich silver mines 
 of Attica, and the productive colonial gold mines in Thrace 
 and Thasos. Thessaly had also rich gold ores, Boeotia pro- 
 duced iron, and Epirus possessed mines of silver. These re- 
 sources seem to have heen developed about the time of the 
 Persian war. The public revenue from the Attic mines at 
 the beginning of that war was equivalent to ahout $30,000, 
 and afterwards increased to much larger sums, which, to- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 545 
 
 gether with the product of the colonial mines, had a great 
 deal to do with the splendor and power of Athens. The un- 
 happy Peloponnesian war put an end to Athenian mining. 
 In vain Xenophon exhorted his countrymen to reopen the 
 sources of their former prosperity, and prophesied the con- 
 tinuance in depth of the rich ores they had once so success- 
 fully worked. The poverty of the citizens, and the exhaus- 
 tion (in spite of Xenophon) of the mines, were obstacles 
 which could not be overcome. Neither, as we shall see, 
 was the system of the Athenians favorable to the persistent 
 working of mines under discouragement. We may take 
 leave to doubt, at the present day, whether the mineral de- 
 posits of Attica are really exhausted ; but at that time a 
 temporary barrenness was equivalent to a complete failure. 
 For nothing can carry forward such an industry over its 
 periodical seasons of depression except despotic power on 
 the one hand, or on the other hand that faith in the future 
 which la the result of accumulated experience, called 
 science ; and the Athenians had neither of these. Their fail- 
 ure in mining was due to the same cause as their failure in 
 political science ; there was no education of the people to 
 take the place of centralized power. 
 
 The administration of the Athenian and that of the 
 Egyptian mines differed as widely as did the political sys- 
 tems of the two countries. The State indeed appears to 
 have held a, certain title to the minerals, but its rights did 
 not extend to absolute possession, or at least were not strict- 
 ly insisted upon. Before the Persian war the income of the 
 mines was annually distributed among the citizens, from 
 which we may conclude that the republic either mined for 
 itself or leased its mineral lands. After that war, however, 
 this distribution of profits was discontinued on the advice 
 of Themistocles, although the State still received payments 
 from the mines. It is not improbable that certain mines, 
 especially ancient ones, were rented on special terms, as the 
 property of the republic ; but the general practice was 
 adopted of encouraging the development of mineral re- 
 sources by a liberal and universal code. Taxes on gross 
 production were remitted; citizens and friendly aliens alike 
 were encouraged to mine under the light royalty of one 
 twenty-fourth part of the net profits. The number of pri- 
 vate adventurers thus encouraged to mining enterprise must 
 have been very great. Even Demosthenes, in whose 
 day Athenian mining was already on the wane, speaks of 
 them as a class, like farmers and merchants.* The labor 
 was performed by slaves, hired from their owners. The 
 overseers were also slaves skilled in mining. It is probable 
 that in many cases the lessees themselves were slaves, as it 
 was not uncommon in Athens for masters to lease to their 
 slaves factories, workshops, and farms. In such leases the 
 slave-superintendent usually paid a daily net sum per capita 
 for the number of laborers employed.' The owner of slaves 
 employed in mining received daily one obolus for each. 
 The lessee was responsible for the food and clothing, and, in 
 case of flight, for the value of the slaves — possibly also for 
 their lives. No doubt this was a much milder slavery than 
 that of the Egyptians, yet, as the slaves were strictly 
 watched and always kept in fetters, it was oppressive enough. 
 Slave-labor must always be lacking in individual skill and 
 zeal, and make up for this deficiency by increased numbers. 
 Accordingly we find that the slave-miners of Athens 
 amounted to many thousands, or, as Athenoeus says, to my- 
 riads. History speaks of a miners' revolt, in which the 
 insurgent slaves took possession of Mount Sunium, and from 
 that point made many destructive raids upon the Attic 
 realm. The extent to which the republic attempted to pre- 
 vent such perils by laws, regulating the number of laborers 
 in each mine, or to control in general the operations of les- 
 sees, is unknown. That a certain governmental supervision 
 was exercised appears from the fact that a director of mines 
 was appointed, whoindicated to adventurers, upon applica- 
 tion, where they might prospect for ore, and that there were 
 laws to determine the methods of mining, and the location, 
 direction, and extent of veins, as well as the proper distance 
 between different claims upon this same field. 
 
 Ancient Mining in "Western Europe.— Before the 
 time of the Roman dominion, mining was carried on in 
 many parts of western Europe ; and although there are lit- 
 
 ® Demosth. adv. Aristocratem. 
 
 tie or no traces left of the laws which regulated the indus- 
 try of the barbarians, I shall briefly mention the localities 
 referred to, partly to complete this historical outline, and 
 partly because the mining jurisprudence ot the Romans, like, 
 their mining science, was affected by their conquest of those 
 countries where the natives already practiced this art. The 
 Etruscans and the Sabines, in Italy, were acquainted with 
 the use of copper, and the former made early discovery of 
 iron on the neighboring island of Elba, the specular ores 
 of which are famous to this day. The Salassians, in Lom- 
 bardy, turned the Po into canals, and established extensive 
 washings for gold. The region of the Taurisoi and Norici 
 was rich in gold, and at one time the natives invited labor- 
 ers from the south to assist them in its production ; but the 
 result was an over-stocked market, and a fall of one-third in 
 the value of gold, which caused them to send home their 
 laborers and reduce production to maintain the price. The 
 tribes of Gaul obtained gold, silver, copper, and iron. But 
 Spain exceeded in its treasures of gold, silver, copper, tin, 
 lead, and iron all the countries of ttie ancient world. The 
 barbarian natives obtained these metals from superficial de- 
 posits or outcrops, and the Phoenicians and Garthagenians, 
 and afterwards the Romans, extracted them by deep min- 
 ing. In fact, the art itself was planted in Spain by these 
 foreign nations. The mere use of surface deposits can no 
 more be called mining than the gathering of bunch-grass 
 and pine nuts by our Nevada Indians can be called agricul- 
 ture. Probably the Phoenicians themselves, in their dis- 
 tant operations in Spain and Britain, engaged rather in 
 commerce than mining, buying the metals of the barbar- 
 ians. But Garthagenians, we know, established in Spain and 
 Sardinia most extensive and productive mines, the revenue 
 of which enabled them to support a numerous army of mer- 
 cenaries and to wage long and costly wars with Rome. No 
 doubt these mines were in some form the property of the 
 state. The British islands were the scene of a considerable 
 native industry, comprising gold, silver, iron, copper, lead, 
 and tin. Strange to say, the Britons seem to have lacked 
 or despised the art of manufacturing copper, though they 
 practiced the more difficult metallurgy of iron. The Phoe- 
 nicians traded with them secretly for tin, and the Romans, 
 by following the Phoenician ships, finally discovered the 
 niystery of the Gassiterides. But the Britons continued, 
 until their conquest by Gsesar, to work their own mines of 
 lead and tin. The tin of Gornwall was shipped first to the 
 Isle of Wight, and thence to the coast of Gaul, where it 
 was' loaded upon horses and transported to Marseilles — a 
 journey of 30 days. 
 
 Mining of the Romans. — Almost all the nations celebrated 
 for their mines in ancient times became at last the prey of 
 the Romans ; and Roman mining was therefore a very wide- 
 spread industry. Our knowledge concerning it is, however, 
 mainly confined to Europe ; since neither the hints of class- 
 ical writers nor the observations of modern travelers have 
 thrown much light on the Roman mines in Asia and Africa. 
 The poverty of the early Romans indicates that they did 
 not work the mines of their native land. They struck the 
 first silver coins shortly before the first Punic war, when, by 
 rapid conquests in middle and lower Italy, they acquired 
 mines which furnished them the means to greater undertak- 
 ings. The wars against Carthage made Rome mighty among 
 nations, and eminent in the history of mining. The first 
 two Punic wars delivered into her power the important 
 mines of Sardinia, Sicily, and Spain. Oriental conquests 
 added mines in Asia Minor, Greece, and Macedonia, and at 
 a subsequent period the remaining mines of the east, in 
 Asia and in Egypt, were acquired by the victorious arms of 
 Pompey and Augustus, and those of northern Spain and Gaul 
 yielded to the legions of the Caesars. The tin mines of 
 Britain were their latest conquest of this sort; and after 
 these had been gained Rome was mistress of all the impor- 
 tant mines of the ancient world, and gathered into her 
 coffers the wealth which had before been the strength and 
 glory of many different nations. 
 
 As the mines had been acquired by conquest, they became 
 the property, not of private citizens, but of the republic, 
 and afterwards of the empire. In the period after the first 
 Punic war the revenues of the republic were collected, in- 
 directly, through contractors ; and the censor, to whom 
 belonged the duty of farming out the finances, awarded 
 
 35 
 
546 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 at certain times the leases of the mines. Ordinarily, as for 
 instance in upper Italy and Spain, the lessees worked their 
 ground with purchased slaves. In a few districts, however, 
 the native inhabitants were held to a certain amount of 
 labor in mines and furnaces, as a sort of vassalage, like that 
 of the crown-serfs of Russia a few years ago, and this 
 crown-right over their services was granted to the lessees of 
 the mines. The treatment of the slaves was not less in- 
 human than that practiced by the Egyptians. Diodorus 
 describes both in nearly the same language. The increased 
 money value of a slave among the Romans might indeed 
 have caused some amelioration of his condition for the sake 
 of prolonging his life; but probably this was lost sight of 
 in view of the immediate profit derived from the rapid and 
 reckless robbery of the mines. It was the swift exhaustion 
 and waste of their mineral resources, and not any consider- 
 ations of humanity towards barbarians, which led the Ro- 
 mans to change their policy of leasing the mines. From an 
 economical point of view no system of mining could have 
 been more injurious to the state. The lessees cared nothing 
 for the future ; they took no pains to utilize all the treasure 
 in the earth ; they were absorbed in the endeavor to realize 
 as much profit as possible during their limited term of pos- 
 session, and to this end they employed vast armies of slaves 
 and ruthlessly laid waste the mining lands. Polybius says 
 that the lessees of a single district in Spain employed in 
 tlieir mines no less than 40,000 purchased slaves ; and this 
 evil grew to such a size in the gold mines of upper Italy 
 that the censor, in order to delay the exhaustion of the 
 mines and prevent the sudden depreciation of the precious 
 metals, made it a condition of lease that the number of 
 laborers in those mines should not exceed a certain limit. 
 Of course under these circumstances the art of mining made 
 no progress. The Romans took it as they found it among 
 the conquered nations, and rather fell behind their teachers 
 than surpassed them. The system of E^pt, bad as it was, 
 was better than this. The selfishness of despotism was at 
 least more provident than the indifierence of democracy. 
 The period from the first Punic war to the empire was 
 characterized by an immense production of metals, and 
 ended with the exhaustion of many of the mines. The 
 despotic emperors took the matter in hand, and, though the 
 past could not be repaired, they reformed the causes of evil. 
 They began to work the mines through regularly appoined 
 officials, instead of leasing them to unscrupulous speculat- 
 ors ; and as it was not feasible for the government to obtain 
 so many slaves as had previously been employed by private 
 parties, the system of feudal service from the inhabitants 
 was gradually extended, and the oppression of the former 
 irresponsible administrations was lightened. The crown- 
 serfs, so to speak, were allowed to own and sell land, but 
 the purjhaser acquired, together with the property, the 
 obligations of service resting upon the former owner. Slaves 
 were also employed, but these were rather condemned con- 
 victs than purchased barbarians or captives of war. The 
 emperors seem to have preferred to apply this system to 
 the maintenance of mines already open, and to have will- 
 ingly allowed private adventurers to discover and explore 
 new ones. Thus Trajan allowed the Dacian gold mines to 
 be worked by a sort of stock company, (collegium aurario- 
 rum,) and Valentinian I. gave free permission to prospect 
 fur metals on payment of a portion of the subsequent pro- 
 ducts. Instances are mentioned of private persons owning 
 large and profitable mines, probably by special grant. A 
 new impulse was thus given to mining, and gold mines were 
 opened during the first hundred years of the empire in 
 Dalmatia, Illyria, and Dacia. The supervision of this vast 
 industry required numerous officials, of whom the names 
 only are left to us, such as Comes metallorum, the Comes 
 sacrarum largitionum, the Comes Orietis, the Vicarii, and 
 Rationales. Probably their duties were chiefly of a finan- 
 cial or magisterial nature, although the Comes metallorum 
 may have been a sort of mining engineer. 
 
 But agencies came into play which overpowered the good 
 influence of the new system. The errors of the past were, 
 to a great extent, irremediable; the impoverished mines 
 could not compete with others more favorably situated ;' 
 and finally the irruptions of the barbarians on the borders 
 disturbed or destroyed the industry of many districts. The 
 serf-laborers were quite as likely to join the invaders as to 
 
 defend the mines against them. From the silence of the 
 later historians we may infer that mining in the Roman 
 empire declined rapidly after the third century; and after 
 the fifth century, when the barbarian hordes overwhelmed 
 with successive invasions the tottering empire of the west, it 
 ceased entirely. The Byzantines maintained it a little 
 longer, but after the seventh century they gradually sur- 
 rendered their mines to the conquering Arabs. The mines 
 of Asia Minor, Thrace, and Greece were the last which the 
 empire retained. The victorious barbarians no doubt 
 gleaned what they could from the abandoned works of their 
 predecessors. This was done, we know, by the Arabs in 
 Spain, the Franks in Gaul, and the Goths under Theodoric 
 in Italy. But we have no record of their manner of opera- 
 tion, nor can we say in what way the mining of mediaeval 
 times grew out of this ruin of ancient mining. There is a 
 chasm of centuries not bridged by historic records. 
 
 Mining' Law in the Middle Ages. — Mining is the only 
 industry which extends its activity into the earth's interior. 
 The accidental boundaries which topography or commerce 
 may give to landed estates can scarcely be the limits for the 
 extent of underground work, which is rather controlled by 
 the dimensions of subterranean mineral deposits. Mining was 
 therefore even in prehistoric times already separated, as an 
 independent industry, from other exploitations of the soil. 
 It is carried on neither within the same boundaries nor by 
 the same persons as agriculture. Under the influence of 
 this distinction peculiar legal relations were established in 
 Germany at a very early day, probably at the commence- 
 ment of systematic mining, which have for their subject the 
 subterranean deposits, and are not dependent upon the or- 
 dinary laws of property. In the form of a local custom, ob- 
 taining with remarkable uniformity in all the original cen- 
 tres of German mining, the principle of mining freedom 
 [Bergbaufreiheit) established itself, permitting all persons 
 to search for useful minerals, and granting to the discoverer 
 of such a deposit the rights of property within certain limits. 
 This principle of free mining emigrated with the German 
 miners to all places whither their enterprise extended itself, 
 and the original local custom became the general law. In 
 this existence of an estate in minerals, entirely independent 
 of the estate in soil, lies the distinctive character of German 
 mining law. It is eminently a special law, not subordinate 
 to the civil law, but co-ordinate with it. Its rules and max- 
 ims are self-created, and based upon its own peculiar exper- 
 ience. Where the mining freedom of which we have spoken 
 does not exist, where the owner of the soil possesses, as in 
 England, the exclusive right to the minerals contained in it, 
 there can be no such thing as a distinct mining law. 
 
 The Roman law gave, as a rule, the mineral right to the 
 land owner ; but the opposite principle seems to have sprung 
 up spontaneously in Germany. The earliest record of the 
 German custom is the mining treaty between Bishop Al- 
 brecht, of Trent, and the miners immigrating from Germany 
 to that locality, bearing date March 24, 1185. In 1208 the 
 mining customs were officially announced in Trent. The 
 formation of the Iglau code in Moravia took place about 
 1250, and this system was rapidly extended through Bohemia 
 also. The Schemnitz law in Hungary was formed somewhat 
 latter, but coincides exactly with that of Iglau. The code 
 of Freiberg, in Saxony, was probably brought from the 
 Harz, since Freiberg was first settled by Goslar miners. Its 
 publication took place in the 14Lh century. The mining 
 regulations of Massa, in Tuscana, date from the middle of 
 the 13th century. The uniformity of these laws is strik- 
 ing, and extends not only to the common principle of free 
 mining, but to special provisions thereunder, and even to 
 certain formulated maxims, which lead us irresistibly to the 
 conclusion that they have in the transmitted habits and tra- 
 ditions of wandering miners their common origin. This 
 was much earlier than the records above cited. Mining is 
 known to have been carried on by the Germans at Andreas- 
 berg, in the Harz, since anno Domini 972 by the pawing of 
 a steed, named Rammel, tied to a tree in the forest. Before 
 the return of the master the horse had " developed " a prom- 
 ising vein of ore, and the mountain was baptized in his 
 honor. The Freiberg district was discovered about 1165, by 
 a teamster of Goslar, who picked up a rich specimen of ore 
 while passing through the then unpopulated region. A stam- 
 pede of miners from Goslar, and the opening of many valu- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 547 
 
 able mines, was the result. Since 1547 the mines of Frei- 
 berg have been steadily producing. The mines of St. Anna- 
 berg were discovered by one Daniel, said to have beep 
 guided by a celestial flame. The mines of Schneeberg were 
 found about 1470 by a specie pedlar from Zwickau, who, 
 travelling by this mountain, noticed a discoloration of the 
 soil, and set some laborers at work. In 1477 the great mass 
 of native silver was found at Schneeberg, and honored by 
 the elector Ernest, who used it on a memorial occasion as 
 a dining table. It was a slab nearly a foot thick, and about 
 12 feet long by 6 broad. When it was melted, it yielded 
 some 20 tons of silver. The mines of Marienberg date from 
 1521, and those of Mansfeld, which are still prosperous, 
 from 1199. But older than any of these is Hungarian min- 
 ing, which can be traced as far back as A. D. 750. Reite- 
 maier* says the German mines were undeniably opened by 
 miners from Gaul ; but I think it fair to conjecture from the 
 great antiquity of Hungarian mining, that there was also a 
 direct current of progress from the east, perhaps not uncon- 
 nected with those operations of the Danube to which allu- 
 sion was made in a previous chapter. Whatever mining the 
 Gauls did was done under Roman law, and certainly there 
 is no trace of that law in the history of German mining. In 
 this case, as in many others, the tide of Latin ideas broke 
 ill vain upon the rocky Saxon character, and retreating left 
 no marks but such as time speedily erased. 
 
 The earliest records of mining law in the middle ages do not 
 create, they only recognize and establish, the customs which 
 were even then already old. If the source of these customs 
 is lost in obscurity, so also is their gradual development ; for, 
 as I have said, the earliest publication of them was made in 
 Trent — in other words, in a foreign land, where they came 
 into collision with existing systems. Of their peaceful 
 growth at home we have no trace. They suddenly appear 
 in history, adult and strong. But they soon met with op- 
 position and modification at home, where the emperor and 
 the territorial sovereigns laid claim, at the end of the 12th 
 century, to the mining royalty. The German mining law is 
 a product of this antagonism — ^a compound of mining free- 
 dom with mining royalty — [Bergfrdheit und Bergregal.) 
 The contest between the two principles occupied part of the 
 13th and 14th centuries. It was the south against the north, 
 Egypt against Siberia. The proud dynasty of Hohenstau- 
 fen began the war. Frederick I claimed the mines of Trent 
 as imperial royalties, [regalia,] and forced the bishop to ac- 
 cept a lease of them. The mines themselves were not inter- 
 fered with. All that the emperor desired was a recognition 
 of his prerogative, as a support to future claims ; and, in gen- 
 eral, the struggle of the German emperors for the royalty of 
 mines was prompted, not by their desire to appropriate and 
 work them, but by their claim of the right to levy on mining 
 imperial taxes, independently of the different legislatures 
 and sovereigns of the empire. Meanwhile, the territorial 
 rulers saw their advantage in promptly adopting and em- 
 ploying for their own interest the theory of royalty, and 
 finally the owners of the soil made themselves heard, and 
 obtained a certain recognition of their claims to some non- 
 precious metals. 
 
 During this conflict of ideas contradictory principles were 
 proclaimed by different parties ; and the thirteenth century 
 presents a scene of confusion and uncertainty as to the re- 
 lations of emperor, prince, landlord, and miner. The fa- 
 mous "Golden Bull" of Emperor Charles IV, dated Janu- 
 ary 9, 1356, simplified the contest by excluding from it _ two 
 of the conflicting parties. That emperor was more inclined 
 to augment his hereditary power as a Bohemian prince 
 than to increase the prerogatives of his imperial authority, 
 which would pass to some other German sovereign after his 
 death. He therefore, in the imperial law referred to, sur- 
 rendered the claims of the emperor in favor of the electors ; 
 and in fact the result of this partial surrender was the act- 
 ual exercise of mining royalty by all the other sovereigns, 
 as well as the electors. But the Golden Bull excluded also 
 the land owner, putting all metals, precious and base, together 
 with salines, under one rule, namely, the right of the terri- 
 torial sovereign. Two forces were now left face to face, the 
 royalty of ttie princes, recogized by the emperor, and 
 
 * Geschichte des Bergbaues, etc. bei den Alten Volkern, p. 150. 
 
 the principle of free mining, already repeatedly recognized 
 to a greater or less extent by the princes themselves. The 
 relations of these two forces were not determined by the 
 Golden Bull, which left the princes free to enforce their 
 claims as far as they had already done so, or might be able 
 to do so in future. The issue of the conflict, thus left to 
 time, was different in different states ; but the essential vic- 
 tory remained with the miners. The princes recognized the 
 right of free prospecting and the right of the discoverer to 
 the mineral deposit discovered, reserving to themselves 
 only the usual tribute (finally the tithe) and the rights of 
 police and magisterial jurisdiction. But although mining 
 freedom thus obtained practical recognition, the rights of 
 the sovereigns were exercised in exceptional cases in oppo- 
 sition to this principle. Mines and whole mining districts 
 were granted without reference to the discovery ; and the 
 occasional feature of special grants was accepted as a part 
 of the jurisprudence of mines. The procedure necessary 
 to obtain property in minerals also suffered a change. Mere 
 occupation by the discoverer was no longer sufficient ; he 
 must "denounce" his claim, and obtain his lease from the 
 prince or his delegate — generally a regularly constituted of- 
 fice or court of mines, (liergamt, Bergbehorde.) The max- 
 im was still preserved, " The first finder is the first claim- 
 ant ;" but the greater weight was laid upon the " denuncia- 
 tion," [Muthung,] and the right of the discoverer was for- 
 feited if he failed within a brief period to make his dis- 
 covery known in the appointed manner. The princes of 
 different states made use of their power to extend and mod- 
 ify existing regulations, so that mining codes proper took 
 the place of the mass of traditional usages which had ac- 
 cumulated through four centuries, and which have been 
 called by partial analogy the common law of mines. 
 
 German Mining Codes of the Sixteenth and 
 Seventeenth Centuries. — One of the first steps taken by 
 sovereigns to confirm by exercise their rights of royalty, 
 was the endowment of certain cities and districts with pe- 
 culiar privileges, on account of their mines. Turin and 
 Vallensasco, in Italy ; Mont Saut, in Languedoc ; Truro and 
 Pensance, in Cornwall ; the Isle of Wight ; Griinberg, En- 
 gleberg, and Melchthal, in the canton of Underwalden ; 
 several iron mines in the canton of Berne; the Black Erz- 
 berg, in the valley of Filisur; Mount Guntzen, in the Alps ; 
 Goldberg, Reichstein, Zuckmantel, Kupferberg, and Gieren, 
 in Silesia; Cremnitz, Schemnitz, Altsol, Neusol, Konigs- 
 berg, Puggany, Tyller, and Eperies, in Hungary ; Smaland 
 in Sweden ; and Casan in Tartary, are examples of this 
 practice outside of Germany. The mining cities of Germany 
 were very numerous. The Harz alone contained seven, 
 which exist to this day, St. Andreasberg, Altenau, Claus- 
 thal, Zellerfeld, Grund, Lautenthal, and Goslar. In Saxo- 
 ny, and particularly in the realm of the Counts of Meissen, 
 was the ancient and honorable free mining city" of Frei- 
 berg, originally called Freistein, the origin of which is in- 
 teresting as an illustration of the history of the period. 
 The Freiberg district, as I have said, was discovered about 
 1165 by a teamster of Goslar, (the locality of the famous 
 Rammelsberg mines in the Brunswickian Harz) and first 
 settled by miners from that place. A few years after, Duke 
 Otto of Brunswick quarrelled with his director of mines, 
 (Bergvogf,) and the latter, to revenge himself, marched to 
 Saxony with all his workmen. They were joyfully welcom- 
 ed by the Margrave, who not only granted them extraordi- 
 nary privileges, but also, for the protection of the Freiberg 
 mines in those uncertain times, surrounded them in 1176 
 with walls, and built the castle of Freistein in the midst of 
 them. Saxony has many other mining cities, among which 
 may be named St. Annaberg, Schneeberg, St. Georgenstadt, 
 Schwarzenberg, Marienberg, localities of silver mining, and 
 Altenberg, Eibenstock, Scheibenberg, Wolkenstein, and 
 Ehrenfriedersdorf, localities of iron and tin mining. Arens- 
 berg at Cologne, and the copper mines of Riegelsdorf in 
 Hesse, are also mentioned among the privileged mining dis- 
 tricts. Watering-places were generally favored also, as ap- 
 pears from the following passage in an old essay on mining 
 royalty : 
 
 Regarding mineral springs, hot and metallic baths, it is not con- 
 sidered that a great prince should make a royalty of them, or 
 demand of the guests at such places any payment for their use. For 
 
548 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING IINTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Almighty God did^not cause these springs to flow for the sake of 
 princes and rich people only, but also, and perhaps chiefly, for the 
 healing of the poor. And it is to be feared that they may dry up, 
 if this gift is abused, as indeed was the case with the Griesbach, not 
 far from Strasburg, the water of which disappeared when a certain 
 duty was imposed upon the spring, but reappeared again as soon as 
 the duty was removed. For this reason the Emperor, Charles IV, 
 granted a privilege to the Wildbad of the Canton Berne. If a 
 prince, however, should tax lightly the guests at any spa and use 
 the money for their benefit, as, for instance, in the erection of a 
 church in that place, he may not be reproved. 
 
 The principal German mining codes [Bergordnungen] of 
 this period are those of Electoral Saxony, Cremnitz and 
 Schemnitz in Hungary, Treves, Joachimsthal, Brunswick- 
 Liineberg, Zohnstein, ha. There is also a Danish mining 
 code, and a good statement of general principles in the cel- 
 ebrated work of Agricola, Be Be Metallica. It would be 
 scarcely profitable at this time to review these different sys- 
 tems in detail, or to burden the general description which I 
 propose to give with constant reference to particular sources 
 of information. It will be quite sufficient for my purpose 
 to present a picture of those features in which the codes of 
 this period substantially agree, in order to show the general 
 nature of the system which obtained throughout middle 
 Europe during the period of " paternal government " — a 
 period when political economy was imperfectly understood, 
 and the doctrine that sovereigns might interfere for their 
 own private ends with individual industry was replaced by 
 the notion that governments ought to regulate for the gen- 
 eral good all the affairs of the people. 
 
 It was principally the flow of precious metals, and after- 
 wards of other products, from America to Europe which 
 brought the industrial problem of the sixteenth and seven- 
 teenth century, and placed commerce in antagonism with 
 the hitherto accepted maxims of government. At the end 
 of the fifteenth century the value of the precious metals in 
 Europe reached its maximum. The price of grain in 1494 
 was only half as much as in 1399; bnt it rose in the six- 
 teenth century, (or, in other words, gold fell) to three times, 
 and in the seventeenth century to five times, the price of 
 1494. The effect of this change on mining was disastrous ; 
 and the arbitrary measures taken, in accordance with the 
 spirit of the age, to abate the evil, of course failed of their 
 intended effect. It must be remembered that at this time 
 the laws regulating the guilds prescribed precisely how 
 many masters, journeymen and apprentices there should be 
 in every trade, and what wares they might or might not 
 produce ; workmen were not allowed to labor outside of 
 their proper city ; heavy penalties attended the importation 
 of any article which, in the opinion of the guilds, could as 
 well be manufactured at home. It is not surprising that 
 mining also was administered by the state under a bureau- 
 cratic system, and on false notiong of political economy. It 
 is amusing to read that in one instance the increase of the 
 number of coal mines was forbidden, lest the expense of so 
 many deep workings should raise the price of coal, while, at 
 the same time, the owners of mines nearest the market were 
 prevented from working, because it would not be fair to 
 those whose mines lay further away I In spite of such follies 
 as these, however, there grew up an elaborate, and, in many 
 respects, very wise system of administration, much of which 
 has remained to the present day, and is well worthy to be 
 studied. 
 
 A scheme of the organization of this industry would be 
 something like the following : 
 
 1. The sovereign. 
 ' 2. The director of mines, (Berghaupimann.) This oflicer 
 represents the government, and is the highest authority. 
 There may be more than one in the same state if it is a large 
 one. Prussia recently had five, besides one chief director of 
 mines, who was at the same time a sort of minister without 
 a vote ( Vortragender Bath) in the royal cabinet. 
 
 3. Mining councillor (Bergrath.) ' These are inspecting 
 and consulting officers, who make periodical tours through 
 the districts under their charge, and report to their superior. 
 The director of mines and the councillors include within 
 their duties also the administration of smelting works ; but 
 all ranks below them are restricted to one or the other de- 
 partment. 
 
 4. Master of mines, master of furnaces, {Bergmeister, Hut- 
 
 tenmeister.) This officer has charge of a single district, and 
 inspects weekly. 
 
 5. Sworn inspectors of mines or of furnaces, {Berggeschwo- 
 rene, Pochgeschworene.) These officers inspect daily. 
 
 6. Surveyor, (Markscheider.) 
 
 These six grades must be filled by men of thorough educa- 
 tion as well as experience. 
 
 7. Captains and foremen, (Bergsteiger, Pochsteiger, Unter- 
 steiger.) These officers may or may not be graduates of 
 schools. They are chosen for their faithfulness and prac- 
 tical ability, and are constantly under the supervision of the 
 various inspecting engineers. 
 
 8. At the smelting works there are assayers, counter- 
 assayers, &c., and there is a paymaster {iSehichtmeister) elec- 
 ted by the miners and confirmed by the mining court, who 
 takes charge of the accounts of several mines at once. 
 
 This is an outline of the system which still prevails sub- 
 stantially in Germany. I am far from recommending, as 
 the sequel will show, the adoption of such a plan by the 
 American government; but mining companies in different 
 districts would be greatly benefited if by free and voluntary 
 association they could effect a similar cheap and effective 
 administration. Under such a system the whole mining 
 enterprise of the Comstock lode could have been superin- 
 tended by the ablest men in the country at one-quarter the 
 expense which has been incurred under the multiplied 
 administrations of different companies. 
 
 As I have said, great weight is laid, in the ancient codes, 
 upon the denunciation of claims. Prospecting seems to 
 have been in most cases unhindered. Says a German writer : 
 
 Here occurs the question whether a private person has any right 
 to dig for and mine metals on the ground of another. A doubtful 
 question a priori, since " no one may go a-hunting on another's 
 land." It is also forbidden for any one to seek treasure on the land 
 of another, and we might naturally suppose gold and silver mines 
 to be meant ; nevertheless the contrary is declared, in view of the 
 general benefit from the production of metals, and the particular 
 advantage of the royalty to the coifers of the state. 
 
 This freedom of prospecting was, however, limited so far 
 that the foundations of buildings must not be injured, and 
 all damages done to the surface or to agriculture must be 
 paid. The discovery of a vein must be immediately made 
 known to the master of mines by a denunciation, either 
 written, or, if oral, then followed within three hours with a 
 written one. The master of mines must see that the first 
 discoverer is not cheated of his rights. He also exercises a 
 general authority over all the prospecting work, and when 
 the vein is actually exposed, he issues upon the denuncia- 
 tion aforesaid a permit to work it, (Ifuihzeitel, Ifuthschein.) 
 No such permit can be issued unless the denunciation con- 
 tains an accurate description of the locality of the vein ; 
 until such a definite statement is possible the work proceeds 
 merely as prospecting. After the permit is issued, the miner 
 may go on until he has developed the true dip and course 
 of the vein and opened it to a sufficient depth to require 
 "bucket and rope" for his operations. At this point the 
 master of mines orders a survey and location of the field, 
 which is then regularly leased .to the holder of the prelimi- 
 nary permit. Denunciations of placers {seifen) may also be 
 received, but the master must then visit the place in com- 
 pany with the royal gamekeeper and forester, and satisfy 
 himself that the proposed operations will not be hurtful to 
 timber, game, irrigating or draining canals, etc., when he 
 may give a license for placer mining. This license, how- 
 ever, he may revoke at anytime; and if wilful damage is 
 done in these respects by the placer miners, he may not only 
 eject them, but hold them for the repair of the said damage, 
 and even proceed, if required, to punish them for the wrong 
 committed. The erection of stamp-mills, etc., he may 
 authorize, if not to the injury of others already erected. All 
 mining leases require the work to be continuously prose- 
 cuted. Parties engaged in making preparatory shafts and 
 tunnels are allowed no interval, unless they are miners at 
 work part of the time elsewhere. This provision was 
 evidently intended to encourage prospecting by the work- 
 men in their leisure hours, and to give them a chance to 
 become mine owners on their own account ; but at the same 
 time to prevent capitalists from commencing work and then 
 dropping it, while continuing to claim such rights as would 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 549 
 
 exclude other adventurers. After the mines are open and 
 ore is struck, the making of the survey and application for a 
 lease is peremptory, and when the lease is once issued, cer- 
 tain delays, caused by natural necessity, are to be permitted. 
 Foul air or much water are good excuses. The longest in- 
 terval of idleness, however, must not exceed one quarter for 
 silver and two quarters for base metals. Other claimants 
 offering at any time during such an interval, " time is called" 
 upon the idle lessees, and they must presently resume oper- 
 ations or lose the lease, which may then be issued, uponnew 
 denunciation, to others. Parties receiving permits to reopen 
 abandoned mines are not obliged to specify the vein or veins 
 they will work, but must report them and take leases upon 
 them as soon as they are discovered. 
 
 Leases were generally subject to the royalty, usually 1-10 
 or 1-20 of gross product, paid to the sovereign. Where the 
 mines were upon private lands, the landlord received a 
 second tithe in lieu of damages. It was common also to 
 give the Elector, "by ancient usage," one-eighth of the 
 stock in every leased mine. This he retained, liable to the 
 same assessments as any other stockholder, and if he at any 
 time declined to pay his share of assessments his stock was 
 forfeit. Poor mines, and in many cases iron mines, were 
 freed from the oppressive tithe. Yet the coal mines were 
 frequently held subject to the metallic royalty. The Counts 
 of Schaumburg are said to have derived as much revenue 
 from coal as other princes from silver. In Holland and 
 Lower Saxony, even peat was laid under royalty, and it 
 was not uncommon to include the manufacture of saltpetre 
 in the same category. 
 
 Mining leases covered a certain area of the surface and 
 a space below the surface, either bounded by vertical planes 
 or by surfaces parallel with a dip of the vein. The first 
 was called a square location, (gevierdtfeld), and the second 
 an inclined location, [gestreektfeld). The practice of fol- 
 lowing to any distance outside of the vein leased the " dips, 
 spurs, and angles," was unknown ; and I am unable to dis- 
 cover any traces of it in ancient or modern times except 
 in the mining customs of this country. The possessor of 
 an inclined location was generally allowed to work about 
 30 feet in the hanging wall, and the same distance below 
 the foot wall, ( Vierung, viertehalb Lachter ins Hangende, 
 und viertehalb Lachter ins Liegende). Within these limits all 
 the ore discovered might be extracted by the lessee. In 
 cases of veins crossing the elder location took precedence, 
 but could only maintain the right to a zone of 30 feet on 
 each side of its vein. In cases of doubtful controversy the 
 matter was compromised by a union of the two mines. 
 The simple square location was applied to beds, masses, 
 and even to. true veins, when they possessed a dip of not 
 more than 15° below the horizontal plane. The size of this 
 kind of location varied with the locality and the circum- 
 stances, such as the number of associates or stockholders, 
 etc. A frequent size seems to have been about 200 feet 
 square, with the discovery shaft in the centre. The length 
 of a claim upon a vein was also variable. In Frieberg, I 
 believe, 400 feet were allowed ; in Hungary 200, and else- 
 where, ordinarily, 300. According to the general rule, the 
 discovery shaft stood in the middle of the claim. A mine 
 was generally divided into 128 shares, [Kuxe), which might 
 be held by one man, if he could afford it; but such was 
 scarcely ever the case. An old authority says, " a silver 
 mine needs thirty-two stockholders, a copper mine sixteen, 
 and a tin mine eight." Wood for timbering was furnished, 
 when possible, by the royal forester. Where there were no 
 crown lands and forests, the companies must agree with the 
 owners of timber, and it was the duty of the master to pre- 
 serve harmony and fair play between the two interests. 
 The mines were mostly worked under contracts with the 
 laborers, and the price per foot or fathom (Lachter-) was 
 fixed by the master and sworn inspector, according to the 
 varying hardness of rock and difficulty and danger of the 
 work. The driving of adits or deep tunnels was the privi- 
 lege of the prince, but it was almost universally permitted, 
 under certain regulations, to private parties. There were 
 peculiar rights connected with such a work. One was the 
 tunnel-right, (StoUeniheb), entitling the lessee to all ores 
 found within about eight feet (5 Viertellachter) above the 
 water level of the tunnel, and for a distance of two feet on 
 either side. The second right was the tunnel royalty { Stol- 
 
 lengerecMigheit), entitling the tunneller to one-ninth of the 
 profits of any mine drained and ventilated by his tunnel. 
 To gain this, however, the tunnel must really arid effec- 
 tively drain and ventilate ; and this royalty might be 
 taken away by the opening of a deeper tunnel, which 
 thus acquired the right to one-ninth the mining profits. 
 In order to gain either of these privileges a tunnel must 
 be a certain distance "under grass," in Saxony 70 feet, 
 and in some states as much as 120. A new tunnel, in 
 order to be entitled to the royalty already enjoyed by 
 an older one, must strike the mine at least 30 feet deeper. 
 Special contracts were frequently made between tunnels and 
 mines, by virtue of which, when the ninth was too onerous 
 and the mine was in danger of failure, a lower royalty was 
 accepted. 
 
 The Spanish Mining La'w. — The essential features of 
 this law were given in the first report of Hon. J. Ross Brown, 
 and I shall only recapitulate a few important facts in regard 
 to it, referring to that report and to the full compilation of 
 Mr. Rockwell.^ The royal ordinance of the King of Spain 
 published in 1783, has been ever since substantially in force 
 in Mexico. It asserts the right of sovereignty over all spe- 
 cies of metal, and authorizes the concession of mineral rights 
 only while the mine is worked. It is also very full in its 
 directions as to the manner of mining, experience, having 
 shown that a mere temporary ownership of mines tends to a 
 reckless and insecure method of exploitation. This law is 
 remarkable for an attempt to reconcile the two systems of 
 square and inclined locations by an elaborate graduation of 
 the size and shape of the surface claim according to the dip 
 of the vein. Chapter VIII of the ordinance, containing 
 this plan deserves to be quoted. It runs as follows : 
 
 Section 1. — Experience having shown that the equality of the 
 mine mea-sures established on the surface cannot be maintained 
 under ground, where, in fact, the mines are chiefly valuable, it 
 being certain that the greater or less inclination of the vein upon 
 the plane of the horizon must render the respective properties in 
 the mine greater or smaller, so that the true and effective im- 
 partiality which it has been desired to show towards all subjects 
 of equal merit has not been preserved ; but, on the contrary, it has 
 often happened that when a miner, after much expense and labor, 
 begins at last to reach an abundant and rich ore he is obliged to 
 turn back, as having entered on the property of another, which 
 latter may have denounced the neighboring mine, and thus stationed 
 himself with more art than industry — this being one of the greatest 
 and most frequent causes of litigation and dissension among the 
 miners — and considering that the limits established in the mines 
 of the kingdoms, and by which those of New Spain have been 
 hitherto regulated, are very confined in proportion to the abun- 
 dance, multitude, and richness of the metallic veins which it has 
 f leased the Creator of his great bounty to bestow on these regions, 
 order and command that in the mines where new veins, or veins 
 unconnected with each other shall be discovered, the following 
 measures shall in future be observed : 
 
 Sec. 2. — On the course and direction of the vein, whether gold, 
 silver or other metal, I grant to every miner, without any distinc- 
 tion in favorofthe-discoverer, whose rewardhas been specified,^ 200 
 yards, taken on a level, as hitherto understood. 
 
 Sec. 3. — To make it what they call a square, that is, making a 
 right angle with the preceding measure, supposing the descent or 
 inclination of the vein to be sufficiently shown by the opening 
 or shaft of ten yards, the portion shall be measured by the follow- 
 ing rule : 
 
 Sec. 4. — Where the vein is perpendicular to the horizon, (a case 
 which seldom occurs,) one hundred level yards shall be measured on 
 either side of the vein, or divided on both sides, as the miner may 
 prefer. 
 
 Sec. 5. — But when the vein is inclined, (which is the most usual 
 case,) its greater or less degree of inclination shall be attended to 
 in the following manner : 
 
 Sec. 6. — If to one yard perpendicular the inclination be from 
 three fingers to two palms,' the same hundred yards shall be 
 allowed for the square, as iu the case of a vertical vein. 
 
 ^ A Compilation of Spanish and Mexican Law in Relation to 
 Mines, &c., by J. A. Rockwell, New York, 1851. 
 
 2 The reward of the discoverer (chap, iv, sees. 1 and 2) consists 
 in three " portions " of the vein when in a mountain where no shaft 
 nor mine has ever been opened before, and two portions when in 
 a mountain known and worked in other parts. This grant is condi- 
 tioned upon denunciation within ten days, and like all others, be- 
 comes void by four months' neglect to work the mines. 
 
 3 This corresponds to a " dip," as now estimated by mining engi- 
 neers, measured by the angle between the plane of the lode and 
 that of the horizon, of 85" 25' to 63° 20'. In the following section 
 
550 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Sec. 7. — If to the vertical yard there shall be a departure of— 
 
 Amourti of departure. 
 
 Two palms, three fingers . 
 Two palms, six fingers . . 
 Two palms, nine fiagers. . 
 
 Three palms 
 
 Three palms, three fingers 
 Three palms, six fingers . 
 Three palms, nine fingers . 
 Four palms 
 
 Side of square allowed. 
 
 n2i yards 
 125 yards. 
 137J yards 
 150 yards . 
 H»2i yards 
 175 yards. 
 1875 yards. 
 200 yards . 
 
 Dip. in de- 
 grees. 
 
 m° 39^ 
 
 58° 
 
 65° 30* 
 63° 08* 
 60° 65* 
 48° 50* 
 46° 60* 
 45° 
 
 Depth. 
 
 200 yards, 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 So that if to one vertical yard there correspond a departure of four 
 palms, which are equal to a yard, the miner shall be allowed 200 
 yards on the square of the declivity of the vein, and so on with the 
 rest. 
 
 Sec. 8. — And supposing that in the prescribed manner any miner 
 should reach the perpendicular depth of 200 yards, by which he 
 may commonly have much exhausted the vein, and that those veins 
 which have greater inclination ' than yard for yard, that is to say 
 of 45 degrees, are either barren or of little e.'ctent, it is my sovereign 
 will that although the declivity may be greater ^ than the above 
 mentioned measures, no one shall exceed the square of 200 level 
 yards, so that the same shall always be the breadth of [claim 
 upon] the said vems by the length of 200 yards, as declared above. 
 _ Sec. 9. — However, if any mine owner, suspecting a vein to run 
 in a contrary direction to his own, (which rarely happens,) should 
 choose to have some part of his square [laid off] in a direction oppo- 
 site to that of his principal vein, it may be granted to him provided 
 there shall be no injury or prejudice to a third person thereby. 
 
 Sec. 10.— [Provides that banks, beds, or other accidental deposi- 
 tories of gold or silver shall be apportioned into claims by the 
 miners themselves, attention being paid to the richness of the place 
 and to the number of applicants, and preference given only to the 
 discoverer. The government reserves the right to revise such local 
 mining regulations so as to prevent unfair dealing.] 
 
 Sec. H.— The portions being regulated in the manner described 
 above, the denouncer [that is, each claimant) shall have his share 
 measured at the time of taking possession of the mine, and he shall 
 erect around hia boundaries, stakes or landmarks, such as shall be 
 secure and easy to be distinguished, and enter into an obligation 
 to keep and observe them forever, without being able to change 
 them; though he may allege tliat his vein varied in course or di- 
 rection, (which is an unlikely circumstance: but he must content 
 himself with the lot which Providence decreed him, and enjoy it 
 without disturbing his neighbors. If, however, he should have no 
 neighbors, or if he can without injury to his neighbors, make an 
 improvement by altering the stakes and boundaries, it may be 
 permitted him in such case, with previous intervention, cogni- 
 zance, and authority of the deputy of the district, who shall cite 
 and hear the parties, and determine whether the causes for such 
 encroachment are le^^itimate. 
 
 It is frequently said that the Spanish mining law is the 
 best that was ever devised. It certainly is one of the most 
 elaborate, and perhaps was well fitted to the knowledge and 
 social conditions of the era when it was formed. But a care- 
 ful study of it is sufficient to show that it is now antiquated. 
 The chapter above quoted, for instance, is evidently based 
 on two assumptions : first, that mineral veins very seldom 
 change their course and dip, and that an opening ten yards 
 deep is enough to show what these characters are ; and 
 second, that no mine can be profitably worked to a greater 
 depth than 200 yards. The first of these assumptions is not 
 justified by experience ; and the second has long since been 
 rendered obsolete by the steam-engine, deep tunnels, and 
 other appliances of modern engineering. The Spanish 
 system in Mexico has certainly stimulated mining, after a 
 fashion, in that country. The mines of Mexico have pro- 
 duced vast quantities of bullion, but a closer examination 
 reveals that the art of mining itself has made little progress ; 
 t"e lack of permanent proprietorship has led to reckless 
 robbery of mineral deposits ; very valuable veins have been 
 80 unskillfully opened as to render deep workings impos- 
 sible ; the profits of mining have not been expended in 
 
 I have_ added to each specification the dip in degrees, and also the 
 depth in yards at which, according to this law, the vein, i.f it held 
 
 bormt onf '■^' ^'^^ ""' "^ ^^^ ™'°'"S ^^^^ "'*° *® ""^h- 
 
 l,('J'"V°'''^/' '"^l'""*'"" " is the same as I have previously trans- 
 lated departure," and a greater inclination than 45 decrees would 
 tifinli".? ''" P'J.T ^' ""J-^^^^^y oie, that is, the vein would dip less 
 below ^''^'""™°- ^'^ """"^^ °" this section, 
 2 Less. 
 
 permanent improvements, but either carried out of the 
 country or wasted in civil wars ; in short, Mexico has been 
 plundered, not developed. She is just so much poorer to- 
 day by the millions she has yielded to man ; and those 
 millions are proof only of the magnificent endowment which 
 nature bestowed upon the land, not of any extraordinary 
 wisdom in its administration. At the present time the 
 policy of the Mexican government is to tax mining just as 
 much as it will bear. A recent reduction in the exorbitant 
 charges upon the extraction and exportation of bullion was 
 the result merely of the determination of the mining com- 
 panies to stop work if these tyrannical exactions were con- 
 tinued ; and I do not yet see the signs of an intelligent and 
 liberal policy towards this industry. The spirit of old Spain, 
 which regarded the treasures of the earth as a prize to be 
 avariciously grasped and selfishly appropriated, is still 
 dominant in republican Mexico. An indolent people 
 desires mining to prosper, not that agriculture, manufac- 
 tures, and all other forms of industry may also prosper, 
 but that all these industries may be unnecessary. The cure 
 for this evil is to alienate the mines from the government, 
 make them private property, put them on a level with other 
 property, relieve them from unjust taxation, and make them 
 a part of a wise general system of internal administration. 
 Whether such a change could besiffected as would extend 
 the miner's title along the dip of the vein in depth, I do not 
 pretend to decide. In Prussia the inclined location has 
 been abolished ; but that country has been so long the 
 scene of mining operations that almost every group of 
 mineral veins has been sufficiently explored to determine 
 its peculiarities. Hence, by a proper selection of ground 
 on the surface, a mining lessee may secure all the advan- 
 tages of an inclined location. Whatever be the case in 
 Mexico in this respect, it is, I think, quite necessary at 
 present in our comparatively unexplored mining regions to 
 give the miner what in early days the German law gave 
 him, the right to follow his vein. 
 
 Modern German Codes. — The elaborate adminis- 
 tration of the mining interest on the part of the state which 
 characterized Germany in the middle ages is giving way to 
 a more democratic policy. Even so late as a century ago, 
 the mining code of Frederick the Great made it the duty of 
 the authorities to superintend all mining operations, to in- 
 augurate them in one district, regulate them according to 
 scientific principles in another, or sustain and protect them 
 where they were already properly established. This policy 
 is no longer necessary. The spread of knowledge and the 
 activity of commerce renders it safe to leave to the mining 
 communities in the main the management of their own 
 affairs. The new Prussian mining law, which took effect 
 October 1, 1866, replacing the former systems of Prussia, 
 Nassau, Hanover, Electoral Hesse, Frankfort, and other 
 provinces, presents the best example of the modern idea, in 
 which education takes the place of government ; and I shall 
 content myself with a brief review of its characteristic 
 features, omitting any detailed description of the present 
 codes of Austria, Saxony, and other German states, as pro- 
 longing too far this already extended historical sketch. 
 
 1. According to the general mining law of Prussia,^ the 
 following minerals are excluded from the proprietary rights 
 of the land-owner; Gold, silver, quicksilver, iron, (with the 
 exception of bog-iron ores,) lead, copper, tin, zinc, cobalt, 
 nickel, arsenic, manganese, antimony, sulphur, ores of alum 
 and vitriol, pit coal, brown coal, graphite rock salt and other 
 salts occurring with it, and salt springs. These minerals are 
 objects of mining, and the law" prescribes the manner in 
 which a title to them can be obtained. The state surrenders 
 entirely its claim to mineral rights, and stands henceforward 
 on the same footing as private citizens, retaining only the 
 rights of police, justice, and finance, which it exercises over 
 every other form of property and labor. Special grants, 
 made under the ancient system, are not interfered with. To 
 be properly objects of mining, the minerals enumerated 
 must be (1) in their natural deposits, and (2) in such forms 
 as can be utilized. Alluvial deposits, such as gold or tin 
 
 ^Perhaps the best manuals on this subject are those of Mining 
 Councillor R. Klostermann, Berlin, and Director A. Huyssen, of 
 Halle, both of which I have freely used, in various portions of this 
 report. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 651 
 
 placers, are included; the rare metals, precious stones, 
 amber, petroleum, &c., are either left to the land-owner or 
 made subject to special regulations. Marble and building 
 stone generally are not held as objects of mining. In 
 provinces once Saxon, as in the present kingdom of Saxony, 
 coal belongs to the owner of the surface. 
 
 2, Prospecting, [Schurfen,) whether by open cuts, pits, 
 shafts, tunnels, or bore-holes, is allowed to all under the fol- 
 lowing limitations : It must not be carried on upon any pub- 
 lic square, street, or railway, nor in grave-yards, nor in 
 places where the authorities forbid it on grounds of public 
 interest, nor, without express consent of the owner, within 
 200 feet of any building on grounds belonging to the same, 
 nor in gardens or yards. Whoever wishes to prospect on the 
 grounds of another must seek his permission, but. every land- 
 owner must give such permission to all applicants, unless 
 some one of the objections above enumerated can be shown 
 to exist. Probable injury to wells, mineral springs, ponds, 
 or neighboring mines is sufficient ground for prevention of 
 prospecting by the mining authorities. The prospector is 
 bound to pay the land-owner annually in advance for the 
 use of his land, if it be necessarily withdrawn by the pros- 
 pecting operations from other uses, and to return it to him 
 at the close of such occupancy, with damages for any de- 
 preciation of its value. All disputes arising are settled by 
 the proper court. The prospector must make formal appli- 
 cation in every case to the authorities, and receive the 
 necessary license, before commencing to work. The pro- 
 prietor of mines in operation cannot forbid prospecting in his 
 field for metals to which he has not acquired the right; but, 
 like the land-owner, he may demand security in advance for 
 possible damages to his own property ; and, when the new 
 prospecting work actually threatens the safety or the undis- 
 turbed operation of the older mines, the authorities may re- 
 fuse to allow it. But the owner of a mine has the preferred 
 right to apply for permission to work for other metals than 
 those already granted to him if the authorities decide that 
 the former had better be mined in common with the latter. 
 If the prospector, therefore, discovers them, the previous 
 miner in the same field may claim them. 
 
 3. The discovery of a vein must be followed by its regular 
 denunciation, {Muthung.) This act, like the recording of a 
 claim in American mining districis, gives the miner at once 
 the right of property in the mineral. The denunciation, 
 which is also an application for license to mine, is made in 
 writing, aad in duplicate. Each copy is endorsed with the 
 day and hour of presentation to the authorities, and one is 
 then returned to the applicant. It must contain the name 
 and residence of the applicant, the name of the metal or 
 metals to be mined, a description of the locality in which 
 the vein or deposit has been discovered, and the title by 
 which the mine is to be known. A title already applied to 
 a mine in the same district is not allowable. As I have 
 said, the mere presentation of this document gives the appli- 
 cant a prima facie ownership ; but this right is still con- 
 ditioned upon the investigation of the mining authorities, 
 as to the validity of the alleged discovery. The metal or 
 metals mentioned must be found, by official examination, to 
 exist at the point described, in natural deposit, i. e., not 
 brought there by human agency, and in such quantity as to 
 justify mining. The latter question is a delicate one, and 
 the facts are generally construed with great liberality towards 
 the applicant, who, after all, assumes the greatest risk of 
 loss, if the deposit be poor. But certainly the rights of a 
 land-owner are not to be disturbed to favor some crack- 
 brained adventurer who has found a seam of coal an inch 
 thick, or a lump of galena as large as a walnut. Under this 
 rule the mining authorities of Bonn refused to grant a license 
 on the strength of a few particles of pyrites in therock. It 
 should be also borne in mind that such a refusal is no real 
 hardship to the prospector, unless he desires to deceive some 
 one, or the public, as to the value of his claim. He is still 
 free to continue prospecting as before. Finally, the authori- 
 ties have to be satisfied that the proposed concession of a 
 mining field does not confiict with the rights of other parties, 
 whether earlier discoverers or neighboring mine-owners. 
 For this purpose due notice must be giveu, and a certain 
 time allowed. Meanwhile, the applicant must have the field 
 surveyed by the official surveyor, and file duplicate maps, 
 upon which the discovery-point and boundaries are laid 
 
 down. This must be done within six weeks after the denun- 
 ciation, otherwise the latter fails of validity — a very impor- 
 tant provision calculated to secure the bona-Jide prosecution 
 of a claim by the discoverer. The actual discoverer of a 
 vein has, for one week after his discovery, the prior claim, 
 even though another make earlier denunciation ; but after 
 the lapse of that period the date of denunciation determines 
 priority of right. 
 
 4. Mining rights are granted, as far as possible, in fields 
 bounded on the surface by straight lines, and in depth by 
 vertical planes. The ancient custom of granting " inclined 
 locations " on the dip of the vein is thus entirely abolished, 
 and modern authorities in Europe do not hesitate to con- 
 demn it as productive of great uncertainty and litigation. 
 The size of the field on the surface may be' a little over five 
 acres in most parts of Prussia, but is restricted to a quarter of 
 an acre in a few districts, for special reasons. Theae areas 
 give only the maximum ; of course smaller fields may be 
 granted. The shape of the field may vary, straight lines 
 being the boundaries, and the greatest length not exceeding 
 for a five-acre field about 13,600 feet (2,000 Prussians Lach- 
 fer or fathoms,) and for a quarter-acre field one-fourth that 
 distance. The discovery-point must lie within the field, 
 though not necessarily in the centre. 
 
 5. All preliminaries being complete, the deed ( Verhihung- 
 surkunde) is made out in the name of the king, and pub- 
 lished in the official newspaper of the district. It contains 
 the name, business, and residence of the grantee, the name 
 of the mine, the area and boundaries of the field, with a 
 description of its location as to parish, county, civil and 
 mining districts, the names of the metals to be mined, the 
 date, and the seal and signature of the authorities. Three 
 months are allowed for the assertion of conflicting claims, 
 after which the rights of such claimants, in ordinary cases, 
 expire. 
 
 Under certain conditions, which I will not pause to enu- 
 merate, the consolidation of adjacent mines is permitted. 
 The division of one field into several, or the exchange be- 
 tween neighboring mines of portions of their respective 
 fields, is generally permitted by the authorities ; but such 
 divisions or exchanges are not permitted as would leave 
 segregated mining fields too small to be worked indepen- 
 dently. 
 
 6. The nature of the property thus conveyed to the gran- 
 tee is defined as "the right to obtain and utilize the miner- 
 als excluded for reasons of political economy from the title 
 of the land-owner, and to construct, above and under ground, 
 all necessary buildings and apparatus for this purpose." 
 This right may be sold, mortgaged, and levied upon, like 
 real estate. It must be exercised, however, under certain 
 regulations, justified by the general good, and fixed by the 
 state, and, when these conditions are not complied with, 
 the right itself may be impaired or forfeited. A few of the 
 more important conditions will be enumerated. The mine- 
 owner is bound to keep the mine in operation, if so required 
 by the authorities. It is no longer, as formerly, forbidden 
 to let a mine lie idle for more than a certain period. On 
 the contrary, work may be suspended at any time, without 
 the formal permission of the authorities ; and they can only 
 demand its resumption when clearly required by public in- 
 terests. A great lack of metals produced, and an impossi- 
 bility of obtaining a supply from other quarters, would be a 
 satisfactory reason for such a demand. The owner has six 
 months' time in which to comply with this demand, and, 
 even before it is issued, is entitled to a hearing of his pro- 
 test. He may also appeal to the minister of commerce. If 
 he intends to resume work, he gives the authorities four 
 weeks' notice of the fact. But if he fails to comply with 
 their demand, they may proceed to deprive him of his 
 grant, unless the circumstances which made the_ demand 
 proper have in the mean time changed. Every mine must 
 be worked according to a plan, which must previously be 
 submitted to the government officials, and approved by 
 them. If no objection is made, the mine-owner may pro- 
 ceed with his plan. If the plan is objected to, which can 
 only be on grounds of safety to the mine, the miners, and 
 the public, the mine owner must convince the authorities 
 that their objections are unfounded, or change his plan to 
 obviate them. Violation of this rule is punished with fine, 
 and if necessary the authorities may suspend operations at 
 
552 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the mine. Every mine must have an exact map of the un- 
 derground workings, and this must be periodically perfected 
 as the work advances. The responsible managers and super- 
 intendents of mines must be reported to the authorities, and 
 if necessary examined as to their capacity for their several 
 positions. If a person not recognized as competent by the 
 mining authorities is put in charge of a mine, they may 
 demand his removal, or suspend the operations of 
 the mine until a competent person is appointed. Superin- 
 tendents are responsible for the proper working of the mines 
 according to the plans agreed upon, and bound to afford the 
 proper officials free opportunity for inspecting the works, 
 and all desired information. The mine-owner is bound to 
 furnish, at stated periods, the statistical information called 
 for by the minister of commerce. He must also permit 
 persons bearing the permission of the authorities to 
 enter his works. (This provision is most beneficial to stu- 
 dents at a German school of mines, since they enjoy by vir- 
 tue of it an opportunity of studying practical operations, 
 such as they could not otherwise obtain.) 
 
 7. The mining authorities are: 1. The district officials 
 {Bevierbeamten ;) 2. The supreme mining bureaux ( Ober- 
 hergamter;) and 3. The minister of commerce. The dis- 
 trict officials are inspecting and reporting officers or survey- 
 ors. The names given in a previous chapter, on the codes 
 of the middle ages, are mostly retained, but the superinten- 
 dents and mining captains are no longer government officials. 
 The mining bureaus are presided over by the directors, as 
 formerly. They issue licenses and grants, and have the 
 general administration of the law in their hands. The min- 
 ister is appealed to in the last instance. 
 
 8. In addition to these authorities there are the courts, 
 the jurisdiction of which is determined by statutes, and is 
 not at present important for us to consider. It is, however, 
 a fact not without significance that all the German states 
 have various courts, in which cases arising in mining opera- 
 tions may be adjudicated, often without the tedious forms 
 attendant upon ordinary suits. The English court of the 
 stannaries is an institution of this kind, and the English 
 " cost-book " system of stock companies is also the counter- 
 part of the immemorial OewerJcschaften of Germany. Our 
 American mining districts contain many examples of min- 
 ing partnerships or associations of a similar character : and 
 no doubt it will be found advisable in the course of time to 
 establish courts and rules of procedure adapted especially 
 to this state of things, as has been done in all older states. 
 Further remarks on this subject will be found in the por- 
 tion on English mining law. 
 
 9. The Prussian law in respect to the taxation of mines 
 has been greatly simplified, but there still remain many 
 complicated provisions which must be regarded as legacies 
 of the past. In view of the history of that kingdom under 
 the most remarkable dynasty of modern times, its gradual 
 increase from the original limits of the little duchy of Bran- 
 denburg, by constant territorial acquisitions, to its present 
 imperial proportions, and the respect which it has always 
 shown towards existing laws and privileges, and towards its 
 own past contracts and grants, it is not wonderful that those 
 differences in legislation which I have mentioned in a previ- 
 ous chapter as growing up in the petty states of Germany 
 should still be to some extent perpetuated in the provinces 
 of Prussia. The present Prussian mining law is based upon 
 nearly a score of ancient codes, and recognizes many local 
 exceptions to its general provisions. There has been, how- 
 ever, a steady progress towards unity and simplicity, and the 
 gensral outline of this progress is instructive. According to 
 former laws all mines wei'e bound to pay the sovereign a 
 royalty of one-tenth of their gross product free of min- 
 ing cost to him. This was reduced by the law of 1851 to 
 one-twentieth ; by the law of 1861 a gradual decrease was 
 established amounting to one-fifth of the royalty per annum, 
 until the royalty should be reduced to two per cent. : by the 
 law of 1862 iron mines were declared entirely free of royal- 
 ty, and a new decree established with regard to all mines, 
 by virtue of which, after January 1, 1865, the royalty was to 
 be but one per cent. ; and this is the present amount paid to 
 the state under that head. The state pays its share of the 
 expenses of reducing ores, but receives its percentage of gross 
 product free of mining cost. 
 
 But in addition to the royalty there were formerly in- 
 numerable taxes and commissions paid by the mines to 
 cover the expenses of the scientific and financial administra- 
 tion carried on by the state. In some provinces (as I have 
 said in a previous chapter) the sovereign had a certain share 
 of the stock of every company as a complimentary gift; and 
 on this he could draw h^s dividends like any other stock- 
 holder, being bound at the same time to pay assessments 
 or forfeit his interest. There were quarterly dues, addi- 
 tional quarterly dues, dues for measurements, for specimens, 
 for inspections, for auditing accounts, for supervision and 
 direction, for affidavits, for weighing, for assaying, for 
 surveying, in short for every act which the government 
 officials performed ; and these were not fees but fixed sums 
 assessed upon the mines, as a hotel-keeper on the Rhine 
 charges for candles, attendance, etc., the same amount in 
 every guest's account. All these petty payments are now 
 abolished, and in place of them a regular " tax of super- 
 vision," amounting to one per cent, of the value of the 
 product, is levied on mines in actual operation. Wheu 
 surveys or other special services are performed for any 
 mine, the official is merely paid a proper fee for his labor. 
 Many of the services formerly performed by the officials 
 may now be done by others, the authorities reserving only 
 the right to insist ufion the employment of competent 
 persons. The tax of supervision of one per cent, is there- 
 fore nothing more than a contribution from the mines to 
 secure thorough scientific inspection and direction of their 
 works at a far cheaper rate than would be possible under 
 any other arrangement. What American mining company, 
 even among the wealthiest, could obtain the service of a 
 whole board of able engineers and metallurgists, such as the 
 directors and inspectors of every German mining district, by 
 the payment of one per cent, of its product? Certainly in 
 that vast number of our mines which are just beginning to 
 produce, and need more than any others wise counsel and 
 direction, much time, labor, and money are wasted, because 
 competent direction is too expensive. I think it possible to 
 devise a plan, not inconsistent with American ideas of in- 
 dividual liberty, by which the opportunity to acquire such 
 assistance may be afforded to our mining districts. But a 
 national school must first give us the material in the shape 
 of thoroughly trained engineers, before we can expect either 
 legislation or association to secure so great a reform. 
 
 To recapitulate : the Prussian law, apart from local ex- 
 ceptions, imposes a royalty of one per cent., which is net 
 revenue to the state, and a tax of one per cent., which the 
 state expends for the good of the mines themselves. I shall 
 urge, in the sequel, that the United States ought to repudiate 
 the whole doctrine of a royalty, as such, and leave the mines 
 free from taxation under that head. The late bullion tax 
 was something of that nature, and has properly been 
 abolished. But that the mines, thus relieved of all burdens, 
 may rightfully be required to contribute something toward 
 the expense of such necessary provisions for their own 
 benefit as they cannot make, in their isolated condition, for 
 themselves, is a far more reasonable proposition, and one 
 which deserves serious consideration. A tax far lighter 
 than the late bullion tax might be so expended as to save to 
 the mines themselves millions of dollars every year. 
 Prussia received from her mines, in 1865, a little over 
 $9,000,000 gold (American.) This was partly the product 
 of mines actually worked by the state, and partly the royalty 
 from others. The expense incurred by Prussia on account 
 of the mines in the same year was more than $7,000,000, 
 leaving a net profit of only $2,000,000. The steady reduc- 
 tion of taxes under such circumstances shows that the 
 government has adopted the wise and liberal policy of 
 administering the mining law so as to secure, not an im- 
 mediate revenue to itself, but an energetic and skilful 
 development of the resources of the country, rightly deem- 
 ing the increased production and use of the metals to be 
 worth more to the nation than a few thousand of dollars, 
 obtained by stifling this most beneficent industry. 
 
 The Oode of France. — It was the law of April 21, 
 1810, in the formation of which the Emperor Napoleon I 
 took so large a part, which gave its present constitution to 
 the mining industry of France. Under the ancient 
 raonarcliy the mines were regarded as a dependency of 
 the royal domain, and only the sovereign could grant per- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 553 
 
 mission for their exploitation. Such grants had only a 
 temporary character, and were most frequently encumbered 
 with onerous conditions of payment into the royal treasury, 
 besides those which in the majority of cases must be made 
 to the owner of the soil. 
 
 After the abolition of feudal rights, the mines and 
 mineral deposits of France were placed, by the law of July 
 28, 1791, at the disposal of the nation, and the govern- 
 ment was authorized to make " concession " of them ; but 
 this concession was at the same time forbidden to be 
 otherwise than temporary ; and, moreover, all that part of 
 every mineral deposit lying within a hundred feet of the 
 surface was expressly reserved to the landed proprietor, 
 who also had a right of preference in obtaining the con- 
 cession. These provisions nearly amounted to a prohibition 
 of general mining. It was made easy to mine in the case 
 of those persons only who, being farmers, would probably 
 not care, or know how to mine ; and it is no wonder that, 
 under these restrictions, little progress was made in the ex- 
 ploitation of mineral deposits. 
 
 The law of 1810 declared, in accordance with the Code 
 Napoleon, that the property in minerals goes with the pro- 
 perty in land; but stipulated that the government might 
 separate the two, granting the mineral right, even in per- 
 petuity, to another than the land-owner, on the single 
 condition of a tribute paid to the latter. It made this 
 property in minerals negotiable and taxable like any other, 
 putting it on a basis as secure as that of real estate. In this 
 way protection was given to capitalists desiring to engage in 
 mining, and an era of prosperity, previously impossible 
 was inaugurated for the mines of France. The law, in mak- 
 ing this distinction between surface and subterranean pro- 
 prietorship, has included in the class of mines only those 
 substances which by reason of their nature or the manner of 
 their occurrence must be exploited in a certain way, accord- 
 ing to special rules. All other minerals are left to the pro- 
 prietor of the soil, and may be worked under a simple per- 
 mission, or without such permission, subject to the police 
 regulations established by government. Minieres, or sur- 
 face works, such as beds of iron-ore, workable by open exca- 
 vation, pyritous earths, suitable for the manufacture of cop- 
 peras, or deposits of peat, require the permission referred to ; 
 quarries {carrieres) of building-stone, marble, granite, sand- 
 stone, &c., require only observance of the police regulations. 
 Mines, in the sense of the law, capable of becoming the 
 objects of a concession, include therefore mineral ftiels, 
 bitumens, sulphur, alum, and metalliferous deposits of every 
 kind except the beds of iron specially classed as minieres. 
 Among the substances thus legally subject to segregation 
 from the surface proprietorship, only two, mineral fuel and 
 iron, are worked to any large extent in France. Aside from 
 these, there were in that country in 1860, only 247 mines of 
 all kinds, classified as follows : 
 
 Graphite and bitumen 50 
 
 Pyritic and aluminiferous ores . 15 
 
 Rock salt and salt springs . 29 
 
 Antimony 24 
 
 Manganese ... ... 20 
 
 Lead and galena ... ... . .... 18 
 
 Lead and silver . . . . 27 
 
 Copper 9 
 
 Copper, lead and silver 17 
 
 Lead, silver, zinc, copper, and other metals .... 30 
 
 Gold and silver, separate or together .3 
 
 Arsenic, separate or \vith gold and silver 2 
 
 Tin 2 
 
 Sulphur . ....... 1 
 
 Total 
 
 .247 
 
 At the time when the law of 1810 was passed, however, 
 the mines of France were not so limited in number. The 
 productive provinces west of the Ehine, which now belong 
 to Prussia, were then included in the empire of Napoleon ; 
 and the principles of mining law, as well as the rates of 
 taxation established by the French law of 1810 and the im- 
 perial decree of 1811, remained in force under the Prussian 
 supremacy until the end of 1864. The only change made 
 by the Prussian law in regard to loyalty is the subjection of 
 salt mines and springs in those provinces to the state. This 
 was necessary on account of the monopoly of salt main- 
 
 tained by the Prussian government. In all other respects 
 the law of Napoleon virtually continued in west Prussia. 
 
 The provisions with regard to taxes were these: Each 
 mine paid a certain fixed sum per annum, according to the 
 size of its field, and also a tax of 5 per cent, on net profits. 
 To this amount one-tenth was added to cover incidentals. 
 The net profit was ascertained by subtracting the current 
 expenses, only, not the cost of permanent improvements, 
 from the total production. These taxes amounted in the 
 aggregate to about 2 per cent, of the gross product ; and 
 since the 1st of January, 1865, they have been replaced by a 
 single tax of that amount. It is, of course, much easier to 
 collect a tax on gross receipts than on net profits, and the 
 result is the same to the mines. Prussia has also declared 
 the iron mines free of tax. Thanks to the law of Napoleon, 
 which swept away with vigorous hand the accumulated 
 privileges and forms of the past, or, perhaps, we might 
 rather say, thanks to the revolution which burned off the 
 forest-growths of centuries and left him an open field, and 
 finally, thanks to the judicious legislation oi Prussia, less 
 hampered here than in her eastern provinces, the districts 
 west of the Ehine enjoy one ot the simplest and most effi- 
 cient mining codes in the world. 
 
 Mining Law of England.— The English law of mines is, 
 like all English law, the growth of centuries, and complica- 
 ted with many local regulations and " immemorial customs." 
 The oft-quoted " ease of mines," in the reign of Elizabeth, 
 referred the crown right to the common law, and the deci- 
 sion of the judges was that all gold or silver ores belonged 
 to the crown, whether in private or public lands ; that any 
 ores containing neither gold or silver belonged to the proprie- 
 tor of the soil ; that the king ' could grant away mines of 
 gold and silver, but not without express words in his patent, 
 demonstrating his intention to sever the mines from his royal 
 patrimony. It is indeed not improbable that the crown 
 once laid claim to all mines, and it is well known that at a 
 comparatively recent period it was attempted to comprise 
 within the royal prerogative all those of copper and tin on 
 the ground that these ores necessarily contain some portion 
 of gold and silver. In the reign ofWilliam and Mary, how- 
 ever, two enactments* secured to the subject the enjoyment 
 of all mines in which tin, copper, iron, or lead are found, 
 nothwithstanding any quantity of the precious metals mixed. 
 The property in minerals unsevered from the land, whether 
 held together with the property in the land or separate from 
 it, is what the law terms corporeal hereditament, as distin- 
 guished from the mere right to work for them, which is an 
 incorporeal hereditament. Apart from the claims of the 
 crown, the property in minerals is prima facie in the owner 
 of the fee of the land, whether in possession, remainder, or 
 reversion, or subject to the tenancy of other persons. But 
 the property in minerals is not necessarily accompanied by 
 the right to work for them.' Indeed, when the owner of the 
 fee is' not in possession, nobody can work for the minerals ; 
 not the tenant, lest he commit a waste ;* not the lord of the 
 manor, because he has not possession of the surface, nor 
 even of the subsoil. The minerals are part of the demesnes 
 of the manor, and naturally follow the fee in every case. 
 Thus, for instance, minerals found on the sea-shore below 
 ordinary high- water mark, helong prima facie to the crown ; 
 between the ordinary and extreme high water mark, to 
 the owner of the adjoining freehold ; in land suddenly left 
 by the retirement of the sea, to the crown ; in land formed 
 by the casting up of alluvial matter, to the lord of the manor. 
 The property in minerals,and the right to search for them, 
 may be vested in other persons than the owner of the fee, by 
 alienation, prescription, or custom. 
 
 In the case of alienation there is an important distinction 
 between such a conveyance as confers an estate and such as 
 
 iPlowden, 31, 310, quoted in Hon. J. Eoss Browne's first report, 
 p. 217. The quaint reason given by Onslow in this case was that, 
 " because gold and silver are the most excellent things which the 
 soil contains, the law has appointed them, as in reason it ought, to 
 the person most excellent, and that is the king." (See Pettus, 
 Fodinae Begales.) 
 
 « 1 Wm. and M., c. 30 ; 5 Wm. and il., c. 6. 
 
 Tor these and other points, see authorities quoted in Collier's 
 Law of Mines, p. 14, et seg., from which much of this sketch of the 
 English law is taken. 
 
 ' Tenants may dig open mines to get for their own use gravel, 
 clay, marl, or manure, and, it has been held, coal and iron also. 
 
554 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 merely confers a right to dig, witliout property in the 
 minerals until severed from the soil. A conveyance of the 
 f<)riner class is binding forever, whether the owner of the 
 rainerals continues to work for them or not. This distinc- 
 tion of law between an estate in minerals and the right to 
 riiine- is an important one ; it describes exactly the step 
 which the United States government takes, in the mining 
 law of 1868, by which a perpetual estate is granted to those 
 who had up to that time only been able to enjoy a posses- 
 sory title, conferring the right to mine. According to the 
 English statue of frauds no legal interest in minerals beyond 
 that of a tenancy at will can be created or transferred other- 
 wise than by writing. The effect of this and other statutes 
 ij to make an instrument under seal necessary for the con- 
 veyance of any interest beyond that of a tenant at will, or 
 for less than three years, as also for the conveyance of a right 
 to dig for minerals. The most general form of conveyance for 
 particular interests are either leases of the minerals or licenses 
 to dig them for a term of years. A license is not exclusive 
 in its nature unless expressly so drawn ; the grantor may 
 work himself for the minerals, or he may license other per- 
 sons to do so. Conflicting claims, arising out of different 
 licenses, would probably be decided in equity in favor of the 
 party in possession and actually working. 
 
 A lease is necessarily exclusive of the rights of all other 
 persons, vesting in the grantee the absolute possession of the 
 whole of the subject-mattes demised.' The legal estate in 
 mines can only be alienated in the modes thus noticed ; but 
 an equitable interest, with a title to a share of produce, may 
 be acquired by agreement, either written or spoken, expressed 
 or implied, attended with equitable rights against coadven- 
 turers, and with legal liabilities to the public. A mining 
 company, for instance, can only acquire title to mines by 
 deed (i. e., by an instrument under seal) or by prescription 
 or custom, of which I shall speak presently ; but each stock- 
 holder may acquire effective title to his share of profits by 
 virtue of a mere certificate, or, rather, by a mere agreement, 
 of which the certificate is the convenient expression or re- 
 sult. This kind of title in mines is subject to the statutes 
 affecting partnership, joint-stock companies, and cost-book 
 mines.^ 
 
 ' The granting clauses in the form of a lease of metals, with license 
 to dig, use of water, &c., are as follows : 
 
 " In consideration of * » » he, the said A B, hath 
 given, granted, and demised, and by these presents doth give, grant 
 and demise unto the said C D, his executors, administrators; and 
 assigns, all copper, and all other ores, metals or minerals (except 
 coals) to be found in, under and throughout the lands and premises 
 comprised within tlie limits liereinafter described, * * » 
 together with full and free liberty, license, and authority to dig, 
 mine, work and search for the same, and to raise and bring to grasS 
 all such copper and other metals and minerals, * * to 
 
 carry away and convert the same to his and tlieir own use and uses, 
 and at his and their wills and pleasure to pass and repass, carry and 
 reoarry, and to drive, dig, worlc and make any new or other adit or 
 adits, shaft or shafts, pits, drifts, leats . and watercourses in, over,- 
 Ujpon and through any part of the said premises, and to use those 
 already made and driven, and to erect thereon any shed or sheds, 
 mill or mills, engine or engines, or other buildings as he * » 
 sTiall from time to time think necessary and convenient for the more 
 effectually working the premises aforesaid, and for working, wash- 
 ing, dressing, cleaning, manufacturing, bringing about, and making 
 meroliantable such copper and other ores, metals and minerals, 
 ® •'■ * to have and to hold, use, exercise, and enjoy all and 
 sinplar the several powers, liberties, and authorities hereby granted 
 and intended so to be, ^excepting and reserving and subject as 
 aforesiid,) •' » « from the day of the date of these presents 
 
 for and during the terra and time of years now next ensuing, 
 
 and fully to be complete and ended." » « «s » s 
 
 The grant is qualified by various agreements between the parties. 
 The use of water may be granted for the ])urpose of mining, subject 
 to the rights and privileges of others already acquired, and to such 
 other reservations as the circumstances require. The time, manner, 
 and amount of payment of rent or royalty is specified (tribute is i)ot 
 Strictly rent,) and the lessee, is bound to keep proper accounts, 
 accessible to the landlord, to work the mine with all reason- 
 able expedition " regularly and effectually, and in every respect ac- 
 cording to the most approved modern practice of good miners," etc., 
 etc., with greater or less fulness of detail, according to the whim of 
 the parties. My experience in this country rather favors the draw- 
 ing of a, mining lease in general terms, leaving it for the courts to 
 decide, in case of disagreement, what is fair dealing on either part 
 Detailed specifications in the lease do not obviate, but complicate 
 litigation. ' 
 
 2 The cost-book system in use in Cornwall and Devonshire differs 
 from Ordinary partnerships on the one hand, and joint-stock coin- 
 
 Prescription and custom, as has already been said, may 
 also vest in other persons than the owner of the feet the 
 property in minerals, or the right to search for them. Ac- 
 cording to Coke,' prescription is a personal usage, as that 
 such an one and his ancestors or those whose estate he hath, 
 have used, time out of mind, to have such an advantage or 
 privilege. Prescription can be claimed only by the owner 
 for the time being of the freehold ; an incorporeal heredita' 
 ment only can be subject of it, and it must be of origin be- 
 yond the time of legal memory ; in other words, the right to 
 work for minerals, but not the legal estate in them, may be 
 subject of prescription. 
 
 Custom is defined to be a usage of the inhabitants of a cer- 
 tain district, and requires three things for its validity : It must 
 have its origin beyond legal memory, ( " from time whereof 
 the memory of man runneth not to the contrary ;") it must 
 have been uninterupted; and it must be reasonable. The 
 law is very careful to guard against the abuse of this right. 
 In fact, the whole institution of "immemorial cu.stom"is 
 based only upon the principle that it is better to allow cer- 
 tain deviations from the rules of abstract justice laid down 
 for general practice, than to commit the greater injustice of 
 invading the established usages of society, and disappoint- 
 ing the well-grounded confidence of honest citizens therein. 
 The notion that a custom may be arbitrarily created or mod- 
 ified at any given time, " by popular sovereignty," so as to 
 affect the vested rights of property, is foreign to English 
 and to every other law worthy of the name. It really over- 
 throws the whole foundation on which this humane maxim 
 has been built. A good illustration of an immemorial cus- 
 tom, affecting the right to mining property, is the " tin 
 bounding " which formerly prevailed in Cornwall and Dev- 
 onshire, and is still valid, though comparatively disused in 
 those districts. A charter granted in the third year of King 
 John to the tinners of Cornwall and Devon speaks of it as 
 already ancient.'' In the recent case of Rogers vs, Brenton, 
 10 Q. R, 26, the custom was stated and confirmed by the 
 juiy as follows : "That any person may enter on the waste 
 land of another in Cornwall, and mark out by four corner 
 boundaries a certain area ; a written description of the land 
 so marked with metes and bounds, and the name of the per- 
 son for whose use the proceeding is taken, is recorded in an 
 immemorial local court, called the stannary court, and pro- 
 claimed at three successive courts held at stated intervals ; 
 if no objection is successfully made by any other person the 
 court awards a writ to the bailiff of the court to deliver pos- 
 session of the said ' bounds or tin- work ' to the bounder, 
 who thereupon has the exclusive right to search for, dig, 
 and take to his own use all tin ore within the described 
 limits, paying to the land-owner a certain customary pro- 
 portion of the ore raised under the name of toll tin." The 
 right descends to executors, and may be preserved for an in- 
 definite time, either by actually working and paying toll, or 
 by annually renewing the four boundary marks on a certain 
 day," Similar customs exist in Der"byshire, in the forest of 
 Dean, and in various parts of Europe. In the case above 
 alluded to, Rogers, the plaintiff,.claiipied his exclusive rights 
 
 r 
 
 panics on the other. The principal' distinction from ordinary trad- 
 ing partnerships appears to be the absence of the delectus persoruB, 
 andcoflsequently a limited hability : while the organization differs 
 from that of a stock-company in thefact that its powers are not dele- 
 gated to an aristocracy of directors, but "directly exercised by the 
 whole body of shareholders. 
 The following, is the form of transfer of share in a cost-book mine : 
 
 "I, -^^ , do hereby,.for valuable consideration, sell, as- 
 
 sign.and .transfer unto . . . . r^^— parts. or shares of and 
 
 in a certain mine of adventure, called , situated in the parish 
 
 of-^ , county of , together with the like share or propor- 
 tion of and.iu all engines, tools, tackle, materials, ores, halvans, 
 moneys, and all other appurteiiaiices "thereto belonging, together 
 
 with all dividends and profits in respect of the said part or 
 
 share, and all interest, privileges and advantages to be derived there- 
 from. As witness, &c, 
 " I 
 
 -, do hereby accept the said 
 
 • shares, subject 
 
 to the same terras and conditions, rules and regulations, as the said 
 held the same." 
 
 ' 1 Inst, 113. 
 
 2 Quod possint fstammatores nostri) omni tempore libere et quieto 
 abasque alicujus hominis vexatione foderc stanimum ct turbas ad 
 stamraum fundendum » • » akut solebant et consueva-unt, ct 
 emere buscam » » ^» et divertereadquas ad operationem eorum 
 m stararnariis sicut de- anti^u't 'cons}irtui}ine'cr*ii'^\\evernnt. 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 555 
 
 as a bounder, though he had neglected the mine for many 
 years, pleading that the bounds had been regularly renewed. 
 The defendant was agent of a company which had begun to 
 work the mine and refused to recognize the alleged rights of 
 the plaintiff. Much evidence was given concerning the 
 nature and prevalence of the custom. The witnessess agreed 
 that the bounds could be preserved by mere annual renewal 
 without working, and some of them doubted whether even 
 the ceremony of renewal was necessary, except as evidence 
 of the right. They also differed as to the consequence of 
 neglecting to renew on the exact day. None could assign 
 any limit to the surface of land that might be included 
 within the four comers, but it was said to be generally very 
 small. One of the most experienced witnesses remembered 
 a pair of tin-bounds " a quarter of a mile each way," but 
 this was the largest he knew of. Only one instance was 
 recollected by any witness of bounds recently proclaimed ; 
 all the wastes of tin-mining districts were supposed to be 
 already under ancient bounds. The jury found, as to the 
 question of fact, a verdict for the plaintiff, on the ground 
 that working was not essential to the custom. The court, 
 however, decided that the custom as found to exist by the 
 jury was unreasonable in as far as it conferred aright to 
 bounds on a person not actually working. The opinion pro- 
 nounced on this occasion by Lord Denman is a most thorough 
 and elaborate explanation of the principles underlying the 
 case, and deserves to be studied by American legislators. 
 I quote a few passages : ' 
 
 " Upon the ownership of the land, giving & prima fade title 
 to minerals, the custom of bounding has been engrafted. 
 
 * * * In substance it is this: the mine is parcel of 
 the soil ; the ownership is in the owner of the soil, but it is 
 a parcel which to discover and bring to the surface, may or- 
 dinarily require capital, skill, enterprise, and combination ; 
 which while the bowels of the earth, is wholly useless to the 
 owner as well as to the public; and the bringing of 
 which into market is eminently for the benefit of the public. 
 
 "If, therefore, the owner of the soil cannot, or will not, do 
 this for himself, he shall not be allowed to lock it up from 
 the public; and, therefore, in such case (unless, by en- 
 closure, he may seem to have devoted the land to other im- 
 portant purposes inconsistent with mining operations, such 
 as agriculture or building) any tinner, i. e., any_ man em- 
 ploying himself in tin mining, may secure to himself the 
 right to dig the mines under the lands, rendering a certain 
 portion of the produce to the owner of the soil. 
 
 " It is right to observe, in passing, how every step, even in 
 this strong invasion of the rights of ownership, still is made 
 with reference to them. In the first place, the land to be 
 bounded must be wastrel ; if it be several and enclosed, it 
 musb have been anciently bounded while wastrel, and so, in 
 the language of the country, assured for wastrel ; the liabil- 
 ity must have first attached on it, therefore, before enclosure 
 and devotion to other useful purposes. Then after the tin- 
 ner or bounder has commenced by cutting turves, and so 
 inaking out the limits within which he will work, proceed- 
 ings are to be taken in the stannary courts, of which the 
 owner has noticed, and sufficient time is allowed before the 
 bounder's title becomes complete, during which the owner 
 may still intervene and preserve his rights entire, so as he 
 Will exercise them for the benefit of the public. If he ab- 
 stains from any interference it may well be considered that 
 he has consented to the bounder's proceedings ; and the 
 customary render of the portioncalled toll-tin may be very 
 sufficient consideration to him for what he gives up of his 
 original exclusive rights. * * * This then brings us to 
 the point which was more especially contested on the argu- 
 inent, whether this customary right can exist without con- 
 tinuing bona fide to search for tin, and to work the land for 
 mining purposes with the enclosed limits; whether it is 
 sufficient to renew the bonds annually by a new cutting of 
 the turves as at the commencement. Assuming for the pre- 
 sent the validity of the custom, if the bona fide working 
 within the bounds be made a part of it, and assuming that 
 it is a custom which is to be tried by the tests established 
 by the common law for the ascertaining whether a custom 
 be good or not, it appears to us that without this qualifica- 
 
 • The opinion may be found in 10 Q. B,, 26, and the passages 
 quoted, with others, in Collier's Law of Mines, p. 33 et seq. 
 
 here 
 
 tion it cannot be sustained. Customs, especially where 
 they derogate from the general rights of property, must be 
 construed strictly ; and above all things, they must be rea- 
 sonable. Bounding is a direct interference with the com- 
 mon law rights of property ; it takes from the owner of the 
 land, who is unable or unwilling at a particular moment to dig 
 for tin under his waste land, the right to do so, it may be 
 forever, and vests it in a stranger, making only the custom- 
 ary render in return; it empowers the stranger not only to 
 extract the mineral from beneath the surface, but to enter 
 on the surface, and cumber it with machinery, buildings, 
 and refuse stuff which the operators below occasion,' and all 
 this without the least regard to the convenience or interest 
 of the owner. The only things which make this reasonable 
 are the render of the toll-tin to the owner, and the benefit 
 to the public secured thereby in the extraction of the min- 
 eral from the bowels of the earth. Both these are not only 
 lost, but the latter, it may be, positively prevented, may de- 
 cline to work and yet retain the right to exclude the owner. 
 Instead of insuring that the minerals should be brought to 
 the surface, the custom so construed may be made the 
 means of keeping them locked. up within it, and at the same 
 time preventing any improvement iii the surface. Many 
 bounds may become the property of the same owners, who 
 may think their interests best served by limiting the supply 
 and diminishing competition, while the owner Will dechne 
 to spend his capital in building or agricultural improve- 
 ments, because at any moment the bounder may renew his 
 operations, and entirely without compensation defeat the 
 purposes of his expenditure. If it be said that the public 
 good is best served by that regulated supply which' best 
 serves the private interests of the bounder, that wherever it 
 is for the interest of the public that the mine should be 
 worked, the interest of the bounder will be to meet the de- 
 mand by an adequate supply, and that when the mine is not 
 worked, it is only because it is for the interest equally of 
 both that it should not be ; without admitting or denying 
 the truth of these assertions, our answer is that, where such 
 a state of things has existed so long and so decidedly as to 
 amount to reasonable proof that the original purpose with 
 which the bounds were enclosed has been abandoned, it is 
 unreasonable to maintain the bounds themselves. It may 
 have been that the owner did not enclose the land or work 
 for the mineral himself, only on account of a temporary ina- 
 bility, or the temporary existence of the same causes which 
 the bounder now alleges as the ground for his ceasing to 
 work. Why then is he to lose his earlier and better right 
 forever, and under the same circumstances the bounder to 
 preserve his? Another answer is drawn from regarding the 
 original purpose of the custom, which was not founded on 
 the doctrine of demand and supply, but on the expediency 
 simply of bringing the mineral to the surface for the use of 
 men." 
 
 In view of these and other considerations, the court held 
 that the provision in question was void, because unreason- 
 able ; and there are good grounds for supposing that the 
 unqualified right claimed was also historically to be re- 
 futed, as but an abuse of the original limits of the custom.' 
 I have quoted this ' exposition of the law at some length, 
 because the principles laid down are universally applicable 
 and just. They apply with equal force to the case of mines 
 in public lands ; and the frequency with which they are 
 violated by the whimsical " regulations " of mining districts 
 in the United States is an evil which requires immediate 
 attention, now that those regulations have been formally re- 
 cognised as valid to some extent in law, and as furnishing a 
 proper basis for the acquisition of the estate in minerals from 
 the general government. I do not find any traces in the law 
 of England of a recognition of the right to follow mineral 
 deposits in depth outside of the boflndaries marked upon 
 
 ' According to the legal maxim, " Cuicunque ali quid oonceditiir, 
 conoeditur etiam id sine quo res ipsa nou esse potuit." The right to 
 obtain minerals comprises the right to do all that is necessary thereto. 
 
 2 The ancient charters were granted to tinners " operantes in stan- 
 narriis," and " dum operantur." In Carew's Survey of Cornwall, 
 fol. 136, ed. 1769, it is said, " These bounds he is bound to renew once 
 evereie yeere, as also in most places to bestow some time in working 
 the myne, otherwise he loseth his privilege." Collier, quoting from 
 Smirke, gives these and other. Instances. -. . ^ . 
 
556 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the surface. Statutes regulating the manner of working 
 mines, the employment of children, &c., have from time to 
 time been made by Parliament. So, for instance, a bill 
 passed February 14, 1860, provides for the regulation and 
 inspection of mines, and prescribes general rules as to saiety 
 lamps, ventilation, guide-rods, &c.' The laws and equities 
 relating to mining in England are administered generally 
 hy the courts of chancery and common law. There is, how- 
 ever, a court of very ancient origin,' called the stannaries 
 court (formerly several courts, called stannary courts, held 
 before the stewards of the four stannaries) and now presided 
 over by the vice-warden of the stannaries. This court has 
 both common law and equitable jurisdiction, concurrent with 
 that of the superior courts and the county courts, and affords 
 an easy and expeditious method of settling such disputes as 
 arise out of mining transactions. The proceedings in equity 
 concern chiefly the mines operated on the cost-book system, 
 and contrast favorably with the prolonged, complicated, and 
 expensive operations of the courts of chancery. The late 
 Prince Albert was lord-warden of the stannaries. 
 
 OPEN LETTER OF R. W. RAYMOND 
 TIVE TO MINERAL LANDS. 
 
 RELA- 
 
 mine on the terms described by the government to pur- 
 chasers of gold mines in Montana ; and the government 
 might, if it chose, by a change in the statute, alter its 
 terms in Montana to conform to the present usual practice 
 in Georgia. The course of Federal legislation in this 
 respect has been dictated by policy. Its object has been to 
 encourage the development of the mineral resources of the 
 public lands, and to transfer the ownership of both land and 
 mineral rights to individual citizens. That this course is 
 wisest in itself, and best adapted to the spirit of our institu- 
 tions, scarcely admits of question. The policy of administer- 
 ing the public lands as a means of producing revenue, through 
 mines, timber, agriculture, or rents, is one which a highly 
 centralized or despotic government may perhaps pursue; but 
 certainly, is not suited to Democratic or representative 
 government ; and even in monarchical states, it has not 
 proved advantageous, as may be inferred from the general 
 tendency in all enlightened nations at the present day, 
 toward the transfer of governmental enterprises to private 
 hands. It may be questioned, perhaps, whether a system by 
 which the government, as in Spain, Portugal, and Mexico, 
 retains the ownership of mines, and leases them upon con- 
 ditions involving their continuous working, is not calculated 
 to secure a more active and steady mining industry than a 
 system which, conferring individual ownership, permits 
 mines to lie idle at the will of their owners. But I think 
 one can fail to perceive, upon thorough consideration. 
 
 THE principle of the right of the sovereign to the 
 ownership or control of any of the minerals in the 
 earth, apart from proprietorship of the land itself, is 
 not recognized by our laws. The government, like 
 any private proprietor, possesses the surface of its lands, to- 
 gether with all that lies beneath them, to the center of 
 the globe. There is no distinction in this respect between 
 the base and the precious metals, or between the Atlantic 
 and Pacific slopes, or between the areas acquired by the 
 United States from individual States and those obtained 
 by treaties with foreign nations or Indian tribes. So far 
 as I am aware, the government owns the minerals when 
 it owns the land, and not otherwise. The mineral right, 
 however, although it accompanies the surface ownership, 
 is separable by the act of the owner. A farmer in New 
 Jersey may lease or sell the right to mine and carry away 
 all the iron ore in his farm, with the privileges of entry and 
 use of the surface necessary to mining operations, retaining 
 his title in all other respects unimpaired ; or he may thus 
 dispose of the right to a single bed or vein of ore, retaining 
 all others. A farmer in Pennsylvania may in a like manner 
 lease or sell all his " coal rights," or the right to one or more 
 specified seams of coal, reserving to himself, undiminished, 
 whatever is not thus transferred. A party owning two ad- 
 jacent farms may grant the mineral right to a given deposit 
 of coal, ore, or other minerals upon one of them, with the 
 right to follow and mine in the other that deposit only. All 
 these and many varieties of grants actually occur in our 
 Eastern States ; and the rights thus conferred, as defined by 
 the agreements creating them, are independent of surface 
 ownership, although in their origin they rest upon the princi- 
 ple that the owner of the surface owns also the minerals 
 beneath it. The government occupies precisely this position 
 towards the public domain. It can do what it likes with its 
 own. There is no " miners' right," created by the discovery of 
 valuable mineral in any part of that domain, except what the 
 government chooses to create by its own voluntary acts. By 
 such acts it is bound, as an individual would be, neither more 
 nor less. It is as free as any individual would be to dispose, 
 as it may see fit, of any rights not already conveyed away ; to 
 change its policy at any time ; to lease or sell on new con- 
 ditions, or to decline to lease or sell at all. This elemen- 
 tary statement seems to be required to correct a popular 
 imjression that the principles of the law of mines arc 
 different in different parts of our country, and that there is 
 some mysterious obstacle in this difference to the intro- 
 duction of a uniform system. The fact is, that the owner 
 of a gold mine in Georgia might, if he chose, sell his 
 
 ' Levi's Annala of British Legislation, ix., 1861. 
 
 2 Confirmed rather than created by charters, 3 John and 33 Edw. 
 1, often subsequently recognized and defined, and finely established 
 in Its present form during the reign of William IV. 
 
 that the advantages of the Spanish system are delusive, and 
 that its disadvantages, in the expense of administration 
 and the inducements which it offers to the " robbing " of 
 mines, are greater than its advantages, even if these were 
 real. The tenant of the government mine will work it if it 
 be profitable, of course. He would do the same, if he owned 
 it. When it ceases to be profitable, he may continue ojjera- 
 tions for a while, rather than lose his lease. But there is no 
 economic gain to the State in forcing its citizens to unre- 
 munerative labor. On the contrary, if a mine does not pay, 
 it is best that it should be closed, while labor turns to more 
 productive enterprises ; and if a mine is to be closed it is far 
 better that this should be done by an owner than by a 
 tenant, for the owner may hope to resume operations under 
 more favorable circumstances while it is the interest of the 
 tenant, whose abandonment of the property is final, to rob 
 it of all accessible value and leave it in ruins. As" for the 
 revenue to be derived from renting mines, two things may 
 be confidently asserted: First, if it were wise to burden 
 the industry of mining with a tax not laid upon other forms 
 of production, this could be done more effectively, con- 
 veniently, and equitably by a bullion tax ; and secondly, it 
 is not wise to do anything of the kind. I am aware that, a 
 dozen years ago, while the bullion tax was collected by our 
 government, I favored in my report to the Secretary of the 
 Treasury its continuance in a reduced measure, and its 
 devotion to special purposes for the benefit of the mining 
 industries. I will not pause here to explain in what particu- 
 lars the circumstances and in what particulars my views 
 have changed. It is quite sufficient at present to say that 
 the obvious policy of the government is to treat mining like 
 any other industry, and to administer the mineral lands, 
 like the agricultural lands, with as little machinery and as 
 little interference with private enterprise as possible. 
 
 We come, then, to this proposition — the United States is 
 the holder, as the trustee of the people, of a vast area of 
 mineral land. On the whole, it is best to sell this land as 
 fast as possible, not looking for large revenue from its sale, 
 but ratlier transferring it to private owners at prices that 
 will repay the cost of the surveys and other necessary pro- 
 ceedings, and under conditions that will favor the explora- 
 tion of its resources. To encourage mining, or at all events 
 to lay no unnecessary burdens upon it, and to get rid of the 
 unproductive property in mineral lands which cannot under 
 our system be made productive by the government — these 
 are the objects to be attained by Federal legislation. In 
 selling the mineral lands should the government make any 
 distinctions as to price ? It would have a perfect right to 
 do so ; and it seems at first glance a wrong to the people 
 that public property worth many millions of dollars should 
 be given away to those who have no other claim than that 
 of discovery. This point deserves careful consideration. 
 There are three ways in which the government might derive 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 557 
 
 pecuniary benefit from the developed value of the mines on 
 the public domain. It might provide for an estimate of value 
 by its own officers, and a price based on such an estimate. 
 It might sell the mining locations at public auction, thus 
 leaving the estimate of value to competing purchasers. Or, 
 it might reserve a certain percentage of the gross or net 
 product of a mine — an unassessable interest in the property 
 — which, in case of a large and profitable development, 
 would amount to a considerable sum. These three alter- 
 natives cover sub.stantially all that could be done in this 
 direction, apart from the actual retention of ownership by 
 the government, and the collection of mine-rents. As to 
 the first of these, it is evident that in most cases no govern- 
 ment officer could possibly make a just estimate of the value 
 of a mine, before it had been worked; and no intending 
 purchaser would spend money in developing it, without 
 knowing at what price he could buy it ; nor would it be for 
 the interest of any intending purchaser to develop the real 
 value of the property and thereby enhance its price. The 
 sale of locations at auction is open to similar objections. 
 Nobody will explore and develop a piece of mining ground, 
 with the knowledge that every proof of value which he may 
 expose will make its acquisition more costly and more 
 doubtful. But if such sales are to be held without previous 
 exploration of the claims, then the chances are that the 
 prices to be obtained by this method will not exceed the 
 ordinary rates sufficiently to pay for the extra trouble and 
 cost of administration. The third alternative — ^the reserva- 
 tion of a portion of the proceeds of a mine — would prove 
 in practice, I think, difficult, odious, and unremunerative. 
 It would be really a special tax. If levied upon gross pro- 
 duction, it would bear severely on struggling enterprises. 
 If levied upon profits, it would involve an inquisition into 
 private business, a premium on deceit and concealment, and 
 a vast amount of official labor for comparatively small re- 
 turn. It would be like the revenue tax on spirits in difficulty 
 of enforcement, but not in resulting revenue. We may con- 
 clude, then, that the true policy of the government is to sell 
 the mineral lands outright at uniform prices and with as 
 little trouble and cost to itself and the purchaser as possible, 
 seeking its profit, not in the direct proceeds of sale, but in 
 the rapid development of natural resources and the estab- 
 lishment of prosperous communities. It remains to be 
 considered whether the present system of Federal mining 
 law, as construed by the courts and administered by the 
 General Land Office, effectively executes this policy ; whether 
 it needs reform ; and, if so, whether that reform should be 
 of the nature of moderate amendment or radical change. 
 In the discussion of these questions, I shall strive rather to 
 present an impartial statement of both sides then to ad- 
 vocate a definite scheme. No scheme suggested by individual 
 study or experience can claim to be the best under the cir- 
 cumstances ; because it is of the very essence of the problem 
 that the system adopted by the government shall be accept- 
 able to the mining communities. The present arrangement, 
 whatever may be its defects, has the positive recommendation 
 that it will work, is working ; that it is a growth, and, like 
 all growths, possesses vitality, which mere symmetry without 
 vitality cannot replace ; that its evils are known, while those 
 of a new system are unknown. Moreover, it is of the utmost 
 importance that any proposed reform shall be practicable 
 and acceptable, because its failure to be adopted and success- 
 fully executed would indefinitely delay, and perhaps defeat, 
 all reform in this department. 
 
 The declaration that the Government of the United States 
 " owns the minerals when it owns the land, and not other- 
 wise, " might be deemed inexact as to Mexican land grants 
 within our borders, not yet confirmed by United States 
 patents. Such grants, if they did not originally convey to the 
 grantee the mining right, reserved that right to the sovereign ; 
 and upon the transfer of sovereignty to the United States, this 
 reserved ownership of the metals passed to our government, 
 which thus became, in these instances, proprietor of the 
 metals in the land otherwise owned by private parties. But 
 the same leading cases in which this rule was laid down 
 (chiefly the so-called Mariposa cases) contain the decision 
 that a patent in confirmation of a Mexican grant is not re- 
 stricted to the interest transferred by Mexico to its grantee, 
 although such Mexican grant did not convey the precious 
 metals. The practical application of this principle annuls 
 
 the efTect of the preceding one, and justifies the general state- 
 ment that the right to metals in the soil, as a royal preroga- 
 tive, is not incident to the sovereignty of the United States 
 or of anjr. single State. The present system of Federal legis- 
 lation originated in the tacit recognition of miners' customs, 
 and has been gradually developed with perpetual, perhaps 
 excessive, regard to those customs. Its general outlines are 
 so generally known that I shall not burden this letter with a 
 description of them. Still less can I attempt to discuss in 
 detail its doubtful or ambiguous features, although some of 
 these may receive attention in passing. I purpose rather on 
 this occasion to consider directly the evils which seem to 
 attend the operation of our present system, and the possible 
 remedies for such evils. Not all the complaints so loudly 
 made deserve the attention or fall within the proper sphere 
 of the government. People who engage in mining, on the 
 public lands or elsewhere, have no special claim to be pro- 
 tected against the consequences of their own ignorance or over 
 eager credulity. The hazardous nature of the industry is 
 good ground for rejecting the notion, once generally enter- 
 tained, that special burdens should be laid upon it — that the 
 mines, in some way not demanded of farms and factories and 
 railroads, should pay the national debt " but it is not good 
 ground for asking the government to furnish the technical 
 knowledge required in mining, or to exercise supervision 
 over mining operations. The general aid given to all the 
 industries of the country by a scientific survey, and a com- 
 plete statistical review of its resources and activities, is all 
 that can be properly conceded ; and this will never prevent 
 the complaints of many adventurers who have suffered dam- 
 age through the risks and difficulties peculiar to mining. 
 The evils of " speculation " of which we hear so much, can- 
 not be cured by legislation, if, indeed (as I do not believe), 
 they are unmitigated evils, or if, (as I do not believe) spec- 
 ulation could be repressed at all, without producing some- 
 thing worse. We may set aside, then, all those features in- 
 herent in the industry of mining itself, as matters which the 
 government cannot mend, and with which it should not med- 
 dle. Another set of embarrassments arises from the peculiar 
 present conditions of mining in the piiblic domain. The 
 law-abiding instinct of our people is remarkable. The rude- 
 ness and violence often observed in our frontier communi- 
 ties cannot hide from the thoughtful observer the deeper 
 fact that our institutions have bred in the masses a notable 
 capacity for self-government. The very first step in a new 
 mining district is the making of laws ; and the degree to 
 which such laws have been respected and enforced by public 
 sentiment is a significant testimony in behalf of democracy. 
 But this state of affairs, though infinitely better than bar- 
 barism, and certain, as experience has shown, to pass by 
 peaceful gradations into the complete, lawful organizations 
 of society, necessarily involves much initial confusion, 
 bearing the germs of future trouble. The fundamental right 
 of property fails of adequate definition among a host of 
 pioneers, settling suddenly, like a swarm of bees, in the 
 trackless wilderness. The entrance upon the public lands 
 of population in advance of official surveys, is the most pro- 
 lific source of embarrassment arising out of the present con- 
 ditions of mining in those regions. Nearly all the other 
 evils of this class will cure themselves faster than Congress 
 could cure them. This one, however, needs, in my judg- 
 ment, a special remedy. It will not cure itself under the 
 present system of land surveys. A system is imperatively 
 called for, which will permit the surveys to keep pace with 
 the pioneers. The exact determination of points of reference 
 all over the country, to which local surveys could be re- 
 ferred, and the abandonment of the futile attempt to lay out 
 our whole national area like a checkerboard, with meridians 
 and parallels, would, I think, be a wise and feasible meas- 
 ure, so far as the mineral lands are concerned. Of the agri- 
 cultural land system I am not qualified to speak ; but it 
 seems plain enough that the reform required for the moun- 
 tain lands, which mostly contain the mines, would be re- 
 quired also for the valleys inextricably intercalated among 
 them, and occupied with mill-sites and ranches. I conclude, 
 then, with regard to the evils, inherent, not in the nature of 
 the mining industry, but in its present conditions in the 
 West, that they are either (1) such as may be left to cure 
 themselves, or (2) such as the local governments of States, 
 Territories, and municipal subdivisions should deal with, as 
 
658 
 
 THE MINES, JIINERS AND MININGI- INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 -they deal with other matters affecting public peace and the 
 enforcement of contracts ; or (3) such as the Federal Govern- 
 ment, the owner, of the public domain, may measurably 
 remedy by a more nearly adequate provision for the recep- 
 tion of settlers, and the adjustment of their initial relations 
 to the land. 
 
 We now come to a class of evils inherited from the earlier 
 (and to some extent, still continuing) local customs. In my 
 offisial reports (particularly the first, transmitted to Con- 
 gress in 1839), to which, for brevity's sake, I beg to refer, 
 without further citation, I have discussed at some length the 
 absurdity of permitting the title to mineral lands to rest upon 
 the shifting and untrustworthy basis of an irregular, period- 
 ical p^^fiisci'^e, the edicts of which are carried out by irrespon- 
 sible officials, and the records of which often may be, and 
 often have been, exposed, without efficient guardianship, to 
 Joss, destruction, mutilation, or falsification. It has repeat- 
 edly happened that the disputed possessory title to valuable 
 mining property has turned upon the memory or honesty 
 of contradictory witnesses, concerning records which could 
 not be found, landmarks which had disappeared, " customs " 
 ■which had been repeatedly amended, repealed and forgotten, 
 and acts performed pursitant to or in violation of such cus- 
 toms by persons who had long since left the district or the 
 world. Even if -all mining recorders were sworn officers ; if 
 all their records were properly kept and guarded ; if the lo- 
 cal regulations were carefully prepared, not liable to sudden 
 change, and permanently preserved for reference, there 
 would still be great confusion arising from the lack of uni- 
 formity in the methods of acquiring and maintaining title. 
 Something has been done, as I shall hereafter show, to re- 
 move the evils inherited from the miners' " customs." What 
 remains to be done is to abolish altogether the irregular and 
 whimsical subdivisions known as " mining districts," with 
 all their officers, and to make all mining titles on the pub- 
 lic lands originate in entries duly attested and preserved in 
 duplicate or triplicate by the regular officers of the United 
 States. Once, this would have been difficult and expensive ; 
 but I think the time has come when it can be thoroughly 
 done, and will meet with the approval of the mining com- 
 munities themselves. Should the Federal Government at- 
 tempt to replace all local regulations with a complete mining 
 code? The answer to this question depends largely upon the 
 meaning of the terms employed. It is evident that in all 
 points within the sphere of State governments, legislation 
 should be left to them ; and, by analogy, though not with 
 the same force, we may conclude that similar freedom should 
 be accorded to territorial legislatures. According to the 
 principles already laid down, the United States is simply 
 the owner of certain lands, the development and sale of 
 which it desires to promote. It is the business of the local 
 governments to look after the peace and general welfare of 
 the inhabitants; even considerations of political economy, 
 such as the prevention of irreparable waste, would not justify 
 the Federal authority in doing more than to look after its 
 own property. Consequently, it seems to me, nothing should 
 be done by Congress to establish mining regulations apart 
 from such measures as are required to encourage the explor- 
 ation and jjurchase of the public mineral lands, and (as in- 
 cident to this end) to convey to the purchaser definite and 
 secure title. It may seem desirable, on the whole, that the 
 size of mining claims should be made uniform by law over 
 all the public domain. The present law fixes the maximum 
 length and a maximum and minimum width; but within 
 these limits any size may be fixed by local " custom " or 
 rule ; and the liberality of such " custom " is apt to depend 
 upon the number of miners to the acre present when the 
 . " custom '' is ordained. It must be remembered that the 
 practice of fixing these dimensions by votes of the inhabit- 
 ants grew up at a time when they involved only the use of 
 the surface for mining purposes, such as dumps, machinery, 
 buildings, &c., and not such an absolute ownership thereof 
 asrendered any intrusion by others an act of trespass. The 
 miner was not limited by his surfiice in his underground 
 operations; nor did his prior surface right hinder in any 
 way the explorations of other prospectors, or their workings 
 of other veins within the space covered by his claim. Hence, 
 very narrow surface claims were adequate appendages to very 
 large mines. In any attempt to sell its mmeral lands, the 
 policy, as well as.the. clear right, of the Uoited States seems 
 
 to be to divide the property into parcels of such size as will 
 be at once most convenient to itself and most attractive to 
 the buyer. Under the present law, however, there is no great 
 practical difficulty in consolidating claims so as to obtain a 
 sufficient portion of the main lode, which is the object of 
 the purchase. Moreover, the State and Territorial legisla- 
 tures have done much, and in many cases have done it ad- 
 mirably, to supersede with definite codes the previous local 
 regulations of the districts. I am inclined to think that the 
 size of the claims, under the present system, may be left to them 
 within the limits fixed by the Federal law. If the present 
 law is not changed in any other particular, I do not think it 
 need be changed in this, except so far as to provide for cer- 
 tain cases in which the actual width of a vein at the surface 
 is greater than the width of the claim. This point may be 
 better discussed under a subsequent head. 
 
 Passing from the evils inherited from the mining customs, 
 we come to consider such as are the legacy of former 
 Federal legislation. The acts of Congress intended to 
 correct the causes of complaint arising under the absence of 
 all uniform law have entailed upon us some unnecessary 
 complications, which have been further aggravated by 
 conflicting decisions of (he Land Office and the courts. 
 The Supreme Court has brought order out of chaos in a 
 number of cases which have reached it ; but many moot 
 points remain, and will, perhaps, never be settled, before 
 the necessity of considering them shall have passed away 
 entirely. I refer now to those difficulties only which arise 
 from the features of our earlier laws (principally that of 
 1866), repealed or amended by later acts with reservation of 
 all vested rights. The law of 1866 has been held in some 
 cases to convey to the patentee under it no real ownership 
 of the surface, but to give him, nevertheless, underground 
 rights which the act of 1872 does not confer. This doctrine 
 was partly overthrown by the decision in the " Eureka case " 
 in 1877; but a recent decision in Utah shows that some 
 courts, at least, hold that, among the vested rights of a 
 locator prior to 1872, the right to follow his vein on the 
 course into the ground of a prior locator is included, and 
 cannot be destroyed even by the patent of the United States 
 granted (prior to 1872) to the prior locator. It is claimed 
 also that parties locating under the act of 1866,' though they 
 did not apply for patent until after the passage of the act of 
 1872, had a " vested right " to obtain, under the latter acts, 
 a patent comprising all the privileges granted to patentees 
 under either act. I have elsewhere argued, at length, the 
 unsoundness of these and similar contentions. I mention 
 them here simply to show the nature of the complications 
 inflicted upon us by past legislation. I do not see that legis- 
 lation is required to remedy this state of things. The 
 number of mining claims located before 1866, held by unin- 
 terrupted possessory title ever since, but not made subjects 
 of patents, is not large enough to require a general measure ; 
 and the troublesome questions of so-called " vested rights," 
 accruing under the earlier statute will best be settled 
 judicially. This brings us to consider briefly the evils 
 developed in the administration of the present law. There 
 is cause for complaint in the expense of proceedings atten- 
 dant upon the procurement of surveys and the perfecting of 
 titles. Your inquiries in the mining districts will have 
 shown you that these expenses are not only onerous, but 
 exceedingly irregular, being much greater in some districts 
 than in others. As the true policy of the government is 
 to sell its mineral lands, no unnecessary obstacles in the 
 way of costly proceedings should be interposed. And this 
 point is particuhvrly reasonable in view of the fact that the 
 surveyors who charge whatever they can get for their 
 services have in many cases proved to be somewhat care- 
 less workmen; so that there is reason to complain of 
 defective, as well as expensive, preliminary work. Changes 
 in the machinery of the law, whether its general principles 
 are changed or not, will be required to remedy such evils. 
 The multiplicity of officials may be reduced ; their duties 
 may be redistributed ; and they may be paid by the govern- 
 ment, and bound to pay over" to the government all their 
 legally-determined fees. The result should be a saving to 
 the people and no loss to the public treasury. 
 
 AVe have considered briefly the inherent, the inherited, 
 and the administrative evils of our Federal system of 
 mining .la>y, We now take up, in conclusion, a fourth class 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 559 
 
 of evils attendant upon that system, namely, those which 
 flow from the main features of the sections of the Revised 
 Statutes constituting our only national mining code, and 
 which requires, as a remedy, important changes in the law, 
 not mere reforms of administrative detail, sudi as have been 
 alluded to under foregoing heads of this discussion. I 
 repeat the declaration already made as a starting-point, that 
 the true policy and avowed purpose of the government is to 
 sell its mineral lands on such terms as will promote their 
 "exploitation. Whatever may be the alternatives to which 
 we are now shut up, we had, in the beginning, the possible 
 course of renting the mines, or in other ways getting a 
 revenue from them. I have already expressed my views on 
 this point, and it may, therefore, be passed without further 
 comment. Assuming, however, that the mineral lands 
 should be definitely disposed of, the government might have, 
 secondly, transferred them to the States as fast as these 
 were organized and admitted, or, thirdly, sold them in large 
 quantities to private persons or corporations. In either 
 case, the expense of surveying and selling in detail would 
 have been saved. But the public advantages sought by 
 the system actually adopted could not have been attained 
 under any plan which permitted a monopoly of the lands, 
 or the growth of conflicting rules in different localities as 
 to the exploration and acquisition of mineral property by in- 
 dividuals. It may fairly he maintained that the retention 
 of the mineral lands by the general government, with a view 
 to their sale under uniform laws, to bona-fide miners or 
 mining corporations, was, under the circumstances, wise. 
 But the law, as it stands, fails to secure fully the objects for 
 ,which it was designed. What it should do, to secure those 
 oljjects, is to encourage prospecting merely as a preliminary 
 to purchase ; to hold out inducements, or even apply pres- 
 sure, which will lead the " possessory owner " or temporary 
 occupant of a mining claim to become, as soon as practicable, 
 *its purchaser ; and to give to each purchaser a definite and 
 secure title, as a protection to him, on the one hand, and to 
 the intending purchaser of a neighboring claim on the other. 
 In all these points, the law is more or less defective ; and its 
 defects may be classed under two heads. Those which 
 spring from the right to follow a lode in depth outside the 
 side lines of the surface claim constitute the first class ; 
 and their consideration involves the question, whether it 
 would be wise and practicable to cease granting this right, 
 and limit by vertical planes drawn through the side-lines as 
 well as the end lines of surface claims the ownership of 
 mines patented hereafter. The defects which may be 
 remedied without this fundamental change in the law con- 
 stitute another class ; and of these I purpose to treat ■first, 
 concluding my survey of the subject with a consideration of 
 the so-called " side-line question." 
 
 Assuming that the right of the mine owner to follow and 
 exploit his lode in depth between the projected end lines of 
 his claim and beyond its side lines should be retained, the 
 present law is still radically defective in several particulars. 
 The theory of it is that, as a preliminary to purchase, the 
 citizen may freely occupy and explore any portion of the 
 public mineral lands not already occupied. This posses-sory 
 title must be maintained by the performance of a certain 
 amount of work annually. The amount fixed by the law is 
 not enough to secure a real development of the mine ; but 
 it is enough to discourage the practice, once common, of the 
 holding of many claims by one adventurer, to the exclusion 
 of those who would gladly work them, and it furnishes a 
 good legal test of the otherwise indefinite act of abandon- 
 ment. I doubt whether this feature could be changed with 
 advantage. But the present law, by conferring upon the 
 possessory occupant rights as extensi ve as those of a patentee, 
 and by permitting the possessory title to remain undisturbed 
 and invulnerable for an unlimited period, ofiers too little 
 inducement to the locator to apply for a patent. Indeed, in 
 a large number of instances, the inducement is the other 
 way. Not only the expense of the proceedings for patent, 
 and the chance of suffering local taxation, as owner of land, 
 to which the mere squatter upon government land would 
 not be subject, operate to the advantage of the mere locater 
 and the disadvantage of the patentee ; but the application 
 for a patent involves the precipitation of all pending con- 
 tests as to title. Adverse claimants must then speak, or 
 forever after hold their peace. The result is, that locators 
 
 often delay applying for patent, in order not to arouse 
 opposition which they hope to wear out in time ; and dis- 
 putes are thus nursed along, instead of being brought to an 
 issue, and definitely ended. It seems that only two strong 
 inducements to take a patent arise under this law. If a 
 possessory holder wishes to be able to abandon his mine for 
 a while, without losing it, he must get a patent. If he 
 wishes to sell it to a distant capitalist, or to a stock company, 
 he must usually get a patent, because such buyers usually 
 (and always should) insist upon this security against adverse 
 claims. Unless these contingencies arise, there seems to be 
 no special reason for taking patent. In my judgment, the 
 law should limit the period of possessory ownership ; should 
 not authorize the working of lodes in depth outside the side 
 lines of locations until after the patent has been applied for 
 (even though, as now, that right be granted by the patent) ; 
 and should render the holder of a possessory title only in- 
 capable of enforcing an ejectment against parties working 
 on his lode beyond his side lines, or of collecting damages, 
 after he has applied for a patent, for ore so extracted by 
 others before he made such application — under which term, 
 in the present connection, I mean to include all the steps 
 required of the applicant for the proof of his claim. It may 
 be said that, under such a law, locators might still go on 
 indefinitely, by the simple expedient of rep'eated relocation. 
 I admit the force of this objection ; and I do not think a 
 prohibition of such relocation by the same parties would be 
 very effectual, since it would be easy for them to evade it- 
 by employing others to make the record. But I appre- 
 hend that the consideration of the loss of priority in title 
 by relocation would be a powerful objection to the course ; 
 and, at all events, it may be safely asserted that the in- 
 ducements to apply for patents would be stronger than they 
 now are. 
 
 I would mention, in passing, the limitation of the right of 
 purchase to citizens as a feature of the law which serves only- 
 to annoy foreign purchasers, without preventing them from 
 really holding mines. A citizen may convey his patent "to' 
 any person whatever ;" and this being the case why not let 
 " any person whatever" buy the mine and get the patent? 
 As it IS, foreign corporations manage to control our mines, 
 if they choose; and our citizens are never weary of inviting 
 foreign capital to do so. The law as it now stands, and as 
 it has been in some cases at least construed by the courts, 
 operates to the discouragement of the most enterprising kind 
 of explorations, namely, explorations by shafts or tunnels. 
 Section 2323 of the Revised Statutes says that the owners of 
 a tunnel " shall have the right of possession of all veins or 
 lodes within three thousand feet from the face of such tunnel 
 on the line thereof, not previously known to exist, discovered 
 in such tunnel, to the same extent as if discovered from the 
 surface." In this grant, I believe the words " on the line 
 thereof" have been so construed by the Land Office as to ex- 
 clude veins crossing the tunnel, and thus to reduce the sec- 
 tion almost to a nullity ; but even setting aside this construc- 
 tion, the phrase " to the same extent as if discovered from 
 the surface" is enough to destroy all tunnel claims. For it 
 is held that the discoverer of a vein " from the surface" can 
 acquire no title, not even a possessory one, unless he finds its 
 outcrop, and locates his claim to include that. If I remem- 
 ber correctly, the Land Office has refused to grant a patent 
 for a vein discovered in a tunnel ; and I confess it is difficult 
 to see how any other decision could have been made under- 
 the circumstances. A patent requires a surface location, 
 and that location must include the outcrop or the " top or 
 apex" of every vein for which the patent gives title. The 
 tunnel section might as well be repealed. It is worth 
 nothing to anybody as it is now framed and interpreted. 
 But I think it would be just to declare that the discoverer, 
 in ground not already occupied, of a vein not previously 
 known to exist, wherever and however he may discover it, 
 by shaft or tunnel, at its outcrop or in depth, shall have the 
 right to locate a claim covering the point of his discovery, 
 and to obtain a patent entitling him to work that vein as if 
 its outcrop were within his claim. I say this would be just ; 
 and it would encourage enterprise and promote the discovery 
 of valuable deposits not otherwise likely to be exposed. But 
 it would seriously complicate- the relations of patentees and 
 locators. Less effectual, but perhaps more practicable, 
 would be a provision authorizing the record of an under- 
 
560 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ground discovery of a new lode, and giving to the discoverer 
 a certain time within virhich he may seek for the outcrop or 
 apex of the lode, and, upon finding it, be entitled to locate 
 upon it, with the date of his underground discovery. If the 
 outcrop or apex, when found, should happen to be covered 
 by a patent, that ought to take precedence ; but a mere loca- 
 tion of later date than the underground discovery ought to 
 give way. The guiding principle here is to encourage 
 prospecting as much as possible ; but, above all, to encourage 
 the taking of patents. 
 
 Another defect of the law, or its construction, is the vague- 
 ness of the title conveyed under it by a patent. There is 
 nowhere in it any definition of the terms " deposits," " veins," 
 "lodes," "ledges," "dips," "variations," "angles," "loca- 
 tions," "claims," &c., which are freely used. Some of them 
 are merely tautological. Such phrases as " vein, lode, or 
 ledge," " dips, variations, and angles," merely lead to hair- 
 splitting constructions by puzzled jurists, who try to discover 
 shades of meaning in what was probably nothing more than 
 aimless rhetoric. The adoption of all the ordinary miner's 
 terms without definition constitutes one of the most trouble- 
 some elements of the bondage to local customs which has 
 fettered our legislation. Even if Congress should declare 
 the mining law to be independent of such customs, the 
 declaration would be futile so long as the customs must be 
 appealed to for the interpretation of the law. The meanings 
 of the terms "vein," "lode," and "ledge," for instance, 
 although much clarified by judicial decisions, are still subject 
 to doubt. In a recent case in Colorado (which I cite, not to 
 assail the ruling, but to illustrate this point), it was held that 
 a "contact bed," or deposit, admitted to be legally a vein, 
 did not begin to be a vein at its outcrop, because that was 
 barren of precious metal, but did begin to be a vein, or in 
 other words had its true outcrop or apex, at the point where 
 it first showed by assay " an ounce or more per ton" of silver. 
 Now, any law or construction of law which makes the 
 miner's title dependent upon subtle geological or chemical 
 distinctions is unfortunate. As far as practicable, the stat- 
 ute should be so worded as to avoid such contingencies. 
 Another serious embarrassment of a similar nature arises 
 from the construction which has been put upon the phrase 
 of section 2322, " the top or apex of which lies inside of such 
 surface lines extended downward vertically." Under this 
 clause it has been held that unless a locator includes within 
 the width of his claim the whole width of the outcrop or 
 apex of a lode, he cannot acquire the right to follow that 
 lode beyond his side lines. This ruling has been applied in 
 cases in which the local laws actually forbade the locator to 
 make a claim wide enough to include the lode. It is easy to 
 see that in such a case two or more locations may be made 
 side by side on the same lode, and neither of the locators 
 possess" the right to follow it in depth. The remedy appears 
 to be to consider the prior locator or patentee as entitled to 
 the lode, and a slight change in the statute would put this 
 beyond doubt ; or else the provisions of section 2320 might 
 be so modified as to forbid the lin^itation of width in mining 
 claims by local regulation to a less width than that of the^ 
 vein itself at the surface ; or parties holding locations side 
 by side, comprising the outcrop which neither of them singly 
 covers, might be allowed to consolidate their claims and 
 thereby acquire a right which, under the present construc- 
 tion of the law, I suppose they could not acquire by con- 
 solidation, since they do not severally possess it beforehand. 
 
 But all these and many more ambiguities and uncertain- 
 ties arising under the present law have their ultimate origin 
 in the attempt to encourage the purchase and development 
 of mineral lands by granting to the locator and patentee 
 something more and at the same time something less than 
 the contents of his claim, according to the ordinary common- 
 law practice. Strictly speaking, the present system is, as I 
 have shown, equally in" accordance with the common law. 
 But the ordinary common-law practice is that the boundaries 
 of the mining rights are the vertical planes drawn through 
 the boundaries of the surface tract. The convenience of this 
 practice is attested by its universality. Land goes from hand 
 to hand in parcels, and even when the mining rights have 
 been alienated the unit of land measurement naturally re- 
 mains the unit of measurement for the mining right. Our 
 rnining law involves endless trouble in its attempt to com- 
 bine two units, the surface and the lode. Before the law was 
 
 enacted the miners had but one unit, namely, the lode. 
 Surface ownership there was none, only an easement or 
 privilege of using the surface when necessary for mining 
 operations. It may be questioned whether the present sys- 
 tem is an improvement. In the report which I had the 
 honor, as United States Commissioner of Mining Statistics, 
 to present to the Secretary of the Treasury, January 18, 1869, 
 and in which the subject of the mining law was discussed, I 
 used the following language: 
 
 " The Spanish and English laws, as I have shown, in- 
 variably bound mining claims by vertical, just as the prop- 
 erty of land-owners is bounded. The modem Prussian law 
 does the same thing. But, according to the present codes of 
 other German states, and the ancient codes of all, inclined 
 locations may be granted, with the right to follow the vein 
 in depth, without reference to the surface ownership. The 
 American miners' law is unlike either, and, so far as I know, 
 has no parallel in history. It comprehends the vein, its dips, 
 spurs, and angles, to any depth ; and under this provision, 
 when two veins are found to meet in depth, the oldest location 
 is held to be the main lode, and the other is confiscated as a 
 ' spur.' (The word ' spur' is omitted from the United States 
 law of 1866 ; but the sweeping recognition in that law of 
 ' mining customs' virtu.nlly restores it.) There is no justice 
 in such a provision. On the other hand, there is no limit in 
 American local regulations as to tlie distance between par- 
 allel locations, which, no niatter how closely they lie to- 
 gether, are presumed to be on different veins until proved to 
 be on the same. This state of things both invites and pro- 
 tracts a litigation which is seldom settled except by ex- 
 haustion and compromise. 
 
 " There are not wanting those who urge the adoption of 
 ' square locations' exclusively as the cure for these evils. But 
 with such, after mature reflection, I cannot agree. The 
 great aim of the government, in disposing of its mines should 
 be to secure their permanent and systematic working. To 
 define the boundaries of mining ground by vertical planes 
 does indeed lessen the danger of litigation ; but it also lessens 
 the value of the claim ; and, in most cases, the value thus 
 subtracted from one property is not added to any other. 
 Thus, a miner under the Spanish law loses the right to work 
 his vein because, at the depth of 600 feet it passes out of his 
 surface boundaries into the neighboring claim ; but the 
 neighbor is not much better off for knowing that 600 feet 
 below the<6urface he may find a vein of ore. To the miner 
 who has already reached that depth it is valuable; to the 
 miner who must dig and blast 600 feet to find it, it may be 
 worth nothing. Meanwhile it is undoubtedly for the interest 
 of the country that the work should be continued in depth ; 
 and the proper person to carry it on is evidently the one who 
 has commenced it and prosecuted it thus far. * * * Eor 
 the present stage of mining in this country, as for the earlier 
 stages of mining in Germany, the inclined location must be 
 accepted as the best for lodes." 
 
 My later reports and publications show a more decided 
 recognition of the advantages of vertical boundary planes, 
 now almost universal among civilized nations. But they 
 also repeat the one consideration, which seemed to me de- 
 cisive, ten years ago, against that system, nnd which still 
 constitutes the chief objection to it. I mean the encourage- 
 ment to deep mining lield out by the present system, or, 
 rather, the encouragement to the investment of capital in 
 mining, constitutes in the knowledge that the valuable min- 
 eral deposit may be followed indefinitely in depth. Can that 
 advantage be in any way secured under a system of vertical 
 boundaries? 
 
 I shall waste no time in vindicating personal consistency 
 in this matter. It might be shown that ten years have 
 changed the conditions of mining in this country and the 
 features of the mining law more than they h.ave changed 
 the views embodied in the long argument from which I have 
 quoted. Our mining districts are better known ; it is more 
 easily practicable to measure and define the surface-unit at 
 the beginning of operations ; the vague rights granted by 
 miners' custom have been largely shorn and restricted by 
 definition. Above all the present requirement that the sur- 
 vey of a claim shall not be changed after first location, ex- 
 cept by relocation (sacrificing prior date of title), and that it 
 shall convey only that portion of the mineral deposit of which 
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THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 561 
 
 the spirit of the former system, and reduces to a slender re- 
 mainder the " rights of the discoverer." It is no longer 
 possible for a citizen discovering valuable mineral in place 
 to claim it by virtus of priority alone lor an indefinite period. 
 He must make haste to find its top or apex or outcrop be- 
 fore any one else ; then he must make haste to locate a claim 
 including that upper edge ; and by that location, however 
 wisely or unwisely made, he must abide through all subse- 
 quent proceedings for title. The certainty of a location car- 
 rying absolute ownership of a tract and its contents would 
 be in many cases far better for the miner than this combina- 
 tion of the chance of getting a great deal with the risk of 
 getting nothing. But assuming that a change could be ef- 
 fected in the present administration of the statute, or in the 
 statute itself, by which more freedom should be given to 
 the locator, or assuming that, in the majority of cases, the 
 discoverer actually finds and successfully locates upon the 
 outcrop of his deposit, thtn there is certainly a real encour- 
 agement for him in the knowledge that he can follow the 
 deposit in depth Can this be secured under a system of 
 vertical side boundaries ? Two expedients only are suggested. 
 The first is to vary the size of the claim, as the Spanish law 
 does, according to the dip of the deposit. This is open to 
 the gravest objections. It delays the definition of the sur- 
 face claim (to the manifest injury of neighboring explorers) 
 until the mine has attained a certain depth. The Spanish 
 law makes this depth ten yards, and the dip of the deposit 
 for the first ten yards is faiken as the basis for determining 
 the width of the claim (which, however, never exceeds 200 
 yards on either side of the outcrop). It may fairly be said 
 that this offers little security to the locator. The uppermost 
 thirty feet of a vein are, perhaps, more likely than any 
 other part of it to show a false, local dip. Yet it would not 
 be practicable to require a greater depth, and hence a greater 
 delay, before settling the boundaries of the surface claim. 
 
 But if we cannot well vary the size of the claim accord- 
 ing to the features of the deposit, the only other expedient 
 is the granting of a tract sufficiently large to offer as great en- 
 couragement to miners as is now offered by the peculiarity 
 of the underground ownership. In my report, above quo- 
 ted, I mentioned 40 acres as the size of the " square loca- 
 tion," which would, in many districts be necessary to effect 
 this purpose. But that statement needs explanation and 
 qualification. Let us first assume that the location is square 
 in form. The tract of 40 acres is then 1,320 feet square. If the 
 outcrop of a vein runs along one side of it, dipping into the 
 tract — the most favorable case for the locator — the location 
 commands 1,320 feet of the strike, and a distance on the dip 
 indefinitely great as the position of the vein approaches the 
 vertical, and diminishing as it approaches the horizontal, 
 toward a minimum of 1320 feet. Assuming, as an average 
 case, the dip of 45'', the depth of vein within the tract would 
 be about 1,867 feet, and the vertical depth at the point where 
 it leaves the tract 1,320 feet. For many reasons, however, it 
 is not to be supposed that square claims would be generally, 
 or even frequently, so located as to carry the outcrop along 
 one side. Assuming, then, as an average case that the loca- 
 tion, of the form and size now under discussion, carries the 
 outcrop through the center, and parallel with two of its 
 sides, we have for a dip of 45° a distance on the dip, within 
 the location, of 933 feet. This is not too much, if a single 
 vein is taken into consideration ; and if a mining district is 
 to be surveyed according to the present land-surveying sys- 
 tem, with the square mile as a basis, and meridians and par- 
 allels as the boundaries, and if such survey is to be indepen- 
 dent of the course of the mineral deposits, and the mining 
 locator or purchaser is to be obliged to choose his location 
 among the squares thus defined, I think the square of 1,320 
 feet, or T^j of a square mile, is at once the most conven- 
 ient and the smallest which can reasonably be fixed as the 
 size of a claim. But I thought in 1869, and I think still, 
 that the area of forty acres is too great to be accepted by 
 the mining communities, and that the attempt to introduce 
 it would cause much trouble, particularly in districts where 
 several parallel veins might cross such a tract. But few 
 prospectors (sixteen to a square mile) could get a foothold 
 under such a system, and those few would occupy at the 
 outset all the valuable mining ground. Prospecting would 
 be discouraged, and the motive which supplies our new mm- 
 ing camps with the population absolutely necessary for a 
 86 
 
 supply of labor, the establishment of communications, &c., 
 would be almost destroyed. 
 
 Hence, I think the attempt to lay out the mineral land in 
 fixed squares would not be wise. If the claims were permit- 
 ted to nave, on the other hand, any form and position, a 
 minimum width (or, better, a maximum length) and max- 
 imum area being prescribed, one half the area of 40 acres 
 would suffice to secure substantially equal advantages to the 
 miner ; and this is the size which I venture to recommend. 
 Judge Hallett, of Colorado, in an able review of this sub- 
 ject, addressed to your honorable commission, advocates 
 the absence of restrictions as to form and position of loca"- 
 tions, fixing the size as not exceeding ten acres,«n any form 
 not less than 100 feet wide at any point. This would permit 
 a maximum length of 4,356 feet ; and cases might easily 
 arise in which this length would be located. Given, for in- 
 stance, a well-defined vein or bed, easily worked near the 
 outcrop, and yielding above water level oxidized ores reduci- 
 ble cheaply, say, by amalgamtion, it would be the interest 
 of a locator to take up 4356 feet by 100 feet along such a 
 vein, with the intention of robbingits upper portion by an 
 open cut and then abandoning it. To encourage this would 
 be to discourage systematic and permanent mining. Hence 
 it would, in my judgment, be preferable to fix no min- 
 imum width, but a maximum length of location in any direc- 
 tion of 1,500 feet. This length would permit, for the area 
 of 10 acres, a vridth of about 290 feet, which is, in my judg- 
 ment not enough. For the area of 20 acres, the width for 
 the maximum length might be 579 feet, which is sufficient 
 to encourage permanent mining. It is true that many, per- 
 haps most, deep mines would extend beyond such a width. For 
 the average case we have been considering, of a vein running 
 through the center of the claim and dipping 45°, this width 
 would give but 410 feet of mining depth ; but it may safely 
 be presumed, as Judge Hallett remarks in a letter to the 
 Denver Tribune, that this point will be met by " the ability 
 and disposition of capitalists to gather up a sufficient area 
 for deep mining where the existence of valuable ore may be- 
 shown." In other words, a capitalist will buy the neighbor- 
 ing claim if he needs it. Judge Hallett, however, uses this 
 argument in favor of the ten-acre claim. I submit that such 
 a claim is too small to secure the necessary deep mining to 
 satisfy the mine-owner of the permanence and value of the 
 deposit; while, on the other hand, if a rich and valuable 
 vein passes out of a claim of 1,500 by 290 feet, it is likely to 
 enter the adjoining claim at so small a depth below the 
 surface as to invite the owner of that claim to work it him- 
 self, or hold it at an exorbitant price. Judge Hallett's pro- 
 posed claim is less than one-half as large as the maximum 
 now permitted by the United States law. The size which I 
 suggest is nearly the same as the present maximum (1,500 
 by 600 feet). In all the suggestions which I have heard on 
 this subject, it seems to have been taken for granted that no 
 location should be made until after the discovery within it 
 of " valuable mineral." This phrase is vague enough, and 
 the administration of the part of the law containing it is 
 very likely to be a farce. If the condition could be re- 
 moved without detriment to the public interest, the whole 
 problem would be greatly simplified. So far as the govern- 
 ment is concerned, it seems a simple proposition that if 
 the government is willing to sell agricultural land at $1.25 
 per acre, and mineral lands at $6 per acre, it would have no 
 reason to object to sell the latter and take the money, leav- 
 ing to the purchaser the risk of value. We do not ask the 
 settler upon agricultural land to prove the fertility of the 
 soil before we sell it to him. He pre-empts or buys at his 
 own risk. We guard against monopoly of land, so far as 
 we can, by limiting the size of the pre-emption claim. We 
 can do the same thing to the same degree by limiting the 
 size of the mining claim. In neither case can we prevent 
 people who have the desire and the means from buying 
 up farms, or land warrants, or mineral land patents, and 
 then working upon the property or not as they see fit. Un- 
 der our present system, a patentee may allow his mining 
 property to lie idle if he chooses. If he does so choose it 
 is manifestly immaterial to the public whether there is really 
 a mine there or not. But the locator, we ordain, must have 
 found a valuable mineral deposit, and must bestow upon it, 
 to maintain possessory title, a certain amount of work an- 
 nually. The only reason that I can discover for this rule is 
 
562 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the desire to prevent a mere locator from laolding without 
 developing a piece of ground in which, otherwise, some one 
 else might find a valuable mine. If the miners were all 
 owners under patents, we should, and safely could, leave the 
 question of working or not working to their self-interest. 
 Any mine that promised to be profitable would be worked 
 or sold in the course of no very long time. The policy of 
 th& government, as I have explained, is to encourage pros- 
 pecting as a preliminary to purchase ; to induce prospectors 
 and possessory owners, by every practicable means, to take 
 patents, and to grant patents on terms so easy and for tracts 
 so small as to favor the miner of limited capital. It seems 
 to me that these ends might be secured by a simple system 
 like the following : Let mining locations be made anywhere 
 on unoccupied public lands, whether any discovery of min- 
 eral has taken place or not. Fix the maximum area at 20 
 acres, and the maximum length at 1,500 feet. Allow the 
 locator to occupy by possessory title for one year — adequate 
 evidence of the boundaries of the location being maintained 
 on the ground as well as in the record. Require a certain 
 amount of work for each 100 feet in length of the location 
 to be performed as a condition of relocation. At any time 
 during the year, if the locator applies for patent, sell him 
 the tract. If he desires to continue to occupy by possessory 
 title, require him to give notice to that effect, together with 
 proof of the performance of the prescribed work, before the 
 end of the year and at the end of the year, unless some 
 other party has, at least sixty days before, made application to 
 purchase, issue to the locator the certificate of his possessory 
 title for another year, on the same conditions. But if appli- 
 cation to purchase has been made by some other party, and 
 not by the locator, then the latter, during the last sixty days 
 of the year may elect whether he will purchase or vacate 
 the claim. In case no such application has been made, and 
 the locator has not appeared before the close of the year 
 with his proof of work done, let the claim be open to reloca- 
 tion by others. 
 
 Under this system, the locator would occupy the position 
 of a tenant, to whom the proprietor should say, " I will let 
 you have this property for one year, with the option to buy 
 it at any time at a nominal price. At the end of the year 
 if you have done a certain small amount of work on the 
 property, I will let you have it for another year, unless a 
 purchaser appears. In that case I shall sell it — to you if 
 you choose, or else to him. But if you neither buy nor im- 
 prove the property, and no purchaser appears, I shall put 
 somebody else in your place on the same terms as I offer 
 you." Thus we should get clear altogether of the mineral 
 deposit or lode as a unit, and base all proceedings on the 
 land. The officers of the government from the register and 
 surveyor to the judge, would be relieved from the duties of 
 mining experts, and geologists, chemists, and mining cap- 
 tains would no longer be called upon as witnesses to settle 
 by hair-splitting distinctions the right of property. If any 
 radical change in our mining law can be successfully made 
 at the present time, I believe this plan would be as practic- 
 able as any, and more beneficial than any, which have come 
 to my notice. If this, or something like this, cannot be 
 adopted, then it seems to me that it would be wiser to 
 amend in detail our present law, rather than attempt 
 changes which would be revolutionary without being reme- 
 dial. There are many points still needing discussion. 
 Whether the lines of a location should be alterable by re- 
 survey before application for patent (I would say. Yes ; the 
 rights of neighboring locators being respected) ; whether a 
 prospector should have any rights prior to a regular survey 
 and record of location) I would say. Yes; the right to stake 
 off his claim provisionally, and to lose nothing by delay of 
 the government officer in making official survey — all this 
 under proper regulations (whether a prospector simply 
 roaming over the public land, and finding "mineral," 
 should have any right by virtue of discovery (I would say, 
 Noj but his commencement to stake off or mark the boun- 
 daries of a claim should give him the inchoate right to that 
 claim, to be perfected, however, by continuing and finishing 
 the proceeding) ; whether one year, aa I have suggested, is 
 the proper term ; whether sixty days, suggested in another 
 place, is the proper term ; whether possessory owners should 
 be notified, by advertisement or otherwise, of applications to 
 purchase, at the end of their term, the claims they are occu- 
 
 pying ; whether such notice should be given at the expense 
 of the party acquiring the claim, or whether it is sufficient 
 that these facts should be kept in accessible records, and the 
 possessory owner obliged to consult the record thirty days 
 (or some other fixed period) before the end of his year, to 
 discover for himself whether there is a proposing purchaser ; 
 how far present possessory owners can be forced to take 
 patents or to accept the terms of the new law (I fear nothing 
 of this kind can be done so long as they obey the terms of 
 the present law) — these and many other questions of detail 
 arise ; but I cannot see in any of them difficulties which 
 would constitute insuperable objections to the proposed sys- 
 tem, or which would justify me in prolonging further these 
 communications, for the length and diffusiveness of which I 
 ought rather to offer my apologies. 
 
 Yours respectfully, 
 
 R. W. Raymond. 
 
 — From the " Public Domain," by Thos. Donaldson, Public Land Commission. 
 
 THE GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION. 
 
 THE following is from the United States Statutes 
 at Large. — 
 Secretary of the Interior — Section 1. The Sec- 
 retary of the Interior is chaiged with the supervision of pub- 
 lic business relating to the following subjects : 
 
 ******* 
 
 Second. The public lands, including mines. 
 2 Stat. 716 ; 5 id. 107 : 9 id. 395 ; E. S. 441. "Wilcox v. Jack- 
 son, 13 Pet. 498 ; Maguire v. Tyler, 1 Black, 195 ; Snyder v. 
 Sickles, 8 Otto, 203 ; Wolsey v. Chapman, S. C, Oct. T., 
 1879, in manuscript ; Patterson v. Tatum, 3 Saw. C. C. 164. 
 3 Op. Att. Gen. 137 ; 12 id. 250. 2 Laws, Instructions and 
 Opinions, 104; 1 Lester, 681. Hesters «. Brennan, 50 Call. 
 211. 
 
 Sec. 2. He shall grant warrants to parties entitled to land 
 heretofore or hereafter given by the United States for mili- 
 tary services. 
 
 2 Stat. 717 ; R. S. 456. 
 
 Sec. 3. Copies of papers filed in tke Interior Department 
 and remaining therein shall be authenticated under the 
 hand of the Secretary and the seal of the General Land 
 Office. 
 
 3 Stat. 721 ; 5 id. Ill ; E. S. 460. 
 
 Sec. 4. The bonds of surveyor-general shall be executed 
 and delivered to the Secretary of the Interior. 
 
 3 Stat. 697 ; R. S. 2215. U. S. v. Tingley, 5 Pet. 115 ; U. S. v. 
 Stephenson, 1 McLean, C. C. 462 ; Farrar v. U. S., 5 Pet. 373. 
 
 Sec. 5. He shall take the necessary measures for the com- 
 pletion of the public-land surveys. 
 5 Stat. 384; 19 id. 121 ; R. S. 2218. 
 
 Sec. 6. He shall discontinue the land office in any district 
 wherein the public lands are reduced to less than one hun- 
 dred thousand acres, and shall give notice at what conveni- 
 ent existing land office such residue shall be subject to sale. 
 
 5 Stat. 455 ; R. S. 2249 ; Matthews v. Zane's Lessee, 5 Cranch, 
 95 ; same case, 7 Wheat. 164. 
 
 Sec. 7. He shall make a reasonable allowance for office 
 rent for consolidating land offices, and may approve the em- 
 ployment of clerks by the register. 
 12 Stat. 131 ; R. S. 2255. 
 
 Sec. 8. He is authorized to repay the purchase money, 
 foes, commissions, and excess payments in cases where the 
 lands have been erroneously sold and the title cannot be 
 confirmed. 
 
 4 Stat. 80; Hid. 3S7; act June 16, 1880; R. S. 2362. 4 Op. 
 Att. Gen. 277. Decisions Sec. Int., Aus;. 17, 1849 ; July 23. 
 1864; April 15, 1878; Aug. 5, 1878; May 7, 1879; Nov. 20, 
 1878; July 1,1879; July 29, 1879; Aug'. 12, 1878; Jan. 8, 
 1880. 
 
 Sec. 9. He is authorized to permit innocent parties who 
 purchased and located claims arising under the ^treaty of 
 September thirty, eighteen hundred and fifty-four, to per- 
 fect their entries with cash or military bounty-land war- 
 rants. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 563 
 
 17 Stat»340 ; E. S. 2368. Decisions Sec. Int., July 6, 1876 ; 
 July 19, 1879 ; May 6, 1880. 
 
 Sec. 10. He is authorized to allow erroneous entries of 
 lands sold at private sale and warrant locations to be cor- 
 rected ; and this authority extends to patented cases upon 
 surrender of the patent with satisfactory relinquishment of 
 title indorsed thereon. 
 
 3 Stat. 526 ; 4 id. 301 ; 10 id. 257 ; E. S. 2369, 2370, 2371. 
 
 Sec. 11. When, in the opinion of the President, the pub- 
 lic interests require it, he shall cause town-site reservations 
 to be surveyed into lots ; shall fix their cash value by ap- 
 praisement of disinterested persons ; and after, offering same 
 at public entry to the highest bidder shall prescribe 
 regulations for sale of the residue at private entry at no less 
 than the appraised values. All such sales shall be con- 
 ducted by the register and receiver of the proper land district. 
 
 12 Stat. 754 ; R. S. 2381. U. S. v. Hare, 4 Saw ; C. C. 653. 
 Sec. 12. He may cause a survey and plat to be made of a 
 
 city or town, if within twelvemonths from its establishment 
 on the public domain the parties interested do not file in the 
 General Land Office the showing required by law ; and 
 thereafter the minimum price of lots included therein shall 
 be increased fifty per centum. 
 
 13 Stat. 344 ; E. S. 2384. 
 
 Sec. 13. He may vary the subdivisional surveys in the 
 State of Nevada from a rectangular form to suit the circum- 
 stances of the country. 
 
 14 Stat. 86 ; E. S. 2408. Heydenfeldt v. Mining Co., 3 Otto, 
 634. 
 
 Sec. 14. He may authorize the geodetic method of survey 
 in Oregon and California. 
 
 9 Stat. 496; 10 id. 245 ; E. S. 2409. 
 
 Sec. 15. He may direct a departure from the rectangular 
 mode of survey in the State of California. 
 
 10 Stat. 245 ; E. S. 2410. 
 
 Sec. 16. He may direct compensation by the day for sur- 
 veys in Oregon and California. 
 lOStet. 247; E. S. 2411. 
 Sec. 17. He may prescribe regulations for the location 
 and patenting, free of expense, of any military bounty- land 
 warrant transmitted for that purpose in the General Land 
 Office. 
 
 9 Stat. 521 ; E. S. 2437. Decision Sec. Int., March 1, 1876. 
 Sec. 18. He may authorize issue of patents in cases of 
 lost military bounty-land warrants. 
 3 Stat. 317 ; E. S. 2439. 
 Sec. 19. He shall cause new bounty-land warrants to be 
 issued in lieu of lost or destroyed warrants, and shall pre- 
 scribe regulations for the prevention of frauds. 
 12 Stat. 90 ; 18 id. Ill ; R. S. 2441, 2442. 
 Sec. 20. He shall issue patents to the heirs of persons en- 
 titled to bounty lands. 
 6 Stat. 650 ; E. S. 2443. 
 Sec. 21. Conjointly with the Attorney -General and the 
 Commissioner of the General Land Office, he shall prescribe 
 regulations for the equitable decision of suspended entries 
 of public lands and of suspended pre-emption claims, and 
 adjudicate in what cases patents shall issue upon the same. 
 9 Stat. 51; 10 id. 258; 11 id. 22: 28 id. 60; 19td. 244; E. S. 
 2450, 2451. 
 Sec. 22. He shall have exclusive control of the Yellow- 
 stone Park, with authority to lease portions thereof. 
 17 Stat. 33 ; E. S. 2475. 
 Sec. 23. He shall make accurate lists and plats of the 
 swamp and overflowed lands granted to the several States 
 and transmit same to the governors thereof; and at the re- 
 quest of the governor of any State in which such lands are 
 situate, he shall cause patents to be issued conveying to said 
 State the fee-simpl&of said lands. 
 
 9 Stat. 519 : E. S. 2479, 2480. Eailroad Co. v. Smith, 9 Wall, 
 95 • French v. Fyan, 3 Otto, 169 ; Martin v. Marks, 7 id. 345. 
 9 Op Att Gen. 253. Clarkson i). Buchanan, 53 Mo. 563; 
 Masterson v. Marshall, 65 id. 94; Funkhouser v. Peck, 67 id. 
 20 ; Busch v. Donohue, 31 Mish. 481 ; Kile v. Tubbs, 23 Cal. 
 431 ■ Kernan v. Griffith, 27 id. 87; Fremont Co. v. E. K. Co., 
 22 Iowa, 91 ; E. E. Co. v. Brown, 40 id. 333 ; Page Co. v. R. 
 
 R. Co., 40 id. 520 ; Edmonson v. Corn, 62 Ind. 17 ; Gratham 
 V. Atkins 62 Ills., 359 Smith v. Goodell, 66 id. 450 ; Compton 
 V. Prince, 67 id. 281 ; Gaston v. Scott, 5 Oreg. 48. 
 
 Sec. 24. Indemnity for swamp lands sold by the United 
 States shall not be allowed until approved by the Secretary 
 of the Interior. 
 
 10 Stat. 634, 635; E. S. 2482. 
 Sec. 25. He shall notify the governors of the States of 
 Minnesota and Oregon when public land surveys have been 
 completed and confirmed in said States. 
 
 12 Stat. 3 ; E. S. 2490. Gaston v. Scott. 5 Oreg. 48. Decisions 
 Sec. Int., Oct. 13, 1876; Jan. 7, 1879; April 15, 1880. 
 Sec. 26. He shall sign all requisitions for the advance or 
 payment of money out of the Treasury on estimates or 
 accounts approved or certified by the Commissioner of the 
 General Land Office, subject to the control of the proper ac- 
 counting officers of the Treasury. 
 
 9 Stat. 395 ; R. S. 444. 1 Lester, 314. 
 Sec. 27. He shall prescribe the duties of the Assistant 
 Secretary of the Interior, who shall act as the Secretary of 
 the Interior in the absence of that officer. 
 12 Stat. 369; R. S. 439. 
 Sec. 28. Upon the survey of lands designated as mineral, 
 the Secretary of the Interior may designate and set apart 
 such portions of the same as are clearly agricultural lands, 
 which lands shall thereafter be subject to pre-emption and 
 sale as other public lands and be subject to all the laws and 
 regulations applicable to the same. 
 14 Stat. 253; E. S. 2342. 
 Sec. 29. He shall prescribe regulations for the subdivision 
 of fractional sections. 
 
 3 Stat. 566 ; 4 id. 503 ; E. S. 2397. Gazzam v. Phillips' Lessee 
 et al., 20 How., 372. 3 Op. Att. Gen. 281. Decision Com. G. 
 L. O. May 17, 1875. 
 Sec. 30. It shall be the duty of the Secretary of the Inte- 
 rior to designate one newspaper in each State or Territory, 
 where public lands are situated, for the publication of all 
 Executive proclamations relating to the sale of public lands. 
 19 Stat. 221. 
 
 THE GENERAL LAND OFFICE. 
 
 THERE shall be in the Department of the Interior a 
 Commissioner of the General Land Office, who shall 
 be appointed by the President, by and with the ad- 
 vice and consent of the Senate, and shall be entitled 
 to a salary of four thousand dollars a year. 
 2 Stat. 717 ; 5 id. 107, 17 id. 508; R. S. 446, 
 Sec. 32. The Commissioner of the General Land Office 
 shall perform, under the direction of the Secretary of the 
 Interior, all executive duties appertaining to the surveying 
 and sale of the public lands of the United States, or in 
 anywise respecting such public lands, and, also, such as re- 
 late to private claims of^'land, and the issuing of patents 
 for all grants of land under the authority of the Govern- 
 ment. 
 
 2 Stat. 7, 16 ; 5 id. 107 ; 18 id. 62, 317 ; R.S. 453. Foley v. Harrison, 
 15 How. 433; Barnard's Heirs «. Ashley's Heirs, 18 id. 43; 
 Bell V. Hearne, 19 id. 252 ; Castro v. Hendricks, 23 id. 438 ; 
 Maguire v. Tyler, 1 Black, 195; Harkness v. Underbill, 1 id. 
 316 ; U. S. V. Commissioner, 5 Wall, 563 ; Gaines v. Thompson, 
 7 id. 349 ; Sec'y v. McGarraUan, 9 id. 228 ; Johnson -o. 
 Towslev, 13 id. 72, 12 Op. Att. Gen. 250 ; Le Eoy v. Clayton, 
 2 Saw. "C. C. 493 ; Patterson v. Tatum, 3 id. 164 ; Le Eoy v. 
 Jamison, 3 id. 369. Lott v. Prudhomme, 3 Rob. (La.) 293 ; 
 Bettis V. Amonett, 4 id. 364 ; Foley v. Harrison, 5 id. 75 ; 
 Gurdry v. Wood, 19 id. 234 ; Lamont v. Stinson, 3 Wis. 5.45 : 
 Fremont Co. v. R. R. Co., 22 Iowa, 91 ; Bellows v. Todd, 34 
 id. 18 ; Brill v. Stiles, 35 Ills. 305; Aldrich «. Aldrich, 37 id. 
 32; Lewis v-. Lewis, 9 Mo. 183; Pope v. Athearn, 42 Cal. 
 605 ; Hosmer v. Wallace, 47 id. 461 ; Parker v. Duff, 47 id. 
 554; McGarrahan v. Mining Co., 49 id. 331 ; Hesters ?>. Bren- 
 nan, 50 id. 211 ; Vance v. Kohlburg 50 id. 346; Weaver v. 
 Fairchild, 50 id. 360 ; Fugy i;.-Hensley, 52 id. 299. 
 
 Sec. 33. The Commissioners of the General Land Office 
 shall retain the charge of the seal heretofore adopted for the 
 office, which may continue to be used, and of the records, 
 
564 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 books, papers, and other property appertaining to the 
 office. 
 
 2 Stat. 717 ; E. S. 445. 
 Sec. 34. The Commissioner of the General Land Office 
 shall when required by the President, or either House of 
 Congress, make a plat of any land surveyed under the au- 
 thority of the United States, and give such information 
 respecting the public lands and concerning the business of 
 his office as shall be directed. 
 2 Stat. 717 ; E. S. 455. 
 Sec. 35. All returns relative to the public lands shall be 
 made to the Commissioner of the General Land Office ; and 
 he shall have power to audit and settle all public accounts 
 relative to the public lands ; and upon the settlement of any 
 such accounts he shall certify the balance, and transmit the 
 account with the vouchers and certificate to the First Comp- 
 troller of the Treasury, for his examination and decision 
 thereon. 
 
 2 Stat. 717 ; E. S. 456. 
 Sec. 36. All exemplifications of patents, or papers on file 
 or of record in the General Land Office, which may be re- 
 quired by parties interested, shall be furnished by the Com- 
 missioner upon the payment by such parties at the. rate of 
 fifteen cents per hundred words, and two dollars for copies 
 of township plats or diagrams, with an additional sum of 
 one dollar for the Commissioner's certificate of verification 
 with the General Land Office seal ; and one of the employes 
 of the office shall be designated by the Commissioner as 
 the receiving clerk, and the amount so received shall, under 
 the direction of the Commissioner, be paid into the Treas- 
 ury ; but fees shall not be demanded for such authenticated 
 copies as may be required by the officers of any branch of 
 the Government, nor for such unverified copies as the 
 Commissioner in his discretion may deem proper to fur- 
 nish. 
 
 13 Stat. 375; E. S.-461. Lane v. Bommelmann, 17 Ills. 95; 
 
 Lacy V. Davis, 4 Mich. 140; Gilrnaa v. Eipela, 18 id. 145; 
 
 Clark V. Hill, 19 id. 356; Boyd tJ. Stambaugh, 34 I'rf. 348 ; 
 
 Ansley v. Peterson, 30 Wis. 653 ; McLean v. Bovee, 35 id. 
 
 27 ; Kelly v. Wallace, 14 Minn. 336 ; Washburn v. Menden- 
 
 hall, 21 id. 332 ; Barton v. Murrain, 27 Mo. 235 ; Eailroad Co. 
 
 V. Moore, 37 id. 333; Stephen v. Westwood, 25 Ala. 716; 
 
 Smith V. Hosier, 5 Blackf. (Ind.) 51. Cir. G. L. 0., July20, 
 
 1875. 
 Sec. 37. That public lands situated in States in which 
 there are no land offices may be entered at the General Land 
 Office, subject to the provisions of law touching the entry 
 of public lands ; and the necessary proofs and affidavits re- 
 quired in such cases may be made before some officer com- 
 petent to administer oaths, whose official character shall be 
 duly certified by the clerk of a court of record ; and moneys 
 received by the Commissioner of the General Land Office 
 for lands entered by cash entry shall be covered into the 
 Treasury. 
 
 19 Stat. 315; 20 id. 201. 
 Sec. 38. Upon the discontinuance of any surveying dis- 
 trict the authority, powers, and duties in relation to the 
 survey, resurvey, or subdivision of lands therein and all 
 matters and things connected therewith, as previously exer- 
 cised by the surveyor-general, shall be vested in and devolv- 
 ed upon the Commissioner of the General Land Office ; and 
 deputy surveyors or other agents under his direction shall 
 have free access to any field-notes, maps, records, and 
 other papers turned over to the authorities of any State pur- 
 suant to law, for the purpose of making copies thereof, with- 
 out charge of any kind. 
 
 10 Stat. 152 ; E. S. 2219, 2220. 
 Sec. 39. Appeals from the decision of district officers in 
 cases of contest for the right of pre-emption shall be made 
 to the Commissioner of the General Land Office, whose de- 
 cision shall be final, unless appeal therefrom be taken to the 
 Secretary of the Interior. 
 
 5 Stat. 456; 11 id. 326; E. S. 2273. Barnard r. Ashley, 18 
 How. 43 ; Garland v. Wynn, 20 id. 6 ; Lytle v. Arkansas, 22 
 id. 193 ; Harkness et ul. v. Underbill, 1 Black, 316 ; Lindsey 
 V. Hawse, 2 id. 554; Minnesota v. Batohelder, 1 Wall. 109; 
 Litchfield v. Eegister and Receiver, 9 id. 575 ; Johnson v. 
 Towsley, 13 id. 72 ; Warren v. Van Brunt, 19 id. 646 ; Shep- 
 ley et al. v. Cowan et al., 1 Otto, 330. 1 Op. Att. Gen. 201. 
 Laughlin v. MoGarvey, 50 Cal. 169. 
 
 Sec. 40. Where bona-fide settlers, under the hoMestead or 
 pre-emption laws, have, subsequent to the date of filing 
 their applications to enter not exceeding one quarter-section 
 of public lands, been appointed as register or receiver of the 
 land office of the district in which the lands are located, 
 proof and payment must be made to the satisfaction of the 
 Commissioner of the General Land Office. 
 
 17 Stat. 10; E. S. 2287. 4 Op. Att. Gen. 223; 7 id. 647. 
 
 Sec. 41. The Commissioner of the General Land Office 
 shall have power to establish the maximum charges for sur- 
 veys and the publication of notices under the mineral laws ; 
 and in case of excessive charges for publication he may 
 designate any newspapers published in a land district where 
 mines are situated for the publication of mining notices in 
 such district, and fix the rates to be charged by such 
 paper. 
 
 17 Stat. 95; 19 id. 52 ; E. S. 2334. 
 
 Sec. 42. Whenever any reservation of public land is 
 brought into market, the Commissioner ot the General 
 Land Office shall fix a minimum price not less than one dol- 
 lar and twenty-five cents per acre, below which such lands 
 shall not be disposed of. 
 13 Stat. 374; E. S. 2364. 
 
 Sec. 43. In case of mistakes in description, the Commis- 
 sioner is authorized, upon prescribed proof, to correct en- 
 tries of public lands, where the same do not exceed one 
 half-section, and where the certificate has not been as- 
 signed. 
 
 4 Stat. 31 ; E. S. 2372. Wilson v. Byns, 77 Ills. 76 ; Corwan 
 V. Johnson, 29 Mo. 84; State v. Commissioner, 17 Wis. 248. 
 
 Sec. 44. He shall prescribe regulations for the conduct of 
 sales of town lots at public sale and by private entry. 
 12 Stat. 754 ; E. S. 2381. Leech v. Eanch, 3 Minn. 448. 
 Sec. 45. The Commissioner shall approve all contracts for. 
 the survey of the public lands. 
 
 12 Stat. 409 ; E. S. 2398. Maguire v. Tyler, 1 Black, 201 ; 
 Parke v. Eoss, 11 How. 362; McKee v. U. S. 1 N. & H. 
 336. 
 
 Sec. 46. The instructions issued by the Commissioner of 
 the General Land Office not in conflict with law shall be 
 defrm,ed part of every contract for surveying the public 
 lands. 
 
 12 Stat. 409 ; E. S. 2399. 
 
 Sec. 47. Subject to the statutory maximum he shall fi;c 
 the price per mile for public surveys, and he shall instruct 
 the surveyor-general as to the mode of keeping accounts 
 and making reports of the cost of surveying and platting 
 private land claims. 
 
 12 Stat. 409; 18 id. 384; E. S. 2400. 
 
 Sec. 48. He shall instruct the surveyor-general as to the 
 survey of any townships upon the deposit by settlers of the 
 cost thereof. 
 
 12 Stat. 410 ; E. S. 2401. Cir. G. L. O., March 5, 1880. 
 
 Sec. 49. The Commissioner of the General Land Office 
 may authorize, in his discretion, public land in Oregon, 
 densely covered with forests or thick undergrowth, to be 
 surveyed at augumented rates, not exceeding eighteen dol- 
 lars per mile for standard parallels, fifteen dollars for town- 
 ships, and twelve dollars for section lines. 
 
 16 Stat. 304, 305 ; E. S. 2404. Decision Sec. Int. June 16, 1879. 
 Sec. 50. The Commissioner of the General Land Office, 
 
 in his discretion, may hereafter authorize public lands in 
 California and in Washington Territory, densely covered 
 with forests or thick undergrowth, to be surveyed at aug- 
 mented rates, not exceeding eighteen dollars per linear mile 
 for standard parallels, sixteen dollars for townships, and 
 fourteen dollars for section lines. 
 
 17 Stat. 358 ; E. S. 2405. Decision Sec. Int., June 16, 1879. 
 Sec. 51. When geodetic surveys in Oregon and California 
 
 are authorized by the Secretary of the Interior, the Commis- 
 sioner shall prescribe the regulations and terms for the exe- 
 cution thereof. 
 
 9 Stat. 496 ; 10 id. 245 ; E. S. 2409. 
 
 Sec. 52. Under the direction of the Secretary of the Inte- 
 rior, the Commissioner may allow compensation by the day 
 for public surveys in Oregon and California. 
 
 10 Stat. 247 ; E. S. 2411. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 565 
 
 Sec. 53. The Commissioner shall prescribe regulations for 
 the making and execution of assignments of military boun- 
 ty-land warrants, and for the location thereof. 
 
 10 Stat. 3; 11 id. 309; E. S. 2414. Bouldin et al. v. Massie's 
 Heirs, 7 Wheat. 122. Nlchola v. Nichols, 3 Pinney (Wis.) 
 174 ; Price v. Johnston, 1 Ohio St. 390 . Duke v. Thompson, 
 16 Ohio 34; Mock v. Brammer, 28 id. 508; Dupre v. Mo- 
 Cri?ht, 6 La. 146; B. & M. R. R. Co. v. Clingman, 23 Iowa, 
 306; Waters v. Bush, 42 id. 255; Dyke v. MoVey, 16 Ills. 41. 
 Decision Sec. Int., March 1, 1876. 
 
 Sec. 54. Pursuant to regulations to be prescribed by the 
 Secretary of the Interior, the Commissioner shall cause to 
 be located, free of expense, military bounty-land warrants 
 transmitted to him for that purpose by the holders thereof. 
 
 9 Stat. 521 ; R. S. 2437. Decision Sec. Int., March 1, 1876. 
 
 Sec. 55. The Commissioner shall prescribe regulations 
 for the relocation of military bounty-land warrants errone- 
 ously located by actual settlers. 
 
 10 Stat. 256 ; R. S. 2446. 
 
 Sec. 56. Conjointly with the Secretary of the Interior and 
 the Attorney-General, he shall prescribe regulations for the 
 equitable decision of suspended entries of public lands and 
 of suspended pre-emption claims, and adjudicate in what 
 cases patents shall issue upon the same, and report such 
 adjudication to Congress. 
 
 9 Stat. 51 ; 10 id. 258 ; 11 id. 22 ; 18 id. 50; 19 id. 244; R. S. 
 2450, 2452. 
 
 Sec. 57. Upon public notice of at least thirty days by 
 the proper register and receiver, the Commissioner may 
 order into market, without Presidential proclamation, all 
 lands embraced in claims rejected by the board for equita- 
 ble adjudication, and isolated or disconnected parcels of 
 unoffered lands. 
 
 9 Stat. 51 ; R. S. 2455. 
 
 Sec. 58. The Commissioner shall issue patents upon en- 
 tries confirmed by the board for equitable adjudication, 
 when such entries had been previously patented and the 
 patents surrendered for cancellation. 
 
 10 Stat. 258 ; R. S. 2456. 
 
 Sec. 59. The Commissioner shall cause to be prepared, 
 and shall certify, under the seal of the oifice, such copies of 
 records, books, and papers on file, in his office as may be 
 applied for to be used in evidence in courts of justice. 
 
 5 Stat. Ill ; 13 id. 375 ; R. S. 461, 831, 2469, 2470. Gait v. Gal- 
 loway, 4 Pet. 331. 
 
 Sec. 60. With the approval of the Secretary of the In- 
 terior, the Commissioner may, upon satisfactory proof, al- 
 low indemnity to the several States for swamp and over- 
 flowed lands granted to them by the act of September 
 twenty-eighth, eighteen hundred and fifty, and sold by the 
 United States prior to March third, eighteen hundred and 
 fifty-seven. 
 
 10 Stat. 634, 635; 11 id. 251; R. S. 2482. 11 Op. Att. Gen. 
 467 ; id. July 25, 1877, in manuscript. Decisions Sec. Int. 
 March 31, 1861; May 8, 1861; March 12, 1863; Feb. 8, 1868; 
 Feb. 2, 1874. Decision Com. G. L. 0., Feb. 17, 1879. 
 
 Sec. 61. The Commissioner, under the direction of the 
 Secretary of the Interior, is authorized to enforce and carry 
 into execution every part of the public land laws not other- 
 wise specially provided for. 
 
 R. S. 2478. Bell «. Hearne et al., 19 How. 252 ; Garland v. 
 Wynn, 20 id. 6. 3 Op. Att. Gen. 93, 104, 697 ; 10 id. 56. Pope 
 v. Athearn, 42 Cal. 606 ; McDowell v. Morgan, 28 Ills. 528 ; 
 Foley V. Harrison, 5 La. Ann. 75. 
 
 Sec. 62. The Commissioner shall possess and exercise all 
 the powers and authority and perform all the duties here- 
 tofore required by law to be performed by the recorder of 
 land titles in Missouri. 
 
 18 Stat. 62. Hale v. Gaines et al., 22 How. 144; Rector et al. 
 V. U. S., 2 Otto, 698 ; Scull v. U. S., 8 id. 410 ; U. S. v. Clam- 
 organ, S. C, Oct. T., 1879, in manuscript. 1 Op. Att. Gen. 
 718. Prim i). Horen, 27 Mo. 205 ; O'Flaherty v. Kellogg, 59 
 id. 485. For acts prescribing duties of'the recorder of land 
 titles, see 2 Stet. 326, 353, 748, 812; 3 U. 86, 121,329; 4 id. 
 52, 65, 566, 661; 19 id. 122. 
 
 Sec. 63. It shall be the duty of the Commissioner to issue 
 patents for public lands and private land claims in all cases 
 where the issue thereof is authorized by law. 
 
 2 Stat. 716 ; Sid. 107 ; R. S. 453. Bell v. Hearne, 19 How. 252 ; 
 Castro V. Hendricks, 23 id. 438 ; Polk's Lessee v. Wendal et 
 al., 9 Cranch, 87; Hoofnagle v. Anderson 7 Wheat. 212; 
 Patterson v. Winn, 11 id. 380 ; Stringer ei al. v. Young's Les- 
 see, 3 Pet. 320 ; U. S. v. Arredondo, 6 id. 691 ; Bagnell v. 
 Broderick, 13 id. 436; Stoddard v. Chambers, 2 How. 284; 
 Lander v. Brant, 10 id. 348 ; Minter v. Crommelin, 18 id. 87 ; 
 Field V. Seabury, 19 id. 323 ; Garland v. Wynn, 20 id. 6 ; 
 Hooper v. Soheimer, 23 id. 235 ; Greer v. Mezes, 24 id. 268 ; 
 U. S. V. Covilland, 1 Black, 339; U. S. v. Grimes, 2 id. 610; 
 U. S. V. Stone, 2 Wall. 525; Hogan v. Page, 2 id. 605; Beard 
 V. Federy 3 id. 478; Hughes v. V. S., 4 id. 232; U. S. v. 
 Com., 6 id. 563 ; Eichart v. Phelps, 6 id. 160 ; Stark v. Starr, 
 6 id. 402 ; Silver v. Ladd, 7 id. 29 ; Magnire v. Tyler, 8 id. 
 650 ; Secretary v. McGarrahan, 9 id. 298 ; Meador v. Norton, 
 11 id. 442 ; Johnson v. Towsley, 13 id. 72 ; Gibson v. Chou- 
 teau, 13 id. 92 ; Railway Co. v. Prescott, 16 id. 603 ; Hen- 
 shaw V. Bissell, 18 id. 255 ; Langdeau «. Haines, 21 id. 521 ; 
 Morton v. Nebraska, 21 id. 660; Miller v. Dale, 2 Otto, 473; 
 Sherman v. Buick, 3 id. 209 ; McGarrahan v. Mining Co., 6 id. 
 316 ; Moore v. Robbins, 6 id. 530 ; Wirth v. Branson, 8 id. 
 118; Snyderu.Sickles, 8(d. 203; Cowell t). Colo. Springs Co., 
 10 id. 55; Simmons v. Wagner, S. C, Oct. T.. 1879, in man- 
 uscript. Lewis V. Baird, 3 McLean, C. C. 56 ; Nelson v. Jloon, 
 3 id. 319 ; Shedds v. Sawyer, 4 id. 181 ; Huidekoper v. Bur- 
 rows, 1 Wash. C. C. 109 ; Mill and Mining Co. v. Dangberry, 
 1 Saw. C. C. 450; LeRoy v. Clayton, 2 id. 493; Dodge v. 
 Perry, 2 id. 645 ; Le Roy v. Jamison, 3 id. 369 ; Patterson v. 
 Tatum, 3 id. 164; Wyth v. Haskell, 3 id. 574; Hardy v. 
 Harbin, 4 id. 536; Mackey v. Eaton, 2 Dillon, C. C. 41 ; U. S. 
 V. Railway Co., 4 id. 397 ; Seabury v. Field, 1 McAllister, C. 
 C. 60; Mezes v. Goeler, 1 id. 401 ; Chapman v. School Dist, 
 1 Deady, C. C. 108 ; Lamb v. Storr, 1 id. 447. 1 Op. Att. Gen. 
 44, 45, 159, 458, 718; 2 id. 15, 41, 186, 501 ; 3 id. 93, 240, 351, 
 62.3, 653 ; 4 id. 120, 149, 150, 319, 329; 5 id. 7, 628; 7 id. 491, 
 636, 681; did. 108; 12 U. 250; 13 id. 456; 14 id. 601, 624. 
 Stewart v. Parish, 6 Ohio, 477 ; Smith v. Stork, 7 id. 551 ; 
 Sullivant v. Weaver, 10 id. 275; Trimble v. Boothly, 14 id. 
 109 ; Miliker v. Starling, 16 id. 61 ; Jackson v. Williams, 18 
 id. 69; Subblefield ». Boggs, 2 Ohio St. 216 ; Woods;. Fer- 
 guson, 7 id. 288 ; Strong v. Lehman, 10 id. 93 ; Mathews v. 
 Rector, 24 id. 439 ; Buckner v. Walcott, 1 Doug. (Mich.) 19 ; 
 Stockton V. Williams, 1 id. 546 ; Clark v. Hall, 19 Mich. 356 ; 
 Johnson v. Ballon, 28 id. 379; Sands v. Davis, 40 id. 14; 
 Jackson v. Astor, 1 Pinney (Wis.) 137 ; Parkerson v. Brocker, 
 1 id. 174; Lament v. Stimson, 3 Wis. 45; Dillingham v. 
 Fisher, 5 id. 475 ; Schnee v. Schnee, 23 id. 377 : Aumont v. 
 Green Bay & Miss. Co., 31 id. 317 ; Easton v. Lyman, 33 id. 
 34 ; Arnold v. Grimes, 2 Green (Iowa), 77 ; Cavender v. Smith, 
 3 id. 349 ; Arnold v. Grimes, 2 Iowa, 13 ; Cavender v. Smith's 
 Heirs, 5 id. 157 ; Fisher v. Warner, 34 id. 447 ; Brison v. 
 Cury, 35 id. 72; Waters v. Bush, 42 id. 255; Rankin v. Mil- 
 ler, 43 id. 11; Steeple v. Downing, 60 Ind. 478; Doe v. Hill, 
 Breese (Ills.) 236 ; Moore v. Hunter, 6 Ills. 317 ; Ballance v. 
 McFarden, 12 id. 317 ; Gray v. McFadden, 12 id. 324 ; Ran- 
 kin V. Curtemus, 12 id. 334; Gratham v. Atkins, 63 id. 359 ; 
 Vausickle v. Haines, 7 Nev. 249 ; Smith v. Pipe, 3 Colo. 187 ; 
 Starr v. Stark, 2 Oreg. 118; White v. Allen, 3 id. 103 ; Gold 
 Hill Co. V. Ish, 5 id. 104 ; Moore v. Wilkinson, 13 Cal. 478 ; 
 Yount v. Howellj 14 id. 465 ; Mott v. Smith, 16 id. 534 ; Galup 
 T). Armstrong, 22 M.480 ; Kimball v. Semple, 26 id. 441 ; Keeran 
 V. Griffith, 34 id. 580; Durfee v. Plaisted, 38 id. 80; Frisbee 
 V. Morgues, 39 id. 451 ; Collins v. Bartlett, 44 id. 371 ; Can- 
 field V. Thompson, 49 id. 210 ; McGarrahan v. Mining Co., 49 
 id. 331 ; Vance v. Kohlburg, 50 id. 346; Miller v. Elhs, 51 id. 
 73; Houghton v. Hardenburg, 53 id. 181; Cruz v. Martinez, 
 53 id. 239; Sarpy v. Papin, 7 Mo. 503 ; Barry v. Gamble, 8 
 id. 88 ; Allison v. Hunter, 9 id. 749 ; Cowman v. Johnson, 20 
 id. 108; Thomas v. Wyatt, 31 id. 188; Hill v. Miller, 36 id. 
 182 ; Gibson v. Chouteau, 39 id. 536 ; Magnire v. Tyler, 40 id. 
 406 ; Calloway v. Trash, 50 id. 420 ; Gaines and Rector v. 
 Hale, 26 Ark. 168 ; Lott v. Prudhomme, 3 Rob. (La.) 293 ; 
 Jenkins v. Gibson, 3 La. 203; McGill v. McGill, 4 id. 262; 
 Foley V. Harrison, 5 id. 75 ; Pepper v. Dunlap, 9 id. 137 ; 
 Bell V. Hearne, 10 id. 515; Cage v. Danks, 13 id. 128; Stem- 
 spring V. Bennett, 16 id. 201 ; Masters v. Eastia, 3 Port (Ala.) 
 368 ; Goodlet v. Smithson, 5 id. 245 ; Jones v. Inge, 5 id. 327 ; 
 Bullock V. Wilson, 5 id. 338 ; Innerarity v. Mims, 1 Ala. 670 ; 
 Pollard V. Files, 3 id. 47 ; Hines v. Greenlee, 3 id. 73 ; Crom- 
 melin V. Minter, 9 id. 594 ; Etheridge v. Doe, 18 id. 565. De- 
 cision Sec. Int., Sept. 6, 1870. Decision Com. G. L. 0., March 
 21, 1879. 
 
 Sec. 64. In case of any claim to land in any State or Ter- 
 ritory which has heretofore been confirmed by law, and in 
 which no provision is made by the confirmatory statute for 
 the issue of a patent, it may be lawful, where surveys for 
 the land have been or may hereafter be made, to issue 
 
666 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 patents for the claims so confirmed, upon the presentation^ 
 to the Commissioner of the General Land Office of plats of 
 survey thereof, duly approved by the surveyor-general of 
 any State or Territory, if the same be found correct by the 
 Commissioner. But such patents shall only operate as a relin- 
 quishment of title on the part of the United States, and 
 shall in no manner interfere with any valid adverse right to 
 the same land, nor be construed to preclude a legal investi- 
 gation and decision by the proper judicial tribunal between 
 adverse claimants to the same land. 
 
 10 Stat. 599 : E. S. 2447. Beard v. Federy, 3 Wall. 478 ; Ma- 
 guire V. Tyler, 8 id. 650 ; Langdeau v. Haines, 21 id. 521 ; 
 Miller V. Dale, 2 Otto, 473; U. S. v. Throckmorton, 8 id. 61 ; 
 Snyder v. Sickles, 8 id. 203. 14 Op. Att. Gen. 624. Decisions 
 Sec. Int., Feb. 21, 1872 ; Dec. 19, 1878 ; May 17, 1879. Deci- 
 sions Com. G. L. O., Sept. 18, 1874; Sept. 19, 1876. 
 
 Sec. 65. Where lands have been or may hereafter be 
 granted by any law of Congress to any one of the several 
 States and Territories, and where such law does not convey 
 the fee-simple title of the lands, or require patents to be issued 
 therefor, the lists of such lands which have been or may 
 hereafter be certified by the Commissioner of the General 
 Land Office, under the seal of his office, either as originals 
 or copies of the originals or records, shall be regarded as 
 conveying the fee-simple of all the lands embraced in such 
 lists that are of the character contemplated by such act of 
 Congress and intended to be granted thereby; but where 
 lands embraced in ■such lists are not of the character em- 
 braced by such acts of Congress, and are not intended to be 
 granted thereby, the lists, so far as these lands are concerned, 
 shall be perfectly null and void, and no right, title, claim, or 
 interest shall be conveyed thereby. 
 
 10 Stat. 346 ; 18 id. 475 ; E. S. 2449. Pope's Lessee v. "VVendal, 
 9 Craach, 87; same case, 5 Wheat. 293; Patterson v. Winn, 
 11 id. 380; Greeulief ti. Birth, 6 Pet. 302 ; Lindsey v. Miller. 
 6 id. 666; Galloway v. Finley, et al., 12 id. 264 ; Stoddard n. 
 Chambers, 2 How. 284 ; Foxcraft v. Martel. 4 id. 353 ; Minter 
 V. Crommelin, 18 id. 87 ; Easton v. Salisbury, 21 id. 426; U. 
 S. V. Stone, 2 Wall. 525 ; U. S. v. Hughes, 4 id. 236 ; Maguire 
 V. Tyler, 8 id. 653 ; Best v. Polk, 18 id. 112 ; Morton v. Ne- 
 braska, 21 id. 660 ; Sherman v. Buick, 3 Otto, 209 ; Moore v. 
 Eobbins, 6 id. 533 ; Marquez v. Frisbie, S. C, Oct. T., 1879, 
 in manuscript. Le Eoy v. Clayton. 2 Saw. C. C. 493 ; Patter- 
 eon V. Tatum, 3 id. 164; U. S. ■». Eailroad Co., 4 Dillon, C. 
 C. 397. Hill V. Miller, 36 Mo. 182; Eailroad Co. ■;;. Moon, 37 
 id. 338; Same v. Smith, 40 id. 310; Shepley v. Cowan, 52 id. 
 559 ; Funkhouser v. Peck, 67 id. 20; McGill v. McGill, 4 La. 
 262; Huffi-. Doyle, 50 Cal. 21 ; McLaughlin v. Perrill, 50 id. 
 65 ; Sutton v. Fasset, 51 id. 13 ; Eosecrans v. Douglass, 52 id. 
 213. Decisions Sec. Int., May 3, June 26, 1879 ; May 4, July 
 17, 21, 28, 1880. 
 
 Sec. 66. There shall be in the General Land Office an in- 
 ferior officer appointed by the Commissioner, to be employed 
 therein as he shall deem proper, to be called the chief clerk. 
 The chief clerk shall perform the duties of the Commissioner 
 of the General Land Office in case of a vacancy in said 
 office, or of the absence or sickness of the Commissioner. 
 
 2 Stat. 716 ; 11 id. 301 ; E. S. 448. 
 
 Sec. 67. There shall be in the General Land Office an 
 officer called the Recorder of the General Land Office, who 
 shall be appointed by the President, by and with the advice 
 and consent of the Senate, and shall be entitled to a salary 
 of two thousand dollars a year. 
 
 5 Stat. 112, 163, 264 ; E. S. 447. 
 
 Sec. 68. It shall be the duty of the Recorder of the Gener- 
 al Land Office, in pursuance of instructions from the Com- 
 missioner, to certify and affix the seal of the office to all pat- 
 ents for public lands, and attend to the correct engrossing, 
 recording, and transmission of such patents. He shall pre- 
 pare alphabetical indexes of the names of patentees and of 
 person-i entitled to patents ; and he shall prepare such cop- 
 ies and exemplifications of matters on file or recorded in the 
 General Land Office as the Commissioner may from time to 
 time direct. Whenever the office of Recorder shall become 
 vacant, or in case of his sickn^si or absence, the duties of 
 his office shall be performed ad interim by the principal 
 clerk on private land claims. 
 
 2 Stat. 717; 5 id. Ill ; E. S. 459. U. S. v. Arredondo, 6 Pet. 
 691 ; McQarrahan v. Mining Coi, 6 Otto., 316. Le Eoy v. 
 
 Jamison, "3 Saw. C. C. 369. 3 Op. Att. Gen. 140, 168, 630. 
 Galup V. Armstrong, 22 Cal. 480; Sands d. Davis, 40 Mich. 
 61. 
 
 Sec. 69. All patents issuing from the General Land Of- 
 fice shall be issued in the name of the United States, and 
 be signed by the President and countersigned by the Re- 
 corder of the General Land Office ; and shall be recorded in 
 the office in books to be kept for the purpose. 
 
 2 Stat. 717; bid. 417 ; E. S. 468. Steeple v. Downing, 60 Ind. 
 478; Boyce v. Stambaugh, 34 Mich. 348; Lane v. Bommel- 
 mann, 17 Ills. 95 ; 3 Op. Att. Gen. 623. 
 
 Sec, 70. There shall be in the General Land Office a princi- 
 pal clerk of the public lands and a principal clerk on private 
 land claims, who shall be appointed by the President, by 
 and with the advice and consent of the Senate, and shall 
 each be entitled to a salary of one thousand eight hundred 
 dollars a year ; and they shall perform such duties as may 
 be assigned to them by the Commissioner of the General 
 Land Office. 
 
 5 Stat. 109; E. S. 448. 
 
 Sec. 71. The officers, clerks, and employes in the General 
 Land Office are prohibited from directly or indirectly pur- 
 chasing or becoming interested in the purchase of any of 
 the public lands ; and any person who violates this section 
 shall forthwith be removed from his office. 
 2 Stat. 717 ; 5 id. 112 ; E. S. 452. 
 
 Sec. 72. The President is authorized to appoint, from 
 time to time, by and with the advice and consent of the Sen- 
 ate, a secretary, at a salary of one thousand five hundred 
 dollars a year, whose duty it shall be, under the direction of 
 the President, to sign in his name, and for him, all patents 
 for land sold or granted under the authority of the United 
 States. 
 
 5 Stat. 111. E. S. 450. Steeple v. Downing, 60 Ind. 478. 3 Op. 
 Att. Gen. 623. 
 
 Sec. 73. If at any time the number of patents for lands 
 sold or granted under the authority of the United States 
 is such that they cannot be signed within a reasonable time 
 by the secretary appointed under the preceding section, the 
 President may appoint an assistant secretary to sign the 
 same, but such assistant shall be employed by the express 
 direction of the President, and only for such time as may be 
 necessary to bring up the arrears of patents which may be 
 ready for signature. 
 
 9 Stat. 209; E. S. 451. 
 
 Sec. 74. In all cases in which land has heretofore or 
 shall hereafter be given by the United States for military 
 services, warrants shall be granted to the parties entitled to 
 such land by the Secretary of the Interior ; and such war- 
 rants shall be recorded in the General Land Office, in books 
 to be kept for the purpose, and shall be located as is or may 
 be provided by law ; and patents shall afterwards be issued 
 accordingly. 
 
 2 Stat. 717 ; E. S. 467. Taylor et al., v. Brown, 5 Cranch, 234; 
 Laniviere v. Madagan, 1 Dillon, C. C. 455 ; Rice v. Taylor, 2 
 id. 23 ; Lewis v. Baird, 3 McLean, C. C. 56 ; Price v. John- 
 ston, 1 Ohio St. 390 ; Wood v. Ferguson, 7 id. 288. 
 
 Sec. 75. Whenever any person claiming to be interested 
 in or entitled to land under any grant or patent from the 
 United States applies to the Department of the Interior for 
 copies of papers filed and remaining therein, in anywise af- 
 fecting the title to such land, it shall be the duty of the 
 Secretary of the Interior to cause such copies to be m.'ide 
 out and authenticated, under his hand and the seal of the 
 General Land Office, for the person so applying. 
 
 3 Stat. 721 ; 5 id. Ill ; E. S. 460. 
 
 Sec. 77. There shall be in the General Land Office a prin- 
 cipal clerk of the surveys, who shall be appointed by the 
 President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, 
 and shall be entitled to a salary of one thousand eight hun- 
 dred dollars a year. He shall direct and superintend the 
 making of surveys, and returns thereof, and all matters re- 
 lating thereto, which are done through the officers of the 
 surveyor-general, and perform such other duties as may be 
 assigned to him by the Commissioner of the General Land 
 Office. 
 
 5 Stat. 110 ; E. S. 449. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 567 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND SERVICE. 
 
 T 
 
 HE following 
 sioners. 
 
 have been the various Commis- 
 
 CommisBionera. 
 
 Edward Tiffin . . 
 Josiah Meigs . . 
 John McLean . 
 George Graham . 
 Elijah Hayward . 
 Ethan A. Brown . 
 James Whitpomb. 
 
 Term of 
 Bervice. 
 
 1812-1814 
 1814-1822 
 182i-1823 
 1823-1830 
 1830-1836 
 1835-1836 
 183G-1841 
 
 ElishaM.Huntingdonl 1841-1842 
 
 Thomas H. Blalce 
 James Shields .... 
 Richard M. Young . . 
 Justin Butterfield . . 
 
 John Wilson 
 
 Thomas A. Hendricks 
 Samuel A. Smith. . •. 
 Joseph S. "Wilson. . . 
 James M. Edmunds. . 
 Joseph S. Wil.son. 
 Willis Drummond 
 Samuel 3. Burdett 
 James A. Williamson. 
 N. C. McFarland 
 
 1842-184.5 
 184.i)-184Y 
 1847-1849 
 1819-1862 
 1852-18,06 
 1855-1859 
 1869-1860 
 1860-1861 
 1861-1866 
 1866-1871 
 1871-1874 
 1874-1876 
 1876-1881 
 1881 
 
 Where born. 
 
 England . . 
 New Jersey 
 
 Connecticut ... . 
 
 Vermont 
 
 New York . . 
 Maryland . 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Kentucky . . . 
 New Hampshire 
 Dist. of Columbia 
 Ohio . . . 
 
 Dist. of Columbia 
 New York. . . . 
 Dist. of Columbia 
 Missouri .... 
 England . 
 Kentucky . 
 
 Whence appointed. 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 Georgia. 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 Dist. of Columbia. 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 Indiana. 
 
 Indiana. 
 
 Illinois. 
 
 Illinois. 
 
 Illinois. 
 
 Dipt, of Columbia. 
 
 Indiana. 
 
 Tennessee. 
 
 Dist. of Columbia. 
 
 Michigan. 
 
 Dist. of Columbia. 
 
 Iowa. 
 
 Missouri. 
 
 Iowa. 
 
 Kansas. 
 
 Duties of the Commissioner.— The Commissioner of 
 the General Land Office is appointed by the President and 
 coniirmed by the Senate ; receives an annual salary of $4,005 
 and holds office indefinitely. He performs, under the direc- 
 tion of the Secretary of the Interior, all executive duties ap- 
 pertaining to the surveying and sales of the public lands of 
 the United States, or in any wise respecting such public 
 lands, and also such as relate to private claims of land and 
 the issuing of patents for all lands under the authority of 
 the Government. 
 
 Im.portanceof the General Land OflB.ce. — The Gen- 
 eral Land Office holds the records of title to the area known 
 as the public domain, on which are hundreds of thousands 
 of homes. Its records constitute the " Doomsday Book " of 
 the public domain of the United States. All the business 
 pertaining to the survey, disposition, and patenting of the 
 public lands of the United States is transacted through it, 
 or under its order and supervision. No more responsible 
 bureau of the Government exists. Important questions of 
 law often arise in the various divisions of this Office as to 
 rules of evidence, as to boundaries, riparian rights, entries, 
 locations, cultivation improvements, settlement, domicile, 
 expatriation, jurisdiction of executive officers, such as the 
 power of the Commissioner of Pensions to cancel land war- 
 rants under various circumstances after they have issued or 
 after they have been located ; as to the authority of this 
 Office to set aside or cancel patents after execution, and be- 
 fore delivery and after delivery ; as to rights of way and wa- 
 ter rights ; as to when patents take effect ; as to when pa- 
 tents are valid, void, or merely voidable ; as to when legal 
 title passes -without patent ; in construing foreign treaties 
 and Indian treaties ; as to forfeitures, abandonments, assign- 
 ments ; as to rights of parties holding scrip of various kinds ; 
 as to the rights of owners of lost instruments ; as to ad- 
 vancement for surveys, deposits and excess. The laws and 
 decisions of various States and Territories have to be exam- 
 ined to determine who are the lawful wives, widows, heirs, 
 devisees, executors, administrators, or guardians ; to deter- 
 mine the jurisdiction of local courts and the validity of pro- 
 ceedings therein, and the legality of judicial sales. Since 
 the organization of the Government about three thousand 
 acts have been passed byCongressconcerningthepubliclands. 
 Many of these acts are composed of numerous sections, and 
 many of these sections present a number of difficult questions 
 of construction. These provisions are generally construed in 
 the first instance by this office ; it is often many years before 
 a judicial interpretation is obtained, if ever. The Supreme 
 Court of the United States has on more than one occasion 
 declared that the construction and practice of this Depart- 
 ment is entitled to ereat respect, and such construction is 
 -usually followed by 'the State courts. It is true that many 
 
 of these enactments have been repealed ; but under imper- 
 fect administration in former years, titles acquired or sup- 
 posed to be acquired under such repealed provisions are 
 found to be imperfect, and necessitate an examination and 
 consideration of the early acts of Confess and of the rights 
 of parties thereunder. In determining and in deciding 
 these cases careful opinions must be written deciding the 
 questions of fact and of law, giving reasons for conclusions 
 and citing authorities. Rules of practice in cases before tlie 
 district land ofBces, the General Land Office, and the De- 
 partment of the Interior are provided. (See circular ap- 
 proved October 9, 1878, and revised rules.) 
 
 Present Organization. — Commissioner, N. C. McFar- 
 land, of Kansas. Chief Clerk, Curtis W. Holcomb, of Con- 
 necticut. This bureau is charged with the survey and disjio- 
 sal of the public lands of the United States. There are, at the 
 present time, subordinate to the General Land Office, six- 
 teen surveying districts, each in charge of a surveyor-general, 
 with a competent corps of assistants and deputies, through 
 whom the current and annual surveys are made and reported 
 to this bureau. There are also ninety-six land districts, each 
 with an office conveniently located for the sale or other dis- 
 posal of the public lands. These offices are in the charge of 
 registers, to whom application is made for lands, and re- 
 ceivers of public money, who, as the name indicates, receive 
 all moneys in payment for the same, and are situated in the 
 difierent public-land States and Territories. The transac- 
 tions of these subordinate offices are at regular intervals of 
 time reported to the General Land Office, and the duty of 
 classifying, examining, and definitely disposing of the work 
 done in these offices together with supervising and directing 
 the same, forms the principal part of the work of the Gen- 
 eral Land Office, giving employment to an average of two 
 hundred clerks. In the execution of this work the neces- 
 sities of the case have led to the system of subdividing the 
 office into divisions, each in charge of a principal clerk, and 
 to each of which respective work is referred when received 
 from the district offices. These divisions are at present de- 
 signated by letters from A to N, and in all correspondence 
 sent from the bureau the initial letter of the division from 
 which it emanates is marked, in order that the same may be 
 more readily referred to in after days. 
 
 Division A. — The chief clerk has charge of this division. 
 Its work consists in receiving, briefing, and properly re- 
 ferring all communications received ; in keeping the record 
 of all appointments, resignations, or dismissals in the cleri- 
 cal force of the bureau ; in supervising the opening or closing 
 of district land offices ; investigating charges against land 
 officers ; the matter of official bonds ; the drawing of requi- 
 sitions for printing ; the expenditure of the contingent ex- 
 pense fund; and the assignment and general regulation of 
 the clerical force of the bureau. In this division, also, all 
 fees for exemplifications of records are received by a clerk 
 designated for that purpose. The chief clerk is, by law, 
 made the Acting Commissioner during the absence of the 
 Commissioner. 
 
 Division B. — ^This division is in ■ charge of the records 
 of the General Land Office. In this division patents are 
 prepared for all tracts sold or located with warrants or scrip 
 at the district land offices, after such transfers have been 
 properly examined in other divisions of the bureau. A cor- 
 rect record is here kept of all patents issued, and letters 
 transmitting patents are prepared. The original papers 
 forming the basis of patent are here filed, and all patents 
 undelivered or uncalled for are retained in this branch of 
 the office. To this division are finally referred for examina- 
 tion and proper action, the papers in locations made in 
 satisfaction of military bounty-land warrants issued by au- 
 thority of various acts of Congress. The same reference is 
 made of locations by agricultural college scrip, and the spe- 
 cial scrip issued to Porterfield. In this division land warrants 
 and scrip, submitted for official approval, are examined as to 
 genuineness and regularity of assignment. All revolutionary 
 bounty land-scrip is here prepared, as also are patents for 
 lands in the Virginia military district, Ohio. The recorder 
 is appointed by the President, and by law, is required to 
 countersign all patents after they have received the signa- 
 ture of the President. The number of patent records in 
 Division B are as follows : 
 
568 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Yok. 
 
 Military 1.207 
 
 Cash . . 3,«>2 
 
 Home . . • • 353 
 
 Miscellaneous ... . . . • 375 
 
 Total (of 500 pages each) 6,587 
 
 Miscellaneous, letter, and other records 1,793 
 
 Total hooks of record 7,380 
 
 Division O. — In charge of the principal clerk of public 
 lands. In this division are kept the numerous "tract- 
 books," which show, in well-arranged order, the status of 
 every surveyed tract of land which is or has been included 
 in the public domain. All sales or other disposals of land 
 made and reported in the district offices are noted in the 
 proper places in these books. They also show reservation, 
 for Indian, military, or other purposes, private grants and 
 special appropriations of land. This division has charge 
 of the examination and final action on all entries under 
 the homestead and timber-culture laws, of ordinary pri- 
 vate purchase by cash or by sale at public offerings, all 
 selections under internal-improvement grants or under the 
 various grants for educational purposes and locations with 
 land scrip. 
 
 Division E. — In charge of the principal clerk of surveys. 
 This division is charged with the supervision of all work 
 relating to the public surveys. Instructions to the sur- 
 veyors-general relative to the extension of surveys or the 
 examination and correction of erroneous surveys are here 
 prepared. All contracts for surveys by deputy surveyors 
 are here examined and passed upon, and the adjustment of 
 accounts for surveying service made and submitted to the 
 Treasury Department for payment. All returns of surveys 
 are referred to this division for examination as to correct- 
 ness, and after approval are filed in the division. All 
 records and correspondence relating to Indian, military, 
 light-house, live-oak, or other reservations are in charge of 
 this division. To this division are also referred matters 
 pertaining to the establishment of boundary lines, by astro- 
 nomical surveys, between States and Territories of the 
 United States. The plats and field-notes of all surveys are 
 retained on the files of this division, in charge of a principal 
 draughtsman, who supervises all work of draughting or 
 copying plats of surveys, and who compiles and prepares the 
 official map of the United States. There are in this division 
 more than 50,000 plats or maps of township and other 
 surveys. 
 
 Division J!/.— To this division are first referred all returns 
 made by registers and receivers of the business of the district 
 land offices. The various dispositions of land are here 
 classified, and the accounts of the registers .and receivers are 
 here kept. A strict account is also kept of the five per cent, 
 fund due the States from the sale of public lands within 
 their respective limits; an account of the receipts and ex- 
 penditures of money collected from depredators of timber 
 lands, and the accounts of sale of Osage and other Indian 
 lands. All applications for repayment of moneys received 
 for lands to which title cannot be given are here examined. 
 In this division is kept a classified statement of all disposals 
 of public lands. 
 
 Division N. — The work of this division relates to mineral 
 lands, and has in charge the examination and final disposi- 
 tion of applications for patents for that class of lands, and 
 the adjudication of contests growing out of such applica- 
 tions. Here, also, the mineral or non-mineral classifacation 
 of given lands is passed upon. All patents for miueral and 
 coal lands are here prepared, and the plats of survey of all 
 mines for which patents are sought are here filed. 
 
 Salaries of Officers and Emplot/es of General Land Office. 
 
 1 commissioner, at $4,000 ... . . ... ?4,000 
 
 1 chief clerk, at $2,0U0 . . ..... . 2,000 
 
 1 recorder, at S2 (iili) . 2 OOU 
 
 1 law clerk, at 82,000 'aOOO 
 
 1 principal olejk public land.i, at $1,800 .. 1,«(]0 
 
 1 principal clerk private land claims, at 81,800. . . 1,800 
 
 1 principal clerk surveys, at il,80n 1 800 
 
 clerks class four, at Sl,800 each Id'siK) 
 
 1 draughtsman, at 81,600 ' ' j'goo 
 
 22 clerks class three, at 81,flOO each . . . . 35'200 
 
 1 assistant draughtsman, at $1,400 ' ' 1*400 
 
 40 clerks cla"s iwo, at $1,400 each 5o'ooO 
 
 80 clerks class one, at $1,200 each . . ' iio'ooo 
 
 30 clerks, at $1 oi») each ' ai'ono 
 
 9 copyists, at $900 each ' g'jod 
 
 9 assistant messengers, at $720 each 0*48(1 
 
 4,320 
 7,920 
 
 6 packers, at $720 each . 
 12 laborers, at $j60 eaL-h. 
 
 223 
 
 Other Ofl3.ces. — The first officer in charge of the surveys 
 of the public lands was called the geographer of the United 
 States. He was appointed under the ordinance of May 20, 
 1785. Thomas Hutchins was the first and only incumbent 
 of the office. Under the act of May 18, 1796, creating the 
 office, Kufus Putnam, in 1797, was appointed surveyor- 
 general of the Northwest Territory (including Michigan 
 Territory). He remained until 1803. Captain Jared 
 Mansfield, U. S. A. succeeded as surveyor-general from 1803 
 to 181 3. Under Captain Mansfield, aided by the advice of 
 Mr. Jefferson, many and important changes and improve- 
 ments were made in the surveying system. Josiah Meigs 
 held the office of surveyor-general of this territory from 
 1813 to 1815. He gave way to Edward Tiffin from 1815 
 to 1825. These surveyors-general employed a sufficient 
 number of skilful deputy surveyors ; who employed a 
 force of men as chain men, &c. They were paid by the 
 mile for each mile of line run, the first rate being $8 per 
 mile. Sections of the country were laid out, over which 
 from time to time Congress or the Treasury Department 
 appointed surveyors - general, who employed deputies, 
 special statutes in most cases regulating this. 
 
 Surveyors Prior to 1825. — Aaron Greeley, surveyor 
 of Michigan Territory, 1812 ; William Rector, surveyor of 
 Illinois, Missouri, and Arkansas, 1814 to 1824; Wm. Clark, 
 surveyor of Illinois, Missouri, and Arkansas, 1824 to 1825 ; 
 Wm. McRee, surveyor of Illinois, Missouri, and Arkansas, 
 1825; Isaac Briggs, surveyor south of Tennessee, 1803 to 
 1807 ; Seth Pease, surveyor south of Tennessee, 1807 to 
 1820; Thomas Freeman, surveyor south of Tennessee, 1820 
 to 1822; John Coffee, surveyor of Alabama, 1817 to 1825 ; 
 Robert Butler, surveyor of Florida, 1^24 to 1825 ; Silas 
 Bent, surveyor of Louisiana, 1807 to 1813. 
 
 Surveyors-general •within States or Territories. 
 — May 7, 1822, the first surveying district was created, viz., 
 the State of Ohio, with an officer called a surveyor-general in 
 charge. A surveying district may be a State, a Territory or 
 two or more of any of them joined together for such purpose 
 by law and in charge of a surveyor-general, with assistants. 
 The surveys are made under the contract system, the sur- 
 veyor-general selecting the deputy. Congress fixing the 
 compensation. These surveying districts are closed by act 
 of Congress when all the public lands are surveyed, and 
 certain archives therein transferred to the State in which 
 the lands lie. 
 
 Registers and Receivers. — The offices of register and 
 receiver were created by the act of May 10, 1800. Districts 
 for the sale of lands were made at the same time and by the 
 same act, and this method has since continued. A land 
 district for disposing of lands, with a register and receiver, 
 may cover a State or there may be ten in a State. Land 
 districts are in no wise connected in boundary with survey- 
 ing districts. They are made by law of Congress, or by the 
 President in mineral districts, and are abolished, con- 
 solidated one with another, reduced in area, or closed by 
 Congress or the President. They are simply points for sale 
 and disposition of land, more for the convenience of the 
 people than of the Government. The land being surveyed 
 is duly returned and notice of filing of plats given, and the 
 land laws applicable to the district are put in force by the 
 registers and receivers of the several district land offices, in 
 permitting the settlers and locators to proceed under the 
 law. When closed, their archives are sent to the General 
 Land Office, which during their existence has complete and 
 entire control over them by a system of checks and nota- 
 tions on a set of duplicate plats, notes, and supervises each 
 and all changes- made on the plats of the district offices, 
 which are duly reported by them at the end of each month 
 to the General Land Office at Washington. Through the 
 agency of these district offices the United States proceeds to 
 dispose of the public lands in the methods contemplated in 
 the laws providing for sales at ordinary private entry, for 
 pre-emptions, for entries for homestead, timber culture, town 
 site, and mining purposes, and in the laws making grants 
 for specific objects, and exceptional provisions with regard 
 to abandoned military and otner reservations. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 669 
 
 I<igt of offlceo ot Bui-reyor-general from Wxy 10, 1800, to June 30, 1880. 
 
 Surve'jing district. 
 
 Location of office. 
 
 When established. 
 
 Bevwved or discontinued. 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Indiana and Michigan 
 
 SotUh of Tennessee : 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Illinois and Missouri 
 
 Florida 
 
 Cincinnati 
 
 Detroit 
 
 Washington 
 
 Jackson - . . . 
 
 Saint Louis 
 
 Tallahassee 
 
 Saint Augustine .... 
 
 Act May 7, 1822 . 
 
 June, 1846 . 
 
 May 7, 1822 
 
 Aug. 1, 1833 
 
 Feb. 6, 1829 
 
 June 31, 1828 . . .... 
 
 Mar. 9, 1844 
 
 To Detroit, Mich. 
 Abolished. 
 
 To Jackson, Miss. 
 
 Discontinued. 
 
 Abolished. 
 
 To Saint Augustine. 
 
 To Tallahassee. 
 
 
 Donaldsonville 
 
 Baton Rouge 
 
 Act March 3, 1831 . . . 
 Deo. 9, 1843 . .... 
 
 To Baton Rouge. 
 To New Orleans. 
 
 
 
 New Orleans 
 
 
 Florence ... 
 
 Aug. 26, 1831 
 
 May 7, 1833 
 
 June 30, 1832 ... 
 
 June 12, 1838 . .- 
 
 Nov.22,1850 
 
 Discontinued Aug. 28, 1818. 
 
 Abolished. 
 
 Discontinued, 1859. 
 
 Abolished. 
 
 To Salem. 
 
 To Eugene City. 
 
 To Portland. 
 
 Cliickasaw lands : 
 Mississippi 
 
 
 Little Rock 
 
 Dubuque 
 
 Oregon City 
 
 Wisconsin and Iowa 
 
 Oregon 
 
 
 Eugene City 
 
 
 Portland 
 
 
 California 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Washington Territory 
 
 Kansas and Nebraska 
 
 San Francisco 
 
 Santa F6 
 
 Olympia 
 
 Fort Leavenworth 
 
 Wyandotte City 
 
 Act March 3, 1851 
 
 Aug. 1, 1854 . 
 
 Aug. 1, 1864 . . 
 
 Aug. 1, 1854 ... 
 
 To Wyandotte City. 
 To Lecompton. 
 To Nebraska City. 
 To Leavenworth City. 
 To Virginia City. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nebraska City ..... 
 
 
 
 Leavenworth City 
 
 
 Utah 
 
 Nevada . 
 
 Salt Lake City ....... . . 
 
 Carson City 
 
 Virginia City 
 
 Yankton 
 
 Denver 
 
 Tucson 
 
 Boise City 
 
 Plattsmouth 
 
 Helena 
 
 Saint Paul 
 
 Cheyenne . . 
 
 March 7, 1855 
 
 March 28, 1861 
 
 Dee. 11, 1866 
 
 March 28, 1861 . ... 
 April 8, 1861 
 
 Dakota 
 
 
 Colorado . 
 
 
 Arizona .... ... ... 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Nebraska and lo* a 
 
 Montana 
 
 May 6, 1863 . . 
 
 Aug. 13, 1866 
 
 April 1, 1867 . . .... 
 
 April 18, 1867 
 
 March 16, 1866 . 
 
 March 2,1870 
 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 
 lAst of snxreylug districts \rlieTe surreys are now In progress, names of surveyors-general, -vrltll tlielr compensation and 
 
 location of offices, to June 30, 1880. 
 
 IHsirictB. 
 
 Ai:izona. . . 
 California . 
 Colorado . . 
 Dakota . . . 
 Florida . . 
 Idaho . . . 
 Louisiana . 
 Minnesota 
 Montana . . 
 Nebraska . . 
 Nevada . . . 
 New Mexico 
 Oregon . . . 
 Utah . . . 
 Washington 
 Wyoming . . 
 
 Surveijors-general. 
 
 John Wasson . . 
 Theo. Wagner 
 Albert Johnson . 
 Henry Espersen 
 Le Roy D. Ball . . 
 Wm. P. Chandler . 
 O. H. Brewster 
 J. H. Stewart . . 
 Roswell H. Mason 
 George S. Smith 
 
 E. S. Davis . . 
 H. M. Atkinson . 
 James C. Tolman . 
 
 F. Salomon . . 
 Wm. McMicken . 
 E. C. David . 
 
 Locaiion of offices. 
 
 Tucson, Ariz . . . 
 San Francisco, Cal 
 Denver, Colo 
 Yankton, Dak . 
 Tallahassee, Fla . 
 Boise City, Idaho 
 New Orleans, La 
 Saint Paul, Minn 
 Helena, Mont . . . 
 Plattsmouth, Neb . 
 Virginia City, Nev . 
 Santa Fe, N. Mex 
 Portland, Oreg . . 
 Salt Lake City, Utah 
 Olympia, Wash . . 
 Cheyenne, Wyo 
 
 Compensation 
 
 under organic act. 
 
 {Bat Bev. Stats., 
 
 teds. 2208, 2209 
 
 and 2210.) 
 
 Per annum. 
 $3,000 
 3,000 
 3,000 
 2,000 
 2,000 
 3,000 
 2,000 
 2,000 
 3,000 
 3,000 
 2,000 
 3,000 
 2,600 
 3,000 
 2,500 
 3,000 
 
 CompensaU''n 
 under act of June 
 15, 1880, lixing 
 saiaries fiscal year 
 1881. (See V. S. 
 Stats., 1879-80, 
 p. 233.) 
 
 Per amium. 
 J2,600 
 2,750 
 2,600 
 2,000 
 1,800 
 2,500 
 1,800 
 2,000 
 2,.500 
 2,600 
 2,000 
 2,500 
 2,500 
 2,500 
 2,600 
 2,500 
 
 lilst of Iiocal I<and Offices (358 in numljer) nnder the lawrs of the TTnlted States, from May 10, 1800, to June 30, 1880, by 
 States and Territories, -fvltli dat« of establlsliment and discontinuance. 
 
 Alabama . 
 
 Zocation. 
 
 Cahaba, originally lo- 
 cated at Milledge- 
 ville, Ga 
 
 Grreenville 
 
 Huntsville, original- 
 ly established at 
 Nashville, Tenn., 
 and afterward lo- 
 cated at Twicken- 
 ham 
 
 Saint Stephens. . . 
 
 Mobile 
 
 Demopolis , . . . ! 
 
 Tuscaloosa .... 
 
 Conecuh C.H. Sparta 
 
 Elba 
 
 Montevallo, Mardis- 
 ville 
 
 Lebanon 
 
 Montgomery. . . 
 
 When established. 
 
 Act March 3, 1816 
 
 .June 16, 1856. . . 
 Act March 3, 180Y 
 
 Act March 3, 1803 
 
 Act March 2, 1833 
 Act May 11, 1820. 
 Act May 11, 1820,. 
 April 1, 1854 . . . 
 Act July 10, 1832 . 
 
 April 12, 1842 . . To Montgomery. 
 Act July 10, 1832. 
 
 Be7nov6d or discontinued. 
 
 To Grreenville. 
 May 11, 1866. 
 
 To Mobile, 1867. 
 
 March 30, 1867. 
 
 To Montgomery, 1866. 
 
 To Elba. 
 
 April 11, 1867. 
 
 To Lebanon. 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 State. 
 
 Arizona . . 
 California. 
 
 Location. 
 
 Batesville. . 
 Little Rock . . . 
 Fayetteville . 
 Huntsville .... 
 Dardanelle . . . 
 Washington . 
 
 Camden 
 
 Helena. 
 
 Johnson Coart-H. 
 Clarksville. . . . 
 ChampagnoUe . . 
 
 Harrison 
 
 Prescott . ... 
 FloreHLCe .... 
 Benicia . . 
 LoB Aneeles . . . 
 Marysville .... 
 Humboldt .... 
 Stockton 
 
 When established. 
 
 Bemoved or discon tinued. 
 
 ActFeb. 17, 1838. 
 Act Feb. 17, 1838. 
 Act June 25, 1832. 
 Nov. 5, 1860 . . . 
 May 31, 1871. . . 
 Act June 26, 1832. 
 Mar. 20, 1871 . . | 
 Act June 26, 1834^ 
 
 Act July 7, 1838.. 
 Dee. 1, 1847 . . . : 
 Act Feb. 20, 1845. 
 Aug. 11, 1871 . 
 
 Mar. 3,1853. . . 
 March 3, 1853 . 
 March 3, 1853 . 
 Act Mar. 29, 1868 
 Act Mar. 29, 1868 
 
 To Little Rock, 1865. 
 
 To Huntsville. 
 Closed. 
 
 To Camden. 
 
 To Little Rock, Jan. 2, 
 
 1860. 
 |To Clarksville. 
 Closed Feb. 9. 1871. 
 Closed 1865. To Wash- 
 [ington. 
 
 Consolidated with San 
 [Francisco. 
 
570 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 List ot Ijocal Land Offices (258 in nnmber) under Ute la^vs of tl&e United States, etc. — Gontinuea. 
 
 Slate. 
 
 Colorado . 
 
 Dakota. . 
 
 Florida . 
 
 Indiana . 
 
 Idaho, . . 
 lovra. . . 
 
 Illinois. . 
 
 Kansas. . . 
 
 Louisiana . 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Location. 
 
 Indianapolis .... 
 CrawfordsTille . . . 
 Fort Wayne .... 
 LaPorte toWinamac 
 Boise City . . . 
 Lewiston. . . 
 
 Oxford 
 
 Dubuque . . . 
 
 Marion 
 
 Burlington. . . 
 Fairfiefd .... 
 Iowa City . . 
 Chariton .... 
 Fort des Moines 
 Kanesville . . . 
 Council Bluffs . 
 Decorah . . 
 Osage. 
 
 Visalia. . . . 
 Sacramento . 
 San Francisco 
 Shasta .... 
 Susanville . . 
 Independence 
 Bodie .... 
 Golden City . 
 Denver. . . 
 Fair pi ay . . . 
 Leadville . . 
 Central City . 
 Pueblo. . . . 
 Del Norte. . . 
 Lake City. . . 
 Vermillion. . 
 Sioux Falls. . 
 Mitchell . . . 
 Springfield. . 
 Watertown . . 
 Fargo . . 
 YanKton . . , 
 Bismarck . 
 Sheridan . . . 
 Deadwood . 
 Grand Forks . 
 Newnansrille 
 Tallahassee . 
 Saint Augustine 
 Gainsrille . . 
 Tampa. .... 
 Jacksonville . 
 Jeifersonville 
 Vincennes . . 
 
 When established. Removed or discontinued State, 
 
 Act Mar. 29, 1858 
 Nov. 4, 1887. 
 
 April 17, 1871 . . 
 June 16, 1871 . . 
 May 31, 1873. 
 July 10, 1878. . . 
 Act June 2, 1862.. 
 Sept. 12, 1864 . . 
 Oct. 29, 1867. . . 
 July 11, 1879. . . 
 Dec. 27, 1867 . . . 
 Act May 27, 1870 
 Act June 20, 1874, 
 -May .">, 1877 . . . 
 ActMar. 2, 1801 . 
 June 9, 1873 . . . 
 Oct. 4, 1880. . . . 
 Oct. 21, 1870 . 
 May 1, 188(1. . . . 
 Act May 5, 1870 
 Tune, 1872 . . 
 Act Apr. 24, 1874 
 May 22, 1877. . 
 July 2, 1877. . . 
 Act Jan. 21, 1880. 
 Act Aug. 30, 1842. 
 Act Mar. 3, 1823 
 Act Mar. 3, 1823 
 July 11, 1873. . 
 Act Aug. 5, 1854 
 May 14, 1877 
 Act Mar. 3, 1807 
 Act Mar. 26, 1804. 
 
 Fort Dodge. . . 
 
 Sioux City 
 
 Kaskaskia . . 
 Shawneetown . . . 
 Edwardsville. 
 
 Vandalia 
 
 Palestine . ... 
 
 Springlield. . . 
 
 Danville 
 
 Quincy 
 
 Galena 
 
 Dixon. ... 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Lecompton 
 
 Topeka .... 
 
 Doniphan 
 
 Kickapoo. . . . 
 At^3hison ... 
 
 Ogden 
 
 Junction City. . . . 
 
 Salina 
 
 Fort Scott. . . . 
 
 Humboldt 
 
 Mapleton 
 
 Humboldt. . . . 
 
 Neodesha 
 
 Independence . . . 
 Augusta . . 
 Wichita . . 
 Concordia ... 
 Cawker City. . . 
 
 Kirwin 
 
 Lamed 
 
 Hays City . ... 
 
 Wa-Keeney 
 
 Opelouaas 
 
 Ouachita 
 
 Monroe. ...... 
 
 New Orleans .... 
 
 Saint Helena C'rt-H. 
 Greensburg. . . . 
 
 Baton Rouge . . . 
 Natchitoches. . 
 
 Detroit 
 
 Monroe 
 
 White PigeonPrairie 
 
 Bronson 
 
 Kalamazoo . . . 
 
 Act Mar. 3, 1819 . 
 Act Mar. 3, 1819 . 
 Act May 8, 1822 . 
 Act Mar. 2, 1833 . 
 Nov. 6, 1866 . . . 
 Sept. 23, 1867 . . 
 Act Feb. 4, 1879 . 
 Act June 12, 1838. 
 Feb. 20, 1843. . . 
 Act June 12, 1838 
 August 1,1842 . . 
 Act Aug. 8, 1846. . 
 Act Aug. 2, 1852 . 
 Act Aug. 2, 1862 . 
 Act Aug. 2, 1862 . 
 
 Act Mar. 3, 1855 . 
 
 Act Mar. 3, 1855 . 
 Act Mar. 3, 1855 . 
 Act Mar. 26, 1804. 
 Act Feb. 21, 1812 . 
 Act April 29, 1816. 
 Act May 11, 1820. 
 Act May 11, 1820. 
 Act May 8, 1822. 
 Act Feb. 19, 1831 . 
 Act Feb. 19, 1831 . 
 Act June 26, 1834. 
 Act Nov. 2, 1840 . 
 Act June 26,.I834. 
 Act July 22, 1854 . 
 Act Sep. 10, 1861 . 
 March 3, 1857 . . 
 Deo. 3, 1867 . . . 
 Sept. 6, 1861 . . . 
 March 3, 1857 . . 
 Oct. 6, 1859 . . . 
 May 1, 1871 . . . 
 March 3, 1857 . . 
 Sept. 16, 1861 . . 
 Nov. 1, 1861 ... 
 May 15, 1862. . . 
 Dec. 16, 1871 
 Oct. 3, 1871 . . . 
 Act May 11, 1870 . 
 Feb. 20, 1872 . . 
 Act July 7, 1870 . 
 June, 1872 .... 
 Jan. 4, 1876 . . . 
 Act June 20, 1874 
 Act June 20, 1874 
 Oct. 20, 1879 . . . 
 Act March 3, 1811 
 Act March 3, 1811 
 Dec 23, 1867 . . . 
 Act March 3, 1811 
 Act April 25, 1812 
 Feb. 24, 1837 . . 
 Jan. 1, 1844 . . . 
 Act July 7, 1838 . 
 Act March 26,1804 
 ActMaroh23,1823 
 
 To Bodie. 
 
 To Leadville. 
 
 To Sioux Falls 
 To Mitchell. 
 
 To Watertown 
 
 To Deadwood 
 
 Minnesota. 
 
 Location. 
 
 To Gainsville, 1867. 
 
 To Gainsville. 
 
 To Gainsville, 1807. 
 
 Oct. 20, 1858. 
 
 To Gainsville. 
 
 April 9, 1855. 
 
 Discontinued under 
 act of June 12, 1840 ; 
 reopened by order of 
 April 20, 1853; finally 
 closed Dec. 20, 1861, 
 
 March 3, 1877. 
 
 July 1, 1853. 
 
 June 1, 1852. 
 
 April 3, 1855. 
 
 To Marion. 
 Closed June 21, 18,59. 
 To Fairfield. 
 November 12, 1855. 
 July 8, 1856. 
 September 14, 1869. 
 
 To Council Bluffs. 
 May 31, 1873. 
 To Osage. 
 July 6, 1859. 
 May 31, 1873. 
 May 31, 187.3. 
 February 25, 1856. 
 May 2, 1856. 
 August 8, 1865. 
 May 1, 1866. 
 August 14, 1865. 
 March 3, 1877. 
 December 16, 1856. 
 August 30, 1856. 
 ToDixon. 
 September 3, 1855. 
 July 31, 1856. 
 To Topeka. 
 
 To Kickapoo. 
 To Atchison. 
 December 26, 1863. 
 To Junction City. 
 To Salina. 
 
 To Humboldt. 
 To Mapleton. 
 To Humboldt. 
 To Neodesha. 
 To Independence. 
 
 To Wichita. 
 
 To Kirwin. 
 
 To Wa-Keeney. 
 
 February 16, 1861-66. 
 To Monroe. [1879. 
 
 To N. Orleans, Jan. 21, 
 
 To Greensburg. 
 To Baton Rouge 
 To New Orleans 
 
 [rie. 
 
 To White Pigeon Prai- 
 To Bronson. 
 To Kalamazoo. 
 August 16, 1869. 
 
 New Monroe . . . 
 
 Genesee 
 
 East Saginaw. . . 
 Saulte Ste. Marie . 
 Marquette . . . 
 
 Duncan 
 
 Mackinac 
 
 Traverse City. . . 
 
 Ionia . .* 
 
 Reed City . . . . 
 Brown.'^ville . , . 
 
 Chatfleld 
 
 Winnebago City . 
 Jackson ... 
 Worthington . . . 
 Minneapolis . . . 
 Forest City. . 
 Minneapolis . . . 
 Greenleaf . . . 
 Litchlield . . . . 
 Benson. 
 
 Faribault. . . . 
 ISiiint Peter . . 
 Minnesota. jNew Ulm . . . . 
 Tracy ... 
 Alexandria . . 
 Fergus Falls . . . 
 Oak Lake . . 
 
 Detroit 
 
 Crookston .... 
 Stillwater . . . 
 Cambridge . 
 Sunrise City . 
 Taylor's Falls 
 iSauk- R&pids . 
 Bamt Cloud . 
 Henderson . 
 Buchanan . . 
 Portland . . 
 
 When established. Removed <yr discontinued 
 
 Act Jan. 30, 1833 . 
 Act June 15, 1836. 
 
 Duluth . . . 
 Ojibway . . . 
 Otter Tail City 
 Redwood Falls 
 Mississippi, Augusta . . 
 
 iPaulding . 
 Washington . 
 Columbus . 
 Mount Salus . 
 Jackson . . . 
 Chocchuma . 
 Grenada . . . 
 Pontotoc . . . 
 Saint Louis . 
 
 Missouri. 
 
 Montana 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Nevada . 
 
 NewM'xico 
 Ohio . . . 
 
 Franklin . . 
 Fayette . . 
 Boonville . . 
 Jackson . . 
 Ironton . . 
 Lexington . . 
 Clinton . . . 
 Warsaw . . . . 
 Calhoun . . . 
 Palmyra . . . 
 Springfield 
 PlattSDurg . . 
 Milan . . 
 Helena . . . . 
 Omaha City . . 
 West Point . . . 
 Norfolk . . 
 Brownsville . 
 Beatrice . . . . 
 Nebraska City . 
 Lincoln . . . . 
 Dakota City . . 
 Niobrara . . . . 
 Grand Island . 
 North Platte . 
 
 Lowell 
 
 Bloomington . 
 Carson City 
 
 Austin 
 
 Eureka . . . 
 Belmont . . 
 
 Pioche 
 
 Aurora 
 
 Elko 
 
 Santa Pe . . . . 
 La Mesilla . . . . 
 
 Marietta 
 
 Zanem'tlle . . . . 
 Steubenville . . . 
 Cincinnati . . 
 Chillicothe . 
 Wooster . . 
 
 Piqua 
 
 Wappakonnetta . 
 
 Lima 
 
 Upper Sandusky 
 
 Act Mar. 1, 1847 
 July 13, 1867 . 
 May 29, 1864 . 
 Mar. 8, 1868 . . , 
 August 2, 1868 . , 
 
 Act June 15, 1836 
 April 1, 1878 .. .. 
 Act April 12, 1854 
 June 12, 1856 
 Nov. 4, 1861 . . . 
 Sept. 1, 1869 . . . 
 April 20, 1874 . . 
 Act April 12, 1854 
 Mar. 22, 1858 . . 
 Nov. 1, 1862 . . . 
 July 3, 1866 . . . 
 Jan. 27, 1870 . . . 
 Jane 19, 1870 . . 
 Act April 12, 1864 
 Dec. 2, 1864 . . . 
 Mar. 17, 1870 . . 
 May 18, 1880 .. .. 
 Sept., 1868 .... 
 Dec. 11, 1876 . . 
 Act Mar. 12, 1872 
 
 July 15, 1878 . . 
 May 1, 1853 . . . 
 Dec. 1.5, 1858 . . 
 July 2, 1860 . . . 
 Oct. 1, 1861 . . .. 
 Act Aug. 30, 1852. 
 April 19, 1858 . . 
 Act Aprill2, 1854 
 Julys, 1866.. . . 
 June 7, 18,59 . . 
 
 'July 8, 1866 . . . 
 ■May 2, 1859 . . . 
 jAct May 21, 1872 
 Act April 25, 1812 
 and Mar. 3, 1819 . 
 Jan. 2, 1860 . . . 
 Act Mar. 3, 1803 . 
 Act Mar. 2, 1833 . 
 Act May 6, 1822 . 
 Aug. 10, 1836 . . 
 Act Mar. 2, 1833 . 
 July 4, 1840 . . . 
 Oct 20, 1822 . . . 
 Act Mar. 3, 1811 . 
 
 Act Feb. 17, 1818 . 
 July 5, 1832 . . . 
 
 Act Feb. 17, 1818 
 iJuly 8, 1861 . . . 
 I Act Mar. 23, 1823 
 i July 3, 1843 . . . 
 July 18, 1866 . . 
 
 Act Mav 26, 1824 
 Act June 26, 1834 
 Act Aug. 29, 1842 
 Act Feb. 26, 1849 
 June 1867 . . . 
 July 22, 1864 . . 
 May 1, 1869 . . . 
 iSept. 9, 1873. . . 
 'Mar. 3, 18,'>7 . . . 
 'July 7, 1868 . . . 
 Julys, 1868 . . 
 Sept. 3, 1868 . . . 
 July 3, 1868 
 Oct. 1,1876 . . 
 Act July 27, 1868 
 Sept. 21, 1872 
 Aug. 2, 1873 . . . 
 
 Act July 2, 1862 . 
 Oct. 16, 1867 . . . 
 May 26, 1873 . . 
 Dec, 1869 .... 
 April 30, 1874 . . 
 Aug. 1878 . . . . 
 
 May, 1873 .... 
 Act May 24, 1858 
 Act'Mar. 3,1874. 
 Act May 10, 1800 
 Act Mar. 3, 1803 . 
 Act May 10, 1800 
 Act May 10, 1800 
 Act May 10, 1800 
 Act Mar. 3, 1807 . 
 Act Mar. 3, 1819 . 
 Act Mar. 3, 1819 . 
 Act Mar. 3, 1819 . 
 Act Mar. 3, 1819 . 
 
 Act June 12, 1840. 
 To East Saginaw. 
 
 To Marquette. 
 
 To Mackinac. 
 To Traverse City. 
 Consoiidat'd with Reed 
 
 City. 
 To Reed City. 
 
 To Chatfleld. 
 
 To Winnebago City. 
 
 To Jackson 
 
 To Worthington. 
 
 To Forest City. 
 To Minneapolis. 
 To GreenleaC 
 To Litchfield. 
 To Benson. 
 
 To Saint Peter. 
 To New Ulm. 
 Ttt Tracy. 
 
 To Fergus Falls. 
 
 To Detroit. 
 To Crookston. 
 
 To Cambridge. 
 To Sunrise City. 
 To Taylor's Falls. 
 
 To Saint Cloud. 
 
 May 9, 1863. 
 To Portland. 
 Name changed to Du- 
 luth. 
 
 To Otter Tail City. 
 March 31, 1863. 
 
 To Paulding. 
 January 12, 1867. 
 To Jackson, 1866. 
 November 1, 1866. 
 To Jackson. 
 
 To Grenada. 
 December 1, 1860. 
 September 20, 18.54. 
 To Boonville, Septem- 
 ber 1, 1861. 
 To Fayette. 
 To Boonville. 
 
 To Ironton. 
 
 To Clinton. 
 To Warsaw. 
 To Calhoun. 
 February 12, 1863. 
 March 2, 1869. 
 Orderof March 2.5,1863. 
 April 10, 1859. 
 April 8, 1859. 
 
 To West Point 
 To Norfolk. 
 
 To Beatrice. 
 
 To Lincoln. 
 
 To Niobrara. 
 
 To Bloomington, 
 
 To Eureka. 
 
 To Pioche. 
 September 14, 1877. 
 To Independence, Cal., 
 
 May 31, 1873. 
 September 14, 1877. 
 
 Act June 12, 1840. 
 Act June 12, 1840. 
 Act June 12, 1840. 
 Act June 12, 1840. 
 March 3, 1877. 
 Act June 12, 1840. 
 June 26, 1865. 
 June 26, 1855. 
 June 26, 1866. 
 June 26, 18S6. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 571 
 
 liUt of local land offices from 1800 to 1880.— Continue:!. 
 
 State. 
 
 Location. 
 
 Whm established. 
 
 Removed or discorUinuei. 
 
 
 Defiance 
 
 Act Mar. 3, 1819 . 
 
 June 25, 1855. 
 
 
 Delaware . . . 
 
 Act Mar. 3, 1819 . 
 
 Act June 12, 1840. 
 
 
 Bucyrus 
 
 Act Mar. 3, 1819 . 
 
 Act June 12, 1840. 
 
 
 Tiffin 
 
 Act Mar. 3, 1819 . 
 
 Act June 12, 1840. 
 
 
 Marion 
 
 April 23, 1836 . . 
 
 February 27, 1845. 
 
 Oregon . . 
 
 Oregon City . . 
 
 July 17, 1864 . . 
 
 
 
 Winchester 
 
 Mar. 3, 1855 . . . 
 
 To Eoseburg. 
 
 
 Boseburg . . . 
 
 Jan. 3, 1860 . . . 
 
 
 
 Le Grand 
 
 Deo. 11, 1867 . . 
 
 
 
 
 .Tan. 16, 1873 . . 
 Sept. 1,1877. , . 
 
 
 
 Lakeview 
 
 
 
 Dalles 
 
 Act Jan. 11, 1876 
 
 
 Wisconsin. 
 
 Green Bay 
 
 Menasha 
 
 Act June 26, 1834 
 
 To Menasha. 
 
 
 Muskoday 
 
 Mineral Point . . . 
 
 June 26, 1834 . . 
 
 To Mineral Point. 
 
 
 May 8, 1843 . . . 
 
 November 25, 1868. 
 
 
 Milwaukee . . . 
 
 Act June 15, 1836 
 
 February 14, 1856. 
 
 
 Hudson 
 
 Act Mar. 2, 1849 . 
 
 To Falls Saint Croix. 
 
 
 Falls Saint Croix . 
 
 Aug. 6, 1860 . . . 
 
 
 
 Stevens Point . . . 
 
 Act July 30, 1852 
 
 To Wausaw. 
 
 
 Wausaw ... 
 
 Aug. 19, 1872 . . 
 
 
 
 La Crosse 
 
 Act Aug. 2, 1852 . 
 Act Feb. 24, 1856 
 
 
 
 Superior City . . . 
 
 To Bayfield, Oct.5, 1860 
 
 
 Eau Claire 
 
 Act Mai-. 3, 1857 . 
 
 
 Wa.hingt'n 
 
 Olympia 
 
 July 17, 1854 . . 
 
 
 
 Vancouver . . 
 
 Act May 16, 1860 
 
 
 
 Walla Walla .... 
 
 Act Mar. 3, 1871 . 
 
 
 
 Colfax 
 
 Act Aug. 15, 187U 
 
 
 
 Yakima ... 
 
 Act June 16, 1880 
 
 
 Utah . . . 
 
 Salt Lake City . . . 
 
 Act Mar. 9, 1869 . 
 
 
 
 Beaver City . . 
 
 Act April 25, 1870 
 Act Feb. 5, 1870 . 
 
 Consolidated with Salt 
 
 Wyoming . 
 
 Cheyenne . . 
 
 Lake City, Aug. 1, 
 
 
 Evauston . 
 
 Act Aug. 9, 1876 . 
 
 1877. 
 
 List of existing loral laud offices (96 in nnntlier) and names 
 of officers, November 10, 1880. 
 
 Slate or Ter- 
 ritory. 
 
 Alabama . 
 Arkansas . 
 
 Arizona . . 
 California. 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Dakota . 
 
 Florida . 
 Idaho . . 
 
 Iowa . . 
 Kansas . 
 
 Louisiana . 
 Michigan . 
 
 Minnesota. 
 
 Mississippi. 
 Missouri. . 
 
 Land district. 
 
 Huntsville . . 
 Montgomery 
 Little Rock 
 Camden 
 Harrison . . 
 Dardauelle . 
 Pre.scott . . . 
 Florence . 
 Marysville . . 
 Humboldt . . 
 San Francisco 
 Sacramento . 
 Stockton . . . 
 Visalia . . 
 Los Angeles . 
 Shasta . . . 
 Susanville . . 
 Bodie . . . 
 Central City 
 Denver City 
 Leadville . 
 Pueblo . . . 
 Del Norte 
 Lake City . . 
 Mitchell . 
 \Vatertown 
 j^ismarek 
 Fargo . . 
 Deadwood . . 
 Yankton . . 
 Grand Forks 
 Gainesville 
 Boise City . 
 Lewiston . . 
 Oxford .... 
 Des Moines 
 Topeka . . . 
 Concordia . . 
 Wa-Keeney . 
 Independence 
 kirwin . . . 
 Lamed . . . 
 Salina . . . 
 Wichita . . . 
 New Orleans . 
 Natchitoches . 
 Detroit . . . 
 East Saginaw. 
 Marquette. . . 
 Reed City . . 
 Benson .... 
 Crookston . 
 Du Luth . . . 
 Fergus Falls . 
 
 Tracy 
 
 Redwood Falls 
 Saint Cloud. . 
 Taylor's Falls. 
 Worthington . 
 Jackson. . . . 
 Booneville . 
 
 Heyister. 
 
 Jolm M. Cross . . 
 Pelham J.Anderson 
 iMiftlin W.Gibbs . 
 , Samuel W. Mallory 
 IJohn Murphy . . . 
 IThomas M. (jibson 
 IWilliam N.Kelly. 
 ;C. M. K. Paulison . 
 John C. Bradley . 
 'Charles F. Roberts 
 iWilli'm R.Wheaton 
 Edw. F. Taylor . . 
 Geo. A. McKenzie. 
 iJeremiah D. Hyde 
 'Alfred James . . . 
 iWilliam E.Hopping 
 jWilliam H. Crane . 
 iJames E Goodall . 
 :Eichard Harvey . 
 jLouis Dugal . . . 
 John J. Henry . . 
 Ferd'nd BarndoUar 
 !john Cleghorn . . 
 IHeriry <J. Olney . 
 B. F. Campbell . . 
 lArthur 0. Mellette 
 John A. Rea . . . 
 jHoraoe Austin 
 ;A. S. Stewart . . . 
 .Gustavus A. Wetter 
 iByram C. Tiffany . 
 .Lewis A. Barnes . 
 IJohn B. Miller . . 
 ^Jonathan M. Howe 
 
 .Aug. budenhausen A. W. Eaton. 
 
 iFelix G. Clarke . . H. H. Griffith.x. 
 
 j Wm. H. Fitzpatrick George W. Watson. 
 
 W. H. Tancre. 
 Paul J.Btrohach. 
 Charles E. Kelsey. 
 Alfred A. Tuffts. 
 Robert S. Armitage. 
 Thomas Boles. 
 George Lount. 
 Charles E. Daily. 
 Lemuel T. Crane. 
 Solomon Cooper. 
 C. H. Chamberlain. 
 HeniT O. Beatty. 
 Oti-< Perrin. 
 Tipton Lindsey. 
 J. W. Haverstick. 
 Adolph Dobrowsky. 
 Ancjlrew Miller. 
 Henry Z. Osborn. 
 E. W. Henderson. 
 Samuel T.Thompsnn 
 Wm. K. Burchinell. 
 Michael H. Fitch. 
 Charles A. Brastow. 
 Corelon B. Hickman 
 .John M. Washburn. 
 L. D. F. Poore. 
 Edw. M. Brown. 
 Thoma" M. Pugh. 
 John F. Mi'Kenna. 
 Lot S. Bayless. 
 Wm. J. Anderson. 
 John F. Rollins. 
 James Stout. 
 Richard J. Monroe. 
 
 ;Boyd H. McEckson 
 iBenj. J. F. Hanna . 
 ^Melville J.Salter. 
 IThomas M. Helm . 
 ■Charles A. Morris . 
 !john M. Hodge . . 
 ;Richard L. Walker 
 IGeorge Baldy . 
 'Louis Dupleix. , . 
 !J. B. Bloss 
 
 Charles Doughty. . 
 
 Heniy M. Stafford. 
 
 Edward Stevenson. 
 
 Darwin S. Hall . . 
 
 Thos. C. Shapleigh. 
 
 Morris C. Busiell . 
 ;Soren Li^tolf. . . . 
 
 Charles B.Tyler.. 
 IW.P.Dunningtnn. 
 iDaniel H. Freeman 
 jjohn B. Owens. . . 
 
 Mons Grinaeer. . . 
 
 Richard C. Kerr. . 
 
 Ciustave Eeiche . . 
 
 Evan .1. Jenkins. 
 Wm. H. Pilkenton. 
 Henry M. Waters. 
 Lewis J. Be-t. 
 Henry Booth. 
 Lewis Hanback. 
 James L. Dyer. 
 William M. Burwell. 
 Alexis E. Lemee. 
 John M. Farland. 
 Fred. J. Burton. 
 James M. Wilkin.'ion 
 Wm. H. C. Mitchell. 
 Heman W. Stone. 
 Paul C. Sletten. 
 Thos. H. Pressnell. 
 John H. Allen. 
 Chas. C. Goodnow. 
 W. B. Herriott. 
 William B. Mitchell. 
 George B. Folsom. 
 Justin P. Moulton. 
 A. N. Kimball. 
 George Ritohey. 
 
 State or 
 Terrttory. 
 
 Montana. . 
 Nebraska . 
 
 Nevada , . 
 New Mexico 
 Oregon . . 
 
 Washington. 
 
 Wisconsin. 
 
 Wyoming . 
 
 Utah. . . 
 
 Land distnct. 
 
 Ironton. . . . . 
 
 Springfield . . . 
 
 Bozeman. 
 Helena ... 
 
 Miles City 
 
 Beatrice 
 
 Bloomington . 
 Grand Island . . . 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Niobrara 
 
 Norfolk 
 
 North Platt« 
 
 Carson City 
 
 Eureka 
 
 La Mesilla 
 
 Santa F6 . . 
 
 Le Grand 
 
 Lake View 
 
 Oregon City. . . 
 
 Rosebnrg 
 
 The Dalles 
 
 Colfax.. . 
 
 Olympia 
 
 Vancouver ... 
 Walla Walla. . 
 
 Yakima 
 
 Bayfield 
 
 Eau Claire 
 
 Falls of Saint.Croix. 
 La Crosse. . . , 
 
 Menasha 
 
 Wausaw. . . 
 Cheyenne. . . . 
 
 Evanston 
 
 Salt Lake City. . . . 
 
 Begiater. 
 
 George A. Moser. . 
 George A. C. Wooley 
 Davis Wiilson . 
 James H. Moe, 
 Edward A. Kriedler 
 Hiram W. Parker . 
 Simon W. Switzer . 
 Melville B. Hoxie . 
 Jos. B. McDowell . 
 Benj, F. Chambers. 
 Edward S. Butler . 
 Alex.D.Bucksworth 
 C. A. Witherell. . . 
 F. H. Hinckley . . 
 George D. Bowman. 
 John C. Davis . . . 
 Henry W.Dwight . 
 James H. Evans . . 
 Louis T. Barin. . . 
 Wm. F. Benjamin . 
 Laban Coffin. . . . 
 Jas. M. Armstrong. . 
 Josiah T. Brown . . 
 Walter W.Newlin . 
 Edw. H. Morrison . 
 R. B. Kinne .... 
 John H. Knight . , 
 J.Gardner Callphan 
 Michael Field . . . 
 |Ferd. A. Husher. . 
 iGeorge W. Fay, . . 
 Stephen H. Alban . 
 Edgar W. Mann . . 
 William G. Tonn. . 
 H. McMaster. . . , 
 
 Llewellyn Davis. 
 James Dumars. 
 J. V. Bogert. 
 Frank P. Sterling. 
 T. P. McElrath, 
 Robt B. Harrington. 
 George W. Dorsey. 
 William Anyan. 
 C. N. Baird. 
 James Stott. . 
 William B. Lambert. 
 John TatTe. 
 Samuel C. Wright. 
 Harvey Carpenter. 
 Samuel W. Sherfey. 
 Elias Brevoort. 
 Daniel Chaplin. 
 George Conn. 
 John W. Waits." 
 James C. Fullerton. 
 Caleb N. Thornbury. 
 Edgar N. Sweet. 
 Robert G. Stuart. 
 Samuel W. Brown. 
 Alexander Reed. 
 James M. Adams. 
 Isaac H. Wing. 
 Vincent W. Bayless. 
 Joel F. Nason, 
 John Ulrieh. 
 Norman Thatcher. 
 William Callon. 
 William M. Garvey. 
 Henry K. Crosby. 
 Moses M. Bane. 
 
 Registers and Receivers are paid an annual salary of 8500 each, and are 
 allowed fees up to and including 83,000 per annum. 
 
 SURVEYS OF THE PUBLIC LANDS. 
 
 THE cessions of the several States were organized 
 from time to time into geographical divisions by the 
 laws creating them and the lands were ordered to be 
 surveyed, including lands to which the Indian title 
 had been or would be extinguished. The same proceeding 
 took place with purchased teiritory in 1803, 1819, 1848, 1850 
 and 1853. The extension of the surveys being authorized 
 by Congress over a district of country, the Commissioner of 
 the General Land Office directs the surveyor-general of the 
 district, whose office is created by the law prior to extending 
 the surveys, to begin the same. 
 
 The Rectangular System. — The land surveys under 
 the United States are aniform and done under what is known 
 as the " rectangular system." This system of surveys was 
 reported from a committee of Congress May 7, 1784. The 
 committee consisted of Thomas Jefferson, chairman ; Messrs. 
 Williamson, Howell, Gerry, and Reas. This ordinance re- 
 quired the public lands to be divided into " hundreds " of 
 ten geographical miles square, and those again to be subdi- 
 vided into lots of oiie mile square each, to be numbered 
 from 1 to 100, commencing iu the northwestern corner and 
 counting from west to east and from east to west continu- 
 ously ; and also that the lands thus subdivided should be 
 first offered at public sale. This ordinance was considered, 
 debated, and amended ; and on the 3d of May, 1785, on mo- 
 tion of Mr. Grayson, of Virginia, seconded by Mr. Monroe, 
 the size of the townships was reduced to six miles square. 
 It was further discussed until the 20th of May, 1785, when it 
 was finally passed. The origin of this system is not known 
 beyond the committee's report. There had been land sur- 
 veys in the different colonies for more than a hundred years ; 
 still the method of granting land. for settlements in vogue in 
 all the colonies was in irregular tracts, except in the colony 
 of Georgia, where, after 1733, eleven townships of 20,000 
 square acres each were divided into lots of 50 acres each. 
 
 The act of cession of the State of Virginia of her western 
 territory provided for the formation of States from the same 
 not less than one hundred nor more than one hundred and 
 fifty miles square. This square form of States may have in- 
 fluenced Mr. Jefferson in favor of a square form of survey, ' 
 and besides the even surface of the country was known, the 
 lack of mountains and the prevalence of trees for marking it 
 also favoring a latifudinal and longitudinal system. Cer- 
 tain east and west lines run with the parallels of latitude, 
 
672 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and the north and south township lines with the meridians. 
 The system as adopted provided for sale in sections of 640 
 acres, one mile square. In 1820 a quarter-section, or 160 
 acres, could be purchased. In 1832 sub-divisions were or- 
 dered by law into 40-acre tracts or quarter-quarter-sections 
 to settlers, and in 1846 to all purchasers. On May 18, 1796, 
 the ordinance of May 20, 1786, was amended ; also on May 
 10, 1800, on the introduction of land offices and credit sales, 
 and on February 11, 1805 ; April 24, 1820 ; April 5, 1832 ; 
 and May 30, 1862. (For existing laws or surveys see chap- 
 ter IX, United States Revised Statutes, " Survey of the pub- 
 lic lands," sections 2395 to 2413.) Since the inauguration of 
 the system it has undergone modification in regard to the 
 establishment of standard lines and initial points,' the system 
 of parallels or correction lines, as also of guide meridians, 
 having been instituted, contributing largely towards its com- 
 pleteness. 
 
 Methods and System of Land Parceling Sur- 
 veys. — Preliminary to surveying a district, a surveying 
 meridian and base line must be established. Since the 
 adoption of the rectangular system of public surveys, May 
 20, 1785, twenty-four initial points, or the intersection of 
 the principal bases with surveying meridians, have been 
 brought into requisition to secure the certainty and brev- 
 ity of description in the transfer of public lands to indi- 
 vidual ownership. From the principal bases townships of 
 six miles square are run out and established, with reg- 
 ular series of numbers counting north and south thereof, 
 and from the surveying meridians a like series of ranges 
 are numbered both east and west of the principal merid- 
 ians. During the period of ninety years since the organiza- 
 tion of the system the following numerical and independent 
 principal meridians and bases have been initiated, to wit : 
 
 The first principal meridian divides the States of Ohio 
 and Indiana, having for its base the Ohio River, the meri- 
 dian being coincident with 84° 51' of longitude west from 
 Greenwich. The meridian governs the surveys of public 
 lands in the State of Ohio. 
 
 The second principal meridian coincides with 86° 28' of 
 longitude west from Greenwich, starts from the confluence of 
 the Little Blue River with the Ohio, runs north to the north- 
 ern boundary of Indiana, and governs the surveys in Indiana 
 and a portion of those in Illinois. 
 
 The third principal meridian starts from the mouth of the 
 Ohio River and extends to the northern boundary of the 
 State of Illinois, and governs the surveys in said State east 
 of the meridian, with the exception of those projected from 
 the second meridian, and the surveys on the west to the Illi- 
 nois River. This meridian coincides with 89° 10^ 30^^ of 
 longitude west from Greenwich. 
 
 The fourth principal meridian begins in the middle of the 
 channel of the mouth of the Illinois River, in latitude 38° 
 68' 12" north, and longitude 90° 29' 56" west from Green- 
 wich, and governs the surveys in Illinois west of the Illinois 
 River, and west of the third principal meridian lying north 
 of the river. It also extends due north through Wisconsin 
 and Northeastern Minnesota, governing all the surveys in 
 the former and those in the latter State lying east of the 
 Mississippi and the third guide meridian (west of the fifth 
 principal meridian) north of the river. 
 
 The fifth principal meridian starts from the mouth of the 
 Arkansas River, and, with a common base-line running due 
 west from the mouth of the Saint Francis River, in Arkan- 
 sas, governs the surveys in Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Min- 
 nesota west of the Mississippi, and the third guide meridian 
 north of the river, and in Dakota Territory east of the Mis 
 souri River. The meridian is coincident with 90° 58' longi- 
 tude west from Greenwich. 
 
 The sixth principal meridian coincides with longitude 97° 
 22' west from Greenwich, and, with the principal base line 
 intersecting it on the 40th degree of north latitude, extends 
 north to the intersection of the Missouri River and south to 
 the 37th degree of north latitude, controlling the surveys in 
 Kansas, Nebraska, that part of Dakota lying south and west 
 of the Missouri River, Wyoming, and Colorado, excepting 
 the valley of the Rio Grande del Norte, in Southwestern Col- 
 orado, where the surveys are projected from the New Mexico 
 meridian.,. In addition to the foregoing six principal meri- 
 dians and bases governing public surveys, there have been 
 established the following meridians and bases, viz: 
 
 The Michigan meridian, in longitude 84° 19' 09" west fi-ora 
 Greenwich, with a base-line on a parallel seven miles north 
 of Detroit, governing the surveys in Michigan. 
 
 The Tallahassee meridian, in longitude 84° 18' west from 
 Greenwich, runs due north and south from the point of in- 
 tersection with the base line at Tallahassee and governs the 
 surveys of Florida. 
 
 The Saint Stephen's meridian, longitude 88° 02' west from 
 Greenwich, starts from Mobile, passes through Saint Ste- 
 phen's, intersects the base line on the 31st degree of north 
 latitude, and controls the surveys of the southern district in 
 Alabama and of the Pearl River district lying east of the 
 river and south of township 10 north in the State of Mis- 
 sissippi. 
 
 The HuntsvUle meridian, longitude 86° 31' west from 
 Greenwich, extends from the northern boundary of Alabama 
 as a base, passes through the town of Huntsville, and gov- 
 erns the surveys of the northern district in Alabama. 
 
 The Choctaw meridian, longitude 89° 10' 80" west from 
 Greenwich, passes two miles west of the town of Jackson, in 
 the State of Mississippi, starting from the base line twenty- 
 nine miles south of Jackson, and terminating on the south 
 boundary of the Chickasaw cession ; controlling the surveys 
 east and west of the meridian and north of the base. 
 
 The Washington meridian, longitude 91° 06' west from 
 Greenwich, seven miles east of the town of Washington, in 
 the State of Mississippi, with the base line corresponding 
 with the 31st degree of north latitude, governs the surveys 
 in the southwestern angle of the State. 
 
 The Saint Helena meridian, 91° 11' longitude west from 
 Greenwich, extends from the 31st degree of north latitude, 
 as a base, due south, and passing one mile east of Baton 
 Rouge, controls the surveys in the Greensburgh and the 
 southeastern districts of Louisiana, both lying east of the 
 Mississippi. 
 
 The Louisiana meridian, longitude 92° 20' west from Green- 
 wich, intersects the 31st degree north latitude at a distance 
 of forty-eight miles west of the eastern bank of the Missis- 
 sippi River, and, with the base line coincident with the said 
 parallel of north latitude, governs the surveys in Louisiana 
 west of the Mississippi. 
 
 The New Mexico meridian, longitude 106° 52' 09" west 
 from Greenwich, intersects the principal base line on the Rio 
 Grande del Norte about -ten miles below the mouth of the 
 Puerco River, on the parallel of 34° 19' north latitude, and 
 controls the surveys in New Mexico, and in the valley of 
 the Rio Grande del Norte, in Colorado. 
 
 The Cheat Salt Lake meridian, longitude 111° 53' 47" west 
 from Greenwich, intersects the base line at the corner of 
 Temple Block, in Salt Lake City, Utah, on the parallel of 
 40° 46' 04" north latitude, and governs the surveys in the 
 Territory of Utah. 
 
 The Boisi meridian, longitude 116° 20' west from Green- 
 wich, intersects the principal base between the Snake and 
 Bois4 Rivers, in latitude 43° 26' north. The initial monu- 
 ment, at the intersection of the base and meridian, is nine- 
 teen miles distant from BoisI City, on a course of south 29° 
 30' west. This meridian governs the surveys in the Terri- 
 tory of Idaho. 
 
 T%e Mount Diabolo meridian, California, coincides with 
 longitude 121° 64' west from Greenwich, intersects the base 
 line on the summit of the mountain from which it takes its 
 name, in latitude 37° 53' north, and governs the surveys of 
 all Central and Northeastern California andthe entire State 
 of Nevada. 
 
 The San Bernardino menrfian, California, longitude 116° 
 56' west from Greenwich, intersects the base line at Mount 
 San Bernardino, latitude 34° 06' north, and governs the sur- 
 veys in Southern California lying east of the meridian and 
 that part of the surveys situated west of it which are south 
 of the eight standard parallel south of the Mount Diabolo 
 base line. 
 
 The Humboldt meridian, longitude 124° 11' west from 
 Greenwich, intersects the principal base line on the summit 
 of Mount pierce, in latitude 40° 25' 30" north, and controls 
 the surveys in the northwestern corner of California lying 
 west of the Coast range of mountains and north of township 
 5 south of the Humboldt base. 
 
 The WUlamefte meridian, is coincident with longitude 122° 
 44' west from Greenwich, its intersection with the base line 
 
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THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 573 
 
 is on the parallel of 45° 30' north latitude,- and it controls 
 the public surveys in Oregon and Washington Territory. 
 
 The Montana meridian extends north and south from the 
 initial monument established on the summit of a limestone 
 hill, eight hundred feet high, longitude 111° 40' 54" west 
 from Greenwich. The base line runs east and west from the 
 monument on the parallel of 45° 46' 27" north latitude. 
 The surveys for the entire Territory of Montana are governed 
 by this meridian. 
 
 The Gila and Salt River meridian intersects the base line 
 on the south side of the Gila River, opposite the mouth of 
 Salt River, in longitude 112° 15' 46" west irom Greenwich, 
 and latitude 33° 22' 57" north, and governs the public sur- 
 veys in the Territory of Arizona. 
 
 The Indian meridian intersects the base line at Fort Ar- 
 buckle, Indian Territory, in longitude 97° 15' 56" west from 
 Greenwich, latitude 84° 31' and governs the surveys in that 
 Territory. 
 
 Administaration and Method of the Surveys. — The 
 public surveys are controlled by the Commissioner of the Gen- 
 eral Land Office, and under the immediate superintendence of 
 sixteen surveyors-general in their respective surveying dis- 
 tricts into which at present the public lands are divided. 
 The surveyoi's-general whose offices are conveniently located 
 in their districts and well appointed with personal and other 
 facilities for the business, enter into contracts with profes- 
 sional surveyors, whom they commission as their deputies, 
 and who are thoroughly acquainted with the system and the 
 official requirements in regard to field operations. Survey- 
 ing contracts describe the particular field-work to be execu- 
 ted, time within which it is to be completed, consideration 
 stipulated at so much per lineal mile of surveying, including 
 all expenses of the surveyor, his party and instruments, to- 
 gether with the proper returns of survey to the office of the 
 surveyor-general, to be accompanied by an affidavit of the 
 surveyor to the efiect that the work was performed by him, 
 in his own proper person, in accordance with his contract 
 and the manual of surveying instructions, and in strict con- 
 formity to the laws governing the survey. The party of the 
 deputy surveyor generally consists of two chainmen, flag- 
 man, axeman, and two moundmen, whose duties are to as- 
 sist him in running, measuring, and marking the lines, and 
 constructing and setting corner boundaries. They are sworn 
 to perform their respective duties with fidelity before they 
 enter on the same, and on completing the work they make 
 affidavits to the effect that the deputy surveyor was assisted 
 by them in the survey which they describe, and that it has 
 been executed in all respects well and faithfully. To guard 
 the Government from any loss that might be occasioned by 
 erroneous or fraudulent surveys on the part of the surveyor, 
 he is required to give bond, with approved securities, m 
 double the amount of his contract; and when his unfaithftil- 
 ness is detected the delinquent deputy and his bondsmen 
 are punishable by law, and the surveyor debarred Ironi 
 future employment in like capacity. Upon the return of 
 surveys to the surveyor-general, consisting of original field- 
 notes and a topographical sketch of the country surveyed, 
 the work is examined, and if on applying the usual tests, it 
 is found to be correctly executed, the surveyor-general ap- 
 proves the field-notes ; whereupon the draughtsman pro- 
 tracts the same on township plats in triplicate, and, alter ap- 
 proving the plats, the surveyor-general files the original in 
 his office, to be ultimately delivered to State authorities 
 upon closing of United States surveys in the States ; the 
 duplicate is sent to the local land office to enable the regis- 
 ter and receiver of public lands to dispose of the lands em- 
 braced in the several townships, and the triplicate is trans- 
 mitted to the Commissioner of the General Land Office tor 
 the information of the Government. The manual of in- 
 structions for surveyors-general to regulate the field opera- 
 tions of deputy surveyors, prepared by the Commissioner of 
 the General Land Office, 1855, was, by the second section of 
 the act of May 30, 1862, legalized. . This manual was pre- 
 pared February 22 1855, by the R",'\'='P^l/.'<='^^, °VYhTv 
 It describes the method in the field and is illustrated by 
 dia-rrams. Special instructions are sometimes issued. 
 
 KcecuHonof .urvey^.-TheVnited States surveyor-general 
 for the district enters into contract with a deputy surveyor, 
 after being commissioned, for the survey of either standards, 
 townships" or sub-divisions. The contract specifies the locali- 
 
 ties where surveys are to be made, duration of time within 
 which the work is to be returned, the price of survey per 
 lineal mile, including all contingent expenses to be borne by 
 the deputy surveyor, who is required to execute the work in 
 his own proper person, sub-contracting being illegal, and the 
 contract must be approved by the Commissioner of the Gen- 
 eral Land Office. The lines of public surveys over level 
 ground are measured with a four-pole chain, sixty-six feet 
 in length, 80 chains constituting one lineal mile, but with a 
 two-pole chain where the features of the country 
 are broken and hilly. The lines thus chained are 
 marked through timber land by chops on line trees on each 
 side, and in the absence of such trees those standing nearest 
 the survey on both sides are blazed diagonally toward the 
 line run. Trees standing at the precise spot where legal 
 corners are required are made available. If no such trees 
 are there, then the corners are perpetuated by posts or stones, 
 with inscriptions, and the positions of the same are indi- 
 cated by witness trees or mounds, the angular bearings and 
 distances from the corner being ascertained and described 
 in the field-notes. The lines intersecting navigable streams, 
 the area of which are excluded from sale, require the estab- 
 lishment of meander corner-posts, the courses and distances 
 meandered by navigable streams governing the calculations 
 from which the true contents of ftactional lots are computed 
 and expressed on township plats. Township comer-posts, 
 or stones common to four townships, are set diagonally, 
 properly marked with six notches on each of the four angles 
 set to the cardinal points of the compass ; and mile posts on 
 township lines are marked with as many notches on them as 
 they are miles distant from the township corners respect- 
 ively ; the four sides of the township and section posts, 
 which are common to four townships or sections, are marked 
 with the corresponding number of sections. See accompany- 
 ing diagrams. 
 
 The principal meridian, base, standard and guides have 
 been first measured and marked, and the corner boundaries 
 thereon established, the process of surveying and marking 
 the exterior lines of the townships, north and south of the 
 base, and east and west of the meridian, within those standard 
 lines, is shown on accompanying diagrams. The public 
 lands are first surveyed into rectangular tracts, according to 
 the true meridian, noting the variation of the magnetic 
 needle. These tracts are called townships, each six miles 
 square, having reference to an established principal base 
 line on a true parallel of latitude, and to longitude styled 
 principal meridian. Any series of contiguous townships, 
 north or south of each other, constitutes a range ; the town- 
 ships counting from the base, either north or south, and the 
 ranges from the principal meridian, either east or west. 
 Each township is subdivided into 36 sections of one mile 
 square, or 640 acres, in all, 23,040 acres. In establishing 
 and surveying a base-line from the initial point east and 
 west, quarter-section, section, and township corners are es- 
 tablished at every 40, 80, and 480 chains, respectively, 
 which are for sections and townships lying north of the 
 base, and not for those situated south. In surveying the 
 principal meridian north and south of the initial point, sim- 
 ilar corners are established, which are common for town- 
 ships lying immediately east or west. Standard parallel or 
 correction lines are run east and west from the principal 
 meridian with similar character of corners, as on the prin- 
 cipal base an.d meridian, and constitute special bases for 
 township lines lying north thereof, the correction lines being 
 run and marked at every four townships, or 24 miles north 
 of the base, and at every five townships, or 80 miles south 
 of the same. Guide meridians are surveyed at distances of 
 every eight ranges of townships, or 48 miles east and west 
 of the principal meridian ; the guides north of the princi- 
 pal base starting either from it or from standard parallels. 
 They are closed by meridional lines on other standard par- 
 allels immediately north, while those lying south' of the 
 principal bases start in the first instance from the first stan- 
 dard parallel south, and are closed by meridional lines on 
 the principal base. Then the guides begin on the second 
 standard parallel south, and close on the first standard par- 
 allel south, again starting from the t-hird standard parallel 
 south, and closing on the second standard parallel south, 
 and so on. The closing corners on the principal ba.se and 
 standard parallel are established at points of convergency 
 
574 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the meridians, which occasion a double set of corners on 
 the principal base and correction, or standard parallels, styled 
 "standard corners" and "closing corners." This process 
 requires offsetting of the guide meridians to the extent of 
 the convergence of the meridians on each of the standard 
 parallels and bases. 
 
 The principal base, principal meridian, standard paral- 
 lels, and guide meridians, constitute a framework of the 
 rectangular system of public surveys. Within these limits 
 any errors are avoided which otherwise would result from 
 adhering to the surveys made as the law directs, to the 
 true meridian, in consequence of the convergency of meri- 
 dians and of measurement over uneven surfaces. The sur- 
 veys of the standard lines are made with instruments oper- 
 ating independently of the magnetic needle, the magnetic 
 being noted solely to show the true variation. These lines 
 divide the sphere of field operations into parallelograms of 
 48 by 24 miles north of the principal base and 48 
 by 30 miles south, the convergency of the meridians in 
 the former instance being greater than in the latter. The 
 parallelograms formed by meridians and parallels are in 
 their turn subdivided into townships, and the latter ulti- 
 mately into sections with an ordinary but perfectly adjusted 
 compass. These parallelograms also serve to connect distant 
 
 Classification or Definition} — Under existing laws the 
 deputy surveyors note the character of the lands in their 
 field-notes, as agricultural, timber, mineral, etc., and the 
 natural and artificial objects. These are entered upon the 
 township plats in detail, showing the topography of the sur- 
 veyed township. This description is subject to correction or 
 amendment by proof, in the manner indicated by the 
 " Instructions from the General Land Office ; " also, " In- 
 structions in cases of contest and charges of fraud. See 
 accompanying map for illustration of classification by a 
 deputy surveyor, being copy of a township plat on file in the 
 district land office at Salt Lake City, Utah, and from which 
 the lands are sold by the district officers. 
 
 Geological Surveys under General Land Office. 
 —The lead, copper, and other mineral lands in Iowa, Michi- 
 gan, Minnesota, Wisconsin and Missouri, were first the subject 
 of a geological survey under the General Land Office, and after 
 this we're surveyed under the rectangular or usual system, 
 and sold in legal sub-divisions, the soilcarrying with it the 
 mineral. The following table shows the geological surveys 
 of the public domain under the General Land Office : 
 
 The geological survey of the Territories of the United 
 States by F. V. Hayden was continued under authority of 
 act of Congress approved March 3, 1869 (15 Stats., p. 306), 
 
 Creologlcal Surveys of public donkalu under General Ijand Office. 
 
 
 Stale and Territory. 
 
 Navux of Geolxtgists. 
 
 AciB of Congress. 
 
 United States Slatutes. 
 
 Daie of Instructions. 
 
 Southern Feninsula of Michigan 
 
 Douglas Houghton . . 
 
 June 17, 1844 
 
 Vol. 5, p. 691 
 
 June 25, 1844. 
 
 Chippewa land district, Wisconsin and Iowa 
 
 David Dale Owen . ; . 
 
 March 3, 1847 
 
 Vol. 9, p. 165 . 
 
 April 16, 1847. 
 
 Lake Superior land district, Michigan ... 
 
 Charles T. Jackson . . 
 
 March 1, 1847 
 
 Vol. 9, p. 146 
 
 April 16, 1847. 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Whitney & Foster . . 
 
 Itfarc.h 1, 1847 
 
 Vol. 9, p. 146 
 
 May 16, 1849. 
 
 Oregon and Washington . 
 
 John Evans \ 
 
 March 3, 1853 ) 
 March 3, 1855/ 
 
 Vol. 10, p. 650 1 
 
 April 14, 1853. 
 March W, 1855. 
 
 Nebraska, Wyoming and Colorado 
 
 Ferd. V. Hayden . . . 
 
 March 2, 1867 
 
 Vol. 14, p. 470 
 
 April 29, 1867. 
 
 Wyoming and Colorado . . 
 
 Ditto 
 
 July 20, 1868 
 
 Vol. 1.5, p. 119 .... 
 
 July 28, 1868. 
 
 surveys from those progressing regularly from the initial 
 point, if first required, for the convenience of remote settle- 
 ments or other considerations. The township lines start 
 from the standard corners, pre-established on the principal 
 base and standard or correction parallels, and are surveyed 
 to the extent required within each parallelogram. On those 
 lines quarter-section, section, and township corners are fixed 
 to govern the subdivisional work of the townships in 36 sec- 
 tions. The sections of one mile square are the smallest 
 tracts, the out-boundaries of which the law requires to be 
 actually surveyed. Their minor subdivisions, represented in 
 dotted lines on the accompanying diagram, are not surveyed 
 and marked in the field. They, are defined by law, and the 
 surveyors-general, in protracting township plats from the 
 field-notes of sections, merely designate them in red ink, 
 the lines being imaginary, connecting opposite quarter- 
 section corners in each section from south to north, and 
 from east to west, thereby dividing sections into four quar- 
 ter-sections of 160 acres each, and these, in their turn, into 
 quarter-quarter-sections, of 40-acre tracts, by imaginary 
 lines, starting from the equidistant points between the sec- 
 tion and quarter-section corners to similar points on the 
 opposite sides of the section. Each section containing 640 
 acres, subdivided into legal subdivisions, affords forty dif- 
 ferent descriptions, susceptible of being disposed of to pur- 
 chasers, from 640-acre tracts to 40-acre parcels. This con- 
 venient mode of subdividing sections with a view to econo- 
 my and to fecilitate sales of small tracts, although not actu- 
 ally marked on the ground by metes and bounds, yet under 
 laws of Congress are susceptible of demarkation by any 
 surveyor in the different States and Territories in accordance 
 with the field-notes of the original survey made by United 
 States officers. The instruments employed in the field- 
 work by United States surveyors consist of solar compasses, 
 transits, and common compasses of approved construction ; 
 four-pole chains and two-pole chains, of 100 and 50 links, 
 respectively, each link of the chain being equal to 7.92 inches. 
 The surveyors' chainsare compared with standard chains 
 and standard yard measures furnished surveyors-general by 
 the government. The measurement of the' lines of public 
 surveys is horizontal, requiring shortening of the chain over 
 abrupt and undulating surface ; the navigable lakes and 
 water-courses are segregated from the land, the same being 
 declared by law public highways and not subject to sale. 
 
 Under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior exclur 
 sively, and discontinued ou the 30th day of June, 1879. (See 
 20 Stats., p. 394.) . 
 
 Method of Surveying Mineral Claims. — Under the 
 provisions of the mining act of July 26, 1866, the surveyors- 
 general of the several districts divided their jurisdictions 
 into mineral surveying districts, by grouping counties or 
 parts of counties, and gave each district a numerical desig- 
 nation from one upward. Deputy mineral surveyors were 
 appointed for each of these districts by the surveyors- gene- 
 ral. Lode claims were limited in length to not exceeding 
 200 feet for each individual, with one additional claim for 
 discovery ; no location by an association of individuals to 
 exceed 3,000 feet. The width of locations was regulated by 
 the local rules of miners in each district. 
 
 The method of application for survey and return of sur- 
 vey of a mining claim, in compliance with the act above 
 stated, can be found in the act and in the instructions from 
 the General Land Office on this subject, of date January 14, 
 1867. This system of establishing mineral surveying 
 districts for mineral survevs was discontinued by the 
 act of May 10, 1872. The act of May 10, 1872, was 
 to cure the defects in the act of July 26, 1866, and to com- 
 plete a system of survey and disposition of mineral lands, 
 containing gold, silver, cinnabar, and other valuable min- 
 erals. Under this act the surveyors-general appoint a suffi- 
 cient number of surveyors of mineral claims, called deputy 
 mineral surveyors. The maximum rates of charges for such 
 surveys may be fixed by the Commissioner of the General 
 Land Office. (See R. S., sec. 2334.) Claimants pay all ex- 
 penses of survey, and make deposits for platting and other 
 expenses up to the issuing of patents. The statute provides 
 the method of posting and other incidents pertaining to the 
 procedure for obtaining patent. Mineral districts can be 
 formed from the public domain, whether surveyed or not. 
 
 Classiflpation of Mineral Land.— The method of 
 classification of mineral lands on the public domain, when the 
 
 1 Section 2409, Revised Statutes, authorizes the Secretary of the 
 Interior to introduce the geodetic method of surveys of public lands 
 in Oregon and California, if he deems it advisable, and section 2410 
 provides for a departure from the rectangular method of survey in 
 California, if he deems proper. He may also vary the lines of sur- 
 vey from a rectangular form — to suit the circumstances of the coun- 
 try — in Nevada. 
 

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THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 575 
 
 lines of the public surveys are being extended over them, is 
 as follows : At the time of survey in the field the deputy sur- 
 veyor notes on his field-notes (which remain permanently 
 in the surveyor-general's oflfice, a copy being sent to the 
 Commissioner of the General Land Office) the character of the 
 country, both from observation and information from per- 
 sons, if any there be, having knowledge of the same. This 
 makes up the general topography. He describes" the coun- 
 try by sections one mile square. When the deputy makes 
 up his plats he enters upon them the topography noted in 
 his field-notes and returns the same to the surveyor-general, 
 who prepares three copies thereof. One of the township 
 plats, with a copy of the field-notes, is sent to the General 
 Land Office, to be used in checking all entries or changes of 
 entries made in the district land office. If the land sur- 
 veyed is returned as mineral, the CJommissioner at once 
 issues notice to the land office of the district in which the 
 lands lie of the withdrawal of the same from agricultural or 
 entry other than as mineral. Claimants of mining claims 
 may make application for survey to the surveyor-general, 
 as provided by law, and the surveys of their claims will be 
 made by a mineral deputy, with or without reference to the 
 lines of the rectangular system. Still they can and may be used 
 for points of determination apd reference. Proof is admissible, 
 upon contest in the district land offices between claimants, 
 as to its mineral or non-mineral character. The register 
 and receiver render an opinion on the case, which is for- 
 warded to and approved or disapproved by the Commission- 
 er of the General Land Office, and after his action is subject 
 to appeal to the Secretary of the Interior. In case the rec- 
 tangular surveys are not extended over the lands containing 
 mineral, the claimant, whether a mining district has been 
 formed by the miners or not, applies to the surveyor-general 
 who orders a survey by a deputy mineral surveyor, and the 
 law is followed. Mining claims are surveyed whether pub- 
 lic lands surveys have been made or not. The survey of a 
 mining claim — ^lode, vein, or placer — ^has no reference neces- 
 sarily to any other surveys or systems of surveys. 
 
 Placer claims, not exceeding 160 acres, located in con- 
 formity with law may be surveyed independent of the land- 
 parceling surveys ; but when they are within the limits of 
 surveyed lands and conform to legal subdivisions, no further 
 survey is necessary. All placer claims after May 10, 1872, 
 must conform as nearly as possible to the land-parceling or 
 rectangular system of surveys. Ten-acre claims are recog- 
 
 nized ; forty-acre lots being subdivided into ten-acre 
 lots. 
 
 The Benefits oftlie Present Sygtem of Land Parceling. — ^The 
 rectangular system came in at the birth of the public 
 domain. It started prior to the opening of the lands for 
 sale in the territory northwest of the river Ohio, in the sur- 
 vey of the first seven ranges of townships therein adjoining 
 Pennsylvania. It afterward covered the territory south of 
 the river Ohio, and thence was applied to the old Natchez 
 settlement, in the present State of Mississipi. It now ex- 
 tends over portions, if not all, of every land. State, and terri- 
 tory in the Union. It has been in operation for about 
 ninety years, and has been a faithful friend to the settlers 
 on the public domain. In the extensive sphere over which 
 the surveys have progressed from Florida, on the Atlantic, 
 and westward to the Pacific, including all the public land. 
 States and Territories of the Union, with the exception of 
 Alaska, formerly Russian America, the system has worked 
 satisfactorily, furnishing facilities for the acquisition of pub- 
 lic lands in any region of the country, and methods for the 
 restoration of landmarks which may he lost or destroyed by 
 time or accident. Adequate means exist in the surrounding 
 landmarks of the adjacent public surveys, whereby missing 
 metes and hounds can be restored in accordance with the 
 original field-notes thereof, and the designations placed on 
 township plats. Its recommendations to the public lie in its 
 economy, simplicity, and brevity of description in deeding 
 the premises by patent and for future conveyancing, and in 
 the convenience of reference from the most minute l^al sub- 
 division to the corners and lines of sections, and of town- 
 ships of given principal base and meridians. Its greatest 
 convenience is its extreme simplicity of description. Any 
 person, by its monuments and markings, can readily find the 
 tract sought for. It was originated for land parceling for 
 sale, and it has answered the purpose. The system now 
 extends over the whole surface of the States of Ohio, 
 Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Arkansas, Mississippi, Alabama, 
 Missouri, Wisconsin, Iowa, Kansas, and portions of the 
 States of Florida, Louisiana, Nevada, Minnesota, Nebraska, 
 California, Oregon, and Colorado ; also in the Territories of 
 Washington, Utah, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Arizona, 
 New Mexico, and Dakota, and the Indian Territory. The 
 total area surveyed under this system is 752,557,195 acres 
 in the various land States and Territories, as is shown by the 
 following tabular statement: 
 
 Tabidar statement sho-wlmg the munljer or acres of PuMlc I^anils surveyed *y tile to\la-wing I.aiid States and Territories 
 mD to .Tune 30. 1879, durlna the present fiscal year, and the total of the Public Ijands surveyed up to June 30, 1880 ; 
 
 up 
 
 also. 
 
 tlie total area of thePahllc Damalu remaining unsurveyed tvithin the same. 
 
 Area of public lands in States and 
 Terntories. 
 
 Land, Slaletand TerrUariet. 
 
 Wisconsin . 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Minnesota . 
 Kansas. . . 
 ^Nebraska. . . . 
 California 
 Nevada. . . 
 Ovegon .' . . 
 Washington 
 Colorado . 
 Utah . . 
 Arizona . . . 
 New Mexico , . 
 Dalsota. . 
 Idaho. . . 
 Montana .... 
 Wyoming 
 Missouri . . 
 Alabama . 
 Mississippi. 
 Louisiana . 
 Arkansas .; . 
 Florida. . . 
 Ohio . . . 
 Indiana . 
 Michigan 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indian Territory . . 
 
 Alaska 
 
 Public Land Strip . 
 
 Total . 
 
 84,511,360 
 35,228,800 
 63,459,840 
 61,770,240 
 48.636,800 
 
 100,992,640 
 71,737,600 
 60,975,360 
 44,796,160 
 66,880,000 
 54,064,640 
 72,906,240 
 77,568,640 
 96,696,480 
 65,228,160 
 92,016,640 
 62,645,120 
 41,836,931 
 32,462,115 
 ;30,179,840 
 26,461,440 
 33,410,063 
 37,931,620 
 25,.576,960 
 21,637,760 
 36,128,640 
 36,465,093 
 44,154,240 
 
 369,529,600 
 6,912,000 
 
 1,841,788,922 
 
 Number of acref of public landn tiaueyed. 
 
 In square 
 mites. 
 
 63,924 
 
 65,045 
 
 83,631 
 
 80,891 
 
 75,995 
 
 167,801 
 
 112,090 
 
 96,274 
 
 69,994 
 
 104,500 
 
 84,476 
 
 113,916 
 
 121,2U1 
 
 150,932 
 
 86,294 
 
 143,776 
 
 97,R83 
 
 65,370 
 
 60,722 
 
 47,156 
 
 41,346 
 
 62,202 
 
 69,268 
 
 39,964 
 
 33,809 
 
 56,461 
 
 65,414 
 
 68,991 
 
 677,390 
 
 10,800 
 
 l^ to June i 
 1879. 
 
 Prior to June 30, 
 1879, not hereto- 
 fore reported. 
 
 34,511,360 
 35,228,800 
 39,636,940 
 61,770,240 
 40,716,671 
 47,979,543 
 12,372,308 
 21,913,612 
 14,736,403 
 23,364,523 
 9.341,375 
 6,499,363 
 8,843,890 
 22,626,770 
 6,933,429 
 11,062,551 
 9,079,186 
 41,836,931 
 32,462,115 
 30,179,840 
 26,232,044 
 33,410,063 
 30,161,946 
 25,676,960 
 21,637,760 
 36,128,640 
 85,465,093 
 27,003,990 
 
 Within (he fiscal 
 year ending June 
 30, 1880. 
 
 116,224.14 
 
 159.842.68 
 676,875.65 
 
 101,186.86 
 
 375,176.67 
 
 92,196.10 
 
 75,603.97 
 *416,798.84 
 329,726.08 
 
 Total up to June 
 30, 1880. 
 
 296,253.46 
 
 709,179.33 
 
 3,792,630.10 
 928,694.07 
 
 1,062,221.85 
 847,595.29 
 
 2,775,601.81 
 440,685.79 
 308,521.21 
 
 1,624,156.41 
 
 12,130,80859 
 
 225,637.24 
 
 302,413,55 
 
 184,449.68 
 
 2,835,606 I 734,691,236 I 2,266,712.49 15,699,262,96 
 
 34,511,360 
 35,228,800 
 39,949,417 
 51,770,240 
 41,584,593 
 62,349,048 
 13,301,002 
 23,067,020 
 16,959,175 
 26,222,321 
 9,781,960 
 5,807,874 
 10,543,660 
 25,174,377 
 7,488,792 
 11,364,964 
 9,263,636 
 41,836,931 
 32,462,115 
 30,179,840 
 25,312,548 
 33,410,063 
 30,175,027 
 25,676,960 
 21,637,760 
 36,128,640 
 36,465,093 
 27,003,990 
 
 •S g .? -a o ~ 
 
 |.S E Si ,-| 
 
 ^■Siyjp - 
 j: e t. a u Q 
 
 13,510,423 
 
 7,052,207 
 48,643,392 
 68,436,698 
 37,908,340 
 28,836,985 
 40,657,679 
 44,282,680 
 67,098,366 
 67,024,990 
 71,422,103 
 47,739,368 
 80,651,676 
 
 53,381,485 
 
 1,148,892 
 7,756|493 
 
 17,150,250 
 
 369,529,600 
 
 6.912,000 
 
 762,557,195 
 
 1,069,143,727 
 
 » 208 299 30 acres are embraced in Eed Cloud and Spotted Tail Indian reservations. f 67,063.90 acres are also embraced in .same reservations. 
 
576 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Cost of Surveying under the Rectangular Sys- 
 tem. — The price per mile for surveying has varied with the 
 several acts. Under the ordinance ofMay 20, 1785, the survey- 
 or was allowed at the rate of $2 per mile for every mile in 
 length he should run, including the wages of chain carriers, 
 markers, and every other expense attending the same. Under 
 the powers to the Board of Treasury to sell western territory, 
 July 23, 1787, the Ohio Company were to survey the lands 
 of their purchase into townships and other subdivisions, as 
 provided in the survey ordinance above set out, at their own 
 expense, and return the plat to the Board of Treasury. 
 Under the ordinance of July 9, 1788, supplemental to the 
 one of May 20, 1785, the surveyors to be appointed by the 
 geographer to lay off lands and locate warrants thereon were 
 
 to -receive for their compensation an allowance to be fixed by 
 the governor and judges of the western territory. ' 
 
 Under the act of 1796, May 18, the President of the 
 United States was to fix the compensation of the assistant 
 surveyors, chain carriers, and axe men, provided the whole 
 expense should not exceed $3 per mile. This price was con- 
 tinued in the act of May 10, 1800. The price was varied, 
 owing to topographical features, as in wooded or swampy 
 country, for which from $3 to $20 have been paid in Mis- 
 souri and other land states. The several acts of Congress 
 up to 1860 will give prices paid per mile. 
 
 Tables showing Cost of Surveys from 1860 to 
 1881. — ^The following table will give the variations in prices 
 of surveys from 1860 to 1881 : 
 
 Statennent of rates paid per linear mile from 1860 to 1881, Inclusive. 
 
 Siatee and Territories. 
 
 1864. 
 
 Arizona . . . 
 California. 
 Colorado. . . 
 Dakota . 
 Florida . . 
 Idaho .... 
 Louisiana . . 
 Minnesota. 
 Montana. . 
 Nebraska , . 
 Nevad'a . . . 
 New IVIexico. 
 Oregon . . 
 Utah .... 
 Washington. 
 
 S16 
 
 $16 
 
 W 
 
 10 
 10 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 8 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 States and Terriiorieg. 
 
 Arizona . , 
 
 California . 
 
 Colorado. . 
 Dakota . . 
 Florida . . 
 Idaho . . . 
 Louisiana . 
 Minnesota. 
 Montana. 
 Nebraska . , 
 Nevada . . , 
 
 New Mexico. 
 
 Oregon . . . 
 
 Utah . . . 
 
 Washington. 
 Wyoming . . 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 IC 
 
 IS 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 IC 
 
 7 
 
 B 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 1(] 
 
 12 
 
 S 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 no 
 
 112 
 
 tie 
 
 fl2 
 tl4 
 
 (12 
 110 
 
 10 
 12 
 10 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 12 
 16 
 
 12 
 14 
 10 
 10 
 
 BtcUeB and Territories. 
 
 Arizona . . 
 California . 
 Colorado. . 
 Dakota. . . 
 Florida . . 
 Idaho . . . 
 Louisiana . 
 Minnesota. 
 
 Montana. . . 
 Nebraska . . 
 Nevada . 
 New Mexico. 
 Oregon . . . 
 Utah. 
 
 Washington. 
 Wyoming . . 
 
 1875. 
 
 1876. 
 
 12) 
 14 1 
 
 1877. 
 
 1878 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 71 6 
 14 10 
 
 7: 6 
 14 10 
 
 7; 
 14 
 
 7| 
 
 10 
 6 
 
 14i 10 
 7 
 
 1881. 
 
 $12 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 in 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 577 
 
 Snrveyliig Districts and Offices of Snrveyorg-Gencral. 
 
 Statement showing dates of organization of the several surveying districts since the beginning of the service, dates of closing the offices o^ survey- 
 ors-general in States where the surveys have been completed, and dates when the original surveying archives were delivered io tihe State authorities. 
 
 NamQ of dhtrlcL 
 
 Act creating 
 office of mr- 
 veyor - gen- 
 eral. 
 
 Statutes at 
 targe. 
 
 Office closed. 
 
 Archives delivered to State 
 authorities. 
 
 Retnarks. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Dakota 
 
 Florida ... . . . 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Illinois and Missouri . 
 
 Iowa and Wisconsin . . 
 Kansas and Nebra:ika ■ 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Minnesota : 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Montana 
 
 Nebraska and Iowa . . 
 Nevada 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Northwest of Ohio . . 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Utah 
 
 South of Tennessee . . 
 
 Washington . . 
 Wyoming . . . 
 
 Apr. 20,1818 
 
 Feb. 24, 1863 
 
 June 15, 1832 
 
 Mar. 3, 1851 
 Feb. 28, 1861 
 Mar. 2, 1861 
 May 8, 1822 
 June 29, 1866 
 
 Apr. 29, 1816 
 
 June 12, 1838 
 July 22, 1851 
 
 Mar. 3, 1831 
 Mar. 3, 1857 
 Mar. .3, 1S17 
 Mar. 2, 1867 
 
 July -28, 1866 
 Mar. 2, 1861 
 
 July 22, 1854. 
 May 18, 1796 
 
 Sept. 27,1860 
 
 Feb. 21, 1855 
 Mar. 3, 1803 
 
 July 17, 1854 
 Feb. 5, 1870 
 
 Vol. 
 3 
 
 Page. 
 466 
 
 12 
 
 664 
 
 4 
 
 631 
 
 9 
 12 
 12 
 
 3 
 14 
 
 617 
 172 
 239 
 718 
 77 
 
 3 
 
 325 
 
 S 
 
 243 
 
 10 
 
 309 
 
 4 
 11 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 492 
 212 
 375 
 542 
 
 14 
 12 
 
 344 
 
 209 
 
 10 
 
 308 
 
 1 
 
 464 
 
 9 
 
 496 
 
 10 
 
 611 
 
 2 
 
 229 
 
 10 
 16 
 
 306 
 64 
 
 1850. 
 
 1850. 
 
 March 8, 1859 . . 
 
 October 31, 1863 . . 
 
 Jane 30, 3866 . . . 
 Kansas, June30,'76 
 
 f Illinois, June 16, 1869 . 1 
 1 Missouri, Oct. 10, 1866 . j 
 i Iowa, March 23, 1868 . ] 
 J Wiaconsin, Aug. 1, 1866 J 
 Kansas, June 30, 1876.. . , 
 
 October 31, 1849 . 
 
 October 31, 1849 . 
 
 17 
 
 May 11, 1857 
 
 (Ohio, July 29, 1846 
 < Indiana, Dec. 1" 
 (Michigan, May 
 
 1846 . . ) 
 11, 1849 . y 
 y 12, 1857 J 
 
 Originally part of district south of Tennessee, 
 subsequently part of district of northern part 
 of Mississippi Territory. 
 
 Attached to New Mexico by act of July 2, 18G4. 
 Attached to California district by act of March 
 2, 1867. Made separate district, act July 11,1870 
 
 Archives delivered to state auditor by the 
 register of land office at Little Rock during 
 the war. 
 
 See remarks for Arizona and Nevada. 
 
 See remarks forUtah, Idaho, and Nevada. 
 
 See remarks for Montana. 
 
 By the act of July 2, 1864, Idaho was attached 
 to the Colorado surveying district. 
 
 By act of July 28, 1866, the surveying district 
 of Nebraska and Iowa was created. 
 
 Originally part of district south of Tennessee. 
 
 By act of July 2, 1864^ Montana was attached to 
 Dakota surveying district. No surveys made 
 until 1867. 
 
 See Kansas and Nebraska. 
 
 By act March 14. 1862, Nevada attached to 
 California, Act July 2, 1864, Nevada attached 
 to Colorado. Act July 4, 1866, Nevada separate 
 district. 
 
 See remarks for Arizona. 
 
 This district embraced Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 
 Michigan, Wipconsin, and part of Minnesota. 
 See Illinois and Missouri, also Iowa and Wis- 
 consin. 
 
 This district embraced Washington Territory 
 which was made a separate district by act of 
 July 17, 1854. 
 
 Attached to Colorado by act March 14, 1862. 
 Made separate districtby act of July 16, 1868, 
 
 Act of March 2, 1805, extended powers of sur- 
 veyor south or Tennessee to Territory of New 
 Orleans. See Ala. and Miss. 
 
 Mississippi. 
 
 See Oregon. 
 
 U. S. LAWS RELATING TO SURVEYS AND 
 SURVEYORS. 
 
 Sec. 77. There shall be appointed by the President, by and 
 with the advice and consent of the Senate, a surveyor-general 
 for the States and Territories herein named, embracing, re- 
 spectively, one surveying district, namely: Louisiana, Flori- 
 da, Minnesota, Kansas, California, Nevada, Oregon, Nebras- 
 ka and Iowa, Dakota, Colorado, New Mexico, Idaho, Wash- 
 ington, Montana, Utah, Wyoming, Arizona. 
 
 3 Stat. 755 ; 4 id. 492 ; 9 id. 496 ; 10 id. 244, .S06, 308, 309, 611 ; 
 11 id. 212 ; 12 id. 176, 214, 244 ; 14 id. 77, 85, 344, 542 ; 15 id. 
 91: 16 id. 65, 230; 17 id. 76; 18 id. 18, 34, 121, 122, 123, 201, 
 303 ; 19 id. 126, 207 ; K. S. 2207. 
 Sec. 78. The surveyors-general of Louisiana, Florida, 
 Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska and Iowa, and of Dakota 
 Territory, shall each receive a salary at the rate of two thou- 
 sand dollars a year. 
 
 3 Stat. 755; 4 id. 493; 12 id. 244; 17 id. 16; K. S. 2208. 
 Section 79. The surveyors-general of Oregon and of Wash- 
 ington shall each receive a salary at the rate of two thou- 
 sand five hundred dollars a year. 
 
 9 Stat. 496; 10 id. 158, 248, 306, 674; 12 id. 410; 17 id. 76; 
 E. S. 2209. 
 
 Sec 80. The surveyors-general of Colorado, New Mexico, 
 California, Idaho, Nevada, Montana, Utah, Wyoming and 
 .Arizona shall each receive a salary at the rate of three thou- 
 sand dollars a year. 
 
 10 Stat. 244, 308, 611 ; 12 id. 176, 214, 410; Uid. 77, 85, 542; 
 15 id. 91 ; 16 id. 65,. 230 ; 17 id. 76 ; B. S. 2210. 
 
 Sec. 81. The salary of each surveyor-general of Flonda, 
 Oregon and California shall be paid quarter-yearly, and shall 
 commence from the time he enters into bond, as provided by 
 law. 
 
 37 
 
 3 Stat. 756 ; 9 id. 496 ; 10 id. 244 ; E. S. 2211. 
 
 Sec. 82. The surveyor-general's office for Minnesota dis- 
 trict shall be located at the city of Saint Paul ; that for Ida- 
 ho Territory at Boise City ; that for the district of Nebraska 
 and Iowa at Plattsmouth, in Nebraska ; and for each other 
 surveying district at such place as the President, in view 
 of the public convenience, may from time to time direct ; 
 and there shall be but one office of surveyor-general in each 
 district. 
 
 11 Stat. 212; 13 id. 352; Uid. 77, 344; E. S. 2212, 2213. 
 
 Sec. 83. Every surveyor-general, while in the discharge of 
 the duties of his office, shall reside in the district for which 
 he is appointed. 
 
 5 Stat. 637 ; E. S. 2414. 
 
 Sec. 84. Every surveyor-general shall, before entering on 
 the duties of his office, execute and deliver to the Secretary 
 of the Interior a bond, with good and sufficient security, for 
 the penal sum of thirty thousand dollars, conditioned for the 
 faithful disbursement, according to law, of all public money 
 placed in his hands and for the faithful performance of the 
 duties of his office ; and the President has discretionary 
 authority to require a new bond and additional security, un- 
 der the direction of the Secretary of the Interior, for the 
 lawful disbursement of public moneys. 
 
 3 Stat. 697; E. S. 2215, 2216. u' S. v. Vanzandt, 11 Wheat. 
 184; U. S. V. Tingey, 5 Pet. 115 ; Farrar and Brown v. V. S., 
 5 id. 373 ; U. S. v. Bradley, 10 id. 343 ; U. S ti. Limi, 15 id. 
 290 ; U. S. V. Prescott, 3 How-, 578; U. S. v. Boyd, 5 id. 29 ; 
 Bryan v. U. S., 1 Black, 140; Boyden v. United States, 13 
 Wall. 17 ; Bevans v. V. S., 13 id. 56 ; U. S. «. Thomas, 15 id. 
 337 ; U. S. V. Stephenson, 1 McLean, C. C. 462 ; U. S. v. Linn, 
 2 id. 501 ; U. S. v. Ward, 3 id. 179. 8 Op. Att. Gen. 7. Cir. 
 G. L. 0., July 1,1871; id. May 14, 1879. Treasury Cir., 
 July 13, 1871 (Copp's L. L. 783 ; 1 Lester's L. L. 312, 314). 
 
 Sec. 85. The commission of each surveyor-general shall 
 
578 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 cease and expire in four years from the date thereof, unless 
 sooner vacated by death, resignation, or removal from office. 
 
 3 Stat. 697 ; R. S. 2217. Best v. Polk, 18 Wall. 112. Decision 
 Com. G. L. O., Feb. 20, 1858 (1 Lester's L. L. 340). 
 
 Sec. 86. Every surveyor-general, except where the Presi- 
 dent sees cause otherwise to determine, is authorized to con- 
 tinue in the uninterrupted discharge of his regular official 
 duties after the day of expiration of his commission and 
 until a new commission is issued to him for the same office, 
 or until the day when a successor enters upon the duties of 
 such office ; and the existing official bond of any officer so 
 acting shall be deemed good and sufficient and in force 
 until the date of the approval of a new bond to be given by 
 him, if recommissioned, or otherwise, for the additional 
 time he may s^ continue officially to act, pursuant to the 
 authority of this section. 
 
 10 Stat. 247 ; 18 id. 62 ; R. S. 2222. 
 
 Sec. 87. Whenever the surveys and records of any survey- 
 ing district are completed the surveyor-general thereof shall 
 be required to deliver over to the secretary of state of the 
 respective States, including such surveys, or to such other 
 officer as may be authorized to receive them, all the field- 
 notes, maps, records, and other papers appertaining to land 
 titles within the same; and the office of surveyor-general 
 in every such district shall thereafter cease and be discon- 
 tinued. 
 
 5 Stat. 384; 19 id. 121 ; R. S. 2218. 
 
 Sec. 88. In all cases of discontinuance, as provided in the 
 preceding section, the authority, powers, and duties of the 
 surveyor-general in relation to the survey, resurvey, or sub- 
 division of the lands therein, and all matters and things con- 
 nected therewith, shall be vested in and devolved upon the 
 Commissioner of the General Land Office. 
 
 10 Stat. 152; R. S. 2219. 
 
 Sec. 89. Under the authority and directiou of the Com- 
 missioner of the General Land Office, any deputy surveyor 
 or other agent of the United States shall have free access to 
 any such fieldrnotes, maps, records, and other papers for the 
 purpose of taking extracts therefrom or making copies 
 thereof without charge of any kind ; but no transfer of such 
 public records shall be made to the authorities of any State 
 until such State has provided by law for the reception and 
 safe-keeping of such public records and for the allowance of 
 free access thereto by the authorities of the United States. 
 10 Stat. 152; 18 id. 62; R. S. 2220, 2221. 
 
 Sec. 90. Every surveyor-general shall engage a sufficient 
 number of skilful surveyors as his deputies, to whom he is 
 authorized to administer the necessary oaths upon their ap- 
 pointments. He shall have authority to frame regulations 
 for their direction, not inconsistent with law or the instruc- 
 tions of the General Land office, and to remove them for 
 negligence or misconduct in office. 
 
 Taylor and Quarllg v. Brown, 5 Cranoh, 234; Crai" et al v 
 Braxford, 3 Wheat. 594; EUicott et al. v. Pearl lo'Pet 412 ' 
 Brown's Lessee v. Clements, 3 How, 650. Ree'd v Conway' 
 20 Mo. 22; same case, 26 W. 13; Hamil i;. Carr, 21 Ohio St' 
 258; Doe i;. Hildreth, 2 Ind. 274; McClintock v.'Rodeers 
 11 Ills. 279. Cir. G. L. 0., June 26, 1880. ^^""gers, 
 
 Second. He shall cause to be surveyed, measured, and 
 marked, without delay, all base and meridian lines through 
 such points and perpetuated by such monuments, and such 
 other correction parallels and meridians as may be pre- 
 scribed by law or by instructions from the General Land 
 Office in respect to the public lands within his surveyino- 
 district, to which the Indian title has been or may be here- 
 aiter extinguished. 
 
 Gazzam ». Phillips' Lessee, 20 How, 372. 3 Op. Att. Gen., 281, 
 9M q'^ m"'^-"' ^'^"^'^'J ?J?''°' "": Hastings v. Stevenson 
 ll Ohio ^"'^'^""tI ''^¥«Kmney, 8 id. 423; Hamil v. Carr 
 
 aSaeU'so'^^' Cox . Jones, 47 dal. 412. Cl^^^. 
 
 Third. He shall ca,use to be surveyed all private land 
 claims within his district after they have been confirmed by 
 
 authority of Congress, so far as may be necessary to complete 
 the survey of the public lands. 
 
 Menard's Heirs v. Massey, 8 How, 293; Kissell ». St. Louis 
 Public Schools, 18 id. 19 ; Stanford v. Taylor, 18 id 409 • 
 Ballance v. Forsyth, 24 id. 183; U. S. v. Fossat, 25 id 445- 
 Carondelet v. St. Louis, 1 Black, 179 ; U. S. v. Sepulveda' 
 
 1 Wall. 104; U. S. v. Halleck, 1 id. 439; U. S. v. Billings' 
 
 2 id. 444; Sutter's ease, 2 id. 562 ; U. S. v. Pacheco, 2 id. 587- 
 Fossat case, 2 id. 649; Dehon v. Bernal, 2 id. 774; U. S. v 
 Armijo, 5 id. 444; Higueras v. U. S., 5 id. 827; Magiiire v 
 Tyler, 8 id. 650 ; Lynch v. Bernal, 9 id. 315 ; Henshaw v 
 Bissell, 18 id. 255; Shepley et al. v. Cowan et al., 1 Otto 330 •' 
 Miller et al. v. Dale et al., 2 id. 473 ; Van Reynegan v. Bol- 
 ton 5 id. 33; U.S. D.Throckmorton, 8 id. 61; Snyder v 
 Sickles, 8 id. 203 ; Scull v. V. S., 8 id. 410. Bissell v. Hen- 
 shaw, 1 Saw. C. C. 553 ; Leroy v. Jamison, 3 id. 369. Gibson 
 V. Chouteau, 39 Mo. 536; Milburh v. Hardy, 28 id. 514- 
 Funkhouser v. Hantz, 29 id. 540 ; Dent v. Legesson 29 id' 
 489; Carondelet ». St. Louis, 29 iU 527 ; McGuire f. Tyler' 
 30 id 202; Robins ii. Eckler, 36 id. 494 : Clark t>. Heammerle' 
 36 id. 620 ; Gibson v. Chouteau, 39 id. 536 ; Vasquez v Ew- 
 ing, 42 id. 247; Glasgow v. Lindell, 50 id. 60; Rector * 
 Games, 19 Ark. 70; Ashley v. Rector, 20 id. 359; Meaux v. 
 Breaux, 10 Martin (La.) 364; Moon f. Wilkinson, 13 Cal 
 478; BoggSD. MiningCo., 14td. 279; Mott ti. Smith, 16 ««. 
 634; Johnson v. Van Dyke, 20 id. 225; McGarrahan v. Max- 
 well, 27 id. 75; Treadway v. Semple, 28 id. 652: Searle v 
 Ford, 29 id. 104; Mahoney v. Van Winkle, 33 id. 448 ; Mor- 
 rill V. Chapman, 35 id. 85; Yates v. Smith, 38 id. 60; San 
 Diego V. Allison, 46 id. 163. Decisions Sec. Int., July 16 
 1872; Aug. 8, 1876; Aug. 17, 1876; March 16, 1877. Decil 
 sions Com. G. L. O., Aug. 18, 1860; Sept. 18, 1874; Nov. 3 
 1874; Sept. 18, 1875; Oct. 28, 1875; June 26, 1879. Cir. G 
 L. 0., June 26, 1880. 
 
 Fourth. He shall transmit to the register of the respective 
 land offices within his district general and particular plats of 
 all lands surveyed by him for each land district ; and he shall 
 forward copies of such plats to the Commissioner of the 
 General Land Office. 
 
 Barnard v. Ashley, 18 How. 43 ; Water and Minmg Co. v. Bug- 
 bee, 6 Otto, 165. Hamil v. Carr, 21 Ohio St. 258; Doe v. 
 Hildreth 2 Ind. 274; Pope v. Athearn, 42 CaL 606. Com. 
 G. L. O. Instructions to Surveyors-General, April 17, 1879. 
 Fifth. He shall, so far as is compatible with the desk 
 duties of his office, occasionally inspect the surveying opera- 
 tions while in progress in the field, sufficiently to satisfy 
 himself of the fidelity of the execution of the work according 
 to contract, and the actual and necessary expenses incurred 
 by him while so engaged shall be allowed ; and where it is 
 incompatible with his other duties for a surveyor-general to 
 devote the time necessary to make a personal inspection of 
 the work in progress, then he is authorized to depute a con- 
 fidential agent to make such examination, and the actual 
 and necessary expenses of such person shall be allowed and 
 paid for that service, and five dollars a day during the ex- 
 amination in the field ; but such examination shall not be 
 protracted beyond thirty days, and in no case longer than is 
 actually necessary; and when a surveyor-general, or any 
 person employed in his office at a regular salary, is engaged 
 in such special service he shall receive only his necessary 
 expenses in addition to his regular salary. 
 
 1 Stat. 464; IStrf 325; 4 id. 492; 10 irf. 245, 247 ; 18 id.3i; 
 
 19 id. 126 ; R. S. 2223. Sec. Int. Instructions, July 1, 1874 • 
 
 Sept. 21, 1874. Cir. G. L. 0., June 26, 1880. "'"y^''"'*' 
 
 Sec. 91. Every deputy surveyor shall enter into bond, 
 
 with sufficient security, for the faithful performance of all 
 
 surveying contracts confided to him ; and the penalty of 
 
 the bond, m each case, shall be double the estimated 
 
 amount of money accruing under such contracts, at the rate 
 
 per mile stipulated to be paid therein. The sufficiency of 
 
 the sureties to all such bonds shall be approved and certified 
 
 by the proper surveyor-general. 
 
 ^ ^tf^L \''i ^''U ^- ^- 2230. U. S. v. Vanzandt, 11 
 ^^^^J \iV ^; ^o "• ^'"Sey, 5 Pet. 115 ; Farrar et al. v. U. 
 ?7 9QO T?'a^- §:"• Bradley, 10 id. 343; U. S. v. Linn, 15 
 Id. 290. U. S. V. Stephenson, 1 McLean, C. C. 462. 
 
 Sec. 92 The surveyor-generals, in addition to the oath 
 now authorized by law to be administered to deputies on 
 their appointment to office, shall require each of their depu- 
 ties, on the return of his surveys, to take and subscribe an 
 oath that those surveys have been faithfully and correctly 
 executed according to law and the instructions of the sur- 
 veyor-general. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 579 
 
 9 Stat. 79 ; R. S. 2231. EUicott and Meredith v. Pearl, 10 Pet. 
 412 ; U. S. V. Hanson, 16 id. 196 ; Bollard et al. v. Dwight et 
 al., 4 Cranoh, 421 ; Taylor et al. v. Brown, 5 id. 234. Cir. 
 Q. L. O., June 26, 1880. 
 
 Sec. 93. The district attorney of the United States, in 
 whose district any false, erroneous, or fraudulent surveys 
 have been executed, shall, upon the application of the proper 
 surveyor-general, immediately institute suit upon the bond 
 of such deputy and the institution of such suit shall act as 
 a lien U{)ou any property owned or held by such deputy or 
 his sureties at the time such suit was instituted. 
 
 9 Stat. 79; R. S. 2232. 
 
 _ Sec. 94. In the event of the failure of a deputy in Loui- 
 siana to comply with the terms of his contract, unless such 
 failure be satisfactorily shown by him to have arisen from 
 causes beyond his control, he shall forfeit the penalty of his 
 bond on due process of law, and ever afterward be debarred 
 from receiving a contract for surveying public lands. 
 
 4 Stat. 493 ; 18 U. 19, 62 ; 19 id. 207, 221 ; R. S. 2233. 
 
 Sec. 95. The official seals heretofore authorized to be pro- 
 vided for the offices of the surveyors-general of Oregon, 
 California, and Louisiana shall continue to be used ; and 
 any copy of or extract from the plats, field-notes, records, or 
 other papers on file in those offices respectively, when au- 
 thenticated by the seal and signature of the proper surveyor- 
 general, shall be evidence in all cases in which the original 
 would be evidence. 
 
 10 Stat. 245, 248 ; R. S. 2224, 2225. U. S. ■». Delespine'a Heirs 
 e«a;., 12Pet. 654; U. S. «;. Wiggins, 14 id. 334; Hedrlck ». 
 Hughes, 15 Wall. 123. Henslay v. Tarpey, 7 Cal. 288; Law- 
 rence V. Grout, 12 La. Ann. 835. 
 
 Sec. 96. All official books, papers, instruments of writing, 
 documents, archives, official seals, stamps or dies which 
 have been heretofore authorized by law to' be collected and 
 deposited in the office of the surveyor-general of California 
 shall be safely and securely kept by such surveyor-general 
 in the archives of his office. 
 
 , 11 Stat. 289; R. S. 2229. 
 
 Sec. 97. There shall be allowed for clerk hire, office rent, 
 fuel, books, stationery, and other incidental expenses of the 
 several offices of surveyors-general such sums as may be 
 appropriated for such purposes by Congress from year to 
 year. 
 
 E. S. 2226, 2227. 
 
 Sec. 98. The President is authorized, in any case where 
 he thinks the public interest may require it, to transfer the 
 duties of register and receiver in any district to the surveyor-' 
 general of the surveying district in which such land district 
 is located. 
 
 12 Stat. 410; R. S. 2228. 
 
 Sec. 99. The public lands shall be divided by north and 
 south lines run according to the true meridian, and by 
 others crossing them at right angles, so as to form townships 
 of six miles square, unless where the line of an Indian re- 
 servation, or of tracts of land heretofore surveyed or patented, 
 or the course of navigable rivers, may render this impracti- 
 cable ; and in that case this rule must be departed from no 
 further than such particular circumstances require. 
 
 McKluney «. McKinney, 8 Ohio," 423; Hamil v. Carr, 21 Ohio 
 St. 258. Decision Sec. Int., Jan. 28, 1880. Cir. 6. L. 0., 
 June 26, 1880. 
 
 Second. The corners of the townships must be marked 
 with progressive numbers from the bsginning, each distance 
 of a mile letween such corners must be also distinctly 
 marked with marks different from those of the corners. 
 
 Third. The township shall be subdivided into sections, 
 containing, as nearly as may be, six hundred and forty acres 
 each, by running through the same, each way, parallel lines 
 at the end of every two miles ; and by making a corner on 
 each of such lines, at the end of every mile. The sections 
 shall be numbered, respectively, beginning with the number 
 one in the northeast section and proceeding west and east 
 alternately through the township with progressive numbers 
 till the thirty-six be completed, 
 
 Grogan v. Knight, 27 Cal. 516. Decision Sec. Int., April 14, 
 1879. Cir. G. L. O., June 26, 188U. 
 
 Fourth. The deputy surveyors, respectively, shall cause 
 to be marked on a tree near each corner established in the 
 manner described, and within the section, the number of 
 such section, and over it the number of the township within 
 which such section may be ; and the deputy surveyors shall 
 carefully note, in their respective field-books, the names of 
 the corner-trees marked and the numbers so made. 
 
 Cir. G. L. O., June 26, 1880. 
 
 Fifth. Where the exterior lines of the townshipsf which 
 may be subdivided into sections or half-sections exceed, or 
 do not extend six miles, the excess or deficiency shall be 
 specially noted, and added to or deducted from the western 
 and northern ranges of sections or half-sections in such 
 townships, according as the error may be in running the 
 lines from east to west, or from north to south ; the sections 
 and half-sections bounded on the northern and western lines 
 of such townships shall be sold as containing only the quan- 
 tity expressed in the returns and plats respectively, and all 
 others as containing the complete legal quantity. 
 
 Knight V. Elliott, 57 Mo. 317 ; Vaughn v. Tate, 64 id. 491 ; 
 Waters v. Commons, 2 Port. (Ala.) 38 ; Lewen v. Smith, 7 id. 
 428. Decision Sec. Int., April 14, 1879. Cir. G. L. 0., June 
 26, 1880. 
 
 Sixth. All lines shall be plainly marked upon trees, and 
 measured with chains, containing two perches of sixteen and 
 one-half feet each, subdivided into twenty-five equal links ; 
 and the chain shall be adjusted to a standard to be kept for 
 that purpose. 
 
 Bradley v. Taylor, 5 Cranch, 191 ; Mclvers v. Walker, 9 id. 
 173 ; Shipp v. Miller's Heirs, 2 Wheat. 316 ; Holmes v. Trout, 
 7 Pet. 171 ; Brown v. Huger, 21 How. 305; Meron v. Whit- 
 ney, 5 Otto, 551 ; Robinson v. Moon, 4 McLean, C. C. 279. 
 Oakley v. Stuart, 52 Cal. 521. Cir. G. L. O., June 26, 1880. 
 
 Seventh. Every surveyor shall note in his field-book the 
 true situations of all mines, salt licks, salt springs, and mill- 
 seats, which come to his knowledge ; all water courses over 
 which the line he runs may pass ; and also the quality of the 
 lands. 
 
 Newsom v. Pryor's Lessee, 7 Wheat. 7 ; Preston v. Bowman, 6 
 id. 580; Patterson v. Jenks, 2 Pet. 216. 
 
 Eighth. These field-books shall be returned to the sur- 
 veyor-general, who shall cause therefrom a description of 
 the whole lands surveyed to be made out and transmitted 
 to the officers who may superintend the sales. He shall 
 also cause a fair plat to be made of the townships and frac- 
 tional parts of townships contained in the lands describing 
 the subdivisions thereof and the marks of the corners. This 
 plat shall be recorded in books to be kept for that purpose ; 
 and a copy thereof shall be kept open at the surveyor gen- 
 eral's office for public information, and other copies shall be 
 sent to the places of the sale and to the General land office. 
 
 1 Stat. 465; 2 id. 73; 19 id. 348 ; R. S. 2395. Taylor et al. v. 
 Brown, 5 Cranch, 234; Barnard v. Ashley, 18 How. 43; 
 Water and Mining Co. v. Bugbee, 6 Otto, 165. Rector v. 
 Gaines, 19 Ark. 70; Lewen v. Smith, 7 Port. (Ala.) 428; 
 Mott V. Smith, 16 Cal. 534; Hamil v. Carr, 21 Ohio St. 258; 
 Doe V. Hildreth, 2 Ind. 274 ; McClintock v. Rodders, 11 Ills. 
 279. Decision Sec. Int., Jan. 15, 1878. Decision Com. G. 
 L. O., April 17, 1879. 
 
 Sec. 100: The boundaries and contents of the several sec- 
 tions, half-sections, and quarter sections of the public lands 
 shall be ascertained in conformity with the following prin- 
 ci]^es : 
 
 First. All the corners marked in the surveys, returned by 
 the .surveyor-general, shall be established as the proper 
 corners of sections, or subdivisions of sections, which they 
 were intended to designate ; and the corners of half and 
 quarter sections, not marked on the surveys, shall be placed 
 as nearly as possible equidistant from two corners which 
 stand on the same line. 
 
 Second. The boundary lines, actually run and marked 
 in the surveys returned by the surveyor-general, shall be 
 established as the proper boundary lines of the sections, or 
 subdivisions, for which they were intended, and the length 
 of such lines, as returned, shall be held and considered as 
 
580 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the true length thereof. And the boundary lines which 
 have not been actually run and marked shall be ascertained 
 by running straight lines irom the established corners to 
 the opposite corresponding cornere ; but in those portions 
 of the fractional townships where no such opposite corre- 
 sponding corners have been or can be fixed, the boundary 
 lines shall be ascertained by running from the established 
 corners due north and south or east and west lines, as the 
 case may be, to the water-course, Indian boundarjr line, or 
 other external boundary of such fractional township. 
 
 Mott V. Smith, 16 Cal. 534; Guin v. Brandon, 29 Ohio St. 656 ; 
 ■ McClintoek?;. Rodgers, U Ills. 279; Goodman v. Myrick, 5 
 Oreg. 65. Cir. G. L. O., June 26, 1880. 
 
 Third. Each section or subdivision of section, the con- 
 tents whereof have been returned by the surveyor-general, 
 shall be held and considered as containing the exact quan- 
 tity expressed in such return ; and the half-sections and 
 quarter-sections, the contents whereof shall not have beea 
 thus returned, shall be held a,nd considered as containing 
 the one-half or the one-fourth part, respectively, of the re- 
 turned contents of the section of which they may make 
 part. 
 
 2 Stat. 313 ; E. S. 2396. Lindsey v. Hawes, 2 Black, 554; TJ. 
 S. V. Paeheco, 2 Wall. 587 ; Railway Co. v. Schurmier, 7 id. 
 272; County of Saint Clair d. Livingston, 23 id. 46; -Heide- 
 koper V. Brooms, 1 Wash. C. C. 109 ; Coon v. Pen, 1 Pet. C. 
 0. 496. 2 Op. Att. Gen. 578> Knight v. Elliott, 57 Mo. 317 ; 
 Vaughn v. Tate, 64 id. 491 ; Waters v. Commons, 2 Port. 
 (Ala.) 38; Lewen v. Smith, 7 id. 428; Billingsly v. Bates, 30 
 Ala. 376; Doe v. Hildreth, 2 Ind. 274; Grogan v. Knight, 27 
 Cal. 516. Decision Com. G. L. 0., May 17, 1875. Cir. G. L. 
 C, June 26, 1880. 
 
 Sec. 101. In every case of the division of a quarter-section 
 the line for the division thereof shall run north and south, 
 and the corners and contents of half quarter-sections which 
 may thereafter be sold shall be ascertained in the manner 
 and on the principles directed and prescribed by the 
 section preceding, and fractional sections containing one 
 hundred and sixty acres or upwards shall in like manner, as 
 nearly as practicable, be subdivided into half-quarter sec- 
 tions, under such rules and regulations as may be prescribed 
 by the Secretary of the Interior, and in every case of a di- 
 vision of a half-quarter-section, the line for the division 
 thereof shall run east and west, and the corners and con- 
 tents of quarter quarter-sections, which may therefore be 
 sold, shall be ascertained, as nearly as may be, in the man- 
 ner and on the principles directed and prescribed by the 
 section preceding ; and fractional sections containing fewer 
 or more than one hundred and sixty acres shall in like man- 
 ner, as nearly as may be practicable, be subdivided into 
 quarter quarter-sections, under such rules and i-egulations 
 as may be prescribed by the Secretary of the Interior. 
 
 3 Stat. 566; 4 id. 503; R. S. 2397. Gazzam v. Phillips' Lessee, 
 20 How. 372; Railwav Co. v. Schurmier, 7 Wall. 272. Buel 
 V. Tuley, 4 McLean, C. C. 268. Wharton v. Littlefield, 30 
 Ala. 245. 3 Op. Att. Gen. 281, 284. Decision Sec. Int., April 
 14, 1879. Decision Com. G. L. 0., May 17, 1875. Cir. G. L. 
 O., June 26, 1880. 
 
 Sec. 102. Whenever in the opinion of the President, a 
 departure from the ordinary method of surveying land on 
 any river, lake, bayou, or water-course would promote the 
 public interest, he may direct the surveyor-general, in whose 
 district such land is situated, and where the change is in- 
 tended to be made, to cause the lands thus situated to be 
 surveyed in tracts of two acres in width, fronting on any 
 river, bayou, lake, or water-course, and running back the 
 depth of forty acres ; which tracts of land so surveyed shall 
 be oifered for sale entire, instead of in half quarter sections, 
 and in the usual manner, and on the same terms in all 
 respects as the other public lands of the United States. 
 
 4 Stat. 34; R. S. 2407. 
 
 Sec. 103. In extending the surveys of the public lands in 
 the State of Nevada, the Secretary of the Interior may vary 
 the lines of the subdivisions from a rectangular form, to 
 suit the circumstances of the country. 
 
 14 Stat. 86 ; R. S. 2408. Heydenfeldt v. Mining Co., 3 Otto, 634. 
 
 Sec. 104. The Secretary of the Interior, if he deems it 
 advisable, is authorized to continue the surveys in Oregon 
 
 and California, to be made after what is known as the geo- 
 detic method, under such regulations and upon such terms 
 as have been or may hereafter be prescribed by the Com- 
 missioner of the General Land Office ; but none other than 
 township lines shall be run where the land is unfit for culti- 
 vation ; nor shall any deputy surveyor charge for any line 
 except such as may be actually run and marked or for any 
 line not necessary to be run. 
 
 9 Stat. 496 ; 10 id. 245 ; R. S. 2409. 
 
 Sec. 105. Whenever, in the opinion of the Secretary of 
 the Interior, a departure from the rectangular mode of sur- 
 veying and subdividing the public lands in California would 
 promote the public interests, he may direct such change to 
 be made in the mode of surveying and designating such 
 lands as he deems proper, with reference to the existence of 
 jnountains, mineral deposits, and the advantages derived 
 from timber and water privileges ; but such lands shall not 
 be surveyed into less than one hundred and sixty acres or 
 subdivided into less than forty acres. 
 
 10 Stat. 245; R. S. 2410. Cir. G. L. O., June 26, 1880. 
 
 Sec. 106. The public surveys shall extend over all mineral 
 lands, and all subdividing of surveyed lands into lots less 
 than one hundred and sixty acres may be done by county 
 and local surveyors at the expense of claimants ; but noth- 
 ing in this section contained shall require the survey of 
 waste or useless lands. 
 
 10 Stat. 15, 21 ; 16 id. 218; R. S. 2406. 
 
 Sec. 107. The printed manual of instructions relating to 
 the public surveys, prepared at the General Land Office, 
 and bearing date February twenty-second, eighteen hun- 
 dred and fifty-five, the instructions of the Commissioner of 
 the General Land Office, and the special instructions of the 
 surveyor-general, when not in conflict with such printed 
 manual or the instructions of the Commissioner, shall be 
 taken and deemed to be a part of every contract for sur- 
 veying the public lands. 
 
 12 Stat. 409 ; R. S. 2399. Cir. G. L. 0., June 26, 1880. 
 
 Sec. 108. Legal subdivisions of forty acres of placer lands 
 may be subdivided into ten-acre lots. 
 
 16 Stat. 217; R. S. 2330. 
 
 Sec. 109. The surveyor-general of the United States may 
 appoint in each land district containing mineral lands as 
 many competent surveyors as shall apply for appointment 
 to survey mining claims. The expenses of the survey of 
 vein or lode claims, and the survey and subdivision of 
 placer claims into smaller quantities than one hundred and 
 sixty acres, shall be paid by the applicants, and they shall , 
 be at liberty to obtain the same at the most reasonable rates, 
 and they shall also be at liberty to employ any United 
 States deputy surveyor to make the survey. The Commis- 
 sioner of the General Land Office shall have power to 
 establish the maximum charges for such surveys ; and to 
 the end that he may be fully informed on the subject, each 
 applicant shall file with the register a sworn statement of 
 all charges and fees paid by such applicant for surveys, 
 which statement shall be transmitted to the Commissioner 
 of the General Land Office. 
 
 17 Stat. 95; 19 id. 52; R. S. 2334. Decision Com. G. L. O., 
 April 20, 1877. 
 
 Sec. 110. The surveyor-general of the United States shall 
 prepare or cause to be prepared a plat and field-notes of all 
 mining surveys made by authority of law, which shall show 
 accurately the boundaries of such claims ; and, when war- 
 ranted by the facts, he shall give to the claimant his certifi- 
 cate that five hundred dollars' worth of labor has been 
 expended or improvements made upon the claim by the 
 claimant or his grantors, and that the plat is correct, with 
 such further description by such reference to natural objects 
 or permanent monuments as shall identify the claim, and 
 furnish an accurate description, to be incorporated in the 
 patent. , 
 
 11 Stat. 92 ; R. S. 2325. 
 
 Sec. 111. Contracts for the survey of the public lands 
 shall not become binding upon the United States until ap- 
 proved by the Commissioner of the General Land Office, 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 581 
 
 except in such cases as the Commissioner may otierwise 
 specially order. 
 
 12 Stat. 409; R. S. 2398. Maguire «. Tyler, 1 Black, 201; 
 Parks V. Boss, H How. 362; Spencer v. Lapsley, 20 id. 264. 
 Reed v. Conway, 26 Mo. 13. Decision See. Int., Feb. 27, 1878. 
 
 Sec. 112. The Commissioner of the General Land "Office 
 has power, and it shall be his duty, to fix the prices per 
 mile for public surveys which shall in no case exceed the 
 maximum established by law ; and, under instructions to be 
 irepared by the Commissioner, an accurate account shall 
 le kept by each surveyor-general of the cost of surveying 
 and plotting private land claims, to be reported to the Gen- 
 eral Land Office, with the map of such claim ; and patents 
 shall not issue for any such private claim, nor shall any 
 copy of such survey be furnished, until the cost of survey 
 and platting has been paid into the Treasury by the claim- 
 ant or other party ; and before any land granted to any 
 railroad company by the United States shall be conveyed 
 to such company or any persons entitled thereto, under any 
 of the acts incorporating or relating to said company, unless 
 such company is exempted by law from the payment of 
 such cost, there shall first be paid into the Treasury of the 
 United States the cost of surveying, selecting, and convey- 
 ing the same by the said company or persons in interest. 
 
 12 Stat. 409; 18 id!. 384; Id id. 122; K. S. 2400. Railway Co. 
 V. Prescott, 16 Wall. 603 ; Railway Co. v. McShane, 22 id. 
 444 ; Hannewell v. Cass Co., 22 id. 464 ; Colorado Co. v. Com- 
 missioners, 5 Otto, 259. Decisions Sec. Int., Deo. 17, 1874; 
 Feb. 27, 1878; Feb. 20, 1879; March 5, 1879; AprU 2, 1879. 
 Decisions Com. G. L. O., April 18, 1837; Aug. 8, 1867; Feb. 
 17, 1869; March 26, 1870. Cir. G. L. O., June 26, 1880. 
 
 Sec. 113. The Commissioner of the General Land Office 
 may authorize, in his discretion, public lands in Oregon, 
 densely covered with forests or thick undergrowth, to be 
 surveyed at augmented rates, not exceeding eighteen dol- 
 lars per mile per standard parallels, fifteen dollars for town- 
 ships, and twelve dollars for section lines ; and under like 
 conditions he may allow augmented rates in California, and 
 in Washington Territory, not exceeding eighteen dollars per 
 linear mile for standard parallels, sixteen dollars for town- 
 ship, and fourteen dollars for section lines. 
 
 16 Stat. 304, 305 ; 17 id. 358; R. S. 2404, 2405. Decision Sec. 
 Int., June 16, 1879. Cir. G. L. O., June 26, 1880. 
 
 Sec. 114. Whenever the public surveys, or any portion of 
 them, in the States of Oregon and California, are so required 
 to be made as to render it expedient to make compensation 
 for the surveying thereof by the day instead of by the mile, 
 it shall be lawful for the Commissioner of the General Land 
 Office, under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior, 
 to make such fair and reasonable allowance as, in his judg- 
 ment, may be necessary to insure the accurate and faithful 
 execution of the work. 
 
 10 Stat. 247; R. S. 2411. Decision Sec. Int., June 16,1879. 
 Cir. G. L. O., June 26, 1880. 
 
 Sec. 115. When the settlers in any township, not mineral 
 or reserved by Government, desire a survey made of the 
 same, under the authority of the surveyor-general, and file 
 an application therefor in writing, and deposit in a proper 
 United States depository, to the credit of the United States, 
 a sum sufficient to pay for such survey, together with all 
 expenses incident thereto, without cost or claim for indem- 
 nity on the United States, it may be lawful for the surveyor- 
 general, under such instructions as may be given him by 
 the Commissioner of the General Land Office, and in accord- 
 ance with law, to survey such township and make return 
 thereof to the general and proper local land office, provided 
 the township so proposed to be surveyed is within the range 
 of the regular progress of the public surveys embraced by 
 existing standard lines or bases for the township and sub- 
 divisional surveys. 
 
 12 Stat 410; R. S. 2401. Decision Sec. Int., Jan. 28, 1880. 
 Cir. G. L. O., June 27, 1879; March 5, 1880. 
 
 Sec 116. The deposit of money in a proper United States 
 depository, under the provisions of the preceding section, 
 shall be deemed an appropriation of the sums so deposited 
 for the objects contemplated by that section, and the bec- 
 retary of the Treasury is authorized to cause the sums so 
 
 Z 
 
 deposited to be placed to the credit of the proper appropria- 
 tions for the surveying service ; but any excesses in such 
 sums over and above the actual cost of the surveys, com- 
 prising all expenses incident thereto, for which they were 
 severally deposited, shall be repaid to the depositors, re- 
 spectively. 
 
 13 Stat. 404; R. S. 2402. Cir. G. L. O., June 27, 1879. 
 
 Sec. 117. Where settlers make deposits in accordance 
 with the provision of section one hundred and fifteen, the 
 amount so deposited shall go in part payment lor their lands 
 situated in the townships, the surveying of which is paid 
 for out of such deposits ; or the certificates issued for such 
 deposits may be assigned by endorsement and be received 
 in payment for any public lands of the United States 
 entered by settlers under the pre-emption and homestead 
 laws of the United States, and not otherwise. 
 
 16 Stat. 581 ; 19 id. 38 ; 20 id. 352 ; R. S. 2403. 
 June 27, 1879. 
 
 Cir. G. L. 0., 
 
 Sec. 118. Each surveyor-general, when thereunto duly 
 authorized by law, shall cause all confiimed private land 
 claims within his district to be accurately surveyed, and 
 shall transmit plats and field-notes thereof to the Commis- 
 sioner of the General Land Office for his approval. When 
 publication of such surveys is authorized by law, the proof 
 thereof, together with any objections properly filed and all 
 evidence submitted either in support of or in opposition to 
 the approval of any such survey, shall also be transmitted 
 to said Commissioner. 
 
 2 Stat. 326, 352 ; 3 id. 325; 5 id. 740; 9 id. 242, 633 ; 10 id. 244, 
 308,599; 11 id. 294; 12 id. 172, 209, 369, 409; 13 id. 332, 
 344; 14id.218; 16id. 64,304; 18id.305; 19 id. 121, 202; 
 B. S. 2447. Bissell v. Penrose, 8 How. 317 ; Villalobos v. U. 
 S., 10 id. 541 ; Ledoux v. Black, 18 id. 473; U. S. ■». Fossat, 
 20 id. 413; Brown f. Huger, 21 id. 305; U. S. «. Fossat, 21 
 id. 445 ; Castro v. Hendricks, 23 id. 438; Ballance v. Forsyth, 
 24 id. 183; U. S. v. Sepulveda, 1 WaU. 104; U. S. v. Halleck, 
 1 id: 439 ; U. S. v. Valleio, 1 id. 658 ; Sutter's case, 2 id. 562 ; 
 Fossat case, 2 id. 649 ; Higueras v. V. S., 5 id. 827 ; Alviso 
 1). U. S., 8 id. 337. 12 Op. Att. Gen. 116, 250; 14 id. 74, 601. 
 U. S. ». Garcia, 1 Saw. C. C. 383 ; Russell v. Henshaw, 1 id. 
 653 ; Leroy v. Jamison, 3 id. 369 ; U. S. v. Flint, 4 id. 42. 
 Dent *. Segerson, 29 Mo. 480 ; Fowler v. Duvall, 11 La. Ann. 
 561 ; Waterman v. Smith, 13 Cal. 373 ; Moore v. Wilkerson, 
 13 id. 478; Merritt ». Judd, 14 id. 60; Mott «. Smith, 16 id. 
 534 ; Johnson v. Van Dyke, 20 id. 225 ; McGarraghan v. 
 Maxwell, 27 id. 75; Seale v. Ford, 29 id. 104. Cir. G. L. O., 
 June 26, 1880. 
 
 Sec. 119. It shall be the duty of each surveyor-general, 
 whose respective surveying district includes any portion of 
 the territory embraced, on the twenty-second day of July, 
 eighteen hundred and fifty-four, within the limits of the 
 then Territory of New Mexico, under the instructions of 
 the Secretary of the Interior, to ascertain the origin, nature, 
 character and extent of all claims to lands under the laws, 
 usages, and customs of Spain and Mexico ; and for this pur- 
 pose may issue notices, summons witnesses, administer oaths, 
 and do and perform all other necessary acts in the premises. 
 He shall make a full report on all such claims as originated 
 before the cession of the Territory to the United States by 
 the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, of eighteen hundred and 
 forty-eight, denoting the various grades of title, with his 
 decision as to the validity or invalidity of each of the same 
 under the laws, usages, and customs of the country before its 
 cession to the United States ; and shall also make a report 
 in regard to all pueblos existing in the Territory, showing 
 the extent and locality of each, stating the number of in- 
 habitants in the said pueblos, respectively, and the nature 
 of their titles to the land. Such report shall be made 
 according to the form which may be prescribed by the Sec- 
 retary of the Interior, and shall be laid before Congress for 
 such action thereon as may be deemed just and proper, with 
 a view to confirm bona fide grants and give full effect to the 
 treaty of eighteen hundred and forty-eight between the 
 United States and Mexico ; and until the final action of 
 Congress on such claims, all lands covered thereby shall be 
 reserved from sale or other disposal by the Government. 
 
 10 Stat. 309. Newhall v. Sanger, 2 Otto, 761; Tameling v. 
 Emigration Co., 3 id. 644 ; U. S. v. Glamorgan and Danterive 
 V. V. S., S. C, Oct. T., 1879, in manuscript. 14 Op. Att. Gen. 
 624. Decisions Sec. Int., Dec. 29, 1862; July 26, 1867 ; Sept. 
 
582 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 6, 1870; July 27, 1871; June 6, 1872; Feb. 21, 1872; March 
 15,1872; June 6, 1872; Sept. 2, 1872; Dec. 17, 1872; Feb. 
 21,1873; March 21, 1873 ; March 26, 1873; July 23, 1873 
 July 31, 1873; Oct. 30, 1873; Feb. 28, 1874; March 17, 1874 
 June 29, 1874; July 15, 1874; Aug. 15, 1874; Oct. 27, 1874 
 Dec. 5, 1874; Jan. 23, 1875; March 27, 1875; June 1, 1875 
 Feb. 4, 1876; April 22, 1876 ; Aug. 8, 1876; Aug. 12, 1876 
 Aug. 17, 1876; Dee. 30, 1876; Feb. 7, 1877; Feb. 15. 1877 , 
 March 16, 1877 ; AprU 15, 1877 ; June 30, 1877 ; Nov. 15, 
 1877; June 12, 1878; July 11, 1878; Aug. 9, 1878; Oct. 24, 
 1878; May 21, 1879; May 28, 1879; June 9, 1879 ; June 21, 
 1879; Aug. 28, 1879; Sept. 20, 1879. Decisions Com. G. L, 
 C, Aug. 18, 1860; June 22,1870; Dec. 14, 1870; June 17, 
 1871; Deo. 19, 1871; July 9, 1872; Aug. 13, 1872; Sept. 18, 
 1874; Nov. 3, 1874; Feb. 12, 1875; June 29, 1875; July 19, 
 1875; May 13, 1876; May 19, 1876; July 7, 1876; Sept. 19, 
 1876; Nov. 15, 1876; April 13, 1877 ; June 22, 1877; June 
 27, 1877; Feb. 1, 1878; Feb. 21, 1878; AprU 13, 1878; Nov. 
 11, 1878; Dec. 2, 1878; March 21, 1879; July 14, 1879; Aug. 
 14, 1879; Sept. 5, 1879. 
 
 Sec. 120. Every person who in any manner, by threat or 
 force, interrupts, hinders, or prevents the surveying of the 
 public lands, or of any private land claim which has been or 
 may be confirmed by the United States, by the persons 
 authorized to survey the same, in conformity with- the in- 
 structions of the Commissioner of the General Land Office, 
 shall be fined not less than fifty dollars nor more than three 
 thousand dollars, and be imprisoned not less than one nor 
 more than three years. 
 
 4 Stat. 417 ; fi. S. 2412. 
 
 Sec. 121. tVhenever the President is satisfied that forcible 
 opposition has been offered, or is likely to be offered, to any 
 surveyor or deputy surveyor in the discharge of his duties in 
 surveying the public lands, it may be lawfiil for the President 
 to order the marshal of the State or district, by himself or 
 deputy, to attend such surveyor or deputy surveyor with 
 sufficient force to protect such officer in the execution of his 
 duty, and to remove by force should any be offered. 
 4 Stat. 417 ; E. S. 2413. 
 
 Sec. 122. The President is authorized to appoint surveyors 
 of public lands, who shall explore such vacant and unappro- 
 priated lands of the United States as produce the live-oak 
 and red-cedar timbers, and shall select such tracts or por- 
 tions thereof, where the principal growth is of either of such 
 timbers, as in the judgment of the Secretary of the Navy 
 may be necessary to furnish for the Navy a sufficient supply 
 of the same. Such surveyors shall report to the President 
 the tracts by them selected, with the boundaries ascertained 
 and accurately designated by actual survey or water-courses. 
 3 Stat. 347 ; R. S. 2459. U. S. v. Briggs, 9 How. 351. 
 
 Sec. 123. The director of the geological survey shall, under 
 the Interior Department, have the direction of the geologi- 
 cal^ survey and the classification of the public lands and ex- 
 amination of the geological structure, mineral resources, and 
 products of the national domain. 
 
 20 Stat. 394. 
 
 quarter of Section , Township , North (or South) 
 
 Range , East (or West) of , Principal Meridian. 
 
 TownsMp 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 SURVEYING OF MINING CLAIMS IN COLO- 
 RADO. 
 
 AS the system of public land surveys is well under- 
 stood by those engaged in the engineering pro- 
 fession it would be needless in a sketch of this 
 nature to dwell upon it at any length, and for the 
 purposes of this article it will be found sufficient to accept 
 the divisions as we find them, in ranges, townships, and see- 
 In the main it will be found that there is no difference in 
 the pre-emption of agricultural or mineral lands, as both are 
 described as forming a certain portion of whatever section 
 township, or range they may be located in; in the case of 
 pre-empted timber or agricultural lands, the description is 
 complete when the direct subdivision of a section is given 
 as, lor example, in Pig. 1, the shaded area would be described 
 as the south half of the southeast quarter, of the northwest 
 
 In mining districts where aliquot portions of a section are 
 not pre-empted, but claims, consisting generally of rectan- 
 gles, one hundred and fifty or three hundred feet in width, 
 by fifteen hundred feet in length, a corner of the claim is 
 connected by survey with a corner of the section, and it is 
 thus definitely located. 
 
 It is the work of the United States Deputy Marshal Sur- 
 veyor to survey and locate claims in reference to section 
 corners. In case sectionizing had not progressed to the 
 locality wherein a claim has been established, it is tied to a 
 " locating monument," a description of which will be given 
 later on. 
 
 The survey for a mining claim consists of two parts — the 
 survey for location, and the survey for patent. 
 
 Before a valid location can be made, there are a few 
 points it would be well for the engineer to note in his field 
 book, not that they would in any way affect him or his 
 work, but that they form the basis of the majority of law- 
 suits, and the benefit of a note made upon the ground, and 
 at the time of survey, would be invaluable; they are: 
 whether, first, the discovery shaft is ten feet deep at its low- 
 est surface point ; second that there is a true vem exposed, 
 though not necessarily showing mineral; and third, that he 
 has been called upon to survey the claim within ninety days 
 from the date of the discovery of the lode or vein, as shown 
 by the discovery or location stake. 
 
 Lodes are discovered in all sorts of ways, some stumbled 
 on, some showing clean mineral in place, and others legiti- 
 mately prospected for; the latter requiring knowledge, 
 energy, and pertinacity. The prospector, armed with a few 
 days' rations, pan, coffee pot, pick and shovel, a few gads, 
 hammers, etc., starts for some district and commences the 
 ascent of a mountain he may favor; while so doing a close 
 watch is kept for indications or " float-ore," a decomposed 
 ferruginous quartz that has probably become detached 
 from the vein filling and rolled down the mountain side. 
 This float is the prospector's polar star. Still ascending 
 until all trace of it has disappeared, he feels that he has 
 then passed above the apex of the vein he is in search of, 
 and descends until it is again encountered. Reascending, 
 he continues until the area which probably contains the vein 
 is narrowed down to a few yards. An adit is run in the 
 mountain side, or a shaft sunk, to determine further the 
 exact location of the vein. If one is found, then a location 
 stake is planted by which ownership is claimed and which 
 forms the initial point of the survey. On it is written a 
 notice containing the date of the discovery, the name of the 
 lode and its locator, its general direction, and finally the 
 distances to the end lines of the claim. Sixty days subse- 
 quent to the date of discovery is given by law, in which the 
 discovery shaft or adit has to be sunk or driven ten feet ; 
 and in case no vein matter or wall-rock is exposed, giving 
 evidence of an existing vein at some greater depth, then 
 such shaft must be sunk until the necessary proof is ob- 
 tained. These sixty days are usually spent in searching 
 for such out croppings on or near the surface as will most 
 thoroughly establish the line of the lode upon the ground ; 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 583 
 
 as it is of the utmost importance that the latter be accurately 
 determined, in order that the apex of the vein may be con- 
 tained within the side lines for the full length of the claim, 
 as a second location may be made by another prospector 
 upon the extension of the vein discovered, when found 
 outside of the side or end lines of a claim. Before ninety 
 days have elapsed since the discovery of the lode it must be 
 surveyed, and a description of it, with the names of the loca- 
 tors, placed upon record in the county in which the claim 
 was discovered. 
 
 Claims are of a uniform length or fifteen hundred feet at 
 present writing, although the widths vary. In fire coun- 
 ties, Gilpin, Boulder, Clear Creek, Summit and Park, they 
 •are located seventy-five feet on each side of the discovery 
 
 4 . A 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 shaft (supposed to indicate the position of the vein), and in 
 all others one hundred and fifty feet on each side. The dis- 
 covery shaft must be in the center of the claim in reference 
 to the side-lines, and in no case can the claim be located so 
 that the distance from the discovery to either side line will 
 exceed the limit of width as placed iipon it by the customs of 
 that mining district. 
 
 We will suppose the necessary work to he done and the 
 claim is ready for the surveyor. In case the lode is a 
 
 straight one, a rectangle of the required width is laid out 
 upon the ground, and stakes planted at each comer and at 
 tiie middle points of the long side lines, each stake being 
 marked with the name of the lode, and "S. E." "S mid- 
 dle," etc., to indicate its position on the ground with regard 
 to the claim, to enable prospectors who go over the same 
 country to keep outside the lines of this location. Moun- 
 tain bearings are to be given from at least two corners or 
 points, and for this work an ordinary compass will suffice, 
 though for many reasons it is best to use a transit, and ob- 
 tain true courses. If, however, a bend occurs in the out- 
 crop, besides planting stakes at the corners and middle 
 points of the side line, stakes are to be driven at each bend 
 in the survey; thus, iu the case of a single bend there would 
 be eight stakes required to properly mark the claim on the 
 ground. 
 
 The end lines 1 — 6 and 3 — 4 or 3 — 4, as shown in Fig. 2, 
 must in all cases be parallel, and should a bend occur in the 
 lode, the length of one of the end lines 3 — 4 must be cal- 
 culated in order that the claim have a uniform width. To 
 illustrate this and the method generally adopted for obtain- 
 ing the lengths of the side-lines, let us take the case of a 
 single bend in the claim as shown in the same figure. 
 Here we have given the course A B, say N 30° E, eight 
 hundred feet, and B C, N 75° E seven hundred feet. De- 
 note the complement of the angle A B C by a ; from the 
 figure it is evident that the side-lines 1—2 and 6-— 6 are 
 eight hundred feet, and 2 — 3 and 4 — 5 are seven hundred 
 feet, plus or minus an increment, it being different in both 
 cases. To determine this increment, through the angle 
 point B draw perpendiculars to the side-lines, the lines F 
 B G and E B D, then will the angle G B D or E B F be 
 equal to the angle a, and E B 5 or G B 2 be equal to J a. 
 We now have the line 1 — 2 equal A B minus G 2, and 5 — 6 
 equal to A B plus G 2 or F 6. But G 2 or F 5 is equal to 
 one half the claim-width multiplied by the 
 tan,Jaorl--2J = gOO + J W tan. i a 
 
 and similarly 2 — 3 and 4 — 5 are equal to 
 
 BB-fHD — D2andBC — HD 4-D. 
 Or, 700 -I- ^ W tan., a — } W tan., \ a, and 
 700 — J W tan., a -r J W tan., J a, or 
 L = L ± J W {tan, a ^^, tan, J a) in which 
 L is equal to the length of the side lines. 
 L " " " center " 
 
 W " " width of claim, 
 
 a " " complement of angle between 
 
 the center lines. 
 
 Should a number of bends occur in the claim, it is readily 
 seen that the solution of side lines is entirely similar, and it 
 would be needless to carry the illustration further. 
 
 W 
 
 The end-line 3 — 4 is equal to 
 
 sin a 
 If any two alternate courses are parallel then the side 
 lines of the connecting course are of the same length as the 
 course. The stakes for location work are not generally sub- 
 stantial, being posts two or three inches in diameter and of 
 about as many feet in length, and are not intended for per- 
 manent use. When work sufficient to fulfil the require- 
 ments of the law ($500) has been done, and the property 
 would seem to justify the additional expense, a patent is 
 applied for to obtain a Government title to the land. This 
 is done by the owners or their representatives, sending a 
 certified copy of the original location as found in the 
 county records, twenty-five dollars and a letter to the Sur- 
 veyor-General of the State, requesting that an order may be 
 issued to some deputy surveyor to survey the claim. This 
 fee is to pay for the office work necessary for checking the 
 clerical work of the deputy, furnishing blanks, copies of the 
 field-notes of the claim surveyed, etc., etc. Upon receipt 
 of the order to make the survey, the deputy notes the 
 number given to it by the Surveyor-General, and pro- 
 ceeds to make the survey, the claim being thereafter des- 
 ignated by its number. Should additional land be required 
 either for milling or timber purposes, it may be pre-empted 
 with the lode, and all work done upon the latter will be in 
 effect as though done upon the " mill-site, as it is techni- 
 cally called. In this case a number such as 967 A would 
 designate the lode, and 967 B the mill-site, which must in 
 
584 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 every case be tied together, as often the lode will be found 
 near the summit of a mountain, and the mill-site in the 
 valley half a mile or more distant. The law does not reg- 
 ulate the shape of a mill-site, and its only restriction is that 
 it shall not exceed five acres in area, its survey is in every 
 respect entirely similar to that of a lode-survey as herein 
 described. 
 
 The variation of the magnetic needle being so great, 
 ranging from 14° 30, E to 16° E, and its liability to error 
 from local attraction so well known, recourse is made to the 
 solar compasa. The old Burt solar which is the basis of 
 every modern one, obtains favor especially with the older 
 surveyors, but the use of a combined solar compass and 
 transit is beinir rapidly extended. The instruments made 
 by Gurley, of Troy N. Y., are excellent for general use, but 
 require considerable time to set up, the solar attachment 
 being placed upon the telescope. Those furnished by 
 Young & Son, of Philadelphia, are a decided improvement 
 in the matter of time required for adjusting, and in them 
 the attachment is placed under the plates and removed when 
 not in use. For the method of using a solar transit we 
 would refer the reader to text books or a handbook issued 
 by W. & L. E. Gurley, of Troy, and will merely give the 
 outline of field and office work necessary to the procuring of 
 - a patent. The fifty foot chain is the principal instrument 
 used for measuring, though there are many places where 
 its use is impossible, and the telemeter takes its place. 
 The length of the side-lines (in case of a bend) having 
 been computed, a meridian is established by solar observa- 
 tion, and the courses and distances are run off on the 
 center line, until an angle point, B, is reached; here the 
 instrument is reset, and the line in which the corners lie 
 (2 — 5) determined, and the corner? located at the end of 
 these lines. Corners are preferably either trees, bowlders or 
 rock in place, and in case they are not found at the exact 
 point, then stone or wooden posts are to be used. If a stone 
 is used, its dimensions must not be less than 4'' X 4" X 2', 
 sunk in the ground one foot and protected by a mound of 
 stones ; if of wood, then its minimum dimensions are 4" X 
 ^// y^ 4./^ sunk two feet in the ground and similarly pro- 
 tected by stones ; they should be permanently marked with 
 the number of survey and the corner of claim. A square 
 nail pointed chisel is used for stones, and a timber scribe for 
 wooden posts. From each corner a bearing is taken to the 
 nearest natural object, such as stumps, trees, bowlders, rocks 
 in place, or any object likely to give permanency to the cor- 
 ner, and serve to fully locate and identify it. If a tree has 
 been used it should be blazed and marked B. T. (bearing 
 tree) together with the number of survey, and if a stone 
 pointer, an X, with the survey number chiseled on it, will 
 suffice. 
 
 If mountain or other bearings were given in the original 
 location certificate, they should be verified by solar obser- 
 vation at the respective points from which they were taken. 
 Should it appear that the bearings or courses do not agree 
 after making due allowance for the variation of the needle 
 at that point, then a new certificate of location must be made 
 out, placed upon record, and used as a gtiide instead of the 
 original one. Close attention must be given to see that 
 the solar survey covers every point embodied in the orig- 
 inal certificate, otherwise the work will have to be re- 
 peated. It is usual to make in the field-book a diagram 
 of the lode with all details as called for, and verify each 
 point as the survey progresses. While in the field, all 
 improvements, such as shafts, tuhniels, drifts, houses, etc., 
 placed upon the claim by the applicant for a patent, 
 and noted with their approximate value and their posi- 
 tion in reference to some corner of the claim ascertained. 
 Crossings of roads, fences and creeks are noted, and con- 
 necting Hues run to the section corner and all adjacent 
 patented surveys, as they must be shown upon the plat 
 and field notes sent to the Surveyor-General. Should, how- 
 ever, there be no section corner within two miles of the 
 claim, then the deputy is directed to establish a, " locating 
 monument," which consists of a bar of copper or iron, one 
 inch in diameter, inserted in some prominent bowlder or 
 rock in place, upon which is chiseled, " U. S. L. M.," for 
 United States Locating Monument, and a name is given it 
 by which it is designated, as " U. S. L. M. Chihuahua." 
 Bearings to trees, prominent peaks, the junction of roads, 
 
 confluence of streams, etc., are to be given, and a full de- 
 scription of it given in the field-notes each time it is used to 
 locate a lode. 
 
 The plats are made upon mounted sheets of Whatman's 
 paper, which together with blank field -note paper is fur- 
 nished by the government to insure uniformity. Lodes are 
 platted on a scale of two hundred feet to one inch, with 
 black boundary lines, and the surface colored except in the 
 case of a conflicting claim which has a prior title, the area 
 in conflict being left white. Mountain and all other bear- 
 ings are in red, with the course of each one plainly lettered. 
 Each corner is marked " Cor. No. 1, Cor. No. 2 " etc. The 
 connection from Cor. No. 1 to the section corner is shown, 
 as is also the section or quarter-section lines in which the 
 claim is placed. 
 
 " If in running the exterior boundaries of a claim, it is 
 found that two surveys conflict, the plats and field-notes 
 should show the extent of the conflict, giving the area 
 embraced in both surveys, and also the distance from the 
 established corners at which the exterior boundaries of the 
 respective surveys intersect each other." In notes give area 
 as follows : 
 
 Total area 6-16 
 
 Less area in conflict with surveys Nos. 967 and 1151 . . 2'00 
 
 Leaving a net area 3'16 
 
 On the plat the net area only is given. The following 
 will give the general form of field-notes at present in use : 
 
 Field-notes of the survey of the claim of G. G. Jones, on 
 the Porter Lode and Mill Site, situated in Griffith Mining 
 District, Clear Creek County, State of Colorado. 
 Survey began June 1, 1880. 
 Survey ended June 3, 1880. 
 
 Feet. Beginning at the S. E. cor. Sec. 27, T. 3 S. E. 
 
 76 W. ; thence N. 27° 15' 39" W. 
 Var. 15° 30' E. 
 7462-84 To Cor. No. 1 beginning, a granite post 26" X 
 7" X 12" in the ground one foot, and protected 
 by a mound of stones, and is marked 1 — 973 A ; 
 whence cer. No. sur. No. 963 B., Porter Mill 
 site, G. G. Jones, applicant, bears S. 27° 16' 26" 
 W., 10.841.2 ft. distant. Republican Mt. bears 
 N. 10° 12' E., and Democrat Mt., bears N. 16° 14 
 W. ; cor. No. 3, sur. No. 840 ; Pluto Lode, James 
 Gorman, applicant, bears S. 0° 10' W. 402 ft. 
 A X 963 A. cut on N. face of bowlder bears S. 
 23° 15' W. 21 ft. 
 
 Thence S. 23° 47' W. 
 
 903.7 
 
 To east line of sur. No. 465, bullion Lode, Colo- 
 rado Mining Company, applicants, and from cor. 
 No. 5 of sur. No. 465 to the same point of inter- 
 section, S. 34° 21' E., 87.2 ft. 
 
 1,069.4 To west line of sur. No. 465, and from cor. No. 
 
 2 of same survey, S. 34° 21' E., 133-4 ft. to the 
 point of intersection. • 
 
 1,243 To road to Georgetown running N. 85° W. 
 
 1,500 To Cor. No. 2, a pine post four inches by four 
 
 inches by four feet, marked 2—963 A, in ground 
 two feet, and in mound of stones, whence aspruce 
 tree 16 inches diameter; blazed and marked B.T. 
 —963 A, bears N. 63° E. 20 ft. Squaw Mt. bears 
 S 83° E., and Little Chief Mt. S. 74° 30' E. 
 Thence N. 66° 13' W. 
 
 150 To cor. No. 3, a spruce post, etc., etc. 
 
 The plat and field-notes being finished and sworn to by 
 the deputy and those that assisted in marking corners, 
 chaining, etc., they are then sent to the Surveyor-General's 
 office for approval. If any clerical error has occurred, or 
 if it be found by calculation that the connecting lines 
 through the several intersecting lodes of the section corner 
 disagree, then the plat and field-notes are returned with a 
 marginal note, as cut thro' 465 vifh sec. cor.," .and the er- 
 ror must be discovered and corrected. If the work be right, 
 then it is platted upon the general map of that section of 
 the country, and two approved copies sent to the deputy, 
 with one copy of the field-notes; another set of both is sent 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 685 
 
 to the U. S. Land oflSce, for government use. The patent 
 for the land is now applied for, and the furthering of it prop- 
 erly belongs to a lawyer, as may readily be imagined, by 
 glancing over the list of " first " or preliminary papers. 
 
 A complete abstract of title. 
 
 A certified copy of the pre-emption of lode and mill site. 
 
 Proof by affidavit of non-mineral character of the mill 
 site. 
 
 Affidavit of work done on the lode. 
 
 Copy of articles of incorporation of the company, if land 
 is pre-empted by an organization. 
 
 Certificate of agency. 
 
 Copy of field notes with affidavit of persons assisting on 
 th3 survey. 
 
 Two copies of the plat (as approved). 
 
 An approved copy of the same furnished by the Surveyor- 
 General. 
 
 Proof of citizenship and peaceable possession of claim. 
 
 Proof of posting notice that a patent has been applied 
 for. 
 
 But as this paper was intended to give an outline of the 
 method and requirements of claim surveying, it would be 
 tedious to attempt to follow the pa'pers through their official 
 career, and.it will suffice to say that it generally consumes 
 a year before the government titles are perfected. The work 
 01 claim surveying is not difficult, requiring care alone, 
 and to the young engineer there are few fields that offer 
 inducements at all comparable with Colorado, and especially 
 the lately developed districts of San Juan and Gunnison. 
 The value of engineers' work as surveyors only is append- 
 ed below. General underground or sJirface work, $10 per 
 day. Locations $6 to $10 each, inclusive of expenses, such 
 as horse-hire and placing the location on record, which 
 costs $1.50. Patents cost all the way from $150 to $225, the 
 official fees of which range from $95 to §140, and are of 
 course included in the above estimate. 
 
 —A paper by Richard A. Parker, C. E., in the School of Mines Quarterly. 
 
 LAND DISTRICTS AND OFFICERS. 
 
 Sec. 124. The following are the established boundaries of 
 the existing land districts, with the location of the respec- 
 tive land offices, until changed in pursuance of law, namely : 
 
 Mathewa v. Zane,5 Cranch, 92 ; Same case, 7 Wheat. 164; Hel- 
 lan». Ripley, 3 Hob. (La.) 138. 
 
 Missouri. — Booneville. — ^Booneville land district em- 
 braces all that part of the State of Missouri which lies north 
 of the line between townships thirty-seven and thirty-eight 
 north, lying west of the line between ranges ten and eleven 
 west and townships thirty-four and thirty-five north of 
 ranges eleven to thirty-three west, inclusive. 
 
 Ironton. — The land district of Ironton embraces all that 
 part of the State of Missouri which lies south of the line be- 
 tween townships thirty-seven and thirty-eight north, and 
 east of the line between ranges ten and eleven west of the 
 fifth principal meridian. 
 
 Springfield. — The land district of Springfield consists of 
 that portion of the State of Missouri which is situated south 
 of the line between townships thirty-four and thirly-flve 
 north, and west of the line between ranges ten and eleven 
 west of the fifth principal meridian. 
 
 Al&heaxxsb.—JBimtsville. — Hunts ville land district includes 
 all that portion of the State of Alabama lying north of Cal- 
 houn and Cleburne counties and north of the line between 
 townships fourteen and fifteen south of the base meridian 
 of Huntsville, extending from the western boundary of the 
 State to the western boundary of Calhoun county. 
 
 Montgomery. — Montgomery land district includes all 
 that portion of the State of Alabama lying south _ of 
 townships fourteen and fifteen south of the base meridian 
 of Huntsville, extending from the western boundary of the 
 State to the western boundary of Calhoun county, and south 
 of the northern boundaries of Calhoun and Cleburne 
 counties. 
 
 Louisiana. — New Orleans. — The land district of New 
 Orleans comprehends within its limits that portion of the 
 State of Louisiana which lies south of the basis parallel of 
 thirty-first degree of north latitude and that portion thereof 
 lying north of the basis and east of range lines three and 
 four west, townships one to thirteen north, inclusive ; and 
 also east of range lines five and six west, extending from 
 township fourteen north to northern boundary of State. 
 
 Natchitoches. — This land district occupies the north- 
 western part of the State of Louisiana, extending Irom 
 townships one to thirteen north, inclusive, and west of the 
 line between ranges three and four west; and also from 
 township fourteen north to the north boundary of the State, 
 extending from the line between ranges five and six west of 
 the principal meridian to the western boundary of the State 
 of Louisiana. 
 
 Mississippi. — Jackson. — The land district of Jackson is 
 co-extensive with the limits of the State of Mississippi. 
 
 Michigan. — Jieed City. — Reed City land dictrict in- 
 cludes all that part of the State of Michigan situated west of 
 the following lines : Townships one to four south, inclusive, 
 west of the line between ranges three and four west ; 
 townships five to eight south, inclusive, west of the line be- 
 tween ranges four and five west; townships one to ten 
 north, inclusive, west of the principal meridian; townships 
 eleven to thirty-nine north, inclusive (extending to Lake 
 Huron), west of the line between ranges two and three 
 west, including islands in Lake Michigan and the straits of 
 Mackinac, exclusive of the island of Mackinaw. 
 
 Hast Saginaw. — East Saginaw land district embraces 
 townships six to ten north, inclusive, lying east of the 
 principal meridian and west of the line between ranges 
 eleven and twelve east of said meridian ; also townships 
 eleven to twenty-eight north, inclusive, lying east of the line 
 between ranges two and three west of the principal meridian, 
 and west of the line between ranges eleven and twelve east. 
 
 Marquette. — Land district embraces the whole extent of 
 the northern peninsula of Michigan, including Drummond 
 Island, Isle Royale, and those adjacent to the Big Bay de 
 Noc. 
 
 Detroit. — The land district of Detroit includes all that 
 part of the State of Michigan situated east of the following 
 lines of public surveys, viz : Townships one to five north, 
 inclusive, east of the principal meridian ; townships six to 
 nineteen north, inclusive, extending east of the line between 
 ranges eleven and twelve east, townships one to four south, 
 inclusive, lying east of the line between ranges three and 
 four west; townships five to nine south, inclusive, extending 
 from the line between the ranges four and five west. It also 
 includes that part of the State which lies north of the line 
 between townships twenty-eight and twenty-nine north, and 
 east of the line between ranges two and three west of the 
 principal meridian, and extending to Lake Huron, in the 
 southern peninsula of Michigan, comprehending within its 
 limits the island of Mackinaw. 
 
 Arkansas. — Dardanelle. — Land district is bounded on 
 the east hyaline between ranges seventeen and eighteen 
 west of the fifth principal meridian, running north from the 
 base line to the corner common to townships twelve and 
 thirteen north of the base line, on the north by the line 
 between townships twelve and thirteen north, on the west 
 by the western boundary of the State of Arkansas, on the 
 south by the base line. 
 
 Little Bock.— The Land district is bounded as follows, viz : 
 Beginning on the south boundary of the State of Arkansas 
 where the line between ranges five and six west of the fifth 
 principal meridian intersects the same; thence north on 
 said range line to the corner common to townships ten and 
 eleven south ; thenco west on the line between townships 
 ten and eleven south to the line between ranges seventeen 
 and eighteen west ; thence north on the said range line to 
 the corner common to townships twelve and thirteen north 
 of the base line ; thence east on the line between townships 
 twelve and thirteen north to the line between ranges seven 
 and eight west ; thence north along said range line to the 
 north boundary of the State ; thence east with the said 
 boundary to the Saint Francis River ; thence down said 
 river to the intersection of the thirty-sixth degree of north 
 latitude ; thence east along said parallel of north latitude 
 to the Mississippi River; thence down said river to the south 
 
586 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 boundary of the State of Arkansas ; and thence west along 
 said boundary to the point of beginning. 
 
 Camden. — Land district is bounded on the north by the 
 base line extending from the west boundary of the State of 
 Arkansas to the intersection of the line between ranges 
 seventeen and eighteen west of the fifth principal meridian ; 
 thence south with said range line to the corner common to 
 townships ten and eleven south of the base line ; thence east, 
 on the line between townships ten and eleven south, to the 
 intersection of the line between ranges five and six west of 
 the fifth principal meridian; thence south along said range 
 line to the south boundary of the State ; thence west with 
 the said boundary to the west boundary of the State ; and 
 thence with the west boundary to the place of beginning. 
 
 Harrison. — Land district comprises all that part of the 
 State of Aakansas which lies north of the line between 
 townships twelve and thirteen north of the base line, and 
 west of the line between ranges seven and eight west of the 
 fifth principal meridian. 
 
 Florida. — Gainesville. — The land district of Gainesville 
 is co-extensive with the limits of the State of Florida. 
 
 Iowa. — Des Moines. — The land district of Des Moines is 
 co-extensive with the limits of the State of Iowa. 
 
 'Wisconsin. — Menasha. — Land district embraces eastern 
 part of the State of Wisconsin lying east of the line between 
 ranges eight and nine east, extending from the south 
 boundary of the State to the corner common to townships 
 fourteen and fifteen north; thence east on said township 
 line to the line between ranges eleven and twelve east ; 
 thence north along said range line to the north boundary of 
 the State. 
 
 Falls Saint Oroix. — Land district is bounded on the north 
 by the fourth correction line north of the base line ; on the 
 east by the line between ranges eleven and twelve west of 
 the fourth principal meridian ; on the south by the Chippe- 
 wa and Mississippi Rivers, and on the West by the Saint 
 Croix River. 
 
 Wiiusau. — Land district embraces all that portion of the 
 State of Wisconsin lying north of the line between town- 
 ships fourteen and fifteen north of the base line, west of the 
 line between ranges eleven and twelve east of the fourth 
 principal meridian ; and east of the line between ranges one 
 and two east of the fourth principal meridian. 
 
 La Crosse. — Land district is included within the following 
 boundaries, to wit : Beginning on the south boundary of the 
 State of Wisconsin, where the lines between ranges eight 
 and nine east of the fourth principal meridian intersects tho 
 same; thence north with the said range line to the corner 
 common to townships fourteen and fifteen north of the base 
 line ; thence west with said line to the line between ranges 
 one and two east ; thence north along said range line to the 
 corner common to townships twenty-four and twenty-five 
 north ; thence west on the line between said townships to 
 the line between ranges eleven and twelve west ; thence 
 north with said range line to the intersection with the Chip- 
 pewa River ; thence down said river to its mouth ; thence 
 down the Mississippi River to the southern boundary of Wis- 
 consin ; and thence east along the said boundary to the 
 place of beginning. 
 
 Bayfield. — Land district embraces all that part of the 
 northwestern corner of the State of Wisconsin lying north 
 of the fourth correction line and west of the line between 
 ranges one and two of the fourth principal meridian. 
 
 Eau Claire. — Land district is bounded on the north by the 
 fourth correction line running through ranges one east and 
 one to eleven west of the fourth principal meridian ; on the 
 west by the line running south between ranges eleven and 
 twelve west to the corner common to townships twenty-four 
 a,nd-twenty five north of the base line ; on the south by the 
 line running east between said townships to the line be- 
 tween ranges one and two east of the fourth principal meri- 
 dian, and on the east by the said range line extending north 
 to the corner common to townships forty and forty-one 
 north of the base line, to the place of beginning. 
 
 California.— -Sare -FVawcwco.— Land district is bounded 
 as follows : Beginning on the Pacific Ocean where the line 
 between townships twenty-four and twenty five north inter- 
 sects the ocean, and running thence east with the said town- 
 ship line to the line between ranges ten and eleven west of 
 the Mount Diabolo meridian ; thence north on said range 
 
 line to the corner common to townships twenty-five and 
 twenty-six north ; thence east between said townships to the 
 line between ranges seven and eight west; thence south on 
 said range line to the corner common to townships nineteen 
 and twenty north ; thence east between said townships to 
 the line between ranges six and seven west; thence south 
 on said range line to the corner common to townships six- 
 teen and seventeen north ; thence east between said town- 
 ships to the line between ranges five and six west ; thence 
 south along the line between ranges five and six west to the 
 corner common to townships twelve and thirteen north ; 
 thence east between said lown.ships to the line between 
 ranges four and five-west ; thence south on said range line 
 to the corner common to townships nine and ten north ; 
 thence east between said townships to the line between 
 ranges three and four west ; thence south on said range line 
 to the corner common to townships seven and eight north : 
 thence east on the line between town.ships seven and eight 
 north to the line between ranges three and four east ; thence 
 south on the line between ranges three and four east to the 
 first standard north ; thence west along said standard to the 
 line between ranges two and three east ; thence south on 
 the line between ranges two and three east to the corner 
 common to townships three and four north ; thence west be- 
 tween townships three and four north to the line between 
 ranges one and two east ; thence south on line between 
 ranges one and two east to the corner common to townships 
 one and two north ; thence east to the line between ranges 
 two and three east ; thence north betweeen ranges two and 
 three east to the corner common to townships two and three 
 north ; thence east on said township line to the line between 
 ranges four and five east ; thence south on the line between 
 ranges four and five east to the corner common to townships 
 one and two south of the Mount Diabolo base line ; thence 
 east between townships one and two south to the line be- 
 tween ranges five and six east ; thence south on said range 
 line, to the corner common to townships seven and eight 
 south ; thence east on the line between townships seven and 
 eight south to the line between ranges six and seven east ; 
 thence south on said range line to the corner common to 
 townships nine and ten south ; thence east to the line be- 
 tween ranges seven and eight east ; thence south to the cor- 
 ner common to townships ten and eleven south ; thence east 
 on line between townships ten and eleven south to the line 
 between ranges eight and nine east ; thence south on said 
 range line to the intersection of the third standard south ; 
 thence east along said standard to the line between 
 ranges nine and ten east; thence on said range line to the 
 corner common to townships thirteen and fourteen south ; 
 thence east on the line between townships thirteen and four- 
 teen south to the line between ranges ten and eleven east ; 
 thence south between ranges ten and eleven east to the cor- 
 ner common to townships fifteen and sixteen south ; thence 
 east on the line between towliships fifteen and sixteen south 
 to the line between ranges eleven and twelve east ; thence 
 south to the fourth standard south ; thence east along said 
 standard to the line between iranges twelve and thirteen 
 east ; thence south on said range line to the corner common 
 to townships eighteen and nineteen south ; thence east along 
 said township line to the line between ranges thirteen and 
 fourteen east ; thence south to the fifth standard line south ; 
 thence east along said standard line to the line between 
 ranges fourteen and fifteen east; thence south to the corner 
 common to townships twenty-two and twenty-three south ; 
 thence east on the line between townships twenty-two and 
 twenty-three south to the line between ranges fifteen and 
 sixteen east ; thence south on said range line to the corner 
 common to townships twenty-three and twenty-four south ; 
 thence east on said township line to the line between ranges 
 sixteen and seventeen east ; thence south on said range line 
 to the corner common to townships twenty-six and twenty- 
 seven south ; thence east on said township line to the line 
 between ranges seventeen and eighteen east ; thence south 
 between said ranges to the corner common to townships 
 twenty -seven and twenty-eight south ; thence east on the 
 line between said townships to the line between ranges 
 eighteen and nineteen east; thence south on said range line 
 to the seventh standard line south of the base line; thence 
 east along said standard line to the line between ranges 
 nineteen and twenty east ; thence south on said range lino 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINIIfG INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 687 
 
 to the corner common to townships twenty-nine and thirty 
 south ; thence east on said township line to the line between 
 ranges twenty and twenty-one east ; thence south on said 
 range line to the corner common to townships thirty and 
 thirty-one south : thence east on said township line to the 
 line between ranges twenty-one and twenty-two east; 
 thence south on said range line to the corner common to 
 townships thirty-one and thirty-two south ; thence east on 
 line between townships thirty-one and thirty-two south to 
 the line between ranges twenty-two and twenty-three east ; 
 thence south to the eighth standard line south ; thence east 
 along said standard line of the Mount Diabolo base line to 
 the line between ranges twenty-three and twenty-four west 
 of the San Bernardino meridian ; thence south on said range 
 line to the corner common to townships ten and eleven 
 north of the San Bernardino base line ; thence east on line 
 between said townships to the line between ranges twenty 
 and twenty-one west ; thence south on said range line to 
 the first standard north of the San Bernardino base line ; 
 thence west along said standard line to the Pacific Ocean, 
 and thence northwesterly along the ocean to the place of 
 beginning. 
 
 MaryviUe. — Land district includes all that portion of the 
 State of California situated within the following boundaries : 
 Commencing at a point on the fifth standard parallel north, 
 between ranges seven and eight west, of Mount Diabolo 
 meridian; thence south with said range line to the line 
 between townships nineteen and twenty nortli ; thence east 
 with said line to the line between ranges six and seven 
 west ; thence south with said line to the line between town- 
 ships sixteen and seventeen north ; thence east with said 
 line to the line between ranges five and six west ; thence 
 south with said line to the line between townshipj twelve 
 and thirteen north ; thence east with said line to the line 
 between ranges four and five west ; thence south with said 
 line to the line between townships nine and ten north ; 
 thence east with said line to the line between ranges three 
 and four west; thence south with the said line to the line 
 between townships seven and eight north ; thence east with 
 said line to the line between ranges three and four east ; 
 thence north with said line to the line between townships 
 eleven and twelve north ; thence east with said line to the 
 line between ranges four and five east ; thence north with 
 said line to the line between townships twelve and thirteen 
 north ; thence east with said line to the line between ranges 
 five and six east ; thence nortli with said line to the line 
 between townships thirteen and fourteen north ; thence east 
 with said line to the line between ranges six and seven 
 east ; thence north with said line to the line between town- 
 ships sixteen and seventeen north ; thence east with said 
 line to the line between ranges eight and nine east ; thence 
 north with said line to the line between townships nineteen 
 and twenty north ; thence east with said line to the line 
 between ranges nine and ten east ; thence north with said 
 line to the fourth standard parallel north ; thence east with 
 said parallel to the line between ranges ten and eleven east ; 
 thence north with said line to the line between townships 
 twenty-one and twenty-two north ; thence east with said 
 line to the line between ranges eleven and twelve east ; 
 thence north with said line to line between townships 
 twenty-three and twenty-four north ; thence west with said 
 line to the line between ranges eight and nine east ; thence 
 north with said line to the fifth standard parallel north ; 
 thence west with said parallel to the line between ranges 
 five and six east ; thence north with said line to the line 
 between townships twenty-six and twenty-seven north ; 
 thence west with said line to the line between ranges four 
 and five east ; thence south with said line to the fifth stan- 
 dard parallel north ; thence west on said parallel to the 
 place of beginning. 
 
 Humboldt. — Land district includes all that portion of the 
 State of California lying west of the line between ranges ten 
 and eleven west of Mount Diabolo meridian, and north of 
 the line between townships twenty-four and twenty-five 
 north. Mount Diabolo base line. 
 
 Stockton — Land district is bounded as follows: Beginning 
 at the north-west corner of township five north, range five 
 east of the Mount Diabolo meridian, and running thence 
 east along the first standard north to the line between 
 ranges nine and ten east: thence south to the corner of 
 
 townships three and four north, ranges nine and ten east ; 
 thence east to the line between ranges seventeen and 
 eighteen east ; thence north to the corner of townships four 
 and five north, ranges seventeen and eighteen east ; thence 
 east to the line between ranges twenty-two and twenty- 
 three east ; thence south to the first standard south of the 
 Mount Diabolo base line ; thence east along said standard 
 line to the line between ranges twenty-six and twenty-seven 
 east ; thence south to the third standard south ; thence west 
 along said standard to the line between ranges eight and 
 nine east ; thence north to the corner of townships ten and 
 eleven south ; thence west to the line between ranges seven 
 and eight east; thence north to the corner of townships 
 nine and ten south ; thence west to the line between ranges 
 six and seven east ; thence north to the corner of townships 
 seven and eight south; thence west to the line between 
 ranges five and six east; thence north to the corner of 
 townships one and two south ; thence west to the line be- ' 
 tween ranges four and five east ; and thence north to the 
 place of beginning. 
 
 yisaKa— Land district is bounded as follows : Beginning 
 at the northwest corner of township thirteen south, range 
 ten east, of the Mount Diabolo meridian, running thence 
 east along the third standard parallel south to the line be- 
 tween ranges thirty-two and thirty-three east ; thence south 
 with said line to the eighth standard parallel south ; thence 
 west along said parallel to the line between ranges twenty- 
 two and twenty-three east; thence north with said line to 
 the line between townships thirty-one and thirty-two south; 
 thence west with said line to the line between ranges twenty- 
 one and twenty -two east ; thence north with said line to the 
 line between townships thirty and thirty-one south ; thence 
 west with said line to the line between ranges twenty and 
 twenty-one east ; thence north with said line to the line 
 between townships twenty-nine and thirty south ; thence 
 west with said line to the line between ranges nineteen and 
 twenty east; thence north with said line to the seventh 
 standard parallel south ; thence west with said parallel to 
 the line between ranges eighteen and nineteen east ; thence 
 north with said line to the line between townships twenty- 
 ceven and twenty-eight south ; thence west with said line 
 to the line between ranges seventeen and eighteen east; 
 thence north with said line to the line between townships 
 twenty-six and twenty-seven south ; thence west with said 
 line to the line between ranges sixteen and seventeen east; 
 thence north with said line to the line between townships 
 twenty-three and twenty-four south ; thence west with said 
 line to the line between ranges fifteen and sixteen east ; 
 thence north with said line to the line between townships 
 twenty-two and twenty-three south ; thence west with said 
 line to the line between ranges fourteen and fifteen east ; 
 thence north with said line to the fifth standard parallel 
 south ; thence west along said parallel to the line between 
 ranges thirteen and fourteen east ; thence north with said 
 line to the line between townships eighteen and nineteen 
 south ; thence west with said line to the line between ranges 
 twelve and thirteen east ; thence north with said line to the 
 fourth standard parallel south ; thence west along said 
 parallel to the line between ranges eleven and twelve east ; 
 thence north with said line to the line between townships 
 fifteen and sixteen south ; thence west with said line to the 
 line between ranges ten and eleven east ; thence north with 
 said line to the line between townships thirteen and fourteen 
 south ; thence west with said line to the line between ranges 
 nine and ten east ; thence north with said line to the place 
 of beginning. 
 
 Sacramento — Land district includes all that portion of the 
 State of California situated within the following described 
 boundaries: Commencing at a point where the northern 
 boundary of township nineteen north. Mount Diabolo base 
 line, intersects the eastern boundary of the State of California ; 
 thence west along said township line to the line between 
 ranges thirteen and fourteen east ; thence north with said 
 line to the line between townships twenty-one and twenty- 
 two north ; thence west with said line to the line between 
 ranges ten and eleven east ; thence south with said line to 
 the fourth standard parallel north ; thence west with said 
 standard to the line between ranges nine and ten east ; 
 thence south with said line to the line between townships 
 nineteen and twenty north ; thence west with said line to 
 
538 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the line between ranges eight and nine east ; thence south 
 with said line to the line between townships sixteen and 
 seventeen north ; thence west with said line to the line 
 between ranges six and seven east ; thence south with said 
 line to the line between townships thirteen and fourteen 
 north ; thence west with said line to the line between ranges 
 five and six east ; thence south with said line to the line 
 between townships twelve and thirteen north ; thence west 
 with said line to the line between ranges four and five east; 
 thence south with said line to the line between townships 
 eleven and twelve north ; thence west with said line to the 
 line between ranges three and four east ; thence south with 
 said line to the first standard parallel north ; thence west 
 with said parallel to the line between ranges two and three 
 , east ; thence south with said line to the line between town- 
 ships three and. four north; thence west with said line to 
 the line between ranges one and two east; thence south 
 with said line to the line between townships one and two 
 north; thence east with said line to the line between 
 ranges two and three east ; thence north with said line to 
 the line between townships two and three north; thence 
 east with said line to the line between ranges four and five 
 ea,3t ; thence north with said line to the first standard par- 
 allel north; thence east along said parallel to the line 
 between ranges nine and ten east ; thence south with said 
 line to the line between townships- three and four north ; 
 thence east with said line to the line between ranges seven- 
 teen and eighteen east ; thence north with said line to the 
 line between townships four and five north; thence east 
 with said line to the line between ranges twenty-two and 
 twenty-three east ; thence north with said line to the inter- 
 section of the eastern boundary of California; thence north- 
 westerly with the eastern boundary of California to the 
 intersection of the boundary with the thirty-ninth parallel 
 of north latitude ; thence north with said eastern boundary 
 to the place of beginning. 
 
 .Bo&'e. —Land district includes all that portion of the State 
 of California situated within the following boundaries : Com- 
 mencing at a point on the eastern boundary of the State of 
 California, where the line between ranges twenty-two and 
 twenty-three east, Mount Diabolo meridian, intersects said 
 boundary ; thence south with said range line to the first 
 standard parallel south ; thence east along said parallel to 
 the line between ranges twenty -six and twenty-seven east; 
 thence south with said line to the intersection of the third 
 standard parallel south ; thence east along said parallel to 
 the line between ranges thirty-two and thirty-three east ; 
 thence south with said range line to the intersection of the 
 eighth standard parallel south; thence east with said parallel 
 to the intersection of the San Bernardino meridian ; thence 
 south to the corner of townships eleven and twelve north of 
 San Bernardino base line ; thence east to the intersection of 
 the eastern boundary of the State of California; thence 
 northwesterly with said boundary to the place of beginning. 
 Los Angeles. — Land district is bounded as follows : Begin- 
 ning at a point of the intersection of the first standard north 
 of the San Bernardino base line with the Pacific Ocean ; 
 thence east along said standard line to the line between 
 ranges twenty and twenty-one west of the San Bernardino 
 meridian ; thence north to the corner of townships ten and 
 eleven north ; thence west to the line between ranges twen- 
 ty-three and twenty-four west; thence north with said 
 range line to the intersection of the eighth standard line 
 south of the Mount Diabolo base line; thence ea-it with said 
 standard line to the intersection of theSan Bernardino meri- 
 dian ; thence south to the corner of townships eleven and 
 twelve north of San Bernardino base line ; thence east to 
 the intersection of the eastern boundary of the State of Cali- 
 fornia ; thence in a southeasterly direction with said bound- 
 ary to the intersection of the Colorado River of the West; 
 thence down said river to the intersection of the boundary 
 between the United States and Mexico ; thence southwest- 
 erly with said boundary to the Pacific Ocean ; and thence 
 in a northwesterly direction along the ocean to the place of 
 beginning. 
 
 Shasta.— Lund district is bounded as follows: Beginning 
 on the northern boundary of the State of California, where 
 the line between ranges ten and eleven west of the Mount 
 Diabolo meridian interaects said boundary; thence east with 
 said boundary to the intersection of the line between ranges 
 
 five and six east; thence south on said range line to the 
 corner of townships thirty and thirty-one north ; thence 
 west to the line between ranges four and five east ; thence 
 south to the fifth standard north of the Mount Diabolo base 
 line; thence west along said standard line to the line be- 
 tween ranges ten and eleven west ; and thence north with 
 said range line to the north boundary of the State, the point 
 of beginning. 
 
 Susanville. — Land district is bounded as follows ; Begin- 
 ning at a point where the north boundary of township nine- 
 teen north, Mount Diabolo base line, intersects the eastern 
 boundary of the State of California ; thence west on the 
 north boundary of township nineteen north to the corner of 
 townships nineteen and twenty north, ranges thirteen and 
 fourteen east ; thence north to the corner of townships twen- 
 ty-one and twenty-two north, ranges thirteen and fourteen 
 east ; thence west to the corner of townships twenty-one 
 and twenty-two north, ranges eleven and twelve east; 
 thence north to the corner of townships twenty-three and 
 twenty-four north, ranges eleven and twelve east; thence 
 west to the corner .of townships twenty-three and twenty- 
 four north, ranges eight and nine east ; thence north to the 
 corner of townships twenty-five and twenty-six north, 
 ranges eight and nine east ; thence west to the corner of 
 townships twenty-five and twenty-six north, ranges five and 
 six east ; thence north between ranges five and six east to 
 the corner of townships twenty-six and twenty-seven north, 
 ranges five and six east ; thence west to the corner of town- 
 ships twenty-six and twenty-seven north, ranges four and 
 five east ; thence north to the corner of townships thirty and 
 thirty-one north, ranges four and five east ; thence east to 
 the corner of townships thirty and thirty-one north, ranges 
 five and six east ; thence north along said range line to the 
 northern boundary of the State of California ; thence east 
 with the said boundary to the intersection of the eastern 
 boundary of the State ; and thence south along the eastern 
 boundary to the place of beginning. 
 
 Nevada. — Carsoit. — Land district includes all that por- 
 tion of the State of Nevada situated within the following 
 described boundaries : Commencing at the northwest corner 
 of the State of Nevada ; thence east with the north bound- 
 ary of the State to the intersection of the line between 
 ranges forty-four and forty-five east of Mount Diabolo meri- 
 dian ; thence south on said range line to the corner of town- 
 ships twenty-four and twenty-five north of the Mount Dia- 
 bolo base line ; thence west to the line between ranges thirty- 
 nine and forty east; thence south along said range line to 
 the eastern boundary of California; thence northwesterly 
 with the eastern boundary of California to the intersection 
 of the boundary with the thirty-ninth parallel of north lati- 
 tude ; thence north with the eastern boundary of California 
 to the place of beginning. 
 
 Eureka. — Land district includes all that portion of the State 
 of Nevada lying south and east of the following described 
 boundaries : Beginning at the northeast corner of the State 
 of Nevada; thence west with the north boundary of the 
 State to the intersection of the line between ranges forty- 
 four and forty-five east of the Mount Diabolo meridian ; 
 thence south on said range line to the corner of townships 
 twenty-four and twenty-five north of the Mount Diabolo base 
 line ; thence west to the line between ranges thirty-nine and 
 forty east ; thence south along said range line to the eastern 
 boundary of the State of California. 
 
 Washington Territory. — Olympia. — Land district is 
 bounded as follows : Beginning on the boundary line between 
 the United States and the British possessions, and on the sum- 
 mit of the Cascade Mountains, at the nearest range line to the 
 east line of range twelve east of the Willamette meridian; 
 thence south on the nearest range lines on the summit of 
 said mountains to the line dividing townships ten and eleven 
 north of the base line ; thence west to the line dividing 
 ranges six and seven west ; thence north on said range line 
 to the third standard parallel ; thence west to Shoal Water 
 Bay ; thence with the Shoal Water Bay to the Pacific Ocean ; 
 thence northwesterly with the ocean to the Strait of Juan de 
 Fuca ; and thence along the boundary line between the 
 United States and British possessions, running through the 
 said strait and that of De Harro, to the intersection of the 
 forty-ninth parallel of north latitude ; and thence due east 
 along said parallel to the place of beginning. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 589 
 
 Walla- Walla land district includes all that portion of 
 Washington Territory situated within tho following described 
 boundaries : Commencing at the southeast corner of the 
 Territory of Washington at a point where the forty-sixth 
 parallel of north latitude crosses the Snalte River ; thence 
 west along said parallel to the Columbia River; thence 
 down the Columbia River to the intersection of range line 
 nineteen and twenty east of Willamette meridian ; thence 
 north on said range line to the line between townships six and 
 seven north ; thence east with said line to the line between 
 ranges twenty-seven and twenty-eight east; thence north 
 with said line to the line between townships sixteen and 
 seventeen north; thence east with said line to the Columbia 
 guide meridian ; thence south with said meridian to the line 
 between townships twelve and thirteen north ; thence east 
 with said line to its intersection with Snalie River ; thence 
 up Snake River to its intersection with the eastern boundary 
 Washington Territory ; thence continuing up Snake River 
 to the place of beginning. 
 
 Colfax. — Colfax laud district includes all that portion of 
 Washington Territory situated within the following described 
 boundaries : Commencing at a point where the Columbia 
 guide meridian intersects the third standard parallel in said 
 Territory ; thence east along the line of said standard par- 
 allel to where the same interaects the Snake River; thence 
 up said Snake River to where the same intersects the boun- 
 dary line between Washington and Idaho Territory ; thence 
 north on said boundary line to where the same intersects 
 the boundary line between Washington Territory and Brit- 
 ish Columbia ; thence west along said line to where the 
 same intersects the aforementioned Columbia guide meridian; 
 thence south along the line of said meridian to the place of 
 beginning. 
 
 Yakima land district is bounded hy a line commencing at 
 a point of the inters3ction of the line between townships six 
 and seven north, and between ranges twenty-seven and 
 twenty-eight east of the Willamette meridian ; and running 
 westerly along said line between townships six and seven 
 north to the summit of the Cascade Mountains ; thence 
 northerly along said summit to the boundary lino between 
 the United States and British Columbia ; thence east along 
 s lid line to the Columbia guide meridian ; thence south on 
 said meridian to the line between townships sixteen and 
 seventeen north ; thence west along said line to the line be-, 
 tween ranges twenty-s3ven and twenty-eight east; thence 
 south along said line to the place of beginning. 
 
 Vancouver land district includes all that portion of Wash- 
 ington Territory situated between the following described 
 boundaries : Commencing at a point where the line between 
 townships twelve and thirteen north intersects Shoal Water 
 Bay; thence with the Shoal Water Bay, including any 
 islands therein, to the Pacific Ocean ; thence southerly with 
 the ocean to the mouth of Columbia River; thence up the 
 river to the point opposite the line between ranges nineteen 
 and twenty east of Willamette meridian; thence north with 
 said range line to the corner common to townships six and 
 seven north ; thence west with said line to the summit of 
 the Cascade Mountains ; thence northerly along said summit 
 to the line between townships ten and eleven north ; thence 
 west along said line to the line between ranges six and seven 
 west ; thence north on said line to the intersection of the 
 third standard parallel north ; thence west with said standard 
 parallel to the place of beginning. 
 
 Minnesota —Taylor's Falls. — Land district is bounded as 
 follows : Bsginning at a point where the northern boundary 
 of township forty-five north of the base line and fourth 
 principal meridian intersects the boundary between the 
 States of Minnesota and Wisconsin ; thence south along 
 said boundary to the intersection of the Saint Croix River ; 
 thence down with said river to its mouth ; thence up the 
 Mississippi River to the intersection of the line between 
 ranges twenty-seven and twenty-eight west of the fourth 
 principal meridian with said river ; thence north with said 
 range line to the corner of townships forty-five and forty-six 
 north ; and thence east to the place of beginning. 
 
 Saint Cloud. — Land district is bounded as follows : Be- 
 ginning at a point of intersection of the fifth standard par- 
 allel north of the base line with the line between ranges 
 thirty-five and thirty-six west of the fifth principal meri- 
 dian ; thence north with the said range line to th« Doundary 
 
 line between the United States and British possessions ; 
 thence east and southeasterly along said boundary to the 
 intersection of the line between ranges twenty-three and 
 twenty-four west of the fourth principal meridian ; thence 
 south with said range line to the corner of townships forty-five 
 and forty-six north ; thence west to the line between ranges 
 twenty-seven and twenty -eight west; thence south wii.h said 
 range line to the Mississippi River ; thence up the river to 
 the intersection of the line between ranges twenty-four and 
 twenty-five west of the fifth principal meridian with said 
 riyer; thence south on the line between ranges twenty-four 
 and twenty-five west to the intersection of the fifth stan- 
 dard parallel north ; thence west with said standard parallel 
 to the place of beginning. 
 
 DuLuth. — Land district is bounded as follows : Commenc- 
 ing at a corner common to townships, forty-five and forty- 
 six north, ranges twenty-three and twenty-four west of the 
 fourth principal merdian ; thence north with said range line 
 to the intersection of the boundary line between the United 
 States and the British possessions ; thence eastwardly with 
 said boundary to Lake Superior; thence southwesterly with 
 said lake the mouth of Saint Louis River ; thence up said 
 river to the intersection of the boundary line between Wis- 
 consin and Minnesota; thence south along said boundary 
 line to the intersection of the line between townships forty- 
 five and forty-six north ; and thence west between town- 
 ships forty-five and forty-six north to the place of begin- 
 ning 
 
 Fergus Falls. — Land district is bounded as follows: On 
 the east by the line between ranges thirty-five and thirty- 
 six west of the fifth principal meridian ; on the north by 
 the ninth standard parallel north of the base line, on the 
 south by the sixth standard parallel north : and on the west 
 by the western boundaiy of the State of Minnesota. 
 
 Wortliington. — Root River land district is bounded on the 
 south by the boundary line between the States of Iowa and 
 Minnesota; on the west by the western boundary of Ihe 
 State of Minnesota ; on the north by the line between town- 
 ships one hundred and five and one hundred and six north; 
 and on the east by the Mississippi River. 
 
 Tract/. — ^Winona land district is bounded on the north by 
 the line between townships one hundred and ten and one 
 hundred and eleven north ; on the south by the line between 
 townships one hundred and five and one hundred and six 
 north of the base line ; on the east by the Mississippi 
 River ; and on the west by the western boundary of the 
 State of Minnesota. 
 
 Benson. — Land district is bounded as follows : Beginning 
 on the Mississippi River at a point of the intersection of the 
 south boundary of township twenty-seven north of the base 
 line fourth principal meridian with said river ; thence west 
 on said township line to the southwest corner of township 
 twenty-seven north, range twenty-four west of the fourth 
 principal meridian ; thence north to the intersection of the 
 line between townships one hundred and fifteen and one 
 hundred and sixteen north ; thence west with said town- 
 ship line to the western boundary of Minnesota ; thence north 
 with the western boundary of the State of Minnesota to the in- 
 tersection of the said boundary with the sixth standard paralr 
 lei north ; thence east with said standard parallel to the inter- 
 section of the line between ranges thirty-five and thirty- 
 six west of the fifth principal meridian ; thence south along 
 said range line to the intersection of the fifth standard par-' 
 allel north ; thence east with the said standard parallel to 
 the third guide meridian west of the fifth principal meri- 
 dian ; thence north with said third guide meridian to the 
 Mississippi River ; thence down the Mississippi River to the 
 place of beginning. 
 
 Redwood Falls. — Land districtis bounded on the south by 
 the line between townships one hundred and ten and one 
 hundred and eleven north; on the west by the western bound- 
 ary of the State of Minnesota ; on the north by the line be- 
 tween townships one hundred and fifteen, and one hundred 
 and sixteen north, extending east from the western bound- 
 ary of the State of Minnesota to the intersection of the 
 western boundary of township twenty-seven north, range 
 twenty-four west of the fourth principal meridian ; thence 
 south with said west boundary of township twenty-seven 
 north to the southwest corner thereof; thence east with the 
 south boundary of township, twenty-seven north to the 
 
590 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Mississippi Eiver ; thence down the Mississippi Biver to the 
 intersection of the line between townships one hundred and 
 ten and one hundred and eleven north of the base line. 
 
 Crookston. — Land district embraces all that part of the 
 State of Minnesota which lies north of township number 
 one hundred and thirty-six north and west of range number 
 thirty-five west of the principal meridian. 
 
 Oregon. — Oregon City. — Land district includes all that 
 portion of the State of Oregon situated within the following 
 boundaries: Commencing at the mouth of the Alsea River; 
 thence easterly with said river to its intersection with the 
 third standard parallel south between townships thirteen 
 and fourteen south ; thence east with said parallel to the 
 line between ranges eight and nine east of Willamette 
 meridian ; thence north with said range line to Columbia 
 River ; thence down said river to the Pacific Ocean-; thence 
 with the ocean to the place of beginning. 
 
 Roseburgh. — Land district includes alt that portion of the 
 State of Oregon situated within the following boundaries : 
 Beginning on the southern boundary of the State of Oregon 
 where the line between ranges five and six east of the 
 Willamette meridian intersects said boundary; thence north 
 with said range line to the fourth standard parallel south 
 between townships eighteen and nineteen south; thence 
 east with said parallel to the line between ranges eight an I 
 nine east ; thence north with said range line to the third 
 standard parallel south between townships thirteen and 
 fourteen south ; thence west with said parallel to its inter- 
 section with Alsea Eiver ; thence with said river to the 
 Pacific Ocean ; and thence along the ocean to the south 
 boundary of Oregon ; thence east with said south boundary 
 of Oregon to the place of beginning. 
 
 Lake View. — Land district includes all that portion of the 
 State of Oregon lying south of the fourth standard parallel 
 south, between townships eighteen and nineteen south, and 
 east of the meridian line between ranges five and six east 
 of the Wilamette meridian. 
 
 Le Gfrand. — Land district includes all that portion of the 
 State of Oregon lying north of the foarth standard parallel 
 south, between townships eighteen and nineteen south, and 
 east of the meridian line between ranges twenty-six and 
 twenty-seven east. 
 
 Dalles. — ^The Dalles land district includes all that portion 
 of the State of Oregon situated within the following bound- 
 aries : Commencing at a point on the Columbia River where 
 the line between ranges eight and nine east of Willamette 
 meridian intersects said river; thence south on the said 
 range line to the fourth standard parallel south, between 
 townships eighteen and nineteen south ; thence east on said 
 parallel to the line between ranges twenty-six and twenty- 
 seven east ; thence north on said range line to the Columbia 
 Eiver ; thence down said river to the place of beginning. 
 
 Kansas. — The northern land district includes all that 
 portion of the State of Kansas lying west of the third guide 
 meridian west of the sixth principal meridian and north of 
 the line between townships nine and ten south. 
 
 Topeha. — Land district is bounded on the north by the 
 boundary line between the States of Kansas and Nebraska ; 
 on the east by the Missouri River and the boundary line 
 between the States of Arkansas and Missouri ; on the south 
 by the line between townships twenty-two and twenty-three 
 south of the base line ; and on the west by the first guide 
 meridian east of the sixth principal meridian. 
 
 Independence. — Land district is bounded on the north by 
 the line between townships twenty-two and twenty-three 
 south of the base line ; on the east by the western boundary 
 of the State of Missouri; on the south by the south bound- 
 ary r-i the State of Kansas ; and on the west by the first 
 guide meridian east of the sixth principal meridian. 
 
 Concordia. — Eepublican land district is bounded on the 
 east by the first guide meridian east of the sixth principal 
 meridian ; on the south by the second standard parallel 
 south of the base line ; on the west by the first guide me- 
 ridian west I and on the north by the boundary line between 
 the States of Kansas and Nebraska. 
 
 Wichita. — Land district includes all that portion of the 
 State of Kansas situated within the following described 
 limits : Beginning at a point on the southern boundary of 
 the State of Kansas where the range line ten and eleven, 
 west sixth principal meridian, intersects the same ; thence 
 
 north with said range line to the line between townships 
 twenty-one and twenty-two south ; thence east with said 
 line to the line between ranges five and six west; thence 
 north with said line to the fourth standard parallel south ; 
 thence east with said standard parallel to the first guide 
 meridian east ; thence south with said guide meridian to 
 the southern boundary of the State of Kansas ; thence west 
 with said boundary to the place of beginning. 
 
 Salina. — Land district includes all that portion of the 
 State of Kansas situated within the following described 
 boundaries : Commencing at a corner common to the 
 fourth standard parallel south, and the first guide meridian 
 east of the sixth principal meridian ; thence west with 
 said standard parallel to the line between ranges five and 
 six west ; thence north with said line to the line between 
 townships seventeen and eighteen south ; thence west with 
 said line to the line between ranges ten and eleven west; 
 thence north with said line to the third standard parallel 
 south ; thence west along said standard parallel to the line 
 ranges fifteen and sixteen west ; thence north with said line 
 to the second standard parallel south ; thence east along 
 said standard parallel to the first guide meridian east; 
 thence south with said guide meridian to the place of 
 beginning. 
 
 Wa — Keeney. — The western land district includes all 
 that portion of the State of Kansas situated within the fol- 
 lowing described boundaries : Commencing at a point on 
 the western boundary of the State of Kansas, where the 
 fourth standard parallel south intersects the same ; thence 
 east with said standard parallel to the line between ranges 
 twenty and twenty-one west of the sixth principal meri- 
 dian ; thence north with said line to the line between town- 
 ships nineteen and twenty south ; thence east with said line 
 to the line between ranges fifteen and sixteen west ; thence 
 north with said line to the line between townships nine and 
 ten south ; thence west with said line to the western boun- 
 dary of the State of Kansas ; thence south with said boun- 
 dary to the place of beginning. 
 
 Lamed. — The Arkansas Valley land district includes 
 all that portion of the State of Kansas situated within the 
 following described boundaries : Commencing at a point 
 on the western boundary of the State of Kansas, where the 
 fourth standard parallel south intersects the same ; thence 
 east with said standard parallel to the line between ranges 
 twenty and twenty-one west ; thence north with said line to 
 the line between townships nineteen and twenty south; 
 thence east with said line to the line between ranges fifteen 
 End sixteen west ; thence north with said line to the third 
 standard parallel south ; thence east with said standard 
 parallel to the line between ranges ten and eleven west ; 
 thence south with said line to the line between townships 
 seventeen and eighteen south ; thence east with said line to 
 the line between ranges five and six west; thence south 
 with said line to the line between townships twenty-one and 
 twenty-two south ; thence west with said line to the line 
 between ranges ten and eleven west ; thence south with said 
 line to the southern boundary of the State of Kansas; 
 thence west with said boundary to the western boundary of 
 the State ; thence north with said boundary to place of be- 
 ginning. 
 
 Kirwin.—T\\B northwestern land district includes all 
 that portion of the State of Kansas situated within the fol- 
 lowing described boundai'ies: Commencing at a point on 
 the northern boundary of the State of Kansas where the 
 range line eight and nine west sixth principal meridian 
 intersects the same ; thence south with said range line to 
 the second standard parallel south ; thence west with said 
 second standard parallel to the line between ranges fifteen 
 and sixteen west ; thence north with said line to the line 
 between townships nine and ten south ; thence west with 
 said line to the third guide meridian west; thence north 
 Avith said guide meridian to the northern boundary of the 
 State of Kansas ; thence east with said boundary to the 
 place of beginning. March 3, 1881, an additional district 
 was created by Congress, by a law reading as follows : — 
 "That the following described territory in the State of Kan- 
 sas, to wit: commencing at the southeast corner of township 
 thirty-five, south range thirty-one west of the sixth princi- 
 pal m vidian on the south boundary of the State of Kan- 
 sas thence west on said southern boundary to the western 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 591 
 
 boundary of said State ; thence north on said western boun- 
 dary' to the fourth standard parallel south ; thence east along 
 said parallel to the northeast corner of township twenty-one 
 south, range thirty-one west, and thence south to the place 
 of beginning, in the State of Kansas, shall constitute an 
 additional land district, to be called the southwestern land 
 district, the location for the office of which shall be desig- 
 nated by the President of the United States, and shall by 
 him from time to time be changed, as the public interest 
 may seem to require." 
 
 Nebraska.— Grand Island land district is bounded as 
 follows : Commencing at the corner common to townships 
 twenty and twenty-one north of the base line ranges four 
 and five east of the sixth principal meridian; thence south 
 with said range line to the south shore of Platte River; 
 thence west with said south shore of Platte Elver to the 
 intersection of range line twenty and twenty-one west; 
 thence north with said line to the line between townships 
 twenty-three and twenty-four north ; thence east with said 
 line to the line between ranges eleven and twelve west ; 
 thence south with said line to the line between townships 
 twenty and twenty-one north ; thence east with said line to 
 the place of beginning. 
 
 ^ea^yice.^Neharaa land district is bounded on the north 
 by the line between townships six and seven north of the 
 base line ; on the west by the line between ranges eight and 
 nine west of the sixth principal meridian ; on the south by 
 the boundary line between Kansas and Nebraska ; and on 
 the east by the Missouri River. 
 
 Lincoln. — South Platte district is bounded on the south by 
 the line between townships six and seven north of the base 
 line ; on the west by the line between ranges eight and nine 
 west of the sixth principal meridian ; on the north by the 
 south shore or right bank of Platte River ; and on the east 
 by the Missouri River. 
 
 Bloomington. — The Republican Valley land district is 
 bounded as follows : Commencing at a point on the southern 
 boundary of Nebraska where the range line eight and nine 
 west, sixth principal meridian, intersects said boundary ; 
 thence north with said range line to the south shore of 
 Platte River ; thence west with said south shore of Platte 
 River to the line between ranges twenty and twenty-one 
 west ; thence south with said line to the line between town- 
 ships six and seven north ; thence west with said line to the 
 line between ranges twenty-five and twenty-six west ; thence 
 south with said range line to the southern boundary of the 
 State of Nebraska ; thence east with said boundary to the 
 place of beginning. 
 
 ' North Platte. — The western land district includes all that 
 portion of the State of Nebraska situated within the follow- 
 ing described boundaries : Commencing at a point on the 
 southern boundary of the State of Nebraska where the range 
 line twenty-five and twenty-six west, sixth principal me- 
 ridian, intersects said boundary; thence north with said 
 range line to the line between townships six and seven north ; 
 thence east with said line to the line between ranges twenty 
 and twenty-one west ; thence north with said range line to 
 the northern boundary of the State of Nebraska; thence 
 west with said northern boundary to the eastern boundary 
 of Wyoming ; thence south with said boundary to the south- 
 ern boundary of Colorado ; thence east with said boundary 
 to the eastern boundary of Colorado ; thence south with said 
 boundary to the southern boundary of Nebraska; thence 
 east with said boundary to the place of beginning. 
 
 Niobrara. — Dakota land district includes all that portion 
 of the State of Nebraska situated within tbe following de- 
 scribed boundaries : Commencing at a point on the Missouri 
 Eiver where the south line of the Omaha Indian reservation 
 intersects said river ; thence west with said south line to the 
 western boundary of said Indian reservation ; thence north 
 along said western boundary to the south line of township 
 twenty-six north ; thence west along said line to the line be- 
 tween ranges eleven and twelve west of the sixth pri n cipal me- 
 ridian ; thence south with said line to the line between town- 
 ships twenty-three and twenty-four north ; thence west with 
 said line to the line between ranges twenty and twenty-one 
 west ; thence north with said line to the northern boundary 
 of the State of Nebraska; thence east and south along the 
 northern and eastern boundary of the State to the place of 
 beginning. 
 
 Norfolk. — The Omaha land district is bounded as follows : 
 Commencing at the confluence of the Platte River with the 
 Missouri ; thence up the Missouri River to the intersection 
 of the south line of the Omaha Indian reservation ; thence 
 along said south line to the western boundary of said Indian 
 reservation ; thence north along said western boundary to 
 the south line of township twenty-six north ; thence west 
 along said line to the line between ranges eleven and twelve 
 west of the sixth principal meridian ; thence south with said 
 line to the line between townships twenty and twenty-one 
 north ; thence east along said line to the line between ranges 
 four and five east ; thence south with said line to the south 
 shore of Platte River ; thence down said river to the place of 
 beginning. 
 
 ' New Mexico. — Santa Fe land district includes all that 
 portion of the Territory of New Mexico lying north of the 
 base line. 
 
 Mesilla land district includes all that portion of the Ter- 
 ritory of New Mexico lying south of the base line. 
 
 Idaho. — Boise City land district embraces all that portion 
 of Idaho Territory lying west of range line twenty-three and 
 twenty-four west, Boise meridian, extending from the south- 
 ern boundary of Utah to the southern boundary of Lemhi 
 County, west of the western boundary of Lemhi County, and 
 south of the Salmon River range of mountains. 
 
 Lewiston land district consists of all that portion of the 
 Territory of Idaho lying north of the Salmon River range of 
 mountains. 
 
 Oxford. — The Oneida land district includes all that por- 
 tion of Idaho Territory situated within the following de- 
 scribed boundaries: Commencing at the southeast corner of 
 said Territory ; thence west on the line between said Terri- 
 tory and the Territory of Utah to the line between ranges 
 numbered twenty-three and twenty-four east, Boise meridian ; 
 thence north to the southern boundary of Lemhi County ; 
 thence west to the western line of said Lemhi County ; 
 thence north on said western line of said county to the line 
 between the Territories of Idaho and Montana ; thence east- 
 erly on said Territorial line to the eastern boundary of the 
 Territory of Idaho; thence south on the line of the eastern 
 boundary of Idaho Territory to the place of beginning. 
 
 Montana. — Miles City. — Land district comprises all that 
 portion of Montana Territory lying east of range line twenty- 
 seven and twenty-eight east of the principal meridian. 
 
 Bozeman. — Land district comprises all that portion of 
 Montana Territory lying south of the first standard parallel 
 north, west of range line twenty-seven and twenty-eight 
 east of the principal meridian, and east of range line two 
 and three west of principal meridian. 
 
 Helena. — Land district comprises all that portion of the 
 Territory of Montana lying west of range line two and three 
 west, extending from the southern boundary of the Terri- 
 tory to the first standard parallel north ; north of the first 
 standard parallel north, extending fi-om range two and three 
 west to range twenty-seven and twenty-eight east of the prin- 
 cipal meridian ; and west of range line twenty-seven and 
 twenty-eight east, extending from the first standard parallel 
 north to the boundary line between Montana and British 
 pos=iessions. 
 
 Utah. — Salt Lake City. — Land district is co-extensive 
 with the limits of the Territory of Utah. 
 
 Wyoming. — Evanston.—La,nd district includes all that 
 portion of Wyoming Territory lying west of range line 
 ninety-four and ninety-five west of the sixth principal 
 meridian. 
 
 Cheyenne. — Land district includes all that portion of 
 Wyoming Territory lying east of range line ninety-four and 
 ninety -five west of the sixth principal meridian. 
 
 Arizona. — I'lorence.— Gilala.nd district comprises all that 
 portion of the Territory of Arizona lying south of the first 
 standard parallel north. 
 
 Prescott. — Land district comprises all that portion of the 
 Territory of Arizona lying north of the first standard paral- 
 lel north. 
 
 Colorado. — Denwy.— Land district includes all that por- 
 tion of the State of Colorado situated within the following 
 described limits: Commencing at a point on the eastern 
 boundary of the State of Colorado where the second correc- 
 tion line south, sixth principal meridian, intersects said 
 boundary ; thence west with said correction line to the line 
 
592 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 between ranges seventy and seventy-one west; thence north, 
 with said line to the line between townships three and four 
 north ; thence west with said line to the summit of the con- 
 tinental divide; thence with said summit of the continental 
 divide to the northern boundary of the State ; thence east 
 with said boundary line to the eastern boundary of the State ; 
 thence south with said boundary line to the place of beginning. 
 
 Central City. — Land district includes all that portion of 
 the State of Colorado situated within the following described 
 limits : Commencing at a point on the western boundary of 
 the State of Colorado where the first correction line south 
 inteisects said boundary; thence east with said correction 
 line to the line between ranges seventy-one and seventy- 
 two west, sixth principal meridian ; thence south on said 
 line to the second correction line south ; thence east on said 
 correction line to the line between ranges seventy and 
 seventy-one west; thence north on said line to the line be- 
 tween townships three and four north ; thence west with 
 said line to the summit of the continental divide; thence 
 along said summit of the continental divide to the north- 
 ern boundary of the State ; thence west with said bound- 
 ary line to the western boundary of the state, thence south 
 with said boundary line to the place of beginning. 
 
 Del ISorte- — Land district includes all that portion of the 
 State of Colorado situated within the following described 
 limits : Commencing at a point on the south boundary of the 
 State of Colorado where range line sixty-nine and seventy 
 west, sixth principal meridian, intersects the said boundary ; 
 thence north with said range line to the line between town- 
 ships twenty -seven and twenty -eight south; thence west 
 with said line to the west line of range seventy-three west ; 
 thence north on said line to the intersection of township line 
 forty-five and forty-sixth north. New Mexico principal me- 
 ridian ; thence west with said line to the line between ranges 
 eleven and twelve east, New Mexico principal meridian ; 
 thence north with said line to the line between townships 
 forty-six and forty-seven north ; thence west with said line 
 to the line between ranges ten and eleven east; thence north 
 with said line to the line between townships forty-seven and 
 forty-eight north ; thence west with said line to the first 
 New Mexico guide meridian east ; thence north with said 
 guide meridian to the twelfth correction line north; thence 
 west with said correction line to the New Mexico principal 
 meridian ; thence south with said principal meridian to the 
 ninth correction line north ; thence west with said correction 
 line to the line between ranges four and five west; thence 
 south on said range line to the south boundary of the State ; 
 thence east with said boundary to the place of beginning. 
 
 Leadville. — Land district includes all that portion of the 
 State of Colorado situated within the following described 
 limits : Commencing at a point on the western boundary of 
 Colorado where the first correction line south intersects 
 said boundary ; thence east with said correction line to the 
 line between ran'^es seventy-one and seventy-two west, sixth 
 principal meridian ; thence south with said line to the 
 second correction line south ; thence east with said correc- 
 tion line to the line between ranges seventy and seventy-one 
 west ; thence south with said line to the third correction 
 line south; thence west with said correction line to the in- 
 tersection of range line ten and eleven east, township fifty- 
 one north, New Mexico principal meridian ; thencesouth with 
 said line to the line between townships forty-nine and fifty 
 north ; thence west with said line to the line between ranges 
 nine and ten east ; thence south with said line to the twelfth 
 correction line north ; thence west with said correction line 
 to the line between ranges six and seven east ; thence north 
 with said line to tfie line between townships forty-nine and 
 fifty north ; thence west with said line to the line between 
 ranges five and six east ; thence north with said line to the 
 line between townships fifty and fifty-one north ; thence west 
 with said line to the lino between ranges four and five east ; 
 thence north with said line to the intersection of the third 
 correction line south, sixth principal meridian ; thence west 
 with said correction line to the west boundary of the State ; 
 thence north with said boundary to the place of beginning. 
 
 Lake CHy. — Land district includes all that portion of the 
 State of Colorado situated within the following described 
 limits : Commencing at a point on the western boundary of 
 Colorado where the third correction line south, sixth prin- 
 cipal meridian intersects said boundary, thence east with 
 
 said correction line to the intersection of range line 
 4 and 5 east, township 51 N. New Mexico principal 
 meridian; thence south with said range to the line, 
 between townships fifty and fifty-one north; thence east 
 with said line to the line between ranges five and six east; 
 thence south with said line to the line between townships 
 forty-nine and fifty north ; thence east with said line to the 
 line between ranges six and seven east ; thence south with 
 said line to the twelfth correction line north ; thence west 
 with said correction line to the New Mexico principal me- 
 ridian ; thence south with said principal meridian to the 
 ninth correction line north ; thence west with said correc- 
 tion line to the line between ranges four and five west; 
 thence south with said range line to the south bound.iry of 
 the State ; thence west with said boundary to the western 
 boundary of the State ;. thence north with said boundary to 
 the place of beginning. 
 
 Pueblo. — Land district includes all that portion of the 
 State of Colorado situated within the following described 
 limits : Commencing at a point on' the eastern boundary of 
 Colorado where the second correction line- south intersects 
 said boundary; thence west with said correction line to the 
 line between ranges seventy and seventy-one west, sixth 
 principal meridian ; thence south with said range line to 
 the third correction line south ; thence west with said cor- 
 rection line to the intersection of range line ten and eleven 
 east, township fifty-one north, New Mexico principal meridi- 
 an, thencesouth with said line to the line between townships 
 forty-nine and fifty north ; thence west with said line to the 
 line between ranges nine and ten east; thence south with 
 said line to the twelfth correction line north ; thence west 
 with said correction line to the first New Mexico guide me- 
 ridian east ; thence south with said guide meridian to the 
 line between townships forty-seven and forty-eight north ; 
 thence east with said line to the line between ranges ten and 
 eleven east ; thence south with said line to the line between 
 townships forty-six and forty-seven north ; thence east with 
 said line to the line between ranges eleven and twelve east ; 
 thence south with said line to the line between townships 
 forty-five and forty-six north ; thence east with said line to 
 the intersection of the west line of range seventy-three feet 
 west, sixth principal meridian ; thence south with said line 
 to the line between townships twenty-seven and twenty- 
 eight south ; thence east with said line to the line between 
 ranges sixty-nine and seventy west ; thence south with said 
 range line to the southern boundary of the State ; thence 
 east on said boundary to the eastern boundary of the State; 
 thence north on said boundary to the place of beginning. 
 
 Dakota — Bismarck. — Land districts include all that por- 
 tion of the Territory of Dakota situated within the follow- 
 ing described boundaries : Commencing at a point on the 
 western boundary of Dakota where the seventh standard 
 parallel north, fifth principal meridian, intersects said 
 boundary ; thence east on said standard parallel to the line 
 between ranges seventy-eight and seventy-nine west ; thence 
 north on said line to the line between townships one hundred 
 and twenty-nine and one hundred and thirty north ; thence 
 east on said line to the ninth guide meridian ; thence north 
 on said guide meridian to the twelfth standard parallel north ; 
 thence west with said standard to the tenth guide meridian ; 
 thence north on said guide meridian to the boundary line 
 between Dakota and the British possessions ; thence west 
 with said line to the western boundary of Dakota ; thence 
 south with said western boundary to the place of beginning. 
 
 Fargo. — Land district includes all that portion of the Ter- 
 ritory of Dakota lying north of township line between 
 townships one hundred and twenty-nine and one hundred and 
 thirty of the fifth principal meridian, south of the twelfth 
 standard parallel, and east of the ninth guide meridian. 
 
 Springifield.— The Springfield land district includes all 
 that portion of the Territory of Dakota lying between the 
 third standard parallel north .ind the township line between 
 townships one hundred and twenty-nine and one hundred 
 and thirty north of the fifth principal meridian and east of 
 the eastern boundary of the Great Sioux Indian Reservation. 
 
 MilchelL—Sionx Falls land district includes all that por- 
 tion of the Territory of Dakota lyin^ between the third 
 standard parallel north and the base line, and east of the 
 eastern boundary of the Great Sioux Indian Reservation. 
 
 Yankton. — The Yankton land district includes all that 
 
MINING LIFE-A FIRST ATTEMPT AT HYDRAULICKING. 
 
 FROM LA VIE SOUTERRAINE" BY L. SIMONIN 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 593 
 
 portion of the Territory of Dakota lying south of the base 
 line of the fifth principal meridian. 
 
 Grand Forks. — Land district includes all that portion of 
 the Territory of Dakota lying north of the twelfth standard 
 parallel and east of the tenth guide meridian, fifth principal 
 meridian. 
 
 Deadwood. — Land district includes all that portion of the 
 Territory of Dakota lying west of the one hundred and sec- 
 ond meridian of longitude and south of the forty-fifth par- 
 allel of north latitude. 
 
 Sec. 125. Whenever the quantity of public land remain- 
 ing unsold in any land district is reduced to a number of 
 acres less than one hundred thousand, it shall be the duty 
 of the Secretary of the Interior to discontinue the land of- 
 fice of such district ; and if any land in any such district 
 remains unsold at the time of the discontinuance of a land 
 OflSce, the same shall be subject to sale at some one of the 
 existing land ofiices most convenient to the district in which 
 the land office has been discontinued, of which the Secretary 
 of the Interior shall give notice. 
 
 5 Stat. 385 ; R. S. 2248. 
 
 Sec. 126. The Secretary of the Interior may continue any 
 land district in which is situated the seat of government of 
 anyone of the States, and may continue the land office in 
 such district, notwithstanding the quantity of land unsold 
 in such district may not amount to one hundred thousand 
 acres, when, in his opinion, such continuance is required by 
 public convenience, or in order to close the land system in 
 such State. 
 
 6 Stat. 455 ; R. S. 2249. 
 
 Sec. 127. Whenever the cost of collecting the revenue 
 from the sales of the public lands in any district is as much 
 as one-third of the whole amount of revenue collected in 
 such district, it may be lawful for the President, if, in his 
 opinion, not incompatible with the public interest, to dis- 
 continue the land office in such district, and to annex the 
 same to some other adjoining land district. 
 
 10 Stat. 189, 194 ; 2250. 
 
 Sec. 128. The President is authorized to change the loca- 
 tion of the land offices of the several land districts estab- 
 lished by law, and to relocate the same fi:om time to time at 
 such point in the district as he deems expedient. 
 
 10 Stat. 204, 244; R. S. 2251. 
 
 Sec. 129. Upon the recommendation of the Commissioner 
 of the General Land Office, approved by the Secretary of 
 the Interior, the President may order the discontinuance of 
 any land office and the transfer of any of its business and 
 archives to any other land office within the same State or 
 Territory. 
 
 12 Stat. 409 ; R. S. 2252. 
 
 Sec. 130. The President is authorized to change and re- 
 establish the boundaries of land districts, whenever, in his 
 opinion, the public interests will be subserved thereby ,with- 
 out authority to increase the number of land offices or land 
 districts, except that he is authorized to establish additional 
 land districts, and to appoint the necessary officers under 
 existing laws, whenever he may deem the same necessary 
 for the public convenience in executing the provisions of 
 the mineral laws. 
 
 14 Stat. 252; 16 id. 171 ; R. S. 2253, 2343. 
 
 Sec. 131. In case of the division of existing land districts 
 by the erection of new ones, or by a change of boundaries 
 by the President, all business in such original districts shall 
 be entertained and transacted without prejudice or change, 
 until 'the offices in the new districts are duly opened by pub- 
 lic announcement under the direction of the Secretary of 
 the Interior. All sales or disposals of the public lands here- 
 tofore regularly made at any land office, after such lands 
 have been made part of another district by any act of 
 Congress, or by any act of the President, are confirmed, 
 provided the same are free from conflict with prior valid 
 rights. 
 
 17 Stat. 192 ; R. S. 2254. 
 
 Sec. 1323. The Secretary of the Interior is authorized to 
 38 
 
 make a reasonable allowance for office rent for each consol- 
 idated land office; and when satisfied of the necessity 
 therefor, to approve the employment by the register of one 
 or more clerks, at a reasonable per diem compensation, for 
 such time as such clerical force is absolutely required to 
 keep up the current public business, which clerical force 
 shall be paid out of the surplus fees authorized to be charged 
 by section one hundred ancl thirty-eight, if any ; and if no 
 surplus exists, then out of the appropriation for incidental 
 expenses of district land offices ; but no clerk shall be so paid 
 unless his employment has been first sanctioned by the Secre- 
 tary of the Interior. 
 
 12 Stat. 131 ; R. S. 2255. U. S. v. .Tarvis, 1 Davies, C. C. 274; 
 U. S. V. Lowe, 1 Dillon, C. C. 585. 1 Lester's L. L. 314. 
 
 Sec. 133. There shall be appointed by the President, by 
 and with the advice and consent of the Senate, a register of 
 the land office and a receiver of public moneys, for each land 
 district established by law. 
 
 18 Stat. 34, 122, 295 ; R. S. 2234. Litchfield v. Railway Co., 1 
 Woolw. C. C. 299. Bullock v. Wilson, 5 Port. (Ala.) 338 ; 
 HeUan v. Ripley, 3 Rob. (La.) 138. 
 
 Sec. 134. All registers and receivers shall be appointed 
 for the term of four years, but shall be removable at pleas- 
 ure. 
 
 3 Stat. 582 ; R. S. 2244. Best v. Polk, 18 Wall. 112. 
 
 Sec. 1.^5. Every register and receiver shall reside at the 
 place where the land office for which he is appointed is di- 
 rected by law to be kept. 
 
 R. S. 2235. [See all acts establishing land districts.] 
 Sec. 136. Every register and receiver shall, before entering 
 on the duties of his office, give bond in the penal sum of ten 
 thousand dollars, with approved security, for the faithful 
 discharge of his trust. 
 
 2 Stat. 73, 75; 10 id 245 ; R. S. 2236. U. S. ■». Vanzandt, 11 
 Wheat. 184; Walton v. U. S. 9 id. 651 ; Minor v. Mechanics' 
 Bank, 1 Pet. 46; U. S. v. Tingey, 5 id. 115; Farrar et al. v. 
 U. 8. 5 id. 373 ; U. S. v. Boyd, 15 id. 187 ; U. S. v. Linn, 15 
 id 290 ; U. S. v. Irving, 1 How., 250; U. S. v. Girault, 11 id. 
 22 ; U. S. V. Prescott, 3 id. 578 ; U. S. ■;;. Boyd, 5 id. 29 ; 
 Bryan v. U. S., 1 Black, 140; Boyden v. U. S., 13 Wall. 17; 
 Bevans v. U. S., 13 id. 56 ; U. S. v. Thomas, 15 id. 337. Al- 
 exandria V. Corse, 2 Cranch, C. C. 363 ; U. S. v. Stephenson, 
 1 McLean, C. C. 462 ; U. S. v. Spencer, 2 id. 265 ; U. S. ■». 
 Ward, 3 id. 179. 8 Op. Att. Gen. 7. 1 Lester's L. L. 312, 
 314. 
 
 Sec. 137. Every register and receiver shall be allowed an 
 annual salary of five hundred dollars ; and, in addition 
 thereto, each shall be allowed the following fees and com- 
 missions, namely: 
 
 3 Stat. 466 ; 12 id. 409 ; R. S. 2237. Dobbins v. CommissionM^, 
 &c., 16 Pet. 435. Decisions Com. G. L. O., Feb. 20, 1858 ; 
 May 1, 1871. 
 
 First. A fee of one dollar for each declaratory statement 
 filed and for services in acting on pre-emption claims. 
 
 6 Stat. 456; 13 id. 35; R. S. 2238. Decisions Com. G. L. O., 
 June 17, 1875; Sept. 9,1879. Cir. G. L. 0., Aug. 7,1872; 
 March 10, 1880. 
 
 Second. A commission of one per centum on all moneys 
 received at each receiver's office. 
 
 3 Stat. 4^6; R. S. 2238. U. S. v. Dickson, 15 Pet. 141. V. S. v. 
 McCarty, 1 McLean, C. C. 306; U. S. v. Edwards, 1 id. 467. 
 Decision Sec. Int., May 30, 1859. Decision Com. G. L. O., 
 March 6, 1878. 
 
 Third. A commission to be paid by the homestead appli- 
 cant, at the time of entry, of one per centum on the cash 
 price, as fixed by law, of the land applied for ; and a like 
 commission when the claim is finally established, and the 
 certificate therefor issued as the basis of a patent. 
 
 12 Stat. 393; 16 id. 320; R. S. 2238. Decision Sec. Int., March 
 3, 1874. Decisions Com. G. L. O., May 7, 1877; Sept. 12, 
 1879. Cir. G.L.O., June 13, 1872; June 17, 1875; March 
 10, 1880. 
 
 Fourth. The same commission on lands entered under 
 any law to encourage the growth of timber on western 
 prairies, as allowed when the like quantity of land is entered 
 with money. 
 
694 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 17 Stat. 606; R. S. 2238. Decision See. Int., March 3, 1874. 
 Decision Com. G. L. O., Sept. 12, 1879. Cir. G. L. O., Oct. 
 30, 1873; March 13, 1874; June 17, 1875; March 10, 1880. 
 
 Fifth. For locating military bouaty-land warrants, issued 
 since the eleventh day of February, eighteen hundred and 
 forty-seven, and for locating agricultural college land scrip, 
 the same commission, to be paid by the huider or assignee 
 of each warrant or scrip, as is allowed for sales of the pub- 
 lic lands for cash, at the rate of one dollar and twenty-five 
 cents per acre ; but they shall not be entitled to any fees 
 for locating warrants which are authorized by law to be lo- 
 cated free of expense by the Commissioner of the General 
 Land Office, nor upon the location of warrants issued prior 
 to the eleventh day of February, eighteen hundred and 
 forty-seven. 
 
 9 Stat. 231; 10 id. 4; 12 id. 505; R. S. 2238, 2437. U. S. v. 
 Babbit, 1 Blaclc, 55; same case, 5 Otto, 334. Decision Sec. 
 Int., March 1, 1876. Cir. G. L. O., Feb. 24, 1864; March 15, 
 1873; June 17, 1875; July 20, 1875; Feb. 13, 1879. 
 
 Sixth. A fee, in donation cases, of five dollars for each 
 final certificate for one hundred and sixty acres of land, ten 
 dollars for three hundred and twenty acres, and fifteen dol- 
 lars for six hundred and forty acres. 
 
 12 Stat. 409; R. S. 2238. 
 
 Seventh. In the location of lands by States and corpora- 
 tions under grants from Congress for railroads and other 
 purposes (except for agricultural colleges), a fee of one dol- 
 lar for each final location of one hundred and sixty dicres ; 
 to be paid by the State or corporation making such lo- 
 cation. 
 
 13 Stat. 335; 18 «. 21; 19 id. 52; R. S. 2238. Railway Co. ■;;. 
 Prescott, 16 Wall. 603; Railway Co. v. McShane, 22 id. 444; 
 Hunnewell v. Cass Co., 22 id. 464. Decisions Com. G. L. O., 
 April 18, 1867; Aug. 8, 1867; Feb. 17, 1869; March 26, 1870. 
 
 Eighth. A fee of five dollars per diem for superintend- 
 ing public land sales at their respective offices ; and, to each 
 receiver, mileage in going to and returning from depositing 
 the public moneys received by him. 
 
 3 Stat. 567; R. S. 2238. 
 
 Ninth. A fee of five dollars for filing and acting upon 
 each application for patent or adverse claim filed for min- 
 eral lands, to be paid by the respective parties. 
 
 17 Stat. 95; R. S. 2238. 
 
 Tenth. Registers and receivers are allowed, jointly, at the 
 rate of fifteen cents per hundred words for testimony reduced 
 by them to writing for claimants, in establishing pre-emp- 
 tion and homestead rights. 
 
 13 Stat. 35; E. S. 2238. Decision Com. G. L. 0., Sept. 1, 1879. 
 Cir. G. L. O., May 24, 1879. 
 
 Eleventh. A like fee as provided in the preceding sub- 
 division when such writing is done in the land office, in es- 
 tablishing claims for mineral lands. 
 
 17 Stat. 95; R. S. 2238. Decision Com. G. L. O., Sept. 1, 1879. 
 Cir. G. L. O., May 24, 1879. 
 
 Twelfth. Registers and receivers in California, Oregon, 
 Washington, Nevada, Colorado, Idaho, New Mexico, Ari- 
 zona, Utah, Wyoming, and Montana, are each entitled to 
 collect and receive fifty per centum on the fees and commis- 
 sions provided for in the first, third, and tenth sub-divisions 
 of this section. 
 
 13 Stat. 36 ; E. S. 2238. [See also the several acts establishing 
 land offices for Utah, Wyoming and Montana.] 
 
 Thirteenth. A. fee of one dollar shall bo paid to registers 
 for giving notice of cancellation to any person who has 
 contested, paid the land-office fees, and procured the cancel- 
 lation of any pre-emption, homestead, or timber-culture 
 entry ; the said fee to be paid by the contestant, and not to 
 be reported. 
 
 Act of May 14, 1880. 
 
 Sec. 138. The register for any consolidated land district, in 
 addition to the fees now allowed by law, shall be entitled to 
 charge and receive for making transcripts for individuals, 
 or furnishing any other record information respecting pub- 
 
 lic lands or land titles in his consolidated land district, such 
 fees as are properly authorized by the tariff existing in the 
 local courfa of his district ; and the receiver shall receive 
 his equal share of such fees, and it shall be his duty to aid 
 the register in the preparation of the transcripts, or giving 
 the desired record information. 
 
 12 Stat. 131 ; R. S. 2239. Cir. G. L. O., July 19, 1878. 
 
 Sec. 139. The compensation of registers and receivers, 
 including salary, fees, and commissions, shall in no case ex- 
 ceed in the aggregate three thousand dollars a year, each ; 
 and no register or receiver shall receive for any one quarter 
 or fractional quarter more than a pro-rata allowance of such 
 maximum. 
 
 3 Stat. 466 ; 10 id. 4 ; 11 id. 378 ; 12 id. 131, 393, 409, 505 ; 13 id. 36, 
 335 ; E. S. 2240. U. S. v. Babbit, 1 Black, 55 ; same case, 5 
 Otto, 334. Cir. G. L. O., Feb. 20, 1858; May 1, 1871; June 
 24, 1875; July 19, 1878; May 24, 1879. . 
 
 Sec. 140. Whenever the amount of compensation received ' 
 at any land office exceeds the maximum, allowed by law to 
 any register or receiver, the excess shall be paid into the 
 Treasury, as other public moneys. 
 
 10 Stat. 204; 12 id. 131; R. S. 2241. 
 
 Sec. 141. No register or receiver shall receive any com- 
 pensation out of the Treasury for past services who has 
 charged or received illegal fees ; and, on satisfactory proof 
 that either or such officers has charged or received fees or 
 other rewards not authorized by law, he shall be forthwith 
 removed from office. 
 
 10 Stat. 4, 306; R. S. 2242. 
 
 Sec. 142. The compensation of registers and receivers, 
 both for salary and commissions, shall commence and be cal- 
 culated from the time they respectively, enter on the dis- 
 charge of their duties. 
 
 10 Stat. 615 ; R. S. 2243. tJ. S. v. Edwards, 1 McLean, C. C. 
 467. Cir. G. L. O., Feb 20, 1858; May 1, 1871. 
 
 Sec 143. The receivers shall make to the Secretary of 
 !the Treasury monthly returns of the moneys received in 
 their- several offices, and pay over such money pursuant to 
 his instructions. And they shall also make to the Commis- 
 sioner of the General Land Office like monthly returns, and 
 transmit to him quarterly accounts-current of the debits and 
 credits of their several offices with the United States. 
 
 ' 5 Stat. Ill ; R. S. 2245. Cir. G. L. O., July 1, 1871 ; June 24, 
 
 1875 
 1871, 
 
 ; July 19, 1878 ; May 24, 1879. Treasury Cir., July 13, 
 1 Lester's L. L. 312, 314. 
 
 Sec. 144. The register or receiver is authorized, and it 
 shall be their duty, to administer any oath required by law 
 or the instructions of the General Land Office, in connection 
 with the entry or purchase of any tract of the public lands ; 
 but he shall not charge or receive, directly or indirectly, 
 any compensation for administering such oath. 
 
 5 Stat. 384; E. S. 2246. 
 
 Sec. 145. If any person applies to any register to enter 
 any land whatever, and the register knowingly and falsely 
 informs the person so applying that the same has already 
 been entered, and refuses to permit the person so applying 
 to enter the same, such register shall be liable therefor to 
 the person so applying, for five dollars for each acre of land 
 which the person so applying, offered to enter, to be recov- 
 ered by action of debt m any court of record having juris- 
 diction of the amount. 
 
 5 Stat. 112 ; E. S. 2247. 
 
 Sec. 146. All receivers having public money to pay to the 
 United States may pay the same to any depositary consti- 
 tuted by or in pursuance of law, which may be designated 
 by the Secretary of the Treasury, except that the receiver 
 at San Francisco shall pay over such money to the United 
 States assistant treasurer in that city at the office of said as- 
 sistant treasurer. 
 
 9 Stat 62; 16 id. 216, 17 id. 435; R. S. 3615, 3616. 
 
 Sec. 147. Where bona-fide settlers under the homestead 
 or pre-emption laws have, subsequent to the date of filing 
 their applications to enter not exceeding one quarter-section 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 595 
 
 of public lands, been appointed a register or receiver of the 
 -land office of the district in which the lands are located, 
 proof and payment must be made to the satisfaction of the 
 Commissioner of the General Land Office. 
 
 17 Stat. 10 ; K. S. 2287. 4 Op. Att. Gen. 223 ; 7 id. 647. 
 
 Special Agent. — Sec. 148. When it is incompatible with 
 his other duties for a surveyor-general of the United States 
 to personally inspect the surveying operations of his district 
 while in progress in the field, he is authorized to depute a con- 
 fidential agent to make such examination ; and the actual and 
 necessary expenses of such person shall be allowed and paid 
 for that service, and five dollars per day during the examina- 
 tion in the field : Provided, That such examination shall not 
 be protracted beyond thirty days, and in no case longer than 
 is actually necessary ; and when a surveyor-general, or any 
 person employed in his office at a regular salary, shall be 
 engaged in such special service, he or they shall only 
 receive his necessary expenses in addition to his regular 
 salary. 
 
 10 Stat. 248 ; R. S. 2223. 
 
 Sec. 149. Any officer or clerk of any of the executive 
 departments of the government who shall be lawfully de- 
 tailed to investigate frauds, or attempts to defraud, on the 
 Government, or any irregularity or misconduct ofany officer 
 or agent of the United States, shall have power to adminis- 
 ter oaths to affidavits taken in the course of any such inves- 
 tigation. 
 
 16 Stat. 55, 75; U. S. v. Bailey, 9 Pet. 238. 
 
 Right of officers detailed on special duty to extra compensation : 
 1 Craneh, 137; U. S. v. Eipley, 7 Pet. 18; V.S.v. Fille- 
 brown, 7 id. 28; Gratiot v. U. S., 15 id. 336; U. S. v. Brown, 
 9 How. 487 ; Converse v. U. S., 21 id. 483 ; Stanbury v. U. S., 
 8 Wall. 33. U. S. v. Jarvis, 1 Daviea, C. C. 274. Definition 
 of offlce, and power to bind Government ; V. S. v. Hartwell, 
 6 Wall. 385 ; Whiteside et al. v. U. S., 3 Otto, 247. Seim^ 
 bursement of expenditures : U. S. v. Jarvis, 2 Ware, C. C. 274, 
 Decisions Sec. Int., July 1, 1874; Sept. 21, 1874. Cir. G. L. 
 O., July 1, 1871. 
 [The authority to appoint special agents in the administration of 
 the land laws seems to be derived from the annual appropriation 
 bills, and from the general authority incident to the duty of execut- 
 ing the laws.] 
 
 SALE AND DISPOSITION OF PUBLIC LANDS. 
 
 IN 1806, April 18, Congress, by law, refused to receive in 
 payment for purchases of public lands any more certifi- 
 cate, or receipts of evidence of public debt after April 30, 
 1806, saving all rights under the old act. This required all 
 payments to be made in cash. Petitions, resolutions, legislative 
 eaactments, and personal applications for relief from the 
 pressure of land purchases from the government under the 
 credit system resulted in various acts of relief. March 2, 
 
 1809, Congress passed an act to extend time of payment 
 two years for residue of purchase money due. April 30, 
 
 1810, and December 12, 1811, Congress further extended 
 the time for purchases made prior to January 1, 1806, and 
 enacted conditions for re-entry of lands by applicants where 
 time of payment had expired and the lands had reverted to 
 the United States. June 30, 1812, Congress ordered that 
 Treasury notes be taken at all land offices for public lands 
 and payments thereon, and that credit should be given for 
 principal and interest thereof. Acts for relief were further 
 passed on April 23, 1812 ; July 6, 1812 ; March 3, 1813; Feb- 
 Tuary 9, 1814; February 4, 1815; April 24, 1816; April 18, 
 1818 ; March 3, 1819 ; March 30, 1820 ; March 2, 1821 ; April 
 20, 1822 ; March 3, 1823 ; May 18, 1824 ; May 26, 1824. These 
 acts were all operative for the benefit of persons holding not 
 over 640 acres. The Congress of the United States, April 
 24, 1820, provided for the sale of half quarter-sections, or 
 80-acre lots of land, and that credit should not be allowed 
 for the purchase-money of any lands after July 1, 1820, but 
 that complete payment must be made by the purchaser or 
 applicant at the time of purchase ; and by section 3 of this 
 act, it was provided that the public lands offered should be 
 sold at the " minimum " price of $1.25 per acre at either 
 public or private sale, and provided for the entry or purchase 
 by persons at the several district land offices of all lands 
 which, prior to J'uly 1, had been oflered at public sale and 
 
 remained unsold. It further provided for the sale of re- 
 verted lands, which were forfeited for non-liiUfilinentof pur- 
 chase terms under the credit system. Previous to this time 
 Congress had, by special acts directed land sales to be made, 
 but by this act it became the duty of the President, and has 
 so continued to this day, to issue proclamations of sale of 
 public lands through the Commissioner of the General 
 Land Office. This act was a great innovation. It reduced 
 the price of all public lands which should be ofiered to the 
 minimum of $1.25 per acre, and after they were offisred 
 (i. e., ofiered at public sale after due advertising and notice) 
 such as remained unsold were to be held for sale at the 
 district land office at $1.25 per acre, in unlimited quantities 
 of not less than 80 acres (half quarter sections) at private 
 sale. Thus, in the period from 1786 to 1820, the price had 
 fallen from $2 to $1.25 per acre cash, and the quantity which 
 might be sold was reduced from whole townships and eight 
 sections to sections (640 acres), half-sections (320 acres) '* 
 quarter-sections (160 acres), and half-quarter-sections (80 
 acres), thus fostering small holdings at a low price, with 
 deed in fee from the Government. The disastrous credit 
 system spread over Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Ala- 
 bama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Michigan. The general policy 
 of land legislation by Congress was, for the first thirty 
 years, to meet exigencies by temporary enactments from 
 time to time. This policy was continued down to the 
 period of the passage of the pre-emption act of 1841. 
 The stages developed to that period were : the sale by the 
 Board of Treasury prior to May, 1800, under and by order 
 of Congress direct, purchasers of tracts going to Congress by 
 petitions, which were acted on and referred to the Board of 
 Treasury ; public sale at $2 per acre in tracts from town- 
 ships, sections, and quarter sections, until after 1805, when 
 half quarter sections were sold ; all lands to be oflfered ; then 
 if not sold at public vendue, to be open to purchase at $2 
 per acre at private sale. 
 
 The act of 1800, May 18, instituted the offices of registers 
 and receivers, who sold land at definite points under orders 
 of the Secretary of the Treasury ; afterward, April 25, 1812, 
 under orders of the Commissioner of the General Land 
 Offlce, then a bureau in the Treasury Department, to whom 
 they were and are now subordinate. The act of April 
 24, 1820, the general provisions of which have been car- 
 ried into the Revised Statutes, fixed the minimum 
 price of the public lands at $1.25 per acre. There- 
 under the lands were sold to the highest bidder at public 
 sales for not less than the minimum rate per acre, and at 
 private sale, after the ofiiering, at the minimum rate. The 
 general pre-emption law of September 4, 1841, required 
 payment at the minimum rate for lands entered thereunder; 
 that is, the minimum rate fixed by the act of 1820. This is 
 the price required of pre-emptors and parties who commute 
 their homestead entries under section 2301 of the revised 
 Statutes, except where the lands' have been enhanced to the 
 double minimum price of $2.50 per acre, in which case the 
 pre-emptor or homesteader is required by law to pay for the 
 same at the increased rate. Congress, upon making grants 
 of alternate sections of land for railroad purposes within 
 certain limits, provided that the sections within such limits 
 reserved to the government should be enhanced to the price 
 of $2.50 per acre. This rate is double that of the minimum 
 rate established by the act of 1820, and is, therefore, termed 
 the " double-minimum rate. These are the existing rates 
 of disposal under the general provisions of law for the sale 
 of the public lands upon bringing them into market, or 
 under the pre-emption statutes and section 2301, Revised 
 Statutes, above mentioned. Lands subject to entry, which 
 had been enhanced to the double minimum price and put in 
 market prior to January, 1860, by reason of railroad grants, 
 were reduced to the minimum price by the act of June 15, 
 1880. 
 
 Disposal of Public Lands by Public Offering and 
 Sale. — In some of the early acts of Congress providing for 
 bringing lands into market dates were fixed for the sales, and 
 the superintendence of the sales was placed under the register 
 of the land office, or the governor or secretary of the Terri- 
 tory. In the act of March 3, 1803, which, among other 
 things, provided for the disposition of lands belonging to 
 the United States south of the State of Tennessee, it was 
 provided tU^t the President of the United States should 
 
596 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 make public proclamation of the sales, fixing therein a day 
 or days for the same to take place. By this act it wsis pro- 
 vided that the sales should be made under the direction of 
 the governor of the Mississippi Territory, the surveyor of 
 the lands, and the register of the land office, the sales to 
 take place where the land offices were " kept.'' The act 
 directing the survey and sale of the public lands in the 
 Territories of Orleans and Louisiana, approved March 3, 
 1811, provided for proclamation of the sales of lands in the 
 Territory of Louisiana by the President, and that the same 
 should be under the direction of the register and receiver 
 of the land office and the principal deputy surveyor. In 
 the acts of 1803 and 1811 it was directed that the sales re- 
 main open for three weeks, and no longer. The statutes 
 and rules at present in force in respect to offerings are 
 briefly stated below. The act of April 24, 1820 (see sections 
 2360, 2353, eighth subdivision, and 2238, E. S.), provided 
 that the public sales authorized thereby should be kept open 
 two weeks, and no longer ; it also provided that the tracts 
 to be sold be offered for sale in half quarter-sections; and 
 thereby registers and receivers were allowed a fee of $5 each 
 per diem for superintending the sales. The act of June 28, 
 1831 (section 2359, E. S.), provided that lands exposed to 
 public sale by order of the President shall be advertised for 
 a period of not less than three nor more than six months 
 prior to the day of sale, unless otherwise specially provided. 
 The act of August 3, 1843 (section 2455, E. S.), authorized 
 the CominissLoner of the General Land Office to order into 
 market after dus notice, without the formality and expense 
 of a proclamation of the President, such isolated or discon- 
 nected tracts or parcels of unofTered lands which, in his 
 judgment, it would be proper to expose to sale, and required 
 that public notice of the offering for a period of at least 
 thirty days should be given by the district officers pursuant 
 to directions of the Commissioner. It is the rule to resort 
 to published notice in such cases. 
 
 By a regulation of the General Land Office, district officers 
 are allowed a crier and a clerk during the progress of the 
 sales, at Si stated per diem compensation. Lands are offered 
 for sale by public outcry, at not less than the minimum or 
 double minimum price per acre, as the case may be, and are 
 sold to the highest bidder in case bids are received. Tech- 
 nical quarter-sections are sold in half-quarter-sections. 
 Where practicable the north half of the section should be 
 sold first, the order of offering being as follows : East half of 
 northeast quarter ; west half of northeast quarter ; east half 
 of northwest quarter ; west half of northwest quarter ; east 
 half of southeast quarter; west half of southeast quarter; 
 east half of southwest quarter; west, half of southwest 
 quarter. Such portions of sections as are designated by 
 numbers on the plats are sold in the order of the numbers, 
 as follows : Lot 1, lot 2, lot 3, lot 4. The regulations require 
 the district officers to keep a complete record in abstract 
 form, day by day, as the sales progress, of each subdivision 
 offered, and to note the sales made in margin thereof, such 
 notings as the following being desirable : Name of purchaser, 
 date of sale, and the number of the certificate of purchase 
 issued as the basis of a patent (which is also the number of 
 the receipt for the purchase-money accompanying the 
 certificate, a duplicate of which is given to the purchaser) ; 
 and opposite the description of tracts offered, but not sold, 
 the facts are required to be noted as follows : " Offered ; no 
 bids." When the sale is closed, it is required that the 
 abstracts of offerings be sent as a part of the official report 
 of the district officers to the General Land Office, after 
 making a copy of the same to be retained as a record in the 
 district office. The practice in regard to making up the 
 official reports of offerings has varied to some extent, but 
 the above is substantially the present method. The authority 
 to proclaim lands for sale is not limited by law to a stated 
 period of time after survey thereof. Of course it is not 
 deemed safe or advisable to proclaim lands for sale prior to 
 survey, even if contracts for survey thereof have been 
 e itered into. The President is not empowered to proclaim 
 lands for sale not authorized to be exposed to public sale 
 by law of Congress; the laws authorizing such sales have 
 reference to particular localities therein mentioned. There 
 is no general provision of law authorizing public sales of all 
 the vacant lands of the government, and a portion of the 
 lands in the far west, the Territory of Utah, for instance, is 
 
 not subject to be proclaimed for sale. The vacant lands 
 generally in the Louisiana purchase are subject to be pro- 
 claimed for sale under the act of 1811, referred to above. 
 The lands in Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, 
 and Florida, which were restricted to homestead entry by 
 the act of June 21, 1866, were authorized to be brought 
 into market by proclamation for sale at public offerings by 
 the act of June 22, 1876. Lands within the limits of the 
 Pacific Railroad and branches, belonging to the government, 
 in the even-numbered sections, were restricted to homestead 
 and pre-emption entry by the act of March 6, 1868. In 
 view of a resolution of the House of Representatives, 
 which passed some time after the recent war of the 
 rebellion, and the general drift of public sentiment ex- 
 j)ressed in various ways, it is the present policy to hold 
 lands outside of the Southern States above mentioned, not 
 yet proclaimed for sale, for actual settlers. The following 
 is a printed form for proclamation of sales by the President : 
 
 Proclamation by the President of the United States. 
 
 In pursuance of an Act of Congress of June 22, 1876, 1, Chester A. 
 Arthur, President of the United States of America, do hereby de- 
 clare and make known that a public sale of valuable Government 
 land will be held at tlie land office at , in the State of 
 
 , at which time will be of- 
 fered all lands not previously disposed of in the undermentioned 
 townships and parts of townships, viz. : 
 
 North of base-line and west of the meridian : 
 
 [Here is given lists of townships to be sold.] 
 
 Lands appropriated by law for the use of schools, military or other 
 purposes, or reserved for railroad purposes, will be excluded from 
 the sale. The offering of the above lands will be commenced on the 
 day appointed, and will proceed in the order in which they are tab- 
 ulated in the lists of sectional subdivisions until the whole have been 
 offered and the sales thus closed ; but the sale shall not be kept open 
 longer than two weeks, and no private entry of any of the lands will 
 be admitted until the day after the close of the puDlic offering. All 
 lands held at double minimum price will be disposed of at not less 
 than two dollars and fifty cents ($2.50) per acre, and all the lands 
 held at minimum price will be disposed of at not less than one dol- 
 lar and twenty-five cents ($1.25) per acre. Lists of sectional sub- 
 divisions are in the hands of the district ofiicers, and will be open 
 for the examination of those desiring to purchase. 
 
 Given under my hand, at the City of Washington, this day 
 
 of ,A.D. 18—. 
 
 CHESTER A. ARTHUR, 
 
 President of the United States. 
 
 By the President : 
 
 N. C. McFaeland, 
 
 Commissioner of the General Land Office. 
 
 Notice to Pre-emption Claimants. 
 Every person entitled to the right of pre-emption to any of the 
 lands within the townships and parts of townships above enumerated 
 is required to establish the same to the satisfaction of the register 
 
 and receiver of the land office, and make payment 
 
 therefor as soon as practicable after seeing this notice, and before 
 the day appointed for the commencement of the public sale of the 
 lands embracing the tract claimed ; otherwise such claim will be 
 forfeited. 
 
 No pre-emption claim based on a settlement subsequent to the 
 date ot this proclamation, and prior to the offering, will be recog- 
 nized by the Government. 
 
 N. C. McFaeland, 
 Commissioner of the General Land Office. 
 
 Prices of the Public Lands at Various Periods. — 
 
 The United States from 1758 to 1880 has sold land at various 
 prices, as follows : Agricultural lands at the rates of 12J, 
 25, 50, 66f, and 75 cents, and $1.00, $1.25, and $2.50 per 
 acre. Under the cash sales and pre-emption acts a vast area 
 containing coal, and millions of acres of timber land, have 
 been sold at the foregoing rates. Mineral lands. — In Michi- 
 gan, Wisconsin, and other States lands containing copper 
 and lead were formerly offered at public sale at not less than 
 $5 per acre, and if not then disposed of they were to be 
 held for private sale at that rate. Persons in possession 
 under leases from the War Department, however, were to 
 have preference right of purchase, at, the rate of $2.50 per 
 acre. Under present laws, except in the States of Michigan, 
 Wisconsin, Minnesota, Missouri, and Kansas, lands valuable 
 for minerals contained in veins or lodes, or "rock in place," 
 including lead, copper, gold, silver, cinnabar, iron. &c., are 
 sold at the rate of $5 per acre. Lands containing placer" 
 deposits of minerals are sold at the rate of $2.50 per acre. 
 In the States above excepted all lands are sold as agricultural. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 597 
 
 Coal lands are sold at $20 per acre where situated within 
 fifteen miles of a completed railroad ; otherwise at $10 per 
 acre. Desert forw^s are sold at $1.25 per acre; Saline lands 
 at $1.25 per acre ; and Timber and stone lands at $2.50 per acre. 
 
 Saline Lands. — In the act of Congress of May 18, 1796, 
 which provided for the sale of the public lands in a portion 
 of the territory northwest of the river Ohio, was a proviso 
 that salt springs were to be reserved for the use of the United 
 States, togethsr with a section of one mile square, which 
 should include the spring. A whole township of land was 
 to be reserved wii.h one particular spring named in the act, 
 situated on a creek emptying into the Scioto River. By the 
 act of 1800 the surveyor-general had authority to lease these 
 reserved lands. The acta for the admission of all the pub- 
 lic-land States up to Nevada, gave to them all the salines 
 not exceeding twelve in number in the respective States, 
 together with six sections of land with each spring for school 
 purposes and public improvements. 
 
 Not subject to entry underpre-emption or homestead law. — 
 In the pre-emption act of September 4, 1841, sec. 10, it warj 
 ordered that no lands on which are situated any known 
 salines, or mines, shall be liable to entry under and by virtue 
 of the provisions of this act." The homestead act of May 
 20, 1862, reaffirmsd the exceptions in the pre-emption act of 
 1841, and its amendments. Salines were disposed of by 
 speuial acts of Congress — ^until after the admission of the 
 State of Nebraska into the Union, March 1, 1837. 
 
 Okange in Saline Laws. — The act of January 12, 1877 (see 
 circular General Land Office April 10, 1877), provided a new 
 mode of proceeding by which such lands are rendered sub- 
 ject to disposal as other public lands. Under its provisions 
 a hearing is ordered and witnesses are examined as to the 
 character of the land in question, and the testimony taken 
 at the hearing is transmitted to the General Land Office for 
 its decision. Should the tracts be adjudged agricultural, 
 they will be subject to disposal as such. Should the tracts 
 be adjudged saline in character, they would be offered at 
 public sale to the highest bidder for cash, at a price of not 
 less than $1.25 per acre. In case they are not sold, the same 
 will be subject to private sale at a price of not less than 
 $1.25 per acre, in the same manner as other public lands are 
 sold. This law is not operative in the Territories nor in the 
 States of Mississippi, Florida, Louisiana, California, and 
 Nevada, because their former saline grants have not as yet 
 been filled. 
 
 Area of Grants to the several States. — The follow- 
 ing table shows the area and dates of grants by Congress, 
 of salines to the several States : 
 
 States. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Under what acts of 
 Congreee. 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Indiana . ... . 
 
 Illinois ... 
 
 Missouri . 
 
 Alabama . . 
 
 Michigan .... 
 
 Arkansas .... . . 
 
 Iowa . . . . 
 
 Minnesota . . 
 
 Oregon . . . .... 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Nebraska • • ... ... 
 
 24,216 
 
 23,040 
 121,029 
 46,080 
 23,040 
 46,080 
 46,080 
 46,080 
 46,080 
 46,080 
 46,080 
 46,080 
 
 Mayl8, 1706; April, 
 30, 1802; March 
 26, 1804. 
 
 April 19, 1816. 
 
 Anril 18, 1818. 
 
 March 6, 1820. 
 
 December 14, 1819. 
 
 June 23, 1836. 
 
 June 23, 1836. 
 
 March 3, 1845. 
 
 February 26,1857. 
 
 February 14, 1859. 
 
 January 29, 1861. 
 
 April 19, 1864. 
 
 Total 
 
 669,965 
 
 
 Note.— With the exception of the States of Ohio, Indiana, and Ala- 
 bama, each of which were granted thirty-six sections of land lying con- 
 tiguous to the salt springs, six sections for each, for the use thereof; and 
 of the State of Illinois which was granted all the Springs in the State, 
 and the same quantity of land for each, the remaining States in the 
 above list were each granted twelve springs together with six sections 
 of land for the use of each spring lying contiguous thereto. They were 
 patented by the United States to the several States, which disposed of 
 them as they tliought best. 
 
 TIMBER AND TIMBER CULTURE. 
 
 Sec. 256. All citizens of the United States and other per- 
 sons, Ijona-fide residents of the State of Colorado, or Nevada, 
 or either of the territories of New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, 
 
 Wyoming, Dakota, Idaho, or Montana, and all other min- 
 eral districts of the United States, shall be, and are hereby, 
 authorized and are permitted to fell and remove, for build- 
 ing, agricultural, mining, or other domestic purposes, any 
 timber or other trees growing or being on the public lands, 
 said lands being mineral, and not subject to entry under 
 existing laws of the United States, except for mineral entry, 
 in either of said States, territories, or districts of which such 
 citizens or persons may be at the time bona fide residents, 
 subject to such rules and regulations as the Secretary of the 
 Interior may prescribe for the protection of the timber and 
 of the undergrowth growing upon such lands, and for other 
 purposes, provided, that the foregoing provisions shall not 
 extend to railroad corporations. 
 
 20 Stat. 88. TJ. S. v. Nelson, 5 Saw C. C. 68. 1 Op. Att. Gen. 
 471, 475. Rogers v. Soggs, 22 Cal. 444. Cir. G. L. O., Aug. 
 15, 1878 (6 Copp's L. O. 21). 
 
 Sec. 257. It shall be the duty of the register and the re- 
 ceiver of any local land office in whose district any mineral 
 land may be situated to ascertain from time to time whether 
 any timber is being cut or used upon any such lands, except 
 for the purposes authorized in the preceding section, within 
 their respective land districts; and, if so, they shall imme- 
 diately notify the Commissioner of the General Land Office 
 of that fact ; and all necessary expenses incurred in making 
 such proper examinations shall be paid and allowed such 
 register and receiver in making up their next quarterly ac- 
 counts. 
 
 20 Stat. 88. Cir. G. L. 0., Aug 15, 1878 (6 Copp's L. 0. 21). 
 
 Sec. 258. Any person or persons who shall violate the 
 provisions of the two next preceding sections, or any rules 
 and regulations in pursuance thereof made by the Secretary 
 of the Interior, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, 
 and, upon conviction, shall be fined in any sum not exceed- 
 ing five hundred dollars, and to which may be added im- 
 prisonment for any term not exceeding six months. 
 
 20 Stat. 89. Cotton v. U. S., 11 How. 229 ; Hutchins v King, 
 1 Wall. 53 ; Sohuleuber v. Harriman, 21 id. 44. U. S. v. 
 Nelson, 5 Saw. C. C. 68. 1 Op. Att. Gen. 194, 471, 475. Cir. 
 G. L. O., Aug. 15, 1878 (6 Copp's L. O. 21). 
 
 Sec. 259. Surveyed public lands of the United States 
 within the States of California, Oregon, and Nevada, and 
 in Washington Territory, not included within military, 
 Indian, or other reservations of the United States, valuable 
 chiefly for timber, but unfit for cultivation, and which have 
 not been offered at public sale according to law, may be sold 
 to citizens of the United States, or persons who have declared 
 their intention to become such, in quantities not exceeding 
 one hundred and sixty acres to any one person or associa- 
 tion of persons, at the minimum price of two dollars and 
 fifty cents per acre ; and lands valuable chiefly for stone 
 may be sold on the same terms as timber lands ; pro- 
 vided, that nothing herein contained shall defeat or im- 
 pair any bona-flde claim under any law of the United 
 States, or authorize the sale of any mining claim, or the 
 improvements of any bona-fide settler, or lands contain- 
 iiig gold, silver, cinnabar, copper, or coal, or lands se- 
 lected by the said States under any law of the United 
 States donating lands for internal improvements, educa- 
 tion, or other purposes : And provided further, That none 
 of the rights conferred by the act approved July twenty- 
 sixth, eighteen hundred and sixty-six, entitled " An act 
 granting the right of way to ditch and canal owners over 
 the public lands, and for other purposes," shall be abrogated 
 by this act ; and all patents granted shall be subject to any 
 vested and accrued water rights, or rights to ditches and 
 reservoirs used in connection with such water rights, as 
 may have been acquired under and by the provisions of 
 said act ; and such rights shall be expressly reserved in 
 any patent issued under this act. 
 
 14 Stat. 251 ; 20 id. 89 ; E. S. 2339, 2340, 2341. McFarland v. 
 Culbertson, 2 Nev. 280 ; Peck v. Brown, 5 id. 81 ; Eureka 
 Mg. Co. V. Way 11 id. 171. Decison Com. G. L. O., Juna 6, 
 1874 (1 Copp's L. O. 58). Cir. G. L. 0., May 1, 1880 (7 
 Copp's L. O. 26). 
 
 _ Sec. 260. Any person desiring to avail himself of the pro- 
 visions of this act shall file with the register of the proper 
 district a written statement in duplicate, one of which is to 
 
598 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 be transmitted to the General Land Office, designating by 
 legal subdivisions the particular tract of land he desires to 
 purchase, setting forth that the same is unfit for cultivation, 
 and valuable chiefly for its timber or stone; that it is unin- 
 habited ; contains no mining or other improvements, except 
 for ditch or canal purposes, where any such do exist, save 
 such as were made by or belong to the applicant, nor, as de- 
 ponent verily- believes, any valuable deposit of gold, silver, 
 cinnabar, copper, or coal ; that deponent has made no other 
 application under this act ; that he does not apply to pur- 
 chase the same on speculation, but in good faith to appro- 
 priate it to his own exclusive use and benefit ; and that he 
 has not, directly or indirectly, made any agreement or con- 
 tract, in any way or manner, with any person or persons 
 whatsoever, by which the title which he might acquire from 
 the Government of the United States should inure, in 
 whole or in part, to the benefit of any person except him- 
 self ; which statement must be verified by the oath of the 
 applicant before the register or the receiver of the land 
 office within the district where the land is situated ; and if 
 any person taking such oath shall swear falsely in the 
 premises, he shall be sulMect to all the pains and penalties 
 of perjury, and shall forfeit the money which he may have 
 paid for said lands, and all right and title to the same ; and 
 any grant or conveyance which he may have made, except 
 in the hands of bona-fide purchasers, shall be null and 
 void. 
 
 20 Stat. 89. Cir. G. 0. L., May 1, 1880 (7 Copp's L. 0. 26.) 
 
 Sec. 231. Upon the filing of said statement, as provided 
 in the preceding section, the register of the land office shall 
 post a notice of such application, embracing a description of 
 the land by legal subdivisions, in his office, for a period of 
 sixty days, and shall furnish the applicant a copy of the 
 same for publication, at the expense of such applicant, in a 
 newspaper published nearest the location of the premises, 
 for a like period of time ; and after the expiration of said 
 sixty days, if no adverse claim shall have been filed, the 
 person desiring to purchase shall furnish to the register of 
 the land office satisfactory evidence, first, that said notice of 
 the application prepared by the register as aforesaid was 
 duly published in a newspaper as herein required ; secondly, 
 that the land is of the character contemplated in this act, 
 unoccupied and without improvements, other than those ex- 
 cepted, either mining or agricultural, and that it apparently 
 contains no valuable deposits of gold, silver, cinnabar, cop- 
 per, or coal ; and upon payment to the proper officer of 
 the purchase money of said land, together with the fees of 
 the register and the receiver, as provided for in case of min- 
 ing claims in the one hundred and thirty-seventh section, 
 the applicant may be permitted to enter said tract, and, on 
 the transmission to the General Land Office of the papers 
 and testimony in the case, a patent shall issue thereon ; pro- 
 vided, that any person having a valid claim to any portion 
 of the land may object, in writing, to the issuance of a 
 patent to lands so held by him, stating the nature of his 
 claim thereto ; and evidence shall be taken, and the merits 
 of said objection shall be determined by the officers of the 
 land office, subject to appeal, as in other land cases. Effect 
 shall be given to the foregoing provisions of this act by 
 regulations to be prescribed by the Commissioner of the 
 General Land Office. 
 
 17 Stat. 95; 20 id. 89. R. S. 223S. MoFarland v. Culbertson, 2 
 Nev. 280 : Peck v. Brown, 5 id. 81. Cir. G. L. O., May 1, 1880 
 (7 Copp's L. 0. 26). 
 
 Sec. 262. After the passage of this act it shall be unlaw- 
 ful to cut, or cause or procure to be cut, or wantonly destroy 
 any timber growing on , any lands of the United States, in 
 said States and Territory, or remove, or cause to be removed, 
 any timber from said public lands, with intent to export or 
 dispose of the same ; and no owner, master, or consignee of 
 any vessel, or owner, director, or agent of any railroad .shall 
 knowingly transport the same, or any lumber manufactured 
 therefrom ; and any person violating the provisions of this 
 section shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and, on conviction, 
 shall be fined for every such offence a sum not less than one 
 hundred nor more than one thousand dollars; provided, 
 that nothing herein contained shall prevent any miner or 
 agriculturalist from clearing his land in the ordinary work- 
 
 ing of his niining claim, or preparing his farm for tillage, 
 or from taking the timber necessary to support his improve- 
 ments, or the taking of timber for the use of the United 
 States; and the penalties herein provided shall not take 
 effect until ninety days after the passage of this act. 
 
 20 Stat. 90. Cotton v. U. S.. 11 How. 229. TJ. S. v. McEutee, U. 
 S. Dist. Ct. Minn., Oct. 1877. Decision Com. G. L. 0. Dec 
 11, 1878, (6 Copp's L. O. 76). Cir. G. L. O., Aug. IS, 1878 (6 
 Copp's L. 0. 21); May 1, 1880 (7 id. 26). 
 
 Sec. 263. Any person prosecuted in said States and terri- 
 tory for violating section two hundred and sixty-eight, who 
 is not prosecuted for cutting timber for export Irom the 
 United States, may be relieved from further prosecution 
 and liability therefor upon payment, into the court wherein 
 said action is pending, of the sum of two dollars and fifty 
 cents per acre for all lands on which he shall have cut or 
 caused to be cut timber, or removed or caused to be removed 
 the same; provided, that nothing contained in this section 
 shall be construed as granting to the person hereby relieved 
 the title to said lands for said payment ; but he shall have 
 the right to purchase the same upon the same terms and 
 conditions as other persons, as provided hereinbefore in 
 this act ; and further provided, that all moneys collected 
 under this act shall be covered into the treasury of the 
 United States. And section four thousand seven hundred 
 and fifty-one of the Revised Statutes is hereby repealed, so 
 far as it relates to the States and territory herein named. 
 
 20 Stat. 90, 91. U. S. v. Nelson, 5 Saw. C. C. 68. Cir. G. L. O., 
 Aug. 15, 1878 (6 Copp's L. O. 21). 
 
 Sec. 264. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent with the 
 provisions of the five preceding sections are repealed. 
 
 20 Stat. 90, 91. 
 
 Sec. 265. The Secretary of the Navy is authorized, under 
 the direction of the President, to cause such vacant and un- 
 appropriated lands of the United States as produce the live- 
 oak and red-cedar timbers to be explored, and selection to 
 be made of such tracts or portions thereof, where the prin- 
 cipal growth is of either of such timbers, as in his judgment 
 may be necessary to furnish for the Navy a sufficient supply 
 of the same. 
 
 3 Stat. 347, 607; 4 id. 242; R. S. 2458. U. S. v. Briggs, 9 How. 
 351. Cir. G. L. O., Aug. 8, 1831, (2 Laws, Instmetiona and 
 Opinions, 455). 
 
 Sec. 266. The President is authorized to appoint survey- 
 ors of public lands, who shall perform the duties prescribed 
 in the preceding section, and report to him the tracts by 
 them selected, with the boundaries ascertained and accu- 
 rately designated by actual survey or water courses ; and 
 the tracts of land thus selected with the approbation of the 
 President shall be reserved, unless otherwise directed by 
 law, from any future sale of the public lands, and be appro- 
 priated to the sole purpose of supplying timber for the Navy 
 of the United States ; but nothing in this section contained 
 shall be construed to prejudice the prior rights of any per- 
 son claiming lands, which may reserved in the manner 
 herein provided. 
 
 3 Stat. 347 ; R. S. 2459. U. S. v. Briggs, 9 How. 351. 2 Op. 
 Att. Gen. 524. Cir. G. L. O., Aug. 8, 1831 (2 Laws, Instruc- 
 tions, and Opinions, 455). 
 
 Sec. 267. The President is authorized to employ so much 
 of the land and naval forces of the United States as may 
 be necessaiy effectually to prevent the felling, cutting down, 
 or other destruction of the timber of the United States in 
 Florida, and to prevent the transportation or carrying away 
 any such timber as may be already felled or cut down; and 
 to take such other and further measures as may be deemed 
 advisable for the preservation of the timber of the United 
 States in Florida. 
 
 3 Stat. 651 . K. S. 2460. Schulonberg v. Harriniaji, 21 Wall. 44. 
 
 Sec. 208. If any person shall cut, or cause or procure to 
 be cut, or aid, assist, or be employed in cutting, or shall 
 wantonly destroy, or cause or procure to be wantonly de- 
 stroyed, or aid, assist, or be employed in wantonly destroy- 
 ing any live-oak or red-cedar trees, or other timber standing, 
 growing, or being on any lands of the United States, whidi 
 in pursuance of any law passed, or hereafter to be passed, 
 
THE MINES, MIl^EES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 599 
 
 have been reserved or purchased for the use of the United 
 States, for supplying or furnishing therefrom timber for the 
 Navy of the United States ; or if any person shall remove, 
 or cause or procure to be removed, or aid, or assist, or be 
 employed in removing from any such lands which have been 
 reserved or purchased, any live-oak or red-cedar trees, or 
 other timber, unless duly authorized so to do, by order, in 
 writing, of a competent officer, and for the use of the Navy 
 of the United States ; or if any person shall cut, or cause 
 or procure to be cut, or aid, or assist, or be employed in cut- 
 ting any live oak or red-cedar trees, or other timber on, or 
 shall remove, or cause or procure to be removed, or aid, or 
 assist, or he employed in removing any live-oak or red-cedar 
 trees or other timber, from any other lands of the United 
 States, acquired or hereafter to be acquired, with intent to 
 export, dispose of, use, or employ the same in any manner 
 whatsoever, other than for the use of theNavy of the United 
 States ; e^^ery such person shall pay a fine not less than 
 triple the value of the trees or timber so cut, destroyed, or 
 removed, and shall be imprisoned not exceeding twelve 
 months. 
 
 4 Stat. 472; E. S. 2461. U. S. v. Brig?s, 9 How. 351; Cotton v. 
 V. S., 11 id. 229; Hutchins v. Kin?, 1 Wall. 53; Sehuleu- 
 berg V. Harriman, 21 id. 44. U. Si v. MoEntee, U. S. Dist. 
 Ct. Minn., Oct. 1877, in manuscript; ,U. S. v. Nelson, 5 Saw. 
 C. C. 68. Kansas i). Harrold, 9 Kansas, 194; Stevens v. Per- 
 rier, 12 id. 297; Jamjs v. Snelson, 3 Mo. 278; Turley i;. 
 Tucker, 6 id. 583; Hower v. Higbee. 9 id. 259; Keetou v. 
 Andsley, 19 id. 362 ; Woodruff v. Koberts, 4 La. Ann. 127 ; 
 Lovett V. Noble, 1 Ssamni. (Ills.) 185, 11 111. 523, Nincher 
 V. Schrewsbury, 2 Scamm. 111. 284 ; Rogers v. Soggs, 22 
 Cal. 444. 1 Op. Att. Gen. 194, 471, 475 ; 2 id. 524. Decisions 
 See. Int., Deo. 26, 1854 (1 Lester's L. L. 629). Decisions 
 Com. G. L. O., Sept. 1, 1865 (Zab. L. L. 891) ; June 29, 1874. 
 1 Copp's L. O. 102) ;' Dec. 11, 187* (6 id. 76). Cir. G. L. O. 
 Deo. 24, 1855 (Zab. L. L. 888; Copp's L. L. 658; 1 Copp's 
 L. O. 102J; May 2, 1877 (4 Copp's L. O. 55); Aug. 15, 1878 
 6 id. 21); June 27, 1879 (6 id. 59); May 1, 1880 (7 id. 26). 
 
 Sec. 269. If the master, owner, or consignee of any ves- 
 sel shall knowingly take on board any timber cut on lands 
 which have been reserved or purchased as in the preceding 
 section prescribed, without proper autitiority, and for the use 
 of the Navy of the United States ; or shall take on board 
 any live-oak or red-cedar timber cut on any other lands of 
 the United States, with intent to transport the same to any 
 port or place within the United States or to export the same 
 to any foreign country, the vessel on board of which the 
 same shall be taken, transported, or seized, shall, with her 
 tackle, apparel, and furniture, be wholly forfeited to the 
 United States, and the captain or master of such vessel 
 wherein the same was exported to any foreign country 
 against the provisions of this section shall forfeit and pay 
 to the United States a sum not exceeding one thousand 
 dollars. 
 
 4 Stat. 472; E. S. 2462. 4 Op. Att. Gen. 247, 339, 403. 
 
 Sec. 270. It shall be the duty of all collectors of the cus- 
 toms within the States of Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, 
 apd Florida, before allowing a clearance to any vessel laden 
 in whole or in part with live-oak timber, to ascertain satis- 
 factorily that such timber was cut from private lands, or if 
 from public ones, by consent of the Navy Department. And 
 it is also made the duty of all officers of the customs, and 
 of the land officers within those States, to cause prosecu- 
 tions to be seasonably instituted against all persons known 
 to be guilty of depredations on, or injuries to, the live-oak 
 growing on the public lands. 
 
 4 Stat. 647 ; E. S. 2468. 4 Op. Att. Gen. 403. 
 
 Sec. 271. The Secretary of the Navy is authorized to 
 cause an examination to be made of the condition of all 
 lands in the State of Florida which have been set apart or 
 reserved for naval purposes, excepting the reservation upon 
 which the navy yard at Pensacola is located, and. to ascer- 
 tain whether or not such reserved lands are or will be of 
 any value to the Government of the United States for naval 
 purposes. 
 
 20 Stat. 470, 471. 
 
 Sec. 272. All of said lands which, in the judgment of the 
 Secretary of the Navy, are no longer required for naval pur- 
 poses shall, as soon as practicable, be certified by him to the 
 Secretary of the Interior, and be subject to entry and sale in 
 
 the same manner and under the same conditions as other 
 public lands of the United States : Provided, That all per- 
 sons who have, in good faith, made improvements on said 
 reserved lands so certified' on the third day of March, eigh- 
 teen hundred and seventy-nine ,and who occupy the same, 
 shall be entitled to purchase the part or parts so occupied 
 and improved by them, not to exceed one hundred and sixty 
 acres to any one person at one dollar and twenty-five cents 
 per acre within such reasonable time as may be fixed by the 
 Secretary of the Interior. 
 20 Stat. 471. 
 
 Sec. 273. If any person or persons shall knowingly and 
 unlawfully cut, or shall knowingly aid, assist, or be employed 
 in unlawfully cutting, or shall wantonly destroy or injure, 
 or procure to be wantonly destroyed or injured, any timber 
 tree or any shade or ornamental tree, or any other kind of 
 tree, standing, growing, or being upon any lands of the 
 United States, which, in pursuance of law, have been re- 
 served, or which have been purchased by the United States 
 for any public use, every such person or persons so offend- 
 ing, on conviction thereof before any circuit or district 
 court of the United States, shall, for every such offense, pay 
 a fine not exceeding five hundred dollars, or shall be im- 
 prisoned not exceeding twelve months : Provided, That 
 nothing in this section shall be construed to apply to unsur- 
 veyed public lands and to public lands subject to pre-emp- 
 tion and homestead laws, nor to public lands subject to an 
 act to promote the development of the mining resources of 
 the United States, approved May tenth, eighteen hundred 
 and seventy-two. 
 
 18 Stat. 481, 482. U. S. v. Briggs, 9 How. 351 : Cotton v. U. S., 
 11 id., 229 : HutcMns«. King, 1 Wall. 53. 1 Op. Att. Gen. 194.' 
 
 Sec. 274. When any lands of the United States, not min- 
 eral, shall have been entered and the government price paid 
 therefor in fTill, no criminal suit or proceeding by or in the 
 name of the United States shall thereafter be had or further 
 maintained for any trespasses upon or for or on account of 
 any material taken from said lands, and no civil suit or pro- 
 ceeding shall be had or further maintained for or on account 
 of any trespasses upon or material taken from the said lands 
 of the United States in the ordinary clearing of la,nd, in 
 working a mining claim, or for agricultural or domestic pur- 
 poses, or for maintaining improvements upon the land of 
 any bona-fide settler, or for or on account of any timber or 
 material taken or used by any person without fault or know- 
 ledge of the trespass, or for or on account of any timber 
 taken of used without fraud or collusion by any person who, 
 in good faith, paid the officers or agents of the United States 
 for the same, or for or on account of any ialleged conspiracy 
 in relation thereto : Provided, That the provisions of this 
 section shall apply only to trespasses and acts done or com- 
 mitted and conspiracies entered into prior to March first, 
 eighteen hundred and seventy-nine : And provided further, 
 That defendants in such suits or proceedings shall exhibit 
 to the proper courts or officer the evidence of such entry and 
 payment, and shall pay all costs accrued up to the time of 
 such entry. 
 
 Act of June 15, 1880. U. S. v. MoEntee, XJ. S. Dist. a. Minn., 
 Oct. 1877, in manuscript. Decision Com. G. L. O., June 29, 
 1874 (1 Copp's L. O. 162). Cir. G. L. O., July 17, 1880 (7 
 Copp's L. O. 89). 
 '. Sec. 275. The act entitled " An act to amend the act enti- 
 jtled 'An act to encourage the growth of timber on western 
 prairies,' " approved March thirteenth, eighteen hundred and 
 seventy-four, is amended to read as follows : That any per- 
 son who is the head of a family, or who has arrived at the 
 age of twenty-one years, and is a citizen of the United States, 
 or who shall have filed his declaration of intention to become 
 such, as required by the naturalization laws of the United 
 States, who shall plant, protect, and keep in a healthy, grow- 
 ing condition for eight years ten acres of timber, on any 
 quarter-section of any of the public lands of the United 
 States, or five acres on any legal subdivision of eighty acres, 
 or two and one-half acres on any legal subdivision of forty 
 acres or less, shall be entitled to a patent for the whole of 
 said quarter-section, or of such legal subdivision of eighty or 
 forty acres, or fractional subdivision of less than forty acres, 
 as the case may be, at the expiration of said eight years, on 
 making .proof of such fact by not less than two credible wit- 
 
600 
 
 THE ]\nNES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE. UNITED STATES. 
 
 nesses, and a full compliance of the further conditions as 
 provided in the next section : Provided, That not more than 
 one quarter of any section shall be thus granted, and that 
 no person shall make more than one entry under the provi- 
 sions of this law. 
 
 20 Stat. 113, 114, 115. Decisions Sec.Int., July 31, 1876 (3 Copp's 
 L. 0. 73) ; Au„'. 3, 1876 (3 id. 122, Jan. 4, 1877, 3 id. 181) ; Sept. 
 24, 1877 (4 id. 134) ; Feb. 12, 1879 (6 id. 22) ; Aug. 23, 1879 (6 id. 
 113); Sept. 12, 1879: Dee. 4, 1879 (6 Copp's L.0. 153); April 
 30, 1880 (7 id. 39). Decisions Com. G. L. O., June 10, 1873 
 (Copp's L.L. 6.57); June 24, 1873 (id. 652: June 6, 1874, id. 
 653 ; 1 Copp's L. 0. 58) ; June 20, 1874 (Copp's L. L. 658) ; June 
 30, 1874 {id. 656) ; Aug. 4. 1874 {id. 654 ; 1 Copp's L. 0. 92) ; 
 Aug. 17, 1874 (1 Copp's L. O. 92) ; Oct. 23, 1874 (Copp's L. 
 L. 655; 2 Copp's L. O. 33); Dec. 11, 1874 (6 Copp's L. O. 
 174); Aug. 16, 1875 (2 id. 86); March 27, 1876 (3 M. 3) ; 
 June 30, 1876 (i id.li); July 6, 1876 (3 id. 71) ; July 6, 
 1876 (3 id. 71) ; July 17, 1876 (3 id. 72) ; Dec. 12, 1876, (3 id. 
 172) ; Jan. 27, 1877 (3 id. 179) ; April 9, 1877 (4 id. 162); July 
 25, 1877 (4 id. 85); Deo. 18, 1879 (6 id. 154); March 16, 1880 
 (7 id. 6); April 15, 1880 (7 id. 25) ; May 18, 1880 (7 id. 39). 
 Cir. G. L. O., May 3, 1876 fi Copp's L. 0. 38) ; June 27, 1878 
 
 (5 id. 77) ; — , 1878 (5 id. 118). General Cir., Sept. 1, 1879, 
 
 pp. 23, 26. 
 
 Sec. 276. The parson applying for the benefits of this law 
 shall, upon application to the register of the land district in 
 which ho or she is about to make such entry, make affidavit, 
 before the register or the receiver, or the clerk of some court 
 of record, or officer authorized to administer oaths in the 
 district where the land is situated ; which affidavit shall be 
 
 as follows, to wit: I, •, having filed my application, 
 
 number — , for an entry under the provisions of an act en- 
 titled "An act to amend an act entitled 'An act to encourage 
 the growth of timber on the western prairies,' " approved 
 
 , 187- do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I am the 
 
 head of a family (or over twenty-one years of age), and a 
 citizen of the United States (or have declared my intention 
 to become such) ; that the section of land specified in my 
 said application is composed exclusively of prairie lands, 
 or other lands devoid of timber ; that this filing and entry 
 is made for the cultivation of timber, and for my own ex- 
 clusive use and benefit ; that I have made the said applica- 
 tion in good faith, and not for the purpose of speculation, 
 or directly or indirectly for the use or benefit of any other 
 person or persons whatsoever; that I intend to hold anl 
 cultivate the land, and to fully comply with the provisions 
 of the law ; and that I have not heretofore made an entry 
 under the timber culture laws. 
 
 20 Stat. 113, 114, 115. Decisions Sec. Int., May 15, 1876 (3 
 Copp's L. O. 38); July 31, 1876 (3 id. 73); Jan. 4, 1877 (3 id. 
 181); Sept. 24, 1877 (4 id. 134); Sept. 12, 1879. Decisions 
 Com. G. L. O., June 6, 1874 (Copp's L. L. 653 ; 1 Copp's L. 
 O. 58); Aug. 6, 1874 (Copp's L. L. 654); Oct. 23, 1874 {id. 
 655; 2 Copp's L. L. 39); Dec. 11, 1874; Jan. 24, 1879; Dec. 
 18, 1879 (6 Copp's L. O. 154). Cir. G. L. 0., Jan. 8, 1878, (4 
 
 Copp's L. 0. 167); June 27, 1878 (5 id. 77); , 1878 (5 id. 
 
 118). Gen. Cir. G. L. O., Sept. 1, 1879, p. 25. 
 
 Sec. 277. Upon filing said affidavit with the register and 
 receiver and on payment of ten dollars, if the tract applied 
 for is more than eighty acres, and five dollars if it is eighty 
 acres or less, he or she shall thereupon be permitted to en- 
 ter the quantity of land specified and the party making an 
 entry of a quarter-section shall be required to break or plow 
 five acres covered thereby the first year, five acres the second 
 year, and to cultivate to crop or otherwise the five acres 
 broken or plowed the first year ; the third year he or she 
 shall cultivate to crop or otherwise the five acres broken the 
 second year, and to plant in timber, seeds, or cuttings the 
 five acres first broken or plowed, and to cultivate and put 
 in crop or otherwise the remaining five acres, and the fourth 
 year to plant in timber, seeds, or cuttings the remaining five 
 acres. All entries of less quantity than one quarter-section 
 shall be plowed, planted, cultivated and planted to trees, 
 tree-seeds, or cuttings, in the same manner and in the same 
 proportion as hereinbefore provided for a quarter-section : 
 Provided, however, That in case such trees, seeds, or cuttings 
 shall be destroyed by grasshoppers, or by extreme and un- 
 usual drouth for any year or term of years, the time for 
 planting such trees, seeds, or cuttings shall be e.xtended one 
 year for every such year that they are so destroyed : Pro- 
 vided, further, That the person making such rntry shall, 
 before he or she shall be entitled to such extension of time, 
 
 file with the register and the receiver of the proper land 
 office an affidavit, corroborated by two witnesses, setting 
 forth the destruction of such trees, and that, in consequence 
 of such destruction, he or she is compelled to ask an exten- 
 sion of time, in accordance with the provisions of this law. 
 
 20 Stat. 113, 114, 115. Decisions Sec. Int., May 17,1876 (3 
 Copp's L. O. 38); Deo. 23, 1876 (3 id. 180); April 2, 1877 {iid. 
 21); May 29, 1878 (5 id. 87) ; Dec. 4, 1879 (6 id. 153) ; April 
 30, 1880 (7 id. 39) ; May 31, 1880 (7 id. 39). Decisions Com. 
 
 ■ G. L. O., June 24, 1873 (Copp's L. L. 652) ; July 25, 1874 {id. 
 653; 1 Copp's L. O. 92); Aug. 4, 1874 (Copp's L.L. 654); 
 Dec. 11, 1874; Jan. 21, 1875 (1 Copp's L. O. 171); Feb. 11, 
 1875 (Copp's L. L. 654 ; 1 Copp's L. O. 181) ; June 28, 1875 (2 
 Copp's L. O. 54) ; July 1, 1875 (2 id. 54) ; Sept. 27, 1875 (2 id. 
 100) ; Dec. 3, 1875 (2 id. 133) ; July 6, 1876 (3 id. 72) ; July 
 17, 1876 (3 id. 71) ; April 9, 1877 (4 id. 162) ; July 18, 1877 (4 
 id. 162) ; July 24, 1877 (4 id. 85); Jan. 24, 1879; May 18, 
 1880 (7 Copp's L. O. 39). Cir. G. L. O., April 6, 1874 (Copp's 
 L. L. 649 ; 1 Copp's L. O. 26). General Cir. G. L. O., Sept. 
 1, 1879, pp. 25, 27. 
 
 Sec. 278. No final certificate shall be given, or patent is- 
 sued, for the land so entered until the expiration of eight 
 years from the date of such entry ; and if, at the expiration 
 of such time, or at any time within five years thereafter, 
 the person making such entry, or, if he or she be dead, his 
 or her heirs or legal representatives, shall prove by two 
 credible witnesses that he or she or they have planted, and, 
 for not less than eight years, have cultivated and protected 
 such quantity and character of trees as aforesaid ; that not 
 less than twenty-seven hundred trees were planted on each 
 acre, and that at the time of making such proof that there 
 shall be then growing at least six hundred and seventy-five 
 living and thrifty trees to each acre, they shall receive a 
 patent for such tract of land. 
 
 20 Stat. 113, 114, 115. Decisions Sec. Int., Dec. 23, 1876 (3 
 Copp's L. 0. 180) ; Nov. 14, 1877 (4 id. 134» ; Dec. 22, 1877 (5 
 5 id. 21) ; Sept. 17, 1878 (5 id. 119) ; April 30, 1880 (7 id. 39). 
 Decisions Com. G. L. O., June 24, 1873 (Copp's L. L. 652) ; 
 Feb. 11, 1875 {id. 654) ; March 11, 1875 {id. 655); March 23, 
 
 1875 {id. 656) ; June 28, 1875 (2 Copp's L. 0. 54) ; July 1, 1875 
 (2 id. 54) ; Sept. 2, 1875 (2 id. 117) ; Dec. 3, 1875 (2 id. 134) ; 
 March 10, 1877 (4 id. 162) ; Jan. 8, 1878 (4 id. 167) ; May 18, 
 1880 (7 id. 39). Cir. G. L. 0., June 27, 1878 (5 Copp's L. O. 
 77). General Cir. G. L. O., Sept. 1, 1879, p. 24. 
 
 Sec. 279. If at any time after the filing of said affidavit, 
 and prior to the issuing of the patent for said land, the 
 claimant shall fail to comply with any of the requirements 
 of this law, then and in that event such land shall be sub- 
 ject to entry under the homestead laws, or by some other 
 person under the provisions of this law : Provided, That the 
 party making claim to said land, either as a homestead set- 
 tler, or under this law, shall give at the time of filing his 
 application, such notice to the original claimant as shall be 
 2)rescribed by the rules establi-^hed by the Commissioner of 
 the General Land Office; and the rights of the parties shall 
 be determined as in other contested cases. 
 
 20 Stat. 113, 114, 115. Decisions Sec. Int., March 19, 1877 (4 
 Copp's L. O. 21) ; May 28, 1877 (4 id. 54) ; Sept. 17, 1878 (5 
 id. 119) ; Aug. 23, 1879 (6 id. 113) ; March 4, 1880 (7 id. 39) ; 
 May 31, 1880 (7 id. 39). Decisions Com. G. L. O., June 30, 
 1874 (Copp's L. L. 656) ; Dec. 11, 1874 (6 Copp's L. 0. 174) ; 
 March 11, 1875 (Copp's L. L. 655) ; March 23, 1875 {id. 656); 
 March 25, 1875 {id. 637) ; Oct. 30, 1875 (2 Copp's L. O. 117); 
 Feb. 18, 1876 (2 id. 180) ; May 11, 1876 (3 id. 22) ; July 20, 
 
 1876 (3 id. 72) ; March 30, 1877 (4 id. 76) ; July 13, 1877 {iid. 
 77); Dec. 4, 1877 (4 id. 149) ; Nov. 1, 1878 (5 id. 147) ; March 
 4, 1879 (6 id. 126) ; Oct. 22, 1879; Feb. 17, 1880; April 15, 
 1880 (7 Copp's L. O. 25). Cir. G. L. C, Dec. 28, 1877 (4 id. 
 166); June 27, 1878 (5 /'/. 77); . 1878 (5 id. 118); Gen- 
 eral Cir. G. L. O., Sept. 1, 1879, pp. 25, 27. 
 
 Sec. 280. No land acquired under the provisions of this 
 law shall, in any event, become liable to tne satisfaction of 
 any debt or debts contracted prior to the issuing of the final 
 certificate therefor. 
 
 20 Stat. 113, 114, 115. Cir. O. L. O., June 25. 1878 (5 Copp's 
 L. O. 77). General Cir. G. L. O., Sept. 1, 1879, p. 25. 
 
 Sec. 281. The Commissioner of the General Land Office is 
 required to prepare and issue such rules and regulations, 
 consistent with this law, as shall be necessary and proper to 
 carry its provisions into eifect ; and the registers and receiv- 
 ers of the several land offices shall each be entitled to receive 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 601 
 
 two dollars at the time of entry, and the like sum when the 
 claim is finally established and the final certificate issued. 
 
 20 Stat. 113, 114, 115. 
 
 Sec. 282. The fifth section of the act entitled "An act in 
 addition to an act to punish crimes against the United States, 
 and for other purposes," approved March third, eighteen 
 hundred and fifty-seven, shall extend to all oaths, affirmations, 
 and affidavits required or authorized by this act. 
 
 11 Stat. 250; 20 id. 113, 114, 115; R. S. 5392. Cir. G. L. 0., 
 June 27, 1878 (5 Copp's L. O. 77). General Cir. G. L. O., 
 Sept. 1, 1879, p. 26. 
 
 Sec. 283. Parties who have already made entries under the 
 acts approved March third, eighteen hundred and seventy- 
 three, and March thirteenth, eighteen hundred and seventy- 
 four, shall be permitted to complete the same upon full com- 
 pliance with the provisions of this chapter; that is, they 
 shall, at the time of making their final proof, have had under 
 cultivation, as required by this chapter, an amount of timber 
 sufficient to make the number of acres required by this chap- 
 ter ; and all laws and parts of laws in conflict with the pro- 
 visions of this chapter are hereby repealed. 
 
 17 Stat. 605 ; 18id. 21 -,20 id. 113, 114, US. Decision Sec. Int., March 
 17, 1879 (6 Copp's L.O. 21). Decisions Com. G.L.O.,Feb. 14, 
 1879 (6 Copp^s L. O. 22) ; April 1, 1879 (6 id. 126). Cir. G. 
 L. O., June 27, 1878 (5 Copp's L. 0., 77). General Cir. G. L. 
 O., Sept. 1, 1879, p. 24. 
 
 Sec. 284. The notices of contest provided by law under the 
 tree-culture laws shall be printed in some newspaper printed 
 in the county where the land in contest lies ; and if no news- 
 paper be printed in such county, then in the newspaper 
 printed in the county nearest to such land. 
 
 20 Stat. 91. Cir. G. L. 0., June 12, 1878 (5 Copp's L. O. 101). 
 
 Sec. 285. When any timber-culture claimant shall file a 
 written relinquishment of his claim in the local land office, 
 the land covered by such claim shall be held as open to 
 settlement and entry without further action on the part of 
 the Commissioner of the General Land Office. 
 
 Act of May 14, 1880. Decisions Cora, G. L. O., Nov. 5, 1875 (2 
 Copp's L. O. 133); July 18, 1877; Aug. 18, 1877 (4 id. 85); 
 Nov. 1, 1878, (5 id. 147) ; March 3, 1880. 
 
 Sec. 286. In all cases where any person has contested, 
 paid the land office fees, and procured the cancellation of 
 any timber-culture entry, he shall be notified by the register 
 of the land office of the district in which such land is situated 
 of such cancellation, and shall be allowed thirty days from 
 date of such notice to enter said lands ; and the register shall 
 be entitled to a fee of one dollar for the giving of such notice, 
 to be paid by the contestant, and not to be reported. 
 
 Act of May 14, 1880. Decisions Sect. Int., March 29, 1877 (3 
 Copp's L. O. 21) ; May 28, 1877 (3 id. 54). 
 
 Note. — The following acts authorizing settlers upon the public 
 lands under the pre-emption, homestead and timber-culture 
 laws, whose crops were destroyed by grasshoppers, to absent 
 themselves temporarily from their lands, and extending the 
 time for making final proof, have been passed from time to 
 time by Congress, viz: 18 Stat. 81; 19 id. 54, 55, 59, 405; 
 20 id. 88, 169; act of June 4, 1880. 
 
 TOWN SITES AND COUNTY SEATS. 
 
 Sec. 287. The President is authorized to reserve from the 
 public lands, whether surveyed or unsurveyed, town sites on 
 the shores of harbors, at the junction of rivers, important 
 portages, or any natural or prospective centers of population. 
 
 12 Stat. 754; 19 id. 392; R. S. 2380. 
 
 Sec. 288. When, in the opinion of the President, the pub- 
 lic interests require it, it shall be the duty of the Secretary 
 of the Interior to cause any of such reservations, or part 
 thereof, to be surveyed into urban or suburban lots of suit- 
 able size, and to fix by appraisement of disinterested persons 
 their cash value, and to offer the same for sale at public out- 
 cry to the highest bidder, and thence afterward to be held 
 subject to sale at private entry, according to such regulations 
 
 as the Secretary of the Interior may prescribe ; but no lot 
 shall be disposed of at public sale or private entry for less 
 than the appraised value thereof; and all such sales shall be 
 conducted by the register and receiver of the land office in 
 the district in which the reservations may be situated, in 
 accordance with the instructions of the Commissioner of the 
 General Land Office. 
 
 12 Stat. 754; R. S. 2381. Decision Sec. Int., Aug. 28, 1880 (8 
 Wash. Law. Rep. 574). 
 
 Sec. 289. In any case in which parties have already 
 founded, or may hereafter desire to found, a city or town on 
 the public lands, it may be lawful for them to cause to be 
 filed with the recorder for the county in which the same is 
 situated, a plat thereof, for not exceeding six hundred and 
 forty acres, describing its exterior boundaries according to 
 the lines of the public surveys, where such surveys have 
 been executed ; also giving the name of such city or town, 
 and exhibiting the streets, squares, blocks, lots, and alleys, 
 the size of the san" e, with measurements and area of each 
 municipal subdivision, the lots in which shall each not ex- 
 ceed four thousand two hundred square feet, with a state- 
 ment of the extent and general character of the improve- 
 ments; such map and statement to be verified under oath by 
 the party acting for and in behalf of the persons proposing 
 to establish such city or town ; and within one month after 
 such filing there shall be transmitted to the General Land 
 Office a verified transcript of such map and statement, ac- 
 companied by the testimony of two witnesses that such city 
 or town has been established in good faith, and when the 
 premises are within the limits of an organized land district, 
 a similar map and statement shall be filed with the register 
 and receiver, and at any time after the filing of such map, 
 statement, and testimony in the General Land Office it may 
 be lawful for the President to cause the lots embraced within 
 the limits of such city or town to be offered at public sale to 
 the highest bidder, subject to a minimum of ten dollars for 
 each lot ; and such lots as may not be disposed of at public 
 sale shall thereafter be liable to private entry at such mini- 
 mum, or at such reasonable increase or diminution thereafter 
 as the Secretary of the Interior may order from time to time, 
 after at least three months' notice, in view of the increase or 
 decrease in the value of the. municipal property. But any 
 actual settler upon any one lot, as above provided, and upon 
 any additional lot in which he may have substantial improve- 
 ments shall be entitled to prove up and purchase the same 
 as a pre-emption, at such minimum, at any time before the 
 day fixed for the public sale. 
 
 13 Stat. 343; R. S. 2382. Towsley v. Johnson, 1 Neb. 95; Ne- 
 vada V. Rhodes, 4 Nev. 312; Robinson v. Imperial Silver, &a., 
 5 id: 44; Bell v. The Bed Rock Tunnel Mining Co., 36 Cal. 
 214. Decision Com. G. L. O., April 4, 1868 (Zab. L. L. 1961. 
 Cir. G. L. O., Aug. 20, 1864 (Zab. L. L. 179 ; Copp's L. L. 
 661); Oct. 20, 1865 (Copp's L. L. 678). 
 
 Sec. 290. When such cities or towns are established upon 
 unsurveyed lands, it may be lawful, after the extension 
 thereto of the public surveys, to adjust the extension limits 
 of the premises according to those lines, where it can be 
 done without interference with rights which may be vested 
 by sale ; and patents for all lots so disposed of at public or 
 private sale shall issue as in ordinary cases. 
 
 13 Stat. 344 ; R. S. 2383. 
 Sec. 291. If within twelve months from the establishment 
 of a city or town on the public domain, the parties interested 
 refuse or fail to file in the General Land Office a transcript 
 map, with the statement and testimony called for by the pro- 
 visions of section two hundred and eighty-nine, it may he 
 lawful for the Secretary of the Interior to cause a survey and 
 plat to be made of such city or town, and thereafter the lots 
 in the same shall be disposed of as required by such pro- 
 visions, with this exception, that they shall each be at an in- 
 crease of fifty per centum on the minimum often dollars per 
 lot. ^ 
 
 13 Stat. 344; R. S. 2384. 
 
 Sec. 292. In the case of any city or town, in which the 
 lots may be variant as to size from the limitation fixed in 
 section two hundred and eighty-nine, and in which the lots 
 and buildings, as municipal improvements, cover an area 
 
602 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 greater than six hundred and forty acres, such variance as 
 to size of lots or excess in area shall prove no bar to such 
 city or town claim under the provisions of that section ; but 
 the minimum price of each lot in such city or town, which 
 may contain a greater number of square feet than the maxi- 
 mum named in that section, shall be increased to such rea- 
 sonable amount as the Secretary of the Interior may by 
 rule establish. 
 
 13 Stat. 530; R. S. 2385. Cir. G. L. O., April 26, 1855 (Zab- 
 L. L. 181; Copp's L. L. 664); Oct. 20, 1865 (Copp's L. L- 
 678). 
 
 Sec. 293. Where mineral veins are possessed, which pos- 
 session is recognized by local authority, and to the extent 
 so possessed and recognized, the title to town lots to be ac- 
 quired shall be subject to such recognized possession and 
 the necessary use thereof; but nothing contained in this 
 section shall be so construed as to recognize any color of 
 title in possessors for mining purposes as against the United 
 States. 
 
 13 Stat. 530; R. S. 2380. Decision Sec. Int., March 4, 1879 (6 
 Copp's L. O. 3). Decisions Com. G. L. O., June 16, 1874 
 (Copp's L. L. 698) ; Dec. 3, 1875 (2 Copp's L. O. 150) ; Oct. 
 27, 1876 (3 id. 114) ; Nov. 23, 1876 (3 id. 131) ; AprU 9, 1877 
 (4 id .46). 
 
 Sec. 304. No title shall be acquired, under the foregoing 
 provisions of this chapter, to any mine of gold, silver, cin- 
 nabar, or copper ; or to any valid mining claim or posses- 
 sion held under existing laws. 
 
 14 Stat. 541; 15 id. 67; 18 id. 254; R. S. 2392. Decision Sec. 
 Int., March 4, 1879 (6 Copp's L. O. 3). Decisions Com. G. L. 
 O., April 21, 1874 (1 Copp's L. O. 19); June 16, 1874 (Copp's 
 L. L. 698); Dec. 23, 1875 (2 Copp's L. O. 150j; Oct. 27, 1876 
 (3 id. 114); Nov. 23, 1876 (3 id. 131); April 9, 1877 (4 id. 46). 
 
 MINERAL LANDS. 
 
 Sec. 386. In all cases lands valuable for minerals shall be 
 reserved from sale, except as otherwise expressly directed 
 by law. 
 
 14 Stat. 86 ; 18 id. 466 ; R. S. 2318. U. S. v. Gear, 3 How. 120 ; 
 Cooper V. Roberts, 18 id. 73 ; U. S, v. Gratiot, 14 Pet. 526 ; 
 Sparrow v. Strong, 3 Wall. 97 ; Secretary v. McGarrahan, 9 
 id. 298 ; Morton v. Nebraska. 21 id. 660 ; Hevdenfeldt v. Min- 
 ing Co., 3 Otto 634. U. S. V. Parrott, 1 McAlister, C. C. 272 ; 
 U. S. V. Gratiot, 1 McLean, C. C. 454 ; Indiana v. Miller, 3 
 id. 151. 3 Op. Att. Gen. 277 ; 5 id. 247 ; 7 id. 636 ; 10 id. 184. 
 Heydenfeldt v. Mining Co., 10 Nev. 290 ; Gold Hill Co. v Ish, 
 5 Oreg. 104; Hicks v. Bell, 3 Cal. 219 ; Stoakes v. Barrett, 5 
 id. 36 ; People v. Folson, 5 id. 373 ; Conger v. Weaver, 6 id. 
 548 ; Nims v. Johnson, 7 id. Ill ; Boggs v. Merced Mining 
 Co. 14 id. 279 ; Burdge v. Smith, 14 id. 380 ; Moore v. Snaw, 
 17 id. 199 ; Lentz v. Victor, 17 id. 272; Fremont v. Seals, 18 
 id. 434 ; Eodgers v. Sogg, 22 id. 444 ; Eupley v. Welch, 23 
 id. 452 ; Doran v. Railway Co., 14 id. 245 ; Wixon v. Bear 
 River Co., 24 id. 367 ; Ah Yew v. Choate,24 id. 562 ; Higgins v. 
 Houghton, 25 id. 252 ; Morton v. Salambo Mining Co., 26 id. 
 527 ; Alfred v. Baruum, 45 id. 482 ; McLaughlin v. Powell. 
 50 id. 64; Titcomb v. Kirk, 51 id. 288. Decisions Sec. Int., 6 
 Copp's L. 0. 4; 7 id. 23. Decisions Com. G. L. O., Copp's 
 Mg. Dec. 308; 2 Copp's L. 0. 82; 7 id. 4. Cir. G. L. O., 
 April 22, 188a 
 
 Sec. 387. All valuable mineral deposits in lands belonging 
 to the United States, both surveyed and unsurveyed, are 
 hereby declared to be free and open to exploration and pur- 
 chase, and the lands in which they are found to occupation 
 and purchase, by citizens of the United States and those 
 who have declared their intention to become such, under 
 regulations prescribed by law, and according to the local 
 customs and rules of miners in the several mining districts, 
 so far as the same are applicable and not inconsistent with 
 the laws of the United States. 
 
 17 Stat. 91 ; 19 id. 52 ; R. S. 2319. Cooper v. Roberts, 18 How. 
 173; Sparrow v. Strong, 3 Wall. 97; Heydenf.adt i;. Mining 
 Co., 3 Otto, 634 ; Forbes v. Gracey, 4 id 762. U. S. •;;. Pan'ott, 
 1 McAllister. C. C. 271 : Chapman v. Toy Long, 4 Saw. C. C. 
 28; Mt. Diablo Mg. Co. v. Callison, 5 Saw. C. C. 439 ; Stroud 
 V. Railway Co., 4 Dillon, C. C. 396. Hibschle v. Gildersleeve, 
 U. S. Dist. Ct. Colo. 1880, in manuscript. 14 Op. Att. Gen. 
 115 ; id. Aug. 6, 1875, in manuscript. Eodgers v. Cooney, 7 
 
 Nev. 213; Golden Fleece Co. v. Cable Mg. Co., 12 id. 312; 
 Territory v. Lee, 2 Montana, 124 ; Gold Hill Co. v. Ish, 5 
 Oreg. 204 ; Hicks v. Bell, 3 Cal. 219 ; Stoakes v. Barrett, 5 id. 
 36 ; Tartar v. Spring Creek Co., 5 id. 395 ; Bridge v. Under- 
 wood, 6 id. 45 ; Mitchell v. Hargood, 6 id. 148 ; Conger v. 
 Weaver, 6 id. 558; Crandell v. Woods, 8 id. 136; Weimer v. 
 Lowrey, 11 id. 104; Boggst). Merced Mg. Co., 14 id. 279 ; Hen- 
 shaw V. Clark, 14 id. 461 ; Clask v. Duval, 15 id. 85; Smith 
 V. Doe, 15 id, 100 ; Moore v. Smaw, 17 id. 199 ; Lentz v. Vic- 
 tor, 17 id, 272 ; Fremont v. Seals, 18 id. 433 ; Logan v. Dris- 
 coll, 19 id. 623 ; Rupley v. Welch, 23 id. 452 ; Ensminger v. 
 Mclntire, 23 id. 593 ; ' Doran v. Railway Co., 24 id. 245 ; 
 Richardson v. McNutty, 24 id. 339 ; Wixon «. Bear River Co. 
 24 id. 367 ; Ah Yew v. Choate, 24 id. 562 ; Higgins v. Hough- 
 ton 25 id. 252 ; Morton v. Solambo Mg. Co., 26 id. 527 ; Gib- 
 son V. Puchta, 33 id. 310 ; Levaroni v. Miller, 34 id. 231 ; 
 Alford V. Barnnm, 45 id. 482 ; McLauglin v. Powell, 50 id. 
 64 ; Laird v. Waterford, 50 id. 315 ; Titcomb tJ. Kirk, 51 id. 
 288. Decision Sec. Int., Aug. 26, 1871 (Copp's Mg. Dec. 60) ; 
 Sept. 3, 1872 {id. 140) ; Jan. 2, 1875 (1 Copp's L. O. 178). 
 Decisions Com. G. L. O., June 7, 1871 (Copp's Mg. Dec. 43) ; 
 July 10, 1873 (id 209) ; July 15, 1873 {id. 316) ; July 26, 1873 
 {id. 214) ; May 2, 1874 (1 Copp's L. O. 4) ; Oct. 23, 1874 (1 id. 
 132) ; Jan. 30, 1875 (1 id. 75) ; June 30, 1875 (1 id. 79) ; Dec. 
 3, 1875 : April 24, 1876 (3 Copp's L. 0. 18) ; Nov. 13, 1877 
 (4 id. 179) ; Sept. 30, 1879. 
 
 Sec. 388. Mining claims upon veins or lodes of quartz or 
 other rock in place bearing gold, silver, cinnabar, lead, tin, 
 copper, or other valuable deposits, heretofore located, shall 
 be governed as to length along the vein or lode by the cus- 
 toms, regulations, and laws in force at the date of their loca- 
 tion. A mining claim located after the tenth day of May, 
 eighteen hundred' and seventy-two, whether located by one 
 or more persons, may ec[ual, but shall not exceed, one thou- 
 sand five hundred feet in length along the vein or lode ; but 
 no location of a mining claim shall be made until the dis- 
 covery of the vein or lode within the limits of the claim 
 located. No claim shall extend more than three hundred 
 feet on each side of the middle of the vein at the surface, 
 nor shall any claim be limited by any mining regulation to 
 less than twenty-five feet on each side of the middle of the 
 vein at the suriace, except where adverse rights existing on 
 the tenth day of May, eighteen hundred and seventy-two, 
 render such limitation necessary. The end lines of each 
 claim shall be parallel to each other. 
 
 17 Stat. 91 ; 19 id. 52 ; R. S. 2320. Flagstaff Silver Mg. Co. v. 
 Tarbet 8 Otto, 463. The Eureka case, 4 Saw. C. C. 302 ; Mt. 
 Diablo Mg. Co. v. Callison 5 id. 439. Mallett v. Uncle Sttai 
 Co., 1 Nev. 188; States. Rhodes, 4 id. 312 : Foot v. National 
 Mg. Co., 2 Montana, 402 ; Moxon v. Wilkinson, 2 id. 421 ; 
 Prosser v. Parks 18 Cal. 47 ; Logan v. Driscoll, 19 id. 623 ; 
 Tunnell Co. v. Stranahan, 31 id. 387 ; Corea v. Frietas, 42 id. 
 339; Harvey v. Bryan, 42 id. 626 ; Titcomb v. Kirk, 51 id. 
 288. Decision See. Int., Aug. 26, 1874 (1 Copp's L. O. 83). 
 Decisions Com. G. L. 0., Nov. 6, 1869 (Copp's Mg. Dec. 23) ; 
 Sept. 22, 1870 (id. 32) ; Aug. 4, 1871 {id. 57) ; Aug. 25, 1871 
 {id. 59) : March 19, 1873 {id. 164) ; May 1, 1873 {id. 195); 
 May 20, 1873 {id. 201) ; June 17, 1873 {id. 207) ; July 10, 1873 
 {id. 209) ; Nov. 18, 1873 {id. 235) ; Feb. 11, 1875 (1 Copp's L. 
 O. 179) : Deo. 29, 1875 (2 id. 146) ; Aug. 28, 1876 (3 id. 82) ; 
 May 4, 1880 (7 id. 35). 
 
 Sec. 389. Proof of citizenship, under this chapter, may 
 consist, in the case of an individual, of his own affidavit 
 thereof; in the case of an association of persons unincor- 
 porated, of the affidavit of their authorized agent, made on 
 his own knowledge, or upon information and oelief ; and in 
 the case of a corporation organized under the laws of the 
 United States, or of any State or Territory thereof, by the 
 filing of a certified copy of their charter or certificate of in- 
 corporation. 
 
 17 Stat. 94 ; 19 id. 62 ; R. S. 2321. Craig v. Braford, 3 Wheat, 
 594 ; Governeur's heirs ii. Robertson, 11 id. 332 ; Cross v. De 
 Valle, 1 Wall. 1 ; Osterman v. Baldwin, 6 id. 116 ; Phillips 
 y. Moore, 10 Otto, 208. 5 Op. Att. Gen. 551 ; id. Aug. 6, 1876, 
 in manuscript. Jackson i). Beech, Johnson's cases, 401. De- 
 cisions Sec. Int., Gan. 2, 1874 (1 Copp's L. 0. 178) ; April 1, 
 1875 (2 id. 2) ; July 29, 1876 (3 id. 68) ; July 26, 1879 (G. L. 
 0. Rep. 1879, p. 157). Decisions Com. G. L. O., June 7, 1871 
 (Copp^s Mg. Deo. 43) ; Aug. 13, 1872 {id. 134) ; Sept. 17,1874 
 (1 Copp's L. O. 98) ; Oct. 28, 1875 (2 id. 114) ; April 14, 1876 
 (G. L. 0. Rep. 1877, p. 83) ; July 18, 1876 (3 Copp's L. 0. 
 
 Sec. 390. The locators of all mining locations heretofore 
 made or which shall hereafter be made, on any miner.al vein, 
 lode, or ledge, situated on the public domain, their heirs 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 6oa 
 
 and assigns, where no adverse claim exists on the tenth day 
 of May, eighteen hundred and seventy-two, so long as they 
 comply with the laws of the United States, and with State, 
 Territorial, and local regulations not in conflict with the 
 laws of the United States governing their possessory title, 
 shall have the exclusive right of possession and enjoyment 
 of all the surface included within the lines of their locations, 
 and of all veins, lodes and ledges throughout their entire 
 df.pth, the top or apex of which lies inside of such surface 
 lines extended downward vertically, although such veins, 
 lodes, or ledges may so far depart from a perpendicular in 
 their course downward as to extend outside the vertical side 
 lines of such surface locations. But their right of possession 
 to such outside parts of such veins or ledges shall be con- 
 fined to such portions thereof as lie between vertical planes 
 drawn downward as above described, through the end lines 
 of their locations, so continued in their own direction that 
 such planes will intersect such exterior parts of such veins 
 or ledges. And nothing in this section shall authorize the 
 locator or possessor of a vein or lode which extends in its 
 downward course beyond the vertical lines of his claim to 
 enter upon the surface of a claim owned or possessed by 
 another. No possessory action between individuals, in any 
 court of the United States, for the recovery of any mining 
 title, or for damages to any such title, shall be affected by 
 the fact that the paramount title to the land on which such 
 mines are, is in the United Statss, but each case shall be 
 adjudged by the law of possession. 
 
 13 Stat. 441 ; 17 id. 91 ; 19 id. 52; R. S. 910, 2322. Sparrow v. 
 Strong, 3 Wall. 97; Heydenfeldt t). Miniag Co., 3 Otto, 634; 
 Forbes v. Gracey, 4 id. 762 ; Jennison v. Kirk, 8 id. 453 ; 
 Flagstaff Silver Mg. Co. v. Tarbet, 8 id. 463. The 420 Mg. 
 Co. V. The Bullion Co., 3 Saw. C. C. 634 ; The Eureka Case, 
 4 id. 302; Chapman v. Toy Long, 4 id. 28; Kinney v. Con. 
 Va. Mg. Co. 4 id. 382; Mt. Diabolo Mg. Co. v. Callison, 5 id. 
 439 ; Hibschle v. Gildersleeve, U. S. Dist. Ct. Colo. 1880, iu 
 manuscript. Hale et al. v. Story Co., 1 Nev. 104, People v. 
 Logan, 1 id. 109 ; Leet v. John Dare Mg. Co., 6 id. 218 ; Over- 
 man Co. V. American Mg. Co., 7 id. 312; Golden Fleece Co. 
 V. Cable Co., 12 id. 312; Lincoln v. Rogers, 1 Montana, 217 ; 
 Nelson v. O'Neil, 1 id. 284 ; Bucher v. Mulverhill, 1 id. 306 ; 
 Robertson v. Smith, 1 id. 410 ; Atkins v. Hendree, 1 Idaho, 
 107; Gold Hm Mg. Co. v. Ish, 5 Oreg. 104; Patterson v. 
 Hitchcock, 3 Colo. 533 ; Wolfley v. Lebanon Mg. Co., 4 id. 
 112 ; Fitzgerald v. Urton, 5 Cal. 308 ; Bridge v. Underwood, 
 6 id. 215 ; Mitchell v. Hargood, 6 id. 148 ; Sims v. Smith, 7 
 id. 149 ; Merced Mg. Co. v. Fremont, 7 id. 317 ; O'Keiff v. 
 Cunningham, 9 id. 589 ; State v. Moore, 12 id. 56 ; Merritt v. 
 Judd, 14 id. 60 ; Boggs v. Merced Mg. Co., 14 id. 279 ; Hen- 
 shaw V. Clark, 14 id. 461 ; Clark v. Duval, 15 id. 85; Smith 
 V. Doe, 15 id. 100; Pennsylvania Mg. Co. v. Owens, 15 id. 
 135 ; Esmond v. Chew, 15 id. 137 ; Brown v. 49 and 56 Co., 
 
 15 id. 152; Gillan v. Hutchinson, 16 id. 154; Coryell v. Cain, 
 
 16 id. 567 ; Attwood v. Fricot, 17 id. 38 ; English v. Johnson, 
 
 17 id. 108 ; Fremont v. Seals, 18 id. 433 ; Gore v. McBrayer, 
 
 18 id. 582 ; Logan v. DrlscoU, W id. 623 ; Tunnel Co. v. Stran- 
 ahan, 20 id. 198 ; Rogers v. Soggs, 22 id. 444 ; Gatewood v. 
 McLaughlin, 23 id. 178; Hughes v. Devlin, 23 id. 501; Ens- 
 minger v. Molutire, 23 id. 593 ; Doran v. Railway Co., 24 id. 
 245; Richardson v. MeNulty, 24 id. 339; Wixon v. Bear 
 River Co., 24 id. 367 ; Higgins v. Houghton, 25 id. 252 ; St. 
 John V. Kidd, 26 Id. 264; Depuy v. Williams, 26 id. 
 309; Morton v. Solambo Mg. Co., 26 id. 527; Hess v. Winder, 
 30 id. 349; Tunnel Co. v. Stranahan, Zl.id. 387; Harden- 
 burgh V. Bacon, 33 id. 356; Gibson v. Puchta, 33 id. 310; Le- 
 varoni v. Miller, 34 id. 231; Hess v. Winder, 34 id. 270; Pra- 
 lus V. Jefferson Mg. Co., 34 id. 559; Pralus v. Pacific Mg. Co., 
 35 id. 30; Clark v. Willett, 35 id. 535; Maine Boys Co. v. 
 Boston Co., 37 id. 40; Bradley v. Lee, 38 id. 362; Correa v. 
 Frietas, 42 id. 339 ; Harvey v. Bryan, 42 id. 626 ; Gregory v. 
 Harris, 43 id. 38; Stone v. Bumpus, 46 id. 218; Quirk v. 
 Tralk, 47 id. 453; Laird v. Waterford, 50 id. 315 ; Titcomb v. 
 Kirk, 51 id. 288; Phoenix Co. ■;;. Lawrence, S. C. Cal. 1880, 
 in manuscript. Decisions Com. G. L. O., Sept. 28, 1878 (5 
 Copp's L. 0. 116); May 4, 1880 (7 id. 35). 
 
 Sec. 391. Where a tunnel is run for the development of a 
 vein or lode, or for the discovery of mines, the owners of 
 such tunnel shall have the right of possession of all veins 
 or lodes within three thousand feet from the face of such 
 tunnel on the line thereof, not previously known to exist, 
 discovered in such tunnel, to the same extent as if dis- 
 covered from the surface ; and locations on the line of such 
 tunnel of veins or lodes not appearing on the surface, made 
 by other parties after the commencement of the tunnel, and 
 while the same is being prosecuted with reasonable diligence, 
 
 shall be invalid ; but failure to prosecute the work on the 
 tunnel for six months shall be considered as an abandon- 
 ment of the right to all undiscovered veins on the line of 
 such tunnel. 
 
 17 Stat. 92; 19 id. 62; B. S. 2323. Tunnel Co. v. Pell, 4 Colo. 
 507 ; Titcomb v. Kirk, 51 Cal. 288. Decisions Com. G. L. O. 
 Sept. 20, 1872 (Copp's Mg. Dec. 144); April 15, 1873 {id 193) 
 Aug. 1, 1873 {id. 215); Nov. 3, 1876 (3 Copp's L. 0. 130) 
 Aug. 30, 1877 (4 U. 102); Jan. 6, 1878 (5 id. 134). 
 
 Sec. 392. The miners of each mining district may make 
 regulations not in conflict with the laws of the United 
 States, or with the laws of the State or Territory in which 
 the district is situated, governing the location, manner of 
 recording, amount of work necessary to hold possession of 
 a mining claim, subject to the following requirements : The 
 location must be distinctly marked on the ground so that 
 its boundaries can be readily traced. All records of mining ■ 
 claims hereafter made shall contain the name or names of 
 the locators, the date of the location, and such a descrip- 
 tion of the claim or claims located by reference to some 
 natural object or permanent monument as will identify the 
 claim. On each claim located after the tenth day of May, 
 eighteen hundred and seventy-two, and until a patent has 
 been issued therefor, not less than one hundred dollars' 
 worth of labor shall be performed or improvements made 
 during each year : Provided, That the period within which 
 the work required to be done annually on all unpatented 
 claims, so located, shall commence on the first day of Jan- 
 uary succeeding the date of location of such claim. On all 
 claims located prior to the tenth day of May, eighteen hun- 
 dred and seventy-two, ten dollars' worth of labor shall be 
 performed or improvements made by the first day of Jan- 
 uary, eighteen hundred and seventy-five, and each year 
 thereafter, for each one hundred feet in length along the 
 vein until a patent has been issued therefor; but where 
 such claims are held in common, such expenditure may be 
 made upon any one claim ; and where a person or company 
 has or may run a tunnel for the purposes of developing a 
 lode or lodes, owned by said person or company, the money 
 so expended in said tunnel shall be taken and considered 
 as expended on said lode or lodes, whether located prior to 
 or since the tenth day of May, eighteed hundred and sev- 
 enty-two, and such person or company shall not be required 
 to perform work on the surface of said lode or lodes in order 
 to hold the same as required by said act. Upon a failure 
 to comply with the foregoing conditions of annual expen- 
 diture, the claim or mine upon which such failure occurred 
 shall be open to relocation in the same manner as if no 
 location of the same had ever been made : Provided, That 
 the original locatros, their heirs, assigns, or legal repre- 
 sentatives have not resumed work upon the claim after 
 failure and before such location. Upon the failure of any 
 one of several co-owners to contribute his proportion of the 
 expenditures required hereby, the co-owners who have per- 
 formed the labor or made the improvements may, at the 
 expiration of the year, give such delinquent co-owner per- 
 sonal notice in writing or notice by publication in the news- 
 paper published nearest the claim, for at least once a week 
 for ninety days, and if at the expiration of ninety days 
 after such notice in writing or by publication such delin- 
 qent should fail or refuse to contribute his proportion of 
 the expenditure required by this section, his interest in the 
 claim shall become the property of his co-owners who have 
 made the required expenditures. 
 
 17 Stat. 92; \%id. 61, 315 ; 19 id. 52; 21 id. 61 ; R. S. 2324. 
 Location, Record and Evidence : Campbell v. Rankin, 9 Otto, 
 261. Kinney v. Con. Va. Mg. Co., 4 Saw. C. C. 382. Hib- 
 schle V. Gildersleeve, U. S. Dist. Ct. Colo. 1880, in manuscript. 
 Mallet v. Uncle Sam Co., 1 Nev. 108; Van Valkenburgh v. 
 Huff, 1 id. 142 ; Chase v. Savage Mg. Co., 2 id. 9 ; Rogers v. 
 Cooney, 7 id. 213 ; Phillpotts v. Blasdell, 8 id. 61 ; Weill v. 
 Lucerne Co., 11 id. 200 ; Golden Fleece Co. v. Cable Mg. Co.; 
 12 id. 312 ; Gleason?;. Martin White Co., 13 id. 442; Roberts 
 V. Wilson, 1 Utah, 292 ; Conner v. McPhee, 1 Montana, 73 j 
 King V. Edwards, 1 id. 235; Bucher v. Mulverhill, 1 id. 306; 
 Territory v. Lee, 2 id. 124; Moxon v. Wilkinson, 2 id. 421; 
 Murley v. Ennis, 2 Colo. 300; Sullivan v. Henae, 2 id. 424; 
 Patterson v. Hitchcock, 3 id. 533; Wolfley v. Lebanon Co., 
 4 id. 112; Sears v. Taylor, 4 id. 38; Hicks v. Bell, 3 Cal. 219; 
 Fairbanks v. Woodhouse, 6 id. 433; Live Yankee Co. v. 
 Oregon Co., 7 id. 41 ; Packer v. Heaton, 9 id. 569; McGarity 
 
604 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 V. Byington, 12 id. 431; Water Co. ii. Mooney, 12 id. 534; 
 Pennsylvania Mg. Co. v. Owena, 15 id. 1.S5; Lombards v, 
 Ferguson, 15 id. 372; Gillanj). Hutchinson, 16 id. 154; Eoach 
 V. Gray, 16 id. 383; Attwood v. Frieot, 17 id. 38; English v. 
 Johnson, 17 id. 108; Prosser v. Parks, 18 id. 47; Gore v. 
 McBrayer, 18 id. 582; Downing v. Eankin, 19 id. 641; Tun- 
 nel Co. V. Stranahan, 20 id. lt)8; Kelley «. Taylor, 23 id. 11 ; 
 Coleman v. Clements, 23 id. 245; Maye v. Teppin, 23 id. 306; 
 Draper v. Douglaas, 23 id. 347; Gary •;;. Campbell, 24 id. 634; 
 St. John V. Kidd, 26 id. 264; Morton v. Solambo Mg. Co., 26 
 id. 527; Wilson ». Cleveland, 30 id. 192; Hess i;. Winder, 30 
 id. 349; Patterson v. Keystone Mg. Co., 30 id. 360; Tunnel 
 Co. V. Stranahan, 31 id. 387; King v. Randlett, 33 id. 318; 
 Pralus V. Jefferson Mg. Co., 34 id. 559; Pralusii. Pacific Mg. 
 Co., 35 id. 30; Bell v. Tunnel and Mg. Go., 36 id. 214; Brad- 
 ley V. Lee, 38 id. 362; Hastings v. Devlin, 40 id. 358; Harvey 
 v. Ryan, 42 id. 626; Strang v. Ryan, 46 id. 33; Meyers v. 
 Farquharson, 46 id. 190; Quirk v. Tralk, 47 id. 453; Mc- 
 Laughlin V. Powell, 50 id. 64; Titcomb v. Kirk, 51 id. 288; 
 Morenhaut v. Wilson, 52 id. 226; Stone v. Geyser, 52 id. 315; 
 Holland v. M. A. G. Mg. Co., 53 id. 149 ; Gelcioh v. Moriarity, 
 53, 217; Phoenix Go. v. Lawrence, Myers v. Spooner, S. C. 
 Cal. 1880, in manuscript. Decision Sec. Int., April 1, 1875 
 (2 Copp's L. O. 2). Decisions Com. G. L. O., May 16, 1873 
 (Copp's Mg. Deo. 200); Aug. 28, 1876 (3 Copp's L. O. 82); 
 June 13, 1876 (3 id. 50) ; Oct. 20, 1876 (6 id. 122). 
 Expenditures : Mt. Diabolo Mg. Go. «. Callison, 5 Saw. C. C. 
 439. Decisions Sec. Int., Sept. 4, 1872 (Copp's Mg. Dec. 136) ; 
 March 4, 1879 (6 Copp's L. O 2). Decisions Com. G. L. O., 
 March 11, 1875 (Skidmore, 47) ; Jan. 6, 1878 (5 Copp's L. O., 
 134) ; Aug. 20, 1879 (G. L. 0. Rep. 1879, p. 144) ; Sept. 12, 
 
 1879 {id. 143) ; Oct. 20, 1879 (6 Copp's L. O. 122) ; May 1, 
 
 1880 (7 id. 20). 
 
 AbcmdonmeTit and Forfeiture : Hibschle ii. Gildersleeve, U.S. 
 Dist. Ct. Colo. 1880, in manuscript; Mallett v. Uncle Sam 
 Co., 1 Nev. 188; Oreamuns v. Uncle Sam Co., 1 id. 215; 
 Weill ». Lucerne Co., 11 id. 200; King v. Edwards, 1 Mon- 
 tana, 235 ; Atkins v. Hendree, 1 Idaho, 107 ; Murley v. Euuis, 
 2 Colo. 300; Fairbanks v. Woodhouse, 6 Gal. 433; Davis v. 
 Butler, 6 id. 510; Ferris v. Cooper, 10 id. 589; Waring v. 
 Crow, 11 id. 366; Gluokauf «. Reed, 22 id. 468; Coleman v. 
 Clements, 23 id. 245; Richard.=!Dn v. McNulty, 24 id. 339; 
 Wiseman v. McNulty, 25 id. 230; St. John v. Kidd, 26 id. 
 264; Depuy v. Williams, 26 id. 309; Wilson v. Cleveland, 30 
 id. 192; Bell v. Tunnel and Mg. Co., 36 id. 214; Judsou v. 
 MuUoy, 40 id. 300 ; Strang v. Evan, 48 id. 33 ; Morenhaut v. 
 Wilson, 52 id. 226; Meyers v. Spooner, S. C. Cal. 1880, in 
 manuscript. 
 
 Selocations : Decisions Sec. Int., Nov. 6, 1873 (Copp's Mg. Dec. 
 191) ; May 22, 1878 (5 Copp'a L. 0. 50) ; June 29, 1878 (5 id. 
 66). Decisions Com. G. L. 0., Sept. 25, 1873 (Copp's Mg. 
 Dec. 225); April 21, 1876 (3 Copp's L. 0. 37); Dec. 13, 1878 
 (5 id. 162). 
 
 Transfers: Mining Co. ■;;. Taylor, 10 Otto, 37. Kinney v. Con. 
 Va. Mg. Co., 4Saw. C. C. 382. Phillpotts v. Blasdell, 8 Nev. 
 61; WeUl V. Lucerne Co., 11 id. 200; Sullivan v. Hense, 2 
 Colo. 424; McCarron «. O'Connell, 7 Cal 152; Clark u. Mo- 
 Elroy, 11 id. 154; Jackson v. Feather River Co., 14 id. 18; 
 Attwood V. Frieot, 17 id. 38; Tunnsl Co. v. Stranahan, 2U id. 
 198 ; Gatewood v. McLaughlin, 23 id. 178 ; Antonie Co. t). 
 Ridge Co., 23 id. 219; Draper v. Douglas, 23 id. 347; Patter- 
 son V. Keystone Co., 23 id. 575 ; Richardson v. McNnlty, 24 
 id. 339; Gary v. Campbell, 24 id. 634; Copper Hill Mg. Co. 
 V. Spencer, 25 id. 18; St. John v. Kidd, 26 id. 264; Duryea v. 
 Burt, 28 id. 569; Hess v. Winder, 30 id. 349; Patterson v. 
 Keystone Mg. Co., 30 id. 360; GoUer v. Fett, 30 id. 481; 
 Settembre v. Putnam, 30 id. 490; King v. Randlett, 33 id. 
 318 ; Hardenbnrgh v. Bacon, 33 id. 356 ; Blodgett v. Potosi 
 Mg. Co., 34 id. 227; Felger v. Coward, 35 id. 650; Meyers v. 
 Farquharson, 46 id. 190. Decision Com. G. L. O., June 9, 
 1873 (Copp's Mg. Deo. 202). 
 
 Co-owners: The 420 Mg. Co. v. The Bullion Co., 3 Saw. C. C. 
 634. Mallett v. Uncle Sam Co., 1 Nev. 188; Chase v. Savage 
 Co., 2 id. 9; Bucher «. Mulvernill,.l Montana, 306; Murley 
 V. Eunis, 2 Colo. 300; Waring v. Crow, 11 Cal. 366; Gore v. 
 McBrayer, 18 id. 582; Rowe v. Bacigalluppi, 21 id. 633; 
 Coleman v. Clements, 23 id. 245 ; Hughes v. Devlin, 23 id. 
 501; Wisemans. McNulty, 25 id. 230; Morton «. Solambo 
 Co., 26 id. 527; Duryea v. Burt, 28 id. 569; Goller v. Fett, 
 30 id. 481; Settembre v. Putnam, 30 id. 490; Jones v. Clark, 
 42 id. 180 ; Taylor v. Castle, 42 id. 367 ; Decker v. Howell, 42 
 id. 636; Strang v. Ryan, 46 id. 33. Decision.s Com. G. L. O., 
 July 19, 1876 (3 Copp's L. 0. 66); June 9, 1877 (4 id. 50); 
 Dec. 21, 1877 (5 id. 4). 
 
 Sec. 393. A patent for any land claimed and located for 
 valuable deposits may be obtained in the following manner : 
 Any person association, or corporation authorized to locate 
 a claim under this chapter, haying claimed and located a 
 piece of land for such purposes, who has, or have, complied 
 with the terms of this chapter, may file in the proper land 
 
 office an application for a patent, under oath, showing such 
 compliance, together with a plat and field-notes of the claim 
 or claims in common, made by or under the direction of the 
 United States surveyor-general, showing accurately the 
 boundaries of the claim or claims, which shall be distinctly 
 marked by monuments on the ground, and shall post a copy 
 of such plat, together with a notice of such application for a 
 patent, in a conspicuous place on the land embraced in such 
 plat previous to the filing of the application for a patent, 
 and shall file an affidavit of at least two persons that such 
 notice has been duly posted, and shall file a copy of the 
 notice in such land office, and shall thereupon be entitled 
 to a patent for the land, in the manner following : The 
 register of the land office, upon the filing of such applica- 
 tion, plat, field-notes, notices, and affidavits, shall publish 
 a notice that such application has been made, for the period 
 of sixty days, in a newspaper to be by him designated as 
 published nearest to such claim ; and he shall also post such 
 notice in his office for the same period. The claimant at 
 the time of filing this application, or at any time thereafter, 
 within the sixty days of publication, shall file with the reg- 
 ister a certificate of the United States surveyor-general that 
 five hundred dollars' worth of labor has been expended or 
 improvements made upon the claim by himself or grantors ; 
 that the plat is correct, with such further description by 
 such reference to natural objects or permanent monumente 
 as shall identify the claim, and furnish an accurate descrip- 
 tion, to be incorporated in the patent. At the expiration of 
 the sixty days of publication the claimant shall file his 
 affidavit, showing that the plat and notice have been 
 posted in a conspicuous place on the claim during such 
 period of publication. If no adverse claim shall have been 
 filed with the register and the receiver of the proper land 
 office at the expiration of the sixty days of publication, it 
 shall be assumed that the applicant is entitled to a patent, 
 upon the payment to the proper officer of five dollars per 
 acre, and that no adverse claim exists ; and thereafter no 
 objection from third parties to the issuance of a patent shall 
 be heard, except it be shown that the applicant has failed 
 to comply with the terms of this chapter. Where the claim- 
 ant for a patent is not a resident of or within the land dis- 
 trict wherein the vein, lode, ledge or deposit sought to be 
 patented is located, the application for patent and the 
 affidavits required to be made in this section may be made 
 by his, her, or its authorized agent, where said agent is con- 
 versant with the facts sought to be established, and this 
 provision shall apply to all applications for patents to 
 rnineral lands pending on the twenty-second day of January, 
 eighteen hundred and eighty. 
 
 17 Stat. 92; 19 id. R. S. 52, 21 id. 61 ; 2325. 
 
 Applications : Decisions Sec. Interior, Nov. 6. 1873 (Copp's 
 
 Mg. Dec. 191) ; March 22, 1875 (2 Copp's L. O. 5) ; June 29, 
 
 1875 (G. L. O. Rep. 1876, p. 78) ; Jan. 3. 1877 (3 Copp's L. 0. 
 
 196). Decisions Com. G. L. O., Sept 21, 1872 (Copp's Mg. 
 
 Dec. 145) ; Feb. 18, 1875 (id. 159); March 24, 1873 (id. 165); 
 
 April 15, 1873 {id. 188) ; Jan. 22, 1873 {id. 157) ; Jan. 6, 1874 
 
 {id: 340, July 21, 1874) ; (1 Copp's L. O. 66) ; Aug. 18, 1874 
 
 (lid. 83); Dec. 14, 1874 (1 td. 146); Jan. 2, 1875 (ltd. 
 
 178): Feb. 18, 1875 (Copp's Mg. Dec. 159); Aug. 17, 1876); 
 
 Copp'a L. O. 82) ; Nov. 12, 1875 (2 id. 130) ; Dec. 20, 1875 (2 
 
 id. 146) ; April 29, 1876 (3 id. 18) ; April 20, 1877 (4 id. 35) ; 
 
 Oct. 20, 1879 (6 id. 122). 
 Agents and Attorneys: Decision Sec. Int., March 2, 1880 (7 
 
 Copp's L. O. 20). Decisions Com. G. L. 0. Aug. 20, 1873 
 
 (Copp'a Mg. Dec. 222); Aug. 2(1, 1879 (6 Copp's L. O. 92); 
 
 Sept. 19, 1879 (G. L. O. Rep. 1879, p. 143); Oct. 20, 1879 (6 
 
 Copp's L. 0. 122). 
 Expenditures: Mt. Diabolo Mg. Co.«. Callison, 5 Saw C. C. 438. 
 
 Week's Mg. Laws, 113, 115, 116, 118, 120, 121. Dec. Sec. 
 
 Int., Sept. 6, 1878 (6 Copp's L. 0. 100) ; June 23, 1879 (7 id. 
 
 5). 
 Notice: Wolfley v. Lebanon Co. 4 Colo. 112. Decisions Sec. 
 
 Int. Dec. 5, 1871 (Copp's Mg. Dec. 70) ; Nov. 24, 1873 {id. 
 
 169); April 30, 1874 (1 Copp'.s L. O. 34) Jan. 2, 1875 (1 id. 
 
 178); AprU 1, 1875 (2 id. 2); Deo. 1, 1876 (3 id. 163). Dec. 
 
 Com. G. L. O.. June 19, 1X73 {id. 200); Nov. 12, 1873 (id. 
 
 234); July 21, 1874 (1 Copp's L. O. 66); Nov. 12, 1875 (2 id. 
 
 130); March 7, 1876 (2 id. 1801; April 21. 1876 (3 id. 18); 
 
 Dec. 1, 1876 (3 id. 163) ; Jan. 4, 1877 (3 id. 196) ; Aug. 26, 
 
 1879 (6 id. 92); Oct. 29, 1879; April 30, 1880. 
 Payment : Decision Com. G. L. O., Jan. 30, 1873 (Copp's Mg. 
 
 Dec. 157. 
 Protestants : Dec Sec. Int. April 3o, 1874 (1 Copp's L. O. 34 ; 
 
 March 24,1876 4, id. 34) ; Feb. 17, 1877, 3 id. 194; March 10, 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 605 
 
 1877 {iid. 3) : July 21, 1879 (6 id. 23). Decisions Com, G. L. 
 O., Aug. 17, 1874 (1 Copp's L. O. 81); Oct. 8, 1875 (2 id. 115). 
 
 Patents: Decisions Sec. Int., Jan. 14, 1873 (Copp's Mg. Dec. 
 152); Jan. 2, 1875 (1 Copp's L. O. 178); March 22, 1875 (2 
 id. 5) ; April 1, 1875 (2 id. 2) ; March 4, 1875 (2 id. 82) ; July 
 21, 1879 (6 id 73). Decisions Com. G. h. 0., Jan. 21, 1869 
 (Copp's Mg. Deo. 18); July 22, 1869 {id. 21); April 18, 1870 
 {id. 30); Jan. 2, 1872 {id. 72); Feb. 27, 1872 {id. 79); April 
 4, 1872 {id. 85) ; April 5, 1872 {id. 88) ; Oct. 2, 1872 {id. 146) ; 
 March 8, 1873 {id. 162) ; July 26, 1873 (id. 213) ; Oct. 22, 
 W7S {id. 227); March 14, 1874 (1 Copp's L. 0. 2) ; June 22, 
 1875 (2 id. 98); Oct. 26, 1875 (2 id. 114); Dec. 20, 1875 (2 id. 
 146); Feb. 25, 1876 (2 id. 178;; Jan. 15, 1880 (6 id. 171). 
 
 Might of Purchase : The 420 Mg. Co. v. The Bullion Co., 3 Saw, 
 C. C. 634 : Chapman v. Toy Long, 4 id. 28. Titoomb v. Kirl^:, 
 51 Cal. 288. 
 
 Surveys: Decisions Sec. Int., May 22, 1878 (5 Copp's L. O. 50); 
 Sept. 6, 1878 (5 id. 100) ; Aug. 2, 1880 (8 Wash. Law . Rep. 
 540) ; Aug. 16, 1880. Decisions Com. G. L. O., April 17, 1873 
 (Copp's Mg. Deo. 193); Sept. 11, 1873 {id. 223j ; Jan. 6, 1874 
 (id. 340) ; Nov. 5, 1874 (1 Copp's L. 0. 133) ; April 24, 1876 
 (3 id. 18); Aug. 28, 1876 (3 id. 82; April 10, 1877 {5 id. 51); 
 Nov. 30, 1877 (5 id. 18) ; Oct. 20. 1879 (6 id. 122) ; May 4, 
 1880 (7 id. 35); June 17, 1880 (7 id. 51); Aug. 9, 1880 (7 id. 
 82). 
 
 Sec. 394. Where an adverss claim is filed during the 
 period of publication, it shall be upon oath of the person or 
 persons making the same, and shall show the nature, 
 boundaries, and extent of such adverse claim, and all pro- 
 ceedings, except the publication of notice and making and 
 filing of the affidavit thereof, shall be stayed until the con- 
 troversy shall have been settled or decided by a court of 
 competent jurisdiction, or the adverse claim waived. It 
 shall be the duty of the adverse claimant, within thirty 
 days after filing his claim, to commence proceedings in a 
 court of competent jurisdiction, to determine the question 
 of the right of possession, and prosecute the same with 
 reasonable diligence to final judgment ; and a failure so to 
 do shall be a waiver of his adverse claim. After such 
 judgment shall have been rendered, the party entitled to the 
 possession of the claim, or any portion thereof, may, without 
 giving further notice, file a certified copy of the judgment- 
 roll with the register of the land office, together with the 
 certificate of the surveyor-general that the requisite amount 
 of labor has been expended or improvements made thereon, 
 and the description required in other cases, and shall pay 
 to the receiver five dollars per acre for his claim, together 
 with the proper fees, whereupon the whole proceedings and 
 the judgment-roll shall be certified by the register to the 
 Commissioner of the General Land Office, and a patent 
 shall issue thereon for the claim, or such portion thereof as 
 the applicant shall appear, from the decision of the court, 
 to rightly possess. If it appears from the decision of the 
 court that several parties are entitled to separate and differ- 
 ent portions of the claim, each party may pay for his portion 
 of the claim, with the proper fees, and file the certificate 
 and description by the surveyor-general, whereupon the 
 register shall certify the proceedings and judgment-roll to 
 the Commissioner of the General Land Office, as in the 
 preceding case, and patents shall issue to the several parties 
 according to their respective rights. Nothing herein con- 
 tained shall be construed to prevent the alienation of the 
 title conveyed by a patent for a mining claim to any person 
 whatever. 
 
 17 Stat. 93; 19 id. 52; R. S. 2326. The Eurelca Case, 4 Saw. C. 
 C. 302. Golden Fleece Co. v. The Cable Co., 12 Nev. 312; 
 Sears v. "Taylor, 4 Colo. 38. Decisions Sec. Int., March 11, 
 
 1872 (G. L. O. Rep. 1873, p. 43) ; May 27, 1872 (G. L. 0. Rep. 
 1873, p. 19) ; Feb. 24, 1873 (Copp's Mg. Dec. 101) ; Oct. 28, 
 
 1873 {id. 161) ; Aug. 9, 1874 (2 Copp's L. O. 98) ; Sept. 9, 
 
 1874 (1 id. 98) ; Jan. 2, 1875 (1 id. 178) ; March 22, 1875 (2 id. 
 6): Feb. 12, 1876 (2 id. 178); Deo. 26, 1876 (3 id. 162); Feb. 
 17, 1877 (3 id. 195) ; Feb. 17, 1877 (G. L. O. Rep. 1877, p. 
 129) ; April 17, 1877 (4 Copp's L. O. 34) ; Jan. 3, 1877 (3 id. 
 196) ; July 14, 1877 (4 id. 66) ; Sept. 27, 1877 (G. L. 0. Rep. 
 1877, p. 135) ; May 21, 1879 (6 Copp's L. O. 73) : June 25, 
 1879 (G. L. O. Rep. 1879, p. 148); July 17, 1879 {id. 145). 
 Decisions Com. G. L. O., Dec. 29, 1871 (Copp's Mg. Dec. 76) ; 
 Jan. 14, 1873 {id. 156) ; June 9, 1873 {id. 202) ; Nov. 24, 1873 
 {id. 145) ; July 21, 1874 (1 Copp's L. O. 66) ; Oct. 24, 1874 (1 
 id. 132) ; Dec. 14, 1874 (1 id. 146) ; May 12, 1876 (3 id. 36) ; 
 Deo. 19, 1878 (5 id. 162) ; Sept. 12, 1879 (6 id. 105) ; Sept. 19, 
 1879 (6 id. 105); Feb. 28, 1880 (7 id. 50); April 15, 1880 (7 
 id. 51); June 28, 1880 (7 id. 50); July 15, 1880 (8 Wash. 
 Law Rep. 461). 
 
 Sec. 396. The description of vein or lode claims, upon sur- 
 veyed lands, shall designate the location of the claim with 
 reference to the lines of the public surveys, but need not 
 conform therewith ; but where a patent shall be issued for 
 claims upon unsurveyed lands, the surveyor-general, in 
 extending the surveys, shall adjust the same to the bounda- 
 ries of such patented claim, according to the plat or descrip- 
 tion thereof, out so as in no case to interfere with or change 
 the location of any such patented claim. 
 
 17 Stat. 94; 19 id. 52; R. S. 2327. 
 
 Sec. 396. Applications for patents for mining claims 
 under former laws now pending may be prosecuted to a 
 final decision in the General Land Office ; but in such cases 
 where adverse rights are not affected thereby, patents may 
 issue in pursuance of the provisions of this chapter ; and 
 all patents for mining claims upon veins or lodes heretofore 
 issued shall convey all the rights and privileges conferred 
 by this chapter where no adverse rights existed on the tenth 
 day of May, eighteen hundred and seventy-two. 
 
 17 Stat. 94; 19 id. 52; R. S. 2328. 
 
 Sec. 397. Claims usually called " placers," including all 
 forms of deposit, excepting veins or quartz, or other rock 
 in place, shall be subject to entry and patent, under like cir- 
 cumstances and conditions, and upon similar proceedings, as 
 are provided for vein or lode claims ; but where the lands 
 have been previously surveyed by the United States the 
 entry in its exterior limits shall conform to the legal sub- 
 divisions of the public lands. 
 
 16 Stat. 217; R. S. 2329. Chapman v. Toy Long^ 4 Saw. C. C. 
 28. Moxon v. Wilkinson, 2 Montana, 421. Decisions Sec. 
 Int. March 4, 1879 (6 Copp's L. O. 4). Decisions Com. G. L. 
 O., Feb. 12, 1872 (Copp's Mg. Dec. 78); April 18, 1873, {id. 
 (194); AprU 25, 1874 (1 Copp's L. 0. 18). 
 
 Sec. 398. Legal subdivisions of forty acres may be sub- 
 divided into ten-acre tracts ; and two or more persons, or 
 associations of peisons, having contiguous claims of any 
 size, although such claims may be less than ten acres each, 
 majr make joint entry thereof; but no location of a placer 
 claim, made after the ninth day of July, eighteen hundred 
 and seventy, shall exceed one hundred and sixty acres for 
 any one person or association of persons, which location 
 shall conform to the United States surveys ; and nothing 
 in this section contained shall defeat or impair any bona- 
 fide pre-emption or homestead claim upon agricultural 
 lands, or authorize the sale of the improvements of any 
 bona-fide settler to any purchaser. 
 
 16 Stat. 217; R. S. 2330. Campbell v. Adams, U. S. Dist. Ct. 
 Colo. 1880, in manuscript. Decisions Com. G. L. O., March 
 1, 1871 (Copp's Mg. Dec. 40); Jan. 20, 1873 {id. 157); July 10, 
 1873 {id. 211); Oct. 23, 1873 {id. 229); Nov. 20, 1873 {id. 235); 
 Nov. 21, 1874 (1 Copp's L. O. 134); Sept. 20, 1879 (G. L. O. 
 Rep. 1879, p. 143). 
 
 Sec. 399. Where placer claims are upon surveyed lands, 
 and conform to legal subdivisions, no further survey or plat 
 shall be required, and all placer-mining claims located after 
 the tenth day of May, eighteen hundred and seventy-two, 
 shall conform as near as practicable with the United States 
 system of public land surveys, and the rectangular subdi- 
 visions of such surveys, and no such location shall include 
 more than twenty acres for each individual claimant ; but 
 where placer claims cannot be conformed to legal subdivis- 
 ions, survey and plat shall be made as on unsurveyed lands ; 
 and where by the segregation of mineral land in any legal 
 subdivision a quantity of agricultural land less than forty 
 acres remains, such fractional portion of agricultural land 
 may be entered by any part qualified by law, for homestead 
 or pre-emption purposes. 
 
 17 Stat. 94; 19 id 52; R..S. 2331. Cambell v. Adams, U. S. 
 Dist. Ct. Colo. 1 880, in manuscript. Decisions Com. G. L. 
 O., May 19, 1873 (Copp's Mg. Deo. 200); Aug. 27, 1873 
 {id. 222). 
 
 Sec. 400. Where such person or association, they and 
 their grantors, have held and worked their claims for a 
 period equal to the time prescribed by the statute of limita- 
 tions for mining claims of the State or Territory where the 
 same may be situated, evidence of such possession and 
 working of the claims for such period shall be sufficient to 
 
606 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 establish a right to a patent thereto under this chapter, in 
 the absence of any adverse claim ; but nothing in this chap- 
 ter shall be deemed to impair any lien which may have 
 attached in any way whatever to any mining claim or prop- 
 erty thereto attached prior to the issuance or a patent. 
 
 16 Stat. 217; R. S. 2332. The 420 Mg. Co. •». The Bullion Co., 
 3 Saw. C. C. 634. Davis v. Clark, 2 Montana, 310; Maine 
 Boys Co. V. Boston Co., 37 Cal. 40. 
 
 Sec. 401. Where the same person, association, or corpora- 
 tion is in possession of a placer claim, and also a vein or 
 lode included within the boundaries thereof, application 
 shall be made for a patent for the placer claim, with the 
 statement that it includes such a vein or lode, and in such 
 case a patent shall issue for the placer claim, subject to the 
 provisions of this chapter, including such vein or lode, upon 
 the payment of five dollars per acre for such vein or lode 
 claim, and twenty-five feet of surface on each side thereof. 
 The remainder of the placer claim, or any placer claim not 
 embracing any vein or lode claim, shall be paid for at the 
 rate of two dollars and fifty cents per acre, together with all 
 costs of proceedings ; and where such a vein or lode, such as 
 is described in section three hundred and eight-eight, is 
 known to exist within the boundaries of a placer claim, an 
 application for a patent for such placer claim, which does 
 not include an application for the vein or lode claim shall 
 be construed as a conclusive declaration that the claimant 
 of the placer claim has no right of possession of the vein or 
 lode claim ; but where the existence of a vein or lode in a 
 placer claim is not known, a patent for the placer claim 
 shall convey all valuable mineral and other deposits within 
 the boundaries thereof 
 
 17 Stat. 94; 19 id. 52. E. S. 2333. Decision Com. G. L. O. 
 Oct. 17, 1873 (Copp's Mg. Dec. 226). 
 
 Sec. 402. The surveyor-general of the United States 
 may appoint in each land district containing mineral lands 
 as many competent surveyors as shall apply for appoint- 
 ment to survey mining claims. The expenses of the survey 
 of vein or lode claims, and the survey and subdivision of 
 placer claims into smaller quantities than one hundred and 
 sixty acres, together with the cost of publication of notices, 
 shall be paid by the applicants, and they shall be at liberty 
 to obtain the same at the most reasouible rates, and they 
 shall also be at liberty to employ any United States deputy 
 surveyor to make the survey. The Commissioner of the 
 General Land Offlse shall also have power to establish the 
 maximum charges for surveys and publication of notices 
 under this chapter ; and, in case of excessive charges for 
 publication, he may designate any newspaper published in a 
 land district where mines are situated for the publication 
 of mining notices in sush district, and fix the rates to ha 
 charged by such paper; and, to the end that the Commis- 
 sioner may be fully informed on the subject, each applicant 
 shall file with register a sworn statement of all charges 
 and fees paid by such applicant for publication and surveys, 
 together with all fees and money paid the register and the 
 receiver of the land office, which statement shall be trans- 
 mitted, with the other papers in the case, to the Commis- 
 sioner of the General Land Office. 
 
 17 Stat 95; 19 id. 52; E. S. 2334. Decision Com. G. L. 
 Aug. 6, 1872 (Copp's Mg. Dec. 131). 
 
 Sec. 403. All affidavits required to be made under this 
 chapter may be verified before any officer authorized to ad- 
 minister oaths within the land district where the claims 
 may be situated, and all testimony and proofe may be taken 
 before any such officer, and when duly certified by the officer 
 taking the same, shall have the same force and effect as if 
 taken before the register and receiver of the land office. In 
 cases of contest as to the mineral or agricultural character 
 of land, the testimony and proofs may be taken as herein 
 provided on personal notice of at least ten davs to the 
 opposing party ; or if such party cannot be found, then by 
 publication of at least once a week for thirty days in a 
 newspaper, to be designated by the register of the land 
 office as published nearest to the location of such land ; and 
 the register shall require proof that such notice has been 
 given. 
 
 17 Stat. 95; 19iU52; E. S. 2335. Decisions Cora G L 
 July 21, 1874 (1 Copp's L. O. 66j ; Jan. 27, 1876 (2 id. 162)! 
 
 Sec. 404. Where two or more veins intersect or cross each 
 other, priority of title shall govern, and such prior location 
 shall be entitled to all ore or mineral contained within the 
 space of intersection ; but the subsequent location shall have 
 the right of way through the space of intersection for the 
 purposes of the convenient working of the mine. And 
 where two or more veins unite, the oldest or prior location 
 shall take the vein below the point of union, including all 
 the space of intersection. 
 
 17 Stat. 96; 19 id. 52; E. S. 2336. Decisions Sec. Int., Feh. 
 24, 1873 (Copp's Mg. Dec. 96, 101) ; July 21, 1879, (6 Copp's 
 L. O. 73). Decision Com. G. L. O., Feb. 25, 1876 (2 Copp's 
 L. O. 178). 
 
 Sec. 405. Where non-mineral land not contiguous to the 
 vein or lode is used or occupied by the proprietor of such 
 vein or lode for mining or milling purposes, such non-adja- 
 cent surface-ground may be embraced and included in an 
 application for a patent for such vein or lode, and the same 
 may be patented therewith, subject to the same preliminary 
 requirements as to survey and notice as are applicable to 
 veins or lodes ; but no location hereafter made of such non- 
 adjacent land shall exceed five acres, and payment for the 
 same must be made at the same rate as fixed by this chap- 
 ter for the superficies of the lode. The owner of a quartz- 
 mill or reduction-works, not owning a mine in connection 
 therewith, may also receive a patent for his mill-site, as 
 provided in this section. 
 
 17 Stat. 96; 19 id. 52; R. S. 2337. Decisions Sec. Int., AprU 
 29, 1876 (3 Copp's L. O. 67). Decisions Com. G. L. O., Oct. 
 11, 1872 (Copp's Mg. Dec. 147j ; April 16, 1873 {id. 193) ; 
 May 20, 1873 (id. 201) ; March 10. 1874 (1 Copp's L. 0. 4) ; 
 Oct. 21, 1875 (2 id. 114) ; Sept. 24. 1879. 
 
 Sec. 406. As a condition of sale, in the absence of neces- 
 sary legislation by Congress, the local legislature of any 
 State or Territory may provide rules for working mines, 
 involving easements, drainage, and other necessary means 
 to rtieir complete development ; and those conditions shall 
 be fully expressed in the patent. 
 
 14 Stat. 252; 19 id. 52; E. S. 2338. 
 
 Sec. 407. Whenever, by priority of possession, rights to 
 the use of water for mining, agricultural, manufacturing, or 
 other purposes, have vested and accrued, and the same are 
 recognized and acknowledged by the local customs, laws, 
 and the decisions of courts, the possessors and owners of 
 such vested rights shall be maintained and protected in the 
 same ; and the right of way for the construction of ditches 
 and canals for the purposes herein specified is acknowledged 
 and confirmed ; but whenever any person, in the construc- 
 tion of any ditch or canal, injures or damages the possession 
 of any settler on the public domain, the party committing 
 such injury or damage shall be liable to the party injured 
 for such injury or damage. 
 
 14 Stat. 253; E. S. 2339. Atchison v. Peterson, 20 Wall. 507; 
 Basey v. Gallagher, 20 id. 670 ; Jennison v. Kirk, 8 Otto, 453. 
 Decisions Com. G. L. O., Nov. 23, 1869 (Copp'a Mg. Dec. 
 24) ; April 16, 1871 (id. 42) ; March 21, 1872 (id. 82). 
 
 Sec. 408. All patents granted, or pre-emption or home- 
 steads allowed, shall be subject to any vested and accrued 
 water-rights, or rights to ditches and reservoirs used . in 
 connection with such water-rights, as may have been 
 acquired under or recognized by the preceding section. 
 
 16 Stat. 218; E. S. 2340. 
 
 Sec. 409. Wherever, upon the lands heretofore designated 
 as mineral lands, which have been excluded from survey 
 and sale, there have been homesteads made by citizens of 
 the United States, or persons who have declared their inten- 
 tion to become citizens, which homesteads have been made, 
 improved, and used for agricultural purposes, and upon 
 which there have been no valuable mines of gold, silver, 
 cinnabar, or copper discovered, and which are properly ag- 
 ricultural lands, the settlers or owners of such homesteads 
 shall have a right of pre-emption thereto, and shall be en- 
 titled to purchase the same at the price of one dollar and 
 twenty-five cents per acre, and in quantity not to exceed one 
 hundred and sixty acres ; or they may avail themselves of 
 the provisions of chapter eight, relating to " Homesteads. " 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 607 
 
 14 Stat. 253; R. S. 2341. Ah Yew v. Choate, 24 Cal. 562 : Al- 
 ford V. Barnum, 45 id. 482. Decisioas Sec. Int., Feb. 12, 
 
 1872 (Copp'8 Mg. Dec. 77) ; May 6, 1872 (id. 93) ; July IQ. 
 {id. 128, 130) ; l5eo. 14, 1872 (id. 3,133); Jan. 1876 (2 Copp's 
 L. 0. 146) ; Feb. 5, 1876 (2 id. 180; 3 id. 2) ; Dec. 20, 1876 (4 
 id. 102) ; April 5, 1877 (4 id. 19) ; June 21, 1877 (5 id. 3) ; 
 Feb. 16, 1878 (5 id. 3) ; March 4, 1879 (6 id. 4) ; Deo. 22, 
 1879 (7 id. 23) ; April 7, 1880 (7 id. 36). Decisions Com. G. 
 L. O.. Nov. 14, 1872 (Copp's Mg. Dec, 148) ; Oct. 21, 1871 {id. 
 60); Deo. 2, 1872 (id IdO); March 12, 1873 (id. 163); July 
 10, 1873 {id. 208) ; Nov. 11, 1873 {id. 233) ; Aug. 4, 1874 (2 
 Copp's L. 0. 84) ; Feb. 18, 1875 (1 id. 180 1 ; June 21, 1876 (3 
 id. 50) ; Oct. 24, 1876 (3 Id. 130) ; March 21, 1877 (4 id. 2) ; 
 March 26, 1877 (4 id. 17) ; Nov. 6, 1879 (6 id. 135). Cir. G. 
 L. O., April 22, 1880 (7 Copp's L. O. 36). 
 
 Sec, 410. Upon the survey of the lands described in the 
 preceding section, the Secretary of the Interior may desig- 
 nate and set apart such portions of the same as are clearly 
 agricultural lands, which lands shall thereafter be subject 
 to pre-emption and sale as other public lands, and be sub- 
 ject to all the laws and regulations applicable to the same. 
 
 14. Stat. 253 ; E. S. 2342. Ah Yew v. Choate, 24 Cal. 562 ; Al- 
 ford V. Barnum, 45 id. 482. Decisions Sec. Int., Feb. 12, 1872 
 Copp's Mg. Dec. 77) ; May 6, 1872 {id. 93, July 10, "1872, id. 
 128, 130) ; Dec. 14, 1872 (id. 133); Jan. 3, 1876 (2 Copp's L. 
 0. 146); Feb. 5, 1876 (2id 180; 3id.2); Deo. 20, 1876 (4 id 
 102) . April 5, 1877 (4 id. 19) ; June 21, 1877 (5 id. 2) ; Feb. 
 16, 1878): bid. 3); March 4, 1879 (6 id. 4); Dec. 22, 1879 
 (7 id. 23); April 17, 1880 (7 id. 36). Decisions Com. G. L., 
 Nov. 14, 1872 (Copp's Mg. Dec. 148) ; Oct. 21, 1871 (id. 60) ; 
 Dec. 2, 1872 (id. 150) March 12, 1873 (id. 163); July 10, 
 
 1873 (id. 208); Nov. 11, 1873 (id. 233); Aug. 4, 1875 (2 
 Copp's L. O. 84) : Feb. 18, 1875 (1 id. 180) ; June 21, 1876 (3 
 id. 50) ; Oct. 24, 1876 (3 id. 130) ; March, 21, 1877 (4 id. 2) ; 
 March 26, 1877 (4 id. 17) ; Nov. 6, 1879 (6 id. 135). Cir. G. L. 
 O., April 22, 1880 ) 7 Copp's L. O., 36.) 
 
 Sec. 411. The President is authorized to establish addi- 
 tional land districts, and to appoint the necessary officers 
 under existing laws, wherever he may deem the same neces- 
 sary for the public convenience in executing the provisions 
 of this chapter. 
 
 14 Stat. 252; R. S. 2343. 
 
 Sec. 412. Nothing contained in this chapter shall be con- 
 strued to impair, in any way, rights or interests in mining 
 property acquired under existing .laws ; nor to affect the pro- 
 visions of the act entitled " An act granting to A. Sutro the 
 right of way and other privileges to aid in the construction 
 of a draining and exploring tunnel to the Comstock lode, in 
 the State of Nevada, " approved July twenty-five, eighteen 
 hundred and sixty-six. 
 
 16 Stat. 218 ; 17 id. 96 ; 19 id. 52 ; R. S. 2344. Decision Sec. 
 Int., Aug. 30, 1878 (5 Copp's L. O. 198). D3eision3 Com. G. 
 L. O., March 8, 1873 (5 Copp's Mg. Dec. 162) ; March 29, 
 1873 {id. 179) ; May 27, 1876 (3 Copp's L. 0. 34). 
 
 Sec. 413. The provisions of the preceding sections of this 
 chapter shall not apply to the mineral lands situated in the 
 States of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, which are 
 declared free and open to exploration and purchase, accord- 
 ing to legal subdivisions, in like manner as before the tenth 
 day of May, eighteen hundred and seventy-two. And any 
 bona-fide entries of such lands within the States named since 
 the tenth day of May, eighteen hundred and seventy-two, 
 may be patented without reference to any of the foregoing 
 provisions of this chapter. Such lands shall be oifered for 
 public sale in the same manner, at the same minimum price, 
 and under the same rights of pre-emption as other public 
 lands. 
 
 17 Stat. 465 ; R. S. 2345. Decisions Com. G. L. O., July 21 
 1876 (3 Copp's L. 0. 132). 
 
 Sec. 414. Within the State of Missouri and Kansas de- 
 posits of coal, iron, lead, or other minerals are excluded from 
 the operation of the preceding sections of this chapter, and 
 all lands in said States shall be subject to disposal as agri- 
 cultural lands. 
 19 Stat. 62. 
 
 Sec. 415. No act passed at the first session of the Thirty- 
 eighth Congress, granting lands to States or corporations to 
 aid in the construction of roads or for other purposes, or to 
 extend the time of grants made prior to the thirtieth day of 
 January, eighteen hundred and sixty-five, shall be so con- 
 
 strued as to embrace mineral lands, which in all cases are 
 reserved exclusively to the United States, unless otherwise 
 specially provided in the act or acts making the grant ; and 
 all mineral lands are excepted from the operation and grants 
 of laws heretofore granting lands to the State of Colorado. 
 
 13 Stat. 576 ; 18 id. 476 ; R. S, 2346. Heydenfeldt v. Mg. Co. 
 3 Otto, 634. Boggs v. Merced Mg. Co., 14 Cal. 279; Burdge 
 V. Smith, 14 id. 380 ; Doran v. Railway Co., 24 id. 452 ; Hig- 
 gins V. Houghton, 25 id. 252 ; McLaughlin v. Powell, 50 id. 
 64. Decisions Sec. Int., May 20, 1870 (Copp's Mg. Dec. 31) ; 
 April 28, 1873 ; April 30, 1879. Decisions Com. G. L. O., 
 Feb. 5, 1879 (5 Copp's L. 0. 178) ; Dee. 19, 1878 (6 id. 152). 
 
 Sec. 416. Every person above the age of twenty-one years, 
 who is a citizen of the United States, or who has declared 
 his intention to become such, or any association of persons 
 severally qualified as above, shall, upon application to the 
 register of the proper land office, have the right to enter, by 
 legal subdivisions, any quantity of vacant coal lands of the 
 United States not otherwise appropriated or reserved by 
 competent authority, not exceeding one hundred and sixty 
 acres to such individual person, or three hundred and twenty 
 acres to such association, upon payment to the receiver of 
 not less than ten dollars per acre for such lands, where the 
 same shall be situated more than fifteen miles from any com- 
 pleted railroad, and not less than twenty dollars per acre for 
 such lands as shall be within fifteen miles of such road. 
 
 17 Stat. 607 ; R. S. 2337. Stroud v. Railway Co., 4 Dillon, C. 
 C. 396. Decisions Com. G. L. O., Aug. 11, 1873 (1 Copp's L. 
 O. 2); March 28, 1874 (1 id. 3); May 25, 1874 (3 id. 34); Nov. 
 3, 1874 (3 id. 135). 
 
 Sec. 417. Any person or association of persons severally 
 qualified, as above provided, who have opened and im- 
 proved, or shall hereafter open and improve, any coal mine 
 or mines upon the public lands, and shall be in actual pos- 
 session of the same, shall be entitled to a preference right 
 of entry, under the preceding section, of the mines so opened 
 and improved : Provided, That when any association of not 
 less than four persons, severally qualified as above provided, 
 shall have expended not less than five thousand dollars in 
 working and improving any such mine or mines, such associ- 
 ation may enter not exceeding six hundred and forty acres, 
 including such mining improvements. 
 
 17 Stat. 607; R. S. 2348. 
 
 Sec. 418. All claims under the preceding section must 
 be presented to the register of the proper land district within 
 sixty days after the date of actual possession and the com- 
 mencement of improvements on the land, by the filing of a 
 declaratory statement therefor ; but when the township plat 
 is not on file at the date of such improvement, filing must 
 be made within sixty days from the receipt of such plat at 
 the district office ; and where the improvements shall have 
 been made prior to the expiration of three months from the 
 third day of March, eighteen hundred and seventy-three, 
 sixty days from the expiration of such three months shall be 
 allowed for the filing of a declaratory statement, and no 
 sale under the provisions of this section shall be allowed 
 until the expiration of six months from the third day of 
 March, eighteen hundred and seventy-three. 
 
 17 Stat. 607; R. S. 2349. Decision Com. G. L. O., Aug. 11, 
 1873 (1 Copp's L. O. 3). 
 
 Sec. 419. The three preceding sections shall be held to au- 
 thorize only one entry by the same person or association of 
 persons ; and no association of persons any member of which 
 shall have taken the benefit of such sections, either as an 
 individual or as a member of any other association, shall 
 enter or hold any other lands under the provisions thereof; 
 and no member of any association which shall have taken 
 the benefit of such sections shall enter or hold any other 
 lands under their provisions ; and all persons claiming under 
 section four hundred and seventeen shall be required J;b 
 prove their respective rights and pay for the lands filed 
 upon within one year from the time prescribed for filing 
 their respective claims ; and upon failure to file the proper 
 notice, or to pay for the land within the required period, 
 the same shall be subject to entry by any other qualified 
 applicant. 
 
 17 Stat. 607; R. S. 2350. 
 
608 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Sec. 420. In case of conflicting claims upon coal lands 
 where the improvements shall be commenced, after the third 
 day of March, eighteen hundred and seventy-three, priority 
 of possession and improvement, followed by proper filing 
 and continued good faith, shall determine the preference 
 right to purchase. And also where improvements have al- 
 ready been made prior to the third day of March, eighteen 
 hundred and seventy- three, division of the land claimed may 
 be made by legal subdivisions, to include, as near as may be, 
 the valuable improvements of the respective parties. The 
 Commissioner of the Qeneral Land Office is authorized to 
 issue all needful rules and regulations for carrying into effect 
 the provisions of this and the four preceding sections. 
 
 17 Stat. 607; R. S. 2351. 
 
 Sec. 421. Nothing in the five preceding sections shall be 
 construed to destroy or impair any rights which may have 
 attached prior to the third day of March, eighteen hundred 
 and seventy-three, or to authorize the sale of lands valuable 
 for mines of gold, silver or copper. 
 
 17 Stat. 607; R. S. 2352. 
 
 Sec. 440. All navigable rivers, within the territory occu- 
 pied by the public lands, shall remain and be deemed public 
 highways ; and, in all cases where the opposite banks of any 
 streams not navigable belong to different persons, the stream 
 and the bed thereof shall become common to both. 
 
 1 Stat. 468; 2 id. 235; E. S. 2476. 
 
 Sec. 441. The rightof way for the construction of high- 
 ways over public lands, not reserved for public uses, is 
 hereby granted. 
 
 14 Stat. 253 ; R. S. 2477. Railway Co. v. Gordon, S. C. Mich., 
 Oct. T. 1879 (7 Copp's L. O. 158.) 
 
 Sec. 442. If any rail or plank road or macadamized turn- 
 pike company to whom the right of way or sites for watering 
 places, depots and work-shops over and through the public 
 lands of the United States was granted by the act of Con- 
 gress approved August fourth, eighteen hundred and fifty- 
 two, and by the acts amendatory thereto, shall at any time 
 after its completion be discontinued or abandoned by said 
 company or companies, the grants made by said acts shall 
 cease, and determine, and the lands shall revert back to the 
 United States. 
 
 10 Stat. 28, 29, 683 ; 12 id. 577. Decision Com. G. L. O., July 
 16, 1857. 
 
 Sec. 448. The locators of all mining locations heretofore 
 made or which shall hereafter be made, on any mineral 
 vein, lode, or ledge, situated on the public domain, their 
 heirs and assigns, where no adverse claim exists on the 
 tenth day of May, eighteen hundred and seventy-two, so 
 long as they comply with the laws of the United States, and 
 with State, territorial, and local regulations not in conflict 
 with the laws of the United States governing their posses- 
 sory title, shall have the exclusive right of possession and 
 enjoyment of all the surface included within the lines«)f 
 their locations, and all veins, lodes and ledges throughout 
 their entire depth, the top or apex of which lies inside of 
 such surface lines extended downward vertically, although 
 such veins, lodes, or ledges may so far depart from a per- 
 pendicular in their course downward as to extend outside 
 the vertical side lines of such surface locations. But their 
 right of possession to such outside parts of such veins or 
 ledges shall be confined to such portions thereof as lie be- 
 tween vertical planes drawn downward as above described, 
 through the end lines of their locations, so continued in 
 their own direction that such planes will intersect such ex- 
 terior parts of such veins or ledges. And nothing in this 
 section shall authorize the locator or possessor of a vein or 
 lode which extends in its downward course beyond the 
 vertical lines of his claim to enter upon the surface of a claim 
 owned or possessed by another. 
 17 Stat. 91 ; 19 id. 52 ; E. S. 2322. 
 
 Sec. 444. Where two or more veins of mining claims in- 
 tersect or cross each other, the owners of the mine last loca- 
 ted shall have the right of way through the space of inter- 
 section for the purposes of the convenient working of the 
 mine. 
 
 17 Stat. 96; 19 id. 52 ; E. S. 2336. 
 
 Sec. 445. As a condition of sale, in the absence of neces- 
 sary legislation by Congress, the local legislature of any 
 State or Territory may provide rules for working mines, in- 
 volving easements, drainage, and other necessary means to 
 their complete development ; and those conditions shall be 
 fully expressed in the patent. 
 
 14 Stat. 252 ; 19 id. 52; E. S. 2338. 
 
 Sec. 446. Whenever by priority of possession, rights to 
 the use of water for mining, agricultural, manufacturing, or 
 other purposes, have vested and accrued, and the same are 
 recognized and acknowledged by the local customs, laws, 
 and the decisions of courts, the possessors and owners of 
 such vested rights shall be maintained and protected in the 
 same; and the right of way for the construction of ditches 
 and canals for the purposes herein specified is acknowledged 
 and confirmed ; but whenever any person, in the construction 
 of any ditch or canal, injures or damages the possession of 
 any settler on the public domain, the party committing such 
 injury or damage shall be liable to the party injured for 
 such injury or damage. 
 
 14 Stat. 253 ; E. S. 2339. 
 
 Sec. 447. All patents granted, or pre-emption or home- 
 steads allowed, shall be subject to any vested and accrued 
 water- rights, or rights to ditches and reservoirs used in con- 
 nection with such water-rights, as may have been- acquired 
 under or recognized by the preceding section. 
 
 16 Stat. 218; E. S. 2340. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS RELATING 
 TO THE PUBLIC LANDS. 
 
 Sec. 466. The Commissioner of the General Land Office 
 is authorized to decide upon principles of equity and justice, 
 as recognized in courts of equity, and in accordance with 
 regulations to be settled by the Secretary of the Interior, 
 the Attorney-General, and the Commissioner, conjointly, 
 consistently with such principles, all cases of suspended 
 entries of public lands and of suspended pre-emption land 
 claims, and to adjudge in what cases patents shall issue 
 upon the same. 
 
 9 Stat. 51; 10 id. 258; 11 id. 22; 18 id. 60; 19 id. 244; E. S. 
 2450. 14 Op. Att. Gen. 636, 645. Decisions Sec. Int., Dec. 
 27 (1 Leester's L. L. 484) ; May 12, 1859 (1 id. 486) ; May 26, 
 1859 (1 id. 488) ; Aug. 12, 1859 (1 id. 487) ; Oct. 6, 1859 f 1 id. 
 490); Dee. 2, 1859 (1 ^d. 491); May 19, 1871 (Copp's L. L. 
 753) ; Nov. 3, 1871 {id. 755) ; Nov. 13, 1872 (id. 755) ; March 
 31, 1873 (id. 755) ; April 11, 1876 (3 Copp's L, O. 19) ; June 
 27, 1878 (5 id. 101) ; Dec. 5, 1878 (5 id. 146); May 28, 1880 
 (7 id. 91). Decision Com., G. L. O., Sept. 3, 1878 (5 Copp's 
 L. 0. 117). Eulcs and Eegulations, Oct. 3, 1846 (1 Lester's 
 L. L. 482) ; March 13, 1847 (1 id. 483) ; March 16, 1854 (1 id. 
 484) ; April 25, 1877 (G. L. O. Eep. 177, p. 100. 
 
 Sec. 467. Every such adjudication shall be approved by 
 the Secretary of the Interior and the Attorney-General, 
 acting as a board ; and shall operate only to divest the 
 United States of the title of the lands embraced thereby, 
 without prejudice to the rights of conflicting claimant. 
 
 9 Stat. 51 ; 19 id. 244 ; E. S. 2451. 14 Op. Att. Gen. 636, 645. 
 Decisions Sec. Int., Aug. 12,1859 (I Leester's L. L. 487) ; 
 June 27, 1878 (5 Copp's L. 0. 101). Eules .and Eegulations, 
 Oct. 3, 1S46) 1 Leester's L. L. 482); April 25, 1S77 (G. L. O. 
 Eep. 1877, p. 100. 
 
 Sec. 468. The Commissioner is directed to report to Con- 
 gress at the first session after any such adjudications have 
 been made a list of the same under the classes prescribed 
 by law, with a statement of the principles upon which each 
 class was determined. 
 
 9 Stat. 51 ; E. S. 2452. 
 
 Sec. 469. The Commissioner shall arrange his decisions 
 into two classes ; the first class to embrace all such cases of 
 equity as may be finally confirmed by the board, and the 
 second class to embrace all such cases as the board reject 
 and decide to be invalid. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 609 
 
 9 Stat. 51 ; E. S. 2453. Rules and Eegulations, Oct 3, 1846 (1 
 Leester's L. L. 482) ; April 25, 1877 (G. L. 0. Bep. 1877, p. 
 100. 
 
 Sec. 479. In all cases where any oath, affirmation, or affi- 
 davit shall be made or taken before any register or receiver, 
 or either or both of them of any local land office in the 
 United States or any Territory thereof, or where any oath, 
 affirmation, or affidavit, shall be made or taken before any 
 person authorized by the laws of any State or Territory of 
 the United States to administer oaths or affirmations, or 
 take affidavits, and such oaths, affirmations, or affidavits are 
 made, used, or filed in any of said local land offices, or in 
 the General Land Office, as well in cases arising under any 
 or either of the orders, regulations, or instructions, concern- 
 ing any of the public lands of the United States, issued by 
 the Commissioner of the General Land Office, or other 
 proper officer of the Government of the United States, as 
 under the laws of the United States, in any wise relating to 
 or affecting any right, claim or title, or any contest therefor, 
 to any of the public lands of the United States, and any 
 person or persons shall, taking such oath, affirmation or 
 affidavit, knowingly, willfully, or corruptly swear or affirm 
 falsely, the same shall be deemed and taken to be perjury, 
 and the person or persons guilty thereof shall, upon convic- 
 tion, be liable to the punishment prescribed for that offence 
 by the laws of the United States. 
 
 11 Stat. 250, 251. People v. Kelley, 38 Cal. 145; Barrell ij. 
 How, 48 id. 223; Ainsworth v. Miller, 20 Kansas, 220. 
 
 Sec. 480. Every person who falsely makes, forges, counter- 
 feits, or alters any letters-patent granted, or purporting to 
 have been granted by the President of the United States ; 
 or who passes, utters, or publishes, or attempts to pass, utter, 
 or publish as genuine, any such forged, counterfeited, or 
 falsely altered letters-patent, knowing the same to be forged, 
 counterfeited, or falsely altered, shall be punished by a fine 
 of not more than five thousand dollars, and by imprisonment 
 at hard labor not more than ten years. 
 4 Stat. 119 ; E. S. 5416. 
 
 Sec. 481. Every person who falsely makes, alters, forges, 
 or counterfeits any bid, proposal, guarantee, official bond, 
 public record, affidavit, or other writing, for the purpose of 
 defrauding the United States, or utters or publishes as true 
 any such false, forged, altered, or counterfeited bid, pro- 
 posal, guarantee, official bond, public record, affidavit, or 
 other writing, for such purpose, knowing the same to be 
 false, forged, altered, or counterfeited or transmits to or 
 presents at tiie office of any officer of the United States any 
 such false, forged, altered, or counterfeited bid, proposal, 
 guarantee, official bond, public record, affidavit, or other 
 writing, knowing the same to be false, forged, altered, or 
 counterfeited, for such purpose, shall be imprisoned at hard 
 labor for a period not more than ten years, or be fined not 
 more than one thousand dollars, or be punished by both 
 such fine and imprisonment. 
 14 Stat. 12; E. S. 5418. 
 
 Sec. 482. Every person who falsely makes, alters, forges; 
 or counterfeits; or causes or procures to be falsely made; 
 altered, forged, or counterfeited ; or willingly aids or assists 
 in the false making, altering, forging, or counterfeiting, aiiy 
 deed, power of attorney, order, certificate, receipt, or other 
 writing, for the purpose of obtaining or receiving, or of en- 
 abling any other person, either directly or indirectly, to ob- 
 tain or receive from the United States, or any of their officers 
 or agents, any sum of money; or who utters or publishes 
 as true, or causes to be uttered or published as true, any 
 such false, forged, altered, or counterfeited deed, power 
 of attorney, order, certificate, receipt, or other writing, with 
 intent to defraud the United States, knowing the same to be 
 false, altered, forged, or counterfeited ; or who transmits to, 
 or presents at, or causes or procures to be transmitted to, or 
 presented at, any office or officer of the Government of the 
 United States, any deed, power of attorney, order, certificate, 
 receipt, or other writing, in support of, or in relation to, any 
 account or claim, with intent to defraud the United States, 
 knowing the same to be false, altered, forged, or counter- 
 feited, shall be imprisoned at hard labor for a period of not 
 less than .one year nor more than ten years ; or shall be im- 
 prisoned not more than five years, and fined not more than 
 one thousand dollars. 
 39 
 
 3 Stat. 771 ; E. S. 5421. 
 
 Sec. 483. Every person who knowingly and with intent to 
 defraud the United States, has in his possession any false, 
 altered, forged, or counterfeited deed, power of attorney, or- 
 der, certificate, receipt, or other writing, for the purpose of 
 enabling another to obtain fi-om the United States, or any 
 of their officers or agents any sum of money, shall be fined 
 and imprisoned at the discretion of the court. 
 
 3 Stat. 772; E. S. 5422. 
 
 Sec. 484. When an occupant of land, having color of title, 
 in good faith has made valuable improvements thereon, and 
 is, in the proper action, found not to be the rightful owner 
 thereof, such occupant shall be entitled in the Federal courts 
 to all the rights and remedies, and, upon instituting the pro- 
 per proceedings, such relief as may be given or secured to him 
 by the statutes of the State or Territory where the land lies, 
 although the title of the plaintiff' in the action may have 
 been granted by the United States after said improvements 
 were so made. 
 
 18 Stat. 50. 
 
 Sec. 487. Whenever, in any grant of land or other subsi- 
 dies, made or hereafter to be made, to railroads or other 
 corporations, the United States has reserved the right, or 
 shall reserve it, to appoint directors, engineers, commis- 
 sioners, or other agents to examine the roads, or act in con- 
 junction with other officers of such company or companies, 
 all the costs, charges, and pay of such directors, engineers, 
 comifaissioners, or agents shall be paid by the respective 
 companies. Such directors, engineers, commissioners, or 
 agents shall be paid for such services the sum of ten dollars 
 per day, for each and every day actually and necessarily 
 employed, and ten cents per mile for each and every mile 
 actually and necessarily travelled, in discharging the duties 
 required of them, which per diem and mileage shall be in 
 full compensation for such services. In case any company 
 shall remse or neglect to make such payments, no more 
 patents for lands or other subsidies shall be issued to such 
 company until these requirements are complied with. 
 
 14 Stat. 299; E. S. 5259; 
 
 The following is an act of Congress approved March 3, 
 1881 : 
 
 Be it enacted by the Sinate and House of Representatives of 
 the United States of America in Congress assembled, That if, 
 in any action brought pursuant to section twenty-three 
 hundred and twenty-six of the Revised Statutes, title to the 
 ground in controversy shall not be established by either 
 party, the jury shall so find, and judgment shall be entered 
 according to the verdict. In such case costs shall not be 
 allowed to either party, and the claimant shall not proceed 
 in the land-office or be entitled to a patent for the ground in 
 controversy until he shall have perfected his title. 
 
 COAL LANDS. 
 
 PRIOR to 1864 coal lands were not specifically noted 
 for reservation or sale, but were disposed of as other 
 public lands under settlement or other laws, until 
 the passage of the pre-emption act of 1841. The act 
 of Congress of July 1, 1864, for the disposal of coal lands and 
 town property on the public domain, authorized the sale of 
 the coal lands which had been excluded from sale, as mines, 
 by the pre-emption act of 1841. Under this act they became 
 subject to pre-emption at the minimum of $20 per acre, after 
 offering, under proclamation of the President, at public sale to 
 the highest bidder, in suitable legal subdivisions. March 3, 
 1865, an act was passed by Congress supplemental to the act of 
 July 1, 1864, giving citizens of the United States, who were 
 engaged in coal mining for commerce, the right to enter, at 
 the proper district or land office, 160 acres of land, or less, 
 at $20 per acre. The act of March 3, 1873 gave a pre- 
 emption right of 160 acres of coal lands to a person, and 
 320 acres to an association, upon payment of not less than 
 $10 per acre, where the lands lie not more than 15 miles 
 from a completed railroad, and $20 per acre where the lands 
 lie within 15 miles of such a road ; and further provided 
 
610 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 that when any association of not less than four persons have 
 expended $5,000 in working and improving any mine, lo- 
 cated within limits as above, they may make an additional 
 entry of 640 acres at the several limit prices. (See Sees. 
 2347-2352 R. S. ; Regulations of General Land Office, April 
 15, 1880). The rectangular system of surveys is extended 
 over coal lands, and they are sold in conformity with the 
 legal subdivision thereof. The method of designation or 
 classification, by noting character of land in field-notes by 
 deputy surveyor, and marking on plats, when known, or of 
 proof at the district land office prior to time of filing, is 
 similar to the method of segregation under the mineral act, 
 and is given in detail in the Regulations of the General 
 Land Office. 
 
 Estimate of Area of Coal Measure.— The esti- 
 mated area of coal lands on the public domain, the pro- 
 perty of the United States, is as follows : 
 
 Aerea. Acres. 
 Washington Territory : 
 
 AreS 829.«0 
 
 Sold . .... 3.360 
 
 826,C90 
 
 Oregon : 
 
 Area 414,720 
 
 Sold 185 
 
 414,535 
 
 California : 
 
 Area 247,820 
 
 Sold 1,800 
 
 246,020 
 
 Colorado ; 
 
 Area. ... 1,128,226 
 
 Sold . ...... 600 
 
 1,127,625 
 
 Utah: 
 
 Area ... . 2,764,800 
 
 Sold .... . • 2,180 
 
 2,762,620 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Area .... . 10,800 
 
 • Sold . . 720 
 
 10,080 
 
 Wyoming, at least ... 42,000 
 
 Dakota . . . '. . ... 50,000 
 
 Montana, at least 60,000 
 
 Arizona, no coal yet discovered. 
 
 Nevada, no coal yet discovered. 
 
 Nebraska, the coal-bearing rocks cover an area of 3,600 square 
 miles, but on account of the smallness of the veins— none 
 exceeding one foot — the coal is of no commercial value. 
 Indian Territory, the coal-bearing rocks cover an area of 13,600 
 
 square miles. 
 Arkansas, the coal-beating rocks cover an area of 12,000 square 
 
 miles 
 
 Total 6,528,970 
 
 New discoveries in Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, and Dakota 
 will increase the amount given above considerably. 
 
 ENTMES UNDER THE COAL LAND ACTS. 
 
 From 1866 to June 30, 1880, under the coal land acts 
 there have been 78 entries at district land offices, containing 
 10,750.24 acres, for which the United States received $146,- 
 999.25, as follows : 
 
 State or Territimj. 
 
 Entries. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 California . . . 
 Oregon . . . . 
 Utah 
 
 18 
 2 
 13 
 26 
 6 
 6 
 8 
 
 2,164.79 
 
 186.18 
 
 1,815.64 
 
 3,666.92 
 
 1.365.00 
 
 72135 
 
 961.36 
 
 $32,972 76 
 
 1,851 80 
 
 21 ■'J24 00 
 
 Washington . . 
 
 Wyoming .... 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Colorado .... .... 
 
 45,109 00 
 27,100 00 
 7,220 10 
 11,221 60 
 
 Total . .... 
 
 78 
 
 10,750.24 
 
 146,999 25 
 
 Cash sales 
 
 of coal landa by flscal years to June 30 
 
 1880. 
 
 
 1866. 
 
 1867. 
 
 1868. 
 
 States and 
 Territories. 
 
 1 
 
 '^ 
 
 .» 
 ■^ 
 
 1 
 
 '^ 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 California . . 
 Oregon . . 
 Utafi .... 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 240 00 
 
 S4,8i,0 00 
 
 1 
 
 160.00 
 
 83,200 00 
 
 1 
 
 160,00 
 
 83,200,00 
 
 Washington. 
 Wyoming . . 
 New Mexico 
 Colorado . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 240.00 
 
 4,800 00 
 
 1 
 
 160.00 
 
 3,S'J0 00 
 
 1 
 
 160 00 
 
 3,200 00 
 
 Casll sales of coal lands \iy fiscal years to June 30, 1880. — 
 
 i..ontiiiued. 
 
 States and 
 Territories. 
 
 California . . 
 Oregon 
 Utah . . . 
 Washington 
 Wyoming . . 
 New Mexico 
 Colorado . . 
 
 Total 
 
 84,000 00 
 
 1870. 
 
 160 00 
 
 1871. 
 
 83,200 00 2 
 
 83,200 00 
 
 States and 
 Territories. 
 
 California . . 
 Oregon . . . 
 Utah .... 
 Washington . 
 Wyoming . . 
 New Mexico 
 Colorado . . 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 1872. 
 
 Is 
 
 274,79 
 
 f3,772 75 
 
 274,79 83,772 76 
 
 160.00 
 '484.00 
 
 
 81.60000 
 
 4,848 30 
 
 644.001 6,448 30 
 
 States and 
 Territoi-ies. 
 
 California . . 
 Oregon . . . 
 Utah .... 
 Washington . 
 Wyoming . . 
 New Mexico 
 Colorado . . 
 
 Total . . 
 
 
 g 
 
 ^ 
 
 160.00!$1,000 oo 
 
 26.18 
 
 676.76 
 
 1,399.77 
 
 440.00 
 
 261 80 
 7,636 20 
 13,997 70 
 8,800. 00 
 
 122 40 
 480.00 
 760.00 
 
 84,000 00 
 
 1,224 00 
 6,400 00 
 15,200,0( 
 
 2,601.7132,184 70 8 1,762.40 26,824 00 13 1,665.00 18,70000 
 
 b 
 
 480.00 
 400.00 
 165.00 
 
 86,200 00 
 
 4,80000 
 4,'K)0 00 
 3,100 00 
 
 States and 
 Territories. 
 
 California. . 
 Oregon . . . 
 Utah . . . . 
 Washington 
 Wyoming . . 
 New Mexico 
 Colorado . . 
 
 Total 
 
 1878. 
 
 160.00 
 40.00 
 
 83,200 00 
 800 00 
 
 1879. 
 
 200.80 
 
 S 
 
 82,416 00 
 
 2,416 00 
 
 1880. 
 
 5 
 
 476.48 
 753.15 
 
 721.35 
 680.S6 
 
 2,631.64 
 
 84,7«4 80 
 16,063 00 
 
 7,220 10 
 7,20S 60 
 
 34,253 60 
 
 Laws Governing the Sale of Government Coal 
 Lands. — The act of Congress approved March 3, 1873, en- 
 titled "An Act to provide for the sale of the lands of the 
 United States containing coal," is as folllows : 
 
 An Act to provide for the sale of the lands of the United States 
 containing coal. — Sec. 1. — Be it enacted by the Senate and House of 
 Representatives of the United States of America m Congress assem- 
 bled, That any person above the age of twenty-one years who is a 
 citizen of the United States, or who has declared his intention to 
 become such, or any association of persons severally qualified as 
 above, shall, upon application to the register of the proper land 
 office, have the right to enter, by legal siibdivisions, any quantity 
 of vacant coal lands of the United States not otherwise appropri- 
 ated or reserved by competent authority, not exceeding one hundred 
 and sixty acres to sucn individual person, or three hundred and 
 twenty acres to such association upon payment to the receiver of 
 not less than ten dollars per acre for such lands, where the same shall 
 be situated more than fifteen miles from any completed railroad, and 
 not less than twenty dollars per acre for such lands as shall be 
 within fifteen miles of such road. 
 
 Sec. 2. That any person or association of persons severally qual- 
 ified as above who nave opened and improved, or shall hereafter 
 open and improve, -any coal mine or mines upon the public lands, 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 611 
 
 and ahall be in actual possession of the same, shall be entitled to a 
 preference right of entry, under the foregoing provisions, of the 
 mines so opened and improved: Provided, That when any associa- 
 tion of not less than four persons, severally qualified as in section 
 one of this act, shall have expended not leas than five thousand 
 dollars in working and improving any such mine or mines, such 
 association may enter not exceeding six hundred and forty acres, 
 including suchmining improvements. 
 
 Sec. 3. — That all claim j under section two of this act must be 
 presented to the register of the proper land district within sixty 
 days after the date of actual possession and the commencement of 
 improvements on the land by the filing of a declaratory statement 
 therefore : Provided, That when 'the township plat is not on file at 
 the date of such improvement, filing must be made within sixty 
 days from the receipt of such plat at the district office : And, pro- 
 vided farther, That where the improvements shall have been made 
 prior to the expiration of three months shall be allowed from 
 the passage of this act, sixty days from the expiration of said three 
 months shall be allowed ror the filing of a declaratory statement, 
 and no sale under the provisions of this act shall be allowed until 
 the expiration of six months from the date hereof. 
 
 See. 4. — That this act shall be held to authorize only one entry by 
 the same person or association of persons under its provisions ; and 
 no association of persons, any member of which shall have taken 
 the -benefit of this act either as an individual or as a member of any 
 other association, shall enter or hold any other lands under the 
 provisions of this act ; and no member of any association which 
 shall have taken the benefit of this act shall enter or hold any other 
 lands under its provisions ; and all persons claimiusf under section 
 two hereof shall be required to prove their respective rights and 
 pay for the lauds filed upon within one yeir from the time pre- 
 scribed for filing their respective claims; and upon failure to file 
 the proper notice, or to pay for the land within the required period, 
 the same shall be subject to entry by any other qualified applicant. 
 
 Sec. a. That in case of conflicting claims upon lauds where the 
 improvements shall be hereafter commenced, priority of possession 
 and improvement, followed by proper filing and continued good, 
 faith, shall determine the preference right to purchase ; and also 
 where improvements have already been made at the date of the 
 passage of this act, division of the land claimed may be made by 
 legal subdivisions, to include, as near as may be, the valuable im- 
 provements of the respective parties; and the Commissioner of the 
 General Land Office shall be, and is hereby, authorized to issue all 
 needful rules and regulations for carrying into effect the provisions 
 of this act. 
 
 Sec. 6. That nothing in this act shall be construed to destroy or 
 impair any rights which may have attached prior to its passage, or 
 to authorize the sale of lands valuable for mines of gold, silver, or 
 copper. 
 
 The Land Commissioner calls attention to the following 
 points: 
 
 1. The sale of coal-landa is provided for — 
 
 1. By ordinary private entry under section 1. 
 
 2. By granting a preference right of purchase based 
 on priority of possession and improvement under section 2. 
 
 2. The land entered under either section must be by legal 
 subdivisions, as made by the regular United States survey. 
 Entry is confined to surveyed land-? ; to such as are vacant, 
 not otherwise appropriated, reserved by competent au- 
 thority, or containing valuable minerals other than coal. 
 
 3. Individuals and associations may purchase. If an in- 
 dividual, he must be twenty-one years of age and a citizen 
 of the United States, or have declared his intention to be- 
 come such citizen. 
 
 4. If an association of persons, each must be qualified as 
 above. 
 
 5. A person is not disqualified by the ownership of any 
 quantity of other land, nor by having removed from his 
 own land in the same State or Territory. 
 
 6. Any individual may enter by legal subdivisions as 
 aforesaid any area not exceeding one hundred and sixty 
 acres. 
 
 7. Any association may enter not to exceed three hundred 
 and twenty acres. 
 
 8. Any association of not less than four persons, duly 
 qualified, who shall have expended not less than $5,000 in 
 working and improving any coal mine or mines, may enter 
 under section 2 not exceeding six hundred and forty acres, 
 including such mining improvements. 
 
 9. The price per acre is $10 where the land is situated 
 more than fifteen miles from any completed railroad, and 
 $20 per acre where the land is within fifteen miles of such 
 road. 
 
 10. "Where the land Vies partly within fifteen miles of such 
 road and in part outside such limit, the maximum price 
 
 must be paid for all legal subdivisions the greater part of 
 which lies within fifteen miles of such road. 
 
 11. The term " completed railroad " is held to mean one 
 which is actually constructed on the face of the earth ; and 
 lands within fifteen miles of any point of a railroad so con- 
 structed will be held and disposed of at $20 per acre. 
 
 12. Any duly qualified person or association must be pre- 
 ferred as purcliasers of those public lands on which they 
 have opened and improved, or shall open and improve, any 
 coal mine or mines, and which they shall have in actual 
 possession. 
 
 13. Possession by agent is recognized as the possession of 
 the principal. The clearest proof on the point of agency 
 must, however, be required in every case, and a clearly-de- 
 fined possession must be established, 
 
 14. The opening and improving of a coal mine, in order 
 to confer a preference right of purchase, must not be. con- 
 sidered as a mere matter of form ; the labor expended 
 and improvements made must be such as to clearly indicate 
 the good faith of the claimant. 
 
 15. These lands are intended to be sold, where there are 
 adverse claimants therefor, to the party who, by substantial 
 improvements, actual possession, and a reafiouable industry, 
 shows an intention to continue his development of the 
 mines in preference to those who would purchase for specu- 
 lative purposes only. With this view, you will require 
 such proof of compliance with the law, when lands are ap- 
 plied for under section 2 by adverse claimants, as the cir- 
 cumstances of each case may justify. 
 
 16. In conflicting claims, where improvement has been 
 ma.de prior to March &,187Z, you. will, if each party make 
 subsequent compliance with the law, award the land by legal 
 subdivisions, so as to secure to each as far as possible his val- 
 uable improvements ; there being no provision in the act 
 allowing a joint entry by parties claiming separate portions 
 of the same legal subdivision. 
 
 17. In conflicts, when improvements, &c., have been com- 
 menced subsequent to March 3, 1873, or shall be hereafter 
 commenced, priority of possession and improvement shall 
 govern the award when the law has been fully complied 
 with by each party. A mere possession, however, without 
 satisfactory improvements, will not secure the tract to the 
 first occupant when a subsequent claimant shows his full 
 compliance with the law. 
 
 18. After an entry has been allowed to one party, you will 
 make no investigation concerning it at the instance of any 
 
 Eerson except on instructions from this office. You will, 
 owever, receive all affidavits concerning such case and for- 
 ward the same to this office, accompanied by a statement of 
 the facts as shown by your records. 
 
 19. Prior to entry, it is competent for you to order an 
 investigation, on sufficient grounds set forth under oath of a 
 party in interest and substantiated by the affidavits of dis- 
 interested and credible witnesses. 
 
 20. Notice of contest, in every case where the same is 
 practicable, must be made by reading it to the party to be 
 cited and by leaving a copy with him. This notice must 
 proceed from your office and be signed by the register or 
 receiver. Where such personal service cannot be made by 
 reason of the absence of the party, and because his where- 
 abouts are unknown, a copy iaay be left at his residence, or, 
 if this is unknown, by posting a copy in a conspicuous place 
 on the tract in controversy, and by publication in a weekly 
 newspaper having the largest general circulation in the 
 vicinity of the land (where no newspaper shall be specified 
 by this office) for five consecutive insertions, covering a 
 period of four weeks next prior to the trial ; and in each 
 case requiring such notice a copy must be forwarded with 
 the returns to this office, accompanied with proof of service 
 by affidavit indorsed thereon. 
 
 21. In every case of contest, all papers in the same must be 
 forwarded to this office for review before an entry is. allowed 
 to either party. 
 
 22. Thirty days from your decision will be allowed by 
 you to enable any party to take an appeal, or file argument 
 to be forwarded to this office. 
 
 23. No appeal will be entertained unless the same shall be 
 forwarded through the district land-office. 
 
 24. The party may still further appeal from the decision 
 of the Commissioner of the General Land Office to 
 
612 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the Secretary of the Interior. The appeal must be taken 
 within sixty days after service of notice on the party. 
 This may be filed with the district land-ofBcers and by them 
 forwarded, or it may be filed with the Commissioner, and 
 must recite the points of exception. 
 
 25. If not appealed, the decision is by law, made final. 
 (See section 10, act of June 12, 1858, United Stateci Statutes, 
 volume 11, page 326.) After appeal, thirty days are usual- 
 ly allowed for filing arguments, and the case is then sent to 
 the Secretary, whose decision is final and conclusive. 
 
 26. Manner of obtaining title: First by private entry. 
 The party will present the following application to the 
 register, and will make oath to the same : 
 
 I, 
 
 , hereby apply, under the provisions of the act 
 
 approved March 3, 1873, entitled "An Act to provide for the sale 
 of the lands of the United States containing coal," to purchase the 
 
 -_ — quarter of section , in township of range , 
 
 in the district of lands subject to sale at the land office at , 
 
 and containing acres ; and I solemnly swear that no portion 
 
 of said tract is in the possession of any other party ; that I am 
 twenty-one years of age, a citizen of the United States (or have de- 
 clared my Intention to become a citizen of the United States), and 
 have nsver held nor purchased lauds under said act, either as an 
 individual or as a member of an association ; and I do further swear 
 that I am well acquainted with the character of said described land, 
 and with each and every legal subdivision thereof, having frequently 
 passed over the same ; that my knowledge of said land is such as 
 to enable me to testify understandingly with regard thereto ; that 
 there is not to my knowledge within the limits thereof any vein or 
 lode of quartz or other rock in place bearing gold, silver, or copper, 
 and that there is not within the limits of said land, to my know- 
 ledge any valuable mineral deposit other than coal. So help me God. 
 
 To this affidavit the register will append the usual jurat. 
 
 27. Thereupon the register, if the tract is vacant, will so 
 certify to the receiver, stating the price, and the applicant 
 must then pay the amount of purchase-money. 
 
 28. The receiver will then issue to the purchaser a dupli- 
 cate receipt, and at the close of the month the register and 
 receiver will make returns of the sale to the General Land 
 Office, from whence, when the proceedings are found regu- 
 lar, a patent or complete title will be issued ; and on sur- 
 render of duplicate receipt such patent will be delivered, at 
 the option of the patentee, either by the Commissioner at 
 Washington or by the register at the district land-office. 
 
 29. This disposition at private entry will be subject to 
 any valid prior adverse right which may have attached to 
 the same land, and which is protected by section 2. 
 
 30. Second. When the application to purchase is based 
 on a priority of possession, &c., as provided for in section 2, 
 the claimant must, when the township plat is on file in your 
 offioe, file his declaratory statement for the tract claimed 
 sixty days from and after the first day of his actual possess- 
 ion and improvement. Sixty days, exclusive of the first 
 day of possession, &c., must be allowed. 
 
 31. The declaratory statement must be substantially as 
 follows, to wit. 
 
 -, being - 
 
 - years of age, and a citizen of the 
 
 United States, (or having declared my intention to become a citizen 
 of the United States,) and never having, either as an individual or 
 as a member of an association, held or purchased any coal-lands 
 under the act approved March 3, 1873, entitled " An Act to provide 
 for the sale of the land of the United States containing coal," do 
 hereby declare my intention to purchase, under the provisions of 
 
 said act, the quarter of section ^ — , in township of 
 
 range , of lands subject to sale at the district land-office at 
 
 , and that I came into possession of said tract on the 
 
 day of ^ — , A. D. 18 — , and have ever since remained in actual 
 
 possession continuously, and have expended in labor and improve- 
 ments on said mine the sum of dollars, the labor and im- 
 provements being as follows : (here describe the nature and char- 
 acter of the improvements;) and I do furthermore solemnly swear 
 that I am well acquainted with the character of said described land, 
 and with each and every legal subdivision thereof, having frequently 
 passed over the same ; that my knowledge of said is such as to en- 
 able me to testify understandingly with regard thereto ; that there 
 IS not, to my knowledge, within the limits thereof any vein or lode 
 of quartz or other rock in place bearing gold, silver, or copper, and 
 that there is not within the limits of said land, to my knowledge 
 any valuable mineral deposit other than coal. ' 
 
 32. When the township plat is not on file at date of claim- 
 ant's first possession the declaratory statement must be filed 
 within sixty days from the filing of such plat in your office. 
 
 33. When improvements shall have -been made prior to 
 June 4, 1873, the declaratory statement must be filed within 
 sixty days from that date. 
 
 34. No sale under this act will be allowed by you prior to 
 September 4, 1873. One year from and after the expiration 
 of the period allowed for filing the declaratory statement 
 is given within which to make proof and payment, but you 
 will allow no party to make final proof and payment, ex- 
 cept on notice as aforesaid to all others who appear on your 
 records as claimants to the same tracts. 
 
 35. A party who otherwise complies with the law may 
 enter after the expiration of said year, provided no valid ad- 
 verse right shall have intervened. He postpones his entry 
 beyond said year at his own risk, and the Government can- 
 not thereafter protect him against another who complies 
 with the law, and the value of his improvements can have 
 no weight in his favor. 
 
 36. One person can have the benefit of one entry or filing 
 only. He is disqualified by having made such entry or 
 filing alone, or as a member of an association. No entry 
 can be allowed an association which has in it a single person 
 thus disqualified, as the law prohibits the entry or holding 
 of more than one claim either by an individual or an associa- 
 tion. You are to allow no entry, under this act, of lands 
 containing other valuable minerals. You will determine 
 the character of the land under the present rules relative to 
 agricultural and mineral lands. Those that are sufficiently 
 valuable for other minerals to prevent their entry as agricul- 
 tural lands cannot be entered under this act. 
 
 37. Assignments of the right to purchase under this act 
 will be recognized when properly executed. Proof and pay- 
 ment must be made, however, within the prescribed period, 
 which dates from the first day of the possession of the as- 
 signor who initiated the claim. 
 
 38. You will so construe this act in its application as not 
 to destroy or impair any rights which may have attached 
 prior to March 3, 1873. " Those persons who may have ini- 
 tiated a valid claim under any prior law relative to coal- 
 lands will be permitted to complete their entries under the 
 same. 
 
 39. You will report at the close of each month as " sales 
 of coal-lands " all filings and entries under this act in sepa- 
 rate abstracts, commencing with number one, and thereafter 
 proceeding consecutively in the order of their reception. 
 Where a series of numbers has already been commenced by 
 sale of coal-lands you will continue the same without change. 
 The affidavit required from each claimant at the time of 
 actual purchase will be as follows, to wit : 
 
 I,- 
 
 -, claiming the right of purchase under the act of 
 
 Congress entitled "An Act to provide for the sale of the lands of 
 the tfnited States containing coal," approved March 3, 1873, to the 
 
 —— quarter of section , in township of range ■, 
 
 subject to sale at , do solemnly swear that I have never had 
 
 the right of purchase under this act, either as an individual or as a 
 member of an association, and that I have never held any other 
 lands under its provisions; I further swear that I have expended 
 in developing coal mines on said traet in labor and improvements 
 
 the sum of dollars, the nature of such improvements being 
 
 as follows : ; that I am now m the actual pos- 
 session of said mines, and make the entry for my own use and ben- 
 efit, and not directly or indirectly for the use and benefit of any 
 other party; and I do furthermore swear that I am well acquainted 
 with the character of said described land, and with each and every 
 legal subdivision thereof, having frequently passed over the same; 
 that my knowledge of said land is such as to enable me to testify 
 understandingly with regard thereto; that there is not, to my 
 knowledge, within the limits thereof any vein or lode of quartz or 
 other rock in place bearing gold, silver, or copper, and that there 
 ia not within' the limits of said land, to my knowledge, any valua- 
 ble mineral deposit other than coal. So help me Goil. 
 
 I, 
 
 -, of the land office at 
 
 do hereby certify 
 
 that the above affidavit was sworn and subscribed to before me this 
 — ■ day of , A. D. 18—. 
 
 40. In case the purchaser shows by an affidavit that he is 
 not personally acquainted with the character of the land, 
 his duly authorized agent who possesses such knowledge 
 may make the required affidavit as to its character ; but 
 whether this affidavit is made by principal or agent, it must 
 be corroborated by the affidavits of two disinterested and 
 credible witnesses-having knowledge of its character. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 613 
 
 MINES ON THE PUBLIC DOMAIN. 
 
 THE precious-metal bearing States and Territories of 
 the public domain are California, Colorado, Oregon, 
 Nevada, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Utah, New 
 Mexico, Arizona, Dakota and Washington. Lead 
 and copper lands in Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Michigan, 
 Minnesota and Wisconsin were sold under special mining 
 laws, the mineral being conveyed with the soil, and are 
 included in cash entries. Under the acts of 1866 and 1872, 
 and the placer act, there have been patented to June 30, 
 1880, 3,978 lode or vein claims, containing 38,435.11 acres, 
 at $5 per acre, realizing $197,778, and 1,303 placer claims, 
 containing 110,186.03 acres, at $2.50 per acre, realizing $288, 
 767 ; totaL 5,281 claims, containing 148,621.14 acres, and 
 realizing $488,545. 
 
 Mineral Reservations in Northwest Territory.— In 
 the ordinance of May 20, 1785, for the disposal of lands in 
 the " Western Territory," it is ordered that there shall be re- 
 served " one-third part of all gold, silver, lead and copper 
 mines, to be sold, or otherwise disposed of as Congress shall 
 hereafter direct," the deed to be given by the Commis- 
 sioners of the Loan OflSce, with a clause of reservation in 
 the words of the act. The mineral resources of the country 
 at that time were but little known. Our present Western 
 precious metal regions, and the base-metal belt of the Miss- 
 isjippi, were almost entirely within the domain of Franco 
 p.nd Spain. The copper regions of Lake Superior had just 
 come into possession of the United States by the definitive 
 treaty of peace with Great Britain. Some gold and lead 
 had been found in the southern colonies — ^now states — ^but 
 not on public domain, and economic minerals were but 
 little known or used. The reserving clause in the ordinance 
 of 1785 suggests the reservations as to minerals, by way of 
 royalty .or sovereign dues, in some of the crown charters for 
 colonization in America, and further shows _ the existing 
 doubt as to the policy of the Government in relation to 
 holding, leasing, or selling mines and mineral lands. 
 
 Congressional Action. — By resolution of April 16. 1800, 
 Congress authorized the President to employ an agent to 
 collect material information relative to the copper mines on 
 the south side of Lake Superior. This contained a clause 
 " and to ascertain whether the Indian title to such 
 lands as might be required for the use of the United 
 States in case they should deem it expedient to work the 
 said mines, had been extinguished." Thus Congress at this 
 period seems to have had in mind the direct working and 
 control of mines by the United States. March 3, 1807, 
 Congress, by section 5 of an act for the sale of certain lands 
 now in Ohio and Indiana, provided that lead mines in. 
 Indiana, with as many contiguous sections of land to each 
 as the President might deem necessary, should be reserved 
 for future disposal by the United States ; and— 
 
 Any grant which may hereafter be made for a tract of land con- 
 taining a lead mine which haa been diseovered previous to the pur- 
 chase of such tract from the United States shall be considered 
 fraudulent and null ; and the President of the United States shall 
 be, and is hereby, authorized to lease any lead mine which has been 
 or may hereafter be discovered in the Indian Territory, for a term 
 not exceeding five years. 
 
 This inaugurated the policy of the United States of leas- 
 ing mineral lands. It will be noted that this reserving 
 clause contained a proviso for reserving lands for mine ease- 
 ments. "These reserved adjacent sections wsre afterwards 
 used by the lessees for dumpa^e-grounds, and the timber 
 thereupon used for smelting. The leases provided for this, 
 Congress, March 25, 1816, in an act relating to settlors on 
 the public lands of the United States, provided— 
 
 That in all cases where the tract of land applied for includes 
 either a lead mine or salt spring, no permission to work the same 
 shall be granted without the approbation of the President ot the 
 United States. 
 
 This provision of law was continued by two separate acts 
 until March 3, 1819. The House of Representatives, Feb- 
 ruary 8 1823, by resolution, asked for information in regard 
 to the mining regions of the West. The President in re- 
 ply transmitted such information as he at that time had 
 (see Ex. Doc. 128, first session Eighteenth Congress). This 
 
 Congressional inquiry and the re:3ly related to lands con- 
 taining base metal and iron. By act of March 3, 1829, 
 Congress conferred authority on the President to expose to 
 sale as other public lands "the reserved lead mines and 
 contiguous lands in the State of Missouri," with this quali- 
 fication, that at least six months' public notice should be 
 given, "with a brief description of the mineral region in 
 Missouri and the lands to be offered for sale, chewing the 
 number and the localities of the different mines (then) 
 known, the probability of discovering others, the quality of 
 the ore, the facilities for working it, the further facilities 
 if any, for manufactures of shot, sheet lead, and paints, 
 and the means and expense of transporting the whole to 
 the principal markets of the United States." 
 
 February 6, 1839, the House of Representatives — 
 
 Resolved, That the President be requested to cause to be prepared 
 a plan for disposal of the public mineral lands, having reifrence as 
 well to the amount of revenue to be derived from them^ and their 
 value as public property, as to the equitable claims of individuals 
 upon them; and that he communicate to Congress all the informa- 
 tion in the possession of the Treasury Department relative to their 
 location, value, productiveness, and occupancy, and that he cause 
 such further information to be collected and surveys to be made as 
 may be necessary for this purpose. 
 
 Dr. David Dale Owen explored the Territories of Iowa 
 and Wisconsin, by order of the President, under this reso- 
 lution. (See report of Dr. Owen, Ex. Doc. No. 239, First 
 session Twenty-sixth Congress.) In the pre-emption act 
 September 4, 1841, section lo provided that " No lands on 
 which are situated any known salines or mines shall be 
 liable to entry under and by virtue of the provisions of this 
 act." In United States v. Gear (3 How., 120), the Supreme 
 Court of the United States, 1845, held that the act of June 
 26, 1834, did not subject lead mines to ordinary sale or pre- 
 emption in certain districts thereby created. 
 
 Executive Action as to Mines. — President Polk, 
 December 2, 1845, in his first annual message said : 
 
 The present system of managing the mineral lands of the United 
 States is believed to be radically defective. More than a million 
 acres of the public lands, supposed to contain lead and other min- 
 erals, have been reserved from sale, and numerous leases upon 
 them have been granted to individuals upon a stipulated rent. The 
 system of granting leases has proved to be not only unprofitable to 
 the Goyernment, but unsatisfactory to the citizens who have gone 
 upon the lands, and must, if continued, lay the foundation of much 
 future difficulty between the Government and the lessees. Accord- 
 ing to the official records, the amount of rents received by the Gov- 
 ernment for the years 1841, 1842, 1843, and 1844, was $6,354.74, 
 while the expenses of the system during the same period, including 
 salaries of the superintendents, agents, clerks, and incidental ex- 
 penses, were $26,111.11, the income being less than one-fourth of 
 the expense. To this pecuniary loss may be added the injury sus- 
 tained by the public in consequence of the destruction of timber, 
 and the careless and wastful manner of working the mines. The 
 system has given rise to much litigation between the United States 
 and individual citizens, producing irritation and excitement in the 
 mineral region, and involving the Government in heavy additional 
 expenditures. It is believed that similar losses and embarrassments 
 will continue to occur while the present system of leasing these 
 lands remains unchanged. These lands are now under the superin- 
 tendence and care of the War Department, with the ordinary duties 
 of which they have no proper or natural connection. I recommend 
 the repeal of the present system, and that these lands be placed 
 undar the superintendence and management of the General Land 
 Office as other public lands, and be brought into market and sold 
 upon such terms as Congress in their wisdom may prescribe, reserv- 
 ing to the Government an equitable percentage of the gross amount 
 of mineral product, and that the pre-emption principle be extended 
 to resident miners, and settlers upon them, at the minimum price 
 which may be established by Congress. 
 
 April 18, 1876, the Attorney-General of the United States, 
 in an opinion respecting the mineral lands on Isle Royal, 
 Lake Superior, held, that " salines, gold, silver, lead, and 
 copper mines" were reserved for " future disposal of Con- 
 gress." 
 
 Cash Sales of Mineral Lands Ordered. — By act 
 approved 11th July, 1846, Congress ordered " the reserved 
 lead mines and contiguous lands in the States of Illinois and 
 Arkansas and" then " Territories of Wisconsin and Iowa " 
 to be exposed to sale as other public lands, with the excep- 
 tion : that six months' notice be given, with brief descrip- 
 tion of the mineral region, as required by the act of 1829 re- 
 specting Missouri ; stipulating further that such lands should 
 
614 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 not be subject to pre-emption until after public offering, and 
 subject to private entry; that upon proof to the register and 
 receiver of any tract containing lead ore, and ot being so 
 worked no bid should be received at less than «2.5U per 
 acre but if not sold at that price, nor entered at private sale 
 within twelve months thereafter, to be subject to sale as 
 other public lands. (See D. D. Owen's survey.) 
 
 By an act of 1st March, 1847, Congress ordered the or- 
 ganization of the Lake Superior district in the upper penin- 
 sula of Michigan, directed that a geographical examination 
 and survey be made of those lands, and conferred authority 
 on the President for the public sale, after six months no- 
 tice, of such land as contained " copper, lead, or other valu- 
 able ores," with description of locality of mines, f c., the 
 minimum price at public sale to be $5 per acre, and where 
 not thus disposed of at public auction, to be subject to pri- 
 vate sale at that price. (See Foster and Whitney's survey.) 
 By the act of 3d March, 1847, the Chippewa land district m 
 Wisconsin was organized, a geological examination and 
 survey ordered, and the lands disposed of in like manner to 
 those in the Lake Superior district, in Michigan. Congress 
 March 3, 1849, created the Department (" Home Depart- 
 ment") of the Interior, and thereafter the supervision ot 
 mineral lands was transferred to the General Land Office m 
 that Department. 
 
 Mineral Lands in Charge of the War Depart- 
 ment.— The act of July 11th, 1846, and March 1st and 3d, 
 1847, made a radical change in the method of disposition of 
 mineral lands on the public dominion, abolished leases, and 
 substituted cash sales. The act of 1849 transferred the 
 charge of these lands from the War Department, where they 
 had been since the ordinance of Congress of 1785, to the 
 Department of the Interior. August 28th, 1850, the At- 
 torney-General of the United States held that public lands 
 containing " iron ore merely " are not the " mineral lands " 
 referred to in the second section of the act of March 1st, 
 1847 (act for the sale of copper, lead, or other valuable ores 
 in Lake Superior district). The act of 26th September, 
 1850, ordered the mineral lands in the Lake Superior dis- 
 trict in Michigan, and Chippewa district in Wisconsin, to be 
 offered at public sale in the same manner, at the minimum, 
 and with same rights of pre-emption as other public lands, 
 but not to interfere with leased rights. 
 
 The Discovery of Gold .in California.— -The dis- 
 covery of gold at Coloma, Cal., by John W. Marshall, 
 January 19, 1848, necessitated a change in the mineral laws 
 of the United States. Copper, lead, and iron had prior to 
 this been the minerals for which the laws were made. In 
 the ordinance of 1875 gold and silver were reserved out of 
 abundant caution, but now gold had actually been discovered 
 on the public domain, and legislation was necessary. Presi- 
 dent Fillmore, in his annual message of December 2, 1849, 
 said: 
 
 I also beg leave to call your attention to the propriety of extend- 
 ing at an early day our system of land laws, with such modifications 
 as may be necessary, over the State of California and the Territories 
 of Utah and New Mexico. The mineral lands of California will, of 
 course, form an exception to any general system which may be 
 adopted. Various methods of disposing of them have been suggested . 
 I was at first inclined to favor the system of leasing, as it seemed to 
 promise the largest revenue to the Government and to afford the 
 best security against monopolies, but further reflection and our ex- 
 
 Eerience in leasing the lead mines and selling lands upon credit 
 ave brought my mind to the conclusion that there would be great 
 difficulty in collecting the rents, and that the relation of debtor and 
 creditor between the citizens and the Government would be attended 
 with many mischievous consequences. I therefore recommend that 
 Instead of^ retaining the mineral lands under the permanent control 
 of the Government, they be divided into small parcels and sold, 
 under such restrictions as to quantity and time as will insure the 
 best price and guard most effectually against combinations of capi- 
 talists to obtain monopolies. 
 
 December 3, 1849, the Secretary of the Interior, Hon. 
 Thomas Ewing, calling attention of Congress to the discov- 
 ery of gold in California, said : 
 
 The right to the mines of precious metals, which, by the laws of 
 Spain, remained in the Crown, is believed to have been also re- 
 tained by Mexico while she was sovereign of the territory, and to 
 have passed by her transfer to the United States. It is a right of 
 the sovereign in the soil as perfect as if it had been expressly re- 
 served in the body of the grant; and it will rest with Congress to 
 
 determine whether, in those cases where lands duly granted contain 
 gold, this right shall be asserted or relinquished. If relinquished, 
 it will require an express law to effect the object, and if retained, 
 legislation will be necessary to provide a mode by which it shall be 
 exercised. For it is to be observed that the regulation permitting 
 the acquisition of a right in the mines by registry or by denounce- 
 ment was simply a mode of exercising by the sovereign the propri- 
 etary right which he had in the treasure as it lay in and was con- 
 nected with the soil. Consequently, whenever that right was trans- 
 ferred by the transfer of the eminent domain, the mode adopted for 
 its exercise ceased to be legal, for the same reason that the Spanish 
 mode of disposing of the public lands in the first instance ceased to 
 be legal after the transfer of the sovereignty. 
 
 Thus it appears that the deposits of gold, wherever found in the 
 Territory, are the property of the United States. Those, however, 
 which are known to exist upon the lands of individuals are of small 
 comparative importance, by far the larger part being upon un- 
 claimed public lands. Still our information respecting them is yet 
 extremely limited ; what we know in general is that they are of 
 great extent and extraordinary productiveness, even though rudely 
 wrought. 
 
 -® -;;:- * * * * -s * 
 
 No existing law puts it in the power of the Executive to regulate 
 these miueSj or protect them from intrusion. Hence, in addition to. 
 our own citizens, thousands of persons, of all nations and languages, 
 flock in and gather gold, which they carry away to enrich them^ 
 selves, leaving the lands the less in value by what they have ab- 
 stracted, and they render for it no remuneration, direct or indirect, 
 to the Government or people of the United States. Our laws, so 
 strict in the preservation of public property that they punish our 
 own citizens for cutting timber upon the public lands, ought not to 
 permit strangers, who are not and who never intend to become citi- 
 zens, to enter at pleasure on these lands, and take from them the 
 gold which constitutes nearly all their value. 
 
 Some legal provision is necessary for the protection and disposi- 
 tion of these mines, and it is a matter worthy of much consideration 
 how they should be disposed of so as best to promote the public 
 interest and encourage individual enterprise. In the division of 
 these lands regard should be had to the convenience of working 
 every part of them containing gold, whether in the alluvion merely 
 or in tne fixed rocks. And, that such division may be made in the 
 best manner practicable to promote the general interest and increase 
 the value of the whole, a geological and mineralogieal exploration 
 should be connected with the linear surveys, which should be made 
 with the assistance and under the supervision of a skilful engineer 
 of mines. The mining ordinances of Spain provide a mode of lay- 
 ing out the mines, which applies only to districts, where veins of ore 
 occur in the rocks, and where it is to be mined by following the 
 metalliferous dike or stratum in the direction of its dip, and along 
 its line of strike. But the gold which is found in the alluvion in 
 California is continuous over a great extent of country, and it may 
 be wrought upon any lot having surface earth and access to water. 
 This district may be, therefore, divided into small lots, with a nar- 
 row front on the margin of the streamSj and extending back in the 
 form of a parallelogram. Where gold is found in the rocks in situ, 
 the lots to embrace it should be larger, and laid off according t» 
 the Spanish method with regard to dip and strike. But so various 
 are the conditions under which the precious metals may be found 
 by a careful geological exploration, that the mode of laying off the 
 ground cannot be safely anticipated, but must be left to the direc- 
 tion, on the spot, of a skilful engineer, whose services will be 
 indispensable. The division, disposition, and management of these 
 mines will require much detail ; Dut, if placed on a proper footing, 
 they may be made a source of considerable revenue. It is due to 
 the Nation at large that this rich deposit of mineral wealth should 
 be made productive, so as to meet, iu process of time, the heavy ex- 
 pense incurred in its acquisition. It is also due to those who be- 
 come the lessees or purchasers of the mines that they should be 
 furnished by the Government with such scientific aid and directions 
 as may enable them to conduct their operations not only to the 
 advantage of the Treasury, but also with convenience and profit to 
 themselves. This scientific aid cannot be procured by individuals, 
 as our people have little experience in mining, and there is not, in 
 the United States, a school of mines, or any in which mining is 
 taught as a separate science. If the United States sell the mineral 
 lands for cash, and transfer at once all title to the gold which they 
 contain, but a very small part of their value will probably be real- 
 ized. It would be better, in my opinion, to transfer them by sale or 
 lease, reserving a part of the gold collected as rent or seignorage. 
 After mature reflection, I am satisfied that a mint at some conveni- 
 ent point will be advantageous to the miner, and the best medium 
 for the collection and transmission of the gold reserved. Gamboa, 
 a Spanish author of much science and practical observation, and at 
 one time president of the Royal Academy of Mexico, strongly rec- 
 ommended the establishment of a mint in their principal mining 
 district, as a means of collecting and transmitting the rents reserved 
 by the Crown, and especially to give a legitimate currency to the 
 miners, that they might not be compelled from necessity to barter 
 their bullion in violation of law. The same reason would apply 
 here with equal force. When the land is properly divided, it will, 
 
 in my opinion, be best to dispose of it;, whether by lease or sale, so 
 
 as to create an estate to be held only on condition that the gold 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 615 
 
 collected from the mine shall be delivered into the custody of an 
 officer of the branch mint. Out of the gold so deposited, there 
 should be retained for rent and assay, or coinage, a fixed per cent., 
 such as may be deemed reasonable, and the residue passed to the 
 credit of the miner, and paid to him at his option in coin or stamped 
 bullion, or its value in drafts on the Treasury or mint of the United 
 States. The gold in the mine, and after it is gathered, until brought 
 into the mint, should be and remain the property of the United 
 States. The barter, sale, gift, or exportation of any portion of it 
 before it shall have been delivered at the mint, and so coined, or 
 assayed and stamped, or its concealment with intent to avoid the 
 payment of rent or seignorage, should involve a forfeiture of the 
 
 fold itself, and also of the mine. The terms of lease or sale should 
 e favorable to the miner, and the law should be stringent to en- 
 force the payment of seignorage or rents. So far as the surface 
 deposits extend, I am of opinion that leases will, for yet a further 
 reason, be preferable to the sales of land^. If sold, they will pass 
 at once into the hands of large capitalists; if leased, industrious 
 men without capital may become the proprietors, as they can work 
 the mines and pay the rent out of the proceeds. But where gold is 
 found in the rocks in place, the case is dififerent. These must 
 necessarily fall at once into the hands of large capitalists or joint 
 stock companies, as they cannot be wrought without a heavy invest- 
 ment. Some persons, whose opinions are entitled to much weight, 
 apprehend difficulty in collecting the rents, if the mode of disposi- 
 tion which I suggest be adopted; but this, I think, is without a full 
 consideration of the condition of the country and the means of 
 enforcement. Gold, unless coined or stamped at the mint, could 
 not circulate in California against a legal provision, and subject to 
 a penalty such as is suggested. It could not be carried across the 
 continent without risk of loss or detection, which would make the 
 value of insurance equal to the rent. In any other direction it 
 must pass the ports of California, and be there, liable to detection. 
 Since the discovery of the mines, gold in California has not ranged 
 higher than $16 per ounce ; its actual value is a fraction over $18. 
 The difference between its true value and the highest price at which 
 it has sold, or would probably ever sell, except to houses transact- 
 in» an open, regular and legal business, is therefore one-ninth, 
 hem^ more than naif the amount that ought to be reserved as rent 
 or seignorage. If the penalty suggested above should be provided 
 for an attempted evasion, and the ordinary advantages given to the 
 officer or other person who should detect the fraud, as in case of 
 smuggling, it would not be the interest of any one to become a 
 dealer in the prohibited article at a small profit and great risk; 
 nor would the miner risk a sale at a small advance of price, to be 
 obtained at the hazard of a heavy forfeiture. The absolute security 
 of the lawful business, the safety of the fund when deposited in the 
 Treasury of the United States, and the small profit and great risk 
 of attempted frauds, would be reasonable security against them. 
 The property of the United States in the mines of quicksilver, 
 derived from Spain through Mexico, with the eminent domain, is, 
 as I have shown, the same as that to the gold, already considered. 
 Indeed, the laws of Spain asserted more sternly and guarded more 
 strictly the rights of the Crown to that metal than to gold and 
 silver. This arose from the scarcity of quicksilver, it being found 
 in sufficient quantities to be worth mining in but few known places 
 on the globe; while its necessary use in separating silver from its 
 matrix, makes it an essential ingredient in silver mining operations. 
 
 Congressional action as to Metals on the Pacific 
 Slope. — Congress, in the act of 27th September, 1850, 
 creating the office of surveyor-general of Oregon, and pro- 
 viding tor surveys and making donations to settlers, directs 
 that no mineral lands, nor lands reserved for salines, shall 
 be liable to any claim under and by virtue of the provisions 
 of that act." This embraces the present Washington Ter- 
 ritory. Then, in the 14th article of the treaty with Peru, 
 concluded on 26th July, 1851, it is agreed upon that "Peru- 
 vian citizens shall enjoy the same privileges in frequenting 
 the mines, and in digging or working for gold upon the pub- 
 lic lands situated in the State of California, as are or may 
 hereafter be accorded by the United States of America to the 
 citizens or subjects of the most friendly nations." Sub- 
 sequently Congress, in providing by the act of 3rd March, 
 1853, " for the survey of public lands in California, the 
 granting pre-emption rights therein, and for other purposes," 
 directed that " none other than township lines shall be sur- 
 veyed where the lands are mineral or. are deemed unfit for 
 cultivation ; " excluding in express terms " mineral lands " 
 from the pre-emption act of 4tn September, 1841, and further 
 interdicting "any person" from obtaining "the benefits of 
 this act by a settlement or location on mineral lands." By 
 the fourth section of the act of 22d July, 1854, to establish 
 "the offices of surveyors-general of New Mexico, Kansas, 
 and Nebraska, to grant donations to actual settlers therein, 
 and for other purposes," .it is directed that " none of the 
 provisions of that act shall extend to mineral or school lands, 
 
 salines, military or other reservations, or lands settled on and 
 occupied for purposes of trade and commerce and not agri- 
 culture." The Attorney-General's opinion of February 14, 
 1866, states that Congress had not then made any provision 
 concerning mineral lands in California, except reserving 
 from pre-emption and donation. The act of July 4, 1866, 
 giving authority for varying surveys in Nevada from "rect- 
 angular form to suit the circumstances of the country," 
 reserves from sale " in all cases lands valuable for mines of 
 gold, silver, quicksilver, or copper." 
 
 Local Mining La^ws in California. — From the dis- 
 covery of rich gold fields in California, January 19, 1848, to 
 July 26, 1866, there was no mining law of the United States 
 relating to the precious metals on the public domain other 
 than those above set out ; and the mineral lands of the 
 United States, copper, lead, &c., had all been disposed of, 
 under the above laws, in blocks conforming to legal sub- 
 divisions of the surveys, the soil carrying with it the minerals. 
 In California the Spanish and Mexican law and miners' 
 usage were the law. The fee of the land was in the United 
 States, but the occupancy or the equitable title was recog- 
 nized by Congress, by resolution of February 27, 1865, which 
 first called attention thereto. Local usage and regulations 
 governed mining camps and towns and regulated the size 
 and conditions of working mining claims. These regulations 
 first applied to placer mining, and afterwards extended over 
 and included quartz claims. The rush of emigrants to Cali- 
 fornia after Marshall's discovery was first from Oregon, 
 Mexico, and the Sandwich Islands. Then followed the 
 emigrants from the older States of the Union. The Mexican 
 miner and Georgia gold-washer joined hands, and local 
 usage, consent, and mutual agreement made law. In 1847 
 the population of California was estimated at 15,000. In 
 1850 it was 100,000, and the average increase annually for 
 five or six years was 50,000 souls. There was no Territorial 
 or Congressional form of Government. The military of the 
 United States were in control, enforcing the laws found in 
 existence there when the country came to the United States 
 under the treaty of Gaudalupe Hidalgo, in 1848, and thus 
 continued until December 20, 1849, the date of the organ- 
 ization of the State Government. The condition of the 
 placer mining regions of California in 1848 is shown by the 
 following report made to the Adjutant-General United 
 St.ites Army, by Col. R. B. Mason, First United States 
 Dragoons. 
 
 report of col. k. b. mason on thb gold-fields 
 of califoknia. 
 Headquaetei!S Tenth Military Department, 
 
 Monterey, Cal., August, 17, 1848. 
 
 Sir : — I have the honor to inform you that, accompanied by Lieut. 
 W. T. Sherman, Third Artillery, acting Assistant Adjutant-General, 
 I started on the 12th of June last to make a tour through the north- 
 ern part of California. My principal purpose, however, was to visit 
 the newly-discovered gold placer in the valley of the Sacramento. 
 
 I had proceeded about forty miles when I was overtaken by an ex- 
 press, bringing me intelligence of the arrival at Monterey of theUnited 
 States storeship Southampton, with important letters from Commo- 
 dore Shubrick and Lieutenant-Colonel Burton. I returned at once 
 to Monterey, and dispatched what business was most important, and 
 on the 17th resumed my journey. We reached San Francisco on 
 the 20th, and found that all, or nearly all, its male popnlation had 
 gone to the mines. The town, which a few months before was so 
 busy and thriving, was then almost deserted . On the evening of 
 the 24th the horses of the escort were crossed to Sansolito in a launch, 
 and on the following day we resumed the journey, by way of Bodega 
 and Sonoma, to Sutter's Fort, where we arrived on the morning of 
 the 2d of July. Along the whole route mills were lying idle, fields 
 of wheat were open to cattle and horses, houses vacant and farms 
 going to waste. At Sutter's there was more life and business. 
 Launches were discharging their cargoes at the river, and carts were 
 hauling goods to the fort, where already were established several 
 stores, a hotel, ete. Captain Sutter had only two mechanics in his 
 employ — a wagon-maker and a blacksmith— whom he was then 
 paying $10 per day. Merchants pay him a monthly rent of $100 
 per room, and whilst I was there a two-story house in the fort was 
 rented as a hotel for $500 a month. 
 
 At the urgent solicitation cf many gentlemen, I delayed there to 
 participate in the first public celebration of our national anniversary 
 at that fort, but on the 5th resumed the journey and proceeded 25 
 miles up the American Fork, to a point on it now known as the low- 
 er mines, or Mormon diggings. The hillsides were thickly strewn 
 with canvas tents and bush arbors. A store was erected, and sev- 
 eral boarding. shanties in operation. The day was intensely hot; 
 yet about 200 men were at work in the full glare of the sun, washing 
 
616 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 for gold, some with tin pans, some with close-woven Indian baskets, 
 but the greater part had a rude machine known as the cradle. This 
 is on rockers 6 or 8 feet long, open at the foot, and at its head has a 
 coarse grate and sieve; the bottom is rounded, with small cleets 
 nailed across. Four men are required to work this machine ; one 
 digs the gravel in the bank close by the stream, another carries it to 
 the cradle and empties it on the grate, a third gives a violent rock- 
 ing motion to the machine, whilst a fourth dashes water on from 
 the stream itself. The sieve keeps the coarse stones from entering 
 the cradle, the current of water washes off the earthy matter, and 
 the gravel is gradually carried out at the foot of the machine, leav- 
 ing the gold mixed with fine, heavy black sand above the first cleets. 
 The sand and gold, mixed together, are then drawn off through 
 auger holes into a pan below, are dried in the sun, and afterwards 
 separated by blowing off the sand. A party of four men thus em- 
 ployed at the lower mines averaged $100 a day. The Indians and 
 those who have nothing but pans or willow baskets, gradually wash 
 out the earth and separate the gravel by hand, leaving nothing but 
 the gold mixed with sand, which is separated in the manner before 
 described. The gold in the lower mines is in fine bright scales, of 
 which I send several specimens. As we ascended the south branch 
 of the American Fork the country became more broken and moun- 
 tainous, and at the saw-mill, 25 miles above the lower washings, or 
 50 miles from Sutter's, the hills rise to about 1,000 feet above the 
 level of the Sacramento plain. Here a species of pine occurs, which 
 led to the discovery of the gold. Captain Sutter feeling the great 
 want of lumber, contracted, in SeptemOer last, with a Mr. Marshall 
 to build a saw-mill at that place. It was erected in the course of 
 the past winter and spring — a dam and race constructed ; but when 
 the water was let on the wheel, the tail race was found to be too 
 narrow to permit the water to escape with sufficient rapidity. _ Mr. 
 Marshall, to save labor, let the water directly into the race, with a 
 strong current, so as to wash it wider and deeper. He effected his 
 purpose, and a large bed of mud and gravel was carried to the foot 
 of the race. One day Mr. Marshall, when walking down to the race 
 to this deposit of mud, observed some glittering particles at its up- 
 per edge ; he gathered a few, examined them, and became satisfied 
 of their value. He then went to the fort, told Captain Sutter of his 
 discovery, and they agreed to keep it segret until a certain grist- 
 mill of Sutter's was finished. It, however, got out and spread like 
 magic. Remarkable success attended the labors of the first ex- 
 plorers, and in a few weeks hundreds of men were drawn thither. 
 At the time of my visit, but little more than three months after its 
 first discovery, it was estimated that upwards of 4,000 people were 
 employed. At the mill there is a fine deposit, or bank of gravel, 
 which the people respect as the property of Captain Sutterj although 
 he pretends to no right to it, and would be perfectly satisfied with 
 the simple promise of pre-emption, on account of the mill which he 
 has built there, at considerable cost. Mr. Marshall was living near 
 the mill, and informed me that many persons were employed above 
 and below him, that they used the same machines as at the lower 
 washings, and that their success was about ths same, ranging from 
 1 to 3 ouncis of gold per man daily. This gold too is in scales, a 
 little coarser than those of the lower mines. From the mills Mr. 
 Marshall guided me up the mountain, on the opposite or north bank 
 of the South Fork, where, in the beds of small streams, or ravines, 
 now dry, a great deal of the coarser gold has been found. I there 
 saw several parties at work, all of whom were doing very well. A 
 great many specimens were shown me, some as heavy as 4 or 5 ounces 
 in weight : and I send three pieces, labeled No. 5, presented by a 
 Mr. Spence. You will perceive that soma of the specimens accom- 
 panying this hold, meonauioally, pieces of quartz, that the surface 
 IS rough, and evidently molded in the crevice of a rock. This gold 
 cannot have been carried far by water, but must have remained near 
 where it was deposited from the rock that once bound it. I inquired 
 of many people if they had encountered the metal in its matrix, but 
 in every instance they said they had not, but that the gold was in- 
 variably mixed with washed gravel, or lodged in the crevices of 
 other rocks. All bore testimony that they had found gold in great- 
 er or less quantities in the numerous small gullies or ravines that 
 occur in that mountainous region. On the 7th of July I left the 
 mill and crossed to a small stream emptying into the American 
 Fork, 3 or 4 miles below the saw-mill. I struck this stream (now 
 known as Weber's Creek) at the washings of Sunal & Co, They 
 had about thirty Indians employed, whom they pay in merchandise. 
 They were getting gold of a character similar to that found in the 
 main fork, and doubtless in sufficient quantities to satisfy them. I 
 B3nd you a small specimen, presented by this company of their gold. 
 From this point we proceeded up the stream about 8 miles, where 
 we found a great many people and Indians ; some engaged in the 
 bed of the stream, and others in the small side valleys that put into 
 it. These latter are exceedingly rich, (ind 2 ounces were considered 
 an ordinary yield for a day's work. A small gutter, not more than 
 100 yards long by 4 feet wide and 2 or 3 feet deep, was pointed out 
 to me as the one where two men, "William Daly and Pt'i-ry McCoon, 
 had, a short time before, obtained in sevi'ii days $17,000 worth of 
 gold. 
 
 Captain Weber informed me that he know that these; two men had 
 employed four white men and about a hundred Indians, and that, 
 at the end of one week's work, they paid off thc^ir party and liad 
 left with $10,000 worth of this gold. Another smgll ravine was 
 shown me from which had been taken $1 2,000 worth of gold. Hun- 
 
 dreds of similar ravines, to all appearances, are as yet untouched. 
 I could not have credited these reports liad I not seen, in the abun- 
 dance of the precious metal, evidence of their trutli. Mr. Neligh, an 
 agent of Commodore Stockton, had been at work about three weeks 
 in the neighborhood, and showed me, in bags and bottles, over $2,- 
 
 000 worth of gold; and Mr. Lyman, a gentleman of education and 
 worthy of every credit, said he had been engaged, with four others, 
 with a machine on the American Fork, just below Sutter's saw-mill, 
 that they worked eight days, and that his share was at the rate of 
 $50 a day ; but, hearing that others were doing better at Weber's 
 place, they had removed there, and were then on the point of resum- 
 ing operations. 
 
 1 might tell of hundreds of similar instances : but, to illustrate 
 how plentiful gold was in the pockets of common laborers, I will 
 mention a simple occurrence whicli took place in my presence when 
 
 1 was at Weber's store. This store was nothing but an arbor of 
 business, under which he had exposed for sale goods and groceries 
 suited to his customers. A man came in, picked up a box of seidlitz 
 powders, and asked its price. Captain Weber told him it was not 
 for sale. The man offered an ounce of gold, but Captain Weber told 
 him that it only cost 50 cents, and he did not wish to sell it. The 
 man then offered an ounce and a, half, when Captain Weber had to 
 take it. The prices of all things are high ; and yet Indians, who be- 
 fore hardly knew what a breech-cloth was, can now afford to buy 
 the most gaudy dresses. The country on either side of Weber's Creek 
 is much broken up by hills, and is intersected in every direction by 
 small streams or ravines, which contain more or less gold. Those 
 that have been worked are barely scratched, and, although thous- 
 ands of ounces have been carried away, I do not consider that a ser- 
 ious impression has been made upon the whole. Every- day was 
 developing new and rich deposits, and the only apprehension seemed 
 to be that the metal would be found in such abundance as seriously 
 to depreciate in value. On the 8th of July I returned to the lower 
 mines, and on the following day to Sutter's, where, on the 10th, I 
 was making preparations for a visit to the Feather, Yubah, and 
 Bear Rivers, when I received a letter from Commodore A. R.Long, 
 United States Navy, who had just arrived at San Francisco fi-om 
 Mazatlan, with a crew for the sloop-6f-war Warren, and with orders 
 to take that vessel to the squadron at La Paz. Captain Long wrote 
 to me that the Mexican Congress had adjourned without ratifying 
 the treaty of peace, that he had letters for me from Commodore 
 Jones, and that his orders were to sail with the Warren on or before 
 the 20th of July. In consequence of these, I determined to return 
 to Monterey, and accordingly arrived here on the 17th of July. 
 Before leaving Sutter's I satisfied myself that gold exists in the bed 
 of the Feather River, in the Yubah and Bear, and in many of the 
 small streams that lie between the latter and the American Fork ; 
 also that it had been found in the Cosumnes to the south of the 
 American Fork. In each of those streams the gold is found in 
 small scales, whereas in the intervening mountains it occurs in 
 coarse lumps. 
 
 Mr. Sinclair, whose ranche is 3 miles above Sutter's, on the north 
 side of the American, employs about 50 Indians on the North Fork, 
 not far from its junction with the main stream. He had been en- 
 gaged about five weeks when I saw him, and up to that time his 
 Indians had used simply closely-woven willow oaskets. His net 
 proceeds (which I saw) were about $16,000 worth of gold. He 
 showed me the proceeds of his last week's work — fourteen pounds 
 avoirdupois of clean washed gold. The principal store at Sutter's 
 Fort, that of Brannant & Co., had received in payment for goods 
 $36,000 worth of this gold from the 1st of May to the 10th of July; 
 other merchants had also made extensive sales. Large quantities 
 of goods were daily sent forward to the mines, as the Indians, here- 
 tofore so poor and degraded, have suddenly become consumers 
 of the luxuries of life. I before mentioned that the greater part of 
 the farmers and rancheros had abandoned their fields to go to the 
 mines ; this is not the case with Captain Sutter, who was carefully 
 gathering his wheat, estimated at 40,000 bushels. Flour is already 
 worth at Sutter's $36 a barrel, and soon will be $50. Unless large 
 quantities of bread-stuffs reach the country, much suffering will oc- 
 cur : but as each man is able to pay a large price, it is believed the 
 merchants will bring from Chili and Oregon a plentiful supply for 
 the coming winter. The most moderate estimate I could olitain 
 from men acquainted with the subject was that upwards of 4,000 
 men were working in the gold district, of wliom more than half were 
 Indians, and that from $30,000 to $60,000 worth of gold, if not more, 
 was daily obtained. The entire gold district, with very few excep- 
 tions of grants made some years ago by the American authorities, is 
 on land belonging to the United States. It was a matter of serious 
 reflection with me how I could secure to the Government certain 
 rents or fees for the privilege of procuring this gold ; but, upon con- 
 sidering the large extent of countiy, the character of the people en- 
 gaged, and tlic small scattered force at rav command, I resolved not to 
 interfere, but permit all to work freely, unless broils and crimes 
 should call for interference. I was surprised to loarn that crime of 
 any kind was very unfrequent, and that no thefts or robberies had 
 been committed in the gold district. All live in tents, in bush- 
 houses, (ir in the open air, and men have frequently about their per- 
 sons thousands of dollars' worth of this gold ; and it was to me a 
 matter of surprise that so peaceful and quiet a state of things should 
 continue to exist. Conflicting claims to particular spots of ground 
 may cause collisions, but they will be rare, as the extent of country 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 617 
 
 is so great, and the gold so abundant, that for the present there is 
 room and enough for all ; still the Government is entitled to rents 
 for this laad, and immediate steps should be devised to collect them, 
 for the longer it is delayed, the more difficult it will become. One 
 plan I would suggest is to send out from the United States survey- 
 ors, with high salaries, bound to serve specified periods ; a superin- 
 tendent to be appointed at Sutter's Fort, with power to grant licenses 
 to work on a spot of ground, say 200 yards square, for one year, at 
 a rent of from $100 to $1,000, at his discretion ; the surveyors to 
 measure the grounds and place the renter in possession. A better 
 plan, however, will be to nave the district surveyed and sold at 
 public auction to the highest bidder, in small parcels, say from 20 
 to 40 acres. In either case there will be many intruders, whom for 
 years it will be almost impossible to exclude. 
 
 The discovery of these vast deposits of gold has entirely changed 
 the character of Upper California. Its people, before engaged in 
 cultivating their small patches of ground and guarding their herds 
 of cattle and horses, have all gone to the mines, or are on their way 
 thither ; laborers of every trade have left their work-benches, and 
 tradesmen their shops ; sailors desert their ships as fast as they ar- 
 rive on the coast, and several vessels have gone to sea with hardly 
 enough hands to spread a sail ; two or three are now at anchor in 
 San Francisco w^ith no crews on board. Many desertions, too, have 
 taken place from the garrisons within the influence of the mines ; 
 26 soldiers have deserted from die post of Sonoma, 24 from that of 
 San Francisco, and 24 from Monterey. For a few days the evil 
 appeared so threatening that great danger existed that the garrisons 
 would leave in a body ; and I refer you to my orders of the 25th of 
 July to show the steps adopted to meet fliis contingency.. I shall 
 spare no exertions to apprehend and punish deserters; tut I be- 
 lieve no time in the history of our oountrjr haspresented such temp- 
 tations to desert as now exist in California. Tne danger of appre- 
 hension is small, and the prospect of higher wages certain ; pay and 
 bounties are trifles, as laboring men at the mines can now earn in 
 one day more than double a soldier's pay and allowance for a 
 month, and even the pay of a Lieutenant or captain cannot hire a 
 servant. A carpenter or mechanic would not listen to an offer of 
 less than $15 or $20 a day. Could any combination of affairs try a 
 man's fidelity more than this ? And I really think some extraordi- 
 nary mark of favor should be given to those soldiers who remain 
 faithful to their flag throughout this tempting crisis. No officer can 
 now live in California on his pay. Money has so little value, the 
 prices of necessary articles of clothing and subsistence are so exor- 
 bitant, and labor so high, that to hire a cook or servant has become 
 an impossibility, save to- those who are earning from $30 to $50 a 
 day. This state of things cannot last forever ; yet from the geo- 
 graphical position of Californiaj and the new character it has as- 
 sumed as a mining country, prices of labor will always be high, 
 and will hold out temptations to desert. I therefore have to report, 
 if the Government wish to prevent desertions here on the part of 
 men, and to secure zeal on the part of officers, their pay must be 
 increased very materially. Soldiers both of the volunteer and reg- 
 ular service discharged in this country should be permitted at 
 once to locate their land warrants in the gold district. Many pri- 
 vate letters have gone to the United States giving accounts of the 
 vast quantity of gold recently discovered, and it may be a matter of 
 surprise why I have made no report on this subject at an earlier 
 date. The reason is, that I could not bring myself to believe the 
 reports that I heard of the wealth of the gold district until I vis- 
 ited it myself. I have no hesitation now in saying that there is more 
 gold in the country drained by the Sacramento and San Joaquin 
 rivers than will pay the cost of the present war with Mexico a hun- 
 dred times over. No capital is required to obtain this gold, as the 
 laboring man wants nothing but his pick, shovel, and tin pan, with 
 which to dig and wash the gravel; and many frequently pick gold 
 out of the crevices of rock with their butcher knives in pieces ttom 
 one to six ounces. 
 
 Mr. Dye, a gentleman residing in Monterey, and worthy of every 
 credit, has just returned from Feather river. He tells me that the 
 company to which he belonged worked seven weeks and two days, 
 with an average of 50 Indians (washers), and that their gross pro- 
 duct was 273 pounds of gold. His share, one-seventh, after paying 
 all expenses, is about 37 pounds, which he brought with him and 
 exhibits in Monterey. I see no laboring man from the mines who 
 does not show his two, three, and four pounds of gold. A soldier 
 of the artillery company returned here a few days ago from the 
 mines, having been absent on furlough 20 days ; he made by trad- 
 ing and working during that time $1,500. During these 20 days he 
 was travelling 10 or 11 days, leaving but a week, m which he nlade 
 a sum of money greater than he receives in pay, clothes and rations 
 during a whole enlistment of five years. These statements appear 
 incredible, but they are true. Gold is believed also to exist on the 
 eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada, and when at the mines, I was 
 informed by an intelligent Mormon that it had been found near 
 the Great Salt Lake by some of his fraternity. Nearly all the 
 Mormons are leaving California to go to the Salt Lake, and this 
 they surely would not do unless they were sure of finding gold 
 there in the same abundance as they now do on the Sacramento. 
 The gold " placer" near the mission of San Fernando has long 
 been known, but has been but little wrought for want of water. 
 This is a spur that puts off' from the Sierra Nevada (see Fremont s 
 map), the same in which the present mines occur. There is, there- 
 
 fore, every reason to believe that in the intervening space of 500 
 miles (entirely unexplored) there mast be many hidden and rich 
 deposits. The placer gold is now substituted as currency of this 
 country ; in trade it passes freely at $16 per ounce ; as an article of 
 commerce its value is not yet fixed. The only purchase I made 
 was of the specimen No. 7, which I got of Jlr. Neligh at $12 the 
 ounce. That is about the present cash value in the country, al- 
 though it has been sold for less. The great demand for goods and 
 jjrovisions made by this sudden development of wealth has increased 
 the amount of commerce at San Francisco very much and it will 
 continue to increase. I would recommend that a mint be estab- 
 lished at some eligible point on the bay of San Francisco, and that 
 machinery, and all the apparatus and workmen, be sent by sea. 
 These workmen must be bound by high wages, and even bonds, to 
 secure their faithful services ; else the whole plan will be frustrated 
 by their going to the mines as soon as they arrive in California. If 
 tliis course be not adopted, gold to the amount of many millions of 
 dollars will pass yearly to other countries, to enrich their merchants 
 and capitalists. Before leaving the subject of mines, I will mention 
 that on mjr return from the Sacramento I touched at New Almaden, 
 the quicksilver mine of Mr. Alexander Forbes, consul of her Bri- 
 tannic Majesty at Tepic. This mine is in a spur of mountains 1,000 
 feet above the level of the bay of San Francisco, and is distant in a 
 southern direction from the Pueblo San Jose about 12 miles. The 
 ore (cinnabar) occurs in a large vein dipping at a strong angle to the 
 horizon. Mexican miners are employed in worldng it, by driving 
 shafts and galleries about 6 feet by 7, following the vein. 
 
 The fragments of rook and ore are removed on the backs of In- 
 dians in raw-hide sacks. The ore is then hauled in an ox-wagon 
 from the mouth of the mine down to a valley well supplied with 
 wood and water, in which the fiirnaces are situated. These furnaces 
 are of the simplest construction, exactly like a common bake-oven, 
 ,in the crown of which is inserted a whaler's trying kettle; another 
 inverted kettle forms the lid. From a hole in the lid a small brick 
 channel leads to an apartment or chamber, in the bottom of which 
 is inserted a small iron kettle. The chamber has a chimney. In 
 the morning of each day the kettles are filled with mineral (broken 
 in small pieces), mixed' with lime ; fire is then applied, and kept up 
 all day. The mercury, volatilized, passes into tne chamber, is con- 
 densed on the sides and bottom of the chamber, and flows into the 
 pot prepared for it. No water is used to condense the mercury. 
 During a visit I made last spring, four such ovens were in o_peration , 
 and yielded in the two days I was there 656 pounds of quicksilver, 
 worth at Mazatlan $1.80 per pound. Mr. Walkinshaw, the gentle- 
 man now in charge of this mine, tells me that the vein is improving, 
 and tiiat he can afford to keep his people employed even in these 
 extraordinary times. This mine is very valuable of itself, and be- 
 comes the more so, as mercury is extensively used in obtaining gold. 
 It is not at present used in California for that purpose, but will be 
 at some future time. When I was at this mine last spring, other 
 parties were engaged in searching for veins ; but none have been 
 discovered that are worth following up, although the .earth in that 
 whole range of hills is highly discolored, indicating the presence of 
 this ore. I send several beautiftil specimens, properly labeled. The 
 amount of quicksilver in Mr. Forbes' vats on the 15th of July was 
 about 25,000 pounds. I inclose you herewith sketches of the coun- 
 try through which I passed, indicating the position of the mines, 
 and the topography of the country in the vicinity of those I vis- 
 ited. Some ofthe specimens of gold accompanying this were pre- 
 sented for transmission to the Department by the gentlemen named 
 below; the numbers on the topographical sketch, correspondin.sf to 
 the numbers on the labels of the respective specimens, show from 
 what part of the gold region they were obtained : 
 
 1. Capt. J. A. Sutter. 
 
 2. John Sinclair. 
 
 3. William Glover, E. C. Kirby, Ira Blanchard, Levi Fairfield, 
 Franklin H. Ayer, Mormon Diggings. 
 
 4. Chas. Weber. 
 
 5. Eobert Spence. 
 
 6. Sunal & Co. 
 
 7. Robert D. Neligh. 
 
 8. C. E. Picket, American Fork, Columa. 
 
 9. E. C. Kemble. 
 
 10. T. H. Green, from San Fernando, near Los Angelos. 
 
 A. Two ounces purchased from Mr. Neligh. 
 
 B. Sand found in washing gold, which contains small particles. 
 
 11. Captain Frisbie, Dry Diggings, Weber's Creek. 
 
 12. Cosumnes. 
 
 13. Cosumnes, Hartnell's Ranch. „ 
 
 14. A small specimen, supposed to bo platina, found mixed with 
 the finer particles of the gold. 
 
 I have the honor to be your obedient servant, 
 
 R. B. MASON, 
 Colonel First Dragoons, Commanding. 
 General R. Jones, 
 
 Adjutant General, XJ. S. A., Washington, D. C. 
 
 Mining District under Local Usage— How Or- 
 ganized.— As an illustration of how a miner's camp, and 
 placer mining district as well, was organized in California 
 iu the early days and is at the present time, to a certain ex- 
 tent, in. many portions of the precious-metal minino- States 
 
618 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and Territories, the following laws and regulations for the 
 internal government of the encampment of Jacksonville, 
 Gal., in 1850, are herewith given. The residents of the camp 
 or town, twenty or thirty in number, held a meeting in front 
 of Col. Jackson's store on the 20th of January, 1850, and 
 proceeded to organize a placer mining district. This local 
 law, it will be noticed, assumed both civil and criminal 
 jurisdiction, there being no legal tribunals of justice, and 
 this course was necessary for the maintenance of social order : 
 
 Mining dimp at Jacksonville, Cai. — Organization and Mules. — 
 Article 1. — The officers of this district shall consist of an alcalde 
 and sheriff, to be elected in the usual manner by the people, and con- 
 tinue in office at the pleasure of the electors. 
 
 Art. 2. — In case ot the absence or disability of the sheriff the 
 alcalde shall have power to appoint a deputy. 
 
 Art. 3. — Civil causes may be tried by the alcalde, if the parties 
 desire it; otherwisa they shall be tried by a jury. 
 
 Art. 4.— All criminal cases shall be tried by a jury of eight 
 American citizens, unless the accused should desire a jury of twelve 
 persons, who shall be regularly summoned by the sheriff and sworn 
 by the alcalde, and shall try the case according to the evidence. 
 
 Art. 5. — In the administration of law, both civil and criminal, 
 the rule of practice shall conform as near as possible to that of the 
 United States, but the forms and customs of no particular State shall 
 be required or adopted. 
 
 Art. 6. — Each individual locating a lot for the purpose of min- 
 ing shall be entitled to twelve feet of ground in width, running 
 back to the hill or mountain and forward to the center of the 
 river or creek, or across a gulch or ravine (except in cases here- 
 inafter provided for), lots commencing in all cases at low-water 
 mark and running at right angles with the stream where they 
 are located. 
 
 Art. 7. — In cases where lots are located according to article 6 
 and the parties holding them are prevented by the water from 
 wprkiug the same, they may be represented by a pick, shovel, or 
 bar, until in a condition to be worked ; but should the tool or tools 
 aforesaid be stolen or removed, it shall not dispossess those who 
 located it, provided he or they can prove that they were left as re- 
 quired ; and said location shall not remain un worked longer than 
 one week, if in condition to be worked ; otherwise it shall be con- 
 sidered as abandoned by those who located it (except in cases of 
 sickness). 
 
 Art. 8. — No man or party of men shall be permitted to hold two 
 locations, in a condition to be worked at the same time. 
 
 Art. 9. — No party shall be permitted to throw dirt, stones, or 
 other obstructions upon located ground adjoining them. 
 
 Art. 10.— Should a company of men desire to turn the course of 
 a river or stream for the purpose of mining they may do so (provided 
 it does not interfere with those working below them) and hold and 
 work all the ground so drained, but lots located within said 
 ground shall be permitted to be worked by their owners, so far as 
 they could have been worked without the turning of the river or 
 stream ; and this shall not be construed to affect the rights and 
 privileges heretofore guaranteed or prevent redress by suit at law. 
 . Art. 11. — No person coming direct from a foreign country shall 
 be permitted to locate or work any lot within thejurisdietiou of this 
 encampment. 
 
 Art. 12. — Any person who shall steal a mule, or other animal of 
 draught or burden, or shall enter a tent or dwelling and steal there- 
 from gold dust, money, j^rovisious, goods, or other articles amount- 
 ing in value to one hundred dollars or over, shall, on conviction 
 thereof, be considered guilty of felony, and suffer death by 
 hanging. Any aider or abettor therein shall be punished in like 
 manner. 
 
 Art. 13.— Should any person wilfully, maliciously, and premedi- 
 tatedly take the life of another, on conviction of the murder, he 
 shall suffer death by hanging. 
 
 Art. 14. — Any person convicted of stealing tools, clothing or 
 other articles, of less value than one hundred dollars, shall be pun- 
 ished and disgraced by having his head and eyebrows close shaved 
 and shall leave the encampment within twenty-four hours. 
 
 Art. 15. — The fee of the alcalde for issuing a writ or search-war- 
 rant, taking an attestation, giving a certificate or any other instru- 
 ment of writing shall be five dollars; for each witness he may 
 swear, two dollars ^ and one ounce of gold dust for each and every 
 casei^ied before him. 
 
 The fee of the sheriff in each case shall be one ounce of gold dust 
 and a like sum for each succeeding day employed in the same case. 
 The fee of the jary shall be half an ounce m each Ciise. 
 
 A witness shall be entitled to four dollars in each case. 
 
 Art. 16. — Whenever a criminal convict is unable to pay the 
 costs of the case^ the alcalde, sheriff, jurors, and witnesses shall 
 render their services free of remuneration. 
 
 Art. 17. — In case of the death of a resident of this encampment, 
 the alcalde shall take charge of his effects and dispose of them 
 for . the benefit of his relatives or friends, unless the deceased 
 otherwise desire it. 
 
 Art. 18. — All former acts and laws are hereby repealed and 
 made null and void, except where they conflict with claims 
 guaranteed under said laws. Abnek Pitts, Jr. Sec. 
 
 Jackaonville, Jan. 20, 1850. 
 
 The present method of organizing' a Mining 
 District. — This, of course, was in the early days, when 
 there was neither State nor county organization. At this 
 date the following system of organization of mining dis- 
 tricts, quartz or placer, obtains : Meetings of two or more 
 miners or others are held. The metes and bounds of the 
 district, quartz or placer, are agreed upon. A code of rules 
 and regulations is made for location and size of claims, a 
 compliance with which gives possessory title to claims. A 
 recorder is elected, who charges a fee for recording, and the 
 district is organized. This proceeding is protected by State 
 or Territorial law, and confirmed by the United States min- 
 ing laws, which require that claimants shall comply with 
 the local regulations of miners. Thus the titles to properties 
 which may yield millions are initiated. 
 
 Executive and Departmental Recommenda- 
 tions. — The Secretary of the Interior, Hon. Caleb B. Smith, 
 in his annual report for 1861 called the attention of Con- 
 gress to the fact that — 
 
 The valuable and extensive mineral lands owned by the Govern- 
 ment in California and New Mexico have hitherto produced no 
 revenue. All who chose to do so have been permitted to work them 
 without limitation. It is believed that no other government owning 
 valuable mineral lands has ever refused to avail itself of the oppor- 
 tunity of deriving a revenue from the privilege of mining such 
 lands. They are the property of the whole people, and it would 
 be obviously just and proper to require those who reap the advan- 
 tages of Mining them to pay a reasonable amount as a considera- 
 tion for the advantages enjoyed. 
 
 And again, in his report for 1862, he urged attention to 
 this subject, and referred to the report of the Commissioner 
 of the General Land Office. The Secretary suggested two 
 systems of disposal. The Commis.sionerof the General Land 
 Office, in his annual report for 1862, after a review of the 
 area of the precious-metal bearing territory and the yield 
 from the mines, gave the following opinion : 
 
 An immense revenue may readily be obtained by subjecting the 
 public mines either to lease under quarterly payments or quarterly 
 tax as seigniorage upon the actual product, under a well-regulated 
 and efSoient system, which would stimulate the energies of miners 
 and cajpitalists by securing to such classes an undisputed interest in 
 localities so specified, and, when the conditions as to payment for 
 the usufruct are complied with, for unlimited periods, and while 
 effecting this with beneficial results to them would relieve tlie 
 necessities of the Eepublic. 
 
 In 1863 the Commissioner of the General Land Office 
 again called attention to the mineral lands, recommending 
 legislation for — 
 
 Opening the mines and minerals of the public domain, the pro- 
 perty of the nation, to the occupancy of all loyal citizens, subject, as 
 far as compatible with moderate seigniorage, to existing customs 
 and usages, conceding to the discoveier for a small sum a right to 
 one mine, placer, or lead (quartz), with a pre-emptive right in the 
 same district to an addition claim, both to be held for the term of 
 one year, for testing the value. 
 
 Collectors of internal revenue were to be the collectors of 
 royalty. December 6, 1864, President Lincoln called the 
 attention of Congress to the mineral Lands, and also to the 
 report of the Secretary of the Interior on the subject. The 
 Secretary of the Interior in his report asks for an appropria- 
 tion to enable the Department to have made a scientific 
 examination of the principal mining localities, and of the 
 mineral regions generally. Former geological and mineral- 
 ogical surveys of the public domain had been done under 
 the direction of the Commissioner of the General Land 
 Office and the Interior Department. The Commissioner of 
 the General Land Office, in his report for 1864, entered at 
 length into a description of the precious-metal bearing 
 regions. He repeated the recommendation contained in 
 his report for 1863 (see above), in regard to method of dis- 
 position of these lands. The Commissioner of the General 
 Land Office, in his report for 1865, again showed the neces- 
 sity for Congressional action. The Secretary of the Interior, 
 in his rei)ort for 1865, said : 
 
 The organization of a bureau of mining was recommended in the 
 last annual i-cport of this Department. The attention of Congress 
 is again invited to the subject. All lands denominated mineral 
 which do not bear the precious metals should be brought into market, 
 and thus placed under the guardianship of private owners. *'■ * 
 Individual proprietorship, it is conceded, would stimulate the de- 
 velopment of coal fields, petrolevim, deposits of iron, lead, and of 
 
THE MINES, MINPES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 619 
 
 other gross metals, and mineral formatipns. There can, therefore, 
 be no sufficient reason for withholding such mineral lands from 
 market. Congress has not legislated with a view to securing an in- 
 come from the product of the precious metals from the public domain. 
 It is estimated that two or three hundred thousand able-bodied men 
 are engaged in such mining operations qn the public lands, without 
 authority of law, who pay nothing to thp Government for the privi- 
 lege, or for the permanent possession qf property worth, in many 
 instances, millions to the claimants. 
 
 The existing financial condition of the Nation obviously requires 
 that all our national resources and the product of every industrial 
 pnr.'iuit, should contribute to the payment of the public debt. The 
 wisdom of Congress must decide whether the public interest would 
 be better promoted by a sale in fee of these mineral lands, or by 
 raising a revenue from their annual product. 
 
 Retrospact of Mininff Legislation prior to 
 1836. — ^The mining laws of the United States began with 
 the reservation, in the ordinance of May 20, 1785, of one-- 
 third part of all gold, silver, lead and copper mined; next 
 came the Indiana act of March 3, 1807, authorizing the lease 
 of lands containing lead, with lease of adjoining land for 
 easements, arid forest lands for wood for smelting purposes, 
 for a term of not more than five years. The authority to 
 make leases and to collect rents fpr the same, was in charge 
 of the War Department (until March 4, 1819), which had a 
 corp.s of employes, headed by a superintendent, to overlook 
 the business, watch wastage, and receive rents ; the act of 
 March 25, 1816 — ^the oCciipancy and trespass act — provided 
 that the working of 16ad mines on the public lands was only 
 to be granted after approval by the President. 
 
 The first sale of mineral lands was that of the reserved 
 lead mines and contiguous lands in the State of Missouri, 
 under act of March 3, 1829. They were to be exposed for 
 sale as other public lands, at §2.60 per acre ; but lead and 
 other mineral lands on the public domain, elsewhere than in 
 Missouri, were still re-served from sale. 
 
 The act of July 1, 1846, ordered the reserved lead mines 
 and contiguous lands in IHinois, Arkansas, and the Terri- 
 tories of Wisconsin and Iowa, to be sold as other public 
 lands, after six months' public notice, following the Missouri 
 act of 1829, with the addition of the provision that the lands 
 should be offered and beld subject to private entry before 
 pre-emptions were allowed. The register and receiver were 
 to take proof as to character of lands, whether mineral (i. e., 
 containing lead) or agricultural. The act of March 1, 1847, 
 opened for sale lands containing copper, lead, and other 
 valuable ores after geographical examination and survey, 
 and provided that there should be public advertisement of 
 six months, and then public sale at not less than $5 per 
 acr6, those not disposed of at public auction to be subject to 
 private sale at $5 per acre. The act of March 3, 1847, 
 ordered sale of mineral lead land in Chippewa District, in 
 Wisconsin, and the act of 1850 ordered -sale of the remaining 
 mineral lands in Lake Superior District in Michigan, in the 
 same manner, at the same minimum, and with the same 
 rights of pre-emption, as other public lands. From the 
 period of 1785 to the discovery of the great gold fields of 
 California, in 1848, the legislation of the Congress of the 
 United States as to survey; lease, and sale of mineral lands 
 had been for lead, copper, and other base metals, and applied 
 to the territory in the region of the great lakes in the now 
 Sfates of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and Illi- 
 nois, embracing the lead mines at Galena and the point 
 now known as Dubuque (where a miner of that name in 
 1788 first worked lead mines, and, subsequently, under per- 
 mit from Carondelet, the Spanish governor-general) and the 
 present State of Missouri. Under these various laws, the 
 copper, lead and iron lands (also the silver lands since dis- 
 covered) of the above-mentioned regions were sold. Since 
 the discovery of gold in paying quantities in California, in 
 1848, there has been produced in the United States the sum of 
 $1,980,463,792 in gold and silver. All but about $1 ,000,000 
 of this sum (which would represent the gold and silver 
 extracted in the States other than public-land States) has 
 been extracted from the lands of the public domain. 
 
 Precious Metals from 1848 to 1880.— The. fol- 
 lowing estimate of the yearly production of gold and silver 
 from 1848 to 1880, is from the reports of the Director of the 
 Mint: 
 
 Elstimate of tlte prodnctlon of tlie prectons metals In tlie 
 TTnlted States from 1$4:8 to 1880, Ity Oseal yean. 
 
 Bite. 
 
 Oold. 
 
 Sliver. 
 
 ToUd riold 
 and silver. 
 
 18VS . . . 
 
 $10,000,000 
 
 
 810,000,000 
 
 1849 . ... 
 
 40,000,000 
 
 «5o,bob 
 
 40,050,000 
 
 1850 . . . 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 50,060,000 
 
 1851 . . . . 
 
 55,000,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 65,0.50,000 
 
 1852 . 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 60,OflO 
 
 60 050,000 
 
 18.53. . . . . 
 
 66,000,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 65,050,000 
 
 1854. . . . 
 
 60.000,000 
 
 80,000 
 
 60,059,000 
 
 1855 
 
 56,000,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 55,050,000 
 
 1856 ... .... 
 
 65,000,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 65,050,000 
 
 1867. . . 
 
 66,000,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 65,060,000 
 
 1858 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 50,050,000 
 
 1859 . . . 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 60,100,000 
 
 1860 . . . . 
 
 46,000,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 46,150,000 
 
 1861 ... 
 
 43,000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 4.5,000,000 
 
 1862 . . 
 
 39,200,000 
 
 4,800,000 
 
 43.700,000 
 
 1863 . . 
 
 40,000,000 
 
 8,500,000 
 
 48,.500,000 
 
 1864 . . .... 
 
 46,>i00,000 
 
 11,000,000 
 
 67,000,000 
 
 1865 .... 
 
 53,226,000 
 
 11,950,000 
 
 64,476,000 
 
 186') ... 
 
 63,5110,000 
 
 11,000,000 
 
 63,500,000 
 
 18r,7 . 
 
 51,726,000 
 
 13,500,000 
 
 66,225,000 
 
 1868 . . . . . 
 
 48,000,000 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 1869 
 
 49,600,000 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 61,500,000 
 
 1870 
 
 50,000,000 
 
 10,(K)0,flOO 
 
 66,000,000 
 
 1871 . . 
 
 43,000,000 
 
 23,000,000 
 
 66,000,000 
 
 1872 
 
 36,000,000 
 
 28,760,000 
 
 64,750,000 
 
 1873. . . . 
 
 36,000,000 
 
 35,760,000 
 
 71,750,000 
 
 1874 ... 
 
 33,490,902 
 
 37,324,594 
 
 70,815,406 
 
 1875 . . 
 
 33,467,856 
 
 31,727,560 
 
 6.5,195,416 
 
 1876. . . . . . 
 
 39,929,166 
 
 38,783,016 
 
 78,712,182 
 
 1877 
 
 46,897,390 
 
 39,793,573 
 
 86,690,000 
 
 1878 . . 
 
 ,51,206,380 
 
 45,281,386 
 
 96,487,745 
 
 1879 ... . . . 
 
 38,899 858 
 
 40,812,1.32 
 
 79,711,990 
 
 1880 
 
 36,000,000 
 
 37,700,000 
 
 73,700,000 
 
 Total 
 
 1,520,041,532 
 
 460,422,260 
 
 1,980,463,792 
 
 
 
 The ordinance of 1785, for the sale of the Western Terri- 
 tory, reserved one-third part of gold and silver from the 
 public lands. The present gold and silver regions of the 
 West were then in the province of Spain. The laws of the 
 United States, excepting the comprehensive word " mine- 
 ral," as applied to reserved lands, and the pre-emption act 
 of September 4, 1841, the Oregon act of September 27, 1851, 
 and other incidental mention prior to that time, were silent 
 as to gold, silver, and cinnabar. 
 
 The act of March 3, 1853, creating the office of surveyor- 
 general of California, excepted, in express terms, mineral 
 lands from lands subject to entry under the pre-emption act 
 of September*4, 1841, and no person was to have the bene- 
 fit of the act ,by settlement or" location on mineral lands. 
 The act of Julv 22, 1851, relating to the surveyor-general's 
 office in New Mexico, etc., provided by the fourth section 
 for the exemption of mineral lands from the operations of 
 the acts named. This was the status at the period of the 
 passage of the first general mining law of the United 
 States, July 26. 1866. 
 
 The Condition of the Precious-Metal Bearing 
 Regions Prior to 1866. — In the precious-metal -bear- 
 ing regions on the public domain in California, Oregon, 
 Nevada, Colorado, and the Territories, there had grown up 
 a system of local regulations governing the location, size, 
 and possession of mining claims, with water rights appur- 
 tenant thereto. These regulations were not uniform, but 
 varied with different localities, arid at first related only to 
 placer claims. Quartz mining was a secondary stage, and 
 regulations for this' systein were established as soon as re- 
 quired. Mineral districts were organized by the miners of 
 each particular locality at meetings held for the purpose, 
 and for each district an officer, known as the recorder, was 
 elected, whose duty it was 'to record, in a book kept for that 
 purpose, all notices of mining locations or claims filed with 
 him. It was generally made essential to the validity of a 
 claim that it should be recorded. These regulations at first 
 rested entirely upon the consent of the miners; but they be- 
 came recognized as customs by the courts, and were held to 
 be binding in all matters relating to the possessory title to 
 raining claims. In the civil codes enacted by the State or 
 Territorial legislatures these local rules were respected and 
 generally specifically recognized. They sprung from the 
 sterling good sense of the American miner, and were adapted 
 to the wants and necessities of a great industry for which 
 there would otherwise have been no protection. They pro- 
 tected millions of property and aided in opening up a region 
 of incalculable wealth. Prospectors, under this code of 
 
620 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 laws, with pick, pan, and shovel, on mountain side, amidst 
 Vinter's rugged grasp, on the plains, under sunny skies, in 
 the quiet nooks and flowery ravines of the lower slopes of 
 the Sierras, lifted from the matrix of nature the golden 
 treasure, and toiled on as safely protected in their property 
 as if in the midst of the highest civilization. These laws 
 protected and controlled the possession, and provided for 
 the distribution of hundreds of millions of dollars of proper- 
 ty, and affected the people of a half million square miles of 
 territory. (For a list of mining districts, deputy mineral 
 surveyors, etc., see Preliminary Report Land Commission, 
 1880, and Reports General Land Office from 1866 to 1880). 
 The Congress of the United States by the act of general 
 mining, July 26, 1866, and the supplemental act of May 10, 
 1872, confirmed these local usages. 
 
 The Mining Act of July 26, 1866.— The act of July 26, 
 1838, ordered that "the mineral lands of the public 
 domain, both surveyed and unsurveyed," were "to be free 
 and open to exploration and occupation by all citizens of 
 the United States, and those declaring their intention to 
 become citizens, subject to such regulations as may be pre- 
 scribed by law," and subject also to the local customs or 
 rules of miners in the several mining districts, so far as the 
 same may not be in conflict with the laws of the United 
 States." The second section of this act provided "that 
 whenever any person or association of persons claim a vein 
 or lode of quartz, or other rock in place, bearing gold, silver, 
 cinnabar, or copper, having previously occupied and im- 
 proved the same according to the local customs or rules of 
 miners in the district where the same is situated, and hav- 
 ing expended in actual labor and improvements not less 
 than $1,000," such claimants, where there is no conflict, 
 after filing in " the local land ofliQe a diagram of the same," 
 a<;cording to local laws, customs, and miners' rules can 
 " enter such tract and receive a patent therefor, granting 
 such mine, together with the right to follow such vein or 
 lode, with its dips, angles, and variations, to any depth." 
 The other sections of the law prescribed with specialty the 
 mode of consummating iadividual rights, surveys, &c. ; also 
 in reference to conflicts, rights of way, priority " of posses- 
 sion," right to the use of water for mining, agricultural, 
 manufacturing, or other purposes; to homesteads existing 
 prior to the date of the act, which are used for agriculture, 
 on which valuable mines are not discovered, the law con- 
 ferring authority on the Secretary of the Interior for setting 
 apart, after survey, the agricultural lands so as to subject 
 them to pre-emption and sale. 
 
 . Placer- Mining Act, July 9, 1870— July 9, 1870, Congress, 
 provided for a class of " placer " mining not recognized 
 in the lode act of July 26, 1866 (see Stats, at Large). 
 This act provided for the survey and sale of the placer- 
 mining lands of the United States at $2.50 per acre. 
 
 The Mining Act of May 10, 1872.— The mining act of 
 May 10, 1872, amended the original mining act of 1866, 
 and constituted mineral lands a distinctive class subject to 
 special conditions of sale and aflixed prices differing wholly 
 from the requirements in these respects as to other lands. 
 It provided for the survey and sale of mineral lands, fixing 
 the price of placer lands at $2.50 per acre and $3 for lode 
 claims, and repealed, in effect, the ditch and water rights' 
 act of July 2Q, 1866. The present laws for the disposition 
 of the mineral lands of the United States are found in chap- 
 ter 6, of the Revised Statutes, title " Mineral Lands and 
 Mining Resources," and in the Regulations of the General 
 Land Office of date April 1, 1879. 
 
 Provisions of the existing- Mining Law.—Under 
 section 2318, Revised Statutes, lands valuable for minerals 
 are reserved from sale except as otherwise expressly directed 
 by law. Section 2319 provides for their location by citijjens 
 of the United States or those who have declared their in- 
 tention to become such. The law covers claims for lands 
 bearing gold, cinnabar, lead, tin, copper, or other valuable 
 deposits, and for the above and other valuable and economic 
 minerals, found in lodes of quartz or other rock in place, 
 titles can be obtained from the United States under the ex- 
 isting laws at $5 per acre. Claims cannot exceed 1,500 feet 
 in length along the vein or lode, and 300 feet on each side 
 of the middle of the vein at the surface, the end lines of the 
 claims to be parallel. No vein or lode claim located after 
 May 10, 1872, can exceed a parallelogram 1,500 feet in 
 
 length by 600 in width. The size below this maximum may 
 be regulated by State or Territorial laws or the rules of the 
 several mining districts. No local regulation or State or 
 Territorial law can limit a vein or lode claim located since 
 May 10, 1872, to less than 1,500 feet along the vein or course 
 thereof, whether the location is made by one or more per- 
 sons, nor can surface rights be limited to less than 50 feet in 
 width, unless adverse rights existing on the 10th day of 
 May, 1872, render such lateral limitations necessary. This 
 saving clause is essential from the fact that in many of the 
 mining States and Territories, the local rules did not permit 
 the location of surface ground. There are now three classes 
 of location recognized — ^those made prior to July 26, 1866 ; 
 those between that date and May 10, 1872 ; and those made 
 since May 10, 1872. The variety in size and quantity of 
 locations cannot here be detailed at length. Under the 
 United States mining law, the maximum of a quartz lod£ or 
 vein claim is 1,500 by 600 feet, and the minimum 1,500 by 
 50 feet, being about 20.66 acres maximum, or 1.72 acres 
 minimum. Cost of surveys, &c., are paid by the claimants, 
 and the land is paid for at $5 for each acre or fraction of an 
 acre. Locations are made under regulations prescribed by 
 law, and according to the local customs or rules of miners 
 in the several mining districts, so far as the same are appli- 
 cable, and not inconsistent with the laws of the United 
 States. The United States has the authority and can pro- 
 vide a general and uniform ^stem of location, areas, &c., 
 entirely superseding the various State, Territorial, and dis- 
 trict laws. Some of the mining States and Territories have 
 adopted the United States mining law of May 10, 1872, as to 
 area ; others protect other forrris and areas of location by 
 law. (For a full statement of the various methods of loca- 
 tions, holdings, miners' rules, &c., see Preliminary Report 
 of Public Land Commission and Testimony, 1880, which 
 gives the methods prevailing, and the legal status in Cali- 
 fornia, Oregon, Nevada, Colorado, Idaho, Dakota, Arizona, 
 Montana, Utah, Washington, Wyoming, and New Mexico). 
 
 Cost of Patents to the United States and Claim- 
 ants. — It costs the United States on an average $20 to 
 patent each mining claim. During the year ending June 
 30, 1880, there were issued 886 patents to mining claims. 
 All of the work appertaining thereto, involving an exami- 
 nation of the evidence accompanying the entry papers, 
 including that relating to contests, was executed by the 
 mineral division of the General Land OflSce, at a cost to the 
 government for salaries of $17,600, an average of about $20, 
 in each case. Where the survey and papers have been 
 properly prepared, and no controversey exists, the cost in a 
 particular case will not exceed $3. The cost to the claimant 
 isas problematical as that of a lawsuit. He is required to 
 pay the expense of survey, including platting and other 
 office work of the surveyor-general's office, which will ave- 
 rage about $160 ; also, fees to the register and receiver, $10, 
 and expense of publication of notice, averaging $30 ; in all, 
 $200. Practically, it is estimated that the average cost to the 
 claimant falls but little, if any, short of 11,000 in each case. 
 
 Placer Claims— Patents Therefor.— The proceed- 
 ings to obtain patent for placer claims, including all forms 
 of deposit, are essentially similar to the proceedings pre- 
 scribed for obtaining patents for lode or vein claims. But 
 placer claims, when on surveyed lands and conforminglo 
 legal subdivisions, require no "further plat or survey, and 40- 
 acre subdivisions may be cut into 10-acre lots and sold as 
 placer claims. Where placer claims cannot be conformed 
 to legal subdivisions, survey and plat must be made as on 
 unsurveyed lands; but where such claims are located pre- 
 vious to the public surveys, and do not conform to legal 
 subdivisions, survey, plat, and entry thereof may be made 
 according to the boundaries thereof, provided the location 
 is in all respects legal. These lands are sold at $2.50 for 
 each acre or fraction of an acre. No location of a placer 
 claim made after July 9, 1870, can exceed 160 acres for any 
 one person or association of persons. All placer-mining 
 claims located after May 10, 1872, must conform as nearly 
 as practicable with the United States system of public 
 surveys and the subdivisions of such surveys, and no such 
 locations can include more than 20 acres for each individual 
 claimant. The act of July 9, 1870, absolutely required 
 locations made after its passage to conform to legal sub- 
 divisions, but the act of May 10, 1872, modified this require- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 621 
 
 ment by making such conformation necessary only where 
 practicable. The foregoing provisions of law are construed 
 to mean that after the 9th day of July, 1870, no location of 
 a placer claim can be made to exceed 160 acres, whatever 
 may be the number of locators associated together, or 
 whatever the local regulations of the district may allow ; 
 and that from and after May 10, 1872, no location made by 
 an individual can exceed 20 acres, and no location made by 
 an association can exceed 20 acres for each person. In 
 order to locate 160 acres, eight bonorfide locators are required. 
 No local laws or mining regulations can restrict a placer 
 location to less than 20 acres, although the locator is not 
 compelled to take so much. Mill sites must be located on 
 non-mineral lands not contiguous to the vein or lode, and 
 not exceed five acres, and may be included in the patent for 
 a mine at $5 per acre. (See sec. 2337 R. S.) Tunnel 
 rights, in tunnels run for the development of a vein or lode 
 or for the discovery of mines, are provided. Proprietors of 
 a mining tunnel, run in good faith, are entitled to the pos- 
 sessory right of all blind lodes cut, discovered, or intersected 
 by such tunnel, which were not previously known to exist, 
 within 3,000 feet of the surface or point of commencement 
 of the tunnel, to the same extent as if such lodes had been 
 discovered on the surface, and other parties are prohibited, 
 after commencement of the tunnel, from prospecting for 
 and -making location on the line thereof and within said 
 distance of 3,000 feet, unle&s such lodes appear upon the 
 surface or were previously known to exist. (See sec. 2323 
 R. S.) For requirements necessary to obtain the benefit of 
 this law, see pages 16-17, " Regulations General Land Office, 
 April 1, 1879." 
 
 Iron Held to be a Valuable Mineral. — Iron has been 
 held, along with many other minerals when on the pub- 
 lic domain, to come within section 2325 of the Revised 
 Statutes, under the denomination of valuable deposits, and 
 can be paid for at the rate of $2.50 or $5 per acre, depending 
 upon wliether the deposit is in placer or lode form. 
 
 The Policy of the United States in Relation to 
 Mineral Lands. — The policy of the United States in 
 relation to the sale and disposition of the mineral lands of 
 the public domain — ^beginning with its reservation of por- 
 tions of the metal therefrom, next occupancy rights, then 
 leases, followed by public ofiering and private entry and 
 sale, thereafter culminating in the several mineral acts of 
 1866, 1870, and 1872 — now permits their free exploration 
 and development by citizens, or persons who have declared 
 their intention to become citizens ; and a nominal price for 
 the lands (placer $2.50, and quartz, gold, silver, cinnabar, or 
 other valuable deposits $5 per acre) is charged should the 
 owner of the possessory title desire to procure a fee-simple 
 title. This price barely covers expenses of making title on 
 the part of the United States. The material wealth added 
 to the circulating medium by extraction from the earth 
 through irniividuals or corporations, together with costs of 
 mining and extraction, and the great and dangerous risks 
 to fortune caused thereby, are considered equivalents for the 
 value of the land. The United States protects exploration 
 and deWopments by the miner on the public domain. As 
 an evidence of the liberality of the Nation In this respect, 
 coal lands are sold at from $10 to $20 per acre. Twenty 
 acres of coal land at $20 per acre cost the purchaser $400, 
 while 20 acres of lode mineral land on the Comstock lode 
 at $5 per acre are sold for $100, and, as in the case of the 
 Consolidated Virginia and California mines, may yield more 
 than $60,000,000. 
 
 Number of Locations and of Patents. — In the 
 twelve States and Territories containing the precious metals 
 and forming part of the public domain there are known to 
 have been made more than 200,000 mining locations, yet 
 the total number to June 30, 1880, of lode, vein, or other 
 valuable deposit claims to which titles have been obtained 
 by compliance with the mining laws is but 3,978, containing 
 38,435.11 acres at $5 per acre, and for which the United 
 States have received $197,778. The total number of placer- 
 mining claims patented in the same region by the United 
 States is 1,303, containing 110,186.03 acres, at $2.50 per 
 acre, and for which the United States has received $288,767, 
 In all a total number of 5,281 lode and placer claims have 
 been patented to June 30, 1880, containing in all 148,621.14 
 ^cres, for which the Government received a total of $486,545. 
 
 Estimate of Area of Western Precious-metal 
 Regions. — The estimated area of the entire precious-metal 
 bearing region of the public domain is 65,000,000 acres, 
 within which lie the veins, lodes, or deposits of precious and 
 valuable minerals. Deducting the 148,621.14 acres already 
 patented, and the grand total remaining, the property of the 
 Nation exceeds 64,800,000 acres, all situated and lying in 
 the States and Territories named in the tables hereto at- 
 tached, and being south of the Dominion of Canada (British 
 Possessions), west of the Missouri River, and north of the 
 boundary line between Mexico and this country. All of 
 this is independent of the unexplored area within the unor- 
 ganized Territory of Alaska, which in the future may form 
 no unimportant portion of our precious-metal-bearing coun- 
 try. The above estimate, however, includes a vast number 
 of located claims held and worked under a possessory title 
 alone, there being no statute compelling the claimants to 
 purchase the fee from the Government. For many of these 
 claims applications for patent have been made, but proceed- 
 ings are suspended either on account of litigation in the 
 courts, initiated in the manner and within the time pre- 
 scribed by the statute, or by reason of failure of claimants 
 to produce satisfactory evidence of compliance with law and 
 right to purchase and make entry. The difficulties of ob- 
 taining patent under existing laws are so great, and the 
 practice of levying blackmail is so extensive, that many 
 mine owners prefer to rely upon their possessory title rather 
 than purchase the fee from the Government. 
 
 Patents Issued* 
 
 Statement of the number of placer mining claims patented in the several 
 precious metal-bearin? States and Territories of the public domain from 
 1867 to June 30, 1880, together with the acreage and amf>unt paid there- 
 for, under the several mining acts of July 26, 1866, July 9, 1870, and 
 May 10, 1872. 
 
 
 1867 
 
 1870. 
 
 1871. 
 
 States and 
 
 s 
 
 
 . 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 Territories. 
 
 S 
 
 ?; 
 
 1 
 
 .s 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 § 
 
 
 %■ 
 
 b 
 
 -^ 
 
 •& 
 
 
 
 § 
 
 ■^ 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 1? 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 $ 
 
 California 
 
 
 80.7( 
 
 $405 01 
 
 2 
 
 71.16 
 
 $185 00 
 
 36 
 
 385.84 
 
 9,632 50 
 
 Oregon . . . 
 Nevada . 
 Idaho . . 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 250.00 
 
 626 00 
 
 6 
 
 446.47 
 
 1,373 OO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Montana . . 
 
 
 
 
 : 
 
 26.24 
 
 67 66 
 
 14 
 
 1,187.37 
 
 2,4^7 60 
 
 Wyoming . , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Utah . . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Colorado 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 Dakota 
 
 
 
 
 ) . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1872. 
 
 1873. 
 
 1874. 
 
 Stat'S and 
 Territories, 
 
 
 p 
 
 s 
 
 <a 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 , 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 ■S' 
 
 ^ 
 
 X 
 
 ■& 
 
 ■^ 
 
 s 
 ^ 
 
 ■s- 
 
 '^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^° 
 
 
 
 :^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 $ ! 
 
 
 $ 
 
 
 
 $ 
 
 California. 
 
 79 
 
 !,680.57 
 
 20,837.00 130 : 
 
 0,748.32 
 
 26,973 50 
 
 104 
 
 9.562.67 23,979 50 
 
 Oregon, . 
 
 6 
 
 324.06 
 
 814.50 
 
 4 
 
 147.97 
 
 446 00 
 
 7 
 
 288.48 
 
 677 50 
 
 Nevada . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Montana. . 
 
 29 
 
 2,666.27 
 
 6,479.60 
 
 66 
 
 3,822.08 
 
 9,671 50 
 
 42 
 
 2,714.91 
 
 6,842 50 
 
 Wyoming . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Colorado. . 
 
 4 
 
 482.7.'i 
 
 1,207.50 
 
 24; 1,93205! 4,842 6O' 13 
 
 477.01 
 
 1,200 CO 
 
 Dakota. . 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 1 
 
 •j- ■! -1 ■; ■ 
 
 
 
 1875. 
 
 1876. 
 
 1877. 
 
 States and 
 
 i 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 i 
 
 
 « 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 Territories. 
 
 -t? 
 
 g 
 
 § 
 
 .S 
 
 s 
 
 5 
 
 j3 
 
 s 
 
 e 
 
 
 w. 
 
 fe 
 
 o 
 
 Wi 
 
 l. 
 
 
 
 S, 
 
 t. 
 
 
 ■s- 
 
 'I 
 
 ^ 
 
 > 
 
 ^ 
 
 '>? 
 
 ■&■ 
 
 -^ 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 $ 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 California . 
 
 107 
 
 12,439.51 
 
 29,874.00 
 
 57: 6,789.0£ 
 
 16.982.01 
 
 67 
 
 6,371.4' 
 
 16,030.00 
 
 Oregon. . . 
 
 10 
 
 697.39 
 
 1,745.60 
 
 si 468.9-1 
 
 1,276.0( 
 
 7 
 
 386.6< 
 
 987.50 
 
 Nevada. . . 
 
 3 
 
 400.00 
 
 1,000.00 
 
 1 
 
 160.0C 
 
 400.01 
 
 1 
 
 1,280.0 
 
 i 3,200.00 
 
 Idaho . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Montana . . 
 
 40 
 
 1,970.15 
 
 4,994.50 
 
 17 
 
 876.4' 
 
 2,207.0( 
 
 )12 
 
 498.5 
 
 1 1,264.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 320.01 
 
 1,050.01 
 82.6 
 
 
 
 
 Utah. . . . 
 
 1 
 12 
 
 8.2(1 
 1,248.16 
 
 22..50 
 3,272.00 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 32.2! 
 1,038.3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Colorado. . 
 
 1 2,762.0( 
 
 )1T 
 
 i,203.& 
 
 ? 3,275.00 
 
 Dakota. . . 
 
 
 
 I .... ' . 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 25 
 
 67 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
622 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 states and 
 Terntories. 
 
 California 
 Oregon. . , 
 Nevada 
 Idatio. . . , 
 Montana. 
 Wyoming , 
 Utah. . . 
 Colorirdo. , 
 Dakota. . . 
 
 1878. 
 
 11,409.17 
 414.18 
 
 19.86 
 907.19 
 
 $ ! 
 
 28,616.50172 
 1,055.00: 1 
 .... I 
 
 50.00 i 12 
 2,285.00 15 
 
 118.31 2,807.60 23 
 154.171 330.00 4 
 
 I ' I 
 
 4,719.32 
 20.00 
 
 36.15 
 831.16 
 
 40.00 
 
 1,799.01 
 
 61.80 
 
 s 
 
 14,142.00 
 50.00 
 
 185.00 
 2,132.50 17 
 
 310.00 
 
 4,632.60 
 
 172.00 
 
 4,266.56 11,005.00 
 71.90 ,182.60 
 
 2,693.80 
 1.66 
 
 3,197.60 
 
 6,616.60 
 6.00 
 
 Recapitulation. 
 
 States and Territories. 
 
 California . 
 Oregon . . 
 Nevada . 
 Idaho . . . 
 Montana 
 "Wyoming . 
 Utali . . 
 Colorado . . 
 Dakota . . 
 
 Total 
 
 No. of 
 placers. 
 
 786 
 
 69 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 263 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 152 
 
 27 
 
 1,303 
 
 Total acrea. 
 
 79,620.00 
 
 3,561.08 
 
 1,840.00 
 
 66.01 
 
 16,677.50 
 
 320.00 
 
 80.48 
 
 10,943.26 
 
 242.70 
 
 110,186.03 
 
 Total amount. 
 
 $199,661.00 
 
 9,306.50 
 
 4,600.00 
 
 235.00 
 
 42,099.00 
 
 1,060.00 
 
 725.00 
 
 30,515.50 
 
 674.50 
 
 $288,767.00 
 
 Statement of the number of quartz vein or lode, or other valuable deposit 
 mining claims patented in the several precious metal bearing States 
 and Territories of the public domain from 1867 to June 30, 1880, together 
 with the acreage and amount paid therefor, under the several mining 
 acts of July 26, 1866, July 0, 1870, and May 10, 1872. 
 
 
 1867. 
 
 1868. 
 
 1869. 
 
 States and 
 Territories. 
 
 4 
 
 ") 
 
 .U 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 6 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 California. . . 
 Oregon. . . 
 
 138.68 
 
 $700.00 
 
 2 
 
 147.09 
 
 $740.00 
 
 207.84 
 
 $1,045.00 
 
 Nevada. . . 
 
 Idaho. . . 
 
 =• 
 
 16.19 
 
 90.00 
 
 26 
 
 287.19 
 
 1,485.00 
 
 34 
 
 265.16 
 
 1,320.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 63.93 
 
 290.00 
 
 7 
 
 50.52 
 
 280.00 
 
 Wyoraing. . . 
 
 Utah. . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3.42 
 
 25.00 
 
 27 
 
 39.42 
 
 245.00 
 
 New Mexico . 
 
 
 
 Dakota. . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1870. 
 
 1871. 
 
 1872. 
 
 California. . 
 
 6 
 
 348.16 
 
 $1,766 00 
 
 'I 
 
 23 
 
 740.00 
 13.76 
 116.23 
 
 $3,725 00 
 70 00 
 595 00 
 
 64 
 4 
 26 
 
 1,182.46 
 
 13.76 
 
 179.93 
 
 $6,020 00 
 70 00 
 925 00 
 
 Nevada . . . 
 Idaho. . . . 
 
 44 
 
 249.53 
 
 1,295 00 
 
 Montana . . 
 Wyoming . . 
 Utah .... 
 
 6 
 
 45.70 
 
 240 00 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 72 
 
 13.77 
 
 ' 49.28 
 117.32 
 
 76 00 
 
 ' 270 6b 
 775 00 
 
 16 
 
 36 
 123 
 
 73.76 
 
 '171.40 
 189.38 
 
 420 00 
 
 ' 940 60 
 1,340 00 
 
 Colorado . . 
 New Mexico 
 
 61 
 1 
 
 104.93 
 20.66 
 
 670 00 
 106 60 
 
 Arizona . . . 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 46.63 
 
 248 00 
 
 Dakota . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • • • • 
 
 
 California . . 
 Oregon . . . 
 Nevada .' . . 
 Idaho . . 
 Montana . . 
 Wyoming . . 
 Utah . . . . 
 Colorado . . 
 New Mexico 
 Arizona . . . 
 Dakota . . . 
 
 84!1,950.67 
 
 469.27 
 7.23 
 85.00 
 
 '252.76 
 342.89 
 
 13] 163.49 
 
 10,090 00 
 
 2,370 00 
 40 00 
 600 00 
 
 1874. 
 
 1,365 00! 34 
 2,146 00! 114 
 
 845 00 6 
 
 741.86 
 
 6.50 
 
 277.98 
 
 ' 84.16 
 
 222.36 
 
 13.77 
 
 116.40 
 
 $9,650 00 
 
 3,450 00 
 
 30 00 
 
 1,605 00 
 
 1876. 
 
 460 00 
 
 1,600 0OJ138 
 
 70 OOI 1 
 
 600 OOl 7 
 
 2,763.86 
 
 '70'6.9'2 
 
 68.50 
 
 632.40 
 
 '296.68 
 
 453.53 
 
 20.66 
 
 133.69 
 
 $ 
 
 14,040 00 
 
 3,020 00 
 
 360 00 
 
 3,276 00 
 
 '1,375 60 
 
 2,645 00 
 
 105 00 
 
 680 00 
 
 States and 
 Territoiies. 
 
 California . . 
 Oregon , . . 
 Nevada . . . 
 Idaho ; . . . 
 Montana . . 
 Wyoming . . 
 Utah . : . . 
 Colorado . , 
 New Mexico 
 Arizona , . . 
 Dakota . . 
 
 1,701.46 
 872.18 
 
 $8,320 00 
 
 307.40 
 8.89 
 465.87 
 818.37 
 20.66 
 169.32 
 
 4,460 00 
 
 1,606 00 
 
 45 00 
 
 1,840 00 
 
 4,534 00 
 
 106 00 
 
 870 00 
 
 1877. 
 
 $7,956 00 
 
 737.76 
 '372.62 
 
 3 6.91 
 676.88 
 
 '207.23 
 
 3,865 00 
 '2,645' 60 
 
 2,010 00 
 3,765 00 
 
 
 1,167.02 
 
 $6,876 00 
 
 814.40 
 
 837.96 
 
 617.94 
 1,403.79 
 31.01 
 97.26 
 17.90 
 
 4,1S0 00 
 
 4,365 00 
 
 3,160 00 
 
 7,570 00 
 
 160 00 
 
 600 00 
 
 92 00 
 
 
 1879. 
 
 
 1880 
 
 
 States and Territories. 
 
 1 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 California 
 
 Oregon . , 
 
 Nevada . . . . 
 Idaho 
 
 73 
 
 1 
 
 81 
 
 'ei 
 
 1,427.41 
 
 20.26 
 
 856.17 
 
 $6,675 00 
 
 105 00 
 
 4,360 00 
 
 65 
 
 1 
 
 33 
 
 608.97 
 
 20.66 
 
 407.28 
 
 $2,700 00 
 
 105 00 
 
 2,075 00 
 
 Montana 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 535.77 
 
 2,876 00 
 
 26 
 
 308.94 
 
 1,695 00 
 
 Utah .........: 
 
 Colorado 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Dakota 
 
 72 
 186 
 1 
 12 
 15 
 
 675.10 
 1,149.60 
 20.66 
 203.92 
 124.43 
 
 ' 3,040 00 
 6,266 00 
 
 106 00 
 1,060 00 
 
 670 00 
 
 59 
 
 207 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 406.06 
 1,398.47 
 40.88 
 180.44 
 46.59 
 
 2,117 00 
 
 7,536 00 
 
 210 00 
 
 945 00 
 
 245 00 
 
 Recapitulation. 
 
 Lode claims patented from 1867 to June 30, 1880. 
 
 Stales and Territories. 
 
 California , 
 Oregon . . . 
 Nevada . . . 
 Idaho . . , 
 Montana . 
 Wyoming . 
 Utah . . . 
 Colorado , . 
 New Mexico 
 Arizona . . 
 Dakota , , 
 
 No. of claims patented " , 
 
 Number of placer claims patented from 
 1866 to June 30, 1880 
 
 Number of vein or lode claims patented 
 from 1866 to June 30, 1880 
 
 Total 
 
 Number of a^^^. Beceived by 
 patenUs. ^cres. United states. 
 
 672 
 
 7 
 
 704 
 
 7 
 
 322 
 
 1 
 
 473 
 
 1,672 
 
 10 
 
 85 
 
 26 
 
 16,094.23 
 
 68.43 
 
 6,698.07 
 
 81.23 
 
 3,605.54 
 
 8.89 
 
 3,384.92 
 
 6,920.36 
 
 168.24 
 
 1,31«.28 
 
 188.92 
 
 3,978 j 38,436.11 
 
 $79,690 00 
 
 3.50 00 
 
 34,070 00 
 
 420 00 
 
 18,990 00 
 
 46 00 
 
 16,577 00 
 
 39,004 00 
 
 860 00 
 
 6,766 00 
 
 1,007 00 
 
 197,778 00 
 
 1,303 110,186.03 
 3,978 i 38,435.11 
 
 288,767 00 
 197,778 00 
 
 5,281' 1 48,621.141 486,545 00 
 
 Washington Territory, although having no mining claims 
 patented, contains valuable deposits of the precious metals. 
 
 SALE AND DISPOSITION OF PUBLIC 
 LANDS. 
 
 THE several existing laws for the sale and disposition 
 of the public domain permit entries and locations 
 by individuals, associations, 'and corporations. A 
 single man, a married man, a single woman, or a mar- 
 ried woman, if (legally) the head of a family, citizens of the 
 united States, or have declared their intentions to become 
 such, can have the benefits of the several settlement laws. 
 Ihe theory of the settlement law is that an individual, if he 
 be not already the owner of 320 acres of land, can purchase 
 160 acres under the pre-emption act after six months set- 
 tlement, occupaticn, and improvement, and can acquire 160 
 acres under the homestead act by residence, improvement, 
 and cultivation for a term of five years, with certain legal 
 rebates as to time of settlement, or can purchase at the end 
 ot six months by commutation. Under the several settle- 
 ment and occupancy laws, however, a person can legally ac- 
 quire 1,120 acres of the public domain. The existinff laws 
 recognize several classes of land, as follows- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 620 
 
 Mineral. — " In all cases 'land valuable for minerals' shall 
 be reserved from sale, except as otherwise expressly directed 
 by law." (Section 2318, R. S.) 
 
 Timber and stone. — Lands valuable chiefly for timber and 
 stone, unfit for cultivation. 
 
 Saline. — Salt Springs. 
 
 Tuwn-site lands. — -Any unoccupied public lands. 
 
 Desert. — Lands which will not, without irrigation, pro- 
 duce an agricultural crop. 
 
 Coal lands. — Lands containing coal. 
 
 And all others as agricultural. 
 
 Special laws are provided for each of the seven classes 
 named. Lands reserved or withdrawn " are not subject to 
 entry or location." 
 
 Mineral Lands. — Mineral lands are located and sold 
 thereafter in the manner previously described. 
 
 Goal Lands. — ^The public lands of the United States 
 coataining coal are disposed of under the act of Congress 
 approved March 3, 1873. 
 
 The sale of coal lands is provided for by this act — 
 
 1. By ordinary private entry under section 1. 
 
 2. By granting a preference right of purchase based on 
 priority of possession and improvement under section 2. The 
 land entered under either section must be by legal subdivi- 
 sions, as made by the regular United States survey. Entry 
 is confined to surveyed lands ; to such as are vacant, not 
 otherwise appropriated, reserved by competent author- 
 ity, or containing valuable minerals other than coal. 
 Individuals and associations may purchase. If an in- 
 dividual, he must be twenty-one years of age and a 
 citizen of the United States, or have declared his in- 
 tention to become such citizen. If an association or per- 
 sons, each must be qualified as above. A person is not dis- 
 qualified by the ownership of any quantity of other land, 
 nor by having removed from his own land in the same State 
 or Territory. Any individual may enter by legal subdivi- 
 sions as aforesaid any area not exceeding 160 acres. Any 
 association may enter not to exceed 320 acres. Any associa- 
 tion of not less than four persons, duly qualified, who shall 
 have expended not less than $5,000 in working and improv- 
 ing any coal mine or mines, may enter under section 2 not 
 exceeding 640 acres, including such mining improvements. 
 The price per acre is $10 where the land is situated more 
 than fifteen miles from any complete railroad, and $20 per 
 acre where the land is within fifteen miles of such road. 
 Where the land lies partly within fifteen miles of such road 
 and in part outside such limit, the maximum price must be 
 paid for all legal subdivisions the greater part of which lies 
 within fifteen miles of such road. The term " completed 
 railroad " is held to mean one which is actually constructed 
 on the face of the earth, and lands within fifteen miles of 
 any point of a railroad so constructed, will be held and dis- 
 posed of at $20 per acre. One year from and after the ex- 
 piration of the period allowed for filing the declaratory 
 statement is given within which to make proof and pay- 
 ment, but no party will be allowed to make final proof and 
 payment, except on notice to all others who appear on the 
 records as claimants to the same tracts. 
 
 Saline Lands. — ^The act of Congress of January 12, 
 1877, provides that where tracts are found to be saline in 
 character, and therefore under pre-existing laws not subject 
 to disposal, they shall be ofiered at public sale at not less 
 than $1.25 per acre, and if not then sold shall be thereafter 
 held subject to private entry at the same price, as other pub- 
 lic lands. The act provides for an investigation to ascer- 
 tain by testimony the true character of public lands, where 
 there shall be reason to suppose that they are saline. This act 
 is confined in its operations to States which have had grants 
 of salines which have been fully satisfied, or under which the 
 right of selection has expired by efflux of time. This act ex- 
 cepts from its operations the Territories and the States of Mis- 
 sissippi, Louisiana, Florida, California, and Nevada. 
 
 RULINGS OF THE GENERAL LAND OFFICE. 
 
 THE following are the rulings x>f the General Land 
 Office in force October 31, 1881 : 
 Lode-Claims Located prior to May 10, 
 1872. — 2. By an examination of the several sections 
 
 of the Revised Statutes it will be seen that the status of lode- 
 claims located previous to the 10th May, 1872, is not changed 
 with regard to their extent along the lode or width of sur- 
 face. 
 
 3. Mining rights acquired under such previous locations 
 are, however, enlarged by said Revised Statutes in the fol- 
 lowing respect, viz. : The locators of all such previously 
 taken veins or lodes, their heirs and assigns, so long as they 
 comply with the laws of Congress and with State, Territoral, 
 or local regulations not in conflict therewith, governing 
 mining-claims, are invested with the exclusive possessory 
 right of all the surface included within the lines of their 
 locations, and of all veins, lodes, or ledges throughout their 
 entire depth, the top or apex of which lies inside of such 
 surface-lines extended downward vertically, although such 
 veins, lodes, or ledges may so depart from a perpendicular 
 in their course downward as to extend outside the vertical 
 side-lines of such locations at the surface, it being expressly 
 provided, however, that the right of possession to such out- 
 aide parts of said veins or ledges shall be confined to such 
 portions thereof as lie between vertical planes drawn down- 
 ward as aforesaid, through the end-lines of their locations 
 so continued in their own direction that such planes will in- 
 tersect such exterior parts of such veins, lodes, or ledges ; 
 no right being granted, however, to the claimant of such 
 outside portion of a vein or ledge to enter upon the surface 
 location of another claimant. 
 
 4. It is to be distinctly understood, however, that the law 
 limits the possessory right to veins, lodes, or ledges, other 
 than the one named in the original location, to such as were 
 not adversely claimed on May 10, 1872, and that where such 
 other vein or ledge was so adversely claimed at that date, 
 the right of the party so adversely claiming is in no way 
 impaired by the provisions of the Revised Statutes. 
 
 5. In order to hold the possessory title to a mining-claim 
 located prior to May 10, 1872, and for which a patent has 
 not been issued, the law requires that ten dollars shall be 
 expended annually in labor or improvements on each claim 
 of one hundred feet on the course of the vein or lode until a 
 patent shall have been issued therefor ; but where a number 
 of such claims are held in common upon the same vein or 
 lode the aggregate expenditure that would be necessary to 
 hold all the claims, at the rate of ten dollars per hundred 
 feet, may be made upon any one claim ; a failure to comply 
 with this requirement in any one year subjecting the claim 
 upon which such failure occurred to relocation by other par- 
 ties, the same as if no previous location thereof had ever 
 been made, unless the claimants under the original location 
 shall have resumed work thereon after such failure and be- 
 fore such relocation. The first annual expenditure upon 
 claims of this class should have been performed subsequent 
 to May 10, 1872, and prior to January 1, 1875. From and 
 after January 1, 1875, the required amount must be ex- 
 pended annually until patent issues. By decision of the 
 honorable Secretary of' the Interior, dated March 4, 1879, 
 such annual expenditures are not required subsequent to 
 entry, the date of issuing the patent certificate being the 
 date contemplated by statute. 
 
 6. Upon the failure of any one of several co-owners of a 
 vein, lode, or ledge, which has not been entered, to contri- 
 bute his proportion of the expenditures necessary to hold 
 the claim or claims so held in ownership in common, the co- 
 owners who have performed the labor, or made the improve- 
 ments, as required by said Revised Statutes, may, at the 
 expiration of the year, give such delinquent co-owner per- 
 sonal notice in writing, or notice by publication in the 
 newspaper published nearest the claim, for at least once a 
 week for ninety days ; and if upon the expiration of ninety 
 days after such notice in writing, or upon the expiration of 
 one hundred and eighty days after the first newspaper 
 publication of notice, the delinquent co-owner shall, have 
 failed to contribute his proportion to meet such expenditures 
 or improvements, his interest in the claim by law passes to 
 his co-owners, who have made the expenditures or improve- 
 ments as aforesaid. Where a claimant alleges ownership of 
 a forfeited interest under the foregoing provision, the sworn 
 statement of the publisher as to the facts of publication, 
 giving dates and a printed copy of the notice published, 
 should be furnished, and the claimant must swear that the 
 
624 
 
 THE MINES, MINSKS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 delinquent co-owner failed to contribute his proper pro- 
 portion within the period fixed by the statute. 
 
 Patents for Vtins or Lodes heretofore Issued. — 
 7. Eights under patents for veins or lodes heretofore granted 
 under previous legislation of Congress are enlarged by the 
 Eevised Statutes so as to invest the patentee, his heirs or 
 assigns, with title to all veins, lodes, or ledges, throughout 
 their entire depth, the top or apex of which lies within the 
 end and side boundary lines of his claim on the surface, as 
 patented, extended downward vertically, although such 
 veins, bdes, or ledges may so far depart from a perpen- 
 dicular in their course downward as to extend outside the 
 vertical side-lines of the claim at the surface. The right of 
 possession to such outside parts of such veins or ledges to be 
 confined to such portions thereof as lie between vertical 
 planes drawn downward through the end-lines of the claims 
 at the surface, so continued in their own direction that such 
 planes will intersect such exterior parts of such veins or 
 ledges, it being expressly provided, however, that all veins, 
 lodes, or ledges, the top or apex of which lies inside such 
 surface locations, other than the one named in the patent, 
 which were adversely claimed on the 10th May, 1872, are ex- 
 cluded from such conveyance by patent. 
 
 8. Applications for patents for mining-claims pending at 
 the date of the act of May 10, 1872, may be prosecuted to 
 final decision in the General Land Office, and where no ad- 
 verse rights are affected thereby, patents will be issued in 
 pursuance of the provisions of the Revised Statutes. 
 
 Maimer of Locating Claims on Veins or Lodes 
 after May 10, 1872.— 9. From and after the 10th May, 
 1872, any person who is a citizen of the United States or 
 who has declared his intention to become a citizen, may 
 locate, record, and hold a mining-claim oi fifteen hundred 
 linear feet along the course of any mineral vein or lode sub- 
 ject to location ; or an association of persons, severally 
 qualified as above, may make joint location of such claim of 
 fifteen hundred feet, but in no event can a location of a vein 
 or lode made subsequent to May 10, 1872, exceed fifteen 
 hundred feet along the course thereof, whatever may be the 
 number of persons composing the association. 
 
 10. With regard to the extent of surface ground adjoining 
 a vein or lode, and claimed for the convenient working 
 thereof, the Revised Statutes provide that the lateral extent 
 of locations of veins or lodes made after May 10, 1872, shall 
 in no case exceed three hundred feet on each side of the middle 
 of the vein at the surface, and that no such surface-rights shall 
 be limited by any mining regulations to less than twenty- 
 five feet on each side of the middle of the vein at the surface, 
 except where adverse rights existing on the 10th May, 1872, 
 may render such limitation necessary ; the end-lines of such 
 claims to be in all cases parallel to each other. Said lateral 
 measurements cannot extend beyond three hundred feet on 
 either side of the middle of the vein at the surface, or such 
 distance as is allowed by local laws. For example : 400 feet 
 cannot be taken on one side and 200 feet on the other. If, 
 however, 300 feet on each side are allowed, and by reason of 
 prior claims but 100 feet can be taken on one side, the 
 locator will not be restricted to less than 300 feet on the 
 other side ; and when the locator does not determine by 
 exploration where the middle of the vein at the surface is, 
 his discovery shaft must be assumed to mark such point. 
 
 11. By the foregoing it will be perceived that no lode- 
 claim located after the 10th May. 1872, can exceed a parallel- 
 ogram fifteen hundred feet in length by six hundred feet in 
 width, but whether surface-ground of that width can be 
 taken, depends upon the local regulations of State or Terri- 
 torial laws in force in the several mining-districts ; and that 
 no such local regulations or State or Territorial laws shall 
 limit a vein or lode claim to less than fifteen hundred feet 
 along the course thereof, whether the location is made by 
 one or more persons, nor can surface rights be limited to 
 less than fifty feet in width, unless adverse claims existing 
 on the 10th day of May, 1872, render such lateral limitation 
 necessary. 
 
 12. It is provided by the Revised Statutes that the miners 
 of each district may make rules and regulations not in con- 
 flict with the laws of the United States, or of the State or 
 Territory in which such districts are respectively situated, 
 governing the location, manner of recording and amount of 
 work necessary to hold possession of a claim. They like- 
 
 wise require that the location shall be so distinctly marked 
 on the ground that its boundaries may be readily traced. 
 This is a very important matter, and locators cannot exercise 
 too much care in defining their locations at the outset, inas- 
 much as the law requires that all records of mining locations 
 made subsequent to May 10, 1872, shall contain the name or 
 names of the locators, the date of the location, and such a 
 description of the claim or claims located, by reference to 
 some natural object or permanent monument, as will identify 
 the claim. 
 
 13. The statutes provide that no lode-cl.iim shall be re- 
 corded until after the discovery of a vein or lode within the 
 limits of the claim located, the object of which provision is 
 evidently to prevent the appropriation of presumed mineral 
 ground for speculative purposes to the exclusion oi bona fide 
 prospectors, before sufficient work has been done to deter- 
 mine whether a vein or lode really exists. 
 
 14. The claimant should, therefore, prior to locating his 
 claim, unless the vein can be traced upon the surface, sink 
 a shaft, or run a tunnel or drift, to a suflBcient depth therein 
 to discover and develop a mineral-bearing vein, lode, or 
 crevice ; should determine, if possible, the general course of 
 such vein in either dii'ection from the point of discovery, by 
 which direction he will be governed in marking the boun- 
 daries of his claim on the surface. His location notice 
 should give the course and distance as nearly as practicable 
 from the discovery-shaft on the claim, to some permanent, 
 well-known points or objects, such, for instance, as stone 
 monuments, blazed trees, the confluence of streams, point of 
 intersection of well-known gulches, ravines, or roads, pro- 
 minent buttes, hills, &c., which may be in the immediate 
 vicinity, and which will serve to perpetuate and fix the locus 
 of the claim and render it susceptible of identification from 
 the description thereof given in the record of locations in 
 the district, and should be duly recorded. 
 
 15. In addition to the foregoing data, the claimant should 
 state the names of adjoining claims, or, if none adjoin, the 
 relative positions of the nearest claims ; should drive a post 
 or erect a monumcait of stones at each corner of his surface- 
 ground, and at the point of discovery or discovery-shaft 
 should fix a post, stake, or board, upon which should be 
 designated the name of the lode, the name or names of the 
 locators, the number of feet claimed, and in which direction 
 from the point of discovery; it being essential that the loca- 
 tion notice filed for record, in addition to the foregoing 
 description, should state whether the entire claim of fifteen 
 hundred feet is taken on one side of the point of discovery, 
 or whether it is partly upon one and partly upon the other 
 side thereof, and in the latter case, how many feet are 
 claimed upon each side of such discovery-point. 
 
 16. Within a reasonable time, say twenty days after the 
 location shall have been marked on the ground, or such 
 time as is allowed by the local laws, notice thereof, accurately 
 describing the claim in manner aforesaid, should be filed for 
 record with the proper recorder of the district, who will 
 thereupon issue the usual certificate of location. 
 
 17. In order to hold the possessory right to a location 
 made since May 10, 1872, not less than one hundred dollars' 
 worth of labor must be performed, or improvements made 
 thereon .nnnually until entry shall have been made. Under 
 the provisions of the act of Congress approved January 22, 
 1880, the first annual expenditure becomes due and must be 
 performed during the calendar year succeeding that in 
 which the location was made. Expenditure made or labor 
 performed prior to the first day of January succeeding the 
 date of location will not be considered as a part of, or 
 applied upon the first annual expenditure required by law. 
 Failure to make the expenditure or perform the labor re- 
 quired will subject the claim to relocation by any other 
 party having the necessary qualifications, unless the original 
 locator, his heirs, assigns or legal representatives have 
 rcsuiiiod work thereon after such failure and before such 
 relocation. 
 
 18. The cxi>enditures required upon mining-claims may 
 be made from the surface or in running a tunnel for the 
 development of such claims, the act of Fibruaiy 11, 1875, 
 providing that where a person or company has, m may, run 
 a tunnel for the purpose of developing a lode or lodes owned 
 by said person or company, the money so expended in said 
 tunnel shall be taken and considered as expended on said 
 
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THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 625 
 
 lode or lodes, and such person or company shall not he re- 
 quired to perform work on the surface of said lode or lodes 
 in order to hold the same. 
 
 19. The importance of attending to these details in the 
 matter of location, labor, and expenditure will be the more 
 readily perceived when it is understood that a failure to 
 give the subject proper attention may invalidate the claim. 
 
 Tunnel Rignte. — 20. Sec. 2323 provides that where a 
 tunnel is run for the development of a vein or lode, or for 
 the discovery of mines, the owners of such tunnel shall have 
 the right of possession of all veins or lodes within three 
 thousand feet from the face of such tunnel on the line there- 
 of, not previously known to exist, discovered in such tunnel, 
 to the same extent as if discovered from the surface ; and 
 locations on the line of such tunnel of veins or lodes not 
 appearing on the surface, made by other' parties after the 
 commencement of the tunnel, and while the same is being 
 prosecuted with reasonable diligence, shall be invalid ; but 
 failure to prosecute the work on the tunnel for six months 
 shall be considered as an abandonment of the right to all 
 undiscovered veins or lodes on the line of said tunnel. 
 
 21. The effect of this is simply to give the proprietors of 
 a mining tunnel run in good faith the possessory right to 
 fifteen hundred feet of any blind lodes cut, discovered, or 
 intersected by such tunnel, which were not previously 
 known to exist, within three thousand feet from the face or 
 point of commencement of such tunnel, and to prohibit 
 other parties, after the commencement of the tunnel, from 
 prospecting for and making locations of lodes on the line 
 thereof and within said distance of three thousand feet, 
 unless such lodes appear upon the surface or were previously 
 known to exist. 
 
 22. The term " face," as used in said section, is construed 
 and held to mean the first working-face formed in the tun- 
 nel, and to signify the point at which the tunnel actually 
 enters cover ; it being from this point that the three thou- 
 sand feet are to be counted, upon which prospecting is pro- 
 hibited as aforesaid. 
 
 23. To avail themselves of the benefits of this provision 
 of law, the proprietors of a mining-tunnel will be required, 
 at the time they enter cover as aforesaid, to give proper 
 notice of their tunnel location by erecting a substantial 
 post, board, or monument at the face or point of commence- 
 ment thereof, upon which should be posted a good and suf- 
 ficient notice, giving the names of the parties or company 
 claiming the tunnel-right ; the actual or proposed course or 
 direction of the tunnel ; the height and width thereof, and 
 the course and distance from such face or point of com- 
 mencement to some permanent well-known objects in the 
 vicinity by which to fix and determine the loctis in manner 
 heretofore set forth applicable to locations of veins or lodes, 
 and at the time of posting such notice they shall, in order 
 that miners or prospectors may be enabled to determine 
 whether or not they are within the lines of the tunnel, es- 
 tablish the boundary lines thereof, by stakes or monuments 
 placed along such lines at proper intervals, to the terminus 
 of the three thousand feet from the face or point of com- 
 mencement of the tunnel, and the lines so marked will de- 
 fine and govern as to the specific boundaries within which 
 prospecting for lodes not previously known to exist is pro- 
 hibited while work on the tunnel is being prosecuted with 
 reasonable diligence. 
 
 , 24. At the time of posting notice and marking out the 
 lines of the tunnel as aforesaid, a full and correct copy of 
 such notice of location defining the tunnel-claim must be 
 filed for record with the mining recorder of the district, to 
 which notice must be attached the sworn statement or dec- 
 laration of the owners; claimants, or projectors of such tun- 
 nel, setting forth the facts in the case; stating'the amount 
 expended by themselves and their predecessors in interest in 
 prosecuting work thereon; the extent of the work per- 
 forined, and that it is bona Jide their intention to prosecute 
 work on the tunnel so located and described with reasonable 
 diligence for the development of a vein or lode, or for the 
 discovery of mines, or both, as the case may be. This 
 notice of location must be duly recorded, and, with the said 
 sworn statement attached, kept on the recorder's files for 
 future reference. 
 
 25. By a compliance with the foregoing much needless 
 diflSculty will be avoided, and the way for the adjustment 
 40 
 
 of legal rights acquired in virtue of said section 2323 will be 
 made much more easy and certain. 
 
 26. This office will take particular care that no improper 
 advantage is taken of. this provision of law by parties mak- 
 ing or professing to make tunnel locations, ostensibly for 
 the purposes named in the statute, but really for the pur- 
 pose of monopolizing the lands lying in front of their tun- 
 nels to the detriment of the mining interests and to the ex- 
 clusion of bona fide prospectors or miners, but will hold 
 such tunnel claimants to a strict compliance with the terms 
 of the statutes ; and a reasonable diligence on their part in 
 prosecuting the work is one of the essential conditions of 
 their implied contract. Neglience or want of due diligence 
 will be construed as working a forfeiture of their right to 
 all undiscovered veins on the line of such tunnel. 
 
 Manner of Proceediogr to obtain Government 
 Title to Vein or Lode Claims.— 27. By section 2325 
 authority is given for granting titles for mines by patent 
 froni the government to any person, association, or corpora- 
 tion, having the necessary qualifications as to citizenship 
 and holding the right of possession to a claim in compliance 
 with law. 
 
 28. The claimant is required in the first place to have a 
 correct survey of his claim made under authority of the 
 surveyor-general of the State or Territory in which the claim 
 lies ; such survey to show with accuracy the exterior boun- 
 aries of the claim, which boundaries are required to be 
 distinctly marked by monuments on the ground. Four 
 plats and one copy of the original field-notes, in each case, 
 will be prepared by the surveyor-general ; one plat and the 
 original field-notes to be retained in the office of the survey- 
 or-general, one copy of the plat to be given the claimant for 
 posting upon the claim, one plat and a copy of the field- 
 notes to be given the claimant for filing with the proper 
 register, to be finally transmitted by that officer, with other 
 papers in the case, to this office, and one plat to be sent by the 
 surveyor-general to the register of the proper land-district 
 to be retained on his files for future reference. 
 
 29. The claimant is then required to post a copy of the 
 plat of such survey in a conspicuous place upon the claim, 
 together with notice of his intention to apply for a patent 
 therefore, which notice will give the date of posting, the 
 name of the claimant, the name of the claim, mine, or lode ; 
 the mining-district and county ; whether the location is of 
 record, and if so, where the record may be found ; the 
 number of feet claimed along the vein and the presumed 
 direction thereof; the number of feet claimed on the lode 
 in each direction from the point of discovery, or other well- 
 defined place on the claim ; the name or names of adjoining 
 claimants on the same or other lodes; or, if none adjoin, 
 the names of the nearest claims, &c. 
 
 30. After posting the said plat and notice upon the prem- 
 ises, the claimant will file with the proper register and receiver 
 a copy of such plat, and the field-notes of survey of the 
 claiin, accompanied by the affidavit of at least two credible 
 witnesses, that such plat and notice are posted conspicuous- 
 ly upon the claim, giving the date and place of such notice; 
 a copy of the notice so posted to be attached to, and form a 
 part of said affidavit. 
 
 31. Attached to the field-notes so filed must be the sworn 
 statement of the claimant that he has the possessory right 
 to the premises therein described, in virtue of compliance 
 by himself (and by his grantors, if he claims by purchase) 
 with the mining rules, regulations, and customs of the 
 mining district, State, or Territory in which the claim lies, 
 and with the mining laws of Congress ; such sworn state- 
 ment to narrate briefly, but as clearly as possible, the facts 
 constituting such compliance, the origin of his possession, 
 and the basis of his claim to a patent. 
 
 32. This affidavit should be supported by appropriate 
 evidence from the mining recorder's office as to his pos- 
 sessory right, as follows, viz. : Where he claims to be a lo- 
 cator, a full, true, and correct copy of such location should 
 be furnished as the same appears upon the mining records ; 
 such copy to be attested by the seal of the recorder, or if he 
 has no seal then he should make oath to the same being 
 correct, as shown by his records ; where the applicant claims 
 as a locator in company with others who have since con- 
 veyed their interests in the lode to him, a copy of the ori- 
 ginal record of location should be filed, together with an 
 
626 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 abstract of title from the proper recorder, under seal or oath 
 as aforesaid, tracing the co-locator's possessory rights in the 
 claim to such applicant for patent ; where the applicant 
 claims only as a purchaser for valuable consideration, a 
 copy of the location record must be filed, under seal or upon 
 oatla as aforesaid, with an abstract of title certified as above 
 by the proper recorder, tracing right of j)ossession by a con- 
 tinuous chain of conveyances from the original locators to the 
 applicant, also certifying that no conveyances affecting the 
 title to the claim in question appear of record in his office 
 other than those set forth in tho^accompanying abstract. 
 
 33. In the event of the mining records in any case having 
 been destroyed by fire or otherwise lost, affidavit of the fact 
 should be made, and secondary evidence of possessory title 
 will be received, which may consist of the affidavit of the 
 claimant, supported by those of any other parties cognizant 
 of the facts relative to his location, occupancy, possession, 
 improvements, etc. ; and in such case of lo:<t records, any 
 deeds, certificates of location or purchase, or other evidence 
 which may be in the claimant's possession, and tend to es- 
 tublish His claim, should be filed. 
 
 34. Upon the receipt of these papers the registei! will, at 
 the expense of the claimant (who must furnish the agree- 
 ment of the publisher to hold applicant for patent alone re- 
 sponsible for charges of publication), publish a notice of 
 such application for the period of sixty days, in a newspaper 
 published nearest to the claim ; and will post a copy of such 
 notice in his office for the same period. In all cases sixty 
 days must intervene between the first and the last insertion of 
 the notice in such newspaper. When the notice is published 
 in a weekly newspaper ten consecutive insertions are neces- 
 sary ; when in a daily newspaper the notice must appear in 
 each issue for the required period. 
 
 35. The notices so published must be as full and com- 
 plete as possible, and embrace all the data given in the 
 notice posted upon the claim. 
 
 36. Too much care cannot be exercised in the preparation 
 of these notices, inasmuch as upon their accuracy and com- 
 pletjness will depend, in a great measure, the regularity and 
 validity of the whole proceeding. 
 
 37. The claimant, either at the time of filing these papers 
 with the register, or at any time during the sixty days' pub- 
 lication, is required to file a certificate of the surveyor-gene- 
 ral that not less than five hundred dollars' worth of labor 
 has been expended on improvements made upon the claim 
 by the applicant or his grantors ; that the plat filed by the 
 claimant is correct.; that the field-notes of the survey, as 
 filed, furnish such an accurate description of the claim as 
 will, if incorporated into a patent, serve to fully identify 
 the premises, and that such reference is made therein to 
 natural objects or permanent monuments as will perpetuate 
 and fix the locui thereof. 
 
 38. It will be the more convenient way to have this cer- 
 tificate indorsed by the surveyor-general, both upon the plat 
 and field-notes of survey filed by the claimant as aforesaid. 
 
 39. After the sixty days' period of newspaper publication 
 has expired, the claimant will file his affidavit, showing that 
 the plat and notice aforesaid remained conspicuously posted 
 upon the claim sought to be patented during said sixty days' 
 publication, giving the dates, 
 
 40. Upon the filing of this affidavit the register will, if 
 no adverse claim was filed in his office during tlie period of 
 publication, permit the claimant to pay for the land accord- 
 ing to the area given in the plat and field-notes of survey 
 aforesaid, at the rate of five dollars for each acre, and five 
 dollars for each fractional part of an acre, the receiver issuing 
 the usual duplicate receipt therefor. The claimant will also 
 make a sworn statement of all the charges and fees paid by 
 him for publication and surveys, together with all fees and 
 money paid the register and receiver of the land office ; 
 after which the whole matter will be forwarded to the Com- 
 misioner of the General Land Office and a patent issued 
 thereon if found regular, 
 
 41. In sending up the papers in the case the register must 
 not omit certifying to the fact that the notice was posted in his 
 office for the period of sixty days, such certificate to state dis- 
 tinctly when such posting was done and how long continued. 
 
 42. The consecutive series of numbers of mineral entries 
 must be continued, whether the same are of lode or plater 
 claims. 
 
 43. The surveyor-general must continue to designate all 
 surveyed mineral claims as heretofore by a progressive series 
 of numbers, beginning with lot No. 37 in each township, 
 the claim to be so designated at date of filing the plat, field- 
 notes, etc., in addition to the local designation of the claim; 
 it being required in all cases that the plat and field-notes of 
 the survey of a claim must, in addition to the reference to 
 permanent objects in the neighbourhood, describe the locus 
 of the claim with reference to the lines of public surveys 
 by, a- line connecting a corner of the claim with the nearest 
 public corner of the United States surveys, unless such 
 claim be on unsurveyed lands at a remote distance from such 
 public corner, in which latter case the reference by course and 
 distance to permanent objects in the neighborhood will be 
 a sufficient designation by which to fix the locus until the 
 public surveys shall have been closed upon its boundaries. 
 
 Adverse Claims. — 44. Section 2326 provides for ad- 
 verse claims, fixes the time within which they shall be filed 
 to have legal efiect, and prescribes the manner of their ad- 
 justment. 
 
 45. Said section requires that the adverse claim shall be . 
 filed during the period of publication of notice ; that it 
 must be on the oath of the adverse claimant; and that it 
 must show the nature, the boundaries and the extent of the 
 adverse claim. 
 
 46. In order that this section of law may be properly car- 
 ried into efiect, the following is communicated for the in- 
 formation of all concerned.' 
 
 47. An adverse mining-claim must be filed with the regis- 
 ter of the same land office with whom the application for 
 patent was filed, or in his absence with the receiver, and 
 within the sixty days' period of newspaper publication of 
 notice. 
 
 48. The adverse notice must be duly sworn to by the per- 
 son or persons making the same before an officer authorized 
 to administer oaths within the land-district, or before the 
 register or receiver ; it will fully set forth the nature and 
 extent of the interference or conflict ; whether the adverse . 
 party claims as a purchaser for valuable consideration or as 
 a locator ; if the former, a certified copy of the original lo- 
 cation, the original conveyance, a duly certified copy there- 
 of, or an abstract of- title from the office of the proper re- 
 corder should be furnished, or if the transaction was a mere 
 verbal one he will narrate the circumstances attending the 
 purchase, the date thereof, and the amount paid, which facts 
 should be supported by the affidavit of one or more wit- 
 nesses, if any were present at the time, and if he claims as a 
 locator he must file a duly certified copy of the location from 
 the office of the proper recorder. 
 
 49. In order that the boundaries and extent of the claim 
 may be shown, it will be incumbent upon the adverse 
 claimant to file a plat showing his entire claim, its relative 
 situation or position with the one against which he claims, 
 and the extent of the conflict. This plat must be made 
 from an actual survey by a United States deputy surveyor, 
 who will officially certify thereon to its correctness ; and in 
 addition there must be attached to such plat of survey a cer- 
 tificate or sworn statement by the surveyor as to the ap- 
 proximate value of the labor performed or improvements 
 made upon the claim by the adverse party or his predeces- 
 sors in interest, and the plat must indicate the position of 
 any shafts, tunnels, or otner improvements, if any such ex- 
 ist, upon the claim of the party opposing the application, 
 and by which party said improvements were made. 
 
 50. Upon the foregoing being filed within the sixty days 
 as aforesaid, the register, or in his absence the receiver, will 
 give notice in writing to both parties to the contest that 
 such adverse claim has been filed, informing them that the 
 party who filed the adverse claim will be required within 
 thirty days from the date of such filing to commence pro- 
 ceedings in a court of competent jurisdiction to determine 
 the question of right of possession, and to prosecute the 
 same with reasonable diligence to final judgment, and that 
 should such adverse cUiimant fail to do so, his adverse 
 claim will be considered waived, and the application for 
 patent be allowed to proceed upon its merits. 
 
 51. When an adverse claim is filed as aforesaid, the regis- 
 ter or receiver will indorse upon the same the precise date of 
 filing, and jireserve a record of the date of notifications 
 issued thereon ; and thereafter all proceedings on the appli- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 627 
 
 cation for patent will be suspended, with the exception of 
 the completion of the publication and posting of notices 
 and plat, and the filing of the necessary proof thereof, until 
 the controversy shall have been adjudicated in court, or the 
 adverse claim waived or withdrawn. 
 
 52. The proceedings after rendition of judgment by the 
 court in such case are so clearly defined by the act itself as 
 to render it unnecessary to enlarge thereon in this place. 
 
 53. The proceedings to obtain patents for claims usually 
 called placers, including all forms of deposit, are similar to 
 the proceedings prescribed for obtaining patents for vein or 
 lode claims ; but where said placer-claim shall be upon sur- 
 veyed lands, and conform to legal subdivisions, no further 
 survey or plat will be required, and all placer mining claims 
 located after May 10, 1872, shall conform as nearly as prac- 
 ticable with the United States system of public-land surveys 
 and the rectangular subdivisions of such surveys, and no 
 such location shall include more than twenty acres for each 
 individual claimant; but where placer-claims cannot be 
 conformed to legal subdivisions, survey, and plat shall be 
 made as on unsurveyed lands. But where such claims are 
 located previous to the public surveys, and do not conform 
 to legal subdivisions, survey, plat, and entry thereof may be 
 made according to the boundaries thereof, provided the loca- 
 tion is in all respects legal. 
 
 54: The proceedings for obtaining patents for veins or 
 lodes having already been fully given, it will not be neces- 
 sary to repeat them here; it being thought that careful 
 attention thereto by applicants and the local officers will 
 enable them to act understandingly in the matter and make 
 such slight modifications in the notice, or otherwise, as may 
 be necessary in view of the different natureof the two classes 
 of claims, placer-claims being fixed, however, at two dollars 
 and fifty cents per acre, or fractional part of an acre. 
 
 55. By section 2330, authority is given for the subdivision 
 of forty-acre legal subdivisions into ten-acre lots, which is 
 intended for the greater convenience of miners in segregat- 
 ing their claims both from one another and from interven- 
 ing agricultural lands. 
 
 56. It is held, therefore, that under a proper construction 
 of the law these ten-acre lots in mining districts should be 
 considered and dealt with, to all intents and purposes, as 
 legal subdivisions', and that an applicant having a legal 
 claim which conforms to one or more of these ten-acre lots, 
 either adjoining or cornering, may make entry thereof, after 
 the usual proceedings, without further survey or plat. 
 
 57. In cases of this kind, however, the notice given of the 
 application must be very specific and accurate in description, 
 and as the forty-acre tracts may be subdivided into ten-acre 
 lots, either in the form of squares often by ten chains, or of 
 parallelograms five by twenty chains, so long as the lines are 
 parallel and at right angles with the lines of the public sur- 
 veys, it will be necessary that the notice and application 
 state specifically what ten-acre lots are sought to be patented 
 in addition to the other data required in the notice. 
 
 58. Where the ten-acre subdivision is in the form of a 
 square it may be described, for instance, as the " S. E. J of 
 the S. W. i of N. W. i," or, if in the form of a parallelo- 
 gram as aforesaid, it may be described as the " W. i of the 
 W. i of the S. W. i of the N. W. k (or the N. J of the S. i 
 
 of the N. E. i of the S. E. i) of section , township 
 
 , range ," as the case may be ; but, in addition 
 
 to this description of the land, the notice must give all the 
 other data that is required in a mineral application, by 
 which parties may be put on inquiry as to the premises 
 sought to be patented. The proof submitted with applica- 
 tions for claims of this kind must show clearly the character 
 and the extent of the improvements upon the premises. 
 
 Inasmuch as the surveyor-general has no duty to perform 
 in connection with the entry of a placer-claim of legal sub- 
 divisions, the proof of improvements must show their value 
 to be not leas than five hundred dollars and that they were 
 made by the applicant for patent or his grantors. 
 
 59. Applicants for patent to a placer-claim, who are also 
 in possession of a known vein or lode included therein, must 
 state in their application that the placer includes such vein 
 or lode. The published and posted notices must also include 
 such statement ; and the vein or lode must be surveyed and 
 marked upon the plat ; the field-notes and plat giving the 
 area of the lode claim or claims and the area of the placer 
 
 separately. If veins or lodes lying within a placer location 
 are owned by other parties, the fact should be distinctly 
 stated in the application for patent, and in all the notices. 
 It should be remembered that an application which omits to 
 include an application for a known vein or lode therein, 
 must be construed as a conclusive declaration that the ap- 
 plicant has no right of possession to the vein or lode. Where 
 there is no known lode or vein, the fact must appear by the 
 affidavit of claimant and one or more witnesses. 
 
 60. When an adverse claim is filed to a placer application 
 the proceedings are the same as in the case of vein or lode 
 claims, already described. 
 
 Quantity of Placer Ground Subject to Location. 
 — 61. By section 2330 it is declared that no location of a 
 placer-claim, made after July 9, 1870, shall exceed one hun- 
 dred and sixty acres for anyone person or association of per- 
 son8,which location shall conform to the United States survey. 
 
 62. Section 2331 provides that all placer mining claims 
 located after May 10, 1872, shall conform as nearly as prac- 
 ticable with the United States system of public suryeys and 
 the subdivisions of such surveys, and no such locations shall 
 include more than twenty acres lor each individual claimant. 
 
 63. The foregoing provisions oflaw are construed to mean 
 that after the 9th day of July, 1870, no location of a placer- 
 claim can be made to exceed one hundred and sixty acres, 
 whatever may be the number of locators associated together, 
 or whatever the local regulations of the district may allow ; 
 and that from and after May 10, 1872, no location made by 
 an individual can exceed twenty acres, and no location made 
 by an association of individuals can exceed one hundred 
 and sixty acres, which location of one hundred and sixty 
 acres cannot be made by a less number than eight bona-Jide 
 locators ; and no local laws or mining regulations can re- 
 strict a placer location to less than twenty acres, although 
 the locator is not compelled to take so much. 
 
 64. The regulations hereinbefore given as to the manner 
 of marking locations on the ground, and placing the same on 
 record, must be observed in the case of placer locations, 
 so far as the same are applicable ; the law requiring, how- 
 ever, that where placer-claims are upon surveyed public 
 lands the locations must hereafter be made to conform to 
 legal subdivisions thereof as near as practicable. 
 
 65. With regard to the proofs necessary to establish the 
 possessory right to a placer-claim, section 2332 j-rovides 
 thai " where such person or association, they and their gran- 
 tors, have held and worked their claims for a period equal to 
 the time prescribed by the statute of limitations for mining- 
 claims of the State or Territory where the same may be sit- 
 uated, evidence of such possession and working of the claims 
 for such period shall be sufficient to establish a right to a 
 patent thereto under this chapter, la the absence of any ad- 
 verse claim. " 
 
 66. This provision of law will greatly lessen the burden 
 of proof, more especially in the case of old claims located 
 many years since, the records of ivhich, in many cases, have 
 been destroyed by fire, or lost in other ways during thelapse 
 of time, but concerning the possessory right to which all 
 controversy or litigation has long been settled. 
 
 67. When an applicant desires to make his proof of poss- 
 essory right in accordance with this provision of law, you 
 will not require him to produce evidence of location, copies 
 of conveyances, or abstracts of title, as in other cases, but 
 will require him to fiarnish a duly certified copy of the statute 
 of limitations of mining-claims for the State or Territory, to- 
 gether with his sworn statement giving a clear and succinct 
 narration of the facts as to the origin of Ms title, and like- 
 wise as to the continuation of his possession of the mining 
 ground covered by his application ; the area thereof, the 
 nature and extent of the mining that has been done thereon ; 
 whether there has been any opposition to his possession, 
 or litigation with regard to his claim, and, if so, when the 
 same ceased; whether such cessation was caused by com- 
 promise or by judicial decree, and any additional facts 
 within the claimant's knowledge having a direct bearing 
 upon his possession and bona fides which he may desire to 
 submit in support of his claim. 
 
 68. There should likewise be filed a certificate, under seal 
 of the court having jurisdiction of mining cases within the 
 judicial district embracing the claim, that no suit or action 
 of any character whatever involving the right of possession 
 
628 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 to any portion of the claim applied for is pending, and that 
 there has been no litigation before said court affecting the 
 title to said claim or any part thereof for a period equal 
 to the time fixed by the statute of limitations for mining- 
 claims in the State or Territory as aforesaid, other than that 
 which has bt'en finally decided in favor of the claimant. 
 
 69. The claimant should support his narrative of facts rel- 
 ative to his possession, occupancy, and improyements by 
 corroborative testimony of any disinterested person or per- 
 sons of credibility who may be cognizant of the facts in the 
 case and are capable of testifying understandingly in the 
 premises. 
 
 70. It will be to the advantage of claimants to make 
 Iheir proofs as full and complete as practicable. 
 
 Mill-Sites.— 71. Section 2337 provides that, " where 
 non-mineral land not contiguous to the vein or lode is used 
 or occupied by thepi'oprietorof such vein or lode for mining 
 or milling purposes, such non-adjacent surface-ground may 
 be embraced and included in an application for a patent 
 for such vein or lode, and the same may be patented there- 
 with, subject to the same preliminary requirements as to 
 survey and notice as are applicable to veins or lodes ; but no 
 location hereafter made of such non-adjacent land shall ex- 
 ceed five acres, and payment for the same must be made at 
 the same rate as fixed by this chapter for the superficies of 
 the lode. The owner of a quartz-mill or reduction-works, 
 not owning a mine in connection therewith, may also re- 
 ceive a patent for his mill-site, as provided in thig section." 
 
 72. To avail themselves of this provision of law, parties 
 holding the possessory right to a vein or lode, and to a piece 
 of non-mineral land not contiguous thereto, for mining or 
 milling purposes, not exceeding the quantity allowed for 
 such purpose, by section 2337 United States Revised Stat- 
 utes, or prior laws, under which the land was appropriated, 
 the proprietors of such vein or lode may file in the proper 
 land-office their application for a patent, under oath, in 
 manner already set forth herein, which application, together 
 with the plat and field-notes, may include, embrace, and de- 
 scribe, in addition to the vein or lode, such non-contiguous 
 mill-site, and after due proceedings as to notice, &c., a 
 patent will be issued conveying the same as one claim. 
 ■ 73. In making the survey in a case of this kind, the lode- 
 claim should be described in the plat and field-notes as 
 "Lot No. 37, A," and the mill site as "Lot No. 37, B," or 
 whatever may be its appropriate numerical designation; the 
 course and distance from a corner of the mill-site to a 
 corner of the lode-claim to be invariably given in such plat 
 and field-notes, and a copy of the plafand notice of applica- 
 tion for patent must be conspicuously posted upon 
 the mill-site as well as upon the vein or lode for 
 the statutory period of sixty days. In making the 
 entry no separate receipt or certificate need be issued for 
 the mill-site, but the whole area of both lode and mill-site 
 will be embraced in one entry, the price being five dollars 
 for each acre and fractional part of an acre embraced by 
 such lode and mill-site claim. 
 
 74. In case the owner of a quartz-mill or reduction-works 
 is not the owner or claimant of a vein or lode, the law 
 permits him to make application therefor in the same man- 
 ner prescribed herein for mining-claims, and after due no- 
 tice and proceedings, in the absence of a valid adverse filing, 
 to enter and receive a patent for his mill-site at said price 
 per acre. 
 
 75. In every case there must be a satisfactory proof that 
 the land claimed as a mill-site is not mineral in character, 
 which proof may, where the matter is unquestioned, consist 
 of the sworn statement of the claimant, su])ported by that 
 of one or more disinterested persons Capable from acquaint- 
 ance with the land to testify understandingly. 
 
 76. The law expressly limits mill-site locations made from 
 and after its passage to Jive acres. 
 
 77. The registers and receivers will preserve an unbroken 
 consecutive series of numbers for all mineral entries. 
 
 Proof of Citizenship of Mining-Claimants.— 78.— 
 The proof necessary to establish the citizenship of a])])li- 
 cants for mining-patents must be made in the following 
 manner: Incase of an incorporated company, a certified 
 copy of their charter or certificate of incorporatiofa must be 
 filed. In case of an association of persons unincorporated, 
 the affidavit of their duly authorized agent, made upon his 
 
 own knowledge, or upon information and belief, setting 
 forth the residence of each person forming such association, 
 must be submitted. This aflJdavit must be accompanied by 
 a power of attorney from the parties forming such associa- 
 tion, authorizing the person who makes theaflSdayit of citi- 
 zenship to act for them in the matter of their application 
 for patent. 
 
 79. In case of an individual or an association of individu- 
 als who do not appear by their duly authorized agent, will 
 be required the aflidavit of each applicant, showing whether 
 he is a native or naturalized citizen, when and where born, 
 and his residence. 
 
 80. In case an applicant has declared his intention to be- 
 come a citizen, or has been naturalized, his aflSdavit must 
 show the date, place, and the court before which he declared 
 his intention, or from which his certificate of citizenship 
 issued, and present residence. 
 
 81. The affidavit of the claimant as to his citizenship may 
 be taken before the register or receiver, or any other officer 
 authorized to administer oaths within the land district. If 
 citizenship is established by the testimony of disinterested 
 persons, such testimony may be taken at any place before 
 any person authorized to administer oaths, and whose offi- 
 cial character is duly verified. 
 
 Appointment of Deputy Surveyors of Mining- 
 Claims— Charges for Surveys and Publications- 
 Fees of Registers and Receivers, &c. — 82. Section 
 2334 provides for the appointment of surveyors of mineral 
 claims, authorizes the Commissioner of the General Land 
 Office to establish the rates to be charged for surveys and 
 for newspaper publications, prescribes the fees allowed to 
 the local officers for receiving and acting upon applications 
 for mining-patents and for adverse claims thereto, &c. 
 
 Under this authority of law the following rates have been 
 established as the maximum charges for newspaper publica- 
 tions in mining cases: 
 
 a Where a daily newspaper is designated the charge shall 
 not exceed seven dollars for each ten lines of space occu- 
 pied, and where a weekly newspaper is designated as the 
 medium of publication five dollars for the same space will 
 be allowed. Such charge shall be accepted as full payment 
 for publication in each issue of the newspaper for the entire 
 period required by law. , 
 
 It is expected that these notices shall not be so abbrevia- 
 ted as to curtail the description essential to a perfect notice, 
 and the said rates established upon the understanding that 
 they are to be in the usual body- type used for advertisements. 
 
 6 For the publication of citations in contests or hearings 
 involving the character of lands, the charges shall not ex- 
 ceed eight dollars for five publications in weekly newspapers, 
 or ten dollars for publications in daily newspapers for thirty 
 days. 
 
 83. The surveyors-general of the several districts, will, in 
 pursuance of said law, appoint in each land-district as many 
 comjocie?!^ deputies for the survey of mining- claims as may 
 seek such appointment ; it being distinctly understood that 
 all ex])ense8 of these notices and surveys are to be borne by 
 the mining-claimants and not by the United States; the 
 system of making rfe;)os!<s for mineral surveys, as required 
 bv previous instructions, being hereby revoked as regards 
 field-work; the claimant having the option of employing 
 any deputy surveyor within such district to do his work in 
 the field. 
 
 84. With regard to the platting of the claim and other 
 office-work in the surveyor-general's office, that officer will 
 make an estimate of the cost thereof, which amount the 
 claimant will deposit with any Assistant United States 
 Treasurer, or designated depository, in favor of the United 
 States Treasurer, to be passed to the credit of the fund cre- 
 ated by "individual depositors for surveys of the public 
 lands," and file with the surveyor-general duplicate certifi- 
 cates of such deposit in the usual manner. 
 
 85. The surveyors-general will endeavor to appoint mineral 
 deputy surveyors, so that one or more maybe located in 
 each mining-district for the greater convenience of miners. 
 
 86. The usual oaths will be required of these deputies and 
 thel)' assistants as to the correctness of each survey executed 
 by them. 
 
 The duty of the deputy mineral surveyor ceases when he 
 has executed the survey and returned the field-notes and 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 629 
 
 preliminary plats thereof with his report to the surveyor- 
 general, and will not be allowed to prepare for the mining clai- 
 mant the papers in support of an application for patent, or 
 otherwise perform the duties of an atiorney before the land- 
 office in connection with a mining-claim. 
 
 The surveyors-general and local land-officers are expected 
 to report any infringement of this regulation to this office. 
 
 87. The law requires that each applicant shall file with 
 the register and receiver a sworn statement of all charges 
 and fees paid by him for publication of notice and for 
 survey; together with all fees and money paid the register 
 and receiver, which sworn statement is required to be trans- 
 mitted to this office, for the information of the Commis- 
 sioner. 
 
 88. Should it appear that excessive or exorbitant charges 
 have been made by any surveyor or any publisher, prompt 
 action will be taken with the view of correcting the abuse. 
 
 89. The fees payable to the register and receiver for filing 
 and acting upon applications for mineral-land patents are 
 five dollars to each officer, to be paid by the applicant 
 for patent at the time of filing, and the like sum of five 
 dollars is payable to each officer by an adverse claimant at 
 the time of filing his adverse claim. 
 
 90. All fees or charges under this law may be paid in 
 United States currency. 
 
 91. The register and receiver will, at the close of each 
 month, forward to this office an abstract of mining applica- 
 tions filed, and a register of receipts, accompanied with an 
 abstract of mineral lands sold, and an abstract of adverse 
 claims filed. 
 
 92. The fees and purchase-money received by registers 
 and receivers must be placed to the credit of the United 
 States in the receiver's monthly and quarterly account, 
 charging up in the disbursing account the sums to which 
 the register and receiver may be respectively entitled as 
 fees and commissions, with limitations in regard to the 
 legal maximum. 
 
 Hearings to Establish the Character of Lands. — 
 93. In every case where it becomes necessary under the law and 
 existing instructions of this office that a hearing be held 
 and testimony taken for the purpose of ascertaining the 
 mineral or agricultural character of land, the local officers 
 are directed to cause the evidence to be taken before a dulv 
 qualified officer whose office is locat;ed nearest the land in 
 dispute, the distance to be computed by ordinary routes of 
 travel. Whenever the local office comes within this rule, the 
 hearing will be held before the register and receiver. 
 
 It is intended to cause these hearings to be held, as far as 
 practicable, in such manner as to afford the least incoifve- 
 nience to persons interested. Should it appear, therefore, 
 by written stipulation of all the parties that this purpose 
 will best be subserved by the designation of any particular 
 officer authorized to administer oaths within the land dis- 
 trict in which the land in controversy is situated, the instruc- 
 tions herein may be departed from in accordance with such 
 stipulation. Such deviation may also be allowed where the 
 officer who would, otherwise, be designated is an interested 
 party, or where, for other good reason, his selection would 
 be improper. 
 
 When the evidence is taken before an officer other than 
 the register and receiver, the record should be sealed up, 
 the title of the case indorsed on the envelope, and the whole 
 returned by mail or express to the register and receiver. 
 
 On the 27th of April, 1880, in accordance with the direc- 
 tions of the Secretary of the Interior this office revoked the 
 withdrawals theretofore made, upon general information, 
 that vast tracts of public land were mineral in character, 
 and instructed the local officers, in the absence of a specific 
 allegation of the mineral character of land to allow appli- 
 cations for agricultural entry thereof, upon due proof. 
 
 Hereafter the only tracts of public land that will be with- 
 held from entry as agricultural land on account of its 
 mineral character, will be such as are returned by the sur- 
 veyor-general as mineral ; and even the presumption which 
 is supported by such return may be overcome by testimony 
 taken at a regular hearing. 
 
 94. Hearings to determine the character of land, as prac- 
 tically distinguished, are of two kinds : 
 
 1st. Where lands which are sought to be entered and 
 patented as agricultural are alleged by affidavit to be 
 
 mineral, or when sought as mineral their non-mineral 
 character is alleged. 
 
 The proceedings relative to this class are in the nature of 
 a contest between two or more known parties, and the testi- 
 mony may be taken on personal notice of at least ten days, 
 duly served on all parties, or, if they cannot be found, then 
 by publication, for thirty days in a newspaper of general 
 circulation, to be designated by the register of the land- 
 office as published nearest to the land in controversy. If 
 publication is made in a weekly newspaper, the notice must 
 be inserted in five consecutive Weekly issues thereof. 
 
 2d. When lands are returned as mineral by the surveyor- 
 general. When such lands are sought to be entered as ag- 
 cultural, notice must be given by publication for thirty days, 
 as aforesaid. 
 
 95. All notices must describe the land, give the name and 
 address of the claimant, the character of his claim, and the" 
 time, place, and purpose of the hearing. 
 
 Proof of service of notice, when personal, must consist of 
 either acknowledgment of service indorsed on the citation, 
 (which is always desirable,) or the affidavit of the party 
 serving the same, giving date, place, and manner of service, 
 indorsed as aforesaid. 
 
 Proof of publication must be the affidavit of the pub- 
 lisher of the newspaper, stating the period of publication, 
 giving dates, stating whether in a daily or weekly issue, and 
 a copy of the notice so published must be attached to, and 
 form a part of, the affidavit. 
 
 Proof of posting on the claim must be made by the affi- 
 davits of two or more persons who state when and where 
 the notice was posted ; that it remained so posted during 
 the prescribed period, giving dates, and a copy of the noace 
 so posted must be attached to, and made a part of, the 
 affidavits. 
 
 Proof of liotice is indispensable to the regularity of pro- 
 ceedings and must accompany the record in every case. 
 
 The expense of notice must in every case be paid by the 
 parties thereto. 
 
 96. At the hearing there must be filed the affidavit of the 
 publisher of the paper that the said notice was published 
 for the required time, stating when and for how Ipng such 
 publication was made, a printed copy thereof to be attached 
 and made a part of the affidavit. 
 
 97.. At the hearing the claimant and witnesses will be 
 thoroughly examined with regard to the character of the 
 land ; whether the same has been thoroughly prospected ; 
 whether or not there exists within the tract or tracts claimed 
 any lode or vein of quartz or other rock in place, bearing 
 gold, silver, cinnabar, lead, tin, or copper, or other valuable 
 deposit which has ever been claimed, located, recorded or 
 worked; whether such work is entirely abandoned, or 
 whether occasionally resumed ; if such lode does exist, by 
 whom claimed, under what designation, and in which sub- 
 division of the land it lies; whether any placer mine or 
 mines exist upon the land ; if so, what is the character 
 thereof — ^whether of the shallow-surface description, or of 
 the deep cement, blue lead, or gravel deposits ; to what 
 extent mining is carried on when water can be obtained, 
 and what the facilites are for obtaining water for mining 
 purposes ; upon what particular ten-acre subdivisions 
 mining has been done, and at what time the land was 
 abandoned for mining purposes, if abandoned at all. 
 
 98. The testimony should show also the agricultural Capaci- 
 ties of the land, what kind of crops are raised thereon, and the 
 value thereof; the number of acres actually cultivated for 
 crops of cereals or vegetables, and within which paticular 
 ten-acre subdivisions such crops are raised ; also which of 
 these subdivisions embrace his improvements, giving in detail 
 the extent and value of his improvements, such as house, 
 barn, vineyard, orchard, fencing, etc. 
 
 99. It is thought that bona fide settlers upon lands 
 really agricultural will be able to show, by a clear, logical 
 and succinct chain of evidence, that their claims are 
 founded upon law and justice; while parties who have 
 made little or no permanent agricultural improvements, and 
 who only seek title for speculative purposes, on account of 
 the mineral deposits known to themselves to be contained 
 in the land, will be defeated in their intentions. 
 
 100. The testimony should be as full and complete as 
 possible; and, in addition to the leading points indicated 
 
630 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 above, everything of importance bearing upon the question 
 of the character of the land should be elicited at the 
 hearing. 
 
 101. Where the testimony is taken before an officer who 
 doe& not use a seal, other than the register and receiver, the 
 official character of such oificer must be attested by a clerk 
 of a court of record, and the testimony transmitted to the 
 register and receiver, who will thereupon examine and for- 
 ward the same to this office, with their joint opinion as to 
 the character of the land as shown by the testimony. 
 
 102. When the case comes before this office, such an 
 award of the land will be made as the law and the facts 
 may justify : and in cases where a survey is necessary to set 
 apart the mineral from the agricultural land in any forty- 
 acre tract, the necessary instructions will be issued to enable 
 the agricultural claimant, at his own expense, to have the 
 work done, a!t his option, either by United States deputy, 
 county, or other local surveyor; the survey in such case 
 may be executed in such manner as will segregate the por- 
 tion of land actually containing the mine, and used as 
 surface-ground for the convenient working thereof, from the 
 remainder of the tr:ict, which remainder will be patented to 
 the agriculturist to whom the same may have been awarded, 
 subject, however, to the condition that the land may be en- 
 tered upon by the proprietor of any vein or lode for which a 
 patent has been issued by the United States for the purpose 
 of extracting and removing the ore from the same, where 
 found to penetrate or intersect the land so patented as agri- 
 cultural, as stipulated by the mining act. 
 
 103. Such survey when executed must be properly sworn 
 to by the surveyor, either before a notary public, officer of a 
 court of record, or before the register or receiver, the de- 
 ponent's character and credibility to be properly certified to 
 by the officer administering the oath. 
 
 104. Upon the filing of the plat and field-notes of such 
 survey, duly sworn to as aforesaid, you will transmit the 
 same to the attorney-general for his verification and ap- 
 proval ; who, if he finds the work correctly performed, will 
 properly mark out the same upon the original township 
 plat in his office, and furnish authenticated copies of such 
 plat and description both to the proper local land office and 
 to this office, to be affixed to the duplicate and triplicate 
 township plats respectively. 
 
 105. In cases where a portion of a forty-acre tract is 
 awarded to an agricultural claimant and he causes the se- 
 gregation thereof from the mineral portion, as aforesaid, 
 such- agricultural portion will not be given a numerical 
 designation as in the case of surveyed mineral claims, but 
 
 will simply be described as the " Fractional ■■ — quarter 
 
 of the — quarter of section , in township , 
 
 of range • 
 
 • meridian, containing - 
 
 ■ acres, the same 
 
 being exclusive of the land adjudged to be mineral in said 
 forty-acre tract." 
 
 106. The siirveyor must correctly compute the area of 
 such agricultural portion, which computation will be veri- 
 fied by the surveyor-general. 
 
 107. After the authenticated plat and field-notes of the 
 survey have been received from the surveyor-general, this 
 office will issue the necessary order for the entry of the 
 land, and in issuing the receiver's receipt and register's 
 patent certificate you will invariably be governed by the 
 description of the land given in the order from this office, 
 
 108. The fees for taking testimony and reducing the same 
 to writing in these cases will have to be defrayed by the 
 parties in interest. Where such testimony is taken before 
 any other officer than the register and receiver, the register 
 and receiver will be entiled to no fees. 
 
 109. If, upon a review of the testimony at this office, a ten 
 acre tract should be found to be properly mineral in cha- 
 racter, that fact will be no bar to the execution of the 
 settler's le^al right to the remaining non-mineral portion of 
 his claim, if contiguous. 
 
 no. No fear need be entertained that miners will be per- 
 mitted to make entries of tracts ostensibly as mining claims, 
 which are not mineral, simply for the purpose of obtaining 
 possession and defrauding settlers out of their valuable 
 agricultural improvements ; it being almost an impossibility 
 for such a fraud to be consummated under the laws and reg- 
 ulations applicable to obtaining patents for mining claims. 
 
 111. The fact that a certain tract of land is decided upon tes- 
 
 ' timony to be mineral in character is by no means equivalent 
 to an award of the land to a miner. A miner is compells'l 
 by law to give sixty days' publication of notice, and posting 
 of diagrams and notices, as a preliminary .step ; and then, 
 before he can enter the land, he must show that the land 
 yields mineral ; that he is entitled to the possessory right 
 thereto in virtue of compliance with local customs or rules 
 of mines, or by virtue of the statute of limitations; that he 
 or his grantors have expended, in actual labor and improve- 
 ments, an amount of not less than five hundred dollars 
 thereon, and that the claim is one in regard to which 
 there is no controversy or opposing claim. After all these 
 proofs are met, he is entitled to have a survey made at 
 his own cost where a survey is required, after which he 
 can enter and pay for the land embraced by his claim. 
 
 112. Blank forms for proofs in mineral cases are not fur- 
 nished by the General Land Office. 
 
 RULES OF PRACTICE BEFORE LAND OFFI- 
 CERS, THE GENERAL LAND OFFICE 
 AND THE DEPARTMENT OF 
 THE INTERIOR. 
 
 THE following are the official regulations : 
 Proceedings Before Kegisteks and Receivers. — 
 I. Contests and Hearings.— 1. Initiation of Contests. 
 — Rule 1. — Contests may be initiated by a party in interest, 
 or by any other person, in the following cases : 
 
 1. Alleged abandoned homestead entries. (Revised Statutes sec 
 2297). 
 
 2. Alleged abandoned or forfeited timber-culture entries. (20 
 Stat. 113, sec. 3.) 
 
 Rule 2. — In all other cases contests can be initiated only by a 
 party in interest. 
 
 Rule 3. — In every case of application for a hearing an affidavit 
 must be filed by the contestant with the register and receiver, fully 
 setting forth the facts which constitute the grounds of contest. 
 
 Rule 4. — Where an entry has been allowed and remains of record, 
 the affidavit of the contestant must be accompanied by the affidavits 
 of one or more witnesses in support of the allegations" made. 
 
 2. Hearings in contested cases.— Rule 5. — Registers and receivers 
 may order hearings in the following eases wherein entry has not 
 been perfected and no certificate has been issued as a basis for patent, 
 namely : 
 
 1. Contests between pre-emption claimants. 
 
 2. Contests between homestead and pre-emption claimants. 
 
 3. Contests to clear the record of abandoned homestead entries. 
 
 4. Contests to clear the record of abandoned or forfeited timber- 
 culture entries. 
 
 Rule 6. — In case of an entry or location of record, on which final 
 certificate has been issued, the hearing will be ordered only by di- 
 rection of the Commissioner of the General Land Office. 
 
 Rule 7. — Applications for hearings under the preceding section 
 must be transmitted by the register and receiver, with special report 
 and recommendation, to tlie Commissioner for his determination 
 and instructions. :' 
 
 3. Notice of content.— Rxi[e 8.— At least thirty days' notice shall 
 be given- of all hearings before the register and receiver, unless, by 
 written consent, an earlier day shall be agreed upon. 
 
 Rule 9. — The notice of contest and hearing must conform to the 
 following requirements: 
 
 1. It must be written or printed. 
 
 2. It must be signed by the register or receiver, or by one of them. 
 
 3. It must state the time and jilace of hearing. 
 
 4. It must describe the land involved. 
 
 .■). It must state the R. and R. number of the entry, and the land 
 office whore, and the date when made, and the name of the party 
 making the same. 
 
 6. It mn^t give the name of the contestant, and briefly state the 
 grounds and purpose of the contest. 
 
 7. It may contain any other information pertinent to the contest. 
 
 4. Scri'ien of notice.— Rn\e 10.— Personal service shall be made in 
 all cases when possible, if the party to be served is resident in the 
 State or Territory in which the land is situated, and shall consist in 
 the delivc-ry of a copy of the notice to each person to be served. 
 
 Riile 11.— Personal service may be executed by any officer or 
 person. 
 
 Rule 12.— Notice mny be given by publication alone, only when 
 it is shown by affidavit of the contestant, and by such other evidence 
 as the register and receiver may require that personal service cannot 
 be madr". 
 
 5. Notlee hy publication.— Rule 13.— Notice by publication shall 
 be made by advertising the notice at least once a week for four suc- 
 cessive weeks in some newspaper published in the county wherein 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 631 
 
 the land in contest lies; and, if no newspaper be published in such 
 county, then in the newspaper published in the county nearest to 
 such land. 
 
 Rule 14. — Where notice is given by publication a copy of the no- 
 tice shall be mailed by registered letter to the last known address of 
 each person to be notified, and a like copy shall be posted in a con- 
 spicuous place on the land during the period of publication for at 
 least two weeks prior to the day set for hearing. 
 
 6. Pf oof of service of notice. — Rule 15. — ^Proof of personal service 
 shall be the written acknowledgment of the person served, or the 
 affidavit of the person who served the notice attached thereto, stat- 
 ing the time, place, and manner of service. 
 
 Rule It). — When service is by publication the proof of service 
 shall be a copy of the advertisement, with the affidavit of the pub- 
 lisher or foreman attached thereto, showing that the same was suc- 
 cessively inserted the requisite number of times and the date thereof. 
 
 7. Notice of interlocutory proceedings.— KnXe 17. — Notice of 
 interlocutory motions, proceedings, orders, and decisions shall be in 
 writing, ana may be served personally or by registered letter through 
 the mail. 
 
 Rule 18. — Proof of service by mail shall be the affidavit of the 
 person who mailed the notice, attached to the post-office receipt for 
 the registered letter. 
 
 8. Rehearings. — Rule 19. — Orders for rehearing must be brought 
 to the notice of the parties in the same manner as in case of origi- 
 nal proceedings. 
 
 9. Oontinuances. — Rule 20. — A postponement of a hearing to a 
 day to be fixed by the register and receiver may be allowed on the 
 day of trial on account of the absence of material witnesses, when 
 the party asking for the continuance makes an affidavit before the 
 register and receiver showing — 
 
 1. That one or more of the witnesses in his behalf is absent with- 
 out his procurement or consent ; 
 
 2. The name and residence of each witness; 
 
 3. The facts to which they would testify if present ; 
 
 4. The materiality of the evidence ; 
 
 5. The exercise of proper diligence to procure the attendance of 
 the absent witnesses ; anil 
 
 6. That affiant believes said witnesses can be had at the time to 
 which it is sought to have the trial postponed. 
 
 Rule 21. — One continuance only shall be allowed to either party 
 on account of absent witnesses ; unless the party applying for a fur- 
 ther continuance shall at the same time apply for an order to take 
 the depositions of the alleged absent witnesses. 
 
 Rule 22. — No continuance shall be granted when the opposite 
 party shall admit that the witnesses would, if present, testify to the 
 statement set out in the application for continuance. 
 
 10. Depoaitions — Rule 23. — Testimony may be taken by deposi- 
 tion in the following cases : 
 
 1. Where the witness is unable, from age, infirmity, or sickness, 
 or shall refuse to attend the hearing at the local land-office. 
 
 2. Where the witness resides more than fifty miles from the place 
 of travel, computing distance by the usually traveled route. 
 
 3. Where the witness resides out of, or is about to leave the State 
 or Territory, or is absent therefrom. 
 
 4. Where, from any cause, it is apprehended that the witness may 
 be unable or will refuse to attend ; in which case the deposition will 
 be used only in event that the personal attendance of the witness 
 caiinot be obtained. 
 
 Rule 24. — The party desiring to take a deposition under Rule 23 
 must comply with the following regulations : 
 
 1. He must make affiJavit before the register or receiver setting 
 forth one or more of the above named causes for taking such depo- 
 sition, and that the witness is material. 
 
 2. He must file with the register and receiver the interrogatories 
 to be propounded to the witness. 
 
 3. He m{;st state the name and"residence of the witness. 
 
 4. He must serve a copy of the interrogatories on the opposing 
 party, or his attorney. 
 
 Rule 25. — The opposing party will be allowed ten days in which 
 to file cross-interrogatories. 
 
 Rule 26. — After the expiration of the ten days allowed for filing 
 cross-interrogatories, a commission to take the deposition shall be 
 issued by the register and receiver, which commission shall be ac- 
 companied by a copy of all the interrogatoiies filed. 
 
 Rule 27. — The register and receiver may designate any officer 
 authorized to administer oaths within the county or district where 
 the witness resides to take such deposition. 
 
 Rule 28. — It is the duty of the officer before whom the deposition 
 is taken to cause the interrogatories appended to the commission to 
 be written out, and the answers thereto to be inserted immediately 
 underneath the respective questions; and the whole, when com- 
 pleted, is to be read over to tne witness, and must be by him sub- 
 scribed and sworn to in the usual manner. 
 
 Rule 29. — The officer must attach his certificate to the deposition 
 stating that the same was subscribed and sworn to by the deponent 
 at the time and place therein mentioned. 
 
 Rule 30. — The deposition and certificate, together with the com- 
 mission and interrogatories, must then be sealed up, the title of the 
 cause indorsed on tne envelope, and the whole returned by mail or 
 express to the register and receiver. 
 
 Rule 31. — Upon receipt of the package at the local land-office. 
 
 the date when the same is opened must be indorsed on the envelope 
 and body of the deposition by the lo2al land-officers. 
 
 Rule 32. — If the officer designated to take the deposition has 
 no official seal, a proper certificate of his official character, under 
 seal, must accompany his return. 
 
 Rule 33. — The parties in any case may stipulate in writing to 
 take de2)ositions before any qualified officer, and in any manner. 
 
 Rule 34. — All stipulations by parties or counsel must be in writ- 
 ing, and be filed with the register and receiver. 
 
 Rule 35. — Registers and receivers are not authorized to cite con- 
 testants before any officer other than themselves. 
 
 11. Trials.— Rule 36. — Upon the trial of a cause the register and 
 receiver may, in any case, and should in all cases when necessary, 
 personally direct the examination of witnesses in order to draw 
 from them all the facts within their knowledge requisite to a correct 
 conclusion by the officers upon any point connected with the case. 
 
 Rule 37. — The regi.ster and receiver will be careful to reach, if 
 possible, the exact condition and status of the land involved in any 
 contest, and will ascertain all the facts having any bearing upon the 
 rights of parties in interest. 
 
 Rule 38. — In pre-emption cases they will particularly ascertain 
 the nature, extent, and value of alleged improvements ; by whom 
 made, and when ; the true date of the settlement of persons claim- 
 ing as pre-emptors; the steps taken to mark and secure the claim, 
 and the exact .status of the land at that date as shown upon the rec- 
 ords of their office. 
 
 Rule 39. — In like manner, under the homestead and other laws, 
 the conditions affecting the inception of the alleged right, as well 
 as the subsequent acts of the respective claimants, must be fully 
 and specifically examined. 
 
 Rule 40. — Due opportunity will be allowed opposing claimants to 
 confront and cross-examine the witnesses introduced by either party. 
 
 Rule 41. — No testimony will be excluded from the record by the 
 register and receiver on the ground of any objection thereto ; but 
 when objection is made to testimony offered, the exceptions will be 
 noted, and the testimony, with the exceptions, will come up with 
 the case for the consideration of the Commissioner. 
 
 Rule 42. — Upon the day originally set for hearing, and upon any 
 day to which the trial may be continued, the testimony of all the 
 witnesses present shall be taken and reduced to writing. 
 
 12. Appeals. — Rule 43. — Appeals from the. action or decisions of 
 registers and receivers lie in every case to the Commissioner of the 
 General Land Office. (Revised SJtatutes, sections 453, 2478.) 
 
 Rule 44. — After hearing in a contested case has been had and 
 closed, the register and receiver will notify the parties in interest of 
 the conclusions to which they have arrived, and that tliirty days 
 are allowed for an appeal from their decision to the Commissioner. 
 
 Rule 45. — The appeal must be in writing or in print, and should 
 set forth in brief and clear terms the specific points of exception to 
 the ruling appealed from. 
 
 Rule 46. — No appeal from the action or decisions of the register 
 and receiver will be i-eceived at the General Land Office unless for- 
 warded through the local offieei-s. 
 
 Rule 47. — A failure to appeal from the decision of the local offi- 
 cers will be considered final as to the facts in the case, and will be 
 disturbed by the Commissioner only as follows : 
 
 1 . Where fraud or gross irregularity is suggested on the face of 
 the papers. 
 
 2. Where the decision is contraiy to existing laws or regulations. 
 
 3. In event of disagreeing decisions by the local officers. 
 
 4. Where it is not 8ho\pn that the party against whom the deci- 
 sion was rendered was duly notified of the decision and of his right 
 of aijpeal. 
 
 Rule 48. — In any of the foregoing cases the Commissioner will 
 reverse or modify the decision of the local officers or remand the 
 case at his discretion. 
 
 Rule 49. — All documents once received by the local officers must 
 be kept on file with the cases, and the date of filing must be noted 
 thereon; and no papei-s will be allowed under any circumstances to 
 be removed from the files or taken from the custody of the register 
 and receiver; but access to the same under proper rules, so as not 
 to interfere with necessarj public business, will be permitted to the 
 parties in interest, or their attorneys, under the supervision of those 
 officers. 
 
 13. Reports and opinions. — Rule 50. — Upon the termination of a 
 contest the register and receiver will render a joint report and 
 opinion in the case, making full and specific references to the post- 
 ings and annotations upon their records. 
 
 Rule 51. — In order that all parties to a contest may have full 
 opportunity to examine the record and prepare their arguments 
 upon the questions at issue, the report of the register and receiver 
 in such cases will not be forwarded until the expiration of the thirty 
 days named in the notice for appeal, unless all parties request its 
 earlier transmission. 
 
 Rule 52.— The register and receiver will forward their report, 
 together with the testimony and all the papers in the case, to the 
 Commissioner of the General Land Office, with a brief letter of 
 transmittal, describing the case by its title, the nature of the contest 
 and the tract involved. ' 
 
 Rule 53.— The local officei-s will thereafter take no further action 
 affecting the disposal of the land in contest until instructed by the 
 Commissioner. 
 
 14. Taxation of Coste.— Rule 54.— Applicants for contest mustde- 
 
632 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 posit with the register and receiver a sufficient sum of money to 
 defray the cost of the proceedings. 
 
 Rule 55. — Registers and receivers are not required to make ad- 
 vances from their own funds, nor to incur individual liabilities, for 
 the expense of hearings. 
 
 Rule 56. — When testimony is taken by deposition the party in 
 whose behalf the same is taken must pay the costs thereof. 
 
 Rule 57. — Parties contesting the validity of homestead and tim- 
 ber-culture entries must pay the costs of the contest. 
 
 Rule 58. — In other contested cases the costs may be equitably ap- 
 portioned between the parties by the register and receiver. 
 
 Paile 59. — Only the actual costs of notice, and the legal fees for 
 reducing testimony to writing, or for acting or mineral land appli- 
 cations and protests, cau be charged to the parties. (Revised Stat- 
 utes, sec. 2238). 
 
 Rule 60. — Costs of notice will include the costs of all the notices 
 up to the final determination of the case. 
 
 Rule 61. — Upon the final disposal of a case, any excess in the 
 sum deposited as security over the amount chargeable to the party 
 making the deposit will be returned to him by the register and re- 
 ceiver. , 
 
 Rule 62. — ^When hearings are ordered by the Commissioner or by 
 the Secretary of the Interior, upon the discovery of reasons for 
 suspension in the usual course of examination of entries, the pre- 
 liminary costs will be provided from the contingent fund for the 
 expenses of local land-offices. 
 
 Rule 63i — The preliminary costs provided for by the preceding 
 section will be collected by the register and receiver when the par- 
 ties are brought before them in obedience to the order of hearing. 
 
 Rule 64. — The register and receiver will then require proper pro- 
 vision to be made for such further notification as may become nec- 
 essary in the usual progress of the case to final decision. 
 
 Rule 65. — The register and receiver will append to their report in 
 each case a statement of costs jtnd the amount actually paid bjr each 
 of the contestants, and also a statement of the amount deposited to 
 secure the payment of the costs, how said sum was apportioned, and 
 the amount returned, if any, and to whom. 
 
 Appeals from Decision.s Rejecting Applications to 
 Enter Public Lands.— Rule 66.— For the purpose of enabling 
 appeals to be taken from the rulings or action of the local officers 
 relative to applications to file upon, enter, or locate the public lands, 
 the following rules will be observed : 
 
 1. The register and receiver will indorse upon every rejected ap- 
 plication the date when presented, and their reason for rejecting it. 
 
 2. They will promptly advise the party in interest of th,eir action, 
 and of his right; of appeal to the Commissioner. 
 
 3. They will note upon their records a memorandum of the trans- 
 action. 
 
 Rule 67. — The partjr aggrieved will be allowed thirty days from 
 receipt of notice in which to file his appeal in the local land office. 
 
 Rule 68. — The register and receiver will promptly forward the 
 appeal to the General Land Office, together with a full report upon 
 the case. 
 
 Rule 69. — This report should recite all the facts and the proceed- 
 ings had, and must embrace the following particulars: 
 
 1. A statement of the application and rejection, with the reasons 
 for the rejection. 
 
 2. A description of the tract involved and a statement of its status, 
 as shown by the records of the local land office. 
 
 3. References to all entries, filings, annotations, memoranda and 
 correspondence shown by the record relating to said tract, and to 
 the proceedings had. 
 
 Rule 70. — Rules 43 to 48, inclusive, are applicable to all appeals 
 from the decisions of registers and receivers. 
 
 PROCEEDINGS BEFORE SURVEYORS-GENERAL. 
 
 Rule 71. — The proceedings in hearings and contests before sur- 
 veyors-general shall, as to notices, depositions and other matters, be 
 governed, as nearly as may be, by the rules prescribed for proceed- 
 ings before registers and receivers unless otherwise provided by 
 law. 
 
 PROCEEDINGS BEFORE THE COMMISSIONER OF THE GENERAL 
 LAND OFFICE AND SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR. 
 
 Rule 72. — When a contest has been closed before the local land 
 officers, and their report forwarded to the General Land Office, no ad- 
 ditional evidence will be admitted in the case unless ofl'ered under 
 stipulation of the parties to the record, except where such evidence 
 is presented as the basis of a motion for a new trial or in support of 
 a mineral application or protest; but this rule will not prevent the 
 Commissioner, in the exercise of his discretion, from ordering fur- 
 ther investigation when necessary. 
 
 Rule 73. After the Commissioner shall have received a record of 
 testimony in a contested case, thirty days will be allowed to expire 
 before any action thereon is taken, unless, in the judgment of the 
 Commissioner, public policy or private Ufcessitv shall demand sum- 
 mary action, in which case he will proceed at his discretion, first 
 notifying the attorneys of record of his proposed action. 
 
 Rule 74. — When a case is pending on appeal from the decision of 
 the register and receiver or surveyor-general, and argument is not 
 filed before the same is reached , in its order for examination, the 
 argument will be considered closed, and thereafter no further argu- 
 ments or motions of any kind will be entertained except upon writ- 
 ten stipulation duly filed, or good cause shown to the Commis- 
 sioner, 
 
 Rule 75. — If, before decision by the Commissioner, eithet-party 
 should desire to discuss a case orally, reasonable opportunity therefor 
 will be given in the discretion of the Commissioner, but only at a 
 time to be fixed by him upon notice to the opposing counsel, stating 
 time and specific points u|)on which discussion is desired; and ex- 
 cept as herein provided, no oral hearings or suggestions will be al- 
 lowed. 
 
 Rule 76. — Motions for rehearings before registers and receivers, or 
 for review or reconsideration of the decisions of the Commissioner 
 or Secretary, will be allowed in accordance with legal principles ap- 
 plicable to motions for new trials at law, after due notice to the op- 
 posing party. 
 
 Rule 77. — Motions for rehearings and reviews must be filed in the 
 office wherein the decision to be affected by such rehearing or review 
 was made, or in the local land office for transmittal to the General 
 Land Office, and, except when based upon newly-di.^covered evi- 
 dence, must be filed within thirty days from notice of such decis- 
 ion. 
 
 Rule 78. — Motions for rehearings and reviews must be accom- 
 panied by an affidavit of the party, or his attorney, that the motion 
 is made in good faith, and not for the purpose of delay. 
 
 Rule 79. — The time between the filing of a motion for rehearing 
 or review and the notice of the decision upon such motion, shall be 
 excluded in computing the time allowed for appeal. 
 
 Rule 80. — No officer shall entertain a motion in a case after an 
 appeal from his decision has been taken. 
 
 APPEALS FROM THE COMMISSIONER TO THE SECRETARY. 
 
 Rule 81 . — An appeal may be taken from the decision of the Com- 
 missioner of the General Land Office to the Secretary of the Interior, 
 upon any question relating to the disposal of the public lands and 
 to private land claims, except in case of interlocutory orders and 
 decisions, and orders for hearing or other matter resting in the dis- 
 cretion of the commissioner. Decisions and orders forming the above 
 exception will be noted in the record, and will be considered by the 
 Secretary on review, in case an appeal upon the merits be finally 
 allowed. 
 
 Rule 82. — When the Commissioner considers an appeal defective 
 he will notify the party of the defect, and if not amended within 
 fifteen days from the date of the service of such notice, the appeal 
 will be dismissed and the case closed. 
 
 Rule 83. — 111 proceedings before the Commissioner in which he 
 shall formally decide that a party has no right of appeal to the Sec- 
 retary, the party against whom such decision is rendered may ap- 
 ply to the SecretaiT for an order directing the Commissioner to cer- 
 tify said proceedings to the Secretary, and to suspend further action 
 until the Secretary shall pass upon the same. 
 
 Rule 84. — Applications to the Secretary under the preceding rule 
 shall be made in writing, under oath, and shall fully and specifi- 
 cally set forth the grounds upon which the application is made. 
 
 Rule 85. — When the Commissioner shall formally decide against 
 the right of an appeal, he shall suspend action onthe case at issue 
 for twentjr days from service of notice of his decision, to enable the 
 party against whom the decision is rendered to apply to the Secre- 
 tary for an order, in accordance with Rules 83 and S4. 
 
 Rule 86. — Notice of an appeal from the Commissioner's decision 
 must be filed in the General Laud Office, and served on tire appellee 
 or his counsel, within sixty days from the date of the service of no- 
 tice of such decision. 
 
 Rule 87.— When notice of the decision is given through the mails 
 by the register and receiver, or surveyor-general, five days addi- 
 tional will be allowed by those officers for the transmission of the 
 letter, and five days for the return of the appeal through the same 
 chiinnel, before reporting to the General Land Office. 
 
 Rule 88. — Within the time allowed for giving notice of appeal, 
 the appellant shall also file in the General Land Office a specifica- 
 tion of errors, which specification shall clearly and concisely 
 designate the errors of which he complains. 
 
 Rule 89.— He mayalso, within the samelime, file a written ar- 
 gument with citation of authorities, in support of his appeal. 
 
 Rule 90.— A failure to file a specification of errors within the 
 t'me required will be treated as a waiver of the right of appeal, and 
 the ease will be considered closed. 
 
 Rule 91.— The appellee shall be allowed thirty days from the 
 expiration of the sixty days allowed for appeal in which to file 
 his argument. 
 
 Rule 92.— The appellant shall be allowed thirty days from ser- 
 vice of argument of appellee in which to file argument strictly in 
 reply; and no other or further arguments or motions of any kind 
 shall be filed without permission of tlie Commissioner or Secretary 
 and notice to the opposite party. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 633 
 
 Rule 93. — A copy of the notice of appeal, specification of errors, 
 ami all arguments of either party, shall be served on the opposite 
 party within the time allowed for filing the same. 
 
 Rule 94. — Such service shall be made personally or by registered 
 letter. 
 
 Rule 95. — Proof of personal service shall be the written acknow- 
 ledgment of the party served or the affidavit of the person making 
 the service attached to the papers served, and stating time, place, 
 and manner of servioe. 
 
 Rule 96. — Proof of service by registered letter sh all be the affidavit 
 of the person mailing the letter attached to a copy of the post-office 
 receipt. 
 
 Rule 97. — ^Fifteen days, exclusive of the day of mailing will 
 be allowed for the transmission of notices and papers by mail, 
 except in case of notice to resident attorneys, when one day will be 
 allowed. 
 
 Rule 98. — Notice of interlocutory motions and proceedings be- 
 fore the Commissioner and Secretary shall be served personally or 
 by registered letter, and service proved as provided in rules 94 
 and 95. 
 
 Rule 99. No motion aifeoting the merits of a case or the regular 
 order of proceedings will be entertained, except on due proof of ser- 
 vice of notice. 
 
 Rule 100. — Ex-parte cases and cases in which the adverse party 
 does not appear will be governed by the foregoing rules as to notices 
 of decisions, time for appeal, and filing of exceptions and argfltuents, 
 as far as applicable. In such cases, however, the right to file addi- 
 tional eviclenee at any sta^e of the proceedings to cure defects in the 
 proof or record will be allowed. 
 
 Rule 101. — No person hereafter appearing as a party or attorney 
 in any case shall be entitled to a notice of the proceedings who does 
 not at the time of his appearance file in the ofnce in which the case 
 is pending a statement in writing, giving his name and post-office 
 address, and the name of the party whom he represents ; nor shall 
 any person who has heretofore appeared in a case be entitled to a 
 notice unless within fifteen days after being requested to file such 
 statement he shall comply with said requirement. 
 
 Rule 102. — No person not a party to the record shall intervene in 
 a case without first disclosing on oath the nature of his interest. 
 
 Rule 103. — When the Commissioner makes an order or decision 
 affecting the merits of a ease or the regular order of proceedings 
 therein, he will cause notice to be given to each party in interest 
 whose address is known. 
 
 Attorneys. — Rule 104.^In all cases contested or ex-parte, where 
 the parties in interest are represented by attorneys, such attorneys 
 will be recognized as fully controlling the cases of their respective 
 clients. 
 
 Rule 105. — All notices will be served upon the attorneys of 
 record. 
 
 Rule 106. — Notice to one attorney in a case shall constitute 
 notice to all counsel appearing for the party represented by him ; 
 and notice to the attorney will be deemed notice to the party in 
 interest. 
 
 Rule 107. — All attorneys practicing before the General Land 
 Office and Department of the Interior must first file the oath of 
 office prescribed by section 3478 United States Revised Statutes. 
 
 Rule 108. — In the examination of any case, whether contested or 
 ex-parte, and for the preparation of arguments, the attorneys em- 
 ployed, when in good standing in the Department, will be allowed 
 full opportunity to consult the record of the case and to examine 
 the abstracts, plats, field-notes, and tract-books, and the correspon- 
 dence of the General Land Office or of the Department relative 
 thereto, and to make verbal inquiries ot the various chiefs of divi- 
 sions at their respective desks in respect to the papers or status of 
 said case ; but such personal inquiries will be made of no other 
 clerk in the divisioaexcept in the presence or with the consent of 
 the head thereof, ana will be restricted to the hours between 11 A. 
 M. and 2 P. M. 
 
 Rule 109. — Any attorney detected in any abuse of the above 
 privileges, or of gross misconduct, upon satisfactory proof thereof, 
 after due notice and hearing, shall be prohibited from farther 
 practicing before the Department. 
 
 ■■ Rule 110. — Should either party desire to discuss a case orally be- 
 fore the Secretary, opportunity will be alForded at the discretion of 
 the Department, but only at a time specified by the Secretary or 
 fixed by stipulation of the parties, with the consent of the Secre- 
 tary ; and in the absence of such stipulation, on written notice to 
 opposing counsel, with like consent, specifying the time when argu- 
 ment will be heard. 
 
 Rule 111. — The examination of cases on appeal to the Commis- 
 sioner or Secretary will be facilitated by filing in printed form such 
 arguments as it is desired to have considered. 
 
 Decisions. — Rule 112. — Decisions of the Commissioner not ap- 
 pealed from within the period prescribed become final, and the case 
 will be regularly closed. (Revised Statutes, sec. 2273.) 
 
 Rule 113.— The decision of the Secretary, so far as respects the 
 action of the Executive, is final. 
 
 Rule 114.— The preceding rules shall take effect on the 1st day of 
 February, 1881. 
 
 None of the foregoing rules shall be construed to deprive the Sec- 
 i-etary of the Interior of the exercise of the directory and supervisory 
 powers conferred upon him by law. 
 
 RECENT DECISIONS AFFECTING RIGHTS 
 
 UNDER THE MINING LAWS OF THE 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 THE following are of interest : 
 1. Lizzie Bullock Nos. 1 end 2 Mining' 
 Claims. — -The rule in case of Big Flat Mining 
 Company et al. v. Big Flat Gravel Mining Company 
 (See Annual Report of General Land Office) modified re- 
 specting proceedings for survey of mining claims and ap- 
 proval thereof by surveyor general. Instructions issued in 
 pursuance of autliority of Secretary's decision. 
 
 Department op the Intebiob, 
 
 Washington, January 8, 1881. 
 
 Sir: I have considered your report of the 28th ultimo, in the 
 matter of the application for patents for the Lizzie Bullock No. 1 
 and Lizzie BuUocK No. 2 mining claims now pending in the district 
 land office at Bodie, Cal., from which it appears that, notwithstand- 
 ing approved plats of the conflicting claims of the Ivanpah Consoli- 
 datecl Mill and llining Company were delivered one day prior to 
 the delivery of approved plats of the claims first-above mentioned, 
 the owner of the Lizzie Bullock claims, byexti'aordinary efforts, was 
 enabled to and did file his applications for patent before the Ivan- 
 pah Company had completed its papers for filing application for 
 patents for its claims. 
 
 The Ivanpah Company requests that the surveyor-general be at 
 once directed to withdraw the survey issued to Mr. Bidwell, owner of 
 the Lizzie Bullock claims, which conflicts with claims of the com- 
 pany, and that the register and the receiver at Bodie, be directed to re- 
 ceive and file said company's application for patent, and to dismiss 
 the conflicting application for patent filed by Mr. Bidwell, or have 
 the same treated merely as an adverse claim. I agree with your 
 suggestion that the case has passed beyond executive control, as re- 
 gards a change in the position of the parties. The matters com- 
 plained of are also beyond the control of this department. The sur- 
 veys having been found correct by the surveyor-general, and paid 
 for by the party applying for them, and plats thereof having been 
 approved and delivered, are private property, and this department 
 has no authority to withdraw them. 
 
 The applications complained of must be allowed to take the usual 
 course in such proceedings. 
 
 In your report you suggest that the rule announced in the decis- 
 ion of August 18, 1880, in the case of the Big Flat Mining Company 
 et al., vs. the Big Flat Gravel Mining Company, be so modified as 
 to allow a party who first applies for a survey of a mining claim 
 priority over any other applicant for a survey of the same ground, 
 or any portion thereof, not only as to the examination by the sur- 
 veyor-general of the field work of the deputy-surveyor and delivery 
 of plat, but prioritjr of right to apply for apatent, provided due dil- 
 igence is exercised in making the application for patent. 
 
 I must decline to make any rule interfering with the lawful right 
 of parties to prepare and present in such manner as they see fit their 
 applications for patents for mining claims. It would be manifestly 
 improper to pass upon either the sufficiency or priority of applica- 
 tions by anticipation, or upon applications not presented. The land de- 
 partment can only take jurisdiction when a case is presented for 
 action. 
 
 But in view of the reasons presented by you, I think it proper to 
 so modify the rule in question as to require that the mining survey 
 first applied for shall nave priority of action in all its stages in the 
 office of the surveyor-general, including the delivery thereof, over 
 any other survey of the same ground, or any portion thereof; and 
 the rule in question is hereby modified accordingly. 
 
 This, in my opinion, is the full extent to which departmental au- 
 thority can properly go in the premises ; and if the rule is observed 
 in its true spirit, it will doubtless meet the difficulties which you 
 desire to prevent. 
 
 You are authorized to issue all needful instructions for its proper 
 enforcement. 
 
 The papers filed with your report are herewith returned. 
 
 Very respectfully, 
 
 C. SCHURTZ, 
 
 Secretary. 
 
 The Commissioner of the General Land Office. 
 Department of the Interior, 
 General Land Office, 
 Washington, D. C, March 3, 1881. 
 Gentlemen : On the 8th ultimo the honorable Secretary of the 
 Interior established the following rule in regard to the survey of 
 mining claims, viz : " The mining survey first applied for shall have 
 priority of action in all its stages in the office of the surveyor-gen- 
 eral. Including the delivery thereof, over any other survey of the 
 same ground or any portion thereof;" and authorized this office to 
 prescribe regulations tor the proper enforcement thereof. 
 
634 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 In the future, therefore, you will be governed by these regula- 
 tions : 
 
 1st. The surveyor-general should not order or authorize a survey 
 of a claim which conflicts with one previously applied for until the 
 survey first applied for has been completed, examined, approved 
 and platted, and the plats delivered. 
 
 2d. When the conflict does not appear until the field-notes of the 
 respective surveys are returned, then the survey first applied for 
 should be first examined, approved and platted, and the plats de- 
 livered before the field-notes of the survey last applied for are taken 
 up for examination or plats constructed. 
 
 3d. When the survey first authorized is not returned within a 
 reasonable period, and the applicant for a conflicting survey makes 
 affidavit that he believes (stating the reasons for his belief) that 
 such first applicant has abandoned his purpose of having a survey 
 made, or is deferring it for vexatious purposes, to wit, to postpone 
 the subsequent applicant, the surveyor-general shall give notice of 
 such charges to such first applicant, and call upon him for expla- 
 nation under oath of the delay. He shall also require the deputy 
 mineral surveyor to make a full statement in writing, explanatory 
 of the delay : and if the surveyor-general shall conclude that good 
 and sufficient reasons for such delay do not exist, he shall authorize 
 the applicant for the conflicting survey to proceed with the same ; 
 otherwise the order of proceeding shall not be changed. The sur- 
 veyor-general shall retain on his files all affidavits, &c., relating to 
 the controversy, and in the event of an appeal from his action, shall 
 forward the same to this ofiice. 
 
 The deputy surveyors are under your control in the execution 
 of their work, and you will properly instruct them concerning the 
 prompt execution thereof. 
 
 4th. Whenever an applicant for a survey shall have reason to sup- 
 pose that a conflicting clairamt will also apjjly for a survey for pat- 
 ent, he may give a notice in writing to the surveyor-general, partic- 
 ularly describing such conflicting claim, and file a copy of the notice 
 of location of such conflicting claim. In such case the surveyor- 
 genijral will not order or authorize any survey of such conflicting 
 claim until the survey first applied for has been examined, com- 
 pleted, approved and platted, and the plats delivered. 
 
 It is the intent of the rules adopted as aforesaid to furnish the first' 
 applicant in good faith for a survey with the opportunity to first 
 present his application for patent at the district land office, and thus 
 secure orderly proceedings. When the field-notes and plats have 
 been delivered, however, it is held by the honorable Secretary that 
 no authority exists to prescribe the order in which the application 
 for patent shall be filed, it being then the right of the party to pre- 
 sent his application when he chooses. 
 
 Therefore you will seek to avoid errors in the matter of delivery 
 of surveys, and in case of conflicting surveys will postpone the de- 
 livery of those last applied for for such temporary period as will be 
 sufficient to enable the first api>licant to present his api>lication for 
 patent. 
 
 When the survey first applied for is executed and delivered in 
 ignorance of a conflict which speedily thereafter shall appear by the 
 return of a subsequent survey, you will notify the prior party of the 
 existence of the conflict. If, however, the first survey shall have 
 been delivered for any considerable period, at the time the conflict 
 is shown, such notice need not be given. 
 
 Acknowledge receipt hereof. ' Very respectfully, 
 
 A. Williamson, 
 Commissioner. 
 
 U. S. Sukveyoes-Genbral. 
 
 2. Town Site of Eureka Springs, vs. Conant et 
 
 al. — Surface of occupation of lode claims considered. 
 Policy of the land department of inserting reservation 
 clauses in mineral and town site patents considered and 
 improved. 
 
 Department of Interior. 
 WashiTigton, D. C, March 31, 1881. 
 
 Sir : I am in receipt of your letter of the 22d instant, accompanied 
 with Senate Ex. Doc, 187, Forty-sixth Congress second session, and 
 a draft of a decision prepared for your signature in the case of Town 
 site of Eureka Springs vs. W. R. Conant et al., mineral claimants, 
 and J. K. Northcut et al., Harrison district, Arkansas. 
 
 The draft of your decision is submitted, not for any expression of 
 opinion on my part as to the merits of the case, but as illustrative of 
 the existing rule of the department relative to the insertion of clauses 
 of reservation in miuei-al and town-site patents respectively, reserv- 
 ing in mineral patents the rights of town occupants, and in town-site 
 patents the rights of mineral claimants. 
 
 You request my opinion and advice upon the following points : 
 _ First. Whether your office should continue to iiisert the reserva- 
 tion clause, referred to in your letter, in mineral patents, in cases 
 wherein patents for the same land have already issued upon town- 
 site entries. 
 
 Second. Whether, in cases like the one in which the draft of de- 
 cision was prepared, you are justified in deciding what patents 
 should issue, and what clauses of reservation sliould be inserted 
 therein. 
 
 The questions for consideration have relation to town sites in the 
 vicniity of or embracing within their limits lands in which mineral 
 
 veins exist; and when mineral lands are mentioned herein, it will 
 be understood that lands of this description are meant, and not min- 
 eral lands commonly known as placers. 
 
 The questions raised by your letter have received the consideration 
 of my predecessors on several different occasions. They were espe- 
 cially considered in tlie case of the town site of Central City, in which 
 Secretary Chandler, under date of June 7, 1876, affirmed the decis- 
 ion of your immediate predecessor of December 23, 1875 (Copp's L. 
 O. 2, p. 150). Your predecessor's decision was careiiilly prepared, 
 and treated the questions at length, and it was affirmed upon the 
 grounds and for the reasons therein stated, after full argument. 
 The forms of reservation clauses now employed in the preparation 
 of town-site patents for lands in mineral regions, and of mineral 
 patents for lands within the limits of town sites, are conformable to 
 the opinion expressed in said decision. Tlie doctrine of that decis- 
 ion has not been set aside nor modified. On the contrary, it seems 
 to have been recognized and acquiesced in by Secretary Schurz. (See 
 decisions of this department of October 12, 1880) in the matter of 
 the patent for the town-site of Tombstone, Ariz., and of December 
 18, 1880, in the matter of the patent to the Little Nettie lode, in the 
 limits of Lead City, Deadwooa district. Dak. 
 
 The practice of inserting in mineral and town-site patents said 
 clauses of reservation thus established and recognized, and whicli 
 has prevailed for many years, ought not to be disturbed, unless there 
 is som^ apparent legal reason for modifying or discontinuing it. 
 There can he no question of my authority to change the practice as 
 to cases not already disposed of, should it be found to be in contra- 
 vention of law ; for it involves simply the construction of statutes 
 relating to the, subject under consideration, and the establishment 
 of regulations accordingly. 
 
 I agree with the opinion of my predecessor in the matter of the 
 town site of Central City, that the town-site laws contemplate that 
 towns will exist in mining localities, and that by implication town- 
 site entries are permissible which may embrace within their limits 
 valid mining claims, and veins or lodes containing valuable mineral 
 deposits upon which no location has been made. Section 2386 of 
 the Eevised Statutes, so far as it relates to the matter under consid- 
 eration, is as follows : - 
 
 " Where mineral veins are possessed, which possession is recog- 
 nized by local authority, and to the extent so possessed and recog- 
 nized, the title to town lots to be acquired shall be subject to the 
 recognized possession and the necessary use thereof." 
 
 This section was taken from and expressed in the very language 
 of the last two provisos to section 2 of the act of March 3, 1865 (13 
 Statutes, 529), which act was in existence prior to the passage of a 
 general mining law. There was no law then in existence by which 
 mineral claimants could acquire title from the Llnited States, but 
 the act of 1865 recognized their possession to the extent that it was 
 recognized by local laws, and protected it against the right of occu- 
 pancy and entry by town-site claimants. But the- mining acts of 
 July 26, 1866, and May 10, 1872, fully recognized and protected, as 
 does chapter 6 of the Revised Statutes now fully recognize and 
 protect, the possession of ihiuing claims held under local regulations 
 not in conflict with the laws of the United States. Hence the pos- 
 session mentioned In section 2386 must be held to mean the same as 
 a possession held under the mining statutes of the United States. 
 
 Now, in addition to the reservation in favor of mineral claimants 
 expressed in section 2386, section 2392 of the same chapt,er provides 
 that " no title shall be acquired under the foregoing provisions of 
 this chapter to any mine of gold, silver, cinnabar, or copper; or to 
 any valid mining claim or possession held under existing laws." 
 
 Thus it appears that while town-site laws permit occupation and 
 entry of land in mineral -regions, they expressly provide that no 
 title shall be acquired thereunder to any mine ot gold, silver, cin- 
 nabar, or copper, or to any valid mining claim pr possession. 
 
 It seems to me that nothing could be more proper than to express 
 in the [latent the exceptions or reservation thus expressed in the 
 law. 
 
 Again, as the law contemijlates the occupancy by town-sites, or 
 for town purposes, of lands in the vicinity of mines, or of lands in 
 which mineral veins may be found to exist, and at the same time 
 the existence of mining claims within town-site limits, located before 
 or after the town occupancy has commenced, it clearly contemplates 
 the protection of such occujjancy so far as it may be necessary for 
 the jn-oper use of the individual inhabitants of the town, or for 
 streets, alleys, and the like. 
 
 Parties owning mining claims must, therefore, hold subject to the 
 legal occupancy of the town or individual lot-holders therein. 
 Hence it is proper to express in mineral patents such reservation in 
 favor of town sites or town-site occupants as the law reognizes. 
 
 It is true that section 2322 Revised Statutes provides that " the 
 locators of all mining locations heretofore made, or which shall 
 hereafter be made, on any mineral vein, lode, or ledge, situated on 
 the public domain, their heirs and assigns, where no adverse claim 
 exists on the tenth day of May, eighteen hundred and eeventy-two, 
 so long as they comply with the laws of the United States, anil with 
 the State, Territorial, and local regulations not in conflict with the 
 laws of the United Spates, governing their possessory title, shall 
 have the exclusive right of possession and enjoyment of all the sur- 
 face included within the lines of their locations." Construing this 
 section with sections 2386 and 2392, it might be contended that the 
 reservation in favor of town sites shoiild only be of such rights of 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 635 
 
 surface occupancy as accrued before the location of the mining 
 claim. 
 
 In cases in which there was no waiver or granting away of this 
 right of possession, doubtless that would be the full extent to which 
 the courts would construe the usual clause of respryation to have 
 aiiy force; but while this may be the case, it must be remembered 
 that mineral claimants may yield or witive theirright of possession, 
 or make conveyances thereof; and to meet such cases the i^resent 
 clause of reservation would be a great pretection to town-site claim- 
 ants, occupants, or property-holders, as well as to purchasers of 
 mines. As the law stands, no one, whether for the purijose of es- 
 tablishing a town, or for a residence or place of business, or for any 
 other purposes, has the right to intrude or trespass upon the posses- 
 sion of a valid mining claim ; and the courts afford ami)le remedy 
 and protection against such intrusion or trespass, and it is the busi- 
 ness as well as the privilege of the mineral claimant to assert his 
 right in this respect, and not the duty of the United States to stand 
 guard over his premises. 
 
 As to all minmg locations made within town limits after occu- 
 pancy for municipal purposes, as before stated, they are subject to 
 the prior legal occupancy. 
 
 Out of the conflicting claims may grow questions that must be 
 settled by the courts. The government cannot undertake to pro- 
 vide specifically in patents for every such conflicting claim or right. 
 The clauses of general reciprocal reservation will amply protect the 
 rights of all, and in no event can they injure any one, for ijo more 
 can be conveyed by patent than Congress has authorized; and all 
 that Congress has i)rovided that a party may acquire by a compli- 
 ance with the law will pass by the patent which Congress 
 has authorized to issue therefor, regardless of any reservations that 
 the executive may insert. In other words, a reservation unauthor- 
 ized by law is as "impotent as a patent issued without autlioritv of 
 law. When parties bring their conflicting claims or rights b^fors 
 the judicial tribunals for adjudication, those tribunals will declare 
 the force and effect of the reservations in the patent. 
 
 As at present advised, I see no reason to change the established 
 practice of inserting reservation clauses in town-site and mineral 
 patents ; and having thus stated my conclusions, it is unnecessary to 
 further specifically advice you upon tliii points preserited. 
 
 S. J. KiKKWOOD, 
 
 Secretary. 
 The Commissioner of the General Land Office. 
 
 3. Mining Claims within patented Town Sites. — 
 
 Mining claims can only be located under the mining act 
 upon lands belonging to the United. States. 
 
 After a town site has been patented, the land embraced 
 therein does not belong to the United States, even if the 
 minerals, do and no location of a mining claim can there- 
 fore be made. 
 
 Department of the Intesior, 
 
 General Land Office, 
 
 Washington, D. C, JUrec 28,1881. 
 
 Sir : — I am in receipt of your communication, dated 7th instant, 
 in ^hich you state that a client of yours, while sinking: or excavat- 
 ing on a town lot owned by him in the town of Tombstone, discov- 
 ered a ledge bearing silver ore, and you request to be informed in 
 his behalf how he may obtain title to the same. 
 
 Patent issued for the town site of Tombstone, September 22, 1880, 
 and contained the following clause, to wit: "Provided, That no 
 title shall be hereby acquired to any mine of gold, silver, cinnabar, 
 or copper, or to any valid mining claim or possession held under 
 existing laws. And provided jurther, That the grant hereby made 
 is held and declared to be subject to all the conditions, limitations, 
 and restrictions contained in section two thousand three hundred 
 and eighty-six of the Revised Statutes of the United States, so far 
 as the same is applicable thereto. 
 
 The effect of this condition which is in terms almo-st in the exact 
 language of the law authorizing it; is to exclude from the grant, 1st, 
 all valid mining claims located prior to the entry of the town site 
 and held in accordance with existing laws when the town site pat- 
 ent issued; and second, all "mines of gold, silver, cinnabar or 
 copper." 
 
 The definition to be placed upon the " terms " mines of §old, sil- 
 ver, cinnabar, or copper," is somewhat doubtful, and I am inclined 
 to think the law refers only to known mines discovered prior to the 
 issuance of patent. 
 
 Practically, however, under existing legislation, it is immaterial 
 whether veins not known at the date of patent are excluded from 
 the grant or otherwise. 
 
 Conceding that the title thereto remains in the United States, 
 they would not in that case be sul)iect to occupation and purcliase 
 under the provisions of the mining act for the reason that said act 
 permits locations of mineral deposits only where the same are situ- 
 ate upon lands belonging to the United States. Even if the title to 
 such veins remains m the United States, the land in wliich they 
 are situated belongs to the grantees under the town-site patents. 
 Hence such veins would not constitute "valuable mineral deposits 
 in lands belonging to the United States," which alone are subject 
 to location under the terms of the law. 
 
 I am therefore of the opinion that under existing legislation your 
 client cannot obtain a patent for the mine discovered by him, 
 Very respectfully, 
 
 C. W. HOLCOMB, 
 
 Acting Commiisioner. 
 Geo. R. Williams, Esq., 
 
 Tombstone, Arizona. 
 
 4. Coal Lands. — The price to be paid for coal lands de- 
 pends wholly upon its distance from a completed railroad at 
 the date of entry, irrespective of the preferred right of entry. 
 
 If at the date of proof and payment the land is more than 
 15 miles from such a road the price should be not less than 
 $10 per acre ; and if it lies within 15 miles, the price should 
 not be less than $20 per acre. 
 
 Department of the Interior, 
 
 Washington, October 17, 1881. 
 
 Sir : — I have considered the question submitted for my consider- 
 ation by yonr letter of September 29, ult., viz., the price govern- 
 ment should charge for oal lands — whether $tO or $20 per acre — 
 where the land is situated more than 15 miles from any completed 
 railroad at the time the claimant commenced opening and improv- 
 ing the mine and at the date he filed his dcclaratorv statement, but 
 which is within 15 niilea of such road at the date of his application 
 to purchase the land. 
 
 The answer rests upon a construction of sections 2347, 2348, 2349, 
 and 23.50, Revised Statutes. Section 2347 provides that " every per- 
 son » » » or association of persons » » * sliall » » » 
 have the right to enter » * * any quantity of vacant lands 
 » « 8 not exceeding 160 acres to such individual person, or 320 
 acres to such association, upon payment to the receiver of not less 
 than $10 ])er acre for such lands, where the same shall be situated 
 more than 15 miles from any completed railroad, and not less than 
 $20 per acre for such lands as shall be within 15 miles of such road." 
 
 Section 2348 provides that "any person or association of persons 
 « » » ^vlio liave opened and improved, or shall hereafter open 
 and improve, any coal mine or mines upon the public lands, and 
 shall be in actual possession of the same, shall be entitled to a pref- 
 erence right of entry, under the preceding section, of the mines so 
 opened and improved." * * * 
 
 Section 2349 provides for the presentation of all claims, under 
 the preceding section, to the register of the proper land district, 
 within sixty days after the date of actual possession and the com- 
 mencement of improvements on the land, by the filing of a declar- 
 atory statement therefor ; and if the townshi)) plat is not on file at 
 the date of such improvement, the filing must be made within sixty 
 days from receipt of the plat at the district office. 
 
 Section 2350 provides that persons claiming under section 2348 
 shall prove their respective rights and pay for the laud filed upon 
 within one year from the time prescribed for filing their respective 
 claims; and upon failure to file the proper notice, or to pay for the 
 land within the required period, the same shall be subject to entry 
 by any other qualified applicant. 
 
 These sections are a re-enactment of the act of March 3, 1873, 
 which was not a part of the pre-emption system for the disposition 
 of the puljlic lands, but "An act to provide for the sale of the lands 
 of the United States containing coal." 
 
 As an independent act, it must therefore be construed by itself 
 unaided by other acts, unless by analogy. It is not, in my opinion, 
 difficult of interpreta,tion. 
 
 Under the section named, coal lands, when subject to sale, may be 
 disposed of by private cash entry ; or, a person opening and improv- 
 ing the same and in actual possession, may acquire a preference right 
 to enter the same by presenting his claim to the district land office 
 within sixty days after the date of his actual possession and com- 
 mencement of improvements, and filing his declaratory statement 
 therefor within the time required by section 2349, in wliich case he 
 must prove his right and pay for the land within one year from 
 the time prescribed for filing his claim ; in default of which, his 
 preference right expires, and the land becomes subject to entry by 
 another, as jirovided in section 2.350. This preference right "is "a 
 mere right of entry secured to such person as against others, and af- 
 fects no other question. If waived by neglect to prove up and jiay 
 for the laud, it ceases. It has no relation to the price of the laud, 
 but to an entry only. Tlie price is otherwise determined. 
 
 The provision of section 2348, that the pei-sons named " shall be 
 entitled to a iireference right of entry under the preceding section," 
 means, I think, that they may enter the laud upon the terms and 
 conditions named in section 2347, which section fixes the prices of. 
 the land. 
 
 The preference right to enter a tract and the actual entry thereof 
 are quite distinct in their legal significance and effect, and when 
 the statute gives the " right to enter " a tract upon pavment of a 
 certain price, it confines the entry to that price, and does'not j^ermit 
 the entry to be controlled by conditions affecting the price, which, 
 may have existed when the preference right was secured — perhajis 
 a year previously— and when the relation of the land to a com- 
 pleted railroad may" have, been quite different. The preference 
 right has reference to a subsequent entry, but the price is to be de- 
 termined at the date of entry, as if the party made private cash 
 
636 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 entry, and notwithstanding lie may have secured a preference right, 
 and is regulated by the relation of the land to the road at the date 
 of proof and payment. 
 
 I am of the opinion, therefore, that the price of the land depends 
 wholly upon its distance from a completed railroad at the date of 
 entry, irrespective of the preferred right of entry, and that if at the 
 date of proof and payment (which constitutes the entry) the land 
 is more than fifteen miles from such a road, the price should 
 not be less than $10 per acre, and that if it is within 15 miles, 
 the price should be not less than $20 per acre. 
 
 The letter of F. Perkins, accompanying yours of the 29th ult., 
 is herewith returned. Very respectfully, 
 
 S. J. KiRKWOOD, Secretary. 
 
 The Commissioner of the General Land Office. 
 
 5. Relocation by a co-owner — ^Improvements. — 
 
 Where a lode mining claim has been located by several per- 
 sons jointly and during a giveo year thereafter, the expen- 
 ditures for labor or improvemenls necessary to maintain the 
 possfSsory title have not been made, the claim may be loca- 
 ted by one of the former claimants to the exclusion of his 
 co-claimants. Failure to make the required annual expendi- 
 tures subjects a claim to relocation " in the same manner as 
 if no location of the same had ever been made ;" hence la- 
 bor performed or improvements made by an original locator 
 cannot be claimed by him as a part of the expenditures ne- 
 cessary to entitle him to patent for the relocation. 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF THE INTEEIOE, GENEKAL LAND OFFICE, 
 Washington, D. G.,March 16, 1881. 
 Sir : — I am in receipt of your communication of the 22d ultimo, 
 requesting instruction for your guidance in certain cases demanding 
 your official action as United States Deputy Mineral Surveyor. 
 
 First. — Can one of the locators of a mining claim upon which 
 the necessary amount of expenditures for a given year have not 
 been made, relocate the same as abandoned property, in his own 
 name, and for himself only ? 
 
 Section 2324, Revised Statutes, after prescribing the value of 
 labor to be performed or improvements to be made annuaJly upon 
 each claim in order, to protect the possessory right of locators, pro- 
 vides that " upon a failure to comply with these conditions the 
 claims or mine upon which such failure occurred shall be open to 
 relocation in the same manner as if no location of the same had 
 ever been made ; provided that the original relocators, their heirs, 
 assigns, or legal representatives, have not resumed work upon the 
 claim after failure and before such location." 
 
 From this it will be seen that the only question to be considered 
 in the case stated is whether one of a number of original locators, 
 whose claim has been abandoned, would stand upon the same foot- 
 ing as a stranger to the first location, who by the provision above 
 recited is expressly authorized to relocate such abandoned claim. 
 
 It is clear that one of a number of locators of a certain claim 
 can, concurrently with such joint location, locate a separate claim 
 independently of his colocators ; and as an abandoned claim re- 
 verts to the mass of unappropriated public lands, and becomes sub- 
 ject to a new appropriation, in the same manner as if no location 
 of the same had ever been made," I can see no valid objection to a 
 new adverse location of such claim by one of the former locators. 
 Second. — Such location being vaUd, can the locator claim the 
 amount of money actually expended by himself for work on 
 the original location as part of the expenditures required by law to 
 entitle him to receive a patent for the claim so relocated 1 
 
 As has been stated the right to make such relocation- by one of the 
 original locators is found upon the forfeiture or abandonment of the 
 claim consequent upon his own dereliction as well as that of his as- 
 sociates. He cannot, therefore, be permitted to assume the dual 
 character of an original claimant and a relocator. Having located 
 the claim in the " same manner as if no location of the same had 
 ever been made," it is not competent for him under existing law to 
 appropriate rights whose extinguishment must have been a neces- 
 sary precedent to a valid relocation. His rights are the same as 
 those of a party who had no interest in the previous location, neither 
 greater nor less. Very respectfully, 
 
 C. W. HOLCOMB, Acting Commissioner. 
 Max Bobhmee, 
 
 United Slates Deputy Mineral Survegor, Leadville, Col. 
 
 6. Sutro Tunnel.— 1. The Sutro tunnel grant includes 
 lands west of the Comstock lode ; and the withdrawal there- 
 for operates to the full extent of the grant, notwithstanding 
 the fact that the tunnel has not been constructed west of 
 said lode. 
 
 ■i. Locators in possession of lode claims at the date of the 
 Sutro grant are not required to conform to the provisions of 
 the United States mining laws as regards performance of 
 annual labor, but a compliance with the local laws and 
 regulations prescribed by the legislature of the State of 
 Nevada must be observed. 
 
 DePAKTMENT of THE INTEKIOR, 
 
 Genebal Land Office, 
 
 Washington, May 28, 1881. 
 
 Gentlemen : This office is advised by your letter of the 14th ul- 
 timo that you have allowed the filing of an application for a patent 
 to a mining claim lying about 2,000 feet west of the Comstock lode, 
 and partly within the Sutro tunnel grant, if the lines of said grant 
 were extended beyond the limits of the Comstock lode. You also 
 state that the Sutro tunnel reached the Comstock lode about two 
 years ago, and that while lateral drifts have since been run on said 
 lode, no attempt has been made by the tunnel company to extend 
 their enterprise farther west. 
 
 Upon this statement of facts you request the opinion of this office 
 as to whether the withdrawal from sale of the lands within the grant 
 of Adolph Sutro, his heirs and assigns, by the act of July 25, 1866, 
 includes lands west of the Comstock lode, within the 2,000 feet limits 
 of the extended lines of the grant, although the tunnel should never 
 be constructed beyond the Coiiistock lode, thus prohibiting the gov- 
 ernment from selling that portion of its domain. 
 
 Section 1 of the act of July 25, 1866, granted to A. Sutro, his heirs 
 and assigns, the right of way to construct and excavate a mining, 
 draining and exploring tunnel, and provides that said tunnel ' ' shall 
 commence at some point to be selected by the grantee herein, his 
 heirs and assigns, at the hills near Carson Eiver, and within the 
 boundaries of Lyon County, and extending from said initial point 
 in a westerly direction seven miles, more or less, to and beyond the' 
 Comstock lode." 
 
 Section 2 gives to the grantee, his heirs and assigns, " the right to 
 purchase at $5 per acre such mineral veins and lodes within 2,000 
 feet on each side of said tunnel as shall be cut, discovered, or devel- 
 oped by running and constructingthe same through its entire extent 
 with all the dips, spurs and angles of such lodes, subject, however, 
 to the provisions of this act, and to such legislation as Congress may 
 hereafter provide. Provided, That the Comstock lode, with its 
 dips, spurs, and angles, is excepted from this grant, and all other 
 lodes, with their dips, spurs, and angles, located within the said 
 2000 feet, and which are or may be, at the passage of this act, and to 
 actual bona fide possession of other persons, are hereby excepted 
 from this grant. And the lodes herein excepted, other than the 
 Comstock lode, shall be withheld from sale by the United States." 
 In accordance with this provision, and upon the filing in this 
 office July 31, 1866, of a preliminary survey showing the initial 
 and terminal points and direction of the proposed tunnel, the lands 
 embraced within the exterior boundaries of the grant, as shown by 
 the plat of said preliminary survey, were withdrawn from sale. 
 Notice of such withdrawal was forwarded to your office by letter 
 of August 1, 1866, together with a diagram showing the line of the 
 tunnel to run " through the public lands from a line dividing sec- 
 tions 1 and 2, in township 16 north, of range 21 east, to section 23 
 in township 17, of range 20 east, M. D. M." 
 
 On July 7, 1876, instructions were issued by this office to the Sur- 
 veyor general of Nevada for an official survey of the Sutro tunnel 
 grant. Said survey was executed in the same year by Deputy Sur- 
 veyor Charles T. Hoffman, and was based upon the preliminary 
 survey referred to above. From theplatandfield-notesofsaid official 
 survey it appears the northerly and southerly side lines of the 
 grant were run about three miles bejond the Comstock lode, to the 
 full extent of seven miles from the Initial point or eastern line of 
 the grant. The direction and position of these lines, are distinctly 
 indicated by iron monuments, placed at short intervals, and num- 
 bered from 1 to 28 on the northerly and from 1 to 33 on the 
 southerly line. Monuments numbered 28 and 33 are respectively 
 the terminal points of the northerly and southerly lines of flie grant, 
 and are distant from the initial monuments (1) 36,960 feet or seven 
 miles. The withdrawal from sale, therefore, made by this office is 
 in accordance with the provisions of section 2 of the granting act 
 embracing all lands west as well as east of the Comstock lode within 
 the lines of said survey. 
 
 The present length of the Sutro tunnel is about 4 miles, extend- 
 ing from its face to the Comstock lode, thus leaving about ;i miles 
 yet to be constructed west of said lode. There is no provision in 
 the act limiting the grantees to a certain period of time in which to 
 complete their work on pain of forfeiture of the grant. Even if 
 such a provision had been inserted, it would not be within the 
 power of the executive department of the government to enforce 
 the forfeiture, the title of the grantees would remain unimpaired 
 until Congress should by appropriate legislation declare the forfeit- 
 ure, or provide for the institution of judicial proceedings for that 
 purpose. 
 
 It is true that Congress by a clause in the second section of the 
 act reserves to itself the right to alter or modify the provisions of 
 said act, but until Congress sees fit to exercise this right, the privi- 
 leges extended by this act are not nifected by the failure of the 
 company to prosecute their undertakini;. 
 
 You will, therefore, not permit the entry of so much of the claim 
 referred to in your letter as lies within the limits of the tunnel 
 grant. If the mine is drained, benefited, or developed by the 
 tunnel, the usual condition of payment of royalty to the tunnel 
 company must be inserted in the patent when issued for that por- 
 tion lying without the limits of the grant. You will be governed 
 in this case and in all similar cases arising in future by the instruc- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 637 
 
 ^ions communicated to you by letter of February 18, 1881, in the 
 ease of Moore and Morgan lode. 
 
 Another question suggested by your communication is whether 
 parties in the bona fide possession of claims within the tunnel grant 
 at the date of the act conferring said grant will be " compelled to 
 do their annual labor forever in order to save their claims from 
 falling into the hands of the tunnel company, and never be allowed 
 the right enjoyed by other citizens of procuring government 
 patents." 
 
 Section 2 of the act of July 25, 1866, after excepting from the 
 grant all lodes in the actual bona fide possession of other persons at 
 the time of the grant, provides that " such lodes shall be abandoned 
 and not worked, possessed, and held in conformity to existing min- 
 ing rules or such regulations as have been or may be prescribed by 
 the legislature of Nevada, they shall become subject to such right 
 of purchase by the grantee herein, his heirs or assigns." 
 
 The general mining act of July 26, 1866, and amended by the act 
 of July 9, 1870, and the act of May, 1872, provide that nothing in 
 Slid acts "shall be construed to repeal, impair, or in any way 
 affect" the provisions of the Sutro tunnel grant. Hence persons in 
 possession of such lodes at the time of the grant need not conform 
 to the requirements of the mining laws of the Unitod States as to 
 the performance of annual labor. A compliance with the local 
 mining rules, or regulations prescribed by the legislature of Nevada, 
 if any there be, is sufficient for the purpose of maintaining the 
 possessory right to such lodes. If such compliance be productive 
 of hardship, it is a hardsliip remediable only by legislative action, 
 no power being vested in this office to change or modify the condi- 
 tions of the grant. Very respectfully, 
 
 J. A. Williamson, 
 
 Commissioner. 
 
 Register and Eeceiveb, Carson Cit'j, Nev. 
 
 7. Mark Twain Lode. — The instructions of the Gen- 
 eral Land Office requiring the location, marking of bound- 
 aries, and recording of notice of a tunnel run in accordance 
 with section 2323, Revised Statutes, are not applicable to 
 tunnels run for the purposes mentioned in the Act of 
 February 11, 1875. Where a party runs a tunnel to develop 
 a lode already located, notice of intention to run such a 
 tunnel is not required, and no tunnel location need be 
 made. 
 
 Department of the Inteeige, General Land Office, 
 
 Washington, D. C, May 4, 1881. 
 
 Gentlemen : I have examined the protest submitted by M. D. 
 Cooper against the issuance of patent to Henry M. Hoyt et al. for 
 the Marie Twain lode and mill site, lots 344 A and B, situate in 
 Mount Sneffle's mining district, Ouray County, Colorado, and em- 
 braced in mineral entry No. 190 of the series of your office. 
 
 The record of said entry shows that the Marls Twain lode was 
 duly located, and that the possessory title is vested in the applicants 
 for patent. The application for patent was filed in your office 
 April 30, 1880, due notice of which was giveu in the manner pre- 
 scribed by law, the period of publication expiring September 4, 
 1880. February 3, 1881, the claimants entered and paid for the 
 land. 
 
 Mr. Cooper alleges that during the year 1880 no work whatever 
 was performed upon the Mark Twain lode, and that on the-22d of 
 January, 1881, he made a relocation of the same under the name of 
 Ida City lode. Protestant fiirther alleges that "said H. M. Hoyt 
 etal, attempted to develop said Mark Twain lode by running a tun- 
 nel on the Wheel of Fortune lode [a claim owned by Hoyt et al.], 
 a claim or lode distant from said Mark Twain lode about 1200 feet, 
 and lying at right angles with the said Wheel of Fortune lode, the 
 said "H.. M. Hoyt et <il. not being owners of the lode or surface 
 ground intervening, * ® * and without giving any "notice 
 whatever of a tunnel location fjr the development of said mine or 
 mines," &c. 
 
 By an act of Congress, approved February 11, 1875, it is provided 
 that "where a person or company has or may run a tunnel for the 
 purposes of developing a lode or lodes owned by said person or com- 
 pany, the money so expended in said tunnel shall be taken and 
 considered as expended on said lode or lodes, whether located prior 
 to or since the passage of said act [May 10, 1872], and such person 
 ■ar company shall not be required to perform work on the surface of 
 said lode or lodes iri order to hold the same as required by said act." 
 
 Protestant admits that a tunnel has been commenced on the 
 Wheel of Fortune lode and run for the development of the Mark 
 Twain lode, and that a sufficient amount has been expended upon 
 or in said tunnel to maintain the possessory title to said lode during 
 the year 1880, but contends that such expenditures cannot be held 
 to apply to said lode because the line of said tunnel was not located 
 and marked upon the surface of the ground by stakes, because no 
 notice was posted at the mouth or face of such tunnel describing 
 the purpose for which it was run, and because no copy of such notice 
 was filed for record with the mining recorder, &c. 
 
 Inasmuch as tliere is nothing in the law or instructions of this 
 
 office requiring these things to be done, I fail to perceive the force 
 of the reasons assigned. 
 
 Where a tunnel is run for the purpose of discovery of "blind" 
 lodes under the provisions of section 2323, United States Revised 
 Statutes, it is proper and the regulations require that due notice of 
 such tunnel shall be given, in order that other persons may not 
 prospect for lodes along the line of such tunnel, which by law are 
 vested in the tunnel claimants So long as they shall prosecute the 
 tunnel with due diligence. 
 
 But these instructions are not applicable to tunnels run, in accor- 
 dance with the act of February 11, 1875, for the purpose of develop- 
 ing lodr;s already discovered and located. 
 
 Indeed said instructions were promulgated long prior to the pas- 
 sage of said act, and there exists not the slightest reason why any 
 notice whatever should have been given to the world as to the 
 manner in which the claimants proposed to develop their claims, 
 as the rights of third parties could not by any possibility be affected 
 thereby. 
 
 Admitting all that is alleged by protestant, there appears to be no ' 
 reason why patent should not issue to the applicants. ' 
 
 The protest is hereby dismissed. j 
 
 Very respectfully, 
 
 J. A. Williamson, 
 
 Commissioner. 
 Register and Receiver, Lake City, Colo. 
 
 circular. 
 
 Department of the Interior, 
 
 General Land Office, 
 Washington, D. C, January 17, 1881. 
 
 Gentlemen : — Your attention is directed to the following act of 
 Congress and the instructions thereunder : 
 
 An Act to amend sections twenty-three hundred and twenty-four 
 and twenty-three hunilred and twenty-five of the Revised Statutes 
 of the United States concerning mineral lands. 
 
 Be it enacted by the Senate and Mouse of Representatives of the 
 ,United States of Ajnerica in Congress assembled. That section twen- 
 ty-three hundred and tWenty-five of the Revised Statutes of the 
 ynited States be amended by adding thereto the following words : 
 "Provided, That where the claimant for a patent is not a resident 
 of or within the land district wherein the vein, lode, ledge, or de- 
 posit sought to be patented is located, the application for patent 
 and the affidavits required to be made in this section by the claim- 
 ant for such patent may be made by his, her, or its authorized 
 agent, where said agent is conversant with the facts sought to be 
 established by said affidavits -.And provided, That this section shall 
 apply to all applications now pending for patents to mineral lands." 
 
 Sec. 2. — That section twenty-three hundred and twenty-four of 
 the Revised Statutes of the United States be amended by adding 
 tlie following words : "Provided, That the period within which the 
 work required to be done annually on all unpatented mineral claims 
 shall commence on the first day of January succeeding the date of 
 location of such claim, and this section shall apply to all claims 
 located since the tenth day of May, anno Domini, eighteen hun- 
 dred and seventy-two. 
 
 Approved January 22, 1880. 
 
 The first section of this act has reference only to the affidavits 
 mentioned in section 2325 of the Revised Statutes. It is therefore 
 held that it has no reference to the manner of establishing proof of 
 citizenship. An applicant for m'niug patent who resides in the 
 land district in which the mine is located, if within the district at 
 the time application is made, mi^st make the required affidavits. If 
 he is not so within the district, the affidavits may be made by a duly 
 appointed agent conversant with the facts. 
 
 It is held under the second section of the act that labor performed 
 or money expended upon a mining claim prior to the first day of 
 January succeeding the date of location thereof will not be consid- 
 ered as a part of or applied upon the first annual expenditure re- 
 quired by law. Thus upon a claim located at any time during the 
 year 1 880 the period within which the labor must be performed 
 commences January 1, 1881, and during the calendar year 1881 the 
 expenditure must be made, or the claim will be subject t» relocation 
 on and after January 1, 1882. 
 
 In order to apply the law to a claim located prior to the year 
 1880 it will be necessary to calculate from the date of location. 
 For instance, upon a claim located in 1875 the first expenditures 
 would be reckoned as due within one year from January 1, 1876, 
 to wit: January 1, 1877, and aunually thereafter by the calendar 
 year. 
 
 Very respectfully, 
 
 J. A. Williamson, 
 
 Commissioner. 
 Registers and Receivers, 
 
 United States District Zand Offices. 
 
 I I 
 
638 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Expenditures on Mining Claims. — The following is 
 the full text of a decision filed February 25th, 1882, in the 
 case of Du Prat vs. James et al., in Department Two of the 
 Supreme Court of California. It covers several very impor- 
 tant points to prospectors, locators, and mine owners : 
 
 This is an action to recover possession of a quartz mine. 
 Judgment was rendered for defendants, and plaintiff ap- 
 pealed. 
 
 The objections to the answer cannot be sustained. The 
 appeal is from the judgment, and the judgment roll only is 
 inserted in the transcript. The plaintiff did not demur to 
 the answer nor does it appear that he objected to the evi- 
 dence whea offered to prove its allegations. The cause ap- 
 pears to have been tried as if the answer was proper and 
 sufficient in all respects. Such objections as those of plain- 
 tiff, will not be permitted to be raised for the first time in this 
 Court. (Racouillat vs. Rene, 32 Cal., 450; Cave vs. Crafts, 
 53 Id., 135.) The cases of Atherton vs. Fowler, 6 Otto, 
 513, and Fletcher vs. Mower, 6 Pac. L. J., 621, cited by 
 plaintiff's counsel, have no application to this case. 
 
 It is contended that plaintiff was lawfully in possession 
 when defendants made their location of the mine in ques- 
 tion, and that defendants had no right to locate when their 
 locations were made. It appears from the findings of fact, 
 that the parties under whom I'laintiff claims, properly lo- 
 cated the mining claim or claims in question prior to the 
 10th day of May, 1872, that the defendants entered upon and 
 located the claims or mine partly on the first day of Janu- 
 ary, 1881, and partly on the fifth day of January, 1881, and 
 that they filed for record with the proper Mining Recorder, 
 the notices of these locations, as required by the rules and 
 regulations of miners, within 30 days from the date of such 
 notices. It further appears from the findings, that the de- 
 fendants made such locations on the ground that plaintiff 
 had failed to perform the labor required by the Act of Con- 
 gress of May 10, 1872, and the acts amendatory thereof. By 
 the fifth section of the Act of Congress of May 10th, 1872, 
 it was provided as follows: 
 
 '' On each claim located after the passage of this Act, and 
 until a patent shall have issued therefor, not less than $100 
 worth of labor shall be performed or improvements made 
 during each year. On all claims located prior to the pass- 
 age of this Act, $10 worth of labor shall be performed or 
 improvements made each year for each 100 ft. in length 
 along the vein until a patent shall have been issued there- 
 for ; but when such claims are held in common, such expen- 
 diture maybe made ujDon any one claim ; and upon a failure 
 to comply with these conditions, the claim or mine upon 
 which said failure occurred, shall be open to re-location in 
 the same manner as if no loaation of the same had ever 
 been made." (17 U. S. Stats, at Large, 92). 
 
 On the first day of March, 1873, Congress passed an Act 
 by which the provisions of the 5th section of the Act of 
 May 10th, 1872, which requires expenditures of labor and 
 improvements on claims 'located prior to the passage of said 
 Act, were so amended " that the time for the first annual ex- 
 penditure" on such claims was " extended to the tenth day 
 of June, 1874." (17 U. S. Stats, at Large, 483; Sec. 2324, 
 U. S. Rev. Stats.) 
 
 By Section 2324 of the Revised Statutes of the United 
 States it was thus provided : 
 
 " On all claims located prior to the tenth day of May, 
 1872, $10 worth of labor shall be performed or improve- 
 ments made by the 10th day of June, 1874, and each 
 year thereafter, for each 100 ft. in length along the vein until 
 a patent has been issued therefor ; but where such claims 
 are held in common, such expenditure may be made upon 
 any one claim ; and upon a failure to comply with these condi- 
 tions, the claim or mine upon which such failure occurred 
 shall be open to re-location in the same manner as if no loca- 
 tion of the same had ever been made ; provided, that the 
 original locators, their heirs, assigns, or legal representa- 
 tives, have not resumed work upon the claim after failure 
 and before such location. 
 
 It will be observed that by this section it was provided that 
 the labor to be performed or improvements to be made on claims 
 located prior to the 10th day of May, 1872, were to be per- 
 formed or made by the 10th day of June, 1874 and each year 
 thereafter, until a patent had been issued for such claim. The 
 words " and each year thereafter," were here first added to the 
 
 date mentioned, viz : 10th day of June, 1874. The Revised, 
 Statutes of the United States were approved by Act of Con- 
 gress, passed on the 22d of June, 1874. Section 5,595 of this 
 revision, consisting of 73 titles, declares that these titles ein- 
 brace the Statutes of the United States, general and perma- 
 nent in their nature, in force on the 1st day of Decem- 
 ber, 1873. The acts above referred to, passed prior to the 
 date last named, were repealed by force of section 5,596 of 
 the revision, but all rights accruing or accrued under the 
 Acts repealed were preserved by the provisions of section 
 5,597. 
 
 Congress further amended this 5th section of the Act of 
 1872, by an Act passed on the 6th day of June, 1874. By 
 this amendment, the time for such "first annual expenditure," 
 on claims located prior to the Act of 1872, was extended 
 " to the 1st day of January, 1875." (18 U, S. Stats, at 
 Large, Part 3-61.) 
 
 The foregoing Act of the 6th of June, 1874 is not affected 
 by the Revised Statutes, but has as full effect as if passed 
 after the enactment of the revision, i. e. alter the 22d 
 of June, 1874, and so far as it varies from or conflicts with 
 any provision contained in the revision, has effect as a sub- 
 sequent statute, and repeals any portion of the revision in- 
 consistent with such statute. This results from the provis- 
 ions of sections 5601 of the revision. 
 
 By the act of the 22d of January, 1880, Congress amend- 
 ed section 2324 of the Revised Statues, by adding thereto 
 the following words : " Provided, that the period within 
 which the work required to be done annually on all unpat- 
 ented mineral claims shall commence on the first day of 
 January succeeding the date of the location of such claim, 
 and this section shall apply to all claims located since the 
 10th day of May, A. D. 1872." (See 21st U. S. Stats, at 
 Large, 61.) 
 
 The counsel for appellant puts forth a contention in rela- 
 tion to the Act of June 6, 1874, in these words : 
 
 "The act of June 6, 1874, only amended the act of May 
 10, 1872, in extending the time for doing the annual work, 
 which the existing laws required to be done by June 10, 
 1874, to Jan. 1, 1875, but did not make any arbitrary rule 
 affecting the date of locations made prior to May 10, 1872, 
 so that that act became/Mnc^Ms officio on the expiration of 
 the 1st of Jan., 1875." 
 
 If by this it is intended to say that the act of June 6, 
 1874, had its full effect on the 1st day of Jan., 1875, and 
 that no provision of law then existed in regard to the work 
 of improvements on a mining claim requiring that they 
 should be performed or made in each year succeeding Jan. 
 1, 1875, we think the learned counsel has fallen into an er- 
 ror, as an examination of the various acts above referred to 
 will show. What is said herein on this point, relates only 
 to claims located prior to the 10th of May, 1872, such being 
 the character of the claims involved in this case. By the 
 act of May 10, 1872 (see Sec. 5), the labor or improvements 
 required as to such claim were to be performed or made 
 " each year." The first amendment to this act was made on 
 the 1st of March, 1873, and by it the time for " the first an- 
 nual expenditure" was extended to the 10th day of June, 
 1874. The legislation on this matter next succeeding, ac; 
 cording to the provisions of Sec. 5,601 of the revised stat- 
 utes was Sec. 2324 of the revision (see quotation from it 
 above), which required the labor or improvements to be 
 performed or made by the 10th of June, 1874, " and each 
 year thereafter." Then came, not in order of time, but as 
 it went into operation, the act of June 6, 1874, by which the 
 time for the "first annual ejrpenditure " for labor "or improve- 
 ments, was extended to the 1st of Jan., 1875. I5ut as we 
 have seen, this act has effect so far as it varies from or con- 
 flicts with any provision contained in section 2324 of the 
 revision as a subse(^uent statute, and repeals any portion of 
 the revision inconsistent with it. 
 
 Theonly inconsistency or conflict with the revision, Sec. 
 2,324, is as to the date to which the first annual expenditure 
 is extended, which, by Sec. 2,324, is to the 10th day of 
 June, 1874, and by the act of June 6, 1874, to the 1st day 
 of January, 1875. There is no conflict or inconsistency so 
 far as resards the words "and each year thereafter" in the 
 Sec. 2,324, and they remain. The requirement, then, as en- 
 acted by the legislation of Congress, was, after the 22d of 
 June, 1874, that the first annual expenditure must be made 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 639 
 
 by the first day of January, 1875, and each year thereafter. 
 (See Weeks on Mineral Lands, Sec. 69.) This, in our view 
 id the correct interpretation of the acts of Congress relat- 
 ing to the point under discussion. If the act of the 22d of 
 January, 1880, applies to the case in hand, of which 
 we entertain some doubt, the meaning is the same. 
 The learned counsel for appellant seems to labor under the 
 impression that the section 2,324 took effect subsequently to 
 the act of June 6, 1874; but this is a misconception, as will 
 be seen by examining section 5,601 of the revised stat- 
 utes, above referred to. Upon a failure to comply with 
 the conditions mentioned in section 2,324, among which are 
 those which relate to labor and improvements above stated, 
 by the provisions of the same section, the claim or mine is 
 " open to re-location in the same manner as if no location of 
 the same had ever been made." 
 
 The Court found that plaintiff failed to perform the labor 
 or make the improvements thereon as required by law dur- 
 ing the year 1880, commencing on the first day of January, 
 1880, and ending on the 31st of December of the same year; 
 that it was open to re-location on the 1st and 6th days of 
 January, 1881, on which days defendants made their loca- 
 tions. It is argued by counsel for appellant, that the loca- 
 tion on the 1st of January, 1881, was premature; that he 
 had all that day to perform the labor or make the improve- 
 ments required by law. The question is not free from diffi- 
 culty. The act of 6th of June, 1874, extends the time to the 
 1st day of January, 1.875. In Bradley ys. Rice, 13 Maine, 201, 
 in the construction of a conveyance of land, which describ- 
 ed a tract of land as running " to Flying Pond" the question 
 was whether the tract ran into the pond or was bounded by 
 the water of the pond ; the Court said : " To, from and by 
 are terms of exclusion, unless by necessary iipplicatioUjthey 
 are manifestly used in a different sense." The tract of land 
 was held to extend to the pond, excluding any portion of 
 it. . 
 
 In considering a question of the same character arising 
 upon a deed in Bonney vs. Morrill, 52 Maine, 243, the same 
 Court said : " From " an object or " to " an object " ex- 
 cludes the terminus referred to." The call on which the 
 construction was made described a course as easterly " to 
 land now or formerly owned by Isaac Bonney," etc The 
 land of Bonney was held to be excluded. 
 
 If the question under consideration is to be determined 
 upon the words of the act of the 6th of June, 1874, the 1st 
 day of January, 1881, must be excluded from the time with- 
 in which the plaintiffhad to perform the labor or make the 
 improvements required for the year 1880. But it may be 
 contended that the effect of section 5,601 of the Revised 
 Statutes is merely to substitute the 1st day of January, 1875, 
 for the 10th day of June, 1874, in section 2,324, and that the 
 section ought to be read, making such substitution, thus : 
 " Labor shall be performed, or improvements made by the 
 Ist day of Januaryj 1875." If " by " is a word of exclusion, 
 as held in the above-cited case from 18 Maine, then the 
 same conclusion must be reached as above, as to the 1st day 
 of January, 1881, viz.; that it must be excluded from the 
 period during which the^ labor had to be performed, or the 
 improvements made for the year 1880. In Rankin vs. 
 Wood worth, 3 Penrose and Watts, 46, it was held that a 
 contract to complete work by a certain time, means that it 
 shall be done before that time. The contract was dated in 
 February, 1815, and was "to build a sawmill" and "to have 
 it completed by November next." . The Court thus express- 
 ed itself in regard to it : ^'By the contract the. work was to 
 be finished hy theensuing month of November, which in the 
 popular acceptation of the word excludes the month. When 
 a thing is ordered by a particular day, it is with a view of 
 having the use of it on that day. Thus a coat is ordered by 
 Sunday, with a view of wearing it to church. And the 
 popular agrees with the philological import of the word, 
 which is explained by our great lexicographer, by the words 
 ' near, besides, passing, in presence ; ' all of which denote 
 exclusion." 
 
 The proper interpretation of the legislation of Congress 
 on the subject is, in our judgment, that hy is used as a word 
 of exclusion, and therefore that the plaintiff was not entitled 
 to perform the labor or make the improvements for the year 
 1880, on the first day of January, 1881. A review of the 
 acts of Congress in regard to this point, leads us to the con- 
 
 clusion that it was the intention of Congress to confine the 
 period, after the first day of Jan., 1875, in which the labor 
 or improvements were to be performed or made by the 
 claimant of a mining claim, to the calendar year, commenc- 
 ing on and including the 1st day of Jan., of the year, and 
 ending with and including the last day — the 31st of Decem- 
 ber. This seems to be the construction put on this legisla- 
 tion by the officers of the Department of the Interior. (See 
 Sickel's Mining Laws and Decisions, 373, 392, 393, 394.) 
 The Court finds that the plaintiff performed the requi- 
 site amount of labor on the mine during the years preced- 
 ing 1880. The finding as to the year 1880 is, that plaintiff" 
 " caused three days work to be performed in and upon said 
 claim," but does not find the value of the Mior^ performed. 
 We cannot see that the work did not amount to $150 in 
 value. It is not found whether this work consisted of labor 
 performed or improvements made on the claim. Non constat, 
 but it may have been improvements made on the claim 
 worth $150. This Court cannot know judicially whether 
 this work consists of labor or improvements, or what the 
 worth of it was. For the failure to find as to this worth or 
 value which was in issue, the judgment must be reversed 
 and the cause remanded that the worth or value of the work 
 may be found by the Court below. In this course, we 
 pursue the practice adopted in Billings vs. Everett, 52 Cal., 
 661. 
 
 Judgment reversed and cause remanded to the Court 
 below, with an order to the Court to find on the said issue 
 on the evidence taken or on such other evidence as may be 
 adduced as to said issue, and thereupon to proceed to ren- 
 der judgment in accordance with the views expressed in this 
 opinion. So ordered. 
 
 Locating Mineral Veins. — ^In his charge to the jury 
 in the Contention Head Center suit, recently decided at 
 Tombstone, Arizona, Judge W. H. Stilwell said: "Mining 
 law was made for miners. It is plain and simple. It pro- 
 vides that a man or number of men may make a location of 
 certain mineral lands, after they have found a mineral vein, 
 lode or ledge. You have listened to the testimony of 
 miners of great experience, and of men learned in geology. 
 You may find some difficulty in coming to your verdict to 
 reconcile all the testimony that you have listened to, and I 
 will state here that the mining law is simple and general. 
 It would be difficult to give definitions, such as you have 
 listened to that can be fully applied in this or other cases. 
 Therefore the definitions of words found in our statutes are 
 very limited, in fact no definitions regarding a vein, ledge 
 or lode. Courts must be careful of giving definitions of 
 veins, lodes or ledges and trust veiy much to the wisdom and 
 good judgment of the jury, after listening to the testimony, 
 to find what is a vein, ledge or lode in the case they con- 
 sider. Miners usually follow ore that will pay, or what they 
 think will lead them to ore that will pay to mine. There 
 are many little seams, as you have heard testified to, running 
 out from large bodies of ore. Some may pay to follow and 
 some may not. What there is of them may be pure, rich 
 and valuable, and yet not pay to follow, and I will add that 
 some of the testimony that you have may have listened to, 
 as a matter of science, may be clear in logic, rich in learn- 
 ing, but as miners it may not pay you to undertake to recon- 
 cile all the facts or opinions that you may have listened to 
 before finding your verdict. You are at liberty to consider 
 such part of the testimony as will enable you to arrive at 
 the facts in the case. It will be quite impossible for you in 
 this case to reconcile all the testimony I have illustrated, 
 though as a matter of science the fine distinctions and 
 definitions you have listened to may be true and interest- 
 ing. A lode, vein or ledge, so far as satisfying the law is con- 
 cerned, may be defined as a mass or body of mineralized or 
 metalliferous rock in place, surrounded by other different 
 rock. That is about all the definition that I feel can be 
 given from the bench that will apply to many different 
 cases. 
 
 I am of the opinion that the coloring on the map, taking 
 these three long spots, are in the meaning of the law, in 
 place. Yet you had testimony before you that they are not 
 where they originally were— that they have been faulted 
 and moved. _ The mineral, we were tolS, is not where it was 
 when the vein, lode or ledge was formed, yet they are in 
 place. By rock in place, we mean rock that has not been 
 
640 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 changed by the elements or gravitation. In coming to your 
 decision as to what is a vein, if you find that there is one 
 here, and whether it embraces the entire porphyry dike, or, 
 simply, as is claimed by the defendants, the mineral em- 
 braced within clay selvages, which they call walls, you are 
 at liberty to consider the formation of those other veins, 
 lodes or ledges in the Contention mine. If you are con- 
 vinced that those veins were formerly one vein, but have 
 been faulted and separated by forces in the earth, you may 
 consider and compare them as to their general formation. 
 In passing upon this vein, ledge or lode, it is for you to say 
 what is the boundary of it and of what it consists. If you 
 come to the opinion that the vein, ledge or lode is simply 
 that described by the defendant, then in making the lines, 
 as I shall hereafter instruct you, you must be guided as to 
 where that vein courses or takes its strike. ' If you come to 
 the opinion that the porphyry dike is the vein, you shall 
 be guided by the size of that and the strike it takes, in 
 placing those lines about which I will instruct you. 
 
 " Regarding the location of mining claims, to make a 
 location, a miner is not compelled or permitted, until he 
 finds a mineral-bearing vein, ledge or lode, and until he is 
 fully satisfied as to its course and strike, that he may locate 
 the claim conformatory thereto. If the location is made 
 before the strike of a vein is or can be ascertained, the 
 principle that the law does not require an impossibility, can- 
 not be used as an excuse for following a vein after it ma- 
 terially departs from the exterior boundaries of a mining 
 claim and does not return to it. A man may locate a mining 
 claim, if he chooses, before he learns the true strike of his 
 vein or ledge ; and the law provides what minerals he may 
 extract therefrom. If he makes a mistake in his location, 
 he cannot be excused on the principle that the law does not 
 require an impossibility, and be permitted to follow his vein 
 or ledge before it strikes out beyond the side boundaries of 
 his claim. He must abide by what the law says is embraced 
 in the boundaries of his claim, and about which I will more 
 particularly instruct you. In this case, I instruct you that it 
 is your duty to give to the plaintiff all that you would con- 
 sider him entitled to if the property claimed by the defen- 
 dant belonged to the United States. That is to say, if I locate 
 a farm, the boundary of my farm is not different by reason of 
 the fact that the property adjacent may belong to the United 
 States, or any individual ; and I am of the opinion that if the 
 property belonging to, or claimed by the defendant, belonged 
 to the United States, the plaintiff would have no right in 
 law to go any farther beyond their side lines than they have 
 in this case. If the defendants are bona fide subsequent 
 locators, the law provides that the location shall be made 
 substantially parallel with the strike of the lode or vein, 
 and that the end lines shall be parallel: It is so difficult to 
 do this in all cases, that if the line or rim enters the claim 
 at one corner under the end line and crosses diagonally 
 through the claim and out under the other end line, it is 
 held that the location is good, and the owner of the claim 
 cannot be disturbed, and may follow the vein downward in 
 its dip, to any extent, even though it should so far depart 
 from a perpendicular in its course downward as to extend 
 outside the vertical side lineis of such surface locations." 
 
 Deoisiona on Vital Principles. — We include here 
 two decisions that are of great importance, though not so 
 very recent They are from the report of the State Con*- 
 troller of Nevada. The first is an action of ejectment for 
 the possession of certain mining ground, particularly de- 
 scribed in the complaint, situated in Eureka raining district, 
 in the County of Eureka, in the State of Nevada. 
 
 The Richmond Case. — "The plaintiff in this celebrated 
 case is a corporation created under the laws of Cali- 
 fornia, and the defendant, the Richmond Mining Company, 
 is a corporation created under the laws of Nevada. Tlie 
 other defendants, Thomas Wren and Joseph Potts, are 
 citizens of the latter State. The action was originally com- 
 menced in the State Court of Nevada, but upon application 
 of the plaintiff", and upon the ground of its incorporation in 
 another State, and presumed citizenship, from that fact, of 
 its corporators or stockholders in that State, it was trans- 
 ferred to the Circuit Court of the United States. The com- 
 plaint in the State Court, in addition to the usual allega- 
 tions of a declaration in ejectment, set forth various grounds 
 upon which was based a prayer for an order restraining the 
 
 defendants from working the premises in controversy pend- 
 ing the action. The defendants, in their answer to the 
 complaint, not only denied the title of the plaintiff, but 
 made various averments, upon which a like restraining order 
 against the plaintiff was asked. Both orders were granted. 
 This union of a demand in ejectment for the property in 
 controversy with a prayer for provisional equitable re- 
 lief, is permitted, by the system of procedure which 
 obtains in the State, thus saving the parties the necessity of 
 litigating in two suits, what can as readily, and less expen- 
 sively, be accomplished in one. But this union is not per- 
 mitted in the Federal Court ; and upon the transfer of the 
 present action, the pleadings of the plaintiff' were amended, 
 by substituting a regular complaint in ejectment on the law 
 side of the Court ; and a bill was filed for an injunction on 
 its equity side. The defendants answered both, and also 
 filed a cross-bill for an injunction against the plaintiff". By 
 arrangement of the parties, the defendants, Messrs. Wren 
 and Potts, are dropped out of the controversy, and their 
 names may be stricken from the pleadings. The claim for 
 damages is also waived in this action, without prejudice to 
 any future proceedings with respect to them. By stipula- 
 tion, the case at law, the action of ejectment, is tried by the 
 Court without the intervention of a jury, and the judges sit 
 at San Francisco, instead of Carson, their finding and judg- 
 ment to be entered in term time in the latter place as though 
 the case were heard and decided there. The testimony 
 taken in the action at law is to be received as depositions in 
 the equity suit, and both cases are to be disposed of at the 
 same time, to the end that the whole controversy between 
 the parties may be settled at once. The premises in contro- 
 versy are of great value, amounting by estimation to several 
 hundred thousands of dollars, and the case has been pre- 
 pared for trial with a care proportionate to this estimate of 
 the value of the property ; and the trial has been conducted 
 by counsel on both sides with eminent ability. 
 
 " Whatever could inform, instruct or enlighten the court, 
 has been presented by them. Practical miners have given 
 us their testimony as to the location and working of the 
 mine. Men of science have explained to us how it was pro- 
 bable that nature in her processes had deposited the mineral 
 where it is found. Models of glass have made the hill, 
 where the mining ground lies transparent, so that we have 
 been able to trace the course of the veins, and see the cham- 
 bers of ore found in its depths. For myself, after a some- 
 what extended judicial experience, covering now a period of 
 nearly twenty years, I can say that I have seldom, if ever, 
 seen a case involving the consideration of so many and 
 varied particulars, more thoroughly prepared or more ably 
 presented. And what has added a charm to the whole trial 
 has been the conduct of counsel on both sides, who have 
 appeared to assist each other in the development of the facts 
 of the case, and have furnished an illustration of the truth 
 that the highest courtesy is consistent with the most earnest 
 contention. 
 
 " The mining ground which forms the subject of contro- 
 versy is situated in a hill known as Ruby Hill, a spur of 
 Prospect Mountain, distant about two miles from the town 
 of Eureka in Nevada. Prospect Mountain is several miles 
 in length, running in a northerly and southerly course. Ad- 
 joining its northerly end is the spur called Ruby Hill, 
 which extends thence westerly or in a south-westerly direc- 
 tion. Along and through this hill for a distance slightly 
 exceeding a mile, is a zone of limestone in which, at 
 different places throughout its length, and in various forms, 
 mineral is found, this mineral appearing sometimes in con- 
 tinuous veins, sometimes in apparently isolated chambers, 
 and at other times in what would seem to be scattered 
 grains. And our principal inquiry is to ascertain the char- 
 acter of this zone, in order to determine whether it is to 
 be treated as constituting one lode, or as embracing sev- 
 eral lodes, as that term is used in the acts of congress of 
 1866 and 1872, under which the parties have acquired 
 whatever rights they possess. In this inquiry the first thing 
 to be settled is the moaning of the term in those acts. 
 This meaning being settled, tho physical characteristics and 
 the distinguishing feature of the zone will be considered. 
 
 " Those acts give no definition of the term. They use it 
 always in connection with the term vein. The act of 
 1866 provided for the acquisition of a patent by any person 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 641 
 
 or association of persons claiming " a vein or lode of quartz 
 or other rock in place, bearing gold, silver, cinnabar, or 
 copper." The act of 1872 speaks of veins or lodes of 
 quartz, or other rock in place, bearing similar metals or 
 ores. Any definition of the term should, therefore, be 
 sufficiently broad to embrace deposits of the several 
 metals or ores here mentioned. In the construction of 
 statutes, general terms must receive that interpretation 
 which will include all the instances enumerated as com- 
 prehended by them. The definition of a lode given by 
 geologists is that of a fissure of the earth's crust filled with 
 mineral matter; or, more accurately, as aggregations of 
 mineral matter containing ores in fissures. (See Von Cot- 
 ta's Treatise on Ore Deposits, Prime's Translation, 26). But 
 miners used the term before geologists attempted to give it 
 a definition. One of the witnesses in this case. Dr. Ray- 
 mond, who, for many years, was in the service of the gen- 
 eral government as commissioner of mining statistics, and 
 in that capacity had occasion to examine and report upon a 
 large number of mines in the States of Nevada and Califor- 
 nia, and the Territories of Utah and Colorado, says that he 
 has been accustomed as a mining engineer to attach very 
 little importance to those cases ot classification of deposits, 
 which simply involve the referring of the subject back to 
 verbal definitions in the books. The whole subject of the 
 classification of mineral deposits, he states to be one in 
 which the interests of the miner have entirely overridden 
 the reasonings of the chemists and geologists. " The miners," 
 to use his language, " made the definition first. As used by 
 miners, before being defined by any authority, the term 
 lode simply meant that formation by which the miner could 
 be led or guided. It is an alteration of the verb lead ; and 
 whatever the miner could follow, expecting to find ore, was 
 his lode. Some formation within which he could find ore, 
 and out of which he could not expect to find ore, was his 
 ' lode.' The term lode-star, guiding-star, or north-star, he 
 adds, is of the same origin. Cinnabar is not found in any 
 fissure of the earth's crust, or in any lode as denned by ge- 
 ologists, yet the acts of Congress speak, as already seen, of 
 lodes of quartz, or rock in place bearing cinnabar. Any 
 definition of lode, as there used, which did not embrace 
 deposits of cinnabar, would be as defective as if it did not 
 embrace deposits of gold or silver. The definition must 
 apply to depositsof all the metals named, if it apply to a de- 
 posit of any one of them. Those acts were not drawn by 
 geologists or for geologists ; they were not framed in the 
 interests of science, and consequently with scientific accu- 
 racy in the use of terms. They were framed for the pro- 
 tection of miners in the claims which they had located and 
 developed, and should receive such a construction as will 
 carry out this purpose. The use of the terms vein and lode 
 in connection with each other in the act of 1866, and their 
 use in connection with the term ledge in the act of 1872, 
 would seem to indicate that it was the object of the legisla- 
 tor to avoid any limitation in the application of the acts 
 which a scientific definition of any of these terms might 
 impose. It is difficult to give any definition of the term as 
 understood and used in the acts of Congress which will not 
 be subject to criticism. A fissure in the earth's crust, an 
 opening in its rocks and strata made by some force of nature, 
 in which mineral is deposited, would seem to be essential 
 to the definition of a lode in the judgment of geologists. 
 But to the practical miner, the fissure and its walls are 
 only of importance as indicating the boundaries within 
 which he may look for and reasonably expect to find the ore 
 he seeks. A continuous body of ore lying within any other 
 similar well-defined boundaries on the earth's surface, and 
 under it, would equally constitute in his eyes a lode. We 
 are of opinion, therefore, that the term, as used in the acts 
 of Congress, is applicable to any zone or belt of mineralized 
 rock lying within boundaries clearly separating it from the 
 neighboring rock. It includes, to use the language cited 
 by counsel, all deposits of mineral matter found through a 
 mineralized zone or belt coming from the same source, im- 
 pressed with the same forms, and appearing to have been 
 created by the same processes. 
 
 Examining, now, with this definition in mind, the features 
 of the zone which separate and distinguish it from the sur- 
 rounding country, we experience little difficulty in deter- 
 mining its character. We find that it is contained within 
 41 
 
 clearly defined limits, and that it bears unmistakable marks 
 of originating, in al). its parts, under the influence of the 
 same creative forces. It is bounded on the south side, for 
 its whole length, at least so far as explorations have been 
 made, by a wall of quartzite of several hundred feet in thick- 
 ness ; and on its north side, for a like extent, by a belt of 
 clay or shale, ranging in thickness from less than an inch 
 to seventy or eighty feet. At the east end of the zone, in 
 the Jackson mine, the quartzite and shale approach so 
 closely as to be separated by a bare seam less than an inch 
 in width. From that point they diverge, until on the sur- 
 face, in the Eureka mine, they are about five hundred feet 
 apart, and on the surface, in the Richmond mine, about 
 eight hundred feet. The quartzite has a general dip to the 
 north, at an angle of about forty-five degrees, subject to 
 some local variations as the course changes. The clay or 
 shale is more perpendicular, having a dip at an angle of 
 about eighty degrees. At some depth under the surface, 
 these two boundaries of the limestone, descending at their 
 respective angles must come together. In some of the lev- 
 els worked they are now only from two hundred to three 
 hundred feet apart. The limestone found between these 
 two limits — ^the wall of quartzite and the seam of clay or 
 shale — has, at some period of the world, been subjected to 
 some dynamic force of nature, by which it has been broken 
 up, crushed, disintegrated and fissured, in all directions, so 
 as to destroy, except in three or four places of a feet 
 each, so far as explorations show, all traces of stratification ; 
 thus especially fitting it, according to the testimony of the 
 men of science, to whom we have listened, for the recep- 
 tion of the mineral which, in ages past, came up from 
 the depths below in solution, and was deposited in it. Evi- 
 dence that the whole mass of limestone has been, at some 
 period, lifted up and moved along the quartzite, is found 
 in the marks of attrition engraved on the rock. This 
 broken, crushed and fissured condition pervades to a 
 greater or less extent the whole body, showing that 
 the same forces which operated upon a part, operated 
 upon the whole, and at the same time. Wherever the 
 quartzite is exposed, the marks of attrition appear. Below 
 the quartzite no one has penetrated. Above the shale the 
 rock has not been thus broken and crushed. Stratification 
 exists there. If in some isolated places there is found evi- 
 dence of disturbance, that disturbance has not been suffi- 
 cient to affect the stratification. The broken, crushed and 
 fissured condition of the limestone gives it a specific, 
 individual character by which it can be identified and sep- 
 arated from all other limestones in the vicinity. In this 
 zone of limestones numerous caves or chambers are found, 
 further distinguishing it from the neighboring rock. The 
 limestone being broken and crushed upas stated, the water 
 from above readily penetrated into it, and operating as a 
 solvent, formed these caves and chambers. No similar cav- 
 ities are found in the rock beyond the shale, its hard and 
 unbroken character not permitting, or at least opposing such 
 actions from the water above. Oxide of iron is also found 
 in numerous places throughout the zone, giving to the miner 
 assurance that the metal he seeks is in his vicinity. This 
 broken, crushed and fissured condition of the limestone, the 
 presence of the oxides of iron, the caves or chaiflbers we 
 have mentioned, with the wall of quartzite and seam of clay 
 bounding it, give to the zone, in the eyes of the practical 
 miner, an individuality — a oneness as complete as that 
 which the most perfect lode in a geological sense ever pos- 
 sessed. Each of the characteristics named, though pro- 
 duced at a different period from the others, was undoubted- 
 ly caused by the same forces operating at the same time 
 upon the whole body of the limestone. 
 
 Throughout this zone of limestone, as we have already 
 stated, mineral is found in the numerous fissures of the rock. 
 According to the opinions of all the scientific men who have 
 been examined, this mineral was brought up in solution from 
 the depths of the earth below, and would, therefore, natural- 
 ly be very irregularly deposited in the fissures of the crushed 
 matter, as these fissures are in every variety of form and size, 
 and would also find its way in minute particles in the loose 
 material of the rock. The evidence shows that it is suffi- 
 ciently diffused to justify giving to the limestone the general 
 designation of mineralized matter— metal-bearing rock. The 
 three scientific experts produced by the plaintiff, Mr. Keyes, 
 
,642 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Mr. Raymond and Mr. Hunt, all of them of large experi- 
 ence and extensive attainments, and two of them of national 
 reputation, have given it as their opinion, after examining 
 the ground, that the zone of limestone between the quartzite 
 and shale constitute one vein or lode, in the sense in which 
 those terms are used by miners. Mr. Keyes, wlio for years 
 was superintendent of the mine of the plaintiff", concludes 
 a minute description of the character and development of 
 the ground, by stating that, in his judgment, according to 
 the customs of miners in this country and common sense, 
 the whole of that space should be considered and accepted 
 as a lead, lode or ledge of metal-bearing earth, or rock in 
 place. Dr. Raymond, after giving a like extended account 
 of the character of the ground, and his opinion as to the 
 causes of its formation, and stating with great minuteness 
 the observations he had made, concludes by announcing 
 as his judgment, after carefully weighing all that he had 
 seen, that the deposit between the quartzite and shale is to 
 be considered as a single vein in the sense of the word in 
 which it is used by miners — that is, as a single ore deposit 
 of identical origin, age and character throughout. Dr. 
 Hunt, after stating the result of his examination of the 
 ground and his tlieory as to the formation of the mine, gives 
 his judgment as follows : 
 
 " My conclusion is this : That this whole mass of rock is 
 impregnated with ore ; that although the great mass of ore 
 stretches for a long distance above horizontally and along 
 an incline down the foot wall, as I have traced it, from this 
 deposit you can also trace the ore into a succession of great 
 cavities or bonanzas lying irregularly across the limestone, 
 and into smaller caverns or chasms of the same sort ; and 
 that the whole mass of the limestone is irregularly impreg- 
 nated with the ore. I use the word impregnation in the 
 sense that it has penetrated here and there ; little patches 
 and stains, ore vugs and caverns and spaces of all sizes and 
 all shapes, irregularly disseminated through the mass. * * 
 * I conclude, therefore, that this great mass of ore is, in 
 the proper sense of the word, a great lode, or a great vein, 
 in the sense in which the word is used by miners ; and that 
 practically the only way of utilizing this deposit is to treat 
 the whole of it as one great ore-bearing lode or mass of 
 rock." 
 
 This conclusion as to the zone constituting one lode of 
 rock bearing metal, it is true, is not adopted by the men of 
 science produced as witnesses by the defendant, the Rich- 
 mond Company. These latter gentlemen like the others, 
 have had a large experience in the examination of mines, 
 and some of them have acquired a national reputation for 
 their scientific attainments. No one questions their learn- 
 ing or ability, or the sincerity with which they have ex- 
 pressed their convictions. They agree with the plaintiff's 
 witnesses as to the existence of the mineralized zone of lime- 
 stone with an underlying quartzite and an overlying shale; 
 as to the broken and crushed condition of the limestone, 
 and substantially as to the origin of the metal and its depo- 
 sition in the rock. In nearly all other respects they dis- 
 agree. In their judgment, the zone of limestone has no 
 features of a lode. It has no continuous fissure, says 
 Mr. King, to mark it as a lode. A lode, he adds, must 
 have a foot wall, and a hanging wall, and if it is broad, 
 these must connect at both ends, and must connect down- 
 ward. Here there is no hanging wall or foot wall ; the 
 limestone only rests as a matter of stratigraphical fact on 
 underlying quartzite, and the shale overlies it. And dis- 
 tinguishing the structure at Ruby Hill from the Comstock 
 lode, the same witness says that one is a series of sediment- 
 ary beds laid down in the ocean and turned up ; the other 
 is a fissure extending between two rocks. The other wit- 
 nesses of the defendant, so far as they have expressed any 
 opinion as to what constitutes a lode, have agreed with the 
 views of Mr. King. It is impossible not to perceive that 
 these gentlemen at all times carried in their minds the sci- 
 entific definition of the term as given by geologists, that a 
 lode is a fissure in the earth's crust filled with mineral mat- 
 ter, and disregarded the broader, though less scientific, 
 definition of the miner, who applies the term to all zones or 
 belts of metal-bearing rock lying within clearly marked 
 boundaries. For the reasons already stated, we are of 
 opinion that the Act of Congress uses the term in the sense 
 in which miners understand it. 
 
 If the scientific definition of a lode, as made by geologists, 
 could be accepted as the only proper one in this case, the 
 theory of distinct veins existing in distinct fissures of the 
 limestone would be not only plausible, but reasonable ; for 
 that definition is not met by the conditions in which the 
 Eureka mineralized zone appears. But as that definition 
 cannot be accepted, and does not meet the case of a lode, as 
 that term is understood by miners, the theory of separate 
 veins, as distinct and disconnected bodies of ore falls to the 
 ground. It is, therefore, of little consequence what name is 
 given to the veins in the limestone, whether they be called 
 pipe veins, rake veins or pipes of ore, or receive the new 
 designation suggested by one of the witnesses, they are but 
 parts of one greater deposit, which permeates in a greater 
 or less degree, with occasional intervening spaces of barren 
 rock, the whole mass of limestone, from the Jackson mine 
 to the Richmond, inclusive. The acts of Congress of 1866 
 and 1872 dealt with a practical necessity of miners ; they 
 were drawn to protect locations on veins or lodes, as miners 
 understood those terms. Instances without number exist, 
 where the meaning of words in a statute has been enlarged or 
 restricted and qualified, to carry out the intention of the legis- 
 lature. The inquiry, where any uncertainty exists, always 
 is as to what the legislature intended, and when that is ascer- 
 tained it controls. In a recent case before the Supreme Court 
 of the United States, singing birds were held not to be live 
 animals, within the meaning of a revenue act of Congress. 
 (Reiche v. Smythe, 13 Wall. 162). And in a previous case, 
 arising upon the construction of the Oregon donation act of 
 Congress, the term, a single man, was held to include in its 
 meaning an unmarried woman. (Silver v. Ladd, 7 Wall. 
 219.) If any one will examine the two decisions reported as 
 they are in Wallace's Reports, he will find good reasons for 
 both of them. 
 
 Our judgment being that the limestone zone in Ruby 
 Hill in Eureka District, lying between the quartzite and 
 shale, constitutes, within the meaning of the act of Con- 
 gress, one lode of rock bearing metal, we proceed to consider 
 the rights conveyed to the parties by their respective patents 
 from the United States. All these patents are founded upon 
 previous locations, taken up and improved according to the 
 customs and rules of miners in the district. Each patent' 
 is evidence of a perfected right in the patentee to the claim 
 conveyed, the initiatory step for the acquisition of which 
 was the original location. If the date of such location be 
 stated in the instrument, the patent will take effect by rela- 
 tion, as of that date, so far as may be necessary to cut off 
 all intervening claimants, unless the prior right of the pa- 
 tentee, by virtue of his earlier location, has been lost by a 
 failure to contest the claim of the intervening claimant, as 
 provided in the act of 1872. As in the system established 
 for the alienation of the public lands, the patent is the con- 
 summation of a series of acts, having for their object the ac- 
 quisition of the title ; the general rule is to give it an opera- 
 tion by relation at the date of the initiatory step, so far as 
 may be necessary to protect the patentee against subsequent 
 claimants to the said property. As was said by the Supreme 
 Court, in the case of Shepley v. Cowan, 1 Otto, where two 
 parties were contending for the same property, the first in 
 time, in the commencement of proceedings for the acquisi- 
 tion of the title, when the same are regularly followed up, is 
 deemed to be the first in right. 
 
 But this principle has been qualified in its application to 
 patents of mining ground, by provisions in the act of 1872, 
 for the settlement of adverse claims before the issue of the 
 patent. Under that act, when one is seeking a patent for 
 his mining location, and gives proper notice of the fact, as 
 there prescribed, any other claimant of an unpatented loca- 
 tion, objecting to the patent of the claim, either on account 
 of its extent or form, or because of asserted prior location, 
 must come forward with his objections and present them, or 
 he will afterward be precluded from objecting to the issue 
 of the patent. While, therefore, the general doctrine of 
 relation applies to mining patents so as to cut off interven- 
 ing claimants, if any there can be, deriving title from other 
 sources, such, perhaps, as might arise from a subsequent 
 location of school warrants, or a subsequent purchase from 
 the State, as in the case of Heydenfeldtr.Daney Gold Min- 
 ing Company, reported in the third of Otto ; the doctrine 
 cannot be applied so as to cut off the rights of the earlier 
 
rHE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 643 
 
 patentee, under a later location, where no opposition to that 
 location was made under the statute. The silence of the 
 first locator is, under the statute, a waiver of his priority. 
 But, from the view we talce of the rights of the parties un- 
 der their respective patents and the locations upon which 
 those patents were issued, the question of priority of loca- 
 tion is of no practical consequence in the case. The plain- 
 tiff is the patentee of several claims on the Ruby Hill lode, 
 but for the purpose of this action it is only necessary to 
 refer to three of them — the patents for the Champion, the 
 At Last and the Lupita or Margaret claims. The first of 
 these patents was issued in 1872, the second in 1876, and 
 the third in 1877. Objection is taken to the validity of the 
 last two, because the end lines of the surface locations pa- 
 tented are not parallel, as required by the act of 1872. But 
 to this objection there are several obvious answers. In the 
 first place, it does not appear upon what locations the pa- 
 tents issued. They may have been, and probably were, 
 issued upon locations made under the act of 1866, where 
 such parallelism in the end lines of the surface locations was 
 not required. 
 
 The presumption of the law is, that the officers of the 
 executive department specially charged wjth the supervision 
 of applications for mining patents, and the issue of such pa- 
 tents, did their duty ; and in an action of ejectment, mere 
 surmises to the contrary will notr be listened to. If, under 
 any possible circumstances, a patent for a location without 
 such parallelism may be valid, the law will presume that 
 such circumstances existed. A patent of the United States 
 for land, whether agricultural or mineral, is something upon 
 which ite holder can rely for peace and security in his pos- 
 sessions. In its potency it is iron-clad against all mere 
 speculative inferences. In the second place, the provision 
 of the statute of 1872, requiring the lines of each claim to be 
 parallel to each other, is merely directory, and no conse- 
 quence is attached to a deviation from its direction. The 
 essential point was to secure parallel. end lines drawn verti- 
 cally down, and that was done by taking the extreme points 
 of the respective locations on the lengtti of the lode. In the 
 third place, the defect objected to does not affect the defend- 
 ant, and no one but the Government has the right to com- 
 plaint. The defendant. The Richmond Mining Company, 
 also holds several patents issued to it upon different loca- 
 tions ; but in this case it specially relies upon the patents of 
 the 'Richmond and Tip Top claims. These patents were 
 issued upon locations made in 1869, which is earlier than 
 any of the locations upon which the patents to the plaintiff 
 were issued, at least so far as we are informed. Upon this 
 fact, and claiming from it that the patents antedate in their 
 operation, by relation, back to their respective locations the 
 patents under which the plaintiff claims, and the further 
 fact that the patents were issued upon locations made in 
 1866, the defendant relies to defeat the pretensions of the 
 plaintiff. It contends that, inasmuch as the croppings of the 
 vein it works are within the surface of its patented loca- 
 tions, it can follow the vein wherever it leads, though it be 
 outside of the end lines of the locations when vertically 
 drawn down the lode. Its position is that whenever, under 
 the law of 1866, a location was made on a lode or vein, a 
 right was allowed to follow the vein wherever it might lead, 
 without regard to the end lines of the location. This posi- 
 tion is urged with great persistence by one of the counsel of 
 the defendant. 
 
 The second section of the act of 1866, upon the provisions 
 of which this position is based provides : "That whenever 
 any person or association of persons claims a vein or lode 
 of quartz, or other rock in place, bearing gold, silver, 
 cinnabar or copper, having previously occupied and improv- 
 ed the same according to local custom or rules of miners in 
 the district where the same is situated, and having expend- 
 ed, in actual labor and improvements thereon, an amount 
 of not less than one thousand dollars, and in regard to 
 whose possession there is no controversy or opposing claim, 
 it shall and may be lawful for said claimant, or association 
 of claimants, to file in the local land-office a diagram of the 
 same, so extended, laterally or otherwise, as to conform to 
 the local laws, customs and rules of miners, and to enter 
 such tract and receive a patent therefor, granting such 
 imine, together with the right to follow such vein or lode, 
 with its dips, angles and variations, to any depth, although 
 
 it may enter the land adjoining, which land adjoining shall 
 be sold subject to this condition." It will be seen by this 
 section that to entitle a party to a patent, his claim must 
 have been occupied and improved according to the local 
 customs or rules of miners of the district, and that his dia- 
 gram of the same, filed in the land-office, in its extension, 
 laterally or otherwise, must be in conformity with them. 
 The rules of the miners in the Eureka Mining District, 
 adopted in 1865 — Laws of the District, as they are termed 
 by the miners — provided that claims of mining ground 
 should be made by posting a written notice on the claimant's 
 ledge, defining its boundaries if possible ; that each claim 
 should consist of two hundred feet on the ledge, but claim- 
 ants might consolidate their claims by locating in a common 
 name, so that in the aggregate no more ground was claimed 
 than two hundred feet for each name, and that each locator 
 should be entitled to all dips, spurs and angles connecting 
 with his ledge ; and that a record of all claims should be 
 made within ten days from the date of location. The rules 
 also allowed claimants to hold one hundred feet each side 
 of the ledge for mining and building purposes, but declared 
 that they should not be entitled, to any other ledge within 
 this surface. It will be perceived by these rules that they 
 had reference entirely to locations of claims on ledges. It 
 would seem that the miners of the district then supposed 
 that the mineral in the district was only found in veins or 
 ledges, and not in isolated deposits. In February, 1869, new 
 rules were added to those previously passed, authorizing the 
 location of such deposits. These new rules provided that 
 each deposit claim should consist of one hundred feet 
 square, and that the location should take all the mineral 
 within the ground to any depth. In September, 1869, un- 
 der these rules, square locations and linear locations were 
 made by parties through whom the defendant derives title 
 on what is called the Richmond ledge, and linear locations 
 were made on what is called the Tip Top ledge, with surface 
 locations for' mining purposes, both parties claiming with 
 their locations all dips, spurs and angles. It is only of the 
 linear locations we have occasion to speak; it is under them 
 that the defendants assert title to the premises in contro- 
 versy. 
 
 Now, as neither the rules of miners in Eureka Mining 
 District nor the act of 1866, in terms, speak of end lines to 
 locations made on ledges nor, in terms impose any limita- 
 tion upon miners following these veins wherever they may 
 lead, it is contended that no such limitation can be considered 
 as having existed and be enforced against the defendant. 
 The act of 1866, it is said, recognizes the right of the loca- 
 tor to follow his vein outside of any end lines drawn verti- 
 cally down when it permits him to obtain a patent granting 
 his mine, " together with the right to follow such vein or 
 lode with its dips, angles and variations to any depth, al- 
 though it may enter the land adjoining, which land adjoin- 
 ing shall be sold subject to this condition." It is true that 
 end lines are not in terms named in the rules of the miners ; 
 but they are. necessarily implied; and no reasonable con- 
 struction can be given to them without such implication. 
 What the miners meant by allowing a certain number of 
 feet on a ledge was, that each locator might follow his vein 
 for that distance on the course of the ledge, and to any 
 depth within that distance. So much of the ledge he was 
 permitted to hold for the working of his vein as could be 
 measured in its width anywhere by the feet on the surface. 
 If this were not so, he might by the bend of his vein hold 
 under the surface, along the course of the ledge, double or 
 treble the amount he could take on the surface. Indeed, 
 instead of being limited by the number of feet prescribed 
 by the rules, he might in some cases oust all his neighbors 
 and take the whole ledge. No construction is permissible 
 which would substantially defeat the limitation of quantity 
 on a ledge, which was the most important provision in the 
 whole system of rules. Similar rules have been adopted in 
 numerous mining districts, and the construction thus given 
 has been uniformly and everywhere followed. We are con- 
 fident that no other construction has ever been adopted in 
 any mining district in California or Nevada. And the con- 
 struction is one which the law would require in the absence 
 of any construction by miners. If, for instance, the State 
 were to-day, to deed a block in the city of San Francisco to 
 twenty persons, each to take twenty feet front, in a certain 
 
6U 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 specified succession, each would have assigned to him, by the 
 law, a section parallel with that of his neighbor of twenty 
 feet in width cut through the block. No other mode of di- 
 vision would carry out the grant. The act of 1866 in no 
 respect enlarges the right of the claimant beyond that which 
 the rules of the mining district gave him. The patent 
 which the act allows him to obtain does not authorize him 
 to go outside Ci the end lines of his claim, drawn down 
 vertically through the ledge or lode. It only authorizes 
 him to follow his veins with its dips, angles and variations 
 to any depth, although it may enter land adjoining ; that is, 
 land lying beyond the area included within his surface 
 lines. It is land lying on the side of the claim, not on the 
 ends of it, which may be entered. The land on the ends is 
 reserved for other claimants to explore. It is true as stated 
 by the defendant, that the surface land taken up in connec- 
 tion with a linear location on the ledge or lode is, under the 
 act of 1866, intended solely for the convenient working of 
 the mine, and does not measure the miner's right either to 
 the linear feet upon its course, or to follow the dips, angles 
 and variations of the vein, or control the direction he shall 
 take. But the line of the location taken does measure the 
 extent of the miner's right. That must be along the gener- 
 al course or strike, as it is termed, of the ledge or lode. 
 Lines drawn vertically down at right angles, with a line 
 representing this general course, at the ends of the claim- 
 ant's line of location, will carve out, so to speak, a section 
 of the ledge or lode within which he is permitted to work, 
 and out of which he cannot pass. 
 
 As the act of 1866 requires the applicant for a patent to 
 file in the local office a diagram of his claim, such diagram 
 must necessarily present something more than the mere 
 linear location. It is intended that it should embrace the 
 surface claimed for the working of the mine. In this way 
 the patent of the Richmond claim embraces three acres and 
 a fraction of an acre of surface ground, and five hundred and 
 a half linear feet on the lode. And the patent of the Tip 
 Top embraces nearly four acres of surface ground and six 
 hundred linear feet on the lode. The Act of 1872 preserves 
 to the miner the right acquired under the Act of 1866, 
 and confers upon him additional rights. Under the Act 
 of 1866 he could only hold one lode, or vein, although 
 more than one appeared within the lines of his surface lo- 
 cation. The surface ground was allowed him for the con- 
 venient working of the lode or vein located, and for no 
 other purpose. It conferred no right to any other lode or 
 vein. But the Act of 1872 alters the law in this respect. 
 It grants to him the exclusive right of possession to a 
 quantity of surface ground, not exceeding a specified 
 amount, and not only the particular lode or vein located, 
 but all other veins, lodes, and ledges, the top or apex of 
 which lies within the surface lines of his location, with the 
 right to follow such veins, lodes or ledges to any depth. But 
 these additional rights are granted subject to the limita- 
 tion that in following the veins, lodes or ledges, the 
 miner shall be confined to such portions thereof as lie be- 
 tween vertical planes drawn downward through the end lines 
 of his location, and a further limitation upon his right in 
 cases where two or more veins intersect or cross each other. 
 The Act in terms annexes these conditions to the possession 
 not only of claims subsequently located, but to the possession 
 of those previously located. This fact, taken in connection 
 with the reservation of all rights acquired under the Act of 
 1866, indicates that in the opinion of the Legislature, no 
 change was made in the rights of previous locators by con- 
 fining their claims within the end lines. The Act simply re- 
 cognized a pre-existing rule, applied by miners to a single 
 vein or lode of the locator, and made it applicable to all veins 
 or lodes found within the surface lines. 
 
 Our opinion, therefore, is that both the defendant and the 
 plaintiff, by virtue of their respective patents, whether is- 
 sued upon locations under the Act of 1866, or under the Act 
 of 1872, could only follow the veins or lodes lying within 
 lines drawn vertically downward at the end of their re- 
 spective locations, and that each took the ores found in all 
 veins or lodes, the apex or top of which lay within those 
 lines. The question of priority of location is, therefore, as 
 already stated, of no practical importance in the case. 'This 
 question can only be important where the lines of one pat- 
 ent overlap those of another patent. Here, neither plain- 
 
 tiff nor defendant could pass outside of the end lines of its 
 own locations, whether they were made before or after those 
 upon which the other party relies. And inasmuch as the 
 ground in dispute lies within the end lines of the plain- 
 tiff's patented locations drawn vertically downward, our 
 conclusion is that the ground is the property of the plaintiff, 
 and that judgment must be for its possession in its favor. 
 The same conclusion would be reached if we looked only 
 to the agreement of the parties made on the sixteenth of 
 June, 1873. At that time the plaintiff owned the patented 
 claim called the Lookout claim, adjoining on the north the 
 Richmond claim. The defendant had worked down from an 
 incline in the Richmond and Tip Top into the ore under the 
 surface lines of the Lookout patent. The plaintiff thereupon 
 brought an action for the recovery of the ground and the 
 ores taken from it. A compromise and settlement followed 
 which are contained in an agreement of that date, and were 
 carried out by an exchange of deeds. A map or plat was 
 made showing the different claims held by the two parties. 
 A line was drawn upon this map, on one side of which lay 
 the Champion, the At Last and the Margaret claims, and on 
 the other side lay the Richmond and the Lookout claims. 
 By the agreement, of the parties, the plaintiff, on the one 
 hand, was to convey to the defendant the Lookout ground 
 and also all the mining ground lying on the north-westerly 
 side of the line designated, with the ores, precious metals, 
 veins, lodes, ledges, deposits, dips, spurs, or angles, on, 
 in or under the same, and to dismiss all pending actions 
 against the defendant ; and on the other hand, the de- 
 fendant was to pay to the plaintiff the sum of eighty-five 
 thousand dollars, and to convey with warranty against its 
 own acts, all its right, title or interest in and to all the 
 mining ground situated in the Eureka Mining District, on 
 the south-easterly side of the designated line, and in and to 
 all ores, precious metals, veins, lodes, ledges, deposits, dips, 
 spurs or angles, on, in or under the same—" it being, " savs 
 the agreement, "the object and intention of the said parties 
 hereto to confine the workings of the party of the second 
 part (the Richmond Mining Company) to the north-westerly 
 side of the said line continued downward to the center of the 
 earth, which line is hereby agreed upon as the permanent 
 boundary line between the claims of the said parties. '' 
 
 The deeds executed between the parties the same day were 
 in accordance with this agreement. The deed of the" Rich- 
 mond Mining Company to the plaintiff conveyed all the 
 mining ground lying on the south-easterly side of the des- 
 ignated Tine, together with all the dips, spurs and angles, 
 and also all the metals, ores, gold and silver-bearing quartz' 
 rock and earth therein, and all the rights, privileges and 
 franchises thereto incident, appendant and appurtenant, or 
 therewith usually enjoyed. The line thus designated, ex- 
 tended down in a direct line along the dip of the lode, would 
 cut the Potts chamber, and give the ground in dispute 
 to the plaintiff. That it must be so extended necessarily fol- 
 lows from the character of some of the claims it divides. As 
 the Richmond and the Champion were vein or lode claims, 
 a line dividing them must be extended along the dip of the 
 vein or lode, so far as that goes, or it will not constitute a 
 boundary between them. All lines dividing claims upon 
 veins or lodes necessarily divide all that the location 
 on the surface carries, and would not serve as a boundary 
 between them if such were not the case. The plaintiff would, 
 therefore, be the owner of the ground in dispute by the deed 
 of the defendant, even if it could not assert such ownership 
 solely upon its patented locations. Our finding, therefore, 
 is for the plaintiff, and judgment must be entered thereon 
 in its favor for the ]wssession of the premises in controversy. 
 The Shark Pajrtnaster Case.— This is an action to 
 determine the right of possession of certain mining ground 
 in the Ward District, White Pine County. The plaintiff 
 deraigns title from the location of a claim called the Shark, 
 and the defendant is the grantee of the location of the Pny- 
 iiiaster. Both claims were located on the same ledge— the 
 Paymaster in July, the Shark in September— and the prin- 
 cipal question in the case is as to the validity of the Pay- 
 master location. The facts in regard to this location are 
 very clearly and fully presented by the findings of the Dis- 
 trict Judge, which embrace the special verdict of a jurv 
 upon a number of issues submitted to its decision. No 
 exception whatever is takenby either party to the findino-s 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 645 
 
 of the jury, and the objections of the appellant to the addi- 
 tional findings ff the Court relate rather to the conclusions 
 of law involved than to the facts on which they are based. 
 The question before us is therefore narrowed down to a con- 
 struction of the legislation of Congress and the local rules 
 of the Ward District governing the location of mining 
 claims. Before entering upon a discussion of the purely 
 legal questions involved in the case, however, it will be best 
 to give a connected statement of the facts, which are as 
 follows : — Mineral deposits were first discovered in what is 
 now the Ward Mining District by Thomas F. Ward, in 
 March, 1872. On the first of May the district was organized, 
 a set of local rules adopted, and (it seems) Ward appointed 
 Recorder. The rules so first adopted were, in their general 
 features, like the rules everywhere prevalent on this coast 
 before the enactment of the Law of Congress of May 10, 1872. 
 Claims were to be located by posting a notice at the point of 
 discovery ; the notice to be recorded in fifteen days ; this to 
 hold the claim good for one hundred days, within which 
 time a certain amount of work was to be done on the grouna 
 in order to hold the claim a year. Each locator was to have 
 fifty feet of the surface on each side of his ledge or vein, but 
 this not to carry the right to any mineral deposit therein 
 distinct from the one located. These rules, so far as they 
 were not inconsistent with the Act of Congress of May 10, 
 1872, continued in force till the first of October, following, 
 when the miners adopted a new set of rules. Such being 
 the law of the district for the location and holding of claims, 
 Ward, on the seventeenth of July, 1872, discovered the vein 
 or ledge which is now in controversy, and placed upon the 
 croppings at the discovery point the following notice : 
 
 "Paymaster location notice. — We, the undersigaed, do 
 hereby locate and claim fifteen hundred (1600) feet on this 
 ledge, lode, or deposit of mineral-bearing quartz or rock, 
 with all its dips, spurs, angles and variations, together with 
 all privileges prescribed by the mining laws of the United 
 States and this district, and intend to hold and work the 
 same accordingly. We claim three hundred (800) feet 
 easterly, and twelve hundred (1200) feet westerly, from this 
 monument, running along the course of the vein. This 
 shall be known as the Paymaster. 
 
 "Ward Mining District, July 17, 1872, situated about 
 fifteen hundred feet north-west by north, from Mountain 
 Pride lode." 
 
 To this notice were appended the names of the locators, 
 and opposite the name of each were set the number of feet 
 (undivided) to which he was to be entitled. 
 
 On the following day, July 18, the claim was recorded by 
 Ward, as Mining Recorder of the district, by copying into a 
 small memorandum book, which he carried in his pocket, 
 and which at that time constituted the record book of the 
 district. Subsequently, about the first of August, a larger 
 book was obtained, and the records transcribed from the 
 little book. In the meantime, however, the Paymaster no- 
 tice, and the record of it, had been changed as follows : It 
 seems that there was some sort of an agreement sub- 
 sisting between Ward, John Henry, E. C. Hardy, and 
 three others, that they should be equally interested 
 in the locations made by Ward, but in the location of 
 the Paymaster, Ward had omitted Hardy's name, and 
 inserted that of Dave Pierson, who was not a mem- 
 ber of the company. A few days after the location and re- 
 cording of the claim, Henry called Ward's attention to the 
 fact that Pearson's name was improperly on the notice, and 
 Hardy's name improperly omitted. He also objected to the 
 unequal distribution of the claim among the six locators. 
 Ward thereupon changed the notice on the ground, and the 
 record in the little book, by erasing the name of Pearson, 
 and substituting the name of Hardy, and by changing the 
 figures following the names, so as to give to each locator two 
 hundred and fifty feet of the claim. These changes in the 
 notice and in the little book were made before the tran- 
 scription to the large book, which since the first of August, 
 1872, has contained the records of the Ward District. 
 
 Subsequent developments have shown that the vein or 
 ledge upon which this Paymaster claim was located has a 
 course or strike from south-east to north-west. According 
 to the magnetic meridian (variation 16J°) it runs more nearly 
 east and west. In September, 1872, some work — it does not 
 appear how much — had been done on the Paymaster loca- 
 
 tion, but the course of the veiii was not clearly determined. 
 Such being the condition of that claim, on the ninth of 
 September the locator of the Shark discovered the croppings 
 of the same vein at a point about four hundred feet north- 
 west of the location point of the Paymaster, and posted the 
 following notice : 
 
 " Shark mine No. 1. Notice : — We, the undersigned, do hereby 
 locate and claim fifteen hundred (i,500) feet on this ledge, lode or 
 deposit of mineral-bearing quartz and rock, with all its dips, spurs, 
 angles and variations, together with all privileges prescribed by 
 the mining laws of the United States and this district, and intend 
 to hold and work the same accordingly. We claim seven hundred 
 and fifty feet on each side of the monument running along the 
 course of the vein. This shall be known as the Shark mine No. 1. 
 
 " Ward Mining District, Nye County, Nevada, September 9, 1872. 
 
 " John Taylor, 375 feet. 
 
 " Thomas Connor, 375 feet. 
 
 " Mathew Gleeson, 375 feet. 
 
 " Chas. Strtjtenberger, 375 feet." 
 
 On the following day this notice was recorded, the certifi- 
 cate to the record being as follows : 
 
 "Eecorded September 10, 1872, at 10 o'clock, A. M. Situated 
 about 600 feet north-easterly from Young American mine, and about 
 300 feet north-westerly from Paymaster mine. 
 
 " Thos. F. Ward, Recorder." 
 
 Some significance is attributed to the fact that Ward, the 
 locator of Paymaster, going upon the ground for the purpose 
 of making this record, and necessarily observing the proxi- 
 mity of the Shark to the Paymaster, made no complaint at 
 the time that the Shark locators were on his claim It was 
 not until October, and after some work had been done by 
 the locators of the Shark, that notice was given that they 
 were on the Paymaster vein. They, however, denied that it 
 was the same vein. They claimed a cross vein, and declared 
 that if it turned out that they were on the Paymaster they 
 would give it up. About this time — on October 10th, 1872 
 — John Henry, one of the Paymaster locators, took down 
 their notice and put up another, the same in all respects as 
 the one removed except that it claimed three hundred feet 
 southerly and one thousand two hundred feet northerly from 
 the monument, instead of three hundred feet easterly and 
 one thousand two hundred feet westerly. On the same day 
 he drove down two stakes, one at the north-west end of the 
 Paymaster and the other at the south-east end. They were 
 marked " North-westerly stake of Paymaster " and " South- 
 easterly stake of Paymaster." These stakes were on a line, 
 or very nearly on a line, with the croppings of the vein as 
 now developed, and within a few feet of the center line of 
 claim as now surveyed. At some time subsequent to the 
 change of the notice on the mine, a corresponding change 
 was made in the record of the claim by erasing the words 
 easterly and westerly, and inserting the words southerly and 
 northerly. The jury could not find who made this change 
 in the record, but the District Judge was of the opinion, and 
 so are we, that it was done by Ward and Henry, but with- 
 out any fraudulent intent. In the meantime, on the first of 
 October, the laws of the district had been changed so as to 
 conform more nearly to the Act of Congress of May 10th, 
 1872, it being especially provided that locators should have 
 three hundred feet of surface ground on each side of their 
 vein — to include, of course, not only the vein originally 
 located but all veins within the surface lines. (R. S., Sec. 
 2822.) It is found as a fact that sufficient work has been 
 done under each of these locations to satisfy the require- 
 ments of the law of Congress and the rules of the district. 
 The Paymaster location was never marked upon the ground 
 in any other way than by the three stak&s on the line of the 
 croppings — one at each end and one at the point of discov- 
 ery — ^until it was surveyed for the purpose of the patent ap- 
 plication in October, 1875. The Shark location was never 
 marked on the ground in any way, except by the monu- 
 ment at its initial point, until April, 1874, when Gleeson set 
 stakes at the four corners of the surface claim. On these 
 facts the District Judge concluded that the Paymaster loca- 
 tion was valid, and, as a consequence, that the subsequent 
 location of the Shark on the same ground was invalid. In 
 accordance with this conclusion, the judgment of the Dis- 
 trict Court was for the defendant. The plaintiff, appealing 
 
646 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 from the judgment and from the order denying her motion 
 for a new trial, makes a number of assignments of error, 
 which, however, are all involved in the three propositions 
 following : It is. contended : 
 
 1. That the Paymaster claim was not located in conformity 
 with the Act of Congress and the rnles of the district, and 
 consequently that it was void ; 
 
 2. That the Paymaster locators, if they ever had a good 
 claim, abandoned it ; and, 
 
 3. That they are stopped by their own acts from asserting 
 any claim adverse to the Shark. 
 
 Keeping these propositions entirely distinct, and confin- 
 ing our attention for the present to the first, it is to be ob- 
 served that there is no question that the locators of the Pay- 
 master were the original discoverers of the ledge in contro- 
 versy ; that they made a honafide attempt to locate it; that 
 their claim was notorious ; that they and their successors 
 have continued to occupy and develop the property ; that 
 the Shark locators were aware of the priority of the Pay- 
 master claim, and originally repudiated any intention of 
 locating upon the same vein. These facts being conceded, 
 the only position open to the appellant, and the only posi- 
 tion her counsel have attempted to maintain, is, that a min- 
 ing claim cannot be held except by compliance with 
 certain requirements of the mining laws; that the Paymas- 
 ter locators did not conform to those requirements, while the 
 locators of the Shark did, and that, as a necessary conse- 
 quence, the law gives her the property, vi^ide from the 
 questions of abandonment and estoppel, she claims nothing 
 except from a strict application of the law, regardless of 
 any seeming hardship in depriving the defendant of a mine 
 which its predecessors were the first to discover, claim and 
 develop. There can be no doubt as to the correctness of 
 the position upon which the claim is founded. The United 
 States have granted to their citizens, and to those who have 
 declared their intention to become such, the right to explore 
 aad occupy the public mineral lands (U. S. Revised Statutes, 
 i?ec. 2319). Those qualified locators who comply with the 
 laws of the United States, and the local regulations not in 
 conflict therewith, governing their possessory title, have the 
 exclusive right of possession and enjoyment of their loca- 
 tions : (R. S. 2322.) He who complies with the law has the 
 exclusive right. Therefore, if it is true that the Shark loca- 
 tors complied, and those of the Paymaster did not, the plain- 
 tifi' must take the mine, no matter who is entitled to the 
 credit of the discovery. What, then, constitutes compli- 
 ance? The questions involved in this branch of the case 
 have led to a very thorough and elaborate discussion of the 
 mining laws of the United States, and particularly of the 
 Act of Congress of May 10, 1872 (R. S., Sec. 2319 el seq.), 
 under which these claims were located, and which embodies 
 the most important features of the mining legislation. The 
 same questions were, to some extent, involved in the case of 
 the Golden Fleece Company v. The Cable Consolidated 
 Company (12 Nev. 312), but were not very fully argued, 
 and were discussed in the opinion only so far as seemed to 
 be necessary for the disposition of that case. Some of the 
 conclusions then announced have been questioned by coun- 
 sel for respondent in this, but after a thorough re-examina- 
 tion of the whole subject, with all the light that has been 
 thrown upon it by the most elaborate argument, oral and 
 written, we remain entirely satisfied with that opinion. So 
 far as it goes, it is a correct exposition of our present under- 
 standing of the law. But it does not cover the whole ground 
 and is perhaps not sufficiently explicit upon some of the 
 points adverted to. The magnitude of this case, and the 
 great importance of the subject to a mining community 
 warrant a restatement of our views in a more complete, and 
 we hope, a more convincing form. One of the imperative 
 requirements of the statute, an indispensable condition pre- 
 cedent of a valid location, is that it shall be "distinctly 
 marked on the ground, so that its boundaries can be readily 
 traced (R. S., Sec. 2324)." By reference to the foregoing 
 statement of facts, it will be seen that one of the locators of 
 the Shark, in April, 1874, marked the boundaries of that 
 location by setting stakes at the four corners of the claim. 
 It is conceded that this was a sufficient marking of that 
 location ; but it is contended that the Paymaster had been 
 sufficiently marked since October 10, 1872, by means of two 
 stakes at the ends of the claim on the line of the croppin^-s 
 
 and by the location monument at the point of discovery. 
 Whether this marking was sufficient to answer the require- 
 ments of the statute is the principal question in the case, 
 and as a step towards its solution, counsel have devoted a 
 great portion of their argument to the preliminary question, 
 What does a mining claim consist of; what are its essen- 
 tials, what are its incidents? Is it the surface ground that 
 is located, or is it the vein with the surface as an incident? 
 It is conceived that a determination of this point will 
 greatly facilitate the inquiry as to what sort of marking of 
 boundaries is required. Counsel for appellant contended 
 that the location is of the surface, and stakes at the corners 
 of the claim are essential. Counsel for respondent insists 
 that the location is of the vein as the principal thing, with 
 the surface as a mere incident, and that stakes to define the 
 limits of the claim upon the vein are sufficient. 
 
 What we have said in the Golden Fleece case we think 
 expresses the truth in regard to this matter: "It is true that 
 the vein is the principal thing, and that the surface is but 
 an incident thereto ; but it is also true that the mining law 
 has provided no means of locating a vein except by defin- 
 ing a surface claim, including the croppings or point at 
 which the vein is exposed, and the part of the vein located 
 is determined by reference to the lines of the surface claim." 
 (12 Nev. 329.) The vein is the principal thing in the sense 
 that it is for the sake of the vein that the location is made ; 
 the surface isof no value without it; no location can be made 
 until a vein has been discovered within its limits, and the sur- 
 face must or at least ought to be located in confonnity with 
 the course of the vein. (R. S. 2320.) But the location is of 
 a piece of land including the vein. " A mining claim loca- 
 ted after the 10th day of May, 1872, whether located by one 
 or more persons, may equal, but shall not exceed, fifteen 
 hundred feet in length along the vein or lode ; but no location 
 of a mining claim shall be until the discovery of the vein or 
 lode within the limits of the claim located. No claim shall ex- 
 tend more than three hundred feet on each side of the middle 
 of the vein at the surface, nor shall any claim be limited by 
 any mining regulation to less than twenty-five feet on each 
 side of the middle of the vein at the surface, except where 
 adverse rights existing on the 10th day of May, 1872, ren- 
 der such limitation necessary. The end lines of each claim 
 shall be parallel to each other." (E. S. 2320.) This section 
 alone shows that it is a surface parallelogram not less than 
 fifty feet in width that must be located. But the purpose of 
 the law is more clearly indicated by its granting clauses. 
 What is it that locators have the exclusive right to possess? 
 Having complied with the laws they shall have the exclu- 
 sive right of possession and enjoyment of all the surface in- 
 cluded within the lines of their locations, and of all veins, 
 lodes and ledges throughout their entire depth, the top or 
 apex of which lies inside of such surface lines extended 
 downward vertically, although such veins, lodes or ledges 
 may so far depart from a perpendicular in their course down- 
 ward as to extend outside of the vertical side-linej of such 
 surface locations. (R. S. 2322.) This is the only part of 
 the Act which grants the right to possess any lode, ledge or 
 vein. 
 
 The vein originally discovered, and for the sake of which 
 the location is made, is lumped in with other mineral de- 
 posits that may happen to exist within the limits of the 
 surface claim, and no part of it is granted except that part 
 the top or apex of which lies inside of the surface lines ex- 
 tended downward vertically. This, it would seem, ought to 
 be conclusive, but the language of section two thousand 
 three hundred and twenty-five is, if possible, still more con- 
 vincing: "Section 2325. A patent for any land claimed 
 and located for valuable deposits, may be obtained in the 
 following manner: Any person, association, or corporation 
 authorized to locate a claim under this chapter, having 
 claimed and located a piece of land for such purposes," 
 may, by taking the prescribed steps, obtain the title 
 upon the payment of five dollars per acre for the land. 
 Thus it appears that a location on a vein must be made by 
 taking up '' a piece of land " to include it. No other means 
 are provided, and it is only upon condition of comply- 
 ing with the law that the locator becomes entitled to any- 
 thing. The discoverer of a vein may be allowed a reason- 
 able time to trace its com-se, before being compelled to 
 define his surface claim, and in the meantime may be pro- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEKEST8 OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 647 
 
 tected in his claim to one thousand five hundred feet of the vein, 
 but his location will never be complete until his surface claim 
 is defiued. That this is the only possible construction of 
 the statute, seems so plain to our minds that we should have 
 thought it superfluous to say a word in defense of our view 
 if we were not aware that an opposite opinion is very large- 
 ly prevalent. 
 
 We think this due to the fact that the custom of 
 locating a vein claim by means of a notice posted on the 
 croppings, and of holding it by record of the notice and 
 work done at the discovery point, without any definition 
 of boundaries, has prevailed so long and so universally on 
 the Pacific Coast that the system has come to be regarded 
 by a great many as something essentially inherent in the 
 nature of things. The ri^ht, under such locations, to fol- 
 low the vein in whatever direction it might run, to the ex- 
 tent claimed in the location notice, taking the adjacent sur- 
 face necessary for the convenient working of the mine as a 
 mere incident thereto, has been so long recognized and en- 
 joyed as to have almost assumed the character of one of 
 the natural and inalienable rights of man. That the Gov- 
 ernment, in disposing of its' mineral lands, has adopted a 
 radically different system, under which a vein can only be 
 located by means of a surface claim, and held only to the 
 extent that it is included within the surface lines, is a thing 
 too incredible to be believed by those to whom the old cus- 
 toms seemed rooted in the • very foundations of justice. 
 But disagreeable as the awakening may be, it is time we 
 were opening our eyes to the fact that a new system has 
 been introduced. The Act of Congress of May 10, 1872, 
 has effected the changes above indicated. Its language is 
 plain, unambiguous ; and whatever may be our opinion of 
 the impolicy of the changes effected by it, we are bound to 
 submit and conform ourselves to its requirements. If the 
 terms of the statute left any room for construction, tho 
 argumentum, ab incotivenienti might be entitled to great 
 weight, but it cannot be revoked where the language of the 
 law is so plain as it is in this instance. Besides, we do not 
 share in the opinion that the new system is so utterly bad. 
 Nobody can pretend that it is a great improvement on the sys- 
 tem which it displaced. We are willing to admit that cases 
 may arise to which it will be difficult to apply the law, but 
 this only proves that such cases escaped the foresight of 
 Congress, or that, although they foresaw the possibility of 
 such cases occurring, they -considered that possibility so re- 
 mote as not to afford a reason for departing from the 
 simplicity of the plan they chose to adopt. So far, the wis- 
 dom of the Congressional plan has been sufficiently vindi- 
 cated by experience. It is true that veins and ledges are 
 not found to be perfectly regular in their formation — they 
 have not a perfectly straight course even in depth — and near 
 the surface ihejr present still greater irregularities of strike 
 and dip ; but still they approximate the ideal vein that Con- 
 gress seems to have had in view sufficiently nearly to admit an 
 easy application of the law in all cases of conflicting claims 
 that have fallen under their observation. As to the diffi- 
 culty of establishing surface lines immediately upon the 
 discovery of a vein; that also is conceded. It is a well 
 known ract that the croppings of a vein are always very im- 
 perfect and often a very deceptive guide to its course ; and 
 it will often be difficult and sometimes impossible to locate 
 a surface claim in conformity with the course of the vein, 
 oven after years spent in its development. But all this 
 affords no argument against the system. Unless the miners 
 voluntarily restrict themselves by local regulations, a claim 
 may always be fifteen hundred feet long by six hundred feet 
 wide. Let the discoverer of a vein be ever so unfortunate 
 in locating his claim, he cannot possibly get less than six 
 hundred feet of the vein, while under the old law the most 
 he could get was four hundred feet. How then can it be 
 said that he is subjected to any hardships? So far from re- 
 stricting his rights, the new law has very greatly enlarged 
 them, and at the same time has made them vastly more cer- 
 tain and secure. Furthermore, we do not understand that 
 the law requires the surface claim to be defined immediately 
 upon the discovery of the vein. We think that under any 
 circumstances the discoverer, if he went to work diligently 
 to trace out its course, would be allowed a reasonable time 
 for that purpose, and in the meantime would be protected in 
 his right to one thousand five hundred feet of the vein. In 
 
 the absence of any State or Territorial or local regulation 
 prescribing the time to be allowed for tracing, the question 
 as to what should be deemed a reasonable time would have 
 to be determined in view of the facts and circumstances of 
 each case. We said, however, in the Golden Fleece case (12 
 Nev. 329), and we still think that this is a matter for local 
 regulation under the power delegated to the miners by sec- 
 tion 2,324 of the Kevised Statutes, to make rules not in con- 
 flict with the laws. Any reasonable rule for the provisional 
 holding of a claim, by means of the posting and recording 
 of notice, during the time necessary for tracing would, we 
 feel confident, be favorably viewed by the courts, especially 
 if it required the locator to use diligence in the work of 
 tracing during the time allowed for that purpose. This, how- 
 ever, is a question which we are not called upon to decide 
 in this case. We have been led into this line of argument 
 in response to what has been said by counsel for respondent 
 in regard to the great hardship imposed upon the discoverer 
 of a vein by compelling him to define his surface claim be- 
 fore he could possibly ascertain the course of the vein. If 
 we are right in our opinion that he would be allowed a 
 reasonable time for tracirig, the supposed hardship does not 
 exist. If we are wrong, and if the discoverer must set his 
 stakes without stopping to trace the vein, even then, as we 
 have shown, he is better off since than he was before the 
 statute. His surface lines will necessarily include at least 
 six hundred feet of the vein, and may include upward of one 
 thousand six hundred. In the latter case he may be com- 
 pelled to readjust his lines so as to take only one thousand 
 five hundred feet, but in any case he can secure six hundred 
 feet. Before the statute he could claim no more than four 
 hundred feet of the vein, and of that he was not secure for 
 a day. The moment he developed rich ore he was beset by 
 trespassers, and in order to enjoin them from stealing his 
 property, was obliged to trace the vein between them and 
 the location point. He was harassed with litigation, and 
 his means often entirely consumed in the prosecution of work 
 not necessary for the development of his mine, but essential 
 for the vindication of his title. Under the new law this 
 source of vexation and expense is entirely swept away. 
 Within his surface lines the discoverer of a vein is secure, 
 and he might well consent to sacrifice something in the 
 extent of his claim for the sake of that security. 
 
 So far, however, from having to make such a sacrifice, his 
 claim, at the very worst, is more ample than it ever was 
 before. Sound policy, therefore, concurs with the language 
 of the statute in sustaining our conclusion that a vein can 
 only be located by means of a service claim. How soon 
 after the discovery of the vein " the location must be dis- 
 tinctly marked on the ground so that its boundaries can be 
 readily traced " (E. S. 2324), we do not decide ; but until il; 
 is so marked we are clear that the location is not complete, 
 and the law has not been complied with. So far we agree 
 entirely with the views of counsel for appellant ; but, al- 
 though we are satisfied that a location must be of a surfece 
 claim, and that the boundaries and extent of the claim must 
 be clearly defined by stakes or marks on the ground, it does 
 not appear to be a necessary consequence that the least 
 admissible markings is by posts or monuments at all the 
 corners of the claim. We are aware that the Commissioner 
 of the Land Office has recommended the planting of posts 
 at the corners, and the erection of a signboard with the 
 name of the claim, the names of the locators, etc., at the 
 location point ; and undoubtedly a compliance with these 
 recommendations would be sufficient to satisfy the law in 
 this particular. But at the same time we think it may be 
 satisfied by something less. There is, after all, something 
 in the fact that it is a mining claim, and not an agricultural 
 claim that is being located : and some account should be 
 taken of the customs, habits and circumstances of a mining 
 community in determining what is a sufficient marking of a 
 mining claim. The vein is always the principal object that 
 the locator has in view ; it is generally, after location and 
 work at the location point, a conspicuous feature of the 
 locality ; it is the first thing that attracts the attention of 
 mining men ; the surface claim by which it is to be located 
 ought to conform to its course; the end lines must be 
 parallel ; and, as they ought to conform to the dip of the 
 ledge as nearly as practicable, they ought to be at right 
 angles to the side lines, so that if the centre-line of the 
 
648 
 
 THE MINES, MINEKS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 claim is once established, the boundaries are thereby fixed, 
 and may be readily traced. The object of the law in requir- 
 ing the location to be marked on the ground is to fix the 
 clp.im — to prevent floating or swinging — so that those who 
 in good faith are looking for unoccupied ground in the 
 vicinity of previous locations may be enabled to ascertain 
 exactly what has been appropriated in order to make their 
 locations on the residue. We concede that the provisions of 
 the law designed for the attainment of this object are most 
 important and beneficent, and that they ought not to be 
 frittered away by construction. But it must be remembered 
 that the law does not in express terms require the bound- 
 aries to be marked. It requires the location to be so 
 marked that its boundaries can be readily traced. Stakes 
 at the corners do not mark the boundaries ; they are only a 
 means by which the boundaries may be traced. Why not, 
 then, allow the same efficacy to the marking of a center line 
 in a district where the extent of a claim on each side of the 
 center line is established by the local rules? It would be 
 safer, and therefore better, to comply with the recommenda- 
 tions of the Land-office and erect stakes at the corners of 
 the claim, but if the grand object of the law is attained by 
 the marking of a center line we can see no reason why it 
 should not be allowed to be sufiicient. 
 
 In this case the locators of the Paymaster marked the 
 center line of their claim on the tenth of October, 1872. No 
 miner, no man of common intelligence, acquainted with the 
 customs of the country, could have gone on the ground 
 and seen the monument, notice and work at the dis- 
 covery point and the two stakes — one three hundred feet 
 south-east of the location monument, marked "South- 
 easterly stake of Paymaster," the other twelve hundred feet 
 north-west of the location monument and marked " North- 
 westerly stake of Paymaster '' — in a line with the croppings 
 and the discovery point, without seeing at a glance that they 
 marked the center line of the claim. By the rules of the 
 district and the laws of the land he would have been in- 
 formed that the boundaries of the claim were formed by 
 lines parallel to the center line and three hundred feet dis- 
 tant therefrom and by end lines at right angles thereto. 
 With this knowledge he could have traced the boundaries 
 and, if such was his wish, ascertained exactly where he could 
 locate with safety. We conclude, therefore, that the Pay- 
 master location was sufficiently marked on October 10, 1872. 
 At that time the Shark location had not been marked in 
 any way, and whether the law allows a locator a reasonable 
 time or not to mark his boundaries — protecting his full 
 claim in the meanwhile — ^the same result equally follows. 
 If the Paymaster was not marked within a reasonable time 
 after discovery, then certainly the Shark was not, for the 
 first was marked within three months and the latter not 
 until more than eighteen months after discovery ; so that 
 the Shark claim was lost by the failure to mark its location 
 within a reasonable time, and such time is allowed, then the 
 Shark was thereby excluded. If no time for tracing is 
 allowed, and the first to mark his boundaries is first in right, 
 then the Paymaster location holds the claim, because it was 
 first defined by monuments on the ground. Unless the Pay- 
 master location failed in some other particular to comply 
 with the law, there is no hypothesis upon which anything 
 can be claimed under the Shark location. But it is con- 
 tended that the Paymaster location was rendered invalid by 
 non-compliance with the rules of the district and the law of 
 Congress respecting the notice and record of claims. There 
 is no doubt that in order to secure the right of possession to 
 a mining claim there must be a compliance not only with 
 the laws of the United States, but also with such local regu- 
 lations of the mining district as are not in conflict therewith 
 (R. S. 2324), and if the miners of the Ward District have 
 made the posting and recording of location notices essential, 
 the courts are not at liberty to dispense with them. The 
 original laws of the district were adopted May 1, 1872, ten 
 days prior to the passage of the Act ot Congress, which, as 
 we have seen, introduced an entirely new system of making 
 locations — a system in which the preliminary posting and 
 recording of notices is entirely out of place, except as a 
 means of protecting a claim during the time necessary for 
 tracing the ledge and marking the boundaries of the loca- 
 tion. When the location is thus marked, .all that the notice 
 and record, were intended or expected to accomplish is 
 
 effected in a manner far more satisfactory and complete. 
 In place of a very imperfect, and often misleading notice of 
 what was claimed, there is a plain and unambiguous notice 
 to all the world of the exact position and extent of the loca- 
 tion. It might well have been held, therefore, with respect 
 to the rules adopted May 1, 1872, that their requirements as 
 to the posting and recording of notices were superseded by 
 the Act of Congress of May 10, 1872 ; that they were merged 
 in the higher and more efficacious rule of the statute, or, at 
 least, that if they continued of any force whatever, it was 
 only as a means of protecting a vein discovery during the 
 time reasonably necessary for tracing its course and mark- 
 ing the boundaries of the location, and consequently that if 
 the discoverer chose to mark his location in the beginning, 
 or actually did so at any time before an adverse claim was 
 made, his failure to post and record a notice would count 
 for nothing. 
 
 But the rules of the district were revised on the first of 
 October, after the passage of the Act of Congress, and the 
 provisions with respect to the notice and record of clainis 
 were readopted without any additional provision for bring- 
 ing them into sensible relation to the law. They do not 
 purport to supply a means of holding a claim pending the 
 marking of the location on the ground, but stand as sub- 
 stantive and independent requirements, a compliance with 
 which is essential to the validity of a claim. We are not 
 willing, under the circumstances, to go to the extent of 
 holding that their observance can be dispensed with, even 
 where a location has been plainly marked before the making 
 of an adverse claim. We will assume that it was ne- 
 cessary for the locators of the Paymaster not only to have 
 marked their location before the Shark locators complied 
 with the law, but also to have posted and recorded a notice 
 of the claim. Did they do so? There can be no question 
 that the original Paymaster notice was all that the law re- 
 quires. The only objection to it is that it did not contain 
 in itself a description of the claim by reference to 
 some natural object or permanent monument. It was 
 nfecessary that it should. It is only the record of the claim 
 that is required to contain such a description ; and there 
 are excellent reasons for making a distinction between the 
 notice and the record in this particular. A notice is gene- 
 rally, and for safely ought always to be, posted immediately 
 upon the discovery of the vein, before there is any time to 
 survey the ground, and ascertain the bearings and distances 
 of natural objects or permanent monuments in the neigh- 
 borhood ; and besides, the claim referred to by the notice is 
 always sufficiently identified by the fact that it is posted on 
 or in_ immediate proximity to the croppings. A notice 
 claiming a location on " this vein " has only one meaning. 
 But the notice is exposed to the danger of removal by ad- 
 verse claimants, or destruction by the elements, and for 
 permanent evidence of the location its record is provided 
 for. The record, if it consisted of a mere copy of the no- 
 tice would not identify the claim, and there would be an 
 opportunity as well as a temptation to the locators, upon the 
 discovery of a more valuable mine in the vicinitv, to prove, 
 by perjured witnesses, that their notice was posted on that 
 mine. The floating of claims was by no means an infre- 
 quent occurrence prior to the act of 1872, and if such at- 
 tempts were seldom completely successful, they were always 
 vexatious, and often the means of levying a heavy black- 
 mail. It was on this account that the record (not the no- 
 tice), was required to contain "such a description of the 
 claim or claims located by reference to some natural object 
 or permanent monument as will identify the claim." (E. S., 
 Sec. 2324). It is a sufficient compliance with this provision 
 of the law if the description of the locus of the claim is ap- 
 pended to the notice when it is recorded. But by reference 
 to the foregoing statement of facts it will be seen, that not 
 only did the record of the Paymaster location contain the 
 necessary description, it was also contained in the body of 
 the notice as posted on the ground : "Situated about fifteen 
 hundred feet north-west by north of the ' Mountain Pride 
 lode,' " IS the description in the notice ; and as no objection 
 to It was made upon the ground that the "Mountain Pride 
 lode" was not .n.welKknown natural object, at that distance, 
 and m that direction from the Paymaster location monu- 
 ment, wc presume it was, in fact, a good description. The 
 record also contained the names of the locators and the date 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 649 
 
 of the location, and thus fulfilled every requirement of the 
 Act of Congress. (R. S.,' Sec. 2324.) But it was changed 
 by Ward and Henry, and it is contended that after those 
 changes it was no longer a good record. 
 
 The argument in support of this point is about as follows ; 
 Pesirson, whose name was in the original notice, as first re- 
 corded in the little book, was one of the locators of the 
 claim ; he had a vested right, and could not be deprived of 
 his interest by the erasure of his name from the notice and 
 record, and consequently after his name was scratched Out, 
 the record no longer contained the names of the locators, 
 and was void. We do not think it is by any means clear 
 that Pearson ever acquired any interest in the claim. It 
 does not appear that he ever assented to the use of his name 
 as a locator by Ward, who actually made the discovery and 
 posted and recorded the notice, and it does appeai: that 
 there was some sort of arrangement by which Ward Was to 
 divide his discoveries equally among those whose names 
 Were afterwards signed to the notifce. If Pearson had no 
 right to a share in' the discovery, and if ' Ward merely in- 
 serted his name by mistake or under some misapprehension, 
 and erased ' it before the ' claim had been perfected by 
 work or the marking of its boundaries, it is difficult to see 
 upon what ground he could claim to have ever had any yes- 
 ted' right as a locator. ' But whether he had or not is a 
 question between him and the other locators Of the Paymas- 
 ter. As to outsiders, the notice and riecord were sufficient. 
 They contained the names Of those who claimed to be the 
 locators, and served every purpose of the law — that is, they 
 identified' the claimants and the claim. 
 
 The subsequent alteration of the notice by changing the 
 worda westeriy and "easterly to northerly and southerly had 
 no effect on the rights of the parties. The offly purpose of 
 those words was to show in which direction from the disco- 
 very point the claim exteftded one thousand two hundred 
 feet, and in which direction its extent was only three hun- 
 dred' feet. Either setofVords served the purpose equally 
 weili "No doubt when 'the vein was first discovei'ed, its 
 cOuTse seemed to be east and west; after a certain amount 
 of devyopihent, it seemed to run north and South; and the 
 notice was ciianged for the perfectly innocent and eveii 
 lau(;lable purpose of giVing to all whom it might concern a 
 better •description of the claim. The corresponding altera- 
 tion in the record was made With the same motive — ^at least 
 the court finds that it was ,done without any fraudulent in- 
 tent ; and certaintly it was wholly immaterial. There was 
 no, swinging of the location effected by this change in the 
 notice and record. The claim was never fixed until the 
 stakes were set; and so far as the notice was concerned, it 
 claimed one thousand fiVe hundred feet Of the vein, no mat- 
 ter where it might run. If it was good for anything it was 
 ^od for what it claimed, pending the marking of the loca- 
 tion. The changes and erasures in the record Were cer- 
 tainly irregular; and if they had been material, or if they 
 h^d' not been satisfactorily explained, might have afforded 
 good grounds for excluding it from evidence. 
 
 But they were satisfactorily explained. They were not 
 designed, to defraud any one, and had no such effect. We 
 think that the comments of the District Judge on this 
 matter are vei"y Just. Mining recorders are a class of officials 
 that must be treated with a great deal of forbearance and 
 indulgence. • They are often entirely ignorant of legal forms, 
 and have no appreciation of the horror with which an ordi- 
 hai*y lawyer views the erasure or alteration of records and 
 other documents. Where no fraud or deception is intended, 
 their blunders are not to be construed into crimes. 
 
 This ■ disposes of the first proposition of the appellant. 
 The ' sedOnd and third are entirely withoiit ' merit, and as 
 they relate to well-settted doctrines of the law, they will 
 be briefly adverted iio. There is nOt the slightest evidence 
 of an intention on the part of the Pajonaster location to 
 abandon their claim. The act of Henry in changing the 
 language of ttenoticeoii'the 10th of October, 1872, proves 
 only that he had aboiidoned the opinion that the course of 
 the ledge was east and west. 'So far from proving an inten- 
 tion to abandon a foot of his claim on the ledge,; it prbyei 
 exactly the reverse. , - 
 
 Nor do thefacts present a single element of estoppel. ' 
 
 Each party had exactly the same means of information. 
 When the Shark location was niade, it was as much the 
 
 business of its locators to know whether it was on the Pay- 
 master vein, as it was of Ward, the recorder. The truth 
 probably is, that_no one at that time thought the two claims 
 would conflict. It is idle, therefore, to say that any cul- 
 pable silence on the part of Ward caused the expenditure of 
 labor and money on the Shark. If the locators of that 
 claim were deceived, it was their fault and they must suffer 
 the consequences. 
 
 As to the change in the Paymaster's notice from east and 
 west to north and south, that was, as we have seen, wholly 
 immaterial. The simultaneous setting of the stakes en- 
 tirely superseded the calls of the notice, and was the first 
 thing that ever fixed the boundaries of the claim. If after 
 that the Shark locators continued at work, "they did so with 
 their eyes wide open, as they did everything else from the 
 beginning to the end of their attempts to locate the ground. 
 Prom the outset they had the same opportunities to know 
 the truth that the other party had. Jf they haVe any better 
 claim to the property than the defendant, it is not because 
 they were deceived or misled, but only because they can 
 show a technical compliance with the law, while their ad- 
 versaries cannot. It is upon this ground alone that their 
 case has any semblance of strength, and upon this ground 
 we think it entirely fails. The judgment and order appealed 
 from ought to be affirmed, and it is so ordered. 
 
 Beatty, J. 
 
 I concur : Leonaird, J. 
 
 , Since the foregoing opinion was written two cases (Gel- 
 si(;h V. Mpriartyjet., al., ah^ Holland et. al. v. Mount Auburn 
 G,,Q. Mining Company) have been decided by, the Supreine 
 Court of California, in both of which it is assumed, as a 
 point beyond question, that the marking of a' mining loca- 
 tion on the ground so that its boundaries can be readily 
 traced is absolutely essential to the validity of the claim. 
 This is in, perfect accordance with our own views, as above 
 expressed. But in the latter Of these cases itseems also to 
 beTield that the marking of the centre line of the claim is not 
 sufficient to satisfy therequirements of the law. The opinion 
 of the Court is very brief, and no reasons are assigned for 
 the conclusions reached. We have however, been led by that 
 decision to thoroughly reconsider our own opinion on this 
 point and the arguments of counsel/Jro 'and con. The result 
 is that we are satisfied of the correctness of our first conclu- 
 sion. A mining claim consists of a certain breadth of 
 surface, to be laid off on each side of the line of the crop- 
 pings, with "the mineral deposits included therein. The 
 centre line, as a matter of course, is to be a straight line 
 conforming to the general Strike of the vein, as nearly as 
 that can be ascertained. The side lines are to be parallel 
 to the centre line, and if, as we assume to be the proper con- 
 struction of the law, the end lines must be parallel and 
 conform tO the dip of the vein, which is at right angles 
 to its strike, it follows, with the conclusiveness of a-mathe- 
 matical demonstration, that when the centre line ' is once 
 definitely fixed the boundary lines can be traced (that is,- 
 foUowed out) with absolute certainty. It may be that they 
 could not be traced as easily and readily as if stakes were 
 set at the comersj but the difference would be very slight 
 and of no practical consequence, ^n any case, we think 
 that ;the law should receive as liberal and beneficial a con- 
 struction as is consistent with the object which Congress 
 undoubtedly had in view in passing it. That object, we are 
 satisfied, was not to save intending locators a slight amount 
 of labor in tracing older claims, but it was to make; the 
 boundaries of such older claims certain and immovable ;. to 
 put an end forever to the shifting and floating of claims ; 
 to do away with an existing and intolerable evil. The whole 
 object of the law is accQmplished whenever, from the monu- 
 ments on the ground, the boundaries of a mining claim can 
 be traced with absolute certainty and without any practical, 
 difficulty, and for that purpose a definitely fixed centre line 
 is sufficient. Beatty, J. 
 
 I concur : Leonard, J. 
 
 By HawUy, G. J., Concwrring. — I concur in the conclu- 
 sions reached by the Court, that the judgment of the Dis- 
 trict Court ought to be affirmed ; but t am unwilling to give 
 an unqualified approval of the construction given to the 
 mining laws of the United States. 
 
 If I entertained the opinion, as expressed by the Court, 
 
650 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 that " it is a surface parallelogram not less than fifty feet in 
 width that must be located ; " that the location on a vein 
 " must be made by taking up a piece of land to include it ; " 
 that a vein can "only be located by means of a surface claim, 
 and held only to the extent that it is included in the surface 
 lines," and if — upon these points — I agreed " entirely with 
 the views of counsel for appellant, I should be inclined to 
 agree with their conclusions that it is the surface location 
 that " must be distinctly marked on the ground so that its 
 boundaries can be distinctly traced.'' 
 
 But I do not believe that it was the intention of Congress, 
 by the passage of the several Acts referred to in the opin- 
 ion of the Court, to produce an entire revolution in the 
 system of locating mining claims. Some very important 
 changes have been made and the rights of the locators have 
 been enlarged and made more specific; but, in my judg- 
 ment, it is — as it was under the old system — the vein of 
 quartz, the lode, that is the principal thing constituting the 
 location. The surface ground is but an incident thereto. 
 The location of such a mining claim is distinctly marked on 
 the ground so that its boundaries can be readily traced, by 
 the placing of stakes along the lode and at the ends of the 
 location, or by such other monuments or marks as will 
 clearly designate the number of feet in length and the par- 
 ticular lode located. In my judgment, the location need 
 not, necessarily, be the making up of " a piece of land " in 
 the form of a parallelogram. When the vein or lode is suffi- 
 ciently identified and marked, as above stated, the laws of 
 the local district fix the number of feet in width — of the 
 surface ground — ^to which the locator is entitled. It being, 
 of course, understood that " no claim shall extend more 
 than three hundred feet on each side of the middle of the 
 vein at the surface, nor shall any claim be limited by any 
 mining regulation to less than twenty-five feet on each side 
 of the middle of the vein at the surface." 
 
 I difler with the court upon another point discussed in 
 the opinion. I think that after the vein or lode is properly 
 located the locator thereof has the right to fifteen hundred 
 feet along the course of the lode, "in whatever direction it 
 runs, irrespective of the vertical side lines of the surface 
 boundaries" (dissenting opinion. Golden Fleece v. Cable 
 Consolidated, 12 Nev., 331), and that he would only be en- 
 titled to fifteen hundred feet in length, although the vein 
 took such a course as to embraee more thau fifteen hundred 
 feet within the ends lines of his surface location. 
 
 Hawley, C. J. 
 
 Other Decisions. — The following are taken from Car- 
 penter's Mining Code : 
 
 David O. Patterson vs. Hiram Hitchcock. Bull of the 
 Woods — American Case. 3 Colorado Reports, 533. 
 
 Opinion by Elbert, J. 
 
 Error is assigned upon the refusal of the court below to 
 give the following instruction : " It is essential to a mining 
 claim that it should be made upon the line of a lode ; and 
 it is therefore incumbent on the defendant, in making out his 
 defense, to show that the vein of the American mine runs 
 into or through the ground in controversy. If he has offered 
 no testimony to show that the vein of the American lode 
 enters, or passes across the territory of the Bull of the 
 Woods location, and there are no other proofs in the case 
 from which you can find that fact, the defendant must fail, 
 aud the plaintiff would be entitled to a verdict." Error is 
 also assigned on the refusal of the court to admit evidence 
 to show that the American lode did not cross the Bull of the 
 Woods lode, although the location crossed it. There was 
 no error in refusing the instruction. When a locator has 
 shown a compliance with the requirements of the law in 
 making his location, he is entitled, prima facie, to all the 
 rights which the law attaches to a valid location. The ex- 
 tent to which a location must be on a lode in order to its 
 validity prima facie, is fairly measured by the extent to 
 which It IS necessary to show it on the lode, in order to entitle 
 the locator to state his boundaries, make his record and if 
 he desires, perfect his title by patent. The refusal of the 
 court to allow Paterson to show thut, although the American 
 location crossed the Bull of the Woods lode, the American 
 vein or lode did not cross it, present a more difficult ques- 
 
 tion. May a location, prima facie valid, be defeated, in 
 whole or in part, by showing a termination or departure of 
 the vein at some point within or along the side lines of the 
 location ? The evidence of Van Wittering, respecting the 
 underground workings within the limits of the intersection 
 of the two locations, did not connect the workings with the 
 American lode or show its actual presence ; much less did 
 it show that the American vein extended to or across the 
 vein of the Bull of the Woods. The question presented is, 
 therefore, unembarrassed by any question of fact. Both loca- 
 tions are made under the Act of 1872. It will be observed 
 that the right secured by section three of the Act attach to 
 the locations made, in the language of the section, " on any 
 mineral vein, lode or ledge." To arrive as a whole; accept- 
 ing the broader or doubtful expressions of one section, as 
 limited or explained by other sections. The term "ora any 
 mineral vein, lode or ledge," must be read in the light of 
 the requirements of section two of the Act. This section 
 limits the location to 1,500 feet in length " along the vein or 
 lode," and declares that " no claim shall extend more than 
 300 feet on each side of the middle of the vein at the sur- 
 face." These provisions are plain and explicit, and require, 
 not in express terms it is true, but by necessary implication, 
 that the location should be on the lode the entire extent of 
 the 1,500 feet. With a location off the lode, compliance 
 with the law would be impossible in the matter of width, as 
 the basis of measurement provided by the law would have no 
 existence. By necessary implication, the work requisite to 
 fix the course and position of the lode was also contemplated 
 in order to enable the locator to embrace it within the lines 
 of his location. 
 
 These requirements interpret the expression, " on a vein or 
 lode," as used in section three of the Act. They afford un- 
 doubted evidence that this was the character of locations to 
 which it was intended that the rights conferred by the section 
 should attach. It is claimed, however, that a mislocation, how- 
 ever it may affect the miner's right to the lode located, will 
 not affect his right to the surface ground, either in whole or in 
 part ; that under the Act of 1872, the " surface ground is not a 
 dependent grant. Under the Act of 1866, a surface ground 
 was allowed for the convenient working of the lode or vein, 
 and for no other purpose.'' Such is the language of Justice 
 Field, in the case of the Eureka Mining Company vs. The 
 Richmond Mining Company, 4 Sawyer, 302. Under this 
 Act the right to surface ground was clearly dependent upon 
 the ri^ht to the lode located. It failing, all incidents thereto 
 attaching would also necessarily fail, although the Act of 
 1872 enlarges the rights of the locator by a grant of " all the 
 veins, lodes and ledges, the top or apex of which lie within 
 his surface lines." We are still of the opinion that his right 
 to the surface ground, continues dependent upon his right 
 to the principal lode, and that his right to other lodes within 
 the surface limits is equally dependent. This enlargement 
 of the rights of the locator, was doubtless intended to stim- 
 ulate his enterprise by increasing his reward ; but the con- 
 trolling reason was to prevent the controversies which were 
 constantly arising, respecting veins or lodes connected or as- 
 sociated with the lode claimed. These controversies ab- 
 stracted the full and proper enjoyment of the principal lode 
 granted, and the design was to settle and prevent them. In 
 this, and in the case of surface ground, it was intended to 
 grant that which was associated with the principal lode by 
 proximity, within prescribed limits. When this associa- 
 tion ceases in the case of surface ground, the reason for 
 granting it ceases. A mineral vein or lode is a leading term 
 in both Acts. There must be a lode discovered and appro- 
 priated by compliance with the requisites of location. 
 
 This is the prominent and pronounced subject of the grant. 
 This is what the miner has discovered, and claimed by right 
 of discovery. The security of his title thereto, was the 
 practical necessity with which the Act dealt ; all else, we 
 think, incident thereto, under the Act of 1866, the right to 
 the surface ground, under the Act of 1872, both the right to 
 the surface ground, and the right to other veins, lodes and 
 ledges. The principal lode constitutes the measure of the 
 miner's right to the surface ground, as the surface ground 
 when thus determined, in turn constitutes the measure of 
 his right to other veins, lodes and ledges, subject to the ex- 
 press limitations of the law. It follows, therefore, that if 
 the lode located, terminates at any point within the location. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 651 
 
 or departs at any point from the side lines, that the location 
 beyond such point, and to that extent, is defeasible, if not void. 
 
 Wolfy and Skinner vs. The Lebanon Mining Company. Bell 
 Tunnel — Ben Harding Case. 4 Colorado Reports, 112. 
 
 Opinion by Thatcher, C J. 
 
 This was an action of ejectment to recover the possession 
 pf eight hundred feet of the Ben Harding lode. The 
 fevidence tended to show that the Ben Harding lode in its 
 general course or strike, departed from the vertical side lines 
 ^f the location as described in the patent, and entered the 
 pell Tunnel lode location, which was also patented. At 
 common law, a grant of land carries with it all that lies 
 beneath the surface to the center of the earth. This rule, 
 except so far as modified by statute, must extend to the 
 plaintiff's patent. There may be a grant of the mineral, 
 Separate from the surface of the earth. The Ben Harding 
 patent must be construed under the Act of 1866. The 
 second section of that Act provides, " that it shall be lawful 
 for the claimant of a vein or lode, to file in the local land 
 ^ffice a diagram of the same, so extended laterally or other- 
 wise, as to conform to the local laws, customs and rules of 
 jniners, and to enter such tract and to receive a patent there- 
 for, granting such mine, together with the right to follow 
 such vein or lode with its dips, angles and variations to any 
 Uepth, although it may enter the land adjoining, which land 
 j^djoining shall be sold subject to this condition." This sec- 
 tion is a departure from the common law doctrine, and 
 permits the patentee to follow his lode in its downward 
 pourse to any depth although it is carried by its dips, angles 
 land variations, beyond its side lines, while the words " to any 
 depth," limit the direction in which the mine may be pur- 
 sued beyond the side lines. The claimant is required to file 
 in the land office a diagram of his vein or lode. This is his 
 own act. Before making such diagram, the law contemplates 
 that he shall so far expose and develop the lode as to be able 
 to trace its course. If the plat made by the surveyor does 
 not cover the lode, he will not be permitted to shift his lines 
 so as to include the lode. The error is his own, not that of 
 the government officer who acts under the direction of the 
 claimant. However tortuous might be the course of the 
 lode, the claimant has a right to follow it up and prepare 
 his diagram so as to include it. There are no words in the 
 Act which require the diagram to be in the form of a paral- 
 lelogram or any other particular form. The Act requires 
 that there must be a discovered lode, whose locus must be 
 embraced in the limits of the diagram. The surface ground 
 and the lode are not independent grants. It is not the pur- 
 pose of the law to grant surface ground without a discovered 
 lode. The lode is the principal thing, and the surface 
 ground incident thereto. 
 
 In conveying a segment of the earth located under the 
 provisions of the Act, it is the intention of Congress to con- 
 vey a mine contained within that segment as the substance 
 of the grant. The Act appeals to the industry of the miner 
 to make sure that the lode is within his location. The 
 higher his diligence the greater his reward. If by lack of 
 care he makes a location not embracing the lode he seeks to 
 secure, he cannot be heard to complain because others have 
 explored and occupied the adjacent territory containing the 
 claim he might have embraced in his diagram. If, as the 
 evidence tends to show, the Bell Tunnel lode is but a con- 
 tinuation of the Ben Harding lode (after its departure from 
 the vertical side lines), extending through the adjacent 
 location, there is no principle of law or justice, in the ab- 
 sence of an express statutory provision, by which the patentee 
 of the last named lode can encroach upon the premises em- 
 braced by the Bell Tunnel lode location, and deprive the 
 owner thereof of the fruits of his discovery. Before a 
 claimant is entitled to a patent under the Act of 1866, he 
 must comply with all its provisions, the leading object of 
 which is to require that the claimant, before applying for a 
 patent, shall ascertain the exact location of his lode and fix 
 by his diagram that location, so that the public may be ap- 
 prised of its limits and may thereafter with safety explore 
 and occupy adjacent tracts. It is insisted that if not by the 
 terms of the Act of 1866, then by virtue of territorial legis- 
 lation and local customs and rules of miners, the patentee 
 of the Ben Harding lode was entitled to follow the course of 
 the discovered lode beyond his own side lines, and that the 
 
 Act of 1866 was to recognize and confirm these rules and 
 customs. The Act confirmed such legislation of local rules, 
 so far as the same may not be in conflict with the lavis of the 
 United States. The Acts of Congress are paramount to all 
 local laws, and the patentee takes under the laws of the 
 United States. The right of th^ locator to the possession of 
 his claim and to appropriate to his own use the mineral de- 
 posits therein under the Acts of Congress, is full and com- 
 plete, and he need not take steps to obtain patent for the 
 land. 
 
 There is no time prescribed in which he shall apply for 
 the patent. Ample time is given to ascertain the precise 
 situs of his lode, with reference to adjacent land. The sur- 
 face and the lode are both the subject of the grant. The 
 patent operates to convey, not only the circumscribed tract 
 of land, but also the lode contained therein, with the right 
 to follow the same in its downward course into adjoining 
 premises^ but not to follow it when in its general strike it 
 departs from the vertical side lines. In the latter case, after 
 its departure, it is the subject of location by whomsoever it 
 may be discovered. If, then, as the evidence tends to show, 
 the ledge on which the Ben Harding lode was located de- 
 flected in its general strike from the patented side lines, the 
 patentee is not entitled, in virtue of his patent, to its posses- 
 sion beyond the side lines, as against one who has sub- 
 sequently located it and patented it. 
 
 In the case of the Flagstaff Silver Mining Company, of 
 Utah, vs. Helen Tarbet, the Supreme Court of the United 
 States, in May, 1879, decided that " a location of a mining 
 claim upon a lode or vein of ore should be laid along the same 
 lengthwise of the course of its apex, at or near the surface, 
 as well under the mining Act of 1866 as under that of 1872. 
 If located otherwise, the location will only secure so much 
 of the lode or vein as it actually covers." 
 
 G. W. Hall ei als. vs. Equator Mining and Smelting Co. et 
 als. Colorado Central — Equator Case. U. S. Circuit Court. 
 
 Trial and opinion by Hall-ett, J. 
 
 Both locations are fifty feet in width, one 1,400 feet, and 
 the other 1,500 feet in length. -Their general course is east 
 and west, and they differ in direction about twelve degrees. 
 The greater length of the Equator is eastward from the 
 Colorado Central, and the locations overlap in some such 
 way as the rails of a Virginia fence overlap each other. 
 The east end of the Central location passes over and across 
 the west end of the Equator, so that the end of each loca- 
 tion . projects beyond the north side line of the other a 
 distance of two or three hundred feet. 
 
 The position of the claims with reference to each other 
 seems to indicate that they are cross and intersecting lodes, 
 with an acute angle of twelve degrees. It appears from the 
 evidence that, instead of two lodes intersecting each other 
 in the manner indicated by the locations, there is at the 
 junction of the surface lines, and for a considerable distance 
 easp of that point, but one lode, which lies partly in both 
 locations and partly between them, and perhaps extends 
 beyond the north line of the Central patent. At the east 
 end of the Central patent, and the corresponding point on 
 the Equator patent, and thence westward, the unity and 
 entirety of the lode is established by the concurring testi- 
 mony of all the witnesses, and that, of course, covers all the 
 disputed ground. In the Equator works the south wall of 
 the lode is exposed, but the north wall has not been found 
 there or in the Central openings. We may, however, assume 
 the existence of a lode, the northern limit of which is at 
 present unknown. 
 
 We then have, as shown by the evidence, the Equator 
 location on the south side of that lode, with the foot-wall 
 coming to the surface pretty near the central line of that 
 location. On the foot-wall and following it westward to and 
 through the disputed ground, there is a mineral vein — that 
 word being used to describe a tabular sheet of ore, as dis- 
 tinguished from the gangue of the lode. 
 
 We have also the Central location, a part of the lode 
 within the walls, but not touching either of them. So also 
 in the Central location there is a vein of ore, less distinct, 
 perhaps, than the other, but distinguishable from the general 
 mass of crevice material. With these locations both parties 
 claim the entire lode, the plaintifis by virtue of their earlier 
 
652 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 discoTery and location, to which they say their patent must 
 relate, and thus secure to them the prior right. The princi- 
 pal question is, whether by locating a part of the width of 
 outcrop the whole may be taken — of several collateral loca- 
 tions on the course of alode, where the.top or outcrop is of 
 sufficient breadth to admit of more than, one, are not all of 
 equal dignity, and force within thpir own lines ? This ques- 
 tiou will admit but one answer, with such modifications as 
 may be hereafter suggested. The Acts of Congress require 
 a location to be along the course of the lode, and to include 
 the top of it. The Equator Company assumed- to take the 
 whole lode into their location, and if they failed by their 
 own oniission, or because of some restricted provision Of the 
 local law, the result is the same. They cannot now claim 
 more than was taken. The same rule is applicable to 
 plaintiff's location. 
 
 If, however, a right to the entire lode cannot be asserted 
 under a location covering a part only of its width, as seems 
 to be obvious, the location may be valid for the part de- 
 scribed in it. If it is on the top of the lode, it is within the 
 Act, and so ought to be good for the part within the lines 
 extended downward vertically, if for no more. Prima fade 
 the patentee must be the own§r of all that lies within his 
 -lines. He has also the right to pursue veins and lodes 
 which. he holds by their outcrop, into other territory. He 
 can only do so in pursuit of a lode or vein that has its top 
 and apex wholly on his own ground, and having but a part 
 of the lode in his territory, he cannot comply with that con- 
 dition. If, then, two or more collateral locations be made on 
 one and the same vein, and the vein appear to be homoge- 
 neous throughout its width, we are authorized to say that 
 each shall be confined within his o\yn lines drawn vertically. 
 The occurrence of veins in other veins, applying the word 
 first to the sheet of ore which is often called the pay streak, 
 and again the general mass of the crevice embracing the ore 
 and gangue, will not be controverted. It is said in Webster's 
 Dictionary that the word "vein" is often limited, in the 
 language of miners, fb a layer or course of metal or ore. 
 So in works on topography, fissures are mentioned as 
 occurring within other and probably older fissures, which, if 
 filled, may furnish the conditions of a vein within another 
 and larger vein. I have not heard the word " lode" used in 
 the same sense, but as it means only a vein carrying ore, it 
 would be even more significant than the latter. The word 
 "ledge" is not in use with us. As found in the Acts of 
 Congress, the word "vein" maybe taken in the limited 
 sense. To give effect to it in that way, we need not resort 
 to the nice definition and subtle distinctions of geological 
 science. It is enough that such is an accepted use amongst 
 miners. So understood, the word " vein," in the Equator 
 patent, may refer to the sheet or crevice of ore that was 
 found on the south wall of the lode. So, also, the word 
 "vein," in the Central patent, may be, regarded as referring 
 to the sheets and bodies of ore found in the plaintiff's open- 
 ings. If the ore had been distributed throughout the lode 
 with anything like uniformity, we should have been unable 
 to distinguish between the several parts, and as we have 
 already said, each party would then be confined to their own 
 lines. But the vein on the south wall is quite dis1;inct from 
 the general mass of the crevice, and of such strength and 
 continuity as may give it unity and individuality in law and 
 in fact. The vein on the south wall may be held as a sepa- 
 rate and distinct location, with the right to follow it in its 
 downward course so long as it retains its individual character. 
 All that has been said is based on the fact, as shown by the 
 evidence, that its top and outcrop are wholly within the 
 Equator ground. If the top and apex of the vein had been 
 in the Central location, some questions would arise concern- 
 ing the. force and effect of the patents within the space in 
 controversy. In the view that has been taken of the case, 
 it has not been found necessary to discuss those questions. 
 
 The judgment will be for defendants. 
 
 Stevens & Leiter vs. Williams et oils. Iron-Orand View 
 Case. U. S. Circuit Court. 
 
 Charge to the Jury by Hallett, J. 
 
 The first matter to which I shall ask your attention is, 
 that the reference in the law is to veins or lodes in place, 
 bearing any valuable metals which are here spoken of. The 
 
 language of the Act is, mining claims upon veins of quartz 
 or other rock in. place, bearing gold, silver, cinnabar, lead, 
 tin, copper, or other valuable deposits. That is the lan- 
 guage of the Act used in describing the kind of mines or 
 valuable deposits which may be itaken under the Act, and 
 the peculiar feature of that description to which I wish to 
 call, your attention, is that they are lodes or veins in. place. 
 Tie exact language, as I before read, is veins or lodes , of 
 quartz or other rock ; that is, veins of quartz or other rockj 
 or lodes of quartz or other rock (the last word^ being added 
 to the first by way of description) that may contain any of 
 these valuable metals. That is to say, any kind of rock 
 bearing any of these inetals, but whatever the rock, whether 
 it be quartz or other rock, it must be iyi place. And, as to 
 the meaning of these- words, in place, they seem to indi- 
 cate the body of the country which has not been affected by 
 the action of the elements ; which may remain in its orig- 
 inal state arid condition as distinguished fi-om the superficial 
 mass which may lie above it. There is quite a number of 
 words which inay be applied to that superficial deposit ; that 
 which is movable,; as contrasted with the immovable mass 
 that lies below, such as alluyiuta, detritus, debris. Perhaps 
 the last word coines as near as any other that is in use, the word 
 debris. A witness in another case here used a word which 
 he appeared to have invented for the occasion, which 
 appeared to ine particularly, significajjt ; he called it " tum- 
 ble stuff," which conveys to my mind pretty distinctly the 
 idea of that which may have been brought to its position 
 by the. action of the elements as distinguished from the vast 
 body of earth which lies below. In speaking of these de- 
 posits, which are in veins or lodes, and of the general mass 
 of rock from which they may be distinguished, miners usu- 
 ally call the surrounding mass of rock in which the lodes or 
 veins are found, the country, or the country rock. By that 
 word they signify the character and description of the gen- 
 eral body of the mountain, whether it is granite, or gneiss, or 
 syenite,'or porphyry, orany otherof the many different kinds 
 of rock. 'They. use that word to describe the general mass 
 of rock, of which the mountain is composed, as distinguished 
 from that which is found in the vein or lode. And when 
 this Act speaks of veins or lodes in ploQC, it means such as 
 lie in a fixed position in the general inass of country rock, 
 or in the general mass of the mountain. As distinguished 
 from the country rock, this superficial deposit may have been 
 brought into its present position by the elements , may 
 have been washed down from above, or may have come there 
 as alluvium or diluvium, from a considerable distance. Now, 
 whenever we find a vein or lode in this general mass of coun- 
 try rock, we may be permitted to say that it is in place, as 
 distinguished from the superficial deposit, and that is true, 
 whatever the character of the deposit may be ; that is to 
 say, as to whether it belongs to one class of veins or another ; 
 it is in place if it is held in the embrace, is inclosed by the 
 general mass of the country. And as to the word vein or 
 lode, it seems to me that these words may embrace any de- 
 scription of deposit which is so situated in the general mass 
 of the country, whether it is described in one way or an- 
 other ; that is to gay, whether in the language of the geolo- 
 gist, we say, that it is a bed, or a separated vein, or gash 
 vein, or true fissure vein, or merely a deposit ; it matters not 
 what the particular description of it may be, in respect to 
 these distinctions, which are observed by geologists in 
 definingthe different classes of deposits that lie in the em- 
 brace, or are inclosed by the general mass of the mountain. 
 In all cases I suppose that they are lodes if not veins. It 
 may be true that many of these deposits will not come un- 
 der the description of veins as known to geologists, but if 
 they are not so described — if they cannot be so correctly de- 
 scribed — they are, at least, lodes, and are recognized as such 
 by miners in their search for them. In other words, when- 
 ever a miner finds a valuable mineral deposit in the body of 
 the earth, as I have described it, he calls that a lode, what- 
 ever its form may be, and however it may be situated, and 
 whatever its extent in the body of the earth. The books 
 make some distinctions between beds, and lodes, and they 
 make distinctions in the different classes of veins, as you 
 have heard from counsel, but these distinctions are not im- 
 portant in relation to this matter of the discovery and tak- 
 ing of these mineral deposits. It has been decided that 
 Congress, in passing this Act, intended by this description 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 653 
 
 to embrace and include all forms of deposit which are lo- 
 cated in the general mass of the mountain, by whatever 
 name they may be known, and the distinctions which are 
 adopted by geologists in respect to the different kinds of 
 yeins are not important except for one question and for one 
 purpose, which I may invite your attention to further on. 
 So that we piay say, gentlemen, with respect to the case 
 which is now before you, that, whether this may be called 
 a true vein or a contract vein, or a bed ; whether it lies 
 with the stratification or transversely to it, the matter is of 
 no importance for the purposfe of determining this question; 
 it is in any event a lode, if it lies in place within the mean- 
 ing of this Act. , And it is inplaee if it is inclosed and em- 
 braced in the general mass of the mountain and immova- 
 ble in that position, Perhaps I ought to say further, in view 
 of some things that were said by counsel in the argument, 
 , thai it is not material as to the character of the vein matter ; 
 ■ whether it is loose and disintegrated, or whether it is solid 
 material. In these lodes the earth that is found in them, 
 the earthy matter which may be washed or treated with 
 water or steam is often the most valuable part. It was 
 never understood here or elsewhare, so far as I know, 
 that such earthy matter was not embraced in the location 
 because it was of that character. It is the surrounding mass 
 of country rock ; it is that which incloses the lode rather 
 than the material of which it is composed which gives it Its 
 character ; so that even if it be true, as counsel have stated 
 in the course of their arguments, that this is mere sand, is a 
 loose and friable material which cannot be called rock in 
 the strict definition of that word, if that be true, it does not 
 affect the character of the lode. If it were all of that char- 
 acter it would still be a vein or lode in. place, if the walls 
 on each side, the part which holds the lode, is fixed and 
 immovable. 
 
 That is, perhaps, sufficient as to. the character of the de- 
 posit, and that which may be ^located in the manner in 
 which the evidence tends to prove that the location was 
 made ; and we have now to consider the question which was 
 so much discussed by counsel, as to the location with refer- 
 ence to the top and apex of the vein. And upon that point 
 it is clear, from an examination of the Act, that it was 
 framed upon the hypothesis that all lodes and veins occupy 
 a position more or less vertical in the earth ; that is, that 
 t^iey stand upon their edge in the body of the mountain, 
 apd these words, top and apex, refer to the part which 
 comes nearest to the surface. The words used are top and 
 apex, as if the writer was somewhat doubtful as to which 
 word would best describe, or best convey, the idea which he 
 had in his mind. It was with reference to that part of the 
 lode which comes nearest to the surface that this descrip- 
 tion was used ; probably the words were not before known 
 in mining industry, at least they are not met with elsewhere, 
 so, far as I am informed. Perhaps they were not the best 
 that could have been used to describe the manner in which 
 the lode should be taken and located. But whether ttat be 
 true or not, they are in the Act of Congress, and there seems 
 to be little doubt as to their meaning; they are not at all 
 ambiguous. In some instances they may, perhaps, refer to 
 the flow of the lode ; that is, a part of the lode which has 
 been detached from the body of mineral in the crevice, and 
 flowed down on the surface ; in others, where there is no 
 such outcrop, they may mean; that part which stands in the 
 solid rock, although below a considerable body of the super- 
 ficial mass which I have attempted to describe to you. We 
 are all agreed, however — the courts and counsel, every one 
 — that that is the meaning of the words, that they are to be 
 taken in some such sense as that, as being the part of the 
 lode which comes nearest the surface ; and the Act requires 
 that the location shall be along the line of this top or apex. 
 Supposing the lode to have a somewhat vertical position in 
 the earth, with this line of outcrop or of appearance on the 
 surface, or nearest to the surface, it shall be taken up and 
 occupied by the claimant as his location, and he must find 
 where this crop and apex is, and make his location with 
 reference to that. So that by this Act he might claim fif- 
 teen hundred feet .in length along the linear course of the 
 lode, and would have one hundred and fifty feet on each side 
 of it, making it three hundred feet in width and fifteen hun- 
 dred feet in length. 
 
 We have already reached the conclusion in this state, the 
 
 supreme court of the state has adopted that construction of 
 the law, that if he fails in that in so far as that his location 
 is not upon the line of his lode, that he can claim no more 
 than he has included within his side lines; that is to say, 
 he makes his location with reference to the top of the lode, 
 with which the lines of the location must be parallel ; and 
 if he fails in that, if the line of the lode departs from the 
 surface lines of his location anywhere upon the length of 
 it, it is so far an invalid location that he can take nothing 
 of the lode that lies without the lines of the loca:tion. This, 
 then, was the method pointed out by this Act, and by the 
 law of the state, for taking up these claims, that it should 
 be along the line and top and apex of the lode, and if this 
 is done, if the location is so made, then, the language of the 
 Agt is express that he shall have not only so inuch of the 
 lode within the lines as lies in. its linear course, but that if 
 the lode in its downward course into the earth departs from 
 these lines upon the sides, passes out upon its dip, that he 
 shall have that part also which lies beyond. Congress seems 
 to have appreciated the fact, which is known to all miners, 
 that there are very few, probably ho lodes that are exactly 
 perpendicular to the surface of the earth ; they incline one 
 way or the other— that is, either to the right or left^-extend- 
 ing alo^g the course of the lode. It seems to be univer- 
 sally true that they depart from the perpendicular in one 
 direction or the other, and if in so departing— if in their 
 downward course into the earth — they depart from their 
 side lines, or the planes of those lines extending downward 
 vertically, then he is to have that part which lies without, 
 as well as within, the surface lines. The language of the 
 Act upon that point is, " of all veins, lodes and ledges, 
 throughout their entire depth, the top, or apex of which lies 
 inside of such surface lines extended downward vertically, 
 although such veins, lodes or ledges may so fiir depart from 
 the perpendicular in their course downward as to extend 
 outside the vertical side lines of such surface location." 
 
 Now it was said with reference to the lode which is now 
 in litigation here, the position was taken by the counsel for 
 the defendant that whenever in its departure from the ver- 
 tical course^ it reaches an inclination which is greater than 
 forty-five degrees, that then it is no departure from the perr 
 pendicular,, but from a horizontal plane, and therefore it is 
 not within the terms of the Act. That position,, gentlemen, 
 is merely a verbal distinction, which goes for nothing at all. 
 Of course, in its departure, it may depart in any degree up 
 to the horizontal plane,, and it is still a departure from the 
 perpendicular throughout the whole course, iintil it comes 
 to a right angle from the perpendicular. I think, perhaps, 
 that we may illustrate that with these books. If we say 
 that this is the vertical position, as you perceive it is, then 
 departing from the perpendicular in every angle as you 
 come from this vertical position, carrying it up until you 
 oonie to a horizontal position, which is ninety degrees, as I 
 understand it, of the arc of a circle, it is still a departure from 
 the perpendicular. In that view, we have been brought to 
 consider, in the present instance, whether the lode or vein 
 lies in a horizontal position ; that is,, whether the angle of 
 the vein is between the vertical and horizontal. The rule 
 should be that every departure up to that which I have 
 named is but a departure from the perpendicular, and it ap- 
 pears to be exactly within the; provisions of this Act if the 
 vein clearly extends outside of the limits of the surface in 
 any angle between the perpendicular and horizontal. I 
 agree that if we should ever find a lode which in its course 
 extends precisely on the plane of the horizon, and it is ex- 
 tremely doubtful whether we shall ever find one in that po- 
 sition, but if we should ever find a lode which is precisely in 
 that position, there may be some difiiculty in locating it 
 under this Act ; but if you find, from the evidence, that 
 there is a lode or vein in the position in which this has 
 been described by the witnesses, and that it is in rock in 
 place as I have described it to you, I think there can be no 
 difficulty in the present instance in respect to that. 
 
 This brings us to a question, gentlemen, which really is 
 the important question in this case, and that is, whether 
 there is any lode in the position which has been mentioned 
 by the witnesses ; and in that connection, in the considera- 
 tion of that question, the character of the deposit, as to 
 whether it is a true fissure vein, or a contact deposit, or a 
 bed, or something of that kind, is of some value; because in 
 
664 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 respect to fissure veins we accept the cavity or chasm which 
 is tound between the walls, and filled with what they call 
 vein matter, as indicating or showing the existence of the 
 lode, even if the matter which is found in it is not very 
 valuable— that is, if there is anything which usually accom- 
 panies valuable ores or minerals. But in respect to this 
 kind of deposit, my impression is that it is to be known, 
 called and regarded as an irregular deposit; one which if 
 it should be interrupted for any considerable distance — 
 that is, if what they call a contact or junction between the por- 
 phyry and lime should become barren for a considerable dis- 
 tance — that it should no longer be called a lode. As I under- 
 stand it this line which exists, which always exists when there 
 is a union of rocks of different ages and different formation, 
 may carry ore or it may not ; it may be productive or it may 
 be barren ; and if this should be found at any point in its 
 course to become barren and remain so for any considerable 
 distance, I do not see how it could be called a lode in tiiat 
 part of it, so that it could be followed with the result to claim 
 what lies beyond. I should say that with reference to such 
 a line of contact between rocks of different formation, 
 that to find that line of contact in one place, unless there 
 were in it valuable minerals which were carried along with 
 something like a continuous course along the line of contact, 
 that no lode would be discovered. It could not be said that 
 any had been found until such minerals were found. I do 
 not mean by this that any slight interruption for a few 
 feet of the valuable part of the ore would have the effect to 
 show that the deposit was broken in its continuousness. 
 
 I do not mean that, nor do I mean that if any dyke or 
 other extraordinary foreign matter should be interposed in 
 the course of the lode so as to eutitofi", and it should fol- 
 low on immediatety after that interruption, that would be 
 regarded as such a displacement in the continuity of the 
 deposit as would deprive it of its regular character. 
 Whenever it may appear that the fissure has existed at one 
 time or at any time, with a continuous body of ore in it 
 which may have been interrupted by some subsequent con- 
 vulsion, the character of the deposit would remain the same 
 as if the interruption had never occurred. But if there was 
 such an intervening space in the contact, as these witnesses 
 call it, barren in its continuity, as might show a separate 
 and distinct body of ore, which had always been such, I 
 should say that it would not pass with the grant of the first. 
 It may help you, gentlemen, for me to express this in other 
 language, and ask you to extend the line which is laid down 
 on that map (showing), for some distance further, and to 
 suppose that in the course of that line, we may say that you 
 find that there is, at the head of the deposit, that nearest the 
 surface, a hundred feet or more of continuous ore, lying upon 
 the line between the porphyry and the lime, and then there 
 should be an interruption of a hundred feet or more of this 
 contact which is perfectly barren ; the lime and the porphyry 
 coming together carrying nothing whatever, and below that 
 again, another body similar to that which was found at the 
 head, the position which I think might be taken upon 
 this, the position of these ore bodies, would be that there 
 would be two lodes rather than one, the first above and the 
 second below ; but if there is a continuous body of ore, or 
 practically continuous, and tjiere is no such interruption as 
 exhibits other than a casual and fortuitous displacement, 
 then it would be one lode. 
 
 I think upon that explanation, gentlemen, you will be able 
 to determine whether there is, in that sense, a fixed body of 
 ore, extending from the upper part of these workings to the 
 end of them ; if that is its character, then it is to be regarded 
 as one and the same lode, though it may have departed from 
 the side line to a considerable distance, and have only an 
 angle of thirteen, fourteen or fifteen degrees, as the witnesses 
 have described it, from the plane of the horizon. 
 
 There may be other deposits in that neighborhood, gen- 
 tlemen, which show entirely different features or show the 
 same features, but whether that be true or not, is not a mat- 
 ter for present consideration. We determine these questions 
 only upon what appears in this case, and without reference 
 to any others that may arise in the same locality. Other 
 deposits in this neighborhood may be of an entirely diflferent 
 character ; they may be such as cannot in anv sense be called 
 lodes at all. Whether this is true or not, is not for present 
 consideration. We determine this case, as I said before 
 
 upon the evidence given here, leaving other questions which 
 may arise in respect to other locations, to the facts as they 
 may be developed in respect to them. 
 
 The above case was tried the second time in June, 1879, 
 in the United States Circuit Court at Denver. Mr. Justice 
 Miller, of the Supreme Court of the United States, presided 
 and charged the jury. No new construction was placed 
 upon the law. Therefore, Judge Hallett's charge is given 
 above. 
 
 H. A. W. Tabor et ah. vs, Wirt Dexter et ah. New Dis- 
 covery — Little Chief Case. U. S. Circuit Court. 
 
 Opinion on motion for preliminary injunction by Mallett, J. 
 
 This is a bill for an injunction by parties owning the New 
 Discovery lode, in California Mining District, against the 
 owners of an adjoining claim called the Little Chief. It 
 is not alleged that the defendants have entered upon or 
 into the New Discovery ground, or that they have in any 
 way interfered with plaintiffs' possession within the lim- 
 its of the New Discovery location. The charge is that 
 plaintiffs' lode descends into the Little Chiefs ground on 
 its dip, and that defendants are there mining and ex- 
 hausting the ore. In other words, plaintiffs contend that 
 the top of the lode is in their ground and that they have 
 the right to follow upon its downward course into and 
 through adjoining territory. To maintain this position it 
 is necessary to show that the lode is in place within the 
 meaning of Sec. 2320, Revised Statutes of the United 
 States. And this depends upon the position of the ore or 
 vein matter in the earth, as whether the inclosing mass is 
 fixed and immovable, more than upon the character of the 
 ore itself. Whether the ore is loose and friable, or very 
 hard, if the inclosing walls are country rock, it may be 
 located as a vein or lode. But if the ore is on top of the 
 ground, or has no other covering than the superficial deposit, 
 which is called alluvium, diluvium, drift or debris, it is not 
 a lode or vein within the meaning of the Act, which maybe 
 followed beyond the lines of the location. In this bill it is 
 alleged that the overlying material is boulders and gravel, 
 which cannot be in place as required by the Act. Not much 
 is known to the court of the deposits on Fryer Hill, but it 
 w^uldseem from the allegations in this bill that they differ 
 materially from the Iron mine, which has a hanging wall as 
 well as a foot-wall. For the decision of this motion it is 
 enough to say that, where the mass overlying the ore is a 
 mere drift, or a loose deposit, the ore is not in place within 
 the meaning of the Act. Upon principles recently explained, 
 a location en such a deposit of ore may be suflBcient to hold 
 all that lies within the lines, but it cannot give a right to ore 
 in other territory, although the ore body may extend be- 
 yond the lines. The motion will be denied. 
 
 Important Stock Decision.— A coal and iron com- 
 pany bought its lands from E for $500,000, paying him 
 $25,000 in money and $475,000 in its capital stock. Subse- 
 quently B sued E for seven-eighths' interest in the land, 
 and had a decree in his favor : and he then sued and re- 
 covered $320,049 for coal taken from it by the coal com- 
 pany, and, as that was insolvent, he brought an action 
 against the stockholders who held the shares which had 
 been paid to E in the purchase of the land, claiming that 
 this stock had not been paid for, and that the capital stock 
 created a trust fund for the payment of its debts In this 
 ease, Brant vs. Ehler, the Maryland Court of Appeals, in 
 June, affirmed a decree in favor of the defendants. Judge 
 Robinson, in the opinion, said: 1. The liability for a sub- 
 scription to the stock of a corporation is founded on con- 
 tract. Where one agrees to take a certain number of shares, 
 the law implies a promise to pay for them according to the 
 terms of his subscription. If they are sold before all the 
 installments are paid, and are bought with such knowledge, 
 the law implies a promise on the part of the purchaser to 
 pay whatever may be due thereon according to the terms of 
 the original subscription. In such cases the purchaser 
 stands in the shoes of the original subscriber. These ai'e 
 elementary principles about which there can be no conten- 
 tion. But where shares are issued by the company to the 
 subscriber as full-paid shares, and are sold by the subscriber 
 as such, there is no ground on which a promise can be im- 
 plied on the part of the purchaser, without notice to be 
 answerable either to the company or to its creditore should 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 655 
 
 the representations on the faith of which he purchased prove 
 to be false. 2. No one will pretend for a moment that in 
 subscribing to the stock of a company the purpose is to 
 create a trust fund for creditors. On the contrary, the ob- 
 ject primarily is to furnish means to carry on its business, 
 and to share the profits earned by the corporation, and so 
 long as it is a going concern it has the right, and indeed it 
 is the" duty, to manage and dispose of its assets, including 
 stock subscriptions, for the promotion of its own interest. 
 8. Shares of stock are not, strictly speaking, negotiable in- 
 struments, but courts speak of them as quasi negotiable ; and 
 when they are issued as full-paid shares, and as such sold in 
 open market, the purchaser is not bound to suspect fraud 
 where everything seems fair and conformable to the require- 
 ments of the law. Any other doctrine would virtually 
 destroy the transferable nature of such shares, and paralyze 
 the whole of the dealings in the stock of corporations. — 
 H-om Bradsireet. 
 
 Timber on Mineral Lands. — Avery important de- 
 cision, of great interest to the mining community, was 
 rendered by Hon. H. M. Teller, Secretary of the Interior, on 
 June 3, 1882, on the question of timber on mineral lands. It 
 is as follows : — 
 
 My attention has been called to a number of cases, re- 
 ported by special agent Hardin, of the so-called trespassers 
 in cutting timber on mineral land in the Territory of Dakota. 
 Notably, in the cases of Frank P. Hardin, who is charged 
 with cutting 72 cords of wood ; Peter T. Bye, charged with 
 cutting 25 cords ; Henry Bressert charged with cutting 60 
 cords ;■ J. H. Damon, charged with cutting a like amount . 
 Frank Keller charged with cutting 47 cords, and Albert 
 Holam, charged with cutting 100 cords. All of this wood 
 appears to have been cut offof mineral land of the United 
 States. It also appears b y the report of the special agent 
 that the persons charged with the trespass have, in cutting 
 this wood, conformed to the rules of the department as to 
 size of the timber to be cut, etc. It is now proposed to com- 
 promise with these persons by allowing them to pay for the 
 wood, at the rate of 50 cents per cord. I do not think, on 
 the statement of facts made by the special agent in the cases 
 of Hardin and Peter B. Bye, that they have been guilty of a 
 trespass in cutting such. I understand that the facia are 
 substantially the same in all the cases mentioned. 
 
 The Act of Congress, approved June 3, 1878, entitled "An 
 Act authorizing the citizens of Colorado, Nevada and Ore- 
 gon, to fell and remove timber from the public domain for 
 mining and domestic purposes," clearly authorizes the cut- 
 ting of timber on mineral lands of tlie United States for 
 domestic uses. It does not appear that Peter Bye, or any 
 other of the parties complained of, cut wood for transporta- 
 tion from the Territory, and if cut to be used in Dakota, it is 
 clearly for domestic uses. It has been alleged that the Act 
 of June 3, 1878, does not apply to persons cutting timber on 
 mineral lands for sale, and that to enable any person to have 
 the benefit of that Act, he must cut timber for his personal 
 use, and not for sale. Such a construction defeats the very 
 intent of the Act which was to allow the settler on mineral 
 lands to have the benefit of the timber thereon growing, for 
 use, within the Territory or State where it grew. It cannot 
 be supposed that Congress intended to say by that Act to 
 the inhabitants of the mineral regions, that while they 
 might go on the lands of the United States and cut timber 
 for their use, yet they could not employ others to cut timber 
 for them, or purchase it of those who hadcut and prepared 
 it for use. Large and prosperous communities had settled 
 on the mineral lands of the United States, by and with the 
 consent of Congress. 
 
 A statute has been passed declaring such occupation law- 
 ful, and provisions were made for securing a title to the 
 mines that should be discovered and improved on such lands, 
 yet no provisions had been made by which a title could be 
 secured to the timber growing on such lands, until a mine 
 had been discovered thereon. To have restricted the in- 
 habitants to the use of such timber as should be found on 
 mineral claims alone, would have been folljr, for in many 
 instances the mineral claims are destitute of timber. Whole 
 mining districts are frequently compelled to procure their 
 supply outside of their districts, either because the timber 
 in such districts had been carted oif and used, or because 
 the district was without timber when first settled. 
 
 The area of the territory occupied by actually located 
 mineral claims is entirely too small to supply the communi- 
 ties with timber from such claims alone, and so it became a 
 necessity to appropriate timber on Government lands. In 
 the absence of a law authorizing the purchase of either the 
 timber or the land on which it grew, from the first settle- 
 ment of mineral regions to 1876, such had been the custom 
 of the miners in all mineral regions. Cities and towns, with 
 churches and school-houses, had been built with timber so 
 taken from the public land. Appeals had been made to 
 Congress, from time to time, to provide by law for the 
 securing of the title to timber on mineral lands. Congress, 
 with the wise policy of keeping the mineral lands of the 
 United States open to further exploration and occupation, 
 had declined to pass any law by which timber on such lands 
 could be monopolized by speculators and capitalists. Wood- 
 choppers and lumbermen had, from the first settlement of 
 mineral regions, cut from the mineral lands wood, mining 
 timber and lumber for buildings, and sold the same to those 
 who could not or did not wish to cut such timber for their 
 own use. It was practically impossible for millmen, miners, 
 and other inhabitants of the country, to go out and fell trees 
 that were to be used to build their mills, timber their mines 
 or supply their femilies with fuel. About the time of the 
 passage of the Act of 1878 it was alleged that such cutting 
 was in violation of the law, and ought not to be allowed. 
 
 To have prevented such cutting would have compelled 
 the abandonment of nearly, if not quite all, the mineral 
 regions of the States and Territories named in the Act. The 
 Act was passed to establish by positive enactment a right 
 claim and exercised without interference on the part of the 
 Government for a period of about 30 years. The construc- 
 tion heretofore given to it by this department has defeated 
 the purposes of the Act, and has not been of any advantage, 
 either to the Government or the people residing on such 
 mineral lands. In most of the regions included in the Act 
 referred to, the timber is of but little value for use outside of 
 the neighborhood in which it grows. A comparatively 
 small amount would bear transportation out of the State or 
 territory, and it cannot be used more advantageously to the 
 people and the Government than in the product of precious 
 metals. If the timber is cut having reference to the rule 
 established by the department as to size, etc., no complaint 
 ought to be made. It has been suggested that the use of 
 wood in the quartz mills and reduction works in the mineral 
 regions is not a use for mining purposes. 
 
 I do not think there is anything in that suggestion. 
 Quartz mills and reduction mills are indispensable to a 
 mining community, and such use is clearly within the pro- 
 visions of the law, and the consumer as fully protected by 
 it as if he had consumed it in his own dwelling. You will, 
 therefore, instruct the special agents now in the States and 
 territories named in the Act of June 3, 1878, to conform to 
 the suggestions herein. The great object of a Governmental 
 supervision of cutting timber in those Stafes and Territories 
 ought not to be to compel the payment for timber so cut, 
 but to prevent an unnecessary waste by cutting the small 
 trees under the size prescribed by the department, and to 
 prevent a wa.ste by fires and other means. 
 
 SUMMARY OF THE GENERAL LAND OFFICE 
 ANNUAL REPORT FOR 1881. 
 
 THE following is a synopsis of the annual report of 
 the General Land OfiBce for the fiscal year ending 
 with June 30, 1881 : 
 
 Abstract of opnrations under the laws relating to the survey 'and disposal 
 
 of public and Indian Lands during the fiscal year ending 
 
 with June 30, 1881. 
 
 Cash Sales : Acres. 
 
 Private entries 666,229.11 
 
 Pablic Sales .... 2,279.40 
 
 Timber and stone lands . . . . . . 42 987.92 
 
 Pre-emption entries ... 72l'l46'26 
 
 Desert lands ... \ \ 108!5Cio!o2 
 
 Mineral lands . . , . . . . 27 189 68 
 
 Coal lands . . . . . ' .' 4!975!58 
 
 Excesses . . 12,339.06 
 
 Abandoned military reservations . .... 1 910.21 
 
 Total 1,687,617.24 
 
656 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Homestead entries 
 
 Timber culture entries 
 
 Locations with military bounty land warrant* issued under 
 
 acts of 184T. 1860, 1852, and 18B5 ........ 
 
 Agrieulturalcpllege scrip locatioQS 
 
 Supreme court scrip locations . . . • 
 
 Valentine scrip locations 
 
 Sioux half-breed scrip locations . . 
 
 Chippewa half breed scrip locations 
 
 Locations with Porterfield scrip t . . . 
 
 Lands certified or patented for railroad purposes to btates : 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Minnesota ... ......... ^ 
 
 Kansas . . 
 
 To corporations: 
 
 Pacific railroads . . .• .... J 
 
 State selections, approved for — 
 
 School indemnity . . ■ 
 
 Internal improvements . . 
 
 Agricultural colleges 
 
 Seminaries 
 
 Donation claims 
 
 Approved to States as swamp 
 
 5,028,100.69 
 1,763,799.35 
 
 55,662,36 
 
 .'iGO.OO 
 
 28,263.74 
 
 392.15 
 
 2,619.27 
 
 800.00 
 
 16.86 
 
 383.23 
 73,321.58 
 483,-466.63 
 281,277.28 
 
 211,992.04 
 
 15,880.00 
 
 1,760.00 
 
 1,370.45 
 
 3,964.14 
 
 18,237.06 
 
 669,001.18 
 
 Total 10,128,176.25 
 
 Indian lands, sales of, during the fiscal year of 1881 : 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Osage ceded 
 
 0.sage trust and diminished reserve 
 
 Kansas trust 
 
 Kansas -trust and diminished reserve . 
 
 Pawnee . . . 
 
 Sioux . . . 
 
 Sac and Fox 
 
 Cherokee' strip 
 
 Otoe and Missouri 
 
 Clierokee scliool 
 
 4,622,21 
 
 613,951,05 
 
 25,736.62 
 
 18,971.86 
 
 1.6,219.55 
 
 60,299.64 
 
 57.40 
 
 20,086.12 
 
 18,036.87 
 
 240.57 
 
 765,221.80 
 
 Which added to the sales of public lands makes a grand 
 
 total of 10,893,397.05 
 
 Cash receipts : 
 
 From sales of public lands 
 
 , *From sales of Indian lands .... ... 
 
 Hoinestead fees and oommissiona ... 
 
 Timber culture fees and commissions 
 
 Fees on military bounty land warrant locations . 
 
 Fees on locations witli different classes of scrip 
 
 Fees in pre-emption and other lilings ' . 
 
 Fees in mining. applications and protests 
 
 Fees on timber land entries 
 
 Fees for reducing testimony to writing, by local officers 
 
 Fees oil railroad selections . . 
 
 Fees on state selections .' . 
 
 Fees on donation claims 
 
 Fees for transcripts, furnished by the General Land 
 Office, during the iiscal year of 1881 
 
 $3,634,650 08 
 
 1,009,671 63 
 
 5.66,766 16 
 
 154,739 35 
 
 1,484 00 
 
 17 00 
 
 69,366 00 
 
 28,310 00 
 
 3,3.30 00 
 
 47,625 24 
 
 3.681 27 
 
 4;i98 63 
 
 1,415, 00 
 
 6,727 90 
 
 Total 5,408,804. 16 
 
 Surveys. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Total area of the land States and Territories 1,814,7^8,922 
 
 Surveyed up to June 30, 1880 752,657,194 
 
 Sui*veyed but not heretofore reported 10,.661,776 
 
 Surveyed during the fiscal year ending with the 
 
 30th of June, 1881 21,788,011 
 
 784,906,980 
 
 Leaving . . . . ' 1,029,881,942 
 
 acres of public and Indian lands yet to be surveyed, inclu- 
 sive of private land claims surveyed at the close of the fis- 
 cal year ending with the 30th of June, 1881. The surveys 
 during the past fiscal year show an increase of 6,058,759 
 acres over those executed during the previous year. This 
 extraordinary showing is mainly attributable to the great 
 demand for surveys under the deposit system, and to which 
 reference is hereinafter made. The sales of public lands as 
 compared with those of the previous fiscal year show a de- 
 crease of 3,898,974.60 acres, while the aggregate of cash re- 
 ceipts, under various heads, is greater by 3,118,642.56. 
 During the year there were received 83,864 letters, and 
 68,427 were written and recorded, covering 60,325 pages of 
 record books, and during the same period there were issued 
 and transmitted 56,979 patents. This amount embraces pat- 
 ents for private land claims, mining claims, lands granted 
 for railroad purposes, swamp lands, Indian lands, and for 
 lands sold under the pre-emption and homestead laws. 
 
 There were also audited, adjusted, and reported to the 
 First Comptroller of the Treasury 2,800 accounts, embrac- 
 
 » This money js deposited by the receivers of public moneys in 
 the United States Trea.sury, to the credit of the Indian funds, for 
 the heuelit of the Indiansj under treaty stipulations. 
 
 ing accounts of surveyors general, deputy surveyors, regis- 
 ters, and receivers, special agents, &c., covering 13,350 pages 
 of record. 
 
 In all the land districts there is a large and legitimate de- 
 mand for copies from the official records, and for copies or 
 tracings of the maps and plats of survey, &c. As the 
 country is settled and improved, values increase and inter- 
 ests multiply, the records of the local land offices are more 
 frequently consulted, and such copies more largely required. 
 Those who desire transcripts from the records are willing and 
 desirous to pay for the same, but registers find receivers are 
 precluded, under penalty of removal from office, from re- 
 ceiving fees or other rewards not authorized by law (see sec- 
 tion 2242, Revised Statutes), and no authority of law ex- 
 ists for any fee for such copies except in consolidated land 
 districts where, under section 2239, Revised Statutes, such 
 fees are authorized to be charged by the land officers as are 
 authorized by the tarifi" existing in the local courts of the 
 district. It has, until a comparatively recent date, un- 
 doubtedly been the general practice of local officers to fur- 
 nish such copies, receive pay for the same, and use the 
 money in part at least to pay for clerical labor made neces- 
 sary by this work. The local officers justified themselves on 
 the general ground that it was by law made their duty to 
 furnish such transcripts, &c., andhence it was no infraction 
 of law to perform a legitimate act and receive pay for the 
 same. This proceeding was clearly illegal, however, and led 
 to abuses of considerable magnitude, upon discovery of 
 which instructions were issued to all the local land officers 
 definitively advising them what fees they were authorized 
 to charge or receive, and forbidding the receipt of any other 
 rewards under penalty of recomendation for dismissal from 
 office. 
 
 The matter now is in this condition : there is a legitimate 
 aiid public necessity for copies from the records and files of 
 district land offices ; there is no sufficient appropriation to 
 pay for the clerical labor essential to prepare such copies, 
 and the only way they can be had is by allowing out- 
 side parties to have access to the official records and make 
 the copies themselves. This course is obviously unadvisa- 
 ble, and I have the honor to recommend that legislation be 
 speedily had authorizing the preparation of copies by registers 
 and receivers, and a fee for the same" at the rate of 15 cents 
 per 100 words and $2 for township plats or diagrams, and 
 that the receivers of the several land offices shall make re- 
 turns of all moneys so received, and shall pay over the same 
 in the manner now provided by law for other moneys re- 
 ceived by them in their official capacity. And, in view of 
 the fact that the clerical labor necessary to be employed will 
 be increased in proportion to the amount of said class of 
 work, I further recommend as absolutely essential to the 
 furnishing of such copies that all moneys received therefor 
 be placed to the credit of the appropriation " for incidental 
 expenses of the several land offices," and be available for 
 clerk hire in said offices under authority of the Secretary of 
 the Interior. I would also recommend that the same pro- 
 visions be extended to all consolidated land offices and sub- 
 stituted for those of section 2239, Revised Statutes. In this 
 connection I would call attention to sections 460 and 461, 
 Revised Statutes, under which it is made my duty to furnish 
 exemplifications of patents, or tiapers on file or of record in 
 this office, of parties interested, upon payment of certain 
 rates therein named. The labor thtis involved is not ex- 
 pended upon the adjustment Of entries — a work so much in 
 arrears and so earnestly demanded by the public, who need 
 their evidences of title at the earliest moment — ^bnt relates 
 almost exclusively to patented claims, or to land which is in 
 litigation in the courts ; and the fees received for such copies 
 are turned into the Treasury. It is thus apparent that a 
 portion of the clerical labor which Congress provides is 
 diverted from its contemplated channel, and engaged upon 
 work which does not relate to the current disposition of any 
 class of land claims. For the year ending June 80, 1880, 
 there were received and turned into the Treasury for such 
 copies $7,043.05, and for the year ending June 80, 1881, $6,727,- 
 90. I recommend legislation to the effect that the moneys so 
 annually received be credited to the appropriation for cleri- 
 cal services in this office for the fiscW year in which they 
 are received, and made available for the payment of the 
 clerical labor necessary for the preparation of said copies. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 657 
 
 In this connection I would state that, owing to the difficult 
 character of much of the copying done as aforesaid, and to 
 the necessity of carefUl comparison with the original, the 
 fees authorized to be charged are not estimated to oe in ex- 
 cess of the actual cost of the clerical labor expended upon 
 the preparation of exemplifications. 
 
 Section 2325, Revised Statutes, specifies the proceedings 
 necessary to obtain a patent to mineral lands. It was held 
 by this department that the application for such a patent, 
 which includes an allegation of compliance with law, must 
 be sworn to by' the owner of the claim. By act of January 
 22, 1880 (page 61, pamphlet edition, statutes of 1879-'80), 
 amendatory of sections 2304 and 2305, Revised Statutes, it 
 was provided that the authorized agent of the claimant 
 might make said affidavit when he was conversant with the 
 facts sought to be established thereby and the claimant was 
 not a resident of the land district wherein the claim was 
 located. In view of the fact that a large proportion of the 
 mining claims are managed by such agents, who are thereby 
 better qualified to make the required affidavit than the owner, 
 I would recommend that the duly authorized agent of the 
 claimant, when conversant with the material facts, be al- 
 lowed to make said affidavit in any case, and that legisla- 
 tion to that effect be had. 
 
 Under sections 2401, 2402,- and 2403, Revised Statutes, it 
 is provided that when settlers in any township, not mineral 
 or reserved, desire a survey of the same under' authority of 
 the surveyor-general, they shall' be entitled thereto, upon 
 filing a written application therefor, and depositing a sum 
 sufficient to pay for the survey and all expenses incident 
 thereto ; that said sums so deposited shall be placed to the 
 credit of the proper appropriation for the surveying service, 
 and that the amount so deposited by any such settlers may 
 go in part payment for their lands situated in the township, 
 the surveying of which is paid out of such deposits. By act 
 of March -3, 1879, amendatory of section 2403, Revised 
 Statutes, the certificates issued for such deposits were made 
 assignable by indorsement, and receivable in payment for 
 pre-emption and hoinestead claims. Since the passage of 
 this act of 1879, the deposits for surveys have increased to 
 ah unprecedented extent,' the numerous representations 
 which are believed, to be true have been made to this office, 
 that lands of no present practical value and on which there 
 are no settlers have been largely surveyed ; that applications 
 for surveys are fi-audulently prepared by or through the 
 instigation and 'management of deputy surveyors, who, for 
 the purpose of securing the contract for making the sur- 
 vey, either themselves or through friends advance the 
 money for the deposit, thereafter sell and assign the cer- 
 tificates, and thus reimburse themselves and secure their 
 profit from the surveying contracts. The appropriation for. 
 surveys for the last fiscal year was $300,000. 
 
 The amount of deposits for the same period, and which 
 was placed to the credit of the said appropriation, was $1,- 
 804,166.47, and the amount of the certificates surrendered in 
 payment Of pre-emption and homestead claims for the same 
 time was $1,346,109.26. It is believed that the practical re- 
 sult of said act of March 3, 1879, has been to cause the sur- 
 vey of the vast areas of lands of no present, and perhaps of 
 no prospective value, and the surrender of title to valuable 
 lands in payment for such surveys. With the intent to se- 
 cure as far as possible legitimate proceedings under said law, 
 I issued, September 5, 1881, the following circular instruc- 
 tions to feurveyors-general : 
 
 Depaktment of the Inteeiok, 
 
 General Land Office, 
 Washington, J). C, September 5, 1881. 
 
 To SrEVEYOES-GENEEAL : 
 
 In order to prevent as far as possible the perpetration of frauds 
 and fraudulent surveys, which have already assumed alarming 
 proportions under the system of deposits by individuals, it is hereby 
 ordered : 
 
 I. The surveyors-general shall exercise the most searching scru- 
 tiny into the statements of applicants for survey, to satis^ them- 
 selves of the truth thereof, and unless found to be bona jide m every 
 respect they shall not accept such applications nor furnish the esti- 
 mates requested. 
 
 II. Believing that in a great many instances applications for sur- 
 vey, particulariy in sections of couutry unfit for settlement, have 
 been procured or invited at the instance of deputy surveyors seeking 
 
 42 
 
 contracts, you are instructed that such proceedings on the part of 
 deputy surveyors are unlawful, and that contracts thus unlawfully 
 procured will not be recognized as valid. The surveyor-general 
 must mmutely examine into all applications for surveys under the 
 deposit system. If he is satisfied that the deputy has acted in the 
 manner described, the commission of such fleputy shall be forth- 
 with revoked, arid the surveyor-general shall report all the facts, 
 with his findings in-the case to this office. Upon approval thereof, 
 such deputy shall be deemed unfit to exercise the functions of a 
 deputy surveyor, and the approval of a finding against a deputy 
 will be communicated by this office to each surveyor-general for his 
 information and guidance; and any surveyor-general who shall fail 
 to report such deputy, or who shall employ any deputy so barred, 
 will he open to charges to be preferred by the Commissioner of the 
 General Land Office to the Secretary of the Interior. 
 
 Ill.^-Surveyors-general are required to exercise the utmost care 
 and vigilance to prevent frauds and irregularities of any kind 
 regarding surveys under the system of deposits by individuals, as 
 also of surveys made under any other appropriation of moneys by 
 Congress, whether general or special, and they will report each and 
 every fact that may come to their knowledge of any attempted 
 fraud, by whomsoever made, with all obtainable particulars, to thisi 
 office for consideration and action. 
 
 IV.^The plats and field notes of surveys under the syst«m of 
 deposits by individuals, as returned to this office, do not usually 
 show the settlements and improvements of the settlers at whose 
 instance the surveys are ostensibly made. In a majority of instances 
 thelocationof the settler, whether bona Jide or otherwise, is entirely, 
 omitted, while the improvements, if any, are never noted. In order, 
 therefore, to still further check the abuses and dishonest practices 
 to which this System of surveys has become subject, the attention of 
 surveyors-general and deputy surveyors is specially directed to the 
 requirements of pages 18 and 19 of the Manual of Surveys, and 
 pages 43 and 44 of the Instructions of the Commissioner of the 
 General Land Office, dated May 3, 1881. The requirements therein 
 contained must be strictly adhered to, and surveyors-general are 
 required and enjoined to see to it that their deputies comply there- 
 with. 
 
 v.— Surveyors-general are directed to instruct their deputies that 
 they must designate in the field-notes and plats of their surveys the 
 location of each and every settlement within a township surveyed 
 under the deposit system, whether it be permanent in cnaracter or 
 not, together with the names of such settlers and their improve-, 
 mehts, if any. Cattle corrals are not considered as constituting 
 improvements. 
 
 ■V l.'-^When no settleirs are found within a township surveyed under 
 the -system of individual deposits, the field-notes of survey must 
 (Mstimctiy and unequivocally state that fact, and any omission so to 
 describe and designate the settlements and their surrounding im- 
 provements, or the absence of one or both in the field-notes and plat, 
 will be deemed a sufficient cause to infer fraud, and the accounts of 
 the deputy will be suspended until such omission shall have been 
 supplied to both plat and field-notes. A suspension of the commis- 
 sion of the deputy will in the meantime take place, -and all facts will 
 be reported to this office for consideration and action. 
 
 VII.— Surveyors-general are directed to make known to their sev- 
 eral deputies the provisions and nature of this order, and will be 
 held strictly accountable for its faithful execution. Ignorance of 
 the terms of this order will not be held an excuse for failure to com- 
 ply therewith by deputies. 
 
 ■yill. — This order will be observed by deputies now in the field, 
 and surveyors-general are directed to so inform them with the least 
 practicable delay. 
 
 IX. — Siirveyors-general are reminded of the important trust con- 
 fided to them, and are instructed to exercise their whole authority 
 to secure correct and honest surveys and returns by their deputies. 
 
 X.T-This order will take effect from and after the receipt of the 
 same, and its receipt will be immediately acknowledged by each 
 surveyor-general. 
 
 XI. — In every case of a contract heretofore approved which the 
 surveyor-general has reason to believe was fraudulently procured, 
 such contract and the accounts thereunder must be immediately sus- 
 pended and the facts reported to this office. 
 
 Very respectfully, 
 
 N. C. McFaeland, 
 Com/misHoneri 
 
 Approved : 
 
 A. BptL, 
 Acting Secretary Of the Interior. 
 
 I am compelled to conclude, however, that there is no 
 efiectual remedy for said abuses except by the repeal of said 
 act of March 3,_ 1879. This act, in its purpose and intent, 
 in my opinion is well adapted to the wants of actnal set- 
 tlers who desire to obtain title to their settlements without 
 being subject to the enforced postponement incident to sur- 
 veys under the present system ; but the temptation to irreg- 
 ularity and fraud are too- great, and the means of evading 
 the law too easy, to justify a reasonable expectation that the 
 law can be administered in the public interest. The repeal 
 of said act of March 3, 1879, would still leave their prior 
 
658 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 provisions as found in Revised Statutes, sections 2401, 2402, 
 and 2403, available for actual settlers ; and these provisions 
 are as liberal as, in my judgment, can safely be extended 
 for their relief, for in addition to the irregularities hereinbe- 
 tbre named, it is to be considered that it is very difficult to 
 examine and prove the proper execution of the surveys cov- 
 ering so large areas, and very probable that those who 
 would fraudulently procure a surveying contract would 
 fraudulently execute it. I therefore recommend the repeal 
 of said act of March 3, 1879, and an increased appropria- 
 tion for surveys. 
 
 The fact that the monuments now used to mark the boun- 
 dary corners of the public surveys on our vast plains,devoid 
 of suitable stone or timber, aud very destructible and liable 
 to bo wholly obliterated by the rubbing of cattle and other 
 causes, leads me to call attention to the advisability of 
 some provision whereby some metallic monument of cheap 
 but durable form and material could be substituted, at least 
 for township corners. 
 
 Examination of Surveys in the Field. — The very 
 unsatisfactory manner in which examinations of surveys in 
 the field are made by deputy surveyors, under the direction of 
 the several surveyors-general, and the general slighting of this 
 very important work, needs, in the opinion of this office, a 
 radical and wholesome change. It is an absurdity to sup- 
 pose that truthful and honest returns of examinations in 
 every particular will be made by deputy surveyors, upon 
 whom surveyors-general are more than ordinarily depend- 
 ent for examiners, when it is considered that the examining 
 deputy will at some time, if not already under obligations, 
 have his own work examined by the very deputy whose 
 work hehas, if honest, condemned. The temptation of over- 
 looking defects, either in the survey of lines or the marking 
 of the same, has proven too great to be resisted by them. It 
 is safe to say that not one per cent, of the number of exam- 
 inations are satisfactory to this office in the results obtained. 
 It is therefore earnestly recommended tljat the amount set 
 apart for examination of surveys, either by appropriation or 
 construction of the law by the Treasury DejSartment as ap- 
 plicable to the same, be disbursed directly by this office, 
 through agents appointed for the purpose, who shall be re- 
 movable only for cause, and who shall make all examina- 
 tions required, either at the suggestion of the surveyors-gen- 
 eral or at the instance of this office ; to report directly to, 
 and be responsible to this office alone, and be in every way 
 independent of the surveyors-general ; to receive such fair 
 compensation as may be determined upon by the Secretary 
 of the Interior. It is iirmly believed that only by making 
 them independent of the surveyors-general, and responsible 
 to this office alone, that honest and faithful returns of ex- 
 aminations can be secured : that it is the best as well as the 
 cteapest method pecuniarily, and will have a most salutary 
 effect upon the entire surveying service, and is the only 
 means by which to purge the service of worthless and con- 
 taminating individuals. 
 
 The investigation of trespasses upon the timber lands of 
 the United States has resulted in the apprehension and pros- 
 ecution of many depredators. Where the trespass was the 
 result of mistake the party has been allowed to settle by the 
 payment of a fair valuation of the timber taken, and many 
 suits have been adjusted by the payment for the timber, 
 when the tresspass was of a character to justify compromise. 
 The government has thus realized a very considerable sum 
 of money for timber so illegally taken, and depredators have 
 been measurably deterred from their business, which was 
 swiftly denuding the public lands of their best timber. The 
 present appropriation, however, is cjuite insufficient for the 
 necessities of this branch of the service. With it I am un- 
 able to keep in the iield more than fifteen agents. With 
 this number it is impossible to even cursorily examine the 
 vast timber districts, and extensive depredations undoubt- 
 edly are undetected. I earnestly recommend an increased 
 appropriation for this service. Not only will the public in- 
 terests be subserved by the protection of its timber, but the 
 Treasury will profit by the payments made. The existing 
 provisions of law permitting citizens to fell and remove tim- 
 ber on the public lands for mining and domestic purposes, 
 as found in act of June 3rd, 1878 (20 Statutes, 88), are, in 
 my opinion, very defective. The only lands from which 
 such cutting is authorized are the mineral lands. 
 
 1st. The mineral lands are to a great extentundefiued, and 
 necessarily must so remain. 
 
 2d. Large quantities of timber are absolutely necessary 
 for the development of mines, while the said act authorizes 
 the cutting thereon of the timber for other purposes. The 
 purchaser of a mining claim has as much (if not a greater) 
 need for the timber thereon as the agriculturist, and the 
 transportation of timber to the mines from a distanceis very 
 expensive. 
 
 3d. The law furnishes no relief to such as reside at a dis- 
 tance from such lands. The situation is practically this : 
 The settlers on lands devoid of timber need timber for fuel, 
 building, &c. Very frequently they cannot get it, except 
 from the public lands. If they cannot get it legally, still 
 they will take it, and when taken solely for said purposes it 
 is under circumstances which largely mitigate the technical 
 legal offense. 
 
 While parties who steal the public timber for speculation 
 and profit deserve severe punishment, those who use it solely 
 for home purposes under the imperative necessities above 
 mentioned should have their privileges accurately and rea- 
 sonably defined. I deem the enactment of some law which 
 will accomplish this end to be very desirable and in the pub- 
 lic interest. 
 
 This office contains the record of original sales of land, 
 and of final adjustments of controversies relating to the 
 public domain. It annually furnishes an immense amount 
 of information to interested parties, at a great outlay of 
 labor. I deem it quite impracticable to give in this com- 
 munication any full detail of the vast work which has for 
 several years seriously embarrassed this office, because of an 
 insufficient clerical force of the requisite ability. My esti- 
 mate already submitted to you for the clerical force for the 
 fiscal year ending June 30, 1883, is as follows : 
 
 Commissioner $5,000 00 
 
 Deputy eommiesioner 3,000 00 
 
 3 inspectors of surveyor-general and district land ofBces, at 
 
 $3,000 each 9,000 00 
 
 Chief clerk ... • 2,600 00 
 
 Law officer 2,500 00 
 
 Recorder 2,000 00 
 
 3 principal clerks, of public lands, private lands, and of sur- 
 veys, at $2,000 each 6,000 00 
 
 6 chiefs of division, a $2,000 each 12,000 00 
 
 Receiving clerk . 2,000 00 
 
 Chief draughtsmen 2,000 00 
 
 34 clerks of class 4, at $1,800 each 63,000 00 
 
 50 clerks of class 3, at $1,600 each 80000 00 
 
 60 clerks of class 2, at $1 ,400 each 84^000 00 
 
 55 clerks of class 1, at $1,200 each eejoOO 00 
 
 35 copyists, at $900 each SlfiOO 00 
 
 Chief messenger 900 00 
 
 8 assistant messengers, at $720 each fi,760 00 
 
 6 packers, at $720 each 4,320 00 
 
 12 laborers, at $660 each 7^920 00 
 
 389,400 00 
 
 It will be observed that the above estimate embraces more 
 clerks at somewhat less salaries than were asked for last year 
 by my predecessor. He did not ask for a greater number of 
 clerks because at that time there was no room to accommo- 
 date them, and in the matter of my estimate for salaries I 
 have sought to name the very lowest figures which, in my 
 judgment, would possibly justify a reasonable expectation 
 of retaining what good and competent men are now em- 
 ployed and thoroughly skilled in the business, and of ob- 
 taining from the outside a class of ability which the public 
 have a right to expect will be employed to adjust the vast 
 interests committed to this office. I conceive it to be of 
 great importance that a deputy commissioner be speedily 
 authorized for this office. The executive duties devolving 
 upon the head of the bureau are so great and varied, as is 
 well known, that it is imjjracticable and beyond physical 
 possibilities for any Commissioner to personally discharge 
 them in a proper manner. With a deputy commissioner a 
 division of these duties can be made which will result 
 largely to the benefit of the public business. I therefore 
 recommend that this officer be authorized at as early a date 
 after Congress convenes as may be practicable. I have also 
 estimated for an appropriation for three inspectors of sur- 
 veyor-general and district land offices, at a salary of $3,000 
 each. It has been the practice to detail clerks from this 
 office, or employ special agents from the outside, to investi- 
 gate irregularities and frauds, and to inspect the local offices. 
 This proceeding is however open to serious objection. Not 
 only is the agent comparatively unskilled in most instances, 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 659 
 
 but the system of an occasional examination does not meet 
 the demands of the service. The local land officers are sub- 
 ject to frequent change by death, resignation, or removal, 
 and new and unskilled officers are appointed; errors in 
 business methods are perpetuated, and by reason of defective 
 proceedings in the local offices, claimants frequently suffer, 
 and additional vrork is imposed upon this office. The local 
 offices should be under continued and intelligent supervision. 
 A system of fraud not infrequently continues for a consider- 
 able time before this office is advised of its existence, and 
 then it has but imperfect remedies at its command. In 
 this, as in most other matters, prevention is better than 
 cure. The inspectors named should be tried, trusty, intelli- 
 gent men, well versed iu land laws and in the business of 
 this office. Their duty should be, under direction from this 
 office, to aid in the opening of all new land offices ; to in- 
 struct new officers in their duties ; see that the offices are 
 legally and properly administered ; detect and report fraud, 
 irregularities, and inefficient officers, and, in short, to do and 
 perform any duties in connection with the land service for 
 which special agents have heretofore been appointed, or as 
 the Secretary of the Interior or this office may direct. Many 
 of the same reasons which render the employment of Inspec- 
 tors in the Indian Department advisable apply with equal 
 force to the land service. I am confident that the employ- 
 ment of such inspectors would cost less than the present 
 system, would be far more effective, and would result in 
 speedy improvement of the service. 
 
 Mineral Lands Division. — The condition of work in 
 the division of this office having charge of mineral lauds is 
 shown by the following statement; 
 
 Mineral lands sold from July 1, 1880, to June 30, 1881, acres . . 27,189.68 
 
 Excess over previous year, acres . . 12,066.94 
 
 Mineral entries made from July 1, 1880, to June 30, 1881 . . 1,301 
 
 Excess over previous year . 629 
 
 Mineral applications made from July 1, 1880, to June 30, iSil. . . 1,863 
 
 Adverse claims made from July 1, 1880, to June 30, 1881 ... 7:J4 
 
 Mineral patents issued from July 1, 1880, to June 30, 1881 . 727 
 
 Mineral entries unexamined July 1, 1880 1,156 
 
 Mineral entries examined and suspended July 1, 1881 . . . . 461 
 
 Coal lands sold from July 1, 1880, to June 30, 1881 4,975 
 
 Coal filings made from July 1, 1880, to June 30, 1881 263 
 
 Coal patents issued from July 1. 1880, to June 30, 1881 9 
 
 Mineral contests finally disposed of from July 4, 1880, to June 30, '81 20 
 
 Mineral contests not finally disposed of June 30, 1881 .... 94 
 
 Mineral contests received from July 1, 1880, to June 30, 1881 ... 33 
 
 Letters received from July 1, 1880, to June 30, 1881 5,060 
 
 Letters written from July 1, 1880, to June 30, 1881. . . . 3,484 
 
 Pages of patent record vrritten ... • 4,466 
 
 Reports of the Surveyors-General.— From the re- 
 ports of the surveyors-general we extract the following, as 
 being of interest in this connection : 
 
 California. — ^Theodore Wagner, Surveyor-General for 
 California, in his report for 1881, says : Of the mineral 
 productions of California, gold is, beyond comparison, the 
 most important, the most remarkable gold fields in the 
 world existing in the State. Though the metal has been 
 found east of the Sierra Nevada, among the mountains of 
 the coast, and in various other localities, almost the entire 
 product of the State has been derived from the great aurif- 
 erous belt in the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, ex- 
 tending from Fort Tejon northward into Oregon, and meas- 
 uring about 220 miles by 40 wide. Under recent develop- 
 ment the gold deposits of the north and south extremities 
 of this belt, which were considered as of comparatively little 
 importance, have shown a surprising richness. The prin- ' 
 cipal mining operations are, however, carried on in the cen- 
 tral portion, embracing the western parts of Mariposa, Tuo- 
 lumne, Calaveras, Amador, El Dorado, Placer, Nevada, 
 Sierra Plumas, and the eastern part of Yuba and Butte 
 Counties. 
 
 The gold, with rare exceptions, is found in the native or 
 metallic state. It is never perfectly pure, but is alloyed 
 with more or less silver, and sometimes also with small 
 quantities of other metals. It occurs extensively in two 
 distinct and well-defined conditions, viz., in the solid rock, 
 usually in veins, and in alluvial deposits in the form of 
 minute scales, coarse grains, and larger pieces, more or less 
 water-worn and mixed with sand and gravel. From this 
 circumstance three distinct modes of mining have arisen^ 
 viz., placer, hydraulic, and quartz or vein mining. In the 
 first named the metal is obtained by washing the auriferous 
 gravel, by which process, the gold, owing to its great specific 
 gravity, is .speedily separated from the sand and earthy mat- 
 ter. Owing to the simplicity of the process placer mining was 
 at first chiefly carried on, but it has been largely superseded 
 by hydraulic and quartz mining, which requires more capi- 
 tal, skill, and complicated machinery. 
 
 In hydraulic mining, a body of water in a compact, con- 
 tinuous stream is directed with great force upon the walls 
 or banks of auriferous earth and cemented gravel deposits, 
 which, in most instances, are prepared for the action of the 
 water, by heavy charges of blasting powder placed in small 
 
 
 
 TTnlted States Public I^ands.- 
 
 — AVJiere they 
 
 He. 
 
 
 
 
 Area of Public Lands in States 
 and Terrttories. 
 
 Number of Acres of Public Lands Surveyed. 
 
 Total Area of Puhlie 
 and Indian Lands 
 Remaining Vnsur^ 
 
 Land Statos asd 
 
 TxBBlTOniES. 
 
 In acres. 
 
 In squar3 
 miles. 
 
 Up to June 30, 
 1880. 
 
 Prior to June 
 
 30, 1880, not 
 
 heretofore 
 
 reported. 
 
 Within the 
 
 Fiscal Year 
 
 ending June 30, 
 
 1881. 
 
 Total up to 
 June 30, .1881. 
 
 veyedf inclusive of 
 the area of Private 
 Land Claims Swt' 
 veyed up to June 
 30, 1881. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 6 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 
 Alabama .... 
 Alaska .... 
 Arizona . .... 
 Arkansas .... 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado . . 
 
 Dakota 
 
 Florida 
 
 Idaho 
 
 32,462,115 
 
 369,529,600 
 72,906,240 
 33,410,063 
 
 100,992,640 
 66,880,000 
 96,596,480 
 37,931,620 
 66,228,160 
 36,466,093 
 21,637,760 
 44,154,240 
 
 ; 35,228,800 
 51,770,240 
 26,461,440 
 
 1 36,128,640 
 53,459,840 
 30,179,840 
 41,836,931 
 92,016,640 
 48,636,800 
 71,737,800 
 77,668,640 
 26,676,960 
 60,975,360 
 54,064,640 
 44,796,160 
 34,611,360 
 62,645,120 
 
 50,722 
 
 577,390 
 
 113,916 
 
 62,202 
 
 167,801 
 
 104,500 
 
 160,982 
 
 69,268 
 
 86,294 
 
 65,414 
 
 ,33,809 
 
 68,991 
 
 66,045 
 
 80,891 
 
 41,346 
 
 66,541 
 
 83,631 
 
 47,156 
 
 66,370 
 
 143,776 
 
 76,995 
 
 112,090 
 
 121,201 
 
 39,964 
 
 96,274 
 
 84,476 
 
 69,994 
 
 53,924 
 
 97,883 
 
 32,462,116 
 
 
 
 32,462,115 
 
 
 369,529,600 
 67,093,270 
 
 6 807,874 
 33,410,063 
 62,349,048 
 26,222,321 
 25,174,377 
 30,175,027 
 
 7,488,792 
 35,46%093 
 21,6.37,760 
 27,003,990 
 35,228,800 
 61,770,240 
 25,312.548 
 36,128,640 
 39,949,417 
 30,179,846 
 41,836,931 
 11,364,964 
 41,664,593 
 13,:M1,002 
 10,543,650 
 26,676,960 
 23,067,020 
 
 9,781,960 
 16,969,176 
 34,511,360 
 
 9,063,636 
 
 
 6,096 
 
 6,812,970 
 33,410,063 
 67,660,018 
 35,026,683 
 27,081,815 
 80,176,027 
 7,853,376 
 36,466,093 
 21,637 760 
 27,003;990 
 36,228,800 
 61,770,240 
 26,647,631 
 36,128,640 
 40,213,003 
 30,179,840 
 41,836,931 
 11,759,082 
 42,945,036 
 17,825,600 
 14,639,083 
 25,676,960 
 23,067,020 
 10,076,369 
 16,368,489 
 34,511,360 
 10,366,940 
 
 4,322,662 
 
 1,369,278 
 
 431,783 
 
 888,308 . 
 7,435,084 . 
 1,475,665 . 
 
 43,432,622 
 
 31,853,317 
 
 69,614,666 
 
 7,766,493 
 
 303,667 
 
 60,916 
 
 47,374,785 
 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 19 
 20 
 21 
 22 
 23 
 24 
 26 
 26 
 27 
 28 
 29 
 
 Indiana ' . . 
 
 Indian Territory. . . 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas . .... 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Michigan ... 
 Minnesota. . 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri ... 
 Montana 
 Nebraska . . 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 .Ohio. ..... 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Utah 
 
 Washington ... 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 
 
 235,084 ' 
 
 i7',150,'25b 
 ;'9i3,'808 
 
 69,169 
 
 46,100 ■ 
 608,143 
 4,624,598 
 916,217 
 
 194,427 
 
 348,018 ' 
 852,300 
 
 ' 3',179,'2i6 ' 
 
 13,246,837 
 
 80',257,'56S 
 
 6,691,764 
 
 63,912,000 
 
 62,929,657 
 
 2,368,722 
 'l77,'855 
 
 1,008,324 
 294,409 
 231,459 
 
 34,531,294 
 43,988,271 
 28,427,671 
 
 48,189 
 
 1,055,116 
 
 62,278,180 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1,814,788,922 
 
 2,835,606 
 
 762 567,194 
 
 10,561,775 
 
 21,788,011 
 
 784,906,980 
 
 1,029,881,942 
 
660 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 tunnels run into them a short distance and then turned to 
 right angles. After the placing of the charge, the tunnels 
 are tightly closed and the powder fired by fuse. Thousands 
 of tons are upheaved by one blast. The matter thus loos- 
 ened, together with the water, is received in sluices, in 
 which the gold, having precipitated, is collected, while the 
 worthless debris is carried away. In this manner many 
 large hills have been leveled, in some instances to the great 
 detriment of farms and orchards situated in the path of the 
 d6bris or "slickens'" from the mines. Theauriferous quartz 
 occurs in veins and ledges, which are very numerous and 
 have a general north-northwest and south-southeast direc- 
 tion, parallel with the central axis of the Sierra Nevada. 
 The rock is crushed in powerful mills, and the gold ex- 
 tracted by amalgamation. The most accurate estimate of 
 the gold product of California since the discovery of that 
 metal in 1848 to January, 1881, is $981,800,000. 
 
 Next to gold, probably the most important mining in- 
 terest of California is the production of quicksilver, which 
 is obtained only from its sulphuret or cinnabar, of which 
 deposits are found at many points. It occurs in the Sierra 
 Nevada and the triassic rocks in the southern portion of the 
 State, but most abundanily in the Coast Range. Ores of 
 silver abound in various parts of the State, and some of them 
 are very rich; but silver mining has not yet been developed 
 to such a degree as to render it of any considerable impor- 
 tance. Argentiferous galena is mined at numerous locali- 
 ties in San Bernardino, Mono, Alpine, and Inyo Counties. 
 The mines of that character in the last-named county ex- 
 ceed in productiveness all others within the State. Argen- 
 tiferous copper ores are found in that part of the State bor- 
 dering on Arizona. Iron ores of superior quality exist in 
 the Coast Range Mountains and in other parts of the State: 
 The most valuable deposits are supposed to exist in Placer 
 and Sierra Counties. The ores occur in a belt of metaphoric 
 rock, and are marked by an entire absence of arsenic, sul- 
 phur, phosphorus, and such other substances as tend to de- 
 teriorate the quality of the metal. The ores are magnetic 
 and of the same variety as those from which the best Swed- 
 ish and Russian irons are made. A smelting furnace has 
 been erected near Clipper Gap, in Placer County, which 
 turns out about 35 tons of pig-iron per day, but the capacity 
 is capable of being extended almost indefinitely according 
 to demand. About 600 tons of this metal have been thus 
 far smelted, one-third of which has already been used in the 
 foundries of San Francisco. It has by actual test proven 
 greatly superior to the best Scotch pig, having successfully 
 resisted a pressure of over 18,000 pounds to the square 
 inch, while the maximum resistance of Scotch pig is placed 
 at about 6,000 pounds. In less exact tests at the foun- 
 dries, it has taken sixteen blows to fracture a pig of Cali- 
 fornia iron, while a Scotch pig of the same thickness and 
 area yielded at one blow from a sledge-hammer in the same 
 han(b. Experts pronounce the placer iron equal to the 
 famous Salisbury (Connecticut) metal for making car- 
 wheels, owing to its " chilling " qualities. It can readily be 
 rolled into first quality " merchant's bar." 
 
 The iron is graded, according to its density, from 1 to 5. 
 Nos. 1 and 2 are extra foundry, suitable for all purposes 
 where soft, tough, and durable iron is required ; it takes a 
 fine finish, works with ease in either lathe or planer, and 
 supports a strain double that of the best English or French 
 brands. Nos. 3 and 4 are of a harder nature, the former 
 being a superior car-wheel iron, and both are of extra 
 quality. No. 5 is a white iron, and, where a chill of through- 
 and-through nature is required, especially adapted for stamp- 
 mill, &c. The foundries at Dutch Flat, Grass Valley, and 
 Virginia City, and the rolling-mills at Sacramento and this 
 city, as well as the principal San Francisco foundries, have 
 worked the iron and found that in every essential quality it 
 compares favorably with the best foreign article. The 
 presence of iron ore at Clipper Gap has been known for 
 many years, but the high price of labor and fuel prevented 
 its earlier development. At present an abundant supply of 
 fuel, in the form of charcoal, is obtained from the oak and 
 pine forests adjacent to the mine and furnace. The furnace 
 consumes charcoal at the rate of one and three quarter mil- 
 lions of bushels per annum. The charcoal kilns (which are 
 in Nevada County), mine, and smelting furnace provide 
 employment for about 200 men. 
 
 A large deposit of marble in the vicinity furnishes a good 
 flux. Good smelting coal, limestone, and iron ore being 
 near geological neighbors in other regions, there is no good 
 reason why the same geological rule should not prevail at 
 Clipper Gap, or at any other place in the State where iron 
 ore and limestone are "known to exist in close proximity to 
 one another, and that future explorations should not develop 
 the presence of coal in the vicinity, which may be substituted 
 for charcoal as fuel when the present convenient supply of 
 timber is exhausted. It is reported that the iron company 
 has ordered from the East all the necessary machinery for a 
 rolling-mill, which will be . erected near the furnace. It is 
 the intention to manufacture railroad iron, gas pipe, and 
 such other iron wares as will command a profit on this coast. 
 A nail factory, where the Placer iron is worked, is now in 
 operation near San Quentin, in Marin County. The Pacific 
 coast has for years been supplied with iron and steel from 
 foreign sources, brought us by foreign ships. The annual 
 supply from abroad approximates to about 160,000 tons, 
 valued at $6,000,000 in rough, and in the manufactured state, 
 of course, a much larger sum. Importations from the Atlan- 
 tic States, not dutiable, amount to about $2,000,000. Large 
 as the consumption has heretofore been on this coast, it must 
 rapidly increase hereafter with the building of railroads, 
 quartz-mills, and hoisting works, and its growing use in the 
 construction of iron pipes, for buildings, naval architecture, 
 and in a thousand other ways. It is a safe calculation that 
 the demand for iron will more than double with every future 
 decade. There is no industry which can contribute more to 
 the wealth of the State. 
 
 Returning from this digression we find that deposits of 
 chromic iron and manganese exist in the coast range ; copper 
 ore has been found in various localities ; sulphuret of copper, 
 or copper pyrites, is found in auriferous quartz lodes in 
 nearly all the mining counties ; and platinum is said to 
 abound in the lower parts of the Klamath Valley. In the 
 coast mountains asphaltum exists in immense quantities, 
 and petroleum has been obtained to an extent which justifies 
 the belief that the local demand, at least, can be supplied 
 from the home product. Natural exudations of oil can be 
 traced seeping through the sandstone formation, and showing 
 at the surface, accompanied, more or less, with gas and 
 water. The oil belt commences in Humboldt County and 
 passes through Mendocino, Marin, Contra Costa, Santa Clara, 
 San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, and Los Angeles Counties. 
 Deposits of lead and zinc have been discovered, but are yet 
 undeveloped. Tin ore of a rich quality has been found ; 
 also plumbago, cobalt in various ores, a large lode of sul- 
 phuret of antimony, chalk, and chromium. Alum exists in 
 Santa Clara and Calaveras Counties and at the Geysers and 
 Owen's Lake, where there are hot alum springs. Fine 
 specimens of alabaster, marble, granite, and buhrstone have 
 been obtained. Bismuth, gypsum, and many varieties of 
 precious stones occur throughout the mountains. Fine 
 varieties of porcelain clay exist in many of the mining 
 counties, and clay suitable for making fire-brick is found 
 near Benecia. Beds of hydraulic limestone, occupying a 
 position between the sandstone and the shales, occur in the 
 cretaceous strata, but have not been obtained of sufiicient 
 size for use as an ornamental stone. Of the non-metallic 
 mineral productions the most important are coal, borax, 
 sulphur, and salt. In 1860 valuable deposits of coal were 
 discovered on the north slope of Mount Diabolo in beds vary- 
 ing in width from 30 to 50 inches. Bituminous coal of good 
 quality is obtained, which is shipped by rail to the San 
 Joaquin River, five miles distant, and shipped thence by 
 water. Coal also exists in the hills south of Mount Diabolo. 
 
 Near the Cajon Pass, in Los Angeles County, extensive 
 coal fields have recently been discovered, no less than seven 
 well-defined veins of coal having been found. Two com- 
 peting railroads, the Southern Pacific and Atlantic and 
 Pacific, will pass along the border of this belt, assuring 
 quick and cheap transportation facilities. In 1859 remark- 
 able deposits of^ borax, or biborate of soda, were discovered 
 beneath the waters of Borax Lake, near the south extremity 
 of Clear Lake, in Lake County. The water of the lake, 
 which generally covers about 100 acres at an average depth 
 of 3 feet, is strongly impregnated with borax. Beneath the 
 water, in a thick layer of mud, borax abounds in crystals, 
 some of which are three inches across. This mud has been 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 661 
 
 tested, and found to be charged with borax to a depth of 60 
 feet. There is another borax lake a few miles northeast of 
 Clear Lake. On the edge of the latter is a group of boiling 
 springs, scattered over an area of about 8 acres, lightly 
 charged with boracic acid, soda, and chlorine. These springs 
 discharge about 300 gallons of water per minute. Sulphur 
 occurs in various parts of the State, but most extensively 
 near Clear Lake and in Colusa Couuty. Near the former 
 place are immense deposits which yield 70 to 80 per cent, of 
 pure brilliant sulphur. Salt is found at various points. The 
 most extensive works are in Alameda County, near the Bay 
 of San Francisco, where the salt annually collected exceed^ 
 10,000 tons. Mineral springs of every variety exist in 
 abundance, some of which are highly esteemed for their 
 medicinal qualities. In San Bernardino Valley are numer- 
 ous warm springs, with temperatures varying from 108° to 
 172°. 
 
 Montana. — Mr. Rosswell H. Mason, Surveyor-General 
 of Montana, says : The yield from placer mines during the 
 last, has been about the same as for the previous, fiscal year 
 — ^there being possibly a slight decrease. As labor becomes 
 more plentiful, and wages less, large tracts of land which, at 
 present, would hardly pay for development, will be worked 
 at a profit. There has been a slight increase in the product 
 of gold lodes, some valuable mines have been purchased by 
 eastern and foreign capitalists, who are now developing 
 them, and I look for au increased product of at least fifty 
 per cent, during the present fiscal year. In this connection, 
 it should be stated that there aie very few of the mines 
 known distinctively as silver lodes that do not contain some 
 gold. I was informed a few days since by a gentleman who is 
 largely interested in mines and mills, that the bullion pro- 
 duced from his ten-stamp mill at Butte, during the past four 
 years, had contained at least $100,000 in gold. 
 
 The increase in the product of silver lodes has been very 
 large, some estimates placing it at double that of the pre- 
 vious fiscal year. It would be impossible for me in the lim- 
 ited time and space at my disposal, to mention even the 
 most prominent silver lodes in the Territory, or enumerate 
 the mills and reduction works erected during the past fiscal 
 year. Large bodies of these ores exist in various parts of 
 Montana, but, except those carrying a large percentage of 
 silver, cannot generally be profitably mined or worked. 
 Copper smelting works have recently been established at 
 Butte, and copper mines in that vicinity are now being 
 profitably developed. Some work has been done upon coal 
 mines, but none upon the vast deposits of iron ore in Mon- 
 tana. If the various railroad projects for this Territory are 
 carried to completion the manufacture of car wheels and 
 castings, iron and steel rails, &c., will form an important 
 branch of industry. The most reliable estimates place the 
 value of export of precious metals during the past fiscal year, 
 inclusive of that contained in base bullion and ores, as 
 follows : 
 
 Gold . 
 Silver . 
 
 83,500,ono 
 
 .... . 5,00(),000 
 
 Total value of shipments . 
 
 .... 8,500,000 
 
 Nevada. — Mr. E. S. Davis, Sui-veyor-General of Nevada, 
 reports : The great wealth of Nevada lies not altogether 
 in her agricultural valleys and mountains of mineral veins. 
 Her most barren and utter deserts bid fair to become the 
 source of her greatest wealth. That nature makes nothing 
 in vain is assured by the fact that discoveries are constantly 
 being made of vast deposits of salt, soda, borax, niter, sul- 
 phur, &c., on the desert plains. In the desert hills, that are 
 destitute of vegetation, except scattering, stunted sage brush 
 and greasewood, are also found gypsum, asbestos, silica, 
 kaolin, cinnabar, plumbago, bitumous shale, indications of 
 coal, iron, and many other deposits, as well as veins of cop- 
 per, antimony, galena, gold, and silver, and other metals, all 
 of which are used extensively in the arts and sciences, 
 trades, and manufactures, and their development will inaug- 
 urate new and permanent industries, and prove sources of 
 great profit to those engaged in their production. But little 
 progress has been made in the development of these valuable 
 deposits, solely on account of the want of some cheaper 
 means of transportation than has yet been afforded. But 
 they are coming ; already narrow-gauge railroads are being 
 projected and constructed to reach these deposits. The con- 
 
 struction of the Carson and Colorado narrow-gauge road had 
 for its primary object the traffic to be derived from the salt 
 and borax deposits in Esmeralda County. When the Car- 
 son and Colorado Railroad is completed to Columbus the 
 development of these deposits will begin in earnest, and 
 will prove a bonanza to the owners. The soda deposits in 
 Churchill County have not been fully developed for want of 
 some better means of transportation. The deposit seems to 
 be almost unlimited ; it exists in a solid stratified form and 
 looks like ice as it is quarried from the pits. Notwithstand- 
 ing the long distance it has to be hauled by teams to the 
 railroad, large quantities are shipped to San Francisco. 
 
 The niter deposits of Humboldt County was the subject of a 
 very able paper recently read before the California Academy of 
 Sciences by Hon. B. B. Redding. This being a matter of gener- 
 al interest, I shall take the liberty of embodying in this report 
 a condensation of Mr. Redding's highly interesting infor- 
 mation on the subject, A number of samples of earth, 
 gathered from different points in the Humboldt Desert, hav- 
 ing been forwarded to Mr. Redding, he caused them to be 
 carefully analyzed, and found that some of them contained 
 from fifteen to thirty-five per centum of nitrate of soda. 
 Careful inquiry concerning the climate, geological forma- 
 tion, and salt fields of the desert of Tarapaca in Peru, where 
 are found the deposits of nitrate of soda which furnish the 
 principal supplies to the manufactories of the world, satis- 
 fied Mr. Redding that the natural conditions of the Tara- 
 paca and Humboldt deserts were not dissimilar, and it 
 seemed probable to him that, by further exploration, exten- 
 sive beds of earth and gravel, cemented into masses of salt 
 and nitrate of soda (called caleche by the Peruvians), might 
 be found sufficiently rich in nitrates to create an extensive 
 business and make the United States, in this valuable ma- 
 terial, independent of Peru and Chili. When it is remem- 
 bered that nitrate of potash or nitrate of soda are used 
 either directly or indirectly in the manufacture of gunpow- 
 der, dynamite, nitro-glycerine, as well as a great many other 
 explosives, and nitric acid, it will be readily seen how large 
 a part niter performs in the commerce and manufacture of 
 civilized nations. To illustrate our present dependence on 
 other nations for nitrates, the records of the Treasury De- 
 partment show that there were imported into the United 
 States for the year ending June 30, 1879, 76.285,798 pounds 
 of nitrate of soda, valued at the custom-house at $1,384;572. 
 There was also imported the same year of nitrate of potash, 
 crude and refined 9,463,388 pounds, which paid a duty of 
 $89,977.80. In evidence of the increasing dependence of 
 the manufactures of the Pacific coa.st on niter? brought from 
 foreign countries. Mr. Redding calls attention to the fact 
 that for the year ending June 30, 1879, there were imported 
 into San Francisco 10,388,589 pounds of nitrate of soda, 
 valued at $191,278, and 258,253 pounds of nitrate of potash, 
 valued at $ll,077,while for the past year ending June 30, 
 1881, the importation into the port had increased to 14,783,- 
 226 pounds of nitrate of soda, valued at $326,494, and 
 468,257 pounds of nitrate of potash, valued at $18,358. 
 Or to state the facts in a more condensed form, in two years 
 the consumption of nitrate of soda on the Pacific coast 
 had increased nearly one-third, and of niti-ate of potash 
 nearly one-half. As before stated, the great source of sup- 
 ply of nitrate of soda is from a desert in the province of 
 Tarapaca in Peru. This desert, which is about seventy-five 
 miles in length, lies at an elevation of from 3,000 to 4,000 
 feet, and in its nearest point is not more than 45 miles from 
 the ocean. 
 
 The nitrate of soda is found in greater or less quan- 
 tities over ail area of several hundred square miles of 
 this desert. Rains are rare in that region and the 
 country is destitute of water near the surface. In addi- 
 tion to nitrate of soda, the earth of this desert contains 
 chloride of sodium, borates of lime and soda, sulphates of 
 lime and soda, and magnesia. Alumina and iodine always 
 exist with the nitrate of soda. The most extensive works 
 on the desert are at the Pampa, or Taramagal. The plain 
 is supposed to have been at one time a sea lake. Its west- 
 ern border for a width of 2,000 feet, is covered with salt. 
 Still further west and adjoining the salt deposit is found the 
 cakche, or rough nitrate. The remains of many other lakes 
 are also found on the desert with similar characteristics and 
 with beds of nitrate of soda in similar positions. Mr. J. Y.' 
 
662 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Flagg, a civil engineer, had charge of one of the most ex- 
 tensive works at Taramagal ibr extracting nitrate of soda 
 and appears to have studied the climate and geological for- 
 mation of that part of Peru with much care and attention. 
 A paper from liim on the subject was read before the Ameri- 
 can Institute and published in the American Chemist in 
 1874. From this and other sources, Mr. Redding learns 
 that the caleche, or rough nitrate, is found beneath the sur- 
 face in insolated masses. Sometimes it is found at a short 
 distance beneath the surface, covered only by a few inches of 
 sand, frequently, at a greater depth, covered by a cap of 
 hard earth and sand indurated with salt. The thickness of 
 the nitrate is from 1 to 10 feet, but does not average more 
 than 3 feet. Beneath the nitrate is a bed of soft sand con- 
 taining an abundance of crystals of glauberite and small 
 quantities of borates of lime and soda. The caleche, or 
 earthy matter containing nitrate of soda, varies in quality 
 from nearly pure common salt containing traces of nitrate 
 up to 50 and occasionally 60 per cent, of nitrate of soda. 
 The miner makes an excavation where he expects to find 
 the nitrate and, if successful, tunnels into the caleche and 
 fills the hole with course gunpowder made on the spot, reg- 
 ulating the charge to the amount of earth he proposes to 
 loosen. After the mass has been loosened and broken by 
 the explosion, it is assorted and all of the caleche supposed 
 to contain over 10 per cent, is conveyed to the works where 
 the salt and other materials are separated from the nitrate. 
 The average cost of production at the works in Taramagal 
 in 1874, including all expensss of mining, assorting, sepa- 
 rating and preparing for the market, was estimated at li^ 
 cents per pound. 
 
 Thus tar nitrate of soda has been found on the Humboldt 
 desert, in this State, and at different points on the southeast 
 side of the Sink of the Humboldt for a distance of 25 miles. 
 The center of the region would be approximately opposite 
 Brown's Station, on the Central Pacific Railroad, latitude 40 
 north, longitude 118.35 west, elevation 3,925 feet. This re- 
 gion, from the description, resembles the desert of Tara- 
 paca in Peru. Its immense beds of salt indicate that it vras 
 at one time below the ocean. In it are found also the bor- 
 ates and sulphates of lime and soda, magnesia and alumina. 
 It is also practically a rainless region. A record of eight 
 years shows that it receives an annual rain-fall of but 4.16 
 inches. Its average summer temperature is 78°.8 Fahr. 
 The discoverer of these nitrate deposits is Mr. Walter 
 Schmidt, and under his direction Mr. Redding visited the 
 Humboldt desert a few months since. He gives a very en- 
 couraging account of his researches, and reports that nitrate 
 of soda is found not only on the desert, but ia some of the 
 hills surrounding it. On the southeastern side of the Sink 
 of the Humboldt is a range of trachyte mountains having 
 an elevation above the water of the lake of about 1,200 feet. 
 The general trend of these mountains for about 25 miles ia 
 northeast and southwest. The particular range does not 
 appear to be named, other than it is called a part of the 
 west Humboldt range. A hill at the southwestern extremi- 
 ty of the range of a marked red color, is called Niter Hill. On 
 the south side of the hill, about 400 feet above the lake, was 
 shown the nitrate of soda in its matrix, if it may be so de- 
 scribed. At this place the trachyte is much broken into ir- 
 regular seams and readily splits off into conchoidal flakes. 
 In these seams and between these flakes the spaces are 
 filled with nitrate of soda united with chloride of sodium. 
 The seams examined by Mr. Redding were from one-eighth 
 to half an inch wide. Several analyses showed from 20 to 
 30 per cent, of nitrate of soda, the remainder consisting 
 principally of common salt. Appearances seemed to show 
 that the niter and salt, from whatever source derived, 
 formed on each surface of the seams and grew by accretion 
 in crystalline form until the seam was filled. This was 
 shown by the fact that in many cases where the distances 
 between the two surfaces of the rock were wider than usual 
 a vacant place was left in the centre of the niter. Observa- 
 tion has shown that wherever the crevices were ex-posed to 
 the light rains of winter the nitrate and salt were dissolved, 
 but that the crevice was always filled with the same mate- 
 rial during the hot, dry weather of the next summer. After 
 referring to various theories concerning the formation of the 
 nitrate of soda— generally conceded to be through the evap- 
 oration of salt water and the agency of the carbonate of lime 
 
 — Mr. Redding has reason to believe that the formation goes 
 on with great rapidity on the Humboldt desert, and with 
 cheaper transportation its production is destined to become 
 of great commercial importance. He says: "None of the 
 water courses of this region reach the ocean ; all evaporate 
 in the so-called sinks. The light winter rains that dissolve 
 the nitrate must carry it in solntion down to the desert, 
 ^yhere the water is evaporated. At certain places in the 
 gravel beneath the sand the water will come in contact wilh 
 decayed shells, which are found beneath the surface in near- 
 ly all parts of the desert, and also the decayed vegetable 
 matter from plants which once grew on the spot, as well as 
 from decayed vegetable mater annually brought down by 
 the Humboldt River. Here the process of formation may 
 be renewed. Thus far the largest bodies of caleche have 
 been found beneath the surface in the desert; and it is pro- 
 bable that if ever found in sufficient quantity and in suffi- 
 cently large percentage to pay for working, the profitable 
 deposits will be found on the deserts adjoining the salt de- 
 posits. The slight explorations that have thus far been 
 made convinced me that in the event of war or a large ad- 
 vance in the present prices of niter, sufficient can be found 
 in the Humboldt desert to supply all demand in the United 
 States for several years. It may also be mentioned that 
 nitrate of soda has also been found near the sink of the 
 Carson River, and at other points where the streams of Ne- 
 vada run into desert basins and evaporate. 
 
 Among other desert productions of the State may be 
 noted the article of sulphur, which may be produced cheap- 
 ly and in almost any desired quantity. In Humboldt Coun- 
 ty, especially, sulphur deposits are numerous, some of them 
 producing the nearly pure brimstone of commerce. These 
 mines or deposits seem to be capable of producing an al- 
 most inexhaustible quantity, but the distance from the Cen- 
 tral Pacific Railroad is considerable, and the roads are sandy 
 and heavy. To one of these deposits a narrow-gauge rail- 
 road is contemplated, connecting with the Central Pacific 
 at Humboldt. In fact these minerals and salines are found 
 in every part of the State, and exist mostly in lands unfit 
 for cultivation. These lines should be surveyed as well as 
 the farming, timber, and mineral land, in order that parties 
 locating them may secure proper titles. With progress of 
 the railroad system now being extended over the State, the 
 development of these great laboratories of nature will con- 
 tinue, and must in the end form industries important to the 
 future of the State. 
 
 The mineral outlook of the State is most encouraging. 
 While the annual gold and silver product of what is known 
 as the Comstock mines has been steadily decreasing with the 
 exhaustion of the great ore body in the California and Con- 
 solidated Virginia mines, the less prominent mining districts 
 in other portions of the State have assisted in swelling the 
 aggregate yield of the precious metals, so that the mining 
 industry of the State still continues to be of paramount im- 
 portance. Every mountain range in the State contains 
 mines of gold and silver of greater or less value, and the 
 steady efforts of the prospector are almost daily bringing to 
 light and development new and important mineral deposits. 
 Beyond the Comstock, the Eureka district continues to be 
 the most promising and productive, the silver appearing in 
 combination with lead, and the ores being reduced by smelt- 
 ing. Reliable authority informs us that two mines" in that 
 district— the Eureka Consolidated and the Richmond Con- 
 solidated—have alone paid more in dividends to their stock- 
 holders than all the mines of Colorado combined, and have 
 declared $919,000 more in dividends than all the mines of 
 Utah, Arizona, and Dakota. The amount already paid to 
 the shareholders of these two mines is but little short of 
 $8,000,000, and late developments show that the great ore 
 bodies of the district are practically inexhaustible. The 
 continuation of the Carson and Colorado Railroad toward 
 the southern boundary of the State will greatly stimulate 
 mineral discovery in Esmeralda County, while the extension 
 of the railroad southward from Eureka can scarcely fail to 
 result in the opening of many new mining districts in Eu- 
 reka, White Pine, Nye, and Lincoln Counties. 
 
 At the present writing the indications of the early discov- 
 ery of new ore bodies below the barren and exhausted levels 
 of the Comstock are most promising, and I hazard little in 
 predicting that for many years to come this great fissure will 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 sustain its reputation as a leading centre of attraction to 
 mining operators. Yet, wiiatever developments may deter- 
 mine in regard to the future of the Comstock, Nevada will 
 scarcely fail to maintain its position as the first among all 
 the States and Territories in the production of the precious 
 metals ; and the future will show, I think, that the annual 
 yield of the State, referring to a period ten years before, 
 reached its minimum in 1880. 
 
 New Mexico. — Mr. Henry M. Atkinson, Surveyor-Gen- 
 eral for New Mexico, reports : The mining interests of the 
 Territory have made wonderful strides in development, and 
 new discoveries are being made almost daily of silver, gold, 
 copper, iron, and coal. The developments made in the old 
 districts are such as to encourage the owners and attract 
 both home and foreign capital for their development. A 
 serious impediment is met with by the miners and prospec- 
 tors in searching for mineral upon unconfirmed grants. The 
 last clause of the. 8th section of the act of Congress provides 
 that the lands embraced within the limits of a grant shall 
 not be disposed of in any manner until final action by Con- 
 gress upon the question of the validity or invalidity of the 
 claim, The right to the mineral was not embraced in the 
 grants, they being agricultural and pastoral grants, yet there 
 IS no provision permitting the miner to acquire any right to 
 what he may discover upon a tract covered by an agricultural 
 grant, and I suggest that some action be had by Congress 
 which will enable the prospector to secure the benefits of his 
 mineral discoveries upon tracts covered by unconfirmed 
 grants. The mining interests of Southern New Mexico have 
 been seriously interfered with by the depredations of hostile 
 Indians under Victory and Nafia, and but little prospecting 
 could be safely engaged in, yet the adventurous miners have 
 made many new and valuable discoveries in the limited area 
 that they have been able to prospect. The northwest portion 
 of the Mescalero Apache Indian Reservation is known to be 
 rich in minerals ; and, as it is of no practical use to the 
 Indians, I suggest that it would be advisable to restore to 
 market townships 9, 10,.ll, 12, and 13 south, of range 11 
 east, and townships 9 and 10 south, of range 12 east, and if 
 necessary after the reservation an equivalent of land on 
 the south where Indians will be equally as well provided 
 for. In fact, this reservation ought to be abolished entirely 
 and the Indians disarmed and removed to the Indian Terri- 
 tory or the Eastern States, where they can be surrounded by 
 civilization, and, if the object is to civilize and to Christian- 
 ize them, they should be placed where it can be dona 
 quickly and where they will not be subject to the tempta- 
 tions incident to the border. This suggestion would 
 apply with equal force to all of the wild tribes. The 
 Mescalero Reservation, lying so close to the Mexican 
 border, enables che Indians to commit depredations and seek 
 refuge in Old Mexico, or to plunder the citizens of Mexico 
 and return to the reservation, where they are safe from pur- 
 suit. The restoration to market of this reservation, which 
 is known to be very rich in gold, silver and copper, would 
 result in opening up one of the finest mineral sections of 
 New Mexico. To the northward of the reservation and but 
 a few miles distant is the district of the White Oaks, which 
 contains several hundred miners and is a very prosperous 
 camp. To the west and southwest, in DoQa Ana County, 
 rich discoveries of mineral have recently been made in 
 what is known as the San Augustin District, lying east and 
 northeast of the towns of Mesilla and Las Cruces, in the 
 Organ range of mountains. Several of the mines in this dis- 
 trict were \>'orked many years ago, and the old mines, to- 
 gether with the new discoveries which are now being 
 worked, show considerable bodies of fine ore. 
 
 More new and valuable discoveries of mineral have been 
 made the past year in this Territory than in all the years 
 preceding, and there is no industry that will pay as well if 
 properly and intelligently managed. Labor is comparatively 
 cheap, and the seasons are favorable for the prosecution of 
 work every day in the year, and, with the great abundance 
 of fine bituminous and anthracite coal, fuel for smelting and 
 refining purposes can be obtained at a mere nominal cost. 
 The past year has witnessed the introduction of considera- 
 ble capital, which has been applied in mining operations, 
 yet much more is required, and is sure to follow the com- 
 pletion of the lines of railwav now in process of construc- 
 tion through the Territory. While a large portion of New 
 
 Mexico is arable and produces excellent crops of corn, 
 wheat, &c., yet it is eminently a mineral-producing country, 
 and the time is not far distant when it will take rank among 
 the first of the mineral-producing sections of America. 
 
 Utah. — Mr. Frd. Solomon, Surveyor General for Utah, 
 reports: The bullion yield of precious metals during the 
 past fiscal year has not been in arrears with former years, 
 notwithstanding the fact that deep snows have been a severe 
 drawback in many localities. A number of prominent 
 mining camps were thereby stagnated, and the mills shut 
 down. The Ontario, in Uintah mining district, still stands 
 at the head of the larger mines in the country, the regular 
 bullion shipments exceeding in round figures the sum of 
 $200,000 per month, or about $2,500,000 per annum. Ore is 
 found in such vast quantities that the company deems it 
 advisable to double the capacity of their 40-stamp mill. 
 The Horn Silver Mining Company, in San Francisco min- 
 ing district, has sunk the shaft to a much greater depth, and 
 struck new deposits of ore far richer than those in the upper 
 levels. During the last year the shipments amounted to 
 443 car loads, or 9,370,712 pounds gross, of which 9,326,126 
 pounds are lead, and 640,531.13 ounces silver. In addition to 
 this, large quantities of ore which were extracted from the 
 mine have been sold in a crude state. The Great Basin 
 Mining Company, with General P. E. Connor as managing 
 director, in Rush Valley mining district, has, within the 
 past year, erected hoisting and concentrating works at a 
 total cost of $80,000. The product which the mine yielded 
 during this period amounted to $150,000. The ore is chiefly 
 argentiferous galena. W. S. McCornick & Co., bankers in 
 Salt Lake City, have, during the calendar year ending 
 December 31, 1880, handled bullion to the amount of about 
 $34,000 per week, aggregating about $177,000 per annum. 
 
 Large deposits of antimony have recently been found on 
 Mesa Creek, which are worked to great advantage, the pro- 
 ducts being shipped to California. This mineral is found in 
 two localities, one west of Beaver City, the other in Detroit 
 mining district, Millard County. Not much can be said 
 about these deposits, since very little work has been per- 
 formed towards developing the same. 
 
 The coal basin of Utah originally extended from beyond 
 the northern boundary line of the Territory to about the 
 southern boundary, and from beyond the eastern boundary 
 to the western watershed of the Wasatch Mountains. This 
 original basin was broken by the upheaval of the Uintah 
 Mountains, leaving an island north of said Uintah Range, 
 extending from a point near the headwaters of the Weber 
 River to nearly the northern boundary of the Territory. 
 The coal again appears where Book Clifi" Mountains branch 
 off from the Wasatch, and thence extends along the eastern 
 watershed of said Wasatch, and through the lower plateaus 
 terracing off from the same to Green and Colorado rivers 
 and the southern boundary of the Territory. Seven or eight 
 seams have so far been definitely explored, varying from 4 
 to 30 feet in thickness. The 4-foot seam was first opened in 
 San Pete Valley, but was found to be so much mixed with 
 shale and limestone as to be useless for market, but the same 
 seam has again been tapped in Castle Valley, on Ivy Creek, 
 where it is perfectly clear, and produces the best coke of any 
 coal in this system. A seam of from 8 to 10 feet in thick- 
 ness has for a long time been worked on Grass and Coal 
 Creeks, in Summit County, from which even at present a 
 great part of the supply of Salt Lake City is drawn. The 
 same seam and a 30-foot seam have also been tapped in 
 Pleasant Valley, which said mines were of sufficient impor- 
 tance to build a narrow-gauge railroad. In Castle Valley 
 the coal lies in the greatest available area, and is now being 
 tapped by the two main branches of the Denver and Rio 
 Grande Railroad in Utah. Castle Valley also contains 
 seams of cannel coal, and some not altogether unimportant 
 seams of jet. The coal, with possibly the single exception of 
 the 4-foot seam is lignite, or belonging to the new sandstone 
 formation. 
 
 The main deposits of iron are situated in Iron County, the 
 same extending from Iron Springs to Iron City, about 15 
 miles square. It is mostly magnetic or specular ore and 
 huge bowlders of hematite, the latter containing a small per- 
 centage of silver. Smaller deposits may be found at the head 
 of Hard Scrabble and City Creek Cafions, on the boundary 
 line of Morgan and Salt Lake Counties ; also in Tintic min- 
 
664 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ing district, and some on the Provo River, east of Park City. 
 A small bed is also found in connection with the coal in 
 Castle Valley ; also a deposit in the Wah-Wah Mountains, 
 Beaver County. Attempts have been made to manufacture 
 iron in this territory, but not with important results, since 
 the necessary capital required for the successful operation of 
 this industry has not been invested. The ore is now chiefly 
 used for fluxing purposes in the different smelters, which 
 consume vast quantities during the year. 
 
 A species of mineral wax, peculiar to Utah, and which 
 some scientists have termed " Utahcorite," is found aloiig the 
 Pleasant Valley Railroad, in Soldier Canon, where it occurs 
 in small seams. Another seam of 20 feet, rather impure, is 
 found at the head of north fork of Nine Mile Creek, near the 
 boundary line between Wasatch and Emery Counties. In 
 connection with this is generally found a first-class quality 
 of bituminous shale, varying in thickness with the different 
 localities. Several varieties of marble have been found in 
 this territory, in such quantities and qualities as to make 
 them of commercial value. A very fine white marble is 
 found on Snake Creek, Wasatch County, also at Frisco, Bea- 
 ver County ; brown marble is found in Spanish Fork Cafion, 
 Utah County, and black marble at the Warm Springs, Salt 
 Lake City. The last two kinds are fossiHferous. Rock salt 
 is found in such large deposits that the term of mountain is 
 perfectly justified. They occur principally around Salina, 
 Sevier County, from which the crude and refined article is 
 shipped to the southern parts of Utah, also to Arizona and 
 Nevada. Gypsum, which always accompanies these de- 
 posits, is found in corresponding quantities. The main sul- 
 phur beds are situated in Gordon Mining District, Millard 
 County, on and about Cove Creek. They cover nearly 300 
 acres, and of many openings made by shaft and cut, none 
 shows it to be less than twenty feet thick. At that depth the 
 still active exhalations become intolerable. About 5,000,- 
 000. tons of sulphur are in sight, some of which is 98 fine, 
 but the average is about 65 ; tte sulphur beds of Sicily being 
 20. The commercial value of the Utah find is chiefly a 
 question of transportation. Minor beds are found at the 
 head of main fork of Bear River, in Summit County. 
 
 MINING LAWS OF THE STATES AND 
 TERRITORIES. 
 
 WE append here a number of laws in force in 
 different states and territories, and some 
 that are not in force, for the purpose of 
 showing the direction of changes in the 
 laws. They are compiled from various sources, including 
 the laws of the different States, " Copp's Mining Code," 
 " Carpenter's Mining Law," and " Our Western Empire." 
 
 Nevada. — The following are the main sections of a 
 statute of the State of Nevada approved February 27, 1866 : 
 
 Sec. 1. — Any six or more persons who are males of the age of 
 twenty-one years and upwards, holding mining claims in any min- 
 ing district, or who hold mineral lands not within the boundaries of 
 any established mining district, may form a new mining district 
 embracing said claims, at a meeting of such persons to be called by 
 
 fiosting for five days in at least five conspicuous places within the 
 imits of such proposed new district^ notices in writing stating the 
 Elace and time for holding such meeting, describing as near as may 
 e the limits of such proposed new district, and signed by not less 
 than five of such persons. At said meeting all males of the age of 
 twenty-one years and upward holding raining claims, or any interest 
 therein, within said limits^ may vote, and by a majority vote deter- 
 mine whether said new mraing district shall be established, and its 
 boundaries, which shall be within the limits named in said notices; 
 and thereafter the persons so qualified and holding mining claims 
 in such newly established district shall proceed to select a name 
 therefor and elect a district recorder, who shall be qualified as 
 aforesaid. He shall perform all the duties required of him by law, 
 and shall, within thirty days after qualifying, file and record in his 
 office a record of the proceedings of said meeting. No district 
 formed under the provisions of this act shall be divided by any 
 county line. Mining districts now existing may be continued. 
 
 Sec. 22,— On and after the second Saturday of July, 18fi6, all 
 locations of mining claims shall be made in the following manner: 
 On a monument not less than three feet high, firmly established 
 in a conspicuous place on the claim, there shall be placed a plainly- 
 
 written notice embracing a description of the ground claimed, the 
 date of location, the name of the Claim, the name of the company, 
 and the names of the locators, with the number of feet claimed by 
 each, and a copy of said notice, accompanied by a written request 
 for a survey of said claim by the district recorder, shall, within 
 thirty days after the making of such location, be filed in the office 
 of the district recorder of the district in which said claim is located ; 
 and in case there be no legally authorized district recorder in and 
 for the district, or the claim be outside of the limits of an organized 
 mining district, then, and in that case, said notice may be filed in 
 the office of the county recorder of the county in which said claim 
 is located ; and a written request for a survey by the county sur- 
 veyor shall be served upon the county surveyor within a reasonable 
 time thereafter; the county surveyor, or his deputy, shall perform 
 all the duties required of a district recorder by the provisions of 
 this act. He shall keep a record of all his transactions in such 
 cases, and for such services he may charge and receive the same 
 fees allowed by law for his services in like cases. Within thirty 
 days after the making of such location ihere shall be done on said 
 claim, as assessment work, to hold the same up to and including 
 the day preceding the first Saturday of the then following August, 
 excavation involving the removal of fifty cubic feet of earth or 
 loose material, or five cubic feet of solid rock, for each two hundred 
 ftet in the claim ; and, as soon as may be thereafter, said district 
 recorder shall survey the same and record the notice of survey as 
 provided in section 14 of this act; and said district recorder shall 
 file and record a certificate in regard to the assessment work, which 
 shall be substantially in the following form : 
 
 AY OF MONTH OF 
 
 - claim governed by the 
 
 - date, there has been done 
 
 - DISTRICT,- 
 
 - COUNTY, NEVADA,- 
 YEAR. 
 
 This is to certify that on the - 
 ■ company, surveyed on - 
 
 by or on behalf of said companj sufficient work to hold said claim 
 up to the first Saturday of August next. 
 
 , District Recorder. 
 
 Sec. 23. — Any person may locate mining claims in favor of others, 
 but no person shall be entitled to hold by location more than two 
 hundred feet of any one ledge, except by virtue of discovery of the 
 same, for which he shall be entitled to hold two hundred feet addi- 
 tional. In the case of locations made as extensions, the location of 
 two hundred feet by virtue of discovery is allowed. No claim shall, 
 in the aggregate, exceed in extenttwo th(Tusand feet on anyone ledge. 
 
 Sec. 24. — Any location made on a ledge by authority of this act 
 shall be deemed to include all the dips, spurs, angles and variations 
 of said ledge. The locators of any ledge shall be entitled to hold 
 one hundred feet on each side of it, except where they would by so 
 doing invade the territory of a claim previously located. 
 
 Sec. 31. — On the first Saturday of August, 1866, at which time the 
 first assessment j'ear shall begin, this act shall supersede all district 
 mining laws, and thereafter said laws shall be considered as re- 
 pealed : Provided, Any and all rights heretofore acquired under and 
 by virtue of such district mining laws shall be determined in ac- 
 cordance with said mining laws existing at the time when said rights 
 were acquired. During the period extending from and including 
 the 1st day of May, 1SK6, to and including the day immediately pre- 
 ceding the first Saturday of the following August, no claim shall 
 become subject to relocation by reason of the non-performance of 
 assessment work. Locations may be made under this act at any 
 time on and after the second Saturday of July, 18U(i, at which time 
 the district recorders elected under tliis act shall, if qualified, enter 
 upon the discharge of their duties, and on and after said second 
 Saturday of July, no location shall be made under district mining 
 laws. 
 
 Sec. 32. — The doing of assessment work, or the pay ment of assess- 
 ment dues, shall not be required in order to hold a claim during any 
 assessment year, if during the year next preceding such assessment 
 year there has been done on said claim, by or on behalf of the claim- 
 ants thereof, an amount of work costing, at fair valuation, not less 
 than fifty cents for each foot in said claim ; but in all other cases 
 assessment work shall be done or assessment dues shall be paid as 
 provided in this act. Assessment dues shall be paid for every 
 assessment year by the parties holding the claim to the district re- 
 corder elected under this act, before the first Saturday of August, 
 commencing the assessment year for which they aie paid, except as 
 otherwise provided in this section. 
 
 Sec. 33. — ^Except as otherwise provided in section 32, every min- 
 ing claim located, and held under district mining laws, on which, 
 before the l.st day of May, 1866, there has been woi-k done involving 
 the excavation of fifty cubic feet of earth or loose matter, or five 
 cubic feet of solid rock, for each 200 feet in Such claim, shall be 
 subject to assessment dues. On every mining claim located and 
 held under district mining laws, on which such work has not been 
 done before the 1st day of May 1860, assessment work shall be done 
 on or before the day immediately preceding the first Saturday of 
 August, 1866. The doing of such assessment work or the paying of 
 such assessment dues shall cnalile the owner of siiid claim to hold 
 the same for the next ensuing assessment year, commencing on the 
 first Saturday of August, 1866. 
 
 Sec. 34.— Ihe assessment work done within the thirty days after 
 the location of a claim under this act, as provided in section 22, 
 shall hold the same only up to the beginning of the assessment 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 665 
 
 year following the date of said location, and for such next en- 
 suing assessment year and for every year thereafter, except as 
 provided in section 3:2 of this act, such claim shall be subject to 
 assessment dues. 
 
 Sec. 45. — The extraction of gold or other metals from alluvial or 
 diluvial deposits, generally called placer mining, shall be subject 
 to such regulations as the miners in the several mining districts 
 shall adopt. 
 
 March 6, 1879, the following became law: 
 
 Sec. 1. — In every mining district in this State in which the seat 
 of government of any county is situated, the county recorder of 
 said county shall be ex-officio District Mining Recorder, subject, in 
 the discharge of his duties, to such rules, regulations and compen- 
 sation, as may be now in ix)rce or hereafter prescribed by the min- 
 ing laws of the mining districts respectively to which this Act is 
 applicable. He shall, as such ex-officio Mining Recorder, be re- 
 sponsible on his official bond for tne faithful performance of the 
 duties of his office, and the correct and safe keeping of all the re- 
 cords thereof. 
 
 Sec. 2. — This act shall take effect and be in force from and after 
 the first day of August, A. D. 1880. 
 
 Oregon. — Sec. 1. — That any person, or company of persons, 
 establishing a claim on any quartz lead containing gold, silver, 
 copper, tin, or lead, or a claim on a vein of cinnabar, for the purpose 
 of mining the same, shall be allowed to have, hold, and possess the 
 land or vein, with all its dips, spurs, and angles, for the distance of 
 three hundred feet in length, and seventy-five feet in width on each 
 side of such lead or vein. 
 
 Sec. 2. — To establish a valid claim the discoverer or person wish- 
 ing to establish a claim shall post a notice on the lead or vein, with 
 name or names attached, which shall protect the claim or claims 
 for thirty days ; and before the expiration of said thirty days he or 
 they shall cause the claim or claims to be recorded as hereinafter 
 provided, and describing, as near as may be, the claim or claims, 
 and their location ; but continuous working of said claim or claims 
 shall obviate the necessity of such record. If any claim shall not 
 be worked for twelve consecutive months it shall be forfeited and 
 considered liable to location by any person or persons, unless the 
 owner or owners be absent on account of sickness, or in the service 
 of their country in time of war. 
 
 Sec. 3. — Any person may hold one claim by location, as iere- 
 inafter provided, upon eacli lead or vein, and as many by purchase 
 as the local laws of the miners in the district where such claims are 
 located may allow ; and the discoverer of any new lead or vein, not 
 previously located upon, shall be allowed one additional claim for 
 the discovery thereof. Nothing in this section shall be so construed 
 as to allow any person not the discoverer to locate more than one 
 claim upon any one lead or vein. 
 
 Sec. 4. — Every person, or company of persons, after establishing 
 such claim or claims, shall, within one year after recording or tak- 
 ing such claim or claims, work or cause to be worked to the amount 
 of fifty dollars for each and every claim, and for each successive 
 year shall do the same amount of^ work, under penalty of forfeiture 
 of said claim or claims: Provided, That any incorporate company 
 owning claims on any lead or vein may be allowed to work upon 
 any one claim the whole amount required as above for all the 
 claims they may own on such lead or vein. 
 
 Sec. 5. — It shall be the duty of the county clerk of any county, 
 upon the receipt of a notice of a miners' meeting organizing a 
 miners' district in said county, with a description of the boundaries 
 thereof, to record the same in a book to be kept in his office as 
 other county records, to be called a "book of record of mining 
 claims;" and, upon the petition of parties interested, he may ap- 
 point a deputy for such district, who shall reside in said district or 
 its vicinity, and shall record all mining claims and water rights in 
 the order in which they are presented for record ; and shall trans- 
 mit a copy of such record at the end of each month to the county 
 clerk, who shall record the same in the above-mentioned book of 
 record, for which he shall receive one dollar for each and every 
 claim. It shall further be the duty of said county clerk to furnish 
 a copy of this law to his said deputy, who shall keep the same in 
 his office, open at all reasonable times for the inspection of all 
 persons interested therein. 
 
 Sec. 6. — Miners shall be empowered to make local laws in rela- 
 tion to the possession of water rights, the possession and working 
 of placer claims, and the survey and sale of town lots in mining 
 camps, subject to the laws of the United States. 
 
 Sec. 7. — That ditches used for mining purposes, and mining flumes 
 permanently affixed to the soil, be and they are hereby declared 
 real estate for all intents and purposes whatever. 
 
 Sec. 8. — That all laws relative to the sale and transfer of real 
 estate, and the application of the liens of mechanics and laborers 
 therein, be and they are hereby made applicable to said ditches 
 and flumes : Provided, That all interests in mining claims known 
 as placer or surface diggings may be fjranted, sold, and conveyed 
 by bill of sale and delivery of possession as in cases of the sale of 
 personal property: Provided further. That the bills of sale or con- 
 veyances executed on the sale of any placer or surface mining 
 claim shall be recorded within thirty days after the date of such 
 sale, in the office of the county clerk of the county in which such 
 
 sale is made, in a book to be kept by the county clerk for that 
 purpose, to be called the record of^ conveyances of"^ mining claims. 
 
 Sec. 9. — Mortgages of interest in placer or surface mining claims 
 shall be executed, acknowledged, recorded, and foreclosed as mort- 
 gages of chattels. 
 
 Sec. 10. — The county clerk shall be entitled to a fee of one dollar 
 each for every conveyance or mortgage recorded under the provis- 
 ions of this act. 
 
 Lodes, Placers, and Water-rights. — An Act to amend Section 1 of 
 
 Chapter 38 of the Miscellaneous Laws of Oregon, pertaining to 
 
 mines, as compiled by M. P. Deady and L. F. Lane. 
 Be it enacted by the Legislative Assembly of the State of Oregon : 
 
 Sec. 1. — That section 1 of Chapter 38 of the Miscellaneous Laws 
 of Oregon pertaining to mines, as compiled by Matthew P. Deady 
 and Lafayette Lane, be amended so as to read as follows : That any 
 person or company of persons, establishing a claim on any quartz 
 lead containing gold, silver, copper, tin^ or lead, or a claim on a 
 vein of cinnabar, for the purpose of mining the same, shall be al- 
 lowed to have, hold and possess the land or vein, with all dips, 
 spurs, and angles, for the distance of fifteen hundred feet in length 
 and three hundred feet in width on each side of such lead or vein. 
 
 Sec. 2. — That all local laws and regulations now existing in the 
 mining districts of this State that have not been made within two 
 years next preceding the passage of this Act, shall be, and the same 
 are hereby, declared null and void. 
 
 Sec. 3. — That from and after the passage of this act, any person, 
 company, or corporation owning placer claims, composed of^ creek, 
 bench, and hill claims, joining, may represent the whole of said 
 claims by working or mining on any one of the same. 
 
 Sec. 4. — That from and after the passage of this act, any person 
 or persons, company or corporation, shall be allowed to represent 
 his or their jjlacer claims, ditches and water rights, as may tiest 
 suit his or their convenience; Provided, that whenever any person, 
 company or corporation, being the owner of any placer mining 
 claim or claims, ditches, and water rights, have or shall abandon 
 the same, and who shall for one year thereafter cease to exercise 
 ownership over said claims, ditches, and water rights, shall be 
 deemed to have lost all title, claim, or interest therein. 
 
 Sec. 6. — That whenever any person, company, or corporation 
 have or shall locate a placer claim or claims in conformity to the 
 Act of Congress approved May 10, 1872, and the amendments 
 thereto, the said claim or claims, together with all ditches and 
 water rights appurtenant to, and connected with the same, shall 
 not be subject to any local law or regulation of the mining district 
 in which the same may be situa,ted, but shall thereafter be subject 
 only to the law governing real estate. 
 
 Approved October 25, 1880. 
 
 Idaho. — Sec. 1. — That any person or persons who may hereafter 
 discover anjr quartz lead or lode shall be entitled to one claim 
 thereon by right of discovery, and one claim each by location. 
 
 Sec. 2. — That a quartz claim shall consist of two hundred feet in 
 length along the lead or lode by one hundred feet in breadth, cov- 
 ering and including all dips, spurs and angles within the bounds of 
 said claim, as also the right of drainage, tunneling and such other 
 privileges as may be necessary to the working of said claim. 
 
 Sec. 3.— The locator of any quartz claim on any lead or lode shall, 
 at the time of locating such claim, place a substantial stake, not less 
 than three inches in diameter, at each end of said claim, on which 
 shall be a written notice specifying the name of the locator, the 
 number of feet claimed, together with the year, month and day 
 when the same was taken. 
 
 Sec. 4.^A11 claims shall be recorded in the county recorder's 
 office, within ten days fi-om the time of posting notice thereon: 
 Provided, That when the claim located is more than thirty miles 
 distant from the county seat the time shall extend to fifteen days. 
 
 Sec. 5. — Quartz claims recorded in accordance with the provisions 
 of section 4 of this act shall entitle the person so recording to hold 
 tlie same to the use of himself, his heirs and assigns : Provided, That 
 within six months from and after the date of recording he shall per- 
 forin, or cause to be performed, thereon work amounting in value 
 to the sum of one hundred dollars. 
 
 Sec. 6. — Any person or persons holding quartz claims in pursu- 
 ance of this act shall renew the notice required in section 3 at least 
 once in twelve months, unless such claimant is occupying and work- 
 ing the same. 
 
 Sec. 7. — The conveyances of quartz claims heretofore made by 
 bills of sale or other instruments of writing, with or without seals, 
 shall be construed in accordance with the local mining rules, regu- 
 lations and customs of miners in the several mining districts, and 
 said bills of sale or instruments of writing concerning quartz claims 
 without seals shall be prima facie evidence of sale, as if such con- 
 veyance had been made by deed under seal. 
 
 Sec. 8.— Conveyances of quartz claims shall hereafter require the 
 same formalities and shall be subject to the same rules of construc- 
 tion as the transfer and conveyance of real estate. 
 
 Sec. 9.— The location and pre-emption of quartz claims heretofore 
 made shall be established and proved when there is a contest before 
 the courts, by the local rules, customs and regulations of the miners 
 in each mining district where such claim is located, when not in 
 conflict with the laws of the United States or the laws of this Ter- 
 ritory. 
 
666 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Sec. 10. — This act is to talte effect and to be in force from and after 
 its approval by the Governor. 
 
 Approved February 4, 1864. 
 
 Miner's Lien. — Sec. 12.— Every sub-contractor, journeyman, la- 
 borer, or other person, performing labor, or furnishing materials 
 for any contractor, in or upon any quartz) claim, ledge, or mine, in 
 working in the same or in the improvement or development thereof 
 in the completion or performance of any contract entered into by 
 any person in this. Territory, every such person or person so per- 
 forming such labor or furnishing such material shall have a 
 lien upon all the interest in such quartz claim, ledge or mine of 
 the person or persons employing him or them, or purchasing such 
 materials with tlie improvements thereon and appurtenances thereto 
 belonging, and also upon all the interest of the person or persons 
 for whom such person or persons acts as agent, or the owner or 
 owners, for the value of such work, or labor or materials furnished, 
 and all the provisions of this act shall apply in respect to recording, 
 recovering, and enforcing such liens provided for in this section : 
 provided, the person or persons claiming such lien shall within 
 thirty days after the perftrmance of such labor or furnishing such 
 materials, give notice in writing to any person or persons, agent or 
 agents, owner or owners, and shall within forty days file their lien 
 in other respects as provided by this act. 
 
 Sec. 13. — when any person or persons shall do or perform any 
 work or labor in or upon or for any quartz claim, mine, or ledge, 
 in working the same or in the improvement or development thereof; 
 or in the preparation of the ores thereof for reduction ; or in the 
 hauling of the ores thereof; or shall perform labor or service as 
 superintendent, manager, or foreman of any mine or ledge, or shall 
 perform labor as a mechanic or artisan therefor; such person 
 or persons shaU have a lien upon all the interests in such quartz 
 claim, ledge, or mine of the person or persons employing him or 
 them, or purchasing such materials, together with the improvements 
 thereon and appurtenances for the value of such wort, labor, or 
 services, or materials furnished, and all the provisions of this act re- 
 specting the filing, recording and recovering and enforcing mechan- 
 ics' liens are made applicable to this section : provided, the person 
 or persons claiming such liens shall, within sixty days after the 
 completion of such work or labor, or rendering said services or 
 furnishing said materials, file their lien in other respects as provided 
 by this Act. 
 
 Sec. 14. — This Act shall be so construed as to include in its 
 provisions bridges, ditches, flumeSj aqueducts to create hydraulic 
 power for mining purposes, and all improvements on mining claims. 
 — Extract from an Act approved Jan. 11, 1875. 
 
 14. — The amount of worlt to be done or improvements made dur- 
 ing each year, to hold possession of a mining claim, shall be that 
 prescribed by the laws of the United States, to wit : one hundred 
 dollars annually. 
 
 15. — Within six months after any set time or annual period herein 
 allowed for the performance of labor or making improvementsupon 
 any lode claim, the person on whose behalf such outlay was made, 
 or some person for him, shall make and record an affidavit in sub- 
 stance as follows : 
 
 Terbitoey of Dakota, 
 County of , 
 
 ippeared - 
 
 -, who, being 
 
 Before me, the subscriber, personally ai ^ , , ^ 
 
 duly sworn, says that at least dollars' worth of work or im- 
 provements were performed or made upon [here describe the claim 
 
 or claims, or part thereof] prior to the — day of , A. D. 18 — , 
 
 situate in mining district, county of , Territory of Da- 
 kota. Such expenditure was made by or at the expense of , 
 
 owner of said claim, for the purpose of holding said claim. 
 
 [Jurat.] [Signature.] 
 
 And such certificate, when recorded in the ofiice of the register 
 of deeds of the county wherein such claim is located shall he prima 
 facie evidence of the performance of such labor. 
 
 16. — The relocation of abandoned lode claims shall be by sinking 
 a new discovery shaft, and fixing new boundaries, in the same man- 
 ner as if it were the location of a new claim ; or the relooater may 
 sink the original shaft, cut, or adit to a sufficient depth to comply 
 with sections five and seven of this chapter, and erect new or adopt 
 the old boundaries, renewing the posts if removed or destroyed. In 
 either case, a new location stake shall be erected. In any case, 
 whether the whole or part of an abandoned claim is taken, the 
 location certificate must state that the whole or any part of the new 
 location is located as abandoned property. 
 
 17.— No location certificate shall claim more than one location, 
 whether the location be made by one or several locators ; and if it 
 purport to claim more than one location, it shall be absolutely void, 
 except ss to the first location therein described ; and if they are 
 described together, or so that it cannot be told which location is 
 first described, the certificate shall be void as to all. 
 
 18.— The register of deeds shall be entitled to receive the sum of 
 one dollar for each location certificate recorded and certified by him, 
 and shall furnish the locator or locators with a certified copv of 
 such certificate when demanded, for which he shall be entitled to 
 receive fifty cents. 
 
 7. Any open cut, cross cut, or tunnel, at a depth sufiioicnt to dis- 
 close the mineral vein or lode, or ah adit of at least ten (10) feet in 
 
 .along the lode, from a point where the lode may be in any manner 
 discovered, shall be equivalent to a discovery shaft. 
 
 8. The discoverer shall have thirty days from the time of uncov- 
 ering or disclosing a lode, to sink a discovery shaft thereon. 
 
 9. The location, or location certificate, of any lode or claim shall 
 be construed to include all surface ground within the surface lines 
 thereof, and all lodes and ledges throughout the entire depth, the 
 top or apex of which lies inside of such lines extended vertically 
 with such parts of all lodes or ledges as continue, by dip beyond 
 the side lines of the claim, but shall not include any portion of such 
 lodes or ledges beyond the end lines of the claim, or the end lines 
 continued, whether by dip or otherwise, or beyond the side lines 
 in any other manner than by the dip of the lode. 
 
 10. If the top or apex of the lode in its logitudinal course extends 
 beyond the exterior lines of the claim at any point on the surface, 
 or as extended vertically downward, such lode may not be followed 
 in its logitudinal course beyond the point where it is intersected by 
 the exterior. 
 
 11. All mining claims now located, or which may be hereafter 
 located, shall be subject to the right of way of any ditch or fiume 
 for mining purposes, or of any tramway or pack trail which is now 
 in use, or which may be hereafter laid out across any such location : 
 Provided always. That such right of way shall not be exercised 
 against any location duly made and recorded, and not abandoned 
 prior to the establishment of the ditch, flume, tramway, or pack- 
 trail, without consent of the owners, except by condemnation, as in 
 case of land taken for public highways ; parol consent to the loca- 
 tion of any such casement, accompanied by the completion of the 
 same over the claim, shall be sufficient without writing ; and pro- 
 vided further, That such ditch or flume be so constructed that 
 the water from such ditch or flume shall not injure vested rights 
 by flooding or otherwise. 
 
 12. When the right to mine is in any case separate from the own- 
 ership or right of occupancy to the surface, the owner or rightful 
 occupant of the surface may demand satisfactory security from the 
 miner, and if it be refused!, may enjoin such miner from working 
 until such security is given. The order for injunction shall fix the 
 amount of bond. 
 
 13. If at any time the locator of any mining claim heretofore or 
 hereafter located, or his assigns, shall apprehend that his original 
 certificate was defective, erroneous, or that the requirements of the 
 law had not been complied with before filing, or shall be desirous 
 of changing his surface boundaries, or of taking in any part of an 
 overlapping claim which has been abandoned, or in case the origi- 
 nal certificate was made prior to the passage of this law, and he 
 shall be desirous of securing the benefit of this act, such locator or 
 his assigns may file an additional certificate subject to the provi- 
 sions of this act : Provided, That such relocation does not interfere 
 with the existing rights of others at the time of such relocation, and 
 no such relocation or the record thereof shall preclude the claimant 
 or claimants from proving any such title or titles as he or they may 
 have held under previous locations. 
 
 Dakota. — 1. The length of any lode claim hereafter located 
 within this Territory may equal, but shall not exceed, fifteen hun- 
 dred feet along the vein or lode. 
 
 2. The width of lode claims shall be one hundred and fifty feet 
 on each side of the center of the vein or crevice ; Provided, That 
 any county may, at any general election, determine upon a greater 
 width not exceeding three hundred feet on each side of the center 
 of the vein or lode, by a majority of the legal votes cast at said 
 election ; and any county, by such vote at such election, mav de- 
 termine upon a less width than above specified ; Provided, "That 
 not less than twenty-five feet on each side of the vein or lode shall 
 be prohibited. 
 
 3. That the discoverer of a lode shall, within twenty days from 
 the date of discovery, record his claim in the office of the register 
 of deeds of the county in which such lode is situated, by a location 
 certificate, which shall contain : 
 
 (1) The name of the lode. 
 
 (2) The name of the locator. 
 
 (3) The date of location. 
 
 (4) The number of feet in length claimed on each side of the dis- 
 covery shaft. . 
 
 (5) The number effect in width claimed on each side of the vein 
 or lode. 
 
 (6) The general course of the lode, as near as may be. 
 
 4. Any location certificate of a lode claim which shall not con- 
 tain the name of the lode, the name of the locator, the date of loca- 
 tion, the number of lineal feet claimed on each side of the discovery 
 shaft, the number of feet in width claimed, tlie general course of 
 the lode, and such description as shall identify the claim with rea- 
 sonable certainty, shall be void. 
 
 5. Before filing such location certificate, the discoverer shall lo- 
 cate his claim by first sinking a discovery shaft thereon sufficient 
 to show a well defined mineral vein or lode; second, by posting at 
 the point of discovery, on the surface, a plain sign or notice con- 
 taining the name of the lode, the name of tho locator, and the date 
 of discovery, the number of feet claimed in length on either side of 
 tlie discovery, and the number of foet in width claimed on eacli 
 side of the lode ; third, by marking the surface boundaries of the 
 claim. 
 
 6. Such surface boundaries shall be marked by eight (8) substan- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 667 
 
 tial posts, hewed or blazed on the side or sides facing the claim, 
 and sunk in the ground, to wit : one at each corner, and one at the 
 centre of each side line, and one at each end of the lode. When it 
 is impracticable, on account of roclcs or precipitous ground, to sink 
 such posts, they may be placed in a monument of stone. 
 
 Arizona. — The following is tiie statute of Arizona on the 
 registry and government of mines and mineral deposits, with 
 the exception of the sections providing the manner in which 
 the rights of miners shall be enforced by the courts . 
 
 Sec. 1. — All mining rights on the public lands of the United States, 
 as well as rights acquired by discovery on the lands of private indi- 
 viduals, are possessory in their character only, and such possessory 
 rights shall he limited, regulated and governed as hereinafter pro- 
 vided. 
 
 Sec. 15. Every mining claim or pertenencia is declared to consist 
 of a superficial area of 200 yards square, to be measured so as to in- 
 clude the principal mineral vein or mineral deposits, always having 
 reference to and following the dip of the vein so far as it can or may 
 be worked, with all the earth and minerals therein. But any min- 
 ing district organized in accordance with the provisions of this 
 chapter may prescribe the dimensions of said mining claim or per- 
 tenencia for such district : Provided, That in no case the dimensions 
 so prescribed shall exceed the number of yards allowed by this sec- 
 tion ; and further provided, That no such mining district shall dimi- 
 nish the extent of the territorial claim to one pertenencia, as defined 
 in this section. 
 
 See. 16. — ^Any person discovering or opening a vein or other min- 
 eral deposit in this Territory, not actually worked or legally owned 
 by other parties or registered in accordance with this chapter, shall 
 by properly denouncing and registering the same, be entitled to 
 claim and hold a possessory right to a tract of land to the extent of two 
 mining claims or pertenencias, including the said vein or mineral 
 deposit, and conforming as nearly as possible to the general direc- 
 tion thereof, each to be measured 200 jrards long by 200 yards wide, 
 the direction of the lines to be determined by the person claiming. 
 
 Sec. 17. — If two or more persons are associated, and have formed 
 a company for the exploration and working of mines, and one or 
 several shall make discoveries of mineral deposits in consequence 
 thereof, said company so engaged in exploration shall be entitled to 
 denounce and register one discovery claim only upon each lode. 
 
 See. 18. — It shall be lawful for the claimants of a mine or mineral 
 lands to locate and take possession of public lands for a mill site 
 and other necessary works connected therewith, which shall not 
 exceed one quarter section, containing a stream or other water suit- 
 able for the purpose. They shall have a right to place a dam or 
 other obstructions on such stream, and to divert its water for the 
 above uses and purposes. They shall, within the time and in the 
 manner prescribed inthischapterfor the registration and denounce- 
 ment of mines, proceed to denounce and register the same with the 
 clerk of the probate court, and they shall be known as auxiliary 
 lands. And if within three years from the day their notice of claim 
 Is so recorded they shall expend in fitting the same for a mill, or in 
 placing a mill or reduction works thereon, the sum of $100, they 
 may cause the record of such works to be made and proceedings for 
 confirming their title to be instituted as provided in section 29 of 
 this chapter, with like effect, and receive a certificate of title as 
 thereon provided, conforming as nearly as they can to the require- 
 ments of that section. Instead of the work required by section 32 
 of this chapter they shall use the machinery or other works erected 
 upon said land for mining purposes at least thirty days in each year. 
 Such claims shall be subject to all the provisions of this chapter 
 which are applicable to mining rights, and may be abandoned and 
 relocated. All rights to auxiliary lands acquired under the laws of 
 any mining district before this act takes effect shall be valid, and 
 the owners of the same, upon complying with the provisions of this 
 section, may take the like proceedings to confirm their titles, with 
 a like effect. 
 
 Sec. 19. — It shall be the duty of all claimants of mining claims, 
 mineral lands and auxiliary tracts, to at once define the extent and 
 boundary of them as nearly as possible, by good substantial monu- 
 ments or other conspicuous marks, in the presence of the recorder 
 of the mining district, or of some witness who shall prove to the 
 Satisfaction of the recorder that the same has been donCj and to post 
 ■up a public notice of their claim at the opening of the principal vein, 
 and to have them properly registered and recorded within three 
 months from the time of first claiming them at the ofSce of the min- 
 ing district recorder according to the provisions of this chapter. 
 Such record shall give a faith&l description of the veins, mineral 
 deposits, and tracts of lands, the character and bearing of the veins 
 or deposits, and their connection with natural monuments or con- 
 spicuous objects in the vicinity. 
 
 Sec. 20. — No person shall change his original monuments or bound- 
 aries of mineral or other lands, but if a subsequent investigation 
 makes this convenient or necessary, and it can be done without 
 prejudice to other parties, then such change shall take place by the 
 sanction of the judge of the probate court, provided they are prop- 
 erly recorded, and the new boundaries and monuments fixed at once 
 when the original ones are removed. 
 
 Sec. 21. — ^All minerals, woods, waters, earths and vegetation found 
 within the boundaries of any tract of land registered and claimed 
 for mining shall be exclusively used by him or them who are legally 
 
 entitled to the possession of the land wherein or whereon they are 
 situated, so long as they are used for miningpurposes only: Provided, 
 That no one shall liave the right to prevent transient persons from 
 using the waters along the public highways, where they were pro- 
 vided by nature in natural tanks, springs, streams, or otherwise, nor 
 from making such equitable disposition of the waters as the legis- 
 lature shall prescribe. 
 
 Sec. 22. — No person shall have the right to impede or inconve- 
 nience travelling by fencing up the public roads, fiUing them up 
 with rubbish, or undermining them so as to endanger their safety, 
 neither shall any one change their established direction without 
 sanction of the proper authorities. 
 
 Sec. 23. — Whenever two or more persons or parties explore and 
 prospect one and the same vein, and at or about the same time but 
 at different places, and without knowledge of each other, then he 
 or they who shall prove first occupancy shall have the rignt of first 
 location, taking the principal point of excavation as the center of 
 their claim or claims on each side along the general direction of 
 such vein or deposit. The other parties shall proceed by the same 
 laws after the others have fixed their boundaries. Should there be 
 left vacant ground between the different parties, then it shall be at 
 the option of the first discoverers so to change their boundaries as 
 sjiall best suit them, and have them recorded accordingly. Any 
 other parties shall locate in the order of the time of their arrival on 
 the vein or mineral deposit. 
 
 Sec. 24. — Whenever two or more parties shall select the same 
 mine or mineral deposit for exploration, and the parties first on the 
 ground, knowing the other parties to be at work, shall fail to give 
 warning, either verbally or in writing, of their priority claim on 
 such vein or deposit, then that portion of the mine situated between 
 the main excavations of the two parties shall be equally divided 
 between them, irrespective of the number of members each com- 
 pany may have: Provided, That the intervening portions shall not 
 exceed the quantity of land allowed by the provisions of this chap- 
 ter. 
 
 Sec. 25. — The laws and proceedings of all mining districts estab- 
 lished in this Territory for the denouncement, registration, and reg- 
 ulation of mines, mining claims, mineral lands, and auxiliary lands, 
 prior to the day this act takes effect, are liereby legalized and 
 declared to be as valid and binding in all courts of law as if enacted 
 by this legislative assembly, to the extent and under the conditions 
 and restrictions herein contained. 
 
 I. — All rights, claims, and titles to any veins, mineral lands, or 
 mineral deposits, and auxiliary lands, acquired before this act 
 takes effect, under, by virtue of, and in conformity to the laws of 
 said mining districts, are hereby declared to be valid and legal, and 
 shall be respected and enforced in all courts of this Territory when 
 sustained by the evidence herein provided ; but no amount of work 
 done thereon shall be construed to give a perpetual title thereto, 
 but shall give such title only and such rights and privileges as are 
 provided in section 29 of this chapter ; and no person who was at 
 the time of the location of his claim an inhabitant of this Territory 
 shall forfeit his claim because he was not a resident also of the 
 mining district in which his said claim was located. And no such 
 right, claim, or title shall be considered as abandoned provided the 
 claimant shall within six months from the day this act takes effect 
 file with the clerk of the probate court of the county in which his 
 claim is situated a brief description of the same, giving the name of 
 the district in which the lode is situated, and of the lode or lodes, 
 and the extent of his claim thereon, with a declaration that he 
 intends to retain and work the same according to law, unless such 
 claim has been forfeited and subject to re-location under the laws of 
 such mining district before this act takes effect. 
 
 II. — All records and all papers required by the laws of said 
 mining district to be deposited with the recorders of said district 
 for record shall be received as evidence of their contents in all courts 
 of this Territory, and shall not be rejected for any defects in their 
 form, when their contents may be understood, but shall be valid to 
 the extent provided by said mining laws, except as hereinbefore 
 restricted: Provided, That such records and papers are deposited 
 with or recorded by the clerk of the probate court of the county in 
 which said mining district is located, and within three months from 
 the time this act takes effect; and if said records or papers are lost 
 or mutilated, or if such recorder of a mining district shall neglect 
 or refuse to deposit the same as aforesaid, an afSdavit of their con- 
 tents made by any person interested therein, or certified or sworn 
 copies thereof, maj be so recorded, and shall have the like effect. 
 
 III. All conveyances of mines, mining rights, mineral and 
 auxiliary lands made prior to the time this act takes effect shall be 
 valid and binding to pass the title of the grantor thereof, although 
 defective in form and execution, if their contents can be under- 
 stood, and as such shall be received and regarded in all courts of 
 this Territory : Provided, That such conveyances shall be deposited 
 with or recorded by the clerk of the probate court of the county 
 where said mines are situated, within three months from the time 
 this act takes effect, and if lost or mutilated, copies or aifidavits of 
 their contents, executed as aforesaid, may be recorded as provided 
 above. 
 
 Sec. 26. — Every recorder, register, clerk or other recording ofiicer, 
 of every such mining district, or who has at any time acted as such 
 recording officer within three months after this act takes effect, 
 shall deposit with the clerk of the probate court of the county 
 
668 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 in which said district or greater part thereof is situated, all records 
 which he has so kept, and all papers deposited in his hands for re- 
 cord, and papers so made or deposited with his predecessors in said 
 office, which are in his hands as aforesaid, or he shall so deposit 
 certified copies of the same. And such records and other papers 
 shall be securely kept by such clerk, open in office hours to puolic 
 inspection, and copies of the same duly certified by him shall be re- 
 ceived in all courts of justice, and have the same effect as the originals. 
 And any such recorder, register, or other recording officer of each 
 mining district who shall neglect or refuse to comply with the pro- 
 visions of this section shall be liable in damages to the party in- 
 jured thereby, and shall be liable to be punished by the judge of 
 probate of the county in which said mining district, or the greater 
 part thereof, is situated, for contempt, by fine not exceeding $5000 
 and imprisoned not more than one year, and shall be incapable of 
 holding any such office and mining claim. 
 
 Sec. 27. — Mining districts now existing may be continued or 
 new mining districts may be established in the manner and for the 
 purposes bereinafter provided. 
 
 I. The recorder of every mining district now existing shall at 
 the same time that he deposits the records of said districts with 
 the clerk of the probate court, as the last preceding section requires, 
 take an oath before the judge of said court that he will faithfully 
 perform the duties of his office until another recorder shall be elect- 
 ed and qualified in his place, which oath shall be recorded by the 
 clerk of the probate court. He shall record in a book to be kept 
 bj^ him for that purpose all notices of claims or rights to veins, 
 mineral deposits, mmeral lauds, and auxiliary lands which may be 
 left with him to be recorded, and shall note on all papers which 
 may be received by him to be recorded, the time when they were 
 so received by him, and they shall be considered as recorded from 
 that time. He shall, when requested by any such claimant, go with 
 him to his claim and see that the same is measured by metes and 
 bounds, and marked by substantial monuments on the surface of 
 the earth, and shall make a record of the same, and of the time 
 when it was done, and certify it to be correct, or shall make a record 
 and certificate of the same on the evidence of a credible witness, 
 who was present when the same was done, and is cognizant of the 
 f.icts, and whose name shall be entered on the record. He shall, 
 when requested by any such claimant, go with him to his claim 
 and examine any shaft that may be sunk by him, or tunnels that 
 may be opened to the same, and make measurements of the same, 
 and a record and certificate as aforesaid ; and he shall in like man- 
 ner examine, measure, or estimate, and make and record a certifi- 
 cate of any work which is required by law to be done by a 
 claimant. And the said recording officer shall, quarterly, file with 
 the clerk of the probate court of the county in which said district is 
 located a copy by him certified of all records made by him for the 
 three months last preceding, which shall be duly recorded by said 
 clerk, and a copy of said record duly certified by him shall be 
 evidence of its contents in all courts of this Territory. And such 
 recording officer shall be liable to all the penalties provided in the 
 preceding section if he shall neglect or refuse to perform any of the 
 acts or duties required of him by this section, but shall not be re- 
 quired to perform any such service until his fees for the same, to be 
 fixed by the mining districts, are paid him, if he requests it. And 
 if any paper deposited with him for record is required to be re- 
 corded by the clerk of the probate court, he shall at the time said 
 paper was so deposited with him take and receive the fee fixed by law 
 for recording such paper by said clerk, and pay the said clerk said 
 fee when he deposits said paper with him to be recorded as afore- 
 said. All such mining districts may make laws not inconsistent 
 with the laws of the Territory, may elect officers for the govern- 
 ment of such districts, and fix their compensation, but all such acts 
 and proceedings shall be recorded, and all records and papers there- 
 of filed with the clerk of the probate court as aforesaid. 
 
 II. — Any number of persons, not less than twelve, owning mining 
 claims in any raining district, or in any contiguous mining districts, 
 or who have discovered and may wish to denounce a mine or min- 
 eral lands, not within the limits of any established mining district, 
 may proceed to make a new mining district at a meeting of persons 
 holding claims in such district so to be established, and of claimants 
 in any districts to be divided or included therein. They shall cause 
 a notice in writing, and specifying the limits of said contemplated 
 district, signed by them, to be posted in three conspicuous places in 
 said district, and if any part of an established district is to be in- 
 cluded therein, by leaving a copy of said notice with the recorder 
 of said district at least ten days before the day of said meeting. At 
 said meeting all persons holding claims as aforesaid may vote, and 
 may determine by a majority vote of those present whether said 
 new district shall be established, and its limits, but within the bound- 
 aries named in the notice for said meeting, and thereu])on the per- 
 sons holding claims in such newly established district shall proceed 
 to select a name, and make laws therefor, and elect a recorder, who 
 shall be qualified as aforesaid, who shall perform all the duties and 
 be subject to all the liabilities provided in this chapter for such of- 
 ficers, and shall file with the clerk of the probate court as aforesaid 
 a record of the proceedings of this and all subsequent meetings at 
 the time and in the manner herein provided. 
 _ Sec. 28.— It shall be the duty of all claimants of mineral tracts to 
 sink at least one shaft of thirty feet in depth, or to run a tunnel of 
 fifty feet in length, in the body of the vein or in the adjoining rook. 
 
 so as to test the vein from the surface, for the purpose of ascertain- 
 ing the character and capacity of such mineral deposit, within the 
 space of one year from the day of first taking possession thereof, and 
 they shall notify the recorder of the mining district that said shaft 
 or other work is completed, and that they intend working the vein or 
 mineral deposit. And the recorder shall examine said work in person, 
 and make and record a certificate of the result of such examination 
 which shall contain a statement of the condition and quality of the 
 vein or mineral deposit, the amount of labor performed, and a gen- 
 eral view of the results obtained. Said report shall be accompanied 
 by three specimens taken from different parts of the work, which 
 said specimens, with a copy of the record so made by him, shall be 
 filed by him within the time required by this act in the office of the 
 clerk of the probate court. And said clerk shall make a record 
 of the same. Such specimens shall be numbered and described by 
 him, and be preserved for the use of the mineralogical professorship 
 of the University of Arizona. 
 
 Sec. 29. — The judge of the probate court, at any time within thir- 
 ty days after the record made by the clerk of said court, as provided 
 in the preceding section, upon complaint in writing made to him by 
 such cMmants, describing fully their claims, stating the labor per- 
 formed by them, and the certificate thereof, and that the registration 
 of the same has been made as required by law, and requesting that 
 their title thereto may be confirmed, shall cause a summons, under 
 the seal of his court, to be issued, requiring all persons interested to 
 appear at a day named therein, and which shall not be less than six- 
 ty days from the day the same was issued, and show cause why the 
 title of such complainants and claimants should not be confirmed, 
 a copy of which complaint and summons duly attested by the 
 clerk of the probate court, shall be published twice in the territor- 
 ial newspaper, and be kept posted m the office of said clerk from 
 the day of issuing the same to the return day thereof; and if no 
 person shall appear on such return day to contest the right of the 
 claimants to such claims, the judge of probate shall examine all the 
 records filed in the office of his clerk relating to such claims, and if 
 he finds that the said claimants have in all respects complied 
 with the provisions of this chapter, he shall make a decree in sub- 
 stance that the complainants have complied with the laws of this 
 Territory relating to the denouncement and registration of mines, 
 have acquired a perfect title to their claims (describing the same) 
 until the first day of January, A. D. 1868, and forever after unless 
 abandoned by them. And the said clerk shall give the said claim- 
 ant a copy of such decree, under the seal of the court, which shall 
 be conclusive evidence of title in any proceedings relating to such 
 claims, until they are abandoned. And unless the persons ad- 
 versely interested and contesting the title of the complainants shall 
 appear on the day named in said complaint, and proceed as herein- 
 after provided, they shall be forever barred from contesting the title 
 of said complainants to such claims. And if the contestants shall 
 so appear they shall on that day or some day to be fixed by said 
 judge proceed to file an answer, setting forth their claim and case, 
 and the proceedings shall then be conducted in conformity to the 
 provisions of this chapter, and the code of civil practice. And 
 whenever a final decree is made thereon, determining the title to 
 said claim or mine, by said judge, or by any other court on appeal, 
 the said judge shall cause a record to be made in the office of his 
 clerk of such decree, and a certified copy thereof may be made as 
 aforesaid with like effect. And any claimants of mineral lands who 
 before this act takes effect have in any way or under any law ac- 
 quired a title to such mineral lands, after filing with the clerk of 
 the court their evidence of title and description of claim as required 
 by this chapter, may cause an examination of the shaft sunk by 
 them or other work done by them to be made as aforesaid, and take 
 the like proceedings for the confirmation of their title, with the 
 same effect : Provided, This section shall not apply except when the 
 complainants are in possession of such mine or mining rights, claim- 
 ing title thereto. 
 
 Sec. 30. — By reason of the Indian wars and unsettled condition of 
 the country, the time within which a shaft is required to be sunk, 
 or other labor performed on a claim, shall not commence until two 
 years from the day this act takes effect, and all the provisions of 
 this chapter relating thereto are suspended for that time ; but any 
 claimant may sink a shaft or do such other labor, and at any time 
 after the record of their claims with the probate court, and' there- 
 upon institute proceedings to confirm their titles, and be entitled to 
 all the rights and privileges provided for in this chapter. 
 
 Sec. 31. — No single person or company shall be compelled to sink 
 shafts or make other improvements on more than one of the tracts 
 of land claimed by him or them for the same vein or mineral 
 deposit; and any number of claimants on the same vein or mineral 
 deposit, who may unite for said purpose, shall be allowed to con- 
 centrate labor, capital, and energy to any one single point which to 
 him or them shall be the best suited to ascertain to the best advan- 
 tage the general character, quality, and capacity of that particular 
 vein or mineral deposit, and may take the like proceedings to con- 
 firm their titles. 
 
 Sec. 32. — After the work required by section 28 of this chapter 
 has been performed, and the record thereof made as therein pro- 
 vided, two years shall be allowed the claimants of mineral lanns to 
 develop the same, and procure machinery and provide for working 
 the same ; and during that time the same shall not be considered 
 I abandoned, although no work be done thereon : Provided, That in 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 669 
 
 E 
 
 such an event, they shall annually, and before the 1st day of June 
 in each year, file with the clerk of the probate court an affidavit 
 signed by them that they have not abandoned such claims, but in- 
 tend, in good faith to work them ; and said term of two years shall 
 not commence until the first day of January, A.D. 1868. And after 
 the expiration of said term of two years, it sliall be obligatory upon 
 claimants to such mineral lands to hold actual possession of them 
 and work the vein, which obligation shall be considered as complied 
 with by doing at least thirty days' work thereon in each year; but 
 if such claimants are prevented from working such vein by the hos- 
 tility of Indians or other good cause, rendering such working diffi- 
 cult or dangerous, they may, by authority of the judge of probate 
 first obtained, be relieved from performing labor thereon from time 
 to time, but for not more than one year at any one time, during the 
 continuance of such cause. 
 
 Sec. 33. —Any person who may discover a mineral vein or deposit 
 as aforesaid, which is not included within a mining district, or 
 which may be in a mining district in which there is no legally 
 authorized recorder, may acquire title thereto, and to auxiliary 
 lands, by giving notice as aforesaid, and recording the same with 
 tlie clerk of the probate court of the county in which the same is 
 situated, and may take the same proceedings, with the like effect, 
 Avith the clerk of the probate court that are required to be taken 
 with the recorder of a mining district. 
 
 Sec. 34. — Discoverers of mines on lands in the legal ownership or 
 possession of others, and not public lands, before doing the work of 
 sinking the shaft required by section 28 of this chapter, shall pay 
 to such parties such compensation for the use of the same as may 
 be awarded by the judge of probate upon complaint of either party, 
 or shall give bond to such parties for payment of the same, and 
 sureties to be approved by said judge; and whenever it becomes 
 necessary or advantageous to construct tunnels for the purpose of 
 drainage, ventilation, or the better hauling of ores or other subter 
 raneous products or mining materials, it shall be lawful for any 
 party or parties to construct such tunnel or drift through all private 
 and public property : Provided, That all damages arisin°; from such 
 subterranean works to the other parties, to be determined as pro- 
 vided above, shall be paid by the parties for whose benefit .such 
 tunnelling is done, to be paid before such work is commsneed, or 
 security given to the satisfaction of the judge of probate for the 
 jayment of the same; but no damages shall be paid on public 
 ands when claim; for such lands shall be set up after such tunnel 
 shall have been projected or actually in process of construction: 
 Provided, That the lapse of time between projection and actual 
 work shall not exceed ninety days, and that the tunnelling parties 
 give timely notice of their project to any new claimant of the so 
 affected ground. 
 
 Sec. 35. — Whenever such tunnel as mentioned in the preceding 
 section shall intersect or traverse mineral deposits, or run along 
 lodes claimed and held by other parties, then it shall be at the 
 option of the owners of such other mineral deposits either to pay 
 one-half of the expense of excavation for the distance that such 
 tunnel runs through their mineral deposits, and secure the whole 
 of the ores excavated, or to divide the ores with the tunnelling 
 partieSj the latter paying all expenses of excavation; or, it shall 
 be optional with either party to abandon all claim to the ores 
 excavated. 
 
 Sec. 36. — If, in the construction of such subterranean works, new 
 veins or deposits are encountered in ground not claimed or owned 
 by other parties, they shall become the property of the party for 
 whom such tunnel is constructed, and shall be denounced and reg- 
 istered as is required of new mines, and shall be governed by the 
 same laws as are prescribed in this chapter. 
 
 Sec. 37. — Any claimant or claimants not complying with any of 
 the foregoing conditions and obligations, shall forfeit all right to 
 any such recorded or unrecorded claims to mineral and auxiliary 
 tracts; and it shall not be lawful for him or them to register such 
 claims anew within a period of three years after such forfeiture. 
 All such tracts shall be free for working and registry to any but 
 those excepted in this section. 
 
 See. 38. — All veins and mineral deposits situated on public lands, 
 which have not been worked and occupied from the time of the 
 acquisition of the Territory by the United States up to the time of 
 the passage of this chapter, except as herein provided, shall be con- 
 sidered as abandoned and subject to registry and denouncement. 
 
 Sec. 39. — All veins and mineral deposits that have been or may 
 be abandoned hereafter shall, in all cases and respects, be governed 
 by the laws regulating the opening and working of new veins and 
 deposits, as prescribed in this chapter. 
 
 Sec. 40. — Whenever any mine, vein, or mineral deposit shall have 
 been abandoned or forfeited in accordance with the provisions of 
 this chapter, and registered anew by other parties, it shall be obli- 
 gatory upon such parties to give the former owners warning thereof, 
 so as to remove from the tract, within the space of three months, 
 anything he or they may think valuable or useful. Such warning 
 shall be given in the nearest newspaper published in the Territory, 
 and by posting it at three of the most conspicuous places in the 
 county where the mine is situated. Three months after the expira- 
 tion of such warning, any and all buildings, furnaces, arrastras, 
 metals, and every other species of property which may still remain 
 on the ground of such mine, vein, or mineral deposit shall become 
 
 the undisputed property of the new claimant, without compensation 
 of any kind to any person whatever. 
 
 See. 41. — Any person taking possession of or entering upon a 
 mining claim or auxiliary lands, registered according to the pro- 
 visions of this cliapter, and before it is abandoned, shall be ousted 
 therefrom in a summary manner by tlie order of the probate judge, 
 and the malfeaser shall be adjudged to pay all damages and costs 
 consequent thereon. 
 
 Sec. 51. — It shall be the duty of persons who may discover and 
 claim mining rights or mineral lanils, at the same time that they 
 may define the boundary of their claim or claims to any lode or 
 mine as required by the provisions of this chapter, to lay oft' and 
 define the boundary of one pertenencia, as required by the pro- 
 visions of this chapter, adjoining their claim or claims, which shall 
 be the property of the Territoiy of Arizona. And at the same 
 time that they present their notice of claim or claims to be recorded 
 by the recorder of the mining district, they shall also present to 
 such recorder the claim of said Territory. And, if said discoverers 
 and claimants shall neglect or refuse to present to such recorder 
 the claim of said Territory as aforesaid, tliey shall forever forfeit 
 all claim to the mine or ledge so discovered by them. Any record- 
 ing officer recording the claim or claims of such discoverers and 
 claimants, when the claim of said Territory is not filed therewith 
 as aforesaid, shall be subject to all the penalties provided in sec- 
 tion 26 of this chapter. Such claim shall be recorded as provided 
 in this chapter for like claims, but no work shall be required to be 
 done thereon, nor shall it be considered to be abandoned so long as 
 it is the property of the Territory; and if sold, the time within 
 which the purchaser shall be required to work said claim shall 
 commence from the day of sale, except when the time is suspended 
 as before provided. Every clerk of the probate court, as soon as he 
 records the said claim, shall send a copy of his record to the treas- 
 urer of the Territory, and no fees shall be charged by any recording 
 officer in any matter relating to said claim. And the Territorial 
 treasurer may. at any time alter six months from the day he receives 
 such record as aforesaid, and at such time and place as in his opin- 
 ion will be most for the interest of the Territory, cause such claim 
 to be sold at auction to the highest bidder ; but every such sale 
 shall be at least twice advertised in the Territorial news^iaper, and 
 be held at his office, or the office of the clerk of the probate court, 
 the recorder of the mining district of the county where the claim is 
 situated. And the treasurer is authorized to make a deed of the 
 same to the purchaser in the name of the Territory; and the 
 amount received by him shall be added by him to any fund now or 
 hereafter provided for the protection of the people of the Territory 
 of Arizona against hostile Indians, and be expended as provided 
 by law. And after all such expenses as are incurred by the Terri- 
 torial authorities for the purpose of destroying or bringing into 
 subjection all hostile Indian tribes in this Territory are liquidated, 
 then all remaining or accruing funds, out of all or any sales of 
 Territorial mining claims, shall be applied as a sinking fiind for 
 school purposes.. 
 
 Sec. 52. — The extraction of gold from alluvial and diluvial de- 
 posits, generally termed placer mining, shall not be considered 
 mining proper, and shall not entitle persons occupied in it to the 
 provisions of this chapter, nor shall any previous section of this 
 chapter be so construed as to refer to the extraction of gold from 
 the above-mentioned deposits. 
 
 Sec. 53. — This chapter shall be in force and take efliect from and 
 after the Ist day of January, A. D. 1865. 
 
 This is what is known as " Chapter Fifty'' of the Howell 
 Code. It has been amended as follows : 
 
 An act of placer mines and mining. — Approved December 
 30, 1865. 
 
 3111. — Section 1. — It shall be lawful for any person, company or 
 association who shall place upon the mineral lands of this territory 
 commonly called placer mining grounds, a pump or pumps, having 
 a capacity sufficient to raise at least one hundred gallons of water per 
 minute, with an engine or other^ower attached thereto, of sufficient 
 power to work the same, with the ftoma^de intention of working the 
 said placer grounds for the purpose of extracting the gold therefrom, 
 to locate an amount of said placer grounds equal in extent to one 
 quarter section, in such form and direction as he or they may elect. 
 Provided, that said location shall in no case be more than one mile 
 in length, nor less than one quarter mile in width ; and, Provided, 
 That said machinery shall be used at least three months in each 
 year for raising water to extract the gold from said grounds, and the 
 presence of machinery upon said grounds shall be the only evidence 
 of title to said grounds ; but in no case shall this act be so construed 
 as to mean placer grounds which can be worked by water brought 
 in ditches or flumes from any stream or other deposit of water ; and 
 said locations shall not in any case be made upon any grounds in 
 the possession of any miner or miners at the time of location. 
 
 3112. — Sec. 2. — This apt shall only apply to the county of Yuma. 
 
 Sec. 3. — This act shall take efiect and be in force from and after 
 its passage. 
 
 An act providing for the location and registration of mines and 
 mineral deposits, and for other purposes. — Approved 
 November 5, 1866. 
 District iJitZes.— TJecocci.— 3113.— Sec. 1.— The mining districts 
 
670 
 
 THE MINES, MINBES AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 heretofore created in the several counties of this territory are hereby 
 authorized and empowered to make all necessary rules and regula- 
 tions for the location, registry and working of mines therein : Pro- 
 vided, That all locations and registrations of mines and mineral de- 
 posits hereafter made in any of the §aid districts shall be transmitted 
 to the county recorder for record within sixty days after the same 
 shall have been located. 
 
 Record. — Fees.—illi. — Sec. 2. — The county recorders of the sev- 
 eral counties are authorized and required to procure suitable books 
 in which the record of all mines and mineral deposits shall be kept, 
 which said books shall be paid for out of the county treasury, and 
 they shall receive for their services herein the following fees : For 
 recording and indexing each claim not exceeding one folio, one dol- 
 lar ; and for each additional folio, twenty cents. 
 
 Vested Bights. — 3115. — Sec. 3. — Notliing in this, act shall be so 
 construed as to affect the claims to mines and mineral deposits here- 
 tofore located and duly recorded. 
 
 3116. — Sec. 4. — The claim of the territory to all mining claims 
 heretofore located is hereby abandoned, and the same are hereby 
 declared open to relocation and registry : Provided, That nothing 
 herein contained shall be so construed as to affect mining claims 
 heretofore sold and disposed of by the territory. 
 
 Placers. — 3117. — Sao. 5. — Nothing in this act shall be construed 
 to apply to placer mines or mining, or other mineral deposits other 
 than those commonly called veins or lode mines. 
 
 Acts Repealed. — 3118. — See. 6. — Chapter fifty of the Howe code, 
 entitled, "Of the registration and government of mines and mineral 
 deposits," as well as all other acts or parts of acts in conflict with 
 the provisions of tliis act are hereby repealed. 
 
 Sec. 7. — This act shall take effect and be in force from and after 
 the first day of January, A. D. 1867. 
 
 An Act to provide for the segregation of mining claims.— Approved 
 September 30, 1867. 
 
 Partition of Claims. — 3119. — Sec. 1. — That whenever any one or 
 more joint owners or tenants in common of gold, silver, copper or 
 mineral-bearing ledges or claims may desire to work or develop such 
 ledges or claims and any other owner or owners thereto shall fail or 
 refuse to join in said work, after due notice of at least thirty days, 
 given by publication in one newspaper printed in the county in which 
 said ledges or claims are located, and if none are printed in said 
 county, then in any newspaper printed in the territory, said notice to 
 have publication in four successive weeks of said paper, said other 
 owner or owners may, upon application to the district court of the 
 district wherein the ledge or claim is situated, cause the interests of 
 said parties so refusing to be set off or segregated as hereinafter set 
 forth. 
 
 3120. — Sec. 2. — The owner or owners of any mineral-bearing 
 ledge or claim after the expiration of said thirtj^ days' notice hav- 
 ing been given, may, if the party or parties notified fail or refuse to 
 join in the working or developing said ledge or claim, apply to the 
 district court of the district wherein the ledge or claim may be 
 situated, for a partition or segregation of the interest or interests of 
 the party or parties so failing or refusing to join. 
 
 3121.— Sec. 3. — The party or parties so applying shall set forth the 
 fact that the said parties have been duly notified, in accordance with 
 section one of this act, and that said party or parties have failed or 
 refused to join in said work; all of wTiich shall be sustained by the 
 oath or affirmation of one or more of the parties applying; and, 
 upon such application being made, the clerk of the said court shall 
 post a notice at the office of the county recorder, and in two other 
 conspicuous places within the district, stating the application, and 
 notifying the parties interested, that unless they appear within sixty 
 days, and show good cause why the prayer of the petitioner should 
 not be granted, that the same will be granted if good cause can be 
 shown. 
 
 3122. — Sec. 4. — At the expiration of said sixty days, if the party 
 or parties notified do not appear and show good cause why the 
 prayer of the petitioner should not be granted, the court shall ap- 
 point two commissioners to go upon the ground and segregate the 
 claims of the parties refusing to join ; and in case they do not agree, 
 they to choose a third party ; and said commissioners shall make a 
 report in writing to said court, who shall issue a decree in confor- 
 mity with said report, which shall be final, except appeal be taken 
 to the supreme court within thirty days after issuance thereof 
 
 3123.— Sec. 5. — The provisions of this act shall not apply to the 
 counties of Yavapai and Pima, and the county of Yuma. 
 
 3124. — Sec. 6. — All acts and parts of acts in conflict with the pro- 
 visions of this act are hereby repealed. 
 
 Sec. 7.— This act to take effect and he in force from and after its 
 
 An Act Supplementary to Chapter XXXV., Howell Code, " Of the 
 Limitation of Actions." Approved Noi'ember 5, 1S66. 
 
 Actions, when Barred.— 2U1.— Sec. 1.— No action for the re- 
 covery of propertv in mining claims, or for the recovery of posses- 
 sion thereof, shall be maintained unless it appear that the plaintiff, 
 his ancestor, predecessor, or grantor was seized or possessed of the 
 premises in question within two years before the commencement of 
 the action. 
 
 2112.— Sec. 2.— No cause of action or defense to an action, found- 
 ed upon the title to property in mining claims, or to the rents or 
 profits out of the same, shall be effectual unless it appear that the 
 
 person prosecuting the action, or making the defense, or under 
 whose title the action is prosecuted or the defense is made, be the 
 ancestor, predecessor, or grantor of such person, was seized or pos- 
 sessed of the premises in question within two years before the com- 
 mencement of the act in respect to which such action is prosecuted 
 or defense made. 
 
 2113. — Sec. 3. — All acts or parts of acts in conflict with this act 
 are hereby repealed. 
 
 Sec. 4. — This act shall take effect and be in force from and after 
 its passage. 
 
 An Act Conferring Jurisdiction of all Mining Claims on the District 
 Court. Approved December 30, 1865. 
 
 District Courts, Jurisdiction. — Be it enactsd, etc. : — 2366. — Sec. 1. 
 — The district courts of said territory shall have exclusive original 
 jurisdiction of all suits and proceedings relating to mines and mine- 
 ral and auxiliary lands, and the registry and denouncement of the 
 same, and all the jurisdiction, power, and authority conferred upon 
 the probate courts and probate judges by chapter fifty of the Howell 
 code, entitled, " Of the Registry and Government of Mines and 
 Mineral Deposits," or otherwise, are hereby conferred upon the 
 district courts and district judges respectively. 
 
 2367. — Sec. 2. — That section two of title one of said chapter is 
 hereby repealed and also all the other provisions of said chapter, 
 conferring jurisdiction upon the probate courts and probate judges, 
 over suits and proceedings relating to mines, mineral, and auxiliary 
 lands, as well,as other acts and parts of acts inconsistent with the 
 provisions of this act. 
 
 2368. — Sec. 3. — All suits and other proceedings in said probate 
 courts, now pending therein, and over which said probate courts 
 have jurisdiction, are hereby transferred to, and shall be continued 
 in the district court of the county in which said suits and proceed- 
 ceedings are now pending. 
 
 2369. — Sec. 4. — The clerks of the probate courts shall, within thirty 
 days after the publication of this act, transfer to and file in the office 
 of the district courts of their respective counties, all records and 
 papers in suits and proceedings relating to mines, mineral, and 
 auxiliary lands, which records and papers shall be kept and filed 
 by the clerks of said district courts, and when so transferred and 
 filed, said suits and proceedings shall be proceeded with as though 
 commenced in said district courts. Protnded, That in counties 
 where there shall be no clerks of the district courts, the records and 
 papers shall be transferred and filed as aforesaid within thirty 
 days after the appointment of said clerks, and their acceptaace 
 thereof. 
 
 Sec. 5. — This act shall take effect and be in force from and after 
 its passage. 
 
 Colorado. — An Act concerning Mines. — Be it enacted by the 
 Council and House of Representatives of Colorado : 
 
 Extent of Lode Claim. — Section 1. The length of any lode claim 
 hereafter located may equal but not exceed 1,500 feet along the 
 vein. 
 
 Dimensions.— Sec. 2. The width of lode claims hereafter located 
 in Gilpin, Clear Creek, Boulder and Summit counties, shall be 
 seventy-five feet on each side of the centre of the vein or crevice ; 
 and in all other counties the width of the same shall be 150 feet on 
 each side of the centre of the vein or crevice : Provided, That 
 hereafter any county may, at any general election, determine on a 
 greater width, not exceeding 300 feet on each side of the centre of 
 the vein or lode, by a majority of the legal votes cast at said elec- 
 tion; and any county, by such vote at such election, may determine 
 upon a less width than above specified. 
 
 Certificate of Location,— Sec. 3. The discoverer of a lode shall, 
 within three months from the date of discovery, record his claim in 
 the office of the recorder of the county in which such lode is situ- 
 ated by a location certificate, which .shall contain : 1st, the name 
 of the lode ; 2d, the name of the locator ; 3d, the date of location ; 
 4th, the number of feet in length claimed on each side of the centre 
 of the discovery shaft; gth, the general coui-se of the lode as near as 
 may be. 
 
 When void.— Sec. 4. Any location certificate of a lode claim 
 which shall not contain the name of the lode, the name of the lo- 
 cator, the date of location, the number of lineal feet claimed on 
 each side of the discovery shaft, the general course of the lode, and 
 such description as shall identify the claim with reasonable cer- 
 tainty, shall be void. 
 
 Dlscoivry Shaft.— Sec. 5. Before filing such location certificate 
 the discoverer shall locate his claim by first sinking a discovery 
 shaft upon the lode to tlie depth of at least ten feet from the lowest 
 part of the rim of such shaft at the surface, or deeper, if necessaiy 
 to show a well-defined crevice. Second, by posting at the point of 
 discovery on the surfnce, a plain sign or notice containing the name 
 of the lode, the name of the locator, and the date of discovery. 
 Thh-il, by marking the surface boundaries of the claim. 
 
 Staking.— Sec. 6. Such surface boundaries shall be marked 
 by SIX substantial posts, hewed or marked on the side or sides 
 which are in toward the claim, and sunk in the ground, to wit;— 
 One at each corner and one at the centre of each side line. 
 AVherc it is practically impossible on account of bed-rock or pre- 
 cipitous ground to sink such posts, they may be placed in a pile of 
 stones. 
 
 Open Cuts, etc.— Sec. 7. Any open cut, cross cut or tunnel which 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 671 
 
 shall cut a lode at the depth of ten feet below the surface, shall hold 
 such lode the same as if a discovery shaft were sunk thereon, or an 
 adit of at least ten feet along the lode, from the point where the 
 lode may be in any manner discovered, shall be equivalent to a dis- 
 covery shaft. 
 
 Time. — Sec. 8. The discoverer shall have sixty days from the 
 time of uncovering or disclosing a lode to sink a discovery shaft 
 thereon. 
 
 Construction of Certificate. — Sec. 9. The location or location cer- 
 tificate of any lode claim shall be construed to include all "".u-face 
 ground within the surface lines thereof and all loi^s and ledges 
 throughout their entire depth, the top or apex of wmch lies inside 
 of such lines extended downward^ vertically, with such parts of all 
 lodes or ledges as continue to dip beyond the side lines of the claim, 
 but shall not include any portion of such lodes or ledges beyond the 
 end lines of the claim, or at the end lines continued, whether by dip 
 or otherwise, or beyond the side lines in any other manner than by 
 the dip of the lode. 
 
 Cannot be followed.— Sec. 10.— If the top or apex of a lode in its 
 longitudinal course extends beyond the exterior lines of the claim 
 at any point on th? surface, or as extended vertically downward, 
 such lode may not be followed in its longitudinal course beyond 
 the point where it is intersected by the exterior lines. 
 
 Right of Way and Sight of Surface. — Sec. 11 .—All mining claims 
 now located, or which may hereatter be located, shall be subject 
 to the right of way of any ditch or flume for raining purposes, or 
 any tramway or pack-trail, whether now in use or which may 
 be hereafter laid out across any such location : Provided alwciys, 
 That such right of way shall not be exercised against any location 
 duly made and recorded and not abandoned prior to the establish- 
 ment of the ditch or flume, tramway, or pack-trail, without consent 
 of the owner, except by condemnation, as in case of land taken for 
 public highways. Parol consent to the location of any such ease- 
 ment, accompanied by the completion of the same over the claim, 
 shall be sufiicient without writings. And provided further, That 
 such ditch or flume shall be so constructed that the water from 
 such ditch or flume shall not injure vested rights by flooding or 
 otherwise. 
 
 Sec. 12 — When the right to mine is in any case separate from 
 the ownership or right of occupancy to the surface, the owner or 
 rightful occupant of the surface may demand satisfactory security 
 from the miner, and if it be refused, may enjoin such miner from 
 working until such security is given. The order for injunction 
 shall fix the amount of the bond. 
 
 He-location of Claims. — Sec. 13. — If at any time the locator of 
 any mining claim heretofore or hereafter located, or his assigns, 
 shall apprehend that his original certificate was defective, errone- 
 ous, or that the requirements of the law had not been complied 
 with before filing; or shall be desirous of changing his surface 
 boundaries ; or of taking in any part of an overlapping claim which 
 has been abandoned; or in case the original certificate was made 
 prior to the passage of this law, and he shall be desirous of securing 
 the benefits of this act, such locator or his assigns may file an ad- 
 ditional certificate, subject to the provisions of this act : Provided, 
 That such relocation does not interfere with the existing rights of 
 others, at the time of such relocation; and no such relocation, or 
 the record thereof, shall preclude the claimant or claimants from 
 proving any such title or titles as he or they may have held under 
 previous location. 
 
 Proof of Development.— Sec. 14. — The amount of work done, or 
 improvements made during each year, shall be that prescribed by 
 laws of the United States. 
 
 Form of Affidamt.—Sec. 15. — Within six months after any set 
 time, or annual period herein allowed for the performance of labor 
 or making improvements upon any lode claim, the person on whose 
 behalf such outlay was made, or some person for him, shall make 
 and record an affidavit in substance as follows : 
 
 State of Colobado, I ^^ 
 
 County of | 
 
 Before me, the subscriber, personally appeared 
 
 who, being duly sworn, said that at least dollars' 
 
 worth of work or improvements were performed or made upon 
 
 [here describe the claim or part of claim] situate in 
 
 mining district, county of State of Colorado. 
 
 Such expenditure was made by or at the expense of 
 
 owners of said claim, for the purpose of said claim. 
 
 [Jurat.] 
 
 -(Signature.) 
 
 And such signature shall be ^rima /acte evidence of the pei-form- 
 ance of such labor. 
 
 Working over Old Claims.— Sec. 16.— The relocation or aban- 
 doned lode claims shall be by sinking a new discovery shaft and 
 fixing new boundaries in the same manner as if it were the location 
 of a new claim ; or the relocator may sink the original discovery 
 shaft ten feet deeper than it was at the time of abandonment, and 
 erect new or adopt the old boundaries, renewing the posts if re- 
 moved or destroyed. In either case a new location-stake shall be 
 erected. In any case, whether the whole or part of an abandoned 
 claim is taken, the location certificate may state that the whole or 
 any part of the new location is located as an abandoned property. 
 
 Record for Claim.— Sec. 17. — No location certificate shall claim 
 more than one location, whether the location be made by one or 
 
 several locators. And if it purport to claim more than one location, 
 it shall be absolutely void, except as to the first location therein 
 described. And if they are described together, so that it cannot be 
 told which location is first described, the certificate shall be void as 
 to all. 
 
 Sec. 18. — All acts or parts of acts in conflict with this act are 
 hereby repealed. 
 
 Sec. 19. — This act shall be in force from and after June 15, 1874. 
 
 Approved February 13, 1874. 
 
 Supplementary Act. — Be it enacted by the Council and House of 
 Representatives of Colorado : 
 
 Jurisdiction of Authorities. — Sec. 1. — In all actions pending in 
 any district court of this Territory, wherein the title or right of 
 possession to any mining claim shall be in dispute, the said court, 
 or the judge thereof, may, upon application of any of the parties to 
 such suit, enter an order for the underground as well as the surface 
 survey of such part of the property in dispute as may be necessary 
 to a just determination of the question involved. Such order shall 
 designate some competent surveyor, not related to any of the parties 
 to such suit, or in anywise interested in the result of the same ; and 
 upon the application of the party adverse to such application, the 
 court may also appoint some competent surveyor to be selected by 
 such adverse applicant, whose duty it shall be to attend upon such 
 survey, and observe the method of making the same ; said second 
 survey to be at the cost of the party asking therefor. It shall also 
 be lawful in such order to specify the names of witnesses named by 
 either party, not exceeding three on each side, to examine such 
 properfy, who shall hereupon be allowed to enter into such prop- 
 erty and examine the same ; said court, or the judge thereof, may 
 also cause the removal of any rock, debris, or other obstacle in any 
 of the drifts or shafts of said property, when such removal is shown 
 to be necessary to a just determination of the questions involved : 
 Provided, however, That no such order shall he made for survey 
 and inspection, except in open court or in chambers, upon notice of 
 application for such order of at least six days, and not then except 
 by agreement of parties or upon the affidavit of two or more persons 
 that such survey and inspection is necessary to the just determina- 
 tion of the suit, which affidavits shall state the facts in such case, 
 and wherein the necessity for surrey exists; nor shall such order 
 be made unless it appears that the party asking therefor has been 
 refused the privilege of survey and inspection by the adverse party. 
 
 Writs restoring possession. — Sec. 2. — The said district courts of 
 this State, or any judge thereof, sitting in chancery, shall have, in 
 addition to the power already possessed, power to issue writs of 
 injunction for ainrmative relief, naving the force and effect of a 
 writ of restitution, restoring any person or persons to the possession 
 of any mining property from which he or they may have been 
 ousted, by force and violence, or by fraud, or from which they are 
 kept out of f)ossession by threats, or whenever such possession was 
 taken from him or them by entry of the adverse party on Sunday 
 or a legal holiday, or while the party in possession was tempC'rarily 
 absent therefrom. The granting of such writ to extend only to the 
 right of possession under the facts of the case in respect to the 
 manner in which the possession was obtained, leaving the parties to 
 their legal rights on all other questions as though no such writ had 
 issued. 
 
 Penalties following wnlawful entry. — See. 3. — In all cases where 
 two or more persons shall associate themselves together for the 
 purpose of obtaining the possession of any lode, gulch or placer 
 claim, then in the actual possession of another, by force and vio- 
 lence, or threats of violence, or by stealth, and shall proceed to 
 carry out such purpose by making threats against the party or 
 parties in possession, or who shall enter upon such lode or mining 
 claim for the purpose aforesaid, or who shall enter upon or into 
 any lode, gulch, placer claim, quartz-mill or other mining property, 
 or not being upon such property, but within hearing of the same, 
 shall make any threats, or make use of any language, signs or ges- 
 tures, calculated to intimidate any person or persons at work on 
 said property from continuing to work thereon or therein, or to 
 intimidate others from engaging to work thereon or therein, every 
 such person so offending shall, on conviction thereof, be fined in a 
 sum not to exceed $250, and be imprisoned in the county jail not 
 less than thirty days nor more than six months; such fine to be dis- 
 charged either by payment or by confinement in said jail until such 
 fine is discharged at the rate of $2"50 per day. On trials under this 
 section, proof of a common purpose of two or more persons to 
 obtain possession of property, as aforesaid, or to intimidate laborers 
 as above set forth, accompanied or followed by any of the acts 
 above specified by any of them, shall be sufficient evidence to con- 
 vict any one committing such acts, although the parties may not be 
 associated together at the time of committing the same. 
 
 Force or Violence. — Sec. 4. — If any person or persons shall asso- 
 ciate and agree to enter or attempt to enter by force of numbers, 
 and the terror such numbers are calculated to inspire, or by force 
 and violence, or by threats of violence against any person or per- 
 sons in the actual possession of any lode, gulch or placer claim, 
 and upon such entry or attempted entry, any person or persons 
 shall be killed, said persons, and all and each of them so enter- 
 ing or attempting to enter, shall be deemed guilty of murder in the 
 first degree, and punished accordingly. Upon the trial of such cases, 
 any person or parties cognizant of such entry, or attempted entry, 
 who shall be present, aiding, assisting, or in anywise encouraging 
 
672 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Buch entry, or attempted entry, shall be deemed a principal in the 
 commission of said offence. 
 
 Sec. 5. — This act shall take effect and be in force from and after 
 its passage. 
 
 Approved February 13, 1874. 
 
 Placer Mining Claims. — Be it enacted by the General Assembly 
 of the State of Colorado ( March 12, 1879) : 
 
 Section 1. The discoverer of a placer claim shall, within thirty 
 days from the date of discovery, record his claim in the office of the 
 recorder of the county in which said claim is situated, by a location 
 certificate, which shall contain: First, the name of the claim, de- 
 signating it as a placer claim. Second, the name of the locator. 
 Third, the date of location. Fourth,, the number of acres or feet 
 claimed. And. Fifth, a description of the claim by such reference 
 to natural objects or permanent monuments as shall identify the 
 claim. 
 
 Before filing such location certificate, the discoverer shall locate 
 his claim : First, by posting upon such claim a plain sign or no- 
 tice, containing the name of the claim, the name ot the locator, the 
 date of discovery, and the number of acres or feet claimed. Second, 
 by marking the surface boundaries with substantial posts, and sunk 
 in the ground, to wit: One at each angle of the claim. 
 
 Sec. 2. On each placer claim of one liundred and sixty acres or 
 more heretofore or hereafter located, and until a patent has been 
 issued therefor, not less than one hundred dollars' worth of labor 
 shall be performed or improvements made by the first day of August, 
 1879, and by the first day of August of each year thereafter. On all 
 placer claims containing less than one hundred and sixty acres, the 
 expenditure during each year shall be such proportion of one hun- 
 dred dollars, as the number of acres bears to one hundred and sixty. 
 On alfplacer claims containing less than one hundred and sixty 
 acres, the expenditure during each year shall be such proportion of 
 one hundred dollars, as the number of acres bears to one hundred 
 and sixty. On all placer claims containing less than twenty acres, 
 the expenditures during each year shall not be less than twelve dol- 
 lars ; but when two or more claims lie contiguous, and are owned by 
 the same person, the expenditure hereby required for each claim 
 may be made on any one claim ; and upon a failure to comply with 
 these conditions, the claim or claims upon which such failure oc- 
 curred, shall be open to relocation, in the same manner as if no lo- 
 cation of the same had ever been made ; provided, that the original 
 locators, their heirs, assigns, or legal representatives, have not 
 resumed worlc upon the claim after failure and before such loca- 
 tion ; provided, tlie aforesaid expenditures may be made in building 
 or repairing ditches to conduct water upon such ground, or in mak- 
 ing other mining improvements necessary for the working of such 
 claim. 
 
 Upon the failure of anyone of several co-owners to contribute 
 his proportion of the expenditures required hereby, the co-owners 
 who have performed the labor or made the improvements, may at 
 the expiration of the year, to wit : the 1st of August, 1879, for the 
 locations heretofore made, and one year from the date of locations 
 hereafter made, give such delinquent co-owner personal notice in 
 writing, or if he be a non-resident of the state, a notice by publica- 
 tion in the newspaper published nearest the claim for at least once 
 a week for ninety days, and mailing him a copy of such newspaper 
 if his address be Known; and if at thee.xpirationof ninety days after 
 such notice in writin", or after the first publication of such notice, 
 such delinquent should fail or refuse to contribute his proportion of 
 the expenditure required by this action [section], his interest in the 
 claim shall become the property of his co-owners who have made 
 the required expenditures. 
 
 Miscellaneous General Laws, 1877. — Taxation. — Extract from the 
 Constitution of Colorado : 
 
 Art. X, Sec. 3. — Page 58. Mines and mining claims bearing gold, 
 silver, and other precious metals (except the net proceeds and sur- 
 face improvements thereof), shall be exempt from taxation for the 
 period of ten years from the date of the adoption of this constitu- 
 tion (July 1, 1876), and thereafter may be taxed as provided by 
 law. 
 
 Penal Provisions. — 764. Sec. 169. If any person shall knowingly 
 have, keep, or use any false or fraudulent scales or weights for 
 weighing gold or gold dust, or any other article or commodity, every 
 such person so offending shall, on convicticm, be fined not exceeding 
 five hundred dollars, or imprisoned in the county jail not exceeding 
 six months. 
 
 765. Sec. 170. The owner, mannger, or agent of any species of 
 quartz mUl, arrastra mill, furnace, or cupel, employed in extracting 
 gold from quartz, pyrites, or other minerals, who shall neglect or 
 refu.se to account for or pay over and deliver all the proceeds thereof 
 to the owner of such quartz, pyrites, or other minerals, excepting 
 such portion of said proceeds as he is entitled to in return for his 
 services, shall, on conviction, be fined in a sum not exceeding one 
 thousand dollars, or be imprisoni'il in the penitentiary not exceeding 
 one year. 
 
 776. ^Sec. 181. — That every person who shall mingle or onusc lo 
 be mingled with any sample of gold or silver bearing ore, any valu- 
 able metal or substance whatever, that will increase or in any way 
 change the value of said ore, with the intent to deceive, cheat, or 
 defraud any person or persons, ,sh;ill, on conviction thereof, be pun- 
 ished by a fine not less than $500 nor more than $1,000, or by con- 
 
 finement in the penitentiary for a term of not less than one nor 
 more than fourteen years, or by both such fine and imprisonment. 
 
 1603. — Sec. 1. — That if any person or persons shall wilfully and 
 maliciously deface, remove, pull down, injure, or destroy any loca- 
 tion-stake, side-post, corner-post, land-mark, or monument, or any 
 other legal land boundary monument in this state, designating, or 
 intending to designate the location, boundary, or name of any min- 
 ing claim, lode, or vein of mineral, or the name of the discoverer, 
 or date of discovery thereof; the person or persons so offending 
 shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and, on conviction thereof, shall 
 be fined not more than one thousand dollars, or imprisoned not more 
 than one yearTat the discretion of the court: Provided, that this 
 act shall not apply to abandoned property. 
 
 673. — Sec. 78. — Every person who shall mingle or procure to be 
 mingled with any uncoined gold or gold dust now current, or which 
 shall hereafter be current in this state, any counterfeit gold dust, or 
 counterfeit uncoined gold, or any base metal or substance what- 
 ever, with intent to utter or pass the same, or to procure the same 
 to be uttered or passed as gold dust or uncoined gold, shall, on con- 
 viction thereof, be punished by a fine not to exceed one thousand 
 dollars, or by confinement in the penitentiary for a term not leas 
 than one year nor more than fourteen years. 
 
 1961. — Sec. 5. — ^Any person, association, or corporation, or the 
 agent of any person, association, or corporation, who shall know- 
 ingly purchase or contract to purchase, or shall make any payment 
 for or on account of any ore, which shall have been taken from any 
 mine or claim, by persons who have taken or may be holding pos- 
 session of any such mine or claim, contrary to any penal law now 
 in force, or which may be hereafter enacted, shall be considered as 
 an accessory after the fact to the unlawful holding or taking of such 
 mine or claim, and upon conviction shall be subjected to the same 
 punishment to which the principals may be liable. 
 
 1962.— Sec. 6.— Any person, association, or corporation, or the 
 agent of any person, association, or corporation engaged in the busi- 
 ness of milling, sampling, concentrating, reducing, shipping, or 
 purchasing ores as aforesaid, who shall keep or use any false or 
 fraudulent scales or weights for weighing ore, or who shall keep or 
 use any false or fraudulent assay scales or weights for ascertaining 
 the assay value of ore, knowing them to be false, every person so 
 offending shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and on convic- 
 tion thereof, shall be fined in a sum not exceeding one thousand 
 (1,000) dollars, nor less than one hundred (100) dollars, or impri- 
 sonment not more than one year, or both, at the discretion of the 
 court. 
 
 1063. — Sec. 7. — Any person, corporation, or association, or the 
 agent of any person, corporation, or association, engaged in the 
 milling, sampling, concentrating, reducing, shipping, or purchasing 
 of ores in this state, who shall, in any manner, knowingly alter or 
 change the true value of any ores delivered to him or them, so as to 
 deprive the seller of the result of the correct value of the same, or 
 who shall substitute other ores for that delivered to him or them, or 
 who shall issue any bill of sale or certificate of purchase that does 
 not exactly and truthfully state the actual weight, assay value, and 
 total amount paid for any lot or lots of ore purchased, or who, by 
 any secret understanding or agreement with another, shall issue a 
 bill of sale or certificate of purchase that does not truthfully and 
 correctly set forth the weight, assay value, and total amount paid 
 for any lot or lots of ore purchased by him or them, shall be deemed 
 guilty of a misdemeanor, and on conviction thereof shall be fined in 
 a sum not exceeding one thousand (1,000) dollars, nor less than one 
 hundred (100) dollars, or imprisonment not more than one year, or 
 both, at the discretion of the court. 
 
 1964. Sec. 8. — If any person, lessee, licensee, or employee in or 
 about any mine in this State, shall break and sever, with intent to 
 steal the ore or mineral from any mine, lode, ledge, or deposit in 
 this State, or shall take, remove, or conceal the ore or mineral from 
 any mine, lode, ledge, or deposit, with intent to defraud the owner 
 or owners, lessee, or licensee of any such mine, lode, ledge, or de- 
 posit, such offender shall be deemed guilty of felony, and on con- 
 viction, shall be punished as for grand larceny. 
 
 Drainage. — 1830. — Sec. 1. — Whenever contiguous or adjacent 
 mines upon the same or upon separijte lodes have a common ingress 
 of water, or from subterraneous communication of the water have a 
 common drainage, it shall be the duty of the owners, lessees or 
 occupants of each mine so related to provide for their proportionate 
 share of the drainage thereof. 
 
 Penalty for Non-Compliance. — 1831. — Sec. 2. — Any parties so 
 related failing to provide as aforesaid for the drainage of the mines 
 owned or occupied by them, thereby imposing an unjust burden upon 
 neighboring mines, whether owned or occupied by them, shall pay 
 respectively to those performing the work of drainage tlieir propor- 
 tion of the actual and necessary cost and expense of doing such 
 drainage, to be recovered by an action in any court of competent 
 jurisdiction. 
 
 Common Interests. — 1832. — Sec. 3. — It shall be lawful for all 
 mining corporations or companies, and all individuals engaged in 
 mining, who have thus a common interest in draining such mines, to 
 unite tor the purpose of effecting the same, under such common name 
 and upon such terras and conditions as may be agreed upon ; and 
 every such association liaving filed a certificate of incorporation, 
 as provided by law, shall be deemed a corporation, with all the 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 G73 
 
 rights, incidents and liabilities of a body corporate, so far as the 
 same may be applicable. 
 
 Subject to Action. — 1833.— Sec. 4.— Failing to mutually agree, as 
 indicated in the preceding section for drainage jointly, one or more 
 of the said parties may undertake the work of dfrainage after giving 
 reasonable notice; and should the remaining parties then fail, 
 neglect or refuse to unite in equitable arrangements for doing the 
 work, or sharing the expense thereof, they shall be subject to an 
 action therefor as already specified, to be enforced in any court of 
 competent jurisdiction. 
 
 Action to Recover. — 1834. — Sec. 5. — When an action is commenced 
 to recover tlve cost and expenses for draining a lode or mine, it 
 shall be lawful for the plaintiff to apply to the court, if in session, 
 or to the judge thereof in vacation, for an order to inspect and ex- 
 amine the lodes or mines claimed to have been drained by the 
 plaintiff; or some one for him shall make affidavit that such in- 
 spection or examination is necessary for the proper preparation of 
 ^he case for trial ; and the court or judge shall grant an order for 
 the underground inspection and examination of the lode or mines 
 described in the petition. Such order shall designate the number 
 of persons, not exceeding three, besides the plaintiff or his repre- 
 sentative, to examine and inspect such lode and mines, and take 
 the measurement thereof, relating to the amount of water drained 
 from the lode or mine, or the number of fathoms of ground mined 
 and worked out of the lode or mines claimed to have been drained, 
 the cost of such examination and inspection to be borne by the 
 party applying therefor. The court or judge shall have power to 
 cause tne removal of any rock, debris, or other obstacles in any 
 lode or vein, when such removal is shown to be necessary to a just 
 determination of the question involved : Provided, That no such 
 order for inspection and examination shall be made, except in open 
 court or at chambers, upon notice of application for such order of 
 at least three days, and not then except by agreement of parties,. 
 nor unless it appears that the plaintiff has been refused the privi- 
 lege of making the inspection and examination by the defendant or 
 defendants, or his or their agent. 
 
 Water Sights. — 1835.— Sec. 6. — ^That hereafter, when any person 
 or persons, or corporation, shall be engaged in mining or milling, 
 and in the proseeution of such business shall hoist or raise water 
 from mines or natural channels, and the same shall flow away 
 from the premises of such persons or corporations, to any natural 
 channel or gulch, the same shall be considered beyond the control 
 of the party so hoisting or raising the same, and may be taken 
 and used by other parties the same as that of natural water- 
 courses. 
 
 1836. — Sec. 7. — After any such water shall have been so raised, 
 and the same shall have flown into any such natural channel, gulch 
 or draw, the party so hoistino; or raising the same shall only be 
 liable for injury caused thereby, in the same manner as riparian 
 owners along natural water-courses. 
 
 Explanatory. — 1837. — Sec. 8. — The provisions of this act shall 
 not be construed to apply to incipient or undeveloped mines, but 
 to those only which shall have been opened, and shall clearly de- 
 rive a benefit from being drained. 
 
 Evidence. — 1838.— Sec. 9. — In trial of cases arising under this act 
 the court shall admit evidence of the normal stand or position of 
 the water while at rest in an idle mine, also the observed preva- 
 lence of a common water-level or a standing water-line in the same 
 or separate lodes ; also the effect, if any, the elevating or depressing 
 the water by natural or mechanical means in any given lode has 
 upon elevating or depressing the water in the same, contiguous or 
 separate lodes or mines ; also the effect which draining or ceasing 
 to drain any given lode or mine had upon the water in the same, 
 or contiguous or separate lodes or mines, and all other evidence 
 which tends to prove the common ingress or subterraneous commu- 
 nication of water into the same lode or mine, or contiguous or sepa- 
 rate lodes or mines. 
 
 Approved March 16, 1877. 
 
 Ore. — 1957. — Sec. 1. — That every person, association or corpora- 
 tion that shall be engaged in the business of milling, sampling, con- 
 centrating, reducing, shipping or purchasing ores in the State of 
 Colorado, shall keep and preserve a book in which shall be entered 
 at the time of the delivery of each lot of ore : 
 
 First. — The name of the party on whose behalf such ore is deliv- 
 ered, as stated. 
 
 Second. — The name of the teamster, packer or other persons act- 
 ually delivering such ore, and the name of the owner of the team or 
 ■ pack train delivering such ore. 
 
 Third. — The weight or amount of every such lot of ore. 
 
 Fourth. — The name and location of the mine or claim from which 
 it shall be stated that the same has been mined or procured. 
 
 Fifth.— the dat« of delivery of any and all lots or parcels of ore. 
 
 1958.— Sec. 2.— Whenever affidavit shall have been made before 
 any police magistrate of any town in this State, or any justice of the 
 peace of any county, by any person, that ore has been stolen from 
 him, stating as near as may be the amount and value of the ore 
 stolen, such person upon presentation of a certified copy of such affi- 
 davit, shall have access to such book, and may examine the en- 
 tries which may have been made therein during a period of fifteen 
 days next preceding the filing of such affidavit ; Promded, That the 
 
 Eerson making such affidavit shall, at the time of making the same, 
 ave a present interest in the product of the mine or claim from 
 
 43 
 
 which said ore has been stolen, or in the ore alleged to have been 
 stolen. 
 
 1959. — Sec. 3. — Every person, association or corporation that shall 
 fail or refuse to keep the book required by the terms of the first sec- 
 tion of this act, or shall fail or refuse to make any proper entry 
 therein, or who shall make any false entry therein, or who shall refuse 
 to any person who may be entitled to the same, as provided by sec- 
 tion two (2) of this act, the right of inspection thereof, shall forfeit 
 and pay for each and every violation of the provisions of said section 
 a penalty of not less than fifty (50) nor more than three hundred 
 (300) dollars, to be collected by action of debt at the suit of any per- 
 son who may sue for the same. In addition to such penalty, any 
 person, association or corporation violating the provisions of said 
 nrst section, shall be liable at the suit of the party or persons ag- 
 grieved, in the proper form of action, for all damages which may 
 accrue to any party or person by reason of such violation. And in 
 all actions the fact that a false entry has been made shall hs prima 
 facie evidence that the same was made wilfully and knowingly. 
 
 1960. — Sec. 4. — If any person, association or corporation shall fail 
 or neglect to make the inquiries necessary to the making of the 
 proper entries in said book, as provided in section one (1) of this act, 
 or shall so negligently make entries therein that any lot of ore can- 
 not be particularly identified, or so negligently that it cannot be 
 perceived therefrom what person delivered any lot of ore or received 
 the proceeds of the same when purchased, or shall fail to keep such 
 book, or shall wilfully suffer the same to be lost or mislaid, so that 
 the same cannot be produced for inspection, such failure or neglect 
 shall not excuse any party defendant in any suit brought under the 
 preceding section from judgment from any penalty prescribed by 
 said section. 
 
 Water Rights. — 1789. — Sec. 2. — Whenever any person or persons 
 are engaged in bringing water into any portion of the mines, they 
 shall have the right of way secured to them, and may pass over 
 any claim, road, ditch, or other structure; provided, the water be 
 guarded so as not to interere with prior rights. 
 
 1821.— Sec. 11. — All mining claims now located, shall be subject 
 to the right of way of any ditch or flume for mining purposes, or of 
 any tramway or pack-trail, whether now in use, or which may be 
 hereafter laid out across any such location ; provided, always, that 
 such right of way shall not be exercised against any location duly 
 made and recorded, and not abandoned prior to the establishment 
 of the ditch, flume, tramway, or pack-trail, without consent of the 
 owner.except by condemnation, as in case of land taken for public 
 highways. Parol consent to the location of any such easement, 
 accompanied by the completion of the same over the claim, shall 
 be sufficient without writings, and provided further, that such 
 ditch or flume shall be so constructed that the water from such 
 ditch or flume shall not injure vested rights by flooding or other- 
 wise. 
 
 2279.— Sec. 3. — * * And water sold by the inch by any indivi- 
 dual or corporation, shall be measured as follows, to wit : Every 
 inch shall be considered equal to an inch square orifice under a 
 five-inch pressure, and a five-inch pressure shall be from the top of 
 the orifice of the box put into the banks of the ditch, to the sur- 
 face of water ; said boxes, or any dot or aperture through which 
 such water may be measured, shall in all cases be six inches per- 
 pendicular inside measurement, except boxes delivering less than 
 twelve inches, which may be square, with or without slides ; all 
 slides for the same shall move horizontally and not otherwise; 
 and said box put into the banks of ditch shall have a descending 
 grade from the water in ditch of not less than one-eighth of an 
 inch to the foot. 
 
 Tailings. — 1804.— Sec. 8. — In no case shall any person or persons 
 be allowed to flood the property of another person with water, or 
 wash down the tailings of his or their sluice upon the claim or 
 property of other persons, but it shall be the duty of every miner 
 to take care of his own tailings, upon his own property, or be- 
 come responsible for all damages that may arise therefrom. 
 
 Hauling Quartz. — 1805. — Sec. 9. — Every miner shall have the 
 right of way across any and all claims for the purpose of haxiling 
 quartz from his claim. 
 
 Mining Claims, Real Estate, Actions. — 185. — Sec. 26. — The terms 
 " land " and " real estate," as used in this chapter, shall be con- 
 strued as co-extensive in meaning with the terms "lands, tene- 
 ments, hereditaments," and as embracing mining claims and other 
 claims', and chattels real. The term "deed" includes mortgages, 
 leases, releases, and every conveyance or encumbrance under 
 seal. 
 
 2126. — Sec. 3. — The owner of every claim or improvement, on 
 every tract or parcel of land, has a transferable interest therein, 
 which may be sold in execution or otherwise; and any sale of 
 such improvement is a sufficient consideration to sustain a promise. 
 
 2131. — Sec. 8. — Any person settled upon any of the public lands 
 belonging to the United States, may maintain trespass guare clau- 
 sum f regit trespass ejectment, forcible entry and detainer, unlawful 
 detainer, and forcible detainer for injuries done to the possession 
 thereof. 
 
 2135 — Sec. 12. — Any person who may have a title to occupy 
 any lot or lots within any city or village or village plot, or any 
 lots or mining claim within any mining district in this state, in 
 virtue of a certificate, deed of gift or purchase from the original 
 claimant or claimants, or their assigns, as well as all purchasers 
 
674 
 
 THE MINES, MIN-ERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 under any decree or execution of any of the so-called provisional 
 government courts, peoples' or miners* courts, of the lands, 
 situate within any city or village plot, or any lots, land, or mining 
 claims situate within any mining district, together with the origi- 
 nal claimant or claimants of said lots, laud, or mining claims, 
 shall be entitled to maintain the actions authorized by the eighth 
 section of this chapter, against any and all persons who shall enter 
 upon and occupy said lots, lands, or mining claims, or any of them ; 
 provided, it shall be lawful for the citizens of any mining district 
 to declare an abandonment of any creek, river, gulch, bank, or 
 mining claim a forfeiture of the rights of the claimants thereto ; in 
 which case the parties claimant shall not be enabled to maintain 
 either of the actions mentioned in section eight of this chapter. 
 
 2136.— Sec. 13. — Nothing in this chapter contained shall be con- 
 strued to deny the right of the United States to dispose of any 
 lands in this state ; nor shall the fact that the title to any lots, 
 lands, lodes, or mining claims hath not passed from the United 
 States, be any bar to the recovery of the plaintiff in either of the 
 actions specified in section eight of this chapter. As against the 
 United States, and all persons holding any of said lands under the 
 United States, or the laws thereof, this chapter shall be of none 
 effect and void. 
 
 Foreign Corporations. — 213. — Sec. 23. — Foreign corporations shall, 
 before they are authorized or permitted to do any business in this 
 state, make and file a certificate signed by the president and secre- 
 tary of such corporation, duly acknowledged, with the secretary of 
 state, and in the oifice of the recorder of deeds of the county in 
 which such business is carried on, designating the principal place 
 where the business of such corporation shall be carried on in this 
 state, and an authorized agent or agents in this state residing at its 
 principal place of business upon whom process may be served ; and 
 such corporations shall be subjected to all the liability, restrictions 
 and duties which are or may be imposed upon corporations of like 
 character organized under the general laws of this state, and shall 
 have no other or greater powers. 
 
 And no foreign or domestic corporation established or maintained 
 in any way for pecuniary profit of its stockholders or members, shall 
 purchase or hold real estate in this state, except as provided for in 
 this Act, and no corporation doing business in this state, incorpo- 
 rated under the laws of any other state, shall be permitted to mort- 
 gage, pledge or otherwise encumber its real or personal property 
 situated in this state, to the injury or exclusion of any citizen, citi- 
 zens or corporations of this state who are creditors of such foreign 
 corporation; and no mortgage by any foreign corporation, except 
 railroad and telegraph companies, given to secure any debt created 
 in any other state, shall take effect as against any citizen or corpo- 
 ration of this state, until all its liabilities due to any person or cor- 
 poration in this state at the time of recording such mortgage, have 
 been paid and extinguished. 
 
 214. — Sec. 24. — Every company incorporated under the laws of 
 any foreign state or kingdom, or of any state or territory of the 
 United States, beyond the limits of this state, and now or hereafter 
 doing business within this state, shall file in the office of the secre- 
 tary of state a copy of their charter of incorporation, or in case such 
 company is incorporated by certificate under any general incorpo- 
 ration law, a copy of such certificate, and of such general incorpora- 
 tion law, duly certified and authenticated by the proper authority 
 of such foreign state, kingdom or territory. 
 
 215. — Sec. 25. — A failure to comply with the provisions of sec- 
 tions twenty-three and twenty -ifour of this Act shall render each and 
 every officer, agent and stockholder of any such corporation so fail- 
 ing therein, jointly and severally personally liable on any and all 
 contracts of such company made within this state during the time 
 that such corporation is so in default. 
 
 New Mexico. — An act to regulate the manner of locating min- 
 ing claims, and for other purposes. 
 
 Be it enacted by the Legislative Assembly of the Territory of New 
 
 Mexico : 
 
 Sec. 1. — That any person or persons desiring to locate a mining 
 claim upon a vein or lode of (juartz or other rock in place — bearing 
 ;;old, silver, cinnabar, lead, tin^ copper or other valuable deposit, 
 must distinctly mark the location on the ground, so that its bound- 
 aries may be readilj traced ; and post in some conspicuous place on 
 such location a notice in writing, stating thereon the name or names 
 of the locator or locators, his or their intention to locate the mining 
 claim, giving a description thereof by reference to such natural ob- 
 ject or permanent monument as will identify the claim ; and also 
 within ttiree months after posting such notice, cause to be recorded 
 a copy thereof in the office of the recorder of the county in which 
 the notice is posted ; and it is provided that no other record of such 
 notice shall be necessary. 
 
 Sec. 2. — In order to carry out the intent of the preceding.aection, 
 it is hereby made the duty of the probate judges of the several coun- 
 ties of this Territory, and they are hereby required to provide, at 
 the expense of their respective counties, such book or books as may 
 be necessary and suitable in which to enter the record hereinbefore 
 provided for. The fees for recording such notices shall be ten cents 
 for every one hundred words. 
 
 Sec. 3.— That in estimating the worth of labor required to bi' per- 
 formed upon any mining claim, to hold the same by the laws of the 
 United States, in the regulation of mines, the value of a day's ISbor 
 is hereby fixed at the sum of four dollars : Provided, however, That 
 
 in the sense of this statute, eight hours of labor actually performed 
 upon the mining claim shall constitute a day's labor. 
 
 Sec. 4. — All locations heretofore made in good faith, to which 
 there shall be no adverse claims, the certificate of which locations 
 have been or may be filed for record and recorded in the recorder's 
 office of the county where the location is made, within six months 
 after the passage of this act, are hereby confirmed and made valid. 
 But where they may appear to be any such adverse claim, the said 
 location shall be held to be the property of the person having the 
 superior title or claim, according to the laws in force at the time of 
 the making of the said locations. 
 
 Sec. 5. — An action of ejectment will lie for the recovery of the 
 possession of a mining claim, as well as of any real estate, where 
 the party suing has been wrongfully ousted from the possession 
 thereof, and the possession wrongfully detained. 
 
 Sec. 6. — That an act concerning mining claims," approved Jan- 
 uary 18, 1865, and an act amendatory thereof, approved January 
 3d, 1866 ; also, an act entitled an act to amend certain acts concern- 
 ing mining claims in the Territory of New Mexico, approved Jan- 
 uary 1, 1872 ; be and the same are hereby repealed : Provided, 'That 
 no locations completed under said acts shall be invalidated, or in 
 anywise affected by such repeal. 
 
 Sec. 7. — That this act shall take effect and be in full force from 
 and after its passage. 
 
 Approved January 11, 1876. 
 
 The following is the work of the last legislature of New 
 Mexico : 
 
 Be it enacted by the Legislature Assembly of the Territory of 
 JVeu! Mexico : 
 
 See. 1. Hereafter in actions regarding mining claims, 
 proof must be admitted of the customs, usages, or regulations 
 established and in force in the mining district embracing 
 such claim, and such customs, usages or regulations, when 
 not in conflict with the laws of this Territory, or the United 
 States, must govern the decision of the action. 
 
 Sec. 2. Any person or persons claiming or staking upon 
 the surface ground of the mining claim of another who has 
 complied with all laws, regulations and customs, shall be 
 guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof, shall 
 be fined in any sum not less than ten, nor more than one 
 hundred dollars, or shall be punished by imprisonment in 
 the county jail not less than ten, or more than ninety days 
 or both, at the discretion of the court. 
 
 Sec. 3. Any person or persons who have their stakes, 
 monuments, or notices upon the surface ground of any 
 mining claim belonging to others, shall within sixty days of 
 the passage of this act, remove such stakes, monuments, or 
 notices from the surface ground of such mining claim, and 
 upon failure to do so, shall be subject to the penalties set 
 forth in section two of this act. 
 
 Sec. 4. Within sixty days after the period fixed by the 
 United States laws for doing the assessment on mining 
 claims, the owner shall file with the county and district re- 
 corders, an afiidavit stating that the full amount has been 
 expended as required by law. Failure to file such afiidavit 
 as herein required, shall be construed as prima facie evidence 
 of abandonment of such claim or claims ; and provided that 
 the fee of such recorder shall not exceed fifty cents ; and for 
 each certified record. All laws and parts of laws in conflict 
 with this act are hereby repealed. 
 
 This act shall be in full force and eflTect from and after 
 the first day of April, A. D., 1882. 
 
 California.— FaieriBijAte.— 1410.— The right to the use of 
 running water flowing in a river or stream, or down a canon or 
 ravine may be aquired by appropriation. 
 
 1411.— The appropriation must be for some useful or beneficial 
 purpose, and when the appropriator or his successor in interest 
 ceases to use it for such a purpose, the right ceases. 
 
 1412. — The person entitled to the use may change the place of 
 diversion, if others are not injured by such change, and may extend , 
 the ditch, flume, pipe or aqueduct by which the diversion is made, 
 to places beyond that where the first use was made. 
 
 1413.— The water appropriated may be turned into the channel of 
 another stream and mingled with its water, and then reclaimed ; 
 but in reclaiming it the water already appropriated by another 
 must not be diminished. 
 
 1414.— As between appropriators, the one first in time is the first 
 in right. 
 
 1415.— A person desiring to appropriate water must post a notice, 
 in writing, in a conspicuous place at the point of intended diversion, 
 stating therein ; 
 
 1. That he claims the water there flowing to the extent of (giving 
 the number) inches, measured under a four-inch pressure: 
 
 2. The purposes for which he claims it, and the placo cf intended 
 use. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 675 
 
 3. The means by which he intends to divert it, and the size of the 
 flume, ditch, pipe, or aqueduct in which he intends to divert it, 
 
 A copy of tlie notice must, within ten days after it is posted, be 
 recorded in the office of the Recorder of the county in wnich it is 
 posted. 
 
 1416. — Within sixty days after the notice is posted, the claimant 
 must commence the excavation or construction of the works in 
 Avhich he intends to divert the water, and must prosecute the work 
 diligently and uninterruptedly to completion, unless temporarily 
 interrupted by snow or rain. 
 
 1417. — By ' completion " is meant conducting the waters to the 
 place of intended use. 
 
 1418. — By a compliance with the above rules, the claimant's right 
 to the use of the water relates back to the time the notice was 
 posted. 
 
 1419. — A failure to comply with such rules deprives the claimant 
 of the right to the use of the water as against a subsequent 
 claimant who complies tlierewith. 
 
 1420.^Persons who have heretofore claimed the right to water, 
 and who have not constructed works in which to divert it, and 
 who have not diverted nor applied it to some useful purpose, must, 
 after this title talces effect, and within twenty days thereafter pro- 
 ceed as in this Title, provided, or their right ceases. Civil Code, 
 Annotated, Title viii., p. 402. 
 
 [The above law expresses the usual manner of securing water 
 rights in the mining states and territories. See Copp's U. S. 
 Mineral Lands.] 
 
 Mineral Lands on School Sections* — An Act regulating the sale 
 of mineral lands belonging to the State of California. 
 
 Sec. 1. — Any person desiring to purchase from this State any 
 portion of any sixteenth or tnirty-sixth section, that shall have 
 been designated by United States survey as of a mineral character, 
 or which is so in fact, shall make an affidavit before some officer 
 authorized to administer oaths, that he or she is a citizen of the 
 United States ; or, if a foreigner, tliat he has filed his intention to 
 become a citizen of the United States; that he or she is of lawful 
 age, and desires to purchase said land, giving a description thereof 
 by le^al subdivisions ; that he or she has not entered any por- 
 tion of such mineral lands which, together with that applied for in 
 such affilavit, will exceed forty acres ; that there is no occupation 
 of said land adverse to that which he or she holds; or, if there be 
 any adverse occupation tliereof, then he or she must state the name 
 of such adverse occupant, together with the fact that the plat of the 
 town%hip has been on file six months or over, and that such adverse 
 occupant has been in such occupation six months or over. 
 
 Sec. 2. — Any person that shall be in the actual possession of any 
 of said lands described in section one, at the time of the survey 
 thereof by the United States, or at the time of the passage of this 
 act shall be considered a preferred purchaser thereof to the extent 
 of his or her mining claim : Provided, he or she make application 
 for the purchase of the same on or before the first day of January, 
 1877, if the plat of such survey be already filed in the United States 
 Land Office, and if not so filed, then within six mouths after the 
 filing of such plat as aforesaid. 
 
 Sec. 3. — When a contest shall arise as to the mineral character of 
 ■ the lands applied for, or from any other cause, the Surveyor-Gen- 
 eral, or the Register before whom the contest is made, must, within 
 thirty days after the adverse application is filed, unless sooner re- 
 ferred at the request of either claimant, make an order referring 
 such contest to the Superior Court of the county within which the 
 land is situated, and must enter such order in the proper book. of 
 his office, and forward a copy thereof to the clerk of the court to 
 which the reference is made. Upon the filing of a copy of such 
 order with the clerk of the court, either party may commence an 
 action in said court to determine the conflict, and the court shall 
 have full and complete'jurisdiction to hear and determine the same. 
 Unless an action shall be commenced within ninety days after the 
 copy of the order of reference shall have been filed with the clerk 
 of the court, the party making such demand, or the adverse claim- 
 ant, if the ease is referred without demand, shall be deemed to have 
 waived and surrendered his or her right to purchase, and the Sur- 
 veyor-General or Register shall proceed as though his or her appli- 
 cation had not been made. 
 
 See. 4. — All lands sold under the provisions of this act shall be 
 sold for the sum of two dollars and fifty cents per acre in United 
 States gold coin, payable to the Treasurer of the county in which 
 the lands are situated, within fifty days from the date of the appro- 
 val by the Surveyor-General ; and in case said payment is not made 
 within said fifty days, the land described in the location shall re- 
 vert to the State without suit, and said location shall be and become 
 null and void. All payments made to the County Treasurer as 
 above provided, shall be paid over and accounted for as other 
 moneys received tor State lands are required to be paid over and 
 accounted for. 
 
 Sec. 5. — The Surveyor-General and Register shall, in the matter 
 of approving locations, issuing certificates of purchase or patents, 
 or in other proceedings relating to the sale of lands of a mineral 
 character, which proceedings are not provided for in this act, 
 proceed in the same manner .as is now provided for the sale of 
 
 * This law only applies to sections on which minerals are discovered 
 after survey. 
 
 sixteenth and thirty-sixth sections which are not of a mineral 
 character. 
 
 Sec. 6. — All patents issued by the State to any portion of any six- 
 teenth or thirty-sixth section shall be subject to any vested and 
 accrued water-rights, ditohes, and reservoirs used in connection 
 therewith, acquired by priority of po.ssession under local customs 
 and the decisions of the courts, and the right of way for the con- 
 struction of ditohes and canals for mining and otlier purposes, over 
 all of the sixteenth and thirty-sixth .settions owned by the State, is 
 hereby granted and confirmed. 
 
 Sec. 7.— After the passage of this act, no patents shall be issued 
 for any of the lands described in this act upon which, at the time 
 of the application therefor, there was and still is any actual bona 
 fide mining claim, except to the person who is the owner of such 
 mining claim under local mining customs ; and when an applicant 
 for such lands, not owning such mining claim, shall have paid the 
 purchase-money therefor, in whole or in part, he may present his 
 certificate of purchase and receive in exchange therefor, from the 
 Register, a certificate showing the whole amount paid; and the 
 Controller, upon the surrender of such certificate, must draw his 
 warrant in favor of the person surrendering such certificate, for the 
 amount therein specified, on the Treasurer of the State, who must 
 pay the sum out of the funds into which the purchase money was 
 paid : Provided, That the owner of such mining-claim, under such 
 mining customs, shall apply to purchase the same within six 
 months after the plat of the township containing such land shall 
 have been filed in the local United States land office, on or before 
 the first day of January, 1877 : And provided further. That any 
 owner of a bona fide mining claim who shall have entered into an 
 agreement with the applicant for any portion of a sixteenth or 
 thirty-sixth section upon which said mining claim is situated, for 
 the procurement of a title for the same, shall not avail himself of 
 the provisions of this section. The Governor of this State shall not 
 sign any patent contrary to the provisions of this act. 
 
 Utah. — Of Mines and Mininrj. — An Act to provide rules for 
 the working and development of mines. — Approved Februarv 16, 
 1872.— (1218) Sec. 1.— Be it enacted by the Governor and Legisla- 
 tive Assembly of the Territory of Utah: That any citizen of the 
 United States, and any person who shall have declared his inten- 
 tion to become such, who shall hereafter discover any mineral 
 deposit, lead, or lode, bearing gold, silver, tin, platina, copper, or 
 cinnabar, shall be entitled to one claim thereon, by right of dis- 
 covery, and one claim by right of location : Provided, That no per- 
 son shall be entitled to more than one claim by right of location, 
 on any one lead or lode. 
 
 (1219) Sec. 2. — Any person or persons who shall willfully or 
 maliciously tear down or deface a notice posted on any mining 
 claim, or take up or destroy any stake or monument, marking any 
 such claim, or interfere with any person lawfully in possession of 
 said claim, or who shall alter, erase, deface, or destroy any record 
 kept by a mining recorder, shall be guilty of misdemeanor, and 
 upon conviction thereof shall be punished by a fine of not less than 
 twenty-five nor more than one hundred dollars, or bv imprisonment 
 for not less than ten days nor more than six months, or by both 
 such fine and imprisonment. Justices of the Peace, in their respec- 
 tive counties, shall have jurisdiction of such offences. 
 
 (1220) Sec. 3. — Any person wrongfully entering upon any mine 
 or mining claim, and carrying away ores therefrom, or extracting 
 or selling ores from any mime, Deing the property of another, shall 
 be liable to the owner or owners of said ore for three times the value 
 thereof, recoverable by an action at law; and should the plaintiff 
 file his affidavit that the defendant did unlawfully take such ores, 
 the defendant may be arrested and held to bail, as 'in cases for the 
 recovery of the possession of personal property unjustly detained. 
 
 (1221) See. 4. — Any person or persons who shall perform any 
 work or labor upon any mine, or furnish any material therefor, in 
 pursuance with any contract made with the owner or owners of 
 such mine, or of any interest therein, shall be entitled to a miner's 
 lien for the payment thereof upon all the interest, right, and prop- 
 erty in such mine, by the person or persons contracting for such 
 labor or materials at the time of making such contract ; said lien 
 may be enforced in the same manner and with the same effect as a 
 mechanic's lien, as provided by the laws of Utah. 
 
 Records and Mining Rules.— A.TS Act in relation to proving the 
 records and mining rules and regulations of the mining districts of 
 the Territory, and for other purposes. — Approved February 18, 1876. 
 —(1222) See. 1.— Be it enacted by the Governor and Legislative 
 Assembly of the Territory of Utah : That copies of notices of loca- 
 tion of the mines, lodes, and veins, and of tunnel sites recorded in 
 the several mining districts, and of the mining rules and regula- 
 tions in force in the several districts, in like manner recorded, 
 shall be receivable in all the courts of this Territory, as prima facie 
 evidence of such notices, rules, and regulations : Provided, The 
 recorder of the district shall certify under his hand and seai that 
 such copies are full, true, and perfect copies from the records in his 
 custody. The seal of the office of the mining recorder so certifying 
 affixed to such certificate, shall be prima facie evidence of the fact 
 of the election and qualification and official character of such min- 
 ing recorder. 
 
 (1223) Sec. 2.— It shall be the duty of the county recorder of the 
 several counties of this Territory, to record the mining rules and 
 regulations of the several mining districts in their respective conn- 
 
676 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 ties ; and when so recorded, certified copies thereof shall be received 
 in all the courts of this Territory, as prima facie evidence of such 
 rules and regulations. 
 
 (1224) Sec. 3.— The mining recorders of the several mining dis- 
 tricts shall be allowed the same fees for recording and making cop- 
 ies of any records in their custody as are now allowed by law for 
 like services to county recorders. And it shall be the duty of each 
 mining recorder, upon request and payment or tender of the fees 
 therefor, to make and deliver to any person requesting the same, 
 duly certified copies of any records in his custody; and for a failure 
 so to do, or for receiving larger fees for any such service than those 
 herein provided, such mining recorder shall be deemed guilty of a 
 misdemeanor, and, upon conviction thereof, shall be subjected to 
 the same penalties provided against public officers in section twenty 
 of the act entitled, "An act to regulate fees and compensation for 
 official and other services in the Territory of Utah," passed Febru- 
 ary 20, 1874. 
 
 (1225) Sec. 4. — Recorders of mining districts shall, for the pur- 
 pos3 of this act, be deemed public officers, and the records in their 
 custody shall be deemed public records, and they are hereby re- 
 quired to keep an official seal. 
 
 Wyoming. — Development of Mining Resources. — An Act to pro- 
 vide for the development of the Mining Resources of the Territory 
 of Wyoming : 
 
 Be it enacted by the Council and House of Representatives of the 
 Territory of Wyoming : 
 
 Section 1. Any person or persons who shall have performed work 
 or made improvements or expenditures to the amount of one thou- 
 sand dollars on any lead, lode, or ledge, the same shall not be sub- 
 ject to relocation under the laws of this Territory ; Provided, That 
 such quartz claim or claims shall not be abandoned, but shall be 
 represented by the person or persons owning such claim or claims, 
 or by his or their agent or attorney, who shall reside within thedis- 
 trict in which such claim or claims may be situated, unless driven 
 from said district by Indians; 
 
 Sec. 2. Any person or persons who shall defraud, cheat, or swin- 
 dle any party or parties by what is known as " salting," that is, by 
 placing or causing to be .placed in any placer or quartz claim, or 
 dirt, gravel, or quartz contained therein, any gold, silver, or metals, 
 or minerals which would prove to be a misrepresentation, thereby 
 working injury or loss to any party or parties, shall be deemed 
 guilty of a felony, and, upon conviction thereof, shall be fined in 
 any sum not to exceed five thousand dollars and not less than fifty 
 dollars, together with the cost of prosecution, and may be im- 
 prisoned in the territorial penitentiary not more than three years or 
 less than thirty days, or both such fine and imprisonment. 
 
 Sec. 3. When parties owning in partnership any claim or claims, 
 or any lead, lode, or ledge, or any one of the parties so owning, shall 
 fail to perform his or her portion of the work, for the period of 
 eight months, or pay the reasonable assessment for the same when 
 said claim is being worked in accordance with the expressed wish 
 of a majority of the persons owning such claims, it may be sold to 
 pay such assessment Dy the person or persons to whom such assess- 
 ment may be due, by giving thirty days' notice, published in the 
 nearest newspaper, and by posting notice for thirty days on such 
 claim, giving the amount of assessment due, date of notice, and date 
 of sala. 
 
 Sec. 4. The provision of the foregoing section shall not apply to 
 persons residing within the district in which his or her property is 
 situated. 
 
 Sec. 5. Any property sold to pay assessments may be redeemed 
 within the period of six months by the person or persons formerly 
 owning such property, or by his or her agents, heirs, or attorneys, 
 by paying the cost of advertising and sale, together with the as- 
 sessments due, and ten per cent, upon all purchase-money for the 
 same. 
 
 Sec. 6. All acts and parts of acts conflicting with this act be, and 
 the same are, hereby repealed. 
 
 Sec. 7. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its 
 passage. 
 
 Approved December 16th, 1871. 
 
 MiNBES' Liens. — Section 1. That every miner or other person, 
 who, at the request of the owner of any ledge or lode of quartz bear- 
 ing gold, silver, cinnabar, or copper, or of any coal bank or mine, 
 shall work in'or upon such mine or bank, shall have a lien upon 
 such vein or lode, mine or bank, to the amount due at any time 
 when a demand shall be made upon such owner, or his or their 
 agent, for money due for such labor, and payment shall be refused. 
 
 Sec. 2. That any person who shall labor as a mechanic, or other- 
 wise, or who shall furnish timber, lumber, rope, nails, or any other 
 material for timbering shafts [or] levels for the mine, who shall 
 furnish any kind of materials for erecting windlass, whim, or other 
 hoisting apparatus upon any vein, mine or coal bank, referred to in 
 the first section, shall also have a lien upon the mide or coal bank 
 for which he furnished such materials, or upon which he performed 
 such labor. 
 
 Sec. 3. The party seeking a lien shall proceed, so far as the pro- 
 ceedings are applicable in the same manner, to enforce a lien as by 
 law required in the case of mechanics and other ]irrsons seeking to 
 enforce a lien upon dwelling-houses and other buildings, except 
 when other provisions are made by this act. 
 See. 4. When any sum exceeding ten dollars for labor performed 
 
 by any miner or other person upon or in any mine or coal bank 
 specified in section one of this Act, shall be due and unpaid for ten 
 days, it shall be competent for the person or persons to whom such 
 sum of money shall be due, to file a notice in the ofiiee of county re- 
 corder in the county where such mine is situated, at any time within 
 thirty days after the last day upon which work was done by him ; 
 which said notice shall in substance set forth the fact that the party 
 performed labor (naming the kind) for a party or company (naming 
 the parly or company), that such labor was performed under a con- 
 tract (stating the substance) ; also, the time when the party com- 
 menced and when he ceased to work, the amount still due and un- 
 paid, together with a description of the mine or coal bank upon 
 which such work was performed, which statement shall be verified 
 by the afiidavit of the party so filing it, and when filed, the county 
 recorder shall record the same in a " lien-book," the same as required 
 in the case of mechanics' notices of liens. 
 
 See. 5. The provisions of the next preceding section shall apply to 
 persons who shall furnish materials or work upon any shaft, whim, 
 or other hoisting works, who, by complying with the general pro- 
 visions of such section, shall have a like lien. 
 
 Sec. 6. When notices as provided m the next two preceding sec- 
 tions shall be filed, the lien shall hold not only against the owner of 
 the mine or bank, from the time when the miner or other person 
 began work, but against all persons or company who shall have 
 purchased such mine or coal bank while such miner or other per- 
 son was employed therein, or furnished materials used therein or 
 thereon. 
 
 Sec. 7. — Suit to enforce such lien may be commenced at any time 
 within one year after filing such notice. 
 
 See. 8. — Any owner of any oil well or spring who shall employ 
 any person to perform any work of any kind around or about 
 any oil well or spring, either in building derricks, buildings, or 
 any kind of machinery, or in boring or drilling, shall be deemed 
 within the provisions of this Act; and all persons performing 
 labor or furnishing materials, shall have like liens upon oil terri- 
 tory which he labored, or for which he furnished materials or the 
 improvements thereon, as miners or other laborers upon or in mines 
 as provided in this Act, and shall proceed in the same manner to 
 enforce a lien. 
 
 See. 9. — This act shall take effect and be in force from and after 
 its passage. 
 
 Approved, December 2d, 1869. 
 
 Montana.. — An act in relation to quartz claims. 
 Be it enacted by the Legislative Assembly of the Territory of 
 
 Montana : 
 
 Sec. 1. — Any person or persons who shall hereafter discover any 
 mining claim upon any vein or lode bearing gold, silver, cinnabar, 
 lead, tin, copper or other valuable deposit, shall, within twenty' days 
 thereafter, make and file for record in the office of the recorder of 
 the county in which said discovery is made, a declaratory statement 
 thereof in writing, on oath, before some person authorized by law 
 to administer oaths, describing such claim in the manner provided 
 by the laws of the United States. 
 
 Sec. 2. — That in order to entitle any person or persons to record 
 in the county recorder's office of the proper counfy, any lead, lode 
 or ledge, there shall first be discovered on said lode, lead or ledge, 
 a vein or crevice of quartz or ore, with at least one well-defined 
 wall. 
 
 Sec. 3. — Claims on any lead, lode or ledge, bearing gold, silver, 
 cinnabar, lead, tin, copper or other valuable deposits, hereafter dis- 
 covered, shall consist of not more than fifteen hundred linear feet 
 along the lead, lode or ledge, and not more than three hundred feet, 
 and not less than twenty-five feet, on each side from the centre of 
 said lead, lode or ledge, for working purposes. Provided, That the 
 provisions of this act shall not be so construed as to include claims 
 recorded prior to the passage of this act. 
 
 Sec. 4. — All lode claims heretofore discoversd and recorded pur- 
 suant to the law, and the possessory title to which shall have been 
 preserved according to law, shall entitle the owner or owners therof 
 to surface ground along the course of the vein three hundred feet on 
 each side from the centre of said vein. Provided, That such width 
 shall not be permitted to interfere with any vested possessory rights 
 of any person or persons, corporation or corporations, which have 
 intervened and have been preserved, to the time of the taking effect 
 of this act ; but parties desiring to avail themselves hereof shall so 
 signify by a record which shall show that they so elect, or if they so 
 desire, they may limit the surface ground on each side of the centre 
 of the vein to any widtli not less than twenty-five feet. 
 
 Sec. 5. — Any person who shall remove any stake or monument 
 placed on any mining claiiu, or who shall obliterate, deface or de- 
 stroy any notice placed thereon, shall be deemed guiltv of a misde- 
 meanor, and on conviction thereof, shall be punished by fine not 
 exceeding one hundred dollars, or imprisonment not exceeding one 
 year, or both such fine and imprisonment, in the discretion of the 
 court. 
 
 Sec. 6. — All acts and parts of acts in conflict with this act are 
 hereby repealed. 
 
 Sec. 7.— This act to take effect and be in force from and after its 
 passage. 
 
 Approved Februaryll, 1876, 
 
 Sec. 40. — Statute of Limitatioiu. — No action for the recovery of 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 677 
 
 mining claims (lode claims excepted), or for tlie recovery of posses- 
 sion thereof, shall be maintained, unless it appear that the plaintiff 
 or his assigns was seized or possessed of such mining claims within 
 one year before the commencement of such action. 
 Sec. 363. — Oustoms of Proof. — In actions respecting mining claims, 
 
 firoof must be admitted of the customs, usages or regulations estab- 
 ished and in force at the bar or diggings embracing such claim ; and 
 such customs, usages or regulations, when not in conflict with the 
 laws of this territory, must govern tiie decision of the action. 
 
 Illinois. — An Act providing for the health and safety of 
 persons employed in coal mines of the State of Illinois. 
 
 Section 1. — Be it enacted by the People of the State of Illinois, rep- 
 resented in the General Assembly, That the owner, or agent, or ope- 
 rator, of each and every coal mine in this state, employing ten men 
 or more, shall make, or cause to be made, at the discretion of the 
 inspector, or person acting in that capacity, an accurate map, or 
 plan, of the workings of such coal mine, an 1 of each and every 
 vein thereof; showiu" the general inclination of the strata together 
 with any material deflections in the said worlcings, and the boun- 
 dary lines of said coal mine, and deposit a true copy of said map, 
 or plan, with the Inspector of Coal Mines, to be filed in his office, 
 and another true copy of said map or plan with the Recorder of the 
 County in which said coal mine is situated, to be filed in his office, 
 both of which said copies shall be deposited as aforesaid within 
 three months from the day when this act shall go into effect ; and 
 the original, or a copy of such map or plan, shall also be kept for 
 inspection at the office of such coal mine ; and during the month of 
 January of each and every year after this act shall go into effect, 
 the said owner, agent, or operator, shall furnish the Inspector and 
 Recorder, as aforesaid, with a statement and further map or plan 
 of the progress of the workings of such coal mine, continued from 
 the last report to tlie end of the December month just preceding ; 
 and the Inspector shall correct his map, or plan of said workings, 
 in accordance witli the statement and map or plan thus furnished ; 
 and when any coal mine is worked out or abandoned, that fact 
 shall be reported to the Inspector, and the map, oc plan, of such 
 coal mine snail be carefully corrected and verified. 
 
 Inspector may make map at Cost of Owner. — Sec. 2. — Whenever 
 the owner, agent or operator of any coal mine shall neglect or re- 
 fuse to furnish the said Inspector and Recorder, as aforesaid, with 
 the statement, the map, or plan, or addition thereto, as provided in 
 the first section of this act, at the times and in the manner therein 
 provided, the said Inspector is hereby authorized to cause an accu- 
 rate map or plan of the workings of sueh coal mine to be made at 
 the expense of said owner, agent, or operator, and the cost thereof 
 may be recovered by law from said owner, agent, or operator, in 
 the same manner, as other debts, by suit in the name of flic Inspec- 
 tor and for his use. 
 
 Escapement Shaft — Roadway — Meaning of " Owner."— Sec. 3. — 
 In all coal mines that are, or have been, in operation prior to the 
 first day of July, in the year of our Lord 1882, and which are 
 worked by, or through, a shaft, slope, or drift, and in which more 
 than ten miners are employed in each twenty-four hours, if there is 
 not already an escapement shaft to each and every said coal mine, 
 or communication between each and every coal mine, and some 
 other contiguous mine, then there shall be an escapement shaft or 
 other communication, such as shall be approved by the Mine In- 
 spector, making at least two distinct means of ingress and egress 
 for all persons employed or permitted to work in such coal mine. 
 Such escapement shaft or other communication with a contiguous 
 mine, as aforesaid sliall be constructed in connection with every 
 vein or stratum of coal worked in such mine; and the time to be 
 allowed for such construction shall be one year when such mine is 
 under one hundred (100) feet in depth ; two years when such mine 
 is over one hundred (100) feet in depth, and under three hundred 
 (300) feet; and three years when it is over three hundred (300) feet, 
 and under four hundred (400) feet; and four years when it is over 
 four hundred (400) feet in depth; and five years for all mines over 
 five hundred (500) feet, from the time this act goes into effect ; and 
 in all cases where the working force of one mine has been driven 
 up or into the workings of another mine, the respective owners of 
 such mines, while operating the same, shall keep open a roadway 
 at least two and one-half feet high and four feet wide, thereby 
 forming a communication as contemplated in this act; and for a 
 failure to do so, shall be subject to the penalty provided for in sec- 
 tion two of this act, for each and every day sucli roadway is unne- 
 cessarily closed, each and every such an escapement shaft shall be 
 separated from the main shaft by such extent of natural strata as 
 shall secure safety to the men employed in such mines ; such dis- 
 tance to be left to the discretion of the Mine Inspector, or person 
 acting in that capacity ; and in all coal mines that shall go into 
 operation for the first time after the first day of January A. D. 1883, 
 such an escapement or other communication with a contiguous 
 mine, as aforesaid, shall be constructed within one year after such 
 mine shall have been put into operation. And it sliall not he law- 
 ful for the owner, agent, or operator of any such coalmine, as 
 aforesaid, to employ any person to work therein, or permit any per- 
 son to go therein for the purpose of working, except such persons 
 as may be necessary to construct such an escapement shaft, unless 
 the requirements of this section shall have first been complied with ; 
 and the term " owner " used in this act shall mean the immediate 
 
 proprietor, lessee or occupant of any coal mine, or any part thereof, 
 and the term "agent" shall mean any person having on behalf of 
 the owner the care or management of^ any coal mine or any part 
 thereof: Provided, Nothing in this section shall be construed to 
 extend the time allowed by law for constructing escapement shafts. 
 Ventilation — Safety-Lamps. — Sec. 4. — The owner, agent or ope- 
 rator of every coal mine, whether operated by shaft, slope or drift, 
 shall provide and maintain for every such mine a sufficient amount 
 of ventilation, to be determined by the Inspector, at the rate of one 
 hundred cubic feet of air per man per minute, measured at the foot 
 of the down-cast, which shall be forced and circulated to tlie face 
 of every working place throughout the mine, so that said mine 
 shall be free from standing gas of whatsoever kind; and in all 
 mines where fire damp is generated, every working place where 
 such fire damp is known to exist shall be examined every morning 
 with a safety-lamp by a competent person, before any other persons 
 are allowed to enter. The ventilation required by this section may 
 be produced by any suitable appliances, but in case a furnace shall 
 be used for ventilating purposes, it shall be built in such a manner 
 ajs to prevent the communication of fire to any part of the works by 
 lining the upcast with incombustible material for a sufficient dis- 
 tance up from said furnace. 
 
 Bore Holes. — Sec. 5. — The owner, agent or operator shall provide 
 that bore holes shall be kept twenty feet in advance of the face of 
 each and every working place, and, if necessary, on both sides, when 
 driving towards an abandoned mine, or part of a mine, suspected to 
 contain inflammable gases, or to be inundated with water. 
 
 Signals — Hoistways — Who may be employed.— ^ec. 6.— The owner, 
 agent or operator of every coal mine operated by shaft shall provide 
 suitable means of signaling between the bottom and top thereof, and 
 shall also provide safe means of hoisting and lowering persons in a 
 cage covered with boiler iron, so as to keep safe, as far as possible, 
 persons descending into and ascending out of sueh shaft ; and such 
 cage shall be furnished with guides to conduct it on slides through 
 such shaft, with a sufficient brake on every drum to prevent acci- 
 dent in the case of the giving oat or breaking of the machinery ; and 
 such cage shall be furnished witli spring catches, intended and pro- 
 vided, as far as possible, to prevent the consequences of cable break- 
 ing or the loosening or disconnecting of the machinery; and no 
 props or rails shall be lowered in a cage while men are descending 
 and ascending out of said mine : Provided, That the provisions of 
 this section in relation to covering cages with boiler iron, shall not 
 apply to coal mines less than one hundred feet in depth, where the 
 coal is raised by horse-power. No person under the age of twelve 
 years, or females of any age, shall be permitted to enter any mine to 
 work therein, nor shall any boy under the age of fourteen, unless he 
 can read and write, be allowed to work in any mine ; any party 
 or person neglecting or refusing to perform the duties required to be 
 performed by sections 4. 5, 6, 7 and 8 shall be deemed guilty of a 
 misdemeanor, and punished by a fine in the discretion of the court 
 trying the same, subject, however, to the limitations as provided by 
 section 10 of this act. 
 
 Operating Hoistway — Competent Engineer. — Sec. 7. — No owner, 
 agent or operator of any coal mine operated by shaft or slope; shall 
 
 Elace in charge of an engine, whereby men are lowered into or 
 oisted out of the mines, any but an experienced, competent and 
 sober person not under the age of eighteen years : and no person 
 shall ride upon a loaded cage or wagon used for hoisting purposes 
 in any shaft or slope, and in no case shall more than twelve persons 
 ride on any cage or car at one time : nor shall any coal be noisted 
 out of any coal mine while persons are descending into such coal 
 mine ; and the number of persons to ascend out of or descend into 
 any coal mine on any one cage shall be determined by the Inspector, 
 maximum number so fixed shall not be less than four, nor more 
 than twelve, nor shall be lowered or hoisted more rapidly than six 
 hundred feet to the minute. 
 
 Boilers Examined — Cfincing Shaft — Safety Valves — Signals — 
 Places of Befuge. — Sec. S.^All boilers used in generating steam in 
 and about coal mines shall be kept in good order, and the agent, 
 owner or operator, aa aforesaid, shall have said boilers examined 
 and inspected by a competent boiler-maker or other qualified per- 
 son, as often as every six months, and oftener, if the Inspector shall 
 deem it necessary, and the result of every such examination shall 
 be certified in writing to the Mine Inspector ; and the top of each 
 and every shaft, and the entrance to each and every intermediate 
 working vein shall be securely fenced, by gates properly covering 
 and protecting such shaft and entrance thereto ; and the entrance 
 to every abandoned slope, air or other shaft shall be securely fenced 
 off; and every steam boiler shall be provided with a proper steam- 
 gauge, water-gauge and safety-valve ; and all undergound self-act- 
 ing or engine the planes or gangways on which coal-cars are drawn 
 and persons travel, shall be provided with some proper means of 
 signaling between the stopping places and the end of said planes or 
 gangways, and sufficient places of refuge at the sides of sucli planes 
 or gangways shall be provided at intervals of not more than twenty 
 feet apart. 
 
 Accidents — Duty of Inspectors. — Sec. 9. — Whenever loss of life or 
 serious personal injury shall occur by reason of any explosion, or 
 of any accident whatsoever, in or about any coal mine, it shall be 
 the duty of the person having charge of such coal mine to report 
 the facts thereof without delay to the Mine Inspector of the county 
 in which said coal mine is situated ; and if any person is killed 
 
678 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 thereby to notify the Coroner of the county also, or, in his absence, 
 or inability to act, any Justice of the Peace of said county ; and the 
 said Inspector shall, if he deems it necessary from the facts reported, 
 immediately go to the scene of said accident, and make such sug- 
 gestions and render such assistance as he may deem necessary for 
 the safety of the men. And the Inspector shall investigate and 
 ascertain the cause of such explosion or accident, and make a report 
 thereof, which he shall preserve with the other records of his office, 
 to enable him to make such investigations he shall have power to 
 compel the attendance of witnesses, and administer oaths or affirm- 
 ations to them ; and the cost of such investigations shall be paid by 
 the county in which such accident has occurred, in the same man- 
 ner as costs of Coroner's inquests are now paid. And the failure of 
 the person in charge of the coal mine, in which any such accident 
 may have occurred, to give notice to the Inspector or Coroner as 
 provided for in this section, shall subject such person to a fine of 
 not less than twenty-iive dollars, nor more than one hundred dol- 
 lars, to be recovered in the name of the State of Indiana, before any 
 Justice of the Peace of such county; and such fine, when collected, 
 shall be paid into the county treasury for the use of the county in 
 which such accident may have occurred. 
 
 Fines, Penalties, etc. — Sec. 10. — la all eases in which punishment 
 is provided by fine under this act for any breach of any of its pro- 
 visions, the fine for a first offense shall not be less than fifty dol- 
 lars, and not more than two hundred dollars ; and for the second 
 oflfense not less than one hundred dollars, or more than five hundred 
 dollars, in the discretion of the court — except as specially provided 
 for in section 9 of this act. 
 
 Inspectors — Oath, Bonds, Compensation — Removal. — Sec. 11. — 
 The County Board in each and every county in this State, in whic^i 
 mining is now or may be hereafter carried on, is hereby authorized, 
 and it is made its duty to appoint an Inspector of Mines at its Sep- 
 tember meeting, who shall have been a resident of the county for 
 which he is appointed for one year previous to his appointment. 
 He shall be required to enter into a bond to the County Board of 
 said county for a sura not less than one thousand dollars, nor more 
 than three thousand dollars, conditionad upon the due and faithful 
 performance of his duties, said bond to be accompanied by good 
 and sufficient security, to be approved by the said County Board. 
 He shall also take an oath of office as provided for by the constitu- 
 tion, and he shall be required to furnish satisfactory "evidence that 
 he has had sufficient practical experience in and around mines to 
 discharge the duties of said office, and to see that the provisions of 
 this act are faithfully complied with. He shall not be interested as 
 owner, stockholder, superintendent, or operator, or be interested in 
 operating any mine during his term of office, which shall be one 
 year, but he may be re-appointed as often as the County Board may 
 think proper. The County Board of such counties shall fix the 
 number of days to be employed by the County Inspector in inspect- 
 ing the different mines in his county, and enter the same upon the 
 records of said Board. He shall receive such compensation for his 
 time actually employed in the performance of the duties of his 
 office, to be verified by his affidavit, to be not less than three dol- 
 lars, nor more than five dollars per day, to be paid out of the county 
 treasury. The County Board shall "also provide an anemometer 
 and all neeessai-y instruments for testing the air, and in all cases 
 where the Inspector finds the provisions of this act, or any of them, 
 not complied with in operating any mine, it is made his duty to 
 demand, and, if necessary, compel by law, the collection from the 
 owner, or operators, of such mine all expenses of said inspection, as 
 provided in section two (2) of this act; Provided, hotvever, That in 
 all cases where the County Commissioners fail or refuse to appoint 
 a competent and experienced Inspector, or where the said Inspector 
 fails to attend to or perform the duties of his office, in accordance 
 with the meaning and intent of this act, the Circuit Court of said 
 county shall, at the request of any ten citizens of said county, and 
 upon proper proof of the incompetency or neglect of said Inspector 
 to properly perform the duties of his office, remove the said Inspec- 
 tor and appoint a properly qualified person to perform the duties of 
 said Inspector for the unexpired term. 
 
 Inspector's Duties — Statistics.— Sec. 12. — The Inspector, provided 
 for under this act, shall see that_^every necessary precaution is taken 
 to insure the health and safety'of the workmen therein employed ; 
 that the provisions and requirements of this act be faithfully ob- 
 served and obeyed and the penalties of the law enforced against all 
 who willfully disobey its requirements. Ho shall also collect and 
 tabulate the following facts, that is to say: The number of acres of 
 workable coal lands in his county; tlie number and thickness of 
 the coal beds, and their respective depths below the surface ; how 
 they are mined, whether by shaft, slope, or drift; the number of 
 mmes in operation, the number of men employed therein, and the 
 aggregate yearly production in tons; together with an estimate of 
 the amount of capital employed in coal mining in his c<iunty, and 
 any other information relative to coal mining that he may deem 
 necessary; all of whicli facts so tabulated, together witli a state- 
 ment of the condition of the mine, as to safety and ventilation, and 
 the general result of his examination into the causes of all accidents 
 in and about the coal mines of his county, he .shall fully set forth 
 in an annual report to the Governor, with'his recommendations as 
 to such other legislation on this subject as may be proper; he shall 
 also furnish such information as he inay liave obtained on this sub- 
 ject when called for by the State Geologist. 
 
 Inspection of Mines — Refusal of Owner to Permit, etc. — Sec. 13.' — 
 It shall be lawful for the Inspector, provided for in this act, to 
 enter, examine and inspect any and all coal mines and machinery 
 belonging thereto, at all reasonable times, by day or by night, but 
 so as not to obstruct or hinder the necessary workings of such coal 
 mine; and the owner, agent, or operator of every such coal mine is 
 hereby required to furnish all necessary facilities for entering upon 
 such examination and inspection ; and if the said owner, agent, or 
 operator aforesaid shall refuse to permit such inspection, or to fur- 
 nish the necessary faciltities for such entry^ examination and in- 
 spection, the Inspector shall file his affidavit, setting forth such 
 refusal, with the Judge of the Circuit Court in said county in which 
 said mine is situated, enter in term time, or vacation, or, in the 
 absence of said Judge, with the Master in Chancery in said county 
 in which said mine is situated, and obtain an order on such owner, 
 agent, or operator so refusing, as aforesaid, commanding him to 
 permit and furnish such necessary facilities for the inspection of 
 such coal mine, or to be adjudged to stand in contempt of court, 
 and punished accordingly; and if the said Inspector shall, after 
 examination of any coal mine, and the works, and machinery per- 
 taining thereto, find the same to be worked contrary to the provi- 
 sions of this act, or unsafe for the workmen therein employed, said 
 Inspector shall, through the State's attorney of his county or any 
 attorney, in case of his refusal to act, acting in the name and on 
 the behalf of the State, proceed against the owner, agent, or opera- 
 tor of such coal mine, by injunction without bond, after giving at 
 least two days' notice to such owner, agent, or operator; and said 
 owner, agent, or operator shall have the right to appear before the 
 Judge or Master to whom the application is made, who shall hear 
 the same on affidavits and such other testimony as may be ofiered 
 in support as well as in opposition thereto, and if sufficient cause 
 appear, the court, or Judge in vacation, by order, shall prohibit the 
 further working of any such coal mine in which persons may be 
 unsafely employed, contrary to the provisions of this act, until the 
 same shall have been made eafe and the requirements of this act 
 shall have been complied with, and the court shall award such 
 costs in the matter of the said injunction as may be just; but any 
 such proceedings so commenced shall be without prejudice to any 
 other remedy permitted bj law for enforcing the provisions of this act. 
 
 Injuries — Remedies in favor of Widow, etc. — Sec. 14.^ — For anv 
 injury to person or property occasioned by any willful violations of 
 this act, or willful failure to comply with any of its provisions, a 
 right of action shall accrue to the party injured for any direct dam- 
 ages su.'itained thereby, and in case of "loss of life, by reason of such 
 willful violation or willful failure, as aforesaid, a right of action 
 Bhall accrue to the widow of the person so killed, his lineal heirs, 
 or adopted children, or to any other person or persons who were, 
 before such loss of life, dependent for support on the person or 
 persons so killed, for a like recovery of damages for the injuries 
 sustained by reason of such loss of life or lives. 
 
 Conduct of Miners — Injuries to Machinery — Disobedience, etc. — 
 Sec. 15. Any miner, workman, or other person, whoshall knowingly 
 injure any water gauge, barometer, air course or brattice, or shall 
 obstruct, throw open any air-ways, or carry any lighted lamps or 
 matches into places that are worked by the light of safety lamps, or 
 shall handle or disturb any part of the machinery of the hoisting 
 engine, or open a door in the mine and not have the same closed 
 again, whereby danger is produced either to the mine or those at 
 work therein ; or who shall enter into any part of the mine against 
 caution ; or who shall disobey any order given in pursuance of this 
 act ; or who shall do any willful act whereby the lives and health of 
 persons working in the mine, or the security of the mine or miners, 
 f r the machinery thereof, is endangered, shall be deemed guilty of 
 a misdemeanor, and upon conviction shall be punished by fine or 
 imprisonment, at the discretion of the court. 
 
 Timber for Props, etc.— Sec. 16. The owner, agent, or onerator 
 of any coal mine shall keep a sufficient supply of timber where 
 required to be used as props, so that the workmen may at all tiines 
 be able to properly secure the said workings from caving in ; and it 
 shall be the duty of the owner, agent, or operator to send down all 
 such props when required. 
 
 Repeal.— Sec. 17. All acts or parts of acts inconsistent with the 
 provisions of this act are hereby repealed. 
 
 Ohio.— The following now (May 14, I88I) forms the law 
 of the State : 
 
 Sec. 200.— The inspector of mines shall be appointed by the gover- 
 nor, liv and with the advice and consent of the senate,and shall hold 
 his office for four years; and no person shall be appointed unless 
 lu' is possessed of a competent knowledge of chemistry, geology, 
 and mineralogy, and has a practical knowledge of mining engineer- 
 ini;, and of the different systems of working and ventilating coal 
 mines, and of the nature and properties of the noxious and poison- 
 ous gases of mines, particularly fire damp. 
 
 . Sec. 2!ll.— Before entering upon the discharge of the duties of 
 the office, the inspector shall give bond to the state in the sum of 
 five thousand dollars, with sureties, to bo approved by the gover- 
 nor, conditioned for the faithful performance of his duties ; the 
 bond, with his oath of office, and approval of the governor endorsed 
 thei-con, shall be forthwith deposited with the secretary of state. 
 
 Sec. 292.— The inspector shall give his whole time and attention 
 to the duties of his office, and shall examine all mines in the state, 
 
THE MINES, MIXERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 679 
 
 as oftea as his other duties will permit, to see that the provisions of 
 this chapter are obeyed ; and the inspector may enter, inspect and 
 examine any mine in the state, and the works and machinery be- 
 longing thereto, at all reasonable times, by night or by day, but so 
 as not to unneeessariljf obstruct or impede the working of the mine, 
 and to make inquiry into the state and condition of the mine, as to 
 ventilation and general security ; and the owner and agent of such 
 mine are hereby required to furnish the means necessary for such 
 entry and inspection, of which inspection the Inspector shall make 
 a record, noting the time and all the material circumstances ; and 
 the person having charge of any mine, whenever loss of life occurs 
 by accident connected with the working of such mine, or by explo- 
 sion, shall give notice forthwith, by mail or otherwise, to the inspec- 
 tor of mines, and to the coroner of the county in which such mine 
 is situated, who shall hold an inquest upon the body of the person 
 or persons whose death has been caused, and inquire care- 
 fully into the cause thereof, and shall return a copy of the finding 
 and all the testimony to the inspector. 
 
 Sec. 293. The inspector, while in oifice, shall not act as an 
 agent, or as a manager, or minin," engineer, or be interested in 
 operating any mine; and he shall annually make report to the 
 governor of his proceedings and the condition and operation of the 
 mines of the state, enumerating all accidents in or about the same, 
 and giving all such other information as he thinks useful and pro- 
 per, and making such suggestions as he deems important as to 
 further legislation on the subject of mining. 
 
 Sec. 294. — The inspector snail have an office in the state house, 
 in which shall be carefully kept the maps and plans of all mines 
 in the state, and all records and correspondence papers, and ap- 
 paratus, and property pertaining to his duties, belonging to the 
 state, and which shall be handed over to his successor in office. 
 
 Sec. 295. — There shall be provided for the inspector all instru- 
 ments and chemical tests necessary for the discharge of his duties 
 under this chapter, which shall be paid for on the certificate of 
 inspector, and which shall belong to the state. 
 
 Sec. 296. — The owner or agent of every coal mine, shall make, or 
 cause to be made, an accurate map or plan of the working of such 
 mine, on a scale of not less than one hundred feet to the inch, show- 
 ing the area mined or excavated, ani the location and connection 
 with such excavation of the mine of the lines of all adjoining lauds, 
 and the name or names of each owner or owjiers, so rar as known, 
 marked on each tract, a true c jpy of which map the owner or agent 
 shall deposit with the inspector, and another copy of which shall 
 be kept at the office of such mine ; and the owner or agent shall, 
 every four months thereafter, file with the inspector a statement 
 and plan of the workings of such mine up to that date, which state- 
 ment and plan shall be so prepared as to enable the inspector to 
 mark the same on the original map or plan herein required to be 
 made , and in case of refusal on the part of the owner or agent to 
 make and file the map or plan, or the addition thereto, the inspector 
 is authorized to cause an accurate map or plan of the whole of said 
 mine to be made, at the expense of the owner thereof, the cost of 
 which shall be recoverable against the owner, in the name of the 
 person or persons making the map or plan, which shall be made in 
 duplicate, one copy being delivered to the inspector and the other 
 left in the office of the mine : and he shall, on Deing paid the proper 
 cost thereof, on demand of any person interested in the working of 
 such mine, or owner of adjoining lands, furnish an accurate copy of 
 any map or plan of the working of sucli mine. 
 
 Sec. 297. — It is unlawful for the owner or agent of any coal mine 
 worked by a shaft, wherein over fifteen thousand square yards have 
 been excavated, to employ or permit any person to work therein, 
 unless there are, to every seam of coal worked in each mine, at least 
 two separate outlets, separated by natural strata of not less than one 
 hundred feet in breadth, by which shaft or outlets distinct means of 
 injress and egress are always available to the persons employed in 
 the mine ; but it is not necessary for the two outlets to belong to 
 the same mine ; the second outlet need not be made until fifteen 
 thousand yards have been excavated in such mine ; and to all other 
 coal mines, whether slopes or drifts, two such openings or outlets 
 must be provided within twelve months after fifteen thousand yards 
 have been excavated therein ; and in case such outlets are not pro- 
 vided as herein stipulated, it shall not be lawful for agent or owner 
 of such mine to permit more than ten persons to work therein at any 
 one time. In case a coal mine has but one shaft, slope, or drift, for 
 the ingress or egress of the men working therein, and the owner 
 thereof does not own suitable surface-ground for another opening, 
 he may select and appropriate any adjoining land for that purpose 
 and for approach thereto, and shall be governed in his proceeding 
 in appropriating such land by the provisions of law in force provid- 
 ing for the appropriation of private property by corporations, and 
 such appropriations may be made, whether he is a corporator or 
 not ; but no land shall be appropriated under the provisions of this 
 chapter until the court is satisfied that suitable premises cannot be 
 obtained by contract on reasonable terms. 
 
 Sec. 298. — The owner or agent of every coal mine, whether shaft, 
 sbpe, or drift, shall provide and maintain for every such mine, an 
 amount of ventilation of not less than 100 cubic feet,_ per minute, 
 par person employed in such mine, which shall be circulated and 
 distributed throughout the mine in such a manner as to dilute, 
 render harmless, and expel the poisonous and noxiouf gases from 
 each and every working-place "in the mine, and no working- place 
 
 shall be driven more than 120 feet in advance of a break-through, 
 or air-way, and all break-throughs, or air-ways, except those last 
 made near the working-faces of the mine, shall be closed up and 
 made air-tight, by brattice, trap-doors, or otherwise, so that the 
 currents of air in circulation in the mine may sweep to the interior 
 of the mine, where the persons employed in such mine are at work, 
 and all mines governed by the statutes shall be provided with arti- 
 ficial means of producing ventilation, such as forcing, or suction 
 fans, exhaust steam, furnaces, or other contrivances, of such capa- 
 city and power, as to produce and maintain an abundant supply of 
 air, and all mines generating fire-damp shall be kept free from 
 standing gas, and every working-place shall be carefully examined, 
 every morning, with a safety-Jamp, by a competent person, or per- 
 sons, before any of the workmen are allowed to enter the mine. 
 
 Sec. 299. — The owner or agent of every coal mine operated by 
 shaft, in all cases where human voice cannot be distinctly heard, 
 shall, forlbwith, provide and maintain a metal tube from tlie top 
 to the bottom of such shaft, suitably calculated for the free passage 
 of sound therein, so that conversation may be held between persons 
 at the bottom and top of the shaft: and there .shall also be provided 
 an approved safety-catch, and a sufficient cover overhead, on all 
 carriages used for lowering and hoisting persons, and in the top of 
 every shaft an improved safety-gate, and ah adequate brake shall 
 be attached to every drum or machine used for lowering or raising 
 persons in all shafts or slopes. 
 
 Sec. 300. — No owner or agent of any coal mine operated by a 
 shaft or slope shall place in charge of any engine used for lowering 
 into or hoisting out of such mine persons employed therein, any but 
 experienced, competent, and sober engineers ; and no engineer in 
 charge of such engine shall allow any person, except such aS may 
 be deputed for that purpose, by the owner or agent, to interfere 
 with it or any part of the machinery, and no person shall interfere 
 or in any way intimidate the engineer in the discharge of his duties: 
 and in no case shall more than ten men ride on any cage or car at 
 any one time, and no person shall ride upon a loaded cage or car in 
 any shaft or slope 
 
 Sec. 301. — All safety-lamps used for examining coal mines, or which 
 are used in any coal mine, shall be the property of the owner of the 
 mine, and shall be under the charge of the agent thereof, and in all 
 mines, whether they generate fire-damp or not, the doors used in 
 assisting or directing the ventilation of the mine, shall be so hung 
 and adjusted that they will shut of their own accord and cannot 
 stand open, and the mining boss shall keep a careful watch over 
 the ventilating apparatus and the airways, and he shall measure 
 the ventilation at least once a week, at the inlet and outlet, and also 
 at or near the face of all the entries, and the measurements of air so 
 made shall be noted on blanks, furnished by the mine inspector: 
 and on the first day of each month, the mining boss of each mine 
 shall sign one of such blanks, properly filled, with the said actual 
 measurements, and forward same to the mine inspector. 
 
 Sec. 302. — No boy under twelve years of age shall be allowed to 
 work in any mine, nor any minor between the ages of twelve and 
 sixteen years, unless he can read and write, and in all cases of 
 miners applying for work, the agent of such mine shall see that the 
 Ijrovisions of this section are not violated. 
 
 Sec. 303. — In case any coal mine does not, in appliances for the 
 safety of the persons working therein, conform to the provisions of 
 this chapter, or the owner or agent disregards the requirements of 
 this chapter, any court of competent jurisdiction may, on applica- 
 tion of the inspector, by civil action in the name of the state, enjoin 
 or restrain the owner or agent from working or operating such mine, 
 with more than ten miners at once, until it is made to conform to 
 the provisions of this chapter ; and such remedy shall be cumula- 
 tive, and shall not take the place of or afi^ect any other proceedings 
 against such owner or agent authorized by law for the matter com- 
 plained of in such action. 
 
 Sec. 304. When written charges of gross neglectof duty or mal- 
 feasance in office against any inspector are made and filed with the 
 governor, signed by not less than fifteen coal miners, or one or more 
 operators of mines, together with a bond in the sum of five hundred 
 dollars, payable to the state, and signed by two or more responsible 
 free-holders, and conditioned for the payment of all costs and ex- 
 penses arising from the investigation of such charges, the governor 
 shall convene a board of examiners, to consist of two practical coal 
 miners, one chemist, one mining engineer, and one operator, at such 
 time and place as he deems best, giving ten days' notice to the in- 
 spector or against whom the charges are made, and also to the per- 
 son whose name appears first in the charges, and the board, when 
 so convened, and having been first duly sworn, truly to try and de- 
 cide the charges made, shall summon any witnesses so desired by 
 either party, and examine them on oath, which may be adminis- 
 tered by any member of the board, and depositions may be read on 
 such examination, as in other cases ; and the board shall examine 
 fully into the truth of such charges, and report the result of their 
 investigation to the governor ; and the board shall award the costs 
 and expenses of such investigation against the in.spector or the per- 
 sons signing the bond according to their finding, against said in- 
 spector or in his favor, which costs and expenses shall include 
 the compensation of such board, of five dollars per day for each 
 member, for the time occupied in the trial, and in traveling from 
 and to their homes ; and the attorney-general shall forthwith pro- 
 ceed to collect such costs and expenses, and pay the same into the 
 
680 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 state treasury, being in the first instance paid out of the state treas- 
 ury, on the certificate of the president of such board. 
 
 Sec. 305. — In all coal mines in the state, the miners employed and 
 working therein, the owners of the land or other persons interested 
 in the rental or royalty of any such mine, shall at all proper times 
 have full right of access and examination of all scales, machinery 
 or apparatus used in or about such mine to determine the quantity 
 of coal mined, for the purpose of testing the accuracy and correct- 
 ness of all such scales, machinery or apparatus ; and such miners, 
 landowners, or other persons, may designate or appoint a competent 
 person to act for them, who shall at all proper times hare full right 
 of access and examination of such scales, machinery or apparatus, 
 and seeing all weights and measure of coal mined, and the accounts 
 kept of the same ; but not more than one person on behalf of the 
 miners collectively, or one person on behalf of the landowners or 
 other persons interested in the rental or royalty jointly, shall have 
 such right of access, examination and inspection of scales, weights, 
 measures and accounts at the same time, and that such persons shall 
 make no unnecessary interference with the use of such scales, ma- 
 chinery or apparatus ; and the miners employed in any mine may, 
 from time to time, appoint two of their number to act as a commit- 
 tee to inspect not ofteuer than once in every month, the mine and 
 the machinery connected therewith, and to measure the ventilating 
 current, and if the owner, agent, or manager so desires, he may ac- 
 company said committee by himself or two or more persons which he 
 may appoint for that purpose ; the owner, agent or manager shall 
 afford every necessary facility for making such inspection and 
 measurement, but the committee shall not in any way interrupt or 
 impede the work going on in the mine at the time of such inspec- 
 tion and measurement, and said committee shall, within ten days 
 after such inspection and measurement, make a correct report there- 
 of to the inspector of mines, on blanks to be furnished by said in- 
 spector for that purpose ; and if such committee make to the inspec- 
 tor a false or untrue report of the mines, such act shall constitute a 
 violation of this section. 
 
 Sec. 306. — The provisions of this chapter shall not apply to or af- 
 fect any coal mine in which not more than ten men are employed 
 at the same time ; but on the application of the proprietor of or 
 miners in any such mine, the inspector shall make, or cause to be 
 made, an inspection of such mine, and shall direct and enforce any 
 regulations in accordance with the provisions of this chapter that 
 he deems necessary for the safety of the health and lives of miners. 
 
 Sec. 306 (a). — The inspector of mines may, with the approval of 
 the governor, appoint an assistant, who shall be a practical miner 
 of not less than five years' experience, and who shall perform such 
 duties as may be required by the inspector, and receive a salary at 
 the rate of twelve hundred dollars ($1,200 00) per annum, and the 
 inspector may, with the consent of the governor, remove such assist- 
 ant at pleasure and appoint a successor, and may allow the 'assistant 
 traveling expenses out of his contingent fund. 
 
 Sec. 6871. — Whoever knowingly violates any of the provisions of 
 sections two hundred and ninety-eight, two hundred and ninety- 
 nine, three hundred, three hundred and one, three hundred and 
 two, and three hundred and five, of the revised statutes, or does any 
 act whereby the lives or health of the persons or the security of any 
 mine and machinery are endangered, or any miner or other person 
 employed in any mine governed by the statute, who intentionally 
 and willfully neglects or refuses to securely prop the roof of any 
 working place under his control, or neglects" or refuses to obey any 
 order given by the superintendent of a mine in relation to the se- 
 curity of the mine in the part thereof where he is at work, and for 
 fifteen feet back from the face of his working place, shall be fined 
 not more than fifty dollars or imprisoned in the county jail not more 
 than thirty days, or both. 
 
 Pennsylvania. — An Act providing the means for secur- 
 ing the health and safety of persons employed in the bitu- 
 minous coal mines of Pennsylvania. 
 
 Sec. 1. — Be it enacted, etc., That the owner or agent of every bi- 
 tuminous coal mine or colliery, shall make, or cause to be made, 
 within six months after the passage of this act, an accurate map or 
 plan of the workings of such coal mine or colliery, on a scale not 
 exceeding one hundred feet to the inch, and showing the bearing 
 and distances, which shall be kept for the use of flie inspector, 
 in the office at the mine of said coal mine or colliery; and said 
 owner, or agent shall cause, on or before the tenth day of January 
 in every year, a plan of the progress of the workings of such coal 
 mine during the year past, to be marked on the original map or 
 plan of the said coal mine or colliery^ and the inspector sliall have 
 the right at all times to have possessron of any such map or plan at 
 the mines to draw a copy therefrom for his own convenience : Pro- 
 vided, If the owner or agent of any coal mine shall neglect or refuse, 
 or from any cause fail, for the period of two months after the time 
 prescribed, to furnish the said map or plan, as hereby required, or 
 if the inspector shall find, or have reason to believe that any map 
 or plan of any coal mine furnished in pursuance of the provisions 
 of this act is materially inaccurate or imperfect, he is hereby au- 
 thorized to cause a correct map or plan of the actual workings of 
 said coal mine to be made at the expense of the owner thereof, the 
 cost of which shall be recoverable from said owner, as other debts 
 are recoverable by law ; Provided, That if the map or plan, which 
 he claimed to be incorrect, shall prove to have been correct, then 
 
 aforesaid expenses shall be paid by the said inspector and may be 
 recovered from him in like manner. 
 
 Sec. 2. — It shall not be lawful, after six months from the passage 
 of this act, for the owner or agent of any bituminous coal mine to 
 employ any person at work within said coal mine, or permit any 
 person to be in said coal mine for the purpose of working therein, 
 unless they are in communication with at least two openings sepa- 
 rated by natural strata of not less than one hundred and fifty feet 
 in breadth, if the mine be worked by shaft or slope, and of not less 
 than twenty-four feet, if the mine be worked by drift : Provided, If 
 the mine be worked by drift, two openings, inclusive of air shaft, 
 shall only be required, if the air shaft can be used for ingress 
 and egress in case of emergency ; and that not more than twenty 
 persons shall be employed in the mine at any one time after the 
 expiration of the six months until the second opening shall be 
 reached and made available; and in case of furnace ventilation 
 being used before the second opening is reached, the furnace shall 
 not be placed within forty feet of the foot of the shaft, and shall be 
 well secured from danger from fire by brick or stone walls of sufii- 
 cient thickness, and the mine while being driven for making and per- 
 fecting a second opening; the owner or agent shall provide and 
 maintain a metal tube from the top to the bottom of the slope or 
 shaft, suitably adapted to the free passage of sound, through which 
 conversation may be held between persons at the bottom and at the 
 top of the shaft or slope; also, the ordinary means of signalling to 
 and from the top and bottom of the shaft or slope, and an approved 
 safety-catch, and sufficient cover overhead on every carriage used 
 for. lowering and hoisting persons ; and the said owner or agent 
 shall see that sufficient flanges or horns are attached to the sides of 
 the drum of every machine that is used for lowering and hoisting 
 persons in and out of the mine, and also that adequate brakes are 
 attached thereto ; the main link attached to the swivel of the wire 
 rope shall be made of the best quality of iron, and shall be tested 
 by weights, or otherwise satisfactory to the inspector of mines of 
 the district, and bridle chains shall be attached to the main link 
 from the cross pieces of the carriage, and no single link chain shall 
 be used for lowering or raising persons into or out of said mine, and 
 not more than six persons shall be lowered or hoisted by the ma- 
 chinery at any one time ; and only sober, competent and experi- 
 enced engineers shall be employed. 
 
 Sec. 3. — When a second opening is made, one opening shall be 
 set apart exclusively for purposes of ingress and egress, and shall 
 not be clogged or obstructed with machinery, pumps or currents of 
 heated air or steam ; if the opening is a shaft it shall be fitted with 
 safe and convenient stairs, at anangleof notmore than sixty degrees 
 descent, and with landings at easy and convenient distances ; all 
 water coming from the surface or out of the strata in the shaft shall 
 be conducted by rings or otherwise to be prevented from falling 
 down the shaft so as to wet persons who are ascending and descend- 
 ing the stairway of the shaft ; if the opening is a slope, it shall be 
 provided with safe and available traveling ways. 
 
 Sec. 4. — The owner or agent of every bituminous coal mine, 
 whether shaft, slope or drift, shall within six months after the pas- 
 sage of this act, provide, and thereafter maintain for every such 
 mine, ample means of ventilation, alfording one hundred cubic feet 
 per minute for each and every person employed in said mine, which 
 shall be circulated around the main headings and cross headings to 
 an extent that will dilute, carry off and render harmless the noxious 
 gases generated therein ; and all mines generating fire-damp shall 
 be kept free of standing gas, and every working place shall be care- 
 fully examined every morning with a safety-lamp by a competent 
 person before any workmen are allowed to enter. 
 
 Sec. 5. — In order to better secure the proper ventilation of every 
 coal mine and promote the health and safety of the persons em- 
 ployed therein, the owner or agent shall employ a competent and 
 practical inside overseer, to be called mining boss, who shall keep a 
 careful watch over the ventilating apparatus, the air ways, travel- 
 ing-ways, pumps and pump-timbers, and drainage, and shall see 
 that, as the miners advance their excavations, all loose coal, slate 
 and rock overhead are careful! v secured against falling in or upon 
 the traveling ways, and that sufeeient timber is furnished of suitable 
 lengths and sizes for the places where tliey are to be used, and 
 placed in the working places of the miners; and it shall also be 
 the duty of the mining boss to measure the air current, at least once 
 a week ; at the inlet and outlet and at or near the face of the head- 
 ings, and keep a record of such measurements, and report the same 
 to the Inspector of his district once in every month; the safety- 
 lamps used for examining mines or which may be used in working 
 therein, shall be furnished by and be the property of the owner of 
 said mines, and shall be in the charge of the agent of such mines; 
 and in all mines generating explosive gases, the doors used in as- 
 sisting or directing the ventilation of the mine shall be so hung and 
 adjusted that they will close themselves, or be supplied with springs 
 or pulleys so they cannot be left standing open ; and bore-holes shall 
 be kept not less than twelve feet in advance of the face of every 
 working place; and, when necessary, on the sides, if the same is 
 driven towards and in dangerous proximity to an abandoned mine 
 or jiart of a mine suspected of containing inflammable gases, or 
 which is inundated with water. 
 
 Sec. 6 —Any miners, workmen or other person who shall intention- 
 ally injure any shaft, lamp, instrument, air-course, or brattice or ob- 
 struct or throw open air-ways, or carry lighted pipes or matehcsinto 
 
THE MINES, MINEUS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 681 
 
 place that are worked by safety-lamps, or handle or disturb any part 
 of the machinery, or open a door and not close it again, or enter 
 any place of the mine against caution, or disobey any order giv- 
 en in carrying out the provisions of this act, or do any other act 
 whereby the lives or the health of persons, or the security of the 
 mines or the machinery, is endangered, shall be deemed guilty of a 
 misdemeanor, and may be punished in the manner provided in the 
 sixteenth section of this act; all machinery about mines shall be 
 properly fenced off. and the top of each shaft and the entrance of 
 every abandoned slope and air or other shaft shall be securely 
 fenced off; and there shall be cut in the side of every hoisting shaft 
 at the bottom thereof a traveling-way sufficiently high and wide to 
 enable persons to pass the shaft in going from one side of the mine 
 to the other, without passing over or under the cage or other hoist- 
 ing apparatus. 
 
 Sec. 7. — If any person, firm or corporation is, or hereafter shall be, 
 seized in his or their own right of coal lands, and it shall not be 
 practicable to comply with the requirements of this act in regard to 
 drainage and ventilation, by means of openings on his or their own 
 land, and the same can be done by means of openings on adjacent 
 lands, he or they may apply by petition to the court of quarter ses- 
 sions of the proper county, after ten days' notice to the owner or 
 owners, their agent or attorney, setting forth the facts under oath 
 or affirmation, particularly describing the place or places where 
 such opening or openings can be made, and that he or they cannot 
 agree with the owner or owners of the land as to the amount to br; 
 paid for the privilege of making such opening or openings ; here- 
 upon the said court shall appoint three disinterested and competent 
 citizens of the county to view the grounds designated, and lay out 
 from the point or points mentioned in such petition a passage or 
 passages for air and water, not more than sixteen feet in diameter, 
 by the shortest and most convenient route to the coal of such per- 
 son, firm or corporation preferring in all cases an opening through 
 the coal strata where the same is practicable ; the said viewers shall 
 at the same time assess the damages to be paid by the petitioner or 
 petitioners to the owner or owners of such land for the privilege of 
 making said openings, which damages shall be fully paid before, 
 such opening is made; it shall be the duty of said viewers to give 
 notice oy at least three written or printed hand-bills, posted on the 
 premises at least five days prior to the cime of meeting to attend to 
 the duties of their appointment, setting forth distinctly the time, 
 place and object of their meeting, and also to give personal notice 
 to the parties, their agents and attorneys, where it can be done, and 
 shall within thirty days after their appointment make report of 
 their proceedings to said court, stating the amount of damages 
 awarded, accompanied by a map or plan of said openings ; and if 
 no appeal be taken to said court within ten days after notice to the 
 opposite party in interest of the filing thereof, it shall be marked 
 confirmed by the clerk, and the petitioner or petitioners may pro- 
 C38d to make said opening or openings ; the pay, of the viewers and 
 other costs shall be the same as in road cases, and shall be paid by 
 the petitioner or petitioners. 
 
 Sec. 8. — As soon as practicable after the passage of this act, the 
 persons exercising the office of presiding judge of each of the sev- 
 eral courts of common pleas in the Fifth, Tenth, and Fourth judi- 
 cial districts, shall appoint one reputable' miner of known experi- 
 ence and in practice at the time, (in the Fifth district the president 
 judge of the court of common pleas number one shall make said 
 appointment), and the Governor shall appoint two mining engineers 
 of like repute and experience and practice at the time, who shall 
 constitute -a board of five examiners, whose duty it shall be to in- 
 quire into the character and qualifications of candidates for the office, 
 of inspector of mines under the provisions of this act. The exam- 
 iners first appointed, in pursuance of this section, shall meet in the 
 city of Pittsburg, on the fifteenth day of May next, and after being 
 duly organized, having taken and subscribed before any officer 
 authorized to administer the same, the following oath, namely : 
 " We, the undersigned, do solemnly swear (or affirm) that we will 
 perform the duties of examiners of applicants for appointment as 
 inspectors of bituminous coal mines to the best of our abilities, and 
 that in recommending or rejecting said applicants we will be 
 governed by the evidence of qualification to fill the position, under 
 the law creating the same, and not by any consideration of political 
 or other personal favors; that we will certify all whom we may 
 find qualified, according to the true intent and meaning of the act, 
 and none others, to the best of our judgments : " shall proceed to 
 the examination of those who may present themselves as candi- 
 dates for said office ; and they shall certify to the Governor the 
 names of all such applicants as they shall find competent to fill the 
 office, under the provisions of this act, which names, with the cer- 
 tificate and the oath of the examiners, shall be mailed to the Secre- 
 tary of the commonwealth, to be filed in his office, and shall be valid 
 when recommended by four of the examining board. The qualifi- 
 cations of candidates for said office of inspector of mines, to be in- 
 quired into and certified by said examiners, shall be as follows, 
 namely : They shall be citizens of the United States, of temperate 
 habits, of good repute as men of personal integrity, shall have attained 
 the age of thirty years, and shall have had at least five years experi- 
 enc3 in the workings of the bituminous coal mines of Pennsylvania, 
 and upon the examination they shall give evidence of such theoreti- 
 cal, as well as practical knowledge of the working of coal mines 
 and noxious gases, as will satisfy the examiners of their capability 
 
 and fitness for the performance of the duties imposed upon inspec- 
 tors of mines bv the provisions of this act. The board of examiners 
 shall, also, at tneir said meeting, divide the bituminous coal coun- 
 ties of the State into three inspection districts, as nearly equal in 
 regard to the labor to be performed as is possible, taking into con- 
 sideration the number of mines and the extent of territory; at 
 every subsequent calling of the board of examiners this division 
 may be revised as experience may prove to be advisable. The 
 board of examiners shall each receive five dollars per day and all 
 necessary expenses, to be paid out of the State treasury, upon the 
 filing of the certificates of the examining board, in the office of the 
 Secretary of the Commonwealth, as herein before provided. The 
 Governor shall, from the names so certified, appoint one person to 
 be inspector of mines, for each district, as fixed by the examiners in 
 pursuance of the act, whose commission shall be for fouryears, to be 
 computed fi-om the fifteenth day of May next. As often as vacancies 
 occur, by death, resignation, or otherwise, in said offices of inspectors 
 of mines, the Governor shall fill the same, by appointment, for the 
 unexpired term, from the names on file in the office of the Secretary 
 of the Commonwealth, until the number shall be exhausted ; and 
 whenever this shall occur, the Governor shall cause the aforesaid 
 board of examiners to meet, who shall examine persons that may 
 present themselves for the vacant office of inspector, in the same 
 manner as herein provided, and the board of examiners shall certify 
 to the Governor one person, to be commissioned by him for the 
 office of inspector for the unexpired term ; and any vacancies that 
 may occur in the examining board shall be filled in the district 
 where the vacancy occurred. And every four years the Governor 
 shall appoint two mining engineers asf before, and shall notify 
 the person exercising the office of president judge of the courts of 
 comiuon pleas of three of the judicial districts of the State, con- 
 taining bituminous coal mines, selecting them in such order as to 
 allow each district an equal share of such appointments, each to 
 appoint one miner, and the five so appointed shall constitute a new 
 board of examiners, whose duties, terms of service, and compensa- 
 tion, and vacancies that may happen, shall be the same as those first 
 provided for by this section, and from the names that may be certified 
 by them, the Governor shall appoint the inspectors provided for in 
 this act. Nothing in this act shall be construed to prevent the re-ap- 
 pointment of any inspector of bituminous mines. The inspectors 
 of mines shall each receive, for their services, an annual salary of 
 two thousand dollars, to be paid quarterly, by the State Treasurer, 
 and they shall each reside in the district for which they shall be 
 appointed. Each inspector is hereby authorized to procure such 
 instrument and chemical tests and stationery, from time to time, 
 as may be necessary to the proper discharge of his duties, under 
 this act, at the expense of the State, which shall be paid by the 
 State Treasurer, upon aceountB duly certified by him, and audited 
 by the proper department of the State. All instruments, plans, 
 book memoranda, notes, et cetera, pertaining to the office, shall be 
 the property of the State, and shall be delivered to their successors 
 in office. 
 
 Sec. 9.— Each inspector of bituminous coal mines shall, before 
 entering upon the discharge of his duties, give bond in the sum of 
 five thousand dollars, with sureties, to be approved by the president 
 judge of the district in which he resides, conditioned for the Mth- 
 ful discharge of his duty, and take an oath (or affirmation) to 
 discharge his duties impaortially, and with fidelity, to the best of his 
 knowledge and ability. 
 
 Sec. 10. — No person, who shaU act as a manager or agent of any 
 coal mine, or as a mining engineer, or be interested in oper- 
 ating any coal mine, shall, at the same time, act as inspector of coal 
 mines, under this act. 
 
 Sec. 11. — For any injury to person or property, occasioned by any 
 violation of this act, or any wilful failure to comply with its pro- 
 visions by any owner, lessee or operator of any coal mine or open- 
 ing, a right of action, against the party at fault, shall accrue to the 
 party injured for the direct damage sustained thereby; and in 
 any case of loss of lite, by reason of such violation or willful fail- 
 ure, a right of action, against the party at fault, shall accrue to the 
 widow and lineal heirs of the person whose lifeshall be lost, for like 
 recovery of damages for the injury they shall have sustained. 
 
 Sec. 12. — The inspectors of bituminous coai mines shall each de- 
 vote the whole of his time to the duties of his office; it shall be his 
 duty to examine the mines in his district as often as possible 
 to see that all the provisions of this act are observed and strictly 
 carried out ; and he shall make a record of all examinations of 
 mines, showing the condition in which he finds them, the number 
 of mines in his district, the number of persons employed in and 
 about each mine, the extent to which the law is obeyed, the pro- 
 gress made in the improvement sought to be secured by the passage 
 of this act, the number of accidents and deaths resulting from in- 
 juries received in the mines, and all other facts of public interest 
 concerning the condition and progress of mining m his district 
 which record shall, on or before the first Monday of each month| 
 together with all matters and things furnished him in accordance 
 with the provisions of this act, be filed in the office of the Secre- 
 tary of Internal Affairs, to be by him recorded and included in 
 the annual report of his department; he shall also, from the time 
 of his commission, make strict and careful inquiry and examina- 
 tion into the condition of the ventilation and drainage of the 
 mines. ^' 
 
682 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Sec. 13. — That the inspectors may be enabled to perform the du- 
 ties herein imposed upon them, they shall have the right at all 
 times to enter any bituminous coal mine to make examination or 
 obtain information ; they shall notify the owners, lessees, or agents 
 immediately of the discovery of any violations of this act and of the 
 penalty imposed thereby for such violation, and in case of such no- 
 tice being disregarded for the space of ten days, they shall institute 
 a prosecution against the owner, owners, agent, or lessee of the 
 mine, under the provisions of section sixteen of this act ; in any 
 case, however, where, in the judgment of the inspector of either 
 district, delay may jeopardize life or limb, he shall at once notify 
 the inspectors of the other districts, whereupon they shall at once 
 proceed to the mine or colliery where the danger exists, and exam- 
 ine into the matter, and if, after full investigation thereof, they 
 shall be agreed in the opinion that there is immediate danger, they 
 shall apply, in the name of the commonwealth, to the court of com- 
 mon pleas of the county in which the mine may be located, for an 
 injunction to suspend all work in and about such mine or colliery; 
 whereupon, said court, if the cause appear to be sufficient, after 
 hearing the parties and their evidence as in like cases, shall issue 
 their writ to restrain the working of said mine or colliery until all 
 cause of danger is removed ; and the cost of said proceedings, in- 
 cluding the charges of attorney prosecuting said application, shall 
 be borne by the owner of the mine or colliery : Provided, that no 
 fee exceeding the sum of tweuty-five dollars shall be taxed in any 
 one case for the attorney prosecuting such case ; Provided further, 
 that if said court shall find the cause not sufficient, then the ease 
 shall be dismissed, and the cost shall be borne by the inspector 
 instituting the proceeding, or the county, at the discretion of the 
 court. 
 
 Sec. 14. — yfh^Tieiret, by reason of any explosion or other accident 
 in any bituminous coal mine or the machinery connected therewith, 
 loss of life or serious personal injury shall occur, it shall be the 
 duty of the person having charge of such mine or colliery to give 
 notice thereof forthwith to the inspector of the district, and if any 
 person is killed thereby, to the coroner of the county, who shall 
 give due notice of the inquest to be held ; it shall be the duty of the 
 inspector, upon being notified as herein provided, to immediately 
 repair to the scene of the accident and make such suggestions as 
 may appear necessary to secure the future safety of the men ; and 
 if the results of the explosion do not require an investigation by 
 the coroner, he shall proceed to investigate and ascertain the cause 
 of the explosion or accident, and make a record thereof, which he 
 shall file as provided for ; and to enable him to make the investiga- 
 tion, he shall have power to compel the attendance of persons to 
 testify, and to administer oaths or affirmations ; the cost of such 
 investigation shall be paid by the county in which the accident oc- 
 curred, in the same manner as costs of inquests held by the coroners 
 or justices of the peace are paid. 
 
 Sec. 15. — -The court of common pleas of any county in the proper 
 district, upon a petition signed by not less than fifteen reputable 
 citizens, not less than five of whom shall be miners, owners, or les- 
 sees of mines, and with the affidavit of one or more of said petition- 
 ers attached, setting forth that any inspector of mines neglects his 
 duties or is incompetent, or that he is guilty of a malfeasance in 
 office, shall issue a citation in the name of the Commonwealth to 
 the said inspector to appear on not less than fifteen days' notice, 
 upon a day fixed before said court, at which time the court shall 
 proceed to inquire into and investigate the allegations of the peti- 
 tioners ; if the court find that the said inspector is neglectful of his 
 duties, or is incompetent to perform the duties of his office, or that 
 he is guilty of malfeasance in office, the court shall certify the same 
 to the Governor, who shall declare the office of said inspector va- 
 cant, and proceed in compliance with the provisions of this act to 
 supply the vacancy; the costs of said investigation shall, if the 
 charges are sustained, be imposed upon the inspector, but if the 
 charges are not sustained they shall be imposed upon the peti- 
 tioners. 
 
 Sec. 16. — The neglect or refusal to perform the duties required to 
 be performed, by any section of this act, by the parties therein re- 
 quired to perform them, or the violation of any of the provisions or 
 requirements hereof, shall be deemed a misdemeanor, and shall, 
 upon conviction, be punished by fine of not less than two hundred 
 dollars, nor not exceeding five hundred dollars, at the discretion of 
 the court ; and all penalties recovered under this act shall be paid 
 into the treasury of the State. 
 
 Sec. 17. — The inspector shall exercise a sound discretion in the 
 enforcement of the provisions of this act, and should the operator or 
 owner be dissatisfied with any decision at which the inspector may 
 arrive, it shall and may be lawful for such operator or owner to apply, 
 by petition, to the court of quarter sessions of the county wherein 
 such mine is located, and saicl court shall, thereupon appoint three 
 reputable, competent, and disinterested persons, whose duty it shall 
 be to forthwith examme such mines, and hear the proofs and alle- 
 gations of the inspectors and operator or owner, and make such re- 
 port, under oath, to court, of the facts as they exist, together with 
 their opinion thereon ; and if said report sustains the decisions of 
 the inspector, then the party making application to court sliall pay 
 the costs of such proceeding, and if the report is against such deci- 
 sion, then the inspector shall pay the costs, unless the court order 
 
 otherwise. The report of the said board shall become absolute, un- 
 less exceptions thereto shall be filed within ten days after notice of 
 the filing thereof to the owner, operator, or inspector, and if excep- 
 tions are filed the court shall hear and determine the same, and the 
 decision shall be final and conclusive. 
 
 Sec. 18. — The provisions of this act shall not apply to any mine 
 where ten men, oi a less number, are einployed, or to any mine 
 which does not generate fire-damp, black-damp, or other dangerous 
 or noxious gases. 
 
 Sec. 19. — All laws or parts of laws inconsistent with any of the 
 provisions of this act are hereby repealed. 
 
 An act to amend an act entitled " An act to provide the 
 means for securing the health and safety of persons employed 
 in the bituminous coal mines of Pennsylvania." 
 
 Sec. 1. — Be it enacted, etc., That the last clause of the eighteenth 
 section of the act of General Assembly, entitled " An act to pro- 
 vide the means for securing the health and safety of persons em- 
 ployed in the bituminous coal mines of Pennsylvania," approved 
 the eighteenth day of April, Anno Domini one thousand eight hun- 
 dred and seventy-seven, after the word " employed," in the second 
 line of said section, which is as follows: "Or to any mine which 
 does not generate fire-damp, black-damp, or other dangerous or 
 noxious gases," is hereby repealed. 
 
 Massachusetts. — The text of the new law on foreign 
 mining is as follows, Chap. 106 : — 
 
 Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives in Gen- 
 eral Court assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows : — 
 
 Sec. 1. — Every corporation, company, or association chartered or 
 organized by authority other than that of this Commonwealth, for 
 the purpose of engaging without the limits of this Commonwealth 
 in the business of coal mining or other mining, of quarrying or 
 extracting carbonaceous oils from the earth, or of purchasing or 
 holding mines or lands without the said limits, which shall for any 
 period exceeding ten days, establish, set up, have, or keep principal 
 or branch subscription, treasury, or transfer office or agency within 
 this Commonwealth, shall, within thirty days after the setting up 
 or establishment of such office or agency, make and return to the 
 secretary of the Commonwealth a certificate in manner and form to 
 be approved by the commissioner of corporations, and signed and 
 sworn to by its president, treasurer, and a majority of its board of 
 directors or trustees setting forth the name of such corporation, 
 company or association, the name of the State, Territory or foreign 
 country under whose laws it is organized, and whether specially 
 chartered or organized under the general laws thereof, its location 
 in such State, Territory, or country, the location of its mines, quar- 
 ries, oil wells, or lands, and the amount of its capital stock author- 
 ized by its charter or organization, and the amount thereof actually 
 called in by assessment or instalment, the place or places within 
 this Commonwealth in which its office or offices are established or 
 set up, and the names and residences of all those of its officers, 
 directors, trustees, and agents who are citizens or residents of this 
 Commonwealth. Such corporation, company, or association shall 
 also, in said return, designate by his proper name and address, one 
 of said offices or agents, a citizen or resident of this Commonwealth, 
 as attorney upon whom service may be made of all process against 
 such corporation, company, or association in this Commonwealth. 
 
 Sec. 2. — Within thirty days after any meeting of the stockholders, 
 members, directors, or trustees of any such corporation, company, 
 or association at which the capital stock is increased or reduced, or 
 any changes made in its board of officers, agents, directors or trus- 
 tees, a like certificate shall be filed setting forth the facts as then 
 established. 
 
 Sec. 3.— The fee for filing and recording the certificates required 
 by Sees. 1 and 2 of this Act shall be $5.00 for each certificate, to be 
 paid to the secretary of the Commonwealth, and by him paid into 
 the State treasury. 
 
 Sec. 4. — Each such corporation, company, or association shall 
 semi-annually, between the first and tenth davs of June and De- 
 cember in each year, pay to the treasurer of tlie Commonwealth a 
 tax of one fortieth of one per centum upon the par value of its 
 capital stock as standing, fixed by the corporation, company, or 
 association on the firet days of May and November respectively 
 then next preceding; provided, however, that said semi-annual tax 
 shall not, for any one of such corporations, companies, or associa- 
 tions exceed the sum of $300. And this tax, when paid, shall be in 
 lieu of that required by Sec. 43 of Chap. 13 of the public statutes. 
 
 Sec. 5. — All officers, directors, trustees, and agents of such corpo- 
 rations, companies, or associations, citizens of or resident or com- 
 morant witlun this Commonwealth, shall be jointly and severally 
 liable for all taxes due under said Sec. 43 of Chap. 13 of the public 
 statutes, and for fees required to be paid under the provisions of 
 this Act. 
 
 Sec. 6. — This Act shall take effect upon its passage. 
 Approved March 22, 1882. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 683 
 
 Interest Laivs ot tUe DliTerent States. 
 
 States attd Territories. 
 
 Alabama .... 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Arkansas . . 
 California . . 
 Colorado . ... 
 Connecticut . 
 
 Dakota 
 
 Delaware 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia ... 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana ... 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas . . . 
 Kentucky . 
 Louisiana 
 Maine . 
 Maryland . . 
 
 Massachusetts . . . 
 
 Michigan ... 
 Minnesota . . 
 Mississippi . . 
 Missouri 
 
 Montana 
 Nebraska .... 
 Nevada .... 
 New Hampshire 
 New Jersey . . 
 New Mexico . . 
 New York . . . 
 North Carolina . 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania . 
 Rhode Island . . 
 South Carolina 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas ... 
 
 Utah 
 
 Vermont . 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Washington Territory 
 West Virginia . . 
 "Wisconsin 
 
 Wyoming Territory 
 
 Legal, 
 
 8 p. 0. 
 
 10 " 
 
 6 " 
 
 7 " 
 10 " 
 
 6 " 
 
 7 " 
 
 7 
 10 
 6 
 6 
 
 10 
 7 
 
 10 
 6 
 6 
 
 G 
 8 
 6 
 6 
 7 
 C 
 
 
 10 
 6 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 Special. 
 
 No Limit. 
 10 p. <;t. 
 
 No limit. 
 No limit. 
 No limit. 
 12 p. ct. 
 
 6 p. et. 
 10 p. ct. 
 No limit. 
 
 8 p. et. 
 V/i p. ct. per mon. 
 
 8 p. ot. 
 
 8 p. ct. 
 10 p. ct. 
 
 12 p. et. 
 
 6 p. ct. 
 
 8 p. ot. 
 
 No limit. 
 
 C p. ct. 
 
 No limit where 
 
 the agreement is 
 
 m writing. 
 
 10 p. ct. 
 
 10 p. ct. 
 
 10 p. ct. 
 
 10 p. ct. 
 
 No limit. 
 10 p. ct. 
 No limit. 
 
 6 p ct. 
 
 p. ot. 
 No limit. 
 
 6 p. ct. 
 
 8 p. ct. 
 
 8 p. et. 
 10 p. ct. 
 
 6 p. ct. 
 No limit. 
 
 7 p. ct. 
 6 p. ct. 
 
 12 p. ct. 
 No limit. 
 
 6 p. ct. 
 
 6 p. ct. 
 No limit. 
 
 6 p. et. 
 10 p. ct. 
 
 No limit. 
 
 PenaUy of Usury. 
 
 Loss of interest. 
 No penalty. 
 
 Forfeiture of principal and interest 
 No penalty. 
 No penalty. 
 No penalty. 
 
 Forfeiture of all interest. 
 Forfeiture of contract. 
 Forfeiture of all interest. 
 No penalty. 
 
 Forfeiture of excess charged only. ^ 
 
 Three times amt. paid. JlOO fine or imprisonment 6 months or Both. 
 Forfeiture of all interest. 
 Forfeiture of all excess above 6 per cent. 
 
 Forfeiture of 10 per cent, on the 100 by the year, on amount of the con- 
 tract all interests and costs. 
 Forfeiture of excess over 12 per cent. 
 Forfeiture of all interest over 6 per cent 
 Forfeiture of interest. 
 No penalty. 
 Forfeiture of excess. 
 
 No penalty; 6 per cent, on judgments. 
 
 Forfeiture of excess; if voluntarily paid, cannot be recovered by suit. 
 
 Forfeiture of contract and interest paid may be recovered. 
 
 Forfeiture of all interest. 
 
 Forfeiture of all interest by the creditor, but the debtor will be required 
 to pay not exceeding 10 per cent. int. on the debt to the public schools. 
 
 No penalty. 
 
 Forfeiture of all interest and costs. 
 
 No penalty. 
 
 Forfeiture of three times excess of interest received. 
 
 Forfeiture of all interest and costs. 
 
 No penalty. 
 
 Forfeiture of contract. The lender can recover neither principal nor int. 
 
 Forfeiture of the entire interest, and the party paying greater rate than 
 that allowed by law, can, if action commenced within two years, re- 
 cover double amount of, interest paid. 
 
 Forfeiture of excess over'6 per cent. 
 
 Forfeiture of principal and interest. 
 
 Excess can be recovered if suit is brought within six months. 
 
 No penalty. 
 
 Forfeiture of all interest. 
 
 Forfeiture of all interest over 6 per cent. 
 
 Forfeiture of all interest if specially pleaded by debtor. 
 
 No penalty. 
 
 Forfeit of excess. 
 
 Forfeit of all interest. No corporation can plead usury. 
 
 No penalty. 
 
 Forfeit of excess. 
 
 Forfeit of all interest. Borrower can recover treble amount of usury, by 
 an action brought within a year. 
 
 No penalty. ' 
 
 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 AREA, 3,483,952 square miles, or 2,229,729,280 acres. 
 The commissioner of lands of the Dominion of 
 Canada, is appointed by and subject to the minister 
 of the interior, and resides at Ottawa. The Crown 
 domains of the several provinces are disposed of under 
 special laws, but the vast area of Dominion lands (corres- 
 ponding with the public domain of the United States) is dis- 
 posed of under the provisions of the statute known as the 
 42d Victoria, May 15th, 1879. Agents, known as agents of 
 Dominion lands, are appointed in the several Territories, viz, 
 Manitoba, Kerwatin, and Northwest Territories. These 
 agents give notice, by publication, of the filing of maps of 
 survey and that the lands are open to cash sale or settlement. 
 Surveyed townships are grouped into " districts," which are 
 numbered from No. 1. Tliese districts each have an agent 
 at a local office. They are subordinate to the agent of the 
 Territory, who is subordinate, to the commissioner of the 
 land office at Ottawa. The Dominion does not control pub- 
 lic lands in some of the provinces. A surveyor-general of 
 the Dominion is also appointed, under whom the surveys are 
 made. His office is at Ottawa, in the department of the 
 interior. The law relating to the Dominion lands is here 
 given entire. It will be noticed that this statute gives the 
 executive charged with the control and disposition of the 
 public domain large discretionary authority. The body of 
 this act is based upon the best features of the land system 
 of the United States, with beneficial additions. Many fea- 
 tures of this statute could be engrafted upon our system 
 with profit. 
 
 Law Eelating to Public Lands in Canada. — 42 Victoria, 
 Chap. 31. — An Act to amend and consolidate the several acts re- 
 specting the public lands of the Dominion. Assented to May 15, 1879. 
 — Whereas, it is expedient with a view to the proper and efficient 
 administration and management of certain of the public lands of 
 the Dominion, that the same should be regulated by statute, and 
 
 divers acts have been passed for that purpose which it is expedient 
 to amend and consolidate : Therefore Her Majesty, by and with the 
 advice and consent of the Senate and House of Commons of Can- 
 ada, enacts as follows : 
 
 Prelimiliary — Interpretation. — 1. This act shall apply exclu- 
 sively to the lands included in Manitoba and the several territories 
 of the Dominion, which lands shall be styled and known as Domin- 
 ion lands; and this act shall be known and may be cited as the 
 " Dominion lands act 1879," and the following terms and expres- 
 sions therein shall be held to have the meaning hereinafter assigned 
 them, unless such meaning be repugnant to the subject or inconsis- 
 tent with the context : that is to say : 
 
 1. The term Minister of the Interior means the Minister of the 
 Interior of Canada. 
 
 2. The term surveyor-general means the said officer, or, in his ab- 
 sence, the chief clerk performing his duties for the time being. 
 
 tS. The term agent or officer means any person or officer employed 
 in connection with the administration and management, sale or set- 
 tlement of Dominion lands, and the term local agent means the 
 agent for Dominion lands employed as aforesaid, with respect to the 
 lands in question ; and the term land office means the office of 
 any such agent. 
 
 4. The term Dominion land surveyor means a surveyor duly auth- 
 orized under the provisions of this act to survey Dominion lands. 
 
 5. The term Crown timber agent means the local officer appointed 
 to collect dues and to perform such other duties as may be assigned 
 to such officer, in respect to the timber on Dominion lands. 
 
 6. The term island, as used in connection with timber, means an 
 isolated grove or clump of timber in prairie. 
 
 7. The term belt as used in connection with timber, means a strip 
 of timber along the shore of a lake, river or water course. 
 
 8. The term section means a section of this act distinguished by a 
 separate number, and the term subsection means a subdivision ot 
 anyclause distinguished by a separate number or letter in smaller type. 
 
 9. The terra Canada Gazette means the official gazette of the gov- 
 ernment, published at Ottawa. 
 
 Dominion Lands Office.— 2. The department of the Minister of 
 the Interior of Canada shall be charged with the administration and 
 management of the Dominion lands. 
 
 1. Such administration and management shall be effected through 
 a branch of the said department, to be known and designated as 
 
 The Dominion lands office. 
 
684 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 2. Copies of any records, documents, plans, books or papers be- 
 longing to or deposited in tlie said office, attested under the sig- 
 nature of the Minister of the Interior, or the surveyor-general, and 
 of plans or documents in any Dominion lands or surveys office in 
 Manitoba or the Northwest Territories, attested under the signature 
 of the agent or inspector of surveys, as the case may be, in charge 
 of such office, shall be competent evidence in all cases in which 
 the original documents, books, plans, or papers could be evi- 
 dence. 
 
 3. No person employed in or under the Dominion lands office 
 shall purchase any of such lands, except under the authority of an 
 order in council, or shall locate military or bounty land warrants, 
 or land scrip, or act as agent of any other persons in such behalf. 
 
 Syste'm of Survey. — 3. Subject always to the provisions hereinaf- 
 ter made with respect to special cases. 
 
 The dominion lands shall be laid off in quadrilateral townships, 
 containing thirty-six sections of one mile square in each except in 
 the ease of those sections rendered irregular by the convergence or 
 divergence of meridians as hereinafter mentioned, together with 
 road allowances of "one chain and fifty links in width, between all 
 townships and sections. 
 
 2. The sections shall be bounded and numbered as shown by the 
 following diagram: 
 
 N. 
 
 W. 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 E. 
 
 S. 
 
 3. The townships therefore will, subject to deficiency or surplus 
 from converging or diverging meridians, as the case may be, meas- 
 ure on each side, from centre to centre of the road allowances 
 bounding the same, four hundred and eighty-nine chains : Pro- 
 vided, that the Governor in council may hereafter, should the same 
 be deemed expedient, reduce the width of the road allowances on 
 township and section lines in that part of the territory lying north 
 of the line between townships eighteen and nineteen, and east of the 
 tenth range east of the principal meridians, and west of the four- 
 teenth range west of the said meridians. 
 
 4. The lines bounding townships on the east and west sides 
 shall, in all cases, be true meridians, and those on the north and 
 south sides shall be cords intersecting circles of latitude passing 
 through the angles of the townships. 
 
 5. The townships shall be numbered in regular order northerly 
 from the international boundary or forty-ninth parallel of latitude, 
 and shall lie in ranges numbered, in Manitoba, east and west from 
 a certain meridian line run in the year 1869, styled the " Principal 
 Meridian," drawn northerly from the said forty-ninth parallel at a 
 point ten miles or thereabouts westwardly from Pembina. 
 
 6. In the territories east and west of Manitoba such other govern- 
 ing or guide meridians may be adopted and confirmed by the gover- 
 nor in council as may, from time to time, become expedient. 
 
 7. The townships shall be laid out the precise width of four hun- 
 dred and eighty-nine chains, as aforesaid, on the base lines herein- 
 after mentioned, and the meridians between townships shall be 
 drawn from such bases, north or south to the depth of two town- 
 ships, that is to say, to the correction lines hereinafter mentioned. 
 
 8. The said forty-ninth parallel or international boundary shall 
 be the first base line, or that for townships one and two. The 
 second base line shall be between townships four and five, the third 
 between townships eight and nine, the fourth between townships 
 twelve and thirteen, the fifth between townships sixteen and seven- 
 teen, and so on northerly in regular succession. 
 
 9. The correction lines, or those upon which the " jog " resulting 
 from the want of parallelism of meridians shall be allowed, will be 
 as follows, that is to say, on the line between townships two and 
 three, on that between six and seven, on that between ten and 
 eleven, and so on. In other words, they will be those township 
 hues runmng east and west which are equi-distant from the bases at 
 the depth of two townships. 
 
 10. Each section shall be divided into quarter sections of one 
 hundred and sixty acres, more or less, subject to the provisions here- 
 mafter made. 
 
 11. In the survey of any and every township, the deficiency or 
 surplus, as the case may be, resulting from convergence or diver- 
 gence of meridians shall be allowed in the range of quarter sections 
 adjoining the west boundary of the township, and the north and 
 
 south error in closing on the correction lines from the north or 
 south shall be allowed in the ranges of quarter sections adjoining, 
 and north or south respectively of the said correction lines. 
 
 12. The dimensions and area of the irregular quarter sections, 
 resulting from the provision in the next preceding clause, whether 
 the same be deficient or in excess, shall, in all cases, be returned by 
 the surveyor at their actual measurements and contents. 
 
 13. Preliminary to the subdivisions into townships and sections 
 of any given portion of country proposed to be laid out for settle- 
 ment, the same shall be laid out into blocks of four townships each, 
 by projecting the base and correction lines, and east and west meri- 
 dian boundaries of each block. 
 
 1. On these lines, at the time of the survey, all township, sec- 
 tion, and quarter section corners shall be marked, which comers 
 shall govern, respectively, in the subsequent subdivision of the 
 block. 
 
 2. Only a single row of posts or monuments to indicate the cor- 
 ners of townships, or sections (except as hereinafter provided), shall 
 be placed on any survey line. These posts or monuments, as an 
 invariable rule (with the exception aoove referred to), shaU be 
 placed in the west limit of the road allowances, on north and south 
 lines, and in the south limit of road allowances, on east and west 
 lines; and in all eases shall fix and govern the position of the 
 boundary corner between the two adjoining townships, sections, or 
 quarter sections on the opposite side of the road allowance. 
 
 3. Provided that in the case of the township, section, and quar- 
 ter section corners on correction lines, posts or monuments shall in 
 all eases be planted and marked independently for the townships on 
 either side; those for the townships north of the line, in the north 
 limit of the road allowance; and those for the townships south, in 
 the south limit. 
 
 14. The township subdivision surveys of the Dominion lands, 
 according to the system above described, shall be carried out and 
 shall be performed by contract at a certain rate per mile or per 
 acre, fixed from time to time by the governor in council. 
 
 15. Legal subdivisions as applicable to the survey, sale, and 
 granting of the Dominion lands, shall be as follows : and it shall 
 be sufficient that such legal subdivisions be severally, as the case 
 may require, designated and described by such names or numbers . 
 and areas for letters patent, that is to say: 
 
 1. A section or 640 acres ; 
 
 A half section or 320 acres ; 
 
 A quarter section or 160 acres ; 
 
 A half quarter section or 80 acres ; 
 
 A quarter quarter section or 40 acres. 
 2. To facilitate the descriptions for letters patent of less than a 
 half quarter section, the quarter sections composing every section, 
 in accordance with the boundaries of the same as planted or placed 
 in the original survey, shall be supposed to be divided into quarter 
 quarter sections, or forty acres, and such quarter quarter sections 
 shall be numbered as shown in the following diagram, which is in- 
 tended to show the above proposed subdivisions of a section. 
 
 N. 
 
 W. 
 
 5. 
 
 3. The area of any legal subdivision as above set forth, in letters 
 patent, shall be held to be more or less, and shall in each case be 
 represented by the exact quantity as given to such subdivision in the 
 original survey. 
 
 16. Provided that nothing in this act shall be construed to pre- 
 vent the lands upon the Red and Assineboine rivers surrendered by 
 the Indians to the late Earl of Selkirk, from being laid out in such 
 manner as may be necessary in order to carry out section thirty-two 
 of the act thirty -third Victoria, chapter three, or to prevent frac- 
 tional sections or lands bordering on any river, lake, or other water 
 course or public road, from being divided; or such lands from 
 being laid out in lots of any certain frontage and depth, in such 
 manner as may appear desirable ; or to prevent the subdivision of 
 sections or other legal subdivisions into wood lots as hereinafter 
 provided ; or from describing the said lands upon the Bed and 
 Assineboine rivers, or such subdivisions of fractional sections, or 
 other lots, or wood lots, for patent, by numbers according to a plai 
 of record, or by metes and bounds, or bv both, as anay seem ex- 
 pedient. 
 
 Mining Lands. — 37. No reservation of gold, silver, iron, copper, 
 or other mines or minerals, shall be inserted in any patent from the 
 Crown granting any portion of the Dominion land's. 
 
 38. Any person or persons may explore for mines or minerals on 
 any of the Dominion lands, surveyed or unsur'veyed, and not then 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
THE AIINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 685 
 
 marked or staked out and claimed or occupied, and may, subject to 
 the provisions hereinafter contained, purchase the same. 
 
 39. Mining lands, if in surveyed townships, may be acquired un- 
 der the provisions herein contained, and shall be sold in legal sub- 
 divisions. When situate in unsurveyed territory and without the 
 limits of the fertile belt, such lands shall be sold in blocks to be 
 called mining locations; and every such mining location, except as 
 hereinafter provided, shall be bounded by lines due north and south 
 and due east and west, astronomically ; and each such location shall 
 correspond with one of the following dimensions, namely, eighty 
 chains in length by forty in width, containing three hundred and 
 twenty acres, or forty cnains square, containing one hundred and 
 sixty acres, or forty chains in length by twenty in width, containing 
 eighty acres : 
 
 1. Provided further, that in case of certain lands proving to be 
 rich in minerals, the Minister of the Interior shall have the power 
 to withdraw such lands from sale, and in lieu thereof institute a 
 system of lease. 
 
 2. The rent payable to the Crown under any such lease shall be 
 a royalty, not to exceed two and a half per cent, on the net profit 
 of working. 
 
 3. Provided further, that when there are two or more applicants 
 for the same tract, and a prior right in either or any of the appli- 
 cants is not established to the satisfaction of the Minister of the In- 
 terior, the same may be tendered for by the claimants on stated 
 terms of lease, and sold to the highest bidder. 
 
 4. Provided also, that in territory supposed to contajn minerals 
 the Minister of the Interior may in hia discretion reserve from sale 
 alternate locations, or quarter-sections, or other legal subdivisions, 
 with the view of subsequently offering the same either for sale or 
 lease at public competition. 
 
 40. Mining locations in unsurveyed territory shall be surveyed 
 by a Dominion land surveyor, and shall be connected with some 
 known point in previous surveys, or with some other known point 
 or boundary (so that the tract may be laid down on the maps of the 
 territory in the Dominion land-offiee) at the cost of the applicants, 
 who shall be required to furnish, with their application, the survey- 
 or's plan, field-notes and description thereof. 
 
 41. No distinction in price shall be made between lands supposed 
 to contain mines or minerals and farming lands, but both classes 
 shall be sold at the uniform price of one dollar per acre ; provided 
 that section thirty of this act as regards offering lands at public sale 
 shall apply to coal and mineral lands also, when the same are in 
 surveyed townships. 
 
 42. It shall also be lawful for the Minister of the Interior to ex- 
 empt from the preceding provisions of this act such of the Dominion 
 lands upon or adjoining the banks of rivers or other waters as may 
 be supposed to contain valuable "bar," "bench," or "dry" "dig- 
 gings" for gold or other precious metals; and the governor in 
 council shall regulate, from time to tims, as the sime may become 
 necessary and expedient, the nature and size of the claims contain- 
 ing such diggings, and shall fix the terras and conditions upon 
 which the same shall be held and worked, and the royalty payable 
 in respect thereof, and shall appoint and prescribe the duties of 
 such officers as may be necessary to carry out such regulations. 
 
 Indian Title. — 43. None of the provisions of this act respecting 
 the settlement of agricultural lands or the lease of timber lands, 
 or the purchase and sale of mineral lands shall be held to apply to 
 territory, the Indian title to which shall not at the time have been 
 extinguished. 
 
 Coal Lands. — 44. Coal lands designated by the government as 
 such are hereby withdrawn from tlie operation of this act as regards 
 the rights of squatters to homesteads on the Dominion lands in ad- 
 vance of the surveys. 
 
 45. The minister of the Interior shall have power to protect any 
 person or persons desiring to carry on coal mining in unsurveyed 
 territory, in the possession of the lands on which such mining may be 
 carried on : Provided, that before entering on the working of such 
 mines, such person or persons make written application to the local 
 agent to purchase such land ; such application must be accompanied 
 by a description by a Dominion land surveyor, setting forth gen- 
 erally the situation and the dimensions of such land, and shall also 
 be accompanied by payment of the price thereof, estimating the 
 number of acres (wliich shall be in the discretion of the Minister, 
 but shall in no case exceed three hundred and twenty) at the rate of 
 one dollar per acre. Such application shall be filed by the agent 
 receiving the same ; and on tJie survey of the township containing 
 the land applied for being effected, the claimant or claimants shall 
 be entitled to a patent for such number of acres, in legal subdivi- 
 sions, including and covering the mine worked, as shall correspond 
 to the application and to the extent of land paid for. 
 
 Provided, that all the operations under this section shall be sub- 
 ject to the rights of the Hudson's Bay Company to sections 8 and 26 
 as hereinbefore enacted: Provided further, tliat the survey of the 
 township within which such land may be situate, shall not be de- 
 layed beyonda period of five years after the date of the purchase of 
 such land, without the consent of the Hudson's Bay Company there- 
 to first had and obtained. 
 
 Provided further, that such mine shall have been continuously 
 worked, to the satisfaction of the Minister of the Interior, during 
 the interim between the application and the survey ; but if the same 
 should at any time during such interim cease to be worked for 
 
 twelve consecutive months, unless the lands in question be no longer 
 valuablefor mining purposes, then the claim of the parties to the land 
 shall lapse, and the mine shall be forfeited to the Crown, together 
 with any and all purchase-money which may have been paid to the 
 Government on account thereof. 
 
 46. The Minister of the Interior, with the view of preventing un- 
 due monopoly in coal lands, may in his discretion, on a township 
 being surveyed, exempt from the sale and settlement provisions of 
 this act, the sections or other legal subdivisions of land which may 
 be said to contain coal, except those on which mining may have 
 been carried on under the next preceding clause ; and the same 
 shall be subsequently sold or otherwise deflt with in such manner 
 as may be deemed expedient by the Governor in Council. 
 
 Surveys and Surveyors. — 83. No person shall act as surveyor of 
 Dominion lands unless he shall, before the fourteenth day of April, 
 1872, have been duly qualified by certificate, diploma or commis- 
 sion, to survey the Crown lands in some one of the provinces of the 
 Dominion, or shall have become qualified under the provisions 
 hereinafter set forth. 
 
 [Note. — Subdivision of the lands and the interior surveys of 
 blocks of four townships are done by contract surveyors, the exte- 
 rior lines of these blocks being run and fixed by the corps of sur- 
 veyors.] 
 
 1. Persons qualified under the said provisions shall be styled 
 " Dominion land surveyors," or " Dominion topographical survey- 
 ors," as the case may be. 
 
 95. No person shall receive a commission from the said board 
 authorizing him to practice as a Dominion land surveyor until he 
 has attained the full age of twenty-one years and has passed a satis- 
 factory examination before the said board on the following subjects; 
 that IS to say: Euclid, first four books, and propositions first to 
 twenty-first of the sixth book; plane trigonometry, so far as it 
 includes solution of triangles; the use of logarithms, mensuration 
 of superficies, including tiie calculation of the area of right-lined 
 figures by latitude and departure, and the dividing or laying off 
 land; a knowledge of the rules for the solution of spherical trian- 
 gles, and of their use in the application to surveying of the follow- 
 ing elementary problems of practical astronomy : 
 
 1. To ascertain the latitude of a place from an observation of a 
 meridian altitude of the sun or of a star; 
 
 2. To obtain the local time and the azimuth, from an observed 
 altitude of the sun or a star ; 
 
 3. From an observed azimuth of a circumpolar star, when at its 
 greatest elongation from the meridian, to ascertain the direction of 
 the latter. 
 
 He must be practically familiar with surveying operations and 
 capable of intelligently reporting thereon, and be conversant with 
 the keeping of field notes, their plotting and representation on 
 plans of survey, the describing of land by metes and bounds for 
 title, and with the adjustments and methods of use of ordinary sur- 
 veying instruments, and must also be perfectly conversant with the 
 system of survey as embodied in the "Dominion Lands Acts," and 
 with the manual of standing instructions and regulations published 
 from time to time for the guidance of Dominion land surveyors. 
 
 96. The board may examine any candidate on oath (which oath 
 may be administered by any one of the examiners) as to his actual 
 practice in the field and with regard to his instruments. 
 
 97. Each person passing the examination prescribed by this act 
 shall receive a commission from the board in accordance with Form 
 E in the schedule to this act constituting him a Dominion land sur- 
 veyor, and shall jointly and severally, with two sufiicient sureties 
 to the satisfaction of the board, enter into a bond in the sum of one 
 thousand dollars to Her Majesty, her heirs and successors, condi- 
 tioned for the due and faithful performance of the duties of his 
 office, and shall take and subscribe the oath of allegiance, and the 
 following oath, before the board of examiners, any one of whom 
 is hereby empowered to administer the same : 
 
 "I , do solemnly swear (or affirm, as the case 
 
 may be) that I will faithfully discharge the duties of a Dominion 
 land surveyor according to law, without favor, affection, or par- 
 tiality. So help me God." 
 
 1. Until the above formalities shall have been gone through, the 
 said commission of Dominion land surveyor shall have no effect. 
 
 2. The said oaths of allegiance and of office shall be deposited in 
 the Dominion lands office. 
 
 3. The said bond shall be deposited and kept in the manner pre- 
 scribed by law with regard to the bonds given for the 1 ike purposes 
 by other public officers of the Dominion, and shall be subject to the 
 same provisions, and shall enure to the benefit of any party sus- 
 taining damage by breach of any condition thereof; and the com- 
 mission shall DC registered in the office of the registrar-general of 
 Dominion. 
 
 Land Laws of Mexico. — In accordance with Interior 
 Department instructions, I have collected information from 
 authentic sources in reference to the laws of Spain and Mex- 
 ico respecting minerals and what conditions attached to 
 grants embracing mines. 
 
686 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 From the earliest European settlement of the country mining for 
 the precious metals constituted the principal branch of industry in 
 Spanish America, and being the one that yielded the largest rev- 
 enue to the government, laws and royal ordinances were from time 
 to time passed for the encouragement of the adventurous prospec- 
 tors and for the protection of the fortunate discoverer of mines of 
 the precious metals ; yet, although these laws and ordinances digni- 
 fied the mining profession by attaching thereto the privileges of 
 nobility, still the government went no further in its liberality than 
 to grant the miner the exclusive privilege of working the mine he 
 mi^ht have discovered in the manner required and under the con- 
 ditions imposed by the laws and ordinances in relation thereto ; 
 and when these conditions were disregarded or violated the owner- 
 ship of the mine, or rather the exclusive right to work it, was lost, 
 and the same reverted to the government, to be acquired by any 
 one else who might undertake to comply with the conditions under 
 which it had been granted to the former owner, the absolute own- 
 ership of the mine ever remaining in the government. Joaquin 
 Escriche, in his Diccionario Bazonado de Legislacion y Jurispru- 
 dencia (a standard authority), under the head of Minas, says: 
 "According to the ancient Koman law, mines of gold, silver, copper, 
 iron, and other metals pertained to the owner of the land on which 
 they were discovered, erant privaii, jurU, et in libera privatorum 
 usa juris comercio, because they are benefits bestowed by nature, to 
 be enjoyed by the owners of the land producing the same. Subse- 
 quently the Roman emperor appropriated one-tenth of the products 
 of the mines of every character. " Under the Spanish law a dif- 
 ferent rule was adopted ; mines of gold, silver, lead, and other metals 
 could not be worked without royal permission, since they (and also 
 salt pits) belonged to the king. Any one was permitted to 'dig' in 
 search of minerals or stones on his own lands, or on the lands of 
 others with the consent of the owner, under the condition that the 
 discoverer should receive one-third part of the net proceeds of the 
 discovery, the other two-third parts to be given to the government. 
 Every Spaniard or foreigner was permitted to 'dig' in search of 
 minerals on public or private lands, under the obligation of com- 
 pensating for the damages occasioned. In Mexico, Venezuela, and 
 Chili the mitter of mines is governed by the ordinances of the 22d 
 of May, 1783." (Escriche, new edition, printed 1869, Mina.) As 
 early aa the year 1383, Don Alonzo XI issued a "pragmatica" in 
 which it is declared: "That all mines of silver and gold and lead, 
 and of any other metal whatever, of whatsoever kind it may be, in 
 our royal seigniory shall belong to us, therefore no one shall pre- 
 sume to work them without our special license and command ; and 
 also the salt springs, basins, and wells which are for making salt, 
 shall belong to us, wherefore we command that they revert to us 
 with the produce of the whole thereof, and that no one presume to 
 intermeddle therein except tliose to whom tlie former kings, our 
 predecessors, or we ourselves may give them as a privilege, or who 
 may have held them from time immemorial." ( Vide Book VI, 
 Title XIII, Law II, Recopilaciou de Castilla; Book IX, Title 
 XVIII, Novisima Kecopilaeion.) The law of Philip II, 1559, de- 
 clares: That inasmuch as the discoverers of mines, after having 
 discovered and registered them, pretend that by that act alone they 
 have acquired such a right to them that no other person can, within 
 the limits and space of such mines, enter, or try, or work, and that 
 they can thus keep them encumbered without working them them- 
 selves or permitting others to do so, by which they prevent the 
 principal produce and profit which belongs as well to us as to our 
 subjects and to the public welfare, since that principally consists in 
 the working and reduction of mines and metals, and not merely in 
 their discovery, we declare and command that such discoverer of 
 the mine or mines of silver, after having made registry in the man- 
 ner prescribed, shall be obliged within six months to sink and 
 excavate to the depth of three estados (a measure of about six feet), 
 and not sinking and excavating his mine to the depth of three 
 estados, it may Be denounced before the judge and registry made 
 thereof as of a vacant or undiscovered mine. Also, that we reclaim, 
 resume, and incorporate in ourself, in our crown and patrimony, 
 all the mines of gold and silver and quicksilver of these kingdoms, 
 in whatsoever parts and places they may be and are found, whether 
 in royal lands, or in those of lordships, or of the clergy, and whether 
 in public, municipal, or vacant lands, or in inheritances, places, 
 and soils of individuals, notwithstanding the grants which by us 
 and by the kings, our predecessors, have been made to any persons, 
 of whatsoever condition, rank, and dignity they may be. fBook 
 VI, Title XIII, Law IV, Eeoopilacion de Castilla. Also, Book IX, 
 Title XVIII, Law III, Novisima Recopilaciou). 
 
 Royal ^ ordinances for the direction, regulation and government of 
 the import%nt body of mining of New Spain and of its royal tri- 
 bunal general, May 22, 1783. 
 
 Article I, Title V, declares : That mines are the property of the 
 royal crown, as well by their nature and origin as by their reunion 
 declared in Law IV, Title XIII, Book VI, Nueva Recopilaciou. 
 
 Article II, same title, declares : That without separating them 
 from the royal patrimony, they are granted to the subjects of the 
 king m property and possession, in such manner that they may 
 sell, rent, donate, and pass them by will, either in the way of in- 
 heritance orlemicy, or in any other manner alienate the right which 
 in the mines belongs to them, on the same terms on which they 
 themselves possess it, and to persons capable of acquiring the same 
 
 Article III, same title, declares : That this grant is understood 
 to be with the conditions that the grantees contribute to the royal 
 treasury the prescribed portion of the metals, and that they shall 
 work the mines in the manner prescribed by the ordinances, so that 
 they shall be considered forfeited whenever a failure shall occur in 
 complying with the ordinances in which it is provided, and that they 
 may be granted to any person who for that cause may denounce them. 
 
 Article I, Title VI, declares : That the discoverers of one or more 
 mineral hills, absolutely new, may acquire on the principal vein 
 which they may select as many as three pertenenciaj, continued or 
 interrupted, according to the measurements which shall be pre- 
 scribed, and if they may have discovered more veins, they may have 
 one pertenencia on each vein, said pertenencia being determined 
 and marked out within ten days. (A pertenencia was in extent two 
 hundred varas, measured on the vein, the width being determined 
 by the dip or angle thereof, being sufiiciently wide to prevent the 
 vein from being cut by a shaft sunk on a side claim at a depth of 
 less than two hundred varas, this being the depth beyond which, 
 in those times, it was considered unprofitable to work a mine.) 
 
 Article X, same title, declares : That if the denouncer of a mine 
 does not put up his working-shaft in order nor take possession with- 
 in sixty days, lie shall lose his right, and the mine may be denounced 
 by another. 
 
 Article XIV, same title, declares : That any one may discover 
 and denounce a vein or mine, not only in common land but also in 
 the private lands of any individual, provided he pays for the land 
 of wnieh he occupies the surface, and the damage which immedi- 
 ately ensues therefrom, according to the valuation of the experts 
 appointed by both parties, and a third in case of disagreement. 
 
 Article 11, Title IX, provides : That no one shall be permitted 
 to work mines, without the direction and continual assistance of one 
 of the intelligent and practical experts who in New Spain are called 
 Mineros or Guarda-minas, who must be examined, licensed and af- 
 firmed by one of the professors of mining, which each Seal or Asiento 
 must have. 
 
 Article XIII, same title, declares : That as mines require to be 
 worked continually and incessantly in order to procure their 
 metals, and as they require in them works and operations whicli 
 can be executed only in a long time, and as their re-establishment, 
 if ttieir working be suspended and interrupted, will cost as much as 
 in their original undertaking, — ^therefore, to obviate this inconveni- 
 ence, and also to prevent any owners of mines who cannot or will 
 not work them, from keeping them without use, and for a long time 
 impeding by pretended working, the real and effective labor which 
 others might bestow upon them, I order and command that any one 
 who shall for four consecutive months fail to work a mine with four 
 operatives regularly employed and occupied in-some interior or ex- 
 terior work of real utility and advantage, shall thereby forfeit the 
 right which he may have to the mine, and it shall belong to the de- 
 nouncer who proves its desertion. 
 
 Article X, same title, declares : That no mine shall be abandoned 
 without first informing the deputation of the district, in order that 
 it may be published by fixing notices on the doors of the churches 
 and other accustomed places, so that all may have notice tliereof. 
 
 Article II, Title XIX, grants in favor of scientific professors of 
 mining the privileges of nobility in order that all persons who de- 
 vote themselves to this important profession and occupation may be 
 considered and treated with all the distinction due to so noble a pro- 
 fession. 
 
 According to Escriche, the laws of Spain passed prior to 1821 and 
 the laws of Mexico passed since that date have not changed the fun- 
 damental j)rinciples laid down in the ordinances of the 22d of 
 May, 1783, in relation to the ownership of mines and the manner of 
 acquiring title thereto; hence tliese ordinances have been in force 
 in Mexico since the date of their passage in 1783, tlie Mexican min- 
 ing laws passed since the year 1821 not having essentially changed 
 the spirit tliereof. 
 
 From the foregoing it is manifest that under the laws and royal 
 ordinances of Spain, from very early times down to the date of the 
 independence of Mexico, and under the mining laws of Mexico down 
 to the publication of the new edition of Escriche (1869), tlie miner 
 could acquire no absolute title or fee in any mine discovered by him 
 in any part of the Mexican territory, the usufruct thereof being all 
 that was granted him by the government, and this under such re- 
 gulations, instructions, and conditions as were imposed by law; and 
 when these conditions were not complied with, the right to work 
 the mine was lost, and could be acquired by any one else who might 
 undertake to comply with the conditions and regulations insepara- 
 ble from the privilege of working mines. The Spanish and Mexi- 
 can Governments, in granting lands in Mexico, never in terras re- 
 served the minerals contained therein, for the reason that under the 
 constitutional laws they were reserved by and for the government. 
 For this reason, in the many grants of land made by Spanish and 
 Mexican authorities in Sonora, as well as in California, no mention 
 is made of minerals. 
 
 Pastoral and mining pursuits were separate branches of industry, 
 and in a certain sense independent of each other. Both were cher- 
 ished and protected by the government. To the grazier and agri- 
 culturist was granted so much of the soil as he had means to occupy 
 and improve, together with such appurtenances thereto as were ne- 
 cessary to make the occupation of the soil possible and the use 
 thereof valuable ; and to the miner were granted the minerals he 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 687 
 
 might discover in the soil and the usufruct of the mine in which 
 they were found. But to neither of these parties was the grant un- 
 conditional. To the grazier were granted lands on condition that 
 he occupied them usefully to himself and to the government, and 
 the abandonment thereof was followed by a forfeiture of title, in 
 which case the land reverted to the government to be re-granted to 
 a more industrious applicant. To the miner was granted the ex- 
 clusive right to work tlie mine he might have discovered, on condi- 
 tion that he observe certain rules and regulations established by 
 law and paid to the government a certain portion of the products of 
 the mine ; a violation of these conditions was also followed by a 
 forfeiture of such title as he possessed, the usufruct of the mine re- 
 verting to the government to be re-granted to a more vigilant and 
 " honest miner." 
 
 The objects of the government in granting lands for settlement 
 were the increase of the wealth and population of the country, the 
 spread of the holy Catholic faith, and the extension of the power of 
 the Spanish monarchy ; and the motive that induced the granting 
 of privileges to miners was that the royal treasury might be sup- 
 plied with American gold. No grants of lands or mines were ever 
 made by the Government of Spain or Mexic9 for speculative pur- 
 poses. It is true that the lands were sometimes granted as a reward 
 for distinguished services, but in all other cases on condition of oc- 
 cupation. 
 
 From a careful consideration of the foregoing laws and ordi- 
 nances, as well as of the usages and customs of Spain and Mexico, I 
 am forced to the conclusions : 
 
 First. That the grantee of land under the Spanish and Mexican 
 Governments acquired no title to the minerals contained in the 
 granted land. 
 
 Second. That the title to the minerals contained in the tract 
 granted remained in the government notwithstanding the grant of 
 the land. 
 
 Third. That under the Spanish and Mexican laws and ordinances 
 any one had a right to "dig" in search of minerals, under certain 
 conditions, on his own lands or on those belonging to individuals or 
 private persons. 
 
 Fourth. That the Government of the United States under the 
 treaty of 1853 for the purchase of a portion of the territory of Sono- 
 ra succeeded to all the rights and obligations of the Mexican Gov- 
 ernment in relation to the ceded territory at the date of the treaty. 
 
 The result of the?e conclusions necessarily is : That since our 
 government succeeded to all the rights and obligations of the Mex- 
 can Government in relation to the ceded territory it is bound by 
 the treaty to recognize and confirm all rights, titles and privileges, 
 which had been granted by that government to private individuals 
 prior to the cession of the territory, and to carry out the intentions 
 of the Mexican Government toward these having ownership in lands 
 and mines precisely a« if th ere had been no change of sovereignty^. It is 
 therefore clear to my mind that any one has at present a right to 
 prospect for minerals on such portions of the ceded territory as may 
 have been granted by the Mexican Governmant to private individ- 
 uals, and a right to work any mines that may be found on said lands, 
 undsr no more onerous conditions than the reasonable ones imposed 
 by the mining laws of Mexico. See Article XIV., Title II., Or- 
 dinances May 22d, 1783, heretofore cited. 
 
 — A cfmmmnicationfrom John Wasson, U. S. Surveyor-general, Report Public 
 Lands Commis&wn. 
 
 THE DEBRIS QUESTION. 
 
 VERY few of our Eastern people interested in min- 
 ing know anything concerning "the Debris 
 question, a question that has agitated California 
 in the past and threatens her peace for many years 
 to Come. Consequently what follows here will be read with 
 deep interest. We begin with some historical matter. 
 
 The territory of the ancient Roman empire was situated 
 chiefly in the principal and secondary basins of the Medit- 
 erranean, and embracing all of Southern Europe, Northern 
 Africa, and Asia Minor, together with Persia and the remoter 
 East, which may be comprised in this general survey, it in- 
 cluded a surface larger than that of all Europe, and at one 
 time or other may have supported a population scarcely less 
 numerous. At the present day this portion of the earth is 
 nearly altogether withdrawn from human use ; it is_ sub- 
 stantially a desert. The causes of this extraordinary 
 desolation are attributed chiefly to disafforesting, and to 
 those destructive forces which operate upon the earth 
 when it is deprived of a due extent of arboreal covering. 
 This disafforestation was largely due to the, mining opera- 
 tions of the early races. Not only were the aboriginal for- 
 ests cut down to supply fuel for smelting purposes, and 
 
 timbers to support the mining excavations, but their re- 
 growth was jjrevented by the ravages which mining com- 
 mitted upon the fertile portions of the land. These ravages, 
 however, operated as a more direct and perhaps important 
 source of the general devastation alluded to ; and mining for 
 the precious metals may, both directly and indirectly, be 
 regarded as the principal agent in the physical, and conse- 
 quently in the ultimate social, decay of Arabia, (Sabia, 
 Media, &c.), Asia Minor, Greece, Carthage, Spain, Italy, and 
 the Islands of the Mediterranean. In modern times the 
 sinister consequences of mining are to be traced in the des- 
 olation of many parts of Mexico, the Isthmus, and the 
 countries of South America, which were overrun by the 
 Spaniards and Portuguese. The desolation that befel the 
 countries of the Mediterranean now awaits those of the 
 Northern Pacific. In California, particularly, it is proceed- 
 ing at a rate that has already seriously damaged the face of 
 the country. 
 
 The process began with the opening of the placer mines, 
 when every part of the land suspected of containing gold 
 was torn up, ransacked, and left to the action of the rains, 
 which conveyed the sand and gravel into the rivers, and 
 strewed them over the arable valleys. The area of surface 
 thus torn up is estimated to have amounted in 1862 to 10, 
 000,000 acres.' At the present time it amounts to, perhaps, 
 more than double this area. Before the placers failed to in- 
 duce further explorations of this sort, hydraulic mining 
 came into vogue. This dates back so early as 1850.^ Streams 
 of considerable volume are diverted from their natural chan- 
 nels and conducted to great distances in canals or wooden 
 flumes, or sheet-iron pipes, and then directed against the 
 hills, or those vast level surfaces of ground which it is ne- 
 cessary to remove to reach the gold-bearing strata, or which 
 themselves contain deposits of the precious metals.' In 1867 
 there were 6,000 miles (including branches) of artificial 
 watercourses employed for mining purposes in California.* 
 It is estimated that up' to about the year 1870 some £4 
 000,000 had been expended in constructing mining ditches,* 
 and that the wooden flumes, of which the majority of 
 them consisted, do not last on the average more than six 
 to ten years." In 1871 the total number of mining ditches 
 was 516, their aggregate length 4,800 miles, and their 
 daily supply of water 171,000 miner's inches, each dis- 
 charging 94T^j^ths cubic feet an hour. Some of this water 
 is used for only ten hours a day, and all of it for only 
 seven months in the year. One hydraulic company, em- 
 ploying ten men at 16s. per day each, and 200 inches or 
 4,000 gallons of water, washed down 224,000 cubic feet of 
 earth in six days, and though there was only obtained from 
 it £600 in gold (about |ths of a penny to the cubic foot) 
 £470 of this was profit. Another company used 2,000 inches, 
 or 40,000 gallons of water for 100 days, and washed down 
 1,000,000 cubic yards of gravel (containing less than ith of 
 a penny to the cubic foot), and contained £6,400, of which 
 £2,400 was profit. The cube of earth washed down waS 
 1,100 feet long, 300 feet wide, and 80 feet deep. At the 
 present time, 1879, the number of mining ditches is 640 ; 
 their aggregate length, 6,585 miles ; the daily supply of water, 
 260,000 inches. As some ditches are used only ten hturs a 
 day, this is reckoned equal to 200,000 inches running twenty- 
 four hours a day. As on the average the mines can only be 
 worked so as to equal seven months of full time during the 
 year, the actual consumption of water is about 714,370 
 million gallons a year, or 1,956 million gallons for each and 
 every day. The present annual yield of gold in the State is 
 about £3,600,000 a year, of which one-third is from quartz 
 
 ' "U. S. Agricultural Report," 1862, p. 598. 
 
 2 Hittell's "Resources," p. 305. 
 
 ' Marsh, p. 632. It must be understood that the " gravel hills" 
 of California are the remains of ancient river beds. These hills 
 were once the bottoms of rivers, and the ancient enclosing hills and 
 high lands have been washed down to a level beneath them ; so 
 that the ancient bottoms have become hills. The existing streams, 
 such as the Yuba, cut through them, and expose their auriferous 
 deposits. The natural exposure is called a placer, where the larg- 
 est pieces of gold were found. Away from the river are the gravel 
 banks, which are now being washed into it by artificial streams of 
 water brought from distant mountains. 
 
 * "Rep. U. S. Mining Com.," 1870, p. 476. 
 
 5 Hittel'a " Resources," p. 306. 
 
 6 Ibid. 
 
688 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 mines, and the remainder from hydraulic mining and drift- 
 ing. The present rate of production from hydraulic min- 
 ing is expected to remain constant for a century or more 
 to come, with a slight tendency to increase during the 
 first twenty-five years. Naked hills and fertile soils are 
 alike washed away by the artificial torrents brought to these 
 mines, and the material removed — ^vegetable mould, sand, 
 gravel, pebbles — is carried down by the current, and often 
 spread over ground lying quite out of the reach of natural 
 inundations, burying it to the depth of sometimes twenty- 
 five feet. An orchard valued at £12,000, and another es- 
 timated at not less than £40,000j are stated to have been 
 thus sacrificed ; and a report from the Agricultural Bureau 
 at Washington computes the annual damage done by this 
 mode of mining at the incredible sum of £2,400,000.' The 
 subject having been brought to the attention of the Legisla- 
 ture of California a commission was appointed in the early 
 part of 1878 to investigate the matter. Among the testi- 
 mony given before it, as published in the newspapers, was 
 the following : — 
 
 On Bear river, 50,000 acres of land are liable to be ruined 
 by mining debris ; the channel of the river has been filled 
 up, and the water spreads all over the adjoining country ; 
 in some parts of the valley the debris is fifteen to twenty feet 
 deep ; the land covered by the dfibris, which consists of sand 
 and gravel, is entirely ruined; the railroad company has 
 been compelled to raise its bridge three times. On the 
 Yuba river 12,000 acres of good land had been destroyed 
 by mining debris ; this damage was estimated at £400,000. 
 In 1853 the Yuba was a clear stream ; it commenced shoal- 
 ing badly in 1857 ; near the mines the bed had been raised 
 150 feet. In 1874 the city of Marysville alone was damaged 
 to the extent of £100,000. So great is the mass of debris 
 already in the Yuba that if mining were stopped now the 
 sand would continue to come down the river for years. On 
 the Feather river the damage done was of the same cha- 
 racter and scarcely less extensive. With one exception the 
 witnesses thought that the remedy lay in the building of 
 levees. The exception was that of a banker of Marysville, 
 who had formerly been a miner, and had had much experi- 
 ence in the industry. He declared that the levees could 
 palliate but not cure the evil, and that this could only 
 be remedied by putting an end to mining.* 
 
 The Sacramento river commenced shoaling badly in 1853. 
 At Steamboat Slough, where there were formerly ten or 
 twelve feet of water, there were now but five. In other 
 places the water has decreased from five to six fathoms to 
 as many feet. Places where steamers ran in 1850 are now 
 dry land. San Pablo Bay has greatly shoaled. At the city of 
 Sacramento, the river has been lessened in depth 18 feet by 
 mining debris. A bar, nearly an island, has formed in Suisun 
 Bay. The harbor of San Francisco is being rapidly shoaled 
 by deposits washed down from the mines. As it is averred 
 that there is enough " pay dirt " in the gravel beds for a 
 century further of hydraulic mining with existing appli- 
 ances, it is quite evident that the witness Jewett is right. 
 In the course of a century there will scarcely be a gravel 
 hill, scarcely a trace of the ancient river bed left in the 
 State, and vast tracts of land will, by that time, have been 
 reduced to the condition of deserts of sand and stones 
 While gold mining has thus tended to bestrew the arable 
 lands, fill up the streams, and shoal the harbors of California, 
 silver mining has done much to deprive both that State and 
 Western Nevada of their forest trees. 
 
 " Before the devastating hand of the miner was laid upon 
 the timber of the foothills (of California) they formed one 
 of the most delightfully wooded regions of the continent, 
 overspread with a luxuriant carpet of grass and fiowers 
 from St. Patrick's day till the Fourth of July, and even later 
 in the summer. Disafforesting has done its work, and turned 
 them into a desert from the last of April till the first rains," 
 
 1 Marsh, p. 6^3. 
 
 2 Testimony of J. H. Jewett. Another witness, Col. Mendcll (a 
 civil engineer, much employed in large works on the Pacific coast) 
 stated that in his opinion from one-third to one-hnlf of the deposits 
 in the rivers and bays was occasioned by ploughing in agriculture. 
 A third witness, Mr. James O'Brien, a practical hy draulic miner 
 and a farmer, thought that about four-fifths of the debris came from 
 the mines, and one-fifth from ploughing ; and this opinion seems to 
 be supported by the general weight of the testimony. 
 
 about the month of November.' In a similar way the Si- 
 erras have been shorn of trees to timber the mines of 
 Nevada, the winter's fall of snow has been laid bare to the 
 sun's rays in spring, and the distribution of the waters 
 has been disturbed. Destructive freshets now annually 
 sweep through the valleys of California, and vast inunda- 
 tions cover the lowlands. In 1878 a considerable portion of 
 the Sacramento valley was under water, and the city of 
 Sacramento, the capital of the State, was flooded. The 
 damage to the buildings, roads, and movable property, can 
 only be reckoned in millions. 
 
 In short, a process of serious geographical injury is in 
 rapid progress. The bottoms of the rivers are so raised 
 above their former levels that a large proportion of the 
 arable lands, if not already reduced to the condition of 
 swamps, must soon become so, for no system of levees can 
 keep pace with the mass of debris capable of being de- 
 posited by the washings of ten thousand millions of gallons 
 of water a day ; and no diminution of this process is to be 
 looked for so long as it pays to remove a cubic foot of earth 
 which contains less than a farthing's worth of gold.* 
 
 — Compiled from Alexander Delmar's '" History of Precious MetaU" 
 
 The Great Evils of Hydratilic Mining. — Hydraulic 
 mining, a system of mining operation that wasa clever pro- 
 duct of American mining necessities has proved to have been 
 in addition to a source of good, one of evil. The vast de- 
 posits that the unconquerable energy of the placer miner 
 turned into the rivers of the West have been carried down- 
 wards to the Pacific and done in many ways much harm. 
 The State Engineer of California ascertained by actual sur- 
 veys in 1878 that 18,000 acres of valley land on the Yuba 
 liver, land that was once the finest bottom land in the 
 State had up to that year been destroyed and buried be- 
 neath the mining debris. This vast area had been trans- 
 formed from a country of magnificent pastures into a barren 
 desert of sand and slickings, alternating with impenetra- 
 ble jungles of willow swamps. A similar state of afiairs ex- 
 isted in the Bear river. 
 
 The Land Commission appointed by Congress in March 
 3, 1879, in the course of its investigations took up this 
 question of mining debris and examined a great many wit- 
 nesses. The testimony given before the Commission will 
 give the reader an insight into the magnitude and import- 
 ance of this subject. Mr. G. F. Allardt, civil and hydraulic 
 engineer of San Francisco, gave the following facts concern- 
 ing the matter : 
 
 Although these lands have been exposed to sunshine and 
 rain for years they produce not a blade of grass, nothing 
 but willows and kindred semi-aquatic plants that derive 
 their nourishment chiefly from the stratum of water perco- 
 lating underneath the surface, and not from the soil itself. 
 From the beginning of hydraulic mining down to the pres- 
 ent time the enormous aggregate of 162,000,000 of cubic 
 yards of material has been sluiced out of the hydraulic 
 mines into the Yuba and its tributaries, while the amount 
 now retained in the ri^er above the valley, or lodged in the 
 canyons, will not exceed 12,000,000 cubic yards. This we 
 have from actual surveys. Thus, 150,000,000 cubic yards of 
 solid material have passed the foot-hills and have been de- 
 posited on the bottom lands of the Yuba into the waters of 
 the Feather and Sacramento Rivers, the bays of Suisun and 
 San Pablo, and finally into the Bay of San JFrancisco. (One 
 company alone, the Excelsior Hydraulic Mining Company 
 at Smartsville, admit in a published circular that they have 
 sluiced 1,800,000 cubic yards into the Yuba.) To present 
 to the mind this enormous mass of 150,000,000 cubic yards 
 of material in a more familiar form, it may be stated that 
 such a mass deposited on a farm of 160 acres would cover it 
 to a depth of 581 feet ; or, if spread evenly one foot in depth, 
 would cover 93,000 acres or 145 square miles of land, and 
 absolutely destroy the same for agricultural or any other 
 purposes. 
 
 The bed of the Yuba at Marysville is now filled up to the 
 level of the streets of that city, where prior to the era of 
 
 ' "San Francisco Chronicle," Feb. 20, 1878. 
 
 ' This ratio is obtained from the actual experience of several of 
 the hydraulic mines. The general average, however, is somewhat 
 higher. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 689 
 
 hydraulic mining there was a well-defined channel of clear 
 water from 20 to 25 feet in depth. The authorities of Marys- 
 ville have jast closed a contract amounting to upwards of 
 $50,000 for raising its levees and protecting the city from the 
 further encroachments of the mining debris. The Feather 
 and Sacramento Rivers have shoaled in a lesser degree, but 
 still sufficiently to almost destroy their usefulness as high- 
 ways of commerce. A resurvey of Suisun Bay recently 
 made under the direction of the United States Coast Sur- 
 vey Department has developed the fact that tules are now 
 growing at points where fifteen years ago there were several 
 fathoms of water. The complete filling up of this bay is a 
 mere question of a few short years, after which San Pablo 
 Bay will become the next settling reservoir, to be fol- 
 lowed, finally, by the rapid shoaling of San Francisco Bay, 
 and the eventual destructiou of its harbor. This result is 
 sure to follow, the laws of nature make them inevitable, 
 unless, indeed, hydraulic mining be discontinued or unless 
 some adequate works be constructed for arresting the tail- 
 ings before they reach the valleys or enter the navigable 
 waters of the State. On this head our survey has given us 
 sufficient data to warrant the belief that such works are not 
 only feasible, but entirely within the bounds of a reasonable 
 expenditure of money. 
 
 Now, as to the present condition of the Yuba and its hy- 
 draulic mines. It is admitted that during the dry season 
 17,000 miner's inches of water are used daily by the hy- 
 draulic mines of the Yuba, and that such miner's inch re- 
 moves not less than three cubic yards of material in twenty- 
 four hours. This gives a daily total of 51,000 cubic yards. 
 Fully one-half of this amount is held in suspension by the 
 running waters, and carried down the river in the shape of 
 muddy water, or more correctly speaking, in the shape of 
 liquid mud, and is deposited as before stated, partly on the 
 bottom lands of the Yuba and partly in the rivers and bays 
 beyond. That is to say, and I wish to emphasize this fact, 25,- 
 000 cubic yards of earth and sand, say 43,750 tons, are daily 
 poured from the mountains into the valleys by the hydraulic 
 miners. To use a familiar illustration, suppose it were re- 
 quired to transport this amount on railroad cars ; it would 
 take one hundred and ten trains of forty cars each (one train 
 every thirteen minutes) to accomplish the daily task. In 
 the rainy season more water is used and correspondently 
 more material is sent down ; moreover, the winter freshets 
 invariably clean out the canyons and sweep away the heavier 
 material that has accumulated at the mining dumps during 
 the low stages of the river. The lighter material runs down 
 with the stream, the heavier material rolls along the bottom 
 with varying velocities, depending on the height and vol- 
 ume of the freshets, and in due course of time finds its way to 
 the level reaches of the river in the foot-hills and the valley. 
 
 It is estimated on competent authority that there yet re- 
 mains between the South and Middle Yubas 700,000,000 
 cubic yards of known gold-bearing gravel deposits. At the 
 present rate of hydraulicing this will be worked out in 
 about forty years. The hydraulic miners contend that it 
 can be worked successfully only by the present hydraulic 
 method. As it is well known, however, that the gold-bear- 
 ing stratum in these mines, the " pay-streak," as it is called, is 
 usually at the bottom of the deposits, next to the bed-rock, 
 and that the largest masses of superincumbent earth seldom, 
 if ever, pay working expenses, it may seem pertinent to in- 
 quire just here whether the hydraulic method is really the 
 only and the most economical process, and whether the 
 method of drift mining would not average more remunera- 
 tive results. The drift miner, namely, runs his tunnel 
 through and along this pay-streak, and brings to the light 
 the pay-gravel only, from which he extracts the gold in the 
 usual hydraulic way. As all excavations are done by man- 
 ual labor with pick and shovel, the debris arising from that 
 source is necessarily limited in amount. At a liberal esti- 
 mate the material taken out of all the drift mines on the 
 Yubas will not exceed a half million cubic yards, the 
 greater portion of which being heavy material remains in 
 the dumps at the mouths of the tunnels and never reaches 
 the water-courses. There are quite a number of so-called 
 drift mines in successful operation in the Yuba belt, some 
 of exceeding richness, notably those on Bald Mountain at 
 Forest City. It is officially reported that the gravel extract- 
 ed averages over $3 per cubic yard. 
 44 
 
 Quartz mining is also an industry of growing importance 
 in this section. It consists in exploiting a gold-bearing 
 quartz lode, crushing the quartz in a stamp mill, and obtain- 
 ing the gold by means of amalgamating pans. One of the 
 largest and most productive quartz mines in the State is the 
 "Sierra Buttes," near Sierra City, on the north fork of the 
 Yuba. Over three hundred men are steadily employed in 
 and about this mine. The tailings from quartz mines are 
 inconsiderable, and their efiect upon the flow of the rivers 
 is scarcely appreciable. It remains to mention still another 
 method of gold mining known as river mining, or the re- 
 working of the old tailings in the river-beds. This class of 
 mining is confined almost exclusively to the Chinamen ; it 
 creates no debris, but merely shifts it from place to place, 
 and does not, therefore, enter as a factor in the debris prob- 
 lem. Much weight has been laid by the miners on the im- 
 portance of hydraulic mining in supporting a large popula- 
 tion, alleged to exceed one hundred thousand inhabitants. 
 This figure is undoubtedly exaggerated. According to my 
 observation, the total number of workmen actually employ- 
 ed in the hydraulic mines of the Yubas does not exceed 
 1,500 all told, three-fourths of which number, probably, are 
 Chinamen, the white men being engaged only for the higher 
 grades of labor. It is but fair to name the Excelsior Min- 
 ing Company of Smartsville, as an honorable exception to 
 this custom, all of its employes being white men, most of 
 them men of family. On the other hand, the number 
 of men employed in the quartz and drift mines is very 
 large, all of them, with few exceptions, being white work- 
 men. The Sierra Buttes Company, for instance, employs 
 three hundred men ; the Derbec Company, near North 
 Bloomfield, about one hundred ; the Bald Mountain mines 
 support a community of over eight hundred souls. Grass 
 Valley and Nevada City, with a joint population of some 
 ten thousand, depend almost exclusively on their quartz 
 mining industry. 
 
 In this paper I have confined my remarks mainly to the 
 mines in the Yuba belt, yet there are many extensive hy- 
 draulic mines in operation on the Feather, Bear, American, 
 and Mokelumne Rivers, all of which are constantly pour- 
 ing their tailings into those rivers, thus contributing their 
 quota toward destroying the farming lands and shoaling the 
 navigable waters of the State. Viewing the whole subject 
 of mining debris in its various bearings, and fully recogniz- 
 ing the magnitude of the hydraulic mining industry, and 
 the vast amount of capital invested, yet a candid and im- 
 partial observer must necessarily arrive at the following 
 general conclusions : 
 
 1st. The process of hydraulic mining is destroying the best 
 agricultural lands of the State. 
 
 2d. It is threatening the very existence of the cities of 
 Marysville and Sacramento. 
 
 3d. It is rapidly shoaling the navigable waters of the 
 State, and, if continued, will eventually destroy the harbor 
 of San Francisco. 
 
 4th. Hydraulic mining, from its very nature, is destruc- 
 tive and ephemeral, and can never become a permanent or 
 desirable industry in any community. 
 
 5th. It is chiefly in the hands of rich and powerful corpora- 
 tions who monopolize water privileges and thereby control 
 all the contiguous mining ground, to the exclusion of the 
 citizen miner of limited means. 
 
 6th. As the water is made to perform the principal work 
 of the process, the number of laborers employed can never 
 be large. 
 
 7th. Justice to the farming interest, the public safety and 
 welfare, alike demand that in future the hydraulic miners 
 be compelled by law to take care of their tailings by means 
 of dams or settling reservoirs, from which the water will re- 
 turn to its proper channel in a condition of comparative 
 purity. 
 
 Mr. V. G. Bell, of French Corral, Nevada County, Cali- 
 fornia, a resident of California since 1857, thus spoke of the 
 subject : 
 
 Practically, in this matter of debris there is not sufficient 
 account taken of the material collected in the river during 
 the early raining in the State. In the first place mining 
 that was done in the State was, as a matter of course, done 
 in the caflons arid gorges, and this went on for some years 
 before the hydraulic mining process came into vogue. I 
 
690 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 think it was in 1854 that the first hydraulic mining I know 
 of was done. Prior to that time mining had heen going on 
 in the gorges and on the surface altogether, and a lot of al- 
 luvial material was already removed and stored up, and after 
 the hydraulic process came into use the principal part of 
 the mining had been completed. The first season that we 
 had a flow of tailings or debris was in 1862-'63. All old 
 Californians will recollect that that was a very heavy season 
 and it rained very hard, and the floods ensuing therefrom 
 brought down the whole of this light substance and depos- 
 ited it in the beds of the streams. That was the first year 
 the Bear and Yuba Rivers were flooded up above their 
 banks. This accumulation of course came from all this 
 washing that had been going on from 1849 up to that time. 
 This light material had accumulated to a considerable 
 extent, but still the floods of 1862-63 concentrated it and 
 run it down and filled up the rivers and spoiled all the good 
 farming land that there was in the country, which in our 
 section — in Yuba and Nevada Counties — was the bottom 
 land. Outside of the bottom land we did not then consider 
 the land of any value whatever. In fact it seems strange to 
 me that there is farming land in the country. I, as a miner, 
 always looked upon it as a mining country, and I would not 
 have taken a thousand acres of land lying between Marys- 
 ville and Sacramento as a gift, because I looked upon it as 
 a mining country. After the flood of 1862-63 the debris 
 covered up all that I considered farming land. This red 
 land that we supposed of no value for farming has turned 
 out to be a very good farming land. Since the floods of 
 1862-'63, hydraulic mining ha? improved and got the more 
 modern appliances, and facilities for that kind of mining 
 have increased. They have run long, expensive tunnels to 
 the bottom of the channels, but during the mining of the 
 early days the tops were being washed off' and it was the 
 light material from the surface and the gorge diggings that 
 went down. Now we are running off the bottom, and it is 
 just as much as we can do to remove this heavy, rocky ma- 
 terial from the mines, and when we shove it through to 
 the river there it stops, and whereas the floods of early days 
 carried down thousands of yards of material there is now 
 really only a very small percentage that is being washed 
 down. It has practically ceased, on account of the heavy 
 nature of the material. There, are large fields for hydrau- 
 lic mining and there is still a great deal of this top material 
 which may come in, but at the same time a very large pro- 
 portion of it was washed off at an early day, and we are 
 now mining the heavy material at the bottom. The Milton 
 Mining and Water Company during the last mining season 
 spent $40,000 in giant powder to blow up the banks and 
 blast and break the rocks; so that you can imagine some- 
 thing of the kind of work that we have to do in order to 
 break up the rock and break up the material so as to get 
 it into and through the sluices. 
 
 Mr. W. H. Drum, of Marysville, California, also a resi- 
 dent since 1857, furnished his experience with the sediment 
 from the rivers : 
 
 In 1857 1 bought a piece of bottom land on the Yuba, and 
 paid a pretty good price, because I thought it was the best 
 land I had ever seen. When I bought there, the banks of the 
 Yuba were from 20 to 22 feet high at low-water. The 
 stream was clear, with plenty of salmon-fish everywhere. 
 My piece of land was two miles from Bear River, and I had 
 no difficulty with the water. The high water of 1853 barely 
 came out of the river channels, over the banks, and filled a 
 few of the smallest sloughs, but it never came up to the 
 ridges. We got no sediment here, as we call it, until 1862. 
 In that year our water was very high, and it covered the 
 whole bottom, in some places 6 feet deep , but it was com- 
 paratively clear in appearance. Yet when it went down we 
 found large banks of sand and much of sediment. The cur- 
 rent of the Bear River was rapid. After the fine stuff had 
 passed down, the deposit left was chiefly sand, and not a 
 great deal of it. The first flood left very little, but the 
 succeeding ones, afterwards, left more of it. This has kept 
 going on, from time to time, as the river grew riley and thick 
 with mud, during the winters, until it has now covered the 
 bottoms. I had about 1,030 acres, and it has covered them. 
 It has been doing that now, from time to time, until it has 
 reached the height of 25 feet. All my places are level. I 
 
 was over there a year ago, looking for some wild cattle I had 
 in the waste, and I could just trace the line of the telegraph 
 poles. The land has filled up within a few feet of the top 
 of the telegraph poles. I am satisfied that it was not so 
 deep as on the other side. It was only from 12 to 20 feet 
 deep all through that body of land. I had about 90 acres 
 that I protected with levees; the remainder was destroyed 
 eight years ago. In 1875 these 90 acres which I protected 
 with levees were destroyed; the water flowed over the levees 
 and filled the ground over 4 or 5 feet. It did not destroy 
 the levees, but flowed over them, thus destroying the remain- 
 der of my land. I had a garden, fenced with a strong fence 
 and posts. The tops of these posts have been five feet 
 under for the past six years. They destroyed all my land. 
 My house was 20 feet above the low-water mark in the river, 
 and last winter the water was up to the top of and around 
 the house, and left a sediment of 8 inches. My buildings 
 all sit there still, but they are useless. It cost me $3,500 to 
 put them there, and I had to go away and leave them on 
 that land. I raised 94 bushels and 34 pounds of wheat to 
 the acre on that land. That was a sworn statement before 
 the agricultural fair. I had raised 103 bushels of barley 
 per acre. I raised the first grain that was grown this side 
 of Sacramento. All that land has been destroyed ; it is 
 nothing but a swamp now, and you cannot go into it to-day. 
 If I had that land to-day, in good condition, it would be 
 worth $175,000. It is stripped three miles wide and twenty- 
 two miles long. The water has now got up so that the levees 
 will not prevent it from spreading over ten miles ; that is, 
 the snow-water that comes down ; and the water is at times 
 2 feet above the highland. It is only the levees that pro- 
 tect it from the land, and when it breaks the levees it runs 
 at random over the plains for five miles. If we had the 
 water come down as it did in 1862, I think it would sweep 
 these levees by the board, and the water would come from 
 the foot-hills at Auburn to the Sacramento River. I do not 
 believe there would be any land that would not be under 
 water. The water ran at that time 6 feet over the land, and 
 the current there was rapid ; but now it runs slowly and the 
 channel is entirely obliterated. No man can now tell 
 where the old original channel of the river was. The coun- 
 try then was covered with farms ; now it is a wilderness of 
 willow trees, through which a man would have difficulty in 
 finding his way. There was not a shrub on the land then 3 
 feet high where it was cultivated, and that was the case with 
 all the land around here. There was the Briggs orchard, 
 which was supposed to be worth $300,000. It is not worth 
 anything now. Hundreds of cords of wood were cut off it 
 a few years ago. There was no willow on it in 1862. There 
 were a great many trees in his orchard, and he made a great 
 deal of money out of it, until the debris came, when it was 
 destroyed. It is now a wilderness of willows. 
 
 I have found this deposit to be no less than a poison. I 
 have experimented with it for twelve years, and I have not 
 been able to do anything with it. In five years they must 
 put other levees where the levees are now, because the debris 
 is rising 2 feet a year. Opposite the mainland there are 
 four different channels. In this sandy waste, where nothing 
 will grow, the sand is about 26 feet deep, and perhaps SO 
 feet. There were formerly only one channel where there 
 are now four. The debris fills in and the water cuts another 
 channel. In some places in cutting new channels buildings 
 are swept away. This riley water will weigh 11 pounds to 
 the gallon, while clear water only weighs 8 pounds. In the 
 surtimer time it is heavier and thicker. In summer it will 
 weigh 12 pounds to the gallon ; that was the difficulty with 
 the levees last year. Their owners calculated for the winter 
 water, and the summer water was too heavy for them to with- 
 stand it, and their levees were destroyed." I have tested it 
 often in different ways ; I have fought the water year after 
 year, and it has driven me steadily back, until I have lost 
 all my land. I have put in crop after crop, and the water 
 would steadily destroy them, until I was driven away. 
 Many other persons, like myself, have spent many yeara on 
 their farms and have built levees, but when a freshet came 
 they would be destroyed also. 
 
 I am well acquainted with Feather River and have been 
 for twenty years. It has filled 8 feet. There is not so much 
 mining on that river. The greatest damage is done on the 
 Feather, Yuba, Bear, and American Rivers. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 691 
 
 George Ohleyer, residing in Yuba City, California, made 
 the following statement : 
 
 I have lived on Yuba River from 1858 to 1865, and since 
 then I have lived in Sutter County. I was living there be- 
 fore there was any trouble from hydraulic mining and before 
 there was any hydraulic mining, a man, or anything on the 
 Yuba River, about four miles from Yuba City. My occu- 
 pation was farming and threshing. In early days people 
 did not want the high plains here, they being very dry and 
 worthless as farming lands ; so consequently everybody ap- 
 plied for a piece of bottom land ; the result was that this Yuba 
 valley was thickly settled from the left of Yuba to the foot- 
 hills. I am not positive as to distance, but I think it was 
 eleven or twelve miles. This valley bottom land, I should 
 judge, was an average of two-and-a half miles wide. It 
 was thickly settled and was as iine land as I ever saw. In 
 many places it was cultivated right up to the banks of the 
 river and was cultivated along its entire length. I think 
 there was, on an average, a family with hired help, &c., or 
 perhaps twenty-five or thirty persons to the square mile. To- 
 day there is not a foot of one levee on these farms, the peo- 
 ple have abandoned the farms, many of them have died, and 
 others have moved away because they have nothing left. 
 During the years 1858-61 I threshed on both sides of the 
 river, from the mouth of the Yuba River to the foot-hills. 
 I threshed wheat, barley, and oats all along, and could raise 
 corn and vegetables too. All these farms have pretty good 
 buildings on them. The buildings were mostly frame build- 
 ings — some of them had fine two-story houses and three- 
 story ones, different and similar houses, and they had barns, 
 which were very well fenced, and had very expensive or- 
 chards and vineyards. The land if recovered to-day on a 
 reasonable view of it, in consideration of the orchards and 
 vineyards, would be worth $100 per acre. Some of the 
 grain might not be worth, were one exchanging hands, 
 $100 per acre. A portion of this land, which was covered 
 with buildings then, is now covered with sand. I made a 
 statement before on this subject to the committee, and I 
 will read the following statement which I made and which 
 was printed in one of our newspapers, showing the immense 
 losses that had been sustained by farmers in the river val- 
 leys by the inundations of sand, water and sediment at that 
 time. They are as follows : 
 
 Twenty-four sections of land destroyed on the Yuba River 
 
 —15,300 acres— valued at $200 per acre . .... $3,072,000 
 
 Personal property and improvements .... 3,000,000 
 
 Loss and depreciation of property in Marysville . . 2,000,000 
 
 Destruction on Feather River 500,000 
 
 Eighteen sections on Bear River- 11,520 acres— valued at $100 
 
 per acre 1,162,000 
 
 Destruction in Yuba County 
 
 9,724,000 
 
 Assessed value of all property in Yubi County for 1875 . . . 5,025,720 
 Assessed value of all mining property in Yuba County in 1875 298,000 
 
 Destruction of property in Sutter County : 
 
 Eighteen sections of land on Bear River — 11,520 acres, valued 
 
 at 8100 per acre ... . 1,152,000 
 
 Personal and improvements • 1,000,000 
 
 Destruction in southern portions of the county, Coon Creek, 
 
 and Anourn Ravine . . . . 500.000 
 
 On Feather River on both sides . . . . . 500,000 
 
 Total in Sutter County .... . . 3,152,000 
 
 This rather underestimates. Since then this backwater 
 that has been spoken of has injured on Feather River all my 
 land above the confluence with the Yuba River. Below 
 there are many fine orchards that are totally ruined, and 
 below as far as the mouth of the Feather River two millions 
 are almost ruifted. It is unsafe to do anything with them. 
 These we attempted to farm, and, having continuous loss of 
 money, most of them failed financially in trying to do 
 anything with the two millions on Feather River. Total in 
 Sutter County, $3,152,000. I also estimated that the amount 
 already spent by the building of levees to protect what was 
 then not wholly destroyed, $1,000,000, and I claim that at that 
 time the levee works were still protecting property that was 
 worth $20,000,000. They had attempted to keep out Feather 
 River at very great expense, but in many places the levee is 
 all blanks, and if it keeps on filling as it has for the last 
 few years we must levee, or we would have to keep building 
 artificial banks, or it will overrun us. 
 
 Mr. L. L. Robinson furnished the commission with some 
 comparisons of values between the hydraulic mining inter- 
 ests and the damaged lands : 
 
 As to the relative value of farming lands injured by debris 
 from the gravel mines compared with the value of the 
 mines, I desire to state it is a very small percentage. The 
 debris (so called) from the gravel mines alone is not as in- 
 jurious to farming land as is the case with the tailings from 
 quartz mines and mills, which are poured in large quanti- 
 ties from these sources into the rivers, as the quartz does 
 not decompose, whereas the material held in suspense in the 
 rivers from the gravel washing, after, it is deposited on the 
 land in the main valleys, will in a few years make excellent 
 arable land. The industry of hydraulic mining or, as it 
 might properly be called, gravel mining, is a very large and 
 important one in the following counties : Stanislaus, Tuo- 
 lumne, Calaveras, Amador, El Dorado, Placer, Nevada, 
 Sierra, Plumas, Butte, Yuba, Shasta, Siskiyou, Del Norte, 
 Trinity, and Kalamath. In these counties, and connected 
 directly or indirectly with gravel mining in various ways, at 
 least $100,000,000 has been invested. The most important 
 branch of gravel mining is done by what is known as the 
 hydraulic process. I am personally interested in two mines 
 of this kind, and have been for the past fourteen years. In 
 these two mines, the North Bloomfield and Milton, situated 
 in Nevada County, about $4,000,000 was invested, taking 
 over ten years to get them in complete working operations. 
 In connection with these two mines we have driven, through 
 hard rock, over four miles of tunnel to reach the gravel, the 
 largest single tunnel being nearly two miles in length, con- 
 structed at a cost of nearly $600,000. One of these mines, 
 the North Bloomfield, is supplied with about 3,000 miner's 
 inches, or 65,000,000 gallons of water per day of twenty- 
 four hours the year through. The miner's inch of water is 
 2,230 cubic feet, that will flow in a day of twenty-four hours. 
 This is regulated by an opening an inch square, with a pres- 
 sure above the opening of six inches. We settled that two 
 years ago by a large series of experiments. The water is 
 brought from a reservoir in the high Sierra Nevadas, 46 
 miles, through a canal across a most difficult country, at a 
 cost of over half a million of dollars. This reservoir, which 
 consists of two stone dams, one of which is nearly 100 feet 
 high, having a storage of 1,000,000,000 cubic feet of water, 
 was constructed at a cost of $250,000. The other mine, 
 called the Milton, is supplied with about 50,000,000 gallons 
 of water per day, brought 76 miles over a very rough section 
 of mountain country from a reservoir near the summit of 
 the Sierras. The reservoir, which is formed by three stone 
 dams, one of which is among the highest in the world, being 
 nearly 150 feet in height, will hold 900,000,000 cubic feet of 
 water. In the mines of these two companies alone there is 
 used yearly about 1,750,000 miner's inches of water. Each 
 inch of water is equivalent to 2,230 cubic feet. The amount 
 of gravel moved per year by this quantity of water, used as 
 we use it, under a pressure varying from 275 to 400 feet, 
 through nozzzles varying from 6 to 9 inches in diameter, 
 against gravel banks varying from 50 to 400 feet in height, 
 will amount to about 6,000,000 cubic yards, and the gross 
 yield of gold is about $1,000,000 per year, averaging about 
 20 cents per cubic yard, or 55 to 60 cents per inch of water 
 used. The yield of gold from the gravel mines of this 
 State is about $12,000,000 yearly, averaging about $1,000,000 
 per month. This yield will continue for the next forty or 
 fifty years to come from this source alone. I do not think it 
 will increase materially, from the fact that the water supply 
 is limited. Nor do I think that the mining machinery and 
 appliances employed at present can be materially enlarged 
 or increased with economy in results. The machinery and 
 appliances connected with this class of mining has about 
 reached its maximum. On the western slope of the Sierras 
 there are some eight or ten counties where gravel mining is 
 the principal industry. The number of such mines, includ- 
 ing hydraulic, drift, placer, and river, is very great. At least 
 100,000 persons derive their support, directly or indirectly, 
 from this kind of mining. To stop it would depopulate 
 nine or ten of our most prosperous counties, ruin a large 
 proportion of our State population, and load down the bal- 
 ance of the State with taxes which they would be unable to 
 bear, and would be most disastrous in all ways. 
 
 The damage to the lower rivers, bays, and harbor, caused 
 
692 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 by gravel mining, has been very much exaggerated. Much 
 the largest portion of the material filling our harbor comes 
 from the operations of the farmers and other causes, and not 
 from the operations of the miners at all. The mining rivers, 
 as they are called, from the gravel mines to their debouch- 
 ment into the plains, have been filled up to a great extent 
 by the operations of the miners, both gravel and quartz ; but 
 even this filling is aided by natural causes. As to the dam- 
 age caused to the lower rivers, bays, and harbors, by filling, 
 the acts and doings of the farmers and others contribute 15 
 cubic yards or more where the miners contribute one. In 
 our light soils, upon land at all rolling or inclined and not 
 absolutely level, the constant yearly degradation is very 
 great. And when it is remembered that the area draining 
 in our lower bays and harbors covers nearly 60,000 square 
 miles, it is not to be wondered at that a large amount of 
 material is constantly being poured into them. The gen- 
 eral impression is that all the vast amount of material de- 
 posited in our lower rivers and bays is from the hydraulic 
 mines, when the fact is that their operations have but a 
 very slight effect upon this filling. In early times in Cali- 
 fornia, before the country was occupied by the Americans, 
 the population was quite limited and scattered. The land 
 was held in large tracts, and was only used for grazing. Our 
 present system of cultivation was unknown, and the surface 
 of the ground was rarely or never broken up by the plow of 
 the farmer. It was protected from washing by the grass 
 roots, and the amount of material washed into the rivers was 
 very limited in quantity ; so much so that very little of it 
 ever reached the harbor. Since farming has been carried 
 on by our people upon its present large and increasing scale 
 and area, the yearly increase in the amount of material 
 pouring into the rivers and bays has steadily and rapidly 
 increased, until it has attained such vast proportions as to 
 cause great fears for the future. During the winter months 
 the streams running into the bays and lower rivers are thick 
 with mud. I should say that the degradation of the surface 
 of the country occupied solely by the farmer has been in- 
 creased, since farming was first commenced in California, 
 say since 1850, from ten to fifty times, depending upon soil 
 and locality. Other causes are also tending to shoal our 
 harbor aud its entrance. The most important, perhaps, of 
 these causes are the sewerage and waste from our city and 
 the operations of the railroad company on the Oakland 
 shore. This work is perhaps as injurious, if not more so, 
 than other single causes, for they are not only depositing a 
 very large quantity of new material in the bay, but it is 
 done in such a direction and manner as to cause the rapid 
 shoaling of a large area of San Francisco Bay, diminishing 
 its tidal area, with a consequent injury to our harbor. These 
 grave results, which appear to be inevitable, are certainly 
 not caused by the miners, for their contribution is but a 
 very small percentage of the injury from all other sources. 
 We can measure with much certainty the results of mining 
 operations, and particularly so with hydraulic mining, as in 
 this class of mining our knowledge is derived from close ob- 
 servation and experience. There is used per year in hy- 
 draulic mining not exceeding 10,000,000 miner's inches of 
 water (each inch representing 2,230 cubic feet). This quan- 
 tity of water used under the hydraulic system of mining 
 will move not exceeding 30,000,000 cubic yards of gravel. 
 Of this amount at least 95 per cent, is lodged in the canyons 
 at or near the outlet of the mines. The remainder finds its 
 way into the lower portion of the running rivers, filling 
 them gradually, until by the time it reaches the lower rivers 
 and bays but very little is left. This material is not injuri- 
 ous to any land, on the contrary it is as fertile as the silt or 
 deposit from the Nile or any other alluvial river. 
 
 Much the largest portion of the damage committed in 
 proximity to the mining rivers between their outlets at the 
 mouth of the canyons and the main Sacramento River 
 (which has been very much exaggerated) is due to mining 
 upon these rivers and their tributaries long before hydraulic 
 mining was in operation upon a large scale. The placer 
 mines were innumerable, and the amount of material of 
 comparatively light nature moved by the vast number of 
 individual miners engaged in this class of mining was very 
 great indeed. The material was of such a character that it 
 flowed quite readily down the tributaries into the main can- 
 yons toward the plains, where a larger portion of it remained 
 
 until a stormy winter like 1862 came, when the canyons were 
 swept clean to the bed-rock, and the debris was poured into 
 the lower portion of these rivers, filling them up. Since 
 hydraulic mining has attained its present magnitude the 
 material moved is of a much heavier character, and does 
 not pass down the canyons to the plains with the same facili- 
 ty as the lighter material moved from the placer mines. 
 The heavy material moved by the hydraulic process lodges 
 in proximity to the outlets of the mines, fills up the main 
 canyons where it becomes impacted, widens out the beds of 
 these rivers preventing the winter rains from washing it out 
 rapidly by causing the water to spread over a greater area, 
 and impairing its force and power to move the material. In 
 many places these canyons are filled to a depth of one hun- 
 dred feet or more, and the surface of the river is in conse- 
 quence widened to several times its normal width. The 
 material thus deposited and impacted will not move down 
 the canyons unless mining ceases. If mining continues as 
 at present, these vast canyons will be constantly filling in 
 the mountains until their beds are raised up to a level with 
 the mining outlets, and as each year fills them more and 
 more the surface of the river-bed becomes wider, while the 
 power of the water to move the material down the canyon 
 will steadily decrease. The miners are now investigating the 
 question of the construction of a series of brush or tree dams 
 in the canyons to aid in retaining both the old and new debris 
 in proximity to where it is first lodged. The miners are, in 
 fact, duplicating the filling of the old rivers from whence 
 they are now moving the material with which they are filled 
 to extract the precious metal contained therein. 
 
 Should mining now cease, all the material at present in 
 these canyons (and the quantity is very large indeed) will 
 certainly work down with the water upon the land below 
 the mouths of the canyons on the plains, and so continue for 
 many years to come, to temporarily damage the lands in 
 proximity to and along the course of these rivers after they 
 have debouched from the mountains. There is but little 
 doubt as to the feasibility of retaining the material at pres- 
 ent in the canyons in place, as well as to retain a very large 
 per cent, of any new material which may be poured into 
 them from the mines. Nor is there much doubt but that 
 the balance of the material which will he held in suspense 
 in the water can be utilized on the low lands (now value- 
 less) in the main valley below, as well as upon the foot-hill 
 lands in the way of irrigation, by distributing the muddy 
 water over them as is now done to quite an extent in Yuba 
 County successfully. The impounding of such large bodies 
 of water as is contained in the reservoirs of the hydraulic 
 mines has a beneficial effect in two ways ; it prevents it from 
 coming down in winter season, thus diminishing the de- 
 structive power of these rivers in rainy season and stores it 
 for summer use (when there is very little water in the rivers) 
 for mining and irrigation, equalizing, to a certain extent, 
 the flow of water during the year. The mining reservoirs, 
 costing from $50,000 to $250,000 each, already constructed 
 for hydraulic purposes, can store at least 10,000,000,000 
 cubic feet of water, which is utilized during the summer or 
 dry season through long lines of canals or ditches, construct- 
 ed at a cost of from $5,000 to $10,000 per mile. The 
 amount of money expended in construction of these 
 reservoirs and canals exceeds $20,000,000. In the future, 
 when the gravel mines which these works were constructed 
 to supply are exhausted, they will serve to irrigate all the 
 lower slopes of the Sierras for cultivation. No possible sys- 
 tem of agriculture could afl'ord to construct such an exten- 
 sive and expensive svstem of irrigating works, and although 
 the miners may, in tlieir operations for a few years commit 
 some temporary injury upon a limited quantity of farming 
 lands below them, yet the great benefits which such a vast 
 water system will confer upon the million acres on the lower 
 portion of the western slope of the mountain in the facility 
 and cheapness of irrigation after the mines are exhausted 
 will compensate our State many times over for all the tem- 
 porary damage now being committed. It is estimated by 
 competent authority that there is yet remaining of known 
 gravel between the South and Middle Yuba Rivers alone 
 about 700,000,000 cubic yards of gravel, which will be 
 mined out by hydraulic process, besides a large amount 
 which will be mined out by drifting. It is safe to estimate 
 that this gravel will yield from $150,000,000 to $200,000,000, 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 693 
 
 and the principal part of it will be mined out during the 
 next thirty or forty years. The gravel mines are situated on 
 and along the mining rivers, at distances varying from 10 to 
 70 miles from their outlets in the plains, and they will all 
 be exhausted long before these river canyons will be filled to 
 a level with the outlet from the mines. The gravel channels, 
 where the hydraulic mining can be carried on profitably, 
 are well known and can be measured and estimated with 
 considerable accuracy ; but the drifting mines in gravel are 
 as yet scarcely known, and this latter class of mining as well 
 as quartz mining (requiring but little water) will continue 
 long after the former class of mining has ceased entirely. 
 The vast gravel deposits where hydraulic mining is carried 
 on cannot be worked in any other way ; and there is, in my 
 opinion, no doubt whatever but that the interests of the 
 miners and the comparatively small numbers of farmers and 
 others in the valley injured by mining operations can be 
 harmonized by proper legislation, guided by intelligence 
 and a desire to arrive at results, but it can never be done 
 by litigation guided by those whose interest is subserved by 
 fostering such a course. The interests at stake are of too 
 mementous and important a nature, and the number of per- 
 sons whose all is invested in mines and whose support de- 
 pends solely upon mining industry is to great to be inter- 
 fered with and destroyed by litigation. 
 
 The net profits derived frOm hydraulic mining are not at 
 all excessive, when the risk, length of time necessary to de- 
 velop amine, and the amount of money involved and ex- 
 pended,, are taken into account. The North Bloomfield 
 Gravel Mining Company was over ten years in opening its 
 mine, and before any net returns were received expended 
 over $3,000,000. The Milton Water and Mining Company 
 was many years in opening its mine, and expended some 
 $2,500,000 before any net return was received by it. Upon 
 such ventures a larger percentage is justifiable than would 
 be the case in any other industry ; indeed it is believed that 
 none other than a mining community like California would 
 undertake such a risk requiring so much capital and time. 
 Yet it is believed that none of this class of mines pay over 
 twenty per cent, per year as an average upon the capital in- 
 vested, with interest, and nothing but the permanence of 
 such a mine as those above mentioned would justify the 
 risk and expenditure in any community. Many first-class 
 hydraulic mines promise more than 20 per cent, but pay 
 less. There is a great number of second-class mines of this 
 kind, running during the rainy season only, which pay their 
 workmen good wages, with but little profit to the owners, 
 and still a larger number of fourth-class, which barely pay 
 their workmen and embarrass their owners. Yet they all 
 find employment for a large number of persons and support 
 for their families. 
 
 The gravel miners have gone forward with their enormous 
 works, in the shape of reservoirs, canals, tunnels, and other 
 works, such as have never been equalled in any other por- 
 tion of the world, under the full cognizance of the United 
 States and State governments, indorsed by the customs and 
 usages of the community, and by the decisions of the 
 courts, and have expended over $100,000,000 in purchasing 
 their claims from the government and developing them, 
 creating a property estimated at $250,000,000 or more in 
 value, and claim that they have acquired by their acts and 
 doings vested rights which cannot, at this late day be taken 
 from them. Hydraulic mining cannot, as a general rule, be 
 carried on with profit on a small scale. It requires a large 
 body of ground to justify the expenditure necessary to 
 open a mine, bring water to, and work it. Hence the neces- 
 sity of a large capital and consolidation of the smaller claims, 
 which were originally taken up under the mining laws of 
 the United States long ere this kind of mining was intro- 
 duced. It will be a very serious matter, not only to Cali- 
 fornia, but to the nation at large, if mining is stopped upon 
 this coast on account of the injury committed upon a limited 
 and comparatively small body of farming land and a very 
 limited number of people occupying the same. The value 
 of all the land already damaged, or which ever will be dam- 
 aged, is certainly not one per cent, of the amount of gold 
 extracted from the mines committing the damage, and the 
 number of people injured financially from these mining 
 operations does not exceed five per cent, of the number 
 . which would be injured irreparably if mining was stop- 
 
 ped. Our rivers in the great valley of California are ex- 
 tremely alluvial in proportion to their length, and are becom- 
 ing more so yearly, owing to the physical conformation of 
 our State, the close proximity of the lofty and abrupt moun- 
 tain ranges, as well as the character of our soils, and the 
 long dry season, followed by a heavy rainy season, and the 
 operations of the farming and mining population. The 
 material brought down by these rivers, highly charged as 
 they are with alluvium, would if utilized, make the valley of 
 the Sacramento and San Joaquin the most productive por- 
 tion of our continent, and the time is not very far removed 
 when our people will seek to utilize the alluvium instead of 
 finding fault with it, as there are thousands of acres, now 
 valueless, which would become the choicest of agricultural 
 lands if the material held in suspense in our rivers from the 
 farms and mines was utilized, instead of doing injury to our 
 bays and harbors. This subject, upon which the Commis- 
 sion took so much testimony, was not, however, adjudicated 
 upon in the final report of this body. They noted the testi- 
 mony, considered the subject one for Congressional action 
 and urged that a special commission be appointed to de- 
 termine it. 
 
 A Governmental Report. — Acting, possibly upon 
 the suggestion of the Land Commission the River and Har- 
 bor Act of 1880 was made to contain provisional clauses pro- 
 viding for such examinations and surveys as might be 
 found necessary to devise a system of works to prevent fur- 
 ther injury to the navigable waters of California from the de- 
 bris of mines arising from hydraulic mining. This work 
 was entrusted to Lieutenant-Colonel G. H. Wendell, Corps 
 of Engineers, U. S. A. Colonel Wendell carried out his 
 work faithfully and carefully and for so doing was roundly 
 abused by the " Anti Debris Association," California. From 
 Col. Wendell's report submitted we take the following : 
 
 The navigable waters of California affected by hydraulic 
 mining consist of the bays of Suisun, San Pablo, and San 
 Francisco, forming the great estuary of California, and of 
 the rivers, the Sacramento, the San Joaquin, and the Feath- 
 er. The Sacramento River rises in the north and flows in 
 a southerly direction through the great valley, flanked on 
 the east by the Sierra Nevada, and on the west by the coast 
 range. The Feather is a tributary of the Sacramento. The 
 San Joaquin has its source in the south and flows in a north- 
 westerly direction through the valley, uniting with the Sac- 
 ramento at the upper or eastern end of Suisun Bay. The 
 strait of Carquinez connects Suisun Bay with San 
 Pablo Bay which opens into San Francisco Bay, and, 
 taken as a whole, these separate bays and rivers af- 
 ford a continuous channel, connecting with the Pacific 
 Ocean through the Golden Gate. The auriferous 
 drift deposits which are worked by the hydraulic process 
 lie on the western slope of the Sierra, in a belt 40 or 
 50 miles wide, extending from the plains or edge of the 
 valley to altitudes of 4,000 or 5,000 feet. The length of 
 this deposit, measured in a northwesterly direction, parallel 
 to the crest of the Sierra, is about 150 miles, and extends 
 from the Merced river on the south to Chico Creek in the 
 north, with some exceptionally placed deposits lying both 
 north and south of these limits. It may be remarked that 
 in addition there are, on the Klamath and Trinity, one of 
 its branches, quite important places, which are now worked. 
 The detritus is lodged in the rivers, which are neither navi- 
 gable or tributaries of navigable rivers, so that this separate 
 mining district is not thought to come within the limits of 
 this investigation. The Klamath empties into the Pacific 
 Ocean at a few miles south of the northern boundary of Cal- 
 ifornia. The tributaries of the San Joaquin, coming from 
 the Sierra Nevada, and affected by mining, either past or 
 present, are the Merced, the Tuolumne, the Stanislaus, the 
 Calaveras, the Mokelumne, and the Cosumnes. Each of 
 these rivers has small tributaries, which, for the sake of 
 clearness, need not be mentioned by name, but which are 
 to be understood as being included in the designation of the 
 larger tributaries. 
 
 The Feather and American are the principal tributaries 
 of the Sacramento, which drain the mining districts. The 
 Feather is a lar^e river draining 3,400 square miles, and 
 includes as its tributaries the Yuba, with its three forks, 
 and the B,ear, which rivers are noted as the seat of the prin- 
 cipal hydraulic mining operations of California. The Sac- 
 
694 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ramento and San Joaquin rivers near their mouths flow 
 through a delta of considerable extent, the surface of which 
 is below the level of flood waters. The connecting channels 
 surround a number of islands. The soil is extremely fertile, 
 and great efforts have been made, thus far with limited suc- 
 cess, to reclaim the land. Insecurity in foundations and 
 the absence of a proper material for making levees, have 
 been the chief difficulties in the way of complete reclama- 
 tion. On the east side of the Sacramento, close to the river, 
 between the American and Feather, is a basin the level of 
 which is a number offset below the banks of the main river. 
 This basin is overflowed in every freshet. A similar and 
 more extensive basin lies in the angle between the Sacra- 
 mento and Feather rivers, extending from the M.arysville 
 Butte to the mouth of the Feather, a distance of about 30 
 miles. This basin is also overflowed at high stages of the 
 river. Its great area and capacity for storage gives it an 
 important influence in determining the flood flow of the river. 
 These features are here mentioned that a future reference to 
 them may be intelligible. Several small streams — the prin- 
 cipal of which is Auburn Ravine — carrying mining detritus, 
 and natural tributaries of the Sacramento river, do not 
 reach it directly, but discharge into the basin between the 
 American and Feather. The drainage from the Spring 
 Valley Mine, on the waters of Butte Creek, enters into the 
 Sutter Basin between the Sacramento and Feather rivers, 
 and, therefore, does not reach the Sacramento directly. The 
 lower portions of the Gosumnes, Mokelumne, and Calaveras, 
 all tributaries of the San Joaquin, lie in the delta lands, 
 which receive a part of the mining detritus of these streams, 
 and to this extent relieve the San Joaquin from injury. 
 
 Ancient Drainag'e. — The existing drainage system of 
 the auriferous gravel belt is geologically recent. Mining 
 operations have unveiled an older system, lying higher and 
 oblique to the existing drainage, obliterated during the Plio- 
 cene period, by deposits of sand, gravel, clay, and bowlders 
 with gold intermingled. The ancient drainage lines are the lo- 
 ci of modern hydraulic mining operations. Subsequent to the 
 destruction of the ancient channels the whole country was 
 covered by a flow of lava and kindred substances, which yet 
 remains in many places a complete bar to effective mining ; 
 when hydraulic mining is practicable the basalt has disap- 
 peared or is replaced by volcanic ashes. The existing rivers 
 flow through the mountains in canyons cut down to depths 
 varying from 1,000 to 2,500 feet below the ridges which 
 bound them on either side. The portions of the old drain- 
 age lines which remain are on these ridges, and therefore 
 are at considerable elevations above the present river beds. 
 This feature is generally true of the northern portion of the 
 auriferous belt, while in the southern portion of the levels 
 the two systems do not present such marked differences. 
 A considerable elevation above existing river beds is indis- 
 pensable in hydraulic mining in order to give a good clear- 
 ance of the tailings. This feature is presented most favora- 
 bly in the mine on the Yuba, and it is one of the reasons for 
 the great development of the hydraulic industry in that part 
 of the country. 
 
 The ancient river beds are again distinguished from the 
 modern by greater width and steeper slopes. In position 
 they are generally oblique to the existing drainage system. 
 So far as mere surface indications are concerned, the old 
 system was completely obliterated. Occupying in the ag- 
 
 fregate many square miles in area, the whole surface was 
 lied to the rim rocks with gravel, and over these to a depth 
 often of many hundred feet by a plain of eruptive material, 
 extended from the summit of the Sierra to the valley. The 
 capping of lava has since been lost in many places. In 
 others it is thin, exposing the top surface of the gravel. 
 Under these circumstances it has oeen impossible to trace 
 out the old drainage system, and it is only by comparison 
 of altitudes and directions of the small portions that have 
 been uncovered by the miner, and tracings here and there 
 of the rim rock, that any inferences can be drawn as to 
 the courses of the ancient rivers. In consequence there are 
 many opinions as to the directions of the drainage. The 
 modern rivers cutting across the old drainage lines swept 
 the gravel and gold down their own beds, and thus formed 
 the bars which so richly repaid the labors of the early 
 miners. Deposits of this kind, whether in the beds or on 
 the banks, or in gulches at small elevations above the beds 
 
 are workable without much aid from capital. Water can 
 be secured by storage in reservoirs close at hand or be 
 brought by short canals, the construction of which is prac- 
 ticable by the labors of the miners themselves. These river 
 or placer deposits were worked out in a few years, and it 
 was only as they were being exhausted that attention was 
 directed to the higher and larger deposits in the old river 
 beds. 
 
 The extent of these deposits is not known. A great part 
 of them is hidden under the lava cap which covers the 
 flanks of the Sierra with more or less continuity. Definite 
 information exists only where the mines have been opened 
 to a considerable extent. When this is the case, the depth 
 of the gravel deposit has been found to be as much as six 
 hundred feet. This is, however, an unusual depth. One 
 hundred and fifty or two hundred feet depth is frequently 
 found. While the deposit is known among the miners as 
 gravel, it is not by any means all gravel, nor is the deposit 
 homogeneous as a rule in any mine or in any district. The 
 vertical section of a mine may show sand on top, with pipe 
 clay, then gravel, first fine and afterwards coarse, generally 
 white, often colored; and in the bottom a large proportion 
 of bowlders, sometimes tons in weight. Stratification on 
 planes either horizontal or inclined maybe observed in some 
 cases. The variety in the components and in their arrange- 
 ment forbids, in a sketch of this kind, any other conclusion 
 than the general one, that the material becomes coarser and 
 heavier as you descend from the surface to the bed-rock. 
 The accepted theory now is that these river beds were 
 filled by detritus brought down by their own currents. If 
 this be true it would follow that the lighter materials, the 
 only ones transportable in the slight slopes of the river 
 when nearly extinct, should be found on top. The different 
 grades of materials are not, however, clearly segregated in 
 their places of deposit. Sand is found everywhere in the verti- 
 cal section, mixed in greater or less abundance with coarser 
 material. It often happens that the components are found 
 to be cemented, by iron -oxides and silica in solution, into con- 
 glomerates that need powder or stamp-mills to disintegrate 
 them; Gold is generally found everywhere in the gravel, 
 but not in equal proportions. The gravel on top is generally 
 poor, and the best pay is near the bed-rock. In cases where 
 the pay is concentrated in a streak four or six feet thick 
 near the bed-rock, it may be secured by stopping out this 
 stratum, leaving the upper mass undisturbed. This is drift 
 mining. Generally, however, the pay is not concentrated, 
 but diffused throughout the gravel in increasing proportion 
 from the top to the bottom. The only way to get the gold 
 in this general case is by the hydraulic process. 
 
 The Hydraulic Mininir industry. — The first engin- 
 eering problem presented in an attempt to work deposits 
 lying at high altitudes is to introduce a sufficient sup- 
 ply of water at an adequate height. The head of a 
 canal fulfilling the necessary conditions must be placed 
 on the river, where its bed is some hundreds of feet higher 
 than the gravel to be worked. The canal must be built for 
 many miles on the steep flanks of the ridges which extend 
 from the main vertebra of the mountains toward the plains. 
 When canals were built, it was found in many cases that 
 the supplying rivers did not in the low stages afford an ade- 
 quate amount of water. This deficiency was remedied by the 
 construction of reservoirs still higher in the mountains, 
 which retained in storage enough water collected in the 
 season of abundance to supplement the supply during the 
 period of inadequate river flow. In order to apply the 
 water suppljr to hydraulic mining, a conveyance of detritus 
 from the mines to the dumps has to be provided. This, in 
 the general case, requires the construction of one or more 
 tunnels in bed-rock, the upper end under the lowest point 
 of the gravel to be worked, and the lower end opening if 
 possible into a deep caiion, with room for holding the accu- 
 mulations of one or more seasons. These sluice tunnels 
 form one of the most expensive adjuncts to hydraulic min- 
 ing. The longest and most costly single tunnel is that for 
 the North Bloomfield mine, which is nearly eight thou- 
 sand feet in length, its cost being $500,000. A permanent 
 and sufficient water supply a good bank of gravel, and a 
 suitable outfall are the conditions for success. The extent 
 and boldness of the engineering operations just referred to 
 are calculated to excite surprise and admiration. . Tables 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 695 
 
 follow which give statistics as to the reservoirs, canals and 
 tunnels in a part of the mining field. 
 
 Table of Reservoirs on tlie Yulba, Bear, Featlicr and Ameri- 
 can rivers, constructed for Kilning purposes* 
 
 Name of Company. 
 
 North Bloomfield 
 
 Milton Company 
 
 Eureka Lake . . 
 
 South Yuba 
 
 Omega and Blue Point 
 
 Spring Valley ... . 
 
 California . . . 
 
 El Dorado 
 
 Other small reservoirs on the Feather, 
 Yuba, and American rivers 
 
 Total storage . . . 
 
 Capacity, 
 
 Cubiefeet 
 
 1,050,000,000 
 
 050,000,000 
 
 1,130,000,000 
 
 1,800,000,000 
 
 300,000,000 
 
 300,000,000 
 
 600,000,000 
 
 1,070,000,000 
 
 700,000,000 
 
 7,600,000,000 
 
 Authority. 
 
 Hamilton Smith, ir. 
 Do. ^ 
 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Incomplete statistics of mining ditches In California, A*om 
 mint Report, 1§81. 
 
 Name. 
 
 North Bloomfield, including res- 
 ervoirs 
 
 Milton, including reservoirs . . 
 Eureka Lake and Yuba ditches 
 
 South Yuba ditches 
 
 Smartsville ditches. ... 
 Spring Valley and Cherokee. . 
 
 Hendricks 
 
 La Grange' 
 
 Blue Tent 
 
 Mk. 
 
 167 
 
 80 
 163 
 123 
 113 
 
 52 
 
 m 
 
 20 
 32 
 
 In. 
 
 3,200 
 
 a,G00 
 
 6,800 
 7,000 
 6,000 
 2,000 
 
 2,700 
 1,800 
 
 Per ml, 
 
 12 to 18 
 12 to 25 
 
 8 to'i'a 
 
 9 
 
 6 to 12 
 
 7 to 8 
 
 10 
 
 $708,841 
 391,579 
 723,342 
 
 i,oboioob 
 
 136,160 
 600,000 
 160,000 
 
 iJim'rwn's inft. 
 
 85 
 
 4 to 5 
 4 
 
 3>^ 
 2 
 4 
 4 
 
 Note. — The length of Smartsville ditches is taken from reports on the 
 mines by Professor Poupelly. 
 
 Hydraulic mining, as it is understood in California, is 
 that process by which a natural bank is excavated by a jet 
 of water and conveyed by the same water through the sluices 
 to the dumps. Water does all the work ; manual labor is 
 needless in a perfect bank ; when bowlders are found too 
 large to pass through the sluice they are sometimes blasted 
 into smaller pieces suitable for the sluices. Where the bank 
 is cemented or contains masses of pipe clay it is shattered 
 by charges of powder. The scale of blasting corresponds to 
 the other features of this kind of mining, 30,000 or 40,000 
 pounds of powder being on occasions exploded to break up a 
 bank. The method is similar to that used at Lime Point in 
 1868. In a certain sense all mining is hydraulic. Water is 
 indispensable for the separation of gold in all the processes 
 of mining. But before the introduction of existing appli- 
 ances water was used for this purpose only. Now water 
 under pressure excavates, water transports the detritus, and 
 with the aid of quicksilver collects the gold. The very 
 moderate amount of human labor required is the secret of 
 the cheapness of this kind of mining. The hydraulic method 
 dates from about 1855. The first efforts in using water 
 under pressure were in rubber or canvass hose, with nozzles 
 of an inch or less diameter. Now nozzles vary from 4 to 9 
 inches, and pressures are as high as 400 feet. An 8-iuch 
 nozzle at North Bloomfield discharges 185,000 cubic feet in 
 an hour, the velocity being 150 feet per second. 
 
 This is the culuminating instance of this kind of force. 
 There are, however, frequent instances of one-half or one- 
 third of this hose power being applied. The excavating 
 power of a force of this extent on a bank of gravel is enor- 
 mous, and in general unless the gravel is very heavy or 
 cement«d is much in excess of the transporting power. The 
 latter depends on the grade of the sluice, so that really the 
 latter factor becomes in great part the measure of the quan- 
 tity of gravel that can be handled, for it is not desirable to 
 excavate more gravel than can be sluiced away. Grades of 
 sluices vary from mine to mine. The topography generally 
 determines the fall of sluices. It is desirable to have a 
 grade of 4 or 5 per cent., very often the grade is necessarily 
 much lower, and in some cases 8 or 9 per cent. The follow- 
 ing table, taken from a paper entitled Hydraulic Mining in 
 California, by Augustus J. Bowie, mining engineer, volume 
 
 vi., Transactions of the American Institute of Mining En- 
 gineers gives the grades of the tunnels of the principal mines 
 on the Yuba Eiver. 
 
 Name of mine or tunnel. 
 
 Boston 
 
 North Bloomfield 
 
 Farrel 
 
 English mine . . 
 American . . . 
 Manzanita .... 
 Sweetland Creek 
 Bed-Rock . . 
 French Corral . . . 
 
 Babb 
 
 Pactolus 
 
 Rose's Bar 
 
 Blue Gravel . . . . 
 
 Pittsburg 
 
 Blue Point 
 
 Enterprise .... 
 Deer Creek. . 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Wolsey's Flat . . 
 Humbug Canon . 
 Columbia Hill . . 
 Badger Hill. . . . 
 Below San Juan . 
 Sweetland . . 
 
 ..do 
 
 Below Sweetland 
 French Corral . - 
 Timbuctoo. . . . 
 do. . . . 
 
 . do 
 
 Succor Flat . . 
 . . do. . . . 
 . . do. . . . 
 . . do. . . . 
 Mooney's Flat 
 
 ifi 
 
 1,600 
 8,000 
 2,200 
 1,400 
 3,900 
 1,740 
 2,200 
 2,600 
 3,600 
 1,200 
 1,700 
 1,600 
 1,100 
 900 
 2,260 
 1,200 
 2,200 
 
 Reported cost. 
 
 $40,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 Not complete 
 
 140,000 
 62,000 
 90,000 
 
 166,000 
 
 If the inclination of the sluice be increased, the quantity 
 of material carried off by a given amount of water will in- 
 crease more rapidly. This fact is well understood ; the law 
 has not yet been fully developed. Sometimes it is claimed 
 that the quantity worked will varj' with the square of the 
 inclination, that is, if the inclination be doubled the quan- 
 tity worked will be four-fold. The quantity which an inch 
 of water will handle is its duty. The duty depends on the 
 kind of material. In light gravel, 10 or more yards may be 
 moved to an inch of water taken to be 2,250 cubic feet. In 
 the heavy material of the bed-rock, the same water and 
 grades may not move one-eighth or one-tenth of the former 
 volume. The differences in material, grades, and other cir- 
 cumstances give for each mine a particular duty and thus 
 far have prevented the deduction of the law of change in 
 quantities moved, due to changes in inclination. In par- 
 ticular instances water in sluices of an average grade, the 
 material being of moderate quality, carried 10 or 11 per cent, 
 of gravel in weight otherwise expressed, 2,250 cubic feet of 
 water carried 14,000 pounds of gravel, which in volume is 
 about 4 cubic yards._ It may be remarked that when the 
 material is heavy it is carried on the bottom of the sluice, 
 and as a rule only the slightest material is in suspension. 
 So the duty varies in the same mine from the top to the 
 bottom, and from mine to mine. A mean duty adopted by 
 the State engineer is given with the next table, which is 
 assumed as the basis for this report. The quantities of 
 water used in 1880 in the Sacramento Basin were returned 
 by the county assessor and published as an appendix to the 
 report of January 10, 1881. This report not being complete 
 is supplemented by information collected by the State En- 
 gineer Department. 
 Summarized the table is as follows: 
 
 
 Quantity of water 
 
 
 
 
 used in mining 
 
 State engi- 
 
 
 Name of stream^ 
 
 and discharged 
 
 neersestimate 
 
 
 into bed of river 
 
 of duty per 
 
 moved. 
 
 
 tn tweniy-fcmr 
 
 inch. 
 
 
 
 hours. 
 
 
 
 
 Jnchee. 
 
 Cubic yards. 
 
 Cubic yards. 
 
 Table Mountain or Dry Creek . . 
 
 833.250 
 
 »A 
 
 2,916,375 
 
 Butte Creek . . 
 
 24,000 
 
 3 
 
 84,000 
 
 Feather Eiver 
 
 1,269,363 
 
 3K 
 
 4,407,770 
 
 Yuba Eiver 
 
 6,468,171 
 
 zy„ 
 
 19,103,698 
 
 Bear Eiver. ... 
 
 1,117,082 
 
 3 
 
 3,351,246 
 
 Dry Creek, No. 2 ... 
 
 44,229 
 
 3 
 
 132,687 
 
 American Eiver 
 
 Total 
 
 1,914,600 
 
 *K 
 
 8,615,260 
 
 10,660,505 
 
 
 38,610,926 
 
 The amount of material discharged, as found from this 
 computation, and the amount of water used are both less 
 than previous estimates. The quantity of water used in 
 1880 was about 870,000,000 cubic yards, of which 281,500,000 
 were stored in reservoirs, as will appear by the preceding 
 table. The following table gives information collected by 
 Lieutenant Payson in regard to rivers south of the An eri- 
 can : 
 
696 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Estimate of material moved annually. 
 
 River. 
 
 Dry Creek. . . 
 Mule Creek . . 
 Sutter Creek. . 
 
 Jackson Creek. 
 MokelumDe . 
 
 Calaveras . . 
 
 Stanislaus'. . 
 
 Tuolumne . . 
 
 Hill Top 
 
 Various placers 
 
 Irish Hill 
 
 Various small placers 
 
 Various placers and hydraulic . 
 Volcano nydraulic 
 
 Various placers 
 
 Various placers and hydraulic M . . 
 Near Buena Vista, at head of Jackson' 
 
 Creek. 
 Near Campo Seco, Camache and 
 
 atoekton Bidge. 
 Railroad Flat, head South Fork . 
 Near Lancba Plana, and Camache . 
 Near Jenny Lind. .... ... 
 
 Chile Gulch and Jesu Maria Fork of 
 
 Calaveras. 
 JuQiper, at Dogtown, San Domingo 
 
 Creek. 
 
 Near Mokelumne Hill 
 
 Near Knight's Ferry 
 
 La Grange and Patricksville. . 
 
 Total at present . 
 
 Anierican and Sacramento, 
 
 Jordan 
 
 American aod Sacramento. 
 Johnson's ... 
 
 Amador Canal 
 
 Volciario. . 
 
 Johnson's 
 
 Amador Canal Company . 
 Doughferty 
 
 Mokelumne . 
 
 Clark's 
 
 Murray & Dougherty's, . . 
 Salt Spring Valley Keser- 
 vation and Union. 
 
 Mokelumne 
 
 Union 
 
 Cook Brothers.. 
 
 La Grange . . 
 
 . (small) . 
 
 
 ill 
 
 •S 
 
 1 "^ 
 
 Summory. 
 
 Inches. 
 466,000 
 
 2^ 
 
 1,140,000 
 
 Gub. yards 
 
 48 000 
 
 162,000 
 
 38,000 
 
 64,760 
 
 366,000 
 
 1 
 
 2K 
 
 40,000 
 405,000 
 38,000 
 64,760 
 912,600 
 
 1,180,000 
 405,000 
 38,000 
 
 38,000 
 127,760 
 43,400 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 38,000 
 127,750 
 43,400 
 
 1,695,250 
 
 
 171,160 
 
 
 61,000 
 
 2 
 
 122,000 
 
 
 45,000 
 118,500 
 365,000 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 90,000 
 60,000 
 730,000 
 
 '272,000 J 
 
 200,760 
 
 2H 
 
 601,875 
 
 . . . . ■ 
 
 
 365,000 
 
 2M 
 
 912,500 
 
 
 
 45,000 
 38,720 
 812,500 
 
 2 
 2 
 2H 
 
 90,000 
 
 77,440 
 
 2,031,250 
 
 2,234,375, 
 
 •77,440 
 2,031,250 
 
 
 3,384,370 
 
 
 7,414,465 
 
 1 
 
 Much heavy material stored 
 
 in ravine. 
 Part of water used for power. 
 Little now reaches any river. 
 
 Not now worlting dump in 
 bed of dry creek. 
 
 Built ofheavy material stored 
 in ravines. Parts of water 
 used for power. 
 
 Formerly in main stream. 
 Heavy material now mostly 
 stored. 
 
 In bed of streams. 
 In main rivers. 
 
 Quartz and drift mining contribute a considerable quantity 
 of detritus, none of which can be exected to remain where 
 discharged from the mines. The product of the quartz 
 mill is impalpable sand. The drift miner leaves the bowl- 
 ders in the mine and brings out only the gravel. The Chi- 
 nese mine quite extensively in the beds of the rivers, in low 
 stages. They take the water out of the bed in a flume and 
 sink shafts or run drifts in the gravel. While this makes no 
 additional contribution to the amount of gravel in the 
 river bed, it disturbs the equilibrium and facilitates the 
 movement down stream. There are no means of estimating 
 the amount of detritus due to these causes, although they 
 contribute in a sensible degree to the evils due to mining. 
 Professor Price estimates that in the year 1881 two thousand 
 five hundred and forty-six stamps in quartz mills contri- 
 buted to the drainage lines of the State 1,500,000 tons, 
 otherwise expressed as 1,000,000 cubic yards of detritus. 
 Drift mines are numerous, but there are no statistics of the 
 detritus furnished by them. The Bald Mountain drift mine 
 is reported as contributing 106,160 cubic yards in a year. 
 There are a large number of quartz mines in the State. 
 L'.eutenant Payson found south of the American River in 
 1880 eight hundred and forty-two stamps running, producing 
 an estimated yearly amount of 567,576 cubic yards of tail- 
 ings. There is no report in regard to the number in opera- 
 tion north of the American. There are also a large number 
 of drift mines in Sierra and Plumas counties, the production 
 of which either in gold or detritus is not ascertained.' 
 
 The Economic Aspect of Mining. — It is stated in 
 the testimony in the case of the State of California versus 
 The Gold Run Mining Company that the Capital invested 
 in mining in California is about $160,000,000, of which 
 $100,000,000 is in gravel mining. This appears to be a gen- 
 eralized opinion, based upon a partial knowledge of invest- 
 ments. It is not based on detailed information, and is not 
 claimed to be more than an approximation. So far as it 
 applies to gravel mining, the amount is probably in excess. 
 Perhaps it is quite as well for the purposes of this report 
 to be able to say that the invested capital is large as to be 
 able to give the specific amount. This kind of information 
 
 ' Those who desire to obtain a full account of the hydraulic 
 system are referred to a paper on the subject by Augustus J. Bowie, 
 Jr., published in Volume VI, Transactions of the American Insti- 
 tute of Mining Engineers. The geological relations of the gravel 
 will be found fully described in a work by Prof. J. D. AVhitney, 
 entitled the Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra Nevada of California, 
 printed for the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard Col- 
 lege. These works have been consulted in the preparation of this 
 report, as may be noticed by the references. 
 
 for a majority of mining properties is quite out of the ques- 
 tion. The natural secrecy of business operations and the 
 varied and complicated circumstances of the diflPerent prop- 
 erties forbid any attempts in this direction. The assessed 
 valuations might be a guide, but these are now much de- 
 pressed by litigation, present and prospective. In the cases 
 of the principal hydraulic properties held by incorporated 
 companies information can be obtained. 
 
 The following list is believed to be quite accurate, as in 
 most cases the information is taken from books of the 
 companies. 
 
 Excelsior Company, of Smartsville . $2,857,166 66 
 
 North Bloomfield and Milton . . . . 4,079,321 62 
 
 Gold Run Company ... . , ... . 433,335 00 
 
 Blue Tent . . . 755,000 00 
 
 El Dorado Deep Gravel ... . . 1,008,611 60 
 
 Eureka Lake (approximate) 2,600,000 00 
 
 South Yuba Company ... 2,000,000 00 
 
 Spring Valley Company ... . . . 2,000,000 00 
 
 La Grange (about) . ; . . . . 660,000 00 
 
 810,283,434, 77 
 
 This list includes a number of the principal hydraulic 
 mines of the State, but there is a much larger number of 
 smaller properties not included, in reference to which no 
 information is at hand. A considerable amount of capital 
 is understood to be invested in mining ground acquired for 
 mining purposes. The most important single group of 
 mines not included in the list is that at and about Dutch 
 Flat and tailing into Bear River. Referring to the table 
 next to come, it will be found that there are seventeen 
 counties in California in which mining is a principal in- 
 dustry and in some it is the basis for all industries, in the 
 sense that if it did not exist, the population would mainly 
 disappear. So far as hydraulic mining is concerned Nevada 
 is the county which produces the most gold, two-thirds of 
 its production being credited to hydralic mining. Trinity 
 County production is believed to be nearly all due to earth 
 washing, and the same is true of Shasta and Sierra Counties. 
 Mono County production comes from vein-mining. Atten- 
 tion is invited to the column of remarks in the table, which 
 describes the resources of each county in a general way, and 
 discriminates partially between the difierent forms of min- 
 ing. It may be said that the belt of country on the flank 
 of the Sierra Nevada, from the Merced River to Chico, is in- 
 terested to such an extent in mining interests of one kind 
 or another, that its abandonment would change the condition 
 from prosperity to extreme depression, which might be ex- 
 pected to last until new resources are developed. The table 
 may be used for the purpose of reaching an approximate re- 
 lation between the production from earth-washings and 
 
THE MINES, MINEKS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 697 
 
 that due to the quartz industry. The items are not segrega- 
 ted in sufficient detail to enable one to establish an exact 
 relation, but it cannot be far from one of equality. The 
 table is made from returns to the mint and other official de- 
 partments, and so far as the production of the precious met- 
 als is concerned is apparently incomplete, and perhaps 
 necessarily so. The production stated for the fiscal year 
 ending June 30, 1880, is $15,148,505. It appears from 
 Wells, Fargo & Co.'s estimate that the production of Cali- 
 fornia in 1879 was $18,190,973, and for 1880 $18,276, 166. 
 The production for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1880, em- 
 bracing half of each of the calendar years of 1879 and 1880, 
 may well be assumed to be the mean production of those two 
 years, which is $18,238,567, an amount $3,098,062 in excess 
 of the tabular statement. It may be supposed that the pro- 
 duction from gravel-washing forms a greater proportion of 
 this unreported sum than the quartz production. This sup- 
 position is justified by the fact that there are a great number 
 of small properties of this kind, the aggregate production of 
 which is considerable, which would be more likely to be 
 uoreported than the quartz industry, which generally in- 
 volves the investment of considerable capital. Giving 
 wfeight to this consideration, it appears fair to say that earth- 
 wasnings may be credited with an annual production of 
 nearly $10,000,000, the quartz-industry being credited with 
 the remainder. 
 
 hydraulic mining does not exceed, if it equals, two-thirds 
 of the gross amount credited to earth washings. On the 
 other hand it is proper to remark that somewhat different 
 views are held, as will be observed from the following 
 quotation from Prof. J. D. Whitney, page 368, Auriferous 
 Gravels : 
 
 At the beginning of the present decennium it [the gold produc- 
 tion] was probably about $20,000,000 in value, and since that time 
 has slowly and irregularly decreased, the present production being 
 about $18,000,000. Considerably the larger portion of this comes 
 from the njrdraulic and tunnel mines, chiefly Irom the former. The 
 best authorities estimate the present yield from this source at from 
 $12,000,000 to $14,000,000. 
 
 While these results are to some extent indefinite, they are 
 nevertheless sufficient to limit error of judgment within 
 bounds compatible with the purposes of this report. The 
 following tables are compiled by Hamilton Smith, jr. They 
 are believed to be the most reliable existing estimate of the 
 production of the precious metals in California. 
 
 Products of precious metals in California, 1848 to December 31 , 
 1881. — [The figures from 1848 to 1857, inclusive, are based upon 
 estimates made by Mr. Louis A. Garnett, late manager San Fran- 
 cises Refinery. The estimates from 1858 to 1870, inclusive, are 
 made by Professor Raymond, OfBcial Report as Mining Commis- 
 sioner, 1874, page 543; from 1871 to December 31, 1881, from the 
 official estimates of Mr. John J. Valentine, superintendent of 
 Wells, Fargo & Co.] 
 
 Talvular statement sliovrlng condition of mining In California for the llftcal year ending June 30, 1880. 
 
 [Compiled from Mint Bureau Returns, United States Census, and State Reports.] 
 
 ■&.a 
 
 si 
 
 ® S S 
 
 e e 3 
 
 I 
 
 Betr^rks. 
 
 Alpine . , 
 Amador . 
 
 Butte . . . 
 
 Calaveras . 
 Colusa . . 
 Del Norte . 
 El Dorado 
 Fresno . . 
 Humboldt 
 Inyo . . . 
 
 Kprn . 
 Lassen . . . 
 Los Angeles 
 Mendocino . 
 Modoc 
 Mono .... 
 Mariposa . . 
 Merced . 
 Nevada . . . 
 Placer . . 
 Plumas . . . 
 Shasta . . 
 Stanislaus 
 San Diego 
 
 Sacramento , 
 Siskiyou 
 Sierra 
 Tehama. . 
 Tuolumne 
 Tulare ; 
 Trinity . . 
 Ventura . . 
 Yuba . . . 
 
 Totals . 
 
 300 
 390 
 62'5 
 
 589 
 10,271 
 
 14,937 
 
 8,057 
 
 87 
 600 
 
 2,928 
 
 40 
 107 
 
 7,140 
 3,642 
 
 824 
 358 
 700 
 650 
 15 
 
 16,820 
 
 12,030 
 
 6,;«2 
 
 8,156 
 
 200 
 250 
 3(i6 
 
 7,049 
 5,373 
 
 3,052 
 
 17 
 1,115 
 
 (*) 
 1,037 
 
 ],483 
 
 «a7 
 
 (*) 
 
 2,190 
 
 (*i 
 1,336 
 
 1.561 
 1,260 
 
 805 
 
 (*) 
 
 17,113 
 1,495,053 
 
 430,601 
 
 320,865 
 4,830 
 216,403 
 389,383 
 143,433 
 153,940 
 48,648 
 
 94,214 
 
 26,900 
 
 7,700 
 
 733 
 
 10,000 
 
 2,407,236 
 
 160,017 
 
 17,616 
 
 2,702,362 
 
 835,433 
 
 857,124 
 
 140,456 
 
 73,271 
 
 81,568 
 
 342,514 
 434,612 
 974,332 
 
 1,600 
 461,861 
 
 1,125 
 
 326,693 
 
 364 
 
 937,360 
 
 24,146 
 1,953 
 
 1,247 
 
 643 
 
 78 
 
 300 
 
 208 
 
 173,910 
 390 
 
 66,300 
 125 
 
 682,90n 
 1,300 
 
 70,144 
 
 640 
 
 181 
 
 117,907 
 
 251 
 576 
 
 1,071 
 526 
 143 
 
 438 
 
 41,259 Silver and gold bearing veins. 
 1,497,006 Principally from quartz on Mother Lode ; three hundred and seventy 
 five stamps running. 
 431,748 Principally from deep placers by hydraulic mining, and agricultural 
 
 county. 
 321,608 Production divided between quartz and shallow placers. 
 
 4,908 Shallow placers ; agricultural county. 
 215,703 Beach sands and shallow placer.^. 
 
 389,591 One third from quartz, balance from drift claims and hydraulic. 
 143,433 From quartz by arastras ; agricultural county. 
 154,020 Beach sands and shallow placers ; agricultural county. 
 222,664 Silver-bearing veins and argentifer(?us lead ores ; principally ex- 
 tracted by smelting. 
 94,604 Gold-bearing quai-tz veins ; agricultural county. 
 26,900 Gold-bearing veins at Hayden Hill ; agricultural and grazing county. 
 74,000 Shallow placers ; agricultural county. 
 
 868 Black sands ; lumber and agricultural county. 
 10,000 Supposed to be from adjoining counties ; grazing and agriculture. 
 2,990,141 Gold and sil ver veins at Bodie. 
 151,317 Principally from quartz mining. 
 
 17,515 From quartz by arastras ; agricultural and grazing country. 
 2,772,506 About two-thirds by hydraulic ; balance quartz. 
 836,073 About four-fifths from hydraulic and drift claims ; balance quartz. 
 867,306 About one-half quartz ; balance hydraulic. 
 258,362 Principally hydraulic mining. 
 
 73,271 Principally from shallow placers ; agricultural county. 
 81,558 Shallow placers and gold-bearing quartz ; agricultural and grazing 
 
 county. 
 342,514 From shallow placers ; agricultural county. 
 434,863 Three-fifths from shallow placers ; balance quartz. 
 974,908 One-third low-grade quartz ; balance drift claims. 
 1,600 Shallow placers ; agricultural and grazing county. 
 462,932 About one-half from quartz ; balance from placers. 
 
 1,661 About two-thirds from vein mining; agricultural county. 
 326,835 Principally river and shallow placers ; quartz by arastras. 
 
 354 Quartz by arastras ; grazing county. 
 937,798 Gold from hydraulic mines ; county has large agricultural interests. 
 
 2-53 
 
 6,036 
 
 11,687 
 
 1,045,467 15,148,506 
 
 The production of the San Juan ridge in the year 1881 
 was $1,705,019, of which $144,351.97 was from drift mining. 
 The North Bloomfield, JMilton, and American Companies, 
 which produced nearly one-half of the whole hydraulic 
 output, were idle four of the best months of the year under 
 an injunction of Judge Keyser. It is thought that but for 
 the injunction the production of the ridge would have been 
 $2,000,000. The production from washings is nearly all due 
 to deep placer mining, including in this term both hydraulic 
 and drift mining, but no attempt is here made to apportion 
 the production to its various sources. The information at 
 hand leads to the conclusion that the annual production of 
 
 1848—1870, 
 
 Inclnslve. 
 
 
 1848 I 
 
 1849 J 
 
 1850 
 
 $15,000,000 
 
 45,000,000 
 76 000,000 
 85,000,000 
 76,000.000 
 65,000,000 
 65,500,000 
 66,000,000 
 57,600,000 
 60,000,000 
 50,000,000 
 
 Brought forward . . . 
 
 1860 
 
 1861 
 
 6648,100,000 
 46,000,000 
 40,000,000 
 34,700,000 
 30,000.000 
 26,600,000 
 28,600,000 
 26,500,000 
 26,000,000 
 22,000,000 
 22,500,000 
 26,000,000 
 
 1861 . 
 
 1862. ... ... 
 
 1862 
 
 1863 
 
 1863 
 
 1854. . . . 
 1856 
 
 1864 
 
 1865 
 
 1866 
 
 1856. ... ... 
 
 1867. ... 
 
 1867 
 
 1868 
 
 1858. . . 
 1869. . 
 
 1869 
 
 1870 
 
 Total . . , 
 
 Carry forward . . . 
 
 648,100,000 
 
 972,900,000 
 
•698 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1871.— December 31, 1881, Inclusive. 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Carried by 
 express. 
 
 Carried by other 
 conveyancea. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Carried bfj 
 exprens. 
 
 Bajie bullion and 
 ore. 
 
 ToUil. 
 
 
 1871 ... 
 
 1872 
 
 1873 
 
 1874 ... 
 
 1876 
 
 1876 
 
 1877 
 
 1878 . . . . ... 
 
 1879 
 
 1880 
 
 1881, 1st six mos. . 
 1881, 2d six mos. . 
 
 $16,167,484 
 16,493,922 
 16,709,956 
 16 015,668 
 14,842,010 
 14,636,963 
 14,612,123 
 16,482,389 
 16,348,730 
 16,900,746 
 8,969,878 
 7,379,338 
 
 $3,279,870 
 
 1,649,392 
 
 1,570,996 
 
 1,601,556 
 
 1,484,201 
 
 1,463,696 
 
 725,606 
 
 824,119 
 
 817,436 
 
 845,000 
 
 448,500 
 
 368,960 
 
 $19,447,364 
 18,143,314 
 17,280,951 - 
 17,617,124 
 16,326,211 
 
 • 16,099,669 
 15,237,729 
 17,306,608 
 17,166,166 
 17,746,745 
 9,418,378 
 7,748,298 
 
 $231,870 
 233,668 
 264,771 
 967,857 
 387,768 
 796,308 
 
 1,202,751 
 809,431 
 739,440 
 378,667 
 298,264 
 260.318 
 
 ' 8673,116 " 
 
 480,000 
 
 1,715,560 
 
 1,039,172 
 
 1,719,940 
 
 1,734,236 
 
 804,522 
 
 285,367 
 
 151,854 
 
 306,421 
 
 $231,870 
 
 906,784 
 
 744,771 
 
 2,683,407 
 
 1,426,940 
 
 2,516,248 
 
 2,936,987 
 
 1,613,953 
 
 1,024,807 
 
 530,421 
 
 298,264 
 
 666,739 
 
 819,679,224 
 19,060,008 
 18,026,722 
 20,30i>,631 
 17,763,161 
 18,615,807 
 18,174,710 
 18,920,461 
 18,190,973 
 18,276,166 
 9,716,642 
 8,304,037 
 
 Total 
 
 174,458,106 
 
 15,079,231 
 
 189,537,337 
 
 6,661,013 
 
 8,909,178 
 
 16,470,191 
 
 206,007,528 
 
 Recapltulqitlon. 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 1848-1857, Garnett. 
 
 1868-1870, Raymond 
 
 1871-December 31, 1881, Valentine 
 
 $548,100,000 
 424,800,000 
 189,637 ,.337 
 
 $15,470,191 
 
 
 1,162,437,337 
 
 16,470,191 
 
 The diminished product of gold for the last six months of 
 1881 was largely due to stoppage of several important mines by 
 i-njunction, being an aggregate of about $1,178,000,000 since 
 California belonged to the United States. Much the greater 
 portion has been derived from gravel found in ancient river 
 beds or eroded from them and afterwards depo.sited in 
 modern streams or on their banks. It is altogether to be 
 supposed hundreds of millions yet remain untouched and 
 buried in the pliocene gravel. This branch of the subject 
 is here closed with the following extract from an article of 
 Mr. Skidmore, in the Mint report of 1880, which gives in- 
 formation in regard to the yield from gravel : 
 
 The following tabular statement of the average yield of 
 auriferous gravel, worked pn a large scale by the hydraulic 
 method, has been compiled from the returns of companies 
 who have acquired extensive and exclusive water rights and 
 large areas of ground, embracing theprincipal enterprises in- 
 cluded in the table on page — : 
 
 Name of company. 
 
 SmartsTille claims, Yuba County 
 Blue Tent, Nevada County . . . . 
 North Bloomfield, Nevada County 
 Gold Run, Placer Countv . . 
 Columbia Hill, Milton County 
 La Grange, Stanislaus County . 
 Patricksville, Stanislaus County 
 Dardanelles, Placer County . 
 
 Average height 
 
 Yield per cubic 
 
 of bank. 
 
 yard. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 CenU. 
 
 112 
 
 19i 
 
 180 
 
 16 
 
 180 to 260 
 
 4 to 6} 
 
 200 
 
 n 
 
 100 
 
 18 to 100 
 
 21 to 16i 
 
 40 to 60 
 
 45 to 18J 
 
 160 
 
 13 
 
 But the profits of hydraulic mining do not depend so 
 much upon the contents per cubic yard as upon the facility 
 and economy with which the auriferous material may be 
 moved, cost of water, means of outlet, &c. It is within the 
 personal knowledge of the writer that a claim near Iowa 
 JHill, Placer county, yielded cost of outfit and a fair profit 
 in the season of 1879, when the product was only three cents 
 per cubic yard. In this case the owner possessed a water- 
 right and ditch. 
 
 With a view to the presentation of some statistics of the 
 operations of hydraulic companies, with a record of production 
 less than the average, I have selected the data of several 
 claims in Stanislaus County, California. The figures are 
 compiled from a paper on hydraulic mining in California, 
 by Aug. J. Bowie, jr., mining engineer, which will be found 
 in the Transactions of the American Institute of Mining 
 Engineers for 1879. The period covers the operations of 
 two seasons. 
 
 Name of claim. 
 
 French Hill claim 
 Light claim . . . 
 Chesnan claim . 
 Johnson 
 
 Licard 
 
 For a corresponding 
 
 geriod the North 
 loomfield of Neva- 
 da County, showed 
 the following results 
 
 t 
 
 ^ 
 
 13 
 
 ^. 
 
 \ 
 
 
 S 
 "S' 
 
 3 
 
 11^ 
 sis 
 
 ki 
 1-1 
 
 feel. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 
 
 Cents. 
 
 30 
 
 50 to 70 
 
 676,968 
 
 1.08 
 
 14 
 
 45 
 
 60 
 
 683,244 
 
 1.80 
 
 12 
 
 28 
 
 70 
 
 284,932 
 
 1.37 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 80 
 
 196,632 
 
 1.76 
 
 S 
 
 90 
 
 90 
 
 156,347 
 
 2.89 
 
 37 
 
 180 to 260 
 
 
 4,104,700 
 
 4.5 
 
 23 
 
 fcl^ 
 
 Name of claim. 
 
 French Hill claim 
 
 Light claim . . .... 
 
 Chesnan claim 
 
 Johnson 
 
 Licard . 
 
 For a corresponding period the 
 North Bloomfield, of Nevada 
 County, showed the following 
 results . 
 
 
 Cents. 
 1.000 
 .006 
 .008 
 .006 
 .004 
 
 .07.65, 
 
 
 Cents. 
 13 
 
 OS 
 16 
 
 4 
 13 
 
 H 
 
 Cents. 
 5 
 3 
 4 
 3 
 3i 
 
 2i 
 
 ^-^ 
 
 Cents. 
 6 
 3§ 
 
 3* 
 3i% 
 
 $42,656 83 
 
 25,962 82 
 
 15,923 71 
 
 7,466 00 
 
 6,205 40 
 
 $90,186 19 
 46,444 66 
 .47,781 73 
 9,148 27 
 20,197 07 
 
 147,912 68 267,007 50 
 
 The examples above cited have been selected exclusively 
 from the record of companies who have washed gravel of 
 low grade by hydraulic method with a steady profit. The 
 average yield per cubic yard on the above exhibit would be 
 7J cents. In the case of the claims in Stanislaus county, 
 if we take 7} cents per cubic yard as the average yield, and 
 45 feet as the height of bank, each acre of gravel washed 
 would yield 15,263.50. In Weaver Basin, Trinity county, 
 the yield has been from $8,000 to $12,000 per acre, where 
 the height of the bank has varied from 30 to 60 feet. These 
 examples are quoted for the purpose of showing the mini- 
 mum rates of profitable operations where the depth of the 
 gravel is less than 100 feet. The average of the deep, wash- 
 ings on the ancient channel claims, where the banks are 
 more than 100 feet in height, would be but little over 10 
 cents per cubic yard, if we make the estimate from the basis 
 of the returns of the past five years. At the North Bloomfield 
 mine, Nevada county, the yield has not averaged 10 cents per 
 cubic yard. The yield of this company per miner's inch of 
 twenty-four hours for the past ten years has varied from 13J 
 to 27J cents, but this has been from top dirt, the bed-rock 
 bench not being reached. But we should not assume from 
 the foregoing statement of the operations of companies 
 hydraulicking low-grade dirt that the richer ground of the 
 deep placers is exhausted. A recent examination of the 
 yield of the Paraxon claim, Placer county, California, by F. 
 Von Leight, mining engineer, shows the following results 
 for six seasons (from 1874 to 1879), by the hydraulic method 
 only: 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 699 
 
 Total production for period $243,076 86 
 
 Dividends paid 110,670 14 
 
 Average yield per miner's inch, calculated on a basis of twenty- 
 four hours' inch, under 6-incn pressure 2 54 
 
 In this case the lower stratum was washed and the bed- 
 rock stripped. The highest yield per inch was in the season 
 of 1874 and 1875, when $4.04 per inch was realized ; the 
 lowest was in season of 1878-79, when 86J cents per inch 
 was realized. The largest yield of any season was that of 
 1875-76— $90.04, or 3.43 per inch. The company are also 
 engaged in drifting, but the yield and value of ground from 
 that source will be noticed under the head of drift-mining. 
 The system of valuation of ground per cubic yard has long 
 been in disuse in California, by reason of the disparity of 
 conditions of a hydraulic bank, both in respect to its mate- 
 rial (whether composed largely of pipe-clay or gravel) and 
 its depth. Thus, several successive hydraulic benches in 
 deep placers may yield, from grass roots to a depth of 100 
 feet or more, from 5 cents to 20 cents per cubic yard, while 
 the lower or bed-rock stratum will yield from $2 to $5 per 
 cubic yard. In many cases surveys are not made, and the 
 returns are the results of- " guessing." The highest returns 
 of the past season by the hydraulic method, where measure- 
 ment was made, are stated, on the authority of Mr. James 
 Arnott, of Brandy City, Sierra County, to be $1.50 per cubic 
 yard. In this case the bank was 24 feet in height, and the 
 yield included the lower stratum and the bed rock. The 
 product per miner's inch has come to be accepted as the 
 standard of value or hydraulic ground. 
 
 and golches, with the tailings or debris from their said 
 mines, or either of them. 
 
 Among the defendants enjoined were a number of parties 
 engaged in mining by the drifting process. The language 
 of the decree so far as it relates to fouling or corrupting the 
 waters of the rivers, applies to quartz-mining as well as to 
 all other descriptions of mining. In this case, none of the 
 defendants were vein miners. The decree was overruled by 
 the supreme court of the State on a technical point which 
 did not affect the merits of the case. The distinctions be- 
 tween different kinds of mining so far as they relate to the 
 beds of water-courses as places of deposit, are distinctions 
 of degree and not of principle. As practiced at present 
 they all foul the waters of streams. The impalpable sand 
 products of quartz mines are borne by currents with the 
 greatest facility and are deposited in places where currents 
 are reduced to little or nothing. The detritus from drift 
 mines differs in quality from that of the hydraulic mines in 
 that the former is composed mainly of gravel of ordinary 
 sizes mixed with sand, while the latter contains in addition 
 considerable amounts of large stones and of pipe-clay. To 
 what extent mining can be prosecuted under the conditions 
 expressed in this decree, remains to be seen. Quartz tail- 
 ings may certainly in some cases, perhaps in many, be im- 
 pounded in reservoirs near the mills in a way to conform to 
 the conditions. In drift mines the difficulty will be consid- 
 erably greater owing to the large volume of detritus, while 
 the existence of hydraulic mining is quite inconsistent with 
 the terms of the decree. 
 
 Tabic sliOAVln*; tile yield of gravel per ciiMc yard oT Irydraullc mlneB In California, fk-om Mint report., 188(X 
 
 Name of claim. 
 
 . Location. 
 
 CentB yield per cubic 
 yard. 
 
 Authcrily. 
 
 American Company 
 
 Blue Tent 
 
 Blue Point (1870) . . . ... 
 
 Gold Eun (1870) . . ... 
 
 Dardanelles and Aro 
 
 MoCarty's Diggins .... 
 
 Smartsville Mine . . 
 
 Union Gravel Mine 
 
 Pactolus Gravel Mine ... 
 
 Blue. Gravel Mine . ... 
 
 Pittsburg ..... ... 
 
 Sebastopol, Nevada County 
 
 Nevada County 
 
 Smartsville, Yuba County 
 
 24.0 
 
 16.0 
 
 123.0 
 
 04.8 
 
 13.1 
 
 43.3 
 
 19.5 
 
 15.0 
 
 20.8 
 
 63.0 
 
 41.0 
 
 44.0 
 
 12.0 to 16.3 
 
 28.0 
 
 33.4 to 47.4 
 
 27.4 to 33.8 
 
 Hamilton Smith, jr. 
 K. W. Raymond. 
 Hamilton Smith, jr. 
 William H. Pette. 
 
 Forest Hill, Pla.'er County . . ... 
 
 Columbia Hill, Nevada County 
 
 Sucker Flat, Yuba County . ... 
 
 Empire Hill . . 
 
 Yuba County 
 
 .do 
 
 do 
 
 ... do 
 
 .do 
 
 Joseph McGillivray. 
 J. D. Hague. 
 Amos Boman. 
 
 . . .do 
 
 . . .do 
 
 . .do 
 
 . . .do 
 
 William Ashbiirner and J. D. Hague. 
 
 
 Hamilton Smith, jr. 
 
 Spring Valley 
 
 French Corral .... 
 
 Manzanita 
 
 Cherokee, Butte County ... 
 Nevada County . . 
 
 do . . 
 
 R. H. Stretch. 
 Hamilton Smith, jr. 
 . do 
 
 The above table extends over a period of ten years' operations, but the yield is not averaged, as it has varied from year to year. 
 
 Reference may here be made to the civil and social aspects 
 of the controversy between mining and other interests as 
 developed by the litigation which has been in progress for 
 several years, with a prospect of a long continuance. A very 
 important suit is now in progress before a State court of jus- 
 tice. It is entitled the State of California versus the Gold 
 Run Mining Company. It has occupied the attention of the 
 court for two months, and enlisted the services of some of 
 the ablest counsel in the State. Many of the witnesses are 
 among the ablest and best informed citizens of the State. 
 No case could be watched with more interest by all persons 
 concerned with the prosperity of the State. The issue is the 
 right of miners to discharge detritus into beds of streams. 
 A decision can hardly be expected for several months. In 
 1878 the case of Keyes versus Little York Gold and Water 
 Company and others, was tried in the tenth judicial district 
 of California. The decree enjoined the defendants in this 
 language, namely, that they — 
 
 Be and they are each of them hereby perpetually enjoined 
 and restrained from using the bed of Bear Elver, or the beds 
 of any or either of its branches, tributaries, ravines, or 
 gulche?, as a place of deposit, or as a dump or place of dis- 
 charge for the tailings or debris of their said mines or min- 
 ing claims or either of them, and especially from using said 
 beds of said streams or either of them as a place of deposit 
 of the tailings from those mining claims known as the Em- 
 pire, Christmas Hill, etc. * * * ; and they and each 
 of said defendants are further hereby perpetually restrained 
 and prohibited from fouling and corrupting the water of 
 Bear River, and its branches, tributaries, streams, ravines. 
 
 Natural Denudation. — A comparison of artificial de- 
 nudation in mining with that due to natural agencies, if it 
 could be fully made, would be a profitable and interesting 
 step in this investigation. Unfortunately, the data for the 
 determination of natural denudation in the Sacramento 
 basin do not exist. A few observations of the quantities of 
 sediment carried by the Sacramento River have been made, 
 but they are hardly in sufficient numbers to form a basis for 
 calculation. As they exist, the portion due to mining and 
 the portion due to natural agencies cannot be segregated. 
 The physical characteristics of the Sacramento basin affect- 
 ing the question are condensed from the report of the State 
 engineer, 1880. The total area of the Sacramento basin is 
 24,708 square miles, of which 4,709 square miles are plains 
 of the main valley. The rainfall in the valley may be aver- 
 aged at 18 or 20 inches. The Sierra Nevada flanks the val- 
 ley on the east, with an area of 8,298 square miles, the 
 height of range varying from 7,000 to 11,000 feet. In sea- 
 sons of ordinarily heavy rainfall this region receives from 
 24 to 102 inches of rain. The Coast Range flanks the val- 
 ley on the west, with an area of 3,075 square miles. The 
 Range has considerably less height than the Sierra, and the 
 rainfall is much lighter. At the northern end of the plains 
 lies a mountainous district 5,616 square miles in area, within 
 which lies Mount Shasta, 14,400 feet in height. The 
 rainfall here is larger than in any other part of the districts 
 ranging from 30 to 110 inches. 
 
 The area drained by Pit River is stated approximately as 
 2,950 square miles. The rainfall is unknown, but less 
 than on the Sierra. Three-fourths of the area is thus shown 
 
700 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 to be mountainous, and the greater part of the mountain 
 area is subject to a very considerable rainfall, which per- 
 haps may be averaged for the whole area of mountains at 
 35 or 40 inches, and for the area of the basin at about 30 
 inches. The fall of rain is confined to four or five months, 
 and the greater part usually falls in two months. The pre- 
 cipitation in the higher portions of the Sierra is in the form 
 of snow, which is melted in the mouths of April, May, and 
 June. The Sierras were originally covered with timber. 
 Along the line of the railroad the hills have been stripped ; 
 a young growth is taking its place. Along the whole range 
 there is a large destruction of timber, used for mining and 
 other purposes. Much of it finds its way when manufac- 
 tured to the valley and other markets in Arizona, being 
 floated from the mountains by V flumes. The Coast Range 
 is comparatively without timber. The mean slope of the 
 basin is, by reason of the great mean altitude, very much in 
 excess of that of most rivers, and particularly of large rivers. 
 In Vol. Ill of the transactions of the Geological Society of 
 Glasgow, Professor Geikie states the times required by natu- 
 ral agencies to remove an average thickness of one foot of 
 rock in each of several drainage basins, as determined by the 
 amount of sediment carried by the rivers which drain them. 
 They are as follows : 
 
 Years. 
 6,84G 
 
 Danube basin .... 
 Mississippi basin . . 
 
 Nile basin 
 
 Ganges basin . . 
 Rhone basin . . . 
 Hoang lio ba^in . . 
 Po basin 
 
 . 6,000 
 
 . . . . 4,72.3 
 
 . 2,360 
 
 . . 1,S28 
 
 . . 1,464 
 
 ... 729 
 
 Applying the Mississippi rate of one foot of rock removed 
 in 6,00u years to the Sacramento basin, which has an area 
 of 24,708 square miles, it will be found that in one year, 
 4,250,000 cubic yards of rock will be removed. Converting 
 this volume of specific gravity of 2.5 into sediment having 
 specific gravity of 1.9 it becomes 5,592,110 cubic yards. If 
 we apply the rate of the Po, the yearly denudation of the 
 Sacramento basin would be in rock 34,300,000 cubic yards, 
 or in sediment 43,000,000. The Rhone rate would give 21,- 
 950,000 cubic yards of sediment, and the Ganges 13,230,000 
 cubic yards, as the natural denudation of the Sacramento 
 basin. This comparison would be more satisfactory if we 
 could know that the sediment assumed to be carried by the 
 rivers had been carefully obtained. In the case of the Mis- 
 sissippi, the amount carried in suspension was the subject of 
 more than two years' careful observation, the details of 
 which are to be found in the Physics and Hydraulics of the 
 Mississippi River, page 136. The only statement in regard to 
 the sediment carried by the Po, that is accessible to the 
 writer, is that Lombardini assumes the ratio of sediment to 
 water in volume to be ^J^j, this rate having been determined 
 by Ludini. The extent of the observations upon which the 
 statement is based is unknown; the same is more or less 
 true of the other rivers mentioned in the table. 
 
 In the case of the Mississippi, the amount carried on the 
 bottom and not suspended does not result from observation. 
 In area and topography there is a noticeable likeness be- 
 tween the basins of the Po and the Sacramento. The areas 
 are 24,700 for the Sacramento and 26,800 for the Po. The 
 Sierra Nevada and the Coast Range correspond to the Alps 
 and the Apennines, both in the fact that they respectively 
 flank the rivers through a great part of their courses, and 
 also in that the Sierra approaches the Alps in altitudes, and 
 resembles them in heavy deposits of snow ; while the Coast 
 Range, like the Apennines, delivers its floods with rapidity, 
 and is comparatively free of snow. The Sierra is distin- 
 guished from the Alps by greater breadth, owing to which 
 the proportion of mountain to plain is considerably greater 
 in the Sacramento than in the Po. The lacustrine rivers of 
 the Alps have, however, no adequate counterparts in the 
 Sierra. In point of rainfall the basin of the Po probably 
 surpasses the Sacramento. The slopes of the two basins 
 have a fair correspondence. The denudation of timber on 
 the Sierra is in all probability considerably less than that of 
 the Alps. The average rainfall in the basin of the Missis-- 
 sippi cannot differ much from that of the Sacramento, al- 
 though the mode of occurrence is altogether different,— the 
 downfall in the Sacramento being confined to a few months 
 in the year. The mean slope of the Sacramento basin is 
 very much in excess of that of the Mississippi. This dis- 
 
 cussion is a,ltogether of too general a nature to lead to a con- 
 clusion more definite than this, namely, that the rate of 
 natural denudation in the basin of the Sacramento is in all 
 probability in excess of that of the Mississippi, and proba- 
 bly less than that attributed to the Po. But whatever may 
 prove to be the position of the Sacramento between these 
 limits of 5,592,110 cubic yards of sediment, representing the 
 Mississippi rate, and 43,000,000 cubic yards, representing 
 the- Po rate, we cannot, in any event, help being impressed 
 by the comparison which shows the relations existing be- 
 tween the respective powers of natural forces acting in na- 
 ture's way, and a part of the same agencies controlled and 
 directed by man, both applied in degradation of the earth's 
 surface. The comparison is more striking when, instead of 
 being applied to the whole area of the Sacramento basin, it 
 is confined to the limits of the field of the Yuba, Bear, and 
 American rivers, where mining exists on the greatest scale. 
 The area of the basins of these tributaries is 3,520 square 
 miles, which is one-seventh of the whole area oi the Sacra- 
 mento basin. Under any rate that we can be justified in 
 assuming for natural denudation, even that of the Po, it will 
 easily be seen that the annual miaing denudation in these 
 basins is several times in excess of that due to natural 
 causes. To place this in a more specific light, we may re- 
 call that the mining detritus annually placed in the three 
 rivers is quite 31,000,000 cubic yards ; while the Po rate of 
 denudation applied to the area of the basins would aflbrd 
 little more than 6,000,000 cubic yards per year. These 
 general considerations are calculated to convey to the minds 
 of those familiar with the natural circumstances of rivers as 
 clear a conception of the magnitude of the problem as 
 would be afforded by a study of its details. They explain 
 the accumulations in the river beds, by making it evident 
 that mining operations contribute more material per year 
 than the floods of that year are able to carry. It also be- 
 comes plain that if the mining were tocease now, the floods, 
 being able to transport considerably more material than that 
 due to natural erosion, would then be in a condition to at- 
 tack deposits in the beds, which are comparatively safe so 
 long as the floods are overloaded as they now are. 
 
 Changes in Navigable "Waters. — The navigable 
 waters are the channels of the Great Bay, and the Feather, 
 the Sacramento, and San Joaquin rivers. So far as the 
 rivers are concerned, we are not in possession of charts of 
 old date, which compared with recent maps would afford an 
 accurate record of the changes that have occurred in the 
 past generation. Nevertheless, the partial records that ex- 
 ist, and well-established facts developed by inquiry and by 
 comparison of statements made by those who by reason of 
 occupation or residence must be supposed to have knowledge 
 of certain facts, are sufficient to enable a fair general com- 
 parison to be made of the present and former conditions of 
 the Sacramento River below the entrance into it of mining 
 detritus. As for the San Joaquin River, no evidence is 
 known to exist showing any change of importance in its 
 channels. A gauge has been observed at the city of Sacra- 
 mento with more or less continuity, since and including 
 the year 1849, which was the date of the great influx of 
 people into California. The gauge readings of the low stage 
 of the river are here given to include the year 1881 : 
 
 
 
 Feet 
 
 1849, 
 
 low-water reading . . ... 
 
 
 1869 
 
 . .do 
 
 2.9 
 
 1874 
 
 . .do. ... 
 
 4.9 
 
 1876 
 
 . . do. . . . 
 
 4.6 
 
 1876 
 
 .do ... . 
 
 7.1 
 
 1877 
 
 . . do 
 
 fi.3 
 
 1878 
 
 .do. . ... 
 
 6.5 
 
 1879 
 
 .do. 
 
 6.8 
 
 18SII 
 
 .do. . . . 
 
 .7.4 
 
 1881 
 
 . . do 
 
 6.5 
 
 It may be observed that tho low-water plane was raised 
 2.9 feet in the twenty years succeeding the beginning of 
 mining, and that the next ten years, from 1869 to 1879, 
 doubled the rise of the plane. The table shows a continu- 
 ous rise, with some anomalies, which may in part at least 
 be acco,unted for by the different volumes of the river in its 
 low stages. The difference in volume may be accounted for 
 by difference in rainfall, and also by the influence due to 
 the amount of water contributed from the storage reservoirs 
 of mining companies. A loc.il change in the slope of the 
 river may also be due to variations in the amount of detritus 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 701 
 
 deposited in the Sacramento by the American, which joins 
 the main river at Sacramento. Notwithstanding those va- 
 riations, the conclusion is plain that the low-water plane at 
 Sacramento has been raised about 6 feet since 1849. As a 
 consequence of the elevation of the bed, the tidal influence 
 which in 1849 extended at least as high as the mouth of the 
 Feather, 25 miles above Sacramento, and was quite 2 feet at 
 Sacramento, is now no longer noticeable above Heacock 
 ghoals, 9 miles below Sacramento. 
 
 , The tide within the past thirty years rose on these shoals 
 ^ much as 3 feet. Corroborative evidence of the rise of 
 the bed is afforded at the Russian Embarcadero, 10 miles 
 below Sacramento, which in old times was 3 feet out of the 
 water in the low stage. In 1878, it was found to be IJ feet 
 under water, showing a rise of surface of about 4J feet. This 
 is confirmed again by the level of the low-water of 1862, 
 which was fixed at Greene's Ferry, 3 miles above Courtland, 
 by the level at which the branches of a tree were cut off in 
 that year for the accommodation of the ferry boat. This 
 level is 4 feet below low water of 1878. Confirmation of 
 like character is afforded by trustyworthv circumstances 
 needless to record, occurring at the Hog's Sack and at Ida 
 Island. The State engineer gives the changes of level in 
 1880 as 5 to 5 J feet at Sacramento ; mouth of Feather, 3 or 
 4 feet; head of Steamboat Slough, IJ to 2J feet. The rise 
 of the low-water plane indicates filling not so much in the 
 pools of the river as on the shoals. All of the shoals below 
 Sacramento have been bored, and samples have been col- 
 lected under the direction of this office. The deposits are 
 found to be chiefly mining detritus. We may fairly assume 
 that the filling in the pools has at least kept pace with the 
 rising in the low-water plane. This assumption, which is 
 much within probability, and within facta so far as they are 
 known, would make a general filling of the bed between the 
 Feather and Sacramento, a distance of 25 miles, to be 5 feet, 
 and for the 60 miles below Sacramento an average of about 
 3 feet, to which is to be added the deposit in Steamboat 
 Slough. The State engineer compared a survey of 1854, 
 made by direction of the town council, by the city surveyor, 
 of a portion of the river 2 miles in length in front of the 
 town of Sacramento, with the condition of the river in 1879. 
 
 The maximum filling was 25 feet and the average 15 feet. 
 (State Engineer's report 1880, page 31.) 
 
 Specific information of this kind for the river as a whole 
 is lacking, therefore no means exist for obtaining an esti- 
 mate in any detail of the aggregate deposits in the Sacra- 
 mento River made during the last thirty years. They can 
 only be generally inferred from known facts. Twenty-five 
 miles below Sacramento the river divides into two delta 
 channels, which unite below, the intermediate distance by 
 two channels being 18 miles by Old River, and 12 miles by 
 Steamboat Slough. In the earlier days of navigation and 
 Until six or eight years ago. Steamboat Slough was the chan- 
 nel used by all boats and vessels. It is now obstructed by 
 shoals and at low tide carries only about 4 feet, so that it3 
 navigation is now for the most part abandoned. Old River 
 is now the navigable channel. The depth on the bars of 
 the river at low water does not appear to have been dimin- 
 ished to a great extent, but the expulsion of tidal influence 
 in whole or in part has resulted in a decrease of effective 
 depth. As the slope of the river increases, it is plain that the 
 low-water discharge will afford a constantly diminishing 
 depth. The decrease on the bars produced to this time has 
 been masked by the absence of tide. As the scouring influ- 
 ence of the tide is diminished, the tendency to deposit is 
 increased. '■ Above the city of Sacramento as far as the 
 Feather, although the deposits have been large, the effective 
 depth appears not to have suffered to any great extent, if at 
 all. The slope in this reach has probably not been much 
 changed. It would not be changed if we supposed the ele- 
 vation of the surface at the mouth of the Feather to be just 
 equal to that at the- mouth of the Sacramento. This may 
 be the case, for although the Feather is the outlet of a more 
 extensive mining field, the main Sacramento into which it 
 empties is at and above this point free of mining detritus. 
 For this reason the minor output of the American may be able 
 to maintain at Sacramento a rise of bed equal to that pro- 
 duced by ihe Feather. However this may be, the best ac- 
 cessible testimony indicates that there has been no change 
 of effective depth between Sacramento and the mouth ot 
 
 the Feather worthy of notice. The width, however, of por- 
 tions of this stretch of the river has been considerably di- 
 minished. Large deposits of fine mining detritus 10 or 
 more feet above low water, and covered with willow growths, 
 now form the banks for considerable distances, the old banks 
 in rear being indicated by the growth of heavy timber. This 
 is a regulation of the river-bed by the influences of nature, 
 which could not have occurred except for the loads of sedi- 
 ment in the river. The Feather River low-water level at 
 Marysville, the head of navigation, has been raised about 15 
 feet. The rise in level at the mouth, 30 miles below, is 
 given by the State engineer, already quoted, 3 or 4 feet. The 
 description of the mouth of the Feather, given by the 
 Wilkes exploring expedition, indicates more filling at the 
 mouth. Investigations made by this oflBce in comparing 
 present with former depths on Fish Slough bar and the mid- 
 dle ground, both being in the Sacramento River above the 
 mouth of the Feather, prove quite satisfactorily that in 1878 
 the filling at the mouth of the Feather was fully 5 feet. At 
 present it can be no less. Taking 15 feet at Marysville, and 
 5 feet at the moulh, the difference, 10 feet, is to be added to 
 the old fall. This increases the slope of the Feather in its 
 navigable part 4 inches to the mile. This increase has im- 
 paired the depth of water and the practicability of naviga- 
 tion to a considerable extent. 
 
 Applying to the navigable portion of the Feather the rule 
 adopted for the minimum deposited in the Sacramento, 
 namely, that the average filling is equal to the elevation of 
 the plane of low water, we will have for the thirty miles, 
 from Marysville to the mouth, an average depth of ten feet 
 over the bed of the river. This estimate is thought to be 
 here, as in the Sacramento, considerably below the fact. 
 As a consequence of these changes a higher flood line and 
 greater exposure to overflow now exists for all riparian 
 lands on both these rivers. This is an element of consid- 
 erable loss to the country, but its description and discussion 
 do not come within the limits of this investigation. The 
 steepening of the slopes when they are low, as they neces- 
 sarily are in navigable streams, is in the direction of the 
 fulfillment of the condition essential to enable the river to 
 carry the material delivered to it. The steady increase of 
 elevation of the lower water-plane at Sacramento indicates 
 that the relation now existing between slopes and sedi- 
 ments is not that of stable equilibrium, and for the present 
 we must look for the continued increase of slope. If we 
 suppose the weight of sediment presented to the river for 
 transportation to be increased, an increased rate of steepen- 
 ing in slopes must be anticipated. The elevation of the 
 bed of the river is not accompanied by an equal rise in the 
 river banks. The level of the beds approaches more and 
 more the level of the bank. In the cases of the Yuba and 
 Bear, non-navigable streams yet to he described, the level of 
 the beds has risen from a depth a number of feet below the 
 hanks to an elevation of several feet above the banks. 
 These instances may be taken to illustrate the ultimate con- 
 dition of the Sacramento and Feather rivers, under a con- 
 tinuance of the influences to which they are now subjected. 
 The abandonment of existing channels is a consequence to 
 be apprehended. The information that has been obtained 
 in regard to the channels of the bay, results from a study in 
 obedience to a resolution of the House of Representatives, of 
 the 12th of June, 1880, which called for a report upon the 
 causes tending to diminish the tidal area of the bay and the 
 commercial value of the harbor of San Francisco. The re- 
 port made in obedience to this resolution was published by 
 the House of Representatives, Forty-sixth Congress, third ses- 
 sion, Ex. Doc. No. 93. The main facts are here reproduced : 
 
 1. A careful comparison of the charts of San Francisco 
 entrance bar, made in 1855 and 1873, shows that the bar 
 had suffered no injury in that interval. 
 
 2. A comparison Of surveys of the ship's channel of a por- 
 tion of San Pablo bay, made in 1855, 1863, 1878, shows that 
 between 1855 and 1863, no deposits of much importance 
 were made in the channels. The surveys of 1863 and 1878 
 are distinguished by a deposit of 76,025,000 cubic yards 
 made in the interval. The depth of deposit averaged over 
 the area of comparison 24J square miles, would be 3.1 feet. 
 The deposit, however, did not occur in the shape of a layer 
 of uniform thickness. It occurs mainly on the flanks of the 
 channel, and has the effect to narrow the channel without 
 
702 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 aifecting to any noticeable extent the ruling depth. The 
 mean reduction in width of channel between the 18-foot 
 contours obtained by comparison of six cross-sections, is 
 2,820 feet, which is 22 per cent, of the mean width of 1855. 
 This comparison includes only the channel. The shoal- 
 water areas were necessarily excluded from comparison, 
 owing to the fact that no survey of them has been made 
 since 1855. 
 
 3. A comparison of maps of three and a half miles on the 
 Sacramento near its mouth and one mile at the mouth of 
 the San Joaquin, shows a deposit of 2,000,000 cubic yards in 
 the Sacramento, and 500,000 in the San Joaquin between 
 1867 and 1878. The comparison of charts of Suisun Bay 
 made in 1867 and 1878, shows an extension in area of the 
 shoals, which have not yet been measured in a detailed 
 way. A comparison of charts of Carquinez Straits, during 
 different dates indicates the formation of large deposits in 
 recent years. No opportunity has offered as yet for the in- 
 vestigation of the origin of the deposits in the bays. It 
 would be possible to determine by a sufficient number of 
 samples taken from each locality, whether the deposits are 
 mainly due to either of the two great sources of erosion, the 
 artificial due to mining or the natural. It is to be pre- 
 sumed that both causes are represented in these effects. 
 
 Deposits of Detritus in Tributaries of Navigable 
 "Waters. — ^The Yuba and Bear tributaries of the Feather, 
 and the American, a branch of Sacramento, present to in- 
 spection large deposits of detritus in their beds and on ad- 
 joining alluvial lands. These are in places of tempo- 
 rary lodgment, where they are left by one flood and 
 removed in greater or less degree by the succeeding 
 one. Each movement carries a quota into the naviga- 
 ble streams and maintains the features of these rivers that 
 have been described. The loci of these deposits are 
 determined by the circumstances of the case, among which 
 may be mentioned the character of the detritus as to size 
 and weight, the volume of flood waters and the natural 
 grades of the river beds. Differences of circumstances cor- 
 respond to widely different localities of deposit. The canons 
 of the three forks of the Yuba are distinguished by heavy 
 natural grades. The mines on the Yuba afford a large sup- 
 ply of fine material, and the fiood discharge is large ; conse- 
 quently we find the upper cafions quite free from deposit, 
 which begins to be important only where the three forks 
 unite to form the main Yuba. Oa the Bear a great propor- 
 tion of heavy material is deposited near the head of the 
 river, about and above Dutch Flat. The river does not 
 head in the high Sierra, and, therefore it has not the same 
 flood characteristics as the Yuba. We find a very large and 
 increasing deposit in the vicinity of the mines themselves. 
 In 1879 Professor Pettee found the bed of the Bear, at the 
 crossing between Dutch Flat and Little York, to be 97 fejt 
 higher than 1870, and that in the same interval Steep Hol- 
 low, between Little York and You Bet, had risen 136 feet. 
 (Volume II., page 425, Auriferous Gravels, by Prof. J. D. 
 Whitney.) The best information available leads to the 
 opinion that the Bear River here is filled 150 feet in depth ; 
 Steep Hollow, 250 feet; and the Greenhorn, at the crossing 
 of Nevada and Dutch Flat Road, 200 feet deep. Where 
 the detritus, consists, in part, of heavy cobbles or larger 
 stones, it is supposed to remain where deposited, or at least 
 to be moved slowly. It thus forms a barrier which serves 
 to impound above it a mass of gravel, which otherwise would 
 have traveled further dowji stream. The steep grade of the 
 Bear River bed below the Dutch Flat dump may be taken 
 to be that which the flood-i in this stream require to give 
 motion to the heavy material there deposited. The average 
 grade from Dutch Flat, for 10 miles below, to Nevada Rail- 
 road bridge is 55 feet to the mile, being about 30 feet at the 
 lower end, and presumably 80 feet at the upper. Over all 
 this distance the cafiou is filled and graded — cobbles and 
 large stones above, with diminished sizes below. With the 
 exception of about 11 miles, the rivor bed is filled from 
 Dutch Flat to the mouth. Below the Nevada Railriiail 
 bridge, wherever the grades are in the neighborhood of 25 
 and 30 feet to the mile, there are large deposits; and where 
 the grade is 40 feet, the amount is noticeably decreased, 
 while in the 11 miles already mentioned as free from de- 
 posits, the grade varies between 80 and 110 feet in the mile. 
 On any such grades as have been mentioned, the deposits are 
 
 mainly of gravel and cobbles, with comparatively little sand. 
 The great reservoirs of sand lie at the exit of the river from 
 the foothills and on the plains below, where the deposit is 
 widened in resemblance to, but not to the same extent as on 
 the Yuba, with grades of from 8 to 6 feet to the mile. At- 
 tempts have been made by various parties to estimate the 
 volumes of these deposits. Such attempts must be regarded 
 in the light of conjectures. The circumstances do not per- 
 mit estimates in the true sense to be made, except with great 
 outlay of time and money. In the case of Keyes vs. Little 
 York Gold Washington and Water Company evidence was 
 given by several experts, placing the amount of deposits in 
 the Bear River, above the plains, as 86,000,000 cubic yards, 
 and below the foothills to the mouth 36,000,000 cubic yards ; 
 total, 122,000,000. This was in 1878. Similar estimates by 
 Mr. Manson, reported to the State engineer, give the esti- 
 mated deposits, in 1879, on the Yuba above the foothills as 
 48,462,100 cubic yards, the great bulk in 8 or 10 miles ; and 
 below, 23,284,000 ; a total of 71,746,100 cubic yards. In the 
 light of later information, it seems probable that this esti- 
 mate is altogether too low, the deposits in small tributaries 
 not having been taken into account, and the amount in the 
 lower river having been much underestimated. The actual 
 amount is not capable of being ascertained, and the state- 
 ments are given merely for purposes of illustration. At its 
 escape from the mountains, where the foothills recede and 
 give width to the plain, the Yuba spreads out its load of 
 sand and gravel over a plain of 15,000 to 16,000 acres, which 
 has risen until it now stands above the level of the adjoin- 
 ing country on either side. This plain has a slope of about 
 10 feet to the mile, varying above and below this limit as 
 you ascend or descend the river bed, being 15 feet at the 
 foothills and 6 feet at Marysville, 10 miles below. The sizes 
 of material have some correspondence to the grades. As- 
 cending the stream one passes to a continually increasing 
 average size of material. While it is nearly all sand below, 
 above it becomes nearly all gravel, with, however, consider- 
 able admixtures of different sizes everywhere. This erup- 
 tion from the mountains has destroyed thousands of acres of 
 alluvial land. The State engineer, in 1880, estimated that 
 15,220 acres had been seriously injured by these deposits 
 from the Yuba. On the Yuba the great deposits of gravel 
 are found on a grade of 30 feet to 20 feet to the mile. The 
 sands predominate greatly in slopes of 10 feet and below. 
 On grades greater than 40 feet to the mile the canons are 
 generally quite clear of material, unless it be stones of con- 
 siderable size. The forks which have been alluded to as 
 quite free from deposits have grades generally exceeding 50 
 feet to the mile. Mr. Manson supplies the following infor- 
 mation in reference to the American River : 
 
 The American, a tributary to the Sacramento, presents the fol- 
 lowing general features and characteristics: 
 
 Its water-.ihed extends to the summit of the Sierra Nevada, and 
 is drained by three principal forks. The northern one of these is 
 the recipient of a large amount of detritus and is much filled up, 
 down to its junction with the Middle Fork. The depth of this 
 deposit is variously estimated; the maximum depth is probably as 
 much as 100 feet. The volume is, as in other instances, a matter of 
 conjecture, but probably does not fall far short of 20,000,000 or 
 25,000,000 of cubic yards. 
 
 The grades upon which this material has found lodgment vary 
 from 46 feet per mile in the upper reaches, where coarse material 
 is lodged, to 23 feet per mile where finer material has been carried. 
 This latter grade is found in a portion of the canyon some 20 miles 
 in lenytli. In this there is economical storage. 
 
 After tlio North and Middle forks join the grade is about -22 feet 
 per mile; the large volume of fiood-water sweejis all material out 
 of the canyon of the American, only tlie coarsest tinding lodgment in 
 protected places, and equalizing the inequalities iu the original 
 grades. These grades, altliough lighter than those above, upon 
 wliich material has lodged, have a larger volume of flood-water 
 pas'iing down tliem, and hence no deposits of moment have occurred. 
 
 The Middle Fork is not so much filled as the North Fork, as hy- 
 draulic mining is not so extensive upon it. 
 
 The grades in its lower reaches are somewhat less than upon the 
 North Fork, and the canyon is of greater hiteral dimensions. Al- 
 though this portion of the river is suitable for storage, such use is 
 entirely prohibited by the existence of valuable mines in and near 
 the bed of the river, whose destruction would be caused by the 
 storage of debris in this portion of the river. The upper portions 
 of this stream have not been examined for more than S or 10 miles 
 farther; here the grades are about 45 feet per mile, and tlie canyon 
 narrow. Storage is available here for the coai'sest material from 
 above. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 703 
 
 The South Fork is practically clear of debris; that which has 
 been discharged into it has been of a different character from the 
 bulk of that discharged into the rivers farther north. 
 
 The application of the hydraulic process to the ancient river 
 gravel is limited, owing to the lava covering the greater portions of 
 the ancient channels ; those portions which were exposed under the 
 edges of this lava cap have been nearly exhausted. Decomposed 
 slate, carrying quartz veins, is extensively mined by the hydraulic 
 process, but the hardness of this material limits the quantity moved 
 in a given time, and the shape of the particles of slate prevents 
 them from being easily transported ; hence a larger proportion of 
 the waste products remains on the dumps and in the small tributa- 
 ries. The iiner detritus from' the mines in the basin of the South 
 Fork forms an excellent soil, as is shown by the deposits intention- 
 ally caused by parties owning land upon which this material can 
 be diverted ; its desirable quality can be easily predicated, from the 
 fact that there is a great deal of the surface soil washed. 
 
 From the mouthof the canyon to the Sacramento River there have 
 been some 6,000 acres of land covered, and 25 or 30 miles of river- 
 bed, from 200 to 400 feet wide, raised from 5 to 30 feet. 
 
 The deposits in the Lower American do not admit of 
 being restrained in the bed of the stream by means that are 
 considered practicable under present circumstances. The 
 amount cannot be specifically stated, but from what precedes 
 it may be conjectured to be twenty or more million yards. 
 The deposits ,jn the upper cafions of the Feather appear 
 from Mr. Manson's account to be very limited. At and below 
 Oroville, however, they become very extensive, in positions 
 where it is difficult if not impossible to exercise control over 
 them. They are a constant injury to the navigable waters 
 below. Being beyond the range of practicable restraints 
 they are foreign to the purposes of this report. Lieutenant 
 Payson estimates the volume of deposits in the bed of the 
 Cosuumes River to be 6,000,000 cubic yards, and the maxi- 
 mum depth of filling to be 20 feet. Reference to his report 
 will show that the same state of afiairs exists in all the rivers 
 south of the Cosumnes to the Merced, the degree, however, 
 being very much less than that shown to exist on the Yuba, 
 Bear, and American. 
 
 Gravel Workable by Hydraulic Procesa— The 
 quantity of auriferous gravel now remaining on the flanks 
 of the Sierra Nevada is practically unlimited. If it were 
 all workable its exhaustion would task the energies of 
 miners for many generations. No practical end could be 
 served by an attempt to estimate the aggregate mass. For 
 several good reasons only a comparatively small portion of 
 the whole can be regarded as workable under existing condi- 
 tions. The workable quantity in several basins is in a cer- 
 tain sense subject to estimate between limits in an approx- 
 mate way. Such an estimate is very desirable in order to 
 give a basis for an opinion as to the extent, cost, and dura- 
 tion of any system which may be adopted for the purpose 
 of remedying evils consequent upon mining. The estimates 
 that follow are thought to be sufficient for the present pur- 
 pose, and any considerable errors that may be found in them 
 can be corrected in the future by more accurate information. 
 All the gravel which will pay a profit under hydraulic pro- 
 cesses may be regarded as workable. 
 
 Under the most favorable circumstances it is Professor 
 Whitney's opinion that gravel yielding 4| cents per cubic 
 yard may be worked at a profit. Abundance and cheapness 
 of water are essential, as well as favorable outfall. (Page 
 371, Auriferous Gravels.) This, however, must be under- 
 stood to apply only to the light top gravel, which is readily 
 moved. The yield must be much greater to give a profit in 
 the lower portions where bowlders and cemented gra;vel are 
 frequently encountered. The hydraulic process may be un- 
 profitable, because the gravel does not contain sufficient 
 gold, or because it is overlaid with too much or too hard a 
 capping, or because the outfall is insufficient, or because the 
 supply of water is not at hand. If the gold is found in a 
 pay streak close to the bed rock, it may be more profitable 
 to stope out the pay gravel than to wash the whole superin- 
 cumbent mass by hydraulic process. Generally speaking, 
 working is a question of richness. If there is no outfall the 
 hydraulic process cannot be applied. If the gravel is rich 
 enough, and there is an outfall, capital can supply all that 
 is required to apply the hydraulic process. Keeping this 
 in view, the approximate estimates of gravel tributary to 
 the Bear River and to the North Fork of the American, 
 contained in Appendix 3, will be intelligible. It will be 
 observed that the material in each of the mines is classified 
 
 particularly as to size, as cobbles, gravel, sand, lava, ashes, 
 &c. The object of this classification is to afibrd a basis for 
 calculating amount to be stored, it being generally assumed 
 that the cobbles and bowlders will not be carried far from 
 the mines. It is thought to be safer under our present 
 knowledge, or rather want of knowledge, to regard the whole 
 mass requiring storage, including both the portion which by 
 reason of its fineness is incapable of storage and the heavier 
 portion, which, perhaps, may never reach the reservoirs. We 
 thus make compensation for any error in the underestima- 
 tion of material. The estimates for the Bear River and the 
 North Fork of the American are based upon an inspection 
 of each mine, but not on the instrumental measurements, 
 which the funds available did not permit to be made. 
 
 It appears that the territory tributary to the North Fork 
 of the American contains of workable gravel 75,180,010 
 cubic yards. In the first-named district are the Gold Run 
 and Iowa Hill Mines. In illustrations of differences that 
 throw more or less discredit on all the estimates of this kind, 
 which, at best, are rude approximations, reference is made 
 to Professor Pettee's conclusions in regard to Gold Run 
 Mine in 1870. (Page 147, Auriferous Gravels.) He esti- 
 mates the amount Avashed off south of the railroad at 43,- 
 000,000, and the amount remaining at 86,000,000 cubic yards ; 
 and adding other claims not yet touched, the gross amount 
 to be mined becomes 125,000,000 cubic yards. In the testi- 
 mony recently given in the case now under trial at Sacra- 
 mento, The State of California vs. The Gold Run Mining 
 Company, the State engineer gives the amount washed off 
 to date as 52,440,000 cubic yards. Other witnesses estimate 
 the amount remaining in the Gold Run Mine variously 
 from 18,000,000 to 22,000,000 yards. In 1870 Mr. Goodyear 
 estimated gravel to be mined at Iowa Hill at 26,000,000 
 yards. (Page 119, Auriferous Gravels.) 
 
 Mr. Larson's estimate in 1881 is 6,388,800 cubic yards, 
 which allows for nearly 20,000,000 washed between 1870 and 
 1881. On the ridge south of the American and between it 
 and the Cosumnes, Mr. Manson reports that practicable hy- 
 draulic mining is about exhausted. The gravel deposit 
 from Placerville to Sportsman's Hall, 14 miles in length, is 
 lava-capped to depths of 20 to several hundred feet, and the 
 mines are now worked up to the edge of the lava. The lava 
 is regarded as a bar to further use of the hydraulic pro- 
 cess. There is, however, a large field for drift mining. In 
 1870 Mr. Goodyear estimated the quantity remaining sub- 
 ject to the hydraulic process near Placerville, at about 
 50,000,000 cubic yards. (Page 120, Auriferous Gravels.) 
 Mr. Manson supplies the following information in regard 
 to the gravel deposits on the Georgetown divide, which 
 lies between the South and Middle Forks of the American. 
 Gravel deposits worked on the Georgetown divide are — 
 
 (1.) Volcanoville. 
 
 (2.) 
 (3.) 
 (4.) 
 5.) 
 6.' 
 
 Mount Gregory. 
 Rubicon. 
 Mount Hope. 
 Mount Ross. 
 Jones Hill. 
 
 All discharge directly or indi- 
 , rectly into the Middle Fork. 
 
 Of those Mounts Hope and Boss have not been worked 
 for four years although belonging to a company having an 
 abundance of water. This deposit is lava-capped. Jones 
 Sill has exhausted its claim on the south side of the deposit, 
 and the water has been turned to the north side and prepa- 
 rations made for opening work ; claim to have from 400 to 
 500 inches for nine months in the year. Deposit limited, 
 and lava-capped. The amount on the Forest Hill divide 
 tributary to the Middle Fork of the American has not been 
 ascertained, even approximately. The yearly contribution 
 of detritus is stated by Mr. Manson to be about 2,500,000 
 cubic yards, and includes that from the south side of the 
 Middle Fork. 
 
 The deposit on the San Juan Ridge, between the South 
 and Middle Yuba, is, for several reasons, the most important 
 in the State. It is much the largest deposit, and it lies very 
 favorably for working, the beds of the ancient rirers being 
 elevated some hundreds of feet above the beds of modern 
 streams. The floods in the Yuba may be relied on to carry 
 away the gravel, which is generally light in character. The 
 canal and reservoir systems are more developed than in any 
 other portion of the State, and the yield of gold is greater 
 than that derived from any other equal area. An approxi- 
 
704 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 mate estimate of the quantity of workable gravel on this 
 ridge was made in 1876 by James G. Hague. The quotation 
 is Irom a printed report on the water and gravel mining 
 properties belonging to the Eureka Lake and Yuba Canal 
 Company : 
 
 The linear extent of the gravel channel and its branches on this 
 ridge is about 25 miles. Deducting liberally for the portion already 
 worked and for that too deeply covered by lava to be available for 
 hydraulic mining, there remain probably not less than 14 miles of 
 channel available for washing, from which only a comparatively 
 small portion of the top gravel has been removed. Below San 
 Juan the gravel body has a surface width of over 1,000 feet, and is, 
 say, 140 feet deep. From Badger Hill to Bloomfield it is for the 
 greater portion very much wider and deeper. At Columbia Hill its 
 surface width varies from 3,000 or 4,000 to 8,000 feet, and it is from 
 300 to 600 feet deep. The gravel at Lake City is probably 300 or 
 400 feet deep. At North Bloomfield it is opened to the bed-rock, 
 showing a depth of more than 300 feet. Roughly estimating the 
 average width of the remaining gravel range at 400 yards, and after 
 allowing for the portion worked off, placing its average depth at 70 
 yards, the sum is an average of, say, 50,000,000 yards per mile, or 
 for 14 miles, say, 700,000,000 yards. 
 
 Allowing for the amount washed since 1876, 100,000,000 
 yards, there remains 600,000,000 to be removed. The work- 
 ing of the lower lying deposits at Columbia Hill will, how- 
 ever, require the driving of a tunnel between two and three 
 miles in length. It may be regarded as doubtful whether un- 
 der existing circumstances a work of this magnitude will be 
 undertaken. The terms used in the description indicate 
 that it is only approximate, but, while this is the case, no 
 one has attempted a correction, and in the treatise on the 
 Auriferous Gravels, by Prof. J. D. Whitney, Mr. Hague's 
 estimate is adopted. The best information in regard to the 
 extensive mining property of the Excelsior Water and Min- 
 ing Company, at Smartsville, is derived from reports made 
 in 1879. This property consists of 525 acres of mining 
 ground, which contained, according to Professor Pumpelly, 
 76,500,000 cubic yards of gravel. Mr. Janin's estimate was 
 75,000,000 cubic yards. This is expected to produce per 
 cubic yard 25 cents by Mr. Janin's estimate, and 34 cents 
 according to Professor [Pumpelly. The lower of these esti- 
 mates being fulfilled will make the working very profitable. 
 There are other deposits about Smartsville, in regard to 
 which no definite information has been obtained. There are 
 also deposits in the basin of the North Fork of the Yuba, 
 which are noticed in Mr. Manson's appended report, the 
 cubical contents of which we have not the means of stating. 
 They are, however, of much smaller dimensions than those 
 already enumerated. Seven hundred millions of cubic yards 
 may be assumed to represent the amount of gravel, workable 
 by hydraulic process, tributary to the Yuba. 
 
 By the estimate carefully considered the quantity of 
 gravel workable by the hydraulic process is, in the Bear and 
 tributaries, in round terms, 50,000,000 cubic yards, which is 
 a comparatively small proportion of the whole amount. The 
 choking of the beds of the river and the tributaries, which 
 are the outfalls of the mines, explains the small amount of 
 the estimate. The debris from the Dutch Flat Mines is 
 unusually heavy, and forms barriers in the river beds which 
 impound a large amount of detritus above. In the Quaker 
 Hill mines the lower gravel can only, under present circum- 
 stances, be worked by drifting, there being no outfall for 
 sluices. The top gravel is stated (page 425, Auriferous 
 Gravels) to yield 6f cents per cubic yard. This rate will 
 yield a profit. When the hydraulic process is not applicable, 
 mining may in special cases be continued by drifting. 
 This method is i5)llowed in some of these mines. The 
 amount of detritus thus produced is a small percentage of 
 that due to the hydraulic process. 
 
 Mr. Manson refers in his report to the prospect of new 
 properties being opened on the Upper Feather, in posi- 
 tions where it will be difiicult, if not impossible, to pro- 
 vide restraint for detritus. As for the existing mines on 
 the Feather, it appears that the groups on the upper 
 waters already find natural storage for their detritus in 
 great part, and so long as this condition is fulfilled, the 
 magnitude greater or less of the operations need not 
 be considered. 
 
 On the Lower Feather, near Oroville, there are consider- 
 able bodies of gravel, the amount of which is not known. It 
 will be seen by Mr. Manson's report that he was unable to 
 
 find storage for the product of these mines. Lieutenant 
 Payson furnishes the following information in regard to the 
 Cosumnes and rivers south of it. At " Hill Top," on the 
 Cosumnes, the superintendent told me that an estimate had 
 been made, based on their previous rate of working ; that 
 they had gravel enough remaining to last from ten to 
 eleven years. I was able to make here a very close estimate 
 of the duty of an inch, stated in my report of last year as 2.4 
 yards. This, with the water supply of the mine, would indi- 
 cate for the remaining gravel between 11,000,000 and 12,000,- 
 000 yards. From its source this is probably a liberal esti- 
 mate for the mine, and since it is the only one of any con- 
 sequence on the river, will probably cover the remaining 
 supply for it ; also Jenny Lind mine on the Calaveras. The 
 water supply now is 550 inches for six months in the year. 
 They expect to get soon 1,000 inches throughout the year. 
 The superintendent estimates the gravel remaining as" suf-, 
 ficient for twenty-five years at their present rate of progress, 
 or fifteen years with their expected increase in facilities. 
 From the circumstances of the case I think this estimate is 
 made with care. As they probably move from 800,000 to 
 1,000,000 yards per annum now, this would correspond to 
 a remaining supply of say 22,500,000 yards. This will 
 probably all be worked, and can be safely said to include 
 the total remaining supply for the lower river which lies in 
 such a position that it can be worked. There remain enor- 
 mous additional amounts in the deposits about Mokelurane 
 Hill, but as described elsewhere they are not favorably situ- 
 ated for working, and the cessation of hydraulic operations 
 for this reason will precede by a long tiine the exhaustion of 
 the gravel supply. No approximation can be given by me 
 to the quantity now available. The remaining deposit of 
 consequence is found in the newly opened mine at Dogtown 
 (Juniper County). This has not been developed, but prom- 
 ises to be extensive, and has good facilities for working. : 
 The only other large mine now in operation on the southern' 
 rivers is that at La Grange. This has probably, since it be- 
 gan, moved over 16,000,000 yards. The space left by this 
 removal seems but a small fraction in the area of the remain- 
 ing deposits. The superintendent told me they considered 
 their supply of gravel as " inexhaustible," but the facilities 
 for working it very bad. The Golden Rock Deposit oh the 
 upper Tuolumne I did not see. Its owner told me that the 
 deposit was 10 miles in length and the beds 100 feet deep 
 in places. The aggregate amount of gravel not subject to 
 the hydraulic process, but workable by drift mining must 
 be considerable, and the development of this kind of indus- 
 try promises to take greater proportions as wages of miners 
 become less. It is probable that this description of mining 
 will continue for several generations. 
 
 Remedial Measures. — The statement of the case pre- ' 
 sented in the preceding pages seems to establish the necessity 
 of measures of remedy or alleviation, even in the event that no 
 .further contribution be made to mining detritus, in the beds of • 
 streams. We may now inquire whether any remedy is prac- 
 ticable and general for all mines and all circumstances, or 
 whether there are mines producing detritus or existing de- 
 posits of detritus, so situated as to be beyond the application 
 of a remedy. Mention has been made of basins lying near 
 the Feather and American rivers, the surfaces of which are 
 below the level of average stages of the rivers. It is in 
 some cases possible to direct streams from their present 
 courses and turn them into the low-lying lands, with the 
 effect to' make a place of deposit for mining material. Diver- 
 sion of the rivers in all their stages is essential to this pro- 
 ject. Partial diversion or separation of seams into parts, 
 by lessening the transporting power, would aggravate pres- 
 ent evils. The present objections on account of expense 
 and other considerations are sufficient to make us defer fur- 
 ther reference to the project. II, however, in the future it 
 shall become desirable to undertake a fuller consideration 
 of the scheme, account must be taken of the fact already 
 established that the mining streams are not generally able 
 to carry to these basins in a year anything like the full amount 
 of detritus which they receive. It is in consequence of this 
 fact that their beds when inclosed by high banks are rising 
 year by year, and when not so inclosed are undergoing ob- 
 literation. The preservation of river beds and routes of 
 drainage requires that effective restraint be imposed upon 
 mining detritus. Otherwise these drainage lines may be 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 705 
 
 expected to suffer the fate which overtook their prototypes, 
 the Pliocene rivers, which are obliterated by enormous de- 
 posits brought down by their own currents. It may be ad- 
 ded that the conservation of existing facilities for naviga- 
 tion equally requirea restraint of the now of sand and gravel 
 and that no important improvement of the channels can be 
 expected until this result shall be secured. Under all cir- 
 cumstances, restraint is the first and essential step to any 
 projects whether of alleviation, conservation, or improve- 
 ment. It has been shown that in the beds of the American, 
 Bear and Yuba there are how lying many millions of cubic 
 yards of material, in positions where it is comparatively 
 harmless, and that each year as a rule adds something to the 
 volume of these deposits, but that whether anything is added 
 or anything subtracted, which is sometimes the case, depends 
 upon the volume and power of the floods. As a rule the 
 mines supply more material annually than the floods are 
 able to transport over the grades in the lower portions of 
 the rivers. If the floods were of sufficient duration, the ac- 
 cumulations would be formed lower down, and in more dan- 
 gerous positions. Instead of lying in the bed of the Yuba, 
 they would be in the Feather. Taking the Yuba as an in- 
 stance, the great deposits of finer grades of material are 
 near and below the foot-hills on slopes of 10 feet or less to 
 the mile. The heavier classes of material are found in 
 greater abundance higher up the streams on grades of 20 or 
 30 feet to the mile. Now if we place across the river beds 
 barriers some feet in height, the slope of the bed above will 
 be reduced, and with it the transporting power of the wa- 
 tei:. The deposits now taking place will be aided and in- 
 creased. When the material is gravel and sand, the river 
 bed will be filled to the crest of the dam and be graded back 
 on a slope determined by the nature of the material, the 
 widthof the channel, and the volume of the floods. This 
 proposition is not only in harmony with principles of hy- 
 draulics, but it is abundantly proven by results of experi- 
 ence on the Bear and American rivers. 
 
 When the banks are sloping, as is the case generally in the 
 canons of the mountain streams, the elevation of the bed in- 
 creases the width. These slopes are more generally 35°, and 
 an elevation of the bed of 50 feet adds 140 feet to the width. 
 This extended width reduces the heights of floods, the cubes 
 of the heights being proportional to the squares of the 
 widths. Doubling the width reduces the height one-third. 
 The reduction in heights of floods is an important gain in 
 two respects. It reduces the suspending power of the water, 
 and in this way and to some extent favors the deposition of 
 material. It also reduces the exposure of the structure in 
 floods. Another important feature is the increase of the 
 storage volume, consequent upon this increase of width. A 
 permanent structure will make permanent storage, for the 
 reason that it will prevent the river at any time from erod- 
 ing the deposits to the original bed, which otherwise would 
 I take place sooner or later. It may be asked whether the 
 protection afibrded in this way will be complete, and in- 
 clude all grades of mining tailings. This cannot be claimed. 
 The suspensory maiter of fine sands and clay cannot be re- 
 strained in this way or by any other method which does not 
 provide a settling basin in which the water can be main- 
 tained in a quiescent state for some time. It may also be 
 expected that during the flood stages in the early period of 
 development, a certain portion of material of every grade 
 may be suspended, and thus pass the crest of the barrier, but 
 it is to be remarked that as the width is increased the sus- 
 pensory power is diminished, so that the degree of protec- 
 tion becomes greater as ths system is developed. We can 
 imagine a condition of a river when comparatively little is 
 carried suspended, and nearly the whole of the material 
 transported is rolled in waves on the bottom. This 
 condition is more and more approached as the dams are 
 raised. It seems therefore to be good policy to give the first 
 dam in the canons considerable height. It will be under- 
 stood that permanent protection can be attained only by 
 building daraa in proportion to the amount of detritus 
 turned out by the mines. The system must be continued at 
 least as long as the mines are worked. If this system of re- 
 straint had proceeded pari passu with mining during the past 
 thirty years it can hardly be doubted that the condition of 
 the country affected would to-day have been much better than 
 it is. A system begun now is obliged to deal not only with 
 45 
 
 the current action of the mines, but is also compelled to 
 contend with the accumulated difficulties of thirty years. 
 The same principles apply to the large deposits of finer ma- 
 terials that are found in the plains, particularly on the Yuba 
 and Bear. A considerable mass of detritus has, however, 
 reached positions in which no control can now be exercised, 
 but so far as barriers can be applied to hold the sands in 
 their present position it is thought that they ought 
 to be constructed. In particular mines it is impossible to 
 store all the detritus before it reaches the river-beds, and 
 perhaps in many cases partial storage is possible. It is 
 needless to remark that this kind of storage ought to be in- 
 sisted on whenever it is practicable. The amount of storage 
 that will be secured by a barrier of given height is in our 
 present state of knowledge to some extent indeterminate. 
 It depends in any case directly upon the grade of equili- 
 brium which the material takes behind the barrier, and this 
 cannot be regarded as constant, for it must depend upon the 
 violence of floods, in which respect there is much variation. 
 It cannot be doubted that as the bed is widened and the 
 height of floods thereby reduced, material of a given size 
 will be found to be in equilibrio on a grade steeper than 
 that of equilibrium in the original bed. This secondary 
 effect of width shows that the storage prism will grow in a 
 greater than arithmetical ratio as the dams are raised and 
 the widths increased. The barriers or dams, to be perma- 
 nent, must be made of stone in all exposed parts. If wood 
 is used it must be in circumstances where it will be kept 
 wet. In the canyons the dams will consist of a mass of 
 stone blasted from the side hills and deposited with only 
 sufficient care of arrangement that no continuous currents 
 can be established through the structure, and that the velo- 
 city of the water shall be broken by repeated falls. For 
 purposes of estimate, the dams are protected with slopes of 
 1 upon 1, and one upon 4, above and below, respectively, but 
 an arrangement of stones on the lower face to an uniform 
 slope would be a serious error in construction. The more 
 this slope can be broken by falls and the rougher its outline, 
 the more effectually will the destructive action of the water 
 in severe floods be counteracted. In order to fulfill these 
 necessary conditions, it is essential that the quarry shall sup- 
 ply large stones, the larger the better, for exposed positions, 
 and smaller grades to measurably fill the interstices of the 
 larger. Where the foundation is natural rock, it is proposed 
 to use only stone, but in cases where the foundation is 
 gravel or sand, a grillage or mattress of timber or brush will 
 be required to prevent settlement. The purpose of barriers 
 or dams being to restrain sand and gravel, and not to im- 
 pound water, it is not essential that they shall be impervi- 
 ous, nor can they be water-tight. Being nnable to store 
 water, it is impossible to conceive them, in the event of 
 breach, as capable of inflicting disaster upon riparian in- 
 habitants below. Nor could a breach cause an unusual flow, 
 to any great distance, of detritus in a given flood, for the 
 reason already established, that floods are now fully loaded 
 with all the material they are able to carry. The result of a 
 breach, however serious, could therefore be only to restore 
 conditions now existing. Moreover, it is impossible to con- 
 ceive sudden and wholesale disaster overtaking one of these 
 structures. They may settle, and their useiiilness may be 
 impaired, but being simply a mass oflarge rubble stone with- 
 out bond, disaster cannot take great proportions or be an 
 element of sudden danger to persons or property. In cases 
 where brush or timber is much cheaper than stone, it will 
 be permissible to use it more freely and make a considerable 
 part of the structure of this material — after covering it with 
 stone. The moisture below the surface of the river-bed may 
 be relied upon to keep the wood wet, and the covering will 
 protect it from the rays of the sun. It may be well to say 
 that while structures for the same purpose have been used in 
 the Alps and Appennines, there has been no occasion else- 
 where to require dams of the same dimensions. They are to 
 this degree novel, and their exposure in floods may require 
 attention and expense in repair. The site for the dams 
 ought to be such as will give the maximum storage above, 
 and to this end, the larger the area and the lighter the grade 
 of the river the better will be the position. This system of 
 restraint has been put in operation in a partial and insufli- 
 cient way by the State of California, in the construction of 
 two brush dams, one in Bear and the other in the Yuba, at 
 
706 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the edge of the foot-hills. They were described in the re- 
 port of January 10, 1881. On this date they were standing 
 intact and doing good service. Later they both met mis- 
 fortune, and considerable portions of each were carried away. 
 A report of their condition in the summer of 1881 will be 
 found in Appendix 3. They have not been repaired, the 
 State having relinquished any attempt to deal with the en- 
 gineering features of the case, owing to the unconstitution- 
 ality of the act of the legislature under which it was acting. 
 By a comparison of survey in 1880 and 1881, it was found 
 by the office of the State engineer that 4,851,000 cubic yards 
 were impounded above the Yuba dam. Above the Bear 
 River dam 961,000 cubic yards were impounded. These 
 dams serve the purpose of controlling deposits on the plains 
 to a certain and beneficial degree, and it is thought that 
 good policy requires them to be repaired and raised. Per- 
 haps, subsequently, they ought to be covered with stone. 
 In the application of this system it will be plain, from what 
 precedes, that the Yuba presents the case, of greatest neces- 
 sity, and requires the greatest storage volume. The Ameri- 
 can and Bear also require the system. As to the Feather, 
 it appears from the report of Mr. Manson, hereto appended, 
 that the canyons of the Feather are unsuitable for storage, 
 and, what is quite satisfactoiy under the circumstances, that 
 the extent of mining on its upper waters, and the amount of 
 injury resulting therefrom, are not of such a character as to 
 require remedial measures. It is not so, however, with the 
 mines on the lower Feather, in the neighborhood of Oro- 
 ville. These mines discharge into the Feather at points be- 
 low which there is no opportunity to store the detritus.* A 
 group of mines 12 miles north of Oroville, at Cherokee, the 
 principal of which is the Spring Valley mine, at present 
 need no attention, for the reason that they do not contribute 
 to the navigable water any material capable of being stored. 
 The heavier material is stored below the mines, at the edge 
 of the foot-hills, and the remainder is deposited on lands 
 lying between the mines and the Sacramento River. It is 
 thought that no considerable quantity reaches the Sacramen- 
 to River. In regard to the Cosumnes, and the rivers to the 
 south, the damage done thus far is comparatively insignifi- 
 cant, and the prospects of mining are not very favorable. 
 Reservoir sites have been examined which will serve when 
 the occasion arises for their use. The Calaveras, it is now 
 thought, may be the first of the southern streams to require 
 the application of the system, and an excellent site exists 
 for the purpose. For special information in regard to these 
 rivers, reference may be made to the report of Lieutenant 
 Payson, hereto appended. The following statements em- 
 brace the measures and constructions which are recommen- 
 ded for the Yuba, Bear, and American rivers, with estimates 
 of cost of the system maintained for a series of years. It is 
 recommended to occupy at once two sites for storage, and 
 after several years a third. The first and upper site is at the 
 narrows just above the mouth of Deer Creek, which enters 
 the Yuba about 12 miles above the plains. The next two 
 sites are below on the edge of the plains, one at De Guerre 
 Point, and the other the brush barrier built by the State of 
 California. The features of the upper site are these : The 
 width of the river-bed is 270 feet ; the banks slope at angles 
 with the horizon between 32 and 50 degrees for a height of 
 200 feet. There is an abundance of stone in convenient po- 
 sitions, and favorable as to quality and sizes. Mr. Manson 
 observes that it will quarry in pieces varying from 2 to 30 
 tons. The river for 44,500 feet above has an average width 
 of 300 feet, with a fall of 22 feet per mile. The banks have 
 inclinations of 30 to 35 degrees. The South Yuba joins the 
 river 8 miles above the site. In the future development of 
 the system this stream will aiford considerable additional 
 storage. The height of floods is 12 feet. The storage is cal- 
 culated on a grade behind the dam of 14 feet per mile. The 
 grade of the top surface of the prism is held constant in the 
 calculation. We know that the grade for given material 
 must become steeper as the river-bed is widened. The prob- 
 able storage is_ therefore in excess of the tabulated amount. 
 No allowance is made for material necessarily escaping, or 
 for that which may remain stored above the reservoir. Both 
 of these points are assumed at the worst. The estimates are 
 
 * This proup of mines is in a position to do special injury to 
 Feather Eiver, as may be seen from Mr. Hanson's report. Appendix 
 2, to which reference is made. 
 
 therefore larger than they would have been if allowance had 
 been made for these considerations. The Deer Creek site is 
 below all mining dumps except those of the Smartville 
 Group and the minor output at Sicard Flat and Dry Creek. 
 The length of river-bed taken by the reservoir, formed by a 
 dam 76 feet high on a grade of 14 feet, will be 9 miles, ob- 
 tained by dividing the height of the dam by the difference 
 between the present grades and that assumed for the future 
 grade. The lower site may be either De Guerre Point, or 
 that of the Brush Barrier, erected by the State in the year 
 
 1880. This structure was much injured by natural causes in 
 
 1881. Since the date of that report the dam has been 
 injured by tire, applied, it is supposed, by design. Its 
 present condition is worse than when examined, but to what 
 extent is not known. The advantage of restoring this struc- 
 ture is that by its position it exercises restraint of consider- 
 able amounts of sand and gravel already in the plains, which 
 otherwise will be free to move below to navigable waters, 
 and serve to threaten the town of Marysville still more. 
 The project consist in repairing the breaks in the dam and 
 restoring it to the original height in the first year, at a cost 
 of $80,000. In the second year to cover it with stone to 
 the depth of 4 feet, raising the height of the dam 4 feet. 
 The estimate contemplates, first the construction of a dam at 
 the Narrows, then the restoration of the Brush Dam and cov- 
 ering it with stone, the De Guerre Dam being the last under- 
 taken. The yearly expenditures for a series of years are given 
 in the accompanying table, as nearly as they can be foreseen. 
 
 Table showing estimates and order of structure upon Tuba 
 River for ten years. 
 
 Structure erected or raised. 
 
 Build the Narrows Dam to a 
 
 height of Y6 feet . . 
 Repair the Brush Dam .... 
 Cover Brush Dam wiih stone . 
 Raise the Narrows Dam 25 feet 
 Erect De Guerre D«m 5 feet . 
 Raise De Guerre Dam 5 feet . 
 Raise Narrows Dam 25 feet . . 
 
 No expenditures 
 
 Raise De Guerre Dam 6 feet . 
 Raise Narrows Dam 25 feet . . 
 Raise De Guerre Dam 6 feet . 
 
 tSc 
 
 Total . 
 
 J224,779 
 80,000 
 137,000 
 113,807 
 100,000 
 110.000 
 90,734 
 
 $325,000 
 462,000 
 676,000 
 076,000 
 786,000 
 876,(i00 
 
 74,000 960,000 
 122,00011,072,000 
 63,000iJ, 136,000 
 
 Cub c yds. Cubic yds. 
 
 30,f 00,000 
 10,000,000 
 25 000.000 
 10,000,000 
 15,000,000 
 31,000,000 
 
 20,000,000 
 36,000,000 
 17,000.000 
 
 1,135,0001 
 
 1194,000,000 . 
 
 30,000,000 
 40,000,000 
 66,000,000 
 7o,000,01'0 
 90,000,000 
 121,000,000 
 
 141,000,000 
 177,000,000 
 194,000,000 
 
 Average yearly cost for ten years, $113,500. 
 
 Average yearly storage provided, 19,400,000 cubic yards. 
 
 The site elected for a dam in the Bear River Canon is at 
 or near Van Giesen's Dam. The width of the river-bed 
 averages 53 feet at the site ; the side slopes are 15 degrees 
 and 20 degrees. The rock is trap, and the foundation will 
 be on rock. The reservoir space above consists of the river- 
 bed, which in some places is flanked by low banks, which 
 increase the area for storage. The bed for 11 miles above 
 the site is covered to a considerable depth with sand and 
 gravel, on a slope of 25 feet to the mile, the average width 
 being 350 feet. The storage prism is calculated on a grade 
 of 19 feet per mile, being the observed line of deposit due 
 to a dam once occupying the site, and carried out in the 
 past few years. The first structure is estimated at 30 feet 
 in height. The successive additions, with cost and storage 
 capacities thereby acquired, and that due to the repair of 
 the brush structure erected by the State at the debouch of 
 the rivers on the plains, are shown in the following table. 
 A further examination of the levels on the plains needs to 
 be made to settle definitely whether storage after two or 
 three years cannot be secured more thoroughly by occupy- 
 ing lands which lie further down the river, and which have 
 been injured in a greater or less degree by deposits of sand 
 and slickens. 
 
 It is recommended to occupy two dam sites on the Ame- 
 rican, one on the North and one on the Middle Fork. The 
 site on the North Fork is about LJ- miles above the junction 
 of the North and Middle Forks. The width of the river- 
 bed at the site is 75 feet. The banks are hard trap, with 
 slopes of 32 and 42 degrees. The river-bed above the site 
 for about 20 miles has a mean width of 250 feet, and a slope 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 707 
 
 of about 23 feet to the mile, with side slopes of 25 to 30 de- 
 grees. The contents of the prism are calculated on a slope 
 of 18 feet to the mile. On the Middle Fork, the site selected 
 is about 12 miles above the junction of North and Middle 
 Forks, and about 2 miles above the mouth of the Cafion 
 Creek. The width of the river-bed is 90 feet, and the slide 
 slopes 42 and 55 degrees. The river-bed above is 125 to 
 150 feet in width, and the slope 45 feet to the mile. The 
 elopes of the bank vary from 30 to 35 degrees. 
 
 Table showing tlie order recommended for structures on 
 Bear River. 
 
 1 
 
 Elructure erected or raised. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Stvrage pro- 
 vided by each 
 structure. 
 
 S 
 
 J 
 
 Erect the Van Giesen's Dam 30 
 feet 
 
 e34,fion 
 
 46,600 
 76,000 
 
 12,600 
 10,4Ou 
 
 20,500 
 
 ■980,100 
 166,100 
 
 167,600 
 184,000 
 
 204,500 
 
 Cubic yds. 
 
 6,700,000 
 6,300,000 
 6,000,000 
 
 5,800,000 
 9,200,000 
 
 10,200,000 
 
 Cubic yds. 
 
 2^ 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 Repairs, Brush Dam 
 
 Cover Brush Dam with stone 
 
 No expenditures. 
 
 Raise Van Giesen's Dam 10 feet 
 
 Raise Van Giesen's Dam 10 feet 
 
 No expenditures. 
 
 Raise Van Giesen's Dam 10 feet 
 
 No expenditures. 
 
 Total 
 
 12,000,000 
 17,000,000 
 
 22,800,000 
 32,000,000 
 
 42,200,000 
 
 
 204,500 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average yearly cost for eight years, $25,600. 
 
 Average yearly storage provided, 5,200,000 cubic yards. 
 
 Table shovriiig the order recommended for structures upon 
 tHe North, and Middle Forks of American Rtver. 
 
 »^ 
 
 Structure erected or raised. 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 If 
 
 Total storage 
 provided. 
 
 3 
 4 
 6 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 
 Erection of North Forlc Dam . 
 Erection of Middle Pork Dam 
 
 Canon Creek 
 
 Raise Middle Fork Dam 50 feet 
 
 Raise North Fork Dam 10 feet 
 
 No expenditures 
 
 Raise North Fork Dam 10 feet 
 
 No expenditures 
 
 Raise North Fork Dam 10 feet 
 
 No expenditures 
 
 Total 
 
 24,600 
 
 81,900 
 
 38,100 
 
 8,C00 
 
 10,800 
 
 13,200 
 
 $106,600 
 144,600 
 163,200 
 
 164,000 
 
 177,200 
 
 Cubic yds. 
 5,600,000 
 
 3,400,000 
 10,000,000 
 5,400,000 
 
 7,600,000 
 
 10,200,000 
 
 Cubic yds. 
 
 8,900,000 
 18,900,000 
 24,300,000 
 
 31,900,000 
 
 42,100,000 
 
 
 177,200 
 
 
 
 
 Average yearly coat for eight years, $22,160. 
 
 Average yearly storage provided, 5,200,000 cubic yards. 
 
 The estimate for the first year's operations on the Yuba, 
 Bear, and American Elvers is $511,600. 
 
 The Gold Run Suit, — A matter of such great import- 
 ance as has been disclosed in the preceding pages could not, 
 of course, keep out of the courts. The State of California 
 brought suit "against the Gold Eun Mining Company, a 
 company operating the hydraulic process, not only for itself 
 but for others who purchased water for hydraulic mining. 
 The debris started by this company found its way into the 
 North Fork of the American Eiver, and so on to the agri- 
 cultural lands and into the rivers where it blocked the 
 channels. Suit was instituted in 1881, a jury waived, and 
 the trial took place, before Judge Temple of the Superior 
 Bench of California. During the progress of the suit, an 
 Anti-Defira Convention was convened at Sacramento, and 
 the following resolutions passed : — 
 
 Whereas, At least 100,000 acres of the finest lands in the Sacra- 
 mento valley have already been deatrojed, and hundreds of thou- 
 sands of acres of such lands are now in imminent danger of destruc- 
 tion by the unrestrained flow of detritus from the hydraulic mines 
 on the headwaters of the several tributaries of the Sacramento and 
 San Joaquin rivers : and, whereas, the said flow of detritus has al- 
 ready filled the channel of many miles of the navigable rivers of the 
 State, and its continuance must result in a very short time in the 
 complete destruction of said rivers and their tributaries, throwing 
 them in broad, shallow, muddy streams over the fairest portion of 
 the State, annihilating not only the productiveness of the lands, but 
 the cities, towns and villages ; and. 
 
 Whereas, The navigation of the bay is now imperiled, and the 
 harbor itself must at no distant day succumb to this devastating 
 agency, and ruin overtake the metropolis of the Pacific thus com- 
 pleting a picture of desolation never before beheld by the civilized 
 world : and, 
 
 Whereas, There are but few individuals or corporations compara- 
 tively engaged in this species of mining; and, 
 
 Resolved, That it is the duty of the State of California, as a 
 moral person, endowed with rights and resting under obligations, 
 to defend herself against such fearful mutilation, and protect the peo- 
 ple of the valleys in the peaceful and undisturbed enjoyment ofthe 
 fruits of their labor. 
 
 Resolved, That we indorse the action of Attorney-general Hart, in 
 bringing suit against some of the liydraulic mining companies, in 
 the name of the State, to test the right of one man in the pursuit of 
 wealth to destroy the property of another, as well as the common 
 heritage of this and future generations— the navigability of the 
 rivers ofthe state. 
 
 Resolved, That as experience has taught us that the water will 
 readily carry off, without serious consequences, the washings of 
 quartz and drift mining, we wisli to say in the most emphatic man- 
 ner to the miners ofthe State that we have no contest with any one 
 engaged in such mining. 
 
 Resolved, That we have no contest with those hydraulic mines 
 which take care of their debris, but are against those, and those only, 
 which wash great areas of earth into our streams. 
 
 Resolved, 'That the political party that does not recognize the just 
 principle that every man must so use his own as not to injure his 
 neighbor, is not worthy the support of the people. 
 
 Resolved, That the attention of the press ofthe State, especially the 
 metropolitan press, is called to the immense importance of this mat- 
 ter, and to the fact that it haSj in our judgment, failed to talte the 
 comprehensive view ofthe subject which its importance demands. 
 
 Resolved, That the people of Sacramento valley demand of the 
 executive, legislative and judicial branches of the State that just 
 protection of our property for which governments are established 
 and maintained. 
 
 Resolved, That the contest already begun against this system of 
 desolation and destruction of our State is a sacred cause, which 
 should enlist the sympathies and active co-operation of all her peo- 
 ple ; that the burden of the conflict should not be borne by the few 
 who have heretofore struggled to stay this great destroyer, but 
 should be shared by all the people of ourgreat valley ; that in order 
 to reinforce those who are now at the front to concentrate all efforts 
 in united action, we do most earnestly recommend that the several 
 Boards of Supervisors present on this occasion meet together and 
 take such action in the premises as will enable their several counties 
 to contribute that aid and encouragement which only united action 
 can bring, and we hereby pledge ourselves to the support of such 
 action. 
 
 Resolved, That the action of the Board of Supervisors of Sacra- 
 mento county in calling this convention together, meets the unqual- 
 ified approval of the people of this valley. 
 
 The testimony at the trial developed some interesting 
 facts. Mr. G. G. Blanchard was examined as to the number 
 of persons engaged in mining along the American and its 
 tributaries, the quantity of material displaced by their 
 operations, etc., and testified : They all tailed into the most 
 convenient places ; each miner displaced about 10 cubic 
 yards of material per day ; think there were from 15,000 to 
 20,000 miners at work in Placer county in 1851-52-53 ; the 
 displacement by each miner would be about 15 cubic yards 
 per day ; there is considerable seam mining now done in El 
 Dorado county ; in 1861 there were about 15,000 persons 
 depending on mining in that county ; there are now perhaps 
 10,000 ; prior to 1862 there was probably 50 times as much 
 matterial removed as since; then the earth removed between 
 1848 and 1862 was light and of vegetable mold ; most of the 
 heavy material mined in later years is still in the vicinity of 
 the mines ; no man can tell how far any particular kind of 
 material would be carried in suspension in the South Fork ; 
 ten per cent, of the material mined in El Dorado county 
 would not go thirty miles from the mine; some of the 
 lighter vegetable mold might reach Sacramento ; the 
 natural wash of the river in Eldorado county is now more 
 than twenty-five times as much as from all the mines ; the 
 tailings from the mines are saved wherever possible ; it 
 makes the best land in the county; about one thousand 
 acres of land have been thus made, from two to ten feet 
 deep ; it will raise what the natural land will not ; the blue 
 cement rock makes the very best sort of land after it de- 
 composes and crumbles. 
 
 Among the witnesses was James Marshall, the discoverer 
 of gold in California. He testified that the whole Sacra- 
 mento valley was flooded in the winter of 1845-46. He was 
 told at that time by the Indians and those who had resided 
 here in 1830, that during the winter of that year the entire 
 valley was deeply submerged, the only land visible in the 
 valley being the Buttes. The highest water he ever saw in 
 the American river, at Coloma, was in the winter of 1861-62. 
 
708 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Evidence along the banks, near that town, shows that prior 
 to 1848 the river at some time had been two or three feet 
 higher than it has been since that time. 
 
 Hon. Niles Searls, among other things, said : The great 
 bulk of litigation brought before me while I was District 
 Judge, was what is termed mining litigation. The habit of 
 the miners of Plumas, Placer, Nevada, Yuba and El Dorado 
 counties, where I have lived, is to wash the earth in order to 
 separate the gold, and then dump the water and debris into 
 the most convenient canyon or ravine. This has been the 
 universal practice in those counties, except the miners have 
 impounded their own debris in order to wash it a second time. 
 . After impounded tailings were washed, they were then 
 allowed to escape through the most convenient and available 
 natural channels. I have been through the mining counties 
 from Amador to Siskiyou. This custom of discharging from 
 the mines the debris into the most convenient canyons or 
 ravines, has been the universal custom among all the miners 
 of California, as far as my observation goes, from 1849 up 
 to the present time. This mode of mining is the only way 
 in which the mines could be worked profitably. Gold mining 
 cannot be prosecuted except with the use of water. I am 
 familiar with all the streams in Nevada and some adjoining 
 counties, and all, or nearly all, of the canals in those counties. 
 [Witness described the Eureka Lake, South Yuba, Rock 
 Creek, Bloomfield, Miltou and other canals, giving their 
 locations, source of supply, and the mines they furnish with 
 water. He also described the large reservoirs that held back 
 large amounts of the winter's water for use in summer 
 mining.] The canal companies I have mentioned all have 
 large reservoirs at their sources and some of them have a 
 great many. Some of these are natural lakes dammed at 
 their outlet, three or four miles in length, and varying in 
 depth from nothing to 100 feet. The North Bloomfield reser- 
 voir, with which I am very familiar, having boated upon and 
 fished in it for cat many times, is about four miles in length, 
 and has an average depth of from 50 to 60 feet. The water 
 from these reservoirs is not discharged until the waters in 
 the creeks, ravines and natural channels fail. The amount 
 of water discharged from the Excelsior, South Yuba, North 
 Bloomfield and Milton mines is at least double the quantity 
 of the water fiowing in the Yuba during the dry season. 
 During the dry season, those mines discharge of this stored 
 water, at least 20,000 miners' inches. This amount of water 
 would make a stream 100 feet wide and 3 feet deep. This 
 volume of water confined in a canal, would float most any of 
 our up-river steamers. During the winter of 1850 and 1851, 
 within an area of three miles of Nevada City, there was an 
 estimated population of 20,000. At least 15,000 of this 
 population were engaged in mining. There are not 100 men 
 engaged in hydraulic mining within this same area at the 
 present time. There were several thousand men mining in 
 Sierra County in 1850. Nearly all the early mining was in 
 light soil and shallow surface diggings. The reservoirs 
 supplying the canals for these mines are mostly situated 
 near the summit. The Bowman reservoir occupies the whole 
 of a valley. It was dammed up in a narrow gorge, and the 
 whole valley, several miles in length and a mile wide, was 
 thus flooded. I consider that the storing of water in the 
 winter, and sending it down during the dry season, greatly 
 assists in the navigation of the rivers of California. 
 
 Witness was examined minutely regarding the flow of 
 water from the reservoirs referred to in his direct examina- 
 tion ; the quantity of water used by miners daily along the 
 Yuba must have been more than 17,000 inches. [The report 
 of the County Assessor showed the quantity to be about 
 17,000 inches, supposing the miners to have worked 300 
 days per year.] The mining population in Nevada county 
 has been largely reduced within late years. Resuming, wit- 
 ness stated that when he testified that the practice among 
 miners was to dump their tailings in the most convenient 
 peaces, he simply stated a fact ; there was no compulsion in 
 the matter— they were not obliged to do so ; sometimes the 
 nearest canyon was not the most con ve nient one ; mon i tors d i d 
 not come into use in hydraulic mining until 1865 ; before that 
 the ordinary goose-neck was used ; powder was first used 
 largely in 1853 or 1854, but in the gravel banks it was not 
 generally used until 1865 ; the Excelsior, the Milton, the 
 Eureka Lake and North Bloomfield companies do, perhaps 
 on an average, sometimes three-fourths and sometimes one- 
 
 third of the mining now done along the Yuba ; they use 
 perhaps more than one-half of the water brought in by 
 artificial means, but there is a great deal of mining done by 
 aid of the natural water-channels ; during the flood season, 
 the water in most of the ravines is used for mining. 
 
 The suit took 45 days to try, and on June 12, 1882, Judge 
 Temple rendered Ms decision as follows : 
 
 The Findinps of Pact. — In the Superior Court, Sacra- 
 mento county, California. The people of the State of Cali- 
 fornia, plaintiff, vs. the Gold Run Ditch and Mining Com- 
 pany, defendant. This cause was tried by the court, a jury 
 having been waived. Having fully considered the evidence, 
 I now find the facts as follows : 
 
 First. — ^The Sacramento and American rivers are wholly 
 within the State of California ; the latter is a tributary of 
 the former, flowing into it about one mile north of the city 
 of Sacramento. 
 
 Second. — ^The Sacramento is navigable, and has been con- 
 tinuously navigated by steamers, barges, schooners and 
 smaller craft, and up to 1862 was navigated as far as the 
 city of Sacramento without diflSculty by steamers of deep 
 drift, to wit, by boats drawing nine or ten feet of water. 
 That said river has been declared navigable by law to the 
 mouth of Middle creek, which is above the confluence of 
 the American and the Sacramento. That since 1862 the 
 navigation of said river has been seriously impaired by de- 
 posits of mud and sand therein, which have in part come 
 from hydraulic mines ; so that now the city of Sacramento 
 can be reached by boats of deep draft during the high 
 stages of the water only, instead of at all times, as formerly. 
 
 Third. — That hydraulic mining, as that term is generally 
 understood, consists in washing and removing from their 
 natural positions into the water-courses and rivers, by 
 means of water, high banks of earth and gravel containing 
 gold, and thereby separating the gold from the earth, send- 
 ing the residue, consisting of bowlders, cobblestones, gravel, 
 sand and clay, into the water-courses, the larger portion of 
 which finds its way into the principal confluents of the Sac- 
 ramento river, and is deposited along said streams from the 
 place of discharge or dump to San Pablo and San Francisco 
 bays, the heavier material being first deposited. 
 
 Fourth. — Hydraulic mining has been practiced for 20 
 years to some extent in the mountains of the Sacramento 
 basin. It attained great magnitude as an industry before 
 1875, and is still extensively carried on, principally in the 
 counties of Butte, Yuba, Sierra Nevada and Placer. 
 
 Fifth. — The tailings from some of the hydraulic mines 
 are deposited in the North Fork of the American river, and 
 large quantities thereof have been deposited in the channel 
 of said North Fork and of the American river, throughout 
 its entire course, and a large portion thereof has been 
 washed and carried down into the Sacramento river. That 
 the tailings from other hydraulic mines are washed and 
 carried into the Middle and South Forks of said river, and 
 in the Yuba, Bear and Feather rivers, which are tributa- 
 ries of the Sacramento. 
 
 Sixth. — That the tailings and deposits from said hydraulic 
 mines, with other matter carried by the waters of said rivers 
 has filled up and raised the bed and channels of said Sacra- 
 mento river to a great extent below the mouth of the Amer- 
 ican river, to wit, from six to twelve feet, and has filled up 
 and raised the American river below Alder creek from ten 
 to twenty feet, and in places even more. Such filling has 
 been materially increased by the tailings from the hydraulic 
 mines. Such fillings have shallowed the channels of the 
 Sacramento river, and materially impaired the naviga- 
 tion thereof and has materially increased the liability of 
 the Sacramento river and of the American river below Alder 
 creek to overflow their banks, and has caused the frequent 
 floods in said rivers to be more destructive than they other- 
 wise would have been. That the debris from mines, in- 
 cluding the mine of the defendant, has materially contribu- 
 ted to such filling of the river channel, and thereby has in- 
 terfered with and obstructed the free and comfortable use 
 and enjoyment of large portions of the land upon the Amer- 
 ican and Sacramento rivers. The American river is, how- 
 ever, obstructed by the levees and the levee system of the 
 Sacramento, which cause the water to be dammed up and 
 made to flow back into the American river and over the 
 banks thereof, during the stages of high water in the Sacra- 
 
THE MINES, MTNE-RS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 709 
 
 mento, and thereby large tracts of land are submerged and 
 heavy deposits made thereon, which would not exist but for 
 such levee system, or the defects in the same. That one of 
 the principal sources of damage by the overflow of lands 
 on the Sacramento river is from the erosion of the bank 
 nearly opposite the mouth of the American river and the 
 break in the levee at that point. That the more immediate 
 cause of this erosion and break was the change in the course 
 of the American river, which manifestly would have pro- 
 duced the break and much consequent damage although all 
 mining operations had been suspended. 
 
 That during the highest stages of the water of the Sacra- 
 mento the channel of said river is insufficient, and even if 
 it had not been filled up would have been insufiicient to 
 carry one half of the volume of water sent down by its var- 
 ious confluents, and at such times would break the present 
 levees, even though no mining were carried on. Still the 
 mining debris does increase and aggravate all these evils, 
 and renders the problem of controlling the streams and pro- 
 tection of the valleys more difiicult and expensive, and causes 
 more land to be injured and the free enjoyment thereof to 
 be interfered with than would have been interfered with or 
 injured but for such mining debris. 
 
 Seventh. — That defendant is, and since August, 1870, has 
 been, a corporation under the laws of the State of Cali- 
 fornia, for the purpose of mining by the hydraulic process 
 and selling water to miners and others. That it is now, and 
 for several years last past, it and its predecessor have been 
 in possession of certain mines and mineral land situated ad- 
 jacent to the North Fork of the American river, on the 
 north side thereof, near town of Gold Eun, in Placer county, 
 and consisting of about 500 acres of land. The surface of 
 said land is about 1,000 feet above said North Fork of the 
 American river. All the material of said mine is capable 
 of being worked off into said American river, and consists 
 of about 20,000,000 cubic yards of material, composed mostly 
 of sand, gravel, small stones, cobbles and bowlders, mixed 
 with small particles of gold. 
 
 Eighth. — Defendant, by means of ditches and iron pipes, 
 has conducted to its aforesaid mines a large quantity of 
 water, which it is using and will continue to use under a ver- 
 tical pressure of several hundred feet, to mine its said tracts 
 of mining land by the hydraulic process, discharging water 
 through Little Giants and Monitors, and dumping all the 
 tailings from such mines into the North Fork of the 
 American river. 
 
 Ninth. — Said defendant has been mining its said tracts of 
 land for about eight years past in the mode and process 
 aforesaid, and up to the time of commencing this action, 
 and during about five months of each year of said period, 
 has been daily discharging into the said North Fork be- 
 tween 4,000 and 5,000 cubic yards of solid material from its 
 said mine — to wit : of bowlders, cobbles, gravel and sand, 
 making a yearly discharge of at least 600,000 cubic yards, 
 and will continue to discharge that quantity annually, if the 
 working of said mine is permitted to continue, and at such 
 a rate, it will require some 30 years to mine out and ex- 
 haust said mineral land. 
 
 Tenth. — That a large portion of the material so dumped 
 by the defendant into the North Fork of the American 
 river has been washed down said river by the water and com 
 mingling with tailings from other hydraulic mines, and still 
 other material, which is the produce of natural erosion, has 
 been deposited in the beds and channels of the Sacramento 
 and American rivers, but mostly in che American river, and 
 upon the lands adjacent to said rivers; and by said mining 
 of the defendant and other mines the filling up, raising and 
 shallowing of said rivers has been materially increased, to 
 the impairment of the navigation of the Sacramento river, 
 and to the excessive overflow of the land adjacent to said 
 rivers, to the great injury of said land, and damage, discom- 
 fort and annoyance of a great number of citizens of the 
 State, owners of said land and residents of said valley. 
 
 Eleventh. — That the power of \a ater to preserve its chan- 
 nels and to clear out and to carry off" deposits in the same 
 is proportioned— other conditions remaining the same — to 
 the depth of the stream and the freedom of said water from 
 earthy matters. That the beds of said rivers have already 
 become so widened and filled that the depth of the water 
 therein has been greatly lessened ; that said water, at all 
 
 times, is heavily laden with earthy matters, chiefly from 
 mines; therefore, said rivers are likely to fill more rapidly 
 in the future, in proportion to the quantity of hydraulic 
 tailings, than in the past. That thousands of acres of good 
 land in Sacramento valley have already been covered by 
 such debris, and, if some preventive is not applied, much 
 further and greater injury is likely to ensue in the future, 
 and large tracts of land will probably be rendered, within 
 a few years unfit for cultivation and inhabitancy. 
 
 Twelfth. — That the discharge from the defendant's and 
 other mines so fouls the water of the American river at all 
 points below, as to render said water unfit for any domestic 
 use by the inhabitants. 
 
 Thirteenth. — That the filling of the beds of said rivers 
 has, to some extent, obstructed the natural and artificial 
 drainage of the valleys of said rivers, and has interfered 
 with the percolation and flow of the water through the soil, 
 and has raised the soil water to such an extent as would 
 naturally increase the tendency to malarial diseases ; but I 
 do not find that heretofore, it has had any effect on such dis- 
 eases, and the material carried down by the rivers is singu- 
 larly free from matter which could ferment and induce 
 malaria. 
 
 Fourteenth. — That if the said acta of defendants and 
 others, mining as aforesaid, are allowed to continue, there is 
 imminent danger that the beds and channels of the lower 
 portion of the American river, and of the Sacramento river 
 below the mouth of the American, will be so filled and 
 choked up by tailings and other deposits that said rivers 
 will be turned from their channels, cutting new water-ways, 
 injuring or destroying immense tracts of land, and probably 
 will result in greatly impairing the navigability of the Sac- 
 ramento river. 
 
 Fifteenth. — That the filling in of said rivers below Alder 
 creek has been accumulating from year to year. The largest 
 dejjosita were made by the floods of 1861 and 1862, since 
 which time there has been a steady increase in deposit and 
 a slow but constant working down in the channels of the 
 rivers of the heavier material ; that it is not possible to de- 
 termine the proportions of such deposits which come from 
 mines now working in other sources, but it is quite probable 
 — in fact, almost certain — that very much the larger part of 
 that which injuriously fills the rivers is composed of mater- 
 ial dumped into the river from mines within ten years pre- 
 vious to the fill in the river. 
 
 Sixteenth. — That the waters of the American river and its 
 tributaries, during the recurrence of high water in each 
 year, move and transport portions of the debris then in the 
 river further down the stream, and the most of such matter 
 finds its way ultimately below Alder creek, which is a point 
 in the American river near where said stream emerges 
 from the foothills, about 27 miles above the mouth of said 
 river. 
 
 Seventeenth. — ^The grade of the American river above the 
 Alder creek to Canyon creek is about 30 ft. per mile. The 
 mine of defendant is about 83 miles, by the river, above 
 Sacramento, and is a blue-gravel mine, and constitutes a 
 portion of the ancient river channels which cross the pre- 
 sent river system diagonally. 
 
 Eighteenth. — That the Gold Eun mine, in 1864 was within 
 the mining district known as Gold Eun district. That min- 
 ing rules and regulations were in force in that district, as in 
 all other districts in this State, which prescribed the size of 
 the mining claims, the manner of locating and recording 
 them, and the amount of work to be performed to enable the 
 locators to hold their claims. Miners' rules and regulations 
 had no force beyond the district. Claims in the Gold Eun 
 district were in small parcels, about 100,000 square feet, and 
 were taken, held and worked by a large number of persons, 
 commencing such work in some of the claims as early as 
 1852, and were so held until sold to defendant, which has 
 since acquired title to said lands by means of .patents from 
 the United States. That between the years 1854 and 1874, 
 the upper levels of the Gold Eun mines were practically all 
 worked ofi, leaving the lower portions thereof next to the 
 bed-rock to be worked ofi". Such lower portions now con- 
 stitute the mines of the defendant, and yield in gold from 5 
 to 20 cents per cubic yard. The mining ditch property cost 
 the present compauy $253,000, including tunnels and all im- 
 provements in the same. 
 
710 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Nineteenth. — The rules and regulations of miners did not 
 purport to regulate the mannner in which mining claims 
 should be worked, nor the manner or places in which min- 
 ing debris should be dumped ; but the universal practice 
 was to discharge the tailings into the most convenient stream 
 or gulch, even though it should interfere with claims located 
 in the streams or ravines below. It has been a custom, al- 
 most universally acquiesced in, in the mining communities 
 of this State, to regard the streams as common ways for the 
 discharge of mining detritus. The exceptions being where 
 such stream has been previously occupied by some works, 
 such as a ditch to convey water. Such right on the part of 
 the mine owners is, in most cases, essential to the economi- 
 cal working of the mine. Such practice is necessarily con- 
 fined to the mining localities and has not been recognized 
 or acquiesced in elsewhere, except that the waters of the 
 streams throughout the entire course have been rendered 
 turbid and foul without complaint until within the past few 
 years. 
 
 Twentieth. — That neither this State nor the United States 
 has licensed the defendant or any miner to dump his tailings 
 into the streams so as to be transported into any navigable 
 river, stream or bay, nor has this State legalized the same. 
 Nor have the Sacramento or American rivers been dedicated 
 to the use of the miners as a place of deposit, or for a way 
 to transport mining material, nor is either cause of action 
 set forth in the complaint barred by the provisions of Sees. 
 315, 338 or 343 of the Code of Civil Procedure of this State, 
 or of either or any of said sections. 
 
 Twenty-first. — That the acts threatened to be performed 
 by the defendant in continuing to prosecute its mining in- 
 dustry in the manner set out in these findings, as it will do, 
 unless restrained, if allowed to be done, will, in connection 
 with like acts by others, obstruct the' navigation of the 
 Sacramento river, and fill up, to some extent, Suisun bay, 
 destroy or injure large amounts of land, and constitute an 
 obstruction to the free use and enjoyment of the property of 
 a large number of citizens of this State. 
 
 Twenty-second. — Ancient gravel channels exist, at least 
 200 miles in extent, from Mariposa county to Siskiyou, cross- 
 ing the present river system diagonally and at higher alti- 
 tudes. These channels are from 200 to 2,000 ft. wide, and 
 contain gravel sometimes several hundred feet deep. Gold 
 is distributed quite uniformly throughout the length of the 
 channels. The first mining was generally in the present 
 rivers below where they had washed out the old channels. 
 
 Competent persons estimate the entire product of gold 
 from California mines at $1,154,689,036 up to June, 1881, 
 $900,000,000 being from the ancient channels. The present 
 yield varies between $16,000,000 and $20,000,000 per annum, 
 and there is no doubt much more gold still remains in these 
 ancient channels than has been washed out. Present invest- 
 ments in California mines are estimated at $150,000,000, 
 $100,000,000 of which is in hydraulic mines. Some portion 
 of this is, no doubt, in mines which cannot be profitably 
 worked. Mining for gold is the principal industry in 15 
 counties of the State, and the population of the mining 
 counties is over 100,000. In the past eight years the amount 
 of material washed from hydraulic mines has diminished, 
 owing to change from washing light surface gravel with few 
 bowlders to heavy bottom gravel, and from steep grades in 
 the sluices to light grades. The amount washed from a 
 mine will depend upon the amount of water used, the char- 
 acter of material and grade and size of sluices. Late im- 
 provements in hydraulic mining do not increase the amount of 
 material mined. The various mines in the drainage area of 
 the Sacramento river have reservoirs in which they store 
 about 7,600,000 cubic feet of water, which is gradually 
 drawn off in the five months after the middle of July, and to 
 that extent increases the flow in the Sacramento river. 
 _ General Finding.— To the foregoing findings of fact I de- 
 sire to add a general finding, explaining, amplifying and 
 perhaps to some extent qualifying them. The case involves 
 the consideration of the operation on natural forces on a 
 large scale, and many conclusions are necessarily to some 
 extent matters of theory or opinion. Conclusions upon such 
 matters when expressed in legal findings often seem to im- 
 ply a certitude which does by no means exist. The field of 
 observation is so vast that the full case cannot be presented 
 in the findings ; much must be left unexpressed, being pre- 
 
 sumed to be within the judicial knowledge of the Court ; as 
 for instance, the geography and generally the geology of the 
 country over which our inquiries have extended ; the nature 
 of the ancient river channels and the different forms and 
 methods of mining which have prevailed, as well as the 
 general history of the country — matters which everyone is 
 presumed to know. 
 
 The American Biver. — The drainage area of the American 
 river is 1,889 square miles, mostly on the western slope of 
 the Sierra Nevada mountains. This slope is composed of 
 numerous deep canyons aud ravines, high and steep ridges 
 and lofty mountains. The formation is mostly granitic, is 
 largely covered with deep soil, generally of decomposed 
 granite. Originally, there were very extensive forests of 
 immense pine trees. Since the settlement of the country 
 there has been a continuous destruction of these trees for 
 the lumber, although large forests still remain. Numerous 
 roads have been cut and trails made within this area. Con- 
 siderable industries in fruit raising are carried on in some 
 places, and every summer thousands of sheep are driven 
 from the valleys into the mountains to be pastured. As 
 early as 1852 there were mining in the American river, in 
 Placer county, 20,000 men, and in El Dorado county, 40,000. 
 The earlier mining was in the bars and beds of the river or 
 its tributaries, or in the dry diggings, which were probably 
 older bars made in former geological periods. The work 
 was chiefly in mining, the gravel and sand composing the 
 river bars into the river, generally leaving the heavier 
 cobbles in the claims. Ttie so-called dry diggings were 
 worked during high water. Much of the material being 
 light soil, we sent down the stream, leaving innumerable 
 small pits and piles of debris on the slopes of the mountains. 
 In the winter of 1852-1853 there was a large flood, but from 
 that time until the winter of 1861 and 1862 — the memorable 
 flood year — there was no flood of moment. Of course, at this 
 time, an enormous amount of material would naturally be 
 exposed to the transporting power of such deluge, and, ac- 
 cordingly, we find that for the first time the inhabitants of 
 the valleys became aware that the water was filled with sed- 
 iment which menaced the navigability of the rivers, and 
 which left large deposits of sand upon their margins. It is 
 probable that more sediment was brought down by the river 
 during that year than any year since. It is contended by 
 the defendant that most of the sediment in the river is from 
 other sources than mining. Perhaps this is not so impor- 
 tant an inquiry as it is deemed. What proportion ot sedi- 
 ment is from mining, and what from other sources it is im- 
 possible to determine ; but it probably may be safely claimed 
 that the greater portion is from mining deposits made within 
 the periods of the recurring high floods, which are from eight 
 to ten years apart. The Sacramento might be expected to bear 
 19,000,000 cubic yards of sediment, independently of min- 
 ing debris, per annum. The drainage area of the American 
 river is about one-twelfth of the Sacramento basin. The ero- 
 sion upon the American river would, however, naturally be 
 much above the average. Let it be placed at twice the aver- 
 age, and then natural erosion cannot be held responsible for 
 half the material which is carried in suspension to the Sac- 
 ramento, and which is rolled along the bottom of the river, 
 at least below Alder creek. Again the character of the ma- 
 terial is an important consideration. Generally the wash 
 from other sources than mining is the very lightest ma- 
 terial ; the exceptions are land slides and sudden cutting of 
 gullies on the hill sides. The wash from such sources, there- 
 fore, would be easily managed by the great volume of the 
 lower rivers, and would be carried in suspension to Suisun 
 bay, which is the great settling reservoir of the basin. The 
 damage to the rivers or the adjacent land would be slight. 
 Mining debris, however, is of all degrees of fineness. The 
 question as to what will be carried down will depend upon 
 the size of the rocks which the water has sufficient force to 
 roll along. In other words, it will furnish the heaviest ma- 
 terial which can be transported. This is just the material 
 which naturally fills the rivers below the foothills more or 
 less permanently while slowly but constantly creeping fur- 
 ther down the stream. It is probably from this source most- 
 ly, rather from causes other than mining, that the material 
 has come which, has filled the channels of the Yuba, and the 
 Bear, near their confluence with the Feather. It is contend- 
 ed by the defendant that all the debris which it puts into the 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 711 
 
 American river (save a small per cent), remains permanent- 
 ly above Rice's bridge — a point about nine miles below Can- 
 yon creek — and no question in the case has been more mi- 
 nutely examined. This portion of the river is through a 
 rocky gorge with banks sloping at an angle of from 30 to 40 
 degrees. According to a profile furnished by the defendant, 
 the grade of the original bed from Canyon creek for about 
 two miles, was over 70 feet per mile; then for a distance of 
 over four miles the average grade was a little less than 40 
 feet per mile, with occasional spaces of several hundred feet 
 each, in which the grade was ascending. The remaining 
 distance the grade was about 21} feet per mile. There is a 
 large fill now in the river, commencing about one-half mile 
 below Canyon creek. 
 
 Tke Surface Grade of the present bed for this portion of 
 the first section which contains any fill one and one-fourth 
 miles is 46 feet per mile. The grade of the next four miles 
 is 40 feet, and the remainder over 36 feet per mile — the last 
 quarter of a mile being 25 feet per mile. Prior to the com- 
 mencement of the work in the present pit, or lower portion 
 of the mine, it is estimated that there had been washed 
 from the upper, or old wasfiings, 67,000,000 cubic yards of 
 material, which also come into the American river through 
 Canyon creek. Also large quantities of material were 
 placed in the same sections of the rivers from the Iowa 
 Hill mines. The surface of the old washings was princi- 
 pally light red earth, with sand and pipe clay. In the chan- 
 nel, however, the old washing was chiefly composed of 
 gravel, sand and cobble stones. The old mines ceased to be 
 operated because, as the miners say, they ran out of grade, 
 and not because of a change in the character of the mater- 
 ial. The banks are of a mixed character of sand, gravel and 
 cobbles, from the top to the bottom. In the present pit, 
 however, there is no pipe clay in the ribbon or channel 
 which will be worked, and none of the red earth, and there 
 is a constant increase in the average size of materials as we 
 approach the red rock. There was no clear line of distinc- 
 tion between the present and old washing. The great pro- 
 portion of material in the lower pit, therefore, cannot rea- 
 sonably be heavier than 10 per cent, of largest material in 
 the old washing. It seems that, prior to 1875, this portion 
 of the river was filled with this debris to a much greater 
 depth than at present. All the material was washed out 
 and went down the stream, as also vast quantities of material 
 put in from the Iowa Hill mines. The material in the river 
 is naturally graded as to size down stream ; the heavier 
 being first lodged, and then the next in size, and so on. 
 
 The heavier material, therefore, cannot hold back the light 
 debris which has been separated by the water, and is con- 
 stantly washed lower down. If all the detritus from the top 
 washing has gone down over the lower grades of the original 
 bed, certainly that portion of the material in the present pit, 
 which is not heavier than the largest cobbles m the old 
 washing, will pass over the present increased grades of the 
 river, if we suppose that the hill now there is so impact that 
 it will remain. But I think it altogether probable that the 
 profile is incorrect. The surveyor who made it is evidently 
 competent and apparently candid, but he did not measure 
 the depth of the fill. The estimate must be very much in 
 excess or considerable of the old fill must still be there. In 
 either event the case must be taken as established against 
 the defendant — that a considerable portion of the material 
 will and does come down the river. It may be added that at 
 high water the current of the-river at this point mast have 
 a velocity of at least from six to eight miles per hour. There 
 are few cobbles of bowlders which will exceed 10 inches in 
 diameter. Theoretically they would all come down. 
 
 The Conditions in the American River differ widely from 
 those at the Polar Star dump in Bear river, aside from the 
 fact that the material at the Polar Star is heavier and the 
 stream of less force. At the Polar Star, if I have rightly 
 understood the evidence, the fill is immediately at the duinp, 
 some of the material rolling up the stream above the point 
 of discharge. The larger bowlders, therefore, do hold back 
 the lighter material. At Canyon creek the material, after it 
 reaches the river, is transported by the water from half a 
 mile to six and eight miles before it finds a lodgment, and is, 
 of course, completely graded by the action of the water, it 
 settles on a steep incline and is so distributed as to build up 
 the bed of the river to a uniform grade. It forms nothing 
 
 like a dam, but at the upper end rests against the steep 
 grade so as to form a continuous incline, over which most of 
 the material passes, even at ordinary stages of the water 
 while the mine is working. I think it may be assumed that 
 the new grade at Pickering's Bar — 46 ft. to the mile— is just 
 the grade over which the heaviest material of the mine will 
 not pass at ordinary winter stages of the river. It certainly all 
 passes over the grade from Canyon creek to Pickering's Bar, 
 and will continue to be completely sorted by the water, and 
 therefore, as it seems to me, a large portion of it must in- 
 evitably come down. 
 
 The Coarser Material will travel very slowly, probably 
 requiring many years before it reaches Alder creek— 10, 20 
 or more, according to the size. No doubt much which was 
 thrown into the river many years ago is still slowly moving 
 down and, though all mining should cease, will continue 
 to come for many jrears. This is important, as showing to 
 what extent stopping the work at the mines will afibrd a 
 remedy. It appears that this part of the injury is easily 
 remedied, and at comparatively little expense, by the erection 
 of dams to impound the debris. If the experts are correct 
 in their conclusions — and I am bound to so conclude — all 
 that is very greatly injurious could be so impounded. Of 
 course during its slow journey the detritus is very greatly 
 comminuted ; much of it will be be carried off as clay in 
 suspension ; the proportion cannot be determined. 
 
 On the American river, and its tributaries, a vast amount 
 of mining was done in early times, and up to this time a 
 great deal is being done beside that by the defendant. No 
 other mine contributes annually more detritus to the river 
 than the defendant ; still I am unable to say that de- 
 fendant's mine alone, without reference to the debris from 
 other mines, materially contributes to the evils mentioned ; 
 or, in other words, if there were no mining operations save 
 those of the defendant, I am not prepared to say that it would 
 materially injure the valley lands or the navigation of the 
 river. It is the aggregate of debris from all the mines which 
 produces the inj uries mentioned in these findings. The lower 
 portion of the American river is very much filled with debris, 
 and has been, in places, much widened. As yet, however, 
 no such state of things exist there as is seen in the Bear and 
 Yuba near their confluence with the Feather. Perhaps if it 
 were not for that instructive lesson we should not be justified 
 in anticipating all the evils which may yet flow from these 
 constant accumulations. 
 
 About one thousand acres of valuable farming land have al- 
 ready been covered with heavy sand along the margin of 
 the American river, and the adjacent lands are subject to 
 frequent overflows. The overflows would probably occur 
 to a considerable extent, although there were no mining. Very 
 much of the trouble from this source comes from back- 
 water, from the Sacramento. In flood times, if the rains 
 have been general, the American is the first to rise. The 
 Sacramento then being at its low state, the flood rushes out 
 loaded with sand and mud, and, with very great velocity, is 
 precipitated on the Yolo shore, and there covers large tracts of 
 land with its sediment. At such times the current is much 
 greater than at any other time, and, of course, a great deal 
 of sediment which has accumulated in the river during slack 
 or low water is carried out. 
 
 About fifteen hours after the rise of the American, the flood 
 from the Feather, also surcharged with mud, reaches Sac- 
 ramento, and 36 hours later the floods of the upper Sacra- 
 mento. By this the current of the American is checked, 
 and considerable land sometimes remains submerged by 
 back water. At such times, of course, sediment is left both 
 on the lands and in the channel of the river, which other- 
 wise would have gone ofi" in suspension. 
 
 SACRAMENTO EIVEK. 
 
 The plane of low water has been raised about six and 
 one-half feet .since 1849 in the Sacramento. The rise 
 in the low-water plane has been continuous since 1868, 
 when the low-water mark was about two feet above the 
 low-water plane of 1849, although in some years, probably 
 for special reasons, it has been higher than in the succeeding 
 year. This indicates that the bed of the river at the shoals 
 has been filled at least six and one-half feet, and probably 
 much more. The consequence is that the influence of the 
 tide is not felt above Haycock shoals — nine miles below the 
 city — ^it formerly being about two feet at Sacramento. As 
 
712 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 we go down the river there is a less elevation of the low- 
 water level, indicating an increase in the grade of the river, 
 from which will- follow additional force to carry oflf the 
 sediment. 
 
 The levees of the river are insufficient to carry one-half 
 the water during the periods of the higher floods. Breaks 
 are therefore, inevitable, and perhaps have caused, in some 
 localities, greater damage than would have occurred had 
 there been no levees. The levees, to some extent, increase 
 the scouring force oi the water, but not so much as would 
 be the case if the water were not at its high stages already 
 surcharged with sediment. The levees, also, somewhat 
 prevent the river from wasting its material along the banks 
 and building up the valley as it builds its own bed, and 
 causes it to carry to its mouth more material than it other- 
 wise would do. As to the islands below Grand island, I con- 
 clude from the evidence in this case, that at present they 
 cannot be reclaimed by any practical means. Of course, 
 the quantity of sediment in the river makes the problem 
 more difficult and the means more expensive if they are to 
 be reclaimed ; but it would seem evident that this cannot be 
 done atany reasonable cost until they are still further built 
 up by the operation of natural causes. 
 ' Sacramento City. — I am compelled, by the weight of the 
 evidence in the case, to find against the plaintiif in the 
 charge that the prosecution of its industry by the defendant, 
 with similar operations by others, has impaired, or to a ma- 
 terial extent is likely to impair, the sewerage of Sacramento, 
 or injuriously affect the sanitary condition of the city. The 
 sewers of the city are about seven feet above tide water. 
 The drainage was never into the Sacramento river, and per- 
 haps could not rightfully be there. It does not appear that 
 the city has been deprived of any outlets for its sewerage by 
 debris, nor do I see that the drainage has been interfered 
 with, except during the very highest floods, which may be 
 expected about once in eight years. The interference, at 
 all events, is quite inconsiderable. It is said that the soil- 
 water is raised in the city by sipage, so that cesspools are 
 emptied of their contents. It is natural to think that rais- 
 ing the water level in the river will necessarily raise the 
 level of soil-water in the vicinity. That it does so, to some 
 extent, I cannot doubt. The drainage canal from Sacra- 
 mento to Snodgrass slough, a distance of 25 miles, has a fall 
 of about six feet. There can be no good drainage under such 
 circumstances without pumping, and I do not see how the 
 debris has made matters worse in this respect. The health of 
 the city has been steadily improving for the last 25 years, and 
 during all that time the city has ranked very high in regard 
 to healthfulness with cities of equal population and similarly 
 situated. There has been manifested during late years, 
 however, some tendency to a change in the character of the 
 disease, from those of a purely malarial character to those 
 of typho-malarial character. This seems to be the usual 
 course of disease in all newly settled countries, and accord- 
 ing to the testimony in this case, could not have been other- 
 wise. The slight indication of a typhoid epidemic during 
 one year is nothing more than is to be expected in any city. 
 I am entirely satisfied that the question whether the depos- 
 its of debris in the vicinity of Sacramento have affected 
 or will injuriously affect the health of the city is altogether 
 too much a matter of theory to be the foundation of a judg- 
 ment which shall deprive the defendant of the use of its 
 property. 
 
 Fouling the Streams. — The first mining in the river bars 
 and channels discolored the waters to some extent as early 
 as 1853, and the rivers have become more and more discol- 
 ored by sediment since. The early mining was in well- 
 washed sand and gravel, which contained none of the red 
 earth which has since so highly colored the water. The dry 
 diggings were in red earth, but were prospected only dur- 
 ing high water, and therefore during the summer the rivers 
 became reasonably clear. As ditches were constructed, and 
 mining in what are called surface diggings, as contra-distin- 
 guished from deep gravel mines, commenced, the water be- 
 gan to be colored as at present, red or yellow. This color 
 is from sesquioxide of iron, which is not found in the deep 
 gravel mines. The cementing material, however contains 
 protoxide salts of iron. Peroxidation of this commences 
 upon its exposure to the air and water. This ferruginous 
 clay is readily transported by the water, and probably is not 
 
 so peroxidized as to discolor the water while being trans- 
 ported. Washing in the red gravel has greatly diminished 
 since 1875 ; but probably the water still receives its deep 
 color principally from surface washings. There is evidence 
 of considerable filling in the San Pablo Bay, principally 
 along the channels through the bays. Practically there is 
 yet no impairment of navigation in this bay, and is not 
 likely to be for many years to come. Suisun bay is rapidly 
 filling with sediment, but I conclude from the evidence that 
 the volume of water passing through will always maintain 
 channels sufficient for the purposes of navigation. 
 
 Conclusions of Law. — First. — That the plaintiff's 
 cause of action and its right to relief in this section demand- 
 ed, is not barred by all or either of the statutes of limita- 
 tion pleaded by the defendant in this case or otherwise. 
 
 Second. — That defendant has not acquired any right to the 
 use of the bed of the American river, or of the Sacramento 
 river, as places of deposit for its mining tailings, nor to 
 choke or fill with such tailings the channels of said rivers 
 in the valleys thereof, nor to flow or overflow the said lands 
 situate along the bank thereof. , 
 
 Third. — That the said acts of defendant constitute a pub- 
 lic nuisance, in that they are an obstruction of the free use 
 by a considerable number of the citizens of this State of 
 their said lands, situate along the banks of said rivers as 
 aforesaid, so as to interfere with the comfortable enjoyment 
 thereof, and in that they unlawfully obstruct the free pass- 
 age and use in the customary manner of the said Sacramen- 
 to river. 
 
 Fourth.— The mining customs, usages and regulations 
 authorized by the statutes of this State, or recognized by the 
 decisions of its courts, are local in their operation, and have 
 not and are not intended to have any effect beyond a mining 
 bar, diggings or district in which they have been adopted or 
 recognized. 
 
 Fifth. — That the mining laws and mining customs or prac- 
 tices of the said Gold Run mining district, in which said 
 defendant's mines are located, mentioned and referred to in 
 the findings of fact herein, were not intended to and did not 
 and cannot protect the defendant in the doing of the acts, 
 matters and things complained in this action. 
 
 Sixth. — That the plaintiff is entitled to a decree of this 
 court restraining and enjoining the defendant, its superin- 
 tendent, agent and employees, from discharging or dumping 
 into said North Fork of the American river, or into Canyon 
 creek, and also from suffering or causing to flow into said 
 rivers any tailings, bowlders, cobble stones, gravel, sand, clay 
 debris or refuse matter perpetually, or until it shall be first 
 known, upon application made to this court for modification 
 of such degree, that dams shall have been built in said 
 American river, which will prevent the heavier portion of 
 said mnterial, including the coarser sands, from coming be- 
 low Alder creek, or until some other means equally effica- 
 cious shall be adopted to impound liquid debris, and which, 
 in the opinion of the court, upon such application, will cer- 
 tainly prevent sand, and all heavier material than sand, from 
 being carried by the water below Alder creek. 
 
 J. Temple, 
 Superior Judge, presiding. 
 June 12, 1882. 
 
 The Opinion. — The people of the State of California, plain- 
 tiff, vs. The Gold Run Ditch and Mining Company, defend- 
 ant. 
 
 This action is brought to restrain the defendant from 
 dumping his tailings into the North Fork of the American 
 river. It is charged that these tailings, being washed down 
 by the current, are deposited in and fill up the channel of 
 the American river below Alder creek, as well as the Sacra- 
 mento, impairing the navigation, increasing the liability of 
 both to overflow, and making each overflow more destructive, 
 causing deposits upon the farming lands, thereby rendering 
 them unproductive, raising the soil water, which also tends 
 to unproductiveness, and producing malarial and other dis- 
 eases among the inhabitants of the valley. It is substantially 
 found that much of the tailings come down the streams, fill- 
 ing up the rivers, and producing most of the evils charged. 
 Navigation has been obstructed, much valuable land covered 
 with sand, and that the continuation of the practice will 
 probably be productive of still greater damage. ' The finding 
 may be considered for the defendant, however, upon the 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 713 
 
 charge that the debris adds materially to the malarial influ- 
 ences, or have obstructed, or will obstruct the sewers of 
 Sacramento, or have injuriously affected the sanitary condi- 
 tion of that city. It is found that mining pollutes the water 
 of the rivers with mud, rendering them less suitable for 
 domestic purposes. And that numerous other persons en- 
 gaged in the same pursuit contribute debris to the same 
 streams, but for which contribution the rivers would be able 
 to maintain their channels without serious obstruction, 
 notwithstanding the detritus from the mine of defendant. 
 The case is quite unusual in some respects, and I have de- 
 parted from the customary findings by adding a general 
 finding in which are stated some conclusions in a mode less 
 formal, and some deductions from the evidence, hoping that 
 the special findings will be suflBcient to sustain the judgment 
 and thatthe general conclusions may aid the appellate court 
 in a review of the case. The decision has been more or less 
 delajred by other official work, and somewhat by failure to 
 receive in time the promised briefs, and I especially regret 
 that counsel for the defense have not complied with my re- 
 peated request that each party would suggest the points 
 upon which special findings were required. There is nji' 
 possible utility in an elaborate argument on my part iiistlp- 
 port of the conclusions to which I have arrived ; but, in 
 fairness to counsel, I will briefly state some of the conclusions. 
 The defense — which may be designated by the terms stat-, 
 ute of limitations, prescription, dedication and way of neces- 
 sity — may be passed with the remark that obviously the 
 plea indicated by each term or phrase cannot be a defense 
 in this case. Indeed, it apppeared to be on the argument 
 neither was really relied upon, but were all used as a con- 
 venient means of illustrating and enforcing a more plausi- 
 ble proposition, which may be briefly stated as follows : .The 
 customs, usages and practice of miners, which have uni- 
 versally prevailed, and which have everywhere been acqui- 
 esced in throughout the State ever since its organization, 
 have sanctioned this use of the navigable streams, and in 
 connection with the recognition and approval of the Gov- 
 ernment, both State and national, for a long series of years. 
 Every one knowing the practice, and no one objecting, has 
 changed the common law upon this subject — or at least the 
 equitable circumstances exist which bind the consciences of 
 both Governments and which cannot be disregarded by them. 
 The equitable circumstances alluded to are manifest and 
 could hardly be too strongly stated. So great a calamity to 
 so many people as would result from a judgment in this 
 case, were it to be a precedent, has probably never been 
 produced by any case in the country. And the acts which 
 are said to be wrongful have certainly been tolerated so long 
 without objection, if they have not been encouraged, that 
 no shadow of blame can possibly attach to those who have 
 invested their money in it. If the question were in a legis- 
 lative body, whether some law which had j)ermitted it, and 
 under the sanction of which it had grown into importance, 
 should be repealed, the suggestion would be irresistible. 
 So it would in an action, perhaps, where it involved only the 
 proprietary rights of the Government, or any interest of the 
 Government, simply considered in its corporate capacity. 
 Such were the facts in the cases cited for the defense. But 
 there can be no estoppel which shall prevent the State from 
 exercising its general governmental powers in providing for 
 good government ; and certainly no equities can grow up in 
 favor of one set of citizens as against others by the fact that 
 illegal acts have been long tolerated or that they are con- 
 .venient in the preservation of a great industry the import- 
 ance of which has been repeatedly recognized. Here are 
 many citizens complaining that their rights are being vio- 
 lated, their property and their health threatened, and their 
 common highwav over navigable waters obstructed by the 
 illegal acts of the defendant and others. To constitute equi- 
 table circumstances which can bind the Court in such a case 
 they would need to be such as would legalize the acts 
 claimed to be wrongful. Has, then, the national or State 
 Governments licensed the defendant to make this use of the 
 navigable streams, or in any way legalized the practice ? 
 Has the common law in that respect been modified, as 
 claimed by the defendants? It is of course not claimed 
 that any action on the part of the Federal Government has 
 changed the' common law of this State. That is net within 
 the authority of that Government. So are the authorities. 
 
 and they were not needed in so manifest a case. And it 
 would seem equally clear that the United States has not 
 licensed this use of the rivers, and that it cannot do so, nor 
 can it dedicate them to the use of the miners. 
 
 For the purpose of this inquiry it may be conceded that 
 it has licensed the miners to enter upon the public land, to 
 prospect and dig for gold ; to ai)propriate the waters from 
 the non-navigable streams and conduct them for long dis- 
 tances, discharging them again — perhaps into streams from 
 which they were not taken — corrupted and surcharged with 
 mining debris, washing the hills down into canyons and 
 the channels of the mountain streams. To make every 
 canyon or gulch a common way for the tailings of all. That 
 it has finally sold to them the mines with the right to ex- 
 tract from them the gold, and with the full knowledge of the 
 mode of working them, and with full knowledge that the 
 practice of miners in this respect was universal and under 
 claim of right. These propositions are not admitted on the 
 part of the plaintiff, but do any or all of them imply the con- 
 sent of the Government to the deposit of tailings in the navi- 
 gable rivers? Obviously all these are the acts of a land- 
 owner. The Government has suffered this occupation and 
 use of the public land. They can imply nothing more, for the 
 United States has no further rights in the matter, or power 
 over it. It was stated on the argumentthat Congress may, and 
 perhaps has, devoted these navigable waters to this industry, 
 under the power to regulate commerce. But evidently this can- 
 not be so. The reason given was that gold facilitates commerce. 
 The products of most industries promote commerce. Nothing 
 facilitates it more than a good government and security for 
 property. Under such a construction, the power to regulate 
 commerce with foreign countries and among the States 
 would be the Aaron's rod to swallow all others. The re- 
 served powers of the States would only be exercised by suf- 
 ferance. Mining is not a branch of commerce, and certain- 
 ly not of commerce with foreign nations or among theStates. 
 But, if Congress did possess the power, the intention to per- 
 mit the destruction of navigable waters, so extensive and 
 important, could not be inferred from any doubtful acts. 
 Such a policy is opposed to the practice of all civilized 
 people, and to our own traditions especially. It is manifest 
 from a simple statement of the proposition, that no such re- 
 sult was or could have been anticipated. Then the evil was 
 not evident immediately. There does not seem to have 
 been any material injury until 1864, and even yet it is 
 stoutly denied that the tailings materially injure navigation. 
 The suggestion as to the intention to be inferred from the 
 acts cominitted and industry encruraged apply with equal 
 force to the claim that the State has licensed this use of the 
 navigable waters. 
 
 The Legislature and the courts have recognized the fact 
 that the United States has licensed this extraordinary in- 
 trusion upon the public land and the rights asserted by the 
 settlers. Beyond this it has provided for their governmental 
 wants as it has for other communities, and has done so, in 
 part, by recognizing the rules and regulations adopted by 
 themselves when they practically had no government, save 
 such as sprang spontaneously from the instinct for order 
 and genius for organization which seems part of the nature 
 of people accustomed to self-government. These were prin- 
 cipally to settle their possessory rights to the land, and to 
 subject it to what was then a novel use under our system. 
 As has been said, it, by wise judicial decisions, has molded 
 them into a comprehensive system of common law, embra- 
 cing not only mining law, but also regulating the use of 
 water for mining purposes. Perhaps these customs and the 
 practices of miners have been the chief agency in modifying 
 the law of riparian rights — if it has been modified — as not 
 suited to onr climate and civilization. In all this, however, 
 there is no rule or custom which can justify the claim that 
 by common consent the navigable waters were subjected to 
 the use of mining, so as to allow tailings to be deposited in 
 them to the injury of navigation. The only thing that can 
 be said is that, in the prosecution of a great industry by a 
 great many people, the practice of dumping into the moun- 
 tain affluents of these streams has been followed for a long 
 time, and that a great deal of money has been invested in 
 the business, in the full belief, justified, to some extent, 
 by long toleration, that it would be permitted to continue, 
 and that extensive villages have grown up dependent upon 
 
714 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 it. The rules and customs of miners and their practices, 
 or the fact that they have become part of the common law, 
 outside and apart" from this long tolerated practice of 
 dumping into these navigable streams, cannot affect this 
 question. The practice of dumping directly into the naviga- 
 ble waters has never existed, and it is difficult to see how 
 long submission to the consequent injury differs in any re- 
 spect from any other case where a community has tolerated a 
 nuisance for a long time. In other words the defense is an 
 ingenious attempt to evade the rules, Nullum tempus occus- 
 sit regi, the evidence of acquiescence is long endurance. The 
 mischief, however, as has been said, was not immediately ap- 
 parent. An action could not have been maintained, for lack 
 of evidence of injury, for many years. A public wrong is 
 not made legal, and certainly acquires no vested right to be 
 perpetuated from long forbearance. There being no change 
 in the common law, the case would be remitted to the ordi- 
 nary defense of the Statute of Limitations. I have conclu- 
 ded to so find that when the heavier debris is completely im- 
 pounded mining may be resumed, virtually refusing to hold 
 that the plaintiff may enjoin such operations as only corrupt 
 the water with mud and render it less suitable for domestic 
 and other uses. Perhaps I am somewhat moved to this by 
 the consideration that mining can never be prosecuted at all. 
 It will probably be impracticable to impound the lighter 
 portion of the sediment. I confess I shrink from a conse- 
 quence so far-reaching. It seems to be a conceded fact that 
 this is not materially injurious either to navigation or the 
 riparian lands. Counsel denied that there was any inten- 
 tion to assail the prosecution of drift, seam or quartz min- 
 ing. There. was no material injury from that source. The 
 sediment from such mines is of the same character as the 
 material which cannot be wholly impounded. Perhaps this 
 will not materially add to the permitted evil. 
 
 The authority of the Attorney-General to bring the action 
 in the name of the people, has been called in question, and 
 may become a serious question in the Supreme Court. Prac- 
 tically, it was made only on the final argument. Under the 
 circumstances, I do not doubt the propriety of my referring 
 that matter to the Supreme Court. If the point were sus- 
 tained and the case dismissed, in the event of a rehearal, a 
 new trial would be necessary before the vital questions in- 
 volved in the controversy could be presented to the appellate 
 tribunal. There have been many cases in that Court brought 
 by the Attorney-General, on the presumption that such 
 power exists. No question of authority was made. A trial 
 court, under such circumstances, may well follow the prac- 
 tice until a precedent is formed. 
 
 J. Temple, 
 Superior Judge. 
 
 June 12, 1882. 
 
 The Decree. — In the Superior Court of Sacramento county, 
 State of California. The people of the State of California, 
 plaintiff, vs. The Gold Eun Ditch and Mining Company, 
 defendant. 
 
 This cause having been duly called for trial upon the com- 
 plaint, and answer, and both parties appearing and waiving 
 a jury trial, the said cause was duly tried before court with- 
 out a jury, and the court having heard the evidence and the 
 argument of counsel, has duly signed findings of fact and 
 conclusion of law therefrom, which said findings are now 
 duly filed in this court; 
 
 Now, therefore, by reason of the premises and of the law, 
 it is considered by the court, and it is ordered, adjudged and 
 decreed : That said defendant, and all the officers, superin- 
 tendents, foreman, agents and employees thereof, be per- 
 petually enjoined and restrained from discharging or dump- 
 ing into the North Fork of the American river, or into any 
 stream tributary thereto, and especially into Canyon creek, 
 any boulders, cobblestones, gravel or sand from the mines ; 
 also from causing any such material to flow or to be washed 
 into said river from its said mines or tracts of mineral land. 
 Subject, nevertheless, to this, that said defendants may at 
 any time, as it shall be advised, apply to this court to have 
 this decree and restraining order modified or vacated and 
 set aside. And whenever, upon such showing, it shall ap- 
 pear that efficient means have been provided to impound, 
 detain and hold back such tailings at any point on said 
 American river above Alder creek, and that surh means are 
 sufficient to detain all boulders, cobblestones, gravel and 
 
 the heavier sand, then said defendant shall be entitled to 
 have said decree vacated and set aside. It is further ad- 
 judged and decreed that plaintiff recover costs herein, taxed 
 
 at . J. Temple, 
 
 Superior Judge, presiding. 
 
 June 12, 1882. 
 
 Upon this decision the Mining and Scientific Press made 
 the following criticism : "The decision in the famous Gold 
 Bun suit, isa " setback " to the miners ; butit is by no meana 
 as bad as it might be, or as bad as a mere casual reading 
 would lead one to infer. An analysis of the decision is 
 much more encouraging to the miners than appears at a 
 glance. The immediate effect will be to depreciate the value 
 of gravel deposits temporarily, and to temporarily depress 
 the mining interests of the State. It will bring down the 
 value of the bonds of the mining companies, depreciate 
 their stocks, and cause them more or less embarrassment, in 
 one way or another. 
 
 The case will be appealed, of course. A new trial will be 
 applied for, which will be denied, and the case will then goto 
 the Supreme Court of California. There are several techni- 
 cal points to be made in the appeal, among them the ques- 
 tion of the competence of the Attorney-General to bring the 
 action. 
 
 The decision gives the miners the right to continue mining, 
 provided they impound or detain the boulders, cobbles and 
 heavy sand, which can easily be done. As a matter of fact, 
 in the Gold Eun mine, none of this sort of material came 
 down at all. The judge says himself it will- take twelve to 
 twenty years for the material to reach navigable waters. 
 The miners can soil the waters with lighter mud if they so 
 choose, and they cannot be prevented from doing this. The 
 general conclusions of the decision are perhaps correct. 
 The miners wiU accept the decision as rendered with fairness 
 by an able judge. The trial lasted many weary days, and 
 an immense mass of contradictory testimony was presented. 
 Experts on both sides testified voluminously. All this the 
 judge had to thoroughly digest, separate the " wheat from 
 the chaff," and there is no doubt, from reading the decision, 
 that the gentleman has given the whole subject close study, 
 careful attention and impartial judgment. Partisan feelings 
 may bring other conclusions, but a careful reading of the 
 decision will convince most persons that, whether right or 
 wrong in the abstract, the conclusions are evolved from ar- 
 guments duly weighed and considered. Nine out of ten of 
 the mines are prepared to control their heavy gravel, rocks 
 and sand. In fact, nearly all can do it, and will construct 
 such dams as will keep back the heavy material. They 
 will comply with the decision the more cheerfully, knowing 
 thnt the expenses for so doing will not exceed those of liti- 
 gation. 
 
 The main point of the decision as we understand it, is 
 this: The miners claimed a prescriptive right to dump the 
 tailings into the stream. The effect of the decision is, that 
 no such rights ever existed or were acquired. The miners 
 thought they had this right, and exercised it in good faith. 
 Judge Temple now decides that they had not ; but, at the 
 same time, he says they can carry on their industry, pro- 
 vided they restrain the heavy material. Temporarily, capital 
 will be withdrawn from the hydraulic mining industry, until 
 the whole question is settled. We venture to predict, how- 
 ever, that this will not affect the gold product of California 
 fur more than one year. During that time such dams will 
 be constructcil as will comply with the conditions of the 
 judgment. The judge has tried the whole case on the known 
 damage on Bear and Yuba rivere ; and he admits that, as 
 far as the Gold Eun mine is concerned, he is " unable to 
 say that this mine, without reference to the debris from 
 other mines, materially contributes to the evils mentioned ; 
 or, in oth'^r words, if there were no mining operations save 
 those of the defendant, I am not prepared to say that it 
 would materially injure the valley lands or the navigation 
 of the river. It is the aggregate of debris from all the 
 mines which produces the injuries mentioned in these 
 findings." 
 
 This paragraph shows that if the miners had confined 
 their defense to that particular mine, the suit would pro- 
 bably not have been lost. But the miners have been liberal 
 ill this mattcr-aud have met the issues broadly and fairly. 
 There is a sort of a panic just at the moment among hy- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 715 
 
 draulic miners, of course, but second thought will convince 
 the most despondent that If the decision says they must im- 
 pound the heavier material, it also gives them the right to 
 let the lighter material pass on. It is not the heavy mate- 
 rial of which the farmers complain so badly. If the miners 
 contended that they had vested rights to dump tailings into 
 the water-courses, and the judgment is that they have not, 
 the same judgment says they can soil and muddy the waters 
 if they choose. There are now some thirty-two of the larger 
 hydraulic mines under injunction, but they are all working. 
 Dams will be built, jointly or separately, and it is not pro- 
 bable the mines will shut down. By taking the proper 
 means, the industry is allowed to proceed, and the radical 
 measures prompted by those who contend that the whole 
 business shall be stopped, are, of course, to be thrown aside, 
 and have received judicial rebuke. The decision is, in 
 eifect, a judicial enunciation of ihe doctrine that the miners 
 cannot empty their sand into the streams. The miners con- 
 tended they had vested and prescriptive rights to do this. 
 Judge Temple says they have not. The decision not only 
 settles the question as far as this court can settle it, but also 
 does something unusual for a judicial document, viz., sug- 
 gests the remedy for the evil complained of." 
 
 A word more on the subject. The Mining and Scientific 
 Frees a few days before Judge Temple's decision was given, 
 contained the following, — an evidence of the distinctive im- 
 portance of the question : — " It would seem, after all the 
 time, trouble and money spent on the famous Gold Run 
 .suit, that the Sacramento people might wait until that was 
 settled before bringing new suits. The Gold Run suit has 
 been argued and is now under advisement by the Judge who 
 tried it. The case was well known to be a test one, and is 
 so recognised by both sides. Now, however, new suits are 
 to be instituted, since Sacramento's Supervisors, by a vote 
 of four ayes to three noes, adopted the following : 
 
 Resolved, That George Cadwalader, our special legal counsel, in- 
 stitute and take the necessary legal steps to enjoin and restrain all 
 the hydraulic mines and mining corporations from using the bed of 
 the American river and its tributaries as a place for the deposit of 
 their tailings or mining debris, also all the hydraulic mining com- 
 panies operating on the Cosumnes river, from using the bed of 
 Cosumnes river for the deposit of their tailings and debris in said 
 river. 
 
 'The efFest of this resolution,' aptly says the Grass Valley 
 Union, in commenting on it, 'if injunctions can be obtained, 
 will stop all kinds of mining on the American and its tribn- 
 taries— bar and bank minings as well as that generally 
 designated as hydraulic, where a large quantity of water 
 under pressure is used. Bank mining on the American has 
 been carried on for 30 years without interruption, and the 
 only way in which such claims can be worked is by tailing 
 into the streams. These are generally owned by individuals 
 or partnership associations, and not by large corporations, 
 and they could not afford, of themselves, to defend in ex- 
 pensive suits. The proposition to bring a series of suits 
 against the miners has a look of maliciousness on the part 
 of the anti-debris people of Sacramento county. An im- 
 portant suit has been tried, and a decision is pending, in 
 which the right of miners to use the streams for tailings is 
 involved. It is an important legal question, and the final 
 decision will establish the rights of all parties. Why not 
 wait for the outcome of this case, instead of bringing a mul- 
 tiplicity of suits that can only result in vexing defendants, 
 proving very expensive, and creating further embittering 
 feelings.' " 
 
 FORMS FOR MINING COMPANIES AND 
 OFFICERS. 
 
 UNDER this caption we have gathered together 
 many little things that will be of daily value to 
 Mining Companies and the officers and stock- 
 holders of the same, as they are of the essentially 
 practical side of mining life. 
 
 Mining Company Charter.— We append here, as an 
 illustration of a Western Charter, the Charter, by-laws, &c., 
 of the Hidalgo Town Mining Company. 
 
 Whereas, the undersigned citizens of Colorado desire to organize 
 themselves into a company and become incorporated under the pro- 
 visions of the statutes of the State of Colorado, for the purpose of 
 founding and laying out a town on the public lands in the State of 
 Colorado, and prospecting for and developing mines in said State, we 
 do make, sign and acknowledge the following articles of incorpora- 
 tion, viz ; This is to certify : 
 
 First. — That the corporate name of this company shall be The 
 Hidalgo Town and Mining Company. 
 
 Second. — The objects of this corporation shall be the founding, 
 surveying, platting and laying out a town in the county of Gunni- 
 son and State of Colorado, upon the public lands and acquiring title 
 to the land therefor from the United States, under the provisions of 
 law, and prospecting for minerals and developing mines in the vici- 
 nity of said proposed town, and to do all other acts and things ne- 
 cessary to be done to carry out the above-mentiomid objects. 
 
 Third. — The capital stock of said corporation shall originally be 
 fifteen hundred dollars, divided into fifteen shares of one liundred 
 dollars each, provided that the capital stock may be increased to 
 any sum not exceeding one hundred thousand dollars ($100,000) by 
 the vote of a majority of the stockholders at any regular meeting 
 thereof, previous notice of such proposed action having been given 
 by the publication for one month in some newspaper published in 
 the county where the principal place of business is located, said 
 stock to be non-assessable. 
 
 Fourth. — This corporation shall exist for the term of twenty 
 years from the date of filing this certificate, subject to termination 
 under the provisions of the laws of Colorado. 
 
 Fifth. — The officers of this corporation shall be a President, Vice 
 President, Secretary, Treasurer, and seven Trustees; those ap- 
 pointed for the first year shall be as follows: 
 H. E. Austin, President. 
 O. E. Henry, Vice-President, 
 il . S. Adams, Secretary. 
 Geokge W. McGovERN, Treasurer. 
 J. A. Merriam, 
 N. H. Heath, 
 P. Churchfield, 
 
 Will C. Ferril, r Trustees. 
 Joseph H. Sehlund, 
 B. F. Baldwin, 
 Charles A. Smith. 
 
 Who shall hold their ofiice for one year, or until the first annual 
 meeting in May, 18S2, and until their successors afe elected and 
 qualified, and said officers shall constitute the Board of Directors. 
 
 Sixth. — The principal office for the transaction of the business of 
 this company, shall be at Silver Cliff, Custer County, Colorado, 
 until such time as the Board of Directors shall establish a different 
 place. 
 
 Seventh. — " The Board of Directors" and their successors in of- 
 fice shall have power to make all such by-laws as they may deem 
 proper for the regulation and management of the business affairs of 
 the company, not inconsistent with the terms of this charter. 
 
 Eighth. — Thirty-three and one-third per cent, of the capital stock 
 of this company shall be paid by the stockholders within five days 
 from the filing of these articles of incorporation, and the balance of 
 said stock to be paid in installments at such times as may be or- 
 dered by the Board of Directors at the regular meeting of said 
 Board. 
 
 In witness whereof, we, the undersigned incorporators, have here- 
 unto set our hands and seals this 9th day of April, A. D. 1881. 
 
 H. E. Austin, (Seal). 
 
 O. E. Henry, (Seal). 
 
 M. S. Adams, (Seal). 
 
 Geo. W. McGovem, (Seal), 
 
 N.H. Heath, (Seal). 
 
 P. Churchfield, (Seal). 
 
 Will C. Ferrill, (Seal). 
 
 B. F. Baldwin, (Seal). 
 
 Thomas Hookey, (Seal). 
 
 Joseph H. Sehlund, (Seal). 
 
 Charles A. Smith, (Seal). 
 
 State op Colorado, 
 County of Cdstbe, 
 
 On this, the 18th day of April, A. D. 1881, personally appeared 
 before me the undersigned, a Notary Public in and for the county 
 and State aforesaid, H. E. Austin, O. E. Henry, M. S. Adams, 
 George W. McGovern, N. H. Heath, P. Churchfield, Will C. Fer- 
 rill, B. F. Baldwin, Thomas Hookey, Joseph H. Sehlund and 
 Charles A. Smith, who are personally known to me to be the iden- 
 tical persons who signed the foregoing instrument of writing, and 
 each for himself acknowledged the execution of the same to be his 
 own free act and deed for the uses and purposes therein set forth. 
 
 In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand and affixed my 
 Notarial seal the day and year last above written. 
 
 ^-n-+■l-^-^-^•^-+ 
 1 NOTARY I 
 ± SEAL, i 
 ++ i t 1 1 ! I 1 t 
 
 W. p. Alexander, 
 
 Notary Public. 
 
716 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 BY-LAWS. 
 
 See. 1.— The first annual meeting of the stockholdera of this com- 
 pany shall be held at the office of the principal place of business of 
 the company on the first Monday in May, 1882, and thereafter on 
 the first Monday of May of each year, at which time shall be elect- 
 ed the officers named in the charter, each stockholder being enti- 
 tled to one vote for each share of stock he may own or represent by 
 proxy. 
 
 Sec. 2. — If for any cause the stockholders shall fail to meet on 
 the day named in section 1 of these by-laws for the election of offi- 
 cers, the president may call a meeting of the stockholders for the 
 purpose of electing the officers of the corporation, and the transac- 
 tion of such other business as may properly come before the annual 
 meeting first giving ten days' notice of such meeting by a notice 
 published in some newspaper of the county where such meeting is 
 to be held. 
 
 Sec. 3. — Any vacancy occurring in the board of directors of said 
 company, by death, resignation or other cause, may be filled by the 
 board of directors at a regular meeting of said board, or a meeting 
 of said board called specially for that purpose. 
 
 Sec. 4.^The regular mastiugs of said board shall be held on 
 the first Tuesday of each month, and special meetings may be 
 called by the President, or on the request of five members of said 
 board; personal notice of such meeting being givento the mem- 
 bars thereof residing in the county where sueli meeting is to be 
 held, and as far as practicable, to all the members of said board, at 
 which meeting, no business shall be done but such as is named in 
 said notice. 
 
 Sec. 5. — A majority of said Board of Directors shall constitute a 
 quorum for the transaction of any .business that may properly come 
 before them. 
 
 Sec. 6. — The Board of Directors may appoint a Superintendent, 
 to hold his office during the pleasure of said Board, and fix his com- 
 pensation and prescribe his powers and duties, in accordance with 
 the provisions of Shese By-Laws. 
 
 Duties of Officers. — President. — A. Sec. 7. — It shall be the 
 duty of the President to preside at all meetings of the Board of 
 Directors and meetings of the Stockholders, to sign all bonds, deeds 
 or other contracts entered into by, or in behalf of the Company, to 
 sign all certificates of stock and all orders on the Treasurer for the 
 payment of money, and perform such other duties as are incident to 
 such office. 
 
 Vice-President. — B. It shall be the duty of the Vice-President 
 to perform the duties of the President in the absence of the 
 President. 
 
 Secretary. — C. The Secretary shall give due notice of all the 
 called meetings of the Stockholders or Board of Directors, prepare 
 and keep proper books of record of the business of the company, 
 and such other books as the Board of Directors may prescribe, re- 
 ceive all moneys to be paid to said company, and pay the same over 
 to the Treasurer, taking his receipt for the same. He shall coun- 
 tersign and register all certificates of stock and other papers and 
 documents requiring the President's signature, and attest the same 
 witli the company's seal, countersign and seal all contracts, bonds 
 and deeds entered into by and on behalf of the company, which 
 have been signed or are to be signed by the President, and perform 
 such other duties as are incident to his office and be the custodian 
 of the corporate seal, and may receive such compensation for his 
 services as may from time to time be allowed by the Board of 
 Directors. 
 
 Treasurer. ^D. The Treasurer shall be the custodian of the funds 
 of the Company, reseiving the same from the Secretary, and giving 
 his receipt therefor, and pay out the same only on the order of the 
 President, countersigned by the Secretary. He shall give such 
 bond for the faithful performance of his duties, as may from time 
 to time be prescribed by the Board of Directors, and may be paid 
 such compensation as the Board of Directors may order. 
 
 Superintendent. — E. The Superintendent shall under the direc- 
 tion of the Board of Directors, have control of the working and 
 development of the company's mines and general direction and 
 control of the construction of all mills and other buildings ordered 
 to be erected, and perform such other duties as may be presoribeil 
 for him by tlie Board of Directors, and shall receive such com[)en- 
 sation as may be allowed by the Board of Directors. 
 
 Seal. — Sec. 8. — This company adopts as its corporate seal the fol- 
 lowing design : " Figure of an elk standing erect surrounded by the 
 words, ' The Hidalgo Town and Mining Company, Incorporated 
 April 28th, 1881. Colorado.' " 
 
 Finance. — Sec. 9. — The fiscal year shall end on Saturday preced- 
 in'.; the annual meeting of the Stockholders, at which meetm^ the 
 Secretary and Treasurer sliall submit their rrports in writing, 
 showing all the receipts and ilisburseraants of funds. And at the 
 same time the Supermtendent shall submit a report in writing 
 showin;;^ his receipts and disl)ur3emeiits, and all liis business 
 transactions for the compiiiiy, and also th" general condition of 
 the affairs of the company, and said offi.^rs shall also report 
 to the Board of Directors at any time whun ordered to do so by 
 said Board. 
 
 Dividends.— Sec. 10.— Dividends may be made Ijy the Board of 
 Directors at any regular meeting of said Board, but not in excess of 
 the surplus fundi in the Treasury, and shall be apportiunej only to 
 the stock subscribed and issued. 
 
 Debts. — Sec. 11. — No debt shall be contracted for the company 
 except by order of the Board of Directors, and then not in excess of 
 the funds actually in the Treasury. 
 
 Finance Committee. — Sec. 12. — The President shall appoint a 
 Committee of three on Finance to whom shall be referred all bills 
 and accounts for their approval, and to whom shall also be referred 
 all reports of the Secretary, Treasurer, Superintendent, or other 
 officer of the company in any maimer connected with the finances 
 of the company, and the Finance Committee and any member of 
 the Board of Directors shall at all times have access to the books of 
 said officers for the purpose of examination. 
 
 Bills and Accounts. — Sec. 13. — All bills against the company 
 shall be itemized, and duly presented to the Board of Directors, 
 and shall not be paid until audited by the Finance Committee and 
 ordered paid by said Board, provided that the Board of Directors 
 may order the Treasurer to pay over to the Superintendent, from 
 time to time, such sums of money as may be necessary to pay for 
 assessment work or other developments or improvements ordered to 
 be made by said Board. 
 
 Stock. — Sec. 14. — Transfers of stock shall be made only on the 
 books of the company by the owner in person, or by Attorney upon 
 surrender of the certificate transferred, and when made by Attorney, 
 the power of Attorney shall be filed and remain with the Secretary, 
 who shall be entitled to a fee of fifty cents for each certificate issued 
 by him. When any certificate of stock has been lost or destroyed 
 the owner may apply for a new certificate of such stock and shall 
 be entitled to receive such new certificate upon application to the 
 Board of Directors, accompanied by proof to their satisfaction, 
 showing that such certificate has been lest or destroyed, and also in 
 the discretion of the Board, giving a bond of indemnity, with not 
 less than two good and sufficient sureties to be approved by the 
 Board, securing the company, and any person interested, against 
 liability and loss by reason of the issuance of such new certificate, 
 which bond shall ije the only recourse for any person subsequently 
 claiming such stock under the certificate so alleged to have been 
 lost or destroyed. 
 
 Amendments. — Sec. 15. — These By-Laws may be amended or re- 
 pealed, or additional sections passed, at any regular meeting of the 
 Board of Directors, by a vote of two-thirds of all the members of 
 said Board, notice of the proposed amendment having been given 
 at a regular meeting of the Board preceding the one at which action 
 is taken thereon. 
 
 ORDEK OF BUSINESS. 
 
 1. Calling the Roll. 
 
 2. Beading the Minutes. 
 
 3. Reading Communications. 
 
 4. Presentation of Bills. 
 
 5. Reports of Standing Committees. 
 
 6. Reports of Special Committees. 
 
 7. Unfinished Business. 
 
 8. Miscellaneous Business. 
 
 Adopted July 8th, 1881. 
 
 AMENDMENTS TO THE CHARTER. 
 Be it remembered that at a meeting of the Stockholders of the 
 " Hidalgo Town and Mining Company," held at the office of the 
 Secretary of said company at Silver Cliff, Colorado, on the 9th day 
 of August, A. D. 1881, pursuant to the following notice, to-wit; 
 
 Stockholders' Meeting, 
 Silver Cliff, Colorado, 
 July 8th, 1881. 
 
 The Stockholders of the "Hidalgo Town and Mining Company" 
 are hereby notified that a meeting of said company will be held at 
 the office of the Secretary of said company in Silver Cliff, Colorado, 
 on the 9th day of August, 1881, at 8 o'clock P. M., at which time a 
 proposition will be submitted to the companv to increase the cap- 
 ital stock of said company to $100,000, according to the provisions 
 of the charter. 
 
 M. S. Adams, Secretary. 
 H. E. Austin, President. 
 
 And it appearing that notice of said meeting had been duly 
 given in accordance with the provisions of the cliarter of said com- 
 pany, from tlie affidavit of W. S. iloiitgomery, duly filed with the 
 Secretary of said company as follows, viz : 
 
 STATE OF COLORADO, I 
 Custer Couniy. | ^^■ 
 
 W. S. Mimtgonicry being duly sworn savs that for the last six 
 months he has been the editor and publisher of the Daily and 
 Weekly Prospect, a newspaper published in the town of Silver 
 Cliff, Ouster County, State of Colorado, and that the annexed and 
 forcKiiing notice of the Stockholders' meeting of the Hildago Town 
 and Mining Company, has been published in said paper for one 
 month next preceding the date of this affidavit, and that said notice 
 has been pulilished four times in said paper, and further tlus de- 
 ponent saith not. W. S. Montoomery. 
 
 Subscribed and sworn to before me this ninth day of August, ISSl. 
 
 ff not.vry 
 
 ;i SEAL. 
 
 W. P. 
 
 Alexander, 
 Notary Public. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 717 
 
 And there being present a quorum for the transaction of busi- 
 ness either in person or by proxy the following proceedings were 
 had, to wit : 
 
 The President being absent, the meeting was called to order by 
 the Vice President, O. E. Henry, who presided over said meeting. 
 M. S. Adams offered the following resolution, to wit : 
 
 Resolved, That the capital stoclc of this company be increased 
 to one hundred thousand dollars ($100,000), and that the stock 
 be disposed of in accordance with the recommendation of the 
 Committee of Ways and Means, under the direction of the Board of 
 Directors. 
 
 The vote on the motion to adopt this resolution was taken by 
 ayes and nays, when it appearing that four-fifths of all the capital 
 stock had voted in favor of its adoption, and none having voted 
 against its adoption, the resolution was declared adopted, and the 
 capital stock of said company was declared to be increased to one 
 hundred thousand dollars. 
 
 In witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands and seals 
 this 25th day of November, 1881. 
 
 % CORPORATE I 
 I SEAL. I 
 
 H. E. Austin, 
 
 President. 
 
 M. S. Adams, 
 
 Secretary. 
 
 [SEAL] 
 
 [seal] 
 
 STATE OF COLORADO, 
 Custer County. | 
 
 H. E. Austin and M. S, Adams being duly sworn each for him- 
 self says that he is President and Secretary of the Hidalgo Town 
 and Mining Company, respectively, and that the above and 
 foregoing is a correct record of the proceedings of said company, 
 with reference to the increase of the capital stock of said company 
 at the meeting of the Stockholders thereof, held August 9th, A. D., 
 1881, as it appears from the records of said company made at the 
 time of said meeting, and further these deponents say not. 
 
 H. E. Austin, 
 M. S. Adams. 
 Subscribed and sworn to before me this 26th day of November, 
 A. d. 1881. 
 
 I NOTAKY % 
 I SEAL. I 
 
 Samuel Leighton. 
 
 Notary Public. 
 
 STATE GIT COLORADO, 
 
 Secretary's Office. 
 
 I, Norman H. Meldrum, Secretary of State of the State of Colo- 
 rado, do hereby certifv that the foregoing is a full, true and com- 
 plete transcript of tlie certificate of amendments to the original 
 articles of incorporation of the Hidalgo Town and Mining Company 
 which was filed in this office the thirtieth day of November, A. D., 
 1881, at 9 o'clock A. M., and admitted to record. 
 
 In testimony whereof I have hereunto set my hand and affixed the 
 great seal of the State, at the City of Denver, this first day of De- 
 cember, A. D., 1881. 
 
 3MHiH■;■-^-s■Hi^:!S■S-A-S-;!^*-^!:":i^;K:J*-S:■^3f* 
 
 t» 
 55 GREAT SEAL | 
 
 i OF THE I 
 
 ft STATE OF COLORADO.! 
 I , ,_ ^ ^_, -i 
 
 N. H. Meldrum, 
 Secretary of State. 
 
 Fifth, — That the number of trustees who shall manage the con- 
 cerns and business affairs of said company is and shall be eleven, 
 and John P. Jones, Daniel S. Appletou, Ulysses S. Grant, Junior, 
 Henry A. V. Post, William Borden, Horace A. W. Tabor, William 
 S. Nichols, Leonidas M. Lawson, Edward B. Dorsey, Arthur Sewell, 
 and Charles A. Whittier, are the names of the persons who shall be 
 the trustees of said company for the first year, and all of whom are 
 citizens of the United States, and a majority citizens and residents 
 of the State of New York. 
 
 Sixth. — That the principal office and place of business of said 
 company shall and is to be located in the City and County of New 
 York, State of New York ; but the mining operations and the 
 separation of the metals from the ores are to be carried on outof the 
 State of New York, viz. : In the County of Lake, State of Colorado, 
 and elsewhere in said State. 
 
 In witness whereof, we have hereto set our hands and seals this 
 twenty-ninth day of September, one thousand eight hundred and 
 seventy-nine. 
 
 The charter of the Chrysolite company, is a good example 
 of an Eastern charter. It is as follows : 
 
 State of New York, City and County of New York, ss. : 
 
 We, Horace A; W. Tabor, Drake De Kay and Henry C. Gardiner, 
 citizens of the United States, and a majority of whom are citizens of 
 the State of New York, hereby associate together for the purpose of 
 creating a corporation under the laws of the State of New York, 
 authorizing the formation of corporations for mining and other pur- 
 
 Eoses, and in compliance with the provisions of said laws we do 
 ereby state and certify : j . n t 
 
 i^'irs*.— That the corporate name of this company is and shall be 
 the Chrysolite Silver Mining Company. 
 
 Second.— That this company is formed for the sole purpose of min- 
 ing the ores and minerals contained in the mines known as the 
 Chrysolite, Carboniferous, Little Eva, Vulture, Kit Carson, AH 
 Rignt, Fairview, Pandora, Colorado Chief, Solid Muldoon, Silver 
 and Eaton, and no others, situated in the California Mining District, 
 Lake County State of Colorado, and separating the metals from 
 such ores and minerals. The said company shall have power to 
 purchase the said mines, to wit : The said Chrysolite, Carboniferous, 
 Little Eva, Vulture, Kit Carson, All Right, Fairview, Pandora, 
 Colorado Chief, ■ Solid Muldoon, Silver and Eaton, and to issue 
 full-paid stock in payment therefor. . . 
 
 Third.— Tha-t the amount of capital stock of this company is and 
 shall be ten million dollars, divided into two hundred thousand 
 shares of the par value of fifty dollars each. 
 
 Fourth.— Thai the existence of the company shall continue tor 
 the term of fifty years. 
 
 (Signed), 
 
 H. A. W. Tabok, 
 Drake De Kay, 
 Henry C. Gardiner. 
 
 j-+-f MM 4"t--f 
 
 X SEAL, t 
 
 •t M M I M I X 
 
 State of New York, City and County of New York, ss. .- 
 
 On the 30th day of September, 1879, before me personally came 
 Horace A. W. Tabor, Drake De Kay, and Henry C. Gardiner, to me 
 known, and known to me to be the individuals described in and 
 who executed the foregoing certificate, and severally acknowledged 
 that they executed the same for the uses and purpores therein men- 
 tioned, 
 
 (Signed) William H. Clarkson, 
 
 Notary Public for New York County, N. Y. 
 
 State of New York, City and County of New York, ss. : 
 
 I, Hubert O. Thompson, Clerk of the said City and County, and 
 Clerk of the Supreme Court of said State for said County, do certify 
 that I have compared the preceding with the original certificate of 
 incorporation of the Chrysolite Silver Mining Company on file in 
 my office, and that the same is a correct transcript therefrom, and 
 of the whole of said original, endorsed, filed 3d October, 1879. 
 
 In witness whereof 1 have hereunto subscribed my name and 
 affixed my official seal this 3d day of October, 1879. 
 
 t SEAL, t 
 
 I m M M M + 
 
 (Signed,) 
 
 Hubert O. Thompson, 
 
 Clerk. 
 
 State of New York, Office of the Secretary of State, ss. .- 
 
 I have compared the preceding with the original certificate of in- 
 corporation of the Chrysolite Silver Mining Company, with 
 acknowledgment thereto annexed, filed in this office on the 3d day 
 of October, 1879, and do hereby certify the same to be a correct 
 transcript therefrom, and of the whole of said original. 
 
 Witness my hand and seal of office of the Secretary of State, at 
 the City of Albany, this third day of October, one thousand eight 
 hundred and seventy-nine. 
 
 + + (Signed,) George Moss, 
 
 I SEAL. J Deputy Secretary of Stale. 
 
 I [ M I [ M l -l- 
 
 BY-LAWS. 
 
 Article I. — O^crs, -Sec. 1. — The officers of this company shall 
 consist of a President, Vice-President, Treasurer, Secretary, General 
 Manager, and Financial Agent. The President and Vice-President 
 must be chosen from the Trustees. 
 
 Article II.— President.— Sec. 1.— The President shall be the 
 chief executive agent of the comjiany in the management of its 
 affairs, but subject at all times and in all matters to the control and 
 direction of the Board of Trustees. He shall, when present, pre- 
 side at all meetings of the Board of Trustees, and perform such 
 other duties as may be required of him by the laws of the State, and 
 by the by-laws of the company, and by the Board of Trustees. He 
 shall sign all contracts, certificates of stock, drafts, acceptances and 
 checks. 
 
 gee. 2. — He shall receive such salary as the Board of Trustees 
 may fix and allow. 
 
 gee. 3. — He may be removed at any time by a majority of the 
 Board of Trustees. 
 
 Article III. — Vice-President. — Sec 1. — In the absence of the 
 President, the Vice-President shall possess all the powers and per- 
 form all the duties of the President, and receive such compensation 
 for his services as the Board may fix and allow. 
 
 Article IV. — Treasurer. — Sec. 1. — It shall be the duty of the 
 Treasurer to receive all the money and funds of the company, and 
 deposit the same in such banking-house as the Board of Trustees 
 shall from time to time direct ; and, under the direction of said 
 Board, he shall pay out the same by check, countersigned by the 
 President and Secretary, and not otheiwise. 
 
718 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Sec. 2. — He shall keep full and correct books of account, which 
 shall at all times be open to the inspection of any member of the 
 Board. He shall make a report in detail to said Board at least 
 quarterly, and make such other reports and statements at such 
 times as said Board may require. 
 He shall give such bonds ss the Board shall require. 
 Sec. 3. — He shall be entitled to such compensation for his services 
 as the Board of Trustees may from time to time fix and allow. 
 
 Article V. — Secretary. — Sec. 1. — It shall be the duty of the 
 Secretary to keep full and accurate minutes of all proceedings of 
 the Board of Trustees and Executive Committee, and of the Stock- 
 holders, in a proper book or books. He shall also keep a list of all 
 persons who are or have been Stockholders within the period of one 
 year, with their names alphabetically arranged. 
 
 Sec. 2. — He shall perform such otlier duties as may be required 
 by the laws of the State, the Board of Trustees, and the By-Laws of 
 the company; and he shall receive such salary as the Board of 
 Trustees may fix and allow. 
 
 Article VI. — General Manager. — Sec. 1. — The General Man- 
 ager shall be the general agent of the company in the State of Col- 
 orado. He shall have power to enter upon and take possession of 
 all the mines and property of the company in the State of Colorado. 
 Sec. 2. — The General Manager shall be subject at all times and in 
 all matters, acts and transactions, to the direction and control of 
 the President of the company and of the Board of Trustees. 
 
 Sec. 3. — He shall not have the power to contract any debt or 
 incur any liability on the part of the company exceeding at any 
 time ten thousand dollars in the aggregate, unless previously 
 authorized by the Board of Trustees. 
 
 Sec. 4. — He shall be subject to suspension at any time at the will 
 of the President, and to removal by the Board of Trustees; and in 
 case of suspension by the President, the President shall forthwith 
 notify the Trustees of such suspension, and call a meeting of the 
 Board. 
 
 Sec. 5. — The General Manager shall receive such compensation 
 for his services as the Board of Trustees may from time to time fix 
 and allow. 
 
 Article \n.—Trustees.Sec. 1.— Regular meetings of the 
 Board of Trustees shall be held at the office of the company on the 
 fifteenth day of each and every month. When this falls on a legal 
 holiday, on the next succeeding day that is not a legal holiday. 
 
 Sec. 2. — Special meetings of the Board may be held at any time 
 on notice of two days, by mail or personal service, to each member 
 of said Board, stating the time, place and objects of meeting, to be 
 given by the President or by the Secretary at the request of any 
 two members of the Board, and no business except that so stated 
 can be acted on at such meeting. 
 
 Sec. 3. — They shall exercise a general supervision over the 
 afiairs of the company, receive and pass upon the reports of the 
 Secretary, Treasurer and Superintendent, declare dividends, audit 
 all bills and accounts against the company, and direct the Secretary 
 in correspondence. They shall have power to delegate from time 
 to time such authority as they may deem necessary to the ofiicers 
 or agents of the company, or to any one or more members acting as 
 a committee. They may appoint a managing director or such 
 other agents as they may deem necessary, define their respective 
 duties, fix their compensation, and remove or suspend them for 
 sufiicient cause, except for the removal of the President and 
 amendnjent of the By-Laws; in this case a majority. 
 
 Ssc. 4.— Five of the trustees shall constitute a quorum of the 
 Board at any regular or special meeting ; but, in the absence of a 
 majority of the Board, the minority shall have power to adjourn 
 such meeting, regular or special. 
 
 In case of meetings held for the amendment of the By-Laws or 
 the removal of the President, a majority of the Trustees elected 
 shall be necessary to constitute a quorum. 
 
 Sec. 5.— Neither the President nor any other officer or agent of 
 this company shall have power to contract any debt or incur any 
 liability exceeding the sum of ten thousand dollars, without the 
 authority of the Board of Trustees or the Executive Committee. 
 
 Article YllL— Executive Com.iniUee..~Sec. L— There shall be 
 an Executive Committee, consisting of five Trustees, four of whom 
 shall be appointed by resolution of the Board. The President or 
 m his absence the Vice President, shall act as the fifth member of 
 such committee. 
 
 Sec. 2.— The Executive Committee shall have full power to man- 
 age all the business affairs of the company when the Board is not 
 in session, and the acts and proceedings of the said committee sliall 
 have the same force and eff'ect as the acts and proceedings of the 
 Board of Trustees, unless the action of said committee shall be dis- 
 approved by resolution adopted by the Board at the next meeting 
 of the Board held after such act or proceeding of said committee 
 has been reported to the Board of Trustees. 
 
 Sec. 3.— Any officer or employee of the company, excepting the 
 
 Committee"''^ suspended or removed at will by the Executive 
 
 Article IX.~Vacancij and Tenure.— Sea. 1.— In case of a 
 
 vacancy occurring from any cause in the Board of Trustees tlie 
 
 same may be filled by appointment made by the Trustees in office 
 
 «hnH hoijlffi ™'.-fiy"'' 'f> """^ '"'"'y ««'=«>• »f «•« company, 
 shall hold office until their „r his successors shall have been elected 
 or appomted and have qualified ; but nothing in this section slial 
 
 be so construed as to prevent the removal of any officer as herein- 
 before provided. 
 
 Article X.— Certificates.— Sec. 1.— The cajjital stock of this 
 company shall be represented by certificates signed by the Presi- 
 dent and the Secretary. 
 
 Article XL— Seal.— Sec. 1.— The corporate seal shall bear 
 upon its face, within a circle, the corporate name of the company 
 and date of incorporation. 
 
 Article XII. — Closing of JBooks.— Sec. 1.— The stock books of 
 the company shall be closed for five days previous to any election 
 of Trustees or the date of payment of a dividend; and a list of 
 stockholders prepared at that time shall designate who shall vote 
 or receive dividends. 
 
 Article X\l\.— Stockholders' Meeting .—Sec. 1. — The annual 
 meeting of the Stockholders for the election of Trustees of this 
 company shall be held in the city of New York on the first Tuesday 
 in October, 1880, and yearly thereafter. Twenty days notice shall 
 be given of the time and place of holding such meeting by the 
 Secretary, by public advertisement in one or more daily newspapers 
 published in the city of New York, and by notice sent by mail to 
 each Stockholder at his residence, as it may appear on the books df 
 the company. A majority of the Stockholders present, either in 
 person or by attorney, shall constitute a quorum. 
 
 Sec. 2. — At such election each Stockholder shall be entitled to 
 cast one vote for each share standing in his name, as shall appear 
 by stock list at the time of closing the books. No person shall vote 
 as proxy unless he shall produce and deliver to the Secretary a 
 written .authority so to do, signed by the StockhoUer whom 'he 
 represents. . 
 
 Sec. 3. — The polls shall be open at twelve o'clock noon, and shall 
 remain open until two o'clock in the afternoon of the same day, and 
 on the closing thereof the inspectors shall proceed to count tlie vote 
 and declare the result. 
 
 Article XW .—Amendments.— Sec. 1.— These By-Laws may be 
 altered, amended or repealed by the Board of Trustees, at any "reg- 
 ular or special meeting; but in every or any such alteration, amend- 
 ment or repeal at least a majority of the m"embers of the Board of 
 Trustees must concur. 
 
 Form of Patent for Placer Claim.— General Land 
 Office, No. 4,458. Mineral certifleate No. 448. 
 
 The United States of America to all to whom these presents shall come 
 greeting : ' 
 
 Whereas, in pursuance of the provisions of the Revised 
 Statutes of the United States, chapter six, title thirty-two, 
 there has been deposited in the General Land Office of the 
 United States the certificate of the register of the land office 
 at Helena, in the Territory of Montana, whereby it appears 
 that, in pursuance of the said Revised Statutes of the United 
 States, James D. Hammond did, on the ninth day of June, 
 A. D. 1879, enter and pay for certain placer mining premises, 
 being mineral entry number four hundred and forty-eight 
 (448) in the series of said office, embracing the west half of 
 the southeast quarter and the southeast quarter of the south- 
 west quarter of section twenty-three (23), and the northeast 
 quarter of the northeast quarter of section twenty-eight (28), 
 in township ten (10) north, of range four (4) east of the 
 principal meridian, containing one hundred and sixty (160) 
 acres of land, more or less, as shown by the official survey 
 and plat of said township ; said placer mining claim or lot 
 of land being situate in the Summit Valley mining district, 
 in the county of Lewis and Clarke, and the Territory of 
 Montana, in the district of lands subject to sale at Helena, 
 and commonly known as the " Jennie Placer Mine." 
 
 Now know ye, that the United States of America, in con- 
 sideration of the premises and in conformity with said Revised 
 Statutes of the United States, have given and granted, and by 
 these presents do give and grant, unto the said James G. 
 Hammond, and to his heirs and assigns, the said placer 
 mining premises above described as the west half of the 
 southeast (juarter and the southeast quarter of the southwtst 
 quarter ot section twenty-three (23), and the northeast 
 quarterof the northeast quarter of section twentv-eight (28), 
 in township ten (10) north, of range four (4) east of the 
 principal meridian. 
 
 To have and to hold said mining premises, together with 
 all the rights, privileges, immunities and appurtenances of 
 whatsoever nature thereunto belonging, unto the said James 
 G. Hammond, and to his heirs and assigns forever ; subject, 
 nevertheless, to the following conditions and stipulations: 
 
 First. That the grant hereby made is restricted in its ex- 
 tenor limits to the boundaries of said legal subdivisions, as 
 hereinbefore described, and to any veins or lodes of quartz 
 or other rock in place, bearing gdd, silver, cinnabar, lead, 
 tin, copper, or other valuable deposits, which may hereafter 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 719 
 
 be discovered within said limits, and which are not claimed 
 or known to exist at the date thereof. 
 
 Second. That should any vein or -lode of quartz or other 
 rock in place, bearing gold, silver, cinnabar, lead, tin, cop- 
 per, or other valuable deposits, be claimed or known to exist 
 within the above-described premises at the date hereof, the 
 same is expressly excepted and excluded from these presents. 
 
 Third. That the jpremises hereby conveyed may be entered 
 by the proprietor of any vein or lode of quartz or other rock 
 in place, bearing gold, silver, cinnabar, lead, tin, copper, or 
 other valuable deposits, for the purpose of extracting and 
 removing the ore from such vein, lode, or deposit, should 
 the same, or any part thereof, be found to penetrate, inter- 
 sect, pass through, or dip into the mining ground or premises 
 hereby granted. 
 
 Fourth. That the premises hereby conveyed shall be held 
 subject to any vested and accrued water rights for mining, 
 agricultural, manufacturing, or other purposes, and rights to 
 ditches and reservoirs used in connection with such water 
 rights as may be recognized and acknowledged by the local 
 laws, customs, and decisions of courts. 
 
 Fifth. That in the absence of necessary legislation by 
 Congress, the legislature of Montana may provide rules for 
 working the mining claim or premises hereby granted, 
 involving easements, drainage, and other necessary means to 
 the complete development thereof. 
 
 In testimony whereof, I, Rutherford B. Hayes, President 
 of the United States of America, have caused these letters 
 to be made patent, and the seal of the General Land OfBce 
 to be hereunto affixed. 
 
 Given under my hand, at the city of Washington, the tenth 
 day of December, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight 
 hundred and eighty, and of the Independence of the United 
 States the one hundred and fifth. 
 
 By the President. 
 [seal.] R. B. Hayes, 
 
 By Wm. H. Crook, 
 Secretary. 
 
 S. W. Clark, 
 
 Reeorder of the General Land Office. 
 
 Recorded, vol. 54, pages 41 and 42. 
 
 Form or Patent for Vein or Lode Cl^im. — General 
 Land Office No. 4398.— Mineral Certificate No. 419. 
 The United States of America, to all to whom these presents 
 shall come, greeting : 
 
 Whereas, in pursuance of the provisions of the Revised 
 Statutes of the United States, chapter six, title thirty-two, 
 •there have been deposited in the General Land Office of the 
 United States the plat and field-notes of survey of the claim 
 of John W. Roe upon the Brooklyn lode, accompanied by 
 the certificate of the register of the land-office at Salt Lake 
 City, in the Territory of Utah, whereby it appears that, in 
 pursuance of the said Revised Statutes of the United States, 
 John W. Roe did, on the thirty-first day of December,' A. D. 
 1879, enter and pay for said mining claim or premises, being 
 mineral entry No. 419, in the series of said office, designated 
 by the Surveyor-General as lot No. 60, embracing a portion 
 of the unsurveyed public domain, in the Ophir Mining Dis- 
 trict in the county of Tooele and Territory of Utah, in the 
 district of lands subject to sale at Salt Lake City, containing 
 one (1) acre and eighty-four hundredths (t^) of an acre of 
 land, more or le-ss, and, according to the returns on file in 
 the General Land Office, bounded, described and platted as 
 follows, with magnetic variation at sixteen (16) degrees and 
 thirty-five (35) minutes east, to wit: 
 
 Beginning at corner No. 1, a cottonwood post, four (4) 
 inches in diameter, marked " U. S. L. 60, No. 1 " ; thence 
 north sixty-five (65) degrees thirty (30) minutes west, fifty 
 (50) feet to centre of southwesterly boundary of the claim, 
 from which discovery bears north twenty (20) degrees east, 
 at the distance of four hundred (400) feet, ninety-eight and 
 seven-tenths (98xV) feet to a point on easterly boundary of 
 lot No. 63, made for the Noyes lode, from which corner No. 
 1 of lot No. 63 bears South fourteen f 14) degrees west at the 
 distance of seventeen and seven-tenths (V7^) feet, one hun- 
 dred (100) feet to corner No. 2, a cottonwood post four (4) 
 inches in diameter, in mound of stones, marked " U. S. L. 
 60, No. 2," from which U. S. Mineral Monumuent No. 6 
 bears south ten (10) degrees west at the distance of nine 
 
 hundred and ninety-eight (998) feet ; thence from said cor- 
 ner No. 2 north twenty-six (26) degrees east, six (6) feet to 
 a point on easterly boundary of said lot No. 63, from which 
 corner No. 1 of said lot No. 63 bears south fourteen (14) 
 degrees west, at the distance of twenty-three and eight- 
 tenths (23x%) feet, eight hundred (800) feet to comer No. 3, a 
 cottonwood post four (4) inches in diameter, marked "U. S. L. 
 60, No. 3"; thence south sixty-five (65) degrees thirty (30) 
 minutes east, one hundred (100) feet to corner No. 4, a cotton- 
 wood post four (4) inches in diameter, marked " U. 8. L. 60, 
 No. 4" ; thence south twenty-six (26) degrees west, eight hun- 
 dred (800) feet to the place of beginning, containing one (1) 
 acre and eighty-four hundredths (/n+j) of an acre of land 
 more or less, and embracing eight hundred (800) linear feet 
 of the Brooklyn lode, to wit, four hundred (400) linear feet 
 northeasterly and four hundred (400) linear feet south- 
 westerly from discovery on said lode, as represented by 
 yellow shading in the following plat: [Here follows dia- 
 gram of claim, shaded in yellow.] 
 
 Now know ye, That the United States of America, in 
 consideration of the premises, and in conformity with the 
 said Revised Statutes of the United States, have given and 
 granted, and by these presents do give and grant unto the 
 said John W. Roe and to his heirs and assigns, the said 
 mining premises hereinbefore described as lot No. 60, em- 
 bracing a portion of the unsurveyed public domain, with the 
 exclusive right of possession and enjoyment of all the land 
 included within the exterior lines of said survey not herein 
 expressly excepted from these presents, and of eight hundred 
 (800) linear feet of the said Brooklyn vein, lode, ledge, or 
 deposit for the length hereinbefore described, throughout its 
 entire depth, although it may enter the land adjoining, and 
 also all other veins, lodes, ledges, or deposits throughout 
 their entire depth, the tops or apexes of which lie inside 
 the exterior lines of said survey at the surface extended 
 downward vertically, although such veins, lodes, ledges, or 
 deposits in their downward course may so far depart from a 
 perpendicular as to extend outside the vertical side lines of 
 said survey : Provided, That the right of possession hereby 
 granted to such outside parts of said veins, lodes, ledges, or 
 deposits shall be confined to such portions thereof as lie 
 between vertical planes drawn downward through the end 
 lines of said survey at the surface, so continued in their own 
 direction that such vertical planes will intersect such exterior 
 parts of said veins, lodes, ledges, or deposits : And provided 
 further, That nothing in this conveyance shall authorize 
 the grantee herein, his heirs or assiigns, to enter upon the 
 surface of a mining claim owned or possessed by another: To 
 have and to hold said mining premises, together with all the 
 rights, privileges, immunities, and appurtenances of what- 
 soever nature thereunto belonging, unto the said John W. 
 Roe, and to his heirs and assigns forever, subject, neverthe- 
 less, to the following conditions and stipulations: 
 
 First. That the grant hereby made is restricted to the land 
 hereinbefore described as lot No. 60, with eight hundred 
 (800) linear feet of the Brooklyn vein, lode, ledge, or deposit 
 for the length aforesaid throughout its entire depth as afore- 
 said, together with all other veins, lodes, ledges, or deposits 
 throughout their entire depths as aforesaid, the tops or 
 apexes of which lie inside the exterior lines of said survey. 
 Second. That the premises hereby conveyed, with the 
 exception of the surface, may be entered by the proprietor 
 of any other vein, lode, ledge, or deposit, the top or apex 
 of which lies outside the exterior limits of said survey, 
 should the same in its downward course be found to pene- 
 trate, intersect, extend into, or underlie the premises here- 
 by granted, for the purpose of extracting and removing 
 the ore from such other vein, lode, ledge, or deposit. 
 
 Third. That the premises hereby conveyed shall be held 
 subject to any vested and accrued water rights for mining, 
 agricultural, manufacturing or other purposes, and rights to 
 ditches and reservoirs used in connection with such water 
 rights as may be recognized and acknowledged by the local 
 laws, customs, and decisions of courts. 
 
 Fourth. That in the absence of necessary legislation by 
 Congress, the legislature of Utah may provide rules for 
 working the mining claim or premises hereby granted, in- 
 volving easements, drainage, and other necessary means to 
 its complete development. 
 
 In testimony whereof, I, Rutherford B. Hayes, President of 
 
720 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the Uniled States of America, have caused these letters to 
 be made patent, and the seal of the General Land Office to 
 be hereanto affixed. 
 
 Given under my hand, at the city of Washington, the 
 tenth day of December, in the year of our Lord one thou- 
 sand eight hundred and eighty, and of the Independence of 
 the United States the one hundred and fifth. 
 By the President : 
 [seal.] E. B. Hayes, 
 
 By Wm. H. Crook, 
 Secretary. 
 S. W. Clark, 
 
 Recorder General Land Office. 
 Recorded, vol. 54, pages 43 to 45, inclusive. 
 
 Rules for forming a Mining District. We append for this 
 illustration the rules adopted May 27th, of this year in the 
 formation of the Calico Mining "District of the State of 
 California: 
 
 By-Laws of Calico Mining District, adopted May 27th, 1882. — 
 
 See. 1. — Calico Mining District shall be bounded as follows: 
 Commence at a point about two and a half miles west of the Calico 
 Well, (better known as the little red butte), run thence ten miles 
 north, thence ten miles east, thence ten miles south, thence ten miles 
 ■west to point of beginning. 
 
 Sec. 2. — The name of the district shall be Calico. 
 
 Sec. 3. — This district shall have one officer, viz : A Recorder, 
 whose office shall be in Calico. 
 
 Sec. 4. — The Recorder shall hold his office for one year, beginning 
 the 1st day of June and ending the last day of May, provided, his 
 successor has been previously elected; otherwise he shall hold 
 office until the election of a successor. 
 
 Sec. 5. — It shall be the duty of the Recorder to keep a record- 
 book for the purpose of recording claims and affidavits of assess- 
 ment work. 
 
 Sec. 6. — The Recorder shall receive one dollar for recording 
 claims, fifty cents for recording affidavits, and twenty- five cents for 
 furnishing certificates. 
 
 Sec. 7. — It shall be the duty of the Recorder to post notices of 
 election, in three public places, ten days before the expiration of 
 his term. 
 
 Sec. 8. — At the request of five miners, the Recorder shall call a 
 miners' meeting. The notice of the meeting shall set forth the ob- 
 ject for which it is called. 
 
 Sec. 9. — Provided the limits of the district are to be changed or 
 the By-laws amended, the Recorder shall give notice of such 
 changes or amendments twenty days beforehand by posting-notices 
 in three public places in the district. 
 
 Sec. 10. — It shall be the duty of the Recorder to turn over to his 
 successor all books and papers pertaining to the archives of the 
 district. 
 
 Sec. 11. — The width of lode claims shall be three hundred feet 
 on each side of the center of the vein or crevice. 
 
 Sec. 12. — The discoverer of a lode shall, within ninety days from 
 the date of discovery, record his claim in the office of the Recorder 
 of this district, which record shall contain : 1st, the name of the 
 lode ; 2d, the name of the locator ; 3d, the date of the locations ; 
 4th, the number of feet in length claimed on each side of the centre 
 of the discovery shaft ; 5th, the general course of the lode as near 
 as may be. 
 
 Sec. 13. — Any location certificate of a lode claim which shall 
 not contain the name of the lode, the name of the locator, the date 
 of location, the number of lineal feet claimed on each side of the 
 . discovery shaft, the general course of the lode, and such description 
 as shall identify the claim with reasonable certainty, shall be 
 void. 
 
 Sec. 14. — Before filing such location certificate the discoverer 
 shall locate his claim by first sinking a discovery shaft upon the 
 lode, to the depth of at least ten feet from the lowest part of the rim 
 of such shaft at the surface, or deeper if necessary to show a well- 
 defined crevice. Second, by posting at the point of discovery or the 
 surface, a conspicuous notice containing the name of the lode, the 
 name of the locator, and the date of the discovery. Third, by mark- 
 ing the surface boundaries of the claim. 
 
 Sec. 15. — The surface boundaries shall be marked by nine sub- 
 stantial posts or monuments, three on each end and three on a line 
 running through the centre. 
 
 Sec. 16. — Any open cut, cross-cut or tunnel, which shall cut a 
 lode at the depth often feet below the surface, shall hold such lode 
 the same as if a discovery shaft were sunk thereon, or an adit of 
 at least ten feet along the lode, from the point where the lode may 
 be in any manner discovered, shall be equivalent to a discovery 
 shaft. 
 
 Sec. 17.— The discoverer shall have sixty days from the time 
 of discovering a ledge or lode to do the necessary work on his 
 claim. 
 
 Sec. 18. — If at any time the locator of' any mining claim 
 heretofore or hereafter located, or his assigns shall apprehend that 
 
 his original certificate was defective, erroneous, or that the require- 
 ments of the law had not been complied with before filing; orshall 
 be desirous of changing his surface boundaries ; or of taking in any 
 part of an overlapping claim which has been abandoned, such loca- 
 tor or his assigns may file an additional certificate; provided that 
 such re-location does not interfere with the existing rights of others 
 at the time of such relocation ; and the record thereof shall preclude 
 the claimants from proving any such title or titles as he or they 
 may have held under previous location. 
 
 Sec. 19. — The relocation of abandoned lode claims shall be by sink- 
 ing a new discovery shaft, fixing new boundaries in the same man- 
 ner as if it were the location of a new claim ; or the relocator may 
 sink the original discovery shaft ten feet deeper than it was at the 
 time of abandonment, and erect new or adopt the old boundaries, 
 renewing the monuments if removed or destroyed. In either case 
 a new location stake or monument shall be erected. In any case, 
 whether the whole or part of an abandoned claim is taken, the lo- 
 cation certificate may state that the whole or any part of the new 
 location is located as abandoned property. 
 
 Sec. 20. — No location certificate shall claim more than one loca- 
 tion, whether the location be made by one or several locators; and if 
 it purport to claim more than one location, it shall be absolutely 
 void, except as to the first location therein described. And if they 
 are described together, or so that it cannot be told which location is 
 first described, the certificate shall be void as to all. 
 
 Sec. 21. — Within thirty days after performing the assessment 
 work on a claim the person on whose behalf such outlay was made, 
 or some person for him, shall make and record an affidavit in sub- 
 stance as follows : 
 
 State of Califoenia, 1 
 County of San Beenakdino.J 
 
 Before me, the subscriber, personally appeared 
 who being duly sworn said that at least dollars' worth 
 
 of work or improvements were performed or made upon (here de- 
 scribe claim or part of claim), situate in Calico Mining District, 
 County of San Bernardino, State of California. Such expenditure 
 was made by or at the expense of , owners of said 
 
 claim. _ (Signature.) 
 
 And such signature shall be prima facie evidence of the perform- 
 ance of such labor. 
 
 Sec. 22. — These By-laws shall take effect on the tenth day of 
 June, 1882. 
 
 FORMS NOTICE OF LOCATION. 
 
 Notice is hereby given that the undersigned having complied 
 with the requirements of the Chapter Six of Title Thirty-two 
 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, and the local customs, 
 laws and regulations, has located linear feeton the lode 
 
 [twenty acres of placer mining ground], situated in Mining 
 
 District, County, ' , and described as follows : 
 
 {Describe the claim accurately (by courses and distances, if possi- 
 ble,) with, reference to some natural object or permanent monument, 
 and mark the boundaries by suitable monuments : if a placer claim 
 is located on surveyed land, describe the legal sub-division.] 
 
 Discovered , 188-. , Locator. 
 
 Located , 188~. Recorded , 188-. 
 
 Attest : 
 
 PROOF OF LABOR. 
 of County of , ss. 
 
 Before me the subscriber personally appeared , who being 
 
 dulyswornsaysthatat least dollars' worth of labor or improve- 
 
 ments were performed or made upon [here describe claim], situated 
 in mining district, county, of , during 
 
 theyear ending , 188-. Such expenditure was made by or 
 
 at the expense of , owners of said claim, for the pur- 
 
 pose of holding said claim. 
 
 [Jurat.] (Signature). 
 
 NOTICE OP FORFEITURE. 
 
 ■ County, 
 
 ,188- 
 
 To — (names of all parties who have record title to any portion of the 
 mine). You are hereby notified that I have expended dol- 
 
 lars in labor and improvements upon the lode (describe the 
 
 claim), as will appear by certificates filed , 188 , in the office 
 
 of the Recorder of said county (or district), in order to hold said 
 premises under the provisions of section 2324 Revised Statutes of 
 the United States, being the amount required to hold the same for 
 the year ending ,188. And if within ninety days from the 
 
 service of this notice (or within ninetj' days after this notice by 
 publication), you fail or refuse to contribute your proportion of 
 such expenditure as a co-owner, your interest in said claim will be- 
 come the property of the subscriber under said section 2324. 
 
 (Signature). 
 
 AFFIDAVIT OF FAILURE TO CONTRIBUTE. 
 
 of , County of , ss. 
 
 , being duly sworn deposes and says that for the 
 
 year ending , 188 , he expended at lesist dollars in 
 
 labor and improvements upon the lode [or placer 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 721 
 
 claim] (here describe the claim), to hold the same under the laws 
 of the United States and of this (district, Territory or 
 
 State,): that due notice thereof was personally served upon 
 
 , co-owners, on the day of , 188 , (or was duly 
 
 published in the , as appears from the affidavit of the 
 
 Eublisher thereof): and that of the said) co-owners 
 
 ave failed or refused to contribute their share of said expenditures 
 within the time required by law. 
 Subscribed and sworn to before me this 
 
 day of 
 
 ,188 
 
 miner's lien. 
 r these Presents, That I, 
 
 Know all Men by these Presents, That I, , of the county of 
 
 of , do hereby give notice of mv intention to 
 
 hold and claim a lien, by virtue of the statute in such case made 
 and provided, upon (describe premises); with all improve- 
 
 ments and appurtenances, situated in Mimng District, County 
 
 of _, of . 
 
 The said lien being claimed and held for and on account of work 
 and labor done by me as for , owner of said premises 
 
 in and upon said premises, from the day of . , A. D., 
 
 188 , to the day of , A. D., 188 . 
 
 The total value of the said work and labor being dollars, 
 
 upon which there has been paid the sum of dollars, leaving 
 
 a balance of dollars still due, owing and unpaid to me, the 
 
 said claimant. 
 
 (Signature). 
 
 of 
 On this 
 
 County of 
 day of 
 
 , A. D. 188 , personally appeared 
 
 , and who being by me first duly 
 t the abstract of indebtedness men- 
 
 before me the above named 
 sworn, on oath states that 
 
 tioned and described in the foregoing notice, is true and correctj 
 and that there is still due and owing to 
 , for the aforesaid, the sum of 
 
 cents. 
 
 from the said 
 dollars and 
 
 Subscribed and sworn to before me this 
 A. D. 188 . 
 
 (Signature), 
 day of 
 
 (Official Signature). 
 
 APPLICATION FOK SURVEY. 
 
 United States Surveyor-General for 
 
 ,188 
 
 To 
 
 Sir — In compliance with the provisions of Chapter Six of Title 
 Thirty-two, Revised Statutes of the United States, herewith 
 
 mali:e application for an official survey of the mining claim known 
 as the mine, claimed by , located in Mining 
 
 District, in the County of , Township No. , Bange No. 
 
 , base and meridian, in the of , and 
 
 request that you will send to address an estimate of 
 
 the amount to be deposited, for the work to be done in your office ; 
 and that after such deposit shall have been made, you will cause 
 the said mining claim to be surveyed by , United States 
 
 Deputy Surveyor at 
 
 Respectfully, 
 
 , Claimant. 
 P. 0. Address, , county, 
 
 APPLICATION FOK PATENT. 
 
 , County of , ss. 
 
 Application for Patent for the 
 
 Mining Claim. 
 
 To the Register and Receiver of the U. S. Land Office at 
 
 , being duly sworn according to law, deposes and says, 
 that in virtue of a compliance with the mining rules, regulations 
 and customs, by himself, the said , and his co-claimants 
 
 (residence of each should be stated), , applicants for patent 
 
 herein ha become the owner of and in the actual, quiet 
 
 and undisturbed possession of linear feet of the vein, 
 
 lode or deposit, bearing , together with surface ground 
 
 feet in width, for the convenient working thereof, as allowed by 
 local rules and customs of miners ; said mineral claim, vein, lode 
 or deposit and surface ground being situated in the mining 
 
 distnct, county of , and of , and being more 
 
 particularly set forth and described in the official field-notes of sur- 
 vey thereof, hereto attached, dated day of , A. D. 
 188 , and in the official plat of said survey, now posted conspic- 
 uously upon said mining claim or premises, a copy of which is filed 
 herewith. Deponent further states that the facts relative to the 
 right of possession of himself (and his said co-claimants hereinbe- 
 fore named) to said mining claim, vein, lode or deposit and surface 
 ground, so surveyed and platted, are substantially as follows, 
 to wit: 
 
 (Give f nil history of the lode,) 
 
 Which will more fully appear by reference to the copy of the 
 original record of location and the abstract of title hereto attached 
 and made a part of this affidavit; the value of the labor done and 
 improvements made upon said claim, by himself and his 
 
 grantors, being equal to the sum of five hundred dollars, and 
 said improvements consist of (descri6e/M%). In consideration of 
 46 
 
 which factSj and in conformity with the provisions of Chapter Six 
 of Title Thirty-two of the Revised Statutes of the United States, 
 application is hereby made for and in behalf of said for a 
 
 patent from the Government of the United States for the said 
 mining claim, vein, lode, deposit, and the surface ground so 
 officially surveyed and platted. 
 
 Subscribed and sworn to before me this day of , 
 
 A. D. 188 , and I hereby certify that I consider the above depo- 
 nent a credible and reliable person, and that the foregoing affidavit, 
 to which was attached the field-notes of survey of the mining 
 
 claim, was read and examined by him before his signature was 
 affixed thereto and the oath made by him. 
 
 (Official Signature.) 
 
 PROOF OF POSTING NOTICE AND DIAGRAM ON CLAIM. 
 
 of , County of , ss. 
 
 and , each for himself, and not one for the other, 
 
 being first duly sworn according to law, deposes and says, that he 
 is a citizen of the United States, over the age of twenty-one years, 
 and was present on the day of , A. D. 188 , when a 
 
 plat representing the , and certified to as correct by the 
 
 United States Surveyor-General of , and designated by him 
 
 as lot No. , together with a notice of the intention of 
 
 and to apply for a patent for the mining claim and premises 
 
 so platted, was posted in a conspicuous place upon said mining 
 claim, to wit : Upon . where the same could be easily seen 
 
 and examined ; tne notice so conspicuously posted upon said claim 
 being in words and figures as follows, to wit : 
 Notice of the Application of and for a United States 
 
 Patent. 
 Notice is hereby given that in pursuance of Chapter Six of Title 
 Thirty-two of the Revised Statutes of the United States, and 
 
 , claiming linear feet of the vein, lode or 
 
 mineral deposit, bearing , with surface ground feet 
 
 in width, lying and being situated within the mining dis- 
 
 trict, county of , and of , ha made applica- 
 
 tion to the United States for a patent for the said mining claim, 
 which is more fully described as to metes and bounds by the official 
 plat herewith posted, and by the field notes of survey thereof, now 
 filed in the office of the Register of the District of Lands, subject to 
 sale at , which field-notes of survey describe the boundaries 
 
 and extent of said claim on the surface, with magnetic variation at 
 east, as follows, to wit : 
 
 ( Give full description by courses and distances.) 
 the said mining claim being of record in the office of the Recorder 
 of , at , in the county and aforesaid, the pre- 
 
 sumed general course or direction of the said vein, lode or 
 
 mineral deposit being shown upon the plat posted herewith, as near 
 as can be determined from present developments ; this claim being 
 for linear feet thereof, together with the surface ground 
 
 shown upon the official plat posted herewith, the said vein, lode and 
 mining premises hereby sought to be patented being bounded on 
 the by the mining claim. 
 
 Any and all persons claiming adversely the mining ground, vein, 
 lode, premises, or any portion thereof so described, surveyed, plat- 
 ted and applied for, are hereby notified that unless their adverse 
 claims are duly filed as according to law and the regulations there- 
 under within sixty days from the date hereof, with the Register of 
 the United States Land Office at , in the of , they 
 
 will be barred, in virtue of the provisions of said statute. 
 
 (Names of applicants.) 
 
 Dated on the ground this day of , A. D. 188 
 
 Witness : 
 
 (Name of witnesses.) 
 
 Subscribed and sworn to before me this day of , A. D. 
 
 188 , and I hereby certify that I consider the above deponents cred- 
 ible and reliable witnesses, and that the foregoing affidavit and 
 notice were read by each of them before their signatures were 
 affixed thereto and the oath made by them. 
 
 PROOF THAT PLAT AND NOTICE REMAINED POSTED ON CLAIM 
 DURING PROPER PERIOD. 
 of , County of , ss. 
 
 , being first duly sworn according to law, deposes and says, 
 that he is claimant (and co-owner with ) in the mining 
 
 claim, mining district, county, the official plat of which 
 
 premises, designated by the Surveyor-General as lot No. , 
 
 together with the notice of intention' to apply for a patent therefor, 
 was posted thereon, on the day of , A. D. 188 , as fully 
 
 set forth and described in the affidavit of and , dated the 
 
 day of A. D. 188 , which affidavit was duly filed in the 
 
 office of the Register at in this case ; and that the plat and 
 
 notice so mentioned and described, remained continuously and con- 
 spicuously posted upon said mining claim from the day of 
 , A. D. 188 , until and including the day of , 
 A. D. 188 , including the sixty days period during which notice of 
 said application for patent was published in the newspaper. 
 
 [Jurat.] 
 
 (One of the applicants.) 
 
722 
 
 THE MINES, MINEE8 AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 eegisteb's certificate of posting notice foe sixty days. 
 United States Land Office, at , , 188 
 
 I hereby certify that the ofiBoial plat of the lode designated 
 
 by the Surveyor-General as lot No. was filed in this office on 
 
 the day of , A. D. 188 , and that the attached notice of 
 
 the intention of to apply for a patent for the mining claim or 
 
 premises embraced by said plat, and described in the field notes of 
 survey thereof filed in said application, was posted conspicuously 
 in this office on tlie day of , A. D. 188 , and remained so 
 
 posted until the day of , A. D. 188 , being the full pe- 
 
 riod of sixty consecutive days during the period of publication as 
 required by law; and that said plat remained in tnis office dur- 
 ing that time, subject to examination, and that no adverse claim 
 thereto has been filed. 
 
 — -— , Eegister. 
 
 NOTICE FOR publication IN NEWSPAPER. 
 
 Mining Application No. 
 
 United States Land Office, , , 188 
 
 Notice is hereby given that , whose post office address is 
 
 , has this day filed his application for a patent for 
 linear feet of the mine or vein bearing , with surface 
 
 ground feet in width, situated in mining district, county 
 
 of , and of , and designated by the field notes and 
 
 official plat on file in this office as lot No. , in township , 
 
 range , of meridian, Said lot No. being 
 
 described as follows, to wit: Beginning at, etc. 
 Magnetic variation ; containing acres. 
 
 The location of this mine is recorded in the Eecorder's office of 
 
 , in bools of The adjoining claimants are 
 
 Any and all persons claiming adversely any portion of said 
 mine or surface ground are required to file their adverse claims 
 with the Eegister of the United States Land Office at , in the 
 
 of , during tlie sixty days period of publication hereof, 
 
 or they will be barred by virtue of the provisions of the statute. 
 
 , Eegister. 
 
 AGREEMENT WITH PUBLISHER. 
 
 The undersigned, publisher and proprietor of the , a 
 
 newspaper, published at , county of , and of , 
 
 does hereby agree to publish a notice, dated United States Land 
 Office, , required by Chapter Six of Title Thirty -two, Eevised 
 
 Statutes of the United States, of the intention of to apply for 
 
 a patent for his claim on the lode, situated in mining 
 
 district, county of , of , and to hold the said alone 
 
 responsible for the amount due for publishing the same. And it is 
 hereby expressly stipulated and agreed that no claim shall be made 
 against the Government of the United States, or its officers or agents, 
 for such publication. 
 
 Winess my hand and seal this day of , A. D. 188 
 
 Witness : 
 
 PROOF OF PUBLICATION. 
 
 of , County of , «s. 
 
 Eeprint Copy of I , being fir-st duly sworn, deposes and 
 
 Notice of Application. | says, that he is the of the , a 
 
 newspaper published at , in county, in the of 
 
 ; that the notice of the application for a patent for the 
 mining claim, of which a copy is hereto attached, was first pub- 
 lished in said newspaper, in its issue dated the of , 188 , 
 and was published in each [daily or weekly] issue of said news- 
 paper for [sixty consecutive days, or nine consecutive weelcs] there- 
 after, the full period of sixty days, the last publication thereof 
 being in the issue dated the of , 188 
 
 Subscribed and sworn to before me this 
 [SEAL.] 
 
 day of , A. D. 188 
 , Notary Public. 
 
 DIAGRAM OF LOCATION. 
 
 Location Stake. 
 
 t 
 
 1 
 
 Discovery Shaft. 
 
 Vein. 
 
 AFFIDAVIT OP $500 IMPROVEMENT. 
 of County of , ss. 
 
 and , of lawful age, being first duly sworn according 
 
 to law, depose and -say that they are acquainted with the 
 mrnin^ claim in mining district, county and aforesaid, 
 
 for which has made application for patent under the provi- 
 
 fr""? ?f Chapter Six of Title Thirty-two, Eevised Statutes of the 
 United btates, and that the labor done and improvements made 
 thereon by the applicant and his grantors exceed five hundred 
 dollars in value, and said improvements consist of (describe fully). 
 
 Subscribed and sworn to before me this day of a. d. 188- 
 
 STATEMENT OF FEES AND CHARGES. 
 of , County of , ss. 
 
 , being first duly sworn according to law, deposes and says 
 that he is the applicant for patent for the lode in mining 
 
 district, county of , of , under the provisions of 
 
 Chapter Six of Title Thirty-two of the Revised Statutes of the 
 United States, and that in the prosecution of said application he 
 has paid out the following amounts, and no more, viz.: To the 
 credit of the Surveyor-General's office, dollars ; for survey- 
 
 ing, dollars; for filing in the local land office, dollars; 
 
 for publication of notice, dollars ; and for the land embraced 
 
 in his claim, dollars. 
 
 Subscribed and sworn to before me this day of , A. D. 188-. 
 
 , Notary Public. 
 
 $ SEAL. I 
 
 PROOF OF OWNERSHIP AND POSSESSION IN CASE OF LOSS OR 
 ABSENCE OF MINING RECORDS. 
 
 of , County of , ss. 
 
 , and , each for himself, and not one 
 
 for the other, being first duly sworn according to law, deposes and 
 says that he is a citizen of the United States, over the age of twenty- 
 one years, and a resident of county, , and has resided 
 in mining district, wherein the mine is situated, since 
 
 day of , 18 — . That since that date he has been ac- 
 
 quainted with the mine, and with the possessors and worken 
 
 tnereof. That said mine was located and has been possessed and 
 worked in accordance with the customs and usages of miners in said 
 district, and in conformity with tlie rules and regulations governing 
 the location, holding and working of mining claims, in force and 
 observed in the (State) of . That there are no written records 
 
 known to deponent existing in said mining district. That affiant 
 is credibly informed and believes that the mine was located 
 
 in the year 18 — , and that if any record was made of said location, 
 and of the names of locators, the same has not been in existence for 
 a long number of years past, and that by reason thereof the names 
 of locators cannot now be ascertained, and no abstract of title from 
 locators to the present owner can be made. That the possession of 
 applicant and nis predecessors in interest of said mine has 
 
 been actual, notorious and continuous, to the positive knowledge of 
 deponent, since his residence in said mining district, and that such 
 possession has been perfected and maintained in conformity with 
 mining usages and customs, and has been acquiesced in and respected 
 by the miners of said district. That applicant's right to the said 
 mine is not in litigation witliin tne knowledge of affiant, and 
 tliat no action or actions have been commenced affecting the right 
 to said mine since his acquaintance therewith (and that the time 
 for the commencement thereof, as required to be instituted under 
 the provisions of the Statute of Limitations of the of , 
 
 has long since elapsed). That applicant and his predecessors in 
 interest have expended in the improvement, development and 
 working of said mine a sum of money exceeding dollars, as 
 
 follows, to wit : 
 
 Subscribed and sworn to before me this day of , a. d. 
 
 188-, and I certify that the aforenamed and are cred- 
 
 ible and respectable persons, to whose affidavit full faith and credit 
 should be given. 
 
 # .» 
 
 J SEAL. J . 
 
 * * 
 
 AFFIDAVIT OF CITIZENSHIP. 
 of , County of , ss. 
 
 , being first duly sworn according to laWj deposes and says, 
 that he is the applicant for patent for mining claim, situated 
 
 in mining district, county of ; that he is a native-born 
 
 citizen of the United States, born in , county of , State 
 
 of , in the year 18 — , and is now a resident of 
 
 Subscribed and sworn to before me this day of , A. D. 188-. 
 
 CERTIFICATE THAT NO SUIT IS PENDING. 
 of , County of , ss. 
 
 I, , clerk of the court in and for county, , do 
 
 hereby certify that there is now no suit or action of any character 
 pending in said court involving the right of possession to any por- 
 tion of mining claim, and that there has been no litigation 
 before said court affecting tlie title to said claim, or any part thereof, 
 for years last past, other than what has been finally decided 
 in favor of 
 
 In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and affixed the 
 seal of said court, at my office in , tliis day of , 
 
 A. D. 188-. 
 
 I SEAL. I , Clerk of the Court, . 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 723 
 
724 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 
 /^l&^ tyte, ■a^n-f^ -c-}^ 'm/U' -j^tiyT-yi^ /e^'^t^ d9€<j>t/^ •^'' ^«^*:?^ ■M^i^^ -^ d^^^ 
 
 Signed and acknowledged in presence of 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 725 
 
 POWER OF ATTORNEY TO APPLY FOR PATENT. 
 
 Know all Men by these Presents, that we, and 
 
 , do 
 
 hereby constitute and appoint as our attorney in fact, for us 
 
 and in our names, to maike application to the United States for the 
 entry and purchase of certain Government lands, in mining 
 
 district, county, of , known as the min- 
 
 ing claim and premises; and to have the same surveyed, and to 
 take any and all steps that may be necessary to procure from the 
 Government of the United States a patent to the said lands and 
 premises, granting the same to us. And to do all other acts apper- 
 taining to the said survey and entry aforesaid as we ourselves could 
 do by our own act and in our own proper person. 
 
 In witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands and affixed 
 our seals the day of , A. D. 188 . 
 
 of County of , ss. 
 
 On this day of , A. D. 188 , before me, , a No- 
 
 tary Public in and for the , county of , personally 
 
 appeared , known to me to be the same person whose name 
 
 subscribed to the foregoing instrument, and acknowledged 
 to me that executed the same. 
 
 In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand and affixed my 
 official seal at my office, the day and year in this certificate first 
 above written. 
 
 *********** 
 
 I SEAL. * 
 
 4**********4 
 
 , Notary Public. 
 
 PROOF THAT NO KNOWN VEIN EXISTS IN A PLACER MINING 
 CLAIM. 
 
 of , County of , ss. 
 
 and , of the said county and , being first 
 
 duly sworn, each for himself, deposes and says, that he is well ac- 
 quainted with the placer mining claim, embracing 
 
 , situated in the mining district, in the county of 
 
 , and of , owned and worked by , appli- 
 
 cant for United States patent ; that for many years he has resided 
 near, and often been upon said mining premises, and that no known 
 vein or veins of quartz or other rook m filaue, bearing gold, silver, 
 cinnabar, lead, tin or copper, exist on said mining claim, or any part 
 thereof, so far as he knows, and he verily believes that none exist 
 thereon. And further, that he has no mterest whatever in the 
 said placer mine of 
 
 Subscribed and sworn to before me this 
 188 . 
 
 day of 
 
 , A.I>. 
 
 PROTEST AND ADVERSE CLAIM. 
 
 United States Land Office, of 
 
 In the matter of the application of , for a United States' 
 
 patent for the lode or mining claim and the land and pre- 
 
 mises appertaining to said mine, situated in the mining dis- 
 
 trict, in county, of 
 
 To the Register and Receiver of the United States' Land Office at 
 , and to the above-named applicants for patent for the 
 
 lode 
 
 You are hereby notified that of the city of , county 
 
 of , and of , and a citizen of the United States of 
 
 America, is the lawful owner, and entitled to the possession of 
 hundred feet of the said lode or mine described in said appli- 
 
 cation, as shown by the diagram posted on said claim, and the copy 
 thereof filed in the land office with said application, and as such 
 owner this contestant, the said , does protest against the issu- 
 
 ing of a patent thereon to said applicant, and does dispute and con- 
 test the right of said applicant tlierefor. 
 
 And this contestant does present the nature of his adverse claim, 
 and does fully set forth the same in the affidavit hereto attached, 
 marked Exhibit A, and the further exhibits thereto attached, and 
 made part of said affidavit. 
 
 The said therefore respectfully asks the said Register and 
 
 Eeceiver that all further proceedings in the matter be stayed, until 
 a final settlement and adjudication of the rights of this contes- 
 tant can be had in a court of competent jurisdiction. 
 (Place and Date.) 
 
 EXHIBIT A. 
 
 of County of , ss. 
 
 , being first duly sworn, deposes and says, that he is a citi- 
 zen of the United States, born in the State of , and is now 
 residing in ; that he is the contestant and piotestant named 
 in, and who subscribed the notice and protest hereto annexed. 
 Affiant further says that he is the owner by purchase and in the 
 possession of the (adverse) lode or vein of quartz and other rock 
 in place, bearing and other metals. That the said lode is 
 situated m the mining district, county, of 
 
 [Full history oj the lode should be given as follows .•] 
 
 This affiant further says, that on the day of location the premises 
 hereinafter described were mineral lands of the public domain, and 
 entirely vacant and unoccupied, and were not owned, held or 
 claimed by any person or persons as mining ground or otherwise, 
 and that while the same were so vacant and unoccupied and un- 
 claimed, to wit : 
 
 On the day of , 18 , (name loca- 
 
 tors,) each and all of them being citizens of the United States, 
 entered upon and explored the premises, discovered and located the 
 ?^id lode, and occupied the same as mining claims. 
 
 That the said premises so located and appropriated consist of 
 
 feet in a erly direction, and feet in 
 
 *■ c ,*''^y.<^''6<'tioni as will fully appear by reference to the no- 
 tice of location, a duly certified copy whereof is hereunto annexed, 
 marked Exhibit B, and hereby made a part of this affidavit. 
 That the locators, after the discovery of the said lode, drove 
 
 a stake on said lode on the discovery claim, erected a monument 
 of stone around said stake, and placed thereon a written notice 
 of location describing the claim so located and appropriated, giv- 
 ing the names of the locators and quantity taken by each, and 
 after doing all the acts and performing all the labor required 
 by the laws and regulations of said mining district and terri- 
 
 toij of , the locators of said lode caused said notice to be filed 
 
 and recorded in the proper books of record in the Recorder's office 
 in said district on the day of , 18 . 
 
 Affiant further says, that the said locators remained continuously 
 inpossessionof said lode, working upon the same and within 
 months from the date of said location had done and performed work 
 and labor on said location in mining thereon and developing the 
 same, more than days work, and expended on said^location 
 
 more than hundred dollars, and by said labor and money 
 
 expended upon the said mining location and claim, had developed 
 the same and extracted therefrom more than tons of ore. 
 
 And Affiant further says, that said locators, in all respects com- 
 plied with every custom, rule, regulation, and requirement of the 
 mining laws, and every rule and custom established and in force in 
 said mining district, and thereby became and were owners 
 
 (except as against the paramount title of the United States) and the 
 rightful possessors of said mining claims and premises. 
 . And this affiant further says, that said locators proved and estab- 
 lished to the satisfaction of the Recorder of said mining dis- 
 trict that they had fully complied with all the rules, customs, 
 regulations, and requirements of the laws of said district, and 
 thereupon the said Recorder issued to the locators of said 
 lode, certificates confirming their titles and rights to said premises. 
 
 That the said lode was located and worked by the said locators as 
 tenants in common, and they so continued in the rightful and undis- 
 puted possession thereof from the time of said location until on or 
 about the day of , A, D. 18 , at which time the said 
 
 locators and owners of said lode formed and organized under the 
 laws of the State (or Territory) of , and incorporated under 
 
 the name of the " ," and on the day of A. D. 
 
 18 , each of the locators of said lode conveyed said lode and each 
 of their rights, titles and interest in and to said lode, to said " 
 mining company." 
 
 On the said day of , 18 , the said company entered 
 
 into and upon said lode, and was seized and possessed thereof 
 
 and every part and parcel of the same, and occupied and mined 
 thereon until the day ,18 , at which time the said 
 
 mining company sold and conveyed the same to this affiant, 
 which said several transfers and conveyances will fully appear by 
 reference to the abstract of title and paper hereto attached, marked 
 Exhibit D, and made a part of this affidavit. 
 
 \_In case of individual transfers.'] 
 And this affidavit further says, that the said , who located 
 
 claim northwesterly of the said lode, and the said 
 
 who located claim northwesterly thereon, was seized and in 
 
 possession of said claims, and occupied and mined thereon until the 
 
 day of , 18 , at which time the said and 
 
 sold and conveyed the same to , and thereupon the said 
 
 was seized and possessed of said mining claims and locations, and 
 occupied and mined thereon until the day of , 18 , at 
 
 which time the said sold and conveyed the same to this affiant, 
 
 as will fully appear by reference to the abstract of title and paper 
 liereto attached, marked Exhibit D, at which time this affiant here- 
 by makes a part of this his affidavit. 
 
 Affiant further says, that he is now and has been in the occupa- 
 tion and possession of the said lode since the day of 
 ,18 , and the said lode and mining claims were located, and 
 the title tliereto esta,blished, several before said (applied for) 
 lode was located. 
 Affiant furthers says, that said lode, as shown by the notice 
 and diagram posted on said claim, and the copy thereof filed in the 
 United States Land Office at said with said application for a 
 patent, crosses and overlaps said lode, and embraces about 
 hundred feet in length by hundred feet in width of the said 
 lode, the property of affiant, as fully appears by reference to 
 the diagram or map duly certified by , United States Deputy 
 
726 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Surveyor, hereto attached, marked Exhibit C, and which diagram 
 presents a correct description of the relative locations of the said 
 (adverse) lode, and of the pretended (applied forj lode. 
 
 Affiant further says that he is informed and believes that said ap- 
 plicant for patent, well knew that affiant was the owner in posses- 
 sion and entitled to the possession of so much of said mining ground 
 embraced within the survey and diagram of said applications, as is 
 hereinbefore stated, and that this affiant is entitled to all the 
 and other metal in said (adverse) lode, and all that may be con- 
 tained within a space of feet on each side of said (adverse) lode. 
 
 faith, 
 property 
 
 Subscribed and sworn to before me this day of , A. 
 
 D. 188 . 
 
 SURVEYOE'S CERTIFICATE. 
 
 On the diagram marked Exhibit C, the Surveyor must certify in 
 effect as follows : 
 
 I hereby certify that the above diagram correctly represents the 
 conflict claimed to exist between the and lodes, as 
 
 actually surveyed by me. And I further certify that the value 
 of the labor and improvements on the (adverse) lode exceeds five 
 hundred dollars, and said improvements consist of (state in full). 
 
 (Place and date.) 
 
 , TJ. S. Deputy Surveyor. 
 
 TITNNEL CLAIM — LOCATION CERTIFICATE. 
 
 Know all men by these presents, that the undersigned, citizens of 
 the United States, have this day of , 188 , claimed by 
 
 right of location, a tunnel claim, for the purpose of discovering and 
 working veins, lodes or deposits on the line thereof [Cutting the 
 lode, and working the lode]. Said tunnel claim is sit- 
 
 uated in the mining district, county of , State of , 
 
 and the location and bounds of said tunnel are staked on the sur- 
 face at the place of commencement and termination thereof, as well 
 as along the line thereof. Said claim is more particularly described 
 as follows : ^Describe the commencement and termination by refer- 
 ence to natunU objects and permanent m,onuments, and the line by 
 courses and distances.l 
 
 Dated , 188 . , 
 
 Locator. 
 
 POWER OF ATTORNEY TO LOCATE AND SELL. 
 
 Know all men by these presents, that we the undersigned [names'] 
 
 , citizens of the United States, have made, constituted and 
 
 appointed A. B. [some third person who will locate and stake], our 
 
 true and lawful attorney for us, and in our names to locate, stake 
 
 and record for us each lode claim and placer mining ground in the 
 
 , county, of , and havmg located the 
 
 same, to bargain, sell, grant, release and convey the same, entire 
 
 or in separate parcels, to make proper deeds, seal, acknowledge and 
 
 deliver the same to such persons as our attorney may desire ; hereby 
 
 ratifying and confirming all lawful acts done by our said attorney 
 
 by virtue hereof. 
 
 Witness our hands and seals this day of , 18 . 
 
 [Names.] 
 of , County of , ss. 
 
 On this day of , 18 , before me In and for the 
 
 county and State aforesaid, appeared personally known to me 
 
 as the persons whose names are subscribed to the foregoing power 
 of attorney, and acknowledged the execution thereof as their free 
 act and deed, for the purposes therein mentioned. 
 
 Given under my hand and seal the day and year above 
 
 written. 
 
 NOTICE OF RIGHT TO WATER. 
 The undersigned claims the water running iij this stream to 
 
 the extent of inches for mining purposes, to be conveyed by 
 
 (ditch or flume) from this point to the placer claim. 
 
 Dated , 18 . 
 
 Locator. 
 
 PRE-EMPTION OF EIGHT OP WAY FOR DITCH AND LOCATION 
 OP WATER. 
 To whom these presents may concern, know ye, that I 
 
 Mi^tl^A'^^}?^}'^- '^^"^^R """^ P"^"«^ »^ ^ legal notice to 
 all the world that I claim, and have a valid right to thl occupation 
 possession and enjoyment of all and singular, that tract or parcel o^ 
 land lying and being in the county of , in the state of 
 
 for the exclusive right of way for the purpose of constructing a 
 
 flume or wat.er ditch from stream to placer claim, 
 
 more particularly described as follows : Commencing (here describe 
 the exact route for ditch or flume.) 
 
 I also claim, and have a valid right to the enjoyment and use of 
 inches of water from said stream for mining purposes, to be 
 conveyed through such flume or water ditch to said claim, together 
 with all and singular, the hereditaments and appurtenances there- 
 unto belonging, or in any wise appertaining. 
 
 Witness my hand and seal this day of , A. D. 18 . 
 
 Notice posted on the stream , 18 
 
 Ditch commenced at claim or at stream 
 
 [Name.] 
 
 ,18 
 
 of , County of , ss. 
 
 On this day of , 18 , before me, a in and 
 
 for the county aforesaid, in the state aforesaid, personally appeared 
 , to me personally known to be the person who executed the 
 foregoing written instrument, and acknowledged that he executed 
 the same for the uses and purposes therein set forth. 
 Witness my hand and official seal. 
 
 MINING DEED. 
 
 This indenture, made the day of , in the year of 
 
 our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighty, between 
 
 , of the county of , and of , party of 
 
 the first, and , of the county of , and 
 
 of , party of the second part ; 
 
 Witnesseth, That the said party of the first part, for and in con- 
 sideration of the sum of dollars, lawful money of the United 
 States of America, to him in hand paid by the said party of the 
 second part, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, hath 
 granted, bargained, sold, remised, released, and for ever quit- 
 claimed, and by these presents does grant, bargain, sell, remise, 
 release, and for ever quit claim, unto the said party, of the second 
 part, his heirs and assigns, the lode, as located, surveyed, 
 recorded, and held by said party of the first part, situated in 
 mining district county , together with all the dips, 
 spurs, and angles, and also all the metals, ores, gold and silver- 
 bearing quartz rock and earth therein, and all the rights, jirivi- 
 leges, and franchises thereto incident, appendant and appurtenant, 
 or therewith usually had a.nd enjoyed : and also, all and singular 
 the tenements, hereditaments, and appurtenances thereunto belong- 
 ing, or in any wise appertaining, and the rents, issues and profits 
 thereof; and also, all the estate, right, title, interest, property, 
 possession, claim and demand whatsoever, as well in law as in 
 equity, of the said party of the first part, of, in or to the said pre- 
 mises, and every part and parcel thereof, with the appurtenances. 
 
 To have and to hold, all and singular, the said premises, together 
 with the appurtenances and privileges thereto incident, unto the 
 said party of the second part, his heirs and assigns for ever. In 
 witness whereof, the said party of the first part has hereunto set his 
 hand and seal the day and year first above written. 
 
 I SEAL. I 
 
 ********* 
 
 of , County, ss. 
 
 I, Fitzmaurice Langton, a Notary Public in and for said county, 
 in the state aforesaid, do hereby certify that , per- 
 
 sonally known to me to be the person whose name is subscribed to 
 the annexed deed, appeared before me this day in person, and 
 aeknowledjjed that he signed, sealed and delivered the said instru- 
 ment of writing as his free and voluntary act, for the uses and pur- 
 poses therein set forth. 
 
 Given under my hand and official seal, this day of , 
 
 A. D. 188 . 
 
 t SEAL. I 
 
 Fitzmaurice Langton, Notary Public. 
 
 title bond. 
 
 Know all men by these presents, that I. James Bingham, party 
 of the first part, of the County of Lake, and State of Colorado, am 
 held and firmly bound unto George Boyd, party of the second part, 
 of the County of Lake, and State of Colorado, in the penal sum of 
 ten thousand dollars, lawful money of the United States, to the pay- 
 ment of which the party of the first part hereby binds himself, his 
 heirs, executors and administrators. Witness his hand and seal 
 this 20th day of July, 1880. The conditions of the foregoing obli- 
 gations are such, tliat whereas, the above bounden party of the first 
 part, in consideration of the sum of five dollars, in hand paid, has, 
 on the day and year aforesaid, agreed to sell to the party of the 
 second part the following described mining property, viz. : An un- 
 divided one-eighth interest in and to the Gilt Edge lode claim, as 
 located, surveyed, recorded, and held, situate, lying and being in 
 California Mining District, Lake County, Colorado, together -viith 
 all and singular, the improvements, hereditaments, and appurte- 
 nances thereto belonging, or in any wise appertaining, for the sum 
 of five thousand dollars, to be paid at the times and in the manner 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING IISTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 727 
 
 following, viz. : One thousand dollars on or before August 20, 1880; 
 one thousand dollars on or before September 20, 1880 ; and three 
 thousand dollars on or before Octooer 20, 1880 ; which sums of 
 money are to be paid to the party of the first part in person, or by 
 depositing the same to his credit at the First National Bank of 
 Philadelphia, at the times aforesaid, and time shall be of the essence 
 of these conditions. And in caseof failure of the party of the second 
 part, or his assigns, to make either of said payments at the times 
 mentioned, such sum or sums as may have been paid hereunder, 
 shall be forfeited to and retained by the party of the first part, as a 
 penalty and for liquidated damages, and notice of forfeiture is here- 
 by expressly waived, and also all right, demand or claim for the 
 balance or any of said sum of five thousand dollars, is hereby ex- 
 pressly waived by the party of the first part. The party of the first 
 part, his heirs, executors, administrators, and assigns, shall, on the 
 20tli day of October, 1880, or at any time before, upon payment of 
 said sums of money hereinbefore mentioned, make, execute, and 
 deliver to the party of the second part, or to such person or persons 
 as he shall designate, good and sufficient deed or deeds of all of the 
 above described property, conveying a clear and perfect title (ex- 
 cept the fee simple title of the United States), free from all incum- 
 brances, with a covenant, that the annual expenditure has been 
 made thereon as required by law. Now, if the party of the second 
 part shall fail to pay the sum or sums of money as hereinbefore 
 provided, and if the party of the first part shall faithfully perform 
 the covenants herein set forth, then this obligation shall be null and 
 void ; otherwise, to be and remain in full force and effect. 
 
 S SEAL. I 
 
 James Bingham. 
 
 Slate of Colorado, Lake County, as. 
 
 Be it knovm, That on this 20th day of July, 1880, before me, per- 
 sonally came James Bingham, to me known as the person described 
 in, and who executed the foregoing instrument in writing, and 
 acknowledged the execution thereof to be his free act and deed, for 
 the uses and purposes therein mentioned. 
 
 Witness my hand and official seal. 
 
 ********* 
 
 t SEAL. *- 
 i % 
 
 #********* 
 
 Alvin Garnett, Notary Public. 
 
 ESCBOW AGKEEMENT. 
 
 The inclosed deed of the lode is hereby placed in the 
 
 Bank of , in escrow. If A. B. shall place, or cause to be 
 
 placed to the credit of C. D. and E. F., in said bank of , 
 
 on or before 188-, the full sum of dollars, then and 
 
 in that case the said bank is hereby authorized to deliver the in- 
 closed deed to A. B., or his order. In case the said A. B. shall not 
 place, or cause to be placed, to the credit of said C. D. and E. F., in 
 said bank, the full sum of dollars, on or before ',^^^< 
 
 then the said bank is hereby authorized to deliver the inclosed deed 
 to the said C. D. and E. F., or their joint order. 
 
 (Signed) C. D. 
 
 A. B. 
 , 188-, (Place and date). 
 
 MINING LEASE. 
 
 This Indenture, made this day of , in the year of 
 
 our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighty , between 
 
 lessor and lessee or tenant; Witnesseth, That the 
 
 said lessor for and in consideration of the rents, royalties, covenants 
 
 and agreements hereinafter reserved, and by the said lessee to be 
 
 paid, kept and performed, granted, demised and let, and by 
 
 these presents do grant demise and let unto the said lessee, all the 
 
 following described mine and mining property, situated in 
 
 mining district, county of , of , to wit: (Here 
 
 description of property.) Together with the appurtenances 
 
 to have and to hold unto the said lessee or tenant for the term ot 
 
 from the date hereof, expiring at noon on the day <rt 
 
 A D 188-, unless sooner forfeited or determined through 
 
 the violation of any covenant hereinafter against the said tenant 
 
 And in consideration of the said demise, the said lessee does cove- 
 nant and agree with said lessor as follows, to wit : 
 
 To enter upon said mine or premises and work the same mine 
 fashion, in manner necessary to good and economical mining, so as 
 to take out the greatest amount of ore possible, with due regard to 
 the safety, development and preservation of the said premises as a 
 workable mine. „ , , ^ i \ 
 
 (Here insert special covenants for dead work, etc.) , ^ , . 
 
 To work and mine said premises as aforesaid steadily and Contin- 
 uously from the date of this lease: and that any failure to work 
 said premises with at least persons employed underground 
 
 for the space of consecutive days may be considered a viola- 
 
 tion of this covenant. . . ,1 • i„ „!,„_- 
 
 To well and sufficiently timber said mine at all points where 
 proper, in accordance with good mining; and to repair all old tim- 
 bering wherever it may become necessary. 
 
 To allow said lessor and agents to enter upon and into all 
 
 parts of said mine for the purpose of inspection, with use of all 
 passages, ropes, windlass, ladcfer-ways, and all other means of 
 ingress and egress for such purpose. 
 
 To not assign this lease, or any interest thereunder, and to not 
 sublet the said premises or any part thereof, without the written 
 assent of said lessor, and to not allow any person or persons except 
 the said lessee and workmen to take or hold possession of 
 
 said premises or any part thereof under any pretence whatever. 
 
 To occupy and hold all cross or parallel lodes, dips, spurs, feeders, 
 crevices or mineral deposits of any kind, which may Be discovered 
 in working under this lease, or in any tunnel run to intersect said 
 lode, or by the said lessee or any person or persons under 
 , in any manner at any point within feet of the centre 
 
 line of said lode, as the property of said lessor; with privilege to 
 said lessee of working the same as an appurtenance of said demised 
 premises, during the term of this lease ; and to not locate or record 
 the same, or allow the same to be located or recorded, except in the 
 name of said lessor. 
 
 To keep at all times the drifts, shafts, tunnels, and other passages 
 and workings of said demised premises, thoroughly drained and 
 clear of loose rock and rubbish of all kinds. 
 
 To pay and deliver to said lessor as royalty, of all ores to 
 
 be extracted from said premises during said term, of like assay to 
 that retained by said lessee, delivered at as soon as mined, 
 
 without offset, deduction, or charge whatever, except lessor's pro- 
 portion for packing. 
 
 To deliver up to said lessor the said premises, with the appurten- 
 ances and all improvements in good order and condition, 
 with all shafts and tunnels and other passages thoroughly clear of 
 rubbish and drained, and the mine in all points ready for immediate 
 continued working (accidents not arising from negligence alone 
 excusing), without demand or further notice, on said day of 
 , A. D. 188-, at noon or at any time previous, upon demand 
 for forfeiture. 
 
 And finally, upon the violation by said lessee, or any person 
 under of any covenant or covenants hereinbefore reserved, 
 
 the term of this lease shall, at the option of said lessor, expire, and 
 the same and said premises with the appurtenances shall become 
 forfeit to said lessor; and said lessor or agent may there- 
 
 upon, after demand of possession in writing, enter upon said prem- 
 ises and dispossess all persons occupying the same, with or without 
 force, and with or without process of law; or at the option of said 
 lessor, the said tenant and all persons found in occupation may be 
 proceeded against as trespassers from the beginning of said term 
 both as to realty and the ore served therefrom; or as guilty of 
 unlawful detainer. 
 
 Each and every clause and covenant of this Indenture shall ex- 
 tend to the heirs, executors, and administrators of all parties hereto ; 
 and to the assigns of said lessor: and as said lessor may elect, to the 
 assigns of said lessee. 
 
 In witness whereof. The said parties, lessor and lessee, have here- 
 unto set their hands and seals. 
 
 ******#**• 
 
 . . I SEAL. I 
 
 ********** 
 »********• 
 
 . I SEAL. * 
 
 ********** 
 
 Prospecting Contracts.— These are quite common and should be 
 carefully drawn. The following form will answer for a guide : 
 
 I, A. B., in consideration of the supplies, tools and general pros- 
 pecting outfit furnished me by C. D., and for the sum of 
 dollars, to be paid as follows, viz : 
 
 Have agreed and do hereby agree with the said C. D. to 
 prospect diligently for lodes and placers in the county, (or counties) 
 of , in the State of , and to locate and develop all 
 
 discoveries', which in my best judgment, shall be worth locating, in 
 the jointnamesof myself and the said C. D. in equal undivided shares. 
 All expenses of survey and record shall he paid by the said C. D. 
 And the said A. B. agrees to devote his entire time and attention 
 to prospecting for, locating and developmg mining claims, as afore- 
 said. 
 
 This contract shall be in force from this date until the day 
 
 gf 188 , or untU cancelled by the mutual consent of the 
 
 parties hereto. ' (Signed,) A. B. 
 
 I agree to the terms above written. C. D. 
 
 Dated, 
 
 The contract should be recorded in the county, or counties, where 
 the prospecting is to be done, for the purpose of giving notice of the 
 interest of the party furnishing the grubstake in all claims located 
 by the prospector. A contract to prospect for mines on joint account 
 will be enforced; aad a decree was given, directing the conveyance 
 to C. of an interest of one-half in a mine located by S. in his own name, 
 upon a finding that the claim was located under the terms of an ex- 
 isting contract that the claim should belong to S. and C. jointly. 
 
728 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES; 
 
 An Important Legal Decision.— The Supreme Court 
 of California, in banc, has decided that all mining stocks 
 now issued and in circulation are fully paid up, no matter 
 at what price per share the stock may have been bought. 
 That no stock fully paid up can be assessed. That, under 
 the law, no corporation organized or now in existence can 
 levy any assessment or tax upon said stock ; and that any 
 assessment so levied is illegal, and hence null and void; 
 that no stockholder under such circumstance can be divested 
 of his or her rights in and to said stock by any such void 
 proceedings. That partly-paid-up stock may be issued ; but 
 that such stock must bear upon its face its fully-paid-up 
 value, and also the exact amount paid per share for said 
 
 stock. That such partly-paid-up stock may be assessed— 
 but not until 25 per cent, of the company's capital stock 
 shall have been subscribed for ; and then only that portion 
 subscribed for can be assessed, and only 10 per cent, of its 
 paid-up-value. This case has been all the more important 
 because of the millions possessed by the contestants — the 
 Santa Craz Railroad Company for and Claus, Spreckels 
 & Co., against. It is believed that those who have paid 
 these illegal assessments in the past can recover the amount 
 paid, with interest. No one has lost or can lose his stock in 
 any company organized in California by refusing to pay his 
 assessments— but only by statute of limitations, which is 
 three years under the present law. — Chicago Tribune. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 729 
 
 PART VIII. 
 
 GLOSSARY OF MINING TERMS— THE PROPERTIES OF 
 METALS— WEIGHTS AND MEASURES- 
 REFERENCE TABLES. 
 
 I ALCULATIONS in Mining are the guides 
 of every action. The Miner, the En- 
 gineer, the Owner, are slaves of cal- 
 culation. To accomplish this success- 
 fully, reference tables are in constant 
 requisition, as well as that kind of in- 
 formation that may be said to embody 
 cardinal facts. We have therefore in 
 part viii The Mines, Minees and 
 Mining Interests, compiled a set of 
 reference tables that in their liberal scope we trust, will cover 
 every need of the miner, or his employer, or the engineer, 
 or the owners. These are very properly prefaced with Dr. 
 Raymond's admirable Glossary of Mining terms and expres- 
 sions, a glossary that is of undoubted interest to the profes- 
 sional as well as the non-professional reader ; opening up as 
 it does a wide field of thought in the study of the phrase- 
 ology of a great occupation. The tables are made to include 
 a wide range of information concerning mining and its collat- 
 eral interests. For the majority of them we are indebted to 
 the " Engineers and Mechanics' Handbook," by Charles H. 
 Haswell, M. E. 
 
 A GLOSSARY OF MINING AND METALLUR- 
 GICAL TERMS. 
 
 THE absence of a convenient glossary of terms con- 
 nected with mining and metallurgy has long been 
 felt by the general public. It is to meet this want, 
 not to furnish a technical manual for experts, that 
 the following glossary has been prepared. In the compila- 
 tion, the following general principles were adopted : — 1. To 
 include the most important technical words and phrases used 
 by American miners and metallurgists, or occurring in Eng- 
 lish books and periodicals. 2. To exclude Spanish, French 
 and German terms, unless they fall under the rule above 
 given. The Spanish terms included are in use among our 
 miners in the far West and Southwest. 3. To exclude almost 
 all purely scientific terms, such as those which denote the 
 operations of chemical analysis, the chemical names and 
 symbols of elements and compounds, the species of rocks and 
 minerals, the principles of general physics and mechanics, 
 etc. 4. To avoid scientific and technical explanations. 5. 
 To omit, in general, self-explanatory terms, and such as are 
 common to all mechanical and manufacturing trades. 
 
 The grounds of these rules are evident. It was neither 
 practicable nor necessary to give in what could be, and must 
 
 be, sought in technical textbooks or general dictionaries and 
 cyclopsedias. But the glossary presents numerous exceptions 
 to the above rules. Many geological terms, for instance, are 
 so common among metallurgists as to render their adoption 
 in this catalogue justifiable. The difficulty has been to 
 " draw the line ;" and this has been done, somewhat arbi- 
 trarily. An apology should be made for the obscurity of a 
 few of the definitions. Many terms taken from English 
 glossaries were found to be most vaguely defined; and in 
 most cases of this kind, the definitions were improved ; but 
 there remain some which it was impossible to amend with 
 certainty. 
 
 In many instances, the locality in which a term is believed 
 to have originated or to be peculi3,rly in use, is indicated by 
 abbreviations which will mostly explain themselves. The 
 principal regions named are England, Scotland, Wales, 
 Fraince, Germany, the United States, Spain (including Mex- 
 ico), Australia, Cornwall, Derbyshire, Staffordshire, New- 
 castle, Devonsliire, Lake Superior, Pennsylvania, and the 
 Pacific slope (including the mining districts of the Rocky 
 Mountains). It must be understood that the naming, in 
 this connection, of any one locality does not exclude the use 
 of the term in other localities ; and particularly that in this 
 country the circulation both of miners and metallurgists, and 
 of books and journals from all the world has brought into 
 use a heterogeneous technical vocabulary. This is especially 
 the case in the gold, silver and lead mining districts of the 
 West, where all the names, phrases, and theories that any- 
 body anywhere at any time has cultivated, together with a 
 crop of indigenous, spontaneous growth, seem to flourish 
 vigorously. 
 
 ABSTBIGH, Gebm. The black or greenish-brown mass (hlaxk 
 litharge) appearing upon the bath of work-lead early in the ou- 
 pelling-prooess, and gradually, as the process advances, giving way 
 to pure litharge. 
 
 Abzug, Germ. Tlie first scum appearing (before the abstnch) on 
 the surface of molten lead. 
 
 A<Ut. A nearly horizontal passage from the surface, by which a 
 mine is entered and UQwatered. In the United States an adit is 
 usually called a tunnel, though the latter, strictly speaking, passes 
 entirely through a hill, and is open at both ends. 
 
 Adlings, Eng. Earnings. 
 
 Adobe, Sp. Clay suitable for adobes or sun-dried bricks. 
 
 Ad/iientwrers, Eng. Shareholders or partners in a mining enter- 
 prise ; in Cornwall, cost-book partners. 
 
 After-dajmp, Eng. The irrespirable gas, consisting of nitrogen 
 and carbonic acid chiefly, remaining after an explosion of fire-d«,mp. 
 
 Agitator, Pao. See Settler. 
 
 Aich's metal. See Gun-metal. 
 
 Air-head, or Air-heading, S. Staf. A smaller passage, driven 
 parallel with the gate-road, and near ifa roof, to carry the ventilat- 
 ing current. It is connected with the gate-road at intervals by open- 
 ings called spouts. 
 
 Air-reduction process. See JRoastmg and Reaction process. 
 
 Aitch-piece. See H-piece. 
 
 Alberti furnace. A continuously working reverberatory furnace 
 for the roasting of quicksilver ores, with condensation of the mercury 
 in iron-tubes and brick chambers. 
 
730 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Alligator. 1. See Squeezer. 2. A rock-breaker operating by jaws. 
 
 Alloy. A compound of two or more metala fused together. 
 
 Alluvium. The earthy deposit made by running streams, espe- 
 cially in times of flood. 
 
 Aludel. An earthen condenser for mercury. See Bustamente 
 furnace. 
 
 Aluminium ores. Cryolite, a fluoride of sodium and aluminium, 
 found in Greenland ; bauxite, a hydrous compound of alumina, fer- 
 ric oxide and silica. 
 
 Amalgamation. 1. The production of an amalgam or alloy of 
 mercury. 2. The process in which gold and silver are extracted from 
 pulverized ores bv producing an amalgam, from which the mercury 
 is afterwards expelled. See Retorting. 
 
 Amalgam.ator. 1. A machine for amalgamating ores. 2. The 
 workman in charge of such a machine. 
 
 American forge. See Catalan forge. 
 
 Anemometer. An instrument for measuring the rapidity of an air- 
 current. 
 
 Annealing. 1. The gradual cooling of glass or metal from a high 
 temperature, to render it less brittle. 2. See Malleable castings. 
 
 Anthracite. See Coal. 
 
 Anticlinal. The line of a crest, above or under ground, on the 
 two sides of which the strata dip in opposite directions. The con- 
 verse of synclinal. 
 
 Antimony .ores. Native antimony; stibnite, (sulphide of anti- 
 mony) ; valentinite and senarmontite (oxides). 
 
 Apex. In the U. S. Revenue. Statutes, the end or edge of a vein 
 nearest the surface. 
 
 Apolvillados, Sp. Ores superior in quality to the azogues. 
 
 Appolt oven. An oven for the manufacture of coke, differing from 
 the JSelgian in that it is divided into vertical compartments. 
 
 Aprons. See Copper-plates. 
 
 Arch, COEN. 1. A portion of a lode left standing when the rest is 
 extracted, to support tlie hanging wall or because it is too poor for 
 profitable extraction. 2. The roof of a reverberatory furnace. 
 
 Arenaceous. Silicious or sandy (of rocks). 
 
 Arends' tap. An arrangement by which the molten lead from the 
 crucible of a shaft-furnace is drawn through an " inverted siphon" 
 into an exterior basin, from which it can be ladled without disturb- 
 ing the furnace. 
 
 Arenillos, Sp. Eefuse earth. 
 
 Argentiferous. Containing silver. 
 
 Argillaceous. Containing clay. 
 
 Arm. The inclined member or leg of a set or frame of timber. 
 
 Arrastre, Sp. Apparatus for grinding and mixing ores by means 
 of a heavy stone dragged around upon a circular bed. The arrastre 
 is chiefly used for ores containing free gold, and amalgamation is 
 combined with the grinding. • Sometimes incorrectly written arras- 
 ter, arrastra, or raster. 
 
 Arroba, Sp. Twenty-five pound avoirdupois. 
 
 Arsenic ores. Native arsenic ; rmspickel {arsenopyrite, arsenical 
 pyrites, arseno-sulphide of iron). 
 
 Ascension-theory. The theory that the matter filling fissure-veins 
 was introduced in solution from below. 
 
 Ash-pit. The receptacle for ashes under a fire-place. 
 
 Assay. To test ores and minerals by chemical or blowpipe ex- 
 amination ; said to be in the dry way when done by means of heat 
 (as in a crucible), and in the wet or humid way when by means of 
 solution and precipitation or liquid tests. An assay differs from a 
 complete analysis in being confined to the determination of certain 
 ingredients, the rest not being determined. Both assays and analy- 
 ses may be either qualitative or quantitative ; that is, they may de- 
 termine the presence merely, or also the amount, of some or all of the 
 constituents of the substance examined. The assay value of gold and 
 silver ores is usually determined in Troy ounces (or, for gold, penny- 
 weights) per ton (2000 pounds avoirdupois) of ore. See Assay ton. 
 When reported in money value, the ounce of gold is taken at 
 $20.6718. A ton of pure gold would be worth $602,928.51; the value 
 of $6 per ton would be by weight one-thousandth per cent., and so 
 on. Silver varies greatly in market value ; but assayers often report 
 their results according to the old U. S. standard, which made the 
 ounce of pure silver worth $1.2929. The ton of silver at this rate, 
 would be worth $37. 710.40; the value of $37 per ton would be by 
 weight one-tenth per cent, and so on. For ordinary gold and silver 
 ores, it is evident that the percentages would be inconveniently 
 small as expressions of value. Assays of lead, copper, iron, etc., are 
 reported in percentages. 
 
 Assay-ton. A weight of 29.166i grams. Since one ton of 2000 
 pounds avoirdupois contains 29.1661 troy ounces, it is evident that 
 each milligram of gold or silver obtained from one assay-ton of ore 
 represents one ounce troy to the ton of 2000 pounds avoirdupois. 
 
 Assessment-work, Pac. The work done annually on a mining 
 claim to maintain possessory title. 
 
 Astel. Overhead boarding or arching in a gallery. 
 
 AstyHen, Ens. A small dam in an adit or level, to check water. 
 
 Atierres, Sp. Refuse ores. 
 
 Attle, CoBN. Refuse roolc. 
 
 Auger-nose shell. See Wimble. 
 
 Auger-stem. The bar to which a drilling-bit is attached. 
 
 Auget or Augelle. A priming tube, used in blasting. 
 
 Augustin process. The treatment of silver ores by chloridizing 
 roastingj lixiviation with hot brine, and precipitation with copper. 
 Auriferous. Containing gold. 
 
 Average produce, COKN. The quantity of pure or fine copper in 
 one hundred parts of ore. 
 
 Average standard, CORN. The price per ton of pure or fine cop- 
 per in the ore. 
 
 Aviador, Sp. A person who habilitates a mine ; that is, who fur- 
 nishes the money for working it by contract with proprietors. 
 
 Azogueria, Sp. 1. The amalgamating works. 2. The process of 
 amalgamation. 
 
 Azogues, Sp. Common or inferior ores. 
 
 ^ACK, Corn. 1. With reference to an adit, drift or stope, the 
 part of the vein between it and the next worldng above, or the 
 surface. 2. See Face. 
 
 Back-casing, Eng. A temporary shaft-lining of bricks laid dry, 
 and supported at intervals upon curbs. When the stone-head has 
 been reached, the permanent masonry lining is built upon it inside 
 of the back-casing. 
 
 Back-end, Newc. The part of a judd remaining after the sump 
 has been removed. 
 
 Backing deals, Nbwc. Planks driven vertically behind the curbs 
 in a shaft from one curb to another. 
 
 Back-shift. The second set of miners working in any spot each 
 day. 
 
 Back-skin, Netvc. A leather covering worn by men in wet 
 workings. 
 
 Bait, Newc. A pitman's provisions. 
 
 Bal, Corn. A mine. 
 
 Balance-bob. A heavy lever ballasted at one end, and attached 
 at the other to the pump-rod, the weight of which it thus helps to 
 carry. Wiien the shaft is deep, and the pump-rods are consequently 
 very heavy, balance-bobs are put in at intervals of 200 or 300 feet, 
 thus relieving the strain on the rods themselves and on the engine. 
 
 Balk, Newc. A hitch producing a nip. 
 
 Balland, Derb. Pulverulent lead ore. 
 
 Ballast-shovel. A round-moutlied shovel. 
 
 Balling. The aggregation of iron in the puddling or the bloomr 
 ary process into balls or loups. 
 
 Ball-stamp, Lake Strp. A stamp for crushing rock, operated 
 directly by steam-power, the stem of the stamp being at the same 
 time the piston-rod of a steam cylinder. 
 
 Bamd, Nbwc. Stone interstratified with coaJ. 
 
 Bank. 1. (Derb. or^ewA). The face of the coal at which miners 
 are working, 2. An ore-deposit or coal-bed worked by surface ex- 
 cavations or drifts above water-level. 3. Eng. The ground at the 
 top of a shaft. Ores are brought " to bank," i. c, " to grass." See 
 Orass. 
 
 Banksman, Newc. See Lander. 
 
 Bar. 1. A drilling or tamping-rod. 2. A vein or dyke crossing 
 a lode. 3. A sand or rock ridge crossing the bed of a stream. 
 
 Bar-diggings, Pao. Gold-washuig claims located on the bars 
 (shallows) of a stream, and worked when the water is low, or other- 
 wise with the aid of colfer-dams. 
 
 Barilla, Sp. Native copper disseminated in grains in copper 
 ores. 
 
 Barmaster. Dekb. A mining oflicial who collects the dues or 
 royalties, presides over the barmote, etc. (From Germ. Berg- 
 
 Barmote, Derb. A mining court. 
 
 Barney. A small car attached to a rope and used to push cars up 
 a slope or inclined plane. 
 
 Barranca, Sp. A ravine. 
 
 Barrel. 1. The water-cylinder of a pump. 2. A piece of small 
 pipe inserted in the end of a cartridge to carry the squib to the pow- 
 der. 3. A vessel used in amalgamation. 
 
 Barrel-amalgamation. The amalgamation of silver ores by revo- 
 lution in wooden barrels with quicksilver, metallic wire, and water. 
 
 Barrel-work, Lake Sup. Native copper occurring in pieces of a 
 size to be sorted out by hand in sufiicient purity for smelting with- 
 out mechanical concentration. 
 
 Barrier-pillars. Pillars of coal, larger than ordinary, left at in- 
 tervals to prevent too extensive crushing when the ground comes to 
 be robbed. 
 
 Barrow, CoEN. 1. A heap of attle or rubbish ; a dump, 2. A 
 vehicle in which ore, coal, etc., are wheeled. 
 
 Barrow-men, Newc. See Putters. 
 
 Barrow-way, Newo. A level through which coal or ore is 
 wheeled. 
 
 Base bullion. See Bullion. 
 
 Base metals. Tlie metals not classed as noble or precious. See 
 Noble metals. 
 
 Basic. In furnace practice, a slag in which the earthy bases are 
 in excess of the amount required to form a neutral slag with the 
 silica present. 
 
 Basic lining. A lining for furnaces, converters, etc., formed of 
 non-silicious material, usually limestone, dolomite, lime, magnesia, 
 or iron oxide. 
 
 Basic-lining process. An improvement of the Bessemer process, 
 in which by the use of a basic lining in the converter and by tlie ad- 
 dition of basic materials during the blow, it is possible to eliminate 
 phosphorus from the pig iron, and keep it out of the steel. 
 
 Biisin. 1. A natural depression of strata containing a coal bed or 
 otlier stratified deposit. 2. The deposit itself. 
 
 Bats or batt. See Bind. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 731 
 
 Basset. Derb. An outcrop; the edge of a stratum. 
 
 Batch, CORB. The quantity of ore sent to the surface by a pare 
 of men. 
 
 Batea, Sp._ A large wooden bowl in which gold-bearing earth or 
 crushed ore is washed in the same way as in a pan. 
 
 Bath. A mass of raolteu material in a furnace, or of a solution 
 in a tank. 
 
 Batt. See Bind. 
 
 Battery. 1. A set of stamps in a stamp-mill, comprising the 
 number which fall in one morta/r, usually five. 2. A bulkhead of 
 timber. 3. The plank closing the bottom of a coal-chute. 
 
 Battery-amalgamation. Amalgamation by means of mercury 
 placed in the mortar. 
 
 Battery-assay. See Pulp-assay. 
 
 Bauxite. See Aluminium-ores. 
 
 Beans, Newc. Small coals. 
 
 Bean shot. Copper granulated by pouring into hot water. 
 
 Bear. 1. See Salamander. 2. See Loiip. 
 
 Bearing. See Strike. 
 
 Bed. A seam or deposit of mineral later in origin than the rock 
 below, and older than the rock above ; that is to say, a regular mem- 
 bei' of the series of formations, and not an intrusion. 
 
 Bedded vein. Properly bed vein ( Lagergang of the Germans) ; 
 a lode occupying the position of a bed, that is, parallel with the 
 stratification of the inclosing rook. 
 
 Bede. A miner's pickaxe. 
 
 Bed-rock, Pac. The solid rock underlying alluvial and other 
 surface formations. 
 
 Bed-way. An appearance of stratification, or parallel marking, 
 in granite. 
 
 Beehive oven. An oven for the manufacture of coke, shaped like 
 the old-fashioned beehive. 
 
 Belgian oven. A rectangular oven with end-doors and side-flues 
 for the manufacture of coke. 
 
 Belgian zinc-furnace. A furnace in which zinc is reduced and 
 distilled from calcined ores in tubular retorts. 
 
 Bell and hopper. See Cap and cone. 
 
 Belly helve, Eng. A forge-hammer, lifted by a cam which acts 
 about midway between the fulcrum and the head. 
 
 Bell-metal. A hard bronze, containing sometimes small propor- 
 tions of iron, zinc or lead, but ordinarily consisting of 78 parts coj)- 
 per and 22 tin. 
 
 Bell's dej>1wsphorizing process. The removal of phosphorus from 
 molten pig iron in a iraddling furnace, lined with iron oxide and 
 fitted with a mechanical rabble to agitate the bath. Eed-hot iron- 
 ore is added. See Krupp's washing process. 
 
 Bench. 1. One of two or more divisions of a coal seam, sepa- 
 rated by slate, etc., or simply separated by the process of cutting 
 the coal, one bench or layer being cut before the adjacent one. 2. 
 To cut coal in benches. 
 
 Beniching up, Newu. Working on the top of coal. 
 
 Bend or Bind, Dbrb. Indurated clay. 
 
 Beneficiar, Sp. To benefit. To work or improve a mine ; to re- 
 duce its ores; to derive profit or advantage from working it. 
 
 Benefieiation, sometimes used in English, usually means the re- 
 duction of ores. 
 
 Bessemer iron. Pig iron suitable for the Bessemer process. 
 
 Bessemer process. The process of decarburizing a bath of molten 
 cast iron by blowing air through it, in a vessel called a converter. 
 
 Biche. A tool ending below in a conical cavitv, for recovering 
 broken rods from a bore-hole. 
 
 Billet. 1. Iron or steel, drawn from a pile, bloom, or ingot into 
 a small bar for further manufacture. 2. A sruall bloom. 
 
 Bind, Derb. See Bend. 
 
 Biny, North Eng. Eight hundred weight of ore. 
 
 Bing-ore, Derb. Ore in lumjDS. 
 
 Bing-hole, Derb. A hole or shoot through which ore is thrown. 
 
 Bing-tale, North Eng. See Tribute. 
 
 Bismuth-ores. Native bismuth ; bismuth ochre (oxide) ; bisnmih- 
 ine (sulphide) ; also, bismuthiferous cobalt, silver and copper ores. 
 
 Bit. The cutting end of a boring implement. 
 
 Bituminous coal. See Coal, 
 
 Blach-band. An earthy carbonate of iron, accompanying coal- 
 beds. Extensively worked as an iron ore in Great Britain, and 
 somewhat in Ohio. 
 
 Black-copper. Impure copper from smelting, before refining. 
 
 Black damp, Eng. Carbonic acid gas. 
 
 Black ends, Eng. Refuse coke from coking-ovens. 
 
 Bl lick flux. A mixture of charcoal and pota,ssiura carbonate. 
 
 Blackjack, Corn. Zinc-blende ; sometimes hornblende. 
 
 Black lead. Graphite. 
 
 Black litharge. See Abstrich. 
 
 Black plate. Sheet iron before tinning. 
 
 Black tin, CORN. Tin ore prepared for smelting. 
 
 Blair process. An improved form of the Chenot process. 
 
 Blanch. Lead ore, mixed with other minerals. 
 
 Blanched copper. An alloy of copper and arsenic. 
 
 Blanket sluices. Sluices in which coarse blankets are laid, to 
 catch the fine but heavy particles of gold and amalgam, etc., in the 
 slime passing over them. The blankets are removed and washed 
 from time to time, to obtain the precious metal. 
 
 Blast. 1. Tlie operation of blasting, or rending rock or earth by 
 means of explosions. 2. The air forced into a furnace to accelerate 
 
 combustion. 3. The period during which a blast furnace is in blast, 
 that is in operation. 
 
 Blast furnace. A furnace, usually a shaft-furnace, .into which air 
 is forced under pressure. 
 
 Blasting-stick. A simple form of fuse. 
 
 Bleaching-clay, CORN. Kaolin, used with size, to whiten and 
 give weight and substance to cotton goods. 
 
 Bleiberg furnace. See Carinthian furnace. 
 
 Blende. See Zinc ores. 
 
 Blick, Germ. The brightening or iridescence appearing on sil- 
 ver or gold at the end of the cupelling or refining process. 
 
 Blind level. 1. A level not yet connected with other workings. 
 2. A level for drainage, having a shaft at either end, and acting as 
 an inverted siphon. 
 
 Blind-shaft. See Winze. 
 
 Blister-steel. See Steel. 
 
 Bloat. A hammer swelled at the eye. 
 
 Block-coal, U. S. See Coal. 
 
 Block-furnace. See Bloomwry. 
 
 Block tin. Cast tin. 
 
 Bloom. 1. A large steel bar, drawn ftora an ingot for further 
 manufacture. 2. A rough bar of iron, drawn from a Catalan or 
 bloomary ball, for further manufacture. See Billet. 
 
 Bloomary. A forge for making wrought-iron, usually direct 
 from the ore. The sides are iron plates, the hair-plate at the back, 
 the cinder plate at the front, the tuyere-plate (through which 
 the tuyere passes) at one side (its upper part being called in 
 some bloomaries tlie merrit-plate) the fore spar plate opposite the 
 tuyere-plate (its upper part being the skeio-plate) and the bottom 
 plate at the bottom. 
 
 Blossom. The oxidized or decomposed outcrop of a vein or coal- 
 bed, more frequently the latter. Also called smut and tailing. 
 See Gossan. 
 
 Blow. A single heat or operation of the Bessemer converter. 
 
 Blower, Newo. 1. A strong discharge of gas from a fissure. 2. 
 A fan or other apparatus for forcing air into a furnace or mine. 
 
 Blow-george. A hand-fan. 
 
 Blow-in. To put a blast furnace in operation. 
 
 Blow-out. 1. To put a blast furnace out of blast, by ceasing to 
 charge fresh materials, and continuing the blast until the contents 
 of the furnace have been smelted. 2. A large outcrop, beneatli 
 which the vein is smaller, is called a blow-out. 3. A shot or blast is 
 said to blow out when it goes oft' like a gun and does not shatter the 
 rock. 
 
 Blow-pipe. A tube through which air is forced into a flame, to 
 direct it and increase its intensity. In the compound blowpipe, two 
 jets of gas (one of which may be air) are united at the point of com- 
 bustion. 
 
 .Blue-billy, Eng. The residuum of cupreous pyrites after roasting 
 with salt. 
 
 Blue-john, Derb. Fluorspar. 
 
 Blue lead. (Pronounced like the verb to lead.) The bluish auri- 
 ferous gravel and cement deposit found in the ancient ri ver-chan- 
 nels of California. 
 
 Blue metal. See Metal. 
 
 Blue peach, CORN. A slate-blue, very fine-grained schorl-rock. 
 
 Blue stone. Copper-vitriol ; copper-sulphate. 
 
 Boards. The first set of excavations in post-and-stall work. 
 
 Boat level, Wales. A navigable adit. 
 
 Bob, Corn. A triangular frame, by means of which the horizon- 
 tal motion imparted from an engine is transformed into a vertical 
 motion of the pump-rods in a shaft. 
 
 Bob-station. See Station. 
 
 Bog-iron-ore. A loose, earthy brown hematite, of recent origin, 
 formed in swampy ground. 
 
 Boiling. See Puddling. 
 
 Bonanza, Sp. Literally, fair weather. In miners' phrase, good 
 luck, or a body of rich ore. A mine is in bonanza when it is 
 profitably producing ore. 
 
 Bone. The slaty matter intercalated in coal-seams. 
 
 Bonnet. A covering over a cage to shield it from objects falling 
 down the shaft. 
 
 Bonney, Corn. An isolated body of ore. 
 
 Booming. The accumulation and sudden discharge of a Q_uantity 
 of water (in placer mining, where water is scarce.) See, also, 
 Hushing. 
 
 Boot. A leather or tin joint connecting the Jfasi-wiam with the 
 tuyere or nozzle in a bloomary. 
 
 Bord, NEVfC. A passage or breast, driven up the slope of the 
 coal from the gangway, and hence across the grain of the coal. 
 
 Bord. See Boa/rds, Breast, and Post-and-stall. 
 
 Board-and-pillar. See Post-and-stall. 
 
 Borer. See Drill. 
 
 Borrasca,&P. The converse of Jowamaa. Barren rock. 
 
 Bort. Opaque black diainond. 
 
 Bosh. 1. A trough in which bloomary tools (or, in copper-smeltr 
 ing, hot ingots) are cooled. 2. (Or. Boshes.) The portion of a 
 shaft furnace in which it widens from above the hearth up to its 
 maximum diameter. 
 
 Bottom-lift. The deepest lift of a mining-pump, or the lowest 
 pump. 
 
 Bottomer, Eng. The man stationed at the bottom of a shaft in 
 charge of the proper loading of cages, signals tor hoisting, etc. 
 
732 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Bottoms, Corn. 1 The deepest workings. 2. In copper-smelt- 
 ing, the impure metallic copper, or cupriferous alloy, which sep- 
 arates from the matt, and is found below it, when there is not enough 
 sulphur present to retain in combination all the copper. 
 
 BoiUder or Bowlder. A fragment of rock brought by natural 
 means from a distance (though this notion of transportation from a 
 distance is not always, in later usage, involved) and usually large 
 and rounded in shape. Cobble, stones taken from river-beds are, in 
 some American localities, called boulders. 
 
 i?onds, COKN. A tract of tin-ored ground. 
 
 Bout. Derb. a measure of lead-ore ; twenty-four dishes. 
 
 Bowie, S. Staff. A small wooden box in which iron-ore is hauled 
 underground. 
 
 Bowse or Bouze, Deeb. Lead-ore as cut from the lode. 
 
 Box-bill. A tool used in deep boring for slipping over and recov- 
 ering broken rods. 
 
 Box-groove. A closed groove between two rolls, formed by a col- 
 lar on one roll, fitting between collars on another roll. 
 
 Bo.c-timbering. See Plank-timbering. 
 
 Brace, CORN. The mouth of a shaft. 
 
 Brace-head. A cross-attachment at the top of the column of rods 
 in deep boring, by means of which the rods and bit are turned after 
 each drop. 
 
 Brace-key. See Bracehead, 
 
 Braize, V. S. Charcoal-dust. See Breeze. 
 
 Brake-sieve. A Jigger, operated by a hand-lever. 
 
 Brakesman. The man in charge of a winding-engine. 
 
 Brances. See Brasses, 
 
 Branch. Corn. A small vein departing from the main lode, and 
 in some cases returning. 
 
 Basque. A lining for crucibles or furnaces; generally a compound 
 of clap, etc., with charcoal-dust. 
 
 Brass. An alloy of copper and zinc. 
 
 Brasses, Eng, and Wales. Pyrites (sulphide of iron) in coal. 
 
 Brat, Eng. and Walks. A thin bed of coal mixed with pyrites 
 or carbonate of lime. 
 
 Brattice, Eng., Scot., and Wales. A plank lining, or a longi- 
 tudinal partition of wood, brick, or even cloth, in a shaft, level, or 
 gangway, generally to aid ventilation. 
 
 Brazil. Iron pyrites. 
 
 Bi eaker. See Coal-Breaker and Rock-Breaker. 
 
 Breast. 1. The /ace of a working. 2. In coal mines, the cham- 
 ber driven upwards from the gangway, on the seam, between pillars 
 of coal left standing for the extraction of coal. 3. That side of the 
 hearth of a shaft-furnace which contains the metal-notch. 
 
 Breast-boards. Planking placed between the last set of timbers 
 and the face of a gangway or heading which is in quicksand or loose 
 ground. 
 
 Breccia. A conglmnerate in which the fragments are angular. 
 
 Breeding-fire. See Qub-Hre. 
 
 Breeze, Eng. Small coke. Probably connected, perhaps inter- 
 changeable, with Braize, and both with the Fr. Braise. 
 
 Brettis, Deeb. A crib of timber filed up with slack or waste. 
 
 Brcttis way. A road in a coal-mine, supported by brettises built 
 on each side after the coal has been worked out. 
 
 Bridge, See Reverberatory fur7irtce. 
 
 Bridle-chains. Safety-chains to support a cage if the link be- 
 tween the cage and rope should break. 
 
 Brightening. See Blick. 
 
 Broaching-bit. A tool used to restore the dimensions of a bore- 
 hole which has been contracted by the swelling of the marl or clay 
 walls. 
 
 Brob. A peculiar spike, driven alongside the end of an abutting 
 timber to prevent its slipping. 
 
 Broil or Broyl, COEN. See Bryle. 
 
 Broken coal, PsNN. See Coal. 
 
 Bronze. An alloy of copper and tin. 
 
 Brood, Corn. The heavier kinds of waste in tin and copper 
 ores. 
 
 Brown coal. See Coal. 
 
 Browse. Ore imperfectly smelted, mixed with cinder and clay. 
 
 Bruckner cylinder, Pac. A form of revolving roasting furnace. 
 
 Bryle, COEN. The traces of a vein, in loose matter, on or near 
 the surface. 
 
 Backer, Dekb. A flat piece of iron with a wooden handle, used 
 for breaking ore. 
 
 Bucket. The piston of a lifting-pump. 
 
 Bucking, Deeb. See Cobbing, The buckmg-hammer or bucking- 
 iron is a broad-headed hammer used for this purpose ; and the ore is 
 broken on a flat piece of iron {bucking plate). 
 
 Buckshot cinder. Cinder from the iron blast furnace, containing 
 grains of iron. 
 
 Buckwheat-coal, Penn. See Coal. 
 
 Buddie, Corn. An inclined vat or stationary or revolving plat- 
 form upon which ore is concentrated by means of running "water. 
 Strictly the huddle is a shallow vat, not a platform or table; at 
 least not in some localities. But general usage, particularly on the 
 Pacific slope, makes no distinction. 
 
 Buggy. A small mine-wagon holding i ton to 1 ton of coal. 
 
 Bnhrstone. A quartz rock containing cellules. 
 
 Biiitron, Sp. A furnace of peculiar construction, in which silver 
 ore is reduced. 
 
 Bulkhead. 1. A tight partition or stopping in a mine for pro- 
 tection against water, fire, or gas. 2. The end of a flume, whence 
 water is carried in iron pipes to hydraulic workings. 
 
 Bull, See Clay iron. 
 
 Bulldog. 1. A refractory material used as a furnace-lining, got 
 by calcining mill-cinder, and containing silica and ferric oxide. 2. 
 Penn. See Buckshot-cinder, 
 
 Bullfrog. See Barney. 
 
 Bullion. Uncoined gold and silver. Base bullion (Pac,) is pig 
 lead containing silver and some gold, which are separated by refin- 
 ing. 
 
 Bull pump, CoEN. A direct single-acting pump, the steam cyl- 
 inder of which is placed over the top of a shaft or slope, and the 
 piston-rod attached to the pump-rods. The steam lifts piston and 
 pump-rods, and the weight of these makes a down-stroke. 
 
 Bull wheel. In rope-boring, a wheel on which is wound the rope 
 for hoisting the bit, etc. 
 
 Bully, A pattern of miners' hammer, varying from " broad-bully " 
 to " narrow bully," 
 
 Bunch of ore, COEN. An ore-body, usually a small one. 
 ■ Bunding, A staging of boards on stulls or slemples, to carry 
 deads. See stall covering. 
 
 Bunions, Eng. Battens or scantlings placed horizontally across 
 a shaft, to which are nailed the boards forming the cleading or 
 sheathing of a brattice. 
 
 Burden, CORN. 1. The tops or heads of steam work, which lie 
 over the stream of tin. 2. The proportion of ore and flux to fuel in 
 the charge of a blast-furnace. 
 
 Burning, See Calcining, 
 
 Burnt iron, 1. Iron which by long exposure to heat has sufiered 
 a change of structure and become brittle. It can be restored by 
 carefiil forging at welding-heat. 2. In the Bessemer and open-hearth 
 processes, iron which has been exposed to oxidation until all its 
 carbon is gone, and oxide of iron has been formed in the mass. 
 
 Burr, Solid rock. 
 
 Barrow, CORN. A heap of refuse. 
 
 Buscones, Sp. Searchers ; explorers. 
 
 Bushel, The Imperial bushel, of 2218 cubic inches, and the 
 Winchester bushel, of 2150 cubic inches, are divided into 4 pecks. 
 The bushel used in measuring charcoal and coal contains 5 pecks, 
 or 2680 cubic inches, being 20 pounds or less of charcoal, and, iu 
 various localities, 80, 76, or 72 pounds of coal. 
 
 Bustamente fiiriiace, A cylindrical shaft-furnace for roasting 
 quicksilver ores ; divided by perforated arches into two compart- 
 ments, of which the upper receives the ore and the lower the fuel. 
 The mercury-vapors are condensed in aludeln. 
 
 Butt, Eng. Of coal ; a surface exposed at right angles to the 
 face. See JSnd. 
 
 Button. The globule of metal remaining on wi assay-cupel oi in. 
 a crucible, at the end of the fusion. 
 
 Butty, Derb. and Staff. A miner by contract at so much per ton 
 of coal or ore. 
 
 Cabblirtg. Breaking up pieces of flat iron to be piled ot fagoted, 
 heated and rolled. 
 
 Cable-tools. The apparatus used in drilling deep holes, such as 
 artesian wells, with a rope instead of rods, to connect the drill with 
 the machine on the surface. 
 
 Cache, Fr. The place where provisions, ammunition, ete., are 
 cached or hidden by trappers or prospectors in unsettled regions. 
 
 Cage. 1. A frame with one or more platforms for cars, used in 
 hoisting in a vertical shaft. It is steadied by guides on the sides of 
 the shaft. 2. A structure of elastic iron rods slipped inta the bore- 
 hole in rod-boring to prevent vibration of the rods. 3. The barrel 
 or drum in a whim on which the rope is wound. 
 
 Coke copper. See Tough cake. 
 
 Caking coal. See Coal. 
 
 Cula, Sp. a small pit or experimental hole. 
 
 Cid, Corn. Wolfram. 
 
 Calcine, To expose to heat, with or without oxidation ; to roast. 
 Applied to ores for the removal of water and sulphur, and the dis- 
 integration of the mass; to limestone for the expulsion of its car- 
 bonic acid ; etc. 
 
 Caldner, A furnace or kiln for roasting. 
 
 Calicala, Sp. A digging or trial pit. 
 
 Campaign, The i)enod during which a furnace is continuously 
 in operation. 
 
 Canada, Sp. A ravine, or small canon. 
 
 Canch, A part of a bed of stone worked by quarrying. 
 
 Canrl or Catin, CoEN. Fluorspar. 
 
 Cank, Derb. See Whinslone. 
 
 Canon, Sp. A valley, usually precipitous ; a gorge. 
 
 Cunnel coal. See Coal. 
 
 Cap or Cap-rock. Barren vein matter, or a pinch in a vein, sup- 
 posed to overlie ore. 
 
 Capel, A ooniposite stone of quartz, schorl, and hornblende. 
 
 Capella, Sp. Cupelling furnace. 
 
 Giqitaln, Corn, and Wales. The oflicial in Immediate charge 
 of the work in a mine. 
 
 Uirat. 1. A unit employed in weighing diamonds, and equal to 
 3J troy grains. A carat-grain is one-fourtli of a curat. 2. A term 
 employed to distinguish the fineness of a gold alloy, and meaning 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 733 
 
 one-twenty-fourth. Fine gold is 24^carat gold. Goldsmith's stand- 
 ard is 22 carats fine, i. e., contains 22 parts gold, 1 copper, and 1 
 silver. 
 
 Carhona, Corn. An irregular deposit or impregnation of tin ore, 
 found in connection with a tin lode. 
 
 Carbonaceous. Containing carbon not oxidized. 
 
 Carbonates. The common term in the West for ores containing a 
 considerable proportion of carbonate of lead. They are sometimes 
 earthy or ochreous (soft carbonates), sometimes granular and com- 
 paratively free from iron (sand carbonates), and sometimes compact 
 (hard carbonates.) Often they are rich in silver. 
 
 Carbonization. The process of converting to carbon, by removing 
 other ingredients, a substance containing carbon, as in the charring 
 of wood or the natural formation of anthracite. 
 
 Carbvrization. The process of imparting carbon, as in making 
 cement steel. 
 
 Carga, Sp. A mule-load of 300 pounds avoirdupois. 
 
 Carinthian furnace. A small reverberatory with inclined hearth, 
 in which lead ore is treated by roasting arid reaction, wood being 
 the usual fuel. 
 
 Car-wheel iron. See Chill. 
 
 Case. A small fissure, admitting water into the workings. 
 
 Case harden. To convert iron superficially into steel by partial 
 cementation. 
 
 Casing, Cokn. 1. A partition or brattice, made of cusing-plank, 
 in a shaft. 2. Pac. Casings are zones of material altered by vein- 
 action, and lying between the unaltered country rock and the 
 vein. 
 
 Cast-after-cast, COBN. The throwing up of ore from one platform 
 to another successively. See Shambles. 
 
 Cast house. The building in which pigs or ingots are cast. 
 
 Casting. Pouring or drawing fused metal from a blast furnace, 
 cupola, crucible, converter, or ladle into moulds. 
 
 Cast-iron. See Iron. 
 
 Cast-steel. See Steel. 
 
 Cata, Sp. a mine denounced, but unworked. 
 
 Catalan forge. A for^e with a tuyere for reducing iron ore, with 
 charcoal, to a loup of wrought iron; a bloomary. See Cham- 
 plain forge. 
 
 Cat-head. 1. A small capstan. 2. A broad-bully hammer. See 
 Bully. 
 
 Cauf. Nbwc. See Corf. 
 
 Gaunter lode, CORN. A vein coursing at a considerable angle to 
 neighboring veins. 
 
 Caving. The falling in of the sides or top of excavations. 
 
 Cawk. Sulphate of baryta (heavy spar). 
 
 Cazo, Sp. A caldron in which amalgamation is efiected by the 
 cazo process, used in Mexico, and South America. 
 
 Cement, AuSTE. and Pac. Gravel firmly held in a silicious ma- 
 trix, or the matrix itself. 
 
 Cementation The process of producing a chemical change in a 
 solid substance by packing it in a powder and healing it. See Ce- 
 ment-steel and Malleable castings. 
 
 Cement-copper. Copper precipitated from .solution. 
 
 Cement-gold. (}old precipitated in fine particles from solution. 
 
 Cement-silver. Silver precipitated from solution, usually by cop- 
 per. 
 
 Cement-steel. See Steel. 
 
 Cendrada, Sp. Ashes or smeltings found at the bottom of a fur- 
 nace, and valuable for use in other smeltings. 
 
 Cerro, Sp. A hill or mountain. 
 
 Chasing. Following a vein by its range or direction. 
 
 Chafery. A forge fire for reheating. (From the Fe. Chaufferie.) 
 
 Chaldron. Thirty-six bushels. In Newcastle fifty-three hun- 
 dredweight avoirdupois. Chaldron-wagons, containing this quanti- 
 ty, convey the coal from the pit to the place of shipment. 
 
 Chalybeate. Impregnated with iron (applied to mineral waters). 
 
 Chamber. See Breast. 
 
 Champion lode. The main vein as distinguished from branches. 
 
 Champlain forge or American for-ge. A forge for the direct pro- 
 duction of wrought iron, generally used in the United States instead 
 of the Catalan forge, from which it differs in using only finely- 
 crushed ore and in working continuously. 
 
 Changing-house, CORN. A room where miners change and dry 
 their underground clothing. See Ihy. 
 
 Charbon roux, Fe. Brown charcoal, produced by an mcomplete 
 carbonization of wood. . 
 
 Charge. 1. The materials introduced at one time or one round 
 into a furnace. 2. The amount of explosive used for one blast. 
 
 Charger, CoBN. An auger-like implement for charging horizon- 
 tal bore-holes for blasting. .. ,. c 
 
 Charring. The expulsion by heat of the volatile constituents ot 
 wood, etc., leaving more or less pure vegetable carbon. 
 
 Cliartei-master, S. Staff. See Butty. 
 
 Chats, NOETHUMB. Small pieces of stone with ore. 
 
 Cheeks. 1, The sides or walls of a vein. 2. Extensions ot the 
 sides of the eye of a hammer or pick. 
 
 Ohenot process. The process of making mm-sponge from ore 
 mixed with coal-dust, and heated in vertical cylindrical retorts. 
 
 Chert. Hornstone ; a silicious stone often found m limestone. 
 
 Cherry coal, Eng. See Coal. 
 
 Chestnut coal, Penn. See Coal. 
 
 Chilian Mill. An improved arraslre, in which a heavy stona 
 wheel is rolled around the bed. 
 
 CIdll. An iron mould or portion of a mould, serving to cool 
 rapidly, and so to harden, the surface of molten iron whicn comes in 
 contact with it. Iron which can be thus liardened to a considerable 
 depth is chilling iron, and is specially used for cast-iron railway car- 
 wheels requiring hardness at the rim without loss of strength in the 
 wheel. 
 
 Chimming, CORN. See Tossing. 
 
 Chimney. An ore-shoot. See Chute. 
 
 C'/iina clay. Kaolin. 
 
 Chisel. See Bit. 
 
 Chock. See Nog. 
 
 Choke-damp, Eng. Carbonic acid ^as. 
 
 Chlorides, Pao. A common term for ores containing chloride of 
 silver. 
 
 Chloridize. To convert into chloride. Applied to the roasting 
 of silver ores with salt, preparatory to amalgamation. 
 
 Chlorination process. The process first introduced by Plattner, 
 in which auriferous ores are fijst roasted to oxidize the base metals, 
 then saturated with chlorine gas, and finally treated with water, 
 which removes the soluble tercliloride of gold, to be subsequently 
 precipitated and melted into bars. 
 
 Chrome ore. Chromic iron {chromite, oxide of chromium and ox- 
 ide of iron). 
 
 Chute. (Sometimes written shoot.) 1. A channel or shaft under- 
 ground, or an inclined trough above ground, through which the ore 
 falls or is " shoot" by gravity from a higher to a lower level. 2. A 
 body of ore, usually of elongated form, extending downward within 
 a vein {ore-shoot). The two forms of orthography of this word are 
 of French and English origin respectively. Under chute, the origi- 
 nal idea is that of falling ; under shoot, that of shooting or branch- 
 ing. Both are appropriate to the technical significations of the 
 word. An ore-shoot, for instance, may be considered as a branch of 
 the general mass of the ore in a deposit or as a pitch or fall of ore 
 (Germ. Eizfall). In England the orthography shoot is, I believe, 
 exclusively employed, and this is perhaps the best, the other being 
 unnecessarily foreign. 
 
 Cinder, Eng. Slag, particularly from iron blast furnaces. 
 
 Cinder-pig, Eng. See Pig iron. 
 
 Cinder plate. See Bloomary. 
 
 Cinder tap, Cindernotch. The hole through which cinder is tapped 
 from a furnace. See Lurmann front. 
 
 Cinnabar. Sulphuret of mercury. 
 
 Cistern, CORN. See Tank. 
 
 Clack, Corn. A pump-valve. 
 
 Clack-door, COEN. An opening into the valve chamber of a 
 pump. 
 
 Claggy, Newc. Adhesive. When the coal is tightly joined to 
 the roof, the mine is said to have a claggy top. 
 
 Claim, Pac. The portion of n;ining ground held under the Fed- 
 eral and local laws by one claimant or association, by virtue of one 
 location and record. 
 
 Clanny lamp. The safety-lamp invented by Dr. Clanny. 
 
 Clay-iron. A tool for crowding clay into leaky bore-holes. 
 
 Cleading, Eng. See Buntons. 
 
 Clean-^p. The operation of collecting all the valuable product 
 of a given period or operation in a stamp mUl, or in a hydraulic or 
 placer mine. 
 
 Cleat. 1. A joint in coal or rock. 2. A strip of wood. 
 
 Cleavage. The property in a mineral, of splitting more easily 
 and perfectly in some directions than in others. The planes of 
 cleavage bear a relation to the crystal form of the mineral. The 
 cleavage of rock-masses is more properly a jointing, unless it fol- 
 lows the planes of bedding. 
 
 Clinker. The product of the fusion of the earthy impurities (ash) 
 of coal during its combustion. 
 
 Clinometer. A simple apparatus for measuring by means of a 
 pendulum or spirit-level and circular scale, vertical angles, particu- 
 larly dips. 
 
 Clod. Soft shale or slate, in coal mines, usually applied to a 
 layer forming a bad roof. 
 
 Closed-lop. See Cup-and-cone. 
 
 Closed front. An arrangement of the blast-furnace without a 
 fore-hearth. 
 
 Clotting- The sintering or semi-fusion of ores during roasting. 
 
 Coal. (Eng. Coals). This term is now applied to stonecoal or pit- 
 coal, that is, mineral coal, obtained by mining, as distinguished from 
 charcoal. No scientific account of the nature and origin of coal 
 will be given here. The three principal classes recognized by com- 
 mon usage are anthracite (hard, black, composed, when pure, al- 
 most exclusively of carbon), bituminous or coking coal (brown or 
 black, containing hydrocarbons, and lignite or brown coal (brown 
 or black, generally showing a woody or laminar structure, contain- 
 ing much water, and more recent, geologically speaking, than the 
 other varieties). Semi-anthracites and semi-bituminous coals are 
 gradations between anthracite and bituminous, based on the increas- 
 ing percentage of volatile matters. Sydrogenous or gas-coals are 
 bituminous coals yielding the highest percentage of volatile matters. 
 The English classification of bituminous coals distinguishes coking 
 coal proper (splintering when heated, but subsequently fusing into 
 a semi -pasty mass), cherry or soft coal (igniting readily and burning 
 
734 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 rapidly without splintering or fusion), splint, rough or hard coal 
 (igniting with more difficulty but burning with a clear, hot fire), 
 andcannel coal (the parrot coa^ of Scotland, compact, homogeneous, 
 conchoidal in fracture, burning with clear, bright flame). The Eng- 
 lish call anthracite also stonecoal or cttZm, and speak of a semi- 
 anthracite as steam-coal. Any coal advantageously used for gener- 
 ating steam is called a steam-coal in the United States. The solid 
 carbon remaining after the expulsion of volatile matters from bit- 
 mninous coal or lignite is called coke. Commercial coke, however, 
 must have a certain coherence and strength ; and the coals which 
 furnish it in this condition are called coking coals. A peculiar bi^ 
 uminous coal of Indiana and Ohio, which breaks in blocks, and is 
 used raw without coking, to some extent, as a blast-furnace fuel, is 
 called block coal. Anthracite is divided in the United States ac- 
 cording to the color of the ash after burning, into white-ash, red-ash 
 and pink-ash coal. It is also classified for the market according to 
 the size of the pieces (see Coal-breaker), as follows : Lump includes 
 the largest lumps as they come from the mine. The other sizes pass 
 over and through sieve-meshes of the size named, the figures signi- 
 fying inches, and thus indicating roughly the average limit of dia- 
 meter for the pieces in each size, viz. : 
 
 Steamboat 
 
 No. 1, Broken or grate. 
 No. 2, Egg, 
 No. 3, Large stove. 
 No. 4, Sknall stove, 
 No. 5, Chestrmt, 
 No. 6, Pea, 
 
 through 7 
 through 4 
 through 2i to 2i 
 through 2i to 2 
 through 1| to li 
 through ij to 1 
 through f to i 
 
 over 4 ; 
 over 2| to 2} ; 
 over 2i to 2 ; 
 over IJ to li; 
 over li to 1 
 over 4 to i ; 
 over i to i. 
 
 No. 7, Buckwheat, is rarely made, except when the coal is washed 
 on the screens, and the chestnut and pea have the larger dimensions 
 above given. It is tlie smallest size, and usually included in the 
 dirt or culm. 
 
 Coal-breaker. A building containing the machinery for breaking 
 coal with toothed rolls, sizing it with sieves, and cleaning it for 
 market. 
 
 Coal-pipes. Newc. Very thin irregular layers of coal. 
 
 Cobalt ores. Cobalt-speiss {smaltine, chloanthite when niccoli- 
 ferous, safflorite when ferriferous, an arsenite of cobalt with or with- 
 out nickel or iron) ; cobalt glance and cobalt pyrites {smaltite and 
 linncerite, sulphides of cobalt) ; cobalt bloom [erythrite, arseniate of 
 cobalt). 
 
 Cobbing, CORN. Breaking ore to sort out its better portions. 
 See Spall. 
 
 Cobble, Penn. An imperfectly puddled ball which goes to pieces 
 in the squeezer. 
 
 Gobre ores. Copper ores from Cuba. 
 
 Cockle, COKN. See Schorl. 
 
 Cod, Newc. The bearing of an axle. 
 
 Coffer or Cofer, Dbhb. 1. To secure a shaft from leaking by 
 ramming in clay behind the masonry or timbering. 2. (or Cover) 
 CoKN. See Mortar (2). 3. A rectangular plank frame, used in 
 timbering levels. 
 
 Coffin, Corn. 1. An old open working. 2. The mode of open 
 working by casting up ore and waste from one platform to auother, 
 and so to the surface. 
 
 Cog. To roll or bloom ingots. 
 
 Cogs. See Nogs ; only Cogs are not squared, but simply notched 
 where they cross each other. The interior of a structure of this 
 kind and the spaces between the timber are usually filled with 
 gob. They are called also cobs, corncobs, etc. 
 
 Coil-drag. A tool to pick up pebbles, bits of iron, etc., from tlie 
 bottom of a drill-hole. 
 
 Coke. Th^ product remaining after the expulsion by heat of the 
 volatile constituents of coal. 
 
 Coking coal. See Coal. 
 
 Coal-bed, A platform in a rolling-mill on which cold bars are 
 stored. 
 
 Cold blast. Air forced into a furnace without being previously 
 heated. 
 
 Coldshort. Brittle when cold. Applied chiefly to iron and steel. 
 
 Collar. 1. See Cap. 2. The Collar of a shaft is the horizontal 
 timbering around themouth. 
 
 Colliery. A coal mine. 
 
 Collom washer. Lake Sup. A variety of jig. 
 
 Color, Sp. 1. Color. The shade or tint of the earth or rock 
 which indicates ore. 2. A particle of Metallic gold found in the 
 prospector's pan after a sample of earth or crushed rock has been 
 'panned out." Prospectors say, e. g., "The dirt gave me so many 
 colors to the panful." 
 
 Colorados, Sp. Ores impregnated with oxide of iron, and in a 
 state of decomposition. See Gossan. 
 
 Col-rake. A shovel used to stir lead-ores during washino;. 
 
 Comb. The place, in a, fissure which has been filled by successive 
 depositions on minerals on the walls, where the two sets of layers 
 thus deposited approach most nearly or meet, closing the fissure and 
 exhibiting either a drusy central cavity, or an interlocking of 
 crystals. 
 
 Combined Carbon. That portion of the carbon in iron or steel 
 whicli is not visible as graphite, and is supposed to be alloyed or 
 chemically co'mbined with the iron. 
 
 Compass. An instrument like the ordinary nautical or surveyor's 
 
 compass, though sometimes otherwise marked, and having a clino- 
 meter attached. Also, a dip-compass, for tracing magnetic iron ore 
 having a needle hung to move in a vertical plane. 
 
 Concentration. The removal by mechanical means of the lighter 
 and less valuable portions of ore. 
 
 Concentrator. An apparatus in which, by the aid of water or air 
 and specific gravity, mechanical concentration of ores is performed. 
 
 Condenser. A vessel or chamber in which volatile products of 
 roasting or smelting (e. g., mercury or zinc vapors) are reduced to 
 solid form hy cooling, or in which the fumes of furnaces, contain- 
 ing mechanically suspended as well as volatile metallic matters are 
 arrested. 
 
 Conglomerate. A rock consisting of fragments of other rocks 
 (usally rounded) cemented together. 
 
 Consume. The chemical and mechanical loss of mercury in 
 amalgamation. 
 
 Contact. The plane between two adjacent bodies of dissimilar 
 rock. A contact-vein is a vein, and a contact-bed is a bed, lying, 
 the former more or less closely, the latter absolutely, along a 
 contact. 
 
 Continental process. See German process. 
 
 Converter. See Bessemer process. 
 
 Cope. 1. Derb. To contract, to mine lead ore by the dish load, 
 or other measure. 2. The upper part of a fiask, separable from' 
 the lower part. See Drag. 
 
 Coper, Dbeb. One who contracts to raise lead ore at a fixed 
 rate. 
 
 Copperas. Ferrous sulphate. 
 
 Copper-ores. Native copper; red copper-ore (cuprite, pro- 
 toxide) ; green and blue malachite) malachite and azurite, car- 
 bonates) ; copper glance (ehalcocite, sulphide) ; purple copper 
 (variegated or peacock ore, bornite, sulphide of copper and iron); 
 gray copper ( fahl-ore, telrahedrite, sulphantimonide of copper and 
 other metals); yellow copper (copper-pyrites, chalcopyrite, sulphide 
 of copper and iron) ; copper-lead ore, (bournonite, sulphantimon- 
 ide of lead and copper) ; black copper-ore fan earthy and variable 
 mixture of sulphide and oxide of copper). 
 
 Copper-plates, AusTB. and Pac. The plates of amalgamated 
 copper over which the auriferous ore is allowed to flow from the 
 stamp battery, and upon which the gold is caught as amalgam. 
 
 Copper-rain. Minute globules thrown up from the siu'face of 
 molten copper, when it contains but little suboxide. 
 
 Copper-smoke. The gases trom the calcination of sulphuretted 
 copper-ores. 
 
 Corbond. An irregular mass or " dropper " from a lode. 
 ■Cordurie process. The refining of lead by conducting steam 
 through it, while molten, to oxidize certain metallic impurities. 
 
 Core, Corn. A miner's underground working-time or shift. 
 
 Corf, Corve, or C'au/(the last incorrect). 1. Newc. A large bas- 
 ket used in hoisting coal ; from the Germ. Korb. 2. A wooden frame 
 to carry coal. 3. A sled or low, wagon for the same purpose. 
 
 Cornish pump. A pump operated by rods attached to the beam 
 of a single-acting condensing beam-engine. The steam, pressing 
 down the piston in the vertical steam-cylinder, lifts the pump-rods, 
 and these subsequently descend by their own weight. 
 
 Coro-coro. A dressed product of copper-works in South Ameri- 
 ca, consisting of grains of native copper and mixed with jjyrite, 
 chalco-pyrite, mispickel, and earthy minerals. 
 
 Corroding-lead. Refined lead, sufficiently pure for the corroding 
 process, by which white lead is manufactured. 
 
 Cost-book, Corn. A book used to keep accounts of mining enter- 
 prises carried on under the cost-book system peculiar to Cornwall 
 and Devon, and differing from both partnership and incorporation. 
 It resembles the mining partnership system of the Pacific States. 
 
 Costeaning or Cosleening, CORN. Discovering veins by pits and 
 open cuts, run ou the surface transversely to the supposed course of 
 the veins. 
 
 Counter. 1. A cross-vein. 2. (Or counter-gangway.) A gangway, 
 driven obliquely upwards on a coal-seam from the main gangway 
 until it cuts off the faces of the workings, and then continues par- 
 allel with the main gangway. The oblique portion is called the 
 run. 
 
 Country, or country-rock, Corn. The rock traversed by or adja- 
 cent to an ore deposit. 
 
 Course. See Strike. 
 
 Course of ore. See Chute (2.). 
 
 Coursing. Conducting the air-current of a mine in different di- 
 rections by means of doors and stoppings. 
 
 Cousin Jack, A common nickname for a Cornishmau. 
 
 Covered-binding, Corn. See Plank-timbering. 
 
 Cow. A kind of self-acting brake for inclined planes; a trailer. 
 
 Cowl. See Water-barrel. 
 
 Cowper-Siemens stove. A hot bla,st stove of firebrick on the re- 
 generative-principle. 
 
 Coi/oling, Pac. Mining in irregular openings or burrows, com- 
 parable to the holes of coyotes or prairie foxes. 
 
 Crab. A machine for moving heavy weights. Specially the en- 
 gines employed for lowering into jilace the pumps, rods, pipes, etc., 
 of Cornish pil-work. 
 
 Cradle, PAC. See Rocker. 
 
 Cramp. A pillar of rock or mineral left for support. 
 
 Cranch. Part of a vein left by old workers. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 735 
 
 Craze or Oreaze, COEN. The tin-ore which collects in the middle 
 part of the huddle. 
 
 Oreep, Newc. A rising of the floor of a gangway, occasioned by 
 the weight of incumbent strata, in pillar workings. Also any slow 
 movement of mining ground. 
 
 Cretaceous. 1. Cliallsy. 2. See Geological formations. 
 
 Crevet, A crucible. 
 
 Crevice, Pao. 1. A shallow fissure in the bed-rock under a gold 
 placer, in which small but highly concentrated deposits of gold are 
 found. 2. The fissure containing a vein. 
 
 Crib. 1. See Curb. 2. A structure composed of frames of tim- 
 • ber laid horizontally upon one another, or of timbers built up as in 
 the walls of a log cabin. 3. A miner's luncheon. 
 
 Cribbing. Close timbering, as the lining of a shaft, or the con- 
 struction ol cribs of timber or timber and earth or rock, to support 
 a roof. 
 
 Cribble. A sieve. 
 
 Crop. \. Conn. See Crop-tin. I.thebasset or outcrop oi strata. 
 at the surface. 3. To leave coal at the bottom of a bed. 
 
 Cropping out. The rising of layers of rock to the surface. That 
 part of a vein which appears above the surface is called the crop- 
 ping or outcrop. 
 
 Crop-tin. The chief portion of tin-ore separated from waste in 
 the principal dressing operation. 
 
 Cross-course, Corn. An intersecting (usually a barren) vein. 
 
 Cross-cut. A level driven across the course of a vein, or, in gen- 
 eral, across the direction of the main workings (and to connect two 
 parallel gangways), or across the " grain of coal." 
 
 Cross-heading. A heading driven across from one gangway or 
 breast to another, usually for ventilation. 
 
 Cross-vein. An intersecting vein. 
 
 Crow or Crow-foot. A tool with aside-claw, for grasping and re- 
 covering broken rods in deep bore-holes. 
 
 Crucible. 1. A melting pot. 2. The lower part of a shaft fur- 
 nace, in which fusion is effected and the molten bath is contained. 
 
 CVttsA. 1. A squeeze, accompanied, perhaps, with more violent 
 motion and effects. 2. A variety of fault in coal. See Fault (2). 
 
 Crusher. A machine for crushing ores. 
 
 Cry of tin. The peculiar crackling noise produced in bending a 
 piece of metallic tin. 
 
 Culm. 1. Eng. Anthracite. 2. Penn. The waste or itaci of the 
 Pennsylvania anthracite mines, consisting of fine coal, more or less 
 pure, and coal-dust and dirt. 
 
 Owp-and-cone. A machine for charging a shaft-furnace, consist- 
 ing of an iron liopper with a large central opening, which is closed 
 by a cone or bell pulled up into it from below. In the annular 
 space around this cone, the ore, fuel, etc., are placed ; then the cone 
 is lowered to drop the materials into the furnace ; after which it is 
 again raised to close the hole. 
 
 Cupellation. The treatment on a hearth or cupel (usually formed 
 of bone-ash) of an alloy of lead, gold, and silver, by means of fusion 
 and an air blast, which oxidizes the lead to litharge, and removes it 
 in liquid form, or absorbs it in the cupel. 
 
 Cupola. A shaft-furnace with a blast, for remelting metals, pre- 
 paratory to casting. Sometimes incorrectly pronounced and written 
 
 Capalo. , J . , -. 
 
 Curb. A timber frame, circular or square, wedged m a shaft to 
 make a foundation for walling or tubbing, or to support, with or 
 without other timbering, the walls of the shaft. 
 
 Curbing. See Cribbing. 
 
 Cut. 1. To intersect a vein or working. 2. To excavate coal. 
 
 T)AM. 1. To keep back water in a stream or mine by means of 
 a dam or bulkhead. 2. S. Staff. See Slopping and Bulkhead. 
 3. The wall of refractory material, forming the front of the fore- 
 hearih of a blast furnace. It is built on the inside of a supporting 
 iron plate {dam-plate). Iron is tapped through a hole m the dam, 
 and cinder through a notch in the top of the dam. See lAirmann 
 
 fVOtht 
 
 Damask. The etched or " watered " surface produced on polished 
 (welded) steel by corrosion. 
 
 Damper, A valve in a flue or at the top of a chimney to regulate 
 the draft. , , „ ^ ^ c ..i. 
 
 Dam-plate. The plate upon the dam-stone or front stone ol tne 
 bottom of a blast furnace. 
 
 Damp-sheet, S. Staff. A large sheet, placed as a curtam or par- 
 tition across a gate-road to stop and turn an air-current. 
 
 Dan, Newo. A truck or sled used in coal mines. -,,,,. 
 
 Danks puddler. A re vol ving mechanical puddler. See Paddling. 
 
 Dant Newc. Soft, inferior coal; mimer-aZ cAarcoaZ. 
 
 Davy lamp. The safety lamp invented by Sir H. Davy. 
 
 Day Wales. The surface of the ground over a mine. Day- 
 level. An adit. Day-water. Water from the surface. 
 
 Dead, CoKN. 1. Unventilated. 2. As to a vein or piece ot 
 ground, unproductive. 
 
 Deadened mercury. See Floured. ^r. c ^i. 
 
 Dead-plate. Nearly horizontal iron plate, at the mouth ot tue 
 furnace under a steam-boiler, on which the bituminous coal charges 
 are laid to be partially coked before they are pushed upon the grate 
 where their solid carbon is consumed. The gases evolved on the 
 dead-plate pass over the grate and are burned. 
 
 Dead riches. See Base bullion. 
 
 Dead roasting. Roasting carried to the farthest practicable de- 
 gree in the expulsion of sulphur. 
 
 Deads, COHN. The waste rock, packed in excavations from which 
 ore or coal has been extracted. 
 
 Dead work. Work that is not directly productive, though it may 
 be necessary for exploration and future production. 
 
 Deal. Plank used in shaft and gallery construction. 
 
 i>«cm^ Corn. The end of a level. 
 
 Debns, Fr. The fragments resultiug from shattering or disinte- 
 gration. 
 
 Deep, Corn. The lower portion of a vein ; and in the phrase to 
 the deep, i. e., downward upon the vein. 
 
 Denunciar, Sp. To denounce. To give information that a mine 
 is forfeited for being insufficiently worked, or for a violation of some 
 condition which imposes that penalty. This term is also applied to 
 the giving notice of a discovery, for the purpose of registry. 
 
 Deposit. The term mineral deposit or ore-deposit is arbitrarily 
 used to designate a natural occurrence of a useful mineral or ore in 
 extent and degree of concentration to invite exploitation. 
 
 Derrick. 1. See Whip. 2. The hoisting-tower over an artesian 
 well-boring. 
 
 Descension-theory. The theory that the material in veins entered 
 from above. 
 
 Desilverization. The process of separating silver from its alloys. 
 
 Desuing, CoRN. See Bisumg. 
 
 Desulphurization. The removal of sulphur from sulphuret ores. 
 
 Dial, Corn. See Compass. To dial a mine is to make a survey 
 of it. 
 
 Diamond-drill. A form of rock-drill in which the work is done 
 by abrasion instead of percussion, black diamonds (torts) being set 
 in the head of the boring tool. 
 
 Diamond groove. A groove of V-section in a roll. 
 
 Die. A piece of hard iron, placed in a mortar to receive the blow 
 of a stamp, or in a pan to receive the friction of the muUer. Be- 
 tween the die and the stamp or muller the ore is crushed. 
 
 Dig. Corn. See Gouge. 
 
 Diggings. Applicable to all mineral deposits and mining camps, 
 but in usage in the United States applied to placer-mining only. 
 
 Dike. A vein of igneous rock. 
 
 Dilliiing or dilleughing, CORN. An operation performed in tin- 
 dressing upon the slimes of a certain part of the process. It is like 
 the operation of panning, only performed with a sieve having a 
 close haircloth bottom, and in a kieve of water which receives the 
 tailings of the process. 
 
 Diluvium. Sand, gravel, clay, etc., in superficial deposits. See 
 Drift. According to some authors, alluvium is the effect of the or- 
 dinary, and diluvium of the extraordinary action of water. The 
 latter term is now passing out of use as not precise, and more spe- 
 cific names for the different kinds of material are substituted. 
 
 Dinas brick. A refractory brick, almost entirely composed of 
 silica from the Dinas "clay" in the Vale of Neath, England. 
 
 Dip. The inclination of a vein or stratum below the horizontal. 
 The dip at any point is necessarily at right angles with the local 
 strike, and its inclination is steeper than that of any other line drawn 
 in the plane of the vein or stratum through that point. 
 
 Dipping-needle. See Compass. 
 
 Discovery, Pao. The first finding of the mineral deposit in place 
 upon a milling claim. A discovery is necessary. before the location 
 can be held by a valid title. The opening in which it is made is 
 called discovery-shaft, discovery tunnel, etc. 
 
 Dish, Corn. 1. The landowner's or landlord's part of the ore. 
 2. Derb. a measure of 14, 15 or 16 pints. 
 
 Dissmng, CORN. Cutting out the selvage or gouge of a lode, to 
 facilitate the ore-extraction. 
 
 Distillation. Volatilization, followed by condensation to the liquid 
 state. 
 
 District. In the States and Territories west of the Missouri, a 
 vaguely bounded and temporary division and organization made by 
 the inhabitants of a mining region. A district has one code of mi- 
 ning laws, and one recorder. Counties and county oflicers are grad- 
 ually taking the place of these cruder arrangements. 
 
 Ditch. An artificial watercourse, flume or canal, to convey water 
 for mining. A flume is usually of wood ; a diteh, of earth. 
 
 Divining-rod or Dowsing-rod, Coen. A rod (most frequently of 
 witch-hazel, and forked in shape) used, according to an old but still 
 extant superstition, for discovering mineral veins and springs of 
 water, and even for locating oil wells. 
 
 Doggy, S. Staff. An underground superintendent, employed by 
 the butty. 
 
 Dog-hole. A small proving-hole or airway, usually less than 5 
 feet high. 
 
 Dole. A division of a parcel of ore. 
 
 Dolly-tub, Corn. A tub in which ore is washed, being agitated 
 by a dolly, or perforated board. 
 
 Dope. See Explosives. 
 
 Doits or DoU-holes. Small openings in the vein. 
 
 Douglas process. See Hunt and Doaglas process. 
 
 Downcast. The opening through which the ventilating air-cur- 
 rent descends into a mine. 
 
 Bovmcome. The pipe through which tvmnel-head gases from iron 
 blast-furnaces are brought down to the hot-blast stoves and boilers, 
 when these are below the tunnel-head. 
 
736 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Dradge, Corn. The inferior portions of ore, separated from the 
 prill by cobbing. • 
 
 Drag. The lower part of a flask. The mould having been pre- 
 pared in the two parts of the flasl£, the cope is put upon the drag be- 
 fore casting. After casting, the flasli is opened by removing the cope. 
 
 Drag-twist. A spiral hook at the end of a rod, for cleaning bore- 
 holes. 
 
 Draught, S. Staff. The quantity of coal raised to bank in a given 
 time. 
 
 Draw. To rob pillars or the top-coal of breasts before abandon- 
 ing the ground. 
 
 Dredge. Very fine mineral matter held in suspension in water. 
 
 Dresser, S. Staff. A large pick, with which the largest lumps 
 of coal are prepared for loading into the skip. 
 
 Dressing, COBN. The picking and sorting of ores, and washing, 
 preparatory to reduction. 
 
 Drift. 1. A horizontal passage underground. A drift follows 
 the vein, or distinguished from a cross-cut, which intersects it, or a 
 level or gallery, which may do either. 2. Unstratified dilumum. 
 
 Drill. A metallic tool for boring in hard material. The ordina- 
 ry miner's drill is a bar of steel, with a chisel-shaped end, and is 
 strucli with a hammer. See Mock-drill, Diamond-drill. 
 
 Driving. Extending excavations horizontally. Distinguished 
 from sinking and raising. 
 
 Dropper, COEN. A branch leaving the main vein on the footwaM 
 side. 
 
 Dross. The material skimmed from the surface of freshly melt- 
 ed, not perfectly pure metal. 
 
 Drowned-level. See Blind-level, (2). 
 
 Druggon, S. Staff. A square iron or wooden box, used for con- 
 veying fresh water for horses, etc., in a mine. 
 
 Drum. That part of the winding machinery on which the rope 
 or chain is coiled. 
 
 Druse. A crystallized crust lining the sides of a cavity. 
 
 Dry, Corn. See Changing-house. 
 
 Dry copper. See Under-poled copper. Also copper just ready 
 for poling. 
 
 Dry Puddling. See Puddling. 
 
 Dry sand. Sand prepared for moulds by thorough drying and 
 baking. When special cohesion is required (as for cores) otlier sub- 
 stances, such as flour, molasses, etc., are mixed with it. 
 
 Dualin. See Explosives. 
 
 Dumb-drift. An air-way conveying air around, not through, a 
 ventilating furnace to the upcast. 
 
 Dump. 1. To unload a vehicle by tilting or otherwise, without 
 handling or shovelling out its contents. 2. A pile of ore or rock. 
 
 Dumper. A tilting-car used on dumps. 
 
 Durn, Corn. A frame of timbering, like a door-frame. 
 
 Dust-plate. A vertical iron plate, supporting the slag-runner of 
 an iron blast furnace. 
 
 Dutch metal. An alloy of copper and zinc, containing more cop- 
 per than ordinary brass. 
 
 Duty. A measure of the effectiveness of a steam-engine, usually 
 expressed in the number of foot-pounds (or kilogrammetres) of use- 
 ful work obtained from a given quantity of fuel. 
 
 Duty-ore, Corn. The landlord's share of the ore. 
 
 Dyke. See Dike. 
 
 Dzhu, Corn. To cut ahead on one side of a face, so as to in- 
 crease the efficacy of blasting on the remainder. (Doubtless the 
 same word as Dissue. See Dissuing.) Also called to hulk. 
 
 J^GQ-coal, Penn. See Coal. 
 
 Egg-hole, Derb. A notch cut in the wall of a lode to hold the 
 end of a stempel. 
 
 Electrum. An alloy of copper, zinc, and nickel. 
 
 Eliguation. Sejiarating an alloy by heating it so as to melt the 
 more fusible of its ingredients, but not the less fusible. 
 
 Ehitriation. Purification by washing and pouring off' the lighter 
 matter suspended in water, leaving the heavier portions behind. 
 
 Elvan, Corn. A name given to certain broad granite veins or 
 belts in schistose rocks. 
 
 Emery. Impure corundum. 
 
 End of coal. The direction or section at right-angles to the face ; 
 sometimes called the butt. 
 
 End-pieces, Corn. See Wall-plates. 
 
 English process. In copper-smelting, the process of reduction in 
 a reverberatory furnace, after roasting, if necessary. 
 
 English zinc-furnace. A furnace in which zinc is reduced and 
 distilled from calcined ores in crucibles. 
 
 Engorgement. The clogging of a furnace. See Scaffold. 
 
 Entry. An adit. Applied to the main gangway in some coal 
 mines. 
 
 Estufa amalgamation, Sp. A modification of the patio process, 
 using heat. 
 
 Exploder. A cap or fulminating cartridge, placed in a charge of 
 gunpowder or other explosive, and exploded by electricity or by a 
 fuse. See Explosives. 
 
 Exploitation, Fr. The productive working of a mine, as distin- 
 guished from exploration. 
 
 Explosives. The principal explosives used in minin," are qun- 
 powder, a compound of sulphur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate 
 (potash saltpetre) or sodium nitrate (Chili or soda-saltpetre) • nitro- 
 
 glycerin, a liquid compound of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and 
 oxygen, produced by the action of nitric acid upon glycerin ; dyna- 
 mite No. 1, or giant-powder, a mixture of nitroglycerin with a dry 
 pnlverized mineral or vegetable absorbent or dope (commonly sili- 
 cious or infusorial earth) ; dynamite No. 2, nitroglycerin mixed with 
 saltpetre, sawdust, or coaldust, paraffin, etc., in lieu of an inexplo- 
 sive dope ; lithofracteur, nitroglycerin mixed with silicious earth, 
 charcoal, sodium (and sometimes barium) nitrate and sulphur; dua- 
 lin, nitroglycerin mixed with potassium, nitrate and fine sawdust; 
 rendrrock. Atlas, Hercules, Neptune, tmiUe, vigorite, and other powers, 
 resembling dynamite No. 2, i. e., consisting of nitroglycerin with a 
 more or less explosive dope ; and mica-powder, a No. 1 dynamite, in 
 which the dope is fine scales of mica. The chlorate, picrate, and 
 fulminate explosives are not used in mining, except the fulminate 
 of mercury, which is employed for the caps or exploders, by means 
 of which charges of powder, dynamite, etc., are fired. 
 
 Eye. 1. The top of a shaft. 2. The opening at the end of a 
 tuyere, opposite the nozzle. 3. The hole in a. pick or hammer-head 
 which receives the handle. 
 
 JpAOE. 1. In any adit, tunnel, or stope, the end at which work is 
 
 f regressing or was last done. 2. The face of coal is the princi- 
 cleavage-plane at right angles to the stratification. Driving on 
 the face is driving against or at right angles with the face. 
 
 Fagot. See Pile. 
 
 Fahlband, Germ. A zone or stratum in crystalline rock, im- 
 pregnated with metallic sulphides. Intersecting fissure-veins are 
 enriched by the fahlband. 
 
 Famp, Newc. Soft, tough, thin shale beds. 
 
 Fan. A revolving machine, to blow air into a mine {pressure- 
 fan, blower), or to draw it out (suction-fan). 
 
 Fanega, Sp. A bushel ; sometimes half a mule-load. 
 
 Fang, Derb. An air-course cut in the side of a shaft or level, 
 or constructed of wood. 
 
 Fast-end. 1. The part of the coal-bed next the rock. 2. A gang- 
 way with rock on both sides. See Loose-end. 
 
 Fast shot, Newc. A charge of powder exploding without the 
 desired effect. 
 
 Fathom, CoRN. Six feet. A fathom of mining ground is six feet 
 square by the whole thickness of the vein, or in Cornish phrase, a 
 fathom forward by a fathom vertical. 
 
 Fauld. The tymp-arch or working-arch of a furnace. 
 
 Fathonirtale, CORN. See Tut-work (2). This name probably 
 arises from the payment for such work by the space excavated, and 
 not by the ore produced. 
 
 Fault. 1. A dislocation of the strata or the vein. 2. In coal- 
 seams, sometimes applied to the coal rendered worthless by its con- 
 dition in the seam (slate-fault, dirt-fault, etc.). 
 
 Feather. See Plug and feather. 
 
 Feathered-shot. Copper granulated by pouring into cold water. 
 
 Feathering. See Plugging. 
 
 Feeder. 1. A small vein joining a larger vein. 2. A spring or 
 stream. 3. A blower of gas. 
 
 Feigh, Newc. fiefuse washed from lead-ore or coal. 
 
 Feldspathic. Containing feldspar as a principal ingredient. 
 
 Fell. See Riddle. 
 
 Ferric furnace. A high iron blast furnace, in the upper part of 
 which crude bituminous coal is converted into coke. 
 
 Ferromanganese. An alloy of iron and manganese. 
 
 Ferruginous. Containing iron. 
 
 Fettle, Fettling. See Fix. 
 
 Fillet. The rounded corner of a groove in a roll. 
 
 Fin. The thin sheet of metal squeezed out between the collars of 
 the rolls in a roll-train. 
 
 Fine metal. 1. See Metal. 2. The iron or plate-metal produced 
 in the refinery. 
 
 Finery. A charcoal-hearth for the conversion of cast into mallea- 
 ble iron. 
 
 Fining. 1. See Refining. 2. The conversion of cast into mallea- 
 ble iron in a hearth or charcoal-fire. 
 
 Finishing-rolls. The rolls of a train which receive the bar from 
 the roughing^rolls, and reduce it to its finished shape. 
 
 Fire-bars. Grate bars in a fireplace. 
 
 Fire-bricks. Refractory bricks of fire-clay or of silicious mate- 
 rials used to line furnaces. 
 
 Fire-bridge. The separating low wall between the fire-place and 
 the hearth of a reverberatory furnace. 
 
 Fire-clay. A clay comparatively free from iron and alkalies, not 
 easily fusible, and hence used for fire-bricks. It is often found be- 
 neath coal-beds. 
 
 Fire-damp. Light carburetted hydrogen gas. When present in 
 common air to the extent of one-fifteenth to one-thirteenth of vol- 
 ume, the mixture is explosive. 
 
 Fire-setting. The softening or cracking of the working- face of a 
 lode, to facilitate excavation, by exposing it to the action of a wood- 
 fire liuilt close against it. Now nearly obsolete, but much used in 
 hard rock before the introduction of explosives. 
 
 Fire-stink, S. Staff. The stench from decomposing iron pyrites, 
 caused by the formation of sulphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 Fissurr-rrin. A fissure in the earth's crust filled with mineral. 
 
 Fix. To fettle or line with a yia; or fettling, consisting of ores, 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 737 
 
 Bcrap and cinder, or other suitable substances, the hearth of pud- 
 dling; furnace. 
 
 Flung, Corn. A two-pointed miner's pick. 
 
 Flange. Applied to a vein widening. 
 
 Flap-door, Newc. A manhole door. 
 
 Flask. 1. The wooden or iron frame which holds the sand-mould 
 used in a foundry. 2. An iron bottle in which quicksilver is sent 
 to market. It contains 76i pounds. 
 
 Fiat, Derb. and N. Wales. A horizontal vein or ore-deposit 
 auxiliary to a main vein; also any horizontal portion of a vein else- 
 where not horizontal. 
 
 Flat-nose shell. A cylindrical tool with valve at bottom, for bor- 
 ing through soft clay. 
 
 Hat-rods. A series of horizontal or inclined connecting-rods, 
 running upon rollers, or supported at their joints by rocking-arms, 
 to convey motion from a steam-engine or water-wheel to pump-rods 
 at a distance. 
 
 Flat-wall, Corn. A local term (in St. Just) for foot-wall. 
 
 Flintshire furnace. A reverberatory with a depression, well or 
 cruci!>le in the middle of the side of the hearth; used for tne roast- 
 ing and reaction process on lead ores. 
 
 Float-copper, Lake Sup. Fine scales of metallic copper (espe- 
 cially produced by abrasion in stamping) which do not readily settle 
 in water. 
 
 Float-gold, Pac. Fine particles of gold, which do not readily 
 settle in water, and hence are liable to be lost in the ordinary stamp- 
 mill process. • 
 
 Float-ore. Water-worn particles of ore; fragments of vein-ma- 
 terial found on the surface, away from the vein outcrop. 
 
 Flookan or Flooking, COBN. See Flwccan. 
 
 Floor. 1. The rock underlying a stratified or nearly horizontal 
 deposit, corresponding to the foot-wall of more steeply-dipping de- 
 posits. 2. A horizontal, flat ore-body. 3. A floor, in the ordinary 
 sense, or a plank platform underground. 
 
 Floran-tm, COBN. Tin ore scarcely visible in the stone, or 
 stamped very small. 
 
 Flosh, COEN. A rude mortar, with a shutter instead of a screen, 
 used under stamps. 
 
 Floss. Fluid, vitreous cinder, floating in a puddling furnace. 
 
 Floss-hole. A tap-hole. 
 
 Floured. The finely granulated condition of q^uicksilver, pro- 
 duced to a greater or less extent by its agitation during the amalga- 
 mation process. 
 
 Flowing furnace. A reverberatory with inclined hearth, used in 
 Cornwall for treating roasted lead ores by the precipUation pro- 
 cess. 
 
 Fluccan, Corn. Soft clayey matter in the vein ; a vein or course 
 of clay. 
 
 Fliie. A passage for air, ^as, or smoke. 
 
 Flue-bridge. The separating low wall between the flues and the 
 laboratory of a reverberatory furnace. 
 
 Flue-cinder. Iron-cinder from the reheating furnace, so called 
 because it runs out from the lower part of the flue. 
 
 Flume. A wooden conduit, bringing water to a mill or mine. 
 
 Flux. A salt or other mineral, added in smelting to assist fusion, 
 by forming more fusible compounds. 
 
 Foal. Nevtc. a young boy employed in putting coal. 
 
 Fodder, North Eng. A unit employed in expressing weights 
 of metallic lead, and equal to 21 hundredweight of 112 pounds 
 avoirdupois. 
 
 Foge, CoBN. A forge for smelting tin. 
 
 Fondon. A large copper vessel, m which hot amalgamation is 
 practiced. 
 
 Foot-piece. See Sill. 
 
 Foot-wall, Corn. The wall under the vein. 
 
 Foot-way. The series of ladders and sollars by which men enter 
 or leave a mine. . „, , ^ , , j 
 
 Forefield, Newc. The face of the workings. The forefield-end 
 is the end of the workings farthest advanced. 
 
 Fore-hearth. A Iprojecting bay in the front of a blast-fiimace- 
 hearth, under the tymp. In openrfront furnaces it is from the fore- 
 hearth that cinder is tapped. See Dam and Tymp. 
 
 Forfeiture. The loss of possessory title to a mine or public lands 
 by failure to comply with the laws prescribing the quantity of as- 
 sessment work, or by actual abandonment. 
 
 Fore-poling. A method of securing drifts in progress through 
 quicksand by driving ahead poles, lath, boards, slabs, ete., to pre- 
 vent the inflow of the quicksand on the sides and top, the face bemg 
 protected by breast-boards. 
 
 Forespar. See Bloomary. 
 
 Fore-winning. Newc. Advanced workings. 
 
 Forge. 1. An open or semi-open hearth with a tuyere. 2. ENG. 
 That part of an ironworks where balls are squeezed and hammered 
 and then drawn out into puddle-bars by grooved rolls. 
 
 Forge-cinder. The slag from a forge or bloomary. 
 
 Formation. See Geological formations. . 
 
 Fork. 1. Corn. The bottom of the sump. 2. Derb. A piece 
 of wood supporting the side of an excavation in soft ground 
 
 ForpaZe or Forepale. The driving of timbers or planks horizon- 
 tally ahead at the working-face, to prevent the caving of the ground 
 in subsequent driving. 
 
 Fossil ore. Fossiliferous red hematite. 
 
 47 
 
 Father, Newc. One-third of a chaldron. 
 
 Foundershaft.' The first shaft sunk. 
 
 Fox-tail, S. Wales. The last cinder obtained in the fining pro- 
 cess. 
 
 Frame, Corn. See Tin-frame. 
 
 Free, native, uncombined with other substances, as free gold or 
 silver. 
 
 Free fall. An arrangement by which, in deep boring, the bit is 
 allowed to fall freely to the bottom at each drop or down-stroke. 
 
 Free-milling. Applied to ores which contain free gold or silver, 
 and can be reduced by crushing and amalgamation, without roasting 
 or other chemical treatment. 
 
 Freiberg amalgamMion. See Barrel amalgamation. 
 
 Fritting, The formation of a slag by heat with but incipient 
 fusion. 
 
 Frontal hammer or Frontal helve, Eng. A forge-hammer lifted 
 by a cam, acting upon a " tongue " immediately in front of the ham- 
 mer-head. 
 
 Frue vanner. A variety of continuously working percussion- 
 table. 
 
 Fulguration. See Blick. 
 
 Fargen. A round rod used for sounding a bloomary fire. 
 
 Furnace. 1. A structure in which heat is produced by the com- 
 bustion of fuel. 2. A structure in which, with the aid of heat so 
 produced, the operations of roasting, reduction, fusion, steam-gener- 
 ation, desiccation, ete., are carried on, or, as in some mine.^, 
 the upcast air-current is heated, to facilitate its ascent and thus aid 
 ventilation. 
 
 Furnace cadmiwm or cadmia. The oxide of zinc which accumu- 
 lates in the chimneys of furnaces smelting zinciferous ores. 
 
 Furtheramce, Newc. An extra price paid to hewers when they 
 also put the coal. 
 
 Fu^e. A tube or casing filled with combustible materia], by means 
 of which a blast is ignited and exploded. 
 
 Q-^D. 1. A steel wedge. 2. A small iron punch with a wooden 
 handle used to break up ore. 
 
 Galemador, Sp. A small Mexican fiirnace for roasting silver ores. 
 
 Gale, Eng. (Forest of Dean). A grant of mining ground. 
 
 Galiage. Royalty. 
 
 Gallery. A level or drift. 
 
 Gallery-furnace. A retort-furnace used in the distillation of 
 mercury. 
 
 Gallows-frame. A frame over a shaft, carrying the pulleys for 
 the hoisting cables. 
 
 Galvanize. To coat with zinc. 
 
 Ganister. A mixture of ground quartz and fire-clay, used in lin- 
 ing Bessemer converters. 
 
 Gang. 1. A mine. 2. A set of miners. 
 
 Gangue. The mineral associated with the ore in a vein. 
 
 Gangway. 1. A main level, applied chiefly to coal mines. 2. 
 Newc. A wooden bridge. 
 
 Garland, S. STAFF. A trough or gutter round the inside of a 
 shaft to cateh the water running down the sides. 
 
 Gas-cool. See Coal. 
 
 Gas-furnace. A fiimace employing gaseous inel. 
 
 Gash. Applied to a vein wide above, narrow below, and termi- 
 nating in depth within the formation it traverses. 
 
 Gas-producer. A furnace in which combustible gas is produced, 
 to be used as fuel in another furnace. 
 
 Gas-well. A deep boring, from which natural gas is discharged. 
 
 Gate, Gate-way, or Gate-road, Eng. 1. A road or way under- 
 ground for air, water or general passage; a gangway. 2. The 
 aperture in a founders' mould, through which the molten iron 
 enters. 
 
 Gear, Newc. 1. The working tools of a miner. 2. The mechani- 
 cal arrangement connecting a motor with its work. 
 
 Geode. A cavity, studded around with crystals or mineral mat- 
 ter, or a rounded stone containing such a cavity. 
 
 Geological formations. Groups of rocks of similar character and 
 age are called formations. The different stratified formations have 
 been arranged by geologists according to their apparent age or order 
 of position stratigraphically, and the fossils they contain. While 
 there are minor points of difference in classification, and still more 
 in nomenclature, the general scheme is now well settled. Three 
 tables are given on another page, the first prepared in 1878, by Prof. 
 J. D. Dana, the second by Prof. T. Sterry Hunt, both for the United 
 States, and the third referring to formations found in Pennsylvania 
 only, by Professor J. P. Leslie. They are taken (Professor Hunt's, 
 with later revision by the author), from The Geologist's Traveling 
 Handbook, prepared by James Macfarlane, Ph.D. The numbers 
 attached to the different formations in these tables will facilitate 
 the identification of a given formation under different names. A 
 catalogue of the formations is added to the tables, in which the pre- 
 dominant rocks of each are named. The eruptive rocks are not 
 included in these tables, the determination of their a^e being a 
 more difficult and doubtful matter, the discussion of which cannot 
 be undertaken in this place. For lack of space, also, the enumera- 
 tion and description of the different species of rocks and minerals 
 must be omitted, the reader being referred for such information to 
 works on lithology and mineralogy. 
 
 Geordie. The Miners' term for Stephenson's safety-lamp. 
 
738 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 PROFESSOR J. D. DANA S TABLE OJ GEOLOGICAL rORHATIONS. 
 
 SYETTOIS OB 
 AGES. 
 
 GROUPS UB PERIODS. 
 
 FORMATIONS OR EPOCHS. 
 
 Age of man. 
 
 20. Quarternary. 
 
 20. Quarternary. 
 
 il 
 
 19. Tertiary. 
 
 19 c. PiHocene. 
 19 b. Miocene. 
 19 a. Eocene. 
 
 a 
 a 
 
 18. Cretaceous. 
 
 18 0. Upper Cretaceous. 
 18 b, Middle Cretaceous. 
 18 a. Lower Cretaceous. 
 
 S 
 p. 
 
 17. Jurassic. 
 
 17. Jurassic. 
 
 K 
 
 16. Triaasic. 
 
 16. Triassic. 
 
 
 15. Permian. 
 
 15. Permian. 
 
 Carboniferou 
 
 14. Carbon Terous. 
 
 14 0. Upper Coal Measures. 
 14 b. Lower Coal Measures. 
 14 a. Millstone Grit. 
 
 13. Subcarboniferous. 
 
 13 b. Upper Subcarbonifer.->ua 
 1-3 a. Lower Subcai'boniferous. 
 
 1 
 
 12. Catekill. 
 
 12. Catskill. 
 
 ■s 
 
 11. Chemung. 
 
 11 b. Chemung. 
 11 a. Portage. 
 
 a 
 
 10. Hamilton. 
 
 10 c. Genesee. 
 10 b. Hamilton. 
 10 a. Marcellus. 
 
 a 
 1 
 
 9. CormferouB. 
 
 9 0. Corniferous. 
 9 h. Schoharie. 
 9 a. Cauda Galli. 
 
 
 d 
 
 8. Oriakany. 
 
 8. Oriskany. 
 
 
 7. Lower Heiderberg. 
 
 7. Lower Heiderberg. 
 
 
 a 
 
 6. Salina. 
 
 6. Salina. 
 
 
 1 
 
 5. Niagara. 
 
 5 c. Niagara. 
 5 b. Clinton. 
 5 a. Medina. 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 4. Trenton. 
 
 4 c. Cincinnati. 
 4 b. Utica. 
 4 a. Trenton. 
 
 o 
 a 
 
 
 3. Canadian. 
 
 3 c. Chazy, 
 3 b. Quebec. 
 3 a. Calciferoiis. 
 
 CQ 
 
 1 
 
 2. Primordial on Cambrian. 
 
 2 b." Potsdam. 
 2 a. Acadian. 
 
 
 
 1. Archaean. 
 
 1 b. Hurouian. 
 1 a. Laurentian. 
 
 PROFESSOR T. STERRT HUNT S TABLE OF GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 
 
 Mesozoic. 
 
 Faleozdic. 
 
 20. Quarternary. 
 19. Tertiary. 
 
 18. Cretaceous. 
 17. Jurassic. 
 16. Triassic. 
 
 13-15. Carboniferous. 
 
 8-12. Erian o»* Devonian. 
 
 AMERICAN yuRMATIONS. 
 
 19 c. Pliocene. 
 19b. Miocene. 
 19 a. Eucuuo 
 
 18. CrotaceouB. 
 
 17. New Red Sandstone. 
 
 16. Now lied Sandstone. 
 
 15. Pernio- Carboniferous. 
 
 I 
 
 14. Coal Mp,wurc8. i. 
 
 13 b. Mississippi (Garb-Llmest't'). 
 
 13 a. Waverloy or Bonavejturo. 
 
 12. (Catskill 
 
 11. Clicmungand Portage, 
 
 10. Hamilton (including Genesee 
 
 and Marcellus). 
 9. Corniferous or Upper Heiderb'g 
 8. Oriskany. 
 
 Edzoic. 
 
 5-7. Silurian. 
 
 4, Upper Cambrian, Siluro-Cam- 
 brian, Ordovician, or Ordovian. 
 
 3. Middle Cambrian. 
 
 2. Lower Cambrian. 
 
 1. Primary or Crystalline. 
 
 AUERTCAN FORMATIONS. 
 
 7. Lower Heiderberg. 
 
 6. Onondaga or Salina. 
 
 5 c. Niagara (including Guelphl. 
 
 5 b. Clinton. ^ 
 
 5 a. Medina. 
 
 5 a. Oneida. 
 
 4 c. Loraine. 
 4 b. Utica. 
 4 a. Trenton. 
 
 3 c. Chazy. 
 
 3b. Levis (Tremadoc and Arenig). 
 
 3 a. Calciferous. 
 
 2 e. Potsdam. 
 
 2 d. Sillery. 
 
 2 c. Acadian (Menevian). 
 
 2 b. Taconian. 
 
 2 a. Keweenian. 
 
 1 e. Montalban. 
 
 1 d. Norian or Labrador. * 
 
 1 c. Huronian. 
 
 1 b. Arvonian. 
 
 1 a. Laurentian. 
 
 ^ Professor Hunt says there are many reasons for believing that the Norian 
 may be older than the Arvonian and Huronian. 
 
 PROFESSOR J. P. LESLEY S PROVL-ajONAL NOMENCLATURE OF THE 
 SECOND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 
 NAMES PROVISIONALLY ADOPTKD. 
 
 Nob. used in 
 first survey. 
 
 
 20. Quarternary. 
 
 16. Triassic. 
 
 14 c. Upper Barren Measures. 
 
 14 c. Monor^hela River Coal Series. 
 
 14 b. Lower Barren Measures. 
 
 14 b. Allegheny River Coal Series. 
 
 14 a. Pottsville Conglomerate. 
 
 XIIL 
 XIIL 
 
 xnL 
 xni. 
 
 XII. 
 
 Berniciau. 
 
 13 b. Manch Chunk Red Shale. (Umbral.) 
 13 a. Pocono Gray Sandstone. (Vespertine.) 
 
 XL 
 X. 
 
 Devonian. 
 
 12. Catskill Red Sandstone. (Ponent.) 
 
 11 b. Chemung. 
 
 11 a. Portage. 
 
 10 c. Genesee. 
 
 10 b. Hamilton. 
 
 10 a. Marcellus. 
 
 9. Upper Heiderberg. 
 
 8. Oriskany. 
 
 IX. 
 VIIL 
 VIIL 
 VIH. 
 VIIL 
 , VIIL 
 VIIL 
 VTL 
 
 Silurian. 
 
 7. Lower Heiderberg. (Lewistown- Limestone.) 
 6 b. Clinton. 
 .*> a. Medina. 
 5 a. Oneida. 
 
 VI. 
 V. 
 IV. 
 IV. 
 
 Siluro-Cambrian. 
 
 4 c. Hudson River. 
 4 b. Utica. 
 4 a. Trenton. 
 3 a. Calciferous. 
 2 b. Potsdam. 
 
 IIL 
 
 III. 
 
 IL 
 
 IL 
 
 I. 
 
 
 1. Azoic. 
 
 
 Notes. — In the following notes Professor Hunt's classification is 
 sufficiently followed to show the nature of the older groups which 
 he distinguishes. 
 
 la. Laurentian. Chiefly massive gneiss, reddish or grayish, 
 sparingly micaceous, often hornblendic Some crystalline lime-' 
 stone, magnetic iron, and other metallic ores. 
 
 lb. Arvonian. Chiefly petrosilex, often becoming quartziferous 
 porphyry, with some quartzites and hornblendic rocks ; magnetic 
 and specular iron ore. 
 
 Ic. Norian. Chiefly a feldspathic rock (norite), which some- 
 times carries garnet, epidote, etc. ; also, great beds of titaniferous 
 iron ore. i 
 
 Id. Huroriian. Chloritic schists, greenstone, (diorite or diabase), 
 serpentine, steatite, dolomite, copper, chrome, nickel, and iron ores. 
 
 le. Montalban. Fine-grained micaceous or hornblendic gneiss, 
 crysolite rock, serpertine, mica-schist, granite. 
 
 2a. Keweenian. The copper-bearing series of Lake Superior, 
 made up of sandstones and conglomerates, with much interstratified 
 eruptive rock. 
 
 2b. Taconian. Granular quartzites, argillites and nacreous or 
 hydro-micaceous schists and great ma-saes of crystalline limestone, 
 marbles, magnetite, siderite, and pyrite changing to limonite. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEKEST8 OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 739 
 
 2c and d. Acaian (and Sillery). Fossiliferous sandstone and 
 shale. 
 
 2e. Potsdam. Sandstone conglomerate. 
 
 3a. Calclferoua. Sandy magnesian limestone, calcareous sand- 
 stone. 
 
 3b. Quebec. Sandstone, limestone conglomerate, black slate. 
 
 3c. C'/iazy. Limestone, chert. 
 
 4a. Trenton. Limestone^ bufif and blue ; dolomite carrying lead 
 ore deposits ; brbwn-hematite beds. 
 
 4b. Utica. Darlt carbonaceous slate ; impure limestone. 
 
 4c. Hudson Biver. Slate, shale, clay, grit. 
 
 5a. Medina. Conglomerate ; argillaceeus sandstone. 
 
 5b. Clinton. Sandstone^ shale, conglomerate, limestone, fossili- 
 ferous red hematite, or oolitic iron ore bed. 
 
 6c. Niagara. Clay shale ; limestone. 
 
 6. Salina. Red shale, gjrpseoua, shale, hydraulic lime, salt. 
 
 7. Lower Heiderberg. Limestone, shaly or compact, and fossili- 
 ferous. 
 
 8. Oriakany. Sandstone. 
 
 9. Comiferous or Upper Heiderberg. Principally limestone. 
 9a. Cauda-gaUi. Fine-grained calcareous and argillaceous, 
 
 drab or brownish sandstone ; peculiar fossils. 
 
 9b. Schoharie Orit. Fine-grained calcareous grit, similar to 9a, 
 but with diflFering fossils. 
 
 9c. Onondaga, and 9d. Coniferous. Gray, blue, black lime- 
 stone. At the top of 9d occur the Marcellus iron ore (carbonate.) 
 
 10a. Marcellus. Black or dark-brown bituminous and pyritifer- 
 ous shales. In 10a, and 9d occur the petroleum deposits of Canada. 
 
 10b. Hamilton. Slate, shale, sandstone calcareous and argil- 
 laceous. 
 
 10b. Tally. Impure dark limestone. 
 
 10c. Genesee. Black clay slate. 
 
 11a. Tortase. Green and black sandy and slaty shales, sandstone, 
 flagstone. 
 
 lib. Chemung. Thin-bedded greenish sandstones and flagstones, 
 with intervening shales, and rarely beds of impure limestone. 
 
 12. Catskill. Red, gray sandstone, grindstone grit, greenish 
 shale, conglomerate. 
 
 13. Lower Subcarboniferous. Sandstone, limestone, small local 
 coal beds. 
 
 13b. Upper Subcarboniferous. Red shale, red and gray sandstone, 
 blue limestone. 
 
 14a. Millstone Grit. White or yellow sandstone, and con- 
 glomerate of quartz pebbles. 
 
 14b. and 15c. Coal Meamtres. Fire-clay, shale, sandstone, con- 
 glomerate, limestone, bituminous coal, anthracite, iron ore, salt. 
 
 15. Permian. Limestone, sandstone, marl, shale. 
 
 16. Triassic. Bed Sandstone, red shale, conglomerate, lignite, 
 trap dikes, copper ore, coal. 
 
 17. Jurassic. Marl, limestone, probably the gold-bearing slates 
 of California. 
 
 18. Cretaceous. Earthy beds of sand, marl, clay, limestone, 
 chalk, lignite. 
 
 19. Tertiary. Earthy sand, clay, marl, limestone, sandstone. 
 
 20. Quaternary. Sand, pebbles, boulders, clay, diluvium ; gravel 
 and placer tin and gold deposits. 
 
 Note. — The primary and crystalline schistose rocks contain the 
 larger number of mineral veins. The ancient magnesian lime- 
 stones (probably Devonian) are characterized in many localities by 
 deposits of argentiferous lead ore and of zinc ore. 
 
 German process. In copper smelting, the process of reduction in 
 a shaft-furnace, after roasting, if necessary. 
 
 German Silver. A white alloy of nickel, copper, and zinc. 
 
 German steel. See Steel. 
 
 Qerstenhofer furnace. A shaft furnace filled with terraces or 
 shelves, through which crushed ore is caused to fall, for roasting. 
 
 Gig. See Kibble. 
 
 Gin. See Whim. 
 
 Ginging, Dbkb. The lining of a shaft with masonry. 
 ' Giraffe. A car of peculiar construction to run on an incline. 
 
 Girme. A thin bed of stones. 
 
 Girdle, Newc. A thin stratum of stone. 
 
 Girth. In square-set timbering, a horizontal brace in the direc- 
 tion of the drift- 
 Glazy. See Iron. 
 
 Glist, Corn. Mica. , , . . .. . . 
 
 Glut, Newc. A piece of wool, used to fill up behind cribbing 
 or tubbing. 
 
 Goaf, Eng. An excavated space ; also, the waste rock packed 
 in old workings. 
 ' Goaves. Old workings. 
 
 Gob, S. Wales. See Goaf. Both terms are chiefly used m 
 collieries, and are apparently the same word. Local usage seems 
 to give to goaf rather the meaning of the space in which the root 
 has fallen after the pillars have been removed, and to gob that ot a 
 space packed with waste after long-wall extraction of the coal. 
 
 Gobbing. Packing with waste rock. See Stowing. 
 
 Gob-up, Eng. Of a blast furnace, to become obstructed in work- 
 ing by reason of a scaffold or a salamMnder. 
 
 Gob-fire. Fire produced by the heat of decomposing ^ob. 
 
 Goffan or Goffen, CoKN. A long narrow surface-working. 
 ' Gold ores. Native gold ; telluric gold ore (sylvamte, muUente, 
 
 pagyagite, tellurides of gold, silver, and lead) ; auriferous lead, 
 
 zinc, and copper ores. 
 
 • Good levels^ Corn. Levels nearly horizontal. 
 
 Good roasting. See Roasting. 
 
 Gopher or Gopher-drift, An irregular prospecting-drift, following 
 or seeking the ore without regard to maintenance of a regular grade 
 or section. 
 
 Gossan or Oozzan, CORN. Hydrate oxide of iron, usually found 
 at the decomposed outerop of a mineral vein. 
 
 Gothic groove. A groove of Gothic arch section in a roll. 
 
 Gouge, A layer of soft material along the wall of a vein, favor- 
 ing the miner, by enabling hira after "gouging" it out with a pick, 
 to attack the solid vein from the side. 
 
 Grain, Eng. Of coal, the lines of structure or parting parallel 
 with the main gangways and hence crossing the breasts. 
 
 Grain-tin, CORN. 1. Crystalline tin ore. 2. Metallic tin. 
 
 Grapnel. An implement for removing the core leffby an annu- 
 lar drill in a bore-liole, or for recovering tools, fragments, etc., 
 fallen into the hole. 
 
 Grampus, U. S. The tongs with which blooTnary loups and 
 billets are handled. 
 
 Granzas, Sp. Small pieces of ore. 
 
 Graphite. A crystalline form of carbon. 
 
 Graphitic carbon. That portion of the carbon in iron or steel 
 which is present as graphite. 
 
 Grass, Corn. The surface over a mine. Bringing ores to grass 
 is taking them out of the mine. 
 
 Orassero, 8p. A slag-heap. 
 
 Grate, Corn. See Screen ( as applied to stamps). 
 
 Grate coal, Penn. See Coal. 
 . Gravel mines, U. S. An accumulation of auriferous gravel. 
 
 Grueso, Sp. Lump ore. The term is in use at the quicksilver 
 mines of California. 
 
 Green sand. Sand used for moulds without previous drying or 
 mixture. 
 
 Gray ore. Corn. Copper-glance. See Copper-ores. 
 
 Gray slag. The slag from the Flintshire lead furnaces. It is rich 
 in lead. 
 
 Griddle, Corn. A miner's sieve to separate ore from halvans. 
 
 Grip. A small, narrow cavity. 
 
 Grizzly, Pac. A grating to catch and throw out large stones 
 from sluices. 
 
 Groove or Grove. 1. Derb. A mine ; from the GERM. Gnibe. 
 See Roll. 
 
 Ground, CoRN. The rock in which a vein is found ; also, any 
 given portion of the mineral deposit itself. 
 
 Growan, CORN. Decomposed granite ; sometimes the granite 
 rock. 
 
 Gubbin. A kind of ironstone. 
 
 Grundy, Granulated pig iron. 
 
 Guard. A support in front of a roll-train to guide the bar into 
 the groove, sometimes called a side-guide. 
 
 Guides. 1. The timbers at the side of a shaft to steady and guide 
 the cage. 2. The holes in a cross-beam through which tne stems of 
 the stamps in a stamp mill rise and fall. 3. In a rolling-mill a guide 
 is a wedge-shaped piece held in the groove of a roll to prevent the 
 sticking of the bar by peeling it out of the groove. When the 
 guide is held by a hanger or counter-weight against the under side 
 of the roll, it is called a hanging-guide. 
 
 Guillotine. A machine for breaking iron with a falling weight. 
 
 Gullet, An opening in the Strata. 
 
 Gun-metai, An alloy of copper with tin or zinc, and sometimes 
 a little iron. The common formula is nine parts copper to one tin. 
 Aich's metal and some other gun-metals contain zinc and iron but 
 no tin. 
 
 Gunnies or Gunnisa, CoRN. The vacant space left where the 
 lode has been removed. 
 
 TTACIENDA, Sp. Excheayer , treasury ; public revenue ; capi- 
 tal ; funds ; wealth ; landed estate ; establishment. In mining 
 it is usually applied to the ofBlces, principal buildings, and works 
 for reducing the ores. 
 
 Hack. 1. See Pick. 2. A sharp blade on a long handle used for 
 cutting billets in two. 
 
 i?ade, Derb. See Underlay. 
 
 Hahner furnace. A continuous working shaft furnace for roast- 
 ing quicksilver ores. The fuel is charcoal, charged in alternate 
 layers with the ores. The Val^'Alta furnace is a modification, hav- 
 ing the iron tubes of the Alberti. 
 
 Hair plate. See Bloomary. 
 
 Half-marrow, Newc. Young boys, of whom two do the work of 
 one putter, 
 
 Halvans, Corn. Ores much mixed with impurities. 
 
 Hammer-pick. See Poll-pick. 
 
 Hanging-coal. A portion of the coal-seam which, by the removal 
 of another portion, has had its natural support removed, as in hold- 
 ing. 
 
 Hanging-guide. See Guide. 
 
 Hanging-side, or Hanging-wall, or Hanger, CORN. The wall or 
 side over the vein. 
 
 Hazel. Freestone. 
 
740 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Hard head. A residual alloy, containing much iron and arsenic, 
 produced in tiie refining of tin. . . . ,, 
 
 Hard lead. Lead containing certain impurities, principally anti- 
 mony. . c ^ 
 
 Hasenclever furnace. A roasting furnaxje, consisting ot a long 
 inclined channel (in its first form, a succession of inclined shelves 
 in a shaft) down which the ore slides in a thin sheet, heated from 
 helow. , . , 
 
 Head-gear. That part of deep-horing apparatus which remains 
 
 at the surface. 
 
 Headhouse. See Gallows-frame. 
 
 Heading. 1. The vein above a drift. See Back. 2. An in- 
 terior level or air-way driven in a mine. 3. In long-wall workings, 
 a narrow passage driven up in a gangway in starting a worlting in 
 order to give a loose end. . „ . ... 
 
 Headings. In ore-dressing, the heavier portions collecting at the 
 upper end of a huddle or sluice, as opposed to the tailings, which 
 escape at the other end, and the middlings, which receive further 
 treatment. 
 
 Head-piece. See Cap. 
 
 Headsman, Newc. See Putter. 
 
 Head-stocks. See Gallows-frame 
 
 Head-tree, Newc. See Cap. 
 
 Headway, Newc. See Cross-heading. The headways are the 
 second set of excavations in post-and-stall work. 
 
 Heap, Newc. The refuse at the pit's mouth 
 
 Hearth. 1. The floor or sole of a reverberatory. 2 The crucible 
 of a blast furnace. 
 
 Hearth-ends. Particles of unreduced lead ore expelled by the 
 blast from a furnace. 
 
 Heat. One operation in a heating furnace, Bessemer converter, 
 puddling furnace, or other furnace not operating continuously. 
 
 Healing-furnace. The furnace invihiaa.blooms oi piles are heated 
 before hammering or rolling. 
 
 Heave, COKN. A horizontal dislocation of a vein or stratum. 
 
 Helve. A lift-hammer for forging blooms. 
 
 Henderson process. The treatment of copper sulphide ores by 
 roasting with salt, to form chlorides, which are then leached out and 
 precipitated. Henderson originally proposed to volatilize the chlo- 
 rides, and the leaching and precipitation are not original with him. 
 Longmaid and many other metallurgists have proposed them in 
 various modifications. 
 
 Hercules powder. See Explosives. 
 
 Hewer, Newc. The man who cuts the coal. 
 
 Hitch, Scot, and Newc. 1. A minor dislocation of a vein or 
 stratum not exceeding in extent the thickness of the vein or stratum. 
 2. A hole cut in the side rock, when this is solid enough, to hold 
 the cap of a set of timbers, permitting the leg to be dispensed with. 
 
 High explosive. An explosive or detonating compound develop- 
 ing more intense and instantaneous force than gunpowder. Most 
 high explosives in general use contain nitroglycerin, bee Explosives. 
 
 Hog-back. 1. A sharp anticlinal, decreasing in height at both ends 
 until it runs out. 2. A ridge produced by highly titled strata. 
 
 Hogger-pipe. The upper terminal pipe of the mining pump. 
 
 Hogger-pamp. The topmost pump in a shaft. 
 
 Holing. 1. The working of a lower part of a bed of coal for 
 bringing down the upper mass. 2. The final act of connecting two 
 workings underground 
 
 Hollow-fire, Eng. A kind of hearth with blast, used for reheating 
 the stamps produced in the South Welsh process of fining, or the bars 
 of blister-steel in the manufacture of shear-steel. 
 
 Holloway process. The removal of sulphur from iron and copper 
 sulphides by fusion and pneumatic treatment, analogous to the man- 
 ner in which carbon, etc., are removed in the Bessemer process. 
 
 Homogeneous metal. A variety of ingot-metal produced by the 
 open-hearth process. See Steel. 
 
 Hopper. 1. A trap at the foot of a shoot for regulating the con- 
 tents of a wagon. 2. A place of deposit for coal or ore. 
 
 Horn. See Spoon. 
 
 Horse, CORN. 1. A mass of country-rock inclosed in an ore-deposit. 
 2. See Salamander. 
 
 Horse-back, Nbwc. A portion of the roof or floor which bulges 
 or intrudes into the coal. 
 
 Horseflesh ore, COEN. Bornite. See Copper-ores. 
 
 Horse-gin. Gearing for hoisting by horse-power. 
 
 Hot-bed. A platform in a rolling-mill on whicli rolled bars lie to 
 cool. 
 
 Hot-blast. Air forced into a furnace after having been heated. 
 
 notching. NOETH Eng. See Jigging. 
 
 House of water, Corn. A cavity or space filled with water. 
 
 Howell furnace. A form of revolving roasting furnace. 
 
 H-piece. That part of a plunger-lift m which the valves or clacks 
 are fixed. 
 
 Hudge. An iron bucket for hoisting ore or coal. 
 
 Hulk. See Dzhu. 
 
 Huel, Corn. See Wheat. 
 
 Hungry. A term applied to hard, barren vein-matter, such as 
 white quartz (not discolored with iron oxide). 
 
 Hunt & Doxiglas process. The treatment of copper oxide (or 
 roasted sulphide) ores by dissolving the oxides of copper in a hot so- 
 lution of protochloride of iron and common salt. From the solu- 
 
 tion thus obtained, metallic iron precipitates metallic copper, at the 
 same time regenerating the protochloride of iron for further use. 
 
 Hurdy-gurdy wheel. A water-wheel operated by the direct im- 
 pact of a stream upon its radially-placed paddles. 
 
 Hushing. The discovery of veins by the accumulation and sud- 
 den discharge of water, which washes away the surface soil and lays 
 bare the rock. See Booming. 
 
 Hutch. 1. Scot. A low car, suited both to run in a level and to 
 be hoisted on a cage. 2. COEN. A cistern or box for washing ore. 
 See Jig. 
 
 Hydrauliching, Pac. Washing down a bank of earth or gravel by 
 the use of pipes, conveying water under high pressure. 
 
 TDRIA furnace. See Leopoldi furnace. 
 
 Impregnation. An ore-deposit consisting Of the country-rock 
 impregnated with ore, usually without definite boundaries. 
 
 Jnbye or Inbyeside, Newc. Further into a mine, away from the 
 shaft. 
 
 Incline. 1. A shaft not vertical; usually on the dip of a vein. 
 See Slope. 2. A plane, not necessarily under ground. 
 
 Indicator. 1. An instrument for showing at any moment the 
 position of the cage in the shaft. 2. An instrument for recording, 
 by a diagram, upon a card the varying pressure of the steam in tlie 
 cylinder of a steam engine during the stroke. 
 
 Infiltration theory. The theory that a vein was filled by the in- 
 filtration of mineral solutions. 
 
 Ingot. A east bar or block of metal. 
 
 Injection-theory. The theory that a vein was filled first with 
 molten mineral. 
 
 In place. Of rock, occupying, relative to surrounding masses, 
 the position that it had when formed. 
 
 Inquartation. See Quartation. 
 
 Intake The passage by which the ventilating current enters a 
 mine. See Downcast, which is more appropriate for a shaft ; Intake 
 for an adit. 
 
 Inwalls. The interior walls or lining oi a shaft-furnace. 
 
 Irestone. Hard clay slate ; hornstone ; hornblende. 
 
 Irestone or Ironstone, Corn. Greenstone. 
 
 Iron. The principal varieties of iron are wrought-iron and cast- 
 iron (see Pig-iron). Wrought-iron, also called bar-iron and weld- 
 iron, is the product of the forge or the puddling furnace, cast-iron 
 of the blast furnace. The former approaches pure iron ; the latter 
 is an alloy of iron and carbon. Steel except some of the so-called 
 "low " or " mild " steels, which are more nearly wrought-iron 
 (fused and east) stands between them, having less carbon than cast- 
 iron and more than wrought-iron. Some of the carbon in cast-iron 
 is usually segregated during cooling in the form of graphite, and 
 this determines the grade of the iron as No. 1 foundry (the most 
 graphitic, coarsely crystalline, soft and black), ]fo. 2 foundry (le'ts 
 open in grain), gray forge or mill-iron (still closer in grain, suitable 
 for puddling), mottled (spotted with white-iron), and white (hard, 
 brittle, radially crystalline, containing its carbon mostly in alloy 
 with tlie iron, and showing no visible graphite). These grades are 
 also called simply No. 1, 2, 3, etc. So-called silver-gray, glazy, or 
 carbonized iron is usually an iron rendered brittle by excess of sili- 
 con. Ingot iron, see Steel. Anthracite, charcoal and coke iron are 
 names given to pig-iron according to the fuel with which it is made. 
 
 Iron hat. See Gossan. 
 
 Iron-ores : Magnetic {magnetite, protoperoxide) specular (hematite 
 proper, red hematite, anhydrous peroxide, (brown-iron ore (hemalile, 
 brown hematite, limonite, etc., hydrated peroxides), spathic (siderite, 
 carbonate), clay ironstone (black band, argillaceous siderite.) See 
 Fossil ore. 
 
 Iron-reduction process. See Precipitation process. 
 
 Ironstone. 1. Iron-ore. 2. See Ironstone. 
 
 JA CKET. A covering to prevent radiation of heat, as the jacket of 
 
 a steam boiler ; also a casing around a furnace hearth in wliich 
 water is allowed to stand or circulate to keep the walls cool. 
 
 Jackhead-pit. A small shaft sunk within a mine. 
 
 Jack-head pump. A subordinate pump in the bottom of a shaft, 
 worked by an attachment to the main pump-rod. 
 
 Jack-roll, NEWC. See Windlass. 
 
 Jadding or Judding. See Holing. 
 
 Jagging, A mode of carrying ore to the reduction-works in bags 
 on horses, mules, etc. 
 
 Jars. A part of percussion-drilling apparatus for deep holes, . 
 which is placed between the bit and the rods or cable, and which by 
 producing at eacli up-strolcc a decided jar of the bit jerks it up, 
 though it may be tightly wedged in the hole. 
 
 Jig-brow. See Jinny-road. 
 
 Jig-chain. S. Staff. A chain hooked to the back oi a. skip mi- 
 running round a post, to prevent its too rapid descent on an inclined 
 plane. 
 
 Jigging, Corn. Separating ores according to specific gravity 
 with a sieve agitated up and down in water. The apparatus is 
 called a jig or jigger. 
 
 .Jinny-road. A gravity plane underground. 
 
 Joachimsthal process. The extraction of silver from sulphuretted 
 ores by convertinginto chloride, leaching witli sodium hyposulphite, 
 and precipitating the silver as sulphide with sodium sulphide. 
 
THE MINEB, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 741 
 
 Jowl, Newc. a noise made for a signal by liammering at tlie 
 faces of two levels expected to meet. 
 
 Judge, Dekb. and Newc. A measuring-stick to measure coal 
 work under ground. 
 
 Judd, Newc. In whole-working, a portion of the coal laid-out 
 and ready for extraction; in pillar-wor/nng, {i. e., the drawing or 
 extraction of pillars), the yet unremoved portion of a pillar. 
 
 Jugglers. Timbers set obliquely against pillars oi coal to carry 
 a plank partition making a triangular air-paasage or man-way. 
 
 Jump. 1. Pac. To take possession of a mining claim alleged to 
 have been forfeited or abandoned. 2. A dislocation of a vein. 
 
 Jumper, CORN, and NEWa. A drill or boring tool, consisting of 
 a bar, which is "jumped " up and down in the bore-hole. 
 
 J^ANJfT. See Cand. 
 
 Kaat-furnace. A small circular shaft fiirnace with three or four 
 tuyeres, for lead smelting. 
 
 Keckle-meckle. The poorest kind of lead ore. 
 
 Keeve. 1. See Cauf.. 2. A tub used in collecting grains of heavy 
 ore or metal ; a dolly tub. 
 
 Kernel roasting. See Hoisting. 
 
 Kevil, Derb. a vein-stone consisting of a mixture of carbonate 
 of lime and other minerals. 
 
 Kibhall or Kibble, OoRK and Wales. An iron bucket for rais- 
 ing ore. 
 
 Kicker. Ground left in first cutting a vein, for support of its 
 sides. 
 
 Kieoe, CORN. A tub for tozing tin-ore. 
 
 Killas, Corn. Clay-slate. 
 
 Kiln. A furnace for the calcination of coarsely broken ore or 
 stone ; also, an oven for drying, charring, etc. 
 
 Kind's plug^ A wooden plug attached to an iron rod, used in 
 connection with sand for recovering tubing from bore-holes. 
 
 King-pot. The large central pot or crucible in a brass-melting 
 furnace. 
 
 King's yellow. Sulphide of arsenic. 
 
 Kirving, Newc. The cutting made at the bottom of the coal by 
 the hewer. 
 
 Kish. The blast-furnaoemen's name for the graphite-segrega- 
 tions seen in pig-iron and in the cinder of a furnace making a very 
 gray iron. 
 
 Kit. A wooden vessel. 
 
 Kitchen. See Laboratory (2). 
 
 Knits or Knobs. Small particles of ore. 
 
 Knobbing-fire. A bloomary for refining cast-iron. 
 
 Knockings. See Riddle. 
 
 Knox & Osborne furnace. A continuously working shaft furnace 
 for roasting quicksilver ores, having the fireplace built in the ma- 
 sonry at one side. The fuel is wood. 
 
 Knots. Small particles of or6. 
 
 Krohnke process. The treatment of silver ores preparatory to 
 amalgamation, by humid chloridization with copper dechloride. 
 
 Krupp washing Process. The removal of silicon and phosphorus 
 from molten pig iron by running it into a Pernot furnace, MrxeA 
 with iron oxides. Iron ore may also be added, and the bath is 
 agitated by rotation for five to eight minutes only. See Belts de- 
 phosphorizing process. 
 
 TABOR,Sv. Labos ; work ; a working. This term is applied in 
 mining to the work which is actually going on, and to the spaces 
 which have been dug out. It includes galleries, cavities and 
 shafts. 
 
 Laboratory. 1. A place fitted up for chemical analysis, etc. 
 
 2. The space between the fire and flue bridges of a remevberaiory 
 furnace in which the work is performed; also called the kitchen 
 and the 7\earth. 
 
 Ladle. A vessel into which molten metal is conveyed from the 
 furnace or crucible, and from which it is poured into the moulds. 
 
 Lagging. Planks, slabs, or small timber placed over the caps or 
 behind the posts of the timbering, not to carry the main weight, 
 but to form a ceiling or a wall, preventing fragments of rock from 
 falling through. 
 
 Lame skirting, Nevcc. Widening a passage by cutttng coal from 
 the side of it. . 
 
 Lander, COEN. The man at the shaft-mouth who receives the 
 kibble. 
 
 Laundry-box, NEWC. A box at the top of a set of pumps into 
 which the water is delivered. 
 
 Lath door-set. A weak lath-frame, surrounding a main door- 
 frame, the space between being for the insertion of piles. 
 
 Lath-frame or crib. A weak lath-frame, surrounding a main 
 crib, the spaee between being for the insertion of piles. 
 
 Laths, Corn. The boards or lagging put behind the dum3. 
 
 Launder, CORN. A wooden trough, gutter or sluice. 
 
 Lazadores, Sp. Persons employed to collect work for a mine. 
 
 Lazyback, S. Staff. The place at the surface where coal is 
 stacked for sale. 
 
 Leaching. See Lixiviation. 
 
 .Lead (pronounced like the verb to lead), Pac. See Lode. 
 
 Lead-fume. The fijjnes escaping from lead furnaces, and con- 
 taining both volatilized and mechanically suspended metalliterous 
 compounds. 
 
 Leader, Corn. A small vein leading to a larger one. 
 
 Lead-ores. Galena (galenlte, sulphide) ; antvmonial lead-ore 
 bournonite, sulphantimonide of lead and copper) ; white lead-ore 
 {cerussite, carbonate) ; green lead-ore {pyronutrphite, the phosphate, 
 or mimetite or mimetesite, the arseno-cliloride) ; lead-vitriol [angle- 
 site, sulphate) ; yellow leadrore (wulfenite, raolybdate) ; red lead-vre 
 (crocite, chromate). 
 
 Lead-spar, CoEN. Anglesite. See Lead-ores, 
 
 Leap, Derb. A fault. See Jump. 
 
 Leaf, Corn. A watercourse. 
 
 Leath. Applied to the soft part of a vein. 
 
 Leavings, CORN. The ores left after the crop 'has been removed. 
 
 Ledge, Sac. See Lode. 
 
 Ledgerwall. See Footwall. 
 
 Leg. A prop of timber supporting the end of a stull, or the cap 
 of a set of timber. 
 
 Leopoldi furnace. A furnace for roasting quicksilver ores, differ- 
 ing from the Bustamenle in having a series of brick condensing 
 ohiambers. Both are intermittent, i. e., have to be charged and 
 fired anew after each operation. The California intermittent 
 furnace is a modification of the Leopoldi, having tlie fireplace on 
 the side. 
 
 Level. A horizontal passage or drift into or in a mine. It is 
 customary to work mines by levels at regular intervals in deptli, 
 numbered in their order below the adit or drainage level, if there 
 be one. 
 
 Lewis. An iron instrument for raising heavy blocks of stone. 
 
 Ley, Sp. Proportion of metal in the ore ; fineness of bullion ; 
 also an alloy or base metal. 
 
 Lid. A flat piece of wood placed between the end of a prop or 
 stamper and the rock. 
 
 Lifters, CORN. The wooden beams used as stems for stamps in 
 old-fashioned stamp-mills. 
 
 Lift-hammer. See Tilt-hammer. 
 
 Liftingdog. A claw-hook for grasping a column of bore-rods 
 while raising or lowering them. 
 
 I/ignite. See Coal.- 
 
 Limp. An instrument for striking the refuse in the sieves in 
 washing ores. 
 
 Lindng, Newc. See Dialling, 
 
 Linnets, Derb Oxidized lead ores. 
 
 Liquation. See Eliquatixm, 
 
 Litharge, Protoxide of lead. 
 
 Ijithofracteur. See Explosives. 
 
 Little giant. A jointed iron nozzle used in hydraulic mining. 
 
 Lixiviation. The separation of a soluble from an insoluble mate- 
 rial by means of washing with a solvent. 
 
 Location. 1. The act of fixing the bou ndaries of a mining claim, 
 according to law. 2. The claim itself. 
 
 Loam. An impure potter's clay, containing mica or iron ochre. 
 
 Loch, Derb. and Wales. See Vug. 
 
 Lock-timber. An old plan of putting in stull-pieces in Cornwall 
 and Devon. The pieces were called lock-pieces. 
 
 Lode, Corn. Strictly a fissure in the country-rock filled with 
 mineral ; usually applied to metalliferous lodes. In general miner's 
 usage, a lode, vein, or ledge is a tabular deposit of valuable mineral 
 between definite boundaries. Whether it is a fissure formation or 
 not is not always known, and does not afiect the legal title under 
 the United States federal and local statutes and customs relative to 
 lodes. But it must not be a placer, i. e., it must consist of quartz or 
 other rock in place, and bearing valuable mineral. 
 
 Lodge, Wales. See Piatt. 
 
 Log, S. Staff. A balance-weight near the end of 'the hoisting- 
 rope of a shaft to prevent its running back over the pulley. 
 
 Longmaid Process. See Henderson process. 
 
 Long torn, Pac. A kind of gold-washing cradle. 
 
 Long-wall. A method of coal mining by which the whole seam is 
 taken out as the working faces progress, and the roof is allowed to 
 fall behind the workers, except where passages must be kept open, 
 or where the gob being packed in the space formerly occupied by the 
 coal, prevents caving. According as the work of extraction begins 
 at the boundary of the winning, and converges back to the shaft, 
 or begins with the coal nearest the shaft and proceeds outward to the 
 boundaries, it is called long-wall retreating or long-wall advancing. 
 
 Loob or loobs, CORN. The clayey or slimy portion washed out of 
 tin-ore in dressing. 
 
 Loop. See Loup. 
 
 Loop-drag. An eye at the end of a rod through which tow ia 
 passed for cleaning bore-holes. 
 
 Loose-end. A gangway in long-wall working, driven so that one 
 side is solid ground while the other opens upon old workings. See 
 Fast-end. 
 
 Lorry. A hand-car used on mine tramways. 
 
 Lost level, COB.N. "Level" is "lost" when a gallery has been 
 driven with an unnecessarily great departure from the horizontal. 
 
 Loup. The pasty mass of iron produced in a bloomary or pud- 
 dling furnace. See Puddle-ball. 
 
 iowe, Newc. Alight. A "piece of lowe" is part of a candle. 
 
 Luckhart furnace. A continuously working shaft furnace for 
 roasting quicksilver ores, having the fire-place in the shaft at the 
 bottom, protected by a cast-iron roof. The fuel is wood. 
 
 Lum. A chimney over an upcast pit. 
 
742 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 LumpcocU, Penn. See CoaZ. 
 
 Lurmann front. An arrangement of water-cooled castings through 
 which iron and cinder are tapped from the blast furnace, thus avoid- 
 ing the use of a forehearth. See Closed front. 
 
 Lying-wall, See Foot-waU. 
 
 JlfACHINE- WHIM. A rotary steam-engine for windljng. 
 
 Magistral, Sp. A powder of roasted copper pyrites, used in the 
 amalgamation of silver ores. 
 
 Main-rod. See Pump-rod. 
 
 Mainway. A gangway or principal passage. 
 
 Makings, Newc. The small coals hewn out in Mrving. 
 
 Malleable castings. Small iron castings made malleable by " an- 
 nealing " or decarburizing by cementation in powdered hematite or 
 other oxide of iron. 
 
 Mallet, COEN. The sledge-hammer used for striking or beating 
 the borer. 
 
 Mandril. See Maundril. 
 
 Manganese-ores. Gray oxide (pyrolusite, polianite, anhydrous 
 peroxide, and manganite, hydrated sesquioxide) ; black manganese 
 (hausmannite, protoperoxide) ; braunite (anhydrous sesquioxide) ; 
 red manganese ore (rhodochrosite, a carbonate, or rhodonite, a sili- 
 cate) ; also, manganiferous iron ores. 
 
 Man-hole, CoKN. The hole in a sollar through which men pass 
 upon the ladder or from one ladder to the next. 
 
 Man-machine or man-engine, COEN. and Derb. A mechanical 
 lift for lowering and raising miners in a shaft by meansjof a recipro- 
 cating vertical rod of heavy timber with platforms at intervals, or 
 of two such rods, moving in opposite directions. In the former case, 
 stationary platforms are placed in the shaft, so that the miner in 
 descending, for instance, can step from the moving platform at the 
 end of the down-stroke, and step back upon the next platform be- 
 low at the beginning of the next down-stroke. When two rods are 
 employed, the miner steps from the platform on one rod to that on 
 the other. 
 
 Man-of-war, Stafe. A small pillar of coal left in a critical spot ; 
 as a principal support in thick coal workings. 
 
 Mant(i,aP. Blanket; sack of ore. 
 
 Mantle. The outer wall and casing of an iron blast furnace, above 
 the hearth. 
 
 Manway. A small passage, used by workmen but not for trans- 
 portation. 
 
 Maquilla, Sp. A mill where ore is ground on shares. 
 
 Marl. Calcareous clay, sometimes used for the hearths of cupel- 
 ling-furnaces. 
 
 Martin process. Called also the Siemens-Martin and the open- 
 hearth process. See Steel. 
 
 Mass-copper, Lake Sup. Native copper, occurring in large 
 masses. 
 
 Massicot. See Litharge 
 
 Matrix. The rock of earthy material containing a mineral or 
 metallic ore ; the gangue. 
 
 Malt, or Matte, Fk. A mass consisting chieily of metallic sul- 
 phides got in the fusion of ores. 
 
 Maul, Dbeb. a large hammer or mallet. 
 
 Maundril, Derb and S. Wales. A prying pick with two 
 prongs. 
 
 Mear. Derb. Thirty-two yards of ground measured on the vein. 
 
 Measures. Strata of coal, or the formation containing coal beds. 
 
 Meat-earth. The vegetable mould. 
 
 Meetings, Newc. The place at middle-depth of a shaft, slope, or 
 plane, where ascending and descending cars pass each other. 
 
 Merceal, Sp. A gift. This term is applied to a grant which is 
 made without any valuable consideration. 
 
 Merchant-iron. See Mill. 
 
 Merchant-train. A train of rolls for reducing iron piles or steel 
 ingots, blooms, or billets to bars of the various round, square, flat or 
 other shapes, known as merchant iron or steel. 
 
 Mercury-ores. Native mercury ; cinnabar (sulphide\ 
 
 Merrit-plate. See Bloomary. 
 
 Metal, Sp. 1. This term is applied both to the ore and to the 
 metal extracted from it. It is sometiines used for vein, and even for 
 a mine itself. Metal en piedra, ore in the rough state. Metal ordi- 
 nario, common ore. Metal pepena, selected ore. Metal de ayuda, 
 ore used to assist the smelting of other ores. 2. Copper regulus or 
 matt obtained in the English process. The following varieties are 
 distinguished by appearance and by their percentage of copper) here 
 given in approximate figures) Coarse, 20 to 40 ; red, 48 ; blue, 60 ; 
 sparkle, 74 ; white, 77 ; pimple, 79. Fine metal includes the latter 
 four varieties. Hard metal is impure copper containing a large 
 amount of tin. 3. SoOT. All the rocks met with in mming ore. 
 4. Road metal, rock used in macadamizing roads. 
 
 Metal-notch. See Tap-hole. 
 
 MitM-powder. See Explosives. 
 
 Mill. 1. Eng. That part of an iron works where i)«dd/c-6ars are 
 converted inia merchant-iron, i. c, rolkj iron ready for sale in bars, 
 rods or sheets. See i^or^re. 2. By common usage any establishment for 
 reducing ores by other means than smeltini;. More strictly, a place 
 or a machine in which ore or rock is crushed. 3. An excavation 
 made in the country rock, by a cross-cut from the workings on a 
 vein, to obtain waste for gobbing. It is left without timber 'so that 
 the roof may fall in and furnish the required rock. 4. CoEN. A 
 
 passage through which ore is shot underground. See Pass and 
 Shoot. 
 
 Mill-cinder. The slag from the puddling-furuaces of a rolling- 
 mill. 
 
 Mill-run, Pac. 1. The work of an amalgamating mill between 
 two clean-ups. 2. A test of a given quantity of ore by actual treat- 
 ment in a mill. 
 
 Mine. 1. In general, any excavation for minerals. More strictly, 
 subterranean workings, as distinguished from quarries, placer and 
 hydraulic mines, and surface or open works. The distinction be- 
 tween the French terms mine and miniere results entirely from the 
 law, and depends upon the depth of the working. The former is 
 the more general term, and, ordinarily speaking, includes the latter, 
 which signifies shallow or surface workings. 2. In a military sense, 
 a mine is a subterranean gallery run under ah enemy's works, to be 
 subsequently exploded. 
 
 Mine-pig, Eng. See Pig-iron. 
 
 Miner, Penn. The workman who cuts the coal, as distinguished 
 firom the laborer who loads the wagons, etc. 
 
 Mineral. In miners' parlance, ore. 
 
 Mineral caoutchouc. Elastic bitumen. 
 
 Mineral charcoal. A pulverulent, lustreless substance, showing 
 distinct vegetable structure, and containing a high percentage of 
 carbon with little hydrogen and oxygen, occurring in thin layers in 
 bituminous coal. 
 
 Mineralized. Charged or impregnated with metalliferous mineral. 
 
 Mineral oil or Naphtha. A limpid or yellowish liquid, lighter 
 than water, and consisting of hydrocarbons. Petroleum is heavier 
 than naphtha, and dark greenish in color when crude. Both exude 
 from the rocks ; but naphtha can be distilled from petroleum. 
 
 Mineral pitch. Asphaltum. 
 
 Mineral right. The ownership of the minerals under a given sur- 
 face, with the right to enter thereon, mine, and remove them. It 
 may be separated from the surface ownership, but, if not so sepa- 
 rated by distinct conveyance, the latter includes it. 
 
 Mineral-wool. See Slag-wool. 
 
 Mincrrent. 'The rent or royalty paid to the owner of a mineral 
 right by the operator of the mine — usually dependent, above a fixed 
 mmimum, upon the quantity of product. 
 
 Mineria, Sp. Mining. 'This term embraces the whole subject, 
 including bqth mines and miners, and also the operations of work- 
 ing mines and of reducing their ores. It, however, is often used in 
 a more restricted sense. 
 
 Minero, Sp. Miner. This term is not limited to those who work 
 mines, but includes their owners, and all who have the qualifications 
 prescribed in the ordinances, and are enrolled as members of the 
 body or craft. Many of the laborers who work in mines are not, 
 technically speaking, miners. This term is sometimes used in the 
 old laws for mine. 
 
 Miner's inch, Pac. A local unit for the measurement of water 
 supplied to hydraulic miners. It is the amount of water flowing 
 under a certain head through one square inch of the total section 
 of a certain opening, for a certain number of hours daily. All 
 these conditions vary at different localities. At Smartsville, Cal., 
 the discharge opening is a horizontal slit, 4 inches wide, in a 2-ineh 
 plank, with the standing head of water in the feed-box 9 inches 
 above the middle of the slit. Each square inch of this opening 
 will discharge 1.76 cubic feet per minute. A miners' inch in use in 
 Eldorado County, Cal., discharges 1.39 cubic feet per minute. At 
 North Bloomfield, Cal., and other places, the discharge Is 50 inches 
 long by 2 wide (giving 100 miners' inches) through a 3-inch plank, 
 with the water 7 inches above the centre of the opening. Each inch 
 is 1.50 to 1.57 cubic feet per minute in practice, or 59.06 to 61.6 per 
 cent, of the theoretical discharge. These figures are taken from 
 the paper of A. J. Bowie, Jr., on Hydraulic Mining in California, " 
 Trans. Am. Inst. M. E., vol. vi, p. 59. 
 
 Mineta, Sp. A little mine ; a chamber, or cavity. 
 
 Minium. Protosesquioxide of lead. 
 
 Mispickel, Germ. Arsenical pyrites. 
 
 Mistress, Newc. A lantern used in coal-mines. 
 
 Mobby, S. Staff. A leathern girdle, with small chain attached, 
 used by the boys who draw bowkes. 
 
 Mock-lead, CoEN. Zincblende. 
 
 Moil or Moyle, CORN. A drill pointed like a gad. 
 
 Monkey-drift. A small prospecting drift. 
 
 Monitor, Pac. A kind of nozzle used in hydraulicking. 
 
 Monnier process. The treatment of copper sulphide ores by 
 roasting with sodium sulphate, and subsequent lixiviation and pre- 
 cipitation. 
 
 Miinoclinal. Applied to any limited pprtion of the earth's crust 
 throughout which the strata dip in the same direction. 
 
 Montefiore furnace. A peculiar furnace in which xinc dust is 
 compressed at a high temperature. 
 
 Mooreslone, COEN. Loose masses of granite found on Cornish- 
 moors. 
 
 il/bre, Corn. A quantity of ore in a particular part of a lode, as 
 a more of tin. 
 
 Mortar. 2. A heavy iron vessel, in which rook is crushed by 
 hand with a pestle, for sampling or assaying. 2. The receptacle 
 beneath the stamps in a stamp mill, in which the dies are placed, 
 and into which the rock is fed to be crushed. 
 
 Mosaic gold. Disulphide of tin. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 745 
 
 Mote. See Squib. 
 
 Mothergate, N Ewc. The maiu passage in a district of working. 
 . Motlled. See Iron. 
 
 Mouth. The end of a shaft or adit emerging at the surface. 
 
 Mountain limestone. The English designation of a limestone of 
 the lower partof tlie carboniferous age; called also subcarboniferous 
 limestone. 
 
 Muck-bar. Bar iron which has passed once through the rolls. 
 
 Mucks, S. Staff. See Smui. 
 
 Muffle. A semi-cylindrical or long arched oven (usually small 
 and made of fire-clay), heated frorn outside, in which substances 
 may be exposed at high temperature to an oxidizing atmospheric 
 current, and kept at the same time from contact with the gases from 
 the fuel. Cupellation and scorification assays are performed in 
 muffles, and on a larger scale copper ores were formerly roasted in 
 Muffle-furnaces. 
 
 Mulier. The stone or iron in an arastre, or grinding or amalga- 
 mating pan, Which is dragged around on the bed to grind and niix 
 the-bearing rock. 
 . Mun, Corn. Any fusible metal. 
 
 Mandic, CORN. Iron pyrites. White mundic is Mispickel. 
 
 WA BROW work. The driving of gangways or airways ; also any 
 dead work. 
 
 Nasmyih hammer. A steam-hammer, having the head attached 
 to the piston-rod, and operated by the direct force of the steam. 
 
 Native. Occurring; in nature; not artificially formed. Usually 
 applied to the metals. 
 
 Nays, Corn. See Nogs. 
 
 Needle or Nail, Corn. A copper or copper-pointed implement, 
 placed in a bore-hole during charging, to make, by its withdrawal, 
 an aperture for the insertion of the rush or train. 
 
 Negrito, Sp. A silver ore ; black sulphuret of silver. 
 
 Neptune powder. See Explosives. 
 
 Neutral. Of slags, neither acid nor basic ; or wrought-lron, 
 neither red-short or cold-short; of iroii-ores, suitable for the pro- 
 duction of neutral irons. 
 
 Niccoliferous or Nickeliferous. Containing nickel. 
 
 Nickel ores. Copper-nickel (niccolite,a,rsemi3ie of mcTneVj; anti- 
 monial nickel (breitliauptiie, antimonide ) ; white nickel {rammels- 
 bergit, biarsenide) ; nickelpy rites (pentlandite, sulphide of nickel 
 aiid iron, millerite, sulphide) ; nickeliferous gray antimony ullman- 
 nite, arsenantimonide) : nickeliferous serpentine \refdansMte, 
 hydrous magnesian silicate); also, niccoliferous ores of copper, 
 cobalt, manganese, etc. 
 
 Nicking, Newc. The cutting made by the hewer at the side of 
 the face. Nickings is the sinall coal produced in making the nick- 
 ing. 
 
 Nicking-trunk. A tub in which metalliferous slimes are 
 washed. 
 
 Nip, Newc. 1. A crush of pillars or workings. 2. See Pinch. 
 
 Nipping-fork. A tool for supporting a column of bore-rods while 
 raising or lowering them. 
 
 Nitroglycerin. See Explosives. 
 
 Nittings. The refuse of good ore. 
 
 Noble metals. The metals which have so little aifinity for oxygen 
 (i. e., are so highly electronegative) that their oxides are reduced 
 by the mere application of heat without a reagent; in other words, 
 the metals least liable to oxidation under ordinary conditions. The 
 list includes gold, silver, mercury, and the platinum group (including 
 palladium, iridium, rhodium, ruthenium, and osmium). The term 
 is of alchemistio origin. 
 
 Noddle or Nodule. A small rounded mass. 
 
 Noger. A. jumper Ar\\\. , ., ■, 
 
 Nogs, Derb. and Corn. Square blocks or logs of wood, piled on 
 one another to support a mine roof. . 
 
 Nose. An accumulation of chilled material around the inner 
 end of a tuyere in a smelting shaft furnace, protecting and pro- 
 longing the tuyere. 
 
 Nose-helve, Kng. See Frontal hammer. 
 
 Nuts. Small coal. 
 
 /) CCL USION. The mechanical retention of gases in the pores 
 
 ^ of solids. „. .^ . • n. 
 
 Ochre. A term applied to metallic oxides occurring in an earthy, 
 
 pulverulent condition, as iron ochri, molybdic ochre. .,_,.- 
 Oil-well. A dug or bored well, from which petroleum is obtained 
 
 by pumping or by natural flow. 
 
 Old man. Ancient w'orkings ; goaves. 
 
 Old men. The persons who worked a mine at any former penoa 
 
 of which no record remains. 
 
 Open cast, SCOT. See Open cut. .,,-■, i i .a 
 
 Open cni timbering. Shaft timbering with cribs alone, placed 
 
 at intervals. ,. , 
 
 OpenciU. A surface working, open to day-light. ... „,^ 
 
 Open front. The arrangement of a blast furnace with a fore- 
 
 hearth. 
 
 Openhearth. See Jleverberatory furnace. 
 
 Openings. The parts of coal mines between the pillars, or the pil- 
 la,rs arid ribs. 
 
 Opens. Large caverns. 
 
 Op^ sand castings. Castings made in moulds simply excavah;d in 
 sand without flanks. 
 
 Open work. A quarry or open cut. 
 
 Operator J Penn. The person, whetherproprietor or lessee, actu- 
 ally operatmg a colliery. 
 
 Ore. 1. A natural mineral compound, of the elements of which 
 one at least is a metal. The term is applied more loosely to all 
 metalliferous rock, though it contain the metals in a free state, as 
 occasionally to the compounds of non-metallic substance, as sulphur 
 ore. '2. Corn. Copper-ore ; tin-ore being spoken of in Cornwall as 
 tin. 
 
 Ore hearth. See Scotch hearth. 
 
 Ore washer. A machine for washing clay and earths out of earthy 
 brown-hematite ores. 
 
 OrpimeM. Sesquisulphide of arsenic. 
 
 Outbye or Outbyeside, Newc. Nearer to the shaft, and hence 
 further from the forewinning. 
 
 Outcrop. The portion of a vein or stratum emerging at the sur- 
 face, or appearing immediately under the soil and suri&ee-debris. 
 
 Outlet. The passage by which the ventilating current goes out 
 of a mine. See Upcast. 
 
 Output. The product of a mine. 
 
 Oval groove. A groove of U-Section in a roll. 
 
 Overburden. 1. COEN. See Burden (1). 2. To charge in a 
 furnace too much ore and flux in proportion to the amount of fiiel. 
 3. The waste which overlies the good stone in a quarry. 
 
 Overman, Eng. The mining official next in rank below the 
 manager, who is next below the agent. 
 
 Overpoled copper. Copper from which all the suboxide has been 
 removed by poling. 
 
 Oxidation. A chemical union with oxygen. 
 
 pA CK. A wall or pillar built of gob to support the roof. 
 
 Pair or Pare, CORN. Two or more miners working in com- 
 mon. 
 
 Pan. 1. See Panning. 2. A cylindrical vat of iron, stone, or 
 wood, or these combined, in which ore is ground with mullers and 
 amalgamated. See Amalgamation. 
 Pane. The striking-face of a hammer. 
 
 Panel. 1. A heap of dressed ore. 2. A system of coal-extraction 
 in which the ground is laid off in separate districts or panels, pillars 
 of extra size being left between. 
 
 Panning, AusT. and Pac. Washing earth or crushed rock in a 
 pan, by amtation with water, to obtain the particles of greatest spe- 
 cific gravity which it contains (chiefly practiced for gold, also for 
 quicksilver, diamonds, and other gems). 
 
 Parachute. 1. A kind of safety-catch for shaft cages. 2. In rod- 
 boring, a cage with a leather cover to prevent a too rapid fall of the 
 rods in case of accident. 
 
 Parcel. CoEN. A heap of dressed ore ready for sale. 
 
 Parkes process. The desilverization of lead by treatment with 
 zinc. 
 
 Parrot coal, SCOT. See Coal. 
 
 Parting. 1. A small joint in coal or rock, or a layer of rock in 
 a coal seam. 2. The separation of two metals in an alloy, especially 
 the separation of gold or silver bj means of nitric or sulphuric 
 acid. 
 
 Parting-sand. Fine dry sand, which is sifted over the partings 
 in a mould to facilitate their separation when the jiask is opened. 
 
 Pass, Corn. 1. An opening in a mine through which ore is shot 
 from a higher to a lower level, ^ee Shoot. 2. In rolling mills the 
 passage of the bar between the rolls. When the bar passes " on the 
 flat " it is called & flatting-pass ; if " on the edge," an edging-pa^. 
 
 Patent fuel, Eng. The fuel produced by the agglomeration of 
 coal-slack into lumps. 
 
 Patera process. See Joachimsthal process. 
 
 Patio, Sp. The yard where the ores are cleaned and assorted ; also, 
 the ainalgamation floor, or the Spanish process itself of amalgama- 
 ting silver ores on an open floor. 
 
 Paitinson process. The process in which lead containing silver 
 is passed through a series of melting-kettles, in each of which crys- 
 tals of a poorer alloy are deposited, while the fluid bath, ladled from 
 one kettle to the next, is proportionately richer in silver. In me- 
 chanical pattinsonation the operation is performed in a cylindrical 
 vessel, in which the bath is stirred mechanically, and from which, 
 as the richer alloy crystallizes, the poorer liquid is repeatedly 
 drained out. Steam pattinsonation is a variety of the Pattinson 
 process, in which steam is conducted through the lead bath to assist 
 the refining. 
 
 Pavement. The fUor of a mine. 
 
 Pay-streak, The zone in a vein which carries the profitable or 
 pay ore. 
 
 Peach, Corn. Chlorite. 
 
 Pea-coal, Penn. See Coal. 
 
 Perctission-tdble. An inclined table, agitated by a series of 
 shocks, and operating at the same time like a budcUe, It may be 
 made self-discharging and continuous by substituting for the table 
 an endless rubber cloth, slowly moving against the current of water, 
 as in the Frue vanner. 
 
 Pernot furnace or Post-Pernot furnace. A rererberatory puddling 
 or smelting furnace, having a circular, inclined, revolving hearth. 
 
 Pershbeckcr furnace. A continuously working shaft- furnace for 
 
744 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 roasting quicksilver ores, iiaving two fire-places at opposite sides. 
 The fuel is wood. . 
 
 Pertinencia, Sp. The extent of a mining location in Mexico, to 
 which a title is acquired by denunciation, 
 
 Peter or peter out. To fail gradually in size, quantity, or quality. 
 
 Pewter. An alloy of tin and lead. Other metals are often added, 
 or the lead is entirely replaced with copper, zinc, antimony, etc. 
 
 Pick. A pick-axe with one or two points. The usual miners' 
 pick has but one. 
 
 Picker or Poker. A hand chisel for dzhuing, held in one hand 
 and struck with a hammer. 
 
 Pick-hanvmer. A hammer with a point, used in cobbing. 
 
 Pickling. Cleaning sheet-iron or wire by immersion in acid. 
 
 Pig. An ingot or cast bar of metal. See Pig-iron. 
 
 Pig-iron. Crude cast-iron from the blast furnace. When the 
 furnace is tapped th& molten iron flows down a runner moulded in 
 sand, from which it enters the sows or lateral runners, flowing from 
 these again into the pig-beds, the separate parallel moulds of which 
 form the pigs. In each bed the ingots lie against the sow like suck- 
 ling pigs, whence the two names. See Iron. Mine-pig is pig-iron 
 made from ores only ; cinder-pig, from ores with admixture of some 
 forge or mUl-dnder. 
 
 Pike. See Pick. 
 ^ Picking. See Cobbing. 
 
 Pile. 1. The fagot or bundle of flat pieces of iron prepared to be 
 heated to welding-heat and then rolled. 2. To make up into piles 
 or fagots. 3. Piles are long thick laths, etc., answering in shafts, in 
 loose or " quick " ground, the same purpose as spills in levels, pUes 
 being driven vertically. 
 
 PUlar-and-stall. See Post-and-stall. 
 
 Pill furnace. A circular or octagonal shaft-furnace, maintain- 
 ing or increasing its diameter towards the top, and having several 
 tuyeres; used in smelting lead-ores 
 
 Pinch, Corn. To contract in width. 
 
 Pink ash, Penn. See Coal. 
 
 Pipe or Pipe-vein, Debb. An ore-body of elongated form. 
 
 Pipe-clay, U. S. A fine cla^ found in hydraulic mines. 
 
 Pipe ore. Iron ore (limonite) in vertical pillars, sometimes of 
 conical, sometimes of hour-glass form imbedded in clay. Probably 
 formed by the union of stalactites and stalagmites in caverns. 
 
 Piping. 1. Pac. See Hydraulicking. 2. The tubular depres- 
 sion caused by contraction during cooling, on the top of iron or steel 
 ingots. 
 
 Pit. 1. A shaft. 2. A stack or meiler of wood, prepared for the 
 manufacture of charcoal. 
 
 Pitch, COEN. 1. The limits of the set to tributers. 2. The inclina- 
 tion of a vein, or of the longer axis of an ore body. 
 
 Pitch-bag, Cobn. A bag covered with pitch, in which powder is 
 inclosed for charging damp holes. 
 
 Pit-coal. See Coal. 
 
 Pit-eye, Eng. The bottom of the shaft of a coal-mine ; also the 
 junction of a shaft and a level. 
 
 Pit-eye pillar. A barrier of coal left around a shaft to protect it 
 from caving. 
 
 Pit-frame. The framework carrying the pit-pulley. 
 
 Pitman. 1. Cokn. A man employed to examine the lifts of 
 pumps and the drainage. 2. Newc. A working miner. 
 
 Pitwork, Corn. The pumps and other apparatus of the engine 
 shaft. 
 
 Place. See In place. 
 
 Placer, Sp. A deposit of valuable mineral, found in particles in 
 alluvium or diluvium, or beds of streams, etc. Gold, tin ore, 
 chromic iron, iron ore, and precious stones are found in placers. 
 By the United States Eevisea Statutes all deposits not classed as 
 veins of rock in place are considered placers. 
 
 Plane. An incline, with tracks, upon which materials are raised 
 in cars by means of a stationary engine, or are lowered by gravity. 
 
 Plank-timbering. The lining of a shaft with rectangular plank 
 frames. 
 
 Plank-tubbing. The lining of a shaft with planks, spiked on the 
 inside of curbs. 
 
 Plat. The map of a survey in horizontal projection. 
 
 Plate-metal. See metal. 
 
 Plate-shale. A hard argillaceous bed. 
 
 Platinum-ores. Mixtures of native platinum in grains with vari- 
 ous other metals and minerals. 
 
 Piatt, CoEN. An enlargement of a level near a shaft, where ore 
 may await hoisting, wagons pass each other, etc. 
 
 Plattner process. See Chlorination. 
 
 Plomo, Sp. Lead. Plomo-plata, lead-silver. 
 
 Plug. A hammer closely resembling the bully. 
 
 Plumb. \. Vertical. 2. Soft. 
 
 Plumbago. Graphite. 
 
 Plunger. The piston of a force-pnrap. 
 
 Plush-copper. Chalcotrichite, a fibrous red copper ore. 
 
 Pocket. 1. A small body of ore. 2. A natural underground re- 
 servoir of water. 3. A receptacle, from which coal, ore, or waste is 
 loaded into wagons or cars. 
 
 Podar. See Mundic. 
 
 Pointed boxes. Boxes in the form of inverted pyramids or wedges 
 in which ores, after crushing and sizing, are separated in a current 
 of water. 
 
 Pole-tools. The tools used in drilling with rods. See Cable-tools. 
 
 Poling. Stirring a metallic bath (of copper, tin or lead) with a 
 pole of green wood, to cause ebullition and deoxidation in the refin- 
 ing process. 
 
 Polings. Poles used instead of planks for lagging. 
 
 Poll, COEN. The lead or striking part of a miner's hammer. 
 
 Poll-pick. A pick with a head for oreaking away hard partings 
 in coal-seams or knocking down rock already seamed by blasting. 
 
 Polroz (pronounced Polrose), CORN. 'The pit underneath a 
 water-wheel. 
 
 PonsoA-d fwmace. A furnace in which the escaping combustion- 
 gases, passing through tubular flues, heat the incoming air con- 
 tinuously through the flue-walls. 
 
 Poppet-heads, CORN. A timber frame over a shaft to carry the 
 hoisting pulley. 
 
 Post. 1. A pillar of coal or ore. 2. An upright timber. 
 
 Post furnace. See Pernot fumade.. 
 
 Post-and-stall. A mode of working coal, in which so much is 
 left as pillar and so much is taken away, forming rooms and 
 thirlings. The method is called also bord-and-pillar,pillar-and- 
 breast, etc. 
 
 Potstone. Compact steatite. 
 
 Potter's clay and Pipe-clay. Pure plastic clay, free from iron, 
 and consequently white after burning. 
 
 Power-drill. See Eock-drill. 
 
 Precious metals. See Noble metals. 
 
 Precipitation process. The treatment of lead ores by direct fusion 
 with metallic iron or slags or ores rich in iron ; performed gener- 
 ally in a shaft-furnace, rarely in a reverberatory. Often combined 
 with the roasting mud reduction process. 
 
 Prian, CORN. Soft white clay. 
 
 Pricker. See Needle. 
 
 Prill, Corn. 1. The best ore after cobbing. 2. See Button. 
 
 Pringap. The distance between two mining possessions in 
 Derbyshire. 
 
 Produce. 1. The marketable ores or minerals produced by mining 
 and dressing. 2. COEN. The amount of fine copper in one hundred 
 parts of ore. 
 
 Producer, See Gas-producer. 
 
 Prop. A timber set to carry a roof or other weight acting by 
 compression in the direction of the axis. 
 
 Prop-crib timbering. Shaft-timbering with cribs kept at the 
 proper distance apart by means of props. 
 
 Prospecting. Searching for new deposits; also, preliminary 
 explorations to test the value of lodes or placera. The prospect is 
 good or bad. 
 
 Proving-hole. A small heading driven to find and follow a coal- 
 seam lost by a dislocation. 
 
 Pryan. Ore in small pebbles mixed with clay. 
 
 Pudding-stone. A conglomerate in which the pebbles are 
 rounded. See Breccia. 
 
 Puddle-bars. See Forge. 
 
 Puddle-steel. Steel 
 
 Paddle-train. A train of rolls for reducing squeezed puddle- 
 balls to puddle or mv^k-bars. 
 
 Puddling. I. The process of decarburizing cast iron fusion on 
 the hearth of a reverberatory furnace, lined {fixed or fettled) with' 
 ore or other material rich in oxide of iron. The bath is stirred with 
 a rabble to expose it to the action of the lining and of an air cur- 
 rent. The escape of carbonic oxide causes it to boil, whence the 
 early name of this method of puddling, viz., boiling. Dry puddling 
 is performed on a silicious hearth, and the conversion is effected 
 rather by the flame than by the reaction of solid or fused materials. 
 As the amount of carbon diminishes the mass becomes fusible and 
 begins to coagulate (come to nature), after which it is worked to- 
 gether into lumps [puddle-balls, loups) and removed from the 
 furnace to be hammered (shingled) or squeezed in the squeezer, 
 which presses out the cinder^ etc., and compacts the mass at weld- 
 ing beat, preparatory to rolling. Silicon and phosphorus are also 
 largely removed by puddling, passing into the cinder. Mechanical 
 puadlers (in which the bath is agitated by revolution, or by me- 
 chanical rabbles, to save hand-labor) are employed to a limited 
 extent. 2. The term puddling, now applied in metallurgy exclu- 
 sively to the above process, originally referred to the pxiddling of 
 clay or clay and charcoal upon the masonry of a furnace hearth, to 
 form a lining. Ditches, reservoirs, etc., are puddled with clay to 
 make them water-tight. 
 
 Pug-tub. See Settler. 
 
 Pulley-frame. Qallows-frame. 
 
 Pulp, Pac. Pulverized ore and water ; also applied to dry- 
 crushed ore. 
 
 Palp-assay, Pac. The assay of samples taken from the pulp 
 after or during crushing. 
 
 Pump-bob. See Bob. 
 
 Piimj)-rod. The rod or system of rods (usually heavy beams) 
 connecting the steam-engine at the surface, or at a higher level, 
 with the pump-piston below. See Balance-bob. 
 
 Pump-station. See Station. 
 
 Punch or Puncheon. See Leg. 
 
 Punch-prop, Nbwc. A short prop. 
 
 Put, Newc. To convey coal from the working breast to the 
 tramway. This is usually done by young men (putters). 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 745 
 
 Putty-powder. Crude oxide of tin, used for giving opaque 
 whiteness to enamels, or for grinding glass. 
 Putwork See TSitwork. 
 Pyrometer. An instrument for measuring high temperatures. 
 
 QUARRY. An open or " day " working, usually for the extrac- 
 T^ tion of building-stone, slate or limestone. 
 
 Quartation, The separation of gold from silver by dissolving 
 out the latter with nitne acid. It requires not less than i silver 
 in the alloy, whence the name, which is also applied to the 
 alloying of gold with silver, if necessary, to prepare it for this 
 method of parting. 
 
 Quartz. 1. Crystalline silica. 2. Pac. Any hard gold or sil- 
 ver ore as distinguished from gravel or earth. Hence quartz- 
 mining, as distinguished from hydraulic^ etc. 
 
 Quartzose. Containing quartz as a principal ingredient. 
 
 Qaere, queere, qwear, CORN. A small cavit or fissure. 
 
 Quick. 1. Applied to a productive vein as distinguished from 
 dead or barren. 2. Pac. Quicksilver. 
 
 Quick ground. Ground in a loose incoherent state. 
 
 Quicksand. Sand which is or (becomes on the access of water) 
 "quick," i. e. shifting, easily movable or semi-liquid. 
 
 Quick-silver ores. See Mercury ores. 
 
 Quintal. One hundred pounds avoirdupois. 
 
 TfABBLE. An iron bar bent to a right angle at the end. See 
 Puddling. 
 
 Race. A small thread of spar or ore. 
 
 Rack, COKN. A stationary huddle. 
 
 Raftertimbering. Timbering in which the pieces are arranged 
 like the rafters of a house. 
 
 Rag-burning, CoKN. See Tinwitts. 
 
 Rabhing. A rough cobbing. 
 
 Rail-train. A train of rolls for reducing iron piles or steel 
 ingots or blooms to rails. 
 
 Raise. See Rise. 
 
 Rake, Debb. A fissure vein crossing the strata. 
 
 Raking-prop. An inclined prop. 
 
 Ramble. Newc. A shale bed on the top of a coal seam, which 
 falls as the coal is removed. 
 
 Rancho. Sp. An estate or property ; a farm (Pac. ranch). 
 
 Random,. The direction of a Rake-vein. 
 
 Rapper. A lever or hammer at the top of a shaft or inclined 
 plane, for signals from the bottom. 
 
 Rascheite furnace. A shaft furnace used in lead, copper, and iron 
 smelting, and having an oblong rectangular or oval horizontal 
 section. 
 
 Reaction process. See Roasting and reaction process. 
 
 Realgar. Sulphide of arsenic. 
 
 Reamer. A tool for enlarging a bore-hole. 
 
 Record. To enter in the book of the proper officer (usually a dis- 
 trict or county officer) the name, position, description, and date of a 
 mining claim or location. See District. 
 
 Red-ash, Penn. See Coal. 
 
 Redevance, Fe. A tax, duty, or rent. In mining law it means 
 a tax or duty payable to the government or to the surface owner. 
 
 Red-lead. See Minium. 
 
 Red-short. Brittle at red heat. See Ooldrshort. 
 
 Reduce. 1. To deprive of oxygen. 2. In general, to treat metal- 
 lurgically for the production of metal. 
 
 Meed, COHN. See Spire. 
 
 Reef, AusTR. See Lode. 
 
 Refinery. See Run-outjire. 
 
 Refining. 1. The purification of crude metallic products. The 
 refining of "base bullion" (silver-lead) produces pure lead and 
 silver. 2. The conversion of gray into white cast iron in a run- 
 outfire. , , , ■ , X 
 
 Refractory. Resisting the action of heat and chemical reagents : 
 a quality undesirable in ores, but desirable in furnace-linings, etc. 
 
 Regenerator. A chamber filled with open-work of bricks to toke 
 up the heat of the gases of combustion from a furnace, and subse- 
 quently impart it to a current of air, the air and gas being conducted 
 alternately through the chamber. See Siem^ens furnace. _ 
 
 Regule, Fr. A copper regulus from which most of the impuri- 
 ties have been removed by liquidation. . , ^ ^, ■. .. , 
 
 Requlus. 1. The metallic mass which sinks to the bottom ot a 
 furnace or crucible, separating itself by gravity from the super- 
 natant slag or matt. 2. An intermediate product obtained in 
 smelting ores, especially those of copper, lead, silver and nickel, 
 and consisting chiefly of metallic sulphides. In this sense it is 
 synonjrmous with matt, or the Gbem. Stein. Antvmony regulus is 
 metallic antimony. 
 
 Rend-rock. See Explosives. .^r.^r. „ „. 
 
 Benk.'S-E.Ylo. Theaverage distance coal is brought by the mttters. 
 
 Rests. The arrangement at the top and bottom of a pit for sup- 
 porting the shaft-cage while changing the tubs or cars. 
 
 Penning. Removing the mercury irora an amalgam bj volatU- 
 izing it in an iron retort, conducting it away, and condensing it 
 
 Reverberatorv furnace. A furnace in which ores are submitted to 
 thf ^c tion of fl?ie,™ithout contact with the fuel The flameente^ 
 from the side or end, passes upward overa low wall °' *"^f ./"^«^ 
 the roof (arch) of the furnace, and is reverberated downward upon 
 the charge.. 
 
 Reversing rolls. See Three-high train. 
 
 Rib. 1. In coal mining, the solid coal on the side of the gallery 
 or long- wall face ; a pillar or barrier of coal left for support, i. 
 The solid ore of a vein; an elongated pillar left to support tlie hang- 
 ing-wall, in working out a vein. 
 
 Ribbed. Containing bone. 
 
 Ribbon-borer. A boring-tool consisting of a twisted flat steel 
 blade. 
 
 Rick, Penn. An open heap or pile in which coal is coked. 
 
 Riddle, CoKN. and SCOT. A sieve. The largepieces of ore and 
 rock picked out by hand are called knockings. The riddlings re- 
 main on the riddle ; the fell goes through. 
 
 Rider. See Horse. 
 
 Riffle. A groove or interstice, or a cleat or block so placed as to 
 produce the same efl'ect,in the bottom of a sluice, to catch free gold. 
 
 Rim-rock. The bed-rock rising to form the boundary of a placer 
 or gravel deposit. 
 
 Ring, Newc. A gutter cut around a shaft to catch and conduct 
 away tne water. 
 
 Ringe. See Cowl. 
 
 Rise or Riser, CORN. A shaft or winze excavated upward. 
 
 Rise-heading. See Seading in long-wall. 
 
 Rivelaine, A pick with one or two points, formed of flat iron, 
 used to undercut coal by scraping instead of striking. 
 
 Roasting. Calcination, usually with oxidation. Oood, dead, or 
 sweet roasting is complete roasting,*, e., carried on until sulphurous 
 and arsenious fiimes cease to be given off'. Kernel-roasting is a pro- 
 cess of treating poor sulphnrettal copper ores, by roasting in lumps, 
 whereby copper (and nickel) are concentrated in the interior of the 
 lumps. 
 
 Roasting and reaction process. The treatment of galena in a 
 reverberatory, by first partially roasting at a low temperature, and 
 then partially msing the charge at a higher temperature, whicli 
 causes a reaction between the lead-oxide formed by roasting and the 
 remaining sulphide, producing sulphurous acid and metallic luad. 
 
 Roasting and reduction process. The treatment of lead ores by 
 roasting to form lead-oxide, and subsequent reducing fusion in a 
 shaft-furnace. 
 
 Rob. To extract pillars previously left for support ; or, in gen- 
 eral, to take out ore or coal from a mine with a view to immediate 
 product, and not to subsequent working. 
 
 Rock-breaker. Usually applied to a class of machines, of which 
 Blake's rock -breaker is the type, and in which the rock is crushed 
 between two jaws, both movable, or one fixed and one movable. It 
 is common to use a rock-breaker instead of hand-spalling to prepare 
 ore for further crushing in the stamp-mill. 
 
 Rock-drill. A machine for boring in rock, either by percussion, 
 effected by reciprocating motion, or abrasion, effected by rotary mo- 
 tion. Compressed air is the usual motive power, but steam also is 
 used. The Burleigh, Haupt, Ingersoll, Wood, and other machines 
 operate percussively ; the diamond drill (which see) abrasively. 
 
 Rocker. A short trough in which auriferotis sands are agitated 
 by oscillation, in water, to collect their gold. 
 
 Rud-tools. See Pole-tools. 
 
 Rolley. A large truck carrying two corves, 
 
 Rolley-way. A gangway. 
 
 Rolling. See Roll-train. 
 
 Rolls. 1. Cylinders of iron or steel revolving towards each other, 
 between which rock is made to pass, in order to crush it. 2. See 
 Roll-train. 
 
 Roll-train. The set of plain or grooved rolls through which iron 
 or steel ^ito, ingots, blooms or billets are passed, to be rolled into 
 various shapes. 
 
 Rondle or Rondelle. The crust or scale which forms upon the 
 surface of molten metal in cooling. 
 
 Roof. The rock overlying a bed or flat vein. 
 
 Roofing. The wedging of a loaded wagon or horse against the top 
 of an underground passage. 
 
 Room, Scot. See Breast and Post-and-Stall. 
 
 Rosette Copper. Disks of copper (red from the presence of sub- 
 oxide) formed by cooling the surface of molten copper through 
 sprinkling with water. 
 
 Rosse furnace. An American variety of hearth for the treatment 
 of galena, differing from the Scotch hearth in using wood as fuel, 
 working continuously, and having hollow walls, to heat the blast. 
 
 Rougiiing rolls. The rolls of a train which first receives the pile, 
 ingot, bloom, or billet, and partially form it into the final shape. 
 
 Rouglis, Corn. Coarse, poor sands, resulting from tin-dressing. 
 
 Round coal. See Lump-coal. 
 
 Rounder. See Reamer, 
 
 Row, Corn. Large, rough stones. 
 
 Royalty. The dues of the lessor or landlord of a mine, or of the 
 owner of a patented invention. 
 
 Rozan process. An improvement of the Pattinson process. 
 
 Rubber. A gold-quartz amalgamator, in which the slime is 
 rubbed against amalgamated copper surfaces. 
 
 Rullers, Corn. The workmen who wheel ore in wheelbarrows 
 underground. 
 
 Run, Corn. 1. The natural falling or closing together of under- 
 ground workings. 2. Certain accidents to the winding apparatus. 
 
 3. By the rum. A method of payingcoal miners per linear yard of 
 breast excavated, instead of by the wagon of clear coal produced. 
 
 4. A long deep trough in whicli slimes settle. 5. See Counter, 
 
746 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Sunner. The channel through which molten metal is conducted 
 from the blast furnace or cupola to the pig-bed, converter or moulds. 
 See Pig-iron. 
 
 Run-out-fire. A forge in which cast-iron is refined, 
 
 Jiun-steel. Malleable castings. 
 
 Rush, Corn. See Spire. 
 
 BvySty. Applied to coals discolored by water or exposure, as well 
 as to quartz, etc., discolored by Iron oxide. 
 
 Rusty gold, Pac. Free gold, which does not easily amalgamate, 
 the particles being coated, as is supposed, with oxide of iron. 
 
 RADDLE. An anticlinal in a bed or flat vein. 
 Safety-cage. A cage with a safety-catch. 
 
 Safety-car. See Barney. 
 
 Safety-catch. An automatic device for preventing the fall of a 
 cage in a shaft or a car in an incline, if the supporting cable breaks. 
 
 Safety-lamp. A lamp, the flame of which is so protected that It 
 will not immediately ignite fire-damp. There are several varieties, 
 invented by Davy, Stephenson, Clanny and others. 
 
 Salamander. A mass of solidified material in a furnace hearth ; 
 called also a sow and bear. 
 
 Saline. A salt spring or well ; salt works. 
 
 Sampson-post. An upright post which supports the walking- 
 beam, communicating motion from the engine to a deep-boring ap- 
 paratus. 
 
 Sand-pump. A cylinder with a valve at the bottom, lowered into 
 a drill-hole from time to time, to take out the accumulated slime re- 
 sulting from the action of the drill on the rock. Called, also, Shdl- 
 pump and Sludger. 
 
 Scaffold. An obstruction in a blast-furnace above the tuyeres 
 caused by an accumulation or shelf of pasty, unreduced materials, 
 adhering to the lining. 
 
 Seal, COBN. A portion of earth or rock which separates and falls 
 from the main body. 
 
 Scale. _ 1. The crust of metallic oxide formed by cooling of hot 
 metals in air. Hammer-scale and roll-scale are the flaky oxides 
 which fall from the bloom, ingot, or bar under hammering or rolling. 
 2. The incrustation caused in steam-boilers by the evaporation of 
 water containing mineral salts. 3. A «caie o/air(NBWC.)isasmall 
 portion of air abstracted from the main current. 
 
 Scarcement. A projecting ledge of rock, left in a shaft as footing 
 for a ladder, or to support pit-work, etc. 
 
 Scarfing. Splicing timbers, so cut that when joined the resulting 
 piece is not thicker at the joint than elsewhere. 
 
 Schist. Crystalline rock, usually micaceous, having a slaty 
 structure. 
 
 Sehlicker, Gbkm. The skimmings from molten unrefined lead, 
 containing chiefly copper, iron and zinc, with a little antimony and 
 arsenic. 
 
 Schorl. Black tourmaline. 
 
 Scoria or Scorice. See Slag. 
 
 ScoHfication. A process employed in assaying gold and silver 
 ores, and performed in a shallow clay vessel {scarifier), in which 
 ore, lead and borax-glass are exposed to heat and oxidation in a 
 muffle. The operation involves roasting, fusion and scarification 
 proper, or the formation of a slag, which is not, like the litharge 
 produced in cupellation, absorbed by the vessel. 
 
 Scotch hearth. A low forge or furnace of cast-iron, with one 
 tuyere, in which rich galena is treated by a sort of accelerated roast- 
 ing and reaction process. 
 
 Scouring cinder. A basic slag, which attacks the lining of a shaft- 
 furnace. 
 
 Scovan lode, CoRN. A lode having no gossan at or near the sur- 
 face. 
 
 Scraper. A tool for cleaning bore-holes. 
 
 Screen. A sieve of wire-cloth, grate bars, or perforated sheet- 
 iron used to sort ore and coal according to size. Stamp-mortars 
 have screens on one or both sides, to determine the fineness of the 
 escaping pulp. 
 
 Screw-bell. A recovering tool in deep boring, ending below in a 
 hollow screw-threaded cone. 
 
 Serin or Skrin, Derb. A small subordinate vein. 
 
 Seam. 1. A stratum or bed of coal or other mineral. 2. CoRN. 
 horse-load. 3. A. joint, cleft, or fissure. 
 
 Seat, Derb. The floor of a mine. 
 
 Seed-bag. A bag filled with flaxseed and fastened around {he 
 tubmg in an artesian well, so as to form, by the swelling of the 
 flaxseed when wet, a water-tight packing, preventing percolation 
 down the sides of the bore-hole from upper to lower strata. When 
 the tubing is pulled up the upper fastening of the bag breaks, a«d 
 it empties itself, thus presenting no resistance to the extraction of 
 the tubing. 
 
 Segregate, Pac. To separate the undivided joint ownership of a 
 mining claim into smaller individual "segregated" claims. 
 
 Segregation. A mineral deposit formed by concentration from 
 the adjacent rock. 
 
 Selvage or Self edge. A layer of clay or decomposed rock along 
 a vein-wall. See Oouge. 
 
 Semi-anthracite. See Conl. 
 
 Semi-bituminous coal. See CoaX. 
 
 Separator. 1. A machine for separating, with the aid of wator 
 or air, materials of different specific gravity. Strictly, a separator 
 
 parts twe or more ingredients, both valuable while a concentrator 
 saves but one and rejects the rest; but the terms are often used in- 
 terchangeably. 2. Any machine for separating materials, as the 
 magnetics separator, for separating magnetic from its gangue. 
 
 Set or Sett, CORN. 1. A grant of mining ground, as the assign- 
 ment of a certain part of a mine under contract or tribvie. 2, A 
 frame of timber for supporting excavations. 
 
 Settler. A tub or vat, in which pulp from the amalgamating 
 pan or battery-pulp is allowed to settle, being stirred in water to 
 remove the lighter portions. 
 
 Shadd, Corn. Smooth, round stones on the surface, containing 
 tin-ore, and indicating a vein. 
 
 Shaft. 1. A pit sunk from the surface. 2. The interior of a 
 shaft-furnace above the boshes. 
 
 Shaft-furnace. A high furnace, charged at the top and tapped 
 at the bottom. 
 
 Shaft-walls. 1. The sides of a shaft. 2. Newc. Pillars of coal 
 left near the bottom of a pit. 
 
 Shake. 1. A cavern, usually in limestone. 2. A crack in a, 
 block of stone. 
 
 Shaking table. See Percussion table. 
 
 Shambles. Shelves or benches, from one to the other of which 
 successively ore is thrown in raising it to the level above or to the 
 surface. 
 
 Shearing. 1. The vertical side-cutting which, together with 
 holing or horizontal undercutting, constitutes the attack upon a 
 face of coal. 2. Cutting up steel for the crucible. 
 
 Shears, Corn. Two high timbers, standing over a shaft and 
 united at the top to carry a pulley, for lifting or lowering timbers, 
 pipes, etc., of greater length than the ordinary hoisting-gear can 
 accommodate. 
 
 Sheathing. A close partition or coverings of planks. 
 
 Sheave. The groove-wheel of a pulley. 
 
 Shelf, Corn. The solid rock or bed-rock, especially under allu- 
 vial tin-deposits. 
 
 Shell-pump. See Sand-pump. 
 
 Shelly. The condition of coal which has been so much faulted 
 and twisted that it is not massive, but easily breaks into conchoidal 
 pieces. 
 
 Sh^t, S. Staff. The broken down roof of a coal-mine. 
 
 Shift. 1. The time for a miner's work in one day. The gang of 
 men working for that period, as the day-shift, the night-shift. 
 
 Shift-boss. The foreman in charge of a shift of men. 
 
 Shingling. Hammering blooms, billets, etc. 
 
 Shiver. 1. Shale ; a hard argillaceous bed, 2. See Sheave. 
 
 Shoad, Corn. Ore washed or detached from the vein naturally. 
 See Float-ore. 
 
 Shoading or Shading, Corn. The tracking of boulders towards 
 the vein or rock from whicb they have come. 
 
 Shoe. A piece of iron or steel, attached to the bottom of a stamp 
 or muller, for grinding ore. The shoe can be replaced when worn 
 out. 
 
 Shoot. 1. See Chute. 2. See Blast. A jSAooi is a single operation 
 of blasting. 
 
 Shooting needle. A sharp metal rod, to form a vent-hole 
 through the tamping to a blasting-charge. 
 
 Shore-nose shell, A cylindrical tool, cut obliquely at bottom, for 
 boring through hard clay. 
 
 Show. 1. The pale-blue, lambent flame of the top of a common 
 candle-flame, indicating the presence of fire-damp. 2. See Blos- 
 som, 
 
 Shute, See Chute. 
 
 Sicker. See Zighyr. 
 
 Siddle. The inclination of a seam of coal. 
 
 Side-basset, A transverse direction to the line of dip in strata. 
 
 Side-guide, See Chiard. 
 
 Side-laning, S. Staff. Widening a gate-road (abandoned for 
 that purpose) so as to make it part of a new side of work. 
 
 Side of work, S. Staff. The series of breasts and pillars con- 
 nected with a gate-road in a colliery. 
 
 Siemens furnace. A re verberatory furnace, heated by gas, with 
 the aid of regenerators. 
 
 Sigger. See Zighyr. 
 
 Silesian zinc furnace. A furnace in which zinc is reduced and 
 distilled from calcined ores in muflles. 
 
 Silicia. Consisting of or containing silex or quartz. 
 
 Sill. 1. A stratum. 2. Apiece of wool laid across a drift to con- 
 stitute a frame with the posts and to carry the track of the tram- 
 way. 
 
 Silt. See Alluvium. 
 
 Silver ores. Silver-glance (argenttte, sulphide) ; horn silver, 
 cerargyrite chloride; dark-ruby silver {pyrargyrite, sulphantim- 
 onide) ; light-ruby silver (proustite, sulpnarsenide) ; brittle-silver- 
 glance (stephanitCj antimonial sulphide of silv2r and polybasite, 
 arsenical and antimonial sulphide of several metals) ; white ore 
 (argentiferous gray copper, tetrahedrite, antimonial sulphide of iron, 
 zinc, copper, lead, and silver); stetefeldtite and partzite (antimoni- 
 ates) ; also, argentiferous lead, copper and zinc ores. 
 
 Sinker-bar. A heavy bar attached above the jars to cable-drilling 
 tools. 
 
 Sinking-fire. A force in which wrought iron scrape or refined 
 pig-iron is partially melted or welded together by a charcoal blast. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 747 
 
 Siphon-tap. See Arend's tap. 
 
 Sit or Sits. A settling or falling of the top of workings. See 
 Thrust and Creep. 
 
 Sizing. Separating ores according to size of particles, prepara- 
 tory to dressing. 
 
 Skep or Skip, Corn. An iron box working between guides in 
 which ore or rook is hoisted. It is distinguished from a kibble, 
 which hangs free in the shaft. 
 
 Skew-plate. See Bloomary. 
 
 SHmvdngs or Skimpings, CoBN. The poorest part skimmed off 
 the jigger. 
 
 Skull. A crust of solidified steel lining a Bessemer ladle. 
 
 Slack. Small coal ; coal dirt. See Oulm (2). 
 
 Slag. The vitreous mass separated from the fused metals in 
 smelting ores. 
 
 Slag-hearth. A hearth on the principle of the Scotch-hearth for 
 the treatment of slags, etc., produced by lead-sraelting in the rever- 
 beratory furnace. The English slag-hearth has one tuyere; the 
 Castilian or Spanish, three. 
 
 Slag-lead. Lead obtained by a re-smelting of gray slag. 
 
 Slag-wool. A finely fibrous mass produced by blowing steam or 
 air into molten slag. 
 
 Slant. A heading driven diagonally between the dip and the 
 strike of a coal-seam ; also called a run. See Run and Counter. 
 
 Slate. A sedimentary rock splitting into thin plates. The terms 
 slate, shale and schist are not sharply distinguished in common use, 
 particularly among older writers. Strictly, according to recent 
 authors, slate may be crystalline ; schist is always so ; shale is always 
 (and slate most frequently) non-crystalline. There is also a notion 
 of coarser or less complete lamination attached to the term shale, as 
 of a rock splitting into thicker or less perfect plates than slate. Both 
 may be argillaceous, arenaceous, calcareous, silicious, etc., according 
 to their lithological character. The terms slaty, shaly, and schistose 
 describe their respective structures. 
 
 Sleek, Nbwc. Mud deposited by water in a mine. 
 
 Sleeper. See Sill. 
 
 Sleeping-table, CoRN. A stationary buddle. Now for strict dis- 
 tinction sometimes made between buddle and table. See Buddie. 
 
 Slickensides. Polished and sometimes striated surfaces on the 
 walls of a vein, or on interior joints of the vein-material or of rock- 
 masses. They are the result of movement. 
 
 Slide, Corn. 1. A vein of clay intersecting and dislocating a 
 vein vertically ; or the vertical dislocation itself. 2. An upright rail 
 fixed in a shaft with corresponding grooves for steadying the cages. 
 
 Slide-joint. A connection acting in rod-boring, fike the jars in 
 rope-boring. 
 
 Slimes. Corn. The most finely crushed ores. 
 
 Slime-table. See Saddle. 
 
 Sline. Natural transverse cleavage of rock. 
 
 Slip. A vertical dislocation of the rocks. 
 
 Slipes, S. Staff. Sledge runners, upon which a skip is dragged 
 from the working breast to the tramway. 
 
 Slit. A communication between two levels. 
 
 Slitter. See Pick. 
 
 Sliver, Eno. A thin wooden strip, inserted into grooves in the 
 adjacent edges of two boards of a brattice, to make it air-tight. 
 
 Slope. See Incline. 
 
 Sludge. See Slimes. 
 
 Sludger. See Sand-pump. ,,.... 
 
 Sluicing. Washing auriferous earth through long boxes {slmces) . 
 
 Slums, Pac. See Slimes. 
 
 Slurry, N. Wales. See Regulus (2). , . , 
 
 Smalt. A blue pigment or glass, consisting of sihca, potash and 
 
 Sme'ddum, ScOT. The smaller particles which pass through the 
 sieve of the hutch. 
 
 Smelting. Reducing ores by fusion in furnaces. 
 
 Smift. A fuse or slow match. 
 
 Smitham or Smiddan, Dekb. Lead-ore dust. 
 
 Smut. 1. S. Staff. Bad, soft coal, contaiumg much earthy 
 matter. 2. SeeMossom. . t i.^ -j. 
 
 Snoff Corn. A short candle-end, put under a fuse to lignt it. 
 
 Snore-hole. The hole in the lower part of wind-bore of a mmmg 
 pump, to admit the water. ,. , . xi i 
 
 Snapstone. Compact talc or steatite ; often applied incorrectly to 
 soft unctuous clays or marls. . . 
 
 Softening. Of lead,the removal of antimony and other impunties. 
 
 SMer. A metal or alloy used to unite adjacent surfaces of less 
 fas;bl3 metals or alloys. Soft solder is a compound of tin and lead ; 
 hard solder, of copper and zinc, or tin, copper, and zinc, or tin and 
 antimony ; gold solder, of gold, silver and copper ; sdver solder, of 
 silver and copper, or silver and brass ; and so on. 
 
 Sole. 1. The bottom of a level. 2. The bottom of a reverberatory 
 
 """said crib-timbering. Shaft-timbering with cribs laid soUdly 
 upon one another. „ ^, .. „ 7 t 
 
 Sollar, Corn. A platform in a shaft, usually constituting aland- 
 ing between two ladders. 
 
 Sounh, Derb. See Adit. 
 
 Sow 1. See Salamander. 2. See Pig-iron. 
 
 Svate Corn. To fine for disobedience of orders. 
 
 Spall or SpoAol. To break ore. JJa J5r£».«r and cotJin? are respec- 
 
 tively coarser and finer breaking than spoiling, but the terms are of- 
 ten used interchangeably. Pieces of ore thus broken are called spalls. 
 
 Spar. A name given by miners to any earthy mineral having a 
 distinct eleavable structure and some lustre ; in Cornwall usually 
 quartz. 
 
 Spears. See Pwmp-rods. 
 
 Speise or Speiss, Germ. Impure metallic arsenides (principally 
 of iron), produced in copper and lead smelting. Cobalt and nickel 
 are founa concentrated in the speiss obtained from ores containing 
 these metals. 
 
 Spel or Spell. A change or turn. 
 
 Spence-fumace. A long reverberatory, for thorough roasting. 
 
 Spend. To break ground ; to continue working. 
 
 Spiegeleisen. Manganiferous white cast-iron. 
 
 Spihing-curb, Eng. A curb to the inside of which plank-tubing 
 is spiked. 
 
 Spilling, Corn. A process of driving or sinking through very 
 loose ground. 
 
 Spills, Corn. Long thick laths or poles driven ahead horizon- 
 tally around the door-frames, in running levels in loose ground — a 
 kind of lagging put in ahead of the main timbering. 
 
 Spire. The tube canying the train to the charge in a blast-hole. 
 Also called reed or rush, because these, as well as spires of grass, 
 are used for the purpose. 
 
 Spitting. The violent ejection of globules by a body of molten 
 silver, in the act of becoming solidified by cooling. 
 
 Splint coal. See coal. 
 
 Split. 1. To divide a ventilating current. 2. When a parting' in 
 a coal-seam becomes so thick that the two portions of the seam must 
 be worked separately, each is called a split. See Bench. 
 
 Sponge. Metal in a porous form, usually obtained by reduction 
 without fusion. See Chenot process. 
 
 Spoon. 1. An instmmentmadeof an ox orbufialohom, inwhich 
 earth or pulp may be delicately tested by washing to detect gold, 
 amalgam, etc. 2 (or Spoon-end). The edge of a coal-basin when 
 the coal-seam spoons, i. e., rises to the surface, after growing thinner 
 as it approaches its termination. 
 
 Spout, S. Staff. See Air-head. 
 
 Sprag. 1. A prop. 2. A shortround piece of wood used to block 
 "the wheels of a car. 
 
 Spreader. A horizontal timber below the cap of a set, to stiffen 
 the legs, and to support the brattice when there are two air-courses 
 in the same gangway. 
 
 Spreaders. Pieces of timber stretched across a shaft as a tempo- 
 rary support of the walls. 
 
 Sprue. A piece of metal attached to a casting, occupying the gate 
 or passage through which the metal was poured. 
 
 Spud. A nail, resembling a horseshoe nail, with a hole in the 
 head, driven into mine-timbering, or into a wooden plug inserted in 
 the rock, to mark a surveying-station. 
 
 Spur. A branch leaving a vein, but not returning to it. 
 
 Spurns, S. Staff. Small connecting masses of coal, left for 
 safety during the operation of cutting between the hanging coal 
 and the main body. 
 
 Square sets. A kind of timbering used in large spaces. 
 
 Squat, COW'S. 1. Tin-ore mixed with spar. 2. See Bunch of ore. 
 
 Squeeze. The settling, without breaking, of the roof over a con- 
 siderable area of workings. 
 
 Squeezer. A machine for reducing the puddle-ball to a compact 
 mass, ready for the hammer or rolls. 
 
 Squip. A slow-match or safety-fuse, used with a barrel. 
 
 Squirting. Forcing lead by hydraulic pressure into the form of 
 rods or pipes. 
 
 Stack. 1. A chimney. 2. See Shaft-furnace. 
 
 Stall, S. Staff. See Room, Breast and Post-and-Stall. 
 
 Stamping. Reducing to the desired fineness in a stamp-mill. The 
 grain is usually not so fine as that produced by grinding in pans. 
 
 Stamp-mill. An apparatus (also the building containing the ap- 
 paratus) in which rock is crushed by descending pestles (stamps), 
 operated by water or steam-power. Amalgamation is usually com- 
 bined with the crushing when gold or silver is the metal sought, but 
 copper and tin-ores, etc., are stamped to prepare them for dressing. 
 
 Stamps, S. Wales. The pieces into which the rough bars s/mti- 
 gled from the finery ball are broken, to be piled for subsequent roll- 
 ing into sheet-iron. 
 
 Stamp-work, Lake Sup. Rock containing disseminated native 
 copper. 
 
 Stanchion. See Leg. 
 
 Standage, Eng. A large sump, or more than one, acting as a 
 reservoir. 
 
 Stannary. A tin-mine or tin-works. 
 
 Station, 1. See Piatt. 2. Also a similar enlargement of shaft 
 or level to receive a balance-bob (bob-station), pump (jmmp- station), 
 or tank (tank-station). 
 
 Steamboat-coal, Penn. See Coal. 
 
 Steam-coal. See Coal. 
 
 Steel. A compound or alloy of iron, principally with carbon, 
 which may be cast, forged, hardened and tempered. Ordinary steel 
 contains from 0.5 to 1.5 per cent, of carbon. More carbon makes 
 cast-iron; less carbon, wrought-iron. But this classification is not 
 now strictly adequate or applicable, either to the scientific or to the 
 commercial use of the term. The so-called mild or low or structural 
 
748 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 steels (low in carbon, and hence relatively soft and tough), as com- 
 pared with high or hard or tool steels, do not always harden or tem- 
 per. An international committtee appointed by the American 
 Institute of Mining Engineers has recommended the use of the 
 following classification : 
 
 1. That all malleable compounds of iron with its ordinary ingre- 
 dients, which are aggregated from pasty masses, or from piles, or 
 from any forms of iron not in a fluid state, and which will not 
 sensibly harden and temper, and which generally resemble what 
 is called " wrought-iron," shall be called weld-iron, (Gekm. Schweis- 
 aeisen; FB..,fer sonde). 
 
 2. That such compounds, when they will from any cause harden 
 and temper, and which resemble what is now called "puddled steel," 
 shall be called weld-steel (Germ., Schweissstahl ; Fb., acier soude). 
 
 3. That all compounds of iron with its ordinary ingredients, 
 which have been cast from a fluid state into malleable masses, 
 and which will not sensibly harden by being quenched in water 
 while at red heat, shall be called ingot4ron (Gekm., Flmseisen; 
 Fe., fer fondu). 
 
 4. That all such compounds, when they will from any cause so 
 harden, shall be called ingot-steel {GKB.m., Flussstahl ; Fr., acier 
 fondu). 
 
 This proposed classification does not cover ordinary cast or pig 
 iron. R is a classification of the malleable compounds only. The 
 Institute has recommended its use in papers and discussions, ex: 
 cept as to the term weld, for which a substitute was desired, and 
 meanwhile the continuance of the old term wrought, though in a 
 somewhat wider significance, was suggested. The resolution of the 
 Institute concludes as follows : " It being understood that the in- 
 got-iron and ingot-steel of this classification constitute, taken to- 
 gether, what is now commercially known as cast-steel, including 
 the so-called low or soft oast-steels." Bessemer-steel is made by de- 
 carburizing cast iron in a converter. {See Sessemer process.) Blis- 
 ter or cement-steel is made by carburizin^ wrought iron bars by 
 Backing them in charcoal powder and heating without access of air. 
 t is melted in crucibles to cast-steel, or hammered (tilted) to shear- 
 eteel (for cutlery, etc.), or rolled to spring-steel. Puddled steel is 
 made by arresting the puddling process before wrought iron has 
 been produced, and thus retaining enough carbon in the bath to con- 
 stitute steel. Natural steel is a similar product, obtained from the 
 refining of cast-iron. Crucible cast-steel i<: steel made by the fusion 
 in crucibles, either of blister-steel, or puddled steel, or steel scrap, or 
 other ingredients and fluxes which will produce the desired quality. 
 Cast-steel in its widest sense, as now employed, comprises all malle- 
 able compounds produced by fusion, including therefore the Besse- 
 mer and open-hearth metal. Open-hearth, called also Martin-Sie- 
 mens steel, is made in the reverberatory furnace (almost invariably 
 a gas-furnace on the Siemens regenerative system, since an intense 
 tenmperature is required) by the reaction, in the fused bath, of cast- 
 iron with wrought-iron, iron-oxide, or iron ore. At a certain stage of 
 the process a deoxidizing or recarburizing agent (spiegeleisen, ferro- 
 manganese) is added. Chrome-steel is a crucible cast-steel in whicli 
 chromium is a constituent. Tungsten or Wolfram-steel is a steel 
 containing tungsten. Phosphorus-steel is a steel in which the amount 
 of phosphorus exceeds that of carbon. Damascus-steel is a lamin- 
 ated mixture of steel and wrought iron. India-steel or Wootz is 
 manufactured in India direct from the ore. 
 
 Stemmer, Newc. See Tamping-bnr. 
 
 Stemming, Nbwc. The tamping put above the charge in a 
 bore-hole. 
 
 Stempel or Stemple. 1. Derb. One of the cross-bars of wood 
 placed in a mine-shaft to serve as steps. 2. A stull-piece. 3. A cap, 
 both sides of which are hitched instead of being supported upon 
 legs. See Stull. 
 
 Stenton, Newo. A passage between two winning headways, A 
 stenton-wall is the pillar of coal between them. 
 
 Step-grate. A grate made in steps or stairs, to promote com- 
 pleteness of the combustion of the coal burned upon it. 
 
 Step-vein. A vein alternately cutting through the strata of cottm- 
 try-rock, and running parallel with them. 
 
 Stetefeldt furnace. A shaft-furnace for desulphurizing or chlori- 
 dizing roastiag, in which the pulverized charge falls freely down 
 the shaft. 
 
 Stirrup. SeeTemper-screw. 
 
 Stock-work (G'EBM., Stockwerk). An ore deposit of such a form 
 that it is worked in floors or stories. It may be a solid mass of ore, 
 or a rock -mass so interpenetrated by small veins of ore that the 
 whole must be mined together. Stoekworks are distinguished from 
 tabular or sAeei-deposits (veins, beds), which have a small thick- 
 ness in comparison with their extension in the main plane of the 
 deposit (that is, in strike and dip). 
 
 Stone-coal. See Coal. 
 
 fiio)if-'!ead,ENG. The solid rock first encountered in sinkingashaft. 
 
 Stoop-and- Rooms, Scot. See Posl-and-Stall. 
 
 Slope, Corn. To evacuate ore in a vein by driving horizontally 
 upon it a series of working, one immediately over the other or vice 
 versa. Each horizontal working is called a stope (probaljly a cor- 
 ruption of step), because when a number of thein are in progress, 
 each working face being a little in advance of the next above or be- 
 low, the whole face under ajack assumes theshapeof ailightofstairs. 
 Whenlhe first stope is be^un at the lower corner of the body of ore 
 to be removed, and after it has advanced a convenient distance, the 
 
 next is' commenced above it, and so on, the process is called over-hand 
 stoping. When the first stope begins at an upper corner, and the 
 succeeding ones are below it, it is under-hand stoping. The term 
 stoping is loosely applied to any subterranean extraction of ore ex- 
 cept that which is incidentally performed in sinking shafts, driving 
 levels, etc., for the purpose of opening the mine. 
 
 Slopping. 1. See Stoping. 2. A partition of boards, masonry, 
 or rubbish, to stop the air-current in a mine, or force it to take a 
 special desired direction. 
 
 Stove. The oven in which the blast of a furnace is heated. 
 
 Stove-coal, Penn. See Coal. 
 
 Stowbord, Newc. A place into which rubbish is put. 
 
 Stowce. 1. A Windlass. 2. Derb. Stowces are wooden land- 
 marks, placed to indicate possession of mining ground. 
 
 Stowing. A method of mining in which all the material of the 
 vein is removed and the waste is packed into the space left by the 
 working. 
 
 Straightening press. A power-press to straighten iron and steel 
 bars, such as rails, shafting, etc. 
 
 Strake, CORN. An inclined launder for separating or tying 
 ground ore in water. 
 
 Stratum. A bed or layer. 
 
 Streak. The powder of a mineral, or the mark which it makes 
 when rubbed upon a harder surface. 
 
 Stream-tin, CORN. Tin-ore in alluvial deposits, as pebbles. 
 
 Stream work, CORN. Work on strewm-tin. 
 
 Streamers, CORN. Searchers for stream-tin. 
 
 Striated. Marked with parallel grooves or strioe. 
 
 Strike. The direction of a horizontal line, drawn in the middle 
 plane of a vein or stratum not horizontal. 
 
 String, CORN. A small vein. 
 
 Stringing-deala, Eng. Thin planks, nailed to the inside of the 
 curbs in a shaft, so as to suspend each curb from those above it. 
 
 Strip. To remove from a quarry, or other open working, the 
 overlying earth and disintegrated or barren surface rock. 
 
 Studdles, COEN. 1. Props supporting the middle of stulls. 2. 
 Distance-pieces between successive frames of timbering. 
 
 Stull, CfoRN. A platform {stull-covering), laid on timbers (stull- 
 pieces), braced across a working from side to side, to support work- 
 men or to carry ore or waste. 
 
 Stulm. See Adit. From the Germ. Slollen. 
 
 Stump, Penn. a small pillar of coal, left at the foot of a breast 
 to protect the gangway. 
 
 Stup. A pulverized mixture of clay and coke or coal. Probably 
 from the Gekm. Gestubbe. 
 
 Sturt. A tribute-hargajn which turns out profitable for the miner. 
 
 Stythe, Newc. Choke-damp. 
 
 Sublimation. The volatilization and condensation of a solid sub- 
 stance, without fusion. 
 
 Sublinuition-theory. The theory that a vein was filled first with 
 metallic vapors. 
 
 Sucker-rod. The pump-rod of an oil-well. 
 
 Sulphur. 1. Iron pyrites. 2. Carburetted or sulphuretted hy- 
 drogen. 
 
 Sulphurets, Pac. In miner's phrase, the undecomposed metallic 
 ores, usually sulphides. Chiefly applied to auriferous pyrites. 
 
 Sump, Corn, (from Germ. Sumpf.) The space left below the 
 lowest landing in a shaft to collect the mine-water. The lowest 
 pump draws from it. 2. Newc. That part ot a ^udd of coal which 
 IS extracted first. 
 
 Sump-fuse. A water-proof fuse. 
 
 Swad, Newc. A thin layer of stone or refuse coal at the bottom 
 of the seam. 
 
 Swape. An implement for shaping the edge of a boring bit. 
 
 Swalls, Swallows or Swallow-holes. Surface holes caused by the 
 subsidence of rocks ; or openings into which mine-water disappears. 
 
 Swamp. A depression in a nearly horizontal bed, in which water 
 may collect. 
 
 Swedish process. See German process. 
 
 Sweeping table. A stationary huddle. 
 
 Sweeps. The dust of the workshops of jewellers, goldsmiths, sil- 
 versmiths, and assayers and refiners of gold and silver. 
 
 Sweet-roasting. See Boasting. 
 
 Synclinal. The axis of a depression of the strata; also the de- 
 pression itself. Opposed to anticlinal, which is the axis of an 
 elevation. 
 
 'TA CKLE, Corn The windlass, rope, and Hbhle. 
 
 Tucklers, Derb. Small chains put around loaded corves. 
 
 Tail-house, Tail-mill. The building in which tailings are treated. 
 
 Tailing. See Blossom. 
 
 Tailings. The lighter and sandy portions of the ore on a huddle 
 or in a sluice. The headings are accumulated or discharged at the 
 upper end, the middlings in the middle, while the tailings escape at 
 the foot. The term tailings is used in a general sense for the refuse 
 of reduction-processes other than smelting. 
 
 Tail-race. The channel in which tailings, suspended in water, 
 are conducted away. 
 
 Tamp. To fill (u-iually with clay-tamping) the bore-hole or other 
 opening through which an explosive cliarge has been introduced 
 for blasting. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 749 
 
 Tamping-bar. Corn. 
 
 Tank. A subterranean reservoir into which a pump delivers 
 water for another pump to raise. 
 
 Tap- Oinder. The cinder drawn from a puddling furnace or 
 bloomary. 
 
 Tap-hole. The opening through which the molten metal is tapped 
 or drawn from a furnace. 
 
 Teem, Eng. 1. To dump. 2. To pour steel from a melting-pot. 
 
 Temper. 1. To grind and mix plastic materials, such as clay, or 
 the ingredients of mortar. To give the metals (especially steel) the 
 desired degree of hardness and elasticity by a process of heating 
 and cooling, suitably regulated. A metallic compound in which 
 these qualities can thus be produced is said to temper, or to take 
 temper, 
 
 Temperi/ng-bar. See Fargen. 
 
 Temper-screw. A screw-connection for lengthening the column 
 of boring-rods as borinij advances. 
 
 Tenant-helve, Enq. See Frontal-hammer. 
 
 Tepetnte, Sp. Waste roclc and rubbish in amine. 
 
 Tern-plate. A variety of tin-plate coated with an alloy of one- 
 third tin, and two-thirds lead. 
 
 Test. See Oapel. 
 
 Test-ring. An oval iron frame for holding a test or movable 
 cup3lling-hearth. 
 
 T/termo-aqueous. Produced by, or related to, the action of 
 heated waters. 
 
 Thill, Nbwc. The floor of a coal mine. 
 
 Thirling. See Thurling. 
 
 Thomas and Gilchrist process. See Basic lining process. 
 
 Three-high train. A roH-^raim composed of three rolls, the bar, 
 being entered on one side between the bottom and the middle rolls 
 and on the other side between the middle and upper roll. The 
 passes in both directions thus take place without reversing the 
 movement of the rolls, as is done in so-called reversing-rolls. 
 
 Throw. A dislocation or fault of a vein or stratum, which has 
 been Thrown up or down by the movement. 
 
 Throwing, S. Staff. The operation of brealsing out the spurns, 
 so as to leave the hanging coal unsupported, except by its own 
 coliesion. 
 
 Thrust. The breaking down or the slow descent of the roof of a 
 ganggay. Compare Creep. 
 
 Thurl, S. Staff. To cut through from one working into another. 
 
 Thurlings. Passages cut from room to room in post-and-slall 
 working. 
 
 Thurst. The ruins of the fallen roof, after pillars and stallshave 
 been removed. 
 
 Ticketings, CoKN. Meetings for the sale of ores. 
 
 Tick-hole. See Vkig. 
 
 Tierras, Sp. Fine dirt impregnated with quick-silver ore, which 
 must be made into adobes before roasting. 
 
 Tiger. See Nipping-fork. 
 
 Tile-copper. See Bottoms. 
 
 Tiller. See Brace-head. 
 
 Tilt-hammer. A hammer for shingling or forging iron, arranged 
 as a lever of the first or third order, and" tilted" or "tripped" by 
 means of a cam or cog-gearing, and allowed to fall upon the billet, 
 bloom, or bar. 
 
 Tin-frame, Corn. A sleeping-table used in dressing tin-ore slimes, 
 and discharged by turning it upon an axis till its surface is nearly 
 vertical, and then dashing water over it, to remove the enriched 
 deposit. A machine-frame or self-acting frame thus discharges 
 itself automatically at intervals; a hand-frame is turned for the 
 purpose by hand. . 
 
 Tin-ores. Tinstone (cassiterite, oxidel ; tm-pyrites, {stannite, 
 sulphide of tin, copper, iron and zinc). The latter is not, so far as 
 I am aware now actually treated for tin. Ores containing it are 
 smelted as copper ores, and the tin is lost. 
 
 Tin-plate. Sheet-iron coated with tin. 
 
 Tin-Witts, Corn. The product of the first dressing of tm-ores 
 containing, besides tinstone, other heavy minerals (wolfram and 
 metallic sulphides), It must be roasted before it can be further 
 concentrated. Its first or partial roasting is called rag-burmng. 
 
 Tipe. To upset or " dump " a skip. 
 
 Toadstone. A kind of trap-rock. ., ^ . 
 
 Ton. For many things, such as coal and iron, the ton in use is 
 the long ton of twenty hundredweight at 112 pounds avoirdupois. 
 Allowances ("sandage," etc.), are made in weighing pig-iron and 
 other crude metals, so that the " smelter's ton" is still greater 
 The Cornish mining ton is twenty-one hundredweight or 26bi 
 pounds avoirdupois. In gold and silver mining, and throughout 
 the Western States, the ton is the short ton of 2000 pounds. 
 
 Tonite. A nitrated gun-cotton, used in blasting. 
 
 Top-wall. &ee Hanging-wall. „j f„, 
 
 Tmta, Sp. A flat heap of silver ore {slims or pulp) prepared tor 
 the vatio process. , . -, ± .j. ^i 
 
 Tossing or Tozing, CORN. 1. Washing ores by violent agitation 
 in water, their subsidence being accelerated hy packing or striking 
 with a hammerthe keevein which the operation is performed. Chim- 
 minq is a similar process on a smaller scale. 2. Refining tin by al- 
 lowing it, while molten, to fall several feet through the air 
 
 Touchitmie. A black, hard stone (basalt or jasper), on which the 
 fineness of an alloy of gold and silver can be tested by comparing 
 
 its streak with that of a piece of alloy (touch-needle) of known 
 fineness. 
 
 Tough-cake. Befined or commercial copper. 
 
 Toughening. Refining, as of copper or gold. 
 
 Tough-pitch. See Tough-cake. 
 
 Towt, Nbwc. A piece of old rope. 
 
 Train. See Boll-train. 
 
 Tram, Walbs. 1. A four-wheeled truck to carry a tub, corve, or 
 hutch, or to carry coal or ore on a railroad. 2. One of the rails of 
 a trwmroad or railroad. 
 
 Trap. In miners' parlance, any dark. Igneous or apparently ig- 
 neous, volcanic rock. 
 
 Trap-door. See Weather-door. 
 
 Trapiche, Sp. A rude grinding machine, composed of two stones, 
 of which the upper is fastened to a long pole. 
 
 Trapper. Newc. A boy who opens and shuts the trap-door. 
 
 Tribute, Corn. A portion of ore given to the miner for his labor. 
 Tributors are miners working nnder contract, to be paid by a tribute 
 of ore or its equivalent price, the basis of the remuneration being 
 the amount of clean ore contained in the crude product. 
 
 Trip-hammer. See Tilt-hammer. 
 
 Trogue. A wooden trough, forming a drain. 
 
 Trolly. A small four or two-wheeleii truck, without a body. The 
 two-wheeled trolly is used in a rolling-mill to wheel the puddle- 
 balls to the squeezer. 
 
 Trombe or Trompe, Fr. An apparatus for producing an air-blast 
 by means of a falling stream of water, which mechanically carries 
 air down with it, to be subsequently separated and compressed in a 
 reservoir or drum below. 
 
 Trommel. A revolving sieve for sizing ores. 
 
 Trouble, Newc. A dislocation of the strata. 
 
 Trow. A wooden channel for air or water. 
 
 Trumpeting, S. Staff. A small channel cut behind the brick- 
 work ofa shaft lined with masonry. 
 
 Trunk, Corn. A long narrow box or square tube, usually of 
 wood. 
 
 Trunking, CoRN. Separating slimes by means of.a trunk. 
 
 Tubbing. A shaft-lining of casks or cylindrical caissons, of iron 
 or wood. See Plank-tubbing. 
 
 Tubing. Lining a deep bore-hole by driving down iron tubes. 
 
 Ttiiis, Newc. Boxes for lowering coals. See Trolly. 
 
 Tuff or Tufa. A soft sandstone or calcareous deposit. 
 
 Tug, Derb. The iron hook of a hoisting bucket, to which the 
 tacklers are attached. 
 
 Ttmnel. 1. A nearly horizontal underground passage, open at 
 both ends to day. 2. Pac. See Adit. 
 
 Tunnel-head. The top of a shaft-furnace. 
 
 Turbary. A peat-bog. 
 
 Turn. A pit sunk in a drift. 
 
 Turn-bat. A wooden stick used in turning the tongs which hold 
 a bloom under the hammer. 
 
 Turning-house. The first working on a vein where it has been 
 intersected by a cross-cut. 
 
 Tut-work. See Dead-work. In general, work paid for by the 
 amount of excavation, not (as in tribute) of product. 
 
 Tuyere, Tweer, Twyer or Twere. A pipe inserted in the wall ofa 
 furnace, through which the blast is forced into the furnace. Usually 
 the tuyere enters through an embrasure in the masonry (tuyere- 
 arch). A nozzle or interior pipe is frequently inserted at the inner 
 end of the tuyere. By changing the nozzle, the size of the opening 
 for the blast may be thus regulated without changing the tuyere. 
 The latter is either an annular hollow casting of iron (box-tuyere) or 
 bronze (bronze-tuyere), or a coil of iron pipe. In either case, water 
 is continually circulated through it, to protect it and the nozzle from 
 the action of'^the melting materials in the furnace. Spray-tuyeres 
 are open box-tuyeres, in which a spray of water, instead of a current, 
 is employed. This is vaporized by the heat, and passes away as 
 steam. 
 
 Tuyere-plate. See Bloomary. 
 
 Tying, CORN. See Stroke. 
 
 fymp. A hollow iron casting, cooled interiorly by a current of 
 water, and placed to protect the tymp-arch, or arch over the dam in 
 a blast furnace having a, fore-hearth. (See Open front.) 
 
 TJNDER-KAND. See Slope. 
 
 Underlayer, Corn. A vertical shaft sunk to cut a lode. 
 
 Underlie or Underlay, CORN. The departure of a vein or stratum 
 from the vertical, usually measured in horizontal feet per fathom of 
 inclined depth. Thus a dip of 60° is an underlay of three feet per 
 fathom. The underlay expressed in feet per fathom is six times the 
 natural cosine of the angle of the dip. See I>ip. 
 
 Under-poled copper. Copper not poled enough to remove all sub- 
 oxide. 
 
 Universal train. A roll train having adjustable horizontal and 
 vertical rolls, so as to produce sections of various sizes. 
 
 Unwater. To drain or pump water from a mine. 
 
 Upcast. 1. A lifting of a coal seam by a dike. 2. The opening 
 through which the ventilating current passes out of a mine. See 
 Downcast. 
 
 Upraise. See Rise. 
 
 Ure's process. The treatment of quicksilver ores by heating in 
 iron retorts with admixture of lime. 
 
750 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 T/ilXi' AITA FURNACE. See JIahner furnace. 
 
 Vamping. The debrin of a stope, which forma a hard mass un- 
 der the feet of the miner. 
 
 Vanning, CORN. A method of washing ore on a shovel, analo- 
 gous to panning. Concentrating machines are sometimes called 
 manners. See Percussion-table. 
 
 Vein. See Lode. The term vein is also sometimes applied to 
 small threads, or subordinate features of a larger deposit. 
 
 Vena, Sp. A small vein. 
 
 Vend, NBvyc. The total sales of coal from a colliery. 
 
 Verifier. A tool used in deep boring for detaching and bringing 
 to the surface portions of the wall of the bore-hole at any desired 
 depth. 
 
 Vermillion. Mercury sulphide. 
 
 Vestry, Newc. Refuse. 
 
 Veta, Sp. a vein. As compared with vena, veta is the main 
 vein. 
 
 Viewer. A colliery manager. 
 
 Vigorite. See Explosives. 
 
 Vug, vugg or vugh. A cavity in the rock, usually lined with a 
 crystalline incrustation. See Geode. 
 
 'nrAD-HOOK. A tool with two spiral steel blades for removing 
 fragments from the bottom of deep bore-lioles. 
 
 Wagon. A four-wheeled vehicle used in coal mines, usually con- 
 taining 75 to 100 cubic feet. 
 
 Wagon-hreast. A breast into which wagons can be taken. 
 
 Wale, Newc. To clean coal by picking out the refuse by hand. 
 The boys who do this are called Waters. 
 
 Wall. 1. The side of a level or drift. 2. The country-rock bound- 
 ing a vein laterally. 
 
 Wall-plates, CORN. The two side-pieces of a timber frame in a 
 shaft, paralled to the strike of the lode when the shaft is sunk on the 
 lode. The other two pieces are the end-piecea. 
 
 Washer. See Ore-washer. 
 
 Water-jacket. See Jacket. 
 
 Waste. Newc. Old workings. The signification seems to in- 
 clude that of both goaf and gob. 
 
 Wastrel. A tract of waste land or any waste material. 
 
 Water-barrel or Water-tank. A barrel or box with a self-acting 
 valve at the bottom, used for hoisting water in lieu of a pump. 
 
 Water-level. 1. The level at which, by natural or artificial drain- 
 age, water is removed from a mine or mineral deposit. 2. A drift 
 at the water-level. 
 
 Water-packer. A water-tight packing of leather between the pipe 
 and the walls of a bore-hole. 
 
 Way-shaft. See Blind-shaft. 
 
 Weather-door. A door in a level to regulate the ventilating cur- 
 rent. 
 
 Weathering. Changing under the effect of continued exposure to 
 atmospheric agencies. 
 
 Wedqing-curb or Wedging-crib, Eng. A curb used to make a 
 water-tight packing between the tubbing in a shaft and the rock- 
 walls, by means of split deals, moss and wedges, driven in between 
 the curb and the rock. 
 
 Weld. To join pieces of metal by pressure, at a temperature be- 
 low that of complete fusion. 
 
 Weld-:iron. Wrought-iron. See Iron and Steel. 
 
 Weld-steel. See Steel. 
 
 Weld. The crucible of a furnace. 
 
 Welsh process. See English process. 
 
 Wetherill furnace. A furnace with perforated iron bottom, under 
 which a blast is introduced, and upon which zinc-ore (red oxide) is 
 reduced. 
 
 Wharl or Wharr, NEWC. A sledge for hauling corves in low 
 drifts. 
 
 Wheal, Corn. A mine. 
 
 Whim or Whimsey. A machine for hoisting by means of a ver- 
 tical drum, revolved by horse or steam power. 
 
 Whin or Whinstone, Newc. Basaltic rock ; any hard, unstrati- 
 fied rock. In Scotland, greenstone. 
 
 Whip. The simplest horse-power hoisting machine, consisting of 
 a fixed pulley and a hoisting rope passing over it, to which the 
 animal is directly attached. 
 
 White-ash, Penn. See Coal. 
 
 White-damp. A poisonous gas sometimes (more rarely than fire- 
 damp or choke-damp, etc.), encountered in coal mines. It has been 
 supposed to contain carbonic oxide, but this is doubtful. 
 
 White furnace. See Howell furnace. 
 
 White-lead. Carbonate of lead. 
 
 Wliite tin, Corn. Metallic tin. 
 
 Whits or Wills, Corn. See Tin-witts. 
 
 Whitwell stove. A fire-brick hot-blast stove, on the regenerative 
 system. 
 
 Whole-working, Newc, Working where the ground is still whole, 
 i. «., has not been penetrated as yet with breasts. Opposed to pillar- 
 work, or the extraction of pillars left to support previous work. 
 
 Wild lead. Zinc-blende. 
 
 Wicket. A breast. See Breast, and Post-and-stull. 
 
 Wimble. A shell-auger used for boring in soft ground. 
 
 Win. To extract ore or coal. 
 
 Windbore, Newo. The pipe at the bottom of a set of pumps. 
 
 Winch or Windlass. A man-power hoisting machine, consisting 
 of a horizontal drum with crank handles. 
 
 Winding. Hoisting with a rope and drum. 
 
 Winds. See Winze. 
 
 Winning. 1. A new opening. 2. The portion of a coal field laid 
 out for working. 
 
 Winning headways. Newc. Headways driven to explore and 
 open out the coal seam. 
 
 Winze. An interior shaft, usually connecting two levels. 
 
 Wood-tin. Tinstone of light wood-color. 
 
 Wootz. See Steel. 
 
 Work. Ore not yet dressed. 
 
 Working. See Labor. The Spanish and the English term are 
 synonymous in meaning and alike in application. A working may 
 be shaft, quarry, level, open-cut, or slope, etc. 
 
 Working-barrel, Corn. The cylinder in which a pump piston 
 works. 
 
 Working home. Working toward the main shaft in extracting 
 ore or coal, as in longwall retreating. 
 
 Working-out. Working away from the main shaft in extracting 
 ore or coal, as in longwall advancing. 
 
 Work-lead, See Base bullion. 
 
 YELLOW-ORE. Corn. 
 Yokings. See Stowces. 
 
 Chalcopyrite. See Copper ores. 
 
 ^A WN, Corn. A cavern. 
 
 Ziervogel process. The extraction of silver from sulphuret ores 
 or matte by roasting in such a way as to form sulphate of silver, 
 leaching this out with hot water, and precipitating the silver by 
 means of metallic copper. 
 
 Zighyr, zigger, or sicker. Corn. To percolate, trickle or ooze, as 
 water through a crack. From Germ., sickern. 
 
 Zinc-dust. Finely-divided zinc, zinc-oxide, and impurities, inci- 
 dentally produced in the manufacture of spelter. It is sometimes 
 used as an inferior paint [zinc-gray). 
 
 Zinc-gray. See Zinc-dust. 
 
 Zinc-ores. Red ore (zincite, oxide) ; black-jack {zinc-blende, sphal- 
 erite, sulphide); zinc-spar (iioble calamine, smithsonite, carbonate, 
 and earthy calamine, hydrozincite, hydrated carbonate) ; silicious 
 oxide (wiilemite, anhydrous, and calamine, hydrated silicate). 
 
 Zinc-scum. The zinc-silver alloy skimmed from the surface of 
 the bath in the process of desilverization of lead by zinc. 
 
 Zinc-white. Oxide of zinc. 
 
 Zones. In a shaft-furnace, the different portions (horizontal sec- 
 tions) are called zones, and characterized according to the reactions 
 which take place in them, as the zone of fusion or smelting -zone, 
 the reduction-zone, etc. 
 
 THE PROPERTIES OF METALS. 
 
 THE word Metal appears to be derived from the 
 Greek (isz aXka, in quasi of other things, whence 
 come fisraXXdiu to search after, to explore, or in gold- 
 diggers' language to prospect, and the corresponding substan- 
 tive (lirakXov a mine. About fifty of the undecomposed or 
 elementary substances are classed together under the head of 
 Metals by the chemist, because they manifest certain pro- 
 perties when acted upon by chemical tests, without regard to 
 those external characters which are commonly associated 
 with the idea of a metal. Many of these are unfit to be 
 employed in the metallic state for any of the ordinary uses of 
 metals, because they cannot be exposed to the action of air, 
 even for a short time, without being rusted or corroded, by 
 combining with the oxygen of the air, to such an extent 
 that they entirely lose their metallic characters. Among 
 those which offer sufficient resistance to the action ot air, many 
 are excluded from useful application in their metallic state, 
 on account of their rarity, or of the great difliculty which is 
 experienced in extracting them from their ores. The met- 
 als which are employed for useful purposes in their pure or 
 metallic state are — 
 
 Aluminum 
 Antimony 
 Bismuth 
 Cadmium 
 
 Copper 
 Gord 
 Iron 
 Lead 
 
 Magnesium 
 
 Platinum 
 
 Mercury 
 
 Silver 
 
 Nickel 
 
 Tin 
 
 Palladium 
 
 Zinc 
 
 On considering this list, it will be seen that several of the 
 metals named in it are employed to produce some effect de- 
 pendent upon a peculiar property of the metal, and not 
 upon qualities which belong to it in common with the rest. 
 Thus, mercury or quicksilver is used for amalgamating or 
 dissolving, and also as a suitable liquid for construct- 
 ing barometers and thermometers ; antimony owes its use- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 751 
 
 fulness to its property of hardening lead and tin when 
 melted with them ; bismuth and cadmium are employed to 
 render lead and tin capable of being melted at lower tem- 
 peratures; nickel is used to whiten copper in order to 
 make German silver ; and magnesium is valuable for its 
 property of burning easily with production of a brilliant 
 white light. Moreover, gold, platinum, palladium, and sil- 
 ver, being comparatively rare, and aluminum being obtain- 
 able by a somewhat costly process, the useful applications 
 of these metals are limited by their high price, so that there 
 remain only tin, lead, copper, iron and zinc to be considered 
 as metals largely employed for useful purposes. 
 
 The qualities possessed by these metals, rendering them 
 lit for purposes which could not be fulfilled by non-metallic 
 substances, are lustre, or the power of reflecting light, tena- 
 city, or resistance to any attempt to pull asunder their par- 
 ticles ; malleability, or the capability of being hammered or 
 rolled into thin sheets ; ductility, or the property of being 
 drawn out into wire; high specific gravity or relative 
 weight ; high conductive power for heat and electricity ; 
 and fusibility, or the property of becoming liquid when 
 heated. 
 
 Metallic Lustre. — The power of reflecting the rays of 
 light is possessed in a much higher degree by metals than 
 by non-metallic substances. Although some examples of 
 the latter class, such as iodine and plumbago, reflect much 
 of the light which falls upon smooth surfaces of them, they 
 have a black appearance, caused by their absorbing a large 
 proportion of the luminous rays, which is quite different 
 from the true metallic lustre. Iron, in the form of steel, is 
 capable of exhibiting this lustre in very great perfection, 
 because the hardness of steel allows its surface to be ground 
 perfectly smooth by the application of fine particles of very 
 hard substances, such as emery and diamond-dust, which 
 rub off minute projections from the surface without produ- 
 cing scratches or indentations. A surface, so polished sends 
 back directly to the eye of the observer almost all the light 
 falling upon it, whilst a rough surface, being made up of a 
 number of small surfaces, scatters the reflected rays in all 
 directions. Tin is naturally a brilliant metal, but is not 
 hard enough to be polished, like steel ; if, however, it be 
 dissolved in twice its weight of melted copper, an alloy of 
 great hardness and brilliancy is formed, which is employed 
 for the specula or mirrors of reflecting telescopes. Zinc 
 and lead exhibit the metallic lustre in an inferior degree, 
 and become dull when exposed to air, because the metal at 
 the surface combines with oxygen, forming a thin film of 
 oxide which has no metallic lustre. The natural lustre of 
 silver is very great, and if it be hardened by admixture 
 with a little copper, it becomes susceptible of a very high 
 polish which is not dimmed by the action of the oxygen of 
 air, though it is easily tarnished by sulphur existing in foul 
 air in the form of sulphuretted hydrogen. The splendid 
 combination of lustre and color exhibited by burnished 
 gold is proverbial and is undiminished by the action of the 
 atmosphere. The lustre of palladium and platinum resem- 
 bles that of silver, and is not affected by oxygen or sulphur 
 in the air. Aluminum has also a permanent lustre, though 
 inferior to that of silver. When dissolved in nine times its 
 weight of melted copper aluminum forms a hard yellow al- 
 loy capable of being polished to resemble gold, but becoming 
 slowly tarnished by the action of the oxygen in air. 
 
 Tenacity.— The strength with which the metals oppose 
 any attempt to pull asunder their particles is one of their 
 most useful properties, and is determined by ascertaming 
 the exact weight which must be suspended from the ends 
 of wires or rods of equal diameter, in order to break them. 
 The weight required to break a given metallic wire is found 
 to vary according to the manner in which the strain is ap- 
 plied, the resistance of the wire being greater when the 
 whole of the breaking weight is applied at once than when 
 it is added gradually, probably because, in the latter case, 
 the wire becomes stretched and weakened by each addi- 
 tional weight. Steel (iron combined with about rh*f part 
 of carbon) is by far the most tenacious of metals, and lead 
 is the least tenacious of those in ordinary use. It ttie 
 weight required to pull asunder a wire of lead be taken as 
 unity, that required by similar wires of the other metals will 
 be found to approach nearly to the number contained in tne 
 following table : — 
 
 Relative Tenacltj^ of the Metals. 
 
 Lead . . . 
 Tin ... . 
 
 Zinc . . . . 
 Palladium 
 Gold. . .. 
 
 . 1 
 
 . 2 
 .12 
 
 SilTer . . . 
 Platinum. . 
 Copper . . 
 Iron . . 
 Steel . . . . 
 
 . 15 
 .18 
 
 .42 
 
 The tenacity of metals is very seriously affected by varia- 
 tions in their structure, purity and temperature. Thus, rods 
 of metal which have been cast in a mould are generally 
 weaker than rods of equal dimensions made by drawing the 
 metal through the gradually diminishing holes of the wire- 
 drawer's plate. The tenacity of iron rods which have been 
 rolled until they have acquired a fibrous structure, is much 
 higher than that of rods which are crystalline in texture, the 
 metal tending to break asunder where the smooth surfaces 
 of the separate crystals are in contact with each other. The 
 tenacity of metal when hot is, as might be anticipated, less 
 than its tenacity when cold ; and if the metal be made red- 
 hot and allowed to cool slowly, it will generally be found to 
 have diminished in tenacity, probably because a high tem- 
 perature tends to encourage the formation of a crystalline 
 structure. The effect of the presence of impurities upon 
 the tenacity of metals will be more appropnately studied 
 elsewhere, but it may be stated generally that chemical 
 purity is not of necessity accompanied by the highest 
 degree of tenacity. Thus, the small proportion of carbon 
 present in steel is seen in the above table to have greatly 
 increased in tenacity of the iron, and pure zinc has a much 
 lower tenacity than the ordinary zinc of commerce. 
 
 Malleability. — The facility with which a mass of metal 
 can be hammered or rolled into a thin sheet without being 
 torn, must depend partly upon its softness, and partly upon 
 its tenacity. If it depended upon softness alone, lead 
 should be the most malleable of ordinary metals ; but, al- 
 though it is easy to hammer a mass of lead into a flat plate, 
 or to squeeze it between rollers, any attempt to reduce it to 
 an extremely thin sheet fails from its want of tenacity, 
 which causes it to be worn into holes by percussion or fric- 
 tion. On the other hand, if malleability were entirely reg- 
 ulated by tenacity, iron would occupy the first place, 
 whereas, on account of its hardness, it is the least mallea- 
 ble of metals in ordinary use ; whilst gold, occupying an 
 intermediate position with respect to tenacity, is the most 
 malleable, which appears surprising to those who are only 
 acquainted with gold in its ordininary forms of coin and 
 ornament, in which it is hardened ftnd rendered much less 
 malleable by the presence of copper and silver. During 
 the rolling or lamination of metals their particles are obvi- 
 ously squeezed into unnatural positions ; it becomes neces- 
 sary, therefore, in order to avoid breaking, to enable the 
 particles to resume their former relative situations ; this is 
 effected by heating the metallic sheet after every two or 
 three rollings, and allowing it to cool slowly, a process of 
 annealing similar to that by which glass vessels are rendered 
 less brittle. In the following table the ordinary metals are 
 arranged in the order of malleability : 
 
 Table of Halleabllly. 
 
 1. Gold. 
 
 4. Tin. 
 
 7. Zinc 
 
 2. Silver. 
 
 6. Platinum. 
 
 8. Iron 
 
 3. Copper. 
 
 6. Load. 
 
 
 Ductility. — The ease with which a metal can be elon- 
 gated into a wire, by bein^ drawn through the gradually 
 diminishing holes of the wire-drawer's plate, will be greater 
 in proportion to the softness of the metal ; but the thinness 
 of the wire to which it can be reduced is regulated by the 
 tenacity of the metal, which enables it to resist, without 
 breaking, the force required to draw it through the holes, 
 and it is found that their tenacity has more influence upon 
 the ductility of metals than upon their malleability, for the 
 particles of a weak metal, like tin, may cohere under the 
 hammer, although they would be easily torn apart by the 
 direct pull necessary in wire-drawing. Gold, silver, and 
 platinum, which occupy an intermediate position with re- 
 spect to tenacity, are the most ductile of the metals, whilst 
 tin and lead, which are lowest in tenacity, are the least duc- 
 tile, though their softness gives them a higher place in the 
 order of malleability. 
 
752 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Tatile of DnctUlty. 
 
 1. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 5. Copper. 
 
 6. Palladium. 
 
 8. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 2. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 9. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 3. 
 
 Platinum. 
 
 7. Aluminum. 
 
 10 
 
 Lead. 
 
 4. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 
 
 
 The metals require annealing during the process of wire- 
 drawing, as in that of lamination, and for a similar reason. 
 
 Specific Gravity. — The relative weights of equal bulks 
 of the metals exercise considerable influence upon their 
 useful applications. The relative weight of gold being very 
 high it is well adapted for a circulating medium, a large 
 value being compressed into a portable form. On the other 
 hand, iron would be employed with far less advantage in 
 _ building if its relative weight did not happen to be low, 
 whilst aluminum, being thp lightest of metals in ordinary 
 use, is particularly well adapted for the production of small 
 weights, as fractions of a grain, which shall yet be large 
 enough to handle; such weights being nearly nine times as 
 large when made of aluminum as they are when platinum 
 is employed, as was the case before the introduction of alu- 
 minum. The specific gravities, or comparative weights of 
 equal bulks of the metals, are generally expressed by num- 
 bers which show that each metal is so many times as heavy 
 as an equal bulk of pure distilled water at the ordinary 
 temperature (60° F.); thus zinc is a little more than seven 
 times as heavy as an equal bulk of water, so that its specific 
 gravity is expressed by 7 and a fraction. The first column 
 of numbers in the following table gives the specific gravi- 
 ties of the metals in round numbers, which can be easily 
 retained in the memory, and are sufliciently exact for ordi- 
 nary purposes, the more accurate numbers usually employed 
 in scientific works being given in the next column : — 
 
 Talile of Specific Gravities of the Metals. 
 
 Platinum . . 21U . . 21.53 
 
 Gold 19!|. . 19.34 
 
 Mercury. . . . 13?. . . .13.59 
 Palladium.. . . 11|. . . 11.8 
 
 Lead IIH ■ . 11-36 
 
 Silver 10]4 . . 10.53 
 
 Bismuth 9S . . . 9.79 
 
 Copper 9 . . . 8.95 
 
 Nickel . . . 8S . . . . 8.82 
 
 Iron 
 
 Tin 
 
 Zinc . . . 
 Antimony 
 Aluminum. 
 
 V-i-- ■ 
 71. . . 
 •6k. . . 
 ,2K. . 
 
 . 7.84 
 . . 7.29 
 .7.14 
 .6.71 
 .2.67 
 
 Magnesium. 1^. 1.74 
 
 Conducting Power of Metals for Heat.— The sen- 
 sation of cold when the hand is placed upon a piece of 
 metal of the ordinary temperature of the air shows us that 
 metals are better conductors of heat than non-metallic 
 bodies, for the particles of metal which are warmed by con- 
 tact with the hand give up the acquired heat to the neigh- 
 boring particles, and being thus cooled to nearly their former 
 temperature, are able to abstract a fresh supply of heat 
 from the hand ; whereas, when the hand is placed upon 
 wood, or other inferior conductors of heat, the particles in 
 contact with it are warmed by the removal of a trifling 
 amount of heat from the hand, and are not soon cooled 
 again by parting with their heat to the particles adjoining. 
 In consequence of the rapidity with which heat applied to one 
 portion of a mass of metal is communicated to the whole of 
 the particles composing it, metals may be suddenly heated 
 or cooled with much less risk of causing them to crack or 
 fly than is the case with non-metallic snbstauces. When an 
 earthenware pipkin or a glass bottle is placed upon the fire, 
 the outside immediately becomes much hotter than the in- 
 side, and being expanded by the heat, tears apart the parti- 
 cles of the inside of the vessel and produces a crack, but in 
 the case of a metallic vessel the heat is rapidly transmitted, 
 and all parts of the vessel are expanded almost simultane- 
 ously. The much greater rapidity with which water can be 
 heated in metallic vessels is another useful result of the su- 
 perior conducting power of the metals. In the following table 
 the metals are arranged in the order of their conducting 
 power, the first being the best conductor : — 
 
 Table of Conducting Power for Heat 
 
 1. Silver. 5 Zinc. 9. Lead. 
 
 2. Gold. 6. Iron. 10. Antimony. 
 
 3. Copper. 7. Tin. 11. Bismuth. 
 
 4. Aluminum, 8. Platinum. 
 
 Conducting Power of Metals for Electricity.— 
 
 The conducting power of electricity, of metals, refers to the 
 facility with which an electric disturbance excited in por- 
 tion of a mass of metal is transmitted to the other particles 
 composing the mass. Thus, a very slight electric distur- 
 bance at one end of a copper wire is sufficient to produce 
 
 movement in a telegraph needle at the other extremity, 
 whilst a much greater amount of disturbance, or, in other 
 words, a more powerful current, is required if an iron wire 
 of the same length and thickness be employed. Only one 
 non-metallic substance— Carbon, in some of its varieties — 
 at all approaches to the metals in the power of conducting 
 electricity. 'Those metals which are the best conductors of heat 
 are also the best conductors of electricity, and in both cases 
 the conducting power is seriously impaired by the presence 
 in the metal even of small quantities of other metals, or of 
 non-metallic bodies, as well as by an increase of tempera- 
 ture in the metal. When heated to the boiling point of 
 water, the metals have only about three-fourths of the 
 conducting power which they exhibit at the freezing point. 
 The following table shows the relative conducting power 
 of the most important metals in a pure state at 32° F., the 
 conducting power of silver, which is higher than that of any 
 other metals, being taken as 1000 : — 
 
 Table of Conducting Fo-^ver for Electricity. 
 
 Silver — 1000 
 
 EX?"-: •.;.•.•.• 
 
 .... 999 
 
 Nickel .... 
 
 131 
 
 ... .779 
 
 Tin 
 
 . . .123 
 
 Zinc 
 
 .... 290 
 
 Lead 
 
 .... 83 
 
 Palladium .... 
 
 . ... 184 
 
 Antimony . . . . 
 
 .... 46 
 
 Platinum . . . 
 
 180 
 
 
 
 Iron 
 
 .... 168 
 
 Bismuth .... 
 
 12 
 
 Fusibility. — Although the property of becoming liquid 
 at high temperatures is not confined to the metals, it must 
 be mentioned among the properties which conduce to their 
 utility, for it enables the founder to produce a large num- 
 ber of objects of a gi ;en pattern with little expenditure of 
 time and labor, and offers to the worker in metals a ready 
 method of soldering together, in a durable manner, the sep- 
 arate pieces of his work. Tin and lead, being the most fusi- 
 ble of ordinary metals, are the constituents of solder, whilst 
 iron (wrought iron), as the least fusible of the common 
 metals, is used for firebars, melting-pots and similar pur- 
 poses. 
 
 Table of FuslbUlty. 
 
 Tin melte at 442° F. SUver melts at 1800° F. 
 
 Cadmium " 442 Copper " 1990 
 
 Gold " 200O 
 
 Cast Iroa 2780 
 
 Steel " 4000 
 
 Wrought Iron " above 4000 • 
 
 Bismuth 
 Lead 
 Zinc 
 Antimony 
 
 507 
 
 617 
 
 773 
 
 1150 
 
 Platinum melts only in the oxy -hydrogen blowpipe flame. 
 
 In practical work the temperature is commonly inferred 
 from the appearance of the fire ; thus, the red heat of an 
 ordinary domestic fire is roughly valued at 1000° F., so that 
 tin, lead, and zinc can be very easily melted in a crucible 
 or ladle placed in such a fire ; but aluminum, silver, copper, 
 and gold, require a bright red (cherry red) or furnace heat to 
 melt them : cast iron requires a very bright red heat, only 
 attainable in a furnace with a very good draft ; and for melt- 
 ing steel, a ftirnace of special construction (wind fiirnacc) is 
 employed. Wrought iron can be fused only at a white 
 heat, producible by a blast of air in a forge, and platinum 
 melts at a greenish white heat in the flame of hydrogen sup- 
 plied with pure oxygen. The production of a temperature 
 adequate to the fusion of steel and wrought iron in large 
 quantities has been much facilitated by the introduction of 
 Siemens' regenerative furnace, in which the waste heat of 
 the fire, instead of escaping up the chimney into the air, is 
 accumulated into masses of fire-brick, and restored again to 
 the furnace. 
 
 Compiled from " MetaU, their properties and treatment, bf) O. L. Bloxom. " 
 
 TABLES OF REFERENCE FOR THE MINER, 
 ENGINEER, AND MINE-OWNER. 
 
 H 
 
 EREWITH we introduce a number of tables, col- 
 lated facts, dimensions, gauges, standard measure- 
 ments, and other tabulated data, that doubtless 
 will often be of service to our reader. 
 
 * Estimates of temperature above the fusing point of zinc cannot 
 be regarded as exact, on account of the difficulty of ascertaining 
 them. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 753 
 
 CHRONOIiOGICAIi KRAS AWD CYCI<BS FOR 1883. 
 
 The year 1882, or the \07lk year of the Independence of tlte XJnUed States of America 
 corresponds to * 
 
 The year 7390-91 of the Byzantine Era: 
 " 6595 of the Julian Period; 
 " 6642-43 of the Jewish Bra; 
 
 " 2658 of the Olympiada, or the second year of the 665th Olympiad com- 
 moncmg in July, 1881, the era of the Olympiada being placed at 
 775.5 years before Chriet, or noar the beginning of July of the 
 3938th year of the Julian Period ; b *» y oi me 
 
 " 2635 since the foundation of Rome, according to Varro * 
 " 2194 of the Grecian Era, or the Era of Seleucidje : * 
 
 " 1601 of the Era of Diocletian. 
 The year 1299 of the Mohammedftn Bra, or the Era of the Hegira becina on 
 the 7th of February, 1882. ' ** 
 
 The first day of Januaiy of the year 1882 was the 2,408,447th day since the com- 
 mencemeut of the Julian Period. 
 
 Dominical Letter A I Lunar Cycle or Gtolden Number 2 
 
 Epact 11 I Solar Cycle . 15 
 
 B. c. CKronology, 
 
 4004. Creation of the World (according to Julius Africanus. Sept. Ist, 5508; Samar- 
 itan Pentateuch, 4700 ; Septuagint 5872; Joaephus, 4658 ; Hales, 5411). 
 
 2348. Deluge (according to Hales, 
 
 3154). 
 2203 Chinese Monarchy. 
 2090. First Egyptian Pyramid. 
 1180. Troy destroyed. 
 1111. Mariner's Compass digcovered. 
 
 753. Foundation of Rome. 
 
 676, Money coined at Borne. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 214. 
 
 667. 
 
 991. 
 1066. 
 1180. 
 
 1383. 
 
 1492. 
 1627. 
 
 1752. 
 
 1769. 
 
 1789. 
 
 Grist Mills Introduced. 
 
 Glass discovered. 
 
 Arabic Minerals introduced. 
 
 Battle of Hastings. 
 
 Mariner's Compass introduced in 
 Europe. 
 
 Cannon introduced. 
 
 America discovered. 
 
 Barometer and Thermometer in- 
 vented. 
 
 New Style, introduced into Bri- 
 tain ; Sept. 3 reckoned Sept. 14. 
 
 .Tames Watt — First deaign and 
 patent of a steam-engine hav- 
 iog a separate vessel of con- 
 densation. 
 
 French Revolution. 
 
 605. Geometry, Maps, etc., first intro- 
 duced. 
 289. First Sun-dial. 
 219, Hannibal crossed the Alps. 
 219. Land Surveying first introduced. 
 155. Time first measured by water. 
 51. Caesar invaded Britain. 
 
 1772. OliverEvans— Designed the non- 
 condensing engine, 1792. Ap- 
 plied for a patent for it 1801. 
 Constructed and operated it. 
 
 1790. Water lines first introduced in 
 the models of vessels in the U. 
 S., by Orlando Merrill, of New- 
 buryport, Mass. 
 
 1797. John Fitch— Propelled a yawl 
 boat by the application of steam 
 to side wheels, and also to a 
 screw propellor, upon] the Col- 
 lect pond, New York. 
 
 1807. Kobert Fulton— First passenger 
 Steam -boat. 
 
 1827. First Bail Boad in the U. S- from 
 Quincy to Nepoijuset, Mass. 
 
 imiT£D STATES lUBASFRES AXD \ir£XGHTS. 
 
 According to Act of 1866. 
 measures of Ijeng;tli. 
 
 Denominations and Values. 
 
 Myriameter. . 
 Kilometer. . . 
 Hectometer , . 
 Dekameter . , 
 Meter .... 
 Decimeter . . 
 Centimeter . . 
 Millimeter . . 
 
 10 000 meters. 
 
 1 000 meters. 
 
 100 meters. 
 
 10 meters. 
 
 1 meter. 
 
 ^th of a meter. 
 
 T^th of a meter. 
 
 x^^th of a meter. 
 
 Equivalents in use. 
 
 6.2137 miles. 
 
 .62137 mile, or 3280 feet and 10 ins. 
 328 feet and 1 inch. 
 393.7 inches. 
 39.37 inches. 
 3.937 inchea. 
 
 .3937 inch. 
 
 .0394 inch. 
 
 Bleasares ot Surface. 
 
 Denominations and Vaities. 
 
 Hectare. 
 Are. . . 
 Centare 
 
 10 000 square meters. 
 100 square meters. 
 1 square meter. 
 
 Equivalenls in tue. 
 
 2.471 a^res. 
 
 119.6 eguare yards. 
 
 1550 square inches. 
 
 Measures of Volume. 
 
 Denommationa and Values. 
 
 Equivalmtt 
 
 in we. 
 
 Names. 
 
 No. of 
 Liters. 
 
 Cubic Measure. 
 
 Dry Measure. 
 
 Liquid or Wine 
 Measure, 
 
 Kiloliter ) 
 or Stere J 
 Hectoliter . 
 Dekaliter. . 
 Liter. . . . 
 Deciliter . . 
 Centiliter . 
 MiUiliter . 
 
 1000 
 
 100 
 10 
 
 I 
 
 TWnF 
 
 1 cubic meter 
 
 A cubic meter 
 
 10 cubic decimeters 
 
 1 cubic decimeter 
 A cubic decimeters 
 10 cub. centimeter 
 
 1 cub. centimeter 
 
 1.308 cuhic yards. 
 
 2 bmh and 3.35 pecke. 
 9.08 guarli. 
 
 .908 quart. 
 6.1022 cubic incha. 
 
 .6102 cubic inch. 
 
 .061 cubic inch. 
 
 264.17 gaOona. 
 
 26.417 gaUont. 
 2.6417 gaUmw. 
 1.0567 quarU. 
 
 .845 giU. 
 
 .^^ fluid cz. 
 
 .27 fluid drm. 
 
 WeigkU, 
 
 Denominalunu and Vatues. 
 
 Equivalents in ufp. 
 
 Names. 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 
 Grams 
 
 1000 000 
 
 100 000 
 
 10 000 
 
 1000 
 
 100 
 
 10 
 
 TWnr 
 
 Weight of Volume of Water at 
 its Maximum Density 
 
 Avoirdupois 
 Weight. 
 
 Millieror Tonneau. 
 
 Quintal 
 
 Myriagram .... 
 Kilogram or Kilo . 
 Hectogram. . . . 
 Dekagram .... 
 
 Gram 
 
 Decigram 
 
 Centigram .... 
 MilUgram .... 
 
 1 cubic meter. 
 
 1 hectoliter. 
 
 10 liters. 
 
 1 liter. 
 
 1 deciliter. 
 
 10 cubic centimeters. 
 
 1 cubic centimeter. 
 
 ^th of a cubic centimeter. 
 
 10 cubic millimeters. 
 
 1 cubic millimeter. 
 
 2204.6 jpi/Unife. 
 220.46 gaitnds. 
 22.046 jiounA. 
 2.2046 poumis. 
 3.6274 ounces. 
 
 .3527 ounce. 
 15.432 grains. 
 1.5433 yraitM. 
 
 .1643 grain. 
 
 .0154 grain. 
 
 For Measuring Surfaces the square Deckametre is used under the term of Are ; 
 the Hectare, or 100 area, is equal to about 2 acres. 
 
 The Unit of Capacity is the cubic Decimetre or Litre, and the series of meas- 
 ures is formed in the same way as in the table of lengths. 
 
 The cubic Metre is the unit of measure for solid bodfes, and is termed Stere. 
 
 48 
 
 The Umt of Weight is the GKiimiE, which Is the weight of one cubic centimetre 
 of pure water weighed in a vacum at the temperature of 4° Centigrade or 39° 2 
 Fahrenheit, which is about its temperature of maximum density. 
 •.r,?..P™°''™' "'° *"''™ cubic Oeutimotre, abbreviated 0. 0., is used instead of 
 MilhUtre, and cubic Metre instead of Kilolitre. 
 
 EQ,UIVAI,E]VTS OF OliD AND NBIV V. S. SIKASTTRKS. 
 
 Lengtll, 
 
 Meters, 
 1 Inch = .02540005 
 
 1 root = .3048006 
 
 1 Yard = .9144018 
 
 1 Chain = 20.1168396 
 1 Furlong = 201.168396 
 1 Mile = 1609.347168 
 
 Volnme. 
 
 Liters. 
 .0036967 
 = .0295739 
 = .35488656 
 = .1182955 
 = .4731821 
 = 1.1012344 
 = .9463642 
 = 3.7854579 
 
 1 Fluid Drachm = 
 1 Fluid Ounce = 
 1 Fluid Pound = 
 1 GUI ^ 
 
 1 Wine Pint = 
 1 Dry Quart 
 1 Wine Quart 
 1 Wine GaUon 
 
 'Snrfitce. 
 
 Square Meters. 
 1 Inch = .000646161 
 1 Foot = .092903184 
 1 Yard = .836128656 
 1 Bod = 25.292891844 
 1 Rood =1011.71667376 
 1 Acre =4046.86269504 
 
 Weight. 
 
 1 Grain 
 
 1 Scruple 
 
 1 Dwt. 
 
 1 Drachm 
 
 1 Ounce (Troy) ! 
 
 1 Ounce 
 1 Found 
 ITon 
 
 Grams. 
 .0648004 
 ■■ 1.296008 
 i 1.6652096 
 > 3.888024 
 i 31.104192 
 = 28.350175 
 =453.6028 
 =1016070.272 
 
 NoTF.— A square Meter is 1549.9969 square inches, but by Act of Congress it is 
 declared to be 1560 square inches; hence the Liter (cnbic decimeter)=61.02377- 
 953 cubic inches. In the Act of Congress, a Liter is declared to be 61.022 cubic 
 inches, which is erroneous, as here shown, by the .001+ of an inch. 
 According to Previous and Existing Lotos. 
 
 BIEASITRES OF IiENGTH, 
 
 The Standard of measure is a brass rod, which at the temperature of 32° is th* 
 standard yard. 
 
 Zilneal. 
 
 12 inchea = 1 foot. 
 
 3 feet = 1 yard. 
 
 6.5 yards = 1 rod. 
 40 rods = 1 furlong. 
 
 8 furlongs = 1 mUe. 
 
 Inches. Feet. Yards. Bode. Fitrl. 
 36= 3. 
 198= 16.5= 6.5. 
 7920= 660 =220 =40. 
 63360=,6280 =1760 =320=8. 
 The inch is sometime.') divided into 3 barley corns, or 12 lines. 
 A hair's breadth is the .02083 (48th part of an inch,; 
 
 1 yard is 000568 of a mile. 
 
 1 'uch is 0000158 of a mile. 
 
 Gmiter'g Chain. 
 
 7.92 inches=l link. 
 
 100 links =1 chain, 4 rods, or 22 yards. 
 
 80 chains =1 mile. 
 
 Rope, and Cables. 
 
 I 120 fathomB=l cable's length. 
 
 Geographical and Wantlcal. 
 
 1 degree of a great circle of the earfh= 69.77 Statute miles. 
 1 mile =2046.68 yards. 
 
 measure: of time. 
 
 60 seconds = 1 minute | // / o 
 
 60 minutes= 1 degree. 3600=60. 
 
 360 degrees = 1 circle. | 1296000=21600=360 
 
 Sidereal day=23 h., 56 m., 4.092 sec, in solar or mean time. 
 Solar day, mean=24h., 3 m., 56.565 sec. in sidereal time. 
 Sidereal year, or revolution of the earth, 365.25635 solar days. 
 Solar, Bquinoctial, or Calendar year, 365.24224 solar days. 
 
 1 day=.002739 of a year. I 1 minute=.000694 of a day. 
 
 30°=1 sign. 
 
 MEASURES OF SURFACE. 
 
 144 square inches =1 square foot, 
 9 square feet =1 square yard. 
 100 square feet =1 square {Architecee Measure). 
 
 6 feet=l fathom. 
 
 acres 
 
 l^and. 
 
 = 1 square rod. Tarda. Soda. 
 
 s= I square rood. 1210 
 
 :u«x«.uaui«j =lacre. 4840 = 160. 
 
 res = 1 square mile. 3097600 = 102400 = 2560. 
 
 ;.710326 feet, 60.570109 yards, or 220 by 198 feet square=l aci 
 
 30.25 square yards 
 40 square rods 
 4 square roods ) 
 square chains/ 
 
 Booda. 
 
 24 sheets=l quire. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 I 
 
 20 quires=l ream. 
 
 Cap 13 X16 inches. 
 
 Demv 15.5 X18.6 " 
 
 Medium 18 X22 " 
 
 Boyal 19 X2* " 
 
 Super-Royal .... 19 X27 " 
 
 Imperial 21.26X29 " 
 
 Elephant 22.26X27.75 
 
 l>ra-^lng Paper. 
 
 Columbia 23X 33.76 Inches. 
 
 Atlas 26X 33 " 
 
 Theorem ... . 28X 34 " 
 
 Double Elephant . . 26X 40 " 
 
 Antiquarian . . 31X 52 *' 
 
 Emperor , , , , 40X 60 " 
 
 Uncle Sam 48X120 " 
 
 Peerless 18X52 inches. 
 
 Tracing Paper. 
 
 Double Crown 20X30 inches, I Grand Eoyal , . , . 18V24inche.i 
 
 Double D, Crown , . . 30X40 « Grand Aigle. , 27X40 " 
 
 Double D. D. Crown .. 4flX60 " I VeUum WriUng , 18 to 28 inches wide. 
 Mlscellaneoag. 
 1 sheet = 4 pages,, 1 1 duodecimo =24 pages, 
 
 1 quarto = 8 " 1 eighteenmo =38 " 
 
 1 octavo =16 " I 1 bundle =2 reams. 
 
 Boll of Parchment=60 sheets. 
 
 Dimensions of Dravrlngs for Patents. 
 
 United States, 8.5X12 inches. 
 
754 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 M£:ASTJR£S of VOIjUME. 
 
 The Standard gallon measures 231 cubic inebes, and containB 8.3388822 aToir- 
 dupoia pounds, or 58373 troy grains of distilled water, at the temperature of its 
 maximum density 39°.83, the barometer at 30 inches. The Standard bushel is the 
 Wincheatery which contains 2150.42 cubic inches, or 77.627413 lbs. aToirdupois of 
 distilled water at its maximum density. Its dimensions are 18.5 inches diameter 
 inside, 19.6 inches outside, and 8 inches deep ; and when heaped, the cone must 
 not be less than 6 inches high, equal 2747.715 cubic inches for a true cone. 
 
 I^lqnld. 
 
 4 gills =1 pint. 
 2 pints =1 quart. 
 4 quarts=l gallon. 
 
 2 pints =1 quart. 
 4 quarts =1 gallon. 
 2 gallons=l peck. 
 4 peckb =1 bushel. 
 
 I>ry* 
 
 Cnblc. 
 
 32 = 8. 
 
 Pints. Quarts. Gattom. 
 
 S. 
 16 = 8. 
 64=32 = 6. 
 
 1728 cubic inches=l foot. I Tnehea. 
 
 27 cubic feet =1 yard. | 46656. 
 
 Note. — A cubic foot contains 2200 cylindrical inches, 3300 spherical inches, or 
 6600 conical inches. 
 
 Fluid. 
 
 60 minims =1 drachm. 
 
 6 drachms=l ounce. 
 ]8 ounces =1 pint. 
 
 8 pints =1 gallon. 
 
 Minims. Drachms. Ounces. 
 480. 
 
 7680 = 128. 
 61240 = 1024 = 128. 
 
 Mlscellaneonfl. 
 
 1 cubic foot . . . . . . 
 
 1 bushel 
 
 1 chaldron=36 bushels, or 
 ] cord of wood . . . . , 
 1 perch of stone 
 
 1 quarter =8 bushels. 
 
 1 sack flour=5 bushels. 
 
 7.4805 gallons. 
 
 ... . 9.30918 gallons. 
 
 . . . 57.244 cubic feet. 
 
 . . , 128 cubic feet. 
 
 24.75 cubic feet. 
 
 1 load hay or straw=36 trusses. 
 1 M quills =1200 quills. 
 
 MEASURES OF -WEIGHT. 
 
 The Standard avoirdupois pound is the weight of 27.7015 cubic inches of dis- 
 tilled water weighed in air, at 39°,83, the barometer at 30 inches. 
 A cubic inch of such water weighs 252,6937 grains. 
 
 ATolrdupols. 
 
 16 drachmB=l ounce. 
 16 ounces =1 pound. 
 112 pounds =1 cwt. 
 20 cwt. =1 ton. 
 
 Drachms. Ounces. Founcts. 
 256. 
 28672 = 1792, 
 673440 = 35840 = 
 
 1 pound=l4 oz. 11 dwts. 16 grs. troy, or 7000 grains. 
 1 ounce =18 dwts 5.5 grains troy, or 437.5 grains. 
 
 Troy, 
 
 24 grains =1 dwt. 
 20 dwt, =1 ounce. 
 12 ounces =1 pound. 
 7000 troy grains 
 437.5 troy grains 
 176 troy pounds 
 175 troy ounces 
 1 troy pound 
 
 DttJt. 
 
 I Grains. 
 
 480. 
 I 5760 = 240. 
 
 = 1 lb. avoirdupois. 
 ^ 1 oz. " 
 
 =144 lbs. " 
 
 =192 oz. " 
 
 .822857 lb: 
 
 20 grains 
 3 scruples 
 8 drachms 
 
 12 ounces 
 
 45 drops 
 
 1 avoirdupois pound= 1.215278 lbs. troy. 
 
 Apotbecarles. 
 
 Grains. Scruples. Draehvii. 
 
 480 = 24. 
 5760 = 288 = 9 
 
 =1 scruple 
 =1 drachm. 
 ^1 ounce. 
 =1 pound. 
 
 =1 tea spoonful or a fluid drachm. 
 2 table Bpnon8ful=l ounce. 
 The pound, ounce, and grain are the same as in Troy Weight. 
 
 Mlftcellaneoas. 
 
 €k>al and Wood per cubic feet. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Anthracite, ordinary 50 to 65 
 
 Bituminous, ordinary . . . 46 to 66 
 
 Cumberland 53 
 
 Cannel 60.3 
 
 1 ton Welsh coal . . =43 cubic feet. 
 1 ton Scotch Coal 
 
 lbs. 
 Charcoal, hardwood . ... 18.5 
 
 Charcoal, pine-wood 18 
 
 Pine, Virginia 21 
 
 Pine, Southern 25,5 
 
 1 ton KowcHstle coal . =45 cubic feet. 
 . , =43 cubic feet. 
 
 IJead. 
 
 1 fodder=8 pigs. EoU sheet lead=6.5 to 7,6 feet In width arid from 30 to 35 
 feet in length. 
 
 MEASURES OF VALUE. 
 
 10 millB=l cent. I 10 dimes =1 dollar, 
 
 10 centB=l dime. | 10 dollar8=l eagle. 
 
 Standard of gold and silver 900 parts of pure metal and 100 of alloy In 1000 
 parts of coin. 
 
 Fineness expresses quantity of pure metal in 1000 parts. 
 
 Remedy of the Mint is allowance for deviation from exact standard fineness and 
 weight of coins. 
 
 Nickel cent (old) contained 88 parts of copper and 12 of nickel. 
 
 The bronze cent contains 95 parts of copper and 5 of tin and zinc. 
 
 Pure gold, 23.22 grains=S1.00. Hence the value of an ounce Is 820 07 183+ 
 
 Standard gold, $18 60,465 -|- per ounoo. 
 
 GEOORAPHICAL MEASURES AND DISTANCES. 
 
 To Reduce Longitude into Time. 
 
 BuLE. — Multiply the degrees, minutes, and seconds by 4, and the product is the 
 time. 
 
 To Reduce Time Into lion^tnde. 
 
 RtTLR. — ^Beduce the hours to minutes and seconds, divide by 4, and the quotient 
 is the longitude. 
 
 Or^ multiply them by 15. 
 
 Table of Departures for a Distance run ot 1 Mile. 
 
 3.6 points. 
 4. 
 
 Departure. 
 
 .773 
 .707 
 
 Course. 
 
 Departure. 
 
 4.6 points. 
 5. 
 
 .634 
 .666 
 
 Course. 
 
 5.5 points. 
 
 Departure- 
 
 .471 
 .383 
 
 Thus if a vessel holds a course of 4 points, that is, without leeway, for the dis- 
 tance of 1 mile, she will make .707 of a mile to windward. 
 
 Or, a vessel sailing E. N. E. upon a course of six points for 10 miles, will make 
 38 3 miles (100X383) longitude. 
 
 Table showing tbe Degrees^ Minutes^ and Seconds of each 
 Point on the Mariner's Compass "with the Meridian. 
 
 North. 
 
 South. 
 
 Points. 
 
 o / // 
 
 Sin. A..* 
 
 Cos. A.« 
 
 Tan. A. 
 
 N 
 
 S J 
 
 .25 
 
 .5 
 
 .75 
 
 2 48 46 
 6 37 30 
 8 26 15 
 
 .0489 
 
 .098 
 
 .1467 
 
 .9988 
 .9952 
 .9891 
 
 .0491 
 .0986 
 
 
 
 .1484 
 
 N.byE . . 
 N.byW. . 
 
 S. B. by B. . f 
 S. by W. . . 1 
 
 1. 
 
 1.25 
 1.6 
 1.76 
 
 11 16 
 14 3 45 
 16 52 30 
 19 41 15 
 
 .195 
 .2429 
 .2903 
 .3368 
 
 .9808 
 .97 
 .9669 
 .9416 
 
 .1989 
 .2504 
 .3(134 
 .3578 
 
 K N. E. . . 
 N.N.W. . . 
 
 S. S. E. . . j 
 S. S. W. . . j 
 
 2. 
 
 2.25 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.75 
 
 22 30 
 26 18 45 
 28 7 30 
 30 66 16 
 
 .3827 
 .4275 
 .4714 
 .6141 
 
 .9239 
 .90 
 
 .8819 
 .8577 
 
 .4142 
 .4729 
 .6346 
 .6994 
 
 N. B. by N. . 
 N.-W.byN. 
 
 S. B. by S. . 
 S.W.byS. . ■ 
 
 3. 
 
 3.26 
 3.5 
 3.75 
 
 33 45 
 36 33 45 
 39 22 30 
 42 11 15 
 
 .5556 
 ■6967 
 .6344 
 .6715 
 
 .8316 
 .8032 
 .773 
 .7409 
 
 .6682 
 .7416 
 .8207 
 .9063 
 
 N. K . . 
 N. W. . . . 
 
 S. E j 
 
 s. w. ... 1 
 
 4. 
 
 4.26 
 
 4.6 
 
 4.75 
 
 45 
 
 47 48 45 
 50 37 30 
 53 26 15 
 
 .7071 
 .7404 
 .773 
 .8032 
 
 .7071 
 .6715 
 .6344 
 .5957 
 
 1. 
 
 1.103 
 1218 
 1.348 
 
 N. E. by B. 
 N. W. by W. 
 
 S. E.byE. . J 
 S. W. by W. "j 
 
 5. 
 
 6.25 
 
 6.6 
 
 6.75 
 
 56 15 
 59 3 45 
 61 62 30 
 64 41 16 
 
 .8315 
 .8577 
 .8819 
 .904 
 
 .5656 
 .5141 
 .4714 
 .4275 
 
 1.497 
 1.608 
 1.871 
 2.114 
 
 E. N. E. . . 
 W. N. W. . 
 
 E. S. E. . . f 
 
 w. s. w. . . i 
 
 6. 
 
 6.25 
 
 6.5 
 
 6.75 
 
 67 30 
 70 18 45 
 73 7 30 
 76 66 15 
 
 .9239 
 .9415 
 .9669 
 .97 
 
 .3827 
 .3368 
 .2903 
 .2429 
 
 2.4U 
 2.'96 
 3.296 
 3.941. 
 
 E.byN.. . 
 W. byN. . 
 
 E.byS. . . f 
 W. by S. . . -j 
 
 7. 
 
 7.25 
 7.6 
 7.76 
 
 78 46 
 81 33 45 
 84 22 30 
 87 U 15 
 
 .9808 
 .9891 
 .9962 
 .9988 
 
 .195 
 .1467 
 .098 
 .0489 
 
 6.027 
 
 6.741 
 
 10.153 
 
 20.665 
 
 East or West 
 
 East or West 
 
 8. 
 
 90 
 
 1. 
 
 .0000 
 
 8. 
 
 *A, representing course of points from the meridian. 
 Table of the VUlUe Distance ot Objects In Statute MUc 
 
 Height 
 
 •.682 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 6 
 6 
 7 
 
 Distance 
 in Miles. 
 
 Height 
 
 Distance 
 
 Height 
 
 Distance 
 
 Height 
 
 Distance 
 
 in Feet 
 
 in Miles. 
 
 in Feet. 
 
 in Miles. 
 
 in Feet: 
 
 in Miles. 
 
 11 
 
 4.36 
 
 30 
 
 7.18 
 
 160 
 
 16.05 
 
 12 
 
 4.54 
 
 36 
 
 7.78 
 
 200 
 
 18.64 
 
 13 
 
 4.71 
 
 40 
 
 8.3 
 
 300 
 
 22.7 
 
 14 
 
 4.9 
 
 45 
 
 8.8 
 
 400 
 
 26 2 
 
 16 
 
 6.07 
 
 60 
 
 9.37 
 
 600 
 
 29.3 
 
 16 
 
 6.24 
 
 65 
 
 9.72 
 
 1000 
 
 41.45 
 
 17 
 
 6.4 
 
 60 
 
 10.14 
 
 2000 
 
 68.61 
 
 18 
 
 6.66 
 
 70 
 
 10.97 
 
 3000 
 
 71.79 
 
 19 
 
 6.72 
 
 80 
 
 11.72 
 
 4000 
 
 82.9 
 
 20 
 
 6.86 
 
 90 
 
 12.43 
 
 6000 
 
 92.08 
 
 26 
 
 6.65 
 
 100 
 
 13.1 
 
 ImUe. 
 
 96.23 
 
 1. 
 
 1.31 
 
 1.85 
 
 2.27 
 
 2,62 
 
 2.93 
 
 3.21 
 
 3.47 
 
 3.7 
 
 3.93 
 
 4.16 
 
 * For a Statute mile the curTature=6.99 inches. 
 
 The difference in two levels Is as the square of their distance, 
 in two distances Is as the square root of their heights. 
 
 The dififetence 
 
 Table of the TUIble Distance of Objects In Geograpblcal 
 or Xautlcal Miles. 
 
 Height Distance] Height Distance Height Distance 
 in Feet. In Miles. In Feet, in Miles, in Feet, in Miles. 
 
 • .663 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 5. 
 6. 
 7. 
 
 1. 
 
 1.23 
 
 1.74 
 
 2.13 
 
 2.46 
 
 2.T5 
 
 3.01 
 
 3.25 
 
 3.48 
 
 3.69 
 
 3.89 
 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 11 
 16 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 19 
 20 
 26 
 
 4.08 
 
 4.26 
 
 4.43 
 
 4.6 
 
 4.77 
 
 4.92 
 
 6.07 
 
 6.22 
 
 6.36 
 
 6.6 
 
 6.16 
 
 35 
 40 
 
 45 
 60 
 65 
 60 
 70 
 80 
 90 
 100 
 
 6.74 
 7.28 
 7.78 
 8.26 
 8.7 
 9.13 
 9.63 
 10.29 
 11.01 
 11.68 
 12.31 
 
 Height 
 
 Distance 
 
 in Feet 
 
 in Miles. 
 
 160 
 
 15.07 
 
 200 
 
 17.4 
 
 300 
 
 21.32 
 
 400 
 
 24.64 
 
 600 
 
 27.62 
 
 1000 
 
 38,92 
 
 2000 
 
 66,04 
 
 SOOO 
 
 67.41 
 
 4000 
 
 77.84 
 
 6000 
 
 87.03 
 
 1 mile. 
 
 89.43 
 
 • For a Geographical or Nautical mile, the cuivat\ir6=7.U62 Inches. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 755 
 
 JMeasiireBnent of Height* -wltlk a Sextant. 
 
 MultiiiUer 
 
 1. 
 
 1.5 
 
 2. 
 
 2.B 
 
 Anglp. 
 
 45 
 66 18 
 6:126 
 68 11 
 
 Multiplier 
 
 3. 
 3.5 
 4. 
 4.5 
 
 Angle. 
 
 7134 
 
 74 4 
 
 75 58 
 77 zn 
 
 Multiplier 
 
 Angle. 
 
 Multipllor 
 
 Anglo. 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 o / 
 
 6. 
 6.5 
 6. 
 7. 
 
 78 41 
 
 79 4'i 
 
 80 32 
 81512 
 
 8. 
 9. 
 10. 
 
 82 62 
 
 83 40 
 
 84 17 
 
 Tide Table for the Coast of tlie Vnltecl States. 
 
 Showing Time of High-water at lite FaU and Change oj the Moon, termed the Estah- 
 Unhmenl of the Port, hemg the Slean Interval between Titne of Moo\C» TramU and 
 Time of Uigh-waUr. |.liy Prof. A. D- Baohe, U. S. ComI Survey. 
 
 Pisces nnd Time. 
 
 QpFRATioid. — Sot Rextant to any Angle in table, and hulgbt vill equal distance 
 multiplied by number upposite tu it. 
 
 Reduction of BaHe Ltiie to Itevel of Sea. 
 
 Ih 
 
 /=^L. I representing length ofline^audh height of base line above level 
 
 20 890 000 
 
 of Bea, both in feet; correction to be subtracted from f, ami L reduced line in feet. 
 
 KlemeittB of Figure of the Karth. 
 
 {Capt. A. K. aarhc, 1866.) 
 
 Foot. Miles. 
 
 Major semi-axis nf equator (longitude 15'' 34' E.) . , 20 926 350 3 963. 324 
 
 Minor " " " ( " lOr/^ 34' K.) . . 20 919 972 3 962.115 
 
 Polar " 20 853 429 3 949.513 
 
 Equatorial semi axis 20 926 U62 3963.269 
 
 Circumferenco, mean 24 898. 562 
 
 Diumetcjr, mean 7 925. 440 
 
 iVlSCSLI^ANKOUS IVOTJBS. 
 Natiu-al Power. 
 
 Sun.— Power or work iierformed by SiinV eviiporatioa is estimated at 90 000- 
 OOO 000 horse-power. 
 
 ,NiagarH. — Volume of water ditichargud over tlii' Falls id ustjmated at 33 000 000 
 teas i)er liour ; tlie fall of N iagiira Biver fioni lL»ke ISrie at Buflalo to face of Falls 
 65 feet, to foot of Faib 230, to Lake Outario 330. 
 
 Heat of tlie Suit, 
 
 Sir Isaac Newton 3 138 740^ I Soret 10 443 323° 
 
 Capt. JoUu Ericsou 4 900 860' | Watorston 16 000 000° 
 
 Buudry others ranging from 2520-^ to 183 600^. 
 
 Frigorlfio Mixture. 
 
 Lowest temperature ypt produced. Faraday obtaiuod — 160^ by evaporation of 
 a mixture of solid carbonic ucid uud Hulpliuric edier. 
 
 Light. 
 
 X,ij^U.— Sun's rays bavo a velocity of 1S5 000 miles per second, equal to 7.5 times 
 ' the earth. 
 
 M Irage. 
 
 A mirage is that condition of the almoBphoi p when air noar to stirfnco of parth 
 becomes BO biglily Iieatedj as npon a sfindy plain, that its density witliin a defined 
 dislaoce fiom it increases upwards. A ray directefl obliquely downwards will be 
 leodered by refraction more and more uearl> bui izoiital, gradually lucreasiog as 
 it advances, until its direction is m gr(;atns to producu a total reflection ; and Ihu 
 reflected ray tUen, by successive refractions, is gradually elevated until it meets 
 Ibo eye of an observer. 
 
 Looming is inverted mirage, frequently seen over calm water, and is tbo effect of 
 lower or surlace stratum of air being colder Ibau ibat above it. 
 
 Bise and 
 ' Fall. 
 
 around the earth. 
 
 Material. 
 
 Coi>on. 
 
 Brass . . 
 
 Gamboge 
 
 Brick . . . 
 
 Caimino. 
 
 Cast Iron . 
 
 Neutral tint. 
 
 Clay.. . . 
 
 Burned umber. 
 
 Eai tb . . . 
 
 Burned umber, 1<gbt. 
 
 Conciete. . 
 
 Sepia with dark 8|h)(8 
 
 Cupper 
 
 Lake and burned sienna 
 
 Colors for Drawing. 
 
 Material. 
 
 Granite . 
 Lead . . 
 Steel . . 
 Water . 
 
 ■WuoJs . . 
 
 Wro't Iron 
 
 Color. 
 
 Jntltan ink, light. 
 
 ludiau ink and l'niHsiau4>lue. 
 
 Light blue and lake. 
 
 Cubalt or vuidigris 
 ( Bur'duieiiua.dKep and light 
 \ fur dark and light nuud 
 
 PrUBsiau blue, light. 
 
 Tenacity of Iroi^ Bolts in IVood. 
 
 Diameter 1.25 ins. and 12 im. In length : required for Hemlock 8 tons and for 
 Fine 6 tuns to withdiuw them. 
 
 Retaining Walls of Iron Plies. 
 
 PffM.— 7 feet from centres, 18 ius. iu width, and 2 ins. in thickness, strengthened 
 
 with 2 ri6ff 8 ins. in depth ,*, , j. 
 
 Plulei.—l feet in length by 5 feet in. width and 1 in. in thickness, with 1 diago- 
 nal feather 1 hj' 6 ins^ 
 Tie-rods 2 ins. in diameter. 
 
 Interception of LIglit by Class. 
 
 Polished plato .25 in. thick, 13 per cent. ; rough cast, 30 ; polished plate, rolled, 
 4 flutes per inch, 53; and sheet glass, 32 or 22. 
 
 Adllesion of Glue. 
 
 From 600 to 700 Ihs. per gq. inch on wood. 
 
 Cost of Dredging 
 
 Actual cost if on an extended work, inclusive of (MiTery of dredging into or 
 
 on a vessel at side of ili edger. (Traiilirme). 
 
 Labor at SI Jitr daij and KepMn oj Plant inUuded. 
 
 10 
 15 
 
 Oents per 
 Oub. Taid 
 
 1^ 
 
 Cents per 
 Cub Yard 
 
 20 
 2-2 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 1^ 
 
 Cents per 
 Cub. Taid 
 
 S 
 
 10 
 13 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 Cents per 
 Cub. Yard. 
 
 18 
 
 25 
 
 , Mass 
 En- ) 
 mp t 
 
 .'b.{. 
 
 COAST FttOM PORT- 
 LANn TO New TORK. 
 
 Portland .... Me. 
 Portsmouth . . N. II. 
 Newburyport . Mays. 
 Salem .... " ■ 
 Boston Light . " 
 Bofltou.f ... " 
 Nantucket . . " 
 EdgailowD . . " 
 Holmes's Hole . " 
 Tarpoullin Cove " 
 Wuod'ri Hole, n. side. 
 Wood's Hole, s. side. 
 Bird Isl. Light, Mass 
 New Bedford En ~ 
 
 trance (Dump 
 
 ling Bock) 
 Newport. . . 
 Point Judith 
 Montauk Point N. T. 
 Sandy Hook . . N. J. 
 New Yoitt . . N. Y, 
 
 LONO -ISLAND SOUND. 
 
 Watch Hill . . B. I. 
 Stouiugtou . . . Ct. 
 Little Gull Isl. N. Y. 
 New London . . . Ct, 
 New Haven ..." 
 Biidgeport . . . " 
 Oyster Bay . . N. Y, 
 Sand's Point . . " 
 New Bochelle . " 
 Throg's Neck . " 
 
 COAST op NEW JERSF.Y 
 ColdSpg. Inlet, N.J. 7.32 
 Cape^May Landing " 8 10 
 
 DELAWARE BAY AND 
 RIVER 
 
 Delawaio Br'kwater. 
 Higbee 8 (Caiie May) 
 Egg Isl'd Light, N.J, 
 Mahon'tt Biver . Del, 
 Newcastle ** 
 
 Philadelphia . . Pa, 
 
 /(. VI. 
 
 It 25 
 1123 
 1122 
 
 11 13 
 U 12 
 1127 
 
 12 24 
 12 16 
 1143 
 
 8 4 
 
 7 59 
 
 8 34 
 7 69 
 
 7 57 
 
 745 
 
 7 32 
 
 8 20 
 
 7 29 
 
 8 13 
 
 9 7 
 9 38 
 9 28 
 11 l(i 
 1111 
 11 7 
 11 13 
 II 22 
 II 20 
 
 Feet. 
 
 9.9 
 
 9.9 
 
 9.1 
 
 10.0 
 
 10.9 
 
 10.3 
 
 3.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.8 
 
 4.7 
 
 2.0 
 
 5.3 
 
 4.C 
 
 4.6 
 3.7 
 2.4 
 6.6 
 6.4 
 
 Feet 
 7.ti 
 7.2 
 fi.6 
 7.J 
 8.1 
 8 5 
 
 2 6 
 1.0 
 13 
 1.8 
 
 3 1 
 1.2 
 3.5 
 
 Places and Time. 
 
 CHESAPEAKE BAY I 
 
 AND RIVERS ' h. Id. 
 
 Old Pt. Comfort^ . Va. 8 17 
 Point Lookout . Md.! 12 ,'58 
 
 8 
 8:U 
 
 9 4 
 9.'i2 
 
 1 1 .13 
 13 H 
 
 Annapolis 
 Bodkin Light . . " 
 Baltimore .... " 
 James R (City Pt)Va 
 Bichmund , " 
 
 COASTS or N. AND S. 
 CAROLINA, QEORUIA 
 AND FLORIDA. 
 
 Hatteras Inlet . X. C. 
 jBeaufolt ... '* 
 'Smilhv. (C. Feat) " 
 :Chai legion, (C. H. 1 
 j Wharf)! • . SC.( 
 
 Fort Pulaski . . Ga. 
 
 Savannah (Dry ) 
 I Dock Wharf ) Ga / 
 
 St Augustine , . Fla, 
 ICap'j Floiida . . " 
 
 Sand Key . " 
 I Key West ..." 
 I Tampa Bay . . " 
 
 Cedai Keys (D^pAt 1 
 Keys) ... Fla j 
 
 WESTERN COAST. 
 San Diego . . . Cal, 
 ■San Pedro ..." 
 iCtiylei's Harbor. ' 
 iSaii Luis Obispo. " 
 iMonlerey ..." 
 jSoulh Fanallone " 
 ISan Fiaiiciscu . . " 
 IMaie Island (San 1 
 1 FianciscoBay) . / 
 
 ;Benicia Cal 
 
 Ravenswood . . _" 
 
 Bodega "*' 
 
 Humboldt Bay . " 
 Astoi ia ..... Or. 
 Neouah Harb'r. Wash 
 Poit Townshend " 
 Semi ah-muo Bay " 
 
 17 
 IS 
 
 18 .59 
 14 37 
 16 58 
 
 7 4 
 7 26 
 7 19 
 
 7 20 
 
 7 20 
 
 8 13 
 
 8 21 
 8K1 
 
 8 40 
 
 9 22 
 II 21 
 
 13 15 
 
 9 3S 
 9 39 
 9 25 
 10 S 
 10 22 
 10 37 
 12 6 
 
 13 40 
 
 11 10 
 
 12 36 
 
 1117 
 
 12 2 
 
 12 42 
 
 12 33 
 
 3 49 
 
 4 50 
 
 8.0 
 7.6 
 4.9 
 1 S 
 2.0 
 1.6 
 1.8 
 
 1.8 
 2.2 
 3.8 
 
 5.9 
 
 5.5 
 
 36 
 1.2 
 0.6 
 1.0 
 1.0 
 
 2.3 
 
 2.2 
 28 
 24 
 2.5 
 2.8 
 2.8 
 
 3.7 
 49 
 2.7 
 3.5 
 4.6 
 4.8 
 40 
 1.8 
 
 Note. — The nii^an interval has been increased 12 hours 26 minutes (half a mean 
 lunar day) foi sunieuf the jKirts iu Delaware River ttod Chesapeake Bay, so as to 
 give the succession uf times from the moulh , hence 12 hours 2(i minutes is to be 
 subtracted trum the establishments which are greater than that time, in order to 
 give the interval required. 
 
 Bencll Marks referred to in preceding Table. 
 
 i Boston — The top of *be wall or quay, at the entrance to the dry-dock In 
 the Charlestowu navy-yard, 14 76 feet above mean low-water. 
 
 i Nkw York. — The lower itdge of a straight line, cut iu a stone wall, at the 
 head of the wooden wharf oa Governor s Island, 14.56 feet above mean low- 
 water. 
 
 g Old Point Comfort, Va —A line cut in the wall of the light-bouse, one foot 
 from the ground, on the southwest side, 1! feet above mean low-water. 
 
 |l Charleston, S C— The outer and lower edge ol embrasure of gnu No. 3, 
 at Castle Pinckney, 10.13 feet above mean low-water. 
 
 Bstabltsliment of the Port for several Places not included 
 
 iu the pieceding Table. 
 
 Place. 
 
 Albany . . . . 
 
 >Ambuy 
 
 Bay of Fundy . . 
 Blue Hill Bay . 
 Campo Bello . 
 Cape .\un . 
 Cape Cod . . . . 
 Cape Ilalteraa 
 
 ,N. T 
 
 . N. J. 
 
 .N. S 
 
 , .Me 
 
 . Mass. 
 . N. C. 
 
 
 Bise 
 
 Time 
 
 and 
 
 
 Fall. 
 
 U. M. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 3 3U 
 
 I 
 
 8 15 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 60 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 25 
 
 11 30 
 
 11 
 
 11 30 
 
 6 
 
 9 1 
 
 5 
 
 Place. 
 
 Time 
 
 Cape Henry Ya.i 7 51 
 
 Eastport Me. 11 30 
 
 Egg Harbor . . . .N.J 
 
 Halifax N. S. 
 
 Hell Gate N. Y 
 
 Kingston Jam. 
 
 Providence B I. 
 
 St. Johns N. S, 
 
 9 34 
 
 7 30 
 35 
 2 30 
 
 8 25 
 12 
 
 Bise 
 and 
 Fall. 
 "Ft. 
 6 
 15 
 S 
 
 30 
 
 Rise and Fall of Tides at several Places In the Gulf of 
 Mexico. 
 
 Places. 
 
 Di.c*'.^ri,e of lico,o, or Cameh -Towing .'25 mile 1 cents per cube ya.d, .5 mile 6 
 centii, .75 milo S cents, and 1 mile 10 cents. 
 
 St. George's Island . Fla. 
 
 Peusacola " 
 
 Fort Morgan (Mobile 1 
 
 Bayl .... Ala. J 
 
 Cat Island .... Miss. 
 
 Southwest Pass ... La. 
 
 c- 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 D. 
 
 
 CO 
 
 'A 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Ft.' 
 
 I.l 
 
 1.8 
 
 .fi 
 
 1.0 
 
 15 
 
 .1 
 
 1 
 
 1.5 
 
 .1 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.9 
 
 .6 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.5 
 
 Places. 
 
 i 
 
 .= ■ 
 
 ? 
 
 
 s 
 
 ■&. 
 
 & 
 
 
 Ft 
 
 >t. Ft. 
 
 Isle Derni^re .... La. 
 
 1 4 
 
 1.2 
 
 .7 
 
 Entrance to Lake Cal- » 
 casitMi .... La. J 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.1 
 
 6 
 
 Galveston .... Texas. 
 
 1 1 
 
 l.fi 
 
 .8 
 
 Aransas Pass . . '' 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.8 
 
 fi 
 
 Brazos Santiago . . " 
 
 .9 
 
 .1.2 
 
 6 
 
756 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 14 4 
 
 15.7 
 
 Earth Digging. 
 
 Number of Ouhic Feet of Various EarUis in a Ton. 
 
 Loose Earth 24 I Clay 18.6 I Clay with Gravel 
 
 Coarse Sand. .... 18.6 | Earth with Gravel .17.8 | Common Soil . . 
 
 The volume of Earth and Sand in bank exceeds that in embankment in the 
 following proportions : 
 
 Sand J I Clay J i Gravel ^ 
 
 and the volume of Rock in embankment quarried in large fragments exceeds 
 that in bank fully one half. 
 
 MINING AND BLASTING. 
 
 I* MI NINO. 
 
 In ordinary/ Soil, — ^charge of powder inpounds^ I rt^resetUing half Ike depth 
 10 
 of the line of leant resistance. 
 
 in J^asonry, i='XC=c/ior^e in pounds; C representing a coefficient depending 
 upon thesiructwe. 
 
 In a plane Wall, C^.15, in one with counterforts=2, and under a foundation 
 when it is supported upon two 8ides=.4 to .6. 
 
 BLASTING. 
 
 In small blasts 1 lb. of powder will loosen about 41^ tons. 
 
 In large blasts 1 lb. of powder will loosen about 2%^ tons. 
 
 50 or 60 lbs. of powder, inclosed in a resisting bag, hung or propped up against 
 agrate or barrier, will demolii^h any ordinary construction. 
 
 One man can bore, with a bit 1 inch in diameter, from 50 to 100 ins. per day 
 of lU hours in granite, or 300 to 400 ins. per day in limestone. 
 
 Two strikers and a bolder can bore with a bit 2 inches in diameter 10 feet in a 
 day in rock of medium hardness. 
 
 RocIl Blasting. 
 
 The proper charge of powder for a blast is determined by dividing the cube of 
 the line of least resistance in feet by 32. Thus, a line of 4 feet will require 
 
 64 
 4'-s-32= — =2 lbs. ; or, for eveiy ton of rock to be removed there is required l< 
 
 32 
 lb. of powder. 
 A hole 1 inch in diameter will contain 5 oz. in each foot of its depth. 
 
 Table— ( Continued. ) 
 
 Ckymparison of Tonnages under Old and New Laws. 
 
 New Law, 
 
 Description of Vessel. 
 
 Full-built Ship . 
 
 Clipper 
 
 Half Clipper. . 
 p. B. Sea Steamer . . . 
 s. w. " " . . . 
 B. w. Biver Steamboat 
 8. w. " " 
 
 p. B. Steam-tug . . . 
 
 Coast'g ^hoouer 
 
 Yacht 
 
 Ffshing Smack . 
 *^. Canal-boat . . . 
 
 ,187 X42 
 220.5X42. 
 .213 X42. 
 337 X41. 
 280-6X46 
 , 329.9X35. 
 .393 X51 
 , 81.6X17. 
 .127 X31 
 . 72 X20 
 . 36.6X13. 
 . 94.6X16. 
 
 
 Old 
 
 
 Law. 
 
 
 Tona 
 
 X20.7ft. 
 
 1353 
 
 .5X17.7 " 
 
 1768 
 
 .5X28 " 
 
 1831 
 
 .3X26.1 " 
 
 2803 
 
 X32.8 " 
 
 2818 
 
 .4X10.4 " 
 
 1185 
 
 X10.2 " 
 
 2118 
 
 .4X 7.8 " 
 
 102 
 
 X10.6 " 
 
 363 
 
 X 7.6 " 
 
 96 
 
 .6X 3.3 " 
 
 12.2 
 
 .6X 8 " 
 
 113 
 
 Flush 
 Deck. 
 
 Tons. 
 l.">18 
 1280 
 1687 
 2554 
 2419 
 
 675 
 1383 
 55.4 
 
 256 
 42 
 
 109 
 
 Houses, 
 etc. 
 
 Tona. 
 107 
 45 
 100 
 355 
 225 
 590 
 
 1262 
 
 93 
 3 
 
 Total. 
 
 Tons. 
 1625 
 1325 
 1787 
 2909 
 2644 
 1265 
 2645 
 55.4 
 349 
 45 
 
 7.6 
 109. 
 
 Diff. 
 
 +or— 
 of old 
 Meas't. 
 
 Per Ct. 
 20 + 
 25 — 
 f/i- 
 
 6 — 
 
 T + 
 
 20 + 
 
 46 — 
 
 4 — 
 
 53 — 
 
 40 — 
 
 Diam. 
 
 
 I 
 
 ■H 
 
 Weight of Round Rolled Iron. 
 
 From ^ Inch to 12 Inches in Diameter, 
 ONE FOOT IN LENGTH." 
 
 Weight. Diameter. Weight. Diameter. Weight. Diam. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 .01 
 
 .041 
 
 .093 
 
 .165 
 
 .373 
 
 .663 
 
 1.043 
 
 1.493 
 
 2.032 
 
 2.634 
 
 3.359 
 
 4.147 
 
 5.019 
 
 5.972 
 
 7.01 
 
 8.128 
 
 9.333 
 
 10.61* 
 
 11.988 
 
 Lbs. 
 13.44 
 14.975 
 16.588 
 18 293 
 20.076 
 21.944 
 23.888 
 23.926 
 28.04 
 30.24 
 32.512 
 34.886 
 37.332 
 39.864 
 42.464 
 45.174 
 47.952 
 60.815 
 63.76 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Lb.i. 
 66.788 
 69.9 
 63.094 
 66.35 
 69.731 
 73.172 
 76.7 ' 
 80.304 
 84.001 
 87.776 
 91.634 
 95.652 
 103.704 
 107.86 
 112.16 
 116.484 
 120.96 
 130.048 
 139.644 
 
 11. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Lbs. 
 149.323 
 159.456 
 169.856 
 180.696 
 191.808 
 203.26 
 216.04 
 227.162 
 239.6 
 252.376 
 265.4 
 278.924 
 292.688 
 306.8 
 321.216 
 336.004 
 331.104 
 366.536 
 382.208 
 
 Thickn. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Thickn. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 ■%, 
 
 .211 
 .422 
 .634 
 
 1 
 
 1.265 
 1.684 
 
 .369 
 
 .783 
 
 
 .264 
 .628 
 
 , 1.108 
 1.477 
 
 •fs 
 
 .792 
 
 1.846 
 
 •yi 
 
 1.056 
 
 
 2.217 
 
 ■% 
 
 
 1. 
 
 
 
 .316 
 .633 
 .95 
 
 1 
 
 .422 
 
 .845 
 
 1.267 
 
 'Weight or Flat Rolled Iron. 
 
 lYom y^XVe Inch to 6%X6 Inehe: 
 
 ONE FOOT IN LENGTH. 
 
 Thickn. 
 
 Weight 
 
 Thickn. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1.69 
 
 1.J4 
 
 
 2.112 
 
 •H 
 
 ..'528 
 
 2.634 
 
 1.050 
 
 2.956 
 
 1..584 
 
 
 2.112 
 
 .475 
 
 
 
 .95 
 1.425 
 
 2.64 
 3.168 
 
 1.901 
 
 3.69G 
 
 2.375 
 
 1. 
 
 4.224 
 
 2,86 
 
 1% 
 
 4.762 
 
 3.326 
 3.602 
 
 '•U 
 
 .68 
 
 Weight. Thickn. Weight 
 
 8.S71 
 13.307 
 17.742 
 22-178 
 26.613 
 31.049 
 35.484 
 89.92 
 44 356 
 48.791 
 
THE MINKS, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 757 
 
 Thickn. Weight. Tbickn. 
 
 Um. 
 
 fi3.226 
 
 67.662 
 
 62.097 
 
 66.533 
 
 lOMS 
 
 76.404 
 
 79.839 
 
 84.276 
 
 88.71 
 
 4.647 
 9.29* 
 13.94 
 18.587 
 23.234 
 
 TtLblK—amUmed. 
 Weight Thiclcn. Weight. 
 
 Urn. 
 27.881 
 32.527 
 37.174 
 41.821 
 46.468 
 61.114 
 65.761 
 60.403 
 66.055 
 69.701 
 74348 
 78.995 
 83.6(2 
 
 92.935 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 97.582 
 
 9.716 
 14.574 
 19.432 
 24.29 
 29.148 
 34.006 
 38.864 
 43.722 
 48.58 
 53.437 
 
 68.296 
 
 Thickn. 
 
 Weight 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 3'/i 
 3.i| 
 6.M 
 3-M 
 
 63.154 
 68.012 
 
 72.87 
 
 4. 
 
 77.728 
 
 6.M 
 
 82.585 
 
 87443 
 
 92.301 
 
 8. 
 
 97.159 
 
 ^•% 
 
 
 6.}| 
 
 102.017 
 
 106.876 
 
 6. 
 
 116.592 
 
 Examples. — Wbmt is the weight of a bar of iron b)^ vaa. In breadth by % in. 
 in thickness 7 
 
 In column 7, page 756, find 5.^; and below it, la column 5.^; and opposite 
 to that is 13.307, which is 13 lbs. and .307 of a pound. 
 
 For parts of a pound and of a foot, operate according to the rule hdd down for 
 table, page 756. 
 
 l/irclglLt and Volume nt Cast Iron KnA Ijead Balls. 
 
 Trom 1 to 20 Inches in IHameter. 
 Cast Iron. Lead. Diam. Tolnme. ■ Cast Iron. Lead. 
 
 Sjam. 
 
 Tolnme.] 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Cubic In. 
 
 1. 
 
 .5235 
 
 ^M 
 
 L7671 
 
 2. 
 
 4.1887 
 
 2-K 
 
 8.1812 
 
 3. 
 
 14.1371 
 
 ZM 
 
 22.4192 
 
 4.^ 
 
 33.5103 
 
 4.1^ 
 
 47.7129 
 
 6 
 
 65.4498 
 
 6M 
 
 87.1137 
 
 6. 
 
 113.0973 
 
 tVf 
 
 143.7932 
 
 7. 
 
 179.5943 
 
 7.H 
 
 22U.8932 
 
 8. 
 
 268.0825 
 
 Lbs. 
 .1365 
 .4607 
 li)92 
 2.1328 
 3.855 
 5.8525 
 8.7361 
 12.4387 
 17.0628 
 22.7206 
 29.4845 
 37.4528 
 46.8203 
 57.587 
 69.8892 
 
 Lbs. 
 .2147 
 .7243 
 1.718 
 3.3554 
 5.7982 
 9.2073 
 13.744 
 19.569 
 26 843 
 35.729 
 46.385 
 58.976 
 73.659 
 90.598 
 109.952 
 
 Ina. 
 8.^ 
 9. 
 
 9-H 
 10. 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 15. 
 16. 
 17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 29. 
 
 Cnbic In. 
 321555 
 .■581.7034 
 418.9204 
 523.5987 
 696 9098 
 904.7784 
 1150.346 
 1436.754 
 1787.145 
 2144.66 
 2572.44 
 3053.627 
 3591.363 
 4188.79 
 
 Lbs. 
 83.8396 
 99.5103 
 117.0338 
 136 5025 
 181.7648 
 235.8763 
 299.623 
 374.5629 
 460.6959 
 559.114-2 
 670.7168 
 796.(>825 
 936.2708 
 1092ja2 
 
 Lbe. 
 131.883 
 156.553 
 184.121 
 214.749 
 285.832 
 371.0% 
 471«I6 
 689.273 
 724.781 
 879.616 
 1055.066 
 1252422 
 1472.97 
 1717.995 
 
 DVelglit of Cast Iron Pipes at DUTerent Tlilelaiesses. 
 
 From 1 Inch to 36 Incha m Diameter. 
 
 0N£ rOOT EN LENGTH. 
 
 Diam. IThickn. Weight Diam. Thiclm. Weight IMam. Thidcn. Weight 
 
 Ta1ile.—( amOnued.) 
 
 Diani.JThick.'Weightj| Diam. Thickn. Weight llDiam. Thickn Weight 
 
 Im. 
 16.K 
 
 n.yi 
 
 19. 
 
 Iiu. 
 
 Lbt. 
 
 Jnt. 
 
 104.82 
 
 22. 
 
 126.79 
 
 
 149.02 
 
 
 171.6 
 
 
 85-73 
 
 23. 
 
 107.96 
 
 
 130.48 
 
 
 153.3 
 
 
 176.58 
 
 24. 
 
 88.23 
 
 
 111.06 
 
 
 134.16 
 
 
 157.59 
 
 25. 
 
 181.33 
 
 
 114.1 
 
 
 vnM 
 
 
 16L9 
 
 26. 
 
 186.24 
 
 
 IV>J2* 
 
 
 145.2 
 
 27. 
 
 170.47 
 
 
 195.92 
 
 
 126.33 
 
 28. 
 
 152.63 
 
 
 179.02 
 
 
 205.8 
 
 29. 
 
 132.5 
 
 
 159.84 
 
 
 187.6 
 
 30. 
 
 215.52 
 
 
 Ins. 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 
 J 
 
 Lbs. 
 138.6 
 IF,-. 2* 
 196.46 
 225 J8 
 144.77 
 174.62 
 204.78 
 235.28 
 150.85 
 181.92 
 213.28 
 245.08 
 156.97 
 189.28 
 221S4 
 254.86 
 196.62 
 230.56 
 26466 
 204.04 
 239.08 
 274.56 
 211.32 
 247.62 
 284.28 
 218.7 
 266.2 
 294X2 
 226.2 
 264-79 
 
 Im. 
 30. 
 
 £5>. 
 
 34.3.2 
 
 233.4 
 
 273.4 
 
 313.68 
 
 364.24 
 
 240.76 
 
 281.94 
 
 323.49 
 
 365.29 
 
 248.1 
 
 290.5 
 
 333.24 
 
 376.28 
 
 420.77 
 
 255.45 
 
 342.88 
 
 387.13 
 
 431.76 
 
 262.7 
 
 307.62 
 
 352.86 
 
 398.1 
 
 443.96 
 
 Z70.18 
 
 316.36 
 
 362.86 
 
 409.34 
 
 456.46 
 
 Note.— These Weights do not include any allowance for spigot and 
 iaucet ends. 
 
 CA.ST IRON. 
 To Compute tbe weight at a Cast Iron Bar or Xlod. 
 
 Find the weight of a wrought iron bar or rod of the same dimensions 
 in the preceding tables or by compotation, and from the weight deduct 
 the ^th part; or. 
 
 As .1000 : .9257 : : the weight of a wrongbt bar or rod : to the weight 
 required. Thus, what is the weight of a piece of cast Iron 4 X 3.^ X 12 
 inches f 
 
 In table, page 756, the weight of a piece of wronghtjron of these dimen- 
 sions is 50,692 lbe. 
 
 Then lOOO : .9257 : : 50,692 : 46.93 lit. 
 
 To Compote tbe 'MTetght at a piece of Cast or IVroagilit 
 Iron of an^ Dimension or Fomu 
 
 By the rules ^ven in Mensuration of Solids (page 739), ascertain the 
 number of cubic inches in the piece, then mnliaply by the weight of a 
 cubic inch, and the product will give the weight in pounds. 
 
 'Weigbts of 'Wrongbt Iron, Steel, Copper and Brass Plates. 
 
 SOFT EOLLEn. 
 
 Thieknen determined by Avuriean Qaage. 
 
 PLATBS—ftT tqaarefiot. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 iiw. 
 
 Lbt. 
 
 20.838 
 
 19.688 
 
 18^567 
 
 17J326 
 
 16.5254 
 
 16.6134 
 
 14.7162 
 
 13.904 
 
 13.1053 
 
 12J82 
 
 11.6706 
 
 11.0266 
 
 10.3927 
 
 9J192 
 
 9.2552 
 
 8.7445 
 
 8.2419 
 
 7.787 
 
 7.3395 
 
 6.9345 
 
 6.6359 
 
 6.1752 
 
 5.8206 
 
 5.4994 
 
 5.1837 
 
 4.8976 
 
 4.6156 
 
 4.3609 
 
 4.1106 
 
 3.8838 
 
 3.6606 
 
 3.4586 
 
 3.2598 
 
 3.0799 
 
 2.903 
 
 2.7428 
 
 2.5852 
 
 2.4426 
 
 2.3021 
 
 2.1751 
 
 2:0601 
 
 1.937 
 
 1.8257 
 
 1.725 
 
 1.6268 
 
 1.5361 
 
 1.4478 
 
 L36r79 
 
 12893 
 
 1.2182 
 
 U482 
 
 1.0849 
 
 L0225 
 
 .96604 
 
 .91053 
 
 .86028 
 
 .81087 
 
 .76612 
 
 .72208 
 
 .68223 
 
 .64303 
 
 .60755 
 
 .57264 
 
 .64103 
 
 .60994 
 
 ^18 
 
 .45413 
 
 .42907 
 
 .40444 
 
 .38212 
 
 .36014 
 
 .34026 
 
 .32072 
 
 .30302 
 
 .28557 
 
 .26981 
 
 .25431 
 
 .24028 
 
 .2269 
 
 .214 
 
 .20172 
 
 .19059 
 
 .17961 
 
 .1697 
 
 .16995 
 
 15113 
 
 .14242 
 
 13456 
 
 8.698 
 643.6 
 .3146 
 
 8.218 
 513.6 
 .2972 
 
758- 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Elementary Bodies, -with their Symbols and Equivalents. 
 
 Body. 
 
 Sym. 
 
 Equ. 
 
 Body. 
 
 Sjm. 
 
 Equ. 
 
 Body 
 
 Sym. 
 
 Equ. 
 
 Aluminium 
 
 Al 
 
 13.7 
 
 Hydrogen . 
 
 H 
 
 ,1. 
 
 Potassium . 
 
 K 
 
 39 2 
 
 
 Kh 
 
 64.6 
 
 Iodide . . . 
 
 1 
 
 126.5 
 
 Rhodium . 
 
 R 
 
 52.2 
 
 Arsenic . . 
 
 As 
 
 .17.7 
 
 Iridium . . 
 
 Ir 
 
 98.5 
 
 Ruthenium 
 
 Ru 
 
 62.1 
 
 Barium 
 
 R» 
 
 68.6 
 
 Iron .... 
 
 Fe 
 
 28. 
 
 Self nium . . 
 
 be 
 
 40. 
 
 Bismuth . 
 
 Bi 
 
 71.5 
 
 Lantaniiim . 
 
 Ln 
 
 48. 
 
 Silicon . . . 
 
 Si 
 
 22. 
 
 
 B 
 
 11. 
 
 Lead. . . . 
 
 Pb 
 
 103.7 
 
 Silver . . . 
 
 Ag 
 
 108.3 
 
 Brpmine . 
 
 Br 
 
 78.4 
 
 Lithium . . 
 
 L 
 
 7. 
 
 Sodium . . 
 
 Na 
 
 2.3.5 
 
 Cadmium . 
 
 Cd 
 
 ,W.S 
 
 Magnesium 
 
 Mg 
 
 12.7 
 
 Strontium . 
 
 Sr 
 
 43.8 
 
 Calcium . 
 
 (;» 
 
 20.5 
 
 Manganes'i . 
 
 Mn 
 
 26. 
 
 Sulphur . . 
 
 S 
 
 10.1 
 
 Carbon . *. 
 
 (; 
 
 6.1 
 
 Mercury . . 
 
 Ug 
 
 200. 
 
 Tellurium . 
 
 Te 
 
 64.2 
 
 Cerium . . 
 
 Co 
 
 46. 
 
 Molybdenum 
 
 Mo 
 
 «.9 
 
 Terbium 
 
 Tb 
 
 — 
 
 Chlorine . 
 
 CI 
 
 M.a 
 
 Mickel . . . 
 
 Ml 
 
 29.5 
 
 Thorium . . 
 
 Th 
 
 60. 
 
 Chromium 
 
 Or 
 
 26 2 
 
 Niobium . . 
 
 Nr 
 
 — 
 
 Tin 
 
 Sn 
 
 58.9 
 
 Cobalt . . 
 
 Co 
 
 29.5 
 
 Nitrogen . . 
 
 N 
 
 14.2 
 
 Titanium . 
 
 Ti 
 
 24.5 
 
 Columbium 
 
 Ta 
 
 184.8 
 
 Norium . . 
 
 No 
 
 — 
 
 Tungsten . 
 
 W 
 
 92. 
 
 Copper . . 
 Didymiura 
 
 Cn 
 
 31.7 
 
 Osmium 
 
 Os 
 
 99.7 
 
 Uranium . . 
 
 U 
 
 60. 
 
 n 
 
 48. 
 
 Oxygen . . 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Vanadium . 
 
 V 
 
 68.5 
 
 Erbium . . 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 Palladium . 
 
 Hd 
 
 ,53.3 
 
 Yttrium . . . 
 
 V 
 
 32. 
 
 Fluorine . 
 
 F 
 
 18.7 
 
 Pelopium . 
 
 fa 
 
 — 
 
 Zinc .... 
 
 Zn 
 
 32.3 
 
 Glucinum . 
 
 a 
 
 6.9 
 
 Phosphorus 
 
 P 
 
 15.9 
 
 Zirconium . 
 
 /r 
 
 34. 
 
 Gold . . . 
 
 Au 
 
 196.S 
 
 Platinum. . 
 
 Pt 
 
 98.8 
 
 
 
 
 SHEET I.EAD. 
 
 Sheet Lead is designated by the weight of a square foot of it, and it 
 usually ranges from 2^ to 10 lbs. per square foot. 
 
 'Welgbt of a Square Foot of Cast and 'VfTrought Iron, Copper, 
 Ijead, Brass and Zlne. 
 
 
 
 JVom ^ to 1 ItkU in ' 
 
 Tiickness. 
 
 
 
 Thick. 
 
 Cast Iron. 
 
 Wr't Iron. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Brass. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 :^ 
 
 2.346 
 
 2.617 
 
 2.89 
 
 3.691 
 
 2.675 
 
 2.34 
 
 4.693 
 
 6.035 
 
 5.781 
 
 7.382 
 
 5.35 
 
 4.68 
 
 
 7.0.39 
 
 7.552 
 
 8.672 
 
 11.074 
 
 8.025 
 
 7.02 
 
 ■% 
 
 9.386 
 
 10.07 
 
 11.562 
 
 14.765 
 
 10.7 
 
 9.36 
 
 
 11.7M 
 
 12.588 
 
 14.433 
 
 18.458 
 
 13.375 
 
 11.7 
 
 ■% 
 
 14.079 
 
 15.106 
 
 17.344 
 
 22.148 
 
 16.05 
 
 14.04 
 
 
 16.426 
 
 17.623 
 
 20.234 
 
 26.839 
 
 18.725 
 
 16.34 
 
 ■% 
 
 18.773 
 
 20.141 
 
 23.1?6 
 
 29.53 
 
 21.4 
 
 18.72 
 
 
 21.119 
 
 22.669 
 
 26.016 
 
 33.222 
 
 24.075 
 
 
 ■% 
 
 23.466 
 
 25.170 
 
 28.906 
 
 36.913 
 
 26.75 
 
 
 
 25.812 
 
 27.694 
 
 31.797 
 
 40.604 
 
 29.425 
 
 
 ■% 
 
 28.159 
 
 30.211 
 
 34.688 
 
 44.296 
 
 32.1 
 
 
 
 30.505 
 
 32.729 
 
 37.578 
 
 47.987 
 
 
 
 ■% 
 
 32.852 
 
 35.247 
 
 40.469 
 
 51.678 
 
 
 
 
 35.199 
 
 37.764 
 
 43.359 
 
 56.37 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 37.545 
 
 40.282 
 
 46.25 
 
 59.061 
 
 
 
 Pennsylvania plates, 
 the works of Messry. 
 
 Note.— The Wrought Iron is that of hard rolled 
 and the Copper that of hard rolled plates from 
 Phelpd, Dodge & Co., Conn. 
 
 To Ascertain tKe IVelglit of AVrongHt Iron, Copper or Brass 
 Tubes and Pipes per Jjineal Foot. 
 
 From J^ an inch in internal diameter to 6 inches. 
 
 Diam. Area of PI. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Area of PI 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Area of PI. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Sq. Ft. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Sq. Ft. 
 
 M 
 
 .1309 
 
 1^ 
 
 .3436 
 
 h 
 
 .1473 
 
 .36 
 
 .1636 
 
 fi 
 
 .3764 
 
 i 
 
 .18 
 
 .3927 
 
 1 
 
 .1964 
 
 .4254 
 
 .2127 
 
 .4581 
 
 .2291 
 
 .4909 
 
 .2454 
 
 2 
 
 .5236 
 
 1 
 
 .2618 
 
 2% 
 
 .5643 
 
 1^ 
 
 .2782 
 
 .687 
 
 .2945 
 
 .6198 
 
 IVfc 
 
 .3105 
 
 2?l 
 
 .6545 
 
 JJi 
 
 J272 
 
 .6872 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Area of PI. 
 
 Ins 
 
 Sq. Ft. 
 
 2!^ 
 
 .7199 
 
 .7526 
 
 3 
 
 .7354 
 
 n 
 
 .8181 
 
 .8508 
 
 3K 
 
 .8836 
 
 3U 
 3.j| 
 35I 
 
 .9163 
 .949 
 
 .9818 
 
 i 
 
 1.0472 
 
 ti 
 
 1.0799 
 
 1.1126 
 
 1.1454 
 
 In.s, 
 
 631 
 6 
 
 Sq. Ft. 
 
 1.1781 
 
 1.2108 
 
 1.2435 
 
 1.2763 
 
 1.309 
 
 1.3417 
 
 1.3744- 
 
 1.4072 
 
 1.4399 
 
 1.4726 
 
 1.6053 
 
 1.5381 
 
 1.5708 
 
 Application of the Table. 
 
 When the Thickness of the Metal is given in the Divisions of an Inch. 
 To the internal diameter of the tube pr pipe add the thicknes.s of the 
 metal ; take the area of a plate in square feet, from the table for a diam- 
 eter equal to the sum of the diameter and thicicness of the tube or pipe, 
 and multiply it by the weight of a square foot of the metal for the given 
 thickness (see tables, page 757), and again by its length in feet. 
 
 When the Thickness of the Metal is given in Numbers of a Wire Gauge. 
 To the internal diameter of the tube o;: pipe add the thickness of the 
 number from table, page 757; multiply the sum by 3.1416, divide the 
 product by 12, and the quotient will give the area of the plate in square 
 leet. Then proceed as before given. 
 
 ROPES, HA1VSERS AND CABI.ES. 
 
 Ropes of hemp fibres are laid with three or four strands of twisted 
 fibres, and run up to a circumference of 12 inches. 
 
 Hawsers are laid with three strands of rope, or with four rope strands. 
 
 Cables are laid with three strands of rope only. 
 
 Tarred ropes, hawsers, etc., have 26 per centum less strength than white 
 ropes; this is in consequence of the injury the fibres receive from the 
 high temperature of the tar = 290°. 
 
 Tarred hemp and Manilla ropes are of ahoiit equal strength. Manilla 
 ropes have from 26 to 30 per centum less strength than white ropes. 
 
 Hawsers and cables, from having a le^s proportionate number of fibres 
 and frrm the increased irregularity ol the resistance of the fibres, have 
 less strength than ropes, the difference varying from 35 to 45 per centum, 
 being greatest with the least circumference. 
 
 Ropes of lour strands up to 8 inches are fully 16 per centum stronger 
 than those having but three strands. 
 
 Hawsers and cables of three strands np to 12 inches are fully 10 per 
 centum stronger than those having four strands. 
 
 The absorption of tar in weight by the several ropes is as follows: 
 
 Bolt rope IS per centum. I Cables 21 per centum. 
 
 Shrouding . . 15 to 18 " | Spun yarn . . 25 to 30 " 
 
 White ropes are more durable than tarred. 
 
 The greater the degree of twisting given to the fibres of a rope, etc., 
 the less its strength, as the exterior alone resists the greater portix>n of 
 the strain. 
 
 To Compute tbe Strain that can lie borne with safety by 
 neiv Ropes, Ha-ivsers, and Cables. 
 
 Deduced from the experiments of the Russian Government upon the retaiive 
 strength of different Circwmferences of Ropes, Hawsers, etc. 
 
 The V. S. Navy tesl is 4200 U>s. for a White rope of three strands of best itiga 
 hemp, of 1% inches in circumference (=17000 lbs. per square inch), but in the 
 following table 14000 lbs. is taken as the unit of strain that can be borne with 
 safety. 
 
 Rule. — Square the circumference of the rope, hawser, etc., and multi- 
 ply it by the following units for ordinary ropes, etc. 
 
 Table showing the Vnits for computing the safe strain that 
 may be borne by Ropes, Havrsers, and Cables. 
 
 
 Ropea. 
 
 idawBeis. 
 
 Cables. 
 
 Description. 
 
 White. 
 
 Tarred. 
 
 White 
 
 Tar'd 
 
 White 
 
 Tar'd 
 
 
 3 
 
 str'ds 
 
 4 
 
 str'ds 
 
 3 
 
 str'ds 
 
 4 
 
 str'ds 
 
 3 
 str'ds 
 
 3 
 
 str'ds 
 
 a 
 
 Btrds 
 
 3 
 
 str'ds 
 
 Inches Circnmference. 
 
 White rope, 2.6 to 6 ins. 
 
 " " 6 " 8 '■ 
 
 Us. 
 1140 
 109O 
 1046 
 
 Lbs. 
 1330 
 1260 
 880 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 600 
 570 
 530 
 850 
 
 Lcs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 ' 5'id 
 
 530 
 650 
 560 
 
 Us. 
 
 " " 8 " 12 " 
 
 
 
 
 " " 12 " 18 " 
 
 
 
 
 " " 18 " 26 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tarred " 2.5 ■' 6 " 
 
 
 
 865 
 825 
 780 
 
 1001 
 940 
 820 
 
 
 460 
 480 
 505 
 
 
 " " 6 " 8 " 
 " 8 " 12 " 
 
 
 
 
 " " 12 " 18 " 
 
 
 
 525 
 
 " " 18 " 26 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 550 
 
 
 810 
 760 
 
 950 
 835 
 
 
 
 440 
 465 
 
 
 ' 510 
 536 
 560 
 
 
 " " 6 " 12 " 
 
 
 
 
 " 12 " 18 " 
 " " 18 " 26 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 When it is required to ascertain the loeight or strain that can be borne bu rope*, 
 etc., in general use. The above Units should bf reduced one-third, in order to meet 
 the reduction of their strength by chafing and exposure to the weather. 
 
 Ex. 2. What is the weight that can be borne by a tarred hawser 10 inches in 
 circumference, in general use f 
 
 f 505 ^ 
 102X(505 j=100X336.7=33667 \hs. 
 
 To Compute tHe Clrcuntference of a Ro]>e, Havrser, or Ca1)le 
 for a Given Strain. 
 
 KuLR — Divide the strain in pounds by the appropriate units in the above table 
 and the square root of the product will give the circumference of the rope, etc., 
 in inches. 
 
 Example. — The stress to be borne in safety is 165550 lbs. ; what bhould be the 
 circumference of a tarred cable to withstand it ? 
 
 165552-7-550=301, andH-301 =17.35, say 17^ ins. 
 Ex. 2. Wliat should be the circumference of a Manila cable to withstand a 
 strain, in general use, of 149336 lbs. ? 
 Assuming the circumference to exceed 18 ins., the unit-=560. 
 , 560v 
 U9336-=-(560 1=149336-5-373.34=400, and^400=20 iiw. 
 
 "WIRK ROPE. 
 
 WiVe rope of the same strength as new Hemp rope will run on the same-sized 
 sheaves, but the greater the diameter of the sheaves, the longer it wiU wear. 
 Short bends should be avoided, and the wear increases with the speed. It is 
 better to increase load rather than speed. The adhesion ia the same as that of 
 hemp rope. 
 
 Wire rope should not bo coiled, or uncoiled like hemp rope, but should be 
 wound upon a reel. 
 
 When substituting wire rope for hemp rope, it is well to allow for the former 
 the same weight per foot which experience bas approved of for the latter. As a 
 general rule, one wire rope will outlast three hemp ropes. To guard against rust, 
 stationery rope should be oiled once a year with linseed-oil, or kept well painted 
 or tari'ed. Bunning rope, while in use, requires no protection. 
 
 Where great pliability is required, the centre or core of wire rope is mude of 
 hemp, and small-sized rope is generally made with hemp centres. 
 
 Bunning rope is made of fine wire, and standing rope of coarse wire. 
 
 Wire rope made from chareoal made iron is fully one-fourth stronger than the 
 ordinary rope. 
 
 The standing rigging of a vessel when composed of wire rope is one-fourth less 
 in weight than when of hemp. 
 
 Results of an Kxperlmont -wltli Oalvaiiized "Wire. 
 
 ■ A strand of 2-inch wire rope broke with a strain of 13564 lbs., and a piece of a 
 like ropo, when galvanized, withstood a strain of 14796 lbs. before breaking. 
 
 ' Proof and Breaking Strain of Cliain Cables. 
 
 Diameter 
 of Chain. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Proved. 
 
 Breaking Strain 
 
 Diameter 
 if Chain. 
 
 Proved. 
 
 Breaking Strain 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Us. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Us. 
 
 % 
 
 16760 
 
 33500 
 
 ^y» 
 
 66676 
 
 113350 
 
 1 
 
 21700 
 
 43400 
 
 
 65760 
 
 131500 
 
 g 
 
 27600 
 
 66000 
 
 75660 
 
 161300 
 
 33300 
 
 66600 
 
 2 
 
 86100 
 
 172200 
 
 40460 
 
 80000 
 
 fi 
 
 97375 
 
 194760 
 
 111 
 
 48160 
 
 96300 
 
 109090 
 
 218180 
 
 The proof of British Navy Chain Is % tbo breaking strain. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 759 
 
 Table of the Relative Dimensions of IVire Hope (Coarse and 
 Fine Laid), and of Ropes, Hawrsers, and CaMea, ivltli fbelr 
 Brealxing Strain. 
 
 B-J.A. BoEiiLiNa. N-NEWAit & Co. AG-Admibamy, and Gaknock, Bibby 4 Co. 
 
 (COAKSE LAID.) 
 
 Np. 
 27 
 26 
 25 
 
 19 
 18 
 
 16 
 15 
 
 14 
 IS 
 12 
 11 
 
 s 
 
 .S 
 
 ^ 
 
 A 
 
 
 Im. 
 
 R 
 
 .25 
 
 R 
 
 .26 
 
 R 
 
 .3 
 
 N 
 
 .32 
 
 R 
 
 .35 
 
 N 
 
 .36 
 
 R 
 
 .39 
 
 N 
 
 A 
 
 jR 
 
 .41 
 
 N 
 
 .44 
 
 N 
 
 .48 
 
 AG 
 
 — 
 
 R 
 
 .49 
 
 R 
 
 .62 
 
 N 
 
 •52 
 
 N 
 
 .56 
 
 AG 
 
 
 N 
 
 .64 
 
 R 
 
 .6 
 
 R 
 
 .68 
 
 AG 
 
 
 N 
 
 .72 
 
 AG 
 
 
 
 R 
 
 .75 
 
 AG 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 .8 
 
 N 
 
 .88 
 
 AG 
 
 — 
 
 R 
 
 .875 
 
 N 
 
 .95 
 
 R 
 
 1. 
 
 AG 
 
 
 
 AG 
 
 — 
 
 N 
 
 1.03 
 
 R 
 
 1-% 
 
 AG 
 
 
 N 
 
 1.11 
 
 R 
 
 1.V4 
 
 AG 
 
 
 N 
 
 1.19 
 
 R 
 
 1.% 
 
 AG 
 
 
 N 
 
 127 
 
 R 
 
 1.4 
 
 AG 
 
 
 N 
 
 1.35 
 
 N 
 
 1.43 
 
 AG 
 
 — 
 
 N 
 
 1.51 
 
 AG 
 
 
 
 AG 
 
 — 
 
 N 
 
 1.59 
 
 AG 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 1.75 
 
 AG 
 
 — 
 
 V 
 
 1.91 
 
 AG 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 10% 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 
 Us. 
 
 1.25 
 1.42 
 1.42 
 
 1;6T 
 1.66 
 
 2.33 
 2.3.1 
 
 Lbs. 
 1120 
 1620 
 2060 
 4480 
 2760 
 5018 
 3300 
 5600 
 4260 
 6182 
 6720 
 6720 
 5660 
 8180 
 S960 
 11200 
 11200 
 16680 
 11600 
 15200 
 16680 
 20160 
 
 17600 
 19400 
 24640 
 29120 
 
 24600 
 33600 
 32000 
 
 40000 
 40880 
 44800 
 60000 
 
 53760 
 6OOIOO 
 
 62720 
 72000 
 
 67200 
 71680 
 
 80640 
 
 Circamforence of equal resist- 
 ance for General Use. 
 
 
 7280 
 
 9632 
 11870 
 14124 
 
 16464 
 
 19152 
 
 23744 
 
 108400 
 118720 
 
 130530 
 141120 
 
 165555 
 192080 
 216048 
 266880 
 
 FINE LAID. 
 
 7500 - 
 
 9680 - 
 
 11600 - 
 
 17280 - 
 
 22800 - 
 
 32800 - 
 
 40400 - 
 
 54400 - 
 
 70000 - 
 
 87200 - 
 
 108000 - 
 
 130000 - 
 
 148000 - 
 
 30240 
 
 34272 
 
 48944 
 54656 
 
 63392 
 
 72240 
 
 80640 
 
 Ropes. 
 
 Haw's 
 
 A B 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Cables. 
 
 InB. 
 
 3^ 
 3}i 
 3% 
 4Js 
 
 6 
 6J4 
 
 
 lit 
 
 "ft 
 
 "ft 
 12k 
 
 ^.1 
 
 Ina. 
 
 8M 
 
 8% 
 
 8% 
 
 BVh 
 
 »ri 
 
 H, 
 
 'Jft 
 
 "ft 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10}g 
 
 loii 
 
 ^m 
 
 i«4S 
 
 ii« 
 
 11« 
 
 1118 
 
 ii« 
 
 12it 
 
 jr^ 
 
 — 
 
 12X 
 
 — 
 
 13^ 
 13k 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 3% 
 
 1 
 
 3il 
 
 i 
 
 5 
 
 6I4 
 
 8ft 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 lift 
 12 J^ 
 
 _ 
 
 — 
 
 In the above table the determination of the circumference of the rope, etc., is 
 basSl umn the Bulking Weight or Tensile resistance of the wire being reduced 
 ^neTurth, and tte «».(. or the ultimate resistance of the rope, etc., are reduced 
 
 °ln^UU. S. Nmy the relative dimen^ of Bemp Cable «nd of Wire Sopeareae 
 
 ' ■ Circumference in Inches. 
 
 '-Cfa^efr^vS^^eTrTa^rTd^^^!'^^^^ 
 cirenX;n?*fo?WbUe and Manila ropes are required, proceed as follows : 
 
 To Compute the Circiunference of a IVliite or Manila Rope, 
 HaM^ser, or <'able, compared 'vritli one of Tarred Hemp. 
 
 RuLC — Multiply the square of thfe circumference of the given rope by the unit 
 for the circumference, from the table, see below, divide the product by the unit 
 for the circumference of the rope etc., required, and the square root of the pro* 
 duct will give the circumference required. 
 
 Note. — If the circumference is required for ft rope in general use, reduce the 
 units in the table one-third. 
 
 Illvst&ation.— Required the circumference for a white rope and a Manila 
 hawser, for general UBe-.^quivalent to a tatred rope of three strands, and 9\^ 
 inches in circumference. 
 
 Units of tarred rope of OJ^ !ns.= 780— Ji=S20. 
 
 Unite of white rope of about . BK^ ins.=1045 — J^=697. 
 Units of Manila hawser of about 9>| ins.= 760-^—507. 
 
 Then 9.62X520=46030, which-5-697=67.a3, and -=-67.33=8.2, say 8i<ln«.for the 
 white n)pe.. 
 
 Again, 9 .52X520=46930, which-=-507=92.56, and-i-92.66=9.62, say 9% ijio. for 
 the Manila hawser. 
 
 To Compute the IVeight of Ropes, Hafrsers, and Cahles. 
 
 Rule. — Square the circumference, and multiply it by the appropriate unit in 
 the following table, and the product will give the weight per foot in pounds : 
 
 3-Btrand Hemp .... 
 3-etrand tarred Hemp . 
 3'Straud Manila. . . . 
 4-8trand Hemp . . . 
 4-strand tarred Hemp . 
 4-strand Manila. . . 
 
 Ropes. 
 
 .042 
 .032 
 
 .048 
 .036 
 
 Hawsers. 
 
 .031 
 .041 
 .031 
 
 Cables. 
 
 .031 
 .041 
 .031 
 
 .034 
 
 The units for Thread Ropes is the Bame as that for Ropes of lilce material. 
 
 SOLIDS. 
 
 KuLBi^-Dlvide the Bpecific gravity of the snbstance .by 16, and the quo- 
 tient ffill give the weight of a cubic foot of it in pounds. 
 
 SubstaneeB. 
 
 Coppe 
 
 uetals. ' 
 Alnminum . . 
 Antimony . . . 
 Arsenic. .... 
 Barium . 
 Bismuth .... 
 Brass, copper 84 
 " tin 16 '■ 
 " copper 67 
 « zinc 33 
 
 " plate 
 
 ** wire 
 
 Bronze, gun metal 
 
 Boron 
 
 Bromine . .... 
 
 Cadmium 
 
 Calcium 
 
 Chromium 
 
 Cinnabar 
 
 Cobalt 
 
 Columbium 
 
 Gold, pure, cast . . . 
 " ' nainmered . . 
 22 carats fine 
 20 " 
 ler^ cast .% 
 plates. 
 " wire. . 
 Iridium .... 
 
 " , hammered 
 Iron, cast..-. . 
 " " gun metal 
 " hot. -blast. . . 
 " cold " ... 
 *' wrought bars. 
 " " wire 
 
 " rolled plates. . 
 
 Lead, cast 
 
 " rolled. . . . 
 Lithium . . ... 
 Manganese .... 
 
 Magnesium 
 
 Mercury — 40" . . . 
 " ■ -)-32°. . . 
 " 60°. . . 
 
 " 212°. . . 
 
 Molybdenum 
 
 Nickel ....... 
 
 ** cast .... 
 
 Osmium . . — . 
 
 I'alladium 
 
 Platinum,- ham- 
 mered . .- 
 ' ' " native. . . 
 ' " rolled. . . 
 Potassium, 69"^.. . . 
 
 Red Lead. . . . .. . 
 
 Rhodium... . . . . .• 
 
 Ruthenium.'. . .• . 
 
 
 2560 
 6712 
 6763 
 470 
 9823 
 
 8832 
 
 7820 
 
 8380 
 
 8214 
 
 8700 
 
 2000 
 
 .WOO 
 
 8650 
 
 1680 
 
 8900 
 
 8098 
 
 8600 
 
 6000 
 
 19258 
 
 19361 
 
 17486 
 
 16709 
 
 8788 
 
 18680 
 23000 
 7207 
 7.W8 
 7065 
 7218 
 7788 
 7774 
 7704 
 11362 
 11388 
 590 
 8000 
 11750 
 16632 
 
 bDrt'"' 
 
 13580 
 13370 
 8600 
 8800 
 8279 
 10000 
 11350 
 
 20337 
 16000 
 
 865 
 8940 
 10660 
 8600 
 
 .2428 
 .2084 
 .017 
 .3563 
 
 .3194 
 
 .2828 
 
 .3031 
 
 .2972 
 
 .3147 
 
 .0723 
 
 .1085 
 
 .3129 
 
 ;057 
 
 .2134 
 
 .2929 
 
 .3111 
 
 .217 
 
 .6965 
 
 .7003 
 
 .6325 
 
 .6eR2 
 
 .3179 
 
 3146 
 
 .3212 
 
 .6756 
 
 .8319 
 
 .2607. 
 
 .264 
 
 .2655 
 
 .2611 
 
 .2817 
 
 .2811 
 
 .2787 
 
 .4106 
 
 .4119 
 
 .0213 
 
 .2894 
 
 .0633 
 
 .5661 
 
 .4918 
 
 .4912 
 
 .4836 
 
 .3111 
 
 .3183 
 
 .2994 
 
 .3613 
 
 .4105 
 
 .7366 
 
 .6787 
 
 .7982 
 
 .0313 
 
 .324 
 
 .38.62 
 
 .3111 
 
 Substances. 
 
 METALS. 
 
 Selenium 
 
 Silicium 
 
 Silver, pure, cast . 
 '' " ham- 
 
 mered . 
 
 Sodium 
 
 Steel, plates 
 
 soft 
 
 tempered & 
 hardened . . 
 
 wire 
 
 Strontium ..... 
 Tin, Cornish, ham- 
 rhered . 
 " pure. . . 
 
 Tellurium 
 
 Thalium 
 
 Titanium .... 
 
 Tungsten 
 
 Uranium ... 
 
 Wolfram 
 
 Zinc, cast 
 
 rolled .... 
 
 WOODS. 
 
 Carbon 
 
 STONES, EAKTUS, ETC. 
 
 Clay 
 
 with gravel . 
 
 Coal, Anthracite . •! 
 
 " Borneo . . . 
 
 " Cannel . . | 
 
 " Caking . . . 
 
 " Cherry . . . 
 
 " Chili .... 
 
 " Derbyshire . 
 
 " Lancaster. . 
 
 " Maryland . . 
 
 " Newcastle . . 
 
 " Rive de Gier 
 
 " Scotch . . i 
 
 " Splint. . . . 
 
 " Wales, mean 
 Coke 
 
 " Nat'I, Va. . . 
 Earth,* com. soil . 
 
 " loose 
 
 " moist sand. . . 
 
 " mould, fresh . 
 
 " ramme4 . ■ ■ 
 
 " roiigh'sand . 
 
 " with gravel . . 
 Granite, Egyptian 
 red . 
 
 ° a 
 
 10474 
 
 10511 
 «70 
 7806 
 7833 
 
 7818 
 7847 
 2540 
 
 7390 
 7291 
 6110 
 11860 
 6300 
 17000 
 18330 
 7119 
 6861 
 7191 
 
 3500 
 
 .1027 
 .3788 
 
 .2828 
 .2838 
 .0918 
 
 .2673 
 
 .2637 
 
 .221 
 
 .4286 
 
 .1917 
 
 .6149 
 
 .6629 
 
 .2575 
 
 .2482 
 
 .26 
 
 CUB. FT. 
 
 218.75 
 
 Quirtey . 
 
 Scotch 
 Susquehannal 2704 
 
 1930 
 
 120.625 
 
 2480 
 
 165. 
 
 1436 
 
 89.75 
 
 1640 
 
 102.5 
 
 1290 
 
 80.625 
 
 1238 
 
 77.375 
 
 1318 
 
 82.375 
 
 1277 
 
 79.812 
 
 1276 
 
 79.75 
 
 1290 
 
 80.625 
 
 1292 
 
 80.75 
 
 1273 
 
 79.562 
 
 1365 
 
 84.687 
 
 1270 
 
 79.375 
 
 1300 
 
 81.25 
 
 1259 
 
 78.687 
 
 1300 
 
 81.25 
 
 1302 
 
 81.375 
 
 131S 
 
 82.187 
 
 1000 
 
 62.5 
 
 746 
 
 46.64 
 
 2194 
 
 137.125 
 
 1500 
 
 93.75 
 
 2050 
 
 128.125 
 
 2050 
 
 128.125 
 
 1600 
 
 100. 
 
 1920 
 
 120. 
 
 2020 
 
 126.25 
 
 2664 
 
 165.875 
 
 2640 
 
 165. 
 
 2652 
 
 166.75 
 
 2625 
 
 164.062 
 
 2704 
 
 169. 
 
 * Specino grav. of the earth is variously estimated at from 5450 to 5600. 
 
760 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Table— ( Continued.) 
 
 
 o >t 
 
 ■^ ^ 
 
 
 O [.. 
 
 ■? -^ 
 
 Substancea. 
 
 .■S-- 
 
 pi 
 
 Substances. 
 
 toes 
 
 
 BTONES, EARTHS, ETC. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gravel, com rnon. . 
 
 1749 
 
 109.312 
 
 Sand, silicious . . . 
 
 1701 
 
 106.33 
 
 Gypsum, opaque . . 
 
 2163 
 
 135.5 
 
 Shale 
 
 2600 
 
 162.6 
 
 Hone,white, razor . 
 
 2876 
 
 179.76 
 
 Slate 1 
 
 2900 
 
 181.22 
 
 Hornblende .... 
 
 3540 
 
 221.25 
 
 2672 
 
 167. 
 
 Lime, hydraulic . . 
 
 2745 
 
 171.562 
 
 Slate purple .... 
 
 2784 
 
 174. 
 
 " quick .... 
 
 804 
 
 50.25 
 
 Spar, calcareous . . 
 
 2735 
 
 170.937 
 
 Limestone, green . 
 
 3180 
 
 198.75 
 
 " Feld, blue. . 
 
 2693 
 
 168.312 
 
 white . 
 
 3156 
 
 197.25 
 
 " " green . 
 
 2704 
 
 169. 
 
 Marl, mean .... 
 
 1750 
 
 109.375 
 
 " Fluor .... 
 
 3400 
 
 216.S 
 
 Mica 
 
 2800 
 
 175. 
 
 Stalactite 
 
 2415 
 
 150.937 
 
 Mud 
 
 1630 
 
 101.875 
 
 Sulphur, native . . 
 
 2033 
 
 127.062 
 
 Phoxphorus .... 
 Flumoago 
 
 1770 
 
 110.625 
 
 Talc, mean .... 
 
 2.500 
 
 156.25 
 
 210O 
 
 131.25 
 
 Talc, black .... 
 
 2900 
 
 181.25 
 
 Quartz 
 
 Ked-lead 
 
 2660 
 
 166.25 
 
 Trap 
 
 2720 
 
 170. 
 
 8940 
 
 658.75 
 
 
 
 
 Rock, crystal . . . 
 
 2735 
 
 170.937 
 
 
 
 
 Salt, common . . . 
 Saltpetre . ... 
 Sand, coarse .... 
 
 2130 
 2090 
 
 133.125 
 130.625 
 
 mSCILLANEODB. 
 
 
 
 180f) 
 
 112.5 
 
 Asphaltum ■ ■ • { 
 
 906 
 
 56.562 
 
 " common . . . 
 
 1670 
 
 104.376 
 
 1660 
 
 103.126 
 
 " damp & loose 
 
 1392 
 
 87. 
 
 Atmospheric Air . 
 
 001205 
 
 07.629 
 
 " dried & loose 
 
 1560 
 
 97.5 
 
 Gunpowder, loose . 
 
 900 
 
 56.25 
 
 " dry ..... 
 
 1420 
 
 88.75 
 
 " shaken 
 
 1000 
 
 62.5 
 
 *' mortar, Fort 
 
 
 
 " solid ■ 
 
 1650 
 
 96.875 
 
 Richmond . . . 
 
 1659 
 
 103.66 
 
 ISOO 
 
 112.5 
 
 Sand, mortar.Brook- 
 
 
 
 Horn 
 
 1689 
 
 105.662 
 
 lyn 
 
 1716 
 
 107.25 
 
 Ice, at 32° ... . 
 
 920 
 
 67,5 
 
 Compression of the following fluids under a pressure of 15 lbs. per 
 square inch: 
 
 Alcohol 0000216 
 
 Ether 00006168 
 
 Mercury 
 Water . 
 
 .00000266 
 .00004663 
 
 Xllasttc Fluids. 
 
 1* Cubic Foot of Atmospheric Air weighs 527.04 TVoy Grains. 
 Its assumed Gravity of lis the Unit for Elastic Fluids. 
 
 Atmospheric air, 34° . . . 
 
 Ammonia 
 
 Azote 
 
 Carbolic acid 
 
 " oxyd 
 
 Carbureted hydrogen . . . 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 Chloro-carbonic 
 
 Cyanogen 
 
 Gas, coal | 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 Hydrociiloric acid ... 
 
 Hydrocyanic " 
 
 Muriatic acid 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Nitric oxyd 
 
 Nitrous acid 
 
 " oxyd .... 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 Phosphureted hydrofieo . . 
 
 1. 
 
 .689 
 
 .976 
 1.52 
 
 .972 
 
 .669 
 2.47 
 3.389 
 1.815 
 
 .4 
 
 .762 
 
 .07 
 1.278 
 
 .942 
 1.247 
 
 .972 
 1.094 
 2.638 
 1.627 
 1.102 
 1.77 
 
 Sulphurettedhydrogen . . 
 
 Sulphurous acid 
 
 Steam,* 212° 
 
 Smoke, of bituminous coal . 
 
 " coke 
 
 " wood 
 
 Vapor of alcohol 
 
 " bisulphuret of car- 
 bon 
 
 Vapor of bromine .... 
 " chloric ether . . 
 
 ether 
 
 " hydrochloric ether 
 
 " iodine 
 
 " nitric acid .... 
 " spirits of turpen- 
 tine 
 
 Vapor of sulphuric acid . . 
 " " ether . 
 
 " sulphur 
 
 ■' water 
 
 1.77 
 
 2.21 
 .4883 
 .102 
 .106 
 .09 
 
 1.613 
 
 2.64 
 
 5.1 
 
 3.44 
 
 2.586 
 
 2.265 
 
 8.676 
 
 3.75 
 
 4.763 
 27 
 2.586 
 2.214 
 
 • Equal to .07529143 Ibs. avoirdupois. 
 
 IVelglita and Volumes ot Various Substances In Ordinary 
 Vse. 
 
 Substances. 
 
 HETALS. 
 
 Brass ■['"'PP^''^^- 1 
 "■^^^^ t zinc 33. ; 
 
 " gun metal . 
 
 " sheets . . . 
 
 *' wire .... 
 
 Copper, cast .... 
 
 " plates. . . 
 
 Iron, cast 
 
 " gun metal . . 
 
 " heavy forging 
 
 " plates .... 
 
 " wrought bars. 
 Lead, cast 
 
 " rolled .... 
 Mercury, 60°. . 
 Steel, plates .... 
 
 " soft 
 
 Tin 
 
 Zinc, cast 
 
 " rolled. . . . 
 
 WOODS. 
 
 Oak, Canadian . . . 
 " English . . . 
 " live, seasoned 
 " white di-y . . 
 " " upland . 
 Pine, pitch .... 
 
 " red 
 
 " white .... 
 " well seasoned 
 Pine, yellow .... 
 Spruce 
 
 Cubic 
 Foot. 
 
 64.5 
 
 58.25 
 
 66.75 
 
 53.76 
 
 42.937 
 
 41.26 
 
 36.876 
 
 34.625 
 
 29.66i 
 
 83.812 
 
 31.25 
 
 » Weight of 
 
 Cubic 
 Inch. 
 
 Substances. 
 
 Lbs. Lbs. 
 
 488.75 .2829 
 
 543.76 .3147 
 513.^ .297 
 
 524.16 
 
 647.25 .3179 
 
 .543.625 .3167 
 
 450.137 .2607 
 
 466.5 .27 
 
 479.5 .2776 
 
 481.6 .2787 
 486.75 .2816 
 709.5 .4106 
 711.75 .4119 
 848.7487 .491174 
 487.75 .2823 
 489.602 .2833 
 455.687 .2637 
 428.812 .2482 
 449.437 .2601 
 
 Cub. Ft. 
 in a ton. 
 
 41.101 
 38.466 
 33.668 
 41.674 
 52.169 
 64.303 
 60.745 
 64.693 
 75.773 
 66.248 
 71.68 
 a cubic foot, 257.363 Troy grains. 
 
 Walnut, blauk, dry 
 
 Willow 
 
 " dry .... 
 
 UISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 Air 
 
 Basalt, mean . . . 
 Brick, fire .... 
 mean .... 
 
 Coal, anthracite , i 
 
 bitumin.,mean 
 Cannel .... 
 Cumberland . 
 Welsh, mean . 
 
 Coke 
 
 Earth, clay .... 
 
 common soil 
 
 " gravel 
 
 dry, sand . . 
 
 loose. . . . 
 
 moist, sand. 
 
 mold. . . . 
 
 mud .... 
 
 with gravel. 
 
 Granite, Quincy . . 
 
 " Susqu'h'na 
 
 Limestone 
 
 Marble, mean . . . 
 Mortar, dry, mean 
 Water, fresh .... 
 *' salt .... 
 Steam 
 
 Cubic 
 Foot. 
 
 31.26 
 
 36.662 
 
 30.375 
 
 .075291 
 175, 
 137.562 
 102. 
 
 89.75 
 102.6 
 
 80. 
 
 94.875 
 
 84.687 
 
 81.26 
 
 62.6 
 120.625 
 137.126 
 109.312 
 120. 
 
 93.75 
 128.126 
 128.126 
 101.875 
 126.25 
 165.75 
 169. 
 197.25 
 167.876 
 
 97.98 
 
 62.6 
 
 64.125 
 .036747 
 
 Cubic 
 Feet in 
 a Ton. 
 
 71.68 
 
 61.265 
 
 73.744 
 
 12.8 
 
 16.284 
 
 21.961 
 
 24.958 
 
 21.864 
 
 28. 
 
 23.609 
 
 26.461 
 
 27.669 
 
 35.84 
 
 18.569 
 
 16.336 
 
 20.49 
 
 18.667 
 
 23.893 
 
 17.482 
 
 17.482 
 
 21.987 
 
 17.742 
 
 13.514 
 
 13.264 
 
 11.356 
 
 13.343 
 
 22.862 
 
 36.84 
 
 34.931 
 
 WAGES TABIiE. 
 
 Salaries and Wages by the Year, Month, Week or Day, shewing what any sum 
 from $20 to $1600 per annum, is per Month, Week ^r Day. 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Year. 
 
 Month. 
 
 Week. 
 
 Day. 
 
 $ 
 
 8 c. 
 
 8 c. 
 
 $ c. 
 
 20 is 
 
 1.67 
 
 .33 
 
 .06 
 
 25 
 
 2.08 
 
 .48 
 
 .07 
 
 30 
 
 2.50 
 
 .58 
 
 .08 
 
 35 
 
 2.92 
 
 .67 
 
 .10 
 
 40 
 
 3.33 
 
 .77 
 
 .11 
 
 45 
 
 3.75 
 
 .86 
 
 .12 
 
 60 
 
 4.17 
 
 .96 
 
 .14 
 
 56 
 
 4.58 
 
 1.06 
 
 .16 
 
 60 
 
 5.00 
 
 1.16 
 
 .16 
 
 66 
 
 5.42 
 
 126 
 
 .18 
 
 70 
 
 6.83 
 
 1.34 
 
 ,19 
 
 75 
 
 6.26 
 
 1.44 
 
 .21 
 
 80 
 
 6.67 
 
 1.63 
 
 .22 
 
 85 
 
 7.08 
 
 1.63 
 
 .23 
 
 90 
 
 7.60 
 
 1.73 
 
 .26 
 
 95 
 
 7 92 
 
 1.82 
 
 .26 
 
 100 
 
 8.33 
 
 1.92 
 
 .27 
 
 105 
 
 8.76 
 
 2 01 
 
 .29 
 
 110 
 
 9.17 
 
 2.11 
 
 .30 
 
 115 
 
 9.58 
 
 2.21 
 
 .32 
 
 120 
 
 10.00 
 
 2.30 
 
 .33 
 
 126 
 
 10.42 
 
 2.40 
 
 .34 
 
 130 
 
 10.83 
 
 2.49 
 
 .36 
 
 135 
 
 11.25 
 
 2.69 
 
 .37 
 
 140 
 
 11.67 
 
 2.69 
 
 .38 
 
 145 
 
 12.08 
 
 2.78 
 
 .40 
 
 160 
 
 12.50 
 
 2.88 
 
 .41 
 
 165 
 
 12.92 
 
 2.97 
 
 .42 
 
 ■ 160 
 
 13.33 
 
 3.07 
 
 .44 
 
 166 
 
 13.75 
 
 3.16 
 
 .45 
 
 170 
 
 14.17 
 
 3.26 
 
 .47 
 
 176 
 
 14.68 
 
 3.36 
 
 .48 
 
 180 
 
 15.00 
 
 345 
 
 .49 
 
 185 
 
 15.42 
 
 3.65 
 
 .51 
 
 190 
 
 15.83 
 
 3.64 
 
 .62 
 
 195 
 
 16.25 
 
 3.74 
 
 .63 
 
 200 
 
 16.67 
 
 3.84 
 
 ..■■5 
 
 205 
 
 17.08 
 
 3.93 
 
 .66 
 
 210 
 
 17.50 
 
 4.03 
 
 .68 
 
 215 
 
 17.92 
 
 4.12 
 
 .69 
 
 220 
 
 18..33 
 
 4.22 
 
 .60 
 
 225 
 
 18.76 
 
 4.31 
 
 .62 
 
 230 
 
 19.17 
 
 4.41 
 
 .63 
 
 235 
 
 19.58 
 
 4.61 
 
 .64 
 
 240 
 
 20.00 
 
 4.60 
 
 .66 
 
 245 
 
 20.42 
 
 4.70 
 
 .67 
 
 260 
 
 20.83 
 
 4.79 
 
 ■69 
 
 256 
 
 21.25 
 
 4.89 
 
 .70 
 
 260 
 
 21.67 
 
 4.99 
 
 .71 
 
 265 
 
 22.08 
 
 6.08 
 
 .73 
 
 270 
 
 22.50 
 
 6.18 
 
 .74 
 
 276 
 
 22.92 
 
 6.27 
 
 ,76 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Year. 
 
 Month 
 
 Week. 
 
 Diiy. 
 
 » . 
 
 8 c. 
 
 8 c. 
 
 8 r. 
 
 280 is 
 
 23 33 
 
 6.37 
 
 .77 
 
 285 
 
 23.75 
 
 6.47 
 
 .78 
 
 290 
 
 24.17 
 
 6.66 
 
 .79 
 
 296 
 
 24.58 
 
 6.66 
 
 .81 
 
 300 
 
 26.00 
 
 5.75 
 
 .82 
 
 310 
 
 25.83 
 
 6.95 
 
 .85 
 
 320 
 
 26.67 
 
 6.14 
 
 .88 
 
 325 
 
 27.08 
 
 6.23 
 
 .89 
 
 330 
 
 27.50 
 
 6.33 
 
 .90 
 
 340 
 
 28.33 
 
 6.62 
 
 .93 
 
 360 
 
 29.17 
 
 6.71 
 
 .96 
 
 360 
 
 30.00 
 
 6.90 
 
 ■.99 
 
 370 
 
 30.83 
 
 7.10 
 
 1.01 
 
 375 
 
 31.25 
 
 7.19 
 
 1.03 
 
 380 
 
 31.67 
 
 7.29 
 
 1.04 
 
 390 
 
 32.50 
 
 7.48 
 
 1.07 
 
 400 
 
 3:1.33 
 
 7.67 
 
 1.10 
 
 426 
 
 35.42 
 
 8.16 
 
 1.16 
 
 460 
 
 37.50 
 
 8.03 
 
 1.23 
 
 475 
 
 39.58 
 
 9.11 
 
 1.30 
 
 600 
 
 41.67 
 
 9.69 
 
 1.37 
 
 625 
 
 43.75 
 
 10.07 
 
 1.44 
 
 660 
 
 46.83 
 
 10.66 
 
 1.61 
 
 675 
 
 47.92 
 
 11.03 
 
 1.68 
 
 600 
 
 50.00 
 
 11.51 
 
 1.64 
 
 625 
 
 62 08 
 
 11.99 
 
 1.71 
 
 660 
 
 64.17 
 
 12.47 
 
 1.7S 
 
 675 
 
 66.26 
 
 12.95 
 
 1.85 
 
 700 
 
 68.33 
 
 13.42 
 
 1.92 
 
 726 
 
 6i'.42 
 
 13.90 
 
 1.99 
 
 760 
 
 62.60 
 
 14.38 
 
 2.06 
 
 776 
 
 64.68 
 
 14.86 
 
 2.12 
 
 800 
 
 66.67 
 
 16.34 
 
 2.19 
 
 825 
 
 68.75 
 
 15.82 
 
 2.26 
 
 860 
 
 70.83 
 
 16.30 
 
 2.33 
 
 876 
 
 72.92 
 
 16.78 
 
 2.40 
 
 900 
 
 75.00 
 
 17.26 
 
 2.47 
 
 925 
 
 77.08 
 
 17.74 
 
 2.53 
 
 950 
 
 79.17 
 
 18.22 
 
 2.60 
 
 976 
 
 81.26 
 
 18.70 
 
 2.67 
 
 1000 
 
 83.33 
 
 19.18 
 
 2.74 
 
 1050 
 
 87.60 
 
 20.14 
 
 2.88 
 
 1100 
 
 91.67 
 
 21.10 
 
 3.01 
 
 1150 
 
 96.83 
 
 22.06 
 
 3.15 
 
 1200 
 
 100.00 
 
 23.01 
 
 3.29 
 
 1260 
 
 104.17 
 
 23.29 
 
 3.42 
 
 1300 
 
 108.33 
 
 24.93 
 
 3.66 
 
 1350 
 
 112.60 
 
 26.89 
 
 3.70 
 
 1400 
 
 116.67 
 
 26.86 
 
 3.84 
 
 1450 
 
 120.84 
 
 27.80 
 
 3.98 
 
 1600 
 
 125.00 
 
 28.77 
 
 4.11 
 
 1600 
 
 133.34 
 
 30.68 
 
 4.38 
 
 Wages Table, calculated on a scale of Ten Hours labor per day. The Timn, in 
 Hours and Days is noted in the left hand column, and the Amount of Wages 
 under the respective headings as noted below. 
 
 Wages 81.00 81.50 82.00 $2.50 ] $3.00 $3.50 $4.00 $4.50 $5.00 $6.60 $6.00 
 
 ,1U 
 .2J2 
 .5 
 
 ■I'A 
 
 .10 
 
 •12K 
 
 .15 
 
 ■17K 
 
 .20 
 
 .221^ 
 
 4 
 
 .21 
 .26 
 .2BY„ 
 .33'^ 
 ,37 
 
 r- 
 
 .10 
 .15 
 .20 
 .26 
 .30 
 .35 
 .40 
 .46 
 
 f 
 
 .33> 
 
 .40 
 
 .46?- 
 
 .60 
 
 .15 
 
 .22"^ 
 
 .30 
 
 ,37}^ 
 
 .45 
 
 .52J^ 
 
 .60 
 
 •67>^ 
 
 Days 
 
 .41% .60 
 .83j|l.00 
 1.25 1.60 
 1.66% 2.00 
 20.8>| 2.60 
 2.60 13.00 
 
 .76 
 1.50 
 2.25 
 3.00 
 3.76 
 4.60 
 
 .6 
 .10 
 .20 
 .30 
 .40 
 .60 
 .60 
 .70 
 80. 
 .90 
 
 1.8.3>< 
 2.76 
 3.66ji 
 4.683 
 
 1.00 
 2.00 
 3.00 
 4.00 
 5.00 
 
 6.60 |6.00 
 
 Wages 86.60 87.00 $7.60 88.00 8.900 $10.00 $11.00 $12.00 $13.00 $14.00 $16.00 
 
 .y' 
 
 .in 
 
 .23}. 
 .36 
 .46?. 
 .58 J. 
 .70 
 
 .93>|.l.l 
 
 .25 
 
 50 
 
 .62J^ 
 
 ,76 
 
 •87J^ 
 
 .00 
 
 1.06 11.12^ 
 
 .7M 
 
 .15 
 
 .30 
 
 .45 
 
 .60 
 
 .75 
 
 .90 
 1.06 
 1.20 
 1.35 
 
 .10 
 .20 
 .40 
 .60 
 .80 
 1.00 
 1.20 
 1.40 
 1.60 
 1.80 
 
 .11 
 .22 
 
 ■«K 
 
 .65 
 
 .86J 
 
 1.08> 
 
 1.30 
 
 1.5i 
 
 1.96 
 
 Days 
 
 1.08}^ll.l6%ll.26 
 2.165|'2.33>| 2.60 
 3.26 13.50 13.76 
 4.33i^ 4.66j^l5.09 
 6.41% 6.83>|;6.25 
 B.60 17.00 17.60 
 
 2.66^ 
 
 1.80 
 
 1.66^ 
 
 1.83% 
 
 2.00 
 
 3.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.50 
 
 6.00 
 
 6.50 ' 
 
 6.00 
 
 6.33% 
 
 6.00 
 
 6.66% 
 8.33% 
 
 l^. 
 
 8.00 
 
 6.66% 
 
 7.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 8.00 
 
 9.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 11.00 
 
 12.00 
 
 2.17 
 4.34 
 6.61 
 
 8.68 
 10.85 
 13.00 
 
 .60 
 ,76 
 1.00 
 1.26 
 1.60 
 1.76 
 2.00 
 ,25 
 
 6.99^ 
 
 8.33 
 11.66% 
 14.00 
 
 2.60 
 6.00 
 7.60 
 10.00 
 12.60 
 15.00 
 
 If the desired number of days or amount of wages is not in the table 
 double or treble any suitable number of days or amount of mojey as the 
 case may be, until you obtain the desired number of days and the wages 
 to correspond. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 761 
 
 HYDRAULiIC miNINa. 
 
 Fifth Roots. — ^The following table of numbers and roots 
 will cover all problems that come to the miner in hydraulic 
 mining. The numbers are printed in heavy type and the 
 roots in light. If the exact number is not found, take the 
 roots of the number nearest to it : 
 
 7.69 
 32. 
 97.05 
 243. 
 625.21 
 1024. 
 1846.28 
 3125. 
 
 1.5 
 
 2, 
 
 2.5 
 
 3. 
 
 3.5 
 
 4. 
 
 4.5 
 
 6. 
 
 No. 
 
 5032.84 
 
 777«. 
 11003. 
 10807. 
 23730. 
 32708. 
 44370. 
 
 Itoot. 
 
 5.6 
 
 e.o 
 
 6. 
 6.5 
 7. 
 7.5 
 
 So. 
 
 59049. 
 
 77878. 
 100000. 
 130638. 
 101051. 
 201035. 
 248832. 
 
 Root. 
 
 9.5 
 10. 
 10.5 
 11. 
 116 
 12. 
 
 Velocities and Discllargeg. 
 
 Beadin feel per 
 
 Head in ft. per 
 
 VelocUy in feet 
 
 DiMcharge in Ctt. 
 
 Discharge in ctt. 
 
 100 feel. 
 
 mOe. 
 
 per second. 
 
 
 ft. per 24 hour$. 
 
 .0019 
 
 .1 
 
 .208 
 
 .1633 
 
 14,114 
 
 .0038 
 
 .2 
 
 .293 
 
 .2301 
 
 19,880 
 
 .0057 
 
 .3 
 
 .359 
 
 .2819 
 
 24,360 
 
 .0076 
 
 .4 
 
 .416 
 
 .3267 
 
 28,229 
 
 .0095 
 
 .5 
 
 .464 
 
 .3638 
 
 31,435 
 
 .0114 
 
 .6 
 
 .608 
 
 .3989 
 
 34,464 
 
 .0132 
 
 .7 
 
 .649 
 
 .4311 
 
 37,427 
 
 .0161 
 
 .8 
 
 .586 
 
 .4602 
 
 39,760 
 
 .0170 
 
 .9 
 
 .623 
 
 .4901 
 
 42,343 
 
 .0189 
 
 1.1 - 
 
 .656 
 
 .6144 
 
 44,431 
 
 .0237 
 
 1.26 
 
 .736 
 
 .6763 
 
 49,701 
 
 .0284 
 
 1.50 
 
 .805 
 
 .6322 
 
 64,604 
 
 .0331 
 
 1.75 
 
 .871 
 
 .6832 
 
 69 011 
 
 .0379 
 
 2. 
 
 .928 
 
 .7276 
 
 62,870 
 
 .0426 
 
 2.25 
 
 .984 
 
 .7696 
 
 66,484 
 
 .0473 
 
 2.60 
 
 1.040 
 
 .8168 
 
 70,672 
 
 .0621 
 
 2.75 
 
 1.080 
 
 .8482 
 
 73,284 
 
 .0568 
 
 3.0O 
 
 1.130 
 
 .8914 
 
 76,982 
 
 .0758 
 
 4. 
 
 1.310 
 
 1.028 
 
 88,862 
 
 .0947 
 
 6. 
 
 1.47 
 
 1.150 
 
 99,403 
 
 .1136 
 
 6. 
 
 1.61 
 
 1.264 
 
 109,209 
 
 .1326 
 
 7. 
 
 1.74 
 
 1.366 
 
 118,022 
 
 .1514 
 
 8. 
 
 1.86 
 
 1.465 
 
 126,740 
 
 .1703 
 
 9. 
 
 1.96 
 
 1.639 
 
 132,969 
 
 .1894 
 
 10. 
 
 2.08 
 
 1.633 
 
 141,145 
 
 .2273 
 
 12. 
 
 2.27 
 
 1.782 
 
 153,964 
 
 .2652 
 
 14. 
 
 2.45 
 
 1.924 
 
 166,233 
 
 .3030 
 
 16. 
 
 2.62 
 
 2.057 
 
 177,724 
 
 .3409 
 
 18. 
 
 2.78 
 
 2.183 
 
 188,611 
 
 .3788 
 
 20. 
 
 2.93 
 
 2 301 
 
 198,806 
 
 .4735 
 
 25. 
 
 328 
 
 2.672 
 
 222,166 
 
 .6682 
 
 30. 
 
 3.59 
 
 2.819 
 
 243.604 
 
 .6629 
 
 35. 
 
 3.88 
 
 3.047 
 
 263,260 
 
 .7576 
 
 40. 
 
 4.16 
 
 3.267 
 
 282,288 
 
 .8623 
 
 45. 
 
 4.40 
 
 3.461 
 
 298,209 
 
 .9470 
 
 60. 
 
 4.64 
 
 3.638 
 
 314,352 
 
 1.1360 
 
 60. 
 
 6.08 
 
 3.989 
 
 344,649 
 
 1.3260 
 
 70. 
 
 6.49 
 
 4.311 
 
 372,470 
 
 1.5150 
 
 80. 
 
 5.86 
 
 4 602 
 
 397,613 
 
 1.7040 
 
 90. 
 
 6.23 
 
 4.900 
 
 423,435 
 
 1.8940 
 
 100. 
 
 6.56 
 
 6.144 
 
 444,312 
 
 2.0830 
 
 110. 
 
 6.87 
 
 5.395 
 
 466,128 
 
 2,2720 
 
 120. 
 
 7.18 
 
 6.639 
 
 487,209 
 
 2.4620 
 
 130. 
 
 7.47 
 
 6.866 
 
 606,822 
 
 2.8410 
 
 150. 
 
 8.06 
 
 6.322 
 
 646,048 
 
 3.0300 
 
 160. 
 
 8.30 
 
 6.534 
 
 664,576 
 
 3.2190 
 
 170. 
 
 8.56 
 
 6.715 
 
 580,176 
 
 3.4080 
 
 180. 
 
 8.80 
 
 6.903 
 
 596,418 
 
 3.5960 
 
 190. 
 
 9.04 
 
 7.100 
 
 613,440 
 
 3.7880 
 
 200. 
 
 9.28 
 
 7.276 
 
 628,704 
 
 4.2610 
 
 226. 
 
 9.84 
 
 7.696 
 
 664,848 
 
 4.7350 
 
 250. 
 
 10.40 
 
 8.168 
 
 706,728 
 
 6.2080 
 
 276. 
 
 10.8 
 
 8.482 
 
 732,844 
 
 6.6820 
 
 300. 
 
 11.3 
 
 8.914 
 
 769,824 
 
 6.6290 
 
 350. 
 
 12.3 
 
 9.621 
 
 831,168 
 
 7.6760 
 
 400. 
 
 13.1 
 
 10.280 
 
 888,624 
 
 8.6320 
 
 450. 
 
 13.9 
 
 10.910 
 
 943,066 
 
 9.4700 
 
 500. 
 
 14.7 
 
 11.50 
 
 994,032 
 
 10.4100 
 
 650. 
 
 15.4 
 
 12.09 
 
 ^■'^S! 
 
 11.3600 
 
 600. 
 
 16.1 
 
 12.64 
 
 1,092,096 
 
 12.3000 
 
 650. 
 
 16.9 
 
 13.11 
 
 1,132,704 
 
 13.2600 
 
 700. 
 
 17.4 
 
 13.66 
 
 1,180,224 
 
 14.2000 
 
 750. 
 
 18. 
 
 14.13 
 
 1,220,832 
 
 16.1500 
 
 800. 
 
 18.6 
 
 14.65 
 
 1,257,408 
 
 16.0900 
 
 850. 
 
 19.1 
 
 15.00 
 
 1,296,000 
 
 17.0400 
 
 900. 
 
 19.8 
 
 15.39 
 
 1,329,696 
 
 17.9900 
 
 950. 
 
 20.3 
 
 16.94 
 
 1,377,216 
 
 18.9400 
 
 1000. 
 
 20.8 
 
 16.33 
 
 1,411,456 
 
 22.7300 
 
 1200. 
 
 12.8 
 
 17.82 
 
 1,539,648 
 
 26.5200 
 
 1400. 
 
 24.5 
 
 19.24 
 
 1 662,?36 
 
 30.3000 
 
 1600. 
 
 26.2 
 
 20.57 
 
 1,777,248 
 
 37.8700 
 
 2000. 
 
 29.3 
 
 23.01 
 
 1,988,064 
 
 In the Scoue of water-course Beds. 
 Ki ft. per aeoond wiU acour fine clay, 
 iX*^ « " " sand. 
 
 u « " coarse sand. 
 
 ][ « « " fine gravel. 
 
 2 ft. per second will scour round shingle 1 in. diam. 
 
 3 ft^ '^ «' « angular stone, size of an egg. 
 3 ffc[ ** ** conglomerate. 
 
 Value op Gold according to fineness. — Pure gold. 1000 fine, is worth 
 620.67 per oz.; gold 600 fine, is worth $10.33; 600 fine, $12.40; 700 fine, 
 $14.49; 800 fine, $16.53; 90(» fine, $18,60. At the mint in San Francisco, the 
 charge for melting, assaying and refining la 14 cents per oz. The charge 
 for coining is 3^ per cent. Wo deposits are receiTed at the mint in less 
 sums than $100. The value of a ton of pure gold is $602,799.21. The 
 value of a ton of silver is $37,704.84. The weight of $1,000^000 in gold 
 coin is 3.685.8 Iba. avoirdupois. The weight of $1,000,000 in silver coin is 
 58,929.9 lbs. avoirdupois. For other feces relating to the weight of the 
 precious metals consult pp. 762. 
 
 Phillips gives the following rule for ascertaining the amount of gold in 
 a lump of auriferous quartz: 
 
 " The specific gravity of the gold— 19,000. 
 
 "The specific gravity of the quartz— 2,600. 
 
 "These numbers are given here merely for convenience in explaining 
 the rule; they do not accurately represent the specific gravities of afl 
 quartz and quartz gold, (The quartz gold of California has not, on an 
 average, a specific gravity of more than 18,600.) 
 
 "1. Ascertain the specific gravity of the lump. Suppose it to be 8,067. 
 
 "2. Deduct the specific gravity of the lump from the specific gravity 
 of the gold; the dinerence is the ratio of the quartz by Volume : 19,000 
 —8,067 = 10,933. 
 
 "3. Deduct the specific gravity of the quartz from the specific gravity 
 of the lump; the difference is the ratio of the gold by volume: 8,067 — 
 2,600 = 5,467. 
 
 "4. Add these ratios together, and proceed by the rule of proportion. 
 The product is the percentage of gold by bulk : 10,933+5,467=16,400. 
 Then as 16,400 is to 5,4(57, ao is 100 to 33,35. 
 
 "5. Multiply the percentage of gold by bulk by its specific gravity. 
 The product is the ratio of the gold in the lump by weight: 33^X19,00= 
 643,65. , 
 
 " 6. Multiply the percentage of quartz by bulk (which must be 66,65 
 since that of the gold is 33,35) by its specific gravity. The product is the 
 ratio of the quartz in the lump by weight: 66,65X2,60=173^. 
 
 " 7. To find the percentage, add these two ratios together, and proceed 
 by the rule of proportion : 633,65+173,29=806,94. Then, as 806.94 is to 
 633,65, so is 100 to 78,63. Henee, a lump of auriferous quartz, having a 
 specific gravity of 8,067, contains 78,73 per cent, of gold, by weight. 
 
 Tlie vrelglit and volume of Antliracite Coal* 
 
 Color of ash. 
 
 Name of coal. 
 
 White Honey Brook . . . 
 
 White Hazleton ... 
 
 White Sugar Loaf .... 
 
 White . . Old Company's . . 
 
 White Spring Mountain . 
 
 White Greenwood . 
 
 Pink . .... Cross Creek . • . 
 
 Pink . . ... Council Bridge . . 
 
 Pink . . . . . . Buck Mountain . 
 
 White Locust Mountain . 
 
 White ... ... Mahanoy . . . 
 
 Gray and red . . . Shamokin 
 
 Bed Lorberry 
 
 The following figures, from another source, may be of interest in this 
 connection: 
 
 ANTHRACrrE. 
 
 Peach Mountain . . . 41*06 I Lackawanna . 45*08 
 
 Forest Improvement . . . 41'07 Lehigh Co.'s 40-05 
 
 Beaver Meadow, No. 5 . 3908 ( Beaver Meadow, No. 3 ... 4007 
 
 Cubic feet 
 
 Cubic feet 
 
 to 2000 lbs. 
 
 to 2240 Iba. 
 
 34-5 
 
 38-6 
 
 34-8 
 
 38-» 
 
 34-8 
 
 38-9 
 
 34-8 
 
 38-9 
 
 34-8 
 
 38-9 
 
 34-8 
 
 38-9 
 
 361 
 
 39-2 
 
 361 
 
 39-2 
 
 351 
 
 392 
 
 35-5 
 
 39-6 
 
 36-6 
 
 39-6 
 
 36-9 
 
 41-0 
 
 37-3 
 
 41-4 
 
 Cumberland maximum . 
 " minimum . 
 
 Duftruyn, Welsh . . 
 Cannal, Lancashire . 
 Blossburg;, Pa . . 
 Hartley, Newcastle . . . 
 Pictou, Nova Scotia . . 
 
 Natural of Virginia 
 Pittsburg 
 
 BITUMINOUS. 
 . 42-3 
 .41-2 
 . 42-99 
 .46-37 
 .42-2 
 .44-00 
 .45-00 
 
 COEK. 
 
 .4803 I Charcoal 
 .70-09 
 
 Pittsburg, Pa ... . . 47-08 
 
 Sydney, Cape Breton 47-02 
 
 Clover Hill, Va 4902 
 
 Cannelton, Indiana . . . 47-00 
 
 Scotch 43-08 
 
 Richmond, Va. (Middleton) . 41-04 
 
 104 
 
 COST OF MINING. 
 "KVa^eA paid In Colorado and No-pa Scotia. 
 
 Mining foreman 
 
 Mill foreman 
 
 Amalgamators 
 
 Engineers 
 
 Tenders and firemen . . 
 
 Miners 
 
 Mill feeders 
 
 Blacksmiths and carpenters 
 Barrowman and woodmen . 
 
 Drivers 
 
 Horses' feed 
 
 Wood (per cord) .... 
 
 Leadville. Nova Scotia. 
 
 Per day. 
 $4 60 
 $3 e0to5 00 
 S 50 
 400 
 3 00 
 3 00 
 3 60 
 
 3 00 
 2 50 
 2 18 
 
 75 
 
 4 80 
 
 Per day. 
 
 $2 00 
 
 tl 60to2 00 
 
 1 50 
 
 1 25tol 60 
 
 1 00 
 
 1 25tol 40 
 
 1 25 to 1 50 
 
 1 25tol 60 
 
 80 to 1 00 
 
 50 to 74 
 
 60 
 
 1 50to2 00 
 
 Lineal Expansion of Metaxs. 
 Produced by raising their temperature from 32° to 212° Fahrenheit. 
 
 Zinc 1 part in 322 
 
 Platinum 
 
 Tin (pure) .... 
 
 Tin (impure) . . , 
 
 Silver 
 
 Copper 
 
 Brass 
 
 Falmouth tin . . . 
 English brass rod 
 Brass wire .... 
 Blistered steel . . 
 
 351 
 403 
 500 
 524 
 581 
 684 
 462 
 628 
 517 
 870 
 
 Gold 
 
 Bismuth . . *. , 
 
 Iron 
 
 Antimony . . . 
 Palladium .... 
 Platinum .... 
 Flint glass .... 
 Soft rolled iron , . 
 Prism of cast iron 
 Reflector metal . . 
 Refined silver 
 
 . 1 part in 682 
 
 " 717 
 
 " 812 
 
 " 923 
 
 " 1000 
 
 " 1100 
 
 " 1248 
 
 " 819 
 
 " 901 
 
 " 617 
 
 " 628 
 
762 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Mining Maciiineey (Molesworth). 
 
 Speed of crushing rolls at periphery . 
 Diameter of " ■* " 
 
 Breadth of " " " 
 
 Roller shaft . . ... 
 
 Tumbling shaft ... 
 
 Sifting screen shaft 
 
 Bolls crushed together with a force of 
 Weight of stamped heads, from 
 
 Lift of ditto 
 
 Number of lifts per minute . . . ■ . 
 Exposed area of cast gratings about . 
 Number of holes to the mch for tin 
 Area of stamper bottom, generally . 
 Pumps for deep mines, usually .... 
 Bach lift 
 
 Horse power of pumping engines: — 
 
 , . GO ft. per minute. 
 . 24 to .30 ins. 
 . 12 to 1.1 ins. 
 
 , 6 ins. square. 
 . . .41^ 
 
 . 1% ins. diameter. 
 
 ... 60 tons. 
 
 . . . V/^ lo 5 cwt. 
 
 . 9 to 12 ins. 
 
 . . 45 to 60. 
 
 . 9 X 10 ins. 
 
 .... 140. 
 
 . . . 6 X 10 ins. 
 
 . . 8 to 10 ft. stroke. 
 
 . from 150 to 200 ft. 
 
 Q = quantity of water raised per minute, cubic feet. 
 
 H = hei^t in feet. 
 
 Actual horse power = '0021 H. Q. 
 
 Table slioirilig tlie quantity of Grold to tKe ton of Ore, corres- 
 ponding to tile -weights In Grains contained from 400 
 Grains of Mineral. 
 
 If 400 grains of 
 Ore give 
 Fine Gold. 
 
 Grains. 
 .001. . 
 .002 . . 
 .003 . 
 .004 . 
 .005. 
 .006 . . . 
 .007 . . . 
 .008 . . . 
 .009 . 
 .010. 
 .020 . . 
 .030 . . 
 .040. . 
 .050 . . 
 .060 . 
 .070. 
 .080 . . 
 .090 . 
 .100 . . 
 
 One ton of 
 
 Ore 
 will yield. 
 
 OzB. Dwts. Grs. 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 m 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 12 
 4 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 1 
 
 10 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 If 400 grains of 
 
 Ore give 
 
 Fine Gold. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 .200 . 
 
 .300 . 
 
 .400. 
 
 .600. 
 
 .600 . 
 
 .700 . . 
 
 .800 . . • 
 
 .900: 
 1.000 . . . 
 2.0O0 . . . 
 3.000 . . 
 4.000 . 
 6.000 . . 
 6.UO0 . 
 7.000 . 
 8.000 . 
 9.000 . 
 10.000 . 
 20.000 . . . 
 
 One ton of 
 
 Ore 
 will yield. 
 
 Ozs. Dwts. Grs. 
 16 6 16 
 10 
 13 
 16 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 10 
 13 
 16 
 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 
 13 
 
 24 
 32 
 40 
 49 
 67 
 65 
 73 
 81 
 163 
 245 
 
 408 
 490 
 670 
 6.W 
 735 
 816 
 1633 
 
 
 
 8 
 16 
 
 
 
 8 
 16 
 
 
 
 8 
 16 
 
 ' 
 
 8 ' 
 16' 
 
 
 
 8 
 16 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 Mr. Black, of San Francisco, estimates that in mining operations the 
 average cost of handling a cubic yard of auriferous gravel with the pan 
 is $20; with the rocker, S5; with the long torn, $1; and with the hy- 
 draulic process, 20c. 
 
 Stowage of Coals. — The following information will be valuable to many 
 coal dealers and consumers who may be in doubt as to the capacity of 
 their coal bins. A box 4 feet long, 3 ft. 6 in. wide, and 2 ft. 8 ins. deep, 
 has a capacity of 36J^ cubic feet, and will contain 2000 lbs. or one ton of 
 Beaver Meadow or Lehigh (American) coal. The spaces occupied by one 
 ton of the undermentioned English coals, economic weight are: — Has- 
 well's Wallsenii, 46-25 cubic feet. North Percy, Hartley (Newcastle) 46-93 
 cubic feet. Balearras Arley (Lancashire) 44-35 cubic feet. Ciannel 
 (Wigan, Lancashire) 4637 cubic feet. Duflryn (Welsh) 42-09 cubic feet. 
 Pontypool (Welsh) 40-22 cubic feet. Hence, a shed 16 feet high, 20 feet 
 broad, and 30 feet long, will hold over 212 tons of Haswell's Wallsend 
 (Newcastle) coals, about 207 tons of Cannel, and 228 of Duffryn. The 
 average sj)ace occupied by one ton of Newcastle coal, economic weight, 
 is 44 cubic feet, that of one ton of Lancashire coal, 44>^, cubic feet, ana 
 that of 1 ton of Welsh coal, 41 cubic feet. Therefore a shed of the above 
 dimensions, would, on the average, hold 217 tons of Newcastle coal, 216 
 of Lancashire, and 234 of Welsh. .From the above data, any intending 
 purchaser can easily calculate the capacity of his coal bins, sheds, &o., 
 and in many cases secure a good barga in by laying in a large stock when 
 coals are cheap. 
 
 Explosive force of -rarions snlistances used for Fire Arms, 
 Artillery, Blasting, ^.c* 
 
 Blasting Powder 
 
 Artillery '' 
 
 Sporting " 
 
 Powder, Nitrate of Soda for its base . 
 Powder, Chlorate of Potash for its base 
 3un Cotton .... 
 
 Picric Acid 
 
 Pierate Potash 
 
 3un Cotton mixed with Chi. Potash . 
 Picric Acid " " " 
 
 Pierate " " " 
 
 Nitro-Glycerin ...... 
 
 Heat. 
 
 Volume 
 of Gas. 
 
 609 
 
 608 
 
 641 
 
 764 
 
 972 
 
 690 
 
 687 
 
 678 
 
 1420 
 
 1424 
 
 1422 
 
 4320 
 
 0.173 liter, 
 
 0.225 " 
 
 0.216 " 
 
 0.248 " 
 
 0.318 " 
 
 0.801 " 
 
 0.780 " 
 
 0.585 " 
 
 0.484 " 
 
 0.408 " 
 
 0.337 " 
 
 0.710 " 
 
 Estimate 
 
 Explosive 
 
 Force. 
 
 137 
 139 
 190 
 309 
 472 
 536 
 680 
 680 
 682 
 478 
 939 
 
 The above instructive table is by the celebrated M. Berthelot, who 
 further describes nitro-glycerin as "really the ideal of portable force. 
 It burns completely without residue ; in fact, gives an excess of oxyaen : 
 It develops twice as much heat as powder, three and a half times more 
 gas, and has seven times the explosive force, weight for weight and 
 iaken. volume for volume it possesses twehe times more energy"' From' 
 the extreme danger of the work, none but competent chemists ahould 
 attempt to manufacture it. 
 
 E^ffects of heat on various bodies: 
 
 Fine Gold melts 
 
 . 2690° 
 
 '• Silver " 
 
 . 1260 
 
 Copper melts 
 
 .2648 
 
 Wrought Iron melts . . . 
 
 .3980 
 
 Cast " " . . 
 
 . 3479 
 
 Bright red " in the dark 
 fied hot " in twilight . 
 
 . 752 
 
 . 884 
 
 Glass melts . . 
 
 . 2377 
 
 Common fire . . . 
 
 . 790 
 
 Brass melts . . . 
 
 . 1900 
 
 Air furnace .... 
 
 . 3300 
 
 Antimony melts . . 
 
 961 
 
 Bismuth " 
 
 476 
 
 Cadmium 
 
 . 600 
 
 Steel 
 
 . 2500 
 
 Lead 
 
 . 604 
 
 Tin 
 
 421 
 
 Heat, cherry red . ... 1500° 
 
 " bright " 1860 
 
 " red visible by day . . . 1077 
 
 " white 2900 
 
 Mercury boils ... . 002 
 
 " volatilizes 680 
 
 Platinum mells , . , 308O 
 
 Zinc melts 740 
 
 Highest natural temperature 
 
 (Egypt) 117 
 
 Greatest natural cold (below 
 
 zero) 56 
 
 '- artificial *' " . 106 
 
 Heat of human blood ... 98 
 Snow and Salt, equal parts . . 
 
 Ice melts 32 
 
 Water in vacuo boils .... 98 
 Furnace under steam boiU r . 1100 
 
 Shrinkage of Castings. 
 
 Ditto, in length . . i/g in 16 ins. 
 Brass, thm . . . . = '4 in 9 " 
 Brass, thick ... % in 10 " 
 
 Zinc =B-16tHs in a foot. 
 
 Lead = 5-16ths " " 
 
 Copper = 3-16ihs " " 
 
 Bismuth ... . = 5-32nds " " 
 
 Iron, small oylind'8=l-16th in. per ft 
 " Pipes . . . .=14 " " ft. 
 " Girders, beams, 
 
 etc =J^in. inlfi ins. 
 
 *' Large cylind- 
 ers, the contrac- 
 tion of diameter 
 at top =l-16th per foot. 
 
 Ditto at bottom . . =l-12th per foot. 
 
 Green sand iron castings are 6 per cent, stronger than dry, and 30 per 
 cent, stronger than chilled, but when the castings are chilled and an. 
 nealed, a gain of 115 per cent, is attained over those made in green sand 
 Chilling the under side of cast iron very materially increases its strength' 
 
 Alloys and tiieik Melting Heats. 
 
 No. 1 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 16 
 17 
 
 Fluxes. 
 
 1 Tin 25 Lead 258 Fahr. A. Borax. 
 
 1 " 10 " - 641 " B. Sal-am. or mur. of amm. 
 
 1 " 6 " , 611 " C. Muriate or chor. of zinc. 
 
 1 " 3 " 482 " D. Common resin. 
 
 1 *' 2 " 441 " E. Venice turpentine. 
 
 1 " 1 " 370 -' F. Tallow. 
 
 1^ " 1 " 334 " G. Gallipoli oil, or common sweet oil. 
 
 2 " 1 " 340 " 
 
 3 *' 1 " 350 " Modes op Applying Heat. 
 
 4 " 1 " 365 " a. Naked Are. 
 
 5 " 1 " 378 " b. Hollow furnace or muflJe. 
 1 " 381 " c. Immersion in melted solder. 
 
 4 Lead 4 Tin 1 Bismuth 320 Fahr. 
 
 310 
 
 20-2 
 254 
 236 
 
 Melted solder or metal 
 
 poured on. 
 e. Heated iron, not tin'd, 
 /. Heated Coppertool,tinued. 
 g. Blow Pipe flame. 
 h. Flame alone, generally 
 
 alcohol. 
 i. Stream of heated air. 
 
 -WEIGHTS AND MEASCRES OP COAI,. 
 
 In the United States, by the tariff act of 1872, coal is com- 
 puted at 28 bushels per ton of 2340 pounds, 80 pounds to the 
 bushel. In Pennsylvania 2000 pounds is a ton. In most of 
 the States coal is sold at 2000 pounds to the ton. 
 
 In Great Britain a ton is 2240 pounds. 
 
 In France 1000 kilogrammes make a ton of 2204.86 pounds. 
 
 In Belgium the French ton is the standard. 
 
 In Austria 18.14 centners of 123J pounds make a ton. 
 
 In Spain 14.45 quintals of 155 pounds make a ton. 
 
 In Russia 62.22 hords of 36 pounds make a ton. 
 
 The following gives the number of cubic feet in a loose i,on 
 of coal of the districts named : 
 
 DITUMIN0TJ9. 
 
 Cumberland, maximum 
 
 " maximum . . 
 
 Dufl'ruyn, (Welsh) 
 
 Cannel, Lancashire 
 
 Blossburgh, Pennsylvania . . 
 
 Hartley, Newcastle 
 
 Pictou, Nova Scotia 
 
 Pittsburg, Pennsylvani;i 
 Sydney, Cape Breton . . 
 Clover Hill, Virginia 
 Cannelton, Indiana . 
 
 Scotch . 
 
 Richmond, Virginia, (Midlothiauj 
 
 A^T1IRACITE. 
 
 Poach Mountain ... 
 Forest Improvement 
 Beaver Meadow, No. 6 
 
 Lackawanna 
 
 Lehigh Company'.** 
 
 Beaver Meadow, No. 3 
 
 COKE. 
 
 Natural of Virginia 
 
 Pittsburg .... 
 Charcoal 
 
 Ciibtc feet. 
 
 42.3 
 
 . . 41,2 
 
 . 42.99 
 
 4n.47 
 . 42.2 
 
 44. 
 
 45. 
 . 47 08 
 
 47 02 
 
 40.02 
 
 47. 
 
 4').08 
 
 41.04 
 
 41,06 
 41.07 
 39.08 
 ■15.08 
 40 05 
 40.07 
 
 . 48.03 
 70.09 
 . 104. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 763 
 
 Volume of gas obtained from a ton of the following well- 
 known coals, etc. : 
 
 Cubic feet. 
 
 Boghead Cannel 13,334: 
 
 Wigaa Cannel . , lo.4'26 
 
 Cannel .... . 15,000 
 
 Cape Breton . . . 9,500 
 
 English mean . . 11,000 
 
 Newcastle ... . 10,000 
 
 Kilkenny . 12,500 
 
 Oil of Grease .... 23,000 
 
 Pictou and Sydney . . 8,000 
 
 Pine Wood .... 11,800 
 
 Pittsburgh Coal . . . 9,620 
 
 Alloys. — The substances produced by the intimate inter- 
 mixture of metals are sometimes of the nature of distinct chem- 
 ical compounds, their formation being accompanied by con- 
 siderable heat-development and their composition being 
 expressible by definite formulae. In most cases, however, they 
 partake more of the nature of simple mixtures, or of homo- 
 geneous solutions converted into the solid state without the 
 separation of particles, diifering from one another in physical 
 and chemical nature, of sufficient magnitude to be discernible 
 by a microscope. Nevertheless the formation of these bodies 
 in almost every instance is fairly included in the term " chem- 
 ical action," according to the usual definition that " chemical 
 action takes place when the properties of the resultant sub- 
 stances are different from those of the original bodies ;" for, 
 save in comparatively few instances, the physical and often 
 the chemical properties of an alloy are different from the 
 arithmetical average of those of its components. Thus, 
 according to Matthiessen, all metals excepting zinc, lead, 
 tin, and cadmium, yield alloj^s, the physical properties of 
 which are not in the proportions calculable from those of 
 the constituents. The physical properties of specificgravity, 
 specific heat, and expansibility are never greatly different in 
 alloys (no matter what the constituents) from those calcu- 
 lable from the constitution ; but the properties of fusibility, 
 crystalline form, conductivity for heat, electricity, and sound, 
 elasticity, tenacity, &c., are invariably considerably different 
 from those calculable from the composition (save only alloys 
 containing no constituents other than zinc, tin, lead, or cad- 
 mium). The following tables give a general idea of the 
 average composition of many of the more important alloys 
 in common use for various purposes. 
 
 (III.) Copper^ Nickel, Zinc AUoji^, itc. 
 
 German 
 
 Silver 
 
 (]/eltowiahy 
 
 Copper . . . 
 Zinc . . 
 Nickel . , 
 Iron . . , 
 Lead . . . 
 Aluminium 
 
 
 ■.} 
 
 Coinage AUoyB. 
 
 SrMcrs. 
 
 
 Standard Gold. 
 
 Standard Silver. 
 
 Bronze. 
 
 For 
 Onld 
 
 For 
 
 
 English . 
 
 French. 
 
 English. 
 
 French. 
 
 
 Gold . . 
 
 Silvt-r 
 Copper . 
 Tin , . . 
 Zino . . 
 
 91-067 
 8 333 
 
 90 
 10 
 
 (92-5 
 i 7-5 
 
 00 
 10 
 
 96 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 60 
 26 
 15 
 
 67 
 2i 
 
 11 
 
 
 100-000 
 
 100 
 
 100-0 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 too 
 
 100 
 
 Copper Alloys. 
 
 (I.) Brass and Allied Alloys. 
 
 Copper 
 Zine 
 Lead . 
 Tin . 
 Iron . 
 
 TomhaJc. 
 
 80—96 
 6—20 
 
 Casting 
 Brass. 
 
 66—72 
 35—28 
 
 Dutch 
 
 Metal 
 
 {or- 
 
 molu.) 
 
 70—86 
 16—25 
 0-3 
 0—3 
 
 Brass 
 for 
 lath".- 
 work. 
 
 Is 
 
 60—70 
 
 28—38 
 
 2 
 
 II 
 
 AicVs 
 Gun- 
 metal 
 and 
 Gedge^s 
 ■metal 
 
 60—62 
 36—38 
 
 50—60 
 25-30 
 16—20 
 
 Qiinese 
 Pak/ong. 
 
 40 
 25 
 32 
 3 
 
 While Nic- 
 kel Silver. 
 
 60 
 25 
 2.-J 
 
 German 
 
 Silver for 
 
 Otsting. 
 
 49 
 24 
 24 
 
 Aluminium 
 Broiuie. 
 
 Lead and Tin AJUoy, 
 
 Lead . 
 Tin . . , 
 Antimony 
 Bismuth 
 Copper 
 Arsenic . . 
 
 (II.) Bronzes and Allied Alloys. 
 
 Copper . 
 Tin . . . 
 Antimony 
 Arsenic 
 Lead . 
 Zinc . . 
 
 Gun- 
 metal. 
 
 86—92 
 8—16 
 
 BeU- 
 metal. 
 
 65-80 
 20—35 
 0—2 
 
 Speculum 
 metal. 
 
 Antique 
 'Bronzes. 
 
 60 
 30 
 
 70—96 
 8—16 
 
 0—1 
 0—15 
 
 Medal 
 Broruie. 
 
 •93 
 
 7 
 
 Casting 
 Bronze. 
 
 82—83 
 1—3 
 
 trace — 3 
 17—18 
 
 •P 
 
 88— fl2 
 8—12 
 
 76-85 
 0—5 
 12—26 
 
 In many instances the precise combination of metals 
 employed for any particular purpose is regarded as a valua- 
 ble trade secret by the manufacturer, so that the product 
 preferred by one is not necessarily identical with that used 
 by another. Thus, the character of the alloys pewter, Brit- 
 annia metal, and the like, vary with the manufacturer, and 
 the purpose for which the alloy is intended, &c. ; the pewter 
 for tankards, (hard pewter) and that employed for covering 
 over public-house bars, &c. (counter metal,) are generally 
 prepared by adding to the tin which forms the basis different 
 amounts of other metals (lead, antimony, bismuth) constitu- 
 ting what is termed "temper." Similarly very different 
 " tempers" are employed to add to tin to form " Britannia 
 metal," " Queen's metal," &c., by different manufacturers; 
 whilst the exact composition of bell-metal is subject to con- 
 siderable variations according to the size of the beil, &c. 
 
 In the practical manufacture of alloys, as a general rule, 
 the materials are melted, (either separately or together), well 
 incorporated, and then cast into ingots or such other form as 
 may be required ; some few alloys, however, are prepared in 
 other ways ; for example, brass may be obtained by heating 
 copper-plates with a mixture of calamine and small coal, 
 which gives off zinc in the form of vapor; this zinc is 
 absorbed by the copper and retained by it much as a sheet 
 of gold heated over mercury absorbs the mercurial vapor 
 and becomes whitened in consequence. Certain alloys are 
 obtained directly from complex ores, e.g., spiegdeisen. The 
 standard alloys used for coinage are prepared by incorpora- 
 ting together the right quantities of the ingredients and cast- 
 ing into bars which are rolled into ribbons of the requisite 
 thickness for the kind of coin required, the degree of thick- 
 ness being judged by punching out discs or " blanks" and 
 weighing them. When the sheet has been rolled to the 
 requisite extent blanks are punched out by machinery, and 
 are then (after undergoing softening, annealing, and other 
 processes) stamped in the coining press, and passed through 
 a machine which weighs and sorts the coins into those of the 
 just weight (or rather which fall within a slight difference 
 from the true weight, termed the "remedy"), those which 
 are too light and those which are too heavy. These incor- 
 rect pieces are melted up again and the metal employed a 
 second time. Great care must be taken in the selection of 
 the copper used for alloying with the gold or silver, and also 
 purity of the precious metal employed is essential, as minute 
 quantities of foreign metals in the coinage-alloy impair its 
 softness, and either prevent it from rolling or taking the 
 impression from the dies, or render it brittle. 
 
 The verification of the correctness of the mixture of metals 
 employed [assaying) is a most important part of minting 
 operations. In the case of gold coins the process employed 
 depends on the circumstances that whilst neither gold nor 
 silver will oxidize in hot air, other metals, especially in 
 presence of a certain quantity of lead, will do so, so that a 
 separation of precious and common metals may be thus 
 effected with due precautions ; also that from an alloy of 
 gold and silver containing not less than two or three parts 
 
764 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of silver to one of gold hot nitric acid will dissolve out the 
 silver, leaving behind the whole of the gold ( Quartation). 
 The metal to be assayed is accurately weighed, pure silver to 
 the extent of two or three times its weight added, and the 
 whole rolled up in a piece of pure sheet lead weighing from 
 six to ten times the amount of gold present (the quantity of 
 lead varying with the amount of foreign alloy). The whole 
 is then heated in a " cupel" (made of bone-aah compressed 
 in a mould) placed in a " muffle," by a furnace. The fused 
 mass oxidises on the surface, the lead, whilst oxidising, 
 causing copper and other base metals present to oxidise too; 
 the fused oxides are absorbed by the porous cupel and finally 
 a button of pure gold and silver is left. This is rolled out 
 into a ribbon, annealed, twisted up into a " cornet" and acted 
 on by hot nitric acid, whereby the silver is dissolved out and 
 the pure gold left. After annealing, the residual gold cornet 
 is weighed, and thus the weight of gold present known. If 
 silver be also present, another portion is cupelled with lead 
 without the addition of pure silver ; the diflFerence between 
 the weight of the button thus obtained and the pure gold 
 previously found representing the silver present. Silver 
 alloys may be similarly cupelled with lead ; or may be dis- 
 solved in nitric acid, and the silver estimated by precipitation 
 with a soluble chloride, the silver chloride thrown down 
 being collected and weighed, or else the bulk of a chloride 
 solution of known strength required to completely precipitate 
 the silver being noted. 
 
 Certain of the metals and alloys commonly used for house- 
 hold and other purposes, give rise, by their corrosion, to 
 poisonous substances ; and in consequence the contact of 
 articles made of such materials with alimentary products not 
 unfrequently gives rise to illness, and sometimes produces 
 fatal results. Lead, copper, and zinc are the metals most 
 injurious in this respect, especially the first. When most 
 kinds of drinking-water are allowed to stand in leaden pipes 
 or cisterns a certain amount of the noxious metal is taken 
 into solution, or becomes suspended in the water; wherefore, 
 whenever water is drawn from a housepipe for drinking pur- 
 poses the portion which first runs out should be rejected as 
 being liable to contain lead from the pipe ; whilst no water 
 from lead cisterns should ever be used for culinary or potable 
 purposes. Tinned meats, fruits, and the like, are apt to con- 
 tain lead from the presence of that metal in the impure tin 
 used in making the tinplate canisters, or from that in the 
 soldering junctions. Beer, &c., that has stood in the tubes 
 of a beer-engine all night is*apt to contain lead, and cases 
 of lead-poisoning are on record from the continued use of 
 the ale first drawn in the morning. Similarly soda-water, 
 and aerated waters generally, as well as artificially prepared 
 sparkling wines, (more commonly met with than is supposed), 
 are apt to contain lead from the aerating apparatus, whilst 
 pickles, &c., sometimes contain it from the pewter capsule 
 of the bottles in which they are sold. Brass and copper 
 stew-pans occasionally become verdigrised, whilst preserved 
 peas, pickles, and the like, are often purposely treated with 
 copper compounds to improve the color. For the same 
 reason many cooks habitually boil greens for the table with 
 a rusty pennypiece or brass or copper bolt, etc. Acid or 
 saccharine liquids sometimes act on galvanized iron vessels, 
 taking up zinc therefrom. In order to diminish some of 
 these risks, tubes are now manufactured for water supply, 
 beer-engines, and the like, in which the outside portion of 
 the pipe is composed of lead, but the internal lining is of 
 pure block tin, so that liquids passing through such pipes 
 cannot take up lead unless the tin lining be first eaten 
 through, which is unlikely in most cases, from the less ten- 
 dency to oxidise and rust exhibited by tin. Even tin, how- 
 ever, is not always free from objection on the score of cor- 
 rosion under certain circumstances, and consequent impreg- 
 nation of food with deleterious metallic compounds; the 
 author has recently met with instances of this action in the 
 case of preserved fruits, etc., put up in ordinary tinned can- 
 isters ; an unpleasant metallic taste was noticeable, and on 
 analysis considerable amounts of tin were detected in solu- 
 tion in the juice, besides iron from (lie underlaying metal 
 of the tinplate; in one case, violent colic and diarrhoea last- 
 ing for several hours, was produced in the persons partaking 
 of the preserved fruits; this corrosive action on tin has 
 only been noticed as yet in the case of very acid fruits, 
 etc., such as apples and rhubarb. 
 
 CODIPOSITION OF BRONZE FOR MACHINERY. 
 
 Below will be found the composition of alloys approved of 
 and used by prominent French mechanics in government 
 and railway work. 
 
 FRENCH MARINE. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Tough bronze for rods, valves, etc., 
 
 Very tough br(>nze for eccentric straps, etc . . 
 
 Bronze for plummer blocks . 
 
 Hard bronze 
 
 R8 
 90 
 86 
 84 
 82 
 78 
 4 
 
 82 
 84 
 82 
 88 
 
 12 
 10 
 14 
 16 
 18 
 22 
 96 
 
 18 
 16 
 18 
 12 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 Very hard bronze for steam brass-cocks . . . 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 Anti-friction bronze, with 8 pans antimony . . . 
 
 FRENCH RAILROADS. 
 
 Car pillows 
 
 Locomotive and tender oil boxes . ... 
 
 " slide valves . . 
 
 Cocks ... 
 
 The bronze composed of eighty-six copper, fourteen tin, 
 and two zinc, is least porous, and therefore is most suitable 
 when pressure is to be resisted. 
 
 — Compiled fTCrm " Mitals and their Chief Industrial Application), ty O. B, A. 
 
 Wright, D. Se." 
 
 VALUE OF BARS. 
 
 Large bullion scales, and troy weights, are not always at 
 hand ; yet it is often desirable to know the value of a bar 
 before sending it from the works, and as good counter scales, 
 with avoirdupois weights, are generally accessible, the fol- 
 lowing facts may be found useful. 
 
 The assay value of one avoirdupois pound of pure silver is 
 $18.85 ; that of one avoirdupois ounce is $1.17. The pound 
 of pure gold is worth $301.44, and the ounce $18.84. Hence 
 it is easy to calculate the value of a bar of which the fineness 
 is known, and which has been weighed on common counter 
 scales to the nearest quarter ounce. For example, a silver 
 bar is .969 fine, and weighs 82 lbs. 3} ounces. 
 
 Then ; 
 and 
 
 $18.86 X .969 = $18.26 X 82 = $1,497.32 
 1.17 X .969 = 1.13 X 35i = 3.67 
 
 Making the value of the bar . . . . $1,600.99 
 
 Each 1-lOOOth of silver in a bar is worth 1.885 cents, and 
 each 1-lOOOth of gold 30.14 cents per avoirdupois pound ; 
 therefore, if in the above example the bar contained also a 
 little gold, say .003, and perfect accuracy is not required, it 
 would be sufficient to add to the value 3 times 30.14 cents 
 for each pound weight, or in all $74.14. Again, a gold bar 
 is .969 fine and weighs 7 lbs. 13J ounces, or 125J ounces; 
 then 18.84X .969 =18.26x 125J=$2,291.63. Or, the value of 
 a gold bar may be calculated as though it were silver, and 
 the result multiplied by 16. 
 
 The commercial or market value is diflferent from the 
 assay value. The discount on silver varies from 10 per cent, 
 to 15 per cent, of the assay value, to which is added J of 1 
 per cent, for mintage, or assayer's fee. Gold bars free from 
 base metal are subject to a discount or a premium, equal to 
 1.10 of one per cent, for every 10 "points," or thousandths, 
 above or below the quoted par fineness ; discount if above, 
 premium if below. The apparent anomaly is due to the fact 
 that, if there is no base metal in the bar, all that is not gold 
 is silver^ whence, at par fineness, there is just enough of 
 silver in the bar to pay parting charges, etc., while in a finer 
 bar those charges must be met by a discount on the value of 
 the gold. Conversely, a bar which is below par fineness 
 commands a premium for the extra silver it contains. On 
 account of this arrangement, bars which are more than half 
 gold are stamped with ths gold value only, unless they con- 
 tain much base metal, when both gold and silver value is 
 stamped on them. These facts we take from Aaron's 
 " Leaching of Gold and Silver Ores," for sale by Dewey & Co. 
 
 Mixed bars, in which the gold forms a large part of the 
 value, but less than half the weight, are called " dore" bars, 
 and are stamped with the value of both the gold and the 
 silver. 
 
 ATMOSPHERIC AIR. 
 
 The volume of carbonic acid gas given off daily by human 
 respiration averages 4.08 per cent, of the air respired. 
 
 In twenty-four hours a man gives off 10.7 cubic feet of 
 carbonic acid gas, and receives from the atmosphere the same 
 volume of oxygen. 
 
 An ordinary sized candle consumes as much oxygen, 
 during combustion, as the respiration of a man. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 765 
 
 The volume of pure air required for the respiration, of a 
 man in twenty-four hours is 266 cubic feet. 
 
 A miner's lamp will not burn in an atmosphere containing 
 3 per cent, of carbonic acid.gas. The miner himself will live 
 for several hours after his lamp becomes extinguished. 
 
 One cubic foot of air at the surface of the earth, with the 
 barometer at 30 degrees and the thermometer at 34 degrees, 
 weighs 527.04 grains, and is 829.43 times lighter than water. 
 
 The mean weight of a column of air a foot square, at the 
 level of the sea, is 2120.14 pounds, and is equal to the support 
 of 33.95 feet of water. 
 
 Thirteen thousand eight hundred and seventeen feet of air 
 weigh a pound avoirdupois. 
 
 Air contains 21 parts of oxygen and 79 parts of nitrogen 
 by_ volume, and in 1000 parts there are 4.9 parts of carbonic 
 acid gas. 
 
 The rate of expansion of air and all elastic fluids for all 
 temperatures is unifoim. From 32 degrees to 212 degrees 
 they expand from 1000 to 1376, equal to f^-g for each degree 
 of their bulk for every degree of heat applied. 
 
 CARBONIC ACID QAS. 
 
 The difference in constitution and temperament of indi- 
 viduals makes it impossible that any exact rule should be 
 laid down as to the precise quantity of carbonic acid which 
 may be present in the air without injury to respiration, but 
 it may be safely asserted that it is not advisable to breathe 
 for any' length of time in air containing more than (xTfer) 
 one-tenth of one per cent, of its volume of carbonic acid. 
 
 There appears to be no immediate danger, however, until 
 the carbonic acid amounts to one-two-hundredths, or five- 
 tenths of one per cent., when most persons are attacked by 
 languor and headache, attending the action of this gas A 
 larger proportion of carbonic produces insensibility, and air 
 containing one-hundredth of its volume of carbonic causes 
 suffocation. 
 
 •WATER. 
 
 Water contains 88.9 parts of oxygen and 11.1 parts of 
 hydrogen, by weight, and 1 part of oxygen and 2 parts of 
 hydrogen, by measure. 
 
 One cubic inch of distilled water at its maximum density 
 of 39.83 degrees, and the barometer at 30 inches weighs 
 252.6839 grains. A cubic foot weighs 62.37925 pounds 
 avoirdupois. For facility of computation a cubic foot of 
 water is taken at 62 J pounds. The standard gallon of water, 
 contains 231 cubic inches and weighs 8.3388822 pounds 
 avoirdupois. The British imperial gallon measures 277.274 
 cubic inches and weighs 10 pounds. 
 
 35.84 cubic feet of water weigh a ton. 
 
 39.13 cubic feet of ice weigh a ton. 
 
 34.83 cubic feet of sea water weigh a ton. 
 
 C09IBUSTI0N OF COAL.. 
 
 The constituents of coal are carbon, hydrogen, azote and 
 oxygen. 
 
 The volatile products of the combustion of coal are hydro- 
 gen and carbon, the union of which relating to combustion 
 in a furnace are carbureted hydrogen and bi-carbureted 
 hydrogen or olefiant gas, which upon combining with atmos- 
 pheric air becomes carbonic acid or carbonic oxide, steam 
 and uncombined nitrogen. 
 
 Carbonic oxide is the result of imperfect combustion, and 
 carbonic acid of perfect combustion. The perfect combustion 
 of carbon evolves heat as 15 to 4.55 compared with the 
 imperfect of it, as when carbonic oxide is produced 1 pound 
 of carbon combines with 2.66 pounds of oxygen, and pro- 
 duces 3.66 pounds of carbonic acid. 
 
 Weight of a cubic foot of Coal after It has iKem mined and 
 broken up. 
 
 Anthracite, (Peach Mountain) 63.79 pounda. 
 
 Semi-bituminouij, (Frostburgh) . 
 
 " " (Blossburgh) . 
 
 Bituminous, (Newcastln) .... 
 
 " (Piotou) 
 
 " (Pittsburgh) . . 
 Cannel, (Wigan) 
 
 .63 
 .53 
 
 . 50.82 
 .49.25 
 . 46.81 
 . 48.03 
 
 The average weight of a cubic foot of solid coal is 83 
 pounds. It contains 1728 cubic inches. One cubic yard of 
 solid coal (27 cubic feet) weighs 2240 pounds— 1 ton— and 
 contains 46656 cubic inches. 
 
 A bushel of loose coal, of 80 pounds, contains 2688 cubic 
 inches A bushel of 75 pounds contains 2520 cubic inches. 
 
 METRICAL, ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 It may interest our readers to know that the following 
 abbreviations for metrical units have recently been decreed 
 by the Spanish Government for Spain and its colonies : 
 
 Kilometer . 
 Meter ... 
 Decimeter . . . 
 Centimeter . . 
 Millimeter .... 
 1-1000 millimeter . 
 Square kilometer 
 Hectare 
 
 Are 
 
 Square meter . . 
 Square decimeter . . 
 Square centimeter . 
 Square millimeter . 
 
 fStere .... 
 
 ( Cubic meter 
 
 RECKONINO QUANTITY OF COALi IN PliAfE. 
 
 A summary -way of reckoning the quantity of available 
 coal in a given area of a seam is to take an acre of coal one 
 inch thick to contain 100 tons ; this leaves a sufficient mar- 
 gin for faults and loss in working. 
 
 Example : A seam of coal 24 inches thick wUl yield 2,400 
 tons per acre. But to ascertain the exact quantity of coal 
 under a given area — presuming the seam to be lying of 
 regular thickness and quality throughout — the first thing 
 necessary is to obtain the specific gravity; then, as this 
 represents the weight of a cubic foot in ounces, it is a simple 
 matter of calculation to obtain the gross weight. 
 
 The exact weight of coal seams can be got from the table 
 below : 
 
 km. 
 
 Cubic decimeter 
 
 .dm«. 
 
 ra. 
 
 Cubic centimeter 
 
 . cm8. 
 
 dm. 
 
 Cubic millimeter . 
 
 . mm8 
 
 cm. 
 
 Hectoliter . 
 
 .hi. 
 
 mm 
 
 Decaliter . . 
 
 . . . dal. 
 
 m. 
 
 Liter 
 
 .1. 
 
 km!. 
 
 Deciliter .... 
 
 .dl. 
 
 ha. 
 
 Centiliter 
 
 .cl. 
 
 a. 
 
 Ton 
 
 . t. 
 
 m' 
 
 Metrical ewt . . 
 
 . . . q. 
 
 dm2. 
 
 Kilogram . . 
 
 .2g. 
 
 cm". 
 
 Gram 
 
 :fg. 
 
 mmS. 
 
 Deci.?ram 
 
 S. 
 
 Centigram 
 
 . - .eg. 
 
 m». 
 
 jMilligram . . . 
 
 . . . mg. 
 
 Speafie 
 
 Weight in On natural 
 
 bed, per acre, pe inch 
 
 thick, in tone. 
 
 Weight of a cubic foot in the broken 
 state, in Ibe. 
 
 gravitt/. 
 
 Large coat. 
 
 Small coal. 
 
 1.10 
 
 111.411 
 
 43.62 
 
 ■ 3712 
 
 1.15 
 
 116.475 
 
 44.56 
 
 38.81 
 
 1.20 
 
 121.S40 
 
 46.60 
 
 40.60 
 
 1.25 
 
 126.604 
 
 48.43 
 
 42.18 
 
 1.30 
 
 131.668 
 
 60.37 
 
 43.87 
 
 1.35 
 
 136.732 
 
 52J1 
 
 46.66 
 
 1.40 
 
 142.796 
 
 64.25 
 
 47.25 
 
 1.45 
 
 140.860 
 
 66.18 
 
 48.93 
 
 1.50 
 
 161.925 
 
 5S.12 
 
 60.62 
 
 If the figures in the second column be multiplied by the 
 number of inches any coal seam is in thickness, the result 
 will be the contents in tons per acre. 
 
 The weight of coal in its broken state, that is, as it comes 
 to the surlace in tubs or otherwise, will depend on its me- 
 chanical structure ; it has here been computed to weigh in 
 proportion to the solid coal as 62 is to 100, and the weight 
 of the small as 54 is to 100. 
 
 RirL.ES FOR THE PREPARATION OF AI.I1OYS OP A 
 GIVEN FINENESS. 
 
 Manufacturers of silverware may obtain an alloy of silver 
 of any desired fineness in melting fine silver with silver of 
 an inferior quality by observing the following rules :i 
 
 Obtain the difference between the two higher finenesses 
 and divide by the difference between the two lower ; the 
 quotient indicates the number of ounces of the silver to be 
 raised in fineness, which are required to be added to one 
 ounce of fine silver. 
 
 Example. — Required to raise a quantity of silver of the 
 fineness lA t:%% to -^i^ by the mixture with it of fine silver 
 at ® Vtt. 
 
 Difference between the two higher finenesses T§4ir- Differ- 
 ence between two lower finenesses y^fj. 99-i-33=3. From 
 this it appears that one ounce of fine silver at iVw will raise 
 the fineness of three ounces of silver at ^^, so that the 
 compound will consist of four ounces at 1%%%. 
 
 MODE OF VALUATION. 
 
 According to law, the standard gold of the United States 
 consists in 1000 parts by weight, of 900 of pure gold and 
 100 of an alloy composed of copper and silver. 
 
 ' This and the following rules are extracted by special permission 
 from the " Bullion dealers' Guide," by George W. Edelman, which 
 contains many valuable tables usenil to dealers .in the precious 
 metals. 
 
766 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Three hundred and eighty-seven ounces of pure gold are 
 worth $8,000, and 99 ounces of pure silver are worth $128. 
 These relations furnish the following proportions, from 
 which are readily derived the subjoined rules : 
 
 For GoU.—ks, 1000:-%7, or as 99,000 : 128 :: the given 
 weight multiplied by its particular fineness in thousandths : 
 the value of said weight. 
 
 For Silver.-— As. 1000 :-W> or as 387 : 8 : : the given weight 
 multiplied by its particular fineness in thousandths : the 
 value of said weight. 
 
 EULES. 
 
 To find the value in the United States money of any num- 
 ber of troy ounces of gold or silver, the weight and fineness 
 being given : 
 
 For Gold. — ^Multiply the given weight by the fineness and 
 by 8, and divide the product by 387. 
 
 For Silver. — Multiply the given weight by the fineness 
 and by 128, and divide the product by 99,000. 
 
 SHORT METHODS OP CAIiCUIjATIOIf. 
 
 Fob Gold. — 1. To Convert Weight into Fafee.— Multiply 
 the weight by double the fineness, add to the product ^V 
 thereof, plus jj^ of the yV the answer will be in cents. 
 
 Example. — What is the value of 1,258 ounces at 774 
 thousandths? 
 
 1268 X 1548 = 19473.81 
 3I5 649.128 
 tJ, 6.032 
 
 820,128.00 
 
 By this rule the value of one ounce of gold, of any fine- 
 ness, may be readily determined. 
 
 Example. — What is the value of 1 ounce at 658J thou- 
 sandths ? 
 
 668K X 2 = 1317. 
 A 439 
 Ti5 -34 
 
 Ansuier : 
 
 813.6124 
 
 The division by 129 being somewhat difficult, it will be 
 found sufficiently accurate, in most cases, to divide by 130. 
 
 2. To Convert Value into Standard Weight. — Divide the 
 value in dollars by 20, this quotient by 20, and the second 
 quotient by 2, add the three quotients together ; the answer 
 will be in standard ounces. 
 
 Example. — What is the weight in standard ounces of 
 $154,686 56? 
 
 20) 151686.66 
 
 20) 7734.328 
 2 ) 386.7164 
 
 193.3582 
 
 Answer : 
 
 8314.4026 ounces. 
 
 FOK Silver. — 1. To Convert Weight into Dollar Value. — 
 Add to the weight in standard ounces tV thereof, plus the 
 ifj of the ^T ; the answer will be in dollars. 
 
 Example. — What is the value of 1268.30 standard ounces ? 
 
 Answer: 
 
 1268.30 
 
 A 116.30 
 
 A of A 92-24 
 
 1476.84 
 
 2. To Convert Dollar Value into Standard Ounces.— &\\h- 
 tract from the value J thereof, plus i of this quotient ; the 
 answer will be in 'standard ounces. 
 
 Example.— Wh^i is the weight of $1475 84? 
 
 $1475.84 
 
 184.48 
 23 06 
 
 207.64 
 
 Answer; 1208.30 standard ounces. 
 
 MTNKRS' INCHES FOR. VARIOUS HORSE POWERS. 
 
 Since the measure of a large quantity of water is most ap- 
 parent to the mind from a consideration of the size of the 
 opening which is required for its passage at a certain fixed 
 velocity, the miners' inch forms a good standard of measure- 
 ment. Four miners' inches will permit the passage of suffi- 
 cient water in one minute to give an effect, with a fall of 100 
 feet, of one-horse power, at a percentage of 80. The scale has 
 
 been constructed upon this standard by the " Union Iron 
 Works" of San Francisco. (See next page.) 
 
 The diagonal lines in the left-hand section represent heads 
 of water from 4 feet to 500 feet. The column at the bottom 
 shows the number of miners' inches to one-horse power for 
 the various heads. To find how many inches are required 
 for one-horse power at any head, the horizontal line occur- 
 ring at the intersection of the line on the right with the 
 margin, is followed to the diagonal marked 500 HP. The 
 perpendicular line at this intersection is followed to the 
 column of miners' inches, where the amount is indicated. 
 Thus, with ten feet head, the horizontal line at the intersec- 
 tion with the margin is followed to the line marked 500 HP. 
 Here a vertical line intersects, which, on being followed to 
 the column of miners' inches, indicates 40 inches to one- 
 horae power. 
 
 The remaining portion of the scale is simply a scale of 
 multiplication. The diagonals represent horse powers fl-om 
 10 to 500. The perpendicular lines represent miners' inches 
 to one-horse power, and are numbered from one up to ten. 
 By following the line of inches to the line of the horse power, 
 and then taking the horizontal line to the margin at the 
 right, the number of miners' inches for the horse power are 
 found indicated in the margin. Thus, four inches followed 
 to 300-horse power, and then carried to the margin at the 
 right, indicate 1,200 inches. The result may also be found 
 by one operation. Suppose that there is required the num- 
 ber of miners' inches necessary to 200-hor&e power at a head 
 of six feet. The horizontal line followed from the intersec- 
 tion of the six-feet line on the left margin, to the line 500 
 HP., gives the vertical line of 64 ; this line carried to the 
 line of 200 HP., gives the horizontal line of 1,280 ; but, since 
 the line of 64 has 10 times the value at the end from_ which 
 we have worked that it has at the other end, the horizontal 
 line will in this case have a value 10 times as great as the 
 margin indicates. This will make the result 12,800 inches 
 for 200-horse power at six feet head. 
 
 — Mining aud Scientific Press 
 A MINER'S INCH OP -VirATER. 
 
 There is no legal or other authoritative determination of 
 the quantity of water meant by a miner's inch; neither is 
 there any uniform method of ascertaining it ; and even if 
 there were, unless the method employed makes allowances for 
 the influences of latitude, altitude, and temperature, the result 
 could not be exact. The following are some of the various 
 determinations of a miner's inch, which have fallen under 
 our observation. The gallons mentioned are Winchester gal- 
 lons, and the pounds avoirdupois. In the California State 
 legislature of 1866-'67, a bill was introduced which defined 
 a miner's inch to be 2^ cubic feet, or 7x^1^^ gallons, or 
 145x5%' pounds of water per minute. (Mineral Resources 
 1868, p. 184.) If 2.3333 cubic feet=7.4054 gallons, then 
 1 cubic foot=3,17374 gallons : and if 7.4054 gallons=145.86 
 pounds, then 1 gallon=19.6964 pounds. It also follows that 
 1 cubic foot=62.51125 pounds. The equivalents of 1 cubic 
 foot assumed in this bill are, therefore, as follows : One 
 cubic foot=3.17374 gallons=62.51125 pounds. These 
 equivalents are wrong. One gallon=231 cubic inches. 
 (Kelley's Cambist. II, 235.) Therefore, 1.728 cubic inches, 
 or 1 cubic foot=7.48052 gallons. One gallon of water 
 weighs 8.3388 pounds ; therefore, 7.48052 gallons or 1 
 cubic foot, weighs 62.37856 pounds. The true equivalents 
 of 1 cubic foot are, therefore, as follows : One cubic foot= 
 7.48052 gallons=62.37856 pounds. The assumed and the 
 true equivalents are nearly alike with respect to the rela- 
 tion between cubic feet and pounds ; but they difler very 
 widely with respect to the relations between gallons and 
 feet and gallons and pounds. In reducing the terms men- 
 tioned in this bill to the number of gallons which would be 
 supplied by a miner's inch in twenty-four hours, it becomes 
 necessary to choose between the feet, gallons, and pounds 
 which it erroneously assumes to be equivalents. Taking 
 the feet as the basis of calculation, a miner's inch, according 
 to this bill, would supply 25,134.48 gallons in twenty- 
 four hours. 
 
 1 This quantity of water— 145.86 pounds per minute, herein erro- 
 neously assumed to be e(^ual to 7.4054 gallons per minute— is the 
 fietermiuatiou of a machinist's inch, not a miner's inch. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 767 
 
 2. The above bill was referred to a committee on mines, 
 which reported a substitute defining a miner's inch as that 
 quantity of water which would pass through an orifice 
 one inch square, through plank one inch thick with a pres- 
 sure of seven inches, measured from the centre of the ori- 
 fice to the surface of the water ; provided the water has no 
 other motion than that caused by its flow through such 
 orifice. This determination of the miner's inch is unspe- 
 cific. Both the original bill and substitute were indefinitely 
 postponed. (Mineral Resources, 1868, p. 184.) 
 
 3. At Smartsville, California, a miner's inch is calculated 
 to discharge 2.534.4 cubic feet in twenty-four hours, or 1.76 
 cubic feet per minute. (Pacific Rural Press, Nov. 17 1877 ) 
 Hence, 2,534.4X7.48052=18,958.53 gallons in twenty-four 
 hours. 
 
 At the Parke Canal (Eureka ditch), Placerville, Califor- 
 
 formula' employed at the mines mentioned. (Ibid.) Hence 
 2,627.136X7.48062=16,959.36 gallons in twenty-four hours. 
 
 7. Mr. Culver, of San Francisco, says that a miner's inch 
 is the quantity of water that will flow through a 1-inch 
 aperture in a 2-inch plank, the water having a 6-inch 
 head. This quantity, he says is 17,032 gallons in twenty- 
 four hours. 
 
 8. Mr. James A. Gibson^ an attorney of San Bernardino, 
 California, who has made some researches, says, on the sub- 
 ject, that a miner's inch is that quantity of water that wDI 
 flow through an aperture with a free discharge and constant 
 pressure of 6 inches above the top of the opening. This 
 determination is uuspecific. He then goes on to say that 
 an aperture 12iX15f will discharge 200 inches of water. 
 This is erroneous, for 12JX15i=196,875, and not 200. 
 Finally, he says that a miner's inch will discharge 2,250 
 cubic feet, or 17,000 gallons, or 130,500 pounds of water in 
 
 MINERS INCHES TO VARIOUS HOBSG P0WEE8. 
 
 HEADS IN FEET. 
 
 nia, a miner's inch is reckoned at 1.39 cubic feet per min- 
 ute. (Ibid.) Hence, 1,329X7-48052X1,140=] 4,972.68 gal- 
 lons in twenty-four hours. 
 
 5r At the South Yuba Canal, Nevada City, California, a 
 miner's inch is that quantity of water which will pass 
 through a 2-inch hole in a li inch plank with 6 inches 
 pressure. [Ibid.) This is unspecific. 
 
 6. The miner's inch used at the North Bloomfield, Milton, 
 and La Grange placer mines, California, was practically 
 measured at Columbia, a place whose altitude above the 
 sea was assumed at 2,900 feet. The aperture employed 
 measured 20 by 2 inches, and was made through a 3-inch 
 plank. The last or outer inch of the aperture was cham- 
 fered at the bottom, so as to form a sort of lip, out of which 
 the water flowed. The pressure was that of 7 inches of water, 
 measuring from the center of the discharge. The result was, 
 in effect, that 1 inch actually discharged 1.5744 cubic feet per 
 minute, or 2,267.135 cubic feet per day of twenty-four hours, 
 and that this result bore a ratio of 61.6 per cent, to the theo- 
 retic dischargeof a miner's inch, assumed in the arithmetical 
 
 twenty-four hours. These equivalents are not precise. For 
 2,250X7,48052=16,831.17, and not 17,000. And 2,250X 
 62.37856=140,361.76, and not 13P,500. And 8.3388X17,000 
 =141,759.6, and not 130,500. And 16,831.17X8.3388= 
 140,351.76, and not 130,500. But the nuinber of gallons 
 flowing in twenty-four hours is specifically stated, and this 
 is the determination which is now being sought. 
 
 9. According to "Mineral Resources, 1871, page 447," a 
 miner's inch equals 17,033.46 gallons in twenty-four hours. 
 Neither of these determinations can be regarded as entirely 
 satisfactory. No. 1 is evidently a theoretical calculation; 
 Nos. 3 and 4 are not sufficiently specific ; No. 6 is objection- 
 able on account of the aperture employed having been 
 chamfered ; Nos. 7 and 8 are not sufficiently specific ; No. 
 9 is believed to be correct for the altitude where it was 
 taken ; but this is not positively specified, the determination 
 must be regarded as defective in this respect. Perhaps the 
 most practical, because the nearest even figure is 17,000 
 gallons in twenty-four hours, and, in the absence of any 
 legal determination, this may be regarded as the correct 
 equivalent of a miner's inch of water. 
 
 From the Mining Record. 
 
768 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Mean Relative Evaporating Power of different Fuels and 
 Total Heat of Combustion. 
 
 Fuel. 
 
 Water Evaporated 
 from 212°. 
 
 Evaporated 
 Power. 
 
 Total heat in 
 Thermal Units. 
 
 Anthracite coal. .... 
 
 Bituminous coal 
 
 Bituminous coal, caking. . . 
 Bituminous coal, canned. . . . 
 
 Coke, natural 
 
 Coke, artifleial 
 
 Pine wood, . .... 
 
 Peat 
 
 Patent fuel, Warlilch'switrnmum 
 Patent fuel, Beirs minimum . . 
 
 Lbs. 
 9.5 
 8.75 
 
 9, 
 8.5 
 i.3b 
 6.5 
 10.36 
 8.63 
 
 1. 
 
 .92 
 
 ,95 
 .89 
 .46 
 ..■58 
 1.09 
 .89 
 
 15 225 
 
 14 700 
 
 15 837 
 15 080 
 13 620 
 12 760 
 
 7 215 
 9 650 
 
 Relative Values of different Fuels. 
 
 
 
 
 a t^iH 
 
 . ^-'H 1 i 
 
 ■S a 
 
 « m 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 hi 
 
 l^l 
 
 ■a 
 
 3 i 
 
 S Is 
 
 ll 
 
 t 
 
 1 
 
 Description of Coal, etc. 
 
 Pounds of 
 raised from 
 at 212" Fah 
 lb. of Fuel. 
 
 Belative E 
 
 .rative Pow 
 
 equal Weig 
 
 Coal. 
 
 Belative Ev 
 
 tive Powe 
 
 equal Bui 
 
 Coal. 
 
 
 1'^ 
 
 CD 
 
 ■I- 
 1 
 
 Anlhracitea. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Peach Mountain, Pa. . 
 
 10.7 
 
 1. 
 
 1. 
 
 605 
 
 .633 
 
 .725 
 
 .945 
 
 Beaver Meadow, No. 5 . 
 
 9.88 
 
 .923 
 
 .982 
 
 .207 
 
 .748 
 
 .6 
 
 1. 
 
 Bituminous. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Newcastle 
 
 8.66 
 
 .809 
 
 .776 
 
 .595 
 
 .887 
 
 .346 
 
 .904 
 
 Pictou (Cunard's) . 
 
 8.48 
 
 .792 
 
 .738 
 
 .588 
 
 .418 
 
 1. 
 
 ' .876 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 7.S4 
 
 .733 
 
 .663 
 
 .581 
 
 1. 
 
 .333 
 
 .862 
 
 Cannelton, Ind . . 
 
 7.34 
 
 .686 
 
 .61') 
 
 1. 
 
 .984 
 
 .578 
 
 .848 
 
 Scotch 
 
 6.95 
 
 .649 
 
 .625 
 
 .521 
 
 .499 
 
 .649 
 
 .969 
 
 Pinewood, dry 
 
 4.69 
 
 436 
 
 .175 
 
 
 16.417 
 
 
 
 Destructive Distillation of various Coals. 
 
 Coal. 
 
 6 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 a 
 < 
 
 .2 
 1^ 
 
 1" 
 
 u 
 
 ■§■§1 
 
 ll 
 
 Anthracite 
 
 92.9 
 
 
 2.87 
 
 .2 
 
 .06 
 
 .04 
 
 
 3.93 
 
 Oldcaatle Fiery Vein. . . 
 
 79.8 
 
 6.86 
 
 3.39 
 
 .35 
 
 .44 
 
 .12 
 
 .27 
 
 9.77 
 
 llinea Coal . . 
 
 88.1 
 
 2.08 
 
 3,68 
 
 .08 
 
 1.68 
 
 .09 
 
 .31 
 
 4.0S 
 
 Llangennach 
 
 83.69 
 
 1.22 
 
 4.07 
 
 .08 
 
 3.21 
 
 .02 
 
 .43 
 
 7.28 
 
 MlsceUaneons. 
 
 One pound of anthracite coai in a cupola furnace will melt from 5 to 10 lbs. of 
 cast iron; 8 bushels of bituminous coal in an air furnace will melt 1 ton of cast 
 iron. 
 
 Small coal produces about ^ the effect of large coal of the same description. 
 
 Experiments bj Messrs. Stevens at Bordentown, N. J., gave the following re- 
 sults: 
 
 Under a pressure of 30 Ibs.^ 1 lb. pine wood evaporated 3.5 to 4.75 lbs. water, 1 
 lb. Lehigh coal, 7.25 to 8.75 lbs. 
 
 Bituminous coal is 13 per cent, more effective than coke for eq".al weights ; 
 and in England the effects are alike for equal costs. 
 
 Radiation from Fuel. — The proportion which the heat radiated from incandes- 
 cent fuel bears to the total heat of combustion is, 
 
 From Wood 29 | From Charcoal and Peat 5 
 
 The leas t consumption of coal yet attained is 134 lbs. per indicated horse-power. 
 It usually varies in different engines from 2 to 8 lbs. 
 
 The bulk of pine wood is about 5^ times as great as its equivalent bulk of bi- 
 tuminous coal. 
 
 CAIi£3NDAR, 18S3-3. 
 
 1882, 
 
 JULY 
 AUG.. 
 SEPT. 
 
 OCT.., 
 NOV... 
 DEC, 
 
 s 
 
 O 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 d 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 "i 
 
 'S 
 
 "i 
 
 1 
 
 ■« 
 
 "V 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 » 
 
 to 
 
 tt 
 
 12 
 
 t» 
 
 t4 
 
 IB 
 
 1H 
 
 t7 
 
 ts 
 
 to 
 
 20 
 
 2t 
 
 22 
 
 •iX 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 2(1 
 
 27 
 
 2S 
 
 20 
 
 SO 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 B 
 
 V 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 tt 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 t4 
 
 t.") 
 
 lit 
 
 t7 
 
 ts 
 
 19 
 
 2<l 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 2S 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 2« 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 1 
 
 "i 
 
 H 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 H 
 
 7 
 
 s 
 
 9 
 
 to 
 
 It 
 
 t2 
 
 \X 
 
 t4 
 
 15 
 
 to 
 
 17 
 
 ts 
 
 to 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 2« 
 
 27 
 
 2S 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 « 
 
 7 
 
 X 
 
 » 
 
 to 
 
 tt 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 t» 
 
 t7 
 
 ts 
 
 to 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 n 
 
 2S 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 2S 
 
 '»« 
 
 «« 
 
 »t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 « 
 
 7 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 11 
 
 Vi 
 
 i;{ 
 
 t4 
 
 t5 
 
 t» 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 \v 
 
 20 
 
 2t 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 "l 
 
 "2 
 
 S 
 
 4 
 
 B 
 
 « 
 
 7 
 
 K 
 
 9 
 
 to 
 
 t1 
 
 12 
 
 tit 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 1(1 
 
 17 
 
 tN 
 
 to 
 
 20 
 
 2t 
 
 22 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 2« 
 
 27 
 
 2S 
 
 29,30 
 
 »t 
 
 
 
 
 
 ....!.... 
 
 1888. 
 
 JAN.. 
 FEB.. 
 MAE. 
 
 APR.. 
 
 MAY. 
 JUNE, 
 
 ^ 
 
 30 
 
 « 
 12 13 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 769 
 
 PART IX. 
 
 THE ROMANCE OF MINING— MINE ACCIDENTS— MINE SUPER- 
 STITIONS—THE MINING REGIONS—THE 
 PRACTICAL PART OF MINING. 
 
 OLORADO and the mining States to 
 many an Eastern man who obtains his 
 impression from nowhere particular- 
 ly, are not much more than a suc- 
 cession of huge, deserted brickyards. 
 The very name of the State conjures 
 up forsaken mining camps, ragged 
 ravines, and barren mountains, rocks, 
 plains and precipices that go to 
 make up a very uninviting view, 
 and yet if you question him as to the source of his 
 impressions he can give none. But ignorance of the west is 
 very common in. the East where much more is known con- 
 cerning the summits of the Alps, the shady sides of the 
 Pyrenees, the fjiords of Norway than the glorious and 
 surprisingly wonderful scenery of the Western States. 
 Partly for this reason we have inserted in various places in 
 this volume illustrations of Western scenery, of which the 
 frontispiece is an admirable example, and open Part IX 
 of the Mines, Miners, and Mining Interests of the 
 United States, with a number of illustrations of a mag- 
 nificent region. In this Part we have also brought together 
 something of the more picturesque, less prosaic side of the 
 mining industry, something about the superstitions, the 
 weird ideas, the bravery, the kaleidoscopic life of the min- 
 ing classes. To this much of a scientific nature has been 
 added, and some papers that have not found a place in 
 this volume until now. A series of articles upon, the 
 practical side of mining are included. They were pre- 
 pared for this volume by Mr. Alfred Balch, of New York. 
 Some of the articles in this Part are rendered more valuable 
 by a free use of the engraver's art, the illustrations aiding 
 materially the force of the text. 
 
 THE PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF THE GRAND 
 CANYON DISTRICT. 
 
 THE Grand Canyon District is a part of the Plateau 
 Province, and to this province as a whole 
 we may now devote our attention. As already 
 indicated, it lies between the Park and Basin 
 Provinces, and its topography differs in the extreme 
 from those found on either side of it. It is the land 
 of tables and terraces, of buttes and mesas, of cliffs and 
 canyons. Standing upon any elevated spot where the radius 
 of vision reaches out fifty or a hundred miles, the observer 
 beholds a strange spectacle. The most conspicuous objects 
 49 
 
 are the lofcy and brilliantly colored cliffs. They stretch 
 their tortuous courses across the land in all directions, yet 
 not without system ; here throwing out a great promono- 
 tory, there receding in a deep bay, and continuing on and 
 on until they sink below the horizon or swing behind some 
 loftier mass or fade out in the distant haze. Each cliff 
 marks the boundary of a geographical terrace and marks 
 also the termination of some geological series of strata, the 
 edges of which are exposed like courses of masonry in the 
 scrap-walls of the palisades. In the distance may be seen 
 the spectacle of cliff rising above and beyond cliff, like a 
 colossal stairway leading from the torrid plains below to 
 the domain of the clouds above. Very wonderful at times 
 is the sculpture of these majestic walls. There is an archi- 
 tectural style about it which must be seen to be appreciated. 
 The resemblances to architecture are not fanciful or meta- 
 phorical, but are real and vivid ; so much so that the unac- 
 customed tourist often feels a vague skepticism whether 
 these are truly the works of the blind forces of nature or 
 of some intelligence akin to the human, but far mightier; 
 and even the experienced explorer is sometimes brought to 
 a sudden halt and filled with amazement by the apparition 
 of forms as definite and eloquent as those of art. Each geo- 
 logical formation exhibits in its cliffs a distinct style of arch- 
 itecture which is not reproduced among the cliffs of other 
 formations, and these several styles differ as much as those 
 which are cultivated by different races of men. The char- 
 acter which appeals most strongly to the eye is the coloring. 
 The gentle tinte of an eastern landscape, the pale blue of 
 distant mountains, the green of vernal or summer vegetation, 
 the subdued colors of hillside and meadow, are wholly 
 wanting here, and in their place we behold belts of brilliant 
 red, yellow, and white, which are intensified rather than al- 
 leviated by alternating belts of gray. Like the architecture, 
 the colors are characteristic of the geological formations, 
 each series having its own group and range of colors. They 
 culminate in intensity in the Permian and Lower Trias, 
 where dark, brownish red alternate with bands of chocolate- 
 purple, and lavender, so deep, rich, and resplendent that a 
 painter would need to be a bold man to venture to portray 
 them as they are. 
 
 The Plateau country is also the land of canyons, in the 
 strictest meaning of the term. Gorges, ravines, canyads are 
 found and are more or less impressive in every high region ; 
 and in the vernacular of the West all such features are 
 termed canyons, indiscriminately. But those long, narrow, 
 profound trenches in the rocks, with inaccessible walls, to 
 which the early Spaniards gave the name oi cajon or canyon, 
 are seldom found outside the plateaus. There they are in- 
 numerable and the almost universal form of drainage chan- 
 nels. Large areas of the Plateau country are so minutely 
 dissected by them that they are almostinaccessible, and some 
 limited though considerable tracts seem wholly so. Almost 
 everywhere the drainage channels are cut from 500 to 3,000 
 feet below the general platform of the immediate country. 
 They are abundantly ramified and every branch is a canyon. 
 The explorer upon the mesas above must take heed to his 
 
770 
 
 THE MINES, MINEKS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 course in such a place, for once caught in the lahyrinth of 
 interlacing side gorges, he must possess rare craft and self- 
 control to extricate himself. All these drainage channels 
 lead down to one great trunk channel cleft through the 
 heart of the Plateau Province for eight hundred miles— the 
 chasm of the Colorado, and the canyons of its principal fork, 
 the Green River. By far the greater part of these tribu- 
 taries are dry during most of the year, aud carry water only 
 at the melting of the snow and during the brief periods of 
 autumnal and vernal rains. A very few hold small, peren- 
 nial streams, coming from the highlands around the borders 
 of the province, and swelling to mad torrents in times of 
 spasmodic iioods. The region is for the most part a desert 
 of the barrenest kind. At levels below 7,000 feet the heat is 
 intense and the air is dry in the extreme. The vegetation is 
 very scanty, and even the ubiquitous sage [Artemisia triden- 
 tata) is sparse and stunted. Here and there the cedar 
 
 Western Scenery.— Side Canyon. 
 
 {Juniperus occidentalis) is seen, the hardiest of arborescent 
 plants, but it ia dwarfed and sickly and seeks the shadiest 
 nooks. At higher levels the vegetation becomes more abun- 
 dant and varied. Above 8,000 feet the plateaus are forest- 
 clad and the ground is carpeted with rank grass and an ex- 
 uberant growth of beautiful summer flowers. The summers 
 there are cool and moist ; the winters severe and attended 
 with heavy snow-fall. 
 
 The Plateau Province is naturally divided into two por- 
 tions, a northern and a southern. The dividing barrier 
 is the Uinta range. This fine mountain platform is in one 
 respect, an anomaly among the western ranges. It is the 
 only important one which trends east and west. Starting 
 from the eastern flank of the Wasatch, the Uintas project 
 
 eastward more than 150 miles, and nearly join perpendicu- 
 larly the Park ranges of Colorado. Of the two portions 
 into which the Plateau Province is thus divided, the south- 
 ern is much the larger. Both have in common the pla- 
 teau features; their topographies, climates, and physical 
 features in general, are of similar types, and their geological 
 features and history appear to be closely related. But each 
 has also its peculiarities. The northern portion is an inter- 
 esting and already celebrated field for the study of the Cre- 
 taceous strata and the Tertiary lacustrine beds. The subjects 
 which it presents to the geologist are most notably those 
 which are embraced under the department of stratigraphy 
 — the study of the succession of strata and co-related suc- 
 cession of organic life. Otherwise the region is tame, mo- 
 notonous, and unattractive. The southern portion, while 
 presenting an abundance of material for stratigraphical 
 study, and in this respect fully rivaling, and perhaps sur- 
 passing, the northern portion, also abounds in the grandest 
 and most fascinating themes for the student of physical ge- 
 ology. In respect to scenery, the northern portion is almost 
 trivial, while the southern is the sublimest on the continent. 
 With the former we shall have little to do ; it is the latter 
 which claims here our exclusive attention. The southern part 
 of the Plateau Provincemay be regarded as a vast basin every- 
 where bounded by highlands, except at the southwest, where 
 it opens wide and passes suddenly into a region having all 
 the characteristics of the Great Basin of Nevada. The 
 northern half of its eastern rim consists of the Park ranges 
 of Colorado. Its northern rim lies upon the slopes of the 
 Uintas. At the point where the Uintas join the Wasatch, 
 the boundary turns sharply to the south, and for 200 miles 
 the High Plateaus of Utah constitute the elevated western 
 margin of the Province. It is from the summits of the 
 High Plateaus that we gain our first comprehensive view of 
 those grand facts which are the principal subjects of this 
 discourse. But let me first ask the rekder to endeavor to 
 frame some conception, however crude, of three lines, each 200 
 miles long, placed in the positions of three sides of a 
 pquare ; the fourth side being, for the moment neglected. 
 Upon the eastern side conceive the Park ranges of Colorado ; 
 upon the northern, the Uintas; and upon the western side 
 the southern portion of the Wasatch and the High Plateaus 
 of Utah ; and all these highlands having altitudes ranging 
 from 9,000 to 12,000 feet above the sea, while the included 
 area varies, from 5,000 to 7,000 feet high. The space thus 
 partially bounded may represent the northern part of the 
 southern Plateau Province. Along the line required for the 
 fourth and south side of the complete square there is no 
 boundary. The topography continues on beyond it to the 
 southward, and also widens out both west and east and over- 
 spreads an additional area more than twice as great as that 
 already defined. From the eastern crests of the High Pla- 
 teaus we may obtain an instructive overlook of the northern 
 portion of the southern Plateau country. The easiest line 
 of approach is from Salt Lake City. Proceeding south from 
 that town along the western base of the Wasatch, we reach 
 the southern end of that fine range about 90 miles from 
 Salt Lake. The last mountain pile is Mount Nebo, and 
 skirting around its southern flank we soon perceive to the 
 southeastward a long and very lofty ridge 20 to 30 miles dis- 
 tant. This is the Wasatch Plateau, the northernmost mem- 
 ber of the group of Pligh Plateaus. It has nothing in com- 
 mon with the Wasatch Mountain range, being wholly dis- 
 connected from it and standing with a wide interval en 
 echelon to the southeastward of it. The Wasatch Plateau 
 presents a long straight, horizontal summit projected against 
 the sky without peaks or domes, resembling somewhat the 
 ridges of Pennsylvania and Virginia, but on a grander scale. 
 We perceive along its entire western front a rapid slope, de- 
 scending to the bottom of the San Pete Valley at its foot. It is 
 not deeplyincised with ravines and amphitheaters, nor notch- 
 ed with profound transverse gorges, as are ordinary mountain 
 ranges, but shows a slightly diversified slope in every part. 
 As wc draw nearer we begin to see the attitudes of the 
 strata composing its mass, or, as the geologists say, its 
 " structure." The strata are inclined at the same angle as 
 the slope of its flank. In the valley below, the beds are 
 horizontal ; as they approach the base of the plateau they 
 flex upward and ascend the slope ; as they reach the sum- 
 mit they flex back to horizontality. If we ascend the plateau 
 
THE MINES, MINEtlS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 771 
 
 and ride eastward a very few miles, there suddenly breaks 
 upon the view a vast and impressive panorama. From an 
 altitude of more than 11,000 feet the eye can sweep a semi- 
 circle with a radius of more than 70 miles and reach far out 
 into the heart of the Plateau country. We stand upon strata 
 of Lower Tertiary age, and beneath our feet is a precipice 
 leaping down across the level edges of the beds upon a ter- 
 race 1,200 feet below. The cliff on which we stand stretches 
 far northward into the hazy distance, gradually swinging 
 eastward and then southward through a course of more 
 than a hundred miles, and vanishing below the horizon. It 
 describes, as we well know, a rude, semicircle, around a cen- 
 ter about 40 miles east of our standpoint. At the foot of 
 this cliff is a terrace of greatly varying width, rarely les.-i 
 than 5 miles, consisting of Upper Cretaceous beds nearly 
 but not quite horizontal. They incline upwards towards the 
 east at angles rarely so great as 3°, and are soon cut off by a 
 second cliff plunging down 1,800 feet upon Middle Creta- 
 ceous beds. This second cliff describes a semicircle like the 
 first, but smaller and concentric with it. From its foot the 
 strata still rise gently towards the east, through a distance of 
 about 10 miles, and are cut off as before by a third series of 
 cliffs concentric with the first and second. For the fourth 
 and fifth time this process is repeated. In the center of these 
 girdling walls is an elliptical area about 40 miles long and 12 
 to 20 miles broad, completely surrounded by mural escarp- 
 ments more than a thousand feet high. This central spot is 
 called the San Rafael Swell, and it is full of interest and 
 suggestion to the geologist. From its central point the 
 strata dip away in all directions, the inclinations, however, 
 
 being always very small. 
 
 ********* * 
 
 Throughout the great Carboniferous age the entire area of 
 the Plateau Province was submerged beneath the ocean. 
 Deposition of strata went on continuously. The thickness 
 of the strata accumulated in that age appears to have varied 
 greatly, and the deposits were laid down unconformably 
 over the surface of a country which had been ravaged by a 
 great erosion. Such exposures of the Carboniferous as now 
 exist, however, exhibit for the most part a remarkable even- 
 ness of stratification. In the interior spaces of the province 
 the beds are either horizontal, or if disturbed, give full 
 evidence that the disturbances took place long after their 
 deposition. The close of this age evidently left a subaqueous 
 surface, which was exceedingly flat, and, except around the 
 borders of the province, quite free, so far as we now know, 
 from any appreciable inequalities. The thickness of the 
 Carboniferous system is from 4,500 to 5,000 feet in the in- 
 terior of the province, but around its borders, and in the 
 Uinta Mountains, it is sometimes found in far greater vol- 
 ume. Its strata consist of impure limestones, occasionally 
 of enormous thickness in the individual beds, and alternat- 
 ing with fine-grained hoinogeneous sandstones. Extensive 
 beds of gypsum also occur. After the Carboniferous came 
 the Permian age, in which were laid down fropi 800 to 1,500 
 feet of sandy shales. The stratification was wonderfully 
 even and everywhere horizontal. The Permian beds are 
 often ripple-marked and betray many evidences that they 
 accumulated in shallow waters. Among these evidences are 
 the appearance at several horizons of indications that for a 
 time the sea-bottom was laid bare by the recession of the 
 waters or by the elevation of the platform itself; for we may 
 discern evidences of slight erosion at the contacts of the 
 beds. But the horizontality of the beds appears never to 
 have been notably disturbed. The same state of affairs con- 
 tinued through the Trias. There, too, we find evidence ot 
 alternations of emergence and submergence in the shape ol 
 slight unconformities by erosion, and in the occurrenceot 
 extensive remains of silicified forests. The Triassic series 
 is composed almost wholly of sandstones the only calcareous 
 matter being thin seams of gypsum. The sandstone beds 
 are very numerous and often shaly. They are usually of no 
 great thickness individually, but there is one very nota,ble 
 member of which we shall see more when we come to view 
 the Vermilion Cliffs. . Jo,fi,i 
 
 Directly upon the Trias rests the Jurassic. A wonderful 
 bed of sand-stone 800 to 1,200 feet thick, and very white 
 and sugary in color represents the principal part of this 
 series It is a very notable formation because of its re- 
 markable homogeneity, the persistent way in which it 
 
 preserves its lithological characters through great distances, 
 and the absence of divisional planes of stratification — the 
 mass being solid from top to bottom. But most striking 
 of all its wonderiul cross-bedding, fer surpassing in beauty, 
 extent, and systematic character, any similar phenomenon 
 elsewhere with which I am acquainted. The summit of 
 the Jurassic suddenly changes to calcareous and sandy 
 shales, .abounding in fossils. This series, as well as the 
 Trias, appears to have been laid down horizontally in 
 shallow waters. Next comes the Cretaceous system — a 
 mass of yellow sandstones with clayey and marly shales, 
 aggregating from 4,000 to 5,000 feet thick. In this serica 
 we find abundance of plant remains, many beds of good coal, 
 
 Westeen Scenery. — Maeble Canyon.— Colobado Eivee. 
 
 and much carbonaceous shale. The conditions during the 
 Cretaceous appear to have been quite similar to those 
 which prevailed in the Appalachian region during the Car- 
 boniferous. Perhaps the conditions which attended and 
 rendered possible the accumulation of coal are not suffi- 
 ciently well understood to enable us to say confidently just 
 what they were, but there seems to be a general agreement 
 that they have involved a flat, low, moist country lying almost 
 exactly at mean sea-level, and subject to alternate emergence 
 and submergence. No other supposition seems to meet the 
 requirements of the case, or to be capable of explaining how 
 a mass of strata could be so accumulated, consisting" of alter- 
 nations of thin seams of coal and carbonaceous shale with 
 layers of sand-stone containing marine fossils. We have now 
 the following remarkable state of affairs. From the close 
 of the Carboniferous to the close of the Cretaceous there is 
 strong evidence that the surface of deposition was always 
 very near to sea-level, sometimes a few feet above it, but for 
 the most part a little below it. And yet in the interval 
 
772 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 about 9,000 feet of strata accumulated with remarkable uni- 
 formity over the entire provinc'e, and always in a horizontal 
 position. From this it necessarily follows that the mass of 
 material thus deposited sank or " subsided " at a rate which, 
 in the long run, was exactly or sensibly equal to the rate of 
 deposition. At the close of the Cretaceous we find evidence 
 that the long calm which had characterized the action of the 
 physical processes was invaded. Some extensive disturb- 
 ances took place, resulting at some places in the dislocation 
 and flexing of the strata, and the elevation of some portions 
 of the region to considerable altitudes. Erosion at once 
 attacked the uplifted portions, and around the borders of 
 the province we find numerous localities, usually not very 
 extensive, which were greatly devastated. At some of these 
 places the entire local Cretaceous series was denuded, and 
 even a portion of the Jurassic and across the beveled edges 
 of the flexed Cretaceous strata. But even these localities 
 were again submerged, as the presence of the Tertiary fully 
 attests. These disturbances were not general — did not ex- 
 tend to the entire province, but appear to have occurred 
 around, or a little within, its marginal portions. The last 
 period of deposition was marked by the accumulation of the 
 Eocene beds, which form such a striking feature in the strat- 
 igraphy of the peripheral parts of the Plateau country. 
 Around the southern flanks of the Uintas their aggregate 
 thickness exceeds 5,000 feet, but southward the upper mem- 
 bers disappear, and 80 miles north of the Grand Canyon only; 
 about 1,000 to 1,200 feet, repr^enting the lowest portion of 
 the series, make their appearance. It is highly probable 
 that the middle and upper portions of the Eocene were 
 never deposited there. But the lowest beds, most probably, 
 once covered the entire province, while the middle and late 
 Eocene were confined to its more northerly portions. The 
 lowest members were deposited in brackish water, as their 
 fossils amply attest ; but in the succeeding beds the fossil 
 forms are entirely those which live in fresh water.; From 
 that epoch to the present time there has been no recurrence 
 of marine conditions. We now reach a turning point in the 
 history of this region. That long continuance of marine 
 conditions lasting from the beginning of Carboniferous time 
 to the close of the Cretaceous came gradually to an end. 
 The waters became brackish and then fresh. During the 
 prevalence of the marine condition it seems to be a necessary 
 conclusion that the waters which covered it had abundant 
 access to the ocean. Whether its waters were wide open to 
 the ocean, like the Gulf of Mexico or Hudson's Bay, or 
 whether they formed a broad expanse, with a comparatively 
 narrow outlet, like the Mediterranean, we do not know, and 
 it would be useless to conjecture at present. At all events 
 the communication was sufficiently free to maintain a degreei 
 of saltness suitable to the existence of molluscan forms of 
 the ordinary marine types. When the waters became brack- 
 ish, we infer that the straits became greatly narrowed ; when 
 they became quite fresh, we infer that the access of the ocean, 
 to the area was wholly cut off, and that the water brought 
 by the rivers and rains merely outflowed, and the region 
 became an inland lake of vast proportions. For the deposi- 
 tion still went on. Through Eocene time from 1,000 to 
 5,000 feet of lacustrine beds, containing an abundance of 
 fresh-water fossils, were deposited. Among them are als') 
 found layers of coal and carbonaceous shales, and sandstones 
 thickly imprinted with the traces of arboreal vegetation. 
 But at length the deposition of lacustrine strata ceased ; mt, 
 however, at one and the same time in all parts of the 
 province. The evidence indicates that in the southern 
 ,and southwestern portions it stopped after about one-fourth 
 or one-third of the Eocene horizons had been laid down. In 
 the central portions it appears to have ceased after about 
 one-half to two-thirds of those horizons had been depos- 
 ited. In the northern portions, in the vicinity of the Uintas, 
 the entire system of Eocene strata is found in immense 
 volume. These facts lead us to infer that the great Eocene 
 lake, soon after its waters became quite fresh, began to 
 shrink its area, and that its bottom became through a 
 slow progression dry land. The southern and southwestern 
 portions were the first to emerge ; then the middle portions ; 
 the lake gradually retracting its boundary to the northward, 
 until in the latter part of the Eocene it occupied a greatly 
 diminished area in the vicinity of the San Rafael country 
 and the southern base of the Uinta Mountains. At the 
 
 close of the Eocene this remnant of the lake also dis- 
 appeared. 
 
 We now reach another turning jioint in the history of the 
 region. Hitherto and for an immense stretch of geological 
 time it had been an area of deposition and of subsidence. 
 It now became an area of elevation and denudation, and 
 these processes have been in operation ever since. In the 
 periods of deposition and subsidence, from the Carbonifer- 
 ous to the Eocene, both inclusive, the thickness of the strata 
 
 Westeen Sceneuy.— The Parunumcap.— Colokado Eivee. 
 
 accumulated varied from 14,000 to 20,000 feet, and the sub- 
 sidence of the base of the Carboniferous was of nearly equal 
 extent. In the periods of elevation and denudation these 
 vast masses of strata rose bodily u^ again ; the amount of 
 elevation varying according to locality from 6,000 to 18,000 
 feet. The havoc wrought by erosion has been, as already 
 shown, stupendous ; the thickness of strata removed exceed- 
 ing 10,000 feet in some considerable areas, and averaging 
 probably 5,500 to 6,000 feet over the entire province. The 
 points which it is desirable to notice here concerning the 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 773 
 
 progress of the Tertiary and Quaternary erosion of tlie pro- 
 vince, are few and of the broadest nature. In truth it is 
 necessary to speak very guardedly. For while the most 
 general features of the work have left well-marked traces 
 which can be interpreted, yet when we come to details the 
 vast erosion has swept away so much of its mass that a large 
 portion of the evidence of the details has vanished with the 
 rooks. There is reason to believe that the greater part of 
 the denudation was accomplished in Miocene time. This 
 was a period of slow but continuous uplifting, reaching a 
 great amount in the aggregate, and it w.os most probably 
 also a period of rapid erosion. The uplifting, however, was 
 unequal in the different parts of the province. The com- 
 paratively even floor of the old lake was deformed by broad 
 swells and plateaus rising above the surrounding country. 
 As we shall see hereafter, the action of the denuding agents 
 is much more vigorous and efficient upon the higher than 
 the lower parts of a region ; and consequently these up- 
 swellings at once became the objects of special attention 
 from the destroying forces and were wasted more rapidly 
 than the lower regions around them. Here were formed 
 centers or short limited axes, from which erosion proceeded 
 radially outwards, and the strata rising gently towards them 
 from all directions were beveled off. Thus were formed those 
 areas of maximum erosion, already spoken of, and of which 
 the San Rafael Swell is the most perfect and simplest type. 
 
 The Toroweap and Uinkaret. — The first stage of 
 the journey from Kanab to Pipe Spring is an easy one. ' It 
 leads southward to a gap cut through the low Permian ter- 
 race, and out into the open desert beyond. The road, well 
 travelled and easy, then turns westward, and at length 
 reaches the spring twenty miles from Kanab. Pipe Spring 
 is situated at the foot of the southernmost promontory of 
 the Vermillion Clifis, and is famous throughout Southern 
 Utah as a watering place. Its flow is copious, and its water 
 is the purest and best throughout that desolate region. Ten 
 years ago the desert spaces outspreading to the southward 
 were covered with abundant grasses, affording rich pas- 
 turage to horses and cattle. To-day hardly a blade of grass 
 is to be found within ten miles of the spring, unless upon 
 the crags and mesas of the Vermillion Cliffs, behind it. 
 The horses and cattle have disappeared, and the bones of 
 many of the latter are bleached upon the plains in front of 
 it. The cause of the failure of pasturage is twofold. 
 There is little doubt that during the last ten or twelve years 
 the climate of the surrounding country has grown more 
 arid. The occasional summer showers which kept the grass 
 alive, seldom come now, and through the long summer 
 and autumn droughts the grasses perished even to their 
 . roots before they had time to seed. All of them belong to 
 varieties which reproduce from seed, and whose roots live 
 but three or four years. Even if there had been no drought, 
 the feeding of cattle would have impoverished and perhaps 
 wholly destroyed the grass by cropping it clean before the 
 seeds were mature, as has been the case very generally 
 throughout Utah and Nevada. Northeastward, the Ver- 
 million Cliffs extend in endless perspective towards Kanab, 
 and beyond the Paria. Northwestward, with growing mag- 
 nitude, they extend towards the Virgen, ever forming a 
 mighty background to the picture. To the southward 
 stretches the desert, blank, lifeless, and as expressionless as 
 the sea. For five or six miles south of the Pine Spring pro- 
 montory there is a gentle descending slope, and thence on- 
 ward the surface feebly ascends through a distance of 
 thirty miles to the brink of the Grand Canyon. Thus the 
 range of vision is wide, for we overlook a gentle depression 
 of great extent. Though the general impression made is 
 that of a smooth or slightly modulated country, yet we com- 
 mand a far greater expanse than would be possible among 
 the prairies. To the southeastward the Kaibab looms up, 
 seemingly at no great distance, and to the southwestward 
 the flat roof of Mount Trumbull is more than a blue cloud 
 in the horizon. Towards this latter mountain we take a 
 straight course. The first few miles lie across drifting 
 sands bare of all vegetation. The air is like a fijrnace, but 
 so loqg as the water holds out the heat is not enervating, 
 and brings no lassitude^ Everything is calm and still, ex- 
 cept here and there a hot whirling blast which sends up a 
 tall, slender columu of dust diffusing itself in the air. At 
 a slow pace the sand liills at length are passed, and we enter 
 
 upon a hard, firm soil, over which we move more rapidly. 
 Just here, and for three or four miles in either direction, 
 the Permian terrace has been obliterated. It has been be- 
 velled off by erosion and buried beneath the wash brought 
 down from the foot of the Vermilion Cliffs to the north- 
 ward. But seven miles from Pipe Spring, the Permian ter- 
 race springs up out of the earth, scarped by its character- 
 istic cliff. Stretching northwestward, it increases in altitude, 
 becoming at last eight hundred to one thousand feet high. 
 At its summit is seen the Shinarump conglomerate, of a pale 
 brown color, and beneath are the gorgeous hues of the 
 shales. Nothing can surpass the dense, rich, and almost 
 cloying splendor of the red-brown seen in these shales. 
 They suggest the color of old mahogany, but are much more 
 luminous and quite uniform. Under them are belts of 
 chocolate, slate, lavender, pale Indian red, and white. Very 
 wonderful, too, is the evenness of the bedding, which is 
 brought out in great clearness and sharpness by the etching 
 of mmute layers of clays, holding selenite. Between the 
 shales and overhanging conglomerate, careful scrutiny en- 
 ables us to detect an unconformity by erosion without any 
 unconformity of dip. As stated in a preceding chapter, Mr. 
 Wolcott fixed provisionally the separating horizon between 
 the Permian and Trias at this unconformable contact. 
 
 Along the route the vegetation is scanty indeed. Several 
 forms of cactus are seen looking very diseased and mangy, 
 and remnants of low desert shrubs browsed to death by 
 cattle. Yet strangely enough there is one plant and one 
 alone that seems to flourish. It is the common sunflower 
 [Helianthua lenticularis), found anywhere from Maine to 
 Arizona, and seeming indifferent to the vicissitudes of cli- 
 mate. About 18 miles from Pipe Spring the trail leads 
 gently down into a broad shallow valley known as the Wild 
 Band Pockets. The drainage from the fronts of the Permian 
 cliffs now far to the northward here collects into a gulch, 
 which gradually deepens and becomes a tributary of Kanab 
 Canyon. In every stream-bed may be found many depres- 
 sions which would hold water even though the sources of 
 supply were cut off. This is as trueof wet-weather channels 
 as of perennial streams. After the infrequent showers, and 
 after the surface waters have ceased to run, the beds of 
 the stream will still retain pools of water, provided the 
 bottom of it is of a consistency which will prevent it from 
 filtering away. To these pools the people of the west have 
 given the name of " water-pockets." They are very common 
 in the stream-beds which bear away the wash from the 
 Permian and lower Triassic shales. These shales yield 
 a very fine impervious clay, which forms an excellent 
 " puddling " for water holes and basins. The Wild Band 
 Pockets have received their name from the fact that they 
 are the resort of bands of wild horses that roam over these 
 deserts, far from human haunts, ranging from spring to 
 spring, which they visit by stealth only at night, and never 
 so long as they can find chance water in these and other 
 pockets. Beyond the Wild Band Valley there is a slight 
 ascent to a rocky platform, consisting of the summit beds of 
 the Carboniferous. In the course of 20 miles we have 
 crossed the fntire Permian series, which now lies to the 
 north of us. A few stunted cedars, most of which are dead 
 or dying of drought, are scattered over this platform and give 
 us until nightfall some slight shelter from the sun. It is as 
 good a camping place as we are likely to find, and if we are 
 fortunate enough to reach it after a copious shower, the 
 hollows and basins in the flat rocks may contain a scanty 
 supply of clear rain-water. It is a good locality, also from 
 which we may overlook the outspreading desert, which is not 
 without charms, however repulsive in most respects. 
 
 To the northward rises the low escarpment of the Permian, 
 forming a color picture which is somewhat indistinct through 
 distance, but weird because of its strange colors and still 
 stranger forms. Beyond and in the far distance rise the 
 towering fronts of the Vermillion Cliffs, ablaze with red 
 light from the sinking sun. To the eastward they stretch 
 into illimitable distance, growing paler but more refined in 
 color until the last visible promontory seems to merge its 
 purple into the azure of the evening sky. Across the whole 
 eastern quarter of the horizon stretches the long level sum- 
 mit of the Kaibab as straight and unbroken as the rim of 
 the ocean. To the southwestward rises the basaltic plateau 
 ' ^"" now presenting itself with somewhat 
 
 of Mount Trumbull, 
 
774 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 imposing proportions. Around it a great multitude of 
 basaltic cinder cones toss up their ominous black waves al- 
 most as high as Trumbull itself. Their tumultuous profiles 
 and gloomy shades form a strong contrast with the rectili- 
 near outlines and vivid colors of the region roundabout. 
 At dawn we move onward, reaching soon the summit of a 
 hill which descends two or three hundred feet to a broad flat 
 depression called the Wonsits Plain. It is a smooth and 
 very barren expanse, dotted with a few moldering buttes of 
 Upper Carboniferous rocks, now wasting to their founda- 
 tions. The plain is about seven miles in width, and on the 
 further side rises a low mesa of great extent capped with 
 basalt. It is the Minkaret. Beyond the nearer throng of 
 basaltic cones Mount Trumbull rises with a striking aspect 
 dominating strongly the entire western landscape. The 
 smaller cones are now seen to be very numerous, all of them 
 are apparently perfect in form, as if time had wrought no 
 great ravage among them. The lapilli and peperino with 
 which they are covered, have become dull red by the oxida- 
 tion of the iron, and this peculiar color is easily recognized 
 though the cones are far away. Just before reaching the 
 basaltic mesa we must make our choice between two routes 
 to the Toroweap, one direct, and the other very circuitous. 
 No spring is to be found until we reach the further side of 
 Mount Trumbull, but we know of a large water-pocket on this 
 side, which has never been known to dry up. The spring 
 water is sure to be good, but the water in the pocket will 
 depend for its quality upon the length of time which has 
 passed since the last heavy rain. Let us here choose the 
 shorter one, and go to the water-pocket. 
 
 Ascending the mesa which rises abruptly about 200 feet 
 above the Wonsits Plain, we find ourselves at once upon the 
 basalt. The ground is paved with cinders and fragments 
 half buried in soil, the debris of decaying lava sheets. These 
 sheets are rarely of any great thickness, seldom exceeding 
 30 or 40 feet, and often much less, and none of the in- 
 dividual eruptions of lava seem to have covered any yery 
 great expanse. Probably the area covered by the largest 
 would be less than a square mile. They show no perceptible 
 differences in composition or texture, and all are basalts of 
 the most typical variety — very black and ferruginous in the 
 unwithered specimens and speckled with abundant olivine. 
 At the time of eruption they appear to have been in a state 
 of perfect liquidity; spreading out very thin and flowing 
 rapidly and with ease. In none of them has erosion wrought 
 much havoc, though here and there some local destruction 
 has been effected, most conspicuously upon the edges of the 
 principal mesa where the sheets have been undermined and 
 their fragments scattered upon the plain below. The cones, 
 which stand thick around us, are still in good preservation. 
 They are of ordinary composition — mere piles of cinders 
 thrown out of central vents and dropping around it. The 
 fume and froth of the lava surfaces, the spongy inflated 
 blocks, the lapilli and peperino, are not greatly changed, 
 though all of them here show the oxidation of the iron. We 
 wonder what their age may be ; what time has elapsed since 
 they vomited fire and steam. But there is no clew — no 
 natural record by which such events can be calendared. 
 Historically they have doubtless stood in perfect repose for 
 very many centuries. Not a trace of activity of any kind is 
 visible, and they are as perfectly quiescent as the dead vol- 
 canoes of the Auvergne or of Scotland. Geologically, they 
 are extremely recent; yet even here where historic antiquity 
 merges into geologic recency the one gives us no measure of 
 the other. Following a course which winds among the 
 silent cone^ and over rough, flat surfaces of lava beds half 
 buried in drifting sands, we at length reach the border of a 
 slight depression, into which we descend. It is hardly note- 
 worthy as a valley just here, and might be confounded with 
 any one of the innumerable shallow-water courses which 
 occur round about; only when we look beyond we see it 
 growing broader and much deeper. It is the head of the 
 Toroweap. Upon its smooth bottom is a soft clayey soil, in 
 which desert shrubs and stunted sage-brush grow in some 
 abundance. Here and there a cedar, dwarfed indeed, but 
 yet alive, displays a welcome green, and upon the valley 
 slopes are a few sprays of grass. The valley bottom descends 
 at a noticeable rate to the southward, and as we put the 
 miles behind us we find the banks on either side rising in 
 height, becoming steeper, and at last displaying rocky ledges. 
 
 In the course of six or seven miles the left side has become 
 a wall 700 feet high, while the other side, somewhat lower, 
 is much broken and craggy. Huge piles of basalt lie upon 
 the mesa beyond, sheet upon sheet, culminating in a cluster 
 of large cones. At length the course of the valley slightly 
 deflects to the left, and as we clear a shoulder of the eastern 
 wall, which has hitherto masked its continuation, a grand 
 vista breaks upon the sight. The valley stretches away to 
 the southward, ever expanding in width ; the walls on either 
 side increase in altitude, and assume profiles of wonderful 
 grace and nobility. Far in the distance they betoken a 
 majesty and grandeur quite unlike anything hitherto seen. 
 With vast proportions are combined simplicity, symmetry, 
 and grace, and an architectural efiect as precise and definite 
 as any to be found in the terraces. And yet these walls dif- 
 fer in style from the Trias and Jura as much as the Trias 
 and Jura differ from each other. In the background the 
 vista terminates at a mighty palisade, stretching directly 
 across the axis of vision. Though more than 20 miles dis- 
 tant it reveals to us suggestions of grandeur which awaken 
 feelings of awe. We know instinctively that it is a portion 
 of the wall of the Grand Canon. The western side of the 
 valley is here broken down into a long slope descending 
 from the cones clustered around the base of Mount Trum- 
 bull, and covered with broad flows of basalt. Turning out 
 of the valley we ascend the lava bed, which has a very 
 moderate slope, and about a mile from the valley we find the 
 Witches' Water Pocket. In every desert the watering places 
 are memorable, and this one is no exception. It is a weird 
 spot. Around it are the desolate Phlegraean fields, where 
 jagged masses of black lava still protrude through rusty, 
 decaying cinders. Patches of soil, thin and coarse, sustain 
 groves of cedar and pifion. Beyond and above are groups 
 of cones, looking as if they might at any day break forth in 
 renewed eruption, and over all rises the tabular mass of 
 Mount Trumbull. Upon its summit are seen the yellow 
 pines [P. ponderosa), betokening a cooler and a moister 
 clime. The pool itself might well be deemed the abode of 
 witches. A channel half-a-dozen yards deep and twice aB 
 wide, has been scoured in the basalt by spasmodic streams, 
 which run during the vernal rains. Such a stream cascading 
 into it has worn out of the solid lava a pool twenty feet long, 
 nearly as wide, and five or six feet deep. Every flood fills 
 it with water, which is good enough when recent, but hor- 
 rible when old. Here, then, we camp for the night. 
 
 Filling the kegs at daylight we descend again into the 
 Toroweap and move southward. Our attention is strongly 
 attracted by the wall upon the eastern side. Steadily it in- 
 creases its mass and proportions. Soon it becomes evident 
 that its profile is remarkably constant. We did not notice 
 this at first, for we saw in the upper valley only the summit 
 of the palisade; but as the valley cuts deeper in the earth 
 the plan and system begin to unfold. At the summit is a 
 vertical ledge, next beneath a long Mansard slope, then a 
 broad plinth, and last, and greater than all, a long, sweeping 
 curve, descending gracefully to the plain below. Just op- 
 posite to us the pediments seem half buried, or rather half 
 risen out of the valley alluvium. Butbeyond they rise higher 
 and higher until in the far distance the profile is complete. 
 In this escarpment are excavated alcoves with openings a 
 mile wide. As soon as we reach the first one new features 
 appear. The upper ledge suddenly breaks out into a wealth 
 of pinnacles and statues standing in thick ranks. They 
 must be from 100 to 250 feet high, but now the height of 
 the wall is more than a thousand feet, and they do not seem 
 colossal. Indeed, they look like a mere band of intricate 
 fretwork — a line of balustrade on the summit of a noble fa- 
 jade. Between the alcoves the projecting pediments pre- 
 sent gable-ends towards the valley plain. Yet whitherso- 
 ever the curtain wall extends the same profile greets the 
 eyes. The architect has adhered to his design as consistent- 
 ly and persistently as the builders of the Thebaid or of the 
 Acropolis. As we pass alcove after alcove, and pediment 
 after pediment, they grow loftier, wider and deeper, and 
 their decoration becomes more ornate. At length we pass 
 one which is vast indeed. It is recessed back from the main 
 front three-fourths of a mile, and shows three sides of an 
 oblong room with walla 1,800 feet in height. The fourth 
 side is obliterated and the space opens into the broad val- 
 ley. Wonderfully rich and profuse are the pinnacles and 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 775 
 
 statues along the upper friezes. The fancy is kindled as the 
 eye wanders through the enclosure. 
 
 We look across the valley, which is here three miles in 
 width, and behold the other wall, which presents an aspect 
 wholly different, but quite as interesting. The western wall 
 of the Toroweap, is here lower than the eastern, but still is 
 more than a thousand feet high. The geologist soon sur- 
 mises that along the valley bottom runs a fault which drops 
 the country on the west several hundred feet, and the con- 
 jecture soon becomes certainty. Above and beyond the 
 western escarpment is the platform of the Unikaret Pla- 
 teau. Upon its summit is a throng of large basaltic cones 
 in perfect preservation. Streams of lava larger than any 
 hitherto seen have poured from their vents, flooding many a 
 square mile of mesa land, and in the wide alcoves they have 
 reached the brink of the wall and cascaded over it. Still 
 pouring down the long taluses they have reached the valley 
 bottom below and spread out in wide fields, disappearing 
 underneath the clayey alluvium, which has buried much of 
 their lower portions. The appearance of these old lava cas- 
 
 At the foot of the eastern gable is a medley of rocky 
 ledges of red sandstone, while around the base of the west- 
 ern gable are large masses of basalt reaching more than 
 half-way across the valley. In front rises a crater, which is 
 about 600 feet high, seemingly a mere knoll in the 
 midst of this colossal scenery. Beyond it, and five miles 
 distant, rises the palisade which forms the southern upper 
 wall of the chasm, stretching athwart the line of vision in- 
 terminably in either direction. Its altitude is apparently 
 the same as that of the palisade above us, and its profile is 
 also identical. Climbing among the rocky ledges which lie 
 at the base of the escarpment, we at length obtain a stand- 
 point which enables us to gain a preliminary view of the 
 mighty avenue. To the eastward it stretches in vanishing 
 perspective forty miles or more. Between symmetric walls 
 2,000 feet high and five miles apart is a plain, which in 
 comparison with its limiting cliffs might be regarded as 
 smooth, but which in reality is diversified by rocky hum- 
 mocks and basins, and by hillocks where patches of soil 
 give life to scattered cedars and pinons. Of the inner chasm 
 
 Western Scenery. — Elfin Water Pocket.— Canyons op the Colorado. 
 
 cades, a mile or more wide, a thousand feet high, and black 
 as Erebus, is striking in the extreme. There are five of 
 these basaltic cataracts, each consisting of many individual 
 coulha. Between them the bold pediments of brightly-col- 
 ored Carboniferous strata jut out into the valley. 
 
 At length we approach the lower end of the Toroweap. 
 The scenery here becomes colossal. Its magnitude is by no 
 means its most impressive feature, but precision of the forms. 
 The dominant idea ever before the mind is the architecture 
 displayed in the profiles. It is hard to realize that this is 
 the work of the blind forces of nature. We feel like mere 
 insects crawling along the street of a city flanked with im- 
 mense temples, or as Lemuel Gulliver might have felt in re- 
 visiting the capital of Brobdignag, and finding it deserted. 
 At the foot of the valley the western wall is nearly 1,500 teet 
 hi"-h the eastern about 2,000, and th^ interval separating 
 thSm is about three miles. Suddenly they turn at right 
 andes to right and left, and become the upper wall of the 
 Grand Canyon of the Colorado. The Toroweap now opens 
 into the main passage way of the great chasm. The view 
 however, is much obstructed. 
 
 nothing as yet is to be seen. Moving outward into this plat- 
 form we find its service to be mostly bare rock, with broad 
 shallow basins etched in them, which hold water after showers. 
 There are thousands of these pools, and when the showers 
 have passed they gleam and glitter in the sun like innumer- 
 able mirrors. As we move outward towards thecentreof the. 
 grand avenue the immensity and beautiful proportions of 
 the walls develop. The vista towards the east lengthens out 
 and vanishes against the blue ramp of the Kaibab, which 
 lies as a cloud upon the horizon. To the west the view is 
 less symmetric and regular, and the eye wanders vaguely 
 among cliffs and buttes of stupendous magnitude, display- 
 ing everywhere the profile with which we have become of 
 late familiar. Much of the distance towards the west is ob- 
 structed by the crater, but the portions in view bewilder us 
 by the great number of objects presented, and oppress us by 
 their magnitudes. At a distance of about two miles from 
 the base of the northern wall we come suddenly upon the 
 inner chasm. We are not conscious of its proximity until 
 we are within a few yards of it. In less than a minute after 
 we have recognized the crest of the farther wall of this 
 
776 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 abyss we crane over its terrible brink and gaze upon the 
 •waters of the river full 3,000 feet below. 
 
 The scene before us is a type of the Grand Canyon through- 
 out those portions which extend through the Kanab, Uin- 
 karet, and Sheavwits Plateaus. The plan and section here 
 presented are quite simple. They consist of a broad upper 
 chasm from five to six miles in width with walls varying in 
 altitude but little from 2,000 feet. Between these escarp- 
 ments is a rocky plain, rough indeed, but in the overpower- 
 ing presence of such walls seeming relatively smooth and 
 uniform. In this floor is cut the inner chasm 3,000 feet 
 deep and from 3,500 to 4,000 feet wide from crest to crest. 
 The strata in which the chasm is excavated are all of Car- 
 boniferous age except three or four hundred feet at the bottom 
 of the gorge. The strata beneath the Carboniferous are at 
 present believed to be Lower Silurian, and their contact with 
 the Carboniferous is unconformable, both by dip and by ero- 
 sion. In the upper part of the palisades which form the wall 
 of the upper chasm we find at the summit two series of 
 limestones. The upper contains an abundance of siliceous 
 matter, one portion of which is intimately disseminated 
 through the mass while another portion is aggregated into 
 myriads of cherty nodules varying from two to ten inches in 
 diameter. The lower one is a purer lime stone with few 
 nodules. The cherty members form a nearly vertical band 
 at the summit of the wall ; the purer members form a Man- 
 sard slope beneath, covered with talus. The total thick- 
 ness of the limestones is about 700 to 750 feet. Beneath 
 them come sandstones a little more than 250 feet thick, 
 which form everywhere a vertical plinth or frieze. They 
 are very adamantine in texture, and one of the members, 
 about 160 feet thick, is in every exposure seen to be uni- 
 formly cross-bedded. Under the cross-bedded sandstone is 
 a mass of thinly bedded and almost shaly sandstones, hav- 
 ing an aggregate thickness very closely ajjproximating to 
 1,000 feet. They are of an intensely brilliant red color, but 
 are in greatest part, covered with a heavy talus of imperish- 
 able cherty nodules, fragments of the cross-bedded sand- 
 stones, and spalls of limestone shot down from above. The 
 color of these is pale gray, with occasionally a yellowish or 
 creamy tinge. The brilliant red sandstones form the long 
 curved slope which descends from the plinth of cross-bedded 
 sandstones to the plain below. 
 
 The walls of the inner gorge have at the summit about 
 325 feet of hard sandstone of a brown-red color. Beneath 
 the sandstone are about 1,800 feet of impure limestone in 
 layers of the most massive description. Very few such pon- 
 derous beds of limestone are found in any part of the world. 
 The color is deep red with a purplish tone, but the brilliancy 
 of the coloring is notably weakened by weathering. Still 
 lower are red-brown sandstones again having a dark and 
 strong shade and lying in very massive beds. The strata 
 forming the walls of the outer chasm from the summit to 
 the plain below are designated the Aubrey group, and this 
 is again subdivided at the base of the cross-bedded plinth 
 into Upper and Lower Aubrey groups. The two subdivi- 
 sions are believed to be the equivalents, in age, of the Coal 
 Measures of Pennsylvania and England. The strata dis- 
 closed in the inner gorge correspond in age to the Lower 
 Carboniferous of those countries, and are here termed the 
 Red Wall group. Some uncertainty exists regarding the 
 beds which lie at the base of the conformable series deep 
 down in the chasm, but they are regarded at present as 
 being just what they seem and just what they would nat- 
 urally be inferred to be — a part of the Carboniferous system. 
 Of the strata at the bottom of the canyon, we shall have more 
 to say hereafter. They are regarded at present as being of 
 Lower Silurian or Primordial age. 
 
 The observer who, unfamiliar with plateau scenery, stands 
 for the first time upon the brink of the inner gorge, is almost 
 sure to view his surroundings with commingled feelings of 
 disappointment and perplexity. The fame of the chasm of 
 the Colorado is great ; but so indefinite and meager have 
 been the descriptions of it that the imagination is left to its 
 own devices in framing a mental conception of it. And 
 such subjective pictures are of course wide of the truth. 
 When he first visits it the preconceived notion is at once 
 dissipated and the mind is slow to receive a new one. The 
 creations of his own fancy no doubt are clothed with a vague 
 grandeur and beauty, but not with the grendeur and beauty 
 
 of nature. When the reality is before him the impression 
 bears some analogy to that prod uced upon the visitor who for 
 the first time enters Sfc. Peter's Church at Rome. He expected 
 to be profoundly awe-struck by the unexampled dimensions, 
 and to feel exalted by the beauty of its proportions and de- 
 coration. He forgets that the human mind itself is of small 
 capacity and receives its impressions slowly, by labored pro- 
 cesses of comparison. So, too, at the brink of the chasm 
 there comes at first a feeling of disappointment; it does not 
 seem so grand as we expected. At length we strive to make 
 comparisons. The river is clearly defined below, but it 
 looks about large enough to turn a village grist-mill : yet 
 we know it is a stream three or four hundred feet wide. Its 
 surface looks as motionless as a lake seen from a distant 
 mountain-top. We know it is a rushing torrent. The ear 
 is strained to hear the roar of its waters, and catches it 
 faintly at intervals as the eddying breezes waft it upwards ; 
 but the sound seems exhausted by the distance. We per- 
 ceive dimly a mottling of light and shadow upon the surface 
 of the stream, and the flecks move with a barely perceptible 
 cloud-like motion. They are the fields of white foam lashed 
 up at the foot of some cataract and sailing swiftly onward. 
 
 Perhaps the fii-st notion of the reality is gained when we 
 look across the abyss to the opposite crest-line. It seems as 
 if a strong, nervous arm could hurl a stone against the op- 
 posing wall-face; but in a moment we catch a sight of 
 vegetation growing upon the very brink. There are trees in 
 scattered groves which might at first have been mistaken 
 for sage or desert furze. Here at length we have a stadium 
 or standard of comparison which serves for the mind much 
 the same purpose as a man standing at the base of one of 
 the sequoias of the Mariposa grove. And now the real 
 magnitudes begin to unfold themselves, and as the attention 
 's held firmly the mind grows restive under the increasing 
 burden. Every time the eye ranges up or down its face it 
 seems more distant and more vast. At length we recoil, 
 overburdened with the perceptions already attained and yet 
 half-vexed at the inadequacy of our faculties to comprehend 
 more. The magnitude of the chasm, however, is by no 
 means the most impressive element of its character; nor is 
 the inner gorge the most impressive of its constituent parts. 
 The thoughtful mind is far more deeply moved by the 
 splendor and grace of Nature's architecture. Forms so new 
 to the culture of civilized races and so strongly contrasted 
 with those which have been the ideals of thirty generations 
 of white men which cannot indeed be appreciated after the 
 study of a single hour or day. The first conception of them 
 may not be a pleasing one. They may seem merely ab- 
 normal, curious, and even grotesque. But he who fancies 
 that Nature has exhausted her wealth of beauty in other 
 lands strangely underestimates her versatility and power. 
 In this far-off desert are forms which surprise us by their 
 unaccustomed character. We find at first no place for them 
 in the range of our conventional notions. But as they be- 
 come familiar we find them appealing to the sesthetic sense 
 as powerfully as any scenery that ever invited the pencil of 
 Claude or of Turner. 
 
 The inner gorge, as we sit upon its brink, is indeed a 
 mighty spectacle ; but as we withdraw a little, it fades out of 
 view, and, strangely enough, the sublimity of the scene is 
 not very greatly impaired. It is, after all, a mere detail, 
 and the outer chasm is the all-engrossing feature. On either 
 side its palisades stretch away to the horizon. Their fronts 
 wander in and out, here throwing out a gable, there receding 
 into a chamber, or gaping widely to admit the entrance of a 
 lateral chasm. The profile is ever the same. It has nothing 
 in common with the formless, chaotic crags, which are only big 
 and rough, but is definite, graceful, architectural and. sys- 
 tematic. The width of the sj)ace inclosed between the upper 
 walls is one of the most essential elements of the grandeur. 
 It varies from five to six miles. If it were narrower the 
 effect would be impaired ; nor could it be much wider with- 
 out diluting and weakening the general effect. This propor- 
 tion seems quite just. It is a common notion that the 
 distinctive and overruling feature of the great chasm is its 
 narrowness relatively to its depth. No greater mistake 
 could be made. Our highest conceptions of grandeur are 
 most fully realized when we can see the greatest mass. We 
 must have amplitude in all of the three dimensions, dis- 
 tance, breadth and depth, and that spectacle is in point of 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 777 
 
 magnitude the grandest which has the three dimensions so 
 proportioned and combined as to make the most of them. 
 Another common and mistaken idea is that the chasm is 
 pervaded by a deep, solemn gloom. The truth is almost 
 the reverse. In the depths of the inner gorge there is a 
 suggestiim of gloom, but even in the narrower portions there 
 is seldom less than sixty degrees of sky from crest to crest, 
 and a hundred and sixty along the track of the river. In 
 the outer chasm the scene is unusually bright. The upper 
 half of the palisades have a pale, ashy or pearl-gray color, 
 which is very lustrous, and this sometimes gives place to a 
 creamy or Naples yellow tint in the frieze of crass-bedded 
 sandstone. The Lower Aubrey sandstones are bright red, but 
 they are in great part masked by the talus shot down from the 
 pale gray limestones above, and peep out in lustrous spots 
 where the curtain of the talus is drawn aside. There is no- 
 thing gloomy about such colors. Under a burning sun that is 
 rarely clouded they have a brilliancy seldom seen in any 
 rocks, and only surpassed by the sugary whiteness of the 
 Jurassic sandstone or the brilliant red of the Vermillion 
 Cliffs. 
 
 Directly in the southward prolongation of the axis of the 
 Toroweap Valley there stands a basaltic cinder- cone imme- 
 diately upon the brink of the inner gorge. Its altitude 
 above the surrounding plain is 580 feet. The summit is 
 readily gained, and it is an admirable stand-point from 
 which the entire panorama may be viewed. We named it 
 Vulcan's Throne. To the eastward about forty miles of the 
 main chasm are well in view. The altitude of the cone, 
 though small in comparison with surrounding objects, is 
 sufficient to bring into view about twelve miles of the open- 
 ing of the inner gorge, while in the foreground its depths 
 are seen. To the westward the scenery is much more 
 broken and diversified. The chasm is seen through the entire 
 stretch in the Uinkarct Plateau and reaching a few miles 
 into the Sheavwitts. But about twenty miles westward it 
 makes a southward turn and disappears. From the north 
 the Toroweap Valley descends from near Mount Trumbull. 
 It is cut down only to the base of the upper cafion wall 
 and opens into the main chasm on the level of the plain 
 above the inner gorge, There is reason to believe that at 
 some prior epoch it was cut a few hundred feet deeper than 
 its present floor, and was subsequently built up by many 
 floods of basalt coming from the cones on the Uinkaret and 
 by considerable quantities of alluvium washed from its cliffs 
 and overlooking mesas. On the south side of the Grand 
 Cafion is a valley quite the counterpart of the Toroweap. 
 It enters the main chasm directly opposite the Toroweap, 
 so that the two form the arms of a transept, the main chasm 
 being regarded as the nave. Vulcan's Throne is situated 
 almost exactly at the intersection of the axes of the nave 
 and transept. 
 
 It would be diflScult to find anywhere else in the world a 
 spot yielding so much subject-matter for the contemplation of 
 the geologist; certainly there is none situated in the midst of 
 such dramatic and inspiring surroundings. The chasm itself, 
 with its marvelous story of erosion, and the two lateral val- 
 leys adding their quotas of information are grand subjects 
 indeed; but other themes are disclosed which are scarce- 
 ly less surprising and suggestive. The cone stands imme- 
 diately upon the line of a large fault. And never was a 
 fault and its consequences more clearly displayed. The 
 Toroweap fault is one of six which at wide intervals traverse 
 the Grand Canon district from north to south with a rude 
 approximation to parallelism. It is the smallest of the six. 
 Twenty miles north of the chasm no trace of it is visible. 
 Its beginning there is small, but as it approaches the chasm 
 it increases in the amount oi displacement ; and at the cross- 
 ing of the river the shear or " throw '' is between 600 and 
 700 feet. In the wall-face of the inner gorge it is disclosed 
 as clearly as a draughtsman could delineate it on paper. 
 The masses of horizontal limestones and sandstones, dis- 
 playing their fretted edges and lines of- bedding, advance 
 from the eastward in the face of the wall until they reach 
 the vertical fault plane. Then they "break joints" and 
 drop at once six or seven hundred feet, and continue west- 
 ward as before, but at a lower level. The whole topography 
 goes -with it. Looking beyond to the upper wall of the outer 
 chasm the "jog" where the break occurs is plainly seen. 
 The whole platform of the country is dropped to the west- 
 
 ward. The plain between the upper palisades descends by 
 a single step from east to west across the fault by an amount 
 equal to the displacement, and the inner gorge and the whole 
 chasm becomes by so much reduced in depth. Excepting 
 the dislocation itself, the faulting does not appear to have 
 been accompanied by any injury to the strata. Not a trace 
 of shattering, crumbling, or mashing of the beds is discerni- 
 ble. All looks as clean and sharp as if it had been cut with 
 a thin saw and the smooth faces pressed neatly together. 
 But the only attainable view of it is from the distance of a 
 mile. Yet miles here are less than furlongs in other coun- 
 tries, and all details as well as broader features are upon the 
 Brobdignagian scale. What a nearer view might disclose 
 
 Western Scenery.— Island Monument in the Glen 
 Canyon. — Colokado Eivee. 
 
 is of course impossible to conjecture. The plane of the fault 
 is about vertical, though there seems to be a slight inclina- 
 tion to the east, which maybe apparent only and a result of 
 perspective. After a careful study of the surroundings of 
 the fault, it becomes apparent that it is of recent occurrence 
 in comparison with other events which have been in progress 
 here. The tenor of all evidence bearing upon the subject 
 goes to show that these faults were not suddenly produced 
 by violent convulsions, but gradually developed through long 
 stretches of time, and inch by inch or foot by foot. The 
 Toroweap fault gives no evidence of being exceptional in 
 this respect. Its recency is disclosed by many facts. It is 
 seen that the amount of erosion in the face of the transverse 
 " cliff of displacement " produced by the faulting is very 
 small. This cliff has not receded from the fault plane to 
 any considerable extent. Yet the giant palisades which wall 
 
778 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 the outer chasm have receded from the median line of the 
 caflon more than two miles since the corrosion of the river 
 laid bare the edges of their strata. It seems very plain that 
 the outer chasm had been formed and attained very nearly its 
 present condition before the fault started. But there is still 
 more conclusive evidence of recency. At the foot of the 
 southern palisade and at the jaws of the lateral valley are 
 several basaltic craters. They look like mere bee-hives 
 under the eves of such an escarpment, though in truth they 
 are four or five hundred feet high. From their vent streams 
 of basalt are seen flowing down into the lateral valley across 
 the fault plane, and clear to the brink of the inner abyss. 
 The fault shears the lava floods as nearly as it does the Red 
 Wall limestone. Many other facts might be cited to the 
 same purport, but this one is so conclusive that nothing 
 further is necessary. We shall find similar evidences of re- 
 cency when we come to the study of the great Hurricane 
 fault. 
 
 Another subject which will awaken the enthusiasm of the 
 geologist who visits this unique spot is the volcanic pheno- 
 mena. Turning to the northwestward he beholds the heights 
 of the Uinkaret. Upon its broad expanse stand many ba- 
 saltic craters in perfect preservation. We know of about a 
 hundred and fifty distinct cones in this plateau, included in 
 the space which lies between the Grand Canyon and a limit 
 forty miles north of it. But it is in the vicinity of the chasm 
 that they cluster most thickly together and present the 
 largest proportions. This part of the Uinkaret is thickly 
 covered with basalt, above which rises the tumultuous 
 throng of craters. Very many wide and deep floods of ba- 
 salt have poured over the edgeof th3 plateau into the lower 
 Toroweap Valley and upon the great esplanade of the 
 canyon, 1,500 to 1,800 feet below, and, spreading out into 
 wide fields, have reached the brink of the inner gorge. 
 Pouring over its brink, the fiery cascades have shot down 
 into the abyss and pursued their way many miles along the 
 bed of the river. At one epoch they had built up the bed 
 of the Colorado about 400 feet, but the river has scoured out 
 its channel again and swept them all away, regaining its 
 old level, and is now cutting the sandstones below. The 
 spectacle of the lava floods descending from the Uinkaret, 
 as seen from Vulcan's Throne, is most imposing. It tells 
 the story so plainly that a child could read and understand 
 it. Compared with many classic volcanic regions the vol- 
 canism of the Uinkaret is a small afiair. In thoae classic 
 regions the mind does not come into direct .contact with the 
 enormity of the facts by a single glance of the eye. But 
 here, if kind Asmodeus were to lift the basaltic roof of the 
 plateau, we should see no more than we do now. The bold- 
 ness of the picture is much increased by the pediments of 
 Carboniferous strata projecting from the body of the plateau, 
 showing the brilliant colors of the strata and their sharply- 
 defined architecture, with the dark masses of basalt wrap- 
 ping around them. Hard by, and almost within hail, is a 
 superb gable projecting between two broad floods of lava, 
 and so beautifully proportioned and richly colored that we 
 cannot help wishing to transport it by magic to some more 
 habitable region. The Toroweap Valley nas a significance 
 to the geologist which might not be at once apparent to the 
 tourist. Even the geologist would be slow to discern it 
 unless familiar with cognate facts displayed in the country 
 at large bordering the Grand Cafion. In the effort to in- 
 terpret its meaning it becomes necessary to take a hasty 
 view of one or two broad facts relating to the lateral drain- 
 age of the chasm. Upon the north side, in all the dis- 
 tance between the head of the Marble and the foot of the 
 Grand Canyons, there is but one side canyon, carrying drain- 
 age from distant regions. This single exception is 
 Kanab Canyon. In this respect the Colorado is much like 
 the lower courses of the Nile; and the cause is plainly 
 the same. The region is too arid to sustain any living 
 streams or even to keep open the conduits which in 
 former periods might have sustained them. Yet upon 
 the assumption that at some former period the climate 
 was much more humid all analogy compels us to believe 
 that the Colorado once received many tributaries which 
 are now extinct, and upon examination we find good evi- 
 dence that this was really the case. The Toroweap Valley 
 is the modified channel of an ancient river. On the west 
 side of the Uinkaret is another, A third is seen upon the 
 
 south side of the Colorado, directly opposite the Toroweap ; 
 and a few others may easily be designated. It appears that 
 all these rivers dried up befere the inner gorge was ex- 
 cavated. For if they had continued to carry water we may 
 be sure that they would have cut their chasms as deep as 
 the Grand Canyon itself—just as the Uittle Colorado, Kanab 
 Creek, and Cataract Creek have done. For we have only 
 to look at the great multitude of lateral chasms of the upper 
 courses of the Colorado and of its forks, the Grand and 
 Green, to be deeply impressed with the fact that so long as 
 a tributary river carries, we will not say a living stream, but 
 even occasional floods, its channel will be scoured down to 
 the same level as the trunk river itself. It is apparent, 
 then, that the Toroweap dried up before the cutting of the 
 inner gorge of the Grand Cafion began, and hence we infer that 
 the arid climate which caused it to dry up existed before 
 the beginning of the inner gorge. 
 
 By the application of other homologous facts, and by the 
 same method of reasoning, we infer that the outer chasm 
 has also been excavated during the prevalence of an arid 
 climate. The platform of country adjoining the canyon is at 
 present devoid of lateral chasms, yet traces are often found 
 of ancient channels which became dry at about the time the 
 excavation of the outer canyon began, or very soon thereafter. 
 They are cut to comparatively slight depths — from one hun- 
 dred to three or four hundred feet. That they are not of 
 recent origin is proved by the fact that they often have slopes 
 away from the river, though it is clear that they formerly 
 sloped towards it. In truth, the entire chasm betrays every- 
 where the continued action of an arid climate through the 
 entire period of its formation. This arid period is limited, 
 approximately, to Pliocence and Quaternary time. The 
 general tenor of the facts is to the eflTect that the Miocene 
 was a humid period and the Pliocene a dry one throughout 
 the greater part of the West. This is one of the reasons 
 which lead us to the very probable conclusion that the age 
 of the Grand Canyon is not older than the beginning of Pli- 
 ocene time. We might also draw a similar inference from 
 a consideration of the enormous erosion which took place 
 here before the excavation of the chasm was begun. The de- 
 nudation of the Mesozoic system was an incomparably 
 greater work, and yet that denudation could not have begun 
 until the last strata (the Lower Eocene) was deposited. If 
 these inferences are well founded, we may assign the greater 
 part of Eocene and the whole of Miocene time for the prin- 
 cipal denudation of the Mesozoic, and the Pliocene and 
 Quaternary for the excavation of the entire canyon. The 
 proportion thus suggested between the portions of the work 
 done and the divisions of time required to accomplish them 
 seems very fair and reasonable. But the strongest evidence 
 of all it would be almost impossible to recite here in detail. 
 In general terms, it may be characterized as that internal 
 evidence which appears when a vast array of facts, at first 
 disjointed and without obvious relation, aie subsequently 
 grouped aright into a coherent system. Each constituent 
 fact is then seen to admit of one intelligible interpretation 
 and no other ; and each subsidiary proposition has an over- 
 whelming justification and an evidence of veiity far 
 stronger than any which could be summoned if wo endeav- 
 ored to prove it independently. 
 
 Another question which the geologist asks here is, how 
 happens it that the outer chasm is so broad while the inner 
 one IS so narrow? The outer chasm is five to six miles wide 
 and 2,000 feet deep ; the inner is about 3,500 feet wide and 
 3,000 feet deep. The disparity is great. We have seen 
 enough to say at once that the widening of the outer chasm 
 was efiected by the recession of its cliflTs. It the corrosion of 
 the canyon went steadily onward without a halt or respite 
 this disparity demands some explanation. Although we 
 should expect less recession in the cliffs of the inner gorge 
 than in those of the outer, we should not expect it to be so 
 much less if the only variable concerned was length of 
 time. We might explain it by assuming the rocks of the 
 inner gorge to be much more obdurate than those above. 
 This is true in part, but still the diflbrence in this respect is 
 insufficient. A much more satisfactory explanation is found 
 in the supposition that the broad esplanade of the canyon 
 between the upper palisades was an ancient base-level of 
 erosion. We might imagine that when the Colorado had 
 cut its channel down to that level, it had reached the 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 779 
 
 limiting depth of corrosion for the time being. Then for 
 a long period the palisades on either sides wasted and 
 repeded from the river. At last another epoch of upheaval 
 set in ; the entire platform of the district was lifted several 
 thousand feet; the power of the river to corrode was re- 
 stored; and with comparative rapidity it sank the inner 
 gorge. This becomes more than a mere guess when we take 
 account of its relation to the general category of facts. Thus 
 the great faults attest the fact that such an upheaval did oc- 
 cur ; that it occurred, too, just at the time supposed; and that in 
 amount it was quite equal and probably not more than equal to 
 the amount required. Other evidence might also be produced, 
 but they are too intricate to bs discussed here. We leave 
 the Toroweap Valley and the Grand Canyon, regretting that 
 all its wonderful and instructive subjects should receive such 
 brief notice, Retracing our steps up the Toroweap for a 
 distance of about six miles, we at length select one of the 
 great lava streams oh the western side. Although quite 
 steep, we may ascend it with the animals and packs without 
 serious diflSculty. At the end of an arduous climb upon the 
 rugged slope, we find ourselves upon the platform of the 
 Uinkaret. Around ua are the old cinder-cones, most of 
 which are of considerable dimensions. All of them have 
 given vent to floods of basalt, which have spread out thinly 
 over extensive surfaces, but as the number of superposed 
 sheets is considerable in this part of the plateau, the aggre- 
 gate thickness, though somewhat roughly inferred, must be 
 three or four hundred feet, and occasionally much more. 
 There is not much to add to this description. The lava is 
 apparently all of one kind, but some of it much older than 
 other portions. In truth, it soon becomes apparent that the 
 period!^ of volcanic activity was a long one. A few miles 
 from the point where we attained the summit of the plateau 
 and in a northwest direction from it, we come upon the ter- 
 mination of a lava stream which has the appearance of being 
 extremely rece'iE. It looks as fresh as the emanations from 
 Vesuvius or ^tna which have outflowed within the last 
 fifty years. Its surface is intensely black, and only here and 
 there can we perceive that weathering has even impaired 
 its freshness. Two miles away is seen the cone from which 
 it emanated. The last eruptions from it have almost de- 
 stroyed it, and melted down a greater part of its mass. 
 Skirting the edge of this lava-sheet, we find at the eastern 
 base of Mount Logan a smill spring, na-ned the Oak Spring. 
 It is a central point, from whiph the southern part of the 
 plateau may be visited. There is another very small spring 
 high up on the southwestern side of Mount Trumbull, and 
 its waters have been brought down by a wooden pipe to the 
 plain below, to supply the wants of a saw-mill. A third 
 and much larger spring is found on the western side of the 
 Uinkaret. These are the only available sources of supply, 
 and each may be used as occasion requires for the examina- 
 tion of difierent parts of the plateau. 
 
 The Kaibab.^It is difficult to say precisely wherein 
 the charm of the sylvan scenery of the Kaibab consists. We, 
 who through successive summers have wandered through 
 its forests and parks, have come to regard it as the most en- 
 chanting region it has ever been our privilege to visit. 
 Surely there is no lack of beautiful or grand forest scenery 
 in America, and it is a matter of taste what species of trees 
 are the most pleasing. Probably few people would select 
 the conifers and poplars as the highest types of arboreal 
 beauty. I suspect that the charm consists in influences far 
 more subtle than these outward forms. The delicious cli- 
 mate, neither cold nor hot, neither wet nor excessively dry, 
 but always exhilarating, is a fundamental condition by vir- 
 tue of which the body and mind are brought into the most 
 susceptible mood. The ease with which we move from 
 place to place, the absence of all anxiety or care for the 
 three great requisities of camp life, fuel, water, and grass, 
 are accessory conditions. The contrast of the desert with its 
 fatigue, its numberless discomforts and privations, is still an- 
 other. But the scenery is also very beautiful in itself. The 
 trees are large and noble in aspect and stand widely apart, 
 except in the highest parts of the plateau where the spruces 
 predominate. Instead of dense thickets where we are shut 
 in by impenetrable foliage, we can look far beyond and see 
 the tree trunks vanishing away like an infinite colonnade. 
 The ground is unobstructed and inviting. There is a con- 
 stant succession of parks and glades — dreamy avenues of 
 
 grass and flowers winding between sylvan walls, or spread- 
 ing out in broad open meadows. From June until Septem- 
 ber there is a display of wild flowers which is quite beyond 
 description. The valley sides and platforms above are re- 
 splendent with dense masses of scarlet, white, purple, and 
 yellow. It is noteworthy that while the trees exhibit but 
 few species, the humbler plants present a very great num- 
 ber, both of species and genera. In the upper regions of the 
 High Plateaus, Mr. Lester F. Ward collected in a single sea- 
 son more than 600 species of plants, and the Kaibab, 
 though ofiering a much smaller range of altitude and cli- 
 mate, would doubtless yield as rich a flora in proportion to 
 the diversity of its conditions. 
 
 "Westeen Sceneky. — A View of the Grand Canyon. 
 
 At a distance of about eight miles from its mouth, the 
 ravine we have chosen has become very shallow, with gently 
 sloping sides. At length we leave it and ascend its right bank 
 to the upper platform. The way here is as pleasant as before, 
 for it is beneath the pines standing at intervals varying from 
 50 to 100 feet, and upon a soil that is smooth, firm, and free 
 from undergrowth. All is open, and we may look far into 
 the depths of the forest on either hand. We now perceive 
 that the surface of the plateau undulates with rolling hills 
 and gently depressed vales. These valleys are the ramifica- 
 tions of the drainage channels. They are innumerable and 
 cover the entire surface of the plateau. The main channels 
 all deepen as they approach the edges of the plateau and 
 often attain considerable depth, becoming at the same time 
 precipitous. The deepest are those which emerge near the 
 elbow of Stewart's Canyon and north of that point. These at- 
 tain depths exceeding a thousand feet. The ravines which 
 descend towards the eastern flank of the plateau terminate 
 
780 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 in a different manner. In the interior parts of the plateau 
 these drainage valleys are all shallow, rarely exceeding 3u0 
 or 400 feet in depth, and seldom abrupt. After two or three 
 miles upon the summit, the trail descends into another val- 
 ley, whose coiu'se we follow upward for about seven miles. 
 At the distance of about twenty miles from Stewart's Can- 
 yon, we find that we have gained about 1,200 feet of altitude, 
 and that the vegetation has changed its aspect somewhat. 
 The pines, though still abundant, are now in minority, and 
 the spruces and aspens greatly predominate. The spruces 
 form dense thickets on either hand, which nothing but the 
 direst necessity would ever induce us to enter. Of this 
 genus there are several species, varying much in habit. 
 The great firs (Abies grandis, A. Engelmanni] are exceeding- 
 ly beautifiil on account of their sumptuous foliage. But 
 the most common species is a smaller one [A. subalpina), 
 with a tall and straight trunk, its branches spreading only 
 five or six feet. These trees cluster so thickly together that 
 a passage through them is extremely difficult and sometimes 
 impossible. But we are not constrained to attempt it, for 
 they seldom grow in the valley bottoms. Again we leave 
 the ravine, and winding about among the hills, passing from 
 glade to glade, we at length find ourselves upon the summit 
 of a long slope, which descends rapidly into a great park, 
 the largest on the Kaibab. It has received the name of 
 De Motte Park. — Its length is about ten miles, its 
 average width is about two miles. It is a depressed area in 
 the heart of the plateau, and is on every side girt about by 
 more elevated ground rising by strong slopes 300 or 400 feet 
 above its floor. The borders and heights above are densely 
 forest-clad, but not a tree stands within the park itself. 
 Descending into its basin and proceeding southward about 
 two and a half miles, we reach a little spring where we 
 make camp. The distance from the Big Spring to Stewart's 
 Canyon is about twenty-six miles by trail. De Motte Park is 
 eminently adapted to be the base of operations in a cam- 
 paign of geological investigation upon the southern part of 
 the Kaibab. It is a central locality from which we may 
 radiate in any direction to the bounds of the plateau. Here 
 the great bidk of the supplies, may be deposited, and from 
 the supply-camp we may make journeys with light packs 
 for one, two or three days, as it may suit our convenience, 
 and to it we may return to fit out for another short trip. 
 The circumstances which make the. park so advantageous 
 in this respect are worth reciting. Notwithstanding the 
 open character of the forest there are two difficulties in the 
 way of travel on the Kaibab. The first has already been 
 mentioned, scarcity of water. We know of about a dozen 
 small springs, some of them conveniently located for the 
 purposes of the explorer, others not. There is, however, 
 another source of water supply which will be described pre- 
 sently. The second difficulty is the danger of getting lost 
 and bewildered in the forest. This may seem to be a singular 
 source of danger for an explorer, who of all men is bound to 
 know his exact whereabouts at every step. But if he were 
 to visit the Kaibab with that easy confidence and without a 
 guide he would probably learn a severe lesson in less than a 
 fortnight. The young Mormon herders who range over this 
 region, and who follow a trail with the keen instincts of In- 
 dians, and with more than an Indian's intelligence, dread 
 the mazes of the forest until they come to know them. Even 
 the Indians who live and hunt there during the summer and 
 autumn have sad tales about comrades lost when the snows 
 came early and buried the trails so that they could not be 
 followed. The bewildering character arises from the mono- 
 tony of the scenery. There are hundreds of hills and 
 gulches, but they all look alike. There are no landmarks 
 except trees, which are worse than none at all. If you enter 
 a ravine for the second time at a point other than that at 
 which you first entered it you would probably fail to recog- 
 nize it. As with the faces of the Chinese, no conscientious 
 white man would be willing to swear that he had ever seen 
 any particular one before. Yet the riddle of the Kaibab is 
 soon solved, and once read, all danger is over. If the tra- 
 veler is lost there is an infallible clue. He must go at once 
 to De Motte Park. But how shall he find the way? If he 
 has reason to suppose that he is within a dozen miles of it he 
 has only to enter a main ravine and follow it to its head. 
 This, however, does not apply to the portions of the plateau 
 which lie more than five miles north of the park. The 
 
 way may be long, but it is easy and sure. A few ravines 
 fade out before reaching the near neighborhood of the park. 
 In that event take the nearest one on the right or left. 
 All of them head upon the summit which looks down into 
 the park. It is necessary, however, to keep to the main 
 ravine and avoid its minor tributaries, and there is a cri- 
 terion by which it may be distinguished. At the confluence 
 of a lateral ravine the grade of the main ravine is always 
 the less of the two. 
 
 Although this may seem to be nothing more than a trivial 
 bit of woodcraft, it really illustrates an important facfr— the 
 drainage system of a large portion of the Kaibab. The 
 study of this drainage system will shed some light upon the 
 geological history not only of the plateau itself, but of the 
 region adjoining, and of the Grand Canyon. The thought 
 which must be predominant in the mind of one who for the 
 first time enters the Kaibab is of the Grand Canyon. The 
 fame of its grandeur is world-wide, and the desire to see it 
 as it is grows stronger the nearer he approaches to it. This 
 longing must be at least tempered if not wholly satisfied be- 
 fore the mind is in the humor to contemplate anything else. 
 Our first expedition, then, shall be to the brink of the great 
 abyss. As the sun is rising and before his beams have 
 penetrated to the bottom of the park we are On the way. On 
 either hand is the forest, covering the slopes and the heights 
 above, but ending suddenly at the foot of every incline. 
 Before us to the southward stretches the open field with 
 hardly an undulation. Six or seven miles away we can see 
 the sylvan walls approach each other, leaving a narrow gate- 
 way between the tall spruces where the surface of the ground 
 for a moment is sharply projected against the sky. The 
 scene is, on the whole, a very attractive one. There is a 
 great wealth of vegetation, somber indeed, and monotonous, 
 but the darkness of the tone is suggestive of depth and rich- 
 ness of color. The only alleviating contrast is between the 
 smooth expanse of the park and the myriads of sharp spikes 
 which terminate the tree tops. The spirit of the scene is a 
 calm, serene, and gentle one, touched with a tinge of solemnity 
 and melancholy. About a mile from camp we came upon 
 an object worthy of attention. It is rather a deep depression 
 in the earth about 200 feet across and very nearly circular. 
 Within it is a large pool of water. Its depth below the val- 
 ley floor may be about 40 feet, and the depth of the water 5 
 or 6 feet in the middle. It is a fair specimen of a frequent 
 occurrence upon the Kaibab. I have never seen them else- 
 where, and the explanation is difficult. The interest lies in 
 the mystery of their origin. In every day's ride we usually 
 find three or four of them and sometimes more. Some of 
 them contain water, but the majority do not. Some hold 
 water throughout the year, some only in the early summer 
 or until autumn. They vary in size and depth very con- 
 siderably. Some are as narrow as 20 feet ; some are 800 to 
 400 feet across. The depths vary from a yard or two to a 
 hundred feet. The form is crater-like — always approximately 
 circular. They do not appear to occur under any special set 
 of conditions. They are found as often upon the platforms 
 as in the valleys, and are not uncommon upon the slopes of 
 the ravines. In a few instances traces may be seen of rain 
 gullies or washes leading into Ihem, but not often, and none 
 have ever been noted leading out of them. Whatever run- 
 ning water may enter them sinks within their basins ; but 
 it is certain that many of them rarely receive any running 
 water. In the cases of those which do the wonder is that 
 they do not soon fill up with sand and silt, for the water 
 generated by heavy rain storms or by melting snows, when 
 sufficient in volume to run in a stream, is always thick 
 with mud. The scarcity of running water on the Kaibab 
 has been mentioned. Yet the precipitation is comparatively 
 great and the evaporation small. It is apparent that all the 
 water which falls upon its vast expanse, with the exception 
 of a slight percentage evaporated, must sink into the earth, 
 where it is doubtless gathered in subterranean drainage 
 channels which open in the profound depths of the great 
 amphitheaters of the Grand Canyon. In those depths are 
 large creeks of perennial water issuing from the openings of 
 those underground passages. This implies a system of sub- 
 terranean rivulets, but it is not more wonderful than the 
 endless caverns in the limestones of Kentucky and Indiana, 
 and it is probably not upon so large a scale nor so greatly 
 ramified. It also ai-gues a high degree of permeability both 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 781 
 
 in the upper strata and in the overmantling soil. The water 
 sifts through them as easily as through sand, and rarely 
 gathers into streams even in the most copious showers or 
 most rapid melting of the snow. Whether these " lagoons '' 
 and "sink-holes," as we termed them, are the openings of 
 pipes leading down into the subterranean rivers and kept 
 open by a gradual solution of the limestone, it is difficult to 
 say. There are some difficulties in the way of this theory. 
 
 Moving rapidly southward, at length we reach the Sylvan 
 Gate at the lower end. Passing through we immediately 
 find ourselves at the head of a second park very similar to 
 De Motte's, but smaller, having alength of nearly three miles. 
 It is named Little De Motte Park, and the Sylvan Gate oc- 
 cupies a divide between the two. It contains a large lagoon 
 holding stagnant water. There is a chain of these parks 
 reaching from the northern end of De Motte's southward, a 
 distance of 25 miles, separated only by necks of forest. Our 
 
 aspens, the golden shafts of sunlight shot through their fo- 
 liage, the velvet sward — surely this is the home of the 
 woodland nymphs, and at every turn of the way we can 
 fancy we are about to see them flying at our approach, or 
 peeping at us from the flowery banks. 
 
 By half-past ten the spring is reached. Next the Big 
 Spring, in Stewart's Canyon, it is the largest on the summit 
 of the plateau. Here, too, is the only semblance of running 
 water, for the stream flows a little more than half a mile 
 before it sinks. The water is cold and delicious. It has a 
 faint whitish cast like that which would be produced by 
 putting a drop or two of milk into a bucket oi^ pure water. 
 I presume it is caused by a fine precipitate of lime. We 
 called it the "Milk Spring." Pausing here for a hasty 
 lunch, and to fill the kegs (for to-night we may make a 
 "dry" camp), we push on. We climb out of the ravine, 
 and in feet we only came here to obtain water, as it is the 
 
 Western Sceneky. — Sumnek's Amphitheatre. — Colobado River. 
 
 first objective point is a spring situated in one of the large 
 ravines which head in the heights overlooking these two 
 parks. Without some foreknowledge of the way to reach 
 it, or without a guide, it would be impossible to find it, and 
 the same is true of any other spring on the summit, but 
 with this foreknowledge we seek the southwestern border of 
 Little De Motte and enter the timber. During half an hour 
 there is a miserable struggle with fallen trees and thick set 
 branches of spruce and aspen, but at length the heights are 
 gained, and we descend into a shallow ravine where the 
 way is once more open. The winding glade with smooth 
 bottom richly carpeted with long green grass, aglow with 
 myriads of beautiful blossoms is before us, and the tall trees 
 are on either hand. Soon it leads into a larger one, and 
 this into another, until at last the main ravine is reached. 
 Very sweet and touching now are Ihe influences of nature, 
 •rhe" balmy air, the dark and somber spruces, the pale green 
 
 only place near to the point of destination at which water 
 can be procured. The route now becomes more rugged, 
 leading across ravines and over intervening ridges, crossing 
 the grain of the country, so to speak. But it is not difficult, 
 for the pines have taken place of the spruces, and where the 
 pines predominate the forest is very open. For eight miles 
 from the Milk Spring we continue to cross hills and valleys, 
 then follow a low swale shaded by giant pines with trunks 
 three to four feet in thickness. The banks are a parterre of 
 flowers. On yonder hillside, beneath one of these kingly 
 trees, is a spot which seems to glow with an unwonted 
 wealth of floral beauty. It is scarcely a hundred yards dis- 
 tant ; let us pluck a boquet from it. We ride up the slope. 
 The earth suddenly sinks at cur feet to illimitable depths. 
 In an instant, in the twinkling of an eye, the awfnl scene is 
 before us. 
 — Taken from anarticleby ClarenceE. Dutton,Beportof Z/.S. Geological Survey. 
 
782 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 THE ROMANCE OF MINING. 
 
 WHAT romance can there be connected with 
 such an occupation as that of mining? Is the 
 doing of the hardest work romantic? Can 
 poetry be associated with deep pits and long 
 underground galleries in which the never ending rows of 
 timbers look like processions of ghosts and the masses of 
 fungus remind you of strange monsters without form, yet of 
 most fantastic shape, as seen in the dim light of the lamps 
 which gleam like stars in the heads of the miners? The 
 answer is yes. Are we not to find romance associated with 
 the occupation of the Dwarfs and the drolls ; poetry in the 
 ground sacred to the Pixies ? Mining is full of romance, of 
 quaint superstitions, of dazzling tales which would not dis- 
 grace eastern imaginations ; of poetry which comes down to 
 us from the dead and gone races who centuries ago worked 
 the metals under the frozen hills with their pine tree cor- 
 onets in the far north ; of strange Indian legends which as 
 we hear them told remind us of the time when the dazzling 
 Emperors of the South, the mighty Montezumas, watched 
 the hecatombs of victims slain on the Obsidian altars of the 
 dead war god; of the wonderful stories which were first told 
 in the mines of sunny Spain and carried thence by the stern 
 conquistodares to the land they made their own, reappearing 
 to-day in quaint form and quainter language at the camp- 
 fire of the lusty prospectors. In modern days too mining 
 has shown its romantic side in the changes of fortune which 
 have marked the careers of those who followed it, changes 
 wlicih are only paralleled in the oriental tales of Genii. Sud- 
 den wealth and equally sudden poverty, long years of 
 patient waiting to be followed by affluence, hard and ex- 
 hausting toil resulting in the finding of a placer or a pocket 
 out of which the gold is taken in such quantities as to turn 
 the brain of the discoverer. Can romance and poetry be 
 denied to a form of work iu which heroism of the grandest 
 has been shown again and again? The very strangeness of 
 the life of these human moles which we call miners, has 
 brought about phases of human nature as strange as the life 
 itself; and as the lonely miner toils under-ground by the 
 light of his flickering lamp, his imagination has peopled the 
 dark places in the mine with spirite of potent power ; of a 
 kindliness in the nature of some only equalled by the fell 
 cruelty of the others. How often have poets sung and great 
 musicians wedded to deathless music ths Niebelungen Leid? 
 How often have they told the story of the capture of Lohi, of 
 the Dwarf King Andvari and MarHs first possession, of the 
 wonderful treasure when Lohi gave it to Huidman as a ran- 
 som for the three from Asgard, how Seigfried captured it 
 and compelled Andvari the dwarf to pound it, how after 
 Seigfried married Brumhild, Haco killed him for the trea- 
 sure and how Haco hid the glittering hoard, refusing his life 
 in exchange for the secret. The great German epic turns 
 about a treasure of the mines. From the southland come 
 the stories of the Moorish kings of Spain and the wonderful 
 treasures procured and kept for them by the mighty power of 
 the magicians ; of the deep and hidden caves founded by 
 genii and only to be opened by strange spells, in which the 
 gold and the jewels were placed. Every race upon the earth 
 has had its wonderful legends about mining, some as simple 
 as the fairy tales for children ; some as complex as the most 
 involved drama in which human passions have played their 
 parts. 
 
 The Madre D'Oro. — There has always been a strange 
 fascination to the minds of men about the sudden acquisi- 
 tion of wealth. About the idea of gold so secured there has 
 always been that mental glitter which has attracted the 
 poet and the romancer. To the men who search for gold, 
 whose lives are devoted to the discovery of the precious met- 
 als, there is a double measure of this fascination. The 
 modest and least im-aginative of them can picture to himself 
 a ledge which is not solid ^old shall at least contain nug- 
 gets and veins of the virgin metal bright with its yeWow 
 gleam. And so there is no story in the west half as often 
 told as that of the Madre D' Oro, the " Mother of gold," the 
 Treasure House destined by nature for her fortunate child. 
 The story oomes to us from the Aztecs, they in turn may 
 have heard it from the Toltecs who preceded them. When 
 
 the Great Empire of the Montezumas fell under the stern 
 assaults of Don Herman Cortez and the army of heroes 
 which he led ; and when the last of the Montezumas who 
 placed on his head the imperial plumes, the unfortunate 
 Guatimozin died, the Indians adopted a belief similar in 
 many respects to that which was so common among the 
 EngUsh about the return, some day, of the fabled Arthur. 
 Under the grinding tyranny of the Anquistadores this belief 
 was the sole hope left among the unfortunates who lived and 
 died under the lash. When Montezuma returned, he would, 
 so the legend ran, lift the race from slavery, drive out the 
 hated Spaniards, rear once more the altars to the war God 
 on top of the teocallia and resume his ancient state and 
 power. Until that time came, the Aztecs who were left must 
 endure as best as they might the evil days which had fallen 
 upon them. And so they lived and died, nursing the vain 
 hope that some day better times would come when the long 
 delayed vengeance would be fully satisfied. But they real- 
 ized that when Montezuma returned he would need in order to 
 resume his power, stores of gold, and so they told to each other 
 with bated breath the story of the wonderful valley, where, 
 under the guardianship of the faithful tribe, descended from 
 the remnant of the priests who united with their devotion 
 to their terrible Deity almost as sincere a wor.ship for the 
 House of Montezuma, the treasures destined by the Gods to 
 furnish forth the rehabilitated glories of the kingdom lying 
 waiting for the coming. Although, as is Indian nature, the 
 Aztecs were to the last degree reticent, such a story as thia 
 was too wonderful not to be told again. Perhaps more Az- 
 tec maidens whispered the legend she had heard from the 
 grandsires of her race to the ears of her Spanish lover. Per- 
 haps some poor slave tortured to death let fall the story to 
 delay for a time the intolerable torment. It matters not 
 how the tale came to be told. In time the Mexicans heard 
 it and in retelling gave it possibly, still further wonderment 
 as it passed through brains colored by the vivid imagination 
 of the Spanish nature. And so it came to us, as wonderful 
 a story as was ever told to men ; one rivaling the wildest 
 legends of the East. Somewhere in Southeastern Arizona 
 or in Northern Mexico, so runs the tale to-day, there is asmall 
 valley. It is always described as being about five miles long 
 and two wide, and walled in by towering mountains. It was 
 formed originally by water, being simply the widening out 
 of a Canyon, through which at the lower end is the only 
 entrance to it, Its sides are airy, are from three to five 
 — thin sand — feet high, and they go down there from the 
 top. While they have been fashioned into strange shapes 
 during the long ages that have passed since the water began 
 its work, they are always said to be so precipitous as to pre- 
 vent anyone climbing down. The upper part of the Canyon, 
 that above the valley, is simply impassible for men owing to 
 a tremendous precipice, over which the ancient river once 
 ran and down which the stream now falls in an exquisitely 
 beautiful water fall. The Canyon below the valley, however, 
 may be passed through the entrance cave. When the river 
 was cutting it, it encountered a deposit of hard stone, under 
 which it slowly worked its way through a softer bed and 
 gradually hollowed this out, until, in time, it cut a long tun- 
 nel, like a cavern. Through this is the entrance to the valley. 
 But not only is the exact location of the valley not known 
 but the entrance to the cave is carefully hidden by the efforts 
 of men. The Indians, who guard the treasure for the coming 
 of Montezuma, live near the entrance, and they have care- 
 fully concealed all the approaches to it, and are, if it be 
 necessary, prepared to givi3 up their lives in its defence. It 
 is said that even among them the entrance to the cavern is 
 only known to the three most aged men, and is never com- 
 municated except when, on the death of one, it is necessary 
 to give the knowledge into the keeping of another. When 
 this occurs, the tribe know, for the first time, that the man 
 who has gone was one of the guardians of the secret. The 
 communication of the knowledge to another is done after 
 many ceremonies and in a way which absolutely prevents all 
 knowledge on the part of the tribe as to who is chosen. The 
 women and children and such of the men who are not old 
 enough to belong to the medicine lodge, or what is apparently 
 — supposing this story, as told, to be true — a kind of order 
 of priesthood in the medicine lodge, prepare enough food 
 to maintain them for ten days. They start in the direction 
 of the setting sun and travel five days. On the morning of 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 783 
 
 the sixth they turn and travel back. The day after they 
 leave, each of the members of this order of priesthood, taking 
 with him enough food to last seven days, leaves the rancheria 
 or village, and goes alone to some designated spot within 
 half-a-day's trip. Here he stays for the seven days, at the 
 end of which time he comes back. Among these men, who 
 are always old, there are two, known only t« each other, who 
 possess the secret. They set forth like the others, but they 
 alone have the right to leave the places to which they go on 
 the morning of the third day. Together they journey to one 
 of the spots where the priests have gone, and greeting the 
 man they find there by some form of words, said to be a 
 remnant of the old Aztec language, bid him rise and follow 
 them. They take him to the long cavern and through it to 
 the valley, they show him the ledge which they have guarded 
 in the past and which he must guard in the future, they re- 
 veal to him the knowledge which they have of Montezuma, 
 they tell him of the signs which will point to the coming 
 again of the Imperial race. Slowly and carefully they show 
 him the method by which the place is found. They exact 
 from him oaths of the most solemn sort that as he has re- 
 ceived the secret so alone he will impart it, unless the 
 fulness of time should come and Montezuma return. They 
 give him the signs by which Montezuma will be known ; the 
 form of words which Montezuma will use when he asks the 
 faithful guardians of the secret for his Own. They indulge 
 in a sacrificial banquet, in which it is said, the flesh of the 
 man who has just died forms the sacrament, on which the 
 living swear that as he kept the secret entrusted to him, so 
 they will keep it until the end. Returning to the rancheria, 
 and effacing with infinite pains the marks of their feet after 
 they leave the cavern, each of the three goes to his ap- 
 pointed place to return with all the others on the seventh 
 day. No one knows who has been selected to carry on the 
 trust, except the three to whom it is confided. On the tenth 
 day the young men, women and children return to find the 
 members of the priesthood quietly awaiting them. They 
 know that during their absence some one of the old men 
 who sit there so calmly and quietly, has seen the valley and 
 the ledge but they know no more. 
 
 The valley is as I have said, described as being about five 
 miles long and two wide. Surrounded on all sides by tow- 
 ering and precipitous cliffs, grim in their stern and 
 rugged shapes, the valley itself is a paradise. Watered by 
 the stream which flows through it, its soil is covered with 
 flowers and beautifiil trees, through the branches of which 
 flit the bright-hued birds of the South land. Brilliant in- 
 sects dart here and there through the delicious air; the only 
 reptiles seen are the gold snakes with their glittering green- 
 ish-yellow scales. Perfectly harmless, they but serve to give 
 added beauty to the scene. Stretching across the valley 
 from one side to the other lies the great ledge, like a golden 
 zone ; its masses of virgin metal gleaming and glistening 
 in the sunlight. It is said to be five feet, ten feet, fifty feet, 
 a hundred feet wide. The gold lies in it in great veins and 
 nuggets, embedded in clear quartz, the sharp angles of 
 which glitter in the sunlight like gigantic diamonds. 
 Across the ledge the stream flows, and forms a little 
 waterfall, below which the nuggets of gold can be seen in 
 the water and out. Growing beside the ledge, just by the 
 fall, is an exquisite tree at the base of which lies a great gold 
 snake, ever watching with unmoving eyes the treasures of 
 Montezuma. It is the war-god in person who guards the 
 place. Gold in the ledge, gold in the scales of the snakes, 
 gold in the stream, 'gold in the colors of the insects, and 
 birds, gold across the valley, gold down the valley ; gold, 
 gold, gold, gold, is tTie refrain of the golden story. The 
 fearfiil precipices which surround the place, tlie strange 
 ceremonies and horrid banquets which have served to keep 
 the secret safe, the tribe of Aztecs, living only to preserve 
 for their mysterious ruler this treasure-house of nature, have 
 all aided in giving to the story its strange interest. Small 
 wonder is it that the pulse should quicken and the eye grow 
 bright, as you hear the tale from the lips of men who more 
 than half believe it. The lonely desert surrounding you, 
 with the tall caoti looking like ghosts in the half-moonlight ; 
 the long-drawn melancholy of the cayote's howl, the pros- 
 pector's fire of greasewood, the men with their rough cloth- 
 ing and quaint language, all vanish as you listen, and in 
 imagination you are transported to the wonderful valley, in 
 
 which is the " Madre D'Oro, the "Mother of Gold." Nor 
 are they content to tell the story as an Indian legend. They 
 cite instances of white men who have seen the place, who 
 have descended into the valley in some way and returned 
 with all the gold they could carry. The location of the 
 spot is always in a dangerous Indian country ; I have been 
 told twice that it was in the Chicahua Mountains. It is 
 always said to have been found purely by accident, by men 
 who were either hunting or prospecting for ledges; about 
 the only two occupations which will make unscientific men 
 climb high mountains. It can only be seen from the upper 
 end and after the morning mists in the valley have cleared 
 away. Then as one stands on the rugged peaks and looks 
 down he sees the great ledge spanning the valley below him, 
 the virgin metal glittering in the sunlight, and he knows 
 that he has before him the place of which he has heard so 
 much and dreamed so often. 
 
 Is there any truth in the story? I cannot tell. The 
 Indians believe it implicitly, as anyone who contrives to get 
 on sufficiently intimate terms with them to be trusted can, 
 if he takes enough trouble, find out. The Mexicans are far 
 more communicative than the Indians, and will tell the tale 
 on the slighegt provocation, appealing to all saints in the 
 calendar to convince you of ite truth. Many of the old 
 projectors believe it absolutely and a number of them have 
 gone upon the search themselves or have known men who 
 had done so. The treasures of the western half of this 
 continent are not more than suspected as yet, and it may be 
 that there will be discovered in time ledges of far greater 
 value, especially in free gold, than any yet found. Who can 
 tell what will be developed in the future. In the mean time 
 the story is one worth preserving, if for nothing else, for 
 the Wealth of barbaric magnificence which it contains. 
 
 The dangers of mining are great under the most scientific 
 methods known ; judge what they must have been in the 
 days when men carried out the ore in leather buckets on 
 their backs by ascending steep ladders. Wherever there is 
 danger superstition steps in to account for it, and it is small 
 wonder that the acts of the demons and evil spirits with 
 which the imaginations of the miners has peopled the mines 
 should have about them a horror all their own. One of the 
 most common "bogies" or devils supposed to haunt the 
 mines is the "step devil," " Sauch," or " the Ladder Dwarf," 
 for he is called by all these names. He is described as a 
 hunch-backed dwarf with a short body, large head and enor- 
 mously long and powerful arms. In fact a gorilla is as 
 good a comparison as could be made of this particular spirit. 
 His favorite trick is climbing the ladders by means of which 
 the miners leave the mine, by raising himself with his long 
 arms and as he passes the rungs, kicking them out one by 
 one. He is supposed to always do this just before an acci- 
 dent of some kind in the mine. This superstition may be 
 found in the far south as well as in the north. In Mexican 
 mines in the old days, the descent and ascent of the shaft 
 was made by the aid of tree trunks, having notehes cut in 
 them, in which the piens or laborers rested the great toe 
 as they stepped from one to the other. "Sauch" in the 
 southern legends became a demon having on each great toe 
 an enormous nail or claw by the aid of which he would 
 gouge out these places where the feet of the ascending 
 miners rested. In both these stories it will be noticed that 
 the demon is described as being possessed of a kind of 
 refined cruelty, for he leaves the ladders or the tree trunks 
 after having destroyed their usefulness, to tantalize the un- 
 fortunate men who are imprisoned in the mine. A supersti- 
 tion which is common, is that about the " gold snake." 
 This species of serpent is perfectly harmless, and is rather 
 handsome, being green in color with a sort of golden hue or 
 irridescence in the scales. It is believed that wherever a 
 gold snake makes his lair there is a ledge containing the 
 precious metal, and there are many Mexicans who will 
 locate a claim at once if they find a gold snake. I saw an 
 instance of this in Arizona where a gold snake was found 
 and a claim located. Not only was this done but a fine 
 mustang was actually given for a share in it by a Mexican 
 who was as credulous as the original locator. My own 
 curiosity was sufficiently excited to make me prospect in the 
 most careful manner for a ledge in the place and its vicinity, 
 in order to find out if there were any triith in the theory, but 
 I must say that I could not find one. There may, of course. 
 
784 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 be this much at the bottom of this widely-spread belief, the 
 gold snake is found in a country where ledges of precious 
 metals are also found, and it is no very extraordinary step 
 for the imagination of the credulous to take, that of believing 
 that the gold snake indicates the gold. The name of the 
 reptile too, may have something to do with the theory. One 
 of the most common beliefs of miners is that before an acci- 
 dent happens, the rats, of which there are generally large 
 numbers in the workings, will leave the mine. This belief 
 is so universal that I sliould hesitate before pronouncing it 
 to be absurd, as certainly one is tempted to do on first hear- 
 ing of it. I have had miners give me many instances in 
 which they said it had occurred, and I had then no reason 
 to doubt the truthfulness of what they said nor have I now. 
 As will probably occur to the reader, this belief is one which 
 is directly akin to that of sailors about rats leaving " a sink- 
 ing ship." A similar story is told about the cockroaches 
 which swarm the mines. They are said to crawl out of the 
 shaft before accidents take place and to be particularly 
 anxious to leave before an earthquake. Animals often seem 
 to have some mysterious instinct by the aid of which they 
 can reason or feel that something is going to take place, 
 when as yet the signs are not perceptible to man. I know 
 for a fact that in the desert horses will find water when there 
 is nothing to guide a man in the search. Of course they may 
 do this by the power of smell just as dogs follow "scent," 
 and it would be ridiculous to suppose that they smell an 
 earthquake. Still, before one of these convulsions of nature, 
 animals are exceedingly uneasy, and it may be that they 
 have some instinct or perception which we have not. I 
 have certainly seen enough of this to make me slow in dis- 
 believing the miners' stories about the rats in a mine. 
 
 Tlie Divining Rod. — One of the most common and most 
 curious superstitions among miners is the belief in the Di- 
 vining rod. If any class are distinguished above their fel- 
 lows by this, it is that which comes from Cornwall. The 
 broad statement about the Divining rod may be said to be 
 as follows : You take a forked twig of witch hazel, mountain 
 ash, mountain cherry or alder and place one of the forked 
 ends in each hand. The twig must be shaped like the letter 
 Y. The end placed in one of the hands is laid across the 
 palm which is turned up, the fingers are shut down over it 
 and the thumb bent over the ends of the fingers. The hands 
 are then held in front of the body, the elbows being bent at 
 a right angle. Between the hands holding the forked ends 
 of the twig, the single end rises straight up so that the twig 
 looks like a Y upside down, thus j^. Now the theory is that 
 when a person walks over a ledge or deposit of any mineral, 
 or over a spring of water, this upper stem of the twig will of 
 its own volition turn down in spite of all that the person 
 holding it can do to restrain it. This may be said to be 
 the divining rod in its simplest form, and its use depends 
 upon the existence of some mysterious force or attraction 
 exerted upon it by the neighborhood of the metal, or the 
 water. The Cornish miner who almost always uses the 
 witch hazel twig does not hesitate to tell you that persons 
 having the " gift, " as some mysterious power inherent in 
 certain individuals which permit of this equally mysterious 
 force being exerted on the rod, is called, are able to find 
 deposits of ore by its aid without the slightest difiiculty. 
 And what is more, he firmly and honestly believes what he 
 says. There is a class 'of men however, who with the ac- 
 quisition of some knowledge have acquired a certain amount 
 of distrust in the simple rod, or perhaps I should say, in the 
 proposition that a body of metal can by any occult power 
 affect a twig. It may be too that they feel a certain degree 
 of shame in confessing their belief in such a bald supersti- 
 tion as is that of the rod, in its simplest form. These men, 
 then, having a desire to give some excuse for the faith that 
 is in them have invented the rod complex. The virtues of 
 the rod complex are supposed to rest upon what they call 
 the affinity of metals. This is a belief that every metal may. 
 be said to have some one other among the metals for which 
 it has a strong affinity orliking which it will manifest when- 
 ever and wherever you give it an opportunity. It is of 
 course easy to see that this idea is based upon a misconcep- 
 tion of the laws of chemical aflnnity. Having this idea they 
 make rods which are suitable for, or which it is supposed 
 will work in particular metals. I knew a very clever man 
 who had been bitten by this theory and he told me how he 
 
 had constructed his rod. Knowing that gold has a strong 
 chemical affinity for tellurium, he procured a bar of the 
 latter metal and lashed it between the ends of two pieces 
 of whalebone. Taking the other ends of the whalebones, 
 one in each hand and holding them in the manner de- 
 scribed, he walked over a ledge in which he knew there 
 was gold. Sure enough the rod turned down, without, he 
 said, and I did not disbelieve him, any conscious effort 
 on his part. He made a number of similar experiments 
 which resulted in the same way. In some of these he 
 did not know until afterwards that there was any gold 
 present. I prepared two specimens of gravel, one with 
 and one without gold and he tried the rod upon each. 
 The rod bent in the former and failed to move in the 
 latter, and my friend was triumphant as might naturally 
 have been expected. He accounted for the movement of 
 the rod by saying that he supposed there was some inhuman 
 form of electricity akin to that which attracts iron to a mag- 
 net. I suggested to him that if this was the case and if 
 gold was attracted by or would attract tellurium, it was per- 
 fectly evident that it would do so under any and all circum- 
 stances. To this he agreed. I then suggested the following 
 experiment. We placed the bar of tellurium in one pan of 
 an assayer's scales, accurately balancing it with common 
 sand. Placing the scales in a large bell receiver we ex- 
 hausted the air as far as possible and introduced two ounces 
 of fine gold under the pan having in it the tellurium bar. It 
 is perhaps scarcely necessary to say the index of the scales 
 did not move. Somewhat chagrined by the result my 
 friend suggested that it might be that the human body sup- 
 plied a form of electricity necessary to the experiment. I 
 then took a common wooden rolling pin and bored eight 
 holes in it in which I inserted pegs six inches long. Weigh- 
 ing out seven portions of sand, each of which balanced the 
 tellurium bar, we bound these to the ends of seven of the 
 pegs, binding the tellurium bar to the end of the eighth. 
 The apparatus looked something like a wheel from which 
 the felloe and tire have been removed ; and by holding the 
 handles the whole thing could be spun around with the 
 greatest ease. But, and in this lay the value of the test, by 
 no possible means could the person holding the handles 
 cause the pegs to move. Placing the tellurium peg on top, 
 as the stem of the Y shaped rod had been, we, or rather he, 
 tried it on rock containing gold, or pure gold, gold in alloy 
 and finally upon three ledges on which the rod had worked 
 perfectly. Upon none of these did the machine turn. We 
 then substituted for the tellurium some mercury with the 
 same result. Being then as anxious to prove the rod theory 
 a failure as he had formerly been to convince me it was a 
 success, my friend went to several " rod makers " in the 
 place and procured from them their rods which had been 
 used many times and always with success. Removing the 
 mysterious charms which were supposed to attract or to be 
 attracted by the gold, he placed them in turn upon the ap- 
 paratus, but the thing would not turn. There was in the 
 neighborhood a man whose rods were celebrated as being 
 always reliable and who was himself believed to have the 
 " gift " to an extraordinary degree. By telling him that the 
 rolling pin was a German rod which I had brought from 
 Heidelberg, we persuaded him to use it over a ledge in which 
 we all three knew there was gold, but even in his hands the 
 rolling pin refused to move. In this case the eighth peg had 
 on it a charm taken from a rod manufactured and often 
 used by the man himself; who by the by pronounced the 
 German rod to be useless, and taking one of his own showed 
 us how it would turn down whenever he crossed the ledge — 
 which in fact, it did. We then took the original whalebone 
 rod a small bag of sand having been fastened to the tip, and 
 gave it to the manvvith the " gift. " Of course he supposed 
 that the bag contained one of the charms. In his hands the 
 rod so prepared turned down every time he crossed the ledge, 
 although feebly. He told me that the charm in the bag 
 was not a good one, but that if he had the rod made by him 
 and lent to us he could make it work. This rod was the one 
 from which we had taken the charm, then attached to the 
 rolling pin. When this had been done however, a bag of 
 sand had been substituted for it. Giving him the rod, we 
 found that it worked perfectly, whirling around in his hands 
 the moment he placed his foot upon the ledge. The result 
 of these experiments was satisfactory as far as they went. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 785 
 
 There was one more however, which I was anxious to try 
 and the next day we invited the man with the "gift" to 
 come over to my friend's place. In the meantime we took 
 the charm from the rolling pin and replaced it upon his 
 rod. When he came I broached the theory that the cause 
 of the rods working was the weight on the tip, and that the 
 charms had nothing to do with it. This the man with the 
 "gift" strongly combated. I suggested that we should try 
 it, and, he agreeing, I removed the charm from his rod and 
 substituted a bag of sand of the same weight. The rod was 
 then in precisely the same condition as it had been the day 
 before when, it had worked perfectly, the difference in the 
 experiment being that he was then aware of the change, 
 whereas, the day before he had been ignorant of it. We ad- 
 journed to the same ledge, and the rod in his hands refused 
 to work. Now it must be remembered that in none of these 
 experiments was there any conscious fraud on the part of 
 the operator — except -indeed, on my part, when I told the 
 man with the "gift" that the rolling pin was a rod from 
 Heidelberg. If I ever was convinced of anything, I was that 
 the man was sincere in his belief in the virtues of the rods 
 as prepared by him. A single experiment on his part con- 
 vinced me of this. He and I were together hunting speci- 
 mens from a placer-claim, and he was exceedingly anxious 
 that I should find gold in the dirt. I had tried some five or 
 six specimens without success, and he went down the stream 
 to find a spot from which we could take dirt that would 
 show color. In hunting for a place, he used the rod. Now 
 his one desire then was, that I should find gold, and, he»be- 
 lieved that the rod would show him where to tell me to take 
 a specimen. 
 
 It is a fact that the divining rod will turn down when the 
 person who carries it crosses a spot where he believes there 
 IS a ledge. I have seen this, not only in the case of the rod 
 complex, but when the simple witch-hazel rods have been 
 used by the Cornish miners. Nor have I had any reason to 
 doubt the perfect honesty of those using them. They be- 
 lieved that the rods worked of themselves, and were per- 
 fectly unconscious of doing anything to make them turn. 
 The reason why they turn, or at least my own theory upon 
 the subject, I may illustrate by citing an experiment which 
 I tried. Weighting a rod with two pounds of lead, I got 
 the gentleman who constructed the rod, with the tellurium 
 bar attached, to hold it in the prescribed manner. In per- 
 forming the experiment, I told him to rest his elbows upon 
 a table. This I did because, under such circumstances, he 
 would be able to resist the strain upon the muscles for the 
 longest time. I also told him to hold the rod tight. At the 
 end of three and a half minutes his hands began to tremble, 
 and at the end of five the rod turned slowly down. He said 
 that his hands were so tired he was unable to hold it up any 
 longer. I tried the same experiment myself and found that 
 he had accurately described the feeling in the hands. It 
 was, to use a slang expression, as if they had " lost their 
 grip." I found, too, that there was a feeling of soreness 
 along the inner side of the forearm, and that the nerves at 
 the wrists were quite painful. Now all those who had used 
 the rods, believing in them, had spoken of a tingling sen- 
 sation in the arms after the trials, and this they ascribed to 
 the currents of electricity which they believed to be excited 
 by the experiments. In the experiment just cited the weight 
 of the rod was enormously increased, for as a rule the charms 
 weigh about an ounce and a half— the average of nineteen 
 charms weighed by me was 4,665 centigrams — and the eflfect, 
 therefore, upon the muscles of those making the experiment 
 was proportionately increased. The fact that we knew the 
 experiment to be one which was simply a test ; that is, the 
 fact that we did not believe there was any power besides 
 that of gravity acting upon the rod, caused us to resist the 
 action longer and to strain the muscles more. But the ex- 
 periment proved to me that with a light rod and a desire to 
 yield to any attraction at once, the natural feeling of fatigue 
 might be easily mistaken for such attraction, especially when 
 combined with a full belief in the power exerted upon the 
 rod by the deposits. All believers in the rods tell you that 
 they must be held in the hands with the palms turned up 
 and the thumb side of the hand outward. I am not enough 
 of an anatomist to know whether this produces any unusual 
 strain upon the muscles, but I found that by taking the 
 heavily weighted rod in the reverse way ; that is, with the 
 60 
 
 backs of the hands up and the thumbs towards each other, 
 both my co-experimenter and I could keep the stem upright 
 for a much greater length of time ; and I, therefore, con- 
 cluded that the prescribed position for the hands during the 
 trials is one which causes the muscles to be exceedingly 
 sensitive to fatigue. I merely give this as a theory of my 
 own, adopted as the result of the experiments cited and not 
 as a fact. About the causes of the movement of the rod in 
 cases where the experimenters are honest, I have not, how- 
 ever, the slightest doubt ; and speaking of the honesty of 
 those using the rods, I must mention one fact, I found that 
 it was impossible to mistake the movement of the rod by 
 any voluntary action of the muscles. The rods, as held by 
 those using them, will often twist in the hands ; the whale- 
 bone becoming bent or the twig twisted to that extent that 
 the bark is sometimes broken. This cannot be imitated 
 voluntarily, and the fact of this twisting is appealed to by 
 those who use the rods to show two thmgs ; first, that they 
 are holding them tightly, and second, that there is some ex- 
 ternal force being exerted upon them. It would, certainly, 
 seem that the force of gravity as exerted upon the stem of a 
 small shaped twig, would not be sufficient to cause it to 
 twist in this way ; at least, I took one the same size and 
 shape as that which had turned on a gold ledge, and nailed 
 it to two sticks within six inches of the ground, and it did 
 not move, then I transposed the sticks to a pile of exceed- 
 ingly rich gold-ore and the rod remained upright as before. 
 I do not know if it be possible, anatomically speaking, for 
 the muscles of the hand and fingers to twist the rod in the 
 hand, but this 'is apparently what is done. It is certain that 
 in one of the experiments, that in which the man " with the 
 gift " had the rod prepared with the bag of sand in his hands, 
 he supposing that the charm was still on the rod, the whale- 
 bone bent in the manner described. There is another ex- 
 planation of this twisting which is possibly the correct one. 
 In the forked ends of the twig or the pieces of whalebone, 
 there is a considerable amount of spring, and it may be that 
 this is unconsciously taken advantage of to cause the stem 
 to turn. I have devoted a considerable amount of space to 
 this discussion of the divining rod for the simple reason 
 that it is not only one of the most widely spread beliefs 
 among miners, but because I have found instances where 
 money has been spent as a result of its use. Men have 
 bought charms on ledges solely upon the mystic information 
 conveyed by twigs or the rods complex, and as I cannot help 
 feeling that this is a great piece of folly on their part, I am 
 anxious, if possible, to aid in stopping it. I have, therefore, 
 given my own experiments at length, not that they possess 
 any great amount of intrinsic value, but because they served 
 to convince me that there was nothing in the theory and 
 nothing to be derived from the use of the rods ; and I hope 
 that my readers before giving their support to the practice, 
 before, if I may be permitted the expression, allowing them- 
 selves to be " rod -bitten," will test for themselves in some 
 such way as I have tested. To me, the theory that chemical 
 affinity can be correlative with anything like magnetic at- 
 traction, is one which I have never seen supported by any 
 test that would stand examination. 
 
 The Whims of Fortune. — Mining owes a great share 
 of the romance which attaches itself to it to the sudden 
 changes of fortune which it brings about. This is particu- 
 early true of mining for gold and silver. The prospectors, 
 or that class of men who spend their lives looking for de- 
 posits of the precious metals, are poor to-day and rich to- 
 morrow. The history of the West is full of these sudden 
 changes, and in nothing is this better shown than in the 
 fact that there is a common phrase or form of words used to 
 describe such a change. They say, " So and so has made a 
 strike." As it takes many instances of a certain defined 
 alteration in a man's life to introduce into the language a 
 phrase expressive of such alteration, we may reason not un- 
 fairly from the phrase to that which has caused it. As we 
 find that " making a strike " is one of the most common 
 group of words used, we may conclude that the doing so has 
 been a common thing. And as a matter of fact this is true. 
 Were the histories of the men who have risen to the posses- 
 sion of great wealth upon the Pacific Coast written, it would 
 be found that many of them if not the majority have ac- 
 quired their money as a result of "making strikes" in 
 mining. From the case of the pocket prospector whose 
 
786 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 credit has declined to that point that he is unable to obtain 
 a side of bacon, a bag of flour and a bag of beans, and 
 who, finding a pocket, takes from one to twenty thousand 
 dollars in a day or two, and spends it gloriously in a 
 spree which lasts anywhere from one month to twelve, to 
 that of the man who buys stock in a mine which is sup- 
 posed to be worthless and wakes up some morning to find 
 that he is worth millions as the result of his purchase, 
 all " make a strike.'' The Bonanza Firm are instances of 
 this, perhaps as good as could be selected. Years ago 
 Messrs. Flood and O'Brien were the proprietors of a saloon 
 on Washington street, in San Francisco ; Mr. Fair was a 
 miner, and Mr. Mackay a timber-man in the Mexican mine. 
 They made money in the Hale and Norcross, and put that 
 money where it would do the most good, in developing the 
 Consolidated Virginia and California. After driving the 
 drift 1200 feet they " made a strike "—they struck the Big 
 Bonanza, and fortune was the result. It is this chance of 
 making large amounts of money very suddenly which gives 
 its fascination to mining, to prospecting and to investments 
 in mines. 
 
 I remember the story of a friend of mine who went to 
 New Mexico. A Fellow of the Eoyal Chemical Society, 
 he had drifted into journalism in San Francisco, and his 
 ability and talents had raised him to a high place in his 
 adopted profession. He was engaged to go to a town in 
 New Mexico and there edit a paper to be started by a man 
 who believed that there was money in the venture. Two 
 weeks after their arrival in the place the owner of the 
 paper died and his companion, finding that the paper pro- 
 ject was at an end, was obliged to cast about for some- 
 thing to do. Having a little money, enough to purchase an 
 outfit, he joined himself to two others, and started on a pros- 
 pecting expedition. Striking into a new district, they found 
 ledges and located five claims. Clubbing their funds to- 
 gether, they sent the ex-journalist to San Francisco, where 
 he soon succeeded in selling the property for $21,0000 ; his 
 share, of course, being $7,000. Not a bad stake for a man 
 who two months before had found himself all but penni- 
 less in a frontier town. And mining history in the west 
 is flill of such instances. 
 
 Here is another case I remember, which has about it all 
 the elements of romance. A young engineer, by the name 
 of Jackson — all the names given are fictitious — who had 
 had some experience in mining, fell in love with the 
 daughter of a prominent merchant in San Francisco named 
 Smith. Young Jackson found that Miss Helen Smith re- 
 turned his affection with, so to speak, legal interest, and he 
 applied to Smith, p^re, for permission to marry his daughter. 
 Smith, p&re, being of the truculent order of sires, and know- 
 ing that Jackson had nothing but his profession as an en- 
 gineer to depend on, rejected the suit with much contumely 
 for the suitor. A consultation between the lovers revealed 
 the fact that Miss Helen said enough for him to wait, and 
 after many vows, Jackson left to seek his fortune. Two 
 years passed but he was not heard from, and during which 
 time there were many applications made by unexception- 
 able men for Miss Helen's hand, and a very pretty hand it 
 was, too. She rejected each and all, preferring to wait as she 
 had promised, and being fully convinced that in time her 
 lover would return. At the end of the two years, or, to be 
 exact, at the end of two years and three months, Jackson 
 came back. He told his story to sympathizing ears, how he 
 had gone prospecting and had worked without success until 
 his money was exhausted ; how he had then labored as a 
 miner until he saved enough to buy provisions for another 
 trip; how he had gone on that trip and failed again ; how 
 he had once more gone to work and got another "grub 
 stake " saved up ; how he had joined a party and traveled 
 into Idaho ; how they had found a ledge of rich ore and 
 opened it: how the ledge widened as it went down, and 
 proved to be exceedingly valuable,' and how he was in San 
 Francisco as a representative of the party for the purpose 
 of interesting capital in the mine. What girl could listen 
 unmoved to such a story, especially when told by the lips 
 of her lover, to whom she had been true during the weary 
 months, and who she found was true to her ; certainly not 
 Miss Helen. As Jackson's prospects were as yet somewhat 
 misty, they agreed that they would wait a little longer before 
 trying to obtain the consent of Smith, pere. It was not long, 
 
 however. Jackson's specimens were sufficiently good to in- 
 duce men with money to look into the matter, the mine was 
 found upon examination to be all that was claimed for it, and 
 $80,000 was paid for sixty per cent, of the claim. The capital- 
 ists who had bought in were sufficiently well pleaded with the 
 young fellow who had brought the mine to their notice, to 
 think he would make a good superintendent, and they offered 
 him the place with $20,000, ten per cent, of the stock in the 
 mine, and the position of superintendent. Jackson once 
 more went to Smith, pere. The old man had found out by 
 this time, that if his daughter did not marry the man of 
 her choice she would not marry anyone, and 1 suppose that 
 he was pleased with the way in which his would-be son-in- 
 law had shown what there was in him. Besides, it must be 
 conceded that the prospects of the young couple were in- 
 finitely better than they had been before. And so the con- 
 sent was given, and the wedding took place, all parties 
 appearing to forget the unpleasant intei-view of two and a 
 half years back. What story of the olden days when 
 knights went forth in full armor to win for their ladies fair 
 castle and broad possessions is more romantic than this of 
 young Jackson ? What Knight battled more strongly with 
 axe and lance than did Jackson with pick and drill? And 
 what "fair ladye" was more true to her absent knight dur- 
 ing the long, weary days, than was the charming girl, 
 whose personality I have hidden under the somewhat un- 
 poetical name of Smith ? This story, as I have told it, is 
 literally and exactly true, and is not, as might be possibly 
 imagined, an extract from an unpublished novel. 
 
 In speaking of the romance of mining, an article would 
 be incomplete were that strange institution or custom of 
 " partnerships " in the west unmentioned. " Pards," as 
 they are ordinarily called, are men, who from mutual liking 
 when thrown together, form the closest kind of friendships. 
 In a mode of life which is full of strange vicissitudes, men 
 get to know each other as they never can under other cir- 
 cumstances, and it may well be said that their affection 
 for each other passes that of brothers. A man not only 
 backs up his " pard " on every and all occasions, but any 
 other line of conduct on his part would excite no small 
 degree of surprise among his .acquaintances. Instances of 
 heroism which seem almost sublime, have been common 
 enough, and some of them have been wedded to verse which 
 will live as a record of what a man can do for his friend. 
 The remark, " He was my pard," is a key to the origin of 
 many a deed which kindles the eye and makes the blood 
 run faster of those who hear the story told. Self-sacrifice 
 of a kind which is sublime, and love almost surpassing that 
 of a mother for her child, have glorified and ennobled 
 " pardnership ;" though the word be uncouth, it describes a 
 very beautiful thing. I cannot close my brief allusion to 
 it better than by quoting the poem which commemorates 
 what one " pard " did for his friend. 
 
 IN THE TUNNEL. 
 
 Here in this tunnel 
 He was my pardner, 
 That same Tom Flynn, 
 
 Working together 
 
 In wind and weather, 
 Day out and in. 
 
 Didn't know Flynn ? 
 
 Well, That is queer ; 
 Why, it's a sin 
 To think of Tom Flynn,— 
 
 Tom with his cheer, 
 
 Tom without fear — 
 Stranger, look 'yar! 
 
 Thar in the drift, 
 Back to the wall 
 He held the timbers 
 
 Ready to fall ; 
 
 Then, in the darkness, 
 I heard him call : 
 
 " Run for your life, Jake ! 
 Run for your wife's salce! 
 Don't wait for me." 
 And that w.as all. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 787 
 
 Heard in the din, 
 Heard of Tom Flynn,- 
 Flynn of Virgin'. 
 
 — Alfred Balch. 
 
 DOWN IN A UTAH MINE. 
 
 B' 
 
 I EEN down a mine! What on earth did you do that 
 for ?" said the elder Sheridan to the younger. 
 "Oh, just to say that I had done it," was the 
 reply. 
 
 " To say that you had done it ! Good gracious ! Couldn't 
 you have said that without going down a mine ?" 
 
 No, Mr. Sheridan, you could not ; at least not in these lat- 
 ter days. Too many people do it now for the impostor to 
 remain undiscovered. Take my own case, for instance. I 
 have often read descriptions of mine descents and thought I 
 knew how it happened and how ore was got out. But no 
 one ever told me that you had to go paddling about in water 
 half the time, or that mines were excavated upwards. Now, 
 then, if T had tried to pretend that I had been down a mine 
 I should have been promptly found out, by my ignorance 
 of the two first facts that strike one. Again, it is very sim- 
 ple work imagining the descent of a "shaft" in a "cage." 
 But unfortunately a "cage" is only a platform to stand on 
 without either sides or top, and not, therefore, such a cage 
 as one would buy to keep a bird in, or as would keep a bird 
 in if one did buy it. Nor without actually experiencing it 
 could anybody guess that the first sensation of whizzing 
 down a pipe, say 800 feet, is that of seeming to lose all your 
 specific gravity, and that the next (after you had partially 
 collected your faculties) is that you are stationary yourself, 
 but that the timbers that line the shaft are all flying upwards 
 past you like sparks up a chimney. Mines, of course, differ 
 from one another just as the men who go down them do, but 
 as far as I am concerned all " mines " are puddly places, and 
 the sensations of descent are ridiculous — for I have only 
 ■ been down one in my life. The* mine to which I refer, then, 
 is the " Ontario," in Utah, which may be said, in the pre- 
 posterous vernacular of the West, to be a "terrible fine" 
 
 mine, or, in other words, a " big thing,"that is to say 
 
 a " daisy." As for daisies, anything that greatly takes the 
 fancy or evokes especial admiration is called a daisy. Thus 
 I heard a very much respected Mormon Bishop, who is also 
 a director of a railway, described by an enthusiastic admirer 
 as " a daisy I" 
 
 Finding myself in Park " City " one evening — it is a min- 
 ing camp dependent chiefly upon the Ontario — I took a walk 
 up the street with a friend. Every other house appeared to 
 be a saloon, with a doctor's residence sandwiched in between 
 — a significantly convenient arrangment perhaps in the days 
 when there was no " Protective Committee" in Park City, 
 but — so I am told — without much practical benefit to the 
 public in these quiet days, when law-abiding citizens do 
 their own hanging, without troubling the county sheriff', who 
 lives somewhere on the other side of a distance. The result 
 of this is that bad characters do not stay long enough in 
 Park City now to get up free fights and make work for the 
 doctors. The Protective Committee invites them to " get " 
 as soon as they arrive, and, to do them credit, they " get." 
 
 However, as I was saying, I took a walk with a friend 
 along the street and presently became aware above me, high 
 upon the hillside, of a great collection of buildings, with count- 
 less windows (I mean that I did not try to count them) lit up 
 and looking exactly like some night scene in a melodrama. 
 These were the mills of the Ontario, which work night and 
 day and seven days to the week, a perpetual flame like that of 
 the Zoroastrians and as carefiilly kept alive by stalwart 
 stokers as ever was Vestal altar-fire by the girl-priestesses of 
 Rome. It was a picturesque sight, with the huge hills loom- 
 in up black behind and their few pine-trees showing out 
 dimly against the darkening sky. Next morning I went up 
 to the mine— and down it. Having costumed myself in gar- 
 ments that made getting dirty a perfect luxury, I was taken 
 to the " shaft." Now, I had expected to see an unfathoma- 
 bly black hole in the ground with a rope dangling down it, 
 but instead of that I found myself in a spacious boarded 
 
 shed, with a huge wheel standing at one end and a couple of 
 iron uprights with a crossbar standing up from the floor at 
 the other. Round the wheel was coiled an enormous length 
 of a six-inch steel-wire band, and the disengaged end of the 
 band, after passing over a beam, was fastened to the cross- 
 bar above mentioned. On the bridge of the wheel stood an 
 engineer, the Rhadamanthus, arbiter of fates, who is per- 
 petually unwinding victims down from stage to stage of the 
 Inferno and winding up the redeemed from limbo to limbo. 
 Having propitiated him by an affectation of intelligence as 
 to the machinery he controlled, we took our places under the 
 crossbar, between the stanchions, and suddenly the floor — 
 as innocent-looking and upright-minded a bit of boarded 
 floor as you could wish to stand on — ^gave way beneath us, 
 and down we shot apud inferos, like the devils in " Der 
 Freischiitz." We had our lamps in our hand and they gave 
 just light enough for me to see the dripping wooden walls 
 of the shaft flashing past, and then I felt myself becoming 
 lighter and lighter— a mere butterfly — imponderable. But 
 it doesn't take many seconds to fall down 800 feet, and long 
 before I had expected it I found we were " at the bottom." 
 Our explorations then began; and very queer it all was, 
 with the perpetual gushing of springs from the rock and the 
 bubble and splash of the waters as they ran along on either 
 side the narrow tunnels, the meeting at corners with little 
 oars being pushed along by men who looked, as they bent 
 low to their work, like those load-rolling beetles that natura- 
 lists tell us of; the machinery for pumping, so massive that it 
 seemed much more likely that it was found where it stood, 
 the vestiges of a long-past subterranean civilization, than 
 that it had been brought down there by the men of these 
 degenerate days ; the sudden endings of the tunnels that the 
 miners were driving along the vein, with a man at each end- 
 ing, his back bent to fit into the curve which he had made 
 in the rock, and reminding one of the frogs that science tells 
 us are found at times fitted into holes in the middle of 
 stones ; the climbing up hen-roost ladders from tunnel to 
 tunnel, from one darkness into another ; the waiting at dif- 
 ferent spots till "that charge had been blasted," and the 
 dull, deadened roar of the explosion had died away ; the 
 watching the solitary miners at their work pecking and 
 thumping at the discolored strips of dark rock that looked 
 to the uninitiated only like water-stained, mildewy accidents 
 in the general structure, but which in reality was silver, and 
 yielding, it might be, $1,600 to the ton. " I'his is all very 
 rich ore," said my guide, kicking a heap that I was standing 
 on. I got off it at once, reverentially. But reverence for the 
 Mother of the Dollar gradually dies out, for everything 
 about you, above you, beneath you, is silver or silverish — 
 dreadful rubbish to look at, it is true, but the spirit of the 
 great metal in it all none the less ; that fairy Argentine who 
 builds palaces for men and gives them if they choose, all the 
 pleasures of the world and the leisure wherein to enjoy 
 them. And there they stood, these latter-day Cyclops, 
 working away like the gnomes of the Hartz Mountains or 
 the entombed artificers of the Bear Kings of Dardistan, with 
 their lanterns glowing at the end of the tunnels like Kanthi 
 gem which Shesh, the fabled snake-god, has provided for his 
 gloomy empire of mines under the Nagas hills. Unless 
 crystals glittered on every side as if they were jewels, and 
 the water dripping down the sides glistened as if it was sil- 
 ver, but the pretty hypocrisy was of no avail. For though 
 the ore itself was dingy and ugly and uninviting, the ruth- 
 less pick pursued it deeper and deeper into its retreat, and 
 only struck the harder the darker and uglier it got. It re- 
 minded me, watching the miner at his work, of the fairy 
 story where the prince in disguise has to kill the lady of his 
 love in order to release her from the enchantments which 
 have transformed her, and how the wicked witch makes her 
 take shape after shape to escape the resolute blows of the 
 desperate lover. But at last his work is accomplished and 
 the ugly thing stands before him in all the radiant beauty 
 of her true nature. And it is a long process and a costly 
 one before the lumps of heavy dirt which the miner pecks 
 out of the inside of the hill are transformed into those hun- 
 dredweight blocks of silver bullion which the train from 
 Park City carries every morning of the year into Salt Lake 
 City. From first to last it is pretty much as follows. Re- 
 member I am not writing for those who live inside mines ; 
 very much on the contrary. I am writing for those who 
 
788 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 have uever been down a mine in their lives, but who may 
 care to read an unscientific description of " mining," and 
 the Ontario mine in particular. 
 
 In 1872 a couple of men made a hole in the ground, and 
 finding silver ore in it offered the hole for sale at thirty 
 thousand dollars. A clever man, R. 0. Chambers by name, 
 happened to come along, and liking the look of the hole, 
 joined a friend in the purchase of it. The original diggers 
 thus pocketed thirty thousand dollars for a few days' work, 
 and no doubt thought they had done a good thing. But 
 alas ! That hole in the ground which they were so glad to 
 get rid of ten years ago now yields every day a larger sum in 
 dollars than they sold it for ! The new owners of the hole, 
 which they christened " The Ontario Mine," were soon at 
 work, but instead of following them through the different 
 stages of development, it is enough to describe what that 
 hole looks like and produces to-day. 
 
 A shaft, then, has been sunk plumb down into the moun- 
 tain for 900 feet, and from this shaft, at every 100 feet as you 
 go down, you find a horizontal tunnel running off" through 
 the mountain. If you stop in your descent at any one of 
 these tunnels and walk along it — water rushing along over 
 your feet and the vaulted rock dripping overhead — you will 
 find that a line of rails has been laid down along it and that 
 the sides and roofs are strongly supported by timbers of 
 great thickness. These timbers are necessary to prevent, in 
 the first place, the rock above from crushing down through 
 the roof of the tunnel, and in the next, from squeezing in its 
 sides, for the rock every now and then swells and the sides 
 of the tunnels bulge in. The rails are, of course, for the 
 cars which the miners fill with ore and which are. then 
 pushed along to the " stage ; " the miner signals by a bell 
 which communicates with the engineer at the big wheel in 
 the shed I have already spoken of, and there being a regu- 
 lar code of signals, the engineer knows at once where the 
 loaded car is waiting, and how far therefore he is to let the 
 cage down. Up goes the oar with its load into the day-light, 
 and then its troubles begin. But meanwhile let us stay a 
 few minutes more in the mine. Walking along any one of 
 the main horizontal tunnels, we come at intervals to a lad- 
 der, and going up one of them we find that a stope, or 
 smaller gallery, is being run parallel with the tunnel in 
 which we are walking, and of course, as it follows the same 
 direction of the ore, immediately over that tunnel, so that 
 the roof of the tunnel is the floor of the stope. The stopes 
 are just wide enough for a man to work in easily and are as 
 high as he can reach easily with his pickaxe, about seven 
 feet. If you walk along one of these stopes you come to 
 another ladder and find it leads to another stope above, and 
 goingup this you find just the same again, until you become 
 aware that the whole mountain above you is pierced 
 throughout the length of the ore vein by a series of seven- 
 foot galleries lying exactly parallel one above the other, and 
 separated only by a sufficient thickness of pine timber to 
 make a solid floor for each. But at every hundred feet, as 
 I have said, there comes a main tunnel, down to which all 
 the produce of the minor galleries above it is shot down by 
 " shoots," loaded into cars and pushed along to the shaft. 
 But silver ore is not the only thing that the company gets 
 out of its mine, for unfortunately the mountain in which 
 the Ontario is located is full of springs, and the miner's pick 
 is perpetually, therefore, letting the water break into the 
 tunnels, and in such volume too that I am informed it costs 
 as much to rid the works of the water as to get out the sil- 
 ver I Streams gurgle along all the tunnels, and here and 
 there ponderous bulkheads have been put up to keep the 
 water and the loosened rock from falling in. Pumps of 
 tremendous power are at work at several levels, throwing the 
 water up towards the surface — one of these at the 800-foot 
 level throwing 1,500 gallons a minute up the 500-foot level. 
 Following a car-load of ore we find it, having reached the 
 surface, being loaded into wagons in which it is carried 
 down the hillto the mills, weighed, and then shot down 
 into a gigantic bin — in which, by the way, the company 
 always keep a reserve of ore suflScient to keep the mills in 
 full work for two years. From this hour life becomes a bur- 
 den to the ore, for it is hustled about from machine to ma- 
 chine without the least regard to its feelings. No sooner is 
 it out of the wagon than a brutal crusher begins smashing 
 it up into small fragments, the result of this meanness being 
 
 that the ore is able to tumble through a screen into cars 
 that are waiting for it down below. These rush up-stairs with 
 it again and pour it into hoppers, which, being in the 
 conspiracy too, begin at once to spill it into gigantic dry 
 ing cylinders that are perpetually revolving over a terrific 
 furnace fire, and the ore, now dust, comes streaming out as 
 dry as dry can be, is caught in cars and wheeled off' to bat- 
 teries where forty stampers, stamping like one, pound and 
 smash it as if they took a positive delight in it. There is 
 an intelligent, deliberate determination about this fearful 
 stamping which makes one feel almost afraid of the ma- 
 chinery. Some pieces, however, actually manage to escape 
 sufficient mashing up and slip away with the rest down into 
 a " screw conveyer," but the poor wretches are soon found 
 out, for the fiendish screw conveyer empties itself on to a 
 screen, through which all the pulverized ore goes shivering 
 down, but the guilty lumps still remainingare carried back by 
 another ruthless machine to those detestable stamps again. 
 They cannot dodge them. For these machines are all in 
 the plot together. Or rather, they are the honest workmen 
 of good masters, and they are determined that the work 
 shall be thoroughly done, and that not a single lump of ore 
 shall be allowed to skulk. So without anyone to look after 
 them these cylinders and stampers, hoppers and dryers, ele- 
 vators and screens go on with their work all day, all night, re- 
 lentless in their duty and pitiless to the ore. Let a lump dodge 
 them as it may it gets no good by it, for the one hands it 
 over to the other, just as constables hand over a thief they 
 have caught, and it goes its rounds till the end eventually 
 overtakes it, and it falls through the screen in a fine dust. 
 For its sins it is now called " pulp," and starts oflf on a 
 second tour of sufi^ering — for these Inquisitors of iron and 
 steel, these blind, brutal Cyclops-machines, have only just 
 begun, as it were, their fun with their victim. Its tortures 
 are now to be of a more searching- and refined description. 
 As it falls through the screen another screw-conveyer catch- 
 es sight of it and hurries it along a revolving tube into 
 which salt is being perpetually fed fi:om a bin overhead — 
 this salt allow me to say for the benefit of those as ignorant 
 as myself, is "necessary as a chloridizer" — and thus mixed 
 up with the stranger, falls into the powerof a hydraulic ele- 
 vator, which carries it up forty feet to the top of a roasting 
 furnace and deliberately spills the mixture into it. Looking 
 into the solid flame I appreciated for the first time in my 
 life the courage of Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego. 
 They were young men of great nerve. There is no doubt of 
 that whatever in my mind. 
 
 The mixture which fell in at the top bluish-gray comes 
 out at the bottom yellowish-brown — I only wonder at its 
 coming out at all — and is raked into heaps that have a 
 wicked, lurid color and give out such fierce short flames of 
 brilliant tints and fierce short blasts of a poisonous gas that 
 I could not help thinking of the place where bad men go to, 
 and wondering if Satan could not get a hint or two for im- 
 proving damnation by a visit to the Ontario roasting-furnace. 
 The men who stir these heaps use rakes with prodigious 
 handles and wear wet sponges over their mouths and noses, 
 and as I watched them I remembered Dante's devils who 
 keep on prodding up the damned and raking them about 
 over the flames. But the ore submits without any howl- 
 ing or gnashing of teeth, and is dragged off' dumb and 
 soused into great churns, kept at a boiling heat, in which 
 quicksilver is already lying waiting, and the ore and the 
 quicksilver are then churned up together by revolving 
 wheels inside the pans till the contents look like huge 
 caldrons of bubbling chocolate. After some hours they 
 are drained off" into settlers and cold water is let in upon 
 the mess, and lo! silver as bright as the quicksilver with 
 which it is mixed comes dropping out through the spout 
 at the bottom into the canvas bags. Much of the quick- 
 silver drips through the canvas back into the pans, and 
 the residue silver, mixed with quicksilver, makes a cold, 
 hoavy, white paste called an " amalgam, " which is car- 
 ried off" into ^ars to the retorts. Into these it is thrown, 
 and while lying there the quicksilver goes on dripping 
 away from the silver and after a time the fires are lig-hted 
 and the retort sealed up. The intense heat that is ob- 
 tained volatalizes the quicksilver, but this mercurial vapor 
 is caught as it is escaping at the top of the retort, again 
 condensed into its solid form and again used to mix with 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 789 
 
 fresh silver ore. Its old companion, the silver, goes on 
 melting inside the retort all the time, till at last when 
 the fires are allowed to cool down it is found in irregular 
 lumps of a pink-looking substance. These lumps are then 
 taken to the crucibles and passing from them, molten 
 and refined, fall into moulds, each holding " about a hun- 
 dred weight of bullion. And all thia bother and fuss, 
 reader, to obtain these eight or ten blocks of metal ! 
 True, but then that metal is silver, and with one single 
 day's produce from the Ontario Mine in the bank to his 
 credit a man might live like a gentlenian in London all 
 the days of his life, like a nobleman in Paris or like a 
 prince in Vienna 1 
 
 —N. r. World. 
 
 SOCIAL LIFE IN THE MINES AND THE 
 SURROUNDING INFLUENCES. 
 
 Fi 
 
 JUSTIN, who wrote during the third century of our 
 era, obtaining his materials from a still earlier his- 
 torian, informs us that the Lydians were habituated 
 to indolence, gaming, and licentiousness. The 
 Lydians were the inhabitants of the earliest gold-mining 
 country of whose industry we have any account, and 
 although Justin's opinion does not wholly warrant the con- 
 clusion that they derived the character he has given them 
 from the influence of the mines, what we know of the 
 opulation of other great mining countries leads us to be- 
 ieve that this was the fact. Notwithstanding the immense 
 lapse of time since the earlier Argonautic expeditions, and 
 the scantiness of any literature relating to them, it is not 
 difficult to discern a common character in the populations 
 of all the ancient mining countries of importance, Lydia, 
 Greece, Italy, and Spain. Nor can the glamour which 
 heroic history has thrown over their actions conceal from us 
 the fact that this character belonged also to the Spanish and 
 Portuguese gold-seekers in America. 
 
 Nevertheless, until we come to California and Australia, 
 the social influences of the mines cannot be traced with that 
 certainty which would warrant any practical use of the in- 
 ferences they afford. Here the view is a clear one. Here 
 for the first time in history the mines were worked by free 
 men. Here there was neither slavery, nor serfdom, nor 
 peonage. The character of the miners did not come from 
 the conditions of their service, as it might have done in all 
 previous cases. In this case it can only be attributed to the 
 nature of the industry ; and hence from the light obtained 
 in this nearest view of the influence of mining we are 
 enabled to go back some thousands of years in history, and 
 determine the social influences of the mines in the most 
 remote times. 
 
 Years have rolled over the graves that stud the gold-fields 
 of California and Australia ; the histories, even the names 
 of the dead are forgotten, and the circumstances of disease, 
 destitution and violence through which they passed 
 from life have fallen into oblivion. The best, often the only 
 accounts of these scenes are contained in the newspapers of 
 the day ; but as these are not accessible to the general reader, 
 it has been deemed more desirable, though it greatly restricts 
 the range of observation, to cite only such particulars as lie 
 within general reach. In conformity with this plan the 
 following details relating to early mining on the Pacific 
 coast have been taken from volumes usually to be found in 
 public libraries. 
 
 Gold was discovered in California, January 19th, 1848. 
 Although the discoverers, Marshall and Sutter, tried to con- 
 ceal their good fortune (it eventually ruined both of them) 
 the news leaked out ; and in the course of a few months the 
 diggings around their now historic mill were occupied by at 
 least 4,00.0 men of whom a moiety were Indians, some partly 
 domesticated, and the others wild. As to the white miners, 
 it will be profitable to consider their characters more in de- 
 tail ; first, because it is a necessary and common one to all 
 first-comers in placer mines ; second, because, although it 
 becomes eflfaced in time, it nevertheless lasts long enough to 
 impress itself upon the earlier institutions of placer-mining 
 
 countries when they come to be settled. Placer mines when 
 first discovered, and while the gold is easily found, common- 
 ly afford a profitable refuge to a class of men who cannot 
 thrive elsewhere, to adventurers, outcast, fugitives from jus- 
 tice, bullies, and felons. In their train follows a class of 
 law and ordinance-breakers of the softer sex. However 
 rapidly new additions to the community may improve its 
 character, the influence of the first arrivals is bound to be 
 felt for a long time. They are the older and the richer. 
 The laws already established were framed in accordance 
 with their habits, the customs already in vogue were moulded 
 by their necessities, and their social peculiarities are perpet- 
 uated for generations. In other communities vice is lost in 
 a mass of healthy surroundings ; in the early days of a pla- 
 cer-mining country there is so little sound environment that 
 vice is paramount, and gives law and custom to the future 
 community. It is evident that placers rich enough to invite 
 miners are to be found in old or well-settled countries. The 
 soil of these countries has been completely turned over by 
 the plough, and if there was ever gold enough in it to be 
 worth searching for, it has long since been extracted. Gold 
 placers are therefore only found . in new and unexplored 
 countries, beyond the pale of civilization, beyond the do- 
 main of the agricultural pioneer, beyond even the outposts 
 of the trader. Such countries are destitute of the means of 
 subsistence to bodies of men in permanent settlements. 
 There is no other protection forproperty and life than such 
 as may arise out of the forbearance and justice of the assem- 
 bled adventurers. There is no assistance to be obtained in 
 case of sickness or accident ; there are no women ; there are 
 no children. To such a country, until it becomes better 
 settled, few prudent persons would seriously think of emi- 
 grating. It follows as a necessary consequence that, at the 
 outset, placer mines are occupied chiefly by the reckless 
 and the desperate, few others being willing to encounter 
 their dangers, inclemencies, and deprivations. This, as we 
 shall find from the evidences open to us, often that of the men 
 themselves, was the character of the Argonauts of Califor- 
 nia. It was likewise that of the first settlers in the gold- 
 fields of Australia. The first-comers at Sutter's mill were 
 from the" surrounding country, from Southern California, 
 and from the Sandwich Islands. " The miners were by no 
 means exclusively Americans. They consisted of every 
 kindred and class. There were already some Indians, Mex- 
 icans from Sonora, Kanakas from the Sandwich Islands, 
 settlers from Oregon, mixed with the usual dash of Spanish, 
 British, German, and French adventurers, that had for a 
 long time existed in California. Later months were to bring 
 other Mexicans, Chinese, Peruvians, and Chilians, and all 
 these before the great impending immigration of Americana 
 and Europeans." 
 
 So much for the origin of the Califomian Argonauts ; as 
 to their moral character we have it here painted by compan- 
 ions and lookers on. "Among the people engaged in the 
 mines there are many runaway sailors, deserters from tlie 
 army, trappers, and mountaineers, who are naturally idle, 
 dissipated, and dissolute ; in short, taken in the aggregate, 
 the miners are the worst kind of labouring population. 
 
 " The miners who survive and return home may carry 
 gold with them, but their morals and manners will have 
 been ruined. The risk is too gr«at for the reward." ... "I 
 can think of but few men whom I would advise to come to 
 California." " The mines had no sooner been discovered 
 than crime commenced to increase." " Thefts, robberies, 
 murder, and other outrages of the most desperate and crim- 
 inal nature were taking place (in San Francisco) and there 
 were no proper officials to take cognizance of them and 
 bring the offenders to justice. Every man was intent on 
 merely making money, and provided an outrage did not in 
 a direct manner personally or pecuniarily affect himself, he 
 was content to shut his eyes to the ultimate consequences." 
 
 " Ever since the first great immigration many of the in- 
 habitants carried some weapon of defense secretly about 
 them. During the disturbed times in the early part of 
 1851, when nobody was safe from the assaults of despera- 
 does, even in the public street or in his own dwelling, the 
 practice of wearing deadly weapons became still more 
 common. 
 
 " These were often used, though not so much against the 
 robber and assassin as upon the old friend and acquaintance. 
 
790 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 or the stranger, when drink and scandal, time and circum- 
 stance had converted them into supposed enemies. 
 
 " The number of duels and especially of sudden personal 
 affrays was fearfully great. The general population of San 
 Francisco, with shame it must be confessed, in those days 
 as is still (1855) the case, to a considerable extent drank 
 largely of intoxicating liquors. Some scenes of a most sav- 
 age and atrocious description, ending occasionally in death, 
 took place between parties who were reputed to be of the 
 first class of citizens. Among the lower American orders, 
 and in all classes of foreigners, down to the vilest Greasers, 
 the same violent spirit of personal revenge and deadly out- 
 rage was common. 
 
 " On the slightest occasion, at a look or touch, an oath, a 
 single word of offense, the bowie-knife leaped from its sheath, 
 and the loaded revolver from the breast-pocket or secret case, 
 and death or severe wounds quickly closed the scene. The 
 spectators often shared in the same wild feelings and did not 
 always seek to interfere. The law was powerless to prevent 
 such conflicts. Men thought as little of their blood and lives 
 as of their money ; and to gratify high swelling passions 
 would madly waste them "all alike." 
 
 Of course there were exceptions to this general character, 
 and these exceptions increased in number every year ; but 
 that these descriptions of society during the first few years 
 of the placer settlements of California were truthful cannot 
 be doubted. The better class of Californians, both native 
 and settlers, stayed at home, stood by their fields and 
 flocks, and thereby reaped surer and greater gains in the 
 end.' 
 
 According to Mr. Newmarch the character of the first 
 gold settlements in Australia was much superior to those of 
 California. "In Victoria," says Mr. Newmarch, "as in 
 New South Wales, there were, long prior to the events of 
 1850, all the rudiments of an orderly and growing state. 
 There was a powerful central authority, equal laws, perfect 
 individual liberty, a population including wholesome pro- 
 portions of the sexes, solid and respectable banking institu- 
 tions, regular and frequent communications with the mother 
 country, and a fair command of the species of capital neces- 
 sary for the development of a new region." 
 
 This is strange language to hold in respect of a land which 
 was settled only sixty years before by 650 men and 200 
 women belonging to a class of infamous criminals, whose 
 former Governor was a despot armed with absolute power 
 over the lives of the convicts, where famine was frequent, 
 murder committed at any time for a few days' rations, and 
 rum was money. 
 
 If true, it can only be so in respect of the towns, and 
 merely goes to show that in the course of sixty years 
 assisted by a continual leavening of better colonists, even a 
 convict settlement can be turned to some good account. That 
 it is a correct description of the placer mining population of 
 Australia is denied. When the gold diggings were discov- 
 ered they were occupied by 9,000 ticket-of-leave men. 
 "The records of crime show that the terrible outrages 
 against life and property which were committed daily, both 
 in town and country, were almost exclusively the work of 
 convicts." And it may be added that there is not a sinister 
 lineament upon the social features of early California which 
 is not traced in darker lines upon those of Australia. 
 
 Societynear the Gold Mines. — The following extracts 
 will serve to illustrate the condition of society in the-vicinity 
 of newly discovered mines, the character of miners, the hard- 
 ships and risks of mining, the cost of living near the mines, 
 and the wear and tear of life. 
 
 "Kanakas, or Sandwich Islanders, the worst of laborers, 
 are now employed constantly about town in storing and 
 landing merchandise, at four shillings an hour each ; and 
 the most indifferent laborers are hired by the week together 
 at six or eight dollars a day. Mechanics obtain, when em- 
 ployed by the day, £1 12s. or £2 per day, and by the month 
 
 • When gold was discovered in 1848, one Louis Peralta, an old 
 Spanish soldier and adventurer, upwards of one hundred years of 
 age, said to his sons, who had attained the age of threescore : " You 
 had better not go after it, but let the Americans go ; you can go to 
 your ranch and raise grain, and tliat will be your best gold-field, be- 
 cause we all must eat while we live." Hall's " Hist, of San Jos6," 
 ed, San Francisco, p. 191, Bancroft, 1871. (San Jos^ was then the 
 capital of the State.) 
 
 about £1 4s Washing £1 12s. per dozen. . . 
 
 Waiters at the hotel £240 to £300 per yeaf ; head waiter, 
 £340. . ... For some time last summer (August and 
 July) the officers at Monterey were entirely without servants, 
 and the Governor (Col. Mason) actually took his turn in 
 cooking for the mess. . . . Whole cargoes of goods are 
 sold at an average of 150 per cent, clear profit, and ready 
 pay in gold dust. ... In a few months real estate 
 that cost me less than £160, I suppose I could now sell for 
 £1,600 or perhaps £2,000. . . . Something should be 
 done here at once for the establishment of peace and good 
 order in the country. All law, both civil and military, is at 
 an end. Among the mines, and indeed most parts of the 
 country out of the villages, no authority but that of the 
 strongest exists, and outrages of the most disgraceful nature 
 are constantly occurring and the offenders go unpunished." 
 
 Notwithstanding hardships and deprivations, many of the 
 miners were unsuccessful even so early as 1849. San Jose 
 was crowded with these men recruiting their purses by high- 
 way robbery, and seeking to drown remorse in drinking and 
 gambling. 
 
 In 1849 and 1850 " the canopy of heaven was the only 
 tent spread over the slumbering heads of thousands. Some 
 sheltered by canvas, had sheetless, nay blanketless beds, 
 some no beds at all." 
 
 At San Jose, in 1850, flour, £10 a barrel ; boots, £6 8s. a 
 pair ; eggs, 2s. each ; onions. Is. to 2s. each. 
 
 At San Jose, 1850 : " Crimes were numerous. It was 
 not safe to travel at night without being armed. The country 
 was so sparsely settled that it was difficult to catch crimi- 
 nals. Every few days some one was murdered in the 
 valley." 
 
 San Francisco, August, 1849 : " Many who went to the 
 mines returned unsuccessful, and report that the exertion 
 of getting gold is too great." 
 
 San Francisco, 1849 : " Potatoes, Is. 6d. a pound." 
 
 Sacramento, October 13, 1849 : " A meeting is called to- 
 day for the relief of those on their way overland ; they are 
 said to be dying by hundreds from thirst and hunger upon 
 the great desert." 
 
 " Hundreds were coming in daily from over the moun- 
 tains — sick, destitute, and almost starved. They met here 
 with harpies to prey upon them, and they were often com- 
 pelled to sell their teams for food enough to last them down 
 to Sacramento city." 
 
 "Quinine was in great demand at 4s. a grain. For a 
 shave at a barber's,. 4s." 
 
 " You have heard of the Battle of Life — it is a reality 
 here; the fallen are trampled into the mud and left to the 
 tender mercies of the earth and sky. No longer ago than 
 last night, I saw a man lying on the wet ground, unknown, 
 unconscious, uncared for, and dying. 'To-day, some one 
 with piore humanity than the rest, will have a hole dug 
 for him ; some one else will furnish an old blanket ; he will 
 be rolled up and buried, and his friends at home, who may 
 be as anxious about him as mine are about me, will never 
 know his fate. Money, money, is the all-absorbing object." 
 
 " There is no government, no law. Whatever depravity- 
 there is in a man's heart now shows itself without fear and 
 without restraint." 
 
 " A young man died in the street to-day. No one knew 
 him. In his pocket was an ounce of gold, a note-book, and 
 a Bible, the latter of the smallest size, with gilt edges and 
 tucks. In one place was a beautiful card, on which was 
 
 written in a lady s hand, ' Remember your friend and .' 
 
 In another was a card, worked with worsted and mounted 
 with silk ribbon, and the legend ' A sister's prayers go with 
 you.' Disappointment, drinking, gambling, and destitution 
 was the story." 
 
 " A pine-board building, ' no better than a barn,' 55 by 
 35 foet and IJ- stories high, the interior partitioned with 
 muslin, cost £3,000 ; it rented for £300 a month, or £3,600 
 a year. Wages of a cook, £50 a month." 
 
 " Butter, 6s. per pound ; fare from Sacramento to San 
 Francisco, £8." 
 
 Sacramento, Januarv, 1850 : " The people at home can 
 have no conception of tlie amount of suffering in the vicinity 
 of this city. Hundreds are encamped in tents through the 
 rains and storms, scantily supplied with food and covering. 
 Many were driven from the mines for want of food, and are 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 791 
 
 begging for employment, asking only subsistence. Yester- 
 day there were 25 deaths. The sickness does not arise 
 from the severity of the climate, which is no colder (now) 
 than November at home, but from a complication of causes. 
 The intermittents of the autumn are aggravated by over- 
 work, scanty and bad food, disappointment, and home- 
 sickness. Men in the ravings of delirium call upon friends 
 who are far off, and, dying, mutter the names of their loved 
 ones ; men wasting away with chronic disease lose their 
 manhood and weep often, like children, to see their mothers 
 once more." During the river flood of 1860, Dr. Stillman 
 wrote that some men who had been taken into the hospital 
 were " dying on the floor ; others, dead, are sewed up in 
 blankets and sunk in the water in a room on the first 
 floor." 
 
 " Gold washing is very hard work." . . . " I have been 
 to the mines, was sick, made nothing, and returned." 
 
 May 5, 1850 : " My friend, Hiram Bingham, goes home 
 by the next steamer. He was a member of our company. 
 He has been leading the nomadic life of a miner, and has 
 picked up about $2,000, which he will carry home. That 
 seems small compensation for all the dangers and hardships 
 passed through and the time spent ; yet it is better than the 
 average." 
 
 Speaking of an intelligent miner who, after years of 
 blighted hopes and unrequited toil, was preparing to return 
 home to his family, and died before he could do so. Dr. 
 Stillman says : " I went to see his corpse, and, as I gazed 
 upon him alone, I thought it was the saddest case I had 
 ever known. No one of that fond family was here — no hand 
 of affection to put back the locks that fell over that broad 
 forehead." 
 
 It is stated that so late as 1850, members of the legisla- 
 ture were paid in State scrip. January, 1851 : " Crime con- 
 tinues to be rife in San Jose and vicinity. Scarcely a day 
 passes without bringing something new to li^ht." 
 
 1852 : The history of the first few years of this decade is 
 blotted with crime throughout the State ; and San Jose has 
 not been fortunate enough to be excepted from the cata- 
 logue of criminal localities. Murder, highway robbery, and 
 stealing were the avocations followed by no small number. 
 The law permitted punishment by death, in the discretion 
 of a jury, upon, conviction of grand larceny. 
 
 January 30, 1852 : Theodore Basquez was executed for 
 stealing a horse. 
 
 November 18, 1852 : Ramon Romero was executed for 
 grand larceny. A license for gambling cost £100 a month 
 for each table. 
 
 Miners, poor and broken in health, were continually en- 
 tering the city for relief and medical attendance. 
 
 "No city on this continent has equalled San Francisco in 
 the prevalence of gambling, intemperance, licentiousness, 
 and kindred evils. A decided improvement in public morals 
 is said to have been made during the last year ; but whoever, 
 even now, takes a stroll through its streets, by night or by 
 day, will be convinced that the unenviable reputation it 
 has acquired is well deserved. " 
 
 "Among the miners, except for the protection of life and 
 property, the code of morals is generally a dead letter. " 
 
 According to the Federal Census of California for 1850 
 the number of females to males at the ages of 20 to 40 is 
 represented by the frightflil proportion of 4 to 100. " Here 
 then was a population composed almost wholly of male 
 adults at those ages — 20 to 40 — when the energies and pas- 
 sions are most active, and almost wholly unrestrained by 
 any of the duties claimed by infancy and old age, or by the 
 respect due to the presence of women. " 
 
 "Success in mining for gold in California is subject to 
 many contingencies, and mining, as a business, should be 
 classed with very hazardous pursuits. A good prospect 
 does not insure a good mine. Gold may be found there to a 
 large amount, but it may also happen that after the miner, 
 relying on the evidence given by his prospect, has toiled 
 for months, and expended a large sum of money in making 
 the necessary preparations to work his mine, he is doomed 
 at last to irremediable disappointment, and perhaps is made 
 penniless. " 
 
 " At Grass Valley and Nevada, the country around which 
 has thus far been regarded, as the most fruitful in gold, and 
 where quartz-mining especially has been prosecuted more 
 
 extensively than in any other section of California, several 
 quartz mills are now useless, the mines having failed for a 
 long time to yield a paying supply of gold. One of these 
 mills at Nevada cost £2,000, and several others £600 to 
 £1,000. All these quartz mines opened richly, and for 
 many months were very productive ; but at length the sup- 
 ply decreased, until the product did not pay the expense of 
 mining. . . . The same may be said or other parts of the 
 gold region. Scarcely a district can be mentioned, where 
 mines have been opened to any considerable extent, in 
 which miners have not been ruined by the erection of ex- 
 pensive mills, canals, flumes, or other fixtures for mining, 
 in leads and places which promised well at first, but which 
 too soon, disappointed their expectations. " 
 
 Diet and Privation among Miners.— Without as- 
 senting to all of the inductions presented by Mr. Buckle in 
 his " History of Civilization," that one may be safely ac- 
 cepted which asserts that the nature of the occupations in 
 which a community may be engaged, and the diet and other 
 physical circumstances to which it is exposed, have much 
 to do with the character of the institutions whose establish- 
 ment may follow. Of this rule we shall find that mining 
 communities offer a peculiar and further exemplification. 
 The labor of the Californian placers was intense and un- 
 remitting. The glare of gold was constantly in the men's 
 eyes, blinding them to the frightful bodily and mental risks 
 they ran, and to the many forms of death that lurked be- 
 hind them. They worked all day and often at night, ex- 
 posed at times to the scorching rays of a mid-day sun, and at 
 others to the destructive chills of damp nights. Stimulants 
 and medicines, purchased at extravagant prices, were em- 
 ployed to ward off disease and death ; while shelter, repose, 
 and moderate labor, the only true palliatives for the ills 
 that beset them, were shunned, because they interfered with 
 gold-getting. " The day was intensely hot, yet about 200 
 men were at work in the full glare of the sun, washing for 
 gold — some with tin-pans, some with close woven Indian 
 baskets, but the greater part had a rude machine known as 
 the cradle." . . . . "Recently there has been a reaction, 
 which brings many back from the mines and an active im- 
 migration is flowing from abroad. Sickness has broken out 
 among the miners, and many have returned prostrated with 
 fevers while others have come back to avoid being so . . 
 Flour and pork vary in the mines from £8 to £& per bar- 
 rel .... I saw a box of Seidlitz-powders, worth 2s. in 
 San Francisco, sold in the mines for £4 16s. grain gold ; and 
 was credibly informed that brandy had been sold at £9 12g. 
 per bottle ... I was in the mines about the 1st of July. 
 At that time the weather was insufferably hot. I think it by 
 far the most oppressive climate I was ever in. It is much 
 more uncomfortable than the climate of Brazil at the warm- 
 est season of the year, and everything was literally parched- 
 up, after a drought which had been continued for near three 
 months, and which had five months to run to the rainy sea- 
 son. The sea breezes which extend up the valley of the 
 Sacramento never pass the Sierra Nevada, and seldom pen- 
 etrate even the lateral valleys and ravines of those moun- 
 tains ; and there was not a breath of air moving among the 
 mines. The sun was blazing down with more than tropical 
 fervor, while his rays were reflected in ten thousand direc- 
 tions from the sides of the hills until the atmosphere glowed 
 and glimmered like the air in a furnace. I then foresaw 
 (what has since happened) that there would be much sick- 
 ness among the miners. These people had deserted their reg- 
 lar occupation, and a complete change of life and unnatural 
 climate could not fail to act unfavorably upon their hea th. 
 Their diet was bad, their labors were severe, and they were 
 exposed completely without shelter, in the daytime to a 
 burning sun, and at night to the chilly atmosphere of the 
 mountains. Many of them worked with their feet in the 
 water and inflamed their blood in a feverish state by a free 
 use of ardent spirits. The natural consequences followed. 
 Many are now sick with bilious and intermittent fevers, 
 dysenteries, camp-fevers, &c." " All live in tents, in bush 
 arbors, or in the open air." 
 
 " During the year commencing July 1st, 1848^ there will 
 be £1,100,000 removed from the mines . . . .' It is suf- 
 ficiently obvious that the country will be prematm-ely filled 
 by a restless, excitable, adventurous, and reckless population, 
 and that extended agricultural or mechanical improve- 
 
792 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ments are at an end for some years to come. Gambling and 
 all sorts of thoughtless profusion begin to prevail. The pre- 
 sent excitement will attract vast numbers of the idle, vicious 
 and dissolute. Refugees from justice from the United States 
 as well as other countries will flock to California among the 
 better disposed population, and will find shelter among the 
 almost inaccessible fastnesses of the mountains where such 
 mines of wealth are now opened. These regions are of vast 
 extent and are remote from the regular settlements, and 
 from the operations of the laws. In the solitary recesses of 
 the Sierra Nevada are little clusters of men, with nothing 
 but the trees for their covering, and no protection but their 
 own vigilance and strength. Many of these people are 
 known to possess very large amounts of gold (sometimes as 
 much as £4,000) wrapped in their blankets, where there is 
 no eye to see and no agent to pursue the guilty. Is it 
 strange when the temptation is so great, that the robber and 
 assassin should be abroad among the mountains ? Many 
 robberies and some murders are known already to have oc- 
 curred ; but little attention is excited by these events where 
 all are in the eager pursuit of wealth. No one can conjec- 
 ture the extent of these outrages ; for living witnesses are 
 not at hand, and dead men tell no tales " Be- 
 sides living like wild animals, they slept on the bare damp 
 ground exposed to the dews of heaven and the violence of 
 man, a sickly nervous sleep that brought little rest. Some 
 reposed in arbors composed of tree branches ; a few in can- 
 vas tents. The sold their gold at 16s. an ounce, and brought 
 bread and potatoes at from Is. to 4s. per pound and meat at 
 double these prices. Besides these articles, few others were 
 to be had at any rate. They lived in fear of each other, 
 buried their gold in secret holes, and robbed and assassinated 
 one another right and left. Most of them succumbed to 
 violence or fever ; a few got away with sums which as a rule 
 almost without exception, they soon lost in gambling or de- 
 bauchery ; not one of them acquired a permanent fortune." 
 
 " In May, 1849, 20,000 men broke camp on the Missouri 
 river to march to the land of gold." " We had provisions 
 for a year ; as there was then no stock in the mines." " In the 
 midst of our rejoicings (upon reaching the new placers) we 
 ran out of provisions and had to live for days on grass and 
 acorns, picked from the holes in trees where they had been 
 placed by woodpeckers." " It was customary to sell the 
 gold (dust) at 16s. per ounce, which was intrinsically worth 
 over £3 4s." "California gold averaged 89'58 per cent, 
 pure." " No man would give another a hand's turn for less 
 than £1 ; while a day's constant labor of the commonest kind, 
 if it could have been procured at all, would cost from £4 to 
 £6 at least." 
 
 " In San Francisco in 1849, 4s. was paid for a pill, and 
 the same sum for an egg ; £20 for a pair of boots, and twice 
 that sum for a decent suit of clothes ; a single rough brick cost 
 fivepence, and a plank some twenty feet long was cheap at 
 £2. At one period of that wondrous year, common iron 
 tacks of the smallest size sold for their weight in gold ; and 
 for a long period were in request at from £1 to £2 an ounce. 
 . . . In June, 1849, prices were: eggs, 4s., 8s., and even 
 12s. each ; sugar, tea, and coffee each 16s. per pound ; lau- 
 danum, 4s. per drop, £8 per dose ; pills, £2 per dose ; spirits, 
 £2 to £8 per quart ; wines, £2 to £8 per bottle ... As 
 for beef, little of it was to be had, and then only jerked, at 
 correspondingly high prices." 
 
 Similar details are narrated of Australia during the first 
 few years that followed the discovery of the placer mines in 
 that country. 
 
 " In the spring of 1854 there was discovered in Australia 
 one of the richest placers or gold beds, even of that aurif- 
 erous country. The spot was a deep ravine formed by the 
 Buckland river, enclosed by steep mountain sides, which 
 excluded every breath of wind. It was autumn in 
 Australia, though spring here (in England). The air in 
 the ravine was stagnant, and the scorching sun made it 
 intensely hot during the day ; while at night the tempera- 
 ture fell to a piercing cold, so that the sojourners in the 
 ravine were alternately in an oven and an ice-house. More- 
 over, as the gold beds lay in the channel of the river, the 
 miners worked up to their waists in water. 
 
 "To this gold field of surpassing richness hundreds of 
 adventurers flocked in feverish haste; but disease, like the 
 fabled dragons and griffins of old, kept horrid sentry over 
 
 the buried treasures. A peculiar fever of the typhoid char- 
 acter was the natural denizen of the spot; besides which 
 the gold-seekers suflfered severely from eye-blight, owing 
 to the concentrated blaze of the sunshine reflected from the 
 steep sides of the ravine ; and they were at all times griev- 
 ously tormented by clouds of flies. Bad diet and want of 
 vegetables aggravated the diseases natural to the place and 
 to the kind of work. In the strangely interesting accounts 
 which then reached us, we read of onions selling at six shil- 
 lings a pound; and cabbages, which we buy here for a 
 penny, were so precious that they were cut up and sold by 
 weight, from half-a-crown to four shillings the pound being 
 readily paid for them. Physic, or what passed for it, rose 
 in price in a still more startling manner; HoUoway's pills 
 selling at a shilling each or a guinea per box. It was a 
 valley of death! .... Constitutions that had borne the 
 hardships of other fields broke down here, wrote an eye-wit- 
 ness of the scene, and hundreds have perished, dying unat- 
 tended and unknown. The little levels between the stream 
 and the base of the mountain-wall, for ten miles along the 
 valley, are so thickly studded with graves, that the river ap- 
 pears to run through a churchyard. 
 
 "One new-comer, wiser than the rest, having counted 
 eleven corpses carried past his tent during the dinner hour 
 of his first working day, and thinking that even gold may 
 be purchased too dearly, left the place instantly. Many 
 abandoned it after a somewhat longer trial ; but the greater 
 number, fascinated by the unusual richness of the gold-beds, 
 remained, in defiance of disease, and took their chance, with 
 what result the numerous graves of the valley testify to this 
 day." 
 
 The low price of gold dust in coin, so peculiar a feature 
 of early California experience, is noticeable in that of Aus- 
 tralia. An ounce troy of fine gold was and is still coined 
 by the British Government into 1019'45 pence, or 84'9541 
 shillings, which is the mint price in London. In 1851 the 
 Australian miners were obliged to sell their dust at probably 
 not over one-half its value. In 1852 they sold it at prices 
 varying from 68 to 68 shillings per ounce; in 1853 from 70 
 to 76 shillings, and in the three following years from 75 to 
 77 shillings. These low prices of gold dust were due to the 
 scarcity of coins, particularly the minor ones. The writer 
 has now in his possession some rude lumps of silver stamped 
 with crosses, which passed in the early days of California 
 for 25 cents each, their value in bullion not exceeding 10 
 cents. He has also been credibly informed by more than 
 one of the original "pioneers," that at one time gold dust 
 was exchanged by the miners for silver dollars, weight for 
 weight. The insecurity of property at the mines is another 
 noticeable feature of early Californian life. ; 
 
 " The miner having obtained the gold, is next chiefly con- 
 cerned for its safety. He is far up in the mountains and 
 forests, surrounded by roving robbers and thievish lurking 
 Indians, and in his frail shanty, constructed of boards or 
 cloth, has no stone vaults or iron safe in which to secure his 
 treasure. It is too heavy to be carried about his person ; 
 and if he secretes it in some hollow tree or peculiar rock, or 
 secret cave or crevice, the hiding-place may be discovered 
 by the marauders, who may chance to discover his visits to 
 the spot. Under these circumstances he resorts to various 
 expedients to secure his gold. Perhaps he digs a small pit 
 under the stones on which he builds his fire, or under the 
 bunk on which he sleeps." 
 
 " When these things (the high prices of labor, food, medi- 
 cines, etc.,) and the risks of sicknessj the discomforts of 
 living, and the unusual and severe kind of labor, are all 
 balanced against the average gains, it may appear that after 
 all the miners (were they ever so fortunate) were only 
 enough paid." 
 
 " The expenses, the time spent in traveling and prospect- 
 ing,_and lack of all the luxuries and many of the comforts 
 of life, made many of us think it was cheaper to get gold in 
 any other way than by digging for it in the placera. We 
 abandoned the mines. Our bright dreams of becoming 
 millionaires by washing the sands of the Sierra Nevada were 
 all dissipated." 
 
 "September, 1849. A short experience of the mines had 
 satisfied most of the citizens of San Francisco that in vul- 
 gar parlance, all was not gold that glittered. 
 
 " With a few the dream had been realized ; end although 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 793 
 
 in the aggregate vast sums of gold have been obtained, yet 
 a large proportion of the miners have learned the, to tliem, 
 sad lesson, that man, in any country, to be truly happy, 
 must earn his living by the svifeat of his brow. Through 
 much exposure and suffering, wearied and heart-brolien, 
 the poor miner has not unlrequently turned from the scene 
 of his brilliant hopes to spend his last hours among his 
 early friends — a sadder but a wiser man." 
 
 " One . . . employed nearly one hundred and fifty In- 
 dians to dig gold for him : at one time he had nearly 
 £400,000 buried in the ground. But like all other miners, 
 he lost it all." 
 
 — Compiled from "The History of the Precious MetalSy' by Alexander 
 Dbl/mar, 
 
 THE WRECK WROUGHT BY MINING. 
 
 M' 
 
 "OIL not too much underground, for the hope of 
 mines is very uncertain," said one of the wisest 
 of men, in whose time mining meant chiefly for 
 gold and silver. Few, perhaps, who have read 
 this opinion are aware how shrewd a one it is, and even men 
 who have been the witnesses and subjects of the uncertainty 
 of mining, have shut their eyes to the plain evidence before 
 them, and retained faith in a metaphysical doctrine which 
 has HO foundation in fact. One writer, originally a Cali- 
 fornian miner, advances as a reason for his faith in the 
 generally accepted theory of value, the inconceivability of 
 the continuance of mining were it not profitable. 
 
 The same may be said of the purchase of lottery tickets. 
 This occupation has been systematically pursued ever since 
 the Lotto was established at Florence in 1530. In England 
 lotteries were brought from Holland in the Xlth Elizabeth. 
 According to Raynal two American companies were favored 
 with the first lottery that ever was drawn in her dominions. 
 .Lotteries as a regular source of government revenue were 
 established in England about 1620, and for nearly two 
 centuries contributed to swell the revenues of the crown. 
 They can be traced back to the mode of distributing, and 
 the practice of purchasing the ancient Roman congiari, and 
 may even have had an earlier and more distinct origin. 
 From 1816 to 1828 the French government derived from 
 lotteries an annual income of 14,000,000 francs. -At the 
 present day, in spite of prohibition, and penal laws, and of 
 increased intelligence and morality, lottery tickets are sold 
 in every large city in the United States. The " business " 
 is as permanent and well-established as any other. A per- 
 son of the shallowest intelligence may easily become con- 
 vinced of the fact that on the average the purchaser must 
 lose, and the seller gain, in a lottery : and yet this institution 
 continues. In the city of New York nearly all, if not quite 
 all, of the adult negro population (who number many 
 thousands), besides a very large number of whites of the 
 lower orders, are systematic lottery gamblers, purchasing 
 their tickets every day, and generally both morning and 
 afternoon ; there being four lotteries daily in certain of the 
 Western and Southern States, whose drawings are sent to 
 the metropolis by telegraph. Such of the better classes as 
 purchase lottery tickets — and many of these are stockbrokers 
 and jobbers who are capable of calculating the chances of 
 the game with great exactness — deal in the tickets of the 
 Havana lottery, whose drawings are sent by the Cuba cable 
 and published in the New York newspapers. Some of the 
 " Exchange " offices in Wall Street are engaged in selling 
 lottery tickets, the display of coins in the window being 
 merely a blind. The sale of cigars and other articles are 
 used as blinds in the commercial portions of the city. In 
 the dwelling portions a shop or booth with the word " Ex- 
 change " in the window, or merely a shabby curtain, or a 
 screen inside the door, denotes the lottery office. There are 
 stated to be upwards of a thousand such places in New York. 
 They are scarcely less numerous as proportioned to popula- 
 tion in other American cities. In New Orleans the tickets 
 are openly displayed (or were a few years ago when the 
 writer visited that city) in the cigar and other shop windows. 
 The sums of money invested from time to time in this man- 
 
 ner, where it may be assuredly known beforehand that the 
 whole number of purchasers, or the average purchaser must 
 lose, probably amounts to more than the entire product of 
 the gold and silver-mines of the United States. Yet " the 
 business has been maintained " in this country, not like the 
 gold production, during a brief twenty-five years, but during 
 two hundred years, for we hear of its being denounced in 
 Boston so early as 1699. 
 
 If it be asked why a practice so evidently unprofitable as 
 lottery gambling is continued in the face both of prudence 
 and interdiction, the answer is that although evidently un- 
 profitable it is not generally speaking obviously so. The 
 mass of those who gamble are incapable of justly estimating 
 the chances of the game, or are destitute of that force of 
 character which is necessary to enable them to eschew so 
 hazardous a pursuit. It is the same with free mining for the 
 precious metals. Apart from the free pioneer, apart from 
 the hired miner who mechanically works with pick and 
 shovel for a day's pay, and would work as steadily in a coal 
 mine or on a farm, and apart from those stipendiaries con- 
 nected with mines, such as superintendents, officials, &c., 
 these classes together comprising but a small portion of those 
 who have contributed to stock the world with gold and silver, 
 the miners, that is to say the mine hunter, the mine pro- 
 moter, and the mining speculator, is essentially a gambler.' 
 If husbandmen invariably obtained three bad harvests be- 
 fore one good one, they might nevertheless sow the fourth 
 time, because one good harvest might cover even this great 
 deficiency. But it certainly would not cover any more ; 
 and an invariable succession of four bad harvests before one 
 good one would put an end to agriculture. Not so with min- 
 ing for the precious metals. Were ninety-nine-hundredths 
 instead of four-fifths (which is the fact) of all mining adven- 
 tures unprofitable, still would there be found a class of men 
 willing to hazard the hundredth one in the hope that that 
 one might prove profitable. 
 
 The uncertainty and uncertain profits of free mining ex- 
 tend the calculation of its cost over long periods of time, 
 and many countries ; until it eludes the grasp of the mass of 
 men. This cost is not obvious ; it has never been demon- 
 strated by evidence. It is, at the most, suspected by a few 
 persons who have enjoyed unusual opportunities for obser- 
 vation and reflection upon the subject. 
 
 Another reason why men continue to pursue gold and 
 silver mining is closely allied to the one above given. That 
 one was its unproved character of unprofitableness: the 
 present one is its uncertainty, and occasional vast profits 
 which liken it to a lottery. One may have reason to doubt 
 that in the long run gold and silver mining is unprofitable, 
 but he has none to doubt that it is risky. And just as there 
 are multitudes of persons who, knowing beforehand the 
 unprofitableness of systematically purchasing lottery tickets, 
 nevertheless continue to do so all their lives, so are there 
 multitudes with even more excuse for their rashness, who 
 are always ready to follow the fascinating pursuit of gold 
 and silver mining. 
 
 The secret of this fascination is in the gambling nature 
 of the industry. Every step in mining, from discovery to 
 production, is attended with risks of the most violent 
 character, which are wholly impossible to foresee. One has 
 only to examine the fluctuations in the prices of mining 
 stocks in the San Francisco or Sydney markets to be con- 
 vinced of this fact. These prices are not quoted, as were 
 
 1 J. E. MacCulloch, in the " Encylopffidia Britannica," article 
 " Money : " 
 
 " Frequently indeed, the production of the precious metals par- 
 takes very largely of the nature of a gambling speculation. . . . 
 Ulloa says that in Peru an individual who embarked in a mining 
 speculation used to be considered as a ruined man, or as having 
 adventured in a lottery, in which, though there are many great 
 prizes, the blanks had a decided preponderance ; and, according to 
 Humboldt, the same thing was experienced in Mexico, the search 
 after mines, and the working of them, being there looked upon as 
 a sort of gambling adventure, in which many are ruined, while only 
 a few oblain great wealth." 
 
 The facts quoted by MacCulloch will be found in Adam Smith's 
 " Wealth of Nations," book i. chap. xi. part ii. In view of the vast 
 influence which Dr. Smith's "Work has exercised upon the welfare 
 of mankind, it is to be profoundly regretted that in this important 
 respect the suggestions contained in the materials before him were 
 turned to such poor account as is to be found in his doctrine of value. 
 
794 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 those of railway stocks in New York during the war, in a 
 credit money whose mass was more than once suddenly 
 augmented, but in gold coin, the fluctuations in the value 
 of which at the present time are not nearly so great. The 
 general rule of experience that miners, mine discoverers and 
 mine explorers, rarely or never retain the wealth which ex- 
 ceptional good fortune sometimes bestows upon them, is not 
 without its signiiicance in this connection. These men were 
 successful because they were gamblers, and the habit of 
 gambling, which once acquired is difficult to throw off, is the 
 cause of their so commonly losing what they have gained. 
 
 It might be urged still l\irther that although the class of 
 individuals engaged in mining for the precious metals may 
 commonly fail to perceive its unprofitable nature ; that al- 
 though perceiving it they may still be led to pursue the 
 industry on account of its promises of vast wealth to the 
 successful; yet that the rest of society can hardly be sup- 
 posed to share their imperfect observation or judgment. 
 Conceding that precise data are wanting, and that the 
 historical evidence as yet not segregated from the mass of 
 other events was tediously diffuse and difficult to sift, yet 
 a truth so important must, despite these obstacles, have 
 floated in some shape or another to the surface, and made 
 some mark upon the legislation, the government, or at least 
 the philosophy of the times. We shall have reason in 
 another part of this work to fully verify this suspicion. It 
 is no new discovery that mining for the precious metals is 
 both pecuniarily and in other respects an unprofitable in- 
 dustry. The ancients seem to have been very well aware of 
 it, and at many periods and in many countries its pursuit 
 has been entirely forbidden. As to the absence of any 
 modern recognition of gold and silver mining, we Europeans 
 of this brilliant and eventful century are too apt to forget 
 our very recent emergence from the ignorance, the violence, 
 and the servile condition of the mediaeval ages. It is scarcely 
 a century since the occurrence of the American and French 
 revolutions, and, speaking as Europeans, not a century since 
 the enfranchisement of our industrial classes from serfdom. 
 We have scarcely yet become accustomed to the word Lib- 
 erty, or to know its deep significance ; yet here we find 
 ourselves wondering why we have not already penetrated 
 the inmost arcana of a polity to which only the light of a 
 long-continued civilization had led the ancient world. Al- 
 though neither the unprofitableness nor the gambling cha- 
 racter and the immoral tendency of gold and silver mining 
 have as yet found specific recognition in modern legislation, 
 there is not wanting a significance in the absence of popular 
 regret with which many of the European and American 
 States have parted (perhaps forever) with their stocks of the 
 precious metals. 
 
 In many of these countries systems of money composed 
 of government numeraries have supplanted the use of gold 
 and silver coins, although in none of them have the latter 
 as yet been prohibited. These coins therefore remain legal 
 tender, generally, as before, and thus offer that same imme- 
 diate market for the sale of these metals, which has always 
 formed the principal incentive to their reckless production. 
 Any commercial conclusions concerning the cost of the pre- 
 cious metals which are derivable from the course of recent 
 national legislation on the subject are therefore premature. 
 We can gain no light even from the aggregate wisdom of so- 
 ciety, until the experience which must furnish its basis has 
 become more matured. 
 
 Between ancient and modern legislation there intervenes 
 not the legislation, but rather the government of mediaeval 
 countries. As it is from these countries and this period that 
 much of our stock of the precious metals is derived, it re- 
 mains for us to inquire why society, during the entire period 
 from the subversion of European liberty by the Roman con- 
 querorsto its general restoration after the French Revolu- 
 tion, failed to discern the unprofitable character, and to 
 avoid the unprofitable pursuit, of mining. The answer to 
 this question comes in a word. Society was not free, and 
 whether it perceived the unprofitableness of mining or not, 
 it was powerless to avoid its pursuit. The condition of all 
 Europe and America except that of the ruling classes, was 
 one of servility. Under the military power and the form 
 of feudal obligations men were forced into the mines until 
 they perished in them. Political economy had nothing to 
 do with this period ; commercial calculations were impossi- 
 
 ble and futile. It was an era of force, in which on the one 
 side were ranged a few nobles clad in armor, girt with steel 
 swords, and protected by castles, ramparts, and ditches; and 
 on the other a multitude of unarmed and half-naked peas- 
 ants, incapable of resistance. 
 
 Mining as a Promoter of Crime.— Only those who 
 have lived in gold and silver mining countries can fully 
 understand the powerful influence which this hazardous 
 industry exercises upon the moral welfare of the surround- 
 ing community. The almost universal passion for gambling 
 which it excites and encourages; the extraordinary freaks 
 of fortune which it gives rise to, where sometimes, and in 
 the course of a few months, the most indigent and illiterate 
 of the community are lifted into opulence and power, while 
 the well-to-do and intelligent are reduced to unexpected 
 poverty and obscurity; the licentiousness of the nouveau 
 riche, and the grief and despair of the unlucky and dis- 
 appointed — all these are social features peculiar to mining 
 countries, whose broad and deep marks to be appreciated 
 must be seen with the observer's own eyes. A continuous 
 residence of more than two years in California has satisfied 
 the writer that, at least in San Francisco, which contains 
 one-third of the entire population of the State, there are 
 few persons of an adult age who are not at some time or 
 other directly interested in the mines; and this is probably 
 also largely the case throughout the State generally, and 
 also throughout Nevada and the remaining portions of the 
 North Pacific slope. The miners themselves, who, now that 
 the placers are exhausted, are, for the most part, working- 
 men upon daily wages, are probably the least interested of 
 any class in the vicissitudes of the mines. But down to the 
 very boot-blacks and servant-girls there are few others of 
 whom the same can be said. When a new ore discovery is 
 made, or is expected to be made — and this occurs not un- 
 frequently— every kind of productive labor is abandoned 
 for the superior attraction of the Stock Exchange and the 
 broker's office. At these centres of activity can be seen any 
 day thousands of men and women, the latter chiefly of the 
 poorer classes, tradeswomen and domestic servants, waiting 
 for that turn of the wheel of fortune which shall bring them . 
 opulence and ease. Little hoards are withdrawn from 
 savings banks and other receptacles, and eagerly exchanged 
 for shares in looked-for bonanzas, and when the prices of the 
 latter advance so as to place them beyond the reach of the 
 purchaser with limited means, the shares of other properties, 
 often so obviously worthless as to be openly and generally 
 alluded to as " wild-cats," are purchased with the same 
 eagerness, and paid for in coin wrung from the sweat of 
 labor and subservience. 
 
 Upon the passion thus roused and the credulity which it 
 fosters, there are not wanting classes to prey and thrive. 
 False or exaggerated reports of ore discoveries, delusive 
 tricks and plants in and about the mines, stock deals and 
 jobs concocted to deceive investors, wash-sales and bull-and 
 bear movements on the stock-market, the employment of 
 stool-pigeons, point-givers, and cappers — in short all the 
 devices known to the jockey and the blackleg are brought 
 into active play. The common result is loss and despair to 
 the deluded investor and fortune to the conspirator; and 
 yet the few prizes snatched from the fire are so fascinating, 
 that no degree of general loss appears to be suflicient to 
 deter new aspirants for fortune. There is scarcely a class 
 of the community which does not play some part in this 
 drama. The conservative merchant or banker who lends 
 money-upon this or that mining stock, or withdraws the 
 often designedly accorded credit; the influential leader of 
 fashion who confidentially imparts the exclusive intelligence 
 concerning some mine to his or her circle of dearest friends, 
 which, in most cases is certain ruin to them ; the fiduciary 
 who borrows from his trust-fund merely for a few days, 
 until he can realize the enormous profit promised by an 
 impending rise in stocks and pay back the dishonestly 
 abstracted money; the clerk who is" tempted to seek fortune 
 through the humbler medium of his master's till ; the poor 
 shop-girl whose virtue falls an easy prey to the powerful 
 allurements of wealth and who is then employed as the 
 medium for trapping other victims— all these and many 
 other classes are lost in the dangerous and demoralizing 
 pursuit of sudden wealth from the mines. 
 
 At the present writing there are four exchanges in San 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 795 
 
 Francisco, all of them devoted exclusively to mining stocks. 
 So small a quantity as five shares of stock is commonly dealt 
 in, and cases are known where a single share, nay one-half 
 of a share was bought and sold. The prices of the stocks 
 have ranged from several hundred dollars down to two cents 
 a share, so that the smallest speculator can be accommo- 
 dated. So universal has stock gambling become in California, 
 that mining stocks take the place of the weather in other 
 countries, and have become the commonest theme of con- 
 versation, alike in the politest circles and the obscurest re- 
 treats. Indeed, one can learn after a brief residence on the 
 coast, and merely by observing the faces and demeanor of 
 those who throng the neighborhood of the exchanges, 
 whether the "market" is up or down. That in a com- 
 munity thus engaged and constituted^and the same may be 
 said of the mine-owning towns of Mexico and Australia- 
 insanity and crime should prevail to an unusual extent is 
 only what would naturally be expected. The intellect is 
 not proof against the sudden changes of fortune induced by 
 the hazard of gold and silver mines, and the sudden and 
 tremendous fluctuations in their value ; nor are the passions 
 subject to the same control that distinguish them in com- 
 munities occupied in safer and more sober pursuits. The 
 evidences of these aberrations of mind, this violence of emo- 
 tion which distinguishes mining countries, are to be found 
 in every direction. It will suffice for the purposes of this 
 work if two of the principal ones are selected for illustration. 
 These are insanity and suicides. 
 
 In arranging the evidence of insanity it is primarily 
 necessary to distinguish between this mental derangement 
 and idiocy, the former being " the product of society and of 
 moral and intellectual causes," and the latter " a state de- 
 pending on soil and material influences." Next, an allow- 
 ance must be made for the number of insane in private 
 families or at large, and not confined in the asylums. 
 According to the voluminous, though far from critical report 
 of Dr. Wilkins to the Governor of California, France is the 
 only country whose statistics, aa quoted, distinguish the 
 insane and idiotic severally, in asylums and at home. The 
 year selected for illustration, 1861, happens to be that one 
 when the official figures were, for the first time, substantially 
 correct. Of this we are assured by the " Statistique de la 
 France " [par Maurice Block, Paris, 1875, volume i, p. 308], 
 the same work on a previous page giving the number of 
 insane under treatment in France at various recent periods 
 as follows : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 In Asylum. 
 
 At Borne. 
 
 Together. 
 
 PopvXation 
 of Prance. 
 
 Insane 1o 
 Population, 
 
 1S51 
 1856 
 1861 
 
 21363 
 25,485 
 30,239 
 
 24,433 
 34,004 
 63,160 
 
 45,786 
 69,499 
 83,399 
 
 35,783,170 
 36,139,304 
 36,717,264 
 
 781 
 607 
 440 
 
 The increase of insanity apparently shown here is due for 
 the most part to the increased completeness of the returns, 
 evidenced by the augumenting proportion of insane treated 
 at home. This, at the latest date, was 175 to 100 in asylums. 
 The statistics of insanity in the United States are obtained 
 for the Federal census from the reports of the asylums. 
 They are somewhat defective as to numbers in private asy- 
 lums, and do not make any allowance for the numbers 
 treated at home. With an estimate of the latter based on 
 the proportions exhibited in France, the statistics of the 
 United States are as follows : 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Whites in 
 Asylums. 
 
 Estimated 
 at Home. 
 
 Together. 
 
 White 
 Population. 
 
 Insane to 
 
 Pojfiilation, 
 
 1 in 
 
 1860 
 18fO 
 1870 
 
 14,267 
 23,693 
 35,610 
 
 24,960 
 41,288 
 62,318 
 
 39,207 
 64,881 
 97,928 
 
 19,663,068 
 27,461,813 
 33,689,377 
 
 498 
 423 
 343 
 
 again as prevalent at the present time as it was twenty or 
 more years ago. Let us now see how their case stands in 
 California, c<msidered by itself. In that State there are no 
 private asylums. The official returns of insane at Stock- 
 ton and Napa include a few idiots— according to the Federal 
 census of 1870, only 14 per cent, of the whole number — and 
 to that extent the comparison which will presently be made 
 is vitiated, certainly for one year, and probably, to more or 
 less than this extent, for all years : 
 
 The estimates in the second, third, and fourth columns for 
 1860 include free colored persons who are not distinguished 
 from the whites in the census compendium of that year. 
 The proportion of free coloured is little more than li^ per 
 cent. All of the above numbers include California. The 
 black, formerly the slave population of the United 
 States, is omitted, because, while idiocy is quite common 
 with this race, insanity is rare, and their incorporation into 
 the table would render it misleading. Here, again, the 
 numbers and proportions exhibit increase since 1850, and 
 ^how that in the United States generally, insanity is half 
 
 At close of 
 official year. 
 
 In asylums 
 
 at 
 Stockton and 
 
 Estimated at 
 
 home. Fropor^ 
 
 tion as in 
 
 Together. 
 
 Population 
 of State. 
 
 Insane to 
 
 population, 
 
 1 in 
 
 
 Napa. 
 
 France. 
 
 
 
 1850 
 
 22 
 
 33 
 
 60 
 
 166,000 
 
 2.750 
 
 1860 
 
 417 
 
 730 
 
 1,147 
 
 379,994 
 
 331 
 
 1866 
 
 693 
 
 1.213 
 
 1.906 
 
 476,409 
 
 260 
 
 1867 
 
 769 
 
 1.346 
 
 2,115 
 
 600,039 
 
 236 
 
 1808 
 
 863 
 
 1.493 
 
 2,346 
 
 618,000 
 
 221 
 
 1869 
 
 920 
 
 1.610 
 
 2,530 
 
 538,000 
 
 213 
 
 1870 
 
 1.047 
 
 1.832 
 
 2,879 
 
 660,247 
 
 196 
 
 1871 
 
 1.090 
 
 1.908 
 
 2,998 
 
 682,400 
 
 194 
 
 1872 
 
 1,123 
 
 1,966 
 
 3,088 
 
 605,700 
 
 196 
 
 1873 
 
 1,156 
 
 2.023 
 
 3,179 
 
 630,000 
 
 198 
 
 1874 
 
 1,224 
 
 2.142 
 
 3,366 
 
 655,200 
 
 195 
 
 1876 
 
 1,302 
 
 2.279 
 
 3,681 
 
 681.400 
 
 190 
 
 1870 
 
 1.422 
 
 2.489 
 
 3,911 
 
 708,700 
 
 181 
 
 1877 
 
 1,590 
 
 2.783 
 
 4,373 
 
 737,000 
 
 168 
 
 The numbers include white and other races ; but as the 
 latter form only a small portion (ten per cent., mainly Chi- 
 nese) of the whole population of the State, it has not been 
 deemed worth while to exhibit their statistics of insanity 
 feparately. The proportion of Chinese insane is less than 
 five per cent, of the whole number. The uncertain factor in 
 this table is the proportion of insane not in the two asylums 
 at Stockton and Napa. The proportion estimated is derived 
 from the statistics of France, where wealth being less equal- 
 ly distributed, and the police more scrutinizing, it is to be 
 presumed that this proportion, great as it is, is less than in 
 California. As these statistics do not show the number of 
 new persons afflicted each year, but only show the whole 
 number remaining afflicted at the close thereof, and as the 
 populations of France, the United States and California re- 
 spectively, are of different ages, there is other room for er- 
 rors when the table is used for the purpose of international 
 comparisons. But these uncertainties and discrepancies are 
 not important in the present connection. Unmodified by 
 these considerations, it appears that among the white race 
 in France insanity is the condition of 1 in 440 of the popu- 
 lation ; in the United States, generally, 1 in 343 ; in Cali- 
 fornia, by itself, 1 in 168. In other words, insanity appears 
 to be twice as rife in California as in the United States, and 
 more than twice and a-half as rife as in France. The num- 
 ber of new commitments for insanity each year since 1866 
 may serve, in some measure, to indicate the causes of this 
 extraordinary and sorrowful exhibit : 
 
 
 Co-mriiitment^ 
 
 
 
 ended 
 June 30. 
 
 to Stockton 
 and Napa 
 Asylums. 
 
 Population of the State. 
 
 Annual commitments to 
 population, 1 in 
 
 1806 
 
 279 
 
 476,409 
 
 1,707 
 
 1867 
 
 313 
 
 600 039 
 
 1,697 
 
 1808 
 
 387 
 
 518,000 
 
 1,328 
 
 1869 
 
 482 
 
 638,000 
 
 1,116 
 
 1870 
 
 662 
 
 660.247 
 
 997 
 
 1871 
 
 523 
 
 582,400 
 
 1,112 
 
 1872 
 
 606 
 
 606,700 
 
 1,197 
 
 1873 
 
 401 
 
 630,000 
 
 1,177 
 
 1874 
 
 524 
 
 665,200 
 
 1,250 
 
 1876 
 
 615 
 
 681,400 
 
 1,108 
 
 1876 
 
 735 
 
 708,700 
 
 964 
 
 1877 
 
 662 
 
 737,000 
 
 1,130 
 
 From 1848 to 1865, inclusive, a period of eighteen years, 
 the whole number of commitments to the State Asylums for 
 the insane was 3,169, or an average of 176 per annum, while 
 from 1866 to 1877, inclusive, a period of twelve years, the 
 commitments have been 5,979, or an average of 498 per an- 
 num. The former may be regarded as the area of the pla- 
 cers, when few besides those who worked in or about the 
 mines were subject to their vicissitudes, and when death 
 soon closed the career of the unfortunate adventurer, and 
 shielded him from the milder visitation of insanity. The 
 latter is the area of the vein-mines, of mining incorporations, 
 and of gambling made easy by mining shares and stock mar- 
 kets. It is not difficult to infer that these causes have had 
 much to do with the great increase of insanity shown by 
 
796 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the statistics adduced ; an inference that becomes greatly 
 strengthened upon turning to the statistics of suicide in San 
 Francisco. These statistics, it must be remarked, are very 
 defective. Until lately, no attempt had been made at the 
 coroner's office to construct tables of suicides comparing one 
 year with another ; and nothing beyond the most indiflerent 
 effort was made to ascertain their causes. Much improve- 
 ment in these respects has lately taken place, but still many 
 suicides are not reported. These consists mainly of persons 
 who drowned themselves in the bay, and whose bodies are- 
 not recovered and brought under the notice of the coroner ; 
 and of Chinese, the deaths of whom in San Francisco from 
 whatever causes, are reported as due to "unknown" causes.^ 
 Another class of omissions is of persons belonging to the 
 city who may have committed suicide beyond its corporate 
 limits. In such cases the coroner of the city has no super- 
 vision and makes no mention of them. Some of these, not 
 all, are included in the reports of the health officer. From 
 the records of these two officials, and, when they disagree, 
 choosing the higher number as the more nearly correct, we 
 have the following comparative results : 
 
 Reported Numbers ot Suicides In San Francisco. 
 
 Tear? 
 
 Suicides. 
 
 rear.l 
 
 Suicides. 
 
 Fear.i 
 
 Suicides. 
 
 1860 
 
 31 
 
 1867 
 
 29 
 
 1873 
 
 38 
 
 1861 
 
 30» 
 
 1868 
 
 22 
 
 1874 
 
 61 
 
 1862 
 
 13= 
 
 1869 
 
 39 
 
 1875 
 
 64 
 
 18fi3 
 
 18 
 
 1870 
 
 47 
 
 187S 
 
 70 
 
 3864 
 
 20 
 
 1871 
 
 51 
 
 1877 
 
 76 
 
 1865 
 
 17 
 
 1872 
 
 37 
 
 1878 
 
 103 
 
 1866 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 Any comparison of these numbers with the reputed popu- 
 lation of the city in any other years but those in which a 
 census was taken, is considered hazardous on account of the 
 tendency to exaggerate the number of inhabitants, which is 
 common to the growing cities of the United States, and 
 appears in all the publications relating to them except the 
 census itself. The only years of the series above shown in 
 which a census was taken in San Francisco were 1860 and 
 1870, when the population was respectively 56,802 and 149,- 
 473. The least objectionable means of determining the re- 
 lation of the number of suicides in San Francisco to that 
 in other cities is to compare both of them with the whole 
 number of deaths in each place. Without burdening this 
 work with details which would probably weary the reader, 
 it is deemed sufficient to say that, determined in this way, 
 suicides are more than twice as common in San Francisco as 
 in New York, and more than three times as common as in 
 Philadelphia. It is the present writer's belief, that as com- 
 pared with population — could the latter be satisfactorily 
 determined as to San Francisco — the result would appear 
 still more unfavorable. It is also to be remembered that 
 this result is only given with reference to the numbers of the 
 reported, not the true numbers of suicides in San Francisco. 
 Giving due weight to this consideration, it will probably be 
 not far from correct to regard the proportion or suicides in 
 San Francisco either to all deaths or to population as fully 
 three times as great as in New York where suicide is a much 
 more common occurence than elsewhere in the United States. 
 All inquiry into the probable causes of such an extraordi- 
 nary preponderance of suicides is bound to be beset with 
 obstacles. When the predisposing, nay, even the immediate, 
 causes of self-destruction defy, as we know they commonly 
 do, the scrutiny of a legal inquest, there would seem to be 
 little hope of determining them from that more general sort 
 of evidence which is to be found in other ways ; and but for 
 
 1 Report of the coroner for 1878, p. 5. The Chinese in San Fran- 
 cisco number about one-tenth of the population and although they 
 nearly all consist of adult males in the prime of life, while the 
 whites consist of both sexes and all ages, the whole number of 
 Chinese deaths is in about the same proportion. 
 
 2 Ended June 30. 2 Estimated. 
 
 ' Estimated from returns of nine months. The returns for the 
 year 1867, 1868, 1872, 1874, 1875, 1876 and 1877 are from the Health 
 Board returns, the others from the Coroner's. The latter's sum- 
 mary report for 1878 gives, on p. 124, the following number for each 
 year commencing with 1863, viz., 17, 20, 16, 20, 28, 20, 43, 44, 44, 45 
 37, 59, 60, 56, 75 and 103. Total reported in alxtei'ii years, 687. 
 Chmameu are not included in any of these numlicrs except where 
 very rarely, a Chinaman ia specifically reported to have died from 
 self-destruction. Inquests are not held upon the bodies of China- 
 men dying from unknown causes. 
 
 a personal knowledge of the habits of life common to sev- 
 eral mining countries, the present writer would hesitate to 
 indicate them. In his report for the fiscal year ended June 
 30, 1878, the coroner of San Francisco reports thirty-five 
 cases as caused by pecuniary, and seven by unknown motives. 
 Three of the former he directly traced to stock gambling. 
 Intemperance, insanity, and unsound mind cover twenty- 
 one more cases. All of these cases and many other attri- 
 buted to various causes, may have been, and probably were 
 due to gambling in the mines, or the absence from home and 
 friends which forms another condition peculiar to mining 
 countries. This probability is greatly strengthened by the 
 causes of the suicides, covering a portion of the same period, 
 which were reported by the daily press. During the calen- 
 dar year ended December 31, 1877, the following suicides 
 with their supposed causes were reported in the " San Fran 
 Cisco Chronicle." 
 
 Assigned or supposed causes of suicide. 
 
 Losses in mining stocks and other pecuniary 
 
 Insanity, cause not stated 
 
 Intemperance, cause not stated 
 
 Incurable disease. ... 
 
 Love .... .... 
 
 Ill treatment 
 
 Religion ... 
 
 Remorse for murder. . .... 
 
 Unitnown or not stated. 
 
 M les. 
 
 20 
 5 
 
 12 
 7 
 4 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 Females 
 
 Total. 
 
 22 
 5 
 
 12 
 7 
 7 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 
 27 
 
 Among the conditions that influence suicide there are 
 none, except mine gambling and the separation from home 
 and familiar faces, which is peculiar to mining communities, 
 and especially those of recent growth, in which San Fran- 
 cisco does not enjoy advantages which should exempt it 
 from this crime. The city is exceptionally healthy, it is 
 purified by sea winds that blow every day ; its foundations 
 are laid in clean dry sand, it is hilly, it has a good drainage, 
 and is washed by a vast bay on the one side and the ocean 
 on the other. The climate is dry, temperate, and steady. 
 Food of every description is plentiful and cheap ; all the 
 other necessaries of life are to be obtained upon the same 
 terms as in other cities throughout the United States ; while 
 labour is usually in demand and commands a higher price 
 than elsewhere. Hence, in looking for the cause of this 
 great and peculiar mortality, the inquirer is led at once to 
 the subject of the mines. Before the civil war the number 
 of suicides committed annually in San Francisco was about 
 thirty. During the war — and this period also agrees with 
 the opening and developement of the great Comstock mines 
 —when great profits, rising prices, and abundance of em- 
 ployment for the industrial classes preserved them from those 
 temptations to self-destruction which find their origin in pe- 
 cuniary difficulties, the annual average fell to seventeen. 
 When the war closed and the Comstock mines came to be 
 incorporated into stock companies, suicides resumed their 
 former frequency, and during the four years ending with 
 1869 the annual average became again, as before, thirty. 
 The ensuing four years witnessed the opening of the great 
 Crown Point and Belcher Bonanza, and the first series of 
 gigantic stock speculations and jobberies which distinguish 
 the annals of the coast. During this period the average an- 
 nual number of suicides rose to forty-three. In 1874, while 
 the Crown Point and Belcher Bonanza was still yielding at 
 the rate of £3,600,000 a year, the Big Bonanza was struck in 
 the consolidated Virginia and California mines, and this 
 added some £1,000,000 to the year's product of the precious 
 metals, and proportionately increased the pre-existing min- 
 ing excitement and the practice of jobbery. From this 
 time forward until 1877 the Big Bonanza continued to in- 
 crease its product, to augment the predominant mania of 
 the coast, and to afford additional support to the resources 
 and devices of jobbers. In the last-named year the fact 
 was unexpectedly disclosed that this great ore body had 
 passed its point of highest production. Then followed a 
 tremendous collapse in all gold and silver mining shares, 
 numerous bankruptcies, a fall in real estate, rents, com- 
 modities, and wages, popular tumults, and numerous mis- 
 demeanors and crimes; among the latter an unusual 
 number of suicides. Taking together the five years ended 
 June 30, 1878, the number of suicides reported to have 
 been committed in San Francisco reached the unprece- 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 797 
 
 dented annual average of seventy-five. It is difficult to 
 believe that these occurrences were not connected. This 
 conviction is strengthened, not only by the statistics of 
 commitments for insanity hereinbefore given, but also by the 
 statistics of death by violence, of crime, immorality, and 
 disorder of every sort; by the accounts of the savings banks, 
 by the returns of bankruptcies, and by the prevalence of 
 indigence and suffering among those classes of the commu- 
 nity who did not profit by these speculations, or succumb to 
 the blow which they inflicted on the losers. 
 
 — JVo/»" The History of PrM/us MelaU by Alexander Dehnar. " 
 
 CURIOSITIES OF METALS. 
 
 R. J. VAN CLEVE PHILLIPS recently sent the 
 following curious communication to the London 
 Mining Journal : 
 
 In reading Fourier's Philosophy in a new book by Van Buren 
 Deaslow, odled " Modern Thinkers," and having read Erasmus 
 D.irwin's "iove of the Plants" (Dublin, 1795: grandfather of the 
 present Darwin), I find my idea of sex in mineral veins fortified. 
 Mystudy of the Mississippi lead field was from 1844 to 1853, and of 
 the Missouri lead fields from 1855 to 1880:— 1. The lead fields are 
 basins of limestons, these being from 100 yards to 5 miles wide, and 
 vein system duplicated in each basin. 2. All the discoveries of ores 
 in the upper Mississippi and Missouri lead fields may be located 
 geographically in the basin where they occur, and stratigraphically 
 in the rock and family of veins to which they belong. The lea 1 
 ores mined in these fields have yielded to date $150,000,000 worth of 
 lead, all of which has been tak^n from the small basins or along tlie 
 edges of the larger ones, and is from the edge of the vein system, 
 and will not include over l-20th per cent, of the ores contained in 
 the basins, as shown in my unpublished geographical surveys of 
 the upper and lower Mississippi lead fields. It will be seen from 
 this that the existence of lead and zinc is now known which will 
 supply the people of the center of the continent with these metals 
 when it shall have a population of 300 to the square mile, as Eng- 
 land ha.s to-day. 
 
 My first attention to the physical outline of crystallization of lead 
 ore was in 1848, while superintending a lead furnace in Wisconsin. 
 The teams were bringing in ores from 20 difierent lead discoveries, 
 having north and south veins, east and west veins, and stratified 
 veins from the rock and clay . The east and west veins had regular 
 cubes, the north and south veins had the edges of the cubes trun- 
 cated, and the horizontal veins had the solid angles of the tubes cut 
 oif or truncated. The ores from the clay were amorphous, and this 
 form of crystallization was duplicated in each lead basin. This went 
 to estabUsh the fact that the lead producing and crystalline action 
 had been directly connected with the vein system in all parts of 
 the lead basin ; that the same force which had been exerted to fill 
 the vein system- in one basin of limestone had duplicated that sys- 
 tem in the adjacent basins, and the physical outline of the ore was 
 an index of its geographical and stratigraphical position in the 
 basin. Afterwards I was led to the conclusion that the north and 
 south veins were the positive or male veins, and the east and west 
 the negative or female veins. The north and south veins were few 
 in number, the east and wast veins many, and the north and south 
 veins always pointed towards the basins of the east and west veins. 
 This law is noticed in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, in the 
 sheep and goat families, and intherjherry and apple trees, the males 
 being in the minority. In applying this law to iron ores we suppose 
 the magnetic .ores are the positive or male ores, other varieties the 
 negative or female ores. In the silver fields the Comstock, being 
 a north and south vein, would be a positive or male vein, and the 
 east and west veins of New Mexico and old Mexico the negative or 
 female veins. 
 
 The great vein known as the San Pietro, in the town of Hidalgo 
 del Parral, is an east and west vein ;• also tlie largest and richest 
 mine worked at the old Spanish mining town of Inde in the State of 
 Duraugo, Mexico, and known as the Del Aqua (water mine), is an 
 east and west vein. I am not sufiiciently acquainted with the 
 courses of the veins in the mountain States to apply this law of 
 sex to the vein system of the numerous silver and gold-bearing 
 fields, yet I have identified it in the vein system of the upper 
 and lower lead fields of the basin of the Mississippi, and feel assured 
 that it can be applied to all the families of veins which, as a rule, 
 are aggregated around a central knob or Boofa, whicb forms the 
 water-^ed of individual families of veins, and which families as 
 aggregated form the great stellar silver belt from Montana south 
 through New and pid Mexico, and that by close observation the 
 explorer and miner may profit by its application. 
 
 This Communique drew forth the following confirmatory 
 letter from Mr. James Williams, who wrote as follows : 
 
 " The subject is not by any means a new one, as it is an idea that 
 has occupied my attention for the last thirty years, and I am fully 
 
 satisfied, and have been for many years past, that we cannot apply 
 the word sex to mineral veins, as on close inspection I have found 
 that the north and south vein (and which Mr. J. Van Cleve Phillips, 
 New York, would term a male, and non-productive) by a secondary 
 influence has become the bearing or productive vein. 
 
 A short account of my investigation of mineral veins and what 
 led to it may not be out of place. Standing on an old mine burrow 
 and elevatedj on looking southeast and northwest, I was somewhat 
 surprised at beholding a number of mines in that direction, as our 
 Cornish mines, with but few exceptions, are east and west, and the 
 above was a few degrees south of east and north of west. Where I 
 stood I could take in a distance of from four to five miles, and the 
 number of mines (about six), and on visiting the mines separately, 
 I found that each had been made productive on the east and west 
 vein, except the last. All the former veins had been made produc- 
 tive by the caunter running in the direction named above, and non- 
 productive until forming a junction with the east and west vein, but 
 the last to the south of east was in the direction of and with the 
 Nine-o'clock vein, and up to this point might be called the male or 
 non-bearing vein. But at this point it changed its character, and 
 became the female or bearing vein, in consequence of being dis- 
 turbed by an elvan course as a secondary element, and was very 
 productive for a Short distance, and was called Wheal Chance in 
 bouth Crenver, where thousands of pounds were recklessly wasted 
 looking over a second Wheal Chance, but not finding a secondary 
 element or elvan course, their money was spent in vain. The next 
 we shall hear of this caunter carrying its head, and pursuing its 
 course, so to speak, east and by south, will be in Polcrebo mine, to 
 the east and south of South Crenver, now commenced to be worked 
 by Mr. Battye, Secretary, Great Winchester street, London, which I 
 have considered for years to be a valuable piece of ground, second 
 to none. As I prefer giving a reason for the faith that is in me, 
 please permit me to do so in this instance, as it is of the utmost im- 
 portance. This caunter or Nine-o'clock vein, aft«r being traced a 
 few miles through highly mineralized ground, with varied but 
 beneficial results, we now have in Polcrebo mine; to the west and 
 north it will intersect a northeast and west vein, then three veins 
 east and west, parallel to each other, and underlying to form a 
 junction in depth, and which is about the center of the sett. It 
 passes on, and in the south part of the sett it will again form a 
 junction with three other east and west parallel lodes, about thirty 
 feet apart at surface, and coming together in depth. One of those 
 (the south one) was made productive bv across course as a secondary 
 element. When this vein was first discovered close to the cross- 
 course, and only twenty-eight fathoms from surface, it was in Sep- 
 tember, 1872, worth more than £84 per ton. The best work maa% 
 7 cwts. 13 qrs. of tin to 20 cwts. of the vein (tin book now before 
 me — amount £209 10s. 6d.) ; yet this sett was condemned by all the 
 old-fashioned miners. It is quite time a new state of things should 
 take place, so that we could with a greater amount of certainty find 
 our mineral deposits. I have used every effort to form an Induc- 
 tive Scientific Mineralogical Institution, visited London in 1879, 
 was three times to the Slarlborough House to endeavor to see the 
 Prince of Wales and Duke of Cornwall, being extensively inter- 
 ested in mining property in the county, and, as I then stated, I 
 now again afiirm that the Prince of Wales' income may be increased 
 50 per cent. ; also all the mineral land proprietors in proportion. 
 
 It is only three years since I made the attempt to see and interest 
 the Prince of Wales with my theory. However, I am not out of 
 heart or discouraged, as I read that Mr. Samuel Morse, the inventor 
 of the electric telegraph, presented himself at the White House 
 Congress in America in 1837, where he was laughed at and jeered 
 by those who should have assisted him, and did assist him after 
 wasting six years of precious and valuable time. I suppose I must 
 not hope to be more fortunate than was Mr. Morse with his valuable 
 invention. 
 
 Color Relations of Metals. — In a paper on the color 
 relations of copper, nickel, cobalt, iron, manganese and 
 chromium, lately read before the Chemical Society, Mr. T. 
 Bayley records some remarkable relations between solutions 
 of these metals. 
 
 "It appears that iron, cobalt and copper form a natural color 
 group, for, if solutions of their sulphates are mixed together in the 
 proportions of 20 parts of copper, 7 of iron and 6 of cobalt, the re- 
 sulting liquid is free from color, but is gray and partially opaque. 
 It follows from this that a mixture of any two of these elements is 
 complementary to the third if the above proportions are maintained. 
 Thus a solution of cobalt (pink) is complementary to a mixture of 
 iron and copper (bluish green); a solution of iron (yellow) to a 
 mixture of copper and cobalt (violet), and a solution of copper 
 (blue) to a mixture of iron and cobalt (red) red. But, as Mr. Bay- 
 ley shows, a solution of copper is exactly complementary to the red 
 reflection from copper, and a polished plate of this metal viewed 
 through a solution of copper salt of a certain thickness is silver 
 white. As a further consequence, it follows that a mixture of iron 
 (7 parts) and cobalt (6 parts) is identical in color with a plate of 
 copper. The resemblance is so striking that a silver platinum ves- 
 sel covered to the proper depth with such a solution is indistin- 
 guishable from copper. 
 
 There is a curious fact regarding nickel also worthy of attention. 
 This metal forms solutions which can be exactly simulated by a 
 
798 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 mixture of iron and copper solutions ; but this mixture contains 
 more iron than that which is complementary to cobalt. Nickel 
 solutions are almost complementary to cobalt solutions, but they 
 transmit an excess of yellow light. Now, the atomic weight of 
 nickel is very nearly the mean of the atomic weight of iron and 
 copper, but it is a little lower — that is, nearer to iron. There is 
 thus a perfect analogy between the atomic weights and the color 
 properties in this case. This analogy is even more general, for Mr. 
 Bayley states that in the case of iron, cobalt and copper, the mean 
 wave length of the light absorbed is proportional to the atomic 
 weight. The specific cliromatic power increases with the affinity of 
 the metal for oxygen. Cliromium forms tliree kinds of salts — pink 
 salts, identical in color with the cobalt salts ; blue salts, identical 
 in color with copper salts ; and green salts, complementary to the 
 red salts. Manganese, in like manner, forms more than one kind 
 of salt. The red salts of manganese are identical in color with the 
 cobalt salts and with the red chromium salts. The salts of chro- 
 mium and manganese, according to the author, are with difficulty 
 attainable in a state of purity. He thinks these properties of the 
 metals lead up to some very interesting considerations." — Chemical 
 Meoiew. 
 
 Of the Forms of Minerals. — The researches of Gra- 
 ham aud others have shown that inorganic matter may exist 
 in two perfectly distinct conditions, known respectively as 
 crystalloid and colloid. Tlie same portion of matter may be 
 at one time crystalloid and another colloid, the difference 
 being one of condition not of composition. Thus rock-crys- 
 tal consists of crystalloid silica, but if a fragment be pow- 
 dered, fused with carbonate of soda, dissolved in water, and 
 precipitated by hydrochloric acid, the precipitated silica 
 will now be in the colloid state. When in solution, crystal- 
 loids differ from colloids in some very important particulars, 
 and on passing into the solid form the differences are still 
 more evident. 
 
 Colloid minerals are few in number. They are totally devoid of 
 cleavage or distinct internal structure, but they usually break with 
 a very perfect eonehoidal fracture. They occasionally, but not 
 often, occur in what are called imitative forms, but are usually 
 amorphous or without definite external forms. As examples of 
 true colloid minerals, we may mention opal and obsidian. 
 
 Crystalloid minerals are very numerous, they include, indeed, 
 the great majority of mineral species. They may be either crystal- 
 lized, crystalline, or crypto-crystalline. 
 
 Crystallized minerals are those which occur in definite geomet- 
 rical forms. Ordinai-y rook-crystal is a perfect example of crystal- 
 lized mineral. 
 
 Crystalline minerals are such as have the peculiar internal struc- 
 ture observed in those which are crystallized. They consist, in- 
 deed, of a multitude of crystals confusedly crowded together, so that 
 the external geometrical form is lost or disguised. Tlie cavities or 
 " vughs " of such aggregates, however, often display distinct eryp- 
 tals. The kind of quartz known as cross-course spar afi'ords a good 
 example of a crystallized mineral. 
 
 Crypto-crystalline minerals are those in which the crystalline 
 structure is so niinute that it is not ordinarily observable, but it 
 may be detected in suitably prepared specimens when examined 
 under the microscope. Chalcedony and agate are good examples of 
 crypto-crystalline minerals. 
 
 Many crystalline and erypto-orystalline, and some amorphous 
 minerals, occur in what are known as imitative forms. The chief 
 of these are the following : 
 
 Globular. This form is often seen in wavellite, prehnite, and 
 other minerals. On breaking a globular mineral, it is almost al- 
 ways seen to be composed of a multitude of indistinct crystals radi- 
 ating from the center, and sometimes the outside of the sphere is 
 roughened by the projecting poinfa of these crystals. Occasionally 
 the true crystal form of these terminations may be observed, but 
 usually they are indistinct. 
 
 Eeniform (kidney-shaped). This form is not unfrequenlly met 
 with in nodules of iron pyrites, or other minerals which occur im- 
 bedded in clay or mud. Some kinds of red and brown hematite are 
 called kidney iron from their occurrence in this form. 
 
 Botryoidal (grape-like). This form is often seen in that kind of 
 chalcopyrites known as blistered copper ore. 
 
 Mammillary. This form is often seen in malachite and blistered 
 copper ore. 
 
 Corralloidal. This structure is observable in chalcedony and ar- 
 gonite, especially in specimens from Styria. It sometimes occurs 
 m connection with earthy deposits of iron ore, when it is called flos- 
 ferri, or the flower of iron. 
 
 Cone in cone. This structure is often met with in iron ores 
 from the coal measures. It consists of a series of fibrous concen- 
 tric conical misses, the points of the cones meeting together, or 
 sometimes interlaced. 
 
 Stalactitic (icicle shaped). Chalcedony calcite, and barytes often 
 occur in this form. Sometimes the stalactites are hollow, some- 
 times solid; but in stalactites of caloite anil barytes, a cross-section 
 almost always reveals a structure consisting of fibres radiating from 
 
 the center, and the same thing is visible in properly prepared slices 
 of chalcedony, when examined under the microscope. _ _ 
 
 It is probable that most, if not all, of the above-described imita- 
 tive forms are the result of deposition from solution, at any rate this 
 is known to be the case in some instances. Thus, stalactites of ca,l- 
 cite, or carbonate of lime, may be seen in process of formation in 
 caverns in most limestone districts, and they are very fi-equently 
 formed under bridges or tunnels which have been built with lime 
 mortar. The process of formation is as follows : Eain water con- 
 taining carbonic acid in solution in filtering through limestone, 
 mortar, or other material containing carbonate of lime dissolves a 
 part of it. On becoming again exposed to the air drop by drop, 
 part of the carbonic acid is given off, part of the water evaporates, 
 and part of the carbonate of lime is deposited. A stalactite once 
 formed, the water naturally descends to its lower end before falling 
 off, and it is there that the greatest amount of carbonate of lime 
 will be deposited, and in this direction its growth will be most 
 rapid, although a small quantity of solid matter will continue to be 
 deposited on the sides of the stalactite, so producing the concentric 
 structure shown in the vertical section of a stalactite, or in the 
 cross-seotion. The radial structure appears to be of later origin ; it 
 is really due to an incipient crystallization set up within the mass. 
 The water dropping from the stalactite will still contain some car- 
 bonate of lime in solution. This will be deposited on the ground 
 beneath, when the conditions are favorable, forming what is known 
 as stalagmite. A cross-section of stalagmite, however, will differ 
 from that of a stalactite, owing to the tendency which the drops of 
 water have to spread themselves out. If the supply of water be 
 abundant, a sheet of stalagmite will be formed if only a little falls, 
 a pillar of stalagmite will gradually rise towards the stalactite above ; 
 but in all cases the separate layers will be of about equal thick- 
 ness throughout. The crystalline structure sometimes observable 
 in the imitative forms already described, is probably the result of a 
 secondary action of the crystallizing forces, following the actual 
 formation of the solid mineral. There are, however, other imita- 
 tive forms which are merely irregular crystals or crystalline aggre- 
 gates, and in the formation of which the crystallizing forces appear 
 to have been concerned from the first. These are the so-called cap- 
 illary and wiry forms observable in native silver, the mossy and 
 leafy forms seen in native copper, the dendritic markings of oxide 
 of manganese, the reticulate groupings characteristic of mountain 
 leather, and the stellate groups of cry9tals often met with in stilbite 
 and other minerals. — Mining and Scientific Press. 
 
 ACCIDENTS IN THE COMSTOCK 
 
 MINES AND THEIR RELATION 
 
 TO DEEP MINING. 
 
 EARLY in the month of August, 1877, a miner in 
 Gold Hill, Nevada, made the unlucky remark that, 
 according to his observation, that month was usu- 
 ally quite free from accidents in the mines. Never 
 was presage wider from the truth. When the month closed 
 twelve mishaps had occurred, killing six and wounding 
 nine persons, and for the rest of that year the Comstock 
 mining communities were kept in a ferment by the frequent 
 occurrence of appalling disasters. There was a real tidal 
 wave of calamity sweeping over the mines, which was never 
 known before on the Comstock. This paper deals with the 
 accidents that occurred between July, 1877, and May, 1879. 
 The number in this period of twenty-two months is 101, 
 killing immediately 53 persons and wounding 70 others. 
 This list is incomplete in every way. All accidents which 
 did not injure persons are omitted, and there were several 
 which were of a threatening kind but fortunately did no 
 damage to human beings. Probably others have been over- 
 looked which did not belong to the category included in the 
 lists. Finally, no effort has been made to ascertain how 
 many of the wounded died of their wounds, and the number 
 of fatal casualties includes only those who died so soon after 
 their injury that their death became a part of the current 
 records of the accident. Many of these accidents belong to 
 the usual classes of mishaps in mines and will receive no 
 extended discussion. Others are worth examination from 
 their connection with labor in hot mines, deep mining, and 
 other causes intimately dependent on the local conditions of 
 the Comstock. They may all be classifiad under eight gen- 
 eral heads: 1. Falls of rock, timber, etc. ; 2. Tramminp;; 3. 
 Effects of heat; 4. Falls of men ; 5. Explosions; 6. Hoist- 
 ing apparatus; 7. Overwinding; 8. Miscellaneous. The 
 distribution among these groups in each year is shown in 
 following summary: 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 799 
 
 1877. 
 6 moa. 
 
 1878. 
 
 1879. 
 4inos. 
 
 (1.) Caaualtiei due to falla of rook, ice, timber, etc. 
 
 Number of ocourrenees « • 
 
 Casualtiers, fatal 2 4 
 
 Casualties, not fatal 7 4 
 
 Proportion fatal, 36 per cent. 
 
 (2.) Casualties In tramming. 
 
 Number of occurrences 4 3 
 
 Casualties, fatal. . . . .10 
 
 Casualties, not fatal 4 3 
 
 Proportioa fatal, 12j^ per cent. 
 
 (3.) Casualties due to heat. 
 
 Scalding: 
 
 Number of occurrences 1 2 
 
 Ca'iualties, fatal. . ..11 
 
 Casualties, not fatal. ... . 1 
 
 Proportion fatal, 33 per cent. 
 
 Overheating : 
 
 Number of occurrences 1 8 
 
 Casualties, fatal . .1 7 
 
 Casualties, not fatal. ... .... 3 
 
 Proportion fatal, 73 per cent. 
 
 (4.) Casualties due to falls of men. 
 
 Number of ocourrenoea . . .77 
 
 Casualties, fatal . . . 2 6 
 
 Casualties, not fatal . 6 1 
 
 Proportion fatal, 62}^ per cent. 
 
 (5.) Casualties due to explosions. 
 
 Number of occurrences , . ... 5 6 
 
 Casufilties, fatal. ... . .32 
 
 Casualties, not fatal ... 6 6 
 
 Proportion fatal, 71 per oeni. 
 
 (6.) Casualties in hoisting. 
 
 Number of occurrences 4 6 
 
 Casualties, fatal. ... 23 
 
 Casualties, not fatal. . ..26 
 
 Proportion fatal, 43 per cent. 
 
 (7.) Casualties by overwinding. 
 
 Number of occurrences 1 2 
 
 Casualties, fatal . 1 2 
 
 Casualties, not fatal . 1 1 
 
 Proportion fatal, 60 per cent. 
 
 (8.) Casualties due to miscellaneous causes 
 
 Number of occurrences . . .... 7 8 
 
 Casualties, fatal. . ... 13 
 
 Casualties, not fatal. . 10 6 
 
 Proportion fatal, 20 per cent. 
 
 Total occurrences .38 
 
 Total faial casualties ... .14 
 
 Total casualties, not fatal . 34 
 
 Grand total for 22 months ; 
 
 Occurrences 101 
 
 Total casualtie.o. . . 53 
 
 Casualties, not fatal. . . . . 70 
 
 Proportion fatal, 43 per cent. 
 
 This list is not offered as a summary of accidents in the 
 Comstock mines, but merely as an index to the causes which 
 operate there to endanger life. Many of these are common 
 to all mining operations, but others are quite peculiar and 
 deserve discussion, for it is supposed that they are likely to 
 increase in force with the deepening of the mines. 
 
 (3.) In the third class, or those casualties which are due 
 to the high temperature of the mines and the rock in which 
 they are opened, we have some of the most singular occur- 
 rences known in mining. The injuries by scalding were 
 occasioned entirely by felling into the hot mine waters. 
 Their temperature varies with the locality, but the maxi- 
 mum is 156° F., and usually it is considerably below this. 
 This temperature seems to be sufficient to produce serious 
 effects. One miner, who had slipped into the Julia water, 
 sinking nearly to his knees, got out so quickly that the 
 water did not have time to enter his shoes, and yet his legs 
 were scalded so severely that the skin came off. The same 
 mine was flooded early in 1880 with water which was re- 
 ported to have a temperature of 158° F., and a miner who 
 in a fit of absent-mindedness stepped into it, immersing him- 
 self to the chin, was fatally injured. The water is hot 
 and gaseous, and the unfortunate man who falls in it 
 sinks deeply and probably finds it difficult to regain the 
 surface. 
 
 But it is in the effects of work in hot air upon the human 
 frame that the most remarkable casulties are witnessed, and 
 this class is purposely put first among those which are to be 
 discussed, because it seems probable that a considerable 
 proportion of all kinds of accidents in these mines are in- 
 
 49 14 
 
 28 11 
 
 31 6 
 
 directly due to the heat. The proportion of fatal casulties 
 is larger in this class than in any other, being seventy-three 
 per cent., and from the peculiar mental effects of the heat 
 it is obvious that it may be and probably is the initiating 
 cause of many mishaps which would, under other circum- 
 stances, be ascribed to culpable blundering. On the 1900 
 level of the Gould and Curry mine a drift was run to the 
 southward from the shaft, following the line of the black 
 dike and lying quite near it. As a rule the drifts at this 
 depth have not been above 108° or 110°, and many have 
 been less hot, but this drift has several times been reported to 
 show atemperatureof 123°, 126° and 128° F. Thomas Brown, 
 a miner working in this place fainted, and when taken to 
 the surface and revived was found to have completely lost 
 his memory. He could not tell his name or where he lived, 
 and had to be dressed and taken home by his friends. The 
 paper which records the occurrence says : " This sudden 
 loss of memory from overheating is quite common in the 
 mines, but the effect soon disappears and the men are them- 
 selves again. This fact furnishes an explanation of how 
 men who are considered experienced miners walk off into 
 fatal winzes and chutes, seemingly with deliberate inten- 
 tion." 
 
 A frequent accident in these mines is fainting in the shaft 
 while the cage is rising to the surface. The faintness is 
 always felt immediately upon reaching the cooler air a hun- 
 dred or a hundred and fifty feet from the surface, where there 
 is usually a side draft through some adit. This casulty is so 
 common that a man who has been working in a hot drift is 
 not allowed to go up alone. Long habitude to the heat is 
 no safeguard against this danger, and serious accidents have 
 occurred in this way. The faintness is commonly preceded 
 by nausea, but insensibility follows quite suddenly. Among 
 the minor casualties is included one which is said to have 
 happened to Mr. Sutro. Being in the Sutro tunnel before it 
 made connection with the savage mine, and in an air tem- 
 perature of 110° F., he went to the air pipe to cool off, and 
 staid there so long that the miners told him to get away 
 from the pipe and let them have air. He did not move, and 
 the account says they tried to stir him up with the handles 
 of their shovels, but he had lost all volition and could not 
 budge. Finally he was put on a car and taken out. These 
 are the minor effects of the heat. Its graver results are 
 well shown in the following cases of insanity and death : 
 The first of these, is described by the Virginia Evening 
 Chronicle as follows : " At half past nine o'clock Monday 
 morning, March llth, 1878, a man died at the Caledonia 
 mine in Gold Hill, under peculiar circumstances. The man 
 had been idle for six months, and was working his first shift 
 in that time, he having gone down this morning at seven 
 o'clock. He was put to work as carman on the 1400 level. 
 At the hour stated he rushed into the station at the 1400 
 level and told the station-tender that the wheels of his car 
 were smashed all to pieces. The station-tender walked 
 back with him to the car, when it was found all right. The 
 station-tender thereupon saw that .something was wrong 
 with the man, and took him to the cooling-off' place. There 
 he soon began talking wildly and behaving boisterously, 
 and giving other indications of mental aberration. It was 
 therefore thought best to bring him to the surface. He was 
 firmly lashed to the cage and hoisted up, but on reaching 
 the suiface he fainted away and died in a few minutes." 
 The heat on the 1400 level of the Caledonia is not very 
 great, being about 90° F., and this man's sudden decease may 
 have been due to other causes. 
 
 Of the other fatal casualties one was from cramps, which 
 the account attributes to the heat, but which may have been 
 the result of drinking ice-water, and another was from a cold 
 taken while cooling ofi' after being partially overcome by the 
 heat. It is to the drinking of ice-water and the comfort of 
 a strong draft that the men resort for recovery from the ex- 
 haustion caused by the heat, and though these methods, so 
 contrary to the ordinary rules of hygiene, are put in use 
 several thousand times a day, and usually with impunity, 
 these two instances are proof that they may be dangerous. 
 The miners consider the draft of cool air safer than drink- 
 ing copiously of ice- water. 
 
 The next case illustrates the violent effects which exces-- 
 cessive heat may have upon a person not accustomed to it : 
 "On Friday, October 11, 1878, JohnMcCauley went to work 
 
800 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTb OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 for the first time in the Imperial mine. He was cautioned 
 against overexerting himself in the extreme heat of the 
 lower levels. He replied that he thought he was strong 
 enough to stand anything, and paid no attention to the ad- 
 vice. At half-past two in the afternoon he was brought to 
 the surface in an unconscious state and died the next morn- 
 ing at half-past ten o'clock." Two other cases very similar to 
 this have occurred in the Imperial within a few years. This 
 mine is excavated in one of the hot spots of the Comstock. 
 The hot drift on the 1900 level of the Gould and Curry is 
 the scene of the most serious of these casualties due to heat. 
 Five men were sent there in June, 1878, to load a donkey 
 pump on a car. This work was so exhausting that when the 
 pump caught on a plank they were not able to move it. 
 They seem to have been in a state of mental confusion, but 
 felt that they could not remain longer. Starting up a winze 
 which connects with the 1700 level one man fell on the way, 
 and the others were afraid to stop to help him, but pressed 
 on, reaching the 1700 in half an hour from the time they 
 left it. They were very confused and nearly speechless, and 
 hardly realized what had occurred. Three men went down 
 to the rescue, and found the fallen man still alive. Clearing 
 the pump they got into the car and signalled to hoist, but 
 on the way up the winze the man they had gone to rescue 
 reeled and fell off. The car was stopped at once, but he was 
 jammed between it and the brattice so fast that the others 
 left him and went for help. They all gave out, two half 
 way up, and the other just as he reached the 1700 level, 
 where a friendly hand pulled him up. A new rescue party 
 went down and found two men dead, and the third died soon 
 after. The shift boss reports that " the accident was due 
 solely to the heat, as the air is good enough and pure enough, 
 barring the heat." The winze was not an abandoned one, 
 but in daily use. A heavy volume of steam is reported to 
 rise through it from the 1900 level, the temperature of 
 which, at the time of this accident, is given at 128° F. It 
 may be from the detailed account, that the death of the man 
 is possibly attributable to the fact that when the miner fell 
 off the car the latter was stopped in a place that was hotter 
 than the rest of the winze. It is to be regretted that no ade- 
 quate studies have been made upon the precise physiological 
 phenomena presented by death under these circumstances. 
 The legal requirements are satisfied when it is proved that 
 the casualty was due to "heat," but if the theory of heat 
 production in these rocks is correct, and currents of hot gas 
 rich in carbonic acid are pouring through narrow belts 
 of shattered rock, the death of men who are stopped in one 
 of these belts may have a more complex cause. 
 
 (4.) The most appalling accident which can occur in 
 mining work, the falling of men down a deep shaft, repeats 
 itself in the Comstock mines with a frequency unknown 
 elsewhere. Sixteen occurrences of this kind took place in 
 twenty-two months, and ten of the casualties were fatal. 
 There were seven falls in the shaft, six in winzes and one in 
 a chute, and three in the floors. One of these deaths was 
 traceable to the effects of foul air, the lights having gone out 
 and the party being on the cage in retreat from the drift. 
 These dreadful accidents being more common on the Com- 
 stock than in any other mines, it is important to ascertain 
 whether this frequency is attributable to the heat. In some 
 cases we may answer in the affirmative. When a timberman 
 repairing the upcast shaft of an unusually hot mine falls 
 to the bottom we may fairly conclude- that the tendency of 
 blood to the head which the lifting of a heavy weight occa- 
 sions may have been increased to momentary stupefaction 
 by the heat, steam, and gases of the shaft. But though my 
 own impression before examining this subject was that the 
 heat was largely accountable for these mishaps, one is forced 
 by study of the casualties in this record to admit that this is 
 not the most frequent cause of them. If the Comstock miner 
 is more liable than his fellows to this form of accident it is 
 because he is more often called to work in the shafts after 
 they have been completed. The Comstock shafts are all 
 sunk in the hanging wall, and the vast excavations which 
 have been made in most of the mines make the settling of 
 this wall inevitable. But besides that the Comstock rocks 
 are forever moving, swelling, and forcing the shafts out of 
 line. No shaft there is in perfectly good condition. Some 
 stand remarkably well, and keep in working order for years, 
 while others require frequent repairs ; but from the day they 
 
 are completed their deterioration is steady, until a general 
 overhauling is necessary. They are timbered in a manner 
 which allows remarkable variation from their original align- 
 ment without loss of local support to the ground, and this 
 timber is rapidly and conveniently readjusted when pushed 
 too far out of line. The work of repair is necessarily danger- 
 ous and more hazardous in a hot steaming upcast shaft than 
 in a cool one, and it is to the frequency with which the 
 Comstock miner is called upon to perform this work that 
 the number of falls in the shaft is to be attributed. It is 
 also undeniable that the unfavorable heat conditions may 
 contribute essentially to the result, but of the two causes I 
 consider that frequent opportunity is the greater. But the 
 falling of timbermen is not the only mode in which this ac- 
 cident occurs. Another is the product of pure forgetfulness. 
 A man woi'king near the shaft will sometimes step off upon 
 vacancy and meet his death. The movement is made quietly, 
 not in the heat of action but after the completion of some 
 task, and above ground such actions are attributed to " ab- 
 sent-mindedness." This state of inactive perception is ex- 
 ceptionally frequent among Comstock miners, and it stands 
 in such strong contrast to the habits of forethoughtfiilness to 
 which they train themselves that we must attribute it to the 
 effect of physical exertion in hot air. 
 
 Another class of falls in the shaft are partly due to the 
 high professional spirit and sense of individual responsi- 
 bility which makes the Western miner one of the most trust- 
 worthy of his class. This mode of occurrence, which is un- 
 expectedly frequent, is the pushing of a car into a shaft 
 where there is no cage. This is sometimes due to pure ab- 
 sentmindedness, and sometimes to an interruption of the 
 routine work by a cage going up empty, with a message, with 
 tools, or with a passenger. It is said to be a fact that when 
 a carman has pushed his car to the open shaft and has sud- 
 denly awakened to the dreadful situation, he never fails to 
 sacrifice his own life in efforts, however hopeless, to stop it. 
 Whenever a car thunders down the shaft there is always a 
 man with it, and whenever the circumstances have come 
 under observation it has been evident that the loss of a life 
 was not due to stupefaction, but to a dogged determination 
 to stake everything on the hope of preventing a possible ca- 
 lamity to men below. The spirit is well illustrated by the 
 act of a man who fell down a shaft at Bodie, and used his 
 last breath in calling out " Look out below !" Though this 
 casualty appears so frightful to these who witness it, it is prob- 
 ably as painless as other modes of certain instantaneous death. 
 It is said that the unfortunate men always lose their shoes 
 in their fall, and also that they invariably reach the bottom 
 sooner than the car, if one falls with the man. 
 
 (5). The history of blast accidents in the Comstock mines 
 enforces the truth that the nitroglycerine explosives do not 
 enjoy the immunity from ignition by friction which has been 
 asserted for them so confidently. We have to admit that a 
 box of cartridges can be thrown off a house with safety, for 
 that has been frequently done, but inclosed in a drill- 
 hole they have been fired repeatedly by friction, jarring, or 
 a blow. Out of fourteen accidents five occurred from the 
 explosion of unsuspected cartridges by one of these causes. 
 Two cases of wounding are peculiar from the fact that the 
 exploding cartridges had been in the rock a long time. 
 Each of them lay, not in the header, but in the floor of a 
 drift or chamber, and the accident occurred when orders 
 were given to level up the floor. The explosions were in 
 different mines, and one of the miners was using a pick, the 
 other a gad. Neither was killed. Two men were wounded 
 by the explosion of a cartridge which they were drilling out 
 forrepriming. Three accidents occurred from the explosion 
 of old cartridges left in the header, the presence of which 
 was not suspected, and which were fired, not by direct im- 
 pact of the tool, but by the jar or the crowding in of the 
 rock upon the cartridge, owing to the starting of a new drill 
 hole near by. Two of these were caused by machine drills, 
 and one by hand drilling. It is supposed that in some case:s 
 at least the exploding cartridge was not a complete one but 
 merely a fragment — the upper portion having donej,its work. 
 This seems probable, for instance, in the cases of the two 
 men who were injured while leveling off the floor, for it is: 
 hardly conceivable that a full cartridge could blow up the 
 floor beneath a man's feet and leave him alive. One of the 
 explosions took place under peculiar circumstances which 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 801 
 
 exhibit very well the sensitiveness of nitro-glycerine to the 
 conditions in which it is placed. A hole having missed iire 
 the next shift opened and recharged it. After lighting the 
 fuse the men waited the usual time, and one of them then 
 went to the face and found the cartridge was " boiling," 
 making what the miners call a "stinker." It was concluded 
 to drown the hole out, and a man took up water from the 
 wet floor in his shovel and threw it on the boiling cartridge. 
 While stooping for another shovelful the half-burnt charge 
 exploded. The superintendent, Mr. Forman, who was pre- 
 sent, attributes the explosion to the confinement of gas by the 
 water, and the suggestion is a sensible one. 
 
 (6.) Hoisting on the Comstock has peculiar dangers from 
 the movement of ground in the shafts already spoken of 
 It is often impossible to keep the guides in anything ap- 
 proaching a straight line. The shove is not only consider- 
 able, but it is frequently confined to short reaches in the 
 shaft, and this displacement of line is the cause of fre- 
 quent dangers and sometimes of serious casualties. The 
 cage sways from side to side with motion sufficient to make 
 it absolutely necessary to hold firmly to a rod placed in the 
 top for that purpose. Among the casualties of 1877 was 
 one caused by the violent surging of the cage in the Con- 
 solidated Virginia shaft, by which a miner was thrown off 
 his balance, one foot going over the side. He escaped with 
 a sprained ankle. Sticking of the cage during its descent, 
 and its subsequent fall with a jerk, is one of the most fre- 
 quent causes of these accidents, and the cage sometimes 
 also gives a sudden bound when rising. 
 
 (7.) Though Overwinding is neither the most frequent 
 source of casualties nor the most fatal in its results, it has 
 aroused more attention than any other. In twenty-two 
 months, cages containing men were twice "run into the 
 sheaves," as the local expression is, and there are on record 
 notes of four others, where no men were hoisted, but one of 
 whicli proved injurious to persons. Two of the fatal cases 
 occurred at the same mine within five and a half months, 
 and the other, which was caused by overwinding a heavy 
 bailing-tank, followed soon after. These, and the running 
 of several empty or ore-laden cages into the sheaves, made 
 a great excitement, and the Society of Engineers tried to 
 prove that the men at the engines were overworlced. They 
 formerly worked twelve hours at many shafts, and on so- 
 licitation were reduced to eight hours at some. The pay for 
 twelve hours' work was usually $6, and for eight hours 
 $4.50 or $5. One result of the excitement occasioned by 
 these dreadful casualties was the introduction of several 
 safety devices. Nothing new was presented, there being 
 detaching devices which depended on safety-catches for 
 supporting the cage when connection with the cable was 
 severed, others with special chairs to detain the cage, and one 
 with a rope wound on a false reel t o support the cable and 
 carry it quietly to- the hoisting drum or reel. In addition 
 the usual appliances for throttling the exhaust from the cyl- 
 inders of the hoisting engine, shutting off steam gradually 
 and putting on the brake, have been re-invented. The gal- 
 lows frames at most of the old shafts are thirty-five feet 
 high, and with a " double-decker " cage that takes up twelve 
 or fourteen feet of this space, it is evident the engineer has 
 but a small margin for safety. The new shafts have frames 
 forty-five feet high. The tendency on the Comstock is to 
 employ unbalanced reels and with these, mere bleeding of 
 the steam pipe should be sufficient to prevent serious injury. 
 With balanced reels it would be absolutely necessary to put 
 on the brake also. 
 
 (8.) One of the accidents classed among the miscel- 
 laneous causes is worthy of attention. Several years ago 
 an electric signaling apparatus was introduced into the 
 Savage mine, but abandoned on account of the uncertainty 
 of its signals, which would sometimes sound without human 
 aid. In 1877 a new apparatus was put in with improve- 
 ments which it was thought would prevent this disadvan- 
 tage, but after working well for some time it failed one 
 morning, and caused a fatal casualty by ringing only three 
 bells when ten were intended. Whether the signal-man 
 was at fault is doubtful, but it is a fact that the apparatus 
 had worked badly that morning, and before the accident a 
 man had been stationed to signal with the bell-rope in case 
 the battery did not work. There is little confidence in the 
 electric mode of signaling. A small wire hand-rope is 
 51 
 
 used, and on the whole is safe and convenient. In looking 
 over this list of casualties it as evident that the accidents 
 which possess most interest are those which have near or 
 remote connection with the heat of the mines, for the latter 
 are sinking with great rapidity, and becoming hotter each 
 year. It is difficult to deny that the greater depth increases 
 the chances of accident in mines which, in addition to the 
 ordinary liabilities of mining work, have the insidious and 
 ever-present effects of hot air, water, and rock upon the 
 physical and mental condition of the men. Out of 101 
 accidents twelve were directly caused by the heat or 
 hot water. Undoubtedly the falls of men down a shaft have 
 been caused sometimes by sudden exhaustion, due to the 
 heat and steam in upcast shafts,but on looking over the ac- 
 counts of the accidents of this kind which are included in 
 the above list none of them show a connection with this 
 cause. The casualties positively traceable to the heat are 
 therefore twelve per cent, of the whole. Probably the heat 
 increases the bad effects of powder fumes and natural gases, 
 and by making repairs to the shafts more frequently neces- 
 sary it adds indirectly to the occasions when disasters may 
 occur. Some allowance should be made for a less active 
 mental condition, a dulling of the faculties, and a certain 
 recklessness to which the heat sometimes goads the men. 
 On the other hand the heat makes them more cautious except 
 when under momentary impulses, and there are no American 
 miners more careful of themselves than in these mines. On 
 the whole the good and bad effects of the heat seem to nearly 
 balance each other, and an allowance of five per cent, for 
 the casualties indirectly caused by the high heat would be 
 fairly sufficient. The specific cases I presented do not war- 
 rant even that allowance. The accidents recorded here re- 
 late to a time when the number of miners at work in the dis- 
 trict was from three thousand to thirty-five hundred, 
 including top men and underground men. Most of them 
 worked eight hours, but some of those on top had twelve-hour 
 shifts, and probably there was a constant force of nine hun- 
 dred or one thousand men below. It is not possible to make 
 a comparison between these casualties and the amount of 
 ore raised, as the practice is in statistics of coal mines, for 
 the reason that only two out of about forty mines were pro- 
 ducing much ore throughout the period covered by the list. 
 The comparison can be made for those two, the Consolidated 
 Virginia and California, and is as follows for the year 1878 : 
 
 Number of accidents. 10, . . 
 Fatal casualtiep, 5, 
 
 Casualties not fatal, R, . 
 Tons of ore extracted, 257,718. 
 
 Proportion to tons ore. 
 . 1 to 25,771 
 . 1 to 51,542 
 
 . . . 1 to 32,214 
 
 Of the casualties included in the list for twenty-two 
 months there were in these two mines twenty-five accidents, 
 twelve fatal, and eighteen not fatal casualties, or twenty- 
 five, twenty-two and a half, and twenty-six per cent, of the 
 whole. 
 
 From all these facts it may be concluded that increasing 
 heat will not debar the Comstock mines from continuing to 
 the greatest depths which are considered practicable in the 
 existing adjustment of mining appliances to the market 
 value of mining products. It is true that an air temperature 
 of 108" F. is common at the 2000 feet level, while 110° and 
 112° are not infrequently observed, and that a drift which 
 showed a temperature of 123°, 126° and 128° F., according 
 to different reports, has proved to be the most deadly on the 
 lode. It is also true that the temperature of the rock is 
 increasing, and with it that of the air, and at some depth, 
 for the calculation of which there are absolutely no data, 
 the temperature of this drift may be expected to prevail 
 throughout the lode unless the present conditions change. 
 But this being an air temperature it is always possible to 
 mitigate it by artificial means. It is already observable that 
 drifts 1800 feet below the surface may show a much higher 
 heat than others 400 feet below them. High temperature 
 is largely a matter of locality and temporary conditions, and 
 by various expedients it may be confined to its localities, or 
 combated in other ways. Deep mining, by extending the 
 line of work through the moving hanging wall, and com- 
 pelling increased repairs to shafts, will perhaps tend to 
 heighten the already great frequency of falls of men. In ad- 
 dition to heat, the peculiar mode of timbering in square setts, 
 the almost exclusive use of nitro-glycerine powders, the 
 
802 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 necessity of frequent repairs to shaft timbers, the incessant 
 movement ofthe rocks through which the shafts are sunk, 
 making accidents in hoisting more than ordinarily frequent, 
 and the necessity of transporting large quantities of rock 
 through narrow gangways entirely by human labor, are the 
 conditions in which mining on the Comstock may be said 
 to suffer rather more than the usual liability to danger. 
 Two of these causes, both connected with the movement of 
 the ground, may be expected to increase with depth. To- 
 gether with the heat they comprise forty per cent, of the 
 whole number of accidents, and we may therefore sum up 
 our conclusions by saying that the conditions of deep mining 
 will increase forty per cent, of the causes which lead to cas- 
 ualties and will leave sixty per cent, unaffected. What the 
 amount of this increase will be cannot be foretold, and in- 
 deed, cannot be estimated until an ore body has been found 
 and worked at great depth. The year 1879, which was pre- 
 eminently one of deep sinking on the Comstock, has been 
 remarkably free from casualties. 
 
 The above is taken from a paper by Professor John G. 
 Church, M. E., published in the Transactions of the Ameri- 
 can Institute of Mining Engineers. To it we append the 
 following from the Mining and Scientific Press: 
 
 On "Wednesday, the 31st May, 1882, the main pump column in 
 the Alta mine on the Comstock was broken. Men were at work 
 making the necessary repairs, when, at 11 o'clock, the bulkhead 
 recently placed in the main east drift on the 2150 level gave way. 
 This bulkhead was constructed of plank and timbers, and was 
 placed in a part of the drift where the rock was hard and per- 
 fectly solid. It would seem that it at first gave way at one end, as 
 the first rush of water was not very alarming,ihough it was thought 
 best for all to get off the level. Three or four men who were near 
 the shaft went up, and Richard Bennett, the shift boss, at once 
 started out into the main west drift to notify the men at work 
 at that point of the danger. About the time he started on his 
 errand it would seem that the whole bulkhead went down, and 
 there was a tremendous rush of water. This drift is 1400 feet long, 
 and the last seen of Bennett was when he started in on his errand of 
 mercy. At the face of the drift six miners were at work, whose 
 names are as follows : P. Denney, Malachi Curran, T. McDonald, 
 John Black, John Mulligan and Morris Connera. This drift was 
 ran with a raise of about one foot in each hundred, therefore, at 
 the face it would be 14 feet higher than the floor of the station at 
 the shaft. This circumstance gave some hope of being able to save 
 the seven men who were imprisoned. Every possible effort was 
 made to keep the pump going at best speed, but there were over 
 2,500 feet of drifts in the level to be emptied. It was found that the 
 men were tapping on the compressed air pipe as a signal of their 
 existence. A boat for navigating the drift was made, but it was too 
 high. Another boat made of canvas and used for gunning purposes 
 was lowered into the mine. All the time the bailing tanks and 
 pumps were kept at work all day Thursday and Friday. During 
 this time the excitement was, of course, intense. Two men, George 
 Gornest and Anthony Smith tried to penetrate the drift, but had to 
 return. At 4 o'clock on Friday morning the water was so far low- 
 ered that it was thought the boats could venture in. William Ben- 
 nett, a nephew of Richard Bennett, the shift boss, and Denis Calla- 
 han took the canvas hunting boat belonging to Fred. Ritter, the 
 gunsmith, and the flat wooden boat constructed at the mine, and 
 ventured into the drift. They had placed in the boats ice, water and 
 some refreshments, and hoped to be able to force their way into the 
 end of the drift. They pulled out into the drift and that was tlie 
 last seen of them alive. It appears that they started ofl' without the 
 knowledge of Superintendent Boyle or John Husking the foreman, 
 who had not intended that the venture should be made atthat time. 
 It_ would seem that the two men were very anxious to reach their 
 friends, and supposed the air was no worse at any point ahead than 
 near the mouth of the drift. Both these men died. We condense 
 from the Virginia Enterprise an account of the incidents : " In the 
 afternoon, about 3 o'clock, when the water in the mouth of the drift 
 had been reduced to about three feet, John Van Dusen entered the 
 drift. He had on him an apparatus invented and constructed by 
 Andrew Peasley, of this city. This armor consisted of a mask for 
 the face from which there was a rubber breathing tube passing into 
 a tin box strapped on the man's back, which box was filled with 
 fragments of ice and perforated with holes to allow of air passing 
 in through the pounded ice. Wearing this armor. Van Dusen struck 
 boldly into the drift. He was gone about half an hour, when those 
 at the station heard a call for help. Men went in the diretion of 
 the cry, and, when out about 100 feet from the shaft, found Van 
 Dusen in an exhausted and fainting condition. As soon as Van 
 Dusen was able to converse he said that he had found the seven 
 men originally imprisoned in the drift alive and all right. He said 
 they were in the cooling-off house, about 100 feet from the face of 
 the drift. With picks or bars they had broken the pipe carrving 
 compressed air and had then so bent it as to carry the end into tlie 
 cooling-house. In this house, when they were first imprisoned 
 they had nearly a barrel of ice water. When this was exhausted 
 
 they poured into the barrel hot water from the drift. Then they 
 twisted the end of the compressed air pipe down into the water in 
 the barrel, and allowed it to exhaust there. This rendered the 
 water quite cool and drinkable. They had a light in the cooling- 
 house, but nothing to eat. The great heat rendered them weak and 
 feverish. Mr. Van Dusen told the men he would inform their 
 friends that they were aU right, and assured them that they and a host 
 of brave men were outside doin|; all that could be done by human 
 beings for their rescue. As his ice was fast melting away, ilr. Van 
 Dusen could not remain long with the men, besides he was anxious 
 to get out and give notice of their being alive and of their situation. 
 It was owing to the consumption of the ice in the box at his back 
 that Mr. Van Dusen came near losing his life. There being but a 
 few lumps rolling about, much hot and foul air entered his armor, 
 whereas had there been the proper quantity all the air entering the 
 mask must first have been cooled and purified by coming in contact 
 with the fragments among which it passed. 
 
 That evening, about seven o'clock, six men entered the drift and, 
 at the risk of their lives, pushed their way through to the cooling- 
 house. They carried with them some milk puncli and some ice. 
 They found the men about as described; indeed, the six men were 
 in a' worse state when they reached the cooling station than were 
 those they found in it. However, they recovered on reaching the 
 fresh air sent in by the compressor. "The men in the cooling station 
 tried to persuade the new arrivals to remain and take their chances 
 with them instead of venturing back. This, however, they dared 
 not do, as it would have left their friends on the outside in doubt as 
 to their fate, and would have caused great uneasiness. Though the 
 six men had seen the bodies of Bennett and Callahan, while on 
 their way in, they thought it best to say nothing about their having 
 lost their lives. Work was then pushed on with great vigor on the 
 air pipe, and at length a current from the blower was sent through 
 its whole length. 'This gradually forced out the belt of foul air. 
 The men about the mine became so exhausted by about nine o'clock 
 last night, that they sent up from the mine to superintendent 
 McKenzie, of the Sierra Nevada, to send down a fresh force from 
 his mine. Meantime the air had so far improved that tlie impri- 
 soned men could be visited. By the advice of the physicians they 
 were given stimulants and refreshments, and kept in the coojing 
 house to get some strength before an attempt was made to bring 
 them out. The men told the visitors that they had at no time been 
 much alarmed for their ultimate safety. They said that before the 
 accident happened they had frequently talked about what they 
 would do in case of the bulkhead giving way, and had concluded it 
 would be best to remain in the upper end of the drift and wait for 
 the water to be pumped out. When the men were all safely out 
 of the drift, the Alta whistle began a prolonged scream, and this was 
 taken up all along the lode. It was kept up for aboutfive minutes, 
 just as in case of fire in the early days, and for a time the whole 
 country was made to howl. The only drawback to the general joy 
 was the sad fate of the two brave men, William Bennett and Denis 
 Callahan. It is saddest of all, to find how unnecessary was the 
 noble attempt and the willing sacrifice they made. It is said that 
 the scenes that occurred at the shaft when the men were brought up 
 and restored to their wives, children, relatives and friends were 
 such as no pen could describe. Among all the spectators present 
 there was the wildest excitement. In this city, when the whistles 
 sounded the signal that the men were at last saved, after their im- 
 prisonment of some seventy hours, people rushed out into the streets 
 and shook hands right and left, and were so full of joy that they 
 could hardly speak. 
 
 DEEP WORKINGS. 
 
 AEOYAL Parliamentary Commission of Great 
 Britain recently made extended inquiry as to the 
 possible depth at which coal can be worked, and 
 the evidence thus collected bearing upon this im- 
 portant subject, is in substance as follows : The possible 
 depth from which coal can be worked, does not appear to 
 be limited to any consideration of a mechanical nature. The 
 cost of the steam power required for hoisting coal from an 
 unusual depth, will not be sufficiently large to be regarded 
 as an obstacle to deep working, and the expense per yard of 
 sinking does not greatly increase with increase of depth. 
 The introduction of steel wire ropes, tapering downwards, 
 renders it practicable to draw coal from extreme depth with- 
 out overstraining the rope by its own weight, and it is also 
 quite practicable to draw in successive stages by engines 
 placed in the shaft. As regards pumping, it seems to be an 
 establishedfact, so far at least as experience has yet gone, 
 that water is seldom if ever met with in large quantities at 
 great depths in British coal fields. As a rule, deep mines 
 ajipear to be not more liable to inflammable gas than shallow 
 mines, so that no impediment to drop working is to be ap- 
 prehended in regard to increased liability to explosion. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 803 
 
 The increase of temperature which accompanies increase 
 of depth is the only cause which it is necessary to consider 
 as limiting the depth at which it may be practicable to work 
 coal. In this country the temperature of the earth is con- 
 stant at a depth of about fifty feet, and at that depth the 
 temperature is 50° Fahr. The rate of increase of the tem- 
 perature of the strata in the coal districts of England is, in 
 general, about 1° Fahr. for every sixty feet of depth. In some 
 instances theincrease is very irregular, being probably affected 
 by local conditions, such as percolation of warm or cold 
 water, and varying conductive power of the rocks pene- 
 trated. These cases, however, are exceptional, and throw 
 no doubt upon the general conclusion that the rate of in- 
 crease amounts, as a rule, to about 1° Fahr. to every sixty 
 feet. As the present inquiry applies only to English 
 coal-fields, it is immaterial to inquire whether the same rule 
 holds good for other places. It may, however, be observed 
 in passing, that whenever Artesian wells have been sunk in 
 this or other countries, the rate of increase is in close har- 
 mony with that observed in English coal mines ; but, on the 
 other hand, by observations made in Belgian coal mines, the 
 rate of increase appears to be less than in English colliers, 
 though it is quite possible that this apparent diflerence may 
 have arisen from the thermometer having been applied in a 
 manner which would not correctly indicate the temperature 
 of the strata. In the metalliferous mines of Cornwall, the de- 
 viations from the scale of 1° Fahr. for every sixty feet are 
 very great, but it is probable that the disturbing causes of 
 variable conduction and percolation of heated water exists 
 to a much greater extent in the geological formations con- 
 taining metalliferous veins than in the sedimentary rocks 
 embracing the coal measures. The deepest colliery in Eng- 
 land is at Rosebridge near Wigan, where the shaft has al- 
 ready attained a depth of two thousand three hundred and 
 seventy six feet, and is still being sunk to a greater depth. 
 The temperatures of the rock, as observed in this shaft, are 
 in general agreement with the ordinary rate of increase to a 
 depth of one thousand eight hundred feet. After that the 
 increase becomes considerably more rapid, but it would be 
 rash to conclude from this single example that the increase 
 would in all cases be accelerated when that depth was ex- 
 ceeded. At the lowest point of this shaft the temperature 
 of the earth, as indicated by a thermometer placed in a bore 
 hole a yard in depth, is 92° Fahr. 
 
 According to the evidence of Mr. Elliott, and his assist- 
 ant, Mr. Wilmer, the temperature of the strata in horizontal 
 coal workings accords with the rise and fall of the surface 
 above ; but there is reason to believe that this rule will only 
 apply to gradual variations of surface, and not to abrupt 
 prominences in the nature of peaks, since in the Mont Oenis 
 tunnel the temperature of the rock is very much less than 
 would be due to the depth measured from the top of the 
 mountain. It may, however, be assumed, that under the 
 ordinary configuration of the surface in British coal-fields 
 the increase of temperature will have reference to the depth 
 from the surface of the ground, and not from the level of 
 the sea. High temperature of the strata operates as an im- 
 pediment to deep working by heating the air circulating 
 through the passages of the mine. When cool air enters a 
 heated mine, it absorbs heat from the surfaces of the pas- 
 sages through which it flows, and the rate of this absorption 
 somewhat exceeds the ratio of the difference between the 
 temperature of the air and that of the surrounding sur- 
 face with which it is in contact. By the absorption which 
 thus takes place the air is heated, and this heating process 
 is most rapid at first when the difference of temperature is 
 greatest, and gradually diminishes as the length of the pas- 
 sage is extended, never ceasing until complete assimilation 
 of temperature is effected. The progress towards assimila- 
 tion of temperature is much more rapid when the air comes 
 in contact with the working face of the coal, which from 
 being newly exposed is more highly heated than the surfaces 
 of the permanent air courses. The rapidity, however, with 
 which the air takes up heat from the working face depends, 
 in a great degree, upon the system of working. In the cel- 
 lular system, called " Pillar and Stall," the air seems to ac- 
 quire almost immediately the full temperature of the coal, 
 but under the " Long Wall " system there are instances of 
 the air retaining a considerable inferiority of temperature 
 after sweeping past the working face. The great outlay of 
 
 capital involved in sinking pits to coal lying at extreme 
 depths would render it necessary to work a large area of 
 coal from each sinking, and this would involve air courses 
 of great length. It thus becomes necessary to consider the 
 question of ventilation uuder the double aspect of great 
 depth from the surface, and great length of air passages. 
 
 At present, the ventilation of coal mines is almost always 
 effected by means of a furnace applied at the foot of an up- 
 cast shaft, in which an ascending current is produced by 
 rarefaction, as in an ordinary chimney. Ventilating fans 
 and other mechanical contrivances propelled by steam en- 
 gines have of late been partially introduced, and are found 
 to be advantageous in reducing the consumption of fuel 
 necessary to circulate a given volume of air. This superi- 
 ority, however, will diminish as the depth of mines is in- 
 creased, because the deeper the mine the mor« powerful is 
 the suction in the upcast shaft. But whatever method be 
 used for producing the current, it would require an extrava- 
 gant increase of power to accelerate the velocity of the air 
 in any considerable degree, because the resistance of the air 
 increases in ratio somewhat exceeding that of the cube of 
 the velocity. Thus if the volume of air were doubled by 
 doubling the velocity of the current, more than eight times 
 the presentpower would be needed. The longer air courses 
 incident to deep mining also involve an extension of frictional 
 surface, and this would further add to the diflSculty of in- 
 creasing the ventilation by acceleration of current. In 
 short, the only way in which the volume of air would be 
 very materially increased would be by enlarging the sec- 
 tional area of the shafts and air courses. 
 
 The more general introduction of coal-cutting machines, 
 worked by compressed air conveyed into the mine by pipes, 
 would have some effect in lowering temperature, and would 
 at the same time supersede the labor of hewing, which, from 
 its arduous nature, is that form of labor against which high 
 temperature chiefly militates. Mr. Lindsay Wood states 
 in his evidence that the air discharged from the pneumatic 
 coal-cutting machine is reduced by expansion in the act of 
 escaping to a temperature of 7° Fahr. below freezing, and 
 that the air from one machine is sufficient to lower the tem- 
 perature of the whole body of air flowing past a working 
 face by 1° Fahr. He thinks that as many as seven of these 
 machines might be employed at one working face; but it 
 does not follow that the collective action of these seven 
 machines would reduce the temperature sevenfold, because 
 the principle of accelerated absorption by reduction of tem- 
 perature again intervenes, and would in a great measure 
 defeat the cooling action of the machines. Moreover, if 
 jointly with the use of these machines, reduction of tem- 
 perature were to be attempted by increasing the volume of 
 air in circulation, the diluting effect of the cold air from the 
 machines would be reduced in proportion as the volume of 
 circulating air was increased. It remains to be considered 
 whether it be practicable to reduce the temperature of the 
 air by surrounding the air courses with an intercepting air 
 space, or with a layer of non-conducting material. Upon 
 this point it may be observed that the air courses in a mine 
 are already naturally encased in a partially cooled envelope 
 of imperfectly conducting material. The coal itself is a Tcry 
 imperfect conductor, and every suggestion for jacketing the 
 air courses, either with a surrounding air space or with solid 
 material, must be regarded as an expedient for giving fur- 
 ther effect to a retarding action already in operation. It is 
 doubtful whether any increase of retardation could by these 
 means be eflfected at all commensurate with the cost and 
 difficulty attending their adoption. The evidence of Mr. 
 Elliott, and of most of the other witnesses, is adverse to the 
 feasibility of thus stemming back the heat, and it appears 
 that no such method has yet been put in practice. The 
 question of the maximum temperature of air which is com- 
 patible with the healthfiil exercise of human labor is one of 
 the most difficult questions which the committee have had 
 to investigate. Evidence has been given of extraordinary 
 temperatures endured in the stoke holes of steamers, and in 
 the places where glass blowers work. In some of these cases 
 labor has been carried on without serious detriment to health 
 where the thermometer has indicated 180° Fahr. In these in- 
 stances, however, the thermometer is chiefly acted upon by 
 radiant heat, and therefore does not truly indicate the actual 
 temperature of the air. In an experiment made at Elswick 
 
804 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 by Sir W. Armstrong, it was found that a thermometer sus- equal to the heat of the blood, would be about three thousand 
 
 pended in a stoke hole at a distance of four feet from the 
 front plates of the boilers indicated a temperature of 105° 
 Fahr., while another thermometer, at a distance of only- 
 three inches from the former, but carefully screened from 
 the radiant heat, stood at 78° It is important, also, to ob- 
 serve that the men who work in stoke holes and glass houses 
 have ready access to the external air, and avail themselves 
 of numerous intervals in their labor to cool themselves. One 
 of the medical witnesses, who had spent a great part of his 
 life in tropical climates, states that he had experienced a 
 temperature of one hundred and twenty-five degrees Fah- 
 renheit in the shade, and that this great heat was rendered 
 quite endurable by the dryness of the atmosphere ; on the 
 other hand, he had felt a damp atmosphere almost intoler- 
 able at the comparatively low temperature of eighty-six 
 degrees. The committee had information of mining work 
 being executed in a Cornish mine, where the air was heated 
 by a hot spring to a temperature which was said to amount 
 to one hundred and seventeen degrees, and was also by the 
 same cause saturated with moisture. They therefore, de- 
 puted Doctor John Burdon Sanderson to visit this mine, and 
 investigate the facts of the case. He found the highest 
 temperature to exist at the extremity of an excavation, form- 
 ing a sort of cul de sac, where a stream of water entered at a 
 temperature of a hundred and fourteen and one-half degrees. 
 At the distance of one yard from the end of this cul de sac, 
 the thermometer indicated a temperature of a hundred and 
 three degrees, but at a distance of only ten feet there was 
 access to air, where the thermometer stood at eighty-one 
 degrees. According to other evidence the temperature of 
 the air occasionally reached one hundred and twenty-three 
 degrees. The miners remained in the workings six hours 
 out of the twenty-four. Four men were employed at a time, 
 of whom two were always at rest in the cool air, and the 
 other two were not always at work ; the time occupied in 
 resting being considerably more than that occupied in work- 
 ing. Thus the total duration of each man's work was less 
 than three hours in the twenty-four. No miner remained 
 more than fifteen minutes in the heat at one time. Doctor 
 Sanderson described the condition of each miner on retreat- 
 ing into the cool air to be one of complete exhaustion, but 
 by allowing cool water to pour over his body the distress 
 and exhaustion quickly passed off: and he concluded that 
 the occupation in question was not necessarily inconsistent 
 with the enjoyment of vigorous health ; but he found that 
 there were many men who, after trying to work, were com- 
 pelled to desist on account of the distiess and exhaustion 
 which were produced. In Doctor Sanderson's opinion, the 
 immunity from injury to health, which most men employed 
 in these hot workings appear to enjoy, is attributable to the 
 shortness of the period during which they are exposed to 
 the high temperature, and to the readiness with which they 
 can escape to a well ventilated cooling place the moment 
 they are incapacitated for flirther exertion by disorder of 
 the circulation and increase of the temperature of the body. 
 Doctor Sanderson also states it to be his decided opinion 
 that labor is not practicable in moist air of a temperature 
 equal to that of the blood, namely ninety-eight degrees, 
 excepting for very short intervals; and this conclusion is 
 in harmony with the other medical evidence. The evi- 
 dence having shown that the question of the maximum 
 temperature under which work could be carriedi on in a 
 coal mine hinges in a great measure on the hygrometric 
 condition of the air, the Committee proceeded to inquire 
 what was the state of the air in regard to moisture in 
 coal mines. The observations which they collected on this 
 point show that the air at the working faces of the coal 
 was always humid, and often saturated with moisture. In 
 general, however, the deepest collieries appear to be the 
 dryest, although there does not anpear to be any ratio 
 between depth and dryness. The' depth at which the 
 temperature of the earth would amount to blood heat, or 
 ninety-eight degrees, is about three thousand feet. Under 
 the long-wall system of working, a difference of about 
 seven degrees appears to exist between the temperature 
 rl- '*!,'■. i""^ ^^^■'^ of tlie strata at the working faces; 
 and this difference represents a further depth of four hun- 
 dred and twenty feet ; so that the depth at which the tem- 
 perature of the air would, under present conditions, become 
 
 four hundred and twenty feet. Beyond this point the con- 
 siderations affecting increase of depth and temperature be- 
 come so speculative, that the Committee felt it necessary to 
 leave the question in uncertainty : but, looking to possible 
 expedients which the future may elicit for reducing the tem- 
 perature, they considered it might fairly be assumed that a 
 depth of at least four thousand feet might be reached. 
 
 The Temperature of the Soil. — The temperature of 
 the ground surface is almost entirely dependent on the heat 
 of the sun, and is therefore always greater in the daytime 
 than at night. Considering all the circumstances which 
 affect the temperature of the ground, there must be included 
 the kind of exposure of the surface, the nature of the soil, 
 the permeability of the ground by rain and the presence of 
 underground springs, the sun's declination, the elevation 
 above the sea, and the amount of cloud and sunshine. The 
 temperature of the soil is observed at the Royal Botanic 
 Gardens, London, three times daily, at depths of 3 inches, 6 
 inches, 12 inches, 24 inches and 48 inches. The underground 
 thermometers used are considered better than any previously 
 made. A series of observations made with unfailing regu- 
 larity, extending over six years, have been discussed by G. 
 J. Symons, F.R.S., with some interesting results. The mean 
 temperature of the air at 4 feet above soil, and that of the 
 surface of the lake, which covers more than an acre of 
 ground have also been deduced for the same period. The 
 lowest mean monthly temperature under the various rela- 
 tions to the surface of the earth are : 
 
 Air at 4 feet . . 
 Surface of lake . 
 
 3 in. below grass . 
 
 in, below gras'>. 
 12 in. below grass. 
 24 in. below grass. 
 48 in. below grass , 
 
 Deti. 
 38.9 
 39 7 
 37.3 
 38.1 
 S8.1 
 39.6 
 41.6 
 
 AtZp.in. 
 
 Deq. 
 42:i 
 40.7 
 39.1 
 39.0 
 38.3 
 39.4 
 41.6 
 
 At^ p.m. 
 
 Deg. 
 40 
 40.2 
 37.9 
 38.8 
 38.3 
 39.4 
 41.6 
 
 For the highest mean monthly temperatures we have the 
 following results: 
 
 Air at 4 feet above the soil , 
 Surface of lake . . . 
 
 3 in. below grass 
 
 6 in, below grass 
 
 12 in, below grass . , . 
 
 24 in. below grass 
 
 48 in. below grass . 
 
 At 9 a.m. 
 
 Deg. 
 64.8 
 66,3 
 64.9 
 63.4 
 63.6 
 62.1 
 60.5 
 
 At% p.m. 
 
 71.3 
 70.1 
 7.5.0 
 70.4 
 64.8 
 62.0 
 60.5 
 
 All 
 
 Beg. 
 62.0 
 68.4 
 67.2 
 68.3 
 66.9 
 61,9 
 60.5 
 
 These maxima temperatures occur in July, except those at 
 2 ft.and 4 ft. which fall in August. At this the hottest portion 
 of the year the temperature of the air is on the whole slightly 
 below that of the water, but it has a greater diurnal range. 
 The temperature of the soil is greater than that of the air 
 only at the surface ; it decreases with the depth, and at 2 
 feet the diurnal range ceases. The results of the earth tem- 
 perature observations made at the Royal Observatory during 
 the years 1847 and 1873 are given in the " Greenwich Mete- 
 orological Reductions." Referred to noon as the time ob- 
 servation the lowest mean monthly temperature of the series 
 are for the 
 
 Air 38.4° in January. 
 
 At 1 inch below soil 40.9° in January. 
 
 At 38.4 inches below soil . , 41.7° in February, 
 
 At 76.8 inches below soil 44.8° in March. 
 
 At 153.6 iuches below soil 46.4° in April. 
 
 At 307.2 inches below soil 48,9° in June. 
 
 Similarly the highest mean monthly temperatures are : 
 
 In air 62.6° in July. 
 
 At 1 inch below soil 65.4° in July. 
 
 At 38.4 inches below soil 62,5° in August. 
 
 At 7(i.8 inehea below soil 59.6° in August, 
 
 At 103,6 inches beiow soil , . 55.8° in September. 
 
 At 307.2 inches below soil . . , 52,2° in November, 
 
 It thus appears that wherea,«i the coldest temperature of the 
 air is in January, the wave of cold (if it may be so called) 
 travels slowly downward and does not reach 25 feet until 
 June, and that whereas the hottest temperature of the air is 
 in July, the wave of heat travels slowly downward, and does 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 805 
 
 not reach 25 feet until November. At that depth the tem- 
 perature decreases until June, then increases until November, 
 whereas the thermometer bulb, covered by only 1 inch of soil, 
 reaches its lowest and highest limits about the same time as 
 the thermometer in air, shaded, and 4 feet above the ground. 
 The retardation of cooling and of heating is greater the 
 deeper the soil, though the yearly range decrei^ses as the 
 depth increases, down to the stratum of invariable tem- 
 perature. The non-periodic fluctuations of cold and of heat 
 which aflFect the air are not felt beneath the surface of the 
 ground. Recent advices bring information concerning the 
 teitperature of the mines in the Ashton District, England. 
 In Ashton Moss Colliery the temperature was observed at 
 the depth of 930 yards, and was found to be 85.3^, the ther- 
 mometer being inserted in a hole 2 inches in diameter and 
 3} feet deep, drilled for the purpose in hard blue shale. A 
 slow action thermometer was inserted after ten or fifteen 
 minutes, and was allowed to remain for six hours. Assum- 
 ing 49^ as the surface temperature, it will be observed that 
 we have here an increase of 36.3' for 2790 feet which is at 
 the rate of 1° in 76.9 feet. In reference to an apprehension 
 which was expressed that the heat of drilling did not have 
 suffisieut time to escape, it is stated that on several occasions 
 further observations were made in the same hole, and similar 
 results were obtained. Experiments were also conducted 
 at Bredbury Colliery, Cheshire County, at a depth of 1020 
 feet, and the temperature observed was 62^. Assuming (as 
 above) 49° as the surface temperature, we have here an in- 
 crease of 13' in 1020 feet, which is at the rate of 1^ in 78.5 
 feet. The distance from Ashton Moss Colliery is three or 
 four miles, and the two shafts are sunk through the same 
 coal measures, one being near the outcrop. Making no as- 
 sumption as to the surface temperature, but comparing the 
 two observations with each other, we have an increase of 
 23.3' in 1770 feet, which is at the rate of 1° in 76.0 feet. 
 The consistency of these results is eminently satisfactory. 
 Experiments at Nook Pit, belonging to the Broadoak Col- 
 lierv Company, at a depth of 1050 feet, gave a temperature 
 of 62i° E., showing an increase of 13F, or P for 79 feet. 
 The great quantity of water which is found in some parts of 
 the rock overlying the coal measures is, perhaps, an im- 
 portant factor in the rate of temperatures, which, as shown 
 by the observations, is remarkably slow. 
 
 The Physical Limits of Deep Mining. — The Iron 
 Age condenses from his English exchanges the following on 
 this subject : 
 
 " Much thought and time has been spent on the subject 
 of the probable duration of coal fields, and various papers 
 relating particularly to the coal fields of Great Britain have 
 been read before the British Association. The great point, 
 as a matter of course, is the depth at which the mines can 
 be safely worked, this depth having been limited by the 
 Royal Commission of 1876 to 4000 feet. It is admitted on 
 all hands that the crust of the earth increases in temperature 
 as we descend fi:om the surface, and with respect to the 
 heated walls of the rock in mines and the ventilating current 
 the Commission remarks that when cool air enters a heated 
 mine it absorbs heat from the surface of the passages through 
 which it flows, and the rate of this absorption somewhat ex- 
 ceeds the ratio of the difference between the temperature of 
 the air and that of the surrounding surface with which it is 
 in contact. It is evident, therefore, that when this absorp- 
 tion takes place the air is heated, the process being most 
 rapid at first, when the difference of temperature is greatest, 
 and gradually diminishes as the length of the passage is ex- 
 tended, never ending until complete assimilation of the tem- 
 perature is efiected. But the progress toward assimilation is 
 most when the air comes in contact with the working face, 
 which, from being newly exposed, is more highly heated 
 than the surface of the permanent air courses. In coal 
 mines the rapidity with which the air takes up the heat de- 
 pends in a great degree on the system of working. In the 
 " pillar and stall " system the air appears to acquire almost 
 immediately the fiill temperature of the coal, but under the 
 long wall system there are instances of the air retaining a 
 considerable inferiority of temperature after sweeping past 
 the working face. Under the long-wall system of working 
 a difference of 7 degrees appears to exist between the tem- 
 perature of the air and that of the working face, which rep- 
 resents a greater depth which could be sunk. 
 
 But we are told that there is an element which has not 
 been taken into consideration which raises the temperature 
 in deep mines, that is the increased density of the air, the 
 effect of which is greatest when the air is stagnant, but 
 when there is a rapid circulation of the air current it will 
 be only small. The observations made some years since in 
 Cornwall, as well as at the Dukinfield and Rose Bridge col- 
 lieries, differing as they do considerably, have been looked 
 upon as sufficiently reliable, but different results appear to 
 have been obtained during the present year. In Cornwall, 
 Mr. Fox arrived at the conclusion that the increase of tem- 
 perature progresses in a diminishing ratio, so that if such 
 were correct it would go to prove, as we approach the source 
 of heat, the heat itself decreased. At the Tresavean Mine 
 the mean temperature at a depth of 1740 feet was 87'9 de- 
 grees. The series of observations made at Dukinfield gives 
 an increase of 1 degree for every 80 feet, which is a less 
 rapid increase than that shown as the result of the observa- 
 tions made at other places. At the Rose Bridge Colliery, 
 Wigan, the deepest now in actual work, but not the deep- 
 est shaft, although 815 yards deep, there was an increase of 
 1 degree for every .54'3 feet. The difference has been ac- 
 counted for, at least to some extent, as owing to the differ- 
 erence in the strata of the two places. At Rose Bridge, the 
 beds are nearly horizontal, and at Dukinfield they are in- 
 clined at an angle varying from 30 to 35 degrees, rising and 
 cropping out to the eastward, and strata, such as alternating 
 sandstones, shales, clays, &c., with different conducting 
 powers, offer more resistance to the transmission of heat in 
 a direction across than parallel to their planes of bedding, 
 so that every sudden change of material is equal to an in- 
 crease of resistance, but deep-seated horizontal strata, like 
 that at Rose Bridge, offer a succession of resisting surfaces 
 to the upward passage of internal heat. 
 
 Some of the more recent observations, however, are 
 worthy of every consideration, such as those brought forward 
 at York by Professor Everitt. The observations had been 
 made at three places — at the East Manchester coal field, 
 the Talargoch Lead Mines, Flintshire, North Wales, and 
 at the Radstock Collieries, in the neighborhood of Bath. 
 The Manchester observations were made in three pits of great 
 depth, and the results were as follows : Depth 2790 feet, 
 temperature 85.3 degrees; depth 1020, temperature 62 de- 
 grees ; depth 1050 temperature, 62J degrees. Taking the sur- 
 face temperature to be 49 degrees, the increases were 36.3 
 degrees in 2790 feet, or 1 degree in 76.9 feet ; 13 degrees in 
 1020 feet, or 1 degree in 75.8 feet ; and 13J degrees in 1050 
 feet, or 1 degree in 79 feet. In Flintshire, with a surface 
 temperature of 48 degrees, an increase of 14 degrees was 
 shown at 660 feet, or 1 degree in 47 feet ; while the three pit 
 observations made in the neighborhood of Bath, brought 
 out the following results : At the depth of 560 feet an in- 
 crease of 11.7 feet, or 1 degree in 48 feet ; 810 feet 13 degrees, 
 or li degrees in 62 feet; and 1000 feet 13 degrees or 1 de- 
 gree in 77 feet. From the figures given it will be seen that 
 the observations made at different places vary a great_ deal, 
 and the cause of this opens out a wide field for the considera- 
 tion of those who have studied the probable limit to which 
 mining operations can be carried on, and the depth to which 
 it will be safe to sink shafts. 
 
 Deep Coal Mining in Wales.— Regarding the great 
 depths from which coal is now won in South Wales, some 
 interesting particulars on the subject of deep mining, in con- 
 nection with the Harris Navigation pits, situated near 
 Quaker's Yard, Glamorganshire, the deepest in the district, 
 have recently appeared, in a report by Messrs. Thomas For- 
 ster Brown and George Frederick Adams, members of the 
 Institution of Civil Engineers, who are professionally con- 
 nected with the operations. 
 
 " The depth of the lowest seam at present sunk to was 760 
 yards ; the pits were each 17 feet in diameter inside the wall- 
 ing. In addition to the depth, a special feature was the thick- 
 ness of hard and heavily-watered rock penetrated. Guide- 
 ropes, upon the following principle, were used in sinking, and 
 the value of this system was shown in the saving of over 
 two minutes in steadying the bowk at the bottom of the pit; 
 at depths of 475 and 530 yards, the total time occupied in 
 clearance at the latter depth being three minutes and twenty- 
 six seconds. The method of dealing with the various 
 feeders of water during sinking was described : One of the 
 
806 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 pits was drained by a hole bored by the diamond machine, 
 which was put down, at a depth of 175 yards from the sur- 
 face, for a farther depth of 860 feet. Where the strata were 
 conformable, and cut up by faults which intersected all the 
 measures, considerable objection existed to metal tubbing, 
 even for comparatively shallow depths ; for the water could 
 rarely be prevented from forcing its way through fissures 
 into the underlying strata. Moreover, provision had to be 
 made for the probable working of the Brithdir seam, a very 
 watery measure, lying at a depth of 250 yards. On account 
 of these and other circumstances, it was ultimately de- 
 cided to provide for the permanent pumping of all the feed- 
 ers, and a powerful 100-inch Cornish pumping-engine was 
 erected. The parallel motion for the main pump-rods was 
 obtained by a gudgeon, attached to the top rods, carrying 
 two slide-blocks, which worked in cast-iron guides 13 feet 
 long and 27 inches wide. This gudgeon was attached to 
 the beam by two hammered iron radius-rods, 43 feet long 
 10 inches wide, and tapering from three inches thick at the 
 top and bottom to IJ inches at the middle. The space be- 
 tween the rods was filled with pitch-pine 12 inches thick 
 at the top and bottom and 18 inches wide in the middle.' 
 Five lifts, three of which were 26 inches in diameter, and 
 the others 22 inches and 21J inches, were worked by the 
 Cornish engine. The total feeders amounted to 440 gallons, 
 of which 298 were pumped from a depth of 467 yards. The 
 rods were double, of pitch-pine, 16 inches square. To 
 economize space in the pit, the lifts were fixed in one per- 
 pendicular line ; to effect this, the rods directly above the 
 plunger and the rods below were connected by side-rods and 
 distance-pieces; the horizontal connecting pipe of the H- 
 piece being cast semi-circular, to allow the rods to pass down 
 in a straight line. The total weight of rods, etc., amounted 
 to 181 J tons, that of the water being 133 tons ; 35 tons of the 
 difference were counterbalanced by a balance-beam in the 
 pit,leaving 13J tons to overcome friction. 
 
 " A large diamond boring-machine was used for a portion 
 of the sinking. The apparatus weighed ten tons, and con- 
 sisted of four beams or transoms fixed to a center piece. On 
 the transoms were placed the drills — ten in number — which 
 could be moved to any part of, or inclined to any angle par- 
 allel with, the face of the transoms, and each drill could 
 be started or stopped singly. In making the first trials, 
 from thirty to forty short holes at varying angles, and from 
 three feet to five feet in depth, were bored, the operation re- 
 quiring from twelve to fourteen hours. Nearly one half of 
 this time was occupied in jacking the machine for the vari- 
 ous positions required to bore the sumping-holes, bench- 
 holes to sump, and finally the cropping-holes. Long holes 
 from 15 to 20 feet in depth were subsequently tried, and 
 blasted in sections; but having to be bored vertically, so as 
 not to pass out of the line of the shaft, they had not always 
 the most efiectual lifting power. Better progress was 
 made with single drills ; but the cost of diamonds became too 
 great for the frequent holes and changes, and the contract- 
 ing company completed its contract by means of a 
 percussive drill, designed by Colonel Beaumont. 'Inger- 
 soll ' drills were afterward used. These had a diameter of 
 3} inches, and a stroke of 4J inches, and gave excellent 
 results, the only difficulty experienced being in the wear and 
 tear of the tappers, which, when they broke, generally caused 
 damage in the cylinder. 
 
 " In hard and wet rock, dynamite was found to be a much 
 more efiective explosive than gunpowder, requiring about 
 half the number of holes, and saving tamping. In shale 
 without water, powder was more effective, dynamite being 
 more rapid in its action. In sinking through three yards of 
 dry Pennant rock, the cost of powder and dynamite was 
 respectively, £12 Is. 3d., £10 la. 8d. 
 
 ' Under the circumstances which attended the sinking in 
 hard and wet rocks, three yards were considered good pro- 
 gress by hand, and four and a half yards by machine per 
 week; but the authors were of the opinion that this rate 
 ought to be improved upon with further experience. Thev 
 had also arrived at the conclusion that thecostof sinkinsr bv 
 machine was less than by hand labor. The average rate of 
 sinking, including wallmg, but exclusive of stoppages, was 
 Jllf r "^'1'' l^^'^^ being nearly an equal percentage 
 of hard rock and shale. The actual sinking occupied about 
 one-half of the total time, and walling 12 per cent The 
 
 south pit which was the deeper of the two, was begun in 
 February, 1873, and finished in February, 1879." 
 
 Messrs. Brown and Adams, in referring to the question of 
 ventilation, allude to a furnace as being probably the most 
 effective means at great depths ; but on leaving this question 
 for future consideration, they had meantime erected a Schiele 
 fan fourteen feet three inches in diameter, and capable of 
 producing a current of about 250,000 cubic feet per minute. 
 This had been done after a series of experimente in various 
 districts. They further urge objections to the positive type 
 ventilators, namely, that in the event of obstructions occur- 
 ring in the air-ways, undue pressure might be applied to sepa- 
 ration-doors, air-crossings, etc., besides which they caused 
 a vibratory motion, were costly to erect, and the working 
 parts were in some cases liable to get out of repair. Of the 
 closed fans, which it was stated gave slightly better results 
 than open fans, the Guibal and Schiele were the best. The 
 winding engine in course of construction is designed to raise 
 2Q00 tons of coal in ten hours of constant drawing; the 
 weight, exclusive of the rope, being 10 J tons, and the veloci- 
 ty of the ascending cage from 40 to 46 feet per second. The 
 scroll-drum, with a smaller diameter of 18 feet, rising by 
 fourteen coils to 32 feet, was considered the best method of 
 counterbalancing the rope. The cylinders were 4 feet 6 
 inches in diameter, with seven-foot stroke; they were invert- 
 ed and placed on cast-iron supports, the drum being fixed 
 below on masonry pillars. The valves were double beat; 
 and for the steam valves, Barclay's simple trip expansion 
 gear was used. The rope was a parallel fiat rope of the best 
 selected steel, and consisted of 114 No. 11 gauge wires. The 
 calculated breaking strain was 104 tons, and the factor of 
 safety was nine. The pit-frame is described as constructed 
 entirely of wrought-iron ; arrangements being also introduced 
 for loading and unloading a single-decked cage by gravita- 
 tion of tubs. The empty trains were hoisted about six feet, 
 and made to run down an inclined way to the cage, being 
 stopped and relieved by a system of catches, the cage being 
 so arranged that on landing on the slips the bottom was in- 
 clined. In the above deep mining, at the Harris Naviga- 
 tion pits, the deepest in the district, the shaft-pillar is de- 
 scribed as having an area of 400 yards square. 
 
 THE VENTILATION AND LIGHTING OF 
 UNDERGROUND WORKINGS. 
 
 NATTJRE of Air. — No miner can be too much im- 
 pressed with a sense of the great importance of 
 good ventilation. The air we breathe consists 
 mainly of two gases called by chemists " oxygen" 
 and " nitrogen." These are mingled together in the proportion 
 of about one part oxygen to four parts nitrogen. It is the oxy- 
 gen which is really necessary for the support of life, while 
 the office of the nitrogen is to dilute it and to increase its 
 volume. The air being taken into the lungs in the act of 
 breathing, the oxygen combines with some spent carbon 
 from the blood, and is thereby converted into " carbonic 
 acid," or, as it is sometimes called, " carbonic anhydride." 
 Carbonic acid is injurious when breathed, even if it is mixed 
 with a large volume of pure air, and it should therefore be 
 removed as fast as it is formed. When men work iu the 
 open air the carbonic acid formed is speedily dispersed, and 
 as the supply of pure air is abundant no ill effect follows. 
 But it is otherwise in rooms, and especially in mines ; here 
 the air soon becomes quite unfit for use if it be not con- 
 stantly renewed, hence the necessity for ventilation. The 
 impurities imparted to the air by breathing are much in- 
 creased in mines by the constant use of candles or lamps, 
 rendered necessary by the absence of daylight, and by the 
 explosion of powder or other agents used for blasting. In 
 some iron mines carbonic acid is given off in large quantities 
 by the ore as it is broken, and in many metal mines, where 
 iron pyrites is abundant, the air is speedily deprived of its 
 oxygen and rendered unfit for use, and incapable of sustain- 
 ing life by the oxidation of the pyrites which is continually 
 going on. In coal mines inflammable gases called " fire- 
 damp" are often given off in great abundance, but such gas- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 807 
 
 es are very seldom met with in metal mining, except in 
 coal districts. The miner has always a good test at hand 
 for the fitness of the air he is breathing. If his candle burns 
 brightly and well the air is fit to breathe, but if he has great 
 difficulty in keeping it alight when the air is still, or if the 
 flame becomes larger and of a pale blue color, and flickers 
 greatly or goes out, the air which does not properly support 
 combustion will not support life, and some artificial means of 
 ventilation becomes necessary, or the miner's health will give 
 way. This test is much more reliable than the common mode 
 of judging by the rapidity of the current at any given point, 
 as it may be applied in the working" ends " or " faces " them- 
 selves where the air is often stagnant, notwithstanding that 
 there is a good current in some of the drifts. 
 
 Ventilation may be either natural or artificial. In coal 
 mines it is almost always artificial, in metal mines it is in a 
 majority of instances natural. Sometimes, however, the 
 naturally produced current of air is improved and guided by 
 air stoppings, doors, or other means as may be found neces- 
 sary, and in some few instances an entirely artificial mode 
 has to be adopted, especially while sinking shafts or driving 
 long levels. Unless the shaft be very deep, a simple divi- 
 sion of thin wood or painted canvas, dividing the shaft from 
 top to bottom into two, will often be found suflicient. The 
 men working in the shaft on one side of the parting will 
 raise the temperature somewhat, when it will be converted 
 into an upcast, while the cool air will descend on the other 
 side or downcast to supply its place. 
 
 Air Sollars. — A natural current may often be produced 
 in a long level by means of an " air soUar." To form an 
 air sollar the floor of the level carrying the tram road is 
 laid about 6 inches above the actual bottom of the level, 
 and is supported by cross-sleepers resting upon blocks 
 of wood or stones, or the floor in the centre of the level 
 may be excavated somewhat deeper than the sides. Planks 
 are laid over the sleepers just mentioned to form a kind of 
 deck, and the whole is rendered air-tight by plastering with 
 mud. This will divide the tunnel into two very unequal 
 portions. Through the lower division or air sollar, a current 
 of cool and therefore heavy air will pass into the end, and 
 this will be farther_ cooled if there be water issuing from che 
 lode at any points.' The air heated by the breathing of the 
 men,the heat of the candles, etc., will pass out through the 
 level itself, and so a constant current will be kept up. The 
 " level " should be kept as truly level or "dead " as possible 
 for several reasons, two of which may be mentioned here: 
 1st, if there be water flowing out through the level, and the 
 fall be considerable, the rapidity of the current of water 
 will, to some extent check the ingoing current of air ; 2nd, 
 if the level rise rapidly, the floor of the end will soon be at 
 a higher actual level than the " back " of the entrance, when 
 the heated air will actually have to descend in order to make 
 its escape, although the natural tendency of heated air is al- 
 ways to ascend. 
 
 Should it be necessary to to do more than divide the shaft, 
 or air-sollar the levels, the mode known as pipe and cap 
 head, which is similar to that which is so commonly used on 
 board ship, may be resorted to. This is efiected as follows : 
 A pipe of thin metal or 1, wood is made of about 1 square foot- 
 area or less, to which is fitted a revolv- 
 ing cap-head a, fig. 1. The lower end 
 of the pipe is carried down to the bot- 
 tom of the shaft, and the open mouth 
 b is turned towards the wind. A cur- 
 rent of fresh air is thus forced down to 
 the bottom of the shaft where the men 
 are at work, and thus displaces the 
 foul air, forcing it up the shaft. In 
 Cornwall, for temporary purposes, the 
 writer has seen a zinc rain-water pipe 
 so arranged with a miner's jacket extending by wires at the 
 top for a " cap-head " or " sail." A similar arrangement 
 may be adopted for ventilating a level, the pipe being car- 
 ried into the end, but sharp angles in the pipe should be 
 avoided as much as possible. It is plain, however, that this 
 mode of ventilation can only be adopted when the wind is 
 blowing, but in time of calm, underground ventilation is 
 most of all wanted. To meet this difficulty a small fan may 
 be placed in the upper end of the pipe, worked by hand, a 
 water-wheel, or a steam engine, and arranged either to force 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 pure air into thejvorkings, or still better, to draw the im- 
 pure air out, leaving the pure air to find its way down the 
 shaft. In many cases a jet of high pressure steam from a 
 boiler may be discharged into the upper end of this pipe, 
 when an outward current will be at once set up. 
 
 In many cases a jet of high pressure steam from a boiler 
 may be discharged into the upper end of the pipe, when an 
 outward current will be at once set up. 
 
 The Water Trompe. — Where there is a supply of 
 water at surface, and an adit level to carry away the waste, 
 the water "trunk," or "trompe," may be used for ventila- 
 tion with much advantage. If there be no adit, and the 
 spent water would have to be pumped up again after its use, 
 it may be better to apply the power directly to produce a cur- 
 rent of air by means of a fan or air pump, unless (here be a 
 surplus of pumping power. Figs. 2, 3 show two forms of the 
 water trompe. In fig. 2 the water from the launder a falls 
 upon the series of iron bars b, and down the pipe c into the 
 cistern d. The stream of water being broken by the bars, a 
 quantity of air is entangled and carried down with it, and 
 this escapes at the trunk or exit pipe e. The water over- 
 flows the cistern d and is pumped up again, or passes away 
 by an adit level. In fig. 2, the water enters the hopper by 
 
 FIG. 2. FIG. 3. 
 
 the launder a, passes down the pipe c, and falls upon the 
 dash-block/, placed in the cistern d, the overflow of which 
 is at g. Air is drawn into the pipe c through the holes b, 
 and makes its exit as before at e. By lengthening the exit 
 pipe so as to reach into the "end" of a level, these modes 
 may be made available for ventilating very long drifts. In 
 all cases the exit pipe should be large, as it is quantity 
 rather than a rapid current which is wanted, and sharp 
 angles should be avoided as much as possible, since the air 
 current receives a serious check at every sudden change of 
 direction. 
 
 Natural Ventilation. — In working lodes to a moderate 
 depth, the difference of level of the "braces" of the different 
 shafts, due to the irregularities of the surface, is often suf- 
 ficient to determine the direction of the current of air, and 
 to produce a good natural ventilation, although it is some- 
 times necessary to use air partings or stop doors to aid this. 
 Thus, if in a mine, -situated as in fig. 4, there be two shafts, 
 
 FTQ. 4. 
 
 a b, the current will be in the direction of the arrows when 
 the surface temperature is warmer than that of the bottom 
 
803 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 of the mine, and it will be reversed whejj the surface tem- 
 perature is lower. Whenever the surface temperature is the 
 same as that of the bottom of the mine, the ventilation will 
 be likely to suifer ; but this state of things will not last many 
 hours at any one time, since the temperature of the bottom 
 of the mine will be constant, that of the surface rapidly 
 variable. It may be necessary to place regulating doors at 
 b b and cc,bb being shut when c c are opened, and vice versa. 
 At d the current will be divided as shown. The level at e 
 will be very badly ventilated unless a current of air can be 
 sent along it by means of an air-soUar, or in some similar 
 manner. Sometimes a chimney is built over one shaft to 
 increase the natural inequality of level, and to assist in the 
 determination of the current. This should be of large area, 
 as if small, a sufficient quantity of air will not pass. In 
 very deep mines the difference to be obtained by means of 
 a high chimney is very slight as compared with the whole 
 depth of the shaft, but the naturally high bottom tempera- 
 ture of such mines greatly assists their ventilation by means 
 of natural currents. 
 
 Heat of Deep Mines. — The rate of increase of tem- 
 perature in deep mines varies much in different localirties. 
 In some places it has been found as much as 1° F. for each 
 45 feet in depth, in others little more than half this rate. 
 After about the first 10 fathoms the variations of surface 
 teniperature have no effect on that of the mine below, 
 which, in the absence of chemical changes or of hot springs, 
 is always almost exactly the same. One exception, how- 
 ever, must be noted. In deep workings, when they are first 
 opened, the temperature is often much higher than in the 
 same situations after several months' working. Thus, at the 
 Clifford Amalgamated Copper Mines, in Gwennap, the air 
 in the 220 fathom level was 100° F. in 1863; but in July, 
 1864, it had sunk to 83°. In the 230 fathom level then just 
 opened the temperature at the same date, July, 1864, was 
 104° F, At the Duckinfield Colliery, in Durham, the tem- 
 perature was found to increase from a depth of 20 feet down 
 to 358J fathoms, at an average rate of 1° F. for each 88 feet 
 in depth. At the Rose Bridge Colliery, near Wigan, from 
 a depth of 80J fathoms to 403 fathoms, the average increase 
 was at the rate of 1° in each 67 feet. This latter is one of 
 the deepest mines yet worked. Perhaps the greatest depth 
 yet attained is at Viviers Eeunis, near Gilly, in Belgium, 
 where the shaft itself reaches a depth of 3411 feet, or nearly 
 570 fathoms, and the bottom of a trial-staple was found bv 
 Mr. W. W. Smyth, in 1871, to be 3489 feet, or 581| fathoms. 
 Furnaces, air pumps, or powerful steam jets are seldom 
 required in the ventilation of metal mines, unless they are 
 situated in coal districts, or worked in connection with coal 
 mines. The construction and mode of working will be fully 
 described in the elementary treatise on "Coal Mining," 
 forming part of this theory. 
 
 Lighting of Workings.— In the metal mines of Cornwall, 
 South Wales, and the north of England, the usual mode of 
 lighting the mines while at work underground is by means 
 of tallow candles. Each man carries a tallow candle in his 
 hand while walking along the levels, using a lump of clay 
 as a convenient holder. The same lump of clay serves to 
 fix the candle to his hat, while he is ascending or descending 
 the shaft, and to attach it to a rock in a convenient position 
 when the place of work is at length reached. The candles 
 used in Cornwall have large wicks, so that a sudden current 
 of air may not too readily extinguish them ; and there are 
 from twelve to sixteen to the pound. In the north of Eng- 
 land the candles used go from twenty to thirty to the pound • 
 and formerly much thinner candles than these were used' 
 but such very small candles are now seldom seen. ' 
 
 Lamps— In some of the mines of the north of England, 
 bouth Wales, and Scotland, and in Saxony and other parts 
 of Germany, small metal lamps are used, in which colza 
 rape or other oil is burnt. These lamps are made with a 
 sniall hook or attachment to the miner's hat, and a spike 
 which may be placed in a joint of the rock when the place 
 
 eauirto^'t^'^r''?'^- ?' ^'S,"?* Siven by such lamps is not 
 equal to that of good candles, and this is probably the 
 reason why they have not found favor in Cornwall ; but the 
 cost does not exceed from |d. to Id. per shift or core of eight 
 hours, which IS about one-half the cost of candles. WitEin 
 
 ^t^ A ''^^'■J [^™P', ^'"' ''"™'°S paraffin and petroleum 
 oils underground have been devised. The author has not 
 
 seen any of them ; but they are well spoken of, as they give 
 a good light at little cost. Hitherto, however, they have 
 not been made to burn without much more smell than either , 
 oil lamps or candles. 
 
 Coal gas was first utilized in Cornwall, by Murdoch, in or 
 about 1792, when he lit up his workshops at Redruth with 
 gas. He had previously been in the habit of carrying a 
 bladder full under his arm, which supplied a lighted jet in 
 his night journey across the moors of Cornwall, to the great 
 alarm of the country folk. Two miles at least have been 
 lighted with gas at different periods in Cornwall, but at 
 present no gas is used for this purpose in the county. At 
 Tresavean Mine, early in the present century, gas was used 
 for lighting the shafts and some of the principal workings. 
 The latest instance, however, was at Balleswidden, about the 
 year 1866, when gas was carried down the shaft and into the 
 levels and pitches where the men were at work, as far as 
 the 120 fathom level. Where four men were at work one 
 gas jet was found to give sufficient light for all, with less 
 smoke and unpleasant smell than candles. The cost was 
 officially reported to be only one-third that of candles; 
 but for some reason or other the apparatus was ultimately 
 removed. Coal gas is extensively used for lighting mines 
 of all kinds in the north of England. Sometimes it is made 
 at the surface, stored in a gasometer, and sent down by 
 means of a fan blower, steam jet, turbine, or a water trompe. 
 A current having a force equal to a pressure of ten or twelve 
 inches of water is found sufficient to carry the gas down to 
 a depth of 150 to 200 fathoms, and to maintain sufficient 
 pressure at the burners. In mines where fiirnaces are used 
 for ventilation the retorts are sometimes placed over the 
 furnace, and the gas is purified and stored underground. In 
 the United States a kind of gas is produced for mining and 
 other purposes by forcing common air through benzoline. 
 This gas is slightly heavier than air, so that no difficulty is 
 experienced in conveying it underground, as is sometimes 
 the case with coal gas. The first cost of the apparatus is 
 much less than that necessary for the production of coal 
 gas, the complete arrangement for 100 lights only costing from 
 £60 to £100. The forcing apparatus is a kind of clockwork, 
 which is wound up each morning by one man in less than an 
 hour, and the light is said to be quite equal to coal gas, or 
 even superior to it. The cost for each light is about Jd. per 
 hour. This would be too costly a light to supply to each 
 pair of men ; but not too costly for lighting of shafts and 
 main roads, or levels, or other fixed positions, where a con- 
 stant light is needed. This mode of gas lighting is now to 
 be seen in the International Exhibition at South Kensing- 
 ton (July 1874). It seems to be admirably adapted for 
 mining purposes. 
 
 — Prom " Principles of Metal Mining.^* 
 
 MINING VENTILATION. 
 
 UNDER this heading we gather a few of the more 
 recent notes upon this subject, more as a synopsis 
 of progress than an attempt to cover the subject 
 of Mechanical Ventilation of Mines. 
 At the closing meeting of the session in connection with 
 the Manchester Geological Society, held at Wigan, on June 
 30th, the whole of the programme was devoted to subjects 
 specially interesting to mining engineers, of whom there 
 was a large number present. Amongst other subjects was a 
 paper by Mr. Charles Cookson on the relative efficiency and 
 useful effect of centrifugal fans for mine ventilation. The 
 great majority of mining engineers, he said, had become 
 convinced on the ground of safety and efficiency, that me- 
 chanical was greatly superior to furnace ventilation, and 
 the point now chiefly at issue was the relative superiority 
 of the various systems of mechanical ventilators. These 
 might be divided into two classes ; the first consisting of the 
 Wiiddle, the Guibal, and the Schielc, which were centrifu- 
 gal ventilators ; and the second consisting of those machines 
 which were known as varying capacity ventilators. The 
 latter class, however, in his opinion, w^ere not at all suited 
 for the enormous volumes of air which were required at the 
 present day for the ventilation of coal mines, and very few 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 809 
 
 comparatively were at work in this country, whilst on the 
 Continent, where all types of mechanical ventilators had 
 been more fully tried than here, the centrifugal fan was being 
 put up practically to the exclusion of all others. It wa.s 
 therefore only necessary to consider the relative merits of 
 this class of ventilators. In the absence of any fair means 
 of comparison obtainable with present experiment as to the 
 useful effects and results, he had turned his attention to one 
 or two other points, which, in his opinion, were quite as im- 
 portant as the question of the percentage of steam utilized. 
 The work of a fan was primarily, to produce a ventilating 
 current in the mine, and they could calculate what ventila- 
 ting pressure could be produced by a fan running at any 
 speea. Since the quantity of air in a mine depended upon 
 the ventilating pressure or water-gauge that a fan could pro- 
 duce, the question as to which type of fan was able to pro- 
 duce the greatest water-gauge was one of great importance, 
 as it might be said that the fan which at a certain speed 
 could produce the greatest water-gauge was the most eflScient 
 ventilator. As a basis on which to test this class of ventila- 
 tor, they mightconsider that in all centrifugal fans the air 
 traveled the fan at the speed at which the tips of the fan 
 were traveling. In open running fans the work which was 
 stored up in the air when traveling was nearly all lost, and 
 if they could utilize any of this stored up work by lessening 
 the velocity of the air before discharging it into the atmos- 
 phere, they would increase the useful effect of the fan. If 
 all this stored up work could be utilized, and the fan caused 
 no friction to the air in passing through it, they would ar- 
 rive at what a perfect fan could produce. In order to get a 
 fair average of results, he had worked out the percentage of 
 efficiency in this respect of some six Guibals, three Waddles 
 and five Schieles, of whose working he had particulars, and 
 averaging the results he had found that they gave the fol- 
 lowing comparison: — 
 
 Guibals . . 
 Waddles . 
 Schiele . . 
 
 . 64.5 
 
 .U. 
 
 .34, 
 
 .5 ■) 
 
 :.45j 
 
 of efficiency with regard 
 
 to water-gauge 
 
 produced. 
 
 Taking this as a fair basis for calculation, they could find 
 out approximately what each of the three types of fan would 
 do at the same or different speeds, and taking 9,000 feet per 
 minute of periphery speed as being about the limit of safe 
 working speed of fans of such dimensions as would pass 
 large volumes of air, they found that at this same speed they 
 would give the following results: — 
 
 Water-gauge. 
 Guibals, 6.61 inches. 
 Waddles, 4.59 inches. 
 Schiele, 3.53 inches. 
 
 Air per minute. 
 200,000 cubic feet. 
 100,780 cubic feet. 
 146,160 cubic feet. 
 
 This showed that if the fans were all working under sim- 
 ilar conditions and at the same speed of periphery, the Wad- 
 dle would give 16.6 per cent., and the Schiele 26.9 per cent, 
 less air than the Guibal, or putting it in another form, they 
 found that to produce the same amount of air the Waddle 
 would have to run at 20 per cent, and the Schiele at 36.6 
 per cent, greater speed than the Guibal, so that whatever 
 the result as to the useful effect calculations, they might say 
 that as a matter of eflSciency with regard to the speed of the 
 fan the Guibal was the most efficient. In the course of a 
 disscussion on the paper, Mr. Wm . Bryham, a well-known 
 mining engineer in the Wigan district, said that although 
 he was prepared to admit that the time was coming when 
 mechanical ventilation would be more applied than it had 
 been before, he scarcely thought that the time had yet come 
 when it could be said that under some conditions it was al- 
 • together superior to furnace ventilation. Mr. Cookson re- 
 plied that no doubt at certain depths furnace ventilation 
 was found to be more econonical than mechanical ventila- 
 tion, but another point to be considered was the question of 
 safety. 
 
 — Iron. 
 
 On March 22d, 1882, the second of a series of lectures 
 which have been specially arranged for the purpose of af- 
 fording information to the men employed at the pits in the 
 district on mining matters, was delivered at Dukinfield, 
 England, the lecturer being Mr. C. M. Percy, of the Wigan 
 Mining School, who selected as his subject, " How we Ven- 
 tilate our Mines by Machinery. " Mr. Percy, in the course 
 of his lecture, said there was a great deal that a mechanical 
 
 engineer might do and ought to do at collieries. Winding 
 was now made expeditious enough, but was the reverse of 
 economical. Pumping would in the future be carried on 
 with appliances, perhaps not cheaper in themselves, but less 
 expensive in working. Hauling was even yet in a some- 
 what crude state of development, and afforded great scope in 
 the way of improvements, which might be carried into 
 effect by energetic engineers and enterprising colliery 
 proprietors. Coal-getting was carried on, under existing 
 arrangements, in what might almost be termed a barbarous 
 fashion ; the danger with explosives was very great, and 
 the work with the very handy but, at the same time, 
 obsolete tool, the pick, was frightful. For every ton of 
 round coal got, in many districts, nearly a ton of slack 
 was made, and this state of things certainly would not 
 and could not continue. And when the coal was brought 
 to bank, not much improvement ds a rule was to be 
 found. The coals were hauled from the tips into the 
 shoots, and in a rough and ready manner found their 
 way into the wagon, insufficiently screened and insuffi- 
 ciently freed firom dirt; while in the wagon the round 
 coal was trampled into slack to the loss of the proprietor 
 and the annoyance of the customers. In ventilation, the 
 mechanical engineer had, during the last thirty years, 
 done a great deal, and, on the whole, had done it well; 
 and it was with reference to this that he wished specially 
 to speak. Fortunately for his hearers, he had no strik- 
 ingly novel ideas of his own in this matter. He had no 
 bias of his own against the furnace or the mechanical 
 system of ventilation, nor had he any special leaning to 
 one particular fan as compared with another. He believed, 
 however, that in mining operations what could be done 
 by machinery was better so done than in any other way ; 
 but he did not believe that any one system of mechani- 
 cal ventilation possessed all the merits ; he believed that 
 in nearly all the systems there were some special good 
 points, while in general the advantages were pretty nearly 
 equal. He should try and discuss them candidly and 
 steer clear of anything like unfair criticism. So far as 
 simply producing a current was concerned, nothing could 
 surpass the excellence of the furnace, and especially for 
 deep mines, because the efficiency of the furnace increased 
 with the depth. But with the furnace there was the danger 
 of setting something on fire in the vicinity or in the shaft, 
 and there were the inconveniences and the injurious influ- 
 ence upon winding ropes, conductors, etc., by having the 
 products of combustion from the furnace passing out at the 
 upcast shaft. No doubt, except for shallow pits, the mechan- 
 ical system of ventilation was more expensive, but with 
 really good appliances worked with condensing engines, 
 mechanical ventilation, even for deep mines, would come 
 very nearly to the furnace. Mechanical ventilation might 
 either act to compress the air or to exhaust it, and in several 
 respects forcing in air was more effective than sucking it out. 
 But the inconvenience of efficiently closing in the top of a 
 downcast for forcing arrangements has led to the almost 
 universal adoption of exhausting appliances placed at the 
 top of the upcast shaft. Mechanical ventilation might be 
 divided into three classes : first pumps, with clacks such as 
 Strewe's ; secondly, revolving wheels sweeping out a fixed 
 quantity of air every revolution, such as Leviselle's, Cooke's, 
 and, perhaps, there might be included Root's ; and thirdly, 
 fans working on the centrifugal principle, including the 
 Nasmyth, Brunton, Biram, Ramwell, Guibal, Waddle, and 
 Schiele. Mr. Percy then proceeded to describe the principle 
 of these various ventilators and the engines for driving them, 
 and made special reference to the three last-named fans as 
 those most generally used. The Guibal and the Waddle 
 were made any size up to 50 feet diameter, and worked 
 slowly, the engine being converted directly. The Schiele 
 was a small fan, rarely exceeding 15 or 16 feet diameter, and 
 worked quickly, power being communicated from a large 
 pulley on the engine-shaft by means of a strap to a small 
 pulley on the fan-shaft. All these fans had in practice 
 given excellent results. Mr. Percy expressed no strong 
 preference for either large or small fans, but said his opinion 
 was, that the blades should be inclined backward and 
 curved backward, and that the fan should either discharge 
 freely all around the circumference, or have a complete 
 spiral casing opening out into an enlarging chimney. Ref- 
 
810 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 eience was then made to several methods by which the up- 
 cast or fan-shaft could be used for winding, to allow conve- 
 nience for loading and unloading the cages without allowing 
 a rush of air into the fan -drift. The lecturer next dealt 
 with the manner of ascertaining the actual power of the fan- 
 engine and of the fan itself, so as to decide accurately the 
 percentage of useful effect obtained. The whole of the mat- 
 ters discussed, including the fans, the percentage of leakage 
 at the surface, and the useful effect, were illustrated by 
 diagrams ; and in conclusion, Mr. Percy observed that no 
 doubt among those whom he was addressing there would be 
 some anxious to obtain knowledge which would enable them 
 to raise themselves in the social scale, and that was a laud- 
 able ambition. But they could not all rise to distinction 
 and prominence, and what he wished to impress upon them 
 was to get as much knowledge in connection with their oc- 
 cupation as they could. If, then, increasing knowledge led 
 to advancement, well and good ; but even if not, their better 
 knowledge would be to them all the same, their labor would be 
 sweeter, and their lives pleasanter, from knowing something 
 of appliances which made mining safer and more efficient. 
 
 Meclianioal Ventilation and Drainage in Indiana 
 Mines.— Mr. Thomas Wilson, Jr., Mine Inspector of Indiana, 
 has printed the following in his second annual report, re- 
 cently issued : By mechanical ventilation, I mean the use 
 of machinery to compel the movement of a column of air 
 through the workings of a coal mine. This is done by va- 
 rious means. The present mode with the majority of oper- 
 tors is the common furnace. A furnace does very well if it 
 is rightly constructed. I would advocate the fan for cheap- 
 ness and durability. The Champion exhaust-fan is the best. 
 It requires less power to suck or draw a current of air than 
 it does to push or force it. The difficulty of pushing or 
 forcing a current of air through long and rough passages is 
 a great drawback, and both theory and practice are against 
 it. Whether the ordinary blowing-fan or blowing-cylinder is 
 used, the difficulty is the same. But when the same power is 
 reversed and the fan or cylinder is made to draw or suck the 
 air instead of pushing or forcing it, the effect is reversed and 
 the natural or atmospheric pressure becomes an active agent 
 instead of a repelling force. Instead of increasing the den- 
 sity and consequent friction of the air, it decreases them and 
 proportionately decreases the amount of power required to 
 produce a given current. For these reasons, the improved 
 exhaust-fan is the most perfect, safe and economical, and far 
 superior to the furnace method. There is a number of com- 
 mon blowing-fans in use in the State, some of which are 
 doing good service, one at Mr. S. W. Phelps' No. 3 mine on 
 Coal Creek, Fountain County ; one at the Buckeye shaft, 
 in Clay County ; and another at Watson's South shaft, in 
 Clay County. These were doing excellent service. There 
 was a perfect hurricane of air passing through their mines 
 the whole time. These fans can be erected at a very rea- 
 sonable cost. It will not exceed $250, including pipes to 
 convey steam from the boiler unless the fan is situated an un- 
 reasonable distance from the boiler. After one of these fans is 
 put in operation, the cost to run and keep it in repair is 
 comparatively nothing. But this is not the case with the 
 furnace. It costs nearly as much to erect a furnace in the 
 first place, and then there must be added the cost of keep- 
 ing it up afterward. In the first place, it will require one 
 ion of coal per day, and it will take a man constantly to at- 
 tend to it, at a cost of at least $1.25 per day, to produce say 
 20,000 cubic feet of air per minute, and some of our mines 
 require a great deal more than this to comply with the law. 
 This will amount to quite an expense at the end of the year. 
 Besides, where furnaces are used, the hoisting shaft is al- 
 ways the downcast for the air ; and where shafts drip water, 
 there is always a great deal of trouble and annoyance with 
 shafts freezing up in cold weather. It is also very disagreea- 
 ble for the eager. But this is not the case with fans ; the 
 hoisting shafts are always the upcast, and it is always 
 warm and pleasant in the winter season. Besides, the frost 
 air is always distributed among the mines before it iDecomes 
 charged with foul gases of the mine. I am opposed to fur- 
 naces on account of the expense of keeping them in opera- 
 tion. As much air can be produced with a furnace as with 
 a fan, if the furnace is made large enough. The best venti- 
 lated mine in the State of Indiana is the Sulphur Spring 
 mine, near Washington, Indiana. There are 29,250 cubic 
 
 feet of air per minute circulating through the entire mine. 
 They were working a force of 155 men and boys. The air 
 was sufficient for 292 persons, allowing 100 cubic feet of air 
 per minute for every person employed. This current of air 
 was produced with a furnace of 34 cubic feet of heating 
 space. It will cost to build a furnace of this size $130 in 
 the first place, and it requires one tipn of coal per day, and 
 the constant attendance of a man to keep up this current 
 of air. This mine is opened on the double-entry system. 
 Every air-course and entry in this mine has a sectional area 
 of 42 cubic feet of space for the passage of air. This is the 
 most extensive mine in the State. The air-current in this 
 mine from where it first enters the mine at the downcast 
 shaft traverses the main entries and air-courses, and runs a 
 distance of four and three-quarter miles to where it enters 
 the furnace and upcast shaft. Among the different modes 
 of ventilation, the difference in cost is greatly in favor of 
 the fans. There have been about fourteen fans erected dur- 
 ing the year for ventilating purposes, and I hope to see dur- 
 ing the present year all the furnaces done away with for 
 ventilation purposes. 
 
 At the present writing, February 20th, 1882, the larger 
 portion of the Sulphur Spring mine is entirely submerged, 
 the water standing in some places to a depth of eight feet. 
 This has been caused by the heavy rains that have been 
 falling for the last eight or ten days. There are at present 
 about 200 persons lying idle on account of it. There is 
 more water handled at this mine than at any four other mines 
 in the State. The water is hoisted here with large boxes. 
 There is one six-inch discharge-pump, but at the present 
 time it is entirely submerged. The capacity for handling 
 water here is 840 gallons per minute. At this rate, it is sup- 
 posed that it will take about two weeks to drain the mine 
 and put it in a working order. The territory in this mine 
 comprises about 200 acres, and the seam of coal lies so close 
 to the surface that when a pillar is taken out the upper strata 
 is so rotten that it falls through to the surface, and all the 
 water that falls on this ground goes into the mine, and has 
 to be either pumped or drawn out in boxes. This is a great 
 drawback in working the surface veins unless they are 
 worked with drift openings. Coal can be produced cheaper 
 from a vein that lies from two to three hundred feet 
 below the surface than it can from a vein that is between 
 forty and sixty feet. Of course, the first cost is greater with 
 a deep shaft than it is with a shallow one, but you are never 
 troubled with surface water. This is a very important item 
 in operating a mine. I could point out instances where the 
 expense of handling the water and cutting drains in the 
 mine is more than the cost of getting out the coal. 
 
 Measuring' the Air of Mines. — From the Seventh 
 Report of Andrew Roy, Inspector of Mines in Ohio, we glean 
 the following on this subject : The instruments used for 
 measuring the currents of air in mines in this State are gen- 
 erally anemometers, or air-meters. Beram's 4-inch anemo- 
 meter, reading to 100 feet, is the favorite. There are some 
 6-inch instruments of this manufacture, and one or two 12- 
 inch ones in use. The large ones are most costly and more 
 cumbersome to carry around than those of the "4-inch size. 
 Castello's 2-inch air-meter is also used, but Beram's is pre- 
 ferred. The manner of measuring the air is very simple, as 
 the anemometer self-registers the speed of the current. A 
 point is selected in the air-course where the whole column 
 passes, and the instrument is held in the current. The vanes 
 are so constructed that they revolve by the current of air im- 
 
 Einging upon them, the speed of the current being indicated 
 y the index-hand or pointer of the dial-plate, which reads 
 to single feet ; one revolution of the pointer recording one 
 hundred feet. The anemometer is usually held in the cur- 
 rent just one minute, and the speed with which the air 
 travels is noted. The sectional area of the air-way is 
 then ascertained, which multiplied by the number of feet at 
 which the wind is flowing, gives the amount of cubic feet of 
 air. An allowance has to be made for the friction of the 
 anemometer, which is equivalent to 17 feet for 50 feet per 
 minute, and 8 feet for 200 cubic feet per minute. When the 
 speed of the current, as indicated by the anemometer, ex- 
 ceeds 200 feet per minute, the friction, owing to the construc- 
 tion of the instrument, is very little, being only 3 feet for 
 300, 2 feet for 400 and nothing for 600. 
 The speed of the current in a good-sized air-course, 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 811 
 
 in the best ventilated mines in the State seldom exceeds 
 500 feet ; in the worst mines there is sometimes so little 
 current moving, that the vanes of the anemometer re- 
 fuse to revolve, even on the main air-courses. Three hun- 
 dred feet per minute, which is nearly equal to five miles per 
 hour, is a sufficiently vigorous current for any coal mine in 
 this State. Moving through an air-course of thirty-six feet 
 of sectional area, this rate of speed would produce 11,700 
 cubic feet per minute, an amount capable of supplying 117 
 workmen, if properly distributed, with an abundance of 
 fresh and wholesome air. Nearly all the reports sent to this 
 office since the mining law required the bosses to measure 
 the air of mines, give different results at the intake and 
 outlet. For example one boss reports 10,700 cubic feet 
 as entering the mine, and 11,525 as being discharged. 
 Sometimes the results show a larger current at the in- 
 take than at the upcast. The facts show that these 
 measurements were honestly, though mistakingly taken, the 
 cause of the varying results being due to the want of care 
 or opportunity in selecting the places of measurement. To 
 measure the current accurately, a straight passage in the 
 entry should be selected, for on a curve the current is 
 stronger on one side than the other, as in seen in a current 
 of water moving along the bend of a river. In selecting a 
 wide place in the air-gallery, also just beyond a narrow 
 point, to make a measurement, the result will show a larger 
 current than really exists, because the air forms a cul de sac 
 at the pillar sides, just as water does on being discharged 
 from a pipe of lesser diameter into one of greater diameter. 
 Another reason why a larger current is sometimes shown 
 at the upcast than at the intake, is due to the measurement 
 at the upcast being taken near the mouth of the ventilating 
 furnace where the air has become expanded by heat. In 
 this latter case there is, in reality, a larger volume discharged 
 than enters the mine. The galleries of mines are generally 
 ragged, wider at the top than at the bottom, and in the low 
 veins, where the roof is shot down, the height is irregular, 
 so that accurate measurements cannot be taken ; but accu- 
 rate measurements are not required, the point being to pos- 
 sess a current at least equal in volume to the requirements of 
 law. There are two other methods which are sometimes used 
 in measuring the air of mines. One is by flashing a small 
 quantity of powder in the air-way, and noting with a watch 
 the, speed at which the smoke travels along the gallery. 
 The other method is by carrying a lighted lamp or candle 
 in the moving current of air, and maintaining the light in an 
 exactly upright position, noting the time required to pass 
 from one place to another. Both methods are on the same 
 principle. The experiments can only be made along an 
 even part of the air-gallery. A distance of from 100 to 200 
 feet is generally selected. The cubic area of the chosen part 
 of the air-way is ascertained in feet, which, multiplied by 
 sixty, the number of seconds in a minute, and divided by 
 the number of seconds of time required by the flashed gun- 
 powder, or person traversing the measured distance, gives 
 the amount of cubic feet of air per minute. 
 
 Compressed Air in Mines.— Mr. M. G. Johnson, of 
 the Kingswood Collieries, Bristol, writes thus under this 
 topic : Among the collieries visited by Mr. Cossham were in- 
 cluded Ryhope and Shireoaks, and at each of these collieries 
 compressed air is being used with excellent results. The 
 same may be said of all the places I visited in South Wales 
 — in one colliery no less than 40 horses have been dispensed 
 with through the application of this power. Great credit is 
 due to Sir "George Elliot for the persistant efforts he has 
 made and the money he has spent in order to bring as near 
 perfection as possible the methods for obtaining this power. 
 In the Powell's Duffryn Collieries, in South Wales, the pro- 
 prietors are so convinced of the benefits to be derived from 
 its use that they are dispensing altogether with animal 
 power, and substituting air engines for their underground 
 haulage ; and the testimony of these collieries (Mr. Wakin- 
 son, manager, and Mr. Snape, engineer) was to the effect 
 that after ten years' experience in the use of compressed air 
 they are fully convinced that there is no power equal to it 
 for winning coal back to the shaft where steam cannot he 
 conveniently employed and where the coal lies to the dip. 
 At New Tredegar Collieries, belonging to the same firm, 
 this motor is, I am told, extensively employed. They have no 
 coal works but what lie below 1,500 yards to the dip, and from 
 
 that distance down to 2,000 yards, the lowest point reached at 
 that time (two years ago), they were hauling 800 tons per day. 
 
 When the Mont Cenis Tunnel had to be driven, the en- 
 gineers, Messrs. Sommellier and Grattoni, at once recognized 
 this power, and availed themselves of it, and but for this I 
 have no doubt the completion of that grand engineering feat 
 would have been retarded for at least five years. It not only 
 served as the power for driving their rock drills, but it cleared 
 away the smoke after blasting almost immediately, and en- 
 abled the men to resume work at the face of the heading 
 without any unneessary loss of time, and to get the debris 
 at once cleared away. Every miner knows that the hanging 
 of the smoke in the ordinary method very often keeps him 
 away from the place of his work quite one-fifth of his time, 
 so that this power not only permits much more work to be 
 done, but admits of its being done in a healthy atmosphere 
 instead of in a vitiated one. At Mont Cenis Tunnel, too, 
 they got this power very cheaply at merely the cost of 
 the machinery, a mountain stream running down near the 
 mouth of the tunnel was utilized, and supplied the power 
 for compressing the air. Mr. Derilley has published an 
 elaborate and most valuable report on the work done at this 
 tunnel, and much information is given therein respecting 
 their method of compressing the air. Mr. Taylor, of Ryhope 
 Colliery, in a paper read before the North of England Insti- 
 tute of Engineers some few years ago, enumerates some of 
 the advantages resulting from the use of this power : — 1. It 
 is obviously of great importance to have a large power which 
 can be applied to any purpose, and at any moment, to any 
 part of the mine. 2. Possessing this power is a mere ques- 
 tion of detail to use means for working the coal and bring- 
 ing it to the point from which it is to be led by the air en- 
 gine, thus dispensing in a great measure with manual labor, 
 both as regards hewing and putting the coals. 3. Com- 
 pressed air at 40 lbs. pressure has been successfully tried at 
 Ryhope for airing a stone drift, and he sums up the results 
 as follows : 1. Economy as regards its application to any 
 part of the mine. 2. Additional safety to mine, inasmuch 
 as there is more direct commuication with the control over 
 all parts. 3. Having a power so easy of application to any 
 part of the mine, its use for all purposes where labor is con- 
 cerned must necessarily follow. 
 
 M. Trasenter, Professor of Mining at the University of 
 Liege, considers that great advantages must ensue Irom the 
 use of this power for driving engines at high speed in the 
 galleries or working places underground, through the free- 
 dom from heating and condensation, slight friction in the 
 pipes, and the ventilation in the works ; but while enumer- 
 ating its advantages we must not fail to look fairly in the 
 face of what are considered to be the drawbacks to its general 
 adoption. Mr. Trasenter says compressed air necessitates 
 costly works, and if used without expansion leads to a great 
 loss of power owing to the necessity for conducting the air 
 at the required pressure. In calculating the ratio of the 
 energy expended in compressing the air to the usefiil work 
 theoretically given out, Mr. Trasenter has laid down a 
 simple and interesting formula. The work given out soon 
 reaches a limit which cannot be exceeded, whatever may.be 
 the pressure of the air or the energy expended. The maxi- 
 mium of work given out (increasing the compression indefi- 
 nitely, and without taking into consideration the elevation 
 of temperature due to this compression) cannot exceed the 
 energy given out by the volume of air caused by the 
 piston of the blowing cylinder working with an effective 
 pressure of one atmosphere, and he demonstrates the law, 
 and goes on to say that the power which a cubic meter of 
 air, compressed to a million atmospheres, is capable of 
 yielding, fyithout taking the rise of temperature into consid- 
 ation, can nevfer become double that which the same quan- 
 tity of air, compressed to two atmospheres is capable of 
 yielding. Air compressed to four atmospheres will give out 
 a power proportional to 1 — J, or |, whereas to obtain a power 
 equal to 1 a compression infinitely great is necessary. 
 He gives a formula which expresses the ratio of the work 
 done to the power expended. This power is not a new dis- 
 covery ; Hero, of Alexandria, was in some measure ac- 
 quainted with it, as well as with the knowledge of steam as 
 a motive power. Hero's tutor, Clestibuis, is said to have 
 discovered that air was compressible, and the pupil is cred- 
 ited with having written a book on pneumatics, showing 
 
812 
 
 THE MINES MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 that when air was compressed it decreased m volume, and 
 expanded itself again when the pressure was removed. 
 Experiments proving its " ponderability " were made m the 
 17th century by Galileo and Torricelli; about the same 
 time, too, Guericke invented the air pump. Its chemical 
 properties, however, did not engage much attention until 
 another century had elapsed, when Black, Priestly, Lavoi- 
 sier, and others took up the subject, and great discoveries 
 resulted from their labors. Papin, about the beginning ot 
 last century, had an idea of working an engine with air, 
 generated by a water-wheel and compressing pump at a 
 distance, but it was not brought into practice ; and just 100 
 years before the Mont Oenis Tunnel was commenced one 
 Isaac Wilkinson obtained a patent for a machine for com- 
 pressing air very similar to the one employed at those works. 
 It is generally known that when air or other elastic fluid is 
 compressed, there is generated an amount of heat which is 
 the exact equivalent of the force employed in the compres- 
 sion. It may not be out of place here to give an extract from 
 Professor Tyndall's valuable work, " Heat a Mode of Mo- 
 tion." He says : 
 
 " Whenever friction is overcome (by compression or other- 
 wise) heat is produced, and the heat produced is the _ exact 
 measure of the force expended in overcoming the friction. 
 The heat is simply the primitive force in another form, and 
 if we wish to avoid this conversion we must abolish the 
 friction. We put oil upon the surface of a bone, we grease 
 a saw, and are careful to lubricate the axles of our railway 
 carriages. What is the real meaning of these acts? Let 
 us obtain general notions first, and aim at strict accuracy 
 afterward. It is the object of a railway engine driver to 
 urge his train from one place to another ; he wishes to em- 
 ploy the force of his steam ; it is not his object or interest 
 to allow any portion of that force to be converted into 
 another form of force which would not promote the attain- 
 ment of his object ; he does not want his axles heated, and 
 hence he avoids as much as possible expending his power 
 in heating them — in fact, he obtained his power from heat, 
 and it is not his object to reconvert by friction the force 
 thus obtained into its primitive form. For every degree of 
 temperature generated in his axles a definite amount would 
 be withdrawn from the urging force of his engine. There 
 is no absolute loss. Could we gather up all the heat gen- 
 erated by the friction, and could we apply it mechanically, 
 we should by it be able to impart to the train the precise 
 amount of speed which it had lost by the friction. Thus 
 every one of those railway porters whom you see moving 
 about with his can of yellow grease, and opening the little 
 boxes which surround the carriage axles, is without knowing 
 it, illustrating a principle which forms the solder of nature ; 
 he is unconsciously affirming both the convertibility and 
 indestructibility of force. All the force of our locomotives 
 is derived from heat. When a station is approached — say 
 at the rate of thirty miles an hour— a break is applied and 
 smoke and sparks issue from the wheels on which it presses. 
 The train is brought to rest. How ? Simply by converting 
 the entire moving force which it possessed at the moment 
 the brake was applied into heat." 
 
 The heat in actual practice is to a very considerable ex- 
 tent lost by radiation from the receiver and pipes in use ; 
 and, farther, when this compressed air has fallen to the 
 temperature it possessed prior to its being compressed, it has 
 lost in cooling an exact equivalent to the power expended 
 in compressing it. Where, then, is the power to perform 
 work? This remains in the stored-up air in the reservoir, where 
 it is held under considerable pressure, and when allowed to 
 expand in the working-cylinder its temperature then falls be- 
 low that of the atmosphere, and thus develops the'work de- 
 manded from it. In accomplishing this, however, there is a 
 loss of about thirty to forty per cent, in consequence of the 
 temperature of expansion not being depressed in an equal pro- 
 portion to the increase obtained during its compression ; and 
 hence, when the air has done its work in the cylinder, and is- 
 sues forth from the exhaust passage, it is exceedingly cold, 
 being about 28J degrees Fahrenheit, or 3* degrees below 
 freezing point. This intense cold formed for a considerable 
 time very serious objections to its practical use as an engine 
 motor, through the formation of ice at the exhaust. Various 
 methods have been resorted to to remedy this defect, but this 
 is effectually accomplished by casting the cylinder so as to 
 
 have the exhaust openings connected with the exhaust port 
 vertically, and open across the cylinder, so as to discharge the 
 air downward as well as upward, and admit of a bar being 
 passed through, if necessary, to chip off the ice. It would 
 appear from the foregoing that the higher the air was 
 pressed the greater would be the loss in the economic re- 
 sult; but in this there is a great difference of opinion, one 
 party going in for slow speed and low pressures, not above 
 three atmospheres, and another for high speed and high 
 pressures. It is a very common expression and true, that 
 circumstances alter cases, and so, in my opinion, it is in this, 
 the " battle of pressures." 
 
 I do not wish to be dogmatic in this matter. Douglas 
 Jerrold once said that dogmatism was grown-up puppyism ; 
 and I know, too, there is a proverb which says that a 
 certain class of people, the opposite to wise, rush in where an- 
 gels fear to tread. Where the work, however, to be accom- 
 plished is of a temporary nature, such as tunneling, deep 
 well sinking, or boring, high speeds and high pressures may 
 be adopted with advantage, as they admit of smaller ma- 
 chines being used to do the desired amount of work ; but 
 where the power is required for the running of a colliery to 
 extend over 20, 30 or 40 years, and the air to be carried to 
 long distances for hauling, pumping, rock drilling, and coal 
 cutting purposes, then I say put down a good compressing 
 plant, with moderate speed, ordinary pressure of (say) three 
 atmospheres, and plenty of margin. This is my view of the 
 matter, and must be taken for what it is worth. An athlete, 
 in running a hundred yards race, starts away at a very dif- 
 ferent speed to what the one does who is in for a mile race; 
 it is the old fable of the hare and the tortoise. 
 
 Looking at the matter in this light, the Kingswood Coal 
 and Iron Company ordered a pair of air compressers from 
 Messrs. J. Fowler & Co., of Leeds, of the following dimen- 
 sions : The steam cylinder is 36 in. in diameter, the air 
 cylinders being 40 in. diameter, with a 5-foot stroke. The 
 air cylinders are immediately behind the steam cylinder, 
 and fixed to the same bed plate; the piston is continuous, 
 but so arranged that no part of the rod that works in the 
 steam cylinder shall enter the air cylinders or even the 
 stuffing box. The air cylinders are cast with square ends 
 and flanges to attach flat plates vertically at the sides, thus 
 forming a tank or receptacle for a complete jacketing of cold 
 water, the object of the cold water being to keep the tem- 
 perature of the air as low as possible during compression, 
 the top left open to allow of evaporation and radiation. The 
 supply of cold water is kept up by a pipe at the under side, 
 getting its supply from a reservoir at a higher level than the 
 tops of the cylinders, and the heated water is passed off' at 
 an overflov^ pipe at the top, the inlet and outlet being regu- 
 lated by taps. The air is forced into a receiver, which is 
 nothing more than an ordinary egg-end boiler, 25 ft. long 
 and 5 ft. in diameter, fitted with stop valve and safety valves, 
 the latter weighted to 45 lbs. per square inch. Steam is 
 supplied at 40 lbs. per square inch, and the pressure of air 
 stands at 45 lbs. per square inch ; the steam is cut off" at f 
 in. of the stroke ; the fly wheel is 21 ft. diameter, and 
 weighs about 24 tons. From the receiver toward the shaft 
 an old boiler tube, 28 ft. long, 2 ft. 10 in. diameter, is util- 
 ized, and from this cast iron pipes 8 in. diameter are carried 
 down the shaft for 225 yards ; at this depth, and in an open- 
 ing in the side of the shaft, a pumping engine is fixed and 
 driven by the compressed air. This engine consists of a 
 pair of air cylinders, 10 in. diameter and 2 ft. stroke, which 
 drives a pair of rams 6 in. diameter, geared 5 to 1, with air 
 pressure of 40 lbs., and delivers 160 gallons of water per 
 minute 700 ft. high. The out and out dimensions of this 
 pump are 15 ft. long, 7 ft. 6 in. wide, and 6 ft. 3 in. high. 
 These compressors and pump, made by Messrs. Fowler & 
 Co., of Leeds, have given the most unqualified satisfaction. 
 The air pressure at this point, more than 250 yards from 
 compressors, stands at 2 lbs. higher than it does in the re- 
 ceiver at surface, and my experience is that the pressure in- 
 creases 1 lb. for every 100 yards of depth. We nave tested 
 this by changing gauges ; the same has also been observed 
 by Mr. Snape, engineer, and Sir George Elliot, who has had 
 more than 11 years' experience with compressing machin- 
 ery. I do not intend here to account for this, but merely state 
 the fact. We have 7 in. pipes continued for the remaining 
 270 yards down to the bottom of the shaft, and for the pros- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 813 
 
 ent have a dead flange screwed on the end of the pipes, but 
 we have already two pairs of hauling engines in order, and 
 hope to have them at work in a few months — one pair for 
 level haulage, the other for dip haulage. I anticipate, 
 therefore, when we come to put the pressure gauge on at ihe 
 pit bottom, that the pressure there will register about 5 lbs. 
 higher than at the surface receiver. 
 
 ELECTRICITY IN MINING WORK. 
 
 AT the February (1882) meeting of the American In- 
 stitute of Mining Engineers held at Washington, 
 Mr. N. S. Keith of New York read a paper on 
 " Electrical Apparatus and Processes for the Min- 
 ing and Metallurgical Engineer," from which we take the 
 following : 
 
 No one of the live subjects of the day to which the atten- 
 tion of the mining engineer and metallurgist should be 
 tnrned is of greater practical interest to him than electricity, 
 in its applications to various mechanical, chemical and 
 metallurgical operations. The object of this paper is to call 
 the attention of my fellow-members and associates of the 
 Institute to the various new, as well as comparatively old, 
 developments in the science and art of electricity, which 
 seem to furnish or promise to furnish, results of advantage. 
 Too many of the comparatively old applications have been 
 neglected by the mining engineer, which, if he had given 
 them a place among his appliances, would have assisted him 
 greatly. The telegraph may be noticed as one. Its use is, 
 however, confined to a person having skill in the manipula- 
 tions of the key, the reading of the alphabet and familiarity 
 with the sounder. One of the simpler forms — the call bell 
 — without necessity of special education, has a range of ap- 
 plication far greater as to distance and convenience than the 
 old wire pull, or the hoarse voice of the windlass man or 
 the bucket dumper. A few Laclanche cells two or more 
 electric bells and a mile or more of wire, judiciously placed, 
 will put the superintendent, at his office, in communication 
 with the foreman of his mills and mines, so that, by the aid 
 of code of signals, great advantages may be gained with- 
 out necessitating knowledge of the Moi'se alphabet, nor the 
 mechanical voice of the sounder. The recent telephone 
 furnishes a means of communication between the often 
 widely separated places of duty which will save many a step, 
 and much loss of time and wear of horse and body. It can 
 be used by any one who can speak. I would speak of ap- 
 pliances in the art of electricity which enable the engineer 
 to accomplish more in an easy manner than he otherwise 
 can do. The preceding remarks are introductory to a de- 
 scription of new applications of electricity, which the 
 miner and metallurgist will find, before long, so essen- 
 tial to his profession that their theory and practice will be 
 taught at the school the same as metallurgy, mineralogy and 
 chemistry now are. That which we may call this new elec- 
 tricity is due to the practical development of the theory of 
 the conservation of energy, and the consequent production 
 of mechanism for the generation of currents of electricity 
 of any desired quantity and intensity. So new is this elec- 
 tricity in fact, that even the recent graduate of the mining 
 schools knows little or nothing of its modes of production or of 
 its applications, actually, in practical operation or projection. 
 
 I will speak of the new applications which are consequent 
 upon the extensive production of machinery for the genera- 
 tion of electricity. First comes that which appeals so sensi- 
 bly to the eye— light. It has been fully determined that 
 there is no light, except daylight, as cheap as that produced 
 by the voltaic arc ; none so pure in color, none so bright. 
 Many are in use in our rolling-mills, machine shops, hy- 
 draulic mines, surface works and other places. The miner 
 needs the electric light in his shaft-house, his stamp-mill 
 and his furnace. If he has no engine at the shaft-house, 
 the one at his stamp-mill or furnace can be used to run an 
 electric generator which will send the electricity through 
 the wire conductors, so that not only his shaft-houses can 
 be illuminated, but also his mill or furnace, and even the 
 road between, much cheaper than he can produce one-tenth 
 
 of the light by the use of candles or kerosene, with much 
 greater safety. It is doubtful, however, if the voltaic 
 arc light will be of any great practical utility in narrow 
 veins of mines, because the light produced is too great in quan- 
 tity — and therefore too costly — more than is needed, by far 
 in narrow space ; nor in headings or stopes, as it requires in 
 such places too frequent moving. The work at the new 
 railroad tunnel through Bergen Hill, at Weehawken, is 
 lighted by eleven arc lights placed upon the circuit from one 
 electric machine. This circuit is two and a half miles long. 
 The conductors are of well-insulated copper-wire, carried 
 along the ground upon poles down and up the several shafts 
 and into the various headings, all with great success and 
 economy, especially as the men can do more and better work 
 in the good light. In lighting the banks at hydraulic mines, 
 in iron ore pits, in open cuts of railroad work ; in fact, in 
 all large spaces in which night-work is carried on, this light 
 has no equal. 
 
 Take, now, some of the applications of electricity which 
 can be used by the miner and metallurgist, if he has at his 
 main engine or water-wheel a suitable generator of electri- 
 city. He may be sinking a shail at the top of a mountain, 
 where it would be impracticable to place or operate a steam- 
 engine. But if he places there an electric motor, and con- 
 nects it with his generator by conducting wires, he will 
 have power at his command at the shaft which, by the mere 
 turning of a switch-handle, will work his whin or windlass, 
 and hoist his ore or rock, or work his pump. I have an in- 
 stance at hand where electricity is now used in mining, in 
 the Loire Valley, in France, for the transmission of power, 
 at the works of the Compagnie de la Ferroniere. One 
 Gramme machine is employed as a generator of electricity, 
 and another as a motor attached to a drum which stands at 
 the head of an inclined plane 110 m. long, with a grade of 
 4 cm. per m. The generator is 1200 m. from the motor. 
 The load raised is about 800 kg. (1760 lbs.) and the ascent 
 is made in one and a half minutes. The work goes on with 
 great regularity. The starting and stopping can be done as 
 gently as desired. By means of a galvanometer in the cir- 
 cuit one can tell at any moment what is being done at the 
 incline, whether the work is being stopped, whether the 
 wagons are coming up filled or not, etc. The work is about 
 two-thirds horse power. By means of this current he can 
 ignite his blasts. He can work his electric drills, which are 
 said to be economical in comparison with the steam drill. 
 He can stop or start the drill at will, and have all the ad- 
 vantages of mechanical movements, without the constant 
 personal attention of an engineer at the shaft. He can 
 light all his works from a central station at the mill or other 
 place where he has available power. He can have wires 
 branched to his laboratory, where the electric current will 
 aid him in his analysis and tests. There he can melt his gold, 
 silver and sample.s. He can heat, boil, cupel, roast, and 
 perform all the operations of the laboratory which require 
 heat, power or the determination of chemical afiinity. 
 Think of melting metals by the fall of water I The sugges- 
 tion of it even not so many years ago, would have secured 
 our excommunication. The iron and steel manufacturer 
 can find the imperceptible flaws in his bars, and determine 
 the amount of carbon in his steel by this agent. 
 
 It would take too long, and far exceed the proposed limits 
 of this paper, for me to enter into the particular modes and 
 apparatus for carrying on the various operations which I 
 have enumerated, but I will briefly describe a few prac- 
 tical operations which can be carried out on a large scale. 
 For quite a number of years in the neighborhood of Swan- 
 sea, in Wales, a method of refining copper and separating 
 such gold, silver and other metals which the impure copper 
 may contain, has been in practical operation on a large 
 scale. Plates of " black copper " are made the anode in an 
 electrolytic bath, consisting of a solution of sulphate of 
 copper. Other thin plates of pure copper are made the 
 cathode in the bath. By the electrolytic action of the cur- 
 rent, produced by an electro-generator, copper alone is dis- 
 solved from the black copper and it is deposited in a pure state 
 upon the cathode. The impurities of the black copper sink to 
 the bottom of the vat, and are removed from time to time and 
 treated for their contents of gold and silver. The ca- 
 thodes, as soon as they have reached the desired weight, are 
 removed, and the copper thereon is melted and cast into 
 
814 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 pigs for the market. This process has been found more 
 economical than any other for accomplishing the same re- 
 sult. An analogous process is the one invented by me for 
 the refining and desilverizing of base bullion. The bullion, 
 in plates, is placed in a solution of acetate of soda and sul- 
 phate of lead, and is so connected with the source of elec- 
 tricity as to be an anode, while plates of other metal are 
 cathode. Lead is dissolved and deposited electrolytically, 
 and the deposit is practically pure. 
 
 I have invented an improvement on this process, which 
 consists in taking the skimmings of zinc, lead and silver 
 which come from the kettles in the process of desilverization 
 by means of zinc, and putting them in bags as an anode, 
 dissolving both the lead and zinc electrolytically, and de- 
 positing them together as an alloy, or mixture, upon the 
 cathode plates. The contents of gold, silver, &c., are re- 
 tained in the bags, and are smelted for their aggregation. 
 The combination of pure lead and zinc is removed from the 
 cathode and added to the next or some other succeeding lot 
 of base bullion put into the kettles for desilverization, and 
 in that manner the process continues. In place of treating 
 the whole mass of bullion by electrolysis, I get in the first 
 place, by the zinc desilverization, say 80 per cent, of the 
 base bullion as market lead, and, say 22 per cent, of a rich 
 lead and zinc which goes to electrolytic treatment. By 
 adding then the pure lead and zinc to the succeeding lot 
 of bullion I effect the desilverization, and remove from it 
 as market lead an amount approximately the quantity of 
 lead which is in the bullion placed in the kettle. 
 
 The process which has within a year or two been re- 
 introduced by Siemens for melting steel by electricity, can 
 be applied to melting the metals and materials. The ap- 
 paratus for this operation is comparatively simple. Take a 
 black-lead crucible of suitable size and put it in another 
 suitably larger, and in the space between the walls of the 
 two pack some good non-conducting material, like asbestos. 
 Introduce through a hole in the bottom of this combination 
 a carbon rod, like one used in the electric arc light, and lute 
 around it well with a paste of clay and graphite, so that it 
 forms a conductor to the interior of the inner crucible. 
 Next provide a cover with a hole in the center, of a size to 
 freely admit another carbon rod. Now place above the 
 crucible the mechanism of an electric lamp, so that the car- 
 bon carried by its movable rod can enter the crucible 
 through the hole in the cover. Place in the crucible an 
 amount of steel or other metal ; put on the cover and pass 
 through the hole in it the carbon rod, and connect it with 
 the movable carbon carrier of the lamp ; connect the body 
 of the lamp with the positive pole of the current generator, 
 and then connect the carbon which passes through the bot- 
 tom of the crucible with the negative pole. Immediately 
 the upper carbon will be automatically withdrawn slightly 
 from contact with the metal in the crucible and form a 
 voltaic arc at that place, with its accompaniment of heat. 
 Fusion goes on rapidly, so that some pounds of steel can be 
 fused in twenty minutes. The lamp mechanism serves to 
 keep the carbon rod at its proper separation from the metal. 
 Siemens says that there is no other equally economical 
 mode of fusing small amounts of steel, because there is 
 none which so concentrates the heat upon the material 
 which it is desirable to fuse. In fact, the fusion takes place 
 before the outer crucible is raised any considerable degree 
 in temperature. 
 
 The latest development in electricity is in the so-called 
 storage of it. By the term, "storage of electricity," I desire 
 not to be understood literally, no more than I would be so 
 understood in speaking of the store of heat in coal. It is 
 merely a convenient term, which simply avoids giving, as it 
 were, a chapter in physics, and may be readily understood 
 as such. The first storage of electricity, other than in its so- 
 called static condition, was effected by Plants in his well 
 known secondary battery. In his case, as in all nrrange- 
 nients for storage, energy is absorbed in the decomposition 
 ot waterby electricity, which is again given up as a current 
 ot electricity when the proper circuit is furnished ; or, bet- 
 ter said when the proper association of materials is made. 
 Ihe value of this arrangement of PlantI, and the scope of 
 application of its modifications, has not been recognized 
 until recently There is nothing to be gained by expending 
 zinc and acid for the production of electricity to effect chem- 
 
 ical decomposition, for the sake of the subsequent reverse 
 action as electric current, for the battery can be used di- 
 rectly whenever such current is desired. But the recent 
 mechanical means of generating electricity has so cheap- 
 ened its production that it is now sometimes desirable to 
 store up the electricity produced, as it were, in some porta- 
 ble form, so that it may be utilized in the place otherwise 
 practically inaccessible for its direct production and use. 
 Therefore some physicists have been directing their atten- 
 tion to the means of storing the electrical energy, with a 
 view to its use at other times and places when and where 
 the use of either batteries or mechanical generators of elec- 
 tricity would be impracticable or too costly. The line of 
 development which has received the greatest attention is 
 the one of which Plante's secondary battery is the type. 
 Faure's arrangement is the most prominent. The capacity 
 of both depends upon the porosity of the surfaces of two 
 lead plates, one in connection with the positive and the 
 other with the negative pole of a source of electricity. 
 Plante's cell acquired its limited capacity by result of re- 
 peated oxidations and reductions, effected electrolytically, 
 of the surfaces of the lead while in a bath of acidulated 
 water. Faure increased this capacity by applying a coat- 
 ing of oxide of lead directly to the lead plates so that the 
 increase on a given surface, in comparison with Plante's, is 
 in the proportion of 2000 to 75. The operation of charging 
 and discharging these cells is as follows : A source of elec- 
 tricity, having an electro-motive force somewhat in excess 
 of two volts, is connected, as before stated, with two lead 
 plates in a bath of water acidulated by sulphuric acid, and 
 the current is allowed to flow in them for a time limited by 
 the current and capacity. The result is that the coating on 
 one plate is peroxidized, and the other has its coating of 
 oxide reduced to metallic lead. If the source of electricity 
 be disconnected, and the wires which are attached to the 
 lead plates be kept separate, the charge will be only very 
 slowly discharged. But if the wires be connected, either 
 directly or through any conducting substance, an electric 
 current will flow in the reverse direction to that which was 
 passed through the arrangement from the source of elec- 
 tricity, until the original condition of oxide on both plates 
 is resumed. The action of the current through the plates 
 is first to decompose the water of the solution in which the 
 plates are immersed; the oxygen goes to the positive plate 
 and is absorbed in peroxidation, while the hydrogen goes 
 to the negative plate, and acts there as a reducing agent, 
 making metallic lead from the oxide. The reverse action 
 takes place when the wires are connected. So it will be 
 seen that the original electric current determined a chemi- 
 cal affinity, which, when circumstances allow, reasserts it- 
 self with the development of a current of electricity. Fol- 
 lowing this theory, I have invented a storage battery, which, as 
 in the case of the one just named, is based on an old apparatus, 
 well known, and up to the present time of very little practical 
 utility. Thedetailsl am not now prepared to give, pending ap- 
 plications for patents in this and foreign countries, but will say 
 that its capacity for storage of electricity exceeds ten times 
 that of Faure of equal size and weight. Sir William Thomp- 
 son found 1,000,000 foot-pounds of electrical energy stored 
 ill a box weighing, with its contents, 180 pounds, made by 
 Faure in Paris, which he set free by use in Scotland. The 
 decomposition of only one pound of water by electricity ab- 
 sorbs about 5,300,000 pounds of energy, which can be 
 drawn at will from the storage battery through an electric 
 motor. This equals 2f horse-power for an hour. The waste 
 of power in the process of storing is not yet well determined ; 
 but the economic results seem promising. If it be so proved, 
 the applications of "bottled electricity" will be many. 
 
 Transmission of Power by Electricity in" Min- 
 ing. — The first instance on recordof the application of elec- 
 tricity for the transmission of power is reported from 
 France. M. Mathet has submitted the details to the Soci^te 
 de I'Industrie Minorale. The St. Claude shaft at Blanzy 
 was sunk to the depth of 500 meters (1640 feet), forthe pur- 
 pose of searching for a faulted portion of the coal seams, and 
 a heading was run from it across the strata. When this 
 heading hud reached a length of 400 meters (1,312 feet), 
 the ventilation became so poor that the temperature at the 
 face rose to 95° F., and the miners could work only for a 
 few hours. After some ineffectual attempts to improve the 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 815 
 
 ventilation by simple means, it was decided to put in a fan 
 2.63 feet in diameter, and run it by power transmitted by 
 electricity. An 8 to 10 horse-power portable engine was 
 put up above ground, and, with a Gramme dynamo-electric 
 machine, was run at a speed of 1,2(I0 revolutions per minute. 
 The electric current thus generated was conducted by a cable 
 consisting of seven 0.044-inch copper wires, to a second 
 Gramme machine coupled directly with the fan, and placed 
 in the heading near the shaft. Running at 700 to 800, it 
 required 2J horse-power, the useful effect being at least 50 
 per cent. The temperature at the face was only lowered 5 
 degrees, but the men could work in eight-hour shifts. The 
 return current was conducted from the underground machine 
 by an iron wire cable. The cost of the whole plant is stated to 
 have been only one-third of what a machine for delivering 
 compressed air to the heading would have required. 
 
 Liehting Mines by Electricity. — In Europe they 
 are doing a good deal more experimenting in the matter of 
 developing the possibilities of the electric light than we are 
 in this country, yet we are by no means idle here. It may 
 interest our inventors as well as the mining community to 
 know that a prize of $2,500 has been offered to the person 
 who produces the best system of lighting mines by elec- 
 tricity. This offer comes from Mr. Ellis Lever, of Man- 
 chester, a gentleman who has shown a great and practical 
 desire to improve the position of the working miners of Great 
 Britain, and give them the greatest possible amount of safety 
 whilst following their employment. Such an offer cannot 
 fail to find a good many competitors at the present time, 
 when so much attention is being devoted to electricity for 
 almost every purpose in which coal and gas have hitherto 
 been the principal agents. 
 
 Aside from this premium, of course it is well understood 
 that a great reward awaits the inventor of a miner's electric 
 lamp, because so very many would be used. The London 
 Mining Journal relates that already lamps have been tested 
 in some mines where a good deal of gas is given off, and that 
 with a fair amount of success for what may be termed first 
 attempts. In such an application of electricity it is neces- 
 sary that the light should be entirely cut off from all com- 
 munication with the air surrounding the lamp, and for this 
 purpose the Swan system has been found effective, for by it 
 a number of the lamps can be placed singly in a circuit. 
 The light from an electric lamp in a mine has been found to 
 be equal to from 12 to 15 candles. The lights proceed from 
 the incandescence of a fine fibre of carbon, the combustion 
 of which is prevented by its being inclosed in an exhausted 
 glass bulb. The lamps were inclosed in lanterns which en- 
 abled the fragile glass bulbs to be carried about without lia- 
 bility to accident. At one place where the lamp alluded to 
 was tried it was particularly admired by the workmen for its 
 brilliancy in whatever position it was placed, and requiring 
 scarcely any attention whatever. The electricity was sup- 
 plied by the current of an ordinary Gramme machine, driven 
 by a portable engine placed near the top of the upcast shaft ; 
 but there is an easier method, no doubt, for it can be stored 
 up and taken down in a mine and the lamp replenished as 
 required. Seeing that the lamps at present in use not only 
 give a very dim and dismal light, but have been credited 
 with well nigh having been the cause of many of the fatal 
 explosions which have taken place at different times, there 
 is every likelihood that they will be replaced by those lighted 
 by electricity, and that before long, and for this purpose the 
 inducement held out by Mr. Ellis Lever cannot fail to be 
 taken advantage of by those specialists who are now engaged 
 in electrical investigation. 
 
 The Application of Electricity to the Prevention 
 of Fire-Damp Explosions.— M. Leon Somzee, a Belgian 
 engineer, has published a treatise on the prevention of fire- 
 damp explosions which deserves careful attention. He says in 
 substance : It is advisable to organize in every mine a special 
 service charged with supervising and keeping a check u^on 
 the ventilation, and directing it, if occasion should require. 
 It is indispensable that those set over this service should be 
 constantly, instantaneously, and correctly informed as to 
 the composition of the air in the mine at different point's to 
 be determined by practice, especially when lights are used 
 and blasting is carried on, whatever be the variations of 
 pressure and temperature. It is necessary that precise indi- 
 
 cations be obtained of even very minute quantities of dan- 
 gerous gases ; for it has been observed in England that a 
 proportion of one and even one-twentieth per cent, is suffi- 
 cient to render explosive the mixture of air and gas where 
 there is coal-dust in suspension. In such a case we would 
 go further and advance the opinion that a trace even of fire- 
 damp is sufficient to bring about an explosion, having, as 
 gas engineer, seen explosions occur in air containing dust of 
 great fineness — explosions which were erroneously attributed 
 to the presence of lighting-gas alone. It is desirable that 
 every working place be put into communication with a cen- 
 tral point of observation, either underground or on the 
 surface, and be connected with the mechanism of the venti- 
 lator ; that an alarm, in communication with the fire-damp, 
 give notice of its presence through the engine-man or mana- 
 ger, by means of a mechanical action set up by the gas itself; 
 and that the miners be also supplied with a warning appli- 
 ance which shall force them to take precautions, or better 
 still take the precautions independently of their will ; to par- 
 ticularize that the presence of fire-damp in the mine in a 
 state of danger be signaled by bells, not only to the miner, 
 but throughout the colliery and on the surface, in the 
 offices, and to the men tending both the ventilator and the 
 winding-engines. Lastly, that measures be taken to regulate 
 the ventilation instantaneously, and also to direct its effect 
 wherever required, through aspecial ventilating gauge, receiv- 
 ing their orders from far or near by means of electro-motors. 
 
 Short of suppressing the cause which produces fire-damp, 
 one of the most efficacious means for warding off mine acci- 
 dents consists in preventing the mixture of air and gas from 
 attaining the proportion which renders it explosive. In 
 order to do this, it is necessary to be warned of the presence 
 or slow invasion of this dangerous gas in the atmosphere of 
 the mine ; that is to say, to have precise indications of slight 
 quantities of fire damp in the air. Various attempts have 
 been made in this direction, but without success, on account 
 either of the imperfect nature of the appliances or cif their 
 not being used properly. The best indication of fire-damp 
 at present known is the safety-lamp; but unfortunately, 
 when the state of the flame makes known the presence of 
 this gas, its proportion is already so high in the air that the 
 moment is not far distant when it may become explosive, 
 owing to the presence of coal-dust. This fact alone would 
 imply the necessity of seeking a practical indicator which 
 shall permit of detecting slight traces of fire-damp in the air 
 of the mine ; and sensitiveness in revealing the presence of 
 this gas ought to be the first condition in such an appliance. 
 This is the problem which M. Somzee set himself to solve ; 
 and his studies ultimately resulted in two classes of instru- 
 ments, one indicating and the other giving warning of mi- 
 nute quantities of fire-damp, or of carbonic acid. The first 
 permits of ascertaining the precise quantity, even to the 
 slightest trace, of deleterious or explosive gases entering into 
 the composition of the air, and independently of the varia- 
 tions of the barometer and thermometer. It is based upon 
 the principle of the difference of power possessed by gases 
 of absorbing radiant heat, and is set up at any point iu the 
 mine, even in the most remote corners. As the safety-lamp is 
 now generally used in collieries, M. Somzee has utilized it 
 for furnishing the calls and indications necessary for keep- 
 ing a check upon the ventilation. The modification con- 
 sists only in the addition of a metal ring_ or band, expanding 
 by heat and capable of closing an electric circuit for causing 
 bells to ring ; while there is nothing to destroy the elements 
 of safety. In the portable miners' lamps, a small bell is 
 contained in the case ; but the fixed lamps are placed in 
 electrical communication with bells in the office of the ven- 
 tilation officer. The essential advantage of these warning 
 lamps is, that they reveal fire-damp before the flame of the 
 safety-lamp — even the Davy — makes known the ingress of 
 this gas into the air. The elcfngation of the flame of the 
 lamp, caused by the presence of fire-damp, is one of the 
 principal properties the effects of which are turned to ac- 
 cotint in the construction of the apparatus. It affords cer- 
 tain variations of temperature at a given point in the lamp, 
 where the increased heat, due to the gas, sets up a mechani- 
 cal action. which is practically utilized. 
 
 Another warning instrument of great sensitiveness, and 
 working automatically whatever be the pressure and tem- 
 perature of the atmosphere, is baaed upon the mechanical 
 
816 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 power of an osmotic current to give an alarm by bells placed 
 in an electric circuit. It may be placed at different points of 
 the advanced workings, and gives warnings to the ventila- 
 tion officer of ten per cent, of injurious or dangerous gas at 
 the place of observation, carried along by the air-current. 
 In view of the future use of the electric light in collieries, M. 
 Somzee also proposes, as warning instruments, and as means 
 of preventing the mixture of air and gas from attaining 
 dangerous proportions, electro-chemical appliances, based 
 upon the reactions between different substances under the 
 influence of the electric light, for giving calls from all the 
 stations of observation. These lamps would not be for the 
 general use of the miners, but would rather be stationary, or 
 used only by inspectors and foremen. A last class of warn- 
 ing instruments consists in transforming the safety-lamp 
 into a "singing-lamp" by the excitation of a sonorous tube 
 placed over the flame. One tube only may be used ; or two 
 or more may give out different notes and come into opera- 
 tion one after the other, as the danger increases. One or 
 the other of these instruments would be placed in well- 
 determined and suitable positions in the workings, each sta- 
 tion bearing a letter or number, while in a special ofiice on 
 the surface would be electric bells, with indicators, bearing 
 corresponding letters or numbers, and surmounting a gene- 
 ral plan of the colliery, showing the stations, with their 
 letters or numbers, and also all the air-doors for directing the 
 ventilation. Each warning appliance would be in electrical 
 communication with its bells, and the air-doors would be 
 furnished with contacts and connected by wires with the 
 ventilation office, so that the employe might know that his 
 instructions had been followed, and that all was in order for 
 insuring a proper distribution of air. With such an arrange- 
 ment, a glance at the indicator and at the plan would be 
 sufficient to obtain cognizance of any danger, of its immi- 
 nence, and the direction from which it threatens. At the 
 same time, the bells in the safety-lamps would warn the 
 miners to put out their lights and retire to a place of safety; 
 or the lamps might be made to extinguish themselves before 
 the critical moment arrives, and before extension takes 
 place in the ordinary safety-lamp. 
 
 high standard of value being those reported annually by the 
 coal-mine inspectors of Pennsylvania. 
 
 As the most complete, we may present the statistics of 
 accidents in Prussian mines first They are particularly 
 valuable as showing how different is the proportion of fatal 
 accidents in coal, lignite, and metalliferous mines. We have 
 omitted the list of miscellaneous mines, including salt, slate, 
 limestone, etc. 
 
 Fatal Accidents In Prussian Mines. 
 
 ACCIDENTS IN MINES. 
 
 THOUGH mining is always considered a hazardous 
 work, the general public, and only too often also 
 those engaged in it, have very erroneous ideas con- 
 cerning the causes of the greatest mortality, and 
 the many circumstances which affect the safety of miners. 
 Accurate statistics, of course, furnish the best guide for an 
 inquiry on the nature of accidents in mines, and furnish 
 some indications as to the character of the measures to be 
 taken to avoid their frequent occurrence. Still, they often 
 furnish only a general result, without allowing precise 
 assignment of the effect of many contributing causes. It is 
 natural to suppose that accidents of one class will be more 
 numerous and more fatal in periods of stagnation of the 
 business ; while others will rapidly increase when the state 
 of the markets urges proprietors and managers to strain the 
 capacity of their plant and their force to reap the benefits 
 of round profits. High prices for timber may cause undue 
 economy in protecting miners against falls, or lead to reck- 
 lessness m robbing the supports in abandoned workings. 
 When a mine is busy, little defects in hoisting arrangements 
 or track will be ignored, and repairs will be left for the dull 
 season. These are causes which often affect the mortality of 
 large districts, and which statistics fail to reveal. Still vi-ith 
 such reservations, accident statistics furnish valuable hints 
 and certainly are instrumental in dispelling wrong impres- 
 sions. They are valuable to mine proprietors and managers, 
 both as placing the risks of their business in their true fight 
 before the public and as furnishing them a guide as to what 
 dangers they must avoid Unfortunately, such statistics are 
 collected with care in a few countries only, the returns made 
 
 rnC nir,TTn^°''fi?'".?'°^='^^^^«'"g the most elabo- 
 rate, closely followed by those gathered by the English mine 
 
 o'o^ur ^'«; ll"f *'"'■ "^""^"""t^y. we possess no dafa elating 
 to our metalliferous mines, the only figures approaching a 
 
 
 Coal. 
 
 Lignite. 
 
 Total 
 
 Total ac- 
 
 Accidents 
 
 Total 
 
 Total 
 
 Deaths 
 
 ^ 
 
 number of 
 
 ciden a 
 
 per 1000 
 
 number of 
 
 accidmtall per 1000 
 
 h 
 
 men. 
 
 deathi. 
 
 men. 
 
 men. 
 
 deaths. 
 
 men. 
 
 1880 
 
 160,125 
 
 503 
 
 3.222 
 
 19,767 
 
 42 
 
 2.125 
 
 18V1 
 
 149,562 
 
 444 
 
 2.608 
 
 18,027 
 
 40 
 
 2.147 
 
 18Vt 
 
 140,319 
 
 401 
 
 2.741 
 
 18,302 
 
 38 
 
 2.076 
 
 1S77 
 
 147,024 
 
 400 
 
 2.701 
 
 18,827 
 
 33 
 
 1.753 
 
 1870 
 
 159,6bO 
 
 451 
 
 2.824 
 
 10,322 
 
 48 
 
 2.484 
 
 J875 
 
 100,462 
 
 464 
 
 2.829 
 
 18,448 
 
 43 
 
 2.331 
 
 1874 
 
 101,993 
 
 484 
 
 2.988 
 
 18,597 
 
 38 
 
 2.043 
 
 1873 
 
 169,562 
 
 450 
 
 2.820 
 
 18,008 
 
 50 
 
 2.707 
 
 1872 
 
 139,868 
 
 383 
 
 2.739 
 
 17,447 
 
 63 
 
 3.038 
 
 1871 
 
 131,337 
 
 403 
 
 3.075 
 
 16,863 
 
 65 
 
 3.856 
 
 1870 
 
 107,703 
 
 339 
 
 3.148 
 
 14,780 
 
 41 
 
 2.774 
 
 
 MetaUiferous. 
 
 All Mines. 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Total ac- 
 
 Deaths 
 
 Total 
 
 Total ac- 
 
 Deaths 
 
 e 
 
 number of 
 
 cidental 
 
 per 1000 
 
 number of 
 
 cidental 
 
 per 1000 
 
 !^ 
 
 miners. 
 
 deathf. 
 
 men. 
 
 miners. 
 
 deatjts. 
 
 men. 
 
 1880 
 
 67,174 
 
 97 
 
 1.444 
 
 260,294 
 
 650 
 
 2.597 
 
 187!) 
 
 69,180 
 
 82 
 
 1,303 
 
 23.5,617 
 
 575 
 
 2.440 
 
 1878 
 
 69,848 
 
 92 
 
 1.637 
 
 232,064 
 
 642 
 
 2.336 
 
 1877 
 
 59,768 
 
 70 
 
 1.339 
 
 231,117 
 
 634 
 
 2.310 
 
 1870 
 
 53,057 
 
 61 
 
 1.096 
 
 240,866 
 
 600 
 
 2.491 
 
 1876 
 
 62,773 
 
 79 
 
 1.499 
 
 239,722 
 
 687 
 
 2.449 ; 
 
 1874 
 
 65,408 
 
 60 
 
 1.082 
 
 243,155 
 
 591 
 
 2.431 
 
 1873 
 
 62,206 
 
 68 
 
 1.674 
 
 247,694 
 
 620 
 
 2.504 
 
 1872 
 
 63,493 
 
 110 
 
 1.732 
 
 227,620 
 
 564 
 
 2.479 
 
 1871 
 
 68,766 
 
 81 
 
 1.378 
 
 213,156 
 
 562 
 
 2.632 
 
 1870 
 
 56,044 
 
 79 
 
 1.435 
 
 133,532 
 
 469 
 
 2.555 
 
 These tables clearly illustrate the greater danger to life of 
 working in coal mines, the average mortality per 1000 men 
 employed, for the period of 1867 to 1880, having been 2"939, 
 against 2'475 in lignite mines, and 1'430 in metalliferous 
 mines. It is the citstom to compute also the number of tons 
 of mineral raised per accidental death ; the average having 
 been for a period of ten years in Prussia, 77,156 tons for 
 coal, 197,810 tons for lignite, and 44,219 tons for ore. These 
 figures, however, have no value for purposes of comparison, 
 because the quantity raised per miner varies within very 
 wide limits, according to the nature of the deposits, their 
 location, etc. From the detailed statement of the causes of 
 accident given by the Prussian officials, we compile the 
 following table. The figures for the year 1880 snow how 
 the various classes of miners were affected. Where the 
 number of accidents is small, of course one single catastrophe 
 may alter the figures very materially. The averages for ten 
 years of all the disasters are added, and they furnish a much 
 better basis for deductions of a general nature. The figures 
 are accidents per 1000 men employed. 
 
 Nature of Accidents in Prussian Mines. 
 
 Nature of Accident. 
 
 Blastini; 
 
 Falls of rock 
 
 On underground inclined planes 
 Ascending and descending . . . 
 
 By falling in sliafts 
 
 Miscellaneous in sliafts 
 
 Transporting rock in tunnels and 
 
 galleries 
 
 Fire-damp explosions 
 
 Rad ventilation 
 
 By nQftcliinery 
 
 Water 
 
 Above ground 
 
 Not above numerated . . . 
 
 Total 
 
 1880. 
 
 Coal. 
 
 0.083 
 1.204 
 0.345 
 0.077 
 0.135 
 0.083 
 
 0,090 
 0.570 
 0.231 
 0.077 
 
 0.256 
 0.0(;5 
 
 Lignite. 
 
 0.162 
 1.052 
 
 0.253 
 0.200 
 
 0.051 
 0.253 
 0.101 
 0,051 
 
 2.125 
 
 MetaUif- 
 erous. 
 
 0.178 
 0.666 
 0.089 
 0.030 
 0.164 
 0.045 
 
 0.045 
 
 0.030 
 0.000 
 
 0.104 
 0.134 
 
 A vertige 
 of 1871 
 to 1880. 
 
 0.123 
 
 967 
 0.241 
 0.114 
 0.208 
 0.140 
 
 0.168 
 0.180 
 0.076 
 0.008 
 0.030 
 0.174 
 0.080 
 
 2.405 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 817 
 
 This table strikingly shows that in all classes of mines, 
 collieries not excluded, falls of rock are the most disastrous 
 source of accident, and that in coal mines they I'ar outnum- 
 ber the explosions, which are popularly looked upon as such 
 a terror to the miner, while in fact they inflict much greater 
 loss, comparatively speaking, upon the operators. This class 
 of accidents is, of course, more than any other, subject to 
 sudden variations, as the following figures of the deaths in 
 Prussia per 1,000 employes will show : 
 
 1880 
 
 . . 0.359 
 
 1875 
 
 0,117 
 
 1S79. . 
 
 . . .0.221 
 
 1874 . . . 
 
 . 0.144 
 
 1878 ... 
 
 . . 11.194 
 
 1873 . . 
 
 O.llJC 
 
 1877 
 
 . . . 0.095 
 
 1872 . . 
 
 U 149 
 
 1870 
 
 . . . 0.112 
 
 1871 
 
 . . .0.282 
 
 An interesting set of figures is given as bearing on the 
 comparative danger of ascending and descending into mines 
 by shafts, by ladder, man-engine, or cage. They cover an 
 average often years: 
 
 Lasers. Manrengine. Cage. 
 
 Men mining . . . 739,424 71,910 640,710 
 
 Number killod 76 41 74 
 
 Kumber killed per 1000 . 0.101 0.570 0.115 
 
 This proves that hoisting the men out of the mines is 
 nearly as safe as the use of ladders, while man-engines are 
 the most dangerous. This, of course, refers to well equipped 
 hoisting-works, careftilly watched, which, so far as safety is 
 concerned, compare as favorably with many of the buckets 
 hanging from a rope in our Western camps as a flight of 
 marble stairs to a Mexican notched stick of timber. With 
 that thoroughness which is characteristic of the work of 
 German officials, the mine inspectors of Prussia gather 
 annually a series of statistics which we believe are unique, 
 and the importance of which is not less than the clata 
 gathered on accidents terminating fatally. The following 
 figures give the number of accidents in Prussia in 1880 re- 
 sulting in injury involving a suspension of work of one 
 month or more : 
 
 li^aries in Prussian Mines in 1881. 
 
 Nature of Accident. 
 
 Blasting 
 
 Fall of rock 
 
 In undergrnLind inclined planes.. 
 Ascending and descending.. 
 
 Falling in shafts 
 
 Other accidents in shafts 
 
 Transporting rock in tunnels and 
 
 galleries 
 
 Fire damp explosions . 
 
 By machinery 
 
 Above ground ... 
 Not above specified. . 
 
 Total 
 
 Per 1000 men employed. 
 
 Coal. 
 
 Lignite. 
 
 Metalhf- 
 eroud. 
 
 1.839 
 
 
 0.52t 
 
 5.637 
 
 1.265 
 
 1.7S6 
 
 0.711 
 
 0.051 
 
 0.119 
 
 0.100 
 
 n.051 
 
 0.149 
 
 0.077 
 
 0.1.52 
 
 0.830 
 
 0.198 
 
 0.202 
 
 0:223 
 
 0.211 
 
 0.708 
 
 0.486 
 
 0.71V 
 
 0.06O 
 
 0.446 
 
 243 
 
 0.405 
 
 0.228 
 
 1.057 
 
 0.556 
 
 0.907 
 
 1.165 
 
 0.606 
 
 0.927 
 
 12.932 
 
 3.946 
 
 4.615 
 
 Total 
 Average. 
 
 0.671 
 4.1 U 
 0.479 
 0.144 
 0.084 
 0.200 
 
 0.486 
 446 
 0.228 
 0.907 
 0.927 
 
 9.701 
 
 Here, too, the overwhelming preponderance of accidents 
 by falls of rock is fully illustrated, and it may be of interest 
 to note that of the 1029 men thus injured, 108 were totally 
 incapacitated for work, while 921 were able to return after 
 a suspension ranging from one to six months. Taking all 
 the accidents together, 2428 men, out of 250,294 employed, 
 were injured so gravely that they could not go to work in 
 less than a month, and of this number, 211 were made in- 
 valids for life. 
 
 The statistics collected by the mine inspectors of Great 
 Britain since the year 1851 are somewhat different in form, 
 and some data are added which fully confirm conclusions 
 which it would be natural to draw from the occurrence of 
 certain classes of accidents. The British mine inspectors 
 are careful to enumerate both the number of accidents and 
 of deaths. As might be expected, these figures show that, 
 while the number of fire-damp explosions is small, they 
 usually cause many deaths, while the other accidents show 
 a much lower mortality. Beyond this fact, the figures re- 
 lating to the number of accidents, and not to the number of 
 deaths, show little that is not better studied from the tables 
 giving the latter. 
 
 Comparison of Fatal Accidents and Dcatlig in ]!:ngllgh Coal 
 Mines. 
 
 Accidents and Deaths. 
 
 Average for ten years'! Accidents. 
 
 ending 1800. / Deaths . . 
 
 Average for ten years I Accidents. 
 
 ending 1870. / I>eathB . . 
 Average for ten years I Accidents. 
 
 ending 1880. / Deaths . . 
 
 82.0 
 244.1 
 
 56.5 
 226.7 
 
 42.4 
 268.6 
 
 361.1 
 376.7 
 403.1 
 416.3 
 436.7 
 450.8 
 
 183.7 
 211.9 
 133.3 
 160.6 
 120.8 
 135.6 
 
 
 100.3 
 118.6 
 1.50.1 
 191.6 
 176.6 
 190.2 
 
 2 S 
 5^ 
 
 46.8 
 60.6 
 73.8 
 77.6 
 87.2 
 89.8 
 
 ^ 
 
 773.9 
 1,001.8 
 
 822.8 
 1,062.6 
 
 802,0 
 1,134.9 
 
 The British mine inspectors calculate the ratio of persons 
 employed to each death, a method which does not so strik- 
 ingly show the variations, because it must be remembered that 
 greater safety is indicated by higher figures, while the ratio 
 of deaths per 1000 persons employed indicates at a glance 
 an improvement or a decline. The following are thefigures 
 for the mines classed under the coal mine act, including 
 some fire-clay, ironstone, and shale mines : 
 
 Accidents in Englisll Coal Mines. 
 
 Ratio of persona employed to each deatli. 
 
 1861-1860 
 1801-1870 
 1871 
 1872 
 1873 
 1874 
 1876 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 
 Fire damp 
 Uxplosiom 
 
 1,008 
 1,408 
 1.378 
 2,914 
 5,122 
 3.246 
 1,800 
 6.416 
 i;433 
 
 811 
 2,691 
 
 971 
 4,271 
 
 Fall of roof 
 
 653 
 
 V66 
 
 862 
 
 916 
 
 1,043 
 
 1,304 
 
 1,167 
 
 1,145 
 
 1,103 
 
 1,013 
 
 1,110 
 
 1,049 
 
 1,101 
 
 Shaft. 
 
 1,101 
 2,121 
 3,015 
 2,097 
 2,995 
 3,498 
 3,116 
 3,988 
 3,832 
 4,282 
 3,973 
 5,.329 
 4,604 
 
 Miseellan^ 
 eoua under 
 ground. 
 
 2,074 
 1,066 
 2,107 
 1,926 
 2,317 
 2,617 
 2,360 
 3,4.53 
 2,643 
 2.952 
 2,772 
 2,724 
 2,607 
 
 MisceUan- 
 eous sur- 
 face. 
 
 4,872 
 4,119 
 .5,151 
 6,360 
 6,956 
 4 943 
 5,467 
 4,636 
 6(014 
 6,627 
 6,716 
 5,510 
 6,630 
 
 Total. 
 
 245 
 300 
 345 
 394 
 479 
 510 
 430 
 551 
 409 
 336 
 490 
 368 
 619 
 
 Ratio of deaths per 1000 persons employed. 
 
 1851-1800 
 1801-1870 
 1871-1880 
 
 0.092 
 
 1.441 
 
 0.861 
 
 0.482 
 
 0.205 
 
 0.710 
 
 1.304 
 
 0.471 
 
 0.660 
 
 0.211 
 
 0.557 
 
 0.933 
 
 0.281 
 
 0.394 
 
 0.109 
 
 4.072 
 3.328 
 2.353 
 
 The upper table well illustrates the fluctuations which ac- 
 cidents in mines, and notably those due to fire-damp explo- 
 sions, are subject to. The lower sets of figures will probably 
 best show at a glance what the result of thirty years of 
 steady improvement in methods of mining, in machinery, in 
 ap.pliances, and in administration, have done in British coal 
 mines, in the face of the fact that underground workings 
 have grown enormously in extent, that shafts are deeper, 
 less numerous, and are, therefore, the scene of wonderflil 
 activity. The averages of long periods only can efface fluc- 
 tuations, which are only too natural, and present the general 
 result so clearly proved in these figures. 
 
 The accident statistics for the mines classed under the 
 British Metalliferous Mines Eegulation Act unfortunately 
 do not cover so long a period, having been gathered with ac- 
 curacy only since 1874. Still, as the main cause of great 
 fluctuations, fire-damp explosions, are absent, the briefer 
 period may be accepted as showing the course of events 
 fairly : 
 
 Deatlis caused fiy Accident. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Persons 
 
 
 
 Falts of 
 ground. 
 
 In 
 Shafts. 
 
 Miscel- 
 laneous 
 under- 
 ground. 
 
 On 
 surface. 
 
 Total. 
 
 employed. 
 
 Matt of 
 
 dratf-i 
 
 per 1000 
 
 men 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Per 
 fatnl 
 
 Prr 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -acci- 
 
 life 
 
 employed. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 dent. 
 
 lost. 
 
 
 1874 
 
 40 
 
 34 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 103 
 
 699 
 
 547 
 
 1.827 
 
 1875 
 
 32 
 
 35 
 
 33 
 
 19 
 
 119 
 
 528 
 
 488 
 
 2.049 
 
 1870 
 
 25 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 6 
 
 70 
 
 871 
 
 821 
 
 1217 
 
 1877 
 
 41 
 
 21 
 
 24 
 
 11 
 
 97 
 
 669 
 
 501 
 
 1.690 
 
 1878 
 
 27 
 
 19 
 
 23 
 
 8 
 
 77 
 
 096 
 
 608 
 
 1.496 
 
 1879 
 
 24 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 64 
 
 771 
 
 736 
 
 1.3>0 
 
 1880 
 
 31 
 
 21 
 
 19 
 
 13 
 
 84 
 
 645 
 
 630 
 
 l..'i89 
 
 1881 
 
 36 
 
 22 
 
 32 
 
 9 
 
 99 
 
 646 
 
 ,5.65 
 
 1.802 
 
 Average 
 
 32 
 
 23 
 
 23.1 
 
 11 
 
 89.1 
 
 661 
 
 611 
 
 1.636 
 
 62 
 
818 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 In Great Britain, too, the danger to life is less m metalli- 
 ferous mines than in coal mines, and in both, falls of ground 
 are the most prolific source of accidents. On the whole, the 
 elaborate statistics quoted are encouraging, especially when 
 it is considered that many circumstances influence progress 
 adversely. A good deal of the improvement is probably 
 due also to the higher grade of intelligence among the min- 
 ers although it is probably in the direction of greater care 
 on their part that the chances of further improvement must 
 principally rest. _ ^ ,r- ■ r • 
 
 ^ i- •> —Engineering and Mining Journal. 
 
 FIRES IN MINES ; THEIR CAUSES AND THE 
 MEANS OF EXTINGUISHING THEM. 
 
 FIEES in mines are so serious in their consequences 
 and of such frequent occurrence, that their causes 
 and the means of extinguishing them are certainly 
 questions of the greatest interest to a large part of 
 the engineering profession. We have already in this 
 country many mines which have been burning for 
 years, and though our hard anthracite is so difficult to ignite 
 that for a quarter of a century after it was first discovered it 
 was not known how to burn it except with the aid of an ar- 
 tificial blast, yet most of the fires which have occurred un- 
 derground have been in anthracite mines, and in the coal 
 itself. The injury which these fires have caused to proper- 
 ties in various parts of the anthracite regions, and the cost 
 of extinguishing them, would amount to many millions of 
 dollars, and they have also occasioned the loss of many val- 
 uable lives. It is not surprising, therefore, that the subject 
 has already attracted much attention, and the exercise of 
 great ingenuity; and the present communication is made 
 less with the expectation of announcing anything new, than 
 with the object of putting upon record the present state of 
 our knowledge upon this subject, or, in other words, of in- 
 dicating how defective are the present means of combating 
 underground conflagrations. 
 
 Causes of Mine Fires. — Even upon the surface, fire 
 is a terrible foe to contend with, and there is probably no 
 other which inspires such thorough and well-founded alarm. 
 With what feelings, then, must we look upon this destructive 
 element, when its field is in the narrow galleries of a mine 
 where the poisonous products of combustion, spreading in 
 every direction, protect, in the most effectual manner, the 
 fire itself from the attacks of extinguishers, while, if the 
 face of attack be ventilated so as to enable them to approach 
 the seat of the fire, the air current simply increases the ex- 
 tent and violence of the confiagration. Fires underground 
 originate in as various ways as those on the surface, and it 
 is scarcely necessary to say that, except in the rare case) 
 where they are the result of design, they are invariably 
 classed as "accidents," and most generally as "unavoidable 
 accidents." In reality, by an intelligent understanding of 
 their causes and with due precautions, they can almost 
 always be prevented. Ignorance and carelessness are 
 their chief causes, and they are generally " unavoidable ac- 
 cidents '' only in so far as ignorance is an accident, or care- 
 lessness unavoidable. Moreover, what, according to the 
 light we possess to-day, may be styled an " accident," will, 
 it is to be hoped, be rendered avoidable as the increase of 
 our knowledge gives us a better insight into causes now 
 hidden. I will mention some of the more common imme- 
 diate causes of mine fires, and then speak of the means 
 adopted to prevent fires, and those employed to extinguish 
 themwhen they have occurred. 
 
 It is now happily a rare thing that a mine is ignited 
 through malice or design. The most ignorant and vicious 
 of those who work about them understand too well the 
 enormous injury that is occasioned, to all who live in the 
 district, by a mine fire to indulge in it as a measure of re- 
 venge for real or imaginary personal injury. It is not the 
 owner of the mine who is the onlv, or 'in most ciises, the 
 principal loser. The eff'orts made to extinguish it are very 
 frequently, we may say generally, accompanied by the Iohs 
 of the lives of some of those engaged in the work ; and dur- 
 
 ing its continuance, which, in many cases, extends through 
 many years, the regular work of the mine is suspended, and 
 the workmen with those dependent, directly or indirectly, 
 on their labor for the means of living are the chief sufferers. 
 Still, rare cases do occur where a vicious individual is so 
 blinded by what he considers injustice or oppression as to 
 overlook the injury he brings upon innocent parties, and to 
 seek revenge in this manner. In the so-called " good old 
 days," before the rights of our neighbor were as well 
 defined or as much respected as they are to-day, fires from 
 this cause were not unfrequent; but as the mines were 
 usually small, the extent of the injury done was limited. 
 An example of one of these ancient fires, and, we believe, 
 the only one, in Belgium, which continues burning from the 
 olden time to the present day, is that in the vein known as 
 the Grande Masse de Falizolle. This bed, Ponson tells us, 
 was worked in a piratical way, above water-level, in a hill 
 near Falizolle, between Namur and Charleroi, by the in- 
 habitants of the neighboring country. The quarrels that 
 even in those early days sometimes existed between neigh- 
 bors were not forgotten when they went below ground, so 
 when the drifts in which they worked happened to meet it 
 was made the occasion for a regular battle, and those that 
 heaven helped with a favorable wind were not slow in taking 
 advantage of the blessing to smoke out their neighbors by 
 burning pieces of old leather on a fire built in some safe 
 place in the galleries. On one occasion, about the year 
 1822, while indulging in this harmless, but effective, method 
 of disposing of their enemies, the coal in the mine became 
 ignited, and has since continued to burn, excluding both 
 sides of the fight from the benefits of free coal. Many 
 attempts have been made to extinguish this fire, but owing 
 to the position of the bed, near the surface and above water- 
 level, it has been found impossible to control it. 
 
 In this country, in the anthracite regions particularly, 
 many fires whose origin is unknown, have been attributed 
 to design. In the majority of cases the cause was probably 
 carelessness, though in some rare instances the malice of 
 men on strike, who have had, or thought they had, some 
 grievance, has doubtless been the origin. Among the mines 
 that have been on fire for a great many years may be men- 
 tioned the Summit Hill Mine, near Mauch Chunk, the 
 Greenwood Company's Mine, near Tamaqua, and some 
 others in Schuylkill, Carbon, and neighboring counties ol 
 Pennsylvania. Some of these fires have now been burning 
 upwards of twenty years. The causes of most of these are 
 shrouded in mystery, but they are probably due to careless- 
 ness or spontaneous combustion. Carelessness is by far the 
 most frequent cause of mine fires. A workman will leave 
 his candle, or lamp, attached to a piece of timber in such 
 a manner as to finally ignite it, as was the case in the great 
 fire in the Yellow Jacket Mine of the Comstock Lode, in 
 1875. A fire basket will sometimes be hung so near the coal 
 or timber as to set it on fire. Smoking in the stables under- 
 ground has occasionally been the cause of conflagrations by 
 the fire from a pipe falling among the straw and litter. It 
 was from a lamp igniting a bundle of straw in the shaft 
 that the West Pittston disaster occurred, by which 20 per- 
 sons lost their lives. In a word, carelessness acts through 
 about the same channels below ground that it follows above, 
 though the field for its operation is more restricted in the 
 mines and its effects are more disastrous. If a miner, going 
 into a portion of the mine in which fire-damp has ac- 
 cumulated, with a safety lamp in his hand and an open light 
 on his hat, as has been done on many occasions that are well 
 authenticated, the resulting explosion and fire can scarcely 
 be considered as accidental, any more than can the equally 
 well-authenticated case of a man blowing himself up by 
 firing the open keg of powder, from which he was filling a 
 cartridge, by the burning oil dropping into it from the open 
 lamp on his hat. Incredible as these cases of carelessness 
 may seem, they are by no means isolated occurrences, but 
 we have heard, from the very best authority, of several in- 
 stances of each. 
 
 Ignorance is a scarcely less frequent cause of fires in 
 mines than carelessness ; indeed, it is difficult to say just 
 where the one ceases and the other begins. It is frequently 
 not altogether carelessness that causes the fire when a 
 miner bangs his lamp so near the coal that it finally ignilos 
 it; ho may not know that the heat of the lamp, not in it- 
 
THE MINES, MINEBS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 819 
 
 self sufficient to ignite the coal, may liberate and ignite the 
 highly inflammable gases, and thus communicate the fire to 
 the solid coal. Nor is it always carelessness that causes a 
 fire by throwing away among the " gob " the oil-saturated 
 cloth, or the cotton waste " that has dropped from the oil- 
 box of a mine wagon. He who threw it away among the 
 fine coal may have been ignorant of the fact that the heat- 
 ing which comes from the decomposition of iron pyrites, and 
 from the slow combustion of carbon in a comminuted state, 
 though it may be insufficient to ignite coal alone, may be 
 quite sufficient to ignite the oil-saturated "waste," already 
 heated by the oxidation of the oil. There are few of the 
 mine superintendents, not to mention the miners, who have 
 any knowledge of the very important influence which coal- 
 dust has upon the explosiveness of mixtures of fire-damp 
 and air, or of the causes of spontaneous combustion of coal 
 and wood ; and while exercising the utmost care required, 
 as they believe, they may, in ignorance, be doing or leaving 
 undone, things which result in a fire^a fire that is then said 
 to be " purely accidental," and which it was " impossible to 
 foresee or prevent." 
 
 Nearly every fire that occurs in a mine is said to be an 
 " unavoidable accident," and so far as an accident is " an 
 event that takes place without one's foresight or expecta- 
 tion; an event which proceeds from an unknown cause," 
 most fires may be so designated ; but the ignorance which 
 makes them, in this sense, " accidents," is not unavoidable, 
 and should not exist. I have frequently seen the fire-pot, or 
 grate, that stands near the foot of almost every shaft in the 
 anthracite coal regions in winter, placed so close to the solid 
 " rib " of coal, as to heat it far beyond a safe tem- 
 perature; and before leaving the mine, at the close of the 
 day, coal would be piled upon it, in order to have it burning 
 well in the morning. A change in the direction of the 
 wind, or in the temperature at the surface, is sufficient to 
 increase the draught, and fan up the fire to a furnace-heat ; 
 is it surprising, then, that several fires in our mines have 
 been traced to this cause? 
 
 Underground boilers are a cause of mine fires still more 
 fruitful than that just mentioned. The. number and ex- 
 tent of the conflagrations due to this kind of " accident," 
 in Pennsylvania, are enormous. In the immediate vicinity 
 of Wilkes-Barre, Pa., alone, they have cost the companies 
 millions of dollars. One would suppose that the enormous 
 losses inflicted by such fires would have absolutely prohibit- 
 ed the use of the boilers or furnaces in coal mines, yet there 
 are many of our mines still ventilated by furnaces, and not 
 a few that have boilers underground. The fire in the Avondale 
 Colliery, in which one hundred and ten persons lost their 
 lives, was occasioned by a ventilating furnace. Wood was 
 used in lighting up the fire, and the sparks from this_ were 
 carried up into the wood-bratticed upcast shaft, igniting it 
 and the " breaker " building which stood over the shaft. As 
 the mine had but this one outlet, the one hundred and eight 
 persons at work in it (and two volunteers, whoe subsequent- 
 ly entered it), were sufibcated before they could be rescued. 
 la this, as in nearly every case, the furnace was thought to 
 be "perfectly safe;" it was at some distance from the shaft, 
 and had been in use for some time without "accident" of 
 this kind. The mine did not produce fire-damp, and, con- 
 sequently, one source of danger was eliminated. In fiery 
 mines when the air for the furnace is taken from the return 
 air courses, there is introduced a source of accident of a 
 very serious character. It is probable that even when the 
 return air is not, in itself, explosive, it may become so by 
 the presence of a very small quantity of coal-dust ; and it is 
 well known that, even without the presence of fire-damp, the 
 finely comminuted carbon, whether soot or coal-dust, is 
 very easily ignited, and this has, probably, been the cause 
 of more than one of the mysterious fires that have occurred 
 in our anthracite mines. Such a case was that known as the 
 Empire Mine fire (Lehigh and Wilkes-Barre Coal Compa- 
 ny), near Wilkes-Barre, Pa. The fire originated in an 
 abandoned chamber, from which the coal had been taken, 
 and which was made to serve as a flue for the smoke from a 
 set of underground boilers. It is supposed that the soot col- 
 lected in this large chamber, and became ignited from a 
 spark, or that pieces of wood, dried to tinder, caught fire 
 in the same way ; in either event, the furnace was consider- 
 ed " perfectly safe," and yet it resulted in a fire that cost 
 
 more than half a million dollars to extinguish. The groat 
 difficulty experienced in igniting anthracite coal, when it is 
 desired to burn it, is relied on too implicitly as a safeguard 
 against fire ; and this misplaced confidence leads to the in- 
 troduction of risks that would never be admitted in a bitu- 
 minous coal-mine. I have frequently seen both ventilating 
 and boiler furnaces separated from the solid coal by but a 
 thin brick wall, and a few inches of space. The boilers 
 which are always of the plain cylinder type, fired external- 
 ly, are usually covered with a thin bed of sand, and a crack 
 in the brickwork, or a hole through which the sand can run, 
 may allov/ the fire free escape to the solid rib, or to the roof, 
 that in some instances is a carbonaceous shell. 
 
 Wheu the roof is not very solid it is frequently supported, 
 over the boilers, on heavy timbers; and it is not unusual to 
 find a mass of timber, that the heat has made as inflammable 
 as tinder, supporting the roof only a few feet above the 
 boilers. A single spark may ignite the mass, and the mat- 
 ter of surprise is, not how the fires originate in such mines, 
 but how these so often or so long escape being burnt up. 
 The fire which has now been burning in the Baltimore Mine, 
 near Wilkes-Barre, for two years, and the effijrts to extin- 
 guish which are said to have cost already nearly three- 
 quarters of a million of dollars, was caused from under- 
 ground boilers. These were, as usual, "perfectly safe," but 
 the blast of air occasioned by a heavy fall of the roof in the 
 vicinity, forced the fire from under the boilers and ignited 
 some timber under the fall. As the cave extended over 
 several acres of ground, and as the vein was above water- 
 level and near the surface, to which the rock broke through, 
 there was no means of getting at the fire, or of extinguish- 
 ing it with water. That part of the mine had to be walled 
 off by brick or earth walls, and, doubtless, the fire will con- 
 tinue in the portion "caved in" for many years to come. 
 Underground boilers and ventilating furnaces have proba- 
 bly occasioned more fires than any other cause, at least this 
 is the case in the anthracite mines of Pennsylvania. 
 
 Explosions of Fire-damp. — ^Not many years ago, while 
 the Pennsylvania mines were worked along the outcrops of 
 the coal-beds, it was commonly stated that anthracite did not 
 yield this dangerous gas, but the mines were carried below 
 water-level to a constantly increasing depth, but that some 
 of the most fiery mines in the world are in this hard coal. 
 The hardness of the coal is so great as to require the use 
 of explosives to break it down, and it is not an uncommon 
 thing for a vein to yield fire-damp in such enormous quan- 
 tity as to ignite at every shot in headings driven out into 
 the solid. At the Prospect shaft, near Wilkes-Barre — prob- 
 ably the most fiery mine in the coal field — ^the make of gas 
 has been so rapid that with a current of air from 20,000 to 
 30,000 cubic feet per minute, passing through the gangway 
 (12 feet wide by 7 feet high), it was impossible to proceed 
 more than ten feet beyond the cross-heading connecting the 
 gangway and parallel airway, without putting in bratticing 
 to carry the air up to the fiice — or with such bratticipg 
 (dividing the gangway into two parts, each 6 feet by 7 feet), 
 the velocity of air current being from 500 to 600 feet per 
 minute — the gas would ignite at the face when the distance 
 from the face of the gangway to the bratticing was more 
 than fifteen feet. With such a prodigious discharge of car- 
 buretted hydrogen almost every blast would ignite it, and if 
 the promptest measures were not taken, the coal was quickly 
 aflame. The heat of the burning gas always tends to diaw 
 still more gas from the coal, and the longer the fire con- 
 tinues the more fiercely it burns and the more difficult it 
 becomes to extinguish it. A number of fires have occurred 
 in this and other collieries in the same field from this cause, 
 and that notwithstanding all the efforts that it was thought 
 possible to make to extinguish the fire. With a sudden fall 
 of the barometer, or the striking of an unusually strong 
 blower, the fire would gain the mastery, and several of the 
 mines have had to be filled with water to extinguish the 
 conflagration. There is still another and more mysterious 
 cause of fires in mines, viz., spontaneous combustion. As 
 this important cause of fires is but imperfectly understood 
 by those in charge of our coal-mines, and as it is a matter 
 whose interest and practical application are not confined to 
 fires in mines, I shall enter with some detail into the sub- 
 ject. It may be remarked, at the outset, that what is known 
 as " weather waste," is but a mild form of spontaneous com- 
 
820 
 
 THE MI5fES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 bustion; we may, therefore, treat this part of our subject 
 under the title of , 
 
 Spontaneous Combustion and Weather Waste 
 of Coal. 1— Coal is a very complex substance, apd though 
 one with which we have long been very familiar, and which 
 we make use of by oxidizing (burning), the subject ot the 
 exact conditions under which its oxidation takes place has 
 received but little attention, and is, even yet, but imperfectly 
 understood. We all know that at a high, but variable, 
 temperature, the carbon of coal combines with the oxygen 
 of the air, and forms carbonic oxide, or carbonic acid, as the 
 case may be ; but there are few who know at what tempera- 
 ture this absorption of oxygen commences, or what condi- 
 tions facilitate it at a low temperature. 
 
 We are principally indebted to Professor E. Richters, of the 
 Mining School at Wallenburg, for knowledge, so far as it goes, 
 of this interesting and important subject. He has determined 
 that at the ordinary temperature coal left in contact with 
 oxygen, either pure or mixed with nitrogen, as in atmos- 
 pheric air, absorbs oxygen, of which one portion combines 
 with carbon and hydrogen, forming carbonic acid and water 
 respectively, while another portion enters into an unknown 
 state of combination with the coal, and proportionately in- 
 creases its weight. Berthelot^ has succeeded in demonstrat- 
 ing the fact that coal can be hydrogenized also, at a temper- 
 ature not exceeding 527° Pahr" In absorbing hydrogen, in 
 the experiments of M. Berthelot, as much as two-thirds of 
 the coal was converted into liquid hydrocarbons of the pe- 
 troleum class. On the other hand, we know that all coals, 
 when freshly mined, give off a very noticeable amount of a 
 hydrocarbon gas. In some mines, even in the hard an- 
 thracites of Pennsylvania, the escape of occluded gas is so 
 energetic as to make a hissing or singing sound, that is 
 easily recognized. This discharge of gas continues for a very 
 considerable time, probably several weeks in some cases, 
 after the coal is removed from the mine. In proof of this 
 we have the record of a great number of explosions on vessels 
 loaded with coal, and even with anthracite, days, and some- 
 times weeks after it was mined. It has also been ascertain- 
 ed that all coal, or at least all bituminous coal, and above 
 all those soft varieties that are rich in volatile matter and 
 poor in fixed carbon, lose a large part of their volatile con- 
 stituents by exposure to the action of the atmosphere, 
 especially when the coal is in a finely comminuted state, and 
 is exposed to a high temperature and moisture. The gas 
 thus evolved varies, both in quantity and in composition, 
 according to the nature of the different coals ; it contains 
 carbonic acid, oxygen, nitrogen, marsh gas, ethyl hydride 
 (O2H5), gases absorbable by sulphuric acid, and sometimes 
 a small amount of carbonic oxide. By far the most abund- 
 ant of these gases is free nitrogen, and as this has never 
 been certainly proved to result from any natural process of 
 decay, it is probably derived from the atmosphere. 
 
 This view ssems to be confirmed by Richter's investiga- 
 tions on the weathering of coal, from which he concluded 
 that more oxygen is absorbed from the atmosphere in 
 weathering, than suffices to oxodize that portion of the car- 
 boa which is evolved in the state of carbonic acid, A por- 
 tion of the balance, probably, combines with the hydrogen 
 to form water, and another portion enters into an unknown 
 state of combination with the organic substance of the coal, 
 and still another portion is consumed in oxidizing the iron 
 pyrites which are almost always found in coal. iVl. Marsilly 
 (see I'Eclairage du gas de R. d'Harcourt) found that the 
 long flaming coals, free from fire-damp, of the Gr.md Hor- 
 nu, Belgium, when heated to 3)0' Cent. (662" Fahr.) evolve 
 nitrogen to the extent of 31.83 to 44.27 cubic inches per tb 
 of coal, and one kilog. (2.2 fto.) of /ad fien/ caking coal at the 
 temperatures indicated gave ofi' the following quantities of 
 
 Degrees 
 Cent. 
 
 70 to 160 
 150 to 180 
 180 to 260 
 2.50 to 300 
 800 to 325 
 325 to 360 
 
 Degrees . .. 
 Fahr. ■^"'■'^» 
 
 168 to 302 
 302 to 356 
 366 to 482 
 482 to 572 
 572 to 617 
 617 to 662 
 
 0.46 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.9 
 
 0.51 
 
 0.5 
 
 .0.23 
 
 Oubic 
 inches 
 
 28.07 
 12 21 
 64.93 
 31.12 
 
 30.51 
 14.04 
 
 Uninflammable gas. 
 
 Gas yielding a blue flame. 
 
 a long illuminatine flame. 
 
 a loni^pr and brightpr flame. 
 
 a still longer and brighter flamo. 
 
 a very long and br illiant fl ame. 
 
 last edition of Percy's Metallurgy, 1875 
 
 ■■> Ann. Chim. Phys., 1870, and Bulletin Soo. Chim. 
 
 Marsilly concludes that coal impregnated with fire-damp 
 gives oif from 1 to 2 per cent, of uncombined hydrocarbons, 
 below 626° Fahr., and the coal then completely loses its 
 caking properties. These are the coals which deteriorate 
 when exposed to the air in heaps. The long flaming dry 
 coals, at 527° Fahr., evolve but little nitrogen, a circum- 
 stance which distinguishes them from the fiery coals. Heat- 
 ed from 572 to 1013° Fahr. (545° C), they do not give off 
 gas, and are not much aflfected by exposure to the air. 
 Freshly mined coal is acted on most energetically by the 
 oxygen of the air, and though, according to Richters, coal 
 never entirely loses its power of absorbing oxygen, that 
 power constantly diminishes by exposure to the air. Ac- 
 cording to the same authority, when coal is heated from 180° 
 C. to 200° C, it at first gains in weight, more oxygen 
 being absorbed than the weight of carbonic acid and 
 water evolved ; but on continuing this temperature, after a 
 time both the weight and chemical composition of the 
 coal will remain constant, (?) and the relation in weight 
 which then obtains between its hydrogen and oxygen is that 
 in water, from which it is inferred that the oxygen which 
 combines with the carbon is evolved again as carbonic acid, 
 and that, consequently, with the disappearance of the dis- 
 posable hydrogen, the permanent absorption of oxygen should 
 cease. It has also been found that the quantity of oxygen 
 absorbed by different coals, under the same conditions, is 
 proportionate to the quantity of water they absorb, which 
 last does not appear to depend on the physical structure of 
 the coal, compact bright coals sometimes absorbing from two 
 to three times as much water as very loose, soft, and tender 
 schistose coals ; but coal from the same seam over a wide area 
 absorbed the same proportion of water. This characteristic 
 may prove to be of such general application as to afford val- 
 uable assistance in the identification of coal-beds where the 
 measures are disturbed by faults, etc. Richters also found 
 that coal absorbs three times as much carbonic acid as oxy- 
 gen in a given time, and under the same conditions ; and even 
 coal that has been weathered till it will scarcely takeup any 
 oxygen will quickly absorb its own volume of carbonic acid. 
 Numerous experiments seem to prove that sunlight always 
 lessens or retards the absorption of oxygen by coal ; a fact 
 that may, in part, explain the generally admitted pheno- 
 menon of coal or wood not burning so well in the sunlight as 
 in the shade. That some coals are capable of spontaneous 
 ignition when allowed to accumulate in the form of dust or 
 slack, and, sometimes when subjected to heavy pressure in 
 the pillars of coal-mines, is a well-known fact; but to what 
 this property is due has always been an open question, 
 though it has usually been attributed to the decomposition 
 of iron pyrites in the coal and shales accompanying the 
 coal. The atmospheric oxidation of iron pyrites, by which 
 the sulphurets are changed into sulphates, is a comparatively 
 slow process ; and, though undoubtedly capable of develop- 
 ing a large amount of heat in a confined area, it does not 
 account for the majority of well-substantiated instances of 
 spontaneous ignition of coal, both in the mines, on board 
 ship, and in stock-yards. Richters has shown conclusively 
 that the coals most liable to spontaneous ignition are not 
 those which contain the largest percentage of iron pyrites, 
 but that this property is principally due to the atmospheric 
 oxidation of the organic substance of the coal. The follow- 
 ing table gives his classification of eleven varieties of coal, 
 according to the degree of their self-inflammability: 
 
 Talile ot Coals arrauged accortllng to Degrees ot Self-Iii- 
 flammuliillty. 
 
 Degree of Self injiam' 
 mahiliiy. 
 
 Class I.— Difficulty 
 self-inflain- 
 mable. . . 
 
 Class II.— Of medium j 
 self-inflam-< 
 mabiUty. . j 
 
 Class 111.— Readily 
 
 HPlf-infiam- 
 mable. . 
 
 {i 
 
 Iron Pyrites. Ila^er 
 Per eait Per ct. 
 
 1.13 
 
 1.10 to 3.04 
 
 154 
 
 1.20 
 
 l.OS 
 1.15 
 
 1.12 
 1.00 
 0.83 
 1.35 
 
 0.84 
 
 2..54 
 2.75 
 3.90 
 
 4..53 
 4.55 
 4.75 
 
 4.S5 
 0.01 
 6.30 
 4.86 
 
 6.62 • 
 
 Character of the CoaU 
 
 Easily friable. 
 Very compact. 
 Very compact. 
 
 Firm, schistose, bright. 
 Hard, but very brittle. 
 Moderately tender. 
 
 Outwardly very like No. 1. 
 
 Modera'ly tender, schistose 
 
 i^loderately soft, schistose. 
 
 Moderately soft, .«clustose. 
 
 Not stated. Yielded only 
 2.6 per ct. of a.'<h. From 
 the same pitas No. 10, but 
 from a different seam, are 
 markable for its greater 
 self-inflammability 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 821 
 
 From the above-mentioned facts, which express the results 
 of the latest and most reliable observations and direct ex- 
 
 Eeriments, somewhat contradictory as some of them seem to 
 0, we may deduce maay valuable practical lessons. Many 
 varieties of coal deteriorate to a great extent when exposed 
 to the air, and this deterioration is greatly favored by high 
 temperature, and, in coals which contain sulphurets of iron, 
 by moisture ; in coals free from iron pyrites, this oxidation 
 seems to be even more energetic when dry than when wet. 
 It is always greatly increased in'all kinds of coal by increase 
 of temperature, and is more energetic when the coal is in 
 dust or slack. This deterioration of coal has been aptly 
 termed " weather waste." It is, as we have seen, not de- 
 pendent solely on the physical character of the coal, though 
 the harder the coal the less it is injured, and, in some cases 
 that have come to my own knowledge, an exposure of eight 
 or ten years of certain Lehigh anthracites had not affected 
 the quality to any extent that could be appreciated in its 
 subsequent use in blast-furnaces. In the case of coking and 
 gas coals, however, the depreciation in the heating power, 
 and in the coking and gas producing properties is very 
 great ; indeed, a very moderate exposure to the air, in heaps, 
 at a high temperature and when moist (for these coals, for 
 the most part, contain more or less iron pyrites) frequently 
 entirely unfits them for use. A recent example suggeste 
 itself, in which a large amount — several thousand tons — of 
 Albertite (a rich gas-producing mineral quite free from 
 sulphur) was piled on dock in Boston. So rapid was the 
 absorption of oxygen by this so-called coal that it heated 
 and actually fused, running together round the edges of the 
 pile, and finally even ignited. Its value as a gas coal was 
 almost entirely destroyed. 
 
 The spontaneous ignition of coal is, doubtless, greatly 
 facilitated by, though not altogether due to, the presence of 
 iron pyrites ; for the oxidation of the iron pyrites is at- 
 tended with considerable development of heat, and by 
 swelling, it splits up the coal, and renders it more pervious 
 to oxygen. The real cause of spontaneous ignition is prob- 
 ably the oxidation of the organic substance of the coal ; it 
 is, in fact, a very energetic example of weather waste, and 
 the precautions to take in each case are the same. In mines 
 the crushing of the pillars, where they are left too small, 
 and their gradual spalling off, from the oxidation of the 
 coal and pyrites in the coal, cause an accumulation of fine coal 
 around the pillars ; this and the fine coal thrown back into 
 tbe "gob" along with the 8hales( which contain most of the 
 iron pyrites) and other rubbish, form exceedingly favorable 
 conditions for spontaneous combustion. There is usually 
 enough oxygen in the air of the goaves to support this slow 
 combustion, while the velocity of the air current is not 
 sufficient to carry ofi" the heat, and thus prevent the weather 
 waste from developing into spontaneous ignition of the coal. 
 Spontaneous combustion is by no means confined to coal, but 
 pieces of wood imbedded in the coal-dirt, rags or cotton 
 waste saturated with vegetable or animal oils, are very sub- 
 ject to it ; in fact this is the cause of a great number of fires 
 on the surface as well as in the mines. As an instance of 
 the facility with which cotton, saturated with oil, will ignite, 
 I may mention a curious case that came under my observa- 
 tion some years ago. Two or three men were severely burned 
 by an explosion of a powder-mill at Wilkes-Barre, Pa., and 
 the remedy applied by the kind-hearted neighbors was to 
 envelop the patient in cotton padding, saturated with linseed 
 oil. They were greatly astonished to find that the heat of 
 the body, after a time, ignited the cotton and oil, and the 
 victim of well-meaning ignorance was with difficulty saved 
 from cremation. Many of the uaccountable fires in the 
 mines, both in anthracite and bituminous coal, are undoubt- 
 edly due to spontaneous combustion, either of the coal itself, 
 in some of the bituminous coals, or, more freq^uently, from 
 the more energetic spontaneous combustion of oiled " waste " 
 or other easily inflammable substance. The fire that has now 
 been burning since August, 1871, in the No. 6 tunnel. Summit 
 Hill mines (Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company), is sup- 
 posed to have been caused by spontaneous combustion, 
 originating in the gob or rubbish in some abandoned works 
 where the ventilation was very slack. It is exceedingly 
 doubtful if our hard Pennsylvania anthracite will ignite 
 spontaneously, even when they contain considerable quanli- 
 ties of iron pyrites, but it is an incontestable fact that piles 
 
 of culm or coal-dirt, on the surface, in many parts of the 
 anthracite regions, have ignited spontaneously. I attribute 
 the ignition to the presence of the more inflammable rags or 
 cotton-waste saturated with oil, or simply to oil saturating 
 the fine coal, as can readily be conceived may occur in 
 almost every pile of coal-dirt around a colliery. Many of 
 you have, doubtless, frequently noticed the heating of culm- 
 banks, but it is rarely that one actually ignites, which tends 
 to prove that the anthracite coal itself, even in the form of 
 dust, will not ignite spontaneously, but that the accidental 
 presence of a more inflammable substance may readily cause 
 a fire. Soot from anthracite coal, or indeed fi-om any kind 
 of coal, is less inflammable than ordinary lampblack, which 
 ignites with such facility that even a few drops of water, oil, 
 or other moisture falling in it, is liable to cause its ignition 
 by the rapidity with which it absorbs oxygen, as several 
 fires in lampblack factories in different parts of the country 
 have proved. It is well known, also, that powdered charcoal 
 will absorb oxygen from damp air so quickly as to ignite 
 spontaneously ; is it possible, therefore, to overestimate the 
 danger of using chambers in the coal flues for underground 
 furnaces ? If it be necessary, which is rarely if ever the 
 case, to have boiler or ventilating furnaces in a coal-mine, 
 it is no more than ordinary prudence to line the flues with 
 brick throughout, and take even greater precautions than 
 would be taken in houses on the surface. 
 
 Means Adopted for Preventing Mine Fires. — Having thus 
 reviewed the principal immediate causes of mine fi^res, it 
 remains for me to mention the means adopted to prevent 
 these causes from producing their natural effects, and finally 
 to investigate the means of extinguishing fires when they do 
 occur. The mere mention of the causes of mine fires sug- 
 gests, in most cases, the preventives to apply. Where the 
 cause is carelessness there must be strict and judicious rules 
 and carefiil inspection, this will prevent many of these and 
 other accidents that make the miner's calling a somewhat 
 dangerous one. Ignorance of the nature and full bearing 
 of the immediate causes we have just mentioned is the ulti- 
 mate cause of most " accidents." Carelessness is usually, 
 though not always, the result of ignorance of the results 
 that may spring from the careless act. For example, it is too 
 often either not known, or if known, not fully appreciated, 
 that though the wood over the boilers is not at first easily 
 ignited, and the new setting of the boilers allows no undue 
 escape of heat and sparks, yet the wood in time becomes like 
 tinder, and the walls supporting the boilers are liable to 
 crack, and the accummulation over the boilers of coal-dust, 
 and possibly light wood-fibres, from the timber supporting 
 the roof, create a constantly increasing danger. The fire 
 that results from these favorable conditions can scarcely 
 with propriety be called accidental, though that term may 
 satisfy the unquestioned faith of that patient and exemplary 
 class, the stockholders of the mining company. 
 
 In fiery mines the practice of shot-firing is the cause of 
 many explosions and fires. In anthracite coal it would seem 
 at present as if the use of some explosive were absolutely 
 essential for the economical getting of the coal, yet substi- 
 tutes for explosives have been proposed and are actually in 
 use for many purposes, but no effort seems to have been 
 made by the owners of fiery anthracite mines to investigate 
 or test "such substitutes, or to encourage the invention of 
 others. They seem to rest satisfied with taking the precau- 
 tions which experience has shown to be sufficient, in most 
 cases to control and extinguish fire when once ignited, but 
 which experience has also fully demonstrated to be unequal 
 to some emergencies, or to be subject themselves to unavoid- 
 able accidents. Of course it is in but comparatively rare 
 cases that underground boilers, or ventilating furnaces, or 
 powder shots result in fires, but the enormous loss incident 
 to a mine fire makes the risk from these rare cases much too 
 great to be undertaken by prudent managers ; and so far at 
 least as underground boilers and ventilating furnaces are 
 concerned they are quite unnecessary risks. Steam can be 
 carried to considerable distances (say 1500 to 2O0O feet) 
 through properly protected pipes, without any very great 
 loss of condensation. Boilers on the surface are much more 
 enconomical in installation, and in running expenses, as 
 generally to compensate for this loss of steam ; and where 
 steam cannot be used — and in most cases where it can — 
 compressed air forms a perfectly safe and equally efficient 
 
822 
 
 THE MINES MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITE!? STATES. 
 
 means of transmitting power. Compressed air is not an 
 economical motor as compared witli the direct use of steam, 
 but it is a safe and convenient one for mine use, and after 
 its use in the underground engines it serves for ventilation, 
 while the exhaust steam is e.Niceedingly injurious to the tim- 
 ber, and in some cases, to the roof-rock ot the mine. Wire 
 ropes can also be employed to advantage in some cases for 
 the transmission of power in mines. Mechanical ventilators 
 have been shown to be almost always more economical, 
 and in every case more efficient, reliable, and safer than 
 furnaces for mine ventilation. There is consequen^y no 
 necessity for incurring these rists of enormously costly con- 
 flagrations. As already stated, the danger from spontaneous 
 combustion of the coal in mines may be overcome either by 
 a ventilation so active as to keep the temperature of all parts 
 of the mine so low as to prevent ignition of the coal, or it 
 may be prevented by an almost opposite couree, viz., by 
 cutting off altogether the ventilation of abandoned work- 
 ings so that, from the absence of oxygen, no combustion can 
 take place. In mines where the coal is subject to spontan- 
 eous combustion, both plans are adopted, with more or less 
 success. If it were possible to keep the abandoned works 
 always open, to prevent falls or crushing of pillars, or ac- 
 cumulations of fine coal in places where but little air can 
 reach them, probably thorough ventilation would insure 
 safety; but as these conditions cannot be secured, ithas 
 been found safer to prevent altogether the access of air to 
 the parts of the mine where conditions favorable to spontan- 
 eous combusLion exist. The method of walling off the 
 goaves or old workings is objectionable in many respects. 
 If the mine produces fire-damp, the walling off inerely 
 creates a magazine of a most dangerous explosive gas in the 
 mine. If a fall of roof occur in the goaves, it may force 
 this gas out into the working parts of the mine, and cause 
 explosions ; or, in many ways, a small but sufficient quan- 
 tity of air may be admitted to the walled-off space to sustain 
 in the most effective manner the slow combustion which it is 
 desired to prevent. In the south of France, where the beds 
 are very large, and the coal subject to spontaneous ignition, 
 the system of mining known as by "remblais," where the 
 space from which the coal is taken is filled with waste ma- 
 terial, and the roof is allowed to settle down on this packing 
 has been found to be the only really effective preventive of 
 fires from spontaneous combustion. The packing effectually 
 excludes air, and consequently no combustion can take place. 
 No other system of mining than that of taking out all the 
 coal, and either allowing the roof to fall as the work pro- 
 ceeds, or of filling the space from which the coal has been 
 taken, is adapted to working in coals of this character. In 
 chamber and pillar work, the crushing of the pillars, which 
 cannot be prevented, is a constant source of danger, for it 
 presents the most favorable condition possible for the spon- 
 taneous ignition of the coal. 
 
 The most efficient preventive of fire in mines, from what- 
 ever cause they may come, is to be found in education — in 
 increased knowledge of the causes of fires and a better ap- 
 preciation of the working of these causes. Our mine managers 
 should be obliged to pass strict examinations, and no one 
 should be allowed to undertake the responsible duties of this 
 place without a certificate of competency, given by a qualified 
 board of examiners. Nor is it sufficient that the managers 
 alone should be better educated ; the miners themselves 
 should be taught the causes and preventives of the dangers 
 they meet with in their work. Special, free, instruction 
 upon these points might be furnished at every colliery, and 
 this could doubtless be accomplished by encouraging the 
 giving of public lectures, by practical miners and engineers, 
 on subjects of interest to the miners, and by the giving of 
 small ijrizes to those who pass the best examinations on sub- 
 jects of daily practical application in their calling. lam 
 well aware of the difficulty of exciting any interest among 
 the miijority of our miners in anything that is not actually 
 their " bread and butter." They care little for the dangers 
 they encounter, and do not appreciate the importance of 
 knowing more than how to swing a pick or use a drill, and 
 but little of these accomplishments. Nevertheless, I believe 
 that the leaven of a small percentage who would profit by 
 such instruction would finally leaven the whole mass, and the 
 practical results of the increase in knowledge would be ap- 
 parent in greater care and better mining, even by those who 
 
 had not taken any part or interest in the lectures. Greater 
 knowledge always makes better workers, and the mine- 
 owners would find in this a good return for the small ex- 
 pense incurred. No startling results are expected from this 
 suggested plan. A pretty intimate acquaintance with our 
 mining classes, long ago dissipated the expectation of bring- 
 ing about a millennium in the mining regions by means of 
 education and instruction such as we have here suggested, 
 but I nevertheless believe the modest results anticipated 
 would abundantly justify "the trial of some such plan as 
 this. 
 
 Means adopted for Extinguishing Fires. — With all the pre- 
 cautions that the present condition of our knowledge suggests, 
 fires will sometimes occur, and as there is, unfortunately, no 
 prospect of the immediate application of all the preventives 
 that we do know, fires in mines will continue to be common 
 accidents, '^e will now review the more important means 
 proposed for extinguishing them. 
 
 When blowers of fire-damp ignite in a mine they can 
 sometimes be beaten out with wet clothes. In some instances 
 the sudden vibration of the air, caused by the discharge of 
 a small cannon, has been found quite effective. This remedy 
 is applicable only when the fire has not had time to ignite 
 the coal, and when the discharge of explosive gas is limited 
 to the confined space on fire. When the burning gas can- 
 not be beaten out by means of wet clothes, carbonic acid 
 applied by portable fire-extinguishers, such as the Babcock, 
 the Connolly, and others, can be used with advantage, as has 
 been done in Pennsylvania during ihe past few years. The 
 carbonic acid, in addition to exclud ng oxygen from the fire, 
 tends in expanding rapidly, to cool down the inflammable gas 
 to a point below the temperature of ignition ; the force with 
 which it is thrown against the burning gas also exerts a power- 
 ful extinguishing influence. The portability of the extin- 
 guishers, which are easily carried like a knapsack on the back, 
 enables the workmen to take advantage of every current of air, 
 and to apply the extinguisher wherever it will prove most 
 effective. When once the fire has obtained such headway as 
 to make it impossible to approach it close enough to allow the 
 carbonic acid gas being thrown directly on the fire, recourse 
 must be had to water, which under a heavy head or pressure 
 can be thrown to a much greater distance than the extin- 
 guishing gas. Moreover, the carbonic acid would quickly 
 make the air of a narrow heading irrespirable if the venti- 
 lation were not active ; and if active the fire would extend 
 too rapidly. This objection does not obtain against the use 
 of water ; it can be thrown from a considerable distance 
 and with great effect. A single example will suffice. The 
 Propect shaft, near Wilkes-Barre, Pa., already mentioned in 
 this paper as an exceedingly fiery mine, is also a very dry 
 one, scarcely any water being made, though the depth is 600 
 feet, and t le gangways run out very near, if not quite, under 
 the Susquehanna River. In order to combat successfiiUy the 
 fires that occur there so frequently from the ignition of fire 
 damp by shot firing, the general manager, Mr. Frederic Mer- 
 cur, an engineer of great experience and ability, had a pipe 
 laid along each gangway (when the work was confined to 
 driving gangways and their parallel airways), and strong 
 rubber hose attached to the end, and at other points along 
 the line of the pipe. The shaft-end of this 2J inch pipe con- 
 nected with a column-pipe, leading down the shalt from a 
 reservoir on the surface. This gave somewhat more than 
 600 feet of head, or 260 lbs. per square inch pressure on 
 water leaving the hose, a force sufficent to throw it with 
 great force to a considerable distance. When the gas be- 
 came ignited the water was immediately turned on (every- 
 thing being kept constantly ready for such emergencies), 
 and a few minutes usually sufficed to extinguish a fire that 
 with less experienced men would have been considered am- 
 ple cause for the abandonment of the works. 
 
 The skill which men engaged in this work of fighting 
 fire acquire with experience, is not the least important ele- 
 ment in the success which has generally attended Mr. Mer- 
 cur's management of this trying colliery. But even expe- 
 rience and ability have at times been foiled by unexpected 
 events, such as the breaking of the the pipe leading down 
 the shaft, and other less important mishaps, which caused 
 the few minutes delay that were all-sufficient to give the 
 fire an irresistible and unconquerable force. In conse- 
 quence the mine, though a new one, and not yet worked upon 
 
THE MINES, MINEKS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 823 
 
 a large scale, has twice had to be drowned out to extinguish 
 fires occasioned in this manner. The Pine Ridge shaft (400 
 feet deep), al&o near Wilkes-Barre, is scarcely less fiery than 
 the Prospect, and as it makes a large amount of water, it 
 was found sufficient to tap the base of the column-pipe from 
 the pumps, and to lead the water, as in the other cases, 
 along the gangways in iron pipes, with attachments for rub- 
 ber hose at intervals in those parts of the mine where fires 
 were likely to occur. When a fire has fully ignited the 
 coal and obtained such headway that it is impossible to 
 overcome it promptly by these means, a systematic method 
 of attack is adopted. The fire must be confined by tempo- 
 rary bratticing or walls, so as to exclude air : the points of 
 attack are approached in regular siege manner, a temporary 
 bratticed approach being kept open and ventilated with a 
 special fan ; from this heading the men direct streams of 
 water on the fire, and as they partly extinguish it, the loose 
 coal is removed, and access given to portions still burning. 
 The work is exceedingly arduous and dangerous, and the 
 least interruption in it allows the fire to recover the 
 ground that may have been gained from it. A better ex- 
 ample of fighting the fire in this manner can scarcely be 
 cited than that of the Empire Mine fire near Wilkes-Barre, 
 Pa., which was fully described in the report, for 1874, of the 
 very efficient State mina inspector for the district, Mr. T. 
 M. Williams. In the same report is an account of the old 
 Baltimore Mine fire, and the one in the Prospect shaft, to 
 which reference has already been made. 
 
 In the case of the Empire fire, water was thrown upon it 
 from no less than six underground pumps, and worked upon 
 by a force of five or six hundred men, directed by the great- 
 est experience and energy, for four or five months, yet one 
 accident or another always prevented the final extinguish- 
 ment of the fire. It may, therefore, be assumed as proven 
 that when a fire gets beyond a certain stage, in most cases, 
 it cannot be extinguished by throwing water upon it. The 
 difficulties can be understood by a reference to the mode of 
 fighting a conflagration in an anthracite mine. Let us 
 imagine afire in the chambers in a large anthracite vein, 
 the pillows oi coal all aglow and burning fiercely. When a 
 stream of water is played on this incandescent mass a por- 
 tion of the water is decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen, 
 and probably this latter and a portion of the oxygen of the 
 air form with the coal CO. This hydrogen and carbonic 
 oxide burn again on the admission of air, making explosions 
 sometimes of considerable violence. The pillars _" spall ofi", " 
 and the pieces accumulate around their base in a mass of 
 burning coal, so deep as to be impenetrable by the water, 
 and therefore impossible to extinguish, so long as it gets 
 the very small quantity of oxygen requisite to maintain slow 
 combustion. The roof-rock breaks down also under the 
 action of water and heat, and covers still further the burn- 
 ing pillars of coal, till finally the fire is under an immense 
 covering of broken coal and rock. In this manner the men 
 will sometimes be quite above, the coal-seam, standing on 
 the pile of waste coal and rock that has accumulated from such 
 falls. It is then impossible to reach the seat of the fire ex- 
 cept by laboriously attacking by regular approaches on the 
 foot-wall, and carrying away the entire mass of rubbish as it 
 is cooled by the stream of water. Since the fire generally 
 occurs in "old workings," the pillars are not much more 
 than sufficient to support the roof, and in most cases timber 
 props have also to bear a portion of the superincumbent 
 load. As the wooden props quickly burn out, the strain on 
 the pillars is increased, and the spalling off; produced by 
 both the heat and the water, soon brings them to the limit 
 below which they will no longer support the roof, and a 
 general crush occurs. After this there is no possibility of 
 overcoming the fire in this manner, and the attempt is aban- 
 doned. If the fire has not obtained much headway, and 
 other conditions are favorable, it is possible to extinguish it 
 by this direct application of water, but the cases are not rare 
 where the almost superhuman exertions of experienced men 
 have failed. There remain but two remedies, either to close 
 the entire mine, or to wall off' the district on fire. 
 
 This latter course is usually adopted as soon as the fire 
 has gained such headway as to satisfy those in charge that 
 its extinction, by throwing water on it in the manner de- 
 scribed, will be either impossible or too expensive, if suc- 
 ccsiful. The simplest method is to fill the mine with water, 
 
 either by allowing this to accumulate, if the mine be a wet 
 one, or more commonly by pumping or turning some natural 
 water-course into the shaft. Of course, there can be no 
 doubt as to the result of this method. Wherever the 
 water goes it extinguishes the fire. But it may happen 
 that this is in portions of the mine above the foot of the 
 shaft, where the water cannot reach, because the air can- 
 not escape. In this case the fire may long continue to 
 burn, deriving its oxygen from the air compressed in the 
 "rise workings," and when the mine is pumped out, and 
 fresh air admitted, the conflagration may break out again. 
 Where the fire has occurred from spontaneous combustion, 
 the admission of water sometimes aggravates the trouble, 
 for, though it extinguishes, the fire wherever it goes, it leaves 
 in the wet coal-dust a condition of things very favorable to 
 spontaneous ignition, and it not unfrequently happens that, 
 on pumping the water out, fires occur at points where 
 they did not previously exist. From these and other 
 considerations, it would seem that, in coals subject to 
 spontaneous combustion, drowning out is not a safe or 
 desirable manner of extinguishing a fire, but, in nearly 
 all cases where it can be applied, it is the cheapest and 
 most effective means yet adopted. Where mines are ex- 
 tensive, or where there is a necessity for working the 
 portion not on fire, or where the nature of the roof is 
 such that the admission of water would cause it to fall, 
 as is the case with many shales, it is evident drowning 
 out is not a method that can be adopted. The system in 
 most general use for extinguishing fires in large mines con- 
 sists in walling off the portion on fire, trusting to the exclu- 
 sion of air to secure its gradual extinction The products 
 of combustion (carbonic acid gas and nitrogen), are most 
 effectual extinguishers, and all that is necessary is to confine 
 them, or, in other words, to exclude the oxygen, when in 
 time the fire must inevitably go out. The time necessary to 
 effect this object depends on the intensity of the conflagra- 
 tion, and the extent of the area inclosed. A mass of coal in 
 full combustion requires a long time to cool below the tem- 
 perature of ignition, and, even when the fire is actually 
 extinguished, the admission of a little fresh air on the still 
 hot coal is often sufficient to bring about spontaneous igni- 
 tion. The time must be given for the combustible material, 
 wood or coal, to cool off, before the fenced-off portion of the 
 mine can be opened, and this delay is one of the chief ob- 
 jections to this remedy. To hasten the cooling, and also to 
 hasten the expulsion of the air from the inclosed space, 
 steam, carbonic acid, and the mixture of carbonic acid and 
 nitrogen, known as " choke-damp, •' have been injected, 
 with greater or less success. The rdle of steam appears to 
 be principally as a cooler, and it is probably the most effi- 
 cient agent that can readily be applied for that purpose, ex- 
 cept, indeed, carbonic acid gas were allowed to expand from 
 a state of very high compression (such as liquid CO2) into 
 the space to be cooled. At the Empire Mine, already re- 
 ferred to, after all efforts to extinguish the fire, by the direct 
 application of water, had failed, a large part of the mine 
 was walled off, and steam, from some sixty boilers, was 
 forced in during many months. When examined some time 
 after closing the mine, the fire was found completely extin- 
 guished in those parts where it burned most fiercely when 
 inclosed, but it was thought that it still burned in the higher 
 " rise workings, " where' the carbonic acid and nitrogen had 
 not had time to accumulate. There was no question but 
 that the steam had acted advantageously, but it is by no 
 means certain that carbonic acid, allowed to expand from a 
 liquid state into the space inclosed, would not have been 
 quite as efficient, and economical as the steam. 
 
 Where carbonic acid has been tried, as has been done in 
 a number of cases in different countries, in Europe, and in 
 some mines in the country, it must be confessed the results 
 have not been very satisfactory, but this is probably due 
 principally to the defective manner in which it was applied, 
 and particularly to the shortness of the time allowed for the 
 cooling of the heated coal. The district on fire should be 
 hermetically closed. If the gas can run out, as it will like 
 water, from the lowest part of the mine, it will of course be 
 inefficacious. In mines it is very difficult to make perfectly 
 tight stoppings, and where the cover rock is broken up to the 
 surface, air obtains entrance, and carbonic acid exit, through 
 innumerable, unnoticed fissures. Moreover, where the fire 
 
824 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNIT ED STATES. 
 
 exists under an accumulation of fine coal and rock the car- 
 bonic acid really does not come in contact witii the tire, so 
 that its failure in many cases was probably due to causes 
 which would have prevented the success of other methods ; 
 indeed, it has generally been tried only after the failure of 
 evervthina; else. The carbonic acid is usually generated by 
 the action of sulphuric or muriatic acid on marble-dust or 
 limestone, and is somewhat expensive where such large 
 quantities are required. Mr. George Thompson, m a paper 
 read before the British Iron and Steel Institute, gave an in- 
 terestino- account of the extinction of a fire in the Wynnastay 
 Col'ier^ Euabon, Wales, by the use of carbonic acid gas. 
 The following is the description of the apparatus employed for 
 the production of the carbonic acid gas : 
 
 "Two strong wooden boxes, 6 feet square by 2 feet deep, 
 were provided, and lined with sheet-lead to resist the action 
 of the acid. Pipes with taps were fixed into the upper side 
 of the box, and manlids were provided, the latter for charg- 
 ing the box with limestone, the former for introducing the 
 acid. Pipes with plugs were also fixed into the bottom of 
 the box for the purpose'of discharging the residuum, chlo- 
 ride of calcium^ after the decomposition of each charge. 
 Two cast-iron pipes, with separate valves, and also a valve 
 common to both, were connected to the box to convey away 
 the gas as it was produced. Small pipes, provided with 
 taps, were inserted for allowing the air to escape, and also 
 for attaching a mercury gauge during the operation to in- 
 dicate the pressure of the gas. Whilst one box was giving 
 off gas, the other was being charged, so that a continuous 
 flow was kept up. 
 
 " The charge used was about 4J cwt. of limestone, broken 
 very small, and the 'manlid' being fastened down, the hy- 
 drochloric acid was poured in, and the mercury gauge was 
 watched so as to keep the pressure tolerably equable, usu- 
 ally about 3 inches of mercury. We found, generally, that 
 120 gallons of the acid, of 1.12 strength, decomposed the 
 charge of limestone, which, by calculation, gave us about 
 12.0 cubic yards of gas. The gauge indicated when the 
 charge was exhausted, and then the valves, etc., were shut, 
 and the residuum withdrawn, and thus the operation was 
 repeated alternately as long as needful. Altogether we put 
 down about 6000 cubic yards of carbonic acid gas, and we 
 believe that it had a very important effect. The gas col- 
 lected from all the pipes through the different stoppings 
 from time to time would not support combustion, and the 
 temperature within the stoppings continued very moderate. 
 It may be interesting to state here that, in analyzing the 
 gases within the stoppings, we found that a mixture of 5 
 per cent, of carbonic acid, with 25 per cent, of atmospheric 
 air, and 70 per cent, of carburetted hydrogen, extinguished 
 flame instantaneously. On adding more air to the mixture, 
 and applying a match, it would not explode, but when pure 
 oxygen was added, and a match was applied, the mixture 
 exploded gently. Further, when this gas was deprived of 
 the carbonic acid by means of caustic soda, and a match 
 applied, it would burn when issuing into the open air." 
 
 Carbonic acid or choke-damp may also be produced by 
 passing air through a bed of incandescent coal, mixed with 
 limestone, of such a depth that the oxygen of the air will 
 all be converted into carbonic acid, and not into carbonic 
 oxide. The depth of the bed of coal to effect this purpose 
 will be about 14 or 16 inches, and the greater the proportion 
 of carbonic acid the better. If too little air is admitted, the 
 gas formed may be in large part CO, but even a very small 
 percentage of 00^ will render this incombustible, mixed as 
 it is with a large proportion of inert nitrogen. The appli- 
 cation is quite similar to that of carbonic acid made from 
 limestone and acid, with the additional drawback that it 
 usually enters the mine hot, and therefore effects nothing as 
 a cooling agent. To sum up, the records of a great number 
 of fires, and of more or less successful efforts to extinguish 
 them, seem to justify the conclusions that the use of the 
 portable extinguishers is sometimes advantageous in extin- 
 guishing mine fires before they have attained much head- 
 way, that water under a heavy pressure is a much more effi- 
 cient agent, and with energy and experience on the part of 
 those using it, can be relied on to conquer, in most cases, 
 when applied promptly and continuously. When the fire 
 has gained such headway that it cannot be extinguished in 
 this way, the burning district should at once be walled off", 
 
 and the admission of air excluded. Carbonic acid or steam, 
 or both, may then be blown into the enclosed space with 
 advantage, steam being the most efficient cooling agent, and 
 carbonic acid the best extinguisher. Neither the one nor 
 the other can effect the extinguishment, except the admis- 
 sion of air be carefully avoided. When a mine is small, 
 and the nature of the roof such as will not be much injured 
 by water, and that the coal is not subject to spontaneous 
 combustion, the quickest, cheapest, and most reliable method 
 is to fill the mine with water and pump it out again. On 
 account of the numerous modifying conditions which must 
 be taken into account in each special case, it would be sim- 
 ply absurd to prescribe any one method as applicable in all. 
 The best means to employ to extinguish a mine fire can 
 only be determined after the most careful examination and 
 study of the local conditions, and the object of the present 
 paper has been simply to point out the means that have 
 been adopted, with more or less success, in cases where the 
 conditions have been those common in mining regions. It 
 is safe to say that none of the chemical nostrums that are 
 proposed from time to time by persons not familiar with 
 mines are of any practical value whatever. 
 
 — A paper hy Richard P. Hothwell, M. E., Transactions American Institute 
 Mining Engineers. 
 
 MINING ACCIDENTS. 
 
 SOME notes on these matters are added here, compiled 
 from the latest files of the mining press. 
 Coal Mine Explosions and their Preven- 
 tion. — ^Tne calamities in coal mines, due to explo- 
 sions of fire-damp, which have been observed to increase 
 annually with the increasing output and the greater depths 
 to which the pits are being sunk, form a subject deserving 
 the greatest attention of colliery owners and others cormected 
 A\ith the coal industry. Commendable interest has been 
 displayed in France in connection with this subject, and in 
 1878 a commission was appointed to inquire into the causes 
 of explosions in coal mines, and to suggest means of prevent- 
 ing or of modifying the effects of these disastrous occur- 
 rences. It appears that no efforts have been spared in 
 collecting all available information bearing upon the subject. 
 New inventions have been examined and subjected to care- 
 ful consideration ; the methods adopted in the principal 
 mines of several foreign countries have been carefully 
 studied, and numerous experiments have been conducted 
 with a view of determining the direct and indirect causes of 
 accumulations of fire-damp and their ignition. It would be 
 too sanguine to expect the absolute prevention of coal mine 
 explosions, but it is to be hoped that the exhaustive labors 
 of the several members of the commission will result at least 
 in a diminution of the danger which the miner now en- 
 counters. According to the results obtained, the idea thai 
 some mines contain specially bad gas is to be dismissed. 
 Fire-damp will explode much less easily in a part of a mine 
 where, from one cause or another, the air contains a large 
 proportion of carbonic acid, or less than the normal quan- 
 tity of oxygen, than elsewhere, and what is usually known 
 as " bad air," due to inefficient ventilation, would therefore 
 appear to prevent explosions to some extent. Another 
 curious series of observations relates to the toxical proper- 
 ties of the gas and its products. If the proportion of fire- 
 damp is below 9.6 per cent., carbonic acid and water are 
 produced ; if it is over 12 per cent., carbonic oxide is formed, 
 and the presence of the latter is probably not without influ- 
 ence in increasing the number of deaths. As, however, it is 
 very rarely that the atmosphere of a mine will contain so 
 large a proportion of fire-damp, even at the moment of an 
 explosion, as the latter percentage, it is argued that should 
 carbonic oxide be found in poisonous quantities after an ex- 
 plosion, it will probably be due to the partial combustion of 
 coal dust. Experiments have also been made to show that 
 the temperature at which the explosive mixtures in mines 
 are ignited is tolerably precise. The temperature at which 
 mixtures of air and fire-damp take fire is 740° 0. Such 
 mixtures, however, differ from mixtures of other combustible 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 825 
 
 gases in this important particular — that the ignition does 
 not take place at the instant the general mass, or any part 
 of it is raised to such a temperature. In order that explo- 
 sions of fire-damp may occur, the gas must be submitted to 
 the high temperature for several seconds. The delay in the 
 explosion diminishes in proportion as the temperature is in- 
 creased. A jet of fire-damp was discharged against an in- 
 verted iron crucible heated to redness. Under these cir- 
 cumstances, the explosive mixture remained only for an 
 instant in contact with the red-hot iron and no explosion 
 tookplace. When, however, thejetwasdirected to the interior 
 of the crucible, the gas was held for some time in contact with 
 the heated surface, and ignition ensued after a longer or 
 shorter interval according to the degree to which the iron 
 was heated. . The bearing of this observation upon coal- 
 mine explosions is obvious. When the wire gauze of a 
 safety-lamp is heated to redness in consequence of the con- 
 bustion of fire-damp in the interior of the lamp, an ex- 
 plosion is not always caused, since the surrounding gas does 
 not remain long enough in contact with the heated metal ; 
 if, however, for any reason the contact of the external gas is 
 prolonged, an explosion will result. The speed with which 
 explosions are propagated is another interesting point worthy 
 of notice. The commission point out that, according to some 
 experiments by MM. Schloesing and Demondesir, not gen- 
 erally known, the rate of transmission is extremely variable 
 according to the conditions of ignition. Thus an explosive 
 mixture was placed in a long tube, closed at one end only. 
 When the heat was applied to the open end the flame could 
 be seen to traverse slowly without detonation ; if, on the 
 contrary, the heat was applied at the closed end a violent 
 explosion ensued, and the flame traversed the tube at a rate 
 estimated at 328 feet per second. With certain mixtures of 
 oxygen arid hydrogen it is estimated that the speed was in- 
 creased to 5248 feet per second. From these experiments it 
 is inferred that in a relatively still atmosphere the propaga- 
 tion will be slower and less violent than in agitated atmos- 
 pheres ; or again, supposing that a gallery had only one 
 entrance and was charged with an explosive mixture, then 
 if the mixture were inflamed by a pit-man entering the gal- 
 lery, the combustion would be propagated slowly and without 
 noise, while if ignition were caused by a pit-man working 
 at the ifar end of the gallery, the combustion would be sudden, 
 and be accompanied by a loud noise and violent mechanical 
 effects. 
 
 The diffusion of fire-damp through the atmosphere of a 
 mine takes place very slowly, but when once uiixed the two 
 will not voluntarily separate, after the manner of oil and 
 water. The commission attach little or no practical im- 
 portance to the influence of changes of barometric pressure 
 in causing a disengagement of fire-damp, although it is ad- 
 mitted that sudden and considerable variations of pressure 
 may have some influence, especially when the galleries 
 communicate with old works by comparatively narrow ori- 
 fices. The wind pressure on mouths of pits during storms 
 has also been considered as exerting little influence in pro- 
 ducing explosions. In rega,rd to coal-dust, it is stated that 
 though in itself it can never be the cause of other than slight 
 and local explosions, it may greatly extend the fatal conse- 
 quences of explosions resulting from fire-damp. In connec- 
 tion with this subject, the question relating to the safe 
 lighting of coal mines is forcibly brought forward — a ques- 
 tion which has already engaged the attention of English 
 engineers to a considerable extent The advantages of the 
 incandescent lamps of Swan, Maxim and Edisou are recog^ 
 nized by the commission, who, however, do not recommend 
 their adoption, on account of the high tension of the elec- 
 tric currents employed, the latter being considered danger- 
 ous in fiery mines. Safety-lamps will therefore still continue 
 to be used, and it appears that the Muessler lamp is specially 
 recommended. The present system of lighting, however, 
 notwithstanding the numerous improvements which have 
 been made in the course of years, is still far from perfect, 
 and the problem of producing a safety-lamp eflicient in 
 every respect is therefore still unsolved. 
 
 Mining Explosions and Mining Warnings— The 
 meteorologist who is at the trouble of giving warnings in 
 the daily and other papers showing atmospherical changes 
 that may affect mining operations, calls our attention to the 
 result of last year's explosions, and we certainly agree with 
 
 him that the small loss of life last year is matter for con- 
 gratulation, considering the number of persons who were 
 convicted of offenses, some of which were calculated to lead 
 to serious consequences. The warnings appeared to be 
 based on the action of the barometer. High barometric 
 pressure, we are told, accompanied 22 of the occurrences, 
 and low pressure 16. This, to some extent, would go to 
 prove what we have often pointed out, that the barometer 
 was not a reliable instrument as regards sudden changes of 
 the atmosphere likely to influence gases in mines; that is, 
 to indicate them before they really take place, and not coin- 
 cident with them. Of the three heaviest explosions last 
 year those at Whitfield and Lilydale took place at the time 
 of highest barometer, and that at the Abram colliery with a 
 low barometer. As to atmospheric pressure in connection 
 with the explosions of last year, they go to support the 
 theory that the most dangerous time is when the barometer 
 is high. And we are told by Mr. Thompson, of Manchester, 
 as the result of an extended period of observation as to ex- 
 plosions, that "the gas in the pits spoke out loud and clear 
 long before any change could be discerned in the mercurial 
 barometer." A careful collation of these atmospherical 
 changes is by no means satisfactory as to their probable 
 cause. The Government Inspector for Derbyshire, Mr. 
 Evans, gives 16 non-fatal explosions in his district in 1880; 
 and with respect to them he says : " It is curious to note 
 that eight of them occurred whilst the barometer was rising, 
 four whilst it was steady, and four when it was falling." 
 Mr. Dobson, a high authority, considers that an altogether 
 erroneous value was attached to a low barometer, for the 
 explosion might be deferred until the storm had entirely 
 passed away, and the mercury had regained the height and 
 stability peculiar to settled weather. On the other hand, 
 we have the views of Messrs. Scott and Galloway, from 
 observations made extending over a period of four years, 
 and they found that during that time 54 per cent, of the 
 explosions occurred from a fall of barometer, 1 per cent, 
 from a rise of thermometer and 27 per cent, from causes 
 associated with atmospherical influence. The barometer 
 has been looked upon as an instrument for indicating the 
 changing conditions of the atmosphere, and indicating ap- 
 proaching liability to explosions in coal mines. But many 
 of our ablest mining engineers do not consider it to be reli- 
 able, for changes take place before they are recorded. One 
 of these gentlemen informs us that it has been found that 
 in whatever degree the mercurial column may move, before 
 that movement is perceptible the gas will have made its move- 
 ment to the equivalent of such movement, and that instead of 
 being an indicator of what is taking place in a mine as regards 
 the exudation of gas, the barometer was only an indicator of 
 what had taken place before its movements are perceptible. 
 But pressure is, of course, the great element for consider- 
 ation. Gas exists in coal under considerable pressure, and 
 no sooner is the mineral cut into than it liberates a consid- 
 able quantity of the gas, whether the barometer is high or 
 low; but if there could be brought to bear on the face of the 
 coal pressure equal to the gas escaping from it, there would 
 be no escape at all. It has been held that the aqueous 
 vapor in a mine, small though it may be, and consisting of 
 two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen, may play an im- 
 portant part in forming the materials necessary for an ex- 
 plosion. When the air at a low temperature is taken into a 
 mine, the aqueous vapor seizes with avidity the coal and 
 goaves, until in a very short time, the mixture may be at an 
 explosive point. To bring the gas up to an explosive point, 
 there is another important element contributing to it in an 
 atmosphere of low temperature — ^that is, when temperature 
 is low, the aqueous vapor occupies a much less space and 
 the atoms of oxygen are much nearer together, so that, spice 
 for space, under such conditions a less amount of gas will 
 bring the mixture to an explosive point. So it is that in 
 winter there is a keener gas, with a top on the flame, that 
 will fire before it is half the length it will show in warmer 
 seasons. Operatives vary a good deal as to the indications 
 shown by. the barometer being as quick as could be desired, 
 but it is known that when coal falls or is cut into the gas is 
 liberated, no matter what the state of the barometer may 
 be. But, as a rule, as soon as there is a movement in the 
 barometer, high or low, then the pressure on the space or 
 pores through which the gas escapes is either less or greater. 
 
826 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 so that the quantity of gas will be determined by the varia- 
 tion. It has generally been considered that explosions took 
 place with a falling barometer, but now it has been ascer- 
 tained that many of these fatalities have taken place when 
 the barometer was rising. With such interesting data as 
 have been presented to us, in addition to our previous know- 
 ledge with respect to atmospheric influences iu connection 
 with explosions in mines, there is no doubt that the question 
 of high pressure will receive more attention on the part of 
 meteorologists in connection with its influence upon the 
 existence of gas in mines. It would not, under any circum- 
 stances, be desirable to do away with the barometer at our 
 mines, but at the same time, too much reliance should not 
 be placed upon it, but all known precautions taken to pre- 
 vent accumulation of gas. This can be most effectually 
 done by sweeping all the working places with copious sup- 
 plies of fresh air, and so long as this is done, there can be 
 no accumulation of gas, and consequently no explosive mix- 
 tures. A mine manager should have no reason for consult- 
 ing the barometer or thermometer, for it is his duty, strictly 
 laid down by act of Parliament, to provide sufiicient venti- 
 lation to dilute and render harmless all gases throughout a 
 mine, and so long as he does that he need have no fear of an 
 explosion. — London Mining Journal. 
 
 MECHANICAL APPLIANCES FOR MINE 
 ACCIDENTS. 
 
 IN considering the general character of the special me- 
 chanical appliances best adapted to the purpose, the 
 following requirements must be steadily kept in view : 
 (a) Ease of transport ; (6) adaptability to various 
 situations ; (c) rapidity of erection ; (d) duplication and 
 interchangeability of parts ; (e) non-liability to derange- 
 ment ; (/) facility for repair. 
 
 The machinery and apparatus which it is most desirable 
 to provide is principally: (1) Water-raising apparatus, for 
 dealing with large quantities of water in a short time. (2) 
 Portable boilers with fittings and steam pipes complete for 
 promptly and efficiently supplying with steam at high pres- 
 sure the pumping and other machinery ; the boilers to be 
 capable of being readily coupled together by interchange- 
 able pipes, and to be prepared for transit by railway and 
 over rough mining roads. (3) Air-compressing apparatus, 
 for keeping back rising water, and enabling the mine to be 
 entered before ventilation has been restored. (4) Air 
 locks, with provision for quickly fixing them iu the head- 
 ings. (5) Ventilating apparatus, for promptly restoring 
 ventilation after an explosion. (6) Temporary winding ap- 
 paratus, for quickly replacing the winding gear over a pit 
 when destroyed by an explosion, or to establish additional 
 means of communication with the mine. (7) Diving ap- 
 paratus, generally adapted for penetrating long levels under 
 water. (8) Temporary workshop, fitted with complete sets 
 of the tools likely to be needed. Through the kind assist- 
 ance of several makers of the different kinds of machinery 
 referred to, the writers are enabled to present descriptions 
 and drawings of a few of the mechanical appliances which 
 appear suitable for meeting the necessities of mine ac- 
 cidents. 
 
 It is well at the outset to note that such apparatus must 
 not be judged by the ordinary rules of durability and econ- 
 omy in working, as the great object to obtain is handiness, 
 portability, ease in putting together, and the greatest effect 
 in the shortest time. It has to be noted that in colliery dis- 
 tricts the source of power— coal— is readily obtainable, and 
 the chief point to be considered is how to extract and apply 
 that power with the greatest rapidity and efficiency ; hence 
 It appears that classes of water-raising apparatus which are 
 not in favor where permanent and steady work are required, 
 '"mi?® '"''^* suitable for the purpose under consideration. 
 
 The Pulsometer.— The Pulsometer (American), for 
 example, has the advantage of needing only a steam pipe 
 and delivery pipe ; it may be lowered into water, and occu- 
 pies but a small space, and when being lowered requires only 
 the addition of extra steam and delivery pipes at the top of 
 
 the shaft. When depth is great several of these pumps can 
 be placed in succession. The pulsometer, is an instrument 
 for applying the pressure of the steam directly upon the 
 water to be lifted, the only working parts being the valves, 
 and a small ball to direct the steam into the chambers al- 
 ternately. The ball is self-acting, being drawn over by the 
 increased velocity of the steam at the moment of the for- 
 mation of the vacuum. An air-vessel to reduce the shock 
 completes the apparatus, Fig. 1. 
 
 The Steam Ejector. — The ejector, another form of 
 instrument for raising water by the direct application of 
 steam without the intervention of moving parts, can be used ; 
 and in Fig. 2 is shown an arrangement suggested- for the 
 purpose by those familiar with its use. Fig. 3 shows an en- 
 larged view of the ejector, which operates in the same way 
 as the well known injector, forcing the water up the col- 
 umn A by the effect produced by the superior velocity of 
 the steam jet B. It has no working parts, but is simply 
 provided with means of adjustment. With some forms of 
 the ejector the height of the delivery is limited only by the 
 steam pressure obtainable. The enlarged view Fig. 4, shows 
 such an instrument, and Fig. 5 shows its application when 
 lifting to a great height. 
 
 Direct- Acting Steam Pump. — Some of the smaller 
 forms of direct-acting steam pumps are capable of ap- 
 plication on emergency, as shown in Fig. 6, where one is 
 suspended from the surface. The same pump is shown in 
 Fig. 7, fixed in a heading to force the water to the top of 
 the shaft, steam being supplied from the surface. Other 
 pumps can also be used in a similar manner. 
 
 The Centrifugal Pump. — The centrifugal pump is 
 principally available where the height of the lift is small, 
 but would be useful where the water could be got rid of by 
 pumping from a lower level of the mine to another level at 
 no great height above it, as shown in Fig. 8. 
 
 The Water-Spear Pump. — A torm of pump which ap- 
 pears to be peculiarly well adapted for the purpose in view is 
 shown in Pig. 9, where, instead of using wooden spears work- 
 ing within the pump to transmit the power of the engine, it 
 is proposed by the designer to apply what may be termed a 
 water spear by means of a pipe independent of the pump, and 
 to attach the working parts of the pumps to a capstan engine 
 by a wire rope in such a ma nner that the rope remains attached 
 whilst the pump is at work, and is always in readiness to hoist 
 the working parts to the surface, where they could be replaced 
 by a duplicate set in a few minutes. The power is intended 
 to be supplied from the surface by a forcing engine, the 
 simplest form of which is indicated in Fig. 10, and all the 
 operations could be carried on from the surface, thus ena- 
 bling the pumps to be worked in any situation under water. 
 In this way would be obviated the difficulties and delays 
 occasioned by changing buckets and valves through door- 
 pieces, and by drawing spears, as often found necessary in 
 the ordinary system of pump-work, especially where dirty 
 water has to be lifted. The mode of working may be thus 
 described — on the surface, near the pit, would be placed a 
 forcing engine capable of supplying all the power required 
 for pumping; this engine could be of the form shown, in 
 cases where time was of every consequence, or, if circum- 
 stances permitted, some other form of portable engine in 
 which advantage could be taken of expansion. A capstan 
 engine would also be needed for lifting and lowering the 
 pipes, and for changing the working parts of the pumps as 
 occasion required. The hydraulic pump would be lowered 
 into the pit, and pipes added as frequently as required, both 
 to the large delivery pump-trees and to the hydraulic forcing 
 pipe. If needed, the pumps could be lowered at once to the 
 bottom of the shaft. Where the water has to be followed 
 where it is lowered, telescopic pipes at the surface could be 
 used, of sufficient length to allow the pump to descend 30 
 feet or 40 feet without change. Such a ])umping plant is cal- 
 culated to work with but few interruptions, and the whole of 
 the operations could be performed on the surface with focility 
 and despatch, and without the use of steam in the pumping 
 shaft. 
 
 Double Actingr Hydraulic Pump. — In Fig. 11 is 
 shown a double-acting hydraulic engine on the same princi- 
 ple, dcsii^ned for use underground where power is available 
 either froiu the colnmn of the main pumps or from a forc- 
 ing engine. The engine is shown in a horizontal position ; 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 827 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
828 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 but for draining " dip " and distant workings it may be 
 mounted on wheels, and made to follow the water as it is 
 lowered, or in its compactest form it may be slung upright 
 for use in a vertical- shaft. This pump differs from that 
 shown in Figs. 9 and 10, in being double instead of single- 
 acting, and in the valves being worked by means of water 
 pressure, in one central valve box ; and it is perhaps more 
 suitable for working under very heavy pressures. 
 
 Mounted High Pressure Boiler.— For the working 
 of these and similar instruments to their better advantage 
 a greater pressure of steam is needed than is usually found 
 at colheries ; and morever, it is probable that the local boilers 
 will be engaged in other work, so that special portable 
 boilers will be required, those forms being selected which do 
 the most rather than the best duty. In Pig. 12 is shown a 
 vertical boiler with internal fire-box; intended to be worked 
 at a pressure of 150 lb. per square inch. The boiler is 
 mounted on wheels, and is provided with trunnions to enable 
 It to be laid honzontally when traveling by railwav An- 
 other figure was given, representing a portable boiler on the 
 locomotive principle to sustain a pressure of 150 lb. to 200 
 
 lb. per square inch, and provided with wheels for traveling 
 on roads, and also capable of being carried by railway with- 
 out being dismounted. 
 
 Combined Engine, Boiler, and Air Oompresser.— 
 Whatever form of boiler is adopted, it is desirable that it 
 be made of st«el plates, with the object of attaining the 
 greatest strength with the least weight; the boilers to be so 
 fitted as to work seperately or in groups. A portable air 
 compressor, with engine and boiler attached, is shown in 
 Fig. 13 ; and in Figs. 14 and 15 were indicated other well 
 known forms of air compressoi-s, with engines combined such 
 as those already referred to, but without attached boilers ; a 
 form of pump capable also of being used as an air com- 
 pressor, and the same with arrangement of three combined, 
 may be used where great pressure is needed. Air cylinders 
 or other apparatus for enabling explorers to enter mines 
 foul with choke damp should form part of the appliance pro- 
 vided. 
 
 Air Look for Mines. — An air lock is shown in Fig. 16. 
 The lock is of small size to facilitate fixing, and must be 
 securely built into the heading in which it is to be used 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 829 
 
 the materials for so doing should be kept with the apparatus, 
 together with air proof sheeting in the event of the dam 
 being porous. The boring apparatus, so ingeniously devised 
 by Mr. Kiches for use at tlie Tynewydd Colliery accident 
 and described by him in a paper read at the last meeting of 
 the Institution, would also be useful with certain modifica- 
 tions to enable it to meet a variety of circumstances. 
 
 Fiu. 17. 
 
 Portable Winding Gear for Mines.— As the wind- 
 ing gear and head frames are often injured, or are too much 
 employed to be spared for special use, portable winding gear 
 and engines will often be needed ; a portable frame so made 
 as to be rapidly put together is delineated in Fig. 17. It is 
 essential that the whole of the apparatus should be so ar- 
 ranged as to be easily carried on railway trucks, a conve- 
 nient form of which for the purpose is shown in Fig. 18. 
 Although the machinery and apparatus indicated in the 
 drawings are for the most part doubtless well known to every 
 mechanical engineer, illustrations have been given to make 
 the references to them more clear. It is necessary now to 
 consider how the special appliances are to be provided and 
 made available for the use of the mining community. It is 
 not to be supposed that all that has been suggested can be 
 accomplished without great consideration and much ftirther 
 information than could be obtained merely for the purpose 
 of this paper, as to the special conditions of each mine, the 
 needs of each past emergency, and the appliances that 
 would have been be.st calculated to provide for them. The 
 information so collected would lead to the designing of ap- 
 paratus better adapted to the particular purposes in view 
 than any now existing, nearly all of which has been con- 
 structed for working under other than the very exceptional 
 conditions that obtain in the case of mine accidents. 
 
 It is hoped that these suggestions may lead to the organi- 
 
 Jj'IG. 18. 
 
 zatlonof an association of mine owners for mutual protec- 
 tion against the calamitous results of mine accidents, by es- 
 tablishing a central depot, with, perhaps, a branch in each 
 mining center, containing a complete collection of the requi- 
 site special machinery and appliances, ready for use at a 
 moment's notice. The cost of providing and maintaining the 
 establishment would be met by a general subscription by 
 those to be benefited ; but the establishment should be made 
 
 to a considerable extent self-supporting, by suitable charges 
 for the use of the apparatus. In connection with these de- 
 pots, competent men should be provided for fixing and 
 working the apparatus ; a few to be permanently engaged, 
 while the others pursue their ordinary work, attending at in- 
 tervals for training, and being "at call" at other times when 
 needed. Had such an establishment been in existence, no 
 doubt many valuable lives might have been saved, and much 
 pecuniary loss spared to those engaged in mining operations; 
 and though it is not suggested that accidents of the distress- 
 ing character of those that have bo recently occurred could 
 have been averted, their sad consequences might possibly 
 have been lessened, had appliances of the kind referred to 
 in this paper been available. But while it falls within the 
 province of the mechanical engineer to point out the appli- 
 ances best adapted to meet the necessities of the various 
 classes of mine accidents, it must rest with the mine owners 
 themselves to carry the suggestion into execution. 
 
 — A paper hy Charles Hawksley and Edward B. Marten^ Transactions Insti- 
 tution of Mechanical Engineers. 
 
 PROSPECTING AS A PROFESSION. 
 
 THE majority of the prospectors or men who make the 
 finding of mines the profession or business of their 
 lives are those who have learnt what they know of 
 mining and ores in the mines themselves. The 
 causes which lead to their adoption of the business may be, 
 individually speaking, many, but the primary cause affect- 
 ing all alike is the fact that there are valuable properties in 
 the shape of ledges carrying metal, waiting for the men who 
 can find them, and that everything necessary to give a title 
 to them is the discovery and compliance with certain simple 
 forms. This done the prospector owns the ledge, and can 
 sell it, develop it, or give it away, as his circumstances 
 guided by his feelings, may dictate. As these ledges may 
 be of a value ranging between nothing and many thousands 
 of dollars, it follows that the hunt for them possesses all of 
 the attributes of chance which make gambling so attractive. 
 The prospector may discover and locate a property which 
 will make him independently rich, or he may waste his time 
 and money for months and years. As in other kinds of 
 business, so in mining, one generally hears of the successes 
 rather than the failures, for if you are talking to a successful 
 man he likes to " brag," while to the unsuccessful man fail- 
 ure is not a congenial topic of conversation. It follows that 
 among mining men prospecting is generally spoken of in 
 connection with the strikes which have been made by the 
 prospectors, and the months or years of weary waiting are as 
 a rule passed over in polite silence, or spoken of merely to en- 
 hance by contrast the subsequent brilliancy of the fortune 
 made. If one were to talk to mining men, especially in the 
 new camps which are generally composed of prospectors, he 
 would be apt to imagine from the stories he would hear that 
 everything necessary to discover and locate a mine was to 
 walk out of the camp and stake out the ground. As a mat- 
 ter of fact the successftil prospector brings to his aid a train- 
 ing which is peculiar in many respects, and he possesses an 
 amount of patience besides which that of Job was an airy 
 figment of the imagination. I am of course excepting cases 
 of the discovery of a mine by the purest accident, as when 
 the ranchers built a wall for a corral out of pieces of rock 
 taken from a ledge, and was told by the first miner that saw 
 it that it contained rich ore or that other case of a man buil- 
 ding the fire-place out of ore containing horn silver and find- 
 ing the buttons in the ashes. But for the man who undertakes 
 prospecting as a business he means to stick to, until he has 
 found a mine which will make his fortune, there is hard 
 work in plenty, and he will find that unless that hard work 
 be done according unto knowledge" his expenditure of time 
 will not give him any great return. The prospector requires 
 knowledge, and plenty of it, and he requires strength as well ; 
 the one that his strength may be profitably expended, and 
 the other that he may be enabled to stand the terrible strain 
 which the life he leads brings upon him. 
 
 As I have said prospecting is a business into which men 
 generally " drift " by pure force of circumstances. Miners 
 
830 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 working in the mines go from one camp to another as a re- 
 sult of the stories told about rich strikes or because they 
 hear that there is a big demand for labor. Arriving in the 
 new camp they generally go to work at first for other men, 
 but as time goes on and they hear the stories of those who 
 have made rich discoveries they are tempted to see what they 
 can do. They will take a " week oflT," and prospect in a 
 desultory way in the immediate vicinity of the camp. 
 Sometimes they find a ledge which has pay ore in it, and if 
 they should do so they, as a rule, join the prospecting league. 
 It is rarely the case that they receive much money at first, 
 but it does not take many hundreds of dollars to confirm 
 the prospector in his choice of a business. , There is a fasci- 
 nation about going out and discovering a ledge which is 
 valuable, that makes any kind of regular work extremely 
 distasteful to a man. If a man follow prospecting for a year 
 he is rarely willing to give up the business for any other, 
 for the simple reason that all other forms of occupation 
 seem to the last degree tame to him. As a rule prospect- 
 ors do not accumulate very much money although they 
 often make large sums. This is owing to two facts, first the 
 nature or character of the prospector and second the kind of 
 life he is obliged to lead. The rewards of the work being 
 to the last degree uncertain, a man must possess, before 
 going into it, that kind of disposition which will permit 
 him to sacrifice the certain for the uncertain. He must be 
 willing to take risks, to "chance it" in his luck. In other 
 words he must have the gambling instinct largely develop- 
 ed. While the rewards are brilliant the prospector cannot 
 shut his eyes to the fact that the toil may be long, and he can 
 see in the case of others if not in his own that circumstances 
 are apt to make that toil very wearisome. For " he who 
 runs away may read " the statement written in the fashion 
 of these men's lives that prospectors except after a sale have 
 little or no money. As a rule they get nearly everything on 
 credit as long as that credit lasts and hang around a camp 
 before taking the- plunge again, as long as it is possible for 
 them to do so. Prospectors then must be willing to face 
 poverty for a time in the chance of some day washing a 
 " pile," because there is generally work to be had at wages 
 or on contract if they are only willing to take it. Men with 
 the kind of disposition which makes this life possible are 
 men with but litle thought for the morrow. When they get 
 money, as they often do, it comes in large lumps and they 
 spend it lavishly. They generally pay all of their bills the 
 first thing, not only because they are, as a class, a very 
 honest set, but because they are wise enough to know that 
 by doing this they make their credit good. Then with 
 what is left they go on a spree, generally making their way 
 to San Francisco or some other large place where with 
 money in their pockets they proceed to " have a high old 
 time." The money flows like water through their fingers, 
 and at the end of one month or six, as the case may be, they 
 make their way back to the camp with a large stock of 
 stories of a somewhat dubious character as the result of 
 their fun. The prospector " in luck " as seen in the streets 
 of San Francisco is a man of mark. He generally goes to 
 some tailor as soon as he arrives and purchases an outfit of 
 clothes, which providing they be of a certain conventional 
 cut can not be too gorgeous in color. He always, for exam- 
 ple buys a sack coat, as he does not like the tails of a frock 
 flapping around his legs. I remember one of them, a man 
 named Reilley, who was one of the best prospectors I ever 
 saw and deserved all his luck, of which he had plenty. 
 Reilley as soon as he got to the city used to buy a suit which 
 was gorgeous in the extreme. A tweed sack coat, a purple vel- 
 vet waistcoat with brass buttons and a pair of those wonderful 
 plaid trowsers which take two men to show the pattern, were 
 always purchased first. A lot of white shirts with frills, a 
 large soft felt hat and a pair of heavy boots in the tops of 
 which the trowsers were generally tucked, completed the 
 costume. In honor of his native land, I suppose, Reilley 
 would always buy some enormous pin to stick in his shirt 
 front, the color of the stone being green. A gold watch was 
 attached to one of those immense cable chains made of large 
 pieces of quartz showing pure gold, and this as it crossed 
 the purple waistcoathad an efi'ect which was to the last degree 
 magnificent. He always bought two rings, one a diamond 
 and the other the largest seal ring he could find. As he 
 rarely wore any collar and never wore a cravat the effect of all 
 
 this was startling. . In the camps Reilley wore a full beard, 
 but this he had cut when he arrived in the city, leaving a 
 moustache and imperial, the former always being waxed fe- 
 rociously. I can in my mind's eye, see him now ; dressed in 
 his wonderful costume, his great watch chain crossing his 
 waist and having hanging to the end a pick about two inches 
 long made of gold, his diamond rings flashing in the sun- 
 light, his awe-inspiring green pin, his round good-natured 
 face tanned to the color of leather by the fierce sun of the 
 desert, his merry blue eyes looking at me over his altogether 
 ferocious moustache I Truly he was a wonderful fellow to 
 look at. While he was in the city he spent his money in 
 the wildest way, literally throwing it in every direction. 
 This kind of life would last as long as the money did, and 
 then the pin would go, and then the seal ring. When 
 he was reduced to the watch and diamond, Reilley would 
 sell them both, generally realizing about five hundred dol- 
 lars. He would then pay for his passage to the mining 
 camp, buy an order on Wells & Fargo for two hundred, and 
 have one last spree on what was left. This concluded he 
 would pack up and start, and when he reached "the camp 
 would cash his order and once more go out to prospect for 
 ledges. Having told about the somewhat ridiculous side of 
 his character it is but fair that I should say more. This I 
 do the more willingly because Reilley was not only atypical 
 prospector but he was one of the pleasantest men I ever 
 met. He was a thorough master of his business ; keen- 
 headed, manly, truthful, except perhaps in the matter of the 
 value of the ore in ledges he had found which seemed some- 
 how to increase every time he mentioned them ; hospitable 
 to the last degree, for whether it was champagne or water, 
 game in a French restaurant or beans in the desert, you 
 were always welcome to one-half of what Reilley had ; and 
 in short, " square " with him as with the great majority of 
 the class to which he belonged, money was only good for 
 the ftin which could be got out of it. The reaction from the 
 toil of finding the ledges showed itself in the kind of life he 
 led when he reached the city. 
 
 And this brings me to the second reason why prospectors 
 generally spend their money as fast as they get it. The work 
 of prospecting is extremely hard and the privations of the 
 life can scarcely be exaggerated. Not only is the existance 
 a most lonely one, for the prospector goes upon his long 
 trips with no other companions than his horse or his burro 
 or jackass, but the labor of finding a ledge is very exhaust- 
 ing and the food is somewhat primitive. Sleeping out at 
 night wrapped in his blankets, often cold, and often hungry, 
 is it any wonder that when a prospector does make a strike by 
 selling one of his properties he ^ould plunge into the other 
 extreme ? But for the men who can resist the temptation to in- 
 dulge in these wild sprees, prospecting ofiers a business which 
 will probably result in the acquisition of a fortune. Given the 
 necessary knowledge to engage in it and a determination 
 to save moHey, the prospector, if he have very ordinary luck 
 in time, " makes a pile." The education necessary is em- 
 phatically a practical one, and the best prospectors are those 
 men who have learnt their business in the mines themselves. 
 As they rarely carry with them more than the simplest ma- 
 terials for assaying or testing ores, they are obliged to have 
 a sufficient amount of knowledge to recognize ores and to 
 estimate their values the moment they see them. A curious 
 instance of this fact was told to me once by a prospector who 
 had been among the first to go to Virginia City, then called, 
 Washoe. At that time gold was the only metal sought for 
 and the prospectors had learned to distinguish gold-bearing 
 quartz as soon as they saw it but they knew nothing at all 
 about silver. "We didn't s'pose that black stufi" wer" 
 worth anything," said he, alluding to the silver ore ; '' an' 
 we used to throw it away till one day 'long come a chap an' 
 he says as how, says he, that ar black stuff were silver. 
 Lordy, you oughtor hev seen the boys' eyes bulge I Arter 
 that we staked (located) black stuff whenever we seen it." 
 It would be somewhat difficult to find the prospector of to- 
 day who would not recognize and locate the "black stuff" as 
 soon as he saw it. Of all the branches of knowledge neces- 
 sary for the successful prospecting this of the ores is the 
 most important. Not alone are there many kinds differing 
 in appearance as radically as do the coal and granite, but 
 the ores in one district differ from those in another in their 
 importance and value. The prospector must not only know 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 831 
 
 ores generally but he must know those of the district in 
 which he is. It follows therefore that before a prospector 
 can hope to engage in his work with any degree of success 
 he must spend some time examining the district ; that is, of 
 course, if the district be developed. If there are mines 
 opened in it, it will pay him well to examine them, not alone 
 their ores but their walls as well. For the prospector must, 
 if he would be successful, know as much about the barren 
 itrata next to the ledges as he does about the ledges them- 
 selves. 
 
 While it is generally the case that prospectors drift into 
 the business from that of practical mining, urged to this 
 change of occupation by a natural bent or a chance circum- 
 stance, it is certainly true that prospecting as a business 
 offers inducements to any man who has the requisite know- 
 ledge. The number of ledges in the west which are valua- 
 ble is unknown, but there can be no question that there are 
 thousands upon thousands of them only waiting to be loca- 
 ted and opened to yield up the treasures of gold and silver 
 which they hold. This being the case it follows that there 
 
 man something of geology and mineralogy, and will make 
 him familiar with the principles upon which the discovery 
 of metals in the ores and the reduction of those ores depend. 
 But the course is only a foundation for subsequent knowledge 
 to be acquired in the mines. In the school the student 
 learns the theoretical part of the work. He is taught, it is 
 true, practical assaying, but when he finds himself in the 
 mountains this is of little use to him for the simple reason 
 that he has no tools or materials to assay with. I nave often 
 wondered why the mining schools do not make their instruc- 
 tion in the use of the blow-pipe more thorough than it is. 
 In the hands of a man who knows how to use it properly, 
 the blowpipe becomes a whole laboratory in itself, and when 
 taken in connection with a few fluxes, will enable him to 
 determine the character of any piece of ore he gets hold of. 
 Not only can he perform qualitative analysis with it but he 
 can do quantitative as well. Having passed through the 
 mining school, the young man who wishes to be a prospec- 
 tor is ready to go into the mines. He will find it of almost 
 primary importance that he work as a miner, learning by 
 
 Mining Life.— A Prospectoe on Foot. 
 
 From "La Vie Souterraine," by L. Simonin. 
 
 are many chances of making money waiting for the men 
 who choose to look for them ; and the experience of the great 
 majority of the prospectors who have gone into the business 
 is that "it pays. Even those who have nothing now have 
 had large sums which they have spent foolishly. If a man 
 makes up his mind that he will adopt prospecting aa the 
 business of his life he may be reasonably certain, providing 
 he will determine that when he gets money he will save it 
 .and invest it wisely, that he will be rich before he dies. He 
 must however be the kind of man who can stick to a thing 
 when he once gets hold of it, who can wait and wait patiently, 
 who can live on hard fare with hope to season it, and who 
 can control himself when he finds that he has suddenly 
 made a large sum. If such a man becomes a prospector 
 and lives to an average age, he will be wealthy before he 
 dies. The training necessary for the business is varied, but 
 as a foundation there can be nothing better than the ordi- 
 nary course in a school of mines. This will teach a young 
 
 that greatest of all teachers, experience, how to handle a 
 pick. His work as a prospector will necessitate the use of 
 this and of powder as well, and he must learn practically 
 how to put in and fire "a shot" or cartridge of blasting 
 powder. Work around and about the concentrator will teach 
 him to distinguish ore from gang the moment he sees it, and 
 the picking over of the ore which has to be done to a greater 
 or less extent will give him knowledge and experience of the 
 utmost value. Although the prospector is not necessarily a 
 miner he should know enough about mining to be able to 
 open his ledge when he finds one and develop the property 
 to some extent. It will pay him therefore to understand this 
 being a mine, and he must learn the amount of carpentering 
 necessary in making a hand winch. Time spent in a black- 
 smith shop learning to sharpen tools and to temper them 
 when sharpened is time well spent, as he will. find when he 
 gets into the field. From other prospectors he can learn the 
 uses of horn and iron spoons in the testing of ores and the 
 
832 
 
 THE MINES MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 numberless dodges and make-ahifts by which these men 
 make one thing take the place of another in such work. He 
 will be surprised to find how many of the operations ot a 
 laboratory can be done in the field with no other tools than 
 those provided by nature herself. As for example the 
 crushing of ore which in the former we do with heavy iron 
 pestles in heavier mortars of the same metal, in the latter 
 we get along very well with two flat stones. And above all 
 things he must learn to " average a ledge." The valuable 
 ore on a ledge lies in bunches and small veins in the gang 
 or barren rock. As the value of the whole body depends 
 entirely upon the proportion existing between these two, it 
 is of primary importance to the prospector who would pro- 
 perly describe his claim that he be able to determine this 
 proportion by an examination of the ledge. There are many 
 methods of doing this, one of which is described at length 
 in the article headed "^The Purchase of a Mine." But for 
 the prospector there is no one equal to the effect produced 
 upon him by a sight of the ledge. Knowing the character of 
 the ore and its value, he should be able to tell at once from 
 merely looking at the vein, the proportion existing between 
 the ore and the gang in the vein matter. The knowledge 
 necessary for this exercise of judgment can only be acquired 
 from long experience and as a result of actual inspection of 
 ore bodies. The would-be prospector should then never 
 neglect an opportunity of improving and increasing his stock 
 of information in this regard, and should bring his judgment 
 to the test by ascertaining, whenever it is practicable, the 
 result of working ores in the mill or furnace ; and comparing 
 it with his previously formed opinion. There is no better 
 practice for example than that of estimating the yield in 
 bullion of the ores which are mined, taking them in weekly 
 or monthly lots. This, if steadily adhered to, will in time 
 give a man an amount of knowledge upon the subject which 
 he will find almost priceless. 
 
 Having secured his theoretical knowledge by study in the 
 schools and supplemented it by his study and observations of 
 the mines, the prospector is ready to begin his actual work, 
 The first thing that we must do is to purchase an outfit. 
 This must be adapted to the life he is going to lead and 
 must be complete, or he will suffer severely for the lack of 
 articles he should have procured. But as it must not be 
 made too small so it should not be made too large, or he wiil 
 find that he has burdened himself with a lot of things which 
 are not of enough use to make their transportation profitable. 
 A good outfit for the prospector — -and parenthetically it may 
 be said that this list as far as the personal outfit is concerned, 
 is one well suited to the traveler in the mines — should 
 consist of two pairs of heavy blankets, eight pounds in 
 weight each. A buffalo robe or better yet, a blanket lined 
 rubber ^oncAo for sleeping on. A suit of strong gray woolen 
 clothes, a pair of brown jean trousers, a change of 
 woolen underclothing, woolen socks, a pair of heavy 
 boots, a soft felt hat, three or four large handkerchiefs, 
 a pair of buckskin gauntlets, and such toilet articles 
 as he desires to take. These should all go into a strong 
 canvas bag made with strings to tie up the open end. It 
 will do no harm if this bag be made waterproof. He should 
 have a breech-loading or magazine rifle of some kind or a 
 shot gun. Around his waist he should wear a strong sash, 
 and to it have attached his holster and his knife sheath, 
 carry in the former a Colt's revolver, of heavy size, and 
 in the latter a heavy hunting knife. His ammunition 
 should if possible fit the rifle as well as the revolver. If he 
 be a smoker, he will carry his tobacco and pipe. For trans- 
 portation a good mustang, as free from tricks and bad hab- 
 its as he can get it, should be bought. Mustangs are better 
 than mules for mountain work because they have better 
 backs for the saddle and larger areas of hoof, the latter be- 
 ing an important point when there is much travelling to do 
 over sandy deserts. They are quite as sure-footed and will 
 live on the same forage. He should buy a Mexican saddle 
 fitted with rings, straps or thongs to tie on his pack, saddle 
 bags, catinas, water canteen, &c. Speaking of this last, it 
 should be large and be covered with thick felt. If it 
 has a cork for a stopper, this should always be secured by 
 a cord to the neck of the canteen that it may not 
 be lost. One of the stirrups, preferably the left, should be 
 fitted with a leather tube in which the barrel of the rifle may 
 be placed, and there should be a strap fastened to the horn 
 
 of the saddle, with which you can secure the stock by wrap- 
 ping it round once and then putting the end of the strap 
 over the horn. This tube and strap is the best method of 
 carrying the gun or rifle yet discovered, as it is easy to cast 
 the weapon loose and it does not pound itself to pieces 
 against the saddle. The bridle should be made with a whip 
 at the end of the reins and the long stake rope should be 
 either attached to a halter^ worn by the animal or knotted 
 in such a manner that it will not slip around the neck. 
 While travelling the rope is coiled up and tied to a thong 
 on the right of the saddle in front. If a staking pin be a 
 part of the outfit the thong must be passed through the ring 
 at the top and a small piece of leather sewn on the saddle 
 flaps for the pin to go through in such a way as to prevent 
 its jogging up and down. And by the way, I may mention 
 here that the holster should have a. hole cut in the end 
 through which a small cord or a thong like a leather shoe 
 lace should be passed and tied around the leg. Properly 
 put on it will not hurt the rider while its usefulness as pre- 
 venting the hammering of the leg by the heavy revolver will 
 be found to be very great. For the work of prospecting a 
 " poll," pick and prospecting pan made of iron should be 
 carried. The pan serves for washing out sand or as a dish 
 for bathing in. A frying pan, eight inches in diameter, 
 made of wrought iron ; a coffee pot, tin cup, fork and 
 spoon ; a good supply of matches in a tin case the shape of 
 a bottle with a good cork in it or what is better still a wide 
 mouthed glass stoppered bottle in a tin box ; a pocket com- 
 pass — and let it be a good one — and a spy-glass or pair of 
 field glasses. For provisions the prospector takes with him 
 bacon, flour, beans, tea, pepper and salt and a box of yeast 
 powders. These should all be packed in bags which go into 
 a canvass sack somewhat of the shape of that in which the 
 blankets and clothes are put. A short time spent in the 
 kitchen or in learning how to cook will pay the prospector 
 as large an interest on the investment as that which he can 
 get from any he can make. Sage bush cooking while not 
 very good under any circumstances is execrably bad if the 
 copk be a perfect novice, and as not only the comfort of the 
 trip but oftentimes the health of the prospector depends 
 upon what he eats, it will pay him well to make his food as 
 good as he can. While the list as given above contains all 
 that is absolutely necessary I cannot help urging that Chilli 
 peppers and those strong red onions be added to it whenever 
 it is practicable. The former in hot climates are almost a 
 necessity, while the latter will at all times improve the fare 
 to a very great and pleasurable degree. There is another 
 use to which onions may be put which will often alone com- 
 pensate for the trouble of packing them. Should the pros- 
 pector run short of water he will, if he places a piece of raw 
 onion in his mouth find that the torture of thirst is at once 
 destroyed and that the swelling of the lips and tongue from 
 the lack of water is prevented. With a plentiful supply, and 
 one large onion will be suflScient for a day, he will find that 
 he can resist the effects of a lack of water for some time, or if 
 the fluid is scarce that he can get along with very little. 
 This is often an important consideration. The onion will 
 also prevent the lips cracking from the effects of alkali dust, 
 or if they are cracked will relieve the pain. The prospector 
 should carry some quinine with him and some pills to act 
 upon the bowels as well as a remedy for dysentery. 
 
 Having collected his outfit he will proceed to pack his 
 animal. Placing upon the mustang's back the blanket — a 
 folded blanket is far better than a saddle cloth as it can be 
 washed and hung up to dry — which has been carefully 
 folded without wrinkles, he puts on the saddle and pinches 
 it securely. The saddle bags are packed with the various 
 small things which go into them, and the bag containing 
 the provisions placed behind the cantle of the saddle where 
 it is securely fastened by two thongs which are tied in such 
 a way as to divide the bag into thirds. On top of this, the 
 bag containing the clothing and blankets is placed and se- 
 cured firmly in the same way. The pick goes into a strap 
 made for it on the right saddle flap or skirt and is always 
 put in with the point sticking out behind. It should be 
 arranged in such a way that under no circumstances can 
 this point strike against the horse's skin. , The coffee-pot, 
 frying-pan and prospecting-pan are lashed on the bags in a 
 position where the rider will not rest against them. The 
 tin cup, which should be one that was pressed into shape. 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 833 
 
 may have a lanyard attached to the handle and be carried 
 with the lanyard tucked under and around the belt or sash. 
 The stake rope bein^ coiled up and tied to the saddle and 
 the rifle being put into place and fastened, the proprietor 
 mounts. It is always well for him to wear spurs, as nothing 
 else will have any effect upon a mustang. And then he 
 leaves the camp to be gone any where from one week to six 
 months, for if he can eke out his provisions by the killing 
 of game he will stay in the field until he finds a ledge " if it 
 takes all summer." He has started out prospecting, there- 
 fore the main work of his expedition is the finding of a 
 ledge of paying ore But while doing this he and his horse 
 must live. Provisions for himself he has with him, but for- 
 age for his horse and water for both must be found. As 
 grass is generally found in the neighborhood of water, the 
 business of the prospector is to see where he can get the 
 latter. He must before starting out in the morning make 
 up his mind where he will camp at night, and there are cer- 
 tain indications given by the shape of the surrounding 
 country which will guide him to a very great extent. The 
 first of these is the character of the mountains. If they be 
 snow-capped, water is almost always to be found at the base. 
 But as the base of a mountain is generally a rather large 
 extent of country, the prospector needs something more 
 to indicate to him where he shall ride. This he finds in the 
 natural water sheds or natural drainage of the district. 
 Water is more apt to be found at the lower end of a valley 
 or canyon, for example, than it is on a hill-side, and by 
 taking careful observations with his glass, and ascertaining 
 by the aid of his compass the direction in which he is to 
 travel, the prospector will rarely fail to find a good camp- 
 ing ground. Having found one he will of course stay there 
 until he has prospected the surrounding country thoroughly. 
 Not only does he have the advantage of knowing that wood, 
 water and feed are plenty, but he can save his horse a great 
 deal of labor by relieving him of the weight which must be 
 carried while travelling. It is always well to hide the 
 things which are left in camp, and the provision bag must 
 be tied up in a tree or cached, that is, buried under heavy 
 stones, to keep it from the coyotes. When possible, sus- 
 pending it in a tree is always the best, for the simple reason 
 that while grizzly bears are not as plenty as blackberries in 
 the mountains, all stories to the contrary notwithstanding, 
 they are occasionally found, and it requires a much heavier 
 cache than one man can make to be impervious to " cabb's" 
 strong claws. Bears will dig up caches merely for the fun 
 of doing it, apparently ; and scatter the contents around 
 even when they do not eat the provisions. Where there 
 are bears, coyotes are as a rule, not far oif, and they will eat 
 anything that can be eaten. They are cowardly brutes, and 
 while not dangerous, are often exceedingly annoying. When 
 they are in the neighborhood it is always well to stake the 
 horse rather than hobble him, and under no circumstances 
 should the hobbles ever be placed on the hind feet. A mus- 
 tang, as long as he can kick, can drive oflF any number of 
 coyotes. This caution about placing hobbles upon the hind 
 feet is almost superfluous, for a proper sense of his own dig- 
 nity will as a rule prompt the mustang to enter a demurrer 
 against anything of the kind, and the demurrer in question 
 generally appeals to the judgment of the court with the 
 directness and force of a stroke of lightning. If the provi- 
 sion bag be placed in a tree, do not suspend it by a cord 
 passing over a branch and fastened to the trunk, but take 
 the trouble to climb up and tie it to the branch. Grizzly 
 bears are very cunning; "Heap wisdom in the old gray 
 man," as the Indians say; and if they see a cord fastened to 
 the trunk will tear it loose, thereby letting the bag fall. 
 Speaking of Indians reminds me that it may be the pros- 
 
 Eector will be obliged to traverse a bad Indian country, or 
 e may be at work when they are on the war path. Should 
 he know either one of these facts beforehand he will be wise 
 if he ta;kes a spell at work as a miner in some mine or joins 
 the company of scouts generally raised in such cases. Fool- 
 hardiness is not bravery, and prospecting in a country where 
 an Indian war is going on, is about as foolhardy a thing as a 
 man can do. If he must do it, however, there are certain 
 precautions which he might as well take, particularly as there 
 is no one there to see him take them except his horse, and 
 he will not say anything about them. In the first place 
 then, he will travel chiefly at night or in the very early 
 53 
 
 morning. Starting out at twelve and journeying until five 
 or as long as the mists hold, will as a rule, be safe. Of 
 course in order to do this he must know something about 
 the country, the lay of the land and the places where water 
 can be found. During the day he must hide somehow. He 
 can only permit himself to kindle a fire at night, cooking 
 then all of the provisions necessary for two or three days in 
 order that the fire be built as seldom as possible. Even when 
 he does kindle it, he must " mask it" as it is called. Taking 
 his pick he digs a trench about five feet long and roofs it 
 over with flat stones or brush, on which he piles dirt. With 
 the stones he arranges-a place just over the fire large enough 
 to hold the coffee pot or frying pan. At the other end of 
 the trench, if water be plenty, he makes a pile of loose 
 brush which has been thoroughly wet. The smoke from the 
 fire, which by the use of dry twigs or buffalo chips, should be 
 as small in amount as possible, when it encounters this wet 
 brushwood becomes cooled off at once and will not rise. 
 The fire should always be built, if possible, in some place 
 naturally screened by rocks or bushes so that the light can- 
 not be seen from the neighboring mountains, and when one 
 utensil is taken off of the hole another should be placed 
 there instantly. If this is all properly done a man can cook 
 within half a mile of an Indian and give no sign. As soon 
 as the cooking is done the fire must be extinguished at once 
 by heaping sand or earth upon it. Do not put it out by 
 water, as heavy clouds of steam always rise up when this is 
 done. As soon as the fire is extinguished mount your horse 
 and ride on for a mile or two, or better yet, do your cooking 
 just before you begin your night march. I have spoken of 
 the necessity which exists in an Indian country of cooking 
 as much as possible at once. Flour may be made into bread, 
 beans may be boiled or baked, and both may be kept for a 
 long time. Mr. J. S. Phillips in his chapter on Prospecting 
 gives a most excellent suggestion which I can heartily 
 endorse. He says "I boiled, when in security, one-fourth 
 of a pound of tea in a quart of water, and after removing 
 the tea leaves, continued the boiling of this strqng tea water 
 until it evaporated to about a pint, which I carried forward 
 for use when required. It will be found that one teaspoon- 
 full of this when added to a cup of water makes a much more 
 palatable and refreshing beverage for washing down your 
 frugal meal than water, and it will prevent the headache 
 that would otherwise result." This suggestion of his about 
 the using of tea makes me think of another which, whether 
 there be Indians or not, should always be followed. After 
 breakfast pour what is left into the canteen from the teapot, 
 straining out the leaves, and add enough water to fill it. 
 This cold weak tea is far more refreshing than water, and 
 if it becomes lukewarm from the heat of the sun, can be 
 drunk without nausea. If the water be bad, having alkali 
 in it for example, it is almost undrinkable without the addi- 
 tion of tea. Under any and all circumstanees eat cooked 
 food. No matter what the danger may be, the j)rospector 
 must take time to cook. Not only are raw flour, bacon and 
 beans excessively difficult to eat, how difficult no one knows 
 who has not tried them, but they are dangerously unhealthy, 
 A very short experience of them will bring on dysentery of 
 a very bad type, and if the prospector gets sick in an Indian 
 country, his chances are small indeed. It is true that there 
 are very few sights more ridiculons than watching a stalwart 
 man chewing raw beans or trying to eat paste, and the ex- 
 pressions of his face while doing it would make the fortune 
 of a low comedian, but it is fiin dearly bought at the ex- 
 pense of a bad attack of sickness. If it is positively necessary 
 to eat one's food raw, at any rate leave vegetable food alone. 
 The best thing to take under such ciroumstances is jerked 
 beef, for while this is tougher than any known substance 
 unless it be rawhide, and will cost many a jaw ache before 
 one gets it down, it will not make the person eating it sick. 
 If a man knows beforehand that he is to have great diffi- 
 culties in making fires for cooking he should provide him- 
 self with a store of this jerked beef, and, if possible, with a 
 bag of parched corn. This latter is very good food although 
 somewhat dry, and will keep indefinitely. In travelling in 
 an Indian country, the most common precaution is to avoid 
 placing oneself on a skyline by riding on the crest of a hill. 
 It is scarcely necessary to say, I suppose, that under any 
 circumstances the person will avoid, unless it be absolutely 
 necessary, the discharge of firearms. 
 
834 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 There is a rule, and a good one, which should always be 
 followed while prospecting. If you are overtaken by dark- 
 ness before you have reached your camp, your horse will 
 find his way better than you can and you will be safe in your 
 trust to him. This applies equally well in a case where you 
 are trying to find water, or where you are trying to reach a 
 camp you have left in the morning. In the one, the horse 
 will scent the water and make for it ; in the other he will 
 always find his way. In case you are obliged to camp without 
 water, be careful to stake your horse securely, for if he can 
 get away he will always go back to the place you have left 
 in search of something to drink. This question of the supply 
 of water is of all things the most important to the person 
 travelling in the mountains or desert. In case none can be 
 found, you can relieve the necessities of your horse to a 
 certain extent by peeling the thick cactus and giving him 
 the sponge-like stuff inside which is so full of sap. As 
 nothing seems to hurt a mustang he can take this and live 
 on it for a while. You must be exceedingly careful, how- 
 ever, not to let the avidity with which he takes it tempt you 
 to suck much of the sap as it acts strangely upon the bowels. 
 Wherever you find willows, cottonwoods, wild rye, or other 
 plants you may conclude there is water, and you will often 
 find it by digging a short distance. Do not, however, look 
 on cactus or green-wood as indicative of the fluid, for if you 
 do, you may dig for a week and find nothing. 
 
 It sometimes happens in the mountains that you wish to 
 travel through snow in order to examine a ledge which 
 crops prominently. In such a case you can make snow shoes 
 by lacing willows into a kind of flat tray, two feet long by 
 one wide. The interstices between the twigs should be not 
 less than three-quarters of an inch in every direction, as 
 while using the shoes you must permit the snow to fall 
 through when the foot is lifted. In binding these shoes on 
 the feet, the ball of the foot must be nearer the toe of the 
 shoe than the heel, so that when the foot is lifted and 
 advanced the heel will drag in the snow. Unless they are 
 put on in this way the wearer will be continually tripping 
 and falling down. In very cold climates it is necessary to 
 place some extra covering on the feet. A piece of blanket, 
 or in default of that, a gunny sack, cut into a triangular 
 shape and wrapped over the boot, the two long ends being 
 tied together, will be found to afford ample protection under 
 any ordinary circumstances. As the feet must be kept warm 
 in cold weather so the bowels must be kept warm when the 
 weather is hot. It is a singular fact that the greatest pre- 
 ventive against dysentery or any form of cholera is a 
 flannel band around the abdomen. This " cummerbund,'' as 
 it is called in India, should be about ten inches wide and 
 long enough to go once and a half around the body, the 
 double being placed in front. It can be secured by pins or 
 tapes, and the prospector should always carry a spare one. 
 
 Much of the work of the prospector is described in the 
 article headed " Locating a Mine," and a reference to it will 
 give a fairly complete account of how this work is done. 
 But in considering such a subject as prospecting as a pro- 
 fession it is necessary to not only describe the knowledge 
 and kinds of information needful, the method of obtaining 
 them, the outfit which must be procured, the precautions 
 which must be taken and the dangers which must be 
 avoided ; but some account must be given of the forma- 
 tions in which the prospector is apt to find the sought for 
 ledges and their geographical distribution. There are also 
 certain signs or indications found in the country over which 
 he travels which will give him many hints of great value. 
 First for a broad generalization. The mining history of 
 the world has demonstrated one thing ; that all systems or 
 groups or fissure veins containing valuable metals are found 
 at the junction, or in close proximity to that junction, or 
 the primary and secondary formations. Sometimes in the 
 former alone, sometimes solely in the latter, but generally in 
 both. From this important fact we deduce the following 
 rule : If we can not find a place at or near the junction or 
 their two formations, we but spend our time foolishly if we 
 prospect for mines. It is in this that the knowledge of ge- 
 ology which I have supposed the prospector to possess comes 
 with the greatest value. By an examination of the coun- 
 try itself in a general way he is enabled to tell where to 
 make his more particular search for valuable ledges While 
 this rule applies to copper, tin, gold and silver deposits, for 
 
 the two latter we must discover something more ; namely, 
 evidence of metamorphic action. There must have been 
 heat applied to the veins after they were formed. The effect 
 of this heat upon them is but little understood, and it is not 
 known why this action was necessary, but as a result of all 
 experience in the matter it may be said there is " no metamor- 
 phic action upon the ledges, no gold and silver." While on 
 the one hand if we wish to find gold, silver, copper or tin 
 we look for a junction of the secondary with the primitive 
 formations, and, in the case of the two former, for meta- 
 morphic action ; on the other hand if we are searching for 
 lead, antimony, zinc or mercury we must look away from 
 the primitive state, anywhere from two miles to ten, and we 
 do not need any evidence of the action of heat. These two 
 general rules are almost infallible, and may serve to guide 
 us at any time in our search for ledges. Now for the geo- 
 graphical distribution of the mining fields. In this coun- 
 try there are four in number west of the Mississippi river. 
 The first begins at the Guadaloupe and Sierra Madre in 
 Mexico, and thence runs in a northwesterly course through 
 the territory of Arizona. The second begins north of the 
 Colorado river where the Sierra Nevada rises and continues 
 in a northwesterly direction for hundreds of miles. On the 
 west it shows the talcose clay state of California overlying 
 the granite and porphyry, while in the east there are nu- 
 merous patches of clay slate and lime stone. This field has 
 been marked by the development of the richest ledge the 
 world has ever seen, the great Comstock in Nevada. It 
 bends to the west through Oregon and to the east again in 
 British Columbia, then running into the regions of perpet- 
 ual snow in Alaska. Along this whole range on both sides, 
 there are mines which we know of as far as the range has 
 been prospected, and we may reasonably suppose that there 
 are countless groups of veins whose existence is not more 
 than suspected. The third is that which lies along the 
 chain of the Wahsatch mountains. Beginning north of the 
 Colorado, it rises east for some hundreds of miles, and 
 thence north to join the Rocky mountains. It has been less 
 developed than any of the fields, but has been marked by 
 very rich ore where development has been made. The fourth 
 is the range of the Rocky mountains with its various spurs. 
 Beginning in the southerly portion of New Mexico, it runs 
 north through Colorado and Wyoming, thence northwest 
 through Montana and Idaho into British Columbia, where it 
 turns to the north and runs parallel to the Sierra Nevada. 
 In these four fields are to be found the best opportunities for 
 the prospector. Up to the present time the exploration of 
 them has not been more than begun, and where there has 
 been one ledge found there are a thousand yet to find. 
 Large areas of them have not yet seen the prospector at all, 
 and their mineral treasures sleep undisturbed by his pick. 
 The great transcontinental railways are cutting them, ren- 
 dering the transportation of the products of their mines 
 when opened, a thing easy of accomplishment. To the 
 trained and competent prospector they offer opportunities of 
 acquiring fortune which cannot be surpassed. He may find 
 within them any climate he wishes to work in, facilities for 
 mining which leave nothing to be desired and every species 
 of metal known to men. 
 
 I have spoken of the fact that veins of the precious 
 metals are generally found near the junction of the primi- 
 tive and secondary formations. While this is true we need 
 something more than the presence of the two formations 
 to warrant the work of prospecting. We must find that 
 distortion of the strata has taken place ; that forces have 
 been at work which would result in the formation of frac- 
 tures into which the water carrying mineral could run. It 
 is a favorable sign when we find that there are ledges inter- 
 lacing the stratified rocks. The characteristic stains of ox- 
 ide of iron disseminated through the vein and the pressure 
 of sulphurets of iron, as for example, pyrites ; are looked 
 upon as being signs of continuance in the vein. When the 
 talcose or argillaceous clay slates are greatly folded and 
 distorted for long distances, it may be taken as a good indi- 
 cation of gold bearing veins. To the old prospector the ap- 
 pearance of the country and of the strata seen will tell a 
 story. He will say that he prospects here because it is 
 "likely ground," although in what the "likely" character- 
 istics of the ground consist he is unable to explain. It is 
 an undeniable fact that good mining ground is as easily re- 
 
THE MINES, MINEKS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 835 
 
 cognized as good farming land, and that an old miner or 
 prospector will rarely be deceived, but it would be impossi- 
 ble to describe this peculiar appearance upon paper. There 
 are certain deposits which should be avoided. 
 
 Porous volcanic bed rock may be said to be one of the 
 poorest grounds for the prospector. It is true that the cop- 
 per mines of Lake Superior are found in this deposit, but 
 they are, as far as I know, the sole exception to this general 
 rule, and may therefore be considered, not unfairly, as the 
 traditional one. The modern carbonates of lime and mag- 
 nesia and the modern clay slates rarely show veins of the pre- 
 cious metals unless it be that a pocket of siver ore is found in 
 the lime, and this does not happen very often. These deposits, 
 however, form good ground in which to look for )ead,iron, and 
 coal — ^if the latter be the mineral sought for, the slates and 
 shales of the carboniferous ore are, of course, the best of 
 indications. A common practice is hunting for ledges in the 
 neighborhood of others that are well known and fiiUy de- 
 veloped. This practice is not one that can be endorsed. It 
 rarely happens that two great veins lie alongside of each 
 other, and it is much better for the prospector to turn his 
 attention to places a few miles away. One of the most promi- 
 nent instances of this fact can be seen in the Comstock Lode 
 in Nevada. Although there are hundreds of locations in and 
 around Virginia City, I never heard that any of them pro- 
 duced anything upon development, except those which are 
 on the great ledge itself. Hundreds of thousands of dollars 
 have been spent on these locations with no return, and al- 
 though it will, probably, always be the case that men will 
 take up ground in the vicinity of a great ledge, and although 
 it is certainly a fact that the ground so taken up may be 
 made the ba.sis for fraudulent operations in the stock market, 
 it is equally true that they rarely, if ever, turn out to be pay- 
 ing properties. It seems as if nature, when she made a big 
 ledge of paying ore, became, as far as that particular location 
 is concerned, exhausted, and that to find anything of value we 
 must avoid the ledge in question. It is therefore the case 
 that for the honest prospector, and I am supposing, of course, 
 that the man who wishes to become a prospector is, and will 
 be, honest, it is far better to go into " fresh fields and pas- 
 tures new." 
 
 The amount of work to be done in a claim by the pros- 
 pector is determined, first, by the law as settled by the gov- 
 ernment, and second, by his ideas as to what is necessary in 
 order to sell it or invest capital in it. Both may be 
 ascertained by an examination of the mining law, and other' 
 articles in another part of this book. For the mining 
 men who have the necessary education and who are willing 
 to undergo the severe training, and to live the life of hard- 
 ship which prospecting involves, there are few professions 
 or occupations in which more dazzling or richer rewards are 
 ofiered in return for hard work. The great need of the pre- 
 sent day, opportunities for men who have plenty of brains 
 and resolution, but little money, of these prospecting may 
 be considered to be as good as any. It may be learned 
 while a man is supporting himself as a miner, it may be 
 carried on in the same way, and the returns are almost cer- 
 tain, although they may be long delayed. When they do 
 come, however, they more than make up for the hardships 
 and the toil which have preceded them. 
 
 —Alfred Batch. 
 
 LOCATING A MINE. 
 
 THE vast mining interests of the United States have 
 grown up from very humble beginnings. While we 
 may trace, properly, mining in America to the cop- 
 per mines of the Southwest, places in which ore was 
 dug and smelted in order to get something stronger and 
 more lasting than the rude stone implements made of iztli 
 as the ancient Aztecs and the Toltecs before them called 
 obsidian, for the use of men ; there is no use of going back 
 to unrecorded time to find the tiny shoot which has expanded 
 into such an enormous tree, under whose branches so many 
 men find shelter and employment. Great industries are like 
 great movements in nature, they are marked by the same 
 peculiarities and depend upon the same or cognate laws for 
 their growth and their decline. As the scientists of to-day 
 are as one in their position that to understand such a theory 
 
 as that of evolution we must assume that it is going on 
 around us, that new forms of life are constantly being 
 evolved from lower forms by the process of natural selection, 
 and that any statement which depends upon an assumption 
 that the action of the law of evolution is at an end, that we 
 are examining a final result rather than the working by 
 causes leading to a result is necessarily an insufficient and 
 circumscribed statement ; so for us to assume that any great 
 industry is merely the result of all that has been done is to 
 limit ourselves in a manner not warranted by the facts. It 
 is patent to the most cursory student that any great branch 
 of human work embraces to-day not only the most ad- 
 vanced but the most primitive efforts of men in that direc- 
 tion, while we have the great Bessemer converters forcing 
 out their streams of liquid steel, we have puddling furnaces 
 and crucibles; and, if we examine the operations of the 
 iron workers of India, China and Africa we find still more 
 primitive methods in vogue. From the clay fiirnace, 
 the tree-trunk bellows, the balls of ore mixed with rice 
 straw of the Ashantee, to the smelting fiirnace, the puddling 
 furnace, and the crucible is no greater advance than from 
 the rude methods employed by the mound-builder to mine 
 and reduce the copper of the Upper Mississippi Valley to 
 the giant hoisting works, the stamp mills and the perfect 
 plant of a mine upon the Comstock. To study the growth 
 then of any industry like that of mining we must study all 
 forms of it ; the simple as well as the complex, che begin- 
 ning of the science as well as the highest point of develop- 
 ment reached by it. " Great oaks from little acorns grow," 
 and if we would understand the oak we must examine into 
 and try to comprehend the acorn. 
 
 It is this fact which gives the philosophical value to the 
 work done in the location or discovery of mines. For no 
 matter how great the mine may be, how valuable or how 
 rich its product, there was a time when it slept undisturbed 
 in the bosom of the earth, undreamed of by those who 
 passed over it. There was a time when the first piece of its 
 ore was examined by an eye quick to read the lesson writ- 
 ten by old Dame Nature for him who could decipher the 
 more or less obscure hieroglyphics — who can tell how many 
 thousands of years ago ! There was a time when the mine 
 was located, when, commercially speaking, that mine had 
 its beginning, when it became known. Following out the 
 simile chosen at the beginning of this article, there was a 
 time when the first step was taken, when the operation of 
 the commercial law which has resulted in the great shaft, 
 the long tunnels with their forests of timber, the powerful 
 hoisting works, the reduction works, the mills, with their 
 loud-sounding stamps, began. This time was when the 
 solitary prospector, idly sitting upon some " cropping," per- 
 haps, broke a piece of the ore in two and saw in the 
 " gang " the rich streak which showed him that the piece 
 of dull rock represented fortune. That was the first step in 
 the great divorce suit instituted by man between the " gang " 
 and the metal, the beginning of the mighty struggle during 
 which nature was to be forced to yield up her treasures for 
 the use and benefit of her creatures. 
 
 The actual worfe of the location or discovery of mines is 
 done by a class of men called " prospectors " in the west. 
 In the" preceding article the men and their qualifica- 
 tions for their work are described ; our concern just now is 
 with the work itself. Mines may be divided into two great 
 classes, the stratified and those which are confined to ledges. 
 I am aware that all deposits of rock or mineral are, strictly 
 speaking, strata, but I wish to make the difference between 
 those deposits which cover large areas, and those which are 
 more confined, plain. All deposits of ore have length, 
 breadth, and thickness in common with all forms of matter, 
 but the proportion existing between these three attributes 
 varies enormously. In the great coal fields we have de- 
 posits which extend over large areas. Formed during the 
 carboniferous period, there were thousands of square miles 
 covered with the trees and plants which solidified into the 
 coal we burn to-day. Hence it is that while the strata of 
 coal have a dip in the synclinal or anti-clinal folds, that dip 
 was given to them after they were formed, the original de- 
 posit of vegetable matter being flat, or nearly so. But in 
 another class of mines, those in which we find silver or 
 gold ores embedded in a quartz " gang," the ledge, whether 
 formed by Plutonic action, by infiltration, or in any 
 
836 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 other way, was not formed horizontally. It was either shot 
 up from below in a liquid form, or the crevice being formed 
 by some convulsion of nature, the rock accumulated or was 
 formed in it by some natural action. The question of the 
 origin of these mines is one which will take far too much 
 time to treat of here. But assuming that, in whatever way 
 they were formed, the process took place after or before 
 the formation of the country rock surrounding them, 
 whether that rock be granite, porphyry, limestone, or any 
 other found near them, we can see at once that, there is 
 betweeen them and what I have called the stratified de- 
 posits of mineral, a wide difference. As there was this 
 difference in the formation so is there a difference in the 
 conditions under which those formations exist to-dajr, and 
 this again implies a difference, which we find to exist,_in 
 the methods adopted for the discovery of these deposits. 
 In other words, the conditions under which the various 
 deposits exist although different, being fixed for each class ; 
 the man who would find those deposits must accommodate 
 himself to the conditions. The sportsman who would shoot 
 wild ducks does not hunt for them as he would quail. 
 
 Taking as an example of the stratified deposits one of 
 coal in Pennsylvania, the work to be done by the prospector 
 or locator — the man who is desirous of finding that deposit, 
 is not difficult. The conditions under which that coal was 
 formed being conditions which existed over a long period 
 of time, all of the strata formed during that period present 
 some of the same characteristics, whether it be the coal 
 itself, or the shale or the slate. Each stratum was formed 
 during a period of quiescence, a period in which there were 
 no convulsions, as we have agreed to call the more violent 
 and sudden operations of nature. The subsidence, or the 
 upheaval was, it is true, going on, but it was going on very 
 slowly. Had we been living during that period we would 
 not have been conscious of the action, any more than those 
 living in England are conscious of the subsidence going on 
 there. After the strata were formed they were bent into 
 the anticlinal and synclinal folds during the great crump- 
 ling process to which this continent was subjected, and then 
 denudation planed off the tops of the synclinal ridges so 
 that we have to-day cross-sections, as it were, of the strata, 
 originally formed horizontally, one on top of the other. 
 We may illustrate this by bending a jelly cake and cutting 
 off the curve, we would then have a stratum of cake, one of 
 jelly, two of cake, one of jelly, and one of cake. If we 
 imagine a stratum of shale formed first, then a stratum of 
 coal, and this in turn covered with a stratum of slate, then 
 if we suppose these to be bent upward into a great fold and 
 the top of the fold cut off, we will have in our cross-section 
 a stratum of slate, one of coal, two of shale, one of coal and 
 one of slate, again. While it is undoubtedly a fact that 
 there are shales and slates which have no connection with 
 coal ; or which, to speak more accurately, were not formed 
 during the carboniferous period, if we have the know- 
 ledge that we are in a region of country which exhibits 
 deposits of the carboniferous, we may legitimately reason 
 when we find our first stratum of slate that our stratum 
 of coal will be found next to it, and that of shale in its 
 proper place. It is scarcely necessary to say that this 
 series is purely illustrative, and is not instanced for the 
 purpose of describing the manner in which coal is 
 always found to exist. It merely serves to point out the 
 fact that the conditions under which the strata of the car- 
 boniferous age were formed having been the same, or nearly 
 so, we may reason from the presence of one stratum that other 
 and more valuable ones may be found. 
 
 The first discovery of coal in Virginia was made by a man 
 named Bunson. He found a lump of black stone which he 
 used to support a pan in which he was cooking, and he no- 
 ticed that the stone itself burnt up, thereby tipping the " fat 
 into the fire." At least, this is the story as told, and 
 
 " I tell the tale as 'twas told to me ; 
 I cannot tell how true it be." 
 
 But whether Bunson lost his dinner and found coal, certain it 
 is that coal must have been originally discovered in some way 
 analogous to this. No amount of natural induction would 
 ever teach a man that he could get warmth and heat out of 
 a stone, and such coal must have appeared to the man who 
 first saw it. Therefore, the first prospectors, the first locators 
 
 of a coal mine must have discovered the mine purely by 
 accident. Following them came the class of men, so largely 
 represented by the prospectors of to-day, who, having seen 
 black stones burn, when they found black stones tried them 
 in the fire to see if they would burn. A step above these is 
 the class who recognize coal as coal the moment they see it, 
 and who, judging by the cleavage or the way in which it 
 breaks, the appearance, the gravity, and any other of the 
 attributes which experience has taught them coal always 
 possesses, have no need to apply the fire test in order to 
 know that it is coal which they have found. The methods 
 by which these two classes arrive at the same conclusion are 
 both outcomes of what might be called a rude experience. 
 The first is the experimentum cru,cis, the experience formu- 
 lated into a syllogism something like this : 
 
 Coal is a black stone which will bum ; 
 
 This black stone burns ; 
 
 Therefore this black stone is coal. 
 The second class reason in a more complex syllogism, but 
 none the less as the result of experience which is personal. 
 There is a third class of prospectors who reason from the 
 experience of others. To arrive at their methods we must 
 go back to our consideration of the conditions under which 
 the coal was formed. During the carboniferous period, life, 
 in both vegetable and animal forms, existed upon the earth. 
 It is known that forms of life in all ages have left behind, 
 embalmed in the rocks, unmistakable traces of their exist- 
 ence, and these traces we have agreed to call fossils. In the 
 great book of nature, that page which we call the carbon- 
 iferous period has upon it some characters which are pecu- 
 liar to itself, interspersed with those which run through 
 many pages. When, then, we find a part of some page, and 
 on it find the characters which we know are confined to the 
 carboniferous, we reason at once that it is the carboniferous 
 that is spread out before us. As the conditions which brought 
 about the forms of life seen in their fossils in the coal ex- 
 isted during the formation of the shales and the slates, we 
 may expect to find those same fossils in those shales and 
 slates. And, as a matter of fact, we do so find them. Ob- 
 servations of many men extended over many years, tabulated 
 and reasoned from, have given to the student of geology and 
 mineralogy a method of identifying the coal whenever and 
 wherever he sees it. It is quite competent to imagine a man 
 who had never seen the coal itself, but who had seen and 
 studied pictures and casts' of its fossils, a man, too, who did 
 not know that coal was black, finding a piece of stone hav- 
 ing in it a characteristic fossil and pronouncing it to be coal. 
 But science has gone further than this. In the presence of 
 the coal itself the student is no better off than the man who 
 tries it by fire; the former identifies it by its fossil, the latter 
 because it will burn. In the presence of the shale, the stu- 
 dent has an enormous advantage over the tester by fire, be- 
 cause the fossils will tell him that it was formed during the 
 carboniferous period, and he may expect to find coal near, 
 while neither the shale nor the fossils will tell the fire tester 
 anything at all. Hence it follows that the prospector for 
 coal must be a man to whom the strata ordinarily associated 
 with the coal will tell a story. The man who works by the 
 light of the syllogism given above, must, before he can apply 
 it to his work, find the coal itself. No matter how much he 
 may wish to discover the mineral, the ground over which 
 he walks is a book whose pages he cannot read. He cannot 
 tell that he is near the discovery until that discovery has 
 been made; within a few feet of the vein he is mentally 
 miles away. 
 
 The process of examining a country for coal is one which 
 does not differ from any other form of geological surveying. 
 The pages studied by the prospector or the geologist are the 
 " croppings " of strata, the edges where they have been cut 
 by denudation or by glacier, and which have not been 
 covered up by earth. There are few places, especially in 
 mountainous or hilly regions where the rocks do not crop 
 out. A ledge being seen, the prospector examines it ; he 
 breaks the pieces of rock in two with his hammer ; he looks 
 for fossils. In this period of the world's history, with the 
 geological surveys which are carried on and maintained by 
 the governments, we have the general character of almost 
 any district ascertained for us. No man, for example, would 
 think of looking for coal in the Laurentian belt in the nor- 
 thern part of New York and the southern part of the Pro- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 837 
 
 Tince of Ontario. He would know beforehand that such 
 search would be unavailing, and would result in disappoint- 
 ment. But to actually find the stratum of coal is the work 
 of far more particular men, if I may be allowed the use of 
 the expression, than the geological surveyors. The 
 msmbers of the survey are acquiring information by 
 which they may map out a large difitrict ; the prospector 
 for coal cares nothing about the district as a whole, his at- 
 tention is confined to the one stratum he is in search of. He 
 therefore examines more particularly, more closely than do 
 tlie surveyors. He finds a stratum of carboniferous shale, 
 but has no interest in the discovery beyond that which at- 
 tiiches itself to it as the possible indication of the presence 
 of the more valuable mineral. The shale is valueless to him ; 
 to the surveyor it is as valuable as the coal being a stratum 
 in the measures. In fact, if full of fossils it is more valuable. 
 To the prospector the number of fossils found in the shale is 
 significant. If they are few he reasons that the coal lies 
 below the stratum, and to find it he must search away from 
 the dip : if they are many he reasons that the coal lies above 
 the shale, and he must look in the direction of the dip. The 
 character of the fossils, whether vegetable or animal in origin, 
 will tell a story, and the parts of vegetables, as the roots or 
 branches of plants, will give him information. The deduc- 
 tions to be arrived at from these indications and the characi 
 ter of the fossils themselves, their description or their nature 
 does not enter properiy into such a subject as that which I 
 am treating. These and other things are to be learned in 
 the study of geology, whether that study take place in the 
 class-room or in the mine ; or better than either separately, 
 in both. And this leads me naturally to the statement that 
 the most successful prospectors are practical men — men who 
 have learned the characteristics of the coal of whatever kind 
 in the coal itself. The difference between this class and the 
 purely scientific men is the difference which exists between 
 theoretical and practical knowledge, the difference seen, for 
 example, in the knowledge of a city possessed by a man who 
 lives there, and one has spent many hours poring over a 
 map. 
 
 There are other deposits of mineral which although strati- 
 fied in the limited sense which I have used the word are not to 
 be discovered by a study of fossils. In the search for them we 
 are approaching the method of discovery which must be em- 
 ployed in the location of the ledge mines. We may prop- 
 erly divide the process of location of minerals into three 
 classes : 1st. That in which the strata associated with the 
 mineral we are anxious to find will indicate to us its possible 
 presence ; the mineral itself being one the deposits of which 
 cover a large area. In this class the best and most striking 
 example is the coal which we have just been discussing 
 3d. The mineral existing in ledges which are narrow al- 
 though long, and whose width is wholly in the earth. A 
 ledge of quartz is a good example of this variety. Formed 
 in rocks which were there before it was formed, it is a wholly 
 separate thing, and one which is not and cannot except to a 
 very slight extent, be indicated by any other strata. In the 
 case of a coal bed, if we find it on one side of a synclinal or 
 anticlinal fold, we may conclude that we will find it on the 
 other side, because we know that it was probably formed 
 over a very large area. But in the case of a quartz ledge we 
 never find it anywhere else ; we never, so to speak, discover 
 that there is a continuation of the story whose first chapters 
 we found so interesting because so valuable. That ledge is 
 by itself, is alone. Midway between these two classes is 
 number 2 which has some of the characteristics of each. 
 The strata in it were formed over large areas, and have been 
 subjected to the folding process, and we may look for contin- 
 uations of the stratum when once found. But we cannot dis- 
 cover it by the indications contained in the other strata, and 
 fossils do not teach us anything. Of this class the best ex- 
 amples are some of the iron ores which, found in immense 
 bodies extending over large areas are frequently of enormous 
 thickness. In the location of iron mines the chief work to 
 be done lies in the actual finding of them, and this is not as 
 absurd as it at first sight appears to be from the fact of its 
 being so perfectly self-evident. As the strata above and below 
 a bed of red hematite for example will not indicate the_ pres- 
 ence of the ore in any way save possibly by the color, it fol- 
 lows that the prospector must look for the hematite until he 
 finds it. Fortunately, and this may be generally said about 
 
 all minerals belonging to this second class the characteristics 
 of the ore are such that it can be identified at once. There is 
 no such thing as mistaking it ; that is by a person who knows 
 anything at all about what he is in search of As it gen- 
 erally exists in large bodies, it is as a rule easily found, and 
 the work of the prospector is thereby lightened to no slight 
 extent. In mines of this second class the color of the min- 
 eral is one of the chief guides to its discovery. The ores of 
 iron, either red or brown hematites, or those of copper may 
 be distinguished often at long distances by the sense of sight 
 alone. When found the prospector examines them by 
 breaking the lumps with his hammer and sometimes subjects 
 them to some simple form of smelting. As a rule, however, 
 he recognizes them at once by their appearance, and as their 
 value is perfectly well known and varies but slightly, little 
 requires to be done after the discovery. He has, of course, 
 to examine the extent of the deposit as far as he can and to 
 take such measurements as are possible under the circum- 
 stances. It is a characteristic of this second class that the 
 values of the ores are known to be far more fixed than those 
 of the first or third. Coal is coal of course, but all coal is 
 not equally good or equally valuable. As to quartz mines 
 they vary in value with a regularity which would be charm- 
 ing from its very invariableness were it not so extremely irri- 
 tating to their possessors. But the ledges of this second clats 
 are always themselves worth just about so much. The pres- 
 ence of metal in red hematite for example is constant, and 
 the value of the mine may be calculated almost mathemati- 
 cally by ascertaining the cost of reducing the ore in the place 
 where it is found. This reduces the work of the prospector 
 enormously. While he is obliged to find out when he dis- 
 covers a bed of coal, whether it be hard or soft, "black" or 
 " brown"; its heating power is short, and when he discovers 
 a quartz ledge what the value of the rock is, if it is merely a 
 pocket or is a permanent vein ; when he locates a body of 
 iron ore he can assume all of this for granted. The pros- 
 pector for the minerals of the second class has certain facts, 
 the knowledge of which guides him to a limited extent. He 
 knows, in case he is in search of iron, that the bottom of the 
 streams flowing over the bed are apt to be colored by the ore, 
 and he can find this color particularly in the clays. But in 
 the search after ores of the second claEs as in any other pur- 
 suit, special knowledge is necesary which can only be ac- 
 quired by study or experience. 
 
 The prospecting for and the location of mines of the first 
 and second classes is to a very great extent a sporadic occu- 
 
 Eation. There are few if any, men who pursue it as a settled 
 usiness, one to which they devote their lives. The reasons 
 for this are obvious. Lands containing the minerals in the 
 Eastern states are generally owned by persons whose know- 
 ledge of them is confined to a more or less disheartening ex- 
 perience of their lack of value for agricultural purposes, or 
 to companies formed for the purpose of developing those 
 minerals. The man who finds the mine on the first has to 
 settle with the prior owner of the land before he can acquire 
 a title to the property. Then too, as the minerals themselves 
 belong to classes which take up whole districts and whose 
 presence is naturally expected from the known fact of the 
 existence of other beds, the owners of lands are always on 
 the lookout for such beds. These causes operating together 
 make the profession of prospecting one which gives but 
 few returns. In order to find a distinct class of prospec- 
 tors, of men whose sole business is to find and locate 
 mines we must find some place where the fact of the dis- 
 covery of the mine gives the title to the property because 
 it is only in such a place that the prospector is repaid 
 by his work for his work, and it is only in such a place 
 that the title to the mine becomes a piece of property 
 that can be realized on at once. A region which will 
 support a class of prospectors must also be one in which 
 the existence of other mines can only be inferred from 
 those already found. You must be able to suppose, not 
 to conclude, that because you have a mine, another can 
 find one. It must be that each mine is complete in itself, 
 and as its existence could not be predicated from that of 
 any other so its discovery can be no guarantee that 
 others will be made. It is only in this way that the 
 finding of mines can be made a business because it is only 
 in this way that there can be any reason for such a business. 
 In the coal regions of Pennsylvania property in the neigh- 
 
838 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 borhood of coal mines has a value simply from the fact that 
 it is in that neighborhood. Men reason that land near a 
 coal mine is apt to contain coal, and an examination of the 
 physical character of the country will enable them to reason 
 with considerable amount of certainty about their chances 
 of discovering a new bed or the continuation of an old one. 
 But prospectors can only exist as a class where there is none 
 ofthis reasoning possible because they make a business of 
 hunting for and finding mines, the previous existence of 
 which had not been suspected. In order then . to have a 
 class of prospectors you must have natural conditions and 
 artificial conditions, not only must the ore bodies be unre- 
 lated to each other but the laws must be such that men find- 
 ing them will receive a reward in the shape of acquiring 
 property at once. In no part of this country are these con- 
 ditions so perfectly carried out as in the mineral regions of 
 the West. The law gives, under certain easily fulfilled stip- 
 ulations, absolute property in the locations made to the 
 prospector ; and from the existence of a thousand known 
 mines you could not predicate that of the thousand and first 
 with any degree of certainty. It follows then that in the 
 west we might naturally look for the prospector in what 
 may be called his most perfect state of development, and as 
 a fact we there find a class whose sole business is the hunt- 
 ing for, and the location of ore bearing ledges and veins. 
 
 The work of the prospector in his search after mines is 
 very peculiar. As far as the mine itself is concerned, he 
 starts out on his hunt without any very definite idea of 
 where he is going to find it. He " concludes " or he 
 " reckons " that a given range of hills are " likely looking," 
 and he proceeds to prospect them. The chances that he 
 fails in his search or that he succeeds are about even. 
 The only indications from which he can reason at all are 
 of the slightest possible character. If he knows that there 
 are what are called recent placers on some river he may 
 conclude that somewhere along that river there are free 
 gold-bearing ledges, but beyond this he has little to guide 
 him. The work of prospecting divides itself naturally in- 
 to the three kinds of mines, prospected for, placer, 
 pocket and ledge. That "all things may be decently and 
 in order" I will take them in the series as named. 
 
 The outfit of a placer miner or rather of a man who 
 prospects for placer mines is of course selected 
 with a view to the kind of work to be done. Placer 
 mines as they are called in the west, or " diggings " 
 as they are more familiarly styled, are places where the gold 
 having been torn from the ledges by the process of denuda- 
 tion, generally carried on by means of water, and swept 
 down by the floods has finally found a resting place. Gold 
 being very much heavier than the quartz or other rock 
 associated with it soon sinks to the bottom of the water. If 
 the stream be very violent it will, especially if it be in small 
 pieces, be carried along until it comes to some place where 
 there is an eddy or a pool, in which the water lingers for a 
 time. Here it will sink at once and rest upon the bottom. 
 The water still moving has power enough to carry the clay 
 and the lighter pebbles along with it leaving the gold and 
 "larger stones behind. This process of separating the gold 
 from the rocks in which it was originally, may have been 
 carried on on a very grand or a very small scale. In the 
 one case, millions of tons of rock have been torn away and 
 ground to powderby the action of the water, reducing high 
 mountains during the process to small hills or cutting them 
 away altogether. 
 
 On whatever scale the work has been done the subsequent 
 action upon the gold and the rock is the same. It is always 
 swept down by the water until it finds a resting-place, while 
 the small pebbles and the clay are carried away. It may be 
 that the gold is deposited all along the stream during the 
 long years which succeed each other in uncounted de- 
 cades while this work is going on, and then comes some 
 great flood strong enough and fierce enough to tear up all 
 the gold so slowly deposited and sweep it with the large 
 stones further down. But sooner or later it finds a place 
 from which it is never moved except by man. These places 
 are called " placers," whether large as in the case of the 
 gravel mines of California, or small, they are always the 
 same. They are the resting-places of the gold, the places 
 where it has lodged after denudation has torn it out of its 
 quartz, and water has carried it far away from where the 
 
 ledge in which it was formed or originally stood. To find these 
 places the prospector doth seriously incline. Loading up 
 his pick, shovel and pan, together with his food, he starts 
 out to hunt for some " diggings " as he calls them. He could 
 not tell you why he selects a particular spot as a "likely 
 location," but experience has taught him where to look 
 with best chances of success. If he finds an old river-bed 
 whose sides show in their water-worn condition where the 
 water ran in the old days long before the time of man, 
 and following it up he sees that these sides suddenly widen 
 out until they form a basin and then contract again, he will 
 say at once, "Thar wer' a mighty big eddy here onct;" and 
 he will be right. If he finds a place where the old river 
 ran over a high ledge of rocks, either as a water-fall or a 
 sharp rapid with a pool below it, he will" reckon it's a kinder 
 likely spot," and he will begin to dig. Hundreds of signs 
 speak to the old prospector trumpet-tongued, and guided by 
 their silent voices he begins his search for the yellow metal. 
 Taking his pick he loosens the soil and shovels it out. 
 He knows that somewhere beneath the surface of the ground 
 and the centre of the earth is what is called the " bed rock ; " 
 that is the stratum of rock or clay below which the old river 
 did not dig and above which it deposited the gold. This 
 may be anywhere from five feet to two hundred, but as a 
 rule it is not anything like the latter distance down. Reach- 
 ing the bed rock in time, his first work is the looking for 
 large nuggets. Of course while sinking the shaft he has 
 kept a bright lookout for the " color " as he lovingly calls 
 the gold in his quaint slang. Should he find pieces of the 
 yellow metal large enough to be picked out with his fingers, 
 he at once concludes that his claim is enormously valuable. 
 This, however, is rarely the case, for as a general rule he 
 must resort to the pan to' separate the gold from the gravel. 
 " Panning," as it is called, is the simplest of all operations 
 to look at, and while not difficult to learn is yet one in 
 which there is a certain knack which takes time to acquire. 
 The prospector knows by looking at the kind of dirt likely 
 to contain gold, and he rejects what he finds on top of his 
 shaft without the slightest hesitation. But when he begins 
 to get down below and to find a kind of clayey sand having 
 in it more or less black sand, he separates that carefully 
 from the gravel and fills the pan. Taking it to the side of 
 the stream, if stream there be in the neighborhood, he first 
 picks it all over carefully to separate the pebbles. This is 
 often done in a quicker way by filling the pan with water 
 and then using the fingers as a kind of sieve, allowing the 
 finer stuff' to pass between them as they are shaken to and 
 fro in the water. Having got the pebbles out the prospector 
 stirs the masses of clay with his fingers until the water is 
 fully charged with it, and then, after allowing that water to 
 settle for a moment, he pours it carefully away. He repeats 
 this operation until the clay is all dissolved and washed out 
 of the mass in the pan. This as a rule reduces the amount 
 of stuff" in the pan to no slight extent. Then the real work 
 of separating the gold begins. Filling the pan with water 
 and taking it in both hands, generally resting the elbows on 
 the knees as he sits on some convenient stone, the prospector 
 gives a peculiar circling motion to the water. It is done in 
 such a way that each time the little wave comes around the 
 pan, a small amount of the sand will be swept over the 
 edge. If he has a partner, and prospectors after placers 
 rarely travel alone, this partner pours in more water. A 
 constant repeticion of the process results in gradually re- 
 ducing the bulk of stuff" in the pan until when he pours the 
 water off" after a scientific twist which spreads all the stuff 
 left over the bottom in a thin layer, he can see specks 
 of gold shining in the sunlight, and he knows beyond 
 a peradventure that he has found a placer which is valuable. 
 Having found their placer, his partner and himself proceed 
 to locate it legally by complying with the regulations of 
 the raining district in which it is situated, or doing what is 
 required by the United States law.' And it should be men- 
 tioned here that among mining men the district regulations 
 are often somewhat different from those of the Government, 
 so that it will often pay the prospector to familiarize himself 
 with them. These differences between local and general law 
 while permitted by the latter are far less frequent now than 
 they used to be. Miners have discovered that the law 
 
 > Sec chapter on Mining Laws. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 839 
 
 passed by the Government is so practical and so just that 
 there is no necessity for any change. 
 
 The second class of prospectors in the far west, those who 
 hunt for pockets, are the most improvident and the most 
 peculiar of all men in the business. A "pocket" is the 
 technical name for a small or large deposit of nuggets of 
 gold. How pockets originated or what brought the gold 
 together in the manner in which it is found is a question 
 which cannot be answered here. The theories upon the 
 subject are as many as theories generally are in cases where 
 men are at a loss to explain anything. Certain it is that 
 pockets exist and Jhat large sums of money have been taken 
 out of them. They are of two kinds, those found in old or 
 present water-courses, and those on hill-sides. The first 
 were of course created by the same action which has 
 brought about the existence of the placers. They are gen- 
 erally holes in the rocks at the foot of some waterfall into 
 which large nuggets have fallen. The search after them is 
 the same as that after the placer mines. Hill pockets, or 
 mountain pockets as they are sometimes called, are holes 
 upon a hill-side in which gold has accumulated. Their 
 origin is to the last degree mysterious. The hunt for them, 
 however, fonns the occupation of a class of men called 
 " pocket hunters," and is carried on in this way : The pros- 
 pector starts out armed with his pick, shovel and pan. He 
 has absolutely nothing to guide him in his choice of ground 
 to be tried, and one place being as good as another, his route 
 may be traced by the little holes out of which he has taken 
 a panful of dirt to wash. We will suppose that after a more 
 or less prolonged search, he finds in one pan of dirt a few 
 specks of color. If this be at the base of a hill, and he gen- 
 erally tries the dirt in these places, he proceeds to wash 
 dirt taken from holes ten feet apart in a line horizontal to 
 the spot he first found the color. He may find gold in sev- 
 eral of these places, but he prosecutes his search until he 
 establishes two points beyond which he does not find the 
 gold in the dirt. 
 
 Between these two points is the base line or an imaginary 
 triangle, the apex of which is, he hopes, the wished for 
 pocket. The theory upon which the pocket miner works is 
 simple in the extreme. He reasons that the gold in the 
 pocket being slowly distributed in the form of float or fine 
 
 fold by the action of denudation and as slowly washed down 
 ill by the rain, gradually widens out as it moves covering 
 a larger or smaller, a constantly increasing area. Having a 
 base line for this imaginary triangle of, let us suppose, one 
 hundred feet in length, he strikes a line twenty feet up, and 
 this he proceeds to test by washing pans of dirt taken every 
 few feet across it until he has established two points as before, 
 beyond which he faita to find the gold on either side. This 
 gives him a second line, which may be called a sector of his 
 triangle. If this second line is shorter than the first and if 
 it corresponds to the first ; that is if a line bisecting the first 
 and second would run up the hill, the prospector assumes 
 at once that there is pocket. But should the second line be 
 longer than the first, there being no natural configuration of 
 the surface of the ground to account for this, as for example 
 gullies or ridges, the prospector finds himself at a loss. 
 Assuming, however, that he finds everything all right in the 
 second line, he takes a third still higher up. The first and 
 the second together will give him very close instructions as 
 to the length of the third line and where to locate it. The 
 first being one hundred feet, and the second forty, he aims 
 to make the third about ten. Having done so he begins his 
 search for the pocket itself and when he finds it, as he al- 
 most surely would under such a combination of circum- 
 stances as I have imagined, he may find that it is what is 
 called a "washed pocket" or one in which denudation has 
 dispersed all the gold ; or on the other hand he may find 
 that it is an exceedingly valuable deposit. Large sums of 
 money have been taken out of pockets discovered in this 
 manner. It is scarcely necessary to say that of all modes of 
 livelihood adopted by men, pocket mining or prospecting is 
 the most precarious. While the pocket miner must find ten 
 or even twenty thousand dollars worth of gold which he 
 gets out in a day's work, he is much more apt to go months 
 or even years without finding any. The class of pocket 
 miners is one which is rapidly dying out, and one of them is 
 rarely seen now. It used to be recruited from placer miners, 
 and the men who went into it were generally old. It was 
 
 noticeable, however, that a pocket miner who was once suc- 
 cessful rarely if ever gave up the pursuit. 
 
 The third class and highest development of the ^ejiwg pros- 
 pector is that the members of it search for and discover 
 ledges containing the precious metals. The work is ex- 
 ceedingly hard and full of strange vicissitudes, for to-day 
 the nrospector may be so poor as to find it difficult to secure 
 credit for a side of bacon while to-morrow he may be worth 
 thousands of dollars. In beginning the search or the pros- 
 pecting trip, the prospector secures what is called his 
 ' grub stake." This generally consists of a side of bacon, a 
 bag of flour, one of beans, some tea or coffee, some sugar 
 and salt, and a few chili or red peppers. His personal out- 
 fit consists of a gray suit generally covered with one of 
 brown jeans, a pair of blankets, a felt hat, strong 
 boots, revolver, ammunition, knife, canteen, pipe, tobacco, fire 
 bag containing matches, a rubber blanket or a buffalo robe 
 and one or two personal conveniences of some sort or other. 
 His camping outfit includes an iron pan which may be 
 used as a frying pan, a plate or a pan to wash ore 
 in ; an iron pot of the kind known as a Dutch oven, a tea 
 pot and tin mug. For the actual work of prospecting 
 he takes a pick, shovel, a horn spoon, as an ellipse cut from 
 the outer curve of a horn, is called, and sometimes a small 
 pestle and mortar. If he be well off when he starts he is apt 
 to add to his stores a small quantity of mercury and a large 
 iron spoon. If he be the possessor of a horse or mule he 
 packs all these things upon it, but if not he secures a burro 
 — the Spanish name for a donkey-^and makes the animal 
 carry the "plunder." Sotoe prospectors carry a heavy 
 hammer with them. Starting out he leaves the mining town 
 for a trip which may last anywhere from one month to six 
 or as long in fact as the provisions hold out. He has noth- 
 ing to guide him in his search beyond the fact that he be- 
 lieves that there may be locations in the district into which 
 he is going. To a certain extent his search might be called 
 an indefinite one irom the fact that the ledges may be dis- 
 covered in one place as well as another, and, therefore, all 
 places are alike sat first. The greatest assistance given to 
 the prospector come from the "float." A ledge of rock 
 " cropping out " or appearing above th e surface of the ground 
 at the top of the hill gradually crumbles by the action of 
 water and air upon it. This action, scientifically consider- 
 ed, is a form of denudation ordinarily called by both scien- 
 tists and miners, " weathering." As the pieces of the vein 
 fall off" or become loosened, they, aided by the rain, move 
 away from the ledge, and as a matter of course always roll 
 down hill. These pieces are called "float rock," and the 
 name is applied to them irrespective of the mineral contain- 
 ed in them. There may be " barren " float or " country " 
 float just as there are "barren" ledges or "country" rock. 
 The prospector never passes one of these accumulations of 
 float at the foot of a hill or on the side of the mountain with- 
 out taking the precaution of breaking and examining a 
 number of stones. In fact the prospector is always break- 
 ing stones ; now a spur or point of some ledge projecting 
 from the earth and now a loose pebble which he finds laying 
 on the surface of the ground. We will suppose that he finds in . 
 a piece of float he has just broken in two, the wished for ore. 
 He recognizes it as quickly as one would recognize the face of 
 a friend after a mask is taken offl The next thing the pros- 
 pector has to do is to " trace the float " or find out where it 
 came from. In this he has one almost invariable rule to 
 guide him. Wherever it was that the float started from it 
 did not come up hill. If he breaks a number of pieces of 
 float and finds that they all contain the same ore and if he 
 sees by looking up the hill side that the stones are pretty 
 regularly scattered over it below a line about half way up he 
 may conclude at once that the ledge is there. If he finds 
 the stones are all over the hill side as far up as he can see, 
 he concludes that the ledge crops out on top. He can tell 
 by examination whether the float has been there for a very 
 long time or if tt be comparatively recent. 
 
 In either case he simply walks to where the ledge is, and as 
 a rule he generally finds it pretty easily, and proceeds to 
 "locate" it. But' it may be that the prospector finds his 
 pieces of float in a water course either ancient or present; 
 or at the mouth of a canon. In such a case the work to be 
 done by him is much more complex and difiicult and in- 
 volves the expenditure of a greater or less length of time. 
 
840 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The search for the ledge after finding the float may take a 
 month or a year. In fact instances are not wanting in the 
 history of mining in the west where men have spent hve 
 and six years hunting for a ledge where the float was par- 
 ticularly rich. Should the float be discovered in the bed ot 
 a water course or at the mouth of a cafion, up that water 
 course or canon the prospector goes. He is particularly 
 careful to examine all loose stones found on the way because 
 he reasons that where one piece of float exists it is probably 
 not alone; and the discovery of other pieces will always 
 prove two very important points, namely that he is on the 
 right track and that the piece of float found by him at first 
 was not "a stranger." The greater number of pieces of 
 float found the nearer the prospector reasons he is to the 
 mine. At length there comes a point beyond which he 
 cannot find any. He then begins the search after the ledge 
 on each side of the water course or canon and this search is 
 conducted in the same way that he works when hunting for 
 one of whose existence he has received no intimation from 
 the discovery of float. He walks over the ground breaking 
 off and examining a piece of any spur or ledge of rock he 
 may see. Sometimes but rarely he may remove the surface 
 soil with his pick and shovel in order to find what kind of 
 mineral is in the bed rock. Working in this way and in a 
 direction at right angles to the "strike" or longitudinal 
 line of the strata, he examines everything in sight until he 
 either gives up the search in disgust or finds the ledge. It 
 may be said here that the former is a rare termination to 
 the trip, for prospectors are of all men the most patient and 
 unwearying in the prosecution of their work. 
 
 Having found the ledge either by walking up a hill to 
 where it is or by tracing float and examining the district 
 for a time extending over months, the work of location 
 begins. This may be properly divided into three parts. 
 An examination of the ledge to ascertain its value, compli- 
 ance with the necessary forms to secure possession, and the 
 securing of facilities for working. To take these in their 
 order, the prospector secures from as many points as he 
 may small pieces of ore or ledge matter. These he selects 
 from the most promising points laid bare by weathering or 
 by his efforts with the pick. Placing them between two 
 flat stones he pulverizes them to the size of peas. He then 
 mixes them thoroughly and spreading them out selects half. 
 These he pulverizes more finely and mixing again, again 
 takes a half or a third. He continues this work until he 
 has got about ten ounces of what he considers a fair average 
 sample of all the rock chosen at first. Pulverizing this yet 
 more finely, in fact as fine as he can get it, he washes it in 
 a pan or horn spoon — "horns" it as the miners say — in 
 order to find the color if there be free gold in it. If. it con- 
 tain sulphurets he roasts it in his iron spoon over the fire. 
 As free silver is seldom found except in the form of wire in 
 the clay seams it is recognized at once by its appearance. 
 Whatever method be taken to assure himself of the value of 
 the ledge, the prospector always depends to a considerable 
 extent upon the appearance of the ores. He is familiar 
 with the look of chlorides, sulphurets or carbonates, and an 
 examination of the ledge will determine for him by the eye, 
 the proportion existing between these and. the barren 
 "gang" or rock surrounding the ore. Valuable ore being 
 always mixed with gang vein matter or barren rock — these 
 all mean the same thing when used in this sense — the pro- 
 portion existing in the ledge between the ore and the gang 
 is a very important point to ascertain. The prospector 
 measures the thickness of the ledge and traces it as far as he 
 can find the croppings. He also examines the "walls" or 
 ledges lying on each side of it and endeavors to find a ledge 
 or ledges parallel to it at a short distance away. He then 
 "locates" the mine using the word in a strict sense; that is, 
 he proceeds to comply with the directions of the law in 
 order to make it his property. He measures off a parallelo- 
 gram fifteen hundred feet long by six hundred feet wide 
 and builds piles of stones at each corner. In one or more 
 of these he places a notice of his location. When he returns 
 to the nearest recorder's ofiice he files a copy of the notice of 
 location and a descrijjtion of the claim, and he then has 
 complied with all that is necessary to make that claim his 
 property. Certain amounts of work must be done each yenr 
 in order to hold it, but these are prescribed and set forth i n 
 the Mining Law and the decisions of the Land Ofiice. 
 
 The prospector may also claim a mill site within easy dis- 
 tance of his ledge as" well as a water right if he can find one. 
 The mill site must not exceed five acres in extent and must 
 be upon non-mineral ground. As the possession of a mill 
 site and the water right increases the value of the property 
 greatly, they are almost always taken up or located when it 
 is practicable. The prospector then has found his mine, and 
 by that act together with compliance with certain formali- 
 ties which are very simple, has become its owner. He may 
 sell it, develop it, lease it, or allow his title to lapse. It 
 may make him very rich or he may find that he has lost his 
 time and labor. What becomes of the property after he has 
 got it is of no interest to anyone but himself, and the con- 
 sideration of such a point must be made under some other 
 heading than that of the location of a mine. 
 
 — Alfred Batch. 
 
 THE OPERATION OF A MINE. 
 
 A GREAT business, a great ship, a great army must 
 be managed by some one. There must be some 
 one man to whom questions may be finally re- 
 ferred; who shall decide all points one way or 
 the other. That man must have various qualities of mind 
 or he cannot grapple with the problems submitted to him, 
 he must have knowledge or he is powerless before the ques- 
 tions which present themselves, he must be decided or his 
 decisions are valueless because there is nothing permanent 
 about them, he must be candid or he will persist in mistakes 
 and will not save himself by changing his policy before it 
 be too late. He must be a business man, a practical man, 
 a theoretical man, an executive man. In few words, he 
 must be an efficient man. These are briefly the qualities 
 which must be found in a mining superintendent. The 
 business connected with the mine being of great extent he 
 must be able from previous knowledge and training to settle 
 
 ?[uestions appertaining to it at once and with a due regard 
 or the interests of all parties or there is a waste of money. 
 There being an enormous amount of machinery employed, 
 he must understand not only the operation of such machin- 
 ery when put up but the method of constructing it. He 
 must be a surveyor and understand the questions which are 
 studied by the civil engineer because he may be required to 
 build roads and bridges or to construct canals ; and in any 
 event he is at all times required to know the state in which 
 the mine under his charge is. He must be a miner, for 
 otherwise he cannot know when the men employed are 
 working to the best advantage. Questions of strata or of 
 the policy in connection with faults occur in the manage- 
 ment of mines, therefore he must be a geologist or he is 
 powerless to meet them. The ore varies in value or changes 
 in character; he must be a mineralogist to know what to do 
 and why he does it. At this point, too, he brings chemis- 
 try to his aid, and in his laboratory finds out either person- 
 ally or from his assayer, what conclusions to draw as to the 
 practical working of the ore from the indications given by, 
 and the results of, the tests. While he may not be able to 
 make these tests himself or it may not pay him to so employ 
 his time, he must be competent to draw conclusions from 
 them. He has to superintend the building of furnaces and 
 he must therefore know the value of mortars, the pressure 
 of air blasts, the strength of fire-brick, and the angles of inci- 
 dence which effect heat. His furnaces have to treat ores and 
 he must understand the value and proportion of fluxes and be 
 prepared to vary them when the character of the ores change. 
 The mine itself is a vast underground working having in it 
 avenues called shafts, streets called levels, workshops called 
 " breasts," " faces " or " stopes." There are many men em- 
 ployed in these places, he must know to supply them with 
 air. Enormous amounts of bad air and noxious gases are 
 set free, he must know how to get these out. His mine 
 may heat and he must know what to do to cool it. The men 
 employed may strike and the superintendent must under- 
 stand the problems of political economy which are included 
 in the relation of labor and capital. In fact the list of the 
 different branches of theoretical and practical knowledge 
 which he must possess is almost endless, and the reason why 
 is very simple. As interests involving vast sums of money 
 are committed to his charge, unless he understands and can 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 841 
 
 decide rightly in the questions created by them, he will be 
 inefficient and worse than worthless in his position. 
 
 In view of this fact can the practice of employing any 
 man as a mining superintendent who is destitute of the spe- 
 cial training necessary for such a position be looked upon 
 as being wise? Is it possible that men who have a part of 
 the training only, business mgn or geologists, or engineers, 
 or machinists, or chemists, or miners, can succeed? It must 
 be remembered that as the successful management of a 
 large mine involves questions which relate to each and all 
 of these special branches of information, the chemist may 
 be confronted at any time with one only to be settled by the 
 machinist, or the business m^in with one which must be 
 referred to the geologist. The mining superintendent 
 must be a " many-sided " man if he would be a successful 
 one in his position, he must be prepared to treat two sub- 
 jects, one after the other, as different as are the calculations 
 of an eclipse and pla.cing of a market value upon a wheat 
 crop. In order to treat the questions which have to be set- 
 tled by him ; in other words, to write an article under such 
 a title as that at the beginning cJf this, it is necessary to 
 divide the subject into two parte. These may be stated as, 
 1st, the mining of the ore or those questions which affect 
 the mine itself, and 2nd, the working of the ore or those 
 which arise in the separation of the valuable metal and its 
 preparation for the market. 
 
 First then, as to the mining of the ore. The obvious 
 commencement of mining upon any ledge or ore body is 
 digging the ore out. Given a ledge or ore body the first 
 work is that of making a hole. But as such a deposit' can 
 not be called a mine and as the really important questions 
 of mining are only presented for solution after that deposit 
 by the work done upon it, has become a mine in the strict 
 sense of the word, it follows that in order to examine these 
 questions in detail it is necessary to presuppose the mine to 
 have been created by the development of the deposit. Sup- 
 posing then that this has been done and that the property 
 consists of deposit, shaft or tunnel, levels, breasts and stopes, 
 what are the points which naturally arise in the mining or 
 getting out of the ore. And here again the question which 
 is obviously the first to be settled is that of how to dig or 
 tear the ore from the deposit of which it forms a, part. If 
 the ore be soft and easily worked, this is generally done by 
 the manual labor of wielding the pick: The minerscut 
 the ore away in the breasts with the pick alone. But if it 
 be hard the drill is brought into play and three miners 
 working together, two strike while the third turn? the drill 
 in the hole. The invention and perfection after many 
 changes of the dia;mond drill has brought machinery to the 
 aid of the mine owner, and the amount of drilling or " bor- 
 ing," as it is generally called, done by them is vastly in 
 excess of anything which was done before. They are most 
 valuable parts of the " plant" or stock of machinery owned 
 by the company, and are to be found in all mines the char- 
 acter of whose ore warrants their use. The holes having 
 been drilled or bored, cartridges of some explosive are 
 placed in them and fired, the result being the tearing out of 
 larare masses of the ore. For a long time powder of the or- 
 din"ary kind was the only substance obtainable for the pur- 
 pose but as mining became more and more of a settled 
 industry carried on under more perfect scientific methods, 
 explosives of far greater force and efficiency were discovered 
 and applied. Nitro-glycerine, blasting powder or dynamite 
 are now used almost exclusively. They are exploded by a 
 fuse or by electricity, and are vastly more valuable than 
 the common powder. The actual work of mining or getting 
 out ore from the deposit is pretty much confined to the two 
 methods of picking and blasting. There are cases of course 
 where a deposit is found in such a shape that the breaking 
 of the ore with sledge hammers is all that is necessary, 
 but as such deposits are exceedingly rare, we may conclude, 
 for practical purposes of inquiry, that the pick and the drill 
 in whatever form the latter may be used, are the repre- 
 sentatives of the methods employed. And speaking of the 
 latter, a word should be said about the power drills worked 
 either by compressed air, steam or transmitted power, those 
 in which it is sought to imitate the action of the hand drills. 
 The distinguishing characteristic between these and the 
 "diamonds " is the fact that they are made to strike instead 
 of bore. As a rule they are not very effective from the fact 
 
 that so few of them "clear" themselves; that is, get rid of 
 the rock pounded up by them, effectually. They have their 
 uses, however, the greatest being for employment in shal- 
 low working where the holes sought to be drilled are not 
 very deep. The ore having been torn from ite bed has to 
 be carried in some way to the shaft. This is generally done 
 in cars running on rails or "trams," pushed by men or 
 hauled by horses or mules. These cars run along the lev- 
 els and the ore is either loaded into them by hand or al- 
 lowed to run into them from the " chutes." If the ore is 
 being cut from the face of a level, the former method is the 
 one necessarily resorted to but in every other case the latter 
 
 AfiaA. 
 
 B 
 
 A 
 
 S 
 
 ^-rrrr^ ^-mr' 
 
 a 
 
 is the one adopted. A reference to the cut will explain this. 
 Let A represent the hoisting works, BB the shaft, D the 
 cage having in it a car or wagon, EE Level No. 1, FF Level 
 No. 2, G the breast or place from which the miners are cut- 
 ting ore and H the chute. In the cut this is all represented 
 as though the deposit were perpendicular while as a matter 
 of fact deposits generally dip at a more or less acute angle. 
 But the work in any case is the same. The ore which is 
 taken out from the end of Level No. 2 must be loaded into 
 the cars by hand. But that which is cut in the breast G 
 will if allowed to do so, roll down the chute H by the force 
 of gravity. Any simple gate will stop it and when the cars 
 are placed underneath the chute the opening of this gate 
 will allow the ore to roll out and fill them. The labor of 
 handling the ore then is reduced to the lowest point, and as 
 labor saved is money saved, the use of levels and chutes is 
 easily seen. The ore having been got into the cars, they 
 are hauled to the shaft and run into the cages in which they 
 are hoisted to the surface. The s^ot where the ore is placed 
 ready for sale, if it need no smelting or working, as for ex- 
 ample coal • or when it is heaped to wait for fiirther treat- 
 ment 'is called the "dump"— the etymology of the word is 
 apparent as it is there that the cars are dumped or emptied. 
 This dump may be either a pile upon the surface of the 
 ground or it may be a lofty structure of wood built for the 
 purpose of allowing the ore in subsequent operations to 
 move by the power of gravity exactly as it did m the shoots. 
 So far the questions which have arisen have not been very 
 important. Any miner knows how to operate a drill or fire 
 a cartridge construct a chute or load cars. But when the 
 ore is removed a space is created which brings with it very 
 serious questions. As each stratum rests upon that beneath 
 and in turn supports that above, when one is removed the 
 pressure on the lower one and the support given to the upper 
 one ceases simultaneously. . ^ ,. ^ . ^- -i. 
 
 This at once brings us to the important subject ot timber- 
 ing the mine and "leveling" all cuttings. The timbers 
 placed in a mine are so placed for the purpose of supporting 
 the stratum above, called technically the " hanging wall " 
 or " roof." Their number and size depend entirely upon 
 the nature of this hanging wall, its strength and cohesion. 
 This in turn, depends upon the kind of rock it is composed 
 of as some kinds of rock are more liable to break and fall 
 
842 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 in than others, it follows that they need more support. If, 
 for example, a seam of coal be overhung by a stratum ot 
 poor shale, as fast as a few feet of the coal are worked out 
 timbers must be inserted in their place. But if you are 
 getting out iron ore and you have a heavy and tough lime- 
 stone for your root; few timbers are required, as the pillars 
 left will support that roof. For in cutting out ore, no 
 superintendent will allow all of the deposit to be extracted. 
 Certain parts of it called " pillars," " columns," " buttresses," 
 and a large number of other terms, are left in place. Their 
 object is to support the roof and to prevent a " cave," as the 
 falling of that roof is called. No part of the work of a 
 mine Boss is more important than the determination of what 
 proportion of the deposit to leave in this way and the num- 
 ber of timbers required. Timbers can onljr be used as 
 auxiliary to the pillars, because it would be impossible to 
 substitute them entirely for the ore body. The pressure of 
 the superincumbent strata is so enormous that the strongest 
 timbers are crushed, or bent and broken by it. I have seen 
 an oak timber, twelve inches square and five feet long, 
 crushed down until it was only three and a half feet long. 
 I do not mean bent but absolutely shortened by the force 
 exerted upon it, the ends jammed together in the same way 
 that a piece of rubber may be squeezed in a vice. Such a 
 pressure as this is one which defies all calculation ; we can 
 only state it by stating its effects. The superintendent of 
 the mine must then examine his hanging wall, and deter- 
 mine as the work goes on how many and of what size are 
 the timbers required. But as there is pressure downward in 
 a mine when the ore is removed so there is pressure upward. 
 The "floors" of the levels or the breasts "heave," and 
 they have to be constantly cut down or levelled in order to 
 permit of the work of active mining being carried on. This, 
 however^ properly a branch of the " dead work " of the 
 mine, and will be alluded to more at length when I reach 
 that division of my subject. In timbering a system has 
 been devised and patented, in which each timber forms a 
 part of a whole series of supports. Under it the timbers are 
 all cut of one certain shape, and are put together in the 
 mine in the same way that a piece of machinery is " as- 
 sembled." Each one placed in position is at once a supple- 
 ment to those placed before, does its own share of the work, 
 and prepares the way for the next in order. 
 
 No mattei: how thoroughly the timbering may be done, 
 there is always danger, and as the area of the worked por- 
 tion of the mine increases so does this danger increase. 
 That this should be the case is almost self-evident. As' 
 there must always be adifference in the amount of support 
 given to the superincumbent strata, between that furnished 
 by the ore deposit itself and that of the aggregate of the 
 pillars and timbers ; and as the more extensive the working 
 the greater becomes the sum of this difference, the danger 
 of caving must always be in direct ratio to the area of work- 
 ing. Then, again, the superincumbent strata themselves 
 aid in the work of their support. We have already seen 
 that there is a difference between a strong bed of limestone 
 and a stratum, of poor shale. If we suppose the superincum- 
 bent strata to be of any thickness, it follows that they will 
 be supported to a certain extent by their own resistance to 
 breakage. But the larger the area excavated under them, 
 the less will the stratahe able to resist the tendency to break 
 down in the centre; the greater becomes the leverage ex- 
 erted upon them at the edges of the excavation. As the 
 pillars of ore left behind contain valuable mineral, and as 
 they sometimes amount to more than a half of the whole de- 
 posit^ existing in the worked region, it follows that their ex- 
 traction is work which will pay. There comes a time then 
 in the history of the mine when it is desirable on the score 
 of safety, as well as that of economy, to do something which 
 will at once replace the ore taken out, and allfiw that which 
 has been left behind to be extracted. There is another dan- 
 ger about these worked areas which is found in coal mines. 
 It IS that they become reservoirs or places in which the 
 dangerous fire-damp collects. The superintendent then de- 
 termines to "pull down the roof." In order to do this, he 
 causes the pillars to be removed one by one, replacing them 
 as far as may be necessary with timbers. Upon this work 
 as It IS excessively dangerous, he employs only his most ex- 
 perienced men. Having removed the pillars, or such of 
 them as ho considers safe to move, he may do either one of 
 
 two things. He may shut up that part of the mine and 
 trust to time and the pressure upon the roof to gradually 
 fill up the excavated portion. In this case he simply lets 
 the thing alone, and after a longer or shorter period natural 
 forces bring about the desired result. Or he may decide 
 that he will hurry the thing up. In this case, he has a 
 number of cartridges inserted -in the roof of the worked dis- 
 trict, and connected by wires. Causing all the men to leave 
 the mine, he explodes these himself, or has them exploded 
 in his presence by some one else, in each case the operation 
 being performed at a distance by electricity. There being 
 no support for the roof, for so far as practicable even the 
 timbers are taken out, the explosion of so many cartridges 
 at so many points brings the whole roof down in pieces. 
 As broken stone will always occupy more space than that 
 taken by the stone when unbroken, the excavated area is 
 filled up. It must not be supposed that this process of 
 " pulling down the roof" is one which moves all the super- 
 incumbent strata. On the contrary, the stratum affected by 
 it is that one generally immediately overlying the ore de- 
 posit. In time, if the mining in any district be very exten- 
 sive, the whole district will undoubtedly sink, but this re- 
 quires a long period, and is an operation of extreme slow- 
 ness. When the roof is pulled down, the superintendent, if 
 the mine be one of coal, orders all approaches to the de- 
 serted district to be sealed up with walls built of stone and 
 mortar, in order to prevent the dangerous gases collecting in 
 the interstices between the stones, and so preparing for an 
 explosion. In mines where such gases are not generated, 
 this precaution is one which is of course unnecessary. 
 
 From the time that the miner has got down in the shaft a 
 sufficient distance to begin the first level or cross cut to that 
 when the property is abandoned forever, the ventilation 
 of the workings is a great and almost constantly increasing 
 difficulty. Not alone is it a task of great magnitude to per- 
 suade the air to enter the mine but in these days of exten- 
 tensive workings and liberal use of explosives the difficulty 
 of forcing the bad air and the gases generated by the ore 
 or by the explosive agents out of the workings is a very 
 great one. Fortunately experience has shown that currente 
 of air can be made to move from one place or another, can 
 be directed in such a way that they will search out the most 
 obscure corners, provided the persons managing them know 
 how. There are two principles which are relied upon to 
 ventilate a mine, that of heat expanding the air and the 
 abhorence of a vacuum by nature. Add to these a system of 
 pumping or forcing air into a place and we have the three 
 ideas upon the expansion of which into practical methods 
 all ventilation of raining properties depends. There are 
 various causes which develop heat in mines. The lamps or 
 candles by the light of which the miner works, the heat 
 given out by the bodies of the men as the result of that work, 
 the oxydation of sulphur if any be present in the mineral or 
 in the walls, being among them. There may be, too, the 
 heat of thermal springs or, if the mine be deep enough, that 
 which is found in the rock. If we suppose a shaft to be 
 sunk say two thousand feet and if in the centre of that shaft 
 we placed a tube or box or any substance, wood for exam- 
 ple, which runs from the surface of the ground to the bottom 
 of the shaft there would at once be created a circulation of 
 air. The air around the sides of the shaft being heated by 
 the walls would rise and the vacuum so created would draw 
 the cold air down through the box. But if we kindled a 
 fire below the box the current of air would be down the 
 shaft and up the box. The system of ventilating a mine by 
 heat is simply the one which we have imagined expanded 
 to the extent necessary to ventilate the whole mine. If we 
 run off at one side from the bottom of our shaft a level of 
 five hundred feet in length and carried the box into the face 
 of it we would have precisely the same thing taking place as 
 before. The air as heated by the walls would travel along 
 the level and ascend the shaft while the cold air would come 
 through the box. If instead of constructing a box we placed 
 a division in the shaft cutting it into two equal parts thecold 
 air would descend on one side and the warm air would ascend 
 on the other. Suppose how^ever that we had two shafts one 
 at each end of the level. Then the air would come down 
 one, traverse the level and go up the other. The direction 
 in which it would travel would depend upon the size of the 
 shafts or the amount of heat generated. If the shafts were 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 843 
 
 of unequal size, the air would come down the smaller and go 
 up the larger. If it is the same, the air would move in the 
 direction of that shaft the centre or equilibrium of heat 
 was nearest to. If the centre or equilibrium of heat was ex- 
 actly in the centre of the level and if the friction on the air 
 was exactly equal in each shaft, then we could cause the air 
 to move whichever way we pleased by building a fire at 
 the foot of the shaft we wished it to ascend. Keeping that 
 fire burning for a day would be sufficient to cause the air to 
 ascend that shaft in preference to the other for all time be- 
 cause the cold air constantly descending through one shaft 
 would cool that shaft off and so move the point of equilibri- 
 um of heat nearer to the other. The ventilation of a mine 
 where pumping is not necessary ia merely an expansion of 
 the system which has just been outlined. But there are two 
 most important variations possible in the application of this 
 
 that it is well nigh impossible to lay down any one rule. 
 The experienced and able superintendent will select that 
 which under all the conditions present seems to promise the 
 best results ; and if he finds, as he sometimes will, that the 
 system adopted at first is deficient, he may change it or re- 
 sort to auxiliary methods to aid it. It is generally the case 
 that auxiliary heat, in the shape of fires maintained at the 
 foot of the shaft or that portion of it tlirough which the air 
 ascends, is employed. There are other methods too, such 
 as the employment of a descending column of water, falling 
 through a pipe and impinging into a trough, which will 
 force the air into boxes from which it may be taken to 
 various parts of the workings. 
 
 The most important of these, however, is the pumping or 
 forcing of air into the mines by the employment of pressure 
 blowers or air pumps. The operation of these may be seen 
 
 - ?-■ T 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 Mining Life.— Boeing a Blast Hole. 
 
 — Froai '^ La Vie SuJit&rrojine,^* by X. Simonin. 
 
 system. We may either take the fresh air in through a box 
 to the workings or we may take the foul air out. Each has 
 its advantages. In the first we find the introduction of the 
 fresh air and the removal of the foul easier than in the sec- 
 ond. In the second the foul air and gases generated by ex- 
 plosions are carried off at once and are not forced to travel 
 through the level to the shaft. We may dispense with the 
 box or " Solar " as it is sometimes called and force_ the air 
 to travel into one level, thence through the breasts into the 
 other and thence out. In this case the levels themselves are 
 made the channels or pipes for the air. The best method 
 when it is practicable is to draw the foul air through the 
 boxes, it being of great importance to remove the gases and 
 heat as rapidly as possible. It may be said, however, that 
 the determination of a method of ventilation so entirely de- 
 pends upon the peculiarities of the mine to be ventilated 
 
 to great advantage in the deep mines of the Comstock, where 
 millions of cubic feet of air are forced into the deep work- 
 ings during every twenty-four hours. If pumps be employ- 
 I ed they should be double acting, that is the piston head 
 should be solid and valves placed at each end of the cylin- 
 der. If blowers are used they should be chosen among the 
 "pressure" blowers for the simple reason that fans have 
 rarely enough power to do much good. A case in point oc- 
 curred in one of the Comstock mines. The supply of air 
 being insufiicient a large and powerful fan was added to the 
 blowers and pumps already in use. The men complained 
 that the supply was less than before and an investigation 
 showed thajt the air was actually being forced out through 
 the fan although this was running at a high rate of speed. 
 As the pumps and blowers may be employed to force the 
 air in, so they may be used to draw it out. This however, 
 
844 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 must be considered a wasteful application of power as it is 
 more difficult to create a vacuum and cause the air to move 
 into it than it is to move the air itself. It sometimes, but 
 rarely happens that the conditions found in a given working 
 will necessitate this method of ventilation. Such conditions 
 being purely and necessarily special do not call for more 
 than an allusion in such an article as this. 
 
 Speaking of pumps for forcing air into the mine brings 
 us naturally to those which hoist out water, that bane 
 of miners ! No consideration in the working or operation 
 of a mine is more grave than this one of the removal of the 
 water. It is of such importance aa to sometimes, and 
 in fact, not seldom, cause the abandonment of the 
 property and is one of the risks which can never be 
 estimated beforehand. When contemplating a purchase 
 of course if the mine be entered by a tunnel, as 
 speaking in general terms, it always will be when it 
 is practicable, the question of drainage is simple in the 
 extreme. All that must be done is to allow the water to run 
 through the canal cut for it in the bottom of the tunnel. 
 But in the mines where shafts have been sunk, the water 
 must be hoisted out by pumping. And just here it may be 
 proper to say that in the writer's opinion there never was a 
 more perfect machine devised by man than the Cor- 
 nish pumping engine. If the requirements for perfection 
 in any mechanical contrivance be cheapness in working, ease 
 of graduation or the amount of work done, simplicity of 
 parts and adaptability to the end in view then the Cornish 
 pumps must be pronounced to be perfect. No other word 
 will describe it. The reader by referring to the cut will see 
 at the bottom of the shaft B B a rounded place marked C. 
 This is the "rump" or "rumph," the basin into which all 
 the water in the mine is allowed to run. Into it open the 
 suction pipes of the pumps, and from it the water which is 
 pumped out is taken. It should be large enough to receive 
 the water from the mine and to allow it to settle before 
 being removed. The suction pipes from the pumps which 
 lead into it should of course be carefully screened in order 
 to prevent the possibility of small stones being sucked up 
 into them. The rump should also be made large enough to 
 permit of the bailing of the water by large casks, in case 
 such a proceeding becomes necessary, for it sometimes hap- 
 pens that a subterranean body of water being tapped during 
 the working, the mine becomes flooded and the pumps are 
 utterly insufficient to clear it. An example of this was the 
 flooding of the Savage mine in the Comstock. In such a 
 case bailing must be resorted to. And incidentally it may 
 be pointed out that in such a case the pumps used in many 
 of our mines, pumps to which the steam is carried by a sup- 
 ply pipe from the surface become perfectly worthless, owing 
 to the fact that the steam is so cooled down in the pipe as to 
 lose its pressure. The Cornish pump on the contrary will 
 work even if its rod be in the water half or three-quarters 
 of its length. For the drawing of the mine into the rump 
 it is necessary to cut canals in the floors of the levels. 
 These are called "channel-ways," and should be large 
 enough to permit any ordinary amount of water passing 
 along them. If cut in the centre of the level the channel 
 way must be covered with boards in order to prevent the 
 falling into it of lumps of ore and dirt. In fact whether it 
 be made in the centre or at the side it is always good policy 
 to cover it in. From the levels to the rump the water must 
 be taken m pipes of some kind, or if the shaft be timbered 
 it may be allowed to find its way down between the timber 
 casing and the walls. It is good policy, however, to con- 
 struct pipes either of wood or metal for it to run through as 
 It IS often of such a character as to rot the woo'd rapidlv, and 
 It IS tar cheaper to renew the pipes than it is to replace the 
 casing of a shaft. There is use to which this water may be 
 put which IS worthy of allusion and comment. 
 
 bo far we have been considering the working of a 
 mine through a shaft, a system of levels and stoning from 
 level to level. But it sometimes happens that we wish to sink 
 winzes or small shafts within the mine which do not 
 reach to the surface. These may be sunk for the purpose of 
 connecting two levels, or for purposes of discovery. In the 
 cut 1 1 represents a winze connecting levels 1 and 2 and 
 prospecting into the ore body below level F F. In sinking 
 t^?A\ r?r chamber" or ,,lace large enough to w^rk 
 in, is first hollowed out, and then the wo?k is done in the 
 
 same way as that of sinking the shaft. For a short dis- 
 tance the hoisting of rock out of a winze may be done by 
 an ordinary hand capstan or crank barrel, such as those 
 used to lift water in buckets out of wells. But when the 
 winze is sunk to any depth, this becomes far too laborious 
 work to be performed by hand and it is necessary to employ 
 power of some kind. If the amount of air available in 
 such a place is sufficient, an engine is of course erected 
 and run. But, as often happens, this is not the case 
 and we have our choice of four methods. A horse 
 power, transmitted power by wire ropes, compressed air 
 and the weight of a body of water. Of these the transmitted 
 is the best power when it can be applied, the compressed 
 air if the work be light and the pressure of the column of 
 water conducted in a pipe from the surface and utilized in 
 some form of water engine when the work is very heavy. 
 In case the water be used, it is advisable to construct an 
 additional rump near the engine and to pump from that in 
 order to save the power necessary to lift the water from the 
 deep workings. As the power secured in this way costs 
 first what it takes to raise the water to the surface again, 
 any saving in this is a direct saving. One of the most ex- 
 pensive divisions of labor in a mine is what is ordinarily 
 called "dead work." It is that work which is done in 
 order to allow of ore being extracted, and may be compared 
 to the building of a bridge in order to reach a desired spot. 
 It is a means to an end. While the object of mining is dis- 
 tinctly that of taking out ore, it ofttimes, in fact almost al- 
 ways happens that a great deal of labor must be done and 
 large amounts of money expended, before the ore can be got 
 at. This is the dead work, and in nothing does the superin- 
 tendent show his ability more than in the way in which he 
 plans out and has this work done. He must avoid on the 
 one hand the doing of so much that the profits of the mine 
 are swallowed up and on the other, of doing so little that 
 the mine is in danger of becoming " boxed," that is, of get- 
 ting into such a state that the ore can be neither cut nor re- 
 moved in the cheapest way. Theoretically speaking the 
 ventilation and drainage are properly parts of the dead 
 work, but their importance is such that they have been by 
 common consent relegated to separate divisions. We have 
 already had in the leveling or '^plaining " of floors of the 
 levels, cross cuts, breasts or whatever part of the mine where 
 a heave has taken place, a reference to the dead work. 
 The extension of levels so that when a portion of the 
 vein or deposit is worked out, a fresh portion is ready 
 for working, is dead work. To look at it in a general way a 
 mine always consists of three parts, that in which the ore 
 has been extracted, that fi-om which the ore is being taken, 
 and that from which it is to be taken in the future. 
 
 The preparation of this third division for the miners, get- 
 ting it into shape for easy access, ventilating and draining 
 it, is all dead work. A good superintendent always keeps 
 mine, by doing this dead work ahead of the actualwork of 
 extraction of the ore. It is of couree the case that during 
 the time the dead work is being done, there is often some 
 ore extracted, but it is rare that rock which is not ore has 
 not to be taken out also. 
 
 The ore being ready for hoisting to the surface some 
 power with which to do this is necessary. At first when the 
 shaft is not very deep, hand capstans may be used, or a 
 horse " whin " employed. But as time goes on steam must 
 be brought into play. The boilers have to be put into 
 place, the great hoisting engines built and the "pit head," 
 ' derrick " or whatever the structure over the shaft which 
 carries the enormous "sheaves" or pulleys over which the 
 cables run, may be called, erected. The superintendent 
 must know how to plan these things in order to obtain the 
 requisite amount of power. As their size varies with each 
 mine it is very difficult to say much about them, except in 
 a general way. Such a question as the prct^suro of steam to 
 be employed is, for example, settled almost entirely by that 
 of the value of the fuel available. With the kind of wood 
 which engineers are often forced to use in the West, a low 
 pressure is all that can be obtained. With good coal, a 
 high pressure may be utilized. It would expand this article 
 far bi-yond its limits were I to attempt to go into the respec- 
 tive merits of high and low pressure hoisting engines. It 
 is proper, Iiowcvim-, for me to mention one fact. The weight 
 of the descending cap and wagons can be utilized whenever 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 846 
 
 there is a double shaft, and it is therefore always wise to 
 have such shaft when the mine will warrant the necessary 
 expenditure. I so state the proviso advisedly. There is often 
 the mistake made of beginning with an expenditure for 
 hoisting works and shafts which subsequent developments 
 do not justify, and a superintendent should know his mine 
 thoroughly before advising such an outlay of the company's 
 money. The character or details of the engine employed, 
 the style used and the expense necessary to secure it, each 
 superintendent must decide after examining the mine and the 
 work to be done. There are many hoisting engines adapted 
 for diiferent kinds of work and it would be impossible to dis- 
 tinguish between them when writing generally as I am now. 
 
 The ore being upon the surface of the ground we must 
 face the question of " what will he do with it," to quote 
 from Bulwer. And this in turn is governed by the charac- 
 ter of the ore itself and the uses to which it is to be put. 
 It may be all ready for use, as is coal ; or the first part of 
 the work may only have been done, as in the case of iron. 
 I shall not attempt to give full and minute instructions for 
 reaching the products of mines after they have_ been ex- 
 tracted and hoisted to the surface. Such instructions would 
 be far too technical for the general reader and may be pro- 
 perty sought for in works upon practical metallurgy. But 
 1 shall in a general way indicate the processes necessary for 
 the handling of ores and the reasons why those processes 
 are employed. Beginning then with that to which the least 
 work is done, coal has simply to be screened to separate the 
 different sized lumps, and is then ready for sale. It some- 
 times happens when the coal is " dirty " or largely mixed 
 with shale or slate that it must be picked over by hand, but 
 this is rarely the case except when the seam is very narrow. 
 Coal that is mined then is ready for market. Taking the 
 ore of quicksilver as one which after it is mined, one opera- 
 tion has to be performed before it is ready for market, we 
 find that when the cinnabar or sulphuret of mercury, the 
 ore usually found, is to be treated, we have to build a fur- 
 nace. The treatment of the ore depends upon two facts. 
 First, that mercury is a metal easily sublimed or turned 
 into vapor ; and second, that sulphur in combination with 
 it will unite with lime in the presence of heat and set the 
 mercury free. Proceeding then from our knowledge of 
 these two facts, we mix the cinnabar, previously broken 
 into small pieces, with quick-lime and expose the mass to 
 the action of fire. The reaction which takes place is pre- 
 cisely that indicated by the two chemical facts to which al- 
 lusion has been made. The heat causes the sulphur to 
 leave the mercury and to unite with the lime, setting the 
 mercury free in a metallic state. It then causes the mer- 
 cury to become a vapor to turn into fumes. Having secured 
 the'metal in this form, all that we have to do is to cause it 
 to condense back in a fluid shape and the operation is con- 
 ducted by simply cooling it. Practically, a reverberatory 
 furnace is built and the mass of ore mixed with lime is 
 placed UDOn the hearth. The mercurial fumes are con- 
 ducted away from it into the condensing chambere through 
 which as they pass they are met by sprays of falling water. 
 These chambers are so constructed as to cause the fumes to 
 pass slowly through them and to give the water sprays a 
 chance to extract the heat and so cool the metal. The bot- 
 toms of the chambers, technically called the " tanks," are 
 shallow basins partly filled with water into which the mer- 
 cury in a fluid state falls. When the mercury is secured all 
 that has to be done is to place it in the iron flasks in which 
 it is sold and send it to market. 
 
 In the consideration of this system in securing the mer- 
 cury which exist in the ore in a marketable state, we have 
 touched upon a simple example of the principle upon which 
 the reduction of all metals depends. It was when we spoke 
 of mixing the ore with lime. Ores of metal are bodies in 
 which the metal exists in combination with other chemical 
 substances, and with gang, or other matter which contains 
 no mineral. The gang may be removed mechanically as 
 when we crush rock containing free gold, we may wash the 
 gang out in a pan. But when the metal is chemically com- 
 bined with other things we must supply during our opera- 
 tions some substance which will extract the combining 
 chemical elements and leave the metal. The substances so 
 supplied are technically called " fluxes," and depend for 
 their operation upon the laws of chemical affinity. It is 
 
 not necessary to go into those laws here. It is sufficient to 
 say that the affinity existing between A and B is greater 
 than that between A and C under certain conditions; and 
 that given those conditions, we can cause A to leave and 
 combine withB. It often happens that this action will take 
 place more rapidly in the presence of heat, and we therefore 
 build furnaces or structures in which we may cause heat to 
 aid this action. When we supplied the heat to the mixture 
 of cinnabar and quicklime, we caused the sulphur in the 
 cinnabar to leave the mercury and combine with the lime. 
 This the sulphur did, because in the presence of heat its 
 affinity for lime is greater than for quicksilver. Many peo- 
 ple imagine that furnaces melt ores in some such way as 
 grease may be melted in a pan. This is a mistake. The 
 furnaces simply permit the combining element present in the 
 ore to leave the metal and combine with something else ; and 
 the metal set free is melted and run into convenient foims. 
 
 Iron ore being upon the surface and ready for working 
 requires sometimes two processes before it is ready for mrr- 
 ket. It must be roasted if it contain sulphur, and then 
 smelted. In the first place the ore being piled in loose 
 stacks or placed in roasting furnaces is exposed to the action 
 of a slow fire for some time. The sulphur in it being 
 heated becomes sublimed, and either by burning unites with 
 the oxygen of the air or is driven off in sulphur fumes. 
 Having been roasted, the ore is mixed with proper propor- 
 tions of flux and is smelted. If the ore be a carbonate of 
 iron, the combining element of the carbon unites with the 
 oxygen forced in by the air-blast and burns away. But in 
 the treatment of such an ore we have to get rid of the gang, 
 and this is so intimately mixed with it that we never hope 
 to do so by mechanical means. We therefore ascertain 
 what chemical elements are in that gang and supply in the 
 fluxes used some material which by uniting with it will 
 change the form in which it is, permit the metal to separate 
 from it and enable us to remove the two separately. If the 
 ore be that which is often found and worked, the carbonate 
 of iron mixed with argillaceous earths and clays we add 
 lime stone, and if there be no silica in the ore, a certain 
 amount of sand. In the presence of heat the argillaceous 
 earths and clays, the lime stone and the silica unite to form 
 a fusible glass-like substance called " slag," having a differ- 
 ent specific gravity from the iron. The carbonate of iron 
 having the carbon burnt out by the oxygen in the blast and 
 being melted by the heat of the burning coal, sinks down to 
 the bottom of the fiirnace to which place the slag also runs. 
 But the specific gravity of the slag and the iron being dif- 
 ferent they form two layers in the furnace which may be 
 compared to water and oil in a glass ; and they may be 
 tapped and drawn out separately. The questions of most 
 importance in the smelting of iron ore are those which relate 
 to the building of the furnaces, the proportions and kinds 
 of fluxes used and the economical use of coal. 
 
 To settle these questions the superintendent must know 
 how to build a fiirnace. The importance of this knowledge 
 is very great, for upon the shape given to the furnace de- 
 pends the amount of metal which can be worked. Some 
 ores require greater time for their passage through the fur- 
 nace than others ; or must be exposed to the action of the 
 fluxes for a longer period. The internal shape of the fur- 
 nace will, to a large extent, regulate the rapidity with which 
 the ore goes through. As the object in every case is to pass 
 the ore through with the greatest speed consistent with its 
 reduction, the superintendent will, in building his furnace, 
 make such changes as may be necessary to suit the particular 
 kind of ore which he is dealing with. The kind of fuel ob- 
 tainable brings with it the question of whether a hot or cold 
 blast is to be used to obtain the best results from the work- 
 ing. It may be said generally, that the hot blast, or the air 
 forced into the furnace raised to a temperature of about 600°, 
 will enable the superintendent to use ordinary coal in place 
 of coke or charcoal. It is said that " hot blast " iron is in- 
 ferior to " cold blast," but I am not certain that this has 
 been conclusively proved. At any rate, as the object of the 
 superintendent is always to get the largest return in money 
 as the result of the operation of the mine as a whole, the 
 blast used, and the iron made, will depend upon the indi- 
 vidual conditions under which the particular mine is worked. 
 Fluxes being of enormous importance, the superintendent 
 will not only look out at all times for a convenient source of 
 
846 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 supply, but will examine into the proportions being used 
 with great care, in order to see ^xactly where his work stands, 
 whether he is working the ore to the best possible advantage, 
 and at the least possible expenditure of money. The result 
 of the operation of the furnace in metal and slag will teach 
 him a great deal. If he finds his metal too hard, for ex- 
 ample, he will know that the iron, after reaching a metallic 
 state, is exposed to the action of carbon for too long a time. 
 He must then hasten its passage through the coal. If he 
 finds that the slag is sluggish, and will not run over the 
 "slag-stone" easily, he knows that the proportions of the 
 flux to the ore must be varied in some way. It would be 
 impossible for me to go into a list of the indications which 
 point to a change in the treatment of the ore being neces- 
 sary, for the simple reason that were I to do so I would 
 write a whole book instead of a single article. Suffice it 
 that I point them out in this general way as an example of 
 the method by which the superintendent ascertains if the 
 work be going on right, and, at the same time, as an instance 
 of the kind of questions which the superintendent has to 
 
 smelting of such rock will cost more than the metal yielded 
 by it will amount to. But if two and a half tons of the rocc 
 be taken, and the ore separated out, we get one ton of ore to 
 smelt in the furnace and a ton and a half of gang which we 
 throw away. Smelting that ton of ore may pay very well. 
 This is what is called the concentration of ore. The primi- 
 tive method of doing it was the picking over and sorting of 
 the ore by hand, which was a very slow and costly process. 
 As there is a difference in the specific gravity of the ore and 
 the gang, advantage is taken of the fact to separate them 
 and machines more or less complicated, and working with 
 water or without, have been devised for the work. Some of 
 them are very effective. It is always a measure of economy 
 when the ore is such as to permit of its being done, and the 
 conditions are favorable, to concentrate the ore before 
 treatment in the furnaces, and it will often make the differ- 
 ence between a paying and a non-paying property. 
 
 To the three classes already specified we must add a 
 fourth, that in which the ore after it is extracted from the 
 mine has to be worked, but in which the plant for such work 
 
 Mining Life.— Crushing Ore by the Old Mexican Process. 
 
 — From " La Souterrame, "6y L. Simonin. 
 
 meet. This latter contains, inferentially, a description of the 
 kind of man the successful superintendent must be. 
 
 All deposits of ore which have to be treated by fire in 
 order to extract the metal contained in them, are treated by 
 modifications of the two processes described, roasting and 
 smelting. The details of the treatment vary with the mine- 
 rals, as do the fluxes employed, and the shapes of the fur- 
 naces. We have, then, three classes of ores ; first, those 
 which are ready for sale as soon as ruined, second, those 
 which have to be roasted, and third, those which require 
 smelting. There is a process often necessary for the eco- 
 nomical treatment of ores which applies to those of the 
 second and third. It is a part of the preparation of the 
 ores tor the furnaces, and is called " concentration." It Is 
 applied to such ores as consist in the veins or deposits of 
 ore intermixed with gang. With such ores it is of course 
 pertectly apparent that the treatment in a furnace should 
 only be applied to the ore itself, and not to the gang, as 
 that contains no valuable metal. Supposing that in a ton 
 ol rock as taken from the deposit, there is forty per cent of 
 ore and sixty per cent, of gang. It may easily te that the 
 
 does not include a smelting furnace. Such ores are worked 
 by crushing and mixing direct with some substance which 
 will combine with the chemical farm of matter in combina- 
 tion with the metal. An example of this class is the ore 
 carrying the precious metals in combination with sulphur. 
 The ore is mined, roasted and taken to the mill. Here it is 
 broken with some crushing machinery into lumps about the 
 size of an ordinary potato, and then placed in the battery. 
 Heavy stamps being caused to fall upon it, pound it into a 
 fine powder, in which condition it passed through the 
 screens, as the fine sieves are called. From there it is taken to 
 the pans, where, being mixed with mercury by the action of 
 tlie revolving inullcrs, the amalgam or paste composed of mer- 
 cury, gold and silver is formed. The whole mass being remov- 
 ed to the settlers, the fine gang, vein matter, and in fact every- 
 thing except the amalgam, is washed away, and the amal- 
 gam is then taken and " retorted." That" is, it is placed in 
 a retort and heated, when the mercury sublimes and passes 
 away in vapor only to be condensed and used again, while 
 the gold and silver are left behind. These being melted, 
 are formed into the familiar " bricks." It will be noticed 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 847 
 
 that in this process the ore was roasted to drive off the sul- 
 phur, being as far as that part of the work is concerned, 
 treated as though it had to be smelted. But should the ore 
 be a quartz carrying fine or native gold, this roasting would 
 not be necessary. In the treatment of the ores of the pre- 
 cious metals, there are various modifications demanded by 
 those in the character and kind of ore to be worked. 
 Among these may be mentioned chlorination and treatment 
 by the special processes and methods. 
 
 The opening of the mine, its ventilation and drainage, the 
 extraction of the ore and its treatment, have all been de- 
 scribed generally, and this part of the duties of a superinten- 
 dent has been sufficiently indicated. But there are other 
 points which arise in the management of a great mining 
 property which must be alluded to briefly, and first among 
 them is the question of labor. Good miners are men who 
 are always worth a great deal of money, and who cannot 
 always be got, especially in new districts. While they do 
 not necessarily know very much about the many questions 
 which serve to worry the minds of the superintendent and 
 those who ha^e the mine in charge, they should understand 
 
 will wash it into heavy gutters. It is well, if it be possible 
 to have it wide enough for the passage of two wagons at 
 once, but if this be impracticable, places at which the wag- 
 ons may pass each other in ascending and descending should 
 be carefully built. The grade should not be too steep 'or the 
 wagons will be racked to pieces and yet should be steep 
 enough to give the animals used little to do beyond steering 
 the wagons down hill. When the hill side is straight, it is 
 often economical to construct double "teams" or railways 
 and to allow the loaded wagons to pull the empty ones up. 
 If it be impracticable to build a road or if the ore have to 
 be carried across a "bassanca," canon or deep gully, it will 
 often pay to send it in buckets suspended from rollers which 
 travel upon a single rail and string piece supported by posts. 
 The power in this case is flirnished by a long and endless 
 wire rope passing at the mill or mine around a drum. An 
 important consideration for the mining engineer is often the 
 supply of water for the mine and mill. This has sometimes 
 to be brought a long distance, as that which is pumped from 
 the mine is rarely available for the boilers from the quantity 
 of chemical substances contained in it. If possible the 
 
 Mining Life — Akkastra oe Mbxican Mill fok Treatment of Gold and 
 
 Silver Ores. 
 
 From " La Vie Souterraine" by L. Simonin. 
 
 their business thoroughly. Experienced miners will save 
 large amounts of money to the owners during the year, and 
 for this reason. They know how to manage that portion of 
 the work committed to them. An inexperienced or green 
 hand will often do more damage than he does good, and he 
 rarely is able to give the " Underground Agent," " Captain," 
 or "Mining Boss," as the assistant superintendent under- 
 ground is called, the information about the worMngs which 
 is of so much value. He does not do his work as well as a 
 rule, and he requires constant supervision.* A very neces- 
 sary part of the work of a mining superintendent is the lay- 
 ing out of roads and the building of bridges if any be needed. 
 This comes directly into the question of the transportation of 
 ore after being mined. If the pit head be on top of a hill, 
 and the mill or furnaces be at the bottom, as in such 
 case they almost always are, the transportation of the 
 ore may be effected by wagons over a good road. This 
 should be built in such a way that no ordinary rain 
 
 * See Article on Labor Problems, close of this Part. 
 
 water should be got from a spring which does not dry up at 
 any period of the year and the ditch, pipe or flume used to 
 bring it to where it is wanted should always be constructed 
 large enough to give all that is necessary for some years to 
 come. 
 
 A powder house or place in which to keep explosives 
 should always be constructed. If there is a deserted drift or 
 tunnel, by placing in it two heavy gates or doors at least ten 
 feet apart it forms an excellent magazine. It should always 
 be ventilated by openings or grates in these doors. If a 
 house has to be" built it should be so at a distance from the 
 works and pit-head and should be solidly constructed of 
 stone and surrounded by a wall. The keys of the gate and 
 door should always be in the hands of the clerk of the mine 
 or the storekeeper, who should be responsible for the pow- 
 der and should never be allowed to issue it except in person. 
 
 A capable superintendent should see that ari;angen)pnts 
 for the introduction into the mining camps of suet things as 
 groceries and dry goods by storekeepers are made, although 
 it is a mistake, unless we find that the men are outrageously 
 fleeced, for him to advise the company to run a store. 
 
848 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEKESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Miners are as much given to lying as are other men, and 
 stories about the amount of profit made by_ the store out of 
 them are sure to set afloat and frequently give no small aid 
 to those who wish to start strikes. If the company own the 
 ground around the mine, as they often do, it is well to let it 
 to the miners to build houses upon. In such case a small 
 ground rent should always be charged in order that the men 
 may not think that they own the lots in fee. An agreement 
 should be made by the company to take the improvements 
 made at a fair valuation in case the men leave, or what is 
 better yet the custom should be known to prevail. The 
 ground rent and the purchase of the houses built gives the 
 superintendent a check upon the men and enables him to 
 insist upon the premises being kept in good order. Such 
 things as drainage and the supply of water should as a rule 
 be attended to by the company, enough being charged in 
 each case to give a fair interest on the money expended. 
 That nothing can be worse than for the company to do 
 things for the miners for nothing — may be laid down as a 
 general rule. The exception to this, for like all rules it has 
 an exception, is the furnishing of a hospital and medical at- 
 tendance free for those who become injured in the mine by 
 accident or as the result of any cause directly connected with 
 the mine. When there are several mines near together, the 
 companies can unite to fit up a hospital for the benefit of all 
 employed. The physician who attends to the hospital will 
 of course have a certain amount of practice among the mi- 
 ners and their families, but as this is insufficient to support 
 him, the company should supplement it by such payments 
 as may be necessary. Beading clubs and free libraries should 
 be encouraged to the utmost; or if the latter are not free the 
 charge for them should be of the most nominal kind. When 
 the men get up clubs or libraries, the Superintendent should, 
 without interfering with them in any way, make his appro- 
 bation of such things strongly felt by liberal donations of 
 books. As the libraries should be encouraged, so the liquor 
 saloons should be discouraged. A man who as soon as the 
 monthly pay day comes, after squaring up his account pro- 
 ceeds to spend every cent he has left on whiskey or gin, 
 may help to increase the profits of the saloon keeper, but he 
 is not much good under ground. Not only does he " lay off" 
 until the spree and its effects have passed away, but, when 
 he does go to cutting again he is not trustworthy. It is 
 scarcely necessary to say that a superintendent who drinks 
 himself cannot preach the value of temperance very loudly. 
 Of course, if there be many children in the camp, the com- 
 pany will see that a good school is provided. It will receive 
 more than the money expended in the increased value of 
 the labor of the boys when they come to take their place 
 under ground. It is of some importance for the superin- 
 tendent to remember that he represents the company to the 
 men, and that his influence whether for good or evil, cannot 
 be overestimated. He rules a large body of men, and if he 
 be fit for the place, he rules them wisely. He is not there 
 simply to make the greatest output possible for any one year. 
 He is there to manage a great property, and to manage it 
 so that it will always be worth as much as when he took 
 hold of it, excei)t of course in the one matter of the amount 
 of ore in the mine. He can only so manage it by remem- 
 bering that an important diversion of the interests under 
 his control consists of the labor employed. If he treats the 
 men in such a way, and he very easily can, as to bring about 
 constant strikes he is unfit for his position. If on the other 
 hand they are satisfied, the company will find that in choos- 
 ing him they made a wise choice, and that the financial 
 result of his management is one which shows a comfort- 
 able balance on the credit side of the ledger. 
 
 —Alfred Bakh. 
 
 THE MINER AND THE CAPITALIST. 
 
 IN the old days, "the days of 49" as the song has it, 
 the plant required by the miner in the West was a 
 pick, shovel and pan. When he found his placer 
 he, aided by his partners, constructed a "long torn " 
 ZL 'u''7-^^' ^°^ '"^ .*™f' P^i-liaps, built a ditch and 
 ^?'.i,- »° ™»°"Jg tlie days were essentially those of 
 small things. The man who could not afford a "tom " or 
 
 the expense of mercury for the " rifles," could make ways 
 with his pan alone if the claim was good. He could save 
 some money and in time, as the result of those savings, 
 could construct the things necessary for increasing his gains 
 more rapidly. Any man could begin by himself with a fair 
 chance, providing he brought strength, sobriety and shrewd- 
 ness to his aid, of making a handsome amount of money. 
 But as time went on and the " diggings " got worked out, 
 the search for the precious metals began to assume a more 
 business-like character. It was no longer that the miner of 
 to-day acted as a teamster next week only to return to min- 
 ing in a month or two. What had been an incident in a 
 man's life became his life's business. The form of mining 
 changed when the quartz ledges, or "reefs " as they are call- 
 ed in Australia, were discovered. It was found that ex- 
 pensive plants were required to work them, and the reign of 
 the capitalist and the company began. It became necessary 
 for the men who found the mines to have money before they 
 could develop them, as hoisting works cost more than a pick, 
 and stamp mills were mor6 expensive than pans. It was 
 discovered that the ores which contained the precious metals 
 must be reduced by expensive processes before they could be 
 made to yield the gold and the silver. The time had come, 
 in short, in the history of Western mining, when it was 
 beginning to be a business in which vast amounts of capital 
 were to be invested, and financial questions were to be con- 
 sidered in connection with it ; when the President who 
 looked after the business interests of the company, never 
 having handled a pick in his life, was to be as important a 
 person to the stockholders or owners as the superintendent. 
 This change in the process of mining brought about a 
 separation between the men interested. Those who found 
 the mines, the prospectors, and those who operated them 
 when found became two distinct classes. 
 
 As the pl-ospector is poor ; that is, as he rarely has, even 
 under the most favorable circumstances, more money than 
 what suffices to support him ; or, as is generally the case, he 
 is obliged to labor for that support, the question of how thQ 
 prospector shall reach the capitalist, how the man with a,' 
 valuable property, requiring money to make it yield its 
 treasures, shall reach the man who has the necessary money 
 and is willing to devote it to this object is one of great im- 
 portance. It is of importance to both prospector and 
 capitalist, for the union of the money and the mine will 
 result in benefit to both. The prospector gets his mine as 
 the result of a search which consumes more or less time. 
 Having located it and filed his location, he becomes the 
 sole owner of that piece of property which may be worth 
 millions or may not be worth anything. By law the pros- 
 pector, in order to hold his property, is obliged to do a cer- 
 tain amount of work every year. ' He must either spend 
 within each twelve months one hundred dollars upon the 
 mine, or he must put in labor to this extent. There is a 
 conventional amount of work recognized in many mining 
 districts as being equivalent to this hundred dollars, the 
 sinking of a shaft, or driving of a tunnel eight feet by four, 
 being supposed to cost ten dollars a mining foot, so that 
 sinking such a shaft ten feet would be considered as an ex- 
 penditure of one hundred dollars upon the claim. This 
 assessment work, as it is called, ceases after a United States 
 Patent is obtained for the property, but a locator or his 
 assigns could hold a claim to doomsday without a patent if 
 they did one hundred dollars worth of work on it each year. 
 The requirements of the law, in the matter of assessment 
 work, have had an exceedingly good result. In the old days 
 (prior to 1872) when all that was necessary to hold a ledge 
 was to locate it, the prospectors in mining districts were as 
 a rule, mine poor. They owned so many locations that they 
 never considered it necessary to do anything to any of them, 
 and the ledges remained undeveloped while their owners 
 strutted about, the imaginary owners of millions they never 
 took any steps to get. Under the present law, the assess- 
 ment work compels men to limit the number of claims held 
 by them, for the simple reason that they cannot afford to do 
 the work or spend the money necessarv to hold them, upon 
 any very great number. This again, by concentrating their 
 attention and their efforts upon a few ledges, has led to the 
 development of those ledges ; and just here it may be said 
 that a mine which has just been located is worth but very 
 httle money except in very rare cases. A ledge of rock may 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 849 
 
 be exceedingly rich, very thick, have clay seams and walls 
 complete, may crop out for three or four thousand feet and 
 yet be a property which is not valuable. I concede that 
 this would be an extreme case, but it is a possible one. 
 Prospectors are far too apt to consider that any kind of a 
 claim, if the surface indications are good, is worth a great 
 deal of money. The sums which they mention as those for 
 which they would sell are ridiculous. Fifty thousand, one 
 hundred thousand, two hundred thousand, half-a-million or 
 a million, are words which flow as readily from their lips 
 as though they were talking about grains of sand rather 
 than dollars, each one of which has in it one hundred cents. 
 They do not seem to realize that they are simply showing 
 their own folly. They will point to some " coyote hole" of 
 a shaft about ten or twenty feet deep, and talk about the 
 mine ! They will tell you that they have ten thousand tons 
 of ore in sight when there is neither shaft nor tunnel, sunk 
 or driven. They will talk of a property worth a hundred 
 thousand dollars when that property is absolutely without 
 development, and their knowledge of it is confined to sur- 
 face examination of the croppings, the "horning" of a 
 dozen specimens and perhaps three or four assays. They 
 do not seem to realize that all of this kind of talk is not 
 only foolish and unbusiness-like, but that it injures them. 
 Business men with money are not fools ; on the contrary 
 they are as a rule exceedingly " level-headed " individuals. 
 Having made their money by shrewdness and forethought, 
 they have learned the lesson thoroughly that when a thing 
 is bought for a dollar, it is so bought because it may be sold 
 for a dollar and a half. 
 
 There are unfortunately far too many instances in the 
 mining history of the West, where the business men of the 
 East have succumbed to the glamor which mining seems to 
 be able to throw over the great majority of those who come 
 in contact with it. They have spent their money foolishly, 
 and have purchased, for large sums, properties which had 
 nothing more to recoinmend them than the two facts that 
 they were in a good neighborhood and the surface indica- 
 tions were favorable. In some cases these purchases have 
 turned out well, but in the great majority they have been 
 speculations which have ended disastrously for those who 
 have gone into them. It may be conceded that the pros- 
 pectors who have thus sold have attained what might be 
 called their first object, that of obtaining money for their 
 claims ; but on the other hand, every claim so bought which 
 has turned out badly has injured the district in which it was 
 located far more than ten times the sums paid for it. And 
 that this is a fact may be demonstrated with but little 
 trouble. It is a common saying that " capitalists are like 
 sheep, where one goes another will follow." This is true, 
 but not in the derogatory sense in which it is generally used. 
 Capital seeks interest as naturally as gold seeks quicksilver; 
 the man who puts money out does so because he expects to 
 see it return with increase. Capitalists then are men who 
 have a keen sense of where their money will so increase, 
 and when B finds that A has invested money in any business 
 and secured an enlargement of his wealth, the attention of 
 B is drawn to that business with a certainty and to a degree 
 which nothing else will secure. No descriptions of a chan- 
 nel for the profitable investment of money, no laudatory 
 articles in newspapers, no assurances from friends or ac- 
 quaintances, no talk of this or that reason for the invest- 
 ment of money, will speak half as loudly to B as will the 
 knowledge that A has put in a dollar and received in turn a 
 dollar and a half or a quarter, ten cents or five. In the one 
 case B listens— if he listens at all— with a half-hearted in- 
 terest ; in the other, his attention is instantly aroused. Now 
 as every man, who has ever been in a mining district, will 
 conclude at once, the number of properties in one which 
 is fairly prospected and which is rich, that will pay if capital 
 be judiciously invested upon them, is as a rule very large. 
 The original location of the " Roaring Tiger " is, we will 
 suppose, on a good ledge, with walls, clay seams and every- 
 thing else which makes a " true fissure vein " complete. 
 Upon opening the mine it is found to widen as it goes down, 
 the ore is easily mined and worked, the milling results are 
 handsome, wood and water are plenty, labor can be got easily 
 and, in short, the property is one which will give a hand- 
 some return for the money invested. We will further sup- 
 pose that the money necessary to develop it has been 
 54 
 
 invested by A, that hoisting and reduction works have been 
 built, and that A is receiving for his outlay handsome returns. 
 But there are extensions 1, 2, 3 and 4 on the "Roaring 
 Tiger" west, and 1, 2 and 3 east; and there are parallel 
 ledges carrying the same kind of ore, and with the same or 
 better indications after the " prospecting development " has 
 been done. 
 
 A cannot handle the extensions let alone the other veins. 
 For these to be developed and made profitable B and C and 
 D and the rest of the alphabet must come in, examine the 
 properties and invest money in them. A then is but the 
 pioneer of the capital in his relation to the whole district, 
 and if the pioneer report the country a fraud, as he will do 
 if he loses the money invested, it will be many years before 
 B, C and D are seen in the neighborhood. But this may be 
 carried out still farther. B is a friend or an acquaintance of 
 A, and is attracted to the district by A's success in the orig- 
 inal location of the " Roaring Tiger." As he was attracted 
 by the success of A so his success in turn attracts C, and D 
 is brought in by the knowledge that C has made money. The 
 investment in the district by each capitalist then, after the 
 first, is at once the result of the previous successes made 
 there and the cause of investments by others. Of course the 
 same causes which led to the original investment by A are 
 still operating in the case of B, and they have weight in B's 
 mind. But as any man who has ever attempted to place a 
 mine or sell a location knows they do not operate to the same 
 extent. The first capitalist may get a venture into an untried 
 field by the reports of its wealth, the second always requires 
 to know how the first succeeded. No amount of description, 
 no matter how rose-colored, will weigh in the mind of the 
 second against a failure of the first. The first sheep on try- 
 ing to jump the wall got knocked back, and the second re- 
 spectfully declines to make a battering ram of himself. 
 
 Every miner knows, and I am writing now for miners who 
 have good properties which they wish to see developed, and 
 in which they hope to interest capital, that each mine, unless 
 it be a first extension, and not always then, stands alone. It 
 is impossible to reason with certainty that because the 
 " Roaring Tiger" is a good mine, the " Purring Lion," which 
 lies beside it, is also good. That the same work which de- 
 monstrated the value of the first must be done before the 
 value of the second can be ascertained or known. It is true 
 that capitalists do not always know this, and that as a result 
 of their lack of knowledge, the " Purring Lion " is purchased 
 simply from the success of the " Roaring Tiger." No men are 
 quicker to laugh at such purchasers than the miners in the 
 district, where the properties are located, and they often 
 conceive and express no small amount of contempt for the 
 " Eastern sharps as bought a coyote hole in the croppings." 
 But they permitted the property to be sold in that condition. 
 There is a fellow feeling among them which leads one to en- 
 dorse the claim of another. They shrink from doing any- 
 thing which does not seem to be square, they would hesitate 
 a long time before they would talk to a man who had an 
 idea of purchaseing Jack's claim with half of the frankness 
 that they would talk to Jack about the property. They 
 have an idea that the capitalist has plenty of money, and 
 they know that Jack has got a " damned small pile." In 
 default of the purchase of property owned by themselves 
 they are willing to help Jack to a sale of his, and they are 
 naturally anxious that the money shall be invested in the 
 district. And so they stand by and see the money invested 
 by the capitalist with a full knowledge, not that the invest- 
 ment will be a dead loss, for I am not supposing for a mo- 
 ment that Jack's claim has more"saltthan sugar" about it, 
 but that the investment is not warranted by the development 
 of the mine, and is consequently a very risky one._ Now I 
 am not advocating any low down tricks, and there is no one 
 who would more heartily despise a man who came to him 
 and told him that Jack's . property was not all that it was 
 claimed to be. I believe in white dealing as much as any 
 man living. But I know that the feeling among the miners 
 which permits Jack to sell his claim when it is nothing more 
 than a prospect is a wrong feeling and which works infinite 
 harm to Jack first and to every man in the camp afterwards. 
 And I know that there are hundreds of districts in the West 
 that have been ruined by the fact that the prospects owned by 
 the Jacks and the Toms and the Petes have been sold for 
 sums of money which were in excess of their real value. 
 
850 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Every miner who reads this paper knows this as well as I 
 do. Now what I want to do is to show the miners who 
 know this how to avoid having this fate or that which is 
 akin to it, the retarding, the setting back of a district tor 
 thosein which they now are. . 
 
 And in the first place I will say that a good mine is gen- 
 erally worth a large sum of money. I say generally because 
 of course it is not impossible that the vein may pmch, or 
 that there may be a " horse" coming in or something else 
 may be found out which will prove the property to be worth- 
 less. But, generally speaking, a good mine is undoubtedly 
 worth a large sum of money. The prospector who owns the 
 mine or his partner who advanced the " grub stake' and 
 paid the fees for registration, have put in time and money, 
 and have secured as the result of such investment a piece of 
 property. It is right and just that they should get a return 
 for that property, that it should pay them, and pay them 
 handsomely for the work done and the money invested. But 
 when the property is first acquired, it is not a mine, it is 
 only a prospect. The difference betweeen these two is 
 enormous. A good mine is generally worth a large sum of 
 money — a good prospect is never worth more than a small 
 sum. Take a mine of free milling ore for example, which 
 has a shaft or tunnel exploiting it below water line. Let 
 there be a ledge of six feet in thickness at the lowest jjoint 
 reached against a thickness of four feet on the croppings. 
 Let there be in it two levels, one cutting the vein north and 
 the other south, supposing the strike to be north and south, 
 and let the two aggregate five hundred feet of cutting. Let 
 the walls be good walls, clearly defined and with the clay 
 seams complete. That mine is a good mine to sell and is 
 worth a large sum of money. Why? Because it has been 
 proved to be worth it. It is not a risky speculation when a 
 man purchases it and the man who sells it gives an assumed 
 value for what he gets as well as a prospective value. It 
 may be that in the next fifty feet down the ore will pinch or 
 it may in the same distance widen still more. The risk of 
 the one may legitimately set against the chance of the other 
 by the purchaser. In any event there are just so many tons 
 of ore in sight, and each ton of that ore will yield just so 
 much when milled. But suppose that some mine is a pros- 
 pect only with perhaps a cutting into the vein ten feet 
 deep, showing the ore below the weathered rock. It is worth 
 very little. Why again? Because it has not been proved 
 to be worth anything. The risk of its pinching is enorm- 
 ously increased, for the state of the vein below the water 
 line is not known, while the chance of its widening out is 
 enormously diminished. And there is practically no ore in 
 sight. The purchase of it becomes an exceedingly risky 
 speculation, and the man who sells it gives prospective value 
 only. It may be worth a great deal it is true but it may not. 
 Nothing is known, nothing is sure ; it is all speculation and 
 all risk. Now it is a commercial and natural law which, 
 like all natural laws, cannot be broken with impunity by any 
 one ; that in proportion to the risk must be the profit. If 
 men take great risks commercially they must have the chance 
 of wishing enormous profits. It is therefore the case that 
 when the capitalist takes all the risk he must and will, un- 
 less he be a fool, take all the profit. It is another com- 
 mercial law, or rather an extension of the first, that in pro- 
 portion to the sacrifice shall be the return. With these two 
 laws clearly in our heads let us see how the miner and the 
 capitalist, the man who found the property and the man 
 who has money to develop it, and who wishes to purchase 
 it, stand in relation to the two periods in the history of the 
 mine to which allusion has been made. As the prospect is 
 prior in point of time to the developed mine, I will reverse 
 the order in which they have been maintained, and take the 
 prospect first ; and for the sake of con renience I will call 
 the commercial laws to which I have alluded, number one 
 and number two. 
 
 The prospector found the mine, let us suppose after a 
 search which took one year's time. He spent then 365 days 
 on it, and his time and labor being worth, say fifteen dol- 
 lars a day ; in that the mine cost him $5475. It will be 
 noticed that I put the price of his labor at a high figure. 
 This is done because the knowledge which enabled him to 
 find the mine is worth just so much money, while his labor 
 might be worth anywhere from two to six dollars a day, his 
 knowledge makes his time worth more. It cost him or his 
 
 partner something to buy food for him during this time, and 
 I will put that down at a high figure also, ten dollars a week. 
 There are very few camps where a man cannot in these days 
 buy grub for a week for ten dollars. This added to the 
 former sum amounts to $9125. Then there are recording 
 fees which will bring it up higher, and the time spent by 
 the prospector in talking to the capitalist or in writing to 
 him ; the time, in short, it took to bring about the sale. 
 Putting these and all other expenses down liberally $10,000 
 will cover everything the prospect has cost the man who 
 found it up to the time of its sale. Under law number one, 
 $10,000 represents the risk to the prospector; under law 
 number two it represents the sacrifice.^ Now the proportion 
 which exists between risk and profit is a direct proportion, 
 and the proportion which exists between sacrifice and return 
 is well known. In this case the sacrifice having been made 
 the prospector has a right to look for a return, and that sac- 
 rifice having been a risk, he has a right to expect a large 
 return. Had he sacrificed his time in the employment of 
 others, he would have been fiilly compensated by a payment 
 of the $5475, because there would have been no risk. I am 
 supposing that he would have lived during the year at the 
 expense of his employer. In that case law number one 
 would not have applied, as there would have been no risk. 
 "The difference, then, between the amount he has a right to 
 receive for the prospect and the $5475 is a difference caused 
 by the operation of law number one. In other words, it is 
 because he has taken the risk of losing the $10,000 that he 
 should receive more than $10,000. And it is in consequence 
 of his taking this risk that he has acquired a property which 
 is worth more than $10,000. Suppose he had made an agree- 
 ment by which for a year's work, boarding himself, he was 
 to receive a mill worth $10,000. He woul d have taken no 
 risk, and the mill would only be worth $10,000 when he got 
 it. So then, when he has sacrificed $10,000 to get the pros- 
 pect, and has risked the loss of that amount, he has a right 
 to receive, and does receive in property, a great deal more. 
 Now comes the question of how much more and this is gov- 
 erned in the same way and by the same law. If he has got 
 such a prospect as the one which I have described, that is a 
 prospect which, when developed, is legitimately worth say 
 $100,000, his risk, as soon as the value of that prospect is 
 ascertained is annihilated, and for his sacrifice he gets a large 
 return. But while the prospect remains undeveloped his 
 i^sk continues. Not to such an extent as formerly, because 
 the prospect when located and examined, as well as it may 
 be on the surface, is most certainly worth more than no 
 prospect at all. Before he found it his sacrifice was all risk, 
 now for his sacrifice he has a piece of property to which 
 there is some risk attached. In proportion to that risk is the 
 value of the property, and if we can ascertain the risk we 
 can determine the value. And at this point we must con- 
 sider the interests of the capitalists. The risk of the capi- 
 talist who purchases the property is here precisely the same as 
 that of the prospector who sells it. The sacrifice of the pros- 
 pector is, in case of sale, at $10,000, transferred to the cap- 
 italist, and the risk of the investment goes with it from the 
 former to the latter. The sacrifice, as far as the prospector 
 is concerned, has the element of risk taken from it and be- 
 comes the same as that which would have been made by him, 
 had he worked a year for the mill. He gets paid for his 
 time but he does not get paid for his risk, and he therefore 
 loses that which he had a right to receive. On the other 
 hand as the risk is less when the claim is located than it was 
 before it was discovered, the capitalist when he pays $10,000 
 makes a sacrifice which has less risk attached to it than was 
 attached to that made by the prospector. If he then only 
 pays $10,000 he gains what the prospector loses, namely, the 
 degree in which the risk is lessened from the time when it 
 was all risk to the time of the sale. It is right and just that 
 he should pay for this exactly as it is right and just that the 
 prospector should be paid for it. But while, if the risk 
 caken at first by the prospector were annihilated by the de- 
 velopment of the mine, the capitalist would pay $100,000 for 
 the property ; every particle of risk which remains will re- 
 duce that amount. Supposing the sacrifice to be $10,000 and 
 the value of the mine when located and developed to be 
 $100,000 ; supposing, too, the development of the ledge 
 which annihilates this risk to be 200 feet of shafting and 600 
 feet of levels, 700 feet in all. Putting this at the assessment 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 851 
 
 values as already given it would amount to an expenditure 
 of $7000. It costs $7000 to annihilate the risk remaining 
 after the mine is discovered, and this makes the mine worth. 
 $100,000. The sacrifice is $17,000, $10,000 at first to discover 
 tne ledge and $7000 to develop the mine. All the risk then 
 is represented by $83,000, what proportion of this exists after 
 the location and before the 700 feet of work has been done? 
 In order to get at this we must remember that the risk is 
 constantly decreasing during the process of development, and 
 that it is decreasing much faster than the work is done. The 
 difference in the risk between the time the shaft is begun 
 and the time it is down 200 feet is much greater than between 
 the time the shaft is sunk to this point and the end of the 
 first level of 200 feet to the north. This is apparent at once. 
 The shaft shows the vein does not pinch at the water line, 
 and that it is a fissure vein, while the level merely shows 
 that the vein does not fault below, a fact that could have 
 been assumed with considerable degree of certainty from the 
 croppings. The expenditure of $2000 on the shaft has less- 
 ened the risk enormously, far more, in fact, than the expen- 
 diture of $2000 on the north level, and the expenditure of 
 the $2000 on the north level lessens the risk far more than 
 the expenditure of $3000, driving the 300 feet of level to the 
 south. The north level tells us that the vein does not fault, 
 a fact we could have assumed from the croppings ; the south 
 level merely repeats this assurance, gives us more ore in 
 sight. Reversing the calculations on the respective amounts 
 of the risk as removed by the three parts of the work, and 
 applying it to the $83,000 which represents the whole risk, 
 we find that each section of the work represents a constantly 
 increasing risk. We have four sections, the drift to the 
 south, the drift to the north, the shaft and the hunt for the 
 mine. If we may assume that the drift to the south in- 
 creases the value of the mine by the amount of ore it brings 
 into sight we may say that the risk is but little changed by 
 it. That is, the south level does not so much decrease the 
 risk as it increases the known value of th_e mine. If we sup- 
 pose that the ore in sight is worth $50,000 of the whole val- 
 ue of the mine, the south level has given us $30,000 of value 
 in right. The north level has given us $20,000 worth of ore 
 in sight, and by proving that the vein does not fault below, 
 has taken away $10,000 of risk. This leaves the shaft and 
 the location representing $40,000— of what? of risk, because 
 the main object accomplished by the shaft is the proving that 
 the mine is a good one, or in other words, annihilating 
 risk ; until that is proved the location has but little value 
 except that of risk. 
 
 Now let us go back a little bit. The sacrifice of the pros- 
 pector was $10,000, and the risk was enormous. For that 
 sacrifice and that risk he got the location. The location 
 with a 200 feet shaft in it represents $40,000. That shaft in- 
 creases the sacrifice to $12,000, making the risk represent 
 $28,000. The question of what part of this attaches to the 
 location and what to the shaft may be reasoned as before. 
 At 190 feet down the shaft, which at 200 feet makes a pro- 
 perty costing $12,000, worth $40,000, certainly makes that 
 property worth $39,500. Ten feet then increases the value 
 of the property $500. But ten times ten feet makes much 
 more difference in the value than ten times $500. The pro- 
 perty which with a shaft 200 feet deep is worth $40,000, with 
 a shaft only 100 feet deep is not worth more than $15,000. 
 $1000 for the shaft has annihilated $4000 worth of risk. 
 Following this up we would arrive at the statement that be- 
 fore any development is made on a location, the claim itself 
 is not legitimately worth the amount of the sacrifice, sup- 
 posing the sacrifice to be such as we have mentioned, and 
 this is unquestionably true. The sacrifice has been made, 
 but the risk is so great that the propertjr is not worth in its 
 then condition, the amount of that sacrifice. A claim which 
 has merely surface indications, which has not been developed 
 and which has only been located and thereby become pro- 
 perty, is not worth, under commercial laws, the amount 
 sacrificed to obtain it. 
 
 I began this article by stating that I was writing for 
 miners and prospectors, for the men who find the claims 
 rather than for the men who would purchase them. It may 
 be urged at once by the miners who read what I have writ- 
 ten, that I am not practical enough, that I do not give what 
 they would have a right to expect from the title of this arti- 
 •'cle ; the information by the aid of which they may sell their 
 
 properties. I think, however, that I have done so, and for 
 this reason. I think that it is of primary importance if two 
 men would consummate a sale of property, that they should, 
 as far as possible, find out what each thinks of that property. 
 If I wish to buy a saddle from a storekeeper, I ask him the 
 price and he tells me. By the fact of his telling he conveys to 
 me his estimate of the value to him of that saddle. As I 
 began the bai'gain he assumes that I want the saddle and 
 that ha as seller shall put a price upon it. In the sale of the 
 saddle I give him money which I have got by writing this 
 article, for example, and buy the saddle, and he gives me 
 the saddle which he bought and paid for, at a sufficient in- 
 crease to give him a profit and in turn buys my money. Each 
 of us is both buyer and seller, while I begin the negotiations 
 which lead to the sale. But suppose he begins them, he 
 asks me what I will give for the saddle. He has a saddle 
 and he wants my money now ; before, it was I had my 
 money and wanted his saddle. The sale is the same in each 
 case, but the causes which lead to the sale are different. It is 
 I who fix the price in the second case as it was the storekeeper 
 who fixed it in the first. In each case there is a reserve veto. 
 If the storekeeper tells me a price at first which is more than I 
 care to pay, I do not buy. If I offer him less in the second than 
 heis willing to sell for, he does not sell. But in each case the 
 one who begins the negotiation attempts by his first question 
 to find out what the ideas of the other are in connection with 
 the sale or purchase of the saddle. Now, it is perfectly 
 evident that it would be of great advantage to me when 
 I asked the storekeeper what was the price of the saddle, to 
 know exactly what that storekeeper thought that saddle 
 worth, just as it would be of great advantage to the store- 
 keeper when he offered the saddle to me, to know just how 
 much I wanted the saddle ; in other words, to know what I 
 thought the saddle worth to me, and the reasons why I fixed 
 the sum in my own mind at which I would buy. Now, to 
 apply this long illustration : The prospector with a claim 
 or mine is in the position of the storekeeper having the sad- 
 dle to sell. He has got something he wants to dispose of, or 
 with which he wants to buy money. The capitalist is the 
 man who has that money. It is of great advantage to the 
 prospector to understand how the capitalist will reason 
 about the claim or mine offered to him, and if he will read 
 over what I have written again he will see how that reason- 
 ing is done. I have heard prospectors say that capitalists 
 wanted the mine for nothing, and were not willing to give a 
 decent sum for it. I have generally found that in such a 
 case the sum asked was out of all reason and that there was 
 little, if anything, to show in the mine. It may be accepted 
 as a truth beyond all question that a good mining property 
 can be sold at any time for a handsome profit on the money 
 spent to acquire it and a fair return for the risk taken ; but 
 it is equally true that a prospect alone is worth but very 
 little. It is true that capitalists will sometimes foolishly 
 purchase claims for sums which are absurd ; and it may be 
 that their purchase will turn out well. But the men who do 
 so, certainly do not do very much good to the districts in 
 which they purchase, and their number is necessarily small. 
 How many undeveloped mines are there west of the Missis- 
 sippi River, which, if developed would prove to be valuable 
 properties? Who can answer that question? No one. 
 There may be ten thousand ; it is far more likely that there 
 are a million. 
 
 From where is the money to come which in the next hun- 
 dred, or two hundred, or three hundred years, will develop 
 these mines? From capitalists, from men who have money 
 before they invest in the mines. Is it reasonable to suppose 
 that the uncounted millions necessary to do all of this de- 
 velopment will be invested on guess work? Most certainly 
 not. It is but a few years since the capitalists in the East 
 first began to put money into mining claims, and already they 
 have learned a lesson or two about the value of prospects. 
 No man who is caught once gets caught again. But as the 
 time goes on more and more capital turns towards the mines, 
 capital which will be invested wisely, judiciously, on busi- 
 ness principles and in accordance with commercial laws. 
 The class of fools still exists and always will, but the class 
 of fools never built up any great industry. It behooves 
 the prospectors then to find out what they must do to at- 
 tract the attention of business men to their properties and 
 having found this out, to do it. To sell their saddles they 
 
852 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 must put themselves in the place of the men they wish to 
 purchase them. And what they have to do is develop their 
 claims, to sell mines instead of prospects. It is of primary 
 importance if they would take advantage of the tide ot 
 wealth which is now setting towards them, that they should 
 have the value of their properties proved beyond the per- 
 adventure of a doubt. Take the example which I have been 
 reasoning from. The sacrifice of $10,000 by itself was not 
 worth the money. With $7,000 added to it it was worth a 
 golden return, a fortune. It may be objected at once that 
 the prospector rarely has $7,000 to put out upon a mine, find 
 my reader may mutter to himself or comment to his partner 
 that they know the value of development just as well as I 
 do. In the first case, I may say that my experience is, and 
 I think the experience of every miner will confirm mine, that 
 the class of prospectors who make money in mining are those 
 who when they get a claim they think is worth money stick to 
 that claim, work when they can afford to in it and when they 
 can not, go to work for somebody else until they have got 
 together enough to give them food during another spell. I 
 know one case where two men worked in this way on a 
 claim for four years. They were partners in it, and as soon 
 as they had a grub stake and enough to buy powder they 
 would go to work tunneling. During that four years they 
 ran a tunnel eleven hundred feet long, tapping the ledge at 
 a depth of twelve hundred and fifty and drove nine hundred 
 feet by levels. When they struck the ledge they were 
 offered $72,000 for the mine which they refused. They 
 waited until they had driven the levels and when they sold, 
 got $250,000 in cash and fifteen per cent, of the stock. Now 
 I know that those men had no help from any one. It is 
 true they were good miners, and could get work at any time 
 and make good wages. After they struck the ledge they 
 sold some of the ore, and this gave them some money, but 
 while they were driving that long tunnel it was all barren 
 work. And what those men did other men can do. There 
 is another class of prospectors that I never saw make any 
 money, except by accident. It is the class of men who are 
 mine poor, who have so many claims they can barely pay 
 or do the assessment work and who sit around and talk 
 everlastingly about capitals, waiting for some fool to come 
 along and buy on the strength of what they say exists below 
 the croppings. This is the class the members of which are 
 all millionaires and owe ten dollar store bills, who would be 
 insulted if you offered them five hundred or a thousand dol- 
 lars for any one of their claims, who talk — heavens, how 
 they do talk — of some one of their locations and say it is 
 worth a hundred thousand or swear with much profanity that 
 they will not sell under half a million. If you are a miner, 
 my reader, you know these men, for the camps are full of 
 them. I remember one of them who wanted to bond a 
 claim to me for $150,000, on which the fees for recording 
 were actually not paid. It is true he kindly said that if I 
 would advance the $12 necessary I might deduct it from the 
 $150,000 to be paid to him when I sold the mine. I suppose 
 it is scarcely necessary to say that thatmine was not bonded. 
 Half, aye, nine-tenths of the growling heard in camps comes 
 from just such men, yet I leave it to any white man on earth 
 to say whether capitalists who know the value of money are 
 to be blamed for respectfully declining such bargains as 
 these. 
 
 Prospectors must learn that their claims must be developed 
 before they can realize from them sums anywhere near what 
 the properties, if good, are worth. And now to give them a 
 few hints on what else must be done : as the majority of 
 prospectors know how to develop a mine and how to make 
 it show what it is worth, there is no need for me to take 
 up space describing this. But to get a mine in condition 
 for sale while the actual development is of primary im- 
 portance, there are other things which will facilitate the 
 transaction enormously, and the first of these is a note book 
 containing a full and accurate record of the mine from the 
 day of its discovery. The measurements should be put 
 down exactly as they were found to be when made with the 
 tape, not as they may be guessed. These measurements 
 should be taken as least once a week during development, 
 and should include the amount of work done in sinking or 
 diving, as well as the width of the vein. Notes of the 
 character of the rock found during the week, its hardness 
 and anything else noticed about it should be kept. The 
 
 conditions of the walls and seams should be recorded from 
 time to time ; the finding of water and the time taken to free 
 the mine of it should be included in the log. Kept in this 
 way the note-book becomes a complete history of the mine 
 from the day of the location of the claim to that of the sale. 
 It forms a record which is of enormous value to the parties 
 to the transaction. The entries in it as to the amount of ore 
 worked at the customs mills, if any has been so worked, and 
 the mill returns will do more to sell the mine than most 
 prospectors imagine. It is, of course, easy enough to " cook " 
 such a l)ook, but as the purchaser may say that he will have 
 thirty or forty tons worked himself, and will so say if he be 
 wise, such "cooking" only results in proving to his satis- 
 faction that the ore has fallen off in value as the work went 
 on ; a conclusion which will end the transaction as a rule. 
 In keeping such a book then, as in other things, " honesty is 
 the best policy ; " a maxim none the less true because trite. 
 The note-book should include every piece of information 
 about the mine which comes to the knowledge of the pros- 
 pector, it should record failures as well as successes. As a 
 rule I have found that as much information is to be derived 
 ifrom the one as from the other. A valuable adjunct to the 
 note-book, one which might be almost called a companion 
 volume in stone, is a complete series of specimens. This 
 should embrace those taken from the cropping, from the 
 walls, the seams, the "horses," if any be encountered, and 
 the vein ; and should represent as fiilly as may be the mine 
 in its different stages of development. It is as important to 
 save specimens of the barren " gang '' as of the ore. The 
 object of these is the same as that of the note-book, to give 
 to the purchaser every particle of information possible about 
 the mine, each specimen should be carefully labeled. Doing 
 this is neither short-sighted policy nor unwise. Supposing 
 the mine to be a good one, and I am, of course, imagining 
 that it is an honest property, the more information about it 
 accessible to the purchaser, the speedier is his recognition of 
 its merits. A man who knows his business when buying a 
 mine can, of course, find out by examination a great deal 
 about it, because a developed mine is a piece of property that 
 tells its own story. - There is always, however, the work uf 
 becoming acquainted with it to be done, and this the 
 owner should, if possible, prepare in advance. There is the 
 same difference made to the purchaser when this is done 
 that exists when a man receives a letter of introduction to 
 another from a mutual friend. He can, of course, go to that 
 other and introduce himself, but his business is greatly 
 facilitated when he has the letter given to him beforehand. 
 The preparation of a mine for sale in this way will often 
 turn the scale in favor of that property as against another 
 of equal merit, and the prospector should, therefore, always 
 when it is possible so prepare it. Assuming that the mine 
 itself is found to be satisfactory both in its development 
 and probable value as an investment, there are certain 
 questions which have to be asked by the purchaser and 
 answered by some one, therefore the owner of the mine 
 should prepare himself with the answers beforehand. These 
 are inquiries into the economical working of the mine when 
 purchased. First among them are those which relate to the 
 mill. As a matter of course the prospector when he has 
 been able to do so, has located a mill site himself, which he 
 includes in the property he offere for sale. But when this is 
 not possible he should ascertain where a mill site can be 
 purchased and should bond it for some reasonable figure. 
 The supply of water and its cost, either when bought or the 
 expenditure necessary for a ditch, if one has to be built, 
 should form an item in the note-book. The supply of fuel, 
 its cost and its character whether good or bad, should be 
 examined and noted in the same way. Where the timber 
 for the mine is to be procured, its value on the spot and the 
 cost of transportion should be ascertained. Each and all of 
 these things will, of course, be verified by the purchaser, but 
 the owner of the mine should prepare the way for him by 
 ascertaining all of the information beforehand. A man who 
 buys a mine can find out all of these things for himself, but it 
 will lessen the work to be done by him and shorten the time 
 necessary for the transaction greatly if he is at once referred 
 to the place where he can get the desired information. For 
 example, suppose the supply of timber must be procured 
 from a place distant twenty miles. The purchaser can find 
 this out by inquiry, but it will take him more or less time. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 853 
 
 If the OY/ner of the mine has the infonnation ready for him, 
 he has nothing to do but to verify it. In ths one case there 
 is vexatious delay ; in the other there is nothing but a 
 legitimate expenditure of time. The fullest possible infor- 
 matioQ on the question of labor, its supply, cost and eflSciency 
 should be prepared. This is of so much importance that 
 the work necessary to prepare it is tima well spent. It 
 should include a full description of the policy and terms of 
 the miners' union if one exists in the place. As the pur- 
 chaser of the mine will probably wish to have a milling-test 
 made of the ore under his own supervision, the owner when 
 it is practicable should know where he can get transportation 
 for the ore at once. The negotiations which lead to the 
 sale of the. property are rarely carried on without some pre- 
 liminary talk on the subject, and the owner has time enough 
 and sufficient notice of the necessity for such transportation 
 to enable him to make arrangements for it. In this con- 
 nection I should say that hi5 should also know where the 
 men to get out the ore may be found and what it will cost 
 to employ them. From his own experience of the mine he 
 will know with considerable certainty, how much labor will 
 be required and how long it will take to extract a given 
 number of tons of rock. There is one point I must urge in 
 the strongest manner I know how. In all such arrange- 
 ments and in all advice given to the purchaser by the owner, 
 the latter must act and advise as though he were doing it all 
 himself. It often happens that the work done in a milling- 
 test for example is paid for by the purchaser owing to the 
 inability of the owner. In such a case the owner should 
 identify the interests of the purchaser with his own. He 
 should guard him as far as possible from those who would, 
 if they could, fleece him in transactions. If labor is re- 
 quired and the owner knows that Bill is a good miner. Bill 
 being a personal friend of his, it is right and proper that he 
 should recommend Bill for the job. But if the price of 
 labor in the district be four dollars and a half a day or ten 
 dollars a mining foot in blasting out ore, he should not 
 allow Bill to charge five or tfen and a half. He should not 
 allow himself to reason that Bill is a good fellow, poor and 
 needs the money. Not only is it honest for him to guard 
 the interests of the purchaser, as his own, and therefore right, 
 but it pays. The principle of allowing Bill to make the 
 extra fifty cents which if the owner of the mine wish he can 
 almost always do, will when carried into other things rep- 
 resent the district to the purchaser as more expensive than 
 it really is It seems a very small thing to say that fifty 
 cents a ton more on forty tons only amounts to $20, a sum 
 the purchaser will not miss and which will do Bill a great 
 deal of good. This may all be true. But when the owner 
 talks to the purchaser about ten or twenty thousand tons of 
 ore in sight, only needed to be mined and worked to yield 
 its treasures, he does not realize that the purchaser being a 
 business man, calculates the expense of the mining in his 
 mind, and that the fifty cents a ton which did Bill so much 
 good and did the purchaser no harm becomes five or ten 
 thousand dollars, a sum sufficient to turn the scale and make 
 a man decline a sale. 
 
 It may be said with truth that money is never so useful 
 as in selling a mine. If the owner can afford to pay for the 
 experiments needed to prove the value of his property him- 
 self, he is in an infinitely stronger position than he is when 
 he is forced to ask the purchaser to pay for them. The 
 majority of men are unwilling to put out money for. what 
 may not bring any return, and they will therefore hesitate 
 over the preliminary expenses, while perfectly willing to pay 
 a very much greater sum if the experiments are satisfactory. 
 My own belief as to what is fair in such matters is this. If 
 the owner of the mine pays for the drilling test, including 
 expenses of transportation, etc., the purchaser should agree 
 to pay that money in case the test is satisfactory. And for 
 this reason :— The owner of the mine has proved its value 
 So his own satisfaction by the work done upon it during the 
 development. Any work done during the negotiations is 
 done for the benefit of the customer, and if that work suc- 
 ceeds in placing his mine in the relation occupied by that 
 of the owner towards the property ; in other words, if the 
 work convinces him of the property's value, then he should 
 pay for it, because there was no need of the work being 
 done to convince the owner. On the other hand it is fair 
 that the owner should advance that money if he can, be- 
 
 cause the result of that test is a part of the risk, and it is 
 not fair to ask the purchaser to assume any risk before the 
 actual sale of the mine. 
 
 A few words on the last branch of my subject, what it 
 is necessary for the owner to do when he seeks the pur- 
 chaser, and I have done. I will suppose that Jones, who 
 owns the " Roaring Tiger," in New Mexico, wishes to get 
 acquainted with Smith, the capitalist in New York, and dis- 
 pose of the property. And first I should say that this ap- 
 plies to all sales of mines. It is a mistake for Jones to sell 
 the " Roaring Tiger outright. He will, of course, be obliged 
 to sell the control because Smith will not invest in the 
 mine unless he acquire this ; but he should retain an in- 
 terest, from twenty-five to forty per cent, of the stock. The 
 reason why he should do so is, that supposing the " Roaring 
 Tiger " to be a really good mine, he can rarely get its full 
 value ; in fact, I may say he can never get its full value. In 
 selling the control and retaining the interest, he should 
 always stipulate what amount of working capital Smith is 
 to raise in addition to the sum paid for the control, and 
 that amount should be sufficient in his opinion, as formed 
 from his knowledge of the mine and the expense of working 
 in the district, to make the property a paying one. To re- 
 turn, however, to the question of how Jones is to make the 
 acquaintance of Smith and interest him in the property. 
 The fir.-<t step is, of course, for Jones to come to New York, 
 as it is pretty certain Smith will not go to New Mexico. 
 Jones brings with him his note-book, kept as I have de- 
 scribed, and with every particular of information in it he has 
 been able to acquire. In negotiating the sale of a property 
 at- a distance the note-book becomes of infinitely greater 
 value than before. Jones also brings a full series of speci- 
 mens, or as full as he can. He should by all means avoid 
 the mistake of bringing only those that are rich, for he will 
 find that if he shows rock which goes thousands of dollars 
 to the ton and none of less value. Smith will have nothing 
 to do with him. Having arrived in New York, he gets at 
 Smith in the best way he can. If he knows anyone who 
 knows Smith, of course the work is easy. If he does not, 
 the best thing he can do is to walk boldly into some office 
 and state his business. It is probable, in fact, certain that, 
 he will meet with rebuffs, but if he be the kind of man I am 
 supposing him to be, he will keep this work up until he suc- 
 ceeds. Every prospector knows what a job it is to find a 
 ledge ; how many weary miles of country have to be walked 
 over, how long and careful is the search sometimes when 
 " tracing float.'' Well, when Jones comes to New York he has 
 to " prospect " for Smith before he can " locate " him, and if 
 he only prospects long enough he will find him to a cer- 
 tainty. Having found him, he should remember that Smith 
 is probably a busy man and has no time to waste, therefore 
 he should make his story a short one but one that covers all 
 points, and he should tell that story without any previous 
 " chin ;" Smith does not want to talk about the weather, nor 
 is he interested in the inconveniences of an emigrant irip. 
 The morning paper has told him what the weather for the 
 day will be and he never travels by the emigrant train. 
 Jones having told his story, Smith, if he be the right Smith, 
 will feel sufficient interest in it to make further inquiries. 
 He will send out some one in whom he has confidence to 
 examine the mine or he will go himself. The sum of money 
 to be paid for such part of the property as Jones wishes to 
 sell being different in every case is of no interest to us here. 
 It is sufficient that a general outline of the considerations 
 which affect the mind of the capitalist and of the work to 
 be done by the owner have been given at some length, and 
 it would be useless, in fact, impossible to attempt to make 
 the instructions minutely particular. 
 
 —Alfred Balch. 
 
 THE PURCHASE OF MINES' 
 
 MINING as a business in this country received an 
 enormous impetus a few years ago. The growth of 
 mining for coal, iron and copper in the east was 
 one which was necessarily slow from the fact that 
 it was parallel to and coexistent with the growth of the coun- 
 try itself, and mines that were known had to wait until there 
 was a demand for their product before they could be worked. 
 
854 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 This did not apply to the mines of the west, those which 
 yielded gold and silver; for the simple reason that there 
 was always a demand for the metals contained in them. 
 Bat when gold was first discovered in California in 1848, 
 and the rush began in '49, the country was not as wealthy as 
 it is now, the means of transportation were exceedingly 
 primitive and business men found that there were chances 
 enough for the employment of capital at home without look- 
 ing for them so far away. People too, were not then as ac- 
 customed to travelling as they are now, and the conservative 
 men in the community shrank from any such radical changes 
 in their habits as that involved in a transfer of their house- 
 hold gods to the Golden Gate. Hence it was that the tide 
 of emigration which flowed westward at that time was chiefly 
 made up of the more adventurous and daring spirits, and this 
 in turn produced in the minds of those who were left 
 behind, the idea that it was a somewhat wild and foolish 
 kind of person who would engage in gold mining. This 
 feeling was anything but decreased by the fact that those 
 who returned from the west on visits, by their habits, their 
 stories and their methods of looking at things, convinced 
 those who saw them that they were very wild persons in- 
 deed. But as the years rolled on the wealth of the east in- 
 creased enormously, and there was a revolution eflected 
 in the methods of transportation. People travelled more, 
 and the country, as the newspapers in their growth began to 
 give more and more news about it, became in the minds of 
 the people less and less of a number of parts widely separa- 
 rated and with but slight connection. It was impossible 
 for a man who read day after day of what had taken place 
 the day before in California, to look on California as being 
 very far away, especially when he was conscious that eight 
 days' time would land him in San Francisco. Time and the 
 altered conditions then, had destroyed one of the great bars 
 to investment in the west on the part of eastern men when, 
 in 1875 the Great Bonanza was discovered in the Con. Vir- 
 ginia and California on the Comstock. The wildest stories 
 were told about it, but the truth was wild enough. Over 
 seventy-nine millions of dollars were taken out of the two 
 mines and paid as dividends to the stockholders, and that 
 they were so taken was the result of shrewdness and skill in 
 management aided by a judicious use of capital. This was 
 a proposition which eastern business men could understand. 
 It was one which they could look upon without the feel- 
 ing which had accompanied the idea of gold and silver 
 mining in their minds for such a long time, namely, that the 
 business was one in which it was all speculation and little 
 certainty. It presented to them the proposition, as it had 
 never been presented before, that intelligence and money 
 invested in mines stood more than a fair chance of bringing 
 ample returns. And as a result of all this the business men 
 of the east began to turn their attention westward. They 
 found that the case of the Great Bonanza was not a sol- 
 itary case; that there were hundreds of mines of the 
 precious metais which were yielding dividends as the re- 
 sult of money invested. And so began a rush of capital 
 into the mining regions which was as strange in its way 
 as the rush of emigration in '49. Men with money hav- 
 ing been slow to believe anything now believed every- 
 thing. Hundreds of thousands of dollars were brought 
 into the districts, their owners fairly hunting for proper- 
 ties in which to invest. In their estimation and from 
 their standpoint a mine was a mine, and provided they 
 bought a mine they were satisfied. It was not to be 
 supposed that a state of things which included the pur- 
 chase of properties for large sums by men who knew 
 absolutely nothing at all about what they were paying for, 
 — Aould not include cases of gross fraud. The' capital- 
 ists were cheated right and left, sometimes consciously and 
 sometimes unconsciously. Ledges upon which no work 
 had been done at all or which did not contain a pound of 
 ore were sold for sums which were, in view of the facts 
 wildly absurd. The capitalists were crazy, and full advan- 
 tage was taken by the prospectors of their craze. But alonn- 
 with the sale of properties worth nothing went that of prop- 
 erties worth a great deal. Mines having paying ore in 
 them were bought, opened, worked and dividends got from 
 them. It was this that saved the business and that kept up 
 the flow of money to the west. Eastern men found that 
 there was an opening for capital, and that returns could be 
 
 got from its investment by that surest of all tests, experience. 
 But they found too that the business must be conducted in a 
 business way to make it profitable ; that if it were not so 
 conducted it would burn their fingers badly, and that such 
 burns were very painful. Perhaps it would be more correct 
 for me to say that they are finding this out, for the process 
 of discovery and the learning of the lesson is not yet com- 
 pleted. The fools who think that " croppings " are equiva- 
 lent to a mine, who think that assays will give them the 
 value of a property, and who imagine that all that is neces- 
 sary to acquire a fortune from mining is to buy a ledge, 
 are not all dead yet, but they are, fortunately, rapidly dy- 
 ing. The injury they have done to themselves is as nothing 
 to the injury they have done to the districts and to mining. 
 For every dollar they have lost through their own blind and 
 insensate idiocy, they have kept one hundred out of the dis- 
 tricts and have thereby retarded to that degree the develop- 
 ment of mineral wealth. They have never done the least 
 amount of good either to themselves or to others by their 
 investment while they have done an infinite amount of harm. 
 I heard one of them say once that he considered gold mining 
 the greatest fraud on earth, and I found that he based his 
 opinion upon the fact that he had bought a ledge which 
 turned out to be perfectly barren on the strength of some 
 assays made from a piece of rock said to have been taken 
 from it. I did not report the $60,000 he had paid and lost, 
 but I did very much regret the fact that he had it in his 
 power to make such a statement upon such apparently good 
 grounds to those who did not inquire into the case. 
 
 The origin of all the losses made by eastern men in their 
 purchases of mining properties has been the fact that they 
 nave attempted to engage in a business about which they knew 
 nothing at all. And the odd part of it is that they only 
 show the effects of this extraordinary idea when they invest 
 in gold or silver mines. If one of them bought a locomotive 
 he would never dream of acting as an engineer, or if he 
 bought a steamboat he would not examine the boilers him- 
 self. In the one case he would hire an engineer, in the 
 other a boiler inspector to do the work for him. But if 
 he buys a mine he seems to consider that he is perfectly able 
 to examine and determine upon the property or to run it 
 after he has acquired the title. This is absurd. The know- 
 ledge necessary to examine a mine properly is only acquired 
 after years of study and work, and no more comes by inspi- 
 ration or revelation than does that of how to manage a bank 
 or run a ship. The purchasing capitalist should be content 
 with paying for his mine after it has been examined by an 
 expert and pronounced to be worth the money ; and when 
 he gets it he should employ some one who knows how, 
 which he does not, to operate it for him. It is no more dif- 
 ficult to find honest and capable men who understand min- 
 ing than it is to find the same class in any other occupation. 
 If the business men in the east will bring to the investment 
 of money in mines, the same shrewdness which they show 
 in other things, they will find that the business is one that 
 will give handsome returns. Nothing is more fatal to their 
 success than the idea that mining is a kind of investment 
 which will run itself or which is not governed by the 
 same business principles applicable in any other occupation. 
 Mining is not the wild speculation which so many people 
 imagine it to be ; it is, on the contrary, a business which is 
 as safe as the raising of wheat. It is true that a vein may 
 fault and the mine come to an abrupt end, or the vein may 
 pinch and " peter" out; but for that matter, the crop may 
 fail from drought or may be eaten up by grasshoppers. 
 Each variety of business has in it ups and downs. The 
 only point is that business men should learn that proper 
 precautions will reduce the proportion of the latter to the 
 former enormously. 
 
 As I am writing this article to tell men how to buy a 
 mine I will assume that the capitalist has had his attention 
 called to a piece of mining property, that he is disposed to 
 purchase it, and that he has the money both for the pur- 
 chase and for the development and working of the mine 
 when purchased. It is hardly necessary to say that what 
 applies to one imaginary purchaser applies as well to a com- 
 pany. The mine having been found, it is necessary to de- 
 termine as nearly as possible its value as an investment or 
 the chance of getting a return for the money placed in the 
 mine for the mine itself. This question properly divides 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 855 
 
 itself into three, each of which may be considered as a fac- 
 tor seriously affecting the final result or the return of the 
 money invested with increase. 1st, The ore body and ques- 
 tions which affect it. 2d, The working of the ore. 3d, The 
 property acquired by the purchase. AH inquiries neces- 
 sary for the proper investment of money in mines are em- 
 braced under these three heads, and although in some cases 
 the line of deraarkation between them is not very distinct, 
 I shall treat them as though it were. 
 
 First then as to the ore body itself. Gold and silver 
 sometimes occur in a native or metallic state, but they 
 are more often found in the former ore, that is in 
 chemical combination with other elements. These ores are 
 generally called after the combining element rather than 
 the metal, as when we speak, in this connection, of carbon- 
 ates and chlorides, we mean the combination of carbon or 
 chlorine with the metal. I am of course talking in very 
 general terms and not in any purely scientific way. Taking 
 as an example a ledge containing the chlorides of silver, it 
 would be found that the ledge is a body of quartz having in 
 it small veins like their slabs, nodules or bunches of the ore. 
 The vein matter is called " gang " or " gangue " and this 
 gang is worthless, being barren quartz without any ore in it. 
 But the valuable ore is contained in this gang. The result 
 then of this preliminary examination is learning the lesson 
 that the ledge is not a homogeneous body of ore, and this is 
 one of the most important distinctions between _ a gold or 
 silver mine and one of iron. If we find a deposit of one of 
 the hematites we find that the ore is, to a very great extent, 
 the same throughout the whole thickness of the vein, and if 
 we arrive at the value of one piece by an assay, we can es- 
 timate from that the value of the whole. But if we assay 
 a single piece of ore from a ledge containing this chloride of 
 silver, we can predicate absolutely nothing from the result. 
 This has been one of the hardest lessons for eastern business 
 men to learn. Knowing, as many of them have known, that 
 a sample from an iron mine or coal vein represents fairly 
 the whole deposit, they have reasoned that a sample from a 
 ledge of silver or gold ore is equally significant. They have 
 not realized that the conditions of the existence of the ore 
 in the ledge are different conditions ; and have therefore 
 attached to the assays of the silver bearing ledge the same 
 value they knew from experience, was attached to those of 
 specimens taken from a bed of iron ore, and in doing this 
 they have given to the assays a significance far in excess of 
 the fact. An assay of ore is, as most people know, an exam- 
 ination by fire and chemical reagents of a piece of ore. In 
 making one the assayer takes a piece of ore about the size 
 of a hazel nut, and ascertains by methods of no particular 
 interest here, what it contains. As far as it goes it is abso- 
 lutely correct, for the assayer finds out to the thousandth 
 part of a cent, the amount of gold, silver, copper, lead, iron 
 or any other metal contained in the piece assayed. He tells 
 you that the ore assayed goes 7000 ounces to the ton 
 and he is perfectly correct in what he says, for a ton of that 
 kind of ore would undoubtedly yield 7000 ounces of silver. 
 But fl-om the fact that the ledge is not homogeneous, when 
 the assayer tells you the result of the assay he tells you ab- 
 solutely nothing about the ledge except the fact that it did 
 at one time contain a lump of ore, that lump which he has 
 assayed, which was valuable. Suppose that you have a 
 ledge of quartz containing among other things some ruby 
 silver. It would be quite possible to take from it two speci- 
 mens for assay, one of the gang and one of the ruby. The 
 result of the assay of the first would be nil; that of the sec- 
 ond would be far up into the thousands. It would be as ab- 
 surd to reason that the ledge was worth nothing from the 
 first as it would be to reason that it was worth thousands of 
 dollars to the ton, from the second. It must not be sup- 
 posed that I am decrying the results of assaying, for I am 
 not. I am simply trying to explain why those results have 
 not the significance which has been attached to them and 
 why the purchase of a mine upon the information derived 
 from assays is a foolish purchase. In their place assays are 
 of enormous value, and it would be impossible to mine suc- 
 cessfully did we not have them. They may be compared to 
 a compass on board ship, for they point out to us where to 
 go ; but he would be a most unwise captain who, because he 
 had a compass, thought it unnecessary to take any -obser- 
 vations of the sun. 
 
 As the ore exists in the ledge in combination with the 
 gang and as the ore is valuable and the gang worthless, it 
 follows that it is the proportion existing between the ore 
 and the gang, in the ledge, which determines the value of the 
 ledge. If there be a great deal of gang and very little ore, 
 the ledge is worth but little or may be commercially worth 
 nothing at all. If the reverse of this be true, the ledge is 
 worth a great deal of money. Now comes the question 
 of how to ascertain this proportion. We have already seen 
 that an assay being the determination of the value of a par- 
 ticular piece of ore, is worthless in revealing the value of 
 the whole ledge. But we can by taking proper precautions 
 make this assay give us this information. If we submit a 
 specimen to the assayer which contains an average amount 
 of gang and an average amount of ore, the result will be what 
 we wish to arrive at. Suppose that the proportion of bar- 
 ren gang to the valuable ore is as six to four ; if we prepare 
 a specimen having in it sixty per cent, by weight, of gang 
 and forty per cent, of ore, the result of the assay of that 
 specimen will be the value of the ledge. And the value of 
 the result of such an assay will depend entirely upon the 
 care and thoroughness with which this average specimen is 
 prepared. As to the fact that it is only in this way that the 
 value of the ledge as a whole can be ascertained, nothing is 
 more common than to hear men say who have ledges for 
 sale that their specimens are average specimens. As a mat- 
 ter of fact I do not believe that an average specimen was 
 ever found in any mine in the world. It seems to me that 
 as the proportions of the gang and the ore are constantly 
 varying, the supposition that a single piece may be found 
 which will in itself represent all of these variations, when 
 tried by the almost theoretically accurate test of a fire assay, 
 is an absurd one. At least I never heard of an assay 
 of a single piece of rock which experience proved to 
 have represented the value of the mine, nor did I 
 ever know any person who had heard of one. In order 
 then to get an average specimen we must do one or 
 two things, either work a quantity of rock sufficient to re- 
 present the whole mine, in which case we get an average re- 
 sult of working ; or mix together all the varieties of ore and 
 gang and find the value of the specimen, in which case we 
 simply work on a small scale an average lot of rock. Tak- 
 ing the latter first, in order to prepare such a specimen we 
 must take a very large number of small pieces of rock. The 
 best way to secure these is taking a pick and cutting a 
 small ditch or groove across the face of the ledge. This 
 should run from one wall of the ledge to the other, and 
 should be about one inch wide and one deep. A large number 
 of these grooves should be cut, not less than fifteen, and if the 
 
 Watch spring Coil, A B line dividing the centre— Shaded half taken for 
 fuither experiment. 
 
 ledge crops out for the full length of the claim, they may be 
 cut every hundred feet. The stuff which is cut out of them 
 should be reduced to the size of hazel nuts and spread out 
 
856 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 upon a flat surface. It should be heaped up and spread 
 out again a great number of times, and finally should be 
 worked with the fingers or a small stick into a figure resem- 
 bling a watch-spring lying on its side. It should then be 
 divided by a line through the center and one half carefully 
 removed and placed by itself. The remaining half 
 should be reduced to the size of peas by pounding it in a 
 mortar or on a flat stone. This should in turn be heaped 
 up and spread out as before, and one-half be taken in the 
 same way. The half now taken, a quarter of the original 
 should again be worked by mixing and spreading out, and 
 by the same method reduced one-half. The person who 
 is conducting this test should be careful each time to 
 sweep up all the dust, and should see that this dust becomes 
 fairly scattered during the process of spreading the stufi" out. 
 The process is continued until the amount is reduced to 
 about five ounces, which is carefully gathered up and saved. 
 The second half of the first separation should now be takerl 
 and treated in the same way until it is reduced to five ounces, 
 which should be added to the five already obtained. The 
 ten ounces should then be placed in a mortar and reduced 
 until the stufi' is as fine as flour. Jt is then mixed thorough- 
 ly in the mortar and spread out on a large sheet of white 
 paper, until it is not more than a, quarter of an inch thick. 
 Two lines at right angles to each other should then be drawn 
 and the opposite quarters of the mass taken and thoroughly 
 mixed. This will give the two halves separate. Each half 
 should be treated as the whole mass was until two speci- 
 mens, each containing one hundred grains, have been sepa- 
 rated out, andthes^ specimens should be assayed. If the two 
 assays correspond within a few cents to the ton, it may be 
 concluded that the work has been done properly, but should 
 there be any great difierence between them there is nothing 
 to be done but to begin all over again and cut fresh grooves 
 across the face of the ledge. 
 
 It should be remembered that the more places from which 
 the ore is taken, or in other words the more grooves cut, the 
 better and more reliable is the final result. This method is 
 the most reliable one which can be applied to a ledge before 
 any work has been done upon it. Should there be a shaft 
 extending say two hundred feet down, and two levels upon 
 it is, say five hundred feet in all, the ledge may be said to 
 be prospected and we may apply a milling test to it. This 
 is mucn more expensive than the former and much more 
 valuable as a means of determining the value of the mine. 
 To make it we take from fifty to one hundred tons of ore 
 secured in this way. Beginning at the top of the shaft, we 
 cut lumps of ore from the vein the whole way down. Upon 
 each level we cut out ore along the top, being careful to 
 take it from the full width of the vein, and we cut a full 
 section of the vein across the two faces of each level. The 
 ore so secured is carried to a customs mill and, taking the 
 precaution of having the batteries and pans or furnaces 
 thoroughly cleaned, then worked. While the ore is being 
 crushed a spoonful of the " slime," as the crushed ore mixed 
 with water is called, is taken every ten or fifteen minutes 
 from in front of each stamp, and thrown into a bucket. 
 Being thoroughly mixed it is then dried and subjected to 
 the same process as that already described in order to get 
 specimens for assay out of it. In a milling test, however, 
 we generally make ten assays and average on the results. 
 Examining the batteries after the operation of crushing is at 
 an end, in order to see if, as sometimes happens, the gold or 
 silver in a metallic state has refused to pass through the 
 screens, we take the birch or result in metal of the working 
 and ascertain its value. Supposing that every part of the 
 test and the preparations for it to have been carried out 
 properly we will have arrived at a very close estimate of the 
 value of the ore in the mine. These tests, particularly the 
 last, are troublesome to make, take time and cost money, 
 but it is time, trouble and money well spent to make them. 
 The purchase of a mine is an operation which involves the 
 expenditure of a more or less large sum of money, while its 
 development and working is'apttocostagreatdealmorethan 
 its purchase. It is rarely that a mine can be made to pay 
 without the expenditure of fifty thousand dollars, and it far 
 offcener costs a hundred and fifty. These outlays are legiti- 
 mate if warranted by the condition of the mine, but it is of 
 primary importance to ascertain if that condition will so 
 warrant them. Economy here may well be said to be " pen- 
 
 ny wise but pound foolish " policy. Supposing that the ore 
 is found to be all right and to warrant the belief that the 
 mine will pay as an investment, the next question in order 
 is the state of the ledge. A ledge of quartz may be compared 
 to a leaf of a book. It has a leaf on each side of it, of bar- 
 ren or country rock, called the "walls," and it may run all 
 the way down to the binding, or it may be merely a margin 
 pasted on. All that we can see at first is that like the other 
 leaves it has an edge. To drop the simile, all we can know 
 from the " croppings " or appearance of the ledge at the sur- 
 face of the ground is that there is a ledge there. We may 
 conclude that if the ledge is continuous, if it is the same 
 width or wider a thousand feet under ground, and if it car- 
 ries the same proportion of ore and gang throughout, that 
 it is a good property. But it may be a " pocket " ledge, that 
 is, it may end when we get fifty or a hundred feet down ; or 
 it may fault or be cui off and disappear. The ore may give 
 out and the gang alone remain. Now these points must be 
 ascertained if possible before purchasing the property, be- 
 cause upon them depends the value of that property. As 
 far as faults are concerned, they may generally be discovered 
 if they exist by an examination of the surrounding country. 
 The question of whether the ledge is a pocket is one of in- 
 finitely more complex character, to the solving of which 
 must be brought far more reasoning power and closer ob- 
 servation. As each mining district possesses peculiarities 
 of its own, the expert, before attempting to reason about a 
 ledge, especially if that ledge be undeveloped, examines 
 all the mines he can get into in that district. By such ex- 
 amination he will be enabled to determine what are the 
 peculiar features of ledges there. Having done this, he re- 
 turns to the ledge he thinks of purchasing or of which he is 
 to recommend the purchase. He examines the walls to find 
 out the kind of rock they are composed of. If he finds the 
 same kind of rock on each side of the ledge, and if he ascer- 
 tains that the strike of the ledge is different from that of the 
 walls, he concludes that the ledge is probably a fissure. If 
 in addition to this he finds that the walls next to the ledge 
 are smooth and have a St>apy feel, and he sees clay seams 
 between the ledge and the walls, his previous conclusion is 
 confirmed. Should he on the contrary find that the strike 
 of the ledge is the same as that of the walls, that the ledge 
 lies between two strata of different rock and that there are 
 no clay seams he will, as a rule, be inclined to look on the 
 property with anything but favorable eyes, because he will 
 feel almost certain that it is a pocket. The ore itself will 
 tell a tale to him. If he finds that it is equally distributed 
 throughout the gang arid is a variety of ore which in that 
 district has been found to be permanent, he will reason that 
 the ledge probably carries the ore all through it. But in the 
 examination of the ledge the two most important points to 
 be determined are the existence of faults, if any, and if it be 
 a fissure vein, a careful examination will generally deter- 
 mine these sufficiently to warrant a purchase of the mine or 
 a refusal to have anything to do with it. 
 
 It will be conceded I think that examinations of the ore and 
 the ledge such as those which have been generally described, 
 are somewhat more satisfactory than those made as a rule by 
 investors, for the simple reason that they are more thorough. 
 But the ore and the ledge having been proved to be all that is 
 desired, more has to be done before the mine can be properly 
 bought. There are the questions which relate to the work- 
 ing of the ore. As the metal has to be extracted from the 
 ore before the mine can pay, the cost of doing this will often 
 prevent the mine being a legitimate commercial invest- 
 ment. This cost divides itself into two parts, that of getting 
 the ore out of the mine and that of working it after it is so 
 got out. The would be purchaser should inquire carefully 
 into these points if he would not find his money evaporating 
 into thin air. The cost of getting the ore out includes the 
 price and value of the labor to be obtained. The rate of 
 wages should be ascertained and the contract prices of work 
 be got at. As a rule in mining it is better to have work 
 done by the piece, as it often happens that in trying to save 
 the profit to the contractor the owner loses more than he 
 makes. If there be a miners' union in the district the pur- 
 chaser should make himself thoroughly familiar with its 
 workings and the rates established by it so that he may find 
 out whether he is to make a profit himself or pay all his 
 money to his men. The history of that union in the past 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 857 
 
 will give him a fairiasight into its policy ia the future. As 
 mines require timbering, the cost of the timber and the ex- 
 pense of transportation must be ascertained. In making an 
 examination into this branch of the subject it is necessary 
 to find out from the character of the walls, how much timber 
 will probably be required. The ore must be hoisted out so 
 the cost of hoisting engines must be known, and the freight- 
 ing rates to the mines from the shops. The rate at which 
 rails can be laid down at the mine for use in tunnels and 
 levels should find a place in the note book. If steam is to 
 be used to hoist, the price and heating value of the fuel to 
 make that stearn ; and the source and character of the water, 
 whether it be water that will corrode the boilers rapidly, 
 must be ascertained. The cost of blasting powder, of picks 
 and drills and of all other things must be known ; and in 
 case of the picks and drills the rapidity with which they 
 will wear out as governed by the hardness of the rock. The 
 ore being upon the surface of the ground it has been mined 
 and now must be worked. The first thing to discover is how 
 it is to be worked to the greatest advantage. Does it require 
 a crushing mill pans and settlers, or is it a smelting ore, and 
 are furnaces needed ? Will it pay better to work it on the 
 ground, or ship it and have it worked anywhere from one to 
 one hundred miles away ? If a mill or furnace is to be built 
 the purchaser must find out where the mill site is to be se- 
 cured and its cost. He must know the supply of water if 
 there be one, and the cost. If the ore must be smelted, he 
 must ascertain what kind of fuel he requires, and the cost, of 
 laying it down at the furnace. Its value, too, must be known. 
 If the ore has to be carried from the mine to a mill or fur- 
 nace, the question of the facilities for road making comes in 
 and must be answered together with that of the cost. All 
 these and many other points must be inquired into before 
 the question of whether it will pay to work the ore which is 
 satisfactorily found in this ledge which is probably per- 
 manent, can be an.swered. It does not do to buy the mine 
 first and to find out the=e things afterwards, because when 
 this is done, it often happens that the purchaser is forced to 
 resolve to let his loss on the purchase of the mine end his 
 connection with it. Nor does it do to buy the mine and 
 then spend money making experiments on working it. Be- 
 fore one dollar is paid for the transfer of the property a 
 clear and plain answer to the question " will the ore pay 
 after it is mined and worked a sufficient return to give me 
 fifteen per cent, on the purchase money" must be had. 
 There must be no If, or But or Perhaps about it. It must 
 be known in the same way that the probable return from a 
 purchase of wheat land is known. Giving tiie mine, if the 
 vein proves permanent and no unforeseen accident occurs, I 
 can make just such an amount by the expenditure of just so 
 much money. When mining is gone into in this way, it is a 
 business and not a speculation. 
 
 There is a third branch of the subject-matter of the pur- 
 chase which must be inquired into before that purchase can 
 be made. It is that of the property transferred. ' And the 
 first thing to be ascertained is the question of title. It often 
 happens in a mining district that claims being hastily made 
 and carelessly stated, overlap each other. A search through 
 the recorder's books must be made to see if the property to 
 be bought is claimed by any one else, and if it is, whether 
 that claim is good. It must also be found out whether the 
 assessment work, providing the claim is not patented, has 
 been done during the previous year or two, and if that work 
 is recorded by the United States surveyor in the district. The 
 question of title having been satisfactorily settled, the 
 '^ plant" or stock of tools, machinery, etc., transferred with 
 the mine must be examined. If there be a mill, the engine 
 and boilers should be inspected, the pans and settlers 
 cleaned and viewed tn find out if they are in good condi- 
 tion. If there is a furnace, it should be examined with the 
 same object. The work done upon the mine in sinking a 
 shaft, mining a tunnel or driving levels should be surveyed 
 in order to find out if it has been done properly, or is suffi- 
 cient. There is such a thing known as getting a mine into 
 such a shape as to prevent the cheap extraction of the ore, 
 and in such a case it is often necessary to do all the work 
 over again. Supposing, for example, that the ledge dips 
 at an angle of 53'', and that a slope two hundred feet in 
 depth has been sunk in the foot wall. It may be known 
 the " output " through the slope is, say, ten tons a day. 
 
 But the purchaser may intend to put up works which will 
 reduce one hundred tons per day. In such a case he finds 
 that he cannot get such an output through the slope, and 
 that it is necessary to sink a shaft to strike the ledge at say, 
 six hundred feet, and run level on to it. In that case the 
 slope is of no use except, of course, for ventilation. Or it 
 may be that the work done in sinking a perpendicular shaft 
 
 A B Ledge C D Slope. 
 
 E F Shaft. G G Levels. 
 
 was done at one end of a claim, and that in order to work 
 the mine to the point of output wished it is necessary to sink 
 nearer the centre. Or the tunnels and levels may be too 
 small. These points must all be examined into and answers 
 arrived at before the value of the property can be known with 
 any degree of certainty. Careful .and accurate measure- 
 ment of the ground and of the ledge must be taken in order 
 that the details of the property purchased may be known to 
 
 the purchaser. ,■■.-, ^ ^t. 
 
 It may be laid down as a general rule applicable to the 
 purchase of all ledges containing gold and silver, that it is 
 unwise to buy mere prospects or locations. It is of course, 
 the fact that a ledge which has been only located and on 
 which no work has been done may be bought for far less 
 money than one the value of which has been proved by de- 
 velopment, but on the other hand it pays the capitalist to 
 expend more money and take a smaller chance of loss. All 
 that can be said of any ledge when it is located is, that the 
 prospects warrant the finding out whether it is a mine. 
 From the fact that every dollar expended upon the develop- 
 ment at first is not onlv so much towards the preparation of 
 the mine for working, but is also a reason for the expenditure 
 of another dollar, it follows that the work of development 
 is work for which there is always a reason. The indications 
 found in the croppings are such as to warrant making a cut- 
 ting, say ten feet deep. If the ledge is found to be at this 
 point one which looks well, it is right and proper that the 
 shaft should be commenced and sunk, say, ten feet more. 
 The croppings warranted the first excavation, that in turn 
 warranted the second. And this process of reasoning is one 
 which is constantly being applied as the work goes on. 
 Each foot sunk is a step towards the development and a 
 reason for taking another step. But from the fact that the 
 croppings can only be properly looked upon as sufficient to 
 warrant the commencement of development, it is unbusiness- 
 like to purchase a ledge upon the strength of what they may 
 reveal The capitalist who pays anywhere from fifty to two 
 hundred thousand dollars for a claim, does not pay that 
 money for the privilege of proving the ledge to be barren 
 He pays that money for what he believes to be a mine, and 
 it is only when he gets a mine, a piece of property which 
 will pay him his money back with interest, when worked, 
 that he is warranted in paying the money at all._ It is then 
 of primary importance for him to know that he is buying a 
 mine Until the ledge is developed he can not know this 
 with any degree of certainty, and he has no right, speaking 
 
868 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 in a business sense, to pay a heavy sum for the chance of 
 finding this out. It often happens, however, that prospec- 
 tors have acquired the titles to properties which show well 
 upon the surface, and as the result of assessment work, the 
 prospectors themselves being too poor to do the necessary 
 work of development. In such a case, the position ot 
 affairs is this. Here is a valuable property, for I am sup- 
 posing that the ledge is really a good one, and will pay it 
 developed and worked, the owner of which is unable to do 
 anything with it. Such a property the owner will try to 
 sell, as he is conscious of the fact that it will remain forever 
 in his hands unexplored. If the capitalist knew- which he 
 never can know with certainty — that the ledge is what I 
 have supposed it to be he would be perfectly justified in 
 purchasing it. But as he can not know this he is not so 
 justified. On the other hand, if the ledge be really valua- 
 ble it should not be sold by the prospector as though it were 
 of little worth. At first sight this appears to be somewhat of 
 a deadlock, but like most deadlocks, there is a way out of it. 
 While the capitalist is not justified in paying for that ledge 
 as though it wereamine, heisperfectlyjustifiedinpayingto 
 find out ifit be one. His possible loss then is confined to 
 what money he puts out for development, an expenditure he 
 can stop at any moment, if the indications be such as to 
 show him that his money is being wasted. If we suppose 
 that the water line for the district is one hundred and 
 fifty feet down, two hundred feet of shafting will gene- 
 rally prospect a ledge prettv well. If to this be added five 
 hundred feet of levels, that ledge may be said to_ be fairly 
 opened. Now taking assessment values as a basis, we can 
 call this seven hundred feet of work, $7000, and supposing 
 the plant necessary to do it cost $3000 we have $10,000 as 
 the sum to be expended At the risk of being charged with 
 reiteration I must once more point out the fact that each 
 $1000 expended gives at once direct return in development 
 and is a warrant for the expenditure of the next. It is this 
 fact which makes it proper for the capitalist to agree to spend 
 his money. If he buys the ledge outright for $10,000, and 
 it is a mighty poor ledge he could get for that, he has lost 
 his money if the vein pinches. He has nothing to warrant 
 the paymient, except the croppings and surface indications. 
 But in the case of the spending of the money for develop- 
 ment he is constantly receiving new proofs of the wisdom of 
 his expenditure, or, on the other hand, if he does not receive 
 such proof, he can at any time decline to lose any more. 
 The capitalist should then, if he find a ledge which from its 
 surface indications he believes to be a good one, but which 
 needs developments the owner is unable to make, be will- 
 ing to make such developments. In such a case he agrees to 
 spend so much money upon the ledge for development, or 
 such a part thereof as the result of that development shall 
 warrant. He at the same time bonds the mine for a certain 
 fixed sum, to be paid for the controlling interest or for the 
 whole property in case, upon development, the mine shall 
 turn out to be a good one. 
 
 The deed should always specify the amount of develop- 
 ment which is to be done, as well as the time it is to be 
 done in. As for example, the shafting is set down at two 
 hundred feet and the levels to be driven at five hundred ; 
 when this seven hundred feet of work has been done, the 
 capitalist must decide as a result of an examination of the 
 mine in its then state, whether it will pay the purchase 
 money as agreed upon. If he declines to do so, the proper- 
 ty reverts to the original owner whose title becomes as 
 clear as if the capitalist had never acquired a prospective 
 interest in it, and had never expended a dollar upon it It 
 sometimes happens when such an arrangement is made that 
 the mine, when developed, turns out to be worth less than the 
 sum agreed upon as its purchase price although still a val- 
 uable property. Sujiposing that the purchase price named 
 was $100,000 ; the mine may easily turn out not to be worth 
 this but to be a good investment at $50,000. On the other 
 hand, it may turn out to be a mine which would be cheap at 
 $200,000. One of these chances may be fairly set against 
 the other. The capitalist however should be careful before 
 agreeing to a purchase price, to examine into the property 
 as thoroughly as may be possible, and to set that price 
 at a sum which in view of all that he can discover 
 about the ledge seems to be a fair and reasonable 
 one. Even if the first of the two results of the de- 
 
 velopment of the mine mentioned be the one which is ar- 
 rived at ; if the property turn out to be worth less than the 
 sum agreed upon, the capitalist rarely loses his money as in- 
 vested. If he declines to pay the sum originally specified as 
 he has under his bond a perfect right to do, he will often, if 
 he make a fair offer for the mine succeed in purchasing it 
 for a less sum. The difficulty of finding a purchaser for a 
 mine is such that the prospector is rarely unwilling to sell 
 at a fair figure. It sometimes, and I might say often, hap- 
 pens that the prospector will offer to give the control for 
 the development. That is in consideration of a specified 
 sum being spent in the development of a mine and in the 
 purchase of hoisting and reduction works, he will transfer 
 anything over fifty-one per cent, of the property. And just 
 here let me say a few words about acquiring the control. 
 Nothing can be more foolish and more of a mistake than 
 for the capitalist who purchases an interest in a mine to in- 
 vest his money for other men to manage. Time and time 
 again has experience proved that this is the most ill judged 
 proceeding any man with money ever went into. The way 
 in which it is generally brought about is the purchase 
 where there are several owners of the interest of one. The 
 capitalist if he go into mining at all should in all cases have 
 the control of the property, and for a very simple reason. 
 The men who find the mines, the prospectors, rarely if ever 
 can be considered business men. They may be and proba- 
 bly are perfectly honest, but they do not know how to 
 handle money in a way which will make every dollar pay 
 for one hundred cents worth of work or supplies. When 
 such men are placed in control the shrinkage in sums of 
 money placed in their hands and the waste, not as a result 
 of dishonesty but simply from a lack of knowledge, becomes 
 very great. It is therefore necessary that business men 
 should attend to regulating the expenditures upon the mine, 
 because if they do not, those expenditures will be far in ex- 
 cess of what is legitimate and right in the premises. To 
 return however to the proposition stated at the begiiming of 
 this digression, that of the prospector giving the control for 
 the development. While this offer is often made it is one 
 which is, except in very rare cases, unwise for the capital- 
 ist to accept. And for this reason. Nothing is apparently 
 fairer than for the owner of a ledge to say " I have a ledge 
 which I own. From the surface indications I think that it 
 is of value and will if developed pay handsomely. You 
 from your examinations agree with me. I have the ledge 
 but no money ; you have the money but no ledge. You 
 take your money and work my ledge for the benefit of both 
 and I will give you a larger interest than that which I retain 
 to pay you for doing this.'' But when we examine into 
 this proposition we find that it is not one which is either 
 wise or business-like. The arrangement is never made un- 
 less the capitalist agrees to do a certain specified amount of 
 work or spend a certain specified sum of money. As the 
 essence of the fact that it is legitimate business for him to 
 agree to begin the development and carry it on providing 
 at every point the development made warrants further de- 
 velopment being made, lies in the proviso, and as such a 
 contract as that which we are considering is without this 
 proviso, it follows that the purchase of the control for the 
 development does not differ except in name from the pur- 
 chase of the location. No matter how little the ledge as 
 you go down may warrant the doing* of further work, the 
 sum mentioned in the agreement must be spent of course ; 
 the capitalist can at any time cut the gordian knot by re- 
 fusing to pay any more money, but if the prospector be of the 
 opinion, as he frequently is, that tlic full amount of work 
 mentioned will, if done, prove the value of the mine to be 
 great, he can seriously annoy and embarrass the capitalist by 
 law suits and other vexatious proceedings. 
 
 There is in mining, or rather the investment in mines, a 
 fundamental commercial law of which all these directions 
 as to purchasers may be said to be the " croppings." This 
 law is the one which teaches us from experience, that mines 
 of the precious metals have been formed in such a way as to 
 make them uncertain properties. All the directions given 
 have had as their sole object the giving to the capitalist of 
 greater certainty in business operations, greater security for 
 his investments. In obedience to that other commercial 
 law which reaches the possible profit always in proportion 
 to the certain risk, mines which pay, generally pay hand- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 859 
 
 somely for tlio money invested. It is possible by taking due 
 precautions, to determine to a very great extent wiat this 
 risk is, and it is therefore wise to take those precautions. 
 The diiference in the risk of purchasing a mine which has 
 been developed sufficiently to prove that it is a mine and 
 not a pocket, and that taken in the purchase of a location upon 
 the strength of the croppings and surface indications, can 
 scarcely be over stated. But supposing that the ledge be 
 proved by development to be a mine, that the ore is abund- 
 ant and valuable and that it can be worked at a profit ; there 
 is still a question which is of great importance, namely what 
 that profit will be. It is a known fact that property in a 
 mine differs from that in land, for example, in one very im- 
 portant particular. If a man owns a lot in a city that proper- 
 ty is, barring such an accident as the swallowing up of the city 
 during an earthquake, property for ever. As long as men 
 live on the earth and congregate in that city so long will that 
 piece of ground have a value. That value may vary but 
 there will always be something left. But in a mine this is 
 all changed. There will come a time when that mine can 
 no longer be worked, when from natural causes it must cease 
 to pay, when it costs to get the ore out and separate the metal 
 from it just the sum represented by the metal when sepa- 
 rated. The ultimate value of that mine then, is represented 
 by the sum which can be taken out prior to that time. 
 There are many opinions as to the depth which mines may 
 be worked, but we will suppose that under all the conditions 
 existing in a certain district a particular mine can not be 
 worked at a greater depth than 3,000 feet. The claim is 
 1,500 feet long. We will also suppose that the ledge of 
 paying rock is five feet thick. We have then 22,500,000 cubic 
 feet of ore which we can take out. When this is done, that 
 mine is at an end ; it has as far as the question of property is 
 concerned, ceased to be. Now if the amount of money paid 
 for the property be represented by x and the amount ex- 
 pended for plant for the extraction and for the working of 
 the twenty-two and a half millions of cubic feet of ore be 
 represented by y, then x + y will represent all the money put 
 into or expended upon the mine. The amount of money 
 which that mine must yield in order to make it a paying 
 and legitimate business investment is (x + y) a sufficient 
 sum to answer the requirements of interest. In other words 
 that mine must pay back all the money invested in it to- 
 gether with an increase or its purchase will result in a loss. 
 As the time in which this must be done is limited from the 
 fact that the existence of the mine is limited, it follows that 
 the purchaser must see his way to such a return clearly from 
 the start. The fact that the mine may not be exhausted 
 during his life does not alter this conclusion in any way be- 
 cause, supposing the commercial life of the mine to be ten 
 years, and the purchaser to die at the end of five, the mine 
 is a property at the time of that death being but halt 
 worked. Practically this question resolves itself into that of 
 the dividends which the mine must pay or the interest on 
 the money invested which it must yield. I have already 
 placed that at fifteen per cent, of the purchase money, be- 
 cause although this is rather high there are so many risks 
 to be looked on as possible that it does not seem to me it 
 should be reduced. As the result of all examinations then 
 the purchaser must see fifteen per cent, on the investment 
 in sight from the start. If he does see a higher per centage 
 so much the better, bUt he must not see a lower, if he would 
 go into an investment in a mine with the same degree of 
 certainty and guided by the same amount of business 
 caution asked for and shown by him in other business trans- 
 actions. 
 
 In conclusion, I have but one word more to add. There 
 is a class of men in the community who have given the best 
 years of their lives to the study of mines and mining. They 
 are as a rule honest, capable and trustworthy. The employ- 
 ment of them by capitalists who wish to purchase mines 
 will save thousands of dollars and will give results which 
 are out of all proportion to the money paid. The substitu- 
 tion for their trained experience and their knowledge, of 
 the "common sense," by the light of which so many men 
 have purchased mines in the past is a substitution which is 
 characterized by no sense, common or uncommon; and 
 which is the most expensive folly the mind of man ever 
 conceived or acted upon. 
 
 —Alfred Batch. 
 
 SALTED LEDGES AND WILDCAT MINES. 
 
 FRAUD in mining is as confidently expected by some 
 people as is the rising of the sun in the morning. 
 They will tell you that the man who touches a gold 
 mine has lost whatever sense he ever had, and they 
 will repeat with much cynicism the trite saying about "a 
 fool and his money." As there have been many instances 
 of fraud in the business, few if any of those who speak so 
 sneeringly of it lack an example to which they may trium- 
 phantly point as an instance in point; and as you listen to 
 the story of how Smith was taken in, and done for by that 
 guileless prospector Jones, you are forced to admit that 
 Jones stocked the cards on Smith and got away with the 
 pile. In all honesty it is but fair to say that the genus 
 Smith who has lost its money, has by its own folly in many 
 cases, prepared the way for the work subsequently got in on 
 it by the genus Jones ; and that if Smith had displayed ordi- 
 nary caution, Jones would have had no chance. It is, how- 
 ever, unquestionably true that the losses by fraud in mining 
 have been enormous, and that many men have cause to 
 regret that they ever put one dollar into the business. It 
 cannot be said that mining has been marked by any unu- 
 sual number of frauds; that is, distinguished as one form of 
 business among other forms, by fraud. It is probably the 
 fact that as much money has been lost in every variety of 
 occupation among men by dishonest practices as was ever 
 thrown away in mining, but it is unquestionably true that 
 there is about mining frauds a brilliancy of execution and a 
 clearness of cut in the pattern, marking them among frauds 
 in general with a degree of distinctness which attracts the 
 attention at once. A "salted" ledge once bought, the money 
 has gone forever, and gone too, in the intensely aggravating 
 form of a lump. The sum lost is generally large, and there 
 is rarely, if ever, any redress. The owner of the led^e can 
 contemplate his property with the disgust which animates 
 the soul of a man who knows he has been cheated, intensi- 
 fied by the reflection that he will have the greatest possible 
 difficulty in persuading others to share his loss in any way. 
 The annoyance, too, is cumulative. I have known a man 
 who had bought a property at a price about five times what 
 it was worth, keep his temper beautifully until he learnt 
 that to retain possession of it he must do one hundred dol- 
 lars worth of work upon it each year, when he lost his phil- 
 osophy and broke out into strange oaths. The government 
 assessment work was the last straw. The peculiarly disa- 
 greeable character of mining swindlers is due to the fact 
 that money once paid, one must pay more in order to have 
 even a chance of getting back any at all. Whether this 
 demand for more takes the form of the disbursement neces- 
 sary to purchase hoisting works and mills or the miller, but 
 no less inexorable cry for "more mud," it is none the less 
 disagreeable. Nothing dampens a man's willingness to pay 
 out money more than the knowledge that he has already 
 paid and lost in the operation. And in gold or silver min- 
 ing the loss, if loss there be, is generally a positive loss and 
 one about which no man can make any mistake. It seerns 
 to partake somewhat of the character of the gain. That is 
 in bullion which has a value the moment it is taken out of 
 the "chill" or iron mould of the brick. There is no ques- 
 tion about a market, it can be sold at once; taken to the 
 mint the gold twenties are poured out for it as soon as its 
 value is known. 
 
 The frauds in gold and silver mining may be divided into 
 two great classes indicated by the title of this article. The 
 " Salted Ledges " are the frauds perpetrated by Jones, the 
 sale to Smith of ledges which have no valuable mineral in 
 them. The " Wild Cat Mines " are the frauds perpetrated 
 by Smith upon the public at large through the medium of 
 the stock market. The two classes may be said to be the 
 positive and the superlative of mining frauds, for the first 
 is to the second in importance what a retail business is to a 
 wholesale. While thousands of dollars have been lost 
 through the Salted Ledges, millions have been thrown 
 away in the Wild Cat mines. Taking the lesser of the two 
 evils first, the conditions necessary for the sale of the Salted 
 Ledges are a flow of capital into mining, the success of some 
 of those engaged in it, a ledge of some kind to salt, shrewd- 
 ness on the part of the men who negotiate the sale and ere- 
 
860 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 I 
 
 dulity, and a lack of knowledge on the part of those who 
 pay the money. Given the^^e conditions fraud is always 
 possible ; and given these conditions, fraud will always be 
 practiced. In order to illustrate how it is done, a story may 
 he told, which is strictly true, except in the names given ; 
 these for obvious reasons, being fictitious. In mining 
 camps in the West the men generally assemble m some 
 place for an hour or two during the evening and there tell 
 yarns. Among these none is more popular than that of the 
 "$100,000 Picnic;" and you can rarely get any number of 
 Pacific Coast miner? together without hearing it if the con- 
 versation turns upon the tricks which have been played 
 upon the " mining sharps " from the East. In 1867, as the 
 story goes, Mr. Henry Thompson arrived in the city of Al- 
 bany with a mine for sale. Having succeeded in getting 
 some introductions to capitalists, Mr. Thompson being a 
 most plausible talker, told them of his errand and of the 
 property he had for sale, This was situated in Idaho, and, 
 being undoubtedly the finest mine in the territory was ap- 
 ropriately named the " Flower of Idaho." It was owned 
 ^y Mr. Thompson and his two partners, and consisted of a 
 ledge of quartz carrving ore of high grade. Although the 
 ore was scattered through it very irregularly, Mr. Thomp- 
 son stated that taking the ledge all through, the rock would 
 run from $50 to $250 a ton with one average, say $112,50. Mr. 
 Thompson expressed himself as exceedingly anxious not to 
 overstate anything. One of the capitalists, Mr. John Smith, a 
 gentleman who had made a great deal of money in railroads 
 and who was looked upon, and justly, too, as being one of 
 the shrewdest men in the State of New York, listened to 
 Mr. Thompson's story with eager ears. He had heard 
 that other men were making money in mines ; he had read 
 as what man had not in '76, of the enormous yield of the 
 Great Bonanza in the Comstock. Naturally of an enter- 
 prising turn of mind, Mr. Smith had some of the specimens 
 produced by Mr. Thompson assayed and the result showed 
 thatthe half had not been told by this honest miner, for 
 some of them went high up into the thousands. Mr Thomp- 
 son gained not a little credit too by telling Mr. Smith that 
 the higher assays were not to be depended upon as they 
 could not be taken as representing the ledge. Having se- 
 cured in this way a character for fairness which shoiie with 
 a golden tinted splendor, Mr. Thompson pointed out the 
 profits of the enterprise by telling Mr. Smith that the cost 
 of mining and milling would together amount to about $25 
 per ton. The high estimate was given he said because labor 
 and transportation in Idaho were very expensive. Mr. 
 Smith asked how many tons could be extracted in a day, 
 and Mr. Thompson replied, still speaking with that mod- 
 eration which had characterized him all through, that 
 twenty to thirty was not a large estimate. $2,000 to $3,000 
 profit a day was enough to make Mr. Smith open his eyes. 
 But Mr. Thompson's story was not yet told. He had not 
 come East to tell a mere " prospect of which he spoke with 
 proper contempt," he had a mine which was fairly opened. 
 His partners and himself had sunk a shaft 100 feet and 
 had driven a level 250 feet so thatthe vein was in a condi- 
 tion to be examined. More than that. He had a little 
 money, and if the purchasers would sign a contract to buy 
 at his figures, $100,000 in cash and 30 per cent, of the stock, 
 providing an inspection of the mine by their own expert 
 confirmed the story as told, he would pay the expenses of 
 that expert to and from the mine. He did not ask Mr. 
 Smith to buy, but he did ask him if he thought well of the 
 property as described, to select an expert and let him view 
 the mine. He also explained that while he was able to pay 
 the expenses he was not able to pay the salary of the ex- 
 pert and he therefore expected Mr. Smith to assume this 
 part of the burden. The story as told and the proposition 
 as made captivated Mr. Smith, and he called a meeting of 
 those of his friends whom he was willing to let into a " good 
 thing,'' and laid the proposition before them. Thompson 
 told his story once more, and explained that the contract 
 must contain a clause binding them if they purchased the 
 mine to raise $250,000 as working capital. Mr. Smith 
 showed the result of the assavs he had hiid made and offered 
 to subscribe $100,000 out of the $350,000 necessary to car- 
 ry the whole thing through. " Money talks " as they say 
 in the betting ring. Mr. Smith was known by every one 
 present to be a man who had been the architect of his own 
 
 fortunes, and his ability and shrewdness were universally 
 acknowledged and respected. It did not take five minutes 
 to have the amount necessary subscribed and the contract 
 giving $100,000 in cash to the owners of the mine for 70 
 per cent.of the property and the raising of the working capi- 
 tal was signed before those in the room left to go home. 
 
 Then came the question of an expert. And, just here, a 
 most fortunate thing happened. Mr. Smith's son, John, Jr., 
 had first graduated with credit from a school of mines 
 which I will locate in Kamskatka for fear of being invidious. 
 He had taken prize after prize, could talk learnedly about 
 various strange things, and delighted his father v/ho was 
 naturally proud of the boy's ability, by the perfect familiarity 
 he showed with the specimens which had been exhibited by 
 Thompson. This latter individual had told Mr. Smith that 
 John, Jr. was wasted in the East, and that his true field of 
 usefulness was aiding in the development of the great mining 
 industries of the West ; that West that Mr. Thompson was 
 pleased to call Boundless. Mr, Smith noticed, with pleasure, 
 that Thompson, who was so evidently a practical man, 
 seemed to esteem highly the opinions given by John, Jr., 
 and he did not fail to observe that he had also on one or two 
 occasions confessed that he was wrong after arguments held 
 with " the boy." Mr. Smith, naturally, was anxious to give 
 his son a start, and when he proposed to his associates that 
 John, Jr. be sent as their representative they agreed at once. 
 The same proposition having been made to Thompson, he 
 replied, " It ain't for me to say who shall go, Mr. Smith. I'm 
 ready to take any one you say ; but I should like to have 
 your son with me as I believe he'll keep your interests in 
 sight, an' I know he'll be pleasant like to travel with." 
 And so it was settled ; Thompson and John, Jr. left Albany 
 for Idaho. During the trip Thompson beguiled the time 
 with stories about mines and mining, in many of which he 
 was forced to allude to the dishonest tricks which had been 
 played. These he reprobated, not from any high moral 
 standpoint, but from a business point of view, claiming that 
 they did not pay. Arriving at the terminus of the railroad 
 Thompson and his companion were met by Brown, one of 
 the partners in the mine, with a wagon in which to make the 
 rest of the trip. The drive took two days, through magnifi- 
 cent scenery, and the weather was delicious. About the 
 food there was just that suspicion of roughness which is so 
 delightful ; the pan of bacon and beans stood beside the 
 canned meat and vegetables on the table. Brown proved 
 himself to be a most entertaining fellow, although somewhat 
 more volatile than the sober Thompson. He, also, told 
 stories about the way in which unsuspecting Eastern men 
 had been fleeced in fraudulent ledges, and his outspoken 
 admiration of smartness gave Thompson a chances to once 
 more repeat those little observations about the shortsighted- 
 ness of dishonesty. John, Jr. fell in love with the country, 
 and thought his companions two of the most delightful men 
 he ever met. 
 
 Reaching the mine at last, John, Jr. went into it. He 
 found that Thompson's statements in Albany had been 
 short rather than in excess of the truth. The shaft was 
 108 feet, or eight feet more than had been claimed, 
 while the level exceeded the length stated by thirteen, being 
 273 feet long. The next morning Thompson said to him, 
 " Now, Mr. Smith, I reckon you'd better kinder let me show 
 you about the mine, an' then leave you to yourself. You 
 kin examine the property an' make up your mind 'bout it 
 any way you like, but I ain't ^ot no call to point out much 
 to you. I'll answer any questions you may hev to ask, but 
 I want you to do the work without help. Then when you 
 gits back you kin kinder bet in your ' pinion,' an' you can't 
 say as how I influenced you." 
 
 " I shall want to do some assaying," said John, Jr., after 
 expressing his opinion of the perfect fairness of Thompson's 
 plan. 
 
 " Certainly," said Thompson, " don't forget the assayin'. 
 Only we ain't got no place fur you here. We've got horn 
 spoons, but they ain't the most reliable things in the world." 
 
 '' I ought to have brought a furnace and things with me, 
 I suppose," said John Jr., in the tone used by a young 
 man when he thinks he has made a mistake which causes 
 his s'Miiors to think him "green.'' 
 
 " Waal," said Thompson, " I had a right to tell you. I 
 'spose you've got a place at home?" 
 
THE MINES, MINEKS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 861 
 
 "Yes, father fitted up a splendid laboratory for me." 
 
 " 'Spose, then, that you take your specimens all the same. 
 Brown here will make a lot o' little bags an' you can seal 
 the specimens up. Then, when you gits East, you kin assay 
 'em at your leisure. Number the Dags an' keep a record 
 an' you'll get alon^ all right, I reckon." 
 
 It was so determined. John Jr. took specimens from the 
 Tein and the walls; he examined the country for faults, he 
 worked hard at measurements. The evening of the second 
 day as he sat tying up the specimens in the bags and seal- 
 ing them with his ring, he said, " I find this ledge to be one 
 of the most interesting deposits I ever saw. It lies in the 
 fracture of an anti-clinal fold, and is, I think, an alluvial 
 deposit of quartz which has been subjected to metamorphic 
 action. The marks of the great denuding agencies are 
 plainly visible and it gives every indication of permanence, 
 for I find that the quartzite visible near the surface gives 
 place to true quartz below. It is really delightful to examine 
 a formation which is so thoroughly scientific in its character." 
 
 " Jes' so," murmured Brown, respectfully, while Thomp- 
 son added "Thar's heaps in these yer veins 'round here, Mr. 
 Smith, as we miners can't see." 
 
 A week having been passed at the mine, John Jr. an- 
 nounced that he was ready to return. He told Thompson 
 that if the assays were all right the mine was as good as 
 sold. The bags containing the specimens were placed in 
 two grain sacks which were at Thompson's suggestion sealed 
 up. During the journey back, John Jr., also at the sug- 
 gestion of his companion, looked after them himself and 
 never allowed them out of his possession until they reached 
 Chicago, from which place he shipped them to Albany'in a 
 strong box by a different route from that traveled by him- 
 self. As Thompson said "This thing's business with me, 
 Mr. Smith ; an' thar's a sight dependin' on thera bags, so I 
 don't wan't no chances took." Arriving in Albany, the 
 assays were made by John Jr. in the presence of the men 
 interested, and at Thompson's suggestion portions of the 
 specimens were sent for independent analysis by assayers in 
 New York. The reports confirmed each other and Thomp- 
 son's statements; the capitalists, feeling that they had a 
 good thing, came to the front, the $100,000 was paid, the 
 mine incorporated, the 30 per cent, of stock issued to 
 Thompson as representing the ex-owners, the $250,000 was 
 raised for working capital, and Thompson left for the West. 
 A short time afterwards a superintendent was sent out and 
 the Company were greatly astonished to hear from him that 
 the " Flower of Idaho " was a worthless ledge of quartz 
 which would not average ten dollars to the ton ! 
 
 The way in which the swindle had been worked was sim- 
 plicity itself. By making a bread seal, Thompson had been 
 able to open the bags while John Jr. was on a hunt after a 
 mythical grizzly of which Brown had told him and after 
 which Brown took him, the day before he left for the East. 
 Having opened them Thompson substituted for a part of 
 their contents some rich ore procured from a mine at some 
 distance away. Then he sealed them up again. When 
 John Jr. and Brown returned Thompson was engaged in 
 cooking, and the seal was burnt. John Jr. had been de- 
 ceived for the simple reason that he had trusted to his as- 
 says to tell him the value of the ore. The true history of 
 the mine was somewhat different from that told by the 
 guileless Thompson. It had been opened to its then extent 
 by men, who, having become convinced that it was worth- 
 less, had abandoned it in disgust. Thompson, who was a 
 gambler by profession, had with his partners taken possession 
 of the property and had spent enough money upon it to clear 
 it of water, when they had sold it in the manner described. 
 
 Although there was no Thompson, Smith or Brown in 
 the original transaction, and although the "Flower of 
 Idaho" was not sold in Albany, and although^ John Jr. 
 did not graduate in Kamschatka, this story is strictly true. 
 It illustrates well the methods taken to dispose of salted 
 ledges although the salt in this case was placed in the 
 bags rather than in the mine. Instances have not been 
 lacking where the latter work has been done by men who 
 desired to sell worthless and fraudulent claims. In such 
 case the ore is procured from a mine somewhere in the 
 neighborhood, if possible, and mixed with that on the 
 dump. The faces of the levels and the sides of the shafts 
 are " plugged" at intervals ; that is, holes are made in which 
 
 the valuable ore is placed. Great skill is sometimes shown 
 in this plugging operation, and a very natural appearance is 
 given to the deposit. But as a rule, the men who are de- 
 ceived are those who have made the salted ledges possible. 
 They are those, who, without any previous training have 
 attempted to purchase mines by the guidance of "common 
 .sense." To them there is no difference in the appearance 
 of tlie salt and the surrounding vein matter, and they cannot 
 tell when they see a hole drilled before their eyes, and a 
 shot fired, that the ore torn out has previously been put in 
 for the purpose of being torn out. The men who sell the 
 fraudulent veins are quick to "take the measure of the em- 
 igrant's foot" as they term it and know well just how far 
 they can go and how barefaced they can make the swindle. 
 It is not very often, however, that men attempt to salt a de- 
 veloped mine. As a rule they confine themselves to some 
 ledge on which they own a claim, and for a very simple 
 reason. The smaller the area of observation of the value 
 of a ledge the greater the ease with which that ledge is 
 salted. If a ledge be found that has not more than twenty 
 or thirty feet showing on the surface, it is comparatively 
 easy to prepare it for sale to an " emigrant," as the late 
 arrival from the East is called. The owner gets soine 
 weathered ore from some mine in the district which carries 
 the same kind of gang. Thi.s he scatters along the ledge 
 and around it. Then procuring some that is not weathered, 
 he proceeds to make a cutting in the ledge of say, ten feet 
 deep. In this he places some of the salt, mixing the re- 
 mainder with the rock thrown into the dump. He gener- 
 ally fills up the place where one blast has been fired with 
 the mixture of salt and vein matter. Now, to a person 
 unaccustomed to mines, a vein prepared in this way is not 
 only enticing, but exceedingly deceptive. It is almost im- 
 possible for him to tell that it has been salted, and although 
 the steps to be taken to reveal the fraud are as simple as 
 anything in the world, he will rarely take them. He sees 
 the vein and the rock lying all around it ; he has some of 
 this rock assayed and he concludes at once, being guided by 
 sense of a most common kind, that the claim is valuable. 
 In his "Eoughing It," which, by the by, is the most reli- 
 able description of life on the Pacific Coast ever written, Mark 
 Twain gives an account of a mine, or rather ledge, in Vir- 
 ginia City which was salted with half-melted Mexican dollars. 
 The man who salted it must have been green at his busi- 
 ness, for he could scarcely hope to persuade any one, even 
 the most typical emigrant that ever crossed the Sierras, that 
 Nature created silver with a mint stamp upon it! And yet 
 I do not know. The folly shown by men who have invested 
 in mines has been so monstrous as to almost come up to the 
 swallowing of such a yarn as this. 
 
 But the salted ledges are as nothing when weighed in the 
 balance of fraud compared to the wild cat mines. While it 
 is true that the stock-markets have enabled the man in- 
 terested in mining property to find money to develop those 
 properties, it is also true that they have made it possible 
 to float mines and mining stock which are absolutely worth- 
 less. In such a business as the dealing in the stock of 
 mines there are necessarily enormous fluctuations in the 
 value of the securities, and as a result speculators gather 
 around the exchanges like flies around a honey-pot. As 
 all men have in them the desire for gambling implanted 
 to a greater or less extent, — that is, the desire to make 
 money rapidly, and the willingness to risk money in order 
 to so make it, such chances as those given by a stock market 
 when securities are varying ten or twenty dollars a share in 
 an hour, are too good to neglect. The result of this is that 
 men with money come in and furnish the wherewithal to 
 carry on the game. Many of them have other occupations, 
 and merely risk a few thousands or hundreds " as a flyer," 
 as they term it. These men rarely if ever know very much 
 about the value of mining property, and they will place 
 their money in any stock that promises to give a return or 
 to rise in value. It is this class that the fraudulent pro- 
 moter of mining companies is in search of. This fraudulent 
 promoter whom for the sake of convenience I will call John 
 Stone, having used up the names of Brown, Smith, Thom- 
 son and Jones, secures a ledge somewhere. He is careful to 
 get it in an old camp where there are well-known mines, or 
 I in a perfectly new one. He incorporates the mine and has 
 the certificates of stock printed. Then he pays the neces- 
 
862 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 sary fees to have the mine listed on the Board. Altogether 
 his expenses amount to about $1500 so far. He may or 
 may not have paid anything for his claim, because he can 
 always find some man who has a claim he is willing to 
 throw into the pool for the sake of a chance in the steal. 
 Having listed the stock he proceeds by the aid of brokers 
 who may or may not be in collusion with him, to deal in it. 
 One broker sells and another buys, and in this way it is 
 given a showing on the lists. In tne meantime he gets up a 
 flaming prospectus which he scatters broadcast throughout 
 the community. The letters from the mine are printed in 
 the stock papers and advertisements are inserted calling at- 
 tention to the unexampled opportunities for investment 
 offered by the "Untamed Feline M. and M. Co.'' The pro- 
 cess may be longer or shorter according to circumstances, but 
 sooner or later the public bite. The cost of making them do 
 so is variously estimated at from five to twenty thousand 
 dollars. When the public begins to buy the stock it is fed 
 out to them cautiously at first, but as time goes on in con- 
 stantly increasing blocks. When they are loaded up. the 
 time comes for the first assessment, which the letters from 
 the superintendent excuse on the ground that a "bone " has 
 been discovered in the mine, or the sinking has opened a 
 subterranean body of water and the mine is flooded, or the 
 ore body is slower in coming into sight than had been ex- 
 pected, or an out-house has burned down, or the mule 
 owned by the company has died of colic. 
 
 It does not matter what the story is, the result of the as- 
 sessment is always the same. Some men allow the stock to 
 be sold and content themselves with the first loss without 
 striving to make it larger. Others pay up and hold on, 
 hoping that the next news heard will be that of sudden de- 
 velopment of ore. In time the process is repeated again and 
 again until finally the mine — on the street — has been ex- 
 hausted and the operators turn their attention to some new 
 one. It sometimes happens that Johnston in picking out a 
 ledge to work in this way stumbles by accident upon one 
 which is really valuable. In such a case his astonishment 
 . and confusion are really comic. He is so amazed at finding 
 that the property is worth somethingand will payif honestly 
 managed, that he is positively at a loss to know what to do 
 with it. In one instance that I know of a mine that had 
 been begun as a swindle turned out to be extraordinarily 
 rich, and the Johnston in the case promptly substituted for 
 the superintendent in charge, a man who had been working 
 for him as a superintendent of mines for over twelve years, 
 one who had never worked for him before ; naively remark- 
 ing that in that mine he wanted a superintendent who knew 
 " something about mining." This method of floating a mine 
 on the public is one which is as common as are wild cat 
 mines. There is another and quite as effective a fashion. It 
 is that in which the mine is never listed upon the stock 
 boards at all but is "placed" as a property to be listed. 
 This method depends for its success upon the amiable princi- 
 ple of dividing or seeming to divide, the results of the steal. 
 There are a large class of men to be found hanging around 
 every stock exchange who are ready to work as tools for 
 any scoundrel who wishes to employ them. They are gene- 
 rally those who have lost all they had in stocks and now 
 wish to get even. If it is necessary that others shall lose in 
 order to permit of this, they are willing to watch those losses 
 with perfect equanimity. These men Johnston employs as 
 " cappers " for this game. He tells them that he has the 
 stock of this new and terribly valuable mine for sale and 
 that he intends to let a certain number of men into the pool. 
 That is, that a certain amount of money being necessary to 
 start the pool, or in other words, to enable the men in the 
 pool to work the market, he is willing to sell a certain 
 amount of the stock, to those who will buy it, for less money 
 thati it will be sold for when it is placed in the Board. He 
 is willing to give the cappers a percentage on sales, either in 
 cash or stock. Armed with the information thus given to 
 them the cappers start out to place that stock among their 
 friends, and as each one generally knows several men who 
 have more or less money to spare, a good deal of stock is 
 disposed of in this way. The cappers, when they approach 
 a man, always point out to him that they are giving him a 
 chance to buy " on the inside prices." That, purely from 
 love and affection for him, they have brought this chance to 
 him, and really, without wishing to influence him, they can 
 
 not understand how any man in his senses can decline such 
 an opportunity for making money as that offered by the 
 "Untamed Feline." The rich they tell him is nil as when 
 the mine is listed, which it will be as soon as the pool stock 
 is sold — and, by the way, there is not much of that stock 
 left — the shares they offer him at $2 will be placed on the 
 Board at $5. That prominent stock operator, Mr. Johnston, 
 who is so rich, is heavily interested and will not allow the 
 stock to be sold for less than $5 when it gets into the Board. 
 Now all of this kind of talk when translated means that the 
 stock sold at first is so sold because the pool wants money 
 enough to work the market in the manner described, and the 
 reference to that prominent operator, Mr. Johnston, simply 
 implies that that prominent operator who is so rich does not 
 consider the mine good enough to make it worth whilegoing 
 into it. It sometimes happens that the individual who is 
 approached by the capper is really honest enough to believe 
 that the money received for the pool stock is to be expended 
 for that mysterious operation he has heard men call "de- 
 velopment." But it is not unusual for the capper to make 
 no bones about telling him that the mine is to be sold to the 
 general public through the market, and that the pool stock 
 is sold to obtain the money necessary "to work the street." 
 It is pointed out that when the stock begins to go at $5 a 
 share, the purchaser in the pool will make $500 for his in- 
 vestment of $200; and the strange assurance of safety for 
 him in going into the fraud is given, that his stock will be 
 sold to people who are to be deluded into purchasing it 
 through the use of his money and that of others. A fraud is 
 made to guarantee the safety of a fraud. It would seem as 
 though the veriest fool that ever lived would decline to 
 touch such a thing as this, that he would say he would at 
 least have the management of any cheating schemes 
 he placed money in. But experience has shown men to 
 reason in some strange way that when a person makes them 
 a partner in a scheme of rascality, he cannot mean to cheat 
 them ! And so the game goes on, the pool stock is sold and 
 the mine is never even listed on the Board. 
 
 It is extraordinary how successful this method is among 
 small speculators in mining stocks. They invest their 
 money with a fatuous kind of idiocy which would be amus- 
 ing were not the results so disastrous. The aggregate of the 
 money so lost is something amazing, and were it to be stated 
 in a lump sum, supposing it to be possible to get the statis- 
 tics for making such calculation, would astonish every one 
 who saw the statement. I have not the slightest doubt that 
 the amount of money thrown away in such schemes as the 
 one which I have described would, were the facts knowti, be 
 found to equal that which has been paid as dividends Irom 
 all the gold mines ever worked. This statement seems to 
 be wildly extravagant, but it is one which is made after a 
 good deal of reflection. The operation of placing mines 
 among people in the shape of sales of pool stock is one 
 which is going on all the time. There are men who have 
 made large fortunes out of it, and many of them do nothing 
 else. The loss of money through it may be compared to a 
 leak in a reservoir, the amount of water lost in any one minute 
 or any one hour is small, but it is going on day and night, 
 week in and week out, through all the months in the year 
 and years, as time flies by, are filling up into decades and 
 centuries. And in this sale of pool stock in mines there is 
 not one leak but many. It is going on in San Francisco 
 and New York, in Chicago and Philadelphia, in St. Louis 
 and Boston ; in short, wherever there is a class of men with 
 money willing to risk that money in small amounts in a 
 business of which they know nothing. 
 
 There is yet another class of mining swindles in the oper- 
 ation of which neither the stock board nor the cappers are 
 employed. They might be called the "advertisement 
 frauds," as they are worked chiefly through the medium of 
 advertisements in newspapers. In one of these cases, the 
 Mr. Johnston who is manipulating the mine hires an ofiice 
 and advertises liberally in the papers. He selects, as a rule, 
 those journals which will reach, as he thinks, that class in 
 the community which invests money as a permanant thing. 
 He has no wish to touch the pockets of business men, be- 
 cause he wants investors who will be content to let well 
 j enough alone as long as a reasonable showing is made, and 
 I who will not be so fearfully particular in their questions. 
 Among the papers particularly affected by this Mr. John- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 863 
 
 ston, the religious journals stand first. He knows that peo- 
 ple who take them have developed in them to an extraordi- 
 nary degree that queer belief that things seen in print are 
 always true, and that they attach a kind of fetish-like so- 
 lemnity and reliability to a line of words appearing in the 
 
 , whatever the religious paper may be called. In 
 
 writing his advertisement, Mr. Johnston, while careful to 
 describe the advantages to be derived from an investment in 
 that particular mine, contrives to give to the description an 
 air of sober probability which is exceedingly taking, and 
 which is calculated to deceive the very elect. As a fact, the 
 deception of the elect is the object aimed at. If he can 
 secure an ofllce in some building devoted to or identified 
 with a semi-religious business, he is willing to pay a hand- 
 some rent. If he cannot, he gets one as near as possible. 
 In his office he has a handsome array of specimens placed 
 on tables or in cases, and finely executed plans of the work 
 already done and to be done in the mine. The work to be 
 done is often shown in dotted lines, but I regret to say that 
 I found in one instance a discrepancy existing between the 
 state of the mine as it really was and the plan as shown. 
 The mine did not have the amount of development shown 
 in the office plans, as I knew from personal knowledge, and 
 as this trick was played once, I can conceive that it 
 may have been played again. However, to return to the 
 advertising fraud. Having prepared his web, the spider 
 patiently waits until some foolish fly walks in. The fly in 
 question is often some clergyman with either money to in- 
 vest of his own or of some one else; his ward, for example, 
 if he be a guardian. The spider explains to the fly the 
 value of the mine, shows him specimens which, as he is 
 utterly unable to understand anything about them, prove 
 exceedingly convincing, and points out with honest pride 
 the amount of work done. He explains that as soon as the 
 development has reached a certain point, which he indicates 
 with a pen-handle, the " out-put " through the shaft will 
 amount to enough to justify dividends which, he casually 
 mentions, will be large. The fly gathers from the explana- 
 tion of the plan that the shaft is the hole in the ground, and 
 not caring to ask what is meant by the " out-put," regards 
 the word as an assurance of large returns for the investment. 
 Ultimately the fly makes a purchase, and having done so, 
 congratulates himself upon his wisdom. It will often hap- 
 pen that the spider, if the crop of flies be large, or if he 
 have money enough of his own, will declare a dividend and 
 pay back a portion of the money. 
 
 In such a case, the flies fairly swarm around him, and he 
 keeps the game up until something happens or he thinks 
 that he has made about all there is to make. Then he dis- 
 appears and the flies swarm together, reflising to be comfort- 
 ed and indulging in that useless recrimination common 
 among flies in all ages. For the successfiil carrying through 
 of the advertising fraud, it is imperatively necessary that the 
 spider prevent the flies selling stock to each other. As long 
 as he can control the transfers, he is comparatively safe, 
 because the value of the stock remains a credit value. The 
 instant that the stock is sold by one fly to another, inquiries 
 are made as to the basis upon which this value rests and 
 these result generally in the discovery by the spider, that it 
 is time for him to fold his tent and silently steal away. 
 This word "steal" comes in well here. The barefaced 
 character of some of these advertising frauds was once 
 brought to my notice in a curious way. I found that the 
 agents of two properties, one supposed to be situated in 
 Colorado and the other in New Mexico, had their offices in 
 the same building and in adjoining rooms; and that in the 
 prosecution of their business they were both using the same 
 set of specimens. The specimens, by-the-by, came from a 
 mine in Utah ! If my reader will pause for a moment and 
 think, he will see that this case contains elements of a 
 strongly humorous character. It may be said that while 
 giving so many instances of fraud and descriptions of how 
 frauds are carried on, I should say something about how to 
 prevent frauds being practiced upon my readers. This I can 
 do by simply repeating the old English proverb " never buy 
 a pig in a poke (sack)." In other words do not put your 
 money into that which you do not understand ; do not engage 
 in a business of which you know nothing without at least 
 getting the advice of some one who does know something. 
 And as far as mining is concerned, do not take the advice 
 
 of a man as ignorant as yourself. Do not imagine that be- 
 cause a man has made money by an investment in mining 
 stock he is thereby qualified to direct your investments. 
 Put it down to his luck if you like, but do not put it down 
 to his wisdom. Understand me, I do not mean that because 
 a man makes money in the mines you should therefore 
 believe him to be without knowledge of mines. But I do 
 mean that the simple fact that he has so made money should 
 not be allowed to convince you that he has this know- 
 ledge. 
 
 If you know that from his business training he is a man 
 likely to have acquired such knowledge, then the fact that 
 he makes or has made money may be looked upon as an 
 additional reason for trusting to and following his advice, 
 but it must be remembered that it can only be an additional 
 reason to some one possessed before ; can only be evidence 
 corroborating that which has already been given as evidence 
 in chief, and can not, or rather should not, be taken as that 
 evidence in chief. It is perfectly evident that when the blind 
 leads the blind both are apt to "fall into the ditch," and the 
 man who invests his money on the strength of advice 
 received from men who know no more of the investment 
 than he does himself, has certainly not increased the wisdom 
 of the investment. He has, it is true, secured some one to 
 abuse if the investment turns out badly, and this may or may 
 not be a comfort to him in such an event, but it is undeniable 
 that abuse of even your dearest friend is but a poor substi- 
 tute for a bank account. There is another thing. Advice 
 in such cases as generally given, is gratuitous, and of all 
 worthless things in this world gratuitous advice is the least 
 valuable. It may be laid down as an axiom that " nothing 
 for nothing and but little for' sixpence" is the rule which 
 governs the business operations of men. When a man is 
 paid for the advice given by him, he is justified in putlng 
 forth the effort or making the sacrifice which will place 
 him in possession of the information upon which to base 
 that advice; and his counsel therefore becomes of value. 
 But when he is not so paid, he does not make the sacrifice 
 or put forth the effort ; and his advice becomes guess-work. 
 As a general statement it may be said that one man's 
 guess is as good as that of another, and that when you go to 
 another man and get a guess from him, you might have 
 stayed at home and done the guessing yourself. 
 
 But a mine may be listed on the stock boards, its stock 
 may be sold and purchased in open market, the ledge may 
 be a good one, the ore may pay, the company may own 
 hoisting and reduction works, and the property may be one 
 which could declare and pay dividends ; yet that mine must 
 be set down among the list of wild-cat investments. In this 
 case it is because the management of the mine has become 
 a wild-cat management, one that works the property for 
 profls on the street. The reason why this may come to 
 pass is veiy simple. As the ores of gold and silver lie in the 
 ledges in irregular masses, and as the proportion of paying 
 ore to barren ledge matter or gang, is one which is con- 
 stantly and everlastingly varying, it follows that the value 
 of the rock as extracted, or of the mine at any one particu- 
 lar moment. is constantly changing. The value of a coal 
 mine is governed by the market,. or in other words by the 
 price and demand existing for coal. The cost of extracting 
 the mineral being known, the profit depends upon the price 
 at which the mineral may be sold. But in a gold or silver 
 mine the conditions of value are different. There is always 
 a demand for the product and the price is always about the 
 same. The value of the mine depends then upon the yield. 
 If gold mines existed under the same natural conditions as 
 those found in seams of coal, gold mining would not be at- 
 tended by any risks at all, for the seam of coal is generally 
 about the same thickness, and the coal has about the same 
 value ; so that, barring " faults " in the measures, given the 
 market value of the coal, and the cost of production, the 
 value of the mine maybe calculated in the turn of a hand. 
 As the natural conditions found in gold mines are different 
 from those in mines of coal, it follows that the value of the 
 mine can not be so calculated. That value is alwayschang- 
 ing as shown by the change in the prices given for the 
 stock. 
 
 A sudden discovery of a body of ore — ^technically a " bo- 
 nanza" — will affect the value of the mine at once, and the 
 stock will rise. A sudden discovery that an ore body has 
 
864 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 been worked out and come to an end will also affect the 
 value of a mine, and the stock will fell. The desired 
 point in the history of a mine to reach is the payment 
 of dividends ; the point which it is not desired to reach, 
 is the levying of assessments. Between these two, there 
 are an infinite namber of marchings upon the scale oyer 
 which the pendulum swings, and the stock of that mine 
 varies in price as the pendulum goes in one direction or the 
 other with the delicacy of a thermometer. But it is per- 
 fectly possible to make that stock so vary by inducing the 
 public to believe that the pendulum is moving, when there is 
 in fact no movement at all, or if there be a movement, it is 
 one in an opposite direction to that which is generally 
 supposed. It is this that makes the " milking of the 
 street," to use the expressive slang of the victims, possi- 
 ble. 
 
 It would seem at first as though from the fact that 
 so many men are employed in mines, all of whom must 
 ha?e knowledge of what is going on, and of the work done, 
 that the discovery of. paying ore could not be concealed. 
 But under the present methods of mining it is quite possible 
 to keep the information as to the value of the mine in the 
 near future a secret confined to a small number of per- 
 sons. The diamond drills will bring out in their long 
 "cores" a perfect section of the rock they have been bor- 
 ing, and assays of these cores will tell the superintendent 
 or the assayer what there is beyond the place where the 
 men are working. No one else can know anything of it. 
 As the superintendent is always appointed by the Board of 
 Trustees, he naturally reveals to them the information_ given 
 by the assays to him, and as he can operate the mine in 
 any way he chooses, he may manage it in such fashion as to 
 permit the Trustees to work the stock as they see fit. Sup- 
 pose for example that the superintendent discovers from the 
 cores which come from the sinking of the shaft, that the 
 working is near a valuable body of ore. Suppose too, that 
 he is sinking a " winze" or underground shaft, five hundred 
 feet distant from the main shaft and that the cores taken 
 from the bottom of this winze show the same kind of ore. 
 He reasons at once that he is near a bonanza, or ore body. 
 He communicates his conclusion and his reasons for arriving 
 at it to the Trustees. If that information was in turn com- 
 municated to the public, the stock would rise at once. The 
 Trustees, however, want to make as much money as possi- 
 ble — the superintendent " stands in " on the game — and 
 they accordingly set rumors afloat to the effect that the mine 
 is in a bad way. Some accident happens conveniently to 
 the pumps, and the water collects or a fire breaks out and 
 some machinery or buildings burn down. Any excuse 
 will do for an assessment, and the assessment is promptly 
 levied. 
 
 Under its influence the stock goes down, and in a cautious 
 way the Trustees buy that stock up as it falls in price. The 
 work of sinking the shaft and winze having been discon- 
 tinued, the miners know nothing about the bonanza and there 
 is nothing to check the fall in the price of the stock. When 
 this operation has been continued long enough, the work 
 on the shaft and the winze is resumed and the. news comes 
 that the mine has " struck it rich. " Up goes the stock 
 in the market, a " boom " is begun and carried on and 
 the trustees gradually unload the stock which they had 
 bought at an enormous advance. The money has been 
 made by them in the street. It is this fact that the Trustees 
 are always placed in possession of information about the 
 mine in advance of the public that makes the " control " of 
 a mine so valuable. The Trustees are elected by the votes 
 of the stockholders as representing the shares in the prop- 
 erty, and if there be one hundred thousand shares, fifty-one 
 thousand will elect the board. The representatives of that 
 fifty-one thousand ; the men in other words, who own those 
 shares are the men who will have during the year following 
 any election the knowledge of the real condition of the 
 mine. So valuable has this knowledge been found to be 
 that an active fight is often made for it by stock operators, 
 and I have personally seen one of these fights in which 
 the price of the stock of a certain prominent mine rose 
 from_ $20 a share to $273 before the control was finally 
 obtained. Of course this method of "milking the street" 
 can only be looked upon as a very dishonest thing. It is 
 a deliberate robbery carried on under forms of law and 
 
 is one for which no remedy has as yet been found. It 
 is difficult perhaps to suggest a system which would put 
 an end to it from the fact that men if they wish to cheat 
 will generally find means to do so. It may be said how- 
 ever, that a State Mining Board or Commission such as 
 that which exists in the majority of states for the regula- 
 tion of insurance companies; and a law requiring the 
 publication of reports once a week of all assays made du- 
 ring the week, such report to be certified to, under oath 
 by the superintendent, and assayer, and a false oath to 
 be treated criminally as perjury, would probably do 
 some good. It would certainly make men more cautious 
 than they are now about the information furnished by 
 them. 
 
 Or to put it in another way, if a law could be contrived 
 that would make it an exceedingly dangerous thing to 
 engage in the manipulation of stocks by false reports, for 
 every one engaged in it, the result could not be anj'thing 
 but good. Until such a law is framed, passed and put 
 into operation the business of using the information de- 
 rived from the control of the mine will continue to be 
 as flourishing as it is at present. While the chances ta- 
 ken by men with money when they place that money in 
 mines are great from the fact that mining is under any 
 circumstances a precarious business, the investments are 
 legitimate because the possible returns are in proportion 
 to the risks of loss. But when those chances are increased 
 and complicated by wild cat management, they are nut only 
 very greatly increased and complicated but the legitimacy 
 of the investment is almost wholly destroyed. In the case 
 where the chances of mining are alone taken, the majority 
 of the risks may be guarded against by proper precautions, 
 care in examination and conservative management. But 
 when the investor is exposed to the robberies which are the 
 result of wild cat management, he is powerless. No amount 
 of precaution will save him from the lies which are told and 
 which affect the value of his property as soon as uttered ; no 
 care in examination is of any use when that examination 
 cannot be made ; no conservatism in management can be 
 shown by the man who has nothing to do with that manage- 
 ment and against whom that management is arrayed. But it 
 may be said that if there were no fools there would be few if 
 any knaves in this world. It is undoubtedly the fact that 
 the men who make the sale of salted ledges and wildcat 
 nines possible are the men who buy them. And that they 
 do so buy them is the result of an idea which is of all ideas 
 the most absurdly ridiculous. It is this. People have a 
 belief that mining is a thing which is utterly different from 
 anything else in the world in one respect, that it does not 
 require the same care in investment and the same caution 
 before engaging in it as is demanded by other forms of busi- 
 ness. 
 
 This idea is a form of lunacy. The men who would 
 laugh in your face if you suggested to them that they should 
 attempt to argue a case of theirs in court ; or who would 
 look on you as a fool if you advised them to attempt the 
 care of one of their children suffering from small-pox; or 
 who would make remarks derogatory to your sanity if you 
 asked them to buy and run a steamer, will calmly go into 
 the business of mining when they know absolutely nothing 
 about it and will actually expect to make money in it. Why 
 they should do so, why they should select mining as the 
 field in which they are to display their absurdity, no one 
 knows. That must be added to the long list of the myste- 
 rious things which no one can account for. But that they 
 do so can be seen every day. From the business man who 
 invests a few hundreds in a " flyer " in the mining stock 
 market to the capitalist who pays his tens of thousands for a 
 ledge which he finds is worthless, all seem to be moved by 
 the same craze, the craze for investment in a business about 
 which they are wholly ignorant. Is it then any wonder 
 that they lose their money, any wonder that the invest- 
 ments turn out badly ? Mining is a business in which mo- 
 ney can be made as surely as in any other, provided men 
 will take the precautions necessary to insure the safety of 
 their investments. Without these precautions it is about as 
 risky as. it is possible to imagine, and as long as men will 
 persist in going into it without taking these precautions so 
 long will it be that they will lose their money. 
 
 —Alfred Balch. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 865 
 
 GOLD MINING FROM THE INVESTOR'S 
 POINT OF VIEW. 
 
 GOLD-MINING is popularly considered as a specula- 
 tion, almost as a species of gambling by some nerv- 
 ous people, and is certainly never regarded in the 
 light of a sound investment or a steady-going busi- 
 ness enterprise. Why is this so 1 Why, for instance, should 
 a man run more risk in investing his money below ground 
 than above it ? Agriculture is not regarded as a speculation, 
 though it is in reality far more of a speculation than gold- 
 mining, for it depends upon seasons, which can neither be 
 foreseen nor controlled, and the market value of the pro- 
 duce is liable to fluctuations such as gold never experiences, 
 nor is ever likely to. Why then should gold-mining be 
 deemed speculative? Simply because those who invest 
 their money in a gold-mining enterprise cast their usual 
 business-like shrewdness and caution to the winds, and 
 rush headlong on the bidding of some superficially attract- 
 ive prospectus, without devoting to it a particle of the in- 
 quiry and common sense which they would exhibit over the 
 purchase of the smallest retail business. Those who cater 
 for the public taste in gold-mining shares are quite aware of 
 this fact, and witii characteristic sharpness, they avail them- 
 selves of it. The result is that numbers of companies are 
 floated, and vast sums of shareholders' capital are sunk, 
 and upon undertakings that never deserved the slightest ex- 
 penditure of either their time or their money. And then the 
 gold-mining industry generally gets branded as a specula- 
 tion, a thing to be avoided by all sensible sober men. 
 While this state of feeling exists, and so long as investors 
 are content to blame anybody else rather than themselves 
 and their own ignorance, bogus affairs will continue to 
 spring up and grow at their expense. The promoter, or 
 some capitalist representing him is necessary to the forma- 
 tion of a company under the present circumstances. Heap- 
 ing abuse on the heads of promoters will never save inves- 
 tors from losing their money. Their one and only safeguard 
 is to use their owii common sense in judging of the merits 
 of a concern, instead of rushing like a flock of sheep through 
 a gap in a hedge, and expecting to find ready-coined gold 
 on the other side waiting for them to collect it. It must be 
 remembered too that many a property which would give 
 handsome returns to an individual capitalist or miner pos- 
 sessing the requisite knowledge, would fail to pay in the 
 hands of a company, by reason of the cumbrous and costly 
 machinery, I mean financial machinery, with which a com- 
 panv is necessarily burdened. 
 
 With these introductory observations, I will proceed to 
 indicate the heads upon which, as it seems to me, the capita- 
 list should thoroughly assure himself before investing in 
 gold-mining shares. 
 
 Title.— The first consideration is the title on which the 
 property is held. When a freehold is acquired from a private 
 individual, the greatest precautions are necesary to ensure 
 that his rights are unimpeachable. Several lamentable in- 
 stances have occured where the i>urchasing company has 
 maintained possession of the acquired property only after 
 long and costly litigation, and instances are not wanting 
 where the company has been quite ousted by the conspiracy 
 of the vendor and his confederates, when the property had 
 been rendered valuable by the expenditure of the company's 
 money. Preference should generally be given to concessions 
 held direct from government, supposing that the conditions 
 are sufiiciently clear and just. Of course discrimination is 
 necessary with governments as with individuals. Govern- 
 ments which have exhibited dishonest tendencies, or have 
 repudiated their obligations, should be avoided as much as 
 dishonest individuals. It is a usual thing for a government 
 to demand the deposit of a caution-money as a guarantee for 
 the performance of the contract on the concessionaire's part ; 
 when this is more than a nominal sum, the honesty of the 
 government will be a matter for particular consideration. 
 The duration of a lease or concession for the working of a 
 gold-mine should not be less than 21 years. _ 
 
 Mining Laws.— A point very generally overlooked is 
 the nature of the Mining Laws and Regulations of the coun- 
 try in which the gold mine is situated and under which it is 
 to be worked, as well as the manner in which these laws are 
 
 65 
 
 administered. The laws must be sufficiently liberal to admit 
 of the adoption of whatever machines, appliances, and pro- 
 cesses may be found requisite, such as the right to acquire 
 by purchase, a fair price as between the two parties, land 
 which may be necessary for the erection of worKs, the stor- 
 age and conveyance of water, and the deposit of refuse. 
 They must contain no arbitrary restrictions or local preju- 
 dices, such as would interfere with the full liberty of the 
 company's officers to carry out necessary operations, and full 
 protection from the local officials must be given for con- 
 ducting the operations. This question of mining laws is 
 one that demands the most serious attention from investors. 
 It is one too that has received far too little consideration 
 from foreign states, whose mineral resources have been left 
 undeveloped largely on this account. For it must be re- 
 membered that the richer the mine, the greater is the like- 
 lihood that unprincipled men will avail themselves of any 
 flaw that exists in the laws to enable them to oust the pur- 
 chasers, or to make onerous terms in various ways, and 
 place the company at a great disadvantage. Another point, 
 which, though not coming strictly under this section, de- 
 mands equal attention, is whether the local government 
 ever has, or is ever likely to, impose special taxes upon in- 
 dustries working under foreign capital. 
 
 Climate. — The climate of the country has a direct influ- 
 ence upon the success of an undertaking. Operations car- 
 ried on in a notoriously unhealthy climate have many draw- 
 backs. Additional expense is entailed for tending the sick, 
 the work is liable to be seriously interrupted, wages are 
 likely to be high in proportion to the work, and the effec- 
 tive work of the men is greatly reduced. In the first place, 
 a man of any position in the ranks of the gold miners will 
 require an exorbitant salary to reside in, or even to visit, a 
 locality where he may live only a few months or even weeks. 
 During his illness, things have to take pretty much their 
 own course, and the result of protracted illness is to under- 
 mine the energies and abilities of the man upon whom the 
 success of the undertaking may be said absolutely to depend. 
 Effective gold mining is in a great measure a matter of per- 
 sonal experience gained on the spot. When the superin- 
 tendent has to be frequently changed on account of illness 
 or death, the advantage of his experience is thrown away, 
 and his successor has to go through almost the same stages 
 before acquiring the same local knowledge. 
 
 Other climatic conditions must not be overlooked. Great 
 heat or drought may suspend operations for a lengthened 
 period by cutting off the water-supply. Excessive rainfall 
 may create floods of such a nature as to prevent locomotion 
 for a considerable time, and cause great destruction to dams, 
 water-wheels, and'machinery, or necessitate an expenditure 
 of capital to establish preventive measures. Extreme cold 
 may interrupt the working by freezing the water, and ren- 
 dering the appliances temporarily useless. The presence of 
 these unfavorable conditions will demand a very rich ore, 
 and unusually good circumstances in other respects, in order 
 to compensate for them. They may even occur in such an 
 aggravated degree as to render the richest mine quite un- 
 profitable to the shareholders. 
 
 Water-supply. — Water is useful and necessary in al- 
 most all industries, but in gold mining it is absolutely indis- 
 pensable. As a motive power, it is the cheapest that can 
 be obtained, and is always desirable on that account ; but of 
 course very cheap and abundant fuel wUl counterbalance a 
 lack of water for this purpose. In the treatment of the ore, 
 however, no available substitute for water has yet been found. 
 Nor is the purity of the water a matter of indifference. 
 Water intended for use in the treatment of the orft cannot 
 be too pure; dirty water, water obtained in draining the 
 mine, or water containing considerable proportions of salts 
 in solution, is quite inadmissible for this purpose, though it 
 may be applied to driving the machinery, and thus render 
 a larger quantity of good water available for the washing 
 processes. The source from which the water-supply is to be 
 drawn is, therefore, a question for primary consideration: 
 whether it can be obtained from the surface, or whether it 
 must be sought for below, or whether both supplies are to be 
 brought into requisition. The existence of a river or stream 
 in close proximity to the mine is a great advantage, pro- 
 vided that drought or frost do not render it useless for a 
 considerable portion of the year, and that it is not subject to 
 
866 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STAGES. 
 
 excessive floods at other seasons. If there be a river at 
 some distance, it will be a question whether the ore should 
 be carried to it, or the water be led to the ore, with a con- 
 sideration of the relative facilities, cost, and advantages in 
 either case. An approximate idea should be gained of the 
 annual rainfall, and whether it is pretty equally distributed 
 throughout the year, or whether it comes as a deluge for a 
 short period and leaves the remainder of the twelve months 
 dry. If the rainfall is considerable but spasmodic, it_ may 
 be stored in reservoirs for subsequent use. The engineer 
 reporting upon the mine should study the country in relation 
 to its suitability for making such reservoirs, and permitting 
 the water to be conducted to the point where it is to be ap- 
 plied. • Sometimes mountain lakes prove most valuable in 
 this respect. The cost of the construction of the reservoirs 
 and conduits, if necessary, will have to be taken into account 
 and provided for. It will be found to vary much, according 
 as ditches, wooden flumes, or iron pipes are the requisite 
 channels ; and the expense of maintaining themin repair 
 must not be lost sight of. Where no surface-water is obtain- 
 able, it may be feasible to procure a supply by sinking a 
 well. In this case, all possible data should be collected as 
 to the probability of finding a suitable and sufficient flow, 
 and what the cost is likely to amount to. Well-water may 
 be found very acceptable as an auxiliary supply in some 
 cases ; but when the working of the mine has to depend 
 entirely upon it, common sense would demand that the 
 company should have abundant and reliable evidence of its 
 existence, before entertaining the acquisition of the prop- 
 erty. 
 
 Timber. — ^Timber may be considered as a two-fold ne- 
 cessary; heavy timber for constructive purposes, and in- 
 ferior wood for fuel, unless other fuel is available. The 
 mine may require a large amount of timber for supporting 
 the walls and roofs of the workings, and a considerable 
 quantity is sure to be needed for building the works, if not 
 for making dams and reservoirs. It is important to know 
 not only that there are plenty of trees, but that their wood 
 is applicable to the purposes intended. Many a tree is 
 worthless as timber on account of its inherent defects, its 
 liability to decay, or the rapidity with which it is destroyed 
 by insects. Many trees are equally worthless as firewood ; 
 and some are too valuable for other industrial purposes to 
 be obtainable at anything like a reasonable price. The 
 question of the cost at which the timber can be procured, 
 and of the certainty of securing an ample supply, should 
 be inquired into with great care. It is an advantage to the 
 mine when suitable timber is growing on the surface of the 
 property itself, and is included in the purchase. When it 
 has to be brought from a distance or imported, its cost of 
 transport will be a heavy item, Insuflicient supplies of 
 timber would render some mines quite unworkable. 
 
 Fuel. — The question of fuel has been touched upon un- 
 der the heading, Timber. It is employed in two capacities : 
 for the purpose of raising steam to drive the maShinery, and 
 for the purpose of roasting portions of the ore. In the first 
 application it may be in a great measure rendered un- 
 necessary by a bountiful supply of water for motive power. 
 In the second application, it cannot be so replaced. A cer- 
 tain proportion of pyritous ore occurs in every gold mine, 
 and some process of roasting or oxidizing by means of dry 
 or wet heat, is essential for extracting the gold from 
 it. There are many mines where such a state of things 
 would render the undertaking a complete failure. Fuel is 
 therefore a necessary more or less requisite in all cases. 
 When firewood is not to be had, coal or other fuel may be 
 obtainable at a reasonable figure, including its delivery at 
 the actual point where it is to be employed. 
 
 Transport. — The accessibility of a mine, and the extent 
 to which a country is opened up, are matters of no mean im- 
 port. All the materials requisite for the mine must be car- 
 ried to it, building materials, machinery, fuel, and the 
 miners' necessaries. The transport of the extracted gold 
 from the mine is an afiair of little difficulty under any con- 
 ditions of travel ; but when it is inconvenient or impossible, 
 from want of water or other causes, to treat the ore at, or 
 close to the mine, it may be necessary to transport the ore a 
 considerable distance, and the question then becomes a vital 
 one. Even where this is not the case, but when the gold 
 exists largely in the sulphides (pyrites), and no means is at 
 
 hand for treating them on the spot, their conveyance to a better 
 adapted locality may have great influence upon the success 
 of the undertaking. The existence of roads, waterways, or 
 railways available for the purposes of the undertaking, is 
 therefore a prime necessity. When the construction of 
 roads is necessary and possible, their cost should be es- 
 timated and taken into consideration in judging of the 
 merits of the enterprise. 
 
 Labor. — In an industry entailing the employment of so 
 many men, the labor question is one that is sure to demand 
 the closest attention, and the greatest exercise of judgment. 
 The first consideration will be whether the native labor is 
 available, and here many questions will propose themselves. 
 In some instances, the natives are sufficiently numerous, but 
 are prevented by caste or prejudice from engaging in mining 
 operations ; in other cases, triey may be a pastoral or agri- 
 cultural race, that has never performed mining tasks, and 
 will need to be taught before it can be utilized ; again, feasts, 
 fasts, and religious observances may prevent work being 
 carried on with anything like regularity, and where more 
 than one race or religious sect is employed, the difficulty 
 will be increased; also the ignorance or laziness of the native 
 laborer may render him virtually worthless. The presence 
 of plentiful, cheap, and really efficient native labor is one 
 of the greatest blessings under which a mining enterprise 
 can be started. When it does not exist, it may be deemed 
 necessary to import foreign labor, than which no greater 
 disadvantage can be. By importing foreign labor, I do not 
 mean the drafting of men from one portion of a country to 
 another but the introduction of men of different race,' re- 
 ligion, and relation, such as Chinese into India, or Mexicans 
 into Africa. One consequence of such an importation is 
 very likely to be frequent collisions between the strangers 
 and the natives, giving rise to many troubles, both direct 
 and indirect. Another consideration will be, whether the 
 climate is suited to the habits of the imported laborers ; if ii 
 is unsuitable, there will be difficulty in getting the men to 
 remain, unless at very high wages, and their effective 
 capacity will be much reduced. So also with the food : a 
 race accustomed to live on fish would object to being kept on 
 rice, and one habitually consuming large quantities of meat 
 would not content itself with maize, unless this dis- 
 advantage were compensated for by increased wages ; and, 
 in that case, probably the men would regard the emigration 
 as a means of making money wherewith to improve their 
 condition on returning home, and would therefore be con- 
 tinually shifting. This would deprive their labor of that 
 advantage which is gained by generations following the 
 same occupation under one another's guidance, and each 
 new comer would need the same amount of teaching as his 
 predecessor. Then again, in a half-settled country, where 
 alluvial gold deposits chance to occur in the neighborhood 
 of the mine being worked, it will be found that the strangers 
 will remain at wages just long enough to acquire the 
 necessary knowledge, and to be a sufficiently powerful body 
 for self-preservation, and then they will quit servitude, and 
 go in search of gold on theu' own account. This is an 
 especial danger in employing Chinese labor, and the ex- 
 perience gained on this point in Australia and California 
 should be a sufficient warning to prevent the experiment 
 being repeated elsewhere. Of course there is no objection 
 to the introduction of foreign labor when the requisite con- 
 ditions can be fulfilled. Other conditions being equal, the 
 rate of wages will decide whether the mine can be profit- 
 ably worked or not. 
 
 Cost of Necessaries. — In some new and thinly peopled 
 countries, commodities of all kinds are excessively dear. 
 Then the market prices of the ordinary necessaries of life, 
 such as food and clothing, run very high, and the rates of 
 wages may be expected to rise in proportion. The high 
 price or scarcity of other articles, such as illuminating 
 materials, tools, ironwork of all kinds, mercury for amal- 
 gamating, carpentry, &c., will tend to swell the incidental 
 expenses, and therefore require the mine to be all the richer 
 in order to support the increased cost of getting the gold. 
 The question of the suitability of the food for the laborers 
 employed has been already alluded to, as affecting both the 
 nominal price of the labor, and the amount of work done 
 for the money. 
 
 The Mine. — A so-called gold mine may be either of 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 867 
 
 three things. (1.) It may be a recent alluvial deposit, that 
 is to say, a mass of auriferous material which has been 
 broken up, and its gold liberated by bodies of water still 
 exist, though perhaps a little changed in position, Such is 
 an ordinary " alluvial " or " placer." (2.) It may be a simi- 
 lar deposit formed by rivers and lakes which have altogether 
 ceased to exist, and have, in very many instances, been sub- 
 sequently covered to a varying depth by a flow of igneous 
 rock. This is termed a " deep lead " or "dead river." (3.) 
 It may be a mine proper, where the gold is secreted in the 
 interstices of quartz or other rock. This distinction is neces- 
 sary as a preliminary step to a discussion of their features 
 and requisites, as the mode of working differs not a little. 
 
 (1.) An Alluvial or Placer is worked by removing the 
 whole mass, and passing it with water through a long series 
 of apparatus where the gold is arrested. The first essential 
 is an abundant water-supply, the consumption of water in 
 this operation being immense, as the whole mass of the de- 
 posit is transported by its agencjr. The next consideration 
 will be the position of the deposit, whether it lies actually 
 upon the surface, or is covered with more or less loose earth : 
 if the latter, whether this loose earth must be removed, or 
 whether the deposit can be worked from beneath it, and what 
 the cost of supporting it or removing it respectively will be ; 
 whether the deposit can be directly dislodged by the appli- 
 cation of water under the pressure of considerable fall, or 
 whether it must be dug out by manual labor before being 
 brought under the disintegrating and separating influence of 
 the water ; whether the position of the deposit in relation 
 to the source of the water supply will permit the water to 
 be carried in open ditches and wooden flumes, or whether 
 it will have to be conducted in pipes, and what the probable 
 cost will be, — where the distance is great, a large margin 
 must be allowed for loss by evaporation and leakage, when 
 estimating the supply. Another requisite, without which 
 the preceding are useless, is an abundant space for_ the de- 
 posit of the immense quantity of earth which is disturbed 
 and transported. There must be a possibility of depositing 
 this refuse where it will do no harm, either to private property 
 or by stopping up water-courses. An alluvial without this 
 accommodation is utterly valueless, because it cannot be 
 worked. The space where the refuse is to be deposited must 
 necessarily be on a lower level than the alluvial, in order 
 that the reftise may be carried to it by the flow of the water. 
 Where this space has to be acquired at the hands of private 
 occupiers, its actual undisputed possession should be con- 
 sidered as necessary a preliminary as the very title deeds 
 of the property. 
 
 (2.) ^ Deep Lead or Dead River demands much the same 
 conditions as the preceding, but in a magnified degree. The 
 difficulties of tracing the deposit, estimating the extent and 
 richness, and working it are all increased. Sometimes, too, 
 the auriferous material is cemented together in such a way 
 as to need the appliances of a reduction works, in order to 
 recover the gold, thus adding to the cost. 
 
 (3.) Mines, or undisturbed deposits of mineral, are much 
 more frequently made the object of joint-stock enterprise in 
 this country than either alluvial or deep leads. The first 
 question relating to a mine is its accessibility, or the oppor- 
 tunity which it presents for opening it up. The most desir- 
 able condition is where the mineral can be attacked by a 
 level adit, driven with just sufficient rise as it advances to 
 permit the water which is met with to make its escape. The 
 greater the amount of ore lying above this adit, the more 
 valuable is the mine. When the mineral has to be reached 
 by sinking a shaft, great additional and permanent cost is 
 incurred by raising all the material from a depth, and for 
 pumping machinery to keep the workings dry, and there is 
 always the risk of a flood, a waterspout or a hidden reservoir 
 suddenly filling the mine with water, and suspending opera- 
 tions for a long time, or even for ever. But though great 
 preference is due'to a mine that can be developed by adit 
 levels, most mines sooner or later have to be worked by 
 means of deeper drivings, and this must hardly be con- 
 sidered a fault, when other conditions are favorable. The 
 character of the ground has great influence upon the cost of 
 working : soft ground may cost less for excavating, but will 
 require all the passages to be kept open by means of timber, 
 which may add immensely to the cost if timber is not 
 readily and cheaply procurable. On the whole, with mo- 
 
 dern drills and explosives, hard rock that needs no timber- 
 ing is generally to be preferred. But a certain quantity 
 of limber is always necessary in the veins or lodes them- 
 selves, and where these are of great width, the consumption 
 of timber is enormous, and the cost is proportionate. 
 
 The Ore. — -The extractable proportion of gold in the ore 
 and the cost entailed in getting it out, will vary greatly with 
 the character of the ore. Sometimes the gold occurs almost 
 entirely in the free state, that is to say, associated with no 
 metallic mineral, but only with such minerals as quartz. In 
 this case its extraction and recovery are very simple and in- 
 expensive, and, under suitable conditions, an extremely mi- 
 nute quantity of gold, in other words, an exceedingly poor 
 ore may give handsome returns. Frequently a large portion 
 of the gold is intimately associated with ores of the baser 
 metals, particularly with sulphides,and arsenides, and indeed 
 occasionally the ore contains no appreciable quantity of gold 
 in a free state. It must not be supposed that the gold is chemi- 
 cally combined with any other substance, but the microscope 
 has proved that the tiny atoms of gold are sometimes com- 
 pletely enveloped by a film of other mineral, so thin as to be 
 beyond actual measurement yet sufficing to exert considerable 
 influence on the mode of treatment. But I wish here to call 
 particular attention to the fact that, in Hibernian language, 
 gold is not always gold. However rich the ore may be, it is 
 like one-half of a bank note, utterly useless without the com- 
 plementary half, or the possibility of getting the gold out. 
 While the gold is in the ore it is of no value to anybody ; it 
 becomes valuable only when it is got at ; consequently in 
 judging of the worth of ore the basis for the calculation is 
 the gold that can be extracted from it, and the cost at which 
 this extraction can be effected. Where the ore is refractory, 
 and needs roasting or other processes, the cost and provision 
 of the necessary materials, labor, and plant will demand 
 consideration, as well as the working expenses of the pro- 
 cess. From a careful perusal and comparison of the preced- 
 ing paragraphs, it will be evident that a rich ore is not the 
 only desideratum ; 3 oz. of gold per ton of ore under unfav- 
 orable conditions may be far less remunerative than 3 dwt. 
 under favorable conditions ; and the intended investor must 
 look a great deal farther than at the assays of the mineral, 
 which are a groundless basis, if he wishes to place his money in 
 a sound undertaking. It must not be expected that any mine 
 will satisfy in the highest possible degree all the conditions 
 I have alluded to. But no mine is worth the serious atten- 
 tion of a capitalist, if the report made upon it does not afford 
 a reliable statement of its position in regard to these several 
 points; and it will remain with the intended investor to ex- 
 ercise his criticism and judgment, and to decide finally 
 whether the undertaking possesses sufficient favorable or 
 satisfactory points to make it worth the price which is asked 
 for it, and the additional expenditure necessary to make it 
 productive. 
 — Compiled from a pamphlet ongoldminitig, by Albert G. Lock^ F.B.O.S. 
 
 THE PROBLEMS OF LABOR. 
 
 THE Superintendent of a mine as representing the 
 company owning it, at the beginning of his term is 
 met with the great labor problems which aifect the 
 business. The mine to be properly worked must be 
 supplied with a large number of men, and those men must by 
 of different trades. Mining employs first, the miners them- 
 selves or the men who actually tear the ore out of the de- 
 posit. But supplimenting these come the carpenters, the 
 blacksmiths, the engineers, the furnace men, the mill- 
 wrights, the mill hands and the representatives of all the 
 trades which find employment in and around a great mining 
 property. As the men employed are skilled workmen, for 
 there is but little about a mine that mere laboring men can 
 do as compared with the tradesmen, it follows that there are 
 degrees in the efficiency of the labor to be obtained. Strictly 
 speaking, there are degrees of efficiency in the commonest 
 labor, because one man is necessarily stronger or weaker 
 than another, can work a longer or shorter time, and 
 his work is done more or less thoroughly. But the degree in 
 efficiency apparent where skilled labor is employed is very 
 
868 
 
 THE MINES MINEES AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 much greater than that seen in ordinary labor, and so it is 
 that the training which the workmen employed have re- 
 ceived, either in that mine or others, becomes one of the 
 greatest problems in the labor question as they affect mining. 
 Poor miners are the most expensive men ever employed, for 
 they cost infinitely more than they bring in. As the trade 
 under consideration becomes more diiBcult to learn this lack 
 of skill in its representatives becomes more costly. The 
 mining carpenter, or the mining blacksmith for example, 
 may by their inefficiency cause the loss of thousands of dol- 
 lars. The work done in a mine can be compared to a great 
 structure, each part of which is supported by, and in turn 
 supports other parts. Every expenditure of strength in 
 mining is the result of former expenditures and prepares 
 the way for expenditures in the future. As this is the case, 
 inefficiency in the labor employed, bad _ or careless work, 
 maybe the cause at any time of loss which casts into the 
 shade the cost of the work itself. And it is this fact coup- 
 led with one other which gives their great importance to the 
 questions of labor which affect mines. That other fact is 
 mines must " go on " continually, that any stoppage is enor- 
 mously expensive, that the property is either being improved 
 or decreasing in value. There is no middle course possible. 
 If a man owns a field he may cultivate it or not as he 
 pleases. If he does not, the field becomes from the fact that 
 it lies fallow, more valuable than it was before. But if a 
 man own a mine, he can not stop work upon it without the 
 property decreasing in value. Water collects in it, the roof 
 caves, the floor heaves, the timbers rot ; in short, the mine is 
 injured. Not alone does he lose the interest of the money 
 invested in the mine ; but the property actually deteriorates 
 in value. "When then through those results of labor difficul- 
 ties, which we call strikes, the mine is shut down, the owners 
 of that mine lose enormous amounts of money, and as the 
 loss is a cumulative loss, as every day which passes before 
 the mine is worked again increases that loss ; the conditions 
 which lead to the causes of that loss are conditions which 
 must be studied carefully. The labor problems in connec- 
 tion with mining may be stated as coming generally under 
 the following heads : the supply of labor, the efficiency of 
 labor, the just demands of labor, the price of labor, the 
 union and the regulation of labor, so that the men may be 
 in the best condition to work well. 
 
 As the number of men employed in and about a mine is 
 very great when that mine becomes developed, the supply 
 of labor is one of the most important of those questions 
 which affect the economical working of the property. This 
 is particularly true in new mining districts where the popu- 
 lation is small and the demand for men is great. In such 
 districts it often happens that miners are sought for, but not 
 obtained, and the superintendent is forced to see the property 
 remain without the development which it should receive for 
 pure lack of labor with which to do the work. In such a 
 case he is obliged to face the question, of what may be done 
 to substitute for the skilled labor required of unskilled men, 
 whose work while not as efficient as that of the trained 
 miner is yet work, and to a certain extent this may be done, 
 but when it is done the arrangement of the work and the 
 system under which the mine is managed, is necessarily sub- 
 ject to change. The most perfect system of mining yet de- 
 vised by man is the contract system. Under it, the hard- 
 ness of the rock and the difficulty of getting it out, the con- 
 ditions under which the raining is done in any particular 
 part of the workings, and the amount of dead work it is 
 necessary to do in order to keep that part in its then state of 
 development or to increase that development, being known 
 the superintendent lets out the work to the " contract gangs " 
 or " shifts " the corps of men who do the work. 
 
 Having stated the conditions under which the work is to 
 be done, the size of the cutting to be made, the amount of 
 dead work to be " carried " or performed during the cutting 
 of the ore, he states the price at which he will pay for each 
 cubic foot. These contracts should always specify the ex- 
 act amount to be paid for the work, and the prices as so fixed 
 should be invariably adhered to. Nothing is more calcu- 
 lated to bring about disagreements between the superintend- 
 ent and the men than the kind of contracts which give any 
 chance to either party to change the terms after the work 
 has been done. It may be that the work has been far less 
 difficult than was expected at the time that the contract was 
 
 made or it may be that it was far harder. In the one case 
 the men who have taken the contract will make very high 
 wages during the month^all contracts should be made for a 
 month — while in the other they will make but little. Aside 
 from the fact that this will average up in the long run, and 
 that each party to the contract will come out even at the end 
 of the year, nothing is more difficult than to fairly adjust 
 the honest differences of opinion existing between the em- 
 ployer and the employed in such matters. 
 
 While it naturally seems that handing a man three or 
 four hundred dollars as the result of a month's work is giving 
 him too much ; that is, is paying him more than the work 
 is worth, on the other hand giving him but thirty or forty 
 seems like too little. While the miner in the first place 
 might be willing to concede that he was getting more than 
 he had earned, he certainly would look on the second pay- 
 ment as being less than he was entitled to. 
 
 Now I think that every superintendent who has seen the 
 contract system in operation will concede that the trouble 
 brought about in the raising of the second sum, by the cut- 
 ting down of the first, even when that cutting is done with 
 the full consent of the miner, costs more in the end than the 
 amount of money saved. If in nothing else, in the time 
 taken up. A good superintendent is generally worth and 
 paid a large salary. He is paid that salary by the company 
 for his skill and ability in managing the mine and, as a rule, 
 the management of the mine wul take up all the time that 
 he has to spare. If that time be employed settling the differ- 
 ences which arise between the shifts and the " underground 
 adjust," " mine boss " or " assistant superintendent," as the 
 superintendent's chief assistant is variously called ; the com- 
 pany can scarcely be said to be getting the full worth of 
 their money. These disputes as to the value of the work 
 done are generally intensely vexatious, and a small sum will 
 often bring about a serious difficulty with the men. Not only 
 is the time of the superintendent wasted but the time of the 
 miner as well. In mines where the contract system is in 
 operation payments of wages are always one month behind. 
 That is, the work done in April is paid for on the last Sat- 
 urday or Friday in May. This month is taken up in calcu- 
 lating the amount of work done and deducting the charges 
 against the men. The clerk of the mine generally has the 
 pay roll made up on the 15th of May, and the men are then 
 notified what the office calculations of the amount coming 
 to them amount to. I never saw a month pass when the 
 calculations already made by the miners did not differ from 
 those made by the office, nor did I ever hear of any man who 
 had seen one. From the 15th to the 20th are the adjustment 
 days, two words which are coupled with as much profan- 
 ity as any two in the language, during which the superintend- 
 ent's time is taken up almost wholly in listening to the claims 
 for more money as advanced by the miner and the reasons 
 of the mine boss for estimating the work at the price named. 
 The miners lose their time, not alone those who have a dif- 
 ference to adjust but those who hang around to hear what 
 the result of the discussion is, as well. And whatever that 
 adjustment may be it fails to give satisfaction. The men 
 accept it, because they are forced to, but they do so with much 
 grumbling. A superintendent once said to me, " I dread 
 adjustment days, they break up the work of the whole mine 
 to that extent that the output looks as if we were running 
 on half time." Another evil, and a great one, is the amount 
 of drinking done during adjustment. The men having 
 nothing to do, resort naturally to the dram shops or saloons 
 and pour down liquor, thereby rendering themselves unfit 
 for work. When they begin again under the settled con- 
 tract system, whether the payment be by percentage or 
 so much a cubic foot, none of these difficulties arise. The 
 miners when they take the contract know exactly — in the 
 latter system — what they are to receive, and the calculation 
 being simply a matter of measurement, which is made by the 
 mine boss, or the clerk of the mine, in the presence of the 
 shift, or of the leader as representing the shift, few if any 
 disputes arise. Even in the mine, changes to the shifts for 
 blacksmith work, powder, cars or " vibbles," the tallies 
 which are returned to the leader can neither be disputed 
 nor gainsayed. Adjustment days become an exploded terror 
 and months may pass without an appeal being made to the 
 superintendent. To return to the question of the supply of 
 labor when unskilled men must be employed. I have seen 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 869 
 
 most excellent results from a modification of the contract 
 system. The skilled miners were made the sub-contractors 
 for the work, and that work was done by them under the 
 specifications as made by the mine boss in regard to mea- 
 surements. They employed their own men on percentages 
 which were recorded in the olflce, and payments were made 
 direct to the men under those percentages as agreed upon. 
 The advantages of the system are almost self-apparent. 
 Every part of the work was done under the direction of a 
 skilled miner, who was responsible for it, and the unskilled 
 labor received an amount of direction and supervision which 
 could never have been given by the officials of the mine. 
 Some such system as this must be adopted in the working 
 of a mine when the supply of skilled labor is deficient ; for 
 if, as is undoubtedly the case, the system of daily wages is a 
 bad one when skilled miners are employed its evils become 
 intensified when skilled labor is all that can be obtained. 
 The skilled miner may " shirk " when he is on wages, and as 
 a general rule will do so ; but what work he does do, will 
 be properly done. The unskillful laborer will shirk and do 
 his work badly into the bargain. The supervision of the 
 work, done in a mine, is divided into so many parts, the 
 work is being done at so many difierent points at once, that 
 unless the company were to employ an inspector or " viewer" 
 for each face, breast and stope, it would be impossible to 
 tell whether that work was going on right. 
 
 And it is this fact which makes the contract system of all 
 others the fairest. Under it a man is paid for what he does, 
 not for what he is supposed to do. If he chooses to work 
 hard, he gets more money ; if he does not so choose he gets 
 less. He is paid, too, in proportion to his skill. A good 
 miner is a man who has learned to utilize his strength to 
 the utmost and to get the largest return from his labor. Such 
 a man deserves to receive more money; his work is worth 
 more to the company than that of the man who has not so 
 much skill. While this is generally true of all trades, it is 
 especially so of mining. If a compositor sets up, corrects 
 and distributes a stick of matter, his work as far as that stick 
 is concerned is at an end forever. The time he took in set- 
 ting up, the state of the proof or the time taken to distrib- 
 ute, providing always that the distribution be clean, can 
 have no earthly effect upon the next stick passing through 
 his hands But with the miner it is different. As each sec- 
 tion of the work prepares the way for those following, and 
 as the ease and economy with which each section can be 
 done depends upon the manner in which all previous sec- 
 tions were done, the state in which the miner leaves the sec- 
 tions is a thing which is of direct pecuniary concern to the 
 company. This fact is generally recognized in the eager- 
 ness with which superintendents will hail the chance of em- 
 ploying good men. But as the value of the work done by 
 those men may be said to be constantly varying between 
 that which is worth most, the work of the typical miner, the 
 man who knows his trade thoroughly, who works hard and 
 who guards the mine carefully ; and that which is worth least, 
 the work of the shirking " ne'er-do-weel," who leaves his 
 seam half worked, his timbers half put in, and sends his 
 kibbles out half filled ; so the payments should vary. _ In 
 mining as in every other branch of human industry it is 
 impossible to devise a system which will perfectly meet all 
 cases arising under it. The best that we can do is to em- 
 ploy the one which meets the largest number of these cases ; 
 and I think the contract system may be said to be the best 
 yet devised for the industry. I have already spoken at some 
 length of the necessity of " fixed contracts," but it may be 
 as well to describe more in detail what this contract system 
 is. Under the contract system the owners of the mine fur- 
 nish the property to be worked upon and supply that part 
 of it necessary for the working, in which capital is required. 
 As for example, it costs a great deal of money to purchase 
 the hoisting machinery necessary to lift the product of the 
 mine to the surface ; therefore the company supplies the 
 hoisting engines. They sink the shaft, drive the levels, 
 supply the ventilation and drain the mine. The mine is 
 then in a condition to be worked, and the contract system 
 begins. The miners possess the labor necessary to work the 
 mine, and the company says in effect to them, " We will 
 pay you for that labor as shown by results. We will de- 
 clare upon what conditions that labor is to be performed 
 and what work has to be done in our opinion to prevent the 
 
 mine becoming diminished in value. For such amounts of 
 work done by you under those conditions we will pay the 
 price agreed upon by both parties to the contract." The 
 miners then become men working for themselves, in the 
 same way that a job carpenter works for himself, and in 
 proportion to the work done is the amount of money paid. 
 The price of that work is settled by the company and is 
 regulated by the hardness of the ground, the conditions 
 under which the work is to be done and any other consid- 
 erations which affect the net amount of effective work a 
 man can do in a day's time. The price having been settled 
 by the company the miners may take the contract or leave 
 it, as they see fit. There is no compulsion in the matter 
 one way or the other. If the price named, or any price is 
 too little to pay for the work, the miners wiU refuse to ac- 
 cept the contract, and in order to have that particular work 
 done, the price must be ra.ised. 
 
 If on the other hand the mine boss fixes the price at a sum 
 in excess of its real value, the contract is taken at once and 
 the company loses money. As a rule, the mine boss fixes 
 a price beyond which the company will not go and the men 
 then have a chance to " bid down," the one offering to take 
 the contract at the least sum securing it. It is always well 
 to settle the order in which the " shift options " are to come, 
 that is the order in which the shifts may take the contracts 
 beforehand, and the drawing of numbers is as good a way as 
 any for this unless the men agree among themselves to some 
 other method. In any case shift with option number one, 
 must have the right to accept a contract or decline it before 
 shift with option number two. Of course if the first shift 
 accepts the contract and the second underbid, the second 
 gets it ; but the system of options will prevent a great deal 
 of confusion. The awarding of the contracts goes on some- 
 thing after this fashion. The clerk of the mine calls out, 
 " Face of level number two. Ten feet. Same size. Dead 
 work the same. Fifty cents." This means that the face of 
 the level number two is to be driven in ten feet, that the 
 size of the level is to be maintained and that the dead work, 
 such as cutting the canal for drainage, is to be the same. 
 Fifty cents is given as the price which will be paid for each 
 cubic foot of rock extracted. The clerk then calls the num- 
 bers of the options until the leader of a shift answers "aye." 
 The clerk then says " number 16 has it at fifty cents. Any 
 bids ? " Number 17 may say " forty-five cents," being an 
 under bid of five cents, and number 18 may say " forty," a 
 second underbid. The lowest bidder gets the contract, and 
 the price bid by him is the price at which the work will be 
 reckoned. Of course the figures given above are purely il- 
 lustrative. Having secured their contracts the shifts begin 
 the work. The company charges them, or should charge 
 them, for every thing they require. Blacksmith work in 
 sharpening picks and drills, Qartridges of powder, charges 
 for cars in which the rock is carried to the surface are all 
 paid by the shifts. This is not unfair, because the price at 
 which contracts are taken is settled with a view to such 
 charges, and the fact that the charges are made induces the 
 men to be economical with supplies. At this point ccimes 
 in the chance given to the miners by the contract system of 
 making a great deal of money or very little. As the char- 
 acter of the vein or seam often changes within a few feet, 
 and as contracts are, or should be, always made " on the 
 face " or in view of these conditions of the place to be worked 
 it follows that if the rock becomes softer the men get 
 ahead faster, while if it becomes harder they get ahead more 
 slowly. As the amount of money received by them de- 
 pends wholly on the amount of work done as judged by the 
 result,- if the one change takes place they make more and if 
 the other they make less. The charges against the shifts 
 are best based upon the "tallies" or little pieces of wood 
 having upon them the name of the leader or the number of 
 the shift. These should be of difierent shapes or colors to 
 prevent confusion ; as, for example, a round " tally " may 
 be given for blacksmith work in sharpening a pick or drill, 
 a square one given for a cartridge and an oblong one for a 
 car. 
 
 The numbers or names should be stamped into the wood 
 rather than painted. At the end of the month these are 
 counted by the clerk and returned to the shift, the leader of 
 which gives a receipt for them, and in accordance with the 
 terms of that receipt finds the amount deducted on pay-day 
 
870 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 from that due to Ms shift. The individual sums due the 
 members of a shift should always be settled by percentages, 
 and it is well to have the agreement in writing so there may 
 be no dispute. Men may change from one shift to another 
 at the end of the month, but the Superintendent should not 
 allow such changes to be made, except at such times. The 
 principle upon which the contract system is based, and 
 which it is always well to keep in mind, may be divided into 
 two parts ; first, that a thing once settled, is settled forever, 
 as far as that month is concerned ; and second, that once a 
 month the details of the system may be completely changed 
 around and modified to suit the changed conditions of the 
 mine. It is upon this principle, or rather upon these two 
 principles, that the whole value of the system depends. It 
 is given enough rapidity to make it a thoroughly business 
 method of carrying on the work, and enough elasticity to 
 enable it to adapt itself to the ever varying state of the 
 property. 
 
 In mines where wages are paid, the men receive just so 
 much money per day of so many hours, and the amount of 
 work done by them depends upon their individual honesty, 
 or the amount of supervision exercised over them. As it is 
 a fact that not one man in a thousand will work for_ others 
 with anything like the zeal he will display in working for 
 himself, it follows that to get from the miners under wages 
 anything like the amount of work which should be fur- 
 nished for the money paid, a close supervision must be main- 
 tained. For reasons already stated, such supervision is an 
 excessively difficult thing to keep up, and unless the num- 
 ber of viewers be very large, the men will have plenty of time 
 to shirk. In this connection I may say that while Cornwall 
 has given us many things in mining, which are of the utmost 
 value, the practice of putting white jackets on the captains of 
 the mine is an absurd one, for the simple reason that the men 
 can see a captain long before he can see them, and hence 
 his inspection or " viewing " becomes of little account. 
 The radical difficulty about a wages mine, is the fact that it 
 works against the interests of the men as well as the com- 
 pany. If the wages are settled at $5 a day — any sum will 
 do as an example — the skilled miner gets nothing for his 
 skill, experience and knowledge. The amount received by 
 him is the same as that paid to another man who has just 
 begun cutting, and whose work is not worth half the value 
 of his. He loses the money he has a right to expect, as the 
 result of his training and experience. On the other hand, 
 the company gains when they pay him only $5 for labor 
 worth $3 and experience and skill worth $4, but they lose 
 heavily when they pay $5 to the man who has but the $3 
 worth of labor to give in return, and is totally without the $4 
 worth of experience. The aggregate of the sum so paid is 
 far greater than the aggregate of that saved. It may be ob- 
 jected at once by the miners that if this be true, miners as a 
 class are better off, because as a class they receive more 
 money, I confess I do not agree with this view, although 
 I have heard some of my mining friends urge it very stoutly. 
 It would be a sound view were all miners part of one great 
 firm, turning their wages in, and drawing money out; in pro- 
 portion to the value of their work. But this is not, and never 
 can be, the case. My reasons for thinking the wages system 
 bad for the miners, I can briefly state as follows : Tirst, it is 
 right that every man as he goes through life should receive 
 a constantly increasing sum for his labor. A man's work 
 should be paid for in proportion to his strength, or that 
 which enables him to do the work at all, and in proportion 
 to his knowledge or that which makes his work valuable. 
 If you will think for a moment you will see that these are 
 the only two considerations which enter into the value of 
 the work as done. Strength on one hand, knowledge on the 
 other. 
 
 It is a physical law that the time of a man's greatest 
 strength is betweeu twenty and forty-five, and that after 
 that period his strength declines. But suppose you put a 
 man of twenty-five who knew nothing of mining into a coal 
 seam along side of a miner of fifty, which would cut the 
 most coal? The miner, every time. Why? Because with 
 less strength, but with greater knowledge, the miner would 
 make each blow of the pick tell, while the laborer would 
 lose half or three-quarters of Ms work. Knowledge, then, 
 comes in and replaces strength. But in the infinitely com- 
 plex industry, which we call mining, knowledge is worth 
 
 far more than strength. Take one instance. What man on 
 earth who knew nothing about mining would leave a breast 
 after a month's work in it, in such a condition that 
 miners would be willing to go into it and begin to blast? 
 Not one. The work of the miner then must be such, that 
 after he has worked out a place, others can safely work be- 
 yond him. Knowledge alone will bring this about ; strength 
 will ruin the mine. Knowledge then is more valuable than 
 strength, and being more valuable ahould be better paid. 
 But this knowledge can only be got by experience, and ex- 
 perience takes time to acquire. Therefore as men get older 
 they should be better paid. As under the wages system 
 they are paid the same, this is the method of reasoning by 
 which I arrive at my first objection to wages. My second 
 objection is the fact that the wages system prevents the 
 young men receiving a reward in direct proportion to the 
 quickness with which they learn their trade. Take two 
 young men, just out of their time and beginning cutting. 
 One of them will learn with extraordinary rapidity the 
 various kinds of knowledge which go to make up the miner ; 
 the other will stay just at the point where he left off. In 
 my opinion the first should receive something more than the 
 second because his work is worth more to the Company. 
 Under the wages system he receives the same. Not alone 
 does he not receive anything more for his improvement as 
 a miner, but the wages system takes from him all induce- 
 ment to improve. To improve oneself, to increase one's 
 stock of knowledge requires effort, and that effort will not 
 be made unless a man receives something for it. If a miner 
 knows that everything learnt by him will return to his di- 
 rect advantage, he will try to learn. But if on the other 
 hand, he knows that his labor of learning is labor wasted, 
 he will not make the effort. It is true that even under the 
 wages system the young man who works to improve him- 
 self, who labors to make himself a better and more valuable 
 miner, will, some time, receive a reward for that labor. In 
 time he will attract the attention of the superintendent and 
 will receive advancement. But the time is a long time, and 
 when he does receive the advancement, the other men 
 whom he has passed in the race are sure to accuse the su- 
 perintendent of favoritism. " So and so is the boss' pet," 
 they will say. Under the contract system the miner gets a 
 reward at once for every particle of knowledge which he 
 has and the men are the first to find out his merits. I have 
 seen a man of twenty-two the leader of a shift which was 
 never empty. He could get the best men in the mine to 
 work with him, and he always had more applications than 
 he had places. When at the age of twenty-four that man 
 was made "night boss," the superintendent simply con- 
 firmed the choice already made by the miners. His ad- 
 vancement by the way did not stop there. At the age of 
 thirty-five he was made superintendent of the mine he had 
 gone into as a boy to drive the horses before the cars, twen- 
 ty years before. But, it is urged, the wagec system makes 
 the Company pay out more money in the long run than the 
 contract system. To a certain extent this is true. It obliges 
 the Company to pay the same wages to the poor miner as 
 to the good ; in other words the wages system is the system 
 clung to, and believed in, by the " no-account " men. It is 
 the system of the drones. In it the Company is always try- 
 ing to get the wages down to the amount represented by the 
 average value of the work done by each man, and as the 
 poor miners are always in excess of the good ones, the rate 
 while not much above that which should be paid to these 
 inefiicient men is very far below that which should be paid 
 to the efficient. On the other hand the miners are always 
 trying to raise the sum paid to each to the amount which 
 the work of the good man is worth. In this struggle the 
 great majority of the troubles of the miners and the com- 
 panies are born. It must be remembered that many of the 
 men, who are poor miners at forty years of age, had they 
 been subjected to the spur as applied by a system which 
 gave them a tangible reward for improvement, as soon as 
 that improvement was made, would have been far more 
 valuable The numbing effect of the wages system upon 
 the faculties is shown disastrously in their case. 
 
 I have mentioned the struggle which goes on between the 
 miners and the company and the cause which leads to it. 
 It is necessary to consider this struggle more at length and 
 the machinery employed on each side, by the aid of which 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 871 
 
 it is conducted. First and foremost in such consideration 
 comes the complicated question of the miners' unions. I 
 say complicated because the question of the union is gener- 
 ally so considered. To me it seems that the question 
 is an excessively simple one, if a person will but take the 
 trouble to examine it. Some light may be thrown upon it 
 by an examination of how the union, as it exists to day, 
 came to be formed. The union may be traced to the benev- 
 olent clubs which were common in English mines many 
 decades of years ago. The miners found that if they 
 wanted to provide against the elFects of accidents, the 
 troubles attendant upon those accidents were lessened. A 
 contribution of a shilling or six pence a month gave a man 
 medical attendance and allowance when he was sick, or paid 
 for a decent interment when he died, and gave a small sum 
 of money to his widow. The results of the clubs were 
 found to be so excellent that men who had once joined 
 them rarely left them. But as time went on the miners 
 made a second discovery. They found that while coopera- 
 tion between them would provide for illness or death, the 
 same cooperation made their voices far more powerful in 
 the conduct of the mine. The owners of the mine on the 
 one hand had money, and wanted labor as cheap as they 
 could get it ; the miners on the other had labor and wanted 
 all the money which could be got for it. While the dis- 
 charge of one man would not affect the owners at all, if the 
 whole force quit work it would affect them a great deal. 
 And so the miners said " we will band ourselves together 
 and act in all things as one man." This they did, and the 
 owners found that the operation of a mine had a new ele- 
 ment introduced into it. It is undoubtedly a fact that the 
 union has done an enormous amount of good. It has 
 brought about discussion among the miners, out of which 
 discussions have arisen improvements in mining; it has 
 forced owners to pay more attention to the wants of the 
 men, their safety, and their comfort; and it has proved a 
 check upon the owners in many ways. In all of these 
 things it has done good. On the other hand it has done an 
 enormous amount of harm to the men, as well as the owners. 
 Having great power, it has often used that power without 
 proper caution. It has often refused to acknowledge the 
 fact that the question of wages is one which is governed by 
 other things beside the willingness of the company to pay. 
 To tell a miners' union that the rate of wages governed in 
 Pennsylvania by the rate of discount, as established by the 
 Bank of England, would seem to the members of that union 
 a wildly absurd statement, yet it is one which is susceptible 
 of proof. 
 
 The miners' union forces us to regard labor as being one 
 individual factor in our calculations. While we may say 
 that the union has ruined the business, and in some respects 
 this is true, it is yet a fact that the union exists, and that it 
 will exist to all time. While miners themselves are forced 
 to concede that the union has done harm to them in the past, 
 they are conscious that it has, on the whole, done more 
 good than harm, and that the balance must therefore be 
 strong in its favor. As this is unquestionably true, it fol- 
 lows that in the consideration of the union, we must accept 
 this fact as one prior to any such consideration, and base 
 all our reflections upon the continued existence of that 
 union. Capital being governed by certain commercial laws 
 well understood, although, perhaps, not formulated, by 
 every capitalist : it follows that capital will always work 
 in the same way. The first and most imperative of these 
 laws is to guard capital against loss. The second is to so 
 manage capital as to secure interest or increase for its use. 
 When men place large amounts of money in mines, and an 
 investment in a mine is necessarily a large one, by the 
 owners, although strictly speaking the size of an investment 
 has nothing to do with the operation of the two laws men- 
 tioned ; they require that it be safe and that it yield interest 
 or profit. We have already seen that shutting down a mine 
 makes that mine less valuable than it was before, and that 
 the decrease in value is one which is cumulative. A strike 
 on the part of the men employed threatens the safety of 
 the capital invested or exposes it to a chance of loss. But 
 a strike brings the output to an abrupt stop. 
 
 As the profit or interest upon the mine depends wholly 
 upon the out-put, the strike causes the interest on the 
 capital or profit of the investment to cease. When 
 
 then, a strike occurs, the company has both of these imper- 
 ative commercial laws urging it to bring about as soon as 
 possible a termination to that strike. Were it not for the 
 operation of these laws, the company would allow the men 
 on strike to stay there until they got tired. As there are 
 these commercial laws affecting capital, so there are the 
 same laws affecting labor. The miner has his strength and 
 his knowledge, which may be called his capital, and he 
 wants that strength and knowledge secured from loss, and 
 as large a return as possible in the shape of wages or profit. 
 He goes into a strike, as a rule, because the profit derived 
 by him from his strength and knowledge, is not as large as 
 he thinks it should be. _ The result of the strike upon him 
 is the same result seen in the case of company representing 
 capital. As when the strike began the company found its 
 capital exposed to loss from the decrease in the value of the 
 mine, so the miner finds his capital exposed to loss indirect 
 and direct ; indirect because his capability for work is de- 
 creased by idleness, and the habits he too often forms during 
 the strike; and direct because, as his capital consists of his 
 strength and knowledge first, and his savings second, he is 
 obliged to live on those savings. The fact that the union 
 funds support him does not change this, for he gets out of 
 the union only what he put in. If he is supported by the 
 funds of other unions, then it is merely an amplification of 
 the first state of things. The operation of the second law 
 during a strike, is the same in the case of the miner, .as in 
 that of the company. The interest or profit of the company 
 depends upon the out-put; when that ceases the interest 
 ceases. The profit of the miner depends upon his wages, 
 when they cease it comes to an end. The strike, then, affects 
 both parties to it in the same way, and as that effect is in 
 each case a bad one, both parties are anxious to end it. 
 
 The courses which force the termination of the strike are 
 to be found, as a rule, in the operation of the first law, that 
 which governs the loss. The company may be obliged to 
 yield rather than see the mine deteriorate any more in value, 
 the miner may be starved out. But the causes which bring 
 about the terms of settlement are to be found in the second 
 law, and as a rule these causes are those which affect the 
 company, and not those which affect the miner. It may be 
 laid down as a principle, applicable in all cases, when busi- 
 ness is carried on, that there is a point beyond which dis- 
 bursements cannot he made. If the company pay wages 
 which swallow up all the profits of the mine, there is no re- 
 turn to them for the capital invested. As the mine may be 
 supposed to represent the capital invested in it by the com- 
 pany and the labor or capital invested in it by the miners, 
 so the capital invested in the mine may be said to be the 
 aggregate of both. The profit of the working is to be divi- 
 ded between the two, and the share which goes to the com- 
 pany being called interest, and the share going to the miners 
 being called wages. As it is right that the latter should 
 have a part of this profit in the shape of wages, so it is right 
 that the former should have a part in the shape of interest. 
 If the demands of the striking miners are such as to give 
 them, should the terms be agreed upon, all this profit, the com- 
 pany will never accede to them. If on the other hand the 
 company are receiving more than a fair share of these profits 
 they will accede to the demands of the strikers at once. 
 
 I may be asked why I have gone into this long examina- 
 tion of the different theoretical interests which affect a strike. 
 My reasons for doing so are simply these : It is necessaiy 
 before we can cure a disease to know what conditions brought 
 that disease into existence. For the company on the one 
 hand, to say that a strike is simply folly on the part of the 
 men, that it is brought about by the machinations of those 
 who delight in making trouble, that if it were not for the 
 demagogues it would never have happened is as absurd as it 
 is for the miners on the other to say that the refusal by the 
 company to accede to their demands is dictated wholly by a 
 desire on the company's part to grind them down. Each of 
 these accusations may have in it a certain amount of truth. 
 It may be that the strike was folly on the part of the miners, 
 that it was brought about by interested men and that had it 
 not been for the demagogues it would never have taken 
 place, but to suppose that a large body of hard working 
 men, men who fully realize what it is to pay for the support 
 of their wives and children out of their wages, will go on 
 strike simply because others tell them to do so is to suppose 
 
872 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 a thing which is utterly ridiculous. So it may be that the 
 company desires to receive as large a share of the profit 
 in the shape of interest as it can, but to accuse it of a desire 
 to degrade labor by grinding down the miners is folly of the 
 wildest sort. Yet these are the positions generally taken 
 by each party in the fight, and half the difficulty experienced 
 in adjusting matters amicably arises from the fact that each 
 party proceeds upon one of these absurd assumptions. As 
 a matter of fact there is at the base of the strike ori the part 
 of the miners a belief, either true or false, that they are not 
 getting as great a share of the profit of the mine as they are 
 entitled to, and the refusal of the company to accede to their 
 demands arises wholly from a consciousness that were they 
 to do so their share of the profits would cease. It all comes 
 down then to a question of profits or to the question of how 
 much money is got from the operation of the mine. If both 
 parties to the strike, the company and the Union, will recog- 
 nize this fact and will iu their arbitration meeting calmly 
 ascertain and consider what the profits are, a piece of infor- 
 mation not at all difficult to get, and will then quietly de- 
 termine the proportion which should exist between the in- 
 terest which goes to the company, and the wages which go 
 to the men, they will find little or no trouble in arriving at 
 a solution of their difficulty. But if they go into a confer- 
 ence or arbitration meeting for the purpose of indulging in 
 mutual recriminations, for the sake of making charges of 
 personal animosity and personal feeling against each other, 
 that strike is apt to last until both parties learn more sense. 
 I remember being present at an arbitration meeting of the 
 representatives of the Union and the Superintendent at 
 which the speeches made were of the most bitterly personal 
 character on each side. Accusations of a desire to grind down 
 the laboring men — it is extraordinary how fond the Union 
 orators are of this phrase — on the part of the company, and 
 of rank folly, black ingratitude, and a wish to create trouble 
 on the part of the miners, were freely made. The meeting 
 got more and more stormy and the prospect of a settlement 
 seemed to be very remote, when an old miner got up and 
 made a speech which I thought the best one I ever heard. 
 It ran something like this : " I come here, men and Mr. 
 Chair, for to find out if I were goin' to work agin. I didn't 
 come here for to call no names 'cause my old woman an' me 
 can git up that kind o' 'musement any time we likes. Now 
 ther's a good many old women in this yer camp as can do 
 that kind o' work a heap better nor me, an' I moves you 
 Mr. Chair as how we gets them old women in here to 'buse 
 each other while we goes out into the yard an' settles this 
 yer question o' goin' to work an' what the company will 
 give a day." It did a man good to hear the laughter which 
 followed this speech, laughter caused the more readily as 
 I afterwards found out, from the fact that old Sandy's wife 
 was a notorious shrew. The old man's speech was efiective, 
 though, and the question of wages was settled before the 
 meeting broke up. Once or twice during the discussion 
 things began to wear a threatening aspect, but an allusion 
 to Molly always brought good humor with it. I have often 
 thought of Sandy's speech since that time. 
 
 But at best the system of strikes in order to increase 
 wages is a make shift system. It is a mistake which is 
 brought about, by that other mistake, the system of wages 
 itself. As long as the work of men is given a fictitious 
 value, instead of being estimated at its real worth, so long 
 will it be that the company will estimate the value below, 
 and the men estimate it above, the proper point. The com- 
 pany as controlling the disbursements has a powerful weapon 
 in its hands, while in the union which controls the labor it 
 meets a "foeman worthy of its steel." But of the two, the 
 men suffer the most. The company may lose the interest in 
 its money and lose a part of that money in the decrease in 
 value of the mine; between the men and the gaunt twin 
 wolves of poverty and starvation there ever stands the daily 
 wage. The struggle may be kept up a month, three months, 
 even a year; but a time comes when they can no longer 
 hold out. Then, broken down by their suflTerinfr, and dis- 
 pirited by their failure they are forced to yield. They can- 
 not stand the looks of the wife as she sees them come home 
 day after day, only to tell that the strike is not ended; they 
 cannot face the cries of the little ones for food when there 
 IS no food to give them. The storekeepers cnn give no more 
 credit, the cupboard is empty, even bread cannot be had 
 
 They are starved out. All the misery and suflfering and 
 pain has been of no avail, the company have held out and 
 the union is broken down. Such a failure means much. It 
 means that the power of the union has proved naught, that 
 they have been leaning on a broken reed. To restore that 
 power will take years of time during which the company, 
 the check of the union having been -removed, will manage 
 things as it sees fit. And all this misery has been incurred 
 and this failure has been brought about from what? Simply 
 that the union made its demands such that the Company 
 could not accede to them. While the union has great power, 
 its members should recollect that an unwise use of that 
 power will react upon them. They should be careful to 
 examine into the question of profits before committing them- 
 selves ; they should see that the question of wages has two 
 sides; and if any man begins to talk about grinding down 
 the laboring man, they should promptly rule his speech out 
 of order. 
 
 There are other considerations which affect labor in rela- 
 tion to its efficiency and value which the superintendent is 
 forced to consider. And first amo^g these may be placed 
 that of temperance. In some respects miners are like sailors, 
 their pay comes to them in large sums and at comparatively 
 long intervals, and their labor is very hard. It follows that 
 drinking prevails among them to a greater or less extent. 
 Not only is this bad for the men themselves who spend their 
 money foolishly, but a drinking miner is never a desirable 
 man to have in the mine. His work is rarely good work, 
 and he can not be trusted to take those precautions, or to see 
 them taken, which are the sole safeguard of the property. 
 His judgment cannot be relied upon. It is therefore wise 
 for a superintendent to encourage among the men, both by 
 precept and example, anything which will aid in decreasing 
 drinking. Temperance societies and leagues have done a 
 great deal of good, and when it can be arranged that the 
 men find a direct advantage in joining them, their work is 
 made easier and their influence increased. This may be 
 done by the company in the form of donations of books to 
 the library or by giving picnics or pleasure excursions to the 
 members. I have seen one mine where the company estab- 
 lished a "sick fund" in connection with the temperance 
 league, the benefits ot which were only to be obtained by a 
 membership in good standing for six months or more ; and 
 the result was most excellent. For the young men, amuse- 
 ment in any form outside of the bar rooms, should be en- 
 couraged to the utmost. Base ball clubs, reading rooms, 
 debating societies and other forms of recreation all produce 
 good results. 
 
 It should also be known that drinking men are not wanted, 
 and that the first discharges will be distributed among 
 them. In fact, every exertion possible should be made to 
 discourage intemperance, if nothing else, on account of the 
 fearful risk which accompanies it. A glass of beer too much 
 may make an engineer run a cage into the " sheeves " and 
 the safety clutches may not work.' I remember an instance 
 of this kind that resulted in the death of eleven men. A 
 timber badly placed may bring about a " cave." The risks 
 necessarily taken in mining are tuo great to permit of their 
 being increased by any habit which can be cured. A superin- 
 tendent's power is very great, and his influence is still greater. 
 Both are never better exercised than on the side of temper- 
 ance. It is wise economy for the company to see that 
 money for school-houses is not wanting, and that churches 
 do not remain things to be built, for lack of funds. Few 
 expenditures give larger returns than those made for these 
 purposes. In fact the more steadily the company keep be- 
 fore them the idea that the miners are men and not ma- 
 chines, the better work they will have done and the more 
 valuable will become their property. It pays, and pays 
 well, to see that the men have comfortable quarters allhough 
 the ownership of the houses by the company, and their lease 
 to the men is not as a rule a wise practice, as it is frequently 
 charged that the company's rents are exorbitant, and an 
 excuse is given for the reputation of that little statement 
 about grinding in connection with the poor man. If one of 
 the men employed, however, wishes to build, it is wise for 
 the company to advance a part of the money necessary, pro- 
 viding always that his character for sobriety and industry 
 will warrant such an advance. It must always be under- 
 stood, however, that such advance is the direct result of the 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 873 
 
 personal character of the man to whom it is made, and is a 
 recognition of the qualities in him which go to make up the 
 miner who is valuable to the company. It should never be 
 understood that the men have any right to such an advance 
 or loan. It is well, too, for the company to require a man 
 to save up a part of the money necessary, before they con- 
 sent to advance the' remainder. The company should 
 always see that facilities for saving money are given to the 
 men, and if there be no savings bank in the place, should 
 always act in that capacity, paying the regular interest on 
 deposits. This work,is troublesome, and takes time, but it 
 pays in the better character of the labor ; while it would be 
 wildly absurd for the company to interfere directly in purely 
 personal matters among the men, it is certainly a fact that a 
 good superintendent can do a great deal among them by his 
 influence, if he will take the trouble to exert it, and such in- 
 fluence when exerted for their good is not only increased 
 but gratefully acknowledged. A liberal policy on the part 
 of the company pays better than any investment they can 
 make. When the mine is running smoothly, and the men 
 are contented, the largest out-put IS obtained and the work 
 is done in the best way. When there are constant squabbles 
 and fights going on, the work of the mine is badly done. It 
 is as easy for a superintendent to work in one direction as 
 in the other, and upon the direction in which lie works will 
 depend in a great degree, the final result of the operation 
 of the mine, the dividends paid to the stockholders. 
 
 It will be gathered easily from what I have written, that 
 it is my opinion that liberal treatment of the men combined 
 with a proper system in the management of the mine will 
 produce the best results for the owners. This, as a general 
 
 proposition, will not probably be disputed by any one. But 
 I have written to little purpose, if I have not shown my be- 
 lief in the contract system, and my utter lack of belief in 
 that of wages. I regard the contract system as being the 
 wisest because its benefits are equally felt by the employer 
 and the employed ; and as being the best because under it 
 the difiiculties between labor and capital are adjusted as fast 
 as they arise. Strikes, where it is in operation, are rarely 
 made because there is rarely felt to be any need for them. 
 The miner by his acceptance of the contract regulates atwhat 
 price he will work once every month. The company by the 
 price placed upon the work, states once a month what they 
 can afford to pay. A difference in the values is not allowed 
 to remain in existence constantly rolling up like a snow-ball 
 until its very size compels attention ; it is settled at once, and 
 when it is small. In the contract system the ounce of pre- 
 vention is always being applied, and the necessity for the 
 pound of cure is never felt. It brings about a state of things 
 m which the mine goes along smoothly and easily, with no 
 friction and no trouble. The men are contented, and the 
 superintendent is satisfied. More work is done, so more 
 money is paid; the company has a larger output for sale and 
 the men get more wages. Better work is done and the mine 
 is left in better condition for the future. I believe that in 
 the contract system one-half if not three-quarters of the 
 problems of labor find their solution, and I believe that the 
 wages system would create those problems in a mine in 
 which the superintendent was an archangel and the men 
 taken from the Hosts of Heaven. 
 
 —AJfred Balch. 
 
874 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 PART X. 
 
 METALLURGY AND METALLURGICAL PROCESS— THE LATEST 
 
 DISCOVERIES— THE INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OF 
 
 METALS— MINING TOOLS— METALLURGL 
 
 CAL MEMORANDA. 
 
 EOCESSES of metallurgy have proved 
 the salvation of many American 
 Mining Districts. Many of the gold 
 fields of Georgia, the gold gravels 
 of North Carolina, the gold fields 
 of Nova Scotia are to-day worked 
 at a profit where ten, twenty, thirty 
 years ago they would have bank- 
 rupted their owners and left them 
 unhappy victims' of glittering im- 
 agination. Nowhere in the world 
 have the processes for operating 
 mines been more quickly adapted to the wants of the work, 
 and new and wonderful ways contrived to overcome new 
 and wonderful difficulties. Every year brings cumulative 
 evidences of our progress in this direction, and the great 
 spirit of private initiative that animates our mining men is 
 producing the most valuable and praiseworthy results ; In 
 Part X., of the Mines, Miners, and Mining Interests 
 OF THE United States some metallurgical processes are 
 set forth that will be found of interest, together with a care- 
 ful gleaning of the field of recent metallurgical discovery 
 and experiment. The chief industrial applications of metalsj 
 their properties, and some papers that were procured too 
 late to find a place in the Part properly belonging to them, 
 make up the contents of Part X. 
 
 IRON. 
 
 WITH respect to its useful properties, iron oc- 
 cupies the first place among the metals. By 
 far the strongest, and, at the same time, one 
 of the lightest, its applications in the arts of 
 construction are much more numerous than those of any 
 other metal. Being capable of assuming, according to the 
 treatment which it undergoes, the forms of wrought iron, 
 cast iron, and steel, it is susceptible of the widest variations 
 in ite characters. Extracted from its ores in the form of 
 cast iron, it is melted with comparative facility, and, accord- 
 ing to the mode of operating in the foundry, may be made 
 to yield castings which are easily filed and turned, or may 
 be rendered so hard that no tool is able to touch it. By 
 judicious treatment with heat and atmospheric air the cast 
 iron is converted into steel, the strongest, and one of the 
 hardest and most elastic of all materials, as well as the only 
 
 one of which a magnetic needle can be made. Continued a 
 little further, the joint action of heat and atmospheric air 
 converts the steel into wrought iron, possessing great strength 
 and toughness, yet soft enough to be turned, bored, and 
 punched with ease, and, especially when heated, to be rolled 
 and twisted into the most varied forms without cracking. 
 With less disposition to melt under the action of heat than 
 any other common metal, wrought iron is sufficiently soften- 
 ed ac a bright red heat to be welded, or joined to another 
 piece, in the most perfect manner, without the use of solder 
 of any kind. Being capable of acquiring and of losing the 
 properties of a magnet with great rapidity, soft iron (wrought 
 iron) is the only material which is adapted for the construc- 
 tion of electro-magnetic and magneto-electric apparatus. It 
 is not too much to assert that scarcely a step of importance 
 has ever been made in the industrial progress of any com- 
 munity to which some one of the three modifications of 
 iron has not been indispensable. Possessed of so many 
 valuable qualities, iron is still the cheapest of all the metals, 
 since the ores from which it is extracted are scattered in pro- 
 fusion through the crust of the earth, and can be made to 
 yield the metal in abundance by a moderate expenditure of 
 time, labor, and fuel. 
 
 The difficulty of separating the iron from the other sub- 
 stances with which it is associated in the ore, is of course 
 greater in proportion as these foreign matters are more nu- 
 merous ;'thus, when the iron is combined with oxygen only, 
 as in the magnetic iron ore, red hsematite, and specular iron 
 ore, the metal may be extracted at once in the form of mal- 
 leable iron, by merely heating the ore in contact with carbon 
 (charcoal), which combines with the oxygen; and this, 
 which is the primitive process for obtaining wrought iron, 
 is still followed in places where the above ores can be readily 
 obtained, and wood is abundant for conversion into char- 
 coal. Even brown hsematite and spathic ore can be treated 
 in a similar manner if the water and the carbonic acid which 
 they respectively contain be previously expelled by calcina- 
 tion. But in the clay iron-stones and in blackband, the 
 earthy matter (clay, &c.) which is present renders such a 
 process impracticable, and it is necessary to raise such ores 
 to a much higher temperature, in contact with lime, to 
 liquefy the clay so that it may be separated from the iron ; when 
 the high temperature causes the iron to combine with the 
 carbon of the fuel, forming cast iron, from which the carbon 
 is removed by a subsequent process, in order to obtain 
 wrought iron. 
 
 Extraction of Iron from its Ores in the Form of 
 Cast Iron. — The ore to be smelted is broken up into lumps 
 about twice the size of a fist, and in some cases it is found 
 advantageous to prepare it for smelting by a preliminary pro- 
 cess of calcining or roasting. For this purpose the ore is mixed 
 with small coal, and built up on a foundation of lumps of coal, 
 into huge pyramidal heaps or clamps, which are kindled at 
 the windward end, and allowed to smoulder for months, being 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 875 
 
 prolonged, as may be requisite, by fresh additions 'of ore and 
 fuel at the opposite extremity. The ore may be calcined 
 with an addition of only one-twentieth of its weight of coal, 
 if it contain, as is the case with blaclcband, a large propor- 
 tion of bituminous or combustible matter, whilst a clay iron- 
 stone may require as much aa one-fifth of its weight of coal. 
 This calcination in heaps is a very uncertain process, on ac- 
 count of the irregular distribution of the heat ; some parts of 
 the ore being scarcely affected, while others are over-heated 
 and melted so that they can be smelted only with difficulty. 
 This plan is only adopted in districts where iiiel is very 
 cheap. During the process of calcination the ore loses about 
 one-fourth in weight, in consequence of the expulsion of 
 water and carbonic acid, and the combustion of the bitu- 
 minous matter. A portion of the sulphur from the pyrites 
 contained in the ore is also burnt off during the roasting 
 process, entering into combination with oxygen from the 
 air, to form sulphurous acid gas. Many ores are rendered 
 much more porous by this process, and are then more readily 
 smelted. The expulsion of water and carbonic acid would, 
 of course, be effected by the heat of the smelting fiimace if 
 this preliminarj"- roasting were omitted : but the sulphur 
 would not be removed to the same extent, and, since this is 
 one of the most damaging impurities in iron, the roasting 
 is a necessary preparation for ores containing much pyrites, 
 and is always practiced in Scotland. During the calcination 
 of the or^, the oxygen of the air combines with the prot- 
 oxide of iron (ferrous oxide) which is contained in it, con-' 
 verting it into the sesquioxide (ferric oxide), which is less 
 liable to enter into combination with the silica present in 
 the ore, and thus to cause a loss of iron in the slag during 
 the subsequent smelting process. In South Wales the 
 ore is roasted in furnaces, or runtdng-hiliis, resembling lime- 
 kilns, into which it is thrown at the top, alternately with 
 layers of small coal, the roasted ore being raked out at the 
 bottom of the fiirnace. Calcination has been much less 
 practiced since the introduction of the hot blast. 
 
 Process of smelting'- Irmi Ores. — Since this operation re- 
 
 ney, but has a strong blast of air forced into it from be- 
 neath. 
 
 This blast varies much in form and dimensions according 
 to cii-cumstances, which will be better understood when the 
 smelting process has been described. Fig. 1. shows a com- 
 mon form, and exhibits the essential features of its construc- 
 tion. The chimney, tunnel-head F, has three openings at 
 the side, closed by iron doors, through which the ore and fuel 
 are introduced into the furnace, when they fall through the 
 throat or tunnel-hole, G, into the body c, which is generally of 
 a barrel-shaped form, widening as it descends, and thus 
 allowing a free descent of the materials until they reach the 
 boshes A, after which the furnace contracts rapidly, as at B, 
 in order somewhat to check the descent of the solid materials, 
 and attain its smallest diameter at the top of the hearth e, 
 which is at its upper part a nearly cylindrical passage, but 
 is made almost rectangular at the lower part, into which, 
 
 "M- 
 
 
 Fig. 1. — ^BlaBt-fuinace lor Smelting Iron Ores. 
 
 quires a very high temperature, it is carried out in a blast 
 fumaee, which does not depend upon the draught of a chim- 
 
 ' From the German Schmelzen, to melt. 
 
 Fio. 2.— Boshes, Hearth, and Crucible of Blast Furnaces. 
 
 through apertures o o in the walls, a blast of air is forced. 
 The blast-pipes, or tuyeris, are usually three in number, and 
 are situated on three sides of the hearth. The fourth side 
 is constructed differently from these three, its upper part 
 being formed by a heavy block of stone a (Fig. 2), called 
 the tymp-stone, which is supported by a cast-iron tymp-plate 
 b, built into the masonry of- the furnace, whilst the lower 
 part is enclosed by the dam-stone c, faced externally with a 
 thick caat-iion dam-plate d. That portion of the hearth 
 which is shut in by the dam-stone is called the crucible, for 
 it is here that the cast-iron produced in the furnace accu- 
 mulates in a melted state, covered with a layer of melted 
 earthy matter or slag.^ The space between the tymp and 
 dam-stones is rammed up with good binding sand, in which 
 an opening is made, just above the dam stone, through 
 which the slag is allowed to flow out of the furnace. The 
 melted cast-iron is never permitted to rise to the level of 
 this opening, but is run out once or twice in twenty-four 
 hours through a tap-hole at the bottom of the crucible, which 
 
 immed up again with binding sand. 
 The dimensions of blast-furnaces vary much according to 
 1 conditions of their working, but some idea of them may 
 
 icquired from the following : — 
 
 ireight of blast-furnace, from 45 ft. to 100 ft. 
 
 Height of boshes from commencement of hearth, about 15 ft. 
 
 ( reatest diameter at the boshes, from 13 ft. to 18 ft, 
 
 1 iameter of chimney at charging-platform, about 10 ft. 
 
 Diameter of hearth, 3 ft. to 9 ft. 
 
 Depth of crucible, from 8 to 10 Inches. 
 
 Total depth of hearth, 6 ft. to 8 ft. 
 
 Depth from tuy6re holes to bottom of hearth, from 12 to 36 inches. 
 
 When the coal and ore are soft, and easily crushed, they 
 are liable to obstruct the passage of the blast if there be too 
 much pressure from the column of material above, so that 
 the ftjrnace must not be so high as when harder materials are 
 employed. But in such a casej the diameter of the Hearth 
 and body of the furnace may be increased, whereas when 
 hard ores and anthracite coal are employed, the diameter 
 must be reduced, sometimes to one-half, and the height in- 
 creased. Thecompressioncausedby the weight of materials 
 in the fiirnace sometimes amounts to one-fourth of the bulk 
 of the charge, so that 7,500 cubic feet of materials measured 
 in the charging barrows may be thrown into a furnace of 
 
 'From the Qerman schlacke, dross. 
 
876 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 6,000 cubic feet in capacity. Tlie tuy&res,' or twyers, 
 through which the blast of air is forced into the furnace, 
 are formed of conical tubes of cast iron (a 6 d c, Fig. 3), 
 having double walls between which water is introduced 
 through the pipes 1 1', and made to circulate as shown by 
 the arrows, in order to keep them from being melted. They 
 are between 2 and 3 inches wide at the opening into the 
 furnace, and are built into the walls, as shown in Fig. 4, 
 which represents a section of the hearth at the level of the 
 
 tuySres. The openings are 
 inclined somewhat in dif- 
 ferent directions, so that 
 the blasts coming from 
 them shall not exactly 
 meet each other. The air 
 is forced into the tuyere 
 through a movable nozzle 
 (B, Fig. 3) of copper or 
 sheet-iron, connected by a leathern hose (A) with the pipe 
 coming from the blowing machine, with a large forcing 
 
 Fio. 3. — Tuyfere of blast furnaces. 
 
 Fio. 4.— Arrangement of Tayftres in Blast-furnace, t. Pipes conveying 
 the blast, o, Openings in the sides of the hearth n. a. Arched pas- 
 sages for the labourers. 
 
 pump worked by steam power, and capable of supplying air, 
 at the rate of from 4,000, to 10,000 cubic feet per minute, to 
 each furnace. The pressure of the blast as it issues into 
 the furnace usually amounts to 2J lbs. or 3 lbs. upon the 
 inch, but it is sometimes increased to 5 lbs. In charcoal 
 furnaces, the fuel being very porous, a pressure of 1 lb. upon 
 the inch is sufficient ; in furnaces fed with coke, about 3 
 lbs. upon the inch ; but where anthracite is employed, the 
 blast has a pressure of 4 lbs. When a blast of high pressure 
 is employed, it becomes necessary to stop up the space be- 
 tween the tuygre and the nozzle of the pipe conveying the 
 blast. The elbow pipe, which connects the blast-pipe with 
 the air main (Fig. 4), has usually a small peep-hole closed 
 with glass or mica, so that the temperature of the hearth, as 
 indicated by the color of its glow, may be observed by 
 looking through the tuySre. 
 
 In some modern fiiruaces the number of tuySres has been 
 much increased. Rcu:hette's blast-furnace, which is used in 
 the iron-works of the Ural for smelting magnetic ore, and 
 yields 30 tons of iron in 24 hours, is a furnace of a narrow 
 oblong section, with eight tuySres on each side. It widens 
 as it ascends, unlike the older blast furnace, so that the 
 width is greatest at the mouth, which causes the charge to 
 sink more uniformly in horizontal layers. When the air is 
 blown into the furnace at the ordinary temperature of the 
 atmosphere, it is spoken of as a cold-blast furnace, whilst a 
 hot-blast furnace is one in which the air is heated to 500° or 
 600" F. (about the melting point of lead), by being forced 
 through a considerable length of red-hot iron pipes, be- 
 fore It enters the furnace. At first sight it would appear to 
 be immaterial whether the blast of air be heated before or 
 after it is forced into the fire, since, in either case, the same 
 quantity of heat must be lost in raising the air to the tem- 
 perature of the fire itself, whether a part of this heat be 
 produced by fuel burnt in order to warm the iron pipes, or 
 ' From the French tuyau, a pipe. 
 
 the whole of it be produced by fuel consumed in the fiir- 
 nace. In the stoves for heating the blast, however, the car- 
 bon of the fuel is converted into carbonic acid, whilst in the 
 blast-furnace it is converted into carbonic oxide, combining, 
 in the latter case, with only half as much oxygen as in the 
 former, and producing less than one-third as much heat, so 
 that 2 cwt. of coal burnt in the stove will go as far above 7 
 cwt. burnt in the furnace. Moreover, when cold air is blown 
 into the furnace, it must pass through a much larger quanti- 
 ty of the heated fuel before it is raised to the temperature 
 of the fire than would be the case if it had been heated be- 
 fore entering, so that the hot blast has less cooling effect 
 upon the fire, and a much higher temperature may be pro- 
 duced by the same consumption of fuel, or a fire sufficiently 
 hot for smelting the iron ore may be raised with a smaller 
 consumption of fuel than when a cold blast is employed. 
 The economy of fuel is still greater when the blast is heated 
 without any extra expenditure of fuel, by employing the 
 waste heat derived from the furnace itself. An improved 
 method of heating the blast consists in employingtwo cham- 
 })ers of fire-brick, in which fire-bricks are loosely stacked. 
 Into each of these chambers, alternately, the flame of a coal 
 fire is passed until the bricks are heated to redness ; the fire 
 is then diverted into the other chamber, whilst the blast is 
 sent over the hot bricks, when it becomes heated to 1,300° 
 F. before entering the blast-furnace. By the time this 
 chamber has been cooled, the other is heated and ready to 
 do duty again. These regenerative stoves, as they are called, 
 have been employed, with great advantage, in other cases. 
 
 In the construction of the blast-furnace, very infusible 
 materials are necessary, especially in the crucible and 
 hearth, where the highest temperature prevails. For these 
 portions of the furnace, millstone grit or Newcastle sand- 
 stone is sometimes employed (though fire-brick has been 
 lately used), but the upper part or body of the furnace, 
 which is not exposed to so high a temperature, is lined either 
 with fire-brick, or sometimes with blocks of slag from the 
 furnace itself, which undergoes an alteration in structure, 
 rendering it less fusible, when exposed to the heat of this 
 portion of the fire. The fire- brick lining (il, Fig. 1) of the 
 furnace is double, a space of about three inches being left 
 between the two portions, and rammed up with powdered 
 coke or sand, which yields to the expansion of the brick- 
 work, and hinders the conduction of the heat to the ex- 
 ternal part of the structure. Much attention is given to 
 the slope of the boshes, for if this be too steep, the materi- 
 als will fall too quickly, and if it be not steep enough, they 
 will stick to the side.s, and form obstructions or scaffolds, 
 preventing the descent of the materials above. Three or 
 more blast-furnaces are generally built in a row, and vaulted 
 passages are left around the hearth to allow easy access to 
 the tuyeres and the crucible. When the masonry of the 
 blast-f jmace is slight, it is strengthened by iron hoops and 
 bars [cupola furnace), or it is sometimes cased externally 
 with boiler plates riveted together. 
 
 The fuel of blast-furnaces in England is almost ex- 
 clusively coal or coke, for charcoal is far too expensive for 
 general use, though its freedom from sulphur enables a bet- 
 ter quality of iron to be manufactured with it. In Austria, 
 charcoal from wood or peat is the only fuel employed and 
 iron of the finest quality is the result. The Swedish iron 
 works also use charcoal only. In hot-blast furnaces, coal 
 may be employed without having been coked, because the 
 higher temperature which prevails in the furnace allows it 
 to Decome converted into coke in the upper part of the fire ; 
 but for cold-blast furnaces, coke is the ordinary fuel, a hard- 
 burnt, dense quality being preferred. For lighting or putting 
 the furnace in blast, much time is required, since there would - 
 be great danger of cracking the lining by a sudden applica- 
 tion of a very high temperature. Before the dam-stone is 
 fixed in its place, fagots are kindled in the opening below 
 the tymp-stone, so that the flame and heated air may be 
 drawn up into the furnace and gradually warm it. After a 
 few days, a quantity of coal or coke is thrown at the throat 
 of the furnace, and gradually increased until the furnace is 
 filled ; the blast is then gradually turned on, and when the 
 fuel has sunk down sufficiently, the smelting operation is 
 commenced. The drying and warming of the furnace oc- 
 cupy a month or more, according to its size. 
 
 For the convenience of charging the furnace with fuel 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING IISTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 877 
 
 and ore, a gallery runs round it at the level of the tunnel- 
 hole, to which the material's arc brought in iron wagons or 
 barrows, either up an inclined ^lane, or along a railway 
 carried from the slope over against the furnace. From 
 three to six cwt. of iron ore, according to its richness, 
 is thrown on the top of the burning fuel, together with 
 about one-third its weight of limestone or quicklime, which 
 is employed as a flux,^ to bring the clay of the ore to a 
 liquid state in the fire, in order that it may be separated 
 from the iron. Upon this a charge of fuel is thrown con- 
 sisting of about four to six cwt. The descent of the 
 charge in the fiirnace is very gradual, from forty to fifty 
 hours being usually occupied in its passage from the top to 
 the bottom. After an interval of half an hour or so, fresh 
 charges of ore, flux, and fuel are introduced, and the fur- 
 nace is thus fed, night and day in many places, for six or 
 seven years, before it is found necessary to blow it out in 
 order that its lining may be repaired. The melted cast iron 
 wnich is produced runs down into the crucible, together 
 with the liquid slag, formed by the action of the lime in 
 the flux upon the clay in the ore. The cast iron, being the 
 heavier of the two, accumulates at the bottom, and above it 
 five or six times its bulk of liquid slag, which flows over 
 a notch in the dam plate, and is generally received in iron 
 moulds *nd cast into large blocks of fifteen to twenty 
 cwt. each. At intervals, of twelve hours, generally, the 
 furnace is tapped by opening the tap-hole with an iron 
 rod. and a caxt is made, that is, tlie liquid cast iron is run out 
 and cast into pigs, or rough half-round bars, either in thick 
 iron moulds, or in trenches excavated in strongly binding 
 sand, and communicating with a central channel into 
 which the cast iron flows from the furnace. The pigs of 
 iron are about three feet long and four inches in diameter, 
 and weigh two and a half cwt. About five or six tons are 
 usually run out at each tapping. 
 
 The foundry iron intended forthe manufacture of castings 
 is generally run into sand moulds ; but forge iron, which is 
 to be afterwards converted into wrought iron, is cast in iron 
 moulds, partly to avoid contamination with the sand, and 
 partly to render the metal brittle, so that it may be easily 
 broken up for the puddling process which it next under- 
 goes. The blast is suspended during the operation of tap- 
 ping, and turned on again at the end, in order to force all 
 the iron and slag out of the hearth. 
 
 Steel. — The difference between steel and wrought iron 
 (or soft iron, as it is sometimes called) is chiefly seen in their 
 behaviour when raised to a high temperature and suddenly 
 cooled by being plunged into water ; when wrought iron 
 undergoes little if any change; while steel is rendered almost 
 as hard as diamond, and so brittle that it snaps off if an at- 
 tempt be made to bend it. If this very hard brittle steel be 
 again heated to a temperature far short of redness, and 
 cooled, it becomes much softer than before and extremely 
 elastic, so that when forcibly bent it springs back into its 
 former position, whereas wrought iron would retain a per- 
 manent bend. It will be remembered that cast iron is also 
 greatly hardened bv being suddenly cooled, but it cannot be 
 rendered elastic like steel. The property of being hardened 
 by chilling is dependent upon the presence of carbon in the 
 metal, for chemically pure iron does not exhibit it, though 
 all specimens of commercial wrought iron are slightly hard- 
 ened when so treated, because they contain a small propor- 
 tion of carbon. It is, therefore, difficult to define the exact 
 limit beyond which wrought iron passes into steel. Bar iron, 
 containing as much as two parts of carbon in a thousand of 
 metal, would be so decidedly hardened by chilling as to be 
 termed a steely iron^ and a slight increase in the quantity 
 would produce a mild steel, such as the homogeneous metal of 
 which cannon and armor-plates are forged. A profjortion 
 of carbon, amounting to three parts in the thousand, is con- 
 tained in the Bessemer steel rails, and in the steel of which 
 spades and hammers are commonly made. Twice this pro- 
 portion of carbon, or six parts in a thousand, is contained in 
 steel ramrods ; and the steel employed for tools commonly 
 contains ten or twelve parts of carbon in a thousand. When 
 the carbon amounts to fourteen parts in a thousand, the 
 steel becomes more fusible and resembles white cast iron. 
 
 Bar iron, which contains only a minute proportion of 
 
 I From the Latin Jlao, to flow. 
 
 carbon, has a tensile strength of about 57,500 lbs. (nearly 
 26 tqns) per square inch '; but when the proportion of car- 
 bon amounts to three or five parts in a thousand, its tensile 
 strength is increased to 90,000 or 100,000 lbs. (40 tons or 45 
 tons) per square inch, while it is still soft enough to be eas- 
 ily punched and flanged. Such a metal is well suited for 
 boiler-plates and sinular purposes. For armor-plates de- 
 signed to protect ships, by offering resistance to blows from 
 shot at high velocities, it appears to be desirable that the 
 proportion of carbon should not exceed two parts in a thou- 
 sand, for, although an increased proportion of this element 
 is attended with increased resistance to tension (or to a force 
 tending to pull the particles of the metal asunder), as well 
 as to penetration by dead pressure, it renders an armor- 
 
 Elate more liable to fracture under the sudden and powerful 
 low of a shot. 
 
 In addition to hardness and increased tensile strength, 
 the presence of carbon confers another valuable property 
 upon the iron, namely, the capability of retaining magnetism. 
 When a bar of soft iron is placed in contact with a magnet, 
 or in the axis of a coil of wire through which a galvanic 
 current is transmitted, the iron bar acquires all the properties 
 of a magnet, becoming capable of attracting iron filings, 
 and, if freely suspended, of pointing, like a compass needle, 
 north and south. It loses these magnetic properties as soon 
 as the permanent magnet is removed, or the galvanic cur- 
 rent is discontinued in the surrounding wire. A bar of 
 steel, however, would retain its magnetic properties. Just 
 as all specimens of commercial bar iron are slightly hardened 
 by chilling, in consequence of their containing a minute 
 quantity of carbon, so they are all slightly retentive of mag- 
 nstism in proportion to the quautitjf of carbon present. In 
 the manufecturc of electro-magnetic instruments of varioiis 
 kinds, the action of which depends upon the sudden loss of 
 magnetic power by a bar of iron when the galvanic current 
 is interrupted, it becomes of great importance to select the 
 
 \ '...'{.LifiJv ■«;.:■■ 
 
 s,,jsig|ii 
 
 Fig. 5. — Cementation Furnace for converting Bar Iron into Steel. 
 
 softest commercial iron, so that it may lose its magnetic 
 power as quickly as possible. On the other hand, the hard- 
 est steel is selected for the production of permanent magnets, 
 and it has been noticed that the addition of the metal 
 tungsten to steel increases its power of retaining magnetism. 
 Steel rings when struck, much more than iron, and this 
 property is relied upon by the steel-maker as one of the tests 
 of its quality. 
 
 ' The British Board of Trade gives 5 tons per square inch as the 
 working strain to which it is safe to expose bar iron in actual prac- 
 tice! 
 
878 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Conversion of Bar Iron into Steel by Cementa- 
 tion. — The process of cementation by which until lately 
 nearly all English steel was produced, consists in heating 
 bar iron in contact with charcoal, in a closed chest, until it 
 has acquired a proper proportion of carbon. 
 
 The cementation furnace (Fig. 5) is dome-shaped, like 
 the "furnace of a glass-house, and is enclosed in a conical 
 jacket of brick work which serves to carry off the smoke 
 from the flues. The hearth of the furnace is divided into 
 two parts by the grate G, traversing the whole length (13 or 
 14 feet) of the furnace, in which a coal fire is maintained, 
 the flame of which is made to circulate above, below, and 
 around the fire-clay chests or pots, or troughs C placed one 
 on each side of the grate, before escaping through the flues 
 in the wall H and through the opening M. These troughs 
 are 10 or 12 feet long, and about 3 feet in depth and width, 
 so that each will contain seven or eight tons of bar iron, 
 together with the charcoal necessary for its conversion into 
 steel. A small opening is left at about the middle of one 
 end of each chest, through which the end of one of the bars 
 undergoing cementation is allowed to project; this^roq/'-6ar 
 is withdrawn from time to time, through a small door in the 
 wall of the furnace, for the purpose of watching the pro- 
 gress of the cementation. There is also a small door in the 
 wall of the furnace, a little above the top of each trough, 
 through which the bars of iron may be introduced and with- 
 drawn, a larger door being made in the middle of the wall 
 to allow the passage of the workmen. The nature of the 
 cement or carbonaceous material employed varies in differ- 
 ent works, but the bulk of it nearly always consists of 
 ground charcoal from hard wood,' with which there are 
 sometimes mixed a little common salt and some ashes of the 
 charcoal. The salt and the alkaline matters contained in 
 the ashes are believed by some persons to have a beneficial 
 effect in converting into a glass the silica which is contained 
 in the charcoal, and thus preventing it from imparting 
 silicon to the steel. The bars of iron should be of the 
 purest description if the best steel is to be produced. 
 They are about ^three inches broad, and one-third of an 
 inch thick. 
 
 In order to fill the troughs, the workman stands upon an 
 iron platform between the two, and sifts the cement powder 
 into them, so as to form a layer of about half an inch in 
 depth, upon which the bars are arranged, standing upon 
 their edges, at about an inch apart. More cement powder 
 is now sifted over these, so as to fill up the intervals be- 
 tween them, and to cover them entirely to the depth of 
 about an inch. Upon this a second layer of bars is placed, 
 then more of the charcoal powder, and so on until the 
 trough is filled to within a few inches ; it is then covered in 
 with four or five inches of fire-clay or some similar material, 
 well rammed down, and the fire is gradually applied dur- 
 ing the first two or three days, to avoid th^ risk of splitting 
 the troughs. A temperature high enough to melt copper 
 (estimated at about 2,000° of Fahrenheit's scale) is required 
 to enable the bar iron to acquire a proper proportion of car- 
 bon, and the troughs are maintained at this temperature for 
 a period proportionate to the hardness which the steel is 
 required to possess; four days being sufficient for producing 
 the steel of which saws and springs are made, while six or 
 eight days are required for shear steel, and ten days or more 
 are required for the very hard steel of which cold chisels 
 are made. The fire is then gradually let down, t« avoid 
 sudden change of temperature, so that some days elapse 
 before the troughs are cool enough to be opened. About 
 three weeks are commonly occupied in the conversion of 
 the bar iron into steel— one to get up the heat, one to keep 
 it at the required degree, and one to cool it down ; so that 
 only about sixteen cementations can be executed in a year 
 by a single furnace. The bars are found to have upon their 
 surface bubbles or blisters of considerable size, whence they 
 are called blister steel. On breaking the bars, the fracture 
 exhibits a silvery lustre and a well-marked crystalline struc- 
 ture. The proportion of carbon which has entered into 
 combination with the iron depends upon the duration of the 
 ceraentingprocess, but it rarely exceeds fourteen parts in a 
 thousand parts of the metal. The chemical changes which 
 are involved in the process of cementatim are not yet thor- 
 oughly understood. The passage of the infusible solid car- 
 bon into the interior of the solid iron bar obviously requires 
 
 explanation. It might be imagined that the external parti- 
 cles of iron which are in contact with the charcoal, becom- 
 ing surcharged with carbon, impart a portion of that element 
 to the next layer, and so on, until the particles in the verv 
 centre of the bar had acquired a proper share of carbon; 
 but such an explanation would require that the outside of 
 the bar, at the close of the process, should be very much 
 richer in carbon than the inside, and we have no evidence 
 that this is the case. 
 
 The following explanation appears more probable; The 
 small quantity of oxygen contained in the air remaining 
 in the trough, and present in the pores of the charcoal, 
 enters into combination with the carbon to form carbonic 
 oxide gas ; this gas, in contact with iron at a high tempera- 
 ture, gives up one-half of its carbon to the metal, and be- 
 comes converted into carbonic acid gas ; but this carbonic 
 acid^ in contact with the strongly-heated carbon, is recon- 
 verted into carbonic oxide, which again transfers one-half 
 of its carbon to the metal, these changes recurring many 
 times in the same order until the whole of the iron is con- 
 verted into steel. The observations of chemists during the 
 last few years have shown that red-hot iron allows the pas- 
 sage of gas through its substance, and that this metal has 
 the power of absorbing a considerable quantity of carbonic 
 oxide, which renders it easy to account for the transference 
 of carbon from the charcoal into the interior of the bar. 
 Other gases containing carbon are capable of imparting 
 that element to iron ; thus, if coal gas, which contains car- 
 bon in combination with hydrogen, be passed for an hour 
 through an iron tube containing some soft iron wires heated 
 to bright redness, the wires will absorb carbon from the gas 
 and become converted into steel. The blisters, which are 
 distributed sparsely and irregularly over the surface of the 
 bars, are commonly believed to be due to the action of par- 
 ticles of oxide of iron, or of slag, accidentally occurring in 
 the iron bars, upon the carbon combined with the iron, 
 giving rise to carbonic-oxide gas, which escapes as a bubble 
 through the softening iron. As might be anticipated, the 
 blistered steel, in its present condition, is only fitted for 
 very rough articles, such as shovels ; its largely crystalline 
 structure renders it deficient in tenacity, and the bars are 
 further weakened by their want of uniformity and by the 
 presence of the blisters. 
 
 Conversion of Blister Steel into Cast Steel. — The blister 
 steel is broken up into pieces of a convenient size for pack- 
 ing close together, and about 30 lbs. of it are introduced into 
 a tall narrow crucible (Fig. 6), about two feet high, made 
 of fire-clay mixed with black-lead, and provided with a 
 closely-fitting cover. Some steel-makers add a little bottle- 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 Fig 7. —Furnace and Pot f i n t liii l '-ti- 1 i Grate, c. Crucible, i, 
 Cover 1 tiiinu \i iiiin y. 
 
 glass to fuse over the surface and prevent oxidation of the 
 steel. The crucibles are placed in a small furnace (Fig. 7) 
 holding six, twelve, or more, about one foot wide and two 
 feet deep, the opening of which is usually on a level with 
 the floor, to facilitate the lifting of the crucibles. Several 
 of these furnaces are connected by flues with the high chim- 
 ney of the works, so that a powerful draught may be pro- 
 duced. Hard coke broken into small pieces is employed to 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 879 
 
 raise the crucible to a bright red heat ; the steel ia then in- 
 troduced, the crucible covered, and the furnace filled up with 
 coke ; when the steel is melted, the crucible is lifted out with 
 a pair of tongs, and its contents poured into a rectangular 
 or octagonal mould of cast iron which has been previously 
 heated and is placed vertically for the steel to be poured in. 
 The mould is made in two halves, closely fitting together, 
 so that it may be opened for the removal of the bar of cast 
 steel, and is coated inside with coal-tar soot. The quality 
 of the cast steel produced is in some measure dependent 
 upon the temperature at which it is poured, so that an ex- 
 perienced workman ia employed for the purpose. For the 
 production of large castings of steel in this way, the requi- 
 site number of crucibles musti be emptied into the mould as 
 nearly as possible at the same' time. At the factory of Krupp 
 at Essen, near Cologneja casting of 16 tons maybe produced 
 in this way, 400 men [being 'well drilled to co-operate in 
 emptying 1,200 crucibles, so that the melted steel may flow 
 in an uninterrupted stream along the gutters leading to the 
 mould. Great silteratiqns and improvements in the manu- 
 facture of cast steel wi^ probably result from the introduc- 
 tion of the regeneratii^e gas-furnace of Siemens, in which 
 steel may be easily melted in large quantities. Cast steel is 
 much more uniform in structure than tilted steel,^ and has a 
 very compact granular: texture, without lustre, indicating 
 high tenacity, as may' be seen on inspecting its fracture ; 
 though here, as in the case of bar iron, it must be 
 borne in mind, that when fracture takes place slowly, it will 
 present a more or less distinctly fibrous appearance; the 
 granular structure becoming evident only on sudden fracture. 
 The higher the quality of the steel, the finer is the granular 
 structure exhibited by sudden breaking. TJhe lower qualities 
 somewhat resemble bar iron in fracture. I When produced 
 by the process just described, cast steel hasj the seriousj defect 
 of being brittle at a high temperature, so that it is forged 
 with difficulty, and does not admit of being welded. But 
 a method of cprrecting this was patented by Heath, in 
 1839, which consists simply in adding to the cast steel, 
 in the melting-pot, about one-hundredth of its weight of 
 earhuret of manganese, the result of the action of heat 
 upon a mixture of black oxide of manganese (ore of man- 
 ganese) and charcoal, or some other substance containing 
 carbon, such as coal tar. After this addition, the cast steel 
 possesses much more tenacity at a high temperature, and 
 can be welded either to itself or to wrought iron, so that 
 it may be employed for the fabrication of many imple- 
 ments which were formerly obliged to be made of shear 
 steel. Thus, the blades of table knives can be made of 
 cast steel welded on to an iron tang, as that part of the 
 knife is called which is fixed into the handle. Another 
 important consequence of the introduction of Heath's pro- 
 cess has been a reduction of about one-third in the price 
 of cast steel, by enabling it to be produced from an in- 
 ferior quality of bar iron, instead of the very expensive 
 descriptions which it was necessary to employ previously 
 to this discovery. 
 
 The mode in which this addition of manganese acts to pro- 
 duce so great aji io^rovement in the quality of the cast 
 steel is by no means "understood. It does not appear to de- 
 pend upon' the fdrmpion of an "alloy of manganese with the 
 steel, for the butt of that metal is found in the slag from 
 the melting-potei oilly a minute proportion entering into the 
 composition' of the steel ; but that even this small quantity 
 affects the quality of the metal, appears to have been proved 
 by the observation that the manganiferous steel, if melted a 
 second time, becomes as red-short as if no manganese had 
 been added, probably because the small proportion of that 
 metal is removed by the oxygen of the air when re-melting. 
 It is com monly believed that manganese has a particular ten- 
 dency to encourage the removal of sulphur, phosphorus, and 
 Silicon in the slag both from steel and iron, though its pre- 
 cise mode of action has not been defined. For the manu- 
 facture of some tools requiring rough usage, such as the 
 chisels of planes, it is customary to employ a bar of iron 
 faced with steel, .the cutting edge being, of course, made 
 upon the steel side, which receives great support from the 
 wrought iron. To produce such a compound bar, a bar of 
 iron is polished upon that surface which is to be faced with 
 steel, heated to redness, sprinkled with borax to cleanse the 
 oxide from its surface, and placed in the ingot mould des- 
 
 tined to receive the cast steel, which then adheres firmly to 
 the polished iron, so that the two may be forged together. 
 
 Production of Bessemer Steel.— It has been already 
 stated that Bessemer's process for converting cast iron into 
 malleable iron depends upon the removal of the carbon by 
 forcing air through the liquid metal, and if this process be 
 arrested before the removal of the carbon is completed, the 
 metal will have the composition of steel. Another process 
 by which this kind of steel is produced consists in depriving 
 the cast iron of nearly the whole of its carbon, so as to obtain 
 wrought iron, which is then converted into steel by adding 
 the proper proportion of carbon in the form of i^iegel-eisen. 
 The converter (Fig. 8) in which this process is carried out 
 is made of wrought iron boiler-plate, and lined with fire-clay 
 or other refractory material to protect it irom oxidation. It 
 is sometimes large enough t» contain ten tons of cast iron 
 for a charge, and is suspended on trunnions so that it may 
 be easily tilted for charging and discharging. A six-ton 
 converter is 11 feet high, and 5J feet in its widest diameter. 
 
 Through the bottom of this vessel there are several open- 
 ings to admit the blast of air, which is blown in at a press- 
 ure of fifteen or twenty pouilds upon the inch through 35 
 holes, from 7 tiiySres with five holes each. (The number of 
 tuyfere holes eniployed varies, in different works, between 35 
 and 150, their diameter varying fi-om J to f inch.) The 
 (Converter having been heated by burning a little fuel within 
 it, is charged with pig iron 
 which has been previously ■^^Sw 
 melted in a separate furnace, >»^bi. '^ 
 
 a pig iron containing a large ^t 
 
 proportion of graphite and ^ ^SSk 
 
 silicon and a small propor- ^Sf ^ 
 
 tion of sulphur and phos- N 
 
 phonis bSing selected. The y } \ ^ 
 
 air, bubbling ■ through the ' " 
 
 liquid metal, " induces an in- 
 tense combustion of the iron, 
 producing a large quantity of 
 the black or magnetic oxide 
 of iron which is carried up 
 by the force of the blast to- 
 gether with the nitrogen of 
 the air, which does not act 
 upon the iron. The bubbles 
 of this gas being forced up 
 through the melted metal, ef- 
 fectually mix the unoxidized 
 portion with the melted ox- 
 ide, which converts the car- 
 bon of the cast iron into car- 
 bonic oxide gas, and the 
 silicon into silicic acid, the 
 latter combining with some 
 oxide of iron to form a i ' 
 
 
 / iF 
 
 Fid. 8. — Bessemer's Convertiug 
 VesseL 
 
 which appears as a froth ~at the niouth of the converter. 
 The silicon is always oxidized before' the carbon, and dur- 
 ing the first ten minutes or so, very little flame appears at 
 the mouth of the converter. Since, in this* process, a por- 
 tion of the iron itself is the fuel undergoing combustion, the 
 temperature is much higher than that of the puddling fur- 
 nace, in whicli coal is the fuel, for a given quantity of oxy- 
 gen, in the act of burning iron, produces above one-third 
 more heat than in the act of burning carbon. The tem- 
 perature produced in the converter is able to effect the com- 
 plete fusion of the purified iron, which remains liquid through- 
 out the operation instead of separating in a pasty form as 
 in the process of puddling. The manifestation of energy 
 during the conversion is very striking; the roaring of the 
 blast in passing through the molten iron, the long flame of 
 the carbonic oxide, variegated by the combustion of small 
 quantities of metals, the brilliant scintillations from the iron, 
 and the white hot flakes of slag whirled upward by the blast 
 combine to produce a volcanic effect which is not easily for- 
 gotten. Thc'Operation usually lasts for only twenty min- 
 utes, its termination being indicated by the almost total 
 disappearance of the flame of carbonic oxide, but a far more 
 exact method of ascertaining when the requisite amount of 
 carbon has been removed, consists in viewing the flame 
 through an optical instrument known as the spectroscope, 
 which enables the observer to detect certain lines in the 
 
880 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 spectrum or image of the flame, the disappearance of which 
 lines marks, to within a few seconds, the conclusion of the 
 process. If Bessemer iron were acquired, the contents of 
 the converter would now be discharged into a ladle (Fig. 9) 
 and thence into moulds having the form of the required 
 bars, but it has been already explained that the necessity 
 for employing a high-priced pig iron prevents the economi- 
 cal application of tins otherwise excellent process to the pro- 
 duction of malleable iron in this country. 
 
 SPIEGEL-EISEN. 
 
 Iron 82.86. 
 
 Manganese 10.71 
 
 SUicon 1.00 
 
 Carbon 4.32 
 
 98.89 
 
 The German name Spiegel-eisen (mirror-iron) alludes to 
 the brilliant silvery lustre of the metal, the fracture of which 
 
 iSKgpw 
 
 Fig. 9.— BesBemer's process, a, Converting vessel, b*, Hood for carrying the carbonic oxide gas into the 
 chimney £, c, Crane for swinging the ladle under the converter. 
 
 Fig. IC-Operation of transferring Bessemer Steel from the converter to the ladle, a, The converter, b Standards sud- 
 portine the trunnions oraxes of the eonvBrter. r .qnnr-w>,ool fn^ «„T>ir,„ *v,„ „™,,;.*.,V.. "' ._. -V it^". ^"r*™! ""Iv 
 
 — -<--•-—- .„„..„..... ,„g ijoonouioi Duom irom me converter to tne laaie. a, The converter, b Standards sud- 
 
 -\WandeT°'T'„°H.X,l^^'T^/'''''-- "vSpur-wheelfortipoing the conv4rterby means of the Snmove^ 
 
 BoH Wm noA„„ 'i^' Hy^":*" '« <=™?e f°f swmging the caeting-ladle h. j, Casting pit. k. One of the mgot moulds. 
 .2r=i? K^ tK*''S^ 'P, * '"i""*' flffflayjlug. which closes the opening in the bottom of the casting-ladR, and may 
 
 I raised by the handle n to permit the flow of the metal into the moulds. >-»»""B wio, sua may 
 
 I 
 
 be 
 
 In order to convert the decarbonised metal into steel, the 
 requisite proportion of carbon is added in the form of Spie- 
 geldsen or specular iron (which must not be confused with 
 the specular ore). This may be defined as a special variety 
 of white cast iron containing a large quantity of carbon in 
 chemical combination, together with much manganese It 
 IS obtained by smelting, in a blast-furnace with charcoal a 
 spathic iron ore containing a large proportion of manganese 
 such as that from the Brendon Hills. The result of the 
 analysis of a sample of this material is here given. 
 
 exhibits a foliated crystalline appearance of great beauty. 
 The presence of manganese is probably of importance with 
 regard to the use of Spiegel-eisen as an ingredient of Besse- 
 mer steel. It is introduced in a melted state, in the pro- 
 portion of about 1 part to 30 parts of the pig iron employed, 
 into the converter, which is tilted into a horizontal position 
 to receive it, the blast being interrupted during the addition 
 and afterwards turned on again, for a few seconds, when the 
 converter has resumed its former position, in order to diffuse 
 the Spiegel-eisen through the liquid iron, after which the 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 881 
 
 steel is transferred to the moulds, being poured, for that 
 purpose, into a large iron ladle lined with loam (h. Pig. 10) 
 which ia swung under the converter by a crane (g.), and, 
 after receiving the metal, is swung back over the wrought 
 iron ingot moulds (k), the steel being run out by raising a 
 fire-clay plug in the bottom of the ladle. In making a large 
 casting the ingot mould employed is so massive as to be equal 
 in weight to the metal required to be cast in it, so that it 
 may cool the ingot quickly, and prevent the formation of 
 large crystals in the metal. Another and more recent form 
 of converter suggested by Bessemer, shown in Figs. 11, 12, 
 has a globular form and seven feet in diameter, the air-blast 
 being introduced through a single tuySre passed through the 
 top of the converter, and made of circular fire-bricks (d. Fig. 
 12) strengthened by a stout iron rod passing down the centre 
 and terminating in a kind of rosette with numerous aper- 
 tures, through which the air is projected into the liquid iron. 
 When the conversion is finished, the tuy6re is lifted out by 
 an ingenious hydraulic crane (e), and the converter tipped 
 by the action of a hydraulic ram, in order to discharge 
 
 Fig. 11. — Bessemer's Globular Converting Vessel. 
 
 its contents into the casting-ladle. It is said that two 
 such converters are capable of producing 200 tons of cast- 
 steel weekly, which would require, by the old process of 
 melting blistered steel, 4,750 crucibles, and 760 melting fur- 
 naces. 
 
 In order to secure perfect uniformity in the composition 
 and therefore in the quality of the Bessemer steel, the prac- 
 tice has been introduced of actually weighing the casting- 
 ladle, running the fused malleable iron from the converter 
 into it, and then weighing it a second time to ascertain pre- 
 cisely the quantity of metal introduced, the calculated pro- 
 portion of Spiegel-eisen being then added in a melted state, 
 and mixed with the iron by a mechanical agitator made of 
 iron coated with loam, wliich is made to rotate rapidly in 
 reverse directions for three or four minutes, before tipping 
 the steel into the ingot-moulds. To obtain a sufficient 
 quantity of Spiegel-eisen of uniform composition, the melted 
 metal is run from the blast-furnace on to a revolvingtable 
 which divides it into drops and scatters them into a cistern 
 of water, so that they become converted into granules like 
 shot. By mixing well together, say 500 tons of granulated 
 Spiegel-eisen, so as to obtain a perfectly uniform mixture, it 
 is ensured that each charge added to the iron in the con- 
 verter will contain the same proportion of maganese, silicon 
 and carbon. The granulated metal is not melted, which 
 would cause an alteration in its composition by the oxidizing 
 action of the air, but is merely heated to redness, out of 
 contact with the air, in a kind of crucible, whence it is 
 allowed to drop, through a pipe, into the liquid wrought iron 
 which has been weighed in the casting-ladle. The ex- 
 tensive manufacture of cast-steel rails by the Bessemer 
 process has led to a very perfect organization of the 
 works. The cast iron is run direct from the blast-furnace, 
 into a 12-ton ladle mounted on wheels, and taken to the 
 56 
 
 converting-house, where there are six vessels, each ca- 
 pable of converting 5 tonst The 5 tons of steel are run 
 from the casting-ladle into twenty ingot moulds, so that 
 each ingot weighs 5 cwt. These ingots, when removed 
 from the mould, are reheated in a reverberatory furnace, the 
 hearth of which is fixed on a spindle by which it is made to 
 revolve slowly (once in two minutes) so that the flame of 
 the coal fire may act equally upon all the ingots standing 
 separately, on end, and bring them to the proper tempera- 
 ture for the rolling mill. The railway lines of cast steel are 
 far more durable than those laid with puddled bars. These 
 old wrought-iroD rails are capable of being converted into 
 steel, by cutting them up, heating them to redness with a 
 littie_ mel, in the converter itself, and running the melted 
 cast iron in upon them ; when the blast is turned on they 
 soon dissolve, and are converted into steel like the rest of 
 the metal. 100 tons of pig iron, treated by the puddling pro- 
 cess, yield 75 tons of railway bars, whilst 85 tons of steel bars 
 are obtained by Bessemer's process. The very large steel 
 
 Fig. 12. — Section of Bessemer's globular Converting Vessels, a. The 
 converter, b. Pulley wheel for tipping the converter, connectea by a 
 wire rope with a hydraulic ram. o. Pipe conveying the blast h, Bl- 
 bow-pipe with telescopic joint. 
 
 ingots, sometimes 8 feet long and 3 feet square, and weigh- 
 ing 15 tons, obtainable by this process, cannot be properly 
 forged under the steam-hammer, so that a most ingenious 
 combination of hammer and press worked by hydraulic 
 power has been devised for the purpose. Cast-steel shot, 
 weighing 300 lbs. each, are made by cutting off pieces from 
 a solid cylinder of steel softened by heat, moulding them by 
 pressure between curved surfaces, and rolling them between 
 two iron tables with corresponding grooves of hemispheri- 
 cal section. The lower table is forced with immense pres- 
 sure against the upper one by the hydraulic ram, and is at 
 the same time slowly turned on its axis. Three balls are 
 made at once in little more than as many minutes. 
 
 The effect of hammering or rolling in augmenting the 
 tensile strength of the cast steel obtained by Bessemer's 
 process is much greater than in the case of malleable 
 iron, for the ingots of Bessemer steel which gave a 
 mean tensile strength of 27i tons per square inch, had it 
 increased to 68 J tons by hammering or rolling. It is alleged 
 by those who are well acquainted with the art of steel- 
 making, that the presence of a minute proportion of silicon 
 in steel is essential to the production of sound ingots, since 
 when this element is entirely absent, the steel disengages 
 gas as it cools in the mould, and boils up with great violence, 
 an effect which is prevented by the addition of J part of 
 silicon to 1,000 parts of steel. The silicon present in the 
 Spiegel-eisen employed in Bessemer's process is therefore 
 regarded as of great importance. A great number of most 
 complete analyses of steel are required to settle this and 
 many other important points in the chemistry of this ma- 
 terial, which is daily growing in importance, and with re- 
 spect to which new theories are continually propounded ; 
 at one time nitrogen being regarded as an all-important 
 element, at another titanium, every theory being apparently 
 supported by a number of chemical analyses and determi- 
 
882 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 nations of tensile strength, too often undertaken in the 
 interest of the theory rather than in the unprejudiced search 
 after the truth. 
 
 Siemens devised a process for the production of steel by- 
 allowing masses of malleable iron, directly they are reduced 
 from the ore, to dissolve in a bath of melted pig iron heated 
 
 Flo. 13.— Furnace proposed by Siemens, for making cast steel in hla 
 Regenerative Furnace. Beneath are shown the chambers contain- 
 ing fire-brick for accumulating the heat of the products of combus- 
 tion before they pass into the chimney, b. Blast-pipe, from which 
 pipes descend at right angles into the small blast-furnaces a. 
 
 in hearth or combustion-chamber of the regenerative gas- 
 furnace. For this purpose, a small' blast-furnace (A. Fig. 
 13) is constructed above the combustion-chamber, so that 
 its lower opening may rest in the cast iron melted in the 
 latter; this blast furnace being fed with haematite ore and 
 small coke, produces spongy masses of malleable iron, which 
 do not combine with the carbon to form cast iron as in the 
 ordinary blast-furnace, because the temperature is much low- 
 er on account of the limited dimensions of the furnace. These 
 spongy masses of iron are speedily dissolved by the cast iron, 
 and the proportion of iron to carbon becomes raised by de- 
 grees to that necessary to constitute steel, which is retained 
 in the liquid state by the very high temperature which the 
 regenerative or accumulative principle of the Siemens' fur- 
 nace renders easy of attainment. 
 
 Puddled steel is an inferior description, employed by 
 boiler-makers and ship-builders, and obtained, as its name 
 implies, by arresting the puddling process when there is 
 still enough carbon (from five to ten parts in a thousand) 
 left to constitute a low steel, when the damper is shut, and 
 the puddled balls treated as in the caseiof iron. To produce 
 this material small charges, sometimes only 2 cwt., are pud- 
 dled, and in bringing the iron to nature, the flame of the 
 fire is supplied with less air than when fibrous bar iron is 
 being manufactured, so that less of the , carbon may be ex- 
 tracted. The presence of manganese in the iron to be pud- 
 dled is decidedly favorable to the production of puddled 
 steel, perhaps because the slags containing this metal are 
 more thinly liquid, and cover the surface of the iron more 
 efiectually, thus hindering the complete removal of the car- 
 bon. By refining a white cast iron containing manga- 
 nese in a forge constructed on the same principleas the 
 English refinery hearth natural steel or German steel is 
 obtained. The spathic ores containing manganese yield an 
 iron especially adopted for conversion into natural s'teel, for 
 which reason such ores are sometimes designated "steel 
 ores." 
 
 There is as much difference of opinion respecting the 
 effect of the presence of foreign matters upon steel as in the 
 case of bar iron, and for similar reasons, namely, that the 
 quality of steel is so much affected by variations in the me- 
 chanical treatment to which it is subjected, that it is difficult 
 
 to ascertain whether a particular defect in the steel is due 
 to these variations or to the presence of such substances as 
 silicon, sulphur and phosphorus, which are seldom exactly 
 estimated in the analysis of steel by persons whom practical 
 experience has enabled to decide upon the quality of the 
 metal. It is generally allowed that these three elements 
 are injurious to steel, but it is undecided what proportion of 
 each may be present without serious deterioration. There 
 appears to be little question that steel containing five parts 
 of silicon in a thousand does not admit of being forged. 
 
 Sulphur confers red-shortness upon steel as it does upon 
 bar iron, but the former appears to suffer less injury than 
 the latter from the presence of a given proportion of sul- 
 phur. Steel containing more than two parts of sulphur in 
 a thousand is decidedly brittle at a red heat, so that it is 
 useless for forging and can only be employed for castings, 
 for which purpose it is adapted by its increased fluidity 
 when melted. Red-short steel, like iron having the same 
 defect, appears tougher than other qualities of steel, except 
 at an elevated temperature. Manganese is believed to 
 counteract, to a great extent, the red-shortness caused by 
 the presence of sulphur in s'teel. How much phosphorus 
 can be tolerated in steel has been made the subject of much 
 discussion. It is said that steel manufacturers object to bar 
 iron as a material for converting into steel when it contains 
 even one part of phosphorus in a thousand. It is alleged 
 by some that steel made from ores containing titanium is 
 superior in quality, but no conclusive evidence has yet been 
 adduced to show that titanium is really beneficial in its 
 effect upon steel. A ready test for distinguishing between 
 steel and wrought iron consists in placing a drop of diluted 
 nitric acid [aqua fortis) mpon a clean surface of the metal, 
 when a greenish-grey stain appears upon the iron, whilst 
 the steel exhibits a black spot due to the separation of car- 
 bon. 
 
 Extract of malleable Iron directly from the ore. 
 — The modern method of smelting iron ores in the blast- 
 furnace, so as to obtain cast iron, which is converted by sub- 
 sequent process into malleable iron, owes its origin to the ne- 
 cessity created by the great demand for that metal, of ex- 
 tracting it from the poorer ores, such as clay ironstone, which 
 could not be made to yield their iron by a more direct pro- 
 cess. In the early history of the metallurgy of iron, there 
 is no mention of cast iron, the intermediate product of the 
 modern iron smelting, the metal being obtained at once in a 
 malleable condition by a process which is still practised, 
 under various modifications, in districts where ores composed 
 of nearly pure oxide or carbonate of iron can be obtained, 
 together with a sufficient supply of the charcoal which is 
 necessary for the opfration. The direct process of extract- 
 ing malleable iron is commonly spoken of as the Catalan 
 process, since it has been practised from a very remote period 
 in the Spanish province of Catalonia, where the magnetic 
 iron ore and hsematite of the Pyrenees are smelted with the 
 charcoal supplied by the surrounding forests. The smelt- 
 ing works comprise a forge, blowing machine, and a ham- 
 mer, but the first alone will be here described in order to 
 illustrate this method of treating iron ores. The crucible or 
 bath is a nearly rectangular trough (m, Fig. 14) well built 
 around with masonry, about 17 inches deep, 21 inches long, 
 and 18J inches wide. The bottom of the crucible is composed 
 of a block of granite, which is supported upon small arches 
 to keep it dry. 
 
 That side of the hearth at which the blast from the tuySre 
 (t) enters is perpendicular, being built up of massive pieces 
 of iron (<), the blast-pipe, or tuyere, of copper, being sup- 
 ported upon the uppermost piece in such a manner that its 
 inclination to the bottom of the crucible can be varied at 
 pleasure, since this appears to exercise much influence upon 
 the success of the operation. The wall opposite to the blast 
 is built up of wedge-shaped pieces of iron (s) and presents 
 a curved surface. The working side of the hearth is com- 
 posed of three thick pieces of iron placed end to end, the 
 side opposite to it being lined with fire-clay, and having a 
 moderate inclination. 
 
 To begin the operation of smelting, the hearth is about 
 half filled with burning charcoal, and a shovel is held so as 
 to divide the space above the fuel into two unequal com- 
 partments, the larger one, next to the blast-pipe, being 
 filled with charcoal, whilst the other, about half its size, is 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS 05' THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 883 
 
 charged with the ore, previously calcined, broken into small 
 pieces and sifted from the dust; the ore is piled up in a 
 ridge (/) upon the side (g) of the hearth, so that it may be 
 raked into the fire as the charge sinks down. The shovel 
 forming the temporary partition having been withdrawn, the 
 blast is gradually applied so that it may attain its full force 
 after about two hours, the fuel and ore being continually 
 pressed down into the hearth by the laborers. One portion 
 of the oxide of iron is reduced to the metallic state by the 
 carbonic oxide formed from the carbon of the charcoal 
 and the oxygen of the air-blast, but the metallic iron 
 thus produced is not exposed to a sufficiently high tem- 
 perature to enable it to acquire enough carbon for its 
 conversion into cast iron, and it is obtained in the form of 
 spongy masses of malleable iron or steely iron, according 
 
 ft * ■,!•' 
 
 s 
 
 W#Jf,« f %'\^)) 
 
 
 Fig. 14. — Catalan Forge. 
 
 to the proportion of 'carbon taken up by the metal. This 
 depends, to a great extent, upon the manner in which the 
 operation is conducted. If the siftings from the broken ore, 
 moistened with water to prevent their dispersion, be added 
 to the charge in large proportion, the iron contains less 
 carbon and is less steely than when these are employed in 
 smaller quantity, probably because the oxidizing action 
 which they exert at a high temperature is unfavorable to 
 the acquisition of carbon by the metal. The iron is also less 
 steely when the blast is directed down to the bottom of the 
 hearth, so that it is less exposed, as it separates from the 
 ore, to the action of unburnt gases very rich in carbon. A 
 large proportion of the oxide of iron escapes reduction, and 
 combines with the silica contained in the ore and fuel, to 
 form a very fusible silicate of iron, the bulk of which is 
 nin off through an opening at the bottom of the crucible. 
 In about five or six hours, enough ore is reduced to furnish 
 two or three hundredweight of metal, in lumps which are 
 welded together by pressing them with an iron rod, on the 
 end of which they are transported to the hammer, where 
 they are stamped into a compact state, and afterwards forged 
 into bars. The iron thus obtained is usually of excellent 
 quality, not having become contaminated with foreign mat- 
 ters to the same extent as the melted pig iron from the blast 
 ftirnace ; but the process is a very extravagant one, the ore 
 being made to yield no more than one-third of its weight of 
 metal, with a consumption of more than its own weight of 
 charcoal. 
 
 —Camgiled from Mntals : their Properties and Treatment. 
 
 COPPER. 
 
 THE use of metallic copper dates from an earlier per- 
 iod than that of iron, although the former metal is 
 by no means so plentifully difiused over the earth's 
 surface as the latter. Copper, however, is of much 
 more frequent occurrence in the pure metallic state, and 
 
 some of the ores of copper can be much more easily made to 
 yield their metal in a malleable condition. 
 
 Extraction of Copper from its Ores.— Probably 
 no other metallurgic operation presents such an appearance 
 of complexity asrhe smelting of copper ores, but this is due 
 to the great variety of the ores to be treated, which necessi- 
 tates their introduction at different stages of the process. 
 Thus, a smelting process adapted for copper pyrites must 
 contain provisions for the removal of arsenic and sulphur, 
 which are not present in the carbonates and the oxides of 
 copper, so that the processes of smelting are arranged in 
 such a manner that these ores, as well as the slags ob- 
 tained in some of the operations, can be introduced after 
 the sulphur and arsenic have been expelled. 
 
 In a work like the present, it is not advisable to attempt 
 a detailed account of smelting processes which are subject 
 to frequent alterations in order to suit different lots of ore, 
 particularly when such alterations result from the appli- 
 cation of practical experience on the part of the smelter, 
 and do not admit of clear explanation upon simple chemi- 
 cal principles. A general outline only of the extraction 
 of copper from its ores will be given here, and before 
 this is entered upon, it may assist the reader to state 
 that it may be summed up under the following heads : 
 
 1. Boasting processes, intended to expel arsenic and sul- 
 phur and to convert the iron into oxide of iron. 
 
 2. Melting processes, intended to remove the oxide of iron 
 by dissolving it with silica at a high temperature, and to 
 obtain the copper as a pure combination of copper with 
 sulphur (sulphide of copper). 
 
 3. Roasting and melting, in a single process, to expel 
 the sulphur and obtain metallic copper. 
 
 Before being subjected to the first process, the ores are 
 broken into pieces of the size of a nut, and so assorted that 
 the lot to be smelted may contain about eight or ten parts 
 of metallic copper in the hundred. Moreover, as there is 
 much gangue or earthy matter associated with the ores, 
 they are, if possible, so mixed that they may serve aa fluxes 
 to each other, by producing chemical compounds capable of 
 becoming liquefied by the high temperature of the furnace. 
 
 The fluor-spar, which is so commonly associated with 
 copper pyrites, derives its name from its power to effect the 
 liquefaction of earthy substances. Fluor spar is composed 
 
 
 ^^^!^^ 
 
 Fig. 15.=-Furnace for roasting Copper Ore3. bb, Working Doors. 
 D, Vault for receiving the roasted ore. 
 
 of calcium and fluorine; if it be strongly heated in contact 
 with silica (quartz) which consists of oxygen combined with 
 silicon, the latter takes up the fluorine to form fluoride of 
 silicon gas, whilst the calcium and oxygen unite to produce 
 lime, which combines with another portion of the silica to 
 form a silicate of lime. The silicate of lime would not easily 
 fuse into a slag by itself, but ^hen clay and oxide of iron 
 are present, as is always the case in the melting furnaces, a 
 slag is readily produced. 
 
 First Process in Copper-smelting. Calcining 
 or Roasting to Expel Arsenic and Part of the 
 Sulphur. — The roasting furnace or ccdciner (Figs. 15, 
 16, 17) is a reverberatory furnace, with a hearth (a) of 
 large size (about sixteen feet by fourteen) to allow of the 
 ore being spread out in a thin layer upon it. The 
 hearth is commonly built of fire-bricks set on edge and 
 
 1 From the Latin ^uo, to flow. 
 
884 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 bedded in fire-clay, and the flame is reverberated upon 
 it by an arch of about two feet in average height. At 
 one end of the hearth, near the fire-place, there is an open- 
 ing or flue (o) through which air may be admitted to the 
 hearth, to furnish the oxygen necessary for the chemical 
 changes efiected in the roasting process. On eacli side of 
 
 Fio. 16.- 
 
 -Furuace for roasting Copper Ores, 
 line X I of the plan (fig. 
 
 Section through the 
 17). 
 
 the hearth there are two openings (r) closed with iron doors, 
 through which the roasted ore is raked out into the arch (u) 
 beneath the furnace. The ore is admitted by opening the 
 hoppers (t) over the arch of the furnace, where it is pre- 
 viously warmed by the waste heat. The fuel employed in 
 the calciners at Swansea is anthracite mixed with one-fourth 
 of bituminous or caking coal, which is necessary to coun- 
 teract the tendency of anthracite'to split up into small pieces 
 and choke thef air passages of the fire, the bituminous coal 
 being softened by the heat, and binding the anthracite to- 
 gether. The fire of the calciners requires special manage- 
 ment in order that the ore upon the hearth may be brought 
 to the proper temperature. Anthracite coal is not easily 
 made to burn in an ordinary grate, and, when burning, it 
 raises the bars to so high a temperature that they rapidly 
 oxidize and burn away. To avoid this a layer of clinker or 
 fused ash from the coal is built up on the bars of the grate 
 (f) so as to preserve them from direct contact with the 
 glowing coal, and air-passages are made through this layer, 
 so that the air becomes heated in passing through them, be- 
 fore it actually reaches the fire, the combustion of the an- 
 thracite being thus effected by a current of heated air. The 
 oxygen of the air, passing through the column of heated 
 
 Fis. 17.- 
 
 -Furnaoe for roasting Copper Ores, 
 of z T of the section (lig. w); 
 
 Plan at the line 
 
 fuel, combines with the carbon to form carbonic oxide 
 and this gas, being highly heated, takes fire in the 
 air admitted on to the hearth of the furnace, givine a sheet 
 of flame which is drawn through the furnace by the action 
 of the chimney with which the flues (e) communicate and 
 raises the ore to the temperature necessary for roastino- it 
 Since the air is heavier than the burning gas, a layer of air 
 always exists beneath the latter, separatini it from the ore 
 thus preventing the ore from attaining its meltinsr noh^t' 
 and securing a sufficient supply of oxygen ' 
 
 Each calciner is charged with three tons of the broken 
 ore, which IS spread evenly over the hearth, and roasted for 
 
 twelve hours, being occasionally raked over through the 
 working-doors (p) in order to expose fresh portions to the 
 action of the air, and to prevent any psnt of the ore froih 
 being melted. At this high temperature, the arsenic present 
 in the copper ore combines with oxygen from the air to form 
 arsenious acid (white arsenic) which passes, in the form of 
 vapor, into the flues. About half of the sulphur in the ore 
 also combines with oxygen to form sulphurous add gas which 
 passes up the chimney, a small quantity of sulphuric acid 
 being also formed and remaining in the ore as sulphate of 
 copper. Since iron exerts the greater chemical attraction 
 for oxygen, and copper for sulphur, a large proportion of 
 Iron acquires oxygen and becomes converted into the oxide 
 of iron, while a much smaller proportion of the copper com- 
 bines with the oxygen from the air to form suboxide of copper. 
 When the gases and vapors issuing from the calciners are 
 allowed to escape directly into the air, they form a dense 
 grey cloud of copper-smoke which contains the sulphurous 
 acid, mixed with a little vapor of sulphuric acid, the 
 arsenious acid, which condenses in the air to a fine powder, 
 and some hydrofluoric acid gas, produced from the fluor 
 spar. The injurious effect of these products upon the health 
 and vegetation of the neighborhood has induced the copper 
 smelters to devise means for condensing them by passing 
 them into flues and condensing chambers where they are 
 met by showers of water. At some works it has been Ibund 
 profitable to convert the sulphurous acid into oil of vitriol 
 instead of allowing it to escape, but in this case it is ne- 
 cessary to prevent the products of combustion of the fuel 
 from mixing with copper-smoke. Spence's calciner em- 
 ployed for this purpose has the fire passing under the hearth 
 instead of over it. This furnace is 50 feet long, and the ore 
 is gradually raked from the cooler to the hotter end as it 
 becomes less fusible. The waste heat of an adjoining smelt- 
 ing furnace is sometimes employed in these calciners, and 
 the calcined ore is raked at once into the smelting furnace. 
 T" OerstenhSffer's furnace the ores are crushed between 
 
 In 
 
 rollers, and allowed to fall over rows of red hot bricks in a 
 vertical furnace, through which a blast of heated air is 
 passed in order to burn the sulphur into sulphurous acid, 
 which is then conducted into the leaden chambers, where it 
 is converted into oil of vitrei. 
 
 2nd Process in Copper-smelting, Melting for 
 Coarse Metal, to Dissolve the Oxide of Iron as a 
 Silicate. — It has been seen that the 1st process has had the 
 effect of converting a large proportion of the sulphuret of 
 iron present in the pyrites into oxide of iron, which it is the 
 object of the present process to remove by causing it to com- 
 bine with Silica, to form a compound capable of being 
 melted and separated from the rest of the ore. At this stage 
 the copper ores containing silica (quartz) can be introduced 
 with advantage, provided that they are free from sulphur. 
 It must not be forgotten that, during the process of calcin- 
 ing, a small proportion of the sulphuret of copper in the 
 pyrites has been converted into an oxide of copper, which 
 resembles the oxide of iron in its property of combining 
 with silica at a high temperature, to form a melted silicate 
 which would pass away in the slag, entailing a considerable 
 loss of copper. This is prevented by the sulphuret of iron 
 which IS still present in the calcined ore, and, at the high 
 temperature at which the fusion is effected, exchanges con- 
 slituents with the oxide of copper, forming oxide of iron 
 and sulphuret of copper. The slag from the 4th process to be 
 presently described, is also appropriately introduced in this 
 lusion, since it contains a considerable quantity of oxide of 
 copper, which exchanges, as above, with the sulphuret of 
 iron in the calcined ore, furnishing more sulphuret of copper 
 to pass into the coai-se metal, and oxide of iron to be re- 
 nio/ed in the slag. The slag from the 4th process (called 
 metal slag) also furnishes silica to assist in removing the 
 (ixide of iron. In some cases, the smelter adds some fluor 
 spar in order to facilitate the fusion of the charge The ore- 
 furnace (Figs. 18, 19), as it is called, in which the melting 
 tir coarse metal is effected, is also a reverberatory furnace 
 but its hearth (a) is much smaller than that of the calciner 
 (usually about one-third of the size), because the charge has 
 to be made at a much higher temperature; for which reason 
 also the fire-grate is larger in proportion ; the hearth is also 
 slightly inclined on all sides towards a depression or cavity 
 (b) at one side, which serves as a, crucible in which the 
 
THE MINfiS, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 885 
 
 melted coarse metal collects. The fuel is a mixture of an- 
 thracite with one-third of bituminous coal. The charge of 
 this furnace is composed of the following materials, selected 
 for the reasons given above, viz. : — 
 
 Calcined or roasted ore, usually about 18 cwt. 
 
 Ores containing oxide of copper and silica, 3 cwt. 
 
 Metal-slag from process 4, containing oxide of iron, silica, 
 and some oxide of copper, 6 cwt. 
 
 Fluor-spar occasionally. 
 
 Fig. 18.— Section of Ore-fiirnaee for smelting Copper Ores, t, Hopper 
 .for introducing the charge, p, Tap-hole for discharging the slag 
 into the slag-moulds u. c, Flue leadingto the chimney. 
 
 The slag is the first to fuse, in about half-an-hour after 
 the charge has been introduced, and by degrees the whole 
 of the materials become liquid, and enter into violent ebul- 
 lition, caused by disengagement of sulphurous acid gas, pro- 
 duced by a secondary decomposition of no importance from 
 a metallurgic point of view, save that the ebullition favors 
 the intimate mixture of the melted matters on the hearth. 
 
 After three or four hours, the furnace man mixes up the 
 melted matters with a rake, and raises the temperature very 
 considerably, to favor the separation of the coarse metal 
 ifrom the slag. In about half an hour the tap-hole (6, Fig. 
 19), which communicates with the cavity in the hearth is 
 opened, and the matt* or regulus of coarse metal is run 
 out, through an iron gutter (a) into an iron box, per- 
 forated at the bottom, and standing in a cistern through 
 which water is constantly running ; the coarse metal is thus 
 granulated or divided into small irregular grains, in order to 
 
 Fig. 19. — Plan of Ore Furnace for Smelting Copper Ores. *•, the Grate. 
 B, Tank for Grranulating the Coarse Metal. 
 
 fit it for undergoing the next operation. Sometimes the 
 regulus from two or three operations is allowed to accumu- 
 late in the fiirnace before tapping, the slag alone being raked 
 out before the introduction of a fresh charge. 
 
 « From the French mat, heavy. 
 
 The iron box containing the regulus is raised from out of 
 the cistern by a winch (w), and its contents are carried to 
 the calcining furnace. 
 
 This coarse metal contains copper, iron, and sulphur in 
 about the same proportion in which they are present in 
 pure copper pyrites, so that the copper amounts to about 33 
 parts in the hundred, or nearly four times the proportion 
 contained in the raw ore at the commencement of the pro- 
 cess. The slag {ore-furnace slag) is raked out into sand- 
 moulds (tj. Fig. 19), connected with each other by openings 
 in their aides, where it solidifies into blocks of a black, some- 
 what glassy, appearance, interspersed with white fragments 
 of quartz. It is used for rough building purposes in the 
 neighborhood of the copper works. The ore-furnace slag is 
 composed essentially of oxide of iron(ferrous oxide) and silica 
 combined in about equal proportions, and would be spoken 
 of, in chemical language, as a, silicate of iron or ferrous sili- 
 cate. It contains also a little copper, usually amounting to 
 one part in 140 parts, representing a loss to the smelter 
 which appears unavoidable. Occasionally, a small quantity 
 of regulus is found at the bottom of the blocks of slag, from 
 which it is separated by hand-picking. 
 
 3d. Process in Copper-smelting. Calcination 
 of the Coarse Metal to convert more oif the 
 Sulphuret of Iron into Oxide.— Now that the earthy 
 matter has been removed in the slag, it is far easier 
 to oxidize the sulphurfet of iron than it was in the first 
 calcining process. To efiect this three tons of the gran- 
 ulated coarse metal are roasted in the calcining furnace 
 (Fig. 19) for 24 hours, the temperature being moderated at 
 the commencement, to avoid fusion, and gradually raised in 
 proportion as the removal of the sulphur diminishes the 
 lusibility of the charge, which is raked over every two hours. 
 About one half of the sulphur is converted by the oxygen of 
 the air into sulphurous and sulphuric acids, which escape in 
 vapor, another portion of oxygen combining with the iron 
 from which the sulphur has been removed, to form oxide of 
 iron, so that the roasted coarse metal consists essentially of 
 sulphuret of copper, oxide of iron, and some unchanged sul- 
 phuret of iron. 
 
 4th. Process in Copper-smelting'. Fusion of 
 the Calcined Coarse Metal to Remove all the 
 Iron and to Obtain Fine Metal. — The principles 
 involved in this process are the same as in the second 
 process, viz., the conversion of unaltered sulphuret of 
 iron into oxide of iron by exchange with oxide of copper 
 added for that purpose, and the removal of the oxide of iron 
 in the slag, in combination with silica. 
 
 The fusion is €ffected in a furnace which does not differ 
 materially from that employed in the second process, expect 
 that there is no cavity in the hearth, which is made to slope 
 from all parts towards the tap-hole (Fig. 19). The charge 
 consists of — 
 
 I About 
 f 12 cwt. 
 
 Calcined coarse metal (about one ton). 
 Roaster-slag from the 5th process 
 Refinery-slag from the 6th process 
 Ores containing oxide and carbonate of copper 
 
 (The roaster and refinery slags contain silica in combina- 
 tion with the oxides of iron and copper.) These materials 
 are fused together for about six hours, when they divide, as 
 before, into regulus or matt, and a slag which remains above 
 it. The regulus is sometimes run out into water (like the 
 coarse metal process), when it is called _^»e metal, and some- 
 times cast into pig-moulds of sand, when it constitutes hlue- 
 metal, its surface exhibiting a bluish color, due to its still 
 containing a considerable proportion of sulphuret of iron, in 
 consequence of a deficiency of oxide of copper in the charge. 
 This regulus is composed essentially of copper and sulphur, 
 and contains about 77 parts copper in the hundred. The 
 presence of a little sulphuret of iron in this regulus gives 
 rise to considerable differences in its color and appearance, so 
 that it is called by several different names, which do not 
 really imply any important difference in chemical composi- 
 tion. 
 
 In some cases, when the charge has contained an excess 
 of oxide of copper, the fine metal has a red brown color, 
 due to. the presence of much red oxide of copper and metal- 
 
886 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 lie copper, and a pimply appearance caused by the escape of 
 sulphurous acid gas it is then called pimple metal. When 
 it is intended to manufacture best selected copper for making 
 brass, gun-metal, &c., the blue metal is run into a series of 
 sand-moulds. Since the various impurities which are pre- 
 sent tend to collect in a small quantity of metallic copper 
 which is deposited at the bottom of the melted mass, the 
 pigs which are cast first will be the most impure, whilst the 
 others yield the best selected copper in the subsequent op- 
 erations of smelting. The first pigs yield bottoms or tile- 
 copper (so called from the shape of the ingots) when smelted. 
 The composition of a sample of these bottoms is here given, 
 in 100 parts : Copper 74, Tin 14, Antimony 4J, Lead 1, Iron 
 2J, Sulphur 4. It is evident that the metallic copper which 
 has separated, has decomposed the sulphurets of tin, anti- 
 mony, &c , contained in the blue metal, and has combined 
 with those metals to form an alloy, which is heavier than 
 the blue metal and sinks to the bottom. In some smelting- 
 works, where the fine metal is not obtained in so pure a 
 condition, and contains only 60 parts of copper in the hun- 
 dred, it is again submitted to the two processes of calcin- 
 ing and melting exactly as in processes 3 and 4, when 
 it yields black copper or coarse copper, which contains 
 from 70 to 80 parts of copper in the hundred. The metal- 
 slag, as the slag from the 4th process is termed, presents an 
 appearance very different from that of the ore-furnace slag ; 
 it is very crystalline and lustrous, and consists chiefly of 
 oxide of iron combined with silica, but it contains a consid- 
 erable proportion of copper, partly in the form of an oxide 
 in combination with silica, and partly as small particles of 
 metallic copper disseminated through the mass. In some 
 specimens of the metal-slag, the copper appears in very fine 
 brilliant filaments forming copper-moss. This slag is usually 
 employed as a part of the charge in the 2nd process (melting 
 for coarse metal), but it is sometimes fused in a separate 
 furnace with powdered coal, when a brittle matt is obtained 
 which contains a very large proportion of copper, and is 
 called white metal, a name which is also occasionally applied 
 to fine metal. 
 
 5th Process in Copper-Smelting'. Calcining or 
 Roasting the Fine Metal to remove Sulphtir and 
 obtain Blistered Copper.— The manner in wiich this 
 process is carried out is varied according to the degree 
 of purity of the fine metal, but the chemical principles 
 which it involves are the following : When a com- 
 pound of copper with sulphur is heated in air, the sulphur 
 combines with the oxygen of the air, and is thus gradu- 
 ally removed in the form of sulphurous acid gas, the 
 copper also combining with oxygen, and being left as 
 oxide of copper. Further, when an oxide of copper (or 
 compound of copper with oxygen) is melted in contact with 
 a sulphuretof copper (or compound of copper with sulphur), 
 the oxygen of the former combines with the sulphur of the 
 latter to form sulphurous acid gas, and the copper is sepa- 
 rated in the metallic state. The pigs of blue metal are in- 
 troduced, to the amount of IJ tons, into a reverberatory fur- 
 nace, where they are roasted, at a gradually increasing tem- 
 perature, so as to avoid fusion, for about four hours, in order 
 that a part of the sulphuret of copper may be converted 
 into oxide of copper. When it is judged that this has been 
 effected to a proper extent,' the temperature is further raised 
 so as to fuse the materials upon the hearth, the doors of the 
 furnace being closed in order to avoid access of air. As 
 soon as the mass is fairly liquefied, the temperature is some- 
 what reduced, being again raised towards the close. During 
 this fusion, a violent effervescence is observed in the liquid 
 mass, due to the escape of sulphurous acid gas formed by 
 the union of the sulphur from the sulphuret, with the oxy- 
 gen from the oxide of copper, whilst metallic copper sub- 
 sides, in a fused state, and is run out in sand-moulds, where 
 it solidifies into ingots which preserve a blistered appear- 
 ance caused by the escape of sulphurous acid during solidifi- 
 cation. The duration of the process depends upon the degree 
 of purity of the blue metal under treatment, but it varies 
 between 12 and 24 hours. A. small quantity of slag (called 
 roaster-slag) is formed during the fusion, which resembles 
 pumice in its porous texture, but has a dark red-brown 
 color and consists of the oxides of iron and copper com- 
 bined with derived silica partly from the hearth of the fur- 
 nace, and partly from the sand-moulds in which the ingots 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 of blue metal are cast. This slag contains about 16 parts 
 of copper in a hundred, and is used as a portion of the 
 charge in the 4th process. The roasting fur- 
 nace employed in this process is often con- 
 structed with an air-channel (Fig. 20) traver- 
 sing the whole length of the fire-bridge, open 
 to the air at both ends, and' communicating 
 with the hearth of the furnace through two 
 openings (6 6) in the brickwork. This permits 
 the introduction of heated air into the hearth, 
 by which the roasting is much facilitated. 
 
 6th Process of Copper-smeltingr. Re- 
 fining and Toughening, to purify the Cop- 
 per. — The pigs of blistered copper are far from pure ; it 
 contains considerable proportions of sulphur, arsenic, iron, 
 tin, lead and other foreign substances, varying according to the 
 descriptions of ore employed. In order to remove these impu- 
 rities, the oxygen of atmospheric air is brought into use. The 
 furnace employed does not differ from the melting furnace 
 used in the 2na process (Fig. 18), and the blistered copper to 
 be refined is piled, in charges of 6 or 8 tons, upon the hearth, 
 in such a manner as to allow air to circulate freely among the 
 ingots. A moderate heat is applied at first, to allow the oxy- 
 gen of the air to act upon the blistered copper, an action which 
 is facilitated by the porous structure of the metal. The sul- 
 phur then becomes converted into sulphurous acid gas, and 
 the arsenic into arsenious acid which passes off in vapor, 
 whilst the iron, tin, lead and other foreign metals are con- 
 verted into oxides, as well as a portion of the copper. After 
 being roasted for about six hours, the metal is melted, when 
 a thin layer of slag is formed upon its surface ; after raking 
 this off, a small sample of the copper is withdrawn and ex- 
 amined by the refiner, who can judge from the appearance 
 of its fracture how long the subsequent process of toughen- 
 ing will probably occupy. In order to toughen the metal, 
 its surface is covered with wood-charcoal or anthracite, 
 which is renewed from time to time, so as to shield the cop- 
 per from further oxidation, and the melted metal is stirred 
 with a pole of young wood (usually birch) until a small 
 sample half cut through with a chisel and then broken, ex- 
 hibits a fine close grain, a silky fracture, and a light red 
 color ; and a small ingot cast for the purpose and ham- 
 mered when red hot, is found to be soft and free from cracks 
 at the edges. The copper is then said to be at tough-pitch, 
 and is taken out in iron ladles lined with clay, and cast into 
 ingots of tough-cake copper. The effect of this process of 
 poling, as it is teimed, in toughening the copper, depends 
 upon the removal of oxygen from the metal. When the 
 blistered copper has been refined, as above described, by 
 being very slowly melted in contact with air, it is found to 
 have taken up a small proportion of oxygen, which is prob- 
 ably contained in the metal as an oxide {suboxide) of copper. 
 The presence of the oxygen, though it does not amount to 
 more than two or three parts in a thousand of copper, has 
 the effect of rendering the copper brittle or dry, so that a 
 small ingot of it cracks at the edges when hammered, and 
 its fracture exhibits a deep red color and a coarse-grained, 
 somewhat crystalline structure. When the melted metal is 
 stirred with ithe pole, the combustible gases, generated from 
 the wood by the heat, effect the removal of the oxygen from 
 the metal, and bring it by degrees to tough-pitch. If, du- 
 ring the operation of casting the ingots, the surface of the 
 metal on the hearth be not well covered with charcoal or 
 anthracite, the copper will go back or become brittle again, 
 in consequence of the absorption of oxygen from the 
 air. 
 
 If the process of poling be continued after the copper 
 has been brought to tough-pitch, it becomes even more 
 brittle than before it was poled, an effect which was for- 
 merly ascribed to the combination of the copper with a 
 little carbon from the wood ; but since analysis has failed 
 to prove the presence of the carbon, the following less simple 
 explanation, based upon experiment, is now generally re- 
 ceived. Perfectly pure copper exhibits the malleability 
 and ductility of the metal in the highest perfection, but 
 these qualities are deteriorated by the presence of small 
 proportions of the various foreign matters, such as sulphur, 
 tin, antimony, &c., which cannot be entirely removed in 
 the refining process. The injurious effect o'f these impu- 
 rities, however, is counteracted in some measure by the 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 887 
 
 presence of a small proportion of oxygen (not exceeding 
 two parts in a thousand), so that if this element be en- 
 tirely removed, the copper will be overpoled, exhibiting a 
 brittle character due to some of the above named impu- 
 rities. On the other hand, if too much oxygen has been 
 left in the metal, the copper is dry or underpoled. The 
 effect of overpoling upon the metal may be remedied by 
 allowing air to act for a short time upon the melted copper, 
 that a small quantity of oxygen mav be absorbed by it. 
 When the copper is intended for rolling into sheets, it is 
 usual to add lead, in the proportion of about five parts to a 
 thousand of copper, just before skimming the surface in 
 order to ladle out the copper. The metal is well stirred 
 after the addition of lead, in order that the action of the 
 air may produce an oxide of lead which combines with 
 the oxides of tin, antimony, and other foreign metals, to 
 form a liquid slag which rises to the surface of the metal 
 and is skimmed off before casting. It is necessary that 
 the removal of the lead from the copper by oxidation 
 should be as complete as possible, since its presence would 
 prevent the scale of oxide of copper from being easily 
 detached from the sheet during the process of rolling 
 an even y^th part of lead in 100 parts of copper suffices to 
 injure its quality. This treatment of the metal with lead is 
 called scarification, from the scoria or slag which forms upon 
 the surface. The refinery slag, skimmed from the surface of 
 the melted copper before commencing the process of poling, 
 has a dull brown-red colour, with a purple shade, and consists 
 almost entirely of an oxide of copper (suboxide) combined 
 with silica derived from the hearth and from the sand-moulds 
 employed to cast the blistered copper. It is employed in the 
 4th process (fusion for fine metal). The hearths of the cop- 
 per-furnaces become strongly impregnated with copper in 
 course of time, and are broken out in order that the metal 
 may be removed from them. 
 
 Effect of the presence of Foreign Matters 
 upon the quality of Copper.— From the circumstance 
 that the refiner tests the quality of copper by forging a hot 
 sample, it will be inferred that the effect of impurities upon 
 its malleability and tenacity is more perceptible at a high 
 than at a low temperature. The foreign matters which 
 commercial copper is liable to contain are arsenic, sulphur, 
 antimony, tin, bismuth, lead, silver, iron, and nickel. Of 
 these, sulphur and antimony are generally considered the 
 most injurious in diminishing the malleability and tenacity 
 of the metal. Arsenic is very commonly found in copper, 
 amounting in some of the Spanish coppers, to as much as 
 one part in a thousand, and was formerly supposed to be as 
 injurious to the quality of the copper as antimony is, but 
 modern experience has shown that copper may be easily 
 rolled and drawn into wire even when it contains a consider- 
 able proportion of arsenic. A small proportion of tin is be- 
 lieved to increase the toughness of copper, but bismuth and 
 nickel have the opposite effect. 
 
 The conducting power of copper for electricity is reduced 
 in a most striking manner by the presence of foreign matters, 
 so that, in the construction of telegraphic apparatus, it is 
 important that the purest attainable copper wire should be 
 employed. Pure copper is scarcely inferior to silver 
 in its conducting power, and the conducting power of 
 the native copper from Lake Superior, which is almost pure, 
 stands to that of pure copper in the proportion of 93 to 100, 
 whilst the Australian (Burra Burra) copper, also very pure, 
 has a conducting power of 89, and the Spanish copper, 
 which contains much arsenic, has a conducting power only 
 one-seventh of that of pure copper, or in the proportion of 
 14 to 100. The addition of a small proportion of phosphor- 
 us (about five parts in a thousand) to copper is found to 
 harden it and somewhat to increase its tenacity ; it is also 
 said to render it less liable to corrosion when exposed to 
 the action of seawater. By adding arsenic to copper, in 
 about the proportion of one to ten, a white somewhat mal- 
 leable metal is obtained, which is not easily tarnished by 
 air, and is much harder than copper. This compound, 
 which is employed for clock dials and for thernometer and 
 barometer scales, is made by heating five parts of copper 
 clippings with two parts of white arsenic (arsenious acid) 
 arranged in alternate layers and covered with common 
 salt, in a covered earthen crucible. 
 
 — CampUed frtym *' MeUiU^ their Propertiee and Treatments 
 
 METALLURGY OF THE PRECIOUS OR 
 NOBLE METALS. 
 
 THE process in actual use for the extraction of metals 
 generally from their natural sources are so numerous 
 and vary so much in details, according to circum- 
 stances, that only a brief outline of some of the 
 more important methods in use in the case of the chief 
 metals can be attempted here. 
 
 Gold. — For the most part this element is found native, 
 and generally in a state of considerable freedom from other 
 metals, the nature of the accompanying metals, when pre- 
 sent, varying with the locality. Silver is very frequently 
 associated with native gold ; that from Australia and Cali- 
 fornia often containing five to ten, or even more per cent, of 
 this metal, with small quantities of copper and iron in addi- 
 tion. Brazillian gold often contains palladium, and that 
 from Russia platinum. In Hungary gold is found asso- 
 ciated with tellurion, whilst the HueTva and Tharsis py- 
 rites and many other minerals contain small quantities 
 of this precious metal interspersed throughout masses 
 of other metallic sulphides. As a rule, the metal oc- 
 curs in quartzose and granitic rocks, but large quantities 
 have been obtained from time immemorial from the sands 
 of river-beds and from alluvial deposits of the matters 
 washed down by streams from mountainous districts where 
 these rocks occur. Occasionally in these deposits the gold 
 is found in smaller or larger masses known as nuggets, 
 some of which have been found of considerable magnitude, 
 weighing upwards of one, and even of two cwt., and worth 
 several thousand pounds sterling; generally, however, the 
 gold occurs in minute grains or "dust." From alluvial 
 soils the gold in separated by simple mechanical means, the 
 earthy mass being agitated with water in a wide shallow 
 
 Pig. 1- 
 
 basin, technically termed a " pan," a peculiar motion being 
 communicated by the hand so as to scoop out of the pan the 
 muddy water whilst the heavier particles of metal are re- 
 tained. When necessary, stones and hardened masses are 
 previously roughly pulverized, or they are mechanically 
 picked out by the hand during washing. For systematic 
 working a washing-machine, known as a '" cradle," is em- 
 ployed (Fig. 1), consisting of a kind of wooden box, some 
 six or seven feet long and about two feet wide, mounted on 
 rockers so that the bottom has a gentle slope from end to 
 the other ; across the bottom are nailed wooden bars (riffle 
 bars, so as to make a series of small shallow weirs in the 
 cradle ; at the top end is fixed a sieve, on to which the earth 
 is shovelled, a constant stream of water being kept running 
 on to the mass ; the larger stones are thus left on the sieve, 
 whilst the clayey portion, the small gravel, and the gold 
 dust are washed through and deposited in the shallow pools 
 formed by the riffle-bars. Every now and then the de- 
 posited particles are removed and dried in the sun, and the 
 lighter earthy particles blown away by the breath, and the 
 small pebbles picked out. Where the soil is a stiff clay, the 
 mass 'is stirred up with water in a tub with paddles of 
 revolving arms before cradling ; and occasionally, instead 
 of carrying the washing so far as to separate all the earthy 
 matters (which often entails loss by the washing away of 
 the finest particles of gold), the cradling is only carried on 
 
888 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 to a certain point, the gold being extracted from the par- 
 tially washed mass by amalgamation ; this operation, how- 
 ever, is more commonly employed in the case of the powder 
 obtained by stamping or grinding quartzose auriferous rocks, 
 and the washing is then more frequently effected by making 
 the water and suspended matters pass over a series of blank- 
 ets stretched tightly on frames so as to make a series of very 
 slightly inclined planes ; the woolen surfaces arrest the par- 
 ticles of gold with more or less earthy matter. From time 
 to time the deposit is removed, and the gold extracted by 
 means of mercury. Occasionally a kind of magnified cradle 
 is used, consisting of a series of slightly inclined wooden 
 troughs or sluices, ten to twelve feet long, so that the stream 
 from one is delivered on to the next, and so on. Riffle bars 
 are placed in these troughs either directly across or at an 
 angle. When the washing has gone on for a short time 
 mercury is allowed to flow into the upper trough ; this runs 
 down, being retained by the riffle-bars, so that the mercury 
 dissolves the accumulated particles of gold. In order to 
 retain the finest particles of gold which sometimes escape 
 through being washed down too rapidly to be absorbed by 
 the little pools of mercury in the sluices, amalgamated plates 
 are placed at the end of the lowest trough ; so that the efflu- 
 ent " slimes " must pass over them ; the amalgam of gold 
 and copper thus formed is from time to time removed 
 and worked up with the fluid mercury amalgam. 
 
 In the extraction of gold from gold quartz, the stamped 
 rock (washed by blankets or sluices when requisite) is 
 placed in an iron pan with a certain quantity of mercury ; a 
 stream of water flows into the pan, the overflow passing into 
 another pan at a lower level also containing mercury. 
 Several pans are generally connected in series, each being 
 provided with an agitator worked by steam or water power 
 after the fashion of a mortar mill ; the gold is then dissolved 
 out, the agitator continually bringing the auriferous parti- 
 cles and the mercury in contact. Fresh quantities of 
 stamped quartz are continually introduced until the mer- 
 cury has taken up so much gold as partially to lose its 
 fluidity; the amalgam is then squeezed through chamois 
 leather, whereby a fluid amalgam, containing only a small 
 quantity of gold, is separated, and a nearly solid rich amal- 
 gam retained. The fluid amalgam is used over again in the 
 pans, the solid mass being carefully distilled so as to sepa- 
 rate the mercury and leave the gold and other metals dis- 
 solved out. Certain auriferous minerals, when treated with 
 mercury, do not allow the gold to be wholly dissolved out, 
 the gold becoming sulphurized or otherwise changed on the 
 surface so as to prevent contact between the gold and the 
 mercury. This is especially- the case with ores containing 
 sulphur, arsenic or tellurion. To avoid this it has been pro- 
 posed by Crookes, and also by Wurtz (of New York), to add 
 omall quantities of sodium to the mercury. The sodium 
 amalgam thus obtained" causes the mercury to wet the me- 
 tallic particles (probably by destroying the film of gold sul- 
 phide, or by preventing its formation). An additional ad- 
 vantage in this process is that the loss by " flouring " of the 
 mercury (reduction to fine particles which do not again 
 coalesce and are consequently washed away) is to a large 
 extent prevented; the mercury being always clean and 
 bright, any small particles mechanically dislodged are 
 readily reabsorbed into the rest of the mass of mercury. 
 
 When obtained from certain ores, the gold thus extracted 
 is apt to contain small qantities of foreign metals which de- 
 stroy its tenacity and other valuable properties ; in many 
 cases these metals, if present in the mass left on distilling 
 off the mercury, can be removed by simply melting the resi- 
 due in crucibles with an oxidizing flux, such as a mixture 
 of nitre and borax ; the foreign impurities are thus removed, 
 being oxidized by the nitre', the oxides thus produced being 
 taken up by the melted borax. Another method of purify- 
 ing gold, especially suited for gold rendered brittle by the 
 presence of tin and antimony, was introduced a few years 
 agobyMr. F.B.Miller of the Sydney mint; this consists 
 ol passing a stream of chlorine gas through the molten metal, 
 when silver and baser metals are converted into chloride 
 the latter. being expelled if volatile, whilst the gold remains 
 unchanged ; in this way perfectly pure gold is readily pre- 
 paredL whilst the silver chloride formed can be readily re- 
 duced to the metallic state, and the silver thus obtained 
 separate from the gold. When the silver, in an alloy of 
 
 gold and silver, largely preponderates, as is the case when 
 silver containing small quantities of gold is extracted from 
 such sources as Spanish pyrites, &c., a more convenient 
 mode of separating the gold is to treat the alloy with nitric 
 or sulphuric acid, when the silver dissolves and the gold is 
 left undissolved (| 24). In the assaying of coinage alloys, 
 this mode of separation is largely used. 
 
 A mode of extracting gold by purely chemical means 
 from gold quartz and other similar sources has been pro- 
 posed by Calvert: the crushed quartz is subjected to the 
 action of cold chlorine gas so as to convert the gold and 
 other metals present into chlorides which are subsequently 
 washed out by water ; from the solution thus obtained me- 
 tallic gold in a pure state is separated by adding solution of 
 ferrous sulphate, or better, by blowing sulphur dioxide 
 through the liquid;' the gold thus separates as a fine pow- 
 der which is allowed to subside, washed, collected, and fused 
 into an ingot. If silver be also present the metal may be 
 extracted by treating the chlorinated mass with brine, which 
 dissolves the silver chloride, and subsequently separates the 
 silver from the solution thus obtained. Another process, 
 patented by Longmaid, for separating gold from substances 
 containing it consists in fusing the ore in a reverberatory 
 fiirnace with roasted pyrites, lime, and fluor spar; some 
 gold subsides to the bottom, whilst some remains suspended 
 and is separated by placing iron plates in the fused mass ; 
 the gold adheres to these and is then dissolved off from 
 them by immersing them in a bath of melted lead. In this 
 way there is ultimately obtained a gold-lead alloy, from 
 which the gold is separated by cupellation. Neither this 
 process nor Calvert's seems to have come into any consider- 
 able practical use, although a process much the same in 
 principle as the latter has been worked in Silesia; this 
 method, described by Plattner in the Jurors' Report of the 
 1851 Exhibition, consisted in roasting the ore (an arsenical 
 
 fyrites containing gold to the extent of somewhat less than 
 oz. per ton) so as to drive off arsenic and sulphur, treating 
 the residue with chlorine gas, and then dissolving out by 
 water the chlorides of iron and gold and separating the lat- 
 ter by a reducing agent such as sulphurated hydrogen. 
 
 SILVER. 
 
 BESIDES occurring native in Mexico, Chili, and Peru, 
 and in smaller quantities in many other places, this 
 metal occurs in combination with sulphur, forming 
 several kinds of ores according to the quantity and 
 character of the other associated substances ; also as chloride 
 (horn silver),iodide, arsenide, bromide, and as antimony and 
 mercury alloys. Considerable quantities are now extracted, the 
 lead smelted from lead sulphide containing small quantities of 
 silver; whilst the Spanish pyrites largely. used for the pro- 
 duction of sulphuric yields a residue on burning off the 
 sulphur from which silver and copper are obtained in some 
 quantity. From these sources tne silver is extracted by 
 methods which naturally fall under one or other of the 
 three classes known as lead processes, wet methods, amalgama- 
 tion processes, the distinctive feature of the first class being 
 that from a suitable mixture of ores a silver-lead alloy is 
 smelted, from which the precious metal is subsequently sep- 
 arated; whilst in the second class the silver is obtained in 
 aqueous solution by treatment with appropriate reagents, 
 and is thence precipitated by chemical agency ; and in the 
 third class the silver is extracted by means of mercury 
 somewhat aiter the fashion of gold, but usually by processes 
 involving more complex chemical actions. 
 
 Lead Processes.— When silver exists in the metallic 
 state disseminated through a rocky matrix, a silver-lead alloy 
 is readily formed by merely fusing together the ore and a 
 sufficient quantity of metallic lead, whereby the silver is, as 
 it were, dissolved out of the matrix by the molten lead, much 
 as gold is out of gold quartz by mercury. When the silver 
 
 • The chemical changes thus taking place may be written : 
 
 2\nOl3 + 0F0SO4 = 2Au + Fp,C1„ + 2Fe, (SO.),, 
 2AuClj + 3S0, + OH,0 = 2Au + OHCl + 3S0.Hi. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 889 
 
 is not present in the metallic sta'e, a silver-lead alloy can be 
 obtained by mixing with the silver ores, galena (lead sul- 
 phide), or other lead ores and then smelting the whole 
 together so as to reduce both lead and silver to the metallic 
 state. From the argentiferous lead thus obtained the silver 
 is then extracted by processes the exact character of which 
 depends upon circumstances; if the silver-lead alloys be 
 sufficiently rich in silver and tolerably free from copper, the 
 lead and other foreign base metals present in greater or less 
 quantity are removed by a process termed " cupellation," 
 which consists in fusing the alloy in a shallow dish (cupel) 
 made of porous material, such as compressed bone-ash, clay, 
 or marl, moistened with wood-ash liquor, whilst a stream of 
 air plays over its surface ; the lead and foreign base metals 
 oxidize and the oxides fuse and are partially absorbed by 
 the cupel and partially blown away by the current of air 
 or drawn off in the liquid state forming the lead oxides 
 commercially known as litharge and massecot. Finally, 
 when all the foreign metals are oxidized a mass of fused 
 silver is left containing in addition any gold or platinum 
 which may happen to have been originally present; the 
 clearing away of the last traces of oxide produces a rather 
 singular appearance on the surface of fused metal, techni- 
 cally termed the "brightening." The fused silver, espe- 
 cially at high temperatures, absorbs oxygen from the air and 
 on cooling is apt to give it out again, forming peculiar 
 miniature volcanic cones where the escape of gas forces 
 the yet liquid metal in the interior up through the newly- 
 formed thin solid crust; this phenomenon is spoken of as 
 " vegetation," or " spitting," and with large masses of 
 silver (one cwt. or so) is often extremely well defined, the 
 cones being an inch or two in height. 
 
 means of a temporary channel, termed a "gate," d, 
 scooped in the substance of the cupel as occasion requires. 
 According to the amount of silver lead alloy to be worked 
 at a time, the metal ring is from two to four feet long and 
 eighteen to thirty-six inches wide, by four to six inches 
 deep, the thickness of bone-aah in the thinnest part being an 
 inch or a little more. The cupel is set in brick work under 
 the arch of a small reverberatory fiirnace represented in plan 
 in Fig. 4, and in section in Fig. 5, a-a, cupel ; b, fireplace ; 
 c, bridge over which the flame from the fire passes, being 
 reflected downwards, as it were, by the arch d, and passing 
 to the chimney by the flue e-e, running finally underground. 
 The oxidation of the lead is greatly quickened by blowing 
 a stream of air over the fused metal, from the nozzle f, 
 whilst the operation may be watched from time to time 
 through the door-hole opposite to the nozzle g. As the lead 
 oxidizes and the fused litharge are removed by the gate h, 
 (running through the perforations in the cupel and being 
 received underneath in an irod truck or " bogie " i), the 
 level of the metal in the cupel is kept approximately 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Fig. 2 represents the form of cupel usuallj^ employed 
 in this country ; an egg-shaped ring of half-inch boiler 
 plate, a, a, strengthened by cross-bars at the bottom, 
 constitutes a sieve-like frame into which is rammed by 
 mallets, a mixture of bone-ashes and a little wood-ash 
 moistened with weak potash solution; the upper surface 
 of the mass thus formed is worked into a concave form 
 
 c d/ 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 h, b, exhibited in section in Fig. 3, the concavity being 
 bordered by a ledge of two or three inches in width all 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 round save at the base of the oval, where it is much wider. 
 In this wide part 'of the ledge or breast are bored holes, 
 c, c, c, for the purpose of drawing off the fused litharge by 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 constant by running into the cupel through a shute or gutter 
 fused argentiferous lead from the subsidiary pot k, in which 
 is a supply of metal, kept molten by a small fire. In this 
 way many cwts. of argentiferous lead are gradually worked 
 up in the same cupel, and ultimately a mass of molten 
 silver of several hundred ounces in weight is obtained. 
 This is drawn off when the operation is finished through 
 a hole bored in the bottom of the cupel ; this hole is then 
 stopped up with a plug of ash, and the operation is con- 
 ducted over again. Usually the finishing of the refin- 
 ing is conducted in a separate cupel, the concentration 
 of the silver by removal of lead, &c., being only carried on 
 up to a certain point in the first cupelling fiirnace, a some- 
 what higher temperature being required towards the close 
 of the operation ; moreover, the litharge separated at the 
 close of the process is apt to contain a little silver, wherefore 
 it is collected apart and reduced to the metallic state and 
 worked over again as argentiferous lead. 
 
 When silver is associated with considerable quantities of 
 copper, the separation of the precious metal is often efiected 
 bv a combination of processes consisting of three stages; 
 first, a ternary copper silver lead alloy is prepared by add- 
 ing to the argentiferous copper ore galena (if not naturally 
 admixed therewith), and smelting the whole, or by adding 
 argentiferous lead to a poor silver copper alloy already 
 smelted or otherwise extracted. This ternary alloy is cast 
 into thin cakes weighing three or four cwt. each. Secondly, 
 these cakes are submitted to the process of liquation or 
 "sweating," whereby a rich argentiferous lead runs away 
 in the fluid state whilst the copper remains as a spongy 
 skeleton, which retains a little silver; to extract this, the 
 spongy copper is again fused with lead and the alloy sweated 
 a second time. Thirdly, the argentiferous lead containing 
 a little copper, is either used again for the alloy employed 
 in another first sweating so as to concentrate silver therein, 
 and is then treated by the cupellation process, or is directly 
 cupelled without further concentration, if rich enough. In 
 the case of ores in which copper is absent, or only present, 
 in small quantities, but which are very rich in lead (e. g. 
 ordinary galena) some ingenious devices are in use for con- 
 centrating the small portions of silver present in the lead 
 
890 
 
 THE MINES MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 smelted from such ores, so as to extract it without being 
 obliged to re-oxidize all the metallic lead by cupellation. 
 The best-known process of this kind was invented by H. L. 
 Pattinson, and is hence termed "Pattinsonage." It is based 
 on the fact that if an alloy of lead and silver in which the 
 former metal preponderates be allowed to solidify slowly, 
 crystals form consisting of lead retaining much less silver 
 than the original alloy, whilst the fluid portion is propor- 
 tionately richer in silver; or in other words, that an alloy ot 
 silver and lead melts at a lower temperature than another 
 similar alloy containing less silver, whilst such alloys do 
 not remain permanently commingled but have a tendency 
 to separate one from the other, just as oil and water do after 
 shaking up into an emulsion. • In practice the operation is 
 carried out by melting the argentiferous lead in one of the 
 central members of a series of from eight to twelve hemis- 
 pherical iron melting-pots, each mounted in a separate fur- 
 nace, but all arranged side by side. When melted, the fire 
 is withdrawn or dampered down and the lead allowed to 
 cool, the formation of crystals being facilitated by sprinkling 
 water on the top and well stirring in the crusts thus pro- 
 duced. By means of a perforated ladle the crystals are 
 fished out and drained, the ladle being supported by chains 
 from a crane overhead, so that its contents can be readily 
 transferred to the next pot on the right-hand side. When 
 about two-thirds of the lead has thus been fished out, the 
 yet fluid portion is transferred to the next pot on the left, 
 and there worked up in a similar fashion along with the 
 "bottoms," or fluid residues of previous operations, or what 
 comes to the same thing, with pigs of argentiferous lead of 
 the same degree of richness. The poorest first crystals in 
 every pot in the series are thus continually passed into the 
 next adjacent pot on the right to be worked over again, 
 whilst the richer bottoms continually travel to the left. 
 Finally, in the two end pots there are formed respectively 
 crystals of lead so poor in silver that it. will not pay to work 
 them any further, and bottoms so rich in silver that they 
 are more conveniently cupelled than Pattinsonized. These 
 end limits are usually reached when the lead retains no 
 more than about 300 grains of silver to the ton (| oz.) and 
 when it contains about two per cent, of silver (some 600 oz.) 
 
 per ton. ■ <• • 
 
 Parkes' process for desilverizing lead consists in fusing the 
 argentiferous lead with zinc. From the mixture of metals 
 thus produced, the zinc separates on standing, floating up to 
 the top, whilst the lead remains at the bottom ; or rather an 
 alloy of lead and zinc containing about 11 per cent, of lead 
 floats up to the top, whilst an alloy of the same metals but 
 containing only about 1 J per cent, of zinc subsides ; the 
 lighter zinc alloy is found to contain almost the whole of the 
 silver present. Zinc being a volatile metal, is recovered by 
 distillation from the ternary alloy thus gained, whilst the 
 residual silver lead alloy is cupelled, more lead being added 
 if necessary for the operation. One objection to this process 
 is that the desilverized lead retains zinc, which must be re- 
 moved by a refining process before the lead is marketable ; 
 this is accomplished in various ways, one of the most suc- 
 cessful of which is blowing superheated steam through the 
 fused metal, whereby the zinc is oxidized and removed (more 
 or less lead being also oxidized). 
 
 Wet Processes. — ^ Among the numerous methods of 
 this kind that have been proposed and worked may be men- 
 tioned the process of Augustin for the extraction of silver 
 from copper pyrites; this consists in roasting the ore so as 
 to form oxide of iron and oxide or sulphate of copper with 
 sulphate of silver; the roasted ore is then mixed with com- 
 mon salt and again roasted so that silver chloride ' is formed 
 (vide i 43) ; the resulting mass is then powdered and treated 
 with warm brine so as to dissolve out the silver chloride, and 
 from the solution thus obtained the silver is precipitated by 
 metallic copper. A modification of this process was proposed 
 by Percy, consisting mainly in the use of sodium with sul- 
 phate as a solventfor the silver chloride in lieu of common 
 salt, and precipitation of the silver as sulphide by means of 
 
 'By virtue of the Reactions — 
 
 Ag2S+202=AgjSO,. 
 AgaS04+2NaCl = 2Ag01+Na2S04. 
 If unoxidized silver sulphide be present during the roasting with 
 salt, it also becomes converted into chloride, thus : — 
 AgjS+aNaCl = 20j = ZAgCl+NajSO,. 
 
 sodium sulphide. With some kinds of ores, carefully roast- 
 ing suffices to convert silver sulphide present into sulphate, 
 which is dissolved out (along with more or less of the sul- 
 phates of other metals) by means of water, and then treated 
 with copper, etc., so as to throw down metallic silver. In 
 Henderson's process for the extraction of copper from cupri ■ 
 ferous pyrites containing but little copper (really a modifi- 
 cation of Augustin's process), a liquid is obtained containing 
 the chlorides of sodium, iron, and copper, with minute 
 quantities of silver chloride, and much sodium sulphate, etc. 
 To isolate the silver from this solution Claudet employs a. 
 soluble iodide, whereby silver iodide is precipitated, the cop- 
 per being then extracted from the mother liquors by precip- 
 itation with iron. The silver iodide is then treated with 
 zinc, whereby metallic silver is formed together with zinc 
 iodide, the aqueous solution of which is used to preci- 
 pitate the silver from a fresh quantity of liquor; the metallic 
 silver thus obtained contains an appreciable quantity of gold. 
 Another process for treating the same liquid has been re- 
 cently described by Mr. J. Gibb,' as worked successfully on 
 the large scale ; this consists in treating the liquors with 
 sulphuretted hydrogen (prepared from alkali waste by hydro- 
 chloric acid) so as to precipitate about one-sixteenth of the 
 copper present as sulphide. This precipitate is found to 
 contain practically the whole of the silver ; it is separated 
 from the rest of the liquor and dried without draining or 
 washing, so that a certain amount of soluble chlorides still 
 adhere to it. By calcining this precipitate at a low temper- 
 ature the copper sulphide is oxodized to copper sulphate, 
 which is removed by washing with water, and silver chloride 
 is left in an impure state. From the copper sulphate 
 solution thus obtained the copper is precipitated by means 
 of iron, as is that ftom the liquor separated from the sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen precipitated. 
 
 Amalgamation Processes. — ^The amalgamation pro- 
 cesses in use for the extraction of silver from its ores difier 
 from the method employed in the case of gold as described 
 above (J 46), in that the silver usually occurs mineralized 
 by combination with non-metals, and hence has to be set 
 free from its compounds before it can be dissolved by the 
 mercury, whilst the gold being already in the metallic state 
 usually requires no such treatment. With certain classes 
 of ores the decomposition of the silver compound is eifected 
 by the mercury itself, so that a much greater loss of this 
 latter metal is brought about than that due to imperfect 
 condensation during distillation, flouring, and the like. In 
 others the natural silver compound is previously transform- 
 ed by roasting or other treatment into some other compound 
 more readily attacked by the mercury ; whilst in others the 
 separation of metallic silver is effected by means of cheaper 
 reagents, either employed before treatment with the mer- 
 cury or simultaneously therewith. One of the rudest and 
 most wasteful of these processes, so far as mercury is con- 
 cerned, is that still largely employed in Mexico, and known 
 as the " Patio " process, being partly carried on in a patio 
 or paved space. The ore containing the silver as sulphide, 
 with more or less chloride, is first stamped and then ground 
 with water to a fine powder in a rude but effective mill 
 known as an arrastre. The thin mud thus formed is run 
 into a reservoir where most of the water evaporates. The 
 thick paste thus produced is then laid on the patio forming 
 a circular mass of about a foot in depth and forty to fifty 
 feet diameter, weighing some sixty or seventy tons. Salt is 
 then added to the extent of one-fortieth to one-twentieth of 
 the weight and the whole mass well intermixed by tread- 
 ing by mules. After some twenty-four hours from one to 
 two per cent, of " magistral " is added, and the whole again 
 well trodden in and intermixed. The magistral is an im- 
 pure mixture of iron and copper sulphates, prepared by par- 
 tially " weathering " copper pyrites by exposure to the air 
 in a wet state, and then completing the oxidation by gentle 
 calcination with a little salt. Mercury is now squirted on 
 to the mixture in a shower by squeezing it through bags or 
 running in from a sheet, and the whole well intermixed by 
 treading; about six parts of mercury are used for every one 
 part of silver present, A chemical action is thus set up and 
 facilitated by turning ovei and stirring the heap daily for 
 about four weeks. The ultimate effect of this is to form 
 sulphate of soda from the partial oxidatiop of the sulphur 
 
 1 Chemical News, xxxi. p. 165. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 891 
 
 in the silver sulphide and its reaction on the salt, together 
 with that produced by the mutual decomposition of the iron 
 and copper sulphates with the salt, forming in addition iron 
 and copper chlorides. Much mercury is lost by conversion 
 into chloride and also by "flouring," the residual mercury 
 dissolves the liberated silver, and is finally separated from 
 the mud and metallic salts by a stream of water. The pro- 
 gress of the oxidation is tested daily, and more magistral 
 added to increase the action if necessary, or lime added to 
 decompose the metallic salts and retard the action if the 
 mass heats too much, as in that case the loss of mercury be- 
 comes greater. Finally, the amalgam is placed in large 
 canvas bags holding nearly a ton ; much fluid amalgam is 
 thus forced out by weight alone ; the residual mass is then 
 squeezed and moulded into wedge-shaped solid masses, 
 ^ich are then piled on an iron plate with a hole in it so 
 as to form a circular kind of dome ; over this an iron bell 
 (''capellina") is dropped and its edges luted to the iron 
 plats ; burning charcoal -is then placed in a temorary cylin- 
 drical brick furnace built round the bell, so that the mer- 
 cury is distilled off from the amalgam, the vapor passing 
 through the hole in the bottom plate into a tube clipping 
 into water in a suitable receiver. 
 
 In what is termed the " Saxon," or Freiberg process, the 
 silver ores are mixed with pyrites containing a little copper 
 (if not already containing such a mixture naturally), and 
 with common salt, and then generally roasted so as to form 
 silver chloride and sodium sulphate, with iron and copper 
 chlorides. The silver chloride thus formed is reduced to the 
 metallic state by placing the roasted mass in a stout barrel 
 with water and lumps of metallic iron, the barrel being ro- 
 tated for some hours ; mercury is then put in and the whole 
 again rotated slowly for nearly a day. Ultimately an amal- 
 gam of silver is produced, from which the earthy matters are 
 washed away, and the fluid mercurjr separated bj^ squeezing ; 
 the solid mercurial alloy is then distilled.' Various modifi- 
 cations of both the Saxon and patio processes are introduced 
 in certain localities according to the special character of the 
 ores used. At Halsbriicke, where the Saxon process is 
 chiefly employed, silver ores are used containing several 
 metals, notably antimony, bismuth, arsenic, copper, iron, 
 lead, zinc, and sometimes nickel, and cobalt ; consequently 
 the crude silver left on distilling the amalgam is very im- 
 pure. On the other hand the " plata pina," from the Mexi- 
 can capellina distilling process, is frequently almost fine 
 silver, the impurities averaging about six parts in the 1000 
 (Makins) whilst the silver from other sources is of inter- 
 mediate character according to the ore employed. 
 
 In order to obtain pure, or, as it is usually termed, " fine " 
 silver, from the impure crude product, refining by cupella- 
 tion is usually adopted. The metal to be refined is melted 
 along with lead and the whole cupelled ; as the lead oxidizes 
 the other metals are also oxidized and removed, so that 
 finally almost chemically pure silver is obtained. If, how- 
 ever, gold or platinum were present originally these metals 
 are contained in the refined silver. Should gold be present, 
 the high value of this metal makes it worth while to extract 
 it by the wet process, consisting of boiling the auriferous 
 silver with .nitric or sulphuric ^acid which dissolves the 
 silver. 
 
 PLATINUM. 
 
 THIS metal has been known for nearly a century and 
 a half, being originally found in South America 
 and named after silver {plata) of which it was sup- 
 posed to be an impure ore. As experience soon 
 taught this ore was quite unworkable by ordinary metallurgi- 
 
 1 By virtue of the following actions; the metallic iron converts 
 the copper chloride present into spongy metallic copper — 
 
 Fe + CuCl2 — FeCIs + Cu ; 
 this reacts on the silver chloride setting free silver and reproducing 
 a copper chloride (cuprous chloride for the most part.) 
 
 2AgCl + 2Cu = 2Ag + CU2CI2. 
 If the mercury be added before the silver has been reduced to the 
 metallic state by the first rotating of the barrel and contents, much 
 mercury is lost owing to its conversion into chloride by taking the 
 place of the metallic copper in this second reaction. 
 
 cal processes, it was disregarded until the researches of Wood, 
 Berzelins, and Vauquelain, and more especially of WoUas- 
 ton, and subsequently of Deville and Debray, demonstrated 
 its peculiar properties and their value for numerous pur- 
 poses, and showed how the metal could be practically 
 worked. Besides occurring in South America platinum is 
 found native but associated with small quantities of some- 
 what analogous but less used metals, in the Oural mountains 
 and valleys, and in California, Mexico, San Domingo, and 
 Australia. It occurs either as nuggets sometimes weighing 
 upwards of 20 lbs. or as small grains somewhat after the 
 fashion of gold, and is generally found in the alluvial depos- 
 its. The accompanying metals, palladium, iridium, osmium, 
 rhodium, and ruthenium, are more or less completely sepa- 
 rated from the platinum by processes essentially of one or 
 other of the following three kinds : either the ore is fused 
 by the aid of an oxyhydrogen flame on a bed of lime, by 
 which means palladium and osmium are volatilized, and a 
 fused alloy ot the other metals left in which platinum largely 
 predominates, iridium being present only in small quantities, 
 and rhodium and ruthenium only to a yet lesser extent ; or 
 the platinum is separated by a wet process due to Wollaston ; 
 or an alloy of lead, platinum, and small quantities of pal- 
 ladium, is formed by fusing the platinum ore with galena, 
 litharge, and a flux of pounded glass, the other metals being 
 undissolved by the newly reduced lead (Deville and Debray ); 
 from this alloy the lead is removed by oxidation in hot air, 
 after the manner of cupellation, an oxyhydrogen flame 
 being used, the palladium present being thus also expelled. 
 Of these three processes, the first yields an alloy which is 
 well adapted to the manufacture of crucibles and other ves- 
 sels intended to resist high temperatures and the action of 
 chemicals, as it is less fusible than platinum and more re- 
 sistant as to corrosion ; but it is not so well suited for the 
 manufecture of large vessels such as sulphuric acid concen- 
 .trators, in which the junctions are fused together by a skill- 
 ful application of an oxyhydrogen blowpipe (autogenous 
 soldering). Deville and Debray's process also is apt to yield 
 a less pure metal than WoUaston's, owing to the difficulty 
 in completely removing by subsidence the particles of the 
 other metals undissolved by the molten lead. Hence for 
 certain special purposes (such as the resistance coils of 
 Siemen's pyrometer, g 84), platinum thus prepared cannot 
 be employed even though it have been freed from palladium 
 and osmium by means of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe. 
 
 WoUaston's process, by which absolutely pure platinum 
 can, with due care, be obtained, essentially consists in 
 treating the platinum ore with nitric acid, after washing 
 with hydrochloric acid for the purpose of removing any 
 baser metals, magnetic iron ore, &c., present ; the latter can 
 to a large extent be separated by a magnet. A mixture of 
 nitric and hydrochloric acids, aqua regia, is then allowed to 
 act on the purified ore for some hours or days, certain pro- 
 portions and strengths being usually chosen, so as to pre- 
 vent as much as possible the solution of iridium, which 
 mostly remains undissolved in combination with osmium 
 and a iittle rhodium and ruthenium, forming white metallic 
 scales termed osmiridium : about three parts of hydrochloric 
 acid of sp. gr. 1'20, and one 'of nitric acid of sp. gr. 1-36, will 
 answer well, or analogous mixtures containing about _ the 
 same percentages of anhydrous hydrochloric and. nitric 
 acids. The acid solution of jjlatinum is then treated with 
 sal-ammoniac, whereby platino-chloride of ammonium is 
 precipitated, iridium, rhodium, and palladium being re- 
 tained in solution. To avoid the possible contamination of 
 the precipitate with iridiochloride of ammonium, it is well 
 washed with water and pressed ; the latter salt being much 
 more soluble than platino-chloride of ammonium is thus 
 removed. Finally the precipitate isstron^ly heated, whereby 
 a spongy mass of platinum is left ; ' this is made into a 
 
 ' The following equations represent the production of ammonium 
 
 platino-chloride and its decomposition hy heat. By the action of 
 
 the chlorine set free from the aqua regia, platinum chloride is 
 
 formed — 
 
 Pt -|-2CT2 = PtCli. 
 
 On adding sal-amraoniac to this, combination occurs and ammon- 
 ium platino-chloride results — 
 
 1 PtCli -I- 2 KH4CI = Pt. (NH,) J Clj. 
 
892 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 paste with water and pressed into moulds, which are slowly 
 dried and gradually heated to whiteness and then forged 
 into compact masses; or the spongy platinum is pressed 
 into cakes and fused in a lime crucible by the oxyhydrogen 
 flame. From the mother liquors of the platmo-chloride of 
 ammonium more of that salt can be obtained by precipitat- 
 ing all metals by a plate of zinc, redissolving m aqua 
 regia and adding sal-ammoniac ; this precipitate is apt to 
 contain iridium. From the final mother liquor palla- 
 dium is separated by neutralizing with sodium carbonate 
 and adding mercury cyanide solution, whereby palladium 
 cyanide is thrown down from which metallic palladium in 
 a spongy state is obtained by simply heating. The mother 
 liquors of this precipitate contain rhodium : from the 
 osmiridium left undissolved by the aqua regia in the first 
 instance, the metals osmium and iridium with smaller 
 quantities of rhodium and ruthenium are separated by 
 special processes. 
 
 Fig. 1 represents one simple form of Deville and Debray's 
 oxyhydrogen furnace from the fusion of platinum, &c. ; 
 
 r^:^! 
 
 the receptacle for the metal to be fused is a compact 
 mass of lime or marble (which immediately becomes con- 
 verted into quicklime on the inner surface by the 
 heat) hollowed out into a dish shape ; this is covered 
 by a similar block in the crown of which is a perforation 
 by means of which the oxyhydrogen flame is made to play 
 
 Fia. 2. 
 
 inside the crucible furnace ; for large masses several distinct 
 flames may be employed. The most convenient form of 
 oxyhydrogen burner for this purpose is simply an ordinary 
 blowing lamp, i.e. two tubes arranged concentrically, the 
 
 Finally, this compound breaks up on heating, forming sal-ammoniac, 
 chlorine, and platinum— 
 
 Pt{NH,)2 Cl„= Pt + 2CI2 + 2 NH, CI, 
 
 the sal ammoniac being to some extent further decomposed by the 
 chlorine in virtue of a secondary reaction. 
 
 combustible gas passing into the annular space outside, and 
 the blast of air or oxygen being passed through the interior 
 tube, the supply of each gas being regulated by cocks. A 
 large flame of this kind supplied with oxygen and hydro- 
 gen (best from cylinders of the compressed gases) enables 
 many effective combustion experiments to be made : a steel 
 carving-knife burns with great brilliancy in the flame, and 
 if a large plate of thin sheet iron be held in a vertical posi- 
 tion, and the flame cautiously moved over its flat surface, 
 writing may be roughly traced by the perforation of the 
 plate thus brought about (Fig. 2). With even a small 
 flame, such as that used for the lime light, thin platinum 
 foil may be similarly perforated ; for this purpose it is not 
 necessary to use hydrogen gas, as ordinary coal gas will 
 often produce the same result; carbon, oxide and oxygen, 
 also, will suffice, the heat evolved in the oxidation of carbon 
 oxide being superior to that produced during the combus- 
 tion of hydrogen, a given quantity of oxygen being em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Compiled from "Metals and their Industrial Applications." 
 
 ZINC. 
 
 THE peculiar properties of the alloy of this metal 
 with copper, termed brass, have been known from a 
 very early period, many of the so-called antique 
 bronzes containing so much more zinc than tin as to 
 approach much more nearly to brasses than to bronzes in 
 character and composition : these alloys were probably 
 obtained by smelting together a natural or artificial mixture 
 of minerals containing copper and zinc, the processes for the 
 isolation of the latter metal being of comparatively modern 
 origin, depending on the volatility of the metal at a red- 
 heat, i. e. being processes of distillation. The chief ores of 
 zinc worked for metallurgical purposes come from New 
 Jersey and the United States, Belgium, Silesia, and Spain, 
 considerable deposits being also found in various parts of 
 Great Britain. They consist mainly of oxide, sulphide, car- 
 bonate and silicate, the former being found in New Jersey : 
 zinc blende (the sulphide) usually accompanies galena and 
 sometimes pyrites, whilst calamine (the carbonate) is found 
 in Derbyshire without intermixture with lead ores, though 
 often it occurs in the vicinity of galena : the silicate (electric 
 calamine) is chiefly imported into this country. When 
 blende (known as "blackjack" from its color when toler- 
 ably pure save a little iron sulphide) is employed as a source 
 of zinc it is subjected to a prolonged roasting for the pur- 
 pose of burning off the sulphur and forming an oxide of 
 zinc ;' if lead be contained this roasting must be carried on 
 for a longer period than if the blende be free from this metal : 
 from the oxide thus produced the metallic zinc is reduced 
 by mixing with small coal (anthracite) and heating in a 
 distilling arrangement, in principle not unlike the " capel- 
 lina" apparatus used for silver amalgam, or in fire- 
 clay retorts like those used in the gasworks. Calamine is 
 usually roasted before being submitted to the distillation 
 process, for the purjjose of expelling moisture and carbon 
 dioxide and of opening the pores of the mass and rendering 
 it easy to pulverize and mix with the powdered anthracite ; 
 frequently a mixture of calcined blende and calamine, or 
 of red zinc ore (oxide of zinc) and calamine is employed in- 
 stead of one kind of ore only. 
 
 The character of the distilling arrangement employed 
 varies considerably in different localities ; one of the oldest 
 forms (Fig. 1) consist of a number of large crucibles filled 
 with the mixture of zinc ore and small coal and heated by a 
 reverberatoryfurnace; each crucible is closed with a cover 
 luted on air-tight: the vapor of zinc and the carbon oxide 
 formed by the heating are conducted out of the crucible 
 through a hole in the bottom, into which is cemented a fire- 
 clay pipe passing down through the floor of the rever- 
 beratory furnace into a vault below ; iron tubes are affixed 
 to the lower ends of these fireclay pipes, dipping downwards 
 into vessels containing water, so that the zinc condenses in 
 the tubes and runs down into the vessels underneath. To 
 
 1 2ZnS + 30j = 2ZnO + 2S0j. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 893 
 
 prevent the mass in the crucibles falling down the tubes 
 blocks of wood are inserted into the fireclay pipes ; these 
 become carbonized by the heat, and are then sufficiently 
 porous to allow of the vapors passing downwards through 
 them, whilst retaining sufficient strength to prevent the 
 superincumbent solid matter from breaking through them. 
 The iron tubes are cleared out by a rod from time to time 
 lest the condensed zinc and the fume," or oxide, carried 
 over should block them up. 
 
 FlQ. 1. 
 
 In Silesia retorts are used shaped like small gas retorts or 
 large muffles ; the vapors are led away into a rectangular 
 downward condensing tube, luted on to the mouth of the re- 
 tort ; several of these retorts, sometimes twenty, are mounted 
 in a " bench " and heated by the same furnace. In what 
 is termed the Belgian process, a large number of retorts are 
 employed mounted in a kind of kiln, each retort being placed 
 at an angle of about 30° with the horizon, the mouths being 
 lowest: short clay condensing pipes are luted into the 
 mouths of the retorts : to these are affixed conical wrought- 
 iron pipes with a narrow terminal orifice some f inch in di- 
 ameter : the metallic zinc collects in the clay pipes, whilst 
 the iron conical terminals retain a considerable amount of 
 zinc oxide which is collected and used over again with a 
 fresh charge. As many as eighty retorts are sometimes 
 mounted in the same bench, to equalize the rate of work- 
 ing off; those at the top are usually made smaller and are 
 charged with more easily reducible ores, so that the lesser 
 heat communicated to them may not interfere with the pro- 
 cess, as a whole, by causing delay through great difierences 
 in the time required to work ofi' the charge in each retort. 
 The waste heat from the bench of retorts is employed to 
 roast and calcine ores for a new operation, and to dry and 
 season the fire clay retorts and tubes kept in stock for re- 
 newals in case of breakages, &c. 
 
 When the zinc ores used contain cadmium, this metal is 
 chiefly contained in the first portions of zinc that distil over ; 
 the fume which is condensed at the same time is brownish 
 and contains much cadmium oxide ; from this fume, or 
 from the cadmiferous zinc, metallic cadmium can be sepa- 
 rated, best by a wet process, consisting of solution in acid, 
 precipitation of cadmium sulphide by a current of sulphu- 
 retted hydrogen, whereby this metal is completely separated 
 from zinc, conversion of the sulphide into carbonate by so- 
 lution in acid and precipitation by an alkaline carbonate, 
 and finally distillation of the carbonate, (or of the oxide 
 prepared therefrom by gentle ignition) with lamp-black, 
 whereby metallic eadimum is obtained as a distillate. Me- 
 tallic cadmium, however, is but little used, the main indus- 
 trial application of this element being the use of its sul- 
 phide as a brilliant yellow pigment; certain of its salts 
 (iodide and bromide) are also employed in medicine and 
 for photography. 
 
 , — Compiled from "Metdla and ikeir Chief Industrial Applicatiom.*' 
 
 THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS. 
 
 ONE of the most characteristic properties of metals 
 is the power possessed by them when in more or 
 less compact masses of acquiring (by polishing, 
 pressure, or other mechanical treatment) such a 
 condition of surface that light incident thereon is fer the 
 most part again reflected, whereby a peculiar glistening 
 appearance is presented, known as the metallic lustre. 
 When fused, lumps are cut with a sharp instrument, or 
 when the metals form crystalline masses which are broken 
 across, the severed surfaces exhibit this peculiar feature; 
 and in many cases when the metal is obtained by chemical 
 action from certain of its compounds, so as to form a deposit 
 on a glass surface {e.g. silver), or if the vapor of the metal 
 be condensed on such a surface (e. ff. arsenic), the glass pre- 
 sents the well-known appearance of a mirror of more or less 
 brilliancy according to the nature of the metal, and the way 
 in which it is precipitated on the surface. When prepared 
 by certain chemical processes, the metals often present the 
 appearance of* lustreless minute particles, generally black 
 when very small. Metals in this "spongy" condition, how- 
 ever, caUjOften be made to exhibit a considerable amount of 
 brilliancy by strongly compressing a portion of the dry 
 powder against a polished steel or agate surface, when the 
 powder more or less agglutinates into cakes exhibiting lus- 
 tre on the sides that were next to the polished surfaces; or 
 by simply rubbing in a smooth mortar with a pestle a little 
 of the powder, brilliant streaks are produced by the pres- 
 sure. Gold, platinum, and silver in particular exhibit this 
 property, the ordinary metals having a strong tendency, 
 when in a fine state of division, to oxidize or rust on the 
 surface; and this greatly interferes with the coherence of 
 the compressed masses, and with their brilliancy when 
 rubbed or polished. If a little spongy silver (prepared by 
 boiling pure silver chloride with sugar and caustic soda, 
 thoroughly washing, and drying) be placed between a pair 
 of dies and compressed by a coining press, a slightly brittle 
 but still coherent coin will be obtained, exhibiting consid- 
 erable brilliancy on the surfaces that were in contact with 
 the polished portions of the die-surfaces; and an analogous 
 result is obtained if precipitated gold of a dull brown shade 
 (thrown down by ferrous sulphate from gold chloride solu- 
 tion) be employed instead of silver. The peculiar lustre 
 characteristic of metals is, however, not wholly confined to 
 these substances; certain minerals, e.g. galena, and some of 
 the non-melals, e.g. graphite, occur in nature in masses 
 exhibiting a metal-like lustre when fractured, whilst sele- 
 nion, silicon, and other non-metals can be artificially pre- 
 pared in states where they exhibit a closely similar lustre, 
 as can also various compound substances, e. g. mosaic gold 
 (tin disulphide). The effect of pressure in heightening the 
 brilliancy of a metallic surface is well seen in the industrial 
 process of burnishing / when a layer of metal, such as gold 
 or silver, is deposited by electrical or chemical means on the 
 surface of an object to be silvered or gilt, it usually happens 
 that the freshly covered surface is more or less deficient in 
 lustre, or, as it is technically termed, " dead " ; by the skilled 
 application of pressure with a burnisher of polished steel or 
 stone the dead surface is compressed and made to shine 
 with brilliancy. For the final touches on electro-silvered 
 or gilt articles, and for the gilding on china, &c., a burnisher 
 is preferred made of "bloodstone," a compact variety of 
 haematite. The ordinary household processes of cleaning 
 and polishing steel and other metallic articles partly depend 
 on the pressure exerted on the surface, although the main 
 action consists in abrading, by means of a fine crystalline 
 powder (usually prepared chalk, or peroxide of iron pre- 
 pared by calcination of green vitriol or by levigation of 
 burnt pyrites, &c.), the particles of rusted or tarnished 
 metal, so as to display the underlying pure metallic surface. 
 Owing to the influence of the air, moisture, vapors arising 
 from putrefaction, &c., metallic surfaces, even when highly 
 polished and brilliant, become more or less rapidly tar- 
 nished, so that the power of reflecting light is to a consider- 
 able extent lost. Before the invention of glass, polished 
 metallic surfaces were employed as mirrors; and for re- 
 flecting telescopes such surfaces are still in use. Now, how- 
 ever, it is usual to employ as mirrors glass surfaces, behind 
 
894 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS "AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 which a thin coating of some lustrous metallic mass is 
 placed, so that the smooth surface of the glass at once de- 
 termines the peculiar reflective power of the metal applied 
 to it, and preserves the metal from mechanical injury, and 
 from the corrosion of the air. For this reason these house- 
 hold appliances are ordinarily termed "looking-glasses," 
 although, strictly speaking, it is not the glass that is the 
 essential part. Three principal methods of applying these 
 metallic substances to glass are in use; the best plate-glass 
 mirrors (perfectly plain surfaces) are prepared by spreading 
 out on a table surrounded by a deep groove or gutter, and 
 capable of being raised on hinges so as to be placed at any 
 angle with the horizon, a sheet of tinfoil, and smoothing it 
 with a soft brush ; mercury is then poured on and gently 
 rubbed over the tinfoil with a hare's-foot or a roll of flannel, 
 so as to penetrate and brighten the tin ; more mercury is 
 then poured on, and the surface cleansed from dross, &c. ; 
 finally, the perfectly clean sheet of glass is dexterously slid 
 
 fluid by slightly warming it before pouring into the vessel 
 to be silvered. It is noticeable that an alloy of three parts 
 of potassium and one of sodium is fluid at the ordinary tem- 
 perature, being the only metal or mixture of metals known 
 possessing this character, mercury, solutions of metals in 
 mercury, and the newly-discovered metal gallium (under 
 certain conditions) excepted. This mixture possesses the 
 power of adhering to the inside of a glas? bottle, forming a 
 well-defined mirror ; fused stereotype metal, plumber's sol- 
 der, and analogous alloys can also, with careful manage- 
 ment, be poured into hot glass bottles and shaken over the 
 surface so as to form mirrors of considerable brilliancy, 
 although this method ia never practically used. A method 
 which has of late years come largely into use for silvering 
 mirrors of various kinds, and notably the reflectors of tele- 
 scopes and lighthouses, is based on the power of certain che- 
 mical reagents to throw down silver in the metallic state 
 from certain of its solutions, Ac, the reduced silver in many 
 
 ^"^. 
 ^-^ 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 over the brilliant mercurial surface in such a way as to 
 avoid enclosing any particles of dust or air-bubbles between 
 the metal and glass. The table is then slightly raised at 
 one end, so that the surplus mercury may gradually run ofi" 
 and be caught in the gutter ; and the slope is increased 
 daily, a piece of flannel being placed on the glass with 
 weights on it to facilitate the draining off of the mercury. 
 After two to four weeks, according to the size of the plate, 
 the mirror is complete, the tin amalgam having been com- 
 pletely set, and being tolerably firmly adherent to the glass, 
 although easily rubbed off and scratched on account of its 
 slight tenacity. To preserve the back of the mirror from 
 injury, a suitable wooden frame is provided, in which the 
 whole is fixed, when a finished mirror is the result. 
 
 cases adhering firmly to the surface of the vessel in which 
 the action takes place, or to objects immersed in the liquid. 
 Thus, if calcium tartrate in a moist state be placed in a 
 glass vessel with a crystal of silver nitrate and a drop of 
 ammonia solution, and the mixture cautiously heated, and 
 made to flow successively over the whole inner surface of 
 the glass, a fine mirror may be developed. Aldehyde, oil of 
 cloves and other essential oils, grape-sugar, and some other 
 organic substances may also be employed as reducing agents, 
 especially the first substance. 
 
 If a " mirror " [i. e. a glass surface with a brilliant metal- 
 lic film behind) be carefully examined, it will be found that 
 in most positions it will give a double image of any object 
 refiected, one image being usually more brilliant than the 
 
 FlQ. 2. 
 
 For curved surfaces, such as the insides of globes, flasks, 
 &c., for ornamental purposes, a somewhat different plan is 
 employed ; a fluid or semi-fluid amalgam capable of adher- 
 ing to glass is poured into the vessel to be "silvered," 
 and shaken about therein until the inner surface is covered 
 with a fllm of the composition ; the surplus amalgam is then 
 poured out and used for other similar objects. A mixture of 
 one part each of lead, tin, and bismuth, with two parts of 
 mercury, answers well, the mixture being made perfectly 
 
 other. Fig. 1 illustrates how this is brought about ; a ray 
 of li^ht from an object at a, strikes the glass surface at b, 
 and IS reflected to the eye of the observer at P, so that an 
 image is seen situated at m. Another ray of light incident 
 on the glass at a point c, is partly reflected along c/, this 
 portion of the ray consequently never reaching the eye at 
 P at all ; the rest of the ray enters the glass, being refracted 
 along cd; nt the junction of the glass and metallic surfaces 
 reflection takes place along d e, and at e the ray is refracted 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 895 
 
 along e P, thus also reaching the eye of the observer, but 
 necessarily causing the image formed to be seen apparently 
 situated at n, a point different from m. The relative quan- 
 tities of light passing along « P and b P (that is, the relative 
 brightness of the two images) depend on the degree of ob- 
 liquity of the incident light c ; the greater the angle ab P 
 (i. e. the more obliquely the light falls on the mirror), the 
 brighter is the image at n. The power of glass thus to re- 
 iiect light to a considerable extent without any metallic 
 film behind is utilized in the illusion known popularly as 
 " Pepper's ghost," which consists simply of a large pane 
 of glass sloping forwards from the stage at an angle of about 
 45° (Fig. 2.) Objects such as A B, placed between the 
 footlights E, and the pane of glass i^ in a horizontal posi- 
 tion, and strongly illuminated, will produce to a spectator in 
 front at P, a virtual image or " ghost, " apparently situated 
 at CD, the illusion being heightened by hiding, by means 
 of screens, all the apparatus in front of the pane from the 
 audience, and darkening that part of the stage behind the 
 pane, the real objects furnishing the ghosts being placed on 
 a dead-black ground. When the lights ^are extinguished, 
 and other lights illuminating the stage behind the pane 
 turned on, the ghosts disappear, whilst the real actors at 
 D Con the stage behind the pane become visible through 
 the transparent glass. 
 
 Color by Reflection and Transmission. — As a 
 rule, metals reflect visible light of all degrees of refrangibil- 
 ity nearly alike, i. e., most metals appear of a white color. 
 Copper, however, possesses the power of reflecting red rays 
 more powerfliUy than others, and consequently appears red : 
 similarly, £old possesses a bright yellow or orange color, 
 and the alkaline-earthy metals calcium, barium, and stron- 
 tium, appear slightly yellow. Brass, aluminium bronze, and 
 other alloys of copper pr-ssess a rich yellow color, the 
 shade depending on the composition ; as a rule, the alloys of 
 a colorea and a colorlesss metal exhibit a regular gradation 
 of tint, the color becoming less intense as the percentage 
 of colorless metal increases. Although the light reflected 
 from polished surfaces of most metals is nearly white, yet 
 frequently there is a slight tinge of some color ; thus whilst 
 tin, silver, platinum, and others have a nearly pure white 
 color, and hence appear alike when equally burnished, 
 lead and zinc have a bluiah shade, and iron and arsenic a 
 greyish hue ; these faint tints are best seen by repeatedly re- 
 flecting light from the metallic surface, as when a tube pol- 
 ished internally, and open at both ends, is looked into ob- 
 liquely. The deepening of the yellow tint exhibited when 
 light is once reflected from a gold surface to a red-orange by 
 repeated reflections is readily seen by looking obliquely into 
 an empty metal tankard gilded internally. The pigments 
 and coloring materials largely used in the arts under the 
 name of bronze powders, are mainly divers colored alloys 
 stamped and ground to fine powders, and in some cases sub- 
 jected subsequently to heating and sulphurizing processes 
 so as to develop peculiar shades ; tinsd is usually paper over- 
 laid with a thin film of silver or other white alloy, and coat- 
 ed over with a transparent colored varnish, or is paper 
 coated with a white or bronze powdered metal, and rolled 
 till the surface is brightly lustrous. 
 
 Few metals can be reduced to so fine a degree of tenuity 
 as to allow light to pass through them readily ; when this 
 can be done it is usually found that one kind of light is 
 absorbed more readily than others, so that the transmitted 
 light is colored, being deficient in the more absorbed rays. 
 The transmitted light is sometimes complementary to the 
 reflected color, or nearly so, but not invariably ; thus gold 
 can be reduced by beating to leaves of thickness not exceed- 
 ing one two-hundred thousandth inch, and in this condition 
 permits agreenlightto pass through the colorbeingdependent 
 on the amount of silver added to the gold, the light being 
 more inclined to violet with much silver; by passing elec- 
 tric sparks in vacuo through glass tubes into which metal 
 wires are fused, the glass becomes coated with a continuous film 
 of metallic particles detached from the wires by the sparks; 
 a film of gold thus prepared transmits a fine green light, 
 whilst silver gives a beautiful blue shade. Copper transmits 
 a dull green, and platinum a bluish grey ; zinc and cadmium 
 furnish a deep bluish grey, whilst iron films transmit a tint 
 nearly neutral, but slightly brownish. 
 Density. — Most of the metals used in the arts in the free 
 
 state are of considerable density, aluminium being by far 
 the lightest, a circumstance which, together with its consid- 
 erable strength and power of resisting the tarnishing effects 
 of the air, renders it peculiarly suitable for numerous pur- 
 poses: the draw-tubes of telescopas, opera glasses, &c., and 
 the graduated circles of surveying instruments, &c., are 
 often made of this metal for these reasons. According to 
 the way in which a piece of metal has been obtained, its 
 density will vary somewhat, being increased by hammering 
 or aiiy mechanical action which forces the particles together 
 e. g. wire drawing or sheet-rolling. The following table 
 gives the numerical values of the average densities of most 
 
 Platinum 
 
 Gold 
 
 Mercury 
 
 Palladium 
 
 Lead 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Bismuth 
 
 Copper 
 
 Nickel 
 
 Cadmium 
 
 Iron 
 
 Tin 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Antimony 
 
 Arsenic 
 
 Aluminium 
 
 Magnesium 
 
 Sodium 
 
 Psiassium 
 
 Lithium 
 
 Tio. 3. 
 
 of the more important metals, whilst Fig. 3 exhibits the 
 same numbers graphically, the lengths of the lines applied 
 to each metal being the ratios of these numbers. 
 
 Spectfic Gravlly of Metuls fWater=l.) 
 
 Platinum 
 
 .... 21.5 
 
 Iron . . 
 
 . .7.8 
 
 Gold 
 
 .19.3 
 
 Tin ... 
 
 . . . 7.3 
 
 Mercury 
 
 13.6 
 
 Zinc 
 
 .7.1 
 
 Palladium 
 
 . . 11.8 
 
 Antimony .... 
 
 . .6.7 
 
 Lead 
 
 11.3 
 
 Arsenic . . 
 
 .6.6 
 
 Silver , . . 
 
 10.0 
 
 Aluminium . . 
 
 . 2.6 
 
 Bismuth . 
 
 .... 9.8 
 
 Magnesium . . . 
 Sodium 
 
 .1.8 
 
 Copper . 
 Nickel. . 
 
 8.9 
 
 . . . 0.97 
 
 . . 8.8 
 
 Potassium . . 
 
 . .0.86 
 
 Cadmium 
 
 8.7 
 
 Lithium . 
 
 0.59 
 
 These numbers necessarily represent the numbers of 
 grammes weighed by one cubic centimetre of each metal ; 
 when multiplied by 1,000 they represent approximately the 
 number of ounces per cubic foot. Independently of the 
 changes in density produced by differences in the state of 
 physical aggregation of metals, alterations of temperature 
 of course affect this property, since expansion is caused by 
 increase of temperature, and consequently a given bulk of 
 metal will weigh less at a high temperature than at a lower 
 one. 
 
 It is noticeable that the specific gravity of an alloy always 
 approximates more or less closely to that calculated on the 
 assumption that the constituent metals hang together side 
 by side without interference: i.e. the bulk of an alloy approxi- 
 mates to the united bulks of the constituents. Thus an alloy 
 of equal volumes of platinum and aluminium would, on this 
 assumption, have a specific gravity of 12.05, the calculation 
 running thus : — 
 
 Grammes. 
 
 100 cubic centimetres of platinum weigh 2,150 
 
 lOO " " " aluminium " 200 
 
 200 
 
 the alloy . . 
 
 2,410 
 
 2410- 
 
 or, 1 cubic centimetre of the alloy weighs grammes=12-05. 
 
 200- 
 
 On the other hand an alloy of equal weights of these two 
 metals would have a specific gravity of 4.64. 
 
896 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 100 grammes of platinnm occupy - 
 
 4*65 cubic cents. 
 
 100 
 200 
 
 aluminium 
 
 21-5 
 100 
 
 2-6 
 
 the alloy 
 2C0 
 
 whence 1 cubic cent, weighs = 4*64 grammes. 
 
 43-11 
 
 In the case of most alloys this proposition is not exactly 
 true, there being generally more or less expansion or con- 
 traction during the mixture of the constituents, so that the 
 specific gravity of the alloy becomes either raised above or 
 lowered below that thus calculated: sometimes this differ- 
 ence is somewhat marked, but usually it is not great enough 
 materially to vitiate the generality of the above rule. 
 
 Crystallizabilitj^.— Some few metals readily assume 
 the crystalline condition on slow cooling after fusion ; nota- 
 bly this is the case with bismuth ; others do not readily be- 
 come crystalline, and on this property depends much of 
 their usefulness, as a crystalline texture denotes compara- 
 tive brittleness. Wrought iron occasionally passes from its 
 normal fibrous texture to a crystalline state ; this effect ap- 
 pears to be brought about by long continued vibration and 
 subjection to blows, and has been accordingly the cause of 
 various accidents, e. g. when a railway axle having become 
 crystalline through long use, breaks owing to the diminish- 
 ed strength thereby caused. Many metals can be obtained 
 crystalline when deposited from a solution by galvanic 
 action ; thus lead and silver when slowly precipitated by other 
 metals occur in finely developed crystalline arborescences 
 the formation of which constitutes the familiar experiments 
 of the " lead-tree " and " silver-tree " or Arbor Dia;ice. Many 
 " native " metals (e. g, copper) occur crystallized, being pre- 
 sumably produced by actions of this kind. Frequently the 
 presence of a minute quantity of a foreign metal greatly 
 promotes the crystallization of a metal which becomes crys- 
 talline only with difficulty when perfectly pure. 
 
 Malleability and Brittleness.— Many metals are 
 sufficiently devoid of the character known as brittleness, or 
 tendency to fly to pieces when struck or pressed, to be ham- 
 mered out into thin leaves, or rolled out into thin sheets; 
 some metals are readily "malleable" at one temperature 
 but brittle at another: in all cases the presence of minute 
 amounts of other metals or non-metallic impurities exerts a 
 marked influence on the degree in which this quality is pos- 
 sessed. Zinc is crystalline and brittle at ordinary tempera- 
 tures, but can readily be rolled into thin sheets at 100° — 
 150°, whilst at about 200° and upwards it again becomes 
 brittle, and can be powdered in a mortar; sheet zinc for 
 gutters, &c., is therefore rolled hot. Gold is rendered brit- 
 tle by the presence of traces of antimony ; and similar 
 efiects on the malleability of many metals are produced by 
 small admixtures with certain other metals, &c. The ten 
 chief metals all possess the power of being extended into 
 thin sheets under the rolling press, and into leaves of greater 
 or less tenuity under the hammer, but to very different ex- 
 tents ; lead and zinc falling short of the others, the former 
 on account of its extreme softness and consequent want of 
 tenacity when reduced to thin leaves, the latter on account 
 of the difficulty of working very thin sheets of the metal 
 at the temperature at which its malleability is most marked 
 They may be thus arranged in order of malleability, the first 
 two being nearly equal : — 
 
 . ^°^^'. Silver, Copper, Platinum, Iron, Alumin- 
 ium, Trn, Zinc, Lead, Mercury (solid). It is very 
 probable that mercury (in a frozen state) should be ranged 
 higher up in the series; palladium, like platinum, is highly 
 malleable, though less so than gold or silver, which possess 
 the property to an extraordinary extent; in the ordinary 
 process of ^old-beating leaves are obtained so thin that one 
 gram ot finished leaves covers at least thirty-five square 
 inches, [whilst the extension of this metal can be pushed 
 rnuch further, so that coherent leaves of jj^},^^ fnch in 
 ^^^r::^Tt''' ''^'^i"?'^' °°^ Sr^'^ of '^id 'covering 
 f3L LTiT'^^r T^''^'"'^''^^-' ^^^ "8ual thickness of 
 English gold leaf is about double this, or ^J,™ inch Sil- 
 ver can similarly be beaten until a gi^ea w'^l^lTo? metal Is 
 
 fnchpr°'Thp r"^'i?"' ^''^" ""^^""S ninety-eight square 
 inches. The leaves however are not quite so thin as gold 
 leaves, on account of the lower specific gravity of silver 
 Iron ha^ been beaten into leaves of ,A, inch in thicknesl 
 
 The manufacturer of thin leaf gold (gold-beating) is 
 carried out in the following way. Gold is alloyed with 
 small quantities of other metals according to the color 
 required in the finished leaf; thus there were exhibited in 
 the 1861 Exhibition, by Messrs. Marshall leaves of twelve 
 colors grading from red to nearly white, and designated 
 as — red : pale red : extra deep : deep : orange ; lemon : 
 deep pale: pale: pale-pale: deep party: party: and fine 
 gold. The deeper colors are obtained with gold alloyed 
 with from twelve to sixteen grains of copper per ounce and 
 no silver; the middle ones withsix to eight grains of copper 
 and twelve to twenty of silver ; and the paler ones with 
 from two to twenty grains of silver, copper being omitted. 
 As a curious fact, if silver be added to alloy containing 
 more than eight or ten grains of copper the malleability is 
 sensibly diminished, although no marked ill result is 
 brought about by the addition of silver to fine gold or to 
 gold containing only small quantities of copper. Ordinary 
 gold leaf, such as is used for decorative purposes, contains 
 about twelve grains of silver and nine of copper per ounce. 
 The alloy is heated in crucibles to somewhat above melting- 
 point, cast into ingots, and rolled into ribbons about one and a 
 half inch wide and of such thinness that an ounce extends to 
 a length of about ten feet: no marked difference in mallea- 
 bility is noticeable whether the cast ingot be cooled quickly 
 or slowly. The ribbon is then cut into pieces weighing 
 about six grains each, which are piled between sheets of vel- 
 lum or parchment paper to the number of about 160 or 
 170 : the cutch thus produced is beaten with a seventeen- 
 pound hammer for about twenty minutes, at the end of 
 which time the metal has become extended nearly to the 
 size of the parchments (some three inches square). The 
 rough squares thus formed are quartered and piled again 
 between sheets of prepared gut (goldbeater's skin) forming 
 a shoder (or sholder) consisting of some 700 pieces of metal, 
 the contents of a cutch after quartering being all placed in 
 the same shoder. The beating is then carried on for about 
 two hours with a nine-pound hammer: when the leaves 
 have become extended to the dimensions of the shoder 
 (some four-and-a-half inches square) they are again quar- 
 tered by a tool made of bamboo sharpened to a cutting 
 edge. These quarters are again piled between fine skin 
 five inches square forming a mould, the contents of one 
 shoder filling three moulds (about 900 leaves to the mould). 
 Finally, the mould is beaten for about two hours more till 
 the metal extends to the edges of the skins and here and 
 there flows over: from the finished leaf thus produced 
 squares of three inches and three-eighths are cut from the 
 central portions by a bamboo tool, and piled in a " book " 
 made of soft paper rubbed over with red ochre or red chalk. 
 During the earlier part of the beating the blows are directed 
 mainly towards the center, which causes cracks and rents to- 
 wards the edges of the leaves; these cracks, however, become 
 perfectly closed up again subsequently as the blows fall on the 
 other portions, the edges of the cracks welding together per- 
 fectly, so thatthe finished leaf exhibits no trace of them. The 
 leaves first begin to show light through when the thickness 
 is about TsoWo inch, the color being green with gold con- 
 taining little or no silver, but verging towards pale violet 
 when much of the latter metal is present. The beating is 
 rarely continued until the leaves are less than inrisVinr inch 
 in thickness, as the saving of the precious metal hardly 
 compensates for the extra labor and the greater waste 
 (through spoiled leaves, and the "pouring over," at the 
 edges of the mould); moreover the thinnest possible leaf does 
 not " cover " so well, being more translucent. Fine gold 
 beats as well as, but not better than that containing small 
 quantities of alloy, whilst it is superior in welding power, so 
 that the leaves are more apt to stick together when one part 
 touches another, and so on. The " mould " skins when old 
 are generally employed for the " shoder," in which the ex- 
 cellence of the skin surface is not of such moment. 
 
 Ductility. — Although the property of being drawn into 
 wire is closely allied to that of being rolled or hammered 
 into foil and leaves, yet the two are not necessarily possessed 
 to equal extents by the same metal ; gold, silver, and platinum 
 are pre-eminently " ductile," whilst copper and iron are but 
 little inferior to them in this respect. Aluminium and zinc 
 can be obtained in tolerably thin wire, whilst lead and tin 
 have so little cohesion that they cannot be drawn beyond a 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 897 
 
 very limited degree of fineness. On the small scale, wires 
 are readily obtained by casting the metals into thin pencils,' 
 slightly pointing the ends of these and passing them into a 
 funnel-shaped hole in a steel plate (draw-plate) of suitable 
 size, gripping with pliers the protruding pointed part, and 
 forcibly pulling the whole bar through the hole, the process 
 being then repeated with a slightly smaller hole. Fig. 5 
 
 F 
 
 5 JC 
 
 Fig. 5 
 
 represents the section of the draw-plate through the holes ; 
 a series of holes are generally worked in the same plate, 
 gradually diminishing in diameter from one endof the plate 
 to the other, the complete perforated plate being often termed 
 a "jigger." To obtain greater steadiness in -the pull, the 
 pliers should be attached to a band or cord which is gradu- 
 ally wound up on an axle by a handle, the pliers being so 
 constructed that the greater the force required to draw the 
 
 then passed through the next smaller hole, being uncoiled 
 from the first drum, and coi-led again on a second in so do- 
 ing, and so on until drawn to the required degree of fineness. 
 In this way the great lengths of wire are drawn at one op- 
 eration. 
 
 Wollaston succeeded in obtaining wires of platinum, gold, 
 and iron of excessive tenuity by first drawing the metals 
 into fine wire, and then casting round this wire a cylinder 
 of another metal, and' drawing the compound cylinder 
 again to the utmost possible extent ; both the outside metal 
 and the internal wire were thus elongated together ; finally, 
 the outside metal was dissolved off by some appropriate sol- 
 vent, and thus the internal wire was left. To prepare the 
 platinum and gold wires silver was used for the external cyl- 
 inder, the silver being finally dissolved off by nitric acid. 
 To make the iron wire, silver was also used for the cylinder, 
 but was ultimately dissolved off by means of mercury. In 
 this way a platinum wire was obtained less than ssiTi^ inch 
 in diameter. Some metals require to be heated in order to 
 acquire sufficient softness to enable them to be readily drawn 
 into wire ; thus with aluminium. Others are in practice often 
 used in a heated state to facilitate the operation, although 
 
 Fig. B. 
 
 wire through, the more firmly they grip the end of it : this 
 is easily efi'ected by turning up the handle ends (the panel 
 in which thejaws open being horizontal) and passing over 
 them a triangle of iron to the base of which the band is at- 
 tached (Fig. 6) : the greater the strain on the band, the 
 more firmly is the wire held : the draw-plate is kept in po- 
 sition by being pressed against two vertical projections or 
 " chucks." It is generally necessary to " anneal " the wire 
 from time to time, otherwise it becomes hard or more or less 
 liable to crack or break after having passed through a cer- 
 tain number of holes : " hard-drawn " (or unannealed ) 
 wires, however, are usually considerably more capable of re- 
 sisting tensile strains than the same wires after annealing. 
 In drawing wire on a manufacturing scale, the process is 
 just the same in principle, only, instead of drawing, the wire 
 through the draw-plate by hand by means of a wheel and 
 axle, &c., the wire is pulled through by hand with pliers 
 for a foot or two, and this portion then fastened to a revolv- 
 ing drum which then pulls the rest of the wire through, 
 coiling up the drawn out portion on the drum ; the wire is 
 
 1 For metals of moderately-low melting-points the fused substance 
 may be drawn up into a hot thin glass tube or pipe-stem by suction, 
 and allowed to solidify therein. By fusing the metal in the bowl 
 -of a tobacco-pipe and tilting this so that the stem is inclined down- 
 wards, the molten metal can often be made to form a rough wire 
 or thin rod in the stem, readily obtainable by breaking away the 
 pipe-clay after cooling. 
 57 
 
 the heating is not essential to the ductility of the body. Thus 
 with steel and iron wires or rods of considerable thickness, 
 the " drawing " operation being modified into a kind of roll- 
 ing, the hot metal being passed between grooved rollers of 
 successfully smaller and smaller grooves. Those alloys which 
 are brittle are necessarily non-ductile, but alloys which are 
 malleable are usually more or less ductile. Brass, a partic- 
 ularly malleable alloy, is also excessively ductile, wires of 
 this alloy having been drawn so fine by means of an ordi- 
 nary drawbench that seven feet of wire only weighed one 
 grain. It is noticeable that "virgin" brass (made by mix- 
 ing fresh copper and zinc together, not by remelting old al- 
 loy, &c.) is much more ductile than other kinds of brass, even 
 though apparently of the same chemical composition. Many 
 metals which are only drawn into wire with difficulty, can 
 be obtained in a -wire-like form by an ingenious process 
 called " squirting." The metal is melted and allowed to 
 cool, and when close upon the solidifying point is forced by 
 mechanical means (hydraulic pressure, &c.) through an ori- 
 fice of the requisite diameter ; the metal, coming in contact 
 with the air, is quickly chilled, and solidified to a wire or 
 rod, which is wound on a drum as fast as it is prepared. By 
 an appropriately formed jet or orifice a long continuous tube 
 may be squirted instead of a rod. In this way the ordinary 
 tin, lead, and " compo " tubing used for gas, water, spirits, 
 &c., is manufactured, as is also magnesium wire. Rifle 
 bullets are made by squirting lead into rods half an inch thick 
 
898 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 or so, from which portions are cut off and squeezed into 
 shape by machinery. 
 
 Tenacity. — The more crystalline a metal or alloy is 
 the less its power of resisting strains and stresses of various 
 kinds ; the more fibrous in structure the better it will re- 
 sist strain, especially in the direction of fibres. 
 
 By forming metals into wires of equal dimensions, and 
 then determining the weight requisite to break these wires, 
 the differences in tenacity exhibited by metals and alloys 
 may be readily demonstrated. A convenient apparatus for 
 this purpose is made of an iron tripod six or seven feet high 
 (Fig. 6), the legs of which are stayed together at the bot- 
 tom and in the middle ; from the top of the tripod is sus- 
 pended by a stout hook a dynamometer or spring balance 
 furnished with a hook at the bottom, whilst about half way 
 up the tripod is affixed a horizontal axle, supported by the 
 stay in such a position that the centre of the axle is perpen- 
 dicularly beneath the hook of the dynamometer. This axle 
 is provided with a winch, and round it is coiled a stout rope 
 or leather band with a hook at the end. The wire to be 
 tested is formed into a ring about three or four inches in 
 diameter, the ends being intertwisted andsoldered together; 
 the hooks attached to the bottom of the dynamometer and 
 to the rope are then inserted in this ring, and the handle 
 turned so as to wind up the rope and stretch the ring until 
 its form becomes a narrow oblong. The tension is then in- 
 creased by winding the rope until the wire breaks ; the 
 reading of the dynamometer is noted by an assistant at the 
 moment of rupture. 
 
 strains of wires of the same dimensions. The actual value 
 obtained with any particular wire, however, is largely influ- 
 enced by the purity of the metal, by the character of the 
 strain (whether applied suddenly, or slowly and gradually), 
 and by the physical condition of the wire (whether hard 
 drawn or annealed). Thus, Wertheim ' obtained the fol- 
 lowing values representing the weights in kilogrammes 
 required to break wires one square millimetre in section : — 
 
 
 Gradual 
 
 Strain sud- 
 
 
 strain. 
 
 denly a^plied^ 
 
 Case Sleel, hard drawn ... 
 
 _ 
 
 83-8 
 
 " annealed 
 
 657 
 
 
 Piano wire (.steel) ... 
 
 70-0 
 
 99-1 
 
 " annealed .... 
 
 400 
 
 63-9 
 
 Iron wire, hard drawn • . , . 
 
 611 
 
 65'1 
 
 " annealed . . 
 
 46-9 
 
 60-3 
 
 Copper wire, hard drawn 
 
 40-3 
 
 41-0 
 
 " annealed 
 
 30-5 
 
 31-7 
 
 Platinum wire, hard drawn 
 
 341 
 
 35-0 
 
 " annealed 
 
 23-S 
 
 27-7 
 
 Palladium wire, hard drawn . . 
 
 
 27 '2 
 
 " annealed 
 
 27-4 
 
 
 Silver wire, hard diawn .... 
 
 29-0 
 
 29.6 
 
 " annealed . . 
 
 10-0 
 
 16-9 
 
 Commercial zinc, drawn . 
 
 12-8 
 
 15-8 
 
 " annealed ... 
 
 
 14-4 
 
 Pnre zinc, cast .... . ... 
 
 4-5 
 
 
 Gold wire, hard drawn 
 
 27-0 
 
 28.4 
 
 " annealed .... 
 
 10-1 
 
 11-1 
 
 Cadmium, drawn . . 
 
 2 24 
 
 
 •' annealed ... 
 
 
 4'8 
 
 Lead, ca«t 
 
 l-2i 
 
 2-21 
 
 " drawn ... 
 
 2-07 
 
 2-36 
 
 " annealed ... 
 
 1-80 
 
 2 04 
 
 Tin wire, hard drawn 
 
 3-46 
 
 
 " annealed . .... 
 
 1-70 
 
 3-62 
 
 Somewhat different values have been obtained by other 
 experimenters, the difference being probably mainly due to 
 the presence of minute traces of impurity in the metals ex- 
 amined, etc. Thus Matthiessen gives the following values 
 somewhat different from the above. The numbers represent 
 the number of pounds weight required to break hard-drawn 
 double wires. No. 23 gauge. 
 
 Steel . 
 Iron . . 
 Platinum . 
 Silver 
 Copper 
 Gold 
 Tin 
 Lead . 
 
 . above 
 
 . under 
 
 200 
 80—90 
 45—60 
 46—60 
 25—30 
 20—25 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 Fia. 6. 
 
 In this kind of way the order of tenacity of the metals is 
 found to be as follows : 
 
 25 Iron. 
 I'j Copper. 
 14Platmum. 
 12 Aluminium. 
 10 Silver. 
 
 8 Gold. 
 
 7 Zine. 
 
 1.5 Tin. 
 
 1 Lead 
 
 Wires sometimes vary very much in tenacity at different 
 ternperatures ; as might be anticipated a prion, those metals 
 which melt most easily become most weakened on heating. 
 Thus Wertheim (loc. cit.) found the following values for 
 various annealed wires (as before in kilogrammes per wire 
 of one square millimeter section. 
 
 Iron . 
 Copper . 
 Platmum 
 Silver 
 Zinc 
 Gold . . 
 Cadmium 
 Lead . . 
 Tin ... 
 
 jitl!,°. 
 
 46 9 
 3U-0 
 23.6 
 16-0 
 14-4 
 10-1 
 4-8 
 1-8 
 1-7 
 
 A 1 100°. 
 
 61 -1 
 221 
 22-6 
 14-0 
 12-2 
 12-6 
 2-6 
 0-5 
 0-8.i 
 
 At 200°. 
 
 46-9 
 
 19-7 
 
 140 
 
 7-3 
 
 121 
 
 These numbers represent the relative average breaking ^Annales de Chimie, [iii.] xxii. 440, 
 
 Thus lead, tin, cadmium and zinc, which melt the lowest 
 of the above, are from only one-half to one-third as strong 
 at 200° as at 15° ; copper, silver, and platinum are much 
 less weakened on heating ; whilst iron and gold are actually 
 stronger at 100° than at 15°, and are but little weaker at 
 200° than at 100°. 
 
 Certain alloys possess much greater strength than their 
 constituents, and on this property depends much of their 
 practical use ; thus gun-metal, standard gold (gold copper 
 alloy), a silver platinum alloy used for electrical purposes, 
 steel, and phosphor bronze (which last two maybe regarded 
 as analogous to alloys) are much more tenacious than either 
 of their constituents severally : thus Matthiessen found the 
 following values (as before in pounds per double wire, hard 
 drawn, No. 23 gauge). 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 899 
 
 Metals Separately, 
 
 Copper 
 Tin 
 
 Copper . . 
 Gold . 
 
 Silver . 
 Pi<itiaum 
 Irou . , . 
 
 Alloys. 
 
 . . .25-30) f Gun -metal containing 12 per 
 
 , under 7 / ( cent, tin 80-90 
 
 . . . .25-301 /Standard gold: gold copper 
 
 . iO-25j X alloy, (22 carat gold) . . .70-75 
 
 . . .46-50) /Silver platinum alloy (%sil- 
 
 . . 45-50 J- ( ver, 3 plaiinum) .... 75-80 
 
 . 80-90 ) Steel above 200 
 
 As a* general rule, however, the effect of alloying metals 
 together is to impair their tenacity; thus gold is rendered 
 brittle by the presence of a trace of antimony, and an alloy 
 of two parts tin and one of platinum is quite brittle. As 
 already stated, the union of non metals with metals usually 
 wholly destroys the metallic characters, and in particular 
 this chemical union usually gives rise to a product possessing 
 but little toughness and tenacity, such as is requisite for 
 manufacturing purposes, (such products as glass, earthen- 
 ware, bricks, and various minerals, etc., excepted). Steel 
 and phosphor bronze, however, as above stated, form notable 
 exceptions to this rule, the presence of one per cent, or less 
 of carbon in the first, and of a like quantity of phosphorus 
 in the second, communicating to the substances iron and 
 bronze a considerably greater power of resisting wear and 
 tear and other special qualities. The accurate determina- 
 tion of the tensile strength of wire ropes, bars, etc., of their 
 power of resisting crushing and transverse strains, bending 
 and twisting agencies, etc., is of very great importance to 
 the architect and engineer. Ingenious and powerful ma- 
 chinery for this purpose has been constructed by Mr. David 
 Kirkaldy,' whose machines will measure any kind of strain 
 or stress from ten to one million pounds, applied not only 
 to metals but to wood and building materials generally. 
 Modifications of this testing machinery are employed in 
 some iron works, etc., for the purpose of continually ex- 
 amining the strength and value of certain of the products, 
 (e. g. Bessemer rails and the like). 
 
 Other Physical Properties. — Closely connected with 
 the physical structure which enables metals to exhibit the 
 phenomena of crystallization, malleability, and ductility is 
 the power which some possess of returning to their original 
 shape when deflected therefrom by some external force not 
 too great {elasticity) ; a property possessed to an extreme 
 degree by good steel. The operations of wire-drawing, 
 rolling, hammering, and the like generally increase the 
 elasticity of metals, whilst annealing and fusing usually 
 diminish it. Some metals are almost wholly devoid of elas- 
 ticity ; thus lead scarcely exhibits a trace of this property, 
 being so soft that it is readily abraded by the nail. Some 
 metals and alloys, when worked into appropriate shapes and 
 struck, continue vibrating for some time, and hence are 
 powerfully sonorous, [e. g. aluminium, bell-metal, steel, 
 standard gold, etc). 
 
 The chief value of many metals and alloys for industrial 
 purposes lies in their possession to a greater or less extent of 
 a combination of properties of somewhat opposite kinds ; 
 whilst they possess sufficient rigidity to keep their shape 
 even with moderately hard usage and to bear " wear and 
 tear," when . once fashioned into articles of domestic and 
 everyday use, they have power of yielding to pressure, &c. 
 to a sufficient extent to enable them to be readily worked 
 into these forms. In some cases the requisite softness for 
 this latter purpose is hardly attained until the temperature 
 is considerably raised ; thus most articles of wrought iron 
 are made when the metal is softened by heat so as to yield 
 readily to percussion (forging) and other shaping processes. 
 Closely connected with this softening or incipient conver- 
 sion into a pliable mass of heat, is the phenomena of welding, 
 or the adherence together of two separate metallic masses 
 when united by pressure in such a way as to form a joint as 
 strong as the other parts. Iron and plantium possess this 
 power at a high temperature ; sodium and some of the rarer 
 metals at the ordinary temperature ; gold also can be welded 
 cold, under certain conditions, as in gold-beating. On the 
 possession of these properties depend most of the metal- 
 
 • Testing and Experimental Works, 99 Southwark Street, S. E. 
 The specimens In Mr. Kirkaldy's museum, illustrating the results 
 arrived at with many years' employment of his testing machinery 
 on all sorts of material, are of a most interesting and instructive 
 character. 
 
 fashioned crafts, those where the metals are fused and cast 
 being the main exceptions. 
 
 Thus in the manufacture of steel pens, as carried out by 
 Messrs. Gillott & Sons, there are no less than eighteen 
 stages between the conditions of bar steel and finished pen ; 
 and most of the stages are different applications of these 
 properties of metals in reference to the shaping of the 
 material into the required form. The bar steel is first con- 
 verted into thin sheets, which are again rolled to the 
 requisite degree of thinness ; from the rolled steel "blanks" 
 are punched out by a machine, leaving a kind of skeleton 
 or network of "scrap steel" (Fig. 7), which is melted up 
 or welded together and used over again. Two "aide slits" 
 
 are then made in the blank (No. 2), and a somewhat wider 
 centre slit (No. 3) pierced, a portion of metal being punched 
 out in making the orifice ; the metal is then annealed and 
 marked with the maker's name ; a device or trade mark is 
 raised by embossing (No. 4), and then the hitherto flat pen 
 is converted into a portion of a cylinder, or curved (techni- 
 cally, "raised") by a suitable machine No. 5) ; after which 
 it is hardened, tempered, and cleaned by scouring with 
 emery, &c. ; the tip is then "straight-ground," i. e. the 
 metal is thinned at the writing end by grinding in the di- 
 rection of the length of the pen, after which it is " cross- 
 ground," in the transverse direction. Finally the slit from 
 the nib to the punched-out central part is cut, and the pen 
 is colored and varnished for sale. Similarly the production 
 of an ordinary pin necessitates a number of stages in the 
 shaping process, which is thus carried out by Messrs. 
 Taylor of Birmingham. Virgin brass having been cast 
 into thin elongated bars, is drawn into wire of the required 
 diameter, which is supplied to the pin-making machine 
 from a drum on which it is coiled. The end of the wire is 
 adjusted to the machine, which gradually draws it thiough 
 a series of pegs so arranged as to straighten the wire and 
 take the curve from the drum out of it ; the wire next passes 
 into a kind of die, when a rapidly acting hammer strikes 
 the slightly projected end in such a fashion as to flatten it 
 out and fit it into an expansion in the end of the die groove 
 forming the " solid head " (formerly the Head was made of 
 a coil of thinner wire slipped over the pin wire, and ham- 
 mered into shape ; such heads were liable to come off). The 
 head being completed, a knife cuts off' the proper length 
 from the wire, and the partially made pin is detached from 
 the die and falls into a groove in which it is suspended by 
 the head whilst the other end is abraded to a point by a 
 kind of revolving cylindrical file. All these operations are 
 performed automatically by the machine, and so rapidly 
 that 200 complete pins are turned out of the machine per 
 minute. Finally the pins are cleansed by agitation in bar- 
 rels with fuller's earth and water, washed, and coated with 
 tin by boiling with granulated tin and cream of tartar, &c. 
 Again the manufacture of table-spoons and forks, many 
 kinds of brass-work, cutlery, percussion-caps, copper pans 
 and kettles, medals and coins, and a thousand-and-one arti- 
 cles of every-day use, all depend upon the possibility of 
 forcing the metal into various shapes without fracturing it, 
 by mechanical processes, such as forging, punching, pressinii, 
 embossing, and the like. One of the prettiest illustrations 
 
900 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the application of pressing and shaping force as afforded 
 by the processes in use for " tea-pot spinning," «. e. the pro- 
 duction of Britannia-metal teapot by a process technically 
 termed spinning. . ^ ^^i . i 
 
 The alloy being rolled into sheets of convenient thickness, 
 a circular disc is cut out and placed in a kind of lathe as re- 
 presented in Fig. 8, the metal disc being pressed against a 
 
 nearly hemispherical wooden chuck a. The lathebeing set 
 in motion the workman presses against the off-side of the 
 disc with a peculiarly shaped tool b, held steadily by means 
 
 tools held one in each hand and applied, the one within and 
 other without the rim of the bowl, the metal is gradually 
 bent inwards as it revolves, so as finally to take an almost 
 globular shape ; Fig. 10 indicates the closing state of this 
 operation, the nearly globular bowl thus formed being shown 
 in section in Fig 9 b. Finally the lid, spout, handle, &c, 
 are attached, and the whole brightened and polished for the 
 market. During the spinning the edge of the disc, some 
 forty or fifty inches in circumference, becomes diminished 
 to almost half that in the bowl, and to about one quarter in 
 the globular pot, the metal being thus as it were pressed in 
 upon itself, as well as somewhat extended, the superficial 
 area of the outside of the globular pot being somewhat 
 greater than that of one side of the circular disc used in the 
 first instance. In a similar fashion jugs and analogous ves- 
 sels are " spun up," out of plates, the lips for pouring being 
 subsequently shaped by carefully hammering or pressing out 
 the metal on a wooden or metal mould. Silver articles, e. g. 
 bowls, teapots, &c., are frequently curved by an analogous 
 operation ; the second stage, however, cannot so well be ap- 
 
 of the rest, c, so ag gradually to bend the disc over the 
 mould, a, and so to convert the disc into a bowl. The bowl 
 thus formed IS taken off the lathe and set with the convex 
 part fixed into the concavitv of a hollowed-out chuck (shown 
 in section a Fig. 9) ; by tte aid of two diffierently Uap^d 
 
 plied to silver, so that if a closed-in vessel is required like a 
 teapot, it is usually made in two halves, neatly soldered 
 together. 
 
 —CompUtd from "MetaU and their Chuif Ijidmtrial AppUcatimt. 
 
THE MINES, MINEE8 AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 901 
 
 WASHING GOLD ALLUVIA 200 YEARS AGO. 
 
 D 
 
 TIRING the spring of 1881 Mr. Melville Attwood 
 F. G. 8. read before the California State Geological 
 Society a paper " On the Milling of Gold Quartz" 
 which contained the following interesting state- 
 ment: 
 
 nearly 200 years ago. You will see how much better it is 
 calculated to wash gold alluvia than our modern rocker. 
 
 An explanation of the engraving, taken from the book 
 referred to, is as follows : 
 
 1. The man that worketh with the rattar. 
 
 2. The middle floor whereon that which goeth through the 
 rattar doth fall. 
 
 MACHTNB FOB WASHING GOLD ALLUVIA 200 YEAES AGO. 
 
 " If we search the records of past times, we shall find that 
 a great deal has been done years ago, which might be applied 
 with great advantage even at the present time, in proof of 
 which examine the drawings which I have brought for your 
 inspection. The engraving I copied from Sir John Pettus' 
 book on the "Laws of Metals, &c., "published in 1683, 
 
 3. The lower floor whereon that which cometh from the 
 middle floor doth fall. 
 
 4. The plain receiver of that which falls upon both. 
 
 5. The person that stands on a board and out of a wheel- 
 barrow throws the matter or ore, into the tunnel which 
 guides it into the ratter. 
 
902 
 
 THE MINES MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 6. The channel in which water doth run into the rattar. 
 
 " Then some of the gold washers use upon their hearths 
 the strong timode black and russet woolen cloth, over which 
 they drive their WQrks, because the woolen cloth is rough and 
 hairy, so that the small and round grains of gold will remain, 
 and not run forth (as it will from the timode), whereby the 
 gold upon the black cloth may apparently be known, though 
 it be small and little. Others use instead of the timode or 
 black woolen cloths, linsey-woolsey (half linen and half 
 woolen ; wrought in the manner as the timode is), upon 
 which the gold doth stick better, and such cloths do last 
 longer, because of the linen that is among the woolen, which 
 doth strengthen it ; therefore it is better for this work. " 
 
 HYDRAULIC MINING IN CALIFORNIA. 
 
 IN crossing ravines, flumes or wrought iron pipes are 
 used. Many miners object to flumes on account of their 
 continual cost and danger of destruction by fire. 
 Where used, and practicable, they are set on heavier 
 grades than ditches, 30 to 35 feet per mile, and, consequently, 
 are proportionately of smaller area than the ditches. In 
 their construction a straight line is the most desirable. 
 Curves, when required, should be carefully set, so that the 
 flume may discharge its maximum quantity. Many ditches 
 in California have miles of fluming. The annexed sketch 
 will show the ordinary style of construction. 
 
 Table sboiviiig Details of Constmctlon ofWronght Iron Pipe 
 for tHe Spring Valley Water Company of San Francisco. 
 
 Thickness of 
 the Bands, 
 
 Inches. 
 6-16 
 
 I 
 
 Width 
 of the 
 Bands 
 
 Inches. 
 
 f 
 % 
 
 i 
 
 Thirk- 
 ness of 
 
 the 
 Sleeves. 
 
 No. 
 11 
 11 
 11 
 
 Width of 
 the Sleeves, 
 
 Inches. 
 6k 
 
 6(1 
 6V| 
 6g 
 
 Width of the 
 Sheets used 
 
 in the 
 
 Pipes. 
 
 Thickness of 
 the Iron used 
 in the Pipes. 
 
 Inches. 
 42 
 42 
 44 
 42 
 40 
 42 
 40 
 
 Inches. 
 
 3-16 
 3-16 
 
 No. 9 
 
 No. 11 
 
 No. 11 
 
 No. 12 
 
 No. 12 
 
 Diameter 
 
 of Riiets 
 
 used. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 6-16 
 6-16 
 6-16 
 6-16 
 
 Pitch of the 
 Circle Seams 
 
 Pitch of the 
 Circle Seams 
 
 Amoun\ 
 of two 
 
 Space 
 
 Length to the 
 joining 
 Holes in 
 
 Length to 
 the Joining 
 
 Whole 
 
 Length of 
 
 the 
 
 in the Out- 
 side Courses, 
 
 Courses. 
 
 Laps. 
 
 Double 
 Sow. 
 
 the Outside 
 Courses. 
 
 the Inside 
 Courses, 
 
 Outside 
 ihurses. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches, 
 
 
 1.46i29 
 
 1.4106233 
 
 2 
 
 1.10 
 
 36.63931 
 
 65.01431 
 
 69.739 
 
 1.46229 
 
 1.4207516 
 
 2 
 
 1.10 
 
 66.63931 
 
 66.40931 
 
 69.739.31 
 
 1.46229 
 
 1.4267516 
 
 2 
 
 1.10 
 
 66.63931 
 
 6S.40931 
 
 69 73931 
 
 1.197 
 
 1.7916 
 
 1.625 
 
 .625 
 
 67.456 
 
 66.6999 
 
 59.706 
 
 ,9934092 
 
 .9816167517 
 
 1.6 
 
 .625 
 
 67.6212136 
 
 66.9337136 
 
 69.746 
 
 .9934692 
 
 .9816157517 
 
 1.S 
 
 .«26 
 
 67.6212136 
 
 66.9337136 
 
 69.746 
 
 .9934692 
 
 .9837709 
 
 1.26 
 
 .626 
 
 67.6212136 
 
 67-0687136 
 
 69.496 
 
 .9934692 
 
 .9837709 
 
 1,25 
 
 .626 
 
 67.6212136 
 
 67.0687136 
 
 59.496 
 
 Whole 
 
 Length of the 
 
 Inside 
 
 Courses. 
 
 Spaces in the 
 arcle 
 Seams. 
 
 Pitch of 
 Doub 
 Row. 
 
 the 
 e 
 
 Spacet 
 Do 
 B 
 
 in the 
 Me 
 no. 
 
 Amount of 
 the two Out- 
 side Spaces 
 
 of the 
 Double Sow, 
 
 Al 
 
 two 
 
 tht 
 
 nount of 
 Laps for 
 DotiMe 
 Row. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches 
 
 
 Inc 
 
 hes. 
 
 Inches, 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 68.114 
 
 39 
 
 1.722 
 
 1 
 
 
 22 
 
 2.1094 
 
 
 2 
 
 68.51031 
 
 39 
 
 1.722 
 
 1 
 
 
 22 
 
 2.1094 
 
 
 2 
 
 68,50931 
 
 39 
 
 1.72a 
 
 1 
 
 
 23 
 
 2.3071 
 
 
 2 
 
 68.8492 
 
 48 
 
 1.468 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 2.207 
 
 
 1.625 
 
 69.0673 
 
 58 
 
 1.468 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 2.06 
 
 
 1.25 
 
 69.0573 
 
 68 
 
 1.468 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 2.332 
 
 
 1.5 
 
 68.9333 
 
 68 
 
 1.468 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 2.05 
 
 
 1.25 
 
 68.9333 
 
 68 
 
 1.468 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 1.618 
 
 
 1.26 
 
 The planking ordinarily used is of heart sugar pine 1 J to 
 2 inches thick, and 12 to 18 inches wide. Where the boards 
 join, pine battens 3 inches wide 1 J thick cover the seam. 
 Sills, post and caps support and strengthen the flume every 
 four feet. The posts are mortised into the caps. The sills 
 extend about 20 inches beyond the posts, and to them side 
 braces' are nailed to strensthen the structure. This ex- 
 tension of the sill timbers affords a place for the accumu- 
 lation of snow and ice, aud in the mountains such ac- 
 cumulations frequently break them off, and occasionally 
 destroy a flume To avoid damages from slides, snow and 
 wind storms, the flumes are set in as close as possible to 
 
 1 Side braces and extra extension of the sill are in manv cases 
 only an unnecessary expenditure of money. 
 
 the bank, and rest, wholly or partially, as the general 
 topography and cost will admit. Stringers running the 
 
 entire length of the flume are placed beneath the sills just 
 outside the post. They are not absolutely necessary, but in 
 point of economy are most valuable, as they preserve the 
 timbers. As occasion may demand the flume is trestled, 
 the main supports being placed every eight feet. The 
 scantling o.nd struts used are in accordance with the re- 
 quirements of the work. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 903 
 
 Wrought Iron Pipes.— The use of sheet iron pipes 
 for conveying water in large quantities originated with the 
 hydraulic miner. The insignificant weight, coupled with 
 their great strength (tensile), admirably adapted them to 
 the service for which they have been employed. 
 
 The general sizes of the pipes used in the mines are 40, 30, 
 22, 15, and 11 inches in diameter, of riveted light sheet iron, 
 No. 16, 14, or 12 iron, Birmingham gauge, made in lengths 
 of about 20 feet, and put together in a stove-pipe fashion, 
 neither rivets nor wire being used to hold the joints in place! 
 
 SKETCH OF FLUME. 
 
 These pipes are light and can be readily and cheaply moved ; 
 this in hydraulic mining is of great importance, as it is 
 often requisite to change the position of the lines of pipe. 
 Pipe put together in this rough manner will remain tight 
 when subjected to even as great a pressure as 240 pounds to 
 the square inch. When the pressure requires it, lead joints 
 are used. (See sketch.) A represents the pipe; B the 
 iron sleeve, between which and the pipe the lead, repre- 
 sented by the dotted lines, is poured. C is the flange, bolted 
 to one length of the pipe on the inside for the other pipe to 
 fit over, as shown. Though roughly made and of very 
 light iron, this kind of pipe (connected more like stove pipe 
 than water pipe) is found in practice to be more serviceable, 
 and from its form floating particles of matter readily render 
 it water-tight. Such a pipe, 12 inches in diameter made 
 of No. 18 iron is riveted in the longitudinal seams every 1 
 to IJ inches, whilst in the round seams the rivets may be 
 as much as three inches apart ; the rivets small ones, one- 
 eighth or an inch in diameter, showing daylight between the 
 iron, but after water has run through the pipe a short 
 time nearly every leak stops. If necessary, however, 1 or 
 2 bags of sawdust and a few shovelfuls of earth put in the 
 inlet, will usually make all tight. 
 
 This class of pipe is now being replaced by one of bet- 
 ter make on which the round seams are made with rivets 
 three-quarters of an inch apart, and the longitudinal seams 
 are double riveted with rivets one inch apart in the row, 
 and with about one-half inch apart from one row to the 
 other. If riveted with care such pipes, after being dipped 
 in an asphaltum bath, are excellent and will last for many 
 years. For the asphaltum bath the following preparations 
 can be used : 
 
 Crude asphaltatn 28)( 
 
 Coal tar (free from oily substances) lii 
 
 Or, 
 
 Refined asphaltum IBKji 
 
 Coal tar (free from oily substances) 83>|^ 
 
 When the mass has been boiled to a proper consistency, 
 and by test the coating is found to be brittle, it at once indi- 
 cates that the mixture has been boiled too hot, or that 
 
 there was too much oil in the tar or asphaltum. After the 
 pipes are dipped they are raised out of the bath and the 
 superfluous asphaltum allowed to drip oflT, so there is no 
 waste. 
 
 Thickness of the Iron, Rivets, Etc.— The thickness 
 of the iron is usually proportionate to the head of water and 
 the diameter of the pipe. Pipes made of the difierent sizes 
 of iron here mentioned will ^tand the following strain 
 per sectional inch : 
 
 1 
 
 1 22"Kpe . 
 
 1 
 
 AIK VALVE FOE 22-INCH WATER PIPE. 
 
 No. of Iron. 
 
 Made to stand nlram 
 
 per eectional in. 
 
 Lbs. avd'pe 
 
 12 ... 
 
 12 to 9. . . . 
 9 to 3-16 . .... 
 
 y*^% 
 
 7,000 to 9.000 
 9,000 to 12,000 
 12,000 to 14,000 
 17,000 to 18,000 
 
 The head of the water in pounds avoirdupois, multiplied 
 by the diameter of the pipe in inches and divided by the 
 above co-efiicients, gives twice the thickness of the iron to 
 be used. Allowance must be made for the security required ; 
 that is, if the breakage of the pipe will cause much damage, 
 it is advisable to lower the margin for greater safety. 
 
 The diameter of the rivets used are 
 
 No. 
 18 
 
 No. 
 16 
 
 Nos. 
 14, 12, 11 
 
 Nos. 
 10, 8, 7, Ji in. 
 
 6-16 in. 
 
 % in. 
 
 6-92 in. 
 
 6-32 in. 
 
 5-16 in. 
 
 % in. 14 in. 
 
 %m. 
 
 % in. 
 
 and are usually spaced to make the pipe light, that is, closer 
 than is necessary for the strength of the seam ; but this in 
 turn is governed by the pressure on the pipes. 
 
 When the pipe is made and put in position, air valves are 
 provided to allow the escape of air from the pipe whilst 
 filling, and especially to prevent any collapse should a break 
 occur. These valves are of many forms, the most usual 
 being a piece of leather loaded and forming a valve opening 
 to the inside of the pipe, and when shut covering a plain 
 hole of from one inch to four inches on the top side of the 
 valve. Where required a better class of valve is used, which 
 sinks and opens when the water leaves it, and floats and 
 shuts when the water rises up to it. (See sketch. ) An im- 
 portant point is the admission of the water in the pipe in 
 such a way as to prevent air from being sucked into and 
 travelling along the pipe, which will happen and in large 
 quantities unless the water is regulated. The best plan is 
 to put a gate in the pipe a little below the level where the 
 water enters it, and regulate the flow by this gate, and by 
 this means a steady pressure without violent oscillation can 
 be obtained. Usually, however, the water first flows through 
 a funnel-shaped pipe, which allows the air to escape as it 
 enters, and with a little care this can be made to answer 
 very well. In some instance an air or stand pipe is put in 
 
904 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 a distance from the entrance or inlet. This catches the air 
 as it travels along the top of the pipe and allows its escape. 
 The following table shows the usual distances of rivets tor 
 corresponding thickness of iron ; items relate to 22-inch 
 wrought-iron pipe : 
 
 Thicknesa 
 
 of the Iron 
 
 used. 
 
 No. 12 
 No 11 
 No. 9 
 3-16 in. 
 Min. 
 
 Diameter 
 ' of the 
 EivelB. 
 
 Length of 
 the Bfoels. 
 
 5-16 in. 
 6-16 in. 
 
 1 3-16 in. 
 IV in. 
 iJlin. 
 
 Pilch of the 
 circh 
 eeants. 
 
 lin. 
 
 1 in. 
 1 3-16 in. 
 1 7-16 in. 
 1 7-16 in. 
 
 ■a.S 
 
 .i.p 
 
 69 
 69 
 69 
 33 
 39 
 
 Piteh of the rivets 
 in the longitudinal 
 aeama or double 
 
 m 
 
 I 7-16 in. full 
 1 11-16 in. full 
 
 I I -16 in. full 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 .? « 2 ^ 
 
 
 j^in. 
 in. 
 
 J|in. 
 1 1-10 in. 
 1 1-10 in. 
 
 The accompanying figures' given in tabular form show 
 the details of construction of wrought iron pipe 18 inches in 
 
 lEAD JOINT VOB. PIPE. 
 
 diameter, 5,800 feet long, manufactured by the Eisdon Iron 
 and Locomotive Works, San Francisco, for the Spring Val- 
 ley Water Company, which supplies the city of San Fran- 
 cisco. The information here afforded to mechanical engi- 
 neers is sufficiently explicit for the construction of wrought- 
 iron pipes. 
 
 This pipe has a tensile strain of about 5,000 or 6,000 pounds 
 per sectional inch, and has been made with this low co- 
 efficient in order to withstand the pulsation caused by a 
 single acting plunger pump, making as high as 36 single 
 strokes (four in length) per minute. 
 
 These oscillations are found in practice to run from five 
 to nine pounds per stroke when the air vessel is properly 
 charged, otherwise by carelessness it may exceed 50 pounds 
 per stroke. 
 
 At Cherokee there is an inverted siphon of wrought iron. 
 The pipe has an approximate inner diameter of 30 inches, 
 discharging 52 cubic feet of water per second. It has been 
 in continuous use for five years, and now in first-claso order. 
 The iron used was ordinary English plate of fair quality. 
 The greatest pressure it sustains is 887 feet, and the thick- 
 ness of the iron at that point is three-eighths of an inch. 
 
 The annexed'' plan, taken from the original survey on file 
 in the office of the company, shows the line of the pipe and 
 different sizes of iron used in construction of the siphon. 
 The maximum strains on the several sizes of iron used are 
 given in the following table. 
 
 Size of Iron. 
 
 Greatest 
 
 Presmre. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Maxiinum tensUe strain 
 on iron per square inch 
 
 
 Thickneu in 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 decimals of an 
 inch. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Founds. 
 
 in pounds. 
 
 14 
 
 .083 
 
 170 
 
 74 
 
 13,374 
 
 12 
 
 .109 
 
 288 
 
 125 
 
 17,202 
 
 11 
 
 .012 
 
 293 
 
 127 
 
 15,875 
 
 10 
 
 .134 
 
 355 
 
 )64 
 
 17.240 
 
 3-16 
 
 .187 
 
 435 
 
 188 
 
 16,080 
 
 % 
 
 .260 
 
 694 
 
 257 
 
 15,''.20 
 
 6-16 
 
 .312 
 
 842 
 
 366 
 
 17,604 
 
 'A 
 
 .375 
 
 887 
 
 384 
 
 15,360 
 
 iron at the lowest point of depression is No. 0. The pipe 
 was hot-riveted, | inch rivets, double row on straight seam 
 and single row on round seam. This pipe, when tested, is 
 said to have stood a pressure of 1,400 per square inch.' 
 
 A poller by Augustus J. Bowie, Jr., A. B. Transaction American Institute of 
 Mining Engineers. 
 
 The Virginia Water Company, Nevada, have constructed 
 a similar wrought iron siphon, il J inches in diameter. The 
 maximum pressure in its greatest depression is 1,720 feet, 
 equal to 750 pounds per square inch. The thickness of the 
 
 ' The data were obtained from Jospph Moore, M. E., Supt. of 
 the Risdon Iron and Locomotive Works, under whose immediate 
 direction the pipe was constructed. 
 
 2 The Mining and Scientific Press, of January 7, 1871, contains 
 a detailed account of the construction of this pipe, and also gives 
 a diagram of the line. 
 
 MECHANICAL AND LEGAL HISTORY OF 
 HYDRAULIC NOZZLES. 
 
 A CURIOUS legal contest which has, for a num- 
 ber of years, been waged over a patented ma- 
 chine, has recently been decided by Judge Saw- 
 yer, of the United States Circuit Court, District 
 of California. It involved the title and ownership of the 
 famous hydraulic mining machine known as the Little 
 Giant, heretofore made and sold by Eichard Hoskin, of 
 Marysville, Cal., but which was formerly made and sold by 
 R. R. & Joseph Craig, of Nevada City. This machine has 
 done more to encourage and develop the hydraulic mining 
 industry of the world than all other causes. It solved the 
 problem of practically handling large streams of water un- 
 der great pressures, which is a necessity in working our 
 large hydraulic claims on a profitable scale. 
 
 Some of our readers may not understand the nature of 
 the work that such a machine is called upon to perform. 
 Some idea may be gathered from a mere statement of the 
 circumstances under which they are used. In some of our 
 large mines the reservoir from which the water is taken is 
 300 feet above the point where the water is to be used, and 
 the water is conducted from this reservoir to the Little 
 Giant, or hydraulic machine, through large sheet-iron 
 pipes, which in some cases are two feet in diameter. Before 
 the water reaches the Little Giant it is under an enormous 
 pressure, and it issues from the nozzle of the machine with 
 such force that it is projected in a solid stream from 100 to 
 150 feet against the bank to be washed and literally carries 
 all before it. So compact and solid is the stream near 
 where it issues from the nozzle, that a per.son could no more 
 strike a heavy crowbar through it than he could thi-ough an 
 equal body of iron or steel. Sometimes the banks are very 
 high, in which case the Giant must be kept at a respect- 
 ful distance from it, otherwise it is in danger of being bur- 
 ied when the bank caves or falls in. The usual method of 
 attacking a bank is to direct the stream at its base and 
 wash out or burrow a tunnel, so as to cut it under the bank 
 until the upper portion falls or caves down in a broken 
 mass. The stream then cleans up the debris which has fal- 
 len and washes it into the flume, down which it courses, de- 
 positing its articles of gold in the riffles which are distri- 
 buted over the bottom of the flume. 
 
 Hydraulic mining was first carried on by conducting the 
 water through an ordinary two-inch hose and projecting it 
 through an inch nozzle, such as is now used by our fire de- 
 partment for conducting water from fire engines and throw- 
 ing it upon a fire. This was necesarily slow business, as the 
 stream would do but little execution against a tough cement 
 bank. There was no scarcity of water, but there was no 
 competent machine for handling a large stream. Even with 
 a small hose and nozzle, such as we have described, the 
 labor of holding and directing the nozzle was almost Hercu- 
 lean. The hose had a tendency to fly from side to side, es- 
 pecially when it got a little bent, and the nozzle-man was a 
 lucky one indeed that didn't get thrashed by his pipe and 
 nozzle several times a day. In 1864, J. M.' Allenwood, of 
 Timbuctoo, Yuba county, patented what was afterwards 
 known as the " Gooseneck machine." It had two joints ; a 
 lower horizontal joint and an upper joint made of a short 
 section of canvas. This machine was one step in the right 
 direction, but the canvas joint was liable to get " kinked,'' 
 and then the machine would fly around like a whirligig and 
 knocked everything over within its reach. This the miners 
 
 ' The Virginia City Water Company has constrncted a second 
 siphon, made of lap-welded pipe, 10 inches inner diameter, i-inch 
 iron, and placed it alongside the siphon already built. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 905 
 
 called " bucking." The machine was, however, used in sev- 
 eral mines by using a bloclj and tackle for holding it to its 
 work. In 1867, Jenkin W. Richards, of Michigan BlulF, 
 Placer county, devised a double-jointed machine to take the 
 place of the usual nozzle. It was intended, with this ma- 
 chine, to get the desired range of motion from the two joints, 
 and thus avoid the necessity of bending the hose in order to 
 change the direction of the stream. 
 
 This machine never amounted to much, as its joints were 
 found to be almost as unrtliable as the hose. It was, there- 
 fore, abandoned as a failure, and inventors came to the 
 conclusion that two-jointed machines would never answer. 
 In 1869, the Craiga — R. R. and Joseph — above mentioned, 
 devised and patented a single-joint, ball and socket machine, 
 which it was at first supposed would answer every purpose. 
 Other inventors followed, all with single-jointed machines 
 — except in one or two instances, where some sanguine in- 
 ventor would bring out a nondescript two-jointed machine 
 to be tested and then taken back to the foundry to be bro- 
 ken up for old iron. Such was the Shaw, the Rice, the Gor- 
 man and Hoskin and a number of others. In 1870, Frank 
 H. Fisher, of Nevada City, invented his famous " Hydraulic 
 Chief." This was a two-jointed machine, and the first suc- 
 cessful two-jointed machine that any one had produced. Its 
 element of success was in its upper joint. Instead of the 
 canvas or hose section used in the Allenwood machine, he 
 substituted a metallic joint that worked on pivots on both 
 sides, so that the nozzle could only be moved up and down 
 on this joint, while it got its side motions from the horizon- 
 tal, or lower joint. This machine was a success, and became 
 quite popular for the short time it had been in the field. 
 In the meantime the Oraigs commenced suit against several 
 of the machines, Hoskin amongst the rest, and threatened 
 Fisher with a suit, alleging that all of the machines were 
 infringements upon their Globe, or ball and socket single- 
 jointed machine. 
 
 Instead of conte.sting the case with the Craigs, Hoskin 
 compromised his suit with them and entered into a compact 
 with them by which Hoskin was to be the manufacturer and 
 seller and the combination was to drive out competition and 
 control the market. Hoskin then got up the present Little 
 Giant, which was simply a duplication of Fisher's Hydraulic 
 Chief, with slight changes. They also purchased from the 
 inventors, Macy & Martin, a patent which covered the use 
 of riffles in a hydraulic discharge pipe. This " riffle" patent 
 was the key to the situation. Without the riffles none of 
 the machines could be successfully used, and all of their ma- 
 chines were using them. Craig then commenced suit against 
 Fisher in the United States Circuit Court to preveiit him 
 from using the riffles and served a preliminary injunction 
 on him pendente lite. Fisher was contumacious, and persis- 
 ted in using the riffles, even after the injunction was served, 
 and as a consequence he was brought before the court on an 
 order to show cause why he should not be punished for con- 
 tempt of court. Judge Sawyer, after due consideration of 
 the case, fined Fisher $100 and gave him a severe lecture on 
 the danger and possible consequences of violating an order 
 of the court, and warned him to desist in the future from 
 committing any further contempt. Fisher was not alto- 
 gether subdued by this fine and lecture, but returned to his 
 home in Nevada City, determined to get around the Craigs 
 and the order of the court in some way ; but, nevertheless, 
 he did not act without the advice of his counsel. His busi- 
 ness was in jeopardy unless he could use riffles in some way 
 in his discharge pipe, because, without the riffles the water 
 which issued from the nozzle would scatter and be ineifectual. 
 He therefore purchased a number of old, worn-out pipes in 
 which riffles had been placed by Macy & Martin, the inven- 
 tors, and taking out the riffles, placed them in new discharge 
 pipes of his Hydraulic Chief Again he was brought before 
 the court for contempt, and Judge Sawyer, after considering 
 the case, rendered the decision which has ever since been 
 recognized as authority in like cases, viz: "In a combina- 
 tion of two elements it is an infringement to manufacture 
 one of these elements and combine it with one of the other 
 elements, although the other element is purchased from the 
 patentee himself." Fisher was therefore found guilty of a 
 contempt of court. This being the second offense, Fisher 
 was fined $500 and ordered to be confined in the San Jose 
 jail for 30 days. Fisher says his confinement was not irk- 
 
 some and not altogether without enjoyment. He spent most 
 of his time in a steeple, with a spy-glass in his hand, from 
 whence he became quite familiar with the landmarks around 
 the bucolic city of San Jose. The balance of his time he 
 spent on parole, wandering through the streets and taking 
 needed exercise. After his release he one day happened 
 in the Mining and Scientijic Press Patent Agency in this 
 city whore he was informed by Mr. Jno. L. Boone, who was 
 at that time connected with the agency, that his patent 
 could be reissued so as to cover the upper joint of the Little 
 Giant machine. Munn and Co., of New York, had taken 
 out the original patent, but had only patented the lever at- 
 tachment by which the machine was handled. A reissue of 
 his patent was then applied for, through the Mining and 
 Scientific Press Patent Agency, and in due time the new 
 patent was issued with a claim for the upper joint. Fisher 
 then employed the law firm of Morgan & Heydenfeldt, and 
 a suit was commenced against the Craigs for injuring the 
 reissued patent. 
 
 Meanwhile the Craigs had not been idle. They had pur- 
 chased the old Allenwood patent of 1864, and immediately 
 they reissued it so as to cover broadly a two jointed ma- 
 chine. With this patent they went into court, and defeated 
 Fisher's suit by anticipating his invention with the Allen- 
 wood machine. This put a quietus on Fisher. He had be- 
 come deeply involved financially in his several battles with 
 the Craigs, and it now became necessary to seek other 
 means to afford him a livelihood. He obtained employment 
 in the San Francisco Mint, where he has remained ever 
 since. About two years ago, he again reissued his patent 
 with good success, and he then employed our fi-iend, Jno. 
 L. Boone, Esq., who had meanwhile commenced the prac- 
 tice of law, to commence another suit against Hoskin and the 
 Craigs. This suit was contested on the part of the Craigs by 
 the same attorneys who had successfully defeated the former 
 suit, and the case .was prosecuted before the same Judge. 
 This time, however, Fisher was successful, and a decision 
 was rendered in his favor in the early part of the present 
 term, and as the Macy & Martin patent on the riffles has 
 expired, Fisher now succeeds to his legitimate rights, and 
 will hereafter furnish hydraulic mining machines. 
 
 — Mining and Scientific Prese. 
 
 THE DRAINAGE OF MINES. 
 
 THERE are few situations where workings can be car- 
 ried to any considerable depth below the surface of 
 the ground without interruption from the accumu- 
 lation of the water. The surrounding rocks always 
 contain more or less of water, which occupies their joints, 
 fissures, or cavities, and this water rapidly accumulates 
 wherever the excavations are deepest, and must be removed 
 in order that the works may be carried on. 
 
 Adit Levels are driven in many cases to draw off this 
 water as fast as it gathers, wherever the formation of the 
 ground is favorable. In some instances very extensive 
 districts have been drained by adits to depths of many fath- 
 oms. . Thus the great Gwennap adit in Cornwall, which was 
 constructed about a century ago, drains nearly 30 square 
 miles of country by means of branches to a depth varying 
 from 30 to 90 fathoms. The total length of this adit, with 
 its branches, is about 40 miles. Another great adit, knowii 
 as the Ernst August adit, was finished a few years ago in 
 Saxony, and drains a large series of mines in the Hartz 
 Mountains, some of them to a depth of 214 fathoms. This 
 adit, with its branches, is 14 miles in length ; part of it is 
 navigable by boats; and it occupied nearly 13 years in con- 
 struction — costing £85,500. Sometimes, however, an adit 
 is inadmissible or insufficient, thus — ifthe mine is situated 
 in a very low place, if it occupies an isolated portion of 
 country, ifthe water be required at the surface for ore-dress- 
 ing operations, or if the ground be so little uneven that a very 
 long level would be required in order to drain any consider- 
 able depth of workings, some different mode of drainage is 
 necessary. 
 Pumps and Pitwork.— In trial shafts for workings of 
 
906 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 <;. 
 
 V 
 
 
 D 
 
 'Urn 
 
 
 i I 
 
 Mi 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 small extent, or in a country already partially drained by 
 surrounding mines, water buckets may be used, the water 
 being raised by means of a tackle. As the water increases, 
 however, this mode is found quite inadequate, and some form 
 of pump is necessary. The common suction pump, shown in 
 fig. 1, is rarely used in"mining operations, as it will only raise 
 water to a heigh t of about 30 feet, but occasionally, and for tem- 
 porary purposes, such pumps are used in successive lifts. The 
 mode of action is as follows. 
 
 The long pipe A B is called 
 the suction pipe, and it must 
 be long enough to reach into 
 the water in the well. The up- 
 per end of the suction pipe is 
 furnished with a valve E open- i 
 ing upwards. Above the sue- I > 
 tion pipe is the working barrel ' 
 C, containing a well-fitting pis- 
 ton p, which is worked up and 
 down by the lever or brake- 
 staflF D. This piston or " buck- 
 et " contains a valve u' opening 
 Upwards. When the working 
 begins the water in the suction 
 pipe A B stands at the same 
 level as that in the well. On 
 raising the piston as indicated 
 by the arrow, the valve v rises, 
 and the air between it and the 
 water in the suction pipe is 
 rarefied, and the pressure of 
 air on the water in the well 
 causes it to rise in the pipe. When the piston is depressed 
 as at E the valve v at the top of the suction pipe closes, that 
 in the piston v^ opens, and the excess of air is between v and 
 «' passes out into the general atmosphere. The piston is 
 now again drawn up, the water rises again in the suction 
 pipe, and at length— if the suction pipe is not more than 
 30 feet long — ^passes through the valve v into the working 
 barrel. The piston now again descends, and the water 
 passes through this valve u', and when it is again drawn up 
 this valve closes, the piston serves as a bucket to raise the 
 water as far as the spout, from which it flows in an inter- 
 mittent stream. The water thus rises because the pressure 
 of the air upon its surface in the well is greater than the 
 pressure in the suction pipe. If all the air in the pipe were 
 to be withdrawn it would rise until the weight or pressure 
 of water AB was the same as that of the air on the water in 
 the well, or about 15 lbs. to the square inch, varying a little 
 from time to time. This pressure is given by a column of 
 water about 34 feet high. Owing to the difficulty of mak- 
 ing all the fittmgs air tight, about 30 feet is all that can be 
 ordinarily reckoned upon. 
 
 Practically, it is found that if the distance A B is 30 feet 
 or under, water may be raised by means of this pump but if 
 more than 30 feet, the pump will fail. For greater depths 
 therefore, the pump is modified slightly, as shown in fig 2 
 The suction pipe a, now called the ^' windbore " or " snore " 
 IS reduced to about 10 or 12 feet, and pieces of pipe, called 
 pumps, are added above the working barrel to the re- 
 quired or most convenient heigh^-ofteii more than 100 it 
 Ihe whole arrangement is now shown in fig. 2, and is called 
 a bucket" or "drawing lift; a is the windbore, 6 is the 
 door-piece "containing the valve or "clack" c/ o is the 
 door, rf IS the bucket with its clack, e is the working barrel, 
 which 13 bored truly cylindrical, / is the first of the " pumps " 
 aJl of which are about 1 inch greater in diameter than the 
 working barrel. The different pieces are made with flanged 
 ^iZi^ =*^f^O'«'>l for convenience of fixing; g is the "collar- 
 launder '' from which the stream of water is delivered, 
 wv i!,"' '^ °^ drawing lift is well suited for use in a shaft 
 ^«vt'^^T^.?.°*^°"^'ly deepened, as additional pumps 
 may be added at the top from time to t me. If however the 
 depth IS more than about 30 fathoms, the waterTusuallv 
 raisedmtwoor more distinct lifts-the drawiSdelSff 
 Its water from, the collar-launder r, fig. 3, into a cistern A 
 from which It s forced to the surface^ by the°' plunger » t 
 rama shownin he figure. By the ascent of the ffunger 
 pole a m the "caae^' 6, the water which fills the da"ern 
 A IS made to nse through the wind-bore h and clack ctito I 
 
 the H. piece H. When the pole descends, the clack c closes, 
 the water raises the clack e, and passes upwards into the 
 pumps above. As the pole again rises, the clack e is closed, 
 c opens, and a fresh portion of water passes into the H piece. 
 The cistern is kept full by the delivery of water from the 
 top of the drawing lift by the collar-launder r, and also, in 
 many cases, by the water from the upper portion of the 
 mine, which is led into it instead of being allowed to fall to 
 the bottom of the mine ; / is the top pump of the drawing 
 lift, and /' the bottom pump of the plunger lift. The 
 plunger pole a works in the case b through a stuffing box at 
 i. The mode of attaching the plunger pole a' and the 
 bucket-rod ^ to the main rod 1 1, by means of the " glands " 
 mm, and the " set-offs" n, is clear from the figure. 
 
 The pumps are made of cast iron, generally in lengths of 
 9 feet, but with a few shorter " matching pieces '' in 3 and 6 
 feet lengths. They are cast about |ths to |ths of an inch 
 thick, according to size, intended height of lift, etc., with 
 several projecting ribs for strength. The fianges are about 
 1 in. thick. The valves or " clacks " are usually of leather 
 strengthened with iron, and it is here that the wear is 
 greatest. The chief peculiarity is, that the hinges or cen- 
 tres of the valves work within guides instead of upon cen- 
 tres, so that the whole valve has liberty to rise a few inches, 
 thus giving a greater water space in the early part of the 
 stroke. Sometimes valves of metal, variously constructed, 
 are used, and occasionally the valves are partly or entirely 
 made of india-rubber. For convenience of access to the 
 valves they are placed in "door pieces," as shown in side 
 view in fig. 2, where o is a movable door giving access to 
 the valve c. 
 
 Fia. a , 
 
 Fio. 3. 
 
 The cisterns for the successive lifts are made of wood 3 
 inches or more in thickness, strongly bound with iron strap- 
 ping plates, and supported on strong " bearers," xx, Fig. 2, 
 which are let into the sides of the shaft. 
 
 Sometimes the water to be raised is of a highly corrosive 
 nature, esjjecially that from copper and lead mines. In 
 such cases it is good economy to make the valve seats, work- 
 ing barrel, and other important parts, of gun-metal, and to 
 line the pumps with thin staves of oak ur other hard wood. 
 
 The "pumps" are fastened together with bolts and nuta. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 907 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 w 
 
 b 
 
 1 
 
 o\h 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 " flange-pins," as they are called in Corn- 
 wall, where it is customary to place be- 
 tween the flanges rings of thin iron bound 
 round with "bal-shag," a coarse kind of 
 flannel. This, when tightly screwed up, 
 makes the joint air-tight, while it does not 
 interfere with the ready separation of the 
 pumps in case of need. 
 
 The " main rod," part of which is shown 
 
 at II, Fig. 3, is in deep mines made of 
 
 "*^ the longest and straightest balks of Nor- 
 
 I way pine which can be obtained. The 
 
 I secondary rods are attached to this by 
 
 J " set-offs," as shown at tin in the same fig- 
 
 ./^J_J^ ure. The different lengths of the main rod 
 
 j fT" I are halved together, bolted through, and 
 
 secured with strong strapping plates. 
 
 The upper end is attached to the outer 
 end of the engine " beam " or " bob " by 
 wrought-iron straps, secured by bolts 6 
 and cottars c, as shown in Fig. 4. 
 
 At intervals down the shaft catch-pieces 
 cc are secured, and bearers fixed across dd, 
 in order to take up the weight of the rods 
 
 _ in case of a breakage, to prevent the whole 
 
 p_^ ^__^ ij mass of many tons weight from falling to 
 
 yL Z^^^sl the bottom of the shaft. They also pre- 
 ■i vent the engine from making too long a 
 
 i'lo. 4. stroke, or going too far out, and so break- 
 
 ing off the cylinder cover. 
 The water is raised in the lower or drawing lift by the up 
 or " in-door '- stroke of the engine, but the remaining, or 
 plunger lifts, are worked by the down or out-door stroke ; 
 the weight of the rods forcing the water up the column of 
 pumps. 
 
 L 
 I 
 
 I J 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 Balance Bobs. — When the mine is deep the weight of 
 the rods is more than sufficient for the purpose, and the 
 surplus is generally counterbalanced by balance - bobs," 
 placed either at surface or in chambers 
 excavated by the side of the shaft un- 
 derground. Thus at Davey's engine 
 at the consolidated copper mines in 
 Gwennap, Cornwall, the main rod was 
 one-third of a mile long, and weighed 
 95 tons. The other rods weighed 40 
 tons, or together 135 tons. 39 tons 
 were required to balance the column 
 of water in the pumps, and the remain- 
 ing 96 tons were balanced — partly by 
 counter-weights, partly by special hy^ 
 draulic madiinery. One of these bal- 
 ance-bobs is shown at Fig. 5. For 
 raising the heavy {portions of "pit- 
 work," as this pumping machinery is 
 called, a powerfiil " capstan " is fixed 
 just outside the engine-house. Very 
 few of the shafts in the Cornish mines are vertical, and 
 many are of varying inclination, 30 that it is necessary not 
 
 only to provide iriction rollers, but also to connect the dif- 
 ferent sections of the main rods by anglo-bobs. One mode 
 of doing this is shown in Fig. 6, where a portion of the 
 ground at the side of the shaft is cut away for the recep- 
 tion of the " balance-bob " v, the arms of which are pivoted 
 to sections of the rod aaa. Other modes of effecting change 
 of motion by friction-wheels and guide-rails are used where 
 from the hardness of the ground or other reasons, this mode 
 is inadmissible. 
 
 — Fh-om Pnncvplea of Metal Mining. 
 
 BLASTING. 
 
 IN this a^e of improvement I know of no important in- 
 dustry, in which so much hard labor and money are 
 lost for want of intelligent study and use of modern 
 improvements, as in the simple operation of blasting. 
 When you bear in mind the fact that blasting of minerals 
 lies at the very foundation of all that distinguishes civilized 
 from barbarous life, you will at once admit that its import- 
 ance makes it well worthy of our attention. You are all 
 aware that the houses of civilized men are very much superior 
 to those of the barbarous races. The first point of difference 
 is in the foundation, and almost the first things needed for 
 the foundation of a house for civilized man are powder and 
 blasting to get stone for the foundation. Another point of 
 superiority of civilized life is the abundance of manufactured 
 iron and glass, yet I think that not one pound of all the im- 
 mense quantities of these articles manufactured around 
 Pittsburg is obtained without drilling and blasting to prepare 
 either the coal, iron ore, limestone, or sand used in its manu- 
 facture. But the very nature of the work of quarrying seems 
 to draw to it many men of one idea who work hard and 
 think little ; who having made holes in rocks for many years, 
 insist, therefore, that they know all about blasting and per- 
 sistently oppose all modern improvements. Many farmers 
 are living yet who have cut many harvests with a sickle be- 
 fore the days of cradles, mowing and reaping machines, etc. 
 These might with the same propriety resist the use of mowing 
 and reaping machines because they know all about farming. 
 Another reason why improvements are not introduced in 
 blasting is because the owners of mines seldom give any 
 personal attention to blasting, but leave it all to the others, 
 who seldom take any interest in improvements, and are often 
 prejudiced against them and condemn them without a trial. 
 The subject of blasting may be divided into three divisions : 
 1st. The hole and how to make it. 2d. The explosive 
 used. 3d. The manner of firing the charge. 
 
 1st. The Hole and How to Make It.— The com- 
 mon way of making the hole is by either churn or jumper 
 hand-drills. Three men usually form a gang, and the gang 
 make from eight to twelve lineal feet of hole per day in 
 hard rock. By either of these modes it is practically im- 
 possible to make a round hole — ^generally a three-cornered 
 hole being made, which is very objectionable — because, if 
 the hole is perfectly round it will present a uniform circular 
 surface to the pressure, and retain the blast until its force is 
 fully developed. But with a three-cornered hole the pres- 
 sure on the long sides of the hole is concentrated at the 
 corners, which, being required to resist more than their share 
 of the pressure, give way and permit the explosive gases to 
 escape before their force is fully developed, and only a large 
 amount of smoke is produced. A much better plan is to 
 have the holes made by machinery; this secures a cheaper 
 and better hole, being perfectly round, and thus retains the 
 explosive gases until their power is perfectly developed, and 
 do more execution on the rock and with less smoke. In 
 close or underground work, where the air is bad, this is 
 found to be of great advantage. With the latest improved 
 steam drills a gang of three men often make from seventy- 
 five to one hundred feet of hole in one day. 
 
 2nd. The Explosive Used. — Explosives may be 
 divided into chemical and mechanical combinations. Chemi- 
 cal explosives embrace what are known as nitro-glycerine, 
 gun-cotton, dynamite, dualin, hercules, Ditmore-powder, 
 rendrock, mica-powder, etc. These are produced mainly by 
 the combination of nitric acid, sulphuric acid, and fatty 
 matter or glycerine, with cotton, tan bark, paper pulp, saw 
 
908 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTEBESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 dust, soda, mica scales, pulverized charcoal, etc., ?3 ab- 
 sorbents. These will explode under water, which makes an 
 excellent tamping. Most of them are unfit for sporting or 
 military use : because their explosion is so instantaneous, it 
 ruptures the gun before the ball can start. Their force is 
 more like the blow of a large sledge, whose force is spent m 
 an instant, while the explosion of black powder is more like 
 the action of a powerful spring, which starts the projectile 
 more slowly and continues to propel it until it escapes at the 
 muzzle of the gun. The manufacture of chemical explosives 
 is of comparatively recent date, and in many cases is as yet 
 imperfectly understood. Many alarming accidents have 
 occurred in the handling of some of them, which has given 
 a bad name to the whole family. But enough is now known 
 about some of them to prove them to be perfectly safe when 
 properly understood and handled, and very profitable m 
 certain kinds of blasting. 
 
 Mechanically combined explosives are common black 
 powder, carbo-azoteen, and mahoning powder. These are 
 composed mainly of saltpeter or nitrate of soda, sulphur, 
 and charcoal, or tan bark. All of these ingredients are 
 first finely pulverized separately, and then mixed in certain 
 proportions, and incorporated by being run under heavy 
 wheels or rollers for from two to six hours, soastomix 
 uniformly and bring a certain proportion of each ingredient 
 in immediate contact with the other ingredients. The mass 
 is then generally submitted to strong hydraulic or screw 
 pressure, and then is called pressed cake. Then it is crushed 
 by corrugated rollers and by means of sieves separated into 
 the different sized grains of blasting, sporting, or military 
 powder, each of which has its peculiar mark or name. 
 Carbo-azoteen is made by boiling these ingredients together, 
 and has never been a success. Mechanically combined 
 explosives must be kept perfectly dry; even a slight degree 
 of dampness injures them. As a rule, the finer the gra,in 
 the quicker the explosion and the smaller the charge; while 
 for large blasts in rock, powder is now used to good advan- 
 tage in grains as large as grains of corn, and in large artil- 
 lery charges still larger grains are used, called pebble pow- 
 der. We now come to the 
 
 3d. Mode of Firing the charge. — Three modes are 
 used — squib, fuse, and electricity. Squibs are made of about 
 six inches of rye straw, filled with fine powder, and are used 
 principally in coal blasting. The hole being drilled hori- 
 zontally three to five feet into the coal, a charge of eightto 
 twelve inches of F F blasting powder is generally put in, 
 then an iron rod five-sixteenths of an inch in diameter, called, 
 a needle, is inserted in the hole back to the powder, then the 
 hole is tamped full by having dry clay or clay pounded solid 
 into it, and the needle is withdrawn, leaving an open passage 
 like a pipe through the tamping to the powder. The squib 
 is inserted in the mouth of this hole and a slow match ap- 
 plied to the outside end ; the recoil of the powder burning 
 in the straw throws the burning squib back along the needle 
 hole or pipe to the powder chamber, and the explosion takes 
 place. This mode of firing can only be used in horizontal 
 holes. Fuse consists of a thread of black powder incased 
 in a wrapping of tarred hemp, and called hemp fuse — or in 
 a wrapping of cotton, and called cotton fuse ; then, to make 
 it waterproof, a tarred tape is wrapped spirally around it, 
 and then it is called single tape fuse, and will resist damp- 
 ness a longtime; or a double wrapping of tarred tape is 
 wrapped around it, and called double tape fuse, which will 
 burn and fire a charge of powder under twenty feet of water. 
 In all of these fuses there is a central cotton thread, which 
 has been saturated with saltpeter, which makes it continue 
 to burn when it would otherwise go out. Every precaution 
 is taken to make the fuse continue to burn until the fire 
 reaches the powder, and the explosion is produced. But, 
 from some cause or another, holes sometimes hang fire, and 
 are a source of great danger to the miner or quarryman. 
 Holes thus charged, which ordinarily should explode in 
 from one to three minutes, have been known to hang fire 
 for twenty-four hours and then explode. The third mode 
 of firing is by electricity. When using it, the hole, the charge, 
 and the tamping are the same as in firing with a fuse, but, 
 instead of inserting the common fuse already described, an 
 electric exploder is used, which is made thus: A copper 
 cap, one-quarter of an inch diameter and about one inch 
 long, is filled one-third full of fulminate of mercury, into 
 
 which is inserted the ends of two insulated copper wires 
 connected by a small thread of platinum wire, and the end 
 of the cap is then closed by means of melted sulphur, mak- 
 ing it waterproof. Electric fuses are made four, six, ten, 
 and fifteen feet long, with about two inches of the outer end 
 stripped of the insulation and tinned. In using them the 
 blaster selects an electric fuse long enough to reach the 
 bottom of the hole and leave a few inches of wire out of the 
 hole, then puts in enough powder to cover the bottom of 
 the hole one-half inch deep, then his exploder, then one- 
 fourth less powder than if fired with a fuse, and tamps the 
 hole the same as with ordinary fuse ; any number of holes 
 may be thus prepared of equal or unequal depth or distances 
 apart. 
 
 Directions for Firing. — One wire of the first hole is 
 now connected to one wire of the second hole, and the re- 
 maining wire of the second to one wire of the third hole, 
 and so on until all are connected ; there will then be one 
 wire of the last hole and one wire of the first hole left un- 
 connected. These wires are then connected by means of 
 long conducting wires to the battery at a place of safety, 
 and, when everything is ready, the circuit is closed, and the 
 small thread of platinum wire in the bottom of each hole 
 becomes red hot, and each cap is exploded with great force 
 at the same instant, and each hole assists its neighbor. And 
 thus by simultaneous explosion, with only three-quarters of 
 the powder used in ordinary fuse blasting, more than double 
 the rock is moved with the same drilling._ In quarries where 
 fuse is used it is not uncommon to find six inches or a foot, 
 or even two feet, of the bottom of the holes remaining . un- 
 ruptured after the blast has been fired and cleared away — 
 the drilling of the unexploded piece, of hole was so much 
 hard labor lost, and the powder it contained was lost, for if 
 the powder had done what was intended no part of the hole 
 would have been left unexploded. No part of the hole is 
 thus left unexploded where electricity is used, because in 
 firing by electricity the first point ruptured is at the bottom 
 of the hole, and the full force of all the explosive is spent in 
 enlarging the rupture. 
 
 For profitable blasting by either mode of firing, the bot- 
 tom of the hole in open work should be at least one-tenth 
 less from the open front of the rock than the depth of the 
 hole ; thus, if the hole is ten feet deep, the bottom of the 
 hole should be not more than nine feet from the face of the 
 rock, and in some rock not more than eight feet, so as to 
 make the bottom of the hole the weakest part of the blast. 
 But if the hole is ten feet deep and filled up four feet with 
 powder, and fired with a fuse at the top of the powder, there 
 will only be six feet of rock on the top of the first point of 
 rupture, and there being nine feet in front of the hole, makes 
 the top the weakest part, and the result is a great discharge 
 of projectiles through the air, to the great danger of all 
 around, and much of the material is lost ; but if the same 
 single hole had been fired by electricity at the bottom of the 
 hole, the bottom rock would have been forced out, and the 
 top rocks would tumble down and do no damage, and all be in 
 place to be handled. 
 
 The contrast between firing with a squib and by electricity 
 is still greater, because a fuse may sometimes burn to the 
 bottom of the hole before firing the blast, but a squib must 
 always fire at the top of the powder, and as the needle hole 
 is a full quarter inch in diameter, the first blast is a jet of 
 orange flame from the needle hole, which is partly consumed 
 powder, and cools into dense smoke, to the ^reat annoyance 
 of the miner ; in light work, only the top is blown off the 
 hole, the first point of rupture taking place at the top of the 
 powder. In conclusion, to show this is not idle theory, but 
 actual fact, I may point to the shaft sunk this summer for 
 the Chicago and Oonnellsville Coke Company, near Union- 
 town, under the superintendence of Mr. James Harrison. 
 Mr. Harrison has had great experience in everything con- 
 nected with modern mining improvements, and on com- 
 mencing work on the shaft, procured the latest and best im- 
 proved steam rock drill, an olectro-raagneto battery, and safe 
 chemical explosives, and, with the assistance of Mr. Thomas, 
 an experiencedWelsh shaft sinker, he broke ground about the 
 15th of last March, and two weeks ago he had sunk the shaft 
 three hundred and twenty-five feet to the coal ; has got his 
 ovens and all his buildings up, and, I presume, is now mak- 
 ing coke, which, under the old plan of sinking, he could not 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 909 
 
 have done before next April. I can also point to the shaft 
 now being sunk by Mr. J. K. Taggart for E. K. Hyndman, 
 near Connellsville, and to another near the same place, now 
 being sunk by Mr. Hopkins for Mr. Wickham, of Connells- 
 ville, both of whom are using electricity and chemical ex- 
 plosives to good advantage. 1 may further add that theore- 
 tically blasting by electricity has been known to engineers 
 for thirty or forty years, for large blasts such as Hell Gate. 
 But it has only been within the last few years that the 
 apparatus has been made so simple and portable as to be of 
 any practical benefit in quarry work. It nas now become so 
 simple, and is so easily handled, that a youth can take the 
 apparatus out of the tool-box, lay down the cable to a safe 
 place, charge five or six holes, tamp and fire them, and take 
 up the cable and replace apparatus in tool-box, all inside of 
 ten minutes. 
 
 — A paper by Arthur Kirk, transactions Engineers^ Society of Wettern Penna. 
 
 ROCK-BORING MACHINERY. 
 
 AN admirable sketch of the history and charac- 
 teristics of rock-boring machinery is given in an 
 interesting pamphlet by Mr. Richard Schram.' 
 whose own invention for a rock drill was referred to 
 in the Mining Journal a few weeks since. He remarked that 
 during recent years the success attending the introduction 
 of rock-boring machines for accomplishing various engineer- 
 ing works had induced many to decide upon substituting 
 machine work for hand-labor in drilling for the purpose 
 of blasting in mining and excavating operations. Soma 
 difficulties have been encountered in selecting a machine 
 precisely suited for the particular work in hand, and thus 
 a certain prejudice against the use of these machines in 
 general has not unnaturally been created. 
 
 Referring to the causes which have led to rock-boring 
 machines not having proved wholly successful, Mr. Schram 
 is of opinion that it will be found upon inquiry that it is 
 because their practical working has not been properly un- 
 derstood. Experience teaches us, he remarks, that in the 
 employment of rock-boring machines it is as essential that 
 the whole system of operations be sound and well-planned 
 as that the machines themselves be effective and simple, so 
 as not to require much or frequent repairing. Upon the 
 first introduction of rock-boring machines old experienced 
 miners were employed, and it was quite natural that 
 they should endeavor to give the holes such directions, 
 and proceed generally as nearly as possible in the same 
 manner as they had been accustomed to do in hand-boring. 
 If, however, we glance at the progress of any other branch 
 of industry, we shall find that a more systematic method of 
 working has invariably been the consequence of the intro- 
 duction of machinery, and that to the improved organiza- 
 tion and regularity thus accruing must be attributed no 
 inconsiderable part of the great and manifold advantages 
 of all machine work over hand-labor. Rock-boring by 
 machinery forms no exception to the industries obeying this 
 general law of progress, and upon its introduction rational 
 systematic methods of working must be adopted. At the 
 present time there is scarcely any branch of industry in 
 which machinery does not play an important part. In some 
 branches the mechanical appliances are so perfect that it 
 would be impossible now to dispense with them ; in others, on 
 the contrary, the machines may be said to be in their infancy. 
 To this last category rock-boring has hitherto belonged. 
 The idea of using machinery in rock drilling was, Mr. 
 Schram tells us, entertained long ago. In 1844, Burton, an 
 Englishman, suggested the idea of employing compressed 
 air to work a hammer striking upon a drill, but no practical 
 support was given to the suggestion ; and it was in the year 
 1854, that Bartlett, also an Englishman, and in 1855 that 
 Schumann, of Freiberg, first appeared before the public with 
 practical experiments. From these dates down to the pre- 
 sent time improvements and developments in rock-boring 
 machinery have succeeded one another with great rapidity. 
 
 ' " The Application of Machine Power in Rock Drilling." By 
 Sichard Schram. London : G. Hill, Westminster Bridge-road. 
 
 Mr. Schram ranges the existing rock-boring machines into 
 five classes — the ram system, embracing the Schwarzkopff 
 and Warsop drills; the lever system, embracing Schumann's, 
 Burleigh's, Sach's, McKean's, Warrington's, IngersoU's, 
 Dunn's, Roanhead, Cranston, Barrow, and many other ma- 
 chines; the duplex system, embracing the machines of 
 Sommeiller and Ferroux ; the rotary system, embracing the 
 diamond drill, Brandt's, etc. ; and the direct acting system, 
 including Darlington's, Schram's, and Reynolds', without 
 slide, and Osterkamp's, Schrams, Cederblom's and others, 
 with slide. 
 
 Discussing the merits of the several systems, Mr. Schram 
 remarks that the ram system as applied to rock-boring ma- 
 chines must prove impracticable, and must be so apparent 
 to every one who has seen a worn-out hammer and hand- 
 drill that it is unnecessary to give it any consideration. This 
 lever system has, he says, long kept its place, and several 
 machines constructed upon this system have done very good 
 service, but he conaiders the disadvantages of the system are 
 the great wear and tear to which the machines must be ex- 
 posed, and the unpreventable loss of power, results which 
 he regards as inseparable from a mode in which levers or 
 tappets are actuated by the piston. The duplex system has, 
 Mr. Schram states, only been employed in places where 
 compressed air has been cheap and plentiful, as in the 
 Mont Cenis and Gothard tunnels, but in either of these 
 places machines of a later invention would have been 
 found to work both better and more economically. By 
 employing a separate engine to work the slide, the piston 
 which carries the cutting tool runs perfectly free, and as 
 those pistons are made of a large diameter and have a long 
 stroke, the machines are consequently very powerful. But 
 in proportion to their great consumption of compressed air 
 (first in the subsidiary engine and again in the main cylin- 
 der) they prove very expensive in working. Moreover, in 
 consequence of the great length of the machines, the holes 
 must all be bored in a nearly horizontal position, thereby 
 necessitating the use of a greater amount of explosive for 
 blasting than would otherwise be necessary. The rotary 
 system, as carried out for blasting operations, has likewise 
 met with very limited approval. 
 
 It is true that Lisbeth's rotary hand-drill, as improved by 
 Macdermott, works admirably in coal and soft slate, and no 
 doubt the employment of these machines in coal mines is 
 already extensive, and is rapidly spreading, but they are by 
 no means adapted for the harder varieties of rock. Mr. 
 Schram admits that for prospecting purposes the diamond 
 drill is no doubt extremely valuable. One of the advan- 
 tages held out in favor of rotary rock drills is that they are 
 incessantly working into the stone, a condition evidently 
 incompatible with any percussive action ; but, on the other 
 hand, the force of each blow of a percussion machine is 
 very much greater than the force which in a rotary machine 
 is constantly exerted. Moreover, the constant resistance to 
 which the tool of a rotary drill is subjected necessitates a 
 greater motive power, and after all, the actual work done is 
 less than that of a percussion machine. An interesting trial 
 of a rotary rock-boring machine invented byBrandtwasmade 
 in 1877 in the Sonenwendstein Tunnel, on the Ebensee, in 
 Austria. On the shore of the lake Ebensee an engine-house 
 was built in which was erected a steam-engine with two steam 
 cjdinders, each 24 centimeters in diameter. Water under a 
 very high pressure (stated to be 70 atmospheres) was carried 
 in strong wrought-iron tubes into the tunnel, where it worked 
 the rock-boring machines. These consisted of two auxiliaiy 
 cylinders acting upon a crank-shaft laid at right angles across 
 the drill, and a vvorm cut in the middle of this shaft caused 
 the drill to rotate. The central part of the machinery formed 
 a cylinder, in which was fitted a plunger piston attached to 
 a joint, by means of which the machine was connected with 
 a very strong stretcher or standard. Water being admitted 
 to this cylinder, and exerting its force against the plunger, 
 pressed the whole machine forward toward the rock, and 
 thus maintained an enormous pressure on the cutting tool 
 as it rotated. In the extreme end of the drill, which was 
 hollow, there was a steel crown furnished with teeth which, 
 through the rotary motion and the great force with which the 
 apparatus was pressed against the rock, cut the stone in a 
 similar manner to the diamond drill. Water was employed 
 to clear out the debris from the holes. 
 
910 
 
 THE 
 
 MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The drill made 30 revolutions per minute, and, boring 
 holes 7.5 centimeters diameter, it progressed at the rate ot 
 t centimeters per minute. This roek was dolomite As 
 
 great difficulty was experienced m C5"?°^^°'=^';g J^^ ^o sav 
 they were bored double their required depth-that is to say, 
 double the depth at which the explosive P-^o^edt^, be effect- 
 ive, and before being charged and fired were filled up for 
 half their depth with sand. After the first charges were 
 fired the sand was removed from the remainder of the holes, 
 which were then charged and fired again. The heavy ex- 
 penses of working proved too great for the general adoption 
 of this machine in other places. As belongmgto the direct 
 acting system without slides, Mr. Schram has mentioned 
 the Darlington, Reynolds, and Schram machines. Simple 
 as this systim is, it is, he says, nevertheless unpractical, be- 
 cause the piston being propelled by expansion the pressure 
 is consequently least when.it ought to be greatesi^-t. e., at 
 the end of each stroke. Another defect is that pressure is 
 exerted on the lower side of the piston during the forward 
 stroke thereby counteracting the force of each blow to a 
 most injurious degree. The Darlington machine especially 
 requires twice the quantity of compressed air necessary tor 
 most other machines of the same size, notwithstanding 
 which the effect in boring horizontal holes is over 100 per 
 cent, less than in the case of machines of more modern con- 
 struction. He describes one of his own machines of this 
 class, but remarks that this system, simple as it is, is by no 
 means practicable, as, though the machine will run at an 
 extraordinary high speed, the boring results, as compared 
 with the direct acting machines with slide, are not satisfac- 
 tory. In the class of direct acting machines with slides are 
 those by Osterkamp, Dcering, Schram, Cederblom, and 
 others ; and he here describes his own arrangement, which 
 has certainly much to recommend it. The only moving parts 
 of the machine are the main piston, the side piston_ and 
 slide, and the rotating movement with its piston. It is an 
 important feature in this machine that the slide rod is made 
 in the form of a double spindle valve ; by this method of 
 construction it remains in position without any recoil until 
 the piston has made the greater part of its stroke. As in 
 some varieties of rock it happens that the drill often sticks 
 fast, there is a reversing rod to suddenly reverse the slide, 
 and thus pull the drill out of the hole. With careless work- 
 men it would frequently happen that the piston would strike 
 against the lower cylinder cover, therefore there is an air 
 cushion at the lower end of the cylinder. In addition to 
 this there are an iron ring and an India-rubber washer (ex- 
 changed for one of wrought iron when steam is used), with 
 the object of moderating the violence of the shock such 
 blows, inadvertently permitted, would cause. In order that 
 the hole drilled be perfectly round, it is necessary that the 
 cutting tool should partially rotate at each backward stroke 
 so that its cutting edge shall every time strike the rock in a 
 fresh place, but in order not to lose any power it must al- 
 ways make its forward stroke without rotating. For this 
 purpose a twisted bar is employed, connected with a grooved 
 disk, and a brake acted upon by a small piston. Commu- 
 nicating from the slide box with the cylinder is a small port, 
 by means of which the compressed air exerts a constant pres- 
 sure upon the upper end of the small piston. When the main 
 piston makes its backward stroke the back end of the cylin- 
 der is in communication with the outlet, and consequently 
 there is no pressure on the lower end of the small piston. The 
 constant pressure on the upper end of this piston, therefore, 
 now presses it upon the brake which presses upon the disk, 
 preventing it from turning, and thus the main piston is forced 
 to partially rotate round the twisted bar secured to the disk. 
 But when the main piston makes its forward stroke, and 
 steam or compressed air fills the back end of the cylinder, 
 the motive fluid enters through small ports and presses on 
 the lower end of the small piston, thus counterbalancing the 
 constant pressure on the upper end. There being now no 
 pressure on the brake the disk is free to rotate, and the 
 main piston makes its forward stroke without rotating, par- 
 tially turning the disk as it proceeds by means of the twisted 
 bar. This machine is sometimes made with an automatic 
 feed motion actuated directly by means of a piston, instead 
 of, as in other rock-boring machines, through levers, but 
 the inventor nevertheless recommends in all cases a manual 
 feed, as, notwithstanding all the assertions to the contrary 
 
 of eager rock-boring machine dealers, practical miners 
 know that in some faulty rock the drill will and must occa- 
 sionally stick fast. When this happens it takes much longer 
 time to clear the cutting tool, if an automatic feed is in use 
 than in simply giving the handle of a manual feed a turn or 
 two, which is all that is necessary to loosen the drill and 
 permit of the boring being proceeded with. Moreover the 
 workmen are never so attentive to their work when they 
 have nothing to do but to look on as they are when they 
 have the machine constantly underhand. Thus, apart from 
 the increased complication and greater wear and tear to 
 which even the best automatic feed motion renders any 
 machine liable, such a feed has always been found objection- 
 able in actual practice. 
 
 Through the perfectly free action of the main piston, and 
 because the motive fluid is admitted to the whole surface of 
 its upper end, each blow is extremely powerful : moreover 
 this free action, combined with that of the slide piston al- 
 lows the machine to be run at a very high speed, and enables 
 it to be worked with a very low pressure. Its principal fea- 
 ture, however, is its remarkably small consumption of com- 
 pressed air, as an air compressor which would only be able 
 to drive one machine constructed on the lever system will 
 easily drive two of Schram's, the diameter of cylinder being 
 the same in both cases. There bein^ no parts exposed to 
 blows, and the principal parts being directly actuated by the 
 motive fluid, this machine is less liable to wear and tear 
 than those of other systems. It should also be observed 
 that the working parts are all inside the cylinders, so that 
 rough-handed miners, unaccustomed to use more fragile in- 
 struments than sledge hammers and picks, maybe safely in- 
 trusted with the handling of these rock drills. 
 
 Reverting for one moment to the slide action, it may be 
 mentioned that this machine was at first constructed with a 
 cylindrical slide, but considering the leakage of motive fluid 
 caused by wear and tear which has always been found to 
 result from the employment of this form of slide in steam 
 engines, the inventor has considered it most practical to 
 adopt the old form of D slide, which has this great advan- 
 tage, that even after years of work it always 'fits perfectly 
 tight on to the slide face. The supports and various other 
 details connected with machine drilling are referred to at 
 equal length, but as these will constantly vary with the 
 work in hand, an abstract of Mr. Schram's remarks would 
 be of little value ; the book itself, which is really worthy of 
 carefiil reading by all practical men, must be referred to for 
 further information on the subject. 
 
 — Mining Jourrud. 
 
 ROCK-DRILLING MACHINERY. 
 
 TOOLS. — The method of fixing the tool to the end of 
 the piston -rod has received a large amount of attention 
 from inventors. In 1866, Jordan and Darlington 
 introduced a loop clip. Later a binding ring came 
 into use. Improvements on these methods are in progress, 
 the object being to retain the tool on the axial line of the 
 piston-rod, without resorting to rings, clips, or set screws. 
 The form of the boring bit has also undergone radical chan- 
 ges, in some instances rendered necessary, not for the pur- 
 pose of drilling a round hole, but for neutralizing the 
 imperfect action of the turning gear employed. The follow- 
 ing figures, which will explain themselves, show " bits " of 
 various forms, the use of which is advocated by inventors of 
 various rock-drills. Another form of tool for running down 
 center or "rupturing" holes is shown in Fig. 2. The bit 
 Z-shape, is the same size as the ordinary drills, but it has 
 also an enlarged part, armed with a Z-shape cutting edge, 4 
 in. diameter. The length of the boring tools will depend 
 upon the depth of the intended hole. At Ronchamp the 
 longest hole was 9J ft. At St. Gothard it is about 8 ft., 
 while at Musconetcong Tunnel, New Jersey, the leading 
 holes were usually 10 ft. deep, the longest 14 ft. In ordi- 
 nary mine headings, and in the employment of compar- 
 atively small boring machines, the diameter.of the boring 
 steel may vary from J in to li in. For rupturing the rock 
 with No. 1 dynamite, or Brain's No. 1 powder, the hole at 
 bottom need not exceed 1 in. in diameter; but if second- 
 class dynamite or compressed powder be employed the hole 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 911 
 
 in that case should be larger. In changing a boring tool 
 care must be taken that the cutting edge of the one to follow 
 it is not wider than the intact cutting edge of the tool with- 
 drawn. In the tool withdrawn it will be often found that 
 the corners have been partly removed ; the cutting edge of 
 this tool is, therefore, that portion not rounded, but roughly 
 parallel to the face of the hole. Many instances occurred in 
 the rudimentary stage of boring, when machines were alleged 
 to be uselfess — the fact having been that the cutting edge of 
 the second tool was wider than that of the tool withdrawn, 
 Tyhich, forced into a conical part of the hole, necessarily 
 wedged itself fast, thereby stopping or retarding the working 
 of the machine. As a common rule, the width of the 
 different sets of boring tools at the points should vary from 
 one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch from each other ; or 
 if the leading sets of tools are 1^ in. wide at the point, the 
 second or " follower " set may be li in., and the third 1 in. 
 wide. No rule can be strictly laid down for determining 
 the time and power requisite to bore holes of varying 
 diameter ; but experience seems to show that if a hole 12 
 in. deep and 1 in. diameter takes 4 minutes, a hole 2 in. 
 
 I ' I 
 
 I I 
 
 i 
 
 
 ;;. Fig- 1. 
 
 diameter and of like depth, bored with the same machine, 
 and under the same conditions as to pressure of air and 
 speed, will take 16 minutes. In other words, the machine 
 and the fluid pressure being the same, the time and 
 power to bore holes to a given depth are as the square of 
 the diameter of the hole. It is, therefore, of considerable 
 importance to keep the diameter of the shot-hole as small 
 as possible, and to supplement mechanical power by em- 
 ploying strong rupturing explosives. 
 
 Tunnel or Mme. 
 
 Machines employed. 
 
 Iff 
 
 III 
 
 IN 
 
 .Form of tool 
 employei. 
 
 Mont Cenis . . 
 
 St. Gothard . . 
 
 Musconetcong 
 Maesteg .... 
 Cumbran . . . 
 PortSkewet . . 
 Saarbruck . . 
 Ronohamp . . 
 Blanzy .... 
 Minera . . . 
 Ballacockish . 
 
 Sommellier's . . . 
 f Ferroux's ) 
 ■I Dubois & Francois V 
 (McKean's J 
 
 IngersoU's 
 
 Beaumont's 
 
 McKean's . . . 
 
 Geaeh's .... 
 
 Saoh's 
 
 Dubois & Frangois 
 
 Darlington . . . 
 
 Darlington . . . 
 
 Darlington . . . 
 
 , 10 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 1-2 
 1-2 
 
 7 
 68 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 6 
 1 
 
 none 
 none 
 none 
 
 90 
 
 90 
 
 60-70 
 
 60 
 
 70-80 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 67' 
 
 45 
 
 60 
 
 « 
 
 Z 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Semicircular. 
 Flat tool. 
 
 X 
 Flat tool. 
 X&Z. 
 Flat tool. 
 Flat tool. 
 Flat tool. 
 
 Cut and Sink.— In tunnelling or sinking shafts by 
 means of rock boring machinery, it is necessary to conduct 
 the operations in some special manner. When machines 
 were first introduced into our mines the miner insisted 
 upon employing them as a mere substitute for the borer 
 and the mallet, and boring the holes so as "to take ad- 
 vantage" of the ground. The result showed, however, 
 that such a course was unsatisfactory. Not only was the 
 time required to get a position for the machine, to fix, 
 and to remove it excessive, but the work accomplished 
 was not in proportion to its cost. The engineers of the 
 Mont Cenis Tunnel were the first to recognize the fact 
 that if power machines were to be successfully adopted 
 the hand method of doing the work must be discarded 
 
 and new conditions established. A given number, ten 
 machines, were accordingly grouped together on a car- 
 riage, the natural rupturing lines of the rock disregarded, 
 the holes drilled more or less with the axial line of the 
 heading, the machines and carriage withdrawn, the holes 
 charged, the explosive fired, and the stuff removed. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 These series of operations constituted an " advance, " 
 while in America, and in one or two English mines, it is 
 known as a " cut, " and in shafts as a " sink. ' At the time 
 when the Mont Cenis Tunnel was driven, nitro-glycerine 
 and dynamite had not been largely adopted for blasting pur- 
 poses. Powder was the explosive used in the execution of 
 that work ; this together with the great length of the ma- 
 chines and comparatively narrow width of the heading — 
 9 ft. 10 in. — thereby limiting the angling range of the ma- 
 chines, rendered a considerable number of holes necessary 
 for effecting the removal of the rock. A face of 83 J square 
 ft. was perforated with from 60 to 70 holes, 2J ft. to 4 ft. 
 deep. The Musconetcong Tunnel, New Jersey, was driven 
 with the aid of dynamite. The advance heading, 8 ft high, was 
 carried the entire width of the tunnel — 26 ft. With two 
 boring carriages, and strongly angling the machines on a 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 line from the top to the bottom of the tunnel towards its 
 axial line, holes 10 ft. deep were made for bringing out the 
 center " cut. " The methods of arranging the holes for 
 blasting may be distinguished as — 
 
 ia). — Mont Cenis and St. Gothard. 
 (6). — Musconetcong and Minera. 
 )c). — Brain's radial system, 
 (a). — The face of the Mont Cenis heading, allowing for 
 contraction towards the top and rounding corners, repre- 
 sented an area of about 80 square feet. This " face " was 
 subjected to the attack of 10 machines, giving 8 square feet 
 of surface per machine, or nearly one hole for each square 
 foot of surface. 
 
 The center of the face was perforated with a large hole, 
 and immediately outside of tnis center 8 other holes were 
 bored, constituting the " center of rupturing holes." Around 
 this set of center holes a series of 3 sets of concentric and 2 
 sets of semi-concentric holes were drilled. The holes were 
 subsequently fired in volleys and removed the rock — (1) the 
 center, and (2) the portion concentric to the center. 
 
 (6). — At Musconetcong the tunnel heading, 26 feet wide 
 by 8 feet high, gave a net area of about 175 square feet. 
 This face was perforated with 36 holes by means of 6 power- 
 ful boring machines, each cylinder 5 in. diameter. The 
 area of the face apportioned to each machine was 29 square 
 feet. The number and depth of the holes to obtain a cut of 
 10 feet, or an actual lineal advance of 9 feet, were : 
 
 Cut 12 holes, each lOJ feet deep. 
 
 First square up 8 ■' 12 " 
 
 Second ditto 8 " 12 " 
 
 Third ditto 6 " 12 " 
 
 Four roof holes 2 " { ^g " 
 
 Total 36 
 
912 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The aggregate depth of the 36 holes was 408 lineal feet ; 
 number of square feet of heading to one hole about 4"8. 
 The following is Mr. Drinker's description of driving by the 
 
 cut system : " The method of blasting by cuts is based on 
 the extraordinary force developed by a comparatively small 
 bulk of explosive matter. It consists in first blasting out an 
 entering wedge or core, about 10 feet deep at the center, and 
 subsequently squaring up the sides by several rounds. To 
 do this 12 holes are first drilled by 6 machines, 3 on a side, 
 the holes placed as shown in fig. 3, and marked C; A 
 being the floor of the heading. Then 12 holes are drilled, 2 
 and 2, 6 on a side, with from 1 J to 2| in. " bits," the two 
 sets being started about nine feet apart, and at such an 
 angle as to meet or cross at the bottom, the largest 
 bit being put in first. The holes are then charged with 
 about 25 lbs. No. 1 and 50 lbs. No. 2 dynamite, and fired 
 simultaneously by electricity. No. 1 is only used for cuts, 
 inasmuch as in them a quick, strong powder compressed in 
 a small bulk at the bottom of the holes is required where 
 the greater resistance will be found, while the No. 2 added 
 serves in filling up the holes, so starting the sides of the cut 
 as the apex moves— the cut, a, being out, a second round of 
 holes is started for the first squaring up, as shown by the 
 numbers 1, 1, 1, 1, Figs. 3 and 4. 
 
 In these and subsequent rounds, 2, 2, 2, 2, and 3, 3, 3, the 
 resistance is pretty equally distributed along the whole 
 length of the holes, and as it is not so great as in the cut, 
 No. 2 is used, as in the nitroglycerine being mixed with a 
 larger projiortion of absorbent matter, the force is thereby 
 distributed over a greater space. In the fiyst and second 
 squaring up, rounds from 50 to 60 lbs. of No 2 are charged 
 and in the third, from 80 to 90 lbs., the holes getting 
 stronger as the arch falls at the side. There are generally, 
 also, one or two additional roof-holes in the third round 
 that are not shown in the figure, their position being vari- 
 able, according to the lajr of the rock. The top holes in' the 
 first round are also designed to bring down the roof not 
 shaken by the cut, and are, therefore given a strong angle 
 towards the center, and always drilled from 12 to 14 feet 
 deep. The plan, Fig. 4, shows the cut holes, 4, 5, and 6 
 the squaring up rounds. 
 
 " As to the relative depth, the holes of the first squaring up 
 round are always drilled a foot or more deeper than the cut 
 holes, and when blasted they generally bring out a foot 
 additional of shaken rock at the apex of the cut " 
 ^ ^d-~??^j?'^ Radial System.— This system, devised 
 by Mr. W. Blanch Brain, of St. Annal's C'inderford, was 
 introduced about three years ago at the Drybrook Iron 
 Mines, m the Forest of Dean. The main object of the 
 inventor was to perforate the face of the level without once 
 shifting the stretcher-bar when placed at its proper height. 
 M Andre, in his work on Coal Mining, thus notices the 
 ?lfi/'f r = . '^\^ todamental prinlple wh"ch consti- 
 tutes its distinctive character is to make the holes of a series 
 
 s twofo d ZA^'^'t^T^- 7^1 °''J^'=* °f this radiatbn 
 IS twofold-to utilize the face of the heading as an unsup- 
 ported side, and to reduce to a minimum the time consumed 
 
 in changing the position of the stretcher-bar. It will be 
 obvious on reflection, that if these ends are attained without 
 
 incurring a compensating loss, the merits of the system are 
 beyond question, since their attainment leads to rapidity of 
 progress, which is the main purpose of machine labor. It 
 is evident that if the holes are made to radiate from a fixed 
 point, and the horizontal position be avoided, none of them 
 can be perpendicular to the face of the heading, and, conse- 
 quently, the lines of fracture from each charge tend 
 to reach this face. A consequence of this fact is 
 that no unkeying of the face is necessary since each 
 shot tends to blow outwards. Let it be assumed that 
 the drift to be driven is six feet, eight inches in height. 
 The width in this case is immaterial to the operation of the 
 system. The stretcher-bar, which is to serve as a support 
 to the machine, is fixed at a certain height from the floor, 
 and at a certain distance from the face, as shown in Fig. 5. 
 The height of the bar above the floor, with slight modifica- 
 tions to suit existing conditions, will be the same in all 
 cases ; but the distance of the bar from the face will be 
 determined by the length of the machine, or at least by the 
 distance from the centre of the clamp to the end of the pis- 
 ton-rod, into which the bit is fixed. It is obviously desir- 
 able to reduce the distance between the face of the heading 
 and the stretcher-bar to the least possible, since the angle 
 of the holes will rapidly increase as the distance is di- 
 minished. From the figure it will be observed that the 
 stretcher-bar is fixed 1 ft. 8 in. from the top, 5 ft. from the 
 bottom, and 2 ft. 4 in. from the face. The first and second 
 series of holes are 3 ft. 1 in. deep ; the third 31^ ft. deep ; 
 the fourth 3J ft. ; and the fifth 4} ft. deep. The bottom or 
 lifting holes are 3 ft. long. 
 
 In a heading 6 ft. 8 in. by 6 ft 8 in., giving an area of 44 
 square feet, 29 holes were bored, representing a total lineal 
 length of 69 ft. 8 in. As the cut or advance was about 3 
 ft., it follows that each hole removed nearly 7 cubic feet of 
 rock. — Mining Journal. 
 
 THE TOOLS USED IN BREAKING ROCK. 
 
 THE principal tools used by miners in "breaking 
 ground," as it is termed, are pick-axes or " picks," 
 *' pikes," "hacks," "slitters,^' or "mandrils," as 
 they are variously called, of different kinds ; ham- 
 mers or "sledges," of different forms and weights; shovels; 
 wedges or "gads," and "moyles;" borers or "boryers." 
 Besides these we may mention such miscellaneous tools as 
 "tamping bars," "prickers," "swab-sticks," hatchets or 
 " dags," adzes, saws, and other tools used for blasting, tim- 
 bering, and other special purposes. All these vary considera- 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 913 
 
 bly in form, size, and other particulars in different districts, 
 and when used for different purposes. We can only describe 
 here the principal varieties. 
 
 Picks. — These are mostly made of iron, with points or 
 "tips" of steel, while the handle, "helve," or "hilt" is 
 formed of ash or hickory. In the metal mines of the West 
 of England the picks are usually of the form shown in fig. 
 1, which is called the " poll-pick," having its head or 
 " pane '' a steeled as well as its point. This is the most use- 
 ful tool the miner has, as it serves as a hammer as well as a 
 pick. It is also very much used as a lever, the curve of the 
 pick serving as a fulcrum, and great leverage being obtained 
 through the handle or " hilt."- It is also much used as a 
 hammer to drive the " gad," an instrument presently to be 
 described. A fair length is about 15 inches, the weight is 
 about 4 lbs., but they are made occasionally but little over 
 2 lbs., and sometimes as much as 7 lbs. or even 10 lbs. The 
 heaviest picks in Cornwall are used in the China clay pits of 
 the centre of the county. Picks of very similar form are 
 used in the lead mines of Derbyshire and Wales. When 
 the pick is much used as a lever, the head is frequently 
 formed as in fig. 2a, with a projection wing to afford in- 
 creased support to the helve. This is called a jackass pick. 
 Similar support is better afforded by making the eye portion 
 of the pick somewhat deeper than usual. Ordinarily, for 
 hard ground, the point is sharpened four-square, but for soft 
 ground it is usually flattened, and for clay ground it is fre- 
 quently spread out to a, width of IJ" or 2", as in fig. 26. 
 Pig. 3 shows a form of pick frequently used in the iron 
 mines of Somerset and Wales, weighing from 4 to 5 lbs. A 
 very similar form, but made somewhat slighter, and weigh- 
 ing only 2 or 3 lbs., is used in the coal mines of South Wales. 
 For sinking purposes they are made much heavier, often 7 
 lbs., when they are known as " hacks " in some parts. These 
 are often 18 to 22 inches long. Helves of picks vary from 24 
 inches long in some poll-picks used in confined places, to 36 
 inches or more. Many other forms of pick are in common 
 use, almost every district having its own special form. The 
 cost of a poll-pick of 4} lbs. weight, the poll and tip well 
 steeled, is in Cornwall at present about 2s. 6d. ; the cost of 
 the helve or " hilt " is 4d. 
 
 Hammers. — ^The chief kinds used in metal mines are 
 mallets or " malls," used for " beating the borer;" "sledges," 
 for breaking up large masses of rock, and for driving the 
 "gad;" and"cobbing" and"spalling hammers"for further 
 reducing the ore ; " lath sledges " are used for driving the 
 laths in ground requiring limbering. The head or "pane" 
 is usually steeled, the handle or " hilt is made of ash or 
 hickory. The "eye" is occasionally round, sometimes square, 
 more usually, and much better, oval. Fig. 4 represents the 
 "cat-head" mallet, used for "beating the borer" in many 
 parts of Cornwall. It varies in weight from 4 to 9 lbs. — 
 averaging, perhaps, 6 lbs. or 7 lbs. Fig. 5 is a "bloat-head" 
 hammer used for single-handed boring in the extreme west 
 of Eagland, at St. Just. It weighs from 2J to 4 lbs. The 
 hilts of these single-handed boring hammers are rarely so 
 much as 18" long, but those for double-handed hammers 
 are from 24 inches to 30 inches in length. These boring 
 sledges are sometimes used for driving wedges or " gads," 
 and the pool-pick is also largely used for this purpose. 
 Sometimes a special "gad sledge" is provided for that pur- 
 pose. It is much like that already figured, but longer in the 
 head and narrower in the pane, and weighs about 7 or 8 lbs. 
 The form shown in Fig. 6 is used for breaking up large 
 rocks, but in this case the weight is often increased to 15 
 lbs., 20 lbs., or even more. These are sometimes called lump 
 sledges. Fig. 7 represents a " lath-sledge," for drivjng the 
 " laths " used in timbering tender ground in Cornwall and 
 elsewhere. Fig. 8 shows a " spalling hammer " in common 
 use ; the weight will be from 3 to 6 lbs. 
 
 Shovels or Spades. — These also vary much in form 
 and size. Fig. 9 represents the long-handled shovel, used 
 almost universally throughout the west of England not only 
 for removing loose material underground, but also for gen- 
 eral use at the surface. The "plate" is from 8 inches to 12 
 inches wide, and 10 to 15 inches long, slightly hollowed and 
 strengthened with a central rib extending about half way 
 down. The point is often, and with great advantage, 
 steeled. The handle or "hilt" is from 4 to 5 feet long in 
 general, slightly curved. The weight of the plate is from 3 
 58 
 
 to 4 lbs. ; the cost, unsteeled, from 2s. to 3s., steeling about 
 6d. extra. A shovel like Fig. 10 is much used in the iron 
 mines of the north of England. The proper use of the long- 
 handled shovel of the west of England is not very easily 
 acquired ; nor is it, perhaps, so well adapted for removing 
 very light and loose material as the shorter handled shovels. 
 For rough and coarse materials, however, its value cannot 
 be over-estimated, as the point makes its way readily be- 
 neath or between the masses, and the knee serves as a ful- 
 crum at the same time for the long lever handle. The van- 
 ning shovel, used in "vanning" tin and other ores, is some- 
 what like Fig. 9, but larger, rounded at the ends, and 
 without the strengthening rib. It is made of very thin iron, 
 so as not to exceed 2 or 2J lbs. in weight. The plate may 
 be about 15" long; the handle about 3 feet. Much atten- 
 tion is paid so as to secure a proper curve for both plate and 
 handle, as much of the success of the operation depends 
 upon these particulars. 
 
 Wedges. — These are largely used for breaking, down 
 portions of rock, being driven by the pool-picks or hammers 
 already mentioned. In Cornwall the wedges most commonly 
 used are known as "gads," "pickers," and "moyles" or 
 mules. The gads are usually made of steel, vary from 6 
 inches to 10 inches in length, and weigh from 1 to 5 or 6 
 lbs. Fig. 10 shows a very useful form. The pickers used 
 in the Western mines are longer and narrower. They are 
 used, as the name implies, to pick out the small fragments 
 of loose rock which wedge in larger portions in some situa- 
 tions. Worn out steel borers make excellent gads and 
 pickers. 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 In Saxony it is common to make the gads vrith an eye in 
 the centre, as shown in fig. 11. The miner passes a string 
 through the holes, and so carries a day's supply without in- 
 convenience. The larger kinds of wedges known in Corn- 
 wall as "moyles" aroused more especially in quarry work. 
 They vary from ten inches to eighteen inches in length, and 
 weigh from seven to twenty pounds. They are sometimes 
 formed of iron throughout, but preferably with a steel tip. 
 
914. 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The term gad is sometimes restricted to those which are 
 brought to a point, those having a chisel edge are more 
 properly termed wedges. The cost of steel wedges varies 
 much from time to time, but at the present time is about 
 8d. per pound. Iron wedges cost rather less than half this 
 amount. 
 
 Borers. — ^These are often called "striking borers,'' 
 " drills," " bits," and sometimes "augers." Of course they 
 are very dilTerent to true augers. Ordinary borers are 
 worked by percussion, borers which revolve under pressure 
 are seldom used in mining operations, except for deep trial 
 borings. The borers used in metal mining are mostly of the 
 form shown in fig. 13, varying in width from one and a half 
 inches down to one inch, and in length from one foot to four 
 feet,— the shorter being wider than the longer ones, in order 
 to afford " clearance " as they succeed each other in boring 
 deep holes. In open quarry work much longer and larger 
 borers are used. In the west of Cornwall, at St. Just, 
 the borers are lighter and smaller than elsewhere, single- 
 handed boring being common as already mentioned. The 
 best borers are made of steel throughout, but sometimes ii'on 
 borers with steel tips are still used. For boring machines, 
 the form of the cutting edge is very different from that 
 shown in the iigure — the chief forms being the "Z " and the 
 " X." The jumper shown in fig. 14 is used in open quarry 
 work, but not often by miners. It is sharpened and steeled 
 at both ends, and is held by the lump in the middle. 
 
 Miscellaneous Tools. — The tamping bar is a bar of 
 iron tipped with copper, or a rod of hard wood, used for 
 ramming home a " tamping " of clay or earthy material so 
 as to confine the gunpowder or other explosive in a bore- 
 hole to increase its useful effect. The pricier was formerly 
 much used to make a hole through the tamping, but since 
 the invention of safety fuse it has gone very generally out 
 of use, the tamping being now rammed around the fuse 
 itself Swab-sticks are rods of wood, with the fibres of the 
 end beaten loose, and used for drawing wet mud or sludge 
 out of a bore hole. Sometimes a kind of syringe known as 
 a gun is used with good effect for this purpose. A hatchet 
 or " dag " is very useful in preparing timber for tender 
 ground, and in Cornwall the miners are expected to be ex- 
 pert in its use, and also in the use of a cross-cut saw, hand 
 saw, adze, and auger. 
 
 — From the " Principles of Metal Mining." 
 
 ON DEAD WORK IN SHAFTS, ETC. 
 
 T 
 
 \ 
 
 HE shafts for metal mines, besides the actual labour 
 of excavating, require much additional attention 
 before they are ready for daily use. Some shafts are 
 intended for pumping only ; some for pumping and 
 raising ore; and many for the use of 
 the_ miners in proceeding to and fi'om 
 their work in addition to these objects. 
 Protection from Danger. — As 
 r the shaft reaches a depth of 10 to 20 
 fathoms, it is usual — or at least proper 
 — to protect the men working in the 
 bottom from the danger arising from 
 the occasional fall of stones or ma- 
 terials, since a very small stone fall- 
 ing upwards of 60 feet is suflicient 
 to cause death. A portion of the 
 shaft is covered over by a temporary 
 sloping roof of boards called a "pent- 
 house," as shown in fig. 1, and the 
 men retire beneath this whenever 
 anything is being raised or let down 
 in the shaft. 
 
 Striking Deals.— To diminish 
 the risk of accident from the upset- 
 ting of the kibbles what are known 
 as " striking deals '' are used in some 
 places. These are pieces of wood 
 placed as shown in fig. 1, which 
 serve to guide the ascending kibble 
 through the opening at the top of the 
 shaft. Fig. 2 is a plan of a shaft 
 
 divided for pumping and " winding," or " drawing stuff," 
 with a narrow central division for a ladder-way. The 
 winding division a is boarded in entirely from the ladder- 
 way b, but the portico c, containing dd, is only separated 
 at intervals from the ladder-way. 
 Ladders.^The ladders are usually made from 20 to 30 
 feet long. The " rungs " or " staves " — pre- 
 ferably 10'^, but sometimes 12''' apart— are 
 best made of iron bars let into the wooden 
 sides, as shown in fig. 3. At the top and bot- 
 tom, and at intervals throughout the length 
 longer bars cc pass quite through the sidesj 
 and are secured by a " cotter " as at d, or by 
 Fio. 2. a nut as at e. The ladders are placed in the 
 
 shaft as shown in figs. 4, 6, of which 4 represents the 
 safest mode, as the man-holes bb, in the " solars " aa, are 
 under the ladders. When the ladders are placed as in fig. 
 5, a careless stepper may step back into the man-hole, and 
 losing his hold on the ladder, may " fall away." Sometimes 
 the man-holes are protected by trap-doors, but this leads to 
 much delay, so that in practice they are seldom kept shut. 
 
 Partings. — Partings of the shafts consist of strong 
 beams of wood, which either rest upon the timber " sets " 
 of the shaft, or, in hard ground, are let into the country on 
 either side ; longitudinal timbers are nailed to these so as to 
 form the shaft parting, and the same cross timbers serve to 
 support the solars. In the great majority of the Cornish 
 metal mines, and in many of those of South Wales and the 
 North of England, the men go to and from their work by 
 means of the ladder ways just described. The going down 
 is not very hard work, but as the average daily amount of 
 climbing is, perhaps from 400 to 600 feet, and sometimes as 
 much as 1500, and as the men have frequently to bring up 
 some of their tools for sharpening, the labor becomes very 
 severe — as much in some instances as the whole of the work 
 underground. In some mines the men are raised in the 
 cages or skips used for raising ore, and this practice is in- 
 creasing with the increasing use of wire-rope. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 Safety Catch.— Sometimes the cages are fitted with 
 safetjr catches which are intended to prevent the fall of the 
 cage mease of the ropes breaking. One very convenient 
 form of this contrivance consists of a strong spring which 
 serves as the connection between the rope and the cage. 
 The weight of the loaded cage keeps this spring bent, but 
 ir the rope should break it is at once relaxed, and, by its 
 recoil, sets free some strong teeth, which immediately force 
 themselves into the shaft railway or guides, and so keep the 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 915 
 
 cage from falling. But all such contrivances are liable to 
 get out of order unless constantly watched ; and as it seems 
 difficult to induce men to prepare for a danger which seems 
 very remote, many practical miners prefer to do without all 
 such appliances, and to trust entirely to the perfection of 
 the rope, which is constantly under the inspection of the 
 manager or his appointed agent. 
 
 From shallow depths, or while sinking! the men are 
 often raised by means of the rope used for raising the 
 " deads." The writer has been frequently brought up from 
 a depth of between 30 and 40 fathoms standing witn one 
 foot in the kibble and holding on to the rope with his left 
 hand ; but such a mode cannot be recommended for depths 
 of more than a few fathoms, especially if the rope is at all 
 worn. 
 
 The Man -Engine. — In some of the larger Cornish 
 mines the contrivance known as the "man-engine" is used 
 for raising and lowering the men^a special shaft being de- 
 voted to this purpose, except that a ladder-way is also placed 
 in the shaft. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 The man-engine consists of a beam of wood called the " rod," 
 a a. Fig. 6, which is made to move up and down alternately 
 through a space of twelve feet, by means of an engine de- 
 voted partially or entirely to that purpose. On the rod at 
 i b, steps are fixed twelve feet apart, on which the men 
 stand while it is in motion, holding on by iron handles pro- 
 vided for that purpose. When it stops for an instant before 
 the motion is reversed the steps are level with the " sollars," 
 which are placed in the sides of the shaft. It is evident that 
 if the men who stand on the steps during the upward motion 
 of the rod step on to the sollars during its downward motion, 
 and step back to the rod when it again rises, they will be 
 raised to the surface by successive lifts of twelve feet, with- 
 out any labor on their part except the stepping off and on. 
 As many men may thus be brought up from their work at 
 one time as there are steps on the rod, and, as the sollars are 
 fixed on both sides of the shaft, an equal number of men 
 may be carried down at the same time, each stepping on the 
 rod as the man leaving work steps off. The weight of the 
 rods, with all connections, averages about 25 cwt. per fathom, 
 or for a depth of 200 fathoms amounts to about 250 tons. 
 The great weight is balanced by several of the "balance- 
 bobs," to be described hereafter. The man-engine is so great 
 an advantage to all concerned, both workmen and employers, 
 that it would soon become generally used in deep mines un- 
 provided with lifting cages but for its great expense. This 
 
 is very great indeed, since most of the shafts in deep and 
 therefore old mines are too narrow and irregular to allow of 
 its introduction without a good deal of expense in cutting 
 down the irregularities. Still, in large mines, the expense 
 is well repaid by the advantage. 
 
 The cost of supplying a man-engine, with driving engine 
 complete to a depth of 200 fathoms — exclusive of the cost of 
 the shaft itself — cannot be taken at less than £2000 to £2500. 
 The interest on the larger sum at 5 per cent., with 10 per 
 cent, added for depreciation of plant and repairs, amounts 
 to £375 per annum. The cost of coal and attendance for 
 driving the engine, for oil and grease, etc., will amount to 
 say £250 per annum in addition. 
 
 The labor of climbing from an average depth of 100 
 fathoms cannot be taken at less than 1 hour daily, or, with 
 3 shifts of 50 men at an average of 5d., the amount lost by 
 climbing will be each day 62Si 6d., or, for a year of 240 work- 
 ing days, say £801, showing a clear gain of £175. For a 
 depth of 310 fathoms the advantage is many times greater, 
 since the exhaustion of the men from the labor of climb- 
 ing and the tirafe occupied will increase in a geometrical 
 ratio. However, setting aside all calculations of cost, it is 
 only necessary to look at the men who have just come up 
 by ladders from deep mines to see that some mode of reliev- 
 ing them from such excessive toil is most necessary. The 
 man-engine originated in Germany, where it is called the 
 " fahr-kunst." The idea occurred to some of the German 
 miners, who saw the reciprocating action of the pump rods, 
 to attach steps to it, and this was actually carried into prac- 
 tice. In Cornwall the idea of a man-machine was first carried 
 into effect by Mr. Loam, in 1835, at Tresavean mine in Gwen- 
 nap, Cornwall, and an award of £500 was made to Mr. Loam 
 for his great boon to the working miners.by the Eoyal Corn- 
 wall Polytechnic Society. 
 
 — From the Prijiciplea of Metal Mining. 
 
 THE CONVEYANCE AND RAISING OF 
 STUFF. 
 
 THE earliest mode of bringing the ore and deads from 
 the " pitch,'" or the place of work, to the surface, 
 was probably by carrying it in baskets of wicker- 
 work, and this mode is still in use in many foreign 
 mines. For centuries, however, the mode most usually 
 adopted has been to place it in wheel-barrows, and to wheel 
 it along the levels. In many metal mines this mode is still 
 the only one in use, but some form of a tram-wagon is now 
 very generally introduced. 
 
 The first improvement was to lay planks along the rough 
 floor of the level, upon which the wheel of the barrow 
 
 would run more easily. The 
 wheel-barrow used for such 
 purposes in Cornwall is 
 shown in Fig. 1. It has no 
 legs ; is nearly parallel 
 Pig 1 lengthwise-; and its sides 
 
 are but little inclined. Its ordinary loa,d is about 1 cwt. to 
 1\ cwt. It is usually made on the mine, and its cost varies 
 from 8s. 6d. with a wooden wheel, to 12s. 6d. with an iron 
 wheel. Such a wheel-barrow is admirably adapted for use 
 underground in the old-fashioned narrow levels, and it is 
 far more convenient for tipping sideways than is the ordinary 
 navvy barrow, with side sloping sides and long legs. 
 
 Tram-Wagons.— The introduction of a wider system 
 of levels, and their increased length, due to the smaller 
 number of shafts in deep mines, has led to the gradual in- 
 troduction of tram-wagons, running 
 upon four wheels. These are some- 
 times made of wood strengthened 
 with iron jjands, but are better of 
 iron throughout. Fig. 2 shows .a 
 wagon made of boiler-plate. This, 
 when 42 inches long, 30 inches 
 wide, and 18 to 20 inches deep, will 
 ^■g- ^■.r?^^"'?^^""'j hold about a ton of iron ore; will 
 endfhh^gedtt- a^made Weigh from 3 to 4 cwt. ; and cost 
 of iron plates riveted. from £5 to £6. 
 
916 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Sometimes the wagons are made with plain wheels to run 
 between tram-plates, of a form shown in flg. 3, at a, but a 
 saving of iron is effected by using flanged wheels running 
 upon wooden rails, 3 inches high and 2 inches wide, faced 
 with thin bar iron, or upon iron rails nailed to wooden 
 sleepers. Three forms of rail are shown in -fig. 3, 6 c d. A 
 convenient width between the rails is 36 inches, but the writer 
 has seen gauges in use in Cornwall and South Wales vary- 
 ing from 42 inches downwards to 14 inches, the latter being 
 used for the narrow levels in an old iron mine. The rails 
 used weigh from 10 lbs. to 20 lbs. per yard of length. 
 
 Fig- 2- 
 
 The tram-wagons are pushed along by boys or men, some- 
 times pulled by donkeys or horses, and ih a few instances 
 hauled along by wire-ropes or chains, which are coiled 
 around winding-drums worked by stationary engines. 
 Where possible the rails should have a downward inclina- 
 tion of about half an inch per fathom in the direction of the 
 load, as this greatly facilitates the movement of the heavy 
 weight, without materially impeding the return of .the empty 
 •wagons. In the iron mines of the North of England and 
 South Wales much greater inclinations are rendered neces- 
 sary by the situation of the ores, and " tail-rope haulage " 
 is exceedingly common. 
 
 Methods of Raising" Ore. — The stuff having reached 
 the shaft has next to be raised to the surface. From depths 
 not exceeding 15 or 20 fathoms, the ". tackle " shown in fig. 
 7 may be used with advantage. This plan is not to be re- 
 commended for greater depths, as the cost may be consider- 
 ably lessened by the use of other appliances — the " horse- 
 whim," derrick or whipsey-derry, water balance, or steam 
 engine — described in the chapters on machinery for raising 
 ore and pumping. The ore is raised either in " kibbles," 
 "skips," or cages." The kibble is simply an iron bucket 
 made of boiler plates, riveted together as shown in figs. 1 
 and 7. They are attached to chains, hempen or wire ropes, 
 and vary in capacity from 1 to 25 cwt. The small kibbles 
 used with the tackle are called " winze-kibbles." They are 
 niade about 14 inches high and 12 inches in diameter; 
 holding from 1 cwt. to \\ cwt. Whim-kibbles are of nearly 
 the same form as winze-kibbles, but they are from 20 to 24 
 inches high, 14 to 18 inches wide, and made of somewhat 
 thicker plate, with a loop below for greater facility of upset- 
 ting in landing. They hold from 4 to 6 cwt. Kibbles of 
 
 ■^'Si::;*'^'"' ?,'"/' '''"^ ^- ''["^'^'^ ^°°^ ^* ». wheels at h, and guide 
 ?Ww»n''"t'*'"-'°'^*'^''?';^ •" into Bides of shaft; ;, e, guides; 
 J, loot-wall; ((.haugiug wall of lodo. , s— =«■ . 
 
 very large dimensions are occasionally used for deep shafts, 
 and worked by water wheels or steam engines. At Dolcoath 
 mine, in Cornwall, very large kibbles, capable of containing 
 
 a ton or more of tin stufi) are worked in some of the old ir- 
 regular shafts. The largest of these are more than 4 feet 
 high, and about three feet 6 inches wide. When kibbles 
 are used in deep shafts it is because they are much inclined 
 and somewhat irregular. The lower side or foot-wall is of- 
 ten partially or entirely lined with " bed-plank " to reduce 
 the friction. The amount of wear, of bed-plank and kibble 
 is very great, the friction is enormous, and the breakages, 
 owing to the strain on the ropes and machinery, are very fi:e- 
 quent ; so that the use of kibbles for deep or permanent 
 shafts is not to be recommended. A much better plan is to 
 straighten the shaft as much as possible, to put in guides or 
 shaft railways, and to use skips running upon wheels as 
 shown in fig. 4. These skips are now commonly raised 
 by means of wire-rope, but unless the railway be put in very 
 carefully the friction is still considerable, and in Cornwall a 
 speed of 360 feet per minute has rarely been exceeded. For 
 highly inclined shafts, the skips should have wheels as 
 shown in the figure ; but when the shaft is nearly vertical, 
 simple guides will suffice. Fig. 5 is a plan of a shaft with 
 double skip-board adapted for wheels, and fig. 6 a similar 
 shaft arranged with " cover and filler '' roads for guided 
 skips. The cost of putting in a double skip-board or shaft 
 railway will vary from £1 10s. to £3 10s. per fathom of 
 length. 
 
 Fig. 6. — Plan of Double Skip-road 
 OR Shaft Railway, A, the sJiip ; 
 fc, the wheels ; c, c, guides ; d, d, 
 stiaft timbers; e, e, the rails. 
 
 Fig. 6. — Plan of Double "Cover 
 AND Filler" Skip Road. A, the 
 skip; i, the "/iOTer ;" i, the " flll- 
 
 The skip shown in fig. 4 is filled sometimes at the upper 
 end, but sometimes the rails are bent round so as to allow it 
 to take a horizontal position at the bottom of the shaft, when 
 it is filled by opening the hinged door. This door is then 
 secured with a catch until it reaches the surface, where the 
 " lander " brings it over his wagon and opens the door, so 
 allowing the stuff to slide down the sloping bottom. 
 
 Wherever possible, the use of a pair of cages running in 
 a vertical shaft is to be recommended. These are arranged 
 so that the loaded wagon from the " end," " stope," or " face 
 of v/ork " may be run directly into the cage, and raised to 
 the surface with only one loading. In this manner a much 
 greater speed may be attained ; and nearly twice the quantity 
 may be raised from the shaft with the same power as in the 
 case of a pair of skips. 
 
 Comparative Cost. — From shafts from 10 to 15 
 fathoms deep, two men will raise on an average, with the 
 tackle, about 12 tons in eight hours. The cost of this in 
 Cornwall is 6s., or say 6d. per ton, or Jd. per " ton-fathom." 
 For depths of more than 15 fathoms a less quantity will be 
 raised, or else a third man will be required, and the cost will 
 be about fd. per ton fathom. A hempen rope about IJ" 
 diameter, called a tackle-rope, is generally used with the 
 tackle. With a one-horse whim, one man to receive the 
 stuff and a boy to drive the horse, from 15 to 20 tons per 
 eight -hours may be raised from a depth of forty fathoms. 
 The cost will be in Cornwall about 9s., or, say, 6d. per ton 
 as before, but the depth being greater it will only be about 
 1 -6th of a penny per ton-fathom. To raise a greater quantity, 
 or from a greater depth, two horses will be necessary. With 
 the " derrick " or " whipsey-derry " the cost will be a little 
 more than with the horse-whim. Whim kibbles are often 
 raised by means of chains, but the use of chains in shafts 
 is not to be recommended. With large kibbles working in 
 shafts of from 150 to 300 fathoms deep, from 20 to 30 tons 
 per day of eight hours may be raised — ^the larger quantity, 
 of course, from the shallower shaft. When engine power is 
 used, the cost will be about 10s. to 12s., or, say, l-30th of a 
 penny per ton-fathom on an average. A water-wheel will 
 save about 2-5ths of this. With a well-arranged skip, and 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 917 
 
 shaft railway the cost of raising ore, even where a steam 
 engine is used, will be reduced to about l-50th of a peiiny 
 per ton-fathom, or less; and with a pair of cages in a vertical 
 shaft with good arrangements will not exceed 1-lOOth of a 
 penny per ton fathom. 
 
 In metal mines, where ores of a considerable specific 
 gravity have to be dealt with, large cages are seldom needed. 
 A wagon 30" + 42" + 20" will hold about one ton of iron 
 ore, and this is as much as it will be generally necessary or 
 desirable to raise at one time. With good arrangements, 
 a shaft of twelve feet by nine feet will be found large 
 enough to allow of ample pumping space, a good ladder- 
 way, and a pair of cages capable of raising twenty tons per 
 hour from a depth of two hundred fathoms. From the fore- 
 going remarks'it is evident that kibbles are only suitable for 
 shafts of moderate depth, and preferably for those which are 
 nearly vertical. Cages are only suitable for vertical shafts, 
 but are valuable for all depths. For inclined shafts, skips 
 running upon wheels are most suitable; and it will be 
 worth while in every case to pay great attention to the rails 
 or guides upon which they run. Where the inclination of 
 the shaft from the horizontal does not exceed one in three, 
 as in many ore beds and some few " flat" lodes, the ore may 
 be brought up in the tram-wagons from the levels without 
 using skips or cages, the same tramway being continued up 
 the incline to the surface. In all cases, if at all possible, 
 double roads should be used, or two pits should be put into 
 communication to cause the weight of the descending cage 
 to balance that which is ascending, so that the mineral only 
 shall be lifted. Sometimes where both these modes are for 
 some reason unsuitable, a " dummy " counterpoise may be 
 used. 
 
 Ropes.— For shallow pits chain or hemp rope may be 
 used with great propriety, because of the facility with which 
 it may be coiled round small barrels or drums ; but for con- 
 siderable depths, and especially where great weights have to 
 be lifted, the use of wire rope in some form is both safer and 
 much more economical — and is, indeed, now almost univer- 
 sally used. Wire-ropes may be either round or flat, of iron- 
 wire or steel. For round iron-wire ropes, drums of less than 
 twelve feet should never be used ; for flat ropes and ropes 
 of steel wire, drums somewhat smaller may be used, but 
 not to be recommended in general. 
 
 The following tables of the equivalent working strengths 
 of chain, hemp rope, iron-wire rope, and steel wire rope, 
 will be useful to the young student. They all refer to 
 material of best quality.* 
 
 Table 1.— Whqht and Stkbnoth of Chains. 
 
 Diameter of iron. . . . 6-16 ia. 11-16 in. l^T^.i"- 
 
 Weight per Fathom. , . 6% lbs., 28 lbs. ,*?'°!- 
 
 Working Load . ... 24 cwt. 54 owt. 120 cwt. 
 
 Table 2. — Weight and Strength of Good Hemp Eope. 
 
 Ciroumferenoe 6J^ in. 8 in. 12 in 
 
 Weight per Fathom. . . 
 Working Load while new. 
 Breaking Strain. . . 
 
 . 71 
 
 . 24 cwt. 
 
 8 tons. 
 
 16 lbs. 
 54 cwt. 
 18 tons. 
 
 36 lbs. 
 120 cwt. 
 40 tons. 
 
 Table 3.— Weight and Sthenoth or Ikon wise Rope. 
 
 Circumference ZH '"• 3^ in. 4% JD 
 
 Weight per Fathom. . - 4 lbs. 9 lbs. 20 lbs 
 
 Working Load . 
 Breaking Strain 
 
 . 24 owt. 
 8 tons. 
 
 54 cwt. 
 18 tons. 
 
 120 cwt. 
 40 tons. 
 
 The weight' of the chain or rope itself must be taken into 
 account when any considerable length is used, and this too 
 will be much greater with chain or hemp rope than with 
 wire rope. Indeed, for deep pits the use of chain would be 
 forbidden by this consideration alone, as a chain of 300 
 fathoms long, capable of working with a load of 24 cwt., 
 would itself weigh nearly one ton, while a steel-wire rope of 
 the same strength would weigh only 750 lbs. To relieve the 
 winding engine, and to enable it to overcome the weight of 
 a long length of rope, the size of the drum is made to vary, 
 or the speed of winding at first is reduced. This may be 
 efiected either by using a conical winding drum, or by using 
 a flat rope and causing it to wind upon itself. 
 
 The Tackle. — The first machine used in mining opera- 
 tions for raising ore or deads is usually the tackle or wind- 
 lass, shown in fig. 7. This is so simple that it scarcely 
 needs a detailed explanation, but as it is usuHlly made on 
 the spot by the mine carpenter, a few words may not be out 
 of place. The carpenter selects two pieces of "half-timber" 
 a a long enough to reach across the shaft, and strong enough 
 to bear the weight. These are called the "bearers," and 
 they are afterwards planked over, except the small space 
 
 Table 4.— Weight and Steenoth of Steel-wiee Hope. 
 
 Circumference IK in. ?¥'"• ?J^i°' 
 
 . Weight per Fathom 2>| lbs. 63^1bs. 12 lbs. 
 
 Working Load 24 owt. 64 cwt. i^O "swt. 
 
 Breaking Strain 8 tons. 18 tons. 40 tons. 
 
 As shown in the tables, a very large allowance of strength 
 is made for safe working, the working load being taken at 
 less than one-sixth of the ultimate strength. With hemp 
 rope and chains a greater allowance should be made, on 
 account of the imperfection of material and workmanship 
 to which they are especially liable. A large allowance 
 must be made, too, for the strain due to the extra pull in 
 starting. Sometimes this is somewhat relieved by mounting 
 the bearings of the winding pulley or drum upon springs, 
 but even when this is done the extra strain will be very 
 considerable. 
 
 * Very complete tables of equivalent strengths are given in 
 Molesworth's " Pocket-book of Engineering Formulse." 
 
 Fio. 7. 
 
 required for the kibbles. In the middle of the«e half-tim- 
 ber bearers the uprights b 5, made of planks from 10 to 12 
 inches wide, 4 feet 6 inches long, and 1} to IJ inches thick, 
 are morticed. In the upper end of each upright a slot, 
 about 10 inches long and IJ inches wide, is cut, and the 
 bottom lined with iron, to receive the iron handles, and to 
 prevent the wood from splitting. The barrel c is made of a 
 piece of Norway pine, from 4 to 6 feet long, and 8 or 10 
 inches thick. The ends of the barrel are strengthened with 
 iron bands to prevent them from splitting when the handles 
 are driven in. 
 
 _ja^.._. 
 
 The handles dd are made of 1" or W round iron, bent 
 as shown, and squared and tapered at the ends for driving 
 into the barrel. The handles serve also as an axle for the 
 winding barrel. A piece of wood e is then fastened across 
 the top of the tackle, and a groove is made in it to receive 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 a sliding piece /, which, being pushed out beyond the bend 
 of the handle, holds it when required, keeping the load 
 
918 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 from descending. Sometimes stays are fixed extending 
 sideways from the uprights, as shown at gg. The cost of 
 preparing and fixing this shaft-tackle should not exceed 
 25s. or 30s. for timber, iron-work, and labor. The tackle is 
 well adapted for raising material from depths of less than 
 15 fathoms; for greater depths, up to 50 fathoms, the der- 
 rick or "whipsey-derry," fig. 8, is sometimes used, but it is 
 slow in operation, and has little to recommend it except its 
 small first cost, which is from £,%, 10s. to £Z, 10s. 
 
 The Horse-Whim, shown in fig. 9, is a much more effi- 
 cient machine. This, too, is made on the mine, the mode of 
 construction being as follows : — The axle a is of oak, about 
 12" diameter, and 12 or 14 feet long. Three sets of arms 
 are morticed into this at distances of 6, 8, and 10 feet from 
 the lower end. Upon these arms wooden segments are nailed, 
 and upon these again the 4-inch planks which form the bar- 
 rel or cage. Each end of the axle is bound with iron, and 
 each has an iron centre attached. The lower one works in 
 a block of stone, shown at 6, the upper in an iron socket 
 fixed to the span beam c c. This is made of a piece of Norway or 
 Swedish fir, 36 feet long and about 10 inches square, sup- 
 ported by the legs d d, which are morticed in the beam, and 
 frequently strengthened with iron strapping plates. Stays 
 are added at e e. The barrel / is 10 feet diameter ; beneath 
 it is placed the driving beam gg, 30 feet long, and strength- 
 ened by the stays hh. At one or both ends of the driving 
 beam a bar of iron is fixed with a yoke to which a horse may 
 be attached. The total cost of such a whim as here described 
 is under £20, and is a very efficient machine. 
 , The Poppet Heads are shown over the shaft to the 
 right of the whim. The construction is as follows : — Two 
 timber " horses "ii are first formed. The legs are 12 feet 
 long, and as thick as possible, but not less than 10 or 12 
 inches. These are partly sunk in the ground, and the up- 
 per ends are morticed into the " caps," which are 9 or 10 
 feet long. The horses are placed one on each side of the 
 shaft, about 5 or 6 feet apart, the centre of the space between 
 being in line with the span-beam of the whim. Carriers 
 are placed across the horses, and the bearings of the pulleys 
 rest upon these. The pulleys are usually of difierent sizes. 
 Where chain or hemp ropes are used for hauling, one may 
 be about 4 feet and the other about 2 feet, each being 4 
 inches wide. Wire rope is seldom used with a whim, 
 but should it be used the pulleys must be much larger. 
 The total cost of the poppet heads for whim drawing 
 will not much exceed £6. Very similar poppet heads, 
 but larger, are used in many cases when winding with 
 a steam engine or water wheel. It is not often that water 
 wheels are arranged for hauling purposes, although in some 
 instances, as at Wheal Friendship, near Tavistock-, they 
 have been used with excellent efiect. The only peculiarity 
 is the application of suitable gear for reversing or stopping 
 the motion. There is no great difficulty in this, but the incon- 
 nienoe is sufficient to prevent their extended use for such a 
 purpose in shallow mines, and in deep mines a sufficiency of 
 water power is rarely available, and what there is may be 
 often more advantageously used for pumping. We shall 
 therefore reserve our remarks upon water wheels for the 
 chapter on Pumping Machinery." 
 
 An easy and convenient, but not economical mode of 
 using a fall ofwater for winding purposes is shown in sec- 
 tion in fag. 10. The water enters at a, and falls upon the 
 
 barrel, which serves to communicate motion to the wind- 
 ing drum g, shown in fig. 11. The motion is stopped or re- 
 versed by the handle d, which moves the vaWe e, bringing 
 the channel successively into the positions shown at A and 
 B. The whole arrangement is shown in fig. 11, where a is 
 the inlet for the water, h is the case containing the working 
 wheel, i is the cogwheel fixed on its axis, and ^y the winding 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 Flu. 10. 
 
 leaves or buckets of the wheel b, making its eacane at c A 
 cogwheel IS mounted upon the kxis / outside th^e working 
 
 drum. This mode of using water power is suggested by a 
 working model which is now in the Museum of Practical 
 Geology in Jermyn Street, London. It is cheap, compact 
 and easily constructed, and but little likely to get out of re- 
 pair, but the author is not aware that it is anywhere in use 
 When the fall of water is great, this simple arrangement will 
 be found very efficient. 
 
 The Water-Balance.— In many of the openworks on 
 the northern side of the great coal basin of South Wales 
 water-balance machines are largely used for winding pur- 
 poses, and for mines of not more than 100 fathoms deep • 
 in a district afibrding a good supplv ofwater, and free drain- 
 age by means of adits, they may be highly, recommended 
 bometimes they are used where there is no drainage the 
 water being pumped up from the bottom by an engine' but 
 this IS not to be recommended. In some cases the machines 
 are placed at difierent levels, so that the same water is used 
 live or six times over as many successible lifts. The tram 
 containing from 12 to 20 cwt., is placed in a cage over an 
 empty water bucket, and the empty tram on a similar bucket 
 at the top. Water is then made to flow into the upper 
 bucket until ite weight is great enough to cause it to descend 
 so raising the filled tram. On the arrival of the full bucket 
 at the bottom of its fall, a self-acting valve opens and the 
 water is discharged, so allowing the process to be repeated 
 Ihe buckets are made of V^ boiler-plate, circular in form 
 and some hold more than 2 tons of water. The landing 
 chain IS balanced by a chain which hangs below each bucket 
 and guide chains are used to keep the buckets from striking 
 ^.r,^. ""^^"^ .*^® ®^^^ts are not divided. A speed of 300 
 to 400 feet per minute is easily attained by this machine, 
 and the total cost of raising stufl!' is about IJd. per ton per 
 50 fathoms. For great depths the weight of the machinery 
 becomes so great that the economy is reduced or disappears, 
 bomewhat similar machines are used in some of the iron 
 mines of North Lancashire and Cumberland. 
 
 The Steam Engine.— For hauling in deep mines a 
 steam engine is generally necessary, and although many 
 torms of steam engine are employed for this purpose, our 
 remarks will apply to two only-the double-acting high- 
 pressure condensing engine, and the double-cylindered hor- 
 izontal engine Both these machines work the steam ex- 
 pansively and both give good duty when in good order and 
 when well attended; but the preference in the future will 
 probably be given to the horizontal engine everywhere at any 
 rate, except in Cornwall. The Cornish winding engine dif- 
 ters but little from the Cornish pumping engine, hereafter 
 to be described, except that it is double acting, i. e., it takes 
 Its steam on both sides of the piston instead of only on the 
 upper side. It is, however, supplied with a heavy flywheel 
 to equalize the motion as much as possible. The driving 
 crank is placed between the fly wheel and the winding 
 arum, ^either a very rapid nor an equal motion is obtained 
 by this form of engine, and the double-cylindered horizontal 
 engine is on the whole much to be preferred The Cor- 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 919 
 
 nish double-acting engine is sometimes used for pumping, 
 or for driving, stamping or crushing machinery. 
 
 Horizontal Engine. — The cylinder of this engine is 
 fixed in a horizontal position, as show at AB in fig. 12, 
 High-pressure steam is admitted alternately on each side of 
 the piston. The piston-rod is terminated by the crosahead 
 g, which works backwards and forwards between the guides 
 a b. To this crosshead the connecting rod gc is attached, and 
 this turns the drum or fly-wheel by means of the crank C 
 and the main shaft r. The whole is fixed on heavy masonry 
 as at C D. To equalize the motion two cylinders are used 
 with their crank at right angles, so that one is exerting its 
 greatest amount of force while the other is at its dead point. 
 A common form of governor is shown at G. To economize 
 steam it is used expansively. The condenser and its connec- 
 tions are not shown in the sketch, but they may be placed 
 in any convenient situation. For winding purposes they 
 are fitted with reversing gear and powerful friction brakes 
 
 dislocation of a mineral deposit upon a cross-fissure was re- 
 garded as necessarily belonging to either one or the other of 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 The advantage of the horizontal over the beam winding 
 engine is greater compactness and less first cost for equal 
 power, a saving of cost in the necessary buildings, and, if 
 two cylinders be used, a more equable motion. Its only 
 disadvantage is that the cylinders are apt to lose their true 
 form, the lower part becoming more worn than the upper, 
 owing to the weight of the piston. A remedy for this has 
 been found by mounting the piston on the centre of a long 
 piston-rod which passes through stuffing boxes placed at 
 each end of the cylinder. Every winding engine should be 
 fitted with some form of indicator, showing the attendant 
 the exact position of the skip or cage in the shaft at a glance, 
 as in this way many accidents from over-winding may be 
 prevented. To prevent loss of steam by condensation in 
 the steam-pipe, cylinders, etc., these parts, as well as the top 
 of the boilers themselves, are covered with some non-con- 
 ducting material. The modes-of doing this will be ex- 
 plainedin a future chapter. The principal forms of boilers 
 will also be there described and illustrated. 
 
 — From the " Frinciplea of Metai Minijig,'* 
 
 NOTE ON HOEFER'S METHOD OF DETER- 
 MINING FAULTS IN MINERAL VEINS. 
 
 I DESIRE to call the attention of members of the Insti- 
 tute to a new method of plotting and determining faults 
 in mineral deposits, suggested by Prof. Hans Hoefer, 
 lately of the Mining School of Przibram, and now of 
 the School of Leoben, and one of the editors of the Aus- 
 trian Zdtschrift fiir Berg-und £Riti(inwesen, in the 29th vol- 
 ume of which appears his paper on the subject. I will here 
 give an abstract of its contents, which though partial, will 
 be, I trust, sufficient for my purpose. 
 
 In the examination of a fault, we usually follow the rule 
 of Zimmermann, which assumes that the hanging-wall of a 
 faulting-flssure has slid downward in the direction of its dip; 
 but dislocations (coal-seams in particular) show many cases 
 in which one part of the seam has been shoved over the 
 other ; that is, the hanging-wall of the faulting-fissure has 
 slid upward instead of downward. For a long time, every 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 these two classes. It was either a slide (Sprung) or a heave 
 (Wechsel). But it has been proved of one and the same 
 fault that it may appear at one place to be a slide, while at 
 another place, even in the same mine, it appeared to be a 
 heave. 
 
 _ This phenomenon itself suffices to show that the classifica- 
 tion of dislocations is not so simple as has been supposed, 
 and the methods pursued by mine surveyors, based upon 
 that classification, may, therefore, need improvement. 
 These methods, as is well known, assume that throughout a 
 given fault the motion of the hanging-wall has been every- 
 where the same, and consequently that the so-called verti- 
 cal interval or " throw " determined by exploration of the 
 two dislocated parts of the deposits at any one point is a 
 guide for exploration at all other points. Practice, however, 
 shows that this guide is not unerring. It does not always 
 agree with the indications of actual movement and direction 
 furnished by the striations of the walls of the faulting-fis- 
 sure. These marks frequently da not follow the dip, but 
 obliquely cross it. The oblique or other motion thus indi- 
 cated is certainly one of the elements in the geometrical 
 problem presented to the surveyor. 
 
 Fig. 1 may illustrate this point. Let AB be the line of 
 intersection between the vein L and the faulting-fissure V, 
 the striations of which indicate that the movement took 
 place in the direction of CD. The dislocated continuation 
 L of the vein being found at BF, the old rule would de- 
 clare that the case was one of a heave or upward movement 
 of the hanging-wall ; and yet it is really an oblique slide. 
 That the distinction is important appears when we consider 
 that, if the vein being worked in the foot-wall of the fault- 
 ing-fissure had contained an ore-body which was cut ofi' by 
 
 the fault at O, the old rule would require us to accept the 
 continuation of this ore-body at some higher point in the 
 hanging- wall of the fault ; whereas, by the present hypoth- 
 
920 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 esis, it is at the lower point H, to which the striations 
 tend. It is apparent that an oblique slide would not, ac- 
 cording to the old rule, appear to be a slide at all, unless 
 the striations (that is, the actual "movement) were steeper in 
 dip than the lines of intersection. In case L had been hor- 
 izontally moved, the dislocation would, by the old rule, be a 
 slide, if it had moved in one direction, and a heave, if it 
 had moved in the other ; whereas, in reality it would have 
 been neither. But Professor Hoefer goes still further, and 
 declares that the parallel uniform movement of the hanging- 
 wall of a fault is not to be always assumed. The evidence 
 of this statement is drawn especially from coal-seams ; not, 
 as I apprehend, because the dislocations of these deposits 
 are different in nature from those of metalliferous veins, but 
 because coal-mining has furnished more extensive excava- 
 tions, and therefore a greater body of evidp.nce than any 
 other branch of the business. Moreover, we can with greater 
 certainty judge what was the original position of a coal-bed 
 than we can of a flssure-vein. When the latter suddenly 
 changes dip, for instance, beyond a fault, we can not be sure 
 that the change of dip did not exist before the dislocation 
 took place. This phenomenon of a change of dip and also 
 strike is frequent in coal-fields, under such conditions as 
 make it reasonably certain that neither the original position 
 of the coal nor irregularities in the faulting-fissure were the 
 cause ; but rather that the relative movement of the two 
 parts of the deposit was not in parallel lines. In many 
 cases where veins show a uniform dip, that is, approach in 
 
 faulting-fissure. A simple geometrical construction will 
 show that when one mass of rock has moved in this manner 
 
 Fia. 3. 
 
 form a regular plane, and yet exhibit these changes beyond 
 a fault, It IS reasonable to infer, instead of a simple slide or 
 heave a partia revolution of the mass on the hanging-wall 
 •Bide of the fault around an axis normal to the plane of the 
 
 Fio 4. 
 
 upon another, the dislocated portion of the mineral deposit 
 common to the two must acquire a difierent strike and dip 
 from that which has remained unmoved. Professor Hoefer 
 cites as an illustration a very extensive fault in the neigh- 
 borhood of Aix, which shows to the southeast a greater ver- 
 tical dislocation than toward the northwest, and can only be 
 explained by a turning movement. 
 
 Fig. 2. shows how, in the simplest case, that of a revolu- 
 tion without vertical descent or ascent of the hanging-wall 
 the striations in the faulting fissure may indicate the axis of 
 the revolution. In this figure, AB is a drift run in the fault- 
 ing-fissure, and showing striations according to the dotted 
 lines, which pitch in one direction at A, and in the opposite 
 direction at B. In such a case, the center of movement 
 would be found at the intersection of perpendiculars drawn 
 through the line of striations. Thus," if striations were ex- 
 posed at A, B, and D, the intersection of the perpendiculars 
 would show the center of movement to be at C. In practice 
 however, it is likely that the several perpendiculars drawn 
 through such striations would not intersect at a given point ; 
 and this would show that, besides the turning movement' 
 there had also been a movement of translation of the whole 
 mass, up, down, or along the plane of the fault. The com- 
 plication of these two movements is, however, not beyond 
 analysis, if the data are sufficiently abundant and exact. 
 Even with the imperfect data usually aflferded by the limi- 
 ted exposures in mines, it is much better to work upon a 
 perfect than upon a crude and partial system ; and Professor 
 Hoefer thinks that not only the points already mentioned, 
 but also the question of direction of movements (for exam- 
 ple, in Fig. 2, whether from B to A, or .4 to 5), can in many 
 cases be satisfactorily determined by the plan he proposes. 
 
 This plan may be illustrated for a general case by Fig. 3. 
 Let AB represent the course of a vein dipping 32° (as 
 shown by the arrow), which has been explored on an 
 upper level to where it is cut off by a cross-fissure having 
 the strike -B^K" and the dip of 40° (as shown by the arrow). 
 Let it be assumed that upon a lower level the vein had 
 been opened, with' the strike CD and the dip of 23°; that 
 on this level a fault was encountered at D, having the same 
 strike and dip as that at B. By a simple construction, with 
 the help of the triangle abc, in which the angle c is 40, and 
 the side ah is the vertical distance h between the two levels, 
 we find the point c and draw the line cD, which, being par- 
 allel to BK and also coinciding with the strike of the fault 
 at B, proves the latter to be identical with the fault at B 
 on the level above. We now determine the two lines of in- 
 tersection EF and BG made by the fault, with the two 
 portions AB and CD of the faulted vein. This can be done 
 most easilyby the aid of the two triangles, def, ghi, in which 
 the base h is taken equal to the vertical distance between 
 the two levels, and the angle opposite h is, in each case, the 
 dip. AB and CD being already given ; the corresponding 
 lines, namely, HJ on the level of CD, and KL on the level 
 of ^fi, are to be found. This is done by drawing HJ-pax- 
 allel to AB through the point /, and prolonging h^ parallel 
 
THE MINES, MINEKS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 921 
 
 to CD. The course of the fault at B is known ; hence the 
 line ££" drawn on that course intersecting the line KL aXK 
 determines the point ^for that level, while for the next lower 
 level the pcint H'\& determined by producing the line CD 
 parallel with BK; in like manner, the lower levels, TU, 
 VW, MONPQ, BS, etc., can be plotted. It is evident that 
 by drawing lines through KD and BH, the lines of inter- 
 section EFa-niBG are obtained. It is evident also that on 
 the fourth level M, if in working from if the fault is encoun- 
 tered at 0, it will not be necessary to cross-cut, asin the 
 upper levels, to find the continuation of the vein ; since at 
 that point, which is the center of revolution, the vein can be 
 found by simply breaking through the cross-fissure. In the 
 next lower level, PQ, however, if the fault is encountered 
 at Q, it will be necessary to cross-cut for the continuation of 
 the vein in the direction QS, a direction opposite to that 
 which would be necessary at Uor D. 
 
 checks by graphic construction the errors of observations 
 due to irregularities in the vein and fault. He points out 
 also that this method indicates conclusions as to the nature 
 of the movement which has taken place; since, if the two 
 lines of intersection are parallel, the movement must have 
 been parallel ; while if they converge, the movement must 
 have involved a revolution, and the points where they inter- 
 sect must be the intersection of the axis of revolution with 
 the plane of the fault. 
 
 This statement of Professor Hoefer's method suggests the 
 following observations : 
 
 Evidently the graphic methods shown in Fig. 3 will not 
 indicate, in case of a compound movement, involving both a 
 revolution and a slide, either the existence, the direction, or 
 the amount of the latter. The relative position of the two 
 parts of the faulted vein, shown in Fig. 3, may have been 
 reached by a simple revolution around an axis normal to 
 
 Fig. 6 
 
 It will be seen that in this case a revolution has been de- 
 monstrated without the help of the indications afforded by 
 the striations. 
 
 Professor Hoefer indicates also how this graphic method 
 may be applied to lines of intersection which are not 
 straight, but curved ; and to the still more complicated case 
 of a varying strike at different levels in the iaulting-fissure 
 itself ; that is, for instance, when BK, 3D, FD", and QR are 
 not parallel. Fig. 4 is the diagram he employs for this pur- 
 pose. I will not, however, pause to explain it in detail. 
 
 Professor Hoefer recommends in practice the general 
 method above described, on the ground that it involves no 
 generic assumption or hypothesis, but makes the work of 
 the surveyor in the first place purely descriptive, and also 
 
 the fault at 0, or by a revolution around some other axis, 
 normal to the fault, coupled with a slide along the fault. 
 For instance, the axis of the revolution may have been 
 at TJ, and the slide may have carried it apparently to 0. 
 Yet this is precisely the case which may be expected to 
 be most frequently encountered in practice. Simple revo- 
 lutions must be rare, if, indeed, they ever occur. My own 
 impression on this point is confirmed by the reply of Pro- 
 fessor Hoefer to an inquiry which I addressed to him after 
 perusing his paper. He says : " Circular movements com- 
 bined with movements in straight lines are very frequent iu 
 our faults ; in fact, I do not doubt at all that a continued 
 careful study will show them to be the rule. Whether simple 
 revolutions often occur, is very difficult to decide, from ob- 
 
922 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 servations thus far available. You know how one-sided and 
 incomplete the inquiry has heretofore been in this direction. 
 In the southernmost district of Przibram, the Clementi vein 
 shows in its selvages striations, the varying directions ot 
 which indicate a circular movement ; and my studies (un- 
 fortunately interrupted by my departure) led me in this 
 case to the belief that the movement had been circular only. 
 But I did not consider the question definitely settled. 
 
 But to return to the illustration of Professor Hoefers 
 method given in Fig. 3, it is evident that although the 
 method, applied as in that case, to a fault which has been 
 determined in two places, at different levels, will not from 
 these data alone, reveal the exact components of the move- 
 ment which has taken place, it will nevertheless indicate 
 for any level where the continuation of the vein is to be 
 sought, beyond the fault. It is, however, often important 
 to find the continuation, not merely of the vein, but also of 
 an ore-body in the vein. Thus, in Fig. 3, the miner work- 
 ing from Cto D, and finding the vein cut off by the faul^ 
 might know that by drifting into the faulting-fissure to H, 
 on the same level, the vein would again be struck ; but the 
 point 5" would not in any case (except that of a simple and 
 perfectly horizontal movement) be the point originally ad- 
 jacent to D, before the faulting took place ; and if there 
 were at D a valuable ore-body, the question would still re- 
 main, in what direction from H the continuation of this ore- 
 body should be sought. 
 
 For the case of a simple revolution around 0, the solu- 
 tion of this question would be easy. It is shown in Fig. 5, 
 which I have made by taking part of Professor Hoefer's Fig. 
 8, and adding two auxiliary triangles, OLk and NnA. The 
 construction is as follows : From draw Ok perpendicular 
 to ^i, and Oi, making the angle L0k=2Z°. Similarly 
 construct from any point iVon ON triangle NnA, making 
 the angle at JV= 32°. The distances cut off on the hypothe- 
 nuse OL by the lines LK, CD, and TU, represent the bights 
 (inclined measurement) between these levels. The same is 
 true of the sections into which Nn is divided. The distance 
 of -D above the level MO, along the dip of the vein, is Dm ; 
 and the point adjacent to D before the dislocation must lie 
 at the same distance above ON. Taking Nt = Om, and 
 drawing Bp through t, parallel with HJ, we have D, the 
 point desired, which lies the distance/?- vertically, ox fa, in- 
 clined measurement, above HJ. 
 
 But if there has been a rectilinear as well as a circular 
 relative movement of the vein masses on either side of the 
 fault, point i)' will not be the point formerly adjacent to T). 
 The continuation of an ore-body cut off at D will lie at a dis- 
 tance and in a direction from 2>' directly dependent upon 
 the extent and direction of the rectilinear movement. (I 
 need hardly say that in all of these cases it is of no conse- 
 quence whether both walls, or only one, actually moved. 
 The total movement may be assumed to have affected one 
 wall only.) In this case, the study of the striations in the 
 faulting-fissure may give valuable, though perhaps rarely 
 exact indications as to the direction of the movement. If 
 the rectilinear movement followed the circular one, the stri- 
 ations may furnish a clear record of it in straaght lines. If 
 the two were (as is more probable) simultaneous, the stria- 
 tions would be strictly epicycloid curves ; but for their in- 
 terpretation it would be sufficiently accurate to consider 
 them as fragments of ellipses, having their major axes in- 
 clined in the direction of the rectilinear movement. These 
 indications would doubtless be in most instances of practice 
 merely general guides to exploration. But after, by such 
 exploration, the continuation of a given ore-body (as D, 
 Fig 4) had been found, it is plain that the whole movement 
 of the faulted vein could be analyzed and plotted, and that 
 the continuation of any other ore-body could be sought with 
 confidence. In the case before us it would be only requisite 
 to determine the relations of the point actually found to Di, 
 its theoretical position on the hypothesis of purely circular 
 motion ; and the correction thus applied to D', could be ap- 
 plied to any other jjoint similarly determined. 
 
 I should remark in conclusion, that all these constructions 
 rested upon the assumption that the dip of each segment of 
 the faulted vein is constant. That is, the vein is treated as 
 a plane. But it would not be difficult to include in the 
 method here shown, changes of dip and strike, as these might 
 •e discovered in actual working ; and under certain circum- 
 
 stances, a change of dip might serve as a useful landmark in 
 surveying. For instance, if in Fig. 3 there were a change of 
 dip in the left-hand portion of the vein, at the level CD, 
 then the corresponding change of dip must be shown on 
 the line QB, at the point formerly adjacent to D\ and 
 the discovery of this point would at once, as has been already 
 shown, permit the analysis of the movement which had taken 
 place, and the deduction of all its resultant relations, 
 
 Apajper by B. W. Baymond^ Ph. D., Transactions American Institute ofMinr 
 ivg Engineers. 
 
 THE SILVER MILL. 
 
 DEDUCTION from Practical Experience.— 
 Iron producers, scientists, and railroad engineers 
 have their societies for mutual benefit. Minute 
 details of facta and forms which they develop con- 
 duce to general improvement. But no society of practical, 
 actual workers in mining and metallurgy, as developed in 
 the United States, exists to accumulate, and retain, from 
 their several experiences, those minutiae so essential to the 
 maximum of economy and success. 
 
 From a lack of correct, minor details, the apparently su- 
 perior mills do not always obtain the best results ; and often 
 from an old rattletrap mill most excellent results are ob- 
 tained. 
 
 The causes are generally simple, but not always easily 
 found, even by an experienced and observing millman. 
 
 It is often very convenient to lay the blame to the '' pecu- 
 liarities of the ore," when it may not belong there. 
 
 For an illustration of how deficiency in details may affect 
 needless expense, mention may be made of a mill of recent 
 manufacture and assumed to be first class in every respect. 
 Although the intention was to grind the ore in the pans, the 
 mullers and drivers were remarkably and unnecessarily 
 heavy. 
 
 For the sake of exact figures, we will suppose the miU to 
 be set up at Virginia, and working bonanza ore. 
 
 A set of shoes and dies would weigh about 1,400 pounds ; 
 at 5 J cents, the cost would be $73.50. The value of the old 
 iron left, after the set was worn out, would be less than 
 $7.50, leaving a loss of $66.00 With mullers of minimum 
 weight, the best average wear of castings is less than fifteen 
 days; the excessive weight would grind them out three 
 days sooner, a difference of $13.20, or nearly $1.00 per day; 
 and these figures are where castings are the very cheapest. 
 
 Owing to the scattered and ever changing mining activi- 
 ties, with their unsettled and uncertain futures, and to the 
 intoxicating effects of stocks, it is pretty certain that no 
 mining society could enthuse a sufficiently interested mem- 
 bership ; and the only authority available must continue to 
 be, the men and builders, who chance to be selected to 
 accomplish the desired results, be they better or worse. 
 However, Americans need not be ashamed of their progress 
 or status. 
 
 The prospecting miner who can extract good, free milling 
 ore, can provide himself with machinery, of the capacity 
 of 3 or 4 tons per day, with very little outlay, but he must 
 be cautious not to drift into that error which has left so 
 many wrecks, viz : the forfeiture of a success to an experi- 
 ment. 
 
 It is commendable for those who can afford it to careftilly 
 experiment for improved methods. It is the life of pro- 
 gress. 
 
 But for milling on a more extended scale, for the greatest 
 profits, heavier capital is requisite, and nothing more strong- 
 ly emphasizes the saying, " the best is always the cheap- 
 est." 
 
 For the milling of raw ores two methods may be said to 
 exist, which involve little difference in the mills, save the 
 relative proportion of power, stamps, and pans. 
 
 The older and more familiar method is to crush coarse in 
 the battery and grind in the pans. This involves greater 
 power, greater wear of castings, and greater loss of quick- 
 silver, and not always, better results. 
 
 A more recent, but not so universal method, is to crush 
 fine in the battery and to keep the shoes barely off the dies. 
 It may seem incredible that by the latter means more gold 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 923 
 
 and silver may sometimes be extracted than by the former. 
 Ore will naturally break where there is the most mineral, 
 and from a fine comminution in the battery, the mineral 
 will be nearly all disengaged. Quicksilver has a preference 
 for gold and silver ; but in grinding it is forced to take up 
 base, which renders it inactive for the more precious metals. 
 Result, more bullion and less value. 
 
 slimes before they have much hardened will cut the cohesion, 
 and it is the cohesiveness in slimes that carries the quick- 
 silver, and that cohesiveness, once established, brings all the 
 diflSculty of working them. 
 
 Of the two methods, a compromise goound is untenable. 
 It is a fact, well known by the experienced, that when thor- 
 oughness of grinding is wanting, returns are also. This has 
 
 Plate 1. Qdicksilveb Pcmp System. 
 
 It is a matter of doubt whether, taken all in all, there is 
 an instance where amalgamation without grinding might 
 not equal the more expensive grinding. 
 
 Comstock ore is always ground, but they never have ex- 
 haustively experimented otherwise. Again, fine crushing 
 increases the percentage of slimes, and the system of work- 
 ing them separate (the sand for the Mine Co. which must 
 not return below a given per cent., and the, slimes for the 
 Mill Co.) make it difficult to render the required returns 
 to the mine. 
 
 The query might arise, "Would not the slimes exceed the 
 ability to handle them?" Very little sand worked with the 
 
 been thought a proof against not grinding, but the lat- 
 ter is not to be judged when fine crushing has been com- 
 promised. 
 
 In a proper conditioned pan pulp once between the shoes 
 and dies would be sufficiently ground, but the amount is so 
 small that it takes a long time for the mass to make the cir- 
 cuit ; and to stop when half done would be no better than 
 to alternate grinding one charge and not another. 
 
 Crushing. — Countless have been the devices for crushing 
 ore, but that primary crushing device used by all aborigi- 
 nes, the stone mortar and pestle, as developed into the 
 
924 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 modern ponderous stamp battery, stands as prominently in 
 the van as ever. 
 
 As a preparatory for the stamps the rockbreaker is gener- 
 ally a necessity. Of the various styles, so far as introduced, 
 the Blake is so much the best that none other is to be con- 
 sidered in comparison with it. 
 
 Self-feeders, in their present perfection, not only make 
 their advantage a saving felt on the pay roll, but increase 
 the efficiency of the battery, and are a saving in the wear of 
 castings. Three kinds are at present prominent in the mar- 
 ket, all of which are now under the same control, and the 
 buyer's choice is unbiased by rival owners. 
 
 Of these the Hendy feeder has been the most ably intro- 
 duced, having passed other "jerky contrivances" in the 
 lead. This feeder has generally given good satisfaction, 
 
 but with it much more work is accomplished. It is impor- 
 tant, for economic wear, that a stamp should commence to 
 rise as soon as its force is expended; furthermore, that its 
 rise should be with accelerated velocity ; in other words, the 
 cam should be so formed that the first degree of revolution 
 after contact should raise the stamp less than the last degree' 
 before dropping, and the curvature of the cam should be as 
 great as possible, and admit of the drop. Of course this can 
 be only at the maximum drop. 
 
 Amalg'araation. — In amalgamation, as in crushing, the 
 popular process is one of many. 
 
 The modern amalgamating pan is a growth from the old 
 arastra, and though ^uite simple in construction, has been 
 the subject of a variety of forms. A better knowledge of 
 what they can and should do, has narrowed these down to 
 
 Fio. 2. 
 
 Fio. 3. 
 
 especially in wet sticky ores. Some fine dry ores, however 
 have a tendency to jar ofi; a circumstance that precludes 
 precision. • *^ 
 
 =t'^t® v?"°".^?^- ^'"' y^^""^ f®*^ tlie wet ores of the Com- 
 stocfc with satisfaction, and possibly a case of their failure 
 
 ShiT ""'^ ' ""' """"^ ""^ *^^ "'"^ '^^'^ ''^ 0° ^^^ 
 
 The Standard as now improved is the simplest of feeders 
 and in dry ore probably unsurpassed. ^ ' 
 
 btamps are now made heavier, and are run faster than 
 inTfif ' ^ f^^r'' f*^"*? rarely 'weighs les than 800 lbs 
 and a stamp that makes no more than 90 drops per minute is 
 counted slow (The California Mill, Virginia makes 102I 
 The wear and tear of a high speed batter/of cCse is mSre, 
 
 common generalities. The pan holds from one and one-half 
 to two tons of pulp ; the gearing underneath is open and 
 plain ; the muller is raised by a left hand screw on top, the 
 nandwheels of which should be large ; the jam wheel being 
 no smaller than the screw wheel from the fact that at times 
 it IS the subject of even greater application of muscle than 
 the latter. Again, when in fast motion it is decidedly incon- 
 venient to adjust a small wheel under a larger one. 
 
 As the muller and driver are held to position by but one 
 pearing, it is strange that the inclination has been to make 
 this short. Eighteen inches are none too long for the bore of 
 a driver, and the shaft should pass entirely tnrough it when 
 the castings are new, provision being made in the cap for 
 the end of the shaft when the castings are worn. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 925 
 
 Much time and labor are saved in Babbitting the shaft, if 
 it is made with a taper downward through the Babbbitt ; in 
 which case, instead of withdrawing the shaft and cutting 
 the old Babbitt, the new Babbitt is poured with the old, the 
 taper preventing displacement even if the new Babbitt be- 
 comes broken. 
 
 But the most important feature of a pan — one which may 
 involve many dollars per day, but which often receives but 
 little attention, and, though simple in principle, is very 
 often not understood because not studied — is the pulp cur- 
 rents. 
 
 These currents must needs be uniform and regular to in- 
 sure uniform work, and they must be strong enough at the 
 bottom of the pan to carry the quicksilver. The motion of 
 the muUer makes a current by throwing the pulp to the out- 
 side as it advances, which then rolls up at the side and over 
 to the center to be thrown out again. This, so far, cannot 
 be improved upon, and the only service left for the wings is 
 to add to the pan capacity by preventing the pulp from run- 
 ning too high up the sides, to accomplish which the best 
 shape is of an inverted plowshare. Having very naturally 
 a good current above the muUer, we have only to work in 
 unison with this underneath. 
 
 With the grooves between the shoes leading straight out, 
 the current is impelled only by centrifugal force, which is in- 
 sufficient to carry the quicksilver ; but if the point of a shoe 
 touches the diameter, its outer end being a very few inches 
 either forward or back, a current is forced proportionate to 
 the angle of departure from the given diameter. If the 
 dovetails in the muUer and pan bottom are relatively simi- 
 lar, to admit of the shoe and die being one and the same 
 pattern, the currents of the two will be similar and in unison. 
 When the currents are outward they coincide with that 
 above the muller, inward currents, being the reverse. A con- 
 fusion of the two — ^unless one strongly overbalances the 
 other — effects stagnation. It does not follow that because 
 an inward current works contrariwise to the one above the 
 muller, it cannot do good work ; if it is strong they will 
 compromise. 
 
 Definite rules for the angle of drought for shoes and dies 
 cannot be laid down, because the speed of pan, the charac- 
 ter and thickness of pulp, and, if grinding, the weight of 
 muller, have each their influence. 
 
 It must rest with the millman to determine if the mechani- 
 cal part of his amalgamation is perfect, or if his quicksilver 
 is churned, or his castings cut out too quickly. A remedy 
 is at hand, if systematically sought. 
 
 The speed of pans, \, few years ago, was generally sixty or 
 sixty-flve revolutions per minute ; eighty-five or ninety is 
 more common now. With the slow motion the pulp should 
 be thick, with the fast motion much thinner, and the charges 
 of the latter are worked much sooner. A modern mill with 
 fast batteries and fast pans accomplishes much more than 
 the slow one of old. 
 
 The screw on the settler driver should, unlike the pans, be 
 right handed, for besides being more convenient in case of a 
 slipping belt, the power applied to turn the screw helps the 
 muller along. 
 
 Settlers are of two classes, one having muUers with wooden 
 shoes, and the other having arms with either wooden or iron 
 shoes or stirrers. 
 
 For heavy, underground sand, the muller is easier to start 
 and less liable to clog, and is more commonly used in such 
 cases; but for well ground sand the other style is superior. 
 
 A settler should never be allowed to foul by an accumula- 
 tion of heavy matter at the bottom ; it is a positive preven- 
 tive of good work. It may seem easier to advocate this than 
 always to follow it. 
 
 A seeming natural remedy for such conditions is really an 
 aggravation of it, namely, a liberal use of water. There is 
 a point in the thinning when the quicksilver will be precipi- 
 tated, but the heavy sand held in suspension. 
 
 If, after the charge is run out, which should leave about 
 eight inches in the settler, a pan is drawn and no water ad- 
 ded for a half hour, the warm charge will gather and carry 
 the heavy sand ; now enough water only is added to reduce 
 it to an appearance of still some thickness, and this is all the 
 water that is used in the charge. A horn spoon will show 
 its success in advance of results. 
 
 Concentrators for a silver mill must necessarily be simple 
 
 and capacious. Good agitators, shoveled out often, are 
 profitable. 
 
 In some ores " sand sluices " are very effectual. A " sand 
 sluice" for concentrating is a broad sluice twenty or twenty- 
 four inches wide, and in it, at intervals of eight or ten feet, are 
 vertical strips at the sides to hold unfastened riffles. Thin 
 rifiles are laid in and the sand runs over them for a time, say 
 one or more hours, when another course of rifiles one half 
 inch, or less, thick, is laid on top of the others. This is re- 
 peated until the sluice is full, when it is shoveled out ; mean- 
 time the sand should run through a duplicate sluice. These 
 sluices should have a grade of about three and one half 
 inches to the rod, it is then under control ; for by starting 
 with a thin rifl[ie at the bottom, a strong current may be had, 
 whereas a thick riflle will give a deadened current. 
 
 These sluices are an advantage where blankets are profit- 
 able, and if followed by blankets relieve the latter firom 
 much coarse, heavy material. 
 
 . A blanket sluice should have a grade of about three inches 
 in seven feet. 
 
 Qtuokailver. — Quicksilver is lost both mechanically 
 and chemically, and eternal vigilance is required in both 
 directions. 
 
 The handling of quicksilver, when it is not in direct 
 intercourse with the pulp, has its importance on the score 
 of economy. Consequent upon continued lifl^ing and 
 carrying heavy quantities by the old method of hand labor, 
 was a not insignificant loss. 
 
 Partly in proof of this is the bonanza of quicksilver an 
 old mill is known to be. 
 
 To save this, and the heavy lugging by hand labor — 
 which if the amount was expended upon water would seem 
 immense — was attempted years ago by way of mechanical 
 substitutes. To contend with was the heavy weight of the 
 liquid and its close connection and relation with air, water, 
 dirt, and amalgam, each of different gravities. 
 
 It has been well proved that a poor device for handling 
 quicksilver is even more extravagant than hand labor. 
 
 At one of the Raymond & Ely mills an elevator was put 
 in, but after much bother and trouble was discarded. Later 
 a quicksilver pump with downward working valves was 
 tried. Illustrative of its success was its rapid introduction 
 into other mills. 
 
 Yet as a complete system it still had some drawbacks, and 
 the study from time and experience was required to develop 
 its perfection — for it must continue to do its work without 
 any special attention, and for unskilled hands. 
 
 Plate I. shows the arbitrary generalities which must be 
 observed to obtain superiority. 
 
 Plate II. shows another system, perfected later, which is 
 especially good for a small mill, as the expense is very light 
 even for only two pans. At the Con. Va. & Cala. Mills the 
 pump system is mainly employed ; but for the single agita- 
 tor pans the pressure system does the work. 
 
 Quicksilver Pump System.— The setter bowls. A, 
 have a vertical discharge at one side ; said discharge is four 
 inches above the inlet, and one inch above the bottom of 
 settler (inside), and is fitted for a wooden plug, B. 
 
 A one inch pipe C, connects the discharge to a one and 
 one half inch pipe, D. This pipe D, has an incline of one 
 inch in four feet, and at the upper end a small pipe (d) con- 
 nects with a steam pipe for an occasional clearing out. 
 
 At the lower end of this pipe the strainers are situated. 
 Short one inch pipes, E, may be turned to either of two 
 strainers, and discharge on sheet iron covers (f). These 
 covers may be locked by passing a rod over them. 
 
 Strainer box F, is of wood and contains four strainers. It 
 is fitted to the top of a cast iron tank, G. Tank G is five 
 feet long and one and a half wide, and one foot deep. 
 Through the bottom of G a short one inch pipe connects to 
 the pump, I. 
 
 The pump has a stroke of five inches, and makes forty per 
 minute. The plunger is of steel, and the packing is | inch 
 round rubber, to prepare which it should be dropped into 
 melted tallow and wiped dry before cooling ; this dispenses 
 with oil on the plunger. 
 
 Around the plunger, below the stuffing box, is a recess 
 into which water rises, making a hydraulic packing below 
 the rubber. Rubber gasket J inch thick is used on the plugs. 
 
 A tank, J, stands under the pump to catch leakage. Tha 
 
926 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 pump should run only when throwing. The valves being 
 of rubber and seating easily, and the plunger running in hy- 
 draulic packing, leaves no possibility for any grinding effect 
 on the quicksilver. 
 
 The pump discharges through a J inch pipe, K (this pipe 
 should be well supported near the pump), into an upper 
 reservoir, L, This reservoir stands on a frame work, twenty 
 inches above the pans. The vertical discharge is one inch 
 pipe for eighteen or twenty inches, down to a quicksilver 
 cock (cast iron, with a stuffing box), M. From this cock 
 the distributing pipe, N, is J inch, leads in front of the pans, 
 and may conveniently be on the floor (being protected by 
 wooden strips on each side). At the lowest place in this 
 pipe provision must be made to allow drainage into a settler, 
 or to the reservoir below. 
 
 Between each of two pans a branch of pipe, N, enters 
 the bottom of charging bowl, 0. 
 
 Before entering the bowl the pipe is enlarged to one 
 inch to accommodate a better size of wooden plug, P. 
 
 Charger, O, is of cast iron, stands seven inches above 
 the top of the pans, and ia supported by two stand pipes, 
 Q (one inch), which connect to the pans by flanges, R. 
 These flanges, for iron side pans, are bolted to the out- 
 side and stand at an angle of 60 degrees or more. 
 Flanges for wooden pans are shown in plate I. 
 A belt shifter for starting or stopping the pump should 
 be operated from near the upper reservoir. 
 
 Quicksilver Pressure System. — A A are one inch 
 pipes from the settlers (no bowls are used). The discharge 
 is 3 J inches, or more, higher than the connected end, and 
 one inch higher than the top of settler bottom. Strainer 
 tank, G, is of cast iron, IJ feet square by one foot deep. 
 
 Pipe E, near the top, is an overflow for water. H is a one 
 inch pipe connecting through bottom of tank, G, to press- 
 ure chamber, I. Quicksilver cock, D, is operated by a 
 lever, extending above the strainer for convenience of ac- 
 cess. 
 
 Pressure chamber, I, has a capacity of a full charge of 
 quicksilver. 
 
 P is a half inch pipe connecting to steam mud drum of boiler, 
 or to natural water pressure, or to compressed air. Valve, 
 N, should be convenient to charging bowls. 
 
 At the bottom of I a three quarter inch pipe, K, branches 
 and enters through the bottom of two charging bowls, O, 
 thus supplying four pans. 
 
 For wooden sided pans, flanges, R, bring the stand pipes, 
 Q, on the top end of the staves. 
 
 In action cock, D, being open, the quicksilver will flow 
 naturally into chamber, I, then by closing D and opening 
 pressure valve, N, the quicksilver will be forced through 
 pipe, K, into bowl, 0. Six pounds pressure will raise quick- 
 silver one foot. In case of a watermill, where the pressure 
 may not be sufficient, an extra chamber, I, may be intro- 
 duced halfway to bowl, 0, which will be self-acting. 
 
 After the piping is well put together it should be first 
 tested with water. 
 The burr, from cutting the pipes, should be reamed off. 
 Amalgam.— A pan for scouring amalgam resembles a 
 small settler, but should have attached to its arms a shoe ex- 
 tending from rim to cone, the outer end being five or six 
 inches ahead. 
 
 Diameter of pan, 5 feet; depth, 1^ foot; speed, 25 per 
 minute. Before retorting, ihe amalgam should be dried by 
 a hydraulic press or by piling the amalgam some two feet 
 high on a strainer, and allowed to drain for a couple of 
 
 The choice of retorts is not of vital importance to success 
 but as a question of convenience and economy it is to be 
 considered. The hooded central discharge retort, which 
 aamits ot turning, was extensively introduced and is still 
 argely used outside of the Comstock, where they are almost 
 II not entirelv discardp.H 
 
 The average life of a center discharge retort 14 inches by 5 
 feet, by 1 J inch thick, was under 35 charges. 
 
 The hood and the head with revolving bar attached to its 
 center is doubtless the cheapest form of construction, but for 
 large retorts decidedly inconvenient, and invite a bad job in 
 adjusting the head. 
 
 A decided and unprecedented success was made, two years 
 ago, by casting retorts on end, face up, rendering the metal 
 dense and uniform. 
 
 Eight retorts cast in this way, of a plan similar to plate 
 III., were made for the Brunswick Mill. They were 5J feet 
 long, 14 inches inside diameter, and 2 inches thick. 
 
 With charges varying from nineteen hundred to twenty- 
 four hundred pounds, they endured upward of eighty-five 
 fires. Compared with the previous average, the advantage 
 is emphatic, the extra thickness of one half inch requiring 
 no appreciable increase of fuel. 
 
 To avoid the hard labor of cutting the bullion of a large 
 retorting, use paper to make divisions in the amalgam instead 
 of sheet iron. 
 
 Quicksilver melts at — 39°, evaporates slightly at ordinary 
 temperatures, and boils at 662°. Its specific gravity is 13'6 
 at o^ • 
 2'038 cubic inches weigh 1 pound. 
 One cubic foot weighs 847'89 pounds. 
 In a column of quicksilver every foot in height gives a 
 pressure of 5,888 pounds per square inch. That quicksilver 
 will pass through a smaller aperture than water is a popular 
 fallacy, naturally deduced from the fact that the former will 
 often leak from a vessel that will hold the latter. An ex- 
 planation for this seeming paradox is that quicksilver, being 
 so much heavier, gives far greater pressure, and in wooden 
 vessels, water, having the finer penetration, enters the fiber 
 of the wood and swells it, thereby closing small openings, 
 whereas quicksilver, entering only the open grain, has no 
 expanding effect. 
 
 .10.3 
 . 10.5 
 
 Gold melts at 2,016°, its specific gravity is. . . 
 Silver " 1,873°, " " " ". 
 
 Copper " 1,996°, " " " " ' " 
 
 Cast iron " 2,786°, " " " " 
 
 Lead " 612°, " " " " .' 
 
 1 oz. Trny of silver is worth $ ] 2929 
 
 J'*'- '.'. ','. ','■ 18.854 
 
 1 ton " " " 37,709.50 
 
 1 cubic foot " « 12,355.20 
 
 . 7.8 
 .11.3 
 
 1 oz. Troy of gold is worth S 
 
 1 lb. " " .. 
 
 1 ton " 
 1 cubic foot 
 
 20.6717 
 301.46 
 602,927.36 
 361,808 64 
 
 3.89 cubic inches cast iron weigh 1 lb. 
 
 atirely discarded. 
 As a center discharge does not admit of being filled 
 
 luoh smaller retort with top -'■■-'- •" - ^ 'J"«a, 
 
 for which due compensation 
 
 for wh Xdf,/^'' '"*'?■ ^^ "^'^^^^^g^ ^^'1 do eq°ual wo^k, 
 
 he former Inn^P""'''*'? '\"°* S^^«"' ^Y the turning of 
 
 me former. In other words, the consumption of iron for a 
 
 aisciiarge These are deductions from personal observations 
 rn^'/V^'^'J'''"^^ ^^'Shts and numbe? of charges wereTe^ 
 corded, and were extended to several working sfde by side. 
 
 To compute the weight of an article of 
 
 Cast iron, multiply its cubic inches by 0.2607 lb. 
 
 Wrought iron, multiply its cubic inches by 0.2816 lb 
 
 Copper, multiply its cubic inches by 0.3212 lb. 
 
 Lead, multiply its cubic inches by 0.41021b. 
 
 Under a column of water 26'5 inches high there is a pres- 
 sure of 1 pound per square inch. 
 
 A circumference equals the diameter multiplied by 3'1416. 
 
 The area of a circle equals one half of the diameter mul- 
 tiplied by one half of the circumference, or square of the 
 diameter, multiplied by 07854. 
 
 The surface of a sphere is the circumference multiplied by 
 the diameter. 
 
 The volume of a sphere is the cubic of the diameter mul- 
 tiplied by 0-5236. 
 
 TensUe streiif;tll of Rods per square Incll. 
 
 Cast steel, breaking load, 60 tons; safety load, 12.6 tons 
 Swedish iron, " " 36 " " " g.o " 
 
 Common iron, " " 28 " " " 7.0 " 
 
 Strength of Ropes. 
 
 Let C represent the circumference : 
 
 New homp will safely sustain . 
 
 0.4 C 
 
 Iron wire will safely sustain. 
 
 -tons. 
 
 -tons. 
 
 Steel wire will safely sustain . 
 
 6 
 
 -tons. 
 
 Rust Joint Cement (Quick-Setting).—! lb. sal 
 ammoniac, 2 lbs. sulphur, 80 lbs. iron filings. Mix to a 
 
 paste with water. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 927 
 
 Slow-setting — 2 lbs. sal-ammoniac, 1 lb. sulphur, 200 lbs. 
 iron filings. 
 
 For holes in castings, take 1 part gum arable, 1 part plas- 
 ter Paris, and 1 part iron filings. Mix with a little water. 
 
 Babbitt metal, 3'7 copper, 0'89 tin, 7'3 antimony. 
 
 Metal that expands in cooling — Lead, 75 parts; antimony, 
 16-7 ; bismuth, 8-3. 
 
 Taper for keys for shafting — One-sixteenth inch to four 
 inches. 
 
 — A paper by M. P. Boas in the Scientijic American. 
 
 THE ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF ORE 
 DEPOSITS. 
 
 THE mineral matters which have proved useful 
 to man form three categories ; first, the earthy : as 
 gypsum, clay, marble; second, carbonaceous: as 
 coal, lignite, petroleum ; third, metallic : as iron, 
 gold, silver. 
 
 The metals occur rarely native, oftener as ores, that is, 
 combined with sulphur, silica, carbonic acid, etc. These 
 form a series of deposits, of which the physical and chemi- 
 cal characters and history differ widely. They may be 
 grouped into three classes, as follows : 
 
 1. Superficial deposits. 
 
 2. Stratified deposits. 
 
 3. Unstratified deposits. 
 
 Superficial Deposits. — These include the accumula- 
 tions of gold, stream tin, platinum, gems, etc., which are 
 obtained from the surface material, gravel, sand, and clay, 
 derived from the mechanical decomposition of rock masses, 
 through which metals or ores were sparsely distributed. 
 Thus, gold usually occurs in small quantity in the quartz 
 veins of metamorphic rocks. By the erosion of these 
 rocks, having been freed from its matrix, and that more or 
 less perfectly removed, this gold is concentrated by a 
 natural washing process similar to that employed by man, 
 but on a grander scale. In the same manner the oxide of 
 tin, which is hard, heavy, and very resistant to chemical 
 agents, is distributed sparsely through granitic rocks, or 
 vein-stones ; and where these have been eroded the cassi- 
 terite remains in the alluvial deposits of streams, where it 
 can be cheaply and easily collected. 
 
 Superficial deposits have probably fiirnished nine-tenths 
 of all the gold that has been obtained by man, the greater 
 part of the tin, all the platinum and its associated metals — 
 iridium, osmium, etc., and all the gems except the emerald, 
 which in South America is obtained by mining. Thus it 
 will be seen that the surface deposits are scarcely less im- 
 portant, economically, than the others. The superficial de- 
 posits of gold are for the most part confined to the foothills 
 of mountain ranges, and are the products of the erosion 
 effected by ages of frost, sun, rain, and ice, which are con- 
 tinually wearing down all the more elevated portions of the 
 earth's surface. Shore waves also, in some instances, have 
 worn away the rocks against which they have beaten, and 
 have produced accumulations of d&hris that contain gold, 
 platinumy gems, etc., in sufficient quantity to be economi- 
 cally worked. When a beach deposit of this kind has been 
 raised above the sea level, it sometimes becomes convenient 
 and profitable mining ground. On the coast of Oregon, at 
 and above Port Orford, the beaches now yield gold, iridium, 
 and osmium in sufficient quantity to afford profitable em- 
 ployment to quite a mining population, and in the Black 
 Hills the old Potsdam sandstone beach, formed by the beat- 
 ing of the Silurian sea upon the cliffs of Laurentian and 
 Huronian roeks, traversed by auriferous quartz veins, now 
 constitute what are there known as the " cement deposits," 
 from which a considerable portion of the gold of this re- 
 gion is obtained. As has been mentioned, however, the 
 chief supply of gold in all ages has come from the d&bris 
 that has accumulated at the foot of mountain^ slopes. All 
 mountain chains are composed of metamorphic rocks, and 
 nearly all the mountain ranges of the globe are traversed 
 by quartz veins, in which are concentrated much of the 
 gold that was originally finely disseminated through the 
 
 sedimentary strata — conglomerates, sandstones, shales, etc. 
 . — now granites, schists, and slates. 
 
 By the lateral pressure that has metamorphosed the sedi- 
 mentary rocks, and produced the segregation of the quartz 
 veins, great folds and ridges were formed, which rising high 
 above the general surface, act as condensers of moisture, 
 and receive the most copious precipitation from the clouds. 
 Hence on these mountain sides an enormous system of 
 water power is developed, which is spent in grinding up the 
 rocks and transporting the dibris to the bottom of the slope. 
 Here it is further washed, sorted, and the gold locally con- 
 centrated to form the rich " placer " diggings. As no great 
 skill or expensive mining machinery is required to work the 
 placer deposits, every man with good health, a pick, shovel, 
 pan, and stock of provisions, may go into the business. 
 Gold washing is the simplest, as it was probably the earliest 
 of all mining enterprises, and has at different times em- 
 ployed nearly the entire population of a district or country ; 
 it is not surprising therefore, that it has resulted in the 
 production of an enormous quantity of gold. It is evident, 
 however, that most of the placers of the world have been 
 already exhausted, and while the little known continent of 
 Africa promises to furnish a large amount of metal from its 
 " golden sands," we can hardly expect that the production 
 of California, Australia, and New Zealand will ever be 
 repeated in the world's history. 
 
 Stratified Deposits. — These may be subdivided into 
 several groups, such as 
 
 1. Ore forming entire strata ; e. g., beds of iron ore. 
 
 2. Ore disseminated through strata; as copper in the 
 schists of Mansfeldt, and in the sandstones "of Lake 
 Superior, 
 
 3. Segregated masses in strata ; as sheets of copper in the 
 Lake Superior sandstones; balls, kidneys, and sheets of 
 clay ironstone in the shales of the coal measures, etc. 
 
 Unstratified Deposits. — These have been divided 
 into 
 
 1. Eruptive masses. 
 
 2. Disseminated through eruptive rocks. 
 
 3. Contact deposits. 
 
 4. Stockworks. 
 
 5. Fahlbands. 
 
 6. Impregnations. 
 
 7. Chambers. 
 
 8. Mineral veins. 
 
 Of eruptive masses of metalliferous matter I must confess 
 myself incredulous. Examples of these are cited in the 
 crystalline iron ores of the Island of Elba, those of Nijni 
 Tagilsk in Russia, and in Sweden, and even the iron ore 
 beds of Lake Superior and Missouri. As late as 1854 this 
 was the view taken of our crystalline iron ores by Whitney, 
 in his "Metallic Wealth ;" but great advantages have been 
 since made in our knowledge of these deposits, and it is 
 now generally conceded that all our crystalline iron ores 
 are simply metamorphosed sedimentary beds. The evidence 
 is accumulating that those of the Old World have the same 
 character. Professor Otto Torell, the Director of the Geo- 
 logical Survey of Sweden, recently told me that he had 
 visited all but one of the iron districts of Sweden, had 
 found that in all these the iron ores were- metamorphic, and 
 he had no doubt that those yet unexamined were of similar 
 nature. When metamorphic action has been peculiarly 
 violent, the beds of iron ore have been more or less dismem- 
 bered, and perhaps in some instances have been actually 
 fused ; but that any bed of iron ore is the result of an erup- 
 tion from the interior of the earth is scarcely to be credited. 
 
 The examples of the occurrence of metalliferous matter 
 disseminated through eruptive rocks are by no means uncom- 
 mon, and the amygdaloid traps of Lake Superior, in which 
 the cavities formed by gases have been more or less perfect- 
 ly filled with copper, suggest themselves at once. Pyrites, 
 magnetic iron, and platinum are found sparsely diffused 
 throiigh trap rocks, and are sometimes concentrated in such 
 a way as to form valuable deposits when the trap decompo- 
 ses. Contact deposits are usually understood to be accu- 
 mulations of metal or ore along the planes of contact between 
 two strata; and the sheets and strings of copper which are 
 concentrated at the junction of the trap and sandstone in 
 some parts of the south shore of Lake Superior, constitute 
 illustrative examples of this class of mineral deposits. There 
 
928 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 is however, considerable diversity in character among the 
 deposft^ grouped under this head, the chief distinction being 
 ?hTln s^^e'^^ca.es the ore or '^etal h«s been segregated 
 from one or the other of the strata at the time of tbeir de- 
 position, and in others it has come from a foreign source, 
 and has'been deposited in a more or ^^^%^°l''ZZ.t^tll 
 cavities formed between the surfaces of the adjacent rock 
 beds. To the second of these classes would seem to belong 
 the argentiferous ores of LeadviUe, Colorado. These are 
 deposited along the plane of junction between an underlying 
 lir^estone and overlying porphyry, and undoubtedly accu- 
 mulated in vacant spaces formed by the solution of the lime- 
 stone. These ore bodies have apparently much in common 
 with the pockets and chambers excavated in certain lime- 
 stone beds, and subsequently filled with ore, to be described 
 further on. The true structure of these LeadviUe ore bodies 
 can, however, only be accurately learned when they shall 
 be penetrated below the zone of unchanged sulphurets into 
 which they will undoubtedly merge in depth. The term 
 Stochwork is applied in the Old World to a mass of rock or 
 veinstone penetrated in all directions by small intersecting 
 sheets or veins in such a way that the whole mass is mined 
 out. Some examples of this kind of deposit may be found 
 in most of our mining districts, but the most important which 
 have come under my observation are in the Oquirrh Moun- 
 tains, in Utah, and at Silver Cliff, Colorado. In the first of 
 these localities beds of quartzite, in the second, of porphyry, 
 have been shattered, aud the crevices between the fragments 
 have been filled with ore deposited from solution. The name 
 Fahlband, or rotten layer, originated in the silver mines of 
 Konigsberg, in Norway, where there are parallel beds of rock 
 impregnated with the sulphides of iron, copper, zinc, etc., 
 and which, by their decomposition, have rendered these beds 
 so soft as easily to be removed. We occasionally meet with 
 pyritous rock in this country, which decomposes in the same 
 way, but none yet known to me have any considerable im- 
 portance as metalliferous deposits. Impregnations may be 
 defined to be saturations of porous rock with a mineral solu- 
 tion or vapor from which ore has been deposited. The cin- 
 nabar which is sometimes found impregnating unchanged 
 or metamorphosed sand stone, is generally cited as affording 
 typical examples of impregnations. In such cases, which 
 occur in California and South America, the deposit of ore 
 has been ascribed by some writers to vapors, by others to 
 solution, and it would seem that the latter is the more cred- 
 ible theory, although the vaporization of mercury is easily 
 effected, and, like other metals, it may be transported by 
 steam, as we have proof at the geysers in California. More 
 familiar and satisfactory exhibitions of impregnation are, 
 however, afforded by the copperbearing sandstones of Lake 
 Superior, New Jersey, and New Mexico, and the silverbear- 
 ing sandstones of Silver Reef, in Southern Utah. In all 
 these cases it is evident that a porous rock was once satu- 
 rated with a metalliferous solution, from which, in the Lake 
 Superior region, metallic copper was precipitated ; in New 
 Jersey and New Mexico, sulphides of copper and iron ; at 
 Silver Reef, sulphide of silver. As such repositories of the 
 metals are easily penetrated by surface-water and air, we 
 usually find the sulphides decomposed to a considerable 
 depth ; the copper ores converted into carbonate and silicate, 
 the sulphide of silver into the chloride. 
 
 Chambers 01 pockets in limestone form the receptacles of 
 ore in many countries, but nowhere else are such striking 
 examples of this class of deposit as those found in our west- 
 ern mining districts. From a study of these I have been 
 led to add them to the catalogue of forms of ore deposit as 
 a distinct and important addition to those given by other 
 writers. The distinctive characters of those accumulations 
 of ore in chambers and galleries has not been heretofore 
 generally recognized, and a want of information in regard to 
 their true nature has led to much litigation and heavy losses 
 in mining. The best examples of chamber mines are the 
 Eureka Consolidated, Richmond, etc., of Eureka, Nevada ; 
 the Emma, Flagstaff, Kessler, etc., in little Cottonwood dis- 
 trict, and the Cave Mine, near Frisco, Utah, All these 
 mines are alike in this, that the ore is found more or less 
 completely filling irregular chambers in limestone. Some 
 of these ore bodies are of great size, and the aggregate pro- 
 duct of these chamber mines is so great as to make it neces- 
 sary to record this as one of the most important forms of 
 
 metalliferous deposit. From the Potts chamber in the Eu- 
 reka Consolidated mine, it is said that ore of the value of a 
 million dollars was taken, while a still larger amount was 
 produced from the great chamber of the Emma. The origin 
 of these chamber deposits is, in my judgment, simply this : 
 A stratum of limestone, more than usually soluble in atmos- 
 pheric water, carrying carbonic acid — which dissolves all 
 limestones— has at some time been honeycombed by cham- 
 bers and galleries such as those which traverse the limestone 
 plateau of central Kentucky, of which the Mammoth Cave is 
 an example. Subsequently this rock has been broken through 
 and upheaved by the subterranean forces which have dis- 
 turbed all our important mining districts, and through the 
 fissures then formed mineral solutions ascend, flowing into 
 any receptacle opened to them. Where thesefissures cut an 
 insoluble rock they become, when filled, simply fissure veins; 
 but where a cavernous limestone was broken into, such cav- 
 erns and galleries as were opened were more or less filled 
 with ore. It has been suggested that the caves now holding 
 ore were excavated by the metalliferous solution, but we 
 find some of them entirely empty, with their sides encrusted 
 with spar, and having all the characters of ordinary lime- 
 stone caves, and even where the ore occurs, the walls of the 
 cavity have the same character, are hard and unimpregna- 
 ted with ore. Hence we must conclude that the chambers 
 were formed, like modern caves, by surface water, and when 
 the country was upheaved and the rock shattered only part 
 of them were opened, and that these received the solution 
 and ore, while the unopened ones remained empty. The 
 character of the ore contained in the chambers varies much, 
 as it does in the fissure veins of our mining districts ; and 
 the solutions from which they were filled must have been 
 different in the different localities where they occur. Argen- 
 tiferous galena was evidently the most abundant ore deposi- 
 ted in the chambers, as it is elsewhere ; but in some cases 
 this is associated with a large amount of iron sulphide, in 
 others very little; while the ratio of gold to silver is incon- 
 stant, and the aggregate of both varies from nothing to sev- 
 eral hundred dollars to the ton. The ores of Eureka run 
 high in lead, contain much iron, and about seventy dollars 
 in the precious metals, half gold, half silver. The ores of 
 the Emma mine carried less iron, more lead, much more, 
 silver, less gold, and a little copper; while those of the Cave 
 mine at Frisco contain no lead, much iron, a little copper, 
 and are sometimes exceedingly rich in both silver and gold. 
 In all the chamber mines yet worked in this country the 
 ore taken out is thoroughly oxidized, but in the deeper 
 workings of some neighboring fissure veins the soft, ochery 
 ores of the chambers are found changed below into compact 
 masses of galena and iron pyrites ; the galena carrying the 
 silver, the pyrites the gold. Hence we may conclude that 
 the ore originally deposited in the caves consisted of sul- 
 phides, and that whenever these mines shall be worked be- 
 low the water level ore of this character will be found. It 
 should be said, however, that if the theory I have suggested 
 of the formation of the limestone galleries is true, they will 
 not be found to extend to so great a depth as the ore bodies 
 of fissure veins, since the excavation of the limestone, if pro- 
 duced by atmospheric water, must be confined to the zone 
 traversed by surface drainage. In a very dry and broken 
 country the line of permanent water level may be very deep, 
 as at Eureka, where the ore bodies extend and are oxidized 
 to a depth of at least 1,400 feet. Such a condition of things 
 could only exist in a very dry climate ; but we have evi- 
 dence that there have been great climatic changes in our 
 western mining districts, according to King and Gilbert,two 
 wet periods having been succeeded by two dry ones, the last 
 prevailing now. We may therefore find chambers wrought 
 in the limestone in a dry period below the present or nor- 
 mal water level. The enormous production of gold and sil- 
 ver from the chamber mines already worked {)roves the great 
 importance and value of this class of deposits ; and while 
 we may predict that they will be found to be more super- 
 ficial than true fissure veins, still no limit can be fixed to the 
 future yield of mines of this character, even though they 
 should not be profitably worked below 1,500 feet from the 
 surface. 
 
 Mineral Veins.— Some writers on economic geology — 
 Werner, Von Cotta, and Von Groddeck, for example — 
 enumerate very different kinds of mineral veins, but disre- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 929 
 
 garding the local characters which all ore deposits exhibit, 
 and the hybrids which are formed by the blending of two 
 distinct forms — not of uncommon occurrence, I agree with 
 Whitney in recognizing but three distinct classes, viz. : 
 
 1. Gash veins. 
 
 2. Segregated veins. 
 
 3. Fissure veins. 
 
 Gash veins may be defined to be those which occur 
 only in limestone, are confined to a single stratum or for- 
 mation, and hence are limited in extent, both laterally and 
 vertically. Typical examples of gash veins are furnished 
 by our lead deposits of the Mississippi Valley. These occur 
 at three horizons, viz. : about Galena, in the Galena lime- 
 stone, belonging to the Trenton Group; in southeastern 
 Missouri, where the mine La Motte is located, in the equiv- 
 alent of the Calciferous sand rock; and in southwestern 
 Missouri, where the mines of lead and zinc occur in the 
 Lower Carboniferous limestone. The origin of deposits of 
 this character is apparently quite simple. The cavities 
 which form the repositories of the ore are generally the 
 cleavage planes or joints of a soluble limestone rock, that 
 become channels through which surface water charged with 
 carbonic acid flows in a system of subterranean drainage. 
 We usually find two sets of joints approximately at right 
 angles to each other, and vertical if the rocks are horizontal. 
 To form gash veins, one or both of these sets of vertical 
 joints are locally enlarged into lenticular cavities or 
 "gashes," whence the name; but sometimes caves of consid- 
 erable size, irregular pockets, and vertical or horizontal 
 galleries are formed. These are subsequently lined or filled 
 with ore, sulphides of lead, zinc, and iron, originally dis- 
 seminated through the limestone, and leached out of it by 
 water which saturates and traverses all rocks in a humid 
 climate. The solution thus formed reaching a cavity, has 
 by evaporation deposited the ore as a lining to that cavity ; 
 narrow fissures being, perhaps, filled, walls of larger cavities 
 coated with stalactites depending from the roof, etc. Sub- 
 sequent solution has sometimes widened a fissure once filled 
 with ore, leaving the ore body as a central partition, a cur- 
 tain more or less complete hanging from the roof, or a mass 
 of fragments mingled with infiltrated sand and clay in the 
 floor of the cave. In southwestern Missouri the carbonifer- 
 ous limestone contains layers of chert, which are insoluble, 
 and which sometimes form horizontal floors or ceilings of 
 caverns. These, breaking down by their own weight, have 
 formed masses of debris, cemented together by the ore, which 
 has thus acquired its peculiar brecciated character. 
 
 From the description of gash veins given above, it will 
 be seen that they have much in common with the pockets 
 and chambers previously described; but there is this im- 
 portant difference, that the ore filling the gashes and irreg- 
 ular chambers of the leadbearing limestone is indigenous, 
 having been derived from the leaching of the adjacent rock, 
 while in the chamber mines of the West the ore is exotic, 
 having been brought up through fissures from a remote 
 source below; so that, while in physical characters the 
 Western gold and silver bearing ore charhbers resemble 
 gash veins, they are really but appendages to true fissure 
 veins, and only occur in a country that has been much bro- 
 ken by subterranean forces. 
 
 Segregated veins are confined to metamorphic rocks, 
 are conformable with their bedding, and are limited in ex- 
 tent both laterally and vertically. Their ore bodies form 
 lenticular masses of greater or less dimensions, of which the 
 material is chiefly quartz, which has segregated i. e., sepa- 
 rated from the surrounding rock. The quartz veins so 
 abundant in the gneisses and schists of Canada, New Eng- 
 land, and the Alleghany Belt, are all examples of this class 
 of ore deposits. The most important constituent of segre- 
 gated veins is gold, which here seems to have been mechan- 
 ically dispersed throughout sedimentary rocks, and to have 
 been concentrated with the quartz in the process of meta- 
 morphism to which they have been subjected. With the 
 gold we always find iron pyrites, sometimes chalcopyrite, 
 and the latter occasionally in sufficient quantity to be worth 
 working. From these remarks it may be inferred that seg- 
 regated veins have no deep-seated origin, are less continuous 
 in depth and laterally than fissure veins, and therefore con- 
 stitute a less permanent foundation for mining enterprises. 
 It may be said, however, that some of them are of enormous 
 
 59 
 
 dimensions, and that they not unfrequently occur in suc- 
 cession, or so approximate that they are equivalent to a con- 
 tinuous mineral deposit. 
 
 Fissure veins occupy crevices which have been 
 formed by subterranean forces and have been filled from a 
 foreign source. They traverse indiscriminately all kinds of 
 rock, and are without definite liaiits laterally or vertically. 
 They have as characteristic features, smooth, striated, some- 
 times polished walls, slickensides, clay gouges or selvedges 
 on one or both sides, and a banded or ribboned structure 
 throughout. The vein-stone is usually quartz, and the con- 
 stituents include the ores of all the metals. The mode of 
 formation of fissure veins is apparently this : In the regions 
 where the earth's ciust is broken up in the adjustment of 
 the cold and hard exterior to the cooling and shrinking 
 nucleus, cracks are formed, often miles in extent, along 
 which the rocks suffer displacement, sliding on each other 
 to form what are known as " faults." As the planes of these 
 faults are more or less undulated, with displacement, the 
 bearing is upon the projecting bosses of each side. Between 
 these, open fissures are left of greater or less dimensions. 
 These reach down to a heated zone, and form the conduits 
 through which thermal waters flow to the surface. Such 
 waters coming in different localities from different depths, 
 and reaching rocks of various composition under great pres- 
 sure and high temperature, having great solvent power be- 
 come loaded with various mineral matters. As they rise to the 
 surface the pressure and temperature are reduced, and the 
 materials held in solution are deposited to line and perhaps 
 ultimately fill the channels through which they flow. This 
 theory of the filling of mineral veins, i. e., by precipitation 
 from heated chemical solutions coming from below, is sup- 
 ported by such an array of facts that it must be accepted by 
 all who will make a careful and unprejudiced study of the 
 subject. It is true, however, that various other theories 
 have been, at one time or another, put forth for the expla- 
 nation of the phenomena. Among these a few deserve a 
 passing notice. They are : 
 
 1. The theory of igneous injection. — ^According 
 to which the matter filling mineral veins has been erupted 
 like that of trap dikes, and such veins as those of Lake 
 Superior, containing metallic copper, have been suggested 
 as affording good examples. But here we find metallic 
 copper and silver associated, and each chemically pure; 
 whereas, if they had ever been fused, they certainly would 
 have formed an alloy. The copper is also found in crystals 
 of calc spar and other minerals, where it must have been 
 deposited with the other constituents of the crystal, and 
 that crystal formed from solution. Other opposing facts 
 might be cited, but it will be sufficient to say that not one 
 sound argument can be advanced in favor of this theory. 
 
 2. A queous deposition from above.— This theory, 
 first advanced by Warner, but since generally abandoned, 
 supposes the contents of mineral veins to have been depos- 
 ited from a solution which flowed into the fissures from 
 above ; but in that case the vein matter should be horizon- 
 tally stratified, limited in extent downward, and spread over 
 the surface adjacent to the fissure ; whereas no one has yet 
 reached the limits in depth of the ore in a true fissure vein, 
 and the characteristic banded structure can only have resulted 
 from successive depositions of a long-continued flow of a hot 
 solution. This theory has been recently advocated in this 
 city by Prof. Stewart of Nevada; but it is not only not sus- 
 tained, but really disproved by all the facts observed by the 
 writer some years devoted to the study of our Western ore 
 deposits. 
 
 3. Lateral secretion. — According to this theory, the 
 material filling all mineral veins has leached into the cavity 
 from the wall rocks. While this is true of gash veins, it 
 can have played but a very subordinate part in the deposi- 
 tion of ore in fissure veins. This is proved by the fects that 
 different sets of fissures which cut the same formation fre- 
 quently contain very different ores ; and where the rocks of 
 totally different character are, by faulting, brought to form 
 opposite walls of fissure, the ore may be symmetrically de- 
 posited in corresponding layers. It may also be said that 
 the same fissure frequently traverses several formations, and 
 yet its character may be essentially the same throughout. 
 
 4. Sublimation. — The facility with which certain 
 metals are volatilized, and the fact that various minerals 
 
930 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 have been deposited from vapor, have formed the baais of 
 this theory ; yet it is difficult to see how any one can ascribe 
 more than a local and insignificant effect to this cause. It 
 is true that the action of water, as steam, is much the same 
 as when fluid and highly heated, in the solution and trans- 
 port of minerals ; and the deposit of mercury, sulphide of 
 iron and even gold, from the mingled water and steam of 
 the California geysers proves this. So we may concede that 
 steam has been an agent in the chemical solution and pre- 
 cipitation of ores ; but this is a very difierent thing from 
 the sublimation of the metals represented by these ores, 
 and all knowledge and analogy indicate that the silica 
 which forms so large a part of vein stones, and is so often 
 seen in combs of interlocking crystals, has been deposited 
 from an aqueous solution. But argument is really wasted 
 in a discussion of the filling of fissure veins, since we have 
 examples that seem to settle the question in favor of chem- 
 ical precipitation from ascending hot water and steam. In 
 the Steamboat Springs of Western Nevada, for example, we 
 in fact catch mineral veins in the process of formation. 
 These springs issue from extensive fissures which have been 
 or are being filled with silicious veinstone that Carries, ac- 
 cording to M. Laur, oxide of iron, oxide of maganese, sul- 
 phide of iron, sulphide of copper and metallic gold, and ex- 
 hibits the banded structure so frequently observed in miner- 
 al veins. 
 
 In regard to the precise chemical reactions which take 
 place in the deposition of ores in veins, there is much yet to 
 be learned, and this constitutes an interesting subject for 
 original investigation, which I earnestly commend to those 
 who are so situated that they cannot pursue it. 
 
 It may be noticed, however, that the thermal springs 
 which are now forming deposits lik'e those in fissure veins, 
 contain alkaline carbonates and sulphides, and we have 
 every reason to believe that highly carbonate alkaline waters 
 containing sulphuretted hydrogen under varying conditions 
 of temperature and pressure, are capable of taking into 
 solution and depositing all the metals and minerals with 
 which we meet in mineral veins. 
 
 To these necessarily brief notes on the filling of mineral 
 veins should be added some interesting examples of the 
 mechanical filling of fissures which have been recently 
 brought to light in Western mining. These are furnished 
 by the remarkable deposits of gold and silver ore, the Bas- 
 sick and Bull-Domingo near Eosita, Colorado, and the Car- 
 bonate Mine at Frisco, Utah. All these are apparently true 
 fissure veins, filled to as great a depth as they have yet been 
 penetrated by well rounded pebbles and bowlders which 
 nave fallen or been washed in from above. The porous mass 
 thus formed has been subsequently saturated with a hot 
 ascending mineral solution, which has cemented the pebbles 
 and bowlders together into a conglomerate ore. In the Bas- 
 sick this ore consists of rich telluride of silver and gold, free 
 gold, and the argentiferous sulphides of lead, zinc, copper, 
 and iron. In the Bull-Domingo and Carbonate mines the 
 cementing matrix is argentiferous galena. That the peb- 
 bles and bovylders have come from above is distinctly shown 
 by the variety in their composition and organic matters 
 associated with them. In the Bull-Domingo and the Bas- 
 sick the pebbles consist of various kinds of igneous rock, 
 mingled with which in the latter are masses of silicified wood 
 and charcoal, while in the Carbonate mines the pebbles are 
 mainly trachyte, but with these are others of limestone and 
 quartzite. 
 
 Fossils and other foreign bodies have before this been 
 found in mineral veins, and Von Cotta mentions the occur- 
 rence of quartz pebbles extending to the depth of 155 
 fathoms in the Griiner Lode at Schemnitz, Saxony, but no 
 conglomerate veins like those mentioned above are known to 
 exist elsewhere, and they constitute another of the many 
 new forms of ore deposit which the exploration of the rich 
 and varied niineral resources of the United States have 
 brought to light. To enumerate and classify these has been 
 the chief object of this article. 
 
 In regard to the ultimate source of the metallic matters 
 which give value to our ore deposits but little can be said 
 
 knowl'J^'?^-T^''^ ?'^^'* '""^^ of which we have any 
 knowledge, the Laurentian, contain gold and copper, which 
 are indigenous ; hence, as old as the rocks that contain them, 
 and have been simply concentrated, and made conspicuous 
 
 in the process of their metamorphism. The rocks are all 
 sediments, and the ruins of pre-existing continemts. _ By 
 their erosion they have in turn furnished gold, copper, iron, 
 etc., to later sediments by mechanical dispersion and chemi- 
 cal solution. We now find gold everywhere in the drift 
 from the Canadian Highlands, and we have every reason to 
 believe that all the sedimentary strata more recent than the 
 Laurentian have acquired a slight impregnation of several 
 metals from them in addition to what they have obtained 
 from other sources, and we may conclude that the distribu- 
 tion of many of the metals is almost universal. Sea water 
 has been proved to contain gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, 
 cobalt, nickel, iron, manganese, and arsenic ; and there is 
 little doubt that all the other metals would be found there if 
 the search were sufficiently thorough. Hence, sedimentary 
 rocks of every age must have received from the ocean in 
 which they were deposited some portion of all the metals, 
 and for the formation of metalliferous deposits some method 
 of concentrating these would alone be required. A pretty 
 theory to explain such concentration through the agency of 
 marine plants and animals has been suggested by some 
 German mineralogists, and amplified by Profs. Pumpelly 
 and T. S. Hunt. Plants have been credited with the most 
 active agency in this concentration, but evidence is still 
 wanting that other animals or plants have played any 
 important part in the formation of our mineral deposits. 
 The remains of seaweeds are found in the greatest abund- 
 ance in a number of our Palseozoic rocks, and it is almost 
 certain that the carbonaceous ingredient in our great beds of 
 bituminous shale has been derived from this source, and yet 
 we find there no unusual concentration of metallic matter, 
 and none of the precious metals have ever been detected in 
 them. , 
 
 The metallic solutions which have formed our ore de- 
 posits have been ascribed to two sources. One theory sup- 
 poses that they have drained highly metalliferous zones deep 
 in the interior of the earth ; the other, that they have 
 leached diffused metals from rocks of different kinds com- 
 paratively near the surface. The latter view is the one that 
 commends itself to the judgment of the writer. However 
 probable such a thing might seem, no evidence of the exist- 
 ence of distinct metallic or metalliferous zones in the interior 
 of the earth has been gathered. On the contrary, volcanic 
 emissions, which may be supposed to draw from a lower 
 level than water could reach, are not specially rich in metal- 
 lic matters, and the thermal waters which have by their 
 deposit filled our mineral veins, must have derived their 
 metallic salts from a zone not many thousand feet from the 
 surface. The mineral springs, which are now doing a simi- 
 lar work, are but part of a round of circulation of surface 
 water, which, falling from the clouds, penetrates the earth 
 to a point where the temperature is such as to drive it back 
 in steam. This, with fluid water under pressure and highly 
 heated, possessing great solvent power, may be forced 
 through vast beds of rock and these be effectually leached 
 by the process. Should such rocks contain the minutest 
 imaginary quantity of the metals, these must inevitably be 
 taken into solution, and thus flow toward or to the surface 
 to be deposited, when, by diminished temperature and pres- 
 sure, the solvent power of the menstruum is diminished. It 
 is evident from these facts that we cannot trace the history 
 of the metals back beyond the Laurentian age. And since 
 we find them diflused in greater or less quantity through 
 the sedimentary rocks of all ages, and also find processes 
 in action which are removing and redepositing them in 
 the form of the ore deposits we mine, it is not necessary 
 to look farther than this for a suflicient theory of their 
 formation. 
 
 — A pa^or by J. 8. S&johemj^ School of Minea Quaiierly. 
 
 THE ANTHRACITE COAL FIELDS OF PENN- 
 SYLVANIA AND THEIR EXHAUSTION. 
 
 COAL is monarch of the modern industrial world, with 
 its wonderfully diversified interests, and their ever- 
 expanding development. But supreme as is this more 
 than kingly power at the present time, comparatiyely 
 brief as has been the period of its supremacy, and unlimited, 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 931 
 
 in the popular apprehension, as are its apparent resources, yet 
 already can we calculate its approximate duration and pre- 
 dict the end of its all-powerful but beneficent reign. This is 
 especially the case with our limited Anthracite ; the more 
 widely dififused Bituminous having in reserve a much longer 
 term of service — short indeed as a segment of the world's 
 histoiy, but so long compared with an average human life, 
 as to be of slight practical concern to the present generation. 
 The territory occupied by the Anthracite coal fields of Penn- 
 sylvania is but a diminutive spot compared with the area of 
 Bituminous coal in Pennsylvania alone, to say nothing of 
 its vast extent in other portions of the United States, 
 Great Britain, France and Belgium. The area of the An- 
 thracite of the United States is but 470 square miles, not 
 one-twentieth the size of Lake Erie, while the wide-spread 
 Bituminous coal fields cover twice the area of our four great 
 lakes ; the Anthracite making but an insignificant showing 
 on the map of the continent. But the comparison with the 
 Bituminous area is deceptive, unless the relative thickness 
 of the two is taken into consideration. If the Anthracite 
 beds were spread out as thinly as those of the Bituminous 
 region, they would cover eight times their present area, or 
 3,780 square miles. And again, if the denuded spaces 
 within the borders of the Anthracite coal fields were covered 
 with a deposit of coal as thick as we may justly suppose 
 they once were, and as the remaining still are, the available 
 area would be increased to about 2,000 square miles, or 
 1,280,000 acres; equal to a coal deposit of 92,840,960,000 
 tons. Contemplating the number and extent of the coal 
 beds shown in the accompanying cross-section, a total 
 thickness of 107 feet, distributed in fifteen workable beds, 
 interstratified with a^full mile in thickness of rock and 
 shale, we are lost in wonder at the luxuriant growth of 
 tropical plants required to produce this vast amount of 
 compressed fuel, and the mighty processes of nature by 
 which it was placed in its present position. The ingenuity 
 of scientists is taxed to account for this wonderful accumu- 
 lation of fuel, once vegetable, now mineral ; once waving in 
 fresh green beauty on the surface of the earth, now buried 
 under hundreds of feet of solid rock ; once growing in a 
 level deposit of mud so plastic that the lightest leaflet drop- 
 ping on its surface left its impress, now the mud hardened 
 into slate, and the rank vegetation changed to hard and 
 glittering coal, rising and falling in geologic hills and val- 
 leys, surpassing in number, depth, extent, sharpness of 
 flexure and acuteness of angle, anything visible in the light 
 of upper day. 
 
 Some slight idea of the growth of these ancient forests 
 may be gained from the computation, that to form only one 
 of these large beds of coal required a deposit of vegetable 
 matter perhaps one hundred feet in thickness. What shall 
 we say then to the amount of vegetation stored away in the 
 Mammoth bed, which extends through all three of the An- 
 thracite coal fields, covering an area of 300 square miles, 
 with an. average thickness of twenty feet, and containing, it 
 is estimated, 6,000,000,000 tons of coal ! Not less wonderful 
 and interesting than the coal deposits is the grand floor of 
 conglomerate which underlies them; a vast sheet of rock, 
 infinitely old, composed of fragments of other rocks in- 
 finitely older, bound together by an almost imperceptible 
 cement which holds them so firmly that gunpowder will 
 scarcely separate them. Whence came this great sea of 
 pebbles, water-rounded and water-born, to their present 
 resting-place? We find them now as the current has dropped 
 them — masses of ^silex as large as ten-pound cannon balls, 
 and almost as round, so shapely have they been worn by the 
 action of some ancient current. These were deposited first, 
 and then, in regular order, trending to the southwest, came 
 sizes graduated down to those of a pea and grains of sand. 
 This more than marble floor bears few saurian foot-prints ; 
 scarcely an impress of bird, or beast, or fish, or sign of ani- 
 mal life. Nothing but a bed of almost pure silica ; a solid 
 foundation on which to build up the mass of rock and the 
 fossil fuel that we call Anthracite, older than the hills and 
 predestined for the use of coming man. The pebble-laden 
 flood ceased, and was followed by placid waters and gentle 
 currents, bringing fine mud and silt to cover the rocky bed. 
 Then the waters drained away, or the land rose, until fit for 
 vegetable life, it was covered with the mighty fiora of the 
 carbopiferous period. Again it sank, carrying with it its 
 
 store of decayed and decaying vegetation, and another flood 
 of pebbles rolled over it. How many ages were consumed 
 in the process so briefly described, who can tell ? Nature's 
 operations are on too vast a scale, and her working time too 
 long to admit of hasty activity in the production of results. 
 It may well be said that all the years since the creation of 
 man would be too short a time to produce a bed of coal. 
 However long the process just described, it was of frequent 
 repetition during the coal period ; and thus we find pebble- 
 beds, slate and coal in often recurring series, as in the fol- 
 lowing cross-section made at Treverton, the western termi- 
 nus of the middle anthracite coal basis. 
 
 Cross Section in the SotrrHERN Anthracite Coal Field 
 OF Pa. 
 
 Red Ash Coal, 3 fit. 
 
 7 ft. 
 
 tt ti 
 
 i( tt 
 
 11 tt 
 
 3 ft. 
 6 ft. 
 
 6 ft. 
 
 (( tt 
 
 3 ft. 
 
 " " 6 ft. 
 
 Grey Ash Coal, 10 ft. 
 White Ash Coal 5 ft. 
 
 (( tt 
 
 tt tt 
 
 It It 
 
 (C It 
 
 7 ft. 
 25 ft. 
 
 9 ft. 
 
 Red Ash Coal, 8 ft. 
 
 3 ft. 
 
 Total Coal, 107 ft. 
 
 p,ilj3= 
 
 Sandrock. 
 Grate. 
 
 Little Tracy. 
 Tracy. 
 
 Diamond. 
 
 Little Orchard. 
 Orchard. 
 Primrose. 
 Holmea, 
 
 Seven Feet. 
 Mammoth. 
 
 Skidmore. 
 
 Buck Honntain. 
 
 Lykens Valley, upper. 
 
 Lykens Valley, lower. 
 
 But through all the changes of time and scene, the up- 
 heavals and depressions, the submergence and emergence of 
 the laud, we find a remarkable uniformity in the growth 
 of plants, continuing almost without change throughout ; 
 sigillaria, lepidodendra, ferns, &c., following their kind, 
 
932 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 unvaried through successive series of strata, in each leaving 
 their characteristic impress of stems and foliage on the 
 enduring tables of the rocks. The coal flora is rich m variety 
 and of great beauty, as Professor Lesquereux's careful re- 
 search abundantly testifies. Their exact forms show a quiet 
 condition of the \vaters, at least during the deposit of the slate 
 covering of the coal beds ; and the intervening rocks show 
 the same facts. When impressions of the flora are found in 
 the solid coal itself, we have the same evidence; but this is 
 of rare occurrence. The best impressions usually occur in 
 the smooth top slate covering the coal beds. When we 
 examine the arrangement of the Pennsylvania Anthracite 
 beds we wonder at their complexity. Without evidence of 
 volcanic disruption, not even a protruded trap-dyke, or 
 extensive up or down-throw, we often find contortions and 
 disturbances of the strata. The beds are rarely horizontal, 
 but lie at every angle, and sometimes even pass the perpen- 
 dicular and fold back upon themselves. In places they 
 occupy our mountain summits, nearly 2,000 feet above the 
 level of the sea, and again depressed more than 3,000 feet 
 below it, making a variation of a mile in altitude. Yet the 
 coal, which is the frailest material in this rocky mass, is not 
 destroyed, but generally in good workable condition — solid, 
 almost crystallized, almost pure carbon, and frequently in 
 beds too thick for economical working. 
 
 Faults in the Anthracite beds usually have a northwest 
 and southeast direction, and show the beds compressed, and 
 again correspondingly enlarged, but no sudden dislocations 
 or breaking off of the strata. Soft coal or dirt faults, are 
 of common occurrence in the red ash or softer coals in the 
 western end of the Anthracite fields. The colored ash of 
 burned coal is due, doubtless, to the presence of iron; but 
 why this coloring matter is confined to the upper series of 
 coals in the eastern portion of the range, and to the lower 
 beds in the western district : and why there is a gradation in 
 the middle district, from white ash in the lower, to grey in 
 the middle, and red in the upper beds, are problems yet to 
 be solved. How shall we account for the great disturbance 
 of the strata from their original horizontal position 1 Was 
 it caused by volcanic force — of which there are no indications 
 — or by contraction of the earth's crust? And if the latter, 
 why is it confined to the Anthracite region, and not extended 
 to the Bituminous also ? And how shall we explain the 
 isolation of the smaller coal fields, like those of Ehode 
 Island, Richmond, Va., or Deep Eiver, in North Carolina ; 
 or the disproportion in the quantity between the limited 
 area of Anthracite and the wide-spread fields of Bituminous? 
 Why do we find an abundance of shells and remains of 
 animal life in the latter, and rarely any in the former? A 
 few saurian foot-prints recently found at the Ellangowan 
 colliery, in Schuylkill county, and a few shells found in 
 Glendower pit, in the Wyoming valley, are signal exceptions 
 to an almost universal rule. After an exploration, covering 
 the period from 1835 to 1850, Prof. H. D. Rogers and his 
 corps of assistants failed to find any other spticimens. Neither 
 has Prof. Lesley in his new geological survey of Pennsylvania, 
 nor the writer in his thirty years' residence and active service, 
 underground and in surface explorations, been any more 
 fortunate. Nor in all this area do we find a single workable 
 bed of iron or limestone, and scarcely a covering of fertile soil. 
 The coal once exhausted, nothing is left but the worthless 
 shell, desolate and deserted. The Anthracite region, mainly 
 confined to one-sixth the area of the four mountainous 
 counties of Luzerne, Schuylkill, Carbon, and Northumber- 
 land, in Pennsylvania, is crowded with an industrious 
 population, which increased fifty-one per cent, in ten years : 
 that is from 229,700 in 1860, to 344,771 in 1870 ; whilst the 
 four adjacent agricultural counties of similar area increased 
 in the same time from 319,542 to 339,942, only six per cent. 
 It is located on the parallel of 40" 30', one hundred miles 
 from any seashore, no part of it is less than 500 feet above 
 tide— near the head waters of the large rivers that drain it 
 the Susquehanna, Schuylkill, Lehigh, and Delaware. The 
 noisy trains crossing the valleys and climbing the mountains 
 all merge, day and night, to these hives of industry, where 
 multitudinous steam engines are hoisting and pumping and 
 breakers crushing. Thousands of miles of railroad thread 
 the surface and dive into the interior, to roll out the black 
 diamond flood in millions of tons of fuel to warm and 
 employ the nation. The fearful loss of good material 
 
 involved in mining and preparing Anthracite, as shown in 
 the accompanying tables, though greatly to be deplored, 
 seems to be almost inevitable. The disposition of the coal 
 in large solid beds, and its highly inclined positions, involves 
 strong supports to keep the superincumbent mass from crush- 
 ing and closing the avenues to the mines ; and these sup- 
 ports must consist of massive pillars of the solid coal'itself. 
 Wooden props, however ponderous and strong, can only be 
 used tor the minor supports. Some of this pillar coal is 
 ultimately removed, but much of it is inevitably lost, espe- 
 cially in the larger beds which frequently range from 20 to 40 
 feet in thickness and are often inclined at an angle of from 
 43 to 70 degrees. It is estimated that not more than 66 per 
 cent, of the coal is ever taken out of the mines. That whicH 
 is brought to the surface is run through a huge structure from 
 80 to 100 feet high, very appropriately called a "breaker," 
 ingeniously contrived for the destruction of coal. There 
 are over 300 of these immense buildings in the Anthracite 
 region, costing on an average $50,000 each, or an aggregate 
 of $15,000,000. To the top of these the coal is hoisted, and 
 then descends through a succession of rolls and screens, 
 emerging at the bottom in a series of assorted sizes, from 
 huge blocks of lump coal to unmerchantable dust, which 
 forms a grievously large proportion of the whole. This 
 process involves a loss of good coal, equal to 20 or 25 per 
 cent., of the entire quantity mined. For the coal wasted in 
 mining, say 40 per cent., and in preparing, 25 per cent., no 
 one is paid ; it is a total loss to landowner and shipper. 
 
 Plans for utilizing the waste coal dirt, or culm of Anthra- 
 cite collieries, have been frequently suggested, but none 
 have come into general use. The Anthracite Fuel Com- 
 pany, at Fort Ewen, on the Hudson, in 1877, used 90 per 
 cent, coal dust and 10 per cent, fuel pitch, and made 300 
 tons of iiiel per day, consuming over 50,000 tons of culm. 
 The Delaware and Hudson Company also used at their 
 mines 60,000 tons per annum. They now ship all their coal 
 down to pea sizes, and consume the culm in generating 
 steam. If all our coal companies would follow this exam- 
 ples it would enable them to sell half a million tons more 
 coal, and burn the same amount of refuse, thus earning or 
 saving a half million dollars per annnum, to add to their 
 revenues. The Philadelphia and Reading Railroad Com- 
 pany has recently introduced a method of burning coal dust 
 in the furnaces of its engines, and the plan appears to meet 
 with success. The amount of water which drains into a 
 mine from a mile or more of surface is enormous, for the 
 average amount of rain and snow-fall is 58,840 cubic inches 
 per square yard annually, and the miners are liable to ab- 
 sorb not only the rain fall on the surface immediately over 
 them, but all that which, by contour of the surface or by 
 converging strata, tends toward them. On an average pos- 
 sibility five tons of water are hoisted for every ton of coal 
 raised — another loss chargeable to mining. The preponder- 
 ance of waste coal, illustrated, by the accompanying tables, 
 seems excessive ; but the writer's experience in surveys of 
 ceriain tracts of land, and in preparing maps which show 
 the area exhausted, compared with the amount marketed 
 from ten or more collieries, in a period of twenty years, 
 proves that the loss is not over estimated, especially in the 
 Mammoth bed, whose average thickness is 25 feet. An 
 eight-foot bed of coal yields much better in proportion. When 
 they exceed six or eight feet in thickness, especially if steep- 
 ly inclined, they are not only expensive to mine, but a large 
 proportion of the coal must be left to support the rocky roof 
 The Bituminous coals, particularly those of the United 
 States, are not subject to those serious losses, and are quite 
 cheaply mined and prepared. No breakers are required, as 
 the only division is into coarse and fine coal, which are 
 easily separated by screens ; and the fine coal can be readily 
 converted into coke, making a better condensed fuel than 
 the coal in its natural shape. The bituminous beds are 
 nearly horizontal and rarely more than six feet thick, so that 
 it is necessary to have extensive pillars; and as the coal is 
 above water level, or in shallow basins, it is not necessary 
 to put up extensive hoisting and pumping machinery. The 
 simple, natural ventilation of American Bituminous mines 
 also does away with the extensive and costly appliances for 
 this purpose of Anthracite mines, in spite of which so many 
 miners annually fall victims to the noxious gases. 
 
 And Now as to the Harvesting'. — The total amount 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 933 
 
 still to be mined, according to the accompanying tables, is 
 26,361,076,000 tons. The total waste, as experience has 
 shown, is equal to two-thirds of the coal deposit, and reaches 
 the appalling amount of 17,574,000,666 tons, leaving thus 
 only 8,782,075,333 tons to send to market. In all our 
 calculation of Anthracite,we have counted the area 
 as if in a level plain, and made no allowance for the 
 undulations which must necessarily increase the 
 amount of coal. But as many of the flexures are abrupt 
 and broken, making much faulty and refuse coal, it 
 will cover any over-estimate of area or thickness we have 
 made in our calculations. Our tables show that 360,017,- 
 817 tons have been sent to market in the fifty-eight years 
 from 1820 to 1878, inclusive. Our consumption now 
 amounts to 20,000,000 tons annually. The increase of pro- 
 duction for the past ten years has been 187,112,857 tons. At 
 this rate we shall reach our probable maximum output of 
 50,000,000 tons in the year 1900, and will finally exhaust 
 the supply in one hundred and eighty-six years. The pre- 
 sent product of the anthracite coal fields is (1878) as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 Southern 40 collieries . 
 
 Middle 180 " 
 
 Northern 128 " 
 
 Total ... 348 " 
 
 . . 1,229,081 tons. 
 . . 9,629,626 " 
 . . 7,680,990 " 
 
 18,439,696 
 
 At this rate the eastern end of the northern field is being 
 rapidly exhausted. The middle field, too, which contains 
 the lower productive coals, is likely to cease extensive mining 
 about the year 1900 ; while the western portion of the north- 
 ern field, extending from Pittston to the western end, and 
 the southern field from Tamaqua to Tremont, comprising 
 about 100 square miles, which contain more coal beds and 
 deeper basins, must furnish the supply for the coming years. 
 Partially successful experiments have been made to use 
 petroleum as a substitute for coal to some extent. But is it 
 not already evident, under the reckless prodigality of pro- 
 duction, that this occult and mysterious supply of light, 
 heat and color will be exhausted before the Anthracite, and 
 can, at best, only temporarily retard the consumption of the 
 latter? As already intimated, the question of the exhaus- 
 tion of our coal supply is scarcely more at the present time 
 than a curious and interesting calculation. It has not yet 
 become so grave and portentous as in Great Britain, where 
 a commission, with the Duke of Argyle, Sir Roderick Mur- 
 chison and Sir W. G. Armstrong at its head, was recently 
 appointed by Parliament to ascertain the probable duration 
 of the coal supplies of the kingdom. There it is serious, in- 
 deed ; for when Britain's coal fields are exhausted, her in- 
 herent vitality is gone, and her world-wide supremacy is on 
 the wane. When her coal mines are abandoned as unpro- 
 ductive, her other industries will shrink to minimum, and 
 her people become familiar with the sight of idle mills, 
 silent factories, and deserted iron works, as cold and spectral 
 as the ruined castles that remain from feudal times. 
 
 The modern growth and ultimate decadence of this great 
 empire may be calculated from the statistics of her coal 
 mines. In 1800 her coal product was about 10,000,000 tons ; 
 in 1854 it was 64,661,401 tons; and in 1877 it was swelled 
 to 136,179,968 tons. This period was a time of continued 
 prosperity, when England ruled the world, financially and 
 commercially. In the twenty-three years from 1854 to 1876, 
 inclusive, she produced the enormous quantity of 2,210,710, 
 091 tons of coal ; and, more wonderful still, exported only 
 222,196,109 tons — say ten per cent. — consuming the rest 
 within her own borders. The average increase of her an- 
 nual ■ output has been 3J per cent. yVill it so continue or 
 has she reached the summit of her industrial greatness and 
 commercial supremacy, and will they now decline, and with 
 it, her naval and military power, the subservient agent, and, 
 to a large extent, the creature and result of those great in- 
 terests? Her coal product in 1878 was less by 1,587,905 tons 
 than that of 1877. Is this the beginning of the inevitable 
 decline? There is reason to believe further on account of 
 the great depression in business, that the production of 1879 
 will be less than that of 1878. Our anthracite product, com- 
 pared with the coal product of Great Britain, is so small as 
 to really seem insignificant. The English commission 
 counts as available all coal beds over one foot thick — we 
 count nothing under two and a half feet thick, nor below 
 
 4,000 feet in depth — showing a net amount in the explored 
 coal fields of 90,207,285,898 tons ; estimated amount in con- 
 cealed areas, 56,273,000,000 tons; total, 146,480,285,398 tons, 
 distributed as follows: — 
 
 Explored. Unexplored. Total. 
 
 England 45,746,930,555 66,246,000,000 101,992,930,655 
 
 Wales 34.461,208,913 34,461,208,913 
 
 Scotland 9,84.3,466,930 No estimate. 9,843,465,930 
 
 Ireland 155,680,000 27,000,000 182,680,000 
 
 Total . 
 
 . 90,207,285,398 66,273,000,000 146,480,285,398 
 
 The exhaustion of this magnificent mass of coal at this 
 present rate of increase, viz : three and a half per cent, per 
 annum, is estimated by Professor Jevons as follows : 
 
 1876, actual output, 
 
 1886, estimated annual output . 
 1896, " " " 
 
 1906, " " « 
 
 1916, " " " 
 
 1926, " " " 
 
 1936, " 
 
 . . 133,300,000 tons. 
 
 . 186,600,000 " 
 
 . . 261,200,000 " 
 
 . 366,70ff,0O0 " 
 
 . . 512,000,000 " 
 
 . . 716,800,000 " 
 
 . 1,003,500,000 " 
 
 Thus in sixty years the output would be nearly eight 
 times the present amount, and about one fourth of the total 
 amount to be found in Great Britain. This vast estimate 
 seems too enormous. It does not allow for great loss when 
 cost of labor and much competition will prevent the work- 
 ing of small coal beds under two feet in thickness, or for the 
 cost of mining when from 2,000 to 3,000 feet deep. Nor is 
 it possible that Great Britain's industries and export trade 
 combined will ever require so great a quantity. Modern dis- 
 coveries and improvements, in applied science, tend to di- 
 minish the consumption. The 8,000,000 tons annually re- 
 quired for gas works may be materially reduced by the use 
 of the electric light. The domestic consumption, now equal 
 to one fourth the product, or 33,000,000 tons a year, may in- 
 crease. But will not the iron manufacturers be on the wane, 
 and her coal exports — now ten per cent, of her coal product 
 — fall oif as those of other countries increase? We have 
 about 340 collieries, and produce 20,000,000 tons per annum, 
 or about 60,000 tons each. Great Britain has nearly 4,000 
 collieries, and mines 132,000,000 tons, or 33,000 tons per col- 
 liery. The greater the yield per colliery the less the ex- 
 pense in mining. If we decrease the number of mines and 
 increase their capacity not only to raise the coal, but to ex- 
 haust a constant current of foul air and dangerous gases, 
 clouds of powder smoke and millions of gallons of water, 
 we will reduce the cost of mining. Most"^of the Anthracite 
 mining in the United States is now done at a less depth than 
 500 feet vertical ; but as the coal nearer the surface becomes 
 exhausted, the mines must go deeper and become more ex- 
 pensive. What folly it is to boast of our world's supply of 
 Anthracite, and feverishly endeavor to force it into foreign 
 markets, when we can so readily foresee its end ! Would it 
 not be wiser to limit its product, restrict its sale to remu- 
 nerative prifces, and consume it at our own firesides, and in 
 our own manufactures? The monopoly of the Anthracite 
 coal fields by some seven corporations, which, according to 
 the accompanying tables, now control about two-thirds of 
 the whole, and the best coal area, must prove, under econo- 
 mic management, a profitable investment for their stockhol- 
 ders. Mining, selling and transporting their own coal, as 
 they do, individual enterprise cannot hope to compete with 
 them, and must vanish from the ground, and their only rival- 
 ry will be with each other, and with the Bituminous trade. 
 Fortunately for the public, this rivalry will always be keen 
 enough to keep the price of coal at a fair low rate of cost 
 and profit. The coal resources of Great Britain are all de- 
 veloped now, and in process of depletion ; while in this 
 country, when our 470 square miles of Anthracite are ex- 
 hausted, we have more than 400 times that area, or 200,000 
 square miles of Bituminous, from' which to supply ourselves 
 and the rest of mankind with ftiel. The coal product of the 
 world is about 300,000,000 tons annually. The North Ameri- 
 can continent could supply it all for 200 years. With an an- 
 nual production of 50,000,000 tons, it would require twelve 
 centuries to exhaust the supply. But with a uniform product 
 of 100,000,000 tons per annum, the end of the Bituminous 
 supply would be reached in 800 years. What the annual 
 consumption will be when this continent supports a teeming 
 population of 400,000,000 souls, as will be the case some day, 
 must be left to conjecture. But with half that population, 
 
934 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 as energetic, restless and inventive as our people in this stim- 
 ulating climate have always been,-under the hopes of suc- 
 cess, such a country as this constantly holds out to tempt 
 ambition and reward enterprise, it is a very moderate esti- 
 mate, guided by the actual output already reached in Great 
 Britain, to suppose that there will be ample use for one hun- 
 dred million tons a year of Bituminous coal for home con- 
 sumption alone. 
 
 If it be true, as Baron Liebig asserts, that civilization is 
 the economy of the poor, we have it in our immense areas of 
 Bituminous coal. There is no known agent that can answer 
 as a substitut,e for the vast power and almost limitless use- 
 fulness of coal in its general adaptation to the wants of man ; 
 and that nation will maintain the foremost rank in enlight- 
 ened modern civilization which controls, to the fullest ex- 
 tent, while it lasts, this wonderful combination of light and 
 heat and force. We are wiser than our fathers ; and from 
 the modest but sublime altitude to which we are lifted by 
 physical science, and the far-extended range of mental vis- 
 ion which it opens up to us, we can see further into the plans 
 of Providence than those who went before us, and can con- 
 jecture the early, if not the remote future of the human race 
 in our land and in other lands. Happy that people whose 
 legislators study the best mode of developing the natural re- 
 sources of their country, and whose great men become great 
 by improving the condition and promoting the welfare of 
 the human race. The greatest of England's iive Georges 
 was not either of those who wore the crown, but plain 
 George Stephenson, of Manchester; and none of the royal 
 Jameses did half so much for the. civilization of his country 
 as James Watt. 
 
 Ontpnt of Antbxacite Coal fi-om the Year ISiiO to 1880, 
 * Inclixsive. 
 
 Antliracite Coal Areas ovmed by tlie Several Companies In 
 the ahove Fields, and the per cent, of the -whole in Tons. 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Schuylkill. 
 
 Lehigh. 
 
 Wyoming. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tms. 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1820 
 
 
 366 
 
 
 366 
 
 1821 
 
 
 
 1,073 
 
 
 1,073 
 
 1822 
 
 1,480 
 
 2,240 
 
 
 3 720 
 
 1823 
 
 1,128 
 
 6,823 
 
 
 6,951 
 
 1824, 
 
 1,567 
 
 9,511 
 
 
 11,108 
 
 1S25 
 
 6,500 
 
 28,393 
 
 
 34,893 
 
 1826, 
 
 16,767 
 
 31,280 
 
 
 48,047 
 
 182T, 
 
 31,360 
 
 32,074 
 
 
 63,434 
 
 1828 
 
 47,284 
 
 30,232 
 
 
 77,616 
 
 1829 
 
 79,973 
 
 25,110 
 
 7,000 
 
 112,083 
 
 1830 
 
 89,984 
 
 41,750 
 
 43,000 
 
 174,734 
 
 1831 
 
 81,854 
 
 40,966 
 
 64,000 
 
 176,8-20 
 
 1832, 
 
 209,271 
 
 70,000 
 
 84,000 
 
 363,871 
 
 1833 
 
 262.971 
 
 123,001 
 
 111,777 
 
 487,748 
 
 1834 
 
 226,692 
 
 106,244 
 
 43,700 
 
 376,636 
 
 1835, .... 
 
 339,508 
 
 131,250 
 
 90,000 
 
 560,768 
 
 1836 
 
 432,045 
 
 148,211 
 
 103,861 
 
 68-t,ll7 
 
 1337, 
 
 630,152 
 
 223,902 
 
 115.387 
 
 879,441 
 
 1838 
 
 446,875 
 
 213,015 
 
 98,207 
 
 738,697 
 
 1839 
 
 476,077 
 
 221,025 
 
 120,300 
 
 818,402 
 
 1840, 
 
 490,596 
 
 225,313 
 
 148,47 
 
 864,384 
 
 1841 
 
 624,466 
 
 143,037 
 
 192,270 
 
 969,973 
 
 1842, 
 
 583 273 
 
 272,540 
 
 262,599 
 
 1,108,418 
 
 1843, 
 
 710,200 
 
 267,793 
 
 285,605 
 
 1,263,598 
 
 1844, 
 
 887,937 
 
 377,002 
 
 365,911 
 
 1,630,850 
 
 1816, 
 
 1,131,724 
 
 409,453 
 
 451,836 
 
 2,013,013 
 
 1846 
 
 1,308,500 
 
 617 116 
 
 51-8,389 
 
 2,344,005 
 
 1847 
 
 1,665,735 
 
 633,507 
 
 683,067 
 
 2,882,309 
 
 1818 
 
 1,733,721 
 
 670,321 
 
 686,196 
 
 3,089,238 
 
 1840, 
 
 1,728,600 
 
 781,666 
 
 732,910 
 
 3,242,966 
 
 ISM 
 
 1,840,620 
 
 690,456 
 
 827,823 
 
 3,368,899 
 
 1851, 
 
 2,32'<.225 
 
 764,224 
 
 1,156,167 
 
 4,448,916 
 
 1852, 
 
 2,637,835 
 
 1,071,136 
 
 1,284,500 
 
 4,993,471 
 
 1853 
 
 2,066,110 
 
 1,054,309 
 
 1,475,732 
 
 5,195,151 
 
 1854 
 
 3,291,670 
 
 1,207,186 
 
 1,603,478 
 
 6,002,334 
 
 185S 
 
 3,562,943 
 
 1,284,113 
 
 1,771,511 
 
 6,608,517 
 
 1866, 
 
 3,603,029 
 
 1,361,970 
 
 1,972,581 
 
 6,927,580 
 
 1857 
 
 3,373,797 
 
 1,318,641 
 
 1,962,603 
 
 . 6,664,941 
 
 1858 
 
 3,273,245 
 
 1,380,030 
 
 2,186,094 
 
 6,769,369 
 
 18)9, 
 
 3,148,708 
 
 1,628,311 
 
 2,731,236 
 
 7,803,262 
 
 1860, 
 
 3,749,232 
 
 1,821,674 
 
 2,941,817 
 
 8,513,123 
 
 1801, 
 
 3,160,747 
 
 1,738,377 
 
 3,055,140 
 
 7,964,314 
 
 1863 
 
 3,372,683 
 
 1,361,064 
 
 3,146,770 
 
 7,876,412 
 
 1863, 
 
 3,911,683 
 
 1,894,713 
 
 3,769,610 
 
 9,.'>66,006 
 
 1864 
 
 4,161,970 
 
 2,'i51,669 
 
 3,960,836 
 
 10,177,476 
 
 1865 
 
 4,366,969 
 
 2,1)40.913 
 
 3,2,54,619 
 
 9,662,391 
 
 1866, 
 
 6,787,902 
 
 2,179,364 
 
 4,736,616 
 
 12,703,882 
 
 1867, 
 
 6,161,671 
 
 2,602,054 
 
 6,325,000 
 
 12,991,725 
 
 1808 
 
 6,335,737 
 
 2,507,682 
 
 6,990,813 
 
 13 8.34,132 
 
 1869, 
 
 6,726,138 
 
 1,929,623 
 
 6,068,369 
 
 13,723,030 
 
 1870 
 
 4,851,865 
 
 3,172,916 
 
 7,825,128 
 
 15,849,809 
 
 1871, 
 
 6,314,422 
 
 2,115'683 
 
 6,683,302 
 
 16,113,407 
 
 1872, 
 
 6,469,912 
 
 3,743,278 
 
 8,812,905 
 
 19,016,125 
 
 1873, 
 
 6,294,769 
 
 3,243,168 
 
 10,047,241 
 
 19,585,178 
 
 1874, 
 
 5,642,180 
 
 4,047,656 
 
 9,290,910 
 
 18,980,726 
 
 1875 
 
 6,281,712 
 
 2,834,606 
 
 10,596,1,65 
 
 19,712,472 
 
 1876, 
 
 6 2-21,934 
 
 3,864,919 
 
 8,424,168 
 
 18,601,311 
 
 1877 
 
 8,196,042 
 
 4,332,760 
 
 8,300,377 
 
 20,828,179 
 
 1878 
 
 6,282,226 
 
 3,237,449 
 
 8,085,587 
 
 17,606,262 
 
 1879 
 
 8,960,329 
 
 4,596,667 
 
 12,686,293 
 
 26,142,689 
 
 1830 
 
 7,654,742 
 
 4,463,221 
 
 11,419,279 
 
 23,437,242 
 
 Name of Company. 
 
 Schwylkm. 
 
 MiMU. 
 
 Wyomiug. 
 
 Lehigh Valley 
 
 Aaires. 
 
 ii 
 
 Acres. 
 18,036 
 7,000 
 
 24^ 
 85« 
 
 Acves. 
 6,934 
 7,400 
 
 20.042 
 3,500 
 
 10.000 
 
 5,823 
 
 n 
 
 22 ^ 
 3^ 
 
 Lehigh and Wilke.s-Barre . . . 
 
 7,600 
 
 Delaware, Lackawanna & West'n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Philadelphia and Reading Coal 
 
 and Iron Company 
 
 Pennsylvania Bailroad Company 
 
 65,306 
 6,000 
 
 70 )J 
 6? 
 
 23,260 
 9,000 
 6,000 
 1,373 
 
 ,32^ 
 
 8? 
 25< 
 
 Gilbert & Co 
 
 
 
 Alliance Coal Mining Company 
 All others 
 
 3,172 
 11,362 
 
 3!« 
 
 13)4 
 
 
 15,981 
 
 17, Ji 
 
 73,021 
 
 64 5( 
 
 Total 
 
 93,440 
 
 100 i« 
 
 80,640 
 
 IWf, 
 
 126,720 
 
 100 ^ 
 
 Area of Autliraclte Coal Basins in, Fenusylvania. 
 
 Square miles. 
 
 Soutliern coal fields 146 
 
 Middle coal fields, Shamokin. . , 50 
 
 Middle coal fields, Mahanoy 41 
 
 Middle coal fields, Lehigh 37 
 
 128 
 
 Northern Coal fields 198 
 
 Total area of all basins. . . ... 
 
 Bituminous coal fields of the United States . 
 
 472 
 
 United States Coal Product of 1869 and 1878. 
 
 Anthracite. 
 
 Pennsylvania . 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 Illinois. . . 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Maryland. . . 
 Missouri. . . 
 West Virginia . 
 Indiana. . . . 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kentucky . 
 Tennessee. . . 
 Virginia . . . . 
 Kansas. . . . 
 Oregon. . . . 
 Michigan. . . 
 California . . . 
 Rhode Island. . 
 Alabama . . . . 
 Nebraska. . 
 Wyoming. . . . 
 Washington . . 
 
 Utah 
 
 Colorado . . . . 
 
 Bituminous. 
 
 Total 
 
 Total for 1879, anthracite. . 
 Total for 1880, anthracite. . 
 
 1869— ToTM. 11878— Tbns. 
 
 13,866,180 
 
 17,606,262 
 
 7,798,517 
 
 13,500,000 
 
 2,629,563 
 
 3,600,000 
 
 2,527,285 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 1,819,824 
 
 1,679,322 
 
 621,930 
 
 900,000 
 
 608,878 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 437,870 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 263,487 
 
 1,600,000 
 
 150,682 
 
 900,000 
 
 133,418 
 
 376,000 
 
 61,803 
 
 75,000 
 
 S2,938 
 
 300,090 
 
 
 200,000 
 
 21,160 
 
 30,000 
 
 
 600,000 
 
 14,000 
 
 14,000 
 
 11,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 1,425 
 
 76,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 17,844 
 
 150,000 
 
 6,800 
 
 60,000 
 
 4,500 
 
 367.000 
 
 31,077,994 
 
 49,139,684 
 
 26,142,689 
 
 69,808,400 
 
 23,437,242 
 
 
 Coal Exports for the Fiscal Year ending Jnne 30, 1878, 
 United States. 
 
 OODNTEIBS. 
 
 Austria. . .... 
 
 Brazil . 
 
 Central America 
 
 Chili 
 
 China 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 France 
 
 French West Indies and Guiana. . 
 Miguelan, etc., islands. . . 
 Other French possessions . . 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 Quebec, Ontario, etc.. . . 
 
 British Columbia 
 
 Newfoundland 
 
 British West Indies and Honduras. 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 Hong Kong. . . 
 
 Australasia 
 
 Hawaiian Islands 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Italy 
 
 Japan 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 Peru 
 
 Azores, Madeira 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 United States of Columbia 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Total. . 
 
 Total, 1879 . 
 Total, 1880 . 
 
 Tons. 
 Anthracite. 
 
 202 
 
 1,862 
 
 11 
 
 1,093 
 
 3,659 
 
 1,497 
 
 764 
 
 240 
 
 30 
 
 30,300 
 
 268,378 
 
 17 
 
 98 
 
 1,471 
 
 464 
 
 1,359 
 
 10 
 
 842 
 
 2,060 
 706 
 756 
 101 
 
 1,878 
 
 325 
 
 434 
 
 17,983 
 
 43 
 
 3,373 
 630 
 
 340,666 
 421,694 
 411,706 
 
 Tons. 
 Bituminoua. 
 
 633 
 
 94 
 
 510 
 
 11,360 
 '615 
 
 1 
 
 6,054 
 
 214,982 
 
 1222 
 
 22 
 
 257 
 713 
 16 
 
 297 
 
 62 613 
 
 32 
 
 17,490 
 
 680 
 
 319,637 
 221,669 
 198,431 
 
 A Paper 61/ P. W. Sfieafer, KM., read 'before American Association for the 
 Advancement of Science. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 935 
 
 THE AVAILABLE TONNAGE OF THE BITU- 
 MINOUS COAL FIELDS OF PENN- 
 SYLVANIA. 
 
 THE great outspread of the coal measures over portions 
 of thirty-one of the sixty-seven counties of Penn- 
 sylvania, and the large number of workable seams 
 comprising the coal series,— together with some 
 workable seams lately shown to belong to the (so-called) 
 barren measures, — create the impression that these fields 
 contain a practically inexhaustible supply of fuel, and those 
 who have estimated or attempted to estimate their available 
 tonnage have generally promulgated this view. But the ac- 
 tual total contents of this coal-field can be of little or no im- 
 portance to us at present; calculations including all seams, 
 whether thick enough to mine or not, whether pure enough 
 to furnish the marketable fuel or not, whether accessible at 
 reasonable depth or not, are of no practical value. As coal 
 producers, we are interested, not in the total contents, but in 
 the total amount of easily accessible coal of good quality con- 
 tained in beds thick enough for remunei'ative mining. The 
 estimates contained in this paper refer exclusively to worka- 
 ble and accessible coal of commercial value, — ^we may call 
 it " available " coal. I am not aware that any one has as yet 
 attempted to estimate in detail the amount of available coal 
 in each county and in each bed. Heretofore the data to do 
 this have been lacking, but now, since the completion by the 
 geological survey of the series of county reports, illustrated 
 by geologically colored county maps, it is possible to take 
 up each county separately, and estimate in detail, approxi- 
 ma.tely, at least, the contents of each seam. The general 
 estimate to which I have referred as lacking the elements of 
 detail essential to accuracy, have usually been made by 
 multiplying the total area covered by coal measures by an 
 assumed average of the united thicknesses of the workable 
 seams. Thus some estimates place this area at between 
 twelve and thirteen thousand square miles, and the average 
 coal thickness at from fifteen to thirty feet or the amount of 
 available coal at from 180,000,000,000 to 300,000,000,000 
 tons. By reference to the tables accompanying this paper 
 it will be seen that these figures greatly exceed the total of 
 my detailed estimates. 
 
 Calculations based on an assumed average thickness of 
 coal must necessarily give untrustworthy results, because it 
 is not possible to determine a priori, and in advance of de- 
 tailed estimates, the average coal thickness in a field where 
 every bed is subject to more or less radical variation in its 
 thickness and quality. In counties containing throughout 
 their entire area persistent seams of coal, large deductions 
 are to be made for areas over which some beds thin to an 
 unprofitable thickness or become locally too impure to fur- 
 nish a marketable fuel. I have not attempted to calculate 
 the several coal areas with any great degree of accuracy ; 
 with few exceptions, the areas expressed in acres reduced 
 from measurements based on a unit of five square miles, 
 hence these acreages nearly all appear as multiples of 3,200 
 acres. The maps from which the calculations were made 
 are drawn on a scale of two miles to one inch, and as these 
 are necessarily only approximately correct both in the 
 ground plan and coloring, a finer difierentiation would but 
 lend false pretensions of accuracy to work necessarily involv- 
 ing errors of considerable magnitude. Seams less than two 
 feet thick have been ignored. The areas of beds from two 
 to three feet thick are calculated down to water-level ; their 
 areas beneath water-level have been ignored. Seams from 
 three to five feet thick are estimated to a depth of one hun- 
 dred and fifty feet beneath water-level. The areas of seams 
 more than five feet thick are computed to a depth of four 
 hundred feet beneath water-level when their quality and 
 thickness are known. The areas of beds more than four 
 feet thick lying above water-level, but over-laid by a great 
 thickness of superimposed measures, have been calculated so 
 as to include a distance of from one to two miles from their 
 outcrop lines, — varying with the dip. 
 
 The maps from which the areas were computed are col- 
 ored in five tints to represent the subdivisions of the carbon- 
 iferous system of rocks, as follows : 
 Upper Barren Coal Measures. 
 Upper Productive Coal Measures. 
 
 Lower Barren Coal Measures. 
 
 Lower Productive Coal -Measures. 
 
 Conglomerate series (with coals). 
 
 The lower edge of the Upper Productive tint limits the 
 area of the Pittsburgh bed; the Lower Barren tint defines 
 that of the Freeport Upper coal, and the Lower Productive 
 tint the Brookville coal bed ; the areas of intermediate or 
 higher seams were estimated from assumed intermediate 
 out-crop lines. After computing the total area of each per- 
 sistent seam in any county, the percentage of this area over 
 which the bed will probably be found of workable quality 
 and thickness, and its average thickness were arbitrarily as- 
 sumed after a careful study of the data published in the 
 county reports. It is evident that there is here introduced 
 a large personal error ; it is impossible to entirely eliminate 
 such errors, but they can hardly be large enough to seriously . 
 impair the value of the conclusions. The mass of facts pub- 
 lished in each county report thoroughly demonstrates the 
 character and value of each coal seam and limits this per- 
 sonal error between comparatively narrow bounds. 
 
 But it matters little how much time and care are spent 
 upon such work, the personal error must always be a factor 
 of some importance. Even in the anthracite regions, which 
 are so thoroughly developed by actual mining as well as by 
 an immense amount of prospecting work, there seems to be 
 some difiiculty in estimating the available coal. In his re- 
 port on the Philadelphia and Reading Coal and Iron Com- 
 pany's property, Mr. Joseph S. Harris estimates the total 
 contents of the anthracite regions at 13,999.8 square miles 
 one foot thick — equivalent to about 15,600,000,000 tons — 
 and the coal area at 438 square miles. In a paper read Sep- 
 tember 1, 1879, before the American Association for the Ad- 
 vancement of Science, Mr. P. W. Sheafer estimates the total 
 contents at 26,361,076,000 tons, placing the coal area at 470 
 square miles. It is evident that the discordance between 
 these two estimates is due in part to an unavoidable personal 
 error; Mr. Sheafer estimating the average coal thickness at 
 nearly double that assumed by Mr. Harris — the estimate of 
 coal areas diflfering very slightly. The coefficient of error 
 is probably greatest in the counties containing very small 
 available areas,— these, have been most liberally estimated 
 (Bradford, Cameron, Clinton, Forest, Crawford, I^ycoming, 
 McKean, Potter, Sullivan, Tioga, Venango, and Warren) ; 
 but in the counties containing large available areas the esti- 
 mates are probably much less than the actual amount, as I 
 have strenuously endeavored to underestimate rather than 
 exaggerate the available tonnage. The actual average coal 
 contents per acre for each foot of bed measurement is some- 
 what in excess of 1,650 tons of 2240 pounds, but deducting 
 one-eleventh for slate, bone and sulphuric partings, I have 
 assumed an average of 1,500 tons of 2240 pounds per acre 
 for each foot of bed measurement. 
 
 The total amount of available coal, limited as above to 
 depth, thickness, etc., is 33,547,200,000 tons.' Assuming that 
 75 per cent, of this can be won in mining, we have 25,160,- 
 400,000 tons as the possible product. 
 
 There is little doubt but that under good mining manage- 
 ment fiilly 75 per cent, of this coal can be recovered. Under 
 favorable circumstances, more than 90 per cent, should be 
 won at mines worked on the long-wall plan or on a modifi- 
 cation of the long-wall and panel systems. 
 The total available tonnage may be divided thus : 
 
 Beds over 6 feet thick, ] 0,957,200,000 
 
 Beds from 3 to 6 feet thick, 19,586,800,000 
 
 Beds from 2 to 3 feet thick, 3,003,200,000 
 
 Total, 33,547,200,000 
 
 Excluding coals less than three feet in thickness we have 
 an available tonnage of 30,544,000,000 tons, of which 75 per 
 cent, being recovered=22,908,000,000 tons as the possible 
 output from seams three feet or more in thickness. Proba- 
 bly two-thirds of this amount lies favorably situated for 
 mining, and at ordinary prices for labor can be mined and 
 placed on the cars at an average cost not exceeding one.dol- 
 lar per ton ; but the remaining third lies beneath water- 
 level or beneath a thick covering of superior-imposed meas- 
 ures, and will probably cost from one dollar and a quarter 
 to ome dollar and a half per ton at the present price of labor. 
 
 > The estimates do not include the Broad Top Coal Field. 
 
936 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 This two-thirds=15,272,000,000 tons, accessible above water- 
 level, and contained in beds not less than three feet thick, 
 is sufficient to maintain the present average yearly output 
 from Pennsylvania for about eight hundred years, or to 
 supply the whole world for fifty years. The statistics of pro- 
 duction in Pennsylvania show a yearly increase of about 6 
 per cent, from 1864 to the present time. If this ratio of in- 
 crease is maintained, the yearly output will reach an enor- 
 mous figure in thirty or forty years (as shown in the first 
 column of the following table) ; but as West Virginia, Ohio, 
 Indiana, and several of the Western States are rapidly de- 
 veloping their coal resources and taking their share of the 
 increased demand, it does not seem probable that this per- 
 centage of increase can long continue, and I have according- 
 ly calculated another table on a scale of decreasing percent- 
 ages of increase, — shown in the second column, — estimated 
 on a basis of 16,000,000 tons production in 1880. 
 
 Year. 
 
 1880 . . . 
 
 1890 
 
 1900 
 
 1910 
 
 1920 
 
 1930 
 
 1940 
 
 Yearly 
 Tonnage. 
 
 16,000,000 
 28,640,000 
 51,265,600 
 91,766,424 
 164,270,219 
 
 Yearly 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Yearly increase 
 (compounded.) 
 
 16,000,000 
 28,640,000 
 46,396,800 
 68,000,000 
 91,120,000 
 111,166,460 
 122,840,000 
 
 6 per cent. 
 6 per cent. 
 4 per cent. 
 3 per cent. 
 2 per cent. 
 1 per cent. 
 
 Although the figures of the .second column are much 
 smaller than those of the first column, they still are in my 
 opinion much in excess of any output we will ever reach in 
 Pennsylvania. I am inclined to think that the ratio of in- 
 crease will diminish more rapidly, — say 1 per cent, every 
 five years, — ^that the maximum output will be reached be- 
 tween 1900 andl920, and will not exceed 50,000,000 tons per 
 annum. At this rate more than five centuries will be required 
 to exhaust the coal. Seams less than three feet in thickness, 
 unless of unusual purity, or located in the counties forming 
 the northern edge of the coal-field, are of little importance 
 at present; nearly all the coal now marketed coming from 
 seams averaging three and a half feet or more. Many of 
 the smaller and more impure coals will never be marketed, 
 — they will answer well to supply the local demand for do- 
 mestic use and small manufacturing establishments. Prob- 
 ably 10 per cent, of the total available coal will be used to 
 meet this demand, but only a small percentage of this will 
 actually be won in mining, as small mines (country banks) 
 worked vicariously from year to year are almost invariably 
 mismanaged, and more than one-half of the coal irrecover- 
 ably lost. The possible output from beds above water-level, 
 and more than three feet thick, has already been estimated 
 at 15,272,000,000 tons. It will be safe to assume that one- 
 third of this will be sufficiently good quality to furnish good 
 coke, an amount (5,090,666,666 tons) sufficiently to smelt 
 2,500,000,000 tons of iron ; the remaining ten thousand mil- 
 lion tons will furnish excellent gas and steam coals. The 
 average workable thickness and available tonnage of each 
 seam are shown in the following table, which is illustrated 
 by the columnar section drawn on a scale of two hundred 
 feet to an inch. 
 
 Upper Barren Measures : 
 
 Washington bed, 3' to S^^' . . 
 
 Upper Produclivn Measures ; 
 
 Waj^nesburg bed 3' to 5' . 
 
 Uniontown bed 2' to 3' . . 
 
 Sewickley bed . ... 3' 
 Redstone bed . . ... 2' to 3' . 
 
 Pittsburg bed . . . 6 to 12' . 
 
 Lower Barrett Measures : 
 
 Brush Creeli, Coleman, etc., beds 
 
 Lower Productive Measures : 
 
 In Westmorelarid, Fayette, and Allegheny 
 
 counties 
 
 Millerstown bed 3' 
 
 Ereeport Upper bed, ... 3' to 6' .... 
 Freeport Lower bed, ... 2' to 6' .... 
 Kittanning Upper bed . . 2' to 4' ... 
 Kittanning Middle bed . . 2' to 3' 
 
 Kittanning Lower bed . . 2' to 6' 
 
 Clarion coals 2' to 3' ... , 
 
 Brookville bod ... 2' to 4' .... 
 
 787,200,000 
 
 . 2,126,400,000 
 . 312,000,000 
 . 432,000,000 
 . 326,400,000 
 . 10,438,800,000 ' 
 
 787,200,000 
 
 1,1,035,600,000 
 
 878,400,000 
 
 2,064,000,000 
 28,8011,(100 
 3,764,800,000 
 2,386,600,000 
 1,696,000,000 
 
 820,8C0;000 
 4,226,200,0110 
 
 690,000,000 
 1,027,200,000 
 
 17,217,400,000 
 
 Conglomerate Series : 
 
 Mercer coals 2' to 3' 932,600,000 
 
 Quakertown bed 2' 57,600,000 
 
 Sharon coal horizon . . 2' to 3' 38,400,000 
 
 1,028,600,000 
 
 Total 33,647,200,000 
 
 The Upper Barren measures furnish but one workable 
 seam, the Upper Productive measures five beds, the Lower 
 Barren measures three or four coals attaining workable size 
 in parts of three or four counties, the Lower Productive 
 measures eight workable seams, and the Conglomerate 
 series three or four seams, workable over limited areas in the 
 northwestern counties. 
 
 Upper Barren Measures. — This series furnishes but 
 one seam of commercial impor:ance, the Washington bed, 
 which attains its best development in Washington and Fay- 
 ette counties, but is not persistent as a workable seam in any 
 other county. The series of rocks contains (see secfion) 
 several other seams, but they are usually very thin and of 
 poor quality, although one — the Waynesburg " A " bed — 
 may prove workable over a small area in Fayette county. 
 
 Upper Productive Coal Measures. — Waynesburg 
 Bed.— This is a seam of great importance in Greene and 
 Washington counties attaining also a good thickness in 
 Fayette and Westmoreland, holding the fifth place among 
 the productive coal seams. Professor Stephenson's admira- 
 ble maps show its depth beneath the surface at almost every 
 cross-road and town in Greene and Washington counties, 
 (see reports K, K K, K K K.) 
 
 Uniontovm Bed. — ^This is locally workable in parts of Fay- 
 ette and Greene counties. It is of little importance. 
 
 Seviickley Bed. — The same remarks apply equally well to 
 this bed, and to the 
 
 Redstone Bed, which is also locally workable in West- 
 moreland and Allegheny counties, with an average thickness 
 of from two to three feet. 
 
 Pittsburg Bed. — ^This is the best and most valuable seam 
 of the bituminous coal area. It ranges from six to twelve 
 feet in thickness, and according to my estimates contains 
 nearly one-third of the available bituminous coal in Penn- 
 sylvania. Its most extensive areas are found in Fayette, 
 Washington, Allegheny, Westmoreland, and Greene coun- 
 ties, small areas also occurring in Indiana, Somerset, and 
 Beaver counties. The purity and quality ol this coal, and 
 the excellent character of coke made from it. — the famous 
 Coanellsville,— render it many times more valuable than 
 any other seam. 
 
 In parts of Washington and in Greene county it lies 
 deeply covered beneath a great thickness of overlying mea- 
 sures, but its depth at almost any point can be easily deter- 
 mined from Professor J. J. Stevenson's maps, (Report Iv 
 and KK). 
 
 Lower Barren Measures.— In Indiana, Somerset, 
 and Butler counties this series contains several beds attain- 
 ing workable size over limited areas, and in Armstrong and 
 Beaver counties there is also a small quantity of minable 
 coal in these measures. It will probably be worked princi- 
 pally to supply the local demand. 
 
 Lower Productive Coal Measures. — In Fayette 
 and Westmoreland the coals of this series contain a large 
 amount of available coal ; in Allegheny county the Free- 
 port coals will furnish a large supply, but they are always of 
 inferior quality. The tonnage of these three counties 
 available from the Lower Productive measures w.is estimat- 
 ed en masse, the data not being sufficient to warrant a finer 
 differentiation. 
 
 Millerstown Bed. — ^This is locally workable in Butler county. 
 It will be mined to meet the local demand. 
 
 Freeport Upper Coal. — This bed is workable in parts of 
 fifteen counties. It furnishes some excellent coal, is often 
 a superior cooking coal, and in the western counties is al- 
 ways a strong steam and often a good gas coal. A small 
 area of this seam in Clarion county is of a "block'' charac- 
 ter, and the coal has been used raw in a small furnace (10' 
 X 33') to smelt the limestone carbonate ores. This bed 
 ranks third among the productive seams. 
 
 Freeport Lower Coal. — A bed of great importance in Jef- 
 ferson, Indiana, Clearfield, Cambria, Amstrong, Centre, and 
 Allegheny counties, and workable in parts of Beaver, But- 
 ler, Elk, Blair, Cameron, Westmoreland, and Fayette coun- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 937 
 
 ties. It ranks fourth among the productive seams, and will 
 furnish a large supply of good steam, cooking, and gas coals, 
 the character varying with the locality. 
 
 Kittanning Upper Coal. — Nearly all of the cannel coal in 
 Pennsylvania occurs at this horizon. It is the celebrated 
 "Darlington " Bed. The seam often consists partly of can- 
 nel and partly of bituminous coal, but is moat frequently a 
 bituminous seam of fair quality, attaining workable thick- 
 ness in parts of Butler, Armstrong, Somerset, (bed "D,") 
 Beaver, (cannel,) Indiana, Jefferson, Elk, and Lycoming 
 counties. It holds the seventh place among the produc- 
 tive seams. 
 
 Kittanning Middle Coal. — This locally becomes workable 
 in Butler, Lawrence, Jefierson, Armstrong, Elk, Cameron, 
 and Clarion counties. It will furnish probably one half as 
 much coal as the Kittanning Upper bed. 
 
 Kittanning Lower Coal. — In twenty-two counties this bed 
 attains a workable thickness and lies above wat«r-level, 
 favorably situated for mining. The seam lettered "B" in 
 Clinton, Bradford, Lycoming, Tioga, and Sullivan counties 
 has been considered its eastern equivalent, (see Reports H 
 H H H, ff and H^ showing "B" =Lower Kittanning 
 coal.) Along the Allegheny escarpment it is an excellent 
 cooking coal, and in the western counties often a good gas 
 coal, and always a strong steam coal. In point of produc- 
 tion it probably ranks second only to the Pittsburg bed ; 
 but the Freeport Upper coal may possibly equal or slightly 
 exceed it in the amount of easily accessible coal. It avera- 
 ges from two to four feet in the western, and from three to 
 six feet in the eastern counties. 
 
 Clarion Bed. — This is formed in two sub-divisions in some 
 of the western counties, its upper split being known as the 
 "Scrub-grass" coal, (see Reports V, VV, QQ, QQQ.) Its 
 output will probably be applied almost exclusively to satis- 
 fy the local demand It sometimes furnishes coal of excel- 
 lent quality, but the bed is usually quite thin. 
 
 Brookville Bed. — -Bed " A " of the Allegheny escarpment 
 counties. It will be about equally productive with the Kit- 
 tanning Upper seam, but often furnishes a very sulphurous 
 fuel. 
 
 Cong'lomerate Series. — Mercer Coals. — The Mercer 
 upper and lower coals are workable over limited areas in 
 Lawrence, Jefferson, McKean, Elk, Mercer, Venango, and 
 Forest (?) counties. Excepting in McKean, where their 
 proximity to market enhances their value, and in Mercer 
 county, where they attain their best development, they are 
 of little importance. In Elk and Jefferson they will yield a 
 considerable tonnage, but in the latter county at least this 
 will be applied almost exclusively to meet the local demand. 
 Quakertown Coal. — Workable over a small area in Mercer 
 county. 
 
 Sharon Coal. — In Mercer county this is a bed of great 
 value, but its available area will be exhausted in the near 
 future. This horizon will furnish a small amount of coal in 
 Crawford and Warren counties, but in the latter county it is 
 thin and of inferior quality. Its available tonnage has been 
 estimated on a most liberal basis. 
 
 Area. — -The area actually covered by the bituminous coal 
 measures in Pennsylvania is about 9000 square miles. The 
 Upper Productive series extend over but a small fractional 
 portion of this area ; the barren measures cover a consider- 
 able area, hiding beneath a thick covering large areas of the 
 coals of the Lower Productive measures, otherwise easily 
 accessible. The limits adopted in making these estimates 
 necessarily compel the exclusion of many such areas in com- 
 puting the available coal. 
 
 Estimates in detail for each county are given in the fol- 
 lowing tables in alphabetical order. It may appear that in 
 many cases very small areas are assigned to persistent seams 
 occurring over large areas. The explanation of this will be 
 found in the impure or variable character of the bed, or its 
 depth beneath water-level or beneath superimposed mea- 
 sures over a portion of the area. The casual observer is apt 
 to form a favorable opinion of the quality, thickness, and 
 regularity of coal seams not warranted by the actual facts. 
 Finding several banks working on the same bed at different 
 localities in a county or township, at all of which the bed 
 is of fair quality and thickness, he is naturally led to infer 
 that the seam will be found of equal value over the area he 
 has examined ; but he has perhaps, had no opportunity of 
 
 examining an equal or greater number of trial openings, at 
 which the bed was found to be -worthless, for these have all 
 been abandoned, have fallen shut, and the openings are 
 almost obliterated. Unless this fact is kept constantly in 
 view, and the variable nature of most of our bituminous 
 coals (especially the smaller seams), thoroughly appreciated, 
 estimates based on bed measurements made at working 
 hanks will almost invariably be found to exaggerate the 
 true amount of available coal of marketable quality. 
 
 Allegheuy County. 
 
 Name of bed. 
 
 Redstone 
 
 Pittsburg 
 
 ■Lower Productive coals. 
 
 Average 
 
 Coal 
 thickness. 
 
 2' 
 W 
 
 Acres. 
 
 32,000 
 112,000 
 80,000 
 
 Tons. 
 
 96,000,000 
 
 1,680,000,000 
 
 720,000,000 
 
 2,496,000,000 
 
 Sq.nil 
 Iftthu 
 
 niJes 
 thick 
 
 100 
 
 1,760 
 
 760 
 
 2,600 
 
 Armstrong Connty. 
 
 Barren Measures . 
 Freeport, Upper . . 
 Freeport, Lower . . 
 Kittanning, Upper . 
 Kittanning, Middle . 
 Kittanning, Lower . 
 
 Clarion coal 
 
 Brookville . . 
 
 Total 
 
 1^' 
 
 6,400 
 
 24,000,000 
 
 128,000 
 
 768,000,000 
 
 3' 
 
 48,000 
 
 216,000,000 
 
 3' 
 
 64,000 
 
 288,000,000 
 
 3' 
 
 32,000 
 
 144,000,000 
 
 3' 
 
 80,000 
 
 360,000,000 
 
 'i^' 
 
 12,800 
 
 48,000,000 
 
 6,400 
 
 24,00,0000 
 
 1,872,000,000 
 
 25 
 800 
 225 
 300 
 160 
 375 
 60 
 25 
 
 1,960 
 
 Beaver Coauty. 
 
 Pittsburg bed 
 Brush Creek . . . 
 Freeport, Upper. . 
 Freeport, Lower . 
 Kittanning, Upper . 
 Kittanning, Lower . 
 Clarion coal 
 
 Total . 
 
 3' 
 3' 
 2M' 
 
 800 
 16,000 
 35,200 
 12,800 
 64,000 
 51,200 
 6,400 
 
 9,600,000 
 72,000,000 
 158,400,000 
 48,000,000 
 192,000,000 
 163,600,000 
 19,200,000 
 
 652,800,000 
 
 10 
 
 75 
 165 
 
 50 
 200 
 160 
 
 20 
 
 Blair County* 
 
 Freeport, Upper 
 Freeport, Lower . 
 Kittanning, Lower . 
 Brookville 
 
 Total 
 
 4' 
 2' 
 
 ^%' 
 i' 
 
 3,200 
 3,200 
 4,800 
 6,400 
 
 19,200,000 
 
 9,600,000 
 
 25,200,000 
 
 38,400,000 
 
 92,400,000 
 
 20 
 10 
 26 
 40 
 
 Bradford County. 
 
 Kittanning, Lower (" B ") 
 Brookville, (Bed "A" ... 
 
 Total . 
 
 4,480 
 6,400 
 
 26,900,000 
 19,200 000 
 
 46,100,000 
 
 Butler County. 
 
 Lower Barrens . . . 
 Millerstown bed . . 
 Freeport, Upper . . . 
 Freeport, Lower . . 
 Kittanning, Upper . 
 Kittanning, Middle . 
 Kittanning, Lower . 
 
 Clarion 
 
 Brookville . . . . 
 
 Total 
 
 3' 
 3' 
 i' 
 6' 
 3' 
 3' 
 3' 
 2' 
 3' 
 
 48,000 
 6,400 
 70,400 
 3,^200 
 83,200 
 44,800 
 32,000 
 48,000 
 32,000 
 
 216,000, 
 28,800, 
 
 422,400. 
 28,800 
 
 374,400 
 
 201,600; 
 
 144,000, 
 
 144,000. 
 
 144,0O0; 
 
 1,704,000,000 
 
 225 
 
 30 
 
 440 
 
 30 
 
 390 
 
 r210 
 
 150 
 
 150 
 
 150 
 
 1,775 
 
 Camttrla County. 
 
 F/eeport, Upper 
 
 Freeport, Lower 
 
 Kittanning, Lower (" B "). 
 Brookville, (" A") 
 
 Total 
 
 2k 
 3k' 
 
 89,fiOO 
 
 64,000 
 
 128,flOO 
 
 83,200 
 
 470,400,000 
 240,000,000 
 672,000,000 
 374,400,000 
 
 1,756,800,000 
 
 490 
 260 
 700 
 390 
 
 Cameron County. 
 
 Kittanning, Middle . 
 Kittanning, Lower . 
 Brookville bed . . . 
 
 3,200 
 9,600 
 16,000 
 
 14,400,000 
 43,200,000 
 72,000.000 
 
 129,600,000 
 
 15 
 45 
 
 76 
 
938 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Centre County-. 
 
 Name of Bed. 
 
 Freeport, Upper . 
 f reeport. Lower . 
 Kittanning, Lower 
 BrookviUe bed . . 
 
 Total 
 
 Averane 
 
 coat 
 thickness 
 
 i' 
 4' 
 
 3 
 
 Acres. 
 
 12,800 
 32,000 
 61,200 
 44,800 
 
 Tons. 
 
 76,800,000 
 192,000,000 
 345,600,000 
 134,400,000 
 
 748,800,000 
 
 Sq. miles 
 1ft. thick 
 
 80 
 200 
 360 
 210 
 
 Clarion County* 
 
 Freeport, Upper . . 
 Freeport, Lower . . 
 Kittanning, Middle 
 Kittanning, Lower . 
 Clarion , , . 
 Brookville 
 
 Total 
 
 3W 
 
 3,200 
 
 / 
 
 3,200 
 
 2' 
 
 25,600 
 
 3' 
 
 96,000 
 
 2' 
 
 32,000 
 
 m' 
 
 12,800 
 
 
 
 Clearfield County. 
 
 Freeport, Upper . . 
 Freeport, Lower . . 
 Kittanning, Lower . 
 Brookville 
 
 Total 
 
 4' 
 4' 
 
 22,666 
 64,000 
 89,600 
 64,000 
 
 133,600,000 
 384,000,000 
 604,800,000 
 288,000,000 
 
 1,410,400,000 
 
 139 
 400 
 630 
 300 
 
 Clinton Connty. 
 
 Kittanning, Lower, (" B") 
 Brookville, (" A ") 
 
 Total 
 
 9,600 
 6,400 
 
 43,200,000 
 19,200,000 
 
 62,400,000 65 
 
 45 
 20 
 
 Cra-wTord County. 
 
 Sharon Horizon . 
 
 14 400,000 
 
 Xjlk County. 
 
 Freeport, Upper . . . 
 Freeport, Lower . . 
 Kittanning, Upper . 
 Kittanning, Middle . 
 Kittanning, Lower . 
 
 Clarion 
 
 Mercer coals 
 
 Total 913,800,000 
 
 6' 
 6' 
 
 3,200 
 6,400 
 
 2U' 
 
 2' 
 3' 
 
 16,000 
 
 28,000 
 48,000 
 67,600 
 64,000 
 
 
 
 24,000,000 
 48,000,000 
 60,000,000 
 105,000,000 
 216,000,000 
 172,800,000 
 288,000,000 
 
 25 
 
 60 
 
 62U 
 112^ 
 226 
 180 
 300 
 
 955 
 
 Forest County. 
 
 Sharon and Mercer Horizons ? . . . 
 
 2' 
 
 1,280? 
 
 3,800,000? 
 
 4? 
 
 Fayette County. 
 
 Upper Barrens . 
 
 waynesburg 
 
 Uniontown . . , . 
 
 Sewieiiley 
 
 Bedstone ........ 
 
 Pittsburg ■ . . 
 
 Lower Productive beds. 
 
 Totals 4,574,400,000 
 
 3' 
 
 25,600 
 
 y 
 
 36,200 
 
 3' 
 
 48,000 
 
 3' 
 
 48,000 
 
 3' 
 
 - 25,600 
 
 12' 
 
 160;00o 
 
 4' 
 
 128,000 
 
 
 
 116,200,000 
 264,000,000 
 216,000.000 
 216,000,000 
 115,200.000 
 2,880,000,000 
 768,000,000 
 
 120 
 275 
 225 
 226 
 120 
 3,000 
 800 
 
 4,766 
 
 Greene County. 
 
 Waynesbarg 
 Uniontown . 
 Sewiokley . . . 
 Pittsburg . . 
 
 Total 
 
 6' 
 2' 
 
 160,000 
 32,000 
 48,000 
 96,000 
 
 1,200,000,000 
 
 96,000,000 
 
 216,000,000 
 
 1,162,000,000 
 
 2,664,000,000 
 
 1,260 
 100 
 226 
 
 1,200 
 
 2,775 
 
 Indiana County. 
 
 Pittsburgbed 
 
 Barren Measures .... 
 Freeport, Upper .... 
 Freeport, Lower .... 
 Kittanning Upper . . . 
 Kittanning, Lower, ("B" 
 Brookville 
 
 Total . 
 
 4' 
 
 2' 
 3' 
 2H' 
 
 12,800 
 32,000 
 192,000 
 64,000 
 32,000 
 64,000 
 19,200 
 
 144,000,000 
 
 160 
 
 192,000,000 
 
 ZOO 
 
 1,152,000,000 
 
 1,200 
 
 240 000,000 
 
 260 
 
 96,000,000 
 
 100 
 
 288,000,000 
 
 300 
 
 72,000,000 
 
 76 
 
 2,184,000,000 
 
 2,276 
 
 Jefferson County. 
 
 Name of Bed. 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 Coat 
 thickness 
 
 3' 
 4' 
 3' 
 3' 
 2' 
 3' 
 3' 
 
 Acree. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Sq. miles 
 Iftthiclc 
 
 Freeport Upper . . . 
 Freeport, Lower . . 
 Kittaoning, Upper. . 
 Kittanning, Middle . 
 Kittanning, Lower . 
 
 • • 
 
 
 
 48,000 
 160,000 
 19,200 
 16,000 
 80,000 
 44,800 
 48,000 
 
 216,000,000 
 960,000,000 
 86,400,000 
 72,000,000 
 240,600,000 
 201,000,000 
 216,000,000 
 
 225 
 
 1,000 
 
 90 
 
 76 
 
 250 
 
 Mercer coals 
 
 
 
 
 225 
 
 Total 
 
 1,992,000,000 
 
 2,085 
 
 
 
 
 Ija-vrrence County. 
 
 Kittanning, Middle 
 
 Kittanning, Lower 
 
 Clarion 
 
 3' 
 2' 
 2' 
 3' 
 2' 
 
 48,000 
 
 32,000 
 
 12,800 
 
 6,400 
 
 6,400 
 
 216,000,000 
 96,000,000 
 38,400,000 
 28,800,000 
 19,200,000 
 
 225 
 100 
 40 
 
 Mercer, Upper 
 
 Mercer, Lower 
 
 30 
 20 
 
 Total 
 
 398,400,000 
 
 416 
 
 
 
 
 
 liycoming County. 
 
 
 
 Kittanning, Upper (" D ") 
 
 Kittanning, Lower (" B ") .... 
 
 4' 
 
 3,200 
 6,400 
 
 19,200,000 
 33,600,000 
 
 20 
 36 
 
 Total 
 
 52,800,000 
 
 56 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mercer County. 
 
 Kittanning, Lower . 
 
 Clarion 
 
 Mercer, Upper . 
 Mercer, Lower . . , 
 Qiiakertown . . . 
 ^laroa 
 
 Total 
 
 2K' 
 
 ff 
 
 2' 
 3' 
 
 3,200 
 16,000 
 25,600 
 64,000 
 19,200 
 
 3,200 
 
 12,000,000 
 72,000,000 
 96,000,000 
 240,000,000 
 57,600,000 
 14,400,000 
 
 492,000,000 
 
 100 
 250 
 
 60 
 
 MM 
 
 613 
 
 McKean County. 
 
 Clarion coal . 
 Mercer coals . 
 
 Total 
 
 3,200 
 9,600 
 
 14,400,000 
 28,800,000 
 
 43,200,000 
 
 16 
 30 
 
 45 
 
 Potter County. 
 
 Kittanning, Lower (" B ") 
 Brookville (" A ") 
 
 Total 
 
 3,200 
 3,200 
 
 14,400,(^00 
 9,600,000 
 
 24,000,000 
 
 15 
 10 
 
 Sullivan County. ^ 
 
 Kittanning, Lower (" B ") . 
 
 2,560 11,520,000 12 
 
 Somerset County. 
 
 Pittsburg 
 
 Lower Barrens 
 
 Freeport, Upper 
 
 Kittanning, Upper (" D ") . 
 Kittanning, Lower (" B ") 
 Brookville (" A ") . . 
 
 Total . 
 
 4' 
 4' 
 
 3' 
 
 (Piatt) 
 41,600 
 61,200 
 80,000 
 64,000 
 61,000 
 
 42,000,000 
 374,400,000 
 307,200,000 
 480,000,000 
 336,000,000 
 230,400,000 
 
 1,770,000,000 
 
 44 
 
 390 
 320 
 600 
 850 
 240 
 
 1,844 
 
 
 Tioga County. 
 
 
 
 Kittanning, Lower (" B ") 
 
 Brookville (" A ") 
 
 6' 
 3' 
 
 12,800 
 3,200 
 
 116,200,000 
 14,400,000 
 
 120 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 129,600,000 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 Venango County. 
 
 Kittanning, Lower . 
 
 Clarion 
 
 Brookville 
 
 Mercer coals . . . . 
 
 Total 
 
 2' 
 
 3,200 
 6,400 
 3,200 
 3,200 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 19,200,000 
 
 9,600,000 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 62,800,000 
 
 12>i 
 20 
 10 
 12K 
 
 • Anthracite coal. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 939 
 
 
 IVasliliigtoii Con 
 
 ixkty. 
 
 
 
 
 6' 
 
 Its' : ■ 
 
 672,000,000 
 
 676,000,000 
 
 2,880,000,000 
 
 700 
 
 Waynesburg 
 
 Pittsburg . , . ^ 
 
 600 
 3,000 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 t,128,000,000 
 
 4,300 
 
 'Westmoreland County. 
 
 Waynesburg 
 
 Redstone 
 
 Pittsburg 
 
 Lower Productive ooala 
 
 3' 
 3' 
 
 8' 
 4' 
 
 19,200 
 26,600 
 137,600 
 96,000 
 
 86,400,000 
 
 115,200,000 
 
 1,651,200,000 
 
 676,000,000 
 
 90 
 
 120 
 
 1,720 
 
 600 
 
 Total 
 
 2,428,800,000 
 
 2,630 
 
 
 
 
 
 "Warren Connty. 
 
 Sharon Horizon . 
 
 3,200 
 
 9,600,000 
 
 The reports already published by the Second Geological 
 Survey of Pennsylvania, descriptive of the bituminous coal 
 area, now number twenty-one octavo volumes, besides two 
 volumes and one atlas on the fossil flora of the coal meas- 
 ures, .and a special volume on the coke industry of the 
 Youghiogheny. Nearly all of these reports are illustrated 
 by geologically colored county maps on a scale of two miles 
 to one inch. Besides this series of maps, there is another 
 series now in preparation on a scale of six miles to one 
 inch, which, when completed, will be published in atlas 
 form. At some time in the near future it is my intention to 
 construct from these maps an accurately colored map of the 
 bituminous coal area. I had hoped to illustrate this paper 
 with such a map, drawn and colored to show the relative 
 areas of the principal productive horizons, but as the maps 
 of Cambria, Someraet, Clearfield, and Centre counties are 
 not yet completed, I have thought best to wait until all of 
 these are finished and approved by the State geologist. 
 The estimates of areas and tonnage in these four counties 
 probably contain larger errors than any of the remaining 
 districts, as it is impossible in the absence of the geologi- 
 cally colored maps to accurately limit the productive areas. 
 
 The tables showing the county tonnage develop the fact 
 that each county contains an average of but four or five ac- 
 cessible seams of commercial importance. 
 
 Two counties contain nine important seams. 
 
 Two counties contain eight important seams. 
 
 Four counties contain seven important seams. 
 
 Two counties contain six important seams. 
 .Two counties contain five important seams. 
 
 Seven counties contain four important seams. 
 
 Two counties contain three important seams. 
 
 Seven counties contain two important seams. 
 
 Three counties contain one important seam. 
 
 If the counties are tabulated according to their available 
 tonnage we find Fayette standing at the head, followed by 
 Washington, Greene, Allegheny, Westmoreland, Indiana, 
 Jefferson, Armstrong, Somerset, Cambria, Butler, Clearfield, 
 etc., but we must not lose sight of the fact that this may not 
 be the order in which they stand in reference to their pres- 
 ent value and importance as coal-producing areas. Mr. Jo- 
 seph S. Harris, in his able report on the Philadelphia and 
 Heading Coal and Iron Company's property, has clearly 
 shown that the present money value of any coal area depends 
 largely upon the time at which development is commenced, 
 the time elapsing before its maximum output is reached, 
 and the time occupied in exhausting the tract, the present 
 money value rapidly decreasing as any one of these variables 
 is increased. The same principle is undoubtedly applicable 
 to the bituminous coal areas. Those areas, so situated that 
 their development can be economically prosecuted at pres- 
 ent or in the near future, possess a much greater relative 
 present value than areas not so favorably situated; thus 
 some of the counties forming the northern rim of the bitu- 
 minous coal area are, because of their proxiniity to the 
 northern markets, and their present development, of much 
 greater present importance as coal producers than centrally 
 located areas containing many times as much available 
 coal. The amount of coal excluded from these estimates 
 on account of poor quality, depth beneath ■ water-level or 
 
 beneath overlying rocks is very great. As these estimates 
 prove the existence of an amount of easily accessible coal 
 of good quality sufficient to supply the demand for several 
 centuries, estimates of the tonnage of these impure seams 
 or inaccessible areas would be of no practical value to the 
 present generation. 
 
 Note. — The coals named after the letters A and B, in Clinton, 
 Lycoming, Tioga, Bradford, and Sullivan counties, have been classed 
 above as Lower Productive coals, binding their equivalents in the 
 Kittanning Lower and Brookville beds. The identification of these 
 latter with beds A and B of the Alleghany mountain escarpment, 
 is shown by Mr. William G. Piatt in Reports H', H». Prof. I. C. 
 White has more lately suggested that the coals of these northeast- 
 ern counties may belong to the Conglomerate series (see report on 
 Susquehanna and Wayne.) As I am not convinced that enough is 
 known about these coals to prove the correctness of Prof. White's 
 suggestion, I have adhered to the old classification. 
 
 A pajier by Dr. H. M. Chance^ Proceedings American ImtilMle Mining Engineers. 
 
 WINDING GEAR FOR MINES AND WIRE 
 ROPE. 
 
 MR. HENRY A. VEZIN, in a paper contributed to 
 the proceedings of the Engineers' Club of Phila- 
 delphia, describes the improved methods of haul- 
 age in use at the Von der Heydt mine, four 
 miles from Saarbriicken, Rhenish Prussia, where two sys- 
 tems are used. One consists in the use of wire ropes 
 with two engines, one at each end of the road ; the other, 
 in an endless chain drawn by one stationary engine. 
 There are two roads with wire rope, one 5709 feet long, with 
 ropes five-eighths of an inch in diameter, and the other 
 12,368 feet long, with ropes of J-inch diameter. When one 
 engine is hauling the train, the one at the other end un- 
 winds by letting its drum run loose, with the brake slightly 
 set, so as to give its rope, which now acts as tail rope, enough 
 tension to prevent its dragging on the intervening ground 
 between the rollers. The tracks have many curves in the 
 adits, levels, and cross-cuts in which they are laid. The wire 
 ropes are of charcoal iron, the rollers of cast-iron, and 
 these latter are set inclined in the curves to prevent the 
 ropes from jumping out. The train, which consists of 100 
 cars coupled together, each car holding half a ton, is drawn 
 at a velocity of 8 to 11 J feet per second, or 5"5 to 7'8 miles per 
 hour. To each end of a train is coupled an iron guide-car 
 with a device to guide the rope on the rollers, which device 
 is only in use on the car at the rear of the train. If the 
 loaded cars are brought to the end of the track- in the mine 
 without delay, and if they are unloaded promptly at the 
 other end, 25 trains, carrying 1250 tons of coal, can be 
 hauled out in 10 working hours on the shorter line, and 15 
 trains, or 750 tons, on the longer one. A conductor accom- 
 panies, each train. The levels and adits passed through are 
 provided with a telegraph cable, in which at every 1000 feet 
 an apparatus for breaking the circuit is inserted. By pulling 
 vigorously at the cable, the conductor can transmit signals, 
 even when the train is running at full speed. These roads 
 have been in operation for 20 years. Upon the arrival of a 
 train at the mouth of the adit, the cars are pushed singly 
 under the chains of two chain tramways. The length of 
 each of these is 1738^ feet, and each has a curve of 479 feet 
 radius, forming an arcof 168 degrees. Sharper curves can 
 not be passed without releasing the car from the chain, as 
 described below. The cars are placed at intervals of about 
 50 feet, and serve as supports for the chain rendering rollers 
 between the rails of the tracks unnecessary. The chain 
 rests in forks which are riveted to one end of each car. 
 These roads have been in use since 1872. The iron of the 
 chains was originally | inch in diameter, and has been worn 
 down to J inch. The principal chain tramway is in the 
 Burbach adit, and delivers the coal to the same shipping- 
 point as those described above. The cars are hauled by 
 horses to the underground terminus. The length of the 
 road is 5773 feet, consisting of "two straight lines connected 
 by a curve of 81-4 feet radius, forming an arc of 103 degrees. 
 To pass this curve, the chain draws the cars up an incline, 
 
940 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS aNJD MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 beyond the summit of which it passes around a guide-pulley 
 placed so high as to release the cars. This point of release 
 is the beginning of the curve, laid on a grade, down which 
 the cars run by gravity to take their places automatically 
 under the chain in the new direction. The cars are about 
 50 feet apart, as in the former case, so that 80 to 85 loaded 
 ones and the same number of returning empty ones are 
 always under the chain. It rests on the coal or on the edge 
 of the car, its weight being sufficient to prevent slipping, so 
 that forks are unnecessary. Each car holds i ton. This 
 tramway, in October, 1880, had been working uninter- 
 ruptedly since September, 1874, with a capacity of from 400 
 to 500 tons in ten working hours. It could easily, at its 
 regular speed of 4.1 feet per second, or 2.8 miles per hour, 
 deliver 1250 tons in the same time. The chain is made of 
 iron four-fifths inch in diameter. The inside length of each 
 link, or the pitch of the chain, is 3 inches. The chain is 
 wound 1} times around the driving-dnim, which is covered 
 with wood with a conical hollowed surface, on which the 
 chain slips sideways as it is wound on the one side and off on 
 the other. This wooden lagging cost $25, and lasts over a 
 year before having to be turned off. The original lagging 
 (of oak) was still in use in October, 1880. A cast-iron 
 chain wheel-sleeve would cost $75 to $100, and wear out in 
 four months, and would have the objection that its teeth 
 would not accommodate themselves to the increased length 
 of links or pitch resulting from wear. The grain of the 
 wood is not placed radially, as it would become too smooth, 
 but as nearly as possible with the circumference. The chain 
 showed very slight signs of wear. It sustains a tension of 
 two tons. The driving-engine, placed near the mouth of 
 the adit, is connected with the drum by gearing, and is said 
 to work with seven indicated horse-power. The drum is four 
 to five feet in diameter. The same method of driving is 
 used on the two short tramways. At the Burbach adit 
 tramway, the cars, just before being released, are drawn up 
 a slight incline and then run by gravity down a short curve 
 and over a bridge to the shipping point. 
 
 The road with wire rope, as well as those with chains, are 
 horizontal. The chief-engineer assured me that there would 
 be no difficulty in overcoming grades of 14 to 15 degrees 
 (25 feet to 28-8 feet per 100) without the use of forks on the 
 cars, though it might be necessary to have the chain rather 
 heavier than the four-fifth inch one. 
 
 Total Cost of Hauling Per Ton per 100 Feet. 
 
 By horses, 1-5 cents. 
 
 
 Tramways with Wihe Eopb . 
 
 Tramways with Chains. 
 
 
 Length, 6709 ft. 
 
 Length, 12,368 ft. 
 
 Length, 1738 ft. 
 (above ground.) 
 
 Length, 5773 ft. 
 (inBurbaohadit. 
 
 Yeab. 
 
 §1 
 
 s 
 
 . 
 
 "1 
 
 . 
 
 
 , 
 
 •^3 
 
 , 
 
 1872 . 
 
 Tons. 
 292,956 
 205,.317 
 230,152 
 
 Cti. 
 0.68 
 0.48 
 0.29 
 
 Tons. 
 11-2,880-0 
 20,278-0 
 99,62S-5 
 
 Cts. 
 0-62 
 0-62 
 0-37 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Cts. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Cts. 
 
 1876. 
 1879 . 
 
 287,0.57 
 330,001 
 
 0-71 
 0-« ' 
 
 116,671 
 119,987 
 
 0-29 
 22 
 
 That is to say, hauling with horses would have coat seven 
 times as much in the Burbach adit as it did by chain in 
 1879. 
 
 Improved Winding Gear for Mines, etc.— Impor- 
 tant improvements have recently been introduced by Mr. 
 John Craven, of Wakefield, England, in the form and ar- 
 rangement of winding gear for mines, the improvement 
 consisting mainly in obviating the necessity of coiling ropes 
 round the drums usually employed, and so removing the 
 danger and expense arising from the great wear and fre- 
 quent injury of the ropes by one coil chafing against the 
 other. In order to effect these objects, the inventor em- 
 ploys a single winding rope, an upper set of grooved head- 
 gear pulleys, and a lower set of grooved winding pulleys, 
 each consisting of two pulleys and an intermediate grooved 
 pulley between the two sets. The rope is attached at one 
 
 end to one of the cages, passes over one of the headgear 
 pulleys, under one of the winding pulleys (to which the 
 motive power is applied), and back over the intermediate 
 pulley, and then under the other winding pulley, and thence 
 over the other headgear to the other cage, to which the end 
 of the rope is attached. This arrangement is designed to 
 give greater durability to the rope, and to obviate all ten- 
 dency to slipping of the rope, as in proportion as the weight 
 of the load is increased the adhesion of the rope is aug- 
 mented. The bearings of the intermediate pulley may be 
 carried in a movable frame, either inclined or otherwise, so 
 as to admit of the pulley being adjusted as required, in order 
 to maintain the rope taut. The following specific advan- 
 tages are claimed for the invention : No chafing of rope as 
 in the ordinary system of drum, so that the ropes last longer; 
 reduction of work for the engine to do in starting ; reduction 
 of strain upon the engine, &c., in stopping; speed, instead 
 of being obtained by a large diameter of drum, is got from 
 the engine running quickly; a smaller engine is required 
 than with ordinary gear, owing to the comparative lightness 
 of the winding pulley ; the winding pulleys have only one 
 groove each, and are of very small weight, comparatively ; 
 saving in first cost, the engine house being much narrower, 
 and only one rope required instead of two ; great adhesion, 
 no slip occurring between the rope and the pulleys. 
 
 Iron Age. 
 
 The Preservation of Mining Steel Wire Ropes. — 
 
 Complaints are constantly made as to the rapid wear and 
 tear of steel wire ropes used for winding at mines, and this 
 cannot be said to be owing so much to the quality of the 
 material as to the sudden checking of the movements by 
 the use of friction clips when there is a heavy strain upon 
 the ropes. If checked by friction, the rope is liable to heat 
 or tear, or if not allowed to slip at all, to snap off. Now, 
 steel wire ropes are costly things, and should be made to 
 last as long as it is possible for them to do, without giving 
 way or breaking, and how this can be best effected has long 
 been a momentous matter for the consideration of mine 
 owners and mechanical engineers. But no system has been 
 brought forward or adopted until recently by which the full 
 value of a rope can be obtained, and the fraying and break- 
 ing of the strands effectually prevented. An invention, 
 however, has recently been patented in London, and is 
 described in the Mining Journal, which promises to be of 
 considerable value. The invention is patented by Mr. E. B. 
 Jones, of the firm of Garnock, Bibby & Co., of Liverpool, 
 and James Hughes, an employee of the firm, and relates to 
 improvements to clips, stoppers, or brakes for steel wire and 
 other ropes, being also applicable as winches or for hauling 
 purposes, so that a brief notice of the invention must be of 
 more than ordinary interest to those daily using metallic 
 ropes. The invention is designed to check the rope whilst 
 working, without any of the severe punishment caused by 
 hard compression or attrition, and without sensible wearing 
 friction on the rope. For this purpose a brake is fixed, not 
 the rope itself but on mechanism connected with V-puUeys, 
 round which the rope is twined forming a figure of eight. 
 The friction on the pulleys is so great by reason of the turn 
 round each pulley given to the rope that no appreciable 
 relative motion can take place between the pulleys and the 
 rope. As a brake, however, is applied on the axles of the 
 pulleys, or rather on brake wheels on these or on one of the 
 axles, whatever friction is expended on stopping the rope is 
 spent on the brake-block or the belt and brake-wheel and 
 not on the rope. The apparatus is simple and effectual. 
 Upon the overhanging ends of two shafts having bearings 
 in a stout frame four pulleys are placed, two on each shaft, 
 which are connected by spur gearing. On the other ends of 
 the shafts are placed two brake-wheels with a single brake- 
 strap, so arranged that a man, by means of a lever, can put 
 a sufficiently powerful strain on the brake-strap so as to give 
 the brake the requisite power. 
 
 Upon one of the shafts is a worm wheel, or first wheel of 
 other train of gearing, and a clutch, so arranged that the 
 gearing can be thrown into gear with the shaft at a moment's 
 notice and be thrown out again, and the gearing can be 
 worked either by hand or power. In operation the rope is 
 passed from a reel through a guiding eye on to one of the 
 other pulleys ; it passes round that, then round the other 
 outer pulley the opposite way, then round the opposite inner 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 941 
 
 pulley, the direction being the same as in the first instance ; 
 and, lastly, it goes round the remaining pulley in the same 
 direction as round its companion second pulley. The brake 
 can be applied gradually or suddenly without any more 
 friction or severe compression on the rope. By putting the 
 clutch into gear the apparatus becomes a winch, and, the 
 brake being thrown out of action, the rope hauled in. In 
 lowering heavy weights the brake can be applied, the clutch 
 thrown out of gear, and the descent regulated with the 
 greatest nicety by hand pressure on the brake lever. The 
 apparatus is no more severe on the rope when the brake is 
 applied than at other times, excepting, of course, the in- 
 creased tensile strain necessarily entailed when the lowering 
 of a heavy weight is checked, and whilst in other winding 
 apparatus there is the riding of one turn over the other to 
 the great injury of the rope, in the Jones and Hughes ap- 
 paratus the drum can be coiled to any depth but no turn 
 rides on the other under pressure from the strain of the work 
 performed. The apparatus can also be used merely as a 
 stopper or brake, or a winch, as they may be desired ; so if 
 the winch be not required the spur wheels and winch need 
 not be added, and it becomes a simple stopper. This simple 
 machinery, so admirably adapted for clipping, stopping, haul- 
 ing, or braking still wire ropes, and can be so eauily arranged 
 as to make a complete winch or stopper, should commend 
 itself to mine owners as well calculated to preserve the ropes 
 for winding, and so obtain from them a much larger amount 
 of work than is now the case. 
 
 Testing' 'Wii-e Bopes. — At the royal colliery of 
 Friederichsthal, near Saarbrueeken, a press has been erected 
 for the purpose of testing wire ropes used for mining pur- 
 poses. The cylinder of the press is supported by cast-iron 
 standards, giving a clear vertical working space of about 1 
 meter between the fixed and movable clamps by which the 
 test pieces are held. The latter is upon a crosshead parallel 
 to a second one above the ram, the two being connected by 
 side rods. The length of stroke and diameter of the ram 
 are both 300 mm., and its effective surface is 707 square cm., 
 which at the highest pressure of 200 atmospheres corres- 
 ponds to a pull of 141.4 tons. The sides of the press cylinder 
 are 100 mm., and the bottom 150 mm., thick ; the side rods 
 connecting the two crossheads are 90 mm. in diameter. The 
 experiments described were made upon three ropes that had 
 been laid aside after use. The first was a round steel 
 rope of 28 mm. in diameter, with seven strands of seven 
 wires each, and a hempen core of 10 mm. diameter. The 
 total section of the wires was 250 square mm., and the ten- 
 sile strength when new was guaranteed to be 28.2 tons by 
 the maker, and proved to be 31.8 tons on trial. As it had 
 been exposed to the air for some time, it was considerably 
 and rather unequally rusted. The second rope, also of round 
 steel, was 29 mm. in diameter, with six strands each of eleven 
 wires 1.65 mm., upon a core of seven (one of 1.65 mm. and 
 six of 1.45 mm.) ; the whole having a hempen core of 12 
 mm. The total section, apart from the six thicker core 
 wires, was 200 square mm., and the tensile strength 21.89 
 tons guaranteed, and 26.63 tons actual. This was much 
 better preserved than the preceding one, and the results ob- 
 tained are considered as more accurate. The third rope was 
 a flat one of cast steel wire, 60 mm. broad and 13 mm. thick, 
 made up of six round ropes, each having strands of six 1.45 
 mm. wires and a hempen core of 2 mm., the section of the 
 metal being 238 square mm. When new, the tensile strength 
 guaranteed was 25 tons. There being no means of applying 
 the press to the lifting of heavy loads of known weights, 
 the loss due to Motion produced by the hydraulic packing 
 leather could not be directly observed, and was therefore 
 calculated by Reuleaux's formula : 
 
 r 1 
 
 — = — where F is the fi:iction of the ram, D, the diameter 
 P D 
 
 of the ram, and P, the load upon it. 
 
 Moreover, if p = pressure per square cm. = 1.033 observed 
 gauge pressure in atmospheres ; p^ = weight of ram and at- 
 tached moving parts ; q = section of ram ; s = eflective strain 
 on the rope ; 
 
 qp y 
 
 V = qpF= 
 
 D D 
 
 i=p q — p^ 
 
 pq 
 
 P' 
 
 D-1 
 
 = Pi- 
 
 D— 1 
 
 -pi= 
 
 D D I D D 
 
 D-1 
 
 pq — 0, from which the following expression was ob- 
 
 D 
 taiaed : 
 
 js = 727.75 a — C, 
 Giving the actual strain on the rope from the observed 
 gauge pressure in atmospheres a. C is a constant whose 
 average value varied with the weight of the moving parts 
 from 1375 to 1435 kg. The object of the experiments was to 
 determine the value of different methods in use for attach- 
 ing ropes to the drawing cages. These were : 1. Baumann's 
 method, in which the end of the rope is fixed in a conical 
 box by three wedges, the train being uniformly distributed 
 by a hard metal packing, whose surface is accurately molded 
 to that of the rope. 2. Similar method, but without protect- 
 ing casing between the rope and the faces of the wedges, 
 which are rough and hardened. 3. The ends of the wire 
 were untwisted so as to nearly fill the conical box, and se- 
 cured by an annular wedge. 4. Like No. 3, with the end 
 secured by a conical plug. 5. Similar to 3 and 4, the joints 
 being made by running in lead, zinc or hard composition 
 metal. 6. End turned into a loop and secured by pairs of 
 iron rings, driven home by blows upon an anvil ; length of 
 point 700 mm. 7. Loop with ends secured by three clamps 
 with two bolts to each ; length of joint, 500 mm. 8. Loop 
 with three clamps, having four bolts to each ; length of joint 
 600 mm. 
 
 Foiiening. 
 
 Breaking Sfrain. 
 
 Flat rope. 
 
 
 Round rope 
 of 28 mm. 
 
 Round rope 
 of 24 mm. 
 
 
 Roughened vice jaws . . 
 Clamp, No. I . 
 
 Clamp, No. II 
 
 Ring wedge, No. Ill 
 
 Plug, No. IV 
 
 Leafl joint. No. V 
 
 Zinc Joint, No. V 
 
 Hd. met. jut., No. V 
 
 Loop, No. VI- ... 
 
 Loop, No. VH . 
 
 Loop, No.VIir 
 
 Tons. 
 28.3—28.8 
 
 27.7 
 23.3—25.5 
 15.7—16.4 
 16.8—24.8 
 12.1—16.1 
 19.3—24.1 
 24.4—25.9 
 10.2—11.3 
 15.3-27.7 
 19.7—27.7 
 
 Tom. 
 24.1—24.6 
 
 241 
 22.6—23.4 
 6.6—12.8 
 15.0—22.6 
 12.1—18.3 
 20.1—23.0 
 23.0—23.4 
 16.8—17.9 
 13.8—22.9 
 15.3—23.7 
 
 Ton: 
 29.7 
 
 ifflil— 30.3 ' 
 
 6!2' 
 
 28.5—29.2 
 
 17.5 
 
 24!8-^29.'5 ' 
 29.1—30.2 
 
 The variations in the above figure are caused by the 
 rope slipping in the holder before the actual breaking strain 
 was reached. This was especially the case with the lead 
 joint No. 5, where the soft metal was invariably compressed 
 and the rope was pulled out of the joint. Better results 
 were obtained with zinc and hard metal, but the individual 
 differences show that the metal must be cast at a high tem- 
 perature to make a proper joint, when the wire is likely to 
 be overheated, whereby its tenacity is diminished. Fasten- 
 ing No. 1 gave the best results, the strength of the joint 
 being almost equal to that of the rope. The method of se- 
 curing an eye with rings driven on proved thoroughly worth- 
 less, as the rings invariably slipped at a low strain. 
 
 Iron Age. 
 
 The Strength of Wire Ropes. — Among the different 
 subjects upon which attention was bestowed by the French 
 commission appointed in 1878 to invi;stigate the causes of 
 accidents in mines, the strength of wire ropes was not the 
 least important. The report of the commission on this sub- 
 ject was recently published under the auspices of the Gov- 
 ernment, and constitutes an elaborate document, covering 
 not only researches made in France, but giving observations 
 made in England, Belgium and Germany. New iron wire 
 ropes, during the first days of their use, stretch from 1 to 2 
 per cent., and when nearly worn out they undergo slow and 
 continuous elongation. Many engineers and manufacturers 
 profess to have no doubt that by vibration the iron of ropes 
 becomes hard and breaks easier. Other manufacturers have 
 produced the results of tests, which, according to them, 
 prove that the wire of rope which has been in use shows the 
 same tensile strength per unit of section. They freely ac- 
 knowledge that the wires of an old rope have not each the 
 same strength ; but they claim that this is only the result of 
 a decrease in the section due to abiasion and rusting. The 
 results of some experiments submitted do not entirely bear 
 
942 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 out this argument. Thus, a rope consisting of six strands 
 of 18 wires each (having a diameter of 0.0788 in.) was used 
 10 months and twenty days, and during that time had heen 
 hoisted and lowered 54,360 times, drawing 90,509 tons from 
 a depth of 361 feet, and had been wound around the hoist- 
 ing drum 233,235 times. The average result of the tests of 
 the 18 wires of a strand in the new and in the old ropes was 
 as follows : 
 
 Iron wire rope. 
 
 New . 
 Old. 
 
 S 
 
 ■s 
 
 494.5 
 885.8 
 
 
 103,437 
 86.055 
 
 ens'" 
 
 1.036 
 0. 258 
 
 Is 
 
 so, 
 
 0.488 
 0.258 
 
 4 
 
 7.0 
 6.4 
 
 The diminution of the elasticity in the wire of the old 
 rope show.s that the iron has undergone a molecular change. 
 It may be concluded that the tensile strength per square inch 
 is really greater than above given, since rupture generally 
 occurs at the point of smallest section of the wire, and since 
 the sectional area is not uniform throughout its length. 
 The annexed table gives the results of a second set of ex- 
 periments, in which a number of the wires of the new rope 
 were tested a second time, to determine the effect of the 
 previous rupture ; the diameter of the wires was .0709 : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wire rope. 
 
 
 1 
 
 III 
 
 'S fe 
 
 J 
 
 
 '■-ig 
 
 i "^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 *" 
 
 ■s 
 
 l^ 
 
 
 New, first test 
 
 434.7 
 
 113,792 
 
 1.068 
 
 0.46S 
 
 9.0 
 
 New, second test 
 
 437.6 
 
 114,646 
 
 0.670 
 
 0.520 
 
 7.9 
 
 Old 
 
 292.1 
 
 78,232 
 
 0.462 
 
 0.278 
 
 
 In this case the wire was not alone diminished to one- 
 half, but the tensile strength, too, suffered appreciable re- 
 duction, which cannot be attributed as easily to errors in 
 determining the section of the wire. This is shown by the 
 results of the tests of the single wires. In the wires of the 
 new rope, the difference between the best and the poorest 
 was 15 per cent, of the average tensile strength, the poorest 
 being 7 per cent, lower than the average. In those of the 
 broken rope, the range is 24 per cent. But even the worst 
 single wire had only a decrease of 41 per cent, in the tensile 
 strength as compared with the average of the new wire rope. 
 
 The following figures were obtained by testing wire ropes 
 at Oreusot : 
 
 Specimen No. 1. 
 
 Total tensile strength 
 
 Percentage referred to new 
 rope 
 
 New wire. 
 
 Seven Eleven 
 
 morUhs' eervioe. monthe* service 
 
 704 
 220 
 
 605 
 189.2 
 
 495 
 156.2 
 
 This rope lasted 21 months, and the fignres express the 
 average tensile strength in pounds. 
 
 Specimen No. 2. 
 
 Total tensile strength in lbs. . 
 
 Percentage referred to new 
 
 rope 
 
 New 
 wire. 
 
 Five 
 m^nilte 
 
 726 
 220 
 
 Nine 
 nCnUii 
 
 708.4 
 217.8 
 
 6864 
 187 
 
 Thir- 
 teen 
 mos. 
 
 616 
 165 
 
 Eight- 
 een 
 mos. 
 
 378.4 
 114.4 
 
 Twenty- 
 jive mo». 
 
 402.e 
 121 
 
 The Cost of Wire Ropes in Anthracite Collieries. 
 — In a paper contributed to the Transactions of the Engi- 
 neers' Club of Philadelphia, Dr. H. M. Chance gives the 
 following valuable table showing the tonnage raised by 
 twenty-three wire ropes used at eleven different slopes in the 
 anthracite coal regions on dips ranging from fifteen to sixty 
 degrees ; and the tonnage of six ropes at three shaft collier- 
 ies. Nearly all of these ropes were made by the Roebling 
 
 Company ; are of seven strands of nineteen wires each, and 
 were in use at some period from 1875-1880. The first cost 
 of the ropes is calculated from Roebling's price list for Octo- 
 ber, 1880. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 5. 
 6. 
 7. 
 
 8 . 
 
 9 . 
 10. 
 11 . 
 
 No. of 
 ropes. 
 
 Averages 
 and totals, 23 
 
 Shafts. 
 
 1 . . 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 Averages 
 and totals, 6 
 
 Diam. 
 Inch. 
 
 Length. 
 Feet. 
 
 i 
 
 900 
 
 1,000 
 
 850 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,200 
 
 1,100 
 
 950 
 
 960 
 
 675 
 
 820 
 
 1,050 
 
 925 
 635 
 600 
 
 687 
 
 Cost. 
 
 $3,240 
 
 1,620 
 
 610 
 
 1,200 
 
 640 
 
 660 
 
 760 
 
 428 
 
 304 
 
 2,962 
 
 1,696 
 
 113,710 
 
 $1,100 
 762 
 360 
 
 $2,222 
 
 Tons. 
 
 66,616 
 
 98,280 
 
 203,700 
 
 37,175 
 
 37,600 
 
 77,700 
 
 41,825 
 
 70,950 
 
 102,200 
 
 149,037 
 
 166,650 
 
 88,715 
 117,180 
 86,222 
 
 97,376 
 
 Total 
 tons. 
 
 376,700 
 196,560 
 203,700 
 74,360 
 37,500 
 77,700 
 83,660 
 70,950 
 102,200 
 596.160 
 
 2,161,760 
 
 177,450 
 244,360 
 172,446 
 
 684,255 
 
 Cost per 
 ton. 
 
 0.86 
 0.77 
 0.26 
 1.81 
 1.47 
 0.86 
 0.90 
 0.60 
 0.29 
 0.50 
 0.48 
 
 0.64 
 
 0.63 
 0.32 
 0.20 
 
 Cost 
 per 100 
 feetli/l 
 
 0.095 
 0.077 
 0.029 
 0.161 
 0.122 
 0.077 
 0.094 
 0.063 
 0.043 
 0.061 
 0.046 
 
 0.068 
 0.061 
 0.041 
 
 0.063 
 
 In these tables, says Dr. Chance, the cost has been esti- 
 mated by the actiial tonnage (exclusive of the weight of the 
 mine cars) raised. The coal raised does not exceed two- 
 thirds of this amount, but the value of the discarded rope, 
 e-stimated at one- third its cost, has been considered an equal 
 offset, and the figures given may, therefore, be taken as the 
 average cost per ton of merchantable coal. 
 
 —Coal. 
 
 THE VALUATION OF IRON MINES IN NEW 
 YORK AND NEW JERSEY. 
 
 PROF. John G. Smock, assistant geologist of New 
 Jersey, in a paper presented at the Washington 
 Meeting of the American Institute of Mining 
 Engineers, gives interesting data collected during 
 the census, for a valuation of mines of iron ore, his figures 
 relating particularly to those of New Jersey and New York. 
 The mines which were selected for the several groups and 
 mining districts include nearly all those firom which the 
 most full and carefully filled returns were received by the 
 Census Bureau. They were also representatives of their re- 
 spective districts, so that the averages obtained from them 
 are good types of these districts. The New Jersey mines 
 appear in .six groups, each containing from three to eleven 
 mines, or in all, thirty-four mines. The magnetic iron ores 
 of New York are in four well-marked groups, and there are 
 twenty-six mines in them. Then follow the red hematite 
 mines of St. Lawrence and Jefferson counties ; and lastly, 
 the brown hematite groups of Dutchess and Columbia coun- 
 ties, and those of the adjacent parts of Connecticut and 
 Massachusetts. The whole numoer of mines represented 
 by the table is eighty-eight, of which 28 are hematite ores. 
 The first column gives the value of the real estate; the sec- 
 ond that of the plant ; the third is the sum of these two, or 
 the capital invested. Then follow the number of men em- 
 ployed, the amount of wages paid during the census year, 
 the value of materials usea in mining and preparing the ores 
 for market. The seventh column gives the total expendi- 
 tures, or cost of the ore. The product in tons is m the 
 eighth column, while the cost per ton is in the ninth. The 
 last column of the table shows the ratio between the real 
 estate value and the product. 
 
 The first observation to be made on this table is the ap- 
 parent discrepancies when capital and product are com-! 
 pared, as is done in the last column. The difference in 
 ratios of product to capital are greatest among the groups of 
 magnetic iron ore mines of New York, and between the 
 hematites of Connecticut and Massachusetts. In the latter 
 $3.17 of real estate produced a ton of ore, whereas, in Con- 
 necticut, it required an investment valued at $12.23, or 
 nearly four times as much. Although much of this differ- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 943 
 
 ence is inherent in the mines, and due to great disparity in 
 actual value, somewhat of it must be credited to imperfect 
 valuation, and a more accurate method of valuation would 
 tend to the equalization of these ratios. Another observa- 
 tion is to be made in the variation in the cost of the ore per 
 ton, ranging from $3.96 to $1.57. The greater cost is found 
 to be in the groups of deeper mines. The larger proportion 
 of open workings or pit work reduces the average cost. The 
 larger size of the ore-bodies also affects favorably the cost ; 
 and the more expensive the plant, when compared with the 
 total expenditures, the less is the cost of the ore. And, in 
 general, the labor expenditure seems to enter more into the 
 cost than the value of materials used, although the separa- 
 tion of these classes of expenses is nearly always incom- 
 plete. Other points for consideration and comparison will 
 suggest themselves to the reader who may examine the 
 table. 
 
 These elements are suflScient to give the basis for valua- 
 tions, so far as the several districts are concerned. The 
 problem is in the nature of an annuity ; and, knowing the 
 term and amount received annually, the question is. What 
 is it worth ? In the case of the New Jersey mines, the 
 value of the real estate was placed at seven times the an- 
 nual dividend or amount of profits. Thus, for example, 
 taking the 34 mines in New Jersey, according to the table 
 above, their product was 660,340 tons, which, at 78 cents 
 per ton, would yield a dividend of $437, 065, and that mul- 
 tiplied by seven gives $3,059,456 as their valuation. It re- 
 mains to fix the rate of interest to allfiw for a return of the 
 investment, or what is known as a redemption ftind. Au- 
 thorities differ so widely that it is almost an arbitrary mat- 
 ter to assign any figure. The mean range is from 8 to 20 
 per cent. The rate allowable for redeeming the principal 
 should not exceed 4 per cent. — that of our most reliable trust- 
 
 TABi:.E OF SEIiECTED STATISTICS OF IRON MIIVES. 
 
 Mining Diatricta and Oroupa of Mines. 
 
 I. 
 11. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VL 
 
 VII. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 IX. 
 
 X. 
 
 XI. 
 
 XII. 
 
 XIII, 
 
 Warren Co., N. J 
 
 Sussex Co., and western part of Morris Co., 
 
 N. J 
 
 Chester, Morris Co., N. J 
 
 Mine Hill — Irondale Eange, Morris Co., N. J. 
 Mt. Pleasant-Mt. Hope Range, Morris Co., N. J 
 
 Northern part of Morris Co., N. J 
 
 New Jersey Mines . . 
 
 Orange Co., N. Y 
 
 Putnam Co., N. Y 
 
 Essex Co., N. Y 
 
 Clinton Co., N. Y 
 
 Red Hematite. 
 St, Lawrence and Jefferson Counties, N. Y 
 
 HemaHle. 
 Dutchess and Columbia Counties, N. Y . . 
 
 Connecticut . 
 
 XIV. Berkshire, Mass . 
 
 $i73,200 
 
 295,000 
 2S0,000 
 710,000 
 540,000 
 925,000 
 
 2,993,200 
 806,000 
 622,030 
 
 1,4T4,3T7 
 376,000 
 
 966,049 
 
 381,000 
 
 157,000 
 
 .I 
 
 $72,104 
 
 71,000 
 40,290 
 174,300 
 152,000 
 129,770 
 639,464 
 62,300 
 44,805 
 685,595 
 115,600 
 
 102,000 
 
 ■§. 
 
 S 
 g 
 
 $343,304 
 
 366,000 
 
 290,290 
 
 884,300 
 
 692,000 
 
 1,054,770 
 
 3,632,664 
 
 867,300 
 
 666,825 
 
 1,979,972 
 
 490,600 
 
 460,000 
 
 1,174,099 
 
 414,600 
 
 216,000 
 
 s 
 
 A' 
 
 I 
 
 411 
 
 374 
 
 233 
 
 972 
 
 639 
 
 1,017 
 
 3,646 
 
 383 
 
 434 
 
 1,268 
 
 $118,751 
 
 139,483 
 66,147 
 365,083 
 300,990 
 425,314 
 1,415,723 
 1,30,814 
 165,465 
 457,223 
 190,870 
 
 162,689 
 
 60,667 
 
 109,121 
 
 $23,902 
 
 63,.511 
 
 16,152 
 
 104,506 
 
 125,093 
 
 161,009 
 
 484,173 
 
 37,960 
 
 46,000 
 
 242,052 
 
 38,800 
 
 28,600 
 
 20,653 
 
 41,792 
 
 •3 
 
 142,668 
 
 191,949 
 82,299 
 469,589 
 426,083 
 686,,323 
 1,898,896 
 168,794 
 211,465 
 799,275 
 229,670 
 
 ■& 
 
 s 
 s 
 
 43,607 
 
 85,595 
 
 40,460 
 
 117,035 
 
 126,685 
 
 147,958 
 
 560,340 
 
 77,001 
 
 66,800 
 
 506,843 
 
 80,645 
 
 84,374 
 
 124,967 
 
 31,141 
 
 49,464 
 
 $3.27 
 
 2.24 
 2.03 
 3.10 
 3.39 
 3.96 
 3,38 
 2.19 
 3.16 
 1.57 
 2,81 
 
 2,15 
 
 ■s-i 
 
 ! a. 
 
 t6,24 
 
 3,44 
 6.15 
 6.07 
 4,29 
 6.25 
 6.34 
 10.45 
 7.81 
 2,90 
 4,65 
 
 7.73 
 
 12,23 
 
 The enduring character of our iron mines in New Jersey 
 and in New York is here to be noted, as it bears so closely 
 upon this question of their value ; it is particularly true of 
 the magnetic iron ore ininea. Many of them have been 
 worked steadily for long periods, and some of them figure 
 in our colonial history. Their production previous to 1840 
 was comparatively small, and the larger part of the aggregate 
 amounts obtained from them belongs to the past three de- 
 cades. Notwithstanding the extent to which they have 
 been opened, there are no signs of exhaustion. It seems en- 
 tirely safe to assert that many of these ore-bodies, now so 
 largely explored, are practicably inexhaustible, at least by 
 known methods of mining. 
 
 Assuming the rate of production of the census year, it is 
 easy to ascertain how long it would have taken to raise the 
 known amounts of ore estimated as coming from, them. 
 From fifteen to thirty-five years would have suiBced at the 
 present rate in all of the larger mines, both in New Jersey 
 and New York, and in others from 4 to 10 years. The aver- 
 age, for safety, Mr. Smock puts at 15 years. Having as- 
 sumed the working term and the annual product, the re- 
 maining essential factor in all cases is the profit per ton. It 
 was obtained by subtracting the cost from the average price 
 at the mines in the several districts, as follows : 
 
 New Jersey mines 
 
 Orange County, N, Y 
 
 Putnam County, N, Y 
 
 Essex County, N. Y 
 
 Clinton County, N. Y 
 
 St, Lawrence and Jefferson counties, N, Y, 
 Dutchess and Columbia counties, N, Y 
 
 Connecticut mines 
 
 Massachusetts mines 
 
 Average 
 
 Objf, 
 
 
 price. 
 
 
 
 $4,16 
 
 $3,38 
 
 $0.78 
 
 3,00 
 
 2,19 
 
 0,81 
 
 3,00 
 
 3,16 
 
 0,16 
 
 3„30 . 
 
 1,57 
 
 1,73 
 
 4,50 
 
 2,84 
 
 1,66 
 
 2,70 
 
 2,15 
 
 0.55 
 
 3,90 
 
 2,00 
 
 1.90 
 
 4,80 
 
 2,61 
 
 2.19 
 
 4,00 
 
 3.05 
 
 0.95 
 
 fiind investments. Owing to the great permanency which 
 characterizes many of our iron-mine properties, 10 per cent, 
 has been thought to be a reasonable profit upon the capital, 
 and 4 per cent, sufficient for its redemption. Turning to 
 Hoskold's tables, we find that the present value of $1 per 
 annum in fifteen years, allowing interest at 10 per cent, 
 upon the purchase money, and redeeming the capital at 4 
 per cent., is $6669, or nearly the arbitrary multiplier which 
 was used in the case of the New Jersey mines. With a 
 higher rate of interest, for example, 20 per cent., the multi- 
 plier would be 3,061. These are the general principles which 
 have been employed in the valuation of nearly all of the 
 mines of New Jersey and in -many of New York. As al- 
 ready stated, they are subject to almost endless modification, 
 owing to the ever-varying combinations of the other es- 
 sential elements, which need to be taken into account, and 
 which vary almost with every mine. 
 
 Engineering ond Mining Journal. 
 
 THE GREAT COMSTOCK LODE. 
 
 THE sister cities— Virginia City and Gold Hill, which 
 form the " mining camp " of the Comstock — ^the 
 greatest silver and gold-producing district in the 
 world, are situated in Storey County, the south- 
 western part of the State of Nevada. The practicable ways 
 of reaching the Comstock are as follows: From San Francis- 
 co, by the Central Pacific Railroad ; northeastward to Reno, 
 thence by the Virginia and Truckee Railroad, southward to 
 Gold Hill and Virginia City ; from New York and the East 
 the route la by the Union Pacific Railroad. The "Washoe 
 
944 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 range " of mountains— the most prominent peak of which is 
 Mt. Davidson— is atf offshoot or spur of the Sierra Nevadas, 
 which separate upper Nevada from California. This range 
 occupies about two-thirds of Storey County, and runs from 
 Carson City, the capital of Nevada, northward, passing (jold 
 Hill and Virginia City on their west side, and extending to 
 the Truckee River, the northern boundary of the county. 
 Hill's valley, and the canyons are alike barren and desti- 
 tute of natural growth, with the exception of the inevitable 
 sage-brush. The Comstock Lode or vein, like other " true- 
 
 north line of one claim is the south line of the next, and so 
 on. Although the Congressional law of 1872, in regard to 
 mining claims, limits claims from the date of its action to 
 1,500 feet on the length of a lode or vein by 600 feet in 
 width across its outcroppings. The original claims along 
 the Comstock are generally understood to be indefinite in 
 their extension eastward , or perpendicular to the course oi 
 the vein, so far as they do not interfere with other claims on 
 parallel ledges or lodes. The case is different with tlie 
 more recent claims which come under the above law. 
 
 EHrizmlal, seOvm of mroJammzas 
 ect Uccu- viiddle dgi^. 
 
 ■Vebucal sechon' Thbough 
 qjmstocelobb 
 
 fissure" veins, is a long, deep and comparatively thin mass 
 of metalliferous quartz and other kindred matter, filling a 
 fissure made in the solid rock by igneous action from below, 
 the fissure and its vein being at a considerable inclination 
 or slant from the horizontal. Veins of quartz are usually 
 found at or near the base of mountains, and sloping nearly 
 at the angle of the face of the mountains. They also tend 
 to curve around in their length of course, following the 
 curves of the mountains. The Comstock fissure and lode 
 form no exception to the rule. The original developments, 
 as those of the Ophir, Gould & Curry ; Savage, Hale & Nor- 
 cross; Chollar Potosi Imperial, down to the Belcher and 
 Overman, embrace that part of the Lode which runs along 
 the eastern slope of Mt. Davidson for a distance of about 
 two miles. This distance has been greatly extended, how- 
 ever, by the comparatively new claims, such as Justice, Sil- 
 ver Hill, etc., south of Overman ; and Sierra Nevada, Utah, 
 and others, north of Ophir. Let it be understood that all 
 these mines or claims are not merely various lengths of, say 
 100 to 1000 feet along the same line of Lode, so that the 
 
 In order to see why fissures and their veins tend to occur 
 at or near the bases of mountains, or between the mass of 
 the mountain itself and its overlying stratum, it is necessary 
 to understand that the mountains were in situ before the in- 
 ternal volcanic action or earthquake caused the fissure or 
 rent. The fissure would naturally take the line of least re- 
 sistance, wherever that might be. The mountain when it 
 was thrown up would hnve already tilted the horizontal 
 strata up to an angle with the horizontal, equal to that of 
 its own surface slope. The dividing-line or boundary be- 
 tween the mountain itself as it extends downward, and the 
 overlying strata which it has forced or tilted up, would 
 naturally be the line of such least resistance to any internal 
 pressure; on account, not only of their being distinct, but 
 also on account of the great weight and solidity of the 
 mountain mass. When the fissure was formed, there was in 
 all probability a simultaneous ejection from below of a great 
 quantity of semi-liquid and miartzose matter into said fis- 
 sure. This, in ascending, broke large masses of the country 
 rock from the "hanging^' or upper wall, and also from the 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 945 
 
 "foot" or lower wall, more especially from the former, 
 which masses must have fallen into the vein and form the 
 small and large " horses " which we so often hear spoken of 
 in mining affairs. The quartzose matter would find its way 
 to the top of the fissure as a rule, and there form the "out- 
 crop" or "croppings," which, in some parts of the course of 
 the lode, are more or less prominent, and in others not ob- 
 servable. But when the convulsion by which it was thrown 
 up ceased, the quartzose matter being in a semi-liquid mo- 
 bile state, as before said, would fall down again as it as- 
 cended, if in its passage it did not break the surrounding 
 walls, and thus, form an impenetrable obstruction some- 
 where in its course to its own downwar.l and backward fall. 
 This obstruction would end the " bonanza " or chimney of 
 ore. Below it the wall-rock would break in, and close up 
 the fissure as Just observed, until perhaps the descending 
 quartz below had crushed in some more wall-rock, and 
 formed another bottom for this lower " bonanza " of min- 
 eralized quartz. And so there might even be a third so- 
 called "bonanza" some distance below that. Or these bo- 
 nanzas might all have been formed at different times corres- 
 ponding to various upheavals and earthquake?, when the 
 siune process would obtain, as in the case of the first and 
 highest body of ore. These views would account for the 
 fact that, as a rule, a second bonanza of rich ore is not 
 "struck" in continuity downward with a former one, but 
 only after passing through sometimes several Ijundred feet 
 of the country rock, which either reduces the quartz and 
 quartzose matter to a very narrow width, or else cuts it off 
 entirely. 
 
 Mt. Davidson and Mt. Butler, the adjacent peak, consist 
 of sieniie which is a mechanical mixture of quartz, feldspar 
 — both whitish and hornblende — ^a blackish mineral, pre- 
 senting a coarse pepper-and-salt appearance, making a very 
 hard rock similar to granite. This rock, therefore, consti- 
 tutes the western or " foot" wall of the vein on the eastern 
 slope of these mountains, although the west wall in the 
 SDothern part of Gold Hill consists of other rocks called 
 " metamorphic rocks," owing to the fact that they have been 
 changed from their original character and position by the 
 action of heat, moisture, etc., while north of these mountains 
 a rock called " propylite " — so named by Baron Richthofeu — 
 and which is a kind of porphyritic feldspar of almost all col- 
 ore — light green, blue, red, and black, resembling clay or 
 argilaceous slate — forms the west wall. This last kind of 
 rook — propylite — constitutes the east or hanging wall, cou- 
 tinuously from one end of the vein to the other so far as 
 worked. 
 
 Each of the inclosing walls of sienite and propylite is 
 separated from the vein matter by a thin sheet of black clay 
 called " selvage," and in the mine, if a drift or tunnel is run 
 perpendicular to the course of the vein to reach it, the ap- 
 pearance of this clay indicates the immediate proximity of 
 the vein, and when it reaches another clay selvage in going 
 through the vein, it is known that the latter has been tra- 
 versed. The " strike " or course of the vein is nearly mag- 
 netic north and south, and is 16}° east of true north, this 
 being the magnetic variation. Its dip is directed eastward, 
 and varies in the different claims from 34° to 45° downward 
 from the horizontal. In rising, however, the vein at the 
 top has been penetrated in the middle by a vast " horse " of 
 about 650 feet wide, and this has tipped up the eastern half 
 of the vein for a depth of 400 feet, so that it dips westward, 
 as in Fig. 1, which represents a vertical section of the vein, 
 showing its two branches at the top. It is more than pro- 
 bable that the vein matter pressed so hard in its ascent upon 
 the hanging wall, that, when it reached a point where the 
 weight of the overlying mass was comparatively light, it 
 made another fissure or method of exit for itself, besides the 
 first, and that this was the eastern half of the vein just spoken 
 of; it is supposed by some that the hanging wall fell in at 
 the top. Fig. 2 represents a horizontal section through a 
 part of the Oomstock Lode, showing the regularity "of the 
 course of the west or foot-wall, and the great irregularity of 
 the hanging wall. In Fig. 3 is presented a horizontal sec- 
 tion of two bonanzas or chimneys of ore, and Fig. 4 shows 
 such a bonanza in vertical section, that is, as if the observer 
 were looking northward through the vein. Bonanzas or ore 
 bodies are generally found in the swells of the vein, and they 
 usually traverse the vein southward, and at a steeper dip 
 60 
 
 than its own. As will be noticed, the form of its horizontal 
 section (that is, what would be seen if we suppose the top to 
 be cut off perfectly level, and the observer to look vertically 
 down upon the top of what is left), is rudely lenticular or 
 egg-shaped. In fact, if we take an egg, and hold it horizon- 
 tally — the ends pointing north and south — suppose the 
 depth to be about 500 feet ; width about 10 to 100, and length 
 from end to end, about 660 ; we will not have a very falla- 
 cious idea of a bonanza. The original Gould & Curry bo- 
 nanza was of these dimensions. The fine Savage, and Hale 
 & Norcross bonanza, was about 800 feet long, but not so 
 wide as the G. & C. The Imperial, Chollar, and the won- 
 derfully rich Ophir and Mexican, had each a splendid body 
 of ore,as also the Belcher and Crown Point, whose body of ore, 
 on the 1,100 level, about the centre of the body, reached as 
 high as 150 feet in width, and the enormous value of $2,000 
 a ton for about half a level of 100 feet deep. 
 
 _ The ore of the Comstock, whose valuable constituents are 
 silver and gold, does not by any means all present the same 
 appearance or constitution. There are three principal kinds 
 of ore; one is the black sulphuret of silver, which is com- 
 posed- of sulphur and silver, and is usually found in an 
 amorphous condition, that is, without crystallization, and 
 sometimes contains considerable gold with it — although not 
 often apparent to the eye. The blackish propylite before 
 mentioned is often taken for this ore by visitors in the mine ; 
 but they may be distinguished by the fact that the ore pre- 
 sents a jet black, living appearance, while the propylite or 
 " waste " rock has a dull look. The sulphuret of silver, also, 
 occurs occasionally in small crystals of a cubical or acta- 
 hedral shape, and can be cut like lead with the knife, which 
 it also somewhat resembles in appearance ; it is then called 
 Silver Glance. An antiraonial sulphuret of silver called Ste- 
 phanite or Brittle Silver Ore, sometimes occurs, but is rare; 
 and the Silver Glance is often mistaken for it, even by those 
 who should know better. The Stephanite is easily distin- 
 guished by the fact that it is brittle, and for this reason can- 
 not be cut by the knife like the Silver Glance, but breaks off. 
 Another thing is, the great purity of the Coinstock ore from 
 arsenic, antimony, lead, and zinc has permitted the use of 
 the simple pan-amalgamation process by quicksilver for the 
 reduction of their gold and silver, which could not be the 
 case if any considerable amount of antimony were present 
 in them. 
 
 The second kind of ore is the yellow sulphuret. It is the 
 common bisulphuret of iron or iron pyrites, and is of a whi- 
 tish to yellowish color and shining. It is sometimes called 
 " fools' " gold, because novices mistake it for that metal. It 
 is often associated with a little copper pyrite — ^the sulphuret 
 of copper, which is still more yellow, and similarly shining. 
 Bnt the iron pyrites, although it must not be confounded 
 with the gold itself, still is the ore which principally contains 
 the gold of the Comstock, and, indeed, ic may be "said here 
 that this is the same ore that contains nearly all the gold of 
 the earth. The precious metal, however, is usually invisible 
 in the pyrites. 
 
 The third kind of ore is the Chloride of Silver. It is white 
 and light green, and is composed of silver and gas chlorine. 
 It is very rich in silver, but contains little gold with it. 
 Where it occurs compact, it is called Horn Silver, because 
 it can be cut like horn or lead. 
 
 Besides these three principal kinds of ore, there sometimes 
 occur minute bits or crystals of ruby silver ore (a compound 
 of silver or sulphur with arsenic or antimony), and in the 
 rich places small quantities of free gold and native silver oc- 
 cur ; but these are exceptions, and not the rule. 
 
 The gangue or matrix which holds the ores in the Com- 
 stock vein is quartz, with often considerable chalky carbon- 
 ate of lime and sulphate of lime or " gypsum." Although 
 the quartz often occurs crystallized in fine hexagonal or six- 
 sided prisms and pyramids, and some pretty specimens of 
 fibrous and crystallized gypsum are sometimes found, the ore 
 of the lode is remarkably free from crystallization. 
 
 Mt. Davidson and the other hills in all directions are dotted 
 here and there with mound-like heaps of rocks of a light 
 grayish tint, which mark the places where prospecting shafts 
 or pits have been " sunk," or dug out. These are merely 
 circular holes, generally about 10 feet in diameter and 60 to 
 80 feet in depth, and are untimbered. 
 
 Owing to the false dip to the westward of the eastern half 
 
946 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the vein, as shown in Fig. 1, the dip of the entire vein 
 was originally supposed to be westward, that is, that it would 
 cut through the center of the mountain, and this supposition 
 was acted on, although it was clearly to be seen that there 
 was another line of outcrop (b in Fig. 1) some hundred feet 
 above and to the west of the line of outcrop a. But when in 
 sinking, the west orfootwall was reached, and the shaft sunk 
 still deeper it was found that the hard sienite, of which Mt. 
 Davidson consists, was encountered ; and that in running a 
 level or drift through this intensely hard rock, westward to c, 
 where the vein if it dipped westward, should have been 
 found, no vein was there ; but that, in running a tunnel or 
 drift eastward to d, the vein was discovered. Hence further 
 exploration by the original shafts was abandoned, not only 
 on account of the fact that every succeeding 100 feet down- 
 wards the vein would be at a rapidly increasing distance 
 from the shaft, but also because of the very great cost and 
 hard labor that was required in traversing such exceedingly 
 hard rock. 
 
 New shafts, like that shown in Fig. 4, were commenced 
 by nearly all the companies on the lode, about 1,000 feet 
 east of their original ones, and on the site of the new shafts 
 new hoisting works were forthwith erected. These shafts 
 vary considerably in depth, owing to the diflference of level 
 of the surface from which they are begun. They are sunk 
 vertically, and usually go down through and under the vein. 
 They are commonly sunk 50 to 100 feet further, when, as a 
 rule, an " incline " or inclined shaft is begiln in the footwall 
 — ^upward, to connect with the vertical or " downright " 
 shaft, and downward, about 150 to 175 feet, which is the 
 equivalent on the dip or incline for 100 feet vertically down- 
 wards. From this point in the incline, a tunnel or " drift" 
 is run eastward to the vein to iind it, and through its cross 
 section or. thickness to explore it. When the eastern clay, 
 before spoken of which bounds the vein, is traversed, the 
 miners return to the point of the drift, which is immediately 
 to the west of the vein and in the footwall, and from there 
 they commence a north and south drift, which is either en- 
 tirely in the footwall, or else half its section in the footwall 
 and half in the vein ; and this is driven both ways, north- 
 ward and southward, to the extremities of the claim of the 
 particular company. This drift, in case it is driven in the 
 footwall, is said to be "in the iirm" or "in the solid,'' be- 
 cause it is in firm or solid groujid. At several points along 
 this drift, say at every hundred feet, cross drifts are driven 
 eastward to explore the vein. From the north extremity of 
 the main drift north, and also from the south extremity of 
 the main drift south, the miners begin to pick and blast out 
 ore, and they work in the vein towards the incline, up which 
 the ore is sent to the downright shaft, through which it is 
 hoisted to the surface. The men timber after taking out the 
 ore, and other men follow behind them and above them, and 
 standing on timbers take out the ore higher up, letting it fall 
 down to the drift below, where it is carried to the surface as 
 before. So again another set of men follow these, but still 
 higher up, and so on, till the entire depth of a hundred feet 
 of ore, from the main drift up to the level of the bottom of 
 the downright shaft, has been removed and hoisted. Mean- 
 while the incline has been carried down by other men a 
 hundred feet deeper, and the same process repeated at that 
 level. 
 
 The foregoing is a very general view of the mining oper- 
 ations below ground— the most that can be presented in this 
 one article. But a particular and clear view will be given 
 of each and every part and detail of the work, above and 
 below ground, in succeeding articles, so that a far better and 
 more thorough knowledge of the entire subject will be 
 secured by our readers than if they were to merely go upon 
 the ground and visit the mines, and see what little they could 
 for themselves ; for even those who have been in the mines 
 on a visit have a very meagra idea of how they are worked. 
 They know they have been underground, through an in- 
 tricate series of passages, and travelling along some ladders 
 and on a car or "giraffe;" that they have seen picks, and 
 drills, and shovels, but they rarely retain anything but an 
 exceedingly conftiaed notion of these, together with a re- 
 membrance of great heat, half-clothed men, hard work 
 rock, candles and cars. ' 
 
 Note.— The first quartz claim on the Oomstock Lode was 
 located on the 22d of February, 1858, by one James Finney, 
 
 who was nicknamed " Old Virginia," the croppings being 
 called the " Virginia Croppings," and it was from him that 
 Virginia City took its name. The first discovery of rich 
 silver ore on the lode, however, was not made till June, 
 1859, when two Irishmen — O'Reilly and McLaughlin — found 
 a rich vein of black sulphuret of silver on the ground of 
 the present Ophir Company. This ground being owned at 
 the time by Kirby and others — placer miners in Six Mile 
 Canyon below the Ophir works — one Comstock was sent to 
 purchase it from them, and the entire lode has since been 
 called the " Comstock." 
 
 It is to the discovery and development of this gigantic 
 lode that the great impulse to quartz or vein mining in the 
 West was originally due. The wonderful richness of that 
 vein at once attracted immigration of miners from all quar- 
 ters, and much attention from scientific men — among them 
 notably the learned Baron Richthofen. Claims were quickly 
 taken along the lode in lengths of 50 to 1,200 feet, until a 
 total distance of about two and a half miles had been loca- 
 ted, which has now been greatly added to in both direc- 
 tions — north and south. The yield of gold and silver from 
 the Ophir and other mines soon became enormous, more es- 
 pecially after the crude methods and instruments of mining 
 had been replaced by a better system, as well as suitable and 
 powerful machinery. 
 
 The following table presents the annual and total yield of 
 bullion from.the entire lode since its discovery: 
 
 Year. 
 
 1S59 to end of 1865, estimated, 
 
 18C6 . . . ... 
 
 1867 . 
 
 1868 
 1869 
 
 1870 
 
 1871 . . 
 1872 
 
 1873 
 
 1874 .... 
 1875 
 
 1876 estimated 
 
 Yield. 
 
 . $80,000,000 
 
 11,732,100 
 
 . 13,620,062 
 
 . 8,499,769 
 
 7,528,607 
 
 8,321,528 
 
 . 11,063,320 
 
 . 11,897.612 
 
 21,544,727 
 
 . 22,400,783 
 
 26,000,000 
 
 35,000,000 
 
 Total yield to end of 1876 . . . . ?257,604,608 
 
 Of this the Belcher Mine alone produced bullion from 
 June 1st, 1871, to December 3d, 1874, to the amount of 
 $16,772,965. 
 
 Taken as a whole, the Comstock has proved itself the most 
 valuable silver and gold bearing lode in the world. 
 
 — Albert P. Sehock, E. M., in Scientific American. 
 
 THE SUTRO TUNNEL. 
 
 I 
 
 T is just twenty years since the Comstock lode was 
 
 discovered in what was then a portion of the Territory 
 
 of Utah. It was, as far as I am informed, the first 
 
 discovery of a real silver mine within the borders of 
 
 the United States, and, strange to say, it has proved to be 
 
 not only one of the most valuable that has been found in 
 
 the United States, but, in all probability, it will prove the 
 
 most productive deposit of the precious metals of any known 
 
 in the world. The yield thus far amounts to about four 
 
 hundred millions of dollars in bullion ; and at least an equal 
 
 amount in low grade ores has actually been developed , but 
 
 which ores, as I shall hereafter explain, have thus far not 
 
 been extracted. 
 
 Strange as it appears, that the first silver lode discovered 
 in the great West should have proved to be the most pro- 
 ductive, it is equally strange that the first ore extracted from 
 it should have been the richest. The first forty tons of ore 
 taken from the Ophir mine on the Comstock lode were 
 packed on mules and sent across the Sierrra Nevadas to San 
 Francisco, and yielded $160,000, or an average of $4,000 per 
 ton ; and no body of ore approaching this in value per ton 
 has since been found. You may readily imagine that the 
 discovery of a mine containing ore yielding $4,000 per ton 
 created an intense excitement among the enterprising men 
 of California. 
 
 Extent of the Mining reffion.i. — This discovery marks a new 
 era in the tide of Western immigration, when men whose 
 westward progress had been stopped by the Pacific Ocean 
 commenced to retrace their stejps eastwardly, overspreading 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 947 
 
 the vast area of country lying between the eastern base of 
 the Rocky mountains and the western base of the Sierra 
 Nevadaa. Here was a field well suited to the restless, ad- 
 venturous spirit of the Western prospector ; and so this im- 
 mense stretch of country, embracing almost a million square 
 miles, has within the last twenty years been traversed and 
 prospected in every direction ; and almost numberless 
 mining camps have been established where not a mine was 
 worked or even known at the time of the discovery of the 
 Comstock lode, although several hundred thousand people, 
 prior to that time, when on their way to California, had, to 
 some extent, prospected this identical territory. Gold, sil- 
 ver, and also the usefiil metals seem to occur almost every- 
 where in these regions, although not always in paying 
 quantities. 
 
 These explorations have disclosed what may be considered 
 an unexplained fact, that the summit of the Sierra Nevada 
 Mountains forms the dividing line of what may be termed 
 the pure gold ores ; that is to say, the pure gold ores are al- 
 most uniformly found west of the Sierra Nevadas, while 
 silver ore in all varieties, though occasionally associated 
 with more or less gold, is found to the eastward. 
 
 Backbone of America. — It appears that the backbone of 
 the American continent, stretching from Cape Horn to the 
 icy regions of the north, forms the great mineral store-house 
 of the globe ; and that portion lying within the boundaries 
 of the United States constitutes one of the most important 
 interests of this country. This interest should be fostered 
 and developed ; and permit me to say to you that your club, 
 which has been properly styled the Bullion Club, will form 
 an important factor in the development of this great source 
 of wealth, by disseminating information, and by bringing 
 together representative men from every section. 
 
 In this connection, I intended to have made some remarks 
 upon the influence which the increased production of the 
 precious metals and a bi-metallic currency have upon the 
 prosperity of the commercial world ; but I leave this subject 
 to the abler hands of Judge Kelley, of Pennsylvania, who 
 will, as I am informed, shortly address your club upon that 
 subject. Permit me now, after these general remarks, to 
 turn to the Comstock mines and the Sutro Tunnel. 
 
 The Comstock Lode. — ^The Comstock lode appears on the 
 surface of a range of hills called the Washoe Mountains, 
 lying to the east of the Sierra Nevadas, and running parallel 
 therewith. The Comstock lode occurs mainly at the contact 
 of two kinds of rock, and is, therefore, in fact, to a large ex- 
 tent, a contact vein, though in other parts, as at the north 
 and south ends, it is surrounded by the same kind of coun- 
 try rock. The central portion of this mountain range is 
 formed by Mount Davidson — a mountain rising to the height 
 of something like 7,800 feet — and which consists of syenite ; 
 this is probably the oldest formation in that neighborhood. 
 Immediately east, and, in fact, also west of the syenite of 
 Mount Davidson, we find greenstone or porphyry, of which 
 great varieties exist, which for convenience are called by the 
 family name of propylite. Still farther east, we find the 
 trachytic mountain range. There have been various theories 
 advanced as to the origin of that lode, but there can be 
 hardly a doubt that it is a true fissure vein. All the evidence 
 tends to show that such is the fact. 
 
 Formation of the Fissure. — ^According to Baron von Rich- 
 thofen (who is probably one of the ablest geologists now 
 living, and who has made a careful examination of the Com- 
 stock section of country, spending nearly two years there), 
 the syenite is the oldest formation, the propylite or green- 
 stone coming next in order, while the trachyte is the out- 
 burst which appeared at the latest geological period. If we 
 examine the locality, we find, as already indicated, that the 
 Comstock lode occurs mainly between the syenite and the 
 propylite. The probability is, that when the trachyte 
 made its appearance, the upheaval was so great that it up- 
 lifted a large portion of the greenstone. The effect of this 
 upheaval was that a fissure was formed at the plane of least 
 resistance — ^that is, at the point of contact between the two 
 rocks ; large masses of country rock from the hanging-wall 
 falling into the fissure, forming what we now call horses," 
 were the cause of keeping the fissure open. Had it not been 
 for the fact of these masses falling into the fissure, it would, 
 in all probability, have closed up again. But in this man- 
 ner there was left an open channel down to an indefinite 
 
 depth, which gradually became filled, probably by means of 
 thermal agencies, or possibly by volatilization, according to 
 the different theories which scientific men accept. These 
 masses or horses must necessarily have fallen into the fissure 
 from above ; and, as a proof, we have the fact that in the 
 Comstock lode every " horse " consists of greenstone, that 
 being the upper rock ; the syenite being at the bottom, none 
 of it could have fallen into the lode. The open spaces thus 
 left in the fissures were gradually filled, and the horses be- 
 came surrounded by quartz and minerals, mainly silver ores, 
 carrying more or less gold, which are sometimes accompanied 
 by the base metals. I listened with great attention to the lec- 
 ture which Professor Newberry delivered in this room last 
 Thursday, in which he expressed the opinion that the par- 
 ticular fissure which he was describing had been filled in 
 with ore by the process of deposits from thermal waters. It 
 seems to be hardly probable that the Comstock lode was en- 
 tirely filled in that way. It is probable that different pro- 
 cesses were at work at different periods; and it is very likely 
 that a portion of the vein matter which now fills that lode 
 entered it by the process of volatilization. 
 
 Volatilization. — It seems difficult to imagine silver or gold 
 in a gaseous form; but if you consider for a moment, it does 
 not appear so strange. We know that all the substances of 
 the entire globe exist in one of three forms : solid, liquid or 
 gaseous; while some substances are familiar to us in all 
 three forms. 
 
 Take water, for instance : we know it as a solid when it is 
 ice ; we know it as a liquid ordinarily ; and we know it as a 
 gas in the form of vapor. We know all of the metals in 
 two of these forms, as solids, and as liquids when molten. 
 We know some of the metals in all three of the forms. In 
 fact, in our laboratories, we can convert many solids into 
 liquids by melting, and even into gases by volatilization. 
 Now if we imagine the great laboratory of natuie down in 
 the bowels of the earth, where all the agencies probably 
 exist which are necessary for reducing these various min- 
 erals to a gaseous state, the filling of fissure-veins with metals 
 does not appear so difficult of explanation. We must try 
 to realize the fact that in the laboratory of nature there may 
 exist a pressure of millions of millions of pounds to the 
 square inch, and that the steam which is there generated may 
 be heated to white heat; that is, hot enough to melt iron or 
 any other substance. If we imagine such a heat as that, we 
 can readily perceive how any substance might be volatilized ; 
 and if to Uiese two forces certain chemical agents are added, 
 the transformation will seem still more probable. I doubt 
 that a vein the size of the Comstock lode would ever have 
 entirely been filled by deposits from water. 
 
 Downward Continuance. — These theories may be correct or 
 not, but we do absolutely know that we here have a vein 
 which lies between Mount Davidson, the syenitic mountain, 
 and the propylite adjoining it, extending for a distance of 
 four miles, and reaching downward as far as the miners have 
 gone, and in all probability farther than mechanical means 
 will ever permit man to go. There are obstacles in the way 
 which will prevent an exploration to an indefinite depth. 
 As far as the lode itself is concerned, we find that it retains 
 its general characteristics at various depths ; that it varies in 
 width from fifty to one hundred and fifty feet ; that it con- 
 sists of solid quartz, interspersed with particles of ore ; but 
 that in many portions it is not sufficiently rich in ore to pay 
 largely for extracting. It seems that the ore in the Com- 
 stock lode often occurs in the form of pockets, or channels, 
 or chimneys, or, as we call them when we find a great body, 
 " bonanzas." It is strange that, in the vein itself/ a bonanza 
 hardly ever occurs. 
 
 Bonanzas. — ^The lode descends on an incline eastwardly 
 following the dip of Mount Davidson ; in places the pitch is 
 greater than at others, but the average is about 45 degrees. 
 The ore-bodies seem to occur outside and to the east of the 
 vein ; they are generally of a lenticular form. It frequently 
 happens that, in sinking a shaft or in running a drift, no ore 
 at all is found ; a drift may run right over or under it : while 
 the very next drift may show an ore body of great width. 
 This accounts for the great fluctuations which have taken 
 place in the stocks of the mining companies on the Com- 
 stock lode. People who are not familiar with the situation 
 do not understand the reason for such fluctuations ; but what 
 I have stated will explain one of the causes. These ore bodies 
 
948 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 are not confined to any particular spot. The country to 
 the east of the Comstock lode may contain ore bodies to an 
 almost inJeflnite extent. If we imagine, which I firmly be- 
 lieve, that the Comstock lode continues downward for miles, 
 then it is possible that these ore-bodies may make their ap- 
 pearance at comparatively lesser depths, several thousand 
 feet to the eastward of the present workings. The disposi- 
 tion of these ore-bodies is not governed by any rule. It seems 
 to be entirely arbitrary. We do not know where they are 
 until we stumble upon them. The only way to look for 
 them is to run drifts all through the country, and then to 
 cross cut from these every one hundred or two hundred feet. 
 Some men say that the Comstock lode is working out. That 
 is nonsense. Several deposits have been found which were 
 of such immense value as to astonish everybody ; but these 
 bonanzas were limited in number — probably not over a 
 dozen altogether ; and they were always found in the manner 
 I have described. 
 
 Sinking Shafts.— They first commenced the working of 
 these mines by endeavoring to sink a shaft, on an incline, 
 down into the lode itself. It was soon found that this was a 
 poor way of mining. It was considered necessary to start 
 shafts farther to the east. Accordingly, shafts were started 
 which would cut the lode at a depth of seven or eight hun- 
 dred feet ; but they found that these shafts at that depth 
 struck the rock of Mount Davidson, and, owing to the meagre 
 facilities which they then had for boring, they were obliged 
 to give that up. They found it more profitable to start still 
 other shafts farther east ; and when these reached Mount 
 Davidson rock, they were continued by inclines; lately, still 
 other shafts were started so far east that they will not reach 
 the lode until they have gone down to a depth of 3,000 feet ; 
 one of these shafts has lately been started on a gigantic scale, 
 and so far east that it will not strike the west wall until ir 
 gets down to a depth of 4,000 feet. People look upon that 
 as being rather an extreme undertaking, because the shaft 
 will be so far away from the lode that they will have to 
 drift, after it reaches a depth of 3,000 feet, still over 1,000 
 feet to get to the lode. So you see that it is not always advan- 
 tageous to start a shaft so far away from the point designed 
 to be reached. 
 
 Strength of Cables. — During the past twenty years enor- 
 mous suras have been spent on these mines. Probably, in no 
 mines of the world that have been worked, has there been 
 such a lavish expenditure for machinery, in order to secure 
 every facility for the successful working of the mines. Such 
 an expenditure was necessary. The work could not have 
 been performed otherwise. The result has been that the 
 mines have been more rapidly developed than any other 
 mines ever worked. Of course, the diflliculties in mining in- 
 crease as we go down. In the first place, after you get down 
 below 2,000 feet, the steel cables have to be made of such a 
 size (in order to sustain their own weight), that it becomes a 
 very serious question whether they can be used in one 
 length to much greater depth. This is a subject which has 
 been discussed very fully in England and in Belgium ; and 
 the engineers there have come to the conclusion that it is 
 not practicable to hoist with them after you get down over 
 2,500 feet ; but the people on the Comstock lode say that 
 they can go down over 3,000 feet and still use them. It is a 
 question simply of the strength of material. These cables 
 are made of fine steel wires woven together. There cer- 
 tainly must be a limit to their capacity, even if they are 
 made tapering. If the cable is long enough, it will certainly 
 break of its own weight, and without the attachment to it 
 of any additional weight On the Comstock lode I do not 
 think that this will cause any very great practical diflSculty 
 for several years to come; and before that difficulty does 
 arise a new basis for hoisting work will have been utilized 
 at the level of Sutro Tunnel, where they can start afresh. 
 
 Water and Temperature.—Another difficulty, and one of the 
 greatest obstacles encountered in the working of these mines, 
 is the presence of water, which is found in great quantities— 
 and hot water at that. Gentlemen have different ideas about 
 this water, and how it gets so hot, I have, from my own ob- 
 servation, formed my own ideas about it. I do not think, as 
 IS contended by many, that this water is heated by chemical 
 decomposition. My theory is, that the water from rains and 
 the melting snow upoiithe Sierra Nevada Mountains rapidly 
 descends through the. fissures of the crystalline rocks (and 
 
 as they generally incline at a sharp angle, the water descends 
 very rapidly), until it reaches a depth of several miles. We 
 know (although by some it has been disputed) that the in- 
 crease in heat is about one degree of Fahrenheit to every 
 sixty feet of descent. I think that this has been demon- 
 strated all over the world. Of course, there are instances 
 where this is not the case; but those are the exceptions. 
 On the Comstock lode this rule does not strictly apply, 
 because the heat increases much faster as you descend. 
 There, at the depth of 1,400 or 1,500 feet the mercury rises 
 to 110° • and at 2,500 feet, the temperature of the rock is as 
 high as 130° ; and at 2,800 or 3,000 feet, it is as high as 150°. 
 I have observed this matter for many years, and have looked 
 into it pretty closely, and my idea is, that this water de- 
 scends from the Sierra Nevada Mountains to a depth of 
 10,000 to 15,000 feet; that it is there converted into steam, 
 and finally into superheated steam. Of course, there is then 
 exercised an upward pressure which does not permit any 
 more water to descend, because the pressure of the descending 
 water is counterbalanced by the pressure of the superheated 
 steam. "I recollect that I had, a few years ago, a contro- 
 versy with Professor Sterry Hunt (probably the best in- 
 formed man on this subject in the United States) and some 
 other gentlemen ; and his idea was, that if there was so great 
 a pressure down there, the steam would thereby be again 
 converted into a liquid. But I do not think that bears upon 
 my theory at all ; because if the steam is reconverted into 
 a liquid by the immense pressure, it would become steam 
 again upon lessening or removing the pressure. If, there- 
 fore, the water descends until it becomes heated to a boiling 
 point, it may then ascend, either because of capillary at- 
 traction or of pressure; and as it finds its way upward 
 through the crevices of the rocks, it necessarily heats the 
 rocks by the contact. And here it is where mistaken ideas 
 come in; the rock does not heat the water at these higher 
 points, but the water heats the rock. It seems to me quite 
 evident that, as the water permeates all the cracks and 
 fissures of the rock, the rock itself thus becomes heated. Of 
 course the water loses some of its heat in its ascent. If we 
 could go down 3,000 feet deeper than we are now, we should 
 find boiling water. It is now 165° in some places. 
 
 At Steamboat, and in that immediate neighborhood, we 
 find springs that are emitting great quantities of boiling wa- 
 ter. On a direct line, these boiling springs are not over six or 
 seven miles from the Comstock lode, and it is quite possible 
 that these may be connected direetly with that lode. The 
 only difference between the hot water at the Comstock lode 
 and that at the boiling springs is, that the water at Steam- 
 boat is somewhat sulphurous. Otherwise they are very 
 much alike. That difference might be caused by the water 
 passing over rocks containing sulphur. 
 
 Limit to Mining.' — Accordingly, the limit of mining on the 
 Comstock lode will be reached when the mines get to a 
 depth where it is so hot that human beings can not exist 
 any longer. Some think that said point will be reached very 
 soon, considering the rapidity with which the mines are 
 worked. The fact is, that now, already, where the men are 
 working in the lower levels, it seems almost impossible for 
 a human being to exist. The men could not work in such 
 a heat but for the fact that in the particular locality where 
 they are swinging their picks a stream of compressed air, or 
 cool air from a blower, is directed upon them ; but as they 
 go to and from that particular locality, they have to pass 
 through places which are intensely heated, and in which 
 they could not exist for any length of time. By means of 
 such appliances, using very large blowers and powerful com- 
 pressing machinery, I have no doubt that the men could work 
 these mines even whore they contain boiling hot water. If 
 you show the people a big bonanza, they will devise some 
 way of getting out the ore. The only trouble is, that at this 
 great depth it takes so much longer to explore the mines 
 that people get impatient. Where it formerly took only 
 three months to explore a new level, it now takes six, nine, 
 or twelve months. I believe that the Comstock lode can be 
 successfully worked for thirty, forty, or fifty years to come 
 below its present depth ; and there is work enough above it 
 to last for a hundred years to come. 
 
 Mininq Tiuinels.— .Uter these general remarks about the 
 Comstock- lode, I will now proceed to say a few words about 
 the Sutro Tunnel. The idea of running a tunnel into a 
 
TtlE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 949 
 
 mountain for mining purposes is nothing new. It has been 
 done ever since mining commenced. In Germany, where 
 mining has been carried on largely, and also in Spain, and 
 even in England, they have used tunnels quite extensively 
 in connection with mining operation. In the Hartz Moun- 
 tains, a great number of tunnels have been thus constructed. 
 The topography of the country there is such that tunnels 
 •can be run to considerable depth, and they have been con- 
 structing tunnels for the last eight hundred years. At the 
 end of the last century they constructed a tunnel 6J miles 
 in length; then, starting at a lower level, they constructed 
 another tunnel, and so on, until finally a tunnel was com- 
 pleted, some twenty years ago, which had a length of four- 
 teen miles, and which reached three hundred feet below the 
 level of the next deepest tunnel. In other parts of Germany 
 and in Hungary we find the same thing. 
 
 The Suiro Tunnel. — Fourteen or fifteen years ago, I pro- 
 posed to run a tunnel into the Comstock lode, a distance of 
 four miles. The people thought that it was an immense 
 undertaking. Those who are interested in the mines would 
 never have consented to contribute to such a work, for their 
 interest is only of a temporary character ; they calculate 
 their profits from day to day, in the attempt to make a stock 
 speculation. All such people care for is to make a "turn " 
 in the stock, to sell at a high rate, and then they back the 
 stock at a lower rate. In other words, the men owning 
 shares in the mines were unwilling to give any portion of 
 their earnings for the construction of a work which would not 
 benefit them immediately ; it troubled them but little what 
 would become of the mines after some years. Their method 
 of mining was a regular " grab " game. They looked for 
 big bonanzas ; they left the poor ore untouched and seemed 
 unwilling to make any provision for the future which would 
 enable them to work the lower grade of ore profitably. I 
 did not, at that time, know much about these tunnels in 
 Europe, but I saw that the construction of a tunnel to the 
 Gomstock lode was a common-sense proposition. I saw that 
 it would be an immense benefit to run a tunnel reaching the 
 mines at a depth of 1,700 feet. Many other people began to 
 think so, too; they were finally convinced that it would be 
 a good thing ; but, instead of lending their aid and influence, 
 and spending their money in the construction of the tunnel, 
 they spent their money in fighting it. They spent more 
 money in fighting the tunnel than we spent in constructing 
 it ; and they were beaten in the end. It was a question of 
 millions. The object was to get possession of the work for 
 themselves. They were determined to oust us. Finally, 
 they found that they could not continue the opposition any 
 longer, and that it would be impossible to work the mines 
 without the assistance of a tunnel ; and so at last we came 
 to an understanding all around. We commenced, last 
 spring, to negotiate the terms of a new agreement. They 
 were pretty stifle-necked about it, and so were we. We 
 thought, as they had held back so long, and as they had to 
 have the aid of our tunnel finally, that we were entitled to 
 make fair and equitable terms. And thus it took about 
 three months to negotiate an arrangement. At last we came 
 to an understanding, which is looked upon as being a fair 
 arrangement for all parties concerned. Under that the 
 agreement which we had originally entered into with the 
 mining companies was modified. Under the original agree- 
 ment we had contracted not only to run a tunnel to the 
 Comstock lode, a distance of four miles, but we were also to 
 construct a tunnel along the Comstock tunnel for three or 
 four miles more. A part of the settlement is, that we agreed 
 to reduce our royalty on all ores yielding under forty dollars 
 per ton, from two dollars to one dollar per ton, while all 
 ores yielding above forty dollars still pay two dollars. They, 
 on their part, agree to pay for these lateral tunnels in the 
 form of a loan ; but it is really no loan at all, for we pay no 
 interest upon it, and it is not repayable except by deducting 
 half the royalties that we earn. So, if a mine finds no ore, 
 we are never to repay it. It is therefore, not in the form of 
 a debt. We are now engaged in constructing these lateral 
 branches, and the mining companies pay us from $20,000 to 
 $40,000 on the fifth day of every rnonth, which fully pays for 
 the work. We have, also, already commenced earning some 
 royaltv, though not a great deal as yet. We probably re- 
 ceive from S7,000 to $8,000 per month from that source ; and 
 as soon as the lateral tunnels are extended past each mine 
 
 it commences to pay, and our royalties, therefore, will in- 
 crease gradually. The production of the Comstock lode, at 
 the present time, is very limited. The fact is, that during 
 these pending diificulties they could not prospect their 
 mines, and for three years they had hardly been doing any- 
 thing. Since we have constructed the tunnel, and com- 
 menced carrying ofi" the water which obstructed them, fhey 
 have again begun to prepare for prospecting the mines. 
 These preparations have occupied many months ; they are 
 now just about ready for a start; and I think that by the 
 end of the year they will be able to prospect a number of 
 the. mines, and especially those that they call the water 
 mines, such as the Savage and Hale & Norcross. From 
 that time they will go right on prospecting and opening up 
 the mines. 
 
 Diflaculties in Tunneling. — In the construction of 
 this tunnel we had a severe struggle to get along. On the 
 one hand, we had these people opposing us, and on the other 
 hand we encountered the difliculty of raising money suffi- 
 cient to carry on the work, and that was about the " tough- 
 est job" of all. But still we succeeded. There were some 
 gentlemen who took broad views of the matter, and partly 
 through their influence and aid the money was forthcoming, 
 and since then we got along reasonably well. 
 
 In one way and another we encountered many difficulties 
 doing the work. We had to work our way inch by inch 
 through solid rock. In these tunneling operations, we have 
 first to drill a dozen or twenty holes, charge them with 
 giant-powder, explode the blast, then wait for the smoke of 
 the powder to disappear before we can commence loading 
 the debris on the cars for removal. Under the circum- 
 stances, one can not get ahead very fast; but altogether we 
 made quite as rapid progress as has ever been made in any 
 similar undertaking. In fact, our progress was more rapid 
 than was the construction of the Hoosac, the Mont Cenis, 
 the St. Gothard, or any other tunnel. 
 
 A Chapter on Mules. — Up to the present time all 
 the transportation has been done by means of mules. We 
 found it more convenient to use mules than to use steam, 
 because, under ground, steam is fatal to life. We are now 
 preparing to use compressed air motors, built on the same 
 plan as those in use on Second avenue in New York. We 
 have now two motors building in England. We have been 
 using mules for years, and have found that they are tolera- 
 bly good animals ; but there is a prejudice against mules, 
 though they are very intelligent. I think that I could write 
 a chapter on their traits, as I have had a very extensive ex- 
 perience with them. It has been said that they have a 
 strong propensity for kicking, but I have never seen them 
 kick when in the tunnel. They become very tame under 
 ground ; in fact, they become the miners' pets. The men 
 become quite attached to them ; and as the shift-mules pass 
 along by the men at lunch, they will often receive from one 
 a piece of pie, and from another a cup of coffee, etc. When 
 a signal is given to fire a blast, the mules understand the 
 signal, and will try to get out of the way of it just as the 
 men do. Of course, under ground is very dark, and the 
 mules become so accustomed to the darkness that even when 
 they go out into the sunlight they cannot see very well, and 
 when they go back from the sunlight into the mine, they 
 cannot see at all. So we are in the habit of covering one 
 eye with a piece of cloth whenever they go out, and keep 
 the covering over the eye until they go into the tunnel 
 again ; we then remove the cloth, so they have one good eye 
 to see with. We had to adopt this plan for preserving their 
 sight, because the mule is so stubborn that he will not pull 
 unless he can see his way ahead. We have found out an- 
 otherthing about mules. We tried horses at first, but we found 
 that whenever anything touched the ears of a horse, he would 
 throw up his head and break his skull against the overhang- 
 ing rock ; but if you touch a mule's ears he drops his head. 
 For that reason we could not use horses; we employed 
 mules, and they have answered very well. 
 
 Obstacles to Progress. — In carrying on a work of 
 this kind, we meet all sorts of difficulties. Now and then 
 we would get indications of water. The men would put in 
 a blast, and the water would pour out in a perfect torrent, 
 and the men would have, at times, to quit temporarily to 
 escape it, and wait until the water had subsided sufficiently, 
 so that they could go to drilling again. Every now and 
 
950 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 then we would come to a clay, that would swell and cave so 
 as to reduce our progress of 150 feet (and afterward with im- 
 proved machinery of 300 feet) per month to less than 50 
 feet per month. Sometimes we could not keep the roof up. 
 As soon as we could get started a little way in our work of 
 excavation, the rock would yield, and hundreds of feet 
 would come pressing down on the timbers with such force that 
 It was almost impossible to resist it. The worst ground that 
 we came to was the swelling ground. This is .sometimes 
 clay, and soinetimes it is rock. The moment you dig into 
 it, it swells out ; and no matter what size of timbers you use, 
 it will snap them off as if they were but matches. Nothing 
 will resist it. You must let it swell. In one place the 
 swelling was so great that the track swelled up a foot or 
 two seven different times, and each time we had to cut it 
 down. The timbers used are a post and a cap. The pres- 
 sure on this cap would be so great that the post would be 
 pressed through the cap in twenty- four hours— just as 
 though the cap were a piece of cheese. The only way to 
 keep the timbers from breaking, in such ground, was to enj- 
 ploy men to ease up the ground behind the timbers. 
 That is to say, they would take away the rock or clay from 
 behind the posts from time to time, until, after a year or 
 so, the ground settles down to its natural state and does not 
 swell any longer. We have very little trouble of that sort 
 now ; but I suppose we shall encounter it every now and 
 then as we go on with the lateral tunnels. 
 
 Bad Air.— The greatest obstacle encountered by us was 
 the heat and the poor air. Our last opening to the surface 
 was at shaft No. 2, about 9,000 feet from the tunnel entrance. 
 From there we had to go to the Comstock lode, a distance of 
 11,000 feet, without any natural air connection. After we 
 got into a distance of 17,000 feet from the mouth of the tun- 
 nel, the heat became so intense and the air so bad that it was 
 almost impossible to keep the air sufficiently cool and pure 
 to sustain life. There was not oxygen enough in the air to 
 make our candles burn. Although we blew in air by means 
 of blowers and air-compressors, still at times there was not 
 sufficient air to ena.ble the men to work. In the placewhere 
 the men were at work we could generally manage to keep 
 the air sufficiently pure ; but at some distance back from the 
 face of the tunnel the air was so bad that one could hardly 
 exist. In fact, in going through these portions of the tun- 
 nel, the men would often give out ; and as for the mules, 
 we could not get them there at all. A mule would make 
 straight for the air pipe, and you could not get him away. 
 We had one mule that would not go away from the air pipe 
 at all. They beat him, but it was of no use. He had to be 
 carried out, and that mule escaped. He never went into the 
 tunnel again. A shift mule would always want to go to 
 where the stream of air was rushing in, and he would mo- 
 nopolize it all to himself. He would never leave it, but 
 would stand there, and as he bobbed his head up and down 
 past the pipe, you would hear the air whistling by him. 
 
 Accidents. — We had some sad accidents happen. These 
 air pipes are made of galvanized iron, and the leakage is 
 prevented by wrajjping the joints with canvas which is cov- 
 ered with tar or with white lead. I recollect that one day 
 after a blast had been fired, one Garnett, the man whose 
 duty is was to keep these joints wrapped, went forward (he 
 was nearly fainting) to the end of the air pipe near the face 
 of the tunnel ; but before he got there, he fell down in a 
 swoon. When the blaster went forward to examine the 
 blast which had just been made, he found that two of the 
 holes had not gone off, and so he reconnected them and fired 
 the blast while this poor man was lying on the ground. It 
 did not kill hira, although he was riddled with rocks. He 
 had about a hundred large and small pieces of rock in him, 
 one being in the back of his head. I thought that he could 
 not live for ten minutes ; but he is alive now and as well as 
 ever._ The most curiou^ part of it is that for a long time 
 previous this man had been in ill health, and that applica- 
 tion of rocks cured him. He has told me often since '' that 
 confounded thing cured me." It was rather a severe cure 
 but it was effectual. 
 
 As we approached shaft No. 2, 900 feet from the tunnel 
 entrance, which had been abandoned some time previous 
 because it had filled by a great influx of water to the depth 
 ot about 900 feet ; we bored a diamond drill-hole into it and 
 the pressure of that column of water, 900 feet high was so 
 
 great that it threw out the drill-rod and cast it a distance of 
 several hundred feet, although the rod weighed several hun- 
 dred pounds. 
 
 Caves. — Not long ago some timbers broke down, and the 
 report came to me that a man had been killed. We found, 
 however, that he was not injured, but that he had been caved 
 on and could not get out. I started in with the doctor to see 
 how he was getting on. We found that all the work had 
 stopped, and that the man, who had been working in the 
 ditch which we were then constructing in the floor of the 
 tunnel for the purpose of carrying off the hot water, had 
 been caved on and become surrounded by a lot of loose, 
 fine gravel, up to his chest, and that the water running in 
 around this gravel had packed it so tightly that the man 
 could not move. We had to get him out in some way, and 
 so three or four men (which were as many as could get into 
 the confined space) got down alongside of him and tried 
 to dig him out ; but as fast as they would, the gravel would 
 cave in again. When I reached the place the man had been 
 fast for three or four hours. The miners had built dams 
 above in the tunnel to stop the water from flowing down ; 
 for if the water had been permitted to come down, it would 
 soon have risen to his mouth, and would have drowned him. 
 He was so fast that he could only move the upper part of 
 his body a little. I urged the men to work away with all 
 their might at the dam to keep the water back ; but after 
 awhile they reported that it was of no use, that the water 
 was rising above the dam. We did not want to see the man 
 killed, and used every effort to rescue him. I told the men 
 to pass a rope under his legs, and try to pull him out. We 
 thought we had better pull him out, even if it did injure 
 him somewhat, rather than let him drown ; but as soon as 
 we began to pull, he commenced to cry out, so that we had 
 to gjive that plan up. Then the men dug again for awhile, 
 until the foreman came and said that if we did not get him 
 out within ten minutes, the water would be down in such 
 volume as to drown him. Then the men worked again with 
 the rope for dear life ; at last they got one leg out, then they 
 gave another jerk, and brought the man out. 
 
 Hospital. — As I have remarked, we employ a surgeon. 
 There were many accidents although we had less than there 
 were in other works. In the Hoosac tunnel, 185 men were 
 killed in the construction of the work. In our tunnel, but 
 12 men were killed, and I do not. think that of the 12, more 
 than three or four were killed by anything actually happen- 
 ing in the tunnel itself. I told our men several years ago. 
 that every man employed by the company must pay three 
 dollars per month toward a hospital fund ; that the company 
 could not afford to give the men all the attention that they 
 ought to receive in case of accident. The men remonstrated 
 a good deal against this; they did not wish to spend their 
 money in that way ; each one thought that no accidents 
 would happen to himself; but I made this payment com- 
 pulsory, and after awhile the men became reconciled to it. 
 We employed a physician and opened a drug store. If a 
 man was injured he received every attention. He had the 
 care of nurses, physicians and medicine. But these miners 
 are all members of an association, the Miners' Union, which 
 does not permit of any man to work a shift of eight hours 
 under four dollars per day. All the mine manngers have 
 agreed to yield to their wishes, and I think a man working 
 in these hot places well earns his four dollars. But some-' 
 times the union will interfere with us where they should 
 not. They sent a deputation to me not long ago, tosay that 
 we were not paying four dollars per day. I said that we 
 were. They said that we deducted three dollars per month 
 for the hospital, and that therefore the men only received 
 one hundred and twenty-seven dollars per month, which was 
 not four dollars per day. I replied that that was for the 
 benefit of the men themselves ; that it was a work of benev- 
 olence ; that I had inaugurated it solely for the benefit of the 
 men. They insisted that the men should not be compelled 
 to pay anything to that fund ; and as we had to complete a 
 certain amount of work at a given time, and could not af- 
 ford to get into any trouble with the men, we had to yield 
 in this matter. 
 
 Starting a Graveyard. — One labors under all sorts of 
 difficulties in dealing with the men. It seems ridiculous ; 
 but the most difficult thing we had to do was to start a grave- 
 yard. It took some three yeari to start it. Whenever a 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 951 
 
 man got killed or died, the men would get up a big funeral, 
 and go off to Virginia City or some other place and bury the 
 man. All work had to be stopped for one or two shifts. They 
 would each lose their $4.00 for wages; would pay $300 or 
 $400 more for teams ; and some would drink so freely as to 
 be unfit for work the following day. I was determined to 
 put a stop to that. So said I to the men : " Why cannot we 
 have a grave-yard of our own and bury our men here ? " I 
 had a grave dug for the next man that died. The dead 
 man's friends came and said they would not have the man 
 buried there. I asked them why ? They said that " it would 
 be too lonely for the poor fellow." That seems ridiculous, 
 but it is a fact. I did not wish to have any trouble over the 
 matter, and so I let them bury the man where they chose. 
 Every time a man died we had just the same trouble again. 
 At last two miners got killed who had not paid their fees to 
 the Miners' Union, and had been discarded. They had no 
 friends there to object, and so we buried them there, and 
 thus were able at last to start our own graveyard. 
 
 Advantages of the Sutro Tunnel. — But, gentlemen, 
 I fear that I am detaining you too long with these outside 
 matters, and will now begin to speak about the advantages 
 of the Sutro Tunnel itself. The first great advantage of the 
 Sutro Tunnel is, that it creates a new base of operations. 
 We open a new surface for mining operations — a surface 
 which is in fact a better surface than the original one. We 
 are down 1,700 feet from the surface, and can introduce 
 
 hundreds of millions. The Comstock lode has already 
 yielded something like $400,000,000, and there is in it an 
 enormous quantity of low grade ore which has not been 
 taken out. 
 
 Drainage. — The next important advantage secured by 
 the tunnel is that we carry off the water. Instead of pump- 
 ing this immense body of water to the surface, it is pumped 
 into our tunnel, which saves 1,640 feet of pumping. When 
 I last left the work there were running out about 12,000 tons 
 of water every twenty-four hours. To lift this water to the 
 surface, estimating it ata very low rate— indeed, at much less 
 than it actually costs, say at 25 cents per ton, it would cost 
 $3,000 per day to pump it out to the surface. In order to 
 carry off this volume of water (and we agreed to take the 
 water within ninety days from the time we made the settle- 
 ment with the mining companies), we had to provide the 
 means. Some of this water has a temperatureof 165° ; some 
 has a lower temperature ; where it is all mixed together it 
 is about 130° or 135°. If we were to let this water flow 
 through this open tunnel, a distance of four miles, the heat 
 would be so great that we could use the tunnel for no other 
 purpose ; the steam would suffocate the men. We were 
 therefore compelled to construct a drain, and to place a 
 wooden box in this drain. We had quite a controversy over 
 the way this drain should be effected. Every man had his 
 own ideas as to the best way ; each engineer thought that he 
 knew all about it. I contended that if we were to construct 
 
 ■JiS^KHOUHT OMilDSOH 
 
 \iaafaiM ovE mEsEAiarti- 
 
 [y::-;| sypiTB 
 |;Vi.| PROPmTE 
 
 Ife^ TBMaVTE 
 
 COReUMERATE 
 SIHER LODES 
 
 Fig. 8.— The Suteo Tunnel. Geological cross-section of the country from the entrance of the Sutro Tunnel to and be- 
 yond the Comstock Lode; also the four shafts on the tunnel line. 
 
 water through the shafts, and thus get a fall of 1,700 feet ; 
 or we can take the water which exists at some point between 
 the surface and the tunnel and let it flow down to run the 
 machinery which is placed at the tunnel level. We thus 
 could get an abundant water-power. A very small stream 
 of water with a pressure of 1,700 feet .will give an immense 
 power. The time will come in'the working of these mines 
 when they will economize all of the water. In fact, the 
 water which is brought in pipes from the Sierra Nevada 
 Mountains can be most profitably used for that purpose ; 
 and the time will come when it will be so used extensively. 
 You can readily perceive that a new surface at that point 
 adds just aa much to the working possibility of the Com- 
 stock lode. 
 
 The lode extends down indefinitely, and the ore bodies 
 recur at different places; we cannot tell exactly how or 
 where, because the distribution seems not to be governed by 
 any known law. The tunnel adds to the working possibility 
 of that lode certainly 1,640 feet, which is the level at the 
 point where the Savage shaft is intercepted by our tunnel, 
 and that shaft is away down the hill. That is, of course, an 
 incalculable advantage ; foi: those 1,640 feet are surely added 
 to the working possibility of the Comstock lode, and ought 
 to be worth to it a great many millions of dollars, perhaps 
 
 a wooden flume, perfectly tight, of 3 inch yellow pine, we 
 should be able to carry off the water and not radiate much 
 heat from it. Others disputed it. I had machinery built 
 for planing, tonguing, and grooving this yellow pine, and 
 which cut it off, all in the same operation, so that the con- 
 struction of this box was done at a very reasonable cost. We 
 placed these boxes and joined them together with slips of 
 iron i by IJ inch, which were driven into tlie end of the 
 boxes, and it made a continuous box so perfectly tiglit that 
 when the covers (which were also tongued and grooved) 
 were nailed on, and the water was turned in, there was not 
 a leak from one end of the tunnel to the other ; and, to the 
 utter astonishment of everybody, the temperature of the 
 tunnel has not been increased materially hy the passage of 
 the hot water through it ; and the water, which was at 130° 
 on entering the box, after flowing the four miles still has a 
 temperature of 123°, having lost only 7° of heat in the pass- 
 age. After it gets to the mouth of the tunnel the water is 
 conducted down a shaft in the machine shop, where we have 
 a water wheel placed at the bottom of the shaft 60 feet in 
 depth, from whence the water is carried off by a tunnel, 
 1,100 feetin length, which serves as a tail race. From this" 
 small tunnel the water flows about a mile and a half to the 
 Carson River. This water can now be used for many pur- 
 
952 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 poses. The first who utilized it were the boys, who made 
 small ponds to swim in at the lower end of the town. It can 
 be turned to account in heating hot houses. We have a rich 
 soil there, which, if covered over by gla;.s, will produce early 
 vegetables and fruit at very little cost. We use the water 
 first for power and then for irrigation. 
 
 Farming'. — We have quite a farm belonging to the com- 
 pany, which will become very profitable indeed. The com- 
 pany owns over five thousand acres of land. The soil is very 
 fertile, and all that is needed to make it highly productive 
 is water. The water from the Comstock lode is particularly 
 well adapted for irrigation, because it contains in solution 
 sulphate of lime or gypsum, which is of itself a valuable 
 addition to the soil, although that land is now so rich that 
 it does not need any fertilization whatever. 
 
 Ventilation. — ^The tunnel will also be of great advan- 
 tage for the purpose of ventilation, not so much, however, 
 by the air going four miles directly through the tunnel ; for 
 we find that does not answer so well as to use the air in the 
 lateral tunnels by connecting every shaft with the other 
 shafts. By that means we get a, draught of air from shaft to 
 shaft that is wonderful. Not long ago we were laboring 
 under a great difficulty in the south header of the tunnel 
 which was not ventilated. In fact, for three months we 
 could not do anything. The men in these heated places are 
 taken with " cramps," as they call it. We really did not 
 know what the difficulty was, until one day a mule died 
 while in there, and I had the surgeon hold a post-mortem 
 examination on it. He found every organ perfectly sound, 
 until he came to his lungs, which were found to be congested 
 with blood. We can carry ventilation down the shafts as 
 deep as they may go ; and this fact will make it possible to 
 work the mines at much greater depths than they have yet 
 been worked. The great volume of air going through a shaft 
 causes an evaporation of moisture which covers the sides of 
 the shaft, and in that way lessens the temperature. Up to 
 lately it was so hot in the north header that the men could 
 not do a full day's work ; but about two weeks ago we made 
 the connection by a drift with a shaft, and now the air there 
 is delightful, and our men are doing double the work that 
 they did before. This shows how much depends upon a 
 proper system of ventilation. It is worth millions to the 
 mines. When the temperature is so high and the air so im- 
 pure as it usually is in the mines, the men cannot do much 
 work ; in the hottest- places it takes six to eight men to do 
 a day's work ; a man can only work five minutes at a time, 
 and then he must retire to a cooling station ; but if you 
 give the men good cool air, they can do a day's work. 
 
 Low Grade Ore. — Another very important thing in 
 connection with our tunnel is the fact that it will make pos- 
 sible the extraction of the eaormous body of the low-grade 
 ore in the Comstock lode. As I have already said, $400,000,- 
 000 have been extracted from the diflferent bonanzas. People 
 speculate in mining shares to make a fortune, and they want 
 to make it overnight ; and in searching for these bonanzas 
 they have passed by the low-grade ores, because they thought 
 they would not pay, or would pay so little as to amount to 
 nothing worth the effi)rt required. By means of our tunnel 
 we can transport the ore to the mouth for one cent per ton 
 per mile, which is as cheaply as the best regulated surface 
 railroad cau do a similar work. We can affijrd to take these 
 ores out and reduce them at the mouth of the tunnel. We 
 have not yet commenced doing this ; it has taken so much 
 money for other purposes that we have not been able to do 
 anything yet with the low-grade ores ; but the time is coining 
 when we shall be able to utilize them. Suppose that we are 
 able to work 1,000 tons per day, which would not be consid- 
 ered very heavy work on the Comstock lode; thiit would 
 give at least $2 or $3 per ton profit. They are willing to sell 
 the ore to us at $1 per ton. We have established ii scale of 
 prices by which we are to pay $1 per ton for ore which yields 
 under $15 per ton. But rock that yields $15 to the ton will 
 assay a good deal more. Everything that we can get out of 
 it is so much clear gain to the world ; for under the old sys- 
 tem they can never utilize these low-grade ores. I think 
 there are $300,000,000 or $400,000,000 to be extracted from 
 these ores now in .sight in the 200 miles of drifts on the lode 
 — enough to last for a hundred years' steady work. 
 
 Cheap Firewood.— There are other sources of revenue 
 that the Sutro Tunnel Company will have. The Carson 
 
 River, which flows within a mile and a half of the tunnel 
 entrance, has its rise in the Sierra Nevada Mountains. There 
 is wood enough there to last for many years, which can be 
 floated down for less than $5.50 per cord. We can, by con- 
 tracting therefor, a season in advance, get our wood there 
 for less than $5 ; it is worth in Virginia City $10 per cord,_ 
 and they often get $12, and the consumption is 600 cords 
 per day. It will not cost over$1.50 to deliver it at Virginia 
 City. There is also a profit to be made from the sale of 
 timber. 
 
 Ice. — ^Thereis another article which maybe made remun- 
 erative, and that is ice, which is used in these mines to an 
 extent which is really marvelous. The quantity of ice water 
 that a man working in the mine will drink would astonish 
 you. You know what you can do in that way when taking 
 a Turkish bath ; but they can discount that several times 
 over. They drink it by the gallon. The men will rub ice 
 all over their bodies, and it does not make them feel chilly. 
 They get so heated that the ice feels comfortable to the 
 body. When the surveying engineers go into the mines 
 they have to take with them big sacks of ice to rub their 
 heads and bodies, or else they could do no work. I cannot 
 state the number of tons per day used at the mines ; but 
 there is more ice used there than there is in the whole city 
 of San Francisco. It sells there for $20 per ton. Certain 
 parties largely monopolize the ice business there; but some 
 of the mining companies are ready to take ice from us. We 
 can make it for fifty cents per ton. It freezes from six to 
 fifteen inches thick every winter. We shall have a tram 
 road down to the river, propelled by water pcjwer, over 
 which we can haul up wood, timber, and ice. That will be 
 a great advantage in connection witla the workings of these 
 mines. 
 
 Royalty. — I will refer, in conclusion, to the royalty to 
 which we are entitled. Before the settlement made last 
 spring we were entitled to a royalty of 82 per ton for every 
 ton of ore taken from the mines in all future time. Whether 
 it was taken through the tunnel or not, they were to pay us 
 $2 per ton. We, however, partly yielded our rights, and 
 agreed to take $1 per ton for all ore that yields under 840 
 per ton, and for all ore that yields over $40 the old rate of 
 $2 per ton was retained. As the lateral tunnels progress 
 our revenue will increase. I think that the royalty alone will 
 in the end amount to $100,000 per month. 
 
 We have another source of revenue, from the transporta- 
 tion of men and ores. The royalty is received for draining 
 the mines. We receive that without doing any further 
 service. For the transportation of ore and men we will make 
 additional charges. On ore or rock we are entitled to 
 charge 25 cents per ton per mile. Negotiations are now 
 pending for opening some of the mines east of the Comstock, 
 and the people will want to go to work throngh the tunnel 
 and to take their ore out through it. 
 
 Mineral Land Grant. — I think that the most important pos- 
 session of the Sutro Tunnel is its mineral grant. Under the 
 Act of Congress of 1866, there was given to the Tunnel Com- 
 pany a strip of mineral land 2,000 feet in width on each side 
 of the tunnel, forming the very heart of the Comstock coun- 
 try. The tunnel runs at right angles with the Comstock 
 lode, which it reaches in a distance of four miles. After 
 passing the Comstock lode we may go still three miles far- 
 ther, through Mount Davidson, and beyond it. As fai- as 
 this strip of land is concerned, we have discovered and 
 opened several large ledges. AVe have cut one vein 120 feet 
 thick, and we have just commenced to prospect it. We have 
 run into it on one side — that is to say, we prospect the vein 
 for a width of 4 feet, which is the size of the drift. That 
 does not explore the vein. After we get in a certain distance 
 we propose to cross-cut it at given intervals. AVe get assays 
 of that ore varying from $2 to $43 per ton. There is no body 
 of it that will assay at that rate; it is only in spots tliat it 
 will do it. These veins are all of the same nature as the 
 Comstock lodo. We may here come across as big a bonanza 
 as has ever been found on the Comstock lode. These veins 
 were probably formed at the same time, and thej' may all 
 unite somewhere; but we can never get to that place, as it 
 is probably two or three miles down. Under the Act of Con- 
 gress, we are entitled to all the mineral deposits we find on 
 that grant, which wore not owned in 1S66, and worked ac- 
 cording to the mining laws. The Comstock lode is, by 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 953 
 
 words, specifically excepted ; so that, of course, we have no 
 claim to any part of it ; but the Comstock mines have to 
 pay their contributions for benefits derived. 
 
 To the other veins I think we have a pretty clear title, 
 with the possible exception of one or two mines, which the 
 companies claim to have possessed and held before this act 
 was passed. 
 
 So far aa our grant of land beyond the Comstock lode is 
 concerned, I think it will before long be prospected by con- 
 tinuing the tunnel beyond its present end. We have to cut 
 through the syenitic mountain, which nobody else could ever 
 pierce. People there think that there are no mineral veins 
 in the syenite. 
 
 Mount Davidson. — I have visited many of the mining dis" 
 tricts of Europe, and I found that at Schemnitz, in Hungary, 
 there is precisely the same formation as at the Comstock lode. 
 I have mingled specimens of the country rock from the two 
 places, and I have never found anybody in Nevada who 
 could tell them apart. We have the syenite there, as well 
 aa the greenstone and the trachyte. We find at Schemnitz 
 half a dozen veins in the syenite that have been worked for 
 a long time. We know that there are outcrops on Mount 
 Davidson which show well in metal. They have not gone 
 into Mount Davidson, because they have been afraid of strik- 
 ing water. We do not care how much water we strike, for 
 it will flow off through the tunnel. The water all comes 
 from that side, from the Sierra Nevada Mountains. They 
 have not gone into that mountain because they were afraid 
 of being drowned out, and also because the rock is so hard 
 that the men say that they can never get through it. I think 
 that in this respect they are mistaken. We have never yet 
 seen any rock that we "could not go through with a 5 inch 
 percussion drill. With it we can strike a blow of 1,000 
 pounds, at the rate of 300 per minute, which will drive the 
 drill through almost anything. But we are not yet prepared 
 to go into Mount Davidson. It will take considerable money 
 to do so, and we have a use for all the money at present. 
 The time will come before long when we will go ahead with 
 that. 
 
 The same formation existing east of the Comstock lode 
 also occurs beyond Mount Davidson. We there find the 
 same propylite, with specimens of gold, on the surface, al- 
 though there is no well-defined ledge. But you cannot tell 
 anything about these outcroppings until you get down to a 
 considerable depth, for the surface is all covered over with 
 dibris. You may find ore there, and you may not. ifou 
 may find a chimney there. It is a mistaken idea to suppose 
 that, because you find a vein of ore, you may be able to dig 
 out the whole vein. The ore occurs in all mineral veins, in 
 zones, chimneys, and spots. There is always some uncer- 
 tainty in working a mine. You may explore and find a 
 good showing of ore, but you cannot tell how far the ore goes. 
 Experience teaches us that this is uncertain. But the ore 
 does occur in zones, and you may have to dig a long dis- 
 tance through the vein before you find another zone. 
 
 Longevity of Mining Districts. — But if you take a 
 whole mineral district you will find that there is a most ex- 
 traordinary permanency about the aggregate yield. History 
 tells us that the mines of Cornwall have been worked for 
 over three thousand years, and they are being worked to 
 this day, and the yield still is very considerable. The same 
 is true of the mineral deposits of the Hartz Mountains. The 
 mines there have been yielding for over eight hundred 
 years. The same is true of the district of Freiberg. That 
 has also been worked for centuries, and it still furnishes a 
 good yield. . . 
 
 If you take the district of Schemnitz, you find that it is 
 the same. If you go into Mexico, you find that the mines 
 of the Veta Madre, of Guanajuato, have yielded over $800,- 
 000,000, and are yielding still. If they were to put up proper 
 works there they could continue to work those mines for 
 centuries to come. There is a chance for an enterprising 
 man to go and dig a tunnel into those mines. I do not, my- 
 self, want to dig any more tunnels ; it takes too long a time. 
 So, too, the mines of Veta Grande, of Zacatecas, are still 
 yielding four or five millions per year, though they have 
 been worked almost since the discovery of America. 
 
 I consider that an enterprise like the Sutro Tunnel, based 
 as it is upon the results obtained in a whole raining district, 
 furnishes one of the most promising and surest investments 
 
 in the world. It may take time to realize, but it is sure. 
 These every-day ventures are gone into by e ferybody, and, 
 as a result, there is only a little money to divide. 
 
 Security of Title. — Under the act of Congress we are given 
 certain rights. At that time the United States was the sole 
 owner of these lands. At the time of the passage of the 
 Sutro Tunnel Act the government owned in fee all the 
 mineral lands in the West. Shortly after that time a gen- 
 eral law was passed, giving a title to any man under certain 
 conditions who wants to purchase mineral lands. Immedi- 
 ately succeeding the Sutro Tunnel Act, this general act was 
 passed. But our act has the precedence over all others, and 
 our title is better than the title of anybody else holding 
 mineral lands ; for ours is the first act and the first grant of 
 mineral lands made by the Government of the United States 
 since its organization. 
 
 The cost of the Sutro Tunnel thus far has been about 
 $3,800,000. That is according to the last balance sheet, and 
 is exclusive of interest. Adding the interest, it would figure 
 up about three millions more during the ten years. So I 
 estimate the total cost of the tunnel to be about $7,000,000. 
 
 I have taken up your time much longer than I intended. 
 I could go into other phases of the history of the tunnel, 
 but it would take entirely too long. 
 
 — An Address by Adolph Sutro, before the BuUion CH-ub of yew York. 
 
 Nickel in Oregon.— At a late meeting of the San Fran- 
 cisco Microscopic Society, the first public and reliable no- 
 tice was made of the important discovery of a large deposit 
 of a rare form of nickel ore at a place about eight miles from 
 the town of Canyon ville, Douglass county, southern Oregon, 
 and three miles from the Oregon and California railroad. 
 The deposit closely resembles that discovered in New Cala- 
 donia, in 1864, as will be seeafrom an article on the subject 
 in another column of this issue. Professor Liversidge, in 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 C5" 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 t~ 
 
 «j 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 o 
 
 !§ 
 
 Silica 
 
 48.21 
 
 40.35 
 
 47.23 
 
 47.90 
 
 Iron and Alumina oxide, 
 
 1.38 
 
 133 
 
 l.h6 
 
 ' 3.0O 
 
 Nicliel oxide 
 
 23.88 
 
 29.66 
 
 24.01 
 
 24.00 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 19.90 
 
 21.70 
 
 21.60 
 
 12.51 
 
 Water 
 
 6.63 
 
 ' 7.00 
 
 526 
 
 12.73 
 
 
 ^ =-o 
 
 * >S 
 
 •^2 
 
 BO- 
 
 
 
 
 50 1 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 S-ffS 
 
 
 
 P "^-o-g. 
 
 a pT3 
 
 
 S-'S'o 
 
 
 So®© 
 
 -t D" 
 
 
 
 o-^'™^ c 
 
 o « f= 
 
 =:k = 
 
 
 ^oqtR 'ji 
 
 » » 
 
 
 ~t tfl 
 
 
 o S 5 1 
 
 < 3 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 n J^ P 
 
 01 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5-SjS 
 
 
 S-S.K, 
 
 5 '^ 
 
 ffl 
 
 ^ H ro 
 
 
 C n> 
 
 oro to 
 go? 
 
 s^ 
 
 
 
 Is? 
 
 (Pa"' 
 
 -t a 
 
 1l 
 
 a 
 
 :• a.7> 
 
 trT3 
 
 §3 
 
 
 !i|- 
 
 
 
 
 
 O -? Cn 
 
 ffi >! 5-' 
 
 3 -* 
 
 C 00 
 
 
 ^_ 0) ■" 
 
 013%(J 
 
 a'< 
 
 C -- 
 
 
 ■O - „ 
 
 ffl o- 
 
 
 
 
 
 "is 
 
 
 ?3 
 
 1874, read a paper before the University of Sydney on the 
 " Nickel Minerals from New Caledonia, " wherein he says : 
 "These minerals consist of two hydrated silicates of nickel 
 and magnesia, which are found in small veins and fissures, 
 traversing the serpentine occurring at Mont D'Or, not far 
 from the town of Noumea, New Caledonia. They are asso- 
 ciated with chromo iron, steatite and other minerals com- 
 monly occurring in serpentine, and are seen disseminated 
 through the loose blocks and bowlders of that rock scattered 
 over the surface of the ground. The chief differences 
 between the two minerals are found in some of their physi- 
 
954 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 cal properties, for chemically they do not differ so widely ; 
 in fact, both forms contain nearly equal proportions of 
 nickel ; their other constituents, however, vary considera- 
 bly. " In the " Transactions of the Royal Society of New 
 South Wales, '- for 1876, is a long notice by the Vice- 
 President of that society on the deposits of nickel ore in 
 New Caledonia. In a pamphlet by Gapt. A. E. Bruno, 
 lately published in San Francisco, he says : " New Cale- 
 donia, discovered by Capt. Cook over 100 years ago, is, 
 next to New Zealand, the largest island in the great 
 South sea, being upwards of 220 miles in length and 40 
 in width. Its valleys and transverse plateaux contain 
 large areas of transcendent fertility, teeming with sponta- 
 
 neous vegetation; yet no product of this prolific island 
 figures in the world's commerce, except its sandal-wood, 
 gold, copper aud nickel ore — ^the latter presenting itself 
 in the form of a magnesium hydro-silicate, which has re- 
 ceived the name of garnierite. '' Dr. Hood has given the 
 following comparative analysis of the Oregon and New 
 Caledonia nickel ores: (see preceding page.) 
 
 The peculiarity of this rare deposit of nickel will be 
 highly interesting to mining geologists, and we hope, ere 
 long, to see w:orks erected for its reduction in or near 
 San Francisco, as the demand for this useful metal is daily 
 increasing. 
 
 — Mining and Scientific Pras. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 955 
 
 PART XL 
 
 STATISTICS OF MINES AND MINING— AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL PRO- 
 DUCTION—THE COAL FIGURES FOR 1881— GOLD AND 
 SILVER TOTALS— THE MINING COMPANIES 
 
 'HE reader has, doubtless, by this 
 time, hastened on to Part XI of the 
 Mines, Miners and Mining In- 
 terests OF THE United States, 
 to dip into the great sea of statis- 
 tics and fish out for himself grand 
 columns and pregnant totals upon 
 the enormous mining interests of 
 this continent. The figures of the 
 Iron and Steel production, com- 
 piled by the accurate Mr. Swank, 
 are properly preceded with his report on the same subject 
 prepared for the Tenth Census. The results of Mr. Clarence 
 King's work in the same direction are given, with the maps 
 prepared by him and published by the Census Bureau. The 
 final reports of Mr. Raphael Pumpelly not having been pub- 
 lished as late as August 15th, 1882, we have inserted, perforce, 
 his preliminary papers upon the subjects under his charge. 
 Other statistics gathered fi:om other sources are added, and 
 the part concludes with a long list of mining companies, 
 which has been compiled at great trouble under the most 
 careftil supervision. 
 
 THE PRODUCTION OF THE PRECIOUS 
 METALS. 
 
 THE following is from the Report of Mr. Clarence King, 
 Tenth Census of the United States : Three principal 
 methods have been adopted by statisticians in study- 
 ing the bullion production of the United States. The 
 first and most obvious plan has been to use as a basis the re- 
 ceipts of domestic buluori reported bjr the several mints and 
 United States assay oflices, ascertaining the probable total 
 product by adding to the figures thus obtained the amount 
 shipped abroad, as shown by the custom-house retiu-ns, and 
 the probable amount consumed in the arts. The objections to 
 this method are: The amount coined within a certain period 
 does not necessarily correspond to the production for that 
 period. In the same way the proportion of the domestic 
 product exported may be largely affected by the stock of 
 precious metals on hand at any given time. Both of these 
 variations depend primarily upon fluctuations in the bullion 
 market and international balance of trade. An average of 
 a long series of years would give tolerably accurate results ; 
 but for any stated period the figures of coinage, export, and 
 
 consumption in the arts are apt to be deceptive. Assuming 
 the source of the bullion deposited at the mints to be cor- 
 rectly stated, there are still serious and unavoidable defects 
 in the custom-house statistics, notwithstanding the care 
 taken to secure accuracy. No account is taken of bullion 
 transported overland into Canada, nor are the export figures 
 for dor^' bullion, base bullion, ores, and matte shipped 
 abroad always to be depended upon. This difficulty is par- 
 ticularly manifested in the last three instances. The regu- 
 lations; prescribed by the custom-house authorities are not 
 followed by penalties sufficient to insure accurate invoicing 
 of the values thus exported. It is well known that during 
 the period of intense speculation in gold a very large pro- 
 portion of both receipts and exports even of gold coin 
 was entirely hidden fi-ora official scrutiny, with a stul greater 
 margin in the bullion movement, and although the induce- 
 ments to a concealment of the actual movement do not now 
 exist in the same force, it is still doubtful whether the official 
 figures are entirely reliable. A less important source of 
 error is the undisputed fact that not infrequently bullion of 
 domestic production, after having been snipped abroad, is, 
 from changes in the silver-bullion market or from the neces- 
 sities of coinage, reimported into the United States. It will 
 thus be seen that the best results which can be hoped for 
 from the most careful application of the "consumption and 
 export " method, are close approximations extending over 
 considerable periods, but not the exact product for any 
 given year. The system also fails to segregate the yield ac- 
 cording to the productive source ; and while the geographi- 
 cal distribution by state and territorial lines may be shown, 
 it is hardly possible to carry the analysis further and ascer- 
 tain in this way the yield of single districts or even counties. 
 The director of the mint has examined the bullion product 
 of the country critically from the "consumption and eX- ' 
 port" point of view, employing as a supplementary means 
 of information the details obtainable by correspondence and 
 circulars scattered through the mining districts. The sub- 
 stantial accuracy of the estimates thus reached has been 
 fully borne out by the results of the present investigation. 
 The second or "transportation" method consists in esti- 
 mating the product from the statistics of the express com- 
 panies, freight lines, and banks which have the handling of 
 the product from its original sources. This plan would give 
 more satisfactory results if, in the first place, all the bullion, 
 ores, etc., were transported from the producing points 
 through these different channels alone; and. if, in the second 
 place, none of the product were reshipped from point to 
 point and thus twice recorded. As a matter of fact, there is 
 a considerable portion of the gold yield sent through the 
 mails as registered matter, and a large proportion passes 
 from the -productive source into the market through private 
 channels. Both of these means of conveyance are affected 
 by proximity to main lines of communication, or, on the 
 
956 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 other hand, by the absence of express or railroad facilities ; 
 and in neither can the exact efi'ect of these circumstances 
 be very definitely counted upon. In the Pacific states and 
 territories the great bulk of the mine output is handled by 
 Wells, Fargo & Co.'s express, and upon the detailed returns 
 of the many ofBces of this company Mr. J. J. Valentine, 
 general superintendent, has been enabled to furnish very 
 valuable estimates of the bullion production, covering a 
 long series of years. The business connections of this ex- 
 press company in portions of the country not covered by 
 their agencies, have rendered it impossible for Mr. Valen- 
 tine to frame approximate estimates of the product of the 
 mining territory outside of that from which Wells, Fargo & 
 Co. are the principal transporters of bullion. But the im- 
 possibility of assigning to other channels the due proportion 
 of the outflow through them; the fact that no record is 
 made of the value of the gold bullion and dust sent through 
 the mails ; that no reliable allowance can be made for the 
 undervaluation of gold dust and unassayed bullion by 
 consignors, amounting in many cases to from five to ten per 
 cent. ; that there is no satisfactory means of checking the 
 reshipments which are twice or more times recorded, com- 
 bine to create a large margin which can hardly be definitely 
 accounted for in making the total estimates. Notwithstand- 
 ing these palpable but unavoidable defects in the system, 
 much credit is due Mr. Valentine for the painstaking care 
 with which he has prepared his annual estimates. 
 
 The third system is one which, were it practicable to 
 pursue it into complete details, would lead to results more 
 satisfactory than could be obtained in any other way. This 
 may be termed the direct method. It would consist, if 
 properly carried out, in obtaining from each bullion pro- 
 ducer a statement of the quota contributed. The aggregate of 
 the details thus reached would represent the actual total pro- 
 duct of the country, and would, moreover, segregate it accord- 
 ing to districts. In the census work conducted by the United 
 States Geological Survey, the plan indicated has been fol- 
 lowed to as minute detail as it was possible to extend it with 
 the means at command. No attempt had ever been pre- 
 viously made which aimed at securing individual returns 
 throughout the whole United States with the same degree 
 of thoroughness: though the successful adoption of the 
 direct method by Mr. A. Del Mar, in his investigation of 
 the silver product of Nevada in 1876, showed the advan- 
 tages of the plan. But even with all the care and time ex- 
 pended by the experts engaged in collecting these statistics, 
 
 it was found to be impracticable to do more than obtain re- 
 turns from the larger producers. In some instances well- 
 based and careful estimates were submitted by the experts, 
 covering aggregates of a large number of small mines, for 
 whole districts. In other cases, and more especially in por- 
 tions of the country where placer-mining on a small scale 
 furnished a large proportion of the yield, reliance had to be 
 placed on extraneous data. The chief obstacles encountered 
 in the collection of bullion statistics directly from the pro- 
 ducers were: 
 
 First. The wide extent of the field to be covered, and the 
 vast number of mines to be reported upon. Even were the 
 mines located in easily accessible places, the wide range of 
 territory over which they are scattered would render the 
 laborof personally visiting each productive district a tedious 
 matter. But when it is considered that they are for the most 
 part to be found in rugged mountainous tracts, often at high 
 altitudes, and, when destitute of railroad communication, to 
 be reached only by stage or on horseback, some idea may be 
 gathered of the amount of work involved. 
 
 Second. The fact that a considerable yield is derived from 
 small mines, the product from each of which, however in- 
 significant in itself, goes to form part of an important aggre- 
 gate, and should not be neglected. 
 
 Third. The reluctance of some mine owners and super- 
 intendents to give a full account of their operations, 
 notwithstanding the strictly confidential manner in 
 which these individual statements have been treated. 
 On explanation of the purposes for which the statistics 
 were collected, such objections were in most cases over- 
 ruled, however, and invariably great courtesy was persoii- 
 ally manifested. 
 
 Fourth. The fact that in a large majority of cases no 
 systematic accounts are kept by mine owners, who were 
 often unable to state from memory the precise output of 
 their properties for a period which had elapsed some time 
 before the inquiry was made. 
 
 Fifth. Many mines having changed hands during the 
 census year, it was frequently impossible to obtain from the 
 present holders a statement of the operations conducted 
 prior to the change in ownership, or to communicate with 
 the former owners if they had'removed. 
 
 Sixth. When in the case of mines worked during only a 
 portion of the census year, or during a season limited by the 
 weather, water supply or other causes, operations had been 
 suspended at the time the district was visited by the examin- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CALiIPOUNIA— PRODUCTION OP DBEP 
 
 
 ConrMj. 
 
 r 
 
 Average assay vuliui per 
 
 Total assay value of ore raised during census year. 
 
 1. 
 
 1 
 
 Average yield per ton. 
 
 
 
 Golil. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold 
 
 and 
 
 silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold 
 and 
 silver. 
 
 
 
 Totm. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Otmces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 4 
 6 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 Amador . ... 
 Calaveras , 
 
 El Dorado. . . . 
 Fresno. . , . . 
 Inyo. . . 
 
 Lassen 
 
 Los Angeles . . 
 
 Mariposa. . 
 
 Mono . , . . 
 
 Nevada ... 
 
 Placer 
 
 riumag 
 
 San Bernardino. . . . 
 
 San Diego 
 
 Shasta . . . . 
 Siskiyou .... 
 
 Trinity 
 
 Tuolnmno . . . 
 
 Total 
 
 Additional production 
 estimated from trans- 
 portation statistics... 
 
 Grand Total . . 
 
 114,018 
 
 42,028 
 
 4,620 
 
 578 
 
 6,714 
 
 2,079 
 
 200 
 
 16,600 
 
 67,211 
 
 68,433 
 
 3,000 
 
 113,879 
 
 489 
 
 16,613 
 
 8,010 
 
 22,290 
 
 800 
 
 10,406 
 
 14 62 
 10 74 
 
 20 70 
 160 00 
 
 6 01 
 
 21 08 
 
 ■ 17 10 
 51 95 
 
 21 lil 
 25 00 
 
 9 01 
 20 45 
 
 22 30 
 *15 flii 
 
 12 20 
 *35 00 
 15 11 
 
 ' 13 00 
 
 69 06 
 
 63 
 
 100 00 
 
 ' lb 69 
 49 
 
 (19 
 170 90 
 
 "U 48 
 44 
 
 38 
 
 14 02 
 10 74 
 
 20 76 
 103 00 
 
 74 67 
 
 21 71 
 100 00 
 
 17 10 
 62 54 
 
 22 40 
 26 00 
 
 9 12 
 191 35 
 
 22 30 
 *29 44 
 
 12 04 
 *35 00 
 
 15 49 
 
 81,050.4 
 22,102.1 
 6,832.3 
 4,194.1 
 1,027.0 
 *2,120.2 
 
 ■ 13,783.0 
 143,772.0 
 01,937.0 
 3,028.1 
 49,773.0 
 483.7 
 17,802.4 
 •■6,182.3 
 13,153.9 
 *1,:|54.6 
 
 1,675,584 
 
 458,131 
 
 120,504 
 
 80,700 
 
 33,033 
 
 *43,828 
 
 284,920 
 
 2,1*72,051) 
 
 l,2?^O,304 
 
 75,000 
 
 1,I12S,012 
 
 9,099 
 
 .309,249 
 
 ♦127,799 
 
 271,915 
 
 *28.000 
 
 5,812 
 361,''79 
 *l,O00 
 24,750 
 
 7,514 
 407,744 
 «1,305 
 32,000 
 
 1,075,584 
 
 458,131 
 
 120,504 
 
 94,214 
 
 601,377 
 
 *46,133 
 
 32,000 
 
 284,920 
 
 3,578,196 
 
 1.309,232 
 
 76,000 
 
 1,039,059 
 
 93,672 
 
 -* 309,249 
 
 *236,'i99 
 
 281,240 
 
 •28,000 
 
 161,180 
 
 108,130 
 
 40,503 
 
 4,520 
 
 678 
 
 6,714 
 
 2,079 
 
 200 
 
 10,000 
 
 .57,108 
 
 6S,4;)3 
 
 3,000 
 
 113,870 
 
 389 
 
 10,513 
 
 7,880 
 
 22,290 
 
 800 
 
 10,400 
 
 12 49 
 
 8 48 
 21 21 
 
 1211 00 
 3 S3 
 16 71 
 
 10 '69 
 48 44 
 15 21 
 20 00 
 6 03 
 
 ' 11 40' 
 12 08 
 
 9 11 
 27 60 
 12 S2 
 
 ' 10 40 
 
 36 62 
 
 60 
 
 147 00 
 
 'a '33 
 
 33 
 
 06 
 164 65 
 
 '•11 '34 
 31 
 
 29 
 
 12 49 
 
 8 68 
 21 21 
 
 130 40 
 39 45 
 17 21 
 
 147 00 
 10 09 
 66 77 
 15 64 
 20 00 
 6 09 
 
 104 55 
 14 40 
 23 42 
 
 9 42 
 27 60 
 12 61 
 
 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 li 
 It 
 15 
 10 
 17 
 13 
 
 408,820 
 22,328 
 
 ' 7,848' 
 04,040 
 
 ' *83,.5:i3 
 7,217 
 
 006,115 
 28,808 
 
 10,147' 
 83,573 
 
 *io3,ooo' 
 
 9,331 
 
 
 7,603.9 1.57,180 
 
 «3,004 
 
 *4,000 
 1,368,027 
 
 «'185,205 
 
 
 
 479,028 1 
 *05,213 
 
 18 84 
 '•18 84 
 
 2 84 
 *2 84 
 
 21 03 
 *21 08 
 
 430,628.0 
 69,434.1 
 
 9,023,834 
 *1,228,012 
 
 1,050,830 
 143,248 
 
 10,382,461 
 •1,413,817 
 
 470,038 
 •65,213 
 
 16 10 
 *16 10 
 
 2 00 
 *2 00 
 
 18 10 
 •18 10 
 
 
 
 644,241 
 
 18 84 
 
 2 84 
 
 21 08 
 
 406,902.1 i 
 
 10,262,446 
 
 1,194,084 
 
 1,5-13,832 
 
 11,796,278 
 
 836,301 
 
 10 10 
 
 2 00 1 
 
 IS 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <■ Estimated. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 957 
 
 ing expert, it was often impracticable to communicate with 
 the only persons able to supply information. 
 
 Seventh. The variation in the fi.-5cal year of the incorpo- 
 rated companies makes it a matter of much difficulty to re- 
 duce the returns to a difl'erent period from that for which 
 the books are kept. 
 
 With means still less adequate than were lately at com- 
 mand, the census authorities in 1870 found it impossible to 
 trace the bullion product of the country at that time. The 
 best results reached by the deputy marshals in certain in- 
 stances hardly amounted to a moiety of the actual product, 
 as known through other sources of information. In the case 
 of the census of 1880, even with greatly increased facilities, 
 there were many gaps in the testimony" which had to be 
 filled out by estimates derived from other data than those 
 collected directly by the experts. Where such estimates have 
 been applied in the tabulation, they have been indicated by 
 an asterisk (*). In all cases a careful scrutiny has been exer- 
 cised in the selection and comparison of material. It is 
 believed, in view of the more extended and fuller details 
 accessible, as compared with previous researches of the 
 same nature, that the results reached in this compilation 
 are as close an approximation to absolute accuracy as it is 
 possible to attain without a far greater expenditure of 
 money and time than the subject demands. In compiling 
 the material at hand, the following system was adopted: 
 The returns in the individual mine schedules were first ab- 
 stracted and grouped into aggregates for districts. Informa- 
 tion as to the operations of the different establishments 
 being in many cases confidential, publication of the results 
 begins with the district exhibits. These, again, are con- 
 densed into tables for counties, and finally into abstracts 
 for whole states and territories. Where a marked dis- 
 crepancy existed between the schedule returns and other 
 reliable data, the necessary additions were entered and the 
 fact that they were estimates indicated. It is hardly neces- 
 sary to remark that the schedules would show deficiencies 
 rather than an excess as compared with correlative data. 
 At the same time the schedules of reduction works were 
 examined, and furnished a valuable check upon the figures 
 derived from the mine reports. In some instances the yield 
 was quoted in ounces of fine metal, as is customary in locali- 
 ties where the ore is reduced by smelting; in others, in 
 ounces of crude bullion, as in the case of placer gold ; in 
 still others, in dollars calculated from the assay value of the 
 bullion; and more rarely in dollars representing the net 
 
 proceeds after deducting the discount upon silver and other 
 charges. In order to present the whole m harmonious shape 
 it became necessary to reduce these various denominations 
 to a uniform standard. That adopted is the ounce of fine 
 metal and its assay value in United States money. The 
 terms are ipterchangeable and appear side by side in the 
 tables of production. As a preliminary step a series of con- 
 version tables was prepared. 
 
 Classification of Mines. — Mines of the precious fnetals 
 are grouped under two comprehensive heads: deep mines 
 and placer mines. The former are workings in primary de- 
 posits, in which the ore usually, though not invariably, 
 occurs in a vein, and while the earlier operations in mines 
 of this class may begin at or near the outcrop of the vein, 
 the tendency is always downwards. The leading varieties 
 of deep mines are : 
 
 1. Mines of free gold, or gold alloyed with a small pro- 
 portion of silver. 
 
 2. Mines of silver ores, containing only traces of gold. 
 
 3. Mines yielding dore bullion from milling ores, contain- 
 ing both gold and silver in appreciable quantities, 
 
 4. Mines yielding base bullion from smelting ores in 
 which the precious metals are associated with larger quanti- 
 ties of lead, copper, etc. 
 
 All of these divisions shade imperceptibly into each other. 
 
 Placer or gravel mines are workings in secondary or frag- 
 mentary gold deposits, including gravels and sands, and are 
 either surface or shallow workings. The leading types are : 
 
 1. Hydraulic mines. 
 
 2. Dry washings. 
 
 3. Booming and shovel-sluicing. 
 
 4. River mines. 
 
 5. Pocket mines. 
 
 6. Drift mines. 
 
 7. Branch mines. 
 
 8. Black sand littoral deposits. 
 
 In the tables of production the classification urder these 
 two main heads is observed. 
 
 Classification of Reduction Works. — In some of the 
 following tables a distinction is made between the produc- 
 tion as shown by the different reduction works, which, like 
 the mines, are divided into two principal classes. These are, 
 first, amalgamating mills, including: 
 
 1. Gold quartz mills. 
 
 2. Mills in which silver ore is treated in the raw state. 
 
 3. Mills in which roasting is practiced before amalgamation. 
 
 TIINKS 
 
 FOR THE YKAU ENDIlVa MAY 31, 
 
 1880. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bullion produced from ore raised and treated during census 
 year. 
 
 1 
 
 Assaif value o.f ore raised durinfj census year and 
 reniaiitimj on Jtand at close oj'year. 
 
 Bullion produced during census yeairjrom ore 
 previously raised. 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Tolal. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Tolal. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Otmces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 DolUirs. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 
 65,332.7 
 16,817.6 
 4,686.6 
 3,355.3 
 1,243.4 
 1,680.6 
 
 1,350,647 
 347,649 
 96,881 
 69,360 
 25,703 
 34,739 
 
 
 
 1,350,547 
 347,649 
 
 96,881 
 
 75,371 
 264,848 
 
 35,776 
 
 29,400 
 
 188,060 
 
 3,241,861 
 
 907,960 
 
 60,000 
 762,527 
 
 64,050 
 237,850 
 184,698 
 210,022 
 
 22,000 
 131,260 
 
 6,482 
 2,125 
 
 1,251.5 
 1,312.1 
 
 25,871 
 27,134 
 
 
 
 25,871 
 27,124 
 
 2,733.2 
 48.4 
 
 56,500 
 1,000 
 
 
 
 66,500 
 1,000 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 *> 
 
 
 
 
 4,649 
 
 184,968 
 
 802 
 
 22,740 
 
 6,011 
 
 239,145 
 
 1,037 
 
 29,400 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 156.7 
 
 3,239 
 
 217 
 
 281 
 
 3,520 
 
 134,224 
 900 
 
 ' 8,000 
 44,526 
 1,065 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■696 
 
 '21 
 
 824 
 
 900 
 
 27 
 1,065 
 
 f; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 9,096.9 
 133,816.6 
 4.3,000.0 
 
 2,902.5 
 36,636.6 
 
 188,050 
 2,766,236 
 888,907 
 .60,000 
 755,276 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,493.1 
 
 134,224 
 
 s 
 
 367,876 
 14,737 
 
 5,608 
 49,540 
 
 475,626 
 19,053 
 
 7,261 
 64,050 
 
 103 
 
 138.1 
 
 2,865 
 
 939 
 
 1,214 
 
 4,069 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 387.0 
 2,152.6 
 
 8,000 
 44,498 
 
 11 
 
 1? 
 
 ■ 100 
 "l30 
 
 483.7 
 ' 628.9 
 
 9,999 
 
 'i3,6bi 
 
 6,342 
 
 8,200 
 
 18,199 
 
 VI 
 
 11,506.0 
 4,605.3 
 9,830.0 
 1,064.2 
 6,204.5 
 
 2.37,860 
 96,200 
 
 203,204 
 22,000 
 
 128,260 
 
 1-1 
 
 *69,145 
 5,273 
 
 »89,398 
 6,818 
 
 13,001 
 
 58.1 
 
 1,201 
 
 6,914 
 
 8,939 
 
 10,140 
 
 15 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 2,320 
 
 3,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 73.1 
 
 1,511 
 
 146 
 
 189 
 
 1,700 
 
 IS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 351,679.4 
 *60,79O-l 
 
 7,260,861 
 *1, 049,925 
 
 727,667 
 100,879 
 
 940,789 
 *130,426 
 
 8,210,650 
 *1,180,361 
 
 8,940 
 
 3,814.3 
 
 78,850 
 
 7,281 
 
 9,414 
 
 88,264 
 
 12,102.2 
 
 250,173 
 
 8,818 
 
 11,401 
 
 261,574 
 
 
 
 
 . . - 
 
 
 . 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 . . 
 
 
 402,469.5 
 
 8,319,786 
 
 828,636 
 
 1,071,216 
 
 9,391,001 
 
 S,940 
 
 3,814.3 
 
 78,850 
 
 7,281 
 
 9,414 
 
 88,264 
 
 12,102.2 
 
 250,173 
 
 8,818 
 
 11,401 
 
 261,574 
 
 
958 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CAliIPORNIA^PROUrCTlOM (CtOIiD) OP HTDRATTLiIC, PLiACXlR, DRIFT AWD RIVER MINES FOR THE YEAR 
 
 ENDIlVa MAY 31, 1880. 
 
 Ctmnttj and district. 
 
 BUTTE. 
 
 Centerville and Helltowu 
 Cherokee Flat .... 
 Ma^alia or Dog Town 
 
 Morria Bavine 
 
 OroviUe ... ... 
 
 CAIAVERA5. 
 
 Mokeliimne Hill . . 
 
 Eobinaon'e Ven-y 
 VaUecito 
 
 PEL NORTE, 
 
 Scattered . . 
 
 EL DORADO. 
 
 Scattered 
 
 UVJUBOLDT, 
 
 Gold Bluffs 
 Orleans Bar . 
 
 Scattered . . 
 
 PLACER. 
 
 Bath 
 
 Dutch Mat 
 GoldEuu . 
 Iowa Hill . . . 
 Michigan Bluffs . 
 
 PLUMAS. 
 
 Claremont .... 
 Light's Canon .... 
 Moonlight Mountain . . 
 North Jj'ork, Feather Biver 
 Seneca . . 
 Scattered 
 
 SHASTA. 
 
 Buckeye 
 
 French Gulch . . . 
 
 Igo 
 
 Northern Shasta County 
 Sawmill Flat .... 
 
 Shasta City 
 
 Southern Shasta County 
 Scattered 
 
 Callahan's Banch 
 Cottonwood 
 
 Totals, by districts. 
 
 Ounces, Dollars. 
 
 Totals, by ccyimtles. 
 
 Ounces. Dollars. 
 
 725.6 
 13,257.6 
 828.1 
 435.i 
 483.7 
 
 3,069.4 
 725.6 
 870.8 
 
 1,306.1 
 2,418.8 
 
 3,144.4 
 
 2,128.5 
 
 2,612.2 
 
 774.0 
 
 ' 6,339.1 
 
 290.2 
 290.3 
 
 4,081.7 
 340.3 
 
 2,943.5 
 
 l,393.i 
 
 6,201.3 
 
 182.8 
 
 1,263.9 
 
 10,158.8 
 
 2,902.6 
 
 3,984,7 
 680.5 
 
 16,000 
 274,057 
 
 17,118 
 9,0U0 
 9,999 
 
 63,450 
 15,000 
 18,001 
 
 27,000 
 60,001 
 
 65,000 
 44,000 
 63,999 
 16.000 
 110,369 
 
 6,999 
 6,001 
 
 84,376 
 7,036 
 
 60,848 
 
 14,400 
 28,813 
 
 107,520 
 3,779 
 
 26,920 
 210,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 82,371 
 12,000 
 
 6,208.0 
 
 *24,877.7 
 
 13,998.2 
 
 7,946.0 
 
 326,174 
 
 77,001 
 
 450,432 
 
 Oounti/ and district. 
 
 SISKIYOU — Continued. 
 
 Galena Hill . . . 
 
 Greenhorn , . 
 
 Humbug 
 
 Indian Creek . 
 McAdam's Creek , 
 Oro Fino , . . , 
 Kattlesnake Creek , 
 Sawyer's Bar 
 Sciad Valley , 
 
 Scott Valley 
 
 South Fork, Salmon Biver, 
 Yreka . , . ' 
 
 STANISLAUS. 
 
 La Grange . 
 
 TRINITY. 
 
 Arkansas Bar . . 
 Ballychoop . . 
 Boalt'sHill , . . 
 Buckeye Mountain 
 Cailon Creek . . 
 Coffee Creek . . ' . 
 Cox's Bar . . . 
 Douglas City 
 Hay Fork , , 
 Indian Creek 
 Junction City 
 Minersville 
 New Biver . 
 Oregon Gulch 
 Bed Hill ". 
 South Fork . . . 
 Taylor's Flat 
 Trinit,y Center . 
 "Weaver Basin . 
 
 TUOLUMNE. 
 
 Big Oak Flat 
 Chinese Camp . 
 Groveland . , 
 Jacksonville , 
 Montezuma . . 
 Scattered . 
 
 Scattered 
 
 Additional production esti 
 mated from tianspoi'ta- 
 tion statistics .... 
 
 Totals, by districts. 
 
 Ounces. Dollars. 
 
 483,8 
 667.9 
 
 1,879.4 
 712.4 
 
 2,419,6 
 943.6 
 314.4 
 
 3,628.1 
 205.1 
 726.6 
 
 3j773 3 
 
 3,104.9 
 
 3,030.7 
 
 37,635.7 
 
 *27,081.7 
 
 *60,423.6 
 
 243,806.7 
 
 Grand total . 
 
 10,001 
 13,600 
 38,851 
 14,726 
 60,015 
 19,503 
 
 6,500 
 76,000 
 
 4,240 
 16,000 
 78,001 
 64,184 
 
 62,650 
 
 777,999 
 
 *659,828 
 
 6,039,932 
 
 Totals, by counties. 
 
 Oimces. DoUars. 
 
 483,992 
 
 62,660 
 
 777,999 
 
 *27,081.7 
 
 'ii50,423,6 *1,042,-U9 
 
 243,800.7 6,030,932 
 
 *171,298.3 
 
 416,105.0 
 
 *3,641,050 
 
 8,580,982 
 
 * Estimated, 
 
 4. Concentration works. 
 
 5. Chlorination and leaching establishments. 
 
 6. Arrastras. 
 
 The second class includes the several varieties of smelting 
 works in which the production of base bullion, matte, or 
 speiss, is a preliminary step toward the final extraction of the 
 precious metals. Placer mines, with the exception of pocket 
 mines and branch mines, require no reducing process, and in 
 the two exceptions named, the mill process is not always a 
 necessary concomitant; in the former, in fact, but rarely. 
 Various systems of reduction by chlorination and amalga- 
 mation have also been applied to black sand deposits and 
 refractory conglomerates containing pkcer gold ; but not to 
 an extent affecting the general principle of classification 
 here maintained. 
 
 [Note.— In each of the tables of production and through- 
 out this discussion, the following explanations apply : The 
 
 a Including §300,000 from " pocket " mines. 
 
 short ton of 2,000 pounds is invariably used. The ore ton- 
 nage is stated in gross tons ; the assay values are of net tons, 
 without allowance for moisture. Mint values are assumed 
 in all cases. The weight of bullion is given in troy ounces 
 of fine metal. The gold ounce is takec at $20,671,884, and 
 the silver ounce at $1.2929. A statement of the estimatecl 
 market value of the silver is elsewhere appended. No ac- 
 count is taken of the valueofthesilver alloyed with placer gold 
 in the primary production tables j as, with very Tew excep- 
 tions, no allowance is made for it in selling. This is treated 
 of separately and the proper addition made in the final sum- 
 mary. The'bullioil yield is given according to the district 
 in which the ore producing it was raised, without regard to 
 the locality where thci oro was reduced. This method of 
 stating the product apportions it with reference to the orig- 
 inal source, so far as it is practicable to trace it. 'Were the 
 yield to be credited to the reduction works, Omaha, Chicago, 
 St. Louis, Newark, New York, and other points remote 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 959 
 
 from the mines would appear as large producing centres, 
 Individual estimated amounts are designated by an asterisk 
 (*); and where such estimates forma considerable propor- 
 tion of the totals, the fact is similarly indicated.] 
 
 California. — In production of gold California still holds 
 the first place, The vast deposits of auriferous gravel con- 
 tinue to yield largely, though their final exhaustion, in view 
 of the enormous hydraulic operations now being prosecuted, 
 is to be looked for at no very distant day. Previous to the 
 discovery of the Bodie district, the placer mines furnished 
 more than two-thirds of the total gold output of the state, 
 but the large yield of that district, amounting to over two 
 and three-quarter millions in gold during the year, in addi- 
 tion to the silver product, has placed the deep mines about 
 on a par with the placera in point of productiveness. The 
 amount of silver contributed by California is relatively small, 
 and comes mainly from two adjoining counties, Inyo and 
 Mono. There is a larger number of actively working mines 
 in California than in any other state or territory, as, owing 
 to the settled condition, transportation facilities, and com- 
 parative cheapness of labor and supplies, it is possible to 
 mine deposits of lower grade than could be made profitable 
 in localities having less advantages of position. The result 
 is that there are, besides a few large incorporated companies, 
 a great many mining properties worked on the small scale, 
 but still profitably, by individual owners. The collection of 
 accurate statistics regarding these smaller claims is a yery 
 tedious and also somewhat uncertain matter. Schedule re- 
 turns were received from 128 deep mines, 147 placer mines, 
 57 amalgamating mills, concentration and leaching works, 9 
 arrastras, and 4 smelting works in this state. These include 
 most of the more important establishments, and are supple- 
 mented by general reports covering in some cases whole dis- 
 tricts. But, with all the care taken by the census experts 
 to cover thoroughly the ground, the subject was by no means 
 exhausted, and in several cases in the accompanying tabula- 
 tions resort has been had to information from outside sources. 
 California furnishes 71.47 per cent, of the total placer pro- 
 duct of the United States, and 40.09 per cent, of the total 
 gold product of the deep mines, or 61.38 per cent, of the 
 total gold product of the country (from all sources). The 
 yield in silver, however, is only 2.80 per cent, of the total, 
 California standing sixth in rank as a producer of the latter 
 metal. In proportion to its area, again, California leads in 
 production of gpld, with an average of $108.30 per square 
 mile; is sixth in its silver yield of $7.27 per square mile; 
 and third as to its output of both metals, $115.57 per square 
 mile. As the population of the state has largely increased, 
 while the mine production has remained nearly at a stand- 
 still for some years, the showing in relation to the population 
 is less favorable, the yield of gold being only $19.83, silver 
 $1.33, and that of both the precious metals only $21.16 per 
 capita, placing California fifth as to gold, and eighth as to 
 silver and the total, in the ranks of the states. The prosper- 
 ity of the state is not, however, dependent upon its mines in 
 the same degree as formerly, agriculture and manufacturing 
 havingoutstripped the earlier industry. 
 
 Nevada. — ^The production of this state shows a consider- 
 able decline, as compared with that of the preceding six 
 years. This is not due to any general falling off in the pros- 
 perity of the mining industry of the state, but to the decrease 
 in the yield of the leading source, the Comstock lode. From 
 1871 to 1879, Nevada had outranked all the other states and 
 territories in its output of the precious metals ; but in the 
 present census year it has fallen to the third place, having 
 been passed by both Colorado and California. With the 
 yield of the outside districts maintained at the existing rate 
 of production, an important discovery of ore in the Com- 
 stock would perhaps raise Nevada again to the first rank. 
 And even without any striking new developments, there 
 is still a reserve of low-grade ore and tailings remaining 
 unworked, sufiicient to give a large and steady product for 
 many years to come. In 1876 the yield of the Comstock, 
 according to Mr. Del Mar's careful analysis, was : gold, 
 
 $18,002,906; silver, $20,570,078 ; total, $38,572,984. During 
 the census year the product of the whole Comstock district, 
 including the Virginia, Gold Hill, and Devil's Gate subdis- 
 tricts, the outlying veins, such as the Occidental, etc., and 
 the yield of tailings worked at various points throughout the 
 entire tract known as the Washoe country, was: gold, 
 $3,109,156; silver, $3,813,174; total, $6,922,330 ; showjing a 
 decline of $31,650,654, or 82.06 per cent., since 1876. The 
 bullion product of Nevada represents an average of $44.16 
 gold, $112.29 silver, and $156.45 gold and silver for each 
 square mile of its area. In this respect Nevada is surpassed 
 by Colorado, the figures for which are $25.98 gold, $159.24 
 silver, and $185.22 total. But with reference to its popula- 
 tion, Nevada, even with the reduced output, remains the 
 richest of the mining states and territories, as its annual 
 product, if distributed equally per capita, would give $78.51 
 gold, $199.63 silver, and $278.14 total to every man, woman, 
 and child within its borders. Notwithstanding the large 
 proportion of adult males, it will be seen that this would be 
 a fair income for the actual working population. The Ne- 
 vada mines, however, are largely owned outside the state, 
 and although they have not, taken as a whole, been profit- 
 able during the year, the local disbursements in wages, ete., 
 continue steadily, so that the inhabitants have a direct in- 
 terest in the prosecution of the work, independent of the 
 question of ownership. 
 
 Placer Mines. — ^The placer yield of Nevada is insignifi- 
 cant. No important gravel deposits having suitable water 
 supply are known to exist. The ground worked is in most 
 cases merely the wash from the croppings of quartz veins. 
 Operations are conducted on a small scale at Tuscarora, 
 Tule Canon, points in the neighborhood of the Comstock, 
 and in a few other isolated spots. The aggregate yield for 
 the year is estimated roundly at $50,000. 
 
 Correlative Statistics. — There is a state bullion tax in 
 Nevada, but in no other state or territory. The assessor's 
 rolls, prepared in collecting this tax, furnish interesting 
 comparative data, which have been condensed into the follow- 
 ing abstracts. The periods selected for comparison corre- 
 spond with the United States fiscal year (ending June 30th, 
 1880). The discrepancies between the census figures and 
 those obtained from assessor's rolls are mainly due to the 
 natural undervaluation attending the collection of informa- 
 tion for the purpose of taxation, and the escape of many 
 small amounts from enrollment all together ; and in a less 
 degree to the fact that the United States fiscal year is one 
 month later than the census year. 
 
 Utah. — The bullion product of Utah is remarkably steady, 
 varying latterly but little from year to year. This territory 
 presents facilities for arriving at a true valuation of the pro- 
 duct which are wanting in many other mining localities. 
 The mines are more concentrated, the yield coining from a 
 comparatively few but rich claims, and the bulk of the ore 
 is treated by a few large smelting works and mills, where 
 accurate accounts are kept. It is therefore easier to collect 
 full statistics of the product than in regions where the bul- 
 lion is derived from a vast number of sources, each one of 
 which fhrnishes only a small quota, as is the case where 
 placer-mining forms an important factor. The census figures 
 for Utah are also the more reliable from the fullness and 
 clearness with which the schedules were prepared by the 
 special expert for the territory. The tabulation of the pro- 
 diet is based on returns from 535 deep mines, 1 placer mine, 
 18 amalgamating mills, 84 smelting works, and 10 miscella- 
 neous metallurgical establishments, consisting of sampling, 
 concentration and leaching works. Many of these sources, 
 were, however, unproductive during the census year. The 
 silver-lead ores sold to the smelters are in many cases trans- 
 ported for reduction out of the district in which they were 
 raised ; and as their identity is lost in the mixture of ores 
 from all portions of the territory, and even from other states 
 and territories, it is impossible to segregate tjie bullion yield 
 by districts. 
 
960; 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 NEVADA— PRODUCTION BY COtJNTIES OF DEEP 
 
 
 
 s* 
 
 Average assai/ value per 
 ton. 
 
 Total assay value of ore raised during census year. 
 
 , IS 
 
 Average yield per to^. 
 
 
 
 li 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^1 
 1.1 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gold 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 Gold 
 
 
 County. 
 
 ^s 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 and 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 and 
 
 
 • 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 silver. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 silver. 
 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1 
 
 Elko 
 
 13,221 
 
 11 71 
 
 122 82 
 
 134 63 
 
 7,492.0 
 
 n64,873 
 
 1,255,965 
 
 1,623,837 
 
 1,778,710 
 
 11,721 
 
 9 31 
 
 99 27 
 
 108 58 
 
 « 
 
 Esmeralda . 
 
 20,731 
 
 5 44 
 
 53 49 
 
 68 93 
 
 7,825.9 
 
 161,776 
 
 1,229,931 
 
 1,690,178 
 
 1,761,954 
 
 29,361 
 
 446 
 
 44 88 
 
 49 33 
 
 3 
 
 Eurelca. . ... 
 
 82,013 
 
 19 23 
 
 38 84 
 
 68 07 
 
 76,304.5 
 
 1,577,354 
 
 2,464,082 
 
 3,185,812 
 
 4,763,166 
 
 79,392 
 
 16 37 
 
 .34 88 
 
 61 25 
 
 4 i Humboldt. . 
 
 11,458 
 
 8 24 
 
 34 83 
 
 43 07 
 
 4,666.6 
 
 94,398 
 
 308,666 
 
 399,074 
 
 493,472 
 
 io;644 
 
 6 14 
 
 28 49 
 
 34 03 
 
 6 ' Lander . . 
 
 8,166 
 
 
 161 22 
 
 161 22 
 
 
 
 1,018,315 
 
 1,316,679 
 
 1,316,679 
 
 7,751 
 
 .... 
 
 143 19 
 
 143 19 
 
 r> 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 14,399 
 
 1 31 
 
 54 81 
 
 66 12 
 
 910.9 
 
 18,830 
 
 610,466 
 
 789,271 
 
 808,101 
 
 10,398 
 
 22 
 
 48 78 
 
 48 00 
 
 7 
 
 Nye 
 
 23,817 
 
 1 33 
 
 30 75 
 
 32 08 
 
 1,637.6 
 
 31,578 
 
 666,431 
 
 732,339 
 
 763,917 
 
 23,817 
 
 1 11 
 
 26 16 
 
 27 27 
 
 8 
 
 Storey and Lyon . . . 
 
 101,700V< 
 
 21 76 
 
 26 47 
 
 48 22 
 
 170,165.1 
 
 3,617,418 
 
 3,310,016 
 
 4,279,518 
 
 7,796,936 
 
 161,700 
 
 16 31 
 
 19 86 
 
 36 16 
 
 9 
 
 White Pine. . 
 Total 
 
 11,647 
 
 63 
 
 61 00 
 
 61 53 
 
 294.9 
 
 6,096 
 
 644,867 
 
 704,459 
 
 710,565 
 
 11,647 
 
 42 
 
 60 83 
 
 .61 25 
 
 
 -V^n n.'^9i^ 
 
 15 62 
 
 41 06 
 
 56 68 
 
 269,077.4 
 
 5,662,323 
 
 11,308,738 
 
 14,621,067 
 
 20,183,390 j 
 
 346,331 
 
 12 3S 
 
 33 47 
 
 45 82 
 
 
 
 
 PRODCCTION OF I.X:ADI9ra COMSTOCK MIIVES. 
 
 
 Consolidated Virginia " 
 mine. 
 
 California mine. 
 
 * Union Consolidated mine. 
 
 \Ophir mine. 
 
 t Sierra 
 
 . Nevada. ' 
 
 mine. 
 
 Montli. 
 
 Ore 
 milled. 
 
 Sullion 
 produced. 
 
 Ore 
 mUUd. 
 
 Bunion 
 produced. 
 
 Ore 
 milled. 
 
 Bullion produced. 
 
 Ore 
 maied. 
 
 Bullion produced. 
 
 Bullion 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Sih-er. 
 
 Total. 
 
 shipped. 
 
 1879. 
 
 Jtine . . . 
 July. . . 
 
 Tons. 
 
 3,466.5 
 4,745.5 
 4,739.0 
 4,072.0 
 4,113.0 
 4,859.0 
 4,674.0 
 
 6,209.0 
 4,230.0 
 4,338.0 
 4,607.5 
 6,830.5 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 127,007 81 
 189,303 08 
 160,215 03 
 100,020 81 
 168,476 62 
 198,359 56 
 169,503 65 
 
 194,222 13 
 128,168 72 
 161,386 01 
 173,642 25 
 205,778 01 
 
 Tom. 
 
 6,193.5 
 4,454.5 
 4,411.0 
 4,228.0 
 3,573.0 
 4,141.0 
 3,626.0 
 
 5,391.0 
 2,220.0 
 1,188.0 
 2,408.6 
 2,169.5 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 186,963 10 
 108,739 63 
 101,107 73 
 124,606 78 
 67,840 37 
 126,772 28 
 191,206 77 
 
 164,106 71 
 39,930 92 
 28,411 80 
 60,004 70 
 65,334 64 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Tom. 
 
 1,341.45 
 1,629.00 
 1,716.00 
 1,730.00 
 1,496.75 
 1,636.65 
 1,346.65 
 
 1,6.58.00 
 
 1,600.00 
 
 951. SO 
 
 765.20 
 
 228.65 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 30,964 47 
 66,711 69 
 40,196 29 
 41,277 79 
 49,238 37 
 41,184 14 
 19,633 86 
 
 26,343 42 
 
 27,398 61 
 
 7,929 29 
 
 8,688 19 
 
 3,950 60 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 42,992 78 
 62,879 03 
 48,430 40 
 66,094 46 
 66,015 68 
 61,735 28 
 28,812 41 
 
 34,323 27 
 .31,348 49 
 10,683 11 
 10,347 98 
 6,028 04 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 73,967 25 
 108,690 72 
 
 88,626 69 
 
 96,372 26 
 115,863 95 
 102,919 42 
 
 48,446 27 
 
 60,666 69 
 68,74710 
 18,612 40 
 19,036 17 : 
 8,978 64 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 60,388 77 
 101,860 94 
 
 August. . 
 September 
 Octobar. . 
 November 
 
 
 
 
 46,347 76 
 
 December 
 
 1880. 
 
 January . 
 Kebruaiy 
 March. . 
 April . , . 
 May . . . 
 
 5,200.75 
 
 3,336.00 
 4,760.00 
 9,003.15 
 6,016.88 
 2,713.22 
 
 144,905 25 
 
 61,223 69 
 98.927 23 
 169,219 89 
 61,125 47 
 31,004 06 
 
 132,iil8 38 
 
 64,493 93 
 98,896 07 
 191,586 91 
 91,166 17 
 39,877 26 
 
 277,283 63 
 
 115,717 62 
 197,822 30 
 360,806 80 
 162,291 64 
 70,881 32 
 
 14,646 28 
 31,843 86 
 
 Total . 
 
 64,884.0 
 
 1,965,083 68 
 
 42,988.0 
 
 1,263,023 39 
 
 .30,019.00 
 
 666,406 69 
 
 608,337 72|'l,174,B03 31 
 
 15,890.05 
 
 352,516 72 
 
 448,290 83 
 
 800,807 65 
 
 253,986 60 
 
 'i' Milled at the Brunswick and Morgan mills. 
 
 t All treated at the Trench mill. 
 
 JAll ore during census year treated at Mariposa mill. 
 
 TAXED PRODUCT OP THE NEVADA AIINES. 
 
 [From reports of the State Controller, containing abstract statements of the quarterly assessment rolls for the years 1879 and 18S0.] 
 
 County. 
 
 EIlM . 
 Esmeralda 
 Eureka. 
 Humboldt 
 Lander . 
 Lincoln 
 Nye . 
 Storey . 
 AVhite Pine . 
 
 do. 
 . do. 
 . do. 
 . do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 . do. 
 
 THl&D QUARTER, 1879. 
 
 Quantity worked. 
 
 Humboldt . . 
 Lyou . . . 
 Ormsby . . 
 Storey . . 
 White Pine . 
 
 Total tailings . 
 
 . Tailings 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 . do. 
 
 6,872 
 6,319 
 
 26,283 
 2,466 
 1,766 
 6,724 
 6,648 
 
 34,819 
 7,020 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1,138 
 196 
 
 1,297 
 
 1,758 
 
 04 
 
 1,000 
 
 682 
 
 Gross yield 
 or value. 
 
 600 
 
 6.733 
 
 29' 200 
 
 16,365 
 
 3,267 
 
 $464,568 98 
 209,037 DO 
 902,679 81 
 68,086 00 
 178,380 13 
 158,277 02 
 145,281 18 
 
 1,130,145 fit 
 242,565 60 
 
 Nel yield or 
 
 value on 
 
 which tax is 
 
 levied. 
 
 3,100 00 
 
 28,724 69 
 
 261,837 11 
 
 126,022 40 
 
 11,936 02 
 
 $288,755 12 
 
 29,300 81 
 
 304,900 09 
 
 18,644 41 
 
 69,873 61 
 
 86,366 24 
 
 6,666 00 
 
 876,063 06 
 
 67,306 93 
 
 1,197,866 07 
 
 600 00 
 
 5,440 87 
 
 12;),894 00 
 
 37,776 68 
 
 2,788 42 
 
 421,620 22 170,609 63 
 
 FOURTH QUARTER, 1879. 
 
 Quantity worked. 
 
 Tons. Pounds. 
 
 .3,.197 
 6,177 
 
 23,015 
 4,223 
 1,351 
 4,4,65 
 6,676 
 
 41,143 
 1,197 
 
 780 
 7,6:15 
 16,410 
 
 38,700 
 
 960 
 
 1,032 
 
 700 
 
 1.1,S 
 
 1,653 
 
 ■rii 
 l,:!7l- 
 
 1,250 
 
 1,833 
 
 Gross yield 
 or value. 
 
 $164,462 76 
 
 279,666 39 
 
 822,196 79 
 
 1.34, Ml 67 
 
 122,927 18 
 
 126,679 37 
 
 184,697 64 
 
 1,593,328 30 
 
 60,963 61 
 
 3,487,763 71 
 
 3,400 00 
 39,361 90 
 140,066 78 
 34,628 40 
 33,365 68 
 
 JTei yield or 
 
 value on 
 
 which tax i» 
 
 levied. 
 
 $41,601 99 
 
 132,047 18 
 
 278,981 76 
 
 55,264 28 
 
 52,218 92 
 
 2.3,883 27 
 
 37,816 61 
 
 656,542 J2 
 
 7,362 07 
 
 1,28,5,718 10 
 
 676 00 
 11,901 SO 
 63,852 33 
 8,514 88 
 6,089 68 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 961 
 
 MINES FOR THIS YBAK ENDING MAY 31, 1880. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bidllon produced from ore rained and treated during census 
 year. 
 
 1 
 
 •1 
 
 Assay value of ore raised during census year and 
 remaining on liand at close of year. 
 
 Bullion jiroduced during census year from ore 
 preeumsly raised. 
 
 
 GoU. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 GoU. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 SOver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 
 6,281.4 
 0,324.3 
 62,893.4 
 3,100.7 
 
 " 111.3 
 
 1,284.0 
 
 127,010.4 
 
 109,170 
 
 130,735 
 
 1,300,122 
 
 06,337 
 
 ' 2,301 
 
 .. 20,643 
 
 2,038,065 
 
 4,877 
 
 899,928 
 
 1,019,318 
 
 2,141,621 
 
 234,602 
 
 858,439 
 
 392,365 
 
 481,883 
 
 2,482,612 
 
 463,944 
 
 1,163,617 
 1,317,870 
 2,708,902 
 
 303.265 
 1,109,876 
 
 607,270 
 
 023,020 
 3,209,639 
 
 680,905 
 
 1,272,693 
 1,448,611 
 4,069,024 
 
 308,002 
 1,109,876 
 
 609,677 
 
 649,669 
 6,847,704 
 
 691,782 
 
 *1,600 
 370 
 
 2,621 
 814 
 416 
 
 4,001 
 
 *858.7 
 
 26.1 
 
 1,789.9 
 
 606.5 
 
 *17,761 
 
 640 
 
 37,000 
 
 10,460 
 
 •135,694 
 
 19,367 
 
 62,689 
 
 14,602 
 
 *76,108 
 
 154,730 
 
 *176,309 
 25,027 
 81,061 
 18,760 
 *98,400 
 200,060 
 
 *193,060 
 
 26,607 
 
 118,061 
 
 29,200 
 
 *98,400 
 
 210,054 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1,129 
 
 1,460 
 
 1,460 
 
 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 774.2 
 
 16,004 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 6,932 
 
 651,886 
 
 89,721 
 
 8,962 
 *713,536 
 116,000 
 
 8,902 
 
 1,274,022 
 
 110,000 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 27,142.6 
 
 *661,087 
 
 8 
 
 235.9 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200,907.4 
 
 4,277,166 
 
 8,964,602 
 
 11,690,282 
 
 16,807,438 
 
 9,721 
 
 3,954.4 
 
 81,745 
 
 462,980 
 
 698,687 
 
 680,332 
 
 27,142.6 
 
 *661,087 
 
 049,668 
 
 «839,967 
 
 n,401,044 
 
 
 TAXKD PRODUCT OV THE N£5VADA SllUKS.— Continued. 
 
 
 riBST QUAETEB, 1880. 
 
 BECOKD QUABTER, 1880. 
 
 County., 
 
 QuaniUy worked. 
 
 Gross yield or 
 value. 
 
 Net yield or 
 
 value on which 
 
 ta.z is levied. 
 
 Quantity worked. 
 
 Gross yield or 
 value. 
 
 Net yield or 
 
 value on which 
 
 tax is levied. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Elko ... . . . . . Ores . . 
 
 Esmeralda . do. ; . 
 
 Eureka . .... . . . do. 
 
 Humboldt . do. , 
 
 Lander do. 
 
 Lincoln .... . . do. . 
 
 Nye . .... . do. . 
 
 Storey . . ... do. 
 
 White Pine do. 
 
 1,600 
 7,262 
 
 23,632 
 3,411 
 1,472 
 2,321 
 6,165 
 
 49,113 
 1,101 
 
 007 
 1,044 
 
 200 
 1,942 
 1,623 
 1,430 
 1,350 
 
 760 
 
 895,739 75 
 278,877 06 
 886,708 91 
 
 97,408 00 
 138,433 14 
 
 04,226 18 
 
 122,864 72 
 
 1,019,820 07 
 
 66,059 90 
 
 $22,246 90 
 
 116,280 00 
 
 304,197 11 
 
 36,724 38 
 
 63,923 70 
 
 7,863 72 
 
 9,768 67 
 
 589,987 68 
 
 9,628 20 
 
 1,666 
 8,081 
 
 20,944 
 4,111 
 1,251 
 1,440 
 5,609 
 
 38,846 
 1,361 
 
 1,600 
 
 ' 166 
 371 
 800 
 
 1,610 
 270 
 
 1,611 
 
 861,467 51 
 277,985 63 
 891,492 12 
 
 82,343 16 
 140,188 30 
 
 60,679 26 
 
 128,328 82 
 
 1,138,971 10 
 
 61,363 30 
 
 87,083 01 
 
 80,863 08 
 
 329,038 33 
 
 2.3,678 52 
 
 68,971 79 
 
 9,612 22 
 
 12,680 05 
 
 372,826 33 
 
 0,440 24 
 
 Total ores 
 
 95,871 
 
 1,646 
 
 3,358,197 72 
 
 1,148,699 48 
 
 83,692 
 
 134 
 
 2,822,799 25 
 
 901,689 67 
 
 Humboldt Tailings . . 
 
 660 
 
 160 
 
 26,764 
 
 7,912 
 
 
 2,900 00 
 
 1,060 00 
 
 101,435 77 
 
 66,732 81 
 
 840 OO 
 
 106 00 
 
 17,432 48 
 
 27,693 01 
 
 2,496 
 
 864 
 
 22,940 
 
 13,186 
 
 6,179 
 
 7,030 
 
 30 
 225 
 
 18,629 00 
 8,469 79 
 134,433 37 
 112,440 38 
 43,341 46 
 24,420 22 
 
 8,505 20 
 1,178 79 
 
 Lyon do. 
 
 Ormsby ... . do. 
 
 38,200 78 
 44;il5 19 
 10,311 13 
 
 ■VFUte Pine do. 
 
 6,698 
 
 
 21,685 61 
 
 2,158 66 
 
 2,442 00 
 
 
 
 Total tailings 
 
 40,074 
 
 
 193,704 00 
 
 48,229 04 
 
 62,700 
 
 255 
 
 341,733 21 
 
 104,813 15 
 
 Summary of file Taxed Product of tlie Nevada mines. 
 
 
 
 
 
 QuarUity worJced. 
 
 Gross yield or 
 value. 
 
 Net yield or valve 
 on which tax is 
 levied. 
 
 County. 
 
 Tone. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Elko ... . ... . . Ores . . 
 
 Esmeralda .... . . . . do. . 
 
 Eureka . do. . 
 
 Humboldt ....... .... do. . 
 
 Lander ... . . . do. . 
 
 Lincola ... .... . . do. . 
 
 Nve . . . . . do. . 
 
 Storey . . do. . 
 
 12,320 
 27.440 
 92,775 
 14,210 
 5,842 
 13,942 
 23,989 
 163,927 
 10,671 
 
 460 
 
 777 
 
 700 
 
 709 
 
 1,698 
 
 1,370 
 
 1,105 
 
 600 
 
 193 
 
 8700,218 98 
 
 1,046,666 07 
 
 3,602,137 03 
 
 371,888 82 
 
 679,928 76 
 
 398,701 83 
 
 581,072 36 
 
 5,482,265 07 
 
 419,932 31 
 
 8360,286 02 
 
 367,481 13 
 
 1,217,117 29 
 
 133,311 59 
 
 234,987 98 
 
 77,615 45 
 
 66,810 23 
 
 1,996,420 09 
 
 90,743 44 
 
 
 
 Total ores . . 
 
 366,125 
 
 1,078 
 
 13,147,771 82 
 
 4,6.33,773 22 
 
 Humboldt . . . . . Tailings . . 
 
 Lincoln. . . . . . ... do. . 
 
 Lyon .... . . . do. . 
 
 Ormsby . . . . ... . ... do. . 
 
 Storey ... . . ... . . ... do. . 
 
 4,396 
 1,014 
 03,008 
 00,713 
 28,340 
 23,064 
 
 30 
 
 225 
 
 28,029 00 
 9,619 79 
 303,954 73 
 671,067 08 
 203,992 25 
 
 91,307 43 
 
 10,680 26 
 1,283 79 
 72,984 93 
 259,655 19 
 56,602 09 
 12,478 66 
 
 
 
 Total tailings . . . . do. . . 
 
 186,596 
 
 266 
 
 1,207,870 28 
 
 413,586 61 
 
 61 
 
962 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ITTAH— PRODUCTION BY COPJVTIES OP DEEP 
 
 
 County. 
 
 r 
 
 Average assay value per 
 ton. 
 
 Total assay value of ore raised during census year. 
 
 Ore raised md 
 treated {in the 
 same comUies). 
 
 Average yield per ton. 
 
 
 GoU. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Gold 
 
 and 
 
 silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Wver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold 
 
 and 
 
 silver. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 DoUara. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 DoUm-a. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 BeaTer . . , , 
 Juab . . . ; . 
 Piute .... 
 Salt Late . 
 Summit 
 
 Do. 
 Tooele 
 
 Utah 
 
 Washington 
 Scattered . 
 
 j> 
 Total (a) . . 
 
 19,666.75 
 
 6,250.00 
 
 130.00 
 
 52,606.00 
 
 16,918.33 
 
 7;3i9.'20 
 
 1,957.50 
 
 49,895.00 
 
 *180.00 
 
 43 
 15 05 
 40 72 
 3 0!) 
 
 45 47 
 38 60 
 
 105 92 
 20 39 
 
 126 12 
 
 46 90 
 63 65 
 
 140 64 
 23 48 
 
 126 12 
 
 412.4 
 4,664.3 
 
 256.1 
 7,865.7 
 
 8,525 
 
 94,146 
 
 5,294 
 
 162,598 
 
 691,708 
 
 180,805 
 
 10,650 
 
 827,991 
 
 1,660,400 
 
 894,309 
 
 241,520 
 
 13,770 
 
 1,070,510 
 
 2,133,802 
 
 902,834 
 
 335,666 
 
 19,064 
 
 1,233,108 
 
 2,133,802 
 
 18,015.75 
 3,548.00 
 
 42 
 16 98 
 
 87 14 
 3 16 
 
 37 66 
 20 13 
 
 i 
 6 
 C 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 
 12,000.00 
 12,608.00 
 
 9 69 
 
 63 
 9? 04 
 
 10 22 
 97 04 
 
 
 
 
 56 99 
 
 31 69 
 
 26 71 
 
 *77 57 
 
 50 99 
 31 69 
 20 71 
 *77 57 
 
 
 
 322,630 
 
 47,828 
 
 1,030,744 
 
 *10,800 
 
 417,128 
 
 61,837 
 
 1,332,049 
 
 *13,963 
 
 417,128 
 
 61,837 
 
 1,332,049 
 
 *13,963 
 
 260.00 
 
 
 34 00 
 ' 21 66 
 
 34 00 
 ' 21 66 
 
 46,795.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 154,827.78 
 
 1 75 
 
 39 91 
 
 41 66 
 
 13,088.5 
 
 270,563 
 
 4,779,550 
 
 6,179,488 
 
 0,450,061 
 
 93,116.75 
 
 1 98 
 
 31 33 
 
 33 36 
 
 In the preceding table, which gives the yield by coun- 
 ties, the ore is stated in gross tons, and the assay value and 
 yield is of net tons, the amount of moisture being noted in 
 
 the district table where important. The following is an 
 exhibit of the proportionate anaouats of ore milled and ore 
 
 smelted: 
 
 UTAH— STATEMKWr OP ORIB) lMTi:.IjED AITD SMBliTBD. 
 
 Omnly. 
 
 District. 
 
 Ore milled. 
 
 Ore smelted. 
 
 Total ore 
 treated. 
 
 Percentage 
 of ore miUed. 
 
 Percentage 
 
 of ore 
 smelted. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Beaver 
 
 Do. . ■ ; 
 
 Bradshaw 
 
 San Francisco . 
 
 Star. 
 
 Tintio. ... . , 
 
 Mount Baldy . 
 
 Big Cottonwood . . . . 
 
 Little Cottonwood 
 
 West Mountain (gold mines) ... 
 
 West Mountain (silver-lead mines) . 
 
 Uinta. ... 
 
 Camp Floyd . . . ' 
 
 Ophir 
 
 Rush Valley. ... 
 American Forlc . 
 
 Silver Lake \ 
 
 Harrisburg or Silver Reef . ' 
 
 3,648' 
 
 'l2,000 
 
 12,608 
 200 
 60 
 
 46,796 
 
 1,771.75 
 10,244.00 
 900.00 
 2,258.00 
 80.00 
 1,575.50 
 6,324.50 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 Juab. ... 
 I'iute. ... 
 Salt lake 
 
 Do. . • . . 
 
 Do. 
 
 18,915.75 
 
 5,806.00 
 
 80.00 
 
 '61 
 
 ioo 
 
 100 
 3 
 
 ioo 
 
 100 
 89 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 Summit. . , . ' ' 
 Tooelo , . , 
 
 Do. . . . . ' ' ■ 
 
 Do. . 
 Utah. 
 
 Do. . . . . ■ ; 
 
 Washington. . , , . ' ' 
 Scattered ... .... 
 
 29,956.00 
 605.33 
 
 49,856.00 
 13,073.33 
 
 100 
 100 
 
 1,837.20 
 
 4,032.00 
 
 1,730.50 
 
 121.00 
 
 180.00 
 
 e,'ii9.2d 
 
 1,'857.60 
 
 46,796.00 
 
 180.00 
 
 97 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 76,101 
 
 07,681.78 
 
 142,082.78 
 
 63 
 
 47 
 
 • ^*^® ™ost noticeable feature shown in the foregoing table 
 IS the large proportion of milling ore which Utah furnishes 
 compared with her base ores, although a territory generally 
 supposed to be dependent upon her smelting works It 
 should be noted, also, that of the ore smelted there was a 
 considerable amount which might have been treated by 
 amalgamation but which, because of the absence of proper 
 milling facilities, or because of unusual richness, it was ad- 
 visable to sell to the smelters. But while the percentage 
 by weight of ore milled was 53 per cent., as agaiJist 47 pir 
 cent, for ores smelted, the same proportion does not hold 
 with regard to value, the percentage'^of bullion extracted 
 
 being only 51.08 per cent, for the product of amalgamating 
 mills, as against 48.92 per cent, for that from the smelting 
 works — a nearly even ratio. This difference is accounted 
 for by the fact, that as a rule, the ores smelted, on accoimt 
 of the greater cxjiense usually involved, are richer than the 
 ores which will bour the milling expense, and also because 
 of the higher proportion of the assay contents of the ore ex- 
 tracted by the smelting process, as compared with the mill- 
 ing results. The following analysis of the total bullion pro- 
 duct of the territory shows the relative amounts coming ijom 
 each source : 
 
THj; MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 983 
 
 miNKS FOR. THK TEAR ENDING MAY 31, 1880. 
 
 Bullion produced from, ore raUed and treated during 
 ceiiswi year^ an traced by counties. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Assay value of ore raised during census 
 year and remaining on hand at close of 
 year. 
 
 BuUion produced during census year from 
 ore previous^/ raised. 
 
 ...i... 
 
 Cash receipts for ore 
 sold. {Bullion ac- 
 coutUed for in re~ 
 tarns of emeUing 
 works.) 
 
 
 GoU. 
 
 saver. 
 
 ToUd. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Oold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Average 
 
 price 
 per ton. 
 
 Total 
 receipts. 
 
 
 Omicea, 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounce%. 
 
 DolXare. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Tone. 
 
 Ozs. 
 
 DoUs. 
 
 Omices. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 Oil. 
 
 DoHs. 
 
 Omces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Dottars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 
 369.5 
 2,914.0 
 
 7,638 
 60,238 
 
 617,i63 
 8,663 
 
 669,028 
 11,200 
 
 676,666 
 71,438 
 
 760 
 
 450 
 
 60 
 
 2,650 
 
 3,845 
 
 
 
 30,000 
 5,260 
 1,547 
 
 26,600 
 370,269 
 
 38,787 
 6,800 
 2,000 
 
 34,262 
 478,720 
 
 38,787 
 9,601 
 2,000 
 34,862 
 478,720 
 
 74.6 
 
 1,642 
 
 4,984 
 
 6,444 
 
 a7,986 
 
 900.00 
 
 2,258.00 
 
 80.00 
 
 37,856.00 
 
 665.33 
 
 300.00 
 
 5,869.20 
 
 1,867.60 
 
 8 00 
 45 11 
 98 06- 
 22 76 
 13 13 
 40 00 
 60 42 
 29 68 
 
 7,200 
 102,860 
 
 7,845 
 
 861,789 
 7,420 
 612,000 
 295,947 
 65,135 
 
 I 
 
 135.5 
 
 2,801 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,627,4 
 
 116,320 
 
 4,830 
 938,762 
 
 6,309 
 1,213,725 
 
 122,638 
 1,213,725 
 
 29.0 
 
 600 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 107,911 
 
 139,618 
 
 139,618 
 
 f^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6,575 
 
 8,601 
 
 8,601 
 
 1,200 
 
 100 
 
 3,100 
 
 
 
 12,839 
 3,867 
 67,227 
 
 16,600 
 5,000 
 73,989 
 
 16,600 
 6,000 
 73,989 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 784,065 
 
 1,013,718 
 
 1,013,718 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nso.oo 
 
 *60 00 
 
 *10,800 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8,910.9 
 
 184,205 
 
 2,260,408 
 
 2,922,481 
 
 3,100,686 
 
 12,145 164.5 
 
 3,401 
 
 507,509 
 
 656,168 
 
 659,669 
 
 74.6 
 
 1,642 
 
 112,896 
 
 145,962 
 
 147,604 
 
 49,866.03 
 
 27 20 
 
 1,360,996 
 
 
 * Estiinated.. 
 
 a From 357.5 tonB raised prior to censua jear. 
 
 b For 300 tons concentrationa. 
 
 UTAH— AWAI.YSIS OF PRODTTCT. 
 
 Classificaiion of source. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Aiwalgamating mills, from ore raised during census year ... . 
 
 Ao^algamating mills, from ore raised prior to census year ... 
 
 8175,024 
 
 $2,247,009 
 139,518 
 
 $2,422,033 
 139 518 
 
 
 
 
 
 175,024 
 
 2,386,527 
 
 2,561,561 
 
 
 Smelting-Tvorks, from ore raised during census year . .... 
 
 Smelting.worl£s, fi-om ore raised prior to census year .... 
 
 94,989 
 1,542 
 
 2,349,948 
 6,444 
 
 2,444,937 
 7,986 
 
 
 96,531 
 
 2,356,392 
 
 2,462,923 
 
 
 Total from mills and smelting^worlw .* 
 
 Placer mines ... 
 
 271,655 
 20,000 
 
 4,742,919 
 
 5,014,474 
 20,000 
 
 Total 
 
 291,555 
 
 4,742,919 
 
 5,034,474 
 
 The average product of the Utah milling ores and ores smelted, and the average yield of all the Utah ore reduced 
 by either process during the census year, was as follows : 
 
 UTAH— COMPARATIVE REStTliTS OF TREATMENT. 
 
 
 Metal. 
 
 Average yield of — 
 
 
 Ores milled. 
 
 Ores smelted. 
 
 AU ore treated. 
 
 Gold, per ton 
 
 $2 33 
 29 92 
 
 $140 
 34 78 
 
 «190 
 93 24 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 32 25 
 
 36 18 
 
 35 14 
 
 
 
 
 The next table shows the base bullion product of the 
 Utah smelting works, with the precious-metal contents. It 
 includes the yield of ores sent from Idaho, Montana and 
 
 Nevada to the Utah smelters, and also the product of a 
 small quantity of ore which was raised prior to the census 
 year. 
 
964 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 UTAH— BASE BtJl.t.IOK PRODUCTION OP SMELiTIJVG WOltKS FOR THE YEAR EXDIBTa MAY 31, 1880. 
 
 
 Refined 
 lead. 
 
 Onide bullion, 
 
 iticludiny 
 weiijht of sil- 
 ver and gold 
 contents. 
 
 Precious metals contained in base bullion. 
 
 CcmUy, 
 
 Gold. 
 
 mver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Beaver , , , . . . . 
 Salt Lake ... 
 
 ■ S, 586,370 
 
 8,312,967 
 16,781,778 
 3,118,766 
 
 444.1 
 
 3,731.4 
 
 335.9 
 
 9,180 
 77,136 
 6,944 
 
 622,447 
 
 1,159,583 
 
 131,876 
 
 676,472 
 
 1,499,225 
 
 170,502 
 
 684,662 
 
 1,570,360 
 
 177,446 
 
 
 
 
 Total . 
 
 2,686,370 
 
 "8,213,501 
 
 4.511,4 
 
 93,269 
 
 1,813,906 
 
 2,345,100 
 
 2,438,488 
 
 Deducting from the crude bullion product 322,170 pounds, 
 produced from Idaho, Montana and Nevada ores smelted in 
 Utah, the remainder, 27,891,331 pounds, is the yield of Utah 
 ores smelted in the territory. To this should he added 
 865,500 pounds of crude lead bullion, the estimated yield of 
 
 Utah ores smelted in Chicago and in Omaha. The total crude 
 bullion product of Utah for the census year, is therefore, 
 28,756,831 pounds. 
 
 The gross precious metal product of the Utah smelting 
 works, given in the preceding table, is segregated as follows : 
 
 UTAH— PRODUCT OF ORES SniEl.TED IN UTAH DURING CENSUS YEAR. 
 
 Product. 
 
 GoU bunion. 
 
 Silver hvMion. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Product of smelting works (precious metala contained in baae bullion) . 
 
 Deduct product of Beaver county smelting works . . . . 
 
 4,511.4 
 444.1 
 
 93,269 
 9,180 
 
 1,813,906 
 522,447 
 
 2,345,199 
 676,472 
 
 2,438,458 
 684,652 
 
 Product of smelting works, less product of Beaver county smelting works. . . ... 
 
 From this deduct : 
 
 Ounces. Dollars. 
 
 Product of Nevada ores smelted in Utah (a). . . . . . 14,C94 al9,386 
 
 Product of Idaho ores smelted in Utah (()) , 16,916 !)21,S71 
 
 4,067.3 
 
 84,079 
 
 1,291,459 
 
 1,669,727 
 
 1,753,806 
 
 
 
 
 
 Product of Montana ores smelted in Utah (c) . . . . 6,116 c6,614 
 Product of Nevada sulphides from leaching works . 15,409 20,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 52,496 
 
 67,871 
 
 67,871 
 
 Total . . . . . 52,495 67,871 
 
 
 
 Net product of Utah ores smelted in Utah during census year . 
 
 4,067.3 
 
 84,079 
 
 1,238,964 
 
 1,601,856 
 
 1,685,935 
 
 a359 tons containing 25 per cent. lead. Estimated product, 80.776 tons lead. 
 6 162 tons containing 45 per cent. lead. Estimated product, 66.610 tons lead. 
 c 49 tons containing 30 per cent. lead. Estimated product, 14.700 tons lead. 
 
 In addition to the bullion product from ores which were treated in the territory, there was also a considerable yield 
 from ores and matte shipped to Chicago and to Omaha and reduced at these points. As nearly as ascertainable, this 
 additional product was as follows : ' 
 
 UTAH-BUL,LION PRODUCED FROM UTAH ORES AND MATTE, TREATED E1.SEWHERE THAN IN THE 
 
 TERRITORY. 
 
 
 Assay value per Um. 
 
 Total assay value. 
 
 Estimated yield per 
 ton. 
 
 Extimalid product la be included in 
 totalproductivn of Utah. 
 
 
 1^1 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Bold 
 and 
 silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Oold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold 
 
 and 
 
 silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Ramarks. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Dons. 
 
 Dolls. 
 
 Bolls. 
 
 OiB. 
 
 DoHs. 
 
 Ozs. 
 
 DolU. 
 
 Doth. 
 
 DolU. 
 
 Dolls. 
 
 Dolh. 
 
 Oa. 
 
 Dolls. 
 
 0:s. 
 
 Dolh. 
 
 Dolh. 
 
 
 1,180 
 241 
 
 1 63 
 
 64 54 
 64 64 
 
 66 07 
 64 64 
 
 93 
 
 1,922 
 
 49,689 
 12,060 
 
 04,243 
 16,579 
 
 66,106 
 16,070 
 
 1 49 
 
 49 00 
 61 41 
 
 60 49 
 01 41 
 
 83.7 
 
 1,730 
 
 ■11,7211 
 11,448 
 
 67,819 
 14,801 
 
 69,.'i49 
 14,801 
 
 Con. 805 500 lbs. load. 
 Con. 96,«)01b8.coppor 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,421 
 
 
 
 
 93 
 
 1,922 
 
 61,730 
 
 79,882 
 
 81,744 
 
 
 
 
 83.7 
 
 1,730 
 
 66,168 
 
 72,620 
 
 74,360 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 965 
 
 From the preceding tables the following resume is derived : 
 
 RESVOIE. 
 
 
 BuUion. 
 
 Classification of pi-oduct. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 • Silver.' 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Sonars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 DoHart. 
 
 Bullion product traceable by diBtricts from Utah ore raised diirinp; census year ... 
 
 Bullion product ti-aceable by districtd from Utah ore raised prior to census year 
 
 Ni^t bullion product from Utali ores sold to and treated by Utah smelting works during census year 
 Kstimated bullion product of ores and matte shipped to Chicago and Omaha during census year . 
 Product of placer mines (of West mountaiu district, Salt Lake county) during census yeai- . . . 
 
 8,010.9 
 74. C 
 
 4,1)67.3 
 83,7 
 907.5 
 
 184,205 
 1,642 
 
 84,079 
 1,730 
 
 20,000 
 
 2,260,408 
 
 112,895 
 
 1,238,964 
 
 56,168 
 
 2,922,481 
 
 146,962 
 
 1,601,857 
 
 72,620 
 
 3,106,686 
 147,504 
 
 1,686,936 
 74,350 
 20,000 
 
 Total. .... 
 
 14,104.0 
 
 291,666 
 
 3,668,436 
 
 4,742,920 
 
 6,034,470 
 
 Viah Placer Gold. — The small placer product of the ter- 
 ritory ($20,000 in the census year) was from West Moun- 
 tain district, in Salt Lake county. 
 
 Market Value of Utah Base Bidlion. — The gold and silver 
 contents of the base bullion are sold at a price which allows 
 for the refining charge on each metal, with, of course, the 
 
 market discount on the silver. Thus the gold contents brought 
 from $19 to $20 per ounce, and the silver an average of $1.10 
 per ounce during the census year. The average price of 
 refined lead at Salt Lake City during the same period 
 was 4| cents per pound, and that of unrefined lead $47.50 
 per ton. 
 
 Market value of 2,-586,370 pounds refined lea4 . 
 Market value of 28,756,831 pounds unrefined lead 
 
 Total . 
 
 8122,853 
 682,975 
 
 $805,828 
 
 This represents roughly, the value at the seaboard after 
 deducting freight charges, commissions, etc. There were 
 also $14,160 worth of copper sold, the product of Utah ores 
 worked for the extraction of the precious metals. Adding 
 the market value of the lead and copper, all of it an acces- 
 sory product of the precious metal industries, to the mint 
 value of the precious metals, the total product of the Utah 
 
 mines is raised to $5,854,462. This does not include the 
 value of iron ore sold for flux, and some other small items. 
 Wells, Fargo & Co.'a Estimates of the Utah Bullion Pro- 
 duct. — By way of comparison, the following estimates of 
 the Utah bullion product, furnished by J. E. Dooly, agent of 
 Wells, Fargo & Co., at Salt Lake City, are appended. 
 They are for the calendar years 1879 and 1880. 
 
 WELLS, FARGO &, CO.'S STATEMENT OP THE MINERAL. PRODDCT OP UTAH FOR 18T9. 
 
 Base huUion. 
 
 Lead, refined. 
 
 Lead, unre~ 
 fined. 
 
 Biber. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 
 Powads. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1,739,138 
 
 4,134,832' 
 6,660,208 
 
 30,299 
 3,926,104 
 2,673,200 
 6,128,927 
 
 14,248 
 2.35,004 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 90,006 
 344,836 
 248,936 
 347,313 
 
 64,552 
 
 246,.S39 
 
 267,568 
 
 163,7.36 
 
 6,790 
 
 7,285 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 270 
 
 Germania smelting and refining works ... ... 
 
 2,301,276 
 
 2,202 
 632 
 
 Horn flilver mine (Horn Silver Mining Company's emelter) . 
 Marsac company ....... 
 
 Mingo Furnace company 
 
 Morgan smelter .... .... ... .... 
 
 Old Telegraph company ... 
 
 Pascoe amelter ... ... 
 
 10 
 
 931 
 
 1,480 
 
 92 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Lead, silver and gold, in ores, shipped 
 
 2,301,276 
 
 24,.641,0.50 
 1,900^309 
 
 1,755,360 
 42,229 
 
 6,641 
 62 
 
 Total (ores and base bullion) . . . . . 
 
 2,301,276 
 
 20,441,369 
 
 1,797,589 
 
 6,693 
 
 SQut BARS AND DUST. 
 
 Germania smelting and refining works .... . . 
 
 Ontario Silver Mining company . 
 
 Stewart Mining company . 
 
 Other mills 
 
 Bing;ham placers . . 
 
 leeds district (Silver Keef) 
 
 
 24,680 
 1,165,180 
 
 240 
 
 
 ' ' ' ' 6,999 
 
 
 6,043 
 
 3,000 
 1,000 
 
 
 841,555 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,037,458. 
 
 10,239 
 
 
 
 
 
 EECAPITULATION. 
 
 2,301,27G-pounda refined lead, at 4^ cents per pound * $103,557 42 
 
 26,441,359 pounds unrefined lead, at K45 per ton (average price for 1879) 594,930 57 
 
 3,835,047 ounces silver at $1.10 per ounce (average price for 1879) .■.•_■.■•• *,218,651 70 
 
 15,932"ounce3 gold, at $19 per ounce (average price for 1879) 302,708 00 
 
 Total $5,219,747 69 
 
 Mr.- Dooly states the foregoing exhibit "includes the product of ores received from Idaho, Montana, and Nevada, 
 aggregating 126,000 pounds lead, 102,800 ounces silver, and 200 ounces gold." 
 
986 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 WE:L,L,S, FARGO & CO.'S STATEMENT OF THE MINERAL PRODUCT OF UTAH FOR 1880. 
 
 Chicago smelter 
 
 Gcrmania smelting and reiining works. ... 
 
 Horn silver mine (Frisco smelter) 
 
 Horn silver mine (Horn Silver Mining Company's smelter) . 
 -Mingo Furnace Company. ..... . . 
 
 Morgan smelter 
 
 Old Telegraph Company 
 
 Other smelters ... 
 
 Total 
 
 Deduct base bullion purchased for Germania refining works. 
 
 Net product base bullion 
 
 Lead, silver and gold, iu ores, shipped. 
 
 Total refined lead, ores and base bullion . 
 
 Germania refining works 
 
 Ontario Silver Mining Company . . 
 Tintic Milling and Mining Company , 
 Other mills ... 
 Bingham placers. . 
 Silver Eeef mills. . 
 
 Total dor J bars 
 
 S0K1& BARS. 
 
 Lead, refined. Lead, unrefined. 
 
 Pounds. 
 2,892,498 
 
 2,802,498 
 
 2,892,408 
 
 2,892,498 
 
 2,900,861 
 1,722,865 
 2,017,991 
 6,646,.367 
 6,464,382 
 2,733,782 
 4,242,608 
 152,234 
 
 20,971,080 
 1,360,587 
 
 25,610,493 
 831,600 
 
 26,442,093 
 
 127,382 
 162,909 
 125,722 
 463,552 
 272,832 
 167,374 
 119,401 
 4,841 
 
 1,434,013 
 54,218 
 
 1,379,796 
 24,024 
 
 36,422 
 
 1,439,542 
 
 41,923 
 
 15,798 
 
 846,062' 
 
 2,379,747 
 
 Gold. 
 
 357 
 685 
 650 
 
 075 
 
 619 
 
 159 
 
 44 
 
 2,989 
 134 
 
 2,855 
 23 
 
 2,878 
 
 68 
 
 4,118 
 
 850 
 
 5,142 
 
 EEOAPITULATION. 
 
 2,892,498 pounds refined lead, at 5 cents per pound 
 
 26,442,093 pounds unrefined lead, at $50 per ton (average price for 1880) . 
 3,783,566 ounces silver, at $1.10 (average price for 1880) 
 8,020 ounces gold, at $20 . . . 
 
 Total export value 
 
 $144,624 90 
 661,062 32 
 
 4,161,922 60 
 160,400 00 
 
 $.5,127,099 82 
 
 In explanation, the agent observes : 
 
 The above includes the product of ores received from Idaho, Montana, and Nevada, aggregating 784,460 pounds lead and 120,383 ounces silver, 
 gold and silver at the mint valuation and lead at its value at the seaboard, it would increase the value of the product to $6,450,953.70. 
 
 Computing the 
 
 Arizona. — A marked impulse has been given to the 
 mining industry of Arizona by the fine showing of the new 
 Tombstone district, in Pima county. The bullion produc- 
 tion of this district had only begun in the period covered 
 by the census year. A few months later, with increased 
 mining facilities, a considerably higher rate of production 
 was maintained. 
 
 The accompanying tables contain a probable error of at 
 least 20 per cent., owing to the fact that no schedule data 
 were available for estimating the production from the fol- 
 lowing sources: Various districts in Apache county; in 
 Maricopa county, the Vulture mine (a large producer) and 
 Myers district ; in Mohave county, Aubrey, Hope, and San 
 Francisco districts; in Pima county, Aztec, De Frees, 
 
 Huachucha, Patagonia, Santa Catarina, and Tyndall dis- 
 tricts, also several important mines in Tombstone district ; 
 in Pinal county, Mineral, Pinal, Randolph and Summit dis- 
 tricts, also the Silver King mine in Pioneer district and the 
 Silver Era mine in Globe district ; in Yavapai county, Agua 
 Fria, Greenwood, Hassayampa, Lynx Creek, Martinez, Pine 
 Grove, and Turkey Creek districts ; in Yuma county. Bill 
 Williams' Fork, Eureka, Harcuvar, La Paz, Montezuma, 
 and Weaver districts. The estimates given for the produc- 
 tion from the sources mentioned as not included in the 
 schedule data furnished by the experts accordingly have a 
 wide margin of uncertainty in comparison with the state- 
 ments of the yield of localities from which fuller information 
 was received. 
 
 
 ARIZONA— PRODUCTION BY COUNTIES OF DEEP 
 
 MINES FOR THE 
 
 YEAR ENDING MAY 31, 1880. 
 
 
 Oountij. 
 
 If 
 
 r 
 
 Avera^/e. a^ay value j)er ton. 
 
 Total assay value of ore raised during ceti««« year. 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold 
 
 and 
 
 silver. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Toua. 
 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 DoHm-s. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounees. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 
 Maricopa 
 
 Mohave 
 
 J'ima . ■ ■ 
 
 Pinal . . . 
 
 Yavapai 
 
 Yuma 
 
 Total 
 
 1,989.00 
 2,618.60 
 25,338.00 
 1,201.00 
 6,600.00 
 1,930.00 
 
 1 61 
 
 10 79 
 74 
 
 21 33 
 4 41 
 3 60 
 
 114 43 
 84 30 
 76 82 
 31 60 
 
 123 70 
 35 49 
 
 116 94 
 06 09 
 86 60 
 62 03 
 
 128 11 
 39 06 
 
 145.1 
 
 1,367.1 
 
 11,041.4 
 
 1,239.3 
 
 •1,408.9 
 
 332.0 
 
 2,999 
 
 28,200 
 
 246,861 
 
 26,019 
 
 •20,125 
 
 6,876 
 
 176,039 
 
 170,729 
 
 1,605,428 
 
 29,.352 
 031,487 
 
 62,973 
 
 227,001 
 
 220,730 
 
 1,046,368 
 
 37,949 
 816,460 
 
 68,480 
 
 230,600 
 
 ■24«,996 
 
 2,193,219 
 
 63,568 
 
 846,576 
 
 75,364 
 
 
 39,076.60 
 •8,576.00 
 
 8 56 
 *9 36 
 
 83 01 
 •114 09 
 
 02 17 
 •124 34 
 
 16,434.4 
 •3,877.0 
 
 339,729 
 •80,103 
 
 2,566,003 
 •762,746 
 
 •3,317,593 
 •986,153 
 
 3,667,322 
 •1,066,316 
 
 
 *Additional production 
 
 •Total production 
 
 
 •48,252.60 
 
 *8 70 
 
 *89 19 
 
 •97 89 
 
 •20,312.3 
 
 •416,892 
 
 • 
 
 •3,328,763 
 
 *4 '303,746 
 
 •4,723,638 
 
THE MIXES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 967 
 
 ARIZONA— PRODUCTION BY COUNTIES OF DEKP DIIIVKS FOR THE YEAR ENDING MAY 31, l»SO.~Continued. 
 
 
 1,- 
 1 
 
 Average yield per 
 
 ton. 
 
 Bullion produced from ore raised and treated during 
 
 zensus year. 
 
 County, 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Gold 
 
 and 
 
 aUoer. 
 
 GoU. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tom. 
 
 BoUars. 
 
 Dollan. 
 
 DoUara. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Ilollars. 
 
 Dothn. 
 
 Maricopa. 
 
 Mohave 
 
 Pima 
 
 Pinal, . . . 
 
 Yavapai . . 
 
 264.00 
 893.00 
 12,448.50 
 119.75 
 3,223.00 
 204.00 
 
 10 36 
 9 74 
 
 21 09 
 3 32 
 6 00 
 
 376 44 
 114 49 
 76 82 
 40 33 
 144 79 
 
 376 44 
 124 85 
 86 66 
 61 42 
 148 11 
 6 00 
 
 
 
 76,866 
 70,084 
 
 623,499 
 3,735 
 
 380,033 
 
 99,380 
 
 102,248 
 
 806,122 
 
 4,820 
 
 466,060 
 
 99,380 
 
 447.5 
 4,680.2 
 122.2 
 617.6 
 49.3 
 
 9,261 
 96,748 
 
 2,528 
 10,700 
 
 1,019 
 
 111,409 
 902,870 
 
 7,365 
 477,350 
 
 1.019 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 •Additional production 
 
 17,152.25 
 *8,576.O0 
 
 7 01 
 •7 01 
 
 86 24 
 *86 24 
 
 93 25 
 *03 25 
 
 5.816.8 
 »2,908.4 
 
 120,244 
 •60,122 
 
 1,144.117 
 »672,U09 
 
 1,479,229 
 »739,016 
 
 1,599,473 
 •799,737 
 
 ♦Total production 
 
 *25,728.25 
 
 *7 01 
 
 *86 24 
 
 «93 26 
 
 8,725.2 
 
 *180,366 
 
 •1,716,176 
 
 •'',''18,844 
 
 •2,399,210 
 
 
 1 
 
 Assay value of ore raised during census year and 
 reniaiuintj on liand ai close of year. 
 
 JJuRicn produced during census year from ore previously 
 raised. 
 
 Counti/. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 GoU. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 Maricopa .... 
 
 Mohave ... ..." 
 
 1,725.00 
 1,726.00 
 12,889.60 
 1,081.26 
 3,377.00 
 1,726.00 
 
 146.1 
 
 709.2 
 
 6,848.5 
 
 1,103.5 
 
 *740.2 
 
 61.2 
 
 2,999 
 14,660 
 120,899 
 24,062 
 *15.301 
 1,205 
 
 82,276 
 
 85,737 
 762,674 
 
 15,287 
 210,525 
 
 62,973 
 
 106,375 
 110,849 
 986,061 
 
 19,764 
 272,188 
 
 68,489 
 
 109,374 
 126,.5(;0 
 1,106,900 
 43,816 
 287,489 
 69,754 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 . 
 
 10,029 
 
 14,130 
 
 14,130 
 
 
 
 
 
 Yavapa. .1 
 
 77.4 
 
 1,000 
 
 71,617 
 
 92,694 
 
 94,194 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 •Additional production 
 
 22,624.25 
 
 8,667.7 
 
 179,176 
 
 1,209,472 
 
 1,563,726 
 
 1,742,902 
 
 77.4 
 
 1,600 
 
 82,546 
 
 106,724 
 
 108,324 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *Total production 
 
 22,624.2.) 
 
 8.667.7 
 
 179,176 
 
 1,209,472 
 
 1,603,726 
 
 1,742,902 
 
 77.4 
 
 1,600 
 
 82,546 
 
 106,724 
 
 108,324 
 
 ARIZONA— PRODUCTION OP PIjACER MINES FOR 
 THE YEAR ENDING MAY 31, 1880. 
 
 
 County and district. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 Castle Creek . . 
 ITassayampa . . 
 Walker. . . 
 Walnut Grove . 
 Weaver Ko. 2 . 
 
 Yavapai Cottntt. 
 
 ved from schedule data . . . 
 stion, estimated 
 
 :ion, estimated 
 
 72.5 
 103.5 
 241.9 
 
 48.4 
 241.9 
 
 1,499 
 4,000 
 6,000 
 l.COl 
 6, COO 
 
 Total, as den 
 Additional produ 
 
 798.2 
 •053.0 
 
 16,500 
 •13,499 
 
 Total produc 
 
 •1,461.2 
 
 •29,999 
 
 * EBtiloated. 
 
 Idaho. — The tabulation of the output of this territory is 
 based upon reports of the examining expert on 369 deep 
 mines, 14 placer mines, 18 amalgamating mills, 2 arrastras, 
 and 2 smelting works, besides several general reports on 
 whole districts. From 1876 up to the close of the census 
 year, the product of this territory has been mainly depend- 
 ent upon the older mining districts, of which the placer 
 mines of Boise basin have contributed a large proportion. 
 The panic in the stock market of San Francisco in 1876 led 
 to a suspension of operations in the principal Owyhee mines, 
 which for some years previous to that period had yielded 
 large returns. This crash was due quite as much to mis- 
 
 management of the mines themselves as to causes inherent 
 in the speculative market ; but whatever the reason, the result 
 was the closing down of many mines which probably would 
 have been still largely productive if properly worked. As 
 the case now stands, the Owyhee district, which formerly 
 yielded by far the greater part of the total output of the ter- 
 ritory, at present furnishes only about one-fifth of the aggre- 
 gate. It is to be hoped that at no distant time in the future 
 this district may again appear as a large producing centre. 
 
 Had the census statistics been collected only a few months 
 later, the new and promising Wood river country would 
 have added largely to the total product. Operations in this 
 district were only seriously begun toward the close of May, 
 1880; hence the large product from ores shipped to Salt 
 Lake during the fall of the same year does not enter into the 
 tabulation for the census year. 
 
 In addition to the developments in the Wood river coun- 
 try, a number of other new localities appear as future im- 
 portant productive sources, prominent among which is the 
 Sawtooth district, which from the absence of local milling 
 facilities was at a standstill pending the erection of reduc- 
 tion works. Another year will witness a considerable bul- 
 lion production from the mines of this district. The same 
 remark holds good with regard to Smiley's caiion, from 
 which a small amount of ore was shipped at great expense 
 to distant points for reduction. The returns from these 
 shipments were such as to give great hope for a large in- 
 crease when it becomes possible to treat the ores at greater 
 advantage in mills placed near the mines. 
 
 In the Yankee Fork region, a decided impulse — the effect 
 of which was not shown until the opening of the season of 
 1881 — ^was given by the erection of the fine and well ap- 
 pointed mill of the Custer company. Previous to the build- 
 
968 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ing of tMs mill the ores of the district had either to he 
 worked in- arrastras, with a large percentage of loss, or he 
 freighted at a heavy charge to Salt Lake, or elsewhere, for 
 treatment. In spite of these disadvantages two mines were 
 shipping considerahle amounts of $900 ore, while a third 
 was developing an immense hody of ore which was expected 
 to yield $300 per ton. The smelting works recently con- 
 structed at Bay Horse and Kinnikinnick will also add largely 
 to the total product. The period covered hy the census 
 year, while one of great promise for the future of the terri- 
 tory, nevertheless showed a comparatively small yield. The 
 prohabilities are that within two years the output of Idaho 
 will at least have doubled. The deposits of Idaho bullion 
 (so far as it is possible to segregate them — a very large por- 
 tion having passed through private refineries and thus losing 
 their identity) up to the close of the fiscal year ending June 
 30, 1880, are stated by the director of the mint to have 
 been $24,137,417 gold, $727,296 silver, and $24,864,713 total. 
 
 This amount is considerably within the actual output. Of 
 the total gold product of Idaho, 59.45 per cent, is trom the 
 placers, Ind 40.55 per cent, from the deep mines. Idaho 
 J'urnishes 7.33 per cent, of the placer output of t^^e United 
 States, 2.81 per cent, of the deep-mine gold, and 4.4j5 per 
 cent, of the total gold; 1.13 per cent, of the silver and 2.61 
 per cent, of the entire product of the precious metals m the 
 whole country. As a gold-producer the territory ranks 
 sixth, and in silver, seventh. The average yield per square 
 mile is $17.45 gold, $5.48 silver, and $22.93 totaL In this 
 respect Idaho stands fifth in point of gold, seventh in silver, 
 and sixth in developed richness in gold and silver. Ihe 
 average yield per capita is $45.37 gold, $14.25 silver, and 
 $59.62 in both precious metals, placing the rank as regards 
 product in reference to population, third as to gold, sixth as 
 to silver, and fifth altogether. The comparison with regard 
 to population is probably the most reliable test of the rela- 
 tive prosperity of a mining region. 
 
 IDAHO— PRODVCTIOIV BY COUNTIES OP DEEP MINES FOR THE YEAR ENDING MAY 31, 1880. 
 
 
 1 
 
 1" 
 
 Average assay value per ton. 
 
 Total assay value of ore raised during census year. 
 
 County. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold 
 
 and 
 
 silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Alturas . 
 EoisJ . 
 Idaho . 
 Lemhi . 
 
 Kez Percys . 
 
 4,077.75 
 
 10,005.00 
 
 ^500.00 
 
 «5,000.00 
 
 *30D.OO 
 
 *oOD.OO 
 
 8,342.75 
 
 600.00 
 
 36 43 
 16 92 
 ' »25 00 
 «60 00 
 *20 00 
 «2o 00 
 32 35 
 15 00 
 
 46 12 
 6 51 
 
 Wo 00 
 33 81 
 
 82 55 
 23 43 
 *25 00 
 *120 00 
 *20 00 
 *26 00 
 06 10 
 16 00 
 
 7,185.4 
 13,594.3 
 
 604.7 
 14,512.5 
 
 290.3 
 
 604.7 
 13,057.7 
 
 362.8 
 
 148,535 
 
 281,019 
 
 *12,500 
 
 *300,000 
 
 *6,001 
 
 *12,500 
 
 269,927 
 
 7,500 
 
 145,477 
 83,084 
 
 232,036 
 
 188,087 
 108,195 
 
 *299,999 
 
 336,622 
 389,214 
 *12,600 
 *699,909 
 *6,001 
 *12,500 
 
 Ov/yhce (u) 
 
 Washington . , 
 
 218,100 
 
 282,098 
 
 652,025 
 7,500 
 
 Total . . 
 
 35,825.50 
 
 28 97 
 
 24 52 
 
 53 49 
 
 50,212.4 
 
 1,037,982 
 
 679,387 
 
 878,379 
 
 1,916,301 
 
 
 Ore raised 
 
 and 
 
 treated. 
 
 Average yield per ton. 
 
 BuUion produced from ore raised and treated during census year. 
 
 County. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold 
 
 and 
 
 silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Alturas . . ." 
 
 Loisj . . . . . . 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Lemhi , 
 Kez Percys . 
 Oneida . . 
 Owyhee (ff) 
 Washington . 
 
 908.00 
 
 15,045.00 
 
 *500.00 
 
 *2,600.00 
 
 *300.00 
 
 »600.00 
 
 7,170.75 
 
 500.00 
 
 53 13 
 13 44 
 «20 00 
 *50 00 
 ns 00 
 *20 00 
 26 00 
 10 00 
 
 65 45 
 6 30 
 
 *50 '06 
 24 OS 
 
 118 68 
 18 83 
 
 *20 00 
 *100 00 
 
 »:5 00 
 
 *20 00 
 49 77 
 10 00 
 
 2,333.7 
 10,169.9 
 
 483.7 
 6,046 9 
 
 217.7 
 
 483.7 
 8,712.4 
 
 241.9 
 
 48,242 
 210,230 
 
 *9,999 
 *126,001 
 
 *4,600 
 
 *9,999 
 180,101 
 
 ■^■5,001 
 
 45,971 
 65,330 
 
 90,683 
 136,985 
 
 59,436 
 84,465 
 
 »] 2.3, 001' 
 177,108 
 
 107,678 
 
 294,695 
 
 '9,999 
 
 *250,002 
 
 *4,500 
 
 9,999 
 
 357,209 
 
 *5,001 
 
 Total . . 
 
 28,029.76 
 
 21 16 
 
 16 91 
 
 37 07 
 
 28,689.9 
 
 593,073 
 
 344,969 
 
 446,010 
 
 1,039,083 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 1 
 1 
 
 Assay valve of ore raised during census year and 
 remaining on hand at close of year. 
 
 Bidlion produced during census year from ore previously 
 raised. 
 
 CouTiiy. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Sil 
 
 ■cr. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Alturas 
 
 PoiBJ . . 
 
 Idaho . 
 
 Lemhi , , 
 
 Nez Terc's 
 
 Oneida . . 
 
 Ov.-Jkt: r) 
 
 Washington . . 
 
 3,109 75 
 960.00 
 
 S2,60'0 00 
 
 «ijioo,'oo 
 
 4,390.7 
 1,867.0 
 
 7,250.2 
 2,891.7 
 
 90,8SR 
 
 3!<,rj'.M: 
 '«i49,9'99 
 
 ■59,777' 
 
 95,063 
 13,388 
 
 116.018 
 '68,663 
 
 r2;i,67o 
 
 17,309 
 
 '*i66,ooo' 
 '75,710 
 
 214,5:8 
 65,903 
 
 '•299,999 
 ' 135,493' 
 
 109.3 
 
 1015.2 
 
 3,5Q0 
 3,436 
 
 2,707 
 
 3,600 
 
 7,000 
 R,436 
 
 Total . 
 
 7,706 75 
 
 10,411.6 
 
 339,258 
 
 283,622 
 
 306,096 
 
 706,953 
 
 335.6 
 
 6,930 
 
 2,707 
 
 3,600 
 
 10,430 
 
 * Estimated. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 al 
 
 ncludin? r 
 
 110 
 
 
 inn... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
BULLION PRODUCT PER SQUARE MILE. 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 COLORADO NEVADA CALIFORNIA UTAH MONTANA 
 
 10 
 
 IDAHO DAKOTA ARIZONA OREGON NEWMEXICO 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14- 
 
 15 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE NORTH CAROLINA WASHINGTON GEORGIA MICHIGAN 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA MAINE VIRGINIA 
 
 WYOMING TENNESSEE.ALABAMA 
 
 AND ALASKA 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 969 
 
 IDAHO— PR.ODUCTIOW OF" HYDRAVJ^IC, PLACER, DRIFT, AJTD RIVER MINES FOR THE YEAR EWDIKCi 
 
 MAY 31, 1880. 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Omnt!/ and dislrici. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 County and diatrict. 
 
 Totals, 6y counties. 
 
 TotaU, by cowUiea. 
 
 
 Oimces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 ADA. 
 
 Various small placers 
 
 241.9 
 1,693,1 
 
 30,120.4 
 967.5 
 
 2,902.5 
 
 6,001 
 34,999 
 
 622,644 
 20,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 LEUUI. 
 
 Anderson Creek, Curly Creek, Dahlonega or Gibbona- 
 ville, Jordan Creek, Salmon City, Yankee Fork, 
 scattered ... 
 
 967.5 
 483.8 
 
 1,461,2 
 
 2,516.5 
 483.8 
 72S.6 
 
 
 altuhas. 
 
 20,0CO 
 
 Bane's Diggings, Bear Creek, California Bar, Elli 
 Croelc, Middle BoisS, Parsons' Bar, Bed Warrior, 
 
 NEz rEac]i:s. 
 
 10,001 
 
 BOlk. 
 
 Bear Knn, Boston, Bnmmer Hill, Oenterville, Cold 
 Spring Gulch, Elk Creek, Granite, Grayback Bar, 
 Grimes' Creek, Larraway Creek, Last Chance "Bar, 
 Moore's Greek, Noble's Gulch, Pioneer, Plafierville, 
 Squaw Creek, Willow Creek, scattered 
 
 ONEIDA. 
 
 Eagle Kock, Iowa Bar, Snake River, Tin Cup, scat- 
 tered 
 
 OWYHEE. 
 
 Blue Gulch, Bruneau Valley, Jordan Creek, Meadow 
 
 29,990 
 ' 62,000 
 
 Bonanza Bar, Bock Creek, Salmon Falls, scattered . . 
 
 IDAHO. 
 
 Butts' Bar, Copeland Diggings, Elk City, Florence, 
 Gold Fork, Little Salmon Kiver, Mallett's Placers, 
 
 SHOSHONE. 
 
 Number One, scattered . . . „,^ 
 
 WASHINGTON. 
 
 10,0lil 
 14,909 
 
 Creek, South Fork, Warren's, scattered 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 42,552.8 
 
 879,044 
 
 
 
 
 Oregon. — Oregon is one of the oldest of the western 
 mining states, the discovery of gold within its limits having 
 followed closely upon that in California. Its output has 
 never been very large, in comparison with the yield of its 
 neighbor state, but although the mines have become sec- 
 ondary to its agricultural resources in point of importance, 
 they still furnish occupation and profit to many of its inhab- 
 itants. The quartz veins of Baker county, in the eastern 
 portion of the state, adjoining Idaho territory, continue to 
 yield the lareer portion of the total deep-mine product of 
 this state. The prevailing type of the Oregon ores is a free 
 gold quartz, though rebellious gold ores, requiring special 
 treatment, are found in some localities, and a small amount 
 of silver is produced in Grant county. The latter county 
 takes the lead in surface mining, while Baker, Jackson, and 
 Josephine counties are also productive of a considerable 
 amount of placer gold. Oregon now ranks seventh on the 
 roll of the mining states in production of gold, eleventh in 
 output of silver, and ninth in its yield of both metals. Its 
 quota toward the total production of the United States is 
 7.71 per cent, of the placer gold, 0.80 per cent; of the deep- 
 mine gold, 3.29 per cent, of the total gold, and only 0.07 
 per cent, of the total silver. The percentage of the total 
 
 combined gold and silver product is 1.51 per cent. The 
 average yield per square mile is $11.43 gold, fp.29 silver, and 
 $11.72 total. The product per capita is $6^28 gold, $0.16 
 silver, and $6.44 total, giving Oregon a rank of seventh in 
 gold, tenth in silver, and ninth in total bullion output, in 
 point of production as relative to population. The small 
 proportion per capita shows how completely mining has 
 been overshadowed by other industries in this state. 
 
 Washiagrton.— Of the small product reported from the 
 deep mines of Washington territory, nearly the whole comes 
 from Peshaston district, in Yakima county, where gold 
 quartz mining is conducted on a small scale. 
 
 The Upper Columbia placers furnish over one-half of the 
 total placer yield of the territory. The Skagit mines, in 
 Whatcom county, about which, from time to time, reports 
 glittering with golden promise have been spread, are not 
 yet to be numbered among the important productive depos- 
 its of the country. They have attracted much ■ attention 
 from the press, and have been the scene of several! incipient 
 " rushes," but the shortness of the season, inaccessibility, 
 and other natural disadvantages have combined to retard 
 operations, and the yield is stiU very scanty. . 
 
 OREGOJS— PRODUCTION BY COUNTIES OF DEEP MINES FOR THE YEAR ENDING 
 
 MAY 31, 1S80. 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 Average assay per ton. 
 
 Total assay value of ore raised during census year. 
 
 r 
 
 Average yield per ton. 
 
 Comty. 
 
 GoU. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold 
 and 
 silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Siher. 
 
 Gold 
 
 and 
 
 silver. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 IbiM. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Baker 
 
 Grant 
 
 Josephine ... 
 
 12,737 
 
 1,200 
 
 160 
 
 11 00 
 
 76 87 
 
 *34 83 
 
 1 69 
 45 88 
 
 12 69 
 122 76 
 *34 83 
 
 6,776,9 
 4,462.1 
 *262,7 
 
 140,091 
 92,240 
 *6,224 
 
 15,713 
 42,679 
 
 20,316 
 65,061 
 
 160,406 
 
 147,291 
 
 *6,224 
 
 12,607 
 
 1,016 
 
 150 
 
 7 80 
 67 21 
 31 66 
 
 34 
 13 43 
 
 8 14 
 80 64 
 31 66 
 
 Total . ... 
 
 14,087 
 
 16 86 
 
 5 35 
 
 22 21 
 
 11,491,7 
 
 237,565 
 
 58,292 
 
 76,366 
 
 312,921 
 
 13,772 
 
 ■ 
 12 44 
 
 I 30 
 
 13 74 
 
970 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ORBGON— PRODVCTIOIV BY COUNTIES OF DEEP MINES FOR THE YEAR EHrDING MAY 31, 18S0.—CimHnued. 
 
 
 Bvllvm produced from ore raised and treated 
 during cenffiwt year. 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 1 
 
 Assay value of ore raised during census 
 year and remaining on hand at dose of 
 year. 
 
 Bullion produced during census year 
 from ore previously raised. 
 
 Comitg. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Stiver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Ozs. 
 
 JDoTU. 
 
 Ozt. 
 
 DoJfe. 
 
 DoUa. 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Ozs. 
 
 Dolls. 
 
 Ozs. 
 
 Bolls. 
 
 Dolls. 
 
 Ozs. 
 
 Dolls. 
 
 Ozs. 
 
 DoUs. 
 
 Dolls. 
 
 Baker 
 
 Grant 
 
 Josephine, . . 
 
 4,755.5 
 
 3,300.2 
 
 229.8 
 
 98,305 
 68,221 
 4,750 
 
 3,331 
 10,649 
 
 4,307 
 13,639 
 
 102,612 
 81,860 
 4,750 
 
 130 
 185 
 
 188.7 
 894.9 
 
 3,901 
 18,499 
 
 3,017 
 28,617 
 
 3,901 
 36,999 
 
 7,802 
 55,498 
 
 4.3 
 
 89 
 
 1,285 
 
 1,661 
 
 1,750 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 8,285.5 
 
 171,276 
 
 13,880 
 
 17,946 
 
 189,222 
 
 315 
 
 1,083.6 
 
 22,400 
 
 31,634 
 
 40,900 
 
 63,300 
 
 4.3 
 
 89 
 
 1,285 
 
 1,661 
 
 1,760 
 
 OREGON— PRODUCTION (GOI.D) OF HYDRAUI^IC, FILACER, DRIFT, AND RIVER MINES FOR THE YEAR 
 
 ENDING MAY 31, 1S80. 
 
 County and district. 
 
 Amelia . . , 
 Blue GanoQ . 
 Chicken Creek 
 Humboldt Ba^in 
 Mormon Baain 
 Pocahontas . . 
 Rye Valley . 
 Shasta. . . . 
 Sumter . . . 
 Willow Creek 
 
 Sixes Biver . 
 
 Big Bend, Cow Creek . 
 Caflonville. . . 
 Green Mountain . 
 
 CaQon City . 
 Elk Creek . 
 Oianite . . 
 Maryeville . 
 Prairie City 
 Kock Creek 
 Trail Creek 
 
 Applegate 
 Ashland , , 
 
 Total iy districts. 
 
 Total hy counties. 
 
 Ounces. Dollars. 
 
 290.2 
 333.8 
 259.3 
 435.4 
 130.6 
 ,805.2 
 ,112.6 
 747.4 
 ,632.6 
 616.7 
 
 177.6 
 237.7 
 205.2 
 
 6,482.3 
 4,837.5 
 353.1 
 774.0 
 967.6 
 203.2 
 478.9 
 
 261.2 
 106.8 
 
 5,999 
 
 6,900 
 
 6.360 
 
 9,001 
 
 2,700 
 
 37,317 
 
 22,999 
 
 15,460 
 
 33,749 
 
 10,660 
 
 9,375 
 
 3,671 
 4,914 
 4,242 
 
 134,001 
 
 100,000 
 
 7,299 
 
 16,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 4,201 
 
 9,900 
 
 6,400 
 2,208 
 
 160,136 
 
 12,827 
 
 County and district. 
 
 JACKSON — continued. 
 
 Coyote Creek . 
 Dry Diggings 
 Farris Gulch . 
 Fort Lane . 
 Forty-Nine. . 
 Grass Creek . 
 Jackass Creek 
 Jacksonville . 
 Kogue River . 
 Sam's Valley . 
 Sardine Creek 
 Sterling . 
 Uniontown . . 
 Willew Springs 
 Wolf Creek 
 
 JOSEPHINE, 
 
 Althouse . . -. 
 CafLon Creek . 
 Grass Creek. . 
 Illinois . . . 
 Josephine . 
 Murphy . . . 
 Silver Creek . 
 Waldo. . . . 
 Tank . , , , 
 
 Total by districts. 
 
 Total hy counties. 
 
 322.9 
 145.1 
 290.1 
 435.4 
 285.9 
 290.3 
 967.5 
 822.3 
 483.8 
 35.6 
 1,161.0 
 1,611.3 
 1,088.4 
 361.8 
 663.3 
 
 2,418.8 
 483.8 
 192.1 
 967.5 
 726.6 
 27,0 
 726,6 
 799,5 
 
 3,163,6 
 
 44,811,6 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 6,676 
 
 3,000 
 
 5,997 
 
 9,001 
 
 6,910 
 
 6,001 
 
 20,000 
 
 16,998 
 
 10,001 
 
 736 
 
 24,000 
 
 31,241 
 
 22,499 
 
 7,479 
 
 11,644 
 
 50,001 
 10,001 
 3,971 
 20,000 
 16,000 
 668 
 15,000 
 16,527 
 65,396 
 
 76,080 
 
 926,336 
 
 Ounces. Dollars. 
 
 9,132.7 
 
 ■ 9,603.4 
 
 3,680.4 
 
 188,790 
 
 196,463 
 
 76,080 
 
 1,201 
 
 44,811.6 926,336 
 
 WASHINGTON— PRODUCTION 
 
 OF DEEP MINES FOR THE 
 
 YEAR ENDING 
 
 MAY 31, 1880. 
 
 
 
 1" 
 
 Average assay value per ton. 
 
 Total assay value of ore raised during census year. 
 
 J 
 
 1 
 
 Average yield per Ion. 
 
 Omnly. 
 
 GoU. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold 
 
 ami 
 
 silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 GoU 
 
 and 
 
 silver. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Toils. 
 
 Dolls. 
 
 DolU. 
 
 Dolls. 
 
 Yakima (Peshaston district) . 
 Scattered ' . 
 
 437 
 100 
 
 *41 85 
 37 60 
 
 Trace. 
 Trace. 
 
 *41 86 
 37 60 
 
 884.6 
 181,4 
 
 *18,286 
 3,750 
 
 
 
 *18,286 
 3,760 
 
 437 
 100 
 
 31 69 
 30 00 
 
 Trace. 
 Trace. 
 
 
 
 
 31 69 
 
 
 
 
 30 00 
 
 Total 637 1 
 
 41 04 
 
 Trace. 
 
 41 04 
 
 1,066,0 
 
 22,036 
 
 
 
 22,030 
 
 637 
 
 31 28 
 
 Trace. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 31 2S 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 971 
 
 WASHINGTON— PRODUCTION OF DEfBP AIINKS FOR THE YEAR ENDING MAY 31, IS SO.— Continued. 
 
 
 BvUion produced from ore raised and 
 treated during census year. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Assay value of ore raised during census 
 year and remaining on hand al close 
 of year. 
 
 BuMum prodMCed during census year 
 from ore previously raised. 
 
 Oman. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saner. 
 
 ToUd. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Ozs. 
 
 Dons. 
 
 fes. 
 
 Dolls. 
 
 Dons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 OZB. 
 
 Dons. 
 
 Ozs. 
 
 Dons. 
 
 DoUs. 
 
 (hi. 
 
 DoUs. 
 
 One. 
 
 DoW,. 
 
 DoVs. 
 
 Yakima (Peshaaton diatrict) . 
 
 607.6 
 145.1 
 
 13,801 
 2,999 
 
 
 
 13,801 
 2,999 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 812.7 
 
 16,800 
 
 
 
 16,800 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • • T ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 ■WASHINGTON— ProducMon (Gold) ot Hydraulic, Placer, 
 Drift, and River Mines for the year ending May 31, 1880. 
 
 
 GoU. 
 
 hocalUy. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 ■Whatcom county, Skagit mines 
 
 Yakima countj^, Swaiik mines. . . . ... 
 
 Upper Columbia placers 
 
 Ail other places 
 
 193.6 
 
 483.7 
 
 2,902.5 
 
 2,176.9 
 
 4,000 
 9,999 
 60,000 
 45,001 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 5,768.6 
 
 119,000 
 
 
 
 Alaska. — This vast territory, occupying an area of over 
 half a million square miles, is for the most part still an unex- 
 plored region. The small amount of prospecting which has 
 been done has developed the fact that Alaska contains many 
 gold-bearing localities, none of ■which, however, have yet 
 yielded any considerable output. The climate and remote- 
 ness from communications will, always be obstacles in the 
 way of mining, but in spite of the natural disadvantages of 
 the country, it is reasonably to look for an increased product 
 in the future. Recent reports, much exaggerated, of fabu- 
 lous discoveries of mountains of silver ore, have attracted 
 many adventurous miners to Alaska. Thus far only disap- 
 pointment has resulted. The small amount of placer gold 
 received at the San Francisco mint from Alaska during the 
 census year, $5,951, does not perhaps represent the whole 
 product, as a portion may have found its way to Victoria, 
 and thus have become identified with the product of British 
 Columbia. No means of tracing this small possible balance 
 are at hand. The total was in any event insignificant. 
 
 * Sistimated. 
 
 Colorado. — From an average production of only three 
 or four millions, Colorado has suddenly risen to the first 
 rank as a producer of the precious metals among the states 
 and territories for gold and silver combined ; as for silver 
 alone it ranks first, while for gold it holds the fourth rank. 
 In the relation of production to area, it holds the first rank, 
 likewise, for gold and silver combined and for silver alone, 
 and the third for gold alone. In the relation of production 
 to population, however, it ranks only third for gold and sil- 
 ver together, second for silver alone, and sixth for gold 
 alone. The total value of its product during the census 
 year in gold and silver, was in round numbers, nineteen 
 and a quarter million dollars, and if we add to this the value 
 of lead and copper in crude metal produced, we have a total 
 value of metallic product of twenty-two and three-quarters 
 million dollars. 
 
 The collection of statistics of the precious metals in this 
 state presents certain peculiar difficulties. First, jrom the 
 fact tnat there are so many small mines which keep no 
 accurate record of their production ; second, because a very 
 large proportion of its ores, being essentially heterogeneous 
 in composition, have to be smelted, and are thus more diffi- 
 cult to trace than milling ores. The smelting ores are sold, 
 it is true, mostly to smelters within the state, but the same 
 mine often sells to different and widely separated works, and 
 the smelters themselves buy ores in small lots from many 
 mines, of which no separate record is kept. Moreover, the 
 check furnished in the more western states over the total 
 production by the express returns is here wanting, since, 
 practically, the whole silver product is shipped east in lead 
 bullion of which the transportation companies keep no 
 record. Nevertheless, owi'ng to the almost uniform willing- 
 ness which the more important mine-owners, samplers and 
 smelters have shown to afford the data which they possessed. 
 
 COI^ORADO— PRODUCTION BY COUNTIES OF DEEP MINES FOR THE YEAR ENDING MAY 31, 1880. 
 
 
 1' 
 
 Average assay value per ton. 
 
 Total assay value of o^e raised during census year. 
 
 C&mity. 
 
 GoU. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Gold and 
 sUver. 
 
 GoU. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dottars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Boulder . . . ... .... 
 
 Chaffee . . . . 
 
 Clear Creek .... 
 
 Custer. . . . . 
 
 Gilpin ... 
 
 Gunnison . . . . ... 
 
 Hinsdale . ... 
 
 Huerfano 
 
 Lake (c) . . . ... 
 
 La Plata. . 
 
 Ouray ... 
 
 Park . . 
 
 Kio Grande ... ... 
 
 7,868 
 
 979 
 
 37,031 
 
 16,004 
 
 123,668 
 
 252 
 
 2,695 
 
 36 
 
 152,461 
 
 12 
 
 1,790 
 
 5,,364 
 
 550 
 
 2,725 
 
 4,846 
 
 58 17 
 20 58 
 10 16 
 91 
 16 27 
 36 02 
 
 3 07 
 20 69 
 54 
 10 00 
 41 41 
 
 1 36 
 
 15 50 
 
 73 
 
 3 73 
 
 49 46 
 
 171 64 
 
 52 79 
 
 37 17 
 
 5 46 
 
 721 03 
 
 69 45 
 
 96 97 
 
 90 04 
 
 246 75 
 
 154 81 
 
 146 21 
 
 121 39 
 
 85 88 
 
 107 63 
 102 22 
 
 62 94 
 
 38 08 
 
 21 73 
 767 06 
 
 72 62 
 117 60 
 
 90 68 
 266 75 
 196 22 
 147 67 
 
 15 50 
 122 12 
 
 89 61 
 
 22,137.0 
 
 975,0 
 
 18,191.0 
 
 706.0 
 
 97,337.0 
 
 439.2 
 
 400.0 
 
 35.0 
 
 4,000.0 
 
 5.8 
 
 3,585.5 
 
 362.7 
 
 412.5 
 
 96.6 
 
 875.0 
 
 457,612 
 
 20,166 
 
 376,041 
 
 14,594 
 
 2,012,134 
 
 9,079 
 
 8,269 
 
 724 
 
 82,687 
 
 120 
 
 74,119 
 
 7,291 
 
 8,527 
 
 1,995 
 
 18,088 
 
 301,025 
 129,966 
 1,511,7.54 
 462,721 
 621,871 
 140,637 
 144,762 
 
 2,625 
 10,617,216 
 
 2,290 
 214,327 
 606,585 
 
 389,195 
 168,032 
 1,954,547 
 698,252 
 674,727 
 181,700 
 187,163 
 
 3,394 
 13,726,999 
 
 2,961 
 277,103 
 784,254 
 
 846,807 
 188,1«7 
 2,330,688 
 612,840 
 2,686,861 
 190,770 
 195,432 
 
 4,118 
 13,809,686 
 
 3,081 
 351,222 
 791,545' 
 
 8,527 
 332,780 
 434,268 
 
 San Juan ... 
 
 Summit . 
 
 Scattered ....... 
 
 265,847 
 321,889 
 
 330,785 
 416,170 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 356,360 
 
 8 68 
 
 55 26 
 
 63 94 
 
 149,648.2 
 
 3,091,435 
 
 16,233,414 
 
 19,695,282 
 
 22,786,717 
 
972 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 COtORADO-PRODUCTIOiV BY COUNTIES OF DEEP MIWKS FOR THE YEAR BBTDING MAY 31, 
 
 ISSO.— Continued. 
 
 
 i . 
 
 Average yield per Ion. 
 
 BtUlion produced from ore raised and treated during 
 census year. 
 
 Cornibj. 
 
 GM. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Gold and 
 silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Toms. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Boulder 
 
 Chaffee .... 
 
 Clear Creek . . . ....... ... 
 
 Custer . . . . . 
 
 Gilpin , . . . ... 
 
 Gunnison. . . . . .... 
 
 Hinsdale .... , . 
 
 Huerfano'. ..... , . . . 
 
 Lake (c) . . . . . 
 
 La Plata . . . . 
 Ouray ..... 
 
 Park ... 
 
 Bio Grande ... 
 
 San Juan ... . 
 
 Summit . 
 
 Scattered. 
 
 7,558.0 
 
 161.0 
 
 035,821.0 
 
 66,784.0 
 
 123,646.0 
 
 252.0 
 
 2,696.0 
 
 6.5 
 
 140,623,0 
 
 12.0 
 
 1,311.0 
 
 6,364.0 
 
 6.50.0 
 
 1,353.0 
 
 4,446.0 
 
 40 28 
 6 33 
 6 11 
 2 12 
 13 08 
 18 11 
 2 61 
 
 58 
 
 8 58 
 12 69 
 
 18 
 
 9 79 
 1 29 
 1 10 
 
 46 82 
 46 66 
 46 73 
 10 66 
 2 61 
 
 100 00 
 13 09 
 57 27 
 89 34 
 
 226 00 
 
 78 65 
 95 67 
 
 104 31 
 
 79 66 
 
 87 10 
 62 98 
 62 84 
 12 78 
 15 69 
 
 118 11 
 15 70 
 57 27 
 89 92 
 
 234 58 
 91 24 
 95 86 
 9 79 
 
 105 60 
 80 82 
 
 14,728.3 
 *49.3 
 *10,682.3 
 696.2 
 *78,263.4 
 *220.3 
 277.8 
 
 304,461 
 *1,019 
 *218,766 
 14,392 
 *1,617,848 
 *4,554 
 5,743 
 
 273,688 
 
 *6,809 
 
 *1,294,774 
 
 65,927 
 
 *250,074 
 
 19,607 
 
 99,958 
 
 244 
 
 9,717 819 
 
 2,098 
 
 *79,651 
 
 *396,921 
 
 363,851 
 
 *7,510 
 
 «a,674,01S 
 
 72,308 
 
 *323,321 
 
 25,221 
 
 129,236 
 
 316 
 
 12,564,168 
 
 2,712 
 
 *102,981 
 
 *613,179 
 
 658,312 
 
 *8,629 
 
 *1 ,892,769 
 
 86,700 
 
 *1,941,169 
 
 29,775 
 
 134,979 , 
 
 316 
 
 3,913.7 
 6.0 
 *804.6 
 *46.0 
 260,6 
 *84.0 
 *250.0 
 
 80,903 
 103 
 
 16,630 
 *951 
 5,385 
 
 *1,736 
 
 *5,168 
 
 12,645,071 
 
 2,815 
 
 *119,611 
 
 «614,130 
 
 6,385 
 
 *i09,i66 
 *273,916 
 
 n4i,ui 
 
 *.354,146 
 
 *142,877 
 *359,313 
 
 Total 
 
 330,680.6 
 
 6 89 
 
 49 20 
 
 66 09 
 
 110,181.3 
 
 2,277,649 
 
 12,579,661 
 
 16,264,101 
 
 18,541,750 
 
 
 1 
 
 r 
 
 Assay value of ore raised during census year and 
 remaininij on Itand at close of year. 
 
 Bullion produced during census year from ore 
 previously raised. 
 
 Cownty. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Boulder 
 
 Chaffee ... 
 
 Clear Creek ...... 
 
 Ouster . . 
 
 310.0 
 
 818.0 
 
 1,210.0 
 
 9,310.0 
 
 23.0 
 
 1,423.0 
 
 708.4 
 
 2,053.5 
 
 29,416 
 14,644 
 42,460 
 
 21,470 
 
 107,706 
 
 133,254 
 
 316,350 
 
 97 
 
 27,759 
 139,253 
 172,284 
 409,009 
 125 
 
 57,175 
 163,897 
 214,734 
 409,009 
 499 
 
 
 • 
 
 9,487 
 
 12,260 
 
 12,266 
 
 Gilpin ..... 
 Gunnison 
 
 18.1 
 
 374 
 
 *11,426.7 
 
 236,190 
 
 *62,322 
 
 80,576 
 
 316,766 
 
 Hinadale 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Huerfano 
 
 Lake(e) . . . . . . 
 
 La Plata 
 
 29.5 
 11,828,0 
 
 29.5 
 118.3 
 
 610 
 2,445 
 
 2,212 
 823,702 
 
 2,860 
 1,064,964 
 
 3,470 
 1,067,409 
 
 
 
 Ouray . ... 
 Park .... . . 
 
 479,0 
 
 1,372,6 
 400.0 
 
 1,467.1 
 
 30,121 
 
 87,093 
 
 112,603 
 
 142,724 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tdo Grando . . . . ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 San Juan ... ... . . 
 
 
 112,960 
 26,800 
 
 146,046 
 34,650 
 
 146,046 
 38,784 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Summit . ... ... 
 
 200.0 
 
 4,134 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scattered . . . 
 
 4,078,7 
 
 84,314 
 
 147,707 
 
 190,970 
 
 275 284 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total . ^ . . . ... 
 
 25,779.5 
 
 6,007.9 
 
 124,194 
 
 1,631,644 
 
 2,109,563 
 
 2,233,747 
 
 15,504,4 
 
 320,504 
 
 219,516 
 
 283,812 
 
 604,316 
 
 * Estimated. 
 
 a 14,384 tons lost by concentration. 
 
 6 4,684 tons lost by concentration. 
 
 c Including the Leadville district. 
 
 it is believed that the totals attained represent a very close 
 approximation to the actual product of the state, and that 
 the figures given are, on the average, within 5 per cent, of 
 the true amount, although in districts as yet incompletely 
 developed this percentage may be greater. 
 
 As it was found impossible to separate with any degree of 
 approximation the amount of " bullion produced," which 
 should be credited to individual districts in several coun- 
 ties, the division into districts has been abandoned in such 
 instances. In the following tables the amount and value of 
 ore raised has been given to districts as far as was possible, 
 the heading "Scattered" including, in general, mines from 
 which no direct information was obtained, but which had 
 sold ore to samplers or smelters. The sign of " estimated " 
 ( •"■ ) might be appended in many cases to amounts of bullion 
 produced by counties, because these amounts were largely 
 obtained by segregating returns of ore purchased by smelters, 
 and apportioning to each county the corresponding propor- 
 tion of bullion produced from that ore ; thus, while the rela- 
 tive amounts may be considered estimates, the total footings 
 of the columns are determined from comparatively accurate 
 data. 
 
 In the foregoing tables the following are the more impor- 
 tant items of uncertainty or inadequacy of data : 
 
 Arapaho county. — In this county, as well as in Jefferson, 
 and Pueblo counties no mines producing gold and silver are 
 known to exist. In these, however, are located important 
 
 smelting works, which buy and treat ores from almost every 
 county in the state, as well as from Montana and New 
 Mexico. The bullion production of these counties would 
 therefore be an important fraction of the total bullion yield 
 of the state. _ It has, however, been considered best to ap- 
 portion this yield as nearly as possible among the districts 
 or counties in which the ore was raised. This has been 
 done in the following manner : The greater part of the ore 
 treated could be traced back to the county where it was 
 raised, and the total bullion product of each such lot was 
 deduced from the average assay value of such lot, of the total 
 amount treated, and of the total amount of bullion produced, 
 in the case of each individual smelter. A portion of ore 
 treated and bullion produced therefrom, which could not be 
 directly traced back to its souioe, was distributed on esti- 
 mated proportions, founded mainly on the relative amounts 
 of ore produced, as determined by schedules and previous 
 estimates. In considering the amount of bullion produced 
 and ore treated, there is this element of uncertainty in some 
 of our calculations, that the larger smelters cannot always 
 say that the bullion produced was from the very lots of ore 
 purchased, as they keep a varying stock of ore on hand. It 
 IS probable, however, that, considering the whole, the figures 
 obtained are sufliciently near the truth. 
 
 Boulder coimf.i/.~No reliable data could be obtained in 
 regard to the Niwot mine, which is said to produce about 
 I ;>,000 tons of ore per year. In general the returns from this 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 973 
 
 county were more incomplete and less satisfactory than from 
 most counties in the state. It was not possible to apportion 
 out by districts even the ore raised. The product, as obtained 
 from smelters, is approximately correct, that from mills less 
 certain and probably incomplete. 
 
 Ciiaffee county contains a number of promising mines, but 
 owing to absence of owners no reliable data of production 
 during census year could be obtained. 
 
 plear Creek county includea a great number of small dis- 
 tricts, within a limited region, whose boundaries are not 
 always clearly defined; hence no allotment of ore by districts 
 was attempted. One element of uncertainty in this district 
 is the very common practice of leasing the mine to one or 
 more parties, who pay the owner a royalty, or a portion of 
 the gross product. A second is, that the ores are sampled 
 frequently concentrated, and sometimes treated in Gilpin 
 county. Small lots of rich ore have been also shippea to 
 smelters in the east, of which no record could be obtained. 
 The loss by concentration (14,384 tons) was obtained by 
 actual returns from ore-dressing works in one case only, of a 
 few hundred tons, an estimate being made of the degree of 
 concentration. The proportionately large loss in treatment 
 is due, doubtless, to defective systems of working, but may 
 be less than shown by the figures given above, since the pro- 
 duct of rich ores shipped east does not appear here. 
 
 Custer county — ^Its production is relatively low, since the 
 Bassick mine did not produce during a great part of the 
 census year. The loss by concentration (4,684 tons) is an 
 estimate, deducting the sum of tons treated and tons remain- 
 ing on hand from tons raised. 
 
 Gilpin county. — Owing to the system pursued by a large 
 proportion of the mines and mills, viz. : that the miners send 
 their ore to custom mills to be treated, and receive in return 
 the bullion produced, less charges, without any assay control, 
 to determine how much was lost in treatment, or any record 
 being kept by mills of value of bullion returned, it has been 
 necessary to estimate a large proportion of the bullion thus 
 produced. The express returns give for the year ending 
 June 30, 1880, a shipment from Central City of 88,016 ounces 
 of gold bullion, of reported value of $1,320,260. The census 
 figures for the year ending May 31, 1880, are somewhat less, 
 viz. : For the mill production, 54,361.8 ounces fine gold, 
 having a mint value of $1,123,758.11, showing that this 
 estimate is probably somewhat under the truth, although it 
 is not certain that absolutely all bullion shipped from Central 
 City was produced within Gilpin county. The figures in the 
 column of "Bullion from ore raised prior to census year" are 
 an estimate of the yield of tailings from the mills, which 
 were sold to smelters during the year, and which are sup- 
 posed to come mainly from ore raised during previous years. 
 Ounnison county. — But few mines were sufficiently devel- 
 oped to be regular producers during the census year, and 
 many small lots shipped out for treatment may have escaped 
 the record. 
 
 Hinsdale county. — -The principal smelting works of the San 
 Juan region are located here, and its production includes 
 probably some small lots of ore raised in Ouray and San 
 Juan counties, which could not be segregated. 
 
 Huerfano county has but few mines. From only a single 
 district were returns made by the expert who had charge of 
 this portion of the state. 
 
 Lake county. — ^la the largest producer and famishes the 
 most accurate data, though it has been impossible in every 
 case to actually trace back the bullion produced to the indi- 
 vidual mine from which it came. The figures given are 
 known to be under the truth for the following reason : The 
 "American" and " Gage, Hagaman & Co.'s" smelters ran 
 during a portion of the year, but were shut down and 
 changed hands, so that when these statistics were collected 
 no record, or even estimate, could be obtained of the amount 
 of bullion produced by them. A thousand tons of crude 
 bullion, of an average of 800 ounces silver per ton, would 
 probably be an outside figure for the production of the two. 
 This would add 300,000 ounces silver to the total production 
 for the year. No record was obtained of the amount of ore, 
 if any, which was shipped directly from Leadville to the 
 smelting works at Omaha ; its influence on the total produc- 
 tion would be, at all , events, inconsiderable. With these 
 exceptions the figures given present a very accurate estimate 
 
 of the bullion produced. With regard to the gold produc- 
 tion the amount contained in the ores is in general too small 
 to be taken account of, and it is only when concentrated in 
 the lead bullion that it becomes appreciable; moreover a 
 considerable portion of it comes from small lots of auriferous 
 ores purchased by smelters from mines or prospects in outly- 
 ing districts within the county, and in some cases from Gun- 
 nison or Summit counties. The gold contents of ore raised 
 had therefore to be largely determined by estimate. 
 
 La Phia county. — ^From this county reports of only a single 
 district were obtained, as the mines were as yet but little 
 developed in the census year ; probably many small lots of 
 ore are unaccounted for. 
 
 Ouray county. — Doubtless from this county also the returns 
 are somewhat incomplete, and it is certain that some addition 
 is due to the amount of " bullion produced" which has been 
 credited to it. Unfortunately data are wanting for making 
 an accurate estimate, although it is known that some of this 
 has been credited to Hinsdale county. 
 
 Park county. — At the time of collecting these statistics 
 accurate data could be obtained from but few of the pro- 
 ducing mines of this county ; it has been necessary, theretore, 
 to deduce them largely from information obtained from sam- 
 plers and smelters, and estimate their proportionate bullion 
 yield. 
 
 Rio Grande county. — Here, also, returns were obtained 
 from but a single district. 
 
 San Juan county. — ^To this the same remarks are applicable 
 which were made in regard to Ouray county. 
 
 Summit county. — From this county, for various reasons, the 
 returns as regards the census year are rather incomplete, and 
 figi'res probably below the truth. The bullion produced also 
 haa to be largely estimated. The following years will prob- 
 ably show an increased production. To show the data from 
 which the figures given above have been obtained the num- 
 ber of mines from which full schedules were received is sub- 
 joined, and the proportion thereof that have been bullion- 
 producers during the census year, as well as those producers 
 of which data have been obtained otherwise than by sche- 
 dules and visits of census experts : 
 
 Total deep mines scheduled . . . 249 
 
 Productive mines scheduled 
 
 Productive mines reported otherwise. 
 
 Total productive mines reported . 
 Total all mines reported on . . 
 
 .126 
 . 249 
 
 .375 
 .498 
 
 COIiORAOO — Prodnctlon of Placer Mines tax file jrear 
 ending Hay 31, 1880. 
 
 
 Oamiii. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 LoUart. 
 
 Chaffee 
 
 1,276.0 
 410.0 
 835.0 
 
 1,000.0 
 241.9 
 
 1,160.0 
 
 26,357 
 
 8,475 
 
 17,261 
 
 20,672 
 
 5 001 
 
 aear Creek 
 
 lake 
 
 Park 
 
 Koutt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total . . 
 
 4,921.9 
 
 
 
 
 The above table gives all the data which were obtained by 
 the experts engaged in this work on placer and hydraulic 
 workings in the state. The inherent difiiculty of obtaining 
 complete information with regard to surface mining, in that 
 it is carried on only during a limited portion of the year, and 
 in great part by individuals who keep no accurate account 
 of their gains, renders these returns necessarily incomplete 
 here as elsewhere. In Colorado, moreover, owing to the fact 
 that other gold bullion is produced so largely, it has been 
 impossible to supplement these figures by express or mint 
 
974 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 returns. While the above figures doubtless very inade- 
 quately express the production of placer gold for the state, 
 it is a fact that this production was relatively small during 
 the census year, owing to the unusual activity in prospecting 
 for and working deep mines. 
 
 CopPBK AND Lead Pboduction in Colorado. — 
 Although copper and lead belong rather to the useful_ than 
 to the precious metals, their importance among the ininerall 
 products of Colorado, and their intimate connection with the 
 production of gold and silver, render their consideration here 
 essential. In the table given below, only the crude metal ob- 
 tained from ores actually smelted within the state is given, no 
 account being taken of the copper or lead contained in ores 
 
 which were shipped outside of the state for treatment. This 
 amount is, however, of comparatively little importance, 
 forming probably not over 6 per cent, of the total product. 
 The lead product was all in the form of argentiferous lead 
 bullion, which was shipped to various smelters in the East 
 to be refined. The copper product was partly as matte, but 
 largely in the form of copper oxide. Of the actual shii)ments 
 of the latter a portion has been produced from ores raised in 
 Montana ; a proportionate amount of the total product has, 
 however, been credited to that territory in its appropriate 
 place. In calculating the value of these metals the average 
 market value of either for the year has been assumed as 4J 
 cents per pound for lead, 20 cents per pound for copper. 
 
 COLiORADO— CRUDE BUL,l.ION PRODUCT FOR- THE YEAR ENDIK© MAY 31, 1880 
 
 
 Gross 
 tons. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 GoW. 
 
 saner. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Covjntg. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Otuices. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Omuies. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Arapahoe 
 
 1,226 
 
 800 
 
 1,117 
 
 28,383 
 
 90 
 
 67 
 
 2,191 
 
 230 
 
 
 
 980 
 
 392,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 392,000 
 
 790.00 
 525.75 
 28,226.00 
 89.00 
 66.00 
 2,126.60 
 256.00 
 
 71,100 
 
 47,318 
 
 2,640,340 
 
 8,010 
 
 6,040 
 
 191,385 
 
 23,040 
 
 270.0 
 10,315.0 
 3,830.2 
 
 ■ i,347.0 
 
 6,581 
 213,231 
 79,177 
 
 '27,845 
 
 96,878 
 
 665,020 
 
 8,063,946 
 
 24,103 
 
 11,996 
 1,557,608 
 
 10,400 
 
 125,254 
 730,614 
 10,412,947 
 31,163 
 16,510 
 2,013,831 
 13,446 
 
 201,935 
 
 Jefferson , . .... 
 Lake 
 
 698 
 
 239,200 
 
 1,230,263 
 13,032,404 
 
 Ouray. . . 
 
 Park . . . ... 
 
 Pueblo . . . 
 Summit . , 
 
 
 :.. . : 
 
 39,173 
 
 20,660 
 
 2,233,061 
 
 36,486 
 
 Total 
 
 34,123 
 
 32,069.25 
 
 2,886,233 
 
 1,678 
 
 631,200 
 
 16,762.2 
 
 325,834 
 
 10,319,951 
 
 13,342,665 
 
 17,185,932 
 
 Lead, S90 per ton. Copper, S400 per ton. 
 COI.ORADO— PRODVCTIODT OF SMELTIBrQ 'WORKS AITD ABEAIieAaiATINa MI1.IjS FOR THE YEAR ENDING 
 
 MAY 31, 1880. 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 Average yield per ton. 
 
 Bullion produced from ore smelted during census year. 
 
 County. 
 
 Cold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Gold 
 and 
 silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Oimces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 Boulder '.';.'. . . 
 
 Chaffee. ... . . .... 
 
 Clear Creek (a) 
 
 Custer (k). . . 
 
 Gilpin . 
 
 Gunnison. . . .... 
 
 Hinsdale . . . . . . . 
 
 3,412.0 
 
 161.0 
 
 9,701.0 
 
 982.0 
 
 10,218.0 
 
 252.0 
 
 2,695.0 
 
 5.5 
 
 140,623.0 
 
 12.0 
 
 1,016.0 
 
 6,364.0 
 
 68 52 
 *6 33 
 11 93 
 14 24 
 48 36 
 18 11 
 2 61 
 
 68 
 8 58 
 6 66 
 *18 
 
 47 10 
 
 *46 66 
 
 116 20 
 
 64 66 
 
 28 26 
 
 100 00 
 
 13 00 
 
 57 27 
 
 89 34 
 
 226 00 
 
 100 62 
 
 *96 67 
 
 115 62 
 
 *52 98 
 
 128 19 
 
 78 89 
 
 76 62 
 
 118 11 
 
 16 70 
 
 57 27 
 
 89 92 
 
 234 58 
 
 107 28 
 
 *95 85 
 
 11,309.8 
 *49.3 
 
 *6,699.3 
 076.2 
 
 23,901.5 
 »220.3 
 277.8 
 
 233,794 
 *1,019 
 *115,748 
 13,978 
 494,088 
 *4,554 
 6,7*3 
 
 124,.307 
 
 *5,809 
 
 «872,344 
 
 49,107 
 
 223,305 
 
 19,607 
 
 99,958 
 
 244 
 
 9,717,819 
 
 2,098 
 
 78,995 
 
 *396,921 
 
 160,717 
 
 *7,610 
 
 *1, 127, 854 
 
 63,490 
 
 288,711 
 
 2.5,221 
 
 129,236 
 
 316 
 
 12,664,168 
 
 2,713 
 
 102,133 
 
 «613,179 
 
 394,611 
 
 *8,629 
 *1,243,002 
 
 77,408 
 782,799 
 
 29,775 
 134,979 
 
 Lake , . . 
 
 La Plata . ... 
 
 Ouray . . . 
 
 Park ... ...... 
 
 Kio Grande . . 
 
 3,913.7 
 
 6.0 
 
 327.0 
 
 *46.0 
 
 80,903 
 
 103 
 
 6,760 
 
 *951 
 
 12,645,071 
 
 2,816 
 
 108,893 
 
 *614,130 
 
 San Juan ... ... 
 
 Summit . . 
 
 1,363.0 
 3,771.0 
 
 *1 29 
 
 *104 31 
 *03 91 
 
 *106 60 
 *93 91 
 
 *84.0 
 
 n,736 
 
 *109,166 
 *273,915 
 
 *141,141 
 *364,145 
 
 *i42,8'77 
 »364,145 
 
 
 179,664.6 
 
 6 34 
 
 86 21 
 
 91 65 
 
 
 
 11,973,495 
 
 15,480,533 
 
 16,439,910 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average yield pet 
 
 'ton. 
 
 Bullion produced fi-om ore milled during census year. 
 
 Coimlg. 
 
 Cold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Gold 
 
 and 
 
 silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Omices. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Boulder . . . . 
 
 Chaffee .... . . 
 
 Clear Creek (a) 
 
 Ouster (b) . 
 
 Gilpin 
 
 4,146 
 
 'n,736 
 
 1,118 
 
 113,427 
 
 17 06 
 
 ■8'78' 
 
 38 
 
 9 01 
 
 40 68 
 
 ' 46 '54 
 
 7 88 
 
 30 
 
 63 63 
 
 ' 66 '32 
 
 8 26 
 
 10 21 
 
 3,418.6 
 
 '•4,983.0 
 
 20.0 
 
 64,361.9 
 
 70,667 
 
 '*i03,dbs' 
 
 413 
 1,123,760 
 
 149,381 
 
 '*422,43d 
 
 0,820 
 
 26,769 
 
 193,136 
 
 "*546,166 
 
 8,818 
 
 34,010 
 
 263,802 
 
 ■«649,168" 
 9,231 
 
 Gunnison . 
 
 1,168,370 
 
 Hinsdale 
 
 Huerfano. . . .... 
 
 Lake . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 La Plata ... 
 
 Ouray . . .... 
 
 Park 
 
 Bio Grande . . . ... . . 
 
 290 
 ' 650' 
 
 ' 33 '35' 
 '9 '79 
 «'7 '60 
 
 '2 '86 
 
 " 30 '21 
 
 '9 '79 
 
 ' "*7 66' 
 
 ' 477.5 
 
 266,6 
 
 '*256.0' 
 
 9,871 
 ' 6,386' 
 '*5,168' 
 
 '666 
 
 ■848 
 
 ■ ■16,719 
 
 
 S,385 
 
 Summit , . 
 
 676 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total . . . . 
 
 131,048 
 
 09 
 
 6 94 
 
 16.03 
 
 63,771 4 
 
 1,318,272 
 
 606,068 
 
 783,671 
 
 2,101,843 
 
 * Estimated. a 14 
 
 384 tons lo 
 
 it by concoi 
 
 itration. 
 
 
 1 4,684 Ion, 
 
 lost by col 
 
 icentmtion 
 
 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 975 
 
 In the preceding table are shown the relative amounts of 
 ore treated by mill process and by smelting, and their aver: 
 age yield per ton. Its principal value is to show the aver- 
 age character of ore in each county in reference to its 
 adaptation to either process of reduction. It would have 
 been extremely interesting, had the data been such as would 
 yield accurate results, to have given the assay value of the 
 ore treated in either case, and thus compare the relative 
 losses in either process, but the number of cases in which it 
 has been necessary to estimate product from assay value, or 
 vice versa, would seriously impair the value of such com- 
 parison. This subject will be found treated at length in 
 another part of the report. 
 
 Dakota. — The metallic production of Dakota is derived 
 from the region of the Black Hills, and in greater part from 
 Lawrence county, where free-milling gold-quartz ores of low 
 grade are reduced in amalgamating mills of great size. The 
 perfection to which the milling process has been brought is 
 shown by the large percentage of the assay value extracted. 
 Custer and Pennington counties are opening new mines, but 
 had scarcely become producers during the census year. The 
 following table is a condensation of the preceding, and gives 
 the deep-mine production by counties only: 
 
 DAKOTA— PRODUCTION BY COUNTIES OF DEEP MINES FOR THE VEAR ENDING MAY 31. 1880. 
 
 - 
 
 r 
 
 Average assay value per ton. 
 
 Assa^ vahie of 
 
 vre rawed during 
 
 census year 
 
 
 CkntfUtf, 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Gold 
 
 and 
 silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 EOver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tons, 
 
 Boltars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 Custer 
 
 2,250 
 
 626,998 
 
 7,600 
 
 13 89 
 
 7 66 
 
 10 31 
 
 07 
 34 
 09 
 
 13 96 
 
 7 99 
 
 10 40 
 
 1,511.7 
 
 196,063.3 
 
 3,738.9 
 
 31,250 
 
 4,032,316 
 
 77,290 
 
 122 
 
 136,190 
 
 541 
 
 158 
 
 176,080 
 
 699 
 
 31,408 
 4 208 396 
 
 Pennington 
 
 ' 77',989 
 
 Total 
 
 636,748 
 
 7 71 
 
 33 
 
 804 
 
 200,313.9 
 
 4,140,856 
 
 136,853 
 
 176,937 
 
 4,317,793 
 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 Average yield per 
 
 ton. 
 
 BuUion produced from ore raised and treated during census year. 
 
 Coimti/. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 GoU 
 
 and 
 
 rilver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lawrence 
 
 495,630 
 500 
 
 6 33 
 3 20 
 
 15 
 
 6 48 
 3 20 
 
 151,769.7 
 
 77.4 
 
 3,137,161 
 1,600 
 
 54,677 
 
 70,563 
 
 3,207,714 
 1,600 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 496,130 
 
 6 33 
 
 14 
 
 6 47 
 
 161,837.1 
 
 3,138,751 
 
 64,577 
 
 70,563 
 
 3 209 314 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 Assay value of ore raised during census year and remain- 
 ing on hand at dose of year. 
 
 BvMion produced during census year from orepremoualy 
 raised. 
 
 Qnmtg. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Custer .... , . 
 
 2,250 
 
 31,368 
 
 7,000 
 
 1,611.7 
 12,621.7 
 3,619.9 
 
 31,250 
 260,914 
 74,830 
 
 122 
 
 24,741 
 
 541 
 
 168 
 
 31,988 
 
 699 
 
 31,408 
 
 292,902 
 
 76,529 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Xawrence 
 
 6,622.7 
 
 116,233 
 
 
 
 116,233 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 40,618 
 
 17,753.3 
 
 366,994 
 
 25,404 
 
 815 
 32, 
 
 399,839 
 
 5,622.7 
 
 116,233 
 
 
 
 116,233 
 
 Placer anb HYDHAtrLic Mines — The following table 
 gives the production of hydraulic and placer mines so far as 
 could be ascertained by the expert in charge of this district. 
 The amount seems very small, compared with the supposed 
 value of the surface deposits in this region. This may oe in 
 part accounted for by the fact that several important com- 
 
 Eanies were making ditches, and preparing for work on a 
 irge scale, but had not become producers daring the census 
 year. 
 
 DAKOTA— Production of Hydraulic. Placer, Drift and 
 River Mtne« for the year ending May 31, 1880. 
 
 County. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 GoU. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Lawrence . ... 
 
 Pennington . . .... 
 
 2,307.5 
 152.8 
 
 47,700 
 3,159 
 
 
 Total . 
 
 2,460.3 
 
 60,859 
 
976 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Montana. — Montana has within its boundaries the ele- 
 ments favorable to a lagre production of the precious metals — 
 rich and varied ores and abundant fuel', both coal and wood. 
 As yet, however, owing to lack of development and want of 
 sufficient transportation facilities, it has not taken its proper 
 rank as a producer. Owing to the great extent of territory over 
 which its mines are scattered, and the fact that, from circum- 
 stances beyond our control, the collection of statistics was 
 not completed until the winter was far advanced, and travel 
 rendered thereby very difficult, our data leave something to 
 desire in point of completeness. It was evident that the 
 figures of gold production deduced from the schedules were 
 below the truth, since the mint returns report the gold pro- 
 duction of Montana as a little over a million dollars in 
 excess. As the mint figures are certainly below the truth, 
 it was proper that this diflerence should be added, the only 
 question being to what branch of mining it should be cred- 
 ited. Now, the census returns from placer and hydraulic 
 mines were notoriously incomplete, since, owing to the late- 
 ness of the season, but few of their owners could be found ; 
 
 but it is well known that they form the most important ele- 
 ment in the gold production of Montana. On the other 
 hand, it was thought that returns had been obtained from 
 practically all the mills and smelting works. Under these 
 circumstances it was judged best to discard the census figures 
 for hydraulic and placer mines altogether, and assume as their 
 production the difference between the amount of gold pro- 
 duced, as determined by mill and smelters' returns, and the 
 total product obtained from mint returns. While, therefore, 
 it is possible that a small amount of the gold credited to 
 hydraulic and placer mines may belong to mill production, 
 it is probably not more than that by which the mint returns 
 fall short of giving the total gold production of the territory 
 as gold which, for various reasons, has not passed through 
 the hands of its agents. 
 
 The following table gives the production of the deep mines 
 of Montana by districts, and the yield of the ore treated, as 
 far as could be ascertained, though some small lots of ore 
 are known to have been shipped east, which could not be 
 traced : 
 
 MONTAKA— PRODWCTIOW BY COUIVTIES OF DEIEiF MINES FOR THK YEAR, ENDING MAY 31, 1880. 
 
 
 
 Avera{ie assay vahi£ per Urn. 
 
 Assay value of ore raised during census year. 
 
 County. 
 
 OoU. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Gold and 
 silver. 
 
 GoU. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Oumes. 
 
 Dollars. ■ 
 
 ■ Ounces. 
 
 DolUirs. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 
 10,936 
 81,256 
 
 3,335 
 10,493 
 
 8,838 
 
 2 22 
 
 6 34 
 
 64 66 
 
 16 18 
 
 28 45 
 
 96 19 
 
 45 19 
 
 29 70 
 
 6 33 
 
 140 
 
 98 41 
 51 53 
 84 36 
 22 51 
 29 85 
 
 1,176.2 
 
 24,910.7 
 
 8,818.6 
 
 8,216.0 
 
 *12,166.2 
 
 24,314 
 614,960 
 182,297 
 169,819 
 *251,498 
 
 813,727 
 
 2,840,198 
 
 76,616 
 
 61,379 
 
 9,682 
 
 1,052,068 
 
 3,672,092 
 
 99,057 
 
 66,428 
 
 12,389 
 
 1,076,382 
 
 Deer Lodge 
 
 Jefferson , . . . ... 
 
 Lewis and Clarke . . 
 
 4,187,042 
 281,354 
 236,247 
 
 *263,887 
 
 Total 
 
 114,858 
 
 9 95 
 
 42 68 
 
 52 63 
 
 66,286.7 
 
 1,142,878 
 
 3,701,502 
 
 4,902,034 
 
 6,044,912 
 
 
 ll 
 1" 
 
 Average yield per ton. 
 
 BvlUon produced from ore raised and treated during census year. 
 
 CoxmUj, 
 
 Bold. 
 
 ■saver. 
 
 Gold and 
 silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 OtiTWes. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 
 10,902.0 
 67,029.0 
 
 3,038.0 
 10,343.0 
 
 6,264.6 
 
 1 81 
 5 92 
 18 49 
 12 71 
 16 49 
 
 66 90 
 
 34 83 
 
 24 64 
 
 2 44 
 
 07 
 
 68 71 
 40 76 
 43 03 
 
 15 16 
 
 16 66 
 
 055.4 
 
 16,337.7 
 
 2,717.2 
 
 6,361.3 
 
 4,198.8 
 
 19,760 
 337,730 
 
 66,169 
 131,500 
 
 86,797 
 
 664,110 
 
 1,536,134 
 
 67,670 
 
 19,664 
 
 292 
 
 729,338 
 
 l",986,068 
 
 74,562 
 
 25,281 
 
 378 
 
 749,088 
 
 2,323,798 
 
 130,731 
 
 156,781 
 87,175 
 
 Deer Lodge 
 
 Jefferson 
 
 Madison 
 
 Total 
 
 86,676.6 
 
 7 30 
 
 32 62 
 
 39 82 
 
 30,670.4 
 
 631,946 
 
 2,177,760 
 
 2,815,627 
 
 3,447,573 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Assay value of ore rained dvrivg census 
 remaining on hand at close of yec 
 
 year and 
 r. 
 
 Bullion produced from ore raised prior to census year. 
 
 County. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Oimces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Beaver Head 
 
 34.0 
 
 24,227.0 
 
 297.0 
 
 160.0 
 
 3,673.6 
 
 
 
 4,208 
 862,237 
 
 2,700 
 600 
 66S 
 
 5,440 
 1,101,857 
 
 3,491 
 776 
 721 
 
 6,440 
 
 1,223,161 
 
 85,900 
 
 3,236 
 60,332 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Deer Lodge .... 
 
 Jefferson .... ... 
 
 Lewis and Clarke. ... . ... 
 
 6,867.6 
 
 3,090.9 
 
 119.0 
 
 2,883.7 
 
 121,294 
 
 82,499 
 
 2,400 
 
 69,611 
 
 203.2 
 11.3 
 
 4,200 
 234 
 
 61,808 
 1,029 
 
 79,912 
 1,330 
 
 84,112 
 1,664 
 
 Madison 
 
 313.5 
 
 6,481 
 
 
 
 6,481 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 28,281.6 
 
 12,861.2 
 
 265,864 
 
 860,303 
 
 1,112,286 
 
 1,378,149 
 
 628.0 
 
 10,916 
 
 62,837 
 
 81,242 
 
 92,167 
 
 * Eatimatod. 
 
 The following table shows the relative amounts of ore reduced in stamp-mills and by smelting works, with the 
 average yield per ton, and total contents m gold and silver in each case : .> o > 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 977 
 
 MONTANA— ORE TREATED BY SMELTING \PORKS AND AMAIiGAM ATING MIL.I<S. 
 
 
 Ore bnxUed. 
 
 Average yield per ton. 
 
 
 BuUUm produced. 
 
 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 SUoer. 
 
 Gold 
 and 
 sUiier. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tout. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Outices. 
 
 Dollars. ■ 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollar,. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Smelted 
 
 Milled 
 
 14,680.0 
 71,890.5 
 
 04 
 8 65 
 
 ■ -73 30 
 23 18 
 
 79 00 
 31 83 
 
 4S4.4 
 30,110.0 
 
 9; 393 
 622,553 
 
 889,362 
 1,288,398 
 
 - 
 
 1,140,856 
 1,005,770 
 
 1,159,249 
 2,288,323 
 
 Total 
 
 86,570.5 
 
 7 30 
 
 32 62 
 
 39 82 
 
 30,570.4 
 
 631,946' 
 
 2,177,700 
 
 2,815,626 
 
 3,447,572 
 
 Hydeaulic and Placek Mines.— The gravel deposits 
 of Montana form ar important source of its wealth, and their 
 product is known to be very considerable. The figures for 
 this product, as explained above, have been assumed, in the 
 absence of more reliable data, derived from direct informa- 
 tion, and are : 
 
 Gold . 
 Value , 
 
 56,255.6 
 $1,162,906 
 
 The counties from which hydraulic-mine returns were 
 received are Deer Lodge, Meagher, Beaver Head, and Lewis 
 
 and Clarke, the relative amount of production reported from 
 each standing in the order in which they are named above. 
 The ores of Montana, like those of Colorado, contain con- 
 siderable airiounts of copper and lead, which cannot be 
 neglected in considering its production of metals. The table 
 below gives the amounts which could be traced, a portion of 
 the copper having been reduced to copper oxide in Colorado. 
 The figures below are for crude bullion which was not 
 reduced to the metallic state within the territory. A certain 
 amount of copper ore was shipped directly east from Mon- 
 tana, but its value or contents could not be ascertained. 
 
 MONTANA— CRUDE BULtlON PRODUCED FOR THE TEAR ENDING MAY 31, 1880. 
 
 County. 
 
 Gross tons. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 GoU. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 TonJ). " 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Beaver Head . . 
 
 Deer Lodge . . 
 
 Jeffersou . 
 
 1,508 
 525 
 S3 
 
 1,132.5 101,925 
 
 186.26 
 420.00 
 
 74,500 
 168,000 
 
 343.5 
 332.0 
 
 7,101 
 6,863 
 
 562,674 
 16O,.3D0 
 30,378 
 
 727,352 
 207,252 
 39,276 
 
 903,777 
 382 353 
 
 81.5 7,336 
 
 -1 
 
 53,474 
 
 Total . . 
 
 2,176 
 
 1,214.0 
 
 109,260 
 
 600.25 
 
 242,500 
 
 675.5 
 
 13,964 
 
 753,252 
 
 973,880 
 
 1,339,604 
 
 Lead, S90 per ton. Copper, S400 per ton. 
 
 Ne"W Mexico. — Although during the census year the 
 mines of New Mexico were attracting much attention, their 
 practical development was awaiting the completion of the 
 railroads which were about to intersect it. Its mining dis- 
 tricts were many of them diiBcult and even dangerous of 
 access, and it was almost impossible to ascertain in advance 
 whether they had actually producing mines. The collection 
 of statistics under these circumstances was peculiarly difli- 
 cult, and the completeness of the material obtained was 
 
 seriously impaired by the assassination of Colonel Charles 
 Potter, the expert in charge of this territory. The data pre- 
 sented below do not necessarily give a fair idea of the capa- 
 bilities of the territory as a mineral producer. It is believed, 
 however, that the amount of ore produced during the census 
 year and not accounted for below is not of very great 
 amount. 
 
 , The. subjoined tables give the production of the deep mines 
 by districts and by counties : 
 
 NEW MEXICO— PRODUCTION BY COUNTIES OF DEEP MINES FOR THE YEAR ENDING MAY 31, 1880. 
 
 
 Cs - 
 
 - e|- 
 
 1" 
 
 Average axsaij valiKper ton. 
 
 Total assay value of ore raised during census 
 year. 
 
 6 
 
 Average yield per Ian. 
 
 County. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 OoUand 
 silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. '^^ 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 DoUjirs. 
 
 Dofia Ana . . 
 
 718.5 
 
 9,66S.O 
 
 100.0 
 
 82 65 
 2 62 
 20 07 
 
 ' 79 78 
 32 32 
 
 82 65 
 82 40 
 52 99 
 
 2,872.8 
 
 1,225.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 69,386 
 
 26,323 
 
 2,007 
 
 
 
 69,380 
 
 796,024 
 
 5; 299 
 
 718.6 
 6,734.0 
 
 49 50 
 2 04^ 
 
 ' 58 20 
 
 49 69 
 
 Grant 
 
 Santa Fe 
 
 590,667 
 2,600 
 
 771,301 
 3,232 
 
 GO 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10,486.6 
 
 8 28 
 
 73 86 
 
 • 82-14 
 
 4,197.8 
 
 86,776 
 
 599,067 
 
 774.633 
 
 861,309 
 
 7,452.5. 
 
 • 6 62 
 
 . 62 OS 
 
 59 27 
 
 Placee Mines. — Considerable rich placer ground is known to exist in New Mexico,- but as yet but little gold 
 has been obtained from it, owing to want of water. No -record could be obtained of any. psodnct- frpm such workings 
 during the census year. -•;-.-- 
 
 62 
 
978 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES, 
 
 NEW MEXICO-T-RODtTCTIOHT BY COUNTIES OF DEEP MINES FOR THE TEAK ENDING MAT 31, ISSO^Continued. 
 
 
 Bullion produced from ore raised during census year. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Assay mine of ore rq^sed during census year and 
 tremaming on hand at clese of year. 
 
 County. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 GoU. 
 
 saver.. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 lioilars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 DoUarR. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 DoOairs. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. _ 
 
 Bona Afia 
 
 1,723,7 
 063.8 
 
 35,632 
 13,722 
 
 
 
 35,632 
 406,059 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 303,455 
 
 392,337 
 
 2,934 
 100 
 
 
 
 178,288 
 2,600 
 
 230,600 
 3,232 
 
 230,509 
 
 
 100 
 
 2,067 
 
 6,299 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,387.5 
 
 49,354 
 
 303,455 
 
 392,337 
 
 441,691 
 
 3,034 
 
 100 
 
 2,067 
 
 180,788 
 
 233,741 
 
 236,808 
 
 Wyoming.— Wyoming is surrounded on three sides by important mining regions, but bas as yet developed but few 
 mines within its borders. During the census year, as far as could be ascertained, the actual production of gold and 
 silver has been confined to Sweetwater county, of which the production is given below : ' 
 
 WTOMING— PRODUCTION OF DEEP MINES FOR THE YEAR ENDING MAT 31, 1880. 
 
 
 Courdy. 
 
 1 
 r 
 
 Average assay vahie per ton. 
 
 Total assay value of ore raised during census year. 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Gold 
 
 and 
 
 saver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ou}iccs. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 
 843 
 
 «27 42 
 
 
 *27 42 
 
 1,118.1 
 
 *23,113 
 
 .. . 
 
 
 *23,113 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 843 
 
 27 42 
 
 
 27 42 
 
 *1,118.1 
 
 *23,113 
 
 
 *23,11-J 
 
 
 Ckmniy. 
 
 1^ 
 
 Average yield per 
 
 ton. 
 
 BuUion produced from ore raised and treated during census year. 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Gold 
 
 and 
 
 saver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dottan. 
 
 LoUars. 
 
 Sweetwater 
 
 843 
 
 20 55 
 
 
 20 65 
 
 837.9 
 
 17,321 
 
 
 
 
 17,321 
 
 
 843 
 
 20 65 
 
 
 20 65 
 
 837.9 
 
 17,321 
 
 
 
 17,321 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ Estimated. 
 
 EASTERN DIVISION— PRODUCTION BY STATES AND COUNTIES OF DEEP MINES FOR THE TEAR ENDING 
 
 MAY 31, 1880. 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 1' 
 
 Average assay value per ton. 
 
 Total assatj value of ore raise*! during census year. 
 
 State and Onmbj. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver, 
 
 Gold 
 
 and 
 
 silver. 
 
 Gold, 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Otmces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 ALABAMA. 
 
 Clebtxmo (n) 
 
 100 
 2-1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TaUadega (a) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 124 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 a No assay valaes givoa. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 979 
 
 EASTKRN DIVISION— PRODUCTION BY STATES AND COUNTIES OF DEEP MINES FOR THE TEAR KNDINO 
 
 OIAY 31, 1880.— Continued. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Average OMay vtdve per ton. 
 
 ToUd assay value of ore raised dvHng census year. 
 
 State and ComUj/. 
 
 GoU. 
 
 saner. 
 
 Gold 
 
 and 
 
 silver. 
 
 GoU. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tmu. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 OEOBQIA. 
 
 Cherokee (a) 
 
 Cobb 
 
 
 262 
 100 
 40 
 150 
 600 
 100 
 1,600 
 
 22 00 
 
 
 22 00 
 
 151.1 
 
 3,124 
 
 
 
 
 3,124 
 
 Forsyth 
 
 Hall 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 . . . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lincoln ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 2,792 
 
 
 
 
 151.1 
 
 3,124 
 
 
 
 3,124 
 
 Hancock (a). . 
 
 Penobscot. . 
 
 York 
 
 1,800 
 400 
 60 
 
 26 87 
 6 75 
 
 80 00 
 6 17 
 32 30 
 
 30 00 
 32 04 
 39 05 
 
 ' 619.9' 
 16.3 
 
 'l6,747 
 337 
 
 89,446 
 1,699 
 1,249 
 
 61,000 
 2,067 
 1,615 
 
 51,000 
 
 12,814 
 
 1,952 
 
 
 
 Total . . 
 
 2,250 
 
 
 
 
 636.2 
 
 11,084 
 
 42,294 
 
 64,082 
 
 66,766 
 
 NEW UAUF5UIKE. 
 
 2,183 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 20,200 
 
 1,821 
 
 10 
 
 11,370 
 
 625 
 
 60 
 
 1,200 
 
 500 
 
 17 50 
 ' ' ' 9 00 
 
 2 60 
 
 20 00 
 
 16,931.2 
 
 *349,999 
 
 38,673 
 
 *50,000 
 
 *3C9,099 
 
 Gaston .... 
 
 Guilford . . 
 
 
 Mecklenburg , . 
 
 Moore .... . .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 00 
 
 12 00 
 
 622.4 
 
 10,799 
 
 2,784 
 
 3,599 
 
 14,398 
 
 Stanley .... . . ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total . . 
 
 35,786 
 
 
 
 
 17,453,6 
 
 360,703 
 
 41,457 
 
 63,699 
 
 414,397 
 
 SOUTH CAEOUNA. 
 
 Abbeville . . . ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 .1. 
 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 .j. . 
 
 VIBGINIA. 
 
 Buckingham .... 
 
 Culpepper . . . . .... 
 
 74 
 90 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 09 
 
 1 40 
 
 41 49 
 
 174.6 
 
 3,607 
 
 97 
 
 125 
 
 3,732 
 
 
 1G4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Additional production shown by m 
 ceipts 
 
 int re- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 164 
 
 
 1 
 
 174.6 
 
 3,607 
 
 97 
 
 126 
 
 3,732 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 Average yield per Ion. 
 
 BuRian produced from ore raised and treated dsiring census year. 
 
 State and County. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Gold 
 and 
 sUver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 BOver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 DoOars. 
 
 AXABAiytA. 
 
 Cleburne (a) . , .... 
 
 Talladega (a) 
 
 100 
 24 
 
 10 00 
 12 50 
 
 
 10 00 
 12 60 
 
 48.4 
 14.5 
 
 1,001 
 300 
 
 
 
 1,001 
 
 
 
 
 Total ... 
 
 124 
 
 10 60 
 
 
 10 60 
 
 62.9 
 
 1,301 
 
 
 
 1,301 
 
 
 
 
 *£atiiaated. 
 
 a&o assay values given. 
 
930 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 EASTERN mVlSION-PRODUCTION BY STATES AND COUNTIES OF DEEP MINES FOR THE YEAR ENDING 
 
 MAY 31, 1880. — Continued. 
 
 
 I" 
 
 Average yield per fcni. 
 
 Bullion produced frtrm ore raised and treated during 
 
 census year. 
 
 State and County, 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Gold and 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tcms. 
 
 DoOars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 QEOROIA. 
 
 Cherokee (a) . . . . ... 
 
 Cobb ... 
 
 Forsyth. . 
 
 Hall . . . .... 
 
 Lincoln .... 
 
 205 
 100 
 40 
 160 
 650 
 100 
 1,590 
 
 11 22 
 4 OO 
 6 08 
 10 09 
 10 88 
 6 00 
 2 00 
 
 
 11 22 
 4 00 
 6 08 
 10 00 
 10 88 
 6 00 
 2 00 
 
 111.3 
 19.3 
 9.8 
 72.6 
 
 289.5 
 29.0 
 
 163.8 
 
 2,301 
 399 
 203 
 
 1,501 
 
 6,984 
 599 
 
 3,179 
 
 
 
 2,301 
 
 399 
 
 203 
 
 1,501 
 
 5,984 
 
 699 
 
 McDuffle . . 
 
 
 
 3,179 
 
 
 
 
 2,735 
 
 5 18 
 
 
 6 18 
 
 686.3 
 
 14,166 
 
 
 
 14,166 
 
 Total . . . . 
 
 
 
 
 MAINE. 
 
 Hancock (a) . 
 
 Penobscot ... . . 
 York 
 
 400 
 
 7 60 
 
 18 OO 
 
 26 60 
 
 146.1 
 
 2,999 
 
 6,569 
 
 7,200 
 
 10,199 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total ... 
 
 400 
 
 7 60 
 
 18 00 
 
 25 50 
 
 145.1 
 
 2,999 
 
 5,569 
 
 7,200 
 
 10,199 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIEE. 
 
 Grafton . . . . ■ 
 
 2,183 
 
 6 04 
 
 7 32 
 
 12 36 
 
 532.1 
 
 10,999 
 
 12,375 
 
 16,000 
 
 20,999 
 
 NORTH CAEOLINA. 
 
 200 
 
 1,821 
 
 10 
 
 11,370 
 
 625 
 
 60 
 
 600 
 
 10 00 
 5 00 
 2 87 
 8 33 
 7 84 
 
 20 07 
 
 4 00 
 
 Olt 
 
 10 00 
 6 00 
 2 87 
 8 33 
 8 00 
 
 20 07 
 
 96.8 
 440.5 
 13.9 
 4,584.5 
 237.0 
 58.2 
 
 2,001 
 9,106 
 287 
 94,770 
 4,899 
 1,203 
 
 
 
 2,001 
 
 Davidson . . . .... ... 
 
 Gaston . . 
 Guilford . . 
 
 Mecklenburg . - 
 
 Moore . . 
 
 77 
 
 I'oo 
 
 9,106 
 
 287 
 
 94,770 
 
 4,999 
 
 1,203 
 
 Kowan . . . ... .... 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 96.8 
 
 2,001 
 
 
 2,001 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 14,680 
 
 7 83 
 
 
 7 83 
 
 6,627.7 
 
 114,267 
 
 77 
 
 100 
 
 114,307 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 Abbeville . . 
 
 Colleton .... 
 
 
 
 . , 
 
 
 24.2 
 
 290.2 
 
 600 
 5,099 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 6,999 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 314.4 
 
 6,499 
 
 
 
 6,499 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 VIEOINIA. 
 
 Buckingham 
 
 Culpepper . . 
 
 74 
 6 
 
 6 00 
 36 80 
 
 
 6 00 
 36 80 
 
 17.9 
 8.7 
 
 370 
 180 
 
 
 
 
 370 
 180 
 
 Total from schedule data 
 
 Additional production ehown by mint re 
 
 79 
 
 96 
 
 
 6 96 
 
 26.6 
 424.3 
 
 660 
 8,771 
 
 
 
 550 
 
 
 
 8,771 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 450.9 
 
 9-S21 
 
 
 
 9,321 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Covnty, 
 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 Assay value of ore raised 
 
 luring census year and rem 
 it close of year. 
 
 aining on liand 
 
 Btatoand 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars, 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 ALABAJ 
 
 Cleburne (a) . . . . 
 
 UA. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * Estimated. 
 
 a No assay values given. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 981 
 
 EASTBRJV DIVISION— PRODUCTIdST BY STATES AND COUNTIES OF DEEP MINES FOR THE YEAR ENDING 
 
 MAY 31, ISSO.—Contimiea, 
 
 
 1 
 
 Aasay valve 
 
 afore-raited during cetma year and remaining on hand 
 ai close of year. 
 
 State <md OomUy. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 ] 
 saver. j Total. 
 
 1 
 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Otmcea. 
 
 DoUan. 
 
 Ounces 
 
 DolUu-i. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 OEOBQIA. 
 
 Cherokee (a) 
 
 6T 
 
 60.7 
 
 1,255 
 
 
 
 1,255 
 
 Cobb .... . . 
 
 
 
 
 Poreyth. . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hall .... ... ... . . ; 
 
 Lincoln ... . 
 
 McDiiffie . . , 
 
 
 
 
 Meriwether 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 67 
 
 eo.7 
 
 1,255 
 
 
 
 1,265 
 
 
 
 MAINE. 
 
 Hancock (a) 
 
 1,400 
 400 
 60 
 
 
 
 32,486 
 1,590 
 1,249 
 
 42,001 
 2,067 
 1,615 
 
 42,001 
 12,814 
 1,952 
 
 Penobscot 
 
 York . . 
 
 519.9 
 16.3 
 
 10,747 
 337 
 
 Total 
 
 1,860 
 
 536.2 
 
 11,084 
 
 36,334 
 
 46,683 
 
 66,767 
 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIKE. 
 
 Grafton 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 Davidson 
 
 20,000 
 
 16,931.2 
 
 *349,999 
 
 38,673 
 
 *.50,000 
 
 *399,999 
 
 Gaston . . 
 
 Guilford 
 
 
 Mecklenburg . . 
 
 
 
 
 Moore . . . .... , . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kowan . . .... . . . 
 
 Stanley . . 
 
 1,200 
 
 522.4 
 
 10,799 
 
 2,784 
 
 3,690 
 
 14,398 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 21,200 
 
 17,4.53.6 
 
 *360,79S 
 
 41,557 
 
 «63,599 
 
 414,397 
 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 VIEOINIA. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Culpepper . 
 
 86 
 
 164.8 
 
 3,407 
 
 94 
 
 122 
 
 3,629 
 
 Total from schedule data. . . . 
 
 Additional production shown by mint receipts . . . . . . .■ 
 
 85 
 
 164.8 
 
 , 3,407 
 
 94 
 
 122 
 
 3,629 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 86 
 
 164.8 
 
 3,407 
 
 94 
 
 122 
 
 3,629 
 
 ^ Estimated. 
 
 a No assay values given. 
 
 EASTERN DIVISION— PRODUCTION OF HYDRAUL.IC, P1.ACER, RIVER AND BRANCH MINES FOR THE TEAR 
 
 ENDING MAY 31, ISgO. 
 
 SOUTH CAEOLINA. 
 
 
 District. 
 
 
 
 Hold. 
 
 Coun^. 
 
 Totals hy districts. 
 
 TotoU hy coimties. 
 
 
 Chmces. 
 
 DoUari. 
 
 
 DoUart. 
 
 Chesterfield 
 
 Scattered 
 
 316.4 
 
 6,541 
 
 316.4 
 
 6,541 
 
 Total 
 
 316 4 
 
 6,541 
 
 316.4 
 
 6,541 
 
 
 
982 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 EASTERN DIVISION— PRODTJCTIOW OF HYDRAUMC, PI.ACER, RIVER, AND BRANCH MINES FOR THE YEAR 
 
 ENDING IHAY 31, 18 80.— Continued. 
 
 GEOEGIA. 
 
 
 Dulrict. 
 
 0oU. 
 
 County, 
 
 Totals hy districts. 
 
 Totals by counties. 
 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Cherokee . . 
 Hall. . 
 Lumpkin . . 
 
 Do. . . 
 
 Do. . . . 
 Union . 
 White . 
 Do. 
 
 Fifteenth and second . ... 
 810 G. M., 9 and 12 L . . . . . 
 
 Twelfth 
 
 Twelfth and first . 
 
 Thirteenth ... 
 
 Tenth . ..... 
 
 Third . . 
 
 Fourth. ... 
 
 10.9 
 
 183.2 
 
 1,691.0 
 
 1.237.9 
 
 8.8 
 
 72.6 
 
 81,1 
 
 48.4 
 
 22S 
 
 3,787 
 
 32,901 
 
 2.5,,'->90 
 
 182 
 
 1,601 
 
 1,070 
 
 1,001 
 
 10.9 
 183.2 
 
 I 2,838.3 
 
 72.6 
 1 129.6 
 
 22S 
 3,787 
 
 68,073 
 
 1,601 
 
 2,677 
 
 Total .... 
 
 3,234.6 
 
 06,803 
 
 3,234.5 
 
 66,863 
 
 NOKTH CAROLINA. 
 
 Montgomery . . . 
 Pope. . . 
 
 El Dorado . . .... . . 
 
 Scattered . ... ... ... 
 
 Scattered . •. ...... 
 
 34.9 
 172.7 
 19.1 
 
 721 
 
 3,570 
 
 395 
 
 1 
 
 1 207.6 
 
 19.1 
 
 4,291 
 395 
 
 Total 
 
 226.7 
 
 4,686 
 
 226.7 
 
 4,686 
 
 
 
 
 SiLVEE Contained in Placek Gold. — No account is 
 taken by the miners of the silver alloyed with placer gold, 
 unless in the exceptional cases where the value of the former 
 is allowed for in the sale of the product, as in direct sales to 
 the mints or United States assay offices. In the aggregate 
 this silver forms a considerable item, which should be in- 
 
 cluded in the total product, but which has usually been dis- 
 regarded by statisticians. The schedules of the experts con- 
 tain data for a close estimate as to the average tenor of the 
 placer product. A statement of the fineness in gold oi 
 samples from various localities is appended. 
 
 SPECIMEN EXAMPltES OF PLACER GOIiD. 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
 County and locality. 
 
 Centerville . . 
 Cherokee Flat 
 
 Morris Bavine . 
 Oroville . . 
 
 CALAVERAS. 
 
 UokalwBane Hill . 
 
 PEL NOSTE. 
 
 Bunker Hill Mine 
 China Creek 
 Happy Camp . 
 Indian Creek . . . 
 Wingate Mine 
 
 HUMBOLDT. 
 
 Gold Bluffs 
 Orleans Bar 
 
 Bath ... 
 Dutch Flat . . 
 Gold Hun . 
 Iowa Hill . . . 
 Michigan Bluffs . 
 
 Black Hawk Mine 
 Cook's Canon . . . 
 Gopher Hill 
 
 Fineness in 
 gold. 
 
 0.900 
 0.970 
 0.900 
 0.905—0.908 
 0.942 
 
 0.887—0.925 
 0.900 
 
 0.875—0.935 
 0.900 
 
 0.944—0.950 
 
 0.940 
 0.726 
 
 0.850 
 0.900—0.910 
 
 0.900 
 0.784— 0.814 
 0.925—0.960 
 
 0.924 
 0.885 
 0.936 
 
 Semarks. 
 
 Sold for $13 to $17 per ounce. 
 
 County and locality. 
 
 Hungarian Hill ' 
 Seneca . . 
 
 Igo . 
 
 SISKIYOU. 
 
 Callahan's Banch 
 Cottonwood . 
 Coyotte Gulch . 
 Galena Hill . 
 Greenhorn . . . 
 Humbug Creek . 
 Indian Creek . . 
 McAdams Credk . 
 Oro Fino .... 
 Battlesnake Creek 
 Saw.yer's Bar 
 Sciad Yalloy . . , 
 Scott Valley . . . 
 South Fork Salmon 
 Yreka 
 
 STANISLAUS. 
 
 La Grange . . .... 
 
 TRINITY. 
 
 Budceye 
 
 Cafion Creek 
 
 Chapman's and Fisher's Mines 
 Douglas . . . . ■. . . . 
 
 Indian Crook 
 
 Junction City 
 
 Bed Hill ... . ... 
 
 Trinity Center 
 
 Trinity Mine 
 
 Weaver ... 
 
 Fineness in 
 gold. 
 
 0.924 
 0.846 
 
 0.885 
 
 0.859 
 
 0.860 
 
 0.900—0.950 
 
 0.880—0.930 
 
 0.850 
 
 0.809—0.865 
 
 0.835—0.900 
 
 0.750—0,900 
 
 0.762 
 
 0.827 
 
 0.850 
 
 0.887—0.912 
 
 0.805 
 
 0.S35 
 
 0.749—0.863 
 
 0.890—0.900 
 
 0,804—0,896 
 
 0,914—0,017 
 
 0.912 
 
 0,920 
 
 0.876—0.916 
 
 O.OIO— 0.917 
 
 0.900 
 
 0.887—0.903 
 
 0.906—0.927 
 
 Remarla. 
 
 Sold for $17.76 per ounce. 
 
 Sold for $17 per ounce. 
 Sold for $10.50 per ounce. 
 
 Sold for $16 to $16.26 per oz. 
 Sold for $16.75 per ounce. 
 Sold for $16 to $17.12 per oz. 
 
 Sold for $18 per ounce. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ^83 
 
 SPECIMEIN KXAMFIilSS OF PliACICIC. GOLiD.— Continued. 
 
 COLORADO. 
 
 County and localittj. 
 
 CBAFFEE. 
 
 Hope 
 
 CX£AS CCEEK. 
 
 Jackson 
 
 LAKE. 
 
 California 
 
 FinenesB in 
 gold. 
 
 0.850 
 
 0.850— O.S75 
 
 Covmly and localUij, 
 
 Alma township .... 
 
 nOUTT. 
 
 Hahn's Peak . . . 
 
 SUUHIT. 
 
 Bevan 
 
 Spalding 
 
 FineTtess in 
 gold. 
 
 0.750—0.820 
 0.850—0.000 
 
 SeTnarhs. 
 
 
 
 DAKOTA. 
 
 
 
 LAWKENCE. 
 
 
 
 PENNINGTON. 
 
 
 
 Bear Gulch 
 
 Capo Horn ... . . 
 
 0.940 
 0.870 
 
 
 Canon 
 
 Confcflfemte 
 
 Jenny and Strawberry 
 
 0.925 
 
 0.926—0.940 
 
 0.940 
 
 
 GEOKCIA. 
 
 CHEROKEE. 
 
 
 
 WHITE. 
 
 
 
 Fifteenth District . . •. 
 
 0.927 
 
 Sold for 510.20 per ounce .... 
 
 Fourth District 
 
 0.945 
 
 
 HALL. 
 
 
 
 UXION. 
 
 
 
 810 e. M. 0th and 12th districts . 
 
 0.000— 0. 01 G 
 
 
 Tenth District 
 
 0.981 
 
 
 LUMPKIN. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Twelfth District . .... 
 Thirteenth District . . . 
 
 0.875—0.005 
 O.062— 0.092 
 
 
 
 
 
 BoisJi:. 
 Bois:^ Basin and vicinity . . 
 
 Average of 413 lota. 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 BEAVEE HEAD. 
 
 
 
 DEEH LODGE — Continued. 
 
 
 
 Bannock ... 
 
 0.935 
 
 
 Nelson .... 
 Summit Valley 
 
 LEWIS AND CLAEKE. 
 
 0.935—0.940 
 0.700 
 
 
 DEEIt LODGE. 
 
 
 
 Last Chance . . 
 
 0.910 
 
 
 Gold Hill 
 
 Henderson Gulch ... 
 
 Independence . . 
 
 McClellan'B Gulch . ... 
 
 0.950—0.956 
 0.925—0.907 
 0.725—0.730 
 0.860—0.930 
 
 Sold for S17.60 per ounce. 
 
 MEA6HEE. 
 
 German 
 
 Thompson's Gulch ... 
 
 0,830—0.835 
 945—0.980 
 
 
 BAKEn, 
 
 
 
 JACKSON — contin-ued. 
 
 
 
 Amelia .-..., 
 
 0.810— O.90O 
 
 
 Coyote Creek . 
 
 0.895—0.930 
 
 
 Blue Gallon . . . ' ' 
 
 0.840—0.853 
 
 Sold for 816.50 per ounce. 
 
 Dry Diggings . 
 
 0.975 
 
 
 Chicken Creek 
 
 0.725 
 
 Sold for 815 per oUnce. 
 
 Fort Lane . .... 
 
 0.870 
 
 Sold for $16,25 per ounce. 
 
 Humboldt Basin . : 
 
 0.789— 0.8C6 
 
 . Do. Do. 
 
 Forty-Nino. . 
 
 0.837 
 
 Sold for $10,50 per ounce. 
 
 Mormon Ba^in .- . . . 
 
 0.750 
 
 Sold for SSIC per ounce. 
 
 Grass Creek . .... 
 
 0.875—0.000 
 
 
 Pocahontas ... 
 
 0.782—0.851 
 
 Sold for $15.60 to 817 por ounce. 
 
 Jackass Creek .... 
 
 0.950 
 
 
 Bye Valley ... 
 
 0.736 
 
 
 Jacksonville . .... 
 
 0,860 
 
 
 Shasta. ... ... 
 
 0.850—0.860 
 
 Sold for $16.50 por ounce. 
 
 Sam's Valley . 
 
 0,825 
 0,810—0.900 Sold for $16,75 per ounce. 
 
 WUlow Creek . . . 
 
 0.825 
 
 
 Sardine Creek . .... 
 
 
 
 
 Sterling 
 
 0.826— O.908 
 
 
 CUEET. 
 
 
 
 Unionto-\vii . ... 
 
 Wolf Creek 
 
 0.804—0,820 
 0,925 
 
 Sold for $16,75 per ounce. 
 
 Sixes Eiver . . . 
 
 0.825 
 
 Sold for £17 per ounce. 
 
 JOSEPHINE. 
 
 
 
 DOUGLAS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Althouse 
 
 0,865—0 875 
 
 Sold for $16,50 per ounce. 
 
 Big Bend 
 
 0.925—0.050 
 
 Sold for $17 per ounce. 
 
 CafionOreek 
 
 0,900 
 
 Sold for $17 per ounce. 
 
 Cailonville. ... 
 
 0.90O-0.950 
 
 
 Grass Creek. . . ... 
 
 0,909—0,930 
 
 
 Green Mountain . 
 
 0.825—0.830 
 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Josephine 
 
 0,900 
 0,900 
 
 
 GRANT. 
 
 
 
 Murphy . . 
 
 Silver Creek 
 
 0,900 
 0,900 
 
 
 Caflon City ... 
 
 0.850—0.900 
 
 Sold for $17.60 per ounce. 
 
 Waldo. 
 
 0.919-0,927 
 
 
 Granite . 
 
 0.750-O.761 
 
 
 Tank . . 
 
 0,967 
 
 
 Marysvillo ... . . • 
 
 0.805—0.887 
 
 Sold for $16.25 to $17.00 per ounce. 
 
 
 
 
 Eock Creek . . 
 
 0.807 
 
 Sold for $16.50 to $16.75 per ounce. 
 
 CHAIILLA. 
 
 
 
 Trail Creek .... 
 
 0.857 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Columbia Kiver 
 
 0,740 
 
 Sold for $15.30 per onnce^ 
 
 JACKSON. 
 
 
 
 ■WASCO. 
 
 
 
 Applosate 
 
 A&nland .... 
 
 0.850 
 0.840 
 
 
 Ochoco . ■. 
 
 0.711 
 
 
984 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 From the same sources the following condensed abstract 
 has been prepared, showing the average fineness m gold and 
 silver of the placer yield of several states and territories, 
 with the number of specimen examples from which these 
 averages are derived. The amount ot base metal contained 
 in the crude bullion varies firom nothing to 0.020. 
 
 Average Tenor of Placer Gold. 
 
 State or Territonj. 
 
 Number of 
 examples. 
 
 Average fineness. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Sitoer. 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Dalcota ■ ;...... 
 
 Georgia . . 
 
 Idaho 
 
 80 
 9 
 7 
 
 10 
 413 
 
 14 
 
 77 
 
 0.8830 
 0.8205 
 0.9235 
 0.9228 
 0.7800 
 0.B951 
 0.8727 
 
 0.1124 
 0.1765 
 0.0725 
 0.0732 
 0.2134 
 0.1009 
 
 
 0.1233 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 Total 
 
 010 
 
 
 
 From eighty examples of California placer dust and bul- 
 lion an average fineness of 0.8836 is derived, a proportion 
 slightly in excess of that stated in Dana's Mineralogy, where 
 the fineness is quoted at 0.875 to 0.885, or an average of 
 0.880. It is possible that the census average is a trifle too 
 high, owing to the natural tendency of producers to over- 
 estimate the fineness of their gold ; but the slight differ- 
 ence between it and the figures given by Dana would not 
 materially affect the general result. The average for Idaho 
 is of 413 lots of placer gold from Boisl basin, a district pro- 
 ducing three-fourths of the total for the territory. This 
 gold, is of less fineness than that obtained in several other 
 localities in Idaho, but the average stated will hold as a 
 close approximation for the total. There are three methods 
 of obtaining from these data an average for the United 
 States — neither of which is quite free from defects. 
 
 If the sum of the figures representing the average gold 
 fineness for the several states and territories be divideof by 
 -seven, the number of the states and territories from which 
 reliable data as to fineness are obtainable, the quotient is 
 0.871257, which may be described as an average of geo- 
 graphical distribution. This, however, does not represent 
 the average fineness of the whole actual amount produced, 
 for by this method each state and territory is taken as an 
 equal member in the calculation, without regard to the large 
 difference in their several products. Thus Georgia, with a 
 product of $66,863, has as much weight in influencing the 
 general average as California with a placer yield of $8,580,- 
 989, or 128 times as large. 
 
 Another mode is to give each individual example equal 
 weight, disregarding territorial limits. Dividing the sum 
 of fineness in gold of 610 specimen examples, 495,887, by 
 610, an average of 0.8129 is obtained. This gives a true 
 
 average for the number of cases in which the fineness is 
 definitely given in the schedules, but represents neither the 
 average according to geograpMcal distribution nor that of 
 the whole product. In this way California, with a placer 
 product nine and three-fourths times greater than that ot 
 Idaho, is largely overweighted by thelatter owing to the 
 preponderance of examples furnished by Idaho in the 
 census returns. The result is evidently too lo\y. 
 
 The third and preferable method is to multiply the aver- 
 age fineness for each state and territory by the coeflicient 
 of the several yields, and then divide the sum ot the pro- 
 ducts so obtained by the sum of the coeflicients. This gives 
 each not an equal but a just weight. _ The result is the 
 average fineness of the total product without rolcrence to 
 the producing source. This principle is thus applied : 
 
 state or Territory. 
 
 California 
 Colorado . 
 Dakota . 
 Georgia . 
 Idaho . . 
 Montana. 
 Oregon . 
 
 Average fine- 
 ncBB in gold. 
 
 Yield of placer 
 gold in millions JtesuUants- 
 of dollars. 
 
 0.8836 
 0.8205 
 0.9235 
 0.9228 
 O.7800 
 0.0051 
 0.8727 
 
 8.681 
 0.102 
 0.051 
 0.067 
 0.880 
 1.103 
 0.926, 
 
 7.5821715 
 0.0830910 
 0.0470985 
 0.0018270 
 0.0809280 
 1.0410013 
 0.8081202 
 
 10.310S3S2 
 
 10.3108382 
 Total average gold fineness— — ii'TTiT"'" 
 
 The proportionate contents in silver and in base metal are 
 similarly ascertained. By using the figures representing the 
 average tenor of the placer gold for each of the states and 
 territories for which reliable data are obtainable, and assu- 
 ming the general averaged deduced from them for the 
 cases in which the returns are defective, the probable total 
 silver contents may readily be calculated. It is found that 
 the 580,766.6 ounces of fine gold were associated with 80,- 
 177.3 ounces of fine silver and 2,753.2 ounces of base metal, 
 making the total weight of the crude placer gold 663,697.1 
 ounces. In mint value the silver contents were worth only 
 $103,661 as against $12,005,511 for the gold. Thus while 
 the ratio of silver to gold products was 1:7.2437 in weight, 
 it was only 1:115.8153 In assay value. At the market rates 
 the value of this placer silver, if any account were taken 
 of it, would be considerably less, or a ratio of about 1:131. 
 The loss to the miners in the price paid for the actual gold 
 contents of the placer dust, when Sold in small quantities to 
 local dealers, is so much greater than the whole value of the 
 silver contents, that the latter does not appear to them a 
 matter of any consequence. The amount of silver alloyed 
 with the placer gold of the several states and territories is 
 shown in the accompanying table : 
 
 COWTENTS AND MINT VALrB OP CRCDK PIjACER GOL.D. 
 
 
 
 Contents of placer gold. 
 
 mint value. 
 
 Stale or Territory. 
 
 Fine gold. 
 
 Fine silver. 
 
 Base nietal. 
 
 Tolrtl crude 
 metal. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Sillier. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Ottticcs. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Alaaka . . 
 Arizona . , 
 California. . 
 Colorado . 
 Dakota. . . . 
 Georgia. . . . 
 Idaho. . 
 Montana . 
 Nevada .... 
 North Carolina . 
 Oregon .... 
 South Carolina . 
 Utah. . . . 
 Waahlngtou 
 
 
 287.9 
 
 <1,451.2 
 
 - 4-16,105.0 
 
 4,921.9 
 
 2,460.3 
 
 3,234.6 
 
 42,552.8 
 
 00,265.0 
 
 *2,418.7 
 
 *226.7 
 
 44,811.5 
 
 316,4 
 
 007.6 
 
 6,756,6 
 
 •39.4 
 
 *108.8 
 
 52,804.2 
 
 1,062.8 
 
 193.1 
 
 250.6 
 
 11,633.1 
 
 0,341.4 
 
 ■'331.9 
 
 "31.0 
 
 0,331.2 
 
 *43.3 
 
 <132.5 
 
 *788.0 
 
 80,177.3 
 
 1.3 
 
 •0.6 
 1,879.1 
 
 24.0 
 0.2 
 
 14.0 
 327.1 
 251.4 
 •11.0 
 
 •1.0 
 206.4 
 
 •1.4 
 
 •4.4 
 •20.3 
 
 328.0 
 
 '1,050.0 
 
 40:i,788.3 
 
 ,0,098.0 
 
 2,063.0 
 
 3,606.1 
 
 6-4,612.9 
 
 02,848.4 
 
 - '2;7C1.1 
 
 •268.8 
 
 51,348.1 
 
 •361.2 
 
 •1,104,4 
 
 •6,571.4 
 
 6,951 
 
 •29,000 
 
 8,680,982 
 
 101.746 
 
 60,860 
 
 06,863 
 
 079,044 
 
 1,102,900 
 
 «4D,099 
 
 '■4,080 
 
 926,336 
 
 0,641 
 
 20,000 
 
 119,000 
 
 •51 
 
 *2,'iT 
 
 08,271 
 
 1,301 
 
 260 
 
 332 
 
 15,040 
 
 8,199 
 
 "428 
 
 >-40 
 
 8,160 
 
 •50 
 
 •171 
 
 •1,019 
 
 6,nc2 
 
 •3ll,'2J0 
 
 8,040,253 
 
 10:l,ll 
 
 51,1C9 
 
 07,105 
 
 894,084 
 
 1,171,105 
 
 *50,427 
 
 '-4,720 
 934,622 
 
 ':'G.6'. 7 
 •20,171 
 •120,019 
 
 
 Total . . 
 
 680,760.6 
 
 2,763.2 
 
 663; 097.1 
 
 12,005,611 
 
 103,001 
 
 12,100,172 
 
 ''■'Estimated. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 985 
 
 Resume of Peoduction Statistics. — The statements of ore raised, its average assay value per ton and actual assay 
 valuation ; ore treated, of that which was raised during the year, its average yield per ton and total bullion product ; 
 ore which remained on the dumps at the close of the census year, and its assay value ; and bullion produced from ore raised 
 prior to the census year, including old tailings reworked, are grouped in the following comprehensive exhibit of the deep mines : 
 
 UNITED STATES— PRODUCTION OF DEEP MINES FOR 
 
 THC: YEAR £NDIKG JHAY 
 
 31, 18S0. 
 
 
 
 It 
 
 r 
 
 Average aseay value per ton. 
 
 ToUtl assay value of ore raised during cewnts year. 
 
 Btaleor Territory. 
 
 OoU. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Gold 
 and 
 silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. \ DoUars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 
 2,216,417.61 
 
 al2 68 
 
 a25 64 
 
 038 32 
 
 1,289,990.5 
 
 26,666.468 
 
 41,193,494 
 
 53,269,<I70 
 
 79,925.538 
 
 Alabama (6) 
 
 124.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Alaska 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 48,252.50 
 
 *8 70 
 
 *89 19 
 
 »97 89 
 
 *20,312.3 
 
 *419,892 
 
 *3,.328,763 
 
 *4, 303,746 
 
 «4, 723, 6.38 
 
 
 California 
 
 Ck>loiudo 
 
 544,241.00 
 356,360.00 
 
 18 84 
 8 58 
 
 2 84 
 55 26 
 
 21 68 
 63 94 
 
 496.962.1 
 149,548.2 
 
 10,262,446 
 3,091,435 
 
 1,194,084 
 15,233,414 
 
 1,643,832 
 19,696,282 
 
 11,796,278 
 22,786,717 
 
 
 Dakota 
 
 536,748.00 
 
 7 71 
 
 33 
 
 8 04 
 
 200,313.9 
 
 ,4,140,866 
 
 136,853 
 
 176,937 
 
 4,817,793 
 
 
 District of Columbia . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Florida . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Georgia (6) 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Illinois . . , 
 
 2,792.00 
 36,825.60 
 
 '28 '97 
 
 '24 52 
 
 ■53 '49 
 
 151.1 
 50,212.4 
 
 3,124 
 1,037,982 
 
 ' 679,387 
 
 878,.379 
 
 3,124 
 l,910,:ilil 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . > 
 
 
 Iowa 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Maine (6) 
 
 2,250.00 
 
 
 
 
 636.2 
 
 11,084 
 
 42,294 
 
 54,682 
 
 65,766 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Montana 
 
 114,858.00 
 
 9 95 
 
 42 68 
 
 52 03 
 
 65,286.7 
 
 1,142,878 
 
 3,791,602 
 
 4,902,034 
 
 6,044,912 
 
 Nevada . 
 
 366,052.33 
 2,183.00 
 
 16 62 
 
 41 06 
 
 66 68 
 
 269,077.4 
 
 6,662,323 
 
 11,308,738 
 
 14,621,067 
 
 20,183,390 
 
 New Hampshire (6) 
 
 
 New Mexico . ... ... 
 
 10,486.50 
 
 8 28 
 
 73 86 
 
 82 14 
 
 4.197.8 
 
 86,776 
 
 599,067 
 
 774,633 
 
 861,309 
 
 North Carolina (b) . . . . . . 
 
 35,786.00 
 
 
 
 
 17,463.6 
 
 360,798 
 
 41,457 
 
 63,599 
 
 414,.397 
 
 
 
 Oregon .... ... 
 
 PenneylTania . 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina (6) 
 
 14,087.00 
 
 16 86 
 
 5 35 
 
 22 21 
 
 11,491.7 
 
 237,555 
 
 58,292 
 
 75,366 
 
 312,921 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Utah 
 
 164,827.78 
 
 1 75 
 
 39 91 
 
 4166 
 
 13,088.5 
 
 270,663 
 
 4,779,556 
 
 6,179,488 
 
 6,450,051 
 
 
 164.00 
 637.00 
 
 4101 
 
 Trace. 
 
 41 04 
 
 174.5 
 1,066.0 
 
 3,607 
 22,036 
 
 97 
 
 126 
 
 3,732 
 22,036 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 843.00 
 
 •27 42 
 
 
 *27 42 
 
 1,118.1 
 
 23,113 
 
 
 
 23,113 
 
 
 
 
 
 * Estimated. 
 
 a ATeiage calculated without including partial data from Eastern and Southern States. 
 
 h No further schedule data. 
 
 It appears that of the ore mined during the census year 
 91.39 per cent, in tonnage was treated at the reduction 
 works, and 8.61 per cent, was left on the dumps. The av- 
 erage result of working treatment, as compared with assay 
 value, was 81.86 per cent, of the gold contents, 79.68 per 
 cent, of the silver, and 80.40 per cent, in all. Notwith- 
 standing the large number of estimated amounts entering 
 into the calculation, these results are probably a very close 
 approximation to the truth. 
 
 ■ The highest average yield was from the Arizona ores, 
 amounting to $7.01 gold, $86.24 silver, and $93.25 total 
 per ton. Of the localities producing any considerable 
 amount of bullion, Dakota, with an average of $6.33 gold, 
 $0.14 silver, and $6.47 total per ton, appears as the region 
 where low-grade gold ores are worked to the best advan- 
 tage, the percentage of yield to assay value being 82.10 per 
 
 cent, in gold, 42.42 per cent, in silver, and 80.47 per cent, 
 total. The total product of each state and territory, inclu- 
 ding the silver contents of placer gold, appears in our Table 
 which shows the aggregate bullion output of the United 
 States for the census year. 
 
 The relative quota contributed by each of the three great 
 arbitrary divisions into which the country has been appor- 
 tioned is indicated in the accompanying abtracts, from which 
 it will be seen that the Pacific division fiimishes 75.68 per 
 cent, of the gold, 51.43 per cent, of the silver, and 62.80 
 per cent, of the total. The division of the Rocky 
 mountains yields 23.60 per cent, of the gold, 48.45 per 
 cent, of the silver, and 37.31 per cent, of the total. The 
 product of the Eastern division represents 0.72 per cent, 
 of the gold, 0.12 per cent, of the silver, and 0.39 per ceut of 
 the total. 
 
986 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATE&. 
 
 ITjriTBD STATES— PK.ODUCTIOM OF" 
 
 DEEP MINES FOR THE YEAR EMPIHT C MAY 31, ISSO-^ConHnuea^ 
 
 
 
 Average yield par Ian. 
 
 BvHionprodmed/rom ore raised and treated duHng caums year. 
 
 State or Territory. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 SUoer. 
 
 Gold 
 
 and 
 
 silver. 
 
 GoU. 
 
 Sater. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tom. 
 
 1 
 Dollars. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 DoVUiTs. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 
 1,884,426.25 
 
 alO 38 
 
 a20 43 
 
 a30 81 
 
 972,682.9 
 
 20,105.073 
 
 30,577,026 
 
 39,633,037 
 
 69,638,110 
 
 
 124.00 
 
 '*25J728.'26' 
 
 ■436,'36l.b0 
 330,680.50 
 
 '496Jl30.'od 
 
 10 60 
 
 ■*7bi 
 
 ' ' ' 16 10 
 
 6 89 
 
 '6 33 
 
 "*86 24 
 
 2 00 
 49 20 
 
 ■ 14 
 
 10 60 
 '*93 '25 
 
 'is 10 
 
 66 09 
 ■ 6 '47 
 
 62.9 
 
 ■*8,725.2 
 
 402,469.5 
 110,181.3 
 
 151,837.1 
 
 1,301 
 
 'n86,366 
 
 ■ 8,319,786 
 2,277,649 
 
 3,138,761 
 
 
 
 1,301 
 
 Alabama (6) 
 
 Alaska 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Arkansas . . . . 
 
 ' *l,716,l'76' 
 
 828,636 
 12,679,661 
 
 64,677 
 
 ' *2,218,844' 
 
 ' i,67i,215 
 16,264,101 
 
 ■76,663 
 
 '*2,399,2'l6 
 
 ■ 9,39i,CK)l 
 18,541,760 
 
 3,209,314 
 
 Colorado .... • - . 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Dakota . . 
 
 Delaware 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 Georgia (6) . . . . 
 
 Idaho 
 
 2,735.00 
 28,029.76 
 
 5 18 
 21 16 
 
 15 W 
 
 5 18 
 37 07 
 
 686.3 
 28,689.9 
 
 U,l«6 
 693,073 
 
 ■ 344,969 
 
 ■ 446,616 
 
 14,166' 
 1,039,083 
 
 Illinois 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Indiana 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Iowa ...... 
 
 
 
 
 Kansas 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kentucky . ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine (6) 
 
 Maryland . . . . 
 
 400.00 
 
 7 60 
 
 18 00 
 
 25 60 
 
 145.1 
 
 2,999 
 
 6,569 
 
 7,200 
 
 16,199' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *20,000 
 
 *25,868 
 
 *25,868 
 
 Minnesota . . 
 
 86J576.50 
 
 'sielssi.'oo' 
 
 2,183.00 
 '7,'452.'50 
 i4i586.bo' 
 i3,'772.bo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Montana • • ■ 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Hampshire (6) . . 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New Mexico . . 
 
 New York .... 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon 
 
 7 30 
 
 ' ' ' 12 '35 
 
 5 04 
 
 6 62 
 
 V.'ss 
 
 12 M 
 
 " ' ' 32 '52 
 
 ' " ' 33 '47 
 7 32 
 
 ' ' ' 52 65 
 
 Trace. 
 
 1 '30 
 
 39 82 
 
 ' ' ' 45 82 
 12 36 
 
 ' ' ' 69 '27 
 
 ' ' ' 7 83 
 
 13 '74 
 
 ' 30,670.4 '. 
 
 206,907.4 
 632.1 
 
 2.387.5 
 
 6.627.7 
 
 8,286.6 
 
 ' 631,946 '. 
 
 4,277,166': 
 10,999 . 
 
 '49,364 
 
 114,267 
 
 ' 171,276 
 
 '; 2,i77;,7(30" 
 
 " 8,96i,6'62'.' 
 ■M,375. 
 
 ;' "2,815,627 
 
 .''ii,?9d,282 
 16,000 
 
 ' 3,447,573 
 
 '15,867,438 
 26,999 
 
 ' 303,455" 
 
 '77 
 
 '13,880 
 
 ' •' 392,337 
 
 106 
 
 '17,946 
 
 441,691 
 ' 114,367 
 
 189,222 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 South Carolina (6) 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas ... 
 
 Utah 
 
 93,'li6.'75 
 
 ' ' ' i 98 
 
 '31 38 
 
 33 '36 
 
 314.4 
 (i96.7 
 
 13,063.4 
 
 6,499 
 <n,998 
 
 ' 276,045 
 
 ' 3,665,638 
 
 4,596,964 
 
 6,499 
 (21,998 
 
 4,866,999 
 
 
 
 d.450.9 
 812.7 
 
 837.9 
 
 49,321 
 16,800 
 
 '17,321 
 
 
 d9,321 
 
 Washington . . . 
 
 637.00 
 
 31 28 
 
 Trace. 
 
 31 28 
 20 65 
 
 
 
 16,800 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "Wyoming 
 
 843.00 
 
 20 65 
 
 
 17,321 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 * 
 
 Assail value of ore raised during census year and 
 remaining on luind at close of year. 
 
 BuUUm produced during census year from ore 
 previously raised. 
 
 State or Territortj. 
 
 GoU. 
 
 SUver: 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces, 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 
 182,346.00 
 
 89,033.8 
 
 1,840,493 
 
 5,277,622 
 
 6,823,308 
 
 8,663,801 
 
 61,391.7 
 
 1,269,079 
 
 1,W0,272 
 
 1,474,269 
 
 2,743,338 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado 
 
 22.524.25 
 
 '8!940,b6 
 26,779.69 
 
 8,667.7 
 
 3,814.3 
 6,007.9 
 
 179,176 
 
 '78,850 
 124,194 
 
 1,209,472 
 
 7,281 
 1,631,644 
 
 1,663,726 
 
 ' 9,414 
 2,109,663 
 
 1,742,902 
 
 "88,264' 
 2,233,747 
 
 77.4 
 
 "12,102.2 
 15,604.4 
 
 1,600 
 
 ' 256,173 
 320,504 
 
 82,646 
 
 8,818 
 219,516 
 
 106,724 
 
 li,«l' 
 283,812 
 
 108,324 
 
 ' 261,674 
 604,316 
 
 Dakota 
 
 40,618.00 
 
 17,753.3 
 
 366,994 
 
 26,404 
 
 32,846 
 
 399,839 
 
 6,622.7 
 
 116,233 
 
 
 . . 
 
 116,233 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Georgia (6) 
 
 67.00 
 7,705.75 
 
 60.7 
 . 16.411.6 
 
 1,255 
 339,268 
 
 
 
 1,265 
 706,063 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 283,622 
 
 366,695 
 
 836.5 
 
 6,936 
 
 2,707 
 
 3,500 
 
 10,430 
 
 
 
 Indiana 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kanaafi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kentucky ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Maine (6) . . 
 
 1,850.00 
 
 636.2 
 
 11,084 
 
 36,334 
 
 46,683 
 
 56,767 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Maryland . . ■ • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Michigan (c) . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 
 . . : : : 1 : . : : : 1 : ; ■ ; 
 
 
 
 * Jlstimated. a Average calculated without including partial data from Eastern and Southern Sfcateg. 
 at New York assay oflace ; does not include bullion from Silver Islet (which is in Canada) . d Actual receipta 
 
 h No fiirtlier echedule data, c Estimated from receipts 
 at Philadelphia mint and Now York assay office. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 987 
 
 V]»IT.B:D states— PRODUCTIOW op OKEP mines for. the YKAR ENDINC may 31, 18S0.— Continued. 
 
 
 
 Aemy va 
 Go 
 
 lue of ore raised during censm year and re- 
 maining on hand at close of year. 
 
 Bullion produced during census year from orepreiHoudy 
 raised. 
 
 Bute or TerrUory 
 
 U. 
 
 SUver. 
 
 ToM. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Missouri 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Montana 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 28,281.50 
 
 12,861.2 
 
 266,864 
 
 860,303 
 
 1,112,285 
 
 1,378,149 
 
 628.0 
 
 10,916 
 
 62,837 
 
 81,242 
 
 92,167 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Hampshire (b) 
 
 9,721.00 
 
 3,064.4 
 
 81,745 
 
 462,980 
 
 698,687 
 
 680,332 
 
 27,142.6 
 
 «561,087 
 
 649,668 
 
 *839,957 
 
 *1,401,044 
 
 New Jersey ..... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 3,034.00 
 
 100.0 
 
 2,067 
 
 180,788 
 
 233,741 
 
 235,808 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Now York 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 North Carolina (6) . . . .... 
 
 Ohio 
 
 21,200.00 
 
 17,453.6 
 
 *360,798 
 
 41,467 
 
 *63,599 
 
 414,397 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oregon . 
 
 315.00 
 
 1,083.6 
 
 22,409 
 
 31,634 
 
 40,900 
 
 63,300 
 
 4.3 
 
 89 
 
 1,285 
 
 1,601 
 
 1,760 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kouth Carolina (!i) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Texas 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Utah 
 
 Vermont •. . . . 
 
 Virginia (!>) 
 
 12,145.00 
 ' 83.00 
 
 104.5 
 ' 104.8 
 
 3,401 
 ' 3,407 
 
 607,609 
 94' 
 
 666,158 
 ' 122 
 
 669,659 
 ' 3,629 
 
 74.6 
 
 1,642 
 
 112,895 
 
 146,962 
 
 147,504 
 
 Washington 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * Estimated. 
 
 b No further schedule data. 
 
 Of greater interest than the above is the following table where the magnificent totals of American bullion produc- 
 tion are gathered in contrast. Sixty-two millions of dollars is a total of considerable importance in the economic 
 forces of the country. 
 
 Bri.I.ION PRODTTCT OF THE TTNITiSD STATES FOR THE TEAR EWDISrO HAT 31, 1H80. 
 
 
 BEEP MINES. 
 
 State or Territory. 
 
 From ore raised and treated during, census year. 
 
 From ore raised prior 
 
 (0, hut treated during census year. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 ToUd. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Hollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 ■ Ounces. 
 
 ■ DoUars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Total 
 
 972,682.9 
 
 20,106,073 
 
 30,577,026 
 
 39,633,037 
 
 59,638,110 
 
 61,391.7 
 
 1,269,079 
 
 1,140,272 
 
 1,474,259 
 
 2,743,338 
 
 
 62.9 
 
 1,301 
 
 
 
 1,301 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alaska 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Arizona . . 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado . . 
 
 Dakota . . ... . . 
 
 Georgia ... 
 
 Idaho 
 
 8,725.2 
 402,469.5 
 110,181.3 
 151,837.1 
 685.3 
 28,689.9 
 145.1 
 
 180,366 
 
 8,319,786 
 
 2,277,649 
 
 3,138,751 
 
 14,166 
 
 693,073 
 
 2,999 
 
 *1,716,1Y6 
 
 828,636 
 
 12,579,551 
 
 64,577 
 
 *2, 218, 844 
 
 1,071,215 
 
 16,264,101 
 
 70,667 
 
 *2, 399,210 
 
 9,391,001 
 
 18,641,750 
 
 3,209,314 
 
 14,166 
 
 1,039,083 
 
 10,199 
 
 *26,858- 
 
 3,447,673 
 
 16,867,438 
 
 26,999 
 
 441,691 
 
 114,367 
 
 189,222 
 
 6,499 
 
 1,998 
 
 4,866,999 
 
 9,321 
 
 16,800 
 
 17,321 
 
 77.4 
 12,102.2 
 16,504.4 
 6,622.7 
 
 1,600 
 250,173 
 320,504 
 116,233 
 
 82,546 
 
 8,818 
 
 219,516 
 
 106,724 
 11,401 
 283,812 
 
 108,324 
 261,574 
 604,316 
 116,233 
 
 344,969 
 
 5,569 
 
 *20,000 
 
 2,177,760 
 
 8,964,562 
 
 12,375 
 
 303,455 
 
 77 
 
 i3,880 
 
 446,010 
 
 7,200 
 
 *25,858 
 
 2,815,627 
 
 11.590,282 
 
 ' 16,000 
 
 392,337 
 
 100 
 
 17,946 
 
 335.5 
 
 6,936 
 
 2,707 
 
 3,600 
 
 10,436 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 MontaEta. . * ... 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Hampshire . 
 
 New Mexico . . .... 
 
 30,570.4 
 
 206,907.4 
 
 532.1 
 
 2,387.5 
 
 6,627.7 
 
 8,285.5 
 
 314,4 
 
 06.7 
 
 13,063.4 
 
 460.9 
 
 812.7 
 
 837.9 
 
 631,946 
 
 4,277,156 
 
 10,999 
 
 49,364 
 
 114,267 
 
 171,276 
 
 6,499 
 
 1,998 
 
 270,045 
 
 9,321 
 
 16,800 
 
 17,321 
 
 628.0 
 27,142.6 
 
 10,915 
 561,087 
 
 I 
 
 62,837 
 649,668 
 
 81,242 
 839,957 
 
 92,167 
 1,401,044 
 
 
 4.3 
 
 89 
 
 1,285 
 
 1,601 
 
 1,750 
 
 South Carolina. .... 
 
 Utah . 
 
 Virginia . . . .... 
 
 Washington .... ... ... 
 
 Wyoming . . . . . ... 
 
 3,555,638 
 
 4,596,954 
 
 74.6 
 
 1,542 
 
 112,895 
 
 146,062 
 
 147,504 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * Estimated. 
 
988 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 BULLION PHODOCT OW TUB UNITED STATES FOR THE YEAR. KNDIMG MAY 31, 1880.— Confiwuerf. 
 
 
 DEEP MINES — contimied. 
 
 
 
 ToUdfr<ym deep minee. 
 
 
 State or Territory. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Tolal. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 SOoer. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 DoUara. 
 
 Omces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Oimces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Total ; 
 
 1,033,974.6 
 
 21,374,162 31,717,297 41,007,296 
 1 1 ' ' 
 
 62,381,448 
 
 580,766.6 
 
 12,006,611 
 
 • W,nT.3 
 
 103; 661 
 
 12,109,172 
 
 
 
 Alabama 
 
 62.9 
 
 1,301 
 
 
 
 1,301 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 287.9 
 *1,461.2 
 416,106.0 
 4,921.9 
 2,460.3 
 3,234.5 
 42,662.8 
 
 5 951 
 
 *29,999 
 
 8,580,982 
 
 101,746 
 
 60,869 
 
 66,863 
 
 879,644 
 
 *39.4 
 
 *198.8 
 
 52,804.2 
 
 1,052.8 
 
 193,1 
 
 256,6 
 
 11,633.1 
 
 *51 
 
 «257 
 
 68,271 
 
 1,361 
 
 250 
 
 332 
 
 . t'^. 
 
 Arizona 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Dakota . . 
 
 Georgia . ... 
 
 Idaho. 
 
 Maine . . 
 
 * 8,802.6 
 414,671.7 
 125,086.7 
 157,469.8 
 
 686.3 
 29,025.4 
 
 145.1 
 
 *i8i,966 
 
 8,569,959 
 
 2,598,153 ' 
 
 3,264,984 
 
 14,166 
 
 600,009 
 
 2,999 
 
 fl,798,722 
 
 837,354 
 
 12,799,067 
 
 54,677 
 
 *2,325,568 
 
 1,082,616 
 
 16,647,913 
 
 70,663 
 
 *2,507,534 
 
 9,652,675 
 
 19,146,066 
 
 3,325,647 
 
 ■ 14,166 
 
 1,049,619 
 
 10,199 
 
 *26,858 
 
 3,539,730 
 
 17,268,482 
 
 *30,256 
 8,649,253 
 
 103,106 
 61,109 
 67,195 
 
 347,676 
 
 5,569 
 
 *20,000 
 
 2,240,597 
 
 9,614,230 
 
 12,375 
 
 303,456 
 
 77 
 
 15,165 
 
 449,610 
 
 7,200 
 
 *25,858 
 
 2,896.869 
 
 12,430,239 
 
 16,000 
 
 392,;i37 
 
 100 
 
 19,607 
 
 1 
 
 5,040 
 
 894,684 
 
 
 
 
 Montana. . . 
 
 Nevada .... . . . 
 
 New Hampshire . . . ... 
 
 New Mexico . . 
 
 North Carolina . , . . ... . . -, 
 
 Oregon . . . ... 
 
 South Carolina ........ . ... 
 
 Tennessee . ... 
 
 Utah , . . , 
 
 Virginia . . 
 
 Washington . . 
 
 Wyoming ... ... 
 
 31,098.4 
 
 234,050.0 
 
 5.32.1 
 
 2,387.5 
 
 5,527.5 
 
 8,289.8 
 
 314.6 
 
 96.7 
 
 13,138.0 
 
 450.9 
 
 812.7 
 
 837.9 
 
 642.861 
 
 4,838,343 
 
 10,999 
 
 49,364 
 
 114,207 
 
 171,366 
 
 6,499 
 
 1,998 
 
 271,687 
 
 9,321 
 
 16,800 
 
 17,321 
 
 66,255.6 
 »2,418.7 
 
 1,162,906 
 *49,999 
 
 -6,341.4 
 «.331.3 
 
 8,199 
 *428 
 
 1,171,105 
 *50,427 
 
 441,691 
 
 114,367 
 
 190,972 
 
 6,499 
 
 1.998 
 
 5,014,503 
 
 9,321 
 
 16,800 
 
 17,321 
 
 4. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *226.7 
 
 4,811.6 
 
 316.4 
 
 *4,686 
 926,336 
 *6,541 
 
 *31.0 
 
 6,331.2 
 
 *43.3 
 
 *40 
 
 8,186 
 
 *56 
 
 «4,726 
 
 934,622 
 
 *6,697; 
 
 3,668,4,33 
 
 4,742,916 
 
 967.5 
 
 *20,000 
 
 *132.6 
 
 *171 
 
 *20,171 
 
 5,756.6 
 
 *119,000 
 
 «788.6 
 
 *1,019 
 
 *120,019 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ALL MINES. 
 
 State or Territory. 
 
 GoU. 
 
 saner. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 1,614,741.2 
 
 33,379,663 
 
 31,797,474 3 
 
 41,110,957 
 
 74,490,620 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alabama ... . 
 
 Arizona .... 
 
 California 
 
 62.9 
 
 287,9 
 
 *10,263.8 
 
 829,676.7 
 
 130,607.6 
 
 169,920,1 
 
 3,919,8 
 
 71,678.2 
 
 146.1 
 
 1,301 
 
 6,961 
 
 «211,9f5 
 
 17,150,941 
 
 2,699,898 
 
 3,305,843 
 
 81,029 
 
 1,479,653 
 
 2,999 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 1,301 
 
 39.4 
 98,920.8 
 90.158.2 
 
 51 
 
 *2,325,825 
 
 1,160,887 
 
 16,549,274 
 
 70,813 
 
 332 
 
 464,550 
 
 7,200 
 
 *25,868 
 
 2,906,068 
 
 12,430,667 
 
 16,000 
 
 392,337 
 
 140 
 
 27,793 
 
 56 
 
 6,002 
 *2,537,790 
 18,301,828 
 
 Colorado . . 
 
 Dakota 
 
 Georgia, . . .... 
 
 Idaho . . , . 
 
 Maine 
 
 Michigan . . .... 
 
 Montana . 
 
 New Hampshire . -, . ... 
 
 New Mexico. . . .~ . 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 12,800,119.8 
 
 64,770.1 
 
 256.6 
 
 369,309.1 
 
 6,569.0 
 
 *20,000.0 
 
 2,216,938.4 
 
 9,614,561.3 
 
 12,375.0 
 
 303,466.0 
 
 108,0 
 
 21,496,2 
 
 43.3 
 
 19,249,172 
 
 3,376,666 
 
 81,361 
 
 1,944,203 
 
 10,199 
 
 *25,868 
 
 
 87,364.0 
 
 236 468,7 
 
 532,1 
 
 2,387,6 
 
 6,7,64 4 
 
 63,101,3 
 
 630,8 
 
 96.7 
 
 14,106.5 
 
 450.9 
 
 6,669.3 
 
 837.9 
 
 1,806,767 
 
 4,888,242 
 
 10,999 
 
 49,364 
 
 118,963 
 
 1,097,701 
 
 13,040 
 
 1,998 
 
 291,687 
 
 9,321 
 
 136,800 
 
 17,321 
 
 4,710,835 
 
 17,318,909 
 
 26,999 
 
 441,691 
 
 119,093 
 
 Oregon .... .... 
 
 1,125,494 
 13,096 
 
 
 
 1,998 
 
 Utah ... . . .... 
 
 Virginia . . 
 
 Washington .... 
 Wyoming 
 
 3,668,565.5 
 
 4,743,087 
 
 5,034,674 
 9,321 
 
 788.6 
 
 1,019 
 
 136,819 
 17-321 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PRODUCTION BY GEOQRAPHICAI. DIVISIONS. 
 
 EASTERN DIVISION. 
 
 Slate or TerrWynj. 
 
 Alabama ... 
 Georgia 
 Maine . . 
 
 Michigan 
 
 New Hampshire . 
 North Carolina . 
 South Cai-olina . . 
 Tennessee . '. 
 Virginia ... 
 
 Total . 
 
 GoU. 
 
 81,301 
 81,029 
 2,999 
 
 10,090 
 118,963 
 
 13,040 
 1,998 
 9,321 
 
 Silver. 
 
 $332 
 
 7,200 
 
 26,858 
 
 16,000 
 
 140 
 
 66 
 
 $1,301 
 81,361 
 10,199 
 25,858 
 20,999 
 119,093 
 13,096 
 1,908 
 0,321 
 
 49,680 289,226 
 
 PACIFIC DIVISION. 
 
 State or Territory. 
 
 Alaska . 
 Arizona . . 
 California . 
 Idaho . 
 Nevada. 
 Oregon. . . 
 Utah, , , , 
 Washington 
 
 Gold. SUcef. 
 
 85,951 
 
 211,006 
 
 17,150,941 
 
 1,479,663 
 
 4,888,242 
 
 1,097,701 
 
 291,587 
 
 136,800 
 
 851 
 
 2,326,826 
 
 1,150,887 
 
 464,560 
 
 12,430,607 
 
 27,793 
 
 4,743,087 
 
 1,019 
 
 26,261,840 I 21,143,87a 
 
 86,002 
 
 2,537,790 
 
 18,301,828 
 
 1,944,203 
 
 17,318,909 
 
 1,125,494 
 
 5,034,674 
 
 136,819 
 
 46,405,719 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 989 
 
 Production 1»y Geograplilcal I>i'vl»ionH*— Continued, 
 
 DIVISION OF THE KOCKY MOUNTAINS. 
 
 SUUe or Territory. 
 
 Product. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Sileer. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 $2,699,898 
 
 3,306,843 
 
 1,805,767 
 
 49,364 
 
 17,321 
 
 $16,549,274 
 
 70,813 
 
 2,905,068 
 
 392,337 
 
 $19,249,172 
 
 3,376,656 
 
 4,710,835 
 
 441,691 
 
 17,321 
 
 Dakota 
 
 Montana 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 
 Total 
 
 7,878,183 
 
 19,917,492 
 
 27,796,675 
 
 SUMMAKT. 
 
 Pacific Division 
 
 Division of the Rocky Mountains . . . 
 Eastern Division . , 
 
 $25,261,840 
 
 7,878,183 
 
 239,640 
 
 $21,143,879 
 
 19,917,492 
 
 49,686 
 
 $46,405,719 
 
 27,796,675 
 
 289,226 
 
 Total .... 
 
 33,379,663 
 
 41,110,967 
 
 74,490,620 
 
 The bullion product of the deep mines of the United 
 States for the year under review amounted to 35 tons 900 
 
 pounds avoirdupois (1,033,974.6 ounces troy) of fine gold, 
 and 1,087 tons 900 pounds avoirdupois (31,717,297 ounces 
 troy) of fine silver. That of the placer mines weighed 19 
 tons 1,824 pounds avoirdupois (580,766.6 ounces troy) in fine 
 gold, with which were alloyed 2 tons 1,498 pounds avoirdu- 
 pois (80,177.3 ounces troy) of silver. The total weight of 
 fine bullion was no less than 55 tons 724 pounds avoirdupois 
 (1,614,741.2 ounces troy) of gold, and 1,090 tons 398 pounds 
 avoirdupois (31,797,474.3 ounces troy) of silver. These 
 huge figures may be better grasped, perhaps, by considering 
 that; the gold represents fivfe ordinary dar-lo'ads, .while a 
 train of l09 freight cars of the usual capacity would be re- 
 quired to transport the silver. Historians have stated that 
 during the early Spanish occupation whole galleons were 
 freighted exclusively -with silver from the mines of Mexico 
 and Peru. This would hardly seem to be an exaggeration, 
 in view of the feet that the present annual product of the 
 United States would sufiice to form the full cargo of a large 
 modern vessel. 
 
 Comparisons. — The relative proportion of placer gold 
 to that produced by the deep mines; the percentage in 
 each class of product of the precious metals from the several 
 mining regions of the United States ; the average yield per 
 square mile and per capita in diiferent localities, and the 
 rank of the states and territories in productiveness, are 
 indicated in the following exhibits : 
 
 percentage: of placer goliD anu goi^d from deep mines in total. gol.d product. 
 
 SUiU or Territory. 
 
 Hydraulic, placer, 
 drift and river 
 mines. 
 
 Deep minet. 
 
 SUUe or Territory. 
 
 Hydraulic, placer, 
 drift amd river 
 mines. 
 
 Deep mines. 
 
 
 
 100.00 
 
 New Mexico ... 
 
 North Carolina . .... 
 
 Oregon 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Tennessee . . ... 
 
 Utah 
 
 Virginia ... .... 
 
 3.94 
 84.39. 
 50.16 
 
 " '6.86 
 
 100 00 
 
 Alaska. . . . ... 
 
 100.00 
 14.16 
 60.03 
 3.77 
 1.54 
 82.62 
 69.45 
 
 96.06 
 
 Arizona 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado , . . 
 
 Dakota! . . ... 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Idalio 
 
 85.85 
 49.97 
 96.23 
 98.46 
 17.48 
 40.66 
 
 lOO.OO 
 35.60 
 08.98 
 
 100.00 
 
 16 61 
 
 49.S4 
 100.00 
 
 93.14 
 100.00 
 
 Washington 
 
 87.63 
 
 12.37 
 100 00 
 
 Montana 
 
 64.40 
 1.02 
 
 United States (including Alaska) . 
 
 
 
 
 36.06 
 
 
 
 64.03 
 
 
 
 RELiATIVE PRODUCTION OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 SSrer. 
 
 
 State or Territory. 
 
 Placer mines. 
 
 Deep mines. 
 
 Total gold. 
 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Percent. 
 
 Percent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Percent. 
 
 
 
 0.01 
 
 o.'ss 
 
 40.09 
 12.16 
 15.23 
 0.07 
 2.81 
 0.01 
 
 0.01 
 0.02 
 0.6.3 
 61.38 
 8.09 
 9.90 
 0.24 
 4.43 
 0.01 
 
 
 
 Alaska 
 
 0.05 
 0.25 
 71.47 
 0.85 
 0.42 
 0.56 
 7.33 
 
 
 
 Arizona. 
 
 California. 
 
 5.66 
 
 2.80 
 
 40.26 
 
 0.17 
 
 1.13 
 
 0.02 
 0.06 
 7.07 
 30.24 
 0.04 
 0.95 
 
 0.07 
 
 3.40 
 24.57 
 26.84 
 
 Dakota 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Idaho 
 
 4.63 
 0.-1 
 2.61 
 0.01 
 
 
 
 003 
 
 
 9.69 
 0.42 
 
 0.04 
 
 7.71 
 Q.05 
 
 3.01 
 22.64 
 0.05 
 0.23 
 053 
 0.80 
 0.03 
 0.01 
 1.27 
 0.04 
 0.08 
 0.08 
 
 6.41 
 14.64 
 0.03 
 0.15 
 0.36 
 3.29 
 0.04 
 0.01 
 0.87 
 0.03 
 0.41 
 0.05 
 
 634 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Mexico . 
 
 23.27 
 0.04 
 0.59 
 0.16 
 
 Oregon 
 
 1.51 
 
 0.02 
 
 
 
 Utah 
 
 0.17 
 
 11.64 
 
 6.70 
 0.01 
 
 Washington ... 
 
 0.99 
 
 018 
 0.02 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 100 00 
 
 
 
990 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 AVERAGE PRODUCT OF GOLD AND SIL.VER PER SQ,TTAR£: SflXE AND PER CAPITA. 
 
 
 Average product. 
 
 Staiet and Territories. 
 
 Per square mile. 
 
 
 PercapUa. 
 
 
 
 GoU. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 GoU. 
 
 sa 
 
 Total 
 
 Alabama 
 
 SO 02 
 0.01 
 
 
 80.02 
 0.01 
 
 $0,001 
 0.20 
 
 
 JO.OOI 
 
 Alaska 
 
 0.20 
 
 Arizona . . ... 
 
 1.87 
 
 S20.68 
 
 22.46 
 
 5.24 
 
 S57.51 
 
 62.75 
 
 California 
 
 108.30 
 
 7.27 
 
 115.57 
 
 19.83 
 
 1.33 
 
 21.16 
 
 Colorado . . 
 
 25.98 
 22.17 
 1.30 
 17.45 
 
 169.24 
 0.48 
 0.01 
 6.48 
 
 185.22 
 22.65 
 1.37 
 22.93 
 
 13.89 
 24.46 
 0.05 
 45.37 
 
 85.16 
 
 0.52 
 
 0,0002 
 14.25 
 
 99.05 
 
 Dakota 
 
 24.98 
 
 
 0.05 
 
 Idaho 
 
 59.62 
 
 Maine 
 
 0.09 
 
 0.22 
 
 0.31 
 
 0.005 
 
 0.011 
 
 0.010 
 
 
 
 0.44 
 19.89 
 
 0.44 
 32.25 
 
 46.11 ' 
 
 0,02 
 74.19 
 
 0.02 
 
 Montana '. , , . ... .... 
 
 12.36 
 
 120.30 
 
 Nevada 
 
 44.16 
 
 112.29 
 
 156.45 
 
 78.61 
 
 199.63 
 
 278.14 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 1.18 
 
 1.72 
 
 2.90 
 
 0.03 
 
 0.05 
 
 0.08 
 
 New Mexico . . ... .... 
 
 0.40 
 
 3.20 
 
 3.60 
 
 0.41 
 
 3.28 
 
 3.69 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 2.28 
 
 0.003 
 
 2.28 
 
 O.OS 
 
 0.0001 
 
 0.08 
 
 Oregon .... , ... 
 
 11.43 
 
 0.29 
 
 11.72 
 
 6.28 
 
 0.16 
 
 6.44 
 
 South Carolina ... .... . . 
 
 0.43 
 
 
 0.43 
 
 0.01 
 
 
 0.01 
 
 Tennessee . . . 
 
 0.05 
 
 
 0.05 
 
 0.001 
 
 
 0.001 
 
 Utah 
 
 3.43 
 
 55.82 
 
 59.25 
 
 2.03 
 
 32.24 
 
 34.97 
 
 Virginia . 
 
 0.22 
 
 
 0.22 
 
 0.006 
 
 
 0.006 
 
 "Washington . , ... .... 
 
 0.96 
 
 0.015 
 
 1.98 
 
 1.81 
 
 
 1.81 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 0.18 
 
 
 0.18 
 
 0.83 
 
 
 0.83 
 
 United States (including Alaska) ... . . 
 
 9 31 
 
 11.44 
 
 20.75 
 
 0.66 
 
 0.82 
 
 1.48 
 
 United States (not including Alaska) 
 
 11.03 
 
 13.59 
 
 24.62 
 
 0.66 
 
 0.82 
 
 1,48 
 
 United States (including only the states and territories producing gold and silver, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 with Alaska) . 
 
 14.68 
 
 18.02 
 
 32.70 
 
 2.00 
 
 3.20 
 
 6,80 
 
 United States (including only the states and territories producing gold and silver, and 
 
 
 
 19.44 
 
 23.94 
 
 43.38 
 
 2.61 
 
 3.21 
 
 6.82 
 
 Average for Colorado, California, Nevada, Utah, Montana, Dakota, Arizona and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 33.47 
 
 42.74 
 
 76.21 
 
 21.04 
 
 26.87 
 
 
 
 
 RANK OV THE STATES AND TERRITORIES IN PRODUCTION OF THE PRECIOUS METAIiS. 
 
 In actual product. 
 
 1 
 
 In productper square mile. . 
 
 In product per capita. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1. California. 
 
 2. Nevada. 
 
 3. Dakota. 
 
 4. Colorado. 
 
 5. Montana. 
 
 6. Idaho, 
 
 7 . Oregon. 
 S.Utah. 
 
 9. Arizona. 
 
 10. Washington. 
 
 11. N.Carolina. 
 
 12. Georgia. 
 
 13. New Mexico. 
 
 14. Wyoming. 
 16. S. Carolina. 
 
 16. N. fiampshi'e. 
 
 17. Virginia. 
 
 18. Alaska. 
 M. Maine. 
 20. Tennessee. 
 
 1. Colorado. 
 
 2. Nevada. 
 
 3. Utah. 
 
 4. Montana, 
 6. Arizona. 
 
 6. California. 
 
 7. Idaho. 
 
 8. New Mexico. 
 
 9. Dakota. 
 
 10. Michigan. 
 
 11. Oregon. 
 
 12. N. Hampshi'e. 
 
 13. Maine. 
 
 1. Colorado. 
 
 2. California. 
 
 3. Nevada. 
 
 4. Utah. 
 
 5. Montana. 
 
 6. Dakota 
 
 7. Arizona. 
 
 8. Idaho. 
 
 9. Oregon. 
 
 10. New Mexico. 
 
 11. Washington. 
 
 12. N. Carolina. 
 
 13. Georgia. 
 
 14. N. Hampshi'e, 
 
 15. Michigan. 
 
 16. Wyoming. 
 
 17. S. Carolina. 
 
 18. Maine. 
 
 19. Virginia. 
 
 20. Alaska. 
 
 21. Tennessee 
 
 22. Alabama, 
 
 1. California. 
 
 2. Nevada. 
 
 3. Colorado. 
 
 4. Dakota. 
 
 6. Idaho. 
 
 G, Montana. 
 
 7. Oregon. 
 
 8. Utah. 
 
 9. N, Carolina. 
 
 10. Washington. 
 
 11. Arizona. 
 
 12. Georgia, 
 
 13. N. Hampshi'e, 
 
 14. S. Carolina. 
 
 15. New Mexico. 
 
 16. Virginia. 
 
 17. Wyoming. 
 
 18. Maine. 
 
 19. Tennessee. 
 2(); Alabama 
 21. Alaska. 
 
 1. Colorado. 
 
 2. Nevada. 
 
 3. Utah. 
 
 4. Arizona. 
 6. Montana. 
 
 6. California. 
 
 7. Idaho. 
 
 8. New Mexico. 
 
 9. Dakota. 
 
 10. Michigan. 
 
 11. Maine. 
 
 12. Oregon. 
 
 13. N. Carolina. 
 
 1. Colorado. 
 2 Nevada, 
 
 3. California. 
 
 4. Utah. 
 
 5. Montana. 
 0. Idaho. 
 
 7. Dakota. 
 
 8. Arizona. 
 
 9. Oregon. 
 
 10. New Mexico. 
 
 11. N. Hampshi'e. 
 
 12. N. Carolina. 
 
 13. Washington. 
 
 14. Georgia. 
 
 15. Michigan. 
 
 16. S. Carolina. 
 
 17. Maine. 
 
 18. Virginia. 
 
 19. Wyoming. 
 
 20. Tennessee. 
 
 21. Alabama. 
 
 22. Alaska. 
 
 1. Nevada. 
 
 2. Montana, 
 
 3. Idaho. 
 
 4. Dakota. 
 e.'Calirornia. 
 
 6. Colorado. 
 
 7. Oregon. 
 
 8. Arizona. 
 
 9. Utah. 
 
 10. Washington. 
 
 11. Wyoming. 
 
 12. New Mexico. 
 
 13. Alaska. 
 
 14. N. Carolina. 
 
 15. Georgia. 
 
 16. N. Hampshi'e. 
 
 17. S. Carolina. 
 
 18. Virginia. 
 
 19. Maine. 
 
 20. Tennessee. 
 
 21. Alabama. 
 
 1. Nevada. 
 
 2. Colorado. 
 
 3. Montana. 
 
 4. Arizona. 
 6. Utah. 
 
 6. Idaho. 
 
 7. New Mexico. 
 
 8. California. 
 
 9. Dakota. 
 
 10. Oregon 
 
 11. N. Hampshi'e. 
 
 12. Michigan. 
 
 13. Maine. 
 
 1. Nevada. 
 
 2. Montana. 
 
 3. Colorado. 
 
 4. Arizona. 
 6. Idaho. 
 
 6. Utah. 
 
 7. Dakota. 
 
 8. California. 
 
 9. Oregon. 
 
 10. New Mexico. 
 
 11. Washington. 
 
 12. Wyoming. 
 
 13. Alaska. 
 
 14. N. Carolina. 
 16. N. Hampsh'e. 
 
 16. Georgia 
 
 17. Michigan. 
 
 18. Maine. 
 
 19. S. Carolina. 
 
 20. Tennessee. 
 
 21. Virginia. 
 
 22. Alabama. 
 
 Production Unaccounted foe in the Preceding 
 Tables. — In addition to the returns received directly from 
 the mines, there are several minor points to be included in 
 the total yield. A larger item than it is usually considered 
 to be is the annual hoarding of rich specimens. This is not 
 accounted for in the mine production as reported. While it 
 is impossible to state the actual amount thus absorbed with 
 any degree of precision, a careful estimate would place the 
 value of the gold nuggets and ore annually added to the 
 cabmets of collectors at not less than $150,000, and that of 
 the silver pre at about $50,000. This, in view of the great 
 number of mineral collections maintained throughout the 
 mining territory, is certainly not an overestimate. 
 
 There is also quite an extensive manufacture of gold 
 quartz into jewelry and souvenirs, particularly in San Fran- 
 '^^^2' ^^^^^ ^° absorbed probably does not fall short 
 
 of $50,000 annually. In 1870 the United States mining 
 commissioner estimated the amount of gold hoarded as 
 specimens or worked up by local jewelers at $400,000 The 
 same authority, at that period, estimated the annual loss of 
 gold dust in handling as currency at $100,000. As the 
 
 practice of using dust for money has almost disappeared, 
 the amount so lost is now very small. 
 
 Another indefinite quantity is the value of precious metal 
 lost in melting, in assay grains, etc. Summing up the 
 estimates for these additional items, the following result is 
 reached : 
 
 Produetion TTnacODnnted for In Tabulation. 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silrer. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Bullion product shown in preceding 
 • tables 
 
 833,379,063 
 150,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 841,110,967 
 50,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 874,490,620 
 200,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 Estimated value of specimens hoarded ' 
 Estimated value of gold quartz made 
 
 into jewelry and souvenirs . . . 
 Estimated value of gold dust lost in 
 
 handling as currency 
 
 Estimated loss in melting and assaying 
 
 assay grains, etc. ... 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 33,609,663 
 
 41,170,957 
 
 74,780,620 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 991 
 
 SHIFMENTS OF BVJaUIOH, DUST, AND AMAliGAnl THROUaH WEIjLiS, FAKaO Ai CO.'S KXPRKSS. 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 
 Shipments during census year. 
 
 BhipmmU in June, 1879. 
 
 SIdpmmli in June, 1880. 
 
 State or Territory. 
 
 Gold bunion, 
 dust, and 
 amalgam. 
 
 Sliver hvUion 
 and amalgo/in 
 
 Total. 
 
 GoM bullion, 
 dual, and 
 amalgam. 
 
 saver buUion 
 and amalgam 
 
 Total. 
 
 GoU bullhn, 
 dust, and 
 
 Silver bullion 
 and amalgam 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 $224,468 
 
 16,829,916 
 
 1,120,902 
 
 167,896 
 
 922,381 
 
 773,262 
 
 76,138 
 
 $1,402,700 
 
 532,286 
 
 631,704 
 
 14,113,084 
 
 4,510 
 
 2,237,077 
 
 $1,627,168 
 
 17,362,201 
 
 1,762,606 
 
 14,280,980 
 
 926,891 
 
 3,010,339 
 
 75,138 
 
 $17,801 
 1,604,716 
 103,182 
 17,695 
 78,002 
 39,222 
 7,016 
 
 $61,896 
 
 50,067 
 
 24,743 
 
 1,366,630 
 
 266,531 
 
 $79,697 
 
 1,654,783 
 
 127,025 
 
 1,374,225 
 
 78,002 
 
 304,753 
 
 7,016 
 
 $11,941 
 
 1,647,651 
 62,071 
 
 8,868 
 59,799 
 72,702 
 
 6,617 
 
 $174,386 
 29,045 
 16,820 
 901,862 
 
 ' 172,825 
 
 $186,327 
 1,576,696 
 
 78,891 
 910,720 
 
 69 799 
 
 California 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Nevada 
 
 rtah 
 
 245,627 
 6,C17 
 
 
 
 20,113,962 
 94,807 
 
 18,921,361 
 66,712 
 
 39,036,323 
 161,619 
 
 1,867,634 
 
 1,758,767 
 
 3,626,401 
 
 1,769,639 
 ^ 1,382 
 
 1,294,9.38 
 8,675. 
 
 3.064,577 
 9,057 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20,208,769 
 
 18,988,073 
 945,355 
 
 39,196,812 
 945,355 
 
 1,867,634 
 
 1,758,767 
 146,127 
 
 3,626.401 
 146,127 
 
 1,771,021 
 
 1,303,513 
 
 3,074,634 
 
 New York 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 20,208,769 
 
 19,933,428 
 
 40,142,197 
 
 1,867,634 
 
 1,904.894 
 
 3,772,528 
 
 1,771,021 
 
 1,303,513 
 
 3,074,534 
 
 
 FOREIGN. 
 
 British Columbia 
 
 Mexico 
 
 $929,260 
 •105,243 
 
 '$1,268,519 
 
 $929,260 
 1,363,762 
 
 $39,750 
 15,882 
 
 '$140,060 
 
 $39,760 
 166,932 
 
 $37,632 
 12,601 
 
 $92,707 
 
 $37,632 
 105,308 
 
 
 1,034,603 
 20,208,769 
 
 1,258,51!) 
 19,933,428 
 
 2,203,022 
 40,142,197 
 
 55,632 
 1,876,634 
 
 140,060 
 1,904,894 
 
 196,682 
 3,772,628 
 
 60,2*3 
 1,771,021 
 
 •92,707 
 1,303,513 
 
 142,940 
 
 Total United States 
 
 3,074,634 
 
 
 
 Grand total .... 
 
 21,243,272 
 
 21,19i;947 
 
 42,435,219 
 
 1,923,266 
 
 2,044,944 
 
 3,968,210 
 
 1,821,264 
 
 1,396,220 
 
 ■ 3,217,474 
 
 A statement of the bullion shipments during the census year from offices of "Wells, Fargo & Co., at points in the 
 neighborhood of the Comstock lode is annexed, and is followed by a comparison between the outflow in June, 1879, 
 and that in June, 1880 : 
 
 BriiMOBT SHIPMEIVTS FROM POINTS IW NEIGHBORHOOD OF COMSTOCK IjODE, THROUGH 'WElil.S, PARGO 
 &> CO.'S EXPRESS, FOR THE YEAR ENDING MAY 31,1880. 
 
 
 Ogice. 
 
 Shipments during census year. 
 
 Shipments in June, 1879. 
 
 Shipments in June, 1880. 
 
 Countt/. 
 
 Gold tulr 
 lion, dust, 
 and amal- 
 gam. 
 
 saver bul- 
 lion and 
 amalgam. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold bul- 
 lion, dust, 
 and amal- 
 gam. 
 
 saver bul- 
 lion and 
 amalgam. 
 
 Total. 
 
 GoU bul- 
 lion, dust, 
 and amal- 
 gam. 
 
 saver bul- 
 lion and 
 amalgam. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Lyon . . . . • 
 Do 
 
 Onnsby 
 
 Storey 
 
 Do. 
 
 Washoe 
 
 Daytwn 
 
 Silver City . . . 
 CaiBon ... 
 
 Gold Hill 
 
 Virginia City . 
 Eeno 
 
 ' $29,034 
 '28,340 
 'l6,o'8o' 
 
 $86,962 
 33,092 
 28,616 
 22,974 
 6,835,712 
 47,620 
 
 $86,962 
 62,126 
 28,616 
 51,314 
 6,836,712 
 57,700 
 
 $5,430 
 ' 3,375 
 
 $22,370 
 
 i,6od 
 
 10,650 
 662,715 
 
 $22,370- 
 5,430 
 1,600 
 14,025 
 
 662,715 
 
 
 
 
 $1,480 
 
 '$2,322' 
 
 *l,'48b 
 2,322 
 
 1,600 
 464 
 
 397,860 
 
 399,360 
 404 
 
 
 Total . 
 
 67,464 
 
 7,054,876 
 
 7,122,330 
 
 8,805 
 
 687,335 
 
 696,140 ' 
 
 3,444 
 
 400,182 
 
 403,026 
 
 Comparison 1»etTrecn liullion sltlpments In June, 1879, and June, 1880. 
 
 Gold buUitm, dust, 
 and amalgam. 
 
 SilverbuUion and 
 amalgam. 
 
 Shipments in June, 1879 
 
 Shipments in .Tune, 1880 
 
 Decrease in June, 1880, from June, 1879 .... 
 
 $8,805 
 3,444 
 5,361 
 
 $687,335 
 400,182 
 287,153 
 
 $696,140 
 403,626 
 292,614 
 
 The bullion movement from Utah is partially shown in the following abstract from the returns of the Pacific Exr 
 press Company: 
 
992 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 BITL,L.ION SHIPMENTS FRO.H UTAH, THROUGH PACIFIC EXPRKSS COMPANY, DURING TEAR ENDING JUNE 
 
 30, 1880. 
 
 
 During six months ending December 
 31, -1879. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Shipped tc — 
 
 
 
 
 From — 
 
 New. York. 
 
 Omaha. 
 
 San Francisco. 
 
 
 GoM. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total 
 
 GoU. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 GoU. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 $107,500 
 
 $7,200 
 
 22,630 
 
 468,461 
 
 $114,700 
 
 22,630 
 
 468,4.61 
 
 
 $7,200 
 
 $7,200 
 
 
 
 
 $107,500 
 
 ' $22,630 
 260,207' 
 
 $107,500 
 
 
 
 
 
 22,630 
 
 
 
 
 218,244 
 
 218,244 
 
 
 
 
 
 260,207 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 650,172 
 1,713 
 
 650,172 
 '36,413 
 
 ' $34,700 
 
 644,747 
 
 644,747 
 34,700 
 
 
 $5,425 
 
 $5,425 
 
 
 . . 
 
 Silver Beef 
 
 Untie District 
 
 34,700 
 
 
 ' i,7i:i 
 
 ' 1,713 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 142,200 
 
 1,150,166 
 
 1,292,366 
 
 34,700 
 
 870,191 
 
 904,891 
 
 
 6,425 
 
 5,425 
 
 107,500 
 
 274,550 
 
 382,060 
 
 
 During six months enMng June 30, 
 1880. 
 
 Skipped to — 
 
 Totals for the year ending June 30, 
 
 From— 
 
 New Tori. 
 
 San Francisco. 
 
 1880. 
 
 
 GoM. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 GoU. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 GoU. 
 
 SUver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 GoU. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 $50,300 
 
 ' $35,3i40 
 
 $50,300 
 36,340 
 
 
 
 
 $60,300 
 
 ' $35,340 
 
 $50,300 
 35,340 
 
 $167,800 
 
 $7,200 
 
 67,970 
 
 468,451 
 
 8,150 
 
 1,118,546 
 
 529,677 
 
 1,713 
 
 $166,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 67,970 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 468,461 
 
 
 
 8,150 
 468,374 
 629,677 
 
 8,150 
 
 468,374 
 
 629,677 
 
 22,853 
 
 ■ $22,963 
 
 $8,160 
 468,374 
 358,089 
 
 $8,150 
 468,374 
 358,089 
 
 22,953 
 
 
 
 
 
 8,150 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,118,646 
 
 Silver Beef 
 
 
 ... 
 
 171,688 
 
 171,688 
 
 '67,653 
 
 629,677 
 
 Tintic District 
 
 22,963 
 
 69,366 
 
 
 
 
 
 TotaU 
 
 73,253 
 
 1,041,541 
 
 1,114,794 
 
 22,953 
 
 834,613 
 
 867,666 
 
 60,300 
 
 206,928 
 
 257,228 
 
 215,463 
 
 2,101,707 
 
 2,407,160 
 
 FoKEiGN Movement. — The exports and imports of treas- 
 ure are recorded at the custom-houses of the ports through 
 which the outflow and the inflow pass. Such statistics are 
 compiled with great care, and furnish valuable information 
 from a monetary point of view. Used as a means of deter- 
 mining the bullion production of the country they are often 
 deceptive, as explained on a previous page. The figures for 
 
 the various oflSces are published regularly by the Bureau of 
 Statistics, and are therefore not repeated here; but an 
 analysis of the returns of the San Francisco custom-house 
 is appended, to show the character of the movement, and as 
 affording a basis of a comparison between similar periods at 
 the beginning and close of the census year. 
 
 TREASURE MOVEMENT THROUGH SAN FRANCISCO CUSTOM..HOUSE. 
 
 IMPOSTS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gold 
 buUion. 
 
 Gold coin. 
 
 Total goU. 
 
 Silver 
 buMon. 
 
 saver coin. 
 
 Total 
 
 silver. 
 
 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Trade 
 dollars. 
 
 and silver 
 
 June, 1879 
 
 $40,262 
 
 80,862 
 
 127,484 
 
 147,126 
 
 100,222 
 
 237,451 
 
 83,921 
 
 7,054 
 
 46,650 
 
 37,932 
 
 $205 
 
 i,7o6 
 
 4,835 
 
 620 
 
 71,240 
 
 140,666 
 
 115,900 
 
 15,500 
 
 32,412 
 
 21,521 
 
 $3,656 
 
 11,994' 
 
 6,467 
 
 10,689 
 
 16,601 
 
 16,267 
 
 8,596 
 
 9,900 
 
 3,929 
 
 6,809- 
 
 35,883 
 
 40,353 
 
 $44,113 
 
 92,856 
 
 136,661 
 
 162,649 
 
 117,443 
 
 323,948 
 
 233,072 
 
 132,854 
 
 66,079 
 
 77,153 
 
 67,404 
 
 69,964 
 
 $74,477 
 123,698 
 122,878 
 101,653 
 163,374 
 86,211 
 76,698 
 83,369 
 2.38,000 
 120,084 
 135,710 
 123,370 
 
 $254,705 
 191,721 
 200,692 
 159,380 
 213,579 
 129,873 
 345,276 
 251,322 
 93,781 
 401,761 
 364.696 
 122,861 
 
 $20,950 
 
 20,210 
 
 17,030 
 
 9,896 
 
 13,414 
 
 12,853 
 
 16,467 
 
 6,853 
 
 7,517 
 
 28,164 
 
 $3,420 
 
 26,016 
 40,600 
 
 'l6,6o6 
 
 $360,132 
 335,629 
 343,920 
 270,929 
 380,367 
 25.3,962 
 477,941 
 340,544 
 354,298 
 649,999 
 601,914 
 362,609 
 
 $394,246 
 428,486 
 479,571 
 433,678 
 497,810 
 677,.900 
 711,013 
 473,398 
 420,377 
 627,152 
 569,318 
 423,663 
 
 July, 1879 
 
 August, 1879 
 
 September, 1879 
 
 October, 1879. . . . 
 
 November, 1879 
 
 December, 1879 . . . 
 
 
 
 
 January, 1880 
 
 
 
 
 March, 1880 
 
 April, 1880 .... ... 
 
 
 
 
 May, 1880 
 
 
 
 
 20,601 
 
 1161388 
 
 . . . . 
 
 
 Total 
 
 929,564 
 
 404,488 
 
 170,134 
 
 1,504,176 
 
 1,439,622 
 
 2,719,520 
 
 279,251 
 
 83,936 
 
 4,622,234 
 
 
 
 
 Comparison between treasure Imports In June, 1870, and June, 1880. 
 
 
 GoU 
 bullion. 
 
 GoU coin. 
 
 Total goU. 
 
 Silver 
 bullion. 
 
 Silver coin. 
 
 Total 
 silver. 
 
 
 Month. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Trade 
 dollars. 
 
 Total gold 
 and sUver. 
 
 June, 1879 
 
 June, 1880 
 
 Increase 
 
 $40,262 
 62,976 
 12,724 
 
 $205 
 " ' ' ' 205 
 
 $3,856 
 27,920 
 24,270 
 
 $44,113 
 
 80,902 
 36,789 
 
 $74,477 
 107,670 
 33,193 
 
 $264,706 
 180,489 
 
 $20,950 
 9,119 
 
 
 $350,132 
 279,278 
 
 $394,246 
 378,180 
 
 
 74,216 
 
 11,831 
 
 
 62,864 
 
 16,065 
 
Prepared for the Mines, Miners and Mining Interests of the United States, from Plate A, Report on 
 the Precious Metals, by Clarence King, Tenth Census of the United States. 
 
 BULLION PRODUCT PER CAPITA. 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 NEVADA MONTANA COLORADO 
 
 6 
 
 ARIZONA IDAHO UTAH DAKOTA CALIFORNIA 
 
 lO 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 OREGON NEW MEXICO WASHINGTON WYOMING 
 
 ALL OTHER MINING 
 STATES andTERRITORIES 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 993 
 
 treasure: MOVKSIEKT through SAN FRAKCISCO CVSTOBl-HOVSE.— Continued. 
 
 KXPOKTS (DOMESTIC). 
 
 Month. 
 
 
 Gold coin. 
 
 ToUd gold. 
 
 Silver bvlHon. 
 
 Silver coin. 
 
 Total mlver. 
 
 Total gold and 
 
 
 Trade dollars. 
 
 silver. 
 
 June, 1879 
 
 July, 1879 
 
 August, 1879 . . 
 September, 1879 . 
 October, 1879 . 
 November, 1879 . 
 December, 1879 . 
 January, 1880 . 
 rebniary, 1880 . . . 
 March, 1880 . . 
 April, 1880 . 
 May, 1880 
 
 $100 
 1,280 
 3,080 
 2,646 
 13,036 
 8,615 
 8.801 
 
 " 1,367 
 286 
 660 
 
 $80,343 
 39,360 
 26,788 
 11,393 
 40,230 
 63,872 
 91,800 
 11,915 
 18,207 
 14,373 
 31,042 
 48,613 
 
 $80,443 
 40,640 
 29,868 
 14,038 
 63,865 
 62,487 
 
 100,601 
 11,915 
 19,674 
 14,669 
 31,692 
 48,813 
 
 $206,843 
 
 156,009 
 
 804,622 
 
 529,838 
 
 347,804 
 
 192,718 
 
 1,164,738 
 
 419,666 
 
 269,126 
 
 17,700 
 
 72,001 
 
 666,200 
 
 $21,400 
 " 240 
 
 ' ' i,obo 
 
 600 
 
 19,226 
 
 102,000 
 
 500 
 
 9,000 
 
 $27,888 
 
 7,962 
 
 7,390 
 
 13,326 
 
 11,900 
 
 1,400 
 
 400 
 
 i,6bo' 
 
 $234,731 
 184,371 
 812,012 
 543,163 
 359,944 
 194,124 
 
 1,166,138 
 420,165 
 289,351 
 120,300 
 72,501 
 676,299 
 
 $315,174 
 226,011 
 841,«80 
 667,201 
 413,809 
 256,611 
 
 1,256,739 
 432,080 
 308,925 
 134,959 
 104,093 
 723,812 
 
 Total ... 
 
 40,369 
 
 467,830 
 
 508,195 
 
 4,836,362 
 
 154,466 
 
 71,271 
 
 5,'062;099 
 
 6,670,294 
 
 Comparison, bet-vreen. treasure exports (domestic) in Jnxke, 1879, and June, 1880. 
 
 June, 1870 
 
 June. 1880 . . . 
 Increase 
 Decline . . 
 
 $100 
 
 1,020 
 
 920 
 
 $80,343 
 66,534 
 
 24,809 
 
 $80,443 
 66,664 
 
 23,889 
 
 $206,843 
 34,462 
 
 " 172,391 
 
 ' $21,600 
 21,600 
 
 $27,888 
 27,888 
 
 $234,731 
 66,062 
 
 ' " " ' 178,679 
 
 $316,174 
 112,006 
 
 202,568 
 
 EXPOETS (FOBEIGN KE-EXPOKTED). 
 
 Month. 
 
 Gold hiMion. 
 
 Gold coin. 
 
 Total gold. 
 
 Silver bulUon. 
 
 (6) saver coin. 
 
 Total saver. 
 
 Total gold and 
 silver. 
 
 June, 1879 . . 
 July, 1879 ... 
 August, 1879 ... 
 September, 1879 
 October. 1879 ... 
 November, 1879. . 
 December, 1879 . . 
 
 January, 1880 
 
 February, 1880 . . 
 
 March, 1880 . 
 
 April, 1880 . . ... 
 
 May, 1880 .... ... 
 
 
 '$i,990' 
 ' 2,462 
 
 $1,990 
 2,452 
 
 $46,600 
 13,900 
 
 $65,433 
 167,490 
 212,421 
 149,308 
 324,730 
 146,206 
 261,622 
 140,214 
 326,913 
 205,231 
 110,300 
 487,747 
 
 $111,033 
 171,390 
 212,421 
 149,308 
 324,730 
 146,206 
 261,622 
 140,214 
 325,913 
 266,231 
 110,300 
 487,747 
 
 $111,033 
 173,380 
 212,421 
 149,308 
 324,730 
 146,205 
 251,622 
 140,214 
 325,913 
 206,231 
 110,300 
 487,747 
 
 Total ..... . 
 
 4,442 
 
 1 
 
 4,442 
 
 69,600 
 
 2,576,514 
 
 2,636,014 
 
 2,640,456 
 
 Comparison bettveen. treasure exports (foreign re-exported) in June, 1879, and Jnnr, 1880. 
 
 June, 1879 
 July. 1880. . 
 
 Increase . 
 
 Decline . . 
 
 $45,600 
 '46,600' 
 
 $66,433 
 102,819 
 •37,386 
 
 $111,033 
 102,819 
 
 $111,033 
 102,819 
 
 a Gold bullion includes gold dust. 
 
 6 The greater part of the sQver coin is Mexican dollars. 
 
 DR. SOETBEBR'S ESTIMATE OF THE PRODTJCTIOW OF THE PRECIOUS niETAl.S IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 TO THE CI4OSE OF 1875. 
 
 
 ^ 
 > 
 
 Gold product. 
 
 saver product. 
 
 Periods. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Yearly average. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Yearly average. 
 
 Tahte. 
 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1804-'20 . . . 
 
 1821-'30 
 
 1831-'40 
 
 17 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 5 
 6 
 6 
 5 
 5 
 
 1,929 
 
 35,368 
 
 273,296 
 
 5,668,826 
 
 14,275,673 
 
 12,394,757 
 
 10,722,832 
 
 12,217,918 
 
 9,565,344 
 
 113 
 
 3,637 
 
 27,329 
 
 565,883 
 
 2,866,136 
 
 2,478,961. 
 
 2,144,666 
 
 2,443,584 
 
 1,913,069 
 
 39,876 
 731,121 
 6,649,509 
 116,978,291 
 296,104,343 
 266,222,369 
 221,660,603 
 252,566,773 
 197,733,203 
 
 
 
 
 1861-'66 
 
 1856-'60 ..... 
 
 1861-'66 .... 
 
 1866-'70 
 
 1871-'75 . . 
 
 1,334,325 
 996,725 
 27,972,602 
 48,389,387 
 90,798,426 
 
 266,865 
 
 199,345 
 
 5,594,620 
 
 9,677,877 
 
 18,159,685 
 
 1,725,149 
 1,288,666 
 36,165,777 
 62,562,638 
 117,393,284 
 
 Total . . 
 
 72 
 
 65,145,941 
 
 12,432,107 ! 1,346,078,078 
 
 169,491,464 33,898,292 
 
 219,136,514 
 
 63 
 
994 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 KSTIMATK OP THE PKOUrCTION OW THK PRECIOrS MJ5TAI.S ITS THE UJflTBIJ STATES FROM 1848 
 
 TO 1S80, BY miSCAli YEARS. 
 
 [From reports of Hon. Horatio C. Burchard, director of the mint.] 
 
 Year 
 
 Gold. 
 
 fiauer. 
 
 Total gold 
 and silver. 
 
 Year. 
 
 GoU. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total gold 
 and silver. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total gold 
 and silver. 
 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1848 . . . 
 1849. 
 1850 . 
 1861 . 
 
 1852 . 
 
 1853 . 
 1864. 
 1855 . 
 1866. 
 1867 . 
 
 10,000,000 
 40,000,000 
 60,000,000 
 66,000,000 
 60,000,000 
 66,000,000 
 60,000,000 
 65,000,000 
 66,000,000 
 55,000,000 
 50,000,000 
 60,000,000 
 
 66,000 
 50,000 
 60,000 
 50,000 
 60,000 
 60,000 
 60,000 
 60,000 
 60,000 
 60,000 
 100,000 
 
 10,000,000 
 40,060,000 
 50,050,000 
 66,060,000 
 60,050,000 
 65,050,000 
 60,060,000 
 55,050,000 
 66,060,000 
 55,050,000 
 60,060,000 
 50,100,000 
 
 1860 . . 
 
 1861 . . 
 
 1862 . . 
 1863 
 
 1864 . . 
 1865 
 
 1860 . . 
 
 1867 . . 
 
 1868 . . . 
 
 1869 . . 
 
 1870 . . . 
 
 1871 . . 
 
 46,000,000 
 43,000,000 
 39,200,000 
 40,000,000 
 46,000,000 
 53,225,000 
 63,600,000 
 51,725,000 
 48,000,000 
 49,600,000 
 60,000,000 
 43,000,000 
 
 150,000 
 2,000,000 
 4,500,000 
 8,500,000 
 11,000,000 
 11,260,000 
 10,000,000 
 13,600,000 
 12,000,000 
 12,000,000 
 16,000,000 
 23,000,000 
 
 46,160,000 
 45,000,000 
 43,700,000 
 48,500,000 
 57,000,000 
 64,475,000 
 63,600,000 
 66,225,000 
 60,000,000 
 61,600,000 
 66,000,000 
 66,000,000 
 
 1872 . 
 
 1873 . . 
 
 1874 . . . 
 
 1875 . . 
 1876 
 
 1877 . . . 
 
 1878 . . . 
 1879 
 
 1880 .... 
 
 36,000,000 
 
 36,000,000 
 
 33,490,902 ' 
 
 33,467,856 
 
 39,929,166 
 
 46,897,390 
 
 51,206,360 
 
 38,899,858 
 
 36,000,000 
 
 28,750,000 
 3),760,000 
 37,324,694 
 31,727,860 
 38,783,016 
 39,793,673 
 46,281,385 
 40,812,132 
 37,700,000 
 
 64,760,000 
 71,750,000 
 70,816,496 
 66,195,416 
 78,712,182 
 86,690,96^ 
 96,487,745 
 79,711,990 
 73,700,000 
 
 1858 . 
 
 1859 . . . 
 
 Total . . 
 
 1,620,041,532 
 
 460,422,200 
 
 1,980,463,792 
 
 BITLTiION PRODTJCTION OF THE UNITKD STATES FOR THE TEAR ENDING J17NE 30, 1879, 
 
 [Estimated by Hon. Horatio C. Burchard, director of the mint.] 
 
 state or Terrilonj. 
 
 GoU. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 State or Terrltonj. 
 
 GoM. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Arizona . . , 
 California . . 
 Colorado .... . ... 
 
 Dakota . . 
 
 Georgia. . . . . . . 
 
 Idalio 
 
 $800,000 
 17,600,000 
 3,225,000 
 2,420,000 
 90,000 
 1,200,000 
 
 $3,650,000 
 
 2,400,000 
 
 11,700,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 ' 666,do6 
 
 780,000 
 
 2,226,000 
 
 12,560,000 
 
 $4,350,000 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 14,925,000 
 
 2,430,000 
 
 90,000 
 
 1,850,000 
 
 780,000 
 
 4,725,000 
 
 21,560,000 
 
 New Mexico ... .... 
 
 North Carolina , 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Utah 
 
 "Washington . . 
 
 Other BOtircea 
 
 Total . .... 
 
 $125,000 
 90,000 
 
 1,160,000 
 675,000 
 75,000 
 60,000 
 
 $600,000 
 
 ■26,6oo' 
 
 6,260,000 
 20,000 
 47,000 
 
 $725,000 
 
 90,000 
 
 1,170,000 
 
 6,825,000 
 
 96,000 
 
 97,000 
 
 
 2,500,000 
 9,000,000 
 
 
 Montana . ...... 
 
 Nevada . . .... 
 
 38,900,000 
 
 40,812,000 
 
 79,712,000 
 
 a Including bullion from Silver Islet, which is in Canada, 
 
 STATEMENT OF THE AMOUNT OF PRECIOrS METAT.S PRODUCED IN THE STATES AND TERRITORIES 
 W^EST OF THE lOOtU MERIDIAN FOR THE TEARS 1879 AND 1880. 
 
 [Estimated by Mr. John J. Valentine, General Superintendent, Wellg, Fargo & Co. 'a Express.] 
 
 state or Territory. 
 
 Gold dust and bullion iy express. 
 
 Gold dust and bullion by other conveyances. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 Decrease. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 Decrease. 
 
 California ... 
 Nevada ...••.. 
 
 $16,348,730 
 168,847 
 943,601 
 77,679 
 
 1,036,804 
 
 1,907,053 
 211,640 
 
 3,144,697 
 19,800 
 212,722 
 
 2,674,156 
 
 $16,900,746 
 
 236,323 
 
 692,625 
 
 68,911 
 
 1,175,115 
 
 1,115,787 
 
 96,958 
 
 2,278,989 
 
 27,300 
 
 169,970 
 
 3,749,081 
 
 $552,015 
 67,476 
 
 ' i39,311 
 
 ' 7,6o6 
 1,674,925 
 
 
 $817,436 
 
 $846,000 
 
 $27,664 
 
 
 Oregon. . . 
 
 Washiugton . 
 
 Idaho. ... 
 
 Montana. . 
 
 Utah .... 
 
 Colorado 
 
 $281,076 
 8,668 
 
 ' 791,266 
 116,682 
 865,708 
 
 94,360 
 7,767 
 
 207,160 
 95,362 
 21,164 
 
 314,469 
 
 346,262 
 34,500 
 
 235,023 
 55,789 
 10,336 
 
 251,902 
 26,743 
 27,863 
 
 ' $39,663 
 
 10,628 
 
 314 469 
 
 New Mexico ... 
 
 
 
 
 Arizona . 
 
 Dakota . 
 
 62,762 
 
 21,272 
 634,831 
 
 80,000 
 374,000 
 
 68,728 
 
 ' 160,831 
 
 Total 
 
 20,744,629 
 
 26,600,704 
 
 1,841,227 
 
 2,085,152 
 
 2,113,801 
 
 1,980,910 
 
 392,800 
 
 626,091 
 
 
 Increase ... , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Decrease 
 
 
 
 243,925 
 
 
 
 
 132,891 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Riyila 
 
 
 
 
 
 SHver bullion by express. 
 
 Oi-es and base bullion by freight. 
 
 
 1879, 
 
 1880. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 Decrease. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 Decrease. 
 
 California . 
 
 Nevada . 
 
 Ore;?on 
 
 
 
 
 $739,440 
 16,622,472 
 
 678,336 
 1,194,389 
 2,659,042 
 1,594, .349 
 
 603,000 
 1,046,036 
 
 $378,667 
 
 11,071,902 
 
 20,864 
 
 1,763 
 
 332,765 
 
 919,189 
 
 3,076,776 
 
 1,706,000 
 
 684,000 
 
 2,830,449 
 
 ' $26,864' 
 1,763 
 
 617,733 
 
 111,661 
 
 81,000 
 
 1,784,413 
 
 $360,873 
 6,650,480 
 
 $285,367 
 5,200,395 
 
 $151,8.54 
 3,723,306 
 
 
 $133,613 
 1,483,089 
 
 Washington . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Montana. . 
 
 Utah 
 
 Colorado 
 
 New Mexico . . . 
 
 245,581 
 276,200 
 
 270,000 
 
 432,226 
 
 2,677,033 
 
 9,360,000 
 
 151,854 
 
 1,731,614 
 
 3,267,884 
 
 17,300,000 
 
 "$i,299,.388 
 
 690,861 
 
 7,940,000 
 
 118,146 
 
 Dakota . ... 
 
 
 662,373 
 
 1,402,062 
 
 739,679 
 
 
 Total 
 
 24,037,064 
 
 21,022,334 
 
 2,617,404 
 
 6,432,134 
 
 18,893,394 
 
 27,728,664 
 
 10,569,918 
 
 
 
 1,734,748 
 
 Increase . . 
 Decrease . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 3,914,730 
 
 1 
 
 8,8,36,170 
 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 995 
 
 STATKAIKBTT OF THE AMOUNT OF PRKCIOVS AUCTAI^S FRODUCBD IN THK STATKS AND TKURITORIBS 
 WEST OF THK lOOth MERIDIAN FOR THE YEARS 1879 AND lS80.—Contirmed. 
 
 [Eatimated by Mr. John J. Valentine, General Superintendent, WellH, Fargo & Co.'s Express.] 
 
 State or Territory, 
 
 California . . 
 Nevada . . 
 Oregon . . 
 Washington . 
 Idaho . . 
 Montana 
 Utah . . . . 
 Colorado . . 
 New Mexico . 
 Arizona . . 
 Dakota , . . 
 
 $18,190,973 
 
 21,997,714 
 
 1,037,961 
 
 86,336 
 
 2,091,300 
 
 3,629,022 
 
 6,468,879 
 
 14,413,515 
 
 622,800 
 
 1,942,403 
 
 3,208,987 
 
 72,688,888 
 
 Increase 
 Decrease 
 
 818,276,166 
 
 15,031,621 
 
 1,059,641 
 
 105,164 
 
 1,894,747 
 
 3,822,379 
 
 6,450,963 
 
 21,284,989 
 
 711,300 
 
 4,472,471 
 
 4,123,081 
 
 $85,193 
 
 '21,680 
 19,828 
 
 193,369 
 982,074 
 
 6,871,474 
 88,500 
 
 2,530,068 
 914,084 
 
 11,706,270 
 
 4,643,624 
 
 $6,966,093 
 
 7,162,640 
 
 STATEMENT OF THE AMOUNT OF PRECIOUS METAI.S PRODUCED IN MEXICO (WEST COAST) AND BRITISH 
 
 COL.UMBIAFOR THE YEARS 1 879 AND 18S0. 
 
 [Estimated by Mr. John J. Valentine, General Superintendent, Wells, Fargo and Co.*s Express.] 
 
 
 Gold duet and bullion by express. 
 
 Gold dust and bullion by other conveyances. 
 
 Countrn. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 Decrease. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 Increaee. 
 
 Decrease. 
 
 
 $92,916 
 976,742 
 
 $118,248 
 675,894 
 
 $25,332 
 
 '$300, 848 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 $168,973 
 
 $168,973 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1,009,658 
 
 794,142 
 
 25,332 
 
 300,848 
 
 
 168,973 
 
 168,973 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 168,973 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 275,616 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Silver bullion by express. 
 
 Ores and base bullion by freight. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Country. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 Decrease. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 Decrease. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 DecreaM. 
 
 Mexico (west coast) . 
 
 $1,249,955 
 
 31,586,309 
 
 $336,354 
 
 
 $341,000 
 
 $386,000 
 
 $45,000 
 
 
 a,683,871 
 976,742 
 
 $2,090,667 
 844,867 
 
 $406,686 
 
 $131,875 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total . 
 
 1,249,955 
 
 1,586,309 
 
 336,364 
 
 
 341,000 
 
 ^8P,000 
 
 45,000 
 
 
 2,660,613 
 
 2,936,424 
 
 406,686 
 
 131,875 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 336,354 
 
 
 
 
 46,000 
 
 
 
 
 274,811 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ANNUAL. PRODUCTS OF I.EAD, SIL.VER AND GOLD IN THE STATES AND TERRITORIES WEST OF THE lOOth 
 
 MERIDIAN, 1870—1880. 
 
 [Estimated by Mr. John J. Valentine, General Superintendent, Wells, Fargo & Co.'s Express.] 
 
 Products asper W,. F. 
 & Cb.'s statemenis^ 
 includiTig amounts 
 from British Colum- 
 bia and west coast of 
 Mexico. 
 
 Product after deductr 
 ing amounts from 
 British Columbia 
 and west coast of 
 Mexico. 
 
 Tlie net product of the stoics and territories viest of the lOOth meridian exclusive of British 
 Columbia and west coast of Mexico, divided as follows — 
 
 Cfapjjer. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 1870 . . 
 
 1871 . . 
 1872. 
 
 1873 . 
 
 1874 . . 
 1876 . . 
 1876 . . 
 3877 . . 
 
 1878 . . 
 
 1879 . . 
 
 1880 . . 
 
 $54,000,000 
 68,284,000 
 62,236,969 
 72,268,693 
 74,401,046 
 80,889,067 
 90,876,173 
 98,421,764 
 81,164,622 
 75,349,501 
 80,167,936 
 
 $52,150,000 
 55,784,000 
 60,361,824 
 70,139,860 
 71,965,610 
 76,703,433 
 87,219,859 
 95,811,682 
 78,276,167 
 72,688,888 
 77,232,512 
 
 $1,080, 
 
 2,ioo: 
 
 2,250; 
 3,460 
 3,800; 
 5,100 
 5,04O; 
 6,085, 
 3,452 
 4,185 
 6,742 
 
 $898,000 
 
 $17,320,000 
 19,286,000 
 19,924,429 
 27,483,302 
 29,699,122 
 31,635,239 
 39,292,924 
 45,846,109 
 37,248,137 
 37,032,857 
 38,033,055 
 
 $33,750,000 
 34,398,000 
 38,177,395 
 39,206,558 
 38,466,488 
 39,968,194 
 42,886,935 
 44,880,223 
 87,676,030 
 81,470,262 
 32,659,067 
 
996 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 BUU.IOW PRODUCTION OP THE tJKlTED STATKS-FROM 1868 TO IS'JS. 
 
 [Estimated bj' Dr. Kossiter W. Baymond, United States mining commissioner.] 
 
 
 1868. 
 
 1869. 
 
 1870. 
 
 1871. 
 
 1872. 
 
 1S7S. 
 
 1874. 
 
 1875. 
 
 State or TerrUmy 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 California . ... . 
 
 Nevada ... . . . 
 
 Montana. . . . . .... 
 
 Idalio 
 
 Oregon and Washington .... 
 Arizona . . ... 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Colorado and Wyoming . 
 
 22,000,000 
 
 14,000,000 
 
 16,000,000 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 250,000 
 
 3,250,000 
 
 22,500,000 
 14.000,000 
 9,000,000 
 7,000,000 
 3,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 500,000 
 4,000,000 
 
 25,000,000 
 
 16,000,000 
 
 9,100,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 800,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 3,775,000 
 
 1,300,000 
 
 625,000 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 22,600,000 
 
 8,050,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 2,600,000 
 
 800,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 4,763,000 
 
 2,300,000 
 
 250,000 
 
 19,049,098 
 
 25,548,801 
 
 6,068,339 
 
 2,695,870 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 025,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 4,761,465 
 
 2,445,284 
 
 260,000 
 
 18,026,722 
 
 35.254,507 
 
 6,187,047 
 
 2.500,000 
 
 1,685,784 
 
 600,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 4,070,263 
 
 3,778,200 
 
 250,000 
 
 20,300,531 
 
 35,462,233 
 
 3,844,722 
 
 1,880,004 
 
 763 605 
 
 487,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 6,188,510 
 
 3,911,601 
 
 100,000 
 
 17,753,151 
 
 40,478,369 
 
 3,673,600 
 
 1,760,000 
 
 1,246,978 
 
 750,000 
 
 326,000 
 
 5,302,810 
 
 3,137,688 
 
 From other paits 
 
 i,6o6,obo' 
 
 500,000 
 
 
 Total 
 
 67,000,000 
 
 61,600,000 
 
 66,000,000 
 
 66,663,000 
 
 63,943,867 
 
 71,651,623 
 
 72,428,206 
 
 74,817,696 
 
 GOI.D PROBUCTIOJS OP THE SOXITHERN STATES FROM 1804 TO 1850. 
 [Estimates of Professor J. D. Whitney.] 
 Vatae or golfl production by States. Value of gold production In tlie re8pectl-re di-rlslons of time. 
 
 Georgia . . . 
 North Carolina . 
 South Carolina .... 
 Tennessee and Alabama . 
 Virginia 
 
 $6,048,900 
 
 6,842,900 
 
 818,100 
 
 263,800 
 
 1,198,600 
 
 15,172,300 
 
 1804^*23 
 1824-'30 
 1831-'40 
 1841-'50 
 
 $47,000 
 
 715,000 
 
 6,695,000 
 
 7,716,300 
 
 15,172,800 
 
 EXPORTS OP GOIiD PR03I SAN FRANCISCO FROM 1848 TO J 863. 
 [With estimates of Mr. W. P. Blake.] 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Declared gold 
 export. 
 
 Estimated actml 
 gold exjport. 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Declared gold 
 export. 
 
 EstiTnated actual 
 gold export. 
 
 1S48 ... "1 
 184U . .... . } 
 
 1860 ) 
 
 1861 up to Miiy.l . . . . .... 
 
 1851 . . . 
 
 1852 ... 
 
 1853 . 
 
 $66,000,000 
 
 11,497,000 
 34,960,896 
 45,779,000 
 54,965,000 
 52,045,633 
 45,161,731 
 60,697,434 
 
 I $10,000,000 
 i 40,000,000 
 ( 50,000,000 
 
 1 65,000,000 
 
 60,000,000 
 05,000,060 
 60,000,000 
 55,000,000 
 55,000,000 
 
 18,57 ... . . . ... 
 
 1808 . : . 
 
 1859 . ..... 
 
 1860 ... 
 
 1801 .... . 
 
 1802 ... 
 
 1863 . 
 
 Total . ; 
 
 $48,976,692 
 47,548,026 
 47,640,462 
 42,325,916 
 40,676,768 
 42,561,761 
 46,071,920 
 
 $55,000,000 
 60,000,000 
 50,000,000 
 42,325,916 
 39,176,768 
 36,061,761 
 33,071,920 
 
 18.56 . . 
 1856 . 
 
 676,908,228 
 
 755,636,355 
 
 MR. A. DEli MAR'S ESTIMATE OF THE SILVER PRODUCTION FROM 1871 TO 1876. 
 
 Diatricl. 
 
 1871. 
 
 1872. 
 
 1873. 
 
 Gold product. 
 
 Silver product. 
 
 Gold product. 
 
 Silver product. 
 
 Gold product. 
 
 SUver product 
 
 Comstock Lode .... 
 
 Other mines in Nevada .... 
 
 $4,077,427 
 1,485;007 
 
 $6,230,587 
 7,880,764 
 
 $6,310,035 
 2,142,730 
 
 86,612,943 
 9,953,634 
 
 $10,493,756 
 2,678,469 
 
 $11,037,020 
 8,094,440 
 
 Whole of Nevada . . 
 
 Bemainder of the United States 
 
 6,662,434 
 
 14.111,351 
 4,000,000 
 
 8,452,765 
 
 16,566,677 
 2,000,000 
 
 13,172,225 
 
 19,131,460 
 6,000,000 
 
 Entire silver product . 
 
 
 18,111,351 
 
 
 18,666,677 
 
 
 25,131,460 
 
 District. 
 
 1874. 
 
 1875. 
 
 1876. 
 
 
 Gold product. 
 
 Silver product. 
 
 Gold product. 
 
 Silver pro(hict. 
 
 Gold product. 
 
 BHver product. 
 
 Comstock Lode 
 
 Other mines in Nevada . , 
 
 $12,579,826 
 1,660,202 
 
 $11,881,000 
 3,521,382 
 
 $11,739,873 
 2 260,618 
 
 S14.4!12,3.'-.0 
 6,717,030 
 
 $18,002,906 
 1,337,798 
 
 $20,670,078 
 7,462,752 
 
 Whole of Nevada 
 
 Bemainder of the United StiUes 
 
 14,2.30,027 
 
 16,402.382 
 10,000,000 
 
 13 996,401 
 
 21,209,986 
 9,000,000 
 
 19,340,704 
 
 28,032,830 
 10,161,620 
 
 
 
 Entire silver product 
 
 
 25,402,382 
 
 
 30,209,986 
 
 
 
 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MIXING INTERESTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 997 
 
 The sll-vcr product In ttie TJniteil States (vrltlk tlie exception 
 
 of Ne-vuda) Is given for 1876, aafolloivs ; 
 
 Arizona. . . SSOO.OOO 
 
 California . . 1,800,000 
 
 Colorado.. 3,000,001 
 
 Idaho . . 300,(JU0 
 
 Montana . . . 800,000 
 
 New Mexico . 400,000 
 
 Utah. . . . 3,351,620 
 
 Total, about 
 
 10,151,520 
 
 Bullion Product of the "World. — The world's annual 
 output, so far as ascertainable, is shown in the following 
 
 tables, which state the sources according to political divis- 
 ions, and also by continents. The data are for calendar 
 years except for the United States, British Columbia, and 
 Japan. Accurate statistics of the small production of gold 
 and silver in Central America, that of silver in Canada, and 
 gold in Nova Scotia are not available. The totals given are 
 probably slightly under the actual amount. A comparison 
 of the individual figures shows that the United States pro- 
 duce 33.13 per cent, of the gold yield of the whole world, 
 50.54 per cent, of the silver, and 40.91 per cent, of the total. 
 Of the aggregate supply of the precious metals. North 
 America (including the United States, Mexico, and British 
 Columbia) furnishes 55.78 per cent. 
 
 ANjSCAI, Bi;L.L.IOiy product op the -WORLiD. 
 
 Political distribution. 
 
 ConlineiUal distribution. 
 
 Country. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Continent. 
 
 Total bullion 
 product. 
 
 Percentage of 
 total product. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Per ceni. 
 
 United States (o) . . 
 
 Mexico 
 
 British Columbia (h) ... 
 
 Africa (c) 
 
 Argentine Kepublic 
 
 Colombia 
 
 Best of South America (.) . 
 Australia (<?) . . 
 Austria .... 
 
 Germany {d) . . 
 
 Norway ... 
 
 Italy (t!).. . . . . 
 
 Eussia (.!).. 
 
 Sweden ..... . ... 
 
 Kest of Europe . . 
 Japan ... . . ... 
 
 33,379,663 
 
 989,101 
 
 910,804 
 
 1,993,800 
 
 78,646 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 1,993,800 
 
 29,018,223 
 
 1,082,031 
 
 206,361 
 
 '72,375 
 
 26,584,000 
 
 1,994 
 
 ' 466,548 
 
 41,110,957 
 25,167,763 
 
 ' 426,225' 
 1,000,000 
 1,039,190 
 
 2,002,737 
 
 6,938,073 
 
 166,270 
 
 17,949 
 
 415,676 
 
 62,435 
 
 2,078,380 
 
 016,400 
 
 74,490,620 
 
 26,156,924 
 
 910,804 
 
 1,993,800 
 
 498,771 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 3,032,990 
 
 29,018,223 
 
 3,064,758 
 
 7,143,434 
 
 166,270 
 
 90,324 
 
 26,999,676 
 
 64,429 
 
 2,078,380 
 
 1,382,948 
 
 North America 
 
 Africa ... 
 
 Australia 
 
 Europe, including Kussia in Asia . . 
 
 .lapitn .... 
 
 South America 
 
 Total . . .... 
 
 101,558,348 
 1,993,800 
 29,018,223 
 39,007,271 
 1,382,948 
 8,531,761 
 
 65.78 
 1.10 
 15.93 
 21.75 
 0.76 
 4.68 
 
 Total . . 
 
 100,756,300 
 
 81,330,045 
 
 182,002,351 
 
 182,092,351 
 
 100.00 
 
 a Census of 1880. 
 
 b Actual export. 
 
 c From Dr. Soetbeer's estimate in 1875. 
 
 d Estimated from production of other years. 
 
 Explanation of Charts. — The construction of the 
 diagrams in the charts presented herewith is based upon 
 the figures reached in the preceding compilation, which the 
 plates are designed to exhibit graphically. The .plates illus- 
 trating the bullion product of the several states and territo- 
 ries per square mile and per capita are founded upon the 
 averages given by our tables in connection with the ofiicial 
 measurements of areas by Mr. Henry Gannett, geographer 
 of the tenth census, and the latest count of the population. 
 The inner squares, printed in pink, in each case denote the 
 relative averages of bullion product (gold and silver com- 
 bined), while the outer gray squares are of an arbitrary, 
 uniform size, and represent in one chart the unit of area, and 
 in the other the unit of population — that is, the square mile 
 and the single individual. The len^h of the sides of the 
 inner squares is given by the respective square roots of the 
 averages. The plate showing the absolute bullion product 
 of the states and territories, without reference to their size 
 or population, is a repetition in a graphic form of the figures 
 given in our tables, which is the summary of the bullion 
 product of the United States for the census year. It exhibits 
 at a glance three distinct comparisons : that of the gold 
 product, that of the silver, and that of both precious metals. 
 The natural arrangement of the series, according to the 
 totals, is observed. The extreme height of each column is 
 in each case equal to the sum of the height indicating gold, 
 plus that representing the silver. Two essential features are 
 in this manner presented to the eye: first, the wide difference 
 between the product of the three leading mining states, 
 Colorado, California, and Nevada, and that of the remainder 
 of the country ; and, second, the remarkable diversity in the 
 proportions of gold and silver in different localities. Colo- 
 rado and California appear to be anti -types; the one showing 
 a large predominance in the silver yield, the other in that of 
 
 gold. A similar contrast is shown by another pair, Utah 
 and Dakota. The chart exhibiting the annual fluctuations 
 in the yield of the precious metals since 1848 is in itself a 
 history of the mining industry. The rapid increase in the 
 product following the discovery of the gold fields in Califor- 
 nia, which reached its highest point in 1853, from which year, 
 owing to the gradual exhaustion of the more accessible and 
 richer deposits, the yield for a time gradually dwindled ; 
 the impulse given by the finding of the great Comstock lode, 
 and the addition of the Idaho placers to the productive 
 sources ; the effect of the Crown Point and Belcher ore- 
 body upon the total product ; and, finally, the sudden and 
 vast increase consequent upon the opening of the famous 
 bonanza in the Consolidated Virginia and California mines — 
 these are all pictured. The annals of the silver production, 
 a comparatively recent addition to the national resources, 
 are likewise told. In the same way, if the chart be carried 
 forward beyond the limits of the census year, the rising 
 curves would tell of Leadville and of Tombstone. The 
 figures assumed in this chart are the annual estimates of the 
 director of themint for fiscal years up to the census year, for 
 which the results reached in this compilation are quoted. 
 It should be remarked that as the fiscal year embraces only 
 the first half of the calendar year of the same designation, 
 the curves in some cases are projected one space to the right 
 of what their position would be were the calendar year to be 
 taken. The two plates illustrating the world's annual pro- 
 duct are based on the figures of our table. In one the yield 
 is segregated, so far as possible, according to the political 
 divisions ; in the other, according to its continental distribu- 
 tion. The preponderance of the United States as a bullion- 
 producing nation, and of North America as a bullion-pro- 
 ducing continent, is in this manner, perhaps, more clearly 
 indicated than by the tabular exhibit. 
 
998 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 THE PRODUCTION OF IRON ORE. 
 
 MR. RAPHAEL PUMPELLY'S report to the 
 Superintendent of the Tenth Census contains tlie 
 following, and while these tables do riot repre- 
 sent the final results of Mr. Pumpelly's work 
 they summarize it and furnish a fair idea of the iron ore in- 
 
 dustry of the United States. They are all of the results of 
 his work obtainable up to the time of going to press with 
 this volume. Other statistics in this connection will be 
 found upon other pages which will furnish, in connection 
 with Mr. Pumpelly's figures, a comprehensive view of the 
 iron industry of the country. 
 
 Table I.— PRODUCTION OP IROJV ORE, BY STATKS. 
 
 
 
 
 <:, 
 
 ^ 
 
 ,i 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 c> 
 
 ■S" 
 
 
 
 
 fe, 
 
 1 
 
 
 Sl 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 s> 
 
 
 "s-^- 
 
 i 
 
 |- 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 -5 
 
 S 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Is 
 
 ■s" 
 
 1-^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 bi 
 
 
 
 |t 
 
 Name of State. 
 
 j 
 
 1 
 
 Is" 
 
 ii 
 
 "1 
 
 li 
 
 ll 
 
 ! 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 ■& 
 fe 
 
 el 
 
 
 > 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 •3 = 
 
 •fe- 
 
 1 
 
 
 ■l 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 J 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 
 !? 
 
 i^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 <5; 
 
 
 >S 
 
 s 
 
 t2 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 Total . 
 
 136 
 
 805 
 
 13,402,917 
 
 7,001,829 
 
 820,470,756 
 
 909,877 
 
 7,971,700 
 
 $23,167,007 
 
 82,896,011 
 
 89,538,117 
 
 Alabama . . . . 
 
 10 
 
 IT 
 
 310,109 
 
 184,110 
 
 189,108 
 
 7,506 
 
 191,076 
 
 201,865 
 
 17,625 
 
 123,342 
 
 Connecticut ... 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 45,800 
 
 35,018 
 
 147,799 
 
 
 35,018 
 
 147,799 
 
 20,853 
 
 61,107 
 
 Delaware . 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 18,389 
 
 2,726 
 
 6,563 
 
 
 2,726 
 
 6,563 
 
 941 
 
 2,865 
 
 Georgia . ..... 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 101,157 
 
 72,705 
 
 120,602 
 
 18,711 
 
 91,416 
 
 143,622 
 
 8,345 
 
 108,706 
 
 Kentucky. 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 105,420 
 
 33,622 
 
 88,930 
 
 31,287 
 
 64,809 
 
 166,905 
 
 8,100 
 
 69,319 
 
 Indiana. 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 513 
 
 513 
 6,000 
 
 1,018 
 9,000 
 
 
 
 Kaine . . .... 
 
 1 
 
 12,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 3,160 
 
 9,000 
 
 Maryland. . . . . 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 145,290 
 
 57,940 
 
 118,050 
 
 81,688 
 
 139,628 
 
 421,691 
 
 23,726 
 
 61,138 
 
 Massachusetts , . 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 87,360 
 
 02,637 
 
 226,130 
 
 
 62,637 
 
 226,130 
 
 43,136 
 
 117,158 
 
 Michigan , , . 
 
 2 
 
 43 
 
 2,223,365 
 
 1,834,712 
 
 6,034,648 
 
 
 1,834,712 
 
 6,034,648 
 
 941,711 
 
 2,573,857 
 
 Missouri . 
 
 8 
 
 48 
 
 968,001 
 
 386,197 
 
 1,674,875 
 
 
 386,197 
 
 1,674,875 
 
 104,966 
 
 417,371 
 
 New Jersey. 
 
 G 
 
 109 
 
 1,487,829 
 
 764,872 
 
 2,900,442 
 
 2,500 
 
 757,372 
 
 2,910,442 
 
 584,229 
 
 1,606,257 
 
 New York. . . 
 
 12 
 
 78 
 
 2,149,129 
 
 1,239,769 
 
 3,499,132 
 
 22,308 
 
 1,262,127 
 
 3,654,422 
 
 534,395 
 
 1,507,395 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 G 
 
 . 9 
 
 11,980 
 
 3,276 
 
 5,102 
 
 42 
 
 3,318 
 
 6,285 
 
 965 
 
 4,059 
 
 Oregon . . 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 22,400 
 
 6,972 
 
 4,669 
 
 
 6,972 
 
 4,669 
 
 600 
 
 2,210 
 
 Ohio .... 
 
 8 
 
 30 
 
 550,168 
 
 198,836 
 
 448,000 
 
 348,468 
 
 547,303 
 
 1,269,530 
 
 23,806 
 
 329,723 
 
 Pennsylvania . . 
 
 34 
 
 358 
 
 3,408,506 
 
 1,820,661 
 
 4,318,999 
 
 365,114 
 
 2,185,675 
 
 5,517,070 
 
 626,166 
 
 2,192,167 
 83,629 
 
 Tennessee . 
 
 12 
 
 31 
 
 218,264 
 
 89,033 
 
 129,961 
 
 14,532 
 
 104,465 
 
 147,181 
 
 8,679 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1,120 
 
 500 
 
 2,750 
 
 3,600 
 
 3,600 
 660 
 
 8,100 
 2,760 
 
 
 
 Termont , . , • 
 
 636 
 
 1,600 
 
 Virginia ... 
 
 9 
 
 23 
 
 1,404,524 
 
 100,683 
 
 384,331 
 
 12,643 
 
 182,326 
 
 439,880 
 
 37,783 
 
 186,279 
 63 985 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 G 
 
 8 
 
 140,623 
 
 60,371 
 
 88,595 
 
 846 
 
 61,216 
 
 101,567 
 73,000 
 
 6,061 
 
 Wisconsin ... 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 45,600 
 
 41,440 
 
 73,000 
 
 
 41,440 
 
 2,260 
 
 17,000 
 
 Name of State. 
 
 Alabama . 
 Connecticut . . 
 Delaware . 
 Georgia. . , , 
 Kentuclcy . 
 Indiana . 
 Maine . . 
 ■Maryland , . 
 Ma.ssachusetts . 
 Micliigan . 
 Missouri , . 
 New Jeraey 
 Now York . , . 
 North Carolina 
 Oregon . 
 Ohio .... 
 Pennsylvania 
 Tennessee . . 
 Texas . . 
 Vermont 
 Virginia ... 
 West Virginia . 
 Wisconsin . 
 
 11 
 
 16,345 
 
 12 
 
 690 
 179 
 30 
 287 
 
 255 
 
 20 
 
 295 
 
 134 
 
 2,229 
 
 1,435 
 
 1,385 
 
 2,083 
 
 28 
 
 3 
 
 1,033 
 
 6,190 
 
 443 
 
 656 
 114 
 37 
 
 109 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 224 
 
 3,120 
 
 368 
 
 3,264 
 
 2,417 
 
 19 
 
 11 
 
 602 
 
 2,892 
 
 77 
 
 ' '7 
 338 
 160 
 20 
 
 14 
 
 II 
 
 
 15 
 
 31,668 
 
 22 
 24 
 
 196 
 00 
 93 
 
 140 
 
 43 
 
 683 
 
 32 
 
 738 
 200 
 47 
 342 
 325 
 
 20 
 
 329 
 
 382 
 
 6,662 
 
 1,893 
 
 4,811 
 
 4,675 
 
 47 
 
 14 
 
 1,710 
 
 8,733 
 
 562 
 
 16 
 939 
 200 
 
 16 
 
 ,3 
 
 17 
 
 17,923 
 
 603 
 100 
 20 
 217 
 224 
 
 12 
 
 119 
 
 210 
 
 3,163 
 
 1,120 
 
 2,931 
 
 2,269 
 
 38 
 
 11 
 
 1,213 
 
 4,717 
 
 410 
 
 15 
 412 
 166 
 
 12,492 
 
 •^ 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 I 
 •a 
 
 IS 
 
 216 
 90 
 25 
 
 106 
 
 192 
 
 160 
 2,189 
 
 600 
 
 1,7.54 
 
 2,'Jlli 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 459 
 3,030 
 
 109 
 
 438 
 93 
 28 
 
 IS 
 
 10 
 210 
 
 77 
 
 120 
 
 190 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 44 
 386 
 
 24 
 
 ■i 
 
 10 
 
 134 
 
 17 
 152 
 87 
 2 
 1 
 6 
 380 
 
 20 
 
 192 
 
 106 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 203 
 
 220 
 6,574 
 
 443 
 
 4,486 
 
 3,039 
 
 29 
 
 16 
 
 130 
 9,117 
 
 154 
 
 25 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 999 
 
 PRODVCTIOIS OF IROIH ORK, BY HTAT'ES—Continued, 
 
 Kama of State. 
 
 Alabama 
 Connecticut 
 Delaware . 
 Georgia . . 
 Kentucky . . 
 Indiana . . . 
 Maine . . . 
 Maryland . . 
 Mdssachurietta . 
 Michigan 
 Missouri .... 
 New Jersey 
 New York . . 
 North Carolina . 
 Oregon . . . 
 Ohio .... 
 Pennsylvania 
 Tennessee 
 Texas . 
 Vermont . . . 
 Yirginia . . . 
 "West Virginia 
 Wisconsin 
 
 21 
 
 $2,211,558 
 
 •a 
 
 
 22 23 24 
 
 
 8484,432 2,609 1,245 
 
 1Y,T65 
 
 22,225 
 
 4,400 
 
 1,260 
 
 
 
 17,164 
 
 17,226 
 
 838,668 
 
 131,818 
 
 619,954 
 
 634,906 
 
 1,860 
 
 1,000 
 
 8,600 
 
 934,668 
 
 225 
 
 37,786 
 
 1,500 
 
 3,000 
 
 4,240 
 3,069 
 3 
 4,200 
 1,470 
 
 2,000 
 
 789 
 
 6,818 
 
 160,541 
 
 28,972 
 
 105,130 
 
 77,093 
 
 72 
 
 236 
 
 7,948 
 
 65,288 
 
 1,209 
 
 138 
 
 13,166 
 
 1,226 
 
 225 
 
 16 
 
 37 
 
 60 
 
 390 
 
 67 
 
 70 
 
 323 
 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 1,316 
 
 22 
 
 107 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 45 
 2 
 
 37 
 241 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 2 
 
 
 66 
 306 
 
 84 
 
 I 
 
 25 
 
 a. 
 !2 
 
 26 
 
 ;4,860,763 ?8,657,375 
 I 
 
 60,900 
 18,600 
 2,000 
 36,790 
 42,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 44,450 
 
 22,400 
 
 2,264,620 
 
 2o4,u20 
 
 562,916 
 
 637,950 
 
 1,900 
 
 2,226 
 
 128,179 
 
 730,064 
 
 27,375 
 
 46,770 
 39,800 
 6,300 
 33,935 
 59,500 
 
 2,000 
 
 136,464 
 
 70,600 
 
 2,789,944 
 
 678,313 
 
 841,226 
 
 1,281,740 
 
 2,760 
 
 6,000 
 
 263,145 
 
 2,131,743 
 
 36,095 
 
 600 
 
 106,626 
 
 10,450 
 
 16,000 
 
 600 
 
 206,000 
 
 16,660 
 
 10,000 
 
 27 
 
 $48,274,149 
 
 438,772 
 368,000 
 40,000 
 101,200 
 678,329 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,496,600 
 
 88,600 
 
 160,000 
 
 1^ 
 
 1| 
 
 11 
 
 28 
 
 $61,782,287 
 
 636,442 
 426,300 
 48,300 
 170,925 
 779,829 
 
 2,600 
 
 6,500 
 
 310,600 
 
 490,614 
 
 183,000 
 
 276,000 
 
 12,452,311 
 
 17,496,776 
 
 4,666,223 
 
 6,698,666 
 
 4,797,620 
 
 6,201,761 
 
 6,443,449 
 
 8,203,139 
 
 8,660 
 
 13,300 
 
 9,750 
 
 16,975 
 
 847,401 
 
 1,248,725 
 
 14,759,894 
 
 17,621,701 
 
 410,450 
 
 473,920 
 
 2,000 
 
 1,809,126 
 
 115,600 
 
 186,000 
 
 28 
 
 2,266,610 
 
 49,698 
 23,677 
 
 21,801 
 
 11,530 
 3,844 
 367,610 
 140,697 
 282,981 
 181,512 
 
 38,921 
 
 1,025,438 
 
 51,033 
 
 61,044 
 16,823 
 
 30 
 
 8081,170 
 
 6,686 
 42,146 
 
 5,387 
 1,277 
 101,871 
 66,142 
 166,878 
 71,316 
 
 6,764 
 
 437,769 
 
 10,129 
 
 11,323 
 1,076 
 
 * 04 oxen are also reported in Alabama. 
 
 Hemarks on Table I. — ^Table I contains the principal 
 results thus far compiled from the schedules of the produc- 
 tion of iron ore during the census year ending June 1, 1880. 
 The ton of 2,000 pounds is invariably used. The second 
 column of Table I gives the number of mines or establish- 
 
 ments which have a regular industrial organization, and 
 from whom it was possible to obtain an account of the capi- 
 tal, wages, and materials employed. The sixth column, 
 headed " irregular product," gives the amount of iron ore 
 raised between the above dates by persons the principal part 
 
 Table II.— PRODUCTIOJf OB* IRON ORB— GKITERAIj AVERAGE BT STATES. 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 i 
 =. 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 .a 
 
 
 
 •i 
 
 1 
 
 Name of Bait. 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 S 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 S" 
 
 jl 
 
 1^^ 
 
 
 
 •i 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 i 
 
 1 
 Si 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 ■? 
 
 1 
 
 "? 
 
 1 
 ■? 
 
 ■? 
 
 i. 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 •^ 
 
 1 
 
 •5. 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 Total 
 
 280,000 
 
 8,772 
 
 39 
 
 43.29 
 
 308.94 
 
 33.20 
 
 0.96 
 
 77.55 
 
 22.43 
 
 0.02 
 
 2.90 
 
 1.35 
 
 0.41 
 
 
 23,364 
 14,406 
 
 10,830 
 
 8,764 
 
 43 
 
 50 
 
 11.44 
 178.00 
 
 171.67 
 306.00 
 
 24.70 
 27.99 
 
 1.43 
 0.64 
 
 67.91 
 91.28 
 
 42.09 
 8.72 
 
 
 1.03 
 4.22 
 
 0.67 
 
 1.75 
 
 0.10 
 
 
 0.60 
 
 
 1,834 
 
 1,363 
 
 23 
 
 
 69.04 
 
 31.80 
 
 1.06 
 
 18.09 
 
 81.91 
 
 
 2.40 
 
 1.05 
 
 0.35 
 
 Georgia . . 
 
 Kentucky . . '. . . 
 
 44,226 
 
 10,386 
 
 49 
 
 
 320.46 
 
 33.81 
 
 0.90 
 
 78.99 
 
 21.01 
 
 
 1.66 
 
 1.50 
 
 0.11 
 
 17,435 
 
 6,704 
 
 65 
 
 20.31 
 
 221.82 
 
 27.18 
 
 0.50 
 
 68.02 
 
 30.78 
 
 1.20 
 
 2.66 
 
 2.U7 
 
 0.24 
 
 Maine ... 
 
 6,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 20 
 
 
 460.00 
 
 112.51 
 
 3.00 
 
 33.33 
 
 66.67 
 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.50 
 
 0.62 
 
 Maryland .... 
 
 17,843 
 
 4,457 
 
 26 
 
 46.70 
 
 192.26 
 
 29.49 
 
 1.08 
 
 64.32 
 
 45.68 
 
 
 2.04 
 
 1.06 
 
 0.41 
 
 
 1 19,079 
 
 6,960 
 
 42 
 
 33.00 
 
 316.64 
 
 .32.04 
 
 0.66 
 
 82.36 
 
 17.65 
 
 
 3.61 
 
 1.87 
 
 0.68 
 
 Michigan .... 
 
 1 224,000 
 
 42,668 
 
 129 
 
 44.00 
 
 471.79 
 
 43.11 
 
 1.20 
 
 91.19 
 
 8.81 
 
 
 3.29 
 
 1.40 
 
 0.51 
 
 128,708 
 
 8,046 
 
 39 
 
 46.33 
 
 226.46 
 
 25.03 
 
 0.90 
 
 75.41 
 
 24.59 
 
 
 4.33 
 
 1.08 
 
 0.27 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 - 86,622 
 
 6,926 
 
 44 
 
 55.44 
 
 339.59 
 
 39.84 
 
 0.74 
 
 71.03 
 
 28.18 
 
 0.79 
 
 3.84 
 
 2.13 
 
 0.77 
 
 New York . . .... 
 
 208,416 
 
 15,894 
 
 60 
 
 39.29 
 
 328.69 
 
 30.64 
 
 0.99 
 
 89.38 
 
 10.62 
 
 
 2.82 
 
 1.22 
 
 0.43 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 1,686 
 
 364 
 
 6 
 
 
 86.36 
 
 17.18 
 
 0.65 
 
 41.88 
 
 68.12 
 
 
 1.56 
 
 1.24 
 
 0.29 
 
 Oregon .... 
 
 Ohio .... ... . . . 
 
 6,972 
 
 6,972 
 
 14 
 
 
 167.86 
 
 25.06 
 
 3.16 
 
 62.60 
 
 47.60 
 
 
 0.07 
 
 0.32 
 
 0.09 
 
 9,381 
 
 6,628 
 
 67 
 
 i7,'35' 
 
 196.79 
 
 26.98 
 
 0.61 
 
 03.13 
 
 36.15 
 
 0.72 
 
 2.26 
 
 1.06 
 
 0.12 
 
 
 280,000 
 
 6,086 
 
 24 
 
 42.69 
 
 260.65 
 
 28.57 
 
 0.91 
 
 76.04 
 
 23.80 
 
 0.16 
 
 2.37 
 
 1.20 
 
 0.29 
 
 Tennessee . . . 
 
 13-, 608 
 
 2,646 
 
 16 
 
 19.85 
 
 156.84 
 
 23.23 
 
 0.97 
 
 66.91 
 
 44.09 
 
 
 1.44 
 
 0.03 
 
 0.10 
 
 
 660 
 
 560 
 
 15 
 
 
 ioo:oo 
 
 25.00 
 
 0.37 
 
 33.33 
 
 66.67 
 
 
 4.91 
 
 2.08 
 
 0.96 
 
 Vii-ginia . - 
 
 West Virginia ... . ... 
 
 28,090 
 
 6,526 
 
 36 
 
 22.18 
 
 203.36 
 
 28.89 
 
 1.03 
 
 58.66 
 
 41..'?4 
 
 
 2.27 
 
 1.10 
 
 0.22 
 
 29,120 
 
 7,646 
 
 33 
 
 6.40 
 
 241.46 
 
 28.81 
 
 1.08 
 
 69.84 
 
 29.79 
 
 0.37 
 
 1.47 
 
 1.06 
 
 0.08 
 
 Wiaconain ... 
 
 39,200 
 
 20,720 
 
 31 
 
 
 285.71 
 
 36.71 
 
 3.34 
 
 66.07 
 
 33.33 
 
 
 1.76 
 
 0.41 
 
 0.05 
 
1000 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 PRODUCTIOX 
 
 OF IROX ORE— GEIffERAI* AVERAGE BY 
 
 STATES.— ContinMeeJ 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 Name of State. 
 
 •S a, 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 If 
 1^ 
 
 ai 
 
 ll 
 
 ■S-! ■ 
 
 f 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 .5 
 
 ■Is 
 
 1- 
 
 4^ 
 
 1 
 
 .3 
 
 .J 
 
 1.. 
 
 .■2§' 
 
 L 
 
 S3 
 
 II 
 
 |f 
 .8 g 
 
 
 S =1 
 
 .u- 
 
 •J 
 
 If 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 1 £ 
 
 u =1 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 -? 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 « 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 Total 
 
 l.U 
 
 46.69 
 
 14.15 
 
 39.26 
 
 31 
 
 66.60 
 
 30.45 
 
 3.96 
 
 78.14 
 
 14.01 
 
 7.86 
 
 33.13 
 
 62.45 
 
 
 0.2: 
 
 66.22 
 
 9.32 
 
 25.46 
 
 11 
 
 68.16 
 
 29.27 
 
 2.57 
 
 81.80 
 
 8.70 
 
 9.49 
 
 28.00 
 
 69.37 
 
 
 1.8T 
 
 41.38 
 
 14.10 
 
 44.62 
 
 26 
 
 60.00 
 
 46.00 
 
 6.00 
 
 86.32 
 
 9.30 
 
 4.34 
 
 34.71 
 
 76.46 
 
 
 1.00 
 
 43.72 
 
 14.36 
 
 41.92 
 
 20 
 
 42.65 
 
 53 20 
 
 4.26 
 
 82.82 
 
 13.04 
 
 4.14 
 
 13.78 
 
 14.82 
 
 Georgia ..... 
 iCentucky .... 
 
 0.07 
 
 90.14 
 
 6.01 
 
 2.95 
 
 
 63.45 
 
 30.70 
 
 6.85 
 
 59.21 
 
 19.85 
 
 20.94 
 
 70.61 
 
 71.87 
 
 0.33 
 
 77.95 
 
 9.11 
 
 12.94 
 
 
 68.92 
 
 27.08 
 
 4.00 
 
 86.98 
 
 7.63 
 
 5.39 
 
 11.40 
 
 31.80 
 
 
 *0.52- 
 
 100.00 
 
 33.00 
 
 (*) 
 
 .... 
 
 60.03 
 
 40.00 
 
 
 38.46 
 
 30.77 
 
 30.77 
 
 72.20 
 
 50.00 
 
 Maryland . . 
 
 0.67 
 
 61.70 
 
 20.10 
 
 28.11 
 
 20 
 
 36.17 
 
 68.36 
 
 5.47 
 
 63.32 
 
 27.62 
 
 9.06 
 
 24.07 
 
 39.88 
 
 Mas3achu3ett3 . 
 
 1.00 
 
 51.81 
 
 19.07 
 
 29.12 
 
 24 
 
 56.51 
 
 40.84 
 
 2.62 
 
 06.30 
 
 25.58 
 
 8.12 
 
 81.93 
 
 71.70 
 
 
 1.38 
 
 42.65 
 
 15.60 
 
 41.75 
 
 163 
 
 56.87 
 
 39.36 
 
 3.77 
 
 71.16 
 
 15.04 
 
 12.89 
 
 34.40 
 
 82.62 
 
 
 2.98 
 
 24.92 
 
 6.27 
 
 68.81 
 
 
 
 69.48 
 
 36.45 
 
 4.07 
 
 83.34 
 
 12.11 
 
 4.64 
 
 30.00 
 
 39.90 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 0.04 
 
 65.33 
 
 20.14 
 
 24.48 
 
 41 
 
 60.92 
 
 36.46 
 
 2.62 
 
 77.36 
 
 13.66 
 
 9.08 
 
 46.77 
 
 60.74 
 
 
 1..17 
 
 43.08 
 
 16.27 
 
 41.65 
 
 39 
 
 48.63 
 
 47.40 
 
 4.00 
 
 77.98 
 
 16.51 
 
 6.61 
 
 42.34 
 
 67.09 
 
 
 0.03 
 
 70.66 
 
 18.91 
 
 1.53 
 
 3 
 
 80.85 
 
 8.61 
 
 10.04 
 
 65.04 
 
 20. G7 
 
 14.28 
 
 38.36 
 
 27.35 
 
 Orogjii .... . . 
 
 0.2G 
 
 47.33 
 
 12.85 
 
 30.82 
 
 16 
 
 78.57 
 
 14.28 
 
 7.14 
 
 67.44 
 
 29.46 
 
 13.11 
 
 27.51 
 
 31.13 
 
 Ohio .... 
 
 0.47 
 
 73.60 
 
 6.31 
 
 21,09 
 
 4 
 
 70.69 
 
 26.75 
 
 2.56 
 
 68.66 
 
 21.07 
 
 10.26 
 
 35.88 
 
 36.76 
 
 
 0.88 
 
 60.76 
 
 12.16 
 
 37.03 
 
 25 
 
 54.01 
 
 41.67 
 
 4.42 
 
 83.76 
 
 12.10 
 
 4.14 
 
 24.51 
 
 63.41 
 
 Tennessee . 
 
 0.41 
 
 64.27 
 
 6.C8 
 
 29.06 
 
 
 76.90 
 
 19.74 
 
 4.36 
 
 86.00 
 
 7.62 
 
 6.78 
 
 27.42 
 
 41.21 
 
 
 1.27 
 0.95 
 
 64.64 
 48.47 
 
 10.49 
 83 
 
 26.97 
 41.70 
 
 ■ ■ 6 
 
 100.00 
 43.88 
 
 
 
 60.00 
 82.72 
 
 25.00 
 11.39 
 
 ■;5.oo 
 
 6.80 
 
 137.50 
 21.24 
 
 60.00 
 
 Yirgini.i ..... 
 
 46.65 
 
 9.48 
 
 12.08 
 
 West Virginia . 
 
 0.33 
 
 72.22 
 
 6.72 
 
 22.06 
 
 
 62.03 
 
 34.06 
 
 3.01 
 
 76.62 
 
 14.33 
 
 0.05 
 
 80.62 
 
 42.06 
 
 ■Wisconsin ... 
 
 1.30 
 
 23.2D 
 
 3.08 
 
 73.63 
 
 13 
 
 63.23 
 
 43.16 
 
 1.60 
 
 66.02 
 
 6.37 
 
 8.60 
 
 39.25 
 
 90.88 
 
 of whose livelihood was obtained in some other occupation, 
 generally farming. In twelve of the states there are locali- 
 ties where soft ore can be obtained from surface diggings. 
 These are worked by farmers during the intervals of agricul- 
 tural employment, the product drawn by farm teams to the 
 nearest furnace and sold. The quantities of ore so produced 
 by individuals Tary from 5 to 500 tons. In some instances, 
 again, furnace companies own the land on which the ore is 
 dug, and hire the farmers of the neighborhood to deliver it 
 at the furnace for a fixed price per ton. This work is done 
 in such an irregular and desultory manner that the only 
 items safely attainable are the amount and value of the pro- 
 duct, although the total so produced amounts to over a ninth 
 (11.4 per cent.) of the entire tonnage of the country. An 
 account of purchases of ore was obtained from the furnace 
 companies in these localities, with the name of the producer, 
 the price and technical name of the ore, and the name of the 
 county where the ore was mined, or, more properly, dug. 
 Great care has been taken to avoid duplication of any of 
 the amounts so produced, by comparing the names taken 
 from the books of the smelting establishments with the 
 names on the regular schedules of production received from 
 our agents. It will therefore be observed that no items 
 based on this "irregular product" appear in the columns of 
 employes, wages, materials, capital, etc. The columns of 
 production, both "regular" and "irregular," contain no 
 estimates, but are made up from authentic returns. A small 
 amount of ore raised in Colorado is omitted, as it is used as 
 a flux, and does not, as yet, affect the iron-manufacturing 
 industry. The total production, 7,971,706 tons, exceeds the 
 amount reported as consumed in manufacturing establish- 
 ments by Mr. Swank (7,709,706 tons) by 232,000 tons. There 
 was imported during the census year at the ports of Buffalo, 
 Boston, Oswego, Philadelphia, New York, and Baltimore, 
 439,451 tons, from which it would appear that the stocks of 
 ore on hand must have increased during the census year 
 about 701,451 tons, or that only 91.66 per cent, of the ore 
 
 Produced (and imported) was consumed during the period, 
 n view of the fact that there was a scarcity of iron ore in 
 1879, and that many new mines were opened in consequence, 
 whose stocks failed to reach consumers before the summer 
 of 1080, the two results are easily reconcilable. The value 
 
 of the ore is taken at the mine, or at the point of delivery to 
 a customer or a transportation company, but always at the 
 point where the expenses of labor and material which come 
 under our consideration, cease. Where the ore is smelted by 
 the same company which mines it, it not unfrequently hap- 
 pens that the cost and value as returned are the same, since 
 the ore is regarded as part of the furnace supplies. This has 
 had the effect of depressing slightly the value returned to us 
 below the market price, and of carrying part of the profits 
 of mining into the manufacture of pig iron. In nearly all 
 of the iron-mining districts of the country, though the sys- 
 tems of labor vary, it is the custom that each miner or under- 
 ground laborer furnish his oil or candle, and, when working 
 by the ton, his own powder and fuse. The amounts thus 
 expended have, as far as possible, been deducted from the 
 pay of the men and added to the cost of material, in order 
 that the column headed "wages" might more nearly repre- 
 sent the net cash income of the laborer available for his sup- 
 port. "Labor" is classified with regard to age and occupa- 
 tion. In the underground mines the classes of employes 
 are well defined. In the open-cut and quarry mines the dis- 
 tinction between laborers and miners is more indefinite. 
 "Materials used" covers everything consumed in the busi- 
 ness, including, among the more important items, feed for 
 animals, timber, fuel, repairs of all kinds, tools, powder, 
 fuse, lights, etc. "Capital" is divided into— First, "work- 
 ing capital," or the sum of money required to run the mine 
 from month to month and to pay wages and Ijuy materials 
 in producing the stock that is ordinarily carried. Taking 
 the broad view of the entire industry, this portion of the 
 capital is represented by marketable product and is not 
 jeopardized. 
 
 Second, "plant," which represents the permanent open- 
 ings, roads, buildings, machinery, etc., which are subject to 
 rapid deterioration, reciuire constant repairs, and are of little 
 value when the mine is exhausted. 
 
 Third, "real estate," which means the land as a mineral 
 producer, its value as such being considered apart from its 
 possible value for agricultural or forestry purposes. This 
 value IS a fund which is constantly diminished as the ore is 
 withdrawn, and eventually reaches zero; and must be made 
 good by capitalizing the royalties. The lands in question 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1001 
 
 are not wild lands, but such as are attached to a working 
 mine. Their acreage cannot be given, as iron ore deposits 
 are irregular in their occurrence, but their extent is such 
 that for all practical purposes their present annual yield may- 
 be regarded as not likely to be diminished for many years. 
 
 Remarks on Table II. — Table II contains the averages 
 drawn from the data in Table I. In finding the average net 
 income of a man, the three classes of labor are considered 
 together, and two boys are considered the equivalent of one 
 man in earning capacity. The year, which is divided into 
 percentages of time lost and made, is the working year of 
 twelve months of 25 working days each. The small amount 
 of time lost in strikes, equivalent to the average working 
 lifetime of two men only, shows that no serious conflict 
 between capital and labor arose during the census year in 
 this industry. The low rate of monthly wages must be 
 qualified by the consideration that the miner receives the 
 advantages of low rent and prices of the necessaries of life, 
 and in some cases privileges which cannot be brought into 
 columns of statistics, but which tend to equalize his condi- 
 tion with the higher-paid labor of cities. As stated before, 
 the price of ore in some of the states, notably Georgia, 
 North Carolina, Tennessee, Ohio, Virginia, and "West Vir- 
 ginia, is seriously lowered by the fact that it is returned by 
 nirnace companies who, in many cases, include, in the price 
 given, no allowance for royalty nor profit, as they charge it to 
 their furnaces at cost. We have not felt at liberty to change 
 the price fixed by a producer without positive information. 
 The product would replace the capital employed and invested 
 in little more than three years, but the profits and royalty 
 would require nearly seven and three-quarter years to efiiect 
 the same result. It requires an investment of $8.75 on the 
 average to produce a ton of ore yearly. The annual product, 
 as will be observed, is but little in excess of one-half of the 
 maximum capacity. The mines which yield ore fit for the 
 manufacture of Bessemer steel, however, approach much 
 nearer their greatest possible yield. "Maximum capacity" 
 means an estimate of what could be produced from present 
 developments, with present appliances, under the stimulus 
 of a pressing demand. It could be attained with an increase 
 of working capital and labor only. Its excess over real pro- 
 duct is partly accounted for by the fact that many new 
 mines went into operation during the latter part of the year. 
 The following table presents some comparisons with the cen- 
 sus of 1870: 
 
 Table III. — Cliangeg In t^e lron>orc mining Industry In 
 the United States tluriug tlie decade endlnf^ June 1, 1880, 
 expressed in percentages on tlie returns ot tlie Census of 
 1870. 
 
 Per cent. 
 Gain in number of establisbments .... ... 01.07 
 
 Gain in total number of employes • ... . . . 110.81 
 
 Gain in total horae-iwwer of steam-engines . . . . 189. G9 
 
 Gain in amount paid as wages .... . . . . 39.48 
 
 Gain in amount paid for material 126.33 
 
 Gain in total capital . 247.61 
 
 Loss in value per ton of product . . . 25.45 
 
 Gain in value of total product .... . ... 75.45 
 
 Gain in tonnage of total product . 135.00 
 
 Gain in product of regular establishments . . . 108.00 
 
 Loss in yearly income of man 32,13 
 
 Loss in per cent, of value of product paid for labor 5.19 
 
 Gain in per cent, of value of product paid for materials 4.46 
 
 Gain in per cent, of value of product retained for royalty, interest, etc. . 0.74 
 
 The gain in the total number of mine employes, 110.81 
 per cent., is slightly more than the gain, 108 per cent., in the 
 product of the establishments to which they belong. This 
 arises from the fact that many new mines were opened in 
 l879-'80 which were not productive till the latter part of the 
 year. The eiFectiveness per man has undoubtedly been 
 increased by the increased use of power, as shown in the 
 large per cent., 189.68, and by the introduction of improved 
 drilling machinery and high explosives. The census of 1870, 
 unfortunately, affords no basis for making this important 
 comparison. Proportionately more is expended for material 
 and less for labor than was the case in 1870. This arises 
 partly from the fact that wages are reduced to net wages, as 
 explained before, and partly from a real increase in con- 
 sumption of supplies as mining becomes more systematic 
 and dependent on mechanical appliances. The average 
 yearly incomes of labor cannot be justly compared, for the 
 same reason that we cannot compare its effectiveness, i. e., 
 because we cannot ascertain the proportion of the year lost 
 
 in 1870. The number of boys employed has increased at a 
 much more rapid rate than the number of men. They now 
 constitute five per cent, of the entire force, and have 
 increased 348 per cent, in ten years. The large gain in cap- 
 ital, 247.61 per cent., is explained by the fact that all iron- 
 ore producing property was included in the present census, 
 whether it belonged to the mine operator or was leased or 
 worked on a royalty. Viewing the iron lands returned as a 
 whole, they are capable of keeping up the present annual 
 yield for an indefinite time, though parts of them may 
 become rapidly exhausted. Extending the average royalty 
 of 42 cents a ton to the entire product, we would have a 
 yearly income of over three millions of dollars, or rather 
 more than 6.25 per cent, on the returned value of the real 
 estate. In view of the fact that this income, though not 
 likely to be diminished for fifty years to come, is very far 
 from being a perpetual annuity, it will be seen that the 
 present value of the real estate is not overestimated. After 
 taking out the royalty charge, if from the remainder of the 
 annual net receipts we deduct an amount equal to 6 percent, 
 interest on the working capital, there is left, in round num- 
 bers, the sum of $4,690,000. The "plant," consisting of 
 animals, boilers, engines, tools, buildings, cars, tracks, etc., 
 is subject to a deterioration of not far from 30 per cent, 
 yearly. Deducting this, leaves $2,096,000 as the profits and 
 expenses of the general management of the business, or a 
 trifle over 9 per cent, of the value of the annual product, a 
 proportion which cannot be called excessive; for it must be 
 remembered that, though the income of the business, ow a 
 wAofe, isasteady and regular addition to our national wealth, 
 each individual mine is subject to interruptions from acci- 
 dents, and to exhaustion of the mineral deposit. Conse- 
 quently, the net income of each individual mine cannot be 
 regarded as consisting solely of interest, royalty and profits, 
 but must be charged, for safety, with a certain sum for 
 insurance against unforeseen contingencies, which would 
 not be necessary if one company owned the entire property. 
 The conditions of iron-ore mining are so different in differ- 
 ent districts that only the most general analysis can be ap- 
 plied to the totals. The above considerations show that the 
 general relations between capital and production spread over 
 our returns are harmonious, and are given, not so much with 
 a view to prove the healthy condition of the industry, as to 
 justify the assertion that our valuations of capital are very, 
 far from extravagant, though the period during which they 
 were made — the summer of 1880 — was one of great activity 
 in iron mining. It may be observed, too, that the real estate 
 which furnishes the " irregular product" of 1,015,981 tons 
 is far from worthless as mineral land, though we have not 
 included it in our valuation. Its principal value, however, 
 consists in the fact that it affords its owners a field for mod- 
 erately remunerative labor. The average price per ton has 
 fallen from $3.89 to $2.90, or 25.45 per cent. As gold aver- 
 aged about SO per cent, above the paper dollar in 1B70, the 
 true fall in iron ore is only 14 cents a ton. Since the last 
 census was taken the average price per ton has changed in 
 the five great states as follows : In Michigan it has fallen 
 15 percent.; in Missouri it has risen 56.32 per cent.; in 
 New Jersey it has fallen 30 per cent. ; in New York it has 
 fallen 29 per cent.; in Pennsylvania it has fallen 35 per 
 cent. These irregularities are chiefly due to the increased 
 demand for ores suitable to the manufacture of Bessemer 
 steel. 
 
 Table IV, — I«ist of Iron-prodaclng States In order of the 
 production of 1880. 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 Michigan . . 
 New York 
 New Jersey . 
 Ohio. . 
 Missouri . 
 Alabama . . 
 Virginia . 
 Maryland . . 
 Tennessee 
 Georgia. . 
 
 Total 
 
 Per cent, of 
 
 product. 
 
 total product. 
 
 Tom. 
 
 
 2,185,676 
 
 27.418 
 
 1,834,712 
 
 23.015 
 
 1,262,127 
 
 15.833 
 
 757,372 
 
 9.501 
 
 547,303 
 
 6.866 
 
 386,197 
 
 4.845 
 
 191,676 
 
 2.404 
 
 182,326 
 
 2.287 
 
 139,628 
 
 1.762 
 
 104,466 
 
 1.311 
 
 91,416 
 
 1.U7 
 
 Per cent, of 
 
 total value of 
 
 product. 
 
 23.8144 
 
 26.0485 
 
 15.7743 
 
 12.6629 
 
 6.4789 
 
 7.2296 
 
 0.8714 
 
 1.8988 
 
 1.8202 
 
 0.6363 
 
 0.6199 
 
lOOi 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 l<lst of Iron-producing States In order of tlie production of 
 
 1880,— Cor. finwerf. 
 
 stales. 
 
 Tuliil 
 proditcL 
 
 !>.,-„._* ^f\ Percent, of 
 
 Kentucky . . . . 
 
 Massachusetts. . 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin . 
 
 Connecticut. . 
 
 Oregon . . 
 
 Maine . . 
 
 Texas .... 
 
 ^forth Carolina . 
 
 Delaware ... 
 
 Vermont . 
 
 Indiana . . 
 
 Tons. 
 
 04,809 
 
 02,637 
 
 61,210 
 
 41,440 
 
 35,018 
 
 6,972 
 
 6,000 
 
 3,600 
 
 3,318 
 
 2,726 
 
 660 
 
 613 
 
 0.813 
 780 
 0.768 
 0.620 
 0.439 
 0.087 
 0.075 
 0.045 
 0.042 
 0.034 
 0.007 
 0.006 
 
 0.7161 
 0.0761 
 0.4384 
 0.3161 
 0.6380 
 0.0202 
 0.0388 
 0.0350 
 0.0228 
 0.0283 
 0.0119 
 0.0044 
 
 Tlie United States . 
 
 7,971,700 
 
 
 Table V. — ^The rank of the sixteen states reported in the 
 census of 1870 as producers of iron ore was as follows : 
 
 1. Pennsylvania. 5. Ohio. 
 
 2. Michigan. 6. Missouri. 
 
 3. New York. 7. Maryland. 
 
 4. New Jersey. 8. Tennessee. 
 
 9. Massachusetts. 13. Vermont. 
 
 10. Wisconsin. 14. North Carolina. 
 
 11. Kentucky. 15. Delaware. 
 
 12. "Virginia. 16. Indiana. 
 
 The six great iron states retain in 1880 their former rela- 
 tive rank, and Alabama, a new state, takes the rank next 
 them. Pennsylvania and Michigan yield over one-half the 
 
 Table VI.— L*iat of Counties of the iirst class producing 
 over 100,OUO tons. 
 
 Coilntil. 
 
 Stale. 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Marquette ... 
 
 Essex . . 
 
 Blorris .... . . 
 
 Menominee . 
 
 Lehigh . . . 
 
 Lebanon 
 
 BerltB . . ... 
 
 Blair 
 
 Saint Francois. . . 
 
 Dutchess . . ... 
 
 Northampton . .... 
 
 Michigan . . 
 New York . . 
 New Jersey 
 Michigan . . 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 Missouri ... 
 New York .... 
 Pennsylvania .... 
 
 1,374 812 
 030;944 
 668,420 
 459,900 
 321,322 
 285,629 
 252,940 
 154,914 
 144,265 
 125,859 
 104,788 
 
 Total of 11 counties of the 1st 
 class ... 
 
 4,423,793 
 
 entire product. The six states at the head of the list yield 
 87.48 per cent, of the total, which is worth 90.91 per cent. 
 of the total value. Sixteen states were reported in 1870 
 against twenty-three at present. The new iron-producing 
 states are Alabama, Georgia, West Virginia, Connecticut, 
 Oregon, Maine, and Texas. They produce 4.96 per cent, of 
 the product. Virginia has gainea four places ; Maryland 
 and Tennessee have lost two ; Massachusetts four, and Ken- 
 tucky one. 
 
 The eleven counties (Table VI.) produce 55.49 per cent, of 
 the entire tonnage, of which total Marquette county, Michi- 
 gan,mustbe credited with 17.25percent. Menominee county, 
 Michigan, is the only one of the above which did not pro- 
 duce iron ore in 1870. The total number of counties from 
 which reports have been received and tabulated is 135, 
 against 71 in 1870, a gain of a little over 90 per cent. 
 
 Ta.1)le V1I.~ — List of Counties of tKe second class produc- 
 ing less than 100,000 tons and over 50,00U tons. 
 
 Couniy. 
 
 Stale. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Clinton . . ... 
 
 Orange ... 
 
 Craivford . 
 
 Putnam . . 
 
 Sussex ... 
 
 Cumberland . . 
 
 New York .... 
 
 Do. . 
 Missouri .... 
 New York . . 
 New Jersey , 
 Pennsylvania . . 
 
 
 92,166 
 88,988 
 87,033 
 76,746 
 70,306 
 67,846 
 64,111 
 63,792 
 63,570 
 63,274 
 62,637 
 62,699 
 58,878 
 67,297 
 60,214 
 
 .Tefferson . . . 
 Fayette . 
 
 New York. . 
 
 ' J ' 
 
 York . . 
 
 Lancaster . 
 
 Berkshire . 
 
 Lawrence '. . . . . . 
 
 Dent . ... 
 
 Iron . ... 
 
 WaiTcn . . 
 
 Do. ... 
 Do. 
 
 Massachusetts . .... 
 Ohio. . ... 
 Missouri ... 
 
 Do. . . . 
 New Jersey 
 
 Total of the 15 counties of the 
 2d class . 
 
 
 
 1,029,510 
 
 The above 15 counties, in 6 states, produce 12.92 per cent, 
 of the entire product. The 26 leading counties produce 
 68.41 per cent, of the entire product, leaving 31.59 per cent, 
 to be spread over the remaining 109 counties. The follow- 
 ing table contains a list of all mines or industrial establish- 
 ments producing over 50,000 tons during the census year, in 
 the order of their production : 
 
 Table VIII. 
 
 Stale. 
 
 Countif. 
 
 Name of mine. 
 
 ProdiKt. 
 
 Talne 
 of iiroduct. 
 
 Emplojfis. 
 
 Pennsylvania ... 
 Michigan. . 
 
 Do. . . 
 
 Do. . . 
 New York . 
 
 Do. . . . . 
 Missouri ... 
 Michigan .... 
 
 Do. . . ■ • 
 New York . 
 Michigan . t 
 New .Jersey . . 
 Michigan . . 
 
 Do. . . . . 
 
 Do. . . 
 Missouri . 
 
 New York .... 
 
 Missouri . . 
 
 New Jersey .... . ... 
 
 Lebanon . . 
 Marquette . . 
 
 Menominee 
 Essex . 
 
 Do ■ • 
 
 Saint Franjois . 
 Marquette . 
 
 Do. 
 Essex . . 
 Marquette . 
 Morris ... 
 Menominee 
 Marquette . 
 Menominee . . 
 Crawford ... 
 Putnam ... 
 Iron. ... ... 
 
 Morris 
 
 Cornwall Ore Bank ... 
 
 Kepublic 
 
 Lake Superior Iron ( 'ompany * . ] 
 
 Norway and Cyclops ... 
 
 Old Bed . . . • ■ 
 
 21 • ; 
 
 Iron Mountain . \ 
 
 Jackson " 
 
 Cleveland Iron Mining Company ' ' '. 
 Crown Point . . \ 
 Champion .... 
 'Glendon Ilibernia 
 Vulcan .... 
 Michigamme ... . . ' ' '. 
 
 Tons 
 
 280,000 
 
 224,000 
 
 215,930 
 
 210,876 
 
 208,416 
 
 187,448 
 
 i44,163 
 
 134,585 
 
 125,440 
 
 112,000 
 
 99,609 
 
 85,623 
 
 83,394 
 
 66,158 
 
 63,689 
 
 60,385 
 
 66,000 
 
 62,761 
 
 50,379 
 
 $500,000 
 896,000 
 771,180 
 527,187 
 744,344 
 238,525 
 
 1,061,801 
 669,582 
 448,000 
 600,000 
 355,748 
 382,245 
 208,486 
 212,652 
 159,220 
 134,788 
 131,600 
 115,993 
 264,390 
 
 135 
 GOO 
 642 
 610 
 321 
 282 
 300 
 252 
 450 
 450 
 350 
 650 
 200 
 107 
 
 Merimec Iron Mining Company 
 
 Tilly Foster Iron Mines , . ' ' 
 
 Pilot Knob .... 
 
 Mount Hope ... 
 
 178 
 184 
 250 
 410 
 194 
 
 
 2,400,846 
 
 8,222,040 
 
 0,355 
 
 The preceding 19 mines yielded 34.85 per cent, of the 
 entire tonnage of the " regular mines " the value of which 
 reached 40.16 per cent, of the value of the total. The labor 
 employed by them, however, aggregates only 20.06 per cent 
 of the entire force, as it is generally worked more continu- 
 ously and at higher wages. The product of the Cornwall 
 Ore Bank was 3.97 per cent., and of the Eepublic 3.17 per 
 cent, of the entire product of the regular mines. 174 mines 
 
 have been opened during the census year, or 21.6 )3er cent, 
 otthe total reported. TDuring the census year the iron- 
 mimng industry consumed 6,907,931 linear feet of round 
 timber for props, etc valued at $114,951; 8,625,463 super- 
 tcial feet of sawed lumber, valued at $128,110; and 88:443 
 cords of wood for fuel, valued at $177,309 all of which is 
 included m the gross amount of materials used. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1003 
 
 Table No. 1.— CENSUS OF 1880— PRODUCTION OP BITUMINOUS COAI. BY STATES EAST OF THE lOOth 
 
 9IEUIDIAN. 
 
 Name of State, 
 
 Alabama 
 Arkangaa . 
 Georgia 
 Illinois 
 Indiana 
 Iowa . 
 Kansas 
 Kentucky . . . 
 Maryland . . 
 Michigan . . 
 Missouri . . 
 Nebraska . . 
 North Carolina . 
 Ohio .... 
 Pennsylvania. . 
 Tennessee . . . 
 Virginia . , , 
 West Virginia . 
 
 10 
 
 U 
 
 2 
 
 590 
 
 210 
 
 227 
 
 180 
 
 65 
 
 32 
 
 G 
 
 1« 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 018 
 
 60B 
 
 20 
 
 i 
 
 120 
 
 74,154,273 
 
 451,022 
 
 67,440 
 
 165,000 
 
 13,808,700 
 
 3,110,983 
 
 3,896,805 
 
 1,140,618 
 
 2,435,776 
 
 4,532,832 
 
 141,800 
 
 1,120,112 
 
 400 
 
 700 
 
 12,093,880 
 
 20,220,031 
 
 740,060 
 
 105,740 
 
 4,116,485 
 
 40,311,460 
 
 322,9.34 
 
 14,778 
 
 154,644 
 
 6,089,514 
 
 1,440,406 
 
 1,442,333 
 
 763,207 
 
 936,867 
 
 2,227,844 
 
 100,800 
 
 643,000 
 
 200 
 
 350 
 
 6,032,863 
 
 18,004,088 
 
 494,491 
 
 40,620 
 
 1,792,570 
 
 840,044,498 
 
 475,569 
 
 33,535 
 
 231,605 
 
 8,739,755 
 
 2,143,093 
 
 2,473,1.')6 
 
 1,407,268 
 
 1,12.3,040 
 
 2,684,455 
 
 224,500 
 
 1,037,100 
 
 750 
 
 400 
 
 7,629,488 
 
 18,107,161 
 
 628,954 
 
 92,837 
 
 1,971,847 
 
 628,600 
 
 25,803 
 4,831 
 
 18,783 
 7,846 
 
 10,431 
 1,073 
 
 12,314 
 
 75,742 
 
 420,176 
 
 640 
 
 2,559 
 
 47,276 
 
 40,040,028 
 
 323,972 
 
 14,778 
 
 154,044 
 
 6,116,377 
 
 1,454,327 
 
 1,401,116 
 
 771,142 
 
 040,288 
 
 2,228,917 
 
 100,800 
 
 656,304 
 
 200 
 
 350 
 
 6,008,596 
 
 18,426,103 
 
 495,131 
 
 43,079 
 
 1,839,845 
 
 
 S40, 733,003 
 
 470,911 
 
 33,635 
 
 231,606 
 
 8,770,832 
 
 2,150,268 
 
 2,507,463 
 
 1,610,544 
 
 1,134,960 
 
 2,685,637 
 
 224,600 
 
 1,061,225 
 
 760 
 
 400 
 
 7,719,767 
 
 18,667,120 
 
 620,724 
 
 99,802 
 
 2,013,071 
 
 =1 
 
 $4,661,662 
 
 48 ,.583 
 
 1,136 
 
 9,600 
 
 796,149 
 
 158,604 
 
 240,820 
 
 47,485 
 
 95,995 
 
 194,942 
 
 7,750 
 
 56,750 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 931,298 
 
 1,764,602 
 
 47,323 
 
 11,614 
 
 251,046 
 
 10 
 
 830,707,059 
 
 328,788 
 
 20,850 
 
 85,179 
 
 6,035,919 
 
 1,406,164 
 
 1,.654,696 
 
 768,080 
 
 687,474 
 
 1,.370,079 
 
 146,000 
 
 642,772 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 6,100,547 
 
 10,863,583 
 
 336,705 
 
 71,447 
 
 1.208,316 
 
 Name of State. 
 
 Alabama . . 
 Arkansas 
 Georgia . 
 Illinois 
 Indiana . 
 Iowa . 
 
 Kentucky . 
 Maryland . . 
 Michigan . 
 Missouri . . 
 Nebraska . . 
 North Carolina . 
 
 Oliio 
 
 Pennsylvania. . 
 Tennessee . 
 Virginia . . . 
 West Virginia . 
 
 11 
 
 626 
 22 
 267 
 2,152 
 670 
 
 670 
 
 605 
 
 61 
 
 253 
 
 1 
 
 1,862 
 
 4,489 
 
 242 
 
 124 
 
 924 
 
 12 
 
 76,612 
 
 s< ■ 
 
 13 
 
 766 
 
 850 
 
 98 
 
 186 
 
 13,128 
 
 3,748 
 
 3,004 
 
 3,142 
 
 1,958 
 
 2,060 
 
 205 
 
 2,096 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 18,626 
 
 26,660 
 
 603 
 
 112 
 
 3,370 
 
 208 
 95 
 24 
 31 
 
 -§. 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 21 
 2 
 
 050 
 171 
 210 
 181 
 122 
 475 
 65 
 
 765 
 
 1,041 
 
 62 
 
 1 
 
 172 
 
 1,,613 
 
 133 
 
 442 
 
 16,301 
 
 4,406 
 
 5,024 
 
 3,617 
 
 2,820 
 
 3,677 
 
 412 
 
 2,500 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 16,331 
 
 33,248 
 
 1,092 
 
 261 
 
 4,407 
 
 s 
 I 
 
 16 
 
 ■fe. 
 
 17 
 
 24,726 
 
 280 
 66 
 67 
 
 4 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 131 
 
 170 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 425 
 35 
 
 8,294 
 1,717 
 1,445 
 120 
 622 
 860 
 235 
 618 
 
 3,835 
 
 6,301 
 
 132 
 
 793 
 404 
 
 13 
 
 82,403,211 
 
 19 
 
 $063,313 
 
 46,400 
 
 507,184 
 146,908 
 126,218 
 
 61,150 
 129,050 
 
 23 
 
 386,904 
 
 720,189 
 
 10,750 
 
 76,100 
 
 113,333 
 
 11,100 
 
 25 
 
 3,775 
 
 267,730 
 
 66,161 
 
 116,970 
 
 12,125 
 
 41,018 
 
 40 
 
 4,700 
 
 3,282 
 
 5 
 
 210,463 
 193,600 
 
 n,0C2 
 1,330 
 
 30,035 
 
 20 
 
 88,191,960 
 
 111,500 
 
 '36,745' 
 
 1,162,635 
 
 348,665 
 
 273,350 
 
 270,000 
 901,300 
 
 70 
 
 1,177,328 
 
 3,460,867 
 
 65,760 
 
 26,600 
 
 367,250 
 
 Remarks on Table No. 1. — Column No. 2 gives the 
 number of separate individual " establishments" from which 
 schedules have been received. As a rule, each schedule 
 received represents what is ordinarily called "a mine," but 
 in some cases one schedule necessarily contains all the data 
 oi a company which works one or more shafts not connected 
 underground, and keeps no separate record of the product 
 or labor of each of their mine openings. Such cases — though 
 from the point of view of a mine engineer they might repre- 
 sent two or more mines — we have been obliged to consider 
 as one " industrial establishment." In the anthracite iield this 
 question as to what should constitute the industrial unit in 
 the census report cannot arise, since there the word " colliery" 
 
 has a definite signification, i. e., all the mine openings whose 
 product goes to a single breaker building and is there 
 mixed before delivery. No such absolute distinguishing 
 criterion exists in the iron ore and bituminous coal industry, 
 but the term " industrial establishment " must be taken to 
 mean an organization, the managers of which keep a record 
 in such a manner that the data required for the census can 
 be obtained for it separately. There are, however, not more 
 than five or six cases where any doubt on this point can 
 arise. Column 3, headed "Maximum capacity," represents 
 the number of tons which the operators claim could be raised 
 yearly from the present openings with the present facilities, 
 if the market would take it. It is unexpectedly large, and 
 
1004 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Table No. 1.— CENSUS OF 1880— PRODUCTION OP BITUMINOUS COAL BY STATES EAST OF THE lOOtU 
 
 ni ER £ D I AN .—Continued. 
 
 Name of Stale. 
 
 Alabama . 
 Arkansas . 
 Georgia . . 
 nUnois . . 
 Indiana. . 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas . . 
 Kentucky . . 
 Maryland . . . . 
 Michigan. . 
 Missouri . . 
 Nebraska . . . 
 North Carolina . 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania , 
 
 Virginia . . . 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 I 
 
 21 
 
 ?19,435,107 
 
 270,833 
 
 311,000 
 
 3,lo3,4!37 
 
 773,445 
 
 860,672 
 
 732,252 
 853,957 
 
 100 
 
 3,258,581 
 
 7,242,524 
 
 415,371 
 
 133,000 
 
 1,447,915 
 
 22 
 
 §•1 
 
 23 
 
 862,364,034 $89,999,101 
 
 323,473 
 
 100,000 
 0,100,460 
 1,146,869 
 1,644,915 
 
 939,385 
 11,387,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 8,529,931 
 
 27,152,403 
 
 1,222,847 
 
 169,500 
 
 3,597,269 
 
 705,808 
 
 441,745 
 
 10,416,652 
 
 2,268,909 
 
 2,778,937 
 
 1,947,637 
 13,142,257 
 
 40,170 
 
 12,965,840 
 
 37,856,794 
 
 1,703,908 
 
 329,000 
 
 5,402.424 
 
 24 
 
 13,089,864 
 
 1 
 
 25 
 
 $1,904,070 
 
 86,494 
 
 15,000 
 
 2,703,857 
 
 899,366 
 
 684,754 
 
 213,490 
 412,341 
 
 2,680,108 
 5,099,817 
 
 141,818 
 17,878 
 
 724,961 
 
 14,227 
 
 1,875 
 238,258 
 137,311 
 100,157 
 
 29,017 
 46,668 
 
 458,468 
 
 728,735 
 
 36;390 
 
 2,272 
 
 111,708 
 
 26 
 
 155 
 
 02 
 
 10,143 
 
 2,884 
 
 604 
 
 1,235 
 3,262 
 
 9,984 
 17,730 
 
 s a" 
 |1 
 
 27 
 
 2,556 
 
 10,028 
 
 26,502 
 
 8,000 
 
 3,602 
 
 36,748 
 14,249 
 
 33,988 
 60,814 
 
 1,062 j 10,763 
 
 28 
 
 2,440 
 81 
 
 29,549 
 
 2,407 
 
 16,626 
 
 1,600 
 
 3,887 
 
 863 
 
 107 
 
 3,715 
 
 1 
 
 1,200 
 
 24,051 
 
 67,497 
 
 23,743 
 
 230 
 
 35,804 
 
 29 
 
 13,517,404 
 
 ~ 1 
 
 1-2 
 
 
 ■11 
 
 ■•§1 
 
 il 
 
 
 
 
 
 °1 
 
 II 
 
 i - 
 
 is 
 
 ^"s 
 
 ^ 
 
 a~ 
 
 '=! 
 
 772,858 
 
 15,600 
 
 441,743 
 
 10,664,261 
 
 2 304,720 
 
 2,778,937 
 
 767,994 
 
 1,908,537 
 
 13,106,557 
 
 66,800 
 
 389,315 
 
 600 
 
 40,170 
 
 13,662,484 
 
 38,709,344 
 
 1,708,008 
 
 329,000 
 
 5,750,074 
 
 30 
 
 4,995 
 
 81 
 
 16,028 
 
 56,051 
 
 10,407 
 
 20,128 
 
 1,600 
 
 34,635 
 
 15,112 
 
 107 
 
 3,715 
 
 1 
 
 1,200 
 
 68,639 
 
 118,311 
 
 23,743 
 
 230 
 
 40,059 
 
 possibly in some cases based on too sanguine estimates of 
 capacity. As will be noticed, the average time run was only 
 nine months of the year, which would indicate that the 
 capacity of the mines was at least one-third more than the 
 product. Column 4 gives the production of mines supplying 
 the general market, in tons of 2,000 pounds. It also is 
 larger than was anticipated, but there is no reason to sup- 
 pose it exaggerated. For instance, tlie production of Penn- 
 sylvania is given in the Mine Inspectors' Report (see "An- 
 nual Report of the Secretary of Internal Affaira" for 1879- 
 
 '80, pages 289, 362, and 410) at 18,837,962 tons. This sum- 
 mation is based largely on estimates, and covers the year 
 ending December 1, 1880, thus embracing a period marked 
 by a more active demand for coal and coke than the census 
 year ending June 1, 1880. Our total is 18,004,988, a differ- 
 ence of 4.4 per cent., which is less than the natural increase 
 between the two periods. The 6th column is headed 
 "Irregular product." Under this has been gathered the 
 output of all the small operations where coal is mined in 
 small quantities for local consumption. In many cases, in 
 
 
 
 Table J»o. 
 
 a.^GEWKRAI. AVERAGES— BITUMINOUS COAI,. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Name of State. 
 
 3 
 
 1.1 
 
 1 
 > 
 
 1 
 > 
 ■S8 
 8 
 
 amount left for roi/albj, 
 rofit, etc., ^er tmi. ] 
 
 1-^ 
 
 i 
 
 •s 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 ■5. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 "5, 
 
 1 
 
 1- 
 
 
 S 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 J^ a,* 
 
 It 
 
 ■S 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 l1 
 
 a, 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 ratio of product to maxir j 
 
 mum capacity. j 
 
 
 I'fe- 
 
 1 
 
 §■ 
 
 „-, 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 fe 
 
 & 
 
 fe 
 
 1 
 
 b 
 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 fe 
 
 
 'I 
 
 '^ 
 
 '^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 B< 
 
 (? 
 
 « 
 
 -^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 '^ 
 
 '^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 6^ 
 
 E^ 
 
 (^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 9.10 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 1.22 
 
 0.76 
 
 0.12 
 
 0.34 
 
 21.61 
 
 69.28 
 
 0.14 
 
 :v2S.7:i 
 
 2-20.07 
 
 76.70 
 
 17.62 
 
 6.08 
 
 1.90 
 
 431.63 
 
 54.36 
 
 Alabama 
 
 1.47 
 
 1.02 
 
 0.15 
 
 0.30 
 
 16,80 
 
 38.37 
 
 45.83 
 
 0.16 
 
 91.54 
 
 2.78 
 
 6.08 
 
 .71 
 
 216.15 
 
 71.60 
 
 
 2.27 
 1.60 
 
 1.61 
 0.65 
 
 0.08 
 0.06 
 
 0.78 
 0.89 
 
 
 
 
 
 160.80 
 192.71 
 
 
 
 
 
 118.22 
 349.87 
 
 
 Georgia . 
 
 6.96 
 
 70.49 
 
 22.64 
 
 0.12a 
 
 100.00 
 
 0.00 
 
 0.00 
 
 1.17 
 
 93.67 
 
 Illinois . . ... 
 
 1.44 
 
 0.99 
 
 0.13 
 
 0.32 
 
 11.16 
 
 30.27 
 
 68.57 
 
 0.09 
 
 382.25 
 
 78.15 
 
 17.32 
 
 4.63 
 
 1.65 
 
 385.64 
 
 44.10 
 
 Indiana , . 
 
 1.48 
 
 0.97 
 
 0.11 
 
 0.40 
 
 15.37 
 
 34.09 
 
 60.54 
 
 0.15 
 
 318.85 
 
 74.34 
 
 21.36 
 
 4.30 
 
 1.47 
 
 328.91 
 
 46.60 
 
 Iowa , 
 
 1.71 
 
 1.08 
 
 0.17 
 
 0.46 
 
 9.84 
 
 30.97 
 
 69.19 
 
 0.23 
 
 316.45 
 
 69.52 
 
 24.14 
 
 0.34 
 
 1.41 
 
 293.67 
 
 37.01 
 
 Kansas . . 
 
 1.96 
 1.20 
 
 0.99 
 0.73 
 
 0.06 
 0.10 
 
 0.91 
 0.37 
 
 
 
 
 
 215.41 
 261.68 
 
 
 
 
 
 216.63 
 342.61 
 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 14.17 
 
 37.00 
 
 48.2.1 
 
 U 
 
 62.00 
 
 2:1.60 
 
 4.40 
 
 1.84 
 
 38.42 
 
 Maryland . . 
 
 1.10 
 
 0.61 
 
 0.09 
 
 0.46 
 
 6.86 
 
 6.60 
 
 86.64 
 
 0.11 
 
 400.49 
 
 60.93 
 
 17.(50 
 
 12,47 
 
 3.10 
 
 661.23 
 
 49.16 
 
 Michigan . 
 
 2.23 
 1.91 
 
 1.45 
 1.18 
 
 0.08 
 0.10 
 
 0.70 
 0.63 
 
 
 
 
 
 385.22 
 259,81 
 
 
 
 
 
 265,96 
 219.88 
 
 41.08 
 48.57 
 
 MisBouri . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nebraska ... 
 
 3.75 
 ].14 
 1.29 
 
 1.60 
 0.67 
 0.80 
 
 0.06 
 0.14 
 0.10 
 
 2.20 
 0.43 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ohio .... ... 
 
 0.27 
 
 9.(18 
 
 25.13 
 
 65.79 
 
 1) 17 
 
 320.09 
 
 77.90 
 
 13.65 
 
 's.'es 
 
 1.60 
 
 373.03 
 
 49.06 
 
 Pennsylvania . . 
 
 1.01 
 
 0.60 
 
 0.10 
 
 0.31 
 
 9.14 
 
 19.13 
 
 71.73 
 
 0,14 
 
 337.97 
 
 76.73 
 
 17.28 
 
 6.99 
 
 2.47 
 
 660.14 
 
 68.65 
 
 Tennessee . . . 
 
 1.27 
 
 0.68 
 
 0.10 
 
 0.49 
 
 3.86 
 
 24.38 
 
 71.70 
 
 0.25 
 
 332.28 
 
 91.15 
 
 8.79 
 
 0.06 
 
 1.78 
 
 487.90 
 
 66.28 
 
 Virginia , , 
 
 2.29 
 
 1.76 
 
 0.20 
 
 0.24 
 
 8.06 
 
 40.43 
 
 61.62 
 
 0.13 
 
 287.61 
 
 61.00 
 
 38.94 
 
 000 
 
 0.89 
 
 163.06 
 
 38.32 
 
 West Virginia . 
 
 !!"_ 
 
 0.72 
 
 0.14 
 
 0.24 
 
 6.61 
 
 20.8.) 
 
 66.59 
 
 0.16 
 
 295.37 
 
 69.06 
 
 23.67 
 
 7.38 
 
 1.97 
 
 407.82 
 
 43.65 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1005 
 
 some of the bituminous fields, a farmer digs coal from 
 the outcrop on his own farm and supplies his own, and 
 perhaps one or two neighboring families. This industry 
 IS analogous to the cutting of wood for domestic fuel, 
 and has no bearing on the mining industry of the country. 
 The whole amount so produced is only 628,569 tons, 
 and it might as well be disregarded hereafter. The iron 
 ore mined in a small way eventually reaches the general 
 market, but the coal does not. No labor is hired and 
 no machinery is used, and the work is carried on when 
 there is nothing else to do on the farm. Strictly speaking, 
 no capital is employed, but the value of the land, as coal 
 land, has been assessed and included in column 29, headed 
 " Grand total of capital." There were over 5,000 of these 
 small operations or " farmers' diggings " reported, and the 
 labor of gathering the statistics from them is entirely dis- 
 proportioned to the value of the results. They average less 
 than 125 tons yearly. All the other columns, except the 
 7th, 8th, and the 29th, apply to the regular mines or "estab- 
 lishments " only. In column 5 the value is taken at the 
 " mine's mouth," or rather at the point where the product is 
 delivered for transportation to market. Column 9, " Value 
 of materials," covers mine supplies consumed, including 
 powder, fuse, iron, steel, timber, lumber, wire, rope, etc., 
 whether bought by the miners or by the operators. Column 
 10 covers wages paid to all classes of labor during the census 
 year, and represents the amount received by the men, less 
 the amount paid by them for material, as powder, fuse, etc., 
 which in many cases are charged to the miners and deducted 
 at the end of the month from their gross wages. The neces- 
 sity of making this deduction, when not already made on 
 the return, has involved a great deal of extra labor which 
 could not well be avoided, since the average net annual 
 income of the miner available to the support of himself and 
 his family is clearly one of the important items which the 
 census should seek to ascertain with accuracy. The meaning 
 of the columns relating to capital has been sufficiently ex- 
 plained in the former bulletins on anthracite coal, iron ore, 
 and copper, and need not be repeated here. An endeavor 
 was made to ascertain the number of acres of coal lands 
 that were worked out. This has not been altogether success- 
 ful, as in many cases it was impossible to answer the ques- 
 tion with approximate accuracy. In other cases the upper 
 seam only was worked out over a certain area, leaving one 
 or more below untouched. The sum of the three columns 
 of acres is huf a very small fraction of the total available coal 
 land. The sum in question, 466,743 acres, represents the land 
 attached to working collieries, and averages $133 an acre. 
 The fields are so extensive that only those lands which have 
 special advantages of position, ease of mining, or quality 
 of product, have any present industrial value as mineral 
 lands. 
 
 Table No. 2 contains the averages drawn from the data in 
 Table No. 1. In estimating the day's work, yearly earnings, 
 etc., two boys were considered the equivalent, in producing 
 and earning capacity, of one man. The year is taken to 
 consist of twelve months of twenty-five working days each. 
 A very considerable amount of time has been lost in 
 strikes — about twenty days each for every man employed. 
 Although it is not our province to discuss the question of 
 strikes, it may not be out of place to call attention to some 
 of the concomitant facts. First, in the bituminous coal 
 industry there has been an absolute fall in the value per ton 
 of the product, whereas iron ore and anthracite coal have 
 not fallen in price since the last census more than gold has, 
 or rather after falling they recovered, which bituminous coal 
 did not. Second, in spite of the time lost in strikes, the 
 average yearly earnings of a man engaged in mining bitu- 
 minous coal are very nearly the same as those of the iron- 
 ore miner, being in the one $328.72 and in the other $316.08, 
 for the country at large. Third, that in the bituminous 
 industry the percentage of the value of the product obtained 
 by labor has increased nearly 1 per cent., labor obtaining in 
 1880 62.3 per cent, of the selling price of the product, against 
 G1.6 per cent, in 1870. In other words, the cost of labor per 
 ton has not fallen in quite so large a ratio as the value per 
 ton, though both have fallen more than gold did in the same 
 interval (see Table No. 3). This very small difierence repre- 
 sents a gain in favor of labor of one-third of a million of 
 
 dollars annually, and is the more striking from the feet that 
 wages in the census of 1880 represent net wages" whereas 
 it is possible that the return in the census of 1870, which is 
 used as a basis of comparison, may include a part of what 
 was necessarily expended by the men for mine supplies. 
 
 Tabic 3. — Production of Bituminous Coal daring tHe Census 
 Year ending June 1, J 880, compared -tvitll tile one ending 
 June 1, 1870, for Mines east of the 100th Herldian. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Gain in number of mines 122,0 
 
 Gain in yearly tonnage 136.0 
 
 Gain in value of yeariy product . . . , 44.0 
 
 Gain in value of material UBed . , . 133.0 
 
 Gain in amount paid aa wages . 46.0 
 
 Gain in total number of employes ... .... 133,0 
 
 Gain in total capital ... ... .... 64.0 
 
 Decreaiio in value per ton . . . . 39.0 
 
 Gain in tons raised per man per year . 3.0 
 
 Decrease in yearly earnings . . . 36.0 
 
 Decrease in coat of labor per ton . ... 38.0 
 
 Decrease in cost of material per ton . . 1.0 
 
 Gain in per cent, of value of the product paid for labor ... . . 0.7 
 
 Gain in per cent, of value of the product paid for materials 3.9 
 
 Decrease in per cent, of value of the product left for royalty, interest, 
 
 profits, etc ... 4.6 
 
 Gain in number of counties reporting . ... 68.0 
 
 Note. — The above table illustrates the fact that the fall in price per ton of 
 bituminous coal during the last decade has borne less heavily on labor than on 
 capital. Compare 3, 6, 8, 11 and 1'3. 
 
 As between the bituminous coal industry and the iron-ore 
 mining industry, the former takes from the earth a product 
 worth 140 per cent, more, employs 205 per cent, more hands, 
 and 46 per cent, more capital, uses 161 per cent, more mate- 
 rials, and pays 222 per cent, more wages. These figures are 
 based on the returns from regular mines and would be 
 slightly less if the " irregular product" — more important in 
 the case of coal than in that of iron — were taken into con- 
 sideration. The increase in the tonnage of the iron ore 
 mined during the census year is 136 per cent., and in that of 
 bituminous coal 135 per cent., as compared with the census 
 year of 1870 ; showing that these two great divisions of 
 mineral production keep pace with each other, and are 
 advancing nearly twice as fast as the production of anthra- 
 cite. The reason of this is the obvious one, that in the 
 former cases new fields are laid under contribution, from 
 time to time, as railways are extended, whereas anthracite 
 is restricted to its original area. 
 
 Iron is mined in 135 counties and bituminous coal in 314 
 counties east of the 100th meridian. 
 
 Table Xo. 4. — lilst of Counties of the Arst class east of the 
 100th Meridian, i. e., producing^ o-^er 500,000 tons per 
 annum. 
 
 County. 
 
 State. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Total 
 
 
 22,167,909 
 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 Do 
 
 Maryland . . 
 Pennsylvania . 
 
 Do. ... 
 Illinois ... . , 
 Pennsylvania . .... 
 
 Ohio ... 
 
 Indiana . 
 Ohio . . 
 Illinois . . 
 
 Do. . . . 
 Pennsylvania . 
 Ohio .... 
 Pennsylvania . . ■ ■ 
 
 Allegheny . . 
 
 "Westmoreland .... 
 
 Payette. ... . . 
 
 AUegbenv 
 
 Cleariiold'. 
 
 Washin^n 
 
 Saint Clair. . 
 
 Tioga . . ... 
 
 Perry . . 
 
 flay . . . . 
 
 Trumbull . .... 
 
 LaSalle. . . 
 
 Will . . 
 
 Cambria 
 
 Columbiana ... 
 Bradford . 
 
 4,426,871 
 
 3,297,390 
 
 2,318,728 
 
 2,198,073 
 
 1,722,711 
 
 968,042 
 
 960,265 
 
 938,517 
 
 913,974 
 
 772,423 
 
 722,265 
 
 714,787 
 
 611,.311 
 
 590,075 
 
 616,602 
 
 500,965 
 
 The sixteen counties of the first class furnish 54.9 per 
 cent., and the twenty counties of the second class 16.6 per 
 cent, of the entire product, leaving 28.5 per cent, to be 
 spread over the remaining two hundred and seventy-eight 
 counties. Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, produces over^ 
 one-tenth, and the three leading counties of Pennsylvania 
 nearly one-quarter of the entire product. 
 
 The three leading states, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Ohio, 
 produce nearly three-fourths, and the eight leading states 
 nearly nineteen-twentiotlis of the entire product. 
 
1006 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Table No. 5. — List of Counties of tHe second class east of tlie 
 lUOtb Olerldlan, i. e., producing over ^50,000 tons per 
 annum. * 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 6. 
 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 9. 
 10. 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 M. 
 16. 
 16. 
 17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 20. 
 
 Omnty. 
 
 Mercer . . 
 Sangamon. 
 Bourbon. . 
 Belmont . 
 Kanawha . 
 
 Fayette . . 
 Stark. . . 
 Fulton . 
 Hocking. . 
 Jefferson . . 
 Athens . , . 
 Blair. . 
 Clarion . 
 Somerset . . 
 Mahaska . 
 Elk . . . 
 Peoria . 
 Madison. . 
 Tuscarawas . 
 
 Slate. 
 
 Pennsylvania. . 
 Illinois . . . . 
 Kansas . . . . 
 
 Ohio 
 
 "West Virginia . 
 
 Ohio 
 
 "West Virginia . 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Illinois . . . 
 Ohio. . . . 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 PennsylTania , 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Iowa .... 
 Pennsylvania. . 
 Illinois . . . 
 
 Do. . . 
 Ohio 
 
 486,276 
 427,616 
 403,619 
 399,747 
 368,901 
 359,225 
 368,678 
 347,820 
 331,449 
 331,170 
 324,070 
 810,750 
 293,834 
 286,846 
 286,466 
 283,836 
 281,161 
 273,640 
 272,927 
 255,496 
 
 The United States, exclusive of the territories, has gained 
 134.4 per cent, in weight of product. The average price per 
 ton has fallen from *1.99 to $1.22 during the past decade, 
 the price for 1870 being, of course, reckoned in paper dollars. 
 
 The production of coal in England was, in 1855, 64,661,401 
 tons, and in 1877 it was 136,179,968 tons, and in 1880 it was 
 146,818,122 tons. The English ton, however, is 2,240 pounds. 
 The number of collieries in 1880 was, in England, 3,880, 
 and in the United States, 8,264. 
 
 Tables 10 and 11 illustrate, in a general way, the propo- 
 sition that large mining establishments, which employ power 
 and labor-saving machinery, can pay higher wages and give 
 more steady employment to labor than smaller ones. The 
 mines chosen in the two states were typical ones of their 
 classes. The large amount spent for "materials" by Class 
 2 is, to a great extent, made up of feed, etc., for the animala 
 used. 
 
 As a general rule, too, the mines employing capital most 
 liberally can afford to yield to labor a larger share of the 
 value of the product, since their profits depend on the 
 volume of their business. They also employ more skilled 
 labor. It is believed that these features run through the 
 entire mining industry. 
 
 Table No. 6.— RANK OF THE STATES EAST OP THE 100th MERIDIAN PRODUCING BITUMINOUS COAL IN 
 
 THE CENSUS YEAR ENDING JUNE 1, 1880. 
 
 Name of State. 
 
 Pennsylvania . 
 Illinois . . 
 Ohio .... 
 Maryland . . 
 
 West Virginia. 
 Indiana. . 
 Iowa 
 
 Product of regular 
 niineft^ tons of 
 2,000 pounds. 
 
 18,004,988 
 0,089,514 
 6,932, 8.W 
 2,227,844 
 1,792, .570 
 1,449,400 
 1,442,333 
 
 Percentage of total 
 product. 
 
 44.666 
 15.107 
 14.718 
 6.527 
 4.447 
 3.690 
 3.578 
 
 Name of State. 
 
 Kentucky . 
 
 Kansas , . , , 
 
 Missouri . . . 
 
 Tennessee . , . 
 
 Alabama. . . . 
 
 Georgia . . . . 
 Michigan . 
 
 Virginia . . , . 
 
 Arkansas . . 
 
 Nebraska . . . 
 North Carolina 
 
 Product of regular 
 ruiiieXj tons of 
 2,000 pounds. 
 
 035,857 
 
 703,297 
 
 643,990 
 
 494,491 
 
 322,934 
 
 154,644 
 
 100,800 
 
 40,620 
 
 14,778 
 
 200 
 
 260 
 
 Percentxig6 of total 
 product. 
 
 2.322 
 1.894 
 1.349 
 1.227 
 0.801 
 0.383 
 0.260 
 O.IOO 
 0.036 
 
 Table No. 7.— THE RANK OF STATES EAST OF THE 100th MERIDIAN AS TTIODUCBRS OF BITUMINOUS COAL, 
 ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1870, WAS AS FOLLOWS: 
 
 1. Pennsylvania . 
 
 2. Illinois .... 
 
 3. Ohio . . . 
 
 4. Maryland . 
 
 5. Missouri . . 
 
 6. West Virginia . 
 
 7. Indiana , . . 
 
 Per cent, gain in 1880. 
 131 
 1.32 
 135 
 
 13* 
 194 
 231 
 
 8. Iowa . . . 
 
 9. Kentucky 
 10. Tennessee 
 n. Virginia . 
 
 12. Kansas . 
 
 13. Michigan . 
 
 14. Alabama 
 
 Per cent, gain in 1 
 
 ... 447 
 
 . . 521 
 
 . . 270 
 
 34* 
 
 . . 2,217 
 
 . . 268 
 
 2,836 
 
 Table No. 8.— PRODUCTION OP BITUMINOUS COAL AND LIGNITE "WEST OP THE 100th MERIDIAN. 
 
 Same of Stale 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Montana Territory 
 
 Oregon . ■ 
 
 Washington Territory . 
 Wyoming Territory . 
 
 « 2 
 
 2,001,697 
 
 239,027 
 638,233 
 1,344 
 43,205 
 161.708 
 917,280 
 
 
 1,477,730 
 
 236,960 
 462,747 
 224 
 43,205 
 146,015 
 589,695 
 
 * Loss. 
 
 
 ¥3,272,470 
 
 003,013 
 
 1,041,350 
 
 80O 
 
 97,810 
 
 389,046 
 
 1,080,451 
 
 $189,431 
 
 44,013 
 114,576 
 
 8,567 
 
 21,203 
 
 1,072 
 
 .S 
 
 81,828,401 
 
 821,950 
 714,714 
 400 
 68,017 
 143,754 
 579,566 
 
 93 
 301 
 
 13 
 65 
 149 
 
 650 
 
 1,1.33 
 
 3 
 
 63 
 
 103 
 
 860 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 761 
 1,434 
 
 76 
 
 108 
 
 1,009 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OE THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1007 
 
 Table Wo. 8. 
 
 -PRODUCTION OF BITITMINOirS COAL., Ktc, 
 
 WEST 
 
 OP THE 100th MERIDIAN Continued. 
 
 Name of Stale. 
 
 
 i 
 
 ■fe- 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 r 
 
 OS 
 
 i 
 
 \ 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 a, 
 
 jj 
 
 n 
 I 
 
 1' 
 
 ■3 
 
 
 
 fe- 
 
 
 ■1 
 
 
 i, 
 
 •s> 
 
 ■& 
 
 
 V 
 
 V 
 
 r 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 -< 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 ■^ 
 
 1, 
 
 J 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 Total 
 
 
 2,699 
 
 ■706 
 
 136 
 
 42 
 
 1,447 
 
 $265,650 
 
 826,702 
 
 $360,931 
 
 $1,251,342 
 
 $6,858,300 
 
 $8,479,573 
 
 33,001 
 
 California 
 
 478 
 
 265 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 295 
 
 77,600 
 
 2,367 
 
 107,931 
 
 635,500 
 
 696,000 
 
 1,239,431 
 
 2,960 
 
 Colorado 
 
 
 1,133 
 
 227 
 
 74 
 
 20 
 
 749 
 
 100,650 
 
 11,673 
 
 162,660 
 
 328,600 
 
 5,448,100 
 
 8,939,260 
 
 23,592 
 
 Montana Territory 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 260 
 
 6,100 
 
 7,200 
 
 12,660 
 
 
 Oregon 
 
 
 62 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 60 
 
 13,000 
 
 1,928 
 
 6,500 
 
 115,023 
 
 105,000 
 
 226,623 
 
 2,649 
 
 Washington Territory . 
 
 
 IIH 
 
 44 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 116 
 
 16,600 
 
 10,698 
 
 16,700 
 
 87,721 
 
 232,000 
 
 335,421 
 
 2,000 
 
 ■Wyoming T iritory . . 
 
 
 830 
 
 150 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 228 
 
 69,000 
 
 36 
 
 77,000 
 
 179,398 
 
 470,000 
 
 726,398 
 
 1,200 
 
 Table No. 9.— PRODUCTION OF COAli IN THE UNITED STATES FOR THE TEAR ENDING JUNE 1, 1880, BY 
 
 COAl—FIELDS (TONS OP !«,000 FOUNDS). 
 
 Bituminous ; 
 
 Appalacliian field . . , 
 
 Weetem field (Illinois, Indiana, etc.) . . . 
 
 Michigan field 
 
 Triafisic iield (Virginia and North Carolina) . 
 
 Iowa and Kansas field 
 
 All fields west of the 100th meridian . 
 
 29,842,240 
 8,721,101 
 100,800 
 46,246 
 2,232,458 
 1,477,736 
 
 Total bituminous 
 
 Total bituminous brought forward 
 Anthiiujite : Pennsylvania . . . 
 
 Hhode Island . . , . . 
 
 28,640,819 
 6,176 
 
 42,420,581 
 
 Total anthracite . 
 
 * Grand total coal production of the L'nited States for the j'ear end- 
 ing June 1, 1880 . . 
 
 * Note. 
 
 . 42,420,581 Grand total of hands employed in coal mining . 
 
 -2,817 tons of coal returned from Virginia as anthracite included in above as bituminous. 
 
 28,646,995 
 
 71,067,576 
 170,585 
 
 Table No. 10.— 18T OHIO COAl. MINES CI.ASSIFIED ON BASIS OF POWER USED. 
 
 Class 1. Mines using no power to supplement manual labor. Class 3. Mines using boiler-power not exceeding 100 hotse-power. 
 
 Class 2. Mines using the power of animals only. Class 4. Mines using boiler-power exceeding 100 hoise-power. 
 
 187 
 
 s 
 
 
 ? 
 
 .1-1 
 
 
 
 "&■ 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 !^ 
 
 1 
 
 7,776,040 
 
 231,865 
 3,830,000 
 3,031,000 
 
 682,175 
 
 4,702,001 
 
 99.875 
 
 2,068,000 
 
 2,129,421 
 
 404,908 
 
 $6,062,258 
 
 167.218 
 2,337,000 
 2,939,625 
 
 628,415 
 
 25,145 
 
 23,600 
 27,300 
 44,990 
 
 $1 30 
 
 1 57 
 1 13 
 1 38 
 1 55 
 
 SO 88 
 
 93 
 
 77 
 
 96 
 
 1 03 
 
 I- 
 1" 
 
 216.4 
 267.5 
 223.6 
 228.0 
 
 
 $330 70 
 
 267 OO 
 
 339 no 
 
 318 00 
 388 00 
 
 $1 44 
 
 1 23 
 1 27 
 1 42 
 1 70 
 
 te,s 
 
 133 
 J. 64 
 1.49 
 1.66 
 
 7.2 
 38.2 
 146.0 
 
 3,264 
 
 715 
 
 3,082 
 
 ■3 S 
 ■te. 
 
 69.1 
 68.42 
 69.34 
 66.13 
 
 ■IS 
 
 7.47 
 16.67 
 10.86 
 10.95 
 
 ■a I" 
 
 -If 
 
 
 1^" 
 
 1 I .S 
 
 p I TO .5 -^ 
 
 33.43 
 15.01 
 10.80 
 22.92 
 
 
 29.0 
 
 53.6 
 
 82.2 
 
 119.0 
 
 Table No. 11.— 100 INDIANA COAI. MINES CI.ASSIFIED ON THE BASIS OF THE POWER USED. 
 
 Class 1, Mines using no power to supplement manual labor. Class 3. Mines using boiler-power not exceeding 100 horse-power. 
 
 Class 4. Mines using boiler-power exceeding 100 horse-power. 
 
 Class 2. Mines using the power of animals only. 
 
 42,808 
 
 430,082 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 314,820 
 
 1,420,324 
 
 9 807 
 
 143,657 
 
 1,144,243 
 
 122,617 
 
 $2,120,035 
 
 13,291 
 
 214,924 
 
 1,706,166 
 
 186,704 
 
 817 
 
 3,991 
 
 23,839 
 
 30,664 
 
 $149 
 
 1 36 
 1 60 
 1 49 
 1 52 
 
 $0 97 
 
 87 
 
 84 
 
 97 
 
 1 11 
 
 "fe-S 
 
 102 
 166 
 230 
 246 
 
 $337 00 
 
 202 00 
 244 00 
 346 00 
 404 00 
 
 8152 
 
 1 25 
 1 67 
 1 60 
 1 04 
 
 a.s 
 If 
 
 1.56 
 
 1.44 
 1.88 
 1.55 
 1.48 
 
 2.4 
 44.0 
 163.0 
 
 1,663 
 692 
 200 
 
 "&•■£. 
 
 5.0 
 
 14.6 
 
 7.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 31.0 
 
 29.4 
 28.0 
 20.0 
 
 
 TO.S-S 
 tai- 
 
 ;a O to 
 
 3.5 
 ,13.7 
 67.0 
 84.0 
 
1008 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 THE PRODUCTION OF ANTHRACITE COAL. 
 
 MR. PUMPELLY'S report to the Superintendent 
 of the Census has the following : The following 
 exhibit shows the number of establishments, 
 capacity, product, capital, number of employes, 
 and various details under the above head of the " anthracite 
 industry" during the Census year beginning June 1, 1879, 
 and ending June 1, 1880. The net ton of 2,000 pounds is 
 invariably used in this Bulletin. 
 
 Kstablisllments. 
 
 Number of counties reporting number . . 8 
 
 Total number of separate establishments or collieries . . do. . 273 
 
 Average yearly capacity of production . . . tons 149,3i8 
 
 Average actual product in Census year do. 100,488 
 
 Per cent, of maximum capacity attained . per cent . . 67.28 
 
 Average capital, leased, employed and invested dollaxB . 550,041 
 
 Average number of hands employed . . . . number . , 250 
 
 Average amount of wages paid yearly . . dollars . . 79.414 
 
 Average value of materials used yearly do. 23,588 
 
 Averjige number of acres of coal land attached to a colliery acres . . 004 
 
 Katio of Viilue of yearly product to total capital . . per cent . 2G.86 
 
 Number of company stores . . . ... number . . GO 
 
 Two new counties appear as anthracite producers in the 
 present Census, viz., Lackawanna, which was set off from 
 Luzerne, and Susquehanna, in the southern border of which 
 one small colliery was opened. 
 
 The number of working collieries has increased during 
 the past ten years from 225 to 273, or 21i" per cent. The 
 average horse-power used has, however, increased from 216 
 to 375, or 73.6 per cent. The average number of hands has 
 increased from 235 to 250, or only 6.4 per cent., while the 
 average product per colliery has increased from 69,320 tons 
 to 100,488 tons, a gain of 45 per cent. 
 
 The " capacity of production " referred to means the 
 probable output, with present force and appliances, under a 
 steady demand. The correctness of the figure is presumable 
 from the fact that it bears about the same relation to the 
 actual output that the time run does to the whole year. 
 
 Production. 
 
 Merchantable product for year ending June 1, 1880 . . . tons 27,433,329 
 
 Value of product delivered for transportation dollars . 40,331,981 
 
 Average value of same per ton delivered for transportation, do. . 1 47 
 
 Amount of coal washed . ... tons . 1,396,906 
 
 Ratio of value of product to capital . . . . . per cent . 26.86 
 
 Ratio of actual output to capacity . . do. . 67.28 
 
 Tons raised yearly per man . . . . . tons . 454.4 
 
 Tons raised daily per man . . do . 2.14 
 
 Maximum yearly capacity of all collieries reported . . , do. 40,772,000 
 
 The value of the product is taken at the point where the 
 labor we consider ceases to act on it. 
 
 A comparison of the Census returns of 1880 and 1870 
 shows that the output has increased from 15,596,257 tons to 
 27,433,329 tons, or 11,837,072 tons, a gain of 75.9 per cent., 
 while the gross value has increased only 5.25 per cent. But 
 the value of the product of 1870 was reckoned in paper 
 dollars. The apparent fall of the average price per ton is 
 from $2.49 to $1.47, or $1.02, about 41 per cent., consider- 
 ably more than the change of standard would account for. 
 The number of tons raised yearly per man — laborers, miners, 
 and administrative force being considered together, and two 
 boys being reckoned the equivalent of one man for this pur- 
 pose — has, however, risen from 320.5 tons to 454.4, a gain 
 of 41.8 per cent. A portion of this increased output per 
 man is due to more steady labor, a portion to the increased 
 use of steam-power, and a small portion, doubtless, to the 
 increased efficiency of the indiviclual when unharassed by 
 declining prices. In addition to the merchantable product 
 given above, 83 collieries, with a production of 20,295,529 
 tons, report the production of 7,060,447 tons of impure coal 
 and dust, under the head of " culm." This would be 34.8 
 per cent, of their product, and would indicate a total pro- 
 duction of 9,382,086 tons of unmerchantable coal during 
 Census year, to which no value is assigned. The best pro- 
 curable estimate would show that 908,250 tons of this was 
 used in making steam at the mines. A small unascertained 
 portion is used in locomotives on the coal roads, and another 
 unascertained portion is sold, for use under boilers, at the 
 cost of transportation. A slight increase in the price of 
 coal, or improvements in the manner of using it, may give 
 this product a commercial value hereafter. At present it 
 is ignored, in accordance with the usage of the trade. 
 
 Kmployes, wages, and time. 
 
 Number of men above ground ... • number . 
 
 Number of men below ground ^| *• 
 
 Number of boys above ground under 16 years of age . . do. 
 
 Number of boys below ground under 16 years of age . 
 
 do. 
 
 15,664 
 36,952 
 11,921 
 3,802 
 
 Total employes 
 
 Of whom miners number 
 
 Of whom laborers number 
 
 Of whom administrative force number 
 
 do. 
 
 08,239 
 
 19,585 
 
 47,410 
 
 ■■,244 
 
 Giving the same total . 
 
 68,239 
 
 per cent . 
 
 28.7 
 
 . do. . 
 
 23 
 
 . do. 
 
 69.5 
 
 do. 
 
 1.8 
 
 . dollars . 
 
 21,680,120 
 
 do. 
 
 369 08 
 
 do. . 
 
 42 33 
 
 . months . 
 
 612,204 
 
 do. 
 
 207,090 
 
 do. . 
 
 6,234 
 
 per cent . 
 
 70.69 
 
 . do. . 
 
 28.60 
 
 do. 
 
 0.72 
 
 Per cent, of total force, miners 
 
 Per cent, of total force, boys 
 
 Per cent, of total force, laborers and boys . . 
 Per cent, of total force, administrative force . . 
 
 Total wages paid 
 
 Average yearly income of man . 
 
 Average monthly income of man 
 
 Total number of months workiil by one man • 
 Total number of months of enforced idkness 
 Total number of months lost in strikes 
 
 Per cent, of year worked 
 
 Per cent, of year lost by stoppages, etc . 
 Per cent, of year lost in strikes ... 
 
 As compared with the force reported in the Census year 
 of 1870, the total number has increased from 52,882 to 
 68,239, or 29.04 per cent. A large proportion of this increase, 
 however, consists of boys who are employed as slate-pickers 
 in the breaker buildings, the number of boys employed in 
 the mine proper remaining almost stationary, and the num- 
 ber of boys employed above ground having increased from 
 9,051 to 15,723, a gain of 73.7 per cent. The number of 
 adtilt employes has increased 20 per cent. only. The term 
 "administrative" force includes foremen, mine superinten- 
 dents, engineers, clerks, etc., employed about the collieries. 
 The total amount returned as wages is $1,218,029 less than 
 in the Census year of 1870, a decrease of 5.62 per cent. 
 Wages, however, in the present returns, are of course reck- 
 oned on a specie basis, but, further,^ they signify net wages, 
 i.e., the pay-roll, less the sum the miner is obliged to expend 
 for powder, oil, etc. The average yearly income of adult 
 employes has contracted only 24.17 per cent., which is less 
 than its purchasing power has increased during the same 
 interval, without taking into account the allowance neces- 
 sary to reduce the wages of 1870 to net wages. The average 
 monthly income is found by dividing the total sum paid for 
 wages by the total number of months worked by one man. 
 The sum thus arrived at is slightly too high, since miners 
 who work by the ton can find employment during part of 
 the time the colliery is idle. For the same reason the per 
 cent, of the year lost by enforced idleness is slightly too 
 high, and represents in reality the time shipments were sus- 
 pended. The small proportion of the time lost in strikes, 
 less than one per cent., and the short average duration of 
 the strikes reported, show that the relations between man- 
 agers and miners are more harmonious than they were ten 
 years ago. The per cent, of the value of the product paid 
 for labor is now 53.75 against 59.75 ten yeai-s ago. This 
 loss of advantage to labor is, however, apparent, not real, 
 and is caused by the reduction of gross wages to net wages 
 referred to above. For the same reason the cost of supplies 
 or material consumed, measured in unit of the product, is 
 increased from 9.34 per cent, to 15.96 per cent. The pro- 
 portion of the value of the product retained for royalty, 
 interest, taxes, profits, etc., is now 30.29 per cent., and was 
 30.91 per cent, in 1870 
 
 Consumption ot Material. 
 
 Linear feet of unsawod lumber . . ... 
 
 Value of same .... 
 
 Feet sawed lumber (board measure) 
 
 Value of same . . . . 
 
 Value of explosives 
 
 Total value of all materials consumed 
 
 Cost of explosives per ton merchantiibln product cents 
 
 Cost of all material per ton merchantable product . 
 
 The materials used embrace explosives, oil, caudles, lum- 
 ber and timber, rails, repairs of all kinds, horee and mule 
 feed, etc., but not fuel, to which no value is given. A con- 
 siderable portion of the material is paid for oy the miners, 
 on the sale of which the companies controlling the 69 sup- 
 ply stores referred to doubtless malce a profit. The capital 
 invested in these stores is, however, not included, the mining 
 industry alone being considered. 
 
 feet . 
 
 . 30,405,668 
 
 dollars . 
 
 . 830,743 
 
 foot 
 
 . 39,606,647 
 
 doUars . 
 
 . 644,109 
 
 do. 
 
 1,5,W,080 
 
 do. . 
 
 . 6,439,437 
 
 cents 
 
 6.7 
 
 do. 
 
 23.5 
 
THE MINES, MINEKS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1009 
 
 Capital. 
 
 acrca 
 
 164,862 
 
 dollars . . 102,614,844 
 
 do. 
 
 622 47 
 
 nnmbcr . , 
 
 14,050,031 
 
 doUurB 
 
 3,260,308 
 
 do. . . 
 
 a 17 
 
 number 
 
 400 
 
 dollars 
 
 48,802 
 
 niimbor . 
 
 7,718 
 
 dollars 
 
 848,005 
 
 . number . 
 
 1,004 
 
 dollars 
 
 3,708,300 
 
 
 102,522 
 
 . number . . 
 
 4,007 
 
 dollars . 
 
 2,332,040 
 
 
 80,408 
 
 number . . 
 
 80 
 
 . dollars 
 
 243,258 
 
 . number . 
 
 30,384 
 
 dollars 
 
 1,043,600 
 
 miles . . 
 
 1,085 
 
 do. 
 
 258 
 
 . dollars . . 
 
 13,295,415 
 
 830,814,309 
 
 
 7,731,0o:j 
 
 
 102,014,844 
 
 
 . . . . 150,101,100 
 
 . . per cent . 
 
 08.34 
 
 . do. 
 
 20.51 
 
 do. 
 
 6.15 
 
 do. . 
 
 20.80 
 
 Number of acres of coal lands reported 
 
 Mineral value of sajne, whether owned or leased 
 
 Average value per acre 
 
 Number of tons on wliich royalty reported . 
 Amount paid on above for royalty . . . 
 Averiige amount paid per ton for royalty 
 Number of Itorses . ... 
 
 Value of horses . ". 
 Number of mules . . . 
 
 Value of mules . . 
 
 Number of steam cngineit . 
 Value of engines . . . 
 Horse-power of engines 
 Number of boiiors . ... 
 
 Value of boilers .... 
 Horse-power of boilers . . . 
 Number of mine locomotives 
 
 Value . .- 
 
 Number of pit cars . 
 
 Value 
 
 Miles of railroad track underground , 
 
 Miles of luilroad track outside 
 
 Total value of machinery, including engines and boilers 
 
 Value of plant 
 
 Value of working capital . 
 Value of real estate 
 
 Total capital, real and personal . . 
 
 Batio of real estate to total capital . 
 
 Batio of plant to total capital 
 
 Ratio of working capital to total capital .... 
 Batio of value, of annual product to total capital . 
 
 The very large increase in capital reported ($150,161,196) 
 over that returned in 1870 ($50,807,285) would seem to call 
 for some explanation and justification, the more so that the 
 capital in 1870 was reckoned in paper dollars. The increase is 
 over 195 per cent. The ' ' plant" covers machinery, tracks, cara, 
 buildings, animals, shafts and dead work, and is the sum of 
 the several items, and has been kept rather under than above 
 its true value. The largest part of the increase of capital is 
 due to the fact that we have included in our returns the 
 coal lands not owned by the mining companies, but worked 
 on a royalty. Mineral lands are clearly a part of the capital 
 of the mining industry, whether owned or leased or mort- 
 gaged. It has been our aim, however, to include only those 
 coal lands which are in immediate connection with a work- 
 ing colliery, and either producing, or, in view of the increas- 
 ing demand for this fuel, about to produce. The average 
 number of acres reported (604) is not too large in this view; 
 for tho area reported would make a block only 16.12 miles 
 square, which the 1,085 miles of underground track would 
 pierce with 07 parallel gangways from side to side, less than 
 i of a mile apart. 53,385 acres of non-producing coal lands, 
 valued at $25,702,500, held in reserve by the great compa- 
 nies, were thrown out altogether as not an element of pro- 
 ductive wealth at present. Of the 164,852 acres retained, 
 13,852 were returned as worked over. As all but a very 
 small portion of this still contains the lower seams, it has 
 all been considered as producing coal lands. The total 
 amount so retained constitutes about 56.68 per cent, of the 
 entire area of anthracite lands, estimated at 290,791 acres. 
 The average value per acre, $622.47, is much less than the 
 ordinary market value of such lands, so far as such prop- 
 erty — valuable only in blocks — can be said to have a market 
 value. The price has usually been fixed by the owners. 
 Again, taking the average royalty of 23.17 cents per ton, 
 Avhich is reported as paid on 51^ per cent, of the product 
 returned, and extending it to the entire output, the anthra- 
 cite real estate would receive a yearly income of $6,356,302. 
 We are justified in this extension, since the lands owned are 
 returned as equally valuable with those worked on a royalty. 
 Assuming the careful estimate of the total yield of the entire 
 field made by Mr. Joseph B. Harris, based on the very con- 
 servative view that only 27 per cent, of the total content 
 could be mined and marketed, the production of anthracite 
 after 1889 would reach 4,009,640,000 net tons before exhaus- 
 tion. This would indicate that the output of the Census 
 year could be maintained for 146 years. As the lands which 
 we have assumed as a necessary part of the industrial capital 
 to be reported constitute 56.68 per cent, of the entire area, 
 they could continue to earn their present income for 83 
 years. If we assume that one-tentli of the income would 
 be absorbed in taxes and expenses, the present value of the 
 above income for 83 years would be, with interest at 5 per 
 cent., in round numbers, 8112,420,000, and with interest at 
 
 6* per cent, $102,7S0,000. - - - 
 
 64 
 
 The above valuations would be materially increased if we 
 took into account the probable anticipations of the payments 
 of the income of the later years of the term, owing to the 
 increasing demand and the probable reduction of taxes as 
 the estate approached exhaustion. Finally, the term 
 "working capital" means the sum of money necessarily 
 advanced for wages and supplies during the interval between 
 production and the receipt of returns from sales. It is 
 represented in actual property by the unsold product on 
 hand and in transit. Tne estimate of this amount was made 
 in nearly all of the collieries by the operators. As the sum 
 is equal to but little more than the value of the product for 
 sixty days, it is evidently not exaggerated. On the whole, 
 the actual value of the anthracite property, as an element 
 of productive wealth, is underestimated, notwithstanding 
 the great apparent rise since 1870. These considerations 
 will apply also to our forthcoming reports on the other min- 
 eral industries, in all of which the production has nearly 
 doubled, while the capital has increased in a much greater 
 ratio. 
 
 Production \ty Counties. 
 
 Luzerne . . 
 Lackawanna . . 
 Schuylkill . . . 
 Northumberland . 
 Carbon 
 Dauphin 
 Columbia . 
 Susquehanna . . 
 
 10,700,3001 
 5,048,305 J 
 
 1880. 
 
 10,414,725 
 
 7,323,174 
 
 2.099,000 
 
 808,373 
 
 450,343 
 
 318, .573 
 
 18,173 
 
 1870. Per cent. 
 
 9,619,298 Gain, 72.4 
 
 3,800,144 Gain, 80.7 
 
 1,001,200 Gain, 109.7 
 
 403,384 Gain, 10(1.4 
 
 411,365 Gain, 0.5 
 
 400,876 Loss, 20.63 
 
 Total. 27,433,329 15,690,267 Gain, 75.0 
 
 Relative prodnction of tlic Connties, 1S80. 
 
 Luzerne, per cent, of total output . . \ , ... 39.25 
 
 Schuylkill, per cent, of total output . 2U.69 
 
 Lackawanna, per cent, of total output . . 20. .'>0 
 
 Northumberland, per cent, of total output . 7.'J5 
 
 Carbon, per cent, of total output . . . . 2.05 
 
 Dauphin, per cent, of total output . . . l.(>4 
 
 Columbia, per cent, of total output . . l.K) 
 
 Susquehanna, per cent, of total output . . . . 0.07 
 
 Careful estimates prove that about 50,000 tons, in addition 
 to the above, is raised in a small way for local consumption. 
 As this does not enter into the merchantable product, nor 
 affect the relations of the industry in any way, it h^s been 
 omitted. The anthracite producers are entitled to the. 
 acknowledgments of the Department for the pains they 
 have taken in filling the Census schedules, a task which, in, 
 case of the larger companies, involved a great deal of labor. 
 The Census Report of 1870 covered some coal from other 
 fields now classed as semi-anthracite. This amount was 
 deducted before the general comparisons were made. 
 
 THE PRODUCTION OF COPPER EAST OF 
 THE lOOth MERIDIAN. 
 
 MR. PUMPELLY'S Report to the Superintendent 
 of the Census has the following : 
 All the ratios between production, wages, capi- 
 tal, number of mines, etc., are so controlled by 
 the figures from one exceptionally productive mine in 
 Houghton County, Michigan, that no general results can be 
 drawn from the subjoined table which would not be greatly 
 changed, and in some cases reversed, if that mine were ex- 
 cluded from the consideration. 
 
 The product is reduced to metallic copper, and its value 
 is given at the mines or at the point where it is no longer 
 operated on by the labor reported in the schedule. In some 
 cases both smelting and mining are carried on by the same 
 establishment ; in others the process of reduction is partly 
 carried on at or near the mine, and the product, in the form 
 of a "matte," is shipped to a distance; in others the ores of 
 copper are mined and shipped without any preliminary 
 reduction. Thus the industry, strictly speaking, embraces 
 both mining and manufacturing, in a manner which renders 
 it impossible to separate them. The only common unit to 
 which these various products can be reduced is evidently 
 metallic copper, the value of which, per pound, to the mine 
 producing varies greatly, depending upon the expense and 
 labor that must be laid out upon it before it reaches the gen- 
 eral market in the form of merchantable metal. Under all 
 
1010 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 these various conditions the average price realized by the 
 mines has been 17.46 cents per pound. The small product of 
 the Ducktown mines, of Tennessee, has been excluded, as it 
 did not reach the market at all — the reduction furnaces hav- 
 ing been closed — and the amount of copper in the ore re- 
 ported, probably about 70 tons, being unascertained. The 
 Lake Superior region furnishes 90.48 per cent, of the entire 
 product given in the table. The production of $6,919 worth 
 of native silver is also reported from this region. The 
 60,655,140 pounds of copper would make a cube whose 
 edge would be 45} feet, or, in other words, would cover 25.75 
 acres with a sheet one inch thick. 
 
 The product is reported as e(jualing 80.49 per cent, of the 
 " maximum capacity " of the mines. " Maximum capacity," 
 however, represents in many cases rather the hopes and 
 wishes of the manager than the probabilities of the mine. 
 From • the nature of the case it has a somewhat different 
 significance from what it has when applied to iron or coal 
 mining, where production from time to time outruns 
 demand. The copper mines are worked continuously during 
 the year, and for the industry as a whole " maxjmum capa- 
 city" may be taken to mean rather the capacity of the 
 machinery than of the mines. We have regarded the return 
 of "capital employed" as one of the most important we had 
 to make, second only to those of wages and labor. It is 
 divided into three items of a totally diiferent nature. 
 
 First: The "working capital," which was intended to 
 represent the amount necessary to run the mine between 
 production and sales. As returned it equals nearly four 
 months' expenses, and may be assumed as a low average. 
 
 Second: The "plant" means all machinery, improve- 
 ments, personal property (not supplies), animals, fixtures, 
 etc. An estimate of this should be based on actual values, 
 not cost, and should exclude all antiquated and idle ma- 
 chinery. The footing in the table is believed to be a very 
 conservative estimate. 
 
 Third: "Real estate,'' as explained in the bulletins of 
 iron ore and anthracite coal, means the mine itself as a 
 mineral producer. Its value depends, of course, on the 
 average price of copper during a term of years, and on the 
 reasonable expectation of productive life for each mine. 
 
 These three items make up all the substantial actual 
 property of the industry, as it existed June 1, 1880,, and an 
 estimate of them for each mine is much more likely to 
 approximate to true values than a mere return of share 
 capital. The market value of the share capital has been. 
 
 of course, used as a check whenever it was based on a.bility 
 to pay dividends. The values sought for were not original 
 cost nor selling price, but actual worth based on ability to 
 contribute to the net industrial income of the country at 
 large. Our aim has been to avoid overestimates, and to 
 adopt a system that could be used for future comparisons 
 for the purpose of illustrating industrial progress. The 
 " working capital " of the establishments is represented by- 
 copper on hand at the mines or in transit to market. If it 
 is carried after that point by the mines, they assume the 
 character of metal brokers. We wish to restrict our report 
 to industrial production simply. Therefore we assume that 
 what we call " working capital," or that portion which is 
 not invested, but advanced out of production, is not jeopard- 
 ized except by the inconsiderable fluctuations of price 
 during a period of four months. Consequently it may be 
 assumed that it need not earn more than five per cent, per 
 annum. The "plant," however, like all mining plant, 
 should earn not less than thirty per cent, to make good 
 average expenditures for deterioration and replacement. 
 After deducting the proper sum for these two permanent 
 charges the net income of the copper mines of the eastern 
 district is very nearly two and three-quarter millions of dol- 
 lars. Assuming this to be paid annually, and taking five 
 per cent, as the ruling rate of interest, the value of the re; 1 
 estate as reported would indicate an average expectation of 
 a productive life of twelve years for the copper mines on it — 
 an expectation which it is believed that their average con- 
 dition justifies. The fact that the income Ib paid at intervals 
 shorter than one year shortens the expectation considerably ;- 
 but, without taking this into consideration, it is evident that 
 we have not fallen into the error of exaggerating the present 
 value of the copper-producing property. It requires, as will 
 be seen by the tables, 62J cents capital to produce a pound 
 of copper per year. Of this 77.4 per cent, represents tlie 
 land (though the original outlay may have been much less), 
 18.39 per cent, of it is invested in the " plant," and 4.21 per 
 cent, of it is required for wages advanced and supplies car- 
 ried in the ordinary course of business. These averages 
 apply to the industry as a whole, and, of course, vary greatly 
 for difierent mines. Labor obtains about one-third of the 
 value of the product, and nearly one-sixth is expended in 
 the necessary mine supplies. The value of the yearly pro- 
 duct is nearly 28 per cent, of the total capital. The produc- 
 tion of the extreme Western States and Territories (Colo- 
 rado, Arizona, Idaho, and California) is not included in the 
 
 PKODUCTION OF COPPER EAST OP THE 100th MERIDIAN. 
 
 EUUe. 
 
 ]ytichigan . 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 
 Houghton . . 
 Keweenaw . , 
 Isle lloyale 
 Ontonagon . . 
 
 Total of Michigan 
 
 Mnine 
 
 Maryland . 
 Missouri .... 
 North Carolina 
 Pennsylvania . 
 Tennessee , , . 
 Vermont . . . 
 Wisconsin . . . 
 
 Hancoclc 
 Carroll . . . 
 St. Genevieve 
 Ashe .... 
 Montgomery . 
 Polk . . 
 Orange 
 Iowa 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 41,6M,.391 
 
 7,315,603 
 
 80,000 
 
 1,903,766 
 
 10, 60,993,760 
 
 672,000 
 
 164,040 
 
 3,920,000 
 
 4,080,000 
 
 218,400 
 
 205,170 
 
 2,047,894 
 
 31,007 
 
 62,932,871 
 
 794,650 
 
 70,605 
 
 2,000 
 
 62,715 
 
 938,060 
 
 12,600 
 
 82 
 
 1,051 
 
 24,680 
 
 289 
 
 204 
 
 28,037 
 
 02 
 
 ■3 
 
 a 
 
 40,389,212 
 
 3,704 723 
 
 80,000 
 
 1,596,327 
 
 43,830,262 
 
 l,l!l06,955 
 
 83,080 
 
 104,040 
 
 230,717 
 
 1,640,000 
 
 40,461 
 
 2,647,894 
 18,087 
 
 50,665,140 
 
 ?7,068,11J 
 622,826 
 14,000 
 274,205 
 
 7,079,232 
 
 10,126 
 1,200 
 
 25,730 
 
 350,000 
 
 6(630 
 
 469,495 
 1,549 
 
 8,842,861 
 
 ,5 
 .S-a 
 
 If 
 
 $1,040,062 
 
 150,632 
 
 2,500 
 
 22,022 
 
 1,215,206 
 
 9,767 
 100 
 
 2,102 
 
 81,000 
 
 363 
 
 102,497 
 84 
 
 1,301,101 
 
 I 
 
 $1,971,451 
 302,361 
 
 0,221 
 88,207 
 
 2,461,243 
 
 36,600 
 
 1,600 
 
 14,069 
 
 l.)3,631 
 
 1,400 
 
 1,200 
 
 285,231 
 
 ■ 339 
 
 2,915,103 
 
 1,840 
 306 
 
 17 
 74 
 
 1,191 
 447 
 
 ' 170 
 
 2,237 '2,012 
 I 
 
 33 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 200 
 
 4 
 
 37 
 
 4 
 
 21 
 
 103 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 272 
 
 2 
 
 2,755 ,3,069 
 
 105 
 27 
 1 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 25 
 
 37 
 i 
 
 202 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1011 
 
 PRODUCTION OP COPPER EAST OP THE lOOtli AIERIDIAN 
 
 .—Continued. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 SlaU, 
 
 CowUjf, 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 .1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 I 
 
 X 
 
 
 ■? 
 
 ^ 
 
 „. 
 
 * 
 
 ■S 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ■fe" 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "■ 
 
 
 !«, 
 
 ° 
 
 s 
 
 .s 
 
 J 
 
 g 
 
 g 
 
 E 
 
 
 ,2 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 g 
 
 S, 
 
 ■3 
 
 ■S 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ ■ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Houghton 
 
 20 
 
 3 960 
 
 1 513 
 
 2 291 
 
 156 
 
 84 
 
 76 
 
 9 318 
 
 $2,059,000 
 
 445,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 61,000 
 
 8159,084 
 60,413 
 
 Do 
 
 
 780 
 18 
 240 
 
 392 
 10 
 161 
 
 309 
 6 
 76 
 
 19 
 2 
 
 
 43 
 2 
 9 
 
 28 
 2 
 7 
 
 2,975 
 80 
 342 
 
 Do 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 Do 
 
 
 
 4,575 
 
 
 icliigan 
 
 Hancock 
 
 
 
 Total of 31 
 
 20 
 
 5,004 
 
 2,076 
 
 2,742 
 
 18G 
 
 136 
 
 113 
 
 12,715 
 
 2,660,000 
 
 224,097 
 
 Maino . . 
 
 22 
 
 97 
 
 45 
 
 47 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 215 
 
 10,000 
 
 2,388 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Carroll .... 
 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 50 
 
 7,000 
 
 180 
 
 
 St. Genevieve. . . 
 Ashe. '. . . 
 
 
 41 
 
 328 
 
 31 
 103 
 
 •9 
 219 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 643 
 
 North Carolina . .... 
 
 47 
 
 11 
 
 275 
 
 34,000 
 
 3,100 
 
 Pennsylvania ... 
 
 Montgomery ... 
 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1,000 
 
 16 
 
 Tennessee ... 
 
 Polk.. . . 
 Orange. . . 
 
 48 
 
 4 
 619 
 
 4 
 
 201 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '20,800 
 
 
 Vermont ... , . 
 
 406 
 
 12 
 
 57 
 
 3 
 
 230 
 
 5,832 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Iowa. ... ... 
 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 Total 
 
 90 
 
 6,116 
 
 2,469 
 
 3,436 
 
 211 
 
 261 
 
 134 
 
 13,491 
 
 2,632,800 
 
 236,316 
 
 
 
 i 
 ■^ 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f ■ 
 
 
 g> 
 
 
 » 
 
 
 State. 
 
 County. 
 
 j 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 ■5" 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 "&• 
 
 "S. 
 
 > 
 
 ? 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 ■s- 
 
 ■s- 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 i? 
 
 iS 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 ;S 
 
 jU 
 
 g . 
 
 Michigan .... 
 
 Houghton . . 
 
 68,957 
 
 8230,322 
 
 727,722 
 
 $108,172 
 
 2,988,000 
 
 848,896 
 
 $786,000 
 
 $4,387,000 
 
 $23,447,000 
 
 $28,619,000 
 
 Dj 
 
 Keweenaw. . 
 
 32,400 
 
 81,200 
 
 717,720 
 
 6,803 
 
 323,244 
 
 4,244 
 
 196,O."0 
 
 803,165 
 
 350,825 
 
 1,349,010 
 
 Do 
 
 
 
 
 2,000 
 5,803 
 
 100 
 200 
 
 1,500 
 02,000 
 
 21 
 
 672 
 
 4,000 
 38,000 
 
 6,000 
 79,000 
 
 10,000 
 308,541 
 
 20,000 
 
 Do. . 
 
 Ontonagon . 
 ligan . 
 Hancock. . 
 
 3,600 
 
 9,250 
 
 426,541 
 
 Total of Mic 
 
 104,967 
 
 326,772 
 
 1,453,248 
 
 115,334 
 
 3,374,744 
 
 63,733 
 
 1,022,000 
 
 6,275,185 
 
 24,116,300 
 
 30,413,561 
 
 Maino . . 
 
 1,085 
 
 3,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 25 
 
 1,000 
 
 100 
 
 4,500 
 
 71,600 
 
 28,000 
 
 104,000 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Carroll 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 800 
 
 30,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 35,800 
 
 Missouri 
 
 St. Genevieve . . . 
 
 
 
 3,200 
 
 32 
 
 4,000 
 
 56 
 
 4,160 
 
 6,050 
 
 6,280 
 
 16,480 
 
 North Carolina . . 
 
 Asho ... 
 
 8,400 
 
 21,000 
 
 66,000 
 
 600 
 
 
 
 201,000 
 
 316,000 
 
 76,000 
 
 593,000 
 
 Pennsylvania . , . 
 
 Montgomery . 
 
 
 
 6,000 
 
 126 
 
 4,200 
 
 42 
 
 600 
 
 1,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 8,600 
 
 
 Polk . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 100,000 
 
 40 
 125,000 
 
 275,000 
 
 140 
 
 Vunnont . 
 
 Orange 
 
 4,700 
 
 15,275 
 
 
 
 500,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 Wisconsin . . 
 
 Iowa 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 50 
 
 4,600 
 
 4,625 
 
 Total . 
 
 119,142 
 
 366,047 
 
 1,631,448 
 
 116,116 
 
 3,883,944 
 
 59,931 
 
 1,333,126 
 
 5,824,826 
 
 24,517,140 
 
 31,676,096 
 
 table. As far as received the production is 6,244,702 pounds, 
 or 12..33 per cent, of the amount produced in the eastern 
 district. Details from them will be given in the final report. 
 Eleven new mines in Maine, Maryland, and New Hamp- 
 shire report the employment of 162 men, the payment of 
 $31,995 for wages, and $7,650 for material consumed. They 
 have spent $658,470 for machinery, dead work, etc., but 
 have produced no ingot copper. The returns from this class 
 of mines ate excluded from the tables, which are restricted 
 to establishments of productive industry. The acknowledg- 
 
 ments of the office are due to the agents of the copper 
 mines throughout the country, especially to those of the 
 Lake Superior district, for the promptness and courtesy with 
 which they responded to our calls for information. Had 
 the Census year corresponded with the business year ter- 
 minating January 1, the questions could have been answered 
 with much greater ease. The preceding tables contain the 
 principal statistics of the copper-ir.ining industry of the 
 United States in the region east of the 100th meridian 
 during the Census year ending June 1, 1880. 
 
1012 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AKD MmiNG INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 F 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF CHEMICALS. 
 
 EOM the report of W. L. Eowland we obtain the 
 
 following figures of the Census year : 
 
 Total number of establi 
 
 ESTABLISHMENTS. 
 
 bmenta in the TJ. S. . . 
 
 CAPITAL. 
 
 ng buildings and machinery 
 
 HANDS . 
 
 es IG years and above 
 
 below 16 years . . 
 ales lu years and above . . . 
 
 below 15 years .... 
 
 WAGES. 
 
 
 1,349 
 
 Capital invested, incliid 
 
 . 585,486,856 
 
 Average number of ma 
 Do. do 
 
 Average number of fem 
 1)0. do. 
 
 26,751 
 
 1,207 
 
 1,493 
 
 49 
 
 Total . 
 
 29,500 
 
 
 . 511.820,728 
 
 
 
 MATEBTATJ. 
 
 
 
 
 273,161 
 
 
 
 
 
 8968,432 
 
 
 
 
 
 326,398 
 
 Do. do. 
 
 
 
 . . value 
 
 $924,791 
 
 
 
 
 . . value 
 
 875,451,058 
 
 Total value of al 
 
 materials 
 
 
 
 . ©77,344,281 
 
 
 
 
 
 PRODirCTS. 
 
 Anilino colors . . pounds 80,518 
 
 Bo. do. . value 5107,202 
 
 Anthracenes . . . pounds 344,114 
 
 Do. . . . . value $00,242 
 
 Sulphate of Ammonia . pounds 16,675,088 
 
 Do. do. . . . . value $010,486 
 
 Alum . . pounds 30,217,725 
 
 Do . valuo $803,106 
 
 Borax . . . ■ . pounds 3,002,443 
 
 Do. . . . . valuo $277,233 
 
 Bromine . . . pounds 404,000 
 
 Do. . . . . . . valuo $114,752 
 
 Phosphorus . pounds 56,202 
 
 Do. . . ... valuo $20,271 
 
 Castor oil . gallons 803,802 
 
 Do. . . . . vahio $700,741 
 
 Ste-iric acid candles . . . pounds 18,363,006 
 
 Do. do. . . . valuo $2,281,000 
 
 Oleic acid soap . . . pounds 33,058.411 
 
 Do. do. . . . valuo $1,707,000 
 
 Other hard soaps . . .pounds 378,743,027 
 
 Do. dj. . valuo 113,200,350 
 
 Soft soap . . . pounds 34,404,100 
 
 Do. . . value $358,280 
 
 Glycerine . . pounds 7,117,825 
 
 Do. . . . valuo $901,477 
 
 Nitroglycerine . . . pounds 3,030,722 
 
 Do. . . . . valuo 81,830,417 
 
 Manufactured manures . . . tons 727,453 
 
 Do. do. . . . value $10,921,400 
 
 Dry colors . . pounds 67,482,415 
 
 Do. ... valuo 84,086,821 
 
 White lead . . . . . . pounds 123,477,800 
 
 Do. . . . ... . value $8,770,009 
 
 Other salts of lead . . . . pounds 11,375,406 
 
 Do. do. ... . . valuo $758,080 
 
 Ground barytes . . tons 19,165 
 
 Do. do. valuo $371,829 
 
 Zinc oxide.. . . . . . .pounds 20,121,701 
 
 Do. . . . . valuo $700,337 
 
 Acetate of lime . . pounds 6,593,009 
 
 Do. do. . valuo $150,892 
 
 Potash and pearlash . ... pounds 4,571,671 
 
 Do. do. value $232,043 
 
 Soda . pounds 40,259,938 
 
 Do. . . . . value $800,600 
 
 Sulphur . . . . pounds 1,200,000 
 
 Do. . ... valuo $21,000 
 
 Sulphuric acid . . . . .pounds 308,705,432 
 
 Do. do. value $3,001,876 
 
 Glucose . . pounds 161,830,435 
 
 Do. . . . value $4,651,212 
 
 AU other products value $44,046,831 
 
 'iataX value of all products $117 407 054 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL. 
 
 THE Tenth Census work, under this head, was in- 
 trusted to Mr. James M. Swank, than whom there 
 was none better to handle it. Concerning the 
 method of his work, he says, in his report to the 
 Superintendent: The products of the blast furnaces em- 
 brace pig iron and a few furnace castings; the products 
 of the rolling mills embrace all rolled iron,' and such 
 other finished iron articles, whether rolled or hammered, 
 as a few of the mills make a specialty of producii;ig; 
 theproducts of the steel works embrace steel of every, de- 
 scription in its crude state, and finished steel in various 
 forms, whether rolled or hammered; the products of the 
 forges embrace blooms made from pig and scrap iron ; and 
 the products of the bloomaries embrace blooms and ham- 
 mered bar iron made directly from the ore. The branches 
 of the American iron and steel industries which are here 
 enumerated may for convenience be termed the productive 
 branches of those industries, in contradistinction to such 
 reproductive branches as foundries, machine shops, anchor 
 works, chain works, pipe and tube works, nut and bolt 
 works, wire works, tack factories, etc., the collection of the 
 statistics of which branches has been made directly by the 
 Census Ofiice. The productive branches above mentioned 
 include all which produce iron and steel from raw materials, 
 and, with the exception of iron foundries, all which produce 
 iron and steel by what may be termed secondary operations. 
 Iron foundries could not be embraced in the scope of this 
 report because of their close association with machine shops 
 and other reproductive branches, which are so extensive and 
 varied and so infinitely ramified that no statistical machin- 
 ery other than that of the Census Office itself could justly 
 deal with tliem. 
 
 Some assurance may be desired by the public that the 
 statistics which relate to the blast furnaces, rolling mills, 
 steel works, and forges and bloomaries have been faithfully 
 collected. An explanation of the manner in which these 
 statistics have been obtained will probably satisfy this 
 natural desire. The American Iron and Steel Association 
 has for years compiled at stated intervals a complete direc- 
 tory to all the iron and steel works above mentioned, em- 
 bodying a detailed description of each establishment, the 
 character of its product, the name and post-office address of 
 its owners, its exact geographical location, etc. Through 
 the co-operation of the Association with the plans of the 
 Census Office a careftilly revised edition of this directory 
 was prepared and published a few weeks previous to the 
 beginning of the Census year. Special eflorts were made 
 after the publication of this edition to ascertain any changes 
 or additions that might have taken place while it was pass- 
 ing through the press, and this supplementary work was 
 continued until exact information concerning the location, 
 ownership, and character of every establishment existing at 
 the beginning of the Census year is believed to have been 
 obtained. With a complete list in mv possession of all the 
 iron and steel works in the country whose statistics I had 
 been requested to collect, the next step was to send, on the 
 1st day of June, 1880, to each company or firm or indi- 
 vidual owning or controlling these works a schedule of 
 interrogatories which had been prepared by the Census 
 Office, accompanied by a circular letter over my signature 
 requesting prompt answers, and explaining the nature and 
 importance of the inquiry which the Census Office had 
 authorized to be made. Special stress was placed in this 
 letter upon the provision in the law authorizing the Tenth 
 Census which specified that any information contained in 
 the schedules returned to the officers of the census should 
 not be disclosed, except to superior officere. The result has 
 beeri very gratifying. A large majority of the schedules were 
 filled up and returned with reasonable promptness. Others 
 were clolayed from various causes, so that a second circular 
 letter and protracted correspondence and personal visits be- 
 came necessary. In extreme cases the aid of the telegraph 
 was called into requisition. In only one case were coercive 
 measures resorted to, and in only one other case was desired 
 information withheld. That full answei-s to all interrog- 
 atories were not insisted upon in this latter case is due solely 
 to lack of time the final refusal to furnish information 
 having been made too late to admit of further delay in clos- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1013 
 
 ing the statistical tables for the country. With this single 
 exception full replies to all the interrogatoiies were made 
 by the owners, lessees or trustees of all the. iron and steel 
 works covered by the schedules, and the results were sum- 
 marized and presented to the country in my preliminary 
 report, dated April 1, 1881, exactly ten months after the 
 inquiry was undertaken. 
 
 In the final report which is herewith submitted the sta- 
 tistics which have been obtained are arranged by states, by 
 counties, by processes, and by products. The tables have 
 been made as compact as was consistent with clearness, 
 comprehensiveness, the gratiiication of the natural pride oi 
 locality, and the object of all true statistical research, which 
 is the accumulation of useful information. To assist those 
 who have not the time or the inclination to study the com- 
 plete tables, the leading facts established by them have 
 been presented a second time in condensed tables and in 
 connection with explanatory comments. After presenting 
 the results of the census of 1880 I have deemed it best, 
 after careful deliberation, and with your approval, to sup- 
 plement them with a brief historical sketch of the manufac- 
 ture of iron and steel in all ages, and with a more elaborate 
 sketch of the growth of the iron and steel industries of our 
 own country from the earliest settlements to the present 
 time. A knowledge of the world's iron history must be 
 regarded as forming part of a useful education in an age 
 like this, which is si proverbially identified with a liberal 
 use of iron and steel ; while a knowledge of our own iron 
 history is essential to a full understanding of the causes of 
 our national development. To know what the iron and 
 steel industries have accomplished for our own country is a 
 patriotic duty ; to know something of their small begin- 
 nings and of the humble circumstances which surrounded 
 the pioneers who planted them and their sons who struggled 
 to sustain and extend them is a matter of patriotic pride. 
 The greatness and the prominence of our country to-day in 
 the production of iron and steel in large quantities and by 
 
 Finislied steel products. 
 
 Bessemer 
 sled. 
 
 Open-Jtenrth 
 steel. 
 
 ll.^iI3. . . 
 
 Ears . 
 
 EocU . 
 
 Shapes . . . 
 
 Slieots .... . ... 
 
 Pl.itcs .... 
 
 Other forniii ... 
 
 Tons. 
 
 741,476 
 
 70,710 
 
 49,004 
 
 657 
 
 ' 1,476 
 20,615 
 
 Tons. 
 
 9,105 
 43,206 
 
 1,134 
 80 
 
 1,700 
 11,034 
 20,794 
 
 Total finished products . . . 
 
 889,890 
 
 93,143 
 
 scientific methods could in no other way be so satisfactorily 
 exhibited as by affording the opportunity for a comparison 
 of these magnificent results with the primitive methods and 
 the meager results which characterized these industries in 
 " good old colony times," or even a few years ago. 
 
 The item of muck bar is an unavoidable duplication, as 
 it reappears as finished iron to be counted a second time. 
 
 In the Bessemer and open-hearth steel works of the coun- 
 try the preceding finished products were produced in 1880. 
 
 In the Census year 1870 the production of Bessemer steel 
 finished products was only 19,403 tons. No open-hearth steel 
 products are reported for that year. The quantity of Bes- 
 semer steel ingots produced in the Census year 1880 was 
 985,208 tons, and the quantity of open-hearth steel ingots 
 was 84,302 tons. No statistics of ingots produced in 1870 
 are available for comparison. It will be observed that a 
 larger quantity of finished open-hearth steel products was 
 produced in 1880 than of ingots, which is probably due to 
 the carrying over of ingots from the preceding year and to 
 importations during the Census year. The Bessemer steel 
 ingots produced in 1880 are in excess of the finished pro- 
 ducts. The increase in the production of crucible steel 
 finished products in the decade between 1870 and 1880 was 
 from 28,069 tons to 70,319 tons, or 151 per cent. The pro- 
 duction of crucible steel ingots in 1880 was 76,201 tons. 
 The production of blister steel and of steel made by other 
 minor processes was only 2,285 tons in 1870 and 4,956 tons 
 in 1880, and it is not likely to increase in the future. There 
 was a decrease of 35 per cent, in the production of the 
 forges and bloomaries from 1870 to 1880, or from 110,808 
 tons to 72,557 tons. This decrease is due to the general 
 substitution of improved processes for the forges and bloom- 
 aries of our earlier iron history, and it would have been 
 much greater in the decade mentioned if the improved 
 American bloomary, so largely used in Northern New York, 
 had not contributed its large product to swell the production 
 of 1880. 
 
 Bdw Materials. — The following table presents the quanti- 
 ties of mineral products used by the iron and steel works in 
 1880: 
 
 TTorlt. 
 
 Iron ore. 
 
 Limestone. 
 
 AnIhrociU 
 Coal. 
 
 BituminmLs 
 Coal. 
 
 Coie. 
 
 Blast furnaces .... 
 
 EoUing mills 
 
 IJcgscmGr and opcn- 
 
 hciirth steel works 
 Crucible steel works . . 
 Forges and bloomaries 
 
 Tons. 
 
 7,256,684 
 303,959 
 
 7,327 
 2,128 
 70,010 
 
 Tone. 
 3,109,149 
 
 Tons. 
 
 2,615,182 
 626,120 
 
 140,468 
 
 40,392 
 
 340 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1,061,763 
 3,015,377 
 
 405,655 
 
 224,067 
 
 1,013 
 
 Tons. 
 
 2,128,265 
 14,834 
 
 104,980 
 22,701 
 0,695 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 7.709,703 
 
 3,169,149 
 
 3,322,498 
 
 5,659,055 
 
 2,277,555 
 
 Of the iron ore and limestone given in the table, at least 
 one-half was purchased from independent producers ; of the 
 anthracite coal, nearly all was so purchased ; and of the 
 bituminous coal and coke, fully two-thirds was so pur- 
 chased. 
 
 The following table shows the quantities of all other lead- 
 ing raw materials used in 1880 in the manufacture of iron 
 and steel : 
 
 Woris. 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 g 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 f 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Blastfurnaces 
 
 Eushels. 
 
 53,909,828 
 
 2,569,756 
 
 37,552 
 
 00,594 
 
 13,014,361 
 
 Tons. 
 354,048. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1,574,693 
 960,003 
 17,226 
 38,113 
 
 708,534 
 
 422,282 
 
 13,911 
 
 1,962 
 
 8,933 
 
 14,147 
 16,053 
 13,211 
 
 46,861 
 
 250 
 
 2,400 
 
 63,754 
 
 Bessemer and open-hearth steel works , ... 
 Crucible steel works 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total . . 
 
 09,592,091 
 
 354,048 
 
 2,596,635 
 
 708,534 
 
 447,078 
 
 43,411 
 
 49,511 
 
 53,7.54 
 
1014 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Worhs. 
 
 1 
 
 1_ 
 
 It 
 
 l| 
 
 CI 
 
 Open-hearth ingots 
 and blooms pur- 
 chased. 
 
 1 
 f 
 
 1 
 
 •a 
 § 
 
 il 
 
 i 
 
 c 
 
 
 Tens. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tans. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bessemer and opeu-heartli steel worlu . 
 
 86,138 
 
 85,653 
 
 42,939 
 
 17,713 
 
 90,646 
 19,726 
 
 
 
 
 10,410 
 
 16,496 
 
 
 Forges and bloomaries . . . 
 
 
 
 
 853 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 80,138 
 
 85,653 
 
 42,939 
 
 17,713 
 
 110,-371 
 
 10,410 
 
 16,496 
 
 853 
 
 The large consumption of old iron rails and scrap iron in 
 tie rolling mills in 1880 was abnormal, and was the result 
 mainly of the great scarcity of pig iron which followed the 
 sudden revival of a demand for iron and steel products in 
 the summer of 1879. 
 
 JRelative Hank in Production of the Slates. — -The relative 
 rank in production of all the states and territories which 
 produced iron or iron and steel in 1870 and in 1880 is given 
 in the following table : 
 
 States, 
 
 Production. 
 1880. 
 
 Rank. 
 
 States. 
 
 Production, 
 1870. 
 
 JJani. 
 
 - 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 Pennsylvania . 
 
 3,610,668 
 
 1 
 
 Pennsylvania . 
 
 1,836,808 
 
 1 
 
 Ohio .... 
 
 930,141 
 
 2 
 
 Ohio .... 
 
 449,768 
 
 2 
 
 New York . : 
 
 698,300 
 
 3 
 
 New York . , 
 
 448,257 
 
 3 
 
 Illinois ... 
 
 417,907 
 
 4 
 
 New Jersey . 
 
 115,262 
 
 4 
 
 New Jersey . 
 
 243,860 
 
 6 
 
 Maryland . 
 
 95,424 
 
 6 
 
 Wisconsin . . 
 
 178,935 
 
 6 
 
 Missouri 
 
 94,890 
 
 6 
 
 West Virginia. 
 
 147,487 
 
 7 
 
 Kentucky . 
 
 86,732 
 
 7 
 
 Michigan . . 
 
 142,716 
 
 8 
 
 Michigan ... . . . , 
 
 80,679 
 
 8 
 
 Blasaacliusetts 
 
 141,321 
 
 9 
 
 Massachusetts . .... 
 
 86,146 
 
 9 
 
 iRIissouri 
 
 125,758 
 
 10 
 
 West Virginia . 
 
 72,337 
 
 10 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 123, 7ol 
 
 11 
 
 Indiana . 
 
 64,148 
 
 11 
 
 Maryland . 
 
 110,934 
 
 12 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 42,234 
 
 12 
 
 Indiana . . 
 
 96,117 
 
 13 
 
 Virginia . . . . 
 
 37,836 
 
 13 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 77,100 
 
 14 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 34,306 
 
 14 
 
 Alabama , . 
 
 02,980 
 
 15 
 
 Illinois ... 
 
 25,761 
 
 15* 
 
 Virginia ... 
 
 66,722 
 
 16 
 
 Connecticut . 
 
 26,305 
 
 16 
 
 Connecticut . 
 
 38,061 
 
 17 
 
 Maine 
 
 17,138 
 
 17 
 
 Georgia . 
 
 35,162 
 
 18 
 
 Georgia . . 
 
 9,634 
 
 18 
 
 Delaware . 
 
 33,918 
 
 19 
 
 Delaware . . . . . 
 
 8,307 
 
 19 
 
 2Cansa3 . . 
 
 19,065 
 
 20 
 
 Alabama . . . . . 
 
 7,060 
 
 20 
 
 California 
 
 14,000 
 
 21 
 
 Rhode Island . .... 
 
 1 4,416 
 
 21 
 
 Maine 
 
 10,866 
 
 22 
 
 California . . 
 
 3,000 
 
 23 
 
 Wyoming Tcrritoi-y 
 
 9,790 
 
 23 
 
 North Carolina . 
 
 1,801 
 
 23 
 
 Rliode Island . 
 
 8,134 
 
 24 
 
 Vermont .... . . 
 
 1,526 
 
 24 
 
 New Hampshire . . 
 
 -7,978 
 
 25 
 
 South Carolina . ... 
 
 443 
 
 25 
 
 Vermont . 
 
 0,620 
 
 26 
 
 Kansas . ... 
 
 
 
 Colorado ... 
 
 4,500 
 
 27 
 
 Wyoming Territory 
 
 
 
 Oregon 
 
 3,200 
 
 28 
 
 New Hampshire . 
 
 
 
 Nebraslca .... 
 
 2, OOP 
 
 29 
 
 Colorado 
 
 
 
 Texas. .... 
 
 1,400 
 
 30 
 
 Oregon . 
 
 
 
 North Carolina . . 
 
 4,39 
 
 31 
 
 Nebraska . 
 
 
 
 District of Columbia . 
 
 204 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 
 South "Carolina ... 
 
 
 
 District of Columbia ... 
 
 Total . . ... 
 
 
 
 Total. . . . . . . 
 
 7,266,140 
 
 
 3,666,216 
 
 
 Twelve states made over 100,000 tons each in 1880. 
 Pennsylvania, which for more than a hundred years has 
 been the leading iron-producing state in the Union; made 
 in 1870 a fraction over 50 per cent, of the total produtt, and 
 in 1880 it made a fraction under 50 per cent. At both 
 periods its prominence in the production of iron and steel 
 was virtually the same. From 1870 to 1880 it increased its 
 production 97 per cent., or from 1,836,808 tons to 3,616,068 
 tons. Ohio was the second state in prominence in 1870, 
 and it held the same rank in 1880. In the former year it 
 produced 449,768 tons, and in 1880 it produced 930,141 tons, 
 an increase of 107 per cent. Tho third state in prominence 
 in 1870 was New York, and it maintained this rank in 1880, 
 but its growth fell far below that of its two sister states 
 above mentioned. It 1870 it produced 448,257 tons, and in 
 1880 it produced 598,300 tons, an increase of 33 per cent. 
 New Jersey was fourth in rank in 1870, producing 115,262 
 tons, but it was fifth in 1880, although in that year it pro- 
 duced 243,860 tons, an increase of 112 per cent. The fourth 
 place in 1880 was taken by Illinois, which produced in 1870 
 only 25,761 tons, while in 1880 it produced 417,967 tons, 
 an increase of 1,522 per cent. — the most marvelous in the 
 history of the country. Maryland ranked fifth in 1870, pro- 
 
 ducing 95,424 tons in that year, while in 1880 it produced 
 only 110,934 tons, an increase of 16 per cent., causing it to 
 drop to the twelfth place. The sixth state in rank in 1870 
 was Missouri, with a production of 94,890 tons, which was 
 increased to 125,758 tons in 1880, or 33 per cent., giving it 
 the tenth place in that year. The seventh state in rank in 
 1870 was Kentucky, but it fell to the eleventh place in 1880 
 increasing its production from 86,732 tons to 123,751 tons,, 
 or 43 per cent. Michigan ranked eighth in 1870, and in 
 1880 Its rank was the same, its production increasing in the 
 ten years from 86,679 tons to 142,716 tons, or 65 per cent. 
 Massachusetts was ninth in rank ia 1870, and it held the 
 same rank in 1880, increasing its production from 86,146 
 tons to 141,321 tons, or 64 per cent. Of the New England 
 states, Massachusetts shows the greatest actual growth in 
 the ten years. West Virginia was tenth in the list in 1870 
 and seventh in 1880, increasing its production from 72,337 
 tons to 147,487 tons, or 104 per cent. Wisconsin was 
 twelfth in rank in 1870, but passed to the sixth place in 
 1880, increasing its production from 42,284 tons to 178,935 
 tons, or 324 per cent. This state ranks next to Illinois 
 among the western states. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1015 
 
 Of the states wMch made leas than 100,000 tons in 1880, 
 several gave promise in that year that they would soon reach 
 an annual production of at least this quantity. Indiana 
 narrowly escaped accomplishing this result, increasing its 
 production from 64,148 tons in 1870 to 96,117 tons in 1880, 
 or 50 per cent. In the ten years from 1870 to 1880 Ala- 
 bama increased from 7,060 tons to 62,986 tons, or 792 per 
 cent. Georgia increased from 9,634 tons to 85452 tons, or 
 265 per cent. Tennessee increased from 34,305 tons to 
 77,100 tons, or 125 per cent. Delaware increased from 8,307 
 tons to 33,918 tons, or 308 per cent. Virginia increased from 
 37,836 tons to 55,722 tons, or 47 per cent. All the states 
 which made iron or steel in 1870 increased their production 
 in 1880, except Maine, North Carolina, and South Carolina. 
 The greatest percentage of increase in the decade was in the 
 
 western states,' beginning with Ohio, and in the southern 
 states, beginning with Delaware, but the greatest actual 
 increase was in Pennsylvania. 
 
 Oeographical DUtribution of all PtoducU. — ^The whole 
 territory of the United States may be regarded as com- 
 prising four grand divisions — the eastern states, the southern 
 states, the western states and territories, and the Pacific 
 states and- territories. Assuming that the eastern states 
 comprise all of the states lying north of Delaware and 
 east of Ohio, that the southern states comprise all of the 
 late slaveholding states except Missouri, ana that the other 
 divisions require no explanation, we present the following 
 comparative statement of the development of our iron and 
 steel industries in each of the grand divisions in the census 
 year 1880. 
 
 Grand divisions. 
 
 Number of 
 establiehments. 
 
 CapiUdinvesled. 
 
 BancU 
 employed. 
 
 Wages paid. 
 
 Tons produced. 
 
 Value of aUpro- 
 ducls. 
 
 Eaatcm states 
 
 Southern states . ... 
 
 Western states and territories . 
 
 Pacific states and territories ... 
 
 650 
 
 218 
 
 224 
 
 7 
 
 8140,507,401 
 20,145,830 
 60,766,000 
 1,602,003 
 
 82,842 
 
 20,695 
 
 30,003 
 
 878 
 
 $34,301,000 
 
 0,201,344 
 
 14,642,687 
 
 311,104 
 
 4,071,808 
 
 040,163 
 
 1,012,080 
 
 31,10D 
 
 $102,000,010 
 26,363,261 
 70,933,08? 
 1,674,738 
 
 Total 'Cnitea States . 
 
 1,006 
 
 $230,071,884 
 
 140,078 
 
 C55,476,785 
 
 7,206,140 
 
 8290,557,085 
 
 In the decade between 1870 and 1880 the iron industry 
 was extended into many new states and territories. Twenty- 
 five states were engaged in the manufacture of iron or iron 
 and steel in 1870. Thirty states, the District of Columbia, 
 and Wyoming Territory made iron in 1880, and about the 
 half of these also made steel. South Carolina made iron in 
 I87O, but does not appear in the statistics for 1880. Its 
 total production in 1870 did not, however, aggregate 600 
 tons. The iron industry in this state has been practically 
 abandoned. Between 1870 and 1880 three states for the first 
 time engaged in the manufacture of iron, namely, Colorado, 
 Kansas, and Nebraska ; also two territories, namely, Utah 
 and Wyoming. Utah did not, however, make any iron in 
 1880. It made a small quantity in' each of the years 1874, 
 1875, and 1876, and will make a larger quantity in the near 
 future. (Since the close of the Census year 1880 Washington 
 Territory has commenced to manufacture pig iron, as have 
 also California and Minnesota. California had previously, 
 since 1868, rolled iron at San Francisco.) Minnesota 
 appears in 1880 among iron-manufacturing states, but its 
 statistics relate only to the preparations that had been made 
 to embark in the business. New Hampshire made iron 
 many years ago, but it does not appear in the statistics for 
 1870; it re-appears in the tables for 1880. Oregon and 
 Texas each built a blast furnace in the decade preceding 
 the Census year 1870, but they did not make any iron in that 
 year ; they appear, however, in the statistics of production 
 for 1880. The District of Columbia once had a blast furnace 
 
 in operation, but in 1870 it had no iron industry whatever; 
 in 1880 the United States government owned and operated a 
 small rolling mill at the Washington navy-yard. The per- 
 centage of total production in 1880 was distributed as fol- 
 lows : Penn^lvania, 60 per cent. ; Ohio, 13 ; New York, 8 ; 
 Illinois, 6; New Jersey, 3; Wisconsin and West Virginia, 
 each over 2 per cent. ; Michigan and Massachusetts, each 
 nearly 2 per cent. ; Missouri, Kentucky, and Maryland, 
 each over 1 J per cent. ; Indiana over 1 per cent. ; Tennes- 
 see, about 1 per cent. ; and all other states and territories, an 
 aggregate of about 4 per cent. 
 
 Centres of Production. — ^In the following table is pre- 
 sented a view of the principal centres of production of the 
 iron and steel industries of the United States in the Cen- 
 sus year 1880. These centres are divided into two classes^ — " 
 the first comprising fifteen counties which produced over 
 100,000 tons of pig iron, blooms, and finished products, and 
 the second comprising seventeen counties which produced 
 over 60,000 and less than 100,000 tons. Six states are repre- 
 sented in the first class, and eight states in the second class. 
 
 The Centre of Total Production. — The geographical centre 
 of total production of the iron and steel industries of the 
 United fetates is the point at which equilibrium would 
 be established were the country taken as a plane sur- 
 face, itself without weight but capable of sustaining weight, 
 and loaded with its production of iron and steel, each ton 
 exerting pressure on the pivotal point directly proportioned 
 to its distance therefrom. The centre of production of iron 
 
 Counties of the fiest class, producino oveh 100,000 tons. 
 
 Omniies. 
 
 Counties of the second class, producing between 00,000 and 100,000 tons. 
 
 1. Allegheny county. Pa. . 
 
 2. Lehigh county, Pa . 
 
 3. Northampton county, Pa. . . 
 
 4. Cambria county. Pa. . 
 6. Cook county, 111. . . . 
 
 6. Dauphin county,, Pa. . . , 
 
 7. Mahoning county, Ohio . 
 
 8. Berks county, Pa 
 
 9. Cuyahoga County, Ohio 
 10; Mercer county, Pa. . . . 
 11, Keusselaer county, N. Y. . 
 12; Montgomery county. Pa. . 
 
 13. Lackawanna county, Pa. . . 
 
 14. Milwaukee county, Wis. 
 
 16. St. Louis county, Mo. . . . 
 
 848,140 
 
 1 
 
 324,875 
 
 2 
 
 322.882 
 
 3 
 
 200,140 
 
 4 
 
 248,470 
 
 5 
 
 223,076 
 
 6 
 
 219,957 
 
 7 
 
 213,580 
 
 S 
 
 -■210,354 
 
 9 
 
 182,861 
 
 10 
 
 177,907 
 
 11 
 
 168,028 
 
 12 
 
 151,273 
 
 13 
 
 128,101 
 
 14 
 
 102,044 
 
 16 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 17 
 
 Total (15 counties) 3,783,073 
 
 . Lawrence county, Pa. 
 , Lancaster county. Pa. 
 . Ohio county, Sv. Va. 
 . Will county. III. . . 
 . Montour county. Pa. ■ 
 . Chester county, Pa. . . . 
 . Warren county, N. J. 
 . TrBmbull county, Ohio 
 ; Lebanon county,- Pa. . 
 : Lawrence county, Ohio . 
 . Schuylkill county. Pa. 
 . Baltimore county, Md. , 
 : Blair county. Pa. .... 
 . Essex county, N. T.. . 
 . Philadelphia county. Pa. 
 . ..Wayne county, Mich. . . 
 . Dutchess county, K. Y. . 
 
 Total (17 conntiee) . . . 
 
 88,443 
 87,010 
 84,707 
 84,004 
 79,7C9 
 78,:i03 
 70,022 
 73,309 
 73,149 
 70,704 
 70,C09 
 C9,S44 
 68,030 
 60,725 
 65,983 
 03,548 
 61,037 
 
1016 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and steel in the United States in the Census year 1880 is 
 found to be at 40° 43' north latitude, and 79° 20' longitude 
 west from Greenwich. This point is in Pennsylvania, on the 
 boundary line between Armstrong and Indiana counties, 
 and about 12 miles northeast of Apollo and 1 2 miles west of 
 Indiana — Laufman & Co.'s rolling mill at Apollo being the 
 nearest iron works. At the centre of production thus 
 ascertained iron has never been manufactured in any form. 
 
 Values. — ^There is a striking disproportion between the 
 values of raw materials and of all products in 1870 and.1880 
 upon the one hand and the weight of all products la these 
 periods upon the other. The percentage of increase in the 
 values of raw materials and of all products in 1880 over 
 1870 was 41.13 and 43.12 respectively, while the weight of 
 all products increased 98.76 per cent. The explanation is 
 simple and is twofold. First, the Census year 1870 was a 
 year of high prices, caused partly by an average gold pre- 
 mium throughout the year of about 15 percent., and partly 
 by other well-known causes. Second, the Census year 1880 
 was not only a year of lower average prices than 1870, but 
 it may be said to have closed a decade of wonderful mechan- 
 ical and scientific development in the American iron and 
 steel industries, through which the production of large 
 masses of both crude and finished products was rendered 
 possible. 
 
 Geographical Distribution of Special Products. — The various 
 branches of our iron and steel industries have not been 
 equally domesticated in each of the four grand geograph- 
 ical divisions that have been mentioned, and much less 
 can it be said that they are equally at home in any one of 
 the iron-making states or territories. While this statement 
 may embody only a self-evident truth, the full significance 
 of the fact stated is deserving of some consideration. 
 A glance at the statistics for 1880 shows that New England 
 now makes but little pig iron, and that the South makes 
 considerable pig iron and scarcely any rolled iron; that the 
 West has embarked largely in the manufacture of steel by 
 the Bessemer process, while New England cannot boast a 
 single Bessemer establishment, but has preferred the open- 
 hearth process ; while New York makes most of the blooms 
 that are made from ore, and Pennsylvania most of the 
 blooms that are made from pig and scrap iron ; that Michi- 
 •gan is the leading producer of charcoal pig iron, and now 
 makes no other kind ; that West Virginia has developed a 
 remarkably active interest in the manufacture of cut nails ; 
 that only five states' make Bessemer steel, and two states, 
 Pennsylvania and New Jersey, make nearly all of our cru- 
 cible steel ; and that Pennsylvania has made a greater effort 
 than any other state to manufacture all kinds of iron and 
 steel. A glance, however, at leading geographical charac- 
 teristics is not sufficient to illustrate the wide diversity of the 
 influences which have affected the local development of our 
 iron and steel industries, and the following details are there- 
 fore added. 
 
 Fig Iron. — Of 3,781,021 tons of pig iron and direct cast- 
 ings produced in 1880 in 22 states, Pennsylvania made 
 1,930,311 tons, or 51 per cent. ; Ohio, 548,712 tons, or 15 per 
 cent. ; New York, 313,368 tons, or 8 per cent. ; New Jersey, 
 157,414 tons, or 4 per cent.; Michigan, 119,586 tons, and 
 Wisconsin, 118,282 tons — each over 3 per cent.; Illinois, 
 95,468 tons, and Missouri, 95,050 tjns — each nearly 3 per 
 cent. ; West Virginia, 80,050 tons, or over 2 per cent. ; Ala- 
 bama, 62,336 tons ; Maryland, 59,664 tons, and Kentucky, 
 58,108 tons — each over 1} per cent. ; Tennessee, 47,873 tons, 
 or over 1 per cent. ; and all other states and territories, each 
 less than 1 per cent. Anthracite pig iron was produced 
 in Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts, and 
 Maryland — the last two states producing but little. Pig 
 iron produced with a mixture of anthracite and coke was 
 made in Pennsylvania, New York, Wisconsin, Illinois, New 
 Jersey, and Maryland. Pig iron produced with bituminous 
 coal and coke was made in Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Vir- 
 ginia, Missouri, Tennessee, Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois, Ala- 
 bama, Georgia, Virginia, and Maryland. Charcoal pig iron 
 was made in all of the states that made pig iron in 1880, 
 with the exception of Illinois and New Jersey, which used 
 mineral fuel exclusively. 
 
 Rolled Iron. — Of 2,353,248 tons of rolled iron of all kinds 
 produced in 29 states and territories in 1880, Pennsylvania 
 
 made 1,071,098 tons, or 46 per cent.; Ohio, 272,094 tons, or 
 12 per cent. ; New York, 163,538 tons, or 7 per cent. ; Illi- 
 nois, 117,051 tons, and Massachusetts, 109,252 tons— each 5 
 per cent. ; Indiana, 77,880 tons, or over 3 per cent. ; West 
 Virginia, 67,437 tons; New Jersey, 66,030 tons; Kentucky, 
 65,293 tons, and Wisconsin, 60,653 tons— each a little less 
 than 3 per cent.; Maryland, 47,609 tons, or 2 per cent.; 
 Virginia, 35,176 tons, and Delaware, 33,918 tons— each 
 about IJ per cent.; Tennessee, 25,381 tons, or 1 per cent.; 
 and all other states and territories each less than 1 per cent. 
 Of 466,917 tons of iron rails produced in 1880, Penn- 
 sylvania made 34 per cent.; Illinois, 16 per cent.; Ohio, 
 9 per cent.; Indiana, 8 per cent.; New York, 7 per cent.; 
 Wisconsin, 6 per cent. ; Kentucky, 4 per cent. ; Kansas and 
 Tennessee, each nearly 3 per cent.; Wyoming Territory, 
 Maryland, and Georgia, each about 2 per cent. ; California 
 and Massachusetts, each 1 per cent., and Colorado, West 
 Virginia, and Vermont, each less than 1 per cent. Of the 
 cut nails produced in 1880, Pennsylvania made 30 per cent. ; 
 West Virginia, 21 per cent. ; Ohio, 14 per cent. ; Massachu- 
 setts, 10 per cent. ; New Jersey and Indiana, each 6 per 
 cent. ; Illinois and Kentucky, each 4 per cent., and Ten- 
 nessee and Virginia, each 2 per cent. New York, Nebraska,, 
 and Maine each produced less than 1 per cent., but Nebraska 
 made more nails than New York. _ The whole number of 
 kegs of cut nails made in the United States in 1880 was 
 5,066,600, each keg weighing 100 pounds. 
 
 Steel Ingots. — The following table shows the states which 
 produced Bessemer, open-hearth, and crucible steel ingots 
 in 1880 : 
 
 Stotes. 
 
 steel ingots. 
 
 Open-hearth 
 steel ingots. 
 
 CnKible 
 steel ingots. 
 
 
 Toils. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 2,116 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Kentucky ... 
 
 203,514 
 
 023 
 
 27.5 
 
 0,475 
 
 4,021 
 400 
 
 '24,712 
 
 30,944 
 
 4,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 130 
 
 75 
 
 UO 
 
 Missouri .... 
 
 8,409 
 
 
 New .lersey . 
 
 New Tork . 
 
 Ohio .... . ... 
 
 Pennsylvania . , 
 Tennessee ... 
 Vcnnont . . . . 
 
 'S4,100 
 
 82,811 
 
 660,314 
 
 10,402 
 
 2,585 
 
 300 
 
 C0,.TO3 
 
 Total . 
 
 085,208 
 
 84,302 
 
 76,201 ■ 
 
 Bessemer Steel. — Of the production of 985,208 tons of Bes- 
 semer steel ingots in 1880, Pennsylvania made 56 per cent. ; 
 Illinois, 26 per cent. ; New York, 9 per cent. ; Ohio, 8 per 
 cent., and Missouri, less than 1 percent. Of the produc- 
 tion of Bessemer steel rails, Pennsylvania made 55 per cent. ; 
 Illinois, 27 per cent. ; Ohio, 9 per cent. ; New York, 8 per 
 cent., and Missouri and Vermont, each less than 1 per 
 cent. The last-named state had, however, no works for the 
 production of Bessemer steel ingots. At the close of the 
 Census year there were 24 Bessemer converters in the United 
 States, of which six were in Illinois, 2 were in Missouri, 
 2 were in New York, 2 were in Ohio, and 12 were in Penn- 
 sylvania. 
 
 Open-hearth Steel. — Of the production of 84,302 tons of 
 open-hearth steel ingots in 1880, Pennsylvania made 44 per 
 cent. ; Ohio, 29 per cent. ; Blassachusetts, 11 per cent. ; New 
 Hampshire and Tennessee, each 6 per cent. ; Vermont, 4 
 per cent., and Illinois, New Jersey and Kentucky, each less 
 than 1 per cent. Of the open-hearth steel ingote produced 
 in 1880, only a small quantity was converted into rails, the 
 weight of these being 9,105 tons. At the close of the Census 
 year 1880, there were 37 open-hearth furnaces in the United 
 States, of which 2 were in Illinois, 1 was in Kentucky, 4 
 were in Massachusetts, 1 was in New Hampshire, 1 was in 
 New Jersey, 10 were in Ohio, 14 were in Pennsylvania, 1 
 was in Rhode Island, 2 were in Tennessee, and 1 was in 
 Vermont. 
 
 Crucible Steel.— Of the production of 76,201 tons of cru- 
 cible steel ingots in 1880, Pennsylvania made 60,303 tons, oi 
 79 per cent. ; New Jeraey, 10,492 tons, or 14 per ceut. ; New 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1017 
 
 York, 2,585 tons, or over 3 per cent.; Connecticut, 2,116 
 tons, or under 3 per cent., ancT Ohio, Massachusetts, Illinois, 
 and Kentucky, an aggregate of less than 1 per cent. Penn- 
 sylvania, New Jersey, and Connecticut also unitedly pro- 
 duced 4,956 tons of blister steel and miscellaneous steel 
 products, of which Pennsylvania produced 78 per cent. ; 
 New Jersey, 20 per cent., and Connecticut, 2 per cent. 
 
 Blooms and Bar Iron from Ore. — ^The total production of 
 these products in 1880, nearly all of which, however,, was in 
 the form of blooms, was 37,633 tons, of which New York 
 produced 84 per cent.; Missouri, 11 per cent.; Tennessee, 
 2 per cent. ; New Jersey and North Carolina, each over 1 
 per cent., and Pennsylvania, Georgia, and Virginia, an 
 aggregate of less than 1 per cent. Pennsylvania's product 
 was made in a Siemens rotator; that of North Carolina, 
 Georgia, Virginia, and Tennessee, by the old-fashioned 
 Catalan process ; that of Missouri, by the Peckham process ; 
 while the more considerable product of New York was 
 almost wholly made in American bloomaries — an improve- 
 ment on the Catalan forge. The very small quantity of bar 
 iron made from ore in 1880 was all made in Virginia, North 
 Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee bloomaries. It aggre- 
 gated but little over 1,000 tons. 
 
 Blooms from Pig and Scrap Iron. — Of 34,924 tons of 
 blooms of this character made iu 1880, Pennsylvania pro- 
 duced 70 per cent. ; Maryland and New Jersey, each 10 per 
 cent. ; Virginia, 7 per cent. ; Georgia, over 1 per cent. ; 
 Tennessee, about 1 per cent., and New York and Massa- 
 chusetts together, less than 1 per cent. 
 
 All hinds of Rails. — The production of rails of all kinds 
 in 1880 is given in the following table in connection with 
 the States which produced them. The tonnage of rails pro- 
 duced in 1880 was greater than that of any other rolled 
 product, and was about one-third that of pig iron. 
 
 Californi.'i . . 
 Colorado . . 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 Indiana . 
 Kansas. . 
 Kentucky . 
 Maryland . . 
 Ma^achusetts . . . 
 Missouri . 
 New York . 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania. . 
 Tennessee . 
 Vermont, , . 
 West Virginia . 
 Wisconsin .... 
 Wyoming Territory . 
 
 titi'i'l raibf. 
 
 Tom. 
 
 o,ono 
 
 4,500 
 8,07.1 
 72,802 
 38,000 
 13,000 
 18,000 
 0,280 
 6,000 
 
 :ii,303 
 
 41,8.38 
 lr>7,21.-i 
 
 12,800 
 1,500 
 3,333 
 
 29M2 
 0,421 
 
 T<„c 
 
 Opfni-lf'urlh 
 etet'l rtiiU. 
 
 Tom. 
 
 ■ 466,017 
 
 
 
 201,180 
 
 
 6,100 
 67,870 
 
 
 ToUrl prodvc- 
 
 lion of all 
 kinds of rails. 
 
 0'J,4Kl] 
 40!i,:i:;',) 
 
 741,475 
 
 3,300 
 2,745 
 3,000 
 
 Tom. 
 
 0,0(K) 
 
 4,.'.ll(l 
 
 t<,073 
 
 273,088 
 
 38,600 
 
 13,600 
 
 ■ 18,000 
 
 9,280 
 
 6,000 
 
 6,100 
 
 92,176 
 
 108,318 
 
 609,912 
 
 15,546 
 
 0,000 
 
 3,3;J3 
 
 20,552 
 
 0,421 
 
 Pennsylvania made 47 per cent, of the total production of 
 rails ; Illinois, 23 per cent. ; Ohio, 9 per cent. ; New York, 
 8 per cent. ; Indiana, 3 per cent. ; Wisconsin, 2 per cent. ; 
 Kentucky, Tennessee, and Kansas, each 1 per cent. ; and all 
 other states and Wyoming Territory, each less than 1 per 
 cent. 
 
 Labor. — In the following table is presented a summary of 
 the hands employed, hours of labor required, and wages 
 paid in the iron and steel industries of the United States in 
 1880, compared as far as possible with like statistics for 1870 : 
 
 VnUed SUites. 
 
 MnleK fihove 
 IG yeare. 
 
 Males belouj 
 16 years. 
 
 Females 
 
 above 15 
 
 years. 
 
 Females 
 below 15 
 yeare. 
 
 Total linnds 
 employed. 
 
 Averagenum- 
 
 ber of hours 
 
 of I'lbar per 
 
 week. 
 
 Average 
 
 dm/s icnges 
 
 for a skUled 
 
 mecltanic. 
 
 Average . 
 day^s wages 
 for an ordi- 
 nary laborer. 
 
 Total amount 
 paidinioagcs. 
 
 
 133,2o:j 
 
 7,700 
 
 45 
 
 21 
 
 140,078 
 
 05 
 
 S2 59 
 
 ?1 24 
 
 555,470,785 
 
 
 
 75,037 
 
 2,430 
 
 82 
 
 
 77,555 
 
 
 
 '. . ^40,514,081 
 
 1 
 
 
 Percentage of increase in 1880 
 
 77.52 
 
 210.46 
 
 
 
 81.78 
 
 
 
 
 36.93 
 
 Percentage of decrease in 1880 ... 
 
 
 " 
 
 45.12 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 Sands JSmployed and Wages Paid. — The total number of 
 hands employed in 1880 was 140,978. Of the whole number, 
 133,203 were men above 16 years old, and 45 were women 
 above 15 years old ; 7,709 were boys below 16 years old, and 
 21 were girls below 15 ' years old. The remarkably small 
 number of 66 women and girls employed in the manufacture 
 of iron and steel in 1880 will not escape notice, and is 
 exceedingly creditable to our American civilization. The 
 comparatively small number of boys employed is also worthy 
 of notice, 'f he 140,978 persons who were employed in 1880 
 were paid $55,476,785 as wages, or an average of $393.51 for 
 the year for each person. The average daily wages of skilled 
 labor were $2.59; of unskilled labor, $1.24. The highest 
 average daily wages of skilled labor were paid in Ehode 
 Island, Colorado, and Wyoming Territory—^ ; the lowest 
 in North Carolina — $1.25. The highest average daily wages 
 of unskilled labor were paid in Wyoming Territory — $2 ; 
 the next highest in Colorado and California — $1.75; the 
 lowest in North Carolina — 54 cents. It may be remarked 
 of North Carolina that its iron industry in 1880 was wholly 
 confined to the use of the primitive ore bloomary, and that 
 the labor employed was largely that of colored men. The 
 average wages paid in the four grand divisions were as fol- 
 lows: Eastern states— skilled, $2.70; unskilled, $1.21: 
 southern states — skilled, $2.09; unskilled, $1.03: western 
 states — skilled $2.70; unskilled, $1.31: Pacific states and 
 territories — skilled, $3.50; unskilled, $1.75. It is necessary 
 
 to explain that the figures of "hands eny)loyed" and 
 " wages paid " refer to the labor directly employed at the 
 various iron and steel works of the country, and in the 
 mining and other operations conducted in direct connection 
 with these works. They do not include the labor employed 
 in independent and often remote mining operations which 
 supply our iron and steel industries with ore and coal and 
 other raw materials. (The statistics of these operations are 
 being compiled by other hands.) Nor do they include any 
 considerable part of the labor employed in the transporta- 
 tion of ^raw materials from the sources of production to the 
 places of consumption. If the "hands employed" and 
 'wages paid" in these various contributory channels were 
 added to the figures given in our tables, the total number of 
 persons directly supported by our iron and steel industries 
 in 1880, and the total amount of wages paid to them, would 
 be largely increased and probably doubled. 
 
 Hours of Labor. — ^The average number of hours of labor 
 required per week in the iron and steel works of the United 
 States in 1880 was 65. This gives a little less than 11 hours 
 for each working day of the week. The average is high, in 
 consequence of the general although not universal practice 
 of operating blast furnaces seven days in the week, and in 
 consequence also of the usual practice at blast furnaces, 
 rolling mills, and steel works of working twelve-hour turns 
 or shifts, which practice may require the presence of the 
 workmen for that length of time, although they may not be 
 
1018 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and generally are not, so long actually employed. The state 
 which, presents the highest average is Vermont — 75 hours, 
 while the lowest average in any of the states is found in 
 Delaware and Kansas — 56 hours. A still lower average is 
 found in the District of Columbia — 54 hours. 
 
 A Year of Prosperity. — The Census year 1880, which it 
 may here be stated extended from the 1st of June, 1879, to 
 the 31st of May, 1880, was a year of exceptional prosperity for 
 the iron and steel industries of this country. The coincidence 
 is notable that it exactly covered the period which has been 
 designated as " the boom," during which all iron and steel 
 products were in such great demand by American consumers 
 that the iron and steel works of the country were unable to 
 meet it. The home supply was supplemented by large 
 importations, and even these could not be made with suffi- 
 cient rapidity to meet the urgent wants of consumers. 
 . Prices were high throughout the whole year, but fluctuated 
 violently. Labor was in demand, wages were promptly paid, 
 and disputes between workingmen and their employers were 
 rare and unimportant. The Census year 1880 will long be 
 memorable as a year of general prosperity for our iron and 
 steel industries, and as one which witnessed the beginning 
 and the end of a most exciting epoch in their history. 
 
 SUMMARY OF IRON AND STEEL STATIS- 
 TICS FOR 1880. 
 
 THE complete statistical results of the census of the 
 blast furnaces, rolling mills, steel works, forges, and 
 bloomaries in the United States in the Census year 
 1880 will be found in the accompanying tables. 
 These results are here summarized, and as far as possible 
 compared with results established by the census of 1870. 
 The net ton of 2,000 pounds is invariably used in the tables 
 and summary. 
 
 Grand Summary. — In the following table is presented a 
 summary of the more important results established by the 
 census of 1880, compared with similar results established by 
 the census of 1870. 
 
 furnaces in 1870 was 574, and in 1880 it was G81, an in- 
 crease of 18.64 per cent. 
 
 The following exhibit shows the number and capacity of 
 the blast furnaces, rolling mills, steel works, forges, and 
 bloomaries at the close of the Census year 1880 : 
 
 Blast furnace establishments . . ... 
 
 Completed bhist I'urniicea . 
 
 Rolling mill establishments 
 
 Puddling furnaces, each double furnace counting as two fuvuai 
 Kotary puddling furnace (Sellers) 
 Banks puddling furnaces . . 
 Hammers in iron rolling mills . 
 
 Heating furnaces 
 
 Trains of rolls in iron rolling mills . 
 Kail machines . 
 
 Steel works 
 
 Bessemer steel converters . . . 
 
 Open-hearth steel furnaces ... 
 Pot holes for crucible steel . . 
 Trains of rolls in steel works 
 Hammers in steel -works ... 
 Forges and bloomaries . . 
 Forge and bloomary fires 
 
 Siemens rotator _ • 
 
 Hammers in forges and bloomaries ... 
 Daily capacity of blast furnaces, in tons . 
 
 Daily capacity of iron rolling mills, in tons 
 
 Daily capacity of Bessemer steel converters, in tons . 
 
 Daily capacity of open-hearth steel furnaces, in tons 
 
 Daily capacity of Bessemer and open-hearth steel rolling mills. 
 
 Daily capacity of crucible steel works, in torn . . 
 
 Daily capacity of forges and bloomaries, in tons . . ... 
 
 4no 
 
 O.il 
 
 324 
 
 . 4,;H9 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 2:30 
 
 2,105 
 
 1,206 
 
 3,77.5 
 
 73 
 
 24 
 
 37 
 
 2,001 
 
 i:x 
 
 219 
 
 118 
 
 405 
 
 1 
 
 141 
 
 10,248 
 
 l(i,4oO 
 
 4,407 
 
 827 
 
 6,223 
 
 445 
 
 620 
 
 Capital.— The whole amount of capital_ invested in 1880 
 in the iron and steel industries in the United States which 
 are embraced in this report was $230,971,884 ; in 1870 it 
 was $121,772,074; increase $109,199,810, or 89.68 per 
 cent. Of the whole amount invested in 1880, Pennsylvania's 
 share was 46 per cent. ; that of Ohio was 11 per cent. ; that 
 of New York was 9 per cent. ; and that of Missouri and 
 New Jersey was each 4 per cent. No one of the other states 
 shows an investment greater than 3 per cent. 
 
 Total Production. — The total production of the iron and 
 steel works of the United States in 1880 was 7,265,140 
 tons; in 1870 it was 3,655,215 tons; increase, 3,609,925 
 tons, or 98.76 per cent. The phrase "total production" 
 includes the products of all the various processes or opera- 
 tions, although in ascertaining most of these products there 
 
 United States. 
 
 Number of estdb- 
 lishments. 
 
 Aviount of capital 
 (real and pcr- 
 Bonal) invested. 
 
 Valu£ of all vmte- 
 rials vsed. 
 
 Yahte of all pro- 
 ducts made. 
 
 Weight of all pro- 
 ducts {tons). 
 
 Total hands e»i- Total amount 
 ployed. j paid in watjtA. 
 
 1 
 
 Total in 1880 
 
 1,006 
 
 $230,971,884 
 
 $191,271,1.'J0 
 
 S;296,567,686 
 
 7,265,140 
 
 140,978 
 
 S55,470,7S5 
 
 Total in 1870 
 
 SOS 
 
 8121,772,074 
 
 $135,526,132 
 
 5207,208,696 
 
 3,655,215 
 
 77,566 
 
 f 40,614, 981 
 
 Per centage of increase in 1880 
 
 24.38 
 
 89.68 
 
 41.13 
 
 43.12 
 
 9S.76 
 
 81.78 
 
 36.93 
 
 Establishments. — The whole number of establishments that 
 were engaged in the manufacture of iron and steel in 1880, 
 or were built or partly built to engage in their manufacture, 
 was 1,005. In 1870 it was 808. The increase in the ten 
 years was_24.38 per cent. By the term " establishment" is 
 meant a single manufacturing enterprise, or an aggregation 
 of enterprises of like character under one management. 
 Thus one establishment may embrace two rolling mills, and 
 another may embrace four blast furnaces. If, however, a 
 firm or company operates two or more enterprises of differ- 
 ent character, each of these enterprises is classed as a sepa- 
 rate establishment. A comparison of the number of the 
 various establishments in 1870 and 1880 is given below. 
 
 1870. 1880. 
 
 Blast furnace establishments 386 490 
 
 Kolling mill establishments ... . '.'.'. ! 310 324 
 
 Steel works . ' * ' 30 73 
 
 Forges and bloomaries . . . ... 82 118 
 
 t"'*! ■ ■ • . .... 808 1,005 
 
 The size and capacity of the establishments were much 
 greater in 1880 than in 1870. As the capacity of blast fur- 
 naces only was given in 1870, no complete data are avail- 
 able for a comparison of the capacity of all the works in the 
 two periods. The daily capacity of the blast furnaces in' 
 1870 was 8,357 tons of pig iron, and in 1880 it was 19,248 
 tons, an increase of 130.32 per cent. The number of blast 
 
 is a necessary duplication of the tonnage of raw or com- 
 paratively raw materials already stated. Thus rolled iron is 
 mainly produced from pig iron. As the method of stating 
 the production of 1880 is the same that was observed in 
 1870, a comparison of the results for both periods cannot be 
 open to objection. 
 
 Production in Detail. — The following tabic shows the pro- 
 duction of each branch of our iron and steel industries in 
 1870 and 1880, with the percentage of increase or decrease 
 in the latter year: 
 
 Iron and steel products. 
 
 C'enmsiiear 
 1S70. 
 
 Cmsmyear 
 18S0. 
 
 Percentn^e 
 
 of ina'ease 
 in 1880. 
 
 PBrcen(rtf/e 
 
 of decrease 
 
 in 1880. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 
 Pig iron and castings from furnace 
 AH products of iron rolling mills . 
 Bessemer steel finished products . . 
 Open-hoarth steel finished products 
 Crucible steel finished products . . 
 
 Blister and other steel 
 
 Products of forges and bloomaries . 
 
 2,062,821 
 
 1,441,829 
 
 19,403 
 
 '28,069 
 
 2,285 
 
 110,808 
 
 3,781,021 
 2,363,248 
 880,800 
 93,143 
 70,310 
 4,956 
 72,557 
 
 84 
 
 63 
 
 4,486 
 
 161 
 117 
 
 'ss' 
 
 Total ... . 
 
 3,656,215 
 
 7,266,140 
 
 98.76 
 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1019 
 
 Of tlie pig iron produced in the census year 1880, there 
 were produced with charcoal and cold blast, 79,613 tons ; 
 with charcoal and hot blast, 355,405 tons ; with anthracite, 
 1,112,735 tons; with bituminous coal and coke, 1,515,107 
 tons; and with mixed anthracite and coke, 713,932 tons. 
 The furnace castings amounted to only 4,229 tons. The 
 total production was 3,781,021 tons, ot which 12,875 tons 
 were spiegeleisen. In the following table is presented a 
 comparative statement of iron rolling mill products in 1870 
 and 1880 : 
 
 Iron rolUiuj mill prodtuis. 
 
 Bar iron 
 
 Kod iron 
 
 Nail plate iron converted into cut nails . 
 Boiler-plate iri)n ... 
 All other plate iron 
 Cheet iron 
 
 Iroji rails 
 
 Skclp iron 
 
 Muclc bar made for sale to other works . " " 
 Structural iron ... ... 
 
 lulled iron axles . . . 
 
 Hoop iron 
 
 Fish-plates and miscellaneous forms of rolled iron . . 
 Itailroad spikes, horseshoes, etc., made by iron rolling 
 mills from rolled iron not included above 
 
 Hauunered axles 
 
 Torgings . . . 
 
 Tmts, 
 
 488,834 
 20,087 
 230,225 
 
 64,477 
 
 74,753 
 
 631,605 
 
 2,217 
 
 33,031 
 
 Tom. 
 
 063,211 
 
 145,026 
 
 252,830 
 
 80,500 
 
 .94,749 
 
 04,092 
 
 466,917 
 
 128,321 
 
 64,469 
 
 90,810 
 
 2,030 
 
 06,843 
 
 48,345 
 
 82,368 
 21,884 
 3,703 
 
 STATISTICS OF THE AMERICAN IRON 
 TRADE IN 1881. 
 
 ~^ ^JT "T'E are indebted to the valuable compilations of 
 
 \ /\ / Mr. James M. Swank, in his report to the 
 
 y y American Iron and Steel Association, for 
 
 the following summary of the American iron 
 
 trade during 1881, and the opening months of 1882 : 
 
 The prosperity which was restored to the American iron 
 trade in the spring of 1879, and which was continued in 
 1880, attained its highest development in 1881. This was 
 the most prosperous year American iron and steel manufac- 
 turers have ever known. The demand for their products 
 was very active all through the year, production was greatly 
 stimulated, and prices were in the main satisfactory. 
 It was notably a year of uniform prosperity ; not character- 
 ized by spurts and reactions, but by a steady demand at 
 good prices in all branches, except in some pig iron districts 
 in the summer months, when the demand for pig iron weak- 
 ened slightly in consequence of the large quantities of for- 
 eign pig iron that were pressed upon the market. From this 
 local depression there was, however, a complete recovery 
 in the autumn. With this temporary variation in the gen- 
 eral situation, the demand for all forms of iron and steel 
 was active and even urgent all through the year. The pro- 
 duction was far in advance of that of any previous year, and 
 it all passed into consumption. The stocks on hand at the 
 beginning of the year were also consumed. Never has there 
 been a healthier business done by our iron and steel manu- 
 facturers than they did in 1881. The year ended with more 
 orders on their books than were entered when it began, 
 and at prices that were generally higher than were then 
 obtained. 
 
 The following table shows the average monthly quotations, 
 for each month of the year 1881, for iron rails per gross ton 
 at the mills in Eastern Pennsylvania ; for Bessemer steel 
 rails per gross ton at the works in Pennsylvania ; for No. 1 
 anthracite foundry pig iron per gross ton delivered in Phila- 
 delphia ; and for best refined roll bar iron per pound at the 
 stores in Philadelphia. The quotations which we give 
 express the average of weekly quotations for the year, but it 
 is fair to add that the latter may have been shaded in actual 
 sales. In all our tables of prices we claim simply to use due 
 caution in giving market quotations, which, as is well 
 known, do not always represent bottom prices. 
 
 January . 
 February 
 March . . 
 April . , 
 Slay . . 
 June. . 
 July . . 
 August . 
 September 
 October . 
 November 
 December 
 
 Iron rails. 
 
 SUelraOt. 
 
 Pig iron. 
 
 Bar iron. 
 
 Per km. 
 
 Per ton. 
 
 Per Ian. 
 
 Per a. 
 
 S46.50 
 
 860.00 
 
 826.00 
 
 2.5 cts. 
 
 47.50 
 
 62.00 
 
 25..50 
 
 2.5 cts. 
 
 47.00 
 
 62.50 
 
 26.00 
 
 2.5 cts. 
 
 47.00 
 
 03.00 
 
 26.00 
 
 2.5 cts. 
 
 46.60 
 
 03.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 2.4 cts. 
 
 46.50 
 
 60.00 
 
 24.00 
 
 2.4 cts. 
 
 40.75 
 
 61.00 
 
 24.60 
 
 2.46 cts 
 
 47.C0 
 
 60.00 
 
 24.:V) 
 
 2.65 cts. 
 
 47.75 
 
 60.00 
 
 25.25 
 
 2.7 cts. 
 
 47.50 
 
 60.00 
 
 26.50 
 
 2.8 cts. 
 
 47.7.0 
 
 01.50 
 
 26.76 
 
 2.9 cts. 
 
 48.00 
 
 60.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 2.9 cts. 
 
 As we have said, and as the above table establishes, prices 
 were generally higher at the close of the year than at its 
 beginning. Yet there were not wanting indications in • 
 December that a decreased demand and lower prices might 
 soon be expected. There had been a flurry in railroad 
 stocks, resulting from over-speculation, short crops, a shrink- 
 age in freights, and reduced rates, and clearly pointing to 
 greater caution in the immediate future in railroad invest- 
 ments. This flurry was significant of an early decline in the 
 demand for rails and other railway materials for new loads, 
 while the short crops and the consequent shrinkage in 
 freights and struggle for freight trafiic were equally signifi- 
 cant of an early spasm of economy in the purchase of rails 
 and other materials for existing roads. These indications 
 of a decreased demand for railway supplies became mani- 
 fest, too, at the moment when it became generally recognized 
 that the ability of the country to supply itself with steel 
 rails had been greatly increased. The elements of weakness 
 in steel rails were plainly visible, and as steel rails had 
 been largely instrumental in holding up' the prices of other 
 iron and steel products it was clearly to be inferred that 
 when they would decline in price the market would weaken 
 at almost every point from this cause alone if from no other. 
 The indications of last December have been only too fully 
 verified. The demand for most iron and steel products has 
 sensibly slackened, and prices have very generally sympa- 
 thized with this decline. Steel rails especially have expe- 
 rienced a remarkable fall in price. At the middle of Decem- 
 ber they were quoted at $60, while the price at the end of 
 the month was $58. At the middle of JMay ordersi were 
 easily placed at $50, a decline of §10 in five months. Iron 
 rails were quoted at $48 at the close of December, and in 
 May they had fallen to $44. Pig iron foil about one dollar 
 and a half per ton from December to May, except for best 
 brands of No. 1 anthracite foundry. The prices of bar iron 
 and nails have recently sympathized with the downward 
 tendency in the prices of the other articles above named. 
 In December the prices of bar iron at the stores in Phila- 
 delphia was 2.9 cents per pound; and at the middle of May 
 it was 2.6 cents. The quoted price of nails at Pittsburg in 
 December was $3.30 per keg, and at the middle of May it 
 was $3. 
 
 Of the demand for all iron and steel products in May, 
 when this report is written, it is certainly correct to say that 
 it is not satisfactory. The situation at the present moment 
 is far from encouraging, and in some respects is discouraging. 
 The heavy importations of iron and steel that have T)een 
 made since the beginning of the year exercise an unfavor- 
 able influence upon the market. Pig iron and iron and steel 
 rails have been brought into the country in large quantities 
 at a time when we are abundantly able to supply the home 
 demand from our own works. The floods in the Mississippi 
 and the cold and wet spring have had an unfavorable eflect 
 on all business. The shortness of the harvest last year has 
 increased the cost of the necessaries of life, and labor is 
 consequently uijwilling to accept any reduction in its wages ; 
 in some instances it even demands higher wages. Through 
 a decline in our exports of agriculturifl products the balance 
 of trade is being rapidly turned against us, which means less 
 buoyancy and ease in the general financial situation. The 
 whole trade of the country, with which, of course, the iron 
 trade must sympathize, is to-day undergoing a moderate 
 reaction from the remarkable activity of the last three 
 years. Such are the influences that aifect unfavorably the 
 American iron trade to-day. We may hope, however," that 
 
1020 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the prevailing low prices of iron and steel will ere long, 
 especially if we should have a favorable harvest, infuse 
 greater activity than now exists into all branches of our iron 
 and steel industries. But under no circumstances that can 
 possibly happen will this year's business be as prosperous 
 as that of last year. The fact may as well be accepted phil- 
 osophically, if reluctantly, that we have again entered upon 
 a cycle of low prices for iron and steel. We do not think 
 this result is greatly to be regretted if we consider that 
 some remedy is needed to check our enormous importations 
 of these articles. Were these importations to be continued 
 for a few years longer upon the scale which has existed 
 during the past three years our iron and steel industries 
 would suffer the most serious consequences, which would be 
 felt for a generation. Iron and steel are not consumed like 
 bread or worn out like clothing. Every ton of these metals 
 that is imported stays here and permanently displaces a ton 
 of the same product that might be made at home. Even 
 when iron and steel "wear out" in one form they reappear 
 in another. As a matter of fact, however, the iron and steel 
 rails and some other iron and steel articles that have recently 
 been imported will last a long time in their present forms. 
 Importations of iron and steel had, therefore, to be checked 
 in some way if we would not prevent the future prosperity 
 of the domestic producers of these articles. Low prices may 
 be a distasteful remedy for our manufacturers and their 
 workmen, and for iron ore producers, to apply to the evil 
 mentioned, but no other remedy is available. It is a pity 
 that good use was not made of it a few months ago. 
 
 The Production of 18S1 Compared with that of 1880. — 
 The production t>f the leading articles of iron and 
 steel in the United States in 1881 is given in the following 
 table in comparison with the production of the same articles 
 in 1880. With the exception of iron rails our production of 
 every article enumerated was larger in 1881 than in 1880 or 
 in any other year of our history. 
 
 Pig iron 
 
 All rolled iron, including nails and excluding rails . 
 Bessemef steel raila . 
 Open-hearth steel rails ... 
 
 Iron and all other rails ] 
 
 Kegs of cut naih and spikes, included In all rolled ire 
 Crucible steel ingots ... 
 Open-liearth steel ingots , 
 Bi'Ssemer steel ingots .... 
 Elooina from ore and pig iron . , , . 
 
 1880. 
 
 1881. 
 
 4,205,414 
 
 4,641,504 
 
 1,838,900 
 
 2,155,340 
 
 034,403 
 
 1,330,302 
 
 13,015 
 
 25,217 
 
 403,762 
 
 488,681 
 
 5,370,012 
 
 6,794,206 
 
 72,124 
 
 89,702 
 
 112,053 
 
 140,940 
 
 1,203,173 
 
 1,530,157 
 
 74,680 
 
 84,000 
 
 Our Imports of Iron and Steel from 1871 to 1881.— The 
 foreign value of the imports into the United States from 
 all countries of iron and steel and manufactures thereof, in- 
 cluding tin plates, has been as follows in the eleven years 
 from 1871 to 1881. 
 
 Year 8. 
 
 Yalms. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Values. 
 
 1871 . . 
 
 1872 
 
 1873. . . 
 
 1874. . 
 
 1N75 . . 
 1876 , . 
 
 857,800,299 
 76,017,677 
 00,0115,538 
 37,652,192 
 27,363,101 
 20,016,003 
 
 1877 . 
 
 1878 ... 
 
 1879 ... 
 
 1880 . 
 
 1881 . 
 
 S19,874,3n0 
 18,013,010 
 33,331,609 
 80,4d3,302 
 01,665,078 
 
 The foregoing table of values includes all our importations 
 of iron and steel and manufactures thereof, of every descrip- 
 tion whatever. In the following table we give the quantities 
 of all the leading iron and steel products imported into the 
 United States from all countries in the eleven years from 
 1871 to 1881, except steel in ingots, bars, sheetn, and wire, 
 for which statistics of values only are obtainable. To be 
 more specific, the figures below embrace only our importa- 
 tions of pig, bar, boiler, band, hoop, scroll, and sheet iron 
 iron and steol rails, castings, old and scrap iron, anchors! 
 cables and chains, and tin plates. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Net torn. 
 
 1871 
 
 l',278,965 
 
 1877 
 
 236,777 
 
 1872 
 
 1,326,034 
 
 1878 
 
 230,434 
 
 1873 ... 
 
 717,761 
 
 1879 
 
 862,382 
 
 1874. . . . 
 
 337,846 
 
 1880 
 
 2,112,341 
 
 1875 ... 
 
 208,477 
 
 1881 ... 
 
 1,321,767 
 
 1876. . . 
 
 228,716 
 
 
 
 The importations in 1880 were the largest in our history. 
 The decline in 1881 was about $19,000,000 in the value of all 
 iron and steel imports, and about 800,000 net tons in the 
 quantities of the leading articles just enumerated. The fol- 
 lowing table gives, in net tons, the details of our imports in 
 the last six years of the leading articles above mentioned. 
 
 ComrrwdUies imported. 1876. 
 
 1877. 
 
 1878. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1881. 
 
 Pig iron ... 
 Castings . . . . 
 
 Bar iron 
 
 Boiler iron . . 
 Band, hoop, etc. . . 
 Kailroad bara of iron 
 Railroad bars of steel 
 
 Sheet iron 
 
 Old and scrap iron . 
 Anchora, cables, etc. 
 Tin plates 
 
 83,072 
 
 36 
 
 26,653 
 
 15 
 
 144 
 
 287 
 
 1,758 
 
 14,149 
 
 1,863 
 
 100,740 
 
 66,861 
 63 
 
 30,531 
 . 2 
 159 
 
 35 
 
 1,184 
 
 10,903 
 
 1,073 
 
 125,970 
 
 74,484 
 
 69 
 
 33,346 
 
 1 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 838 
 
 6,225 
 
 646 
 
 120,808 
 
 340,762 
 
 61 
 
 48,840 
 
 91 
 
 1,031 
 
 19,000 
 
 26,057 
 
 6,469 
 
 248,429 
 
 802 
 
 172;70O 
 
 784,968 
 
 114 
 
 120,087 
 
 168 
 
 25,322 
 
 132,469 
 
 168,230 
 
 11,412 
 
 694,273 
 
 1,393 
 
 177,016 
 
 620,162 
 
 632 
 
 47,820 
 
 200 
 
 827 
 
 137,013 
 
 249,309 
 
 8,121 
 
 151,107 
 
 1,520 
 
 204,966 
 
 Total ... . 228,710 
 
 230,777 
 
 230,434 
 
 802,382 
 
 2,112,341 
 
 1,321,767 
 
 The rapid and unprecedented increase in our iron and 
 steel imports in 1879 and 1880 has been sufficiently ex- 
 plained in preceding annual reports. The same causes 
 which produced this increase may be credited with our large 
 importations of iron and steel rails in 1881. The country 
 could not supply its own pressing need of these articles. 
 The large quantities of pig iron imported in 1881 were not, 
 however, due to a scarcity of domestic pig iron, but to the 
 cheapness, notwithstanding the dutj, of the foreign article. 
 There was a noticeable decline in 1881 of importations of 
 old and scrap iron. 
 
 Our Imports of Iron and Steel in t/ie First Quarter of 
 1882. — In the following table we give, in net tons, the im- 
 ports during the first three months of 1882 of the leading 
 articles of iron and steel above mentioned, with the values 
 added. 
 
 ComrrtodUics imported. 
 
 Kel totis. 
 
 Values. 
 
 Pig iron . . 
 
 Castings. . . . . 
 
 Bar iron . . 
 
 Boiler iron 
 
 99,333 
 306 
 
 21,338 
 31 
 180 
 
 21,160 
 
 51,092 
 1,049 
 
 66,014 
 481 
 
 67,202 
 
 $1,647,.501 
 
 19,169 
 
 809,627 
 
 1 036 
 
 Band, hoop and scroll iron . .... 
 
 Bailroad bars or rails, of iron. . . . . 
 
 Railroad bars or rails, of steel .... 
 
 Sheet iron. ... . . . 
 
 Old a'nd scrap iron. ... 
 
 Anchors, cables and chains . . 
 Tin plates. 
 
 6,'779 
 
 5,55,253 
 
 1,568,772 
 
 107,831 
 
 1,094,661 
 
 46,804 
 
 4,410,446 
 
 Total . . ... 
 
 319,030 
 
 510,216,779 
 
 The figures given in this table show a larger aggregate im- 
 portation of the articles mentioned than occur in the corres- 
 ponding period of 1881, and at first sight indicate no diminu- 
 tion in the volume of imports this year as compared with last 
 year. But the demand for iron aiid steel has slackened and 
 prices have fallen in this country since the orders wore .-^ent 
 abroad for the articles which were imported in the first 
 quarter of this year, and further importations during the 
 year must sliow a decline. 
 
 Our Imports of Iron Ore in 1870, ISSO, and ISSl. — During 
 the_ years 1879, 18S0, arid 1881 our imports of iron ore were 
 derived from the following countries, as \\c are officially 
 advised by the Chief of the Bureau of Statistics. 
 
 Brazil, Denmark, France, French West Indies, French 
 Possessions in Africa and adjacent islands, Germany, Kug- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1021 
 
 land, Scotland, Ireland, Gibraltar, Nova Scotia, New Bruns- 
 wick and Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Ontario, JManitoba 
 and the Northwest Territory, British Columbia, British Pos- 
 sessions in Africa and adjacent islands, other British Pos- 
 sessions, Italy, Portugal, Russia on the Baltic and White Seas, 
 Spain, Spanish Possessions in Africa and adjacent islands, 
 Turkey in Asia, Turkey in Africa, United States of Colom- 
 bia, Uruguay, and Venezuela. 
 
 The following statement shows the quantity and value of 
 iron ore imported into the United States during the calendar 
 years 1879, 1880, and 1881, by customs districts. Most of the 
 ore was imported from Spanisl^ and Mediterranean ports. 
 Previous to 1879 the quantity of iron ore annually imported 
 was not preserved by the Treasury Department, but in no 
 year did it amount to 100,000 tons. 
 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1881. 
 
 DUlriett, 
 
 Gross 
 tons. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Gross 
 toils. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Gross 
 tons. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 Boston 
 
 Buffalo Creek. , 
 
 27,090 
 701 
 6,909 
 12 
 • 650 
 1,287 
 2,126 
 
 60,809 
 
 2,438 
 
 14,251 
 
 .31 
 
 170,308 
 
 2.166 
 
 13,654 
 
 606,560 
 13,359 
 30,42f 
 
 375,798 
 
 710 
 
 2,492 
 
 1,006,496 
 2,807 
 7,320 
 
 Cuyahoga. , . . 
 Detroit ... 
 
 Genesee 
 
 Huron . . 
 Newarlc, N. J. 
 
 1,128 
 3,608 
 4,101 
 
 13,868 
 
 430 
 
 6,390 
 
 72 
 
 269 
 
 148,987 
 
 7,553 
 
 4,186 
 
 6,444 
 
 120,619 
 
 400 
 
 168 
 
 48,403 
 
 1,10C 
 
 10,274 
 
 258 
 
 798 
 
 432,078 
 
 21,062 
 
 7,800 
 
 16,968 
 
 336,119 
 
 412 
 
 413 
 
 10,500 
 
 617 
 
 8,710 
 
 204 
 
 'li)0,410 
 3,418 
 
 " 13,612 
 13,671 
 
 166,664 
 1,100 
 
 37,676 
 
 1,046 
 
 25,061 
 
 770 
 
 Now Yorlv . 
 
 109,230 
 
 282,060 
 
 641,344 
 10,650 
 4-1,026 
 48,323 
 
 394,962 
 1,622 
 
 Oswego 
 
 Pertli Amboy, N. J. 
 Philadelpliia . . . 
 Puget's Sound . 
 
 884 
 
 9,634 
 
 126,669 
 
 2,130 
 29,010 
 281,941 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 284,141 
 
 081,467 
 
 493,408 
 
 1,436,809 
 
 782,887 
 
 2,222,052 
 
 Like the statistics of our imports of iron and steel in the 
 last three years, the above table of our imports of iron ore 
 in these years must be an eyesore to every patriotic Amer- 
 ican. That this country, with all its wealth of iron ore and 
 its splendid transportation facilities, should have imported 
 in these three years over one and a half million tons of 
 foreign iron ore, paying for it over four million dollars, is a 
 remarkable fact upon which the next generation of Amer- 
 ican iron and steel manufacturers will probably look with 
 amazement. The large importations were mainly caused by 
 the high prices charged for domestic ores, but partly also by 
 a scarcity of ores suitable for the manufacture of Bessemer 
 pig iron. It is, however, gratifying to learn that the imports 
 of iron ore in the present year promise to be quite small 
 as compared with those of last year. In the first three 
 months of 1882 we imported only 43,648 tons, valued at 
 $127,146. We are informed that very few contracts for 
 foreign ore, for delivery this year, have been made by our 
 manufacturers. 
 
 Our Domestic Exports of Iron and Steel from 1871 to 1881. — 
 The value of the exports from the United States to all 
 countries of domestic iron and steel and manufactures 
 thereof in the eleven years from 1871 to 1881 was as follows: 
 
 Years. 
 
 Follies. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Values. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Tahus. 
 
 1871 . 811,836,1.37 
 1ST2 . . 1(1,030,126 
 1873 . . 12,129,939 
 1874. . . 15,389,807 
 
 1R75.. . 
 1376. . 
 
 1877. . . 
 
 1878. . . 
 
 $10,092,900 
 11,708, 4.i9 
 10,659,075 
 13,200,369 
 
 1R79. . 
 1880.. . 
 1681 . . . 
 
 512,470,448 
 12,090,996 
 16,782,282 
 
 Our exports of iron and steel and manufactures thereof 
 are made principally to countries on the American Con- 
 tinent, particularly to Canada. Among other countries 
 Australia is a liberal customer for our manufactured articles, 
 England coming next. In 1881 we exported 104 locomotives 
 to foreign countries, a larger number than in any preceding 
 year. The indications are that in this year we will export 
 as many as in last year. 
 
 The Production of Pig Iron in 1881. — The total production 
 of pig iron in the United States in 1881 was 4,641,564 net 
 
 tons, or 4,144,254 gross tons. (A net ton is 2,000 pounds, 
 and a gross ton 2,240 pounds.) The production was less 
 than had been generally anticipated. It was a little more 
 than 8 per cent, greater than that of 1880, which was 
 4,295,414 net tons, or 3,835,191 gross tons. The production 
 of 1880 was 40 per cent, greater than that of 1879, which 
 was 3,070,875 net tons, or 2,741,853 gross tons. That the 
 production of the last three years may be made still plainer 
 to the eye we jiresent it below in tabular form. 
 
 Years. J^ct tons. Gross tons. 
 
 1879 . . .... 3,070,875 2,741,863 
 
 1880 4,295,414 3,836,191 
 
 1881 4,041,664 4,144,264 
 
 An increase of a little more than 8 per cent, in 1881 makes 
 a poor showing in comparison with the wonderful increase 
 of 40 per cent, in 1880. But the failure of our pig iron 
 industry to maintain in 1881 a rate of increase even approxi- 
 mate to that of 1880 is easily explained. The year 1879 
 was partly spent before our pig iron manufacturers awakened 
 to the fact that a boom in the iron trade had commenced, 
 and even after this fact was fully realized valuable time was 
 lost in making needful preparations to put idle furnaces in 
 blast. Consequently the production of 1879 was not much 
 larger than that of 1878, which was a year of great depres- 
 sion. But in 1880 our best furnaces were all in operation 
 and were driven to their utmost capacity; hence the re- 
 markable product of that year. In 1881 this activity was 
 generally continued, but a better record than had been 
 made in 1880 could hardly be expected from the furnaces 
 that were running in that year, so that the increased pro- 
 duction of 1881, if any, would have to come mainly from 
 new furnaces. There was, however, diminished activity in 
 a few districts and states in 1881 as comjiared with 1880, 
 owin^ to the large quantity of foreign pig iron which was 
 sold m our markets during the year, much of which had 
 been carried over_ at Atlantic jports from 1880. But for 
 these sales of foreign iron during 1881, aggregating over 
 600,000 gross tons, most of which was of qualities suitable 
 for the manufacture of Bessemer steel and fine castings, our 
 domestic production in that year would have been largely 
 increased over that of 1880, instead of being, as we have 
 stated, only about 8 per cent, greater. Our ability to supply 
 the demand for pig iron in 1881 cannot be doubted, and the 
 chief reason why we did not wholly supply it was the 
 inability of some of our furnace owners to make pig iron 
 profitably at the prices which foreign competition had estab- 
 lished. We need not here dwell upon the causes of this 
 inability, but it may be briefly stated that the leading cause 
 was the nigh price of iron ore. 
 
 Twenty-six states and one territory (Washingtwi) made 
 pig iron in 1881. Colorado, Califoriaia, and Washington 
 territory each made pig iron in that year for the first time, 
 while North Carolina, which had not made pig iron since 
 1877, resumed its place in the list of pig iron producing 
 states. Minnesota first commenced to make pig iron in 
 1880, and in 1881 the activity of its solitary furnace was 
 continued. Pig iron was made in Colorado at the furnace 
 of the Colorado Coal and Iron Company, at South Pueblo, 
 which was blown in on September 7 ; in California at the 
 furnace of the California Iron and Steel Company, at Clip- 
 per Gap, (Hotaling post office,) in Placer countv, which was 
 blown in on Api-il 24;- and in Washington territory at the 
 furnace of the Puget Sound Iron Company, at Irondale, in 
 Jefferson county, which was blown in on January 27. Iron 
 ore of a superior quality and in large quantities is reported 
 to be in course of development about ninety miles from 
 Duluth, in Minnesota, affording the promise of a larger pro- 
 duction of pig iron at an early day in that state, and of ship- 
 ments of ore to other states. A majority of the states which 
 made pig iron in 1881 increased their production in that 
 year over their record in 1880, although in some cases the 
 increase was very small. The largest increase in tons was 
 in Pennsylvania, which produced 107,665 net tons more 
 than in 1880. The most noticeable increase was in Alle- 
 gheny county. The production of the state in 1881 was 
 2,190,786 net tons, against 2,083,121 tons in 1880. But the 
 largest percentage of increase was in Virginia, Alabama, 
 Georgia, Tennessee, Illinois, Michigan, Connecticut, Maine, 
 Vermont, Minnesota, and Oregon— the last four states, of 
 
1022 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 course, producing but little pig iron in either year. The 
 increase in Virginia is remarkable, being from 29,934 net 
 tons to 83,711 tons. The increase in Alabama was from 
 77,190 tons to 98,081 tons ; in Georgia it was from 27,321 
 tons to 37,404 tons; in Tennessee from 70,873 tons to 87,406 
 tons; in Illinois from 150,556 tons to 251,781 tons; in 
 Michigan from 154,424 tons to 187,043 tons, and in Con- 
 necticut from 22,583 tons to 28,483 tons. Ohio increased its 
 production in 1881 very slightly over that of 1880 — only 
 86,339 net tons, or from 674,207 tons to 710,546 tons. Sev- 
 eral states made less pig iron in 1881 than in 1880 ; in some 
 of the states the falling off was quite marked. New York 
 declined from 395,361 tons to 359,519 tons; Maryland from 
 61,437 tons to 48,756 tons; West Virginia from 70,338 tons 
 to 66,409 tons; Kentucky from 57,708 tons to 45,973 tons, 
 and Indiana from 12,500 tons to 7,300 tons. The states 
 whose production in 1881 did not vary greatly from that of 
 1880 were Massachusetts, New Jersey, Texas, Wiconsin, and 
 Missouri. 
 
 The production of pig iron in 1881 in the pig iron pro- 
 ducing states was as follows, in the order of their promi- 
 nence : 
 
 SlaUt. 
 
 Net tens. 
 
 States. 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Ohio 
 
 2,190,786 
 710,646 
 359,519 
 251,781 
 187,043 
 171,072 
 109,799 
 102,029 
 98,081 
 87,406 
 83,711 
 66,409 
 48,766 
 45,973 
 37,404 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Indiana. , . 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Oregon 
 
 California . 
 Maine . . 
 Texas. . 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Washington Territory . 
 North Carolina. . . . 
 
 28,483 
 18,318 
 
 New York 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Michigan 
 
 7,442 
 7,300 
 6 396 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Virginia 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 Maryland. . ... 
 
 0,100 
 4,414 
 4,400 
 3,000 
 2,790 
 1,200 
 800 
 
 Kentuclcy. ... 
 Georgia 
 
 Total 
 
 4,641,564 
 
 The most remarkable fact presented in this table is the 
 prominent place held by Illinois in the production of pig 
 iron. In 1879 her production was 78,143 net tons, and her 
 place in the list of pig iron producing states was eighth ; in 
 1880 her production was 150,556 tons, and she aSvanced to 
 the sixth place; in 1881 her production was 251,781 tons, 
 and she was fourth in rank. The percentage of production 
 by the four leading states in 1881 was as follows: Pennsyl- 
 vania, 47!; Ohio, 15 J; New York, 7f ; Illinois, 5f. No 
 other state made 5 per cent, of the production of the year. 
 Neither Pennsylvania nor Ohio made the same percentage 
 in 1881 that it made in 1880, nor did Pennsylvania make 
 the same percentage in 1880 that it made in 1879. The 
 percentage for these states in the three years mentioned was 
 as follows: Pennsylvania, 1879, 52^; 1880, 48J; 1881, 47i. 
 Ohio, 1879, 14»^; 1880, 152; 1881, 15}. 
 
 The following table shows the production of pig iron in 
 Pennsylvania and Ohio, separated according to the various 
 districts of those states, for the years 1879, 1880, and 1881 : 
 
 
 
 Net tons of 2,000 pounds. 
 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1881. 
 
 
 r Lehigh Valley 
 
 456,360 
 191,748 
 125,971 
 165,600 
 160,861 
 267,316 
 214,123 
 
 36,896 
 
 43,097 
 147,844 
 
 61,008 
 161,467 
 
 43,445 
 
 644,987 
 300,020 
 168,128 
 217.889 
 216,313 
 300,-197 
 280,007 
 
 43,374 
 
 60,310 
 226,877 
 
 85,719 
 232,106 
 
 04,864 
 4,330 
 
 660,100 
 309,049 
 125,785 
 218,329 
 198,008 
 386,463 
 341,104 
 
 61,908 
 
 77,600 
 245,737 
 
 88,146 
 232,994 
 
 01,487 
 4 082 
 
 > 
 
 \ 
 
 d 
 
 Schuylkill Valley 
 
 Upper Susquehanna . . 
 Lower Susquehanna. . . . 
 
 Shenango Valley . ... 
 
 Allegheny County ... ... 
 
 Miscellaneous bituminous . . 
 
 Charcoal ... 
 
 Hanging Itock coke .... 
 
 Mahoning Valley 
 
 Hocking Valley 
 
 Miscellaneous coke 
 
 Hanging Bock charcoal . 
 _ Miscellaneous charcoal , . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The increase in the production of pig iron in this country 
 from 1879 to 1881 (covering the production of tho two years 
 
 1880 and 1881) was 61 per cent. The New England states 
 and New York and New Jersey increased 63 per cent.; 
 Pennsylvania, 36 per cent. ; the Southern states, beginning 
 with Maryland and including West Virginia, 64 per cent. ; 
 the Western states, beginning with Ohio and including 
 Missouri and Colorado, 70 per cent. ; the Pacific Coast, 369 
 per cent. The percentage of the total production of 1881 
 in each of these territorial divisions was as follows, in round 
 numbers: Northeast, 13; Pennsylvania, 47; the South, 10; 
 the West, 30 ; the Pacific Coast, less than 1 per cent. The 
 number of tons of pig iron produced in each of these terri- 
 torial divisions in 1879, 1880, and 1881 was as follows: 
 
 
 Net tons of 2,000 pounds. 
 
 Territonal Divisions. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1881. 
 
 The Northeast . . . . 
 
 369.992 
 
 1,607,763 
 
 287,725 
 
 812,895 
 
 2,500 
 
 612,388 
 2,083,121 
 
 397,301 
 
 1,197,004 
 
 6,000 
 
 585,188 
 2,190 780 
 
 The South . 
 
 The West 
 
 The Pacific Coast 
 
 471,640 
 
 1,382,330 
 
 11,714 
 
 Total 
 
 3,070,876 
 
 4,295,414 
 
 4,641,504 
 
 The production of speigeleisen increased slightly in 1881 
 over previous years, the quantity produced in 1881 being 
 21,086 net tons. This country makes remarkably slow 
 progress in the production of this essential raw material in 
 the manufacture of Bessemer steel. Both foreign and do- 
 mestic ores are used in its production in our furnaces. The 
 following table shows the production of this kind of pig iron 
 since 1875: 
 
 Years. 
 
 1875 . 
 
 1876 . 
 1877 
 1878 . 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 . 7,832 
 
 . 6,616 
 
 8,846 
 
 . . 10,674 
 
 Years. 
 1879 . 
 1880 
 1881 . 
 
 Net Urns. 
 13,931 
 19,603 
 21,086 
 
 Three states made spiegeleisen in 1881 — New Jersey, 
 Pennsylvania, and Ohio. Pennsylvania's share of the total 
 production was 16,276 net tons. The spiegeleisen produced 
 in Ohio was made by the Brier Hill Iron and Coal Com- 
 pany, of Youngstown, in a furnace specially built for that 
 purpose and first blown in in 1881. The Lehigh Zinc and 
 Iron Company, of Bethlehem, Pa., erected a small furnace 
 in 1881 to make speigeleisen, but it was not in operation. 
 The product of 1881 was made by the New Jersey Zinc and 
 Iron Company, the Cambria Iron Company, Carnegie Bros. 
 & Co., Limited, and the Brier Hill Iron and Coal Company. 
 The following table shows in net tons the quantity of pig 
 iron produced in each of the years 1879, 1880, and 1881 
 with bituminous coal, anthracite coal, and charcoal, it being 
 understood that the second of these classifications is not 
 absolutely accurate, as coke is used as a mixture in many 
 anthracite furnaces. 
 
 Fuelvsed. 1879. 1880. 1881. 
 
 Bituminous 1,438,978 1,960,205 2 268 204 
 
 Anthracite 1,273,024 1,807,051 1,7.14,462 
 
 Charcoal 358,873 637,668 038,838 
 
 Total 3,070,875 4,295,414 4,641 504 
 
 It will be observed that the use of bituminous coal and 
 charcoal has steadily increased in the years mentioned, but 
 that the use of anthracite coal was less in 1881 than in 1880. 
 The increase in the consumption of bituminous coal was to 
 be expected as the iron industry would be extended in the 
 western and southern sections of the country, where bitu- 
 minous deposits are abundant and anthracite deposits ai-e 
 practically unknown, but the great increase in the use of 
 charcoal in the last two years is a real surprise. Our pro- 
 duction of charcoal pig iron in 1881 was greater than in any 
 previous year in our history, the years of next largest pro- 
 duction being 1873 and 1874, in tlie order named. The fol- 
 lowing table gives the production of anthracite, charcoal, 
 and bituminous pig iron from 1854 to 1881 : 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1023 
 
 Yeart. 
 
 
 Net tOTU of 2,000 poundt. 
 
 
 AnOiraaie. 
 
 Charcoal. 
 
 BUuminous. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1864 
 
 1835 
 
 1866 
 
 1857 
 
 339,435 
 
 381,860 
 
 443,113 
 
 390,386 
 
 361,430 
 
 471,745 
 
 619,211 
 
 409,229 
 
 470,315 
 
 677,638 
 
 084,018 
 
 479,558 
 
 740,367 
 
 798,638 
 
 893,000 
 
 971,160 
 
 930,000 
 
 956,608 
 
 1,369,812 
 
 1,312,764 
 
 1,202,144 
 
 008,046 
 
 794,678 
 
 934,797 
 
 1,092,870 
 
 1,273,024 
 
 1,807,661 
 
 1,734,462 
 
 342,298 
 339,922 
 370,470 
 330,321 
 285,313 
 284,041 
 278,331 
 105,278 
 186,600 
 212.005 
 241,853 
 262,342 
 332,680 
 344,.341 
 370,000 
 392,150 
 365,000 
 383,00il 
 600,587 
 577,620 
 676.557 
 410,990 
 308,049 
 317,843 
 293,399 
 358,873 
 637,658 
 638,838 
 
 54,485 
 
 62,390 
 
 69, .564 
 
 77,461 
 
 68,361 
 
 84,841 
 
 122,228 
 
 127,037 
 
 130,087 
 
 157,901 
 
 210,125 
 
 189,682 
 
 268,390 
 
 318,647 
 
 340,000 
 
 553,341 
 
 670,000 
 
 570,000 
 
 984,159 
 
 977,904 
 
 010,712 
 
 947,545 
 
 900,009 
 
 1,061,945 
 
 1,191,002 
 
 1,438,978 
 
 1,950,205 
 
 2,268,264 
 
 736,218 
 784,178 
 883,187 
 798,167 
 705,094 
 840,027 
 919,770 
 731,644 
 787,662 
 947,004 
 1,136,996 
 931,582 
 
 1858 ... 
 
 1859 
 
 1860 ... 
 18G1 ... 
 
 1862 
 
 1863 
 
 1804 
 
 1865 
 
 1866 
 
 1867 
 
 1868 . . 
 
 1869 
 
 1870 .... ... 
 
 1871 ... 
 
 1872 ... 
 
 1873 .... 
 
 1874 
 
 1875 
 
 1876 
 
 1877 ... 
 
 1878 . ■ • 
 
 1879 . . 
 
 1880 .. . 
 
 1881 ... 
 
 1,350,343 
 1,461,626 
 1,603,000 
 1,916,641 
 1,866,000 
 1,911,608 
 2,8.54,658 
 2,868,278 
 2,689,413 
 2,266,581 
 2,093,236 
 2,314,685 
 2,577,361 
 3,070,875 
 4,295,414 
 4,641,664 
 
 The stocks of pig iron unsold in the hands of makers or 
 their agents on the 31st of December, 1881, amounted to 
 210,896 net tons, against 456,658 tons at the close of 1880. 
 The following table shows the quantity of each kind of pig 
 iron held in stock by the furnace owners or their agents at 
 the close of these years : 
 
 
 Kind of fuel. 
 
 Net torn. 
 
 
 Dec. 31, 1880. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 31, 1881. 
 
 Bituminous 
 Anthracite 
 Charcoal . . . 
 
 .... . . 
 
 184,626 
 175,862 
 96,170 
 
 36,496 
 90,351 
 84,030 
 
 
 466,668 
 
 
 210,896 
 
 
 
 The consumption of pig iron in the United States in 1881 
 can be approximately ascertained. We produced 4,144,254 
 gross tons and imported 464,430 tons. We had in stock at 
 the beginning of the year 407,730 tons of domestic pig iron 
 and 164,404 tons of foreign pig iron. The total supply was 
 5,180,818 gross tons. At the close of the year we nad on 
 hand 188,300 gross tons of domestic pig iron and 9,953 tons 
 of foreign pig iron, which, being deducted from the total sup- 
 ply, gives us 4,982,665 gross tons as the probable consumption 
 of the year. In our Annual Report for the year 1880, pub- 
 lished in July, 1881, we estimated the consumption of 1880 
 at 3,990,415 gross tons — the elements of our calculation 
 being the same for that year that we have taken above for 
 1881. An increase of 1,000,000 gross tons in one year in 
 our consumption of pig iron is a most remarkable fact. 
 
 December 31, 1880. 
 
 In 
 hlaa. 
 
 Lehigh Valley 
 
 SchuylkiU Valley 
 
 Upper Susquehanna Valley . . 
 Lower Susquehanna Valley . . 
 Shenango Valley . ... 
 
 Allegheny County ... 
 Miscellaneous bituminous . . 
 Charcoal ....... 
 
 Hanging Rock Begion . . . 
 
 Mahoning Valley 
 
 Hocking Valley 
 
 Other bitomiaona and charcoal . 
 
 Oniof 
 blast. 
 
 Total. 
 
 December 31, 1881. 
 
 bUtst. 
 
 Out of 
 blast. 
 
 49 
 48 
 23 
 37 
 31 
 15 
 38 
 37 
 45 
 18 
 14 
 25 
 
 About one-third of this vast increase was used in the pro- 
 duction of Bessemer steel ; the remainder was required to 
 supply the miscellaneous iron and steel works of the coun- 
 try. The preceding table shows the number of furnaces in 
 blast and out of blast at the close of 1880 and 1881 in the 
 pig iron districts of Pennsylvania and Ohio. That so many 
 furnaces should have been out of blast in these states in 
 1880 and 1881 is a singular fact. 
 
 The following table gives the number of completed' fur- 
 naces in the United States at the close of each of the ten 
 years from 1872 to 1881 : 
 
 1872. 
 
 1873. 
 
 1874. 
 
 1875. 
 
 1876. 
 
 1877. 
 
 1878. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1881. 
 
 612 
 
 667 
 
 693 
 
 713 
 
 712 
 
 716 
 
 692 
 
 697 
 
 701 
 
 746 
 
 Of 701 furnaces in the United States on December 31, 
 1880, there were 446 in blast and 255 out of blast; of 716 
 furnaces on December 31, 1881, there were 465 in blast and 
 261 out of blast. The following table shows the ftirnaces in 
 blast and out of blast at the close of the years 1880 and 
 1881 : 
 
 
 
 December 31, 1880. 
 
 December 31, 1881. 
 
 Stales and Territories, 
 
 In 
 
 blast. 
 
 Out of 
 blast. 
 
 Total. 
 
 In 
 blast. 
 
 Out of 
 blast. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Maine .,,.,.- 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 6 
 8 
 44 
 10 
 189 
 10 
 13 
 
 ' i 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 86 
 
 13 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 27 
 1 
 5 
 11 
 13 
 3 
 
 'l 
 2 
 
 1 
 1 
 6 
 10 
 67 
 20 
 274 
 23 
 37 
 7 
 10 
 16 
 11 
 22 
 26 
 1 
 103 
 4 
 13 
 16 
 27 
 14 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 4 
 8 
 
 40 
 
 10 
 195 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 1 
 4 
 
 13 
 6 
 8 
 
 11 
 1 
 
 79 
 1 
 9 
 7 
 
 17 
 9 
 1 
 1 
 
 'l 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 83 
 
 11 
 
 26 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 23' 
 3 
 5 
 10 
 10 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 SlassacliUBetta 
 Connecticut . 
 New York . . 
 New Jersey , 
 
 
 6 
 10 
 68 
 20 
 
 Maryland 
 Virginia . . . 
 North Carolina 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 40 
 
 7 
 
 Georgia 
 
 
 4 
 13 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 13 
 1 
 
 76 
 3 
 8 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 1 
 
 'i 
 
 10 
 
 Alabama. . . 
 "West Virginia 
 Kentucky , . 
 Tenneffiee . . 
 Texas .... 
 Ohio .... 
 Indiana 
 Illinois . . 
 Missouri . . . 
 Michigan . . 
 
 
 15 
 11 
 24 
 26 
 
 1 
 102 
 
 4 
 14 
 17 
 
 WiBconsiir . 
 
 
 
 15 
 1 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 Utah Territory 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ■Washington Ter 
 Total. . 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 446 
 
 256 
 
 701 
 
 465 
 
 261 
 
 710 
 
 The following table shows the number of furnaces in the 
 United States in and out of blast at the close of 1881, as 
 compared with the close of 1880, separated according to the 
 fuel used : 
 
 
 December 31, 1880. 
 
 December 31, 1881. 
 
 Kind of fuel. 
 
 Inblmt. 
 
 Oat of 
 blast. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Inblast. 
 
 Out of 
 blast. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Bituminous ... 
 Anthracite ... 
 Charcoal 
 
 140 
 155 
 1.51 
 
 74 
 
 70 
 
 111 
 
 214 
 226 
 262 
 
 144 
 100 
 161 
 
 76 
 
 63 
 
 123 
 
 219 
 223 
 274 
 
 Total . 
 
 446 
 
 265 
 
 701 
 
 465 
 
 261 
 
 716 
 
 In 1881 there were built 26 new furnaces in the United 
 States. The building of 25 other fiimaces was commenced 
 but not completed. In the same year 12 furnaces were 
 abandoned. Detailed infonnation will be found in the fol- 
 lowing table : 
 
1024 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Stales and Territories. 
 
 Furnaces built 
 in 1881. 
 
 ]ptinuices Imild- 
 mg ill 1881. 
 
 FifnutceH ahan- 
 doned in 1881. 
 
 New York ... 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 1 
 6 
 
 10 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 6 
 
 Virginia . . .... 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 Kentucky ... ■. . . 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Illinois .... 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Michigan ... 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Colorado 
 
 California 
 
 Utah Territory ... 
 Washington Territory 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 " ' " 1 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 Total . 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 12 
 
 Production of Iron and Steel Bails in 1881. — Large as was 
 our production of rails in 1880, the production of 1881 was 
 very mucli larger. We give below, in both net and gross 
 tons, the total rail product of each of the four last vears : 
 
 Net tona . , 
 Gross tons . 
 
 1878. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 882,085 
 783,111 
 
 1,113,273 
 993,993 
 
 1,461,837 
 1,305,212 
 
 1,844,100 
 1,640,618 
 
 The increase in the rail production of 1880 over 1879 was 
 348,564 net tons, or 811,219 gross tons, whereas the increase 
 in the rail production of 1881 over 1880 was 382,263 net 
 tons, or 341,306 gross tons. The record of the last three 
 years is really marvelous, and in no other country could it 
 have beea possible. In 1881 we more than doubled the rail 
 production of 1878, the product of 1881 being 961,415 net 
 tons, or 858,407 gross tons, larger than that of 1878. The 
 production in 1880 was 31 per cent, greater than that of 
 1879, and the production of 1881 was 26 per cent, greater 
 than that of 1880. The total rail production of 1881 was as 
 follows, compared with the production of 1879 and 1880, net 
 tons being used: 
 
 Kind of rails. 
 
 Iron rails 
 
 Bessemer steel rails . 
 Open-heartli steel rails . 
 
 Total , 
 
 1879. 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 420,100 
 
 •683,004 
 
 9,140 
 
 1,113,273 1,461,837 1,844,100 
 
 1880. 1881. 
 
 Net torts. Net tons. 
 
 403,702 488,081 
 
 954,4n0 1,.330,302 
 
 13,015 25 217 
 
 The increase in the production of Bessemer steel rails in 
 1881 over 1880 was 375,842 net tons, or 89J per cent., and 
 the increase in the production of open-hearth steel rails was 
 11,602 tons, or 85 per cent. In the production of iron rails 
 in 1881 there was a decrease of 5,181 net tons upon the pro- 
 duction of 1880, or about one per cent. The production of 
 iron rails in this country must henceforth be annually less 
 than in either of the last two years. Iron rails cannot here- 
 after be made by our manufacturers in competition with 
 steel rails, except under the favorable circumstances which 
 were explained in our Annual Report for the year 1877, the 
 principal favorablecircumstancebeingthe comparativecheap- 
 ness with which old iron rails maybe rerolled at iron rail mills 
 located in sections of the country where there are no steel 
 rail mills. Their manufacture culminated in 1872, from 
 which year it steadily declined until 1879, in which year and 
 in the two following years there was a partial recovery in 
 consequence of the inability of the steel rail manufacturers 
 to supply the demand for their product. This inability no 
 longer exists. The following table gives the production of 
 iron rails in the United States in each of the last twelve 
 years, in net tons : 
 
 1870. 
 686,000 
 
 1871. 
 737,483 
 
 1872. 
 905,9.'10 
 
 1873. 
 
 701,062 
 
 1874. 
 684,409 
 
 1875. 
 ■ 601,649 
 
 1870. 
 467,168 
 
 1877. 
 332,.540 
 
 1878. 
 322,890 
 
 1879. 
 420,160 
 
 1880. 
 493,762 
 
 1881. 
 488,081 
 
 Included in the production of 1,330,302 net tons of Bes- 
 semer steel rails in 1881 were 77,173 net tons which were 
 produced mainly, but not entirely, from imported blooms. 
 Eleven mills in Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, 
 Tennessee, Illinois, and California rolled Bessemer steel rails 
 from purchased blooms. A few other mills have engaged to 
 
 roll rails from imported blooms in'1882. The business, how- 
 ever, cannot be expected to increase largely, if; indeed, it does 
 not actually decrease from this time forward. Twenty states 
 and one territory (Wyoming) produced rails in 1881. In 
 that year there were in these states and this territory 87 
 rail mills, of which 67 were active. Of these 87 mills two 
 were burned during the year — one at Topeka, Kansas, which 
 will not be rebuilt, and one at Atlanta, Georgia, which has 
 not yet been rebuilt. The following table shows the produc- 
 tion of rails of aU kinds, by states, in the order of their 
 prominence, in 1881 : 
 
 Slates. 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 Slates. 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 Pennsylvania ... 
 
 Illinois . . . . . 
 
 Ohio . . 
 
 New York ... 
 
 Missouri . 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Wyoming Territory . . 
 
 891,179 
 433,420 
 153,090 
 109,283 
 64,226 
 44,645 
 41,166 
 32,660 
 19,016 
 16,200 
 11,886 
 
 California . ... 
 
 Kentucky . ... 
 
 Georgia . . .... 
 
 West Virginia . . 
 Massachusetts . . 
 
 Alabama . 
 
 Maine 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Now Jersey 
 
 Total 
 
 6,036 
 0,005 
 4,000 
 3,162 
 2,622 
 2,300 
 2,183 
 1,643 
 640 
 244 
 
 1,844,100 
 
 The capacity of the Bessemer and open-hearth steel rail 
 mills of the country is now much larger than it was a year 
 ago, and is more than equal to the present demand. If 
 necessary we could produce in 1882 not less than 1,500,000 
 gross tons of steel rails, but it is doubtful whether our pro- 
 duct during the year will materially exceed that of 1881. 
 The production of street rails in 1881, which is included in 
 the total production for the year, amounted to 21,544 net 
 tons, of which 12,464 tons were of iron, 7,990 tons were of 
 Bessemer steel, and 1,100 tons were of open-hearth steel. 
 The production of street rails in the eight preceding 
 years was as follows: 1873, 9,430 net tons; 1874, 6,739 tons; 
 1875, 16,340 tons; 1876, 13,086 tons ; 1877, 7,016 tons; 1878, 
 9,229 tons; 1879,8,646 tons; 1880, 16,894 tons. The produc- 
 tion of iron and steel rails in this country since the begin- 
 ning of the manufacture of Bessemer steel rails in 1867 has 
 been as follows, in net tons: 
 
 
 Net tons of 2,000 pounds. 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Open-hearth 
 steel rails. 
 
 Iron rails, 
 all kinds. 
 
 Bessemer 
 steel rails. 
 
 Tolal. 
 
 1867 
 
 - 
 
 469,668 
 499,489 
 583,930 
 680,003 
 737,483 
 905,930 
 701,062 
 684,469 
 601,649 
 467,168 
 332,540 
 322,890 
 420,160 
 403,762 
 488,681 
 
 2,550 
 
 7,225 
 
 9,660 
 
 34,000 
 
 38,260 
 
 04,070 
 
 129,015 
 
 144,944 
 
 290,863 
 
 412,461 
 
 432,169 
 
 650,398 
 
 683,964 
 
 954,400 
 
 1,330,302 
 
 462,108 
 
 606,714 
 
 593,686 
 
 620,0110 
 
 775,733 
 
 1,009,000 
 
 890,077 
 
 729,413 
 
 792,512 
 
 879,029 
 
 704,709 
 
 882,685 
 
 1,113,273 
 
 1,461,837 
 
 1,844,100 
 
 1808 . . 
 1869 . . . 
 
 
 1870 . 
 
 
 1871 . . 
 
 1872 . . ... 
 1873 
 
 1874 ... . . 
 
 1875 ... . 
 
 1876 
 
 1877 . . . 
 
 1878 
 
 1879 
 
 1880 
 
 1881 
 
 ' 9,.307 
 
 9,149 
 
 13,015 
 
 25,217 
 
 The production of rails of all kinds in the United States 
 from 1849 to 1881 has been as follows, in net tons : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Net torn. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Net torn. 
 
 1849 . . 
 
 1850 . . 
 18.01. . 
 
 1852 . . 
 
 1853 . . 
 18.54. . 
 
 1855 . . 
 
 1856 . . 
 1857. . 
 
 24,318 
 44,083 
 60,003 
 02,478 
 87,804 
 108,016 
 138,074 
 180,018 
 161,918 
 
 1868 . . 
 1850 . . 
 1800 . . 
 
 1861 . . 
 
 1862 . . 
 
 1863 . . 
 
 1864 . . 
 1866 . . 
 1866. . 
 
 163,712 
 195,464 
 205,038 
 189,818 
 213,912 
 275,768 
 336, 36P 
 366,292 
 430,778 
 
 1867. . 
 1808 . . 
 
 1869. . 
 
 1870. . 
 1871 . . 
 1872. . 
 1873 . . 
 
 1874. . 
 
 1875. . 
 
 462,108 
 606,714 
 693,686 
 620,000 
 776,733 
 1,000,000 
 890,077 
 720,413 
 792,512 
 
 1876 . . 
 
 1877 . . 
 1878. . 
 
 1879 , . 
 
 1880 . . 
 1881. . 
 
 870,629 
 
 704,709 
 
 882,685 
 
 1,113,273 
 
 1,401,837 
 
 1,844,100 
 
 The manufacture of heavy iron rails (other than strap 
 rails) in this country was not commenced until 1844, when 
 they were first madeat the MountSavage Rolling Mill, in Alle- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1025 
 
 gheny county, Maryland. In previous reports it has been neces- 
 sary to state that a few tons of steel-headed rails were annu- 
 ally included in the production of iron rails. In 1881 no 
 rails of this character were reported to us. Pennsylvania's 
 share of the total production of rails in 1881 was 48 per 
 cent. ; Illinois came next, with 24 per cent. ; Ohio followed, 
 with 8 per cent. ; New York, with 6 per cent. ; Missouri, 
 with 3 per cent. ; Indiana, Wisconsin, and Tennessee, each 
 with 2 per cent. ; Kansas, with 1 per cent., and all other 
 states, each with less than 1 per cent. The increased pro- 
 duction of the two leading states — Pennsylvania and Illi- 
 nois — in 1881 over 1880 was at nearly the same rate, the 
 percentage of increase by Pennsylvania being 33 and that of 
 Illinois being 34. For the first time in many years, probably 
 for the first time since rails were first made in this country, 
 Maryland made no rails in 1881. Michigan has made no 
 rails since 1876. Maine made no rails in 1880, and New 
 Jersey made none in 1879 and 1880, but in 1881 both of 
 these states contributed small quantities of rails to the gene- 
 ral supply. Two Southern states — Virginia and Alabama 
 — had not made rails for many years prior to 1880, but in 
 that year they again commenced their manufacture, and in 
 1881 they largely increased their product. Of all the 
 Southern states, Tennessee is the largest producer of rails, 
 its production in 1881 amounting to 32,660 net tons — more 
 than the whole country made in 1849. The following table 
 will show approximately the consumption of all kinds of 
 rails in this country from 1867 to 1881, in net tons : 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Mcule in 
 VnUfd 
 Stales. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 ApproxiTnate 
 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Sleet. 
 
 cojuumption. 
 
 1867 
 
 1S68 
 
 1869 
 
 462,103 
 
 500,714 
 
 693,586 
 
 620,000 
 
 775,733 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 800,077 
 
 729,413 
 
 792,512 
 
 879,629 
 
 764,709 
 
 882.685 
 
 1,113,273 
 
 1,461,837 
 
 1,844,100 
 
 163,049 
 250,081 
 313163 
 
 626,167 
 750,795 
 906,749 
 
 1870 .• . . 
 
 1871 
 
 1872 . 
 
 399 
 606 
 381,064 
 99,201 
 7,796 
 1,174 
 287 
 None 
 None 
 19,090 
 132,459 
 137,013 
 
 153 
 202 
 149,786 
 159,671 
 100,515 
 18,274 
 None 
 36 
 10 
 26,057 
 168,230 
 249,309 
 
 1,019,163 
 1,341,935 
 1 630,860 
 
 1873 . . 
 
 1874 
 
 1875 
 
 1875 . . 
 
 1877 
 
 1878 . . 
 
 1879 
 
 1880 
 
 1,148,849 
 8.37,724 
 811,960 
 879,916 
 764,744 
 882,695 
 1,157,420 
 1,752,626 
 
 1881 
 
 2,230,422 
 
 In round numbers we may be said to have consumed 
 2,000,000 gross tons of rails in 1881. To fully realize how 
 enormous is this consumption, a simple calculation will 
 show that these 2,000,000 tons are sufiicient to lay a single 
 track 22,727 miles long with 66-pound rails ; or, in default 
 of fuller information, we may compare our consumption of 
 Bessemer steel rails alone in 1881 with that of some other 
 country in the same year. Of the production of 1,023,749 
 gross tons of Bessemer steel rails by Great Britain in 1881 
 there were exported 594,419 tons, leaving 429,321_ tons for 
 home consumption. The United States, however, imported 
 222,597 gross tons of steel rails (probably all Bessemer) in 
 addition to the 1,187,770 gross tons of Bessemer steel rails 
 produced at home, thus making its total consumption of 
 these rails 1,410,367 tons. The United States in 1881 there- 
 fore used 981,046 tons of these rails more than Great 
 Britain. 
 
 Production of Bessemer Steel in 1881. — ^The total quantity 
 of Bessemer steel ingots produced in the United States in 
 1881 was 1,539,157 net tons, or 1,374,247 gross tons. The 
 production in 1880 was 1,203,173 net tons; in 1879, 928,972 
 net tons ; in 1878, 732,226 net tons. The increased produc- 
 tion of 1881 over 1880 was 335,984 net tons, or 28 per cent. ; 
 over 1879 it was 610,185 net tons, or 66 per cent. ; and over 
 1878 it was 806,931 net tons, or 110 per cent. The produc- 
 tion of Bessemer steel ingots in this country in the ten 
 years from 1872 to 1881 has been as follows. 
 
 Tears. 
 1872 
 
 1873 . 
 
 1874 . 
 1875 
 1876 
 
 Net fens. 
 
 . 120,108 
 
 . 170,662 
 
 191,933 
 
 376,617 
 
 625,996 
 
 Tears. 
 1877. 
 1878. 
 1879 . 
 1880. 
 1881 . 
 
 Kei tons. 
 
 660,587 
 
 732,226 
 
 928,972 
 
 1,203,173 
 
 1,639,157 
 
 Bessemer steel ingots were produced in 1881 by 13 works, 
 65 
 
 of which 7 are in Pennsylvania. Two new works, both in 
 Pennsylvania, produced Bessemer steel in 1881 for the first 
 time. These works are those of the Pittsburg Bessemer 
 Steel Company, Limited, located at Homestead, near Pitts- 
 burg, having two converters, and the Pittsburg Steel Casting 
 Company, of Pittsburg, having but one converter. The 
 Pittsburg Bessemer Steel Company, Limited, made its first 
 blow on March 19, 1881, and the Pittsburg Steel Casting 
 Company made its first blow on August 26, 1 88 1 . The latter 
 company, as its name imports, intends to produce Bessemer 
 steel castings, but it also proposes to produce Bessemer steel 
 in other forms, a blooming mill being now in course of erec- 
 tion. Some extensions were made to old works in 1881, one 
 new works has been completed and put into operation since 
 the close of the year, and two new works are now in course 
 of erection. The newly completed works are those of the 
 Colorado Coal and Iron Company, located at South Pueblo, 
 Colorado, which made their first blow on April 11, 1882. 
 New Bessemer steel works at Scranton, in Pennsylvania, and 
 at Chicago, are expected to go into operation this year. 
 The new works at Chicago are owned by the North Chicago 
 Rolling Mill Company, but are located at some distance 
 froin the company's old works, and hence virtually form a 
 separate establishment, although not classified as such. 
 A comprehensive exhibit of the fifteen Bessemer steel works 
 of the country which are completed or in progress is as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 Names of companies. 
 
 Convertera. 
 
 Completed. 
 
 Btiilding. 
 
 Albany and Reneselanr Iron and Steel Company, Troy. 
 Bethlehem Iron Company, Bethlehem 
 
 Pennsylvania Steel Company, Steelton -j 
 
 Lackawanna Iron and Coal Company, Scranton . 
 
 Cambria Iron Company, Johnstown 
 
 Carnegie Bros. & Co., Limited, Bessemer 
 
 Pittsburg Bessemer Steel Co., 1 imited, Homestead . . 
 Pittsburg Steel Casting Company, Pittsburg . . 
 
 Cleveland Rolling Will Company, Cleveland 
 
 North Chicago EoUing Mill Co., Chicago (2 plants) . 
 
 Union Iron and Steel Company, Chicago 
 
 Jolict Steel Company, Joliet 
 
 St. Louis Ore and Steel Company, St. Louis 
 
 Colorado Coal and Iron Company, South Pueblo . . . 
 
 two 6^ ton 
 
 four 7-ton 
 
 two 6 W-ton 
 
 three 8-ton 
 
 two 7j^-ton 
 
 two 6-ton 
 
 three 10-ton 
 
 two 4-tott 
 
 one V-ton 
 
 two 10-ton 
 
 two ^-ton 
 
 two 51^-ton 
 
 two 51^-ton 
 
 two 6}4-ton 
 
 two 5-ton 
 
 two 10-ton 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 33 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 Only 30 converters were in use in 1881, Carnegie Brothers 
 & Co., Limited, having substituted three 10-ton converters 
 since the close of the year for their two 7-ton converters, 
 and the Colorado Coal and Iron Company having put its 
 two converters at work in 1882 for the first time. The 
 Cleveland Rolling Mill Company used two 6}-ton convert- 
 ers in 1881. The American producers of Bessemer steel 
 rolled 1,253,129 net tons, or 1,1 18,865 gross tons, of Besse- 
 mer steel rails in 1881. But this is not the whole quantity 
 of Bessemer steel rails rolled in the United States in that 
 year, as the iron rail mills of the country rolled 77,173 net 
 tons of these rails, chiefly from imported blooms. The total 
 quantity of Bessemer steel rails rolled in the United States 
 in 1881 was, therefore, 1,330,302 net tons, or 1,187,770 gross 
 tons. The following table shows the production of Bessemer 
 steel rails in the United States and Great Britain in 1880 
 and 1881, in gross tons : 
 
 1880. 1881. Increase. 
 
 Countries. Tons, Totu. Tons. 
 
 United States . 
 Great Britain . 
 
 852,196 1,187,770 
 739,910 1,023,740 
 
 3.35,674 
 283,830 
 
 Excess of United States oyer Great Britain . 112,286 164,030 61,744 
 
 The following table shows the production of Bessemer 
 steel ingots in the United States and Great Britain in 1880 
 and 1881, in gross tons : 
 
 1880. 1881. Increase. 
 
 Countries. Tons. Tons. Tons. 
 
 Great Britain . . . . 1,044,382 1,441,719 397,337 
 
 United States . 1,074,262 1,374,247 299,985 
 
 Excess of United States over Great Britain 
 Excess of Great Britain over United States 
 
 29,880 
 
 67,472 97,352 
 
 It will be seen from these tables that in 1880 the produc- 
 
1026 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tion of both Bessemer steel ipgots and rails by the United 
 States exceeded that of Great Britain, while in 1881 honors 
 were divided, the United States producing the most rails, 
 and Great Britain producing the most ingots. But how 
 unequal are all other elements of comparison in the Bessemer 
 steel practice of the two countries I The British production 
 of Bessemer steel in 1881 was made by 23 works with 82 
 converters in operation, while that of the United States 
 was made by only 13 works with 30 converters in opera- 
 tion. The average production of each converter in Great 
 Britain in 1881 was 17,582 gross tons of ingots, while 
 the average production of each converter in the United 
 States in the same year was 45,808 tons. In 1882 seven 
 more converters will probably be in use in the United 
 States, while in Great Britain there will be 41 more con- 
 verters available than were at work in 1881, of which 14 arc 
 new. The production of Bessemer steel rails in this country 
 in the iifteen years since 1867, when they were first made to 
 fill orders, has been as follows, in net tons : 
 
 Years. 
 
 JVcltoiM. 
 
 rears. 
 
 Net tone. 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Ncl lorn. 
 
 1807 
 
 2,.550 
 
 1S72 . . 
 
 94,070 
 
 1877 . . 
 
 432.109 
 
 1868 ... . 
 
 7,225 
 
 1873 .... 
 
 120,015 
 
 1878 . . 
 
 650,398 
 
 1809 
 
 0,060 
 
 1874 . . . 
 
 144,044 
 
 187D .... 
 
 083,904 
 
 1870 ... . 
 
 34,000 
 
 1875 . . 
 
 200,863 
 
 1880 . . 
 
 964,400 
 
 1871 
 
 38,250 
 
 1876 . . . 
 
 412,461 
 
 1881 . . 
 
 1,330,302 
 
 Island and Kentucky each had one open-hearth furnace in 
 1881 which was not in operation. The total number of 
 open-hearth furnaces in the country in 1881 was 44. The 
 production of blister and puddled steel and of "patented" 
 steel in 1881 was only 3,047 net tons, against 8,465 tons in 
 1880, and 5,464 tons in 1879. These branches of our steel 
 industry scarcely deserve a separate classification. The fol- 
 lowing table gives the production of these classes of steel 
 from 1874 to ls81, in net tons: 
 
 states. 
 
 1874. 
 
 1875. 
 
 1876. 
 
 1877. 
 
 1878. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1881. 
 
 New England . . 
 Now York. . . . 
 
 376 
 
 200 
 
 1,500 
 
 ' ioo 
 
 7,340 
 ' 3,007 
 
 
 
 102 
 220 
 
 960 
 215 
 
 72 
 617 
 
 200 
 
 139 
 
 652 
 
 7,601 
 
 1,700 
 
 214 
 
 
 
 Pennsylvania . . 
 Western States . 
 Southern States . 
 
 4,417 
 
 1,300 
 
 60 
 
 9,870 
 
 2,034 
 
 20 
 
 8,06D 
 75 
 
 3,004 
 
 1,000 
 
 205 
 
 6,658 
 
 1,018 
 
 100 
 
 2,113 
 
 734 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 6,353 
 
 12,007 
 
 10,306 
 
 11,924 
 
 8,656 
 
 6,464 
 
 8,465 
 
 3,04T 
 
 The small quantity of blister, puddled, and miscellaneous 
 steel which was made in this country in 1881 was produced 
 in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Kentucky, and Ohio. 
 
 Production of all Kinds of Steel in Recent Years. — ^The fol- 
 lowing table gives the production in the United States of 
 
 States. 
 
 1874. 
 
 1875. 
 
 1876. 
 
 1S77. 
 
 1S78. 
 
 1870. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1881. 
 
 New England . . . 
 
 New York . . . . 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Pennsylvania. . ... 
 
 Western States ... . . 
 
 1,600 
 
 2,090 
 
 8,164 
 
 23,289 
 
 570 
 
 100 
 
 1,620 
 2,300 
 7,008 
 26,015 
 1,600 
 208 
 
 1,098 
 
 2,300 
 
 6,806 
 
 28,217 
 
 7U0 
 
 261 
 
 1,974 
 2,032 
 6,749 
 27,983 
 1,400 
 202 
 
 1,602 
 
 2,800 
 
 7,377 
 
 30,685 
 
 480 
 
 62 
 
 1,608 
 
 2,300 
 
 8,051 
 
 43,014 
 
 005 
 
 2 
 
 660 
 3,600 
 10,387 
 67,077 
 
 800 
 
 2,780 ■ 
 
 4,901 
 
 14,500 
 
 60,200 
 
 1,2.31 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 36,323 
 
 39,401 
 
 39,382 
 
 40,400 
 
 42,006 
 
 60,760 
 
 72,424 
 
 80,702 
 
 Production of Crucible, Open-Hearth, Blister and Miscel- 
 laneous Steel in 1881. — The production of crucible steel 
 ingots in the United States in 18S1 was 89,762 net tons, 
 against 72,424 tons in 1880, and 56,780 tons in 1879. The 
 preceding table gives the production of crucible steel ingots 
 in various sections of the country from 1874 to 1881, in net 
 tons. 
 
 Seven states made crucible steel in 1881 — Massachusetts, 
 Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, 
 and Illinois. Pennsylvania, as has been the case for many 
 years, made in that year about three-fourths of the total 
 
 crucible steel ingots, blister steel, and steel made by various 
 minor processes, from 1865 to 1881, in net tons : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Net ions. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Net Ions. 
 
 1865 
 
 1866 . . . 
 
 1867 
 
 1868. . . . 
 1869 . ... 
 1870. . . . 
 
 15,202 
 18,073 
 10,000 
 21,500 
 23,000 
 35,000 
 
 1871 . . . . 
 
 1872 
 
 1873.. 
 
 1874 
 
 1875 
 
 1876. . 
 
 37,000 
 37,000 
 48,600 
 42,081 
 62,008 
 49,088 
 
 1877 
 
 1878 
 
 1870 
 
 1880 
 
 1881 
 
 62,354 
 51,462 
 02,244 
 80,889 
 92,809 
 
 
 
 
 Slates. 
 
 1S74. 
 
 1875. 
 
 1876. 
 
 1877. 
 
 1878. 
 
 1870. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1881. 
 
 New England 
 
 Pennsylvania and New .Jersey .... 
 
 Western and Southern States 
 
 6,300 
 1,700 
 
 3,010 
 
 4,240 
 1,800 
 
 6,085 
 7,547 
 7,858 
 
 6,652 
 7,771 
 10,003 
 
 8,228 
 12, 2:; I 
 16,667 
 
 14,660 
 
 10,5:6 
 
 22,0:.5 
 
 20,50) 
 60,7,-6 
 41,067 
 
 24,600 
 68,363 
 63,083 
 
 Total 
 
 7,000 
 
 9,060 
 
 21,400 
 
 2.1,031 
 
 30,126 
 
 56,200 
 
 112,053 
 
 146,946 
 
 
 production. The production of open-hearth steel ingots in 
 the United States in lb81 was 146,946 net tons, against 
 112,953 tons in 1880, and 56,290 tons in 1879. Our open- 
 hearth steel industry has made a rapid advance in late 
 years. In 1874 our total production of open-hearth steel 
 ingots was only 7,000 net tons. Rapid, however, as our 
 progress in the production of this class of steel has been, we 
 still fall far behind the production of Great Britain. In 
 1881 that country produced 338,000 gross tons, or 378,660 
 net tons, of open-hearth steel. The preceding table gives 
 the production of open-hearth steel ingots in the United 
 States from 1874 to 1881, in net tons. 
 
 Eight states made open-hearth steel in 1881 — New Hamp- 
 shire, Vermont, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, 
 Ohio, Tennessee, and Illinois. These states had 38 open- 
 hearth furnaces at work in 1881 and 4 furnaces idle. Rhode 
 
 The 
 
 following table gives 
 
 the production in 
 
 the United 
 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 Years. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bessemer steel 
 
 Oucift?(j steel 
 
 Open.he.arth 
 
 All other 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 ingots. 
 
 itigots. 
 
 steel ingots. 
 
 tleel. 
 
 1872 . . 
 
 120,108 
 
 20,260 
 
 3,000 
 
 7,740 
 
 160,108 
 
 
 170,052 
 
 34,786 
 
 3,600 
 
 13,714 
 
 222,052 
 
 1874 . . 
 
 191,933 
 
 36,328 
 
 7.000 
 
 6,363 
 
 241,014 
 
 1875 . . 
 
 375,617 
 
 39,401 
 
 9,060 
 
 12,607 
 
 436,675 
 
 1870 . . 
 
 625,900 
 
 30,382 
 
 21,400 
 
 10,306 
 
 697,174 
 
 1877 . . 
 
 600,687 
 
 40,430 
 
 25,031 
 
 11,924 
 
 6.37,072 
 
 1878 . . 
 
 732,220 
 
 42,006 
 
 36,120 
 
 8,666 
 
 819,814 
 
 1879 . . 
 
 028,072 
 
 66,780 
 
 66,200 
 
 6,464 
 
 1,047,608 
 
 1880 . . 
 
 1,203,173 
 
 72,424 
 
 112,963 
 
 8,405 
 
 1,307,016 
 
 1881 . . 
 
 1,630,167 
 
 80,702 
 
 146,946 
 
 3,047 
 
 1,778,012 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1027 
 
 States of all kinds of steel in the ten years from 1872 to 
 1881, in net tons. 
 
 An increase in our production of steel from 160,108 net 
 tons to 1,778,912 tons in ten years reads like a fable. The 
 figures are, however, reliable. They undoubtedly record 
 the greatest metallurgical achievement ever accomplished 
 by any country. 
 
 Production of Bars, Shapes, Plates, Sheets, and other Rolled 
 Iron in 1881. — By the term rolled iron we include (1) cut 
 
 nails and spikes; (2) bar, shaped, bolt, rod, skelp, and hoop 
 iron; (8) plate and sheet iron; and (4) all sizes of iron raihi. 
 Bessemer steel rails are not classed among rolled iron products. 
 The production of all kinds of rolled iron in the United 
 States in 1881, including iron rails, was 2,643,927 net tons, 
 against 2,332,668 tons in 1880, and 2,047,484 tons in 1879. 
 In the following table we give detailed statistics of the pro- 
 duction of the different forms of rolled iron in each of the 
 States in 1881, in net tons : 
 
 
 Bar, rod, 6oW, 
 
 hoop^ skelp and 
 
 shaped iron. 
 
 Net lout. 
 
 FlatRondtheei 
 
 iron, except 
 
 naU pUtte. 
 
 Net loM. 
 
 Cut nails. 
 
 Iron raih. 
 Net Ions. 
 
 TofciZ. 
 
 
 Kegs. 
 
 Ket Ions. 
 
 Net lout. 
 
 Maine 
 
 6,433 
 
 3,000 
 
 58,524 
 
 10,769 
 
 17,689 
 
 106,372 
 
 66,793 
 
 714,113 
 
 23,920 
 
 18,517 
 
 220 
 
 33,984 
 
 3,000 
 
 8,772 
 
 4,106 
 
 15,425 
 
 6,168 
 
 20,485 
 
 62,500 
 
 229,247 
 
 12,141 
 
 14,085 
 
 47,478 
 
 10,628 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 ?,183 
 
 7,616 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 3,000 
 
 Massachusetts .... 
 
 29,446 
 
 525,089 
 
 20,264 
 
 2,622 
 
 116,846 
 
 Ehodo Island 
 
 10,769 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 
 
 
 
 17,589 
 
 New York 
 
 New Jersey .... 
 
 Pennsylvania . . 
 
 DelaAvare 
 
 4.915 
 
 1,823 
 
 231,225 
 
 10,365 
 
 14,215 
 
 82 
 
 2,266 
 
 248,621 
 
 1,914,700 
 
 113 
 12,420 
 95,736 
 
 11,936 
 
 244 
 
 193,793 
 
 123,366 
 
 71,286 
 
 1,254,866 
 
 34,276 
 
 Maryland .... 
 
 
 
 
 32,732 
 
 District of Columbia . . . 
 
 
 
 302 
 
 Virginia . 
 
 127,606 
 
 6,378 
 
 640' 
 4,000 
 2,300 
 3,162 
 5,006 
 23,910 
 
 78,686 
 36,120 
 
 41,002 
 7,000 
 
 Alabama . . ... 
 
 11,072 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 Kentucliy. . 
 
 Tennessee .... 
 
 6,234 
 6,035 
 
 975 
 
 '37,327 
 4,600 
 6,920 
 
 1,241,102 
 69,000 
 94,495 
 320,490 
 352,043 
 860,005 
 
 02, aw 
 
 3,450 
 
 4,726 
 
 10,325 
 
 17,0.32 
 
 43,033 
 
 75,647 
 29,915 
 33,793 
 82,430 
 
 Illinois .... 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Missouri 
 
 148,818 
 
 346,727 
 
 16,641 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 20,605 
 
 
 
 41,165 
 19,016 
 
 ' 1,043' 
 11,886 
 6,036 
 
 88,643 
 
 
 29,644 
 
 Nebraska . . , , 
 
 
 
 31,067 
 
 1,683 
 
 1,683 
 
 
 2,306 
 
 3,286 
 
 14,204 
 
 
 3,949 
 
 
 15,172 
 
 
 
 
 
 19,839 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1,492,555 
 
 373,082 
 
 5,794,206 
 
 289,709 
 
 488,581 
 
 2,043,927 
 
 
 
 The following table gives the production of all kinds of 
 rolled iron in 1881 in each of the states, in net tons: 
 
 States. 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 Slates. 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Ohio 
 
 1,254,866 
 
 346,727 
 
 148,818 
 
 123,366 
 
 116,846 
 
 88,643 
 
 82,430 
 
 76,.'>47 
 
 71,286 
 
 41,002 
 
 34,278 
 
 33,793 
 
 32,732 
 
 29,915 
 
 29,544 
 
 Michigan 
 
 California 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Wyoming Territory .... 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Khode lilanil 
 
 Maine 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Colorado 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 District of Columbia .... 
 
 Total 
 
 20,605 
 19,839 
 
 Illinois 
 
 New York 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Indiana 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Delaware 
 
 17,689 
 16,641 
 16,172 
 11,072 
 10,709 
 7,616 
 7,000 
 3,949 
 3,000 
 1,683 
 
 
 302 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 
 2,643,927 
 
 
 The following table gives the production of bar, rod, bolt, 
 skelp, hoop, and shaped iron in 1881, in each of the states, in 
 net tons: 
 
 StaUs. 
 
 Net totu. 
 
 BtaUs. 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 714,113 
 229,247 
 106,372 
 68,624 
 66,793 
 62,600 
 47,478 
 33,984 
 23,920 
 20,485 
 18,617 
 17,589 
 16,425 
 14,685 
 
 California . . . 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Bhode Island 
 
 14,204 
 12,141 
 
 New York 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Illinoia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 10,769 
 10,528 
 8,772 
 6,433 
 6,158 ■ 
 4,106 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Maine 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 Wyoming territory .... 
 
 Delaware 
 
 3,286 
 3,000 
 
 Maryland 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 3,000 
 2,306 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 District of Columbia .... 
 Total 
 
 '220 
 
 
 1,492,555 
 
 
 
 The following table gives the production of plate and sheet 
 iron, except nail plate, in 1881, in each of the states, in net 
 tons: 
 
 Stales. 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 States. 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 
 251,225 
 37,327 
 29,446 
 14,215 
 10,355 
 6,234 
 6,036 
 
 Michigan 
 
 New York 
 
 Missouri 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Indiana 
 
 District of Columbia .... 
 
 Total 
 
 6,920 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Massachusetts . 
 Maryland . ... 
 
 
 4,945 
 
 4,500 
 
 1,823 
 
 975 
 
 West Virginia .... 
 
 
 82 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 
 
 
 373,082 
 
 The following table gives the production of cut nails in 
 1881 in each of the states, in kegs of 100 pounds : 
 
 Pennsylvania . 
 West Virginia 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Massachusetts 
 Illinois .... 
 Indiana . . . 
 New Jersey, . 
 
 Kegs of 100 
 pounds. 
 
 1,914,706 
 1,241,102 
 860,666 
 526,089 
 362,643 
 326,496 
 248,521 
 
 StaUs. 
 
 KegsofW) 
 pamtdA, 
 
 Virginia . . . 
 Tennessee . 
 Kentucky . 
 Nebraska . 
 New York . 
 
 Total 6,794,206 
 
 127,566 
 
 ■ 94,496 
 
 69,000 
 
 31,667 
 
 2,266 
 
 Our production of cut nails in 1881 (5,794,206 kegs) was 
 much the largest in our history. Our next largest produc- 
 tion was in 1880, when we produced 6,370,512 kegs. It is a. 
 noticeable fact that the production of cut nails in tMs 
 country has not in recent years advanced with the rapidity 
 that has characterized other branches of our iron and steel 
 industries. In 1873 our production was 4,024,704 kegs, an4 
 in 1874 it was 4,912,180 kegs. From 1874 to 1§79 the annual 
 production fluctuated between 4,00g^C!QQ anc|'§'ei06l,'06{l"t^, 
 
1028 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 in the latter year amounting to 5,011,021 kegs. The produc- 
 tion in 1880 and 1881 has been mentioned above. The fol- 
 lowing table gives the production of all kinds of rolled iron 
 in the United States from 1864 to 1881, in net tons: 
 
 
 Net Ions of 2,000 pomids. 
 
 
 Iron raiU. 
 
 OtJier rolled iron. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1864 
 
 1805 
 
 1806 ... 
 
 336,369 
 336,292 
 430,778 
 469,568 
 499,489 
 683,936 
 686,000 
 737,483 
 906,930 
 761,062 
 684,469 
 601,649 
 407,168 
 332,640 
 322,890 
 420,160 
 493,702 
 488,681 
 
 636,958 
 
 600,048 
 
 596,311 
 
 679,838 
 
 598,286 
 
 642,420 
 
 706,000 
 
 710,000 
 
 941,992 
 
 1,076,368 
 
 1,110,147 
 
 1,097,867 
 
 1,042,101 
 
 1,144,219 
 
 1,232,086 
 
 1,627,324 
 
 1,838,906 
 
 2,165,346 
 
 872,327 
 
 856.340 
 
 1,026,089 
 
 1867 
 
 1868 
 
 1809 ■ 
 
 1,039,396 
 1,097,775 
 1,226,366 
 
 1870 
 
 1871 
 
 1872 
 
 1,291,000 
 1,447,483 
 1,847,922 
 
 1873 . 
 
 1874 
 
 1875 
 
 1876 . 
 
 1877 .... 
 
 1878 . 
 
 1879 ■ 
 
 1880. . 
 
 1881 . . 
 
 1,837,430 
 1,694,616 
 1,599,516 
 1,609,269 
 1,476,769 
 1,655,676 
 2,047,484 
 2,332,608 
 2,643,927 
 
 It has been said that the puddling furnace and the iron 
 rolling mill must soon give way to the Bessemer converter, 
 the open hearth, and the steel rolling mill. The table just 
 given shows that in this country the puddling and rolling 
 of iron are steadily increasing. 
 
 ProdiKts. 
 
 Ket ions. 
 
 1873. 
 
 1874. 
 
 1875. 
 
 1876. 
 
 1877. 
 
 1878, 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1881. 
 
 Blooms and bil- 
 lets from ore . 
 
 Blooms from pig 
 and scrap iron 
 
 32,863 
 29,701 
 
 36,450 
 26,220 
 
 24,416 
 24,827 
 
 20,784 
 23,844 
 
 24,227 
 23,073 
 
 24,139 
 26,906 
 
 30,282 
 32,071 
 
 40,652 
 33,937 
 
 46,309 
 39,237 
 
 Total. . . . 
 
 62,564 
 
 61,670 
 
 49,243 
 
 44,628 
 
 47,300 
 
 60,045 
 
 62,353 
 
 74,589 
 
 84,606 
 
 As we have heretofore explained, blooms and billets from 
 ore are made chiefly in the Champlain district of New York, 
 and blooms from pig and scrap iron are made chiefly in Penn- 
 sylvania. The make of each of these products in the last 
 nine years is given on preceding column, in net tons. The 
 steady increase in their production in the last three years 
 is an interesting fact. 
 
 The following table shows the proportion of ore blooms 
 and billets made in New York in the past seven years, and 
 the proportion of pig and scrap blooms made in Pennsyl- 
 vania, in the same time, in net tons : 
 
 
 Net torn. 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Orehloomsand 
 biiUits made 
 in New York, 
 
 Total maJce of 
 ore Itlooms 
 and hUlettl. 
 
 Pig arid tcrap 
 hlonitutiuade in 
 Fennxijluaieia. 
 
 Total make of 
 pig and aorap 
 biooms. 
 
 1875 
 
 1878 
 
 1877 
 
 1878 
 
 1879 
 
 1880 
 
 1881 
 
 23,666 
 20,202 
 23,466 
 22,829 
 27,290 
 34,361 
 30,892 
 
 24,416 
 20,784 
 24,227 
 24,139 
 30,282 
 40,662 
 45,369 
 
 19,032 
 l:i,401 
 16,617 
 15,121 
 23,966 
 24,.319 
 28,342 
 
 24,827 
 23,844 
 23,073 
 25,906 
 32,071 
 33,937 
 39,237 
 
 The production of both products from 1865 to 1881 has 
 been as follows, in net tons : 
 
 Yearn. 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 1865 .... 
 
 1866 . 
 
 1867 . . . 
 
 1868 .... 
 
 1869 .... 
 
 1870 .... 
 
 63,977 
 73,555 
 73,073 
 76,200 
 69,500 
 62,259 
 
 1871 .... 
 1872.. . 
 1873 .... 
 1874. . . . 
 1875 .... 
 1876.. . . 
 
 63,000 
 58,000 
 62,564 
 01,670 
 40,243 
 41,628 
 
 1877. . . . 
 
 1878. . . 
 
 1879. . . . 
 
 1880. . . . 
 1881 .... 
 
 17,300 
 60,045 
 62,353 
 74,589 
 84,606 
 
 
 
 
 Total Production of Iron and /Steel in the United States in the 
 last Ten Years. — The annexed table shows the total produc- 
 tion of iron and steel in the United States in the ten years 
 from 1872 to 1881, in net tons : 
 
 Products. 
 
 Pig iron 
 
 Spiegeleisen,includedinplgiron 
 All rolled iron, including nails 
 
 and iron rails ....... 
 
 All rolled iron, including nails 
 
 and excluding rails 
 
 Kegs of cut nails and spikes, 
 
 included in all rolled iron . . 
 Bessemer steel rails . . . . 
 
 Open-hearth steel rails .... 
 Iron and all other rails. - . . 
 Kails of all kinds. . ... 
 
 Crucible steel ingots 
 
 Open-hearth steel ingots. . . . 
 
 Bessemer steel ingots 
 
 Miscellaneous steel 
 
 Steel of all kinds 
 
 Blooms from ore and pig iron . 
 
 Net tons of 2,000 pounds. 
 
 2,854,558 
 
 041,992 
 
 4,065,322 
 94,070 
 
 906,930 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 29,260 
 
 3,000 
 
 120,108 
 
 7,740 
 
 160,108 
 
 68,000 
 
 2,868,278 
 
 1,837,430 
 
 1,076,368 
 
 4,021,704 
 129,015 
 
 761,002 
 890,077 
 
 31,786 
 
 3,600 
 
 170,662 
 
 13,714 
 222,662 
 
 62,664 
 
 2,689,413 
 
 1,694,616 
 
 1,110,147 
 
 4,912,180 
 144,944 
 
 584,469 
 
 729,413 
 
 36,328 
 
 7,000 
 
 191,933 
 
 6,353 
 
 241,614 
 
 61,670 
 
 2,266,581 
 7,832 
 
 1,.599,516 
 
 1,097,867 
 
 4,726,881 
 290,863 
 
 601,649 
 792,612 
 
 39,401 
 
 9,060 
 
 376,617 
 
 12,607 
 436,576 
 
 49,243 
 
 2,093,236 
 6,616 
 
 1,509,260 
 
 1,042,101 
 
 4,157,814 
 412,461 
 
 467,168 
 879,629 
 
 39,382 
 
 21,490 
 625,996 
 
 10,306 
 697,174 
 
 14,628 
 
 2,311,686 
 • 8,845 
 
 1,476,759 
 
 1,144,219 
 
 4,828,918 
 432,169 
 
 332,640 
 761,700 
 
 10,430 
 
 25,031 
 660,687 
 
 11,921 
 637,972 
 
 17,300 
 
 2,577,361 
 10,674 
 
 1,556,576 
 
 1,232,686 
 
 4,396,130 
 
 550,398 
 
 9,397 
 
 322,890 
 
 882,685 
 
 42,906 
 
 36,126 
 
 732,226 
 
 8,566 
 
 810,814 
 
 60,045 
 
 3,070,875 
 13,931 
 
 2,047,484 
 
 1,627,324 
 
 6,011,021 
 
 683,904 
 
 9,119 
 
 420,160 
 
 1,113,273 
 
 66,780 
 
 66,29(1 
 
 9'2S,972 
 
 6,464 
 
 1,017,600 
 
 62,363 
 
 1880. 
 
 ISSl. 
 
 1,295,414 
 
 4,641,564 
 
 19,603 
 
 21,086 
 
 2,332,608 
 
 2,613,927 
 
 1,838,006 
 
 2,155,346 
 
 6,370,612 
 
 5,794,206 
 
 054,460 
 
 1,330,302 
 
 13,613 
 
 25,217 
 
 403,762 
 
 488,!i81 
 
 1,461,837 
 
 1,844,110 
 
 72.424 
 
 89,762 
 
 112,953 
 
 146,946 
 
 1,203,173 
 
 1,639,157 
 
 8,465 
 
 3,047 
 
 1,397,015 
 
 1,778,912 
 
 74,589 
 
 84,606 
 
 The Iron and Steel Production of Allegheny County. — The following table gives the production of iron and steel in 
 Pittsburg and the remainder of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, in 1881 and the seven preceding yeara, in net tons. 
 We scarcely need to explain that Allegheny county is the leading iron and steel producing county in the United 
 States : 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Nvmber 
 of iron 
 rolling 
 mills. 
 
 Product of iron 
 rails, bar, ajtgle, 
 bolt, rod and 
 hoop. Tons. 
 
 Product of sheet 
 and plats, ex- 
 cept nail plate. 
 Tom. 
 
 Product of 
 
 nails. 
 
 Kegs of 100 
 
 pounds. 
 
 Total rolled 
 iron, includ- 
 ing nails. 
 Net tons. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Number 
 
 0/ 
 
 blast 
 furnaces. 
 
 Make 
 
 of 
 
 pig iron. 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 Number 
 
 steel 
 works. 
 
 Net tons 
 
 cntcible 
 
 steel 
 
 ingots. 
 
 Net tntts all 
 otJier steel, 
 inc In ding 
 Bessemer 
 ingots. 
 
 Total make 
 
 °^, 
 steel. 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 1874 . . . 
 1876. . . 
 1876. . . 
 1877 . . . 
 1878. . 
 1879 . . 
 1880. . . 
 }«81 ,. . , 
 
 31 
 31 
 31 
 31 
 31 
 32 
 30 
 30 
 
 194,114 
 171.178 
 189,511 
 208,342 
 226,687 
 286,882 
 287,263 
 405,119 
 
 62,361 
 45,773 
 31,488 
 30,264 
 33,146 
 62,265 
 80,899 
 76,767 
 
 662,995 
 412,369 
 638,871 
 697,800 
 444,013 
 294,942 
 419,098 
 186,916 
 
 274,026 
 239,069 
 247,943 
 268,486 
 282, 333 
 353,894 
 389,107 
 605,182 
 
 1874 . . . 
 
 1875 . . . 
 
 1876 . . . 
 1877 
 
 1878 . . . 
 
 1879 . . . 
 
 1880 . . . 
 
 1881 . . . 
 
 11 
 11 
 11 
 12 
 12 
 13 
 16 
 15 
 
 143,600 
 131,866 
 128,655 
 141,749 
 217,299 
 267,316 
 SCO, 197 
 385,463 
 
 11* 
 11* 
 11* 
 14* 
 14* 
 18* 
 17* 
 17* 
 
 17,915 
 22,942 
 25,(1(19 
 24,747 
 27,866 
 40,142 
 52,136 
 61,266 
 
 6,000 
 16,498 
 64,467 
 82,401 
 106,948 
 130,781 
 169,819 
 247,346 
 
 23,016 
 38,440 
 79,476 
 107,148 
 134,814 
 170,923 
 221,955 
 308,601 
 
 
 
 
 * EcHHen 
 
 tier steel inclu 
 
 ded. Four of t 
 
 heso works ar 
 
 (ilrio iron r 
 
 oiling mills 
 
 
 
 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1029 
 
 It will be observed that Allegheny county has in late 
 years largely increased its production of all kinds of iron 
 and steel except cut nails, the production of -which was not 
 so large in 1881 as in each of the years 1874, 1876, and 1877 
 — all years of dull trade. Wheeling and its vicinity have 
 for many years formed a much more important nail-pro- 
 ducing district than Allegheny county. The contiguous 
 counties of Plymouth, Bristol, and Norfolk in Massachusetts 
 comprise another nail-making district which usually makes 
 more nails annually than Allegheny county. 
 
 Grand summary of llnited States statistics for 1881. 
 
 Production of pig iron in 1881, net tons 4,641,564 
 
 Productiun of Spiegelci^on in 1881 (included in pig iron), net tone . 21,086 
 Production of all rolled iron, including nails and excluding rails, in 
 
 1881, net tons 2,155,346 
 
 Production of cut nails and spikes in 1881, included in all rolled 
 
 irxjn, kegs of 100 pounds 6,794,206 
 
 Production of Bessemer steel rails in 1881, net tons ... . . 1,330,302 
 
 Production of open-hearth steel mils in 1881, net tons 25,217 
 
 Production of iron and all other rails in 1881, net tons 488,581 
 
 Total production of rails in 1881, net tons 1,844,100 
 
 Production of iron and steel street rails in 1881 (included above), 
 
 net tons . 21,554 
 
 Production of crucible steel ingots in 1881, net tons ... . . 89,702 
 
 Production of open-hearth steel ingots in 1881, net tons 140,946 
 
 Production of Bessemer steel ingots in 1881, net tons 1,539,157 
 
 Production of blister and '*p;itentcd" steel in 1881, net tons . . . 3,047 
 
 Production of all kinds of steel in 1881, net tons 1,778,912 
 
 Production of blooms from ore and pig iron in 1881, net tons . . 84,600 
 
 Imports of iron and steel in 1881 ... 861,555,078 
 
 Exports of iron and steel in 1881 gl5,782,282 
 
 Imi)orts of iron ore in 1881, gross tons 782,887 
 
 Production of Lake Superior u-on ore in 18S1, gross tons 2,336,335 
 
 Production of iron ore in New Jersey in 1881, gross tons . 737,052 
 
 Total production of iron ore in Census year 1880, net tons ... . 7,974,705 
 
 Production of anthracite coal in the Census year 1880, net tons . 28,046,995 
 
 Production of bituminous coal in tke Census j-ear 18S0, net tons . . 42,420,581 
 
 Production of anthracite coal in 1881, gross tons . 28,500,016 
 
 Miles of railway completed in 1881 9,C00 
 
 Miles of railway in the United States December 31, 1881 103,321 
 
 Miles of railw^ay track in the United States December 31, 1881, in- 
 cluding double track, sidings, etc. (estimated), 130,000 
 
 lion ships built in the United States in the fiscal year ended June 30, 
 
 1881 42 
 
 Net imports of foreign merchandise into the United States in the ten 
 
 months ended April 30, 1882 8579,462,510 
 
 Exports of domestic merchandise out of the United States in the ten 
 
 months ended April 3J. 18S2 $635,867,340 
 
 Net imports of specie into the United States in the ten months ended 
 
 April 30, 1882.% $35,875,247 
 
 Exports of domestic specie out of the United States in the ten months 
 
 ended April 30, 1882 $22,708,081 
 
 Immigronta into the United States in the calendar year 1881 .... 720,045 
 
 Name of mine. 
 
 MICHIGAN IRON AND COPPER'^TATISTICS. 
 
 FROM Mr. A. P. Swineford's "Annual Eeview of 
 Lake Superior Mines," we take the following sta- 
 tistics : 
 Iron Mines. — The following table exhibits the output of 
 the Lake Superior iron mines in 1881, together with the 
 approximate value of the same in the market: 
 
 Name of mine. 
 
 Argyle . . . 
 Barnum . . . 
 Bay State . . . 
 Bessemer . . 
 Boston . 
 Cambria . . 
 Champion 
 Cbapin ... 
 Cheshire . 
 Chicago . 
 Cleveland . 
 Columbia . . . 
 Commonwealth . 
 Conrad . 
 Cornell . . . . 
 
 Curry 
 
 Cyclops . . . . 
 Salliba .... 
 East Champion . 
 Kmmet . . 
 Florence . 
 Forest City . . . 
 
 Foster 
 
 Goodrich . 
 
 Hewitt 
 
 Humboldt . . . 
 Jackson . . . . 
 Keel Kidge . . . 
 Lake Angeline . 
 Iiake Superior . 
 Ludington . . 
 McComher . . . 
 
 4,5S4 
 
 2V,883 
 
 . 683. 
 
 15,718 
 
 14,824 
 
 19,245 
 
 146,427 
 
 134,621 
 
 7,449 
 
 6,531 
 
 193,569 
 
 11,158 
 
 97,410 
 
 365 
 
 11,810 
 
 17,.')34 
 
 13,044 
 
 10,980 
 
 3,408 
 
 048 
 
 100,501 
 
 1,895 
 
 3,011 
 
 10,245 
 
 4,352 
 
 26,302 
 
 118,939 
 
 19,011 
 
 13,060 
 
 3,374 
 28,051 
 
 ?43,548.00 
 
 204,888.50 
 
 3,166.60 
 
 91,949.00 
 
 140,828.00 
 
 106,122.50 
 
 1,454.270.00 
 
 1,076,168.00 
 
 40,969.60 
 
 30,420.50 
 
 1,886,405.50 
 
 89,264.00 
 
 608,812.50 
 
 3,372.50 
 
 94,528.00 
 
 149,038.00 
 
 101,162.00 
 
 60,423.00 
 
 27,264.00 
 
 3,564.00 
 
 552,755.00 
 
 10,422.60 
 
 16,560.60 
 
 69,154.00 
 
 34,816.00 
 
 249,869.00 
 
 1,024,500.50 
 
 152,088.00 
 
 123,720.00 
 
 2,185,570.50 
 
 26,992.00 
 
 164,280.60 
 
 Michigamme . 
 MihvauUie 
 Mitchell . . 
 14'ational . 
 Now York 
 Konvay 
 PcndiU .... 
 Perkins .... 
 Pittsburg and J.uk 
 Quinnescc . . , 
 jlcpublic . . 
 KolUngMill . 
 Saginaw .... 
 Salisbury . 
 Section 12 
 Spurr .... 
 Stephenson . . 
 Sterling . . . 
 Swanzey . 
 Taylor .... 
 
 Yulcan 
 
 West llcpublic 
 Wheat . . . 
 Winthrop . . 
 KiscellaneouB 
 
 Superior . 
 
 Total iron ore 
 
 Carp Kivcr . . . 
 Lake Fairbanks 
 
 Total quartz . . 
 Total ore and quartz , 
 
 57,272 
 
 31,635 
 
 21,140 
 
 24,833 
 
 50,074 
 
 137,077 
 
 1.3,580 
 
 60,400 
 
 39,276 
 
 43,711 
 
 23.3,780 
 
 1,066 
 
 30,793 
 
 43,690 
 
 13,243 
 
 2,746 
 
 10,850 
 
 4,702 
 
 V,502 
 
 9,449 
 
 65^274 
 
 7,:!54 
 
 9,040 
 
 4:i,030 
 
 1,237 
 
 2,321,315 
 
 8,460 
 6,660 
 
 2,336,335 
 
 Yahie, 
 
 $544,084.00 
 
 173,992.50 
 
 110,303.00 
 
 235,913.50 
 
 475,702.00 
 
 891,000.50 
 
 74,723.00 
 
 483,248.00 
 
 333,846.00 
 
 349,688.00 
 
 2,337,860.00 
 
 9,174.00 
 
 292,534.50 
 
 240,295.00 
 
 72,842.00 
 
 26,087.00 
 
 80,848.00 
 
 44,669.00 
 
 41,591.00 
 
 61,%U.60 
 
 682,192.60 
 
 09,803.00 
 
 76,840.00 
 
 239,965.00 
 
 6,803.00 
 
 $18,834,923.00 
 
 42,300.00 
 32.800.00 
 
 75,100.00 
 
 818,910,023.00 
 
 The following table shows the product of the Lake Su- 
 perior charcoal furnaces in 1881, together with its value in 
 market: 
 
 Jfanie of furnace. 
 
 Oro6s tons. 
 
 Yabie. 
 
 Pioneer 
 
 Menominee . .":.■ ' ' . .' 
 
 Florence , 
 
 *Carp Kiver Iron Co. 
 
 Jackson . .... 
 
 Deer Lake 
 
 Martel ... 
 
 17,030 
 
 8,3S0 
 
 714 
 
 10,253 
 4,080 
 7,831 
 4,109 
 
 $510,900 
 250,080 
 21,420 
 307,590 
 140,400 
 234,930 
 123,270 
 
 Total 
 
 62,953 
 
 81,688,590 
 
 
 * Three Stacks — Carp Kiver, Pacific and Excelsior. 
 
 The following table shows the a.^^ 
 working mines of this district, from 1856 
 — a. period of 26 years : 
 
 Name of mine, 
 Argyle . . 
 
 Barnum 
 Bay State . 
 Bessemer . . 
 .Boston 
 
 Cambria . . . 
 Chamxiion . . 
 Chapin . 
 Cheshire 
 Chicago . 
 Cleveland . 
 Columbia . . . 
 Commonwealth 
 Conrad . 
 Cornell . . . 
 Curry. . . . 
 Cyclops .... 
 Dalliba .... 
 Emmet .... 
 F^t Champioa 
 Florence . 
 Forest City . 
 Foster . 
 Goodrich . . 
 Hewitt . . . 
 Humboldt . . . 
 Jackson . . 
 Keel Bidge . . 
 Lake Angeline. 
 Lake Supei-ior . 
 Ludington . . 
 McComber . . 
 Michigamme . 
 Milwaukie 
 Mitchell . . . 
 
 e product of the 
 to 1881, inclusive 
 
 ftross t&n*. 
 
 228,091 
 
 487,906 
 14,799 
 87,023 
 31,302 
 65,703 
 
 975,903 
 
 169,077 
 
 87,179 
 
 15,510 
 
 2,329,064 
 
 82,033 
 
 107,053 
 4,794 
 42,6.'>7 
 62,188 
 79,198 
 10,986 
 60,003 
 64,264 
 
 114,644 
 1,895 
 
 108,949 
 41,606 
 4,352 
 
 486,495 
 
 2,195,162 
 
 30,507 
 
 626,697 
 
 2,606,456 
 
 12,190 
 
 252,345 
 
 443,247 
 45,718 
 75,731 
 
1030 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 .Namie o/ miiie. Grose tons. 
 
 National 01,085 
 
 New York 074,489 
 
 Norway . . 416,137 
 
 PendiU . 34,094 
 
 Pittsburg and Lake Superior ... 237,392 
 
 Perkins. 123,067 
 
 Quinneseo . • 104,026 
 
 Eepublic. . 1,425,309 
 
 EolUng Mill 221,814 
 
 Saginaw . . 420,774 
 
 Salisbury 237,842 
 
 Section 12 18,601 
 
 Spurr 146,612 
 
 Stephenson 34,123 
 
 Sterling 6,409 
 
 Swanzey 7,562 
 
 Taylor 10,669 
 
 Tulcan 272,617 
 
 West Republic 7,364 
 
 "Wheat 16,444 
 
 Winthrop 260,300 
 
 Quartz and mines not now working 625,426 
 
 Total • 17,642,443 
 
 The following table shows the aggregate product of all 
 the furnaces that have been built and put into operation on 
 the upper peninsula: 
 
 Name of /umace. 
 
 Pioneer (two stacks) 
 
 Northern 
 
 Collins 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Greenwood 
 
 Bancroft 
 
 Morgan 
 
 Champion . . 
 
 Deer Lake (two stacks) 
 
 Jackson (two stacks) 
 
 Bay (two stacks) ....,..., 
 
 Munising . , 
 
 Grace 
 
 Escanaba 
 
 Carp Elver Iron Co. (three etacka). 
 
 Menominee 
 
 Cliff. 
 
 Florence . . . 
 
 Martel 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gross tons. 
 171,592 
 15,059 
 41,997 
 41,631 
 40,202 
 64,618 
 67,673 
 31,048 
 37,513 
 118,411 
 60,706 
 28,312 
 11,346 
 
 8,650 
 75,685 
 45,776 
 
 8,209 
 714 
 
 4,109 
 
 843,251 
 
 The following is a statement in gross tons of the aggre- 
 gate product of the mines and furnaces for each year since 
 1853, together with the value of same: 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Ore. 
 
 Pig troll. 
 
 Ore andpiff. 
 
 Value. 
 
 18.56* 
 
 86,319 
 
 26,646 
 
 22,876 
 
 68,832 
 
 114,401 
 
 114,258 
 
 124,169 
 
 203,055 
 
 247,059 
 
 193,758 
 
 296,713 
 
 465,504 
 
 510,522 
 
 639,097 
 
 859,507 
 
 813,984 
 
 948,563 
 
 1,195,234 
 
 936,488 
 
 910,840 
 
 993,311 
 
 1,025,129 
 
 1,125,093 
 
 1,414,182 
 
 1,987,698 
 
 2,231,316 
 
 ' 1,629 
 
 7,268 
 
 6,660 
 
 7,070 
 
 8,590 
 
 9,813 
 
 13,620 
 
 K,9m 
 
 18,437 
 
 30,211 
 
 38,246 
 
 39,003 
 
 40,208 
 
 61,225 
 
 01,195 
 
 70,507 
 
 86,494 
 
 81,753 
 
 61,011 
 
 20,685 
 
 17,404 
 
 30,583 
 
 48,623 
 
 62,963 
 
 86,319 
 
 26,646 
 
 24,605 
 
 76,090 
 
 120,061 
 
 122,228 
 
 132,759 
 
 212,808 
 
 260,679 
 
 200,041 
 
 316,150 
 
 495,715 
 
 648,768 
 
 078,100 
 
 908,805 
 
 865,200 
 
 1,000,748 
 
 1,265,741 
 
 1,021,982 
 
 992,593 
 
 1,055,222 
 
 1,064,814 
 
 1,142,497 
 
 1,463,765 
 
 2,036,121 
 
 2,374,208 
 
 8258,067 
 
 70,938 
 
 133,788 
 
 576,529 
 
 736.496 
 
 775,832 
 
 984,977 
 
 1,416,935 
 
 1,867,216 
 
 1,690,430 
 
 2,405,960 
 
 3,476,820 
 
 3,992,413 
 
 4,968,4.36 
 
 0,300,170 
 
 6,116,895 
 
 9,188,056 
 
 11,396,887 
 
 7,592,811 
 
 6,788,763 
 
 6,397,786 
 
 6,299,608 
 
 6,884,4,32 
 
 11,413,114 
 
 10,467,427 
 
 20,408,613 
 
 1867 
 
 1858 
 
 1859 
 
 1860 .*. 
 
 1861 
 
 1862 
 
 1863 .... 
 
 1864 
 
 1865 
 
 1866 
 
 1867 
 
 1868 
 
 1869 
 
 1870 
 
 1871 
 
 1872 
 
 1873 
 
 1874 
 
 1875 
 
 1876 
 
 1877 
 
 1878 
 
 1878 
 
 1880 
 
 1881 
 
 
 Total 
 
 17,642,443 
 
 843,251 
 
 18,485,094 
 
 $138,692,275 
 
 "■■And previous. 
 
 La/ce Superior Iron in ISSS.—The Marquette Mninfj Jour- 
 nal thus continues the figures for the first half of 1882 : 
 The following is a statement of lake shipments of iron ore 
 and pig iron for the season up to and including July 5 
 1882 ; 
 
 ESCAKABA — MAnQUETTE PISTKICT. 
 
 Name of mine. Gross tons^ 
 
 Angoline 2,446 
 
 Angelino, hematite 2,100 
 
 Barnum 13,086 
 
 Bay Stale 1,103 
 
 Bessemer . . 13,590 
 
 Cambria 13,515 
 
 Cleveland 22,958 
 
 Cleveland, hematite ., 9,422 
 
 Foster ... 1,517 
 
 Goodrich , . . . 3,373 
 
 Jackson 25,302 
 
 Jackson South 7,272 
 
 Jackson West 2,057 
 
 Lowthian. 2,291 
 
 McComber 10,871 
 
 Michigamme 6,1G4 
 
 Name of mine. Gross ton*. 
 
 MitcheU 8,996 
 
 National 11,315 
 
 New York 20,260 
 
 New York Hematite ti58 
 
 Pittsburg and Lake Superior 15,003 
 
 Quartz ... . ... 927 
 
 Saginaw 4,505 
 
 Salisbury 12,701 
 
 Section 12 2,138 
 
 Lake Superior 27,116 
 
 Lake Superior, hematite. , , 2,030 
 
 Wheat 3,281 
 
 Swanzey 9,904 
 
 Winthrop 2,551 
 
 Total 245,059 
 
 MENOMINEE DISTRICT. 
 
 Ncvme of mine. Gross toTia. 
 
 Chapin 98,096 
 
 Commonwealth. .... 68,328 
 
 Curry 6,282 
 
 Cyclops 4,018 
 
 Eagle . 19,521 
 
 riorence 40,907 
 
 Hewitt 4,318 
 
 Keel Kidge 11,433 
 
 Ludington 4,910 
 
 Name of mine, Grosa tons. 
 
 Lowell 5,029 
 
 Norway 61,588 
 
 Perkins 29,532 
 
 Quinnesec . . 17,231 
 
 Vulcan 34,119 
 
 Total 
 
 Grand total from Escanaba . 
 
 MAEQTJETTE — MABQUETTE DISTniCT. 
 
 Name of mine. Gross tons. 
 
 Hilwaukie 16,094 
 
 Cleveland 43,564 
 
 Lake Superior 63,330 
 
 Lowthian 11,129 
 
 Winthrop 7,877 
 
 Saginaw 4,602 
 
 MitcheU 4,550 
 
 Humboldt 12,802 
 
 WestKepublic 7,979 
 
 Republic 94,713 
 
 Columbia 1,847 
 
 Champion 67,584 
 
 Boston 3,568 
 
 Sterling 1,404 
 
 Dalliba 15,431 
 
 Argyle 3,635 
 
 New Burt 838 
 
 East Champion 602 
 
 Total from Marquette . . . 361,548 
 
 L^ANSE. 
 
 Taylor 5,530 
 
 Michigamme 8,998 
 
 Spurr 1,742 
 
 Total from L'Anse . 
 
 16,276 
 
 Name of mine. Gross tont. 
 
 Pig iron. 
 
 Carp River Iron Co.'s Furnaces *345 
 
 Pioneer Furnace . . . 839 
 
 Deer Lake 85 
 
 Total pig iron . . 
 
 l,2i 
 
 * Does not include shipments 
 from furnace dock. 
 
 Ore to local points 20,088 
 
 Total ore and pig iron . . 399,181 
 
 6T. IGNACE — IttON OBE. 
 
 . 8,346 
 
 ... 5S4 
 
 Lake Superior 
 Columbia . 
 
 Total from St. Ignace . . . 8,930 
 Pig iixtn. 
 Carp River Iron Co.'s furnaces . 1,009 
 
 Total pig iron 1,009 
 
 Quartz. 
 Powell Bros. & Co . ... 509 
 
 Total ore, pig iron and quartz 10,448 
 
 The following table exhibits, in gross tons, the total lake 
 shipments of iron ore from upper peninsula ports ihe pres- 
 ent season up to and including July 6, 1882, together with 
 the amount shipped during a corresponding period last year : 
 
 Name of port. 
 
 1881. 
 
 1882. 
 
 
 437,662 
 
 184,045 
 
 15,701 
 
 640,271 
 
 361,648 
 
 16,276 
 
 8,930 
 
 Marquette 
 
 L'Anse ', ' ' 
 
 St. Ignace 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 637,308 
 
 1,027,025 
 
 
 Showing an increase of 389,657 tons. 
 
 ac9^Aoo^^ 889,657 tons increase in the lake shipments, 
 220,436 tons comes from the mines of Marquette county, and 
 169,221 tons from the Menominee range. Of the entire 
 lake output Marquette county has contributed 631,813, and 
 the Menominee range 395,212 gross tons. Increase in ship- 
 ments from Escanaba, as compared with last year, 202 709 
 tons, from Marquette 177^503 tons, and from L'Anse 515 
 tons, the balance of the increase beiiig accounted for by 
 8,930 tons shipped via St. Ignace. The aggregate ship- 
 ments up to July 5— less than half the season— were never 
 exceeded in any one year previous to 1878, with the single 
 
 f"^ o^rPio°." °^ ^^^^' ^'^ '''■^•^'^ ys'i'" the total output was 
 1,190,234 tons. We very much fear, however, that there 
 may be a gradual falling off during the remainder of the 
 season; an unusual effort has been made to forward ship- 
 ments in order to take all possible advantage of the prevail- 
 ing low rates of lake carriage, which are likely to advance 
 immediately after harvest. The strikes among the iron 
 
THE MINES, MINEKS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1031 
 
 workers, should they continue, will likewise have a bad 
 effect on the ore market, as in that event it is not likely that 
 any new contracts can be made for this season's delivery. 
 Consequently, the JUining Journal will not be surprised 
 if, at the end of the year, the figures which now point 
 toward a product of nearly, if not quite, 3,000,000 tons, 
 should show only a slight increase, if any at all, over last 
 year's output. 
 
 Copper. — The copper district of Laks Superior embraces 
 the counties of Houghton, Keweenaw, Ontonagon, and Isle 
 Koyale. The following table shows a list of the mines 
 wrought in 1881, together with the product (refined copper) 
 of each, and the aggregate market value : 
 
 Name of mu)«. 
 
 Adventure . . 
 
 Allonez 
 
 Arcadian 
 
 ABh Bed . 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 Aztec 
 
 Calunlot andHecla . 
 
 Central 
 
 Cliff 
 
 Concord . . 
 Conglomerate 
 Copper Falls . . 
 Evergreen Uluff . . 
 riint Steel Eivcr . . 
 Franklin .... 
 Grand Portage . 
 Hancocli . ... 
 
 Huron ... 
 Isle Royal ... 
 
 Madison 
 
 Mass . . . 
 Minnesota ... 
 Minong . . 
 Nonesuch , , . 
 Oginia ... 
 
 Osceola 
 
 Powabic 
 
 Phoenix .... 
 Qnincy .... 
 
 Kidge 
 
 Shelden-Columbian . 
 
 Star 
 
 St. Clair .... 
 
 Total. 
 
 2 
 
 1,338 
 
 13 
 
 285 
 
 127 
 
 23 
 
 27,274 
 
 1,600 
 1,007 
 
 367 
 
 1,984 
 
 9 
 
 874 
 
 781 
 
 406 
 1,382 
 
 849 
 
 91 
 
 1,121 
 
 9G8 
 1,402 
 1,032 
 
 264 
 1,897 
 
 615 
 1,308 
 1,634 
 1,084 
 
 227 
 1,397 
 1,061 
 
 776 
 1,976 
 
 244 
 1,367 
 
 848 
 
 1,006 
 
 31 
 
 758 
 1,493 
 
 81,368 75 
 
 268,82.'! 67 
 
 431 97 
 
 2,652 08 
 
 461,361 65 
 
 1,619 50 
 
 5,723,342 63 
 
 258,869 86 
 
 14,487 21 
 
 6,264 95 
 
 70,461 60 
 
 122,114 58 
 
 176 66 
 
 985 86 
 
 488,722 59 
 
 4,793 18 
 
 104,371 20 
 
 46,448 98 
 
 8,033 71 
 
 279 96 
 
 85,352 33 
 
 4,421 13 
 
 2,809 95 
 
 21,728 63 
 
 3,061 62 
 
 762,845 62 
 
 342,414 63 
 
 74,707 65 
 
 1,004,999 76 
 
 42,998 10 
 
 1,830 66 
 
 138 33 
 
 22,902 60 
 
 The following table shows the product (refined copper) of 
 the Lake Superior copper mines for each year since 1854, 
 together with the average value. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Totw. 
 
 PoilTKis. 
 
 roliie. 
 
 18.T4 and previous 
 
 6,992 
 
 1,727 
 
 $3,146,400 
 
 1855 . . .... 
 
 2,904 
 
 1,.334 
 
 1,586,160 
 
 1856 
 
 4,108 
 
 1,392 
 
 2,218,320 
 
 18.'">7 
 
 4,705 
 
 830 
 
 2,382,600 
 
 
 4,679 
 4,463 
 
 1,916 
 
 1,995 
 
 2,129,235 
 
 1859 . . ... 
 
 2,239,691 
 
 1800 . . . . . . . ■ 
 
 6,034 
 
 375 
 
 2,664,960 
 
 1861 . 
 
 7,619 
 
 837 
 
 3,487,995 
 
 1862 . . . 
 
 6,793 
 
 328 
 
 3,634,265 
 
 1863 
 
 6,492 
 
 1,344 
 
 4,415,600 
 
 1864 ... 
 
 6,245 
 
 1,965 
 
 5,870,300 
 
 1865 
 
 7,179 
 
 683 
 
 6,635,515 
 
 1866 ... . - 
 
 0,875 
 
 63 
 
 4,629,375 
 
 1867 . 
 
 8,763 
 
 1,007 
 
 4,442,841 
 
 1S68 . . ... 
 
 10,467 
 
 124 
 
 4,940,624 
 
 18G9 ... ... 
 
 13,312 
 
 1,300 
 
 6,230,016 
 
 1870 . . . ■ 
 
 12,311 
 
 849 
 
 6,0%,762 
 
 1871 
 
 12,873 
 
 349 
 
 6,728,485 
 
 1872 
 
 12,276 
 
 1,623 
 
 7,979,400 
 
 1873 
 
 15,045 
 
 l,.50o 
 
 8,726,100 
 
 1874 
 
 17,166 
 
 1,389 
 
 8,009,356 
 
 1875 
 
 18,019 
 
 1,497 
 
 8,180,626 
 
 1876 
 
 19,135 
 
 997 
 
 7,998,430 
 
 1877 
 
 19,513 
 
 671 
 
 7,327,888 
 
 1878 . . 
 
 20,845 
 
 1,266 
 
 6,920,540 
 
 1879 
 
 21,425 
 
 1,529 
 
 7,327,350 
 
 
 24,869 
 
 3G7 
 
 9,947,673 
 
 1881 
 
 27,274 
 
 1,708 
 
 9,955,321 
 
 Total 
 
 328,328 
 
 1,370 
 
 $152,671,458 
 
 These copper tables have been compiled from figures 
 kindly furnished by Mr. Wright, Commissioner of Mineral 
 Statistics. 
 
 New Jersey. — Professor George H. Cook, the State 
 Geologist of New Jersey, in his annual report for 1881 places 
 the production of iron ore in that State in the year men- 
 tioned at 737,052 gross tons. The production of 1880 was 
 745,000 tons. Statistics of the production of iron ore in 
 New Jersey during the past decade, and the estimated pro- 
 duction at various intervals in preceding years, in gross tons: 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Grom tons 
 
 Tear,. 
 
 Groat torn. 
 
 1790 
 
 1830 
 
 10,000 
 20,000 
 100,000 
 164,900 
 226,000 
 275,067 
 362,636 
 450,000 
 
 1872 
 
 1873 
 
 600,000 
 666,000 
 
 1855 
 
 1860 
 
 1874 
 
 1875 
 
 1878 
 
 1879 . . .... 
 
 1880 
 
 1881 . . . 
 
 525,000 
 390,000 
 
 1864 . 
 
 1807 
 
 409,674 
 488,028 
 
 1870 
 
 1871 . 
 
 746,000 
 737,052 
 
 Foreign Tables— Lead Production in Germany. 
 
 1881. 
 « Tons. 
 
 Mechemich Mining Co 22,409 
 
 Rhenish Nausau Mining Co 7,200 
 
 Stolberg Mining Co 13,996 
 
 Conunemer Mining Co 
 
 A. Poensgen and Sons 
 
 Hothenbach Smelting Worka 
 
 Giesche'sErben 
 
 Harz Prussian Government Mines 
 
 Tamowitz . . . . 
 
 Freiberg Saxon . . 
 
 Hemy UofTman 
 
 Goldschmidt 
 
 1880. 
 Tom. 
 
 20,275 
 8,611 
 
 13,975 
 
 2,120 
 
 2,900 
 
 57 
 
 6,258 
 
 10,159 
 7,436 
 6,107 
 6,395 
 
 85,989 85,362 
 
 More than one-quarter of the whole production in Ger- 
 many is produced by the Mechernich Mining Company 
 from their own ores. This company produces only selected 
 lead, and the ready sale and good prices which they obtain 
 for their brand enabled them to pay twelve per cent, divi- 
 dend last year, a highly satisfectory result considering the 
 dull state of the lead market during last year. — London 
 Mining Journal. 
 
 Production of the Mines of Gtreat Britain in 1881. 
 — ^From a report on his district, kindly sent us by Dr. Le 
 Neve Foster, of Llandudno, we take the following figures in 
 statute tons on the production of the mines of Great Britain 
 in 1881 : 
 
 1881. 
 
 Coal 164,184,300 
 
 Ironstone .. .. . . 11,838,766 
 
 3,244,667 
 
 11,764 
 
 ... . . . . . 3,660 
 
 .... 14,322 
 
 ... 7,732 
 
 62,683 
 
 687 
 
 ... . 373 
 
 1,201 
 
 ... . 63,445 
 
 ... 2.33 
 
 ... . 2,737 
 
 197,631 
 
 1,830,000 
 
 11,788 
 
 34,135 
 
 The ores enumerated of course are those only which were 
 mined in the country. The vast quantities of foreign ores 
 and products worked in England are not included. — From 
 Coal. 
 
 Belgium Spelter. — One of the ^eatest spelter produc- 
 ing districts of the world is that of Liege, Belgium. Accord- 
 ing to M. Van Scherpenzeel's annual report, the eleven 
 works of the province treated 19,200 tons of Belgian ores 
 and 145,900 tons of foreign ores, of which 40,000 tons came 
 from Greece, 39,000 tons from Italy, 35,000 tons from Spain, 
 13,000 tons from Sweden, 18,000 tons from Germany, and 
 3,800 tons from France. Some of our franklinites are also 
 worked in the same district: 375,000 tons of coal were burnt 
 in working them. The product reached the enormous total 
 of 69,800 tons, or about 10,000 tons more than the preceding 
 year. With such heavy supplies weighing down the Euro- 
 pean markets, and the German works increasing steadily 
 though not as rapidly, it is not surprising that a strong pres- 
 sure is brought to bear in our Eastern markets, which oefore 
 the close of this month have been forced to absorb nearly 
 6,000 tons of foreign metal. — From Coal. 
 
 Iron ore 
 
 Iron pyrites 
 
 Arsenic (obtained at the mines) 
 Arsenical pyrites ... 
 
 Banxite 
 
 Copper ore 
 
 Copper precipitate , , 
 
 Fluor.6par 
 
 Canister 
 
 Lead ore (dressed). . 
 
 Lead ore (undressed) 
 
 Manganese ore 
 
 Bock salt 
 
 Brine salt 
 
 Tin ore, dressed (block tin) . . 
 Zinc ore . 
 
1032 
 
 T?HE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 THE COAL TRADE IN THE UNITED 
 STATES IN 1881. 
 
 FROM Coal we take the following review of the coal 
 interests during 1881: Anthracite — January — The 
 year opened with a stock of only 500,273 tons in 
 the hands of the companies and an extraordinary 
 large demand caused by very severe weather. Before the 
 end of the month, many dealers and consumers who were in 
 the habit of putting in full supplies before the close of nav- 
 igation, found that their stocks were becoming exhausted 
 and they were- compelled to order shipments by rail. The 
 demand from the West and South was beyond the ability of 
 the railroads to furnish transportation. Water routes were 
 frozen up, and steam power had to be substituted in many 
 instances. Prices strengthened, and the outlook was most 
 favorable. In December, 1880, an arrangement was made 
 to work but three days in the week during the remainder of 
 the month, and up to February 1st. The demand was so 
 great that during the third week of this month the com- 
 panies were compelled to work full time, to meet the re- 
 quirements of consumers. It may be stated, however, that 
 the severity of the weather was so great as to bring about 
 an unexpected curtailment, the mines being unable to pro- 
 duce and the railroads to carry the usual quantity of coal. 
 There was at the same time great trouble in moving the 
 coal from the shipping ports, owing to the accumulation of 
 ice. The shipments this month were 1,672,615 tons. Stocks 
 were reduced 82,387 tons, and were, at the end of the month, 
 417,885 tons. 
 
 February. — ^This month opened with very cold weather 
 and snow-storms, so that the consumption of coal was very 
 large, and the inability to move it great, owing to the rail- 
 roads being blocked with snow and the harbor almost block- 
 ed with ice. Early in the month, however, the weather 
 became milder, and new orders became less abundant, al- 
 though the companies had orders more than suificient to 
 take all their coal, and prices were very firm. During the 
 beginning of the month, coal was so scarce in this city that 
 the retailers were enabled to advance their prices 50 cents a 
 ton and the demand was so great that the companies took 
 no action relative to curtailing production. However, the 
 severe weather of the early part of the month and the crip- 
 pled condition of the motive power of the coal-carrying 
 roads acted as a curtailing influence. The shipments for 
 the month amounted to 2,118,174 tons, making an excess of 
 729,938 tons for the two months of the year, as compared 
 with the corresponding months of 1880. The stocks were 
 reduced by 22,599 tons to the very small aggregate of 395,286 
 tons, or but little more than half a week's production. 
 
 March. — This month opened with prices slightly lower, 
 and the demand so much reduced that a reduction of output 
 was considered necessary. No action was taken, however, 
 until the 17th, when it was resolved to work but three days 
 a week during the following fortnight. Buyers were mak- 
 ing hand-to-mouth purchases in expectation of lower prices 
 and lower rates of freight. The line and Western trade was 
 so great that demoralization was prevented in this market. 
 The delay in action on the part of the companies began to 
 destroy confidence in their settling upon any plan for regu- 
 lating trade, and as a consequence orders began to be can- 
 celed on one pretext or another. At the meeting at which 
 it was decided to curtail production, it was the predominant 
 sentiment that a reduction of prices to induce spring pur- 
 chases was unnecessary and unwise ; but shortly afterward, 
 the Pennsylvania Coal Company issued a circular making a 
 reduction, and all the other companies followed the example 
 by issuing circulars showing a reduction of 10@25 cents in 
 prices. By the end of the month, both demand and supply 
 were better. The shipments of coal this month amounted 
 to 2,225,842 tons, and the total shipments from January 1st 
 exceeded those for the first three months of the previous 
 year by 1,208,903 tons. Stocks aggregated 563,063 tons, an 
 increase during the month of 167,777 tons. 
 
 AprU. — A curtailment of production by working but three 
 days during each of the first three weeks produced a steady 
 improvement; but it was characteristic of the managers that 
 they could not leave well enough alone, but must agree to 
 full time work during the fourth week, with the result of 
 
 weakening prices once more. On the 15th, the Western 
 Association established prices 55@60 cts. per ton lower than 
 were current immediately previous to its action. The ship- 
 ments were 1,945,855 tons, making an increase for the first 
 four months of this year, as compared with the like period 
 of 1880, of 1,138,118 tons. The stocks were 528,198 tons, a 
 decrease of 34,865 tons, as compared with the stocks at the 
 end of the previous month. 
 
 May. — This month furnishes but little worth recording. 
 During the first week, the mines were worked each day, 
 while during the remaining weeks they produced but three 
 days each week. The production was moved at fairly steady 
 prices, which were not in all cases equal to circular rates. 
 The free-burning coals were a little difficult to sell. The 
 shipments were 2,086,743 tons. For the first five months of 
 the year, they exceed those for the corresponding period of 
 1880 by 1,573,780 tons. The stocks at the end of the month 
 were 562,719 tons, having increased 34,521 tons. 
 
 jMTie.— Some of the companies were so well supplied with 
 orders that they would not consent to more than six days' 
 curtailment. The larger production all around gave trouble 
 to those whose order-books were not well covered, and prices, 
 as a consequence, were a shade weak. The business, however, 
 was a remakarbly good one for the season of the year. The 
 month, and the first half of the year, closed with a scarcity of 
 vessels, and indications of higher prices for coal and freights 
 in the early future. The shipments for the month were 
 2,418,238 tons; for the first six months, 12,467,496 tons; for 
 the first six months of 1880, 10,312,120 tons ; an increase for 
 the first six months of 1881 of 2,155,376 tons. Stock at the 
 end of the month, 598,565 tons, an increase of 35,846 tons 
 for the month, and 180,680 tons for the six months. 
 
 July. — During the first half of July, there was a curtail- 
 ment of three days' work (the last for the year), and prices 
 were steady or improving. During the last, however, too 
 much coal was mined, and prices were weaker. Vessels be- 
 came scarce and freights higher. The shipments were 
 2,570,100 tons, making the total production 3,090,680 tons 
 greater than for the first seven months of 1880. Stocks ag- 
 gregated 674,716 tons, an increase of 76,151 tons for the 
 month. 
 
 August. — This was a remarkable month. The production 
 was very large and it was thought that coal was accumula- 
 ting, but at the end of the month it was found that the coal 
 was all taken and stocks slightly reduced, a misapprehension 
 which caused an irregularity of prices. The demand on the 
 line was very great, while the Western demand was beyond 
 the ability of the companies to secure the necessary trans- 
 portation to meet it. The movement to the East was great- 
 er, owing to an improved supply of vessels ; but as this was 
 still small, the rates of freight were high and the movement 
 not so large as it might otherwise have been. The shipments 
 reached the enormous total of 2,733,548 tons, making an in- 
 crease from January 1st, as compared with the like period 
 of the previous year, of 3,928,712 tons. Stocks at the end 
 of the month aggregated 852,943 tons, a decrease of 21,773 
 tons. 
 
 September. — The production was somewhat curtailed by a 
 scarcity of labor and water at the mines, while the move- 
 ment of coal was not so great as it might have been, owing 
 to a scarcity of vessels at the seaboard and of cars for meet- 
 ing the Western demand. Prices were a little irregular, 
 which was largely due to the fact that the Delaware & Hud- 
 son Canal Company offered what is called " off colored " 
 coal at a concession. During this month, President Gar- 
 field died, and after the long period of suspense business be- 
 gan to improve. The Western Association advanced the 
 prices of egg, stove, and chestnut 25 cents per ton. The 
 shipments aggregated but 2,688,219 tons, reducing the in- 
 crease over 1880 to 3,677.454 tons. The stocks at the end 
 of the month aggregated 613,958 tons, a decrease of 38,985 
 tons. 
 
 October. — There was no curtailment excepting that 
 which came from a scarcity of water at the mines and a 
 lack of transportation facilities. The demand was constant- 
 ly ahead of the supply, and prices were well maintained. 
 In fact for certain sizes and qualities of coal afloat, even 
 more than circular prices were paid. Vessels were in fair 
 supply, but the supply of cars for Western shipment was so 
 meager that coal was shipped to Bufialo via the Erie Canal. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1033 
 
 THE ANTHRACrrS COAI. PRODUCTION OF PENUrSYLVANIA, IW TONS OF 3310 POUWOS. 
 
 DY RICHABD P. ROTHWELL. 
 
 
 The Wtomtno Rsgiok^ 
 
 TUE tiEHIOH ReOIOS. 
 
 The ScHtiyiiitir.L Ehjion. 
 
 
 
 A .Ufa jj ^\riam^\T xv&utunt 
 
 Luzerne and StdliDan Counties, 
 
 Carbon, Columbia, and tMume 
 
 Sclmyiun, NorlhamherUmd, Cohuiibia, 
 
 All The BEotoNB. 
 
 Years. 
 
 
 Counties. 
 
 
 
 Eliipmenlt, 
 
 Titlal Production. 
 
 Shipments. 
 
 Total Production. 
 
 Shipmenta. 
 
 Total FroduclioH. 
 
 Total Production. 
 
 Beforo. 
 1820 
 
 
 10,000 
 800 
 
 
 8,000 
 665 
 
 
 6,000 
 600 
 
 18,000 
 
 1820 
 
 '305' 
 
 
 1,965 
 
 1821 
 
 1822 
 
 
 
 1,000 
 1,200 
 1,-100 
 1,700 
 2,000 
 2,700 
 
 1,073 
 2,240 
 6,S23 
 9,541 
 28,393 
 31,280 
 
 1,4V3 
 
 2,740 
 
 6,623 
 
 10,441 
 
 29,493 
 
 82,780 
 
 
 800 
 1,000 
 1,200 
 1,600 
 7,006 
 19,335 
 
 3,273 
 4,940 
 9,023 
 
 1S23 
 
 
 
 
 1824 
 
 1825 
 
 6.306 
 
 16,835 
 
 13,641 
 88,499 
 84,816 
 
 1826 
 
 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 
 
 4,000 
 6,200 
 16,800 
 
 32,074 
 30,233 
 25,110 
 
 34,274 
 33,2:« 
 29,110 
 
 29,493 
 47,181 
 78,293 
 
 82,893 
 52,481 
 87.293 
 
 71,167 
 91,914 
 133,203 
 
 1829 
 
 7,000 " " 
 
 1830 
 
 42,000 
 
 68,200 
 
 41,760 
 
 46,850 
 
 80,984 
 
 104,684 
 
 209,684 
 
 1831 
 
 54,000 
 
 78,300 
 
 40,966 
 
 47,166 
 
 81,864 
 
 104,8-54 
 
 230,320 
 
 18 f2 
 
 84,600 
 
 121,700 
 
 76,000 
 
 82,700 
 
 209,271 
 
 243,771 
 
 448,171 
 
 18:33 
 
 111,777 
 
 161,777 
 
 123,000 
 
 132,100 
 
 260 689 
 
 298,333 
 
 692,210 
 
 1834 
 
 43,700 
 
 63,008 
 
 106,241 
 
 128,874 
 
 226,692 
 
 274,977 
 
 466,860 
 
 1835 
 
 90,000 
 
 108,900 
 
 131,250 
 
 158,812 
 
 339,608 
 
 410,805 
 
 678,617 
 
 1836 
 
 103,861 
 
 125,360 
 
 148,211 
 
 178,891 
 
 432,045 
 
 821,478 
 
 826,729 
 
 1837 
 
 115,387 
 
 139,041 
 
 223,902 
 
 269,802 
 
 623,162 
 
 630,398 
 
 1,039,241 
 
 1838 
 
 78,207 
 
 94,083 
 
 213,616 
 
 256,979 
 
 433,875 
 
 621,951 
 
 873,013 
 
 1839 
 
 12i,300 
 
 146,760 
 
 221,026 
 
 265,230 
 
 464,.538 
 
 546,446 
 
 867.436 
 
 1810 
 
 148,470 
 
 177,867 
 
 225,.318 
 
 269,932 
 
 467,796 
 
 660,421 
 
 1,008,220 
 
 1841 
 
 102,270 
 
 229,965 
 
 143,037 
 
 171,072 
 
 607,005 
 
 725,978 
 
 1,127,005 
 
 1842 
 
 262,699 
 
 301,856 
 
 272,646 
 
 826,692 
 
 651,604 
 
 659,047 
 
 1,286,695 
 
 18-13 
 
 285,605 
 
 840,441 
 
 267,793 
 
 819,209 
 
 687,312 
 
 819,276 
 
 1,478,026 
 
 1844 
 
 865,911 
 
 435,434 
 
 397,002 
 
 448,633 
 
 863,465 
 
 1,015,623 
 
 1,899,690 
 
 1813 
 
 461,836 
 
 536,329 
 
 429,453 
 
 609,761 
 
 1,093,796 
 
 1,208,336 
 
 2i344,42« 
 
 18)6 
 
 618,389 
 
 614,291 
 
 517,116 
 
 612,783 
 
 1.249,154 
 
 1,480,247 
 
 2,707,321 
 
 1847 
 
 683,067 
 
 689,185 
 
 633,507 
 
 748,806 
 
 1,598,278 
 
 1,889,166 
 
 8,327,155 
 
 1848 
 
 685,196 
 
 808,531 
 
 670,321 
 
 790,979 
 
 1,672,191 
 
 1,973,185 
 
 8.672,695 
 
 1849 
 
 732,910 
 
 862,635 
 
 781,656 
 
 920,009 
 
 1,660,101 
 
 1,942,168 
 
 8,7-24.812 
 
 1850 
 
 827.823 
 
 972,692 
 
 690,456 
 
 81>,286 
 
 1,769,691 
 
 2,079,387 
 
 8,863,-365 
 
 18.)1 
 
 1,156,167 
 
 1,355,028 
 
 964,224 
 
 1,130,071 
 
 2,308,526 
 
 2,705,.591 
 
 6,190,690 
 
 1852 
 
 h^H'Sl 
 
 1,502 865 
 
 1,072,136 
 
 1,264,399 
 
 2,536,653 
 
 2,967,884 
 
 6,725,148 
 
 1853 
 
 1,473,732 
 
 1,723,655 
 
 1,054,309 
 
 1,231,4.33 
 
 2,665,450 
 
 2,984,766 
 
 6,939,863 
 
 1S54 
 
 1,603,478 
 
 1,868,052 
 
 1,207,186 
 
 1,406,372 
 
 3,066,208 
 
 3,572,132 
 
 6,'!46.S56 
 
 1855 
 
 1,771,511 
 
 2,060 267 
 
 1,284,113 
 
 1,493,423 
 
 3,551,893 
 
 4,130,852 
 
 7,684,.542 
 
 1856 
 
 1,972,681 
 
 2,288,194 
 
 1,361,970 
 
 1,66S,285 
 
 3,671,800 
 
 4,143,288 
 
 7,999,767 
 
 1867 
 
 1,952,603 
 
 2,261,111 
 
 1,318,-541 
 
 1,626,871 
 
 3,373,707 
 
 3,906,8.57 
 
 7,694,842 
 
 1858 
 
 2,186,094 
 
 2,527,125 
 
 1,-380,030 
 
 1,695,316 
 
 8,236,848 
 
 8,741,790 
 
 7,864,230 
 
 1859 
 
 2,731,236 
 
 3,161,846 
 
 1,626,311 
 
 1,879,071 
 
 3,448,708 
 
 3,979,809 
 
 9,010,726 
 
 1860 
 
 2,941,817 
 
 3,388,973 
 
 1,821,074 
 
 2,098,569 
 
 3,749,032 
 
 4,319,576 
 
 9,807,118 
 
 1861 
 
 3,066,140 
 
 3,.513,411 
 
 1,738,377 
 
 1,999,134 
 
 3,160,797 
 
 3,654,916 
 
 9,147,461 
 
 1862 
 
 3,145,770 
 
 3.608,198 
 
 1,361,054 
 
 1,549,658 
 
 3,432,-584 
 
 3;937,175 
 
 9,095,031 
 
 1863 
 
 3,759,610 
 
 4,-304,7.54 
 
 1,894,713 
 
 2,169,446 
 
 3,911,683 
 
 4,478,877 
 
 10,963,077 
 
 1804 
 
 3,960,836 
 
 4,526,635 
 
 2,064,669 
 
 2,348,233 
 
 4,161,970 
 
 4i756i632 
 
 11,631,400 
 
 1865 
 
 3,255,658 
 
 3,720,717 
 
 1,822,635 
 
 2,082,868 
 
 4,356,959 
 
 4,979,467 
 
 10 783,032 
 
 1866 
 
 4,736,616 
 
 6,413,958 
 
 2,128,867 
 
 2,4.33,286 
 
 6,4«4,209 
 
 6,245,599 
 
 14,092,837 
 
 1867 
 
 6,328322 
 
 6,089,272 
 
 2,062,446 
 
 2,356.867 
 
 6,161,671 
 
 6,899,506 
 
 14,345,644 
 
 1868 
 
 6,990,813 
 
 6,846,699 
 
 2,607,582 
 
 2,865,820 
 
 6,335,737 
 
 6,097,947 
 
 15,810,466 
 
 1869 
 
 6,068,369 
 
 7,279,543 
 
 1,929,523 
 
 2,313,989 
 
 6,653,856 
 
 6,782,146 
 
 16,376,678 
 
 1870 
 
 7,-'^54,909 
 
 8,814,024 
 
 1,990,878 
 
 3,489,364 
 
 4,728,242 
 
 6,616,313 
 
 17,810,700 
 
 1871 
 
 6,713,773 
 
 7,690,251 
 
 2,249,356 
 
 2,568,764 
 
 6,234,974 
 
 T,120,340 
 
 17,379,-355 
 
 1872 
 
 9,191,171 
 
 10,760,050 
 
 3,610,674 
 
 4,202,824 
 
 6,126,468 
 
 7,131,209 
 
 22,084,083 
 
 1873 
 
 10,047,241 
 
 11,744,141 
 
 8,263,168 
 
 8,801,447 
 
 6,294,454 
 
 7,835,.333 
 
 22,880,921 
 
 1874 
 
 9.513,042 
 
 10,241,032 
 
 3,868,749 
 
 4,139,661 
 
 6,810,0i!7 
 
 7,286,793 
 
 21,667,386 
 
 1875 
 
 10.519,998 
 
 11,062,520 
 
 2,731,311 
 
 2,807,876 
 
 6,393,411 
 
 6,713,1 13 
 
 20,643,509 
 
 1876 
 
 8,100,000 
 
 8,530,000 
 
 3,800,000 
 
 8,970.000 
 
 6,200,000 
 
 8,500,000 
 
 19,000,000 
 
 1877 
 
 7,900,000 
 
 8,323,000 
 
 4,200,000 
 
 4,400;000 
 
 8,200,000 
 
 8,600,000 
 
 21,323,000 
 
 1878 
 
 7,750,000 
 
 8 250,000 
 
 8,245,000 
 
 3,446,000 
 
 6,520,000 
 
 6,910,000 
 
 l(i,600,000 
 
 1879 
 
 12,575,000 
 
 13,300,000 
 
 4,560,000 
 
 4,826,000 
 
 9,015,300 
 
 9,566,218 
 
 27,711,250 
 
 1880 
 
 11,409,279 
 
 12,104,436 
 
 4,460,221 
 
 4,731,014 
 
 7,664,742 
 
 8,008,027 
 
 24,843,407 
 
 1881 
 
 13,664.244 
 
 14,378,100 
 
 6,327,666 
 
 7,199,800 
 
 9,116,645 
 
 8,684,040 
 
 80,261,940 
 
 
 178,847,318 
 
 199,426,905 | 
 
 81,671,582 
 
 92,618,045 
 
 169,652,205 
 
 190,934,521 
 
 482,979,499 
 
 Wyoming includes tlie Loyalsook Region in Sullivan County, opened in 1871. Tlie production of this region his been as follows: 1871, 23,122 tons ; 
 187-2, 61,627 tons; 1873,32,068 tons; 1874,36,268 tons; 1876, 16,522 tons; 1876,30,000 tods; 1877,23,000 tons; 1878,37,000 tons; 1879, 60,000 tons; 1880, 
 60,000 ; 1881, 64,326 tons. 
 
 The shipments amounted to 2,686,054 tons, While for ten 
 months, as compared with the like period of 1880, there was 
 an increase of 3,981,698 tons. The stocks at the end of the 
 month amounted to but 474,904 tons — a reduction of 139)054 
 tons. 
 
 JVoweTOAer.— November opened' with current prices 15 
 @25 cents a ton higher than circular rates for stove and 
 chestnut sizes of coal. All through the month, the demand 
 was fully equal to the supply, although some sizes were said 
 to have accumulated to a small extent. Old orders were 
 mostly absorbing all the coal produced, while new orders 
 were not so plenty. Vessels were in moderate sunply and 
 freights firmer. The mines worked full time. The ship- 
 ments amounted to 2,727,871 tons. The stocks at the end of 
 the month aggregated 392,315 tons a decrease of 82,589 
 tons. 
 
 December. — The demand for stove and chestnut sizes 
 continued to be very great during all of this month, although, 
 in anticipation of a slackening in the demand, these sizes 
 were offered at a concession for delivery. The larger sizes 
 
 were accumulating with some of the comj)anies, and were 
 weak. Vessels were in fair supply and freights reasonable. 
 There was some cold weather, wliich brought about a fair 
 consumption ; but at the close of the year, the winter had 
 been an exceedingly mild one, and it became evident that 
 the falling off in consumption must tell on the business of 
 1882. The demand at the end of this month was so small 
 as to make the subject of an early curtailment of production 
 one for serious consideration. So ends one of the most re- 
 markable years in the anthracite coal trade of this country. 
 The shipments for this month amounted to 2,724,727 tons, 
 making a total production for the year of 28,500,016 tons, 
 and an increase over 1880 of 5,062,774 tons.' The stocks at 
 the end of this month aggregated 497,024 tons, an increase 
 of 104,709 tons for the month. The stocks at the beginning 
 of the year were 500,273 tons, showing a decrease for twelve 
 months of 3249 tons. Mr. John H. Jones lurnishes the 
 following statement of anthracite coal shipments for the 
 month of December, 1881, compared with the same period 
 last year. 
 
1034 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 December^ 
 1881. 
 
 December, 
 1880. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 For year 
 1881. 
 
 For year 
 1880. 
 
 Increase, 
 
 Philadelphia & Reading Railroad ... 
 
 Lehigh Valley Railroad 
 
 Central Railroad of New Jersey 
 
 Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad . 
 
 Delaware & Hudson Canal Co 
 
 Pennsylvania Railroad 
 
 Pennsylvania Coal Co 
 
 New York, Lake Erie & Western Railroad . 
 
 633,116 13 
 596,024 16 
 406,837 01 
 426,914 04 
 300,730 05 
 180,532 08 
 142,163 00 
 •40,408 09 
 
 407,089 04 
 369,653 12 
 276,888 08 
 310,150 03 
 213,009 01 
 149,675 09 
 106,018 05 
 46,473 17 
 
 226,027 09 
 225,471 04 
 129,948 16 
 115,764 01 
 87,721 04 
 30,866 19 
 36,144 15 
 *6,066 08 
 
 6,940,283 09 
 5,721,869 12 
 4,086,423 14 
 4,388,968 19 
 3 211,496 09 
 2,211,363 09 
 1,475,.180 06 
 405,230 09 
 
 5,933,922 14 
 4,394,632 14 
 3,470,141 02 
 3,550,348 06 
 2,674,704 18 
 1,864,031 15 
 1,138,466 05 
 411,094 11 
 
 1,006,360 15 
 1,327,3 :6 18 
 615,282 12 
 838,620 14 
 636,791 1 1 
 347,331 14 
 336,914 00 
 54,135 18 
 
 Total 2,724,726 10 1,878,857 16 845,869 00 28,600,016 06 23,437,242 04 6,062,774 02 
 
 * Decrease. 
 
 The stock of coal on hand at tide-water shipping points, 
 December 31st, 1881, was 497,024 tons ; on November 30th, 
 392,315 tons ; increase, 104,709 tons. The amount on hand 
 December 31.-it, 1880, was 500,273 tons. Of the total pro- 
 duction in 1881, 13,651,383 tons, or 48.96 per cent, was from 
 the Wyoming Eegion ; 5,204,676 tons, or 18.58 per cent, 
 from the Lehigh Region; and 9,253,958 tons, or 32.46 per 
 cent, from the Schuylkill Region. Competitive tonnage, 
 including all coal which for final consumption or in transit 
 reaches any point on the Hudson River or the Bay of New 
 York, or which passes out of the Capes of the Delaware; 
 except pea and dust : 
 
 1880. 
 1881 . 
 
 . 10,088,159 tons. 
 . 2,169 030 " 
 
 Of the whole business of 1880 and 1881, the following 
 companies did the percentages set opposite their names : 
 
 Phila. & Reading . . . 
 Lehigh Valley RR. . . 
 Cent. EB. of N- J . . . . 
 Del., Lack. & West. RR . 
 Del. & Hud. Canal Co . . 
 
 Penna. RR 
 
 Penna. Coal Co ... . 
 N. Y., L. E. & W. RE . . 
 
 1880. 
 25-3 
 18-3 
 15-0 
 15-1 
 11-5 
 80 
 5-0 
 1-8 
 
 1000 
 
 1881. 
 24-3 
 20.0 
 14-3 
 16-4 
 11-3 
 7-8 
 5-2 
 1-7 
 
 100-0 
 
 Circular Prices of liClilgli Coals at Amboy, Fort Jol&nson 
 and XSlizabetllport. 
 
 January 
 February . . . 
 March . . . 
 
 April 
 
 May .... 
 June .... 
 July . . 
 August .... 
 September . ., 
 October . . . 
 November 
 December . . 
 
 Lump. 
 
 Stenmer. 
 
 Grate. 
 
 Eqg. 
 
 Stove. 
 
 85.00 
 
 85.00 
 
 84.40 
 
 84.40 
 
 84.45 
 
 5.00 
 
 5.110 
 
 4.40 
 
 4.40 
 
 4.46 
 
 5.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 4.40 
 
 4.40 
 
 4.45 
 
 •5.00 
 
 
 4.25 
 
 4.25 
 
 4.26 
 
 6.00 
 
 
 4.25 
 
 4.26 
 
 4.25 
 
 6 00 
 
 
 4.26 
 
 4.25 
 
 4 25 
 
 6.00 
 
 
 4 25 
 
 4.25 
 
 4.25 
 
 5.00 
 
 
 4.25 
 
 4.25 
 
 4.25 
 
 6.00 
 
 
 4.25 
 
 4.26 
 
 4.25 
 
 6.00 
 
 
 4.25 
 
 4.25 
 
 4.25 
 
 5.00 
 
 
 4.25 
 
 4-26 
 
 4.25 
 
 6.00 
 
 
 4.25 
 
 4.25 
 
 4.25 
 
 84.00 
 4.00 
 4.00 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 .1.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 
 Circular Prices of AVIllces-Barre Coal at Port Jolinson. 
 
 January .... 
 
 84.00 
 
 $4.00 
 
 February . . . 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 March . . 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 Anril .... 
 May 
 
 3.90 
 
 3.90 
 
 3.90 
 
 3.90 
 
 June 
 
 3.90 
 
 3.90 
 
 July 
 
 3.90 
 
 3.90 
 
 August 
 
 3.90 
 
 3.90 
 
 September . . . 
 
 3.90 
 
 3.90 
 
 October .... 
 
 3.90 
 
 3.90 
 
 November . . . 
 
 3.90 
 
 3.90 
 
 December . . . 
 
 3.90 
 
 3.90 
 
 Lump. Steamer. Grate. Eqg. Stove. Chestnut. 
 
 84.00 
 4.00 
 4.00 
 3 90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 
 ;4.20 
 
 84.46 
 
 84.40 
 
 4.20 
 
 4.46 
 
 4.40 
 
 4.20 
 
 4.45 
 
 4.40 
 
 4.05 
 
 4.-.i5 
 
 3.39 
 
 4.05 
 
 4.26 
 
 3.39 
 
 4.05 
 
 4.25 
 
 3.39 
 
 4.(15 
 
 4.25 
 
 3.39 
 
 4.05 
 
 i.ib 
 
 3.39 
 
 4.06 
 
 4.26 
 
 3.39 
 
 4.06 
 
 4.25 
 
 3.39 
 
 4.05 
 
 4.25 
 
 3.39 
 
 4.06 ■ 
 
 4.25 
 
 3.39 
 
 Circular Prices of Plttston Coal In 1881. 
 
 Circular Prices of Lrachawanna Coal In 1881. 
 
 January . 
 February . . . 
 March . . . 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August . . . . 
 September 
 October . . 
 November . . 
 December . . 
 
 Lump, Steamer. Orate. 
 
 •$4.00 
 4.00 
 4.00 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.<I0 
 3.90 
 
 84.00 
 4.00 
 4.00 
 3.90 
 .S.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.00 
 
 84.00 
 4.00 
 4 00 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 
 $4.20 
 4.20 
 4.20 
 4.05 
 4.05 
 4.06 
 4.05 
 4.05 
 4.06 
 4.05 
 4.05 
 4.06 
 
 Stove. Chestnut. 
 
 84.46 
 4.45 
 4.45 
 4.20 
 4.20 
 4.20 
 4.20 
 4.20 
 
 i.ia 
 
 4.20 
 4.20 
 4.20 
 
 84.10 
 4.10 
 4.10 
 4.00 
 4.00 
 4.00 
 4.00 
 4.00 
 4.10 
 4.10 
 4.10 
 4.10 
 
 •January .... 
 •February . . . 
 •March 
 
 •April 
 
 ■Itfay 
 
 •June 
 
 •July 
 
 'August . . . . 
 
 ■ September . . . 
 
 ■ October .... 
 November . . . 
 
 '. December .■ . . . 
 
 Lump. 
 
 Steamer. 
 
 Grate. 
 
 Egg. 
 
 SUne. 
 
 83.95 
 
 $3.95 
 
 $3.95 
 
 83.95 
 
 ' 84.20 
 
 3.95 
 
 3 91 
 
 3.95 
 
 3.95 
 
 4.20 
 
 3.95 
 
 3.95 
 
 3.95 
 
 3.96 
 
 4.20 
 
 3.95 
 
 3.95 
 
 3 85 
 
 3.90 
 
 4.05 
 
 3.96 
 
 3.95 
 
 3.85 
 
 3.90 
 
 4.06 
 
 3.95 
 
 395 
 
 3.85 
 
 3.90 
 
 4.06 
 
 3.96 
 
 3 95 
 
 3.86 
 
 3.90 
 
 4.06 
 
 3 95 
 
 3.96 
 
 3.85 
 
 3.90 
 
 4.06 
 
 3.95 
 
 3.95 
 
 3.85 
 
 3.90 
 
 4.05 
 
 3.96 
 
 3 95 
 
 3.85 
 
 3.90 
 
 4.06 
 
 8.96 
 
 3.95 
 
 3.85 
 
 3.90 
 
 4.05 
 
 3.95 
 
 3.95 
 
 3.85 
 
 3.90 
 
 4.05 
 
 Chestnut. 
 
 $3.95 
 3.95 
 3.96 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 
 * At Weehawken. f At Newburg. 
 Tlic Antliracite Coal Production of Pcnnnsyi-vanla. 
 
 1820 
 
 1821 
 
 1822 
 
 1823 
 
 1824 
 
 1825 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 1831 
 
 1832 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 1843 
 
 1844 
 
 1846 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1865 
 
 1856 
 
 1857 
 
 1868 
 
 1859 
 
 1860 
 
 1861 
 
 1862 
 
 1863 
 
 1864 
 
 1865 
 
 1866 
 
 1867 
 
 1868 
 
 1869 
 
 1870 
 
 1871 
 
 1872 
 
 1873 
 
 1874 
 
 1875 
 
 1876 
 
 1877 
 
 1878 
 
 1879 
 
 1880 
 
 1881 
 
 The Wtomino 
 Region. 
 
 Gross tons. Per cl. 
 
 7,000 
 
 43,000 
 
 64 000 
 
 84,000 
 
 111,777 
 
 43,700 
 
 90,000 
 
 103,861 
 
 116,387 
 
 78,207 
 
 122,300 
 
 148,470 
 
 192,270 
 
 262,699 
 
 285,605 
 
 365,911 
 
 451,836 
 
 518,389 
 
 683,067 
 
 686,196 
 
 732,910 
 
 827,823 
 
 1,166,167 
 
 1,284,600 
 
 1,475,732 
 
 1,603,478 
 
 1,7T1,5U 
 
 1,972,681 
 
 1,962,603 
 
 2,186,094 
 
 2,731,236 
 
 2,941,817 
 
 3,055,140 
 
 3,146,770 
 
 3,759,610 
 
 3,960,836 
 
 3,264,519 
 
 4,736,616 
 
 6,326,000 
 
 6,968,146 
 
 6,141,369 
 
 6,974,660 
 
 6,911,242 
 
 9,101,649 
 
 10,309,756 
 
 9,504,408 
 
 10,596,165 
 
 8,424,158 
 
 8,300,377 
 
 8,085,687 
 
 12,586,293 
 
 11,419,279 
 
 13,951,383 
 
 6.25 
 24.60 
 30.64 
 23.12 
 22.91 
 11.60 
 16.05 
 15.18 
 13.27 
 10.59 
 14.94 
 17.18 
 20.03 
 22.79 
 22.60 
 22.43 
 22.45 
 22.11 
 20.23 
 22.18 
 22.60 
 24.64 
 25.98 
 26.72 
 28.41 
 26.73 
 26.80 
 28.47 
 29.39 
 31.96 
 34.98 
 34.66 
 38.41 
 39.97 
 39.30 
 38.92 
 33.72 
 37.29 
 40.99 
 43.25 
 44.28 
 49.28 
 44.02 
 46.27 
 48.57 
 47.18 
 63.75 
 45.63 
 39.86 
 45.92 
 48.14 
 48.72 
 48.90 I 
 
 The Lehigh 
 Region. 
 
 Gross tons Per ct. 
 
 365 
 
 1,073 
 
 2,240 
 
 6,823 
 
 9,541 
 
 28,393 
 
 31,280 
 
 32,074 
 
 30,232 
 
 25,110 
 
 41,750 
 
 40,966 
 
 70,000 
 
 123,001 
 
 106,244 
 
 131,250 
 
 148,211 
 
 223,902 
 
 213,616 
 
 221,025 
 
 226,313 
 
 143,037 
 
 272,540 
 
 267,793 
 
 377,002 
 
 429,453 
 
 617,116 
 
 633,507 
 
 670,321 
 
 781,566 
 
 690,456 
 
 964,224 
 
 1,072,136 
 
 1,054,309 
 
 1,207,186 
 
 1,284,113 
 
 1,351,970 
 
 1,318,541 
 
 1,380,030 
 
 1,628 311 
 
 1 821,674 
 
 1,738,37V 
 
 1,361,054 
 
 1,894,713 
 
 2,054,669 
 
 2,040,913 
 
 2,179,364 
 
 2,502,0,'54 
 
 2,602,682 
 
 1,949,673 
 
 3,239.374 
 
 2,236,707 
 
 3,873,339 
 
 3,706,606 
 
 3,773,836 
 
 2.834,606 
 
 3,854,919 
 
 4,332,760 
 
 3,2.37,449 
 
 4,595,667 
 
 4,463,221 
 
 5,294,676 
 
 60 21 
 83.77 
 85.90 
 81.40 
 66.10 
 60.56 
 39.00 
 22.40 
 23.00 
 23.17 
 19.27 
 25.22 
 28.21 
 23.41 
 21.66 
 26.76 
 28.92 
 27.01 
 28.07 
 14.90 
 24.69 
 21.19 
 23.12 
 21.33 
 22.07 
 21.98 
 21.70 
 24.10 
 20.66 
 21.68 
 21.47 
 20.29 
 20.13 
 19.43 
 19.52 
 19.84 
 20.18 
 20.86 
 21.40 
 21.85 
 17.17 
 19.80 
 20.19 
 21.14 
 17.15 
 19.27 
 18.13 
 14.06 
 20.02 
 14.24 
 19.70 
 17.46 
 18.73 
 14.38 
 20.84 
 20.80 
 18.40 
 17..58 
 19.05 
 18.68 
 
 The Schulkill 
 Region. 
 
 Gross tons. Per ct. 
 
 1,480 
 
 1,128 
 
 1,567 
 
 6,500 
 
 16,767 
 
 31,360 
 
 47,284 
 
 79,973 
 
 89,984 
 
 81,854 
 
 109,271 
 
 252,971 
 
 226,692 
 
 339,508 
 
 432,045 
 
 630,162 
 
 446,876 
 
 475.077 
 
 490,696 
 
 624,466 
 
 683,273 
 
 710,200 
 
 887,937 
 
 1,131,724 
 
 1,308,500 
 
 1,665,735 
 
 1,733,721 
 
 1,728,500 
 
 1,840,620 
 
 2,328.526 
 
 2,636,836 
 
 2,666,110 
 
 3,191,670 
 
 3,662,943 
 
 3,602,999 
 
 3,373,797 
 
 3,273,246 
 
 3,448,708 
 
 3,749,632 
 
 3,160,747 
 
 3,372,683 
 
 3,911,683 
 
 4,161,970 
 
 4.366,959 
 
 6,787,902 
 
 6,161,671 
 
 6,3,30.737 
 
 6,776,138 
 
 4,968,167 
 
 0,562,772 
 
 6,694,890 
 
 7,212,601 
 
 6,866,877 
 
 6,281,712 
 
 6,221,934 
 
 8,195,042 
 
 6,282,226 
 
 8,960,829 
 
 7,564,742 
 
 9,253,968 
 
 39.79 
 16.23 
 14.10 
 18.60 
 34.90 
 49.44 
 61.00 
 71.35 
 61.50 
 46.29 
 67.61 
 51.87 
 60.19 
 60.54 
 63.16 
 60.98 
 60.49 
 58.05 
 66.75 
 65.07 
 52.62 
 66.21 
 54.45 
 56.22 
 65.82 
 57.79 
 66.12 
 53.30 
 64.80 
 52.34 
 52.81 
 61.30 
 53.14 
 63.77 
 62.91 
 60.77 
 47.86 
 44.16 
 44.04 
 39.74 
 42.86 
 40.90 
 40.89 
 45.14 
 45.66 
 39.74 
 38.62 
 41.66 
 30.70 
 41.74 
 84.03 
 33.97 
 34.09 
 31.87 
 83.62 
 39.35 
 35.68 
 34.28 
 32.23 
 32.46 
 
 ToTAl. 
 
 Gross tons. 
 
 366 
 
 1,073 
 
 3,720 
 
 6,951 
 
 11,108 
 
 34,893 
 
 48,047 
 
 63,434 
 
 77,516 
 
 112,083 
 
 174,734 
 
 176,820 
 
 363,271 
 
 487,749 
 
 376,636 
 
 560,768 
 
 684,117 
 
 869,441 
 
 738,697 
 
 818,402 
 
 864,379 
 
 959,773 
 
 1,108,412 
 
 1,263,598 
 
 1,630,860 
 
 2,013,013 
 
 2,344,005 
 
 2,882,309 
 
 3,089,238 
 
 3,242,966 
 
 3,358,899 
 
 4,448,916 
 
 4,993,471 
 
 6,196,161 
 
 6,002,334 
 
 6,608,567 
 
 6,927,.M0 
 
 6,644,941 
 
 6.839,309 
 
 7,808,255 
 
 8,613,123 
 
 7,9.')4,264 
 
 7,869,407 
 
 9,666,006 
 
 10,177,475 
 
 9,65i:,391 
 
 12,703,882 
 
 12,988,726 
 
 13,801,406 
 
 13,866,180 
 
 16,182,191 
 
 15,699,721 
 
 19,669,778 
 
 21,227,952 
 
 20,146,121 
 
 19,712,472 
 
 18,601,011 
 
 20,828,179 
 
 17,606,262 
 
 26,142,689 
 
 23,437,242 
 
 28,600,017 
 
 Prepared from original and authentic statistics by John H. Jones. 
 
THE MINES, MINEKS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1035 
 
 Prices In Dollars or Antbraclte Coal mrom 1836 to 1882. 
 
 Prices of Sfhuylk'll White Ash Lamp Coat, by the cargo^ at Philadelphia. 
 A ver<iged monihli/ from mean of weeli^ qtwfations. Per ton of 2,240 Lbs. 
 
 
 
 •i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fe 
 
 
 S^ 
 
 i^ 
 
 ^i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 •i' 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 O 
 
 1 
 
 
 fe " 
 
 1826 
 
 
 
 
 7.00 
 
 7.00 
 
 7.00 
 
 7.0(1 
 
 7,00 
 
 7.00 
 
 7.00 
 
 7.50 
 
 7,80 
 
 
 1827 
 
 7.00 
 
 7.0U 
 
 7.(m 
 
 7.(K) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1829 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7.60 
 
 7.60 
 
 7.25 
 
 
 irao 
 
 7.25 
 
 7.25 
 
 6.00 
 6.00 
 
 5.75 
 6.50 
 
 6.75 
 5.25 
 
 6.75 
 3-25 
 
 6.76 
 6.25 
 
 5,76 
 5,25 
 
 5.75 
 6.17J^ 
 
 6 75 
 4.87K 
 
 
 
 
 1833 
 
 4.S7U 
 
 4.S7K 
 
 
 1834 
 
 4.87 
 
 4-87 
 
 4.87 
 
 4.87 
 
 4.87 
 
 4.87 
 
 4.87 
 
 4,87 
 
 4.87 
 
 4.87 
 
 487 
 
 4.50 
 
 4.84 
 
 1835 
 
 4.56 
 
 456 
 
 4.56 
 
 4.56 
 
 4.60 
 
 4.03 
 
 4.63 
 
 4,68 
 
 4.88 
 
 4.90 
 
 6.03 
 
 6.47 
 
 4.84 
 
 1836 
 
 7.70 
 
 7.44 
 
 7.31 
 
 6.,58 
 
 .6.38 
 
 6.50 
 
 5..60 
 
 6,19 
 
 6.41 
 
 6.60 
 
 ■7.13 
 
 8.06 
 
 6.64 
 
 18-i7 
 
 8.25 
 
 8.25 
 
 8.04 
 
 6.78 
 
 6.50 
 
 6.38 
 
 6,10 
 
 6,00 
 
 6.00 
 
 6.09 
 
 6.13 
 
 6.13 
 
 6.72 
 
 18:i8 
 
 6.13 
 
 5.91 
 
 .5.28 
 
 5.26 
 
 .6.16 
 
 .6.13 
 
 ,6,13 
 
 5,13 
 
 5.10 
 
 6.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 6.27 
 
 1839 
 
 5.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 S.OO 
 
 .6.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 6.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 5,00 t 
 
 6.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 6.00 
 
 6.00 
 
 1840 
 
 5.00 
 
 S.OO 
 
 .6.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 6.00 
 
 4.63 
 
 4,63 
 
 4.63 
 
 4.66 
 
 4.95 
 
 5.06 
 
 5.34 
 
 4.91 
 
 1841 
 
 6.40 
 
 7.00 
 
 6.44 
 
 5.88 
 
 6.69 
 
 .6.17 
 
 5,13 
 
 5,27 
 
 5.56 
 
 5-63 
 
 5.63 
 
 5.63 
 
 5.79 
 
 1842 
 
 5.63 
 
 5.56 
 
 5.06 
 
 3.38 
 
 4.03 
 
 3 88 
 
 3,S3 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.56 
 
 3.51 
 
 3.56 
 
 3.50 
 
 4.18 
 
 1843 
 
 3.50 
 
 3.25 
 
 3.25 
 
 3.25 
 
 3.25 
 
 3.*-. 
 
 3,26 
 
 3.26 
 
 3.25 
 
 3-25 
 
 3.25 
 
 3.25 
 
 3.27 
 
 1844 
 
 3 50 
 
 3.33 
 
 3.10 
 
 3.02 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.03 
 
 3,13 
 
 3.21 
 
 3.26 
 
 3.26 
 
 .3.27 
 
 3.26 
 
 3.20 
 
 1845 
 
 3.26 
 
 3.26 
 
 3.27 
 
 3.31 
 
 3.31 
 
 3.31 
 
 3,44 
 
 3.44 
 
 3.59 
 
 3.74 
 
 3.76 
 
 3.81 
 
 3.46 
 
 1841) 
 
 3.81 
 
 3.7,=, 
 
 3.72 
 
 3.84 
 
 3.87 
 
 3.97 
 
 4,00 
 
 3.94 
 
 3.96 
 
 3.88 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 3 90 
 
 1847 
 
 3.88 
 
 3.81 
 
 3.81 
 
 3.81 
 
 3.60 
 
 3.63 
 
 3,69 
 
 3 83 
 
 3.96 
 
 3.88 
 
 3.88 
 
 3.88 
 
 3.80 
 
 1848 
 
 3.90 
 
 3.90 
 
 3.68 
 
 3.44 
 
 3.37 
 
 3.29 
 
 3,33 
 
 3.66 
 
 3.46 
 
 3.41 
 
 3.39 
 
 3.36 
 
 3..60 
 
 1849 
 
 3.36 
 
 3.36 
 
 3 45 
 
 3.62 
 
 3.62 
 
 3.S6 
 
 3.88 
 
 3.SI 
 
 3.76 
 
 3.69 
 
 3.57 
 
 3.50 
 
 3.62 
 
 1850 
 
 3.50 
 
 3.60 
 
 3.40 
 
 3.31 
 
 3.25 
 
 3.25 
 
 3,26 
 
 3.26 
 
 425 
 
 4.25 
 
 4.25 
 
 4.25 
 
 3.K4 
 
 1851 
 
 4.28 
 
 4.13 
 
 3 56 
 
 3.31 
 
 3.10 
 
 3.00 
 
 3,00 
 
 3.05 
 
 3.17 
 
 3.29 
 
 3.25 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.34 
 
 1852 
 
 3.18 
 
 3 47 
 
 3.40 
 
 3.44 
 
 3.44 
 
 3.45 
 
 3.46 
 
 3.60 
 
 3.66 
 
 3.56 
 
 3.56 
 
 3..60 
 
 3.46 
 
 1853 
 
 3.42 
 
 3.44 
 
 3.45 
 
 3.47 
 
 3.47 
 
 3.47 
 
 3,47 
 
 3.64 
 
 4.03 
 
 4.19 
 
 4.19 
 
 4.10 
 
 3.70 
 
 18.14 
 
 4.50 
 
 4.50 
 
 4.26 
 
 4.39 
 
 4.81 
 
 3.16 
 
 6.66 
 
 6.00 
 
 6.00 
 
 .6.81 
 
 5.63 
 
 6.60 
 
 5.19 
 
 1865 
 
 5.60 
 
 5.28 
 
 4.63 
 
 4..50 
 
 4.50 
 
 4.45 
 
 4.28 
 
 4.19 
 
 4.19 
 
 4.19 
 
 4.15 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.49 
 
 18S0 
 
 4.06 
 
 4.25 
 
 4.26 
 
 4.2,1 
 
 4.05 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.12 
 
 4.13 
 
 4.10 
 
 4.08 
 
 4.11 
 
 1857 
 
 3.92 
 
 3.92 
 
 3.92 
 
 3.89 
 
 3.86 
 
 4.85 
 
 3.88 
 
 3.87 
 
 3.85 
 
 3.82 
 
 3.82 
 
 3.82 
 
 3.87 
 
 1858 
 
 3.83 
 
 3.83 
 
 3.77 
 
 3.47 
 
 .3.22 
 
 3.2" 
 
 3,36 
 
 3.26 
 
 3.312 
 
 .3.32 
 
 3.32 
 
 3.30 
 
 3.43 
 
 1859 
 
 3.28 
 
 3.38 
 
 3.34 
 
 3.20 
 
 3.20 
 
 3.24 
 
 3.20 
 
 3.20 
 
 3.19 
 
 3.20 
 
 3.34 
 
 3.29 
 
 325 
 
 1860 
 
 3.28 
 
 3.29 
 
 3.30 
 
 3.30 
 
 3.2:) 
 
 3.36 
 
 3.36 
 
 3..39 
 
 3.50 
 
 3.63 
 
 3.62 
 
 3.63 
 
 340 
 
 1861 
 
 3.63 
 
 3.63 
 
 3.60 
 
 x-n 
 
 3.-2;< 
 
 .3.23 
 
 3.37 
 
 3.40 
 
 3.35 
 
 3.33 
 
 3.33 
 
 3.33 
 
 3,39 
 
 1862 
 
 3.33 
 
 3J3 
 
 3.11 
 
 2.7S 
 
 2.78 
 
 3.64 
 
 4..68 
 
 4.85 
 
 4.98 
 
 5.22 
 
 6.50 
 
 5.63 
 
 4.14 
 
 1863 
 
 5JW 
 
 5.25 
 
 4.63 
 
 4.76 
 
 5.,6n 
 
 3.R0 
 
 6.25 
 
 6..60 
 
 6.75 
 
 7.25 
 
 7.60 
 
 7.13 
 
 6.06 
 
 18B4 
 
 7.10 
 
 6.75 
 
 6.59 
 
 7.20 
 
 7,88 
 
 6.34 
 
 9.78 
 
 10.76 
 
 10.13 
 
 8.90 
 
 8.88 
 
 8.38 
 
 839 
 
 1865 
 
 8.38 
 
 S.38 
 
 a.«! 
 
 R.lfl 
 
 6.75 
 
 8.26 
 
 6.03 
 
 6.60 
 
 8.33 
 
 9.93 
 
 8.81 
 
 8.26 
 
 7-86 
 
 1866 
 
 7.94 
 
 7.76 
 
 6.40 
 
 5.26 
 
 6.13 
 
 6.63 
 
 .6.88 
 
 .6.68 
 
 5.47 
 
 5.34 
 
 5.25 
 
 6.05 
 
 5.80 
 
 1867 
 
 5.06 
 
 5.06 
 
 4.47 
 
 4.,50 
 
 4.44 
 
 5.38 
 
 4.28 
 
 4.07 
 
 4.09 
 
 4.01 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.37 
 
 1868 
 
 4.(KI 
 
 3.ia 
 
 3.i:i 
 
 3.22 
 
 3.25 
 
 4.26 
 
 3.25 
 
 3.25 
 
 4.10 
 
 4.50 
 
 6.22 
 
 0.00 
 
 3.86 
 
 1869 
 
 .■i.lS 
 
 6.01 
 
 4.16 
 
 3.81 
 
 3.90 
 
 3.00 
 
 6.59 
 
 7.17 
 
 6.15 
 
 6.00 
 
 6.87 
 
 5.12 
 
 5.31 
 
 1870 
 
 5.07 
 
 4.79 
 
 4.79 
 
 4..50 
 
 4..60 
 
 ,5.44 
 
 4.31 
 
 4.44 
 
 4.33 
 
 4.19 
 
 3.69 
 
 3..55 
 
 4.39 
 
 1871 
 
 4.05 
 
 
 
 
 
 4.52 
 
 4.46 
 
 4.26 
 
 4.36 
 
 4.08 
 
 4.72 
 
 4.63 
 
 4.46 
 
 1872 
 
 4.63 
 
 3.7fl 
 
 3.,50 
 
 3.50 
 
 .3..60 
 
 4..60 
 
 3.,5n 
 
 3..69 
 
 3.71 
 
 3.90 
 
 3.90 
 
 3.90 
 
 3.74 
 
 1873 
 
 3.90 
 
 3.9(1 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.10 
 
 3.20 
 
 4.40 
 
 4,40 
 
 4.60 
 
 4.60 
 
 4.60 
 
 4.60 
 
 4.27 
 
 1874 
 
 , , 
 
 , . 
 
 4.05 
 
 4.10 
 
 4.20 
 
 4.30 
 
 4.45 
 
 4,60 
 
 4.75 
 
 4.90 
 
 5.05 
 
 6.05 
 
 4.56 
 
 1875 
 
 
 
 4.10 
 
 4.10 
 
 4.10 
 
 4.40 
 
 4.50 
 
 4,60 
 
 4.55 
 
 4.65 
 
 4.65 
 
 4.55 
 
 4.39 
 
 1876 
 
 4.55 
 
 4.1 .i 
 
 4.25 
 
 4.25 
 
 4.30 
 
 4.15 
 
 4,20 
 
 4-35 
 
 3.20 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.87 
 
 1877 
 
 3.00 
 
 ,s.oe 
 
 2.76 
 
 2.75 
 
 2.75 
 
 4.40 
 
 2,47 
 
 2.4(1 
 
 2.40 
 
 2 35 
 
 2.36 
 
 2.40 
 
 2.59 
 
 187f 
 
 3.25 
 
 3..6II 
 
 .'J.26 
 
 3.26 
 
 3.25 
 
 2.3(1 
 
 3,30 
 
 3.3(1 
 
 3.30 
 
 3.30 
 
 3.05 
 
 2.50 
 
 3.22 
 
 1S7S 
 
 i.m 
 
 2.6(; 
 
 2.26 
 
 2.26 
 
 2.,50 
 
 3.6(: 
 
 2..6C 
 
 2.76 
 
 2.75 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.25 
 
 3.65 
 
 2.70 
 
 1S8f 
 
 3.90 
 
 4.26 
 
 4.35 
 
 4.65 
 
 4.65 
 
 2.65 
 
 4,65 
 
 4.65 
 
 4.65 
 
 4.65 
 
 4.65 
 
 4.65 
 
 4.53 
 
 IRSl 
 
 4.65 
 
 4.66 
 
 4.5S 
 
 4.6C 
 
 4..6C 
 
 4.5C 
 
 4,5( 
 
 4.5( 
 
 4.50 
 
 4.50 
 
 4.50 
 
 4.60 
 
 4.53 
 
 1882 
 
 4.50 
 
 iM 
 
 4.60 
 
 4.50 
 
 4.60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - • 
 
 Pbices of Lehigh Coax in Philadelphia. (From Grotjan's Public Sale 
 Eeport.) 1822, May to December, $SM). 1823, January to August, $10 ; 
 September, $9.50 ; October to December, $8.40. 1824, January to April, $8.40. 
 Compiled by The American Iron and Sted Association. 
 
 MR. SA WARD'S FIGURES. 
 
 realized from the tide-water coal. When this fact does be- 
 come more settled in the minds of the dealers on the sea- 
 board, there will be no putting off of purchases in the hope 
 of lower prices. The circular prices hardly varied during 
 the entire year, and the average result must show that card 
 prices were closely realized. At one time in October and 
 November there were sales made at an advance over card 
 rates for prompt deliveries. The Anthracite mines were 
 worked 104 days in the first half of the year, or an average 
 of two-thirds time, and the output to the end of June 
 was 12,467,496 tons. Since that time there has been un- 
 interrupted work and the output now aggregates 28,000,000 
 tons. It is expected that the year 1882 will show an in- 
 crease on this (luantity as there is a most satisfactory state 
 of affairs in industrial pursuits generally, and the supplies 
 on hand to begin the year with are not great. We_ append 
 details of the business of the several regions, districte and 
 companies, and to the latest dates available at this moment. 
 Bituminous coals show a largely increased trade and traflBc 
 for the year, and at prices that must have been satisfactory 
 to the shipper. There is an improvement in this regard 
 within the past month or so, which if it can be held, will 
 show good balance sheets for the operators another season. 
 Some low prices were made early in the year 1881, and con- 
 tracts taken at prices delivered at points beyond the tide- 
 water ports. This will gradually be done away with, as the 
 demand continues to keep ahead of the supj)lies promptly 
 available. The future of the Bituminous coal is exceedingly 
 flattering, and there is no doubt but that this quality of fuel 
 will be relied upon in the East, as the source of steam- 
 raising. Anthracite will sell to better advantage for domes- 
 tic purposes. There have been no serious interruptions in 
 the several mining districts, and the laborer having been 
 well employed at fair rates, is not disposed to find a pretext 
 for changing this condition of affairs. Our comparative 
 table of the Anthracite output is given herewith. It is 
 subject to some few corrections, and additions to close out 
 the year. 
 
 ScHCYtKILL, 1881. 1880. 
 
 ME. Frederick E. Saward gives the following review 
 of the year 1881 in T/ic Coal Trade Journal : 
 We present herewith, the usual succinct re- 
 viaw of the condition of the coal trade during 
 the year 1881. The business of the country was in far better 
 shape than during any preceding year since the war times. 
 Coal was readily taken, and the amount disposed of was 
 largely in excess of any year preceding. In our review of 
 a year ago we said that " the output of Anthracite would be 
 27,000,000 tons at least, and with proper management it 
 might be greater." We have had a year of proper manage- 
 ment, and the result is a grand total of something over 28,- 
 000,000 tons. We also remarked referring to the Western 
 trade that " the time may come when the tide- water trade 
 will be a matter of secondary consideration, by reason of the 
 better prices realized for the commodity at points short of 
 tide." That there has been a realization of this point, is 
 felt even at the present date by the dealers along the coast. 
 Without the trade to interior points, is it at all probable 
 that the tonnage would have been what is recorded, or the 
 prices at tide kept up as they have ? As year by year goes 
 by, there is more effort made to supply the interior trade, 
 the result netting better prices at the breaker, than that 
 
 Reading Railroad 6,940,008 
 
 Shamokin 1,066.716 
 
 Lyliens Valley 411,978 
 
 8,318,702 
 Lehigh. 
 Lehieh Valley Railroad Ckimpany. . . . 4,619,907 
 Central Railroad of New Jersey .... 2,165,906 
 
 6,695,813 
 
 5,894,085 
 911,758 
 391,840 
 
 3,399.226 
 2,039,981 
 
 6,439,207 
 
 Wyomtvg. 
 
 Delaware and Hudson Canal Company 
 
 Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Ra Iroad . 
 Pennsylvania Coal ... 
 
 Lehigh Valley Railroad 
 
 Central Railroad of New Jersey 
 
 Pennsylvania and New York Railroad 
 
 3,581,781 
 4,271,953 
 1,427,747 
 1,155,492 
 2,282,160 
 105,454 
 
 3,002,807 
 3,479,636 
 1,123,674 
 1,033,472 
 1,709,8,60 
 39,047 
 
 
 12,824.687 
 
 10,388,466 
 
 Grand total 
 
 Pennsylvania Canal . . ... 
 
 27,839,102 
 
 457,260 
 
 62,J06 
 
 23,025,356 
 
 467,269 
 
 49,945 
 
 
 
 The Production of Anthracite Coal, 
 
 Tear. 
 
 1871 , 
 
 1872 . . 
 
 1873 
 
 1874 
 
 1875 . . . 
 
 1876 . . 
 
 1877 
 
 1878 . ... 
 1879 
 
 1880 
 
 1881 .(estimated) . 
 
 SchuyUcilL Lehigh. Wyoming. 
 
 6,552,772 
 
 2,235,707 
 
 6,094,890 
 
 3,873,339 
 
 7,2!2,q01 
 
 3,705,596 
 
 6,866,877 
 
 2,773,836 
 
 6,281,712 
 
 2,834,605 
 
 6,221,934 
 
 3,854,919 
 
 8,195,042 
 
 4,332,760 
 
 6,282,226 
 
 3,237,449 
 
 8,960,339 
 
 4.596,567 
 
 7,554,742 
 
 4,463,221 
 
 8,400,000 
 
 6,650,000 
 
 6,911,242 
 9,101,549 
 10,309,755 
 9,504,408 
 10,596,165 
 8,424,158 
 8,300,377 
 6,086,687 
 12,586,293 
 11,419,279 
 13,200,000 
 
 ,699,721 
 ,669,778 
 ,227,9.52 
 ,145,121 
 ,712,472 
 ,501,011 
 ,828,179 
 ,605,262 
 ,142,689 
 ,437,242 
 ,250,000 
 
 The workingmen in the Anthracite coal regions have had 
 on the average, better employment than for several years, 
 and at rates that are fair, being usually based upon the 
 price of coal. The stoppages to restrict production bear 
 heavily upon them, no doubt, but without this, would the 
 prices be fair? We trust that there may be little necessity 
 for this stopping after a season or two. The railroad com'r 
 panics have had a good year, as tolls have borne a propor- 
 tionate improvement with prices, on a very heavy tonnage. 
 
1036 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Lehigh Valley Railroad Company. — This company 
 is rapidly assuming the foremost position in the rank of 
 Anthracite coal carriers, and there is an increase each year 
 in the amount of business done. In the efforts being made 
 to secure a trade to the West, this company is well situated 
 in regard to railway and transfer facilities. The activity 
 prevailing in all the industrial centers along the Lehigh 
 Valley makes a scarcity of coal, when others are complain- 
 ing of a surfeit. The several branches all show an improve- 
 ment in the amount of business done ; with a line that may 
 be said to extend from the lakes to the Atlantic, is there not 
 opportunity for a vastly increased business in all commodi- 
 ties ? We append a detailed statement for the fiscal year 
 ending with November. 
 
 The tonage for 1881 was distributed as follows : 
 
 762,042 
 
 300,910 
 
 88,672 
 
 237,611 
 
 298,981 
 
 66,184 
 
 1,604,203 
 
 712,014 
 
 1,257,176 
 
 78,213 
 
 101,447 
 
 245,276 
 
 38,575 
 
 The tonnage of this line increased during the last year at a 
 greater ratio than has heretofore been recorded. There is 
 an activity along the entire route from the lakes to the 
 Atlantic, that warrants the prophecy that it will always be 
 second in rank of the Anthracite coal carriers. We give 
 details of the traffic : 
 
 Furnaces, etc 
 
 To GonDecting railroads between Mauch Chunk and Easton, 
 
 Local trade 
 
 For use of company . * • . . 
 
 To Morris Canal at Port Delaware 
 
 To Lehigh Canal at Mauch Chunk . 
 
 To New Jersey Division at Easton 
 
 To P. 4 N. Y. R. R. at Coxton 
 
 To Belvidere Railroad at Phillipsburg 
 
 ToM. 4B. R. atPhillipshurg 
 
 To Danville, H. & W. R. R. at Hazleton 
 
 To L. & B. R. R. at Lacknwanna Junction 
 
 To other connecting railroads 
 
 over the State Line and Sullivan Railroad to Towanda and 
 hence to market via this line and its connections. Tonnage 
 has been as below : 
 
 In 1879. In 1880. In 1881. 
 
 Anihracite 860,161 tons. 706,464 tons. 1,108,066 tons. 
 
 Bituminous . . . . 329,901 tons. 435,516 tons. 419,651 tons. 
 
 We append a statement of the business during the fiscal 
 year ending with November. 
 
 ANTHRACITE COAL. 
 
 Received from Lehigh Valley Railroad 
 
 Received from Lack. & B. Railroad 
 
 Received from Pleasant Valley Branch 
 
 Keceived from State Line and Sullivan Railroad . , 
 
 Total 
 
 Same time last year 
 
 BITUMINOUS COAL. 
 
 Barclay Railroad, shipp%l north from Towanda 
 Barclay Railroad, shipped south from Towanda 
 North Central Railroad 
 
 Total . . . . 
 Same time last year . 
 
 712,014 02 
 233,631 06 
 97,676 18 
 64,834 04 
 
 1,108,066 10 
 705,464 04 
 
 370,892 16 
 
 47,644 05 
 
 1,013 18 
 
 419.650 19 
 43.5,516 15 
 
 Keceived from. 
 
 Wyoming region . . . 
 Fazleton region . . . . 
 Beaver Meadow region, 
 Mahanoy region . . 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Totals 
 
 Tons, 1878. 
 
 909,712 
 
 1,620,049 
 
 435,961 
 
 665,826 
 
 6,076 
 
 Tom, 1879. 
 
 1,136,587 
 
 1,964,278 
 
 474,761 
 
 786,082 
 
 1,076 
 
 3.446,615 4,361,786 4.606,415 
 
 Tans, 1880. 
 
 1,162,706 
 
 2,125,104 
 
 441,591 
 
 876,860 
 
 243 
 
 Tons, 1881. 
 
 1,362,706 
 
 2,674,077 
 
 602,631 
 
 1,267,933 
 
 197 
 
 5,791,376 
 
 The distribution was as below : 
 
 Year. 
 
 1871 . 
 
 1872 . 
 
 1873 . 
 
 1874 . 
 
 1875 . 
 
 1876 . 
 
 1877 . 
 
 1878 . 
 
 1879 . 
 
 1880 . 
 
 1881 . 
 
 East o/ Mauch 
 Chunk. 
 
 ,210,272 
 ,009,396 
 1,189.023 
 ,016,636 
 417,800 
 129,895 
 ,453,533 
 ,768,756 
 .531,829 
 ,774,729 
 498,323 
 
 Tola!, Coca 
 Tonnage. 
 
 2,889,074 
 3,850,118 
 4,144,339 
 4,150,669 
 3,277,671 
 3,961,513 
 4,362,124 
 3,446,616 
 4,361,785 
 4,606,416 
 5,791,376 
 
 Philadelphia and Reading Railroad Company. 
 
 — The business of this company shows an increase that is 
 very flattering ; there was a large increase in the profits as 
 compared with many preceding seasons, and if the com- 
 pany was out of the hands of the receivers, it would be on 
 as good a footing as the other coal carriers and producers. 
 We append details of the distribution of this coal car- 
 rier during the eleven months ending with November. 
 The destination of the coal carried is about equally divided 
 between tide-water and Philadelphia and what is termed 
 the " line trade." 
 
 Passing over Main Line and Lebanon Valley Branch . . 
 
 For shipment by Schuylkill c^nal 
 
 Shipped "West'd via Cat. & Wpt. Br. & N. C. R. R 
 
 Shipped East via Lehigh Valley R. R ... 
 Shipped West and South from Pine Grove . 
 
 Consumed on Laterals 
 
 Lehigh and Wyoming coal . 
 
 Bituminous 
 
 Coal for Company's use .... 
 
 4,829,568 
 596,504 
 467,863 
 66,960 
 129,443 
 120,486 
 976,964 
 331,.376 
 554,353 
 
 Grand total tonnage 8,072,440 
 
 Tear. Tons. Year. Tons. 
 
 1871 6,002.573 
 
 1872 6,185,434 
 
 1873 6,646,555 
 
 1874 6,348,812 
 
 1875 5,506,455 
 
 1876 5,59.5,207 
 
 1877 ■ ■ . . 7,066,818 
 
 1878 5,909,140 
 
 1879 8,147,579 
 
 1880 7,179,398 
 
 1881 8,072,440 
 
 1860 1,946,196 
 
 1881 . . . ... 1,639,536 
 
 1862 2,310,990 
 
 1863 ... 3,065,261 
 
 1864 3,066,577 
 
 1865 3,090,814 
 
 1866 3,714,684 
 
 1867 3,446,826 
 
 1868 4,674,874 
 
 1869 . . 4,239,457 
 
 1870 4,633,504 
 
 Of the quantity east of Mauch Chunk as noted above, there 
 was 1,604,203 tons delivered to the New Jersey Division for 
 shipment at Perth Amboy, an increase of two hundred thou- 
 sand tons over the preceding year. There was also 1,258,- 
 176 tons delivered to the Belvidere Division of the Pennsyl- 
 vania Railroad, for shipment at Trenton and South Amboy. 
 The rate of transportation was maintained at $1.40 per ton, 
 for the 101 miles from Mauch Chunk to Perth Amboy, 
 throughout the year. Laterals' to Mauch Chunk average 
 fifty cents per ton. Prices of coal remained unchanged 
 throughout the season of 1881, on tide-water deliveries, and 
 the demand was active at all times for Lehigh coal with 
 sales a shade above the circular rates during November. 
 Quotations were: 
 
 The above is the total coal tonnage carried. 
 
 Of the coal produced from the lands owned by the com- 
 pany during the years 1873-81, together with the reported 
 average cost of coal in cars at the mines, the following 
 schedule is given : — 
 
 Lump. 
 
 Brolecn. 
 
 ^W- 
 
 Slave. 
 
 Ch,atnut 
 
 $6 25 
 
 84 45 
 
 $145 
 
 44 25 
 
 84 00 
 
 Prices of coal at Mauch Chunk, for delivery ' on the 
 line,' were evently maintained throughout the season and 
 averaged $3.10 per ton. 
 
 The Pennsylvania and New York Railroad.— 
 This line forms the northern connection of the Lehigh Val- 
 ley Railroad, for its business to the North and West. In 
 addition thereto, it transports a large amount of bituminous 
 coal from whiit is known as the" "Barclay " region. The 
 Loyalsock coal rained in Sullivan county, Pa., is shipped 
 
 Leases 
 produced. 
 
 1873 2.055.665 tons. 
 
 1.S74 1,802,370 tons. 
 
 1875 1,594,741 tons. 
 
 1876 1.218,633 tons. 
 
 1877 1,389,108 tons. 
 
 1878 1,100,181 tons. 
 
 1879 1,300,322 tons. 
 
 1880 1,235,642 tons. 
 
 1881 1,484,992 tons. 
 
 P. *B. O. <t7. Co. 
 
 produced. 
 1,348,838 tons. 
 1,374,790 tons. 
 1,510,672 tons. 
 ],'-63,364 tons. 
 3,794.628 tons. 
 2.727,608 tons. 
 4,269,929 tons. 
 3,460,464 tons. 
 3,937,607 tons. 
 
 Average cost 
 
 at mines. 
 $2,61 per ton. 
 
 2.46 per ton. 
 
 1.87 per ton. 
 
 1.35 per ton. 
 
 1.04 per ton. 
 
 1.24 per ton. 
 
 1.14 per ton. 
 
 1.43 per ton. 
 
 1.49 per ton. 
 
 Philadelphia takes over a million tons of Schnylkill coal, 
 carried by this company; there is a shipping business of 
 two million tons at Port Richmond, and the ' line ' deliver- 
 ies aggregate yearly two millions of tons. This company 
 also sends coal through the tide-water shipping ports of 
 South Amboy and Elizabethport, N. J. The coal tonnage 
 originating at collieries tributary to this railroad company, is 
 stated to have been 6,040,383 tons during the calendar year 
 1881, thus making it the largest Anthracite coal-carrier. 
 
 The ton named is of 2,240 lbs., and the year in all tabular state- 
 ments ends with November 30th. 
 
 Vrnr. 
 1S72. 
 lS7.i . 
 l«7i . 
 
 1875 . 
 
 1876 . 
 
 liehlgh Coal and Navigation Company, 
 
 Tons, 
 . . 566,724 
 . . 626,623 
 . . 672,470 
 . .397,427 
 . . 006,773 
 
 Year. 
 1877. 
 1878. 
 
 1879 . 
 1R80. 
 1881 . 
 
 Tonn. 
 . 650,619 
 . 430,987 
 . 701,761 
 . 617,989 
 . 645,338 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1037 
 
 Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company. — This 
 company dates back to 1820, as a mining and carrying com- 
 pany. The figures in the schedule above, are the figures of 
 the production at the "Summit Mines." 
 
 Coal Cleared Over the New York Canals. 
 
 Anthracite 810,517 
 
 Bituminous , 160,538 
 
 1880. 
 702,598 
 186,213 
 
 1881. 
 902,214 
 206,936 
 
 Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad 
 Company. — ^The large business that has been done by this 
 company has been cause for surprise with many persons who 
 are not aware of the persistent push that permeates every 
 branch of the management. Westward for Anthracite is one 
 of the cardinal points in their belief; the facilities existing for 
 an increasing business, year by year, are of the most ample 
 description. With the completion of ,the line from Bing- 
 hampton to Buffalo, one may naturally expect a greater ton- 
 nage in that direction. So far as the tonnage reports are a 
 criterion there must be a profit in this trade that far over- 
 shadows the business to tide. In 1878, thii? company mined 
 and purchased, and transported for others 2.147,000 tons, of 
 which 676,000 went north and west. A comparison with 
 later details is given below. 
 
 Forwarded North . . 
 Forwarded South . . . 
 
 Tons 1879, 
 . 1,.516,458 
 . 2,306,956 I 2,023,243 
 
 Tons 1880. Tons 1881. 
 1,505,843 I 1,885,3.50 
 
 2,386,603 
 
 Year. Tona. 
 
 1871 1,916,486 
 
 1872 2,836,948 
 
 1873 3,136,306 
 
 1874 2,570,437 
 
 1875 3,326,901 
 
 1876 2,300,500 
 
 Year. Tons. 
 
 1877 2,089,523 
 
 1878 2,180,672 
 
 1879 . ■ .3,867,407 
 
 1880 3,550,348 
 
 1881 4,388,969 
 
 This tonnage includes coal carried, purchased and mined. 
 There are no details of the distribution other than " North " 
 and "South." The tonnage forwarded North includes all 
 the coal sent West, the tonnage forwarded South is the coal 
 brought to Hoboken, and for the line trade in New Jersey. 
 The extension from Binghampton to Buffalo, known as the 
 New York, Lackawanna and Western, will prove of great 
 advantage to this company in developing the trade in An- 
 thracite at the West. 
 
 The following is the official statement made at the regu- 
 lar meeting of the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western di- 
 rectors showing the business for the year 1881 : 
 
 Gross earnings from all sources $27,396,526 
 
 Less expenses, &c . . . ......... -. 19,632,661 
 
 Balance, net earnings 8 7,763.864 
 
 Less interest and rentals of leased lines 3,558,493 
 
 Balance profit $ 4,205,370 
 
 COST OF PBOPEHTT AND ASSETS. 
 
 Construction account 
 
 Materials on hand 
 
 Stocks and bonds (cash value, $7,026,800) . 
 
 Accounts receivable as follows :- 
 
 Cash and demand loans 
 
 Coal on hand (less than marlcet value) . 
 
 A-lvances to leased lines 
 
 Advances on coal to be delivered . 
 Coal bills and sundry accounts due . . . 
 
 30,87.3,356 
 1,121,850 
 6,265,520 
 
 . 8 871,781 
 £53,873 
 336,645 
 608,013 
 
 . 1,619.193 
 
 - 83,804,607 
 
 Less accounts payable : — 
 Part due and uncalled for dividends, interest 
 
 and rentals 8 93,461 
 
 Dividends, interest and rentals due and paya- 
 ble after January 1 1,576,090 
 
 State taxe.s payable after January 1 ?82,179 
 
 Accounts due and payable after January 1 . . 631,673 
 Pay rolls for December payable in January . 446,641 
 
 83.0.35,037 
 
 -8 769,469 
 
 Total 
 
 . 839,030,197 
 
 CAPITAL STOCK, BOTTOS AND SUBPLUS. 
 
 Capital stock ■ . • ■ «25.200,ono 
 
 Bonded debt ■ 4,044,900 
 
 Balance due on accountof bonds paid and retired March 1, 1881. 1,200,000 
 Surplus account 7,585,297 
 
 Total 839,030,197 
 
 Coal transported in 1881, 4,983,736 tons. 
 
 Central Railroad of New Jersey.— We have de- 
 tails of the business of this company to the 24th ultimo, and 
 it will be noticed that there is a largely increased traffic, 
 and the distribution is about equally divided between tide 
 and the interior trade. 
 
 Shipped From. 
 Wyoming Region, 
 
 Upper Lehigh 
 
 Beaver Meadow " 
 
 Mauoh Chunk " 
 Cross Creek " 
 Council Ridge " 
 Lehigh Valley R. R. 
 R. P. Smith & Co . . 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 L. & W. B. C. Co 1,868,380 14 
 
 EverhartC. Co 69,128 07 
 
 Pairmount 48,824 13 
 
 Susquehanna C. Co 203,252 16 
 
 D. & Hudson Canal Co 38,725 13 
 
 Red Ash C, Co . . 90,402 12 
 
 Lehigh-Luzerne C. Co. . . . . 12,170 15 
 
 Upper Lehigh C. Co . . . . 462,605 15 
 
 M. S. Kemmerer & Co 124,799 06 
 
 Pond Creek 32,821 19 
 
 L. & W. B. C. Co 467,944 18 
 
 a H. Meyer & Co 74,931 06 
 
 L. C. & Navigation Co. . .... 629,649 10 
 
 Coxe, Bros. & Co 220,770 11 
 
 J. Leisenring & Co . 13.%169 15 
 
 Packerton 12,281 11 
 
 127,296 04 
 
 Total 4,509,056 05 
 
 Year 1881. 
 
 2,609.716 16 
 
 1,186,756 17 
 
 154,604 17 
 
 18,630 19 
 
 116,9.50 14 
 
 318,922 11 
 
 226 15 
 
 203,252 16 
 
 Year 1880. 
 
 2,162,961 03 
 
 906.073 18 
 
 133,817 15 
 
 15,195 09 
 
 96,647 18 
 
 369,780 17 
 
 95 02 
 
 119,637 04 
 
 Distribution. 
 Forwarded East by Rail to Tidal points 
 
 " " . " Lo al " 
 
 " " " nse Central Division . 
 
 " " " " L. & S. " . 
 Delivered at and above Mauch Chunk 
 
 " " Coalport for Canal . . . 
 
 " to L. V. R. R. at Packerton, . . 
 
 " to L. V. R. R. at Sugar Notch. . 
 
 Total 4,609,066 05 3,793,109 06 
 
 Coal carried over the Lehigh and Susquehanna Division 
 of the Central Eailroad of New Jersey. 
 
 1871 1,033,587 1 
 
 1872 2,627,068 1 
 
 1873 3,0 
 
 1874 2,972,286 I 
 
 1875 2,661,636 1 
 
 1876 2,952,620 
 
 Pennsylvania Coal Company. — The output of coal 
 from the mines of this company is yearly increasing and the 
 figures for 1881 show a larger business than ever before. 
 Tide coal is received at Weehawken, N. J., and at New- 
 burgh, N. Y. by the ' Erie ' EaUway from Hawley. We ap- 
 pend annual business : 
 
 1876 1,143,922 tons. I 1879 1,372,759 tons. 
 
 1877 1,118,011 tons. 1880 1,123,585 tons. 
 
 1878 925,995 tons. | 1881 1,427,747 tons. 
 
 This distribution during 1880 and 1881 was : 
 
 1877 2,869,788 
 
 1878 2,390,655 
 
 1879 4,088,964 
 
 1880 4,843,209 
 
 1881 
 
 1880. 
 
 West by Erie 131,917 
 
 Bast by Erie . . . . 986,023 
 
 East by D. & H. Canal 6,733 
 
 1881. 
 181,494 
 1,239,990 
 6,263 
 
 Pennsylvania RaUroad — Belvidere Division. — 
 
 This line connects at the Delaware river with the roads from 
 the Anthracite regions, and we give the amount of Anthra- 
 cite coal carried to December 24th, 1881 : 
 
 1881. 
 
 To South Amboy for shipment 759,7a3 
 
 For distribution 718,496 
 
 For company's use 113,779 
 
 1880. 
 662,157 
 603,129 
 104,906 
 
 1,591,978 1,160,193 
 
 This was received from : 
 
 Lehigh region 1,327,244 [ 942.427 
 
 Wyoming region 264,733 | 637,756 
 
 In the annual report of this company, facts and figures 
 relative to the Anthracite companies controlled by the com- 
 pany are given below : — 
 
 STISQTJEHATJNA COAX, COMPANT. 
 
 Receipts from sale of eoal, etc 82,770,958 74 
 
 Expenses mining, selling, shipping coal, including taxes 
 and amount chtirged off for exhaustion of land.«, being 
 ten cents a ton on coal mined above certain sizes . . 2,297,734 97 
 
 Net earnings for 1881 8 473,223 77 
 
 From which deduct : 
 
 Interest on funded debt 8120,000 00 
 
 Interest and discount 3,638 68 
 
 123,638 68 
 
 Add increased value of personal property at mines (as per 349,685 09 
 inventory) as compared with January 1, 1881 23,620 30 
 
 8 373,205 39 
 
 Out of which was paid a dividend of four per cent . . . 85,472 00 
 
 Leaving a balance of S 287,733 39 
 
 Net profit, 1881 8 373,205 39 
 
 Net profit, 1880 209,806 50 
 
 Being an increase in profits of 8 163,398 89 
 
 8UMMTT BRANCH BA1LU0AD COMPANT. 
 
 Receipts from sale of coal, rents, &c 81,107,8.30 12 
 
 Expense's mining, selling, shipping coal, including taxes 
 and amount charged off for exhaustion of lands .... 993,361 24 
 
1038 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Net earnings for year 8 Hl.lSS 88 
 
 Add amou't received from Lykens Valley Coat Company 
 on account of advances made to that company in former 
 years 25,875 52 
 
 Interest on funded debt . 
 Interest and discount . . 
 
 . 870,000 00 
 . 16,272 31 
 
 $ 140,344 40 
 
 . $ 65,072 09 
 34,809 94 
 
 Net profit for 1881 . 
 Net profit for 1880 . 
 
 Being an increase in profits in 1881 of $ 20,362 15 
 
 lYKENS VALLEY COAL COMPANY. 
 
 Receipts for sale of coal, rents, &c S 765,034 04 
 
 Expenses mining, sellmg, shipping coal, taxes, &c . , . . 729,158 62 
 
 Net earnings for 1881 $ 25,875 52 
 
 Net earnings for 1880 48,907 80 
 
 Being a decrease in 1881 of $ 23,032 28 
 
 UINEBAL RAILROAD AND MINTNO COMPANY. 
 
 Receipts from sale of coal, nnts, &c $1,747,035 25 
 
 Expenses mining, selling and shipping coal, taxes, &c . 1,147,185 82 
 
 From which deduct: 
 
 Royalty paid on coal to the Pennsylvania Railroad and 
 Northern Central Railway Go's 
 
 S 326,849 43 
 
 233,689 31 
 
 $ 93,260 12 
 10,000 00 
 
 Out of which was paid a dividend of 
 
 Leaving a balance of $ 83,260 12 
 
 Net profit for 1881 $ 93,260 12 
 
 Net profit for 1880 39,858 57 
 
 Being an increase in profits in 1881 of 8 63,401 56 
 
 The average price per ton at point of sale, aggregating 
 the results of the four coal companies for 1!:81, was $3.43 
 7-10, as against $3.34 6-10 for 1880, showing an increase of 
 9 1-10 cents per ton. 
 
 It will be seen from the foregoing statements, that your 
 companies mined 161,223 more tons of coal in 1881 than in 
 1880 ; and that the financial result for the year was a surplus 
 profit of $537,413.12, after paying their interest upon their 
 fixed liabilities, and a royalty by the Mineral Railroad and 
 Mining Company of fifty-three cents per ton on coal mined, 
 amounting to $233,589.31. 
 
 Cumberland Coal Trade in 1831. — Shipments of 
 Georges Creek Cumberland coal during the past season have 
 been on a generous scale, and an increased tonnage is re- 
 corded. It will be noticed that one company has done a 
 business of nearly three-quarters of a million tons, an 
 amount far ahead of anything previously recorded. A large 
 trade westward has been developed for this coal. The 
 Georges Creek and Cumberland road vras opened for busi- 
 ness, and all things considered, they have done well. The 
 canal has been dry, or nearly so, unfortunately too, in the 
 busiest time of the year, and there is a decrease in the ship- 
 ments by that line. The increase in business by the Penn- 
 sylvania line is due to the tonnage furnished by G. C. & C. 
 road, and Cumberland coal is now shipped at Georgetown, 
 Baltimore, Philadelphia and South Amboy on the Atlantic 
 sea coast. The development of this coal field south of the 
 B. & 0. road, in the Elk Garden country, is likely to in- 
 crease the shipments of this coal beyond previous calcula- 
 tions. The coal is found there in its purest, with the deep- 
 est seam of any portion of the district. Prices have been 
 fairly maintained, and with the conditions of demand of the 
 past month or two continued through 1882, there must be a 
 good financial showing. We quote $3.50 at Georgetown, 
 $3.75 at Baltimore, and $5.00 at New York as a fair average. 
 Contracts, of course, realize less returns. Wages paid for 
 mining are 65 cents per ton. We append details for last 
 two years of the several companies. Those for 1880 are oflS- 
 cial figures for the calendar year, and 1881 are figures as per 
 tonnage report to the 24th ultimo. If one may judge from 
 the reported improvements being made at the collieries in 
 this district there is likely to be a very much larger tonnage 
 in 1882. The flush times of 1871-'2-'3 induced a heavy ton- 
 nage, averaging 2,250,000 tons, and this point has been 
 turned in 1881, i-n spite of all the coals that have come into 
 market since that time. Is there any doubt, that there is a 
 growing demand for Bituminous coal in view of the points 
 here related? 
 
 Shipped by 
 Borden Mining Company .... 
 
 Consolidation Coal Company 
 
 BlEen Avon Coal Company 
 
 Hampshire and Baltimore Company . 
 Georges Creek Coal and Iron Company 
 New Central Coal Company. . . 
 
 Maryland Coal Company . 
 
 American Coal Company 
 
 Atlantic and Georges Creek Company, 
 
 Swanton Mining Company . 
 Potomac Coal Company .... 
 Maryland Union Coal Company . 
 
 Davis Bros 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 W. Va., C. & P. R. R 
 
 157, 
 562; 
 46, 
 98, 
 2.%, 
 350, 
 113, 
 124, 
 62, 
 
 .484 
 ,921 
 ,739 
 ,.599 
 ,184 
 ,445 
 ,901 
 
 Piedmont Coal and Iron Company 14,007 
 
 --■ • -■ . 41,741 
 
 , . 77,431 
 
 . 163,359 
 
 . . 54,189 
 
 . . :i67 
 
 Total 2,189,430 
 
 Tons 1881. 
 161,328 
 730,67.', 
 
 25,v!95 
 
 62,121 
 260,102 
 296,403 
 121,.362 
 113,354 
 
 65,901 
 8,157 
 
 41,144 
 
 79,294 
 169,32!8 
 
 67,092 
 19 
 
 10,2 -5 
 
 2,197,715 
 
 The production was sent to market by the following routes : 
 
 B. & 0. R. R. . 
 
 C. & 0. Canal . 
 P. S. Line . . 
 
 1880. 
 . 1,319,687 
 . 603,125 
 . 213,460 
 
 1881. 
 
 1,415,613 
 
 605,339 
 
 270,163 
 
 The G. C. & C. road carried 207,824 tons of the output in 
 1881 and the same is included in the coal forwarded to mar- 
 ket (83,122 tons) by the C. & O. Canal and (128,102 tons) 
 by the Pennsylvania State Line Railroad, and the local 
 trade of 4,599 tons. 
 
 Clearfield Coal Trade in 1881. — Each returning year 
 shows an increasing tonnage from this now well-known 
 source of supply. As remarked in our last review, there 
 must be something in the quality of the commodity that will 
 assert itself in spite of all arguments to the contrary. How 
 were it possible, otherwise for the tonnage to grow from 
 1,281,861 tons in 1876 to 3,364,169 tons in 1881. Could a 
 supply of cars have been secured, there would have been a 
 still further increase. There was no strike, and wages are at 
 fifty cents per ton. Prices have been remunerative on the 
 average, and $3.75 at Philadelphia, and $4.50 at South Am- 
 boy, shows the price realized for good coal. Of course there 
 are many contracts that will not realize these figures, but 
 the lively demand during November and December enabled 
 much better rates to be obtained on very large amounts. It 
 is almost a repetition of our old reports, to state that the busi- 
 ness at tide has taken a larger percentage of the traffic in 
 Bituminous coal than in former years. Manufactories, 
 steamships, etc., have all taken more of this coal. We re- 
 gret not being able to give a detailed statement of the out- 
 put at each of the forty operations, embraced within this 
 district, but neither the operator nor the railway will give 
 these facts. There are half a dozen concerns that do three- 
 fourths of the business, for much of the coal mined by 
 others is purchased and disposed of by them. There is every 
 prospect of a greater output during the year 1882, and we 
 hope that the operators will realize their anticipations both 
 as to quantity and price. The output is reported at 2,364,- 
 169 net tons for 1881, as compared with 1,711,098 tons the 
 preceding year. Of course the coal passing over Tyrone 
 and Clearfield road is alone embraced in these figures. 
 
 Huntingdon and Broad Top Mountain Railroad. 
 — This is yearly becoming an important coal carrier, not so 
 much of the coal that originates upon its own line, but from 
 the Georges Creek coal that is coming over it for shipment 
 at Philadelphia and South Amboy. Details of the tonnage 
 are given below : 
 
 Broad Top Coal 
 Georges Creek . 
 
 1879. 
 
 141,594 
 174,930 
 
 1880. 
 
 174,736 
 242,593 
 
 1881. 
 
 203,000 
 312,000 
 
 An outlet for the coal from the region is afforded by the 
 Huntingdon and Broad Top Mountain Railroad (this was 
 completed in 1856, and during the latter part of that 
 year 42,0u0 tons were forwarded from this region to various 
 markets^ The line extends from the town of Huntingdon, 
 on the Pennsylvania Railroad, 203 miles west of Philadel- 
 phia, to Mt. Dallas, in Bedford county, a distance of 45 
 miles. At Saxton, 24 miles from Huntingdon, a branch 
 road, 10 miles in length, extends to Broad Top City; at 
 Eiddlesburg, 5 miles beyond Saxton, is a branch into Ful- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS 01* THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1039 
 
 ton, 5 miles, from the main road. From Mt. Dallas the 
 Bedford and Bridgeport Railroad, 386-10 miles in length, 
 extends to the Maryland State line ; from this point to 
 Cumberland, Md., via the Cumberland and Pennsylvania 
 Railroad is 7 miles. At or near Cumberland, connection is 
 made with the Cumberland and Pennsylvania, and the 
 Georges Creek and Cumberland roads. This connection 
 gives an outlet for the Cumberland coal to the interior mar- 
 kets of Pennsylvania,, to Philadelphia and South Amboy, 
 N. J. The Bedford and Bridgeport road is leased to the 
 Pennsylvania Railroad, and operated by them. 
 
 We append details of the tonnage of the Huntingdon and 
 Broad Top road, during the past ten years. 
 
 1872 297,473 tons. 
 
 1873 350,245 tons. 
 
 1874 226,693 tons. 
 
 1875 204,921 tons. 
 
 1876 159,779 tons. 
 
 The shipments of Cumberland coal over the Pennsylva- 
 nia and the Huntingdon and Broad Top Railroads have 
 been as below : 
 
 1877 140,143 tons. 
 
 1878 160,204 tons- 
 
 1879 141,694 tons. 
 
 1880 174,736 tons. 
 
 1881 204,819 tons. 
 
 1872 • • • 22,021 tons. 
 
 1873 114,689 tons. 
 
 1874 67,681 tons. 
 
 1875 176,154 tons. 
 
 1876 146,796 tons. 
 
 18T7 187,488 tons. 
 
 1878 163,698 tons. 
 
 1879 171,930 tons. 
 
 1880 242,693 tons. 
 
 1881 313,600 tons. 
 
 The East Broad Top Railroad penetrated this coal field in 
 1875 ; there were delivered to the Pennsylvania Railroad at 
 Mt. Union, 63,567 tons of coal during 1875, 66,104 in 1876, 
 54,738 in 1877, 63,068 in 1878, 67,929 in 1879, 72,450 in 1880, 
 and 91,745 tons in 1881. In addition, some 47,634 tons 
 were last year used in the furnaces, on the line of the E. B. 
 T. road. The coal measures are regular in structure, with 
 gentle undulation dividing the field into several synclinals 
 or basins. The coal is semi-bituminous in its nature, and 
 has been largely used for blacksmithing purposes, for gener- 
 ating steam in locomotives, marine and stationary engines, 
 in rolling mills, puddling furnaces and forge fires ; with 
 glass works it is an especial favorite. It gives a white ash, 
 is free burning, and easily ignited. Included in this region, 
 are all the mines in Huntingdon and Bedford counties. 
 
 Union Pacific Ilailroad. — ^The production and cost 
 of coal mined by the Union Pacific Railroad Company com- 
 pare as follows : 
 
 In 1881 
 In 1880 . 
 
 687,493 
 445,129 
 
 142,364 
 
 Cost. 
 
 $814,613.66 
 547,325.66 
 
 8267,287.90 
 
 81.39 
 1.23 
 
 80.16 
 
 The cost of additional machinery and of improvements of 
 all kinds for increasing the capacity of existing mines and 
 for the opening of new mines is included in the above. 
 During the year 1881, there were expended for these pur- 
 
 At Carbon mines 863,793.52 
 
 At Rock Spring mines 17,881.07 
 
 At Almy mines 69,926.18 
 
 At Grass Creels mines 23,064.84 
 
 Making tlie total 8174,656.61 
 
 The annual report says that, although the quantity of 
 coal mined by the company has increased for some years at 
 the rate of 25 per cent, per year, yet the demand for coal on 
 the line of the railroad has increased in a greater proportion. 
 The improvements made the past year have increased the 
 capacity of the mines to double the output of the year 1881, 
 and it is now expected that the additional railroad equip- 
 ments, under contract to be delivered early this season will 
 enable the company to meet promptly the demand for coal 
 during this year. The company has an interest in fully 
 supplying this demand, not only on account of the direct 
 profit realized from the sale of coal, but also from the de- 
 velopment of business that results from an abundant supply 
 of cheap fuel of an excellent quality for domestic and man- 
 ufacturing purposes. The sales of coal to other railroad 
 companies and to private consumers compare as follows : 
 
 Tons. Amt. sates. 
 
 T_ iggi . 193,031 $1,098,863.83 
 
 In 1880 . .' 137,119 743,087.05 
 
 Increase in 1881 56,912 $356,776.78 
 
 The production and cost of coal for seven years of the 
 different mines of the company are as follows : 
 
 Ye\b. 
 
 1876 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 
 Total , 
 
 Cabbon. 
 
 61,760 
 69,062 
 74,343 
 62,418 
 76,326 
 100,434 
 166,820 
 
 600,162 
 
 $126,716.13 
 109,193.02 
 92,702.41 
 75,026.14 
 89,541.90 
 136,040.40 
 236,773.03 
 
 $865,993.03 
 
 Per 
 
 Ton. 
 
 82.05 
 1.58 
 1.26 
 1.20 
 1.19 
 135 
 1.61 
 
 $1.44 
 
 Bock Sfbinqs. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 104,667 
 134,953 
 146,494 
 
 164,281 
 193,261 
 244,460 
 279,908 
 
 1,268.014 
 
 Coat. 
 
 $192,973.09 
 ] 86,844.60 
 162,076.07 
 162,796 90 
 190,338.36 
 303,818.41 
 365,978.10 
 
 1,543,824.53 
 
 Per 
 Ton. 
 
 $1.84 
 1J8 
 1.11 
 .99 
 .98 
 1.24 
 1.27 
 
 81.23 
 
 Yeab. 
 
 1875 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 
 Total , 
 
 Alht. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 41,805 
 60,766 
 54,603 
 69,096 
 71,576 
 100,235 
 110,157 
 
 Cost. 
 
 $72,196.88 
 80,482.94 
 67,363.89 
 69,393.81 
 83,368.90 
 107,466.85 
 132,652.38 
 
 $592,914.65 
 
 Per 
 Ton. 
 
 $1.73 
 132 
 1.06 
 1.00 
 1.16 
 1.07 
 1.20 
 
 81.19 
 
 Total. 
 
 Tom. 
 
 208,222 
 264,771 
 276,480 
 276,795 
 340,152 
 445,129 
 687.493 
 
 2,397,042 
 
 Cost. 
 
 $391,885.10 
 375,620.56 
 312,131.37 
 287,216.85 
 363,249.16 
 547,325.66 
 814,613.66 
 
 $3,091,942.26 
 
 Per 
 Ton. 
 
 $1.88 
 1.42 
 1.13 
 1.04 
 1.07 
 1.23 
 
 81.29 
 
 The total for 1881 includes Grass Creek, 40,008 tons, cost, 889,210.08; 
 average per ton, 82.20. —From "Coal." 
 
 New York Pennsylvania and Ohio Railroad. — 
 
 The recent report of the New York, Pennsylvania & Ohio 
 Railroad for the year 1881 contains the following statement 
 of the traffic of coal, ore, and oil during the last seven years: 
 
 1881 
 1880 
 1879 
 1878 
 1877 
 1876 
 1876 
 
 Codlf tons. 
 
 1,359,759 
 1,003,141 
 740,669 
 621,743 
 747,145 
 746,642 
 728,967 
 
 634,159 
 494,569 
 376,378 
 255,908 
 246,109 
 20»,128 
 175,607 
 
 0/7, barrels. 
 
 933,250 
 835,656 
 2,385,762 
 2,027,792 
 3,530,188 
 2,168.149 
 2,719,830 
 
 — From " Coal.^' 
 
 Illinois Central Railroad. — The Illinois Central 
 Railroad carried the following quantities of coal in 1881 ; 
 
 January 
 February . 
 March 
 April .... 
 May . . 
 June . . . 
 July . . . 
 August . . . 
 September . 
 
 Total for 9 mos.. 
 
 From Mines 
 along Mood. 
 
 27,600 
 27,700 
 28,220 
 29,960 
 21,700 
 20,350 
 23,500 
 41,325 
 38,525 
 
 258,780 
 
 From 
 Grand Tower B. R., 
 at Carbondale, JU. 
 
 2,375 
 5,055 
 7,310 
 7,910 
 8,585 
 4,130 
 5,210 
 8,135 
 7,070 
 
 55,780 
 
 J^om 
 
 Croolced Creele 
 
 a. £., at Judd, Iowa. 
 
 2,830 
 860 
 1,390 
 1,170 
 320 
 390 
 290 
 575 
 655 
 
 8,370 
 
 -From " Coal^ 
 
 COAL IN DIFFERENT STATES. 
 
 u 
 
 NDER this head we gather some further figures of 
 interest from various indicated sources. 
 
 Output of the Different States. 
 
 Pennsylvania Anthracite . 
 Pennsylvania Bituminous 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Missouri 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 IVnu, 1880. 
 
 23,437,242 
 19,000,000 
 4,000,000 
 7,0fl0,000 
 2,136,160 
 1,600,000 
 1,400,000 
 1,100,000 
 1,600,000 
 
 Tons, 1881. 
 
 23,600,016 
 20,000,000 
 6,000,000 
 8,250,000 
 2,261,918 
 1,750,000 
 1,500,000 
 1,500,000 
 1,750,000 
 
1040 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Kentucky . 
 Tennessee 
 Virginia . . 
 Kansas . . 
 Michigan . . 
 Rhode Island 
 Alabama . . 
 Washington 
 Wyoming . . 
 Utah .... 
 Colorado . . 
 Georgia . . . 
 
 Total . 
 
 1,000,000 
 600,000 
 100,000 
 560,000 
 76,000 
 10,000 
 340,000 
 176,000 
 226,000 
 276,000 
 576,000 
 100,000 
 
 65,198,402 
 
 1,100,000 
 760,000 
 100,000 
 760,000 
 100,000 
 10,000 
 376,000 
 176,000 
 226,000 
 275,000 
 700,000 
 150,000 
 
 76,121,934 
 
 —F. A. Scmard, The Coal Trade. 
 
 Government Estimates.— The Department of Inters 
 nal Affairs of Pennsylvania furnishes the following tabula- 
 tion of anthracite coal for 1881 : 
 
 Total number collieries 319 
 
 Average number of days worked during year 27.601 
 
 Total number employees 75,169 
 
 Total amount paid in wages during year $27,454,781.36 
 
 Total production of anthracite for 1881, tons 27,929,128.18 
 
 Average amount per ton paid in wages 1,0666 
 
 Average amount of coal produced to each employee .... 373.14 
 
 A similar table for the bituminous fields shows : 
 
 Total number of collieries 382 
 
 Average number of days worked during the year 217.07 
 
 Total number of persons employed 35,530 
 
 Total amount paid in wages during the year $14,340,057.50 
 
 Total production of bituminous coal for the year ended 
 
 December 31, 1881, tons 15,692,923.12 
 
 Total number of coke ovens 6,640 
 
 Total production of coke for the year, tons 2,176,403.08 
 
 Average amount per ton paid in wages $0.92.05 
 
 Average amount of coal produced to each employee . . . 442.47 
 
 In the bituminous regions the number of days worked in 
 the year is much less than in the anthracite. One reason of 
 this is, probably, that the demand supplied from the bitu- 
 minous region is more local than that from the anthracite. 
 The number of days' work in a large section of the West 
 Pennsylvania bituminous field depends upon the state of 
 water in the Ohio River, which was not favorable to ship- 
 ments, and consequently to mining, last year. The greater 
 ease of mining bituminous coal has made the output per 
 man much greater than in the anthracite region. 
 
 Accidents. — According to a statement prepared by the 
 engineer of the Philadelphia & Reading Coal and Iron Com- 
 pany, the accidents at the colleries worked by the company 
 during the last nine years, referred to the tonnage of coal ex- 
 tracted, were as follows ; 
 
 Year. 
 
 1873 . . 
 1874. . 
 1876. . . 
 
 1876 (11 mos, 
 
 1877 . . 
 
 1878 . . 
 
 1879. . 
 
 1880. . . 
 1881 . . . 
 
 Total 
 tonnage. 
 
 1,348,838 
 1,374,791 
 1,510,572 
 1,853,364 
 3,794,529 
 2,727,608 
 4,269,929 
 3,460,464 
 3,937,608 
 
 Total 
 
 eerioua 
 
 accidenfs 
 
 nonrfatal. 
 
 132 
 96 
 80 
 7S 
 185 
 217 
 238 
 198 
 236 
 
 Numbef of 
 
 tons mined 
 
 per serimts 
 
 accident. 
 
 10,294 
 14,320 
 18,882 
 24,711 
 20,511 
 12,670 
 17,941 
 17,477 
 16,685 
 
 Total fatal 
 acddenU 
 
 30 
 45 
 44 
 62 
 43 
 33 
 
 Nvmher of 
 tons mined 
 •per fatal 
 accident. 
 
 30,656 
 38,188 
 50,362 
 61,778 
 84,323 
 61,991 
 82,114 
 80,476 
 119,321 
 
 Referred to the number of employees, the figures stand as 
 follows : 
 
 Tear. 
 
 iVumfter of 
 employees. 
 
 Total 
 eeriom accir 
 
 dents 
 nonrfatal. 
 
 Per cent, 
 serious 
 accidents. 
 
 Total fatal 
 accidents. 
 
 Per cenl. 
 
 fatal 
 accidents. 
 
 1873 ... . 
 
 1874 
 
 1875 
 
 1876 
 
 1877 
 
 1878 
 
 1879 
 
 1880 
 
 1881 
 
 5,000 
 8,000 
 9,000 
 9,110 
 11,428 
 10,630 
 12,661 
 13,093 
 13,509 
 
 132 
 96 
 80 
 75 
 185 
 217 
 238 
 198 
 236 
 
 Wlr 
 
 44 
 36 
 30 
 30 
 45 
 44 
 62 
 43 
 33 
 
 OfWi, 
 
 It will be noted that there was a steady increase. 
 There were seventy-nine accidents in the Wilkes-Barre 
 district resulting fatally from the following causes. 
 
 By Explosions of Carburetted Hydrogen Gas . 
 
 By Falling of Roof and Coal 
 
 By Falling down Shaft and Slopes 
 
 Crushed by Mine Cars 
 
 By Explosions of Powder and Blasts 
 
 By miscellaneous causes underground _■ ■ . 
 By various causes outside around the mines . 
 
 10 
 
 28 
 3 
 
 10 
 7 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 Total . 
 
 One hundred and seventy accidents which were serious 
 but not proving fatal occurred as follaws : 
 
 By Falling of Roof and Coal 
 
 By Explosions of Carburetted Hydrogen Gas . . 
 
 By Falling down Shafts 
 
 Crushed by Mine Cars 
 
 By Explosion of Powder and Blasts 
 
 From miscellaneous causes inside of the mines 
 By various causes on surface, 
 
 43 
 
 24 
 1 
 44 
 25 
 16 
 17 
 
 Total 
 
 Number of persons employed in and around the mines of 
 each company are as follows : 
 
 Lehigh Valley Coal Company 1,550 
 
 Lehigh and Wilkesbarre Coal Company ..... 4,941 
 
 Delaware and Hudson Canal Company . . 2,699 
 
 Susquehanna Coal Company 2,341 
 
 Miscellaneous coal companies .... 6,277 
 
 Total 16,808 
 
 Miners. — According to returns obtained from the opera- 
 tors by the Pennsylvania Bureau of Statistics, the average 
 daily wages paid to employees in anthracite and bituminous 
 coal mines during the year was as follows : 
 
 Anthracite. 
 
 Number. 
 
 1878. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1881. 
 
 Miners on contract I 
 Miners on wages J 
 Inside laborers . . . 
 Outside laborers . . 
 Platform men and 
 
 21,442 1 
 
 12.560 
 11,241 
 
 $1.97 
 1.66 
 1.38 
 1.21 
 
 1.21 
 
 '.51 
 .61 
 1.30 
 1.68 
 1.26 
 
 1.88 
 1.47 
 1.47 
 1.46 
 1.91 
 1.90 
 2.64 
 2.38 
 1.60 
 1.60 
 .77 
 
 $■2.09 
 1.63 
 1.37 
 1.19 
 
 1.05 
 .66 
 .61 
 1.19 
 1.65 
 
 1.65 
 1.65 
 1.66 
 
 1.74 
 1.42 
 1.42 
 1.41 
 1.75 
 1.76 
 2.66 
 
 i.K 
 .68 
 
 $2.71 
 1.88 
 1.62 
 1.30 
 
 1.31 
 
 1.44 
 .67 
 .77 
 1.26 
 1.80 
 1.44 
 1.80 
 1.80 
 1.66 
 
 2.25 
 1.69 
 1.46 
 1.63 
 1.96 
 1.84 
 2.63 
 1.93 
 1.46 
 1.44 
 .79 
 
 2.62 
 2.05 
 1.72 
 1.27 
 
 1.29 
 
 Boss slate picker . 
 Slate pickers, boys 
 Door and fan boys 
 
 } 
 
 15,181 1 
 
 1.37 
 .65 
 .75 
 
 1.29 
 
 Engineers . . 
 Firemen ... 
 Blacksmiths. . . . 
 Carpenters . . . 
 
 } 
 
 2,245 •[ 
 
 530 
 862 
 
 1.78 
 1.40 
 1.81 
 1.83 
 166 
 
 
 
 ..... 
 
 
 Total 
 
 75,160 
 
 
 
 
 
 BHummoua. 
 Miners 
 
 22,158 
 903 
 
 4,443 { 
 
 307 
 238 
 
 672 
 
 1,413 
 1,908 
 
 216 
 
 Inside laborers . 
 Outside laborers. . 
 Mule drivers . . . 
 Blacksmiths .... 
 
 } 
 
 1.81 
 1.63 
 1.80 
 2 16 
 
 
 
 Overseers 
 
 Clerks 
 
 Coke-oven chargers 
 Coke-oven drawers 
 Boy a 
 
 
 2.60- 
 2.11 
 1.76 
 1.74 
 
 .84 
 
 
 36,630 
 
 
 It will be noted that, as a general thing, wages have in- 
 creased since 1879, when they were very low. Inside, labor, 
 both in the anthracite and bituminous fields, is now better 
 paid, relatively, than in the past, and so it is with many 
 other branches of" the labor connected with coal mining. 
 We have added to the table the number of employees named, 
 the difference between the totals given and the sum of the 
 men enumerated being employees not classified. A glance 
 at these figures will show that while the production bore the 
 proportion of about 28,000,000 tons of anthracite to 16,000, 
 000 tons of bituminous, the number of miners is very nearly 
 alike. On the other hand, the inside and outside laborers 
 in the anthracite collieries is 23,791 against only 5316 in the 
 bituminous mines, and the number of boys is about eight 
 times as large. While, therefore, one miner apparently can 
 accomplish more in an anthracite mine, it requires so much 
 other labor that the cost of wages per ton is, according to 
 the returns of the Bureau as $1,065 to $0.92 the latter 
 figures, however, not including the wages paid in coking 
 bituminous coal, so that, strictly speaking, the figures are 
 not directly comparable, on ths basis of expenditure or 
 product prepared for market. 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1041 
 
 The Oammerdal Herald gives the following figures on the 
 imports of coal into San Francisco : 
 
 Foreigil. 
 
 Australian 
 
 English 
 
 Vancouver 
 
 Eastern, 
 
 Anthraf'ite 
 
 Cumberlrnd 
 
 Domeetic. 
 Mount Diabolo . . . 
 
 Coos B*y 
 
 Seattle 
 
 Tafoma 
 
 Chile 
 
 Totals . . . . 
 Increase in 1881. 
 
 1830. 
 
 Ton*. 
 
 69.872 
 
 06,660 
 
 169,162 
 
 19,629 
 20,616 
 
 188,723 
 35,418 
 12.J,7« 
 
 1881. 
 Tons. 
 
 126,296 
 281,313 
 188,629 
 
 18,697 
 
 103,066 
 21,246 
 
 162,893 
 
 17,339 
 
 230 
 
 899,680 
 246,502 
 
 Increase, 1 Decrease. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 66,424 
 214,683 
 
 4,006 
 
 29,162 
 
 17,330 
 
 230 
 
 331,864 
 
 Tons. 
 
 10,633 
 6,932 
 
 68,668 
 14,169 
 
 86,302 
 
 The San Francisco Journal of (hmmerce reports the fol- 
 lowing imports for 1881 : 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Australian 121,707 
 
 British 270,451 
 
 British Columbia 151,706— 6<3,814 
 
 Eastern 26,743 
 
 Seattle 145,173 
 
 Coos Bay '. 20,621 
 
 Carbon Hill 18,317 
 
 Mount Diabolo (6 months) 66,687 — 260,798 
 
 Total 821.456 
 
 Corresponding period, 1880 631,745 
 
 Corresponding period, 1879 678,417 
 
 Colorado. — The year 1881 will be remembered as a no- 
 table one in the development of the coal and iron interests 
 of the State. Its marked features have been the largely in- 
 creased output of the coal mines already opened ; the devel- 
 opments of the Gunnison coal fields, and especially the an- 
 thracite measures at Irwin, near Crested Butte ; and pre- 
 eminently the starting of the blast furnace at South Pueblo, 
 with the attendant opening up of iron mines, limestone 
 quarries and other feeders of the furnace. While the coal 
 interests in the northern part of the State have prospered, it 
 is in the southern portion that the greatest strides have been 
 made for which the Colorado Coal and Iron Company, hav- 
 ing its general offices in Colorado Springs, must receive the 
 credit. This corporation was organized January 23, 1880, 
 by the consolidation of several of the companies that had 
 been organized to develop different portions of Colorado. It 
 has rapidly grown to be one of the largest and wealthiest 
 corporations of the West, and now owns upwards of 100,000 
 acres of land in central and southern Colorado, 15,000 acres 
 of which are underlaid with coal, and 12,000 acres contain- 
 ing large deposits of iron ore. To develop these properties, 
 the company has in operation a coke oven at El Moro and 
 Crested Butte, a blast furnace at South Pueblo, with steel 
 works nearly completed, and a rolling mill at Denver. 
 
 The following table shows the total output of the Canon 
 City, Walsenburg and El Moro coal mines for the years 
 1880 and 1881 : 
 
 Mines. 
 
 Canon City = 
 Walsenburg 
 El Moro . . 
 
 Totals . 
 
 From the El Moro mine there were shipped to the coke 
 ovens 51,891 tons in 1880, and 95,000 in 1881. The total 
 coal output of all the company's mines is 332,000 tons in 
 1881, as against 211,378 tons in 1880. 
 
 Canon Coal Fields. — These comprise 3740 acres of land in 
 Fremont county, thirty-eight miles west of South Pueblo. 
 Their product has long been recognized as the best steam, 
 domestic and metallurgical coal in Colorado. It is non- 
 coking and is largely used by the railroad companies, be- 
 sides supplying a large part of the fuel used in Denver, 
 Pneblo, Colorado Springs, Canon City and Leadville. Dur- 
 ing the past year the company has increased its facilities for 
 66 
 
 1880. 
 Tons. 
 
 1881. 
 Tone. 
 
 Increase 
 for 1881. 
 
 32,106 
 81,697 
 
 120,000 
 
 68,000 
 
 140,000 
 
 12,425 
 3.'i,894 
 68,303 
 
 221,378 
 
 328,000 
 
 106,621 
 
 the rapid mining of this popular coal. The annexed analy- 
 ses were obtained from two specimens of Canon coal. 
 
 N: . 1. No. 2. 
 
 Water 4.80 6.15 
 
 Volatile matter 34.20 36.03 
 
 Fixed carbon 66.80 62.82 
 
 Ash 4.60 8.00 
 
 lOO.OO 100.00 
 
 Sulphur .66 
 
 Ouohara Coal Fields.— These measures, the product 
 of which is known as Walsenburg coal, comprise 2,890 
 acres of land in Huerfano county, directly on the line of the 
 D. & R. G. Railway. Of the three workable seams, only 
 one has as yet been developed. This like the Canon is a 
 non-coking, steam and domestic coal, largely used by the 
 railroad companies and for household fuel. Analyses are as 
 follows : 
 
 No. I. ffb, 2. 
 
 Water 3.23 2.97 
 
 Volatile matter 40.93 40 08 
 
 Fixed carbon •. 49M 48.67 
 
 Ash 6J0 8.28 
 
 100.00 100.00 
 
 Sulphur 62 .65 
 
 El Moro Coal Fields. — In Las Animas county the 
 company owns 8,121 acres of coal lands. The El Moro mine 
 is located in a tract of 1,800 acres lying along the base of 
 Fisher's Peak. The mine is entirely free from water, and 
 the vein of coal is from ten to twelve feet in thickness, lying 
 almost horizontal. It is easily mined, and the average cost 
 of putting the coal on the cars is less than at any other mine 
 west of the Pittsburg, Pa., district. The mine has now a 
 capacity of over 1,000 tons per day which could be readily 
 doubled. The coal is a true Bituminous, producing coke of 
 excellent quality, to which reference will hereafter be made 
 under its appropriate head. It is the best gas and black- 
 smith's coal in the State, and is used extensively for steam 
 and metallurgical purposes. It is the only coal yet dis- 
 covered in Colorado east of the mountains which can be 
 profitably used for heating iron in furnaces, and for this use 
 It is equal to the best grades of eastern coal. 
 
 Crested Butte Coal Fields.— The company owns 160 
 acres of coal lands at Crested Butte, and has leased about 
 1,000 acres of adjoining lands. The coal deposits are of re- 
 markable thickness and of a very superior quality. There 
 are five separate veins, respectively ten, six, five, four, and 
 three feet in thickness, making a total of twenty-eight feet 
 of coal. Three of these veins have already been opened and 
 found to contain good coal. Two of these, the six feet and 
 five feet veins, are coking coal, and the coke made therefrom, 
 in open pits, is much superior in quality and texture to the 
 best product of Pennsylvania ovens. The analysis of coke 
 and coal is as follows : 
 
 Fixed 
 
 Water. Vol. MaUer. Carbon. Ash. 
 
 Coke 1.36 . . 92.03 6.62 
 
 Coal 44 24.17 72.30 3.09 
 
 The railroad was extended to these mines in November, 
 1881, and the coking ovens are now well opened by three 
 drifts. The mines are prepared for an output of 400 to 500 
 tons per day, while the coke pits can be extended to meet 
 any demand. 
 
 Unquestionably the most important fact developed during 
 the past year in connection with the coal development of the 
 State, is the determination of the true Anthracite character 
 of certain of the Gunnison coal fields. Near Irwin, nine 
 miles west of Crested Butte, a vein of fine Anthracite coal, 
 three feet four inches in thickness, covers a considerable 
 area of country, and the company have opened a drift on a 
 tract of 240 acres. The railroad has not yet been completed 
 to this mine, and hence no regular shipments have as yet 
 been made. The coal is a true Anthracite, hard, bright, and 
 forming an excellent fuel, as the subjoined analysis testifies : 
 
 Water 3J5 
 
 Fixed carbon . !'!!"' 93 "93 
 
 Ash '.'.'..'.'..'. 2!92 
 
 100.00 
 
 Another extensive Anthracite region has recently been 
 discovered directly north of Crested Butte, with two veins, 
 
1042 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 four and six feet respectively, of the same quality as that 
 found at Irwin. The Anthracite fields of Crested Butte, un- 
 doubtedly cover many square miles, and the quality of the 
 coal is believed to be fully equal to the best that Pennsylva- 
 nia produces. Their development must mark an important 
 era in the history of Colorado. 
 
 Until the opening up of the Gunnison coal fields, the El 
 Moro mines and coking ovens furnished all the coke con- 
 sumed in Colorado. Extensive works were here erected by 
 the Colorado Coal and Iron Company, the present plant of 
 which consists of three steam pumps, a fifty horse-power 
 ■engine with crushing and washing machinery, and 250 bee- 
 hive coking ovens. The present daily product for 1881 is 
 50,000 tons, against 25,568 tons in 1880. The quality of this 
 coke has always been regarded as superior. The following 
 will be found an instructive comparison of the analysis 
 of El Moro coke with those of the celebrated Connellsville 
 of Pennsylvania. 
 
 COIL. 
 
 .Vol. 
 Water. Matter. 
 
 El Moro 0.26 29.66 
 
 Connellsville 1.25 30.11 
 
 COKE. 
 
 Fixed Carbon. Ash. Sulphur. 
 
 EI More 87.47 10.68 0.86 
 
 Connellsville 87.47 11.79 0.75 
 
 The supply of coke now furnished by El Moro, may soon 
 be expected to be largely supplemented by the superior 
 product of the Crested Butte ovens, to which reference has 
 been made. 
 
 — From the Colorado Gazette. 
 
 the: dominion of Canada. 
 
 Nova Scotia exported to tlie TTnlted States — Coal. 
 
 Fixed 
 Carbon. 
 
 Ath. 
 
 Sul- 
 phur. 
 
 66.76 
 59.62 
 
 4.32 
 8.23 
 
 0.85 
 0.78 
 
 Nova Scotia Coal Scales from 1875 to 1881 inclnslve. 
 
 Tear. 
 
 1785 
 1786 
 1787 
 1788 
 1789 
 1790 
 
 1791 
 1792 
 1793 
 1794 
 1795 
 1796 
 1797 
 1798 
 1799 
 1800 
 
 Sales. 
 
 1,668 
 2,000 
 
 10,681 
 
 Years. 
 
 18.50 
 1851 
 1862 
 1853 
 1864 
 1855 
 1866 
 1857 
 1868 
 1859 
 1860 
 1861 
 1862 
 1863 
 1864 
 1865 
 
 Tom. 
 
 98,173 
 116,274 
 
 87,642 
 120,764 
 139,125 
 103,222 
 126,152 
 123,335 
 186,743 
 122,720 
 149,289 
 204,457 
 192,612 
 282,775 
 347,694 
 465,194 
 
 24 ad val. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Years. 
 
 1866 
 1867 
 1868 
 1869 
 1870 
 1871 
 1872 
 1873 
 1874 
 1875 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 
 Tom. 
 
 40-1,262 
 338,492 
 228,132 
 257,485 
 168,180 
 165,431 
 154,092 
 264,760 
 138,336 
 89,746 
 71,634 
 118,216 
 88,496 
 61,641 
 
 Duty. 
 
 .75 
 
 1801 
 1802 
 1803 
 1804 
 1805 
 1806 
 1807 
 1808 
 1809 
 1810 
 
 1811 
 1812 
 1813 
 1814 
 1815 
 1816 
 1817 
 1818 
 1819 
 1820 
 
 1821 
 
 1822 
 
 1823") 
 
 1824 
 
 1825 J 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 2,670 
 2,143 
 1,936 
 4,406 
 5,320 
 5,249 
 6,039 
 5,943 
 8,947 
 8,401 
 
 14,349 
 
 6,775 
 7,769 
 6,601 
 5,976 
 10,130 
 4,938 
 5,119 
 6,616 
 8,919 
 8,609 
 
 8,516 
 9,570 
 9,744 
 9,866 
 9,339 
 8,619 
 9,284 
 7,920 
 8,692 
 9,980 
 
 11,388 
 7,512 
 
 28,000 
 
 12,600 
 12,149 
 20,967 
 21,9:^6 
 27,269 
 
 61,018 
 
 Year. 
 
 1831 
 1832 
 1833 
 18.34 
 1836 
 1836 
 1837 
 1838 
 1839 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 1842 
 1843 
 1844 
 1845 
 1846 
 1847 
 1848 
 1849 
 1860 
 
 Sales. 
 
 37,170 
 
 50,396 
 
 64,743 
 
 60,813 
 
 56,434 
 
 107,593 
 
 118,942 
 
 106,730 
 
 145,962 
 
 101,198 
 
 91,527 
 
 1851 
 1862 
 1853 
 1854 
 1865 
 1856 
 1867 
 1868 
 1859 
 1860 
 
 1861 
 1862 
 1863 
 1864 
 1865 
 1866 
 1867 
 1868 
 1869 
 1870 
 
 1871 
 1872 
 1873 
 1874 
 1876 
 1876 
 1877 
 1S78 
 1879 
 1880 
 
 148,298 
 129,708 
 10.6,161 
 108,482 
 160,674 
 147,506 
 201,660 
 187,643 
 174,692 
 180,084 
 
 Total. 
 
 For'd 368,196 
 
 839 981 
 
 1.63,499 
 189,076 
 217,426 
 234,312 
 238,216 
 262,492 
 294,198 
 226,726 
 270,293 
 322,693 
 
 326,429 
 395,637 
 429,.351 
 576,935 
 636,586 
 658,520 
 471.185 
 453,624 
 611,796 
 668,277 
 
 696,418 
 786,914 
 881,106 
 749,127 
 706,795 
 634,207 
 697,065 
 693,511 
 688,626 
 9.64,669 
 
 1881 
 
 1,036,014 
 
 Total . 
 
 1,533,798 
 
 2,399,829 
 
 4,927.339 
 
 7,377,428 
 1,036,014 
 
 18,482,156 
 
 Summary. 
 
 1785 to 1790 
 1791 " 1800 
 1801 " 1810 
 1811 " 1820 
 1821 " 1830 
 
 14,349 
 61,048 
 70,462 
 91,627 
 140,820 
 
 1831 to 1840 
 1841 " 1860 
 1861 " 1860 
 1861 " 1870 
 1871 " 1880 
 
 837,981 
 1,633,798 
 2,399,829 
 4,927,3.TO 
 7,377,428 
 
 From the report of Edward S. Gilpin, we obtain the following on the Coal produce of Nova Scotia during the year ended December 31st, 1881 : 
 
 Nova Scotia. 
 
 
 Seams. 
 
 Pkobcce. 
 
 Sales. 
 
 Colheey Consumption. 
 
 
 Patfing 
 Uoyalty. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Engines. 
 
 Worltmen. 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 CCMBKKLAND COUSTT. 
 
 Chigneoto 
 
 Jojggins 
 
 Mmudie ... 
 
 North Seam 
 
 Joggins Main 
 
 North Seam ... 
 
 Black* South 
 
 Styles 
 
 3,294 
 
 18,880 
 
 400 
 
 260 
 
 160,486 
 
 160 
 
 87,682 
 
 69,316 
 
 135,084 
 
 90,215 
 
 61,108 
 43,426 
 36,012 
 64,160 
 76,860 
 34,402 
 16,117 
 76,727 
 161,677 
 
 46 
 
 200 
 
 1,974 
 
 13 700 
 
 200 
 
 240 
 
 105,622 
 
 866 
 
 2,193 
 
 200 
 
 60 
 
 46,125 
 
 2,839 
 
 16,873 
 
 400 
 
 290 
 
 161,747 
 
 86 
 
 84 
 
 100 
 
 400 
 1,600 
 
 130 
 
 182 
 
 'lb" 
 
 Scotia 
 
 
 
 
 Spring Hill 
 
 Styles 
 
 94 
 
 4,607 
 
 4,092 
 
 6 
 
 PlOTOO ConuTY. 
 
 69,645 
 26,907 
 09,621 
 71,600 
 
 66,764 
 32,096 
 28,536 
 60,368 
 61,107 
 26,909 
 11,460 
 67,941 
 121,478 
 
 46 
 
 21,801 
 24,738 
 27,586 
 16,270 
 
 96 
 10,837 
 3,075 
 11,001 
 16,178 
 6,467 
 1,960 
 10,043 
 11,667 
 
 81,346 
 61,646 
 127,107 
 86,870 
 
 66,849 
 42,933 
 31,611 
 61,369 
 76,285 
 32,376 
 13,410 
 68,884 
 133,135 
 
 45 
 
 92 
 87 
 92 
 94 
 
 93 
 !)8 
 90 
 95 
 99 
 91 
 88 
 89 
 82 
 
 6,422 
 11,913 
 
 5,113 
 10,177 
 
 2,800 
 1,180 
 2,870 
 1,130 
 1,415 
 1,912 
 669 
 3,136 
 23,177 
 
 1,696 
 2,724 
 2,449 
 1,168 
 
 1,404 
 
 698 
 
 979 
 
 1,241 
 
 1,317 
 
 742 
 
 221 
 
 1,293 
 
 8,436 
 
 
 
 Third & McGregor . . . 
 
 Acadia 
 
 MoBean 
 
 Blockhouse 
 
 24 
 6 
 11 
 
 7 
 4 
 
 10 
 6 
 3 
 7 
 6 
 5 
 
 19 
 
 
 Vale 
 
 Caps Beeton CotiBTir. 
 Block House 
 
 
 Harbor 
 
 MoAulay 
 
 Harbor 
 
 
 International 
 
 Lingan 
 
 Ontario 
 
 PheTan 
 
 Reserve 
 
 Phelan 
 
 Sydney 
 
 
 iHVEENEsa County. 
 Broad Cove 
 
 
 ViCTOMA County. 
 New Campbellton 
 
 
 
 ., 340 
 
 150 
 
 
 BiCHuoND County. 
 Little Eiver 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,124,270 826,003 
 
 209,011 
 
 1,035,014 
 
 90 
 
 78,166 
 
 28,022 
 
 9 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1043 
 
 Turning now to the shipments from Cape Breton col- 
 lieries, we find that there has been a most remarkable 
 increase from every one of them. 
 
 Reserve 
 
 Caledonia .... 
 
 L. a. Bay 
 
 Ontario 
 
 Gowi-ie 
 
 International . . 
 Block Hou.'te . . . 
 6. M. Association 
 Lingan 
 
 1S80. 
 
 Tom. 
 31,614 
 22,120 
 26,440 
 7,852 
 46,204 
 69,(100 
 44,000 
 121,000 
 28,000 
 
 1881. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 ei,i.m 
 
 42,600 
 31,800 
 13,300 
 61,368 
 74,000 
 55,000 
 131.000 
 36,000 
 
 7"0IM. 
 36,386 
 20,480 
 6,300 
 6,448 
 16,104 
 15,000 
 11,000 
 10,000 
 7,000 
 
 While then Nova Scotia shipped some 70,000 tons less last 
 year than the year previous, Cape Breton has increased her 
 sales by no less than 124.000 tons. The combined ship- 
 ments from Nova Scotia and Cape Breton this year, as will 
 be gathered from the above figures, are at least 1,031,000 
 tons. The shipments or sales for 1880 were 954,959 tons, 
 thus showing a net increase of over 76,000 tons in favor of 
 1881. The parties interested in some of the Cape Breton 
 collieries who last year chartered steam colliers for the 
 transportation of coal to Montreal, are reported to have lost 
 heavily by the undertaking. More steamers were engaged 
 than the mines could load with dispatch, and the result was 
 that a large portion of their time was lost waiting for cargo 
 at Sydney. A steamer of 1500 tons capacity cost the char- 
 terer about seven hundred pounds sterling a month, besides 
 the cost of loading, discharging, and all port charges and 
 pilotage. They have, therefore, to be handled very quickly 
 to pay. No doubt the same class of ships will have to be 
 brought out again this year, as transient tonnage will not 
 likely offer sufficient to carry all the coal wanted in Mon- 
 treal and Quebec. It is hoped that prudence will be dis- 
 played in chartering, as losses made in connection with 
 these vessels are very frequently attributed to the unprofit- 
 ableness of coal mining in Nova Scotia, whereas it is by the 
 mismanagement of chartering agents that the losses are 
 made. Some of the Pictou companies will also re-engage 
 steamers this year. 
 
 — From the Trades Journal. 
 
 The reUirns from the various coal mines for the first 
 quarter of 1882 have all been received by the Mines De- 
 partment and indicate in an unmistakable way the flourish- 
 ing state of our coal mining industry. The total amount of 
 coal raised during the quarter ending 31st of March last 
 was 196,884 tons, an increase of over 57,000 tons over the 
 same quarter of last year. This shows not only expansion 
 but enterprise, since very much of this increased output 
 haa been "banked " for the Spring trade, something which 
 our coal mines heretofore did not care to venture on. The 
 total sales amounted to 111,710 tons, an increase of about 
 seven per cent, over last year's sales during the same time. 
 Comparing the output and sales for the first three months 
 of 1882 with those of the first three months of 1879 — the 
 last quarter under jug-handled free trade — we have the fol- 
 lowing results : 
 
 Output. Sales. 
 
 . 101,626 tons. 68,123 tons. 
 
 . . . 169,884 tons. 111,710 tons. 
 
 — From the Colonial Standard. 
 
 First quarter 1879 . 
 First quarter 1882 . 
 
 Powder Dividends in 1881. — The consumption of 
 powder, especially blasting descriptions, has always been 
 large in this State. Probably no corresponding number of 
 population use as much. In early years, most of this mate- 
 rial was imported. We still receive a good deal of Eastern 
 powder. But we are, nevertheless, manufacturing on a scale 
 as never before. Most of the capital thus employed is pay- 
 iho- well. There are several companies that make no an- 
 nouncement of dividends disbursed, and yet they are con- 
 sidered to be more than meeting expenses. The California 
 Powder Works, the pioneer enterprise, keeps its business 
 pretty close, and yet it is understood that the dividends are 
 as regular as the returning months. So far as this oflice is 
 advised, the dividends of the local powder companies for 
 the past year have been as annexed : 
 
 Atlantic Giant Powder Company, 8120,000 
 
 California Powder Works . . . 180,000 
 
 Excelsior Powder Company 10,000 
 
 Giant Powder Company 108 000 
 
 Vulcan Powder Company 10^000 
 
 Total . . 8428,000 
 
 The Vulcan paid for the first eight months. The Excelsior 
 paid one in August. 
 
 San Francisco BuUeHn, 
 romparatlve Statemenit of the Salt Indiuti7, 
 
 According to the Census Beports of 1880 and 1870, for the principal 
 Salt-producing States, 
 
 States. 
 
 United States. 
 
 California 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Michigan 
 
 New York 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Utah 
 
 Virginia and West Vir- 
 ginia 
 
 Other States . . . . . . 
 
 Number 
 of Estab- 
 lishments. 
 
 264 
 
 $8,225,740 
 
 Capital Employed. 
 
 365,650 
 
 20,500 
 
 9,000 
 
 2,147,209 
 
 2,286,081 
 
 843,600 
 
 234,600 
 
 13,400 
 
 1,909,600 
 
 407,300 
 
 86,661,615 
 
 66,600 
 
 16,600 
 
 27,300 
 
 1,717,600 
 
 1,584,211 
 
 1,086,904 
 
 171,700 
 
 660 
 
 1,631,300 
 
 Wa^es Paid. 
 
 $1,256,113 
 
 49,120 
 8.760 
 1,030 
 540,902 
 274,087 
 106,261 
 62,047 
 20,032 
 174,446 
 
 States. 
 
 United States . 
 
 California. . . . 
 Kentucky, . . . 
 Massachusetts . 
 Michigan . . . . 
 New York . . . 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania. . . 
 
 Utah 
 
 Virginia and "W. 
 
 Virginia . , 
 
 Other States . 
 
 Total Value of aU 
 Materials Used 
 
 1880 
 
 2,071,424 
 
 18,496 
 
 9,008 
 
 20 
 
 1,009,723 
 
 607,020 
 
 202,543 
 
 74,074 
 
 4,000 
 
 231,113 
 
 16,445 
 
 1,760,670 
 
 29,800,298 
 
 5,520 
 
 260 
 
 410,561 
 
 494,854 
 
 32.6,922 
 
 83,203 
 
 240 
 
 386,255 
 
 27,865 
 
 260,0501 29,533 
 
 1870 
 
 81,146,910 
 
 Bushels of Salt 
 Produced. 
 
 17,606,105 
 
 884,443 
 
 83,000 
 
 9,975 
 
 12,425,885 
 
 8,748,203 
 
 2,650,301 
 
 8il,460 
 
 483,800 
 
 3,106,333 
 
 657,908 
 
 4,817,636, 
 
 174,866 
 
 64,0li0 
 
 22,846 
 
 3,981,316 
 
 =4,977,720 
 
 2,898,649 
 
 679,970 
 
 1,960 
 
 4,636,813 
 
 268,986 
 
 13,400 
 
 10,070 
 
 1,875 
 
 331,239 
 
 1204,226 
 
 161,420 
 
 67,980 
 
 300 
 
 290,800 
 
 75,600 
 
 Total Value of Salt 
 Produced, 
 
 1880 
 
 121,950 
 
 21,950 
 
 3,960 
 
 2,271,913 
 
 1,106,740 
 
 363,791 
 
 177,416 
 
 66,180 
 
 508,047 
 
 181,700 
 
 4,818,229 
 
 = 48,160 
 
 20,920 
 
 11,650 
 
 1,176,811 
 
 926,709 
 
 773,492 
 
 187,312 
 
 780 
 
 1,508,855 
 
 164,650 
 
 » These figures are evidently incorrect, as the New York State Salt 
 Inspector reported 8,662, 237 bushels in 1869 and 8,748,115 bushels in 1870 
 = Amounts produced,by different processes. 
 
 States. 
 
 United States. . . 
 
 California . . 
 Florida . . . 
 Kansas . '. 
 Kentucky . . 
 Louisiana. . . 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Michigan . . 
 
 Nevada .... 
 New York . . . 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania . 
 Texas .... 
 
 Utah 
 
 Virginia 
 
 West Virginia. . 
 
 Amount Peodtjced. 
 
 By Solar Evaporation. 
 
 CQ^ 
 
 Bushels 
 886,963 
 
 878,083 
 900 
 
 9,975 
 
 ■Soge 
 
 Bushels 
 944,158 
 
 6,350 
 12,000 
 
 114,908 
 
 16,600 
 482,300 
 
 IS 
 
 Bushels 
 2,998,000 
 
 153,500 
 
 67,500 
 2,777,000 
 
 By Artificial. Meat from 
 Subterranean Brines. 
 
 
 
 Bushels 
 8,853,821 
 
 60,000 
 
 *184,270 
 tl,910,610 
 
 5,971,203 
 276,343 
 
 34,000 
 
 1,500 
 
 425,895 
 
 Bushels. 
 16,115,331 
 
 33.000 
 
 10,177,505 
 
 2,373,958 
 851,460 
 
 2,679,438 
 
 * Kettle. 
 
 tPan. 
 
1044 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 IT is proper in taking up the question of gold and silver 
 production in the United States, to begin with quotations 
 from so excellent an authority as the San Francisco Bul- 
 letin. From the columns of that paper we take the fol- 
 lowing by way of review. Some tables printed here appear 
 elsewhere also, but we have printed them twice rather than 
 direct the reader to other pages. The Bulletin says : 
 
 After yielding over $300,000,000 and enriching many 
 thousands, the great Oomstock Lode has for the past four 
 years been mainly worked by the contributions of those 
 who still retain an interest in its development. During 
 these four years the bullion product has been gradually 
 growing less. For the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1881, 
 Storey county is credited with a yield of $2,340,000. For 
 the first nine months of the current calendar year the yield 
 was only $972,000, and for the last third of that period the 
 yield was only $173,200. Should the total for the fourth 
 quarter be as large as for the third, the result for the year 
 1881 would be only $1,145,200. Old friends of the C?om- 
 stock will note in these figures a strange contrast with the 
 yield a few years ago, when a single mine in a single month, 
 produced more bullion than the whole Oomstock lode now 
 produces in a whole year. But for the power to levy and 
 collect assessments, work would have to be abandoned, and 
 the miles of levels and drifts would soon fill with water and 
 dibris. There are over one hundred claims on the Oomstock 
 lode, though on a good many of them no work has been 
 done for some time ; and it will depend on the finding of an 
 ore body whether any more work will be done on these tem- 
 porarily abandoned claims. More or less work has been 
 performed on about fifty Oomstock claims during the past 
 year 
 
 Many will ~be surprised at the number of Storey county 
 mines that are being worked mainly by the help of friends. 
 There have been 113 assessments levied this year for account 
 of mines in that county. These assessments aggregate a 
 total of $5,355,800, which has been distributed among 54 
 mines. There were 24 claims which levied only one assess- 
 ment each during the year ; 12 others levied two ; 10 others, 
 three; 5 others, four, and 3, the extreme limit of five assess- 
 ments. Those in the last named category were the Bullion, 
 Caledonia, Hale and Norcross. The Bullion and Oaledonia 
 have been sources of expense to owners for a score of years. 
 Such faith deserves to be rewarded, but faith without the 
 show of ore is dead. Following is a condensed statement 
 of Storey county assessments for 1881 : 
 
 Mine. Assessments. 
 
 Alpha Con 1 
 
 Alta ■ -^ . 
 
 Andes 2 
 
 Belcher 3 
 
 Benton Con . 2 
 
 Best & Belcher . ... . ... 2 
 
 Bonanza 1 
 
 Bullion ... . . 5 
 
 Caledonia . 5 
 
 California .... 
 
 Concordia . . .... 
 
 Confidence . . . 
 
 Con. Dorado . . . . 
 
 Con. Imperial .... ... 
 
 Con. Virtrinia . . ... 
 
 Crown Puint .... .... 
 
 Choller ... . 
 
 Exchequer 
 
 Flowery 
 
 Gold Lead 
 
 Gould & Curry, . . 2 
 
 Hale & Norcross . .5 
 
 Iowa 4 
 
 Justice 2 
 
 Julia Con 3 
 
 Kentuek 2 
 
 I^fldy Washington 1 
 
 Leviathan . _ . _ _ . 
 
 Lord of Lorn 
 
 Lower Comstock . . . 
 
 Mexican 
 
 Morning Star 
 
 New Wells Fargo . . 
 
 New York 
 
 North Gould & Curry . 
 North Sierra Nevada . 
 Ophir ._..... 
 Original Gold Hill . 
 Original Keywtone . . 
 
 Overman 
 
 Piiil Sheridan .... 
 
 Potosl 3 
 
 Amount 
 
 S30,000 
 
 162,000 
 
 75,000 
 
 234,000 
 
 64,000 
 
 100,800 
 
 16,000 
 
 370,000 
 
 126,000 
 
 162,000 
 
 76,000 
 
 12,600 
 
 10,000 
 
 160,000 
 
 162,000 
 
 176,000' 
 
 66,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 13,(100 
 
 108,000 
 
 808,000 
 
 21,000 
 
 52,600 
 
 90,(100 
 
 24,000 
 
 10,800 
 
 25,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 302,400 
 
 20,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 26,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 201,600 
 
 3,000 
 
 26,000 
 
 230,400 
 
 10,1100 
 
 168,000 
 
 Prospect } 
 
 Savage t 
 
 Segregated Belcher ^ 
 
 Sherwood Con | 
 
 Scorpion j 
 
 Sierra Nevada ... . . ■ r 
 
 Silver Hill .... 3 
 
 Trojan 
 Union Con 
 
 10,000 
 262,000 
 
 12,800 
 6,000 
 
 36,000 
 400,000 
 
 81,000 
 
 10,C0O 
 300,000 
 120,000 
 
 10,000 
 360,000 
 
 $5,366,800 
 
 Utah Extension J 
 
 Yellow Jacket •_^ 
 
 Totals 113 
 
 The above mines have not only absorbed over $5,000,000 
 in assessments during the past year, but they have also used 
 up their entire bullion product for the year, estimated at 
 over $1,000,000. The industry has been rather an expen- 
 sive luxury to those who have had to maintain it. But the 
 contribution has supported many families in Storey county, 
 and has served to keep in existence two Stock Boards in 
 San Francisco, with their numerous attaches. Most of the 
 mines in the above list have been in the assessment busi- 
 ness for years, and are considered well up in the art of ex- 
 tracting money from their owners, under the promise of 
 returning it with good interest. There are, however, some 
 new candidates in the field, that deserve to be encouraged. 
 The California mine, after paying $31,320,000 in dividends 
 to stockholders, made its first demand upon them last Au- 
 gust. In the following month. Consolidated Virginia made 
 a similar demand upon its stockholders, the first since June, 
 1873. In the meantime the Consolidated Virginia paid its 
 stockholders the magnificent sum of $42,930,000 in divi- 
 dends. The assessment levied last spring by the Confidence 
 mine is the first since 1878. The above is the first assess- 
 ment on the Bonanza, Concordia, Gold Lead, Lorn of Lorn, 
 Lower Oomstock, Morning Star, North Gould & Curry, 
 Sherwood Consolidated and Utah Extension. During the 
 year 1880, 61 Storey county mining claims levied $7,989,900. 
 
 The last dividend from a Storey county mine was paid by 
 the Consolidated Virginia in Au.eust, 1880. In January, 
 1880, the Ophir paid its last dividend, and in December, 
 
 1879, the California paid its last dividend. These are the 
 only three Oomstock mines that have paid any dividends 
 since April, 1876, when Belcher paid its last dividend. 
 Crown Point paid its last dividend in January, 1875. The 
 only dividends that have come out of Storey county in the 
 past two years was $100,800 by the Ophir in January, 1880, 
 and $270,000 by the Consolidated Virginia in August, 1880. 
 Against this $370,800, there has been paid into that county 
 during the past two years, through assessments, about $13,- 
 000,000; beside about $3,000,000 of bullion produced by the 
 mines there during this interval. It is a case of patience 
 that has a limit, but whether that limit will be reached 
 before the reward comes, is the one great problem of those 
 interested. 
 
 The first break in Consolidated Virginia dividends oc- 
 curred in January, 1877. That was the forerunner of a 
 changed condition of afiairs on the Oomstock Lode. It is 
 true Consolidated Virginia has since paid nearly $16,000,000 
 in dividends and California over $22,000,000, but the re- 
 action in the prosperity of that section fairly dates from the 
 first interruption in these dividends. The only other di- 
 vidends from the Oomstock mines in the past five years 
 are the two by the Ophir in December, 1879, and January, 
 
 1880. It is now sixteen months since there was a dividend 
 from any mine in that section. This is a longer interval of 
 non-dividends than has occurred before since the Comstock 
 mines first began making these disbursements. The divi- 
 dends.and assessments of the principal mines there for the 
 past five years are as follows : 
 
 
 Dividends. 
 
 Assessments. 
 
 1877 
 
 821,600,000 
 
 13,600.000 
 
 3,070,8(0 
 
 640,800 
 
 86,306,200 
 7,002,000 
 7,259,.500 
 6,792,800 
 4,825,200 
 
 1878 
 
 1879 
 
 1880 
 
 1881 
 
 
 Totnls 
 
 
 
 )KR,81 1,600 
 
 Jt3?,186,80O 
 
 
 
 In this race between what goes in and what goes out of the 
 mines, the dividends still lead, but another year, similar to 
 the past, will bring those two interests nearly neck and neck. 
 The demands of the Comstock mines for the past year have 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1045 
 
 been the most modest for a long time. In 1880, the Sierra 
 Nevada Mining Company was bold enough to ask for 
 $1,000,000 for development jpurposes. During the past year 
 it has asked for $400,000. It has, however, already put in a 
 claim for $100,000 on account of 1882. Unless some Com- 
 stock mine steps to the front soon with dividends, less 
 money will be collected for account of assessments next 
 year than has been collected during the past year. Should 
 1882 be as barren of dividends as 1881 has been, it is pro- 
 bable that the Comstock mines will be sold at lower figures 
 than at any previous time in their history. The record of 
 dividends and assessments on twenty-nine of these mines for 
 the past five years has been as follows : 
 
 
 Diridmdi, 
 
 ABaesamenti. 
 
 Utah ' 
 
 
 «800,n00 
 3,150 000 
 
 Sierra Nevada 
 
 
 Union Consolidated 
 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 1,481,800 
 
 1,169,200 
 
 162,000 
 
 
 
 
 8201,600 
 22,680,000 
 16,930,000 
 
 California 
 
 
 1,008,000 
 1,088,000 
 2,100,000 
 
 Gould & Curry 
 
 
 
 
 Hale & Norcross • 
 
 ChoUar ... 
 
 
 1,612,000 
 
 784,000 
 
 392,000 
 
 1,269,600 
 
 1,920,000 
 
 325 000 
 
 Potoai 
 
 
 
 
 Bullion r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 210,000 
 
 
 
 2,260,000 
 25,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,400,000 
 
 Kentuck . 
 
 Crown Poiut 
 
 Belcher 
 
 
 63,000 
 1,476,000 
 1,872,000 
 1,286,200 
 
 
 
 
 
 876,000 
 
 982,800 
 
 1,732,500 
 
 1,404,000 
 
 307,800 
 
 Silver Hill 
 
 
 Alta . 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 838,811,600 
 
 *!2,18n,80l) 
 
 Every one of the above mines was in the assessment list 
 during the past year. This has never occurred before. 
 Confidence has levied only two assessments in five years. 
 The promised Sierra Nevada bonanza is found to have had 
 an existence only in the pockets of stockholders. 
 
 Comstock Product for Q,uarter ISndlng June 30, 1883. 
 This is reported by the Story county assessor as follows : 
 
 Mine or Company. 
 
 Union Con 
 
 Belcher 
 
 Crown Point 
 
 Kentuck 
 
 Challenge . . 
 Con. Imperial . . 
 Confidence .... 
 
 Total for mines . . 
 Tailings. 
 
 Challenge 
 
 Con. Imperial . . 
 
 Confidence 
 
 Cours.r 
 
 Mariposa 
 
 Grand Totals 
 
 ^1 
 
 7,936 
 
 4,000 
 
 11,100 
 
 1,160 
 
 122 
 
 724 
 
 84 
 
 26,116 
 
 78 
 
 568 
 
 64 
 
 107 
 
 3,440 
 
 4,257 
 
 Grosn 
 yie'd or 
 value. 
 
 $243,336 :'8 
 
 67,445 03 
 
 166,702 11 
 
 20,826 60 
 
 1,695 80 
 
 10,063 10 
 
 1,167 10 
 
 8801,235 22 
 
 390 00 
 
 2,840 00 
 
 320 00 
 
 856 00 
 
 15,929 14 
 
 ?20,33-> 14 
 
 CostEx- 
 tracthrt & 
 Beduction. 
 
 8217,044 00 
 
 66,608 26 
 
 169,700 26 
 
 19,700 00 
 
 1,830 00 
 
 10,760 00 
 
 1,260 00 
 
 8466,796 51 
 
 300 00 
 
 2.272 00 
 
 260 00 
 
 960 60 
 
 12,778 69 
 
 816,666 39 
 
 Net yield. 
 
 J97,:B4 23 
 
 13,489 00 
 
 31,340 42 
 
 4,106 30 
 
 339 16 
 
 2,012 72 
 
 233 62 
 
 8148,914 36 
 
 8 90 00 
 
 668 00 
 
 M 00 
 
 85 t-0 
 
 3,150 76 
 
 83,958 36 
 
 84,769 37 
 
 693 .50 
 
 1,378 97 
 
 183 27 
 
 14 92 
 
 88 66 
 
 10 27 
 
 87,038 86 
 
 3 96 
 
 25 00 
 
 2 81 
 
 2 48 
 
 154 38 
 
 8 188 63 
 
 Lake County, Colorado Product. — By request, the 
 Herald publishes the following statement of the product of 
 Lake county since 1860. The figures are those compiled by 
 Commissioner Eeed, and are displayed in connection with 
 the Lake county exhibit at the exposition, and are divided 
 into two periods, representing respectively the ante-Leadville 
 and the Lead ville eras, the latter dating from the time when 
 the carbonate ores of Leadville began to form a considerable 
 factor in the output : 
 
 PRODUCT or LAKE COUNTY — FIRST PERIOD. 
 
 1860-1873, gold from placers 86,400,000 
 
 1874, eold and silver 145,000 
 
 '^ 113,000 
 
 . . . 862,00 
 
 ... 665,330 
 
 3,152,925 
 
 1876, 
 
 1876, gold, sil er and lead 
 
 1877, " " " " 
 
 1878, " 
 
 PRODUCT OF LEADVILLE — SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 1879, gold, silver and lead $10,3.33,740 69 
 
 1880, " """... 14,187,697 00 
 
 1881, " . . . . • 13,170,676 0() 
 
 1882, " " " " first half 7,817,918 00 
 
 Total product of Leadville ... 845,609,931 09 
 
 Pioduet of Lake County 10,461,465 00 
 
 Total product, 1860 to July 1, 1862 . . . . 855,961,380 69 
 — Leadville Herald. 
 
 Nova Scotia. — From the last annual report of the Gov- 
 ernment Inspector of Mines, M. E. S. Gilpin, we obtain the 
 following : 
 
 The following summary shows, so far as I have been able 
 to learn, the extent of the mineral production of Nova Scotia 
 during the year 1881, compared with that of the previous 
 year: 
 
 Gold Ounces . 
 
 Iron Ore " 
 
 Manganese Ore Tons 
 
 *CoaI raised . . " 
 
 ! Gypsum " 
 Building stone . . , " 
 Barytes . " 
 
 Coke Made ... . " 
 
 Fireclay " 
 
 Grindstones, etc " 
 
 13,234 10,756 
 
 61,193 . . . 39,843 
 
 223 ... . 231 
 
 1,032,710 1,124,270 
 
 128,628 107,133 
 
 3,640 . . 6,638 
 
 ... 40 
 
 13,125 27,871 
 
 75 . . . 401 
 
 1,600 ... . 1,680 
 
 Through the kindness of the Collectors of Customs at the 
 ports specified, I am enabled to give further details under 
 this head at the end of the Report. 
 
 Gold. — The total yield of gold during the past year was 
 10,756 oz. 13 dwt., 2 grs., against 13,234 oz. m 1880. The 
 returns from unproclaimed districts amount to 2,436 oz. 9 
 dwts. 12 grs., an increase of 1,594 oz. 4 dwts. 23 grs. over the 
 preceding year. The continued decline in the produce of 
 several districts which hitherto yielded uniform returns, has 
 outweighed the increased production of several districts. 
 During the past year the extraction of quartz was more or 
 less suspended in the following Mines, which were sold and 
 being prepared for work on a more extensive scale, viz : 
 Moose Kiver, Satemo, Gallagher and Eenfrew. A large 
 number of other mines which have hitherto contributed to 
 the returns, have been idle during part of the year, pending 
 negotiations for their sale ; among these may be mentioned. 
 Strawberry Hill, Fifteen Mile Stream, Harrigan's Cove, 
 Moosehead, Symonds, and several Mines at Oldham and 
 Mount Uninacke. That the interest in the Mines has not 
 diminished is shown by the fact that in spite of the suspen- 
 sion of work alluded to above, the returns, not including a 
 large amount of prospecting done at Chezzetcook, Beaver 
 Dam, and other places, show a much larger number of days' 
 work than in the previous year. Under these circumstances 
 the outlook for the year 1882 is of a favorable character, 
 as in it should be reaped the fruits of the large amount of 
 preliminary work performed during the past year. 
 
 Creneral Annual Summary. 
 
 1862 
 1863 
 1864 
 1866 
 1866 
 1867 
 1868 
 1869 
 1870 
 1871 
 1872 
 1873 
 1874 
 1875 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 
 Total ounces of 
 Gold extracted. 
 
 On. Dull. Gr. 
 
 7,275 
 
 14,001 14 17 
 
 20,022 18 13 
 
 26,454 4 8 
 
 2.5,204 13 2 
 
 27,314 11 11 
 
 20,541 7 10 
 
 17,868 19 
 
 19,866 6 5 
 
 19,227 9 4 
 
 13,094 IT 6 
 
 11,852 7 19 
 
 9,140 13 9 
 11,208 14 19 
 
 12,0.38 13 18 
 
 16,882 6 1 
 
 12,577 1 22 
 13,801 8 10 
 14,234 4 
 
 10,756 13 2 
 
 Total. 321,362 18 7 
 
 Orushed. 
 
 Tom. 
 
 6,473 
 17,002 
 21,434 
 24,423 
 32,161 
 31,386 
 32,262 
 36.147 
 30,829 
 30,791 
 17,093 
 17,708 
 13,844 
 16,810 
 11,490 
 17,369 
 17,990 
 15,936 
 14,037 
 16,556 
 
 412,741 
 
 Yield per ton 
 o/ 2,000 »». 
 
 2 11 
 16 11 
 18 16 
 
 12 IV 
 
 10 4 
 
 12 21 
 
 12 11 
 
 15 7 
 
 13 9 
 13 6 
 
 16 4 
 15 13 
 19 10 
 13 23 
 
 17 8 
 
 18 20 
 12 20 
 
 Total Days' 
 Labor. 
 
 166,000 
 273,624 
 262,720 
 212,966 
 211,796 
 218,894 
 241,462 
 210,938 
 173,680 
 162,994 
 112,476 
 93,470 
 77,246 
 91,698 
 111,304 
 123,665 
 110,422 
 92,002 
 103,826 
 126,308 
 
 Average eamingB 
 per wan per day 
 and year, at 300 
 worlnng days, 818 
 per oz. 
 
 A day. 
 
 8 83 
 
 92 
 
 1 42 
 
 2 15 
 2 14 
 2 24 
 1 63 
 
 1 52 
 
 2 06 
 2 12 
 2 09 
 2 28 
 2 12 
 2 2C 
 
 1 94 
 
 2 48 
 2 05 
 2 34 
 2 18 
 1 62 
 
 A year. 
 8249 
 276 
 426 
 646 
 042 
 672 
 459 
 456 
 615 
 6.36 
 627 
 684 
 630 
 660 
 682 
 738 
 615 
 702 
 64 
 456 
 
 3,157,191 I . . . 
 
 Total . 
 
 « Ton of 2240 pounds. 
 
 t Quantities shipped. Amounts used in Nova Scotia unknown. 
 810,451,455 No return sent of plaster shipped from Baddeek. 
 
1046 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 QENBRAr. STATEMENT FOR THE YEAR 1881. 
 
 Showing the number of Mines at Work, days' labor performed, quantities of Quartz crushed. Yield of Gold, for the year ended December 31st, 1881. 
 
 District. 
 
 Caribou . . . 
 Gay's River . 
 Montagu . . . 
 Oldham . . . 
 Renfrew . . . 
 Sherbrooke . 
 Stormont . . . 
 Tangier , . 
 Uniacke . . 
 Waverley . 
 "Wine Harbor . 
 Unproclalmed 
 
 ,426 
 274 
 ,982 
 471 
 
 ,721 
 ,003 
 ,517 
 ,098 
 ,101 
 
 Qitartz, t&c. 
 Ci'ushed. 
 
 1661 
 
 110.T 
 
 604 
 
 683 
 
 6,279 
 
 80 
 
 Vie 
 
 3,094 
 635 
 652 
 
 2,287 
 
 16,556 
 
 Yield per Ton. 
 
 Oz. Dwt. Gr. 
 
 13 14 
 
 16 10 
 
 10 21 
 9 6 
 9 18 
 3 9 
 
 11 3 
 8 23 
 
 14 
 
 8 20 
 
 1 7 
 
 12 20 
 
 M'lxinium 
 Yield per Tun, 
 
 3 10 
 
 Total Yield of Oold. 
 
 Oz- Dwt. Gr. 
 
 1,129 
 
 12 
 
 90O 
 
 329 
 
 209 
 
 2,680 
 173 
 399 
 
 1,355 
 374 
 795 
 
 2,436 
 
 18 13 
 
 14 7 
 
 6 IV 
 
 10 4 
 
 8 13 
 2 20 
 
 10 
 
 9 16 
 
 8 21 
 
 
 14 
 
 9 12 
 
 10,756 13 2 
 
 
 1.31 
 
 .78 
 
 .90 
 
 .08 
 
 .96 
 
 1-68 
 
 .73 
 
 .61 
 
 2.28 
 
 1.32 
 
 2.80 
 
 2.20 
 
 1.62 
 
 Gold Product and Coinage of Brazil, 1878-1881. 
 — Our esteemed correspondent, Mr. Alexander Del Mar, 
 now in Brazil, has done us the favor to procure specially for 
 the Mining Record the following exhibit of the gold pro- 
 duct and coinage of the empire for the three fiscal years 
 ending 30th June, 1881 : 
 
 *Du.«t . . . 
 '•'Bara . . . 
 *Amalgam . 
 Bullion Cast 
 Coined. . . 
 
 Grram- 
 
 402,729 
 992,078 
 
 Official 
 
 Vain 
 
 $487,242,130 
 1,101,206,120 
 
 f 116,034 127,688,033 
 \ SV,65S 64,314,371 
 
 1879-1880. 
 
 
 38,812 
 
 1,054,370 
 
 173,963 
 
 • 79,121 
 
 4.5,693 
 
 Official Oram- 
 
 Value. mes. 
 
 1880-1881. 
 
 1139,21 l(i,120 
 1,170,350,700 
 
 193,098,930 
 87,824,783 
 60,970,447 
 
 146,466 
 890,300 
 
 Official 
 
 Value. 
 
 $147,910,800 
 988,233,800 
 
 87,208,000 
 3B,3.'j2.000 
 
 Brazilian Mint, Rio de Janeiro, July 21, 1882. 
 Dear Sir.— I send you these statistics of the annual pro- 
 duction of gold such as it was taken at the Rio Custom 
 House and the meagre gold coinage at the mint, during the 
 last three financial years. As for my reports they are not 
 published. 
 Hon. Alex. Del Mae. B. J. R. Lobragy, 
 
 Director of Mint. 
 
 — Mining Record, 
 
 A Small Source of Gold.— The Government Gazette 
 of Surinam, dated Sept. 7, 1880, notified the export of gold 
 from that colony as follows : 
 
 ' Guilders. 
 
 First half 1880 390,697 
 
 July V6,922 
 
 Aug 85,343 
 
 Sept 34,074 
 
 The total value of the export of gold from 1876 to Sept 
 1R80 is 2,066,789 guildfc.-s, or about $861,160 or 172,232^. 8s. 
 4d. sterling. 
 
 Estimated Ag^^egate Prodnction of the Precious Metals dur 
 Ing the Twenty-seven Years from 1>*4:9 to 18 J5 Inclusive. 
 
 Guilders. 
 
 187G 49 900 
 
 1877 293,880 
 
 1878 407,059 
 
 1879 679,914 
 
 MINING AND MILL SUPPLIES AND WAGES 
 AT BUTTE, MONT. 
 
 y^ 
 
 Countries, 
 
 Entire World . 
 
 United States 1,351.6 
 
 Other Countries , .... 1*410.1 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Million 
 dollars. 
 2,761.7 
 
 Silver, 
 
 Million 
 dollars. 
 1,573.9 
 
 2G5.65 
 l,'ffl8.35 
 
 Gold and 
 Silver. 
 
 Milliou 
 dollars. 
 4,.335.6 
 
 1,017.16 
 2,Via.46 
 
 Annual Avorage Production ot the Precious Metals In the 
 World, also in the United States of America, since 1848 
 the Year of the Piscovcry of the Gold-fields of California. 
 
 CountrieB. 
 
 Entire World . . 
 United States. . . 
 Other Countrip.s . 
 
 Epochs. 
 
 1849-'V5 
 
 18.19-'76 
 1819-'75 
 18W-'75 
 
 Mo. 0/ 
 
 Yciir: 
 
 Gold, 
 
 * Entered at Custom House for Export. 
 
 Million 
 
 dollars. 
 
 102.29 
 
 50.06 
 
 ' 62.23 
 
 Silver, 
 
 0',ld and 
 Bilocr, 
 
 Million 
 dollars. 
 100.68 
 
 69.89 
 102.17 
 
 E are indebted to Mr. G. W. Maynard for the 
 following details of the cost of wages and sup- 
 plies for mine and mill : 
 
 Mines. — Wages, per Day. — Miners, $3.50; timbermen, 
 $4.00; pumpmen, $4.50; toolpackers, (boys) $2.00; chief 
 engineer, $5.00; assistant engineer, $4.00; fireman, $3.50; 
 woodman, $2.25 ; topmen, (carmen) $3.50 ; carpenters, $5.00 ; 
 carpenter's helper, $3.60 ; blacksmith, $6.00 ; blacksmith'."! 
 helper, $3.60 ; foremen, $5.00 ; stablemen, $3.25 ; ore haulers, 
 $3.00 ; assayers, $4.00 ; assayer's helper, $1.66. 
 
 Mill. — General foreman, $5.00 ; foremen, $5.00 ; crushers, 
 $3.50; batterymen, $4.00; roasters, $4.00; cooling floor, 
 $3.60; wood helpers, $3.00; amalgamators, $4.00; carmen, 
 $3.50 ; melter, 6.00 ; assistant melter, $4.00 ; engineers, $4.00; 
 firemen, $3.50 ; millwright, $5.00 ; chief machinist, $6.00 ; 
 machinists, $6.00; machinist's helper, $4.00; watchman, 
 $3.60 ; talingsman, $2.50 ; roustabout, ^.00 : saltman, $3.00. 
 
 Supplies.— Wood, per cord, $6.00; mine timber, per 
 thousand, $25.00 ; charcoal, per bushel, 18 cts. ; candles, box, 
 $6.50; lagging, each, 12} cts.; Hercules powder. No. 1, 55 
 cts. ; Hercules powder. No. 2, 40 cts. ; iiise, per thousand 
 feet, $9.00 ; black powder, per keg, $7.50 ; hammers, per 
 pound, 24 cts.; pickeyes, per dozen, $8.00; pickeye handles, 
 per dozen, $3.50; sledge handles, per dozen, $2.36 ; shovels, 
 per dozen, $11.60 ; battery shoes and dies, per pound, 08 cts. ; 
 pan shoes and dies, per pound, 08 cts. ; mullers, each, $132.00 ; 
 iron turnings, per pound, 05 cts. ; brass screens, per square 
 foot, 42 cts. ; rubber belting, 6-inch, 4-ply, 38 cts. ; 8-inch, 
 4-ply, 42 cts. ; 10-inch, 4-ply, 54 cts. ; 14-inch, 4-ply, $1.00 ; 
 20-inch, 4-ply, $1.25; 36-inch, 7-ply, $3.80; leather belting, 
 8-inch rawhide, $1.40; 10-inch, raw hide, $1.86; cvanide 
 of potassium, per pound, 50 cts. ; bluestone, per pound, 13 
 cts. ; coal oil, per gallon, 50 cts. ; lard oil, per gallon, extra, 
 $1.80; Lard oil, per gallon, No. 1, $1.06 ; lard oil, per gallon. 
 No. 2, 90 cts. ; tallow, 09; lubricating oils, $1.75; heavy 
 lubricators, 65 cts. ; cotton waste, per pound, 15 cts. ; Pack- 
 ing, 60 cts. ; Assay materials: No. 8 crucibles, French, per 
 dozen, $1.40; No. 8 crucibles, French, covers, per dozen 76 
 cts. ; Black-lead crucible, No. 50, $3.76 ; litharge, per pound, 
 
 13 cts. ; bone-ash, per pound, 09 cts. ; muffles, each, $1.00 ; 
 bicarbonate of soda, per pound, 09 cts. ; assay, lead, per 
 pound, 12 cts. ; argols, per pound, 19 cts. ; nitric acid, C. P. 
 50 cts. ; borax, pulverized, per pound, 25 cts. ; borax, crys- 
 tallized, per pound, 17 cts. ; quicksilver, per pound, 43 cts. • 
 battery stems, $42.20 ; hydraulic cement, 06 cts. ; steel dies 
 per pound, 09 cts. ; iron dies, per pound, 08 cts. ; drill steel 
 (English), per pound, 22 cts.; boiler tubes (3f), $9.30- gas 
 pipes, per foot, 80 cts. ; wire rope, Roebling, 1 inch, 37 cts. ; 
 wire rope Roebling, | inch, 18 cts. ; hemp rope, per pound, 
 
 14 cts. ; Babbitt metal, per pound, 18 eta. ; copper rivets. 
 42 cts. ; salt, per ton, $39.00. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1047 
 
 THE PRODUCTION OF PRECIOUS METALS 
 IN 1881— MR. BURCHARD'S REPORT. 
 
 THROUGH the courtesy of Hon. H. C. Burchard, Di- 
 rector of the Mint, we are enabled to present here- 
 with the substance of his " Report on the Production 
 of Precious Metals in the United States in 1881," in 
 advance of its publication by the government. In it will be 
 found much that is valuable and pertinent to the history of 
 American Mines and Mining. 
 
 Teeasuky Depaetment, 
 bueeau of the mint, 
 
 i} 
 
 Washington, D. C, June, 1882' 
 
 Sik:— I have the honor to submit herewith my report 
 upon the production of the precious metals in the United 
 States for the calendar year 1881. 
 
 To procure the information necessary for preparing and 
 making this report, besides obtaining from depositors in the 
 usual manner the locality of production of the gold and sil- 
 ver brought to the mints and assay offices, the superintend- 
 ents and assayers in charge of institutions in the mining 
 regions were directed to make special inquiries, and endeavor 
 to ascertain the yield of the mines and the amount of bullion 
 handled by dealers, bankers, and transportation companies, 
 and treated at smelting and refining works in their respective 
 localities. 
 
 Information was also gathered for the same purpose by 
 personal visits to the most important mining fields, and by 
 correspondence and special reports from gentlemen concerned 
 in, or familiar with, mining operations, and by the collection 
 and tabulation in my office of such published statements and 
 statistical material as seemed suitable and reliable. 
 
 From these sources I am able, with reasonable confidence, 
 to present not only a summary of the yield of the mines of 
 the United States for the year, but also detailed statements 
 or estimates approximately and sufficiently accurate, giving 
 the product of the respective States and Territories, and often, 
 in many cases, of the counties and districts. 
 
 The official records of the Mint Bureau show the amount 
 and character of the bullion deposited and purchased during 
 the year, and what portion came from the mines of the 
 United States. They also show the amount of gold and sil- 
 ver used in coinage, and the amount delivered back to de- 
 positors in the form of bars. 
 
 The Custom-House records give the amount exported, and 
 the reports from manufacturers state approximately the ag- 
 gregate amount used by them in manufactures and the arts. 
 By ascertaining and adding the domestic gold and silver de- 
 posited at the mints and assay offices, and the undeposited 
 domestic bullion exported and used in the arts, the total 
 production of the year can be estimated and stated with suf- 
 ficient certainty for statistical purposes. 
 
 DOMESTIC PEODTJCTION OF GOLD IN 1881. 
 
 The deposits of gold at the mints and assay offices dur- 
 ing the year were $98,763,426.08, of which $34,871,859.46 
 were reported to be of domestic production. 
 
 The export of domestic gold bullion for the year was only 
 Sl60,766, but wholly in bars, manufactured at private re- 
 fineries. 
 
 The amount of undeposited domestic gold used in the arts 
 must, in part, be estimated. It may safely be placed at half 
 a million of dollars ; for while the manufacturers' statements 
 received at this Bureau show that fine gold bars to the value 
 of $6,280,000 were used by them in manufacturing during 
 the fiscal year 1881, the aggregate value of the tine gold 
 bars issued for manufacturing purposes by the New York 
 Assay Office, and of all the fine gold bars made at the 
 mints during the same period, was only $5,960,094.31. The 
 remaining $270,000 of the fine gold bars reported by manu- 
 facturers must have been obtained from private refiners and 
 assayers, by whom fine gold bars are also prepared for use in 
 manufactures, consisting principally of domestic bullion re- 
 
 ceived directly from mines or smelting works. The state- 
 pients of the manufacturers did not include the value of the 
 native gold in the form of grains, ingots, lumps, etc., used 
 for ornamentation and in the arts, which would amount to 
 a considerable sum. 
 
 Although this estimation is based upon statements and re- 
 ports made for the fiscal year, the facts they disclose show 
 that to ascertain the total gold production during the calen- 
 dar year, an addition to the domestic gold bullion deposited 
 and exported of perhaps half a million dollars should be 
 made for bars manufactured at private establishments, and 
 native gold used in the arts. 
 
 From these data, the yield of gold from the mines of the 
 United States in 1881 might be placed, in round numbers, 
 at $35,000,000. 
 
 As, however, the imports exceeded the deposits of foreign 
 gold bullion at San Francisco by 348,101, a portion of which 
 refined by the Selby Works in that city may have been re- 
 ported at the mint as domestic bullion. I have added for 
 undeposited domestic gold only the $270,000 shown by the 
 reports received at my office to have been used in manufac- 
 tures. This makes the total gold production in the United 
 States, for the calendar year 1881, to have been : 
 
 Deposited at Mints and Assay Offices $34,270,000 
 
 Bndeposited exports ... 160,000 
 
 " " used iu the arts 270,000 
 
 Total $34,700,000 
 
 This is over four millions higher than the estimated gold 
 production west of the Missouri river, published by Mr. 
 Valentine, who, from the amount of bullion carried iu vari- 
 ous forms by express and other conveyances, and the esti- 
 mated proportions of gold and silver contained, puts the 
 gold domestic production for the calendar year 1881 at 
 $30,653,969. 
 
 In my former report, I estimated the gold production for 
 the calendar year 1880 at $36,000,000, from which the pro- 
 duction of 1881 has declined over one and a quarter million 
 of dollars. 
 
 SILVER PRODUCTION. 
 
 The mines of the United States produced of silver bullion 
 during the year 1881, as indicated by the receipts at the mints 
 and customs and manufacturers' returns, $43,000,000, if com- 
 puted at its standard dollar coining value, or about $37,000,000 
 at its commercial value. 
 
 The purchases for coinage and deposits for bars at the 
 mints and assay offices amounted to $30,326,848.24, of which 
 $27,899,213.13 were of domestic production. 
 
 The exports of domestic silver bullion at all the ports of 
 the United States were valued at $12,796,280, worth at the 
 coinage rate about $14,500,000. 
 
 Of the $30,326,848.24 silver bullion received at the mints 
 and assay offices, $25,008,268.55 was purchased for coinage, 
 leaving a balance of $5,300,000 deposited for bars. These de- 
 posits were $700,000 less than the estimated annual consump- 
 tion of silver bullion in the United States for manufactures, 
 which deficiency, while undoubtedly containing some foreign 
 coin and bullion, was composed principally of domestic bull- 
 ion received from private refineries. 
 
 I therefore add to the deposits and exports of domestic 
 bullion $600,000 for undeposited domestic bullion used by 
 manufacturers during the calendar year, making the total 
 production of silver bullion deposited at the mints and assay 
 offices $27,900,000, exported $14,500,000, undeposited used in 
 manufacturing $600,000— Total, $43,000,000. 
 
 This gain of nearly $4,000,000 over my estimate for the 
 silver production in 1880, resulted from the opening of new 
 mines in portions of Colorado, which fully compensated for 
 the decline in the yield of the Leadville region, and from 
 greater silver production in Arizona, Utah, Montana, and 
 Idaho, notwithstanding the heavy falling ofi" in the yield of 
 the silver mines of Nevada. 
 
 It is impossible to determine with exactness the amount 
 of gold and silver supplied from the mines of each State 
 and Territory ; but a comparison of the various data received 
 at my office justifies this statement as an approximate esti- 
 mate. 
 
B)inod tuiAv uoi^TJOuinniinoo qno.np ni saj^uaD Siininn ^nnijod 
 -uii 9in ]it! Suuq Avp A\.n'.& rni iv. ]]m \pn\M. 'A-ek jopun avou 
 9au sasi-idja^ua piiojiiuy^ 'KnoiSAaiJiu X[nj} oq o^ punoj &q 
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 JO ^nnoaaB uo pauopuBqB aiaAi '?snp pnB sqaSSnu nr KjunoraB 
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 '8ai]ddns jo saojnos inojj aonB}sip '}BajS }nq 'X}nnoo aABq 
 -oj^ ut apBui ajaAi ajn}Bn siq} jo Bajn}naA a^qBiapisnoo 
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 aiqBJOABj japnn '}Bq} 'panado sanira araos puB 'punoj ajaAV 
 s}oadsojd qoig •biujoji^eo tuojj sjauiin snojn}naApB Aq 
 sapunoa uia}saAi aq} jo Maj b ui paanatninoa sbm Suiuiui 
 puB 'uAvouq ijaAv BBAi jCjO}iJjax aq} Jo gnopiod niB}aaa' 
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 aiqBijaj b o} paoBj} aq 'jaAaMoq '}0h p][noo qoiqM 'sauaAoo 
 -sip qons JO sjoiuni ajB ajaq} }obj nj uaAiis jo saniiu 
 qou niB}noa o} punoj aq 'pa}oadsojd X^jadoid Suiaq nodn 
 'og'iB /bui 'ajdoad }uaSina}ni XuBin Aq paAaipq jCpuapguoo 
 81 SB '}Bq} 'saSuBj uiB}unoin pajojdxann 'paSSni 
 aJB qaiqAV nt 'aqoBdy jo j(}nnoo a|SuiB aq; }dao "TT 
 -xa 'Xi6}ijjax' aq} jo 8}iBd ^b nt punoj ajB }nq '^bo I 
 -o[ }on aJB Buozuy jo suoi}oas 3nuBaq ^Baanim ajj LJLJ 
 
 ■VNOZIHV 
 
 •jCjnsBajx ^m JO XaB}ajDag 
 'aaoioj •£ saaaYHO -jseoh 
 ■}nij\[ aq} jo jo}oa.ii(i 
 
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 XuBin puB a8aq} o} sBaupa}qapui ;Ctn SuiSpa[Aiou2ioB ajiq^w 
 
 •Btiozijy 
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 -Buijqpi aq} paSuBjjB puB pajidiuoa ospB oqM puB 'iCjO}ijjax 
 }Bq} pa}iBiA X||Buosjad oqM 'aogjo jCni jo 'ssMf) -j -^ -j j\[ jfq 
 pajBdajd sbm ooixajf Mau jo sauiin aq} uodn }jodaj aqx 
 
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 -aj siBua}Bm puB 80i}8i}B}8 aq} j6 aoi}jod a[qBjapT8uoo y 
 
 •ua}}tJMaj sasBO 
 araos nt puB 'pagipom 'pasiAaj naaq aABq 'aogjo iiii }b paAiaa 
 -aj uoi}Brajojni Ja^pj raojj 'jaAaMoq 'suopnqijqnoD JiaqXj 
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 -joQ nt j£j}8npni Suintra aq} jo uoi}ipuoa aq} SniMaiAaj uj 
 
 •saiuBd 
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 s}naradiqs aq} jo S}naraa}B}B pa}BjnqB} papjBMJOj aABq sjaoigo 
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 -jjnq aq} jo uoi}onpojd jo Amvooi pnB }nTioraB aq} o} sb not} 
 -Bmjojni q}iM ara pai[ddnB aABq sjajBap noijjnq puE sjaJiuBg; 
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 'ja}aBJBqo aq} SuiMoqs sjiB}ap q}iM jCijEjaqij ara paqsiujnj 
 aABq S3[J0M uoi}onpaj puE 'sja}iams 'sjiira 'sauira jo sjaoigo 
 puB B}uapna}nijadns aqx "anp ajB 8}namSpaiMOU2iOE jEiaads 
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 ■SJE]|0p puEsnoT[} 
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 Buozijy }qSnojq sanira ano}8qmox aq} Jo noT}anpojd aqx 
 
 ■paqsiniraip ii}BajS SEq sanira ajiupBaq; aq} jo piaijC aq} 
 q3noq}|B 'jaA|is jo jaanpojd }saSjB{ aq} uibSb sbm opBJOjof) 
 
 •BUB}UO]\r pUB 'B}02[B(X 'opBJOpQ 
 
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 ooo'ooz't^i oon'ooo'sTt ooo'oni'ts} woi 
 
 OOO'S ■ ■ ' OOni? SnimofM. 
 
 OOO'OSI ■ • • nOO'OZX noiSuiqsnAi 
 
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 OOO'OSl'l OOO'OS Ono'OOl'l noSeJO 
 
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 ooo'5 noo'e ourem 
 
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 ooo'oio'? ooo'ol ono'ooo'f tijojiua 
 
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 ooo'ose'81 ono'oQi ooo'no?'8X «!"-i"jii«o 
 
 Onn'ngfi'S OOO'OOS'i 000'090'X unozijy 
 
 OOO'eiS ■ ■ ■ i 000'?!$ UJISKIV 
 
 ■p>)oj; -Mans 'Pl«0 
 
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 am Suunp sa^uis P»?I"a ^U* "! .ts^ITS P"« PIOO Jo uopanpoij 
 
 •gaxvxs aaxiNii anx ao sxsaaaxNi OxSeinih a&Y saaNiw 'samw anx 
 
 81^01 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1049 
 
 on the Southern Pacific ; and in addition to this, the north- 
 ern half of the Territory will be opened by the extension of 
 the Atlantic and Pacific, which, as now marked by the pre- 
 liminary surveys, will pass through a portion of the mineral 
 belt of Mohave county ; and a road north from Prescott to 
 intersect this will give the many mines of that section the 
 advantage of outside railroad communication. A road will 
 also be completed at an early day from Prescott southward, 
 which will traverse the richest portion of the mineral belt 
 south of that city in Yavapai, and north of Phoenix in Mari- 
 copa, county. Perhaps no other mining section in the coun- 
 try possesses as favorable facilities lor the mining and reduc- 
 tion of ores as the Territory of Arizona. Wood and water 
 are abundant in nearly every locality for necessary mining 
 
 Eurposes, and when the supply of wood for fuel becomes ex- 
 austed, the coal beds, which underlie at least one-half of 
 the Territory, can be relied upon for centuries to come. The 
 ores_ generally are easy mined, and can be reduced at the 
 minimum of expense. The smelting varieties are reported 
 to be unusually tractable. In the richness and variety of 
 its ores it differs materially from any other mining section 
 of the country. Pure native silver, in leaf and wire form, 
 chlorides, carbonates, sulphurets, ruby silver, silver glance, 
 bromides and sulphides, are some of these, and those most 
 generally found. It is especially noted for its yield of won- 
 derful masses of pure native silver, planchos de plata, the 
 largest of which weighed almost two tons avoirdupois. It 
 was at any rate sufficient in quantity to tempt the cupidity 
 of the Spanish king, who confiscated the production of the 
 mine to his own use. Arizona possesses also the advantage 
 of an equable climate, and work can be prosecuted at all 
 seasons of the year. Snow, except in the mountains, is 
 scarcely known, and the heat in the mining localities is not 
 excessive except in a few districts of Yuma county, where 
 the thermometer sometimes records a very high temperature. 
 The following is my estimate of the production of Arizona, 
 by counties, for the calendar year 1882 : The production of 
 Arizona during the calendar year 1881 was $1,060,000 in 
 gold, and §7,300,000 in silver, which I estimate was pro- 
 duced, by counties, as follows : 
 
 Counties. Gold, 
 
 Cochise $6W,000 
 
 Pima 
 
 Piual . . 
 Gila . . 
 Yavapai . 
 Maricopa . 
 Moh.avo . 
 Yuma . . 
 
 15,000 
 25,000 
 30,000 
 60,000 
 240,000 
 25,000 
 30,000 
 
 Total $1,060,000 
 
 Silver. 
 
 $^,065,000 
 
 760,000 
 
 1,250,000 
 
 630,000 
 
 460,000 
 
 76,000 
 
 75,000 
 
 105,000 
 
 $7,300,0UO 
 
 Total. 
 $4,710,000 
 765,000 
 1,276,000 
 660,000 
 600,000 
 318,000 
 100,000 
 135,000 
 
 $8,360,000 
 
 Mohave County. — ^This county lies in the northwestern 
 corner of the Territory. The Colorado river skirts the west- 
 ern boundary for fully two-thirds of its length, otherwise it 
 is bounded by Nevada on the northwest, Utah on the north, 
 Yavapai county on the east, and by Yuma county on the 
 south. The most important portion of the county lies south 
 of the Colorado, and is traversed by extensive mountain 
 ranges and wide valleys, abounding in nutritious grasses, and 
 admirably adapted for stock raising. The valleys of the Col- 
 orado an J Big Sandy, by the aid of irrigation, are rendered 
 exceedingly productive, and the settlers in those regions de- 
 vote themselves exclusively to agricultural pursuits. The 
 northern portion, that cut ofi" by the Colorado, has been but 
 little explored, and is generally believed to be a rugged, 
 bleak, and barren waste. Evidently the future prosperity 
 of this county must depend largely upon its promising min- 
 eral resources, although there was a decided falling off in the 
 silver bullion production during the calendar year 1881 ; the 
 gold production was about the same as that of 1880. The 
 people of this county believe the decline is due to inaccessi- 
 bility rather than a failure in productiveness, and anxiously 
 look forward to the completion of the Atlantic and Pacific 
 Railroad, confident that improved facilities of communication 
 will insure their future prosperity. They have easily suc- 
 ceeded in persuading themselves that every prospect is a bo- 
 nanza, and that the marvelous richness of their mines, as soon 
 as known, will insure the influx of capital, if improved means 
 of communication are afibrded. This confidence is not with- 
 out reason, for hitherto the revenue derived from higher- 
 grade ores only — none less than S200 in value being profita- 
 bly mined and shipped — has been sufficient to support the 
 
 population. The railroad has been completed to a point in 
 Eastern Arizona, over two hundred miles west from Albu- 
 querque, and its construction westward is being pushed for- 
 ward as rapidly as possible. It will most likely penetrate 
 the mineral section of the county about June or July, 1883, 
 and test the reality of the dreams of the prospector and 
 miner. The Aubrey, Cedar Valley, Greenwood, Hualapai, 
 Maynard, and Wan Francisco are the most important and 
 best known mining districts of Mohave county. The first 
 three are in the extreme south. Hualapai and Maynard are 
 located near the center, south of the Colorado river, and the 
 San Francisco district is in the western portion, skirting the 
 river. These districts embrace the major portion of the 
 known mineral-bearing area, and contain many valuable 
 mines and locations in which ore bodies of gold, silver, ar- 
 gentiferous galena, and copper, carrying both gold and sil- 
 ver, are found. The Hualapai district is formed by the sub- 
 districts or camps of Cerbat, Todd Basin, Chloride, Stockton, 
 and Gold Basin, the last of which is in the extreme northern 
 portion of the district. Reports from this county are some- 
 what meagre; the following, however, from the Stockton 
 camp on the east side of the Oerbat range is of interest: 
 The average mill runs of ores from the mines of this camp 
 are above $300 silver per ton. The general strike of the prin- 
 cipal veins is northwest, although many small seams or feed- 
 ers of high-grade ore run into them at various angles. The 
 veins are usually found in a granite formation, frequently 
 with one wall of porphyry. Among the most important 
 mines of the camp now worked are the Franklin, Little 
 Chief, Cupel, Silver Monster, Cincinnati, Miner's Hope, Blue 
 Bell, Fremont, Fountain Head, Pure Metal, and Tigress. 
 
 The production of Mohave county during the census year 
 1880 was reported by the Census Bureau to be (by districts) 
 as follows : 
 
 District. Gold. 
 
 Cedar Valley . 
 
 Hualapai . . ... $9,'J51 
 
 Maynard 
 
 Owens 
 
 Scattered 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Tolal. 
 
 $7,430 
 
 $ 7,430 
 
 65,134 
 
 74,385 
 
 18,944 
 
 18,944 
 
 16,800 
 
 16,800 
 
 0,070 
 
 9,070 
 
 Total $9,251 
 
 $116,378 
 
 $126,629 
 
 I have estimated the production for the calendar year 1881 
 to have been §25,000 in gold and $75,000 in silver. 
 
 Yavapai County. — This extensive county covers fully 
 one- fourth of the entire area of the Territory. It is bounded 
 on the north by Utah Territory, on the east by Apache county, 
 on the south by Gila and Maricopa counties, and by Mo- 
 have on the west. About one-third of the northern portion 
 of the county is cut off from the remainder by the Colorado 
 and Little Colorado rivers. Like Mohave, but little is known 
 of this region except that it is extremely rugged and moun- 
 tainous. Whether the mountains contain, as is generally 
 believed, mineral deposits, is yet to be proven by the pros- 
 pector. The more favored portions of the county even are 
 difficult to penetrate, but the discovery of valuable gold and 
 silver mines by adventurous prospectors, has stimulated en- 
 terprise and brought a considerable influx of population to 
 that part of the county west of the Verde river, and espe- 
 cially in the vicinity and soutlr of Prescott. The county 
 generally is an elevated plain traversed by mountain ranges, 
 with occasional isolated peaks. The plains and valleys are 
 covered with a luxuriant growth of grass, upon which cattle 
 thrive during the entire year, as the snow-falls are not exces- 
 sive and generally melt rapidly. Its agricultural resources 
 are unfavorable, although the soil of the valleys and plains 
 is fertile, for the seasons are irregular and rains uncertain. 
 Tillage must therefore be confined to low meadow lands sus- 
 ceptible of irrigation, and as those are of limited extent, the 
 prosperity of the people must depend upon the mineral re- 
 sources and stock raising. As yet the production of the 
 precious metals has been only in that portion of the county 
 extending about fifty miles north from its southern boundary, 
 and lying between Mohave county and the Verde river. 
 Within the past few years more favorable localities, opened 
 to the prospector and miner by the completion of the South- 
 ern Pacific Railroad, have attracted capital and enterprise 
 from the mines of this county. The prosperity of Yavapai 
 has, like that of Mohave, been greatly retarded by its re- 
 moteness from lines of communication, and the expense of 
 transporting ores and concentrations and the necessary min- 
 
1050 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ing machinery and supplies. Only the richer ores of the 
 mines could be profitably mined and treated, and some idea 
 may be formed of their value from the fact that the entire 
 community for many years has been supported from their 
 product without external aid, to say nothing of the large for- 
 tunes that have been accumulated. The placer mines of this 
 section first attracted attention about twenty years ago, and 
 soon thereafter discoveries of lodes, of both gold and silver, 
 were made at various points. The placers were found to be 
 of great value, were profitably worked for some years, and 
 abandoned only by reason of the scarcity of water and the 
 discovery of mineral lodes. By the term " abandoned" it is 
 not intended to convey the idea that the placers were entirely 
 deserted, as they have been constantly worked to the present 
 time, and are represented still to give good returns for labor 
 employed upon them. Notwithstanding these disadvantages, 
 the reports of the production of both gold and silver during 
 the year 1881 show a large increase over that of the previous 
 calendar year. The following are the estimates, as carefully 
 compiled from the most reliable returns received : Gold 
 $19,124 as against $5,000 for 1880, and silver $716,389 to 
 $265,000 for the same time. This increase is in a measure 
 due to the stimulus given to mining industry throughout the 
 Territory by the completion of the Southern Pacific Railroad, 
 but it may be safely predicted that within a year or so even 
 this production will be largely enhanced by the construction 
 of the Atlantic and Pacific, and a new railroad which is to 
 run from Prescott, the capital of the Territory, southward, to 
 intersect the Soutiiern Pacific at Maricopa. The mineral 
 bearing section of Yavapai county is divided into the follow- 
 ing districts, viz.: Agua Fria, Big Bug, Black Canon, Black 
 Hills, Bradshaw, Cherry Creek, Green Valley, Greenwood, 
 Hassayampa, Humbug, Martinez, Peck, Silver Mountain, 
 Tiger, Trinity, Turkey Creek, Walker, Walnut Grove, 
 Weaver, Verde, Tip Top, Pine Grove, Groom Creek, Crook 
 Canon, and Lynx Creek. While this list may not embrace 
 all the districts of the county, it comprises all that have thus 
 far reported. Of these the most important are the Peck and 
 Tip Top districts. The former is located about thirty miles 
 southeast from Prescott in the northern foothills of the Brad- 
 shaw mountains. Although possessing mines of unusual rich- 
 ness, the prosperity of the district has been seriously retarded 
 since 1878 by continuous litigation in respect to the legal 
 ownership of certain mines. This is especially the case in 
 regard to the Peck, the most valuable mine yet developed. 
 This mine was discovered in 1875, and worked with great 
 success until 1878, when operations ceased, owing to legal 
 controversies. Its production during the three years was 
 about $1,200,000. The ore occurs in the form of chlorides 
 and carbonates in a strong vein, the pay-streak of which is 
 eighteen inches in width. The mine was developed by a 
 shaft 400 feet in depth and by four levels amounting to 
 1,300 feet, but since the commencement of its legal diflicul- 
 ties has lain idle, as has also the ten-stamp mill with which 
 it is provided. 
 
 The production of Yavapai county during the census year 
 1880 was reported by districts, by the Census Bureau, as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 District. • Gold, 
 
 Big Bug 
 
 Cavo Ci-eek $J,000 
 
 CaBtle Creek . . . . 1,499 
 
 Cherry Creek yoO 
 
 Humbug 
 
 Hassiiyampa . .... 4,0U0 
 
 Pock 
 
 'i'iger 3,200 
 
 Wulker 6^600 
 
 Walnut Grove 1,001 
 
 Weaver No 2 9,000 
 
 Estimate (additioual) 13,499 
 
 Total $42,299 
 
 I have estimated the production of this county during the 
 calendar year 1881 to have been $50,000 in gold and $450,000 
 in silver. 
 
 Apache County.— This county may almost be regarded 
 as a veritable terra incognita, especially so far as any devel- 
 opment of its mineral resources is concerned. It occupies 
 the northeast portion of the Territory, and next to Yavapai 
 IS the largest county in it, being over two hundred miles in 
 length, from north to south, by one hundred in width. The 
 county is exceedingly mountainous, but abounds in fertile 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 $71,250 
 
 $71,2.iO 
 
 . . . 
 
 4,000 
 
 . . . 
 
 1,499 
 
 
 600 
 
 1!37,847 
 
 237,847 
 
 
 4,000 
 
 64,959 
 
 64,959 
 
 186,188 
 
 188,388 
 
 
 6,600 
 
 
 1,001 
 
 
 9,000 
 
 1 : L_ 
 
 13.499 
 
 $559,244 
 
 $601,543 
 
 well-watered valleys, that by irrigation can be made to pro- 
 duce grain, though at present they are only valuable for 
 grazing purposes, being covered with a luxuriant growth of 
 nutritious grasses. Large forests of fine timber are found in 
 the central and northern part of the county, and the moun- 
 tain ranges are also well covered with a variety of trees well 
 adapted for building purposes, fuel, etc. Every portion of 
 the county may be said to be plentifully supplied with 
 water. A large tributary of the San Juan flows through 
 a hundred miles of the northern portion of the county, 
 and the Rio Puerco, with its branches and other tribu- 
 taries of the Little Colorado, drain and water the cen- 
 tral and southern portions. Up to the present time no 
 discoveries of consequence, of either gold or silver, have 
 been made in Apache county, but its physical conformation 
 would indicate it to be an admirable field for the prospector. 
 It, however, must await the suppression of attacks from the 
 fierce Apaches, for there will be no extensive prospecting 
 while the region is liable to their incursions. It will doubt- 
 less yet be shown that the canons of the numerous water- 
 courses of the southern half of the county are rich in placer 
 gold, and the adjacent mountain ranges will also probably* 
 prove rich depositories of the precious metals. Should it 
 eventually prove to be as rich in minerals as the older and 
 more thickly settled and thoroughly prospected counties of 
 the Territory, the profusion of timber fur all purposes and the 
 plentiful supply of water afforded by its many streams will 
 greatly enhance its value as a mining section, as the scarcity 
 of wood and water has ever been among the most serious 
 obstacles to profitable and extensive mining. The Atlantic 
 and Pacific Railroad from Albuquerque westward is com- 
 pleted to a point on the Rio Puerco in this county, and be- 
 fore the end of the summer it will probably be finished a 
 con-siderable distance beyond its western border. The road 
 crosses the county in the vicinity of the thirty-fifth parallel. 
 Its completion will, without doubt, hasten the settlement 
 of the central portion, and, despite the presence of hostile 
 Apaches, attract prospectors and capitalists to discover and 
 develop its mineral resources. 
 
 Graham County. — This is a county of recent organ- 
 ization, and was formed from portions of Pima and Apache. 
 It lies due south of the latter, west of the boundary of 
 New Mexico, north of Cochise, and east of Pinal. Its 
 principal river is the Gila, which flows through the center 
 of the county from east to west. The San Francisco river 
 and other smaller streams are northern tributaries of the 
 Gila, and water that portion of the county lying north of 
 that stream. These watercourses, especially the Gila, form 
 extensive valleys, which are exceedingly fertile and already 
 are largely taken up by settlers and extensively cultivated. 
 The county has some five or six distinct mountain ranges, 
 besides numerous isolated peaks, between which stretch 
 magnificent plains covered with the rich, nutritious grasses 
 peculiar to the climate. The county has not yet been suffi- 
 ciently prospected to prove the extent of its mineral resources 
 except in the matter of its copper mines. These are located 
 near Clifton, on the San Francisco river, about fifteen miles 
 above its confluence with the Gila, and are marvelous in 
 extent and richness. The mountains have been tunneled 
 and drifted in various directions without discovering walls, 
 so that the deposits would seem to be vast masses of ore, 
 rather than veins or leads. These mines have been success- 
 fully and profitably worked for a number of years past, even 
 when their product had to be transported overland some 
 seven hundred or eight hundred miles by ox teams. From 
 Clifton northward, some fifteen miles, tlie sand and gravel 
 of both banks of the San Francisco river are found to be 
 gold-bearing. These gravel beds give good surface assays, 
 and shaft and tunnel excavations show that every portion 
 contains placer gold in paying quantities. They were dis- 
 covered some ten years ago by a Mr. Greenler, who for a 
 time worked them profitably by the cradle and rocker pro- 
 cess. Afterwards they passed into the hands of a company 
 of gentlemen from St. Louis, who continued to work in 
 the same crude way until within a year or so past, when a 
 New York company secured by purchase some 10,000 acres 
 of those beds lying along both sides of the river, with a view 
 to washing the gravel by improved hydraulic process. This 
 company is a responsible one and under enterprising man- 
 agement. It is proposed to bring the water some fifteen 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1051 
 
 miles in pipes and flumes. About ten miles of the pipe are 
 already on the ground and will be laid as rapidly as possible. 
 Improved hydraulic machinery is also being erected, and 
 everything will be in readiness to commence work within a 
 very short time. The capacity of these works will be about 
 5,000 miner's inches per diem. Aside from these extensive 
 placers, alluvial deposits are found in other streams and 
 cailons of the county, especially in the Sierra Blanco range, 
 where the supply of water is abundant, and some of the 
 mountains are known to contain gold quartz ledges as well 
 as extensive silver lodes. Whether these will develop into 
 rich, paying mines remains yet to be determined, except in 
 what is known as the De Frees district, in the western por- 
 tion of the county, where some work has been done and sev- 
 eral fine prospects have been located. Notwithstanding the 
 production of the precious metals in this county up to the 
 
 E resent time has not been large, it is confidently predicted 
 y well-informed persons, thoroughly acquainted with the 
 country, that it will eventually prove a rich mining section. 
 The county is liable to incursions by raiding bands of Indians, 
 but the population is increasing so rapidly that but little 
 further trouble from this source is apprehended. Even now 
 the more thickly settled portions are capable of self-protec- 
 tion from the ordinary dangers incident to an exposed fron- 
 tier. 
 
 Gila County. — This is a new and comparatively small 
 county, of irregular shape, formed from the eastern portion 
 of Maricopa and a section of the northeast corner of Pinal 
 county. It is bounded by Apache and Graham counties on 
 the east, Graham and Pinal on the south, Maricopa on the 
 west, and by Yavapai and Apache on the north. The north- 
 ern half of the county is admirably watered by the Salt, or, 
 as sometimes called, the Black river, and its numerous trib- 
 utaries. The county is rough and mountainous, possessing 
 little arable land outside the Gila river bottom, and the 
 narrow strips bordering the Black and San Carlos rivers 
 and other smaller streams. An abundance of timber is 
 found in the mountain ranges, and the valleys afibrd ample 
 pasturage. The entire county is mineral-bearing, but the 
 principal discoveries and richest developments have been made 
 in that portion south of the Apache range, taken from Pinal 
 county, and knowu as the Apache range. The formation 
 is generally granite and porphyry, though syenite and quartz- 
 ite are also found, as well as limestone and micaceous slate. 
 The ores of the Apache range, and in fact of the districts 
 generally, are usually high grade and free milling, occasion- 
 ally carrying copper and iron, while those of the Pinal 
 Mountains in the south are sulphurets requiring the roasting 
 process to precede mining. Wood, and in most places water 
 also, is abundant for all necessary mining purposes. This 
 is especially the case in the Pinal Mountains, where large 
 tracts of fine pine timber guarantee a supply for many years 
 to come. In other sections the oak and juniper afibrd an 
 ample supply. This county, as yet, has no railroad facili- 
 ties, though a branch from the Soutiiern Pacific to intersect 
 the mineral sections of Pinal and Gila is under contempla- 
 tion and will likely be commenced, if not completed, during 
 the coming summer. Improved means of communication 
 with business centers and for obtaining supplies will insure 
 a prosperous future to mining industries in Gila county. 
 Hostile Indians have occasioned considerable alarm and 
 some interruption, but a railroad through the mineral sec- 
 tion will lessen the frequency of, if not altogether prevent, 
 their incursions. 
 
 I have estimated the production of Gila county, during 
 the calendar year 1881, to have been $30,000 in gold and 
 $530,000 in silver. 
 
 Pinal County. — This county lies in the center of the 
 southern portion of the Territory, and is bounded on the 
 south bv Pima county, west by Maricopa, north by Mari- 
 copa and Gila, and by Gila and Graham on the east. The 
 Gila river flows through the county from east to west, 
 receiving as a principal tributary the San Pedro, which, 
 flowing northward, empties into it near the eastern boundary 
 of the county. The valleys of these streams form the prin- 
 cipal portion of the productive soil of the county, and these 
 can only be cultivated by irrigation. Aside from these 
 streams there are but few watercourses, other than small 
 creeks, which do not constantly contain running water, and 
 yet the mining districts are comparatively well supplied by 
 
 these and local springs, which afford enough water for all 
 purposes except hydraulicing. The principal mineral dis- 
 coveries yet made are found in that part of the county lying 
 north of the Gila river, which, like the same portion of 
 Gila county, is very rugged and mountainous. Other and 
 later discoveries in different parts of the county, however, 
 indicate that the mineral deposits are not confined to this 
 locality, but are general throughout the county. The geo- 
 logical formation of the county rock is usually granite and 
 porphyrite, but basalt and quartzite are also found in some 
 places. Pioneer district is the most important mineral sub- 
 division of this county. It adjoins Globe district, of Gila 
 county, on the west, and extends northward into Gila and 
 Maricopa, in which, however, no discoveries of importance 
 are reported. 
 
 The production of Pinal county, during the census year 
 1880, was reported to the Census Bureau as follows (by 
 districts): 
 
 Dislrict. Gold. Stiver. Total. 
 
 Globe $2,626 $828 $3,355 
 
 Pioueer 4.UUU 4,000 
 
 Total $2,626 $4,829 87,365 
 
 I estimate the production during the calendar year 1881 
 to have been 825,000 in gold and $1,275,000 in silver. 
 
 MaricK>pa County. — This county lies in the southwest- 
 ern portion of the Territory, and is bounded on the west by 
 Yuma, north by Yavapai, east by Gila and Pinal, and on 
 the south by Pinal and Pima counties. The Salt and Gila 
 rivers fiow through the county in their westward course ; the 
 former emptying into the Gila some fifteen miles west of 
 Phoenix, the county seat. The northern portion is, in ad- 
 dition, watered by the Rio Verde and Agua Fria, and Has- 
 sayampa creeks. In an agricultural point of view the county 
 is regarded as ranking first in the Territory. It is also rich 
 in its mineral resources, as almost every mountain range is 
 known to be seamed with lodes of gold and silver. The 
 county has not been as yet thoroughly prospected, and all 
 the development in its mining districts, except in a few in- 
 stances, has been of recent date. The oldest and most im- 
 portant mine of the county is the Vulture, in the north- 
 west portion. This mine was discovered in 1863, and stead- 
 ily operated for about ten years, when it was abandoned on 
 account of the expense attending the hauling of the ore to 
 the mill, some ten miles distant. Some time after it was re- 
 located and operated successfiilly for several years by a com- 
 pany which erected a ten-stamp mill on the Hassayanipa, 
 twelve miles distant. In 1878 the mine became the property 
 of the Central Arizona Mining Company, under whose man- 
 agement it has been systematically opened and worked. The 
 main shaft has attained a depth of nearly four hundred leet, 
 and it is otherwise opened by working levels and cross-cuts. 
 The ledge is gold quartz, from fifty to one hundred feet in 
 width, between well-defined walls of porphyry and talcose 
 slate, the hanging wall being of the former formation. The 
 ores are not even medium as to grade, but the facilities for 
 treatment are such that the company can handle them at an 
 expense of about $2.25 per ton. An eighty-stamp mill has 
 been erected convenient to the mine, and the necessary water 
 is piped from the Hassayampa, a distance of some fifteen 
 miles. The mill is kept constantly running (barring acci- 
 dents), and the bullion production amounts to about $20,000 
 monthly in value, as shown by the following detailed state- 
 ment of the company for the month of December, 1881, 
 taken from the Mining Seeord: 
 
 General expenses $341 23 
 
 Exchange 305 30 
 
 Water service 1,575 52 
 
 Mine, labor, and supplies 7,3U8 57 
 
 Mill supplies 6,617 82 
 
 Dead work 1,400 00 
 
 Pipe repairs 192 91 
 
 Territorial a;id county tax 1,064 85 
 
 Total expenditure $18,806 20 
 
 Gross product 1124 ounces bullion $17,971 22 
 
 Deficit $834 98 
 
 The mill was operated tweuty-seven days, fourteen hours, 
 crushed 6,676 tons ore and waste. Stopped eight hours tq 
 repair boilers. 
 
 Per ton. 
 
 Average product of ore and waste milled S269l^ 
 
 *v..r...T.. /.^at yf operating 24l|i 
 
 Average cost 
 Average total expenses 
 
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 •S3IVXS aaxiKH anx ao sxsaaaiMi ominiw qmv saaNiK saNiH anx 
 
 5S0T 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1053 
 
 case in every mining section, wliere it is a most important 
 consideration. Less than three years ago but little was 
 known of this county as a mining section. Now Tombstone 
 is perhaps the most important bullion-producing district in 
 the United States, which is truly wonderful, when it is re- 
 membered that it had no railroad facilities one year ago. 
 The most important property of the county is that of the 
 Contention Consolidated Mining Company of Tombstone 
 district, which consists of the Contention, formerly the 
 Western, the Flora Morrison, and the southeast half of the 
 Sulphuret. The consolidation of these properties was ef- 
 fected during the past summer. The Contention has long 
 been known as one of the principal mines of this district. 
 It has been opened by several shafts, the deepest of which 
 has attained a depth of upwards of 70U feet, and by working 
 levels, drifts, winzes, cross-cuts, etc., aggregating many thou- 
 sands of feet. The first level is at a depth of 112 feet, where 
 the vein is seven feet in width. This has been opened south 
 to the northern boundary of the Grand Central 290 feet, and 
 north 190 feet. The walls are smooth and well defined, and 
 the width of the ledge tnroughout this level averages six 
 feet. The ore assays range about $150 to the ton. Some 
 lateral cross drifting indicates a rich mineralized formation 
 outside the main vein, both to the east and west. But little 
 sloping or upraising has been done in this level. The vein 
 is reached from the new level, at a depth of 162 feet, by a 
 west cross-cut thirty-two feet in length. The drift to the north 
 on this level extends 300 feet, aud south to the limit of the 
 claim. As in the case of the first, but little stoping has been 
 done. The formation at this depth is porphyritic, and the 
 lateral mineralization is found by cross-cuts about 100 feet 
 ill width, while still lower down it extends about 100 feet on 
 either side of the vein. On the 212-foot level, the ledge is 
 reached by a west cross-cut at a distance of ninety-three teet, 
 and is found to be eight feet in width, with good strong walls, 
 and increasing richness of ore body. The south development 
 extends to the limits of the claim, and north a distance of 
 520 feet. The north and south winzes of this level have 
 been sunk to intersect the fourth. Assays of the ore of this 
 level run up to $160 per ton. In driving west cross-cuts, a 
 six-inch seam of ore was encountered, fifty feet from shaft, 
 or forty-three feet from the ledge, from which ore that ran 
 $2,400 to the ton was extracted. Considerable stoping has 
 been done in this level, especially south from point of con- 
 tact with shaft where the ore has been taken out the entire 
 ii90 feet, to a height of twenty-four feet. About fifty feet 
 north of the cross-cut, the vein was found to contract to one 
 foot in width, which continued a distance of some sixty feet, 
 beyond which point it again widened to its natural propor- 
 tions, which it retained to the point of exploration ; 390 feet 
 north of shaft, a winze has been sunk to fourth level in ore, 
 which gives assays of $200 to the ton. A few upraises are 
 seen in the north end of this level ; otherwise the ore re- 
 mains untouched. At a point in the north drift, 450 feet 
 north of the west cross-cut intersection, a drift has been run 
 east to the new shaft, which thus makes its first connection 
 with these workings. In reaching the 262-foot level, the 
 cross-cut west, at a distance of sixty-five feet from shaft, 
 enters first inside ledge, and ninety feet further cuts the 
 second or outside. The cross-cut was extended still forty 
 feet further in this ledge, all in highly mineralized matter, 
 without reaching its limit. Indeed, the ledge formation at 
 this depth is over 200 feet wide, and seamed with ore through- 
 out. This level is in all respects similar to the last above de- 
 scribed, and the outside ledge first encountered from this level 
 difiers from the first- only in size, as it shows a width of from 
 five to eighteen feet, bearing ore that is said to average $100 to 
 the ton. Very little stoping and upraising have been done, 
 the highest point of the former, fifty feet in a few places. 
 
 Winzes have been sunk in vein from both ends of drift to 
 the fifth level. The drifting in the outside ledge aggregates 
 530 feet, inside 480. The 312-foot level is connected with 
 inside ledge by west cross-cut, at a distance of ninety-five, 
 and with outside ledge at 150, feet. The drifting on this 
 level is about 750 feel on each ledge. The lateral drifting 
 shows the same high mineralized formation, both east and 
 west, as far as followed. Exploiting the south end of the 
 outside ledge proves it to be the same that forms the west 
 ledge of the Grand Central. From the extreme north end 
 of the drift, a second cross-cut has been run east to connect 
 with the new working shaft. North and south winzes from 
 this have been driven to the 400-foot level. On the 400-foot 
 level the drift is 115 feet, and connection has been made 
 northward with the shaft. The vein is shown to be eight,feet 
 in width. On the 500-foot level the south drift has been run 
 250 feet, and the connecting cross-cut is said to look promis- 
 ing. The north and south winzes from the upper level have 
 also formed connection with this one. On the 600-foot level 
 the cross-cut west is completed, and the south drift is in 
 about eighty feet. The east drift on this level has been run 
 a distance of 280 feet, and ore breasts, slopes, etc., are said 
 to be very promising. The 700-foot level has not been ex- 
 tensively opened, though some rich ore developments have 
 been made in the north dtift, which demonstrate that large 
 ore bodies exist at this depth, and are likely to continue. 
 But little work has latterly been done in this mine, every 
 energy being bent to connect the lower levels of the Flora 
 Morrison with the 500 and 600 levels of the Contention, with 
 a view to concentrating future operations. The shaft of the 
 Flora Morrison, and the new working-shaft of this mine, 
 will hereafter be used by the company, and to this end the 
 works of the old shaft are being dismantled. In all these 
 extensive improvements the new company is extracting suf- 
 ficient ore to keep its teams employed, and the mill at Con- 
 tention City, ten miles distant, constantly running, as is 
 shown by the reported product for the month of December, 
 upwards of $136,000 in value. In addition to this mill it is 
 represented that a new one of forty-stamp capacity willbe built 
 near the mine during the coming summer. Many thousands 
 of tons of low-grade ore, ranging from ten to thirty ounces of 
 silver to the ton, are now on the dumps of this property, all of 
 which can be profitably operated if the expense attending the 
 transportation of ores can be avoided. The production of this 
 company for the year 1881 amounts, in round numbers, to about 
 $1,500,000, as shown by tables published by the Tombstone 
 Epitaph, December 4 — ^last month estimated. The Flora Mor- 
 rison is a small irregular claim immediately west of the Con- 
 tention. This is the second of the company's mines. Its work- 
 ing shaft is below the 500-foot level, and, as before remarked, 
 the company is bending every energy to the task of bringing 
 it in with the 500- and 600-foot levels of the Contention. It 
 is regarded as a very valuable property, but its production is 
 included in that given as the bullion yield of the company, 
 and cannot in consequence be given separately. 
 
 I estimate the production of Cachise county during the 
 calendar year 1881 to have been $645,000 in gold and $4,- 
 065,000 in silver. 
 
 JUstimaie of Mr. A. M. Laimer of the Bullion Production in Arizona 
 during the calendar year 1881, classified by counties. 
 
 Cachise.. 
 
 Gila 
 
 Maricopa.. 
 Uobave.... 
 
 Pima 
 
 Pinid 
 
 Yavapai... 
 Yuma 
 
 County. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 $490,000 
 
 $3,896,210 
 
 $3,886,210 
 
 21,334 
 
 406,799 
 
 428,133 
 
 280,044 
 
 90,000 
 
 370,044 
 
 20,000 
 
 71,000 
 
 91,000 
 
 196,000 
 
 1,600,155 
 
 1,795,155 
 
 1,«0 
 
 983,373 
 
 9R4,863 
 
 19,124 
 
 716,389 
 
 735,513 
 
 36,699 
 
 114,168 
 
 149,867 
 
 Total $1,062,681 $7,378,094 $8,440,775 
 
 List of Quartz Mills in Arizona. 
 
 Name of Mill. 
 
 Coi'ljin 
 
 GirJ 
 
 Cuntention 
 
 Griiod Centnil . 
 Head Center.... 
 
 Pioneer 
 
 Bu:$tun 
 
 Perini's... 
 Hopkins.. 
 
 Location, 
 
 CACHISE COUNTY. 
 
 Charleston 
 
 do 
 
 Conteution City 
 
 do; 
 
 di. 
 
 Dos Cabemis 
 
 Emery City , 
 
 HuachncH. Mountains.. 
 Water vule 
 
 Nwmber of 
 Stamps. 
 
 20.. 
 
 15.. 
 
 25.. 
 
 30.. 
 
 10.. 
 
 10.. 
 
 25.. 
 
 Gold or Silver. 
 
 Silver.. 
 ...do.... 
 ...do.... 
 ...do.... 
 ...do.... 
 Oold.... 
 Silver. . 
 
 Silvei., 
 
 Tombstone Mill and Miniog Company. 
 
 do. 
 Western Mining Conipnnj'. 
 Grand Central Mining Company. 
 Head Center Mining Company, 
 Piuneer Mining Company. 
 Boston and Ari/.ona Smelting and Re- 
 duction Company. 
 T. Perini & Co. 
 Ilopkius Mill Company. 
 
1054 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Iiist of Qnartz IWills in Arizona— (CmifznMerf). 
 
 
 Name of Mill. 
 
 Locution. 
 
 Number of 
 Stamps. 
 
 Gold or Silver. 
 
 Oioncrs. 
 
 
 GILA COUNTY. 
 Globe 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 '."".SO.".'.'. 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 21) .... 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 2U 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 !!!!'.!io!!!!!! 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 
 Champion Mill and Mining Company. 
 Globe City Mill ami Mining Comijauy. 
 Golden Eagle Mining CoMjpany. 
 Irene Mining Company. 
 Silver Era Mining Company. 
 Townaend Mining Comijany. 
 McMillen Silver Mining Conipaiiy. 
 
 
 ...do 
 
 do 
 
 Golden Eagle 
 
 ...do 
 
 Gold 
 
 
 ...do 
 
 Silver 
 
 Silver JEra 
 
 ...do... . 
 
 do 
 
 
 ...do 
 
 ...do 
 
 
 
 
 Miami 
 
 Miami 
 
 do 
 
 Mineral Creek 
 
 
 do 
 
 Mineral Creek Mining Company. 
 Silver Nugget MiJiing Company. 
 Mack Monis Mining Company. 
 Mazatzal Mining Company. 
 
 Golden Star Mining Company. 
 
 Jett & Powell. 
 
 Central Arizona Mining Company. 
 
 
 
 
 Mack MoiTia 
 
 
 do 
 
 Mazatzal 
 
 
 do 
 
 
 MARICOPA COUNTY. 
 
 
 
 
 do 
 
 Vulture 
 
 
 
 
 MOHAVE COUNTY. 
 
 
 
 Cerbat 
 
 Silver 
 
 John Barry. 
 
 Lincoln Silver Mining Company. 
 
 llackberry Mill and Mining Company. 
 
 Breon & Spear. 
 
 L. S. Welcome. 
 
 Peabudy Mining Company. 
 
 
 
 do 
 
 
 
 do 
 
 lireon & Spear 
 
 
 do 
 
 Welcome 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 
 
 
 
 PIMA COUNTY. 
 
 G.&S 
 
 
 ....do 
 
 Arivaca Mill Company. 
 
 Consolidated Avizuun Gold and Silver 
 
 Mining Company. 
 Ilermosa Silver Mining Company, 
 Imperial Mining Company. 
 
 Windsor Mining Company. 
 Silver King Mining Company. 
 Wide Awake Silver Mining Company, 
 Wheeler & Doran. 
 
 Peck Mining Company. 
 Prescott Mining Company. 
 William Van Name. 
 Bradshaw Mining Company. 
 Golden Era Mining Compuny. 
 W. M. Bufium. 
 
 Tip Top Silver Mining Company. 
 Prescott Mining Company. 
 
 
 ....do 
 
 do 
 
 
 
 Silvt-r 
 
 do 
 
 Imperial 
 
 Old Hat 
 
 
 PINAL COUNTY. 
 
 Silver 
 
 Silver King 
 
 
 Gem 
 
 
 
 Wheeler & Duran 
 
 .do 
 
 
 
 YAVAPAI COUNTY. 
 Alexandra 
 
 Silver 
 
 Hoefler 
 
 Arastra Creek 
 
 Gold 
 
 Big Bug 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Golden Era 
 
 Cberry Creek 
 
 Gold 
 
 Buflfum's 
 
 Crook's Cauoii 
 
 do 
 
 
 Gillette 
 
 
 Aztlan 
 
 Groom Creek 
 
 Gold 
 
 Tuscnnibia 
 
 Gu8 Springs 
 
 Silver 
 
 Senator 
 
 Hassayaiiipa 
 
 Gold 
 
 Bowers & Richards. 
 
 Model 
 
 People's Valley 
 
 do 
 
 Tiger District 
 
 ...do 
 
 ...do 
 
 Bed Rock Mining Company'. 
 
 R. C. Powers. 
 
 Tiger Mill UDd Mining Conipaoy. 
 
 Tiger 
 
 
 Heneszy 
 
 
 
 MasteiiiOn 
 
 do :..i::.:::zz 
 
 
 
 Ellsworth 
 
 YUMA COUNTY. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SMELTERS. 
 
 Lynx Creek, 
 
 'I'exaa , 
 
 Melrose 
 
 Hulland 
 
 Lynx Creek district. 
 
 Giileyville 
 
 Melrose 
 
 Patagonia district.... 
 
 Tons. 
 ...SO... 
 ...30... 
 ...30... 
 ...30... 
 
 Silver 
 ... do... 
 ....do... 
 ...do... 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
 THE principal gold belt of California lies along the 
 lower slopes and foothills of the Sierra Nevada 
 Mountains, and extends from San Diego county, in 
 the south, to Siskiyou, in the north, a distance of 
 over seven hundred miles, and varies from twenty to sixty 
 miles in width. 
 
 Of the fifty-two counties in the State, nearly every one, 
 excepting those bordering on San Francisco bay, has at 
 some time or other been the scene of mining industry, and 
 at the present time reports of production from thirty-five 
 have been received at the Mint Bureau. Mining is the chief 
 industry in eighteen of these counties, in some of which, if 
 It did not exist, the other industries would decline propor- 
 tionally to their loss in mining population. Throughout 
 this immense auriferous area, the gold occurs under widely 
 varied conditions. It is found in the numberless quartz 
 veins scattered throughout all parts of the gold fields; in the 
 channels of ancient rivers, buried in some instances under 
 hundreds of feet of lava and the products of the erosion of 
 
 lofty mountains for countless ages ; in the banks, bars, and 
 beds of the modern river system, constituting the placer dig- 
 gings ; in seams and pockets, and in the blufiis and beaches 
 of the northern coast. 
 
 More varied even than the sources of gold, are the means 
 that have been employed for securing it, and the inventive 
 genius of the miner and mechanician have been taxed to 
 overcome the obstacles which have arisen at every step of 
 the process. In the early days of mining in California, nearly 
 all of the gold produced was from the superficial and easily 
 worked placers, but they, for the most part, have been ex- 
 hausted, and the rocker, tom, and sluice are now things of 
 the past, or used only by individual operators of small means, 
 or Chinamen content to re-work old claims and secure what 
 was lost or disregarded in the flush of fortune by the first 
 claimants. The amount produced in this manner through- 
 out the whole State is not inconsiderable in the aggregate, 
 and as the bulk is taken out by Chinamen, from whom no 
 reports are received, it can be estimated only from returns 
 of express companies. More than half the production of the 
 State to-day is from the gravel of the ancient river channels, 
 and this is obtained either by drift or hydraulic mining. In 
 the first, the pay-gravel is extracted by drifting or tunneling 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1055 
 
 under the superincumbent lava, while by the hydraulic 
 method the whole deposit is disintegrated by a large stream 
 of water thrown under high pressure from the nozzle of a 
 pipe and washed down the sluices and flumes to the valleys 
 below. The quartz lodes of the State have also produced 
 largely. The ores for the most part are easily treated, and 
 under a better systein of mining and more intelligent under- 
 standing of methods of treatment of ores than formerly pre- 
 vailed, this branch of the industry is acquiring a permanency 
 that promises for many years to come to add a large share 
 to the wealth of the State. During the past year, mining in 
 California, and particularly hydraulic mining, has been re- 
 tarded by litigation between farmers and miners. The 
 detritus from the mines first fouling the streams and rivers, 
 filled their channels, caused their banks to overflow, aud 
 gradually encroached upon the arable lands of the lower 
 valleys, until thousands of acres were covered and their ca- 
 pacity for culture and value were destroyed. It is still an 
 open question as to what will be the best method for securing 
 the agricultural lands from injury, while permitting the de- 
 velopment of the gravel claims. Mining streams usually 
 cannot carry all the debris washed into them, and when in- 
 closed by high banks, their channels are rising year by year. 
 This accumulation of millions of cubic yards is gradually 
 making its way further and further towards the valleys, aud 
 means must be adopted to check its progress as weU as to 
 provide for the bowlders, gravel, and sand constantly being 
 added. Mining will not cease so long as gold exists in suffi- 
 cient quantities to pay for its extraction, but the cost of 
 building and maintaining large and costly dams to restrain 
 the tailings, may cause a permanent suspension of work in 
 some of the least profitable of the mines. The total pro- 
 duction of California during the calendar year 1881, as nearly 
 as can be ascertained from all the sources of information at 
 the command of the Mint Bureau, was $18,950,000, of which 
 $18,200,000 was gold and §750,000 silver. 
 
 It is as difficult to ascertain the profit of mining as the 
 expenses. Only fourteen companies paid dividends, aggre- 
 gating $1,808,722. These were the Black Bear, Bulwer, 
 Gold Stripe, Green Mountain, Idaho, Inyo, Magalia, New 
 York Hill, Plumas Eureka, Plumas Mining and Water, 
 Kising Star, Sierra Buttes, Spring Valley Hydraulic, and 
 Standard Consolidated. In addition to this, much was un- 
 doubtedly divided without publicity, but in the majority of 
 cases, the profit resulted only to those who did the manual 
 labor. Notwithstanding the large aggregate production and 
 the amount of profits that have been divided, the expense 
 of working the mines has been very great. The output of 
 many of the mines is swallowed up in their development, 
 and where there has been no metal-bearing ore to defray 
 expenses, assessments have been levied. During the year 
 1881, one hundred and fifty-five assessments were made upon 
 ninety-seven mines in the State, amounting to 12,288,250. 
 The principal appeals for aid came from Mono county. The 
 following shows the number of mines and assessments made, 
 and the aggregate amount for each county : 
 
 Amador 6 7 8106,600 
 
 Biitte 6 22,000 
 
 Calaveras 4 4 18,000 
 
 El Dorado 1 1 7,600 
 
 Fresno 2 2 16,500 
 
 Inyo 3 4 106,000 
 
 LosAngeles 4 1 2,600 
 
 Mariposa 4 6 81,000 
 
 Mono 38 64 1,201,000 
 
 Nevada 17 2» 220,260 
 
 Placer 8 20 220,600 
 
 San Diego 1 1 5,000 
 
 San Bernardino 1 1 10,000 
 
 Shasta. 1 1 6,000 
 
 Sierra 1 1 16,000 
 
 Tehama 1 3 14,000 
 
 Trinity 1 1 5,000 
 
 Tulare 1 2 16,000 
 
 Tuolumne 2 2 17,600 
 
 Yuba 2 3 200,000 
 
 Totals 97 155 $2,288,250 
 
 Two of the principal gravel mines in the State which 
 heretofore have been paying dividends now appear for the 
 first time for years among those that levied assessments. 
 They were obliged to suspend operations during most of the 
 year, not from any diminution in the value of their property, 
 
 but from litigation consequent upon the conflict between 
 the agricultural and mining interests. Taken as a whole, 
 the past year has not been an unsuccessful one for mining 
 in California. The output has been fully as large as that 
 of the preceding year. The yield from new mines and an 
 increase from those in which the development has been 
 systematically conducted has compensated for decreased pro- 
 duction of others on account of litigation. The outlook 
 for the future is equally as good. Mining for the precious 
 metals is becoming year by year more of a legitimate busi- 
 ness. Necessarily it involves many uncertainties, but these 
 uncertainties create a need for knowledge, energy, and pru- 
 dence, which the established companies have acquired, and 
 this fact insures their permanency. During the coming year 
 the pending debris question will be solved, and hydraulic 
 and drift mining will probably be pursued with renewed 
 energy, and it is not likely that there will be a less yield 
 than the average annual production of the past ten years. 
 The following is my estimate of the production of the State 
 by counties : • 
 
 County. Gold. Siher. Total 
 
 Alpine $2,000 $2,100 $4,100 
 
 Amador 1,460,000 1,500 461,600 
 
 Butte 660,000 1,000 661,000 
 
 Calaveras 800,000 1,200 801,200 
 
 Colusa 3,600 3,500 
 
 Del Norte 60,000 60,000 
 
 El Dorado 660,000 900 660,000 
 
 Fresno 90,000 90,000 
 
 Humboldt 75,000 30O 76,300 
 
 Inyo 170,000 140,000 310,000 
 
 Kern 190,000 14,000 204,000 
 
 Lassen 71,000 1,000 72,000 
 
 Los Angeles 13,000 39,(KX) 62,000 
 
 Mariposa 200,000 1,200 201,200 
 
 Mendocino 1,000 1,000 
 
 Merced 1,600 1,500 
 
 Modoc 20,000 1,600 21,600 
 
 Mono 3,3S6,000 300,000 3,685,000 
 
 Nevada 3,700,000 9,600 3,709,600 
 
 Placer 860,000 6,500 856,600 
 
 Plumas 1,360,000 2,000 1,362,000 
 
 Sacramento 426,000 1,000 426,000 
 
 San Bernardino 9,000 100,000 109,000 
 
 San Diego 60,000 60,000 
 
 Santa Barbara 2,000 2,000 
 
 Shasta 360,000 85,000 436,000 
 
 Sierra 950,000 6,000 966,000 
 
 Siskiyou 860,000 1,500 851,500 
 
 Stanislaus 63,000 31,000 94,000 
 
 Tehama 600 600 
 
 Trinity 660,000 1,600 651,600 
 
 Tulare 8,000 8,000 
 
 Tuolumne 600,000 1,000 601,000 
 
 Ventura 600 600 
 
 Yuba 800,000 1,300 801,300 
 
 Total $18,200,000 
 
 $760,000 
 
 $18,960,000 
 
 The foregoing exceeds by a little over $1,000,000 the es- 
 timate prepared at the San Francisco Mint, and varies in 
 several instances in the estimate as to counties. It also ex- 
 ceeds the total estimate of $18,020,679 of Mr. Valentine, 
 based on shipments by express, by upwards of $900,000. I 
 am inclined to believe, however, that the gold production 
 was greater rather than less than the figures I have given. 
 The deposits of gold of domestic production at the San 
 Francisco and Carson mints during 1881 were $26,161,782, 
 not including a deposit of $5,657,677 of foreign gold. The 
 production of all the Pacific States and Territories, except 
 California, which deposit their gold production at the West- 
 ern mints, is estimated at $6,140,000, which would make the 
 production of California more than $19,000,000. Some 
 foreign gold may have been melted at private refineries on 
 the Pacific coast and deposited at the mint as domestic bull- 
 ion, but, after making all proper allowance, and deduction 
 on this account, I am satisfied that the gold production of 
 the State could not have been less than the amount I have 
 stated— $18,200,000. 
 
 Alpine County. — Alpine county is in the eastern part 
 of California, on the border-line of Nevada. It is on the 
 summit and eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, 
 and is essentially a mountainous region, having an altitude 
 of from 5,000 to 11,000 feet above sea level. The mines in 
 this county are chiefly in quartz, carrying gold, silver, and 
 copper, but from the rugged nature of the country, the 
 sparse population, and want of capital, they have not been 
 developed to any considerable extent. So far as has been 
 ascertained, the production for the last year has been less 
 than that of 1880. 
 
 One mine in Alpine county reports for the fiscal year 
 
1056 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ending June 30, 1881, a production of $1,643 gold and 
 $2,096 silver. The production of the county for recent 
 periods, as reported by the mines, has been as follows : 
 
 Reported to Gold. Silver, 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1880 $17,113 $24,146 
 
 Mlut Bureau, fiscal year 1S8I 1,643 2,096 
 
 Mint Bureau, calendar year 1881 1,643 2,Ua6 
 
 I estimate the production during 1881 to have been $2,000 
 in gold and $2,100 in silver. 
 
 Amador County. — This county, wedged in between El 
 Dorado, Alpine, Calaveras, San Joaquin, and Sacramento 
 counties, possesses a diversity of wealth-producing resources, 
 not the least of which are gold, copper, and coal. Gold is 
 almost universally disseminated over its whole area in greater 
 or leas quantities, although the quartz-mining region in 
 which the greatest developments have been made surrounds 
 the towns of Jackson, Sutter Creek, Plymouth, Amador, and 
 Volcano. The work, however, compared with that done in 
 other mining sections of the State, has been but superficial, 
 but it has been sufficient to warrant more vigorous prose - 
 , cution and a larger investment of capital. The mining 
 interests of Jackson are not in as flourishing condition to- 
 day as in times past. The Zeile mine is the principal one 
 in operation. It employs about 100 men, has fine hoisting 
 machinery, a forty-stamp mill, and chlorination works; up- 
 wards of 100 tons of ore are crushed daily ; it is rich in 
 sulphurets, and pays fairly. The water-power, however, is 
 only sufficient to run thirty or thirty-five stamps of the mill. 
 A larger pipe to carry water from the ditch to the mill will 
 be substituted, the prospects of the mine justifying this im- 
 provement. This will allow the full number of stamps to 
 be run, and produce sufficient sulphurets to keep the chlor- 
 ination works running to their utmost capacity. The Ken- 
 nedy mine, north of the town, is again running, a good 
 character of ore being taken out; at a depth of 400 feet a 
 drift was run north forty feet, encountering a body of ore 
 averaging four feet in width. 
 
 The production of Amador county during the census year 
 ended May 31, 1880, was reported as follows by the Census 
 Bureau : 
 
 District of Gold. 
 
 Amador City $645,399 
 
 Drytown 9,879 
 
 Jackson 168,401 
 
 FineGroye 567 
 
 Pioneer 
 
 Plymouth 476,901 
 
 SntterCroek 60,040 
 
 Volcano 45,860 
 
 Total $1,407,047 
 
 Reports of the production for the fiscal year ending June 
 30, 1881, were sent by the owners and officers of the follow- 
 ing mines: Bunker Hill, Consolidated Amador, De Witt, 
 Empire Gold, Franklin Consolidated, Golden Gate, Griggs, 
 Keystone Consolidated, McQuade, Mahoney, Modoc, Oneida, 
 Pacific, Flood and O'Brien, Lincoln, Madina Milling, Mason, 
 Telegraph Hill, Tellurium, Whitney and Babcock, Pacific 
 Gold, Soto, Telegraph Hill, Volcano Mill, Yuille, Chinese 
 at Laucha Plana, at Volcano, at Jackson, at Alta, at lone, 
 and small mines at Sutter, Volcano, Jackson, and lone. 
 The estimated production of the calendar year 1881 is 
 $1,450,000 gold and $1,500 silver. Assessments were made 
 on five mines aggregating $105,000. 
 
 The production of Amador county for recent periods, as 
 reported by the mines, has been as loUows : 
 
 Reported to Gold. iSilver. 
 
 Census Bureau, census year 1880 $1,407,047 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1880 1,496,063 $1,963 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1881 1,661,068 1,17^ 
 
 Mint Bureau, caleudar year 1881 1,401,310 1,172 
 
 Butte County. — Butte county, on the eastern side of 
 the Sacramento Valley, is between Tehama and Yuba coun- 
 ties on the north and south, and Plumas and Colusa on the 
 east and west, respectively. The western half of the coun ty, 
 bordering on the Sacramento river, is devoted to agricul- 
 tural purposes, but the eastern portion, lying along the foot- 
 hills of the Sierras, contains the principal mines of the 
 county. This section is drained by the Feather river and 
 its tributaries. The principiil mining localities are Bangor, 
 Wyandotte, Forbestown, Cherokee, Mountain House, Dog- 
 town or Magalia, Lovelocks, and Inskip. 
 
 Several important projects have been started to mine the 
 bed of the Feather river above Oroville. It is a well-known 
 fact that the river bed is very rich. In 1857 two dams were 
 built across the river, about 1,000 yards apart; the one 
 above to turn the stream, another below to keep out the 
 back-water, with a flume connecting the two. Into this 
 flume the river was turned, and after many weary months' 
 work the intervening space was pumped out and the bed of 
 the river appeared. Along the bed-rock was found gravel, 
 varying in depth from three to ten feet. In some places 
 were found large bowlders. It was late in the season when 
 the work on the wing dams was completed, and every effort 
 was made to clean up as much of the bed of the river as was 
 possible. Less than sixty days were allowed them before the 
 storms came, and every vestige of work disappeared in a day. 
 Yet in that short time nearly one million of dollars' worth of 
 gold dust was taken out. In many places fortunes would be 
 taken out in a space of a few square feet. Since then other 
 attempts to flume or wing-dam the river have been only par- 
 tially successful. It is now proposed to get at these riches 
 in a systematic way, and to overcome the existing obstacles 
 by engineering science, and a company has been formed to 
 turn the waters of the north fork of the Feather river, 
 known as Big Bend, a little above Whisky Bar, by means 
 of a tunnel, into a tributary of the west branch, called Dark 
 Canyon, which empties into it a few hundred feet above the 
 confluence of the west branch and north fork of Feather 
 river, about ten miles above Oroville. Many have thought 
 something of this kind could be done, but only within a 
 year has the project begun to assume shape. The north 
 fork of Feather river rises at Lassen's Peak, where' the 
 melted snow percolates through the fissures in the lava below 
 the cap and gush forth in one immense body, creating, as it 
 were, a river instantaneously at the head of Big Meadows. 
 From this place it continues its course through Lassen, Plu- 
 mas, and Butte counties, a distance of one hundred miles, 
 until it reaches the point selected for the head of the tunnel. 
 The peninsula of Big Bend is composed of high mountain 
 land with precipitous banks to the river. The area is about 
 eleven square miles, and length of the river to be drained is 
 twelve miles. The tunnel begins nearly half a mile above 
 Whisky Bar, at a place where the river is deeply encaved 
 between the banks, and where the stream has very little fall. 
 It is proposed to establish the bottom of the tunnel four feet 
 below the lowest portion of the stream, in order to give the 
 impetus to the waters, taking a greater velocity than they 
 had in the stream, and in order to obtain at once the re- 
 quired depth of water in the tunnel which it is provided to 
 carry on its whole course. It will be 11,600 feet long, twenty- 
 five and one-half feet wide, twenty-one and one-fourth feet 
 high, and the excavations will cost about $4 per cubic yard. 
 At the entrance of the tunnel will be a permanent dam across 
 and up to the level of the bed of the stream. The tunnel 
 would be large enough to carry all the water of the river, 
 under ordinary circumstances, ibr enough months in the 
 year to allow of very profitable work. Preliminary work 
 has commenced, roads and houses are being built, and it is 
 intended to begin work on the two faces of the tunnel in 
 April, 1882. The owners of the Greek claim believe they 
 can successfully mine it by sinking a shaft on the bank above 
 high-water mark to several feet uelow the bed of the river, 
 and then run up a tunnel from the bottom of the shaft to the 
 bed of the river. This experiment could be made at a cost 
 less than $10,000. If successful, it would open up a rich bed 
 of gold dust. Whoever enters upon this enterprise will start 
 in with the knowledge that the gold is on the river bed ; on 
 this point there can be no mistake. 
 
 The production of Butte county for the census year 1880 
 was reported by districts as follows : 
 
 District of Placer Gold. 
 
 Centreville and Helltown $15,000 
 
 Cherokee Flat 274,057 
 
 Magalia, or Dogtown 17.118 
 
 Morris Ravine 9,000 
 
 Orovillo 9,999 
 
 Total J326,174 
 
 The production reported by the following mines for the 
 fiscal year, 1881, was : Gold, $350,787 ; silver, $19, viz. : Big 
 Kenshew, Billingsly & Halsey, Black Leg, Brush Creek, 
 Dodson, Hedges & Co., Lott's Gravel Range, Magalia Gold, 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1057 
 
 Mclntyre & Co., March & Gwyn, production of Granite 
 Basin, President Langley, Robert & Kendall, Sam Davis, 
 Booming Dutch Gravel, Butte Greek Hydraulic, French 
 Creek, 1< ulton & Co., Little Kirashaw, McBride, Nichol & 
 Langley, Oroville Irrigating, Reece, Williams & Vinton, 
 Wyandotte Hydraulic, Spring Hill Hydraulic, Thos. H. Wil- 
 liams & Co., Woodson, Garland & Wilcox, small mines at 
 Forbestown and Yankee Hill, and Chinese at Yankee Hill, 
 and at Chico. The production of Butte county for recent 
 
 periods as reported by the mines has been as follows : 
 
 Reported to Hold. Silver. 
 
 Census Bureau, census year 1880 8325,174 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1880 480,501 $1,247 
 
 Miut Bureau, liscal year 1881 360,787 19 
 
 Mint Bureau, calendar year 1881 046,7'JO 46 
 
 I estimate the total production for the calendar year 1881 
 to have been $650,000 gold, $1,000 silver. 
 
 Calaveras County.— Calaveras county is one of the 
 oldest settled, as well as one of the most celebrated, of the 
 gold-producing counties of the State, and lies southeast of 
 and adjoining Amador county. During the last year there 
 has been no abatement in the mining industry; on the con- 
 traiy, prospecting has been active, and new mines have been 
 discovered, old ones have been reopened, and in the steadily 
 producing mines, improvements in machinery and appli- 
 ances for reducing ores or saving gold have been introduced, 
 and work has been prosecuted with an earnestness that in- 
 sures success. 
 
 The Eureka Hydraulic Mining Company, on Calaveras 
 river, have steadily prosecuted work on their claims. The 
 ground was worked in the early mining days, and abandoned 
 until taken in hand by the present owners, who, by a system 
 of ditches miles in length, brought sufficient water to keep 
 two pipes playing continually against the bant. About 
 6,000 feet of pipe are used, and a flume, upwards of 1,500 
 feet in length, conveys the tailings into the Calaveras river. 
 During the last season, about four acres of surface, averag- 
 ing sixty feet in depth, were washed and yielded about 
 $40,000. The main Eureka ditch was extended to Espe- 
 rauza creek, a total distance of twelve miles. A second 
 ditch, the Calaveras, conveys water from Jesu Maria creek 
 to the claim. The Calaveras Mining Company has from 
 1,800 to 2,000 acres of mining land, embracing both cement 
 and gravel. Its principal place of operation is three and a 
 half miles north of Milton. A ditch carrying 15,000 inches 
 of water was constructed at an expeuse of nearly $30,000. 
 The main ditch is twelve miles long, but with its feeders 
 amounts to twenty-one miles. The supply of water is 
 scarcely sufficient, but is aided by a system of reservoirs. 
 The Sand Hill claim, across the Calaveras river, contains 
 640 acres of gravel. It has not heretofore been worked on 
 account of the difficulty in obtaining water, but this is now 
 obviated, as water can be taken from the reservoir across the 
 river in pipes. Electric lights will be used, so that the work 
 will progress night and day. 
 
 The<Jensus Bureau reports for the census year 1880 the 
 following production by districts, viz. : 
 
 ■District. Gold-quartz Mines. Oold-pUKer. 
 
 Angel's Camp ?21,499 
 
 Carson Hill 20,000 
 
 Independence 120,150 
 
 Mesquite 
 
 Moljelumne Hill 181,000 $63,450 
 
 Robinson's Ferry.i lo,00O 
 
 Vallecito 18,001 
 
 Washington 
 
 Total 8348,649 $96,451 
 
 Aggregate 445,100 
 
 For the fiscal year 1881 reports were received from the fol- 
 lowing mines, viz. : Adelaide, Brown & McSorley, Bragg & 
 Co., Bully Bully, Ballards Hydraulic, Bonanza Hydraulic, 
 Chong Kee Company, Concentrated de Santo Hydraulic, 
 Champion, Dolan & Cogswell, Duryea Hydraulic, Eureka 
 Hydraulic, Emerson Hydraulic, Grey Hill, Gwin, Gopher, 
 Jupiter, John Rothgeib, J. W. Taylor, Knox & Osborn, 
 Lewis & Fairchild, Lone Star, Morse & Stone, Oro Plata, 
 Red Wheel, River Side, Sheep Ranch, Shawmut, T. T. Col- 
 lins, Veith & Co., Amelia, Collier, Confidence, German, Ken- 
 dall & Gunnison, McElroy, Gravel and Safe Deposit Tunnel. 
 These mines shipped a production of $815,724 gold and $22 
 silver. The production of the year 1881 is estimated at 
 07 
 
 $800,000 gold and $1,200 silver. The production of Calaveras 
 county for recent periods, as reported by the mines, has been 
 
 as follows : 
 
 Beported to Gold. Silver. 
 
 Census Bureau, census year 1880 $145,100 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1880 32U,8fi5 $613 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal vear 1881 815,724 22 
 
 Mint Bureau, calendar year 1881 793,113 49 
 
 Colusa County. — Colusa county lies between the Sacra- 
 mento river on the east and the Coast Range on the west, 
 and is about eighty miles north of San Francisco. Iron and 
 copper ores exist in considerable abundance, but with the 
 exception of the Manzanita mine, on Sulphur creek, no gold 
 mines are worked in the county. The ore was formerly 
 worked in a stamp-mill and collected with amalgamated cop- 
 per plates, but from its refractory nature the amalgamating 
 process was abandoned and one of concentration has been 
 adopted. The production of Colusa county for recent peri- 
 ods, as reported by the mines, has been as follows : 
 
 Reported to Gold. Silver. 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1880 $4,830 $78 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1881 l,*jl 23 
 
 Mint Bureau, calendar year 1881 3,2;i 23 
 
 I estimate the total production for the calendar year 1881 
 to have been S3,500 gold. 
 
 Del Norte County. — Del Norte county is the extreme 
 northwestern county of California. The principal gold mining 
 operations have been conducted in the vicinity of HappyCamp, 
 in the southeastern part of the county, on K liJinath river. Here 
 there are large areas of auriferous gravel, ample supply of 
 water for hydraulic operations, and every element essential 
 to large and profitable operations, the only drawbacks being 
 the isolated condition of this section of country and the 
 shortness of the mining season. The Happy Camp Hy- 
 draulic Mining Company are running their mine night and 
 day with two pipes. Considerable river-bed mining has 
 been done with profit during the past season along both the 
 Klamath and Smith rivers by means of wing damming ; a 
 dam is constructed half-way across the river and then con- 
 tinued down the stream to any desired distance, thus turning 
 the whole body of water into one-half of its channel. The 
 water inclosed by the dam is then pumped out by the force 
 of the current acting on wheels attached to shafts projecting 
 beyond the dam, and the gravel on the portion of the river- 
 bed laid bare is raised with derricks and emptied into sluice- 
 boxes for washing. There appears to be numerous good 
 openings in this county for hydraulic mining. In the vi- 
 cinity of Crescent City, the county-seat, situated on a little 
 bay on the Pacific, beach or black sand mining has been car- 
 ried on for several years. A new company was organized 
 and commenced operations with favorable prospects, and, if 
 successful, will no doubt induce others to engage in similar 
 enterprises. The production of Del Norte county for recent 
 periods, as reported by the mines, has beea as follows : 
 
 Reported to Gold. Silver. 
 
 Census Bureau, census year 1880 8128,331 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1880 215,403 $300 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1881 45,885 
 
 I estimate the total production for the calendar year 1881 
 to have been $60,000 gold. 
 
 El Dorado County. — This county lies bordering on the 
 State of Nevada, and is about one hundred and twenty-five 
 miles northeast of San Francisco. Throughout the county 
 there are a number of good paying quartz mines, while 
 placer mining is prosecuted mainly by Chinamen. 
 
 At Hoosier Bar, a new invention for elevating gravel by 
 hydraulic process has been adopted, of such power that a 
 column of gravel and water can be driven upward twenty 
 feet for every 100 feet of pres.sure in the driving current. 
 Some very rich ground has been opened up by this elevator, 
 one pan of bed-rock gravel yielding over |25. 
 
 Reports of production were received from the Rosecranz, 
 Modoc, Inez, Faber, Mount Pleasant, Seller's Ranch, Fow- 
 ler & Granger, Gignac, Weber, Hosking, Mason, North Star, 
 Park Canal, Chapparal, Walker, Blue Rock, Roach, Corn- 
 well, Mameluke, Bryant, Toombs, Oro Fino, Grit, Loomis, 
 Beattie, American Canon, Spanish, Mike Muntz, Von Bre- 
 men, Pelton, Kay, Gregory, Blakelev, El Dorado, Friedman, 
 Cumberland, Monteverde, Snow, lowaville, Verza, Lone 
 
1058 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Jack, Vaughn, Pie Pie, Lyon, Grand Victory, Church Union, 
 Tingman, and Pacific. The production of El Dorado county 
 for the census year 1880 was reported by districts as follows : 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Scattered *5U,268* 
 
 Mud Spring or Springfield 74,B01 
 
 Placerville 22,280 
 
 Total 1611,149 
 
 * Placer. 
 
 The production of the county for recent periods, as reported 
 by the mines, has been as follows : 
 
 Reported to Gold. Silver. 
 
 Census Bureau, census year 1880 $611,149 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1880 389,383 $208 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1881 710,230 711 
 
 Mint Bureau, calendar year 1881 640,173 316 
 
 I estimate the total production for the calendar year 1881 
 to have been $550,000 gold and $900 silver. 
 
 Fresno County. — Fresno is one of the largest counties 
 in California, and crosses the great San Joaquin Valley, ex- 
 tending from the Sierra Nevadas on the east to the Coast 
 Range on the west. The mineral resources of Fresno county 
 have not been thoroughly prospected, neither have the mines 
 that have been discovered been developed to a producing 
 point, with very few exceptions. Many that have been long 
 known to be valuable, can be made to produce bullion in 
 paying quantities, when appliances for properly working the 
 ores have been introduced. There are hundreds of ledges 
 through the hills and mountains of Fresno county, carrying 
 large bodies of ore worth from $8 to $10 per ton to much of 
 more valuable quality ; the cost of working this low grade 
 ore has hitherto been so great as to practically render it 
 valueless. There is only one river mine of importance east 
 of Millerton, and that is of recent discovery. A number of 
 parties have attempted to prospect a claim twenty miles east 
 of Fresno Flat on the north fork of the San Joaquin. The 
 reported prospects are sufficient to warrant mure extensive 
 operations. Rich gravel deposits are reported along the 
 banks of Keyser Gulch. The bed of the creek was rich and 
 was mined out years ago, but the banks were never exten- 
 sively prospected. The deposits now being opened are said 
 to indicate an ancient river channel, which has not hitherto 
 been discovered in this county. 
 
 The production of Fresno county, all from the deep mines 
 in the Potter Ridge district, as reported to the Census Bureau 
 for 1880, was $72,599, gold ; $S,291, silver. Reports were 
 received from the Deadwood and a few small mines. The 
 estimated.production in Fresno county for the calendar year 
 1881 is $90,000, gold. The production of this county for 
 recent periods, as reported by the mines, has been as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Reported to Gold. Silver. 
 
 Census Bureau, census year 1880 $72,599 $6,292 
 
 Mint Bureau, liscal year 1880 143,433 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1881 114,307 
 
 Mint Bureau, calendar year 1881 83,513 27 
 
 Humboldt County.— Humboldt county is on the coast, 
 in the northwestern part of the State, .ind immediately south 
 of Del Norte county. There are no quartz mines in this 
 locality, at least none are in operation. The chief placer 
 mining is upon the Trinity and Klamath rivers. It is, 
 however, subordinate to the agricultural and lumber inter- 
 ests. The gravel deposits are neither as extensive nor rich 
 as in other sections of the State, but they have not been 
 vigorously worked, and opportunities exist for enterprise and 
 capital; water is plentiful and can generally be brought 
 upon the mines at but little cost, and as it comes from high 
 mountains a good pressure for hydraulic operations is easily 
 obtained. The mining season is usually short. Of late years 
 considerable attention has been paid to the working of beach 
 sands at Gold Bluff. The presence of gold in the sands 
 thrown up by the surf has been known almost from the 
 time of the first discovery of gold in the State, and at various 
 times projects were formed for washing these deposits and 
 securing the gold; but the fact that the gold existed in in- 
 finitesimal particles, and that a rich deposit brought up or 
 exposed at one time was liable to be swept away or covered 
 with barren sand at another, rendered working beach sands 
 too precarious mining to be followed for any length of time, 
 
 and it was almost abandoned. The whole beach lying in 
 front of Gold Bluff is now owned by two parties, Adson 
 Adams and the Greenbaum Company, who have pursued 
 systematic operations that have not been without success. 
 Mr. Yale, of San Francisco, describes the manner of con- 
 ducting the business of gold gathering at this point as fol- 
 lows: After a heavy surfj the superintendent of the mine 
 rides along the beach, as the tide begins to ebb, and care- 
 fully notes the condition of the sand, watching for evidence 
 of gold having been thrown up by the waves. If he dis- 
 covers that fresh deposits have been made, he signals the 
 muleteers to that effect, who then rush down their animals 
 and pack out as much of the auriferous sand as possible 
 before the tide again comes in and puts a stop to their work, 
 covering up, perhaps, the rich streak with a heavy layer of 
 barren sand, or possibly sweeping it away altogether. 
 
 It is a singular circumstance that when the surf comes 
 square on the beach the gold brought up by it is covered 
 under several feet of this barren sand, and that only when 
 the surf strikes the beach at some other angle is the gold 
 left on the surface, where it can be seen and readily gathered. 
 After being so collected, the rich sand is washed in sluices, 
 small streams of water having been brought in for the pur- 
 pose. For saving the gold only copper-silver plates are 
 used in the sluices, which are usually run with a light head 
 of water. On the border of a small lagoon on the Green- 
 baum ground, a short distance back from the beach, occurs 
 a large body of low-grade sand. This is run out on cars 
 and washed in an old-fashioned "Jenny Lind" tom, being 
 a sluice of one box widened out and supplied with a screen 
 at the lower end. At one time it was thought that this gold 
 was brought up out of the ocean, an opinion that some 
 people still entertain. But this is clearly a mistake. It 
 came from the bluff in the rear, which is made up of alter- 
 nating strata of clay, gravel, and sandstone, the gravel 
 strata, three or four in number, being all more or less aur- 
 iferous. The action of the waves has broken down this bluff, 
 which varies from 100 to 500 feet in height, and released 
 the gold, the latter having afterwards been by the same 
 agency carried seaward at least as far as low-water mark. 
 After a very heavy surf breaking down, as sometimes hap- 
 pens, a portion of the bluff, the beach below is sensibly 
 enriched, the gold by this new addition being rendered 
 somewhat coarser than before. This fact has suggested the 
 utility of employing powder for breaking down and dis- 
 integrating these banks, an agent that will, no doubt, some 
 day be used for that purpose. While the sand along this 
 beach must, under such steady and long-continued working, 
 necessarily suffer a gradual impoverishment, this latter has 
 not as yet proceeded far enough here to sensibly affect 
 practical results ; a fact due, it may be presumed, to the great 
 width of the beach at this point and to the replenishment 
 which the stock of workable material is constantly receiving 
 from the caving down of the banks above. Farther north, 
 where these favorable conditions do not exist, the gold- 
 bearing beaches have been so nearly exhausted that hardly 
 any work is now being done, where from fifteen to twenty- 
 five years ago thousands of men made good wages. That 
 the sand, which is constantly covered by the sea, is not very 
 rich has been proven by the trials made on it some years 
 ago with steam-dredges, none of which found gold enough 
 in it to warrant a continuance of these operations. Each 
 of the companies above mentioned employs from ten to 
 twelve men and about eighteen pack-animals the year round. 
 Operations are kept up with but little interruption, the men 
 being engaged a good part of the time either in gathering 
 sand or washing it. It is reported that each of the claims 
 yields about $40,000 per annum; the expenses are about 
 $14,000, leaving $26,000 as net profit. The production of 
 Humboldt county for recent periods, as reported by the 
 mines, has been as follows : 
 
 Reported to Gold. Silver. 
 
 Census Bureau, census year 1880 $77 001 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1880 153,940 $80 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year ISSl 32,679 3,345 
 
 Mint Bureau, calendar year ISSl 19,115 27 
 
 I estimate the total production for the calendar year 1881 
 to have been $75,000 gold and $300 silver. For the year 
 1880 the Census Bureau reports by districts as follows : 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1059 
 
 GoU. 
 
 Gold Bluffs ?27.000 
 
 OrleaiiiiBur 60,001 
 
 Tocal $77,001 
 
 Inyo County. — Inyo county comprises the section of 
 country formerly known only as the Owens river and Pana- 
 mint valleys, lying in the southeastern part of California 
 between the Sierra Nevada Mountains and the State line. 
 In the early history of this county almost a continual war- 
 fare was kept up between the settlers, prospectors and miners, 
 and the Indians ; but notwithstanding this the reputed rich- 
 ness of the mineral deposits caused a steady influx not only 
 of adventurers but of miners, who came prepared with mills 
 and other machinery to worlt the mines and secure the pre- 
 cious metals, and the Indians were finally subdued. At 
 Bishop's creek, in the northwestern part of the county, the 
 Poleta, or, as it was formerly called, the Pajaro, is the prin- 
 cipal mine in the district. The main incline is 360 feet in 
 depth, all in first-class milling ore, of which about 1,000 
 tons are on the dump. Two drifts have been started. The 
 west drift, at a depth of 230 feet, and running on. the ledge, 
 is in a distance of forty-five feet, and the ledge is looking 
 well ; the east drift, at a depth of 126 feet, also running on 
 the ledge, is in fifty feet, the face being in the same character 
 of ore as that encountered in the main incline. Besides 
 these two drifts a tunnel has been started in the ravine west 
 of the mine to connect with the main incline at the depth 
 of 200 feet; it is now in a distance of seventy feet, and about 
 150 more will have to be run before the connection is made. 
 The work on the main incline has been suspended, as it could 
 not be advantageously continued with a windlass, arid until 
 suitable hoisting machinery is erected operations will be con- 
 fined principally to prospecting the ledge by drifts. It is in 
 contemplation to erect a mill in the course of the coming 
 season. Water is brouglit to the mine by pipes from the 
 bead of Redding's caHon, about two and a half miles. 
 
 The production of Inyo county during the census year 
 ended May 31, 1880, was reported as follows : 
 
 District. Gold. Silver. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Beveridge 317,000 
 
 Ceno Gordo 3,307 8140,617 
 
 Coso 939 17,622 
 
 Deep Spring Valley 
 
 Fish Springs 
 
 Kearsiirge 9,400 
 
 Lee 6,500 
 
 Lookout 633 18,499 
 
 Pajaro : 
 
 Panamint 37,140 
 
 Euss 2,925 2,600 
 
 Snow's Ca,5on , 200 1.300 
 
 Swansea 6,567 
 
 Tarry town 
 
 Ubehebe 
 
 Union 
 
 Waucoba 
 
 Wild Hose 
 
 Total 825,004 8239,145 
 
 The following mines returned reports of production: 
 Phoenix, Los Angples, Maggie, Del Norte, Key Note, Juarez, 
 Hippolyte Galerpn, Freeborn, American Union, Del Monte, 
 Panamint, Ygn^cio, and Modoc. 
 
 The production of the county for recent periods, as re- 
 ported by the mines, has been as follows: 
 
 Reported to Gold. Silver. 
 
 Census Bureau, census year 1880 825,004 $239,145 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1880 48,648 173,916 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1881 90,710 180,077 
 
 Mint Bur^u, calendar year 1881 168,093 59,020 
 
 I estimate the total production for the calendar year 1881 
 to have been $170,000 gold and $140,000 silver. 
 
 Kern County. — Kern county, in the southern part of the 
 State, and lying east of the Coast Range, has some excellent 
 quart? mines, the chief of which is the Sumner, at Kern- 
 ville, in the northwestern part of the county, on the bead- 
 waters of the Kern river. This mine has an 80-stamp mill, 
 one of the best and most costly in the State. Mr. Charles 
 E, Sherman, of Havilah, has furnished the following ap- 
 proximate estimate of the yield of Kern county by districts 
 during the six months ended December 31, 1881. The mills 
 are all wet crushing mills on gold-bearing quartz. 
 
 District. 
 
 Mills. 
 
 stamps. 
 
 Yield. 
 
 Placer 
 yield. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 Arrastras 
 1 
 1 
 4 
 
 10 
 23 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 80 
 20 
 
 $6,000 
 2,500 
 5,000 
 1,000 
 
 10,000 
 125,000 
 6,000 
 2.500 
 6,000 
 1,200 
 
 11,000 
 
 $2,000 
 } 3,000 
 
 $8,000 
 
 Pah Ute .'..... 
 
 
 
 10,500 
 
 Erskine Creek 
 
 1 000 
 
 Washington 
 
 3,500 
 
 13,500 
 
 
 126,0<J0 
 
 Bull Run 
 
 
 6000 
 
 
 1,600 
 
 4,000 
 5.000 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 1.200 
 
 Havilah 
 
 
 11,000 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 14 
 
 223 
 
 8176,200 
 
 $10,000 
 
 $185,200 
 
 The production of Kern county for recent periods, as re- 
 ported by the mines, has been as follows : 
 
 Reported to Gold. Silver. 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1880 $94,214 $390 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1881 139,287 450 
 
 Mint Bureau, calendar year 1881 187,155 14,308 
 
 The following mines of Kern county returned reports of 
 production : Bronaugh, Tom Lane, Anthrum, Harding, 
 Oriental, Hailey. 
 
 The production during 1881 1 estimate to have been $190,- 
 000 in gold and $14,000 in silver. 
 
 liEissen County. — Lassen county, in the northeastern 
 part of the State, and south of Modoc county, has hitherto 
 had but little reputation as a gold producing county, but 
 discoveries made in late years of quartz ledges carrying 
 varying proportions of gold indicate that with a wise ex- 
 penditure of capital in their development the county may 
 become a future producer to a considerable extent. 
 
 The total production of Hayden Hill district, in this 
 county, is reported as $34,739 gold, $1,307 silver. The 
 production of Lassen county for recent periods, as reported 
 by the mines, has been as follows : 
 
 Reported to Gold. Silver. 
 
 Census Bureau, census year 1880 $34,739 $1,037 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1880 26,900 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1881 .". 42.905 1,406 
 
 Mint Bureau, calendar year 1881 70,590 
 
 I estimate the total production for the calendar year 1881 
 to have been: gold, $71,000; silver, $1,000. 
 
 Reports of production were received from the following 
 mi nes : Hopkins' Consolidated, Don't Care, New Hope, Fair- 
 field & Co., Golden Eagle, and Juniper. 
 
 Los Angeles County.— This county, in the southern 
 part of California, and lying on the Pacific Ocean, has lately 
 attracted some attention from the discoveries of both gold 
 and silver bearing ores in the mountains east of Anaheim. 
 
 Los Angeles county reported for the census year the pro- 
 duction, by districts, as follows : Silverado, $29,400 silver. 
 The following list of mines reported a production during 
 the fiscal year 1881 of $3,978 gold, $3,368 silver: Arams, 
 Stonewall, Santiago, Gold and Silver, Dunlap, Union, and 
 small enterprises at Ravenna. The county's gold and silver 
 production for the calendar year was, gold, $13,000 ; silver, 
 $39,000. The production of the county for recent periods, 
 as reported by the miners, has been as follows : 
 
 Reported to Gold. Silver. 
 
 Census Bureau, census year 1880 $29,400 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1880. $7,700 66,-300 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1881 3,978 3,368 
 
 Mint Bureau, calendar year 1881 13,046 38,166 
 
 Mariposa County .--Mariposa county, in Central Cali- 
 fornia, is essentially a mining region, and possesses a large 
 number of rich and valuable gold-bearing quartz veins. 
 Many of the best mines are situated on the Fremont grant, 
 a portion of which is the property of the Mariposa Land 
 and Mining Company. This estate ias been involved in 
 prolonged litigation, and at present the company is doing 
 little or nothing in mining, and their mines for the most 
 part are lying idle. The Washington mine, 2 miles north 
 of the town, is perhaps the best developed in the district. 
 It has been exploited to the depth of 1,600 feet, and the ore, 
 which is low-grade, has, under carefut and economical 
 management, been made to pay a profit. The depth to 
 which the mine has been worked has, however, caused a 
 proportionate increase in expense over former working, 
 when a greater amount of ore could be extracted with less 
 
1060 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 machinery and at less cost, and this has been gradually re- 
 ducing the profits until they have reached a point at which 
 the company has been compelled to suspend operations. 
 This is a matter of regret, as the large number of miners 
 employed depended upon the successful working of the mine 
 for support. Tlie machinery at the mine is of the most 
 complete character, an excellent 20-stamp mill, chlorination 
 works, hoisting apparatus, air-compressors, etc. It is in 
 contemplation to remove and work the pillars of ore in the 
 mine, after which the machinery will be sold or shipped to 
 some other mine. 
 
 The production of Mariposa county during the census year 
 1881, by districts, was reported as follows : 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Coulterville Wl,250 
 
 Hornitos 108,525 
 
 Mariposa estate 202,499 
 
 Total S322,274 
 
 The production of Mariposa county for recent periods, as 
 reported by the mines, has been as follows : 
 
 Reported to Gold. Silver. 
 
 Census Bureau, census year 1880 $392,274 
 
 Mint Bureau, liscal year 1880 150,017 $1,300 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1881 111,449 520 
 
 Miut Bureau, calendar year ls81 194,694 1,230 
 
 I estimate the total production for the calendar year 1881 
 to have been $200,0U0 gold and $1,200 silver. The following 
 mines reported production : Yosemite, Josephine, Burnwell, 
 Piney Hill. 
 
 Mendocino County. — Mendocino county, on the Pacific 
 Ocean, south of, and adjoining, Humboldt county, is an ex- 
 tremely mountainous region, the Coast Range occupying its 
 whole extent. It cannot, however, be called a mining county, 
 although gold in paying quantities is known to exist in vari- 
 ous sections, and mining is carried on to some slight extent. 
 The chief mining enterprise in the county is the Mendocino 
 Flume and Mining Company of Boston. The mines of this 
 company consist of 300 acres of placer claims near Calpella, 
 which will be worked as sooji as the flume is completed. The 
 soil is a light sandy, washed gravel, easily worked, with no 
 clay known. It has never been worked except a little dur- 
 ing the rainy season with rocker or torn, when from $2.50 to 
 $4.00 per day were made. The company only began work in 
 the latter part of July, and are now engaged in building a 
 temporary reservoir and the permanent flume for taking 
 lumber and water to their mining ground and Calpella, 
 twelve miles distant. Three tunnels will be necessary. The 
 dam across Mill creek ravine is progressing as last as possi- 
 ble. It will be 150 feet long and eight feet high, built of 
 logs, brush, and earth, and faced with heavy planks, which 
 will be sunk to their places with a pile-driver. The head 
 dam will be eighty feet long and eiglit feet high. Flume 
 work is proceeding briskly. A mile of trestle is in place, 
 and water is flowing through three-quarters of a mile of 
 thirty-six-inch flume, carrying material for its extension. 
 Gold has been discovered lately in the hills east of Ukiah, 
 on the Russian river, in fine particles in black sand, which 
 appears to predominate in the formation in that section. 
 The gold-bearing deposit is reported to be quite extensive. 
 The estimated production for the calendar year 1881 is $1,000 
 gold. The production of Mendocino county for recent pe- 
 riods, as reported by the mines, has been as follows : 
 
 Reported to Gold. Silver. 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1880 $733 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1881 .«. 650 $125 
 
 J Mint Bureau, calendar year, 1881 650 
 
 Merced County.— Merced county embraces a large por- 
 tion of the San Joaquin Valley, and extends from the foot- 
 hills of the Sierra Nevadas on the east to the Coast Range 
 on the west. The county is nearly all level prairie, and no 
 quartz mines are known to exist. The surface gravel depos- 
 its were exhausted long since, and no gold is now extracted 
 except on the Upper Merced river, near Snelling, where a 
 httle work is still done by Chinamen. The production of 
 Merced for recent periods, as reported by the mines, has been 
 as follows : 
 
 Reported to Gold. 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1880 ti7 kii; 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1881 I'jao 
 
 Mini Bureau, calendar year I88I i'^ 
 
 I estimate the total production for the calendar year 1881 
 to have been, gold, ijljSOO. 
 
 Mono County. — Mono county is in the eastern part of 
 Calilbrnia, bordering upon the State of Nevada; the west- 
 ern portion lies among the Sierra Nevada M luntains, while 
 the eastern part is principally deserts and volcanic table- 
 lands. The wealth of the county is in its mines of both 
 gold and silver. During the last year it ranked second 
 among the counties of the State in its production of the 
 precious metals. The principal mining district is at Bodie, 
 although there are numbers of mines in other districts which, 
 vfhen developed to the same extent as those at Bodie, will 
 render them equally famous. The Standard Consolidated is 
 the largest bullion producer. It is employing about 160 
 men, half of whom are underground miners. The east 
 cross-cut on the l,OUO-foot level is in 570 feet. A few weeks' 
 more work should cut the west vein of the Summit Mine, 
 which is under control of the Standard. The west cross- 
 cut 700-foot level is in 407 feet, and ought to be in the Bul- 
 wer ground, which is also under the Standard control. Most 
 all the ore extracted has been from and above the 500-foot 
 level, which is below the incline 550-foot level. But little 
 work has yet been performed on the 700-foot level, and yet 
 that little reveals the fact that the two great ore veins of the 
 mine are fully as large, if not larger on that, as on the upper 
 levels, and equally as rich. These veins, where cut by the 
 shaft, reveal a tendency to a change of dip from the west to 
 the east. It is reported that a cross-cut will be run west to 
 cut the two immense veins that now lie west of the shaft on 
 the 1,000-foot level, and when these are developed the com- 
 pany will require probably not less than 100 additional 
 stamps. It is contemplated also to open the 1,200-foot level 
 during the coming spring. This mine has been worked con- 
 tinuously for nearly five years, and is far from being worked 
 out. It has rather improved as the years have gone by. It 
 is producing more bullion this year than in any previous 
 year in its history. In 1878 it was considered to be in a 
 good state of development, and the product for that year 
 was a little over $1,000,000. In 1879 and 1880 it did still 
 better. The product for 1881 will exceed $2,000,000. The 
 official figures of product for the first eleven months of 1881 
 are annexed, together with the actual cash balance on the 
 first of each month : 
 
 Montlis. Bullion. 
 
 January $207,960 
 
 February 184,342 
 
 March 168,175 
 
 April 166,376 
 
 May 158,836 
 
 June 167,661 
 
 July 167,360 
 
 August 161,384 
 
 September 170,230 
 
 October 164,632 
 
 November 222,793 
 
 December 
 
 Total $1,939,738 
 
 Months. 
 
 January 
 
 February 
 
 March 
 
 April ., 
 
 Ca^h Balance. 
 
 $41,315 
 
 68,148 
 
 144,004 
 
 201,362 
 
 May 212,273 
 
 June 224,390 
 
 July 242.354 
 
 August 243,886 
 
 September 289.971 
 
 October 326,709 
 
 November 349,914 
 
 December 397,086 
 
 Total $2,731,412 
 
 Commencing with a cash balance of $41,315 on the 1st of 
 January, 1881, the Standard has kept up its regular divi- 
 dends of $75,000 per month, and reports a cash balance on 
 the 1st of December of $397,086. In September, 1877, this 
 mine paid its first dividend of $50,000, and continued to pay 
 the same amount monthly until March, 1880, when it paid 
 $75,000, which amount it has paid each month since that 
 time. In addition to this, in December, 1880, and 1881, it 
 declared extra dividends of $75,000, making the total amount 
 paid to the close of the year 1881, $3,300,000. 
 
 At the Mono-Bodie or Lent shaft the tank and bob sta- 
 tions are rapidly nearing completion. The excavation for 
 the tank station at the 810-foot level has been completed. 
 The inflow of water remains very constant, the pumps run- 
 ning at seven and a half strokes per minute. At 705 level, 
 north drift is now 266 feet long. In face the rock is firmer 
 and there is less water, showing that it is getting beyond 
 (north of) the great laulting breccia. The Noonday mine is 
 looking well, but they cannot go below the 512-foot level 
 until the Red Cloud shaft takes the water from them, and 
 that may involve a cross-cut 1,000 feet in length, even after 
 the Red Cloud attains sufficient depth ; and it is not likely 
 that another cross-cut will be run west short of the 800-foot 
 level. They have substituted a 350-horse-power engine in 
 their mill for the 96 horse-power formerly in use, and have 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1061 
 
 added 10 stamps, making 49 in all. They have drifts run- 
 ning on the 200, 300, 400, and 500 foot levels, and enough 
 ore in sight opened to a depth of 500 feet to keep their -iO- 
 stamp milT running for months; but from the fact that the 
 rich ore in the lower levels cannot at present be extracted 
 on account of a large amount of water, their mill is now 
 running on Bechtel Consolidated ore. The rich ore recently 
 struck in this mine is being followed downward and south- 
 ward, and is holding its own in both directions. The south 
 drift 500-foot level, which led through fair milling ore to the 
 point where rich ore was encountered, is now in 330 feet south 
 of the main east cross-cut. At or near this point a winze has 
 been started and is now down ten feet. The ledge in the winze 
 is five teet wide of clean ore, three assays from which gave the 
 following results : No. 1, $50.23 in gold, and 1348.73 in sil- 
 ver ; total, $398.96. No. 2, $46.44 in gold, and $659.78 in 
 silver; total, $706.21. No. 3, $46.44 in gold (precisely the 
 same as No. 2), and $342,43 in silver; total, $388.87. The 
 vein in the winze, as before stated, is live feet wide, of clean 
 ore of the quality indicated by the above assays ; but this is 
 between smooth clay walls, outside of which is a harder 
 quality of quartz of lower grade, so that really the width of 
 the ore vein is unknown. In the North Noonday the No. 2 
 north drift on the 412-foot level is in good milling ore, the 
 vein generally being about two feet wide. Work has been re- 
 newed in .the No. 2 north drift 512- foot level, and shortly 
 they should reach the body of ore which the same drift on 
 the 412-foot level has recently encountered, as all indications 
 point to its pitching north. An upraise has been started 
 from the 512 to the 412 foot level. The No. 2 vein is larger 
 and giving good assays. Ore for the mill is being stoped 
 from the 212, 312, and 412 foot levels. 
 
 The Red Cloud great shaft is still being sunk, and has 
 already cost several hundred thousand dollars. It has three 
 compartments; its present depth is about 700 feet, and is 
 intended to be sunk to a depth of 1,000 feet. The machinery, 
 comprising double compound engines, pumps, etc., is simply 
 immense, all of which suggests that the owners who are 
 investing their money in this enterprise have great confidence 
 in the mines. They are now cross-cutting at the 600-foot 
 level and are in 51 ieeC. The Concordia vein will probably 
 be cut at a distance of about 300 feet. The appearance of 
 this vein on the 400-foot level above would render the dis- 
 covery of a silver mine on this level a matter not at all 
 surprising. 
 
 The United States Government has issued patents to the 
 Bechtel Consolidated, and Tioga Consolidated of Bodie, thus 
 setting all disputes as to titles in their lavor. 
 
 The bullion shipments from Bodie during the year just 
 closed were the largest of any year since the revival of the 
 district. They amounted to $3,173,000. This is an increase 
 of more than $100,000 over those of 1880, of more than $600,- 
 000 over those of 1879, and of more than a million over those 
 of 1878, which was the year of greatest excitement in Bodie 
 mines. The shipments for the five years ending December 
 31, 1881, have been as follows : 
 
 1877 S979,922 80 
 
 1878 2,129,732 58 
 
 1879 2,566,847 68 
 
 1880 3,063,699 13 
 
 1881 3,173,000 00 
 
 $11,902,302 09 
 
 Notwithstanding this large yield of bullion, only three 
 Bodie mines have ever paid any dividends. The total 
 amount paid by the Standard to date is $3,300,000. The 
 Bodie commenced paying dividends in August, 1878. It 
 paid three that month, first, $1 per share, then $2, then $5 
 per share. After paying eight dividends, the disbursements 
 were stopped until August, 1879, when eight more monthly 
 dividends followed. From August, 1878, to March, 1880, 
 the mine paid $1,200,000 in dividends. It has paid nothing 
 since, but has levied some assessments. The Standard never 
 levied an assessment. The Bulwer Consolidated mine has 
 produced some bullion, but its main revenue for the past 
 year has been from the rent of its fine mill. On the 1st of 
 December, the company reported a cash balance of $100,000, 
 and out of that a dividend of $10,000 was paid, the first one 
 disbursed. « 
 
 During the year 1881, Mono county mines have levied the 
 folbwing assessments: 
 
 AUtic. 
 
 Addenda 
 
 Bet'litel Consolidated 
 
 Belvldere 
 
 Black Hawk 
 
 BoUie Tunnel 
 
 BosUjn Consolidated .-.-. 
 
 Brooklyn Consolidated 
 
 (.:alifornia 
 
 CITampion 
 
 Consolidated Facitlo 
 
 Defiance 
 
 Double Standard 
 
 Dudley.... 
 
 East ISioonday 
 
 Glynn Dale 
 
 Goodshaw 
 
 Harrington 
 
 Headliglit 
 
 Homer 
 
 Jupiter 
 
 Maybelle Consolidated 
 
 Mammoth 
 
 McClinton 
 
 Mono 
 
 Mount Cristo Consolidated .. 
 
 Noonday 
 
 North Noonday 
 
 Northern Standard 
 
 Oro 
 
 Paris 
 
 Red Cloud Consolidated 
 
 South Bulwer , 
 
 Spaulding 
 
 Syndicate 
 
 Tioga Consolidated 
 
 University 
 
 Assessmenis. 
 
 Amount 
 
 
 810,000 
 
 
 15,000 
 
 
 75.000 
 
 
 15,000 
 
 
 60,000 
 
 
 60,000 
 
 
 5,000 
 
 
 10,000 
 
 
 25,000 
 
 
 24,000 
 
 
 25,000 
 
 
 12,500 
 
 
 6,400 
 
 
 16,000 
 
 
 25,000 
 
 
 30,000 
 
 
 5,000 
 
 
 10,000 
 
 
 30,000 
 
 
 41,000 
 
 
 36,000 
 
 
 50,000 
 
 
 8,000 
 
 
 150,000 
 
 
 10,000 
 
 
 75.000 
 
 
 75,000 
 
 
 26.000 
 
 
 90,600 
 
 
 26,000 
 
 2 
 
 17,500 
 
 2 
 
 50,000 
 
 2 
 
 20,000 
 
 1 
 
 25,000 
 
 3 
 
 60,000 
 
 2 
 
 20,000 
 
 Total.. 
 
 81,201,000 
 
 The above list contains thirty-six mines, some of which 
 are producing bullion. All these mines, it is hoped, will 
 some day become self-supporting, if they do not pay divi- 
 dends. But while this is the hope, no one has faith enough 
 to believe that such will be the result. 
 
 On Mill Creek Canon the Mono Lake Hydraulic Company 
 have secured a large tract of auriferous gravel, and are mak- 
 ing preparations for its systematic mining. The hydraulic 
 mines on Mill creek cover 20,080 acres, secured by patent, 
 of gold-bearing gravel, some three miles in length by one in 
 width, commencing a little above the mouth of Mill Creek 
 Cafion and extending down the creek in a southeasterly 
 direction to within a half mile of Mono Lake. Work was 
 commenced on the 10th day of October last on the big ditch, 
 Whose proposed dimensions were five feet wide on top, three 
 feet on the bottom, four feet deep, and having a carrying 
 capacity of 2,500 inches. Up to date it has been completed 
 one mile from where it taps the creek to its present point of 
 connection with the penstock. The latter is fifty feet long, 
 four feet wide by three feet deep. There are now in use 300 
 feet of Norway iron pipe, twenty-four inches in diameter at 
 the penstock, and tapering down to eleven inches at the 
 giant. The largest sized monitors with patent deflectors are 
 used. The nozzles are four and a half and six inches in di- 
 ameter, and under an eight-foot pressure, the former is 
 capable of throwing 500 inches, the latter 800. There is 
 now only about 1,500 inches of water in the channel bed, 
 and it is all required. The flume is 700 feet long, and it is 
 being extended at the rate of fourteen feet per day. Its 
 width in the clear is forty-eight by thirty-six inches in depth. 
 The bottom blocks are ten inches by thirty-six inches in 
 diameter; lining blocks four by eighteen with six sets of 
 riffles ; dip four inches in twelve feet, while its gravel capa- 
 city is 4,000 tons every twenty-four hours, with 2,000 inches 
 of water. Seventy thousand feet of lumber have thus far 
 been consumed in its construction. The bank is fifty-three 
 feet high, and in six days' work of ten hours each, with a 
 four-inch nozzle under an eighty-foot head, 20,000 tons of 
 gravel have been washed down and flumed away. The build- 
 ings consist of a boarding-house, lodging-house, office and 
 blacksmith shop. The creek, on leaving the canon, makes 
 a sweep from east to south about three miles to the lake. 
 The company is now getting ready to lay its pipes from its 
 present workings directly south to the lake, instead of fol- 
 lowing the old creek channel and commence cutting back 
 on bed-rock to the extreme northern boundary of its prop- 
 erty. This manner of procedure will give it a fine tailing 
 off or dumping place, save one and one-tburth miles of flume 
 and pierce the center of the claims, whose highest point is 
 900 feet. Ample fall will thus be secured. There is now 
 enough pine timber of the best quality standing ou the claims 
 
1062 
 
 TH£ MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 along the creek to furnish blocks for two miles of flume. 
 All the water coming from the canon has been secured by 
 purchase and pre-emption. They can also increase the num- 
 ber of inches to 5,000 when necessary. All that is required 
 is five mxjre miles of ditch, which can be easily constructed, 
 as the soil is good picking ground. There are two to five 
 colors, and sometimes a dozen can be found in every pan 
 of dirt prospected on any part of the creek, or in its vicin- 
 ity. 
 
 The report of the Census Bureau for 1880 gives the follow- 
 ing as the production of Mono county by districts : 
 
 District. 
 
 Bishop Creek- 
 Blind Spring.. 
 
 Bodie 
 
 Clover Patch 
 
 Homer 
 
 Indian v 
 
 Montgomery or White Pealc.. 
 
 Piute 
 
 Scattered 
 
 Gold. 
 
 *2,'),199 
 2,76j,927 
 
 Silver. 
 
 $43,233 
 341,375 
 
 80,317 
 5,000 
 
 6,601 
 
 Total ?2,791,434 $476,526 
 
 * Placer mines. 
 
 The production of this county for recent periods, as re- 
 ported by the mines, has been as follows : 
 
 Reported to . Gold. Silver. 
 
 Census Bureau, census year 1880 82,791,434 8476,526 
 
 Mint Bureau, ttscal year 1880 2,407.236 682,905 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1881 2,749,712 617,866 
 
 Mint Bureau, calendar year 1881 3,380,751 170,467 
 
 The following mines of Mono county reported production 
 for the fiscal year: Josie Green, Delaware, Snow Flake, 
 Honeymoon, Hudson, Babylon, Diana, Lisbon, Standard 
 Consolidated, Bodie Consolidated, Noonday, North Noon- 
 day, Bulwer Consolidated, Syndicate, Golden Prince, May 
 Lundy, and Bodie Tunnel. The production during the 
 calendar year 1881 I estimate to have been $8,385,000 in 
 gold, and $300,000 in silver, a total of $3,685,000. 
 
 Nevada County. — Nevada county takes the lead among 
 all the counties of California as a producer of gold. Its 
 yield in 1881, as reported by the mines, exceeded by $300,000 
 that of Mono county, the second in point of production. 
 It lies in the heart of a group of the richest gold-producing 
 counties of the State with Plumas, Sierra, and Yuba on the 
 north, and Placer and El Dorado on the south. Ever since 
 its organization in 1851 the chief industry has been mining. 
 For a number of years succeeding the first discovery of gold 
 in 1819, the river-bars, banks, and shallow placers yielded a 
 golden stream by easy and simple mining processes. The 
 discovery of the ancient river-bed opened a new class of 
 mines involving greater risk and a large outlay of capital 
 for their successful development. An almost continuous 
 deposit of gravel varying from 100 to 300 feet in depth ex- 
 tends along the ridge between the middle and south forks 
 of the Yuba river from Smartsville to the summit of the 
 mountains. To work this in a systematic and profitable 
 manner can be done only by the use of a large supply of 
 water, which is obtained by a system of ditches aggregating 
 hundreds of miles in length and of reservoirs tor storing 
 water during the winter months. The reservoirs of the 
 Bloomfield Mining Company, Nevada county, have a capa- 
 city of 1,050,000,000 cubic feet; the Milton Company's 
 reser voi r has a capacity of 650,000,000 cubic feet ; the Eureka 
 Lake Company, 1,130,000,000 cubic feet; the Fordyce and 
 the many other reservoirs of the South Yuba Company con- 
 tain about 1,800,000,000 cubic feet ; the Omega and the Plue 
 Point United, 300,000,000 cubic feet ; the Spring Valley, 300- 
 000,000 cubic leet; the California Water Company have 
 nearly 600,000,000 cubic feet; the El Dorado Company's 
 reservoirs have a capacity of 1,070,000,000 cubic feet. There 
 are also a number of small reservoirs on the Feather, Yuba, 
 Bear, and American rivers, whose collected capacity is 700,- 
 000,000 cubic feet, making a total of 7,600,000,000 cubic feet 
 of storage capacity of water. 
 
 The quartz mines of Nevada county have also been singu- 
 larly productive. The gold-bearing rocks are chiefly volcanic 
 schisto slates and greenstones. The veins are not generally 
 large, seldom exceeding two feet, while the most productive 
 are rarely over one foot in width. Their peculiarity lies in 
 their uniformity and persistency. The ore is free milling, 
 
 the sulphurets conslituting not over two per cent., and can be 
 readily concentrated ; the free gold is in large angular par- 
 ticles and is easily saved, vieldiug an average of from $25 to 
 S30 to the ton. The concentrates will yield $100 per ton. 
 The chief obstacle to quartz mining is the amount of water, 
 not so much from the bottom of the mines as from the sur- 
 face. A deep alluvial deposit covers the country rock, and 
 durilig the rainy season it absorbs an immense quantity • 
 of water which percolates through the underlying strata. 
 To keep the deep shafts and lower levels of the mines free 
 from this isa costly operation, requiring ponderous machinery, 
 and frequently taxes the resources of the miners to the utmost. 
 The situation throughout the county, so far as hydraulic and 
 quartz mining is concerned, is encouraging, although -the 
 debris question and consequent legal proceedings have mate- 
 rially checked the former. Quartz mining, however, is a steady 
 interest, as there are a number of dividend-paying mines 
 that are worked for profit and not for stock purposes, and 
 the number is increasing. Nevada county also possesses 
 some advantages over other mining sections; prominent 
 among which are its railroad communication over a paying 
 road at leasonable ratesfor freight, long established foundries 
 and machine shops capable of performing any work required 
 upon milling machinery, and a permanent population of 
 skilled laborers in mines, mills, machine shops, etc. In 
 addition to this, its situation is at a suflScient altitude to give 
 exemption from the fierce summer heats of the valley, and 
 it is below the deep winter snows of the mountains. The 
 production of gold in Nevada county from placer mining 
 has been much reduced by the injunction suits instituted by 
 farmers in the Sacramento valley to restrain the working of 
 those mines by hydraulic process and the consequent deposit 
 of the d&bria upon the agricultural lands below. The ship- 
 ments of gold, most of which was obtained from the quartz 
 mines, none from the mines enjoined, was, in November, 
 $90,536. Work was resumed in several hydraulic mines 
 about the beginning of October, giving employment to 
 hundreds of men who had been idle in consequence of the 
 suits. Nearly all the hydraulic mines in the vicinity of' 
 Nevada City were idle in August, and only about $50,000 
 was taken out, and the product of thgse mines for the period 
 from June to November was less than $500,000. The most 
 productive quartz mines of the county are found in Grass 
 Valley district, the chief veins being the Idaho, Pittsburg, 
 Empire, Gold Hill, Massachusetts Hill, New York Hill, 
 Eureka, Rocky Bar, and Allison's Ranch. 
 
 The Idaho is the principal mine, not only in this district 
 but in the county. The ore is mostly taken firom the deep- 
 est workings of the mine, the eleventh and twelfth levels, 
 where the vein is strong and uniform in its paying character. 
 Two years ago there were apprehensions that the profitable 
 days of the mine were drawing to a close, as the tenth level 
 east ran into comparatively barren ground, in which the vein 
 did not live. Since then the No. 11 level has been opened 
 and the drift carried under the barren ground spoken of, and 
 a good paying and well defined vein found all the way. The 
 No. 12 level has not been extended as far east as the No. 11, 
 but it carries good ore in its stopes. The No. 13 level is now 
 being opened, a drift having been run about 125 feet. The 
 appearance of the mine is entirely satisfactory, and there is 
 all encouragement to believe that it can be worked profitably 
 to a much greater depth than has yet been reached. Masons 
 are laying the foundation for the engine. The ground has 
 been excavated to the depth of twenty -eight feet down to 
 solid rook, and on this a solid bed of granite is being laid in 
 Portland cement for engine foundation and bob-pit. This 
 foundation will be sixty-three feet in length, twenty-eight 
 feet in depth, and in width a portion sixteen feet, and the 
 remainder thirty-three feet. The cap-stones for the engine 
 will be dressed granite from the quarries of Penryn, amount- 
 ing to 260 cubic tieet. The entire amount of excavating, to 
 receive the stone work, has been 38,000 cubic feet. The en- 
 tire plant, when ready for use, will be the best pumping-rig 
 in Calilbruia. The building covering the machinery will be 
 forty-seven feet span in length, twenty feet posts, and sup- 
 ported by a truss roof. The new works will pump the water 
 from the bottom of the mine up to the 800-foot level, a six- 
 inch pump being used for tjiat purpose. From the 800-foot 
 level the engine now in use in the fire-proof pump-house 
 will raise the water to the surface. With the new works it 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1063 
 
 is anticipated that every power requisite for the future drain- 
 age of the mine will have been provided for, as it is expected 
 that they will be ready for service about the middle of De- 
 cember, and that the cost of the same will be from $25,000 
 to $30,000. The mill has fifty stamps, crushing about two 
 tons to the stamp-head. They are fed by hand. The pulp 
 first flows over blankets. The blanket concentrates are 
 passed with a minimum of water through rifiles filled with 
 mercury, and thence join the bulk of the battery pulp, which 
 now enters boxes, in which amalgamated, corrugated plates 
 are made to oscillate with sufficient rapidity to agitate the 
 sands. From these boxes they flow over long, narrow amal- 
 gamated plates, and are then concentrated in sluices, lined 
 with gunny cloth, through which the water flows in inter- 
 mitting waves. The concentration is partly done on shares. 
 The concentrates are amalgamated raw in pans before being 
 sold to the chlorination works. This mine was first opened 
 in 1869, since which time the receipts from all sources have 
 been as follows : 
 
 1869 $306,038 75 
 
 1870 383,460 23 
 
 1871 407,301 16 
 
 1872 404,035 52 
 
 1873 1,010,612 20 
 
 1874 669,023 03 
 
 1875 509,430 72 
 
 1876 8573,928 31 
 
 1877 525,4*5 18 
 
 1878 609,449 18 
 
 1879 601,038 15 
 
 1S80 440,446 59 
 
 1881 640,107 58 
 
 Total receipts for 13 years $6,780,295 60 
 
 Of this amount there have been paid in dividends the fol- 
 lowing amounts : 
 
 Year. Dividend. Per Cent. Amount 
 
 1869.. 
 1870.. 
 1871.. 
 Ib72.. 
 1873.. 
 1874.. 
 1876.. 
 1876.. 
 1877.. 
 1878.. 
 1879.. 
 1880.. 
 1881.. 
 
 11 
 
 55J 
 
 $170,500 
 
 V 
 
 12 
 
 37,200 
 
 12 
 
 75 
 
 232,500 
 
 11 
 
 525 
 
 162,750 
 
 12 
 
 220 
 
 682,000 
 
 12 
 
 102 
 
 317,750 
 
 11 
 
 65 
 
 172,050 
 
 12 
 
 82 
 
 255,760 
 
 12 
 
 77i 
 
 240,260 
 
 12 
 
 85 
 
 263,500 
 
 12 
 
 Mi 
 
 168,950 
 
 12 
 
 41 
 
 127,100 
 
 12 
 
 87i 
 
 271,250 
 
 Being for thirteen years 148 dividends, amounting to 
 $3,101,550. The success attendant upon the working of the 
 mine has been due as much to wise and judicious manage- 
 ment as to the quantity and quality of the ore. 
 
 The superintendent, Edward Cole, reports the monthly 
 dividends paid during 1881 : 
 
 Date. 
 
 January 3 
 
 February 7 ... 
 
 Harch 7 
 
 April 4 
 
 May 2 
 
 June 6 
 
 July 4 
 
 August 1 
 
 September 5.. 
 
 October 3 
 
 November 7.. 
 December 6... 
 
 Total..., 
 
 Percent. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 5 
 
 $15,500 
 
 
 23,250 
 
 23,250 
 
 23,260 
 
 7^ 
 
 23,260 
 
 1 
 
 23.250 
 
 23,250 
 
 23,260 
 
 23,250 
 
 ^72 
 
 23,250 
 
 71^ 
 
 23.260 
 
 7k 
 
 - 23,250 
 
 5271,280 
 
 Of the operations of the mine, he says : 
 
 " The work connected with the company's property has 
 also been kept in as favorable a condition as circumstances 
 would permit; and it is considered that there is fully as 
 much pay ore in sight underground now as there was one 
 year ago ; and as was expected the yield has been more 
 satisfactory than it was last year. This also has brought an 
 increase of profits, which have been disbursed to the stock- 
 holders by increased monthly dividends. 
 
 " In several of my reports I have stated that our machinery 
 was of adequate power to do all the work required, but each 
 year seems to require an addition, and while we may con- 
 gratulate ourselves on the apparent permanency of the mine, 
 we should also bear in mind that as we attain greater depth, 
 it brings with it the njed of larger and heavier machinery. 
 We have been troubled considerably in the past to adjust 
 the pumps for both winter and summer use. In the winter 
 the surface water is very fast, requiring fourteeu-inch pumps 
 to keep it at about eight strokes per minute. This water is 
 caught at the 800 level, and below that point a six-inch 
 pump will answer at any time in the year. In the summer 
 months the fourteen-inch pumps are too large, and have to 
 be run so slow that the six-inch are too small to do the 
 
 required work below the 800 level, and in view of this diffi- 
 culty, and in order to do away with some of the flat reds, it 
 was deemed advisable to erect another engine to connect 
 with the lower pumps and have them entirely independent 
 of the large pumps. This engine is of twenty-inch diameter 
 and forty-eight-inch stroke, and all its parts are of sufficient 
 strength to work the engine up to its full capacity. As it is 
 impossible to form an idea of the work this engine may have 
 to do in the future, it was deemed best to make a good job 
 in every particular, and when completed it will be second to 
 none on the coast. 
 
 " The sump at the 800 station has been enlarged. This 
 was necessary from the fact that if from any cause the large 
 pumps were stopped only a short time, the water ran to the 
 bottom of the mine, and with six-inch pumps running so 
 slow it required a long time to pump it out. The sump is 
 now sixteen feet by fourteen feet and sixty feet long. 
 
 "The underground workings are all in good condition. 
 The 1,100 drift is in 850 feet from the incline. The ledge 
 has been of an average quality and size until recently. It 
 now shows indications of breaking up, and I fear we have 
 about exhausted the pay chute in this drift. The stopes 
 connected with this drift are of good size and of an average 
 quality. 
 
 " The 1,200 level is in 512 feet from the incline. The ore 
 in the drift is of low-grade all the way from the incline, and 
 it has been broken up badly for the last 100 feet. I think, 
 however, it is only local, and that it will form again only a 
 little below the bottom of the drift. It certainly extends 
 only a short distance up, and the ore is of good quality and 
 the ledge of good size all through the 1,200 stopes. 
 
 " The 1,300 drift is in 124 feet from the incline. As we 
 wi.sh to make a connection with the 1,200 as soon as possible, 
 we have not taken the ledge down in this drift. We are now 
 putting up a raise to the 1,200, which will be through in 
 about three weeks. 
 
 " Preparations are now being made to commence sinking 
 the incline for the 1,400 level. In the last 100 feet of sinking, 
 the incline ran into the hanging wall. This made it quite 
 expensive, and it is now thought best to make a turn toward 
 the foot-wall, and thus avoid working in the hard hanging 
 wall rock. ' 
 
 " During the year we have crashed 27,945 tons of rock. 
 Of this amount 346J tons came from the 1,000 level and 
 stopes; 9,753J from the 1,100; 16,527J from the 1,200; 
 l,077f from the 800, and 340 tons from the incline; yielding 
 an average of $22.95J per ton. Average cost of mining and 
 milling per ton, §9.51|." 
 
 A company of Chinese miners are working in the bed of 
 Bear river a short distance below the mouth of Greenhorn 
 creek. They have diverted the water in the streams |by 
 means of embankments, so that it runs close to the Nevada 
 side, leaving a large area of ground dry. They have sunk a 
 large pit into this, which is compact sand and gravel, the 
 washings from the mines, down to the original bed of the 
 river. The depth is 1(5 or 18 feet, which makes heavy strip- 
 ping, as all the top dirt has to be wheeled out in barrows. 
 The pit is kept dry by the usual water-wheel used in river 
 mining, in the erection of which the Chinese always show 
 as much ingenuity as the white men. The Chinese are 
 always reticent as to their success in mining, but from the 
 fact that the same company has worked that part of the 
 river for several years in succession, the inference is that 
 they have paying ground. In September, at the Blue Point 
 mine, on Morris Flat, a slide occurred causing a suspension 
 of operations and over 50 men were temporarily thrown out 
 of employment. A number of men were set to work by the 
 manager drifting a tunnel, and over a month and a half was 
 consumed in restoring the mine to its former conditiou. 
 The Knickerbocker hydraulic mine, located at Quaker Hill, 
 had a clean-up from a 20 days' run, and took out $2,000 at 
 an expense of $350. The gold found was of unusual purity, 
 assaying $19.41 per ounce. 
 
 The production of Nevada county for recent periods, as 
 reported by the mines, has been as follows : 
 
 Reported to Gold. SUver. 
 
 Census Bureau, census year 1880 _ $931,538 $19 053 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1880 _ 2,702,362 70144 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1881 _ 4 129 325 7470 
 
 Mint Bureau, calendar year 1881 _...-... 3,645i525 9'358 
 
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THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1065 
 
 cost of reduction and mining is inside $2.50 per ton. The 
 quality of ore now taken from the shaft that is being sunk 
 on the White ledge is superior to any milled for some time, 
 and it is confidently expected that good results will be given. 
 The mine shows a strong and permanent ledge, and when 
 the lower Bidwell tunnel reaches the ledge it will give good 
 reserves of ore to last for many years to come. 
 
 This county reported for the census year the production 
 by districts as follows : 
 
 District 
 
 Qtiarts. 
 
 Placer 
 Gold. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silvei: 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Claremont 
 
 82,799 
 232,614 
 
 $20 
 2,859 
 
 
 $2,799 
 232,614 
 5,999 
 6,001 
 84,376 
 518,588 
 52,808 
 60,848 
 
 
 
 
 Indian Varlley 
 
 
 2 859 
 
 Lights Caflon ;..... 
 
 ^,999 
 6,001 
 84,376 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nortli Forks, Feattier River 
 
 
 
 
 Quartz Township 
 
 518,588 
 45,773 
 
 4,359 
 40 
 
 4 359 
 
 Seneca 
 
 7,035 
 60,848 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 8799,774 
 
 $7,278 
 
 $164,259 
 
 1964,033 
 
 87,278 
 
 
 The accompanying list of mines reported a production 
 during the fiscal year of .gold, $1,251,917; silver, $419: 
 Yankee Hill, Fall River and Ditch, Franklin Hill, Twelve 
 Mill Bar, Badger Hill, Taylor Hill, Grub Flat, Rush Creek 
 Flat, Halstead, Silver Star, Plumas National Gold, New 
 York, Morton, Jolly, Smith & Davis, Harris, Plumas Eure- 
 ka, Genesee Valley, Diamond, Brown Bear, Hungarian, 
 Scad's Point, Plumas Water, Winters, Empire, English Bar, 
 Diadem, East Branch, Lee & Jolly, Orr & Co., Queensabe, 
 Monte Christo, Centennial, Cunningham Bros., Jos. Dodson, 
 Vermont, Sunnyside, D. Bushman, Granite Basin, Reynolds 
 & Co., Buckeye and Low Pit Gravel, W. W. Wiseman, West- 
 ern Gravel, Gold Stripe, Green Mountain, Cherokee, Cres- 
 cent Mills, Loring & Leavitt; Chinese at Spanish Ranch, at 
 La Porte, at Quincy, at Crescent Mills, and small enter- 
 prises at Eureka Mills, at Spanish Ranch, and at La Porte. 
 
 The production of Plumas county for recent periods, as 
 reported by the mines, has been as follows : 
 
 Reported to Gold. Silver. 
 
 Census Bureau, census year 1880.'. $964,033 $7,278 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1880 857,124 181 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1881 1,251,917 419 
 
 Mint Bureau, calendar year 1881 1,364,685 163 
 
 I estimate the total production for the calendar year 1881 
 to have been, gold, $1,350,000 ; silver, $2,000. 
 
 Sacramento County. — Sacramento county is situated 
 in Central California, and was one of the first organized 
 counties. The mining interests are now but secondary to 
 the commercial and agricultural, as the placers have been 
 worked and reworked until but little new ground remains, 
 and the principal production of gold is by the Chinese. Fol- 
 som, in the northeastern part of the county, is near the bor- 
 der of a former ocean deposit, adjoining slate and granite 
 bed-rock, with gravel drifts ranging from twenty to sixty feet 
 in depth, and extending across the Sacramento Valley some 
 sixty miles in width, but paying in a belt about five miles 
 in width near the foot-hills. This drift deposit pays chiefly 
 at the junction with the underlying ocean deposit, and is 
 being rapidly washed out. The ocean deposit has been bored 
 to a depth of 120 feet, and gold in paying quantities found 
 on the granite beneath, but it cannot be profitably worked 
 owing to the great amount of water, which requires heavy 
 and expensive pumping apparatus to handle. A field is open 
 here to enterprise, aided by capital, to develop what may 
 prove to be as rich and extensive mines as any heretofore 
 discovered. 
 
 The production of Sacramento county for recent periods, 
 as reported by the mines, has been as follows : 
 
 Seporled to Gold. 
 
 Mint> Bureau for fiscal year 1880 $342,514 
 
 Mint Bureau for fiscal year 1881 306,058 
 
 Mint Bureau for calendar year 1881... 425,631 
 
 I estimate the total production for the calendar year 1881 
 to have been $425,000 gold and $1,000 silver. 
 The following mines of Sacramento county reported pro- 
 
 duction for the fiscal year : Humphrey, Gullett & Co., Mil- 
 gate, Donovan, Amador and Sacramento Canal, Hartford 
 Anderson, James Jordan. 
 
 San Bernardino County. — San Bernardino is the 
 largest county in California, and is located in the south- 
 eastern portion of the State, bordering on Arizona and 
 Southern Nevada. The mining interests of this county, 
 which have been gradually winning the attention of the 
 public during the last two years, have received a new impe- 
 tus in the recent discoveries about Calico Mountain. These 
 are attracting miners from adjacent States and Territories, 
 and the building of the California Southern Railroad, which 
 taps some of the most valuable districts, offers encourage- 
 ment of convenient transport. The town of San Bernardino 
 is the nucleus of the activity, and is showing signs of material 
 advancement. 
 
 The Census Bureau reports the production of San Bernar- 
 dino county for the census year 1880 as follows : 
 
 District of Silver. 
 
 Clarlc $65,115 , 
 
 Dry Lake 
 
 Silver Mountain 
 
 Total 865,115 
 
 The estimated production of the county for the calendar 
 year is $9,000 gold and $100,000 silver. 
 
 San Diego County. — San Diego county is in the ex- 
 treme southern portion of California. The chief mining 
 done is at Julian, Banner, and Pinacate mining districts. 
 Finaoate mining district lies immediately north of the Te- 
 mescal range, in the region of the county known as the San 
 Jacinto, distant from San Diego seventy-five miles. A good 
 wagon-road connects it with Colton, thirty miles distant, 
 which is the nearest depot of the Southern Pacific Railroad. 
 The district is comparatively a new one, but the develop- 
 ments now making evidence mines of considerable import- 
 ance. The veins contain free milling ore, and run north and 
 south in decomposed granite. 
 
 During the past year there has been a resumption of ex- 
 citement relative to mineral deposits in the country lying 
 along the foot-hilUs and mountains skirting the desert, and 
 several discoveries of more or less importance have been 
 made in gold, silver, and copper, prominent among which 
 is the Copper Ohieti Silver Dime, and Lucky Strike. The 
 ledge upon which these claims lie runs through the country 
 for miles. It has been exposed in a number of places, and 
 shows a uniform width of about seven feet, lying between 
 two plainly-defined walls. The ore assays rich in gold, 
 silver, and copper, the returns in some instances showing 
 $25 in gold and 20 per cent, copper. Others show very rich 
 in silver. 
 
 The production of San Diego county for recent periods, 
 as reported by the mines, has been as follows : 
 
 aborted to Gold. Silver. 
 
 Census Bureau, census year 1880 $237,850 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1880 81,558 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1881 68,192 $14.00 
 
 Mint Bureau, calendar year 1881 34,631 
 
 I estimate the total production for the calendar year 1881 
 to have been $60,000 gold. 
 
 Reports for the fiscal year were received from the Cable, 
 Hubbard, Gardner, and Yuma. 
 
 The production by districts has been reported by the Cen- 
 sus Bureau thus : 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Banner $9,000 
 
 Cargo Muchacho 154,000 
 
 Julian ; 8,850 
 
 Pecacho 66,000 
 
 Pinnecate 
 
 Total 8237,850 
 
 Shasta County. — Shasta county, in the northern part 
 of the State, produced, in the early mining days of Cali- 
 fornia, a large amount of gold, but the gravel deposits were 
 worked over and over again until their poverty led to more 
 attention being paid to quartz mining, and many locations 
 have been made and developments prosecuted of a highly 
 encouraging character. 
 
 The production of Shasta county, by districts, for the year 
 1880 was reported as follows : 
 
1066 
 
 THE MINES, MINEE? AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Distnct 
 
 Buck Eye 
 
 French Gulcli 
 
 Igo 
 
 Iron Mountain 
 
 Northern Shasta County 
 
 Pittsburgh 
 
 Sawmill Flat 
 
 Shasta City 
 
 Southern Shasta County. 
 
 Scattered 
 
 Whislty Creeli 
 
 Total 
 
 Quartz. 
 
 Gold. Silver. 
 
 *38,500 
 
 4,000 
 40,700 
 
 S98,337 
 
 i8,337 
 
 Placer 
 Gold. 
 
 814,400 
 i:S,313 
 
 107,520 
 
 " "3^379 
 25,920 
 210,000 
 60,000 
 
 S460,032 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold. SUver. 
 
 *14,400 
 67,313 
 
 107,520 
 13,201 
 3,379 
 25,920 
 
 210,000 
 64,000 
 40,700 
 
 898,337 
 
 8546,433 ©8,337 
 
 The production of this county for recent periods, as re- 
 ported by the mines, has been as follows : 
 
 Reported to Gold. SUver. 
 
 Census Bureau, census year 18S0 S5'16,433 $98,337 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1880 140,4o5 117,907 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1881 233,007 19,805 
 
 Mint Bureau, calendar year 1881 347,888 86,107 
 
 I estimate the total production for the calendar year 1881 
 to have been : gold, $350,000 ; silver, $85,000. 
 
 The following mines of Shasta county reported their pro- 
 duction during the fiscal year 1881: Aftermath, Rios, 
 Williams, Dunkham Gravel, White, Summit, Thafter Quartz, 
 Chicago, Jennie June, Scorpion, Dry Creek, Flumiiig Tunnel, 
 Brown Bear, Spring Creek, Dixon & Cooper, Vermont, Wash- 
 ington, Erich & Davis, Dardanells. 
 
 Sierra County.— Sierra county, located between Plumas 
 and Nevada counties, in the heart of the Sierra Nevada 
 Mountains, which cross it from north tc south, has yielded 
 an immense amount of gold in the past. The hydraulic and 
 drift mines during the last year have produced large sums, 
 and the quartz mines are becoming more and more a leading 
 industry. At Sierra City the Sierra Buttes continues to be 
 the principal producer. The mine is opened by tunnels, and 
 no sinking or pumping is required. The ore is low grade, 
 and consequently a large quantity must be reduced to render 
 it remunerative. It has been found here, as in Dakota, that 
 low-grade ores can be more profitably worked by means of 
 mills having a large number of stamps than in any other 
 manner; the expense of running 100 stamps being but little 
 more than for half that number. This company have ninety- 
 six stamps, which are run by water-power, and employ about 
 250 men. Eight levels have opened the ledge, and a ninth 
 has been started and is now in about 250 feet. During the 
 year ended June 30, 1881, 48,000 tons of ore were extracted. 
 The mine is owned by. an English company. 
 
 The Bonanza gravel claim, Howlaud Flat, was worked 
 during the whole season, and the channel was found to widen 
 and improve in quality. In January, 1881, eleven car-loads 
 from the mine yielded $190. The highest yield at any time 
 reached was $200. During the summer the mine changed 
 hands, being purchased by Cornish capitalists, who paid for 
 it $300,000, and added $100,000 more for working expenses. 
 For the first two months and a half the returns were *12,000 
 above expenses; but afterwards the main channel was lost, 
 and the new owners ran behind $7,000. The pay channel 
 was, however, again found, and in September gravel was 
 taken from the mine at the rate of one hundred and fifty 
 car-loads per day, worth $5.50 each load. The main tunnel 
 IS 4,000 feet in length, the air tunnel 1,600 feet, and the air 
 shaft 375 feet in depth ; seventy-five men are employed 
 inside and outside of the mine. 
 
 The production of Sierra county for recent periods, as 
 reported by the mines, has been as follows : 
 
 Reported to Gold. 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1880 S974 339 
 
 Mnit Bureau, fiscal year 1881 1 168 ''W 
 
 Mint Bureau, calendar year 1881 V'5'542 
 
 SUver. 
 .»576 
 1,039 
 6,043 
 
 I estimate the total production for the calendar year 1881 
 to have been : Gold, $950,000 ; silver, $6,000. 
 
 The following mines of Sierra county rei>orted their pro- 
 duction during the fiscal year: Grizetz, Richards, Frank 
 Brennan, Buckeye, Branch and Mamruoth, Union Consoli- 
 dated, Williams, Aruott & Bird, Egleston & Mowrey Key- 
 
 stone, Hill Placer, Gold BhifF Quartz, Limperick, American 
 Hill Hydraulic, Bonanza Gold, Perry, Sierra Buttes, New 
 York Gravel, Doherty, Havens, California Consolidated, 
 Gardner's Point, Donahue, Caledonia, Indian Queen, Ken- 
 dall & Noble, Fair Play, Union, Union Hill, Lewis, Baird, 
 Fiiliput, Martinetti, Golden Star, Highland and Masonic, 
 Truckee, Rising Sun, Bald Mountain, Rainbow Quartz, 
 Virginia, Hill & Co., Troxel & Co., Bald Mountain Exten- 
 sion, Peter Wanemacher, Fur Cap and Live Yankee, Cleve- 
 land, J.. Winans, Gold Lake, F. Buckerman & Co., W. A. 
 Morse, Cox & Gourley, Dutch, B. F. Folsom & Co., Pioneer 
 Hydraulic, Sierra Yuba Gold Quartz. 
 
 Siskiyou County. — Siskiyou is one of the northern- 
 most counties in the State, and borders on Oregon. Two 
 ranges of inountains, the SierraNevada and the Coast Range, 
 the latter known locally as the Siskiyou and the Salmon 
 Mountains, meet here, and on the numerous streams which 
 arise in their canons and ravines, and are tributary to the 
 Klamath and Sacramento rivers, gold-mining of placers 
 first attracted settlers to the county. Although gravel- 
 mining is not so actively pursued as in the early days, it 
 has been by no means abandoned, and is still the chief 
 indui-try of the county. In addition to this, the quartz- 
 mining interest is gradually assuming an importance which 
 which will in the near future attract capital to profitable 
 investment. 
 
 Mr. John Daggett, of Klamath mills, Siskiyou county, 
 furnishes the following interesting and valuable communi- 
 cation in regard to mining for the precious metals in that 
 county. The mining field in Siskiyou county extends from 
 the Oregon line on the north to the line of Humboldt 
 county on the south, and is formed by the Klamath river 
 and its tributaries, the largest being tlie Salmon and Scott 
 rivers, which have been worked since early in 1850, and 
 although the yield has been large, the diggings are in a much 
 less exhausted condition than in the southern part of the 
 State, affording many opportunities for capital to apply im- 
 provements now unused here, but found profitable elsewhere, 
 as the region is well watered and dumpage good. Eiver 
 mining has received a new impetus by the success of wing 
 damming coinpaaies on the Klamath for the last three 
 years. The yield for the past season was very profitable, 
 and as the Klamath is fed by auriferous streams from Cot- 
 tonwood creek, through Siskiyou, Del Norte, and Humboldt 
 counties, to the ocean, a distance of nearly two hundred 
 miles, this branch of mining, is destined to become an im- 
 portant factor in the future production of gold in this part 
 of the State. Quartz mining, although inaugurated as early 
 as 1859 on Humbug and Indian creekss, was only partially 
 successful, until at a later day the mines of the North Fork 
 of Salmon were opened about the head of Eddy's and Black 
 Bear Gulches, where the so-called Mother Lode of California 
 appears with all the characteristics of its occurrence in the 
 southern part of the State, black slate and large veins. 
 
 The total yield of Siskiyou county for 1881 from both 
 white and Chinese is : 
 
 Quartz mining companies $200 000 OO 
 
 Placer mining companies 837,350 00 
 
 «1,037,350 00 
 
 I have placed the production of Siskiyou county for the 
 calendar year at $850,000 gold and $1,500 silver, which is 
 $185,850 below Mr. Daggett's estimates. Messrs. Wells & 
 Fargo carried out of S'iskiyou county, during the calendar 
 year, $507,000. J' e 
 
 For the fiscal year 1881 the production was reported by 
 the following mines, viz.: Thomas Hikey, Black Bear, Last 
 Chance, Johnson Quartz, Boulder Creek, Yreka Creek, Pa- 
 cific, Steamboat, Matthewson, Oak Grove, Tompkins, ^Vil- 
 hams, Cameron, Selle Claim, Burnett & Miller, Allen 
 Brothers, Burns Brothers, Pierson & McMabar, Grizzly 
 Quartz, Kanaker, Grizzly Bear, Blind Lode, Klamath Quartz, 
 Ivnokenback & Myers, Centennial, Empire Quartz, Yreka 
 Creek Fortune, A. B. C, Wright & Fletcher, G. A. Mohr & 
 Co., Columbia, Grattan, Burns Placer, General McNeal, 
 Chinese, and small enterprises. 
 
 The production of Siskiyou county by districts, for the 
 census year 1880, was reported by the Census Bureau as 
 loUows: 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1067 
 
 l>istrict. 
 
 Quartz. 
 
 Hacer 
 0old. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Callahan's Ranch 
 
 
 
 $82,371 
 12,000 
 10,001 
 13,600 
 38,851 
 14,726 
 50,015 
 19,603 
 
 $82,371 
 12,000 
 10,001 
 13,600 
 38,851 
 14,726 
 60,015 
 19,503 
 9,798 
 6,500 
 
 107,650 
 
 4.240 
 
 15,000 
 
 238,857 
 64,184 
 
 
 Cottonwood 
 
 
 
 
 Galena Hill 
 
 
 
 
 Greenhorn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Indian Creek 
 
 
 
 
 McAdams Creek 
 
 
 
 
 Oro Fino 
 
 
 
 
 
 K.m 
 
 S4,396 
 
 4,396 
 
 liattlesnake Creek 
 
 6,500 
 75,000 
 
 4,240 
 15,000 
 78,001 
 64,184 
 
 Sawyer's Bar 
 
 32,550 
 
 228 
 
 228 
 
 Sciad Valley 
 
 Scott Valley 
 
 
 
 
 South Fork, Salmon River 
 
 Yreka 
 
 160,856 
 
 2,134 
 
 2,134 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 S203,204 
 
 «,758 
 
 S483,992 
 
 8687,196 
 
 86,758 
 
 The production of the county for recent periods, as re- 
 ported by the mines, has been as follows : 
 
 Reported to Gold. Silver. 
 
 Census Bureau, census year 1880 8687,196 86,818 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1880 440,735 95,340 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1881 567,519 100 
 
 Mint Bureau, calendar year 1881 547,524 
 
 Stanislaus County. — Stanislaus county, forming apart 
 of the San Joaquin Valley, is now more noted as an agri- 
 cultural than as a mining district. The rich placers of early 
 California days have been long since worked out, and but 
 little attention is now paid to this branch of industry. La 
 Grange, in the eastern part of the county, and formerly 
 known as French Bar, is the seat of the chief gravel mining. 
 The La Grange Ditch and Hydraulic Company is the prin- 
 cipal producer. A little work is also done on the Tuolumne 
 river a few miles above the town. From the La Grange 
 district there was reported for the census year 1880, gold, 
 $62,650. 
 
 The production of the county for recent periods, as re- 
 ported by the mines, has been as follows : 
 
 Reported to Gold. Silver. 
 
 ,. Census Bureau, census year 1880 862,650 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1880 73,271 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1881 61,553 84,200 
 
 Mint Bureau, calendar year 1881 62,614 31,735 
 
 I estimate the total production for the calendar year 1881 
 to have been $63,00a gold and §31,000 silver. 
 
 Trinity County. — Trinity county is in the northern part 
 of California, and is a long and comparatively narrow county, 
 drained by Trinity river and its tributaries. Although gold 
 was discovered in this county in the earliest days of the 
 mining excitement in the State, yet from its inaccessibility 
 and from the distance which mining supplies had to be 
 transported, the mines were never worked to an extent pro- 
 portionate to their magnitude and richness, and the result 
 is that there are openings here for successful operations, if 
 conducted in a systematic manner, that would not exist had 
 the country been more conveniently located and in the more 
 direct line of travel. At Weaverville, the county seat, but 
 little sluicing is now done except by Chinamen, the princi- 
 pal large companies employing the hydraulic method. The 
 town is situated in a bowl-like depression, four or five miles 
 in diameter, known as Weaver Basin, and hydraulic washing 
 clears the gravel only to the false bed-rock. Beneath this 
 the true bed-rock has been ascertained to be about 600 feet 
 deep, and a project has lately been set on foot and is now 
 being matui'ed for working this deposit to as great a depth 
 as possible, though it is not expected that the true bed-rock 
 will be reached. The consummation of this scheme involves 
 the construction of a large tunnel through a peninsular 
 ridge formed by a long bend in the Trinity river, whereby 
 fall enough will be obtained to run oflf a large amount of 
 surface gravel in this basin. To mine to the deep bedrock 
 can only be effected by means of another and much longer 
 tunnel, the construction of which it is believed will some 
 day be undertaken, as a work of this kind would be entirely 
 feasible and very likely accomplish the end proposed. Con- 
 joined with the first of these schemes will probably be the 
 extension to Weaver Basin of the large ditch now being 
 
 built by Thomas H. Blythe for conducting the water of 
 Coffee Creek and other large branches of the Upper Trinity 
 upon the mining grounds of the proprietor and others ad- 
 jacent. Viewed as a whole, this enterprise may be con- 
 sidered one of great magnitude, as well as one likely to lead 
 to a successful issue. 
 
 The production of Trinity county for recent periods, as 
 reported by the mines, has been as follows : 
 
 Reported to Gold. 
 
 Census Bureau, census year 1880 $799,999 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1880 326.693 
 
 Mint Bureau, fiscal year 1881 330,732 
 
 Mint Bureau, calendar 1881 494,666 
 
 Silver. 
 
 9142 
 643 
 
 The production by districts, as estimated for the census 
 year 1881, was as follows: 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Aggregate of the placer mines 8777.999 
 
 Bully Choop, smallmines (quartz) 10,000 
 
 Deadwood, small mines li;,C00 
 
 8799,999 
 
 The following mines reported their productions for the 
 fiscal year 1881 : Vance's Bar, Price, McKenney, Keno, 
 Weaver Creek, Shoo Fly, Lowden & Bates, Chapman, Julian 
 Creek, Buckeye Water and Hydraulic, Black Bear, Ella 
 May, Smith's Flat, Laws & Co., Lorenz, A. J. Sturdivant, 
 R. M. Holman, McMurray & Hupp, Garden Gulch, Rule 
 Brothers, Trinity Hydraulic Gold, Slattery, A. Pitreau & Co., 
 Wilshire Hydraulic Gold, Portuguese, Cunningham Gravel. 
 
 The production for the calendar year 1881 1 have estimated 
 at $550,000 gold and §1,500 silver. 
 
 Tulare County. — Tulare county is situated in the San 
 Joaquin Valley, between Fresno and Kern counties, and a 
 little south of the center of the State. In the eastern and 
 northeastern part of the county, among the Sierra Nevada 
 Mountains, large deposits of silver-bearing ores, as well as 
 gold quartz, have been discovered. 
 
 At White River, in the southern part of the county, 
 White River, East Prong, Coarse Gold, Grizzly, Gordon, 
 and Rag Gulches, are the principal streams which have 
 yielded placer gold in the district. Lack of water has pre- 
 vented a proper and thorough working of the placers. 
 Many small tributaries of the streams spoken of remain un- 
 touched. When the main stream is abandoned the freshet 
 water could be turned into one of these small gulches and 
 the whole worked out. ^Vhen such an enterprise has been 
 undertaken it has generally paid well. Throughout this 
 section there are an immense number of small veins of gold- 
 bearing quartz. The formation in which these small veins 
 occur is syenitic granite, which generally carries a large per- 
 centage of hornblende, which in some cases is so great as to 
 give the rock the constituent properties of greenstone. The 
 country rock is very much decomposed. Tunnels have 
 traversed this rock 100 or 200 feet without exploding a blast. 
 The veins which outcropped were mainly all discovered many 
 years ago, and have been worked in many places five or ten 
 feet deep. Jn some places they have been worked twenty or 
 thirty feet deep, two or three have approximated 100 feet, 
 and one shaft has reached 112 feet. In many cases the lodes 
 are so flat as to partake of the character of " blanket lodes." 
 Williams and Popple, after following a narrow stream for 
 about thirty feet in soft granite, struck a vein of twenty 
 inches lyi ng nearly flat, and have developed it by about 300 feet 
 of drifts into pay rock, which will probably yield more than 
 SlOO per ton on the average. There are some of the sul- 
 phurets, however, which do not yield to the simple process 
 of the arrastra, and it is doubtful whether mere milling 
 would save more than S50 per ton. 
 
 The production of Tulare county for recent periods, as 
 reported by the mines, has been as follows : 
 
 BepmUd to Gold. Silver. 
 
 Mint Bureau for fiscal year 1880 $1,125 t.'>26 
 
 Mint Bureau for fiscal year 1881 ZM7 36 
 
 Mint Bureau for calendar year 1^1 8J181 
 
 Reports of production for the fiscal year 1881 were re- 
 ceived from Briggs & Garvison, Mahurin, Stone Hydraulic, 
 and Williams & Popple. 
 
 The production during the calendar year 1881 I have 
 placed at $8,000 in gold. 
 
 Tuolumne County. — Tuolumne is an irregularly shaped 
 
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 8901 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1069 
 
 MoiUlw. Refined. 
 
 January 
 
 February $330,000 
 
 March 
 
 April 467,630 
 
 May 126,800 
 
 June 1,500 
 
 July 249,690 
 
 August 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 November 56,987 
 
 December 
 
 Totals 81,232,507 
 
 1880 1,156,279 
 
 Increase t76,228 
 
 Decrease ' 
 
 Mexican '-Dollars. 
 $70,244 
 292,380 
 57,230 
 285,505 
 266.687 
 121,417 
 123,409 
 146,239 
 154,092 
 
 : 279,236 
 148,775 
 173,940 
 
 $2,119,063 
 2,154,082 
 
 935,119 
 
 The shipment of trade and Mexican dollars in each of the 
 years named compare as follows : 
 
 Years. Trades. 
 
 1876 45,752,079 
 
 1877 7,925,955 
 
 18?8 1,489,148 
 
 1879 546,403 
 
 1880 1,000 
 
 1881 
 
 MexicaTis. 
 
 82,610,043 
 2,454,900 
 2,372,036 
 2.340,796 
 2,154,182 
 2,119,063 
 
 Six years 815,714,585 814,057,020 
 
 Production of Gold and Silver in California, by counties, during 
 tire fiscal year ended June 30, 1881, as reported by tlie uiines 
 to the Superintendent of the San Francisco Mint. 
 
 Counties. Gold. 
 
 Alpine 81,643 
 
 Almador 1,561,668 
 
 Butte 350,787 
 
 Calaveras 805,724 
 
 Colusa 1,251 
 
 Del Norte 46,885 
 
 El Dorado 710,230 
 
 Fre.™o 114,307 
 
 Humboldt 32,679 
 
 Inyo 90,710 
 
 Kern 139.287 
 
 Lassen 42.995 
 
 Los Angeles 3,978 
 
 Mariposa 141,449 
 
 Mendocino 650 
 
 Merced 1,230 
 
 Modoc 29,000 
 
 Mono 2,74a,712 
 
 Nevada 4,129,325 
 
 Placer 1,236,252 
 
 Plumas 1,251,917 
 
 Sacramento 306,058 
 
 San Bernardino 1,100 
 
 San Diego 68,192 
 
 Santa Barbara 2,000 
 
 Shasta 233,007 
 
 Sierra, 1,158,286 
 
 Siskiyou 567,519 
 
 Stanislaus 61,553 
 
 Tehama 91 
 
 Trinity 330,732 
 
 Tulare 3,847 
 
 Tuolumne 372,454 
 
 Ventura 600 
 
 Yuba 950,203 
 
 Silver. 
 
 82,096 
 
 1,172 
 
 19 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 ""■iii 
 
 180,077 
 
 450 
 
 1,406 
 
 3,368 
 
 520 
 
 1,600 
 517,866 
 
 7,470 
 577 
 419 
 
 $17,496,321. 
 
 7,785 
 14 
 
 19,865 
 
 1,039 
 
 100 
 
 4,200 
 
 " "643 
 
 5,772 
 8757,465 
 
 Total. 
 
 83,739 
 
 1,562,810 
 
 350,806 
 
 805,746 
 
 1,274 
 
 45,885 
 
 710,941 
 
 114,307 
 
 32,679 
 
 270,787 
 
 139,737 
 
 44,401 
 
 7,346 
 
 141,969 
 
 650 
 
 1,230 
 
 30,500 
 
 3,267,578 
 
 4,136,795 
 
 1,236,829 
 
 1,252,336 
 
 306,058 
 
 8,885 
 
 68,206 
 
 2,000 
 
 252,812 
 
 1,159,325 
 
 567,619 
 
 65,753 
 
 91 
 
 331,375 
 
 3,883 
 
 372,829 
 
 600 
 
 965,975 
 
 818,253,786 
 
 Estimate of Mr. A. M. liawver of the bullion production in Cali- 
 fornia during: the calendar year 1881, classified by counties. 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Alpine 
 
 Amador 1 
 
 Butte 
 
 Calaveras 
 
 Colusa 
 
 Del Norte 
 
 El Dorado 
 
 Fresno 
 
 Humboldt 
 
 Inyo 
 
 Kern 
 
 Los Angeles 
 
 Lassen 
 
 Mendocino 
 
 Mono 3 
 
 Mariposa 
 
 Modoc 
 
 Merced 
 
 Nevada 3 
 
 Placer 
 
 Plumas 1 
 
 Shasta, 
 
 Stanislaus 
 
 San Diego 
 
 San Bernardino 
 
 Santa Barbara 
 
 Sacramento 
 
 Sisliiyou 
 
 Sierra 
 
 Tuolumne 
 
 Gold. 
 
 81.643 
 
 1,401,310 
 
 616,790 
 
 793,113 
 
 3,251 
 
 10,060 
 
 540,173 
 
 83,513 
 
 19,115 
 
 168,093 
 
 187,155 
 
 13,046 
 
 70.592 
 
 650 
 
 !,380.751 
 
 194,694 
 
 121,067 
 
 1,284 
 
 !,645,525 
 
 830,126 
 
 ,354.685 
 
 347,888 
 
 62,614 
 
 34,631 
 
 8,891 
 
 1,740 
 
 425,631 
 
 547.254 
 
 925,342 
 
 444,684 
 
 Silver. 
 
 82 096 
 
 1,172 
 
 46 
 
 49 
 
 23 
 
 ""sis 
 
 27 
 
 3,345 
 
 59,020 
 
 14,306 
 
 38.166 
 
 170,467 
 1,230 
 1,600 
 
 9,358 
 
 6,699 
 
 163 
 
 85,107 
 
 31,735 
 
 120,060 
 
 Total. 
 
 $3,739 
 
 1,402,482 
 
 646,836 
 
 793,162 
 
 3,784 
 
 10.050 
 
 540,489 
 
 83,540 
 
 22,460 
 
 227.113 
 
 201,461 
 
 51,212 
 
 70,592 
 
 . 660 
 
 3,651,208 
 
 195,924 
 
 122,667 
 
 1,284 
 
 3,654,883 
 
 836,825 
 
 1,354,848 
 
 432,995 
 
 94,349 
 
 34,631 
 
 128,891 
 
 1,740 
 
 425,631 
 
 547,254 
 
 9.31.385 
 
 444,684 
 
 Counties. Gold. 
 
 Trinity $494,666 
 
 Tulare 8,181 
 
 Tehama 278 
 
 Ventura 224 
 
 Yuba 600,101 
 
 Total 817,368,751 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 8494,666 
 8,181 
 278 
 
 600,101 
 
 $550,858 $17,919,609 
 
 NEVADA. 
 
 THIS State, which at one time produced more bullion 
 annually than any other State in the country, now 
 ranks as third, Colorado and California both having 
 exceeded it during the last year. The decrease in 
 production has not been general throughout the State, but 
 mainly in Storey county. Mines outside of the Comstock 
 have not fallen off in their yield, but in many instances have 
 increased in gross yield and net profit. Nearly the whole 
 extent of territory in Nevada is mineral-bearing, though 
 much of the ore found is refractory and of low grade. The 
 great needs of the country are an economical process for 
 working low-grade ores and better and cheaper railway 
 facilities. The latter are being secured by the extension of 
 the Carson and Colorado Railroad through Esmeralda 
 county, and the construction of a new railway from Eureka 
 to Salt Lake, at which point it will become a part of one of 
 the projected transcontinental trunk lines. During the year, 
 eighty-seven mines in the State called for help in the way 
 of assessments, aggregating $6,509,110, as follows : 
 
 Counties. Mines. Assessments. Amcmni. 
 
 Elko 8 17 $320,000 
 
 Esmeralda 9 12 179,500 
 
 Eureka 2 6 207,500 
 
 Humboldt 1 1 7,000 
 
 Lander 1 2 75,000 
 
 Lincoln 3 4 148,000 
 
 Lyon 1 1 6,310 
 
 Nye 4 7 105,000 
 
 Storey 54 113 5,355,800 
 
 White Pine 3 8 106,000 
 
 Total 87 171 86,609,110 
 
 During the same time but eight mines declared dividends, 
 amounting to $l,b97,500 ; these were : 
 
 Mines. Dividends. Amount. 
 
 Eureka Consolidated 9 8225,000 
 
 Exchange 5 1,%000 
 
 Indian Queen 10 57,600 
 
 Navajo 1 .„ 25,000 
 
 North Belle Isle 1 16,000 
 
 Northern Belle 20 400,000 
 
 Eichmond Consolidated 4 540.000 
 
 Starr Grove 6 120^000 
 
 66 $1,397,500 
 
 This State, according to the recently published report of 
 A. J. Hatch, Surveyor-General, contains at the present time 
 108 ore-crushing mills and twenty -six smelting furnaces, by 
 which latter there were last year smelted 98,825 tons of ore ; 
 1,1()8,465 tons of ore having been milled meantime. Seven 
 pan mills worked over 119,523 tons of tailings. These 
 reduction works are of very variable capacity, each being 
 able to put through from two or three to forty or fifty tons 
 every twenty-four hours. There are ten mining ditches in 
 the State, having an aggregate length of fifty-one and a half 
 miles, and a carrying capacity of 20,413 inches of water. 
 
 The following is my estimate of the production of gold 
 and silver in Nevada during the calendar year 1881 by 
 counties : 
 
 Counties. Gold. Silver. Total. 
 
 Elko 830,000 $500,000 8630,000 
 
 Esmeralda a5,000 1,620,000 1,665,000 
 
 Eureka 980,000 1,980,000 2,960,000 
 
 Humboldt 70.000 230,000 300,000 
 
 Lander 5,000 930,000 935,000 
 
 Lincoln 20.000 280,000 300,000 
 
 Nye 15,000^ 500.000 615,000 
 
 Storey (including Lyon) 1,030.000 660,000 1,710,000 
 
 Washoe 5,000 35,000 40,000 
 
 White Pine 40,000 325,000 366,000 
 
 Total $2,250,000 $7,060,000 $9,310,000 
 
 Elko County. — The principal locality where mining is 
 successfully carried on in Elko is in Tuscarora district, in 
 
1070 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES, 
 
 the northwestern part of the county. Less bullion was pro- 
 duced here during the last than in previous years, and did 
 not exceed in value $600,000. The principal mines in the 
 Tuscarora district are the Argenta, Belle Isle, Grand Prize, 
 and Independence. 
 
 The Tttnes Review publishes the following as the ship- 
 ments of Tuscarora bullion for eleven months in 1881, as 
 furnished by the books of Wells, Fargo & Co. : 
 
 January.... 
 February.., 
 
 April.., 
 May., 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 September.. 
 
 October 
 
 November.. 
 
 ,025 04 
 ,224 76 
 ,590 06 
 ,276 13 
 ,745 43 
 ,028 28 
 ,888 63 
 ,972 96 
 ;091 00 
 146 01 
 ,207 U 
 
 Total $385,195 41 
 
 The gross yield of the mines of Elko county for the calen- 
 dar year 1881, as reported to the assessor, was 2,665 tons — 
 value $156,849.61. According to the San Francisco Bulletin, 
 the assessments of the mines of Elko county for the calendar 
 year 1881 Were: 
 
 Mines. Asses^raejits. Amount. 
 
 Argenta 
 
 Belle Me 
 
 Blue Belle Consolidated.. 
 
 Grand Prize 
 
 Howe 
 
 Independence 
 
 Navajo 
 
 Tuscarora 
 
 3 
 
 S40,000 
 
 2 
 
 25,000 
 
 1 
 
 20,000 
 
 4 
 
 115,000 
 
 i 
 
 10,000 
 
 2 
 
 35,000 
 
 2 
 
 45,000 
 
 2 
 
 , 30,000 
 
 Totals... 
 
 $320,000 
 
 The following table shows the production of gold and 
 silver in Elko county, for the year 1880, as reported to the 
 Census Bureau by districts : 
 
 District. 
 
 Blue Jacket 
 
 Columbia 
 
 Good Hope 
 
 Rock Creek 
 
 Tuscarora 
 
 White Rock 
 
 Scattered 
 
 Qiiarfa Qold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Oold and Silva 
 
 $1,639 
 
 $106,600 
 
 $108,239 
 
 105,697 
 
 1,006,917 
 
 1,112,614 
 
 1,840 
 $109,176 
 
 60,000 
 $1,163,517 
 
 61,840 
 $1,272,693 
 
 Total 
 
 I estimate the production of the county for the calendar 
 year 1881 to be gold, $S0,000 ; silver, $500,000. 
 
 Esmeralda County. —This county, situated on the 
 western border of the State, adjoins Mono county, in Cali- 
 iornia, and like the latter has attracted much attention on 
 account of the increasing importance of its mines. While 
 the yield of the precious metals has been gradually decreas- 
 ing in many other counties, it has increased in Esmeralda, 
 until in 1881 the county ranked second in the State. There 
 is a well-grounded feeling that it is better and more profitable 
 to open new mines than to continue the search for new ore 
 bodies in the deep workings of such mines as are on the 
 Coinstock ledge, and the building of the Carson and Colorado 
 Railroad through the heart of the county has induced and 
 aided the search of mineral- bearing ledges in sections of 
 country tributary to the road, and imparted an interest and 
 -prospective consequence greater than has heretofore been 
 attached to this county. 
 
 The gross yield of the mines of Esmeralda county for the 
 calendar year 1881, as reported to the assessor, was 36,509 
 tons, and the value $1,372,828.53. 
 
 The gold and silver production of Esmeralda county, as 
 reported by districts to the Census Bureau for the year 1880, 
 was as follows : 
 
 District. 
 
 Alum Creek 
 
 Black Mountain 
 
 Cambridge 
 
 Columbus 
 
 Dutchman Creek 
 
 Esmeralda 
 
 Gold Mountain 
 
 Lake , 
 
 Lida Valley 
 
 Montezuma 
 
 Mount Grant 
 
 Oneota 
 
 Palmetto 
 
 Santa F(i 
 
 Quartz Gold. Silver. Gold and Silver. 
 
 $48,841 $48,841 . 
 
 $7,675 75 7,750 
 
 18,000 1,171,028 1,189,028 
 
 15,000 
 1,.500 
 
 5,000 
 
 16,575 
 49,718 
 
 20,000 
 
 15,000 
 16,575 
 
 49,718 
 
 District. 
 
 Silver Peak.. 
 
 Volcano 
 
 Washington.. 
 Wilson 
 
 Quarts Gold. Silve>: Gold and Silver _ 
 $13,611 $13,955 $27,669 
 
 74.046 
 
 644 
 
 75,590 
 
 Total $130,735 $1,319,3.36 $1,450,071 
 
 The San Francisco Bulletin gives the following as the 
 assessments of the mines of Esmeralda county for the calen- 
 dar year 1881 : 
 
 Mines. 
 
 Equator 
 
 Holmes 
 
 Juniata Consolidated 
 
 Lodi 
 
 Metallic 
 
 Mt. Potosi Consolidated.. 
 
 Real del Monte 
 
 Tilden 
 
 Vanderbilt 
 
 Assessments. Amount. 
 
 1 $25,000 
 
 2 20,000 
 
 1 2,000 
 
 2 15,000 
 1 12,500 
 
 1 10,000 
 
 2 75,0IX) 
 1 10,000 
 1 10,000 
 
 Total.. 
 
 12 
 
 $179,500 
 
 The production for the year 1881 I estimate at $35,000 
 gold, and $1,620,000 silver. The following mines reported 
 their production during the fiscal year 1881 : Rothschild, 
 Mcintosh & Bauer, Hawkeye, Black Hawk, Northern Belle, 
 Grand Trunk, Shawamut, Consolidated, North Star, Wilson, 
 Mt. Diablo, A. W. Simonson, and Thos. Taylor. 
 
 Eureka County. — Eureka stands foremost in production 
 of all the counties of Nevada. This is largely due to the 
 yield of two great mines, the Richmond, and Eureka Con- 
 solidated, both situated in the southern part of the county, 
 in Eureka district. Through this district a great ore-chan- 
 nel extends along the eastern base of Prospect Mountain 
 from north of Ruby Hill to Secret Canon in the south, a 
 distance of about twelve miles. This is a contact lode in a 
 formation of limestone, quartzite, and shale, and from the 
 various mines scattered along the main lode and its branches 
 and spurs more than $50,000,000 have been taken. 
 
 The Richmond mine is owned by a London company, 
 and by careful, economical, and systematic management has 
 been made, probably, the best paying mine in Nevada. The 
 ore yields about twenty per cent, of base bullion, and of the 
 value of the precious metals one-third is gold and two-thirds 
 silver. The company have their own smelting works two 
 and a half miles from the mine, the ore being transported 
 by rail. Four furnaces are in constant operation, and until 
 the summer of 1881 had been running for two and a half 
 years without stopping. They also have their own foundry 
 and machine-shops, making their own castings. The follow- 
 ing in relation to this mine is from the report of the direct- 
 ors for the last year : 
 
 "The smelting and refining works (which had been in 
 continuous operation since December, 1878) were shut down 
 on May 30, and were, together with the whole machinery, 
 thoroughly repaired and put in order, the furnaces rebuilt, 
 a new steam-engine, a new 'Baker' blower, and other ma- 
 chinery erected. This necessitated, of course, the stoppage 
 of the works for some time (seven weeks), the repairs re- 
 quired after such a long run being very heavy. Smelting 
 was resumed on July 18, and from that date to the present 
 everything at the works has been running smoothly and 
 well. Extensive explorations have been made in the mine 
 during the half year ; 3,586 feet of drifts and winzes have 
 been run and sunk, low-grade ore and bunches of galena 
 have been found in the 200, and favorable indications for 
 ore in several other places." 
 
 On November 1st the directors received telegram from Mr. 
 Probert : " Indication favorable for fourteenth chamber con- 
 tinuing downward northerly ; followed ore streak thirty feet 
 below 600 level; only prospect yet, take month to develop." 
 After giving other telegrams showing the value to be main- 
 tained, the report continues: "This strike or find is by far 
 the most important that has taken place in the mine for a 
 long time, and it is impossible to estimate its value or foresee 
 its results. The shareholders must remember that up to this 
 time no ore has been discovered in the mine below the 600. 
 The cave was struck at a depth of thirty-five feet below the 
 600, and good ore found in the bottom ; a winze has been 
 sunk fifty feet from the bottom of this cave, all the way in 
 ore, and the ore body is now flattening and extending north- 
 ward, looking strong, and promising well for a chamber with 
 a flat floor, which has always been the most profitable sort 
 of ore body." 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1071 
 
 Mr. Rickard, writing on this subject, says: "This is un- 
 doubtedly the continuation in depth of the large ore cham- 
 bers found above the tiOO ; and the fact of it (the ore body) 
 making below the 600 is of great importance, and cannot be 
 too highly appreciated." With the view of further proving 
 the mine at deep levels the main or Richmond shaft has 
 been sunk 330 feet below the 900, and is now down 1,230 
 feet from the surface. The shaft itself being in the quartzite, 
 a drift has been started at the 1,200 in a northerly direction 
 in order to cut the ore-bearing ground (the limestone); this 
 drift has been run 212 feet, and it is expected that the lime- 
 stone will be reached with about 100 feet further driving. 
 
 During the nineteen weeks of the half year that the fur- 
 naces have been running they have reduced 15,200 tons of 
 Richmond ore and 821 tons of purchased ore, together 16,- 
 041 tons; the average yield per ton being $57.08 (Eureka 
 assay value). No. 4 furnace, which smelts principally low- 
 grade Richmond and purchased ore mixed with the drosses 
 from the refinery, has smelted 8,606 tons of Richmond and 
 178 tons of purchased ore. The total quantity smelted by 
 the three furnaces being 19,825 tons, yielding 3,453 tons of 
 lead, 395,578 ounces of silver, and 13,012 ounces of gold. 
 The purchased ore is less than six per cent, of the total 
 quantity smelted, whereas in the corresponding half year it 
 was as much as twenty-seven per cent. Then follows a table 
 showing 15,790 tons to be the quantity of ore smelted by the 
 two large furnaces as cabled weekly, and the gross estimated 
 value of the bullion (gold, silver, and lead), at Eureka assay 
 value, to be $907,000. 
 
 The refinery was shut down on June 7th, and started again 
 on August 2d, since which time it has been working contin- 
 uously, and well treating all the ore produced at the works, 
 as well as 319 tons of purchased bullion. The returns of 
 the refinery (closed down eight weeks) show the gross esti- 
 mated value of the dore bars (gold and silver), also at 
 Eureka assay value, to be $850,000. After charging revenue 
 with all the costs and expenses of rebuilding the furnaces, 
 providing new machinery, and putting the works in a 
 thorough state of repair, the profits for the half year, 
 although the works were shut down so long, will probably be 
 between £50,000 and £60,000. The price of lead has im- 
 proved, and the company is sending it forward for sale as 
 quickly as possible ; the latest quotation at New York for 
 small parcels is five cents per pound (£20 per ton). The 
 Richmond furnaces have the reputation of being the largest 
 smelters in the world. The accumulation of lead in that 
 company's premises is something wonderful. There must 
 have been in July the vicinity of 50,000 tons of market 
 metal lying outside the refinery. There is an acre of ground 
 piled solidly five feet high with pigs of lead. Writing from 
 Eureka, Nev., a correspondent of the San Jose Mercury, 
 says of the Richmond mine: "The stock of this company 
 is owned entirely in London. It is reputed to be the best 
 paying mine in the world. It has already produced $61,000,- 
 000 of the precious metal without a single assessment of the 
 stockholders in the nine years of its existence. They have 
 their own smelting works, which are located in the south 
 end of the town, about two and one-half miles from the 
 mine, and their ore is transported by rail. This is probably 
 the largest and most perfect work of the kind in the world, 
 connected directly with their own mine, having their own 
 refinery and machine-shops, and making their own castings, 
 etc., on the premises. They run four furnaces night and 
 day, smelting 200 tons of ore per diem. Of the yield of the 
 ore thirty-three per cent, is gold and sixty-six per cent, 
 silver, and one ton of lead to five tons of ore. The quality 
 of the ore in the two mines is about the same. The Rich- 
 mond employs 500 men at mine and furnace, and as many 
 more outside in furnishing wood and coal. They consume 
 5,000 bushels of clear coal per day, and 1,000 cords of wood 
 per month; coal costing twenty-five cents per bushel and 
 wood $7 per cord, delivered at the works. The smelting 
 works were shut down for repair last week, and will remain 
 closed for one month. They have been running constantly 
 for two and a half years without stopping. They have now 
 piled up in their yards 12,000 tons of lead ready for ship- 
 ping, which will cost at present rates $100,000 to pay freight." 
 
 The shipment of the Richmond during the calendar year, 
 reported in the Engineering and Mining Journal of bullion 
 for the quarter, was $672,135. 
 
 The Eureka Consolidated has had from the time it was 
 first opened a prosperous existence. The company was 
 organized a dozen years since, with a nominal capital of 
 $5,000,000 in 50,000 shares, only §100,000 of which was 
 actually paid up and used in developing the mine and 
 placing it on a self-sustaiuiug basis. The mine commenced 
 to pay dividends in 1871, and has paid seventy-two, ranging 
 from thirty cents to $3 per share. The dividends were as 
 follows : 
 
 Number. Avimmt. 
 
 1871 6 S275.000 
 
 1S73 : i 200,000 
 
 1S74 4 175,000 
 
 8 300.000 
 
 1875.. 
 1877.. 
 1878.. 
 1879.. 
 1880.. 
 1881.. 
 
 Totals.. 
 
 4 
 
 600,000 
 
 12 
 
 1,800,000 
 
 12 
 
 825,000 
 
 12 
 
 280,000 
 
 10 
 
 260,000 
 
 72 
 
 $4,705,000 
 
 The payment of dividends was suspended in November, 
 1881, and the surplus funds on hand retained to pay for im- 
 provements that were being made, the sinking of a new shaft 
 and the erection of extensive works. The mine is explored 
 to the fourteenth level, but the wiiter is too heavy to allow 
 much work to be done until after the new pumping machinery 
 is in operation. The principal extraction of ore was from 
 the eighth and ninth levels. The new machinery consists 
 of six large boilers, two engines for working the hydraulic 
 rams, hoisting engines, and other appliances connected with 
 the hydraulic work. The pumping capacity is estimated at 
 30,000 gallons per minute on a rise of 3,000 feet. Besides 
 the company's regular force, considerable work has been done 
 by tributers and ore taken out from the twelfth level up. 
 Taken as a whole, the mine is looking well and a large 
 amount of ore in sight. The indications are favorable for 
 the continuation of the ore channel to a great depth. On 
 the twelfth level the ledge-narrowed until the hanging and 
 foot walls were scarcely a foot apart, but they rapidly di- 
 verged, and the thirteenth level shows an ore body thirty- 
 five feet wide, and the fourteenth one of 109 feet in width. 
 The following from the secretary's annual report shows the 
 condition of the company's account : 
 
 From 5,396 tons base bullion 81,720,313 
 
 Sales of candles 1,260 
 
 Sales of powder, fuse, and caps 3,384 
 
 Sale of boiler 500 
 
 Sales of lumber, hardware, etc 99 
 
 Discount on coal receipts 444 
 
 Assaying .■ 3 
 
 Total receipts, 1880-81 81,726,003 
 
 Superintendent's drafts 19,902 
 
 Cash in hands .superintendent, October 9, 1880 97 
 
 Cash on hand, October, 9, 1880 24,521 
 
 Total resources $1,770,623 
 
 The output of the Eureka Consolidated for the quarter 
 ending September 30, 1881, as reported to the county asses- 
 sor, was $305,074.90, its mining expenses $248,277.05, and, 
 according to statements published in the Mining Record, 
 bullion to the value of $1,396,618 was shipped during the 
 year. 
 
 The Header, in publishing the assessor's statement of the 
 proceeds of the mines of the district for the first quarter of 
 the year, said : 
 
 "Assessor Wallace's statement of the proceeds of mines 
 for quarter ending March 31, 1881, makes most gratifying 
 showing for district, and shows most decided increase in out- 
 put of mines. Gross yield for quarter, according to his ac- 
 count, is $916,524.37. Compared with the yield of the pre- 
 vious quarter, it shows an advance of $60,830.33, and makes 
 encouraging increase of $114,153 in the two quarters last 
 past. As compared with preceding quarter, the last shows 
 the total cost of extraction, transportation, reduction, etc., to 
 be $47,629.23 less, and tax derived from mines $3,283.70 
 more. There were also 769J tons more ore extracted, the 
 average assay of which was $41.82 per ton for yield of entire 
 district. This marked increase in yield of district is most 
 encouraging, and it demonstrates that mining in Eureka, 
 instead of dying out, is steadily growing in importance. 
 Mines throughout were never in a healthier or more pros- 
 perous condition. The Richmond Company produced past 
 quarter $447,286.86 — an increase over preceding quarter of 
 
1072 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 $40,155.44, and Eureka Consolidated produced $344,550.50— 
 an increase of $5,050.50. Not alone on these two important 
 properties is advance noticeable, but along entire line. 
 Present mining outlook of the camp, we can candidly say, is 
 better now than ever has been. Capital is seeking invest- 
 ment in Eureka from all directions, both at home and abroad, 
 and prospects are that more money will be expended in de- 
 veloping mines this season than ever before. With present 
 outlook, and judging from returns of iirst quarter, 1881 will 
 bring a yield to Eureka of at least four and a half or five 
 millions. Idaho, Colorado, New Mexico, and other great 
 mining centers may boast of richer mines, but we defy them 
 to produce a steadier or more reliable camp than Eureka, or 
 one with more promising prospects." 
 
 The Sentinel, of November last, published the following 
 condensed statement of the bullion production of the mines 
 of Eureka district for the quarter ending September 30, 1881, 
 coiidensed from the assessor's statement : " The following 
 Eureka mines produced ore during the quarter: Eureka Con- 
 solidated, Garrison, Jackson, Richmond, Williamsburg, Al- 
 toona, Alexandria, Antelope, Apex, Bully Boy, Banner, 
 Bowman, California, Cumberland, Connelly, Dead Broke, 
 Eureka Tunnel, El Dorado No. 2, Elise, Excelsior, Geddes 
 and Bertrand, Good Hope, Giant, Helena, Montana, Hercu- 
 lean, Idaho, Kit Carson, Lone Pine, Maid Queen, May Queen, 
 May Flower, Mountain Boy, Macon City, Members, North 
 Macon City, Orange, Oriental, Probert, Phoenix, Piute, Ruby- 
 Dunderberg Consolidated, Reindeer, Rocky Point, Silver 
 Lick, Silver West, Swallow, and Silver Connor. The Rich- 
 mond leads in production for the time named, the gross yield 
 having been $315,620.48. Eureka Consolidated comes next, 
 with an output of $305,074.90. The Richmond deducted for 
 vforking expenses $229,255.35, and the Eureka Consolidated 
 $248,277.05. The former paid taxes on $86,355.09, and the 
 latter $56,707.47. The Garrison of Cortez paid $7,821.98 ; 
 the Jackson of this district on $660.77, and the Williams- 
 burg on $780.17. The Ruby-Duuderberg returned a total 
 yield of $68,606.73, and was allowed the whole amount to 
 offset expenses. The other mines produced from a few tons 
 to several hundred, but were exempt from the quarterly tax 
 under the law. The gross yield of the district was $758,- 
 356.72, and the net yield $152,425.50. The amount of tax 
 collected was $3,810 63. The showing falls short of the pre- 
 ceding quarter, but for what reason we do not know." 
 
 The following statement from the books of the county as- 
 sessor shows the product of Eureka county for a series of 
 nine years : 
 
 1873. 
 First quarter.. 
 Second " 
 Third " .. 
 rourtli " .. 
 
 Tons. 
 5,612 
 18,429 
 26,532 
 26,034 
 
 Valite. 
 8191,530.87 
 713,521.95 
 995,603 44 
 914,911.96 
 
 Totals.. 
 
 1874. 
 First quarter- 
 Second " 
 Third " .. 
 Fourth " .. 
 
 Totals.. 
 
 1875. 
 First quarter.. 
 Second " 
 Third " ... 
 Fourth " ... 
 
 Totals.. 
 
 1876. 
 Firet quarter.. 
 Second " ... 
 Third " .. 
 Fourth " .. 
 
 Totals.. 
 
 76,637 
 
 82,815,568.22 
 
 11,316 
 13,670 
 23,173 
 26,306 
 
 424,142.83 
 489,396.15 
 781,297.32 
 842,146.73 
 
 71,365 
 
 82,536,983.03 
 
 18,851 
 26,838 
 24,878 
 13,764 
 
 729,931.31 
 984,931.69 
 910,798.70 
 561,419.48 
 
 84,331 
 
 83,187,071.13 
 
 9,030 
 8,051 
 18,886 
 16,860 
 
 370,073.79 
 855,324.10 
 830,704.47 
 551,499.22 
 
 53,427 
 
 82,117,601.58 
 
 1877. 
 First quarter.. 
 Second " .. 
 
 20.392 
 10,746 
 
 828,075.12 
 401,590.17 
 
 1877. Tons. 
 
 Third quarter.. 16,001 
 Fourth " .. 35.033 
 
 Value. 
 817,456.67 
 730,803.80 
 
 Totals 112,172 82,796.826.36 
 
 1878. 
 First quarter.. 
 Second " 
 Third " .. 
 Fourth " .. 
 
 31,254 
 32,850 
 27,822 
 28,266 
 
 1,600,523.41 
 1,667,152.88 
 1,162,043.23 
 1,026,631.60 
 
 Totals.. 
 
 1879. 
 First quarter.. 
 Second " 
 Third " .. 
 Fourth " .. 
 
 Totals.. 
 
 First quarter.. 
 Second " 
 Third " .. 
 Fourth " .. 
 
 Totals.. 
 
 120,162 
 
 85,456,351.12 
 
 34.895 
 26,862 
 25,283 
 23,015 
 
 1,142,586.57 
 876,825.45 
 902,679.81 
 822,196.79 
 
 110,055 
 
 83,744,288.62 
 
 23,532 
 20,944 
 21,799 
 21,014 
 
 8885,768.91 
 891,482.12 
 802,370.49 
 849,091.93 
 
 . 87,289 
 
 83,428,728.45 
 
 Tms. 
 21,913 
 18,435 
 18.938 
 . 17,732 
 
 Fate. 
 8916,524.37 
 738,104.64 
 758,356.72 
 703,849.65 
 
 1881. 
 First quarter. 
 Second " 
 Third " .. 
 Fourth " 
 
 Totals 77,018 83,116,835.18 
 
 The number of tons worked during the nine years 774,724 • 
 amo'int realized, $28,496,499.14. To this sum should be 
 added twenty-five per cent, discount on bullion, etc., which 
 would swell the total to a much higher figure. 
 
 During the year 1881, Wells, Fargo & Co. shipped the 
 
 following amounts of refined bullion, as reported by the 
 Eureka Sentinel: 
 
 January 
 
 February 161; 
 
 March 175, 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 174, 
 184, 
 62 
 July.. 
 
 August 168, 
 
 September 160. 
 
 October 171, 
 
 November 141 
 
 December , 146, 
 
 ,084 00 
 ,663 00 
 ,228 00 
 ,259 00 
 ,080 00 
 ,157 00 
 
 ,612 00 
 722 00 
 ,803 00 
 ,397 00 
 ,000 00 
 
 Total shipments 81,872,000 00 
 
 Reports of production have been received from the fol- 
 lowing mines: Wilson, Connolly, Richmond, Ruby- Dunder- 
 berg, California, Emma, Albion, Banner, Lone Pine, Wen- 
 ham, Silver Lick, and Eureka Consolidated. 
 
 The gross yield of the mines of Eureka county for the 
 calendar vear 1881, as reported to the assessor, was 75,495 
 tons ; value, $3,074,980. 
 
 According to the San Francisco Bulletin, the assessments 
 of the mines of the county for the calendar year 1881 were : 
 
 Mines. 
 Albion Consolidated.., 
 Phoenix 
 
 Assessments. 
 5 
 1 
 
 Total.. 
 
 Amouni. 
 
 8202,500 
 
 5,000 
 
 8207,000 
 
 The following table shows the production of gold and 
 silver in Eureka county, as reported to the Census Bureau 
 by districts, for the year 1880 : 
 
 Distruit. 
 
 Quartz Gold. 
 
 Cortez 
 
 Eurelca 81,300,122 
 
 Secret Canon 
 
 Total 81,300,122 
 
 Silver. 
 
 8123,053 
 
 2,634,499 
 
 11,350 
 
 $2,768,902 
 
 Gold and Silver. 
 8123,063 
 3,934,621 
 11,360 
 
 84,069.024 
 
 My estimate for the production of the calendar year 1881 
 is $980,000 gold and $1,980,000 silver. 
 
 Humboldt County.— Humboldt county, situated in the 
 northwestern part of the State, possesses a vast extent of 
 desert country interspersed with mountain ranges in which 
 are found numerous ledges rich in the precious metals ; but 
 few of which, however, have been developed into mines of 
 permanency and acknowledged value. 
 
 The following mines of Humboldt county reported pro- 
 duction during the year : Lang Syne, Ohio, Iowa Consoli- 
 dated, Mary Wilder, Bullion, Arizona Silver, Paradise 
 Valley, and De Soto. The amount reported was $237,000 
 gold and $70,000 silver. The gross yield of the mines of 
 Humboldt county for the calendar year 1881, as reported to 
 the assessor, was 8,910 tons; value, $76,298.71. The assess- 
 ment upon Paradise mine in this county, according to the 
 San Francisco Bulletin, for the same period was $7,000. The 
 gold and silver production of Humboldt county for the year 
 1880, as reported to the Census Bureau by districts, was as 
 follows : 
 
 District. Quartz Gold. Silver. Gold and Silmr. 
 
 Bradshaw 
 
 Bucljslcin 
 
 Buena Vista 84,600 
 
 Congo 
 
 Mount Rose 26,259 
 
 Rebel Creeli 600 
 
 Richmond 
 
 Sierra 34,078 
 
 Silver State 
 
 Winnemucca 
 
 $26,000 
 
 63 
 
 272,702 
 
 4,600 
 
 830,500 
 
 63 
 
 298,961 
 
 6,000 
 
 34,078 
 
 Total ««,5,3S7 8303,265 
 
 8368,602 
 
 My estimate of the production of the county for the cal- 
 endar year 1881 is $70,000 gold and $230,000 silver. 
 
 Lander County. — Lander county is near the center of 
 Nevada and adjoins Eureka on the west. It was formerly 
 the largest in the State, comprising what are now Eureka, 
 White Pine, Elko, and Lander, about one-fourth of the 
 whole area. The well-known Reese river country is in- 
 cluded in its present limits. 
 
 The following mines of Lander county have reported their 
 production during the year: Manhattan, Defiance, and 
 Starr-Grove. 
 
 The amount of gold and silver produced in Lander county 
 by districts, as reported by the Census Bureau for the year 
 1880, was as follows : 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1073 
 
 
 District. 
 
 Quartz. 
 
 Toua Gold 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 and Silver. 
 
 Lewis „ 
 
 
 $170,000 
 939,876 
 
 $170,000 
 939,876 
 
 Reese River. 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 $1,109,876 
 
 $1,109,876 
 
 
 
 The gross yield of the mines in this county for the calen- 
 dar year 1881, as reported to the assessor, was 6,959 tons ; 
 value, $929,795.89. According to the San Francisco Bull^ 
 efo're, there were two assessments upon the Betty O'Neal mine 
 of the amount of $75,000. My estimate for the calendar year 
 1881, of the production of gold and silver in Lander county, 
 is $5,000 gold and $930,000 silver. 
 
 Lincoln County. — Lincoln county is situated in the 
 southeastern part of Nevada, and comprises a large extent 
 of territory over which the various mining camps are widely 
 scattered. 
 
 The following mines reported their production during the 
 last year: Bristol, Mayflower, Ohio, Day, Southwestern, 
 and BuUionville Smelting Company. 
 
 The gross yield of the mines of Lincoln county for the cal- 
 endar year 1881, as reported to the assessor, was 14,465 tons ; 
 value, $301,808.89. The San Francisco Bulletin states the 
 assessments of the mines of the county for the calendar year 
 1881 as follows: 
 
 Mines. Assessments. Amou-itt. 
 
 Day 
 
 Hillside 
 
 Meadow Valley- 
 
 Totals.. 
 
 $30,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 18,000 
 
 , $148,000 
 
 The following table shows the productionof gold and silver 
 in Lincoln county for the year 1880, as reported to the Cen- 
 sus Bureau by districts: 
 
 District. 
 
 Bristol 
 
 Eldorado.. 
 Ely.. 
 
 Gold Quarlz. Silver. 
 
 Gold and SUver. 
 
 $324,401 
 
 $1,739 12.753 
 562 170,122 
 
 $324,401 
 14,492 
 170,684 
 
 Total.. 
 
 $2,301 $507,276 $509,577 
 
 My estimate of the production of the county for the cal- 
 endar year 1881 is gold, $20,000; silver, $280,000. 
 
 Nye County. — This county is in Southern Nevada, with 
 Esmeralda county on the west and Lincoln on the east. 
 The principal mines are situated in the northern and north- 
 western portions of the county. 
 
 The following mines made reports of production during 
 the year : La Salle, Fisherman, Liberty, Barcelona, For- 
 lorn, Alexander, Good Hope, Tybo Consolidated, and Con- 
 tinental. The gross yield of the mines of Nye county for 
 the calendar year 1881, as reported to the assessor, was 12,- 
 148 tons ; value, $362,431.54. 
 
 According to the San Francisco Bulletin, the assessments 
 of the mines of this county for the calendar year 1881 were 
 as follows : 
 
 Mines. Assessments. 
 
 Alexander 1 
 
 Belmont 4 
 
 Gila 1 
 
 Liguria 1 
 
 Total.. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 $30,000 
 23,000 
 25,000 
 25,000 
 
 $105,000 
 
 The amount of gold and silver produced in the county of 
 Nye by districts, as reported by the Census Bureau for the 
 year 1881, was as follows : 
 
 District. 
 
 lone 
 
 Jet 
 
 Lodi 
 
 Lone Mountain 
 
 Mammoth or ElLsworth.. 
 
 Morey 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 San Antonio 
 
 Silver .Star 
 
 Sunnyside 
 
 Tybo 
 
 Union - - 
 
 Quartz. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 S,208 
 335 
 
 Total.. 
 
 $26,543 
 
 Silver. 
 
 $14,400 
 40,322 
 
 30,000 
 
 183,792 
 363,474 
 
 $631,988 
 
 Total Gold 
 and Silver. 
 
 $14,400 
 40,322 
 
 30,000 
 
 210.000 
 363,809 
 
 $658,531 
 
 68 
 
 My estimate of the production for the calendar year 1881 
 is: gold, $15,000; silver, $500,000. 
 
 Storey County. — Storey county, which for years pro- 
 duced more bullion than any equal extent of territory in the 
 United States, has been decreasing in production for the 
 past four years. This may be shown by a comparison of the 
 yield by six months' periods : 
 
 From January 1 to June 30, 1880 $2,802,133 
 
 From July 1 to December 31, 1880 1,478,774 
 
 From January 1 to .June 30, 1881 861,731 
 
 From July 1 to December 31, 1881 607,187 
 
 This decrease has been due to the falling off in production 
 of the Comstock Lode, and mainly in that of two mines, the 
 California and Consolidated Virginia. These two mines 
 made a shipment on December 29, 1877, of the following 
 amounts as the result of eight days' run : The California, 
 129 bars, weighing 16,130 pounds, valued at $558,904 ; the 
 Consolidated Virginia, 133 bars, weighing 16,668 pounds, 
 and worth §540,196, or a total for the two mines of 16 tons 
 798 pounds of bullion, of a value of §1,099,100. The total 
 production of all the mines on the Comstock during the year 
 1881 was only about $1,100,000, but little more than the one 
 shipment above mentioned. During the year no extensive 
 or rich ore-bodies were discovered, although vigorous pros- 
 pecting was carried on in all the prominent mines. The 
 Yellow Jacket mine has been worked to the 3,000-foot level, 
 and others to the 2,600 and 2,800 foot, and this deep exploit- 
 ation has not been done in extracting ore, or follcrwing rich 
 mineral-bearing veins; on the contrary, but little ore has 
 been raised compared to the magnitude of the workings, and 
 of a low grade only. The hope of striking large bodies of 
 rich ore such as rendered the Bonanza mines famous, has 
 been the stimulus for the further sinking of shafts and 
 driving of levels. The Yellow Jacket, previous to 1871, 
 paid in dividends $2,184,000, but, although it has been a 
 steady assessor of its stockholders for the greater part of 
 the last ten years, it has continued the work of exploration 
 until its deepest shaft, -on the 1st of July last, had cost 
 $1,674,203.53 without finding ore, while its total assessments 
 have amounted to $4,098,000, Its expenditures during the 
 year ending June 30, 1881, were $549,740, of which were 
 paid $27,230 for drifting 743 feet of the Sutro Tunnel. 
 These expenses were chiefly incurred for pumping and re- 
 pairs. While 1,056 feet of drifts were run, and 980 feet 
 were sunk with the diamond drill. 
 
 The Superintendent says: "From April 16, when con- 
 nection was made with the Sutro Tunnel, to June 20, or in a 
 little more than two months, we pumped and hoisted 6,000,- 
 000 gallons, or 360,000 tons of water. We have had since 
 that time a steady flow of sixty miners' inches, or 720 gal- 
 lons per minute. The cost of raising this weight of water, 
 3,900 tons a day, from the 3,000-foot level to the Sutro 
 Tunnel, about 1,600 feet, is greater than that required to 
 work some of the largest and most profitable mines in the 
 country. The Yellow Jacket, at the present time, is simply 
 a prospect, and cannot be called a productive mine." 
 
 No very considerable amount of high-grade ore has been 
 developed below the 1,600-foot level in any of the mines, 
 except in the Union Consolidated, which had ore fi-om the 
 2,100 to the 2,400 foot levels. The Utah mine is now down 
 to the 2,500 level, and no ore has been developed in any 
 portion of the mine. Cross-cuts and drifts have been run 
 from the vertical shaft and inclines. A cross-drift is' now 
 being run east from the bottom of the incline (2,500), and 
 no ore has as yet been found. The Sierra Nevada has no de- 
 veloped ore of any value on the 2,500 level, although a 
 krge amount of exploitation has been done. The joint 
 Sierra Nevada and Union Consolidated winze is down to the 
 2,800 level, and but little ore has been found. It is hoped 
 that the Union Consolidated may develop ore on the 2,700 
 level ; but the chances are that it will not pay the expense 
 of extracting and milling. The Ophir and Mexican have a 
 joint winze that has been sunk from the 2,500 level to the 
 2,910 level, and a cro.ss-drift has been run east from the 
 2,900 level of the winze several hundred feet, and no ore has 
 been encountered, although a large amount of promising 
 vein material has been passfed through. The California and 
 Consolidated Virginia have gone at some depth below the 
 2,500 level, and have made no development of ore. The 
 Best & Belcher and Gould & Curry have extended their 
 
1074 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 exploration to a depth of 2,118 feet and have not succeeded 
 in finding ore. As yet the Savage, Hale & Norcross, Chol- 
 lar, and Potosi have found no ore on the 2,400 level, although 
 there has been no search for it beyond running a drift from 
 the combination shaft (a drain shaft for those mines). 
 What little ore the above mines have had below the 1,600 
 level has been of low grade. The Julia and Bullion that 
 have been sunk on to the depth of about 2,500 feet, have 
 had no ore in any of their levels from the surface. The 
 Crown Point and Belcher have carried their workings down 
 to the 3,000-foot level and no ore of value has been developed. 
 This continued work of underground exploration has been 
 carried on at an immense expenditure of capital and labor, 
 and probably nowhere in the world has the science of deep 
 mining been carried to greater perfection than in Storey 
 county. One great problem that has severely taxed the 
 patience and ingenuity of the mining engineer has been the 
 handling of the water. In some cases assessments have 
 been made and expended in keeping pumps running at 
 great expense without anything further being accomplished. 
 During the year the hydraulic pump at the combination 
 shaft was set to work raising water to the level of the Sutro 
 Tunnel, througli which it is discharged, and this has per- 
 mitted much work which otherwise could not have been 
 done if each mine unaided had attempted to keep its own 
 workings free from water. No dividends have been declared 
 by any Storey county mine during the year; on the con- 
 trary, not only has the entire bullion product been consumed 
 in further exploration, but 113 assessments were levied, 
 aggregating $5,855,800. The following is a condensed 
 statement of the assesments in Storey county for 1881 : 
 
 Mine. Assessment. Amount. 
 
 Alpha 
 
 Alta 
 
 Andes 
 
 Belcher 
 
 Benton 
 
 Best & Belcher 
 
 Bonanza 
 
 Bullion 
 
 Caledonia 
 
 California 
 
 Concordia 
 
 Confidence 
 
 Consolidated Dorado 
 
 Consolidated Imperial 
 
 Consolidated Virginia 
 
 Crown Point 
 
 ChoUar 
 
 Exchequer 
 
 Flowery 
 
 Gold Lead 
 
 Gould & Curry 
 
 Hale & Norcross 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Justice 
 
 Julia Consolidated 
 
 Kentuck 
 
 Lady Washington 
 
 Leviathan 
 
 Lord of Lorn 
 
 Lower Comstock 
 
 Mexican 
 
 Morning Star ..' 
 
 New Wells Fargo 
 
 New York 
 
 North Gould & Curry 
 
 North Sierra Nevada 
 
 Ophir 
 
 Original Gold Hill 
 
 Original Keystone 
 
 Overman 
 
 Phil Sheridan "" 
 
 Potosi '„', 
 
 Prdspect '," 
 
 Saraye ',',','.*!"" 
 
 Segregated Belcher ',.,",', 
 
 Sherwood Consolidated 
 
 Scorpion "'.,'. 
 
 Sierra Nevada 
 
 Silver Hill '._"'.'. 
 
 Trojan 
 
 Union Consolidated .'.....' '..'. 
 
 Utah ;';;■■,■.■ 
 
 Utah Extension ."' 
 
 Yellow Jacket ' 
 
 1 
 3 
 2 
 3 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 5 
 5 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 3 
 1 
 3 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 ■5 
 4 
 2 
 3 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 4 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 4 
 1 
 
 Total.. 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 4 
 3 
 1 
 3 
 3 
 1 
 3 
 
 113 
 
 830,000 
 
 162,000 
 
 75,000 
 
 234,000 
 
 54,000 
 
 100,800 
 
 15,000 
 
 370.000 
 
 126,000 
 
 162,000 
 
 75,000 
 
 12,600 
 
 10,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 162,000 
 
 175,000 
 
 66,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 13,000 
 
 108,000 
 
 308,000 
 
 21,0J0 
 
 52.600 
 
 99,000 
 
 24,000 
 
 10,800 
 
 25,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 302,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 25.000 
 
 10,000 
 
 201.600 
 
 3,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 230,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 168,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 252,000 
 
 12,800 
 
 5,000 
 
 S.J.OUO 
 
 400,000 
 
 81.000 
 
 10,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 120,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 360,0 00 
 
 «5,356,800 
 
 That more work was not accomplished than has been, by 
 the expenditure of this large sum of money, is not surprising 
 when the great depth at which the operations are conducted 
 IS considered As an illustration of the cost of sinking deep 
 shafts, the following IS a statement of the disbursements for 
 the 0. and 0. shaft during the year: 
 
 Office supplies and repairs «, .,o ,„ 
 
 Miscellaneous supplies Z^l^Z 28460 38 
 
 Candles : $6,736 70 
 
 Powder, caps, and fuse 18,977 50 
 
 Timber 19,890 24 
 
 Wood 106,671 99 
 
 •Oils 4,364 68 
 
 lee .* ; 24,724 35 
 
 Water 9,600 00 
 
 Wire cable 2,373 44 
 
 Salaries 1,800 00 
 
 Wages 112,125 34 
 
 Eeal Estate 750 OO 
 
 Team expense 77 00 
 
 Contribution account 90 00 
 
 Interest and exchange 333 86 
 
 Taxes 4,073 58 
 
 Pumping 10,037 50 
 
 Surveying 1,800 00 
 
 Legal expenses 20,410 60 
 
 Transportation and hauling 3,027 10 
 
 Balance, cash on hand 457 70 
 
 Total K77,200 05 
 
 This shaft in January was 2,494 feet deep, and was sunk 
 thirty-three feet below the 2,500-foot level. A sump drift 
 was run out fifty feet from the bottom and stationary double 
 plunger pumps, with the requisite balance bobs and tanks 
 put in at the 2,400 and 2,500 foot levels. The Sierra Nevada, 
 Mexican, and Union Combination shaft was sunk 130 feet 
 lower than the 2,600-foot level, and the necessary sump drift, 
 stations, etc., excavated, and the main line of pumps ex- 
 tended, at a total cost of $301,689.93, or $2,320.68 per foot. A 
 description of the underground workings of the well-known 
 minesof Storey county would be imperfect and unimportant. 
 They have the same general character and history, induced 
 by a vigorous and persistent search for large bodies of pay 
 ore. In the lower levels the same vein material is found as 
 was met with above, but it is of so low grade as, in most 
 cases, not to pay the expenses of its extraction and reduction. 
 The expensive nature of the work performed may be gathered 
 from the reports of two or three of the representative com- 
 panies. The California mine raised 6,175 tons of ore and 
 13,299 tons of waste. The ore milled seventy-nine per cent, 
 of its assay value and yielded an average" of $19.77 per 
 ton, or $82,146.10 gold, and $39,961.16 silver— a total of 
 $122,107.26. The receipts and expenditures of the mine 
 were as follows : 
 
 Receipts. 
 
 Bullion on hand at last annual statement ?34,3J9 03 
 
 Cash on hand at last annual statement 903 42 
 
 Samples on hand at last annual statement 65 91 
 
 Gross product of mine foi- 1881 12'>182 32 
 
 Assessment No. 1 "'".Z 162,000 00 
 
 Overdraft, January 18, 1882, at Nevada Bank 74,630 25 
 
 Total 8394,140 93 
 
 ,804 
 ,580 
 ,381 
 ,006 
 ,097 
 ,058 
 
 3,706 
 746 
 148 
 
 2,856 
 
 Disbursements. 
 
 Overdraft, last annual statement $9 
 
 Salaries and wages 55' 
 
 Supplies :;■.;■;.:;: so 
 
 Hoisting jQ 
 
 Compressed air !!.!!!!"! 6 
 
 Sutro Tunnel royalty .' 3' 
 
 Suction fan 3' 
 
 Assaying account .-. ",' 
 
 Team account 
 
 Taxes '" 
 
 Pumping expenses 75:; 
 
 Bullion Jreiglit iS? 
 
 Virginia City expense j 339 
 
 C. and C. joint shaft " 126*200 
 
 Real estate, Virginia City .',,', iy>5 
 
 Interest and exchange 6027 
 
 Legal expense li*9'>3 
 
 Advertising ;'.'.'. 4'o,67 
 
 Discount on bullion % lo'lOi 
 
 Refining charges on bullion '997 
 
 San Francisco office expenses 37=17 
 
 Books and stationery Vin 
 
 Cash on hand j ,7 V 
 
 Samples on hand '.Z..Z..'.[ ' 14 
 
 '^°^'^^ S394,U0 93 
 
 From the Consolidated Virginia 6,435 tons of ore and 
 8,807 tons of waste rock were raised. The total bullion yield 
 was $144,064.10, or $21.13 per ton. The receipts and ex- 
 penditures were as follows : 
 
 Heceipts. 
 
 December 31, 1880, cash on hand «i ceo m 
 
 Samples on hand '^'Vt? 52 
 
 Assaying ;..." „ i;r; ?„ 
 
 Supplies :::;:......:... n'w-« 
 
 Best & Belcher, joint work u'n?9 S 
 
 Drafts on secretary airiw^ ni 
 
 Samples produced .................:.:::: :" '?S47 
 
 Suction fans ;:.;-.-;.: 13,^ H 
 
 Total.. 
 
 $367,792 98 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1075 
 
 XHsbursements. 
 
 Salaries ; J6,000 00 
 
 Wages 83,079 60 
 
 Timber 7,793 72 
 
 Ice 6,547 82 
 
 Candles 2,240 36 
 
 Powder, fuse, and caps 8,966 04 
 
 Miscellaneous supplies 6,441 01 
 
 Office expenses 707 84 
 
 Assay office wages 6,906 51 
 
 Assay office supplies 3,688 05 
 
 Team expense 284 75 
 
 Legal expense 3,517 05 
 
 Tax on real estate 1,443 05 
 
 Tax on proceeds of bullion 3,576 48 
 
 Hoistini; 15,466 20 
 
 Keductfon 61,351 20 
 
 One-half expense of C. and C. shaft 126,200 00 
 
 One-half royalty to Sutro Tunnel Company 3,134 00 
 
 Interest and exchange 1,373 56 
 
 Transportation and hauling 1,458 85 
 
 Best & Belcher joint winze 777 35 
 
 Suction fans 15,675 41 
 
 Samples shipped 258 87 
 
 Compressed air 2,069 50 
 
 Cash on hand, December 31, 1881 1,980 87 
 
 Total $367,792.98 
 
 The Superintendent of the Sierra Nevada reports : 
 " We have extracted 6,077 tons 1,400 pounds of low-grade 
 ore between the ;i,300 and 2,600 foot levels, which have been 
 milled, yielding bullion to the value of $195,213.53, or an 
 average of $32.11 per ton, the yield being about sixty-nine 
 per cent, of the assay value of the ore, no allowance being 
 made for moisture. The value of the gold in the bullion 
 was $141,670.02, and of the silver $53,543.51. We have also 
 raised from the mine 42,130 tons of waste rock. No work 
 has been done in the mine above the 2,300-foot level, with 
 the exception of keeping the winzes and drifts connecting 
 with the main incline below the 1,700-foot level in good 
 repair, for purposes of ventilation." 
 The receipts and expenditures for the year were : 
 
 Receipts. 
 
 From other mines for supplies, labor, etc $27,276 30 
 
 From San Francisco oflSce, sundry drafts on president 583,157 57 
 
 Total 8610,433 87 
 
 DUhursem&its. 
 
 Salaries and wages $255,234 98 
 
 Mining supplies 46,799 97 
 
 Miscellaneous expenses 1,360 86 
 
 Office expenses 457 27 
 
 Timber 22.922 79 
 
 Wood 29,280 75 
 
 Water and ice .' 26,694 87 
 
 Hoisting 48,732 50 
 
 Tnion shaft,one-third net expenses 100,563 31 
 
 Haulmg 7,157 37 
 
 Legal expenses 1,542 15 
 
 Taxes 5,960 99 
 
 Milling 51,699 30 
 
 Assaying 1,706 73 
 
 Surveying 600 00 
 
 Eureka mill 4,918 57 
 
 Discount and interest 2,801 46 
 
 Total $610,433 87 
 
 In regard to the condition of the mine the Superintendent 
 says: 
 
 " At no time during the last two years have the prospects 
 of the Sierra Nevada mine looked more promising, than they 
 do at the present. In all of the cross-cuts on the 2,500-foot 
 level, both east and west, stringers of ore have been cut 
 giving fair assays showing great strength of formation, and 
 also a strong tendency toward concentration at a greater 
 depth. Soft vein-matter has been cut in all of the drill 
 holes run in from the face of the cross-cuts on this level, and 
 at times giving low assays. We are now nearly ready to 
 open up and develop the 2,700-foot level, and, as before 
 mentioned, will start a north lateral drift in a few days, 
 which, when connected with No. 2 winze down from the 
 2,100-foot level at a point 1,000 feet north of our south line, 
 will place the workings of the mine in a very interesting 
 position, enabling us to thoroughly prospect the vein on 
 both sides of the drift. Another very interesting point in the 
 mine is the main north lateral drift on the 2,500-foot level 
 running to a connection with the Utah mine. This drift 
 will pass through a new and undeveloped country for a 
 distance of 2,000 feet. The face is now in soft porphyry, 
 showing heavy strata of clay. Cross-cuts will be run on 
 both sides of this drift at most convenient points. The 
 mine is fully equipped with all necessary machinery for use 
 
 under ground and on the surface, which is now in first-class 
 working order." 
 
 The employment directly furnished at present by the 
 operations in the leading Comstock mines is shown by state- 
 ments taken from Virginia City papers of the number of 
 persons working at each mine. 
 
 North End Comstock Employes. — Are reported in Vir- 
 ginia City Chronicle of 21st ultimo for the following mines, 
 from the Consolidated Virginia, on the south, to the Utah, 
 on the north : 
 
 Utah. — Miners, 24: surface men, 18 ; total 42. 
 
 Sierra Nevada. — Miners, 76; surface men, 14; total 90. 
 
 Union Shaft. — Miners, 45; surface men, 61 ; total 106. 
 
 Mexican. — Miners, 39. 
 
 Union Consolidated. — Miners, 63. 
 
 Ophir. — Miners, 70; surface men, 19; total 89. 
 
 California. — Miners, 28 ; surface men, 1 ; total 29. 
 
 C and C. Shaft. — Surface men, 43. 
 
 Consolidated Virginia. — Miners, 17 ; surface men, 3 ; 
 total 20. 
 
 Total. — ^Miners, 362 ; surface laborers, carpenters, machin- 
 ists, clerks, etc., 176 ; grand total, 538. 
 
 Number of Employes in the Comstock Mines. — As 
 we have been repeatedly asked to report the number of 
 miners employed in these mines, we reprint the following 
 answer from the Gold Hill News of December 24, 1881 : 
 " The Gould & Curry and Best & Belcher shaft employs a 
 total of 68 men. Savage 115, Hale & Norcross 59, Andes 10, 
 Yellow Jacket 145, Imperial and Alpha 38, Kentuck 15, 
 Overman and Caledonia 65, Forman shaft 66, Alta 74; total 
 in these mines, 657. The reporter has been unable to see 
 Superintendent Jones, and therefore the number of men em- 
 ployed in the Crown Point and Belcher have not been ob- 
 tained. Of the number given above, 405 are employed in 
 Gold Hill mines. Add to these the number employed in 
 the Crown Point and Belcher, and the men at work on 
 claims not listed in the San Francisco Boards, the total 
 number employed in Gold Hill district will not fall short of 
 750 men." (New York Mining Record, January 7, 1882.) 
 The amount of money disbursed by these mines for labor is 
 shown by the monthly pay-rolls, two of which have been 
 published for some of these mines. 
 
 Comstock Pay-rolls. — Following are some of the pay- 
 rolls for August : 
 
 Consolidated Virginia, California, and C. & C. shaft $20,676 00 
 
 Unionshalt 20.345 75 
 
 Sierra Nevada, Ophir, Mexican, and Union Consolidated... 33,567 50 
 
 Utah 6.440 75 
 
 Gould & Curry and Best & Belcher shaft 8,954 00 
 
 Hale & Norcross 8,585 75 
 
 Chollar, Potosi, and C. N. S. shaft 11,777 62 
 
 Consolidated Imperial 6 777 50 
 
 Alpha 'i50 00 
 
 Exchequer 150 00 
 
 Yellow Jacket 15,583 00 
 
 Overman 4^175 75 
 
 Caledonia 958 50 
 
 Forman shaft 9041 19 
 
 Following are additional pay-rolls for October work : 
 
 Alta $6,090 00 
 
 Benton 3,130 00 
 
 Consolidated Imperial 3,780 00 
 
 Alpha 150 00 
 
 Exchequer 150 00 
 
 Forman shaft : : 3915 37 
 
 Overman s^js? 50 
 
 Caledonia 2,185 50 
 
 Belcher.... 11,94:? 00 
 
 Crown Point 9977 50 
 
 Crown Point and Belcher joint shaft 5I211 50 
 
 Hale& Norcro-ss 8,403 OO 
 
 Savage 6620 55 
 
 Savage drift from C. N. 8. shaft .........!!! ]'624 20 
 
 Scorpion i'205 00 
 
 Consolidated Virginia. California, and C. & C. shaft 14 179 50 
 
 Union shaft i4;io9 a, 
 
 Utah 5685 70 
 
 The great depth and consequent heat seriously interfere 
 with the efficiency of labor in the lower levels of the Com- 
 stock lode. Eight men are employed on a shift, four of 
 whom work at the same time. The heat at the face of the 
 drift is so great, the men could not work unless sprinkled 
 continuously with cold water, which, by means of a hose 
 attached to a barrel placed at some height above, is forced 
 through a fine sprinkler and falls upon them in a spray. 
 The men can work in the drifts but a short time, and, after 
 a little labor, must go to the cooling-ofi" station, their places 
 
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 9iOX 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1077 
 
 been asssessed in the aggregate $67,555,074, and fourteen 
 have paid dividends amounting to $119,824,700, Jeaving a 
 balance in favor of the dividends of $52,269,626. Of the to- 
 tal amount of dividends paid, two mines alone, the Califor- 
 nia and Consolidated Virginia, paid $74,440,000. 
 
 The following is the assessed valuation of the mines and 
 mills, with the amount of taxes paid by each in 1881 : 
 
 VIRGINIA DISTRICT. 
 
 Mine or MiU. VdluatUm. 
 
 Best & Belcher $4,200 00 
 
 California 800 00 
 
 C. & C. joint shaft 82,820 00 
 
 C. N. S. shaft 112,000 00 
 
 Chollaraud Potosi 16.310 00 
 
 Columbia 200 00 
 
 Consolidated Virginia 29,260 00 
 
 Concordia 150 00 
 
 Fairfax 2,600 00 
 
 Gould & Currev j 17,950 00 
 
 Hale & Norcross 51,913 00 
 
 Iowa 700 00 
 
 Julia 11,800 00 
 
 Mint 4.000 00 
 
 Mountain View 100 OO 
 
 North Comstoclc 100 00 
 
 North Milton 100 00 
 
 Original Keystone 5,175 00 
 
 Ophir 79,800 30 
 
 Phil .Sheridan 700 00 
 
 Pioueer 100 00 
 
 Red and White Cross 200 00 
 
 Roman Capitol 780 00 
 
 Savage 70,000 00 
 
 Scorpion.. 
 Jo Scales . 
 Senator,. 
 
 4,000 00 
 595 00 
 920 00 
 
 Sierra Nevada 60,000 00 
 
 Sutro Mining Company 500 00 
 
 Sulro Tunnel Company 17,950 00 
 
 Troy 2,200 00 
 
 Union Consolidated 1,245 00 
 
 Utah 24,565 00 
 
 Vermont Consolidated 3,4=,0 00 
 
 New Wells-Fargo 1.600 00 
 
 S. N. M. & Uiiion Shaft Company 161,875 00 
 
 G. & C. and B. & B. joint shaft 53,173 14 
 
 Union Mining and Milling Company 28,700 00 
 
 Pacific Mining and Milling Company 226,000 00 
 
 GOLD HILL DISTRICT. 
 
 Mi-ne or Mill. Valuaiion. 
 
 Atlas Mill J4,900 00 
 
 Sapphire Mill 1,000 00 
 
 Petaluma Mill 4,000 00 
 
 Alta 40,900 00 
 
 Alpha Consolidated 325 00 
 
 Belcher 27,665 74 
 
 B. <fe C. P. pump shaft 61,777 50 
 
 Bullion muie 4,575 90 
 
 Bullion Con. Shaft 23,250 00 
 
 Caledonia ;:. 21,900 00 
 
 Charta 150 00 
 
 Challenge 300 00 
 
 Consolidated Dorado 700 00 
 
 Confidence 150 00 
 
 Crown Point 41,981 92 
 
 Crown Point Ravine.. 
 
 200 00 
 
 Consolidated Imperial 39,872 12 
 
 Dardanelles 600 00 
 
 Exchequer 400 00 
 
 Europa 1,650 00 
 
 Forman shaft 60,500 00 
 
 Golden Standard 900 00 
 
 Gold Hill Tunnel 450 00 
 
 Justice 22,500 00 
 
 Kentuck 1,665 00 
 
 Keystone 225 00 
 
 Knickerbocker 7,700 00 
 
 Lady Washington 600 00 
 
 Leo 76 00 
 
 Leviathan 3,150 00 
 
 Mitchell 60 00 
 
 New York 18,000 00 
 
 Niagara 2,850 OO 
 
 Occidental 785 79 
 
 Original Gold Hill 1,460 00 
 
 Overman 23.400 00 
 
 Prospect 8.000 00 
 
 Eock Island., 4,600 00 
 
 Segregated Belcher 1,000 00 
 
 Sierra 850 00 
 
 Silver Hill 26,650 00 
 
 St. Louis.. 
 
 Sullivan 
 
 South Comstock.. 
 
 Trojan - 
 
 Twin Peaks 
 
 Vivian Mine 
 
 Woodville.. 
 
 125 00 
 
 100 00 
 
 1.0.iO 00 
 
 3,750 00 
 
 75 00 
 
 100 00 
 
 6,800 00 
 
 Yellow Jacket 162,535 00 
 
 Tax. 
 
 $206 80 
 
 31.85 
 
 4,058 18 
 
 5,488 00 
 
 799 19 
 
 9 80 
 
 1,443 25 
 
 7 35 
 
 127 40 
 
 87 95 
 
 2,643 73 
 
 34 30 
 
 572 48 
 
 196 00 
 
 4 90 
 
 4 90 
 
 4 90 
 
 253 Z7 
 
 3,910 21 
 
 34 30 
 
 4 90 
 
 ~ 9 80 
 
 38 46 
 
 3,430 00 
 
 196 00 
 
 29 15 
 
 45 08 
 
 2,940 00 
 
 24 60 
 
 879 65 
 
 107 80 
 
 61 00 
 
 1,203 68 
 
 169 05 
 
 73 50 
 
 7,931 87 
 
 2,606 48 
 
 1,348 17 
 
 11,089 68 
 
 Tax. 
 
 8203 35 
 
 41 50 
 
 166 00 
 
 1,697 35 
 
 13 48 
 
 1,148 76 
 
 2,148 77 
 
 196 06 
 
 964 87 
 
 92.^ 37 
 
 6 22 
 
 12 45 
 
 29 05 
 
 6 22 
 
 1,742 25 
 
 8 30 
 1,654 69 
 
 20 79 
 16 00 
 68 47 
 2,510 75 
 37 35 
 18 67 
 833 75 
 68 67 
 
 9 33 
 319 55 
 
 20 75 
 
 3 11 
 130 72 
 
 2 07 
 747 00 
 118 27 
 
 32 61 
 
 47 72 
 
 971 25 
 
 382 000 
 
 186 75 
 
 41 50 
 
 35 27 
 
 1,105 97 
 
 6 18 
 
 4 15 
 43 67 
 
 165 62 
 
 3 11 
 
 4 15 
 247 00 
 
 6,330 22 
 
 The following mines of Storey county reported production 
 during the fiscal year 1881 : Union Consolidated, Belcher, 
 Sierra Nevada, California, Consolidated Virginia, Monte 
 Christo, Ophir, Hale & Norcross. The gross yield of the 
 
 nynes of Storey county for the calendar year 1881, as reported 
 to the assessor, was 108,976 tons ; value, $1,468,918.44. The 
 gold and silver production of Storey and Lyon counties, for 
 the year 1880, as reported to the Census Bureau, by districts, 
 was as follows : 
 
 District. Quartz Gold. Silver. Gold and Silver, 
 
 The Comstock 33,109,151 $3,813,174 $6,922,325 
 
 Scattered., 
 
 90,001 110,000 
 
 200,001 
 
 Total $3,199,152 $3,923,174 $7,122,326 
 
 My estimate for the calendar year 1881, of the production 
 of these counties, is: gold, $1,050,000; silver, $660,000. 
 
 Washoe County. — This county, in Western Nevada, is 
 the oldest mining locality in the State; it was here that the 
 first discoveries were made that have since rendered Nevada 
 famous. The work done during the year has been chiefly 
 for the purpose of development ; but little ore was raised, 
 the principal yield of the county being from the re-working 
 of tailings. Reports were received from the Mansalond, 
 Unit, Copper King, Consolidated Esmeralda, Antelope, Jones 
 & Kinkead, and Ophir City (tailings). 
 
 The production of Washoe county during 1881, I estimate 
 at $5,000 in gold and $35,000 in silver. 
 
 ■White Pine County. — White Pine county is in Eastern 
 Nevada, bordering upon Utah. In Ghsrry Creek district, in 
 the northern part of the county, and in Ward district, in the 
 south, the most productive mines are found. 
 
 At the Star mine, considerable ore has been extracted 
 above the 640-foot level. The mill has been kept constantly 
 running, and the ore is accumulating on the dump. This 
 mine is destined to become one of the most valuable proper- 
 ties in Eastern Nevada. 
 
 Although the Star Mining Company was reported to have 
 produced, in 1880,bullion amounting to $307,235, in Decem- 
 ber it levied an assessment of $10,000. During the yeaf 1 881 
 it was a regular producer, shipping bullion in some months 
 to the amount of from $30,000 to $40,000. The pay-roll av- 
 eraged about $14,000, and the monthly expenses of the mill 
 and mine $20,000. The mill has run as high as 600 tons 
 each month, the ore yielding from $60 to $70 per ton. The 
 total shipments of this. mine, as reported by the Engineering 
 and. Mining Journal for 1881, were $294,743. 
 
 The financial condition of the company at the close of the 
 year was reported as follows: 
 
 Receipts. 
 
 Assessments _ $106,146 88 
 
 Mine cost lOO 00 
 
 Stores account 5,691 26 
 
 Draft account 2,383 28 
 
 Real estate account 118 59 
 
 Construction account 1,726 00 
 
 Lumber account 700 00 
 
 Wood account _ 648 39 
 
 J. Henry account 163 93 
 
 Coalaccount 75 oO 
 
 Cash on hand August 1, 1880 7,740 06 
 
 Total $125,392 39 
 
 i>/«6wrseme7ite. 
 
 Liabilities August 1, 1880 $10,214 37 
 
 . Legal expenses 100 00 
 
 Taxes 100 00 
 
 Interest 2,649 68 
 
 Assessment work 400 00 
 
 Tunnel account 63,647 15 
 
 Timber account _ 578 78 
 
 Office expenses 4.658 65 
 
 General expenses 10^7,'iO 11 
 
 Company's stock 25,512 00 
 
 Cash on hand 6 504 91 
 
 ,. Total $125,392 39 
 
 Liabilities, drafts outstanding $2,383 28 
 
 In the Bohemian Girl, a rich strike was made assaying 
 from $80 to $400 per ton. The express shipments from 
 Cherry Creek during 1881 were as follows: 
 
 January $23,020 
 
 February 33,072 
 
 March 23.010 
 
 April 39 490 
 
 May 41,685 
 
 •June • 39,757 
 
 July--: 32,700 
 
 August.. 27,150 
 
 September 26 465 
 
 October ' 21960 
 
 November '" 31367 
 
 December ."V. gglooo 
 
 Total.. 
 
 . $375,680 
 
1078 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The gross yield of the mines of White Pine county for the 
 calendar year 1 881 , as reported to the asse.ssor, was : 8,991 tons ; 
 value, $364,784.37. According to the San Fiaucisco Bulletin, 
 the assessments of the mines of White Pine county were : 
 Mines. Assessments. Amount. 
 
 Martin White 8 $45,000 
 
 Star 4 40,01)0 
 
 WardBeecher 1 20,000 
 
 Total 8 $105,000 
 
 Surveyor-General Hatch, in his report for 1880, says that 
 from the Osceola placer mines $30,000 in gold dust was 
 collected. 
 
 The amount of gold and silver produced in White Pine 
 county by districts, as reported by the Census Bureau for 
 ,the year 1880, was as follows : 
 
 
 Quartz. 
 
 Total Gold 
 
 District. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 and Silver. 
 
 
 M.877 
 
 $S)44,199 
 2-29,418 
 129,288 
 
 $349,076 
 229,418 
 129,288 
 
 Ward 
 
 White Pine 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 $4,877 
 
 $702,995 
 
 8707,782 
 
 
 My estimate of the production of this county for the cal- 
 endar year 1881, is : gold, $40,000 ; silver, $325,000. 
 
 Summary of bullion production by counties in Nevada, as re- 
 ported by Mines to tlie Superintendent of the Mint at San 
 Francisco, during tlie fiscal year 1881. 
 
 Counties, Gold. Silver. Total. 
 
 Elko ■. $44,846 $582,117 $626,963 
 
 Esmeralda 30,855 1,649,288 1,680,143 
 
 Eureka 1,268,805 2,300,999 3,559,804 
 
 Humboldt 28,304 118.394 146,698 
 
 Lander 1,200 1.330,966 1,332.166 
 
 Lincoln 7,779 117,048 124,827 
 
 Lyou 60,291 146,107 206,398 
 
 Nye 11,000 491,875 502,875 
 
 Storey 1,053,394 649,874 1,703,268 
 
 While Pine 33,046 301,284 334,330 
 
 Washoe 5,272 88,866 94,138 
 
 Total $2,534,792 $7,776,818 $10,311,610 
 
 The following is the estimate furnished by Mr. A. M. 
 Lawver of the production of Nevada during 1881 : 
 
 Counties. Gold, SUver. Total. 
 
 Elko $30,183 $580,812 $610,995 
 
 Esmeralda 35,474 1,639.275 1,674,749 
 
 Eureka 990,661 2,680,860 3,671,521 
 
 Humboldt 237,000 70,000 307,000 
 
 Lander 2,050 1,524,291 1,526 341 
 
 Lincoln 70,333 346,139 416,472 
 
 Lyon 46,080 222.627 268,707 
 
 Nye 14,&57 600,2,39 615,0U6 
 
 Storey 391,974, 411,817 803,791 
 
 Washoe 5,000 100,000 105,000 
 
 White Pine 10,046 335,000 845,046 
 
 Total ....$1,833,658 $8,511,060 $10,344,718 
 
 This estimate varies nearly $400,000 in gold, and 
 $2,000,000 in silver, from mine, and is probably due to the 
 value of the base metal in the bullion having been included. 
 
 Gross yield of the Mines of Nevada, by counties, during six 
 months, periods, and for the calendar years 1880 and 1881. 
 
 [From reports of the State Comptroller.] 
 FOE THE SIX MONTHS ENDING JUNE 30. 
 
 CouTities. 
 
 Elko 
 
 Esmeralda... 
 
 Eureka 
 
 Humboldt.... 
 
 Lander 
 
 Lincoln , 
 
 Lyon 
 
 Nye 
 
 Ormsby 
 
 Storey.. 
 
 Washoe 
 
 White Pine.. 
 
 Quantity 
 Worked. 
 
 3,056 
 17,943 
 44,476 
 10,578 
 2,724 
 4,776 
 48,700 
 11,664 
 21,097 
 94,138 
 
 15,181 
 
 1,500 
 607 
 
 1,810 
 601 
 748 
 
 1,;B8 
 
 1,700 
 
 1,350 
 
 Total.. 274,337 1,93.5 $6,716,431 27 186,: 
 
 Gross Yield 
 or Value. 
 
 $147, 
 656, 
 
 1.777, 
 201 
 278; 
 124 
 23,i, 
 251 
 179, 
 
 2,802, 
 
 ,197 26 
 ,862 68 
 261 03 
 ,2«n 15 
 ,621 44 
 .425 23 
 8i;8 14 
 ,193 ,54 
 M73 19 
 ,132 68 
 
 162,418 93 
 
 1881. 
 
 Quantify 
 Worked. 
 
 2,488 
 19,436 
 38,824 
 5,017 
 3,976 
 6,625 
 SS,160 
 6,651 
 7,075 
 
 2,640 
 5,066 
 
 1,825 
 1,666 
 1,6.')6 
 866 
 696 
 1,925 
 
 583 
 
 Gross Yield 
 or Value. 
 
 $122,193 21 
 
 74il,,''i21 83 
 
 1,612,774 61 
 
 ■15,611 16 
 491,236 97 
 
 SO,,™ 61 
 146,778 61 
 188,908 45 
 
 85,321 07 
 861,731 10 
 
 18,688 87 
 189,283 28 
 
 1,666 $4,542,507 67 
 
 FOE THE SIX MONTHS ENDING DECEMBER 31, 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Elko 
 
 Esmeralda... 
 
 Kureka 
 
 Humboldt ... 
 
 Lander 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Lyon 
 
 Nye 
 
 Ormsby 
 
 Storey 
 
 Washoe 
 
 White Pine.. 
 
 Total 289,578 
 
 1880. 
 
 Quantity 
 Worked. 
 
 5,224 
 19,178 
 41,040 
 10,753 
 2,884 
 5 I — 
 29|612 
 12,151 
 43,404 
 92,863 
 
 26,578 
 
 1,218 
 280 
 
 196 
 1,368 
 
 554 
 
 875 
 
 Gross Yield 
 or Value. 
 
 $291,180 83 
 818,9.57 60 
 
 1.600,783 17 
 110,338 15 
 349,187 53 
 98,123 38 
 176,286 79 
 273,881 37 
 234,913 11 
 
 1,478,774 34 
 
 267,897 08 
 
 1881. 
 
 Q^aniily 
 Worked. 
 
 175 1,800 
 
 17,072| 392 
 
 36,670 1,167 
 
 3,892i 666 
 
 2,982 1 481 
 
 7,8381,298 
 
 47,2941 
 
 5,596'1,834 
 
 19,00l! 
 
 60,088 1,660 
 
 2,616' 
 
 3,9341,205 
 
 591 $5,689,323 26 207,1631 343 $4,110,771 86 
 
 Gross Yield 
 or Value. 
 
 $34,1.56 40 
 
 623,306 70 
 
 1,462,206 27 
 
 30,687 55 
 438,659 92 
 221,249 28 
 248.372 86 
 173,523 J19 
 
 75.076 81 
 607,187 34 
 
 20.944 65 
 176,501 09 
 
 FOn THE CALENDAR YEARS 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Elko 
 
 Esmeralda.. 
 
 Eureka 
 
 Humboldt.. 
 
 Lander 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Lyon 
 
 Nye 
 
 Ormsby 
 
 Storey 
 
 Washoe 
 
 White Pine. 
 Total 
 
 Quantity 
 Worked. 
 
 8,281 
 37.121 
 85,617 
 21.331 
 
 5,608 
 10.665 
 78.312 
 23,816 
 64..501 
 187,001 
 
 41,759 
 
 718 
 887 
 479 
 1,535 
 944 
 716 
 
 "254 
 
 1,136 
 
 Gross Yield 
 or Value. 
 
 8438,378 09 1 
 
 1,875,820 18 
 
 3,378,044 20 
 
 311,618 Stf 
 
 627,808 97 1 
 
 222.648 61 1 
 
 411,164 93 
 
 525,074 91 
 
 414,086 80 
 
 4,280,907 02 
 
 '42bl3]6"01 
 
 $12,405,757 52 
 
 1881. 
 
 Quantity 
 Worked. 
 
 2.664 
 
 36,509 
 
 75,495 
 
 8,909 
 
 6,9,=;8 
 
 14,464 
 
 87,064 
 
 12,148 
 
 26,076 
 
 108,976 
 
 6,256 
 
 8,990 
 
 893,502 
 
 1,625 
 68 
 823 
 1.472 
 1,077 
 1,223 
 
 417 
 
 1,999 
 
 Gross Yield 
 or Value. 
 
 $166,349 61 
 
 1 372.828 .^3 
 
 8,074,980 78 
 
 76,298 71 
 
 929,795-89 
 
 301,808 89 
 
 395,151 47 
 
 362.431 M 
 
 110,397 88 
 
 1,468,918 44 
 
 39,533 42 
 
 364,784 37 
 
 $8,653,279 63 
 
 OREGON. 
 
 GOLD was discovered in Oregon but a little later 
 than in California, but the extraordinary richness 
 of the gold fields in the latter State and the magni- 
 tude of its mining operations have attracted atten- 
 tion away from the progress and extent of the mining 
 industry in Oregon. The production of the State, though 
 steady but not large, has heretofore been principally from 
 the placer mines, but recently the quartz lodes in Eastern 
 Oregon, found in the counties of Union, Grant, and Baker, 
 have been worked. In these counties, as well as in South 
 Oregon, the gravel mining has been chiefly in shallow 
 placers, but in Eastern Oregon a large amount of deep gravel 
 or ancient river channels exist, varying from sixty to 200 
 feet in depth, which have been but little worked. Coi-i- 
 siderable capital is required to properly open and work the 
 deep deposits, but when sufficient water is introduced the 
 gold product will be greater than ever before. The pro- 
 duction of gold and silver in Oregon during 1881 is 
 estimated by counties to have been as follows: 
 
 Counties. Gold. 
 
 Boker $2,50,000 
 
 V™,"' 280,000 
 
 J'K'kson 260,000 
 
 Jjisephine 200000 
 
 Uniil'illa 50,000 
 
 ViS'on 40,000 
 
 All others.. 
 
 0,000 
 
 Silvei; 
 
 $10,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 Total, 
 
 $260,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 250 OflO 
 
 
 200,000 
 
 
 40,000 
 40.000 
 
 10,000 
 
 '■'■'°'*' $1,100,000 $40,000 $1,140,000 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1079 
 
 Estimate of Mr. A. M. Lawver, of the bullion production In 
 Oregon during the calendar year 1881, classitiea by counties. 
 
 Couniies. Gold. Silver. Total. 
 
 Baker *265.414 510,231 8275,645 
 
 Benton 2,260 16 2,276 
 
 Coos 8.634 12 8,516 
 
 Clatsop 1.514 86,135 37,649 
 
 Douglas 8,000 »,m) 
 
 Jackson 199,406 199,406 
 
 Josephine 81.109 81,109 
 
 Lane 3,7.50 3,750 
 
 Polk 18,337 18.337 
 
 Union 80,000 S0,000 
 
 Umatilla 30,995 8.223 39,218 
 
 Total.. 
 
 ),419 854,617 J754,036 
 
 Baker County. — Baker county comprises nearly the 
 whole eastern border of the State adjoining Idaho. On Pow- 
 der river and its tributaries there are a number of good placer 
 mines, the principal being on Auburn creek. On Sutton 
 creek the mines have been successfully worked, yielding bet- 
 ter than was anticipated by the owners. No hydraulicing 
 has been done, but only ground sluicing. There are a num- 
 ber of quartz ledges in this vicinity, but no reports of their 
 condition have been received. The following is a list of the 
 stamp mills of Baker county, with number of stamps of each: 
 
 Stamps. 
 
 Connor Creek 20 
 
 Gold Hill 10 
 
 Moore &, Estabrook ™ 2 
 
 New England and Oregon 5 
 
 Virtue 20 
 
 Mammoth 6 
 
 Tom Faiue 2 
 
 Total 64 
 
 The production of Baker county, as ascertained during the 
 last census year, 1880, was $248,528 in gold and $5,968 in 
 silver. I estimate that the total production during the year 
 1881 was $260,000. 
 
 Grant County. — Grant county is west of and adjoining 
 Baker, and contains a great diversity of minerals. Upwards 
 of 300 quartz mines are under process of development, promi- 
 nent among which are the Cable Cove, Buffalo, Hazard, Sil- 
 ver King, California, Granite, and Silver Peak. Near Gran- 
 ite creek ledges of antimonial silver occur, the principal of 
 which are the Monumental and Beagle. The ledges are 
 small, but the ore is of high grade. 
 
 The chief placer mines are on Caflon creek and Prairie 
 creek, which have been worked for a number of years and 
 paid largely. The production of this county during 1880, as 
 reported by the last census, was $359,622 gold and $13,639 
 silver. I estimate the total production during 1881 to have 
 been $300,000. 
 
 Jackson County. — Jackson county is in the south- 
 western part of the State, east of and adjoining Josephine 
 county. A few quartz ledges have been found, but no mills 
 have been erected, and the mines are pretty much undeveloped. 
 The whole gold production of the county is from its placers, 
 which have been continuously worked for twenty-nine years, 
 and are still far from being exhausted. Every process for 
 gravel-mining, from the primitive rocker to the most im- 
 proved hydraulic process, is in use, although the latter has 
 been introduced only during the last few years. The mines 
 are located on Rogue river and its numerous tributaries, and 
 the mining season commences in November and lasts till 
 May. Fully half of the men engaged in mining are China- 
 men. It is difficult to ascertain the annual production, as 
 gold dust is used as a circulating medium, and also finds its 
 way out of the county by mail, express, and by private hands. 
 The production during the census year 1880 was reported 
 to have been $188,790. I estimate the production during 
 1881 to have been $250,000. 
 
 Josephine County. — Josephine county is west of Jack- 
 son, and, as in the latter, mining is almost the sole industry. 
 The season was quite successful, although shorter than usual 
 from a less amount of water. Very few large companies 
 operate here, but the larger part of the gold extracted is by 
 small operators and Chinamen. The yield of the county 
 during the last census year was reported as $201,203. I esti- 
 mate that during 1881 it was $200,000. 
 
 Union County. — This is the extreme northeastern county 
 of the State, and mining is not extensively carried on. Near 
 the head of Grand Ronde river are the Camp Carson mines, 
 
 which cover a large area of placer ground. They are in 
 charge of an experienced Chinese miner, who works about 
 fifteen men. I estimate the total production of the county 
 during 1881 to have been $50,000. 
 
 Wasco County. — In Wasco county, which is central in 
 the State, the chief mines are located in the Ochoco Moun- 
 tains, where the Ochoco Gold and Silver Mining Company 
 are operating, A tunnel is being run to strike the ledge, 
 which is in a distance of 200 feet. It is only within the past 
 year that attention has been directed to this county, and from 
 reports it would appear that the quartz lodes are worthy of 
 a more extended prospecting than they have hitherto re- 
 ceived. 
 
 WASHINGTON TERRITORY. 
 
 THE production of gold in Washington Territory has 
 not increased during the year. There is reason to 
 believe that heretofore the production has been over- 
 estimated, owing to thedifficulty experienced in ascer- 
 taining the amount mined by Chinamen, and also on account 
 of a portion of the gold yield of British Columbia being cred- 
 ited to Washington. The mining camps are widely scattered, 
 the season is short, and although mineral-bearing lodes un- 
 doubtedly exist in various sections of the country, which, 
 if properly opened, would make good paying mines, little or 
 nothing has been done looking to their development. The 
 chief mining operations are confined to Yakima and Spokane 
 counties, and to Snake river flowing through Columbia, Gar- 
 field, and Whitman counties. The placer grounds on the 
 latter are almost exclusively in the hands of Chinamen, and 
 their production finds an outlet at Walla Walla. In Yakima 
 county is Peshastin district, about forty miles north of El- 
 lensbiirg. The ores of this district are low-grade but free- 
 milling; some work has been done in a desultory manner, 
 extracting ore and working it in arastras. Swank miniug 
 district is located twenty-five miles north of EUensburg, and 
 is reported to have done moderately well. In the north- 
 eastern part of the Territory, in Stevens county, are the 
 Mount Chopaco mines, or, as sometimes known, "the Smil- 
 kameen," situated near the line of British Columbia. They 
 are reported to be silver-bearing ledges, which have been 
 prospected to some little extent. The production of gold in 
 the Territory during the last census year, 1880, was reported 
 to have been $119,000. I estimate, from express returns and 
 other sources of information, that the yield during 1881 was 
 about $120,000. 
 
 Estimate of Mr. A. M. LaAvver of the hullion production in 
 Washington Territory during the calendar year 1881, classi- 
 fied by counties. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Columbia 960 
 
 Jefferson 1,815 
 
 King 3.539 
 
 Klikitat 2,000 
 
 Pierce 1,806 
 
 Spokane 23,656 
 
 Walla Walla 60,000 
 
 Whitman 47,941 
 
 Total $98,747 
 
 ALASKA. 
 
 DURING the year 1881 there was deposited at the 
 United States mint $13,374.70 in gold and $144.36 
 in silver produced in Alaska. This was placer 
 gold from the Harrisburg settlement in Southeast 
 Alaska. The following information, taken from the Fugel 
 Sound Argus, in regard to this but little-known region, will 
 doubtless be of interest: 
 
 " At last the gold and silver mines of Alaska are becoming 
 more known and their value demonstrated. We have always 
 contended that in this unknown land would be found some 
 of the richest mineral deposits on this continent ; and if 
 half the news is true which was brought by the last steamer 
 
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 ui pauiB;uoo s^iJBuiaj aq; Supi;ou ni ajtissajd a5|B; a^ „ 
 
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 •saxvxs aaxiNii anx ^a sxsaaaxm oninim aiiv saaNiH 'saNiH anx 0801 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1081 
 
 " Under the present climatic condition, Northern Alaska 
 will never be agricultural ; its great wealth consists in its 
 mines, furs, and fish. Belts of timber run through Northern 
 Alaska, but there is no large or valuable timber north and 
 east of the Aleutian Islands until you get up the Yukon 
 into the interior." 
 
 IDAHO. 
 
 THE statisti&s of the yield of mines and reports of the 
 deposits and shipments of bullion indicate the pro- 
 duction in Idaho during the year 1881 of $1,700,000 
 gold and $1,300,000 silver from the different counties, 
 as nearly as can be approximately estimated as follows : 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Ada 
 
 Alturas 
 
 Boisft 
 
 Cassia 
 
 Custer 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Lemhi 
 
 Nez Percys . 
 
 Oneida 
 
 Owyhee 
 
 Slioshone.... 
 
 Gold. 
 
 85,000 
 
 170,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 260,000 
 
 285,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 saver. 
 
 Total. 
 85,000 
 
 $550,000 
 30,000 
 
 720,000 
 830,000 
 25 000 
 
 350,000 
 
 ioo.'ooo 
 
 850,000 
 
 260,000 
 
 385,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 40.000 
 
 270,000 
 
 320,000 
 60,000 
 
 
 Total $1,700,000 81,300,000 83,000,000 
 
 Gold was discovered in Idaho in 1860, and the Territory 
 was organized in 1862. The reported richness of the placers 
 in Bois6 Basin, those on Snake river in the southern part 
 of the Territory, and of Salmon river in North Idaho, 
 brought a large influx of miners and prospectors. The al- 
 luvial deposits were, for the most part, worked out in a few 
 years with the exception of a few large tracts of mining 
 ground that fell into the hands of companies who have 
 brought water by long ditches and flumes and are operating 
 on an extensive scale. The rest of the gravel workings have 
 been largely abandoned to Chinamen, who, with the patience 
 and perseverance of their race, are going over the ground 
 with rocker and sluice a second and, in some instances, a 
 third time. The richest portion of the placers having be- 
 come exhausted, attention was given to working the quartz 
 lodes which had been discovered and located, but not to any 
 extent operated upon. These lodes vary in size from nar- 
 row, worthless seams to ledges of many feet in width, and 
 the vein matter ranges from a free gold-bearing quartz on 
 one hand to the most refractory sulphurets. Within the 
 last two years a comparatively new mining section has been 
 opened, that of Wood river, the mines of which contain an 
 exceedingly high grade of smelting ores. From the begin- 
 ning of lode mining, Idaho has labored under many disad- 
 vantages and mishaps. Nearly the whole of the mining sec- 
 tion of the Territory is covered with rugged, abrupt moun- 
 tain ranges and irregular peaks, rendering the means of ac- 
 cess difficult and laborious. No mining camps in North 
 Idaho are connected with the outside world by wagon-roads, 
 but are reached by pack-trains from May to December ; dur- 
 ing the remainder of the year communication can be kept 
 up only on snow-shoes. For several years the Indians were 
 troublesome, and a thorough prospecting of the country they 
 regarded as hunting and fishing ground could not be made 
 until after they were compelled to go upon a reservation. 
 The failure of the Bank of California caused a cessation of 
 operations by most of the large companies in the southern 
 part of the Territory, and long-continued litigations and suits 
 for the possession of property discouraged the investment of 
 capital, without which the best of ledges and quartz veins 
 cannot be opened and rendered profitable. From the en- 
 couraging reports it would seem that a new era is about to 
 dawn upon the mining interests of Idaho. Railroads are 
 shortening the distance to the principal points of the East 
 and West; good wagon-roads are being built and bridges 
 constructed. No trouble is experienced from the Indians ; 
 litigation has to a great extent ceased and titles to property 
 rendered thereby more secure, and capital is seeking invest- 
 ment that the rich metalliferous deposits will undoubtedly 
 
 repay, besides giving remunerative employment to a large 
 number of operatives, mechanics, and laborers. 
 
 Ada County. — There are no gold or silver mines in this 
 county worth mentioning, but the cretaceous rock of the 
 foot-hills of the l$ois6 Mountains, which traverse the whole 
 length of the county in a northwesterly direction, are coal- 
 bearing, and the lignite discovered in several places for a 
 distance of thirty miles is of a superior quality. Tests made 
 in the United States assay office at Boisfi City show it to be 
 almost free of sulphur. It burns with a long, yellow flame, 
 leaving less than four per cent, ashes. It will not coke. The 
 largest vein so far found near the surface is on the Payette 
 river, where a solid vein from five to eight feet in thickness 
 is reported ; a smaller one, about twenty inches wide, was 
 exposed on the military reservation of Boisfe Barracks, and 
 floatcoalof excellent quality has been found in several places 
 above and below Bois6 City. No efforts have so far been 
 made to develop and utilize these coal-beds, owing princi- 
 pally to the lack of a good market, but undoubtedly the ad- 
 vent of the Oregon Short Line Railroad will give an impetus 
 to this industry. In the same formation beds of very fine 
 fire-clay are found, which in the near future will become 
 valuable and a great benefit to the rapidly rising smelting 
 business of Alturas, Custer, and Lemhi counties. For the 
 year 1880, production of gold in Ada county was reported to 
 the Census Bureau as follows: from various placers, $5,001. 
 My .estimate of the production during the year 1881 is, gold, 
 $5,000. 
 
 Alturas County. — The mines of Rocky Bar (all gold 
 mines) have been holding their own during the year, the 
 main producers being the Bonaparte and Ada Ellmore 
 mines. 
 
 In 1880 and 1881, quite a number of exceptionally large 
 and fine veins have been added to the number originally 
 discovered. All the machinery for two first-class quartz mills 
 is on the ground now, and during the coming season this 
 district will turn out considerable silver bullion. The ore 
 is remarkably good, carrying over ninety-five per cent, of 
 silica; the silver occurs principally in the state of ruby sil- 
 ver, stephanite, and silver glance, making a chloridizing 
 roasting before amalgamation unavoidable. Timber, past- 
 ure, and water are there in abundance ; a first-class road has 
 been built from Wood river, at an expense of $15,000, and 
 with increased travel it will not be very hard to keep up 
 communication with the Lower Wood tiver country and the 
 outside world, though for a year or two it may not be quite 
 safe to rely on them. 
 
 The production of the Wood river mines for 1881 was 
 upwards of $500,000, but it is safe to say that it will be at 
 least four or five fold this year. The Hailey Times furnishes 
 the following statement of ore and bullion shipments from 
 the different centers in that quarter for the season beginning 
 May 9 and ending November 30 : From Bullion : The May- 
 flower shipped 970 tons, carrying 175 ounces silver and 70 
 per cent. lead per ton. The Bullion shipped 415 tons, car- 
 rying 225 ounces silver and 50 per cent, lead per ton. The 
 Jay Gould shipped 375 tons, carrying 120 ounces and 65 
 per cent. lead. The Homestake shipped twelve tons, carry- 
 ing 140 ounces and 70 per cent. lead. The Eureka shipped 
 74 tons, carrying 100 ounces and 65 per cent, lead per ton. 
 The Idahoan, according to the reports fiirnished, is entitled 
 to the first place in the list of local ore producers. During 
 the past season it shipped 1,000 tons of ore, averaging 150 
 ounces silver and 75 to 81 per cent. lead. There remains on 
 the dump 800 tons of ore, half of which assays from $138.58 
 to $3,100, besides carrying from 50 to 70 per cent, of lead ; 
 the other half will yield, clear of all expenses, $53.60. The 
 yield of the Idahoan the past season it is said has exceeded 
 $200,000. From Hailey : The Star mine shipped ore that 
 sold for $37,500. The Ophir, Emma Fair. Japan, Bon Ton, 
 Washington, Narrow Gauge, French, and other groups and 
 mines are also shipping ore, but the figures are not known. 
 The local smelter shipped about $75,000 worth of bullion, 
 the result of a brief trial run. The Carrie Leonard shipped 
 thirty-eight tons, averaging 200 ounces in silver. The Rooks, 
 Black Horse, and Allen shipped thirty tons each, which av- 
 eraged 144, 144, and 130 ounces respectively. The Connors 
 shipped twenty-five tons, carrying 120 ounces. The Elk 
 Horn shipped 600 tons, which averaged 120 ounces of silver. 
 From the Vienna and Mountain King mines about thirty 
 
1082 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tons of fair milling ore were shipped to Ketchum, theflce to 
 Salt Lake. They yielded 271 ounces per ton. Mr. Smiley 
 also shipped some ore to Salt Lake, but the figures have not 
 been obtained. The total shipments from Ketchum will 
 probably aggregate 500 tons, carrying an average of 130 
 ounces of silver. From Bellevue: Reports of the shipment 
 of 281 tons have been received., Theseare as follows: Min- 
 nie Moore mine 217 tons, averaging 101.62 ounces of silver 
 and 67 per cent, of lead. Monday, five tons, averaging 622.70 
 ounces silver and 54 per cent. lead. Overland, fourteen tons, 
 averaging 99.16 ounces silver and 70 per cent. lead. Queen 
 Victoria, thirty-four tons, averaging 137.43 ounces silver and 
 64 per cent. lead. Mammoth, five tons, averaging 92 ounces 
 silver and 67 per cent. lead. Morton, six tons, averaging 
 152 ounces silver and 68 per cent. lead. Besides the above- 
 mentioned, the Queen of the Hills and five other mines 
 shipped ore, but no reports have been received. The ex- 
 treme southern portion of the county contains some of the 
 Snake river placer mines, the balance lying in Cassia county. 
 These mines are bar mines, and very productive when suffi- 
 cient water can be obtained, but as this requires a large out- 
 lay of capital, mining operations have been conducted on 
 rather a small scale, the whole product being probably less 
 than $35,000. The difiiculty experienced in former years 
 to catch the extremely fine gold has been successfully over- 
 come by the use of silver plates or blankets and gunny 
 sacks. 
 
 The reduction works on Big Wood consist of a five-ton 
 smelter at Bellevue, a ten-ton smelter at Hailey, a forty-ton 
 slack at Ketchum, with a sixty-ton being added, and a 
 twenty-five ton smelter at Galena. The first three have 
 been in operation, and the others will go into blast by June 
 10. Another smelter is being erected near Hailey. Three 
 are run by watei-power. The fuel employed is charcoal, 
 obtained close by the works. In smelting the Wood river 
 ores each ton of ore requires sixty per cent, of iron ore and 
 twenty per cent, of limestone as a flux, and forty-two bushels 
 of charcoal, and the cost per ton is as follows : 
 
 42 bushels charcoal, at 14 cents KJ 88 
 
 1,200 pounds iron ore, at S6 per ton 3 60 
 
 400 pounds limestone, at S4 per ton 80 
 
 Labor, wear on machinery. Interest on capital, etc 1 25 
 
 Total SIX 53 
 
 This is the actual cost per ton from a forty-ton smelter 
 running on sulphide of lead ores. Timber for charcoal, 
 water for power, iron ore and limestone for flux, are in close 
 proximity or within a short distance of the mines, and there 
 is no doubt but that the cost will eventually be reduced at 
 least twenty per cent. Throughout the Lower Wood river 
 country are fertile valleys, capable of producing good cereals 
 and all kinds of vegetables, and in this respect it differs 
 from many other mining regions, which have to depend for 
 these supplies upon the more distant agricultural sections. 
 The past season has been one of great prosperity in Idaho ; 
 the prospector and mine-owner have both been rewarded for 
 their labors. Reliable reports from the entire stretch of 
 country between Saw Tooth and Wood river to the British 
 possessions on the north confirm the statement that it is one 
 unbroken mineral belt, and for hundreds of miles nature 
 seems to have lavishly distributed her mineral wealth, which 
 is only awaiting the advent of capital and enterprise to be 
 gathered and made subservient to the uses of mankind. The 
 production of gold and silver in Alturas county for the year 
 1880, as reported to the Census Bureau, by districts was : 
 
 District. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. Gold and Silver. 
 
 Bear Creek or Rocky Bar quartz S5,149 
 
 Buffalo or Atlanta 38,053 
 
 Redwarrrior 8,640 
 
 Banes diggings and various placers. 34,999 
 
 »r),i49 
 
 100,989 
 
 8,540 
 
 34,999 
 
 Total 886,741 *62,936- n49,677 
 
 My estimate for the year 1881 is $170,000 gold, $550,000 
 silver. 
 
 Boise County.— Some of the old mines have been 
 steadily worked, and have kept up their annual production. 
 
 During the year some little excitement was caused by the 
 discovery of silver-bearing veins on Upper Squaw creek, and 
 over forty locations were made during the season. The 
 Liberty is the principal mine, and the only one which has 
 
 been developed to any considerable extent. A second shaft 
 is being sunk fifty yards from the discovery shaft, in which 
 the ore is much richer and the vein of fair size. The ore is 
 chiefly copper pyrites, black oxide and carbonate of copper, 
 and peacock ore. Numerous assays give an average value 
 of 120 ounces of silver to the ton and twenty per cent, of 
 copper, but these do not represent the quality of the ore in 
 bulk. Mining facilities in this district, so far as timber and 
 water-power are concerned, are excellent, but, owing to the 
 refractory nature of the ores, it will not become productive 
 until proper works for their reduction are erected or cheap 
 transportation to commercial centers is secured, the nearest 
 railroad point at present being three hundred miles distant. 
 The production of Bois6 county for the year 1880, as reported 
 to the Census Bureau by districts, is shown in the following 
 table : 
 
 Dislrici. Gold. Silver. Gold and Silver. 
 
 Banner $84,182 S84,:82_ 
 
 Canon Creek 822,628 22,625 
 
 Gambranus •■ 3,299 3,299 
 
 Granite or Quartsburg 169.999 169.999 
 
 Mammoth or Summit Flat 5,226 5,226 
 
 Shaw's Mountain / 12,517 12,517 
 
 Various placers 622,644 622,644 
 
 Total 8836,310 
 
 $84,182 
 
 8920,192 
 
 My estimate of the production during 1881 is gold, $300,- 
 000 ; silver, $30,000. 
 
 Ouster bounty. — Custer county, north of Alturas, and 
 drained by the headwaters of Salmon river, is attracting the 
 attention that the richness of its mines deserves. The 
 Yankee Fork, Bay Horse, and Kinnikinik districts contain 
 many promising mines. 
 
 Mv estimate of the production of Custer county during 
 1881" is $500,000 gold and $350,000 silver. 
 
 Idaho Goxmty. — Idaho County was originally the largest 
 county in the Territory. Lemhi and Custer counties were 
 cut off from its eastern end. Bois6 county has taken a strip 
 from its southern portion, and one-half of Washington 
 county was originally within its limits. On the other hand, 
 it gained in 1875 a strip from the eastern side of Nez Perc4 
 county, comprising the agricultural section known as Camas 
 Prairie and the mining camps of Elk City and Newsome 
 Creek. The only agricultural portion is Camas Prairie, on 
 its western border ; here there are six entire and several 
 fractional townsHips of arable land that produces all the 
 usual cereals in profusion. Its elevation is not over 2,500 
 feet. Along Salmon river there are also a few isolated flats 
 of small extent, which are devoted to gardening and fruit- 
 raising. The county is watered principally by the Salmon 
 river and its tributaries, the eastern and southern boundary 
 being the water-shed between the branches of the Salmon 
 and the headwaters of other streams. The northern portion 
 is drained by some of the forks of the Clearwater. Salmon 
 river cuts a deep chasm through the county from southeast 
 to northwest. Its valley is from 3,000 to 4,000 feet lower 
 than the average altitude of the mining camps scattered 
 through the adjacent mountains, causing a marked difference 
 in climate. In the winter snow rarely falls before February, 
 and frequently the ground is not whitened during the year, 
 while in the surrounding mining camps the snow covers the 
 mountain sides from four to eight feet in depth. 
 
 Idaho county is, however, essentially a mountainous 
 region, the principal portion of the Salmon River Moun- 
 tains being included within its boundaries. These moun- 
 tains are in no well-defined range, but are a vast collection 
 of irregularly-scattered peaks, overtopping a wilderness of 
 lesser peaks, all of a rugged and forbidding aspect. The 
 average altitude is about 6,000 feet, though many peaks 
 have an elevation of nearly double that height. The town 
 of Florence is situated 6,600 feet above sea-level, and Warren 
 6,200 feet. The Salmon River Mountains are chiefly of 
 granite formation, and appear to have been upheaved at a 
 comparatively recent geological period. The deep cailon of 
 the Salmon river affords numerous excellent opportunities 
 for studying the character of the subjacent rocks, as surfaces 
 are frequently exposed from 1,000 to 2,000 feet high. At a 
 point on the river near the mouth of Little Salmon, horn- 
 blende slates begin to take the place of granite, and gneiss 
 farther to the eastward. There is an obscure stratification 
 and a general north and south strike. A few miles further 
 west, at Carver's Ranch, a huge ledge of very pure limestone 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1083 
 
 crosses the river ; it is from 100 to 500 feet wide, and extends 
 in a general northerly and southerly direction for about 
 forty miles, finally dipping under the lava a short distance 
 east of Mount Idaho. West of this other varieties of slate, 
 mica, and clay make their appearance, with occasional 
 bunches of quartz, and at the mouth of John Day's creeic 
 the primitive rocks disappear beneath basaltic lava and are 
 no-more seen in the bed of the river from thence to the Pacific 
 Ocean, excepting one place in Snake river, about fifty miles 
 below Lewiston, at Granite Point. The soil of Camas 
 Prairie is derived from the decomposition of lava, indentical 
 with that which overspread most of the Columbia River 
 Valley. Many fossil remains are found in digging wells, 
 but no minerals of value, nor are any likely to be. The 
 mountainous region to the eastward of the lava and the 
 anterior slate formation is probably the source of the mineral 
 wealth of the county. 
 
 Gold in paying quantities was first discovered in Idaho, 
 nearPearce City, in what iji now Shoshone county, in 1860. 
 At that time Idaho was still a portion of Washington Terri- 
 tory. Communication from point to point was slow and 
 difficult, and there was no great rush of miners, nor any 
 great amoiint of money taken out during that year. By the 
 following spring reliable information of extensive deposits 
 in that section was widely spread, and the search for gold 
 was diligently prosecuted. Gold was found in the banks 
 and bars of all the forks of Clearwater, and led to the dis- 
 covery of extensive placer ground at Elk City. Paying 
 ground was also found in many places on Salmon river, and 
 early in July in Florence Basin, in which place thousands 
 of mines were located in a couple of months. On the north 
 side of the Salmon nothing worth mentioning was or has 
 since been found. South of the Salmon gold was found in 
 August, 1862, in Warren's Basin, which is drained by 
 Meadow Creek and its tributaries, and empties into the 
 Salmon river sixteen miles north of the town of Washington. 
 At the present time the ground worth working comprises 
 the upper eight miles of the creek. The shallow portions 
 of the creek and neighboring gulches were worked out in a 
 few years after the discovery of gold. The lower portion of 
 the creek was not abandoned by white men until 1870, at 
 which time the Chinese came in, and have since monopolized 
 the gravel workings, going over the mining ground a second 
 and sometimes a third time. Quartz ledges were discovered 
 and located in Florence and Warren in 1865. In the former 
 district very few defined ledges were found, and none that 
 are now esteemed of much value. Almost the entire district 
 appears to be seamed with minute veins containing gold, 
 wbich are generally conceded to be the source of the great 
 quantity of placer gold that for a time rendered the section 
 famous. 
 
 A close approximation of the amount of ore taken out 
 of the different ledges of Warren district and worked during 
 the last fifteen years is as follows : 
 
 Tans. 
 
 From the Rescue 
 
 " Knott 
 
 " Charity 
 
 " Sampson 
 
 " Hie Jacet 
 
 " Knott Treasure 
 
 " Scott ., 
 
 " Alder 
 
 " General Grant 
 
 " Keystone 
 
 " Eurelja 
 
 ** Washington 
 
 '* Bonanza 
 
 " Tramp 
 
 " President 
 
 *' Bullion 
 
 *' Other small lots and fioat-rock.. 
 
 1,000 
 
 600 
 
 600 
 
 260 
 
 160 
 
 25 
 
 150 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 200 
 
 100 
 
 25 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 60 
 
 100 
 
 250 
 
 The yield per ton has varied greatly. Large quantities 
 of rock from the Rescue paid from $50 to $75 per ton. 
 Selected ore from the Charity paid from $40 to $80, and 
 from the Scott as high as 8180 per ton. The Keystone ore 
 paid quite uniformly from $50 to $65, and, on the other hand, 
 some lots from other ledges scarcely paid for working. The 
 average yield of the ores of this district is not readily esti- 
 mated. The processes of extraction of the precious metals 
 have been of the simplest character ; at first arrastras were 
 used, then stamps with copper plates of limited extent, and 
 at present the arrastra follows the battery with blanket wash- 
 ings saved for future treatment. Assays of tailings have 
 
 rarely been made, and it is not easy to estimate the percent- 
 age of gold and silver extracted. The ore is generally cal- 
 cined prior to crushing, and the returns show that more 
 silver is saved by this preparatory treatment. Bullion from 
 calcined ore is usually from 300 to 350 fine, while that from 
 the raw material is 600 to 650 fine. The gold from placer 
 mines varies much in fineness. That from the small gulches 
 and heads of the streams is from 625 to 675 fine; in the 
 main creek from 700 to 760 fine, and is the common cur- 
 rency at §14 per ounce. A great extent of ground has been 
 worked along Salmon river, principally by rockers and other 
 primitive appliances; the gold is usually in small particles, 
 known as flour gold, though sometimes in scales; it is cur- 
 rent at 'i\& per ounce, being from 800 to 825 fine. Near 
 John Day's creek a few bars of limited extent have yielded 
 coarse gold, and nuggets of from .$5 to .?16 each, of high 
 grade, over 950 fine, and current $19.50 per ounce. The 
 yield of gold from Idaho county can only be approximately 
 stated. Five Chinese companies in Warren's tiike out more 
 than half the gold of the camp ; from diligent inquiry made 
 of the principal members, the following estimate may be 
 stated as nearly correct : 
 
 Shun Lee Company 
 
 Wing Wo Company , 
 
 Hung Wo Company 
 
 Lin Wo Company 
 
 Took Sing Hung 
 
 Twelve minor companies.. 
 
 Single Chinamen 
 
 White men 
 
 Four quartz mills 
 
 Total.. 
 
 87,160 
 16,600 
 
 9,800 
 14,260 
 22,700 
 22.800 
 
 2.000 
 13.500 
 18,672 
 
 $127,472 
 
 Along Salmon river there are eight bars worked by Chinese 
 and five by white men, the product of the year being about 
 $45,000. Nearly the same amount was produced in Florence 
 and Elk City ; the smaller camps may be estimated at $43,- 
 000, making the total production for Idaho county $260,000. 
 
 For the year 1880, the Census Bureau received the fol- 
 lowing report for Idaho county r 
 
 Copeland and scattered, quartz gold $9,999 
 
 Butte Bar and scattered, placer gold 60,000 
 
 I have placed the production during 1881 as that stated 
 by Mr. Willey, viz. : $260,000 in gold. 
 
 Lemhi County. — Mount Estes, in the southwestern part 
 of the county, contains a rich belt of quartz ledges. 
 
 Ten lots were worked at the Bay Horse smelter, with the 
 following results : 
 
 QfiaTiMy. Value. 
 Dale. Pounds. Dollars. 
 
 July 2, 1881 12,377 12,487 
 
 July 2, 1881 16,678 6,010 
 
 July 2, 1881 9,529 5,172 
 
 July 23, 1881 21.841 10,030 
 
 July 23, 1881 12.536 6,752 , 
 
 August 16, 1881 4,410 2.001 
 
 August 16, 1881 21,781 7,060 
 
 August27, 1881 17.633 5,401 
 
 September 3, 1881 7.698 2,079 
 
 September 4, 1881 11,099 15,255 
 
 Total 135.482 J72,247 
 
 Since the discovery of the Charles Dickens ledge the 
 district has produced (including the ores shipped) about 
 $2,000,000. The product for 18^2, including the ore ship- 
 ments, cannot fall short of $1,500,000. Wages in the district 
 are $3.50 to $4. Several of the companies pay $100 per 
 month and board, but this is only where the mines are pay- 
 ing largely over and above development, as with the Mon- 
 tana and Dickens, and probably one or two others. Living 
 is expensive as yet, owing to the cost of getting in supplies. 
 Freights from the railroad rate at 3J to 4 cents. Flour and 
 vegetables are raised on the Salmon Valley adjacent to the 
 mining camps, and are not unreasonably high. For the 
 year 1880, as reported to the Census Bureau, we have the 
 following production by districts in Lemhi county : 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Bay Horse and scattered, quartz $125,000 
 
 Bay Horse and .scattered, placer ;... 20,000 
 
 Total 8145,000 
 
 I e-stimate the production during 1881 to haye been $285,- 
 000 in gold and $100,000 in silver. 
 
1084 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Oneida and Cassia Counties. — In these counties, on 
 the southeastern and southern borders of Idaho, mining has 
 been confined chiefly to the placers and bars along Snake 
 river. The gold as found here is not in the usual form of 
 grains or scales, but in exceedingly small particles, known 
 as flour gold, and the trouble has been to collect it; the 
 ordinary rocker or sluice aot being adequate for separating 
 it from the gravel or sand. A number of experimental 
 processes, some of them of considerable ingenuity, have been 
 introduced with moderate success, but all the conditions 
 required for saving the gold have not as yet been fully met. 
 A considerable number of claims have been worked near 
 Blackfoot and in the vicinity of the mouth of Raft river. 
 At Bonanza Bar, a few miles above Raft river, work has 
 been steadily conducted during the mining season for several 
 years past, with satisfactory yield ; the ground is not yet 
 worked out, and at the present rate of progress and with the 
 same system of working is good for several years to come. 
 Farther down the river, at Shoshone Canon, a number of 
 Chinamen and afewwhitesare working with sluice or rocker 
 with reported success. At Salmon Falls, Davis & Co. are 
 the chief operators, and by the use of amalgamators have 
 been enabled to save a large portion of the gold in the gravel 
 washed on their claim, which consists of 160 acres. The 
 production of gold and silver during the year 1880, as re- 
 ported to the Census Bureau, was as follows : 
 
 ONEIDA COUNTY. 
 
 District of Gold. 
 
 Caribou and scattered, quartz 89,999 
 
 Eagle Rook and scattered, placer 29,999 
 
 Total $39,998 
 
 CASSIA COUNTY. 
 
 Bonanza Bar, Rock Creek, and scattered.. 
 
 . $20,000 
 
 I estimate the production of these counties during 1881 to 
 have been for Oneida $40,000 gold, and for Cassia $25,000 
 gold. 
 
 ■ Owyhee County. — This county is the extreme south- 
 western county of Idaho, and contains the oldest and most 
 productive mines of the Territory, but it has never quite 
 recovered from the blow it received through the failure of 
 the Bank of California in 1876, which resulted in the ruin 
 and withdrawal from the field of nearly all the large com- 
 panies. The mines, however, are as good to-day as they 
 were then, but, being expensive to work, considerable capital 
 is required to handle them properly and profitably. The 
 chief districts are the War Eagle and Florida Mountains, 
 near Silver City; Wagontown, northwest of tne same place- 
 Flint, southeast, and South Mountain, thirty miles south of 
 Silver City. 
 
 The mines of this county, taken as a whole, give promise 
 of large yields in the future, but good honest management, 
 to give confidence to investors, and additional capital to re- 
 open and put in working condition some of the best mines, 
 are the chief desiderata. 
 
 The production of Owyhee county, as reported to the 
 Census Bureau by districts for the year 1880, is shown in the 
 following table : 
 
 District. Gold. 
 
 Carson or Owyhee, quartz...' $168174 
 
 Wagontown, quartz 7,428 
 
 Scattered, quartz 2,4991 
 
 Scattered, placer 52^000 j 
 
 Total HflSOJOl 
 
 Silver. Gold and Silver. 
 $170,799 $338,973 
 
 3,810 
 2,499 
 
 13,238 
 56,998 
 
 $177,108 $409,209 
 
 I estimate the production during 1881 to have been $50 - 
 000 gold and $270,000 silver. 
 
 Shoshone and Nez Perces Counties.— The mining 
 interests of these counties and the condition of their mines 
 do not differ materially from those of Idado county the de- 
 scription of -which may be taken as general for all of North 
 Idaho. The Oro Fino district in Shoshone county gives em- 
 ployment during the mining season to from ninety to 120 
 Chinamen, and half that number of white men. Its viold 
 does not exceed $60,000 per annum. Near Pearce City there 
 are many croppings of quartz ledges, but no developments 
 worth mentioning have been made. The chief vein mining 
 in the county is by the Shoshone Company, some twenty or 
 twenty-five miles northeast of Pearce O'itv Nez Perces 
 county IS north of Idaho county and south of Shoshone and 
 
 has no mines of present value, except some rocker claims on 
 Snake river above Lewiston, which are worked by a dozen or 
 more Chinamen, and a few gulches near the head of Palouse 
 river which produce a few hundred dollars annually. The 
 production of the counties in 1880, as reported to the Cen- 
 sus Bureau, was as follows : 
 
 County. District. Description. Gold. 
 
 Shoshone Number One and scattered Placer $10,001 
 
 Kez Perces Moscow and .scattered Quartz 4,500 
 
 Various small, placers 10,001 
 
 Total $14,501 
 
 I estimate the production of Shoshone county for 1881 to 
 have been $60,000 in gold, and of Nez Perces county $5,000 
 in gold. 
 
 ^Estimate of Mr. A. M. !La\7Ter of tlie bullion pToduction in 
 Idaho during; tlie calendar year 18S1, classified by counties. 
 
 Counties. Gold. 
 
 Ada $220,729 
 
 Alturas 164.317 
 
 Boise 175,000 
 
 Cassia 65,351 
 
 Custer 
 
 Idaho 60,000 
 
 Lemhi 425.896 
 
 Nez Perces 188..599 
 
 Oneida 76,500 
 
 Owyhee 50.800 
 
 Shosohone 85,000 
 
 Silver. Total. 
 
 $135,000 $355,729 
 
 450,499 614,816 
 
 35 508 210,508 
 
 65,351 
 
 4.S.853 43,853 
 
 2,147 62,147 
 
 578,777 1,004,673 
 
 188,599 
 
 70.500 
 
 200,458 2.''1,268 
 85,000 
 
 Total $1,512,192 $1,446,242 $2,958,434 
 
 MONTANA. 
 
 MR. R. B. HARRISON, assayer in charge of the 
 United States assay oflice at Helena, who had 
 charge of the collection of mining statistics for 
 Montana, and has furnished the principal /ma- 
 terial embodied in this review of the mines of that Terri- 
 tory, estimates their yield for the year to have been 
 $2,700,000 in gold and $3,350,000 in silver. Great credit is 
 to be given to his conclusions because of personal opportu- 
 nities for observation and knowledge of the mining opera- 
 tions carried on in that region, and of the disposition of 
 bullion obtained from the mines. I am constrained, how- 
 ever, to reduce the figures he gives, for the reason that they 
 are not sustained by the reports received by this bureau of 
 the amounts deposited from that Territory at the mints, 
 transported by express companies and by railroads as freight, 
 or reduced from ores and base bullion by smelting works 
 and refineries. From all the sources of information at my 
 command, I estimate that the bullion production of Mon- 
 tana did not in 1881 exceed $2,330,000 in gold and $2,630,- 
 000 in silver. The general description of Montana is from 
 Mr. Harrison, and also the review of the mines with some 
 slight modifications as to details and production. 
 
 The organic act setting off that portion of the public 
 domain now included within the boundaries of this Terri- 
 tory was approved on the 26th day of Jlay, 1864. 
 
 The name.~lt is undoubtedly the prevalent belief of those 
 acquainted with the region, that, as its nnme implies, it is 
 a land of mountains, and it is a fact that the main range of 
 the superb Rockies, for a distance of three hundred miles 
 traverses this empire of the Northwest; but if it had been 
 called River-source, the name would have been more dis- 
 tinctively appropriate than Montana. 
 
 The topography and geography.— Of its 90,000,000 acres, 
 only 20,000,000 are classed as mountains, while three of the 
 great rivers of the continent rise within its borders, one of 
 which, the Yellowstone, navigable for a distance of four 
 hundred and fifty miles, lies wholly within its boundaries; 
 and the Missouri, from its source, the "Three Forks," or 
 the union of the Jefferson, Gallatin, and Madison, is carried 
 nearly a thousand miles on Montana soil, or about one- 
 quarter ils entire length, while in the vallevs of the western 
 slope gather the waters that unite to form the great Columbia 
 that jioiirs its flood into the Paeific. It is estimated that 
 fully tlireo-fifths of the surface of the Territory are suitable 
 for agricultural purposes, and nearly another fifth could be 
 added to cover the extent of surface adapted for grazing. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1085 
 
 Occasionally we have a season, as in all parts of the middle 
 temperate zone, when early frosts interfere with the ripening 
 cereals, but as a rule the seasons compare favorably with 
 those of the more southerly points on the eastern plains. 
 The rainfall of this region is alight in comparison with many 
 other districts on the same parallel, but the streams that flow 
 from over mountain ranges furnish an abundant supply of 
 water for purposes of irrigation, which, as a basis of agri- 
 culture, is far more reliable, and secures better results. The 
 absence of excessive moisture in our atmosphere renders it 
 not only less severe in its effects during the cold weather, but 
 also secures immunity from the various forms of contagion 
 that arise from the marshes of the low-lands in localities 
 where rain is abundant. 
 
 The production of Beaver Head county, as reported to the 
 Census Bureau by districts for the year 1880, was as follows : 
 
 Dislrict. Quartz Gold. Silver. Gold and Silver. 
 
 Bald Mountains $8,000 S8,000 
 
 Bannack 819,760 300 20,050 
 
 Trapper 721,308 721,808 
 
 Total.. S19,750 $729,608 $749,358 
 
 Ohoteau, Ouster, and Dawson Counties. — In the 
 northern part of Choteau county silver is known to exist in 
 paying quantities in the region of th,e Bear Paw mountains, 
 but that locality is so infested with Indians as to render it 
 dangerous, if not wholly impracticable at present, to develop 
 the prospects found to any extent. If the time shall come 
 when the reservations which now cover so large a part of the 
 Territory are open to mining enterprises, doubtless Choteau 
 will contribute a fair share of gold and silver to the aggre- 
 gate of the Territory, but for the present its product is 
 inconsiderable. Custer has been prospected in the southern 
 part and gold found in the vicinity of Tongue and Powder 
 rivers, but no systematic work has yet been done to test the 
 value of the finds. Until quite recently all of Dawson 
 county was reserved to the Indians. The south half is now 
 open to settlers and its resources will soon, to a great extent, 
 be known. 
 
 Deer Lodge County. — The first discovery of gold in 
 Montana was made on Gold creek, in the year 1861, hy an 
 old Mexican miner who was known by the sobriquet of 
 " Gold Tom." His first location was about five miles below 
 the present site of Pioneer Village. During the year fol- 
 lowing .James and Granville Stuart brought appliances from 
 Walla Walla, and began the first systematic operations in 
 placer mining in the Territory on what was appropriately 
 named " Pioneer Bar." The extent of this region known to 
 contain gold is about five miles in an easterly and westerly 
 direction and two miles northerly and southerly, "Indepen- 
 dent" district being on the east, "Pioneer" on the west, 
 and " Pike's Peak " between them. Yam Hill or Pilgrim 
 Bar, French Gulch, Gold Hill, Squaw Gulch, Woods Flat, 
 Wilson's Bar, Trail Gulch, Prowse Bar, Windy Bar, Hart's 
 Gravel, Rocker Gulch, and Dry CJulch are among the many 
 districts now included in the region designated as Pioneer. 
 Of the ditches constructed exclusively for the purpose of 
 mining within the limits of this small territory, there are 
 not less than one hundred and ten miles, aggregating a cost 
 of about $300,000, and with a fiowing capacity of 10,000 
 inches of water, miners' measurement. Mr. Ed. H. Irvine, 
 the manager of the Rock Creek Ditch Company, and the 
 best authority in the matter, estimates that during the past 
 thirteen years there have been worked under these ditches 
 in the various camps about 3,000 acres of land, with an 
 average depth of fifteen feet and a gross yield of nearly 
 $12,000,000. 
 
 The banking house of Donnell, Clarke & Larabie, of Deer 
 Lodge, bought in 1871,$1,255,000, in 1872,11,100,000, in 1873, 
 $970,000, in 1874, $850,000, in 1875, $725,000, in 1876, $650,- 
 000, in 1877, $450,000, in 1878, $300,000, in 1879, $225,000, 
 in 1880, $250,000, in 1881, $230,000, or $7,075,000 within the 
 last eleven years, which, added to the amount bought by the 
 First National Bank, owned and operated formerly by the 
 same parties, aggregate nearly $10,000,000 bought by one 
 house during the last thirteen years, and nearly all of it from 
 Pioneer and Bear districts. According to the best estimates 
 available, the product of Pioneer for the year 1881 was not 
 less than $195,000, none of which found its way to market 
 until the month of July. The indications are that this re- 
 
 gion will continue productive for many years to come. New 
 ground has been opened and improved appliances introduced, 
 while not more than one-half of the acreage known to con- 
 tain the precious metal has been worked out. Lode mining 
 has never been prosecuted to any extent in this immediate 
 vicinity. 
 
 In Bear Gulch, placers were first discovered in October, 
 1865, by Jack Reynolds and party, and the first rush of 
 miners began in March, 1866, and during that year the first 
 quartz location was made by an old Mexican miner, who 
 named it Guayness. This lode, which displays from eigh- 
 teen to twenty inches of very rich ore, is the only location 
 which is all in limestone. Many other locations have been 
 made, but they are either contact veins or in granite. There 
 is one lode known to extend for over three miles along the 
 divide between Bear and Elk Gulches. It seems to be a 
 contact vein, and many of the openings upon it show remark- 
 ably rich pay chutes of gold-bearing rock. There are nine 
 locations upon it beginning with the Homestake and run- 
 ning westerly. In the Homestake it is impossible to pene- 
 trate beyond a depth of forty-five feet without good facilities 
 for freeing the vein of water. H. Grant, the owner of this 
 property, found a pocket from which he took $900 in gold in 
 six hours by means of a common hand mortar, and after- 
 wards during the season increased the amount to an aggre- 
 gate of $3,000 by the same means. The narrowest vein worked 
 in this district is ten inches, and the widest yet encountered 
 is twelve feet. No galena of any consequence is found, and 
 as a rule very little silver, almost the entire product being 
 gold. Mr. James B. McMaster, the assessor of Deer Lodge 
 county, returns the amount of gold yielded in 1881 from the 
 placer mines as follows : 
 
 Bear Gulch $46,500 
 
 Deep Gulch 6,500 
 
 Topo'deep 13.200 
 
 Bilk 4.000 
 
 Elk 38,500 
 
 Maginnis 10,000 
 
 Two China companies in tributaries of Bear Gulch 16.000 
 
 First Chance 3,000 
 
 Williams 7,000 
 
 Kernon's Fork 2,000 
 
 Phelan'.s 2,500 
 
 And other prospectors 5,000 
 
 Aggregating a yield of $163,200 
 
 In 1866 and 1867, Bear Gulch contained a population of 
 1,000 men, and Reynolds City in Elk Creek, 500, or an aggre- 
 gate of 1,500 in what was known as Bear district, and the 
 yield of gold was not less than $500,000 per annum for those 
 years. The yield of the placers in German Gulch for 1881 
 was $5,000; Henderson Gulch for 1881 was $18,000. Since 
 the first work done in Ophir Gulch, a tributary of the Black- 
 foot river, one claim patented by Mason & Kimmerly, has 
 produced a total of $311,000; another by Mason & Stone, 
 $42,960, and still another by Davis & Mason, $61,450. Two ■ 
 of these claims were worked at a great disadvantage during 
 the past year, owing to a scarcity of water. The former was 
 not worked, and the others yielded $2,700 and $5,300, re- 
 spectively. 
 
 In Upper Ophir 
 
 Montgomery & Alley took out $2,500 . 
 
 S. Trotman 2,500 
 
 David John 700 
 
 Two China Companies 6,000 
 
 Total $11,700 
 
 From Carpenter's Bar the yield was : 
 
 J. J. Dowilhour $1,500 
 
 A. A. Whittier 6,000 
 
 Barnard & Willey '?00 
 
 Otto Echols & Co 3,300 
 
 Williams & Whittier 3,700 
 
 Total $15,300 
 
 From Carpenter's Bar Gulch : 
 
 Joshua Lincoln $1,000 
 
 Quigley & Brown 2500 
 
 Mason '& Stone, not worked '..'. .,! 
 
 Total $3,500 
 
 Ohio Gulch. P. Hanley 1000 
 
 Illinois Gulch, not worked ' 
 
 West Illinois Gulch, J. S. Hill & Emerson i" 000 
 
1086 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Ballyrat Gulch, Lutzd Lutzd 
 
 Head of Thtee-mile, Jordan Bros 
 
 Side Gulch, John Many 
 
 Snow Shoe Gulch, Eufus Johnson 
 
 Snow Shoe Gulch, two China companies 
 
 Deadwood Gulch, John M.Irving ■■•■■ 
 
 Washington Gulch, Duncan Seaton, M. Stuart, Mark Easterly., 
 
 Washington Gulch, Geo. Bone 
 
 Washington Gulch, Kating 
 
 Jefferson Gulch, P. G. Birdseye 
 
 Jefferson Gulch, M. C. Carter 
 
 California Gulch, H. C. Keye & Co 
 
 California Gulch, Rufus Mead 
 
 Nevada Gulch, J. B.Wilson 
 
 Tiger Gulch. John Ruloff. 
 
 Madison Gulch, Geo. Hysman 
 
 McClellan Gulch, Shoupe & Blume 
 
 Lower Ophir Gulch, S. W. Ryerson 
 
 Lower Ophir Gulch, C. Van Alstune 
 
 Lower Ophir Gulch, two China companies 
 
 S1.500 
 
 280 
 
 600 
 
 2,600 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 500. 
 
 1,800 
 
 5,100 
 
 ,500 
 
 5,000 
 
 500 
 
 2,500 
 
 600 
 
 1,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 .3,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 3,S00 
 
 The gold dust shipped from Deer Lodge City by the Union 
 Pacific Express, during the year 1881, amounted to $194,156. 
 , The total product of gold and silver in the county amounts 
 to 1850,000. The production of Deer Lodge county, as re- 
 ported to the Census Bureau by districts, for the year 1880, 
 was as follows : 
 
 Disti-icl. Quartz Gold. Silver. Gold arid Silver. 
 
 Flint Creek ?249,639 «249,639 
 
 Independence 63,582 63,582 
 
 Silver Creek $168,000 7,001 175,001 
 
 'Summit Valley 173,930 1,745,758 1,919,688 
 
 Total S341,930 $2,065-,980 $2,407,910 
 
 Gallatin County. — This county was organized by the 
 Territorial Legislature during the winter of 1863-'64. In 
 the event of the ratification of the treaty made with Crow 
 Indians in 1880, that part of their reservation which includes 
 the Clark's Fork mines will be comprised within the limits 
 of this county. The lodes of this district, which is about 
 twenty-five miles square in extent, and is called the New 
 World district, are wide and strong, and, as a rule, produce 
 heavy galena ores. The surface of the ground in some places 
 was covered with bowlders of this kind of ore when the first 
 locations were made in 1872, but as a rule there was not much 
 silver found in them. 
 
 The great need of this region is the requisite facilities for 
 reducing the product under proper metallurgical skill and 
 sagacious business management. The yield of the county in 
 the precious metals during 1881 may be estimated at $50,000, 
 including placers, arrastra work, and the shipments of ore. 
 
 Jefferson County. — These mines, in what is known as 
 Basin Gulch, the placers have produced as follows : 
 
 p. H. Parkes $10,000 
 
 Winters 5,000 
 
 On the east side of the Crow range of mountains in the 
 vicinity of Indian creek, the placers have yielded as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 Tandy* Co $3,500 
 
 William Hamillton 3,907 
 
 Pat. Bowen c& Co 5^000 
 
 S. Collier & Co 9,000 
 
 O'Neill & Co. (estimated) 3^500 
 
 John Murray (estimated 5,000 
 
 The new ground opened on Clancy creek has yielded 700 
 
 Lumi) Gulch 500 
 
 Dennis Sheehy on the Boulder 3 300 
 
 Thomas 5^000 
 
 Other places in the vicinity 2000 
 
 The Homestake near Wickes, about 1500 
 
 Mitchell Gulch (estimated) 8,000 
 
 The total yield of the county for 1881 it is safe to place at 
 $225,000. The works erected and ready to start with the 
 year 1882, render it probable that the product of Jefferson 
 county will be increased manifold over that of 1881. It is 
 claimed that the Gregory company will produce *i40,000 per 
 month, and the Alta company estimate their capacity as still 
 greater, while the many new mills contracted for, will add to 
 the aggregate of bullion product. The production of Jeffer- 
 son county, as reported to the Census Bureau by districts for 
 the year 1880, was as follows : 
 
 Dislrid. Qnarh Gold. 
 
 Cataracts $.5.21)0 
 
 ""' ■ 12300 
 
 6,863 
 
 Cedar Plain.. 
 Colorado.. 
 
 Elkhorn 
 
 Mountain 22,749 
 
 Scattered.. 
 
 8,701 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold 
 
 and Silvei 
 $5,290 
 
 si.eno 
 
 
 11,000 
 
 39,224 
 
 
 46.087 
 
 34,908 
 
 
 34,908 
 22.749 
 
 100 
 
 
 8,861 
 
 Lewis and Clarke County. — Among the many rich 
 placer grounds discovered in this Territory, those of Last 
 Chance and tributary gulches are prominent. Since the year 
 1864, they have produced not less than $8,000,000. The city 
 of Helena, located at the mouth of Last Chance, has be- 
 come the metropolis of the Territory, and while much of 
 the rich pay in the lower grounds will yet be worked, there 
 will be considerable of the good ground left unworked on 
 account of its great value as town property. A bed-rock 
 flume is now approaching from the valley, and as soon as 
 the richest ground can be drained by it, the amount of prod- 
 uct taken out will be largely increased. During the last 
 year, the gold taken from the ground in the immediate vi- 
 cinity of Helena amounted to S40,000. At Park City, about 
 five miles above Helena, gold dust was taken out of the dif- 
 ferent claims as follows : 
 
 Paxton &Co $5,000 00 
 
 Kuhn & Dumphy 2,600 00 
 
 F. Kuhn 2,600 00 
 
 Tom. Connor 2,100 00 
 
 Frank Leedy & Co 2,000 00 
 
 Ray Hale c& Co 3,500 00 
 
 At Unionville by 
 
 H. C. Carpenter 3,500 00 
 
 From Tucker Gulch by 
 
 R. S. Hale (estimated ' 10,000 00 
 
 From Bojdn Gulch by 
 
 DingeecfcCo 3,163 00 
 
 Halford & Co 9,000 00 
 
 Brown & Co 1,200 00 
 
 From Ten Mile by 
 
 Travis Bros 1.800 00 
 
 Ashley Head 1,600 00 
 
 From Try Again by 
 
 Travis* Son 2,500 00 
 
 From Monitor by 
 
 Brayman 1,000 00 
 
 From Eureka by 
 
 Jones 400 00 
 
 Many of the placers of the Territory are lying idle, under 
 the operation of the new mining law, which enables a few 
 persons to obtain patents for large mineral tracts, which, 
 under the old law would be worked by prospectors, and where 
 now only an occasional claim is worked, numbers would be 
 opened. The total of the precious metals shipped by the 
 Pacific Express Company from Helena during the year 1881 
 was — 
 
 Gold $660,533 37 
 
 Silver 91,790 00 
 
 The total yield of gold and silver in the county for the 
 year 1881 will net $500,000. The production of Lewis and 
 Clarke county, as reported to the Census Bureau by districts, 
 for the year 1880, was as follows : 
 
 District. Quartz Gold. 
 
 Silver Creek or Ottowa $91,967 
 
 Steinple 32,383 
 
 Owyhee 7,1D0 
 
 Total $131,500 
 
 Silver. 
 
 $8,073 
 17,208 
 
 $25,281 
 
 Gold and Silver. 
 Jl 00,040 
 49,591 
 7,160 
 
 S156,781 
 
 Madison County. — ^The principal yield of the precious 
 metals in Madison county is from Alder Gulch and vicinity, 
 probably the most noted of all the placers worked in the 
 Territory. For a distance of nearly fifteen miles from the 
 summit of the mountains to the Ruby river, the pay has been 
 continuous and rich. The lowest estimate of the most con- 
 servative men who have personally known its history from 
 its discovery, place the amount of yield in gold at not less 
 than 130,000,000. During the past year, Henry Filing, one 
 of the bankers of Virginia City, bought during the first six 
 months $60,000, during the last six months $140,000, gold 
 dust and gold bullion. Raymond, Harrington & Co., of the 
 same place, bought during the first six months $30,000, dur- 
 ing the second six months .|!90,000, of which $100,000 was 
 from Alder Gulch, $15,000 other gulches, $5,000 mill retort. 
 The last season was not favorable for the operation of the 
 placers of this district, on account of the short supply of 
 water, but the increased number and better arrangement of 
 flumes have insured nearly the average yield from the large 
 companies; and hereafter, when the supply of water is ample, 
 the returns will be increased. Six of tiie principal flume 
 companies produced as follows: one $30,000; three $20,000 
 each; one $15,000; one $12,000; and there are drifters, Chi- 
 namen, and small parties scattered along the gulch and its 
 tribut.tries. The ground is worked to profit along the banks 
 a.s high as the water can be carried, and it is known to be 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1087 
 
 rich still above the highest elevation to which the water has 
 reached. At one time it is estimated that fully 30,000 peo- 
 ple resided in and were interested in the development of this 
 gulch. At the time when it was most actively worked, 
 wages were exceedingly high, and home products so scarce 
 and transportation so difficult as to render the cost of living 
 ruinously high, but the outcome of the ground was so rich 
 as to pay large returns for the entire distance worked, and it 
 will continue for many years to come to produce largely. 
 Until recently, the placers have attracted the attention of 
 miners almost exclusively, and lode properties, which in 
 other places Tvould have been considered of great value, were 
 quite neglected. 
 
 It is safe to estimate the product of Madison county for 
 the year 1881 at $450,000. The gold dust shipped from Vir- 
 ginia City during the year 1881, |182,500, express valuation. 
 The mining claims recorded number 365. 
 
 The production of Madison county, as reported to the Cen- 
 sus Bureau by districts for the year 1880, was as follows : 
 
 Diatrici. Quartz Gold. SUver. Gold and Silver. 
 
 Hot Springs 837,6.55 880 837,635 
 
 Mineral Hill U,700 298 11,998 
 
 Red Bluff. 72 72 
 
 Silver Star 43,951 43,9bl 
 
 Total $93,278 8378 $93,656 
 
 Meagher County.— In the spring of 1866 some hunters 
 discovered in the valley of Trout creek what proved to be 
 rich deposits of gold. Within less than six months from the 
 date of discovery of New York Gulch a city was laid out at 
 the junction of this gulch with Trout creek, and on the op- 
 posite side another. The first was called New York, and the 
 other, from its relative position, Brooklyn. The placers paid 
 richly, but the quartz very little. Wages were high, and al- 
 though much of the rock carried what in such times as these 
 would be considered good pay, the average result was not 
 satisfactory, and quartz mining was for the time abandoned. 
 Under the new law the desirable portion of this district was 
 covered by relocations, but in default of all milling facilities 
 little progress has been made towards the establishment of a 
 camp. The highest pgint of land in this vicinity is Kings- 
 bury Mountain, and from it radiate Oregon, Clarke's, Cave, 
 and Magpie Gulches on the south and east, and Rattlesnake, 
 New York, and Kingsbury on the north, all of which have 
 paid well, but are worked very little, comparatively, now. 
 The aggregate of product for Meagher county may be safely 
 placed at $100,000 for 1881, and mostly gold. Deer Lodge, 
 Meagher, Beaver Head, Lewis, and Clarke counties, for the 
 year 1880, as reported to the Census Bureau, produced placer 
 gold to the amount of $1,162,906. 
 
 Missoula County.— Formerly, in what is known as the 
 Cedar Creek district, about seventy miles north of the town 
 of Missoula, there was considerable placer mining done, and 
 recently some excellent gold quartz has been found in that 
 locality. In the vicinity of Stevensville, in the Bitter Root 
 Valley, there are several prospects which give promise of 
 ultimate value. Seven miles southwest of that point is what 
 is known as the Sweat hotise district; ten miles southwest is 
 Willow Creek; ten miles northeast is Woodchuck. The Lo 
 Lo is fifteen miles northwest, and the Wallace fifty-five miles 
 northeast. During the coming season there will be a large 
 influx of prospectors, and the needed appliances for the re- 
 duction of the ore product will, to some extent, be supplied, 
 and 1882 will doubtless see Missoula county among the large 
 producers of gold, silver, and copper. The product of the 
 mines for 1881 may be estimated at $100,000, mostly gold. 
 The discovery of the silver-bearing lodes was of recent date, 
 and only small shipments of ores have been made a.s tests of 
 the properties. 
 
 Silver Bow County. —Silver Bow is the smallest county 
 in the Territory, only about eight hundred square miles, and 
 was organized May, 1881. The most prominent among its 
 mines is the Alice, which has been most extensively devel- 
 oped and operated with adequate appliances. The company 
 owning this mine is capitalized at $10,000,000, and besides 
 the Alice, Magna Charta, and Valdemere, which are large 
 ore producers, they own nine other locations, covering in all 
 6,368 linear feet of lode claims. 
 
 Within a radius of eight miles, in townships three north, 
 seven west, and three north, eight west, there are over 400 
 
 distinct locations which have been patented or are in process 
 of patenting; and from the discoveries already made it is 
 claimed that there are nearly forty parallel lodes within this 
 remarkable mining region of which the city of Butte is the 
 center. The placers of Silver Bow county have not produced 
 largely during 1881, but have helped to augment the product 
 to some extent. The grand total of the county may be safely 
 estimated at over $2,826,000 of bullion and ores shipped dur- 
 ing the year 1881. The stamps now in Butte and vicinity are : 
 
 Alice mill, new 
 
 Alice mill, old 
 
 Moulton 
 
 Silver Bow 
 
 Dexter 
 
 Lexington 
 
 Centennial 
 
 Gagnou 
 
 Burlington 
 
 Clipper 
 
 Grove Gulch 
 
 Lexington 
 
 Sheridan 
 
 Mountain Consolidated.. 
 
 60 
 20 
 40 
 30 
 15 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 5 
 80 
 40 
 40 
 
 REDUCTION WORKS. Tons per Day. 
 
 Montana Copper Company 80 
 
 Parrott Copper Company 40 
 
 Colorado and Montana Copper Company 40 
 
 Bell Copper Company.... '. 40 
 
 The shipments of fine bullion by the Union Pacific Ex- 
 press Company from Butte for 1881 were : first six months, 
 67,708 pounds; last six months, 64,079 pounds; total, 131,- 
 787 pounds, besides $70,425 of gold dust, or a total express 
 valuation of $1,300,425. The shipments by months, as pub- 
 lished in the Holiday Miner, are as follows : 
 
 January 8, 
 
 February. 11, 
 
 March 13, 
 
 April 12, 
 
 May... 
 June.. 
 July.. 
 
 August 13, 
 
 September 9, 
 
 October u, 
 
 November 
 
 December 10. 
 
 ,036l| 
 ,835 
 
 i,409J| 
 
 ,873 
 
 .556 
 
 ,015U 
 
 ,035 
 
 .951J4 
 
 .78791 
 
 Total 137,787 
 
 Amount. 
 $71,535 82 
 112,400 35 
 131,483 01 
 129,292 24 
 106,599 47 
 99,988 93 
 98,613 41 
 129,966 17 
 78,520 11 
 94,239 28 
 82,941 13 
 94,050 14 
 
 $1,229,180 06 
 
 To which he adds $500,000 for other shipments, and the 
 product of the smelters of the same district he places at about 
 $1,271,000, which makes the total product about $3,000,000. 
 The Inter- Mountain publishes the following : 
 
 " The total amount of silver, copper, and gold product in 
 the Butte district in 1880 reached $1,428,088.26. An intelli- 
 gent idea of the rapid rate at which the mining industry of 
 the Butte district has increased since that time can be ob- 
 tained from the following table of production during the 
 year 1881: Alice Company, ^,120,937.50; Montana Copper 
 Company, $1,042,640 ; Colorado Company, $864,000 ; Silver 
 Bow Company, $500,000; Lexington Mill, $147,000 ; Dexter 
 Mill, $76,293; Centennial and Clipper (estimated), $25,000; 
 copper ore shipped, $197,000 ; gold shipped through banks 
 $102,280.20 ; total, $4,075,150.70. To this amount should be 
 added the value of 5,000 tons of copper-silver ore extracted 
 during the year and now at the Colorado smelter, awaiting 
 reduction. Estimating the value of this ore at an exceed- 
 ingly low figure, say $55 per ton, we have 8275,000 as its 
 total cash valuation. At the Alice mine is an extracted re- 
 serve of 4,000 tons, which, at $40 per ton, is worth $160,000. 
 On many other mines of the district many hundreds of tons 
 of high and low grade ore have accumulated, and the most 
 conservative statistician would not estimate the value of the 
 unworked ore extracted during the past year at less than 
 $600,000." 
 
 The production of gold and silver in Montana during the 
 year 1880, as reported to the Census Bureau, by counties was 
 as follows : 
 
 CouTitUs. 
 
 Quartz Qold. Silver. 
 
 Beaverhead $19 7,10 
 
 Deer Lodge 341.930 
 
 Jefferson 66.403 
 
 Lewis and Clarke 131.500 
 
 Madison 93,278 
 
 Scattered placer mines I,162l966 
 
 $729,338 
 
 2,065,980 
 
 75.892 
 
 25,281 
 
 378 
 
 Total Gold 
 
 and Silver. 
 
 $749,088 
 
 2,407,910 
 
 132,295 
 
 156,781 
 
 93,656 
 
 1,162,906 
 
 Total $1,805,767 $2,896,869 $4,702,636 
 
1088 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Mr R B. Harrison furnishes the following summary of 
 his estimate of the gold and silver products in Montana for 
 the year 1881 : 
 
 Beaverhead *Smn 
 
 Deer Lodge ^oO.OOO 
 
 Gallatin 226000 
 
 JS^dbSk^v;:;::;;r;;;:z;::::::::::::::::;::;:::::.:::::::: mm 
 
 *JSS :;::::;:;-:::::;:::=:zz;::;:::;::;;-:::::::::: t^m 
 
 IJSa:::;::;:::::: i ^8^.000 
 
 Silver Bow 2, 82a,ouu 
 
 rpotj^l $6,050,000 
 
 of which about $2,700,000 is gold. 
 
 This doubtless embraces the value of the base metals (lead 
 and copper) contained, and for this reason, as well as those 
 previously given, the amount should be reduced to that 
 already stated, 14,960,000, of which $2,330,000 is gold and 
 $2,630,000 is silver. 
 
 UTAH. 
 
 AS early as 1863 discoveries were made in Utah of 
 lead and copper ores of varying richness in gold 
 and silver. The refractory nature of the vein mat- 
 ter for the ordinary and cheaper methods of treat- 
 ment, the cost of transportation, the opposition to an immi- 
 gration of a mining population by the self-constituted au- 
 thorities, and, above all, the almost endless contests in the 
 courts over mining property, discouraged investments of 
 capital and retarded the development of the mines, and it 
 was not until 1870 that operations commenced. In every 
 county, and in the full extent of the mountains from the 
 northern to the extreme southern limits of the Territory 
 mines have been found. Many are but little worked, and 
 some have been entirely abandoned ; but with the increase 
 of facilities for transporting and reducing ores their full de- 
 velopment is but a question of time. At present the prin- 
 cipal productive districts are at Park City, Cottonwood, 
 American Fork, Sandy, Bingham, Tintic, Stockton, Frisco, 
 and Silver Reef. At Sandy, in Salt Lake county, the large 
 smelting and reduction works absorb most of the ore from 
 mines accessible to that point by rail. New reduction works 
 are being erected elsewhere ; mills have been constructed, 
 the development of the principal mines is vigorously con- 
 ducted, and the prospect of future output of bullion from 
 Utah is of the most promising character. 
 
 Washington County. — The mines worked in Wash- 
 ington county occur in sandstone, which seems to render 
 necessary a revision of the received opinion that the precious 
 metals, or silver at least, do not exist in sedimentary rooks. 
 Mining began at Silver Reef in February, 1877. The out- 
 put that year was $480,665 ; for 1878 it was $1,141,911 ; in 
 1879, 1,114,753. Since then it has been less on account of 
 most of the mines changing ownership, and, later, from a 
 strike on thepartof the miners against a reduction of wages. 
 There are four companies having mills, viz., the Darbee & 
 Walker, the Stormont, the Christie, and the Leeds. These 
 companies practically own all the mines, and all the ores 
 mined in the county go through their mills. The total pro- 
 duct of the mills of Silver Reef during the fiscal year 1881 
 was $798,200. The product for the last six months of the 
 calendar year was $550,516, more than double what it was 
 during the first six months, and for the whole year, $794,343. 
 Beaver County.— The production of Beaver county for 
 the year 1880 was reported to the Census Bureau by districts 
 as follows: 
 
 IHstria. Gold Quarlz. 
 
 Bradshaw jg iso 
 
 San Francisco.. 
 
 Star 
 
 Silver. Oold and Silver. 
 S38,333 $17,663 
 
 637,089 637,089 
 
 Total $9,180 $675,472 
 
 $684,652 
 
 Juab County. —Two mills are in operation in this county, 
 the Mammoth and that of the Tintic Mining and Milling 
 Company. Prospecting is dull in Tintic, but will probably 
 soon be stimulated by the introduction of the Swansea pro- 
 cess, so as to get the copper, which is a valuable constituent 
 
 in most of the ores of this region, and save a larger percent- 
 age of gold and silver. The precious metals, copper, and base 
 metals are sp combined in these ores that it is a great waste 
 to mill them, as by this process alone all the copper and 
 about half the gold and silver are lost. The Salt Lake and 
 Western Railroad has been graded from Lehi, on the Utah 
 Central, to and through the district as far as Tanner's Springs, 
 and is being ironed as rapidly as possible. It is in contem- 
 plation to carry this road through the mining districts of 
 Western Utah and of Nevada, by way of Silver Peak and 
 the Big Trees, to Santa Cruz and San Francisco. The pro- 
 duction of Juab county was reported to the Census Bureau 
 by districts for the year 1880 as follows : In Tintic district — 
 
 Gold quartz S60.238 
 
 Silver 11,200 
 
 Total «71,438 
 
 Salt Lake County. — All the mines of Salt Lake county, 
 except the gold mines of Bingham, ship their ores to the 
 smelters at Sandy, in Jordan Valley, which divides the two 
 ranges of mountains, twelve miles south of Salt Lake City. 
 Some of the ore, however, is bought, after sampling, by 
 agents of the Omaha Smelting Works, and of Selby & Co., 
 of San Francisco, probably for its fluxing qualities. 
 
 The ores shipped to Omaha during the fiscal year con- 
 tained $8,900 of silver, making the total output of Salt Lake 
 county for that period $108,408 in gold and $1,164,684 in 
 silver. During the succeeding six months to December 31, 
 1881, about 700 tons of lead ore were shipped to Omaha and 
 San Francisco, which contained an average of fifteen ounces 
 of silver per ton, equaling $13,645. The production of Salt 
 Lake county by districts was reported to the Census Bureau 
 for the year 1880 as follows : 
 
 Districl. Gold. Silver. Gold and Silver. 
 
 West Mountain, placer $116,329 $6,309 $122,688 
 
 West Mountain district, quartz 20,000 20,000 
 
 Total $136,329 
 
 $142,638 
 
 Toole County. — The production of Toole county for the 
 year 1880 was reported to the Census Bureau by districts as 
 follows : * 
 
 District. Silver. 
 
 Camp Floyd $7,500 
 
 Ophir 1,001 
 
 Total f8,501 
 
 Summit County. — Nearly the entire product of Summit 
 county for 1881 must be credited to the Ontario Company, 
 the Marsac mill and Park City smelter having been idle for 
 the last half of the year; the Park City smelter has but one 
 stack, and as its sources of supply were exhausted on account 
 of litigation, it did not run long. The Ontario is in a con- 
 dition to produce more ore than can be reduced by the 
 present milling facilities, and a forty-stamp mill is to be 
 erected. It is now sinking a new working shaft and putting 
 in a Cornish pump of great capacity. Sinking with the aid 
 of the windlass will be discontinued, and the work carried 
 on by the pump-hoist engine until the heavy machinery is 
 in position. In the second shaft, the vein at the 700-foot 
 level has been run on upwards of 500 feet, all the way in ore, 
 and the vein has been cut on the 800-foot level and reports 
 240-ounce ore, of two and a half feet thickness. Of projected 
 developments, the Salt Lake City Herald says : " A tunnel 
 is being run from the Ontario mill to the mines, a distance 
 of 6,000 feet, which is intended to tap the main shaft of the 
 mine at the 600-foot level. The object of the tunnel is to 
 draw off the water from the mine, which will save the pump- 
 ing 600 feet from all above and on the line of tlie tunnel. 
 The shaft is down some 800 feet; therefore, instead of hav- 
 ing to pump the water this distance, it will be necessary to 
 pu.Tip it only 200 feet. In addition to running off the water 
 it will kC used for other puposes. Cars drawn by horses will 
 be run in it to carry ore to the mill." During the "fiscal year 
 the Ontario produced $2,443,455 in silver. This mine has 
 produced, to December 31, 1881, .$9,356,290 worth of silver, 
 valued in gold at the selling price of silver from month to 
 month as taken out. It has paid 72 consecutive dividends, 
 aggregating $3,925,000. The following exhibits in detail the 
 product of this great mine, embracing that of the mine be- 
 fore the company had its own mill : 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1089 
 
 Date. Ko. of Bars. SoldJorQold. Total. 
 
 1S77. 
 
 February 61 8109,275 34 
 
 March 86 136,883 07 
 
 April 80 127,087 88 
 
 May 70 126,190 83 
 
 June 100 157,691 09 
 
 July 81 136,974 89 
 
 August 86 151,042 10 
 
 September 82 158,059 16 
 
 October 86 162,174 66 
 
 l^ovember 90 151,342 42 
 
 December 97 106,546 36 
 
 81,572,174 42 
 
 1878. 
 
 January 86 8152,509 95 
 
 February 68 129,334 02 
 
 March 82 157,806 29 
 
 April 90 152,15197 
 
 llav 64 116,427 38 
 
 June 66 90,052 97 
 
 July '. 112 94,308 24 
 
 August 148 120,601 85 
 
 September 92 78,967 28 
 
 October 109 83,581 90 
 
 December 155 103,193 63 
 
 , 81,278,835 38 
 
 1879. 
 
 January 92 $57,995 86 
 
 February 82 62,335 69 
 
 March 77 49,630 05 
 
 April 126 86,188 10 
 
 May 142 102.243 84 
 
 June 129 115,097 42 
 
 July 112 100,807 92 
 
 August 132 119,022 22 
 
 September 126 103,110 93 
 
 October. 148 124,268 28 
 
 November 114 113,385 13 
 
 December 138 143,800 54 
 
 81,166,784 00 
 
 mo. 
 
 January 130 8117,663 50 
 
 February 179 184,926 99 
 
 May 41 63,64198 
 
 June 140 18i5,536 92 
 
 July 132 195,299 35 
 
 August 134 206,036 47 
 
 September 152 186,329 02 
 
 October 160 223,085 41 
 
 November 160 230,899 81 
 
 December 142 185,205 24 
 
 81,769,224 69 
 
 1881. 
 
 January 132 $167,825 02 
 
 February 146 186,130 60 
 
 March 174 230,238 84 
 
 April 150 207,411 34 
 
 May 130 169,301 33 
 
 June 172 236,141 32 
 
 July 188 263,704 66 
 
 August 162 208,561 64 
 
 September 160 194,693 20 
 
 October 142 107,443 96 
 
 November 158 218,819 72 
 
 December 175 220,000 00 
 
 ■ 82,469,271 53 
 
 Total 88,256,290 22 
 
 Amount prior to January, 1877 1,100,000 00 
 
 $9,356,290 02 
 
 During March and April, 1880, the mill was closed on ac- 
 count of repairs of an important character being made. 
 
 The production of Summit county for the year 1880 was 
 
 reported to the Census Bureau as follows: Uinta district, 
 $1,358,243, silver. 
 
 Production of Gold and Silver firom the Mines of XTtaTi from 
 July 1 to December 31, 1880. 
 
 Mill or Mine. 
 
 BULLION. 
 
 Barbee & Walker 
 
 Christy 
 
 Stormont 
 
 Horn Silver 
 
 Frisco 
 
 Mammoth 
 
 Tintic 
 
 Ontario.. 
 
 Old Telegraph 
 
 Mingo 
 
 Hanauer 
 
 Germania 
 
 F. J. Pascoe 
 
 J.F.Brooks 
 
 H. F. Swan 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Gulch mines.... 
 
 GEES. 
 E. Mackiutosh... 
 
 Total ... 
 69" 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Silver Reef.... 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 Frisco , 
 
 do 
 
 Tintic 
 
 Homansville 
 
 Park City. 
 
 Sandy 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 Salt Lake 
 
 Stockton 
 
 Sandy 
 
 Stockton 
 
 Bingham 
 
 Salt Lake.. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 34816 
 
 1,126-83 
 
 166-60 
 
 "16,6-66 
 
 46100 
 
 377-57 
 
 660-58 
 
 5-10 
 
 200 
 
 11-13 
 
 21-19 
 
 1,193-00 
 
 Val,ue. 
 
 87,197.11 
 
 23,293.64 
 
 3,443.93 
 
 2,182.12 
 
 9,323.00 
 
 7,805.06 
 
 11,588.22 
 
 105.43 
 
 ■41.34 
 
 230.08 
 
 438.04 
 
 24,661.60 
 
 4,368-72 890,309.47 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Fine 
 Ounces. 
 
 91,082-96 
 
 117,26800 
 
 220,429.40 
 
 253,852.06 
 
 61,852-72 
 
 18,659-81 
 
 36,140-69 
 
 972.606-00 
 
 37,466-74 
 
 176,216-40 
 
 102,770-82 
 
 110,636-56 
 
 2,040-31 
 
 993-26 
 
 4,43905 
 
 9,436.11 
 
 3,555-00 
 
 2,219,144-77 
 
 Value. 
 
 8117,763.83 
 
 161,619.23 
 
 284,999.63 
 
 328,212.76 
 
 79,971.19 
 
 23,996.52 
 
 46,727.23 
 
 1,257,381.49 
 
 48,441.86 
 
 227,836.35 
 
 132,875.40 
 
 142,916.94 
 
 2,637.98 
 
 1,284.20 
 
 6,739.38 
 
 12,198.93 
 
 4,596.36 
 
 82,869,197.27 
 
 Production of Gold and Silver from the Mines of Utah from 
 January 1 to June 30, 1881. 
 
 MUl or Mine. 
 
 BULLION, 
 
 Barbee & Walker 
 
 Christy 
 
 Stormont 
 
 Horn Silver 
 
 Frisco 
 
 Mammoth 
 
 Ontario 
 
 Park City S. Co.. 
 
 Great Basin 
 
 Mingo 
 
 Hanauer 
 
 Germania 
 
 F.J. Pascoe 
 
 Tintic 
 
 J. F. Brooks 
 
 Gulch mines 
 
 GEES. 
 
 Rebellion.. 
 R. 
 
 ilackiutosh. . 
 Total 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Silver Reef... 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 Frisco 
 
 ...do 
 
 Tintic 
 
 Park City 
 
 do 
 
 Stockton 
 
 Sandy 
 
 ...do 
 
 ...do 
 
 Salt Lake 
 
 Homansville 
 
 Stockton 
 
 Bingham 
 
 Park City.. 
 Salt Lake.. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Fine 
 Ounces. 
 
 371-02 
 787-16 
 
 ""34-67 
 
 99-59 
 
 51200 
 
 141-66 
 
 351-58 
 
 66-13 
 
 227-23 
 
 13-76 
 
 1,34900 
 
 3,942-18 
 
 Value, 
 
 87,669.66 
 16,272.04 
 
 704.29 
 
 2,068.71 
 
 10,583.98 
 
 2,928.16 
 
 7,267.80 
 
 1,139.64 
 
 4,697.26 
 
 284.24 
 
 27,886.30 
 
 881,492.08 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Fine 
 Ounces. 
 
 40.520-70 
 110,609-60 
 
 37,847-60 
 382,464-47 
 168,570-78 
 
 17,970-02 
 917,36400 
 
 22,359-04 
 
 24,567-16 
 ]87,158-60 
 
 64,966-92 
 149,422-35 
 
 17,98600 
 
 36,327-72 
 7,913-65 
 
 19,260-00 
 3.345-00 
 
 2,208,242-41 
 
 Value. 
 
 852,390.40 
 
 142,880.97 
 
 48,646.39 
 
 494,499.82 
 
 217,950.10 
 
 23,233.96 
 
 1,186,073.86 
 
 28,908.66 
 
 31,763.60 
 
 241,982.71 
 
 83,997.64 
 
 193,192.53 
 
 23,253.33 
 
 46,%9.17 
 
 10,231.79 
 
 24,901.82 
 4,324.85 
 
 82,868,101.30 
 
 Production of Gold and Silver from the Mines of Utah during 
 the liscal year ending June 30, 1881. 
 
 Mill or Mijie. 
 
 BULLION. 
 
 Barbee & Walker 
 
 Christy 
 
 Stormont 
 
 Horn Silver 
 
 Frisco 
 
 Mammoth 
 
 Ontario 
 
 Tintic , 
 
 Park City S. Co., 
 
 Great Basin 
 
 Old Telegraph.... 
 
 Mingo 
 
 Hanauer 
 
 Germania 
 
 F. J. Pascoe 
 
 J. F. Brooks 
 
 H. F. Swau 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Gulch mines 
 
 GEES. 
 
 Rebellion 
 
 R. Mackintosh.. 
 
 Total.. 
 
 Localiiy. 
 
 Silver Reef. 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 Frisco 
 
 ...do 
 
 Tintic 
 
 Park City.... 
 Homansville 
 Park City. 
 Stockton.. 
 
 Sandy 
 
 ...do 
 
 ...do 
 
 ...do 
 
 Salt Lake. 
 Stockton,. 
 
 Sandy 
 
 Stockton.. 
 Bingham. 
 
 Park City.., 
 Salt Lake .. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Fine 
 Ounees. 
 
 719-18 
 1,913-99 
 
 3407 
 
 99-69 
 
 105-56 
 
 963-00 
 
 519-22 
 
 912-16 
 
 60-23 
 
 15-75 
 
 11-13 
 
 2119 
 
 2,542-00 
 
 Value. 
 
 $14,866.77 
 39,565.68 
 
 8,141.19 
 
 704.29 
 
 2,058.71 
 
 2,182.12 
 
 19.906.98 
 
 10,733.22 
 
 18,866.02 
 
 1,245.07 
 
 325.68 
 
 230.08 
 
 438.04 
 
 62,547.80 
 
 8,310-90 $171,801.56 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Fine 
 Ounces. 
 
 131,603-66 
 
 227,777-50 
 
 267,977-00 
 
 636,316-53 
 
 230,423-50 
 
 36.529-83 
 
 1,889,860-00 
 
 72,468-31 
 
 22,36904 
 
 24,567-16 
 
 37,466-74 
 
 363,374-90 
 
 167,737-74 
 
 269,958-90 
 
 20,026-31 
 
 8,906-90 
 
 4,43905 
 
 9,435-U 
 
 Value. 
 
 8170,154.23 
 
 294,.600.20 
 
 333,646.02 
 
 822,712.28 
 
 297.921.29 
 
 47,230.48 
 
 2,443,456.35 
 
 93,696.40 
 
 28,908.66 
 
 31,763.60 
 
 48,441.85 
 
 469,818.06 
 
 216,873.04 
 
 336,108.47 
 
 25,891.31 
 
 11,616.99 
 
 8,739.38 
 
 12,198.93 
 
 19,26000 24.901.82 
 6,900 00 8,921.21 
 
 4,427,387-18 85,724,298.67 
 
 I 
 
 Wells, Fargo & Company's Statement of the Mineral Product 
 of Utah for 1881. 
 
 Base Bullion, 
 
 Pounds 
 0/ Lead, 
 refined. 
 
 Pounds of 
 
 Lead, un- 
 
 r^ned. 
 
 Ounces 
 ofSUver. 
 
 Ounces 
 of Gold. 
 
 Frisco Milling and Smelting Comp'y 
 Germania Smelt'gand Refin'g Works 
 Hanauer Smelter 
 
 
 3,023,213 
 3,687,284 
 3.015,228 
 16,343,995 
 11,977.649 
 1,634,597 
 
 221,846 
 234,260 
 176,320 
 1,259,903 
 437,176 
 66,680 
 
 
 2,645,373 
 
 191 
 
 438 
 
 
 
 
 Mingo Furnace 
 
 
 832 
 21.6 
 
 
 
 
 Deduct base bullion purchased for 
 Germania Refining Works 
 
 2,645,373 
 
 39,681,966 
 385,365 
 
 2,386,185 
 18,427 
 
 2,101 
 39 
 
 Net product base bullion 
 
 
 39,296,601 
 2,895,026 
 
 2,367,758 
 276,141 
 
 2,062 
 
 Lead, silver, and gold in ores shipped 
 
 
 
 
 Total refined lead, ores, and base 
 
 2,645,373 
 
 42,191,627 
 
 2,643,899 
 
 115,219 
 1,909,870 
 
 614,368 
 73,031 
 43,804 
 
 2,622 
 317 
 
 DORE BAES. 
 
 
 
 Silver Reef Mills 
 
 
 Tintic Mill and Mining Company : 
 
 406 
 
 Other mills and places 
 
 4.643 
 
 Total dore bars 
 
 2,756,292 
 
 6,366 
 
1090 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 KECAPITULATION. 
 
 2,645,373 pounfls refined lead, at 5i4 cents per pound $145,495 51 
 
 42,191,627 pounds unrefined lead, at SnO per ton 1,054,790 67 
 
 5,400,191 ounces silver, at 81.11 5,994,212 01 
 
 7,958 ounces gold, at S20 159.160 00 
 
 Total...- 87,353,668 19 
 
 The above includes the ores received from Idaho, Mon- 
 tana, and Nevada, aggregating 3,969,440 pounds of lead, 
 441,846 ounces of silver, and 976 ounces of gold. Comput- 
 ing the gold and silver at the mint valuation, and lead at its 
 value at the seaboard, it would increase the value of the pro- 
 duct to $9,401,475.56. 
 
 Production of Utah, by Counties, during the calendar year 1881 . 
 
 (Estimated by 0. J. HoUister.) 
 
 
 Oold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Fine Ounces. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Fine Ounces. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 
 
 614,368 
 
 1,601,341 
 
 105.354 
 
 805,193 
 
 1,931,089 
 
 
 
 425 
 
 2,332 
 
 4,191 
 
 34 
 
 $8,785 53 
 
 48,206 71 
 
 88,635 66 
 
 702 84 
 
 1,941,127 75 
 
 136,215 27 
 
 1,041.057 61 
 
 2,496,761 63 
 
 
 Salt Lake 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 6,982 
 
 $144,330 74 
 
 4,957,345 
 
 $6,409,496 54 
 
 
 COLORADO. 
 
 THE assayer in charge of the Denver mint, H. Silver, 
 Esq., obtained and forwarded a large amount of val- 
 uable and comprehensive statistical information in 
 regard to the production of Colorado during the 
 year, accompanied by an able sketch of the condition of 
 mining in the several counties, prepared by Mr. Frank Hall, 
 of Denver, who has given much attention to the condition 
 of the mining interests of the State. The local press, as 
 might be expected, in their daily and weekly issues not only 
 record the history of mining in their own localities, but 
 publish annual reviews and summaries of mining progress 
 during the year. Mr. Silver also obtained returns from 
 bankers and transportation companies, and from mine of- 
 ficers and owners, which, though not embracing all, have 
 been found of considerable value in ascertaining the pro- 
 duction of different counties. From these sources and per- 
 sonal observation, and by a comparison of these data with 
 other information received, a detailed review of the progress 
 of mining for the precious metals, and the production of 
 the different counties in Colorado during the year, has been 
 prepared at this office. The bullion production of Colorado 
 has increased slightly over the yield of previous years, and 
 still exceeds that of any other State or Territory. " The total 
 production of the State for the calendar year 1881 was $3,- 
 300,000 gold and $17,160,000 silver, which, from a careful 
 comparison of the returns received at this office and esti- 
 mates of those engaged in collecting statistics, appear to have 
 been produced by the different counties as follows : 
 
 Production of Precious Metals in Colorado for the year 1881. 
 
 Counties. Gold. 
 
 Boulder $200,000 
 
 Chafifee 60,000 
 
 Clear Creek 200,000 
 
 Custer 100,000 
 
 Dolores 5000 
 
 Fremont 
 
 Gilpin l,860,'(ioo 
 
 Gunnison 
 
 Hinsdale , 
 
 Lake 
 
 La Plata , 
 
 Ourav 
 
 Park" 
 
 Pitkin ,.„„„„„ 
 
 Eio Grande 29o',000 
 
 Bowt... 20,000 
 
 Saguache 
 
 San .Tuan "5 01)0 
 
 Summit gsjooo 
 
 10,000 
 10,000 
 
 300,000 
 5,000 
 70,000 
 50,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 Silver. 
 
 $360,000 
 
 165,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 700,000 
 
 90,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 260,000 
 
 400,000 
 
 160,000 
 
 10,300,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 135,000 
 
 350,000 
 
 80,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 Total $3,300,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 26,000 
 
 2,120,000 
 
 $17,160,000 
 
 Total. 
 
 $550,000 
 
 215,000 
 
 2,200,000 
 
 800,000 
 
 95,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 2,110,000 
 
 410,000 
 
 170,000 
 
 10,600,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 205,000 
 
 400,000 
 
 130,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 2,1,55,000 
 
 $20,460,000 
 
 The table presents many changes from the production of 
 localities, as published for the previous year, although the 
 total production of the State was but slightly changed. 
 Several of the counties seem to have reached their maximum. 
 The yield of Lake county is about $2,000,000 less than that 
 of 1880. Many mines in other counties have, however, be- 
 come producers, and hundreds of mines are scattered through 
 the State which contain ore in quantity and character fully 
 justifying its shipment and treatment as soon as cheaper and 
 more expeditious facilities for that purpose are furnished. 
 The yield of Gilpin, the principal gold-producing county, 
 has slightly fallen oif, on account of some of the old mines 
 having been idle, but this has been compensated for by Rio 
 Grande county, which is rapidly developing into a gold 
 producer. In Summit county rich discoveries have been 
 made in all quarters, and it promises to become one of the 
 best mining sections of the State. The Gunnison and San 
 Juan countries are rich in mineral, and with better shipping 
 facilities, which will soon be accorded, the output of bullion 
 will rapidly increase. Mining in Colorado.has not been un- 
 successful nor unprofitable. While much of the work done 
 has made no great returns to individual operators, hundreds 
 of good lodes have steadily been undergoing development, 
 and the labor and money expended during the past year will 
 bring their fruits in the future. In addition to the profits 
 earned by individual enterprise, of which we have no record, 
 and the improved condition of the mines, nearly three mill- 
 ion dollars were paid in dividends. The Rooky Mountain 
 Review publishes the dividends of seventeen mining com- 
 panies in Colorado for 1881, which disbursed in the aggregate 
 |2,951,7£0. The dividends were paid as follows : 
 
 Dividends. Amount. 
 
 Bonanza Development Company.. 
 
 Catalpa 
 
 Chrysolite 
 
 Dunkin 
 
 Evening Star 
 
 Gem 
 
 Glass Pendery 
 
 Hibernia 
 
 Iron Silver 
 
 Leadville Consolidated 
 
 La Plata 
 
 Morning Star 
 
 Moore M. H. Company 
 
 Polonia.... 
 
 Robert E. Lee , 
 
 Robinson 
 
 Silver King 
 
 4 
 
 $135,000 
 
 3 
 
 180,000 
 
 5 
 
 500,000 
 
 6 
 
 110,000 
 
 18 
 
 475,000 
 
 
 
 3,750 
 
 1 
 
 25,000 
 
 5 
 
 160,000 
 
 4 
 
 500,000 
 
 
 
 20.000 
 
 12 
 
 195,000 
 
 1 
 
 60,000 
 
 
 36,000 
 
 i 
 
 12,000 
 
 1 
 
 50.000 
 
 9 
 
 460,000 
 
 1 
 
 50,000 
 
 Total. 
 
 71 $2,961,750 
 
 On the Catalpa, Dunkin, Glass Pendery, Hibernia, Polonia, 
 and Robert E. Lee dividends were paid in the first half of 
 the year, and none paid since June. The Evening Star and 
 La Plata paid dividends regularly during the whole year. 
 The Chrysolite, Morning Star, and Silver King paid divi- 
 dends during the latter half of the year. 
 
 The first dividend oftheyearof the Robinson Consolidated 
 was paid in June, and the last in November. The Iron 
 Silver paid its first dividend for the year in June, and in 
 December its fourth. 
 
 Boulder County.— This county, in addition to its well- 
 earned reputation as the agricultural garden of the State, 
 possesses some of the most extraordinary mines. Beginning 
 at the east line, twelve miles from the foothills, we find the im- 
 mense coal measures opened at Northrop and Canfield, which 
 have furnished Denver, Boulder, and Golden with fuel from 
 the date of their settlement, and supplied the railways for 
 steam purposes since their construction. The State geologist 
 (Prof. J. Alden Smith), in his last report, says of them : 
 "They are lignitic, very dense, generally of a jet-black color, 
 high luster, and wholly destitute of fibrous or woody struc- 
 ture, far superior to most lignites, and quite equal for most 
 purposes to the best Pennsylvania coals Tlieir specific 
 gravity varies from 1-28 to 1-40, averaging about 1-23. They 
 are also remarkably free from sulphur, the quantity rarely 
 reaching 1 per cent, and generally falling below 0-4 per cent. 
 The quantity of ash, too, is very low, ranging between 2 and 
 7 per cent., averaging about 5}. Their heating power is 
 very high, ignite readily, burn freely, and are largely used 
 for domestic purposes and for making steam. They are used 
 also in the manufacture of illuminating gas, roasting pyritous 
 ores, bl.icksinithing, and to a limited extent in smelting." 
 None of them are reduced to coke, because not well adapted 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1091 
 
 for use in that form. The same quality is found in nearly 
 all quarters of that division of the county which extends 
 from the base of the mountains eastward. This section is 
 already accommodated by six different railways, and several 
 others are projected. In no other county of tlie State is lode 
 mining carried on so near the open plains. The first fissures 
 occur about two miles west of the town of Boulder, those 
 nearest the valley carrying a fair percentage of copper and 
 some silver. A little farther up, at an altitude of 8,000 feet, 
 are the famous telluride veins, the largest and richest in the 
 world. "Auriferous and argentiferous telluride ores were 
 found here in quantity for the third time in the world's 
 history, and in greater abundance than ever previously 
 known. I may safely assert that a single mine in Boulder 
 county has produced more tellurium, had it been reduced 
 and saved, than any ten of the other mines of the world com- 
 bined. Hundreds of tons of ore have been shipped to 
 smelting works that would have yielded from 5 to 10 per 
 cent, of tellurium, and thousands of tons containing from 1 
 to 3 per cent. Pieces of several pounds' weight may be 
 selected which contain 75 per cent., and it is no uncommon 
 thing to find masses containing from 15 to 25 per cent. 
 
 "As an illustration of the richness of the^e ores, it may 
 be stated that the assay value of the first-class ores from the 
 American mine varied from $2,000 to $12,000 per ton in 
 bulk, the average being about $4,500. The second-class 
 yielded about $800, and third quality $200 per ton. The 
 largest number of the productive lodes are in granite, gneiss, 
 several are in mica scliist, and but two thus far opened are 
 between porphyry and granite."' 
 
 The New» and Courier gives the following as the product 
 of the Boulder county mines for 1881 : 
 
 Caribou silver bricks shipped tlirough the express office at 
 
 Boulder $227,982 88 
 
 Ore purchased by the Boston and Colorado Sampling Works.. lOO.UOO 00 
 
 Ore purchased by the Golden Company Sampling Works 60,000 00 
 
 Ore and base bullion shipped to other parts via C. C. Railroad. 60,000 00 
 
 Eetorts shipped by Ni Wot mine to Denver 40.000 00 
 
 Gold retorts and dust shipped through banks 37,500 00 
 
 Considerable gulch gold has been produced and carried out 
 
 of the county by individuals, say 10,000 00 
 
 Total net product $535,482 88 
 
 The general average of ore produced is $126.66 per ton. 
 The above estimate is made principally from the books of 
 express offices, sampling works, and banks, and as they are 
 in round numbers, the probability is that they are somewhat 
 under the actual amounts. The following mills and mines 
 of Boulder county have returned reports of production, viz. : 
 Church & Co., Clark & Johnson, Jones & Smith, Phillips & 
 Wood, Caribou Consolidated Company, Golden Age, Col- 
 umbus, Friburg, Gray Copper and Vanchus, Magnolia, 
 Prussian, Yellow Pine, Ajax, Ivers Phillips, Sugar Loaf, 
 Wood & Germain. 
 
 I estimate that the production of Boulder county during 
 1881 was $200,000 in gold and $350,000 in silver; a total of 
 $550,000. 
 
 Ohaflfee County. — This county was created by a division 
 of Lake county, by legislative enactment in 1879, with Buena 
 Vista as a principal center of traffic, and the county seat. 
 The latter point is thirty-five miles south of Leadville, one 
 hundred and thirty-five miles west of Denver, and one 
 hundred and twenty miles north of Pueblo, and is in the 
 midst of a very fair agricultural section. Water for irriga- 
 tion is obtained from Cottonwood creek on one side, and 
 from the Arkansas river on the other. Owing to the dis- 
 covery of valuable mines of gold, silver, and iron in the 
 neighboring mountains, numerous small towns or camps 
 have been established, and most of them are in a flourishing 
 condition. Granite district, in the northern part of the 
 county, and east of the Arkansas river, is one of the oldest 
 mining districts in the State. The ore from the lodes was 
 at first free gold bearing, but as depth was attained sulphuret 
 of iron, with some copper and lead, made their appearance, 
 and it became too refractory for the ordinary mill process. 
 Suitable works for treatment of the ore have not yet been 
 erected, and a large amount of mineral is now lying on the 
 dumps awaiting the advent of an adequate process for re- 
 duction. 
 
 The Yankee Blade is the best developed mine, and is 
 opened by three shafts 265, 70, and 140 feet respectively. 
 The 100-fbot level has been driven from the main shaft 280 
 
 feet, and the 200-foot level 185 feet. The Robert George, O. 
 K., Massachusetts, Washington, Mamie, Jessie Johnson, 
 Belle of Joplin, Alta, Hattie Jane, Santa Claus, Yosemite, 
 Solex Tiyee, Free Gold, California, Base Range, Rocky 
 Bar, Dana, Little Troy, Atlanta, Jack Rabbit, Trafalgar, 
 Carbonate, Hudoo, and Hancock, are all opened by shafts 
 or tunnels of from twenty-five feet to 100 feet. The veins 
 are generally well defined and vary from one to three feet 
 in width. 
 
 Many large and rich mineral veins which during the year 
 were being merely developed, will soon produce and work 
 considerable ore, and the yield of the county for the next near 
 will doubtless exhibit an increase. The following mills and 
 mines of Chafiee county have returned reports of producticjn, 
 viz. : Dry Placer Amalgamating Company, Columbus, Gaff, 
 Monarch, Lake County Placer, Black Tiger. The produc- 
 tion of the precious metals in this county in 1881 was 
 $50,000 in gold and $166,000 in silver. 
 
 Clear Creek County. — The principal centers ofmining 
 in this county are Georgetown, Empire, Lawson's, Spanish 
 Bar, and Idaho Springs. The yield for 1881 was $2,200,000, 
 or about $450,000 less than for 1880, owing to the large 
 amount of " dead work " performed in opening the principal 
 lodes. Much of the shortage was owing to harassing litiga- 
 tion, which is always seriously detrimental to production. 
 It is well understood that this is the oldest silver-mining sec- 
 tion of the Rocky Mountains, having a greater number of 
 mines well opened, and yielding a larger percentage of high- 
 grade ore. While a majority of the veins are narrow in 
 comparison with those of Gilpin, its nearest neighbor; the 
 contained mineral, as a whole, is extremely valuable; they 
 are easily worked, and many of them have been penetrated 
 to great depths by shafts and tunnels. At Georgetown, the 
 county seat, there are several sampling mills, one concen- 
 trating establishment, and one in which the ores are reduced 
 to bullion. The major part are, however, shipped to Golden, 
 Denver, and Pueblo for reduction by smelting. The moun- 
 tains being very steep are admirably suited for deep tunnel- 
 ing. The middle and lower portions of thecounty have been 
 unusually active for a year or two past. The mines about 
 Idaho Springs, Freeland, Chicago Creek, and Spanish Bar 
 have been more extensively developed than in any former 
 season. Idaho Springs is becoming quite a brisk milling 
 center as well as a popular health resort. 
 
 Biit little placer mining was done on Clear creek or else- 
 where in the county, and the total product of individual 
 operators would not exceed $5,000. The following mills and 
 mines of Clear creek county have returned reports of pro- 
 duction, viz.: Farwell Reduction Works, Clear Creek County 
 Reduction Works, Washington Stamp Mill, Baxter, Colo- 
 rado Central Consolidated, Colorado Diamond Tunnel Com- 
 pany, Dunadin, Equator, Frostburg, Hukill, Lincoln, Men- 
 dota, Pay-Rock Consolidated, Red Elephant, Stevens, Peli- 
 can, Dives, Cincinnati Consolidated, Hercules and Roe, 
 Dunderberg, Good Luck, Horn and Errickson, Silver Plume 
 Consolidated, Equitable, R. Orchard Old, Tunnel Silver. Of 
 the total production, $200,000 was gold and 12,000,000 sil- 
 ver. The following estimate of the production of Clear 
 creek county is taken from the local press : 
 
 Bought by Georgetown Mills ?].,564,978 60 
 
 Bought by Moore & Golden Smelting Works direct from 
 
 miners 109,666 00 
 
 Product of Hukill, Freeland, and mines near Idaho Springs, 
 
 not included in above 474,823 71 
 
 Geneva district 30,000 00 
 
 Dumont and Empire m'oOO 00 
 
 Bought by A. P. Stevens, Lawson 10000 00 
 
 Free gold bought by Bank of Idaho Springs i!461 93 
 
 Total $2,204,930 34 
 
 It has been impossible to separate the value of the difier- 
 ent metals, as an aggregate is the only account kept by most 
 of the sampling mills, but it probably will not vary much 
 from 86 per cent, silver, 7 per cent, gold, 4 per cent, lead, 
 and 3 per cent, copper, or, in round figures, about as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Silver $1,904,930 34 
 
 Gold. 150,000 00 
 
 Lesia 90,000 00 
 
 tapper ; 60,000 00 
 
 Total $2,204,930 34 
 
 Custer County.— The first discoveries of paying min- 
 
1092 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 eral in this county occurred near Rosita. Tlie largest yields 
 have been obtained from the Bassick, at Querida, and the 
 Humboldt, Pocahontas, and Leavenworth, at Rosita. Several 
 others, the Virginia, Leviathan, Polonia, Ben Franklin, First 
 Chance, and Silver King, have produced considerable 
 amounts of marketable ore. Unquestionably the Bassick is, 
 for the present, the greatest mine in all that region of coun- 
 try ; but as it is under the control of a company which has 
 managed thus far to keep its own secrets from the public, no 
 one can obtain any information of its transactions. This 
 much may be asserted, however, that the yields are neither 
 so large nor the ores valuable as reported by the press. 
 What has been produced during the past year is only a mat- 
 ter of conjecture, but it is not far from $400,000. Other 
 prominent properties in the intermediate vicinity of Querida 
 are the Hector, Midnight, Poorman, Ophir, and Copper 
 Bottom No. 1. Of Custer county's production of gold, silver, 
 and copper during the ensuing ten years, fully three-fourths 
 will probably be produced within a circle four miles in di- 
 ameter, of which Querida is the central point. Silver Cliff 
 is the largest settlement in the county, and contains from 
 2,500 to 3,000 people. All of the mines which created its 
 prestige as a thrifty center are idle. The mills of the Racine 
 Boy, Plata Verde, and Bull Domingo, as well as the mines, 
 are idle, and have been so for the greater part of the year. 
 The mill of the Racine Boy is one of the largest and finest 
 in the State. There is no doubt that these mines and mills, 
 placed under honest, judicious, and careful direction, would 
 soon become very productive and profitable. The ores are 
 there in apparently illimitable quantities, and, though not 
 • largely of the class known as high grade, are still sufli- 
 ciently valuable to give handsome returns under wise man- 
 agement. Other properties in the vicinity have been worked 
 steadily, however, during the year. The Boulder and Buf- 
 falo Hunter Company is erecting a 100-ton mill, and the 
 Duryee Furnace Company has completed a fifty-ton furnace 
 nearer town. Should these new establishments be able to 
 treat the peculiar ores of that locality, and should the cor- 
 porations which hold the better properties come to an agree- 
 ment, it is probable that the county of Custer will again 
 resume its position as one of the important mining commu- 
 nities of the State. A few of the properties on which the 
 most has been accomplished in the way of systematic devel- 
 opment, are named below : Humboldt, 1,800 feet ; Victoria, 
 625; California, 350 ; LaCrosse,310; Schoolfield, 120; Good 
 Hope, 130; Fiskdale, 200 ; Peerless, 50; Belle of the Gulch, 
 225; Silver Run, 200; Copper Bottom, 150 ; Empire Tunnel, 
 350; Song Bird, 200; First Iowa, 100; Denver, 150; Zoo, 
 100 ; Iron Mountain, 260 ; Butterworth, 50 ; Hunter, 50 ; 
 Brittle Silver, 65 ; Del Norte, 50 ; Silver Horn, 250 ; Eureka, 
 200; and Black Hawk, 65. The following mines reported 
 production : Lucille Consolidated, Twenty-Six, Lady Frank- 
 lin. I estimate the production during 1881 to have been 
 $100,000 in gold and $700,000 silver; a total of $800,000. 
 The following from the Silver Cliflf Mining Gazette gives 
 the total yield of the mines of Custer county up to Januarv 
 1,1881: ■' 
 
 SILVEK CLIFF SMELTING ORES.* 
 
 8290,000 
 
 Bull Domingo.. 
 
 Milkmaid 
 
 Silver King 
 
 Zoo 
 
 Del Monte 
 
 Silver Cliff Company.. 
 
 Plata Verde 
 
 Horn Silver 
 
 Buifalo Hunter 
 
 Boulder 
 
 Hecla 
 
 Vanderbilt 
 
 Julian 
 
 Song Bird 
 
 Kate 
 
 Lone Star 
 
 Sitting Bull 
 
 .MILLING ORES. 
 
 Total . 
 
 „ . , ROSITA SMELTING OHES.t 
 
 Bassick ' 
 
 Humboldt ..."..!.... 
 
 Pocahontas '.'.."..V.'.V.V." ' 
 
 Leavenworth .", "", 
 
 Invincible .'.'. . 
 
 Lucille ; 
 
 1.000 
 
 256 
 
 2,000 
 
 875,000 
 
 2,600 
 
 15,000 
 
 2,600 
 
 5,000 
 20,000 
 2,000 
 6,000 
 1,600 
 2,000 
 
 Ji724,956 
 
 $500,000 
 
 sas.ooo 
 
 817.477 
 120,000 
 
 * Founded in 1879. 
 
 11,900 
 Pounded in 1871. 
 
 Polonia 
 
 Twenty-Six 
 
 Horton 
 
 Krst Chance 
 
 Silver King 
 
 Ophir 
 
 Ben Franklin .... 
 
 Silver Coin 
 
 East Leviathan- 
 Virginia 
 
 Total. 
 
 $36,000 
 2,000 
 1,600 
 3,000 
 1,000 
 
 10,500 
 1,000 
 8,000 
 8,548 
 
 $1,366,025 
 
 Dolores County. — This county, having Rico for its 
 principal center, was set off from Ouray county, by act of 
 the general assembly, in 1880. For some time past, the 
 mines of that locality have attracted much attention because 
 of their extent and value. It is estimated that fully two- 
 thirds of the veins thus far discovered are true fissures, crop- 
 ping out through alternate layers of eruptive and sediment- 
 ary rocks, porphyry, lime, and sandstone. The remainder 
 are contact veins between porphyry and lime. The fissures 
 are very large, containing almost every variety of mineral, 
 gold; silver, copper, iron, lead, antimonial silver, heavy and 
 calc spar, etc. In some of these, as well as in the contact 
 veins, carbon£|,J;e of lead is found in great abundance. The 
 district was discovered and prospected late in the autumn of 
 1879, but the winter coming on so early, and with unusual 
 severity, little could be done until the following spring, when 
 prospecting was resumed and carried on quite extensively, 
 until October, 1880, when another severe winter put a' stop 
 to out-door operations. By this time, however, a consider- 
 able settlement had been formed, and the basis of active 
 development firmly established. Near Rico is the Newman 
 group, probably the best developed mines of the county. It 
 comprises the Newman, Chestnut, Swansea, Swansea Exten- 
 sion, Stephens, Parsons, Tip Top, and Ocean Wave proper- 
 ties. The main ore chute lies in the Chestnut, Newman, 
 Swansea, Swansea Extension, and Stephens lodes. These 
 mines lie adjacent to each other, on Dolores Mountain, about 
 half a mile from the town. Permeating all is a great contact 
 vein, containing a pay-streak from two to eight feet thick, 
 cropping out in an abrupt bluff like an immense coal deposit. 
 Below this great contact vein, and cutting vertically through 
 the stratification, are five large fissure veins. 
 
 The production of Dolores county during the last year, I 
 estimate to have been $5,000 in gold and $90,000 in silver. 
 This comparative meager yield is no discredit to a rich sec- 
 tion of the State, when it is considered that, until the latter 
 part of the year, the railroad was one hundred and seventy- 
 five miles distant, and to reach it, high ranges had to be 
 crossed, and ore packed on jacks the greater part of the way 
 By next season the railway will be completed to Rico, and 
 during the year the developments will, probably be of such 
 character as will insure a large yield of bullion. The fol- 
 lowing mines of Dolores county have returned reports of 
 production, viz.. Puzzle Extension, Grand View Smelter. 
 
 Fremont County.— This county is chiefly famous for its 
 magnificent coal mines, from which nearly all Southern 
 Colorado and the Rio Grande Railway have been supplied 
 for years. It is a superior lignite, much denser, more dura- 
 ble, and giving out greater heat than those of the northern 
 division of the State. Mixed with those found at Trinidad 
 in equal parts, it is used for the manufacture of illuminating 
 gas, and for smelting gold and silver ores at Denver, Pueblo, 
 and Golden. It is estimated that the coal product for the 
 year was about 200,000 tons. But two silver mines were 
 operated at a profit in the county during 1881. A large 
 number of claims have been located in this vicinity. But 
 little work, however, has been done upon any of them. The 
 sales of ore for the year, as reported by the superintendents, 
 are as follows : 
 
 From the Gem mine $12 493 50 
 
 From the Cotopaxi mine 2 042 00 
 
 Total.. 
 
 $14,535 60 
 
 Gilpin County.— Gilpin county, situated on the eastern 
 slope of the Rocky Mountains, is the oldest gold producing 
 section of the State. The veins are true fissure, varying in 
 width from two to fifteen feet, averaging from three to four 
 feet, and containing in some instances free milling ore, 
 while in others it is refractory and best treated by the smelt- 
 ing process. The bullion returns of Gilpin county for 1881 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1093 
 
 were less than those of the previous year, owing to the 
 temporary suspension of work on some of the greatest and 
 most productive mines. Various causes led to tliis result, 
 one of which was the necessity of providing much heavier 
 machinery for raising ore and water from the great depths 
 attained. None of these properties were closed because of 
 insufficient paying ore. Among the number were the Kent 
 County, California, and New York and Colorado, all having 
 large reserves of good ore in their lower workings at the 
 time of suspension. The Kent county has resumed opera- 
 tions, and is doing well, and before the middle of the present 
 year it is expected that the others will be again in full blast. 
 The merchants and other business men of Black Hawk, Cen- 
 tral, and Nevada have been operating many mines in that 
 section the past two years under the co-operative plan. 
 They take an abandoned mine, which has a good record so 
 far as developed, and by sinking and drifting upon new ore 
 bodies, each member of the syndicate paying his just pro- 
 portion of the expense, until the mine becomes profitable, 
 and then sharing the gains. Notwithstanding the temporary 
 depression incident to the causes mentioned, Gilpin is one 
 of the strongest mining districts on the continent. All the 
 better systems of mining and milling ore are in full opera- 
 tion there. There are in the county twenty-six- stamp mills, 
 with a total of 972 stamps, as follows : 
 
 Stamps. 
 
 Waterman. Eureka Gulch 20 
 
 Mackey, NevadavlUe 37 
 
 Consolidated Kansas, Nevadaville 52 
 
 AVhitconib Mill Company 25 
 
 Kip & Buell, Central. 60 
 
 United Gregory, Central 50 
 
 Kew York and Colorado Company 40 
 
 Bobtail Mining Company, Black Hawk 125 
 
 Empire, Black Hawk .". 25 
 
 Kimber, Black Hawk 35 
 
 Bostwick 25 
 
 FuUertJu, Black Hawk 40 
 
 Midas Milling Company, Black Hawk 20 
 
 Hidden Treasure 50 
 
 Eullerton, upper mill 37 
 
 Arrighi 10 
 
 Wheeler 25 
 
 Gregory 60 
 
 New York ; 75 
 
 Randolph 50 
 
 Cashier 35 
 
 EoUins ]6 
 
 Golden Flint 15 
 
 Harkaway 10 
 
 Kepublic 25 
 
 Miner's fieduction Company 20 
 
 Total number of stamps 972 
 
 Of the above the following have been running during the 
 year, the majority being custom mills, or run by lessees of 
 mines, viz. : 
 
 Stamps. 
 
 Consolidated Kansas, Nevada 20 
 
 United Gregory, Central 50 
 
 Bobtail Mining Company 125 
 
 Kimber..... ,T5 
 
 FuUerton 40 
 
 Hidden Treasure 20 
 
 New York 50 
 
 Randolph 60 
 
 Cashier 25 
 
 Empire 25 
 
 Total 440 
 
 In addition to the ores reduced in the county, the follow- 
 ing amounts were produced from ores shipped to other 
 points : 
 
 Sm^ing Works. Gold, Silver. Total. 
 
 Moore 8117,650 $76,432 $194,082 
 
 Boston and Colorado ;... 398,000 76,000 474,000 
 
 Golden „ 144,066 68,624 202,590 
 
 Miners 68,833 11,734 70.567 
 
 Pueblo (estimated) 361000 
 
 Omaha 63,600 
 
 Miscellaneous {e.stimated)... 126,000 
 
 Total.. 
 
 $1,164,73 
 
 The shipments by express from Central City, during 1881, 
 were as follows: 
 
 For six months ending .Tune 30 $495,425 
 
 For six months ending December 31 426,550 
 
 Total.. 
 
 $921,975 
 
 The following mills and mines of Gilpin county have 
 returned reports of production, viz. : Briggs Consolidated, 
 Empire, Gregory, Kansas Consolidated, New York, Ran- 
 
 dolph & Co., United Gregory, Whitcomb, Mead, Arrighi, 
 Cashier, Quartz Hill, Bobtail Consolidated, Fullerton, Kim- 
 ber, New York & Colorado, Rollins, Stanley and California, 
 Humphrey Dressing Works, Ashtabula, Boss, Bull of the 
 Woods, California, Carr, Clifford, East Flack, Forget-me- 
 not, Gettysburg, Grizzly, Hard Money, Jones, Keystone, 
 King of the Ranch, La Crosse, Nottaway, Perigo, Pleasant 
 View, Prize, Rhoderick Dhu, Star of the Mountains, Sus- 
 quehanna, Toronto, Wyandotte Consolidated, Cyclop, Frie- 
 bergh, James Henry, Mary Graham, Ayres, Gunnell, Valley 
 View, Albro & Knight, American Flag, Bates, Arctic, 
 Champion, Decanter, Dripps, Jones & Co., Fanny Lyseer, 
 Narragansett, Linden Castle, Little Gettysburg, Register 
 Call, Roberts Bros., Wheeler Tunnel, Wyomad, Bass, Bur- 
 roughs, A. G. Derby, Gilpin County, Kansas, Lewis, Midas, 
 Roberts Bros., Saratoga, Saint Louis, Stevens & Devor. The 
 total production of the county during 1881 was §2,110,000, 
 of which $1,850,000 was gold and $260,000 silver. 
 
 The Rocky Mountain Mining Review publishes the follow- 
 ing estimate of the production of bullion in Gilpin county 
 for the past nine years : 
 
 1872 $1,389,289 
 
 1873 1,530.009 
 
 1874 1,631,863 
 
 1875 1,763,985 
 
 1876 2,240,000 
 
 1877 2,203,037 
 
 1878 2,267,000 
 
 1879 2,431.291 
 
 1880 2,680,090 
 
 1881 (estimated) 2,700,000 
 
 " From 1859 to 1878 gold only was found, but since the 
 latter date many discoveries of rich silver lodes have been* 
 made, which are now being opened up and gotten into shape 
 to output large quantities of silver in the near future. With 
 the aid of these silver mines and the increasing richness of 
 the gold lodes, Gilpin county's output must constantly in- 
 crease for many years to come. 
 
 " The ore is found in true fissure veins, which increase in 
 richness as depth is attained, and make deejj mining profita- 
 ble in this section. Extensive enterprises are being under- 
 taken, and money for development work is to be had in any 
 quantity desired. New claims are being located constantly. 
 Six hundred and thirty-one lodes were put on record in 1880, 
 and from January 1 to November 1 of the present year 421 
 diflferent lodes have been recorded." 
 
 Grand County. — Placer mines have been worked in 
 Grand county to a limited extent for a number of years. 
 The first ones opened were on Willow Creek in the northern 
 part of Middle Park. The ground is quite rich, but the 
 gold is very fine and hard to save, and the alluvial deposits 
 are deep, so that larger capital and greater skiU are required 
 to work them successfully than have ever yet been employed. 
 The next placers opened were in the western edge of North 
 Park, where there is a large extent of very rich ground. 
 Some of it is shallow to bed-rock and has been worked profit- 
 ably in a small way, but much the largest portion is com- 
 posed of deep gravel beds that require extensive and costly 
 work. There are also some small rich placers along Muddy 
 river, in the northwestern edge of Middle Park. Within 
 the last few years an extensive belt of gold and silver bearing 
 veins was discovered in what is known as the Rabbitt Ear 
 district, which is located in the Rabbitt Ear range. Middle 
 Park, and, with the exception of one crude wagon-road 
 across Berthoud Pass, almost completely isolated from the 
 chief towns of the State. Mining has been carried on there 
 some years by a small band of men who cling to their faith 
 in its future with desperate tenacity. There are no markets 
 nearer than Georgetown, and to reach them a high range, 
 almost impassable six or eight months in the year, must be 
 crossed. _ The most noted and probably the finest mine in 
 the district is- the Wolverine, which has been under active 
 development for about two years. Large bodies of mineral 
 are reported in the various levels, left standing to await the 
 erection of reduction works on the ground, and thus save the 
 heavy expense of transportation to distant markets. Per- 
 haps a dozen other mines have been fairly opened, and their 
 character demonstrated. Owing to the absence of mills or 
 smelters, the owners can only hold on until the march of 
 events brings the needed relief One or two lines of railway 
 are being constructed from Denver westward across the 
 mountains, and will ultimately bring about the desired con- 
 
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 ^Bjanira aq; uodn pa[;;a8 ajaM s;oij;8ip jo J9qmnn aSaBj 
 y siisaA om; Snmsna aq; puB siq; Snunp sa;B;g pa;in£x aq; 
 JO puB a;B;g aq; jo 8;jBd \\e mojj spnBsnoq; ^q ni paqsnj 
 ajdoag -jaAjis puB p]o3 jo sauira a^qBu^BA jo jCjaAoosip aq; 
 qSnojq; ;naraa;ioxa aiqBjapisnoo jo anaos aq; araBoaq ;i ami; 
 qoiqM ;b 'll%X ni jC;uoq;nB aAi;B|siSa( Aq amBu b puB noi;BZ 
 -iubSjo naAiS sbm ;j •9;B;g b joj qSnon9 aSjBj sbm saijB 
 -punoq jBuiSiJO s;i nt jC;nnoo siqx — •A:;unoo nosiuutiQ 
 
 •Sni;oadsojd 
 aoBjins ajara pnojCaq panado naaq aABq asaq; jo ano^ 'o; 
 pajjajaj aAoqB sauira aq; jb9u panoj 9jb 'suiaA snouimn;iq 
 araos pnB 'Bi;oog bao^ jo ;Bq; o; |Bnba '[boo xauuBO jo a;;; 
 -jaqjB JO sniaA aSjBi •;o!j;sip jBg ;;iqqBa aq; q;iM uopoa'n 
 
 •saxvxs aaxiNXi anx ao sxsaaaiNi ojslinim qny saaKm 'ssnih anx 
 
 teoi 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1095 
 
 & Co., during the past quarter, shipped 2,440 tons of bullion, 
 containing 188 ounces of silver to the ton. The entire ship- 
 ment also contained gold to the value of about S2,000. Ounces 
 of silver contained in shipment, 458,720 ; ounces of gold, 100 ; 
 pounds of lead, 2,849,000. Value of silver, $513,766 ; value 
 of gold, $2,000 ; value of lead, $242,450. The total valuation 
 of product, $758,216. The works have about 7,500 tons of 
 ore on hand. 
 
 " Grant & Co., at the present time, have only five furnaces 
 in blast, but they are all of the largest patterns, and during 
 the past month reduced 4,300 tons of ore. The grade of the 
 ore is evidently improving somewhat, as the average of the 
 bullion during the last month was about 240 ounces, but 
 owing to the low grade in the previous two months the en- 
 tire product is reduced considerably. 
 
 " The La Plata. — The La Plata has been running very 
 steadily during July, August, and September, producing and 
 shipping 3,561,500 pounds of bullion, containing 3,542,000 
 pounds of lead, and 280,050 ounces of silver. Value of sil- 
 ver, $313,656 ; value of lead, $177,100. Total, $490,756. The 
 establishment has about 3,300 tons of ore on hand. 
 
 " Billings & Filers. — Billings & Eilers, during the third 
 quarter of the present year, produced 3,906,000 pounds of 
 bullion, averaging 180 ounces in silver to the ton. Total 
 ounces of silver in shipment, 355,180 ; pounds of lead, 
 3,882,000. Value of silver, $397,801 ; value of lead, $194,100. 
 Total value of product, $591,901. Ore on hand, 5,000 
 tons. 
 
 " The American. — The American Smelting Works, during 
 the last quarter, shipped 888 tons of bullion, containing an 
 average of 153 ounces of silver and two and a half ounces of 
 gold to the ton. The shipment contained a total of 135,864 
 ounces of silver, 2,220 ounces of gold, and 1,765,000 pounds 
 of lead. Their value was as follows : Silver, $152,167 ; gold, 
 $44,400, and lead, $88,250. Total, $284,817. Ore on hand, 
 about 5,000 tons. 
 
 " At the American Smelting Works there arc four furnaces 
 in blast, and a fifth will be added within a fortnight.. The 
 establishment has met with good success in treating the Lead- 
 ville ores, and in the near future will rank among the first in 
 the camp. 
 
 " Cummings & Finn. — Oummings & Finn shipped during 
 the last three months, 38,798 bars of bullion, weighing 
 8,903,153 pounds. The shipments contained 371,480 ounces 
 of silver and 3,878,000 pounds of lead. Value of silver, 
 $416,057 ; value of lead, $193,900. Total value of product 
 and shipment, $609,957. Ore on hand, 5,250 tons. 
 
 " Ths Harrison. — The Harrison Reduction Works shipped 
 343,116 pounds of bullion, containing on an average eighty- 
 six ounces in silver and six-tenths of an ounce in gold to the 
 ton. Total ounces of silver contained in shipment, 14,749; 
 ounces of gold, 103 ; pounds of lead, 842,106. Value of ship- 
 ment, silver, $16,518; gold, $2,060; lead, $17,105. Total, 
 $85,673. Ore on hand, 3,500 tons. 
 
 " The Harrison Reduction Works, during the preceding 
 ninety days, have been engaged in enlarging and improving 
 the establishment, and the product given above is the yield 
 of only one furnace, which has been in blast since Septem- 
 ber 6. In a few days, however, another large furnace will be 
 blown in, and erelong two more furnaces will be added. 
 During the summer months this establishment has added 
 two fifty or sixty ton furnaces, and rebuilt its old ones, giv- 
 ing it four splendid furnaces. A 60-horse-power engine has 
 replaced the old engine in the smelter, and a large new stack 
 and dust-chambers were also built. Back of the smelter, one 
 of the most complete sampling mills to be found in the State 
 has been erected, supplied with crushers, rolls, sampling mills, 
 and other modern appliances for reducing and sampling 
 ores. 
 
 " Eddy, James & Go. — Eddy, James & Co., during the same 
 period, shipped 3,321 tons of ore, having an assay value of 
 $194,041. 
 
 "Aug. B. Meyer & Oo. — Aug. R. Meyer & Co. shipped 
 594f tons of ore, worth $41,234. The ore was all sent to the 
 Kansas City Smelting and Refining Works. 
 
 " The Mirier Boy. — The Miner Boy quartz mill has kept 
 no record of the value of the bullion produced, shipping its 
 silver and gold bricks direct to the company's headquarters 
 in New York. The mill having treated, on an average, about 
 nine tons a day, it would, in the past three months, have 
 
 passed 810 tons of ore under the stamps. Out of this amount 
 about Sl5,000 worth of silver and gold were secured. Of 
 this 500 ounces were gold and the balance silver. 
 
 " Taylor & Brunton. — The stamp mill of Taylor and Brun- 
 ton shipped seventy bars of silver, of an average weight of 
 1,136 ounces, aggregating 78,820 ounces, worth $89,062. 
 The mill has about 2,000 tons of ore on hand. 
 
 "Tabor Mill — The Tabor Milling Company shipped 
 twenty- seven bars, containing 32,212 ounces of silver, worth 
 $36,078. The works were idle a large part of July, conse- 
 quently the decreased showing. 
 
 " The Shield's Mill. — This mill, situated in Colorado Gulch, 
 with the exception of the last few weeks, ran very regularly, 
 and reports a total product for the past quarter of 14,438 
 ounces of silver, worth $16,500. 
 
 " The mill suspended work owing to one of the roasting 
 cylinders becoming disabled. An additional cylinder has 
 been ordered and is expected daily. The worn-out parts of 
 the idle cylinder have been replaced, and in a short time the 
 mill is expected to resume work with an increased capacity. 
 The ore product of the district has also had an influence on 
 the suspension of the mill, but it is estimated that hereafter 
 abundant ore will be supplied. The manager has also ex- 
 perienced diflSculty in securing teams to haul ore, and in 
 making favorable road contracts, all of which has now been 
 obviated. 
 
 " Gulch Mines. — The placer mines of the district are esti- 
 mated to have yielded about 350 ounces of gold, valued at 
 $7,000." 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 J. B.Grant & Co $758,216 • 
 
 Cummmgs & Finn's Smelter 609,957 
 
 Billings & Eilers's Smelter 591,901 
 
 La Plata Mining and Smelting Company 490,756 
 
 American Mining and Smelting Company 284,817 
 
 Harrison Reduction Works 3.1.683 
 
 Taylor & Brunton (Leadville Gold and Silver Mill Company). 89.062 
 
 Tabor Milling Company 36,078 
 
 Shield's Milling Company 16,500 
 
 Miner Boy quartz mill 15.000 
 
 Eddy, James & Co., ore buyers 194.041 
 
 Aug. R. Meyer Sampling Company 41,234 
 
 Placer mining. 7,000 
 
 Total 83,170,245 
 
 Pounds of bullion 18,369,767 
 
 Pounds of lead 18,258,106 
 
 Tons of ore 3,915Ji 
 
 Ounces of silver 1,746,013 
 
 Ounces of gold 3,273 
 
 Value of sUver 1,956.600 
 
 Value of gold 66.460 
 
 Value of lead 912,900 
 
 Value of ore 235,270 
 
 Total $3,170,245 
 
 Total first quarter 3,099,587 
 
 Total second quarter 3,419,670 
 
 Total ?9,689,502 
 
 The Leadville Herald publishes the following table show- 
 ing the bullion product of the smelters of Leadville for the 
 year 1881 : 
 
 
 First 
 Quarter. 
 
 Second 
 Quarter. 
 
 Third 
 Quarter. 
 
 Fourth 
 Quarter. 
 
 Total for 
 Year. 
 
 The Grant Smelt. Co.. 
 La Plata Mining and 
 
 8759,502 
 
 484,920 
 
 128,721 
 672,175 
 
 24,232 
 250,522 
 
 46,500 
 364,247 
 
 79,991 
 
 39,000 
 
 $786,105 
 
 604,383 
 
 204,248 
 545,626 
 
 $758,216 
 490,756 
 
 284,817 
 
 591,901 
 35,683 
 
 194,041 
 41,234 
 
 609,957 
 89,062 
 36,078 
 16,500 
 15,000 
 
 tVV3,191 
 
 380,472 
 
 348 889 
 
 694,258 
 
 277,829 
 
 202,174 
 
 948 
 
 623,188 
 
 125,460 
 
 30,109 
 
 12,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 $3,077,014 
 
 1,960,531 
 
 966,675 
 
 2,473,960 
 
 337,744 
 
 878,248 
 
 137,796 
 
 1,964,061 
 
 401,668 
 
 152,437 
 
 42,600 
 
 66.000 
 
 478,250 
 
 4,000 
 
 160,692 
 
 69.000 
 
 American Mining 
 
 and Smelting Co 
 
 Utah sm'r, G. Billings 
 Harrison Rednc Wks 
 
 Eddy, James & Co 
 
 Aug. R. Meyer & Co... 
 
 Cummings & Finn 
 
 Taylor & Brunton 
 
 Tabor Milling Co 
 
 Shield's mill 
 
 231,511 
 
 49,114 
 366,669 
 107,155 
 47,250 
 14,000 
 11.000 
 260,240 
 4,000 
 160,692 
 12,000 
 
 Colorado Prince mill. 
 California smelter 
 
 30,000 
 218,000 
 
 Oro stamp mill 
 
 
 
 Ohio and Missouri 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 $3,097,820 
 
 $3,403,993 
 
 83.170,245 
 
 83,498,518 
 
 813,170,576 
 
 
 From'this statement, the production for the first half of 
 the year appears to have been $6,501,813. The Leadville 
 Circular gives the product for the same peiiod as follows: 
 
1096 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 SHELTER PRODUCT. 
 
 Mmtlis. Tons. Value. 
 
 Januarv 3-868 8864,887 
 
 March 3 098 1,036 445 
 
 foil .:......::..... 2,507. 7w,o26 
 
 Mav 3,784 1,120,068 
 
 June!!!'.'.'.".'.....' 3,507 1,180,179 
 
 Total 18,193 $6,794,179 
 
 MILL PEODUCT. 
 
 Taylor & Branton $187,146 
 
 Tabor 77,200 
 
 Oro 4.'l00 
 
 Colorado Stamp 41,000 
 
 Shields 14,000 
 
 Total $323,396 
 
 ORE SHIPMENTS. 
 
 Eddy, James & Co $482,033 
 
 A. R. Meyer & Co 95,611 
 
 Total $577,644 
 
 TOTAL PEODUCT OP LEADVILLE, JANUAEY TO JUNE, 1881. 
 
 Smelter product $5,794,179 
 
 Mill product 323,395 
 
 Ore shipments 577,644 
 
 Placer workings 12,000 
 
 Total product $6,707,218 
 
 The statement of the year's product, made up by the Lead- 
 Tille Democrat, shows a less production of some of the smelters 
 and also in the total amount. It gives the number of mines 
 supplying each smelter, and the number of ounces of gold 
 and silver, with the pounds of lead, respectively, as follows : 
 
 Names. 
 
 La Plata Mining and Smelt. Co. 
 
 Utah smelter 
 
 Cummings & Finn 
 
 Grant Smelting Company 
 
 American Smelting Company. 
 
 California smelter 
 
 Harrison Reduction Works 
 
 Eddy, James & Co 
 
 A. R. Meyer Mining and Smelt 
 
 ing Company 
 
 Tabor Stamp Mill 
 
 Leadville Gold and Silver 
 
 Mining Company , 
 
 Colorado Prince 
 
 Oro stamp mill 
 
 Shields' stamp mill 
 
 Total 
 
 131 
 
 
 1,135,598 
 
 1,508,47,) 
 
 1,171,144 
 
 1,927,350 
 
 608.507 
 
 271 861 
 
 207,000 
 
 135,,'iOO 
 285,674 
 
 28,125 
 
 7,174,234 
 
 totJ 
 go 
 
 1,090 
 5,955 
 
 2,450 
 
 11,135 
 
 1?^ 
 
 15,178,000 
 17.381,000 
 11,623,000 
 18,005,977 
 6,014,760 
 3,447,900 
 2,758,580 
 
 74,409,21; 
 
 $2,050,337 
 
 2,560,469 
 
 1,898,697 
 
 3,088,666 
 
 691,898 
 
 478,238 
 
 577,804 
 
 964,064 
 
 191,228 
 152,437 
 
 370,383 
 
 41,000 
 
 4.000 
 
 31,640 
 
 $13,100,761 
 
 By adding to the Democrat's statement, the amount of gold 
 production for the gulches, reported by the Herald at $69,- 
 000, the product of the year would be brought up to $13,- 
 169,761, or within $805 of the Herald's exhibit. The dis- 
 crepancies, in what purport to be statements of the exact 
 production of four of these smelters, render it uncertain 
 which is correct. Deducting from the Democrat's statement 
 of the total value the value of the lead, and adding the value 
 of the gold obtained from the gulch mines, the production 
 of Leadville was, gold, 1300,000 : silver, at its coining; rate, 
 $10,300,000. 
 
 The following extract from the Mining Index is a revision 
 of that paper's estimate of the bullion output of Leadville, 
 and may be taken as very nearly correct. This estimate, as 
 those of other papers given, includes the value of lead : 
 
 " In order to ascertain more correctly the actual value of 
 the bullion output of Leadville, the representatives of the 
 Mining Index have been busy in gathering further figures 
 whenever opportunity presented itself. During the past 
 week, figures have been obtained showing an aggregate of 
 $240,355 paid by Leadville smelters for ore, credited to Lake 
 county, which properly belongs to other counties, as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Grant SmeU- La Plata Smell- „, 
 
 ing Company, ing Company. ^olal. 
 
 Summit County $2,000 $152,.'543 $164 513 
 
 Park County 6,000 8,319 1I:(19 
 
 Chaffee County 2,000 24,869 2(1 869 
 
 Pitkin County u,ooo 13,021 27,624 
 
 Clear Creek County 15,000 iVom 
 
 Other sources 2,000 ■■.!■.;!!!! ^iooo 
 
 Total $41,000 $109,355 $2-10,305 
 
 "To this amount should be added about $15,000 paid by 
 Cummings & Finn for Robinson ore early in the year, and 
 probably $125,000 for the value of the Aftermath ore treated. 
 While this mine unquestionably shipped a great deal more 
 ore, it is still lying on the premises of the smelter, and its 
 value was not taken into account in figuring the shipments 
 of Lake county. The result shows that Summit county con- 
 tributed $294,643 to !Lake county's product. Park, Chaffee, 
 Pitkin, and Clear Creek counties, as near as can be learned, 
 actually shipped $83,812. To which, in order to be liberal, 
 add $80,000 from all other sources, and we have a total of 
 $408,355. Deducting this sum from the bullion and ore 
 shipments from Leadville, and we have a net product for 
 Lake county for 1881 of $12,738,902." 
 
 La Plata County. — This county embraces the extreme 
 southwestern corner of the State, adjoining the Territory of 
 New Mexico, and was organized in 1874. Durango, the 
 principal town and county seat, was laid out by the Denver 
 and Rio Grande Railway Company, and within two years 
 has become a populous and prosperous center. It is destined 
 to be the main supply point and ore purchasing market 'for 
 all the neighboring mines of La Plata and San Juan coun- 
 ties. The bullion product of the county has as yet been 
 limited from the fact that until lately no railroad facilities 
 existed and transportation was costly. The means for reduc- 
 tion of the ores also have been totally insufficient, the San 
 Juan and New York Mining Company's smelter at Durango 
 being the only one in the county. 
 
 Several placer mines are situated on the La Plata river, 
 below Parrott City, where a long flume has been erected and 
 attempts made to put the mines in paying condition, but 
 thus far without material success. In the Animas Valley, 
 in connection with extensive coal measures, large deposits 
 of brown hematite and magnetic oxide of iron are found. 
 The coal is readily coked, and will doubtless prove of great 
 value when smelters for the reduction of the ores of the 
 county shall have been erected. The production of La Plata 
 county in 1881 was $5,000 gold and $10,000 silver. 
 
 Ouray County. — Ouray county, in the southwestern part 
 of the State, includes a portion of the San Juan country, 
 which comprises the adjoining counties of Dolores, San Juan, 
 Hinsdale, and La Plata. It is the center of an extensive 
 mining section, but has made little progress because of its 
 remoteness from competing markets, want of local facilities 
 for reduction of ores, and extravagantly high rates for freight. 
 No ores yielding less than $150 to $200 per ton will pay for 
 shipping, and as but few mines carry higher grades than 
 these, the total amount shipped has been comparatively 
 small. The mines of Ouray yield both gold and silver ; and 
 two systems of lodes appear to exist, one carrying gold alone, 
 or gold and silver, and the other is argentiferous only. The 
 gold veins are usually of large size and intersect the" others. 
 The chief silver ores are gray copper, bismuth, antimony, 
 ruby, brittle and native silver. 
 
 Ouray county, besides its lodes of gold and silver bearing 
 ore, has considerable placer ground. In the valley of the 
 San Miguel, the !Keystone Company was engaged most of 
 last season in erecting flumes and other preparations for 
 washing on an extensive scale. They ran just a month be- 
 fore closing down and cleaned up $3,500 in gold, worth about 
 $16 per ounce. On bar No. 1, the Saint Louis Company ran 
 two or three weeks and cleaned up about $1,500 gold. A 
 few other parties, working in a small way with toms, rockers, 
 and sluices, obtained lesser amounts. At the head of the 
 San Miguel a deposit of very rich float-rock was discovered, 
 which was crushed in mortars and washed by hand, yielding, 
 it is said, about $10,000. The tract of country carrying this 
 float-rock is doubtless quite limited. A small extent of 
 placers occurs on the Uncompahgre, near the mouth of the 
 Dallas creek. Some very fine bituminous coal has been 
 Cound on the San Miguel, in veins about three feet thick, 
 but none of the deposits have been well opened. On the 
 Uncompahgre, just north of the line of the county, in Gun- 
 nison, there are very large deposits of good bituminous coal. 
 The Denver .ind Rio Grande Company have located a line 
 from their main Utah road, which strikes the Uncompahgre 
 at Cedar creek, twenty-five miles from the town of Ouray, 
 and it is expected they will build and put it in operation 
 next season. When this is done, a large number of rich 
 mines, which are now unprofitable to their owners, will be 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1097 
 
 rapidly developed and placed upon the list of paying mines. 
 The following smelting and reduction works and mines of 
 Ouray county have returned reports of production, viz. : 
 Long & Stout, Mount Sneffles, Munn Bros., Cimaron, Ne- 
 vada, Parsons, Lower San Miguel, Upper San Miguel, and 
 Carpenter & Ohlwiler. The pioduction of the county during 
 1881 was $70,000 in gold and $135,000 in silver, a total of 
 $205,000. 
 
 Park County. — Park county is one of the oldest mining 
 sections of the State. Early locations were made in the rich 
 placers in the vicinity of Tarryall, Fairplay, Buckskin, and 
 Mosquito which yielded largely, and are still paying fairly. 
 Numbers of lodes were also discovered, the most noted being 
 the Phillips, Excelsior, and Orphan Boy. They were all 
 free gold bearing on the surface, but as greater depth was 
 reached the ores became pyritous and refractory for the then 
 known modes of treatment, and mining was conducted only 
 in a desultory way until discoveries were made of silver- 
 bearing ores, when a fresh impetus was given to the mining 
 industry in the county. The first silver mines discovered 
 were the Moose and Dolly Varden on Mount Bross. The 
 Moose has been very extensively worked from the north face 
 of the mountain and furnished extraordinary large chambers 
 of ore, one single stope having yielded about $150,000. The 
 formation is lime and porphyry, and the mineral lies in 
 deposits and not in defined veins. Probably not less than 
 five miles of levels, winzes, and stopes have been run on this 
 mine, and the product has been considerably over $3,000,000. 
 The company owning the property erected a smelter at Dud- 
 ley, which, after running awhile and undergoing frequent 
 changes, closed down, owing to mismanagement. During 
 the last year the work done has been principally with a view 
 to further exploitation of the mine, and the production, 
 while small, has been steady. 
 
 At Como, in South Park, there are quite extensive deposits 
 of excellent bituminous coal, which gives the best coke thus 
 far made in Colorado, These mines are owned and operated 
 by the Denver and South Park Railway Company. From 
 this point the Breckinridge division of the main line is con- 
 structed. At Alma there are sampling works and two 
 smelters, but the latter are not in operation. The following 
 smelting works, mills, and mines of Park county have re- 
 turned reports of production, viz. : Upper Platte, Dry Placer 
 Amalgamating Company, Hall & Brunk, Hock Hocking, 
 Kansas Consolidated, Lelon Peabody, Lizzie Abington, New 
 York, Three Brothers, Whale, Kansas, Park County, Ex- 
 celsior, Kansas City, London, Moose, Russia, Sacramento, 
 Wilson, and Lime. 
 
 The production of bullion in this county in 1881 amounted 
 to $50,000 in gold and $350,000 in silver, making a total of 
 $400,000. 
 
 Pitkin County. — Pitkin county, organized in 1880, was 
 taken from the eastern portion of Gunnison county. The 
 principal mining districts are Independence or Chipeta, 
 Ashcroft, and Aspen. In Independence district a belt of 
 gold-bearing veins was discovered in 1879. The ores are 
 similar to those produced in G^lpi" county, and are readily 
 reduced by the ordinary milling process. The Farwell 
 Mining Company own all the best mines, among which are 
 the Independence Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, Last Dollar, Last 
 Dime, Legal Tender, Bennington, Choler, Sheba, Friday, 
 Mammoth, Dolly Varden, Gatton, Minnie, Mount Hope, 
 and Golden Champion. The company purchased a 15- 
 stamp mill, which has been running since January, 1881, 
 and, later, have built a 30-stamp mill, which was required 
 to treat the amount of ores extracted in the process of de- 
 veloping their mines. 
 
 The following mills and mines of Pitkin county have re- 
 turned reports of production, viz. : Farewell Consolidated, 
 Camp Bird, Pourtellotte group. The production during 
 1881 was $100,000 in gold and ^0,000 in silver. 
 
 Rio Grande County. — Rio Grande county lies in the 
 western part of San Luis Park, and derives its name from 
 the Rio Grande river, which crosses fi-om west to east. 
 There is but one mining district in the county, Summit 
 district, which includes North and South Mountains and 
 Lookout Peak. This district has been organized for some 
 years, but it was only during 1881 that deposits of ores of 
 extraordinary richness were discovered. The formation is 
 porphyry and granite, and much of the ore is free gold- 
 
 bearing and readily reduced by ^\q ordinary stamp process. 
 In the midst of a group of the principal mines of the district 
 is the Little Ida, the property of the San Juan Consolidated 
 Mining Company. At the depth of about 100 feet the veiu 
 is reported to be seventeen feet wide, ten leet of which is a 
 decomposed quartz, yielding from $1,500 to $2,500 per ton. 
 In about four months after encountering this rich deposit 
 $250,000 was taken out. Arrangements are being made to 
 develop the mine at greater depth by tunnels, and also to 
 put it in better shape for continuous working. 
 
 The yield of the principal mines during the portion of the 
 year that they were in operation was $289,000. It is proba- 
 ble that during the coming season a vast amount of pros- 
 pecting will be done, and that the development of locations 
 already made will show that this county will be an important 
 producer of gold in the future. At Summitville, the chief 
 town of the district, are located the mills of the different 
 companies, as follows : 
 
 Slampt. 
 
 The San Juan Consolidated SO 
 
 Little Aimie 10 
 
 Morey & Sperry 10 
 
 Gtolden Queen 10 
 
 Iowa and Colorado Consolidated 10 
 
 Missionary ; 10 
 
 Aztec „ 5 
 
 The Cropsey mill is situated in Cropsey Gulch, and has 
 tweuty-four stamps, making a total of 109 stamps. The 
 Denver Bepublican, in its annual review, says of Bio Grande 
 county : 
 
 The bullion product for the camp during 1881 is as follows : 
 
 Gold bullion shipped - $320,000 
 
 Ore .shipped 7.00O 
 
 Ores on dumps, estimated 50,000 
 
 Total $377,000 
 
 It also states that the Iowa and Colorado Consolidated 
 Company have ordered and contracted for a 50-stamp mill. 
 The following mills and mines of Rio Grande county have 
 returned reports of production, viz. : Missionary, Aztec, 
 Summit, and Little Annie. The production of the county 
 during 1881 was $290,000 in gold and $10,000 in silver. 
 
 Boutt County. — Routt, the extremenorthwestern county 
 of the State, makes but a small addition to the production 
 of precious metals in Colorado. For many years it has been 
 the favorite hunting ground of the Ute Indians, who have 
 jealously and successfully guarded it against the encroach- 
 ments of prospectors — the advance guard of a mining popu- 
 lation. During the fall of 1881 silver-bearing ore was found 
 in the Gore range, and also in the mountains about Steam- 
 boat Springs, but no reliable reports have been received of 
 quantity or quality. Placer mining has been conducted for 
 some years, with varying results, in the vicinity of Hahn's 
 Peak, in the northeastern part of the county. Most of the 
 placers have been worked by two companies, the Interna- 
 tional and the Hahn's Peak Mining Company, the latter, 
 under the superintendency of Messrs. Mcintosh and Cody, 
 having been quite successful during the year. It is probable 
 that an increased force of men will be employed in placer 
 mining during 1882, and that, as the Indians have been re- 
 moved, systematic prospecting for gold- and silver-bearing 
 lodes will be conducted in the many mountain ranges travers- 
 ing the county. The only report of production received 
 from Eoutt county was from the Hahn's Peak mine. The 
 total production of the county I estimate at $20,000 in gold. 
 
 Saguache County. — Saguache county, as a mining 
 section, is not more than two years old ; the first location of 
 a mineral-bearing lode being made on Kerber creek m May, 
 1880. It was called the Exchequer, and is considered to be 
 one of the best mines in Kerber creek district, although for 
 some months but little work has been done upon it, except for 
 development. It is opened by two shafts of inconsiderable 
 depth, and two tunnels, fifty and eighty feet long, respectively ; 
 the ore is a decomposed quartz, carrying both gold and silver, 
 and. yielding an average of $120 per ton. The Empress 
 Josephine is perhaps the best developed of all the mines of 
 the county. About 150 feet of levels have been run from 
 the shaft, now 180 feet deep, and from five to six tons of ore 
 per day have been taken out, although no stoping has been 
 done. The ore has been shipped, and yielded an average of 
 $100 per ton. x-r , ., »& 
 
1098 
 
 THE MINES. MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The production of the county in 1881 1 estimate to have 
 been $40,000 in silver. 
 
 San Juan County.— San Juan is a small county, for- 
 merly a portion of La Plata, and is located in the central 
 part of the mineral belt of the San Juan Mountains. Min- 
 eral wealth was known to exist here for a number of years, 
 and considerable mining has been done, but the great draw- 
 back to the prosperity of the county is its inaccessibility, 
 and the consequent great cost of shipping ores or mining and 
 milling machinery. Tlie ores appear to exist in inexhaust- 
 ible quantity, and much of it is of too low grade to ship at 
 present, but will pay largely when the country is opened by 
 railways and local facilities for reduction are afforded. The 
 county seat and the center of the mining industry is Silverton, 
 located in Baker Park and surrounded by mountain peaks — 
 Sulton Tower, Boulder, Hazleton, Anvil, and KendaU Moun- 
 tains, which are traversed by fissure veins carrying chiefly 
 silver-bearing ores. The most productive mine is the North 
 Star, in North Star Gulch, on Sultan Mountain, about two 
 miles from Silverton. It has been extensively worked, and 
 has about 2,500 feet of developments. Some 3,000 tons of 
 ore have been extracted, a portion of which has been sent to 
 Durango for reduction. The ore is gray copper and galena, 
 carrying 40 per cent, of lead, and yields seventy ounces of 
 silver to the ton. 
 
 The following mills and mines of San Juan county have 
 returned reports of production, viz.: Cement creek, E. T. 
 Sweet, Aspen, Belcher, Gray Eagle, North Star, Cuba, McKin- 
 nie, Pride of San Juan, Tabor. The total production of the 
 county I estimate at $5,000 in gold and $25,000 in silver. 
 
 Summit County. — Summit county embraces a large 
 area of mountainous country, with many mining camps scat- 
 tered over it, some of which date back to the early days of 
 mining in Colorado. McNulty, Georgia, French, Galena, 
 and Humbug Gulches, Gold Run, and various tributaries of 
 the Blue river, all contributed a large amount of placer gold, 
 and were worked for years to their utmost capacity. They 
 are not by any means exhausted, and during 1881 were 
 worked to a considerable extent. Within the last two years 
 lode mining commenced on an extensive scale, and during the 
 last year assumed such proportions as to place Summit county 
 high on the list as a bullion-producing county of the State. 
 
 The following table from the Denver Bepuhlican shows the 
 output of the leading producing mines of Ten Mile district: 
 
 NaTtie. 
 
 Robinson Consolidated 
 
 Gray Eagle 
 
 Wlieel of Fortune 
 
 Crown Point 
 
 Tiger 
 
 Snow Bank 
 
 Kersarge 
 
 Aftermath 
 
 White Quail 
 
 Milo 
 
 Badger 
 
 Silver Wave 
 
 Eagle and Kaven 
 
 Colonel Sellers' Consolidated- 
 Queen of the West 
 
 May Flower 
 
 IdaL 
 
 Gilpin 
 
 matchless 
 
 Mountain. 
 
 Sheep, 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 Elk. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 Jack, 
 do. 
 do. 
 Fletcher, 
 do. 
 
 No. of Tons 
 
 produced 
 
 in 1881. 
 
 9,000 
 3,520 
 4,800 
 
 "" "650 
 
 " "iso 
 
 150 
 
 Present 
 
 daily 
 
 Output. 
 
 Capable 
 aaUy 
 Output. 
 
 ■25 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 
 60 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 70 
 
 40 
 
 150 
 
 60 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 The following is an approximate statement of the weekly 
 output.of the leading producing mines of Ten Mile, Colorado ; 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Aftermath 480 
 
 Badger 210 
 
 Eagle and Raven 60 
 
 Fletcher Mountain 20 
 
 Gray Eagle 30 
 
 Ida L '. 90 
 
 Little Chicago 15 
 
 Milo 240 
 
 Robinson gOO 
 
 Silver Wave go 
 
 White Quail 150 
 
 Wheel of Fortune 180 
 
 Total 2,366 
 
 Chihuahua is one of the early camps, and contains a large 
 number of valuable mines, which were worked to a greater 
 
 or less extent during the year. Some ore was shipped, and 
 a considerable amount extracted in process of development 
 remains on the dumps awaiting shipment. 
 
 Name of Mine. 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Orphan Boy 
 
 Blue Lode 
 
 Peruvian , 
 
 Bullion 
 
 Eliza Jane 
 
 Chicago Lode.... 
 Little Chief. 
 
 Silver Ledge 
 
 Jennie B 
 
 Telephone 
 
 Atlantic and Pa- 
 cific Tunnel.... 
 New Discovery... 
 Frenchman 
 
 I?- 
 
 Character of Ore. 
 
 Galena and copper.... 
 
 Lead 
 
 Brittle silver 
 
 Gray copper 
 
 Galena and gray cop' 
 
 per 
 
 Gray copper 
 
 Lead 
 
 Do 
 
 Antimony, silver and 
 
 galena 
 
 Gray copper. 
 
 Galena and yellow 
 
 copper 
 
 600 Lead 
 
 lOOIGray copper.. 
 100 Lead 
 
 I 
 
 8100 00 
 
 92 00 
 
 694 00 
 
 45 00 
 
 290 00 
 600 OOi 
 65 00 
 35 00 
 
 96 00 
 201 00 
 
 94 00 
 210 00 
 56 00 
 
 ■§fe 
 
 1^ 
 
 ■^t 
 
 41 
 
 I 
 
 ■§ 
 
 I 
 
 75|10 
 30 10 
 
 iJ^ 
 
 14 
 
 50 
 
 
 10020 
 
 21 1 
 18 6 
 
 The following is a list of the stamp-mills in Summit 
 county, with their capacity : 
 
 Name. Location. J^"- "f 
 
 Brooks c& Snyder Breckenrldge.. 
 
 Lawrence Breckenridge.. 
 
 Gold Park Gold Park 
 
 Beinwks. 
 
 Little Chief Red Cliff... 
 
 Lincoln Lincoln.... 
 
 20 
 10 
 40 
 
 10 
 
 Owned by the Gold Park 
 
 Mining Co. 
 Anglo-American mine. 
 
 The smelters of the county, with their capacity and amount 
 of production, are as follows : 
 
 Name of Works. 
 
 White Quail Smelter.... 
 
 Greer Smelting Works.. 
 
 Carbonateville Smelter 
 Summit Smelter * 
 
 Wilson Smelter* 
 
 Boston and Colorado *.. 
 
 Elyria* 
 
 Battle Mountain* 
 
 Sissapo* 
 
 Lincoln * 
 
 Location, 
 
 Kokomo.. 
 
 Kokomo.. 
 
 Carbonateville. 
 Robinson 80 
 
 Breckenridge.. 
 Breckenridge.. 
 Breckenridge.. 
 
 Red Cliff. 
 
 Montezuma.... 
 Lincoln 
 
 76 
 
 JRemarks. 
 
 Present owner took 
 
 charge April 15. 
 
 Value of bullion, 
 
 8475,000. 
 
 Silver in bullion, 125 
 
 ounces. 
 Never used. 
 Treated Robinson 
 ore.using low-grade 
 bullion for flux. 
 Produces matt. 
 No figures obtained. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 
 * Two stacks. 
 
 The Kokomo Times estimates that the ore output for Sum- 
 mit county for 1881 will run from $3,500,000 to $4,000,000. 
 Of this immense production Ten Mile will furnish about 
 $2,000,000, while the Battle Mountain district will probably 
 be the next heaviest producer. Decatur and Montezuma have 
 done reasonably well, and Breckenridge, coming in as she did 
 in the summer and fall, will doubtless add materially to it 
 
 The Breckenridge Leader publishes the following statement 
 of the yield of the mines of Summit county for the years 
 1860 to 1881: ' ^ 
 
 Gold from placers.lSOO to 1870 ssi limnnn 
 
 Gold from placers, 1870 jioo 000 ''^■°™'™" 
 
 Gold from placers, 1871 To'flon 
 
 Gold from placers, 1872 ■.■.;', m'cm 
 
 Gold from placers, 1878 Tm'nm 
 
 Silver and lead, 1869 to 1874 !!!!!!]!! 200'000 
 
 Gold from placera, 1874 'tr^k ^^''^ 
 
 Silver and lead..... ....'.■.■.".".■..■.".".■.■.'." 60;000 
 
 Gold from placers, 1875 "^77;; ^"^^'^"^ 
 
 si^er .•;;;;;;; ^;*^ 
 
 122,413 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1099 
 
 Gold from placers, 1876 150,000 
 
 Silver and lead 200,000 
 
 $350 000 
 
 Gold from placers, 1877. 150,000 ' 
 
 Silver and lead 40,000 
 
 ^-^— 190 000 
 
 Gold from placers, 1878 165,774 ' 
 
 Silver and lead. 155,000 
 
 320,774 
 
 Gold from placers, 1879 100,000 
 
 Silver and lead 375,000 
 
 475,000 
 
 Gold from placers, 1880 60,000 
 
 Silver and lead, 1880 _ 400,000 
 
 450,000 
 
 Silver, gold, and lead, 1881 S,250,u00 
 
 A total for twenty-one years of. $11,315,695 
 
 The following smelting works, mills and mines have re- 
 turned reports of production, viz. : L. W. Aldrich, Lincoln 
 City, Summit, White Quail, Gold Park, Greer, Wilson, 
 Badger, Belden, Central Fluming, Gray Eagle Consolidated, 
 J. L. Fuller, Matchless, Robinson Consolidated, Silver King, 
 Silver Wave, Blue River, Bell. The total production of the 
 county in 1881 was $2,155,000, of which $35,000 was gold 
 and $2,120,000 silver. 
 
 Various Estimates of Production. — ^The following 
 is from the Denver Tribune, and a comparison made with the 
 estimates of 1880 : 
 
 County. 
 
 1881. 
 
 1880. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 Decrease. 
 
 
 $545,483 
 
 100,000 
 
 2,204,980 
 
 608,549 
 
 125,000 
 
 14,536 
 
 2,150,700 
 
 10,(X)0 
 
 535,033 
 
 187,375 
 
 13,502,029 
 
 40,000 
 
 78,000 
 
 850,000 
 
 120,000 
 
 251,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 1,828,000 
 
 88t0,000 
 111.500 
 
 2,656.000 
 960,000 
 
 
 8314,517 
 
 11,500 
 
 451,020 
 
 351,451 
 
 Chatfee 
 
 
 Clear Creek 
 
 
 Custer 
 
 
 
 $125,000 
 14,536 
 
 
 
 
 Gilpin 
 
 2,680.000 
 
 529 300 
 
 Grand 
 
 10,000 
 235,033 
 187,375 
 544,029 
 
 
 
 300,000 
 
 
 Hinsdale 
 
 
 Lake 
 
 12,958,000 
 365,000 
 
 
 
 325 000 
 
 Ouray 
 
 78,000 
 
 ""120,000 
 
 251,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 1,317,000 
 
 
 Park.. 
 
 430,000 
 
 80,000 
 
 Pitkin 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 511,000 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 822,680,685 
 
 $21,821,500 
 
 82,921,973 
 
 82,062,788 
 
 
 The Mining Review published the following summary : 
 
 Lake County $11,000,000 
 
 Summit County „ 
 
 Clear Creek County..... 
 
 Gilpin County 
 
 Boulder County 
 
 Chatfee County 
 
 Park County 
 
 Ouray County _. 
 
 Custer County 
 
 Gunnison County 
 
 Kio Grande 
 
 Sajguache County 
 
 Hinsdale County 
 
 Other sections , 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 2,800,000 
 
 2,400,000 
 
 533.500 
 
 150,000 
 
 250,000 
 
 80,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 160,000 
 
 385.000 
 
 62,000 
 
 125,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 Total $23,435,000 
 
 The following table is the result of careful collection and 
 arrangement of reports of production and sifting of the 
 various returns published by the press of Colorado, made by 
 Messrs. Hall and Smith, mining engineers, of Denver, as- 
 sisted by Henry W. Comstock, editor of the Mining Gazette, of 
 Carton City, and A. F. Wueucb, editor of the Leadviile Index : 
 
 Boulder County.. 
 Chafifee County... 
 Custer County 
 
 $535,482 88 
 196,400 00 
 755,600 00 
 
 Clear Creek County $2,204,980 34 
 
 Dolores County 125,000 00 
 
 Fremont County 14,535 60 
 
 Gilpin County 2,160,700 00 
 
 Grand County 10,000 00 
 
 Gunnison County 535,033 00 
 
 Hinsdale Covmty 187,375 00 
 
 Lake County 12,738,902 00 
 
 La Plata and San Juan Counties - 40,000 OO 
 
 Ouray County 78,000 00 
 
 Park County 350,000 00 
 
 Pitkin County 120.000 OO 
 
 Kio Grande County 280,000 00 
 
 Saguache County - 53,500 00 
 
 Summit County 1,828,000 00 
 
 Total 822,203,508 72 
 
 Of the above $3,000,000 is estimated to be gold. The 
 value of the lead and copper produced is also included. The 
 Denver Tribwne publishes the following as the mining pro- 
 duct of Colorado from 1859 to 1882: 
 
 Year. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 ToUll. 
 
 1859 to 1870 
 
 827,213.081.00 
 2,000,000.00 
 2,000.000.00 
 1,725,000.00 
 1,760,000.00 
 2,002,487.00 
 2,161,475.02 
 2,726,315.82 
 3,148,707.56 
 3,490,384.36 
 3.193,600.00 
 3,206,600.00 
 
 8330.000.00 
 
 650.000.00 
 
 1,029.046.00 
 
 2,015,000.00 
 
 2.185,000.00 
 
 3,096,023.00 
 
 3,122,912.00 
 
 8,315,592.00 
 
 3,726,379.33 
 
 6,341,807.81 
 
 15,385,000.00 
 
 18,615,000.00 
 
 840,000.00 
 20,000.00 
 30,000.00 
 45,000.00 
 65,000.00 
 90,197.00 
 90.000.00 
 70.000.00 
 93,796.64 
 89,000.00 
 
 P>_ 
 
 
 827,583.081.00 
 
 1870 
 
 
 2,670,000.00 
 3 059 046 00 
 
 1871 
 
 
 1872 
 
 85,000.66 
 
 28,000.00 
 
 73,676.00 
 
 60,000.00 
 
 80.000.00 
 
 247,400.00 
 
 636,924.73 
 
 532,362.00 
 
 1,678,000.00 
 
 3,790,000.00 
 
 4,028,000.00 
 
 5,262,383.00 
 
 5,434,387.02 
 
 6,191,907.82 
 
 7,216,283.53 
 
 10,558,116.90 
 
 19,110,862.00 
 
 23,000.000.00 
 
 1873 
 
 1874 
 
 1875 
 
 1876 
 
 1877 
 
 1878 
 
 1879 
 
 1880 
 
 1881 
 
 22.680,686.09 
 
 Total 
 
 854,617,460.76 
 
 $59,811,760.14 
 
 8632,993.64 
 
 $3,341,362.73 
 
 8140,584,752.36 
 
 * No record of copper. 
 Product of Colorado Smelting: Works. 
 
 BOSTON AND COLORADO WORKS, ARGO. 
 
 Counties, etc. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 SUver. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gilpin 
 
 $398,000 
 
 29,000 
 
 48,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 $76,000 
 518,000 . 
 
 23,000 
 128,000 
 220,000 
 
 72,000 
 728,000 
 
 16,000 
 
 33,000 
 388,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 $89,000 
 
 13 000 
 
 liOOO 
 
 3,000 
 
 8663,000 
 560 000 
 
 Clear Creek„ 
 
 
 72,000 
 
 
 134,000 
 220 000 
 
 Lake 
 
 
 5,000 
 
 77,000 
 
 728,000 
 
 790m 
 
 
 
 
 63,000 
 
 4;ooo 
 
 11,000 
 12,000 
 
 
 
 Montana 
 
 174,000 
 12,000 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 8568,000 
 
 82,216,000 
 
 $297,000 
 
 $3,081,000 
 
 MOORE MINING AND SMELTING COMPANY, GOLDEN. 
 
 Counties, etc. 
 
 Tmus. 
 
 Ounces 
 Gold. 
 
 Ounces 
 saver. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Gilpin 
 
 3,906 
 
 2.900 
 
 414 
 
 902 
 
 8,122 
 
 5,739 
 168 
 
 5907 
 
 59,260 
 327.215 
 21,654 
 52,302 ' 
 
 460,421 
 
 8183,377 67 
 
 403,713 85 
 
 26,966 75 
 
 64,456 90 
 
 $678,605 17 
 
 Clear Creek _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 GOLDEN 
 
 SMELTING WORKS. 
 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 $654 06 
 
 $184,686 96 
 
 $29,571 52 
 
 $214,809 54 
 
 
 
 Statement of Bullion forwarded by the Express Companies in the State of Colorado for the year ending^ December 31, 1881, 
 
 as reported to the Denver Mint. 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Arapahoe.... 
 
 Boulder 
 
 Clear Creek, 
 
 Conejos 
 
 Custer 
 
 Gilpin 
 
 Jeflferson 
 
 Lake 
 
 Rio Grande. 
 Summit 
 
 Total.. .. 
 
 Six Months ending June 30. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 $425,710 00 
 
 "M.oSo'ob 
 
 "495,'425'6b 
 
 $975,225 00 
 
 SUver. 
 
 5895,560 00 
 
 "isoiiis 31 
 
 3,916 00 
 
 79,096 69 
 
 81,128,721 00 
 
 Six Months ending December SI. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 8953,680 00 
 89,380 00 
 
 ""68,'846"6o 
 
 "iie^sHooo 
 
 ""48,'i32 60 
 
 78,832 00 
 
 5,621 00 
 
 $1,660,935 00 
 
 SUver. 
 
 81,410,000 00 
 
 111,371 60 
 
 11.290 00 
 
 3,916 00 
 
 82,818 01 
 
 114,310 00 
 
 146,984 62 
 
 54,831 00 
 
 $1,935,521 23 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 $1,379,290 00 
 89,380 00 
 
 112,930 00 
 "92l]975'6o 
 
 48,132 00 
 78,832 00 
 5,621 00 
 
 $2,636,160 00 
 
 SUver. 
 
 $2,305,560 00 
 
 111,371 60 
 
 161.438 31 
 
 7,832 00 
 
 82,818 01 
 
 114,310 00 
 226,081 31 
 54,&'!1 00 
 
 83,064,242 23 
 
1100 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 statement of Bullion produced by Mills in the State of Colorado during the year ending December 31, 1881. 
 
 
 Six Months mding June SO. 
 
 Six M(mths ending December 31. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 mver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 SUver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 
 8281,120 00 
 
 8843,098 00 
 
 78,792 38 
 
 50,170 76 
 
 847 00 
 
 8270,685 76 
 19,506 00 
 
 847,726"54 
 
 206 70 
 
 7,234 60 
 
 159,289 00 
 
 139,931 81 
 
 67,235 00 
 
 1,678 07 
 
 81,712 64 
 
 MO'OO 
 
 1,550 25 
 29,328 69 
 
 81,054,312 80 
 111,371 60 
 187,150 88 
 
 78,400 00 
 
 632,907 75 
 
 4,042,830 23 
 
 134,110 32 
 
 41,083 45 
 
 8,345 44 
 
 $551,805 76 
 19,506 00 
 
 475i49068 
 
 206 70 
 
 7,919 14 " 
 
 244,433 87 
 
 153,531 81 
 
 67,278 41 
 
 1,678 07 
 
 81,712 64 
 
 132,940 00 
 
 850 00 
 
 1,550 25 
 
 34,960 93 
 
 81,897,410 80 
 
 
 190,163 95 
 
 
 
 237,321 64 
 
 
 127,770 14 
 
 684"64 
 
 85,144 87 
 
 13,600 00 
 
 43 41 
 
 847 00 
 
 
 14,553 00 
 
 
 8,431 36 
 
 140,424 48 
 
 2,999,004 49 
 
 747 04 
 
 39,142 30 
 
 86,831 36 
 
 
 673,332 23 
 
 Lake 
 
 7,041,834 72 
 
 
 134,867 36 
 
 Park. 
 
 80.225 75 
 
 Pitkin .... 
 
 
 8,345 44 
 
 
 132,940 00 
 
 282,681 28 
 
 282,681 28 
 
 
 
 
 
 13,007 81 
 34,197 00 
 
 25,468 80 
 40,699 52 
 
 38,476 61 
 
 Suminit 
 
 5,622 24 
 
 74,896 82 
 
 Total 
 
 8646,926 30 
 
 84,490,543 87 
 
 $1,126,728 96 
 
 $6,271,234 07 
 
 81,773,654 26 
 
 810,761,777 94 
 
 
 
 Statement of Bullion handled by the Banks in the State of Colorado for the year ending Oecemher 31, 1881, as reported 
 
 to the Denver Mint. 
 
 
 Six Months ending June SO. 
 
 Six Months ending December 31. 
 
 Total. 
 
 CouTiiies. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 SUver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 
 813,912 55 
 1,000 00 
 
 
 8131,623 02 
 
 $140,915 94 
 
 83"22 
 
 60,000 00 
 
 8145,635 57 
 
 1,000 00 
 
 56 55 
 
 $140,915 94 
 
 
 
 Clear Creek 
 
 $500 00 
 
 56 65 
 
 583 22 
 
 Chaffee 
 
 
 60,000 00 
 
 
 
 
 86,164 84 
 60 00 
 
 85,164 84 
 127 95 
 
 
 67 95 
 
 
 
 
 Fremont 
 
 8,700 00 
 
 
 8,700 00 
 
 Gilpin 
 
 417,751 34 
 
 456,153 66 
 204 90 
 
 
 873,905 00 
 
 204 90 
 
 23,000 00 
 
 23,000 00 
 
 "73a65"28 
 
 2,000 00 
 
 11,324 16 
 
 Jefterson 
 
 
 
 
 Lalce 
 
 23,000 00 
 
 40,442 00 
 
 
 40,442 00 
 
 
 23,000 00 
 
 
 Pueblo 
 
 
 551,042 76 
 
 607,700 00 
 
 1,158,742 76 
 
 
 
 73,105 28 
 2,000 00 
 6,315 13 
 
 
 
 
 6,000 00 
 
 6,000 00 
 
 Summit 
 
 5,009 03 
 
 
 Total « 
 
 8460,740 87 
 
 $600,684 76 
 
 $777,683 38 
 
 8814,699 16 
 
 81,238,424 25 
 
 81,415,383 92 
 
 
 DAKOTA. 
 
 THE production of gold in Dakota during 1881 has 
 been, approximately, $4,000,000. The Sidney and 
 Black Hills Express Company shipped during the 
 year $3,125,950. This, however, is the shipping val- 
 uation, the actual value being greater, probably at least fif- 
 teen per cent., which would make the amount transported 
 by this company $3,594,842. To this should be added the 
 amount carried out of the Territory by other conveyance and 
 in private hands, which would not fall far short of $400,000 
 or $500,000. Competent local authorities estimate the pro- 
 duction of 1881 to have been less than that of the preceding 
 year, owing to a great scarcity of water, which caused a par- 
 tial suspension of placer mining, and seriously interfered 
 with the operations of the stamp mills. If the amount of 
 gold deposited at the mint from this Territory can be taken 
 as a guide to estimate or measure the production, it would 
 appear that it is on the increase. During the year 1880, the 
 deposits of Dakota gold amounted to$3,19(i,189, and in 1881 
 to $3,474,837, an increase of $278,648. Nearly the whole 
 product is from the gold-bearing lodes, the gravel deposits 
 being but secondary in importance. The lodes are of im- 
 mense extent; the ore is free milling, requiring only stamp 
 mills for its reduction, and there has been scarcely a mill 
 erected which has had for its object simply the pulverizing 
 of ore that has not been adequate for the purpose for which 
 it was intended. Quartz mining, however, received a set- 
 back from the beginning of mining in the Black Hills, on 
 account of the average low grade of the ores, and it was not 
 until it was found necessary to increase the capacity of the 
 mills to the fullest extent demanded by the quantity of ore 
 that lode mining became highly remunerative. In many 
 particulars it coats but little more to run 100 stamps than 
 half that number,. and the best results are therefore attained 
 by large mills, and this has been demonstrated by the prac- 
 tical operations of the miners who control the Homestake 
 De Smet, and other groups of celebrated mines. Silver ores 
 
 were found in Dakota nearly as early as the discovery of 
 gold, but the ease with which ores of the latter metal could 
 be worked and their greater productiveness, led the miners 
 to disregard silver, except so far as the mere location of lodes 
 and claims was concerned. It was not until the placer mines 
 were, to a considerable extent, worked out, and the gold- 
 bearing lodes pretty well taken up, that the silver interests 
 of Dakota began to receive that attention which the extent 
 and richness of the deposits demand. The future prosperity 
 of Dakota, as a producer of the precious metals, appears to be 
 better assured at this time than at any previous period in her 
 history. 
 
 Lawrence County.— The chief group of mines is that 
 known as the Homestake, the reputation of which has been 
 long established. The principal mines are the Homestake, 
 Highland, Deadwood Terra, De Smet, Giant and Old Abe, 
 Golden Star, Palmetto, American Flag, Lincoln, Amicus, 
 Prince Oscar, Nettie, May Booth, Independence, Mineral 
 Point, and Pea Warmer. The owners of these properties 
 are usually designated as the Homestake Company, while ia 
 reality there are several corporations, although, to a great 
 extent, these are composed of the same individuals. The 
 chief companies are the Homestake, Highland, Father De 
 Smet, Giant and Old Abe, and Deadwood Terra. So far as 
 local officers are concerned, they are under one management. 
 Ut the extent of the mineral deposits from which the ore is 
 drawn, but little can be said; their immense extent, how- 
 ever, compensates for the low-grade quality of the ore, which 
 mills from $4 to $6 per ton. By able and careful manage- 
 ment, by a most thoroughly perfected system of mining and 
 milling, and by the use of large mills with numerous stamps, 
 which experience has taught to be economy, the working of 
 this low-grade material is successfully and profitably accom- 
 plished. The Deadwood Terra has paid fourteen dividends, 
 amounting to $560,000 ; the Father De Smet sixteen, amount- 
 ing to $435,000 ; and the Homestake forty-one, amounting 
 to $1,230,000. The assessments upon these mines, up to 
 
 ono "^ f °^ ^^^ y®^'^' ^^^1' ^^'^^ ^®^°' °" ^^^ De Smet, $200,- 
 000, making the excess of dividends over assessments $1,- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1101 
 
 705,000. During the last year the capacity of the Father 
 De Smet has been increased by twenty stamps, making it a 
 100-stamp mill. The Highland and Golden Htar mills each 
 have 120 stamps, the Homestake eighty, and the Deadwood 
 Terra two eighty-stamp mills, making a total of 580 stamps. 
 The total cost of the mills, hoisting works, tramways, cars, 
 locomotives, ditches, reservoirs, buildings, railroads, etc., is 
 reported at $1,345,000. The Homestake Mining Company 
 paid for the titles to the mines and locations it has secured — 
 some fifty in number— $2,000,000, of which $400,000 was paid 
 for the Father De Smet — four locations ; $115,000 for the 
 Deadwood Terra ; $75,000 for the Homestake ; $50,000 for 
 the Golden Star; and $250,000 for the Giant and Old Abe, 
 which with the amount expended in improvements, mills, 
 etc., make the total amount expended by the combination 
 $3,345,000. Five hundred men are employed in the mines, 
 mills, shops, and various departments, at average wages of 
 $3.50 per day. Wood is consumed for fuel, and costs $4.50 
 per cord. The mills can reduce $3,000 tons of ore daily, as 
 each stamp is capable of crushing three and a half tons, at 
 an average expense, as is reported, of $1 per ton. The stamps 
 are placed in batteries of five each, and so arranged that one 
 or more batteries maybe stopped for repair or clean-up with- 
 out interfering with the work of the others, or stopping the 
 engine, which continues its revolutions without intermission 
 day and night. The ore, after first passing through the 
 rock-breakers, is discharged into the automatic ore-feeders, 
 and thence into the batteries, rendering but little handling 
 of the ore necessary. The deepest shaft thus tar sunk is upon 
 the Giant and Old Abe, 450 feet, which is not yet in ore, 
 but the vein dipping toward the shaft will soon be reached. 
 The ore from the Homestake is being taken from the 240-foot 
 level, milling about $5.50 per ton. That from the Deadwood 
 Terra is said to average about $4, and that from the De Smet 
 about $3.50 per ton, although some of it will not mill over 
 $1 per ton. The north end tunnel of the Father De Smet, 
 at the close of the year, was 357 feet in length, having been 
 advanced forty-three feet in December. At the same time 
 ore was being extracted from the first, second, and third 
 levels. The Homestake Company also own the Savage Tun- 
 nel, purchased recently on an execution against the Dakota 
 Mining Company. The tunnel is now completed 800 feet, 
 and it is designed to be extended a total distance of 3,000 
 feet to the Rattler's shaft, 2,500 feet distant. The tunnel in 
 its course cuts the Morning Star, Jupiter, Evening Star, Hid- 
 den Prize, Queen of the Valley, North Pacific, Comet, Atlan- 
 tic, Golden Wreath, Echo, and Rosebud. This property, upon 
 which over $100,000 have been expended, was purchased at the 
 sheriff's sale for $15,000. The Savage tunnel, when finished, 
 will be of great utility in draining the mines at Lead City. 
 
 The amount of gold and silver produced in Lawrence 
 county by districts, as reported by the Census Bureau, for 
 the year 1880, was as follows : 
 
 Dialricl. Gold. SUver. 6old and Silver. 
 
 Bear Butte $775 $29,238 $30,013 
 
 Lost Placer 535,045 5,974 541,019 
 
 Whitewood 2,717,554 35,351 2,752,905 
 
 Various placers 47,700 47,700 
 
 Total $3,301,074 $70,563 $3,371,637 
 
 Pennington County. — The rich and extensive placers 
 of this county are, for the most part, still lying in an unde- 
 veloped condition. The deposits are high, and cannot be 
 worked without a large expenditure of money in carrying 
 water by means of long ditches and flumes so as to make it 
 available for hydraulic purposes. That the placers are rich 
 in gold is indisputable. From their discovery to the present 
 time a number of miners have made sufficient by carting the 
 gravel down to the creeks to wash to induce them to con- 
 tinue operations in this laborious and unsatisfactory manner. 
 The amount of gold and silver produced in Pennington 
 county by districts, as reported by the Census Bureau, for 
 the year 1880, was as follows : 
 
 Dietrict. Oold. 
 
 Eockford $1,600 
 
 Various placera 3,159 
 
 Total $4,759 
 
 Custer County. — The placer mines of this county are 
 similar to those situated in Pennington county, and the 
 same difficulty exists in obtaining water at a sufficient 
 
 height to properly wash the gravel. The Black Hills 
 Pioneer furnishes the following description of the Harney 
 Hydraulic Company, which may be taken as instancing the 
 paying qualities of the gulches and bars in Caster county. 
 
 " The property of the company consists of about six miles 
 of the bed of Battle creek, beginning a short distance below 
 Harney City and extending to almost the foot of Harney 
 Peak, together with all bar and hill diggings on both sides 
 of the gulch for the same distance; also the placer ground 
 of Grizzly Gulch. The claims include Harney and Everly 
 Hills and the celebrated Mitchell Bar, which are considered 
 the richest portions of the entire possession. Applications 
 for patents upon four hundred acres have been made, and as 
 there are no adverse claims the company will undoubtedly be 
 successful. Several valuable water-rights have been located 
 both upon Battle and Grizzly, insuring an abundant supply for 
 the extensive working of the ground projected by the company. 
 Preparatory work began July 8, and has been executed in the 
 most indefatigable manner, and with results of which the 
 superintendent and all connected therewith are justly proud. 
 
 " The main ditch or flume has a total length of six and a 
 quarter miles, and the flume for what are known as lower 
 workings a length of two and three-quarter miles. The first- 
 mentioned flume down to Grizzly Gulch is twenty by twenty 
 inches in dimensions, and below Grizzly (at which point the 
 two flumes unite) the dimensions are thirty-six by twenty 
 inches. A trestle, forty rods in length, with forty-foot spread 
 at the bottom and thirty-two inches at the top, and 112 feet 
 in height, supports the flume over Grizzly Gulch. It is con- 
 structed of square timbers, firmly braced, and is the most 
 substantial and prettiest piece of work of the kind in the 
 hills. A similarly constructed trestle and flume, but 250 
 feet high, will be constructed across Battle Creek this year, 
 to convey the water to Everly Hill, a short distance back of 
 Harney. The company, operating its own saw-mill, cut 
 900,000 feet of lumber for use in the two flumes. 
 
 "Three capacious reservoirs, two on Battle creek and one 
 on Grizzly, insures an abundant water-supply even in the 
 driest season. This, as already intimated, is carried at a 
 great height at Mitchell Bar 213 feet — afibrding tremendous 
 pressure for hydraulicing, which will be first resorted to, al- 
 though, owing to thegreat depth of bed-rock in the main gulch, 
 drifting will doubtless soon become the principal system of 
 work. An average of fifty men has been employed during 
 the season. The estimated total cost of the works is $42,000. 
 
 " The value of the ground may be inferred from the fact 
 that previous owners of Mitchell Bar excavated between 500 
 and 600 cubic yards of gravel, carted to the creek, and 
 cleaned up over $7.50 a cubic yard. 
 
 " The company proposes to put in a bed-rock flume, begin- 
 ning at the lower end of the ground, and wash everything 
 within reach. By this variey of working plans operations 
 can be continued summer and winter, and for many years to 
 come. The works are about complete, and the company in 
 readiness to begin operations with the earliest opening of 
 spring." 
 
 The amount of gold and silver produced in the Territory 
 of Dakota, as reported by the Census Bureau, for the year 
 1880, was as follows : 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Quartz. 
 
 Placer. 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold and 
 Silver. 
 
 Lawrence 
 
 $3,253,374 
 1,600 
 
 $70,563 
 
 $47,700 
 3,159 
 
 $3,301,074 
 4,759 
 
 $70,563 
 
 $3,371,637 
 4,759 
 
 Pennington 
 
 Total 
 
 $3,254,974 
 
 $70,563 
 
 $50,859 
 
 $3,305,833 
 
 $70,563 
 
 $3,376,396 
 
 
 MINES OF THE APPALACHIAN RANGE. 
 
 THE earliest record at the Mint of gold of the United 
 States was in 1804. In that year a deposit was made 
 of gold found in North Carolina. Small amounts, not 
 exceeding an annual average of $2,500, were received 
 from that year to 1823, after which date there was a yearly 
 increase, which is stated in the Mint records as follows : 
 
1102 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 in 1824 ^.OflO 
 
 In 1826 17.M0 
 
 In 1826 20.000 
 
 In 1827 21.000 
 
 In 1828 «.000 
 
 In 1829 134,000 
 
 During the latter year, $2,500 was received also from Vir- 
 ginia, and $3,500 from South Carolina. The rapid increase 
 of production stimulated the search for a.nd mining of gold 
 in the whole range of mountains from Virginia to Georgia, 
 and early in the ensuing year, 1830, gold began to be received 
 from the latter State ; the receipts for that year being, from 
 Virginia, $24,000; from North Carolina, $204,000; from 
 South Carolina, $26,000 ; and from Georgia, $212,000. In the 
 following year small amounts, aggregating $2,000, were re- 
 ceived from Tennessee and Alabama. The total amounts of 
 the precious metals from the mines of the South, deposited 
 at the United States Mint from 1804 to the close of the cal- 
 endar year 1881, were as follows : 
 
 From Virginia Jl,689,797 00 
 
 From North Carolina 10,750,468 64 
 
 From South CaroUna 1,429,761 65 
 
 From Georgia 7,869,282 60 
 
 From Alabama 220,892 25 
 
 From Tennessee 86,611 61 
 
 Total $22,046,703 65 
 
 This does not represent the whole production of the States, 
 a considerable portion, undoubtedly, having been used for 
 other than coinage purposes, or having lost its identity, as to 
 locality of its production, before being deposited at the Mint. 
 During the last year, the production of the ^Carolinas and 
 Georgia was about $275,000. For much of the material from 
 which the following description of the mines in these States 
 was prepared, I am indebted to Mr. G. B. Hanna, assistant as- 
 sayer of the United States assay ofBce at Charlotte, N. C, 
 who personally visited and examined the several localities. 
 
 North Carolina. — The gold-producing areaof North Car- 
 olina comprises upwards of 25,000 square miles, in which gold 
 is found at intervals ; but the portion productive on a work- 
 ing scale is embraced by the western half of about 12,000 
 square miles. This area contains three principal geological 
 formations, and may be divided into three belts. The east- 
 ern belt is principally of argillaceous slates, and includes the 
 counties of Warren, Franklin, Nash, Randolph, Davidson, 
 Union, Stanley, Montgomery, Anson, and Moore. The mid- 
 dle belt is best described as granite or syenite. It has been 
 known longer and worked more extensively than either of 
 the others. It comprises the counties of Guilford, Rowan, 
 Cabarrus, and Meelilenburg. The western belt is gneissoid 
 in structure, verging into hornblendic and mica schist. The 
 counties in which mining to any extent has been carried on 
 are Gaston, Lincoln, Catawba, Burke, McDowell, Rutherford, 
 and Polk. In the mountainous region the mineral resources 
 have not yet received much attention, by reason of diflBculty 
 of access. The auriferous ores of the State consist for the 
 most part of the hydrated peroxide of iron or brown ore and 
 pyrites, and are refractory proportionate to the amount of 
 sulphurets. Copper is found, chiefly chalcopyrite, though 
 chalcocite and hornite occur in small quantity. Galena is 
 also found, but rarely in working proportion, and frequently 
 associated with zinc blende. Nickel, cobalt, antimony, and 
 arsenic exist, but not to any noticeable extent. Gravel de- 
 posits are found throughout all the belts ; those of the mid- 
 dle belt were for the most part exhausted years ago, but in 
 both the eastern and western belts they are of larger area and 
 deeper in extent; the want of water, however, has hitherto 
 prevented them from being extensively worked. The best 
 known mines of this character are in Franklin and Nash 
 counties, to the east, and in Burke county in the western part 
 of the State. The production of North Carolina during 1881 
 was approximately $115,000. Of this amount $58,483 was 
 deposited at the mints and assay offices as native gold from 
 that State ; the identity of other deposits as to locality was 
 not ascertained. A considerable amount went out in ores 
 and concentrates for reduction at smelting works, and the 
 production of mines worked by foreign capital was shipped 
 directly abroad. On the eastern or slate belt great activity 
 is manifested. Most of the mines are situated near the con- 
 tact of the slate and the granite. In the extreme eastern sec- 
 tion the chief gravel mines are in FranMin, Nash, and War- 
 ren counties. 
 
 The Hoover Hill mine, in Randolph county, comprising 
 250 acres, is seventeen miles southeast of High Point. It was 
 reopened in May, and the work of reiitting has been forwarded 
 with rapidity and skill. The underground work thus far ap- 
 pears to have been done principally to ascertain the resources 
 of the mine. Two of the old shafts, the Gallimore and the 
 Briols, have been reopened, and a new shaft sunk into the 
 ground, which past experience led the managers to believe 
 contained ore. In the latter a cross-cut has been begun at 
 the ninety-foot level, with the hope of striking the same vein 
 on which is the old Hawkins shaft, that being abandoned as 
 unsafe. The Gallimore is down 110 feet and the Briol 120 
 feet. In addition to these shafts a large tunnel is being run 
 into the hill to cut all the ore bodies known. A very com- 
 plete mill, storehouse, officci machine shop, etc., have been 
 erected ; the mill is provided with four five-stamp batteries, 
 a Blake crusher and other appliances. The ore treated comes 
 from the Gallimore shaft and is of good quality, but the 
 amount which the mine can furnish is uncertain, as neither 
 drifting nor stoping has been done to any extent ; the pres- 
 ent resources are inadequate to keep the mill constantly at 
 work. Tlie property is in the hands of an English company, 
 and the bullion produced is shipped direct to London. The 
 mine is not, however, likely to produce, for some months at 
 least, any considerable amount. The Eureka, in the same 
 county, has been closed for some months. The Jones mine, 
 although possessed of considerable resources, has been idle 
 during the year. It is fifteen miles southeast of Thomasville 
 and contains nearly 300 acres, the principal part of which 
 is covered with decomposed chloritic and talcose schist to an 
 average depth of about thirty feet. This material is readily 
 mined without underground work, and, although of very low 
 grade, the facility with which it can be worked, provided a 
 sufficient supply of water can be obtained, renders the prop- 
 erty of great value. The Herring (formerly the Lafflin) is 
 adjacent to the Jones, and is of similar formation. Work 
 was commenced during the summer. The material is treated 
 by a Howland pulverizer, and is so soft and easily disinte- 
 grated that a very large quantity can be handled. The su- 
 perintendent thinks that the entire cost of treatment will not 
 exceed fifteen cents per ton. The supply of water is the chief 
 consideration, as the movement of so large a quantity of ma- 
 terial requires a large amount to efiect it ; hitherto there has 
 been a deficiency, but during the last season several streams 
 were diverted and a reservoir constructed with capacity for 
 the storage of a supply sufficient to last over the dry season. 
 The mines will probably give a moderate yield of gold dur- 
 ing 1882. 
 
 The North State, in Hoover county, is being reopened ; it 
 is in the hands of wealthy and energetic men, and probably 
 will be rapidly put into a working condition. The following 
 in relation to this mine is taken from the London Mining 
 Journal: "The North State Mining Company, incorporated 
 under the laws of North Carolina, with a capital of $10,- 
 000,000 or £2,000,000, have issued a prospectus with a view 
 to place shares, which are of |25 or £5 each par value in 
 this country, at £1 each. Tlie principal mine appears to be 
 the noted Copper Knob mine. This is a copper mine carry- 
 ing gold and silver, and is a property of 350 acres covered 
 with heavy timber. The vein is a fissure, and varies from 
 fifteen inches to four feet in width. The mine is opened to 
 a depth of 157 feet on the incline, and has already produced 
 a large quantity of rich and valuable ore. The vein at the 
 present time is four feet wide, and carries an average of 
 twenty per cent, of copper and $40 in gold and silver per 
 ton. This mine is fully equipped with modern machinery, 
 steam-hoisting engine, air-compressor, air-drills, sixty-horse- 
 power boilers, twenty-five-horse-power engine, and two smelt- 
 ing furnaces of twenty tons capacity are being constructed. 
 In the ore-house there are about 300 tons of first-class ore, 
 and not less than 600 tons standing in the incline and drifts 
 on the foot-wall in the mine. The ore is the vitreous copper 
 ore, bornite, malachite and chrysocolla, all carrying free 
 gold and silver. The properties have been very favorably 
 reported upon. An estimate of gross earnings and receipts 
 shows £700,000, or thirty-five per cent., available for divi- 
 dends, and £32,000 to form a sinking fund for the twenty- 
 year railway bonds issued by the company for the line from 
 Statesville to the company's mines." 
 
 The Conrad Hill mine, in Davidson county, six miles east 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1103 
 
 of Lexington, was opened again in 1880, but it is only re- 
 cently that the mine has been put into so forward a state 
 that the future work can be confidently predicted. The 
 property consists of 257 acres, on which there are seven well- 
 known veins, four of which are now being worked. The 
 shaft has been put down in such a manner as to allow ulti- 
 mately the working of the three other veins. The greatest 
 depth reached in November was nearly 250 feet on a vertical 
 measurement ; a series of levels have been run, aggregating 
 several hundred feet, and opening up a large atoping ground. 
 An examination of the underground work showed the veins 
 to range in width from six to twenty feet. The ore is sorted 
 into three classes : First, a copper ore (mostly copper pyrites) 
 containing some gold. Second, "brown ore" carrying con- 
 siderable gold and a little copper. Third, material inter- 
 mediate between the first and second classes, containing some 
 pyrites and " brown ore." Iron pyrites is not abundant in 
 this mine. The first class is a true smelting ore, and will be 
 treated at the mine. The second class will be milled to save 
 the gold, and the tailings concentrated to collect the sul- 
 phurets, which will then be sent to the smelting furnace. 
 No definite plan has yet been selected to treat the third class. 
 There are 2,500 to 3,000 tons of ore on the dump, much of 
 it of very good grade. Two stack furnaces with all the 
 modern appliances are now nearly completed for smelting 
 the copper ore to a matte; it has not yet been determined 
 whether this matte shall be further concentrated and the 
 extraction of the valuable constituents made at the place, or 
 whether it will be shipped to smelting establishments, at 
 home or abroad, which make a specialty of such work ; 
 probably, however, it will be reduced on the spot. The 
 "brown ore" will be treated by mill process, for which a 
 very suitable plant is in course of erection. The whole estab- 
 lishment is the nucleus of very complete works. One hun- 
 dred and fifty men are employed. The mine and works are 
 in the hands of managers long familiar with metallurgical 
 business, and heretofore successful in mining enterprises, and 
 the result of their work can hardly fail to add materially to 
 the bullion product of North Carolina. The Spring Valley 
 mine is eleven miles east of Lexington in the same county. 
 The deposit at present worked was discovered in June, 1880, 
 and is almost virgin ground. The mine is entered by an 
 underlay or inclined shaft 150 feet deep, giving a vertical 
 depth of a little more than 100 feet; the combined length 
 of the levels is about 100 feet. The width of the vein is on 
 an average five feet, although in places it widens to twenty 
 feet. The ore is galena mixed with a small proportion of 
 blende ; it is always argentiferous and usually carries a little 
 gold ; the presence of the blende renders it somewhat re- 
 fractory. A considerable portion of the ore is a compact 
 though impure galena ; the lower grade is stamped and con- 
 centrated, for which four five-stamp batteries of the most 
 approved form are used, and nine buddies. The best con- 
 centrates are probably richer than the selected solid ore, 
 both in lead and silver. There are about 1,600 tons of 
 selected ore and concentrates and nearly an equal quantity 
 of second-class ore awaiting treatment. The company em- 
 ploys ninety men, and are considering the feasibility of 
 erecting furnaces at the mine to produce either base bullion 
 or matte for shipment. Whatever the course of treatment 
 ultimately adopted, the products will probably go out of the 
 State in an unfinished condition unless metallurgical works 
 should be erected and successfully treat the ore with the 
 rich iron sulphurets of this section, the lead serving as a 
 collector of the gold. The Silver Hill mine, twelve miles 
 east of Lexington, long in litigation, but now freed from it, 
 will, as is reported, resume operations on a more extensive 
 scale. In November, 1881, only six men were employed, and 
 little was done except sinking a prospecting shaft and keep- 
 ing the water in the mine down to the 250-foot level, but 
 there was no exploitation at that depth. The greatest depth 
 reached in this mine is a little more than 700 feet, but the 
 efforts of late years have been confined to that portion above 
 the 250-foot level. The ore is a mixture of galena and blende 
 carrying a few ounces of silver and a trace of gold per ton. 
 Usually the zinc is in larger proportion than the lead ; this 
 combination makes the ore extremely difficult to work. 
 Smelting treatment of this material is troublesome and ex- 
 pensive, and the little value of the raw ore prevents its ship- 
 ment. In i 878 a large body of carbonates was discovered 
 
 and a part shipped during the two succeeding years ; about 
 500 tons are now on the dump, much of which is of the 
 highest grade that the mine furnishes. A long course of 
 experiments will probably have to be made ere the problem 
 of successful treatment of the ore from this mine is solved, 
 and then the valuable constituents will likely go out of the 
 State in a concentrated form for treatment in other estab- 
 lishments. 
 
 Bo'wan County. — In Rowan county, near Salisbury, 
 great activity is shown. Six miles east of the town is the 
 Rhymer. The greatest depth attained in this mine is. 160 
 feet in shaft No. 1, from which point a level has been started 
 for shaft No. 2, 400 feet distant ; shaft No. 2 is now being 
 sunk. A level has been run from No. .1 to No. 2 at seventy feet, 
 and it is proposed to open one at every fifty feet. Altogether 
 about 650 feet of the course of the vein have been opened by 
 the levels. The vein is on an average four feet wide; the 
 ore is a very heavy compact sulphuret of iron, estimated to 
 have at least 40 per cent, of mineral matter. The superin- 
 tendent states that 1,300 tons had been treated during the 
 year at the Davis chlorinating works at Salisbury, in con- 
 nection with which works the mine is operated; in addition 
 to this, 2,000 tons were estimated to be on the dump. Much of 
 the ore is of too low a grade to bear the cost of hauling seven 
 miles over the rough country roads, and to avoid this ex- 
 pense a concentrating and chlorinating works is in course 
 of erection at the mine. Two six-inch Cornish pumps and 
 two twenty-five-horse hoists lift water and ore. The property 
 appears to have been managed with great energy and judg- 
 ment. The Bullion is the eastward extension of the Rhymer, 
 and is about a mile distant ; the ore is quite similar in char- 
 acter, but from some unexplained cause work was suspended 
 during the summer. At the Dunn Mountain mine, four 
 miles east of Salisbury, no milling was done during the 
 year. The accumulation of ore is quite large, the foreman 
 at the mine estimating that at least 3,000 tons were on the 
 several dumps. The ore for the most part is brown oxide 
 of iron with quartz and slate, but carries considerable iron 
 pyrites and some copper pyrites. Recent changes have 
 been effected in the ownership and management of this 
 property, and the mill will soon be set to work. There 
 should be a considerable production of gold during the en- 
 suing year, as in addition to the amount of ore above ground 
 the underground works are in condition to furnish a steady 
 supply. The Gold Knob, nine miles east of Salisbury, is 
 composed of a group of three mines, viz.: the Holzhanser, 
 the Knob, and the Haynes. Eleven veins are enumerated 
 on the property, but only those mentioned are worked. A 
 simple prospecting mill of five stamps is the only machinery 
 in use at present. The three veins are large and capable of 
 supplying an ample amount of ore for a much larger plant ; 
 it is, as a rule, of low grade, but chimneys of high grade may 
 be expected in places. The material is largely free milling, 
 but everywhere contains sulphurets of iron and copper to a 
 small percentage. The yield of this mine cannot, with its 
 present machinery, be large, even if worked at its fullest 
 capacity; it will, therefore, probably be equipped with a 
 larger plant. The Southern Belle is seven miles east of south 
 of Salisbury. No work except for prospecting has been 
 done. The shaft, seventy feet deep, has not yet reached the 
 vein ; an underlay shaft had previously been sunk in the vein 
 to a depth of forty feet; but little ore had been found, 
 although it was always good and sometimes of high grade. 
 The only machinery erected is that necessary for pumping 
 and sinking. Under the most favorable circumstances this 
 mine could not be put in condition to produce bullion to any 
 extent in 1882. The Yadkin, one and a half miles south of 
 Salisbury and near the Davis Chlorinating Works, is partially 
 filled with water, and no ore has been produced for some 
 time. Nothing reliable can be learned of its prospects. A 
 few other tentative efforts at mining have been made around 
 Salisbury, but none of them with promising results. The 
 Davis Chlorinating Works were operated to some extent 
 during the year, about 1,300 tons of ore having been worked, 
 but no authoritative statement has been received relative to 
 the production of bullion. 
 
 The Gold Hill mine, sixteen miles southeast of Salisbury, 
 was reopened by an English company in the summer of 
 1881, and they are working a force of English miners. The 
 mine is unwatered to a depth of nearly 400 feet, at which 
 
1104 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 point the company expects to draw its supply of ore. A 
 very complete equipment of machinery, consisting of a new 
 "Buckeye" engine and a Becket & McDowell 20-stamp 
 mill, has been provided, and a considerable return may be 
 expected in 1882, but the bullion will probably be shipped 
 direct to London. The production of Rowan county is about 
 $10,000 per annum. 
 
 At Concord, twenty miles south of Salisbury, Cabarrus 
 county, five mines are at work ; conspicuously among them 
 is the Phoenix, seven miles east of the town. The deepest 
 work done at present is at the 125-foot level ; the vein is one 
 and a half to two feet wide, and the ore, which is highly 
 sulphureted, is distributed more uniformly than is usual in 
 veins in this section. The mine is operated in connection 
 ■with the Mear's Chlorinating Works, but in its present 
 state of development is unable to furnish a full supply of 
 ore. The Chlorinating Works adjacent to the mine have 
 therefore been run much below their capacity, but the re- 
 sults have been very satisfactory. The superintendent 
 states that ninety per cent, of the gold contained in the ore 
 is extracted; the full capacity is about eighteen tons per 
 diem. The plant is very complete, efficiently operated, and 
 bids fair to be of great advantage to the section. The 
 Tucker, formerly known as the California, one mile south 
 of the Phoenix, was opened last May, and its development 
 has been rapidly pushed towards a producing point. The 
 milling has been done chiefly to test a 10-stamp battery, 
 and the yield of gold is considered as satisfactory. The 
 greatest depth reached in the mine is 175 feet, and levels 
 have been driven aggregating 117 feet ; the vein is from one 
 and a half to two feet wide ; the ore is heavily charged with 
 sulphuret of iron and is reported to be of good grade. The 
 North Barrier, in the same vicinity, is being reopened, but 
 as the vein has not been reached, nothing definite can be 
 said respecting it. The ore will be worked at the Mear's 
 works ; ita old reputation was fair. The Quaker City, eight 
 miles east of Concord and one and a half miles southeast of 
 the Phoenix, is thought to be an extension of it. There are 
 three shafts, down forty, sixty, and eighty feet, respectively, 
 but only short levels have so far been driven. The ore is of 
 the usual character yielded by most of the mines, largely 
 sulphureted, with some brown free milling ore; two or 
 three hundred tons are on the dump or at the mill. The old 
 stamp mill has been torn down, and a new 10-stamp battery 
 has been erected on Buffalo creek, two miles distant ; besides 
 this there are two Chilian mills and other suitable appliances. 
 The Keed, so famous in the early history of the State as the 
 first authenticated producer of gold, and still more notorious 
 for having yielded an extraordinary number of large nug- 
 gets, was again opened in the summer; operations have 
 been confined to low-grade material near the surface, the 
 lack of water preventing much milling. The low-grade ore 
 will at best allow but a moderate yield. The production of 
 Cabarrus county has probably been $15,000 to |20,000 during 
 the year. 
 
 Twenty miles south of Concord is the better known Char- 
 lotte district of Mecklenburg county, in which thirteen mines 
 are producing gold, or in process of reopening. The princi- 
 pal of these, the Rudisil, has changed but little during the 
 year, but it has no such reserves of ore as it had twelve 
 months ago. The pump shaft has been extended to the 
 depth of 2«5 feet, and a level driven south, which is now in 
 high-grade ore, but neither the drifting nor stoping has yet de- 
 termined the extent of the ore body. It is equipped with a 
 10-stamp battery. The Saint Catharine is the north exten- 
 sion of the Rudisil ; a new shaft was projected in July last 
 to cut the vein at a depth of 300 feet; at the close of 188l[ 
 a depth of 100 feet had been reached. The mine cannot be 
 put into a producing condition this year. The McDonald, 
 one and a half miles southwest of Charlotte, contains 100 
 acres; it has been exploited to the depth of 110 feet; two 
 levels, one at sixty and the other at 110 feet, have been 
 driven forty feet each. The ore is brown free milling, carry- 
 ing a small percentage of sulphurets; a small quantity of 
 good ore has been raised. The mill-house contains an ore 
 breaker, Howland pulverizer, Ball amalgamator, etc. 
 
 The Smith & Palmer, between the Rudisil and McDonald 
 was sunk upon until drowned out by the great influx of 
 water, and the machinery being inadequate to control it 
 work was suspended for the winter; the ore body had not 
 
 been reached. As the known body of ore was of a fair grade 
 for milling, the mine may be in condition for production 
 early in the ensuing summer. At the Simpson, ten miles 
 east of Charlotte, only prospecting has been done this year ; 
 it is not likely to turn out any gold the coming year. The 
 Smart, fifteen miles southeast of the same city, was reopened 
 during the spring, and a good body of galena uncovered; 
 the ore can be treated only by smelting. The Ray, nine 
 miles southeast from Charlotte, is entered by four shafts ; 
 the deepest level is at eighty feet, and the aggregate length 
 of the levels is something more than 400 feet. The vein 
 averages two and a half feet wide and is filled quite uni- 
 formly with ore consisting of quartz, brown oxides of iron, 
 and occasional bunches of sulphurets ; at greater depth heavy 
 sulphurets will probably be met; the lode shows a tendency 
 to copper minerals ; the present material is a good grade of 
 free milling ore. Thus far the production has not been 
 large, but the mine is in a good condition for steady work in 
 1882. The Black mine in Crab Orchard township, Meck- 
 lenburg county, is nine miles east of Charlotte; it was 
 opened in June, 1881. It is worked by two shafts; the 
 average width of the vein is fifteen inches, and it carries an 
 unusually good grade of brown ore. Assays made of it at 
 the United States assay office at Charlotte show it to be 
 always good and much of it rich ; the mine is in condition 
 for good work in the immediate future. The Maxwell, two 
 miles south of the Black, was also reopened early in 1881, 
 but the reports of the lessees are not favorable either as to 
 the quality or quantity of the ore. The Hopewell is ten 
 miles northwest of Charlotte ; it was opened in the summer 
 of 1881, but work was not vigorously pushed, and has been 
 suspended for the winter ; ore of only very moderate grade 
 was extracted, and as it is too highly cupriferous to be easily 
 treated in a mill, it will probably require smelting. The 
 Capps Hill mine, five miles northwest of Charlotte, has been 
 lying idle for nearly thirty years, but during the last year 
 preparations were made to resume work by pumping out the 
 mine, but at the close of the year the ore bodies had not been 
 reached. As this mine has been the most productive of any 
 in this county, favorable results may be expected when min- 
 ing and milling is fully resumed, and it should add largely 
 to the bullion product of the district. In the Charlotte dis- 
 trict, taken as a whole, the condition of the mining industry 
 is much the same as in previous years, though the yield of 
 gold was somewhat less, owing to the excessive drought, 
 which was greater here than elsewhere in the South. In 
 other respects, however, the mining interests have been un- 
 favorably afiected; the eflForts made by two different com- 
 panies to establish metallurgical works at Charlotte led the 
 mine owners either to delay their work, or to arrange it with 
 reference to the operations of these establishments; the older 
 of the works has thus far failed to satisfy the expectations 
 raised, and at present it is doing nothing, while the death 
 of the president and the superintendent of the other company 
 caused a suspension of operations. The best informed men 
 are not hopeful respecting its future, of which nothing can 
 be said with certainty. The usual number of "processes" 
 were introduced during the last year; but none proved to be 
 efficient, either through inherent defects or want of proper 
 management. The total yield of Mecklenburg county is 
 about $10,000 per annum. 
 
 Large operations at Vein Mountain, eight miles south of 
 Marion, McDowell county, were commenced in May, and 
 have continued, with some interruptions, through the year. 
 The supply of water is taken from the upper reaches of the 
 Second Broad river, and the company was thus, to a certain 
 extent, independent of the drought. The company has at 
 least 200 acres of good gravel on the above mountain, and 
 late purchases have increased the area to 600 acres, all of 
 which is commanded by the water from the ditch, which is 
 thought to be capable of supplying three pipes, even in the 
 least favorable season. At present work is confined to Puz- 
 zle and Holly gulches. A number of quartz veins have been 
 cut on the property, which are likely to add to its resources. 
 Preliminary work has been arranged for the Hard Bargain 
 gravel mine, adjacent to the Vein Mountain. The Granville, 
 to the southeast of Vein Mountain, was worked as long as 
 water was obtainable. 
 
 The hydraulic work in Burke, McDowell, and Rutherford 
 counties was brought almost to a stand-still during the sum- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1105 
 
 mer of 1881, but resumed for a brief period towards the close 
 of the year; the smaller and individual operators have had 
 very poor returns. The production of these three counties 
 for 1881 was, approximately, $30,000. 
 
 There are fourteen well-known localities in Polk county, 
 commencing with the Double Branch mine and extending 
 to the vicinity of Columbus, the county seat. They all had 
 a good reputation in the former palmy days of mining in 
 North Carolina so long as the deposits lay contiguous to the 
 water supplies ; but at present none can be worked on an 
 extensive scale without a large amount of water. A suffi- 
 cient supply could be obtained only from the North Pacolet, 
 in the southwestern part of the county, by a ditch at least 
 twenty miles long. No survey has been made to determine 
 the details of such supply. At present the mineral area is 
 worked at three points on a notable scale, but small parties 
 and individual operators frequently work at odd times. The 
 Double Branch mine, in the southeastern part of the county, 
 has been at work most of the year, though a short supply 
 of water somewhat curtailed the operations. Attention was 
 given exclusively to the seams of quartz running through 
 the strata, which is a variety of mica schist, thoroughly de- 
 composed, and easily removed at trifling expense by hydrau- 
 lic work or simple mining operations. The quartz, though 
 forming but a small portion of the whole material, is a good 
 ore and readily treated. The Prince mine, four miles south 
 of the Double Branch, is a purely surface mine, and the en- 
 tire work is hydraulic. The property embraces 360 acres; 
 the gravel, although of good appearance, is rarely deep, 
 sometimes not more than two feet. A sufficient amount of 
 water to run one pipe, even in the driest season, is taken 
 from the property itself; with a larger supply, a considera- 
 ble return might be expected; it is doubtful, however, 
 whether an additional amount of water could be obtained. 
 The production of Polk county is about $3,500 per annum. 
 In regard to the transmontane region of North Carolina, no 
 reports have been received, and diligent inquiry failed in 
 obtaining information of any steady work. An occasional 
 deposit of gold at the United States Assay Office at Char- 
 lotte, from Cherokee county, shows that a little mining work 
 has been prosecuted. At the Copper Knob mine, in Ashe 
 county, no production of the precious metals was made dur- 
 ing the year. A little underground work was done and the 
 mine placed in better shape for continVious operation. The 
 ore being rich in copper will require a smelting process, and 
 the company expresses an intention of soon erecting a fur- 
 nace, but it is not probable that anything more than making 
 copper matte will be attempted. 
 
 South Carolina. — The State of South Carolina, in com- 
 mon with the whole mining area of the South, suffered last 
 year from a drought, which seriously retarded work in every 
 locality. The cultivation of cotton, having become more 
 remunerative than other pursuits, has almost entirely di- 
 verted miners of small means from their mining work. Not- 
 withstanding these adverse circumstances, the condition of 
 ' the gold industry in South Carolina is favorable, and the 
 yield is evidently increasing. The production of the State 
 in 1881 is reported by Professor Hanna, of the Charlotte 
 Assay Office, to have been $35,000. 
 
 The Brewer mine, in Chesterfield county, until last August, 
 fully answered expectations, and would have produced from 
 $2.'>,000 to $30,000 during the year had the lack of water not 
 brought work almost entirely to a close in August. The 
 condition of the mine and the nature of the work remains 
 about the same as described in my last report. It is proba- 
 ble that the work will be enlarged and a more ample supply 
 of water be secured. There is no mine in this section in 
 which the cost of working and the return of bullion can be 
 so confidently calculated as in the Brewer, and this fact alone 
 should insure its prosperity. 
 
 G-eorgia. — The gold belt of Georgia is upwards of one 
 hundred miles in width, extending across the northern and 
 part of the eastern section of the State, from northeast to 
 southwest. Mines have been discovered from the line of 
 Tennessee, in Fannin county on the north, to Columbia 
 county in the south. The area of production has steadily 
 increased year by year. Oflf the main belt, but little has 
 been done, mining having been conducted principally in the 
 counties of White, Union, Lumpkin, Cherokee, Dawson, and 
 Eabun, situated in the northern section of the State. After 
 70 
 
 the most careful inquiries, the yield of Georgia in 1881 is 
 ascertained to have been about $125,000. In estimating this 
 yield, two methods have been adopted : first, by careful in- 
 quiry at the producing points, and, second, by ascertaining 
 the amounts shipped. Mount Airy, Gainesville, and Atlanta 
 are the three main express points for the shipment of gold. 
 The express agents at Mount Airy and Gainesville reported 
 the shipments as $1,333 and $93,858, respectively. The agent 
 at Atlanta declined to furnish any statement, but from the 
 best information obtained, the amount cannot be large, prob- 
 ably not over $10,000, as Atlanta is somewhat remote from 
 the principal producing area. The agent at Gainesville es- 
 timates that at least $12,000 was carried away during the 
 year in private hands. Considerable gold produced in the 
 section of country above Mount Airy is transported by mail, 
 $2,700 being officially traced. A summary of the movement 
 of gold from the State is as follows, viz. : 
 
 From Mount Airy, byexpress $1,333 
 
 From Mouut Airy, by mail 2.700 
 
 From Gainesville, by express 93,868 
 
 From Gainesville, by private hands 12,000 
 
 From Atlanta, by express (estimated; 10,000 
 
 Total $119,891 
 
 This amount substantially agrees with that ascertained 
 from independent observation at the mines. 
 
 In Rabun, the extreme northeastern county of the State, 
 the J. P. Wilson mine, four miles from Burton, has been 
 opened and will soon be at work on a large scale. This 
 property, consisting of two sections of 490 acres each, has 
 been worked on a small scale for many years. The surface 
 of the country is extremely diversified with high mountains 
 and deep gulches; the latter, cutting across the gold-bearing 
 strata or receiving the wash and drift therefrom, have been 
 long noted for their richness; for two generations, a few 
 parties have operated on a small scale on this property, with 
 rude and scanty apparatus, but the return has amply remu- 
 nerated them for their time. The works now projected con- 
 template the hydraulic treatment of that portion of the 
 gulches which have hitherto been beyond the reach of water, 
 and of a mill treatment of the quartz from the seams or 
 veins. A fair supply of water has been obtained from the 
 upper reaches of the streams lying on the property, and 
 more can probably be obtained if needed. The quartz veins 
 or beds have been quite well exposed by the preliminary 
 work of the last two years. The ore-channel of quartz, with 
 the included decomposed slates, is two and a half feet thick, 
 and connected with it are numerous seams and stringers of 
 quartz in the adjacent slates. From assays made oi' many 
 samples of the ore, at the United States Assay Office at Char- 
 lotte, N. C, it seems to be in richness fully up to the aver- 
 age of Georgia ores. The forwardness of the preparations 
 and the condition of the work appear to justify the expecta- 
 tion of steady operations in 1882, and of a respectable yield ; 
 the running expenses of this mine will be small. The best 
 information obtained in Rabun and Habersham counties 
 points to a yield of $8,000 to $10,000 in 1881, and, from the 
 present outlook, a return of $20,000 in 1882 is not improb- 
 able. 
 
 From Eabun county to Nacoochee Valley,in White county, 
 the mining work is conducted almost exclusively by the 
 country people, and on a small scale ; those conversant with 
 this intervening Territory believe that the returns to indi- 
 vidual operators have rewarded them better than would have 
 been done by other occupations. At Nacoochee Valley great 
 activity is manifested; the work done is almost entirely hy- 
 draulic. The Bradley mill, erected to treat the quartz of the 
 Runnel's vein and others in its vicinity, has been closed 
 since the death of Professor Bradley, and is likely to remain 
 so, as it is in litigation. The Nacoochee Company, which 
 owns and controls twelve lots, is at present working on the 
 grounds of the Lumsden Bros ; the lease, however, is short, 
 and as the company is involved in legal troubles the result of 
 their work in 1882 is quite uncertain. Lot No. 38 has been 
 vigorously exploited on the Chattahoochee slope of the 
 Hamby Mountain belt ; the facilities for water, however, are 
 inadequate for properly working the resources of this prop- 
 erty, and the summer drought still further diminished the 
 usual small supply, consequently work has been hindered ; 
 the return for 1882 should be fully up to that of past favor- 
 able seasons; the mill employs five stamps. The Lumsden 
 
1106 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Bros, are effecting arrangements for putting their property 
 at work, or for disposing of it to other parties who will. In 
 1880 a very slight amount of work in their kitchen garden un- 
 covered a remarkable deposit of nuggets, to the extent of 
 several thousand penny-weights, and old miners, conversant 
 with the course and characteristics of " ancient streams " in 
 this neighborhood, think that other similar discoveries are 
 probable ; the ordinary resources of these lots are ample to 
 give a good and constant return for a long time ; at present 
 there is a deficiency of water. Half a mile to the southwest 
 E. R. Trimble is operating the Thompson place ; he has a 
 mill of five stamps, and is prepared for steady work, if the 
 mine should continue to make a steady output of ore ; the 
 common run is regarded as satisfactory in quality, but rich 
 chimneys are reported as existing. Many evidences of large 
 resources are in this vicinity, but none, except possibly the 
 Jarrett lots, Nos. 23 and 24, in district No. 3, are likely to 
 be worked, except by individuals. The amount produced in 
 this neighborhood can hardly be less than $15,000 in 1881 ; 
 the yield is likely to be one-half greater the next year, if the 
 ordinary conditions of water supply are maintained. 
 
 Between the Nacoochee Valley and Loudsville, Lumpkin 
 county, mining is conducted on a small scale ; the Loud's 
 Ditch and Mining Company are at work, and, notwithstand- 
 ing the scarcity of water, the yield was little affected. The 
 principal mining operations of the Georgia gold region are in 
 the vicinity of Dahlonega. The Barlow & Hand mine, two 
 miles southwest of this town, has not materially changed, 
 either in its ore supply or yield, except so far as the lack of 
 water has checked work ; during the summer only four of its 
 eight batteries have been in operation. The ore channel of 
 quartz seams is of great thickness, two having a combined 
 Vifidth of 100 to 400 feet. In the belt now worked the seams 
 are very numerous; at one point, within a distance of fifty 
 feet, there are eleven, not counting those so small as to be 
 mere strings. The quartz is of good grade, and, as the man- 
 agement shows the same skill and efficiency as noted on other 
 occasions, the average yield will probably be maintained 
 through 1882. The Ivy, adjacent to Dahlonega, and on the 
 same belt as the former mine, is similar in character and 
 operated in the same manner, though on a smaller scale ; a 
 description would be a repetition of the details of the Bar- 
 low & Hand. It employs twenty stamps ; the yield has been 
 satisfactory, and the prosperity is likely to continue. The 
 Finley, one and a half miles southeast of Dahlonega, has 
 been worked with little change. The quantity of ore at com- 
 mand is large, quite as much so as at the time of the exami- 
 nation made last year, but apparently it is of slightly inferior 
 grade ; this, however, is to be expected in every mine, and 
 signifies nothing with reference to permanent work or value. 
 Three bodies of ore of considerable thickness are available, 
 but only two are now exploited, for which forty inches of 
 water are being used. This mine is not so advantageously 
 situated for hydraulic purposes as many others, as the nat- 
 ural head of water needs the reenforceraent of pumping ap- 
 paratus to enable it to reach the highest point of the mine. 
 It is operated by two mills, one of thirty stamps run by water, 
 and a second of twenty stamps by steam ; the former only has 
 been in operation during the summer. The blast, on the 
 same belt, adjoins the Finley. As the ore is similar in char- 
 acter, no extended notice is necessary. For some months it 
 has been consolidated with the Ivy, and worked under the 
 same management with reported success. The Lockhart tem- 
 porarjly suspended operation for lack of water. A new shaft 
 is sinking to meet the ore body at a greater depth, which is 
 reported to be from seven to twelve feet wide and of more 
 than ordinary richness. For a small mine, it has had un- 
 usual prosperity. It is operated by fifteen stamps. The Sin- 
 gleton, one and a half miles east of Dahlonega, is worked bv 
 ten stamps, under the same management as the Lockhart. It 
 13 supplied by water from its own special ditch, which is too 
 small to allow of piping usually practised in hydraulic work 
 in this section The White, or Pigeon Roost, adjoins the 
 Uarlow & Hand, and the ore is much the same; its ten-stamp 
 mill was stopped during a great portion of the year. The 
 following summary shows the mines about Dahlonega and 
 the number of stamps, viz. : 
 
 Stamps. 
 
 Findley.. 
 
 Bast 
 
 Ivy 
 
 50 
 20 
 20 
 
 Stamps. 
 
 Loelchart 15 
 
 Singleton 10 
 
 Barlow & Hand 40 
 
 White 10 
 
 More reticence than usual was shown in communicating 
 the production for 1881, but from the best sources of infor- 
 mation, the yield of this district was $80,000. The work at 
 Auraria, six miles southwest of Dahlonega, and on the same 
 belt, is not so extensively conducted, nor has there been so 
 much prosperity. The Chicago and Georgia, adjacent to the 
 village, employs ten stamps ; it is on lot No. 663, district 12 ; 
 the ore does not seem so favorable as at other points on the 
 belt, the well-known Pigeon Roost belt, and operations have 
 been less vigorously conducted than during the preceding 
 year. It has lately been leased to the efficient superinten- 
 dent of the Findley, Ivy, and Bast mines, and under his 
 energetic administration it will doubtless resume its former 
 rank as a producer of bullion. The Auraria, one and a half 
 miles southwest of the town of the same name, has recently 
 been set to work. The summer has been spent in cleaning 
 out the cuts, but only one experimental run to test the ma- 
 chinery, a ten-stamp mill, has been made, the vein has not 
 been reached, and no trustworthy statement can be made 
 respecting the prospective production, although a moderate 
 yield is anticipated by those conversant with the resources 
 of the belt. The Wells, half a mile south of Auraria, has 
 also been opened ; the ore body exploited is a quartz vein or 
 seam eighteen inches to three feet thick, very laminated and 
 coated with brown ore, and often very rich ; at greater depth 
 copper pyrites makes its appearance. The ore, although of 
 good character, will prove refractory to the mill treatment; a 
 ten-stamp battery has been brought here from the Hightown 
 mine. Too little work has been done to determine the amount 
 of available ore, so that no large yield of bullion should be 
 anticipated in the immediate future. The Baggs Branch, or 
 Cleveland, two miles south of the town, is situated on lots 
 Nos. 172, 173, and the north end of 208. It is operated by 
 twenty stamps, which can be driven by water-power in part 
 or by steam. Both mine and mill are in good condition for 
 work, but being at the extreme end of the Hand ditch, barely 
 one-fourth of the requisite amount of water has been obtain- 
 able ; the production, however, up to the time of the drought, 
 had been fair. The Hightown, one mile west of Cleveland^ 
 has been idle nearly the whole year, and half the stamps 
 have been removed to the Wells ; the prospects are not very 
 encouraging. The Bell is two miles southeast of Auraria ; 
 preparations are not yet sufficiently advanced for milling 
 work; the mine has a good repute, but the water supply is 
 neither abundant nor well-assured, and until that is settled, 
 the yield of bullion cannot be large. The property is in the 
 hands of energetic men, who seem determined to leave noth- 
 ing undone to ensure success. The Calhoun, on lot 164, 
 district 11, on the east side of the Chestatee river, and three 
 miles south of Dahlonega, has recently been started. It was 
 formerly worked by Hon. John C. Calhoun, for whom it was ' 
 named. After lying in an abandoned condition for many 
 years, it is now likely to be placed in the list of gold pro- 
 ducers. The following mines about Auraria indicate the 
 work of the section, viz. : 
 
 Stamps. 
 
 Chicago and Georgia jo 
 
 Aiirana m 
 
 Wells !.. ".'.■:!."!.":."!.",".■■■■;.'.':.'.■ lo 
 
 fileveland 20 
 
 Hightown ,. m 
 
 Bell 
 
 10 
 
 The production of the district has not been over $8,000 
 during the past year. Before leaving this locality, mention 
 should be made of a new enterprise. Near Leather's Ford, 
 on the Chestatee river, four miles south of Auraria, a dredg- 
 ing-boat has been constructed by Captain Nobles; the in- 
 tention is to raise the material from the bottom of the river, 
 preparatory to extracting the gold. Of the worth of the 
 process, or the value of the deposit at the point selected, no 
 statement can be made, but of the accumulation of gold in 
 the bed of the Chestatee there can be little doubt; the riv jr 
 runs for sixteen miles either along with, or across, the gold 
 belt, and, together with its affluents along the same belt, 
 must receive the wash and tailings from seventy-five or one 
 hundred square miles of auriferous territory ; at what point 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1107 
 
 the gold has lodged, and to what extent, is however a matter 
 of conjecture. 
 
 Dawson County. — This county is farther to the south- 
 west and on the same belt. The only large mines are those 
 controlled by the Cincinnati Consolidated Mining Company, 
 the Baby, Magic, Gnome, Amicalola, and Kinmore; most 
 of the known belts of the Dahlonega and Auraria districts 
 are found on these properties. The Magic and Amicalola 
 are the only mines worked to a noteworthy extent, but con- 
 siderable preparations are projected for enlarged operations ; 
 the water supply is drawn from the immediate neighborhood 
 of the mines and is insufficient ; two ditches have been com- 
 menced, one to bring in the waters of Shoal creek, the other 
 to run to the head of Amicalola river ; when completed, they 
 will give 2,200 inches of water ; as some difficulties in con- 
 struction have been encountered, several months will proba- 
 bly elapse before they are finished. Both of these mines 
 have abundant resources, and will give ample occupation to 
 the large supply of water contemplated ; the belts are large 
 and the ore good. Only hydraulic work has been done, 
 though occasionally a run is made through the ten-stamp 
 mill on the Magic. The associated properties are prudently 
 managed and bid fair during the next twelve months to be- 
 come producers on a considerable scale. The Franklin and 
 
 Pascoe mines, twelve or fifteen miles southwest of the above 
 properties, have recently changed hands, and will, it is 
 thought, soon be put to work. These mines have had a 
 famous history, but the work was mainly done on the sur- 
 face ; it remains to be seen how successful vein mining will 
 prove ; the ore appears to indicate much the same conditions 
 existing to the northeast. Still further to the southwest, 
 the operations are very desultory at the Strickland, Sixes, 
 and Cherokee. The production of Dawson county has been 
 about $10,000. 
 
 All of these mines were noted in the palmy days of placer 
 mining, and some of them have yielded large returns ; of 
 what value they would be for deep mining, nothing can be 
 said with certainty, but the ores exhibited at the Atlanta 
 Exposition were of good character. The yield of these coun- 
 ties may be placed at $5,000. In reviewing the work in 
 Georgia, in 1881, it will be seen that there has been but little 
 change ; the quantity and quality of the ore is substantially 
 the same as it was a year ago. A few unstable companies 
 have succumbed, and a few unwise enterprises have been 
 set in operation, but the well-established companies have 
 held their way with little change except so far as the scarc- 
 ity of water in the summer and early autumn compelled an 
 abridgment of their work. 
 
 STATISTICS. 
 
 Mb. Buechaed furnishes, in his report, the following statistics -■ 
 
 statement sliowing^ the Amount of Bullion and Locality of Frodaction reported by the following Smelting and Reduction 
 Works east of the Uocky Mountains « as having been treatetl during the calendar year 1881. 
 
 SlcUe or Territory. 
 
 Fird Six Months to June SO. 
 
 Second Six Months to December SI. 
 
 OaZendar Year. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Tbtal. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 814,608 
 
 2,769 
 
 731,862 
 
 3,410 
 
 5,968 
 
 169,178 
 
 46,135 
 
 16,709 
 
 8317,437 
 
 121,694 
 
 6,437,183 
 
 84,040 
 
 628,519 
 
 - 290,649 
 
 807,377 
 
 576,706 
 
 8332,045 
 124,463 
 
 7,169,045 
 87,450 
 534,487- 
 469,727 
 863,512 
 692,416 
 
 $60,663 
 9,466 
 
 854.332 
 57,628 
 27,904 
 
 147,077 
 59,079 
 20,670 
 
 $614,822 
 31.906 
 
 7,022,458 
 470,867 
 715.469 
 223,843 
 
 1,098,518 
 121.882 
 
 $675,386 
 41,362 
 
 7,876.790 
 628,495 
 743,373 
 370,920 
 
 1,157,597 
 142,662 
 
 $75,171 
 12,225 
 1,586,194 
 61,(B8 
 33,872 
 316,255 
 105,214 
 36,379 
 
 $932,259 
 
 163,560 
 
 13,469,641 
 
 554,907 
 
 , . 1,243,988 
 
 514,392 
 
 1,906,895 
 
 698,588 
 
 $1,007,430 
 
 
 165,785 
 
 
 16J)45,S36 
 
 
 615,945 
 
 
 - 1,277,860 
 
 
 830,647 
 
 
 2,011,109 
 
 Other sources (unknown) 
 
 734,967 
 
 
 8989,639 
 
 $9,163,505 
 
 810,163,144 
 
 81,236,709 
 
 $10,299,766 
 
 . 811,636,474 
 
 $2,226,348 
 
 $19,463,230« $21,689,578 
 
 * Newark Smelting and Refining Company, St. Louis Smelting Works, Pennsylvania Lead Ctompany, Omaha Smelttog and Refining Company, Charles S. 
 Piatt, Boston and Colorado Smelting Company, Kempf, Nenuinger & Co., and Kansas City Smelting and Refining Company. 
 
 Statement of Imports and Kxports of Gold and Silver during tlie calendar year ended December 31, 1881. 
 
 IMPORTS, 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Slluer. 
 
 Gold and 
 
 Byrts. 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 Coins. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 American Coin. 
 
 B^jreiffn. 
 
 
 Tblal. 
 
 
 • 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Trade 
 Dollar. 
 
 Other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 NEW YOEK. 
 
 $9,117,200 
 6,222,626 
 3,486,963 
 2,107,802 
 
 $151,402 
 
 371,054 
 
 1,201,964 
 
 1,286,097 
 
 82,470,379 
 9.832,366 
 
 10,887,132 
 6,015,017 
 
 811.738,981 
 
 16,426,066 
 
 15,576,049 
 
 9,438,916 
 
 81,788 
 2,946 
 6,247 
 6,919 
 
 819,466 
 
 $316,946 
 313A29 
 255,976 
 180,086 
 
 $544,849 
 366,277 
 358,516 
 460,719 
 
 $882,049 
 681,352 
 619,739 
 637,724 
 
 812,621,030 
 
 
 17,107 107 
 
 
 16,198,788 
 
 Quarter ending December 31 
 
 10,076,610 
 
 Total 
 
 820,934,680 
 
 83,010,627 
 
 $29,234,894 
 
 863,180,001 
 
 816,900 
 
 $19,466 
 
 81,065,137 
 
 $1,719,361 
 
 $2,820,861 
 
 856,000,865 
 
 SAN FKANCISCO. 
 
 897,091 
 
 100,189 
 
 533,221 
 
 2,255,636 
 
 $19,081 
 
 '""6,913 
 
 7,322 
 
 $297,692 
 341,750 
 154,454 
 
 2.092,250 
 
 $413,864 
 441,939 
 694,688 
 
 4,355,108 
 
 8575,830 
 670,467 
 389,239 
 432,960 
 
 $1,000 
 1,000 
 
 8124,040 
 13,545 
 19,106 
 6,813 
 
 477,896 
 681,437 
 521,620 
 
 $1,473,155 
 
 1.062,907 
 
 1^89,782 
 
 961,393 
 
 81,887,IS.9 
 
 
 1,604,846 
 1,784,370 
 5,316,501 
 
 
 Quarter ending December 31 
 
 Total 
 
 82,986,037 
 
 $33,316 
 
 82,886,146 
 
 $5,905,499 
 
 $1,968,602 
 
 $2,000 
 
 $163,604 
 
 $2,453,231 
 
 $4,587,237 
 
 $10,492,736 
 
 ALL OTHER PORTS. 
 
 84,038 
 12,394 
 4,167 
 10,913 
 
 $317,200 
 83,807 
 457,374 
 227,065 
 
 813,071 
 25,717 
 
 106,521 
 50,863 
 
 $334,309 
 121,918 
 668,052 
 288,841 
 
 8100,131 
 44,640 
 49.890 
 32,816 
 
 
 
 839,036 
 41,919 
 37,751 
 66,887 
 
 $219,100 
 224.861 
 186,776 
 140,737 
 
 8358,267 
 311,420 
 277,417 
 210,440 
 
 $692,576 
 433,338 
 846,169 
 629,281 
 
 
 
 Quarter ending December 31 
 
 
 Total 
 
 831,502 
 
 81,086,446 
 
 8196,172 
 
 81,313,120 
 
 $227,477 
 
 
 $185,693 
 
 $774,474 
 
 81,187,644 
 
 82,500,664 
 
 
 $23,952,119 
 
 $4,129,289 
 
 $32,317,212 
 
 860.398,620 
 
 $2,212,879 
 
 821,466 
 
 $1,414,234 
 
 $1,947,066 
 
 88,595,645 
 
 $68,991,265 
 
 
1108 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 statement of Imports and Exports of Gold and Silver during the calendar year ending December 31, 1881. 
 
 EXPORTS (DOMESTIC). 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 saver. 
 
 Gold and 
 Silver. 
 
 Forts. 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 Coin. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 Coin. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 Trade 
 Dollars. 
 
 Oilier. 
 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 
 8346,600 
 
 75,659 
 
 168,423 
 
 89,207 
 
 8346,600 
 125,659 
 178,423 
 162,207 
 
 82,672,850 
 2,420,900 
 2,217,200 
 2,677,400 
 
 
 $107,927 
 
 3,9,58 
 
 27,900 
 
 13,510 
 
 $2,780,777 
 2,424,858 
 2,245,100 
 2,610,910 
 
 $3,127,377 
 
 
 850,000 
 10,000 
 63,000 
 
 
 2,550,617 
 
 
 
 2,423,523 
 
 
 
 2,743,117 
 
 Total 
 
 8123,000 
 
 $679,889 
 
 8802,889 
 
 $9,888,350 
 
 
 $163,296 
 
 $10,041,645 
 
 $10,844,534 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO. 
 
 $800 
 
 790 
 
 18,555 
 
 15,645 
 
 $41,666 
 
 97,862 
 
 110,966 
 
 193,784 
 
 842,866 
 
 98,652 
 
 129,521 
 
 209,429 
 
 8697,151 
 
 1,705,208 
 
 386,311 
 
 107,976 
 
 820 
 
 $17,000 
 30,000 
 24,600 
 8,495 
 
 $714,171 
 
 1,735,208 
 
 409,911 
 
 116,471 
 
 8756,637 
 
 
 1,833,860 
 
 
 
 643,432 
 
 Quarter ending December 31 
 
 
 325,900 
 
 Total 
 
 836,790 
 
 $444,278 
 
 8480,068 
 
 $2,899,646 
 
 820 
 
 $80,095 
 
 $2,979,761 
 
 $3,459,829 
 
 ALL OTHER PORTS. 
 
 
 $4,704 
 603,400 
 44,819 
 
 $4,704 
 
 504,460 
 
 45,235 
 
 600 
 
 $1,000 
 
 4,146 
 
 3,138 
 
 
 $158,954 
 
 66,300 
 
 9,477 
 
 900 
 
 $159,954 
 66,300 
 13.623 
 4,038 
 
 $164,658 
 
 
 81,060 
 416 
 500 
 
 
 570,760 
 
 
 
 58,858 
 
 Quarter ending December 31 
 
 
 4,538 
 
 Total 
 
 $1,976 
 
 8652,923 
 
 $554,899 
 
 $8,284 
 
 
 $236,631 
 
 $243,915 
 
 8798,814 
 
 
 8160,766 
 
 81,677,090 
 
 $1,837,856 
 
 $12,796,280 
 
 820 
 
 $469,021 
 
 813,265,321 
 
 815,103,177 
 
 
 
 Statement of Imports and Exports of Gold and Silver during the calendar year ending December 31, 1881. 
 
 EXPORTS (FOREIGN). 
 
 Ports. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Savei: 
 
 Gold and 
 Silver. 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 Coin. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 Coin. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 Quarter ending March 31 
 
 
 868,810 
 
 588,711 
 
 84,096 
 
 20.013 
 
 $68,810 
 
 690,868 
 
 84,096 
 
 20,013 
 
 $5,400 
 4,260 
 
 8288,427 
 269,998 
 479,079 
 471,537 
 
 8293,827 
 274,268 
 479,079 
 619,221 
 
 $362,637 
 865 1''6 
 
 Quarter ending June 30 
 
 $2,157 
 
 
 553,175 
 539,234 
 
 Quarter ending December 31 
 
 
 47,684 
 
 Total 
 
 $2,157 
 
 $761,630 
 
 8763,787 
 
 $57,344 
 
 81,509,041 
 
 $1,566,386 
 
 $2,330,172 
 
 SAN FKANCISCO. 
 
 Quarter ending March 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 415,574 
 674,916 
 414,587 
 602,529 
 
 415,674 
 674,916 
 416,487 
 602,629 
 
 415,574 
 674,916 
 416,487 
 602,529 
 
 Quarter ending June 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quarter ending September 30 
 
 
 1,900 
 
 1,900 
 
 
 Quarter ending December 31 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 $1,900 
 
 81,900 
 
 
 82,107,586 
 
 $2,109,506 
 
 $2,111,406 
 
 
 
 ALL OTHER PORTS. 
 
 Quarter ending March 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 107,968 
 6,532 
 1,700 
 8,762 
 
 107,968 
 6,532 
 1,700 
 8,762 
 
 107,968 
 6,532 
 1,700 
 8,762 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quarter ending December 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 
 $123,962 
 
 $123,962 
 
 $123,962 
 
 Grand total export of foreign silver 
 
 $2,157 
 
 $763,530 . 
 
 $765,687 
 
 857,344 
 
 $3,740,689 
 
 3,799,853 
 
 $4,565,540 
 
 Shipments of Base Bullion containing Gold or Silver via tlie Union Pacific Railroad from July 1 to December 31, 1880. 
 
 To whom Consigned. 
 
 Omaha Smelting and Refining Company, Omaha, Neb 
 
 Newark Smelting and Refining Works, Newark, N. J 
 
 St. Louis Smelting and Refluing Company, St. Louis, Mo 
 
 Manhattan Smelting and Refining Company, New York 
 
 Pennsylvania Lead Worljs, Mansfield, Pa 
 
 Horn Silver Mining Company, Chicago, 111 
 
 San Juan Mining and Smelting Company, Kansas City, Mo, 
 
 E. C. Atkins, Newark, N. J 
 
 Netter & Matthews, Omaha, Neb 
 
 German National Bank, Omaha, Neb 
 
 Omaha National Bank, Omaha, Neb 
 
 J. E. Dowley. Omaha, Neb 
 
 J. H. Jones, Denver, Col 
 
 A. Hammener, Ogden, Utah 
 
 Wells, Fargo & Co., Council BluEfs, Iowa .......'...','.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 
 
 Total 
 
 State or TeiTitory. 
 
 Colorado. 
 
 Pounds. 
 2,613,997 
 7,948,607 
 4,377,342 
 300,000 
 4,440,296 
 
 ""'20,000 
 
 ""l7,985 
 4,6,52,904 
 1,363,072 
 
 ""20,150 
 
 25,754,3;")3 
 
 Idaho. 
 
 Pounds. 
 1,223,275 
 
 1,223,27; 
 
 Montana. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 492,471 
 
 2,544,692 
 
 10,000 
 
 3,047,063 
 
 Nevada. 
 
 1,760,722 
 
 1,760,722 
 
 Utah. 
 
 Pounds. 
 3,589,947 
 
 5,568,782 
 7,177,104 
 
 103,304 
 '162,424 
 
 Total. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 7,869,690 
 
 9,709,329 
 
 4,377,342 
 
 800,000 
 
 10,009,078 
 
 7,177.104 
 
 20.000 
 
 2,54-1 .692 
 
 17,985 
 
 4,652,904 
 
 1,363,072 
 
 103,304 
 
 20,150 
 
 10,000 
 
 102,424 
 
 16,191,561 48,276,974 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 1109 
 
 Shipments of Base Bullion containing Gold or Silver via the Union Pacific Railroad from Jannary 1 to Jane 30, 1881, 
 
 
 
 Slate or Territory. 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Ariama. 
 
 Colorado. 
 
 Idaho. 
 
 Montana. 
 
 Utah. 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 2,540,809 
 4,818,308 
 3,894.935 
 336,380 
 4,909,322 
 
 Pounds. 
 93,975 
 116,778 
 
 Pounds. 
 418,608 
 1,647,638 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1,150,907 
 
 2,964,703 
 
 Pounds. 
 4,204,199 
 
 Newark Smeltiiis: and RefiniiiET Worts Newark N J 
 
 
 9,447,327 
 
 
 
 3,894,935 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 336,380 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,671,337 
 5,633,051 
 
 ll,58fl,659 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,633,051 
 
 
 
 5,832,770 
 23,898 
 
 
 
 6,332,770 
 
 Mather & Co Omaha Neb 
 
 
 
 
 
 23.898 
 
 
 608,118 
 
 
 
 
 608,118 
 
 
 39,750 
 
 
 
 
 39,750 
 
 
 
 29,500 
 
 
 
 29,600 
 
 p. Langbammer 
 
 
 44,100 
 
 
 
 44,100 
 
 Total 
 
 608,118 
 
 21,940,272 
 
 240,253 
 
 1,966,046 
 
 16,419,998 
 
 41,174.687 
 
 
 
 Shipments of Base Bullion containing Gold or Silver via the Union Pacific Railroad dnring the fiscal year ended June 30, 1881* 
 
 To whom Qytmgned. 
 
 State or Tenilary. 
 
 Arizona. 
 
 Colorado. 
 
 Idaho. 
 
 Montana. 
 
 Nevada. 
 
 Utah. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Founds, 
 
 Omaha Smelting and Refining Company, Omaha, Neb 
 
 Newark Smelting and Refining WorKS, Newark, N. J 
 
 St. Louis Smelting and Refining Company, St. Louis, Mo 
 
 Manhattan Smelting and Refining Company, New York 
 
 Pennsylvania Lead works, Mansfield, Pa 
 
 Horn Silver Mining Company, Chicago, 111 
 
 Omaha National Rank, Omaha, Neb 
 
 Mather & Co., Omaha, Neb 
 
 Daniel Meyer, Omaha, Neb 
 
 -Netter & Matthews, Omaha, Neb 
 
 German National Bank, Omaha, Neb '. 
 
 J. E. Dowley, Omaha, Neb 
 
 San Juan Mining and Smelting Company, Kansas City, Mo, 
 
 C. E. Atkins, Newark, N. J 
 
 J. H. Jones, Denver, Col 
 
 A. Hammener, Ogden, Utah 
 
 Wells, Fargo & Co., Council Bluffs, Iowa 
 
 Matthews & Co., Denver, Col 
 
 Northwestern Forwarding Company, Blackfoot 
 
 P. Langhammer 
 
 Total 
 
 608,118 
 
 Pounds. 
 6,154,806 
 12,766,915 
 8,272,277 
 636,380 
 9,»19,618 
 
 23,898 
 
 ""vim> 
 
 4,652,904 
 ""26,000 
 ""26,150 
 
 39,760 
 "44,166 
 
 1,317,250 
 116,778 
 
 29,500 
 
 910,979 
 1,547,538 
 
 2,544,592 
 "16,660 
 
 Ponnds. 
 
 1,760,722 
 
 Founds. 
 4,690,854 
 2,964,703 
 
 12.240,119 
 12,810,155 
 
 12,073, 
 
 19.166. 
 
 8,272, 
 
 636, 
 
 21,589, 
 
 12,810, 
 
 6,696, 
 
 23, 
 
 608, 
 
 17, 
 
 4.662, 
 
 103, 
 
 20, 
 
 2,544, 
 
 20, 
 
 10 
 
 102, 
 
 39, 
 
 29, 
 
 44, 
 
 .666 
 
 ,277 
 ,380 
 ,737 
 ,250 
 ,842 
 
 ,904 
 ,304 
 ,000 
 ,592 
 150 
 ,000 
 424 
 ,750 
 ,600 
 100 
 
 118 47,694,625 1,463,628 
 
 5,013,109 
 
 1,760,722 32,911,659 89,451,661 
 
 Shipments of Base Bullion containing Gold or Silver via the Atchison, Topelca, and Santa Fe Railroad from July 1 to December 
 
 31, 1880. 
 
 
 
 
 To whom Consigned. 
 
 
 
 LocalUy from which Shipped. 
 
 NewarkSmeltingand 
 Refining Works, 
 Newark, N. J. 
 
 St. Louis Smelting 
 and Refining Com- 
 pany, St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Pennsylvania Lead 
 Company, Mans- 
 fiOd.Pa. 
 
 H. S. Orooke, Agent, 
 New York. 
 
 Chrysolite Silver 
 Mining Company, 
 New York. 
 
 Toted. 
 
 Leadville, Lake County Col 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 4,860,143 
 
 2,609,719 
 
 193,352 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 2,585,135 
 
 1,6.'J0.355 
 
 119,390 
 
 171,071 
 
 Founds. 
 617,450 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 "■41,665 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 8,062,728 
 
 4,481,079 
 
 312,742 
 
 .171,071 
 
 * 40,000 
 
 86,420 
 
 Malta Lake County Col 
 
 180,000 
 
 
 
 Canon City, Frfimont County Col 
 
 
 
 Alamosa Conejos County Col 
 
 26,666 
 86,420 
 
 
 20,000 
 
 
 Buena Vista, Chafitee County, Col 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 7,769,634 
 
 4,525,951 
 
 617,450 
 
 200,000 
 
 41,005 
 
 13,164,040 
 
 
 Shipments of Base Bullion containing Gold or Silver via the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad from Julv 1 to December 
 
 31, 1881, 
 
 
 To whom Consigned. 
 
 Locality Jrom which Shipped. 
 
 Newark Smettingand 
 Refining Works, 
 Newark, N. J. 
 
 St. Louis Smelting 
 and Refining Com- 
 pany, St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 ManTiaUan Smelting 
 andRefining Works, 
 New York. 
 
 Kansas City Sm.' Iting 
 and Refining Com- 
 pany. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Leadville, Lake County, Col 
 
 Ponnds. 
 
 12,909,&59 
 
 2,244,687 
 
 Pounds. 
 3,105,548 
 1,216,654 
 
 Founds. 
 2,212,219 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 18,227,626 
 3.460,341 
 2,780,056 
 
 Pueblo, Pueblo County, Col 
 
 
 Canon City, Fremont County, Col 
 
 
 
 2.780,0n6 
 
 Total 
 
 15,154,546 
 
 4,321,202 
 
 2,212,219 
 
 2,780,056 
 
 
 
 
1110 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Shipments of Base Bullion containing Gold or Silver via the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad from January 1 to June 
 
 
 To whom Consigned. 
 
 
 
 Locality from which Shipped. 
 
 NewarkSmellingaM 
 Refining Works, 
 Newark, N. J. 
 
 SI. Louis Smelting 
 and Refining Com- 
 pany, St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Manhattan Smelting 
 andRefining Works, 
 New York. 
 
 Kansas City Smelling 
 and Refining Com- 
 pany. 
 
 S. S. Crooke, Agent, 
 New York. 
 
 Total. 
 
 T.iParIvinp Lake Countv Col 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 3,414,749 
 650,267 
 279,426 
 
 Pounds. 
 7,328,392 
 
 Founds. 
 1,001,653 
 
 Founds. 
 5,602,633 
 
 Pounds. 
 20,000 
 
 Pounds. 
 17,367,427 
 
 
 660,267 
 
 Robinson, Summit County, Col 
 
 Del Norte, Rio Grande County, Col... 
 
 
 279,425 
 
 
 
 
 140,000 
 
 140,000 
 
 Total . • •• 
 
 4,344,441 
 
 7,328,392 
 
 1,001,653 
 
 5,602,633 
 
 160,000 
 
 18,437,119 
 
 
 
 Shipments of Base Bullion containing Gold or Silver via the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Te Railroad during the fiscal year 
 
 ended June 30, 18S1. 
 
 
 
 
 
 To whom Consigned. 
 
 
 
 
 Locality frtym which Shipped. 
 
 Newark Smelt- 
 ing and Re- 
 fining Works, 
 Newark, N.J. 
 
 St.LouisSmeUr 
 ing and Re- 
 fining Co., St. 
 Louis, Mo. 
 
 Pennsj/lvania 
 Lead Comply, 
 Mansfleld.I'a. 
 
 Manhattan 
 Smelting and 
 R efining 
 Works, New 
 York. 
 
 Kansas City 
 Smelting and 
 Refining Co. 
 
 B. S. Orooke, 
 Agent, New 
 York. 
 
 Chrysolite Sil- 
 ver Min'g Co., 
 New York. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 17,770,002 
 2,609,719 
 2,438,039 
 
 Founds. 
 5,690,683 
 1,630,355 
 1,335,044 
 ' 171,071 
 
 Pounds. 
 617,450 
 
 Founds. 
 2,212,219 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Founds. 
 26,290,354 
 
 Malta, Lake County Col 
 
 
 180,000 
 
 41,005 
 
 4,481,079 
 
 Pueblo, Pueblo County, Col 
 
 Canon City, Fremont County, Col... 
 
 Alamosa, Conejos County, Col 
 
 Buena Vista, Chaffee County, Col... 
 
 
 
 3,773,083 
 
 
 
 2,780,056 
 
 
 
 2,961.127 
 
 20,000 
 86,420 
 
 
 
 
 20,000 
 
 
 40 000 
 
 
 
 
 
 ......... 
 
 86,420 
 
 Total 
 
 22,924,180 
 
 8,847,153 
 
 617,460 
 
 2,212,219 
 
 2,780,056 
 
 200,000 
 
 41,005 
 
 37,622,063 
 
 
 Shipments of Base Bullion containing Gold or Silver via the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad during the calendar 
 
 year ended December 31, ISSl. 
 
 
 To whom. Consigned. 
 
 Locality from which Shipped. 
 
 Newark Smelting 
 
 andRefining Works. 
 
 Newark, N. J. 
 
 St. Louis Smelting 
 and Refining Com- 
 pany, St. LouiSjMo. 
 
 Manhattan Smelting 
 
 and Refining Works, 
 
 New York. 
 
 Kansas City Smelt- 
 ing and Refining 
 Company. 
 
 B. S. Orooke, 
 
 Agent, 
 
 New York. 
 
 Total 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 16,324,608 
 2,894,954 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 10,433,940 
 
 1,215,654 
 
 Pounds. 
 3,213,872 
 
 Ponnds. 
 5,602,633 
 
 Pounds. 
 20,000 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 35,595,053 
 
 4,110,608 
 
 2,780,056 
 
 279,425 
 
 140,000 
 
 Pueblo, Pueblo County, Col 
 
 Canon" City, Fremont Countv, Col 
 
 
 2,780,056 
 
 
 Robinson, Summit County, Col 
 
 279,425 
 
 
 
 140,'6o6 
 
 Del Norte, Rio Grande County, Col- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 19,498,987 
 
 11,649,594 
 
 3,213,872 
 
 8,382,689 
 
 160,000 
 
 42,905,142 
 
 Shipments of Ore and Base Bullion Txa the Denver and Rio 
 Grande Railroad during the calendar year 1881. 
 
 Counties f om which Shipped. 
 
 Ore. 
 
 Base Bullion. 
 
 Six Months 
 
 ENDING 
 
 June 30. 
 
 Founds. 
 
 999,597 
 
 2,724,160 
 
 183,500 
 
 ■23,875,603 
 
 68,000 
 
 170,383 
 
 12,705,482 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Custer 
 
 
 Gunnison 
 
 
 
 34,122,444 
 
 Pitkin 
 
 Saguache 
 
 
 
 1,828,025 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 Total 
 
 40,726,725 
 
 35,450,469 
 
 
 DING December 31. 
 
 Six Months en 
 Chaffee 
 
 1,801,800 
 
 4,378,000 
 
 1,020,000 
 
 23,696,510 
 
 "470,000 
 1,466,300 
 
 
 Custer 
 
 
 Gunnison 
 
 
 Lake 
 
 24,344,961 
 1,167,500 
 
 Pueblo 
 
 Saguache 
 
 Summit 
 
 1,885,740 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 32,832,610 
 
 27,398,201 
 
 
 B Year 
 
 1881. 
 
 Calenda 
 Chaffee 
 
 2,801,397 
 
 7,102,160 
 
 1,203,500 
 
 47,572,113 
 
 68,000 
 
 "640,383 
 14,171,782 
 
 
 Custer 
 
 
 Gunnison 
 
 
 Lake 
 
 58,467,405 
 
 Pitkin 
 
 Pueblo 
 
 1,167,500 
 
 Saguache 
 
 Summit 
 
 3,213,765 
 
 Total 
 
 73,559,335 
 
 62,848,670 
 
 
 
 
 Shipment of Bullion and Ore via the Nevada Central, Carson 
 and Colorado and Virginia and Truckee Railroads during 
 the fiscal year 1881. 
 
 FROM THE STATE OF NEVADA. 
 
 Counties from which Shipped. 
 
 ChurchiU,... 
 Eureka 
 
 do 
 
 Esmeralda.. 
 
 do. .. 
 
 Lander 
 
 do 
 
 Lyon 
 
 Ormsby 
 
 Storey 
 
 Washoe 
 
 Total 
 
 Desii- 
 nation. 
 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 East 
 
 Ore. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 377 
 
 204,860 
 
 80,030 
 
 221,444 
 
 40,108 
 
 90,815 
 
 119,727 
 
 1,953,17414 
 
 105,223,682 
 
 88,606 
 
 Bullion or 
 Crude Metal. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 3,993,082 
 
 12,219,985 
 
 186,408 
 
 107,972,823J4 16,398,475 94,921 
 
 Copper 
 Ore. 
 
 Pounds, 
 
 94,921 
 
 Shipment of Ore and Bullion via the Central and Southern 
 Facitio Railroad during tho six months ended December 
 
 ol, 18S0a 
 
 FROM NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Counties from which Supplied. 
 
 Destina- 
 tion. 
 
 Ores. 
 
 Base Bull- 
 ion or 
 OrudeMetal. 
 
 Copper, 
 Quicksilver, 
 and Lead. 
 
 Grant 
 
 West 
 East 
 
 Pounds. 
 280 
 330 
 
 
 Founds. 
 1,140,8'20 
 
 do 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 610 
 
 
 1,140,820 
 
 
 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 1111 
 
 Shipments ot Ore and Bullion via the Central and S outhem Pacific Bailroad dnring the six months ended December 31, 1880. 
 
 FROM CALIFORNIA. FROM ARIZONA. 
 
 Counties from which Shipped. 
 
 DesU- 
 natlon. 
 
 Ores. 
 
 Base Bull- 
 ion or Crude 
 Metal. 
 
 Capper, 
 
 Quicmlver, 
 and Lead. 
 
 
 West. 
 East. 
 West. 
 West. 
 West. 
 West. 
 West. 
 West. 
 West. 
 West. 
 West. 
 East. 
 West. 
 West. 
 East. 
 West. 
 East. 
 West. 
 West. 
 West. 
 West. 
 West. 
 East. 
 
 Founds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 101,770 
 
 do , 
 
 379,860 
 76,810 
 
 20,000 
 
 
 
 12,770 
 
 Butte 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 2,858,870 
 
 2,290 
 
 32,170 
 
 5,540 
 
 26,070 
 
 3,890 
 
 93,780 
 
 14,150 
 
 46,460 
 
 43,140 
 
 9,600,000 
 
 fi4,820 
 
 278,130 
 
 
 
 
 Kern 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 973,940 
 
 
 1,700 
 
 do 
 
 
 Sacramento 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22,600 
 
 
 2,220 
 20,100 
 53.450 
 
 2,000 
 269,660 
 20,000 
 
 
 24,660 
 9,270 
 
 
 
 
 
 320 
 
 
 
 
 Yuba 
 
 
 do...„ 
 
 
 Total 
 
 13,616,170 
 
 299,830 
 
 1,146,320 
 
 
 FROM UTAH. 
 
 
 
 
 West. 
 East. 
 West. 
 
 240 
 980,730 
 41,150 
 
 1,399,300 
 
 
 do 
 
 
 Weber 
 
 217,570 
 
 Total 
 
 1,022,120 
 
 1,399,300 
 
 217,570 
 
 
 
 
 Comiiea from which Shipped. 
 
 Desli- 
 noMon. 
 
 Ores. 
 
 BaseBvU- 
 
 ionorCrude 
 
 Metal. 
 
 Copper, 
 QuiehUver, 
 and Lead. 
 
 Caohise 
 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 60,610 
 
 23,400 
 
 69,610 
 
 1,182,220 
 
 1,204,380 
 
 PonndB. 
 134,470 
 
 '28,326 
 
 8.080 
 
 20,590 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1,751,580 
 
 
 
 Pima .. 
 
 
 Pinal 
 
 770 
 
 Yuma 
 
 
 Total 
 
 2,540,220 
 
 191,460 
 
 1,752,350 
 
 
 
 
 FROM NEVADA. 
 
 Churchill - 
 
 do 
 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 
 1,960 
 
 20,000 
 
 77,8,W 
 
 25,910 
 
 410 
 
 65.930 
 
 530,130 
 
 67,260 
 
 378,860 
 
 103.630 
 
 55,970 
 
 840 
 
 152,080 
 
 22,310 
 
 40,000 
 
 2,941,080 
 
 1,729,640 
 
 650 
 
 
 
 18,100 
 
 do. . ' 
 
 327,140 
 
 
 6,280,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 do . ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 700 
 
 Washoe j 
 
 20,000 
 
 130 
 
 
 1,470,810 
 
 4,763,580 
 
 6,626,070 
 
 
 
 
 Becapltnlatlon of Ore and Bullion Shipped via the Central and Southern Pacific B.B. dnring the six months ended Dec. 31, 1880. 
 
 
 Destination. 
 
 
 State. 
 
 West. 
 
 Mad. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Ore. 
 
 Base Bullion or 
 Crude Metal. 
 
 Copper, QuicksUver, 
 and Lead. 
 
 Ore. 
 
 Base Bullion or 
 Crude Metal. 
 
 Copper, Quicksilver, 
 and Lead. 
 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 3,601,160 
 1,540,220 
 280 
 1,198,090 
 41,390 
 
 Pounds. 
 279,630 
 191,460 
 
 2,'984',040 
 1,399,300 
 
 Pounds. 
 1,122,820 
 1,762,360 
 1,140,820 
 5,298,930 
 217,570 
 
 Pounds. 
 10,014,010 
 
 330 
 
 272,720 
 980,730 
 
 Pounds. 
 20,000 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 22,500 
 
 Pounds. 
 15,060,320 
 
 
 4,484,030 
 
 
 1,141,430 
 
 
 1,769,540 
 
 327,140 
 
 11,850,460 
 
 Utah 
 
 2,638,990 
 
 Total 
 
 7,381,140 
 
 4,864,630 
 
 9,532,490 
 
 11,267,790 
 
 1,789,540 
 
 349,640 
 
 35,175,230 
 
 
 
 i Shipments of Ore and Bullion via the Central and Southern Pacific Bailroad during the six months ended June 30, 1881. 
 
 FROM CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Cowiiiesfrom which Shipped. 
 
 Destina- 
 tion. 
 
 Alameda 
 
 do 
 
 Amador 
 
 Butte 
 
 Calaveras 
 
 Kern 
 
 Los Angeles 
 
 Meiced 
 
 Napa 
 
 Placer 
 
 do 
 
 Sacramento 
 
 do 
 
 San Bernardino.. 
 San Diego 
 
 do 
 
 San Joaquin 
 
 Santa Clara 
 
 do 
 
 Shasta 
 
 Solano 
 
 Stanislaus ..;. 
 
 Yuba 
 
 do 
 
 Total.. 
 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 East 
 
 Ores. 
 
 Base Bull- 
 ion or Crude 
 Metal. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1,073,600 
 
 344,710 
 
 92,940 
 
 647,540 
 62,880 
 5,560 
 54,010 
 44.470 
 53,560 
 70 
 20,120 
 
 63,770 
 
 21,340 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 69,130 
 
 980 
 
 1,830 
 
 73,340 
 264,090 
 42,300 
 
 12,936,130 
 
 Pounds. 
 41,250 
 
 696,510 
 1,270 
 
 80 
 
 739,110 
 
 Copper, 
 QuicksUver, 
 and Lead. 
 
 24,390 
 1,010 
 
 1,070,920 
 300 
 
 280 
 
 4,500 
 2,010 
 
 1,103,410 
 
 FROM NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Grant 
 
 West 
 
 31,170 
 
 391,180 • 
 
 1,151,540 
 
 
 
 
 31,170 
 
 391,180 
 
 1,151,540 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FROM ARIZONA. 
 
 Counties from which Shipped. 
 
 Cachise 
 
 do 
 
 Maricopa .. 
 do. 
 
 Pima 
 
 Pinal 
 
 Yuma. 
 
 Total.. 
 
 Desti- 
 nation. 
 
 West 
 East; 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 
 Ores. 
 
 Base_ Bull- 
 ion or Crude 
 Metal. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 179,730 
 
 1,470 
 
 440 
 
 90 
 
 17,370 
 
 189.940 
 
 1,713,130 
 
 2,102,170 
 
 Pounds. 
 481,680 
 25,960 
 
 43,340 
 33,510 
 70,160 
 
 654,660 
 
 Copper, 
 Quicktdlver, 
 and Lead. 
 
 Pounds. 
 1,396,090 
 
 20,000 
 
 1,416,090 
 
 FROM NEVADA. 
 
 Elko 
 
 Eureka 
 
 do 
 
 Humboldt.. 
 
 do. ... 
 
 Lander 
 
 do 
 
 Ormsby 
 
 Storey 
 
 Washoe 
 
 do 
 
 Total 
 
 East 
 
 21,630 
 
 West 
 
 
 East 
 
 147,400 
 
 West 
 
 486.910 
 
 East 
 
 10,430 
 
 West 
 
 639.810 
 
 East 
 
 116,270 
 
 West 
 
 2,450 
 
 West 
 
 1,080 
 
 West 
 
 31,660 
 
 East 
 
 1,.M)0 
 
 1,369,140 
 
 4,728,190 
 605,940 
 
 20,300 
 770 
 
 5.355,200 
 
 104,760 
 3,677,660 
 
 60,740 
 
 3,843,060 
 
 FROM UTAH. 
 
 Box Elder 
 
 East 
 West 
 
 1,002,160 
 846,450 
 
 1,395,840 
 
 
 
 928,210 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1,848,610 
 
 1,395,840 
 
 928,21ff- 
 
 
 
 
1112 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED. STATES. 
 
 Kecapitulatlon of Ore and Bullion shipped via the C^^t;;^ g^o"^^"^ ^ern Pacific Railroads during the six months ended 
 
 
 
 
 
 DesiinaiioH. 
 
 
 
 
 StaU. 
 
 West. 
 
 East. 
 
 TbtoZ 
 
 
 Ore. 
 
 Base BuUlon or 
 Oi-ude Metal. 
 
 Copper, Quicksilver, 
 and Lead. 
 
 Ore. 
 
 .Base BvUion or 
 Crwde Metal. 
 
 Copper, Quicksilver, 
 and Lead. 
 
 
 California. 
 
 Pounds. 
 2,549,050 
 2,100,610 
 31,170 
 1,061,910 
 846,450 
 
 Pounds. 
 697,780 
 628,690 
 391,180 
 4,728,960 
 1,395,840 
 
 Pounds. 
 1,098,630 
 1,416,090 
 1,151,540 
 3,738,300 
 928,210 
 
 Pounds. 
 10,387,080 
 1,560 
 
 Pounds. 
 41,330 
 25,060 
 
 Pounds. 
 4,780 
 
 Pounds. 
 14,778,650 
 
 4,172,910 
 
 1,573,890 
 10,557,400 
 
 4,172,660 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Nevada ^ 
 
 Utah 
 
 297,'230 
 
 1,002,160 
 
 626,'246 
 
 104,760 
 
 Total 
 
 6,589,190 
 
 7,842,450 
 
 8,332,770 
 
 11,688,030 
 
 693,530 
 
 109,540 
 
 35,255,510 
 
 
 
 
 Shipments of Ore and Bullion via the Central and Southern Pacific Railroads during the six months ended December 31, X881. 
 
 FEOM CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Counliesfrom which Shipped. 
 
 Alameda 
 
 do 
 
 Amador 
 
 Butte 
 
 Calaveras 
 
 Colusa 
 
 Fresno 
 
 Kern 
 
 do 
 
 liOS Angeles 
 
 Merced 
 
 Napa 
 
 Nevada 
 
 Placer 
 
 do 
 
 San Bernardino.. 
 
 Sau Diego 
 
 San Joaquin 
 
 Santa Clara 
 
 Shasta 
 
 Stanislaus 
 
 Yuba 
 
 do 
 
 Total.. 
 
 Besti- 
 naiion. 
 
 West 
 East 
 "West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 We.st 
 East 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 East 
 
 Ores. 
 
 Base Bull- 
 ion or Crude 
 Metal. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 881,660 
 
 228,060 
 
 116.990 
 
 3,020 
 
 109,310 
 
 38,350 
 
 2,590 
 
 3,850 
 
 80 
 
 2,390 
 
 2,430 
 
 1,000 
 
 600 
 
 488,240 
 
 10,820 
 
 86,160 
 
 7,100,000 
 
 101,360 
 
 3,050 
 
 48,090 
 239,240 
 127,460 
 
 9,543,731 
 
 Pounds. 
 43,300 
 
 202,990 
 
 Copper, 
 Quicksilver, 
 and Lead. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 10,050 
 790 
 150 
 
 985,300 
 
 64,800 
 14,670 
 
 1.076,410 
 
 FROM UTAH. 
 
 Box Elder.. 
 Weber 
 
 Total.. 
 
 East 
 West 
 
 3,412,100 
 91,850 
 
 3,603,650 
 
 582,940 
 
 19,150 
 
 FROM ARIZONA. 
 
 CownMes from which Shipped. 
 
 Cachise.... 
 
 do 
 
 Maricopa.. 
 Pima 
 
 do 
 
 Pinal 
 
 do 
 
 Yuma 
 
 do 
 
 Total 1,966,620 
 
 Desti- 
 nation. 
 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 
 Ores. 
 
 Base Bull- 
 ion or Crude 
 Metal. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 8,860 
 
 480 
 
 21,640 
 
 46,150 
 
 4,130 
 
 166,140 
 
 89,320 
 
 1,627,600 
 
 22,000 
 
 Pouuds. 
 
 ""89,806 
 
 '""8,066 
 
 ""151,696 
 46,880 
 
 206,370 
 
 Copper, 
 Quicksilver, 
 and Lead. 
 
 Pounds. 
 3,200,670" 
 
 175.380 
 57,380 
 
 3,438,330 
 
 FROM NEW MEXICO. 
 
 
 West 
 East 
 
 2(rX)00 
 586,190 
 
 
 
 537,090 
 
 
 1,020,690 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 666,190 
 
 
 1,657,780 
 
 
 
 
 
 FROM NEVADA. 
 
 Elko 
 
 do 
 
 Eureka 
 
 do 
 
 Humboldt.. 
 
 do. 
 Lander 
 
 do 
 
 Washoe 
 
 do 
 
 Total.. 
 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 
 
 21,630 
 
 4,173,890 
 1,056,620 
 
 163,fl)0 
 322,440 
 
 93,530 
 
 86,690 
 
 48,230 
 
 181,770 
 
 333,600 
 
 61,070 
 
 915,140 
 
 264,140 
 
 114,760 
 
 50 
 
 205,700 
 5,520,000 
 
 2,005,450 
 
 5,737,980 
 
 6,819,230 
 
 Recapitulation of Ore and Sullion shipped via the Central and Southern Pacific Kailroads during; tlie six months ended 
 
 December 31, 1881. 
 
 
 
 
 Destination. 
 
 
 
 
 state. 
 
 West. 
 
 East. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Ore. 
 
 Base Bullion or 
 Crude Metal. 
 
 Copper, Quicksilver, 
 and Lead. 
 
 Ore. 
 
 Base Bullion or 
 Crude Metal. 
 
 Copper. Quicksilver, 
 and Lead. 
 
 
 California 
 
 Pounds, 
 2,077,320 
 1,860,390 
 
 20,000 
 1,411,730 
 
 91,550 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 202,990 
 
 69,690 
 
 Pounds. 
 1,001,650 
 8,375,950 
 537,090 
 5,613,530 
 19,150 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 7,466,410 
 
 96,130 
 
 536,190 
 
 593,720 
 
 8,412,100 
 
 Pounds. 
 43,300 
 136,680 
 
 Pounds. 
 74,850 
 57,380 
 
 1,020,690 
 205,700 
 
 Pounds. 
 10,866,430 
 
 5,596,220 
 
 2,112,970 
 13,862,660 
 
 4,106,740 
 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Nevada 
 
 4,517,960 
 
 1,220,020 
 582,910 
 
 Utah 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 5,460,990 
 
 4,790,640 
 
 10,547,280 
 
 12,103,550 
 
 1,982,940 
 
 1,358,620 
 
 36,244,020 
 
 
 Shipments of Ore and Bullion Tla the Central and Southern Pacific Railroads during tlie fiscal year ended June 30, 1881. 
 
 FROM UTAH. 
 FEOM NEW MEXICO. 
 
 aunties from which Shipped. 
 
 Desti- 
 nation. 
 
 Ores. 
 
 Base Bull- 
 ion or Crude 
 Meted. 
 
 Copper, 
 Quicksilver, 
 and Lead. 
 
 
 West 
 East 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 31,450 
 
 330 
 
 Pounds. 
 391,180 
 
 Pounds. 
 2,292,360 
 
 do 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 31,780 
 
 391,180 
 
 2,292,360 
 
 Counliesfrom which Shipped. 
 
 Desti- 
 nation. 
 
 Ores. 
 
 Base Bull- 
 ion or Crude 
 Metal. 
 
 Copper, 
 Quicksilver, 
 and Lead. 
 
 Box Elder 
 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 
 Pouuds. 
 
 240 
 
 1,982,890 
 
 887,600 
 
 Pounds. 
 2,795,140 
 
 Pouuds. ' 
 
 do 
 
 
 Weber 
 
 1,146,780 
 
 
 Total 
 
 2,870.730 
 
 2,795,140 
 
 1,148,780 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1113 
 
 Shipments of Ore and Bullion via the Central and Southern Faciiic Railroads during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1881. 
 
 FROM CALIFORNIA. FROM ARIZONA. 
 
 CjurUiesfrom which Shipped. 
 
 Alameda „.. 
 
 do 
 
 Amador 
 
 Butte 
 
 Calaveras 
 
 Fresno 
 
 Kern 
 
 ]jos Angeles 
 
 Merced 
 
 Napa 
 
 Placer 
 
 do 
 
 Sacramento 
 
 do 
 
 San Bernardino 
 San Diego 
 
 do 
 
 San Joaquin 
 
 Santa Clara 
 
 do 
 
 Sliasta 
 
 Solano 
 
 Stanislaus 
 
 Tulare 
 
 Yuba 
 
 do 
 
 Total 
 
 Desii- 
 nati07i. 
 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 East 
 
 Ores. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1,073,500 
 724,570 
 169,750 
 
 3!506,4l6 
 2,290 
 95,050 
 11,100 
 80,080 
 48,360 
 147,330 
 14,220 
 66,680 
 
 "l66,9l6 
 
 21,340 
 
 19,600,000 
 
 183,950 
 
 4,080 
 
 20,100 
 
 126,790 
 
 2,000 
 
 533,640 
 
 62,300 
 
 26,551,i 
 
 Bane Bull- 
 ion or Ciude 
 Metal. 
 
 Pouiids. 
 "61,250 
 
 974,640 
 1,270 
 
 1,0:«,940 
 
 Copper, 
 Quicksilver, 
 arid Lead. 
 
 Pounds. 
 101,770 
 
 37,160 
 1,100 
 
 2,044,860 
 300 
 
 280 
 
 27.000 
 
 24,660 
 
 11,280 
 
 320 
 
 2,218,720 
 
 Counties from which Shipped. 
 
 Cachise .... 
 
 do 
 
 Maricopa.. 
 do. 
 
 Pima 
 
 Pinal 
 
 Yuma 
 
 Total.. 
 
 ChurchiU... 
 do. ... 
 
 Elko 
 
 do 
 
 Eureka 
 
 do 
 
 Humboldt., 
 do. .. 
 
 Lander 
 
 do 
 
 Ormsby 
 
 Storey 
 
 Washoe 
 
 do 
 
 Bestir 
 nation. 
 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 
 Ores. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 240,»10 
 
 1,470 
 
 23,840 
 
 90 
 
 86,980 
 
 1,372,160 
 
 2,917,510 
 
 4,642,390 
 
 Base Bull- , 
 ion or Crude QuicVsilver, 
 Metal. and Lead. 
 
 Coppei 
 hiicksUi 
 
 Pounds. 
 616,150 
 25,960 
 
 71,660 
 41 ,,590 
 90,760 
 
 846,110 
 
 FROM NEVADA. 
 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 East 
 
 Total 2,829,950 10,108,7 
 
 1,950 
 
 20,000 
 
 77,8,50 
 
 47,540 
 
 410 
 
 213.830 
 
 1,017,040 
 
 67,680 
 
 918,670 
 
 219,900 
 
 58,420 
 
 1,920 
 
 183,740 
 
 1,500 
 
 22,310 
 
 40,000 
 
 7,669,270 
 
 2,335,480 
 
 650 
 
 20,300 
 
 770 
 "20,006 
 
 Pounds. 
 3,147,670 
 
 20,770 
 
 3,168,440 
 
 18,100 
 
 431,900 
 
 8,957,560 
 
 TOO 
 60,870 
 
 9,469,130 
 
 Kecapitulation of Ore and Bullion shipped Tia the Central and Southern Pacific Railroads during the fiscal year ended June 
 
 30, 1881. 
 
 
 Destinaiion. 
 
 
 Slate. 
 
 West. 
 
 East. 
 
 Total. 
 
 • 
 
 Ore. 
 
 Base Bidlion or 
 Crude Metal. 
 
 Copper, Quicksil- 
 ver, and Lead. 
 
 Ore. 
 
 Base Bidlion or 
 Crude Melah 
 
 Copper, Quicksil- 
 ver, and Lead. 
 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 6,150,210 
 4,640,830 
 31,4,'iO 
 2,260,000 
 ,887,840 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 977,610 
 
 820,150 
 
 391,180 
 
 7,713,000 
 
 2,795,140 
 
 Pounds. 
 2,221,460 
 3,168,440 
 2,292,360 
 9,037,230 
 1,145,780 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 20,401,090 
 
 1,560 
 
 330 
 
 569,950 
 
 1,982,890 
 
 Pounds. 
 61,330 
 26,960 
 
 2,396,7a) 
 
 Pounds. 
 27,280 
 
 Pounds. 
 29,838,970 
 
 8,666,940 
 
 2,715,320 
 22,407,860 
 
 6,811,650 
 
 
 
 
 Nevada „ 
 
 Utali 
 
 431,900 
 
 
 
 
 
 13,970,330 
 
 12,697,080 
 
 17,865,260 
 
 22,965,820 
 
 2,483,070 
 
 459,180 
 
 70,430,740 
 
 
 Shipments of Ore and Bullion via the Central and Southern Pacific Railroads during the calendar year ISSl. 
 
 FROM CALIFORNIA. FROM ARIZONA. 
 
 Counties from which Shipped. 
 
 Desttnor 
 lion. 
 
 Ores. 
 
 Base Bull- 
 ion or 
 Crude Metal. 
 
 Copper, 
 QuicTcsilver, 
 and Lead. 
 
 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 East 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1,905,160 
 
 572,770 
 
 208,930 
 
 3,020 
 
 766,850 
 
 .38,350 
 
 2,590 
 
 66,730 
 
 80 
 
 7,950 
 
 56,440 
 
 45,470 
 
 600 
 
 541,790 
 
 10,890 
 
 20,120 
 
 Pounds. 
 84,550 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 do -> 
 
 10,050 
 
 
 25,180 
 
 
 899,500 
 1,270 
 
 1,160 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Jo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,056,220 
 
 
 
 
 
 800 
 
 do 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 do 
 
 280 
 
 
 149,930 
 
 21,340 
 
 17,100,000 
 
 170,480 
 
 980 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 do 
 
 69,300 
 
 
 4,880 
 
 14,670 
 
 
 2,010 
 
 
 121,430 
 503.330 
 169,750 
 
 
 
 
 650 
 
 do 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^Qtal 
 
 22,479,860 
 
 985,400 
 
 2,179,820 
 
 
 
 
 Counties from which Shipped. 
 
 Cachise 
 
 do 
 
 Maricopa...! 
 
 do 
 
 Pima 
 
 do 
 
 Pinal 
 
 do 
 
 Yuma 
 
 do 
 
 Total.. 
 
 Desti- 
 nation. 
 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 
 Ores. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 188,590 
 
 1,950 
 
 22,080 
 
 90 
 
 63,520 
 
 4,130 
 
 346,080 
 
 89,320 
 
 3,340,730 
 
 2,200 
 
 4,068,690 
 
 Base Bull- 
 ionor Crude 
 Metal. 
 
 481,680 
 115,760 
 
 51,340 
 
 95,200 
 46,880 
 70,160 
 
 Copper, 
 Quicksilver, 
 and Lead. 
 
 FROM NEVADA. 
 
 Pounds. 
 4,^96,060 
 
 195.380 
 67,380 
 
 Elko 
 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 East 
 West 
 West 
 West 
 East 
 
 
 21,630 
 
 93,530 
 310,460 
 
 9,197,660 
 
 do 
 
 108,320 
 
 48,230 
 
 329,170 
 
 820,510 
 
 71,600 
 
 l,454,9.->0 
 
 380,410 
 
 2,460 
 
 1,080 
 
 146,420 
 
 1,650 
 
 
 8,902,080 
 1,662,560 
 
 do 
 
 
 
 do 
 
 20,300 
 
 
 
 
 do 
 
 163,400 
 770 
 
 
 
 
 Storey 
 
 ... 
 
 Washoe 
 
 322,440 
 
 60,740 
 
 do 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 3,364,590 
 
 11,093,180 
 
 9,662,290 
 
 
 
1114 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Shipments of Ore and Bullion via the Central and Southern Pacific Kailroads during the calendar year 1881. 
 
 FROM NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Counties fTom which Shipped. 
 
 Desli- 
 nation. 
 
 Ores. 
 
 Base Bull- 
 ion or Crude 
 Metal. 
 
 Copper, 
 QuidcsUver, 
 and Lead. 
 
 
 ' West. 
 East. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 51,170 
 
 535,190 
 
 Pounds. 
 391,180 
 
 Pounds. 
 1,688.630 
 1,020,690 
 
 do 
 
 
 Total 
 
 5S6,3liO 
 
 391,180 
 
 2,709,320 
 
 
 
 FROM UTAH. 
 
 Gonnties from which Shipped. 
 
 BesH- 
 nation. 
 
 Ores. 
 
 Base Bull- 
 ion or Q)-ud£ 
 Metal. 
 
 Cojiper, 
 Quiclcsilver, 
 and Lead. 
 
 
 West. 
 East. 
 West. 
 
 Pounds, 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 do 
 
 4,414,260 
 938,000 
 
 582.940 
 1,395,840 
 
 
 
 947,360 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 5,362,260 
 
 1,978,780 
 
 947 300 
 
 
 
 
 Kecapitulation of Ore and Bullion shipped via the Central and Southern Pacific Kailroads during the calendar year 1881. 
 
 
 
 
 Destination. 
 
 
 
 
 state. 
 
 West. 
 
 East. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Ore. 
 
 Base Bullion or 
 Crude Metal. 
 
 Copper, QuicksUaer, 
 and Lead. 
 
 Ore. 
 
 Base Bullion or 
 Crude Metal. 
 
 Copper, Quicksilver, 
 and Lead. 
 
 
 California 
 
 Pounds. 
 4,626,370 
 3,961,000 
 51,170 
 2,473,640 
 938,000 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 900,770 
 
 698,380 
 
 391.130 
 
 9,216,920 
 
 1,395,840 
 
 Pounds. 
 2,100,190 
 4,792.0-10 
 1,688,630 
 9,351,830 
 947,360 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 17,853,490 
 
 97,690 
 
 535,190 
 
 890,950 
 
 4,414,260 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 84,630 
 
 162,640 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 79.630 
 
 57,380 
 
 1,020,690 
 
 310,460 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 25,645,080 
 9,769.130 
 3,686.860 
 
 24,120,060 
 8,278,400 
 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 
 1.846,260 
 582.940 
 
 Utah :... 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 12,050,180 
 
 12,633,090 
 
 18,880,050 
 
 23,791,580 
 
 2,676,470 
 
 1,468,160 
 
 71,499,530 
 
 
 THE MINING COMPANIES OF THE UNITED 
 STATES. 
 
 THE details of the mining companies that follow have 
 been gathered with considerable trouble. Some of 
 the companies it has been possible to induce to re- 
 spond to our request for details. But they number 
 only 118 responses to 10,000 accurately addressed circulars 
 and requests. These, as being perfectly reliable, we have 
 placed first. Those reports that follow are gathered from the 
 Mining Record, the Engineering and Mining Journal, the 
 Mining Index, the Iron Age, the Coal Trade Journal, the 
 3Iining and Scientific Press, the Maine Mining Journal, the 
 Bocky Mountain Mining iJmeio, the reportsof Mr. Burchard, 
 and other equally reliable sources. We do not present it as 
 being an accurate record of the mining companies of this 
 country, but as being a partial list, indicating the great im- 
 portance of the mining industry. 
 
 The compiled list is obviously, however, only partially cor- 
 rect ; but it is a beginning. To complete this list and to 
 make it a reference work worthy of the highest credence, is 
 the sincere wish of the compiler. He therefore earnestly 
 and sincerely requests that mining companies and individu- 
 als in possession of information that will correct errors or 
 supply omissions in this list will forward the same at once, 
 that in subsequent editions of this book the list may more 
 nearly represent what it is hoped to make it — a full and com- 
 plete catalogue of the mine owners of the United States and 
 their property. Unless otherwise stated, all reports are for 
 April 1, 1882. 
 
 The Reported Companies.— The details of the one 
 hundred and twenty companies that follow, and that were 
 sent to us by officers of the companies, contain some facts 
 worthy of remark. Fifty-nine of these one hundred and 
 twenty report their capitalization, which foots up a total of 
 $138,823,000 nominal capital. An enormous fact! This 
 largesum represents 11,900,840 shares, which average, there- 
 fore, about $11.66 per share. These are noteworthy figures. 
 
 O G> A.-JiM. 
 
 Avcnaft (First) Cnal-Mincs, owned by Messrs. Tliomas & Sons, 
 are located at Evansville, Ind., on tlie Belt Railway and cover an area 
 of 147 acres. They are in flrst-class condition throughout, entries being 
 all timbered, and having the necessary improvements to conduct the 
 operations with safety and economy. The depth of shaft i.s 270 feet De- 
 velopments were commenced in 1875. The mine is capable of producing 
 a maximum of 43,20U tons per year. The company is a private enter- 
 prise, not being chartered, aad was organized m 1875, operalions being 
 
 commenced thesame year. The yield (gross) during 1881 was 21,600 tons. 
 This information was furnished by Mr. E. R. Thomas, of the firm of 
 Messrs. Thomas & Sons. 
 
 Banner Mines (Tlic) and the Cias-Coal Mines, comprising an 
 area of 432 acres, are owned by Messrs. Gamble & Risher, who have of- 
 fices at the works, the main office being at 116 Water St., Pittsburg. 
 The property is located at White Mills Station, Monongahela Division 1". 
 R. R., Washington county, Pa., and is valued at $75,000, which represents 
 the capital of the company, which was organized in June, 1879. Devel- 
 opments were commenced about the same date. In 1881, the company 
 shipped 1,460,000 bushels of coal. The Banner Mines despatch by river 
 and the Gas Coal-Mines by rail. This information was furnished by 
 Messrs. Gamble & Risher. 
 
 Bennett & Everliardt Collieries (The), leased toand operated 
 by Messrs. Waddell & Co., are located in Pennsylvania,— the Bennett at 
 Mill Creek and the Everhardt in Jenkins township. Total extent of 
 holding is about 850 acres. The Bennett colliery was opened in May, 
 1881, and arrangements are not yet completed. There are to be two shafts 
 and a breaker ; estimated cost of same, «10O,00O. From this colliery there 
 were Shipped during April 93JJ tons coal, and during May 736Jg tons. 
 The Everhardt colliery belong to the Everhardt Coal Co.. whose ofttces 
 are at Boston, Mass. The mine was commenced abont 1865. It came 
 into the hands of Messrs. Waddell & Co. in 1874, who have run it up to 
 the present time. This.colliery produced in 1881 S53,661H (net). This 
 information was furnished by Messrs. Waddell & Co., the leasees of the 
 property. 
 
 Black Hills Mine (The), owned by Miller & Co., is located at the 
 intersection of the Pittsburg, Virginia & Charleston Railway and the 
 Monongahela River, and comprises an extent of 200 acres. The opening 
 to mine is by tunnel 2,500 feet in length. There are two shafts. Devel- 
 opments were commenced in 1879. The gross yield during 1881 was 
 12,500 tons. Analysis of coal gives fixed carbon, 64 ; a.sh, 2.28 ; sulphur 
 00.13, and bitumen, 33.59, Total,- 100 parts. This information was fur- 
 nished by Messrs. Miller & Co., of the Black Hills. 
 
 Boston Coal-Minin(; Company's (The) properties, not being op- 
 erated at present, are located on Herbert river, NovaScotia, and cover an 
 area often acres, with privileges to the extent of two square miles The 
 average width of vein is two and one-half feet. The capitalization is JlOO - 
 000, in 4,000 shares of 825 each. The above information was furnished by 
 John Mofflt, agent of the Boston Coal-Mining Company. 
 
 The Central Coal and Iron Comuany (The) is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of Kentucky. ITie officers are B. Du Pont 
 Pres ; Thos, J. Tapp, V. Pres. ; Banner Coleman, Sec. Theannual election 
 IS held first Tuesday in June of each year. TlieSuperintendent is H. Mar- 
 tin. Head office is at Louisville. Branches at Central City, Du Pont 
 Hamilton, Mercer Station, Ky. The company owns the,following mines ' 
 Green River, Render, Guylena, Strand City, Muhlenberg, and has oii 
 lease the Richmond and theMercer Mines, alllocated in Ohioand Muhl- 
 enberg counties, Ky., and covering an extent of 5,000 acres. The mine is 
 of the fissure character and is worked by drift. The plant consists of 
 machinery, stores, and dwelling-houses at each mine, valued at S".')8- 
 382,55. There are three shafts each sixty feet deep, and all the other worlc- 
 ings are drifts ; 855,889.96 has been expended in developing the mines 
 since operations were commenced in 1880. The cost of mining and put- 
 ting on cars is fl-om 87J^ cents to J1.25 per ton. The maximnm yearly 
 capacity of production at April 1, 1882, was 4,000,000 bushels, and the 
 weekly output atsame date was 40,000 bushels. Principal market is Louis- 
 ville, Ky., and the South. Organized June 1, 1S80. Capitalization SI 000 - 
 000 ; shares each $100,00, Asses,sable basis yield (o date (April l.ss") i ono'- 
 000 bushels;' number of divisions paid to April.iss:;, one; nmoiiiit of Slime 
 $0,788, paid July 2, 1881. No assessments have been levied. Bonded iii- 
 debtedness, April 1, 1882, $15,000 ; stock,$247,000 ; lloating, $71,000 Thestock 
 held principally in Kentucky, is at par. Wages paid to all classes of labor 
 per week, $2,500. lliis information was furnished by Banner Coleman 
 becrct-ry of the Central Oo&l and Iron Company v^ureumu, 
 
 i!hi|><ialc & «'umi>any (The), R. H. Chipman, owner; head office, 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1115 
 
 95 Liberty Street, New York. Name of mine owned, Coaldale ; location 
 of minu, Osceola, Clearfield county. Pa. Amount of property in acres 
 about 297. Date of commencing developments, February 1, 18S2. Thus 
 far yielded about 7.000 gross tons per month, now extended to capacity 
 of about 5,000 to 6,000 per month. Information flirnished by Robert Chip- 
 man. 
 
 Coal Creek Mining Company (The) is chartered under the 
 laws of the Slate of Tennessee. The ofRcers are T. H. Heald, Pres., and 
 Baniel Lee, Sec., and Treas. J. Rooney being Superintendent, with an 
 experience of twenty-five years. The offices are at Knoxville, Tenn, The 
 Empire Mine is located at Coal creek, Tenu., the property having an ex- 
 tent of 200 acres ; developments were commenced on the 23d of March 
 of the present year. Organized 2od of March, 1882 ; capitalization, $50,000 ; 
 shares, $100 each ; no bonded or other indebtedness. This information 
 was furnished by T. H. Heald, President of the company. 
 
 "Edgcar Coal Company^' is chartered under the laws of the 
 State of Illinois. The officers are James A. Eads, Pres. ; F. E. Powell, 
 Sec'y and Treaa. Date of annual election, third Monday in July. Super- 
 intendent, H. P. Davis ; two years'- experience. Head office, Paris, Ills. 
 Branch office. Coal Bluff, Ind. This company own the " Grant," " Coal 
 Bluff," and " Perth" coal-mines, located at Grant, Coal Bluff, and Perth, 
 Ind. Amount of property in acres, 275. The character of the coal is 
 block and bituminous. The company have two hoisting engines and 
 two pump engines on their property. Length of tunnels, " Grant" 100 
 feet, " Coal Blulf" .'iOO feet, " Perth" 800 feet. The company have just 
 opened in the Perth mine a four feet vein of block coal. There is a six 
 feet vein of bituminous coal at the Coal Bluff mine, where there are 100 
 men employed, and a four feet vein at the Grant mine, where fifty men 
 are employed. The development of the property was commenced March 
 
 1. 1881, and 315,000 have been expended in developing property to date. 
 The prospects of the property are good. Cost of mining and milling per 
 ton 80 cents, 85 cents, and $1. Maximum yearly capacity of production, 
 April 1, 1882, 60,000 tons. Output weekly at April. 1882, 1,300 tons. In- 
 dianapolis and C. C. C. & S. R. R, are the principal markets for the com- 
 pany's ore. The block coal at Perth has been tlioroughly tested and 
 pronounced the best in all this block coal district. The bituminous coal 
 at Coal Bluff is very desirable for steam purposes, and the Grant coal is 
 also good for steam purposes as well as domestic use. This company was 
 formed June 9, 1882, from the Powell Coal Company, which had been 
 operating the coal-mines since March 1, 1881. Date of organization, 
 March 1, 1881. Capitalization, $24,000. Par value per sTiare, $100. 
 Yield (net) to April 1, 1882, $4,000, 28,000 tons. Yield (net) dnring 1881, 
 $2,600. Yield (gross tons) during 1881, 1,800. Stock and bonds held prin- 
 cipally in Edgar county, lUinoLS. This information was furnished by 
 H. P. Davis, Superintendent of the Edgar Coal Company. 
 
 Etna Coal Company is chartered under the laws of the State of 
 Tennessee. The officers are Wm. Morrow, Pres. ; D. P. Pittsburg. Gen. 
 Manager; J. T. Hill, Sec. ; Wm. McConnell. Treas. Date of annual elec- 
 tion, August 1st. Superintendent, D. P. Pittsburg. This gentleman has 
 had an experience of ten years at this company's mine. Head and trans- 
 fer office, Whiteside, Tenn. The Etna mines, owned by this company, 
 embrace thirteen seams of coal, seven of which are workable, but only 
 two are operated at present. They are located at Whiteside, Marion 
 CO., Tenn. They own '2,500 acres of land. Thecoalis the best qualityof 
 blacksmith coal in the United States, not excepting the Blossburg and 
 Piedmont. Character of the mines, drift or tunnel, and cost of mining 
 per ton is $1.75, including all expenses. Miners' wages, fifty cents, sixty 
 cents, seventy cents, and ninety cents, according to thickness of vein. 
 The coal finds a market throughout the entire South ; some coal and 
 foundry coke sold in New Mexico and Colorado. The Kelly, Black Hill, 
 and Mire Creek mines are worked by tunnel ; first is one mile in length ; 
 second, five hundred yards ; and the third, one-half mile. Prospects of 
 the property are good. The company's mine is the only one in the south- 
 ern coal fields which produces a first quality of coal for blacksmith and 
 foundry coke purposes. Both the coal and coke find a ready sale at the 
 mines, free on board at 12>^ cents per bushel. The coke is equal in every 
 respect to the Conallsville, and many foundries prefer it, claiming that 
 it will bear a greater burden m the cupola. An analysis of the coal made 
 by J. G. Pohle, of New York, is as follows : Fixed carbon, 74.20 ; Volatile 
 matter, 21.30; Ash, 2.50; Sulphur, .70; Water J..30. Total, 100 parts. An- 
 alysis of coke made by Prof A. W. Kinzie, Hockendanque valley. Pa. : 
 Fixed carbon, 90.70 ; Sulphur, 1.24 ; Ash. 8.06 ; total, 100 parts. The av- 
 erage yield per month is about 3,000 tons. Developmentof property was 
 commenced by this original company, 1855. Date of organization. August 
 1, 1881 ; capitalization, $300,000 ; par value, $101). Company free from in- 
 debtedness. No quotation of stock has been made; all stockholders 
 hold stiff at par. Stock not listed. Stock held principally at Nashville, 
 Chattanooga, and Whiteside. Tenn, This information was furnished by 
 J. T. Hill, Sec. of the Etna Coal Company. 
 
 Sanj^amon Coal Bliniug Company (The), formerly Stame, 
 Dresser & Co., is chartered under the laws of the State of Illinois. The 
 officers are Frank W. Tracy, Pres. ; Chas. A. Starne, Gen, Manager ; Saml. 
 'T. Dresser, Sec. and Treas. Directors, F. W. Tracy, C. A. Starne, and S. 
 T. Dresser. The annual election is held 31st December. Mr. Jos. Hann 
 is Superintendent, with an experience of twenty year.s. The officers are 
 at Springfield, 111. The property, of which the company has only an 
 underground lease, comprises an area of 700 acres, and is located at the 
 junction of Ills. CentraJR. R. and Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific Railway. 
 Near Springfield, III., a small parcel of land, about six acres, belongs to 
 the company. 'The coal is bituminous and of good quality. 'The deposit 
 is about six feet in thickness. There are three shafts : one main shaft 
 250 feet deep, and one escapement shaft ; also another working shaft. 
 The mining plant and other property comprises two top works (A. and B. 
 shafts), two engine houses, two smiths' shops, one carpenter chop, six en- 
 gines, and six boilers, etc. etc., one store, one warehouse, and thirty-two 
 tenement houses. Developments were originally commenced by C. A. 
 Starne, and afterwards. Starne, Dresser & Co., in October, 1878. Twenty 
 thousand dollars were spent in developments from January 1 to April 
 
 1. 1882. The total cost per ton for mining is about ninety-flve cents per 
 ton. 'The maximum annual capacity of production on 1st April, 1882, 
 was 260,000, or about 2,500 tons per week. The coal is sold to the Ills. 
 Central and Wabash Railway Company, and in the cities and towns sit- 
 uated thereon. Organized in December, 1881; capitalization, $300,000, in 
 3,000 shares of $100 each. Gross yield during 1881, 126,000 tons; gross 
 yield from January to April, 1882. 30,000 tons. The company has not yet 
 paid any dividends. The bonded indebtedness is $10,000. The stock is 
 held principally in Sangamon county, III. This information was fur- 
 nished by S. 'T. Dresser, Secretary of the Sangamon Coal Mining Company. 
 
 Gray & Bell. Head office, Banksville, Pa. Geo. Scott, private 
 clerk. Branch office, Pittsburg, Sontside, Pa., Eobt. Gray, head clerk. 
 Isabella Bell is the surviving partner of the firm and transacts all the 
 business. Martin C. Gray is Superintendent, and has had thirteen years' 
 experience. The mines owned are, the " Coal Ridge," " Venture," and 
 
 " Chess,'' which are located at Saw-Mill Run, Banksville, Union town- 
 ship, Allegheny county. Pa. The coal is excellent, being the Pittsburg 
 No. 8 seam, bituminous. The mines are all drift mines with the one 
 vein of coal. There are seven standing engines and a fan blast on the 
 property. The firm own forty mules. There are four shafts, 2. feet deep, 
 and five miles of tunnels. Length of adits— that is, levels — two miles. 
 The vein has an average width of four and a half feet. There are five 
 tunnels, " Coal Ridge, 1 ;" "Venture,!;" " Chess, 2 ;" Miles 1. Under- 
 ground workings, dip to west 2' 10". The development of the pro- 
 perty was commenced in 186:!. In the "Venture" the outside engine 
 hauis for one and a half mUes from the inside engine. In the " Chess" 
 there are three engines, two hauling from the pit and one hauling from 
 there through a hill to an incline plane, which goes to another tminel 
 through Duguesne Heights to supply Iron mills. This tunnel was pierced 
 at an immense cost to the firm, for the purpose of supplying the mills 
 with coal. Its length is 1,200 yards, with an average width of five feet 
 and height of six feet. The oars are hauled through by a standing en- 
 
 gine at the mills with a tail rope which enables the engine to haul them 
 ack when empty. The " Venture " employs in full working order some 
 150 diggers, with some thirty day hands and boys. The " Cbes.s" ninety 
 diggers with thirty day handn and boys. The " Coal Ridge," 100 diggers, 
 with twenty day hands and boys. The firm have two car-shops employing 
 thirty men. .Date of organization, 1860. Yield (net) during 1881, $330,- 
 542 80. Yield (gross tons) during 1881, 236,102. Maximum yearly capa- 
 city, April 1, 1882. 219,711 tons. Output weekly at April, 1882, 3,380 
 tons. Wages paid to all classes of labor per week, April 1. 1882, 
 $3,837.86. Principal market for coal, Pittsburg and West. This inform- 
 ation was furnished by Geo. Wm. Scott, private clerk to the firm of 
 Gray & Bell. 
 
 H. V. Coal & Salt Co. (The) is chartered underthe laws of the 
 State of Ohio. The owners are Messrs. Henry & Lowery. Mr. Wm. 
 Henry has the superintendence of the mines, with an experience of 
 twenty years. The offices are at Chauncey, Athens co., Ohio. The 
 property, having an extent of .350 acres, is located at Chauncey, Athens 
 CO., Ohio. The coal is good for steam purposes, but the salt is poor, 
 and has not been worked at a profit. The shaft is down 100 feet, and the 
 adits have an extent of about 450 feet, which is the length of the deposit 
 on which the company depends for its mineral supply, The property on 
 the ground consists of one salt furnace and minor plant. The salt is 
 shipped to Ohio, the coal having a local demand. The maximum yearly 
 capacity of production, January, 1882, is 10,000 barrels of salt. The mine 
 is an adjunct of a salt furnace, a small quantity, say 1,000 tons, is availa- 
 ble for local retail sales. Thusthebuslnessismerelynominal.thereturns 
 for sales of salt barelv paying co.st of production. Capitalization, 850,000, 
 in fifty shares of $1,000 each. The net yield during 1881 was $2,400 for a 
 gross tonnage of 3.200 tons of coal. The stock is depreciated. This in- 
 formation is furnished by Mr. Wm. Heniy, Superintendent of the com- 
 pany. 
 
 Keystone Coal Co. (The) is chartered under the laws of the State 
 of Pennsylvania. Officers, Henry H. Stiles, President ; Francis H. Wil- 
 liams, Secretary and Treasurer. Annual election is held first Monday in 
 May. Mr. T. 0. Yarington is Superintendent The offices are at Meyers- 
 dale, Pa., and at 209 S. Third St, Philadelphia, Pa. The company ovpns 
 the Keystone Mines located near Meyersdale, Somerset county. Pa. 
 The property covers an area of 1,200 acres. Organized 4th of December, 
 1879; capitalization, $570,000; 11,400 shares of $50 each; no dividends have 
 been paid or assessments levied; stock indebtedness. $670,000; stock 
 reserved in treasury $11 ,608.25. The coal bed is an extension of that great 
 deposit which eight miles off is known as the Cumberland Big Vein, 
 which is identical with the great Pittsburg vein of coal. Stratification is 
 nearly horizontal and the coal is entered through an adit. The coal 
 after being mined is transported over a 3-foot narrow-gauge road a dis- 
 tance of five and a half miles, where it is dumped into cars on the Pitts- 
 burg branch of the B. & O. R. R. for transportation to market The 
 company are mining themselves about 6.000 tons per month, and by 
 lessees about 10,000 per month more. Yield per acre of marketeble coal 
 10,000 tons. Cost of mining per ton of coal fifty cents. The quality is 
 medium, it being used chiefly for steam purposes, though it makes a 
 coke of quality equal to the Connellsville. This information was fur- 
 nished by Thomas Weld, and Francis H. Williams, Treasurer of the Key- 
 stone Coal Company. 
 
 Keystone Coal Company (The) is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of West Virginia. The officers are Joseph P. Brinton, Pres., and 
 Geo. Brooke, Treas. The annual election is held on the 2d Wednesday 
 of December; offices at Philadelphia Pa., and at Richmond, Va. The 
 company owns the Kanawha Mines, the Union Coal Mines, and the Mount 
 Morris Coal Mines, located at Coal Valley, Kanawha county. West Va., 
 covering an area of 1,200 acres held in fee-simple. Developments were 
 commenced in January, 1881. The three properties named are partly 
 leased to companies at twelve and a half cents per ton. The principal 
 markets for the coal are Cincinnati and Richmond. The maximum ca- 
 
 Sacity of production at April 1 was 150,000 tons. Organization, January, 
 381 ; capitalization, $15ft000, in 1,500 shares of $100 each ; non-assessable. 
 Yield to April, 1882, 3,000 tons (about), net yield during 1881, $2,000 (about;) 
 a gross yield dnring 1881, 16,000 tons. There is no treasury reserve of stock 
 which is held principally in Pennsylvania and Virginia ; no stock listed or 
 on market. This information was furnished by Jos. P. Brinton, of Rich- 
 mond, Va., President of the Richmond,Fredericksburgand Potomac Rail- 
 road Company, and of the Keystone Coal Company. 
 
 McJLean County Coal Company (Tbe) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of Illinois. Dr. T. F. Worrell is Pres., and J. B. Steven- 
 son, Sec. and Treas. The annual election is held in April of each year. 
 Mr. W. W. Stevenson is Superintendent, with an experience of seven or 
 eight years. Offices are at Bloomington, III. The property of the com- 
 pany comprises three acres, and is located at Bloomington 111.: entrance 
 to mini ,s by tunnel, from second to third vein 530 feet, depth of shaft 
 541 feet. The second vein is four feet four inches thick, and the third 
 vein two feet six inches; one main shaft, the roof and bottom are poor. 
 Developments were commenced in 1867, when the company was organ- 
 ized; capitalization, $90,000, in 900 shares of $100 each, non-assessable; 
 yield during 1881, $71,000 : yearly average capacity, 60,000 to 70,000 tons. 
 This information has been furnished by Jas. B. Stevenson, Secretary of 
 the McLean County Coal Company. 
 
 Mill Creek Coal Company (The) is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of Pennsylvania. T. F. Walters. Pres. and Treas., BertoUette, 
 Sec. The head office is at Mauch Chunk, Pa. The mines owned are Mid- 
 dle Lehigh Mines, located in New Boston Basin, Schuylkill county. Pa. ; 
 the total property having an area of about 700 acres. Organized in 1881 ; 
 capitalization is 2,000 shares ; par valne, $50 ; capital stock, $100.000 ; gross 
 yield during 1881, 135,475 tons. This information was furnished by J. S. 
 Cox, a director of the Mill Creek Coal Company. 
 
 ITewbarg^li Orrel Coal Company is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of Virginia. The officers are C. Morton Stewart, Pres. ; 
 
1116 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Charles Mackall, Sec'y and Treas. OfBce, Baltimore, Md. The com- 
 
 Sany's property is located in West Virginia, covering 4,000 acres of land. 
 late of organization, 1865. Capitalization, $,'500,000. Par value per share, 
 $25. Basis non-assessable. Date of latest dividend, June 1, 1882, three 
 per cent. This information was furnished by the Newburgh Orrel Coal 
 Company. 
 
 STova Scotia Coal Company is chartered under the laws of 
 the Province of Nova Scotia. The officers are C. S. Maltby, Pres. ; E. 
 H. Townsend, Sec'y ; C. S. Maltby, Treas. Superintendent, M. H. Angell. 
 The company's mine, the "Black Diamond," is located at Westville, 
 Pictou county. Nova Scotia. The extent of claim is four quare miles 
 Amount of property in acres, held in fee, 800. The company ceased 
 mining coal m 1878. The railroad, with its equipment, extensive wharves, 
 and tug-boat belonging to the company, are used in transportation for 
 others. This information was furnished by M. H. Angell, Superintendent 
 of the Nova Scotia Coal Company. 
 
 Osceola Coal Company (The), represented by John Shields, J. 
 H. Dewees, and Margaret Shields, the owners, has offices at Osceola, Pa. 
 J. H, Dewees is Superintendent, and John Shields, Secretary. The pro- 
 perty comprises about seventy-flve acres, located at South Versailles 
 Township, Allegheny countv, Penna. The company is not chartered. 
 The mine is worked on lease. The length of entrance tunnel is one 
 mile. Developments were commenced about 1877, the date of organi- 
 zation. Four dividends, aggregating SS.OOO, have been paid to April 1, 
 1882. Only one assessment has been levied, date of same, November 
 7, 1877. This information was furnished by J. M. Love, Bookkeeper 
 of the Osceola Coal Company. 
 
 Penn Colliery. Owned by Reakirt & Company. Not chartered. 
 D. E. Conrad, Superintendent. Eighteen years' experience. Principal 
 ofBoe, 218>^ Walnut St., Philadelphia, Pa. Branch, Dudley, Huntington 
 county, Penn. ; Houtzdale, Clearfield county, Penn. The Penn Colliery 
 mine is located in Houtzdale, Clearfield county. Pa. Extent of claim 
 a lease ten years. 200 acres owned by the company. The quality and 
 character of ore is bituminous coal. Character of mines are drifts. 
 Shipped by rail. Coal three foot thick. Two drifts are used. Property 
 consists of main gang\vay, cross headings, and rooms. The cost of 
 mining and milling per ton, fifty cents; extras, twenty cents; in all 
 seventy cents. Royalty fifty cents. Total S1.20. Date of commencing 
 developments, 1869. The firm of Reakirt, Bro. & Company is only 
 composed now of E. L. Reakirt, as his brother is dead, and Mr. Osterlow 
 going out of the company, leaves E. L. Reakirt sole proprietor. The 
 business is all done in the name of Reakirt, Bro. & Company. The mine 
 has been run by three other parties with no success, owing to its being a 
 faulty mine, full of rolls, clay veins, &c. ; would not be worked at all, 
 only for its coal being of the very best quality. The company was 
 organized 1878, with present company. Yield net to April 1, 1882. 
 annually, 20,000 tons. Output weekly, April, 1882, 400 tons. Wages paid 
 for labor per week, April 1, 1882, S300. Principal market for the coal, 
 Philadelphia and New York. This blank was filled out by Henry Cook, 
 Houtzdale, Clerk of the firm of J. Reakirt, Bro. & Company. 
 
 Price Brothers' Mines (The).underthe superintendence of J. E. 
 Price, often years' experience, have offices at Jackson, Ohio, three and 
 a half miles west of Jackson branch office. The owners are W. S. Price, 
 J. H. Price, J. E. Price, and Benj. F. Price. The mines are located three 
 and a half miles west of Jackson, Ohio, the property having an extent 
 of 400 acres; there are 300 yards of tunnels m the mine; the length of 
 the main lode, on which the supply of mineral depends, is fifty feet; the 
 deposit varies in thickness from thirty to thirty-six inches, no blast- 
 ing required ; ^ood reef and good air and dry bottom. The coal is supe- 
 rior for domestic purposes and for smithy purposes. Four good veins 
 of ore^ one of limestone and one of small coal. Jackson, Ohio, forms the 
 principal market. Organized, 1876. 
 
 Sand Rnn and Carbon Mill Coal Mines (The\ owned by J. H. 
 Somers, are located in Hocking county, O., with office at Columbus, O. ; 
 the property having an extent of 614 acres. The quality of the coal is 
 A 1, and is "adapted for all purposes. The vein is eight feet thick and is 
 worked by four drifts. The present cost of mining is seventy cents per 
 ton. Developments wore commenced in 1879, since which $49,200 has 
 been expended, including an item of $17,000 for railroad cars. He esti- 
 mated that there are 4,250,000 tons of coal on the property, which, at fif- 
 teen cents per ton, the price offered for it, would bring $637,500. The 
 maximum yearly capacity of production is 250,000 tons. The output for 
 April last was 16,900 tons ; wages for same month being $11,300. The coal 
 is shipped to the norchwest, which constitutes the chief market. The 
 net profits to 1st January, 1882, were $122,000; yield during 1881, ?43,000, 
 the prod uct of 142,000 tons of 2,000 pounds to the ton ; 275 hands are em- 
 ployed. The screens are operated by steam. Payments are made monthly 
 on or before the 15th. The coal is in great demand for railway and gas- 
 producing purposes at from five to fifteen cents above the average or 
 market prices. The firm has also a yard at Columbus, where about 47,000 
 tons are sold yearly. Funds in reserve on 1st April, 1882, $38,000 ; Indebt- 
 edness on 1st April, 1882, $31,000. Cash balance, $7,000. This information 
 has been furnished by J. H. Somers, the proprietor. 
 
 Seattle Coal and 'transportation Company (The) is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of California. Officers are John L. 
 Howard, Pres. ; S. O. Putnam, Sec'y. Offices, 210 Battery St., San Fran- 
 ciKco. Annual election held, January 20. Superintendent, Jas. 
 Williams. The company owns the Newcastle mine, located in Newcastle, 
 Washington Territory ;' extent of property 1,100 acres. The coal is a 
 lignite. One vein, ten and a half feet clean, one four feet seven inches, 
 'and one five feet 10 inches. Developments were commenced in 1871. 
 San Francisco forms the principal market for the coal. Organized, April 
 12. 1871. Capitalization, $30,000. 30.000 shares, $1 each. Gross yield in 
 1881, 138,454 tons. Slock all owned by Oregon Improvement Company. 
 Stock not listed. This information was furnished by John L. Howard, 
 President of the company. 
 
 Koddy Coal Company (The) Is charered under the laws of the 
 State of Tennessee. The officers are M. H. Cliffe, Pres. ; J. W. Cllire, 
 Sec'y; J. T. Williams, Gen. Manager, and A. Lloyd, Supt. Annual 
 election is held May 24. Offices at Chattanooga, "rhe company owns 
 the Soddy Coal Mines and the Salt creek Coal Mines, situated on 
 the Cincinnati and Southern Railway. The property has an extent of 
 10,000 acres. The mine is worked by levels, the prospects being promis- 
 ing. Developments were commenced in 1867. Organized 1866. Capital 
 in 10,050 shares, non-assessable, which are at a premium. Stock held en- 
 tirely in Tennessee. Not listed, now at a premium. This information 
 was furnished by J. T. Williams, Gen. Agent of the Soddy Coal Com- 
 pany. 
 
 Carbon Hill Mine (The) owned by Sackett Smart & Co. Name of 
 mine owned. Carbon Hill Mine; located on Sand Run, Hocking county, 
 Ohio, on Monday Creek Branch of C. H. & F. R. R. Extent of claim, 208 
 acres ; amount of property in acres, 203 ; date of commencing development 
 Jlpril 1,1881. Two tunnels; length of tuj)nel, 1,500 feet; amount expended 
 
 In developing property to April 1, 1882, $12.000 ; yield net to April 1 1882, 
 23 322 62 20.15 tons. Information furnished by Sackett H. omart & Oo. 
 
 Spring Hill Mining Company is chartered under the laws of 
 Nova Scotia, special act. The directors are Alex. Macfarlan, Pres. ; J. 
 Magee, C. G. Twann, S, S. Hall, Geo. E. Franklyn, R. P. Starr J L. Dunn. 
 Dateof annual election, last Tuesday in January; Willmm Hall is Man- 
 ager. Office, Springhill Mines. Nova Scotia ; transfer oflice, St. John, N. 
 B. ; transfer days, any lawful day, except ten days before annual meet- 
 ing The company's mining property consists of the Springfield Mines, 
 located at Springhill, Cumberland county. Nova Scotia. Extent of claim, 
 seven square miles. Amount of property in acres, about 7,000 The coal 
 mined is superior for steam purposes, and is used largely for locomotive 
 and rolling mills. Character of the mines, bituminous coal. The com- 
 pany has all the necessary plant, including three locomotives, for putting 
 out 200,000 tons of coal per annum, workmen's houses, offices, etc. A new 
 Blake pump is being put In. There are three slopes about 800 feet each, 
 average angle of thirty-five. Length of adits— that is, levels, about one 
 and a half miles. 'The three seams average about ten feet each of coal. 
 Developments were commenced during the year 1873. The prospects of 
 the property are good, output (gross tons') weekly, at April 1, 1882, 3,790. 
 The Dominion of Canada is the principal marketfor the ore. The mine 
 is situated on the Intercolonial Railway, about half-way between St. 
 John, N. B., and Halifax, N. S., and is largely depended on by the manu- 
 factories along the whole line for their fuel. It is akso the nearest mine, 
 by railroad, to the markets of Montreal and Quebec. The coal is shipped 
 at Dorchester, Bay of Funday, and Pawslord Basin of Minas. Unlike 
 most of the Nova Scotia coal-mines, it is worked to its full capacity dur- 
 ing the winter months. Date of organization, April 18, 1870. Act passed. 
 Capitalization, $641,000. Par value, $60. Basis, non-assessable. Yield 
 (gross tons) during 1881, 151,728. Number of dividends paid to April 1, 
 1882, eight. Total amount of dividends paid, $203,332.50 Date of fli-st 
 dividend, June 1873. Amount, $1,661.50. Date of latest dividend, Feb- 
 ruary 14, 1882. Amount, $44,870 ; per share. $3.50. Free from all indebted- 
 ness. No treasury reserve. No stock on the market. Stock held in Lon- 
 don, Canada, and New Brunswick. This information was furnished by 
 order of the Board of Directors of the Springhill Mining Company, under 
 the direction of J. W. Starr, Acting Chairman, and W. E. Vroom, Sec. 
 and 'Treas. 
 
 Sunday Creefc Coal C^ompany (The), Columbus, O., Is char- 
 tered under the lawsof the Stateof Ohio. Officers, J. S. Morton, Pres. ; J. W. 
 Jonde, Sec. ; A. A Hall, Manager. General office, Columbus, Ohio. An- 
 nual election, February. Fred. Witler, Supt., four years' experience. Name 
 of mine owned, Sunday Creek ; located in Perry county, Rendville. Ohio. 
 Eighty acres of land owned by the company; shaft forty feet: length of 
 levels, 15,000 feet; length in feet of the main lode on which the company 
 depends for its supplv of coal, 900 feet ; average height of vein nine feet ; 
 one shaft is used; property owned, hoisting engine, two pumps. Devel- 
 opments were commenced 1877; date of organization, 1878; cost of min- 
 ing andmilllng, ninety-two cents ; capitalization, 10,000 shares ; par value, 
 $50: non-assessable. Yield net during 1881, $40,000: yield gross during 
 1881, $,W,000; number of dividends paid to April 1, 1882, one; amount 
 $1,000 ; date of first dividend, February 1, 1881 : per share, $10. Stocksheld 
 principally in Columbus, Ohio. Maximum yearly capacity, 55,000 tons. 
 Output April, 1882, l,500tons. Wages paid to all classes of labor per week, 
 April 1, 1882, $1,000. Principal market for ore, Toledo, and Chicago, 111. 
 This information was furnished by A. A. Hall, Manager of Sunday Creek 
 Coal Company. 
 
 W. C. IiOm1>nrd * Co. Office, Galesburg, 111. Superintendent, 
 T. Mure. This firm owns the W. C. Lombard & Co. mine, located six 
 miles northeast of Galesburg. 111. Extent of claim, fifty acres; mineral 
 found is soft coal ; the firm have a coal shaft engine at the works ; the 
 shaft is seventy-five feet deep; vein four and a half feet high ; five miles 
 of tracking have been made ; developments of the property were com 
 menced about the year 1865. Galesburg is the principal market for the 
 coal: the company was formed about the year 1865: the mine yields 
 2,000 bushels per day. This information "was furnished by W. C Lom- 
 bard, Gale.'tburg, 111., of the firm of W. C. Lombard & Co. 
 
 C!C».A.-SLt .A.JSri3 XXl-Oia. 
 
 Southern Ohio Coal and Iron Company (The) is chartered 
 under the laws of the Stateof Ohio. Officers, A. A. Thomas, Pres.; E. 
 A. Stewart, Sec; John H. Patterson, Man.; F. J. Patterson, Supt. Prin- 
 cipal office, Dayton, 0.; branch, Cincinnati, O. Transfer office, Dayton ; 
 transfer days, all days. The names of mines owned are Mine No. 1, Mine 
 No. 3. Mine No. 4, Mine No. 5. Mine No. 7; located In Jackson, O The 
 Iron ore is red hematite. Fifty thousand acres of land owned by the 
 company assays per ton sixty per cent. Four drifts and one slope mine. 
 Developments were commenced September, 1881. Amount expended, 
 $140,000. "The company mines four veins of coal, three bituminous and 
 one cannel coal vein ; also, three veins of iron ore and one ledge of lime- 
 stone rock. The latter is used for smelting iron. Company own houses, 
 farms, lands. The peculiar characteristic of this bituminous coal is that 
 it makes no soot, and almost no ash, and smelts iron without being coked, 
 making Jackson county, 0., the cheapest point in the United States for 
 making first class coal-cut iron. The company's net earnings already 
 more than pay the interest on its bonds. Its work thus far has been 
 chiefly of preparation. Date of organization, 1881. Stock and bonds held 
 principally in Boston. Mass. and Dayton. O. Capitalization, 15,000 shares ; 
 par value, JlOO; bonds reserved in treasury. $61,000; bonded indebted- 
 ness, $400,000; stock Indebtedness, $l,iiOO,000; stock quotations, $80 per 
 share; bonds, $10 par. Stock not listed. Principal market for ore, Jack- 
 son county, O. Weekly output, 2,500 tons. This blank was filled out by 
 John H. Patterson, Manager of the company. 
 
 Minnesota Mining Company (The) is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of Michigan. The officers are Geo. D. Pond, Pres.; J. Geo. 
 Repplier, Sec. The annual election is held third Wednesday in March. 
 Superintendent. Thos. D. James, of twenty years' experience. Transfer 
 and general offices, 98 Broadway, N. Y., and Rockland, Mich. Transfers 
 can be effected at all business hours. The company owns the Minnesota 
 mine, located in Ontonagon county, Mich. (Lake Superior district). Ex- 
 tent of property, 5,000 acres. The ore is a virgin copper, assaying 1,400 
 pounds to the ton. The mining plant consists of three engines, stamp 
 mill, dam, miners' houses, village of Rosendale. and dock at Ontonagon, 
 etc., etc Lowest shaft is 1,200 feet down ; length of adits, 280 feet. The 
 length of main lode on which the company depends for its supplv of ore, 
 is 2,820 feet. There are eighteen .shafts. Seventeen veins run through 
 the property ; longest, 6;280 feet. Developments were commenced in 1855. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1117 
 
 England, France, and Germany form the principal marljets for the ore. 
 In 1857, a pure mass of metallic copper was found, measuring about Jbrty- 
 flve feet by about eight to nine feet by eighteen and a half feet in the 
 widest part, weighing about 600 tons, and worth, as laid, about $15,000. 
 Organized, 1865; capitalization, Sl.OOU.OOO. in 20,000 shares of *60 each; as- 
 sessable. Yield to January 1, 1881, 17,326 tons ; yield during 1881, twelve 
 tons, 227 pounds refined copper ; value of same, $4,421. Twenty dividends, 
 aggregating itl,S20,000, have been paid. Date of first dividend, 1854 ; 
 amount of same. $90,000 at !t4.,'i0 per share ; date of last dividend, 1876, 
 fifty cents per share ; amount of same, 810,000. Six assessments levied, 
 aggregating $446,000; date of first assessment, 1819, at $3.30 per share; 
 date of last assessment, 1881, at fifty cents per share. Stocli held princi- 
 pally in New York, Boston, Lowell, and Providence ; stock is listed on 
 Boston Mining Exchange. This information was furnished by Geo. D. 
 Pond, President of the liliunesota Mining Company. 
 
 Planet Copper Mines (The), owned by Oliver Augdahl. The 
 names of the mines owned are the Planet, Ashley, Sentinel, Copper Hill, 
 Galmets, located at Flacora mining district, Yuma county, Ariz. Car- 
 bonate ore a.ssays fifteen and a half copper per ton. Veins are the char- 
 acter of the mines. The Planet mine has produced up to 1873 about 7,000 
 tons of copper ore, assaying twenty-seveu per cent. The other locations, 
 in all, about the same grain of ore. Tlie cost of mining and milling is 
 $4.00 per ton. The Planet copper mine was discovered in 1863, by Rich- 
 ard Boyland, and worked steadily till 1873 ; then, through bad manage- 
 ment, was abandoned, but was again relocated August, 1879, by me, 
 Oliver Augdahl ; no work has been carried on since then, except a little 
 prospecting, as the large amount of ore in sight is of too low a grade for 
 shipping. There are a number of other lodes in the group, viz. : 1, Planet ; 
 2, Ashley ; 3, Sentinel ; 4, Byron ; 5, Galmets ; 6, Copper Hill ; 7, Blue 
 Bell. They are all parallel lodes ; average width of vein, five feet ; four 
 shafts. There is no use to describe an old mine ; suflicient to saj; that 
 capital is all that is needed to make the property worth millions of dol- 
 lars. This property is situated one-half mile south from West Fork, 
 twelve miles east from the Colorado river; therefore have the finest fa- 
 cility for mining than any district in Terneska. Yield net during 1881, 
 $492 ; yield gross tons, 1881, seven tons, of a lack cut during the year. 
 Principal market for the ore, San Francisco. This information was fur- 
 nished by Oliver Augdahl. 
 
 ^ninc^ Mininar Company is chartered under the laws of the 
 State of Michigan. The Directors are T. T. Mason, F. B. Wallace, T. G. 
 White, J. Brown, B. F. Meservey. T. T. Mason, Pres. ; W. R. Todd, 
 Sec'y and Treas. Date of annual election, June 7. T. G. White is 
 Superintendent, and has had twenty-five years' experience. Offices, 4 
 Exchange Court, New York ; 4 Change Avenue, Boston, Mass., and Han- 
 cock, Mich. Transfer Agent, Natlian H. Daniels. Offices, New York and 
 Boston. Transfer days at all times. The company's property, which in- 
 cludes 500 acres of land, is located at Portage Lake, Lake Superior, 
 Houghton county, Mich. The company's machinery, buildings, etc., cost 
 about $800,000. The shaft is 2,100 feet deep, and levels are 3,200 feet in 
 length. The main lode on which the company depends for its supply 
 of ore is 5,000 feet in length ; the vein has an average width of eight feet. 
 There are thirty levels opened. Developments were commencedf during 
 the year of 1848. Amount expended in developing the property to 
 April 1, 1S82, $10,570,008.28. Maximum yearlv capacity of production, 
 April 1,1882, 6,000,000 lbs, refined copper. New York is the principal 
 market for the ore. The Quincy is one of Lake Superior's valuable 
 mines : it produced during the decade beginning Jan. 1, 1870, and ending 
 Dec. 31, 1879, 27,252,250 pounds of ingot copper, the average cost of which 
 was 16.24 cents per pound. The figures snowing the cost for each year 
 of the period will be found below, and are taken from the ofilcial reports 
 of the company : 
 
 Year. 
 
 1870. 
 1871. 
 1872. 
 1873. 
 1874 . 
 
 Cost of 
 Ingot per i&. 
 . 14.90 cents. 
 . 16.60 " 
 . 22.93 " 
 . 18.15 " 
 . 15.13 " 
 
 Year. 
 
 Cost of 
 Ingot per Lb. 
 
 1875 16.79 cents. 
 
 1876 15.72 " 
 
 1877 15.11 " 
 
 1878 14.01 " 
 
 1879 13.71 " 
 
 The lowest cost for any year, it will be observed, was'l.71 cents .greater 
 than the price with which the BvJletin says most of the valuable mines 
 would be satisfied ; the highest cost was 10.93 cents greater, and the aver- 
 age cost was nearly four and one quarter cents more than the selling 
 figure which our contemporary asserts would be satisfactory to most of 
 the valuable mines. The Quincy is commonly considered a valuable 
 mine, has paid $2,710,000 dividends, and ranks second only to the Calumet 
 and Hecla. How many dividends could it have paid with copper selling 
 at " twelve cents, and even less" '! Chartered, 1848. Rechartered, March 
 6, 1878. Capitalization, $1,000,000. Par value per share. $25. Basis, full 
 paid. Yield (net) to Jan. 1, 1882, $13,709,685.61 ; 69,560,041 lbs. of refined 
 copper. Yield (net) during 1881, $472,591.75. Y'ield refined copper during 
 1881, 5,702,606 lbs. No. of dividends paid to April 1, 1882, 27. Amount, 
 3,030,000. Date of first dividend, July 31, 1862. Amount, $60,000. $3 per 
 share. Date of latest dividends, February 20. 1882. Amount. $320,000. 
 $8 per share. Total amount of assessments levied, 300,000.' No stock or 
 bonds are reserved in the treasury ; stock quoted April 1, 1882. Stock 
 listed on the Exchange of Boston. This information was furnished by 
 W. R. Todd, Secretary and Treasurer of the Quincy Mining Company. 
 
 Mass Mining; Co. (Tbe) of Pittsburg is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of Michigan. The ofBcers are C. G. Hussey, President ; Jas. 
 W. Brown, Secretary and Treasurer. Offices, 47 Fifth Ave., Pittsburg, Pa. 
 Date of annual election, December 1. 1881. Superintendent, John Chy- 
 noweth ; twenty-five years' experience. Names of mines owned. Mass 
 mine, located Greenland, Ontonagon county ; Lake Superior, Michigan, 
 covering an extent of 600 acres. The ore is a native copper in a matrix 
 of common quartz, calc spar and diorite. Assays 2 per cent, per ton. 
 The mine is described as a fissure-vein running longitudinally with the 
 trap formation. The plant comprises hoisting, compressed air, and 
 stamping machinery, estimated value or cost of which is $75,000. The 
 shaft is 480 feet down ; tunnel, 1.600 ; length of levels, 2.500 feet : length 
 of the main lode on which the company depends for its supply of ore is 
 1,6()0 feet ; average width of vein eight feet; number of shafts three. 
 Developments were commenced in 18o6, the amount expended in same 
 being $600,000. The present prospects are favorable. The mine is well 
 equipped for continous working, and the character of the vein is about 
 the .same as in years previous when it paid more than expenses. Cost of 
 mining and milling, $2 per ton. Cost per ton sorting, traraminig, stamp- 
 ing, washing, $1.40 ; cost per foot sinking shafts. $19.90 ; cost per foot drift- 
 ing levels, $12.96 ; cost per fathom stoping, $34.00 ; yield of mineral per 
 fathom, 1,050 pounds. The mine is now the largest tributer in Ontona- 
 gon county ; it was worked only at intervals, according to price and other 
 circumstances, such as lack of water in dry times, and dimculty of hold- 
 
 ing it in wet times. Date of organization, 31st of March, 1856; capitali- 
 zation, $500,000 : 20,000 shares of $25 each ; assessable ; yield net to April, 
 1882, $415,425, being value of 1,105 tons ; net yield during 1881, $75,000 ; 
 gross yield during 1881, 310 tons; no dividends paid; ten a.ssessments 
 levied aggregating $149,202; date of latest assessment, August 21, 1877; 
 amount per share. $1: no bonded or other indebtedness ; no treasury re- 
 serve. Tnis information was furnLshed by B. F. Chynoweth, Greenland, 
 Mich., Superintendent of the companv. 
 
 Ore Knob Copper Co. ('I'he) is chaitered under the laws of the 
 State of North Carolina. The officers are John S. Williams, President ; ' 
 Washington Booth, Vice-President, andseven directors. Annual election 
 is held on 1st of May. Mr. James E. Clayton is Superintendent, of fifteen 
 years' experience. The transfer offices are at S. Gay St., Baltimore. 
 Transfers can be effected daily. The Ore Knob Mines are owned by the 
 company and are located in Aske county. North Carolina, extent of name 
 being two and a half miles, or 1,600 acres. The ore is a sulphide 
 of iron and copper, assaying from 5 to 6 per cent. The vein is true fis- 
 sure, twenty to thirty feet in thickness. The mining plant and other pro- 
 perty comprises ten blast furnaces, mills, etc., about $300,000 in personal 
 property. There are seven shafts and about 4,000 feet of levels; the 
 length of main lode on which the supply of ore depends is two and a 
 half miles ; average width of vein sixteen to twenty feet ; the greatest 
 depth attained is m one shaft 360 feet. Developments were commenced 
 in April, 1873, and the sum of $500,000 has been expended ; the pros-pccts 
 of the property are very large ; the cost of mining is $1 per ton. Kew 
 York forms the principal market for the ore. The maximum yearly ca- 
 
 gacitj' of production is $250,000. This mine was opened previous to 1860, 
 ut has only been worked systematically during the last five or six years. 
 Organized July, 1873; capitalization, $1,500,000, in 160 000 shares of $10 
 each, non-assessable ; yield to April 1, 1882, $1,600,000 ; yield during 1881, 
 say $250,000; gross yield during 1881, say 30,000 tons ore; five dividends 
 have been paid, total amount of same, $21(1.000 ; first dividend in 1880 ; 
 last, of twenty-five cents, 1881 ; no assesments levied ; no stock in treasury ; 
 stock listed at Baltimore: stock quoted $2.25. April. 1S82. This informa- 
 tion was furnished by James E. Claytou, Manager of the Ore Knob Alin- 
 ing Company, June 8, 1882. 
 
 <3r.A.-JLtSiSS .A.. 
 
 Eni^ineerMinineand Developing Company (Tbe) is char- 
 tered under the laws ofthe State of Colorado. The otticers are Hon. Frank- 
 lin J. Rollins, Pres., Portland, Me.; Chas. J. Chapman, Treas. ; Thos. J. Lit- 
 tle, Sec. Directors, E. D. Eastman, Frank C. Payson, W. L. Bradley, Chas. 
 H. True, F. G.Patterson. Dateof annual election, first Saturday of Marcii. 
 Superintendent, F. G. Patterson, three years' experience ; head office, Ou- 
 ray,Col. ; branch office, Portland. Me. The company owns the Mountain 
 Monarch. Sailor Boy, and Frank Silence Mines. The flrbt two are located 
 in Ouray county , Col. : the last, in Hinsdale county. Col. ; extent of claims, 
 301 by 1,300 each ; amount of property in acres, 10 by 14 each : the character 
 of the ore is galena, which assays per ton from $69,027 to $1,500 : length of 
 tunnel in the Monarch, sixty feet, and thirty feet in the Frank Silence; 
 shaft in the Sailor Boy has reached a depth of twelve feet: themain lode 
 on which the company depends for its supply of ore is4.500feet in length; 
 the average width of vein in the Monarch is six feet, that of the Silence 
 three inches, Sailor Boy twelve inches ; developments were commenced 
 July 1. 1881, and amount expended in developing property to April 1, 
 1882, $1,175.42, The Mountain Monarch is in ore the entire length of sixty 
 feet tunnel : there are twenty tons of ore on dumps, and the mine prom- 
 ises to be a valuable property. The Sailor Boy shaft, eleven feet in deptli, 
 has twelve inches or ore. The Frank Silence has paid a handsome profit 
 over all expenses from thirty feet tunnel, and only work done ; cost of 
 mining and milling per ton, $68. The company have been obliged to 
 ship their ore over 300 miles to Argo ; railroad within fifteen miles next 
 year, (1883.) Principal markets for ore, Argo and Puches, CoL The ob- 
 ject of the company is to buy promising properties, at low figures, de- 
 velop sufficiently to show their value secure to State patents, and hold for 
 capitalists and corporations desiring good properties, complete titles, at 
 reasonable prices. Date of organization, January 3. 1881 ; capitalization, 
 $1,000,000; par value per share, $10; basis, non-assessable; yield (net) to 
 April 1, 1882, $617.32—10,376 lbs.; yield (net) during 1881, $617.32; no in- 
 debtedness; stock held principally, Portland, and State of Maine; stock 
 quoted April 1, 1882, $1.00. This information was furnished by F. G. Pat- 
 terson, General Manager of the Engineer Mining and Developing Com- 
 pany. 
 
 Emerald and Hiddenite Mining; Company is chartered un- 
 der the laws of the State of New York. The officers are Jas. D. Yerring- 
 ton, Pres. ; Chas. E. S. Simmons, V. Pres. ; E. H. Roberts, Sec. and Treas. 
 Dateof annual election, first Wednesday of October. Superintendent, Wm. 
 Earl Hidden. This gentleman has had an experience of five years; head 
 office, 192 Broadway, N. Y.; transfer office, 192 Broadway, (companv's 
 office), N. Y. The Hiddenite Mine, owned by this company, is located' at 
 Salem Church, Alexander county, N. C, the gems are found in true fis- 
 sure veins of very limited extent ; the company own 152 acres ; depth of 
 shaft, forty-three feet; length of adits, that is levels, 261 feet; average 
 width of vein, two inches. The company have one shaft and tunnel; 
 nature of under-ground workings, hard gneissoid rock ; date of com- 
 mencing developments, July, 1880; amount expended in developing 
 property to April 1, 1882, $3,500 ; the prospects of the property are good! 
 New York is the principal market for the ore. This is tlie only mine in 
 the United States worked exclusively for precious stones ; the best qual- 
 ity ofthe Hiddenite has the value of diamonds ; one emerald from mine, 
 sold for$800. The work of uncovering the gem-bearing rock is now go- 
 ing on over quite an extensive area, and consequently the yield of the 
 mine at this time is small. The present work is preparatory work for 
 large developments of the property. Date of organization, February 9, 
 1882 ; capitalization, $200,000 ; par value per share, $100 each ; basis, non- 
 assessable ; yield (net) to April 1, 1882, $5,000 ; yield (net) during 1881, 
 $5,000; free from debt; stock quoted April 1, 1882, $25 ; stock not listed ; 
 stock held principally in New York city; wages paid to all cla.<ses of la- 
 bor per week, $200. This information was furnished by W. E. Hidden, 
 Superintendent of the Emerald and Hiddenite Mining Company. 
 
 H1.0 3Nr. 
 
 Conrad Iron Mining Company (The) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of Michigan: The officers are Geo. W. Short, Pres., and 
 J. V. Painter, Sec'y, of Cleveland, 0. The offices are at Cleveland. O. 
 Transfers can be efi'ected at pleasure of holder. The Conrad mine is 
 
1118 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 located in Marquette county, Michigan. Extent of property, eighty acres, 
 on twenty years' lease, at fortv cents per gross ton ; minimum amount 
 5 000 tons yearly. The ore is a hard micaceous. Ferruginate, suitable for 
 tlie production of Bessemer steel, assaying sixty-eight per cent. The 
 shaft is seventy-five feet deep and prospects continue good. Cleveland, 
 O., and Pittsburg are the principal marltets for the ore. Work at this 
 mine has been temporarily suspended, but will start up again in July. 
 Organized, 18K0. Capitalization, $60,000. Shares each, $2.50. Fully paid. 
 Total yield to date. July,1882, 7.800 tons. Floating indebtedness, S13,000. No 
 stock or bonds reserved. Stock quoted. April 1, 1882, S2. This in- 
 formation was furnished by C. F. Conrad, Gen. Manager of the Dayton, 
 Dexter, and other mining companies of Marquette, Mich. 
 
 Cox nasTnetlc Iron Ore Mines (The), ownod by D. W. Cox, 
 are located two miles east of Dellsburg, York county. Pa., and cover an 
 area of 176 acres. The plant comprises twelve h. p. engine and 
 twenty-two h. p. boiler, quite new. Two feet stroke six in. oyl. Smedley 
 pumping engine for keeping the mine clear of water. Entrance is by 
 slope, which is now down 170 feet inthevein. Atsixty feet perpendicular 
 below surface, vein averages six and one-half feet thick; width not 
 proven. Output, 600 tons per month. The ore is magnetic iron, forty- 
 six per cent, low in sulphur, with scarcely a trace of phosphorous. This 
 information was furnished by the owner of the mJne, Mr. Cox. 
 
 Connellsviile Coke and Iron Company (The) is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of Pennsylviinia. The officers are Hon. John 
 Leisensing, Pres. ; E. B. Leisensing, V.-Pres. ; Superintendent and En- 
 gineer, J. K. Taggart; Consulting Engineer, E. K. Hyndman; Sec. and 
 Treas., W. B. Whitney. Directors, Hon. John Leisensing, E. B. Leisensing, 
 Audenried, Mauch Chunk ; F. A. Potts, N. Y. City ; Saml. Dickson, Phila- 
 delphia; John S. Wentz, Eckley, Pa.; M. S. Kemmerer, Mauch Chunk; 
 Henry McCormick, Harrisburg ; Dan. Bertsch, Upper Lehigh ; John Fritz, 
 Bethlehem, Pa. Date of annual election every second Thursday in 
 February. The Connellsville mines are located at Leisenring, Fayette 
 county. Pa. The property having an extent of about 8,000 acres. Organ- 
 ized, March 5, 1880, Developments commenced same time. Shaft now 
 375 feet deep. The capital of the company is represented by 24,850 shares 
 of SoO each. This information was furnished by W. B. Whitney, Sec. and 
 Treas. of the Connellsville Coke and Iron Company. 
 
 XmOSO- .A.:Da-I3 C3-C3Xi33. 
 
 Snmntflt Slinin^ Company (The). Company not incorporated. 
 Officers, E. K. Hill, Sec'y and Gen. Manager. Dale of annual election, 
 September 15, 1882. The name of mine belonging to this company is 
 the Summit; located near Summit House, Fosten Barr, Juba county, 
 California. Extent of claim, 3,000 feet. Thirty acres of land owned. 
 Pure ferreous sulphurets, ore easily reduced, assaying$821 to 81.000 per ton. 
 True fissure veins, carrying very littlemetal, except gold and iron. Shaft, 
 ninety feet. Tunnel, 225 feet. Length of main lode, 3,(W0 feet. Average 
 width of vein, three and a half feet. One tunnel and one shaft. Develop- 
 ments were commenced. September 1, 1881. Amount expended in devel- 
 oping property, 9600; 2.000 tons in sight carrying nearly ten per cent.; 
 sulphurets evenly distributed ; lowest assay, $21 per ton ; estimated to 
 average, $30. Cost of mining and milling not over $1 per ton. Date of 
 organization, September It, 1881. Floating indebtedness, $100. Stocks 
 and bonds heldj>rincipally in Yuba county, California. The mine is for 
 sale on bond. This blank was filled out by B. K. Hill, Secretary Summit 
 Mining Company, Brownsville, Yuba county, California. 
 
 C3-OXj3=». 
 
 Shawmnt Gold <tnartz Minings Company (The) is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of California. The officers are Ira P. 
 Kankin, Pres. ; S. O. Putnam, Joel Merchant, Joseph S. Bacon, Sec., all 
 of San Francisco, and Thos. H. Bacon, Treas., of Boston. The annual 
 election is held last Thursday in October. Transfer office is at 316 Cali- 
 ibrnia Street, San Francisco ; the head and branch offices are at San 
 Francisco and at 22 Congress Street, Boston. The company owns the 
 Shawmut mine, located near Murpnys, Calaveras county, Cal., and is 
 supposed to be on the same lode with the famous Sheep Ranch mine, hav- 
 ing an extent of 2,200 feet on the lode. The ore is of excellent (juality, 
 containing quartz, some quite disintegrated. Assajrs from working give 
 from $15 to $51 per ton. All the mineral, consisting of gold quartz, is 
 above the water level. The mining plant consists of a ten-stamp mill of 
 most improved pattern, and the necessary buildings. There is a splendid 
 water service of over 300 feet head, for operating, hoisting, and pumping 
 machinery which dispenses with steam-engines and boilers and their 
 attendant expenses and risks. The entrance to mine is by tunnel 302 
 feet in leng;th and two adits 189 and 181 feet respectively. Thepay streak 
 varies in width from six inches to four feet. The three tunnels are con- 
 nected Dy air shafts and ore shutes. Developments commenced in March, 
 1879, since which time, $23,170 has been expended ; this amount includes 
 the cost of the stamp-mill. The present prospect of the mine is consid- 
 ered favorable, although nothing has been done during the present year. 
 The work so far has only been of a preparatory character, so that no re- 
 port can be given as to cost of mining and milling or of the productive 
 capacity of the mine. Organized in July, 1878 ; capitalization, $500,000 
 in 50,000 shares of $10 each, assessable; no dividends have been paid or 
 assessments levied. Stock not listed, none in market ; stock held chiefly 
 in Massachusetts and California. This information furnished by Thos. 
 H. Bacon, Treasurer of the Shawmut Mining Company. 
 
 Garfield Mining' Company (The), of which the following are 
 the officers, etc. : Directors, Galush Anderson, Pres. ; John S. Williams, 
 Vice-Pres. ; Geo. H. Leonard. Sec. and Treas. ; C. H. Anderson, Supt. of 
 mines; Allen D. Griflith. C. B. Nelson, Geo. G. Allen, Richard A. Clark, 
 Andrew Cummings. L. J. Burrell. Executive committee : John S. Wil- 
 liams, Allen A. Griffith and Geo. H. Leonard. The company owns the 
 following claims: Charter Oak, Virginia, Bank of England, Columbia, 
 Garfield, Chicago, Lincoln, Herlech, Queen of the Valley, King of the 
 Valley, Boston, Jackson, Negaunee and Goldberg ; all located in the 
 Black Hills, Pennington county, Territory of Dakota, comprising a total 
 area of nearly 140 acres. There is already a force of fifteen men engaged 
 in pro-specting and developments in which about $10,000 has been ex- 
 pended. Organized at Chicago early in spring of 1882; capitalization, 
 $2,000,000, in 200,000 shares of $10 each. The company have a ten-stamp 
 mill which will commence working in July. This infiirmatioii was fur- 
 nished by Mr. C. H. Anderwood, Superintendent of the company. 
 
 South Spring Hill Gold-Mlnin;;; Company (The) is char- 
 
 tered under the laws of the State of Massachusetts. The officers are G. 
 T. Moore, Pres. ; A. L. Richardson, Treas. ; C. A. Parker, S. C. Morell and 
 E Hall, trustees ; J. R Tregloan, Supt., with fourteen years experience. 
 The transfer office is at Boston, Mass. The property of this company, the 
 South Spring Hill gold mine, is located at Amador ( ity, in Amador 
 county, Cal., and covers an extent of seventeen acres. The ore is a soft, 
 ribbon rock. The mine has a true fissure vein, carrying quartz, ihe 
 plant comprises steam hoisting works casting about $3,000. Depth ot 
 shaft is 350 feet; length of adits, 200 feet. The length of the main lode 
 on which the company depends for its supply of ore is 1,500 feet. Devel- 
 opments were commenced in May, 1878, and about $16,000 has been ex- 
 pended in same. The prospects are very favorable on the Moehee lode. 
 The estimated cost of milling is about $5 per ton. The company are now 
 only prospecting, but have a good store for a valuable mine. Organized, 
 May, 1878 ; capitalization, $5,000,000, shares, $50 each. This information 
 was furnished by Mr. J R. Tregloan, of Amador City, Cal. 
 
 Singleton UoId-MlniiiH' Company (The) is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of New York. Officers, Gen'l Thos. Jordan, Pre?.; 
 Sam'l Montgomery, Esq., V. Pres.; W. S. McGilton. Sec. and Treas. Trus- 
 tees, G. E. Montgomery, W. B.^Carpenter. Date of annual election, second 
 Saturday in March. Joseph D. Reed, Esiq.. Superintendent, with several 
 years' experience. Offices, 206 Broadway, N. Y. The property of the cora- 
 panv consists of the following claims, Singleton, Gowdy, Luckhart, Ham- 
 bletbn, all ad.ioining and contiguous, and having a total length of one 
 and a half miles, located one mile from Dahlonega, Lumpkin county, 
 Georgia. The ore is free gold. The mineralis found distributed in veins 
 and deposits. The company owns three mills, ag;gregating thirty-five 
 stamps, and twelve miles of canal for hydraulic mining ; two shafts, three 
 tunnels als© worked from open cuts. Length in feet of the main lode 
 upwards of a mile, nine feet wide. Developments commenced in 1880, 
 $75,000 having been expenses on same. The property is considered un- 
 trinsically worth more than its capitalization. Mining and milling costs 
 fiftycents per ton. Maximum yearly capacity of production to April 1,1882, 
 100 tons per diem ; output weekly, 600 tons. Dahlonega forms the principal 
 market for the ore. Organized, 1880; capitalization, $300,000, or 300,000 
 shares of $1 each, non-assessable. No dividends have been paid, the 
 proceeds of the mines have been expended in building milUs and de- 
 veloping the property. No assessments have been levied ; no bonded or 
 other indebtedness. Stock reserved in treasury, April 1. 1882, $14,000. 
 No stock (juoted, none in the market. Stock and bonds held principally 
 in the cities of New York and Philadelphia ; ten stockholders owning all 
 the mines of the company. This information was furnished by Wm. T. 
 McGilton, Sec. and Treas. of the company. 
 
 Sierra Bnttes GoId-I)Iinln|; Company is chartered under the 
 htws of England. Thomas Preston is Superintendent, and has had an ex- 
 perience of ten years. Offices, London and San Francisco. Transfer 
 office, London, England. The company's mine the Sierra Buttes, is lo- 
 cated at Lima City, Lima county, California. The ore is free milling 
 quartz, yielding $6.00 per ton.' The character of the vein is true fissure. 
 'Phe property includes mills, boarding-houses, and workshops. The tun- 
 nel is 5,000 feet in length ; tliere are nine adits, that is levels; the main 
 lode is 6,000 feet long. Development of the property was commenced 
 during the year 1851. The mine has been worked since that time success- 
 fully without any assessments. The present company purchased the 
 property from Reis Bros., in 1870, at a cost of $750,000. The company are 
 only running one mill, fifty stamps now. Last March an avalanche car- 
 ried away the Hawk Mill, (thirty-stamp.) The vein is from five to thirty 
 feet in thickness, and is encased with slate on one side and serpentine on 
 the other. The croppings of the Sierra Buttes Mine are situated on the 
 top of a ridge 6,400 feet above the sea, fully 1,000 feet have been worked 
 out. The main slopes are now about 1,100 below the croppings, and about 
 1,000 feet above the bed of the South Yuta River. The mine is worked 
 entirely by adits or levels. The company have two main levels below 
 the present works, that are being pashed ahead with energy. All the 
 machinery is run with water-power. Turbine wheels are run with a 
 face of 650 feet. The total yield of the mine since its discovery is not 
 known, as regular accounts were not kept in early days, but the total 
 yield is estimated, judging from the data obtainable, to be close upon 
 $7,000,000. Mining and milling costs $4 50 per ton; weekly output April, 
 1882, 700 tons ; current value of the mine is $937,000. Date of organization, 
 1870 ; capitalization, $225,000 ; par value per share, $10 ; basis, non-asses- 
 sable ; yield (net) during 1881, $328,822 ; yield (gross tonS) during 1881, 
 47,423 tons ; total amount of dividends paid to July 1 , 1882, $1,407,496 ; date 
 of latest dividend, J uly 1, 1882 ; free from all indebtedness ; stock quoted 
 April 1, 1882, $7.50 ; stock listed on the Mining Exchange of London ; stock 
 and bonds held principally in England and California ; wages paid to 
 all classes of labor per week, $2,000. This information was furnished by 
 Mr. Thomas Preston, Superintendent of the Sierra Buttes Gold-Mining 
 Company. 
 
 Riverside Gold 4tuartz Mining; Company is chartered under 
 the laws«f the State of California. The owners are A. M. Starr and 
 Samuel Grove. Office, Starr, Grove &Co., 330 Pine Street, San Francisco, 
 California. Geo. A. Koch is Superintendent ; he has had an experience 
 of twenty-nine years. The company's mining property, the Riverside 
 mine, is located in Tuolumne county, California, fifteen miles from 
 Sonora wagon-road. The claim is 2,650 liy 600 feet. The ore is gold quartz, 
 free milling, with a small percentage of sulphurets. Easily saved, and 
 assays from $6 to $60 per ton. Average yield $50. Character of the vein 
 is " fissure," in slate iormation with granite contact or crossing. Total 
 depth from summit to level of tunnel now working, »)0 feet, to bottom 
 adit 450 feet more. The company's property includes one twenty stamp 
 water mill, air compressor giving power for drilling, patent drill, one 
 and a half mile of flume and ditch. There are three tunnels, each 600 
 feet in length , and the shafts are fifty and thirty feet deep. 'The main lode 
 is 2,550 feet in length. The vein is from three to sixteen feet in width. 
 There are four tunnels and two shafts. Date of commencing develop- 
 ments, 1852. There is a large amount of medium grade ore in sight, say 
 $100,000. The bottom adit will give about 600 feet of ore to extract on 
 slope of vein with a chute overhead of 600 feet in length. Cost of min- 
 ing and millingat present, $2.25; $1.75, when adit is in to vein. Maximum 
 yearly capacity ot production, April 1, 1882, $75,000. The ore finds a 
 market at the mill. The formation is tin slate, true fissure, without a 
 fault, except two horses of vein matter, which split the ore and crowded 
 it against each wall. It paid from surface to present level with shaft 
 fifty feet below, that showing a large body of richer ore than above. On 
 that showing adit was started. Chute of ore, 600 feet long, mostly .slopes, 
 out and milled; shaft on summit beyond the present chute shows large 
 vein, and it seems advisable to drive the upper tunnels to the top of new 
 chute, sinking shaft in tunnel to connect with bottom adit, and thus send 
 all ore trom above through shaft and adit to mill and have the mine in 
 shape for sixty-stamp new mill in about two years. The Riverside Gold 
 Quartz was discovered in 1862. and was successfully worked without 
 intermission, iu spite of high wages, until the mill was worn out, the 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1119 
 
 ownership changing as circumstances demanded. Starr & Grove haye 
 improved the property to a great extent. About $10,000 is required to 
 malte a great property of it, and it is thought by the superintendent that 
 witli free water-power and tunnel facilities it will be one of the greatest 
 gold mines on the coast. Capitalization, 8100,000. Par value per share, 
 SIOO. Basis, non-assessable. Yield (net) last three years, *78,000. No. of 
 assessments levied, 1. Amount of asses-sment levied about $12,000. Date 
 of first and latest assessment, during 1876, J12 per share. Bonded in- 
 debtedness, $96,000. This information was furnished by George A. Koch, 
 Manager of the Riverside Gold Qnartz Mining Company. 
 
 North State Mining Company (Tlie) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of New York. The officers are Franklyn Coit, Pres. ; 
 Amos Howes, Vice-Pres. ; B. M. Ennia, Sec. ; J. P. Wortz, Treas. ; which, 
 with A. B, Ennis, constitutes the board of trustees. Principal oflSce, 
 2 Morris Street, New York. The company owns the Hunnicutt mine, 
 located at Gold Hill, Eowan county. North Carolina. The claim includes 
 eight developed veins, the shortest being 160 feet on company's property, 
 the longest, 1880 feet. The gold ore is a talc slate intermixed witli quartz, 
 iron, and copper pyrites, quality varying from low to very high grade, 
 having produced from $10 to several thousand dollars per ton. The 
 mine has true fissure-veins. Very little machinery owned by company 
 in connection with mining plant. Depth of main shaft, 375 feet. Aver- 
 age of vein varies, one being twenty-eight leet. Developments com- 
 menced 1848 and were completed by 1856; amount expended on same be- 
 ing, to April 1, 1882, estimated at from $30,000 to $50,000; but much more 
 work has been done than the largest of these amounlis would pay for. 
 Some so-called experts, who can see through a rock, have estimated that 
 there is between one and two millions' worth of ore, which is absurd. 
 There is simply a reasonably certain pro.spect that when worked the 
 mine will produce fair average profits for many years. Cost of mining 
 and milling will not exceed $1.50; much can be mined and milled for 
 eighty cents per ton. T,here is an immense vein on this property twenty- 
 eight feet wide, which carries very evenly $10 gold per ton of ore, while 
 noneoftheveinsarebarren. Leads in carry at the rate of $50 to $75 per ton. 
 All of this mass will be worked. So far the mining operations have 
 always been conducted with profit. The company have not operated the 
 mine, lack of capital to purchase machinery being the sole cause. Or- 
 ganized April, 1879 ; capitalization, $500,000, m 100,000 shares, of $5 each, 
 non-assessable ; stock held principally in New York, This information 
 has been furnished by Franklyn Coit, President of the North State Min- 
 ing Company. 
 
 ICewcastle Oold-HIining Company. The directors are Charles 
 E. Allen, O. C. Burgess, E. G. Mathews, J. A. Eudkin, and H. G. Kuhl. 
 Office, rooms 33, 318 Pine Street, San FrancLsco, Cal. The company'spro- 
 
 Eerty is located in Yankee Hill mining district. Placer county, California, 
 ate of organization, May 5, 1882; capitalization, $50,000. 
 
 Nevnda City Oola Qnartz Mining Company is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of California. The officers are M. J. Shoe- 
 croft, Pres. ; J. W. Sprague. Vice-Pres. ; B. N. Shoecroft, Sec. and Treas. 
 Date of annual election, October 1. J. W. Sprague, Supt. Head office, 
 Nevada City, Cal, The mines owned are the Schmidt, or Nevada City 
 mine, the Luetje mine, and the Nevada City Extension mine, located in 
 Wood's Ravine, one and a half miles west oi Nevada City, Nevada county, 
 Cal. Extent of claim, 3,000 linear feet. The company's property covers 
 forty acres of land. The ore is bluish laminated quartz, carrying about 
 four per cent, suiphurets. The ore assays on an average about $20 per 
 ton. The character of the mines is described as true fissure vein on the 
 contact between slate and granite walls, which are smooth and well-de- 
 fined. The company's property includes one ten-stamp mill, three engines, 
 two boilers, four fine concentrators, and the usual complete equipment 
 for mining by steam-power, and coniplete equipment to run by water- 
 power. The shaft was 460 feet deep June 1, 1882, and levels about 2,500 
 ieet in length. The main lode is 300 feet in length, and the vein has an 
 avfcrage width of three and a half feet. There is one main shaft. The 
 company is running the third level as drain and exploration, and are ap- 
 proaching large ore bodies. The shaft is continued down with the inten- 
 tion of running levels at every 100 feet. Date of commencing developments, 
 May, 1879. Amount expended in developing property to April 1, 1882, 
 about $130,000. The prospects of the property are very flattering for the 
 immediate future. Will soon reach by drain tunnel large bodies of ore 
 hitherto untouched ; ore in sight now about $180,000, but will soon be 
 largely increased. More stamps will be added this summer. The ore is 
 milled at the mine and bullion sent to the United States Mint. Cost of 
 mining and milling per ton, $5. Maximum yearly capacity of production, 
 April 1, 1882, 6,000 tons ; can produce more if needed. The Schmidt claim 
 was discovered in 1866 ; very slightly worked to 1879, when the present 
 company bought it. The old owners took out about $80,000. The claim 
 known as the Nevada City Extension was known and worked back to 
 1850; many rich specimens have been taken out; one pocket of ore yielded 
 $7jOOO. None of the claims were worked systematically until bought by 
 this company. The company have opened up and developed the mine 
 and have it nearly on a dividend paying basis. Dividends are expected 
 within six months from July 1, 1882. So far the proceeds have been used 
 in paying for the mine, machinery, and developments, but the expecta- 
 tions are that it will make a large dividend paying property. Date of 
 organization, September 30, 1878 ; capitalization, $3,000,000 ; par value per 
 Share, $30; yield (net) to April 1, 1882, $83,400; company free from debt; 
 Stock is not listed on any boards ; stock held principally in New York and 
 California; wages paid to allclassesof labor, per week, $500. This infor- 
 mation was furnished by B. N. Shoecroft, Secretary and Treasurer of the 
 Nevada City Gold Quartz Mining Company. 
 
 Mono 0<»1<1 Mining; Company ('rtae)is chartered under thelawB 
 of the State of California. The officers are W. P. Willard, Pres. ; L. Teese, 
 Jr., Vice-Pres. ; Thos. Brown, Geo. W. Sessions and Joseph Clark. Annual 
 election is held first Thursday in September. H. Aug. Wliiting is Super- 
 intendent, of ten years' experience. No transfer office ; main office at •62 
 Nevada block, San Francisco, Cal. The property owned by the company 
 consists of the southern 750 feet of the same mines owned by the Bodie 
 Consolidated Mining Company, ^^z. : Burgess, Bruce, Granger, Gilded 
 Edith, Bodie Molly, Lucky Jack, and Fortuna, located in the Bodie min- 
 ing district, Bodie, Mono county, Cal. Extent of claim, 1,085 feet by 7.50 
 feet, or, thirty-five and a half acres. The veins are fissure, in a true por- 
 Tihyritic diorite. The shaft is down 590 feet vertically; there are 1,760 
 iFee't of adits. Length of main lode on which the supply of ore depends, 
 7^>0 feet. The undercround workings consist of shafts, cross-cuts, drifts, 
 winzes, and rises 5,550 feet of excavation. The lent shaft (in which the 
 company has a half interest) is down 975 feet. Developments were com- 
 menced about August, 1879, No work has been done through the old 
 shaft since September 1, 1880, the water inflow being so strong as to require 
 long and powerful pumpingmachinery, accordingly, this company joined 
 with the Bodie Consolidated Mining Company in the equiping and sink- 
 ing the "lent" shaft fitr the purpose of reaching and exploring that por- 
 tion of the Fortuna vein that extends into the Mono ground. Several 
 
 quartz veins were explored by the working from the old shaft, nearly all 
 carrying pay ore in small quantities,- but not in any exploitable body. 
 The most promising deposit was found at the 575-foot level, from which 
 we were driven by the water ; none of the old workings extended far 
 enough east to reach the Fortuna, from the northern bonanza of which 
 vein the Bodie Consolidated Mining Company has drawn its ore supply 
 during the past three years. Organized, August, 1879 ; capitalization, $5,- 
 000,000, in 50,000 shares of $100 each; assessable ; not yet productive. Sev- 
 enteen assessments levied, total, $422,500 ; latest assessment, June 2, 1882, 
 at twenty cents per share. No indebtedness; no stock reserve. Stock 
 quoted June 21, 1882, $1 per share. Stock held principally In California. 
 Stock listed on San Francisco Mining Exchange. Wages paid to miners, 
 $4 per day; wages paid to carpenters, $6 per day; wages paid to smiths 
 and other mechanics, $5 per day. This information was furnished by 
 Henry Augustus Whiting, Superintendent of the Mono Gold Company. 
 
 Magnolia Wold-Mining Company, of South Carolina, is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of New York. The offlcera are John Phil- 
 lips, Pres. ; John W. Gracrest, Sec. and Treas. ; James B. Tooker, Superin- 
 tendent; sixteen years' experience. Directors, John Phillips, E.S. Gross, 
 John W. Seacrest, James B. Tooker, B. F. Crook. Date of annual election, 
 May 1. Office, 48 Wall Street ; room, No. 8, New York. The company's 
 mines are the Broad river, Magnolia, and McSwain ; located in Broad 
 river Township, Hickory Grove, near Smith's Ford, S. C. The company's 
 property covers 200 acres. The ore is crystalized honey-comb quartz, 
 brown, carrying copper suiphurets. The ore assays $30, and suiphurets as 
 high as $162, There are six fine fissure veins on the property. The com- 
 pany owns one ten -stamp California pat. mill, thirty-horse-power engine 
 and buildings complete. The main shaft is 160 feet deep, and levels 600 
 feet in length. The vein has an average width of six feet. There are six 
 shafts and two tunnels. This company commenced the developing of the 
 projjerty January 1, 1880, and have expended for this purpose $10,000 to 
 April 1, 1882. The prospects of the property are the best, and improving 
 every day. Estimated value of ore in sight, ^0,000. Cost of mining and 
 milhng per ton, $2.90. The weekly output at April 1, 1882, was forty tons. 
 The company find a market for their ore at home. The mine was worked 
 in 1840-9 by a Chilian mill and arrastra, with good results ; again in 1867-8, 
 by a three-stamp steam-mill, and has been continually open and worked 
 spasmodically, with profit until the organization of Magnolia company, 
 which is now prospering. This mine also includes the old Arrow-wood 
 mine, and has paid from its first opening, although worked under great 
 disadvantages, and by crude and primitive methods and machinery. The 
 ore seems inexhaustible. Date or organization, January 1, 1880; capitali- 
 zation, $500,000; par value per share, $1.00: basis, non-assessable; yield 
 (tons) to April 1, 1882, 10,000 ; no dividends have been paid, nor assessments 
 levied ; treasury reserve, $100,000 ; stock quoted April 1, 1882, twenty cents ; 
 stock listed on the Philadelphia Mining Exchange ; stock and bonds held 
 in New York, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, and Ohio ; wages paid to all 
 classes of labor per week, $10. This information was furnished by James 
 B. Tooker, Superintendent of the Magnolia Gold-Mining Company. 
 
 Klamath 4lnartz Mining Company (The) is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of California. The officers are Wm. Willis, Sec, and 
 John Daggett, Supt. Directors, C. L.Waller, Pres. ; Robt. Graves and John 
 Daggett. The Superintendent has had an experience of twenty-two years. 
 The offices are at San Francisco. The property of the company consists of 
 the Klamath Mine, containing an area of 4,000 feet, and located on Klamath 
 Hill, Siskiyou county, Cal. The ore is a gold quartz, free-milling. The 
 mine is described as a true fissure vein, in black slate; it is worked by 
 tunnels, five in number ; the total length of adits 5,000 feet, average width 
 of vein, five feet. The mining plant comprises a thirty-two stamp-mill, 
 driven by water-power, but with an available steam-power in dry season, 
 a double reverberatory furnace for roasting suiphurets. Organized June, 
 1869 ; capitalization, 30,000 shares of $1.00 each, $30,000 ; yield to April 1, 
 1882, 32,979 tons of ore, net value, $413,358.73 ; yield during 1881, 1,964 tons 
 gross, net value, $12,679.52. This information was supplied by John Daggett, 
 yuperintendent of the Klamath Quartz-Mining Company, 
 
 Hillsboro Hydraulic Mining Company is chartered under 
 the laws of Wyoming Territory. The officers are S. L. Miley, Pres. ; W. 
 W. Corlette, Sec; E. 6. Converse, Treas.; Adolfo Chandon, Assistant Sec. 
 Date of annual election. May 13. G. M. Fuller, Supt. Head office, Chey- 
 enne, W. T. Branch office, Hillsboro, N. M. Branch and transfer office, 
 McKeesport, Pa. Transfer days at all times. The mines owned are the 
 Hillsboro Placer Mines, located at Hillsboro, Dona Ana county, N. M. Ex- 
 tent of claim, about 2,.';00 acres, Character of the mine.?, placer. The 
 washings during May showed an average of seventy-five cents' worth of 
 gold for every cubic yard of gravel washed. The company have a fifty 
 foot high dam, and eight miles lap-welded wrought iron pipe, manufac- 
 tured by National Tube Works Company. Date of commencing develop- 
 nients. May, 1882. Amount expended in developing property. May, 1882, 
 $200,000. Pi-incipal market for the ore. United States Assay Office, New 
 York ; $45,000 worth of gold was washed out by hand in a space less than 
 100 yards square. The gold is mostly coarse, and averages about 950 fine. 
 Date of organization. May 13, 1881 ; capitalization, $1,000,000 ; par value per 
 share, $50 ; basis, non-assessable ; no dividends have yet been paid ; com- 
 pany free &om all indebtedness, April 1, 1882; no stock or bonds reserved 
 m the treasury; stock and bonds held principally in Massachusetts and 
 Pennsylvania ; wages paid to all classes of labor per week. May 1, 1882, $14. 
 average. This information was furiiished by K C. Converse, Treiisurer or 
 the Hillsboro Hydraulic Hining Company. 
 
 Highland Chief Consolidated Mining Company (The) 
 is chartered under the laws of the State of Colorado. The officers are 
 J. B. Grant, Pres. ; S. H. Foss, V.-Pres. ; Horace Steele, Sec. ; Geo. W. 
 Trimble, Treas.; Geo. C. Steel, Asst. Sec'y and Agent. The annual 
 meeting is held first Monday of August. Head offices are at Leadville, 
 Col. The company owns three mines, the Highland Chief, Highland 
 Mary, and Bobbie Burns, located on Breece Hill, Leadville, Col., and 
 haying an extent of about thirty acres. The ore consists of sand and 
 hard carbonates, chlorides, and bromo-chlorides, and some copper ore 
 assaying from $10 to $500. The deposit is a carbonate, carrying gold, 
 silver, lead, and copper,lying under the porphyry and over the limestone ; 
 formation irregular and broken up where the main body of mineral lies 
 The entrance to mine is by tunnel, of 130 feet in length ; there are 2,600 feet 
 of adits. There are five shafts in addition to the entrance tunnel. The 
 mining plant and other property comprises two shaft houses, one ore 
 house, assay and office, smith's shop, and one thirty-horse power hoisting 
 engine and one forty-horse power boiler. The cost of mining and milt 
 ing varies from $8 to $18. Developments were commenced in August 1879 
 since which time the sum of $85,000 has been expended. The amount of 
 ore in the mine now in sight is estimated at $oO,(500. The ore is smelted at 
 Leadville. Average weekly output about ninetv tons. The main work- 
 ings are at a depth of about 130 feet from surface. The main working 
 shaft was sunk 290 feet deep, and the formation at bottom was broken 
 mains of iron with lime, talc, porphyry, a.<isaying the entire depth from 
 three to twenty-seven ounces silver. It is believed that a regular 
 
1120 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 formation lies still deeper, but on account of water encountered, the work 
 of sinking was suspended for a time, Organized, July, 187U ; capitali- 
 zation, *5U0,000, In 60,000 shares of $lu each. The net yield to April 1, 
 lSi'2, was $220,000, the value of 8,000 tons of ore. The yield during 1881 
 was $26,000; the gross yield during 1881 was 3,200 tons. No dividends 
 paid or assessments levied. Bonded indebtedness, SoO,000. No treasury 
 reserves. Stock quoted April 1, 1882, $1.7j; stock not listed; stock held 
 principally in Colorado, Lake county, Boston, and New York. This in- 
 formation was furnished by Geo. C. Steel, Agent of company. 
 
 Jlatbaway Hydraulic Oravel-Miiiing' C'oini>any is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of California. Tiie otlicers are J. O. 
 Eldridge, Pres. ; James H. Withington, Sec'y; Wesley Carroll, John M. 
 Moore, Thomas Redmayne. Date of annual election, February 5., Super- 
 intendent, Wesley Carroll; number of years' experience of the same, 23. 
 Branch and transfer office, 366 California Street, San Francisco, Cal. Names 
 of mines owned, Wesley Carroll, J. H. Withington, J. O. Eldridge, J. M. 
 Moore, and Thos. Redmayne, located at South Yuba river, Nevada county. 
 California, near the town of Washington. Extent of claim, three miles m 
 length, and from 300 to 800 feet wide. The company's property covers 640 
 acres. Nuggets are found, weighing from ?1 to 4300. Fine dust of gold is 
 scattered all through the gravel, assaying $18.1.5 per ounce. Character of 
 the mines, hydraulic, an ancient river bed, depth of gravel' on an average 
 eighty feet. They use about 3,000 inches of water, miners' measurement, 
 under 315 feet of pressure in iron pipe and a six feet flume to catch the 
 gold, and run off the gravel in. The company owns 112,000 worth of water 
 ditches, with free water-flumes, etc. ; value, $5,000, Date of commencing 
 developments, February 23, 1879. Amount expended in developing pro- 
 perty to April 1, 1882, $16,400. Prospects of the property are very good. 
 The gravel is very rich in gold ; $400 to the pan have been taken out in 
 many places. Cost of mining per ton from five to ten cents. San Fran- 
 cisco U. S. Mint is the principal market for the ore. Output weekly at 
 April, 1882, $2,500. The Hathaway mine embraces Scotchman's creek and 
 all its tributaries, and it will require twenty years to work it out at the 
 
 E resent rate of operations. The prospects are that the mine will pay much 
 etter when fairly opened. Nevada county has thousands of acres of 
 heavy deposits of rich gravel, and hundreds of acres of gravel are from 
 three to four hundred feet deep. The hydraulic mines are paying largely. 
 The company have a number of good paying quartz mines. Date of or- 
 ganization, February 5, 1879 ; capitalization, $4o,000. Yield (net) to April 
 1, 18»'2, $51,600, 3,000 ounces; yield (net) during 1881, $18,500. Number of 
 dividends paid to April 1, 1882, two ; total amount of dividends paid, $54,- 
 300; date of first dividend, September 5, 1881, amount, $18,300; date of 
 latest dividend, March 7, 1882, amount, $36,000, per share, $3.60. Number 
 of assessments levied, one ; total amount of assessment levied, $25,000 ; 
 date of first and latest assessment, February 6, 1879, amount per share, $2.50. 
 Company free from indebtedness. Bonds reserved in the treasury, $5,000. 
 No stock on the market ; stock and bonds all held in San Francisco, Cal. 
 Wages paid to all classes of labor, per week, $9 to $18. This information 
 was furnished by Wesley Carroll, Superintendent of the Hathaway Hy- 
 draulic Gravel-Mining Company. 
 
 Oolclen Age Itlinine Company (The) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of New York. The officers are Samuel Eddy, Pres. ; 
 Joshua C. Sanders, Treas., and Israel E. Payne, Sec. Annual election is 
 held 2d of May. Mr. James H. Pomeroy is Supt. Transfers can be effected 
 during all ofBce hours at the offices, 145 Broadway, N. Y. The company 
 owns the Golden Age mine, located at Central City, Gilpin county. Col. 
 The claim has an extent of 1,500 by 150. The ore is auriferous. Smelting, 
 $1.00 ; milling, $15. There are two shafts, 260 and 125 feet deep, respect- 
 ively. The vein, which is a true fissure, is of an average width of from 
 two to four feet. The main lode on which the company depends for its 
 supply of ore is 1,500 feet long. Developments were commenced in June, 
 1880, the sum of $28,499.31 having been expended on same. With regard to 
 the present prospect of the property, disinterested parties say the showing 
 is as good as any mine in Central City, considering the comparatively early 
 stage of the developments. It is calculated that there are about $50,000 of ore 
 in sight. The ore is sent to Central City to be milled, the company having 
 no mills of its own. The mine is being worked in a careful and substan- 
 tial manner, all the timbering in the shaft being for durability. The two 
 large engines and boilers are new and in perfect order. The houses are 
 fitted up in an improved modern fashion. There is also a large office, and 
 everything is very complete. Organized June 7, 1880 ; capital, $500,000, 
 in 100,000 shares of $5 each; net yield to April 1, 1882, $13,079; net yield 
 during 1881, $12,894 56; no dividends paid; no assessments levied; no 
 bonded or other indebtedness ; stock not listed ; stock held chiefly by 
 three trustees in N. J. This information was furnished by J. E. Payne, 
 Secretary of the company. 
 
 4'abcr Sllne (The), owned by William Waldfred Faber, ia sit- 
 uated in El Dorado county, Cal., about four miles north of Latrobe. 
 The claim comprises two parallel veins about twenty feet apart, and the 
 veins vary in size from six inches to two feet. Both veins are opened by 
 inclined shafts. At a point some fifty feet from the surface occurs a 
 nest, or chimney, from which the richest specimens of gold-bearing quartz 
 have been taken_, in which the metal greatly predominates over the min- 
 eral. The gold is of superior firmness, a mint certificate rating a lot of it 
 at .935. Property owned, hoisting works and pumps, arrastras. Mr. Faber 
 is superintendent, having had twenty-two years' experience. The shaft is 
 140 feet deep. Length of adits, that is levels, 200 feet. Date of commenc- 
 ing developments, 1880. Amount expended in developing property to 
 April 1, 1882, $4,000. The mine is a very promising one : five tons of ore 
 worked at a time with arrastras, paid as high as $88 per ton. Pieces of or- 
 have been taken from the mine weighing seventeen ounces, that wei*e 
 found to contain twelve ounces gold, .935 hue. The property is free from 
 any indebtedness. Yield (net) to April 1, 1882, $4,000. This information 
 was furnished by William Waldfred Faber, sole owner of the Faber mine. 
 
 Monster Qold Claim (The), owned by John Dunn and John Ej;- 
 rich, and the South Silver-mine, owned hy Mr. Dunn, are located in Ari- 
 zona ; the first named claim is situated in Winnefred district, ten miles 
 north of Phoenix, and the South Silver is located in Cave Creek district. 
 This mine is down ten feet, and showing up good ore. The ore in the 
 Monster Gold gives a gold assay of fifty-one ounces to the ton. Length of 
 adits, that is levels, thirty-four feet. The main lode on which the com- 
 pany depends for its supply of ore is sixty-one feet. The vein has an 
 average width of two feet. The development of the property was com- 
 menced January 1, 1882. There are pleiitjr of good gold-mines in Winne- 
 fred district, fifteen miles north of^ Phcenix, but no i-tipitul to work on. 
 The other mines, four miles north of them, are new property and show 
 up well. The South Silver is a promising silver claim, with six feet of 
 vein, gray copper, and bromine. A good investment. Any persons with 
 a little capital wishing to invest will be given every show to do so. The 
 company was organized January 1, 1881. Wages paid to all classes of 
 labor per week, April 1, 1882, $24. This Information was furnished by 
 John Dunn, one of the owners of the property. 
 
 Dutch CrecU mining; Company (The) is chartered under the 
 
 laws of the State of North Carolina. The officers are, J. C. Pennington, 
 Pres. and Treas. ; J, J. Newman, Sec. and Supt. ; directors, J. W. iLngland, 
 T. F. Haxsy, John C. Pennington. Wm. Pennington, J. J. Newman. The 
 Superintendent, J. J. Newman, has had six years' experience in his occu- 
 pation. Head and transfer office, Salisbury, N. C. ; branch office. Sun 
 Building, room 3, New York. The Dutch Creek Mine, owned by this com- 
 pany, is located ten miles south-east of Salisbury, N. C. To this company 
 belongl66 acres of land. The ore found is brown ore, with gold, containing 
 i ron pyrites. It assays from $5 to $1 ,000 per ton. Character of the mine, fls- 
 sure-veins, mostly quartz, with brown ore and iron pyrites, and some 
 slate veins. The vein matter carries abundance of sulphurets, some sil- 
 ver and copper. Though most of the gold is in quartz, it is also found in 
 talcose schists.and argillaceous slates. Some of the ore is very rich, but 
 calculations are based on working a large quantity of low-grade ore. There 
 are about twenty parallel veins, mostly quartz. Will work ores by chlor- 
 ination. Works erected, and will commence running about July, 1882. 
 There are two shafts, forty-five and sixty-fiv6 feet. Length of adits, that 
 is levels, 1,000 feet. Length in feet of the main lode on which the com- 
 pany depends for its supply of ore, 3,000. Average width of vein, three 
 feet. Aggregate of shaft, winze, and tunnel, 1,200 Jeet. Date of commenc- 
 ing developments, 1881; amount expended in developing property to 
 April 1, 1882, $5,000. It is estimated there are 20,000 tons of ore in sight, at 
 $10. Cost of mining and milling, $2.50 per ton. Principal market Sir ore, 
 home market. No milling has yet been done. Date of organization, Oc- 
 tober, 1881; capitalization, $150,000; par value per share, $100; basis, non- 
 assessable; yield (gross tons) during 1881, 600; stock and bonds held 
 principally in New York, New Jersey, and North Carolina. This informa- 
 tion was furnished by J. J. Newman, Sec. and Supt. of the Dutch Creek 
 Mining Company. 
 
 Consoli<lated Golden DevelOftmentCompany (The) is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of Maine. The officers are Geo. F. Field, 
 Treas. ; S.W. Sargent, J. G. Philips, B. E. Perry, and C. D. Jenkins. Mr. 
 Benton Jones, of thirty years' ejcperience, is the superintending foreman. 
 The offices are at Portland, Me. "rhe company owns the Three Sisters, Nos. 
 1, 2, and 3 (gold), and the Jenkins (silver); located, the gold mines are at Oro 
 near Clifton, Arizona Territory ; and the silver mine at Silver City, N. M., 
 covering a total area of 120 acres. The;ore of the gold mines is a decomposed 
 quartz, and that of the silver mine is metamorphic, yielding or assaying $116 
 to $198 gold, $60 silver. The gold mines are fissures between porphyrywalls, 
 the silver mines are contact veins between limestone and porphyry. The 
 mines are thoroughly equipped, a twelve-stamp mill is just now being 
 erected at the R. K. terminus ; depth of shafts or funnels respectively, 150 
 feet, forty feet, thirty-four feet, forty feet, twenty-eight feet, and thirty feet; 
 average width of vein five feet. The underground workings are operated 
 by tunnels. The length of main lode on which the company depends for 
 itesupply of ore is 4,500 feet. Developments were commenced in June, 
 1881, and about $80,000 has been expended on same. The first tunnel is 
 700 feet from the apex of the mountain, and has six openings five feet wide. 
 The Silver City property, not sufficiently developed to warrant high ex- 
 pectations, but it adjoins the Old Timer, a valuable property. The cost of 
 milling the gold ore is $5, and the silver ore about $10. The weekly out- 
 put is about sixty tons of ore, which is milled by the company. In the Ari- 
 zona mines the work can be done by tunnel and slope, and the mill driven 
 by water-power. The fissure is well defined and developed the full length 
 of the claim, 4.600 feet. It is intended to increase the working force as 
 soon as the mill is completed. The Superintendent states that the amount 
 of ore is limited only by the number of men employed. Organized, March, 
 1882 ; capitalization, $400,000, $2 shares ; assessable or non-assessable at the 
 discretion of the directors ; stock reserved in treasury, $100,000 ; stock 
 quoted $1, April, 1882 ; stock held principally in Massachusetts ; stock 
 listed, Boston Mining Exchange ; wages paid to all classes of labor pec 
 week, April 1, 1882, $3 to $3.50. This information was furnished by one of 
 the officers of the company. 
 
 Conrad Hill Gold and Copper-Mining Company (The) is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of North Carolina, The offlcera are 
 Jas. Bryce, Pres.; Washington Booth, V.-Pres. Date of annual election. 
 May. The Superintendent is Mr.Jas. E. Clayton,who has had fourteen years 
 experience. The transfer office is at Baltimore. Transfer days every 
 working day of the week. The company owns two mines, the Conrad Hill 
 and the Dodge Hill, located in Davidson county, N. C. The claims have 
 an extent of two miles, the acreage being 357. The ore is free-milling, and 
 assays from $5 to $500 per ton. The character ofthe mine is described as fis- 
 sure, there being seven main veins. Depth of shaft, 300 feet ; length of 
 adits, 1,'200 feet; average width of vein from eight to nine feet. There are five 
 shafts or tunnels. Developments were commenced in June, 1880, since 
 which time there have been expended $125,000. There is a large body of ore 
 in sight, but the value cannot be estimated. Cost of milling ranges from 
 $2 to $2.60 per ton. The bullion yield is sent to the United States Mint. 
 Organized, June, 1880; capitalization, $1,500,000 ; shares $5 each, non-asses- 
 saBIe ; mill just started has a capacity of $6,000 per month ; about 18,000 
 tons on the dump ; no bonded or other indebtedness ; $150,000 reserved in 
 treasury, A;)ril 1, 1882 ; stock quoted April 1, 1882, $190 ; stock held princi- 
 pally iniialtimore ; stock listed in Baltimore ; wages paid all classes of labor 
 per week, at April 1, 1882, $2,000. This information was furnished by Jas. 
 E. Clayton, Manager of the Conrad Hill Company. 
 
 Colorado Mining and J.,antl Company (The) is chartered un- 
 der the laws of the State of New York. There are thirteen trustees and 
 the following officers : Matthew Wetbeck, Pros. ; Gcn'l W. F. Rogers, 1st 
 V.-Pres., and W. H. Baker, 2d V.-Pres.; J. S. Buell, See., Treas., and Gen- 
 "?al Manager ; Franklin S. Buel, Assistant Sec. ; Alex H. Brown, H. H. 
 Heiser, and John Roberts, Finance Committee ; Chas. H. Daniels, Attorney; 
 Jas. Plant, 65 Pine Street, Now York City, Financial Agent. Date of annual 
 election, second Thursday in January. Thos. H. Kane is the Superinten- 
 dent, his experience extending over a period of liftcen years. The head 
 offices are at 50 East Seneca Street, Buflalo, N, Y. Branch office at Mineral 
 Point, San Juan county. Col. The transfer office is at Buffalo, N. Y., and 
 transfers can be effected any working day of the week.JThe company owns 
 "" "' ' ■ -. . ■ - . - -- ~ mple, 
 
 laims 
 
 , . - . , — --leore 
 
 IS a sulphuret, free-milling, and contains sliRlit traces of galena and cop- 
 per pyrites, gold and silver,the Inltcr predominating for the presenl. Assays 
 range from *5 at surface to over $300 at a depth, and picked samples $1,600. 
 The mines have true fissure veins, increasing in gold as depth is attained. 
 Average elevation about 11,000 feet above sea level, surrounded on all sides 
 by numerous rich mines, and within one mile of extensive and rich car- 
 bonate discoveries recently made upon Engineer Mountain, and probably 
 in the richest and most extensive mineral region ever discovered. Devel- 
 opments, in which $55,870 have been expended, were commenced about the 
 year 1874. The prospects ofthe property are cxooedingly promising, there 
 being a considerable body of oro in sight. Railroad fiirilities are gradually 
 being brought nearer, and when completed a market for the ore will bo 
 ' furnished. Nomillinghas so far been done. Oigaiiized, March '.^7, 1875; capi- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1121 
 
 talimtlon, 81,000,000 ; shares, 825 each, uon-assossable. The company issued 
 Its entire capital stock in payment for the properties, with the tacit under- 
 standing that provision should be made for their primary development 
 and equipment on a selfsuslaiuing basis. To Euarautee to the company 
 that this would be done, 30,000 shares of the full paid stock amounting to 
 8750,000 were placed in the hands of a Joint trustee forsale, to provide means 
 to carry out the objects contemplated. The company owns no stock what- 
 ever out of this reserve stock, 10,000 shares are only proposed to be sold, 
 leaving '20,000 to be held as a guarantee fund to provide for future emer- 
 gencies, or may be used in the purchase of additional property after divi- 
 dends from the original mines have been reached. Bonded indebtedness, 
 83,000 ; stock indebtedness, $432,350 j Floating indebteduess, about 81,400. 
 Stock reserved in-treasury, 8567,650. Bonds reserved in treasury 8«,000 ; 
 total, 8614,560. April 1, 1882. Stock held at 816 per share ; bonds held at 
 par; stock principally held in Colorado, bonds in Buffalo, N. Y. ; stock 
 not listed,the company ignoring stock exchaugesfas at present constituted) 
 as inimical to the true interest of legitimate mining. The average wages 
 paid to all classes of labor per week is about 83.50 per day. This informa- 
 tion was furnished by J. S. Buell, Secretary and Treasurer of the Consoli- 
 dated Mining and Land Company. 
 
 GaNtle Creek Gold Minings Company is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of New York. The officers are A. P. Stanford, Pres. ; John 
 R. Murphy, Vice-Pres. ; Justus C. Hall, Treas. ; John R. Murphy, Sec. Date 
 of annual election, May 29, 1882 ; Superintendent, E. S. Taylor. Mr. Taylor 
 has had twenty years ejrperience in his occupation. Branch office, 58 
 Broadway, room 25, New York; transfer office, Mutual Trust Company, 115 
 Broadway, New Y'ork ; transfer daysj every day except Sunday, or when 
 notice is given. The company's mines, or gravel bars, viz.: the Castle 
 Creek, Sea Gull, Mud, Cornucopia, Diamond, and Taylor, are located in 
 Ada and Owyhee counties, Idaho, on Snake river. Amount of property 
 in acres, 680. The gravel is line, with no boulders or large rocks, and the 
 gold found is very fine and light ; assays per cubic yard, thirty cents. The 
 character of the mines is placer or hydraulic. The company own one 
 canal, three and a half miles in length, capacity 1,000 inches, otie set of 
 sluices, and amalgamating plates and water rights. Date of commencing 
 developments, November!, 1881. The water supply and gravel bare are 
 inexhaustible. The company are producing 8136 per day with one set of 
 sluices, and intend putting in five or six sets as soon as possible, which 
 will increase production proportionately. Costof miningperday isabout 
 88, the work requiring but three men per day to the sluice, and some little 
 quicksilver. Aiaximum yearly capacity of Jiroduction, April 1, 1882, 843,- 
 200 ; weekly output at April 1, 1882, 8900. The company ship their gold 
 direct to Ogden, W. T. Since the opening of the mine, November 1, ithas 
 produced 83,600 monthly, but the company only, claims dividends since 
 the company was organized, the property previous to that time was owned 
 by the original locators, and the product was retained by them. In addi- 
 tion to the located ground, the company's water-right controls 680 acres 
 of the same quality of gravel. The gravel requires no treatment whatever, 
 except to be washed through the sluices and over amalgamating plates, 
 which take up the gold, while the gravel passes on with the water into 
 the river as " tailings." This company had a clean-up of one of its sluices 
 after a run of iifly-flve days with three men, which yielded 87,.505 to the 
 company ; this is an average of 8136 a day. Date of organization. May 22, 
 1882 ; capitalization, 8100,000 ; par value per share, 81 ; full paid, non-as- 
 sessable ; yield (net) to April 1, 1882, 818,000 ; yield (net) during 1881, 87,200. 
 Date of first dividend, June 15, 1882; total amount, 83,000 , per share, three 
 cents ; date of latest dividend, June 15, 1882. Stock and bonds held prin- 
 cipally in New York ; stock not listed, but held by private parties for 
 dividends. Total pay roll per week, 842. This information was furnished 
 by John R. Murphy, Jr., Secretary of the Castle Creek Gold Mining Com- 
 pany, of Idaho. 
 
 Atlanta Hill Gold Hinln^ and milling Company (The) is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of New York. The officers are S. B. 
 Johnston, Pres. ; S. M. Cowpland, Vice-Pres. and Sec, and A. R. Chisolm, 
 Treas. The annual election is held first Wednesday in May of each year. 
 The mines are under the superintendence of Matthew Graham, who has 
 a mining experience of thirty-two years to recommend him. The offices 
 are at 61 Broadway, N. Y., transfer ofiices, same place. The company own 
 the Last Chance mine, located at Atlanta, Alturas county, Idaho. The 
 ore is free milling, carrying about three per cent, sulphurets, and assays 
 about 8100 per ton. The character of mine is described as a fissure vein. 
 The property includes ten-stamp mill, twenty-horse-power engine and 
 boiler, assay office, boarding-house, and five acres of ground at mill. 
 Depth of shaft, 160 feet; length of tunnel, 980 feet; of winzes, 125 feet, of 
 adits, 400 feet ; length of the main lode on which the company depends 
 for its supply of ore, 1,200 feet. Developments were commenced in August, 
 1881, about 818,000 having been expended. The prospects of the property 
 are good, there being a considerable quantity of ore exposed. Cost oj 
 mining and milhng, from 810 to 815. The company mill their own ore ; 
 the bullion is sent to New York city. Organized, 26 May, 1881 ; capitali- 
 zation, 8100,000 ; shares, each 85, non-assessable. Stock held principally 
 in New York city. Average wages of miners per week of seven days, 
 828. This information was furnished by S. B. Johnston, Pres. of the At- 
 lanta Hill Gold Mining and Milling Company. 
 
 GrC3Xj33 .A.lNn> jS Z Xj "^T" X3 n. . 
 
 Bodle Consolidated Sllninisr Company (Thel is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of California. The officers are W. P. Willard, 
 Pres. ; Louis Teese, Jr., Vice-Pres. in San Francisco ; L. M. Jones, Vice-Pres. 
 ill New York ; Thos. Brown, W. F. Herrin, Geo. W. Sessions, and Jos. Clark. 
 Annual election is held third Monday in June. Henry Augustus Whiting 
 is superintendent ; he has had ten years' experience. Head office is at 62 
 Nevada block, San Francisco; branch office, 137 Broadway, New York; 
 transfer office, Laidaw & Co., New York. The company owns the follow- 
 ing mines : The Burgess, Bruce, Granger, Gilded Edith, Bodie Mollie, Lucky 
 Jack, Fortuna, and Euterpe ; also, one mill site and tliree placer claims, 
 all located in the Bodie mining district, Bodie, Mono county, Cal. The 
 total area.of claims is thirty-five and a half acres of quartz mining and 
 about thirty-five acres of placer. The ore contains native gold, argentite, 
 kerargyrite. carbon, "water level" and native silver in a quartz gangue 
 and assays in gold, 817 and silver, 832—879 per ton. This is the average of 
 the ore milled during the year ending May 31, 1882. The vein is a fissure 
 in a porphyritie diorite ; it has a strike about North 30° West by South 30° 
 East (mag.), with dip varying from 25° N. E. to 45° N. E., the steeper dip 
 obtaining generally in the lowest workings. Both in dip and in strike the 
 vein crosses the stratification or jointin,gs of the country. The ore adheres 
 tightly, or, in mining parlance, is " frozen " on to the walls, and the vein 
 shows generally a combed structure. The pitch of the new silver ledge is 
 very sharp to the east, and the rock hard. The Bodie's old shaft is 250 
 feet deep; Bodie new, 450 feet; lent shaft (6-22-'82), 975 feet, all vertical. 
 There is also a main incline from 4,320-foot level, 332 feetrlong, the bottom 
 
 71 
 
 of which is 618 feet vertically below collar of Bodie new shaft. Total 
 length of adits, about 13,000 feet. The length of the main lode on which 
 the company depends for its supply of ore is 500 feet at 6-10-foot level on 
 which the shoot is longest. Average width of vein, about twelve inches. 
 There are three shafts, named above. Since March 13, ore and waste 
 have been brought to bank only through the lent shaft. The underground 
 workiujiis consist of three levels from new shaft at 206, 300, and 432 feet 
 respectively, with cross-cuts, drifts, winzes, and rises. From 4:i2-foot level 
 to 618-foot level, extends a main incline 332 feet long in a westerly direc- 
 tion and under the Fortuna vein, and ftom it, at six incline levels, run 
 drifts, cross-cuts, etc. These workings recently connected with those 
 deeper team, lent shaft. In all, with lent shaft and levels, etc. therefrom, 
 there are about 1,675 feet of shafts (vertical), 600 feet of winzes and rises, 
 13,000 feet of drifts and cross-cuts; also, slopes ftom above the 206-foot 
 level to the 640-foot level. Developments were commenced In July, 1877. 
 The present expense of working, per month, is about 815,000. The mining 
 plant and other property at surface consist of one ten-stamp mill with 
 pans, settlei-s, etc., hoisting works at Bodie new shaft, complete, also, half 
 interest in the lent shaft hoisting works, furnished with a horizontal, di- 
 rect acting pumping engine, (40^iich cylinder, uncompounded eight-foot 
 stroke), four twelve-inch plungers and one fourteen-inch lift pump. There 
 is now in couree of erection, a hoisting engine with two sixteen-inch cyl- 
 inders, thirty-six-inch stroke, geared. The actual output, per week, is 
 about 165 tons, which, at $59.26 per ton, realizes about 810,000. It may be 
 interesting to mention that the main vein— the Fortuna— is faulted in 
 many places, the throw varying from a few inches to about fifty feet, the 
 latter fault is between the 550 and the 650-foot levels of the lent shaft. All 
 of these faults obey Schmidt's rule of the obtuse angle. With the richest 
 ore, the gangue is a mixture of quartz and porphyry, and frequently the 
 wall-rocK is enriched fi-om the vein in a laminated casing fhim one to six 
 Inches tliick. The necessity of sinking the lent shaft and of fully equip- 
 ping the same with pumping and hoisting machinery capable of operating 
 to a depth of 2,000 feet vertically, has operated to increase expenditures 
 during the past two years much above the average of the ordinarj' mining. 
 Organized, June, 1878, as successor of the Bodie Gold Mining Company, 
 which was organized early in 1877. Capitalization, 810,000,000,8hareseacn, 
 8100, assessable. The production under the original company was 81,- 
 162,346.75; the production under the present company was 81,626,885.42; 
 the total yield of the mines to April, 1882, being 82,789.232.17, all in silver 
 and gold bullion. Yield during 1878, 81,042,236.80 ; yield during 1879, 8761,- 
 067.12; yield during 1880, 8429,817.80; total, 82,'236,121.72; yield for fiscal 
 year, 1881-2, was $106,158.25. Amount of dividends paid to April, 1882, 81,- 
 200,000 ; date of latest dividend, March, 1880, amount, at twenty-five cents 
 per share, 825,000. Number of assessments levied, three ; total amount of 
 same, 8125,000. Of the three assessments, the first and third were fifty 
 cents each, the second, twenty-five cents. The company has no bonded 
 or other indebtedness, and there are no stock or bonds In treasury. Stock 
 quoted about $6 per share April, 1882 ; stock held principally in California 
 and New York ; stock listed at San Francisco and New York. The above 
 information was furnished by Henry Augustus Whiting, Superintendent 
 of the Bodie Consolidated Mining Company. 
 
 Ward Gold and Silver JHinln;; Company (The) has property 
 in the Virginia District, Comstock Lode, Nevada. Capitalization, 811,- 
 000,000, in 110,000 shares, of $100 each. No dividends paid; five assessments 
 levied ; total, 8198,000 ; latest assessment, 10th December, 1879. 
 
 Bnckeye Water and Hydraulic 9Ilntn$r Company (The) 
 is chartered under the laws of the State of California. The officers are 
 S. K. Holman, Pres.; W. A. Stephens, Vice-Pres., and W. H. Lowden, Sec. 
 The annual election is held first Monday of May in each year. The Presi- 
 dent is acting as Superintendent. The head offices are at 213 Sansom Street. 
 San Francisco, Cal. The transfer office is at same address. Transfers can 
 be eflfected on all business days. The company owns the following mines 
 or claims: Washington, Monroe, Madison, Jefferson, Cunningham, Tolly 
 Hill, Buckeye, Centennial, Livingston, Lower Tolly, Blagrave, Hollmaii 
 & Kipp, located in Trinity county, Cal., covering an area of 1,660 acres. The 
 mines are described as " placerj" or hydraulic. There is a saw-mill and 
 the usual buildings necessary for mining. Developments were commenced 
 in 1875, the sum of 8328,333.49 having been expended in same. Prospects 
 are good. The company have no nulling machinery. Organized, 10th of 
 May, 1875 ; capitalization, 83,000,000 ; shares each, 8100 ; assessable basis ; 
 yield net to April 1, 1882, 818,070.25 ; yield net during 1881, 895.01 ; no divi- 
 dends have been paid ; number of assessments levied, four; total amount 
 of same, 8120,000; date of first assessment, October, 187B; amount per 
 share, fifty cents ; date of latest assessment, November 10, 1881 ; amount 
 per share, fifty cents; bonded and other indebtedness at April 1, 1882, nil ; 
 stock and bonds reserved in treasury, April 1, 1882, nil ; stock not listed ; 
 stock held principally in San Francisco and New York ; wages paid to all 
 classes, $285 per week. The above information was furnished by W. H, 
 Lowden, Secretary of theBuckeveWaterandHydraulicMinlngCompany 
 
 Colnmbns Consolidated mininar Company (The) is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of California. The officers are A. G. 
 Gudnett, Pres. ; John D. Conghlin, Vice-Pres.; J. M. Bufflngton, Sec; S. 
 B. Melroy, Supt., of eight years' experience. Date of annual election, 
 first Tuesday of August. The head and transfer offices are at 309 Califor- 
 nia Street, San Francisco. Cal. Transfers can be effected daily. The mines 
 are the Leo, .'Secretary, Mountain Green, and Mount Castle, all lorated 
 in the Columbus District, Esmerald county, Nevada. Extent of claim, 
 200 by 1,500 feet. The ore is free milling, a mill asfsay of 3,000 tons aver- 
 aging 83 per cent. The character of the mine Is described as a fissure- 
 vein with slate and granite walls. The ore yields silver and a small 
 percentage of gold. 'The mine is fitted with hoisting machinery with a 
 sinking capacity of 1,000 feet. Depth of shafts, twehtv-flve feet, thirty- 
 five feet, and sixty five feet, respectively. Average width of vein, seven 
 feet. Developments were commenced in 1876, the sura of S!,650 having 
 been expended on same up to April 1, 1882. The property Is considered 
 one of the best in the State of Nevada for amount of work done and 
 money expended. The cost of milling is $14 per ton. Organized, July 
 1880; capitalization, 8100,000; shares each, 8100; basis, assessable; lio 
 bonded or other Indebtedness ; stock reserved in treasury, 820,000 ; stock 
 listed, San Francisco, Cal., but not called by order of the board of directors 
 This information was furnished by Mr. R. B. Milroy, Supt. of the Colum- 
 bus Consolidated Company. 
 
 Iowa and Arizona Gold and Silver Mlnlns: Company is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of Iowa. The officers are H' L 
 Kan, Pres.; F. Hashman, Vice-Pres.; F. M. Kyte, Sec; W. G. Agnew 
 Treas., and board of thirteen directors. Date of annual election, second 
 Tuesday of September. Office. Osceola, Iowa. The mines owned are the 
 Ostrich, Teresa, and Fresnol. located in Arivaca district. Pima county 
 Arizona, near Baboqnoin Mountain. There are 1,.'iOO by 600 feet in each 
 claim. Their property covers sixtv-two acres of land." The ore is free 
 milling. Fire as.-iay: Teresa. 828 silver, 85 gold; Ostrich, 845 sih'er 810 
 gold : Fresnol, 8316 silver, 810 gold. The above assays were taken at the 
 surface. Character of the mines is described as fissure. The vein has a 
 
1122 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES.' 
 
 Fc 
 
 width of from two to four feet. No shafts have yet been sunk on the 
 property, nor any underground developments as yet made; so it is Im- 
 
 Sossible to say as to the prospects of the property. Date of organization, 
 larch 1, 1882 ; capitalization, 81,000,000; par value per share, 820; basis, 
 non-assessable. Company free from all indebtedness, April 1, 1882. Slock 
 quoted April 1, 1882, S5 per share. Stock held principally in the State of 
 Iowa. This information was furnished by F. M. Kyte, Secretary of the 
 Iowa and Arizona Gold and Silver Mining Company. 
 
 l^one Sffonntaisi Gold andl Stil ver MiiiiBBg: Company is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of Indiana. The oiHcers are J. W. 
 J3ooth, Pres. ; James Martin, Vice-Pres. : James M. Watts, Sec: Johnie 
 Lathrop, Treas. Directors, J. W Booth, Johnie Lathrop, James M. Watts, 
 James Martin, W. B. Booth, E. J. Booth, Judce (jould. Date of annual 
 election, November 11. Superintendent, W. B. Booth. Offices, Delphi 
 and White Oaks, New Mexico. Transfer office, Delphi, New Mexico. 
 The company owns the Delia, Lost Creek, Baby Mine, Opher, Anabel, 
 Hidden Crown, Modest Queen. Colorado, Hoosier Boy, and Middle Lode 
 Mines, located at White Oaks, New Mexico. Extent of claim, 600 by 15; 
 amount of property in acres, 220. The minerals found are gold and silver. 
 Highest assay per ton, gold, 8600 ; silver S300. The character of the mines 
 is described as Assure vein with granite walls. The Delia shaft is fifty 
 feet deep, and the Colorado shaft forty feet. The tunnel on Hoosier Boy 
 is seventy-five feet in length. The vein has an average width of six feet. 
 Total number of shafts, five. Development of the property was com- 
 menced during the month of February, 1882, and $20,000 have been ex- 
 pended in developing property to April 1, 1882. The prospects of the 
 property are good. Date oi organization, November, 1881 ; capitalization, 
 51,000,000 : par value per share $10 : ba-sis, non-assessable. Company free 
 from indebtedness, April 1, 1882. Treasury reserve $1,000,000. No stock 
 has been sold. Wages paid to all classes of labor, $3 per day, April 1, 1882. 
 This information was turnished by the Lone Mountain Gold and Silver 
 Mining Company. 
 
 Narraicansett Gold and Silver mining Company (The). 
 The incorporators are Ebeuezer Read, V. C. Halley, George Brooks, H. B. 
 Chamberlain. The company's property is located at Clear creek, Col. The 
 company has n capitalization of K2,00O,OOO. 
 
 Pfewark Gold and Silver Alining Company. The com- 
 lany's property islocatcdin Ely district, Lincoln county, Nev. The main 
 ode is 800 feet in length. Capitalization, $3,200,000 ; par value per share, 
 $100 ; number of assessments levied, fourteen ; total amount of assessment 
 levied, $312,000; date of latest a,ssessment, March 13, 1878. 
 
 Korth America Mining; and Developine Company is char- 
 tered under tlie laws of the State of Comiecticut. Office, 61 Broadway, New 
 York. The company's mine, the Fanny Barrett, is located at Loveland 
 Hill, Col. The company has 240 acres of land. The ore carries silver, gold, 
 and lead, and has a value of from $45 to $1,000 per ton. This company, by 
 its charter, is authorized to examine, report upon, develop, own, work, 
 and deal in mines and mining properties, andgenerally do all things nec- 
 essarj' or incidental to the prosecution of the business of the company, 
 and the proper management thereof. Under the charter, no individual 
 liability attaches to the stockholders. No stock will be issued at less than 
 its par value, and, being full paid, will not be subject to future assessment. 
 Date of organization, March, 1882. Capitalization, $1,000,000 ; par value, $26; 
 basis, non-assessable, fall paid. 
 
 Nortli Rapidon Gold and Silver mining; Company is char- 
 tered under the Isms of Nevada. The officers are Geo. VT, Keith, Pres.; 
 John Lathrop, Sec. ; J. D. Lewis, Treas. Trustees, C. Haub, William Max- 
 well, J. B. Matthews, W. Croninshieds. Date of annual election, October 
 1. Superintendent, William Maxwell. Head and transfer office, Dayton, 
 Lyon county, Nevada. Transfer days, all legal days. The company's 
 claim, the North Rapidon, is located at Palinyra and Indian Springs 
 Mining district, Lyon county. Nevada. Their property covers twenty-one 
 acres. The character of the ore is free quartz. The poor ore assays about 
 one part in gold to six in silver; the rich ore assaying about two-thirds 
 gold. Some cheap ore has been milled by free melting process, sixty-nine 
 per cent, yielding $11.57 per ton. The character of the mine is true fissure 
 vein. The company owns small hoisting works. The incline is 230-feet 
 long, and drifts about 180 feet. The main lode on which the company de- 
 pends for its supply of ore is at least 2,000 feet in length. The develop- 
 ment of the property was commenced in the year 1879. Amount ex- 
 pended in developing to January 1, 1882, $6,000. It contains a large body 
 of ore, assaying on an average, $11, with occasional pieces and bunches 
 assaying from $106 to $250. The ledge is from fourteen and a half to twenty 
 feet wide. The cost of hauling and working at Dayton in custom mill, 
 $10. If the company. had its own mill, it would not exceed $5. Dayton 
 is the principal market for the ore. The company do not claim to have 
 a mine, but do claim it is a good prospecL and are willing to give capital- 
 ists a good chance on it. 80,000 snares of the stock are held by fiVe per- 
 sons. Thousands of tons of low grade ore in sight, which will ulti- 
 mately be worked at a profit. The claim is in good condition, so that a 
 little money, say $5,000, would prove much. The title is A 1. In imme- 
 diate proximity are four patented mines, which can be bought or bonded 
 on reasonable terms. The stockholders invite an examination by com- 
 petent judges. ' Date of organization, June 10, 1880; capitalization, 
 $10,000.000 ; par value per share, $100 ; basis, non-assessable ; yield (net) 
 to April 1, 1882, about $2.000. 185 tons. No dividends paid to May, 1882. 
 Floating indebtedness, $.514.65, No stock or bonds reserved in the treasury. 
 Stock and bonds held principally in Lyon and Storey counties, Nevada. 
 Wages paid to all classes of labor per week, $9. This information wop fur- 
 nished by George Keith, President of the North Rapidon Gold and Silver 
 Mining Company. 
 
 ITorth Rowe Gold and Silver mining' Con>pany. The of- 
 ficers are W. S. Janney, Pres. ; W. J. Troth, Vice^res. ; Samuel Conway, 
 Jr., Treas. ; W. H. West, Sec. Directors, W. S. Janney, J. M. Rigs, W. J. 
 Troth, G. R. Vernon, W. H. West, R. Robertson, S. Conway. Jr. Offices, 
 Second and Market Streets, Camden, N. J., and 430 Walnut Street, Phila- 
 delnhia. Pa. The company's property is located at Cave Creek Mining 
 district, Maricopa county, Arizona. Capitalization, $1,000/)00; par value 
 per share, $5; basis, non-assessable; amount of stock reserved in the 
 treasury, 70,000 shares ; amount of stock issued, 130.000 shares. 
 
 Harvey, Ohicaf;o, Vesta, Success, and Black Jack mines 
 (The), owned by A. B. Han-ey, are located at Grantsville, Nye county, 
 Nevada. Extent of claim, 1,500 linear feet by 600 feet in width. The 
 Chicago shaft is seventy -two feet deep; Vesta shaft, 112 feet. Date of 
 commencing developments, 1880. The Cliicago, which is being developed, 
 joins the &mous Alexander mine in thcsoutn, 'This information was fur- 
 nished by the owner, A. B. Harvey. 
 
 Alexandria mining; Company (The) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of Michigan. The ofllcers are R. O. Wheeler, I'res. ; S. 
 Heavenrich, Vice-Pres. 'Trustees, S. Brady, H. P. Sanger, K. K. Staunton, 
 and T. W. Noble (Sec. and Treas.). Frank Robbins, M. E., Superintendent 
 and Resident Trustee. Mr. Robbins has had an experience of twelve 
 years as Superintendent. Head offices are at Bank block, Detroit, Mich. 
 
 Local offices, corner Clark and Main Streets, Eureka, Ner. Transfer of- 
 fices, at Detroit. The annual election is held on January 15. The com- 
 pany owns the Alexandria mine, located in Prospect Mountain, Eureka 
 district, Nov., extent of claim being 800 by 200 feet. The ore may be de- 
 scribed as composed of quartz, and carbonate of lead, and galena, the 
 assay value averaging about $45. The vein is a fissure in limestone, the 
 limestone lying between shales. The property attached to the mine con- 
 sists of lodging, boarding, and engine houses, and smiths' shop of stone, 
 eighteen huise-power engine and twenty-four horse-power boiler. The 
 sinkings are 400 feet down, the length of adits aggregates about 1,200 feet. 
 The length of the main lode on which the company depends for its supply 
 of ore is 800 feet. The underground workings consist of main shaft and dnfts 
 and cross-cuts from foot to hanging walls. The develojnnents were com- 
 menced in April, 1880, the amount expended in same being about $40,000. 
 The vein is cut by the Eureka tunnel and is producing ore as rapidly as it 
 can be hauled away from the mine by the pack trains, which convey it to 
 the Eureka company's furnaces, a ready market being thus afforded. This 
 vein is one of the three true fissures Ibund on Prospect Mountain, dis- 
 tinct veins lying in the broad ledge called The Gnat Belt, the latter being 
 decided a ledge by the U. S. Supreme Court. Funds are reserved in treas- 
 ury for purpose of building a road to the summit of Prospect Mountain, 
 when ore can be hauled in wagons to Eureka. There is also a fund for 
 the purchase of adjoining property. The company was organized Janu- 
 ary, 1880, on an unassessable basis, vdth a capitalization of $1,000,000, in 
 shares of $25 each. The mine has yielded to date (April, 1882,) a gross 
 product of $55,000 value. No assessments have been levied and the com- 
 pany is free from debt^ with funds in treasuiy. At the beginning of the 
 year the stock, hold principally in Detroit and Eureka, was quoted at $1. 
 The average rate of wages paid to all classes of labor is $4 per day. The 
 above information was furnished by Mr. Frank Robbins, M. E., Resident 
 Trustee of the Alexandria Mining Company. 
 
 Virg;inia Gold and Silver mining Company (The) is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of Colorado. The directors are T. M. 
 Avery, Pres. ; Samuel W. AUenton, Vice-Pres. and Treas. ; Geo. Schneider, 
 Sec. ; C. O. Avery, General Manager ; E. Florada, W. E. White, and W. 
 Spooner. Date of annual election, second Tuesday in January. Edward 
 Florada is Superintendent, and has had an experience of twenty-four 
 years. Head and transfer office, Gothic, Col. ; also, room 1, 76 E. Monroe 
 Street, Chicago. The company's mining property consists of two claims, 
 the Virginia, and West Virginia, 300 by 1,500 each, and one tunnel site, 
 the Virginia, 1,500 by 3,000, located one mile from Gothic, Gunnison 
 county^ Col. The ore is black and gray sulphurets, carrying some native 
 and wire silver, and assays from four ounces to 15,000 ounces silver per 
 ton, with occasionally some gold. Average of general run, 800 ounces sil- 
 ver to the ton. The character of the mine is fissure. At a depth of fifty 
 feet the vein is three feet wide between clearly defined walls. The pro- 
 perty includes boarding-houses, etc. There are three shafts, one sixty feet 
 deep, one 120 feet, and one forty-six feet. The tunnel is 460 feet in length. 
 The other lower workings aggregate 200 feet. The vein has an average 
 width of eight feet. Developments of the property were commenced 
 September, 1880. There is ore enough at hand to keep an ordinary 
 smelter firmace busy. The Avery smelter is only oue mile away. Date 
 of organization, March 13, 1882 ; capitalization, 3^,000,000 ; par value per 
 share, $10 ; basis, non-assessable ; no indebtediress ; treasury reserve, 30,- 
 000 shares; no shares on the market; stock and bonds held principally in 
 Chicago, HI. This information was furnished by the Virginia Gold and 
 Silver Mining Company. 
 
 Aztec mining Company (The) is chartered underthelawsof the 
 State of New Jersey. Officers are Chas. M. Town, Pres. ; Edward S. Sears, 
 Sec. and Treas. Directors, Chas. M. Town, M. M. Gillam, Chas. E. Colby, 
 G. C. Noble, Edward S. Sears. James K. Herring, Supt. General and 
 transfer office, 103 Market Street, Camden, N. J. The annual election is 
 on the first Monday in July. The mines belonging to the company are the 
 Katie and Mollie, located on Blineral Point, San Juan county, Col. The 
 extent of claim each, 300 by 1,500 feet: character of ore, smelting; amount 
 expended in developing property to April 1, 1882, $300 ; the ore assays for 
 $15 to $100 per ton. The character of^the mines is fissure. Assessment 
 work only. Average width of shisk, eleven inches. The company was 
 organized May 30, 1881. Capitalization, 250,000 shares ; par value, $2, non- 
 assessable ; stocks and bonds in treasury April 1, 1882, 50,000 shares ; no 
 bonded indebtedness. Stock listed in Philadelphia held principally in 
 Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Vermont, and Cany da. This information 
 was furnished by M. M. Gillam, Secretarj' and Treasurer of the Aztec 
 Mining Company. 
 
 Baxter mining Company (The) is the name of a private com- 
 pany owning two nunes, the Baxter and the Palmerston, located on Re- 
 publican Mountain, in Clear creek county Col., two miles west of George- 
 town, and covering an area of three and three-fourths acres. The quality 
 of the ore varies from twenty ounces to 950 ounces of silver per ton, con- 
 taining galena, sulphurets, and gray copper. The character of the mines 
 is described as fissure. Property consists of one mill at Georgetown, and 
 two engines on the lode. Entrance to mine is by Diamond Tunnel. There 
 axe two shafts 500 and 200 feet deep, respectively. Total length of adits, 
 3,265 feet. The length of the main lode on which the company depends 
 for its supply of ore is 1,400 feet. Average depth of vein seven feet. The un- 
 derground workings are chiefly drifts and stops. Developments were com- 
 menced in 1866, and about $27,000 has been expended. The prospects of 
 the property are fair, there being from four to twelve inches of ore m lower 
 workings, and $10,000 in sight. Cost of mining and milling is about $65 
 per ton. The ore is sent to Golden and Argo. Georgetown, Col. Yield to 
 April, 1882, 2,956,909 lbs. Net value, $209,154.58. The work is all done on 
 a lease. The company is out of debt. Mr. John G. Roberts is the Superin- 
 tendent, of twenty-five years' experience as a miner, ten years as Superin- 
 tendent. To him we are indebted for the foregoing information. 
 
 Jessie Benton Consolltlated mining Company is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of Pennsylvania. The officers are Alex. H. 
 Sherrcod, Pres,; J. H. Rittenhouse, Pec. and Treas. The date of annual 
 election is the first Monday in Febraary. The Superintendent, W. H. Mer- 
 ritt, has had eleven years' experience in his profession. Head and trans- 
 fer offices, Scranton Pa. Transfer days, anv time except ten days preced- 
 ing annual meeting or dividend days. This company is the owner of 
 the Jessie Benton, Seraphine, Eagle, Sundnv,Buckhorn, Desert, Peach and 
 Sleeper mines, located in Owl Head district, Pinal county, Arizona. Total 
 area of claims in feet, 7,200,000 ; amount of property in acres, 160. The ore 
 shows rich chlorides, and is free-milling ; no roasting. A twenty ton sliip- 
 ment assayed 253 ounces to the ton. To all appearances, ludging from the 
 south walls and polished surfaces of same, and also the clay gangue, the 
 character of the mines seems to be true fissure. The company owns a five- 
 stamp wet crushing silver amalgnmating mill, one dwelhng-huuse, shops, 
 windlasses, tools, pumps, etc. The depth of shaft is 645 feet ; lengtli of 
 adits, that is levels, 250 feet. The main lode on which the company de- 
 pends for its supply of ore is 1,360 feet. The vein averages one foot in width. 
 The company have .six shafts ; the deepest shafts are 200 feet apart ; levels 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1123 
 
 driving towards each other, also in opposite directions, shafts ninety, 
 seventy, eighty, and fifty feet and several of less depth. Developmeilt of 
 the property was commenced in 1880, and the company expended $8,000 
 for this purpose up to April 1, l,S>i2. The cost of mining and milling per 
 ton is estimated at $;55. The value of ore in sight, on a low valuation, is 
 thought to be several hundred thousand beyond a doubt. The production 
 ■ for the year 188;i is estimated at 3,000 tons, and weekly output for the same 
 year between fifty and sixty tons. Bullion is made on the grounds and 
 sent to New York assay office. The veins are small but unusually rich. On 
 the Benton, no barren ground has been struck, very little gold in ore 
 shipped, only H per ton. The Eagle has considerable gjld in it. The com- 
 pany now have a mill in course of erection, which will be running in July 
 next. Everything has been outgo with the company up to the present time, 
 and will be till mill begins to run. Company-have sold treasury stock from 
 date of organizing for 75 per cent, par, as full paid stock. They have 
 several hundred tons of ore on the dumps that the Superintendent esti- 
 mates will assay 150 ounces silver per ton, and large bodies of rich ore of 
 about the same value, blocked out ready for stoping. Date of organization, 
 January 30, 1882. Capitalization, $150,000 ; par value per share, 81 ; basis, 
 non-assessable. Fully paid. Stock in the treasury April 1, 1882, 815,000; 
 stock quoted April 1, 1882, seventy-five cents ; stock and bonds held prin- 
 cipally in Pennsylvania, Lackawanna county, and Pinal county, Arizona 
 Territory. Wages paid to all classes of labor per week, $21. This infor- 
 mation was furnished by J. H. Ritteiiliouse, Treasurer of the Jessie Ben- 
 ton Consolidated Mining Company. 
 
 Black Warrior iflining; Company Is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of New York. J. S. Alexander is President. Office, 24 Cliff 
 Street, New York. The Superintendent of works is A. A. Alexander, who 
 has had four years' experience in the business. The Black Warrior mine, 
 owned by this company, is located in Peck district, Y'avapai county, Ariz. 
 There are 1,500 feet ip the company's claim. The ore contains galena, 
 black sulphurets, and native silver; assaying $300 per ton. The char- 
 acter of the mine may be described as "fissure." Length of the tunnel is 
 800 feet, and the shaft is down 2.50 feet. There are three levels of 100 feet 
 each. The main lode on whicli the 'company depends for its supply of 
 ore is 100 feet in length ; the vein varies from one to four feet in width. 
 Underground workings are operated from levels run from main shaft. 
 The development of the property was commenced in 1876. The estimated 
 value of ore in sight is 8100,000 ; cost of mining and milling per ton, 830. 
 The output weekly at April, 1882, was thirty tons. Date of ormnization, 
 November 1, 1882. Stock and bonds held principally in New York city. 
 Wages paid to all classes of labor, per week, 81. Information furnished 
 by T. J. Eaman, Agent of the company. 
 
 Bullion of Paradise Minings and milling Comnany (The) 
 is chartered under the laws of the State of Nevada. The oflttcers are T. J. 
 11. dorian, Pres. ; Chas. Kemler, Treas. ; A. W. Siegel, Sec. The annual 
 election is held May 10 of eacli year, Chas. Kemler acts as Superin- 
 tendent; his experience extends over a period of eighteen years. The 
 offices are at Kemler's block. Paradise City, Humholdt county, Nev. The 
 company owns one mine, the Grand Bullion, located in the Mt. Rose dis- 
 trict, Humboldt county, Nev. ; extent of claim, 1,223 by 600 feet. The ore 
 is a ruby and black metal, mostly free milling. Some of the base gives 
 an average assay of $32 per ton. The mine is described as having a true 
 fissure vem. There is a ten-stamp mill, boarding-house, and good road to 
 mine, two and one-fourth miles long. The shaft is down 120 feet. The 
 total length of adits is 2,362 feet. The length of the main lode on which 
 the company depends for its supply of ore is 1,225 feet ; average width of 
 vein, six feet. There are three shafts and three tunnels. The main work 
 is done through tunnels, the main drift or tunnel being now 950 feet on 
 the ledge. From this tunnel are sunk three shafts to further explore the 
 ledge. All of these shafts are in good ore, and the ledge increases in size 
 as depth is gained. Developments were commenced in July, 1879, and 
 have been prosecuted at an expense, to present time, April, 1882, of $115,- 
 000, including cost of prospecting. The prospects of the property are A 1, 
 there being at least 8166,000 worth of ore in sight, and improving with each 
 foot in depth. The cost of mining and milling is 89.75 per ton. Weekly 
 output at April, 1882, 140 tons ; the company crush their own ore. It may 
 be of interest to note that a tunnel has been started at the south end of 
 the mine, which will tap the ledge 275 feet below any of its present work- 
 ings. The three mine shafts will be sunk to connect with this tunnel. 
 When this work is completed, the entire mine can be worked through this 
 tunnel, and sufficient ore will be forthcoming from above to work the 
 mills for at least three years to come. It is the general opinion of mining 
 men, that when the tunnel is completed and the shafts sunk to sa.me, the 
 mine will be the finest on the Pacific coast. The estimated cost for com- 
 pleting the work is 812,500. Organized, May 13, 1879 ; capitalization, 122,- 
 600 shares of $10 each, assessable basis. Yield (net) to April, 1882, 8264,- 
 831.52; yield during 1881, 878,374.50; number of assessments levied, three, 
 total amount, $3,500; date of firat assessment, October 24, 1880, five cents; 
 date of last assessment, December 18, 1881, twenty cents. The floating 
 indebtedness is $19,400; the stock reserve, 26,000 shares; stock not for sale 
 unless the whole of the treasury reserve is taken at 81.50 per share. Stock 
 is not listed ; stock held principally at Paradise, Humboldt county, Nev. 
 Wages paid to all classes of labor, per week, 8725. This information was 
 furnished by A. W. Siegel, Secretary of the Bullion of Paradise Mining 
 and Milling Company. 
 
 Catamaran Kinin^ Company (The). Names of mines owned 
 are Catamaran and Iiiskip. Location of mines, Buena Vista mining dis- 
 trict, Humboldt county, Nevada. Extent of claim, 1,500 linear feet on 
 each claim, 600 feet wide. Character of ore. chloride ; assays, from twenty- 
 six to 300 per ton. Character of mines: Catamaran, fissure: Inskip, flat 
 vein. Dimensions of workings: tunnel, 400 feet; levels, 70O, feet; length 
 of main lode on which the company depends for its supply of ore. 1.200 
 feet. Number of shafts or tunnels, three. Nature of under-workings, 
 slopes, winzes, shafts, drifts, etc. Date of commencing developments, 
 January 1, 1880. Amount expended in same $17,000. Cost of mining and 
 milling per ton, $1,200. Prospectsof the property very good. The mines 
 of this district are all worked by the owners (miners) ; company having no 
 mills, depends on custom mills, the owners doing all their own work, 
 extracting ore, assaying, melting, etc. Ore valued from 840,000 to $70,000. 
 Information furnished bv Wm. Woolcock. 
 
 Canaiorie alining' Company (The) is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of New Y'ork. Officers. J. A. Howland, Pres.; H. J. Brogg, 
 Jr., Sec. and Treas. Head and branch office. New York. Transfer office, 
 30 Broad Street ; company's office. New York. Name of mine owned. Flat 
 Creek mine. Located in Montgomery county, N. Y. Amount of pro- 
 perty in acres, 120. Quality of ore. very fine. Characterof mine, fissure; 
 vein of galena. Property owned by the compauy, engines, boilers, 
 pump, and washer ; all that is required for working the property. The 
 company have not yet developed the mine. All facts have been given 
 that can be noted. Date of commencing developments, 1880. Date of 
 organization, 1879 ; capitalization. 100,000 shares, par value ; $10 per .share ; 
 non-assessable; no dividends; no assessments; bonded indebtedness, 
 
 none ; stock indebtedness, none ; stock and bonds held principally. New 
 York State ; weekly output, 230 tons. Information furnished by H. T. 
 Brogg, Jr., Secretary Canajorie Mining Company. 
 
 Burango Hanimi Minins; ( ompan.v of Council Bluffs, Iowa, is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of Iowa. The officers are W. F. 
 Sapp, Pres.; Dr. J. B. Sliultz. Vice-Pres, : Stewart Spalding, See, ; John 
 Herget, Treas. Executive Committee, W. F, Sapp, P. F. Bresee, Chas. F. 
 Craven ; Directors, W. F. Sapp, Joseph Knolts, John Herget, J. B. Shultz, 
 P. F. Bresee, H. C, Sigler, Geo. F, Wright, T, J. Walker, Chas. F. Craven, 
 Date of annual election, first Wednesday in October, Superintendent, 
 Carl Dietmar, who has had ten years' experience in his occupation. Head 
 office. Council Bluffs, Iowa, Branch office, 128 La Salle Street, Chicago. 
 Ill, Transfer office, 128 La Salle Street, Chicago, 111. Transfer day aU the 
 year. There are eight separate mines consolidated and owned by this 
 company, viz., Ojuofa, San Vicente, Socobon, Santa Rita, El Carmen, Santa 
 Maria, La Soledad, and San Judas, These mines are located in the State 
 of Durango, Mapimi District, Republicof Mexico, A mine in this district 
 has a certain measurement wliich is called a possession, A possession 
 measures 200 by 200 varas. A varas is thirty-three inches English meas- 
 ureihent. These mines have from one to three measurements each. The 
 character of the ore is lead carbonate, carrying both gold and silver, but 
 chiefly silver. The lead amounts to 15 percent, of the ore. Average 
 yield per ton about $32. The character of the mines seems to be great 
 veins widening in places to immense deposits, but always plenty of ore. 
 The works consist of six smelters, two large and one small refining fur- 
 naces, with sufficient store-rooms for coal, two large ore yards, a water- 
 Eower turbine and blower, blacksmith and carpenter shops, furnace for 
 rass and copper foundry, a dwelling-house and store-rooms in good con- 
 dition. A complete assay office with two Becker scales. The works, 
 including dwelling-house and yards, cover a space of 137 by 137 yards. 
 To the works belong about thirty acres of laud. The turbine is moved by 
 ninety cubic feet of water per minute on a fall of twenty-six feet. The 
 vein varies from five to fifty feet in different mines. There are eight 
 shafts and one tunnel. The underground workings are very extensive, 
 they are old Mexican workings and the shafts vary in depth from twenty- 
 five feet to 900 feet, but without water in any of them. This company 
 took possession of property, March, 1882, Amount expended in develop- 
 ing property to April 1, 1882, by former owners, 880,000. The amount of 
 ore in sight seems to me practically unlimited and is estimated to be 
 worth at least $8,000,000. 'The cost of mining and smelting per ton is $20. 
 Maximum yearly capacity of production of works, April 1. 1882, 8144,000. 
 Weekly output at April. 1882,83,000. Principal market for ore is' Mapimi. 
 These mines are the principal ones of the Mapimi Dist. in Northeastern 
 Durango. They are old Mexican mines and nave been worked for per- 
 haps two or three hundred years by the early Spaniards, They have 
 been profitable at all times. The present company have had smelters 
 made that will increase their reduction capacity from eighteen tons to lOO 
 tons of ore per day. Date of organization. June 11, 1881 ; capitalization, 
 81,600,000 ; par value, per share. $100 ; basis, non-assessable ; yield (net) 
 to April 1,1882, $6,000, 400 tons; stock indebtedness, 81,200,000 ; stock re- 
 served in the treasury, April 1, 1882, $300,000 ; stock sold, April 1. 1882, 
 820 ; stock and bonds held principally in Iowa and lUs. ; stock sold only 
 by subscription ; total wages paid to all classes of labor per week, $1 ,000. 
 This information was furnished by J, H, Knolts, and certified by Stewart 
 Spalding, Secretary of the Durango Mapimi Company, 
 
 Duncan Silver 3Ilnlne Company is chartered under the laws 
 of Canada, The officers are Thos. Appleton, Pres.; L, B. Stone, Treas. 
 Date of annual election, firet Monday in December. The Superintendent, 
 W. Kapsey, has had nine years* experience in his occupation. Transfer 
 office, 79 Water Street, Boston, Mass. The company's works are located 
 near Prince Arthur's Landing, Province of Ontario,"!.. S. Canada, Extent 
 of claim, 600 acres. The ore contains silver flecks, native silver, minute, 
 and zinc blends. Veins thin and assays very uncertain. The character 
 of the mine may be described as " fissure vein," and much resembling 
 the ground at Silver Islet, seventeen miles distant, southeast. Property 
 owned, real estate, stamp-mill^ diamond-drills, steam-drills, pumps, com- 
 pressor, hoists, etc. Depth of shaft, 800 by 200 feet, by diamond-drill ; 
 aggregate of holes bored by diamond-drill, 360C feet. The vein is pockety 
 and thin ; aggregate of shafts, levels, crosscuts, and winzes, 2,926 feet ; 
 number of shafts, four; underground workings are all in rock; amount 
 expended in developing property to April 1. 1882, 8290,000. The property 
 is not worth further expense to develop; abandoned November 1, 1881; 
 machinery for sale; principal market for the ore. United States, There 
 was found but one considerable pocket of paying silver ore ; and the vein 
 was then lost, though thoroughly sought. This pocket was near the sur- 
 face and yielded $18,000, leading to the continuance of work four years 
 longer. There are yet unissued 40,00Oshares of capital stock and sevei ,.1 
 thousand dollars in the treasury ; all obligations paid. The machinery 
 is unmoved— laid by in good order to be removed and put to work on 
 other property for the present owners, or other proprietors, with or with- 
 out uniting with the Duncan Company. This property is owned bv an 
 American company of stockholders, working at mining in Canada. Date 
 of organization, October 16, 1873 ; capitalization, $2,000,000; par value, per 
 share, $20 ; basis, non-assessable ; yield (net) to April 1, 1881, about 818,000 ; 
 no dividends paid ; number of assessments levied, nine ; total amount of 
 same, 86; date of first assessment, October 15, 1873; date of latest assess- 
 ment, June 9, 1880; stock indebtedness, $1,200,000; stock quot^ April 1, 
 1882, 25c. ; stock held principally in Boston ; stock listed only in Eiostnn. 
 This information was furnished by L. B. Stone, Treasurer of the Duncan 
 Silver Mining Company. 
 
 01lmer-SaUsbnr.r mining Company (The) is chartered under 
 the Jaws of the State of California. The Trustees are J, T. Gilmer; M, 
 Salisbury, S, D, Brastow, Alf, Eoff, O. J. Salisbury. Mr. J. S, Robeison 
 Is the Secretary, and Mr. A J, Blair is the Superintendent, of eighteen 
 years' experience. Head offices are at San Francisco, Cal,, and the branch 
 offices at Bristol, Nev. The company owns seven mines or claims, viz, : 
 the Tempest, Iron Mine, White Rock, National, Champion, Kentuck, and 
 Manhattan, located in the Bristol mining district, Bristol, Nev., and com- 
 prising an area of 160 acres. The ore is of a qimlity suitable for smelting. 
 Some high grades will average from 870 to $80. The vein is characterized 
 as a true fissure. The Iron Mine shaft is 200 feet deep : the Tempe-st shaft 
 is 300 feet deep; the Iron Mine skip tunnel is 227 feet deep ; the Tempest 
 first level is ninety feet at 100 feet depth ; the Tempest second level is forty 
 feet at 300 feet depth. Developments were commenced January, 1881 ; 
 $25,000 has been expended in same, 'Whilst large quantities of ore have 
 been developed, none has been extracted for reduction. All ore taken 
 out in sinking drifting lies on dump ; this is from the Iron and the Tem- 
 pest mines, to which all the foregoing information principally refers. 
 The ore will be reduced in the immediate locality. Organized. January, 
 1882; capitalization,$10,000,000, in 100,000 sharesof$100 each; basis,asses- 
 ; sable, but no stock issued nor listed ; wages paid to all classes of labor, 
 I per day, 84 i. e. (at the rate of). This information was furnished by A. J. 
 Blair, Superintendent of the Gilmer-Salisbury Mining Compauy. 
 
1124 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Florence Mine (Ttic) and 500 feet of the Elm City Mine, owned by 
 John G. Roberts, are located at Republican Mountain. Extent of claim. 
 one full claim, 1,500 by 160 feet, and 500 by 160 feet, or 2,000 feet in all. The 
 ore carries silver, milling from ninety to 3,000 ounces per ton. The richest 
 is worth $260 per hundred pounds ; average assay, 460 ounces per ton. The 
 character of the mines is described as " fissure." Length of adits, that is, 
 levels, eighty feet. The vein has an average width of eight feet. Kxtetit 
 of underground workings, eighty feet drifting and thirty by forty slcipe. 
 Date of commencing developments, 1876. Amount expended in develop- 
 ing property, tunnel, etc., to April 1, 1882, S5,000. No estimate of ore in 
 sight can be made owing to repairs. Cost of mining and milling per ton 
 is very irregular, varying from $3 to S125. Mr. Roberts has had no control 
 of these veins until lately. He found them ''gouged" badly; two men 
 made f MO, S960, $1,100, $1,982, and $4C0 per month there. Piclsed specimen 
 worth $2.60 per pound. Five saclis taken out last month netted $-104. 
 Yield (net) to April 1. 1882, $21,000, forty-five tons; free from bonded in- 
 debtedness, Apnl 1, 1882 ; latwr all done by lease. This information was 
 furnished by J. S. Roberts. 
 
 Oranby Mining' and Smelting Compnny (Tlie) is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of Missouri. The officers are Edgar T. Wells, 
 Pres. ; Solon Humphreys, V.-Pres. ; A. S. Trevor, Sec. The annual election 
 is held in March. Mr. Peter E. Blow is Superintendent, having had about 
 six years' experience. The head transfer ofiBce is at St. Louis. Transfers 
 can be effected at all business hours. The company own the Granby Mine 
 in Newton county and the Joplin and Oronogo, in Jasper county. Mo. ; 
 the property having an extent of 15,000 acres. The plant comprises two 
 furnaces ($26,000) and a quantity of machinery. St. Louis is the principal 
 market for ore. Organized, April, 1865 ; capitalization, 82,000,000, in 20,000 
 shares of $100 each. No ELSsessments have been levied. The company has 
 no bonded or other indebtedness. No stock in treasurjr. Stock not listed, 
 held chiefly in St. Louis. This information was furnished by the com- 
 pany. 
 
 Grand Trunk Minlngr and Smelting; Company (Tbe) is 
 oi^gauized under the laws of the State of New Jersey. The officers are 
 Chas. M. Town, Pres. ; M. M. Gillam, Sec. and Treas. 'rhe annual election 
 is held on the second Wednesday of June. Mr. Jas. K. Herring is Super- 
 intendent, with an experience of twelve years. The head and transfer 
 offices are at 103 Market Street, Camden, N. J. The company owns three 
 mines— the Grand Trunk, C. C. Colby, and Indian Chief— situated at Min- 
 eral Point, San Juan county «3ol. ; each claim measuring 300 by 1,600 feet. 
 The.ore is free smelting, and gives an assay of from $40 to $110 per ton. 
 The character of tlie mine is described as " true fissure." The shaft is 101 
 feet down, with twenty feet of level. The average width of pay streak is 
 fivefeet. The length ofmainlode.onwhichthecompaiiydependsforits 
 supply of ore, is 1,500 feet. Developments were commenced in June, 1881; 
 about $3,900 having been expended ; they are being vigorously pushed, 
 and valuable ore is already being produced. Organized, May 13, 18il; 
 capitalization, 1,000,000, in 200,000 shares of $5 each. No bonded or other 
 indebtedness. Stock in treasury, 30,000 shares; stock listed in Philadel- 
 phia Mining Exchange, held principally in Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, 
 Vermont, and Colorado. This information was furnished by M. M. Gil- 
 lam, Sec. and Treas. of the Grand Trunk Mining and Smelting Company. 
 
 Gunnison Crystal Minin^p Company is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of Colorado. The ofacers are J. H. Sinclair, Pres. ; Dr. 
 Jos. M. Gerhart, Vice-Pres. ; Wm. Staith, Sec. and Treas. Date of annual 
 election first Tuesday in May. Superintendent, A. B. Hart, five years' 
 experience. Transfer office, Colorado Springs, Col. This company are 
 the owners of the Crystal Belle, Clara, Achilles and Little Bonnie, Jose 
 mines, located at Ruby Camp, Gunnison county, Col. Extent of each claim, 
 300 by 1,.600 feet. The ore is free milling, the character of the mines, 
 fissure. The Crystal shaft is eighty feet deep and the Clara thirty feet. Only 
 assessment work has been done m others, out a pay 8,560 ounces on Crys- 
 tal lode. The company have but just commenced to develop their prop- 
 erty, but they have already expended $6,000 upon the same, April, 1, 1882. 
 The prospects of the property are good. In the same belt with Forest 
 Queen, Ruby Chief, Lead Chief, etc. Date of organization, October 23, 
 1879 ; capitalization, $828,000 ; par value per share, $100 ; basis, non-assessa- 
 ble ; yield to April 1, 1882, after smelting, from 160 to 280 ounces. The com- 
 pany is free from indebtedness. This information was furnished by 
 William Staith, Secretary of the Gunnison Crystal Mining Company. 
 
 Henderson Sllne (The), owned by N. M. Thayer, J. H. Slason, and 
 W. A. Russell, is located at El Dorado, Montgomery county, N. C. Amount 
 of property in acres, 200. The ore carries gold, copper, silver, and lead, 
 and assays about SbO per ton. Character of tlie mines, " fissure." The 
 shaft is fifteen feet deep. Length of the main lode, half a mile. The vein 
 has an average width of seven feet. Number of shafts, three. Develop- 
 ments were commenced April 1, 1882. Estimated value of ore in sight, 
 $1,000. This mine has been lately discovered, and is considered by mining 
 experts to be very valuable for gold, silver, copper, and lead. Company 
 organized June 13, 1882. This information was furnished by N. M. Thayer, 
 one of the owners of the Henderson Mine. 
 
 Ulenrage M. Griffin is the ownerof the former propertyof the Con- 
 solidated Hercules and Roe Silver Mining Company. Office, George- 
 town, Col. The names of the lodes, all contiguous, are : Hercules, 3,000 
 by 60 feet: West Hercules. 3,000 by 60 feet; 7.3(), 700 by 50 feet; McClung, 
 3,000 by 50 feet; John J. Roe, 1,500 by 60 feet; Maggie, 1,600 by 150 feet; 
 Jennie. 1,.500 by 160 feet; John M. Wilson. 1,500 by 150 feet; Clilford, 1,600 
 by 150 feet; Cora B,. 1,500 by 150 feet. All the above lodes are patented. 
 Wreckin. 1,600 by 150 feet, and Pell Wall, 1,600 by 150 feet; receivers' re- 
 ceipt. Hercules tunnel site, 1,000 feet long. The property is located in 
 Clear Creek county. Col. Cliaracter of the ore; galena, gray and yellow 
 copper, silver glance, wire silver, zinc blende, ruby, and brittle silver. 
 Character of the mines described as true fissures. Amount of property 
 in acres, 33j5J„. The main shaft is 300 feet deep. Hercules tunnel, 160 
 feet. Length of adits— that is, levels— 6,000 feet. The main lode is 6,000 
 feet in length. The vein has an average width of from twenty-five feet 
 to forty feet. Georgetown, Clear Creek county. Col., is the principal mar- 
 ket for the ore. Yield (net) to April 1, 1882, $600,000; yield (neti during 
 1881. $100,000. This information was furnished by Henrage M. GriiHn. 
 
 Hldulgo Town >in<l mini n;; Company (The) is chartered under 
 the laws of th« State of Colorado. The officers are H. E. Austin, Pres. ; 
 O. E. Henry, Vicc-Pres. ; M. S. Adams, Sec; A. W. McGovern, Treas. 
 Tru.stces, J. A. Merriman, L. Hays, C. A. Smith, N. H. Heath, H. F. Bald- 
 win. Thns. Hookoy. Superintendent, Thos. Hookey. KxpiTience, one 
 year. Offices, Silver Clilf. Custer county, Col., and Hidafgo. Gunnison 
 county. Col. Transfer office. Silver ClifT. The company's mines arc the 
 Ontario, Little Abbie, and Tillie Maria, located at Poverty Gulch, Elk 
 Mountains, Gunnison county. Col. Extent of claim, thirty acres. The 
 character of tlie ore is dark galena, with considerable antimony. Char- 
 acter of the mines, fissure. As yet the company's propeaty consists only 
 in log-cabins for the men employed. Tunnel is forty feet in length. 
 Length of the main lode, forty feet. The vein has an average width of 
 ten feet between the walls. The underground workings are between two 
 
 solid granite walls. Development of the property was commenced Ati- 
 gust, 1881, and the amount expended in developing property to April 1, 
 1882,$2,000. The ore in sight in the Ontario isvery rich. The others have 
 not been developed enough yet to say what the prospects are. Mining 
 costs about $10 per ton. Principal markets for the ore, Denver and Pu- 
 eblo. The Ontario mine is undoubtedly a valuable mine, and mill-runs 
 will be made at Pueblo this summer. Owing to the altitude, 13,000 feet, 
 work was suspended in September, 1881, and operations cannot be com- 
 menced until near the 1st of July, on account of lateness of snow this 
 season. The bulk of the stock is devoted to development, and the other 
 stock is not negotiable at present, so all stock for sale is treasury stock, 
 exclusively for developing the property. They also have coal property. 
 No ore has been removed from thef flump yet, April 1, 1882. Date of or- 
 
 fanlzation, April 28, 1881; capitalization, $100,000; par value per share, 
 )0; basis, non-assessable; yield (gross tons) during 1881, about ten tons; 
 number of assessments levied, none; date of first assessment, July, 1881, 
 $3.33J^ per share ; date of latest assessment, August, 1881, at the rate or 
 $3.33}^ per share ; the company free from bonded indebtedness, April 1, 
 1882; stock reserved in the treasury, April 1. 1882, $61,000; stock quoted 
 April 1, 1882, par; stock not listed. Stock held principally at Silver Cliff 
 and Pueblo, Col., and Coicheta, Kansas. This information was furnished 
 by Thomas Hookey, Superintendent of the Hidalgo Town and Mining 
 Company. 
 
 Mope Blinlng Company (The)ls represented by Laveaga, Ruther- 
 ford, Woolcook, and Fielding. The mines owned are the Hope, Lucky, 
 Dog. ,Snow Flake, Huascar, Carbonate, Gem, located at Buena Vista min- 
 ing district, Humboldt county, Nevada. There are 1,600 feet in each mine. 
 The company owns forty-flve acres mill sites and placer mines. The 
 character of the ore is chloride black sulphurets, with some antimonial 
 sulphurets of silver. Assays per ton, from $16 to $800. Character of the 
 mines, fiat vein, sometimes called blanket veins, by some, contact, country 
 rock, and calicureous slate. The company have five tunnels on their pro- 
 perty, total length, 1.100 feet. Length of adits, that is levels, 1,200 feet. 
 The tunnel follows tne lode from the surface. The vein has an average 
 width of two and a half feet. Shutes from drift, two to number four. 
 Date of commencing developments, August 15, 1879. Amount expended 
 in developing property to April 1, 1882, $32,700. Estimated value of ore in 
 sight by expert, $60,000; the owners think more. Cost of mining and 
 milling per ton, $18. Rented mill, run two months or over, on short 
 water, bond since under bond from July 1, 1882. Date of organization, 
 August 15, 1879; basis, non-assessable: yield (net) to April 1, 1882, $42,000. 
 This information was furnished by the Hope Mining Company. 
 
 Hope mining Company (The) is chartered under the laws of the 
 State of Missouri. The officers are S. Gaty, Pres. ; E. Harrison, Vice-Pres. ; 
 John R. Lionberger, Treas. ; John T. Field, Sec. Directors, the above 
 named oflScers and James O. Broadhead, A. B. Ewing, J. L. January, H. 
 J. McKellops, A. F. Shapleigh, Louis Deustrow, L. M. Rumsey, John C. 
 Sevan, and Chas. Taussig. Executive Committee, E. Harrison, John R. 
 Lionberger, A. S. Shapleigh, Louis Deustrow, and Chas. Taussig. The an- 
 nual meeting is held 2d Monday in November. Frank L. Perkins is the 
 Superintendent. "The offices are at {Room 7) 427 Olive Street, St. Louis, 
 Mo. Transfers can be effected during all office hours. The company 
 owns several claims, including Hope, Cliff Mines, Little Emma, which 
 are the three principal ones, located at Philipsburg, Deer Lodge county, 
 Montana, comprising an area of 3,800,000 square feet. The ore is various, 
 some being refractory and some free milling ; this applies chiefly to the 
 Hope. The assay gives about forty-five ounces. In the Hope mine the 
 ore bodies are embedded masses in stratified magnesian limestone, broken 
 by faults, displacing and separtiting the continuous veins. In the Cliff 
 the vein is in dolomite, or it may be termed a fissure-vein in limestone, 
 trends east and west. Ore croppings can be traced the length of claim. 
 Other lodes and claims are not developed. 'The total length of drifts, etc., 
 in the mine is 3,443 feet. The plant includes a ten-stamp, wet-crushing 
 mill, amalgamating pans, six and two true vanners. Fully $600,000 has 
 been expended in developments, the present prospects of the mine being 
 excellent. There is a large body of ore in sight. Including the cost or 
 development the cost of mining is about $12 per ton. Including treatment 
 of taihngs the cost of milling is about $7.75. The bullion product is sold 
 on New York assay certificate. Organized, November 23, 1872 ; capitaliza- 
 tion, $400,000, in 8,000 shares of $60 each, fully paid. In 1881 the yield of 
 ore was 5,600 tons, giving a netJ)roduct of pure silver, 113,099 ounces. To- 
 tal dividends paid, $22,603.50; first dividend, Januarys, 1882, of $1.50 per 
 share ; second and latest, April 4, 1882, of $1.50 per share ; no assessments ; 
 no bonded or other indebtedness ; stock in treasury, $23,135 ; stock held 
 chiefly in St. Louis, Mo. ; stock not listed ; stock quoted at $10 ; wages 
 paid to all classes or labor per week, April, 1882, $1,372.12. This informa- 
 tion was furnished by John T. Field, Secretary of tne Hope Mining Com- 
 pany. 
 
 Huascar Mlnlnir Company is represented by Laveaga and Ruth- 
 erford. The mines owned are the Huascar, Carbonate Gem, located at 
 Buena Vista miningdistrict, Humboldt county, Nev. There are 1,600 linear 
 feet in the company's claim. The ore is antimonial sulphurets; assays 
 from $20 to $800. Character of the mines, " fissure," serpentine rock, or, 
 green rock. Cost of mining and milling, per ton, $20. Length of adits — 
 that is, levels, 300 feet; length of the main lode on which the company 
 depends for its supply of ore, 370 feet. The vein has an average width of 
 six feet. There are two shafts and two tunnels. Nature of miderground 
 workings, drifts, winzes, etc. Date of commencing developments, August, 
 1879. Amount expended in developing property to April 1, 1882, $'24,000. 
 Estimated value of ore in sight, $80,000. 'The mine originally was known 
 as the Peru, located in 1861 ; relocated several times. Ore base, winze 
 from main drift down forty-flve feet; at bottom of winze, ledge is thirteen 
 feet between the walls. The company is organized under a non-assessable 
 basis. This information was furnished by Geo. W. Rutherford, one of the 
 Huascar Mining Company. 
 
 Humboldt Mining Company (The), of New Mexico, is char- 
 tered under the laws of the Territory of New Mexico. The officers are 
 David Branson, Pres. ; Edmund Webster, Vice-Pros. ; Ed. S. Lowry, Treas. ; 
 R. Evans Peterson, Sec; the office of Superintendent is temporarily va- 
 cant. Annual election is held third Wednesday in March. Transfer ofllce 
 is at 330 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa.; head office, Engle Post Office, 
 Socorro county, N, M., on line of Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fc Railroad. 
 Mines and mining propertyof Humboldt Mining ("ompany in New Mex- 
 ico, in Cuchillo Negro Mountains, Black Range, Socorro county: Garfield, 
 (jifl Little Luella, John G. B., Providence, Sunnyside, Reward, Ixjokout, 
 Lltlle Hope, and Telegraph. In upper and middle (^alwllo Mountains, 
 near Palomas, Siicorru county: (lift, California, Nevada, Grammis, and 
 Terry. In lower (Jaballo Mountains, near Rio Grande, Socorro county; 
 Golden Fleece, first extension south of Golden Fleece, th'st extension north 
 ofGolden Fleece, Ella, Frank W., and Summit. In San Andreas Moun- 
 tains, Dona Ana county; Leviathan, Kahlcr, Cincinnati, Chrysolite, 
 Cliloride, Adriatic, Corbit, Hembrillo No. 1, Hombrillo No. 3, Timbuctoo 
 No. 1, Timbuctoo Discovery, Morocco, and four mill sites at Hembrillo, 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1125 
 
 Cottonwood, Cincinnati , and Sulphur Springs. The property, as per par- 
 ticulars given above, is located in Cuchillo Negro and Caballo Moun- 
 tains, Socorro county, and in San Andreas Mountains, Dona Ana county. 
 New Mexico; the total extent is 650 acres. The ore is an argentiferous, 
 galena, copper, and lead carbonate and chloride, and some argentifer- 
 ous rock assaying from 82 to S195 jii-r ton. The mine has true Assure and 
 contact veins and carbonate deposits. Depth of shafts, 685 feet; length 
 of tunnels, 308 feet. Including the whole of the claims, the total length 
 of the main lode on which the company depends for its supply of ore is 
 46,500 feet. No mining plant yet erected. Developments were com- 
 menced only in December, 1881, since which, lo April 1. J20,000 has been 
 expended. The policy of the management now is to concentrate most 
 of their efforts and expenditures on one of the groups which is most 
 likely to prove speedily remunerative, and as soon as it becomes so, to 
 push developments on another, and so continue until as many as can be 
 profitably worked under one management are in full production ; the 
 surplus property to be partly developed from time to time, and sold for 
 the benefit of the company's treasury. The claims are all on United 
 States Government land, and were discovered in 1880 and 1881 by daring 
 prospectors during the war with the Apache Indians. Gold, silver, cop- 
 per, and lead are all contained in these properties, in some cases all four 
 metals in the same vein. Good coal has been found near the Caballos, 
 and abundant timber, both along the Kio Grande and in the Cuchillo 
 Negro Mountains. Mill sites have been located in connection with them, 
 and all are favorably situated for economical working; they are within 
 a day's drive of the main line of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Rail- 
 road. Socorro is the principal market for ore. Organized, March 1 3, 1882 ; 
 capitalization, 86,000,000, in 240,000 shares of S25 each, non-a.ssessable ; 
 stock reserved in treasury, 83,000,000 ; stock not listed or quoted ; stock 
 held principally in Philadelphia, Pa., Socorro county, N. M., and Albu- 
 querque, N. M. Weekly wages paid to all classes, $700, This information 
 was furnished by David Branson, President of the Humboldt Mining 
 Company. 
 
 Indinn Qaeen Dlinins' and Milling: Company (The) is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of New Jersey. The officers are 
 6. W. Warren, Pres.; M. Dyer, Jr., Treas. ; C. C. Lane, Sec. Directors, 
 Wm. Cogswill, G. P. Langer, H. Z. Hill, T, H. Ford, John G. Webster, and 
 W, O, Fiske. The annual election is held on November 22. Mr, M.Carey 
 is the Superintendent, with an experience of twenty years. The transfer 
 and other offices are at 15 Pemberton Street, Boston, Mass. Transfer days 
 irregular. Books close ten days before dividend days. The company 
 owns the following claims or mines : Indian Queen, Nos, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, 
 Justice, Hiskey, and Darbrow, located in the Oneata Mining district. 
 Emerald county, Nevada, covering a total extent of 7,.5O0 feet. The ore 
 is argentiferous, assaying il-om 890 to 8127 per ton. The mine is a fissure 
 of talcose slate formation. There are five entrance tunijels, aggregating 
 6,000 feet in length. Average width of vein two feet. Total extent of 
 underground workings about one and a half miles. The length of main 
 lode, on which the company depends for its supply of ore, 2,500 feet. The 
 mining plant comprises one 8-stamp mill, a White-Howell furnace, board- 
 ing-house, stores, etc. Developments were commenced in 1870, since 
 which time the sum of 8260.000, or thereabout, has been expended. The 
 mine is showing well for continued dividends. Cost of mining and mill- 
 ing is 840 per ton. The maximum yearly capacity of production in April 
 last would be about 200,000 tons. Organized November 22, 1880 ; capitali- 
 zation 8250,000. in 125,000 shares of 82 per share, non-assessable. The net 
 yield during 1881 was 8182,439.21. 8337,500 has been paid in dividends to 
 April, 1882, total number being twenty-four. The last dividend of five 
 cents per share, amounting to 86,250, was paid June 25, 1882. No assess- 
 ments hi.ve been levied ; no bonded or other indebtedness ; no stock re- 
 served in treasnry. Stock listed at American Mining Exchange, New 
 York, and Bo-ston Stock Exchange. Quoted April, 1882, S3 per share. This 
 information was furnished by C. C. Lane, Secretary of the company. 
 
 Kiiotts Silver Mexican Mining Company (The) is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of Iowa. The officers are President, Rev. P. F. 
 Bresee, Council Bluffs, Iowa ; 'Viee-Presidents, Dr. J. B. Shultz, Logansport, 
 Ind. ; John Herget, Pekin, 111. ; Secretary, Stewart Spalding, Chicago, 111. ; 
 Treasurer, J. P. LjTnan, Grinnell, Iowa. Executive Committee, Rev. P. F. 
 Bresee, C. F. Craver, J. Herget Dr. J. B. Shultz, and J. B. Knotts. Direc- 
 tors, Rev. P. F. Bresee, Council Bluffs, Iowa ; C. F. Craver, Grinnell, Iowa ; 
 B. N. Curtis, Esq., Bloomington, 111.; Hon. Jos. Knotts, Council Bliiffe, la; 
 John Herget, Esq., Pekin, 111.; Dr. J. B. Shultz, Logansport, Ind.; J. B. 
 Knotts, Indianola, Iowa ; J. B. Gregg, Esq., Red Oak, Iowa ; Hon. H. C. 
 Sigler, Osceola, Iowa; D. G. Phillips, Esq., Madison, Ind.; J. T. Walker, 
 Great Bend, Kan.; J. A. Harvey, Des Moines, Iowa. Annual election is 
 held second Wednesday of June. Mr. A. B. Sawyer, of twenty years' expe- 
 rience, is Superintendent. The transfer ofliee is at 128 Lasalle Street, Chi- 
 cago. Transfer days all year round. Offices also at Osceola, Iowa. The 
 company owns the consolidated mines of Parral and several mill sites in 
 the State of Chihuahua, Republic of Mexico ; extent of property, forty- 
 five acres. The ore is a black, hard quartz, containing tJoth native and 
 ruby silver; average at bottom of shaft, nmety-nine ounces. The mine is 
 described as having true fissure veins. Tunnel length, 317 feet; shaft, 
 depth, 410 feet; length of adits, 200 feet; average width of vein, fifteen 
 feet ; length of main lode on which company depends for supply of ore, 
 8,960 feet. The plant comprises engines, boilers, hoisting machinery, 
 tracks, and reduction mill ; cost, $80,000. The sum of $50,000 has been 
 expended in developments, which were commenced on the-first of Janu- 
 ary, 1880. Cost (estimated) of mining and milling is about thirty dollars 
 per ton. Value of ore in sight is variously estimated at from eight to 
 twelve millions of dollars. The mining property of this company con- 
 sists of a group of Spanish mines that have never been worked for more 
 than a century past, yet have yielded about $60,000,000, as shown by Span- 
 ish records. 'Tlie work done by the company so far has been curected 
 towards cleaning out the mines and putting them in good working order. 
 This has now been accomplished, and the company is now preparing for 
 active operations. The principal market for the ore is Parral. Orgamzed 
 August 23, 1875 ; capitalization, $750,000, in 7,600 shares of $100 each, non- 
 assessable ; one stock dividend of 2,260 shares ; date of said dividend, 
 October, 1878. No assessments have been levied. Stock indebtedness, 
 $60,000; stock reserved in treasury, $150,000; stock on market, none; 
 stock sold only by subscription ; stock held chiefly in Iowa, Illinois, and 
 Indiana. This information has been furnished by J. B. Knotts, one of 
 the directors of the company. 
 
 Iiincoln Mining Coinpan.y (Thel is not a corporated company. 
 The company owns two mines or claims, Fred Rogers and Government. 
 Extent of same being 1,220 by M, and 1,275 by 150, both located on Demo- 
 crat Mountain, in Upper Union Mining district. Clear creek county, Col. 
 The ore is a rich argentiferous galena, assaying an average of 250 dunces 
 silver per ton. The mine is described as a true fissure vein. Depth of 
 shaft, 280 feet ; length of adits, about 1.800 feet; average width of crevice 
 five feet; of pay streak six inches, about 1,660 fathoms stoped out. The 
 length of the main lode on which the company depends for its supply 6f 
 
 ore is 740 feet. Georgetown, of Clear creek county. Col., is the point 
 to which the ore is forwarded. The mine is wet at present, but will 
 soon be drained by a tunnel. Ore vein is narrow but rich. Work has been 
 done by les,sees. The two veins unite. The ore vein is pockety, not con- 
 tinuous. The output of ore is necessarily irregular, but has been quite 
 good for the amount sloped out. The value of the mines will be consid- 
 erably increased when thoroughly drained. The yield to April 1, 1882, 
 was 8192,912.04. The yield during 1881, was 828,043.46; (gross) yield dur- 
 ing 1881 was 122J^ tons. To April 1, 1882, twenty dividends paid, aggre- 
 fating about 840,0'oO : first dividend on December 4, 1874; amount of same, 
 960. Latest dividend, Sth December, 1881 ; amount of same, $1,600. Two 
 assessments have been levied ; total amount of same, $5,120. First assess- 
 ment February 1, 1876 ; amount of same, $4,000; date of latest asse."8ment, 
 June 22, 1882 ; amount of same, $1,120. This information was furnished 
 by W. A. Burr, agent of the Lincoln Mining Company. 
 
 Martin Wliite Mining Company CTlic) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of California. The officers are Chas. H. Stanyan, Pres.; 
 J, J. Scoville, Sec. The directors are C. H. Stanvan, Annis Merrill, W. 
 E. Norwood, E. D. Sawyer, and K. P. Clement. Mr. Henry Sweetapple, 
 who has had an experience of twenty years, is Superintendent. The an- 
 nual election is held 3d Thursday in August. The head office is at room 
 59, Nevada Block, San Francisco, Cal. 'The company owns the following 
 claims : Mountain Pride, Paymaster, Young America. Defiance, Mam- 
 moth, and Caroline, all patented ; also the following : (the patent papers 
 for which, excepting Wisconsin and Ben Voirllck, are now in Washing- 
 ton, no adverse claims filed against them) Merril Latima, one-half Juno, 
 Alumida, Ward & Henry, Ben Voirlick, Ben Lommond, and Wisconsin, 
 all located at Ward, Ward Mining district, Nev. The total extent of prop- 
 erty has an extent of two square miles or 3,000 acres. The ore is argen- 
 tiferous, with some gold, gangue quartz, assay (average) 8100 per ton. The 
 mine may be described as having fissure veins and deposits of sand. The 
 tunnel has now attained a depth of 3,260 feet; length of adits including 
 tunnel, 8,060 feet. The length of the main lode on which the company 
 depends for Its supply of ore, is 10,000 feet ; average width of vein eighty- 
 feet. The workings consists of four tunnels, upraises, winzes, crosscuts, 
 etc.. In all say 1D.760 feet. Developments were commenced in June, 1876, 
 the sum of 8466,000 having been expended in same. The mining plant and 
 surface property consists of twenty-stamp mill, (new,) with four White- 
 Howell furnaces attached, two Water Jacket Smelting furnaces, and four 
 Capelling furnaces. Rich ore has been struck in .several places during 
 the past few months, and it is estimated that 81.000,000 is in sight. Nec- 
 essary dead-work will be completed by July 16, 1882, after which the va- 
 rious ore bodies will be actively explored and ore taken out. The max- 
 imum yearly capacity of production April 1, 1882, 95,000 tons. The product 
 is marketed at San Francisco, Cal. "The company owns by purchase all 
 the water and water-rights in the district, the land conveying same 
 being secured by United States patents. The policy of the company is to 
 always keep out of debt, and no claims of any kind will be allowed to 
 accrue against the property. All the business of the company is con- 
 ducted upon a cash " pay as you go" basis, and the rights of the stock- 
 holders in and to their property will be protected to the utmost. The 
 company expects to start its mill soon upon the rich ores'from the recent 
 find. Four or five Ingersoll power drills will be kept constantly at work 
 prospecting the ore bodies. The facilities for reduction are such that the 
 company is prepared to work any kindof ores, either milling orsmelting. 
 Organized August 17, 1874. Capitalization, $10,000,000, in 100,000 shares of 
 8100 each ; basis, assessable. Yield $961,707 to April 1, 1882. Three divi- 
 dends paid, 890,000 to April 1, 1882. Date of first dividend. May 27, 1879. 
 Amount per share, thirty cents; total amount, 830,000. Date of latest div- 
 idend, July 28, 1879. Amount per share, thirty cents : total amount, 
 830,000. Twelve assessments levied. $925,000. Date of first assessment. 
 May 28, 1877; amount per share, 82. Date of latest assessment. May 9, 1882; 
 amountper share, twenty-five cents. Stock listed on the Mining Exchanges 
 of San Francisco, Cal., and New York. Stock held chiefly in California, 
 New York, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts. Stock quoted April 1, 1882, 
 $4.60. Weekly wages, 81,260. This information was furnished by J. J. 
 Scoville, Secretary of the company. 
 
 Monitor Mill and Mining: Company (The) is represented by 
 Robert Briggs, W. G. Lyons, Wm. McGill, and the property is managed by 
 the above private individuals as a private enterprise, the parties in ques- 
 tion having had large experience in mining on the Pacific Coast. The 
 company's property covers sixty-five acres of land. Office. Steptoe Creek, 
 White Pine county, Nevada. The company's mines are the Monitor, the 
 Gow, the Yellow Bonanza, and the King Bee, located in Taylor Mining 
 district. White Pine county, Nevada. Amount of property in acres, sixty- 
 five. The ore carries free chloride of silver, very little base of anv kind, 
 and assays 845 per ton. The character of the mines is described as an 
 immense outflow of quartz, a.ssaying not less than $20 per ton, and con- 
 taining chambers of very high grade ore, with a value of 8150 to 8200 per 
 ton. The company's property includes one ten-stamp quartz mill, assay 
 ofSce, retort room, machine shop, store-houses, main office, boarding- 
 houses, carpenter shops, bams for horses, eighty acres of land, and ten 
 years' lease of 400 Inches water from Stephens creek. The shaft is 125 
 feet deep. Length of adits— that is. levels— 200 feet. The main lode is 
 1,500 feet in length. Developments were commenced January, 1881, and 
 $15,000 was expended in developing the property to April 1, 1882. The ore 
 on dumps and in sight in mine is sufficient to yield $1,000 per day for the 
 next ninety days, besides two years' run upon low grade ore that is already 
 exposed. Cost of mining and milling per ton, including freight 813 
 The weekly output at April 1, 1882, was eighty-three tons. The ore is 
 milled at the company's mill. The property was first located in 1872 by 
 an Indian, who sold it for $40 and a horse to Messrs. John Piatt and John 
 Taylor during the latter portion of the year 1875. These parties sold the 
 property to a San Francisco company, which was incorporated under the 
 name of the Alamida Mining Company, for the sum of 818,000. This latter 
 company worked the property for the period of two years, and expended 
 on the same $15,000, and then abandoned the property. In 1881 it was 
 relocated, and in the following ,Ianuary commenced the actual develop- 
 ment of the property. The bullion is very pure, .990 fine. Yield (net) to 
 April 1, 1882, 861,000; yield (net) during 1881, $15,000; yield (gross tons) 
 during 1881, 400. Date of latest dividend. May 1, 1882; amount $10 000 
 No assessments have been levied to June 1882. Wages paid to all classes 
 of labor per day, $4. This information was fumiSied by Monitor Mill 
 and Mining Company. 
 
 Mount Pleasant Mining Company (Tlic) is chartered under 
 the laws of the Sfate of New Jersey. J. H. Smith, Superintendent. The 
 Mount Pleasant mine is owned by the company. Located on Grizzly 
 Flat, El Dorado county, Cal. Extent of claim, 5.135 feet— 293-60 property 
 in acres. Fine quality two per cent, sulphurets, iron pyrites, zincf and 
 galena ore; fissure veins; depth of shaft, 400 feet; levels are 4 619 feet- 
 average width of vein, five feet; tunnel, 130 feet: one twentv-sta'mp mill' 
 run by steam ; double engine ; hoist with CAge in shaft. Th"is blank was 
 hUed out by J. H. Smith, Superintendent of Mount Pleasant Mining Com- 
 
1126 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 jMiiy. Any further information may be had at company's ofiace, Room 
 47, No. 18 Wall Street, New York. ■ 
 
 New Street Albans Silver Mining and Smelling Cotii- 
 pany. The Directors are M. Chase. Pres.; John H. Gordon, Treas. and 
 l^ec.; G. A. Litby, D. H. Smith, D. N. Ewell, Irving Rice, D. W. Keyes. 
 The company's property is located at Saint Albans, Maine. The company 
 was organized April, 1880, and has a capitalization of $uOO,000, in shares, 
 ■with a par value of $5 per share. 
 
 UTii^adoo Silver Hinliigr Company. The officers are Jas. Hick- 
 son, E. Hiekson, K. Ellis, J. H. Harding. Office, Bathurst, GWcester 
 county. The company's property is located in the British Province of 
 Canada. The company has a capitalization of 8150,000, in 300,000 shares, 
 with a par value of $5 per share. 
 
 arortli Star mine (The) is owned by Messrs. Ragel, Nichols & Co. 
 The property consists of two claims, the North Star and Nevada, located 
 at McMillen, Gilo county, Arizona. The ore is a high grade chloride and 
 horn silver, assaying from $1,000 to i$7,600 per ton. Tlie mine is a true 
 fissure, traceable for three miles, from four to ten feet wide. The shaft is 
 down about seventy feel, and tunnel is driven 148 feet. The length of 
 the main lode, on which the supply of ore depends, is 1.600 feet. No 
 mining plant exists. Developments were commenced in 1877, since which 
 time $1,500 has been expended. The prospects of the mine are considered 
 good, providing capital will take hold and develop. Cost of mining and 
 milling, J36 per ton. There was a pocket of ore found in this mine five 
 years ago which ran over 87,000. Since then it has changed hands, and 
 very little more than assessment work has been done. We are expectant 
 of making a sale of the property soon for (f.iO.OOO. The company is not 
 chartered, and consequently not assessable. This information is furnished 
 by J. R. Nichols, one of the owners. 
 
 UTorombega Silver Miiiin;; Company. W. P. Hubbard is 
 Treasurer. The company's property is located in Maine, and $2,321.0.^ 
 expended in developing the property to August, 1881. Real estate does 
 not include title to the surface, and mineral rights are not taxable. The 
 companv's capital is divided into 200,000 shares. Floating indebtedness 
 August, "ISSI, i760,000. 
 
 lPapas:o Cliief Consoliilntecl Mining; Company (The) is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of Iowa.' The officers are W. W. 
 Merritt, President; A. C. Hinchman, Vice-President; B. F. Remmels, 
 Treasurer; R. M. Roberts, Secretary. Directors, W. F. Mitchell, liobert 
 Coles, E. B. Young, Jacob Myers, and Smith McPherson. Annual elec- 
 tion second Tuesoay in August. Jacob Myers, Superintendent. The 
 transfer and head offices are at Red Oak, Iowa. No branch offices. Trans- 
 fers can be eifeeted at any time except during tho ten days previous for 
 general meeting. The property of the company consists of three mining 
 claims or mines. The Longarina, Papago Chief, and Sacramento, all in 
 Pima county, Arizona, each claim having a length of 1 ,^0 feet ; total area, 
 60 acres. The ore is an argentiferous galena. Battery assays were $96 to 
 $124 per ton. The vein is true iissure with both walls perfect. There is 
 no mining plant as yet that is worth speakingof. T^vo shafts each 100 feet 
 down ; length of adits or drifting, 350 feet. The length of the main lode 
 on which the company depends for its supply of ore is 500 feet. Average 
 "Width of vein, twenty-four inches. Developments were commenced m 
 1878, 810,000 having been expended in same. The vein at the bottom of 
 the west shaft is in good shape, in good ore; soft gouges can be used; 
 about 850,000 worth of ore in sight. Cost of mining and milling, twenty- 
 six dollars per ton. The mine Longarina was opened and worked by the 
 Spaniards many yeara ago. The Colt Company built a camp near it 
 called Franita about 1865. In reference to this mine, Mr. J. H. Fawcett, 
 treasurer in charge of the Arivico mill, says : " From the best information 
 I can get from those best posted in regard to the Longarina and good 
 miners who have worked in the mine, all seem to be unanimous in the 
 opinion that it is a good mine, and that a few thouisand dollarsjudiciously 
 expended would set it to producing bullion and paying dividends. It is 
 believed to be one of the best properties in this part of the territory. The 
 only available mills at work or being built in this part of the territory are 
 worked by free milling or amalgamation ; these mills leave fully forty per 
 cent, in the tailings, and we cannot sacrifice so much in working, and the 
 company has not means to go ahead with developments without utilizing 
 the ores taken out as work progresses. The level between the two shafts 
 is rim at the forty-foot level, is in the vein; the ore above this has been 
 stoped out to within twelve feet of surface. The drift east from the east 
 shaft is in ore vein. The inclineonthewestof west shaft was taken out by 
 Mexicans. The Papago Chief and Sacramento are claims which have not 
 as yet been developed to any extent. My report has reference generally 
 to Longarina mine. Organized August 10, 1878; capitalization, 52,000,000, 
 in 100,000 shares of twenty dollars each, non-assessable. Yield, net, to 
 April I, 1882, 177U tons of ore; value, 88,000. Only waste or dead work 
 done in 1881. No dividends paid. No bonded or stock indebtedness. 
 Floating indebtedness about 82,500. Treasury stock, 12,000 .shares ; value, 
 about 8241,000. Preferred stock quoted at five dollais; not listed; held 
 chiefly in Iowa and Illinois. 
 
 Paradise Gulch illining: Compan.v is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of Colorado. The officers are S. S. Scribner. Pres. ; A. M. 
 Searles, Sec. ; F. M. Fox, Treas. J. W. Goodspeed is Suiierintendent ; he 
 has had a mining experience of three years. Head office, Chicago. Ills, 
 Western office, Gothic, Cal. The mines owned are the Pride of Chicago, 
 the Paradise, the Scribner, the Independence, and Nonesuch mines, to- 
 gether with five other claims, located between the heads of Slate river 
 and Itock creek, Gunnison county, California. The or6 is described as 
 galena. The character of the mines are fissure veins and deposits. 
 Bate of commencing developmentSj 1880. Elko is the principal mar- 
 ket for the ore. Date of organization, February, 1881; capitalization. 
 82,000.000; par value, per share. 810. This inlbrmation was furnished 
 by J. W. Goodspeed, Superintendent of the Paradise Gulch Mining Com- 
 pany. 
 
 <&ueen Bee Mininp Company. The managers are Fred, Griffin, 
 Edwin Locland, and James Jacoby. Mr. Jacoby is Superintendent, and 
 has had an experience of ten years. Ollice, Rapid City, D. T. The com- 
 pany's property includes the Queen Bee and Telnphone mines. The 
 property otivera ten acres. The Queen Bee has turned out some of the 
 finest specimens in the Black Hills. D. T. There is a specimen taken 
 from this mine on exhibition at the New York College that is suiil to be 
 very fine. The Telephone mine is located on Slate creek, and is one of 
 the finest prospecting mines on Slate creek, will run 820 on twenty inches 
 of water. The ore mined in the Bee Queen is free milling and assays as 
 
 commencing developments. November 1. 1878. Amount expended in 
 developing property to April 1, 1882, 810,000. Cost of mining and milling 
 per ton is e.'-timated at 8210. Date of organization April 1, 1882; yield 
 (net) to April 1, 1882,81,000,100 pounds; number of dividends paid to 
 April 1, 1882 ; amount of divldeud paid, 8400 ; wages paid to all classes 
 
 of labor per week, 818. This information was furnished by James Jacoby, 
 Superintendent of the Queen Bee Mining Company. ,,„..t„,„j 
 
 Kiverside Tunnel and Mining: Company (The) is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of New York. The officers are J. S. Daven- 
 port, Pres. and Trea.s. ; James B. Davenport, Sec. Trustees, J. B. Daven- 
 port, S. E. Church, W. H. Bosworth, James A. Monell, A. S. Briggs, C. 
 Barcalow. Date of annual election. May 7. H. G. Burt Superintendent. 
 Office, 24 Park Place, New York ; transfer office, '24 Park Place, New 
 York. The company s mines are the Riverside, the Follet, the Hender- 
 son, the Bosworth, the New Jersey, the Cornwall, the Empire, the 
 Monell, the Church, the Adella, Fonda, and Mill Site, located at Un- 
 compahgre mining district, on Red Mt. creek, Ouray county. Col. 
 The character of the ore is galena, and iron pyrites, and some gray cop- 
 per. Character of the mines are fissure. The company expects to have 
 a mill when the railroad gets to them. Extent of underground workings 
 is about 900 feet in all ; shaft, 175 feet ; balance in tunnel of 2.'M feet, and 
 drifts on vein, two levels. The developing of the property was com- 
 menced September, 1878, and from 833,000 to $10,000 have been expended 
 in developing the property to April 1, 1882. This company is a sort of 
 close corporation, all work done and paid for by the trustees. No outside 
 subscriptions have been solicited for working capital. The trustees take 
 the working capital stock as fast as money has been needed for develop- 
 ment. The trustees paid $2.50 per share for the working capital. Sales 
 to outsiders made at those figures and higher, but only in small lots to 
 friends. Date of organization, August, 1879; capitalization, 82,000,000; 
 par value per share, 810 ; basis, non-assessable ; yield from mill ruus sent 
 for sample, 878.90 per ton ; free from all indebtedness. This information 
 was furnished by J. B. Davenport, Secretary of the Riverside Tunnel and 
 Mining Company. 
 
 San Juan and New Jersey Discovery an<l Mining Com- 
 phny(The) is chartered under the laws of the State of New Jersey. 
 The officers are B. A. Vail, Pres.; F. W. Jacobs, Vice-Pres. ; J. C. Cod- 
 dington, Treas.; J. Weaver, Sec. Directors, B. A. Vail, F. W. Jacobs, J. 
 C. Coddingtoii, Frank L. Sheldon, William Blanchard. Date of annual 
 election, first Tuesday in April. Superintendent, James A. Drummoud; 
 experience, twenty years. Branch and transfer office. Exchange Build- 
 ing, Rahway, New Jersey. The company's claims are the Western Bell, 
 Jersey State, Chris. Marsh, Weaver, Black Crystal, Grand Falls, Carrie 
 Coddington, Sheldon, Diamond Tunnel, Jersey Flat, Iron Cap, Lady 
 Pranklm, Brewster, Seek No Farther, Great Whale, Sadie, Suiinyside, 
 Rahwegian, all located in the Uncompahgre district. The Pitkin, Father 
 Abram, Redemption, Little Cave, B. A. Vail, Nasby, Jleridian Sun, Earl 
 of Pearthj Poughkeepsie Spray, located in Poughkeepsie Gulch, Uncom- 
 pahgre district; Silver Bell, Crystal Spring, Jupiter, Young America, lo- 
 cated in Pioneer district : F. A., Sampson, Jupiter, Glencar, Menduza, aod 
 Neptune, located in Rico district. State of Colorado. Extent of claim, 
 60,000 by 300 feet, together with three additional mill-sites. Amount of 
 property in acres, 400. The character of the ore is various, assaying from 
 thirty to 100 ounces of silver per ton. The veins are mostly all true fis- 
 sure, some are contact veins, carrying carbonates. The property includes 
 three cabins for the men, storehouses at the mines, and a house and lot 
 in the town of Ouray. Total amount of work is done in open cut, cross- 
 cut, drifting, and tunnelling, on all the claims together about 1,000 feet. 
 The greatest amount of work on any one claim being 150 feet on the 
 Western Belle., Developments were commenced July, 1880, and a little 
 over 820,000 expended in developing property to April 1, 1882. The pros- 
 pects of the property are very satisfactory, but my estimate has been 
 made as to value. The object of the company is to secure all the good 
 mine claims possible in the San Juan district, and develop sufficient to 
 demonstrate their character, and offer for sale ot compensatory prices. 
 Date of organization, April 2, 1880; capitalization, 81,000,000; par value 
 per share, llO; basis,*ion-assessable; no ore reduced or sold as yet; .stock 
 indebtedness, 8765,000; stock reserved in tlie treasury, April 1, 1882, 
 8235,000, par value ; stock held principally in Union county, N. J. This 
 information furnished by John Weaver, Secretary of the San Juim and 
 New Jersey Discovery and itining Company. 
 
 Senate Mlnine and Smeltinjir Coinp.iny (The) is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of New York. The officers are Willoughby 
 Weston, Pres.; A. T. Tinker, Treas.; Edward Green, Gen'l Man.; Ed. 
 McCulloch, J. C. Weston, Supts. Offices. 6 Pine Street, New York, and at 
 works. Galena. Idaho, Thecompany owns three mines, Senate, Red Cloud, 
 and Chief, located in Galena, Altiiras county, Idaho. Extent of property, 
 237 acres. The ore is a galena and carbonate, assaying from SdO to $250 
 per ton. Twenty-ion smelter, saw-mill, and engine Depth of shaft, fifty 
 feet. Developments were commenced in 1880. Amount expended in 
 same, $20,000. The prospects of the property are considered A 1. Organ- 
 ized May ], 1882; capitalization, 82.000,000; shares, 200 000, 810 each; non- 
 a.ssessable. Yield to January 1, 1882, 300 tons; treasury reserve, 60,000 
 shares. Stock held principally in New York. 
 
 Silver Ijcdgre Consolidated Minings Company is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of Colorado. The officers are G. W. Brown, 
 Pres. ; 'E. Townsend, Vice-Pres. ; I. R. Childs. Treas. : G. W. Zaneway. Sec. 
 Date of annual election, third 'fuesday in March. W. F. Rowen is Super- 
 intendent, and has had an experience of nine years. Head office, Chi- 
 huahua, Summit county. Col. Branch and transfer office, 125 South 'Third 
 Street, Philadelphia, Pa. The company's mining property consists of five 
 claims, viz., the Silver Ledge, the Silver Queen, the Grand'View, the Tran- 
 sylvania, and the Peiiby Mountain, located in Peru mining district. Sum- 
 mit county. Col The ore mined is smelling ore, and averages $60 to the 
 ton. The character of the mines arc fissure veins. The main vein is 
 about thirty-five feet wide, containing pay -streaks varying from six inches 
 to two and u half feet in width. The company's property, covering twenty- 
 six acres, includes boarding-house and ore-house. The sliails (three) are 
 100 feet deep. Length of adits— that is, levels— 700 feet. Four tunnels are 
 being driven. Developments were commenced May 25, 1881. and $20,000 
 expended in developing property to January 1, 1882. "The prospects of the 
 property are most excellent. The company could to-dav ship ore so as 
 to pay handsomely, but are waiting for the railroad facilities so as to. get 
 full value of ore. Maximum yearly capacity of production, '20,000 tons. 
 Argo and Denver are the principal markets for the ore. Date of organ- 
 ization, March 4, 1881; capitalization, $3,000,000; parvalue per share, $10; 
 basis, non-asacssalilc. No dividends paid to April 1, 1882. Company free 
 from debt. No stock reserved in the treasury. Stock not listed held in 
 Pennsylvania and Colorado. Wages paid to all classes of labor perweek, 
 January 1, 18S2, $'_'00. This information was furnished by P. J. Zaneway, 
 Secretary of the silver Ledge Consolidated Mining Company. 
 
 Silver Hill niinliig Company is chartered under the laws of the 
 Stale of North ( 'arolina. The company's mine, the Silver Hill, is located 
 nine miles southeast of Lexington, in David.son county. North Carolina. 
 The property covers an area of 1,300 acres. The ore is a combination of 
 lead, gold, zinc, copper, and sulphate of iron- massive and very heavy- 
 carrying native silver. The ore assays from $10 to $100 per ton. The mine 
 consistjS of two leading fissure veins" running parallel, about twelve feet 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1127 
 
 apart, with other smaller veins of same character on either side. The 
 property includes one large stamp battery, one set Cornish rolls, one of 
 Blate'srock-breaker, three steam-pumpa.and one forty-horse powersteam- 
 engine. The shafts are 800 feet deep. Lengthof adits— that is, levels— 1,000 
 feet. The main lode is 160 feet in length, and the vein has an average width 
 of eight feet. Number of shafts, four. The development of the property 
 was commenced during the year 1840. The prospefits of the property are 
 very ilatterlng. Estimated value of ore in sight. if500,000. Cost.of mining 
 and milling per ton, $6. The mine is beautifully and plea-santly situated 
 in the heart of the great mineral district of North Carolina, with all the 
 advantages of wood, lumber, etc., and is easily drained, with water. 
 Seemingly inexhaustible supply of ore. It is not at present in active 
 operation, but the company are perfecting arrangements for resuming 
 active operations soon. The property is said to be one of the finest 
 mines opened in theState, and has produced greater quantities of ore than 
 any other mine in the country. It was worked by the Confederate gov- 
 ernment during the rebellion, and was one of the main sources of supply 
 of lead. Date of organization (original company), 1840. No assessments 
 have been levied. This information was furnished by J. M. Prim, Super- 
 intendent of the Silver Hill Mining Coinpany. 
 
 Old Qnarfl HKiiiinj^ Coinpany (The) is chartered under the laws 
 of the'Territory of Arizona. The officers are Fordyce Roper, Pres. ; Fran- 
 cis G. Burke, Vice-Pres. ; J. V. Victere, Sec. and Treas. ; Sumner P. Vickers, 
 Supt. The annual election is held January 28. The transfer and head 
 oHices are at Tombstone, Arizona Territory, and 120 Water Street, New 
 York. The company owns the Old Guard Mine, located in Tombstone, 
 Arizona. Extentof claim, 600 by 1.500 (about twenty acres). The ore con- 
 tains chlorides, carbonates, and sulphates; assaying $15 to S300 per ton. 
 The vein is true fissure ; shaft, 230 feet deep, and adits, 300 feet. Main lode 
 on which the supply of ore depends, 800 feet in length ; average width 
 about four feet. There are two shafts and four tunnels. Developments 
 were commenced in November, 1881, and ?10,ou0 has been expended ou 
 same. The prospects are very flattering, probably 820,000 worth of ore on 
 dumps and S100,ono worth in sight. Cost of mining and milling, $20 per 
 ton. This is one of the most popular young mines in Arizona. Many men 
 of moderate means, including miners employed in the mine, have taken 
 working stock without solicitation at forty to fifty cents per share, and from 
 the general formation of the vein and its regularity, it stands as good a 
 chance of being a peer to the Contention and Grand Central as any in the 
 district. The weekly output at present is thirty tons, which is sent to 
 Custom Mill. Organized, January 28, 1882; capitalization, $2,000,000, in 
 200,000 shares of $10 each : non-assessable. Net yield to April 1, 1882, 300 
 tons ; trea-sury stock, 400,000 shares ; Steele held principally in New York, 
 Philadelphia, and Arizona. Not listed on Eastern boards : quoted at fifty 
 c^nts per share, April 1, 1882. This information has been furnished by 
 Sumner P. Vickers, Superintendent of the Guard Mining Company. The 
 Old (juard was one of the finest mines located in the Tombstone, in 1878, 
 by SchefFelm Bros. & Gird, the pioneers of the camp, and is one of the 
 few properties in this district whose title is beyond dispute. 
 
 Pelican and Dives jVininsCompairy (The) is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of New York. The officers in 1880 were Norvin 
 Green, Pres. ; Theodore N. Vail, Vice-Pres. ; K. H. Rochester, Treas. ; Geo. 
 C. Wilde, See. Date of annual election, April. W. A. Duff is Superin- 
 tendent. Office, 1S)7 Broadway, room 26, Western Union Building, New 
 York. Transfer office. Farmer's Loan and Trust Company, New York. 
 The company's mines, the Pelican, Dives, Unicom, Zillah, Billweather, 
 Kagle Bird, Leddon, Andes, Waverly, Bertha, Convention, and Lancaster, 
 are located at Georgetown, Clear Creek county, Colorado. The character 
 of the ore is silver, and the ore has given an actual average for two years 
 of 115 ounces of silver per ton. The character of the mine is fissure vein. 
 The main shaft is 900 feet deep, and levels several miles in length. Tlie 
 length of the main lode is 2,000 feet. There are two shafts and four 
 tunnels. The underground workings are very extensive. The vein 
 varies from fifty to 100 feet in width. Georgetown is the principal 
 market for the ore. Date of organization, April 6, 1880 ; capitalization, 
 $5,000,000; par value, per share, $10; basis, non-assessable; stock not 
 listed ; wages paid to all classes of labor per week, $21. This information 
 was furnished by G. C. Wilde, Secretary of the Pelican and Dives Mining 
 Company. 
 
 First National Mining Company is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of New York. The officers are J. C. Watson, Pres. ; Philip 
 Highley, Sec. and Treas. Date of aonual election, June. The Superin- 
 tendent, Mr. W. H. Gardner, has had three years' experience. Branch 
 office. 66 Devonshire Street, Boston. Mass. Transfer office, Broadway, 
 New York. The company's mine, the First National, is located at Iowa 
 Gulch, California district. Lake county. Col. Their claim is 1,500 feet by 
 300 feet- Amount of property, ten acres. The ore is low grade, galena 
 mixed with iron. This mine is on the sooth side of Psalter Boy hul, one 
 vein of galena dips into the hill at about 45°. Of this low grade ore the 
 company can take out 100 tons a day, at seventy-five cents per ton. All 
 that is required is concentration to make this a very yaluable property, 
 and works have been ordered. The company owns one twenty and one 
 thirty horse engine, a baby holster, and No. 4 Cameron pump. The shaft 
 is 220 feet deep, and length of adits, that is, levels, 300 feet Date of 
 commencing developments, July, 1881. Amount expended in develop- 
 ing property to April 1, 1882, $20,000. There is a twenty-foot vein of 
 galena exposed. Average assay, twelve ounces silver, fifteen per cent 
 lead, mixed with white iron. Leadvilleistheprincipalmarketfortheore. 
 In finking shaft, the company first cut vein at a depth of 145 feet and 
 found it low grade, upon which they decided to sink about sixty feet, 
 then drift into the hill, and again cut vein. This work they are now 
 doing with good prospect of getting an improved grade of mineral. 
 Date of organization. May, 1882 ; capitalization, $200,000 ; par value, per 
 share, $2 ; basis, non-assessable ; bonded indebtedness, April, 1882, $50.000 ; 
 stock reserved in the treasury. May 1. 1881, 25,000 shares, $50,000 ; stock 
 quoted June 1,1882. $2; stock not listed; stockaad bonds held principally 
 in Boston, Mass. Wages paid lo all cla.<!ses of labor per week, $21. This 
 information was furnished by W. H. Gardner, Superintendent of the 
 First National Mining Company. 
 
 ITale Monntain Mining and IHilllnsr Coinpany (Tlie) is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of Colorado. The officers are John 
 E. Faunce, Pres.; C. R. Early, Vice-Pres.; Fred. Gaston, Sec. and Treas. 
 Directors, Jas. Wm. Newlin, Wm. Newell, Wm. P. Schell, and John W. 
 Anthony. Annual election, June 6. Superintendent John Greenbank, 
 of six months' experience. Head and transfer office, 506 Walnut Street, 
 Philadelphia, Pa. ; main office, Buena Vista. Col. The property of the 
 company includes five claims, Mt. Carmel, Bucks, Delaware, Westmore- 
 land, and Last Chance, which, with two mill sites and twenty acres of 
 land on Cottonwood creek, are located in Chaffee county. Col. The claims, 
 each, have an extent of 1,500 by -^OO feet. The ore consists of low grade 
 galena, sulphurets of copper and iron, carrying silver and some gold, 
 and assaying twenty to rifty ounces per ton. The veins are regular fis- 
 sures. Mt Carmel and Last Chance are the only claims developed- 135 
 
 feet tunnel and fifty feet shaft on Mt Carmel; 120 feet incline on Lost 
 Chance. The length of main lode, on which the supply of ore depends, 
 is 1,600 feet; width of same, twenty-two to twenty-three feet The work- 
 ings consist of crosscut ou vein Last Chance, and two levels on Mt Carmel 
 and crosscuts at foot of shaft The mining plant includes a mill contain- 
 ing an Alden crusher and a concentrator j aLso saw-mill on Cottonwood 
 creek. Developments were commenced in 1881, and about $25,000 has 
 been expended in same. The Mt Carmel ore ranges from twenty to four 
 ounces per ton ; Last Chance ore ranges from ten to twelve ounces per ton, 
 with streaks of galena at fifty and seven-eighth ounces per ton ; cost of 
 mining, ^.00. and milling. $7.00, equal to $10 per ton Denver and Pueblo 
 form the principal marliets for the ore. The mill has been erected 
 especially for the purpose of developing this district, the mines ©f which 
 are mostly low grade ore. The works were completed in the spring of 
 the present year (1882) ; and on trial the crusher has a capacity for sam- 
 pling work of sixty tons a day, and for concentration of thirty tons per 
 day. Capitalization, $2,000,000, in 200,000 shares, of $10 each ; organized. 
 May 26, 1881, on a non-assessable basis ; no dividends have been paid ; 
 the stock, held principally in Pennsylvania, is listed at the Philadelphia 
 Stock Exchange, Philadelphia, Pa. This information was furnished by 
 John Greenbank, Superintendent of the Yale Mountain Mining and Mill- 
 ing Company. 
 
 THE COMPILED COMPANIES. 
 
 THOSE companies which follow here are those whose 
 record has been obtained from the columns of the 
 mining press. The figures have therefore no further 
 responsibility, yet are in the main correct, though 
 not possibly quite up to date. 
 
 G C3 .^&. Xa. 
 
 Alliance Coal IHlnins Company (The). Officers are Kossiter 
 W. Raymond, President; Fred. A. Potts, New Jersey, Vice-President; 
 Abraham S. Hewitt, Treasurer. Mines located in the Schuylkill VaUey, 
 Pa. ; $100,000 is set apart for opening up the lands of the company. Hew- 
 itt & Co. retain stock in the AlUance Coal Company to the amount of 
 $300,000; Jeisey Central, taken, $100,000 ; capitalization, $2,000,000; money 
 paid in, 81,500,000. 
 
 Abbey Coal and mining Company (The). E. J. CrandeU, 
 Manager, 100 North Fourth Street, St Louis, Mo., and CoUinsville, IlL, is 
 where the general office and branch office may be found. 
 
 Acadia Coal Company (The) is chartered tmder the laws of the 
 Province of Nova Scotia. The officers are J. W. Glendenin, President, and P. 
 Harris, Secretary, having offices at 145 Broadway, New York. The mines 
 are under thesuperintendence of H. S. Poole, formerly Government inspec- 
 tor of mines. Annualelcctionis held on the 27th of March. The company 
 own the Acadia and other mines. The Acadia at Westville is the only pit 
 at present woridng. The properties, comprising an area of six square 
 miles, are located in Pictou county. Nova Scotia. The coal is of a qualify 
 suitable for both steam and domestic purposes and has a preference in 
 the local markets. The seam is regular, dipping northeast at twenty 
 degrees to twenty-ei_ght degrees, without faults so ra,r as proved in Acadia 
 ground. Entranceisby slope 1,900 feet long. Tlie levels are 6,000 feet in 
 extent. The seam on which the company depends for its supply of coal 
 is 5,000 feet longitudinal measurement by about ten feet wide. It has two 
 slopes. The company was organized in 1865 on an a.ssessabie basis, with a 
 capitalization of $1,5(X),000 in 15,000 shares of $100 each. The average 
 yearly output of coal is 90,000 tons gross. The company is out of debt 
 
 Addenda Coal Company (The). Located Mono county, Cal. Shaft 
 324 feet in depth, the bottom in vein matter carrying bright, lively quartz 
 and seams of mineral bearing clay. Indications very good. 
 
 Aden Coal Company (The). Mines located near Wanomie. This 
 company is composed of Lehigh capitalists, who have purchased many 
 acres of valuable coal lands near Wanomie. 
 
 American Coal Company is chartered under the laws of the Stat^. 
 of Maryland. The companv has a branch office Io<-;Ued at 110 Broadway, 
 New York. The company's mines are located in Alleghany county, Md., 
 the character of the coal being semi-bituminous. Thecompanywasora;an- 
 ized in 1855, having a capitalization of $1,500,000, in 60,000 shares of $25 
 each, non-Bssessabfe. Total amount of dividends paid up to 1877, $1,222,- 
 500. The latest dividend paid being at the rate of two and a half cents 
 per share. The main vein has a width of fourteen feet 
 
 American Coal Company (The). A. Jackson Clark, Manager. 
 Principal office, 110 Broadway, New York. Name of mine owned, the 
 Jackson ; located oppo-site Lonaconing. Very little has been done during 
 the past year 1881. Prosjiects are good at present John Bradbum, mining 
 boss. Employing about 190 men. The coal is shipped from Alexandria, 
 Baltimore, and Jersey City. Capitalization, $1,500,000; number of shares, 
 60,000; parvalufe,$5. 
 
 Ansted Coal Mines (The). Mr. Page, Superintendent These mines 
 are located at Hawk's Nest, West Va. The prospects for the extension of 
 the mines are good. Have a good vein of coal from which they mine be- 
 tween seven and eight feet in the bottom. Miners have steady work. Mr. 
 Page is building 100 coke-ovens. The coal makes a good grade of cole, 
 have about three feet of coal in the bottom. The miners receive forty 
 cents per ton for running the mine. Seventy-five men are emplyed. 
 
 Argyle Coal Company (The). Located in Cambria county. Pa. 
 Yield per annum, 3,253 tons. 
 
 Atlantic and Geoj^e's Creek Consolidated Coal Com- 
 pany (The). Officers, JTH. Taylor, Pres. ; George Steams, Sec. Direc- 
 tors, S. Rosenburg, E. S. Myers. I.iocation of coal mines, We.st Virginia. 
 Mr. Taylor purchased a valuable piece of property, on the West Viigiiiia 
 and Pittsburg Railroad, in Mineral county. 
 
 Aurora Coal Company (The.) Located, Cambria county. Pa. 
 
 Anstin and Central Texas Coal Company (The). Francis 
 B. Forster. Pres. ; R. J. Swan Coat Vice-Pres. ; Austin M. Robinson, Sec. 
 and Treas. and Gen. Manager. The mines of this company are located 
 near Rockdale, Milan county, Texas. First mine struck, forty-five feet 
 below the surface, five and one half feet thick. Capitalization, $250,000. 
 
 Bafca Coal Mining- Company ("i'Uje). Officers, Juan Jose Baka, 
 Pres.; J. M. Chavez. Vice-Pres. ; Capt R. A. Darst, Sec; P. A. Simpson, 
 Treas. Mines located near San Pedro, on the opposite side of the Rio 
 Grande, Socorro, New Mexico. 
 
1128 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Banner Klines and Oas-€oal SJlnes (The), owned by Gamble 
 & Risher, are located at West Pittsburg, Pa. Head office, 116 Water 
 Street, Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Beaver Creek and Cumberland Coal Company (The). 
 Officers, J. W. Procter, Treas. ; H. C. Ferris, Gen. Supt. Organized at Cin- 
 cinnati, by Judge Van Winkle, of Danville. This company has 17,000 
 acres of coal lands, and is already sinking a shaft. 
 
 Beaver Dam Mining Company's works are located in Mont- 
 gomery county, N. C. Yield during 1881, 86,000. The principal markets 
 tor the ore are Philadelphia and New York. 
 
 Beaver Run Coal Company (The) is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of Pennsylvania. The officers are Henry 0. Terry, Pres. ; C. W. 
 Hughes, See. ; Jas. E. Moore, Treas. Date of annual election, fourth Mon- 
 day in March. C. W. Hughes, (Min. Eng.) Superintendent, of fifteen 
 years' experience. The head and branch offices are at 136 Walnut Street, 
 Philadelphia, Pa. ; the transfer offices are at 11 Duane Street, Boston, Mass. 
 The Beaver mines are located at Houtzdale, Clearfield county. Pa. The 
 coal is of the bituminous description, and is worked on the drift and 
 slope sy.stem, the usual plant of a bituminous coal-mine. Developments 
 were commenced April 10, 1880. Cost of mining is eighty-five cents per 
 ton. The maximum annual capacity of production is 60,000 tons. Weekly 
 output, April, 1882, 1,500 tons. Boston and the Eastern States form the 
 chief market for the produce. Average wages paid to all classes, per 
 week, 812 per head. Cjrganized April 10, 1880 ; capitalization, 6,072 shares 
 of 810 each, non-assessable. Yield (net) to April, 1882, 97,830 tons j yield 
 during 1881, 42,200 tons, gross ; yield during 1881, 37,680 tons, net. Num- 
 ber ot dividends paid to date, six ; total amount, 88,600.80 ; date of first 
 dividend, July, 1880, twenty cents; total 81,214.40; date of latest dividend, 
 April, 1882, thirty cents, total, 81,821.60 ; no assessments have been levied; 
 no bonded or fioating indebtedness. Stock and bonds reserved in treas- 
 ury, April 1, 1882, 8139,280 ; stock listed on the Stock Exchange. Boston, 
 Mass. Stock and bonds held principally in Philadelphia and Boston. 
 
 Belvidere Coal Company (The). Location of mines. Mono 
 county, Cal. Main shaft, thirty-five feet below the 400 feet station. East 
 wall carries two feet of bright, lively quartz. Assays range from 815 to 
 820 per ton. Three feet of irregular seams of quartz ; porphyry giving 
 seven feet between the waUs. 
 
 Belmont Coal Company's Works (The). Located near Eel- 
 laire, Ohio. 
 
 Bennett Coal Mines (The). Located at Maccan, Cumberland 
 county. Nova Scotia. Steel Company of Canada. Forty tons of coal are 
 now being taken out. Old shafts are to be pumped out, new ones sunk. 
 Mr. Redpath is underground manager. 
 
 Benwood Iron Works (The). Located at Benwood, Marahall 
 county, W. Va. The company, during 1880, mined some 27,400 tons of 
 bituminous coal in a five-foot bed. The mine has a capacity for producing 
 some 40,000 tons per year. 
 
 Betts Cove and liittle Bay Coal Klines (The). The above 
 mines are located in Nova Scotia. Work in the Little Bay Coal Mine was 
 carried on in 1881 on a large scale. From ninety to one hundred men are 
 employed by the company. 
 
 Birmingham Coal. Coke, and Iron Company (The). Of- 
 ficers, J. C. Neely,of Memphis, Tenn.,Pres. ; Thomas H. Milbum, Tenn., Sec. 
 and Treas. Location of coal works is Birmingham, Allegheny county. 
 Pa. The company have purchased 50,000 acres of coal and iron lands, 
 and also own several large furnaces. Date of organization, at Decatur, 
 Ala., August 12, 1881 ; capitalization, 82,000.000; yearly yield, 183,645 tons. 
 Bird Coal and Iron Company (The). Location, Northumber- 
 land, Pa. 
 
 Black Ball Coal Company (The). Location of works, Pennsyl- 
 vania. 
 
 Black Diamond Coal Company is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of Tennessee. The officers are E. C. lK)cke, Pres. ; E. F. Wiley, 
 See. ; T. H. Heald, Treas. Date of annual election, January. Superin- 
 tendent, B. F. Rooney. This gentleman has had twenty-five years' expe- 
 rience in the business. Transfer and head offices, Knoxville, Tenn. 
 Transfer days, any time. The company owns the Franklin and Black 
 Diamond Mines, located at Cool Creek, Tenn. Their property covers 375 
 acres of land. The company commenced developments September 1, 
 X872, and have expended $50,000 in.developing their property to January 
 1, 1882. Date of organization, September 23, 1873 ; capitalization, 860,000 ; 
 mr value per share, 8100 ; basis, non-assessable ; floating indebtedness, 
 82,000. 
 
 Black Diamond Coal Company (The). Wm. J. Murdock, Gen. 
 Supt. Location, uear Palmyra, Ohio. The mines are reached by a shaft 
 110 feet deep, and are in charge of Mr. Abel Dore, Jr. Sixty men are em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Black Diamond Coal Company (The). W. J. Jackson, Man- 
 ager. Principal office, 19 and 21 Nassau Street, room 2, New York. Agent, 
 E. H. Chipman. Mines located in Osceola and Mt. Carmel counties. Pa. 
 Shipping wharves in Philadelphia, Baltimore, and South Amboy. J. C. 
 Gum, eastern agent, 15 Doane Street ; P. O. Box, 1572, Boston Mass. Wm. 
 Schwenk & Co., operators. The coal produced in 1880 amounted to 
 26,125.15 tons. 
 
 Blair Iron an«l Coal Company (The). The location of the 
 coal works and mines is iu Blair county, Pa. Yield per annum, 113,039 
 tons. 
 
 Blossbnrgr Coal Company (The). Officers, O. M. Bump, Sec. ; 
 D. S. Drake, Genl. Supt. General office, Elmira, N. Y. The property 
 owned (the Arnot Mines) is located in Pennsylvania. Date of organiza- 
 tion, 1866. The product of their mines is known as the Blossburg semi- 
 bituminous coal. Six drifts are open. Yearly yield, 380,883 tons. 
 
 Boulder County Coal Company. The property is located in 
 Boulder county, Colorado. Product during 1881, 302,660 tons ; number 
 of men employed, 700. 
 
 Bracevllle Coal Company (The). Located In Grundy county, 
 Illinois. Capitalization, 8500,000. 
 
 Bridge Coal Company (The). Names of mines owned by the 
 company, Diamond Rock and the Big Vein. Located in Pennsylvania, 
 Number of acres, 150. Double breaker with a double set of rolls, capacity 
 of from 500 to 600 tons per day. The Bridge Coal Company entered into 
 a contract with the Delaware and Hudson Company for a supnlv of 
 100,000 tons. Product, 1881, 56,700 tons. 
 
 Brewster Coal Company (The), of Akron, Ohio, Is making an 
 opening opposite the Weaver Shutes. Coal will average about five feet 
 in thickness. 
 
 Buck Mountain Coal Company (The). William Spencer, Super- 
 intendent. Location of mines, Pennsylvania. 
 
 Buck Ridg^e Coal Company( Tile). Location of works, Hazlo- 
 ton, Pa. 
 
 RulTalo Coal Company (The). Ijocation of works, MclCeau 
 ''*"i"S' v^?'™" '^■'"^ of ^"^^ ^^"^ "re to be connei ted with the McKeaii 
 and Buffalo Rail by a narrow-gauge road, at a cost of 83U0,0UU. 
 
 Bulwer Consolidated Coal Company (The). Located in 
 Mono county, California. North drift is in from the tunnel 135 feet; 
 ledge two and a half feet wide ; looks well. South drift is in 131 feet ; 
 ledge in the stone wall slopes two feet wide. In Ralston slope the ledge 
 is three and a half feet wide and looks well. Very good ore in the Stone- 
 wall slopes. 
 
 Burlinsrante Mutual Coal Mining Company (The). The 
 property is known as tlie Ramskill Shaft, located half a mile south and 
 east of Carbondale across Switler creek. Depth of shaft, ninety feet. 
 
 Burnett Coal and Coke Company (The). The mines are 
 located in Butler county. Pa. Yearly yield, 34,200 tons. 
 
 Butts Coal Company (I^tmited) (The). Officer, Charles J. 
 Butts, Secretary and Treasurer. Located at Cleveland, Ohio. 
 
 Cahaba Coal Company's Works are located in Shelby county, 
 Alabama. The company owns 1,700 acres of land in several contiguous 
 tracts. The quality of the ore is rich bituminous, suitable for gas. Analy- 
 sis gives; moisture, 166; vol. comb, 33.28; fixed carbon, 63.04; ash, 2.02; 
 total, 100 parts. The character of the mines may be described as a bed 
 of bituminous coal, about thirty-two feet thick, with good top and bot- 
 tom, generally free from slate partings so detrimental to clean mining. 
 With a run of three miles is given awidth of 1,000 feet and a thickness of 
 four feet, with a yield of 1,000,000 tons. The properties are well located, 
 one of the slopes being not more than 200 feet from the main line of the 
 N. & S. Alabama Railroad, and is connected therewith by a siding. Plant 
 required, heavy engine, boilera, pump, and hoisting machinery. The 
 slope is already driven, and all that is necessary is to empty it of water 
 and start the gangways, a matter of sixty days' work. 
 
 Cameron Coal Company (The). George W. Cole, Supt; John 
 Liltle, Inside Manager. The coal field is located about 126 miles from 
 Buffalo, N. Y. Five feet vein, with four feet three inches of good coal. 
 The company owns a good saw-mill, under the superintendence of W. 
 McConnell. Prospects fair. Capitalization, 82,600,000; number shares. 
 50,000 ; par value, 850. 
 
 Cambria Mine (The) is operated by Mr. Wm. T. Williams, and lo- 
 cated at Dennison, Ohio. 
 
 Caniiel Coal Mines (The). Messrs. Heron, ownei-s. The mines 
 are located at Little Sinking, Carter county, Ky. Verj' superior coal. 
 1,200 bushels cannel coal sent to Lexington, Ky., where it readily sold for 
 twenty cents per bushel. 
 
 Cape Breton Colliery Association of Coal Mines (The). 
 Owners and officers, R. H. Brown, Pres.; David McKeen, Vice-Pres. ; W. 
 Purves, Sec. and Treas. Capitalization, 850,000. 
 
 Carbon City Coal and Iron Company (The). Incorporators, 
 Daniel Hamilton, Edward A. Scoville, Daniel W. Cross. Peter F. Black. 
 Charles P. Scoville. Principal office. Cleveland, O. Location of works, 
 Cleveland, O. Business will be carried on in Island creek Township, Jef- 
 ferson county, and at Carbon City, Pa. The company has a capitalization 
 of 825.000. 
 
 Carbon Hill Coal Company (The). James O. Somers, Supt. 
 Name ofmine. Carbon Hill. Located at Carbon Hill, O. About 100 men 
 are employed. 
 
 Centerville Coal and Mining Company (The). Henry John- 
 son, Supt. The mines of this company are located in Iowa. 
 
 t'entral Gas-Coal Mines ('i'he") are owned and operated by Jack- 
 son Oliver. The property is located at Fairmouiit, Marion county. West 
 Va. About twenty men are employed in the mines. About eight feet of 
 bituminous gas-coal have been taken out of the vein. The maximum 
 capacity of the mines in February, 1881, was 6,000 tons. Chicago, Tiffin, 
 O., Newark, O., and points on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, are the 
 chief markets for the product. 
 
 Central Illinois Coal Company (The) is the name of a new 
 company, the preliminary organization papers only of which have been 
 filed so far. The principal office will be at Chicago, at present at Spring- 
 field. The company owns property in Kankakee county, 111., and have 
 already commenced developments. Capital, 8500,000, in 6,000 shares of 
 8100 each. Stock is held chiefly in Chicago nnd Springfield. 
 
 Chippewa Coal Company (The). This property is situated in 
 Clinton, Ohio. The company is operating a drift mine, in charge of Geo. 
 Smith. Coal averages six feet. About sixty men are employed. Coal 
 shipped on the Mt. Vernon road. 
 
 Chicago, Wilmington, and Vermillion Coal Company 
 (The). A. E. Sweet, Gen. Man. Principal office, 210 La Salle Street, 
 Chicago, and Streaton, 111. 
 
 Clearfield Coal Company (The). The property belonging to this 
 company is located in Clearfield county. Pa. Yearly number of tons, 
 11,400. 
 
 Clear Spring Coal Company (The). Officers, A. M. De Witte, 
 Pittston ; John R. Davis, Pittston ; Joseph L. Cake. W. H. Gerhardt, Esq 
 Scranton ; Joseph L. Cake. Supt. ; M. De Witte, Chairman ; J. R. Davis, 
 Treas. The works are located in Virginia. Their capacity wiU be from 
 1,000 to 1,200 tons per day. There are five veins of coal— the smallest 
 seven, and the largest fourteen, feet iu thickness, aggregating forty-five 
 feet of superior coal. .==0-0 
 
 Clinton Coal Company (The). The location of these works is in 
 Jefferson county. Pa. Yearly number of tons, 2ii,667. 
 
 Coalport Slliie (The). Owned by a party of Greensburg operators 
 —Messrs. Huff^ & Coulter. Mr. Steak is looking at the inside work. The 
 location of the works is at the terminus of Bell's Gap Road Pa. The 
 quality of the coal is good. 
 
 Coalton Coal Mines (The). David Ramsey and Jacob Schugh. 
 Location of mines, near Coalton, Ky. Are working very well, with pros- 
 pects of a good season ; shipping from 12,000 to 15.000 bustels oi^coal daily ; 
 miners receive seventy cents per ton for screened coal. The coal-bed 
 vanes from three and one-half to four feet in height ; shipped to Ashland ■ 
 company employs 400 men in and about the mines. 
 
 Coal Valley Coal Company (The). Mines located in West Vir- 
 ginia. This company sent to the exhibition at Yorktown a block five 
 and one-half feet 111 height, three feet two inches in width, two and one- 
 half feet in depth. 
 
 Coke Company (The). Stockholders, Henry J. Davis, Wm. Kevser, 
 Robert Garrett, Asman Latrobo, Henry L. Keyser, Ferdinand Latfobe, 
 all of Baltimore, Md. ; Malcom Hav, D. N. Stewart, of Pittsburg, Pa. 
 Principal offices, Baltimore and Connellsville. The mines belonging to 
 this company are locatedin Fayette county. Pa. Capitalization, 81,000.000. 
 Colorado Anthracite Coal Company CTlie). Officers Hon. 
 James B. Belford, Colorado, Pres. ; W. J. McKnight, Sec; Fran'cis T. 
 Brunkey, Treas^ Trustees, Hon. J. B. Belford, Hon. Allison White, A, L. 
 Roberts, H. E. Road, J. Howard Mitchell, Henry P. Sloan, Francis T. 
 Brinkley, Samuel K. Shipley, Thos. P. Sargent. Principal office, 37 
 South Third Street. 
 
 Colorado Coal iukI Iron <'ompany (The). The properly of 
 Ihis company is under tlie supervision of Mr. W. S. Omertz, and is located 
 at llauman, Gunnison county, Cul., covering j,n area of 1,200 acres The 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1129 
 
 rein now being worked has a clear six feet of colling coal. The company 
 is now contemplating the buildingof anumber of coke ovens, about 100. 
 
 Columbia Coal Company (Ihe). Mr. Foster, Allegheny City, 
 Gen'l Manager. Sixty men employed. 
 
 Central Mining Company (The). Mr. Josiah Wells, Manager. 
 The mines arc located in Columbus, Ohio. Three of the Lechner coal- 
 cutting machines are used in these mines. Operated.day and night. 
 
 Confidence ('oal and Minings Company (The). Messrs. 
 Seybt & Bandelleh. Principal office, 22 South Commercial Street, St. 
 Louis, Mo., and at CoUinsville, 111. 
 
 Consolidated Coal Company (The) of Maryland has its offices 
 at 13 German Street, Baltimore, and 71 Broadway, New York. The prop- 
 erties are located in Maryland. The shipmenis are made at Georgetown, 
 D. C, and Baltimore Md. Messrs. Roussell & Hicks, of Broadway, New 
 York, sales agents. The company has recently begun a work at Ocean 
 Mine, which will greatly increase its capacity. Nearly all the coal that 
 can be reached through the present openings has been taken out. 
 
 Consolidated Coal mining; Company (The) has properties 
 located at Camden, Mason county. West Va. Mr. W. H. Fogel being 
 Supt., and residing at West Columbia, (P. 0. address.) The head oflices 
 are at N. W. cor. Walnut and Second Streets, Cinciiuiati, O. 
 
 <!onsnIidated Coal Company (The). Name of mine owned. 
 Sand Eun. Location in Ohio. Good coal taken from the mine daily. 
 The company owns 180 acres. The coal averages seven feet deep. Fifty 
 men are employed. 
 
 Consolidated Coal Company (The). Officers, Marvin Hughett, 
 Pres.; Albert Keep, Vice-Pres.; J. B. Redtield. Sec; H. W. Kirkman , Treas. 
 Directors, Albert Keep. Marvin Hughett, H. W. Kirkman, H. W. McNeill, 
 J. B, lledfield. Location of mines. Oskaloosa, Iowa. Extent of claim 
 consists of 2 000 acres of land, estimated to contain 20.000,000 tons of coal. 
 The Chicago and Northwestern Ilailroad Company have purchased the 
 property, opened and equipped with mines, yards, telegraph-lines; all 
 machinery and appliances. The present annual capacity of 1881 is 30,000 
 car loads. Amount of coal weekly, 104 tons ; amount of coal yearly, 144,- 
 059 tons. 
 
 Consolidated Coal Company (Thel. James B. Thomas, Supt. 
 Mines located on George's creek, Cumberland region. Operations are 
 progressing steadily over five mines, and from 16,000 to 18,000 tons per 
 week are being shipped. The mines are located on the line or branches 
 of the Cumberland and Pennsylvania Railroad 
 
 ConnellSTille Gas Coal Company (The). Mr. H. Wickham, 
 Superintendent. This company's property is located in Connellsville re- 
 gion. Pa. Have sunk a shaft, and found coal at a depth of 301 feet. 
 Veins nine and a half fteet thick. About 1.000 acres ol^the company's 
 land have been leased to the Cambria Iron Company, for the use of nOO 
 ovens. An analysis made by Charles P. Williams shows 28.50 volatile, 
 64.18 fixed carbon. 1.20 water, 6.12 coke, 70.30 sulphur. 
 
 Consolidated Coal Compan.y (The). John Ford, Manager. 
 Name of mine owned is the Ocean Mine, located five miles from Frost- 
 bur^. The mine is entered by a drift brought forward by a small loco- 
 motive. 100 men are employed. 
 
 Coiisoli<lated Coal and Ktinln^ Company (The). Officers, 
 John SheriiJen, Pres. ; John Wilson, Jr., Sec. Directors, John Sheriden, 
 R. K. Snyder. John Wilson, Jr., of Piedmont; R. D. Wilson, Bridgeport, 
 W. Va. ; P. E. Haddeman, of Cumberland. The mines of the company 
 are located two miles west of Bridgeport, W. Va. The company have 250 
 acres of land underlaid by a nine feet vein of gas coal. 
 
 Consolidated Coal and IHlnin;; Coinpan.y (The). George 
 W. Brashes, Superintendent. Mines located at Cincinnati, O. This com- 
 pany owns a number of mines in different parts of the country. The 
 mine is in good condition. About 170 men are at work. 
 
 Connelton t^oal Company (The). E. Tatnall, Treasurer. Gen- 
 eral offices, 2:W South Third .Street, Philadelphia; 41 South Street. New 
 York : 91 State Street, Boston, and Baltimore. P. O. Box, 1747 New York. 
 This property is located in West Virginia. Perkins & Co., Daniel W Job 
 & Co., Mayer, Carroll & Co., sale agenits. 
 
 Connellsville Coke and Iron Company (The). Officers, 
 Hon. John Leisenring, Pres. ; W. B. Whitney, Sec and Treas. Directors; 
 Hon. John Leisenring,Mauch Chunk; Fred. A. Potts, New York ; Samuel 
 Dickson, Philadelphia; John S. Wentz, Eckley; E. B. Leisenring, Au- 
 denried; W. S. Kemmerer, Mauch Chunk; Henry McCormick, Harris- 
 burg; Daniel Bertch. Upper Lehigh. The extent -of claim is 8,000 acres. 
 The company contemplates the ei*ection of a large coke crusher, with a 
 capacity of not less than 250 tons per day. It owns thirty-five blocks of 
 tenement houses, and before the closing of the year, (18S1) seventy blocks 
 of houses will be required at the new shaft. 'The stockholders are well 
 pleased with their property. Capitalization, $1,250,000. 
 
 Coons Iron. Coal. aii4l Sand Company (The). Location of 
 works. Park county, Colorado. Property owned, fifty acres of iron, and 
 320 acres of coal lands. 
 
 Co-operative Store Compan.y CThe). The mines of this com- 
 pany are located in Kansas ; consists of nineteen members, all of whom 
 are working millers. Stock was subscribed, shares of SlOO each; one- 
 fourth shares, $2,'>, were sold. Company was organized, .lune, 1881. 
 
 C'oos Ray Compan.y (The). Owned by D. 0. Mills and several 
 capitalists of San Francisco. Name of mine owned. Southport ; located 
 in Oregon ; explored to the depth of 3,000 feet; output, seventy-five tons 
 per dav : thirty men are employed. 
 
 Crafts Iron Compan.y (The). Grove Stoddard, Superintendent. 
 Location of works, Hocking Valley. Ohio. Furnace has been in blast 
 since the summer of 1881. averaging about thirty tons daily. The mine 
 is in charge of Robert Guess, who has twenty-six men at work. 
 
 Crescent <'oal Klines. Capt. W. E. Johnson, owner. Location of 
 mines. Great Kanawha, Crescent . 'station. W. Va. Prospects of the property 
 excellent. About 80,000 tons of Kanawha coal were sent to market in 
 1880. Output first six months. 1881, about 5.000 tons. 
 
 Crooke Coal Vlinin;; Company (The). Mines located at Glen- 
 raary. Tenn. Large quantities of coal are being shipped 
 
 thrown Hill Splint Coal Company (The) owns the Coalburg 
 mine, located near Paint Creek Station. W. Va. The seam yielding the 
 noted splint coal ranges in thickness from four feet on the top of the 
 shaft at river front to six feet four inches on the back line. Mr. Brewer 
 Smith is the mining superintendent. 
 
 Cninbcrland Regrion Korden mininsr Comnany fThe). 
 The company owns two mines, the Old Drift and New Ho^ie, opposite 
 Borden sliaft.'and operated by A. C. Gfreen. The Borden shaft is in charge 
 of G. McMillan. The company has fine machinery for hoisting coal, and 
 employs 200 men. Over 120,000 tons of coal have been shipped since Janu- 
 ary 1, 18.S1. 
 
 <'ninl>erland Coal Mining Company fThe>. The property 
 belonging to this company is located at Greenwood, Pulaski county, Ky. 
 The company is shipping about 5,000 bushels per day. Coal is taken 
 from five or six entries in the hills; 180 minors at work; wa|;es, two to 
 
 four dollars per day. Capitalization, $50,000 ; per share, four dollars. A 
 dividend has been declared of eight per cent, per month. 
 
 Camfoerland and Elk Iiick Coal Company (The). Officeis, 
 Alex. Shaw. President ; Alonzo Chamberlin, Vice-President ; C. M. Hoult, 
 Secretary and Treasurer. Directors, Lloyd Lowndes, Jr., C. C. Baldwin, 
 and William A. Fisher. These mines are located in Pennsylvania. 
 
 I>ay ton Coal and Iron Company (The). John Ferguson, Gen. 
 Manager; Sir Titus Salt, of Saltaire, England, principal stockholder. 
 Location of works, Dayton, Tenn. ; 128,000 acres ; double shifts are worked 
 on the entries air-shafts. The company is sinking an incline 1.100 feet; 
 quality of coal, very fine ; lower vein, four feet five inches ; upper vein, 
 tour feet eight inches ; fifty or sixty coke-ovens will be used. 
 
 Decatur Coal Com pany (The). Location of works is in Clearfield 
 county. Pa. Yearly number tons of coal, 59,510. 
 
 Despard Coal Company are the owners of the Despard mine, 
 located at Clarksburg, Harrison county, W. Va. There is a nine-feet bed 
 of gas-coal, worked by drift under a cover of seventy-five feet. The com- 
 pany employs about sixty men. Maximum yearly capacity of produc- 
 tion, February 1, 1881, about 40,000 tons. The principal market for ore is 
 Baltimore and points along the B. & O. R. R. Some is sold to the Balti- 
 more and Ohio Company, to whose railroad a branch leads from the 
 mine. 
 
 Detmold Coal Klines (Tbc). Owned by the Maryland Coal Com- 
 pany. Mr, F. E. Brackett, Superintendent. Mr. James Little is in charge 
 of the mine as Mining Boas; prospects fair; 200 men employed. 
 
 Diamond Coal Compan.y (The). These mines are located at 
 Centerville. Iowa; -struck coal in their new mine at the depth of 135 feet; 
 first-class engine is owned by the company. 
 
 Dubois Alleshany Valley Company (The). A. J. McHugh, 
 Supervisor. These works belong to Messrs. Bell. Lewis & Yates. The 
 company owns plenty of cars; they have a large crusher and washer, 
 fifty-six coke-ovens, capacity for 100 care daily; vein averages five to six 
 and one-half feet thickness _; 400 men employed ; miners receive forty-five 
 cents per net ton, run of mine. 
 
 Eag^leCoal and Coke Company (The). This company is located 
 in Coal Valley, W. Va. Their works are operated by Wm, Wyant. Eagle 
 vein, 120 feet below gas vein, contains rich bituminous coal— vein 
 averages five feet in thickness. There are two openings by an incline 300 
 feet in length. 250 tons are shipped daily. Mining department is in charge 
 of Mr. James Whitney, and is in good condition. 
 
 Excelsior Coal Company (The). The directors of this company 
 are John H. Dravo, Wm. A. McClintock, Wm. Van Kirk, Denion Begmer, 
 Geo. Wantman, R. B. Brown, J. H. McCreery, A. M. Sutton, A. D. Smith, A. 
 Dempster. The mines of tiiis company are located in Pennsylvania. 
 Tliey already own 1.500 acres of bituminous coal lands, situated on 
 Street's Run. within five miles of the city of Pittsburg. Capitalization, 
 $350,000; par value, 850. 
 
 Excelsior Coal Company (The). These mines are situated in 
 Medina county, Ohio, near Wadsworth. The company owns 371 acres of 
 coal land, and the coal is excellent. Vein ranges from five feet six to 
 ten feet. Coal will be shipped to Cleveland. 
 
 Enterprise Coal and Coke Works (Tke). Hutchinson Bros., 
 owners. The works are located at Jlount Pleasant, Westmoreland county. 
 Property owned by the company consists of 400 acres of coal land, worth 
 $240 to S260 per acre. 
 
 Fairland Gas Coal Mine (The). The mine is located in Clarks- 
 burg, Harrison county, W. Va. It is owned by D. J. Adams, and leased 
 by D. T. Farland. The mine is in nine feet seam. Forty men are em- 
 ployed. Output, 12,000 tons. The coal is sent to Chicago and other West- 
 ern markets. 
 
 Fairmount Coal and Iron Conipany is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of Pennsylvania. The directors or board of managers 
 are F. R. Potts. Thos. Rutter, Jos. H. Harris, B. K. Jamison, John A. Wil- 
 son, Chas. C. Baird. J. H. Kershaw, De June & Co., W. C. Hall, and Chas. 
 Broadhead. Officers, B. K. Jamison, Pres. ; John A. Wilson, Vice-Pres, ; 
 Geo. H. Miller, Sec. Office, financial. New York city. The company's 
 mines are located in Clarion and Armstrong counties, on the Eed Bank 
 creek. Pa. They own 4,800 acres of land. The coal is bituminous, ex- 
 cellent for gas and steam purposes. The whole tract of 4,800 acres is under- 
 laid with veins of coal, iron ore, and be'ds of limestone, and also fire clay 
 are found. Five coal veins ; the top uppe r, Freeport, four feet thick ; next 
 lower, Freeport six feet thick ; next two but two feet thick. 175 feet 
 below the Freeport vein is lower Kittanning, four to five feet thick ; an 
 excellent steam coal, yields a fair coke. The iron is found twenty-five 
 teet below the Kittanning. The company own thirty coke-ovens, with 
 full machinery, crushing and washing machine attached. The property 
 holds within itself all that is necessary for the manufacture of pig "iron, 
 so accessible as to render the cost of same cheaper than is possible in any 
 other locality. Colliery has been worked profitably since 1873. AH veins 
 drift in and require no artificial drainage. Is sold for gas and steam pur- 
 poses, and used for gas in Buflialo, Albany, and other cities. Production 
 about 3,000 tons per week, affording more than enough profit to pay the 
 interest of the bonded debt, without further increase of the busi'iiess. 
 Output weekly at July, 1882, 3,000 tons. Capitalization, $1,600,000 ; bonded 
 indebtedness, January 1, 1882, (thirty years, six per cent, gold) $650,000. 
 
 Fall Brook Coal Company (The). Officers, Geo. J. Miigee, 
 Pres. ; John Lang, Sec. and Treas. General office at Corning. Steuben 
 county, N. Y. The mines of this company are located near Blossburg. Pa. 
 
 Fall Creek Coal Company (The). The location of this com- 
 pany's works is in Bradford county, Pa. Yearly number of tons of coal, 
 2,000. 
 
 Fayette Coal and Coke Company have their works located on 
 the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad. West Virginia. N. M. Jenkins is Su- 
 perintendent. Application has been made for more than 30,000 tons of 
 this coal for delivery during the present year. Ohio is the principal ifiar- 
 ket for theore. The mine has been worked since 1866. It works about 
 sixty men, and is said to produce about 50.000 tons a year of rich bitumi- 
 nous gas coal that makes a 17.5-candle-power gas. This coal contains vol- 
 atile combustible matter, thirty-seven to five; sulphur, 2.840; ash, 9.400 
 and moisture. It is marketed in New York and Washington, and belongs 
 to the Burr Wakeman estate. 
 
 Fox Coal Klining Company's (The) property is located near 
 Ijangford, Boulder county. Col. They own forty acres of land, and have 
 a vei.i on their property nine feet in thickness of pure coal. The Super- 
 intendents are Mr. Fox and Col. Paul. During 1881 the mine produced 
 over 20,000 tons of coal. Pav roll numbers sixtv men. 
 
 Fox Ii»ke Coal Sline (The). The location of the Fox Lake Coal 
 Mine is in Ohio-. Wayne county. Coal from this mine Is pronounced b^ 
 experts to be the finest Massilloii, and is expected to find a market in 
 (Jleveland under the name of The Fox Lake Ma.ssillnn coal. The mine is 
 in charge of Mr. Evans, and is in full operation ; 100 men are said to be 
 employed. An opening has been made into four and a half feet coal at 
 a depth of ninety-five feet 
 
1130 .THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Friinklin Coal Company (The). These works are located in 
 Alleghany county, Pa. Yearly number of tons, 1,800. 
 
 rraiik Williams Coal Company. These mines are located in 
 Armstrong county, Pa., above Fairmont Company's property. Hill con- 
 tains three veins of coal ; lower averages five feet. Kiltenning Vein, better 
 known as Catfish Vein, averages five and a half to four feet; built on in- 
 clined plane 2,000 feet long from the mouth of the bank. Expects to ship 
 largely by July 1,1882. 
 
 Gaston Gas-Coal Company's Mine. The Gaston is located at 
 Fairmont, Marion county, W. va, The coal is bituminous gas from the 
 nine-foot bed, eight feet of whidh are taken. About fifty men are em- 
 ployed. The prospects of the property are promising. Maximum yearly 
 capacity of production, February 1, 1881, about 20,000 tons. Principal 
 markets for the ore, Baltimore, Washington, Chicago, and St. Louis. ' 
 
 Gaaley River Iron Company. The company's property is lo- 
 cated in Fayette county, Gauley river, W. Va. 
 
 Gaymont Coal Company (The). Mr. J. S. McHugh, Manager. 
 The East Gaymont mine is awned by this company ; located one mile 
 from Hawk's Nest, W. Va. Presided over by Mr. Fred. Effinger, of Staun- 
 ton, Va. Coking vein is reached by an incline 300 feet in length Aver- 
 ages three feet. Company intend building sixty or seventy coke-ovens. 
 Twenty-five men employed. Output .shipped East. 
 
 Georse's Creeli Coal and Iron Company (The). The new 
 mine, owned by this company, is located above Lonaconing. Operating 
 two large companies. The underground work is in charge of John Doug- 
 las, Supervisor. Mine reached by an incline 300 feet in length. Coal 
 brought out by a small locomotive. Charles Douglas has cliarge of the 
 new mine, reached by an incline 500 feet in length; 150 men are em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Girard Slammoth Colliery (The). The names of the mines are 
 Girard Mammoth, and Cuyler. This colliery is located in the Shenan- 
 doah Valley, and is owned by the Philadelphia and Reading Coal and 
 Iron Company; purchased by the Girard Mammoth Coal Company. De- 
 cember. 1880. Water reached to a height, fifty feet deep on the slope. It 
 has been drowned out for some time. The Cuyler colliery is operated 
 by Haton& Co.; worked fifteen years; gives employment to 400 boys; has 
 a capacity from 150 to 200 cars per day. 
 
 Glen White Coal and Iiumber Company (The). Location 
 of works is in Blair county. Pa. Yearly number of tons, 47,807. 
 
 Glascow Port Washing^lon Iron and Coal Company 
 (liimited) (The). The mines of this company are located near Port 
 Washington, Ohio : 1,200 acres owned. 
 
 Oonld Coal Company (The). These mines are located in Stan- 
 ton, 111. Very valuable coal mines; 500 additional miners will be placed 
 at once to work. Purchased by Jay Gould. Cost $65,000, 
 
 Grand Canon Coal Company (The). Directors. George H. 
 Nelson, St. Denis' Hotel, N. Y. ; Colonel James Burt,44 Pine Street, N. Y. ; 
 A. L. Hatch, 59 Liberty Street, N. Y. ; George C. Keep, 24 New Street, N. 
 Y. ; Colonel Hector D. McKay, Denver, Col. ; A. M. Cassidy, 62 Broadway, 
 N. Y. ; James Gondolpho, banker, 52 Broadway, N. Y. The property 
 belonging to this company is located near Canon, Fremont county, Col. ; 
 3,580 acres of coal land are owned by them. 
 
 Grass Creek Coal Dlines (The). Oivned and operated by the 
 Union Pacific. This company's mmes are located in Utah, The coal is 
 distributed to Park City, Salt Lake, and Ogden. Total output from these 
 mines, December, 1881, was 7,217 tons. 235 tons of which went to the Parks. 
 
 Great Bend Coal Company (The). These mines are located on 
 iUdmiston farm near Lloydsville, Pa, Good coal four and a half feet deep. 
 Mine is opened by a drift. Mr. John Cann, of the Bells Gap, is to take charge 
 of tbe inside work. 
 
 Greenock Coal Company (Tiie). The works belonging to this 
 company are located in Alleghany county, Pa. Number of tons per year, 
 3,258. 
 
 Greenbar§r Coal and Coke Company (The). Incorporators, 
 Hon. James C. Clark, Gen'l Dick Coulter, Col. Geo. F. Huff, Wm. A. Huft; 
 John Zimmerman. The mines belonging to this company are located at 
 Greensburg, Westmoreland county. Pa. Owns 500 acres ; new company. 
 
 Grant Coal Company (The). Mr. James E, Montell formerly 
 President. 'The property belonging to this company is located in Eckhart, 
 Md, 
 
 Grant Coal Company (The). The works belonging to this com- 
 pany are located in Alleghany county. Pa, Yearly number of tons, 41,- 
 850. 
 
 Gunnison Coal Company. D, F, Verdenal is Secretary, Office, 
 39 Broadway, New York, The company's mine, Castle Mountain, is lo- 
 cated in Colorado. 
 
 Halifax Coal Company (The). The property belonging to this 
 company is located in Nova Scotia. The company are reopening their 
 mines at Stellartown, Nova Scotia. 
 
 Hamilton Coal Contpany (The). These works are located near 
 Reynoldsville, Va. Coal averages five feet. Drift opening reached by an 
 incline. 
 
 Hamilton Coal Company (The). A. V. Armstrong, Gen. Man. 
 and Supervisor. This company's mines are located near Youngstown, 
 Ohio. The mine is reached by a short incline up the hill, where it is 
 opened, and five feet of clear coal mined. John D. Lowther, charge on 
 the hill. Works in fine condition. Eighty men employed. The mines 
 receive forty-five cents per net ton for run of mine ; sixty -seven and a 
 half for screened coal. 
 
 Hampshire and Baltimore Coal Company (The). Officers, 
 J. G. Eepplier, Pres. ; E. L. Bowles, Vice-Pres. ; Geo. D. Pond, See. Direct- 
 ors, E. S. Boylles, Henry L. Henry, J. George Eepplier, George H. Potts, 
 George B. Satterlee, James L. Merriam, Edward Bothout. 
 
 Hampton Coal Company (The). These works are located in 
 Alleghany county. Pa, Yearly number of tons, 85,6."i0. 
 
 Hartford City Coal and Salt Company (The). Location of 
 works, near Hartford City, Mason county, W, Va. 
 
 Harlem Coal Company (The). These works are located iii 
 Washington county, Pa, Yearly number of tons coal, 61,306, 
 
 Hawk's Nest Coal Company, Mining Engineer, William N. 
 Page, Office, Ansted, Fayette county, W. Va. 'The company's property 
 is located at Gauley Mountain, Fayette county, W. Va. It is reported that 
 the company is preparing to erect, from drawings made in England, 
 eighty copper coke-ovens, having the same capacity as 160 bee-hive ovens, 
 to meet the increasing demand for New River coke. Maximum yearly 
 capacity of production, 1880, 49,438 tons of coal. Principal market for the 
 ore, Portland, Maine. 
 
 Henrico Coal Company (The). Opened extensive mines on the 
 Alleghany river. The coal company works also at Richmond. Va. 
 
 Hobokeii Coal Company Crhe). General office. Bank Building, 
 cor. Newark & Hudson Streets, Hoboken, N. }., and Nos. 40 & 111 Broad- 
 way, New York. 
 
 Hockinif Coal and Itallroaii Company (The). Incorpo- 
 rators, Henry H. Brown, Wm, J. McKinney, Wm. B. Saunders, Henry 
 Fenninger, W. F. Rutman. Principal office, Cleveland. O. This propel ty 
 is located in Cleveland, O. The mines are operated chiefly m Hocking, 
 Perry, Athens, and Vinton counties. Capitalization, 83,000,000. 
 
 Home Coal Company (The). The Echo Mine, operated most ex- 
 clusively for the Ontario Company. The mines, viz., Crismon, Spnggs, 
 and Wahsatch, are worked under the consolidations. Location at Coal- 
 ville, Utah, Yield for December, 1881, 2,218 tons clear coal. Sixty to 
 seventy men employed. . ^ ■ .-^ 
 
 Howard Anthracite Coal Company. Location of mines, three 
 miles northwest of Crested Butte, Cal. The company's property covers 
 640 acres of land. The coal is a pure anthracite, of 143 specific gravity 
 and eighty-eight per cent, carbon, and assays S75 per ton. Report says 
 15,000 tons were mined during the past winter. The tunnels into the vein 
 are on the south side of the mountain, and enter the veins at the lowest 
 point; consequently, the mines can be kept entirely free from water and 
 worked successfully throughout the year. An extension of the D, & E, G. 
 Railroad is to be run to this bank, 
 
 Hantin;;toii and Broad Top Monntain Railroad and 
 Coal Company (The). Officers.B, Andrews Knight, Pres,; Rathmell 
 Wilson, John Devereux, J. V. Williamson, James Long, James Whitaker, 
 Joseph H. Trotter, Wm. P. Jenks, C. W. Wharton, Samuel Field, Thos. R. 
 Paton, Jacob Naylor, Spencer M. Janney. 
 
 Imperial Coal Company (The). The Montour mine, belonging 
 to this company, is located on the Pittsburg and Lake Erie Road, Alle- 
 ghany county. Pa., at Imperial, Alleghany county. Company owns 325 
 acres of surface land, 500 acres of coal ; mine is reached by a heavy grade 
 to the chutes, then by an incline, 800 feet in length, to the mouth of the 
 drift ; coal bed averages five and one-half feet in thickness ; coal good, 
 but troubled with clay veins; 200 men employed; receive seventy-five 
 cents per ton for screened coal. 
 
 Indian Territory Coal Company (The). Principal office. No. 
 100 N. Fourth Street, St. Louis. This property consists of the Choctaw 
 mine, located in Newark and Shawnee, Ohio. 
 
 Industrial Coal and Mining Company (The). These mines 
 are located in Scranton, Kansas. Organized in 1880 ; consists of twelve 
 members, all miners ; shaft. 
 
 Iron Mountain Company (The). The mines are located in St. 
 Louis; is a close corporation, vested in the heirs of the three original 
 owners. Capitalization, 83,600,000; shares, 1,000; annual dividends, vary- 
 ing from filteen to eighteen per cent., have been regularly paid. 
 
 Isabella Furnace Coal Company (The). Location of the 
 works of this company is in Westmoreland county. Pa. Yearly number 
 tons of coal, 120,000, 
 
 John Henry Coal Company (The). Hiram Thornton, Super- 
 visor, This company is better known as the Thornton Mine, Mineral 
 Ridge, Ohio, located about a mile from town. The mine is entered by a 
 shaft 127 feet in depth. Coal ore will average about three and a half feet. 
 Fair prospects of doing well. Stephen Thornton has charge underground, 
 employing about 100 men. 
 
 Jackson Coal Mine Company (The). This property is located 
 in Jackson township, and is being run to its utmost capacity. 
 
 Johnson Coal Mine (The), near the Borden shaft; owned by the 
 Central Coal Company. Mr. Thomas Hammell has charge of office. This 
 mine is located near Lonaconing. Mr. James Thompson has charge of 
 the underground work. The mine is entered by a slope 400 feet in length. 
 Mine running full time. Average probably better work than any other 
 mines in the region. About 100 men employed. 
 
 Kanawha Consolidation Coal Company (The) is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of Virginia. The omces are at Staunton, Va., 
 and Charlestown, W. Va. The property of the company is located in 
 West Virginia. Capitalization, $800,000, in 8,000 shares of 8100 each. 
 
 Kemule Coal and Iron Company ('The). These works are 
 located in Alleghany county. Pa. Yearly amount of coal, 13,753 tons. 
 
 Keystone Coal Company (The). Officers, Henry A. Stiles, Presi- 
 dent; Francis H. Williams Secretary and Treasurer. Principal office, 
 209 South Third Street, Philadelphia. This company are miners and 
 shippers of Cumberland coal. 
 
 Knob Coal Company (The). Location of works in Washington 
 county. Pa. Yearly number of tons of coal, 18,497. 
 
 I<a Cygne Coal and Minings Company (The). The mines of 
 this company are located at La Cygne, Kansas. Choice coal; vein, 116 
 feet from the surface ; deposit, three feet thick. 
 
 liake View Coal Company (The). These mines are located six 
 miles south of Akron. This company is composed of Youngstown capi- 
 talists ; they have taken out from ten to filteen cars of coal per day ; 
 shipped to Cleveland, Ohio. 
 
 I,and Run Coal Mine (The). James O. Somers, Supervisor, The 
 location of Sand Run Mine is on Carbon Hill, Ohio ; 100 men are em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Two liargrc Mines, one owned by the Reynoldsonville Mining and 
 Manufacturing Company, the other by Powers, Brown, & Co. James 
 Powers, Supervisor. These mines are located at Soldier Run, near Rey- 
 noldsonville, Pa. This company own a large tract of coal land, recently 
 opened (1881) into a fine piece of coal, averaging four to five and one-half 
 to seven feet ; tipple machinery, etc, 
 
 I^arge Coal Works. Mr, Wm, M. Page, Manager. The mines of 
 the aboveworks, on Gauley Mountain, 901 feet above New river, Va. The 
 coal works are situated eight miles from the mouth of New river, on 
 Chesapeake & Ohio Railroad. They are operated by the Hawk's Nest 
 Coal Company, composed exclusively of Euglish capitalists. The same 
 company have purchased ore lands in Eastern Virginia; building two 
 160-blast furnaces at Goshen. Vein nine feet thick, seven of which are 
 mined; 600 tons daily is expected. Miners receive forty cents per ton. 
 Coal shipped East. 
 
 Ircattle Coal an<l Transportation Company (The). The 
 company own the Newcastle mine, located in Oregon, S.E. of Leattle, King 
 county, W.T. Opened, 1866, by Rev. Daniel Bagley. Shipments very 
 large. 
 
 Canrcl Hill Coal Mines (The). Operated by Mr. T. P. Marshall. 
 The Laurel Hill mines are situated in Hocking Valley, Ohio. Thev have 
 done very well the past season (1881) ; have orders for all the coal they • 
 can get cars to ship in. The mine is reached by an incline. The under- 
 ground work ia in charge of J. M. StiUwell. Sixty men employed. 
 
 liChigrh Coal and NaviKalion Company (The). Location 
 presumably in Pennsylvania. This property, under the supervision of 
 Messrs. Powell & Boyd, has become one of the most valuable in the valtey. 
 The company has declared a semi-annual dividend of two per cent. 
 Capitalization, $10,448,51)0; number of shares, 208,971 ; par value, S.i0; latest 
 dividend, November, 1881, three per cent. ; rate per annum, five per cent. 
 
 I.etaigrb Valley Coal Company (The). Officers, Harry E, Packer, 
 
THE MINES, MINEE8 AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1131 
 
 Pres. ; Charles Hartshome, Vioe-Pres. ; Israel W. Maris, Sec. ; John R. 
 Fanshawe, Gen'l Supt. ; Frederick Mercer. Tonnage various collieries 
 fourteen in number : total proiiuctlon, 1,386,033 tons ; shipped to northern 
 marlcets. 432,555 tons ; tons furnished to the line and tide water, 958,478 
 tuns; shipped by tenants controlled by the company, 842,412 tons. 
 
 Little Fire Creek Coal Mine (Xhe). Owned by Wm. Blury 
 Cooper & Co. Little Fire Creeli Coal Mine. The property belonging to 
 this company is located at Caperton Station, W. va. They have also a 
 fine shipping mine up the mountain, reached by an incline 1,480 feet in 
 length; fine coal three and one-half to four feet In thickness. 120 men 
 employed. Shipping coal to James river, and to the works of the Low- 
 moor Iron Company. 
 
 ILittle Alps Coal Company (The). Snow Hill mines belong to 
 this company. Location of coal works on the Monongahela opposite 
 California. 130 acres of land are owned by the company. 
 
 ILocust Slonntain Coal and Iron Company (The). Directors, 
 3882, John Blddle, Pres.; Jacob P. Jones.Israel Morris, Charles Hartshorne, 
 Wm. F. Jones, Israel W. Morris, Richard H. Downing. John Biddle re- 
 elected President. Edward Swain, Sec. and Treas. of the company. These 
 mines are located in Pennsylvania. 
 
 TLong Valley Coal Company (The). This property Is located in 
 Bradford county. Pa. Yearly number of tons of coal. 16,970. 
 
 ILonlNvlIle Coal Company (The). The mines owned by this 
 company are located in MassiUon, 0. Machinery owned, one pump and 
 boiler. 
 
 ILncas Coal Company (The). These mines are located near 
 Scranton, Pa. "Shafts sunk 140 feet; pumps used. Shaft is ten by thirty 
 feet, accessible to coal, amounting to at least five or six millions of tons. 
 
 liUhens) Valley coal Company (Ti»e). Wicomico mines belong 
 to this company, located in Pennsylvania. They are developing new 
 workings in the above mines. Old tunnel in North Mountain opened, 
 gangway driven 1,500 yards. Large deposits of coal are supposed to be depos- 
 ited in the veins. 
 
 ILyliens Valley Coal Company. The directors are Geo. B. Rob- 
 erts, Pres. ; T. J. Weston, Viee-Pres. ; A. J. Cassatt, Edmund Smith, S. 
 Kneass, W. Morris, N. P. Shortridge, J. N. Du Barry, John P. Green, Jas. 
 W. Johnson, E. P. Worster, A. Mordecai, Sec; T. P. Haviland, Treas. Lo- 
 cation of works, Dauphin county. Pa.; 807 persons are employed. 
 
 Manasha Coal Company (The), This property is located in 
 Iowa. It is the only explored coal field in that section. It is a six foot 
 continuous Vein, with a nine inch roof and floor, and no water in it. 
 
 Maple Hill Coal Comuan.y (The). The property of this com- 
 pany IS located near NelsonviJle, Ohio. Coal averages six feet in height. 
 
 Marshall Coal Mininsr C<»inpany (The). Officers, A, G. Lang- ' 
 ford, Pres. and Man. ; Victor Robertson. Sec. and Treas. The mines be- 
 longing to this company are located in Colorado. Own over 3,000 acres, 
 mostly under lease, January 14. 1882. Two hundred men areemployed. 
 
 Maryland Coal Company (Thei. James Boyce is Secretary. 
 The ofBce is at 104 Broadway, New York. The Kingsland rhine is worked 
 by this company, located in Maryland. Large furnaces and air shafts 
 belong to the company. Capitalization. $4,400,000 ; par value per share, $1 ; 
 date of latest dividend, March, 1876 ; yield during 1881-2, 24.963 tons coal. 
 
 Maryland Vnlun Coal Company (The). James Boyce, Treas., 
 Baltimore. Principal ofifices, American Building, Baltimore. M. D. 
 Smith Buildings, Cortland Street, New York, adjoining Coal and Iron 
 Exchange. Shipping wharves, Locust Point, Baltimore, M. D. The 
 mines belonging to this company are located at Flemington and Pair- 
 mount, West Virginia. 
 
 Mashannon Coal Company (The). The location of these works 
 is in Clearfield county. Pa. Yearly output, 115,252 tons. 
 
 Mnsslllon Keg:ion Rnn Coal Company (The). O. Young, 
 General Manager. J. H. Grinnell has charge of office. These mines are 
 located near MassiUon, Ohio. Shaft, 180 feet deep. The mine has been 
 kept running steadily. Mordecai J. Morris has had charge of the under- 
 ground work ; 200 men employed. 
 
 MassiUon Clt.y Coal Company (The). M. J. A. Wilson, Super- 
 intendent. The mines owned by this company are located on Foltz Slope, 
 near MassiUon. Ohio. 
 
 Mattoon Coal Company (The). The mines of this company are 
 located at Mattoon, 111. The company have expended the sum of $05,000 
 sinking a shaft 466 feet deep. Expect to reach a paying vein at the depth 
 of 600 feet. 
 
 Mil wankee and St. Panl Coal Company (The). These mines 
 are located in Grundy county, 111. Three shafts were sunk during the 
 last year, 1881 ; 100 tenant-houses built ; cost $335,000. 
 
 Melntire Coal Company (The). The company's offices are at 
 Elmira and Buffalo, N. Y. This company's works are located in Lycom- 
 ing county. Pa. Yearly number of tons of coal, 236,924. 
 
 Mill Creek Coal Company (The). Officers, T. W. Walter. Presi- 
 dent and Treasurer ; F. Bertolette, Secretary. Direetora, Warren Delano, 
 Newburg, N. Y. ; James S. Cox, Orange, N. J.; Joseph F Hitch, New 
 York ; T. F. Walter and Fred. Bertolette. The mines of this company 
 are located in Pennsylvania. 
 
 Milton Fnrnace and Coal Company (The). Officers, H. S. 
 WlUard, President ; J. E. Farrel, Secretary. These mines are located near 
 Wellston, Ohio. 
 
 Millen Furnace and Coal Company (The). This property is 
 located in .lackson county, Ohio, adjoining Bundy's farm. The depth of 
 shaft, .sixty feet. 
 
 Manor Valley Coal and Mannfacinring Company (The) 
 is chartered under the laws of the State of Pennsylvania. Officers. A. O. 
 Tinsman, Pres. ; W. J. K. Kline, O. B. McLain, A. B. Rutledge, Willy 
 McCuUough, A. B. Kline. Principal office, Pittsburgh. The mining 
 property of this company is located in Westmoreland county, Pa. This 
 company is authorized to mine coal, qfuarry limestone, and manufacture 
 coke. Capitalization, $50,000. 
 
 Mllesvllle Coal Conipany (The). Located in Alleghany county, 
 Pa. Yearly number of tons of coal. 18,953. 
 
 Miller Coal Mining; Company (The). Date of organization of 
 this company, October 7, 1882, at Portland, Maine ; capitalization, 500,000 
 shares. 
 
 Mineral Rldgre Coal Mines (The). The above coal mines, at 
 Mineral Ridge, Ohio, are all running steadily, with work every day. 
 
 Mocaiiaqna Colliery ,(The). These works are located nearShick- 
 shinny, Susquehanna river. Pa. Leased by Col. Conyngham, John Leas- 
 dale, of Wilkesbarre, Pa. Preparations are being made to resume opera- 
 tions in full force as soon as the new bridge across the Susquehanna is 
 ready. 
 
 Monongahela Mine (The), owned and operated by H. J. Davis & 
 Co., is located at Wilsonburg, Harrison county, W. Va. The mine was 
 opened in 1872, In the nine feet seam, which yields eight and a half feet 
 Of coal. Some eighty men are worked. MostofthfeeoalisusedbytheBalti- 
 zaxife jinfl Ohio fiailroad. The company owns a large body of coal land 
 
 in this locality. Maximum yearly capacity of production, February 1, 
 1882, 20,000 tons. 
 
 Montank Gas Coal Company (The). Principal office, New 
 York city. The mines of this company are located in Flemington, Tay- 
 lor county, W. Va., on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. Mine opened, 
 1878, is on what is called the nine feet vein, seventy-five feet below the 
 surface of the country ; furnishes eight feet of available coal; 200 men 
 employed. 60,000 tons of coal are sent yearly to market, mostly to New 
 York. 
 
 Montreal Gas Coal Company's (The) property is located at 
 Flemington, Taylor county, W. Va. The mine opened in 1878 is on what 
 is called the nine feet vein, which is here some seventy-five feet below the 
 general surface of the country, and furuLshes about eight feet of avail- 
 able coal. Maximum yearly capacity of production, February 1, 1881, 
 over 60,000 tons. New York is the principal market for the ore. 
 
 Morris Rnn Coal Mining Company (The). W. S. Nearing, 
 Superintendent. The mines belonging to this company are located in 
 Pennsylvania. The property owned is three pumps and one of Harrison's 
 coal-cutting machines. 
 
 Morris and Essex Coal Company (The). Capitalization, $15.- 
 000,000; number shares, 300,000 ; par value, $50. Latest dividend, rate per 
 annum, seven per cent. 
 
 Mount Carbon Coal Company (The). These mines are located 
 in Colorado. The directors have purchased from the locators 640 acres, 
 paying therefor one-half capital stock of the company. Eighty tons 
 daily taken out. Amount can be increased to 1,000 tons per day, if nec- 
 essary. 
 
 Mount Braddock Coke Works (The). Owned by A. O. Tinst- 
 man. Esq , of Pittsburg. The property consists of 420 acres of coal, fifty 
 acres of surface, 127 coke-ovens, and thirty-five houses. Amount paici, 
 $165,000. The new proprietor proposes to erect fifty additional ovens at 
 once. 
 
 Monnt niablo Coal Mines (The). The New Castle Mine owned 
 by this company is located in California. The output in 1880 aggregated 
 188,723 tons. 
 
 Murphy Rnn Mine (The). Owned by the Burr Wakeman estate. 
 The Murphy Run mine is located in Clarksburg, Harrison county, W. Va. 
 A rich bituminous gas-coal that makes a 17.5-10 candle-power gas. The 
 coal contains fixed carbon, 49.080 ; volatile combustible matter, 37.105; 
 sulphur, 2.840; ash.9 400, and moisture, 1.575. The mine has been worked 
 since 1866 ; employs about sixty men. It is in the nine-foot seam, which 
 yields eight and one-half feet of coal. Maximum from 15,000 to 20,000 
 tons annually. Principal market, New York, Washington, etc. 
 
 Newburg- Orrell Coal Coini»any. Superintendent, Morgan D. 
 Orr. This company owns and operates the Palestine and Tyrconnel 
 mines. The Palestine is located at Palatine, Marion county. W. Va.. and 
 the Tyrconnel, in Taylor county, W. Va. The character of the coal is bi- 
 tuminous gas. The coal is mined from the nine-foot vein, seven feet of 
 which is here worked in two headings, with about 1,000 feet of working 
 face. The bed mined in the Tyrconnel is the Pittsburg vein, which, 
 thSre, furnishes eight feet of gas-coal. The mine was opened in 1872, 
 and now works about fifty men, and mines some 30,000 tons of coal a 
 year, which is marketed in Baltimore, and at places on the Baltimore & 
 Ohio Railroad. 
 
 JTew Central Coal Company. The officers are W. S. Jackques, 
 Pres. ; E. J. Sterling, Vice-Pres. ; Geo. H. Adams, See. Office, 6 and 6U 
 Trinity Building, New Y'ork. Robert E. Boyd, Superintendent. Big 
 Veins and Koontz mines— this property, belonging to this company, is 
 located near Lonaconing, Md. Koontz mine is reached by a tram-road, 
 two miles in length ; small locomotive hauls the coal to the chutes ; in- 
 cline, 970 feet in length ; August Rieker in charge of the underground 
 work; employs about 170 men. The Big Vein, near Lonaconing, is 
 operated by the Central Coal Company ; mine reached by an incline 550 
 feet in length ; Wm. Powell has charge ; employing about eighty men. 
 
 New Colliery oriiinderman,Keen dk Co. (The). Wm. Airey, 
 Superintendent. This colUery is located at Stockton, Pa., known as 
 West No. 1 Stockton. Slope sunk 50° 217 yards from the surface. The 
 first left gangways are opened, 300 feet main air-ways ; area, forty-two 
 feet. Mine Inspector, Mr. Roderick. 
 
 New York and Cleveland Gas-Coal Company (The). Wm. 
 A. Mcintosh, Pres. ; H. Casuegie, Vice-Pres. ; W. P. De Armit, Treas. ; 
 Thos. Axworthy, Agent, Cleveland, O. Castner & Co., limited, 203 Wal- 
 nut Street, Philadelphia ; lllBroadway, New York; 21 Exchange Place, 
 Boston, and 10 South HoUiday Street, Baltimore, Md. Location of mines 
 at Pittsburgh, Pa. Youghiogheny gas-coal mined by the above company. 
 
 New York and Ohio Coal Company (The). Thomas Hall, of 
 Eberdale, Superintendent. Principal office, Cleveland, O. The mines 
 belonging to this company are called New Hazelton coal mines, located 
 in Carroll county, O., half a mile from Sherretsvllle. Operated by the 
 New York and Ohio Company. Everything moving in good shape. 
 
 Nnttalbnr^ Coal and Coke Company (The). The property 
 belonging to this company is located at New river. West Va. No 1 mine 
 reached by an incline 1,400 feet in length ; opens into a vein averaging 
 three feet three inches. Fifty-one coke-ovens are in full blast : miners 
 receive sixty cents per ton. No. 2 mine opened last year, 1881, at Keeney's 
 creek. Reached by an incline substantially 1,350 feet in length ; three 
 openings made, thicker coal, averaging three feet six inches, in some 
 places four feet. 
 
 Ohio and Pennsylvania Coal Company (Tlie). Mr. M. 
 Bloomer, Manager. The company owns the Yorkville mines, located at 
 Yorkville Station, O. Mr. Bloomer, Manager, owns one-half interest in 
 the mine. Coal is reached by an incline 190 feet in length. Vein aver- 
 ages five feet. Mining department is in charge of Wm. Mack ; sixty to 
 100 men employed. 
 
 Ohio Central Coal Company (The). Col. W. C. Lemert, General 
 Manager ; Thos. Cockran, of Shanee, Mining Sup. These mines are located 
 near Corning, O. They are all numbered. Nos. 3, 5, 7, 13, 15 and 19 are 
 all reached by shafts ranging from thirty to seventy feet in depth. Nos. 
 2, 4, and 12 have drift entrances. This company employs miners and day 
 laborers of all classes; about 500 colored miners, 350 Germans, 300 mechan- 
 ics, carpenters, etc.: 300 new arrivals, 1881; eighty cents per ton for 
 screened coal. Shafts average from eight to nine feet, and in the drifts 
 from four to six feet; 300 neat dwellings. Hoisting apparatus machinery 
 of the most substantial kind, having been erected regardless of cost. 
 
 Okan ville Coal Mining; Company (The). The property belong- 
 ing to this company is located in Illinois. Capitalization, $15,000. 
 
 Old Bank Mine (The). Operated by J; S. Doe & Co. The mines 
 are located in Columbus, Ohio. Coal brought out by a small locomotive. 
 ■100 men employed. 
 
 Old Company's I.ehlg;h Coal. Frederick A. Potts, Agent. 
 Offices, no Broadway, New York : 25 Westminster Street, Providence ; 81 
 Church Street, New Mayen, Connecticut ; 14 Kilby Street, Boston, Massa- 
 chusetts. 
 
1132 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Osbnrne Coal Company (The). Wm. E. Warner, Supervisor. 
 The works o' thf .nmpaiiy are located near Mineral, Oliio. Under- 
 ground work in charge of John B. Williams, reached by a slope 100 yards 
 in length. From seventy to ninety men employed. 
 
 Otis Coal Company (The). Mr. Ralph Wainwright, Manager. 
 These mines are located in Edenberg Coal Company, Ohio. 
 
 Paint Creek Mlnins Conipan.v. The officers are L. L. Conrad, 
 Pres., Baltimore; G. W. Siggs, Treas. Directors, L. L. Conrad, G. W. 
 Riggs, H. H. Parker, J. S. Barbour, James F. Patton, \V. H. Edwards, I. 
 N. Smith. Engineer, Oscar A. Veazey. The company's property, cover- 
 ing an area of 10,000 acres, is located at Paint creek, Kanawha county, 
 W. Va. The principal splint coal seam averages ten feet. 
 
 Palmyra Coal Company (The). The coal works belonging to 
 this company are located near Palmyra, Ohio. Sunk a shaft eighty leet 
 deep, three to four and a half feet in thickness. Machinery good Out- 
 put may be increased at any time. Ijarge pumps. Underground work- 
 ings are in charge of E. T. Bowen. 100 men employed. Large quantities 
 shipped to Chicago. Known as the Brier Hill coal. 
 
 Pancoast and ITashinaton Collieries (The). The location 
 of these mines is four miles from Reynoldsonville, Va. Ofierated by 
 Messrs. Frank Williams & Co. Coal seam averaging four to Ave feet in 
 thickness. Mines get seventy-five cents for screening coal. 
 
 Peaeh Orchard Coal IHCines (The). Morris Lee, Superintendent. 
 The Peach Orchard mines are located in Kentucky. Seventy-five men 
 employed. Tunnel used. 
 
 Pennsylvania Coal Company (The). Officers, Geo. O. Hoyt, 
 Pres. ; W. E. Street, Sec. ; E. H. Mead, Treas. General office. 111 Broad- 
 way, New York; Buffalo office, 64 Pearl Street; Chicago office, W Dear- 
 born Street. H. S. Van Ingen, Superintendent; Thos. Hodgson, Western 
 Superintendent. 
 
 Penn Coal Company (The). Capitalization, ?5,000,000; number 
 of shares, 100,000 ; par value, $50. 
 
 Pittsburg and It'alnnt Hill Coal Company (The). This 
 company's works are located in Washington county. Pa. Number of tons 
 of coal annually, 40,000. 
 
 Pennsylvania Gas Coal Company (The). These works are 
 located in Westmoreland county. Pa, Yearly number of tons of coal, 
 468,240. 
 
 Pennsylvania and Ohio Coal Company (The). These mines 
 are located at West Newton. Pa. Shaft sunk; struck a four feet vein at 
 100 feet searching for the Pittsburg vein. 
 
 Penny Coal Company (The). The location of this company's 
 property is in Alleghany county, Pa. Yearly number of tons, 15,873. 
 
 Percy lUinin;:;' Company (The). Location of works in Fayette 
 county. Pa. Number of tons ofcoal per year, 191,176. 
 
 Phoenix Iron Company (The). These works are located at 
 Phoenixville, Pa. They are now heating their furnaces with gas manu- 
 factured from anthracite. 
 
 Phcenix Colliery (The). The property belonging to this com- 
 pany is located at Pittston, Pa. Shaft sunt ; found red ash coal bed ; 
 e-xcellent quality and of encouraging depth. 
 
 Philadelphia and Reading Coal and Iron Company 
 (The). The mines of this company are located in STienandoah Valley, 
 South Buck Mountain. Nineteen feet of good coal has been reached in 
 the Norwegian shaft. Largest shippers in the region. 
 
 Pine Ridge Collicrj; (The). John L. George, owner, Home and 
 Union Coal works. Location of works on the Delaware and Hudson 
 county, Monongahela river. Conshockon, Ohio. 
 
 Pittsburg; and Hiskiminetas Coal Company (The). This 
 property, consisting of the Bagdad and other mines, is located near Pitts- 
 burg, Pa. Since May, 1881, have a shipping capacity of 150 tons per day ; 
 350 acres of Westmoreland coal ; two veins : four feet worked by drift'; 
 other seven feet, 173 feet below the four-feet vein. Mine worked by 
 double entry 150 yards apart. Bagdad mines, capacity 150 tons. Two 
 veins ; top vein, four feet. Own 700 acres at Leechburg. 
 
 Plttsbare and Westmoreland Coal and ItUnlns; Company 
 (The), Stockholders, John Schwalen, Alfred Hyicks. of Leechburg; E. 
 S. Golden, L. S. Singer, W. D. Patton, Kittanning. Capitalization, SIOO.OOO. 
 
 Pittsburg' Coal Alining Company (The). Location of works 
 in Clarion county. Pa. Yearly number of tons of coal, 47,544. 
 
 Pioneer Coal Company (Tlie). These mines are located at Paint 
 Creek, W. Va. Capt. Henry W. Reynolds and Wm. Lovell, Esq., are open- 
 ing a cannel coal vein at Paint Creek. 
 
 Pioneer Coal Company (The). The mines located at Campbell 
 Creek, W. Va, The company have introduced a Letchner mining ma- 
 chine, which can bore in six or seven feet by means of a number of re- 
 volving diamond drills. It will dig more coal in a day than ten or fif- 
 teen men. 
 
 Pittston Coal Contpany (The). Michael J. Langan, boss of the 
 shaft. The trim shaft is located at the Junction, Pa. Eight feet excel- 
 lent coaL 
 
 Potomac Coal Company (The). Geo. W. Lyons, Man. The 
 Swanton mine is owned by the company. Located at Barton. Mine in 
 chirge of Archibald McDonald ; employing about fifty men. 
 
 Ranc;f Banh Coal ('ompany (The). Thomas St. Johns, Supt. 
 These mines are located in Ohio, near the Pittsburg and Cleveland Rail- 
 road. The mine is reached by an incline. Two openings into about five 
 and a half feet of coal. Miners receive seventy-five cents per ton for 
 screened coal. The mining department is in charge of John Thompson. 
 Prospects are very good. 120 men employed. 
 
 Raton Coal and Cohc Company (The). The name of the mine 
 owned by this company, Dillon Cafion, located at Raton, N. M., two miles 
 this side of Blossbnrg. Quality of the coal unsurpassed. A fine vein has 
 been discovered, six feet ten and a half inches wide. Vein discovered 
 by R. J. Goade. 
 
 Bend Coal Company (The). The mines of this company are lo- 
 cated at Rendville, above Corning. Ohio. The coal is of the same char- 
 acter as the Ohio Central Coal Company, 
 
 Reynoldson Coal Company (The). This company's works are 
 located in Jefferson county, Pa. Yearly number of tons, 32,582. 
 
 Rich Hill Coal Company (I'he). Rich Hill and Carbon Center 
 mines. These mines, belonging to this company, are located in Bates 
 county. Mo. The coal here is in considerable quantity and good quality. 
 The R;ch Hill Coal Company intend also to work their leased mining 
 property at Bradford station. Vein's, two to six feet. The grand total of 
 their coal shipments for the month was 600 car-loads. The shipments by 
 the Galf road for January, 1881, amounted to 1,500 car loads, principally 
 from the Rich Hill and Carbon Center mine. 
 
 Ridge Vein Coal and Coko Company (The). Works located 
 
 at Bradenville, Pa., along the P. R. R. Company's line. New corporation. 
 
 Bobbins Block Coal i^ompany (The). This property is located 
 
 lil Washington county. Pa. • Yenrly number or tons of coal, 75,000. 
 
 Robinson Coal Company. Neil Robinson is Manager. The 
 
 property belonging to this company is located at Coalburg, W. Va., and 
 covers an area of 1.428 acres. An analysis of the coal is given as follows : 
 sixty-two per cent, fixed carbon; 3'iaO volatile ; 150 ash; 400 water; total, 
 100 parts. The coal has been used by Eastern gas-ligbt companies. The 
 mines, during 1880, turned out 70,208 tons of coal, the bulk of which went 
 westward. , ^ , . t. ■ 
 
 Rochester Colliery (The). These works are located in Pennsyl- 
 vania ; operated by Messrs. Bell, Lewis & Yates ; coal averages six and 
 one-half feet; double drilt openings; averages 600 tons daily ; last year's 
 product (1881), 28,000 tons coke. The company owns a large crusher and 
 Htulz washer; 400 men employed. 
 
 Rochester and Pittsburg Coal anfl Iron Company (The). 
 Directors, Frederick A. Brown, New York; Walston H. Brown, New 
 Y'ork ; Thos. F. Wentworth, New York ; Augustus Kountz ; Messrs. 
 Brown, Gallery, and Kountz. Fred. A. Brown, Treas. Principal office 
 located at Brookville. The mines are located in Young and Snyder 
 townships, Jefferson county. Pa., embracing an area of 6,000 acres, 3,100 
 in Snyder township. Capitalization, $4,000,000 ; shareholders, Herbert C. 
 Brown, New York ; James Gallery, Pittsburg; Geo. A, Jenks, Brookville. 
 
 Rocky Point Mining Company friie). Principal office, 314 
 Bush Street, San Francisco, Cal. The property owned by the company 
 is located m Placer county, Cal. 
 
 Rodes Coal Company (The). Mr. P. Keller, Supervisor. The 
 mines belonging to this company are located near Massillon, 0. Moun- 
 tain shaft is the largest ; underground works in charge of Geo. Swire ; 
 225 men employed ; coal is reached by a shaft 133 feet deep. 
 
 Redstone Coke Company (The). General Manager, Col. Shoe- 
 maker. The company's property is located three miles south of Greens- 
 burg, Pa., on the line of the South-West Railway, in South Union town- 
 ship, .just at the end of the mountain. The company has 600 acres of 
 coal and 500 acres surface. The coke is superior. The property is worked 
 by slope, fiat headings, and butte headings. Slope is now in 1,000 feet. 
 A new slope is now being started from the southern end, July, 1882. The 
 company's property includes 171 ovens, tipple, and several dwellings, 
 and 142 ovens in course of erection. The development of the property 
 was commenced during the year 1880. The surface property is judi- 
 ciously farmed and is asource of great revenue to the company. The c^ke 
 manufactured is sold in the market, the company owning no furnaces to 
 require its use. Daily average production, 275 tons. The mine is well 
 ventilated, and supplied with water from Redstone creek. Stock and 
 bonds are held exclusively by J. W. Moore, Greensburg, Pa., Col. J. M. 
 Schoonmaker, Pittsburg, Pa., and P. H. Moore, of Redstone, Pa. Wages 
 paid to diggers per day, July 1, 1882, $2. 
 
 Salisbury Central Coal Company (The). Thos. Gemmel, 
 General Agent, 8 South Gay Street, Baltimore, Maryland. This company 
 are miners and shippers of the Big Vein Cumberland Coal. 
 
 Sandy liick Gas and Coal Company (The). Frank Williams, 
 General Manager. These mines are located in Alleghany Valley, Pa. 
 Operated by Heim Goodwill. Seam five feet thick; output 200 tons 
 daily; mining in charge of Henry Williams; 60 men employed. The 
 Washington mine, a short distance away, is under the same supervision ; 
 forty men employed. The miners receive sixty-two and one-Jialf cents 
 per ton for screened coal in these two mines. 
 
 Sandusky and Shnwnee Coal and Iron Company (The) 
 has property located at Shawnee, Perry county, Ohio, consisting of the 
 Shields Coal Mine, under the supervision of A. W. Mason ; also smelting 
 furnace, under the charge of Mr. John Bailey ; twenty-eight men and 
 boys being steadily employed. 
 
 Scraecler Ci^al Company (The). Location of works in Badford 
 county. Pa. Yearly amount of coal. 210,415 tons. 
 
 Sharp mountain Colliery (The). These works are located in 
 Pennsylvania. Slope sunk to the Bancroft vein. 
 
 Shenango Coal Company (The). R. J. Wicks is Superintendent. 
 These works are located near Brookfield, Ohio. The underground work 
 In charge of Thos. Maxwell. Slope 225 feet in length ; 160 men and boys 
 employed. The coal, like other mines, varies in thickness from three to 
 four feet. 
 
 Shimmel Bun Mine (The). Owned by D. W. Holt & Co. The 
 Shimmel mine is located in Philipsburg, Pa. ; 2,100 acres coal land under 
 the control of the company. 
 
 Silver Creek Coal mining Company (The). Officers, E. G. 
 Loomis, Pres. and Gen. Supt. ; D. V. Hoffman, Gen. Mang. (mining boss) ; 
 John Burgess, Mang. The property of this coal mining company is located 
 in Doylestown, Wayne county. Operating two mines, and sinking a new 
 shaft near Wadsworth. G. D. Hoffman has a man at each mine under his 
 supervision. About forty men employed. 
 
 Silver Brook Coal Mine (The). The Silver Brook mine is located 
 at Summit Station, Audenried, Pa. Splendid coal, twenty-one feet thick ; 
 1881 started to sink a trial shai^. 
 
 Silver St.ar Alining Company (The). Officers, E. W. Ashby, 
 Pres.; S. T. Lathrop, Vice-President; J. F. Broadhead, H. J. Spear, A. M. 
 Wing, J. W. McClurg, Sees. The mines of this company are located in 
 Gila county, Arizona. 
 
 Sippo Coal Company (The). Officers, Clement Russell, Pres.; 
 M. W. Wilson, Sec. ; George Phillips, Supt. The mines are located in 
 Tuscarawas Valley, near Massillon. Coal excellent ; 126 men employed. 
 Theentriesare being driven double shift. A good producing mine. The 
 underground works are reached by a slope 300 feet in length; are in 
 charge of Matt. English. 100 men employed. 
 
 Skinner aiitl JeflTerson Coal Blincs are owned by Mr. Thomas 
 M. Skinner. Mr. E. H. Jeflerson. and Mr. D. Lands. The mines are located 
 at Crusted Butte, Gunnison county. Col. The property covers 880 acres, 
 the greater part of which is underlaid with coal. The coal in lower veins 
 is good coking, that in the upper veins being best quality of the bitumi- 
 nous for domestic purposes. There are five distinct coal veins, two and 
 a half, five, five, eight, and ten feet tliick respectively. Veins dip 10° to 
 15° to the west, and 2° to 3° to the north. The four feet are opened by an 
 entry of nearly 500 feet, from which three large chambers are being 
 worked out. The mine a." opened is well arranged as to ventilation. 
 Large bodies of unstratifled building-stone are lying between the lower 
 beds. Maximum daily capacity of production, July, 1882, 100 tons. 
 
 Snyder Coal Company (The). The property belonging to this 
 company is in Mercer county, Pa. Yearly number of tons, 32,810. 
 
 South Forks Coal Works (The). The property belonging to 
 this company is located in Cambria county, Pa. Total number of tons of 
 coal per year, ll„'i02. 
 
 Southwest Coal and Coke Company (The). Incorporators, 
 H. Clay Frick, E. M. Ferguson, W. Ferguson, W. J. Hitchman, D. W. 'ihv- 
 rock, Jacob E. Stoner, Joseph W. Stoner, William Stoner, Georec W 
 Stoner and P. R. Tarr. Principal office, Mt. Pleasant, Pa. Branch oflicc, 
 Pittsburg. The mines are located in Westmoreland and Fa,yette counties. 
 Pa. Maximum yearly capacity; 52,623 tons. Capitalization, $400,000. 
 
 Spring Hill Sllnin^' Company (The)i^ OEttcST.^Stenator McFar- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1133 
 
 lane, President. The mines are located in Canada. Total output of coal 
 for the year 1881, 170,000 tons; ten feet. Superior coal. Entrance to the 
 mines by tunnel. 
 
 SOHlli west C'oal Company (The). The.se works are located near 
 Tarrs, Westmoreland county. A shaft; coal lies 100 feet from the sur- 
 face ; will sink a shaft. Morewood branch railroad will be extended to 
 these works. 
 
 S|>rin|;HiII Mining Company (The). Location of the mines 
 of this company is in Nova Scotia. At 100 yards north of the west slope 
 a new .seam of coal has been found twelve'feet six inches in thickness. 
 The west slope will be driven down 400 feet farther. 
 
 Steiibenville Coal anel Klinin;; Company (The). Officer, 
 James Wallace, President. Company operates the mines in Ohio success- 
 fully. 
 
 Straight CreeU Coal Conipany (The). GfRcer, .ressie H. Baker, 
 President and Superintendent. This company have opened a new mine, 
 located on the line of the Big Sandy Eailroad, 103 miles from Lexington, 
 Ky. Capitalization, $100,000. 
 
 Straltsville Coal and Iron Company, 18S1 (The). J. D. 
 Martin, President; James Coyle, Manager. This company own the 
 Plummer Mine, located in Hocking Valley. Have 160 cars of their own. 
 Q'hey are building a revolving screen and putting up a small engine to 
 enable them to take pea coal ftom their stack ; 160 men employed. 
 
 Stralt-sville and Shawnee Town Mine« (The). The name of 
 these mines are Upson. Smith, New York, aiid Manly Mines, located at 
 Siraitsville and Shawnee Town, Ohio. All large mines, employing a large 
 force of men ; are kept in constant operation. 
 
 Standard Coal and £ron Company (The). Officers. General 
 Samuel Thomas, Pres. ; Oliver Ames, Treas. ; J. Henry Brooks, Sec. This 
 company's mines are located in Hocking Valley, W. Va. The property 
 consists of 30,000 acres of well selected land; controls all the prominent 
 coal mines in the valley, producing 5,000 tons of coal daily. 160 net tons 
 to the foot of thickness per acre in the great vein. Average thickness, 
 seven feet; amount available runs into hundred millions of tons. Capi- 
 talization, $25,000,000. 
 
 St. Bernard Coal Companjr (The)^ Officer, J. B. Atkinson, Sec. 
 and Treas. The mines are located in Earlington, Ky. 
 
 St. Clair Coal Company (The). Incorporators are John Russell, 
 Hugh Means, A. R. Fennacy, of Ashland, Ky. ; Wm. Wyant, Thomas Whar- 
 ton, of the Eagle Works. The location of these mines are near Coal Val- 
 ley, W. Va. I'nder the superintendence of Wm. WyE:nt, Eagle vein will 
 he opened at once. Thirty coke-ovens will be built tiiis spring. Coal 
 mined will be manufactured into coke, 1881. 
 
 St. iflary's Coal Company (The). Location of works in Elk 
 county. Pa. Yearly output. 84,000 tons. 
 
 Sug;ar Creek Coal Company (The). Anthony Howell, Gen. 
 Mang., formerly State Treasurer. The proj)erty of this company, 1882, is 
 located eight miles south of Massillon, Ohio. Shaft, 150 feet in depth. 
 
 Summit Brancta Railroad Company (The) has property in 
 Dauphin county, Pa. The officers are Geo. B. Roberts, Pres. ; Isaac J. 
 Wistar, Vice-Pres. ; A. Mordecai, Sec, and T. P. Haviland, Treas. Di- 
 rectors, Geo. B. Roberts, I. J. Wistar, A. J. Cassatt, Ed. Smith, Strickland 
 Kneass, Wistar Morris, N. Parker Shortridge, J. N. Du Barry, John P. 
 Green. James W. Johnson, Ed. P. Worster. The mine employs 803 persons. 
 Organized with a capital of 8500,000, in 100,000 shares of Ho each. Net 
 profits in 1881, $121,258.12. 
 
 Siiperioi- Coal and Mining; Compan;}^ (The). The mines be- 
 longing to this company are located at Osage City, Kansas. It is a joint 
 stock enterprise, composed of forty-one members, all miners. Organized, 
 1879. The company owns^fifty-six acres of land. Mines worked success- 
 fully. 
 
 Siisqnehanna Coal Compan.y (The). Officers, Frederick Fra- 
 ley, Pres.; Richard Wilkins. See. and Treas.; John V. Hutchingson, 
 Charles W. "Whaton, George Brooks, Charles Baker. Managers, Michael 
 Ward, Thos. E. Patton. The mines of this company are located in Penn- 
 sylvania. Receipts during 1881 were 8364,359,77 ; payments, 8319,021.88. 
 
 Susquehanna Coal Company (The). Offl(«rs elected for 1882; 
 George B. Roberts, Pres. ; I. J. Wistar, Vice-Pres. Directors, George B. 
 Roberts. I. J. Wistar, John B. Green, A. J. Cassatt, Strickland Kneass, 
 Wistar Morris, N. P. Shortridge, J. N. Du Barry, Edmund Smith. Alfred 
 Mordecai, Sec. ; Thomas P. Hoaviland, Treas. The mines belonging to 
 this company are located in Luzerne county. Pa. Preparing, shipping, 
 exclusive of royalties, taxes, insurance, charge for exhaustion of land. 
 In 1880, $1.20^, and in 1881, 81.22; this increase of one per cent, per ton 
 was due partly to an inconsiderable strike in August, and partly to a 
 slight excess over last year in the improvement expenditures, which in 
 this company are charged to cost of mining. Not only the financial 
 advantage, but the practical policy of selling surface lots, on easy terms 
 of payment, to employees, has produced the best results both from them 
 and the compan y, and .should he adhered to and encouraged by liberality 
 in every way, and strikes, discontent, and difficulties invariably originate 
 with those who possess no such stake in the vicinity, as was clearly illus- 
 trated during the difficulties which suspended production for a short 
 period in August. Underheadofcasualtiesincompany*sreportforl881, 
 It states that twelve men were killed during the year. Yield net profits, 
 during 1881, $431,362.94; yield gross tons, 852.676.17; date of latest divi- 
 dend, December, 1881; amount, $85,472: 2,341 persons employed, wages 
 paid to all classes during year 1881, $881,446. 
 
 Towanda Coal Company (The). The property belonging to this 
 company is located In Bradford county. Pa. Number of tons of coal per 
 year, 228,471 tons. 
 
 Tennessee Coal and Railroad Company (The). This is 
 known as the Sewanee Seam Coal. Semi-bituminous, easily broken. 
 Located at Tracy City, Tennessee. Classed, the upper coal measures, 
 main entry 1,922 feet above sea level. 
 
 Terragenta Iron and Coal Conipany (The). Officers. S. R. 
 Early, Pres., New York city ; J. W. Blake, Sup't. These works are located 
 on Davis Creek, Kanawha, W. Va. The lands are north-west of the 
 property of the Black Iron and Coal Company. 
 
 Tinsalia Coal and Iron Company. Gen. J. D. Imboden is 
 Superintendent. The company's.property, covering 6fl,000 acres of land, 
 is located at Big-Stone-Gap coal basin. Wise county, Va. One bed yields 
 a coke with less than '03 per cent, of ash, and is exceptionally rich in 
 carbon. The company has ample funds to carry out its plans. 
 
 Thompson's Anthracite Coal mines, owned by L. R. & H. C. 
 Thompson, I. Brown, and M. 0. Rollins, are located on the south fork of 
 Anthracite creek, three miles south of Irwin, Guimison county^ Col. 
 The property covers 640 acres of land. The coal is pure anthracite; 
 analysis giving ninety-two to ninety-three per cent, fixed carbon, and 
 oiilythree to four per cent, of ash; considered equal to the Lehigh of 
 Pennsylvania ; two distinct veins, of three to four feet each, are now 
 opened in some dozen different places ; permanent works at creek, where 
 coal can be sloped -down to a tunnel below. It is said that this is the 
 
 only true anthracite of Colorado. The land over this coal is covered 
 completely with good pine timber, of considerable value. The town of 
 Irwin is supplied from these mines. The development of the pnipeTty 
 was commenced during the year 1879 ; and several thousand dollars have 
 been spent in developing the mineii. con.struction of roads, etc. 
 
 Tyrconnel Coal Mine (TlieJ. Owned and operated by the New- 
 burg Orrel Coal Company. The.se mines are located in Tyrconnel. Taylor 
 county, W. Va. The Pittsburg vein furnishes eight feet gas-coal ; mine 
 opened 1872; fifty men employed; production. 30,000 tons of coal per 
 year; forwarded to Baltimore and to places on the B. & O. R. R. 
 
 Union Coal and Coke Coinpan,v (The). The location of the 
 coal works of this company is at Coalville, Butler county. Pa. ; 260 men 
 employed. 
 
 Union and Central Pacific Company's (The) mines are lo- 
 cated at Alma, Wyoming. Alma is situated on the Union Pacific Rail- 
 road, seventy-five miles eiist of Ogden, is noted for its immense coal 
 mines, operated by the Union and Central Pacific Companies. The for- 
 mer has several mines, which are worked to supply the road with coal, 
 besides selling great quantities in Salt Lake, and other cities and towns. 
 Most of the coal used on the Utah and Northern is taken from the Union 
 Pacific mines, at Alma. The Central Pacific own and operate two mines 
 there, which are opened up to such an extent that, when it is required, 
 they can turn out 700 tons of coal per day, but the quantity mined is 
 graduated by demand for operating the road and supplying the shops 
 and offices with fuel. At present the output is 500 tons per day, which 
 is taken to the various points along the road, as far as Tmckee, Califor- 
 nia, and is used for making steam to operate six hundred miles of road. 
 Two hundred and fifty men are employed in and around the two 
 mines. 
 
 Union Coal Conipany (The). The mines belonging to this com- 
 pany are located at Cuba, Illinois, Air-shaft sixty-seven feet deep and 
 runs through thirty-three feet of rock ; was sunk from the bottom, up, 
 and all done in twenty-eight days, by Daniel Burbridge & Son. 
 
 United Coal and Coke Conipany (The). Mines located in 
 Pennsylvania; ninety feet deep; vein, eighty-five feet; three shifts of 
 men at work. 
 
 ITrsina Conl Conipany (The). Officers, J. M. Reid, Pres. ; W. P. 
 Thompson, Sec; E. M. Read, Treas. Directors, J. F. Dravo, Dr. F. Le 
 Mayne, W. K. Gillespie, E, H. Reid. Geo. B. Sterritt. W. M. Thompson, 
 J. M. Reid, also owner of the company. The mines are located in Penn- 
 sylvania. 
 
 Victor Coal Company (The). Officers, D. W. Holt, Pres. ; S. P. 
 Griffiths. Treas. ; 0. Perry Jones, Sec. This company is operating in the 
 Clearfield Mine, upper end of Campbell branch, two miles from Phillips- 
 burg. John Walton is in charge of the mining affairs. Coal ranges from 
 four to four feet ten inches in thickness. 
 
 Wadsworth Coal Company's Mine (The). Fred. Reese. Man- 
 ager. The works of this company are located at Akron, Ohio ; 100 men 
 employed. 
 
 TFyomlng Valley Coal Company (The). Directors. J H. Fos- 
 ter, Stamford, Conn. ; S. A. Caldwell, Philadelphia; Wm. S. Hillard. John 
 C. Phelps, John S. Law. J. G. Snoyer, Wilkesbarre; Abram Nesbitt, Kings- 
 ton, Luzerne county. Office, Wilkesbarre, Pa. The mines are located in 
 Luzerne and Lackawana counties. Wyoming coal fields' head-quarters 
 are located at Wilkesbarre, Pa. Capitalization, $1,200,000. 
 
 Walnut Hill and Primrose Coal Mines (The). The Walnut 
 Hill and Primrose mines, also the Yellow Grove mines of Noblestown — 
 the former located at Midway, Pa.— are operated by T. Burr Robbins, and 
 under the supervision of Chas. McDonald. Mines in good condition ; well 
 worked ; 150 men employed. Coal bed will average, 1881, about four and a 
 half feet In thickness. 
 
 "Watson Coal nnd Minings' Company (The) is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of Indiana. The officers are Thos. Watson, Pres., 
 and M. D. Watson, Sec. and Treas. The annual meeting is held the sec- 
 ond Tuesday in January. John Watson, Supt., with fifteen years' expe- 
 rience. The officers are at Brazil, Ind. The shafts are each down about 
 ninety feet. Yield during 1881, 154.000 tons, the market being Chicago. 
 The property has a total extentof 1,996 acres, incl uding four mines known 
 as the Etna, Gartsberrie, Garfield, and Coruwell. Organized October 1, 
 1871 ; developments commenced same time. Capitalization, 81,500,000, in 
 30,000 shares of f.'H) each. 
 
 Webster Coal Company (The). These works are located in West- 
 moreland county. Pa. Yearly number of tons, coal, 194,176. 
 
 West Fairmont and Marion Consolidation Coal Com- 
 pany (The). Jlr. Davidson, Agent. Location of works at Fairmont, 
 Marion county, W. Va. Working seven and a half feet of the nine feet 
 vein ; 50.000 to 75.000 tons of coal are mined yearly. Twenty-six men are 
 £mplo5'ed. Marketed chiefly in Baltimore and New York. 
 
 Westmoreland Coal Conipany (The). Officers, Edward C. Bid- 
 die, Pres. ; F. H. Jackson, Vioe-Pres. and 'Treas. Directors, Messrs. Samuel 
 Welch, Henry Windsor, P. P. Morris, Stephen H. Brooke, George A. Wood, 
 Horace Magee, P. S. Hutchinson. 
 
 West Wewton Coal Mines (The). Mr. W.H. Watt, Supervisor. 
 The West Newton mines are located at West Newton, Pa., 1881. These 
 mines have been idle for a long time ; are now ready to go into operation, 
 having been refitted with new engines, pumps, and other improved ma- 
 chinery. 
 
 Whitebread Coal MInine Company (The) is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of Iowa. Officers, J. C. Osgood, Pres. ; C. M.Schench. 
 Vice-Pres. ; J. S. Mauss, Sec. ; T. J. Phillips, Supt. Transfer office, Ottumwa, 
 Iowa; general office, Lincoln, Nebraska; branch, head and branch of- 
 fices, Ottumwa, Iowa. The Cleveland Mine No. 1 and Cleveland Mine 
 No. 2 belong to this company. Located in Whitebread township, Lucas 
 township, Iowa. l,366acresownedhy the company. Amount expended 
 in developing property, April 1. 1882, $225,000 ; shaft, 250 feet ; width of 
 vein, five and a half feet. Three shafts, underground workings, 325 
 rooms, working. Date of organization, January 16, 1876; capitalization, 
 1.500 shares; par value, $100; non-assessable; yield (net) to April 1, 1882, 
 749,000 tons; yield (gross tons) during 1881,205.627; assessments levied, 
 none ; bonded indebtedness, April 1, 1882, 840,000 ; stock indebtedness, 
 8150,000 ; floating ind'febtedesss, $35,000. Stocks and bonds held princi- 
 pally in Burlington, Des Moines county, Iowa. Maximum capacitv of 
 production, April 1, 1882, 500,000 tons; output, weekly, 6,500 tons. Wages 
 paid to all clas.ses, April 1, 1882, $8,000. Principal market for the ore, 
 Iowa and Nebraska. 
 
 Wilming:ton and Orove Coal Mines (The). J. M. Schuckers, 
 Supt, Thiscompanyowns the Warmington and the Grove mines. Mines 
 good, yielding a fine quality of furnace coal. 100 men employed in the 
 Warmington mine. The Grove shaft, in charge of David Navsmith, has 
 about ninety men employed. 
 
 Windsor Coal Company (The). The mines are located a short 
 distance from Foltz Slope, Mansellon City, Ohio. Thirty meu employed 
 under the same management ; have had some difficulties ; hope to get 
 
1134 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 over them. They are operating a drift near Philadelphia, Tuscarawas 
 comity ; forty to fifty men employed. 
 
 Yongtaiogheuy Kiver Coal Company (The). Wm. L. Scott, 
 of Erie. President. The coal lands of this company are located in Alle- 
 ghany and Westmoreland counties, Pa. There are nine shareholders. 
 Capitalization, (tl.000,000. 
 
 Young Cual Company (The). 0. Young, General Manager; 
 Joseph Collier, Mining Superintendent. This property is located one 
 mile from Pigeon Run, Ohio, near Navarre Station ; it is better known 
 as the Camp Creek shaft. Coal averages about five feet, reached by a 
 shaft 179 feet deep ; about 165 men employed. 
 
 Youngstown Coke Company (The). This company's works 
 are located in Fayette county, Pennsylvania. Yearly number of tons, 
 120,157. 
 
 Wlulfrcde Coal Company (The). Has offices at 307 Walnut 
 Street, Philadelphia, Pa. The incorporators are E. M. Davis. James Al- 
 bright, Theodore Wright, H. H. Houston, A. R. Little, all of Philadelphia, 
 Pa. James A. Wright, Treasurer. The property of the company is located 
 near the Great Kanawha, between Field and ylaughter creeks, Virginia, 
 having an area of 12,000 acres. Capitalization, $150,000. 
 
 oo: 
 
 •lElIM.. 
 
 Albany and Boston ])Iinine Company is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of Michigan. The company'.s works are located in 
 Houghton county, Mich. Property owned includes thirty-three dwell- 
 ing-houses, warehouses, and store, engine-house, hoisting and pumping 
 engine, winding machinerj^, etc., etc. The prospects of the property are 
 said to be rather disappointing Company was organized and com- 
 menced developments in 1860. Worked on tribute siuce 18ti9, and that 
 only limited. 
 
 fr'ranklin Mining; Company (The) is chartered uuder the laws 
 of the State of Michigan. Capt. Thos. Dennis is Superintendent. The 
 company's works are located in Houghton county, Mich. They own 860 
 acres of land. They have machinery plant, buildings, etc., and the sur- 
 face improvements are good. It is estimated that the cost of manipulat- 
 ing the ore, per ton, is about $2.31. The mine was worked on tribute for 
 a lew years prior to 1874, when, under a new management, prosecuting 
 avigorous policy, with theeffect of enhancingthe value of the stock six- 
 fold. Have not sunk deep enough to give it a fair trial. Current value 
 of mine is $715,000. Date of organization, April 23, 1867 ; number of shares, 
 54,000. Yield to January 1, 1881, 16,052 tons ; yield during 1881, $488.722.69 ; 
 yield during 1880 to December 1,2,876,519 pounds of mineral, yielding 
 $82,767. Product of refined copper in 3881, 1,338 tons. Total amount of 
 dividends paid, $240,000 ; date of latest dividend, June 24, 1882 ; date of 
 first as.<!essment, 1857, amount per share, fifty cents. Stock quoted. May 
 1, 1882, £11. 
 
 liake Superior ^lining; Company. D. L. Demmon, Sec. and 
 Treas. ; Superintendent, S. B. Harris, Greenland Mich. Ofiice, Boston, 
 Mass. The company's property is located at Ontonagon, Mich., covering 
 895 acres. They have horse-whims on their property and a few dwelling- 
 houses. The mine was worked on tribute lor some time subsequent to 
 1874. The company was organized in 1859 ; yield to January 1, 1882, seven 
 tons, 821 pounds ; total amount of assessments levied. $10,000. 
 
 Schoolcraft Mining; Company is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of Michigan. 'The oflScers are S. L. Smith, Pres. ; Jessie Hoyt, 
 See. and Treas. ; W. Harris is Superintendent. OflBce, New York. The 
 company's property is located in Houghton county, Mich., and includes 
 two hoisting engines, and pumping engines, and one stamp-mill, with 
 thirty-two Gates' stamps, all intact. Developments of the property were 
 commenced during the year 1869 : prospects of the property are reported 
 as very promising. Date of organization, 1863; capitalization, $1,000,000; 
 par value per share, $25. 
 
 Tecnmseh Mining; Company was organized March, 1880; Chas. 
 H. Palmer is the Superintendent. The company's property, covering 480 
 acres of land, is located in Houghton county, Mich. The property includes 
 dwelling-houses, and a forty-horse-power engine for pumping and hoist- 
 ing. The property is crossed by the Calumet Conglomerate and the Osce- 
 ola Amygdaloid, and other important lodes. 
 
 Adventure Alining; Company ('I'he), chartered under the laws 
 of the State of Michigan. The officers are Thos. P. Mason, Pres. ; W. 
 Hart Smith, Sec. and Treas. Head office is at Exchange Place, New York 
 city. S. B. Harris, Supt. ; residence, Greenland, Mich. The mines are 
 located at Ontonagon county, Mich. The company was organized in the 
 year 1870; capitalization, 1,000 shares: par value, $20. 'The mine has 
 yielded to date, 1881, $1 ,368.76 ; during same year, three tons ,1,500 pounds. 
 This mine is worked on the tribute system. Amount of property in acres, 
 480. 
 
 Allonez Mlnlne Company is chartered under the Inws of the 
 State of Michigan. Emmerson Coleman, Pres., and W. C. Stewart, Sec. 
 and Treas. ; Fred. Smith is Supt. Branch office. No. 29 Drexel Building, 
 25 Wall Street, New York. The company's works are located in Keweenaw 
 county Mich., covering an area of 2,000 acres. Ore found is copperiferous, 
 assaying $767 per ton. The lode may be described as conglomerate. Com- 
 pany owns mining plant, buildings, etc. Burleigh drills in use, also 
 stamp-mill. Estimated total value, $500,000; shaft 1,060 feet down ; length 
 of main lode, 3,000 feet. Date of organization, September, 1880; capitali- 
 zation, $2,000,000 ; par value per share, $25 ; yield during 1881, $268,823.67 ; 
 41736 tons after smelting). Date of first assessment, September, 1880 ; $1 per 
 share ; stock quoted July, 1882, $2.25. 
 
 Amydalold Mining Company (The) owns a mining property 
 of the extent of 1.760 acres, located in Keweenaw county, Mich. The ore 
 yields 72i^ per cent, of ingot copper. The character of the mine is described 
 as true fissure, there being three veins. The main mine is in what is 
 called the Drexel, south of the Greenstone. The mining plant and other 
 property comprises a large number of miners' houses, thirty-two stamp- 
 mill, (Gates' pattern,) inclined railroad, pumping and winding machinery 
 and engine for operating the same, offices, rock-house, and six rock- 
 breakers. In June, 1863, the surface stock was nearly all destroyed by 
 fire, including all the tenements. By November following, forty-one new 
 houses had been constructed through the untiring energy of the Agent, 
 Mr. A. C, Davis. Again, in 1864, the company suffered another blow in 
 the bursting of two boilers, causing great inconvenience and delay at a 
 time when copper was at its maximum price. Organized, July 1860 ; cap- 
 ital, $500,000; shares each, $25. Latest assessment was levied in 1872; 
 amount per .share, fifty cents. 
 
 Ash Bed Mining Company (The) is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of Michigan. The officers are W. Hunt, Pres,; W, C, Coffin, 
 Sec. and Trea.s. M. A, Delano, Agent; Capt. Petherick, Superintendent, 
 The offices are at Boston. Mass. The company owns two mines, the Hill 
 and the Copper Falls mine, located in Keweenaw county, Mich,, cover- 
 ing an extent of 1,200 acres. There is a stamp-mill attached to the mine, 
 
 but the ore prospects have not yet been realized. Date of organization, 
 1861 In 1881 the yield of pure metal was six tons, 1,984 pounds, of the 
 value of $2,552.08. „„. , , u- ,, r i. 
 
 Atlantic Copper Mining Company (The), of which Jos. E. 
 Gravis Pres., and 5. M. Stanton Sec. and Treas., and Capt. W. Tonkin, 
 Superintendent, has its offices at 76 Wall Street, New York. The property 
 is located in the Lake Superior district, Houghton county, Mich. The 
 ore is a native copper, yielding seventy-two per cent, metal. The prop- 
 erty in mining plant, consists of engines for hoisting and pumping, 
 boilers, shaft-house, R. R. locomotive, compressor, and five drills, 113 
 dwelling-houses. Depth of shaft at end of 1880, about 1,000 feet. Devel- 
 opments were commenced in 1872. The mining plant is first-class and 
 adapted for carrying on operations to an almost unlimited extent. A 
 saving of $7 per fathom is effected by the use of air drills. There are 
 5,200 feet of adits, levels, etc. The cost of ingot copper produced and 
 marketed by the Atlantic mine was as follows iu the five years uuder- 
 meutioued ; 
 
 Cost qf ingot 
 Year. copper per lb. 
 
 1875 19.92 cents. 
 
 1876 : : : js-u ;; 
 
 1877 15.74 ' 
 
 1878 15.51 
 
 1879 12.20 " 
 
 Average cost 
 
 16.29 cents. 
 
 Organized; capital, $1,000,000 ; shares each, $25 ; yield to January, 1881, 
 9,084 tons; yield (gross) during 1881, $461,361.65; yield net during 1881, 
 1,264 tons; dividends, total paid to June, 1882, $220,090; date of last divi- 
 dend, February 1, 1882; amount per share, $2; total assessment levied, 
 January, 1881, $280,000; first assessment levied, February, 1873 ; amount 
 per share, $2 ; date of latest assessment, April, 1882, ten cents per share. 
 In 1880, the cost of diflTerent operations was as follows ; stamping, wash- 
 ing, etc., 87.96 cents per ton of rock : sinking shaft, $38 per foot ; sinking 
 winzes, $19.78 per foot ; drifting, $19.09 per foot ; stoping, $22.28 per fathom. 
 Aztec Copper Company rrhe). A. A. Page, Sec. and Treas. of 
 the company. Principal office, Boston, Mass. Capt. John Chynoweth, 
 Superintendent. Mines owned are located in Ontonagon county, Mich. 
 Amount of property (in acres), 1,208. in addition to mining location. 
 Quality, etc., of ore* of irregular veir^, and difficult to trace. Develop- 
 ments were commenced 1852. Prospects of the company are very fair. 
 Were organized in 1880. Total amount of assessments levied, $160,000 : 
 capitalization, $1,000,000 ; yield net to January 1, 1881, 351 tons, 734 pounds; 
 j;ield during 1881, $1,619.60 ; yield (net) refined copper, four and two- 
 fifths tons. 
 
 Bisbee Copper Mining and Smelting Company (The). 
 Officers elected June 14, 1881 : Directors, D. H. Brisbee, S. L. Milliken, Sec- 
 retary and Treasurer ; for agent, Isaac Coombs, Auditor of Accounts ; W. 
 E. Grindle and G. P. Wood;, Belfast, Me. Principal office, Belfast, Me. 
 Character of mines, extension of Douglass lode. 
 
 Black Bear Copper Mining Company of Chicago (The). 
 Names of officers : w! L. Barnum, President ; Anson Gorton, Vice-Presi- 
 dent; Amos T. Hall. Secretary and General Manager; F. E.Morse, As- 
 sistant Secretary; George W. Huddleston. Directors, W. L. Barnum, 
 H. N. Hibbard, Amos T. Hall, Anson Gorton, John R. Hoxie, and F. E. 
 Morse. W. F. Witherell, Superintendent. Namesof mines owned by the 
 company: Youngstown, Excellent, Boss, and Black Bear; all full claims. 
 Location, Ash Canon, Huachuca, Mountains, Cachise county, Arizona. 
 Date of organization, August 10, 1881 ; capitalization, $1,000,000 ; shares, 
 100,000 ; par value, $10. Non-assessable. Stock full paid. 
 
 Bonanza Bevelopment Company's (The) works are located 
 in Colorado. This company, whose property is a portion of the Santa 
 Reita grant (for half of which $1,000,000 has recently been offered), has 
 paid since its organization four cash dividends aggregating $226,000, and, 
 according to its last statement issued September 1, 1881, it has $633,186 in 
 cash assets on hand. It owns, besides, several large tracts of land and 
 one-half of the capital stock of tlie Santa Reita Copper and Iron Company, 
 which is now producing and .shipping from seventy-five to 100 tons of 
 ingot copper per month. Date of latest dividend, January 3, 1882. 
 
 Boroa Copper Mining C4»mpany is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of New York, "rhe mines owned by this company are the 
 Boroa, Chausun, Sunrise, and Sunset, located in Arizona. These mines 
 improve as developments progress. Work has been steadily carried on, 
 and the foreman reports the mines in condition to take out seventy tons 
 of ore per day. Assays average twenty-tliree per cent, of copper. Capi- 
 tahzation, $1,000,000; par value per share, ten dollars; non-assessable; 
 full paid. 
 
 Boston Copper Mining Company Is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of^Massachusetts. Edward B. Earle, President; George D. 
 Eldridge, Treasurer. Office, 79 Milk Street, Boston, Mass. This property 
 is thoroughly developed, the dead work Is done, and it is all ready to be 
 put on a dividend paying basis. The value of the mine has been proved, 
 and with the low capitaUzation and small number of shares it takes its 
 place as an investment rather than a speculative stock. The ore assays 
 seventeen and a half to twenty per cent, copper. Capitalization, $50,000; 
 par value per share, ten doUare, 
 
 Brooksvllle Copper Mining Company. The officers are M G 
 Palmer, President, Directors, M, G. Palmer, George Burnham, Jr J S 
 Winslow, W, H. Sanborn, and G, F, Gould, Secretary and Treasurer, Q 
 A, Gould. Office, 85 Exchange Street, Portland, Maine. Capitalization! 
 $500,000 ; par value per share, five dollars ; cash in treasury March 1881 
 $1,000 ; shares in trea.sury March, 1881, 38,000. 
 
 Calumet and Hecla Consolidated Mining Company (The) 
 Is chartered under the laws of the State of Michigan. The officers are 
 Alex. Agazziz, Pres.; Chas. W, Seabury, Sec, and Treas,; J, N, Wright, 
 Sup't. The head offices are at 67 Milk Street, Boston. The company 
 owns extensive properties in the Lake Superior district, Houghton 
 county, Mich. A parcel of 120 acres has recently been purchased at cost 
 of $1,250,000. It is expected this will prolong the life of the mine for 
 many years. It is estimated that in about forty of these acres there are 
 from five to twenty millions' worth of copper. The copper is nearly pure, 
 the mixture beiug a species of rock of a reddish color and very hard 
 The main vein is a conglomerate from eight to eighteen feet thick, dip- 
 ping into the earth at an angle of about 38°. fi runs north-east and 
 south-west, extending the entire length of the Keweenaw Peninsula, 
 and is supposed to be the same vein that passes under Lake Superior and 
 crops out at Isle Royal seventy miles distant. The mining plant and 
 surface improvements are the finest in the world. One of the engines is 
 4,700 horse-power. The stamp-mills are lighted by electricity. There o ru 
 eight shafts of an aggregate depth of 2,650 feet. There are twentv-five 
 miles of drifts. The maiu lode on which the company depends for its 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1135 
 
 supply of ore ia 1,300 feet. Developments were originally commenced in 
 1867. The maximum yearly capacity of production is 31,695,300 pounds 
 of ore. The current value of the mine ia about $24,000,000. by new and 
 Improved processes of smelting, the company is able to profitably con- 
 centrate the tailings. Date ot organization or consolidation of the 
 Calumet with the Hecla company. May, 1871 ; capitalization, 82,500,000; 
 sharea each, $26 ; yield of refined copper to January 1, 1881, 126,5f)8; yield 
 during 1881, 15,680 tons refined copper — 6.723,342; amount of dividend 
 paid to July, 1882, $21,380,000; date of first dividend, 1869 (Dec); amount 
 of same, $5 per share, paid regularly every quarter ; date of latest divi- 
 dend, May 15, 1882 ; amount of same, $5 per share ; total asseaaments levied, 
 $1,200,000 ; amount per share of last assessment, fifteen cents : bonded 
 and other indebtedness, none. 
 
 Calumet Belt Mining: Company (The) have their works located 
 In Keweenaw county, Mich., covering an area of forty acres. Red and 
 blue ore are found. An amygdaloid and conglomerate belt extends two 
 and one-half miles on the property. No worlcnaa been done yet. Capital 
 stocl£, $250,000. 
 
 Carp liake Itlininsr Company (The) ia chartered under the 
 lawa of the State of Michigan. Mines are located in Ontonagon county, 
 Mich. Character of the mines; copper occurs in fine particles, dissem- 
 inated in a belt of altered sandstone, 600 feet thick, this being under- 
 laid by a belt of amygdaloid. Property owned, log huts, machinery 
 for stamp-mill. Dimensions of workings: levels, 250 and forty feet. 
 Operations suspended in 1881. Efforts now being made by Mr. A. Meada 
 to revive an interest in the locality with a view to the resumption of 
 mining operations. Yield net to January, 151,135 tons. 
 
 Central Copper Mining Company (The) is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of Michigan. The oflicers are Dr. C. G. Hussey, Pres. ; 
 Waterman Palmer, Sec. and Treas. Directors, S. W. Hill. John Slawson, 
 A. A. Bennett, John Kobingson, and Waterman Palmer. Mr. A. A. 
 Bennett is Superintendent. The offices of the company, formerly at 
 Eagle Harbor and Pittsburg, are now at New York. The properties of 
 the company are located in Keweenaw county, Mich. The ore yields 
 seventy-two per cent, of pure copper, and is found in masses. The plant 
 and other fixtures of the mine consist of several miners' houses, twenty of 
 them being new. New pumping and hoisting machinery and engine, 
 rook-breakers and atampmg machinery. The aggregate depth of shaft 
 ia about 4,180 feet, of adits 22,979 feet. The total length of lode on which 
 the company depends for its supply of ore ia 5,280 feet. Developments 
 were commenced in 1853, since which time tliere has been paid in de- 
 velopments and working expenses, the sum of $6,932,317.23, to Jan. 1, 1881. 
 Up to July, 1855, thiswas the first instanceof a mine yielding a surplus m the 
 first year of its existence. The surface improvements during this year 
 consisted of three houses and horse-whim. The capital was, therefore, 
 not absorbed in expenditure on machinery and improvements. The 
 deposit has subsequently proved to be one of the richest of the Lake 
 Superior district. The cost of smelting the ore in Detroit ia, or was, about 
 $18.32 per ton. The general expenditure to the end of December, 1880, was 
 $2,958,132.22 ; total sales of copper to same date, $3,904,496.51 ; average cost 
 of sinking shafts and winzes was $24.86 per linear fathom ; average cost 
 of drifting, $13.16 per linear fathom ; average cost of stoping, $18.71 per 
 cubic fathom. The Central is one of our most valuable mines, and pro- 
 duces its copper at a very low cost, as will be seen by the following official 
 figures: 
 
 Cost of Ingot 
 Year. per lb. 
 
 1874 14.82 cents. 
 
 1875 15.81 " 
 
 1876 12.95 " 
 
 1877 13.19 " 
 
 1878 11.23 " 
 
 1879 11.16 " 
 
 1880 11.85 " 
 
 Average yield in mineral per cubic fathom, 614 pounds = 473 refined 
 copper ; total cost per ton for breaking and tramming to mill, .14^ cents ; 
 total coat per ton for stamping and washing .98^ cents. Organized, 
 November, 1854 ; capitalization, 20,000 shares of $25 each ; yield to January 
 1, 1881, 14,510 tons refined copper; yield during 1881, 709 tons refined 
 copper; value of product for 1881, $258,869.86; total dividend paid to 
 February 1, 1882, $1,660,000; date of latest dividend, February, 1882; 
 amount of same $50,000, or $2.50 per ahare ; total of assessments levied, 
 $100,000, to September, 1861 ; date of latest assessment, September 10, 1861 ; 
 amount, of same, sixty-five cents per share ; stock quoted July 1, 1882, $30 
 per share ; (average) wages paid to all classes of labor per week, $13.18. 
 
 Cliff Copper Company (The) is chartered under the laws of 
 Micliigan. James Wilson, Supt. Location of mines, Keweenaw county, 
 Mich. Amount of property in acres, 1,000. Dimensions of workings are, 
 bv tunnel, 135 feet; length of levels, 1,700 feet. Date of commencing de- 
 velopments, 1859; date of organization, 1858. Yield (net) to January 1, 
 1882, nil; yield during 1881, $14,487.21; yield tons during 1881, 39 tons, 
 l,i;82 pounds. 
 
 Conglomerate Minln;; Company is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of Michigan. The officers are Heni'y C. Davis. Pres. ; Edward 
 Hoopes, Pres. pro tem. ; Chas. M. Foulke, Trea.s. ; Geo. H. Lewars, Sec. 
 Directors, Chas. W. Trotter, Edward Hoopes, Samuel Simes, Edward 
 Lewis, W. P. Thomas, Chas. M. Foulke, Henry C. Davis, and Jos. E. Gil- 
 lingham. Mainoffice,205 Walnut Place, Philadelphia; mine office, Dela- 
 ware Mine P. O., Keweenaw county. Mich. The company's property is 
 located in Keweenaw county, Mich. They own 19,000 acres of land. There 
 is an amygdaloid bed running east and west through the mines, yielding 
 one per cent. ore. The company own a new compressor-house, built of 
 stone, 150 by 50 feet, costing, with its equipment, some $63,000. $21,000 
 have been expended in erecting dwelling-houses, $27,735 in fitting up the 
 general running plant, and $19,644 for stamp-mill additions. Tramwaya 
 connectthe rock-house with the several shafts, and the cars are propelled 
 by a small locomotive, which facilitates the transmission of rock from 
 tlie mine to the mill. 'The company have in their compressor-house a set 
 of Babcooli and Wilcox boilers of 320 horse-power, and have room left 
 for another set of like power. They have also a very spacious and con- 
 venient store, among other improvements. The shafts number six, 
 though at present but four are actively worked. They are numbered 
 from the west, and have been sunk respectively as follows: No. 1, west 
 of the northwest vein, 330 feet; No. 2, on vein, 740 feet; No. 3, east of 
 northwest vein, 515 feet; No. 4, east of northwest vein, 270 feet; No. 5, 
 east of northwest vein, 345 feet; No. 6, east of northwest vein. 270 feet; 
 total sinking, 2,470 feet. Length of the raaip lode, 3.500 feet. The levels 
 have stretched themselves out with marvelous rapidity, until they offer 
 the underground traveller a promenade of nearly a million avenues, 
 twelve feet wide by eight feet in height. Adit level, 2,000 feet ; ten fathom 
 level, 893 feet; twenty fathom level, 880 feet; thirty fathom level, 830 feet; 
 
 forty fathom level, seventy feet. There are numerous winzes in the 
 neighborhood of the No. 2 shaft, on the ten, twenty, and thirty fathom 
 levels. Development of the property was commenced January. lS-81. 
 Amount expended iu developing property to April 1, 1881. nearly S2,000,000. 
 The stoping field is a block of ground 141 fathoms in length, seventy-two 
 fathoms in height, and (as regards the copper-bearing portion of the belt) 
 about two fathoms in thickness, which gives 20.104 cubic fathoms. 250 
 men are employed, 200 being miners. At time of writing, we learn that 
 conglomerate has been struck on the fifth level, better than any above, 
 showing that at 1 ,000 feet depth the vein is improving In strength. Date 
 of organization, October, 1880; capitalization paid in, April 15, 1881, $2,- 
 500,000. Par value per ahare, S2o. Yield during 1881, ?70,461.60 ; yield 
 refined copper 1881, 193 tons, 91 pounds. Total amouflt of assessments 
 levied, $1,500,000. Whole number of shares (100.000) have been issued. 
 50,000 shares have $6 paid on each, and liable for $19 more. The reserve 
 in the treasury is the amount per share that can be called on the 50,000 
 shares assessable stock, or $19 on 50,000 shares equals $950,000. 
 
 Copper Belt Slinlni; Company (The). Location of mines, 
 Marysville, Puck county, Utah. Date of commencing developments. 1881 ; 
 date of organization, October 1 , 1881 ; capitalization, 100,000 snares. Stock 
 and bonds held principally in Connecticut. 
 
 Copper Falls Company is chartered under the laws of the State 
 of Michigan. John T. Heard, Pres.; Horatio Bigelow, Sec. Office, Boa- 
 ton, Mass. W. P. Merick is the Superintendent. This company are the 
 owners of the Hill and Copper Falls Mines, located in Keweenaw county, 
 Mich. They own 4,261.5 acres of land. The ore is mixed with consider- 
 able silver, and assays twenty-one per cent, per ton of rock. The char- 
 acter of the mines may be described as fissure, chiefly stamp rock. The 
 company have twenty dwelling-houses, two boarding-houses, offices, 
 shops, engine-house, boiler-house, saw-mill, washers, and slime tables, 
 three locomotive boilers, and machine-shop with requisite machinery. 
 Length of adits— that is, levels — 5,300 feet. The prospects of the property 
 are favorable. Costof mining and milling of rock per ton, $3.64. Output 
 weekly, June, 1882, 1,750 tons. In 1874 several men were killed by a large 
 portion of hanging wall. After that time the product declined. Date of 
 organization, 1845; capitalization, $2,000,000; par value per share, $50. 
 Y'leld to January 1, 188) , 6,764 tons, 1,157 pounds ; yield refined copper, 
 January 1. 1881, .S34 tons, 1,121 pounds. Number of dividends paid to 
 August, 1871, three; total amount of same, $100,000 ; date of latest divi- 
 dend, August, 1871. Total amount of assessments levied, $620,000 ; date 
 of latest assessment, October 4, 1881. 
 
 Copper Harbor Mining Company (The) (formerly the French 
 Copper Mining Company) are the owners of the Agate Harbor, Clark, 
 Montreal, and Bell mines, located in Keweenaw county, Mich. Amount 
 of property, 2,500 acres. The character of the ore is black oxide, and is 
 found in masses. Tlie company have a stamp-mill, and hoisting and 
 pumping engines at the works. Date of organization. May 14, 1858. 
 
 Copper King Mining Company (Tlie). Incorporators are 
 Milo A. Smith, Thomas L. Drake, Sam'l S. Griswold. The mines are 
 located in Park county. Col. Capitalization, $2,000,000. 
 
 Copper Clneen Mining Company is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of New York. The officers are A. A. Hayes, Jr.. Pres. ; Louis 
 Zeckendorf, Sec. and Treas. Trustees, C. C. Martin and W. H. Martin. 
 Offices at 34 and 36 Thomas Street, New York. Transfer books close 
 June 28 and open July 3. This company owns the famous Copper Queen 
 mine, located at Bisbee, Ariz. This mine was located December 13, 1878, 
 by G. A. Ealham and M. Herring. Subsequently G. W. Anschultz, G. 
 Kleim, G. W. Atkina, and D. B. Rea became interested in the property; 
 and these parties bonded the mine to E. Reilly for $18,000. The trans- 
 action was perieeted September 24, 1879. by the sale of the Copper Queen 
 to W. H. Martin & Co, and work was begun in April, 1880. The erection 
 of a thirty-ton smelter was begun on July 1 of that year; on September 
 11 the first bullion was shipped; during the month 160,829 pounds were 
 turned out by the smelter ; since then the shipment has been as follows : 
 October, 1880, 335,408 pounds; November, 316.000 pounds; December, 
 353.340 pounds; January, 1881, 308,118 pounds; February, 316,000 pounds ; 
 March, 305.972 pounds. For each fourteen car-loads of coke there have 
 been produced from the mines twenty car-loads of copper. The coke is 
 made from English coal, and laid down at San Francisco at a cost of 
 $27 per ton. The gross average price received for the copper has been 
 eighteen and one-half cents per pound, profit, over and above all ex- 
 penses. April 1, 1882, the company smelted 17,651 tons of ore, which 
 yielded 5,753,236 pounds of black copper, which, refined to ninety-six and 
 one-half per cent, produced 5,551,871 pounds of refined copper, the value 
 of which, in New York, was $1,020,859.72. During March, 1882, the mine 
 produced 694.181 pounds; and the first two days of April yielded 82,000 
 pounds. The current value of the mine is $1,600,000, and waa purchased 
 by a New York company for $1,250,000. Amount expended in developing 
 property to April. 30, 1882, $532,733.33. Property consists of two water- 
 jacket furnaces, capable of smelting from eighty to ninety tons of ore 
 ger day. Extensive improvements liave been made in the way of new 
 uildings, steam-hoisting and other machinery ; flow of water is now 
 from 10,000 to 12,000 gallons; while the cjipacity of the Cameron pump, 
 purchased recently, is capable of handling 100,000 gallons. The Super- 
 intendent estimates the amount of ore now in sight, above second level, 
 at 63,000 tons. Capitalization, $2,,')00,000; par value pet share, $10; total 
 amount of dividends paid, $400,000; date of latest dividend, July 1, 1882, 
 forty centa per share: yield (refined copper) for fiscal year ending April 
 20, 1882, $1,020,859.72 ; stock (juoted June 17, 1882, 86 per share. 
 
 Copper Prince Mining Company is chartered under the la^^^ 
 of the State of New York. The officers are Hon. A. H. Cragin, Pres. ; A. 
 H. Ward, Vice-Pres. ; C. J. Brushnell, Sec. and Treas. Office, Room 64, 
 35 Broadway, New York. The company's works are located at Digby Gut, 
 Nova Scotia. They own mining plant, and have buildings in course of 
 erection; specimen of ore taken from the surface shows great richness 
 In virgin copper ; stock and bonds held principally in New York. 
 
 Copper King Mining Company (The). Pres., Hiram Preble, 
 of Bangor; Treas., J. H. Smith, of Bangor. One of the chief owners is 
 Mr. Isaac Stevens, of Bangor, where the offices are also located The 
 mines are located at Clifton, Graham county, Ariz: Date of organization, 
 March H, 1882; capitalization, $500,000; stock held principally in Bangor, 
 Me. 
 
 Copperopolls Mining Company (The). Officers, Geo. E. Har- 
 rington, Pres.; S. L. Symonds, Treas. ; W. Oscar Arnold, Sec. Directors, 
 Geo. E. Harrington, Geo. West, Francis Tuckerman ; Salem, P. MuUer, 
 L. W. Hodgklns; Ellsworth, John Shornbar. Head office, 4 Sear's Build- 
 ing, Boston, Mass. Character of ore, high grade copper, thirty per cent, 
 copper; prospects of property, will soon be equipped with engines, boil- 
 ers; depth of shaft, 110 feet down. Capitalization, $500,000; shares, 
 200,000; par value, $2.50; stock quoted March 1, 1882, four to five cents- 
 stock quoted July 1, 1882, 003 asked. 
 
 Copper Mountain Mining Company (The). Officers, W. A. 
 Healey, Pres. ; I. T. Stogund, E. B. Brown, Sec. ; M. S. Taft, Supt. Loca.- 
 
1136 
 
 THE MINES, MINEKS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tion of mines. Big Bug district. The mine of this company is showing 
 up well, considerable quantities qf high grade oxides and carbonates ot 
 copper having been developed. Date of organization, 1882 ; capitaliza- 
 tion, $300,000. 
 
 Crescent Copper Mining Company (The), of which George W. 
 Smiley is Pres., is located in Del Norte county, Cal. The ore consists of 
 green" carbonates. The mine consists of two claims, each 1,600 feet in 
 length by 600 feet in width. The developments consist of one shaft thirty 
 feet deep ; one open cut, twenty feet on the ledge, and twenty-eight feet, 
 northerly on the ledge ; one shaft 100 feet deep, with level from the foot. 
 100 feet north on the ledge ; one shaft forty feet deep, with level running 
 thirty feet north on the ledge; and live ijrospect snafls from five to ten 
 feet deep. With the ore in sight, and improvements in progress, 1,000 tons 
 of ore can be extracted in sixty days, when smellers will be ready. Capi- 
 talization, $2,000,000, in shares of $10 each ; 200,000 shares,, non-assessable. 
 
 Uominion Minings Company. The officers are .Tames Richards, 
 Pres. ; F. F. Hale. Sec. ; A. T. Parker, Treas. Directors, James Eichards. 
 H. S. Bacon, A. T. Parker, T. V. Wright. This company was organized 
 at 1 ortland, June 9, 1881. Capitnlization. $500,000. 
 
 I>ouglass milling Company (The), of which Mr. J. H. Foster is 
 Supt., is located in Houghton county, Mich. Organized iu 1863. Net 
 yield in 1868, eighty-five tons refined copper. Stock quoted May, 1882, 
 one-half cent; June, three-fourths cent per share. 
 
 Ely Copper Mine Crhc) is located at Vershire, Vt. Mr. Smith Ely 
 has control, holding 96,000 of the 100.000 shares of the company. The 
 quality of the ore is three and a half per cent., and cobbed up to seven 
 per cent. It assays ninety-five per cent, to the ton. The ore-body, 300 
 feet in length, varies from five feet massive to twenty-five feet dissemi- 
 nated. Depth of shaft, 3,000 feet. The company have a large engine of 
 400 horse-power, to do hoisting, about 100 houses, and three new boilers, 
 Jarvis setting. They have twelve furnaces running, and employ 700 men. 
 The Superintendent is Wm. Long. Mining and milling can be done un- 
 der $6 per ton. Maximum yearly capacity of production, 3,000,000 pounds 
 copper ore. Output, weekly, to January, 1882, 1,500 tons of ore. About 
 thirty-seven and a half tons ingots. 
 
 Evergreen Bliilf .Hining Company (The) is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of Michigan. F. W. Capon, Sec. and Treas. ; L. Col- 
 lins, Supt. Principal office was originally Detroit, but lately removed to 
 New York. The mines are in Ontonagon county. Mich. The ore assays 
 about seventy per cent. Property owned by the company consists of five 
 engines, all in place, house (occupied), working plant, machinery, etc. 
 Developments were commenced 18o3. Organized in the same year; 
 worked since 1870 on tribute at seven cents per pound. Yield (net) to 
 January 1, 1881, was 675 tons and 206 pounds ; auring 1881, S176.66. Yield 
 refined copper during 1881. 968 pounds. Stock of this company held in 
 Michigan, Detroit, and Pontiac. 
 
 Falmouth Copper iHiiiing Company (The). The officers are 
 James N. Winslow, Pres.; Wm. S. Thoma.-i, Treas; George H. Blake. Sec. 
 The mines being worked by this company are held on lease of ninety- 
 nine years. They are located at Falmouth, near the city of Portland, Me. 
 Two assays of the ore gave respectively five and thirty-three per cent, 
 copper. The company own steam-pumping and hoisting apparatus. 
 
 Flint Steel Alining Company. Walter Ferguson is Sec. and 
 Trea>:. ; .Stephen Martin, Agent, Greenland, Mich. Superintendent, Dr. 
 McKinnie. Office, 35 Sear's Building, Boston, Mass. The company's mines 
 are the Flint Steel and the Caledonia, located in Ontonagon county, Mich. 
 The company have twenty-five houses on their property. 'The prospects 
 of the property are very moderate. The mines were leased to Captain 
 Martin in 1873, and worked only at intervals. Date of organization, 1871; 
 yield to January 1, 1881, 41;i tons, 31S pounds; yield during 1881,8986.86; 
 yield, refined copper, during 18S1, two tons, 400 pounds. 
 
 Fnltoii Mining Compitny (The) have their works located in 
 Keweenaw county, Mich. Tliey run 3,000 acres of land. The ore found 
 yields considerable silver. Property is crossed by kearsage, conglomer- 
 ate, and kearsage amygdaloid. The ore is found in masses. 
 
 fjlobe Copper Company have their works located at Globe, Ari- 
 zona. 
 
 Orand Portage Mining Compan.T (The) is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of Michigan. Peter Euffis, Esq., is Secretary and 
 Treasurer; the Mining Superintendent being M. L. Tallon, who has had 
 fourteen years' experience. The property of the company is located in 
 Houghton county. Mich., and has an area of 800 acres. The ore is found 
 in masses, the usual form of the copper deposits of Michigan. There are 
 twenty-seven houses on the property. The shaft is 350 feet deep, and the 
 adits extend about 330 feet. Prospects of the mine at present are highly 
 favorable. Date of organization, 1860; capitalization. $500,000. Yield 
 during 1881, $4,793; yield during 1881, thirteen tons and 264 pounds. 
 
 Kagle Harbor Mining Company is charlered under the laws 
 of the State of Michigan. W. Hart Smith, Secretary and Treasurer. Of- 
 fice, No. 4 Exchange Court, New York. The mines owned are the Water- 
 bury, Eagle Harbor, and Connecticut, located in Keweenaw county, Mich. 
 The company owns 7,000 acres of land. The property is worked partly 
 on tribute. The character of the mines is described as fisiSure veins. 
 
 Gregory I'opper Mining Company. The Directors are H. 
 Gregory, Jr., Pres. ; Maynard Sumner, S. M. Bird, A. T. Ames, Geo. Greg- 
 ory, J. Fred. Merrill, Henry Spaulding, H. T. Beveridge, Treas. Office, 
 . Kockland, Maine. The company's property is located at Gardner Moun- 
 tain, N. H. They have a capitalization of $500,000, in 100,000 shares, at a 
 par value of $5 each. 
 
 H. A. I<ee Mining Company (The). The officers are Dr. Horn, 
 Fres. ; W. M. Farnan, Vice-Pres. and Supt. ; Dr. Lee, Treas. ; H. Lee, Sec. 
 The company owns twelve claims, Domingo, on Poverty Gulch, Col., the 
 Castle Group of nine, on Brush creek, the Sunnyside, on Looolli Moun- 
 tain, and one on Rock creek. The character of the ore is gray copper, 
 sulphuret and bromide. Mill run of 400 pounds, gave 184 ounces to the 
 ton. The Domingo is opened by a fifty-foot tunnel, exposing a six-foot 
 vein between walls, with an eighteen-uich pay streak. Bonded indebt- 
 edness, January 1, 1882, $21,000. Stock quoted, July 1, 1882. twenty -seven 
 and a half cents. Stock and bonds are held principally in Colorado and 
 Illinois. 
 
 Hancock Mining Company (The) is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of Michigan. The officers are Ed. Ryan, Pres.. and August 
 Mette, Sec. and Treas. The offices are at Hancock. Mich. The property 
 of the company is located in Houghton county, Mich. The deposit is 
 amygdaloid, about four feet wide, yielding about two per cent copper. 
 The Shalt is 610 feet deep. It is reported (July, 1882) that good ore has 
 been struck. The company was organized about the end of 1879. Capitali- 
 zation. $100,000, in 40,000 shares of $2,50 each. Yield to January, 1881, 1,403 
 tons of refined copper; yield during 1881,285 tons 1,897 pounds of refined 
 copper, of the value of $104,371.20. Stock held principally in Hancock, 
 Chicago, Milwaukee, and Cleveland. Wages paid to all cla.sses of labor 
 per week, $10.75. Sinking costs about $23 per foot; stoping costs from 
 $6 to $12 per fathom. 
 
 Harrisbiirg Copper Mining and Smelting Company is 
 
 chartered under the laws of the State of Pennsylvania. Geo. K. Hursch, 
 Pres. ; H. C. Chisholm, Sec. Office, No. 26 Third Street, Harrisburg, Pa. 
 The company own 3,000 acres of land, most of which is located on the 
 southeast side of South Mountain, on the mineral belt running through 
 southern Pennsylvania, Indiana, and Virginia. The company have a 
 capitalization of $100,000, in shares at apar value of$l each. Basis,non- 
 assessable ; full paid. . ^ . „ . 
 
 • Hilton Mining Company. Location of property, Ontonagon 
 county,Mich. The ore assays 72 per cent copperpertou. The veins are com- 
 posed of epidote and quartz, bearing but little copper. The company owns 
 hoisting apparatus consisting of horse-whim or man-power. They have 
 several houses, change house, and smith's shop ; there are two shafts 100 
 feet deep; levels, 350 feet. Date of commencing developments, 1863; 
 amount expended in developing property to January 1, 1881, $46,000. This 
 company's property has been worked at intervals on tribute, on a small 
 scale after 1863, when work on the company's account was definitely su^ 
 peiided. There is no water on property for stamping purposes. Date of 
 organization, 1863; yield to January 1,1882, twenty-one tons,l,819 pounds; 
 total amount of assessments levied, $50,000. 
 
 Huron Copper Company is chartered underthelaws of the State 
 of Michigan. D. L. Demmon is Sec. and Treas. ; Capt. Johnson Vivian is 
 Supt. Office, Boston, Mass. The company's property is located on the 
 south side of Portage Lake, Houghton county, Mich. The prospects of 
 the property are favorable under vigorous and intelligent management. 
 There are about eighty men at work. Date of organization, 1880; capi- 
 talization, $1,000,000; par value per share, $25; yield to January 1, 1881, 
 3,847 tons, 431 pounds. Y'ield during 1881, $-16,448.98 ; yield refined copper, 
 1881, 127 tons, 575 pounds. Stock quoted July 1, 1882, $1.73. 
 
 Isle Royal Mining Company ('I'he) is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of Michigan. F. W. Chapin is Sec. and Treas. ; Graham Pope, 
 of Houghton, is Supt The offices are at New Y'ork. The property is loca- 
 ted in Houghton county, Mich., and comprisesan area of 501 >^ acres. The 
 ore is an almost pure metal of 80 per cent. The shaft is 800 feet deep. 
 Length of adits, 3,000 feet. In January last, the property, mining plant, 
 etc., was reported in somewhat ruinous condition. Developments were 
 commenced in 1852. The net yield to January 1, 1881, is 4,538 tons ; yield 
 during 1880, 45,860 pounds ingot copper; during 1881, twenty-three tons, 
 1,308 pounds ; refined copper, $1,500,000 has been levied for assessments. 
 
 Knowlton Mining Comiiany (The) is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of Michigan. Capt Dunn, Supt The property of the company, 
 consisting of 600 acres, is located in Ontonagon county, Mich. The ore is 
 an epidote quartz, calcic chloride, etc.. assaying 62 per cent. The length 
 of the main lode on which the company depends for its supply of ore is 
 l.lOOfeet Since 1867 the mine has been worked on tribute, producing 
 from three to forty-five tons per year. The company was organized in 
 1833. Developments commenced 18G2. Yield (net) to January, 1881. 263 
 tons, 973 pounds. 
 
 Ijinden Mountain Mining Company. The officers are M. H. 
 Hegarty, Pres.: office, 8 and 10 PrattStreet, New York. J. W. Kalley, Treas.; 
 office, 211 Montague Street, Brooklyn, N. Y. The company's property is 
 located in Colorado. The company s mine is rich in gray copper, reported 
 to be among the richest mines in San Juan district, Hensdale county, Col. 
 Capitalization, $1 ,000,000 ; par value per share, $5. 
 
 Schmidt Madison Mining Company (The) has its offices in 
 Boston. Mass. Chas. H. Ward is Sec. and Treas. ; ]Mr. Jos. Sncll is now 
 Supt. The property of the company is located in Keweenaw county, Mich. 
 The mine is described as fissure, the working being on three veins. This 
 mine.seems to have been worked in an unskillful manner, but will prob- 
 ably be worked more cautiously in future.- Organized, 1859; capitaliza- 
 tion. $1,000,000, in 40,000 shares, of $25 each ; yield of refined copper dur- 
 ing 1881, 1,534 pounds ; value, $279.95. Six assessments levied. First assess- 
 ment levied March, 1863, $1 per sh-are. - 
 
 Megantic Consolidated Copper Mining Coin.paiiy of Can- 
 ada has property in the township of -Leeds, Megantic oouuty. Province 
 of Quebec, covering an extent of 4,000 acres. Mr. W. G. Bunham is Supt. 
 The mine furnishes talcoid, mica slates, lenticular mass, and interstratified 
 beds of copper ore. The mining plant and other property comprises 
 buildings and machinery of the most improved conistruclion ; 150 horse- 
 power engine, main shaft house, smith and machinery shop, saw-mill 
 and carpenter shop, three large store-houses, barn and two stables, har- 
 ness and tool house, twelve tenement houses, and one boarding house, 
 store and office. Total cost of same, $100,000. Capitalization, $3,000,000, 
 in 300,000 shares of $10 each. 
 
 Meadow Mining Company (The) has property located in Ke- 
 weenaw county, Mich. The mine or property is crossed by transverse fis- 
 sure veins, which, when first discovered, were lined with ancient pits 
 containing considerable copper. The company was organized in 1863. 
 
 Mesnara Mining Company (The) is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of Michigan. 'The oificers are A. M. Byers. Pres.; W. H. 
 McCurdy, Vice-Pres. ; J. H. Outhwaite, Sec. and Treas. The offices are 
 at Boston, Mass. The property of the company is located in Houghton 
 county, Mich., having an extent of 160 acres, held under lease from the 
 Atlantic Iron Company. The ore, a hard hematite, has an epidote matrix. 
 The vein is true fissure. The mine has a fifty-foot shaft and other work- 
 ings. Operated since 1876, when it passed into the hands of the Pewabic. 
 The company originated from the discovery of an eighteen-ton mass. 
 This mass had been moved forty-eight feet from its original bed by the an- 
 cient miners, and was buried beneatli the eHrth,on which was growing trees 
 corresponding in size with those of the surrounding forest. Organized, 
 1862 ; non-assessable. The stock of this compauy is taken by individual 
 shareholders of the Atlantic Iron Company ; said stock or shares being 
 subject to additional assessments not to exceed $1.50 in all. 
 
 Mlnong Copper (Company (The) has its offices in Detroit, Mich. 
 Hiram Walker, Pres. ; E. W. Hudson, Sec. and Treas. The property of 
 the company is located near W. McCargoe's Cove, Isle Royal, Houghton 
 county, Mich. There is little being done, the work being done on tribute. 
 The company was organized iu 1874. The yield to January 1, 1881, was 
 230 tons; in 1881, the yield was seven tons, 1,397 pounds refined copper of 
 the value of $2,809.9.5. 
 
 Michlplcoton Native Copper Compnn.v (The) has property 
 located in Michipicoton Island, Lake Superior district, Canada. The ore 
 is stamp rock, averaging two and one-half per cent, copper. There are 
 several shafts, varying irom sixty to 100 feet in depth. One hundred men 
 are employed. Developments, so far, have not been rewarded with suc- 
 cess. The stock of the company is quoted in London, England, at f 1 is. 
 Sd. to £1 Is. id. per share, equivalent to from $5.20 to $5.12. 
 
 Mendota Mining Compan.v's property is located near Lac la 
 Belle, Mich. They own 4,300 acres of land, and have a grant of 100,000. 
 The character of the ore is sulphuret of copper, and carries gray, black, 
 and copper pyrites. The company owns hoisting-engine, rock-cruslier, 
 and fifteen houses. • 
 
 Metropolitan Iron and L.aaA Company. The officers are 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1137 
 
 E. P. Burt, Pres,; E. C. Ilanna, Sec. and Treas.; Superintendent, Jeff Day. 
 The company's works arc located in Marquette county, Mich. Leasehold, 
 820 acres. The ore is high grade, hard, and of a bluish color. Analysis 
 gives sixty-four to sixty-eight per cent, metallic iron, low in phosphorous. 
 The extent of deposit has not been ascertained, but has every appearance 
 of being large. The company has a new plant of machinery, consisting 
 of 310x12 duplex Koehester engines, with six and one-half foot drums. 
 Length of adits, that is, levels, 1,000 ffeet. A force of fifty men are employed. 
 
 UTational Cop|>er Company (The) is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of Michigan. D. L. Demraon, Esq., is Sec. and Treas. Ed. Par- 
 nell, of twenty-five years' experience, is Superintendent. Offices are at 
 No. 19 Congress Street, Boston, Mass. The property of the company is 
 located at liockland, Ontonagon county, Mich. ; extent of same, 1,514 acres. 
 The ore gives an assay of seventy-two per cent. Developments commenced 
 In 1856 ; ceased working in 1870 ; recommenced on tribute, 1871. Long 
 and costly litigation with the Minnesota about the title of 115 acres of 
 land ; decided finally in favor of National, but the mine, at present, is not 
 working, although plenty of ore is obtainable. The company prefers 
 waiting for railway facilities b fore expending anything more in devel- 
 opments. This may account for the neglect and dilapidation everywhere 
 apparent about the mine. Organized, 1848 ; capitalization, 8500,000, in 
 20,000 shares of S25 each. #360,000 total of dividends paid to November, 
 1877, the date of latest dividend. $18,000 levied on assessments ; date of 
 latest assessment, October, 1877. Stock quoted January 1, 1882, $1.26 per 
 share. 
 
 Neptune mninsr Company. The officers are Charles Deering, 
 Pres. ; John M. Reck, Treas. ; Dr. Sylvester, See. Office, Portland, Maine. 
 The company's property is located at Cross Island, Macheas Bay, Maine. 
 Samples of the ore shown, are the purest copper sulphurets, thirty-three 
 and one-half per cent. The company has been offered $120. Prospect 
 shaft is twelve feet deep. The mam lode on which the company depends 
 for its supply of ore is 1,500 feet in length. 
 
 Noncsiicli minliigr Company (The). The officers are E. P. 
 Wade, President; J. H. Wade, Secretary and Treasurer. Office, Cleve- 
 land, Ohio. The company's property is located in Ontonagon county, 
 Mich. The ore yields a low percentage of copper, assaying about sixty- 
 two per cent, per ton. The lode has a uniform width of seven feet, copper 
 being distributed through the bed with remarkable uniformity. Tlie com- 
 pany's property includes a twenty-five-horse-power engine, washing ap- 
 paratus, (after pattern of lead washing apparatus used in north of England), 
 turbine overshot wheel, twelve good log dwelling houses, offices, store 
 houses, etc., etc. The prospects of the property are favorable under the 
 practical and able management of Captain Hooper. In 1876 Mr. Wade 
 died, when work was discontinued. About 1878 the property was leased 
 to Captain Theo. Hooker for seven years, conditionally to owners receiv- 
 ing twenty-five per cent, of product. Date of organization, 1867 ; capi- 
 talization, 81,000,000 ; par value per share, $'25 ; yield during 1881, $21,728.63 ; 
 yield, refined copper, 59 tons, 1,061 pounds. Stock and bonds held prin- 
 cipally at Cleveland, Ohio. Average cost for stoping, ten to eleven dol- 
 lars per cubic fathom; average cost for sinking, ten dollars per foot; 
 drifting, five dollars per foot. 
 
 North American Blinln;^ Company (The) Is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of Michigan. The ofhoers are Thomas Dickwell, 
 President; Waterman Palmer, Secretary and Treasurer; Superintend- 
 ent, Captain W. E. Dickinson. Office, Pittsburg, Pa. The company's 
 property is located in Keweenaw county, Mich., covering an area of 2,400 
 acres. The vein is irregular and variable in width ; seems to be split in 
 three parts. The company's property includes a pumping engine, three 
 hoisting engines, and a number of houses, including shaft houses ; 150 
 acres of land is said to be under cultivation and producing excellent 
 crops. The shaft is 415 feet deep. The prospects of the property were 
 favorable at first. Date of organization, 1848; capitalization, $300,000; 
 par value per share, $60 ; yield to January 1, 1882, 446,000 pounds after 
 smelting and refining ; total amount of assessments levied, $283,864, in 
 addition to original capital of $500,000. 
 
 Og^ima mining; Company (The). Officers, Samuel Cooper, Secre- 
 tary and Treasurer ; L. Collins, Agent, Greenland, Mich. Principal office. 
 New York. The mining property of this company is located in Ontona- 
 gan county, Mich. The ore assays per ton seventy and seventy-five per 
 cent. The property owned by the company consists of twelve dwelling- 
 houses, stamping, pumping, and hoisting machinery. Operations were 
 stopped in 1868; since worked by a few tributers where not prevented by 
 water. Tributers paid seven cents per pound for copper got out. Capi- 
 talization, $500,000; yield, net, to January 1, 1881, 472 tons 167 pounds; 
 yield during 1881, 3,061 tons 62 pounds ; yield, gross tons, to 1881, refined 
 copper, 8 tons 776 pounds ; amount latest dividend, $15,000. 
 
 Old Dominion Copper Mining: Company (The) is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of New York. Officers are George W. Dunn, 
 Pres. Stockholders. Jessie E. Grant (son of Ex-President Grant), J. Eeilly, 
 J. Cooke (of H. D. Cooke & Co.). ■ Bankers, Washington. Principal offices, 
 72 Broadway, New York. The names' of mines owned by the company 
 are, viz. : New York, Chicago, Copper Mine,' and the' Old' Dominion, lo- 
 cated at Glove district. Gila county, Arizona. Each mine is 1,600 by 600 
 feet. Titles, perfect. The ore is very rich, chiefly red oxides, blue and 
 green, carbonates and glance, assaying $57 in gold to the ton. Company 
 own three furnaces. Length of tunnel, 375 feet. Width of level, five feet. 
 After going ten feet, found the body of ore, coming from the level above, 
 fully three and a half feet in width, pitching in the same direction with 
 the level. Work was resumed on the level, which is now in eighty-eight 
 feet. It still carries with it the free gold. In cutting through from tun- 
 nel to shaft we struck some of the best ore yet found in the mine, assay- 
 ing forty to fifty per cent, copper. The ore vein steadily improving, and 
 width of vein increasing as we advance into the hill ; eight hundred feet 
 all told of shafts and tunnels have been run, which are in ore most of 
 the distance. Open cuts disclose a very wide vein— in fact, so wide in 
 places as to appear incredible. Some forty tons of ore taken from an 
 open cut some two years ago yielded, as I am informed, over thirty-five 
 per cent, of copper. There are two veins tanning entire length of mine, 
 making in the three properties over a mile of ore vein, yielding an aver- 
 age of over thirty-five per cent, copper. The Old Dominion has shipped 
 170 tons of copper of the value of $61,600 for twenty-one days ending 
 July 8, 1882. Every day increases; immense value of property, and is 
 very favorable. Capitahzation, $2,000,000 ; shares, 200,000 ; par value, $10 ; 
 non-assessable ; full paid. 
 
 Omeea Copper Mines (The), opened hy Hummel <fe Meng, of 
 Philadelphia, and Tully & Co., F. G. Hughes, and T. J. Jeffords, New 
 York, and of which Mr. Fred. Hughes is Supt., are located in Santa Reita 
 Mountains, Arizona, twenty-five miles south of Tucson. 
 
 Original Hidden Trensnre Company (The). The mines are 
 located on Measure Hill, White Pine county. Nev. Capitalization, $2,133,- 
 000 ; shares, 21,333 ; par value, $1 ; number of assessments levied. 11 ; total 
 amount of same, $330,000 ; date of latest assessment, October 12, 1874 ; 2,600 
 feet in mine. , 
 
 72 
 
 Osecola Consolidated Mining Company (The) has its offices 
 at 178 Devonshire .Street, Boston. The •officers are Jas. D. Clark, Pres. ; A. 
 S. Bigelow, Sec. and Treas. Mr. John Daniels, Osceola, Mich., is Agent. 
 The property of the company is located in Houghton county, Mich. The 
 plant comprises stamping-mills, rock-house, engines, machinery, build- 
 ings, etc. Developments commenced In 1878, prospects at present promis- 
 ing ; report says that fresh discoveries of ore are being frequently made as 
 developments progress. Organized, 1873 (originally); re-organized, Feb- 
 ruary, 1880 ; capitalization, $1,250,000, in 60,000 shares of $25 each. In 1881 
 the product oi^ the mines was 4,797,31(6 pounds of mineral, which being 
 smelted yielded 87,130-1000 per cent., or 4,179,976 pounds of refined copper, 
 for which at about 17.76-100 cents per pound has been realized the sum of 
 $742,585.84 ; from sales of silver, $2,694.28 ; from receiptB of interest, «8,S«4,96, 
 making gross receipts, $764,175,05 ; expenses at mine were $439,401.08, other 
 expenses, $88,178.99, making total cost of copper, $527,670.07, leaving a min- 
 ing profit of $226,504.98 ; deduct amount of construction, $46,128.38, leaves 
 as net profit $180,376.60, add balance of assets .lanuary 1, 1881, «601,041.39, 
 less dividends paid in 1881, $2'i5,000, $166,041.39, leaves as balance of assets 
 January 1, 1882, $346,417.09, from which a dividend of $60,000 was declared 
 payable January 2, 1882. Date of latest dividend, April 1, 1882, $1 per 
 share ; date of latest assessment, November, 21, 1879 ; stock quoted from 
 thirty to thirty-seven per share ; current value of mine, $1,660,000 ; saving 
 of forty per cent, effected by stoping with powder drills; saving of 
 twentv3)er cent, effected by drifting with powder drills ; current value of 
 the mine now, $1,860,000 ; capital stock, $1,250,000. 
 
 PewabSc Minins: Company. D. L. Demmon is Sec. and Treas.; 
 Capt. J. Vivian, Superintendent ; J. Hay, Mining Engineer. Office, 9 Con- 
 gress Street, Boston, Mass. The company's works are located in Houghton 
 county, Mich, Amount of property in acres. 1,205, The company owns 
 four Ball's stamps. CoUum's washers. Evans' slime tables, new compressor 
 and engine, pumping, hoisting machinery and engines, houses, offices, etc. 
 The development of the property was commenced in 1863. The mine 
 was worked on tribute part of the time, after 1808, under Capt. Wren. 
 Date of organization, 1868; capitalization, $100,000; par value per share, 
 $100; yield to January 1, 1881, 11,519 tons, 320 pounds; yield during 1881, 
 $342.414.53 ; yield refined copper during 1881, 938 tons, 244 pounds ; number 
 of dividends paid to January 1, 1882, one ; amount of dividend paid, $460,- 
 000 ; first assessment was levied in 1855, amount, $16,000 ; stock quoted, 
 July 1, 1882, $10 asked, $9.60 bid. 
 
 Phenix Copper Contpany (The) is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of mchigan. Directors, A. W. Spencer. J. W. Ward, Mark 
 Healy, B. W. Balch. Eesldence, all Boston, Mass. Simon Mandlebaum, 
 Eagle Eiver, Pres..; H. W. Spencer, Gen'l Treas. ; Horatio Bigelow, Simon 
 Mandlebaum, former Superintendent. M. A. Delano, Superintendent at 
 
 firesent. Eastern business office, 8 Pine Street, Boston. The mines are 
 ocated in Keweenaw county, Mich. The former extent of property in 
 acres consisted of 34,600 ; company own at present 2,477 acres. Develop- 
 ments commenced 1850. The ore assays 144 pounds to the ton. Tlie 
 character of mines consists of five distinct veins, low percentage of stump 
 rock. Property owned— stamp-mills, hoisting and pumping machinery, 
 etc., also productive farm land. In 1873 work progressing rapidly and 
 the property gradually improving. Minimum product, 640,555 pounds, 
 yielding seventy-five and one-half per cent, liigot = 621,081 refined 
 copper at 30J',S, cents per pound. Profit about $6,000, expended in im- 
 provements. In this year a terrible explosion of dualine occurred at the 
 mine killing six men, including Captain John Haalston, who was suc- 
 ceeded by Captain Edward Pamell, as mining captain. The cost of 
 mining and milling per ton, $347.20. The company was organized on 
 the 31st of March, 1849. Capitalization, 3 000 shares; par value. $100; 
 yield net to January 1, 1881, 2,971,460 pounds ; yield net during 1881, $74,- 
 707.65 ; yield gross tons during 1881, refined copper, 201 tons, 132 pounds ; 
 number of dividends paid to January 1, 1882, one ; amount, small. 
 
 Piedras Verdes Copper 9Iiniiit; Company. The officers are 
 W. L. McAfee, Pres. ; E. M. Knox, 'Vice-Pres. ; S. M. Hamilton, Sec, and 
 Treas. Office, 31 United Bank building, corner Broadway and Wall 
 Street, New York. The company's property is located in the district of 
 Alamos, State of Sonora, Mexico. 5,0()0 shares of the working capital 
 placed on first allotment at the price of $2.50 per share, the proceeds of 
 which it is estimated will be sufficient to procure smelting furnaces. 
 Capitalization, $2,500,000 ; paT value per share, $25. 
 
 Kid&^e Cop|>er Company is chartered under the laws of the State 
 of Michimn. The officers are 'Thomas F. Mason, Pres.; W. Hart Smith, 
 Sec. and Treas. ; Capt. S. B. Harris, Greenland, Mich., is Superintendent, 
 Office, 4 Exchange Place, New York. The company's property is located 
 in Ontonagon county, Mich., and covers an area of 1,404 acres of land. 
 The ore assays seventy-two per cent, to the ton. The prospects of the 
 company are reported as very favorable. The milie is remarkable for con- 
 tortion of the veins. Date of commening developments, 1849. Date of 
 organization, April, 1850 ; capitalization, $500,00(5; yield to January 1, 
 1881, 2,175 tons, 1,776 pounds; yield during 1881, $42,998.10; yield refined 
 copper, 117 tons, 1,60() pounds ; total amount of dividends paid to January 
 1, 1881, $100,000; date of first dividend, 1872; amount, $60,000; date of latest 
 dividend, January, 1880, fifty cents per share. 
 
 Rockland Minins Company is chartered under the laws of the 
 State of Michigan. J. B. Townsend is Superintendent. The company's 
 mining property is located at Ontonagon, Mich. Amount of property in 
 acres, 760. The ore assays seventy-two per cent, to the ton. Develop- 
 ments were commenced during 1853. The mining property has been 
 worked on tributes since about 1870. Date of organization, September 27, • 
 1863; capitalization, $500,000; par value, $26: yield to January 1, 1882»-' 
 3,105 tons, 309 pounds ; yield rough copper during 1880, 47,000 pounds. 
 
 San Francisco Copper Mining Company. Jeffery Queen, ^ 
 Pres. ; A. Boel, Treas. ; Superintendent and Manager, W. E. Ellis. The 
 company's mine is located in Nevada county, (near Spenceville,) Cal. 
 The company has worked the mine for several year.S| and report says. 
 May 20, 1882, has recently brought it to a paying basis. The ledge is be- 
 coming richer as depth is attained. The first dividend was paid May 20, 
 1882. 
 
 Santa Reita Company's property is situated In the Black Eange, 
 New Mexico. The compahy has about 15,000 tons -of ore on hand that is 
 expected to run high in copper. The mill is running steadily on copper ore 
 from the mines. It Is found that the coarse copper, as saved and cleaned up 
 from the batteries twice a day. Is running ninety-five per cent, fine, and 
 of sufficient purity to ship direct without smelting. The number two 
 concentrations from jigs run ninety-five per cent, to seventy-five per cent, 
 fine copper, and the number three slime concentrations run from thirty 
 to forty per cent, fine ; both numbers two and three concentrators go to 
 the smelter. The company employs 100 men, who mine 200 tons of ore 
 per day. 
 
 Seneca Mining (!oni|>.any (The) has offices at 198 Devonshire 
 Street, Boston, Mass. The officers are Joseph W. Clark, Pres. ; A. F. Bige- 
 low, Sec. and Treas.; Superintendent. Capt. Daniels. 'The property is 
 located in Keweenaw county, Mich. The mines are described as a con- 
 
1138 
 
 THE MINES. MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 glomerate belt. The mining plant Includes hoisting and pumping en- 
 gines, machinery, and twelve dwelling-houses. The ground is low and 
 somewhat wet. 
 
 Sheldon and Columbian Mining Company (The) is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of Michigan. The property is located 
 in Houghton county, Mich., and is controlled by .7. H.Forster, of Hough- 
 ton, Mich. The copper assays Tl^i per cent. There is no mining plant or 
 other property about the mine, all naving been disposed of. The build- 
 ings certainly remain. The mine is therefore in a forlorn condition, 
 with little prospect of a change for the better. Developments were com- 
 menced in 1853. Since 1870 it has occasionallv been worked on tribute. 
 Capitalization, 8500,000, in 200,000 shares of ?25"each ; yield to January 1, 
 1881, 696 tons 1,394 pounds ; yield during 1881, five tons thirty-one pounds 
 refined copper ; valueof same, $1,830; 8160,000 levied in assessments; stock 
 held principally in Michigan. 
 
 Star mining Company (Tbe). Ofiicer, J. B. Maas, President. 
 The Star mine, belonging to this company, is located in Houghton and 
 Keweenaw counties, Mich. ; fine-looking hematite ore ; deposit lies in low 
 ground ; property owned, one four and one-half inch Knowles' pump, 
 sufficient to keep workings dry ; small engine drum does the hoisting; 
 railroad and Eastport close at hand ; developments were commenced in 
 1861 ; some interest recently awakened by the discovery of a deposit of 
 black oxide of copper. Harbor Vein, which was soon worked out; yield 
 during 1881, J138.33; yield during 1881, refined copper, 758 pounds. 
 
 Toltec Consolidated Mininj^ Company. Joseph Vild is Sec. 
 and Treas. Office, Boston, Mass. The company's property is located in 
 Ontonagon county, Mich. Depth of shafts, 1,000 feet. Length of adits — 
 that is, levels— 1,700 feet. The development of the property was com- 
 menced March 8, 1851, and 8300,000 is said to have been expended in de- 
 veloping the property to January 1, 1881. The property includes houses, 
 stamp-mill, and pumpingmachmery. There are considerable expensive 
 surface improvements. Date of organization, 3850; yield to January 1, 
 1881, 206 tons, 1,433 pounds. Stock in its infancy quoted well in market, 
 818 to 820 per share. 
 
 Tlie St. Oenevieve Copper Company, of which Frank Nichol- 
 son, Esq., is Supt., has property located at St. Genevieve, Mo. The pro- 
 duct will rank m purity with the celebrated Lake copper. Prof. Potter, 
 of Washington Ter., is making an analysis, and thus far is able to pro- 
 nounce it the finest produced in America. Capitalization, information 
 not obtained. 
 
 V. S. Copper Itlinins Company (The). The company's prop- 
 erty is located at Somerville, N. J7 The ore is said to be of excellent 
 quality. 
 
 Warrior's Marh Itf anln;s^ Company (The). Officers, George 
 Puterbaugh, Pres. ; J. J. Loomis, Gen. Man. Principal office, Breckin- 
 ridge, Col. The names of the mines owned by the company are Snow 
 Drift Mine, located near Breckinridge Pass, Summit county, Col. High 
 grade gray copper ore, assaying 9,220 ounces per ton. Fissure veins ex- 
 tend 700 feet to the south, at an angle of fifteen degrees, 1880. The mo.st 
 remarkable mineral development is found at the quarry ; here the county 
 rock on both sides of the vein is the red micaceous sandstone of the belt. 
 The vein expands to a width of '200 feet. The ore here found is, how- 
 ever, much of it as rich in silver as any of which record has been made. 
 Many of the veins of gray copper are found to extend up through the 
 drift to the grass roots, the drift varying in thickness from one to two feet. 
 Capitalization, 300,000 shares ; par value. 810. 
 
 Washington Copper Mining Company (The) has property 
 located in Somerville, N. J. Operations proceeding day and night, said 
 to be developing an extensive body of ore of excellent quality. 
 
 Yakonaa Copper Mining Company (The) is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of New York. The officers are Wm. S. Hoyt, Pres. ; 
 Henry Cummins, Vice-Pres. ; J. H. Work, Treas. Directors, C. J. Frank- 
 lyn, John J. Safely, R. Foster; Sec. E. Washburn. The offices are at 120 
 Broadway, New York, room 40 Equitable Building. The property of the 
 company is located at Globe City, Arizona. .Capitalization, 81,200,000, in 
 48,000 shares of 825 each. Treasury stock consists of 8,000 shares. 
 
 .Xtna Mining Company is chartered under the lawg of the State 
 of California. The officers are J. F. Weatheriner, Pres. ; A. F. McGrew, 
 Vice-Pres.;|P. M. Blackstone, Sec. Office, 420 Montgomery Street, San Fran- 
 cisco, Cal. ; transfer office, 140 South 4th Street, room 6, Philadelphia. This 
 company are the owners of the jEtna Mines, located in Globe district, 
 Arizona. The ore is of a porphyry formation, thoroughly impregnated 
 with oxide of iron, giving a gold assay of 8361 per ton. Vein or quartz is 
 more than three feet in width; croppings show entire length of claim, 
 traceable for more than a mile. Capitalization, 810,000,000 ; par value per 
 share, 8100 ; assessable. Stock reserved in treasury, 10,000 shares. Stock 
 listed on the Philadelphia Mining Annex and California Stock Exchange. 
 
 Alamosa Mine (The), owned by Mr. M. M. Giles. The mines are 
 located at El Dorado district, Utah. Assays as high as 8540 ; main shaft 
 forty feet, penetrated a ten-foot vein carrying free gold in paying quanti- 
 ties. 
 
 Albington Gold Mining Company (The). Mr. Piatt McDonald, 
 Manager. The name of mine, owned by this company, is the Lizzie 
 Abbington, located in Colorado. Quality of ore very fine, composed of 
 gold, silver, and copper. Character of mine are veins, three to five feet in 
 width. The mineral carries from two to five ounces in gold, seventy-five 
 ounces in silver, about 15 per cent, in copper. 
 
 Alexander Mining Company. Branch office, 328 Montgomery 
 Street, San Francisco, Cal. Annual election held during October. The 
 company's mine, the Alexander, is located in GrantsviUe, Nye county, 
 Nev. Large bodies of pay ore are in sight, and it is thought to be one of 
 the biggest mines ever opened in Eastern Nevada. The quartz assays 893 
 per ton. Length of main lode is 4,500 feet. The company have a capital- 
 ization of $5,0()0,000, in 50,000 shares of 8100 each. Yield during 1880, $236,- 
 152. Paid their first dividend, January, 1882 ; amount of whicli was tlOO,- 
 000, being at the rate of 82 per share. First and only asssessment levied, 
 October 31, 1881 ; amounting to 8150,000. 
 
 Alpha Mine (The). Messrs. Kirkliam and Hitchcock, owners. Name 
 of mine. Alpha. Located in Idaho, Nevada county, Cal. Character and 
 quality of ore, yielding rock so exceptionally rich that the owners real- 
 ize big wages. Working only an arrastra and hand mortar. Mohican 
 turning out ore that goes about 830 to the ton. 1880. 
 
 Amador Consolidated Gold Mining Company (The). Lo- 
 cation of mines, Amador county, Cal. Capitalization, 83',0fl0,000; 30,000 
 shares ; par value, 8100. Number of dividends paid to January 11, 1879 ; 
 total amount, S3,347,.500 ; date of latest dividend, January 14, 1879 ; twenty- 
 six cents per share. The last set of timbers has been placed in the shaft, 
 and prospecting for the ledge will commence in due couise. Twelve men 
 were employed in sinking shaft ; this force will be increased in proportion 
 
 as developments proceed and permit. The company has a five-stamp 
 mill, which ran a short time on ore from the St. Louis mine. 
 
 Antioch Mining Company. Messrs. Wood and others, owners. 
 Location on Breece Hill, Colorado. Quality and character of ore, gold 
 and silver; very fine. The property owned by the company, engine mill, 
 shaft house. Prospects of the property, etc., substantial preparations are 
 being made for working the mine properly. The old quartz mine at Oro 
 City has been secured, and will pass into the possession of the Antioch 
 owners, Januarv, 1882 ; it will be improved, and the facilities for shipping 
 the ore down the hill to Oro will be provided. 
 
 Argentine Qnartz Mine (The), Thompson Bros., owners. Lo- 
 cated in Plumas county. Cal'. Company own a five-stomp mill. Gold is 
 very fine ; will sell at 818 per ounce ; 8400 and 8500 has been received from 
 the mine, result of a ten days' run of the mill. 
 
 Aurora Gold Mining Company is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of New York. Office, 31 Broad Street, New York. The com- 
 pany's property is located at Whitewood, Black Hills, Dakota. The ore 
 gives a gold assayof 819 per ton. Date of organization, December 20, 1878; 
 capitalization, 8500,000; par value per .share, 810 ; basis, non-assessable. 
 
 Aurora Gold Mining Company (The) owns a group of mines, 
 comprising the Charter Oak, Gem, North Eclipse, Ezra White, Effie, Blag- 
 den, and Augusta May, all located in Gilpin county. The Charter Oak 
 has been reopened and cleaned out to a depth of 110 feet. The shaft, re- 
 gardless of expense, has been put into proper condition for deeper work- 
 ing. New hoisting and milling machinery has been erected. The main 
 shafts of the Gem and North Eclipse have also been put into good working 
 condition, and the result of the current year should be a large and profit- 
 able production. 
 
 Bald Mountain Extension Comnany. Their property is lo- 
 cated at Forest City, Sierra county, Cal. The company have now com- 
 pleted their preparations for bringing down water from the pliocene shaft, 
 and ten inches are steadily flowing into the reservoir at Forest City. 
 There are 800 car-loads of gravel in the lower dump, a large portion of 
 which is rich. As soon as the lengthy run of sluices is finished, the lower 
 dump will be cleared; and when the new iron air-pipe is all received, 
 and put up in the main tunnel, 3,600 feet to the incline and gangways, 
 the main tunnel will be turned up the ridge, through the center of the 
 channel, and gangways run to the right and left, aflording constant em- 
 ployment to a large force of men. The future prospects of the mine are 
 encouraging, as it is being demonstrated that the extension of the main 
 lead of the noted Bald Mountain claim comes through the extension 
 ground for three miles, and beyond to Gold Lake. The gross yield of the 
 Bald Mountain for the past eight years has been very close to 83,000,000, 
 half of whicli was dividends on the trifling investment of 820,000 for open- 
 ing the mine. 
 
 Baltic Gold Mining Company. TheofficersareHenry D.Morse, 
 Pres. ; J. W. Brady, Treas. Office, 31 Milk Street, Boston, Mass. The com- 
 pany's works are located at Grass Valley, Cal. Amount expended in de- 
 veloping property up to 1882, 812,000. Organized at Saco, March 19, 1881 ; 
 capitalization, 8200,000 ; par value per share, 82 ; basis, non-assessable. 
 
 Banner Mining Company (The). 'The officers are Samuel Con- 
 over, Pres. ; Thomas P. Malony, Sec. Oflice, room 36, 63 Broadway, New 
 York. This company's property consists of the IBanner mine, of Inyo county, 
 Cal., which is 1,500 by 600 feet, and its appurtenances. This mine was 
 located in December, 1879, by John H. Ely, and is situated in latitude 37° 
 North, and longitude 118'^ West, on the Inyo Mountains, in southeastern 
 California, about fifty miles north of Owens lake, and two miles from 
 Owens river. This property being in a county of fabulous mineral de- 
 posits and adjoining the famous Union mine, which lias given out 817,- 
 000,000 in ten years, is well worth attention. The company have a capi- 
 talizaiion of 81,000.000, in shares worth apar value of 85 each. 
 
 Beehtel ConNolidated Mining Company. W. H. Lent, Sec, 
 309 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal. This company's property is 
 located in Bodie district, Cal., covering an area of 900,000 square feet. 
 The lowest grade rock in the Bcchtel Consolidated mine will give a mill- 
 ing average of 818 per ton. The cost of reduction is 810, leaving 88 as net 
 profit per ton. There are inexhaustible bodies of low grade ore in old 
 workings. The three ledges of this mine show a disposition to unite into 
 one solid bed at a depth of from 600 to 800 feet. The company have com- 
 modious lioisting works, erected with powerful machinery, capable of 
 working to a depth of 2,000 feet. The old shaft has reached the depth of 
 700 feet ; the present, that of 513 feet. The first clean-up after a three 
 weeks' run amounted to 853,952. It is reported that this company will be 
 joined with the Bodie Tunnel to form one company. Capitalization, 810,- 
 000,000 ; par value per share. 8100. Yield of the Beehtel Consolidated : 
 
 1878 858,634 93 
 
 1878— crude bullion in October 1,550 OO 
 
 1879 11,506 05 
 
 Total $71,690 98 
 
 Number of assessments levied, eight ; total amount, 8215,000 ; date of latest 
 assessment, December 3, 1882, twenty-five cents per share ; bonds reserved 
 in the treasury April 1, 1882, 81,123 ; indebtedness February 1, 1882, 88,- 
 930.53; working expenses, 83,500 per month. The financial statement shows 
 the annual working expenses to be 8765,813.66, 835,000 of which is for 
 mine labor. 
 
 Black Bear <tnartz Gold Mining Company. The officers 
 are Thomas Bell, Pres. ; S. Heydenfeldt, Vice-Prcs. ; Alpheus Bull, F. Lo- 
 gan, J. Daggell, Wm. Letts Oliver, Sec. The company's works are located 
 at Black Bear Gulch, Siskiyou county, Cal. There are 4,500 feet in mine. 
 Capitalization, 83,000,000; par value per share, 8100; yield to January 1, 
 1881, $129,400 ; total amount of dividends paid to July, 1882, 8878.500 ; num- 
 ber of assessments levied, fifteen ; total amount of same, 815,000 ; shares 
 not in market. 
 
 Black Hawk Gold Mining Company (The). Officer, H. A. 
 Charles. Principal oflice, 419 Caliiornia Street, San Francisco, Cal. Lo- 
 cation of mines. Brodie district, Cal. Amount of property in acres, 410 
 by 1,500 feet. Character of mine, three veins, ore better grade on upper 
 level than below and less mixed, say $10 per ton. Hoisting works belong 
 to the company. Dimensions of workings is by tunnel, 450 feet in length. 
 Working expenses per month, 83,000. 100 tons of mineral on the dump ; 
 1,000 in sight in the mine 1,,500 feet in mine. Capitalization, 85,000,000 
 shares, 60,000; par value, 8100; assessments levied, thirteen; dividends 
 none ; total amount assessments, 8185,000 ; date latest assessment, November 
 9, 1881 ; amount per share, ten cents ; stock quoted January 1, 1880, 85, 
 reached highest point; cashonliand February 1, 1882,8143.77; cash on 
 hand April 1, 1882, 8273. 
 
 Blue Tent Hydraulic Mining Company (The) have consoli- 
 dated with the Fall Creek Lake Water Company, and will be known as 
 The Yuba River Gold-Washing Compaiiy, Limited. The consolidation 
 owns about thirty-five miles of ditches. 'The Blue Tent claims, located in 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1139 
 
 Nevada county, Cal., are among the principal hydraulic mines in the 
 county, and employ about 100 men, using five monitors for washing, with 
 a head of water amounting to 2,600 inches. 
 
 Bonanza Mine (The) owned by Sidney C. Brown. The Bonanza 
 Mine is located in Calaveras county, Cal., near Copperopolis. Quartz 
 mining. 
 
 Bobtail Consolidated Oold Bliulntir Company (The) owns 
 property located in Gilpin county. Col. The Bobtail mine, owned by this 
 compauy, is one of the principal producers of this district. The shaft is 
 now about 1,000 feet in depth. The miue is a labyrinth of drifts and lev- 
 els, total extent of same being 2,260 feet. The shaft is cut at the 500-foot 
 level by the main tunnel, 1,440 feet from its mouth, and the ore raised to 
 the tunnel-level is run out on a tramway direct to the mill, which has a 
 capacity of 125 tons per day. Many improvements are added to the mine, 
 machinery, etc., which facilitate operations, and reduce the expenses ot 
 working. About 260 men are employed. The current value of the mine 
 is 8454,652. Capitalization, $1,136,630 ; par value per share; 85; non-as- 
 se-ssable. Number of dividends paid to March 30, 1880, four ; total amount 
 of same, 8147.161; date of latest dividend, March 80, 1880— ten cents per 
 share. Stock quoted June 10, 1882, 82. 
 
 Bonanza Chief Oold 91 inlngr Company is chartered under the 
 laws of Montana Territory. The officers, in 1880, were W. W. Wicks, Pres. ; 
 Michael Snow, Vice-Pros. ; R. F. Brooke, Sec. Office, 85 Broad Street. New 
 York. The company's property is located eight miles from Helena, Mon- 
 tana. The character ol the ore is gold. Value per ton, $10. The com- 
 pany are pushing mining operations with great energy, employing 800 
 men. The furnaces are turning out about two car-loads of base bullion 
 per day. Company owns twenty-stamp mill and steam hoist, etc. Date 
 of incorporation, 1879 ; capitalization, $1,000,000 ; par value per share, $1 ; 
 non -assessable. 
 
 Booth Uold Mining Comn.any (The). Principal office, No. 314 
 Pine Street, San Francisco, Cal. Mine located at Auburn, Placer county, 
 Cal. 
 
 Boston and Halifax Gold Minins Company's (The) works 
 are located near Fifteen-Mile Stream, New Glasgow, covering an area of 
 130 acres. The company owns a flfteen-stamp crusher, and it is intended 
 to furnish a flrsl^class plant at a cost of $100,000. The government has 
 made a grant of $800 towards repairing the road to the gold field. Com- 
 pany was organized at Boston, May, 1882, having a capitalization of 
 
 Boston and Montana Oold Mining' Company. L. B. Nettin 
 is Supt. The company's works are located in Montana. Character of the 
 ore found is all pay ore. The vein is from twelve to fifteen feet wide be- 
 tween walls. Rock is followed for a distance of 1,100 feet. The mine is 
 well timbered, with a security tliat admits of no fear of accidents. There 
 are 115 tons of milling ore on the dumps. The company have the latest 
 improved machinery, including two mills, one a twenty-stamp, of twenty 
 ton capacity ; the other, a sixty-stamp, crushes eighty tons per day of 
 twenty-four hours. Sectional area of shaft, six feet by sixteen feet, 1881. 
 Capitalization, $2.000,000 ; par value per share, $10; total amount of divi- 
 dends to J uly 1, 1882, 8360,000 ; date of latest dividend, July, 1882, ten cents 
 per share. 
 
 Brewer Mining Company (The) are the owners of the Brewer 
 Mine, located in Chesterfield county, S. C, twenty-nine miles south from 
 Monroe. The character of the miue is gravel, admirably fitted for hy- 
 draulic treatment. The company have an abundant water supply, pump 
 supplying 1,000 gallons per minute. 
 
 Brings Consolidated Oold and Silver Mlnins Company 
 (The). Location of mines, Colorado. Capitalization, $2,TO0.0OO ; shares, 
 200,000 ; par value, $10. Number of dividends paid to December 10, 1879, 
 amount, 88,000. Date of latest dividend, four cents per share. 
 
 Buffalo and laialio Ookl and Silver Mining Company 
 (The) have property located in the \ioinity of Atlanta, Alturas county, 
 Idaho. The Superintendent, Mr. W. W. Miller, speaks enthusiastically of 
 the prospects of^the company. It must be remembered that it is in a rich 
 or gold producing locality. 
 
 BnenaOold Minins: Company (The) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of Colorado. Officers, Thos. H. Gill, Pres. ; M. Newklrk, 
 Vice-Pres. ; E. H. Green, Treas. Directors, Jos. C. Murphy, D. R. Patterson, 
 John M. Fox, James A. McCowIas, William Rosengarten, J. H. C. Whit- 
 ing. Principal office, Jamestown, Colorado. Transfer office rooms, 27 and 
 29 312 Stock Exchange Place, Philadelphia, Pa. Names of mines owned 
 b_y the company are Buena, Michigan, Ben Franklin, Bouncer. A mill 
 site belongs to the company, with a capacity of twenty-four tons per day. 
 Four shafts each, of 100 feet, seventy feet, fifty feet, and twenty feet ; tun- 
 nel 255 feet. About 2,000 tons of ore on the dump. Capitalization, 615,381 
 shares; par value, $10 ; non-assessable. 
 
 Bullion Mining Company. A. J. McDonnell is Secretary. Office, 
 328 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal. The Bullion mine owned by 
 this company is located at Gold Hill district, Comstock Lode, Nevada. 
 Capitalization, 810,000,000 ; par value per share, 8100 ; number of assess- 
 ments levied, twenty-four ; total amount of assessments levied to December, 
 1880. $352,000 ; date of latest assessment. May 29, 1882 ; amount per share, 
 twenty-five cents ; depth of workings, 2,450 feet ; length in feet of the 
 main lode on which the company depends for its supply of ore, 943J^ feet ; 
 indebtedness March, 1, 1882, $20,431. 
 
 Biilwer Consolidated Mining Company (The). Principal 
 office, 309 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, California. Names of 
 mines owned, the Ralston Ledge and the Stonewall. Located at Bodie, 
 Mono county, Cal. Amount of property in acres, 200 feet by 500 feet. 
 Quality and character of ore ; low grade at 400-foot level, better quality 
 lower down. In September last (1881) the shaft was down 650 feet. Gold and 
 silver assays $10 to $20 per ton. Character of mine : three ledges from one 
 to four feet wide. Thirty-stamp mill is owned by the company. Stone- 
 wall tunnel 1,850 feet ; Ralston tunnel 500 feet. Expensesof the company 
 are nominal, accompanied with results and prospects; a small number 
 of men employed. Date of organization, April, 1879. Current value of 
 mine 8200,000, 3,000 feet in mine. Capitalization, 81,000,000 ; yield net: 
 
 8241,094 38 
 
 117,498 33 
 
 8358,592 71 
 
 1879 
 
 1880 
 
 Total 
 
 Number of shares, 100,000; a fiscal, 1880, 8122,247; par value, 8100; num- 
 ber of dividends paid July 12, 1882, total amount, $10.000 ; date of latest 
 dividend, July 12, 1882 ; date latest assessment, December, 1877 ; amount, 
 8.W ; per share, $10 ; number of assessments levied, one; total amount of 
 same, 830,000 ; stock quoted June 10, $2 ; cash on hand, February 1, 1882, 
 889.112.81 ; cash on hand, April, 1 1882, 882,247.00. 
 
 Bunker Hill Oold Mining Company (The)ischarteredunder 
 the laws of the State of New Jersey. Ofhcers are Francis W. Kennedy, 
 Pres.; W. A. Leavitt, Vice-Pres.; Nelson F. Evans, Treas.; Henry H. 
 
 Kennedy, Sec. Directors, F. W. Kennedy, W. G. Warden, Wm. A. Leavitt, 
 Nelson F. Evans, Peter B. Simons, J. W. Knox, W. L. Palmer. Princij)al 
 office, 103 Market Street, Camden, New Jersey. Names of mines o\\-ned ; 
 Bunker Hill, May Flower, and 2.614 feet on Mother Lode, The mines are 
 located at Amador, Amador coun ty, Cal. It is one of the richest and oldest 
 gold quartz mining districts in the Slate. Amount expended developing 
 property underground 8300,000, above ground about $100,000. Property 
 owned by the company : one mill site and superior water privileges ; forty 
 stamp-mills with a capacity of from eighty to 100 tons, ennrely new, have 
 been built. Prospeete of the property : free from all iii6umbrauces, with 
 a surplus fund of 810,000 beyond all current UabUities. Capitalization, 
 300,000 shares ; par value, 810 ; non-assessable. Tiie shaft is down 500 feet ; 
 the bottom of the ledge is about eighteen feet wide with an average 
 quality of about ten per cent, per ton. The Blatohley, Hendy, and True 
 processes for saving sulphurets have all been tried, and the preference 
 given to the True. A Mear's chlorinating furnace is said to save about 
 seven per cent. 
 
 <!alavera.s Water and Mining Company is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of New York. J. P. Marshall, Pres. ; B. K. Souther- 
 ick. Sec. Office, 25 Broad Street, New York. The company's property is 
 located In Calaveras county, Cal. They have a capitalization of feoO.OOO, 
 non-assessable. 
 
 Caledonia Oold Mining Comnnn,v (The). Officers, Thomas 
 Bell, Pres. ; F. Locan, Vice-Pres. ; W. Litts Obion, Sec. Head office. No. 
 327 Pine Street, San Francisco, Cal. Mr. W. W. Allen, Supt. Date of 
 annual election, June 7. Mines located in Whitewood district, Dakota. 
 Property owned by the company: pumx>s, machinery, all working nicely. 
 Prospects of property, etc. Improvement in the appearance of the ore. 
 1,500 feet in mine; depth of shaft, 107 feet. Yield during 1880, 102,422. 
 Capitalization, 810,000,000; shares, 100,000; par value, $100. Number of 
 dividends paid to January 1, 1882. none. Number of assessments levied, 
 eleven ; total amount of same, $440,000 ; dale of latest assessment, March 
 17, 1881. 
 
 Canada Consolidated Oold Mining Company (The) is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of New Yort The officers are Henry 
 Loveridge, Pres.; J. W. Loveridge, See. and Treas. Wm, H. Doughty, 
 W. B. Walker, C. Butler, Austin Gallagher, Walter Shanley. Date of 
 annual election, January 13, 1881. Head office, room 59, Smith Building, 
 New York. The company's mine is located at Marmora. Ontario, Canada. 
 They own from 800 to 1,000 acres of land. The ore is very rich and re- 
 markably uniform. It yields the large average net profit of from $9 to 812 
 per ton, without sorting. The gold is of very fine grade, 960 to 980 fine. 
 The main vein has been shown w be continuous over a length of more 
 than 3,000 feet; thickness of from eight to twenty-five feet. The Geologi- 
 cal Survey of Canada, from twelve samples taken from this property, 
 found an average as.say value of 839.47 gold per ton. The mine has been 
 carefully and thoroughly tested. It is a fact, that in all these tests never 
 has a single sample been found which did not contain sufficient gold to 
 have paid for mining aud milling, and often to have left a margin for 
 profit. There are reserves of ore now in sight sufficient to supply 100 tons 
 a day for nearly two years, having a net value of 88,700.000 after deducting 
 expenses. The company own a twenty-stamp mill and boarding-houses. 
 This property has niagnificent water-power. Wood costs 81 to $1.25 per 
 cord delivered ; labor, 81 to 81.25 per day. Titles perfect, no taxes on mine 
 or mineral, and within twenty-four hours of New York. Capital stock, 
 8600,000, in shares 81 each ; fully paid. 
 
 Carrahee Mining and Milling Company (The), Georgia, is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of New Jersey. Officers, Henry 
 McConneU, Pres. ; Juhu Woods, Jr. Directors, Henry McC:onnell, Charles 
 N. Selser, Juhu Woods, Jr., Josephus Robert, Wm. R. Thompson, J. S. 
 Doughty, Isaac A. Braddock. Head office, Camden, N, J, Name of mine. 
 Burton Tract. Located in Harrington, Thompson, and Hall counties, 
 Georgia. Amount of property in acres, 700. Quality and character of 
 ore, good. Large percentage in galena, sulphurct, and free gold. Assays 
 per ton, from 818 to 8460. Character of mines, four feet vein with assays, 
 trom 818 to 8460 per ton. Property owned by company : five-stamp mill, 
 with eighteen-horse power engine and boiler. Dimensions of workings, 
 main shaft, down, forty feet; tunnel, 500 feet. Capitalization, 100,000 
 shares; par value, $1; non-assessable. Amount of stock issued, 87,500 
 shares ; amount reserved in treasury, 12,500 shares. 
 
 Castle Creefc Hydraulic Company. The property is located in 
 Pennington county, Dakota. The company are engaged in cutting a 500- 
 feet tunnel through a granite promontory, through which it is proposed 
 to drain over a mile of a bend in Rapid Creek, for the purpose of obtain- 
 ing deposits of gold believed to be very rich upon the bed-rock of the 
 stream. The company own some sixty claims on the creek. 
 
 Cataract and Wide West Gravel Mining Company (The). 
 Principal office, 26U Kearny Street, San Francisco, Cal. Location of 
 mines, Eho mining district, Calaveras county, California. 
 
 Charter Oak Gold Mining Company (The). Location of 
 mines, Lawrence counts', Dakota. Property owned by the comjiany, ten 
 stamps. Date of organization, April 19, 1881; capitalization, $500,000. 
 
 Chaparral Gold Mining Company (The), of California. Head 
 and branch office, Mr. Aldersly, Supt., 61 Broadway, rooms 7 and 8, New 
 York. Registrars of transfers. Farmers' Loan and Trust Company, John 
 Adams, Contractor. Names of mines owned. Chaparral, Champion, Excel- 
 sior, Claims. Located in Kelsey Mining district. El Dorado county, Cal. 
 Character ofore,free-miUing quartz gold, impregnated with sulphurets, 
 showing some fine freehold. (Jhaiacter of mines, vein uniform and regu- 
 lar, about five and a half feet wide, all pay ore. Property owned by the 
 company, ten-stamp mill, steam hoisting machinery, and all necessary 
 apparatus. Every thmg in first-class order. Minesnowclear of water, Sep- 
 tember, 1881, and work resumed. Purchased by Mr. Bernard Lands, &r 
 $45,000 ; 85 per foot for tunnel drawing. Capitalization, 82,000,000 ; shares 
 200,000 ; par value, 810 ; non-assessable. 
 
 Cherokee Oold Mining Company (The) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of New York. Head office, 18 Wall Street. New York. 
 The Cherokee mine is located at Greenville, Plumas countv, Cal. The ore 
 is free-milling, carrying gold and assays, 810 to 820 per ton. The Cherokee, 
 which was reopened under a new management, has been developed to a 
 considerable extent. A new shaft, the Garfield, has been sunk 204 feet 
 and a ledge averaging three feet, struck. The shaft is a double compart- 
 ment, with a cage and guides on one side, at a depth of 100 feet. A cross- 
 cut was run into the hanging wall, which intersected two strong veins of 
 quartz, which mtUed well. A new level. No. 3, was started, and a fine 
 vein of ore found. The lode is from three to six feet thick, and of excel- 
 lent quality. Enough is being taken out now to keep the mill running 
 steadily, and the ledge continues to open well. This mine has now been 
 developed enough to prove that it is of great value. Within a distance of 
 240 feet, four separate ledges have been found, known I'espectively as the 
 White, Josephine, Kettle, and Old Bach ledges. The first is irregular in 
 thickness, varying from six to twelve feet; the second is about two and a 
 half feet thick ; the third five feet, and the fourth about the same. Enough 
 
1140 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of these have now been opened to furnish work for the mill for a long time 
 to come. The ore is reduced by a twenty-stamp mill run by water-power, 
 situated about a mile and a half from the mine, and below the dam of 
 the "Bound Valley Heservoir. The mill is valued at $30,000. The main 
 lode is 4,000 feet in length. The yield heretofore has been large, but the 
 property was worked at a disadvantage, no depth was gained. Now, with 
 thenelp of modern improvements in mining machinery, and with good 
 management, the owners will open up one of the richest mines In the 
 country. Date of organization, January 9, 1880 ; capitalization, $1,600,000 ; 
 par value per share, $10 ; basis, non-assessable. Treasury reserve, January 
 1, 1882, $4,000 ; stock held principally In New York. 
 
 Challenge ConsuIitlateU Mining Company (The) is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of California. The offices are at San 
 Francisco. The properties are located at Gold Hill, Nev. Organized, 
 November, 1873 ; capitalization, $5.000,000 ; shares each, $100. Cash on hand 
 April, 1882, $273 : total amount of assessments levied to 1881, $10,000. 
 
 Ctaeyne Consolidated Minlns: Company (The). OtBcers, Col. 
 "G. M. lotten, Pres.; A. C. Edgerton, Vice-Pres. ; B. McNaught, Sec. and 
 Treas. Offices at 65 Broadway. New York. The mining properties are 
 located in the Black Hills district, near the Homestake and Father de 
 Smet Mines. The mine Is being fitted with an improved hoisting works, 
 and a new thirty-four inch boiler. In the opening of a new cut in the 
 Hoodleberg Mine to connect with old cut, a splendid body of ore was 
 struck, showing a good deal of free-gold. Capitalization, $300,000 ; shares 
 each, $1 ; non-assessable, full paid. 
 
 Cincinnati Consolidated JMininjr Company. The property 
 is located in Dawson county, Georgia, and consists of the Baby, Magic, 
 Gnome, Amicolola, Kinmore mines. Most of the known belts of the 
 Dahlonega and Auraria districts are found on these properties. The 
 Magic and Amicolola are the only mines worked to a noteworthy extent, 
 but considerable preparations are projected for enlarged operations. 
 
 Cisco Consolidated Oold Mining Company is chartered un- 
 der the laws of the State of New York. The directors are P. S. Van Eens- 
 seiaer, E. M. Walker, W. L. Oliver, Chas, D. Fink, Charles Kaufman. This 
 company owns eight mines, viz. : the Badger, Riddle, Black Hawk, Char- 
 lotte, Last Chance, Cisco, Reynolds, and Keystone, located in Placer 
 county, Cal. The quality of the ore is good, assaying S290 per ton. Some 
 of it running as high as $690. The company own a mill. The tunnel is 
 thirty-four feet in length, and the shaft is down seventy feet. Date of 
 organization, March 23, 1882; capitalization, $10,000,000; par value per 
 share, $100. 
 
 Clifton Hydranllc Company (The). Location of mines, on 
 San Francisco river, near Clifton, Ariz. Amount of property in acres, 
 10,000. Quality and character of the ore, coarse; gravel yields from five 
 cents to $2 per pan. Capitalization, five shares. 
 
 Clio Gold Mining Company. The officers are G. B. Flint, Fres. ; 
 B. Heath, V.-Pres.; W. Brandreth, Treas.; E. Hall, Sec. Office, 52 Broad- 
 way, New York. The property is located at Jacksonville, Tuolumne 
 county, Cal. Capitalization, $500,000 ; par value per share, $1. 
 
 Colombo Quartz Mining Com pany. Their property is located 
 in Sierra county, Cal. The company are running a tunnel to reach their 
 ledge. They have progressed 170 feet through slate rock. The shaft is 
 thirty-one feet in depth, with rich quartz in the bottom. 
 
 Commodore Oold Mining Company (The)ischartered tmder 
 the laws of the State of New Yorlt. Incorporators, F. Shepard, T. J. Van 
 Wyck, P. W-. Hohines. Trustees; T. J. Salter, S. Mead, H. Dayton, A. F. 
 Pnelps, F. Shepard, T. J. Van Wyck, P. W. Hohines. Location of mines. 
 Goochland, and Fluvanna counties, Va. Capitalization, $250,000; par 
 value, $1. Term, fifty years. 
 
 Consolidated Oold Mining Company's works are located at 
 Georgia, Ga. They have a capitalization of $500,000, in 100,000 shares at 
 a par value of $5 each ; basis, non-assessable. Total amount of dividends 
 paid to April 18, 1882, $275,000. 
 
 Consolidated Yankee Fork Oravel Mining Company 
 (The). Officers, E. B. Hinsdale, Pres. ; Silas C. Hay. V.-Pres. ; J. Milnor 
 Decker, Sec. Principal office, 31 Broad Street, New York. Capitalization, 
 $500,000 ; par value, $1. 
 
 Con!4tantine Oold Mining Company. Directors, David Porter, 
 N. C. Fassett, A. F. Main, H. W. Jacobs, Geo. Storey. Location of mines, 
 Mariposa county, Cal. Capitalization, $1,000,000. 
 
 Columbia Oold Mining Company (The). Officer, Hon. A. M. 
 Keiley. Name of mine owned. Tellurium, located near Columbia Sta- 
 tion, Fluvanna, Goochland county, Va. Amount of property in acres, 
 344. Character of ore, the gold-bearing matrix is slate, quartz, brown 
 oxide of iron, tellurium, etc. An assay of flftv tons of Tellurium Ore gave, 
 the lowest $4.80, highest, $137.60, averaging $51.12. Deepest shaft, 120 
 feet. Professor Stone, of Washington, D. C, assayed some Tellurium mine 
 ore by crushing it and passing it through a sixty holes to the inch seive, 
 then agitated in water and allowed thirty seconds to settle : the water 
 was then poured off, filtered, rinsed, and dried, when it yielded 38.98. 
 This with the gold that subsided made the ore worth 88.06. There are 
 three veins here, the big sandstone, the middle, and the little veins. 
 The average value of the ores from the little and middle veins during 
 the years of the Fisher-Bowles lease was $100 per ton, the minimum $5, 
 the maximum $300. 
 
 Crowell Oold Mining Company (The) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of New York. The ofncers are G. B. Flint, President, 
 New York city ; G. R. McCarfy. Vice-President, and W. Brandreth, Secre- 
 tary. The ofnces are at 52 Broadway, New York, Room 52. The prop- 
 erty is located near the famous Gold Hill mine. In North Carolina, 
 Stanley county, having an area of 850 acres. The ore is highly aurife- 
 rous and assays $6.72. The mineral track Is covered by an unknown 
 dfipth of disintegrated quartz bearing gold in large qiiantities. Nuggets 
 weighing from five dollars to $800 have been found. The plant com- 
 prises a five-stamp mill, a twenty-horse power engine and boiler. Fuel 
 costs one dollar per cord, delivered at mill. Water is abundant. Wages 
 average *l per day. Organized March, 1880; capitalization, $1,000,000; 
 shares each, $2.60 ; unasessable. 
 
 Dahlonega Oold Mining Company is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of New York. Ofifce, 40 Broadway, New York The com- 
 pany owns a ten-stamp mill. The company's works are located in Dah- 
 lonega district, Ga. They own eighty acres of land. Date of organiza- 
 tion, 1877; capitalization, $2.50,000; par value per share, one dollar; basis 
 non-assessable; no dividends have yet been paid. 
 
 Dardanelles Consolidated Oravel MiningCompany. The 
 Directors are Fred. O. Prince. Boston ; Petor W. Frencli, John Hitchcock, 
 ■W. B. Mack, W. E. Smith, George T. Coulter, and Joseph McGillivary. 
 The company's works are located at Forest Hill Divide, Placer county, 
 Cal. A report from the superintendent says they are taking out con- 
 siderable good gravel. The output has been Increased considerably, and 
 will be increased regularly from now on, as they open wider breasts. 
 They are now breasting it out some seven feet high, and will have to 
 Increase that. The gravel pays richly. The Eerenhart tunnel Is pro- 
 
 fressing rapidly considering the hardness of the rock. At times they 
 ave taken out for days in succession over twenty dollars a day of gold. 
 The ore shows splendid-looking coarse gold. Rock very hard. The 
 company has a capitalization of $1,000,000. 
 
 Davenport l»lacer Mining Company. The officers are Dr. 
 A. S. Maxwell, President; Thomas Thompson, Vice-President; J. B. Car- 
 michael, Secretary; W. 0. Bennett, Treasurer and General Manager. 
 Directors, E. S. Bennett, A. W. Bowman, J. H. Maxwell, William Batch- 
 elder,and W. S. Handv. The company's properly is located near Golden, 
 New Mexico. The property covers 520 acres. From eleven assays made 
 from specimens secured at different parte of the claim, and at depths 
 varying to seventv-six feet, an average of $7.50 per cubic yard was se^ 
 cured. The company has an artesian well on their lands 250 feet deep. 
 Capitalization, $50,000 ; par value per share, $500 ; (all shares are taken 
 up.) Stock and bonds reserved in the treasury, April 1, 1882, $10,558. 
 
 Deadwood Terra Mining Company is chartered under the 
 laws ofthe State of Cahfornia. H. B. Parsons, Secretary. Transfer office, 
 65 Broadway, New York; branch office, 18 Wall Street, New York. The 
 company's property is located at Whitewood, Black Hills, Dakota. The ore 
 is rich sulphate, assays from ninety to 130 ounces per ton. The company 
 have 580 stamps,offiees, and boarding houses. Depth of shaft,112 feet. Cur- 
 rent value of mine, $1,200,000. Date of organization, October 4, 1878 ; 
 consohdated, December, 1880; capitalization, $6,000,000; par value per 
 share, $25. Total amount of dividends paid to July, 1882, $710,000; date 
 of latest dividend, June, 1882, fifteen cents per share. Stock quoted July 
 1, 1882, $6. 
 
 Defiance Gold Mining Company (The), California. Officer, 
 W. H. Lent, Secretary. Principal office, 369 Montgomery Street, San 
 Francisco. 
 
 Diamond Flnme and Hydraulic Company. Theirproperty 
 is located at Confederate Gulch, Meagher county, Montana. Operated 
 Dy James King. This company has built twoflumes, one three feet and 
 the other four feet. Their ditches are about eight miles in extent and 
 carry nearly 4,000 inches of water, and have a pressure, if necessary, of 
 over 400 feet. 
 
 Itiidley Oold Mining Company are the owners of the Dudley 
 mine, located in Bodie district. Mono county, Cal. The quality of the 
 ore is low grade. The mine shows strong ledge formation, and will le- 
 QUire considerable depth to make it pay. Increased in width from two 
 feet at surface to ten feet at 400-foot depth. From wall to wall, it is one 
 solid mass of quartz, samples of which assay from $600 to $6,000 per ton, 
 and will give a milling average of $68 per ton. Feet in mine, 1,125. Cap- 
 italization, $6,400,000; par value per share, $1. Number of assessments 
 levied, eleven ; total amount of assessments levied $182,400. 
 
 Durango Gold Mining Company is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of New York. The officers are Alexander McDonald, Pres. ; 
 Geo. E.Spencer, V.-Pres. ; Effingham Lawrence, Treas. ; Willis A. Barnes, 
 Sec. Superintendent, Walter G. Gates. Office, room 43, 115 Broadway, 
 New York. The Durango, located in Lawrence county, Dakota, is a ce- 
 ment deposit, the bed-rock pitching into the mountain ; the ore.from this 
 mine has been worked at a custom mill, yielding $8 per ton. Capitali- 
 zation, $600,000; par value per share, $5. Dated latest dividend, June, 
 1881 ; seven and a half cents per share. 
 
 Eintracht Oravel Company (The). Principal office, 209 San- 
 some Street, San Francisco, Cal. Date of annual election, December 6. 
 The mines of this company are located in California. Nine assessments 
 levied ; latest assessment. May 2, 1882 ; amount per share, five cents. — 
 Mining Record, June VI. 
 
 El Dorado Hill Company (The). These mines are located in 
 Nevada. The Quartz mine, owned by E, J. MoCoon, has very rich spe- 
 cimens of quartz. A mill is the property ofthe company. 
 
 Empire Oold Mining Company (The) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of New York. Head office, 58 Broadway, New York. 
 The Empire is one of the oldest quartz mines in the State that is still at 
 work. It was discovered in 1852. It has been worked successfully since 
 1871. Location of mines, Plymouth, Amador county, Cal. Character of 
 mines, gold ; assays about $15 per ton. Property owned by the company, 
 eighty-stamp mill, actuated by either water or steam. Dimensions of 
 workings, 1,900 feet. Ore is chiefly got from 1,200-foot level. Litigation 
 with the Pacific company and other circumstances have interfered with 
 the regular workings of the mine. Date of organization, July, 1878; 
 capitahzatlon, $2,000,000 : shares, 200,000 ; par value, $10 ; number of divi- 
 dends paid to March 5, 1880, eleven ; amount, $478,000 ; date of latest divi- 
 dend. May 5 1880 ; amount per share, seventeen cents ; yield during 1880, 
 $481.000 ; stock guoted 1882, July 1, $2. 
 
 Empire Mine (The), owned by Hon. Thomas Fowler. The Empire 
 Mine is located in Tulare, Nevada county, Cal. Mill in good working 
 order. This mine has been one of the chief producers of gold for twenty- 
 five years, and is now being extensively worked. Heavier pumps have 
 recently been introduced, and improvements have been made to boilers 
 and machinery which have reduced the consumption of fuel nearly one- 
 half. There are nearly 190 men at work in the mine. 
 
 Empire Ool«i Mining Company. Name of mine owned. Em- 
 pire, located at Grass Valley, Nevada county, Cal. This mine produces 
 good milling ore and some very rich specimens. Length of levels, 1,200 
 feet. Length of main lode on which the company depends for its supply 
 of ore, 3,600 feet. The mine has tieen drained of water to the 800-foot 
 level ; to accomplish this the pumps had three months of incessant work. 
 Tributes at work taking out rock from the levels that are drained. Capi- 
 taUzation,$2,000,00O ; shares, '20,000 ; par value, $100 ; number of dividends 
 paid to January 20, 1878, sixteen : date of latest dividend, January 20, 1882, 
 amount, twenty-live cents ; amount, $146,000 ; number assessments levied, 
 40,000 ; date of latest assessment, August 5, 1871 ; stock quoted July 1, 1882, $2. 
 
 Empire Mining Company (The) is chartered under tne laws of 
 the State of New York. Transfer office, 52 Wall Street, New York. The 
 Empire mine Is owned by this company ; located in Utah mining district. 
 Park City, Utah. Capitalization, $10,000,000 ; shares, 100,000. 
 
 Empress Ool«l Mining Company (The). Officers, Charles H. 
 North, Pres. ; C. F. Hall, Treas. ; Clar. Hale, Sec. ; Dr. Red, Superintendent. 
 Name of mines owned, none named. Location of mines, Renfew, Nova 
 Scotia. Amount of property in acres, 102. Capitalization, $60,000; par 
 value, $1. 
 
 English and Blue Oravel Company (The). The mining prop- 
 erty belonging to this company is located on Galice Creek, Oregon. 
 
 Esperance Company is represented by Messrs. Coleman, McLean, 
 and others. The company have something like a half a mile of ground, 
 situated in Nevada county, Cal., below the famous Milton mine, and sup- 
 posedly on the same channel. The bed-rock tunnel is now in about '200 
 feet, but will probably have to be pushed 1,800 feet before reaching the 
 gravel deposit being searched for. A full force of men are working on it 
 day and night, Sundays as well. 
 
 Eastern Mining Company (The). The Whiskey Slide mine is 
 owned by this company. Located in Calaveras county, Cal, 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1141 
 
 Essex Consolidated Gold Mine (The). M. Smart, Supt. Loca- 
 tion of mines, Lyman, Grafton county, N. H. Quality and cliaracter of 
 ore, impregnated witli rich sulphiites, being a porous, iron-stained, honey- 
 combed quartz. Character of mine, vein eight to ten feet wide. Entrance 
 by tunnel, 120 feet. Timbered. 
 
 Enrek» Consolidated Drift Slinlns: Company. The prop- 
 erty is located in Sierra county, Cal. The company have actively prose- 
 cuted work. The tunnel, which is in blue cement, has been run a dis- 
 tance of 230 feet. 
 
 Eureka Gold Hinln;:; Company. This company was chartered 
 under the laws of the State of Colorado. Location of mine on Calaveras 
 river, Calaveras county (Grass Valley), Cal. The company own about 
 6,(X)0 feet of pipe and a flume. During the last season a&ut four acres of 
 surface, averaging sixty feet in depth, were washed and yielded about 
 840,000. Capitalization, $2,000,000; shares, 20,000 ; par value, $100 ; number 
 of dividends paid to April 29, 1878 ; amount, $2,149,000 ; date of last divi- 
 dend, April 29, 1878 ; amount per share, twenty-five cents ; stock quoted, 
 January 1, 1882; shares not in market. 
 
 Excelsior Water and Mlnine Company (The), chartered un- 
 der the laws of the State of California. Office is in San Francisco, Cal. 
 The mines owned by the company are in Smartville, Yuba county, Cal. 
 525 acres belong to the company. Gold is the character of ore. Length 
 of main lode, on which the company depends for its supply of ore, 521 feet. 
 It is the leading mine of the county, one of the most extensive hydraulic 
 enterprises of the State, and the principal supply of water is through its 
 ditches. (Company used i ii year ending March, 1S80, 418,000 inches of wa- 
 ter. In addition to the 525 acres of gold-bearing gravel, the company 
 owns a farm of 2.800 acres, 300 of which are irrigated, and all well equipped 
 and stocked. The improvements and appliances embrace six tunnels, 
 the construction of which, before the acquisition of the property, had cost 
 8141,000 ; 23,000 feet of the rock-paved flumes and undercurrents that had 
 cost $50,000; 115 miles of ditches, which, with their strong, well-placed 
 dams, had cost originally $1,000,000 ; two distributing reservoirs, having 
 the capacity to store 13,000 inches of water over night ; a complete hy- 
 draulic equipment, with all the buildings necessary for the most advan- 
 tageous exploitation of so extensive a property. About 350 men are con- 
 stantly employed to collect the tailings, and prevent their emptying into 
 the Yuba river. The company has constructed a dam ilfteeii feet high 
 and 800 feet long across the mouth of a ravine one mile and a half below 
 their mines. It is intended to make the dam eighty feet high, and 2,000 
 feet long, with a slope of four feet to one. It is calculated that it will form 
 a baftiu covering an area of 140 acres. The dam is formed principally of 
 pine trees, covered with rock laid upon a foundation of stone, brush be- 
 ing placed upon the upper side, through which the water sweeps, retain- 
 ing the debris. The company expect, by means of the dam, to be ena- 
 bled to continue the workings of the gold gravel without violating the 
 injunction suits or damaging the property ot farmers in the Sacramento 
 Valleys. Date of organization. March 9, 1879; capitalization, $10,000,000 ; 
 shares, 100,000; par value, $100. Kumber of dividends paid to Septem- 
 ber B, 1880, $850,000 : date of latest dividend, September 6, 1880, twenty- 
 five cents per share ; number assessments levied, 18 ; total amount of 
 same, $300,000 ; date of latest assessment. May. 1882 ; amount per share, 
 twenty-five cents ; yield (net) during 1880, $111,000. Stock quoted July 1, 
 1882, $4.50. 
 
 Fairvlew Gold Mining Company is chattered under the laws 
 of the State of Colorado. The ofScers are J. L. Sprogle, Pres. ; Jos. L. 
 Fryer, Sec. and Treas. Directors, J. L. Sprogle,- Jos. L. Fryer, T. J. Stewart, 
 Thos. Barrett, A. Wasserman, D. P. Southworth, E. Klantscheck. Office, 
 310 Chestnut Street. Philadelphia, Pa. The company's property is located 
 iu Colorado. Capitalization, $2,600,000; par value per share, $5; basis, 
 non-assessable; amount of stock issued, 200,000 shares; amount reseiTCd 
 in treasury, 25,000 shares. 
 
 Father l>e Smet Gold Mining Company is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of California. The officers are J. B. Haggin, Pres. ; 
 J. Clark. Viee-Pres. ; H. Ueas, Sec. Offices, 404 Montgomery Street, San 
 Francisco, Cal., and 14 Wall Street, New York. The company's mine, the 
 Father Da Smet, is located in Whitewood district, Black Hills. Dakota. 
 The ore gives a gold assay and has a value of $10 per ton. The ore body 
 shows a width, in some cases, of twenty-six feet. The company has an 
 eighty-stamp mill, crushing at the rate of 2,318 tons of ore per week. The 
 main lode is 1,500 feet in length. A rich strike was recently made on the 
 second level of the Father De Smet mine. The ore body, showing a 
 width of twenty-six feet, gives promise of widening to seventy-five feet. 
 For the week ending June 8,626 tons of ore were extracted from tbe first 
 level, 1,500 from second level, and 100 tons from third level. The North 
 End tunnel is in 621 feet. The ore has an average assay of about $3.50 per 
 ton. Current value of mine. $600,000. The annual report of this mine 
 shows the gross receipts to have been $502,360.80, and the expenses 
 ^14.665.82. From March to December dividends were paid to the amount 
 of $174,995, and there was a balance on hand January 1, 1882, of $42,826.65. 
 The Superintendent says in a report of January, 1882, the ore is low grade, 
 but our facilities for handling it are such that we can and will for the 
 ensuing year run at a profit. - Date of organization, January 23, 1878 ; 
 capitalization, $10,000,000; par value per share, $100; yield during 1880, 
 $277.730 ; yield (gross tons). 90,7.t4, equal to 600,011 ; number of dividends 
 paid to July 1, 1882, twenty; total amount of dividends paid, $520,000; 
 date of latest dividend, July 1, 1882, twenty cents per share ; number of 
 assessments levied, two; total amount of^ assessments levied. $200,000; 
 date of latest assessment, November 13, 1878, $1 per share ; stock quoted 
 July 1, 1882, $7. 
 
 Fergnson Consolidated Gold Mining Company is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of California. Company's office. Sonora, 
 CaJ. ; branch office, 1'? Milk Street, Boston, Mass. The company's pro- 
 perty is located in Mariposa county, Cal. The ore has a value of $10 per 
 ton. The company have a ten-stamp mill, houses, shops, etc., valued at 
 $30,000. Date of incorporation, 1879; capitalization, $5,000,000; par value 
 per share, $30 ; basis, non-assessable. Total amount of dividends paid to 
 1881, $5,000 ; date of latest dividend, 1881, five cents per share. 
 
 Findley Gold Minins Company (The) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of New York. Geo. F. Peabody, Secretary. Office, 70 
 Broadway, New York. The company's mine is located in Lumpkin 
 county, Ga. The mine is well developed, with ample ground to supply 
 its two mills, 60 stamps. The quantity of ore at command is large. 
 - Three bodies of ore, of considerable thickness, are available, but only two 
 are now exploited, for which forty inches of water are being used. Date 
 of organization, June 25, 1878 ; capitalization, $200,000 ; basis, non-assess- 
 able ; par value per share, $1. Yield during 1881, about $36,000. Total 
 amount of dividends paid to May 26. 1879, 8100,000 ; date of latest divi- 
 dend, May 26, 1879. Stock quoted July 1, 1882, seventeen cents. 
 
 Franlilin Gravel Mining Company have their works located 
 at Dutch Flat, Placer county, Cal. Office, 310 Pine Street, room No. 44, 
 San Francisco, Cal. 
 Franklin and McDonald Mining and Mannfactnriiig 
 
 Company. The Directors are A. O. Tinstman, Pres.; J. McCreighton, 
 V.-Pres. ; A. H. Moore, Gen. Mang. ; Geo. F. Huif. Geo. W. Shallcross. K. 
 Spencer, Sec. and Treas. ; F. K. shamuck, Asst. Sec. ; Alex. P. Colcsberry, 
 Solicitor. Office of financial agents, Ladner Bros,, bankers and brokers, 
 30 S. Third Street, Philadelphia, Pa. ; transfer office, 38 s. Third Street, 
 Philadelphia. The company's mines are located on the Etowah river, 
 Cherokee county, Ga. These mines have been worked on a small scale 
 in a primitive manner for over forty years, and hundreds of thousands 
 of dollars have been coined from the Franklin mine alone. The com- 
 pany own 1,300 acres of land. Character of the ore, sulphurets predom- 
 inate in quantity and richness. 1 he poorest ores assay from $10 to $110 ; 
 higher grade as high as $'230 per ton. There are seven gold-bearing 
 quartz veins running through the property for a distance of about three 
 miles. The company have water-power on the spot. The main lode on 
 which the company "depends for its supply of ore is 600 feet in length. 
 Capitalization, 810,000,000; par value per sliare, $100; basis, non-assessable. 
 Stock reserved in the treasury, January, 1882, 20,000 shares. 
 
 Fresno Enterprise Company. The Directors are Judge James 
 Grant, Pres., Leadville; Captain T. J. Lane, George H. Parker, W. H. 
 McCormick, 1. N. Farwell, David Kelly, J. D. Parker, (Jcorge Elwood, H. 
 Anderson, J. T. Warre. Henry Fisher, C. A. Toering, and James Thomp- 
 son. The company's mine, the San Francisco, is located five mUes from 
 Merced, Cal., on the stage route to the Y'osemite. The main lode is 1,5(X) 
 feet in length, running northwest and southeast, and dipping to the south- 
 west near the surface. Formation, sloi)e. The developments under pres- 
 ent company are four tunnel levels, two machine shafts, winzes. Ore is 
 now being extracted which averages $163 per ton. The reduction works 
 consist ot three arrastras, of crushing capacity of 100 tons per month. 
 Actual yield of ore crushed, 8160 per ton. During last two years, $200,000 
 has been taken out, and $125,00i]paid in dividends. Capitalization, ^,000,- 
 000 ; par value per share, $50. Total amount of dividends paid. 8100.000 ; 
 date of latest dividend, December 20, 1881, twenty-five cents per share. 
 Yield during 1880, $102,086. 
 
 Fi-icke and Davis Mine (The). Messrs. Fricke and Davis, owners. 
 Fricke Davis and Sebastian mines are owned by the above gentlemen. 
 H. E Willey, Fred. Diner, Henry Dore. McConnell. These mines are lo- 
 cated near Deadwood, Shasta county. Nevada. There are various mines, 
 paying well, near Whiskeytown. and the recent developments (reported) 
 in quartz near Deadwood has made French Gulf a prosperous town. 
 The shaft's quartz ledge is on French Gulf and Deadwood, from which 
 (1880) is cleared $1,600 per week. 
 
 Frost and Rnle Mining Company's (Tlic) property is located 
 in Butte county, Cal., and is consided very valuable. It was purchased 
 by Boston capitalists for 8200,000. All stock is now bought up. The com- 
 pany have ten miles of ditch and flume, finest work of the kind in the 
 State. There is a face of gravel 200 feet high and one to one and a half 
 miles wide, extending back over the ridge for over five miles ; an inex- 
 haustible supply of gold-bearing ground. The stock and bonds are held 
 principally in Boston. Mass. 
 
 Green Mountain Company (The). H. G. Bidwell. Pres. Green 
 Mountain mine is owned by this company. I,,ocated in Plumas county, 
 Nevada. The mill recently (1881) cleared $8,300 for a run of twenty days 
 with thirty-two stamps, $10 per ton. 
 
 GalliharGold Mining Company;. The officers are H. R. Fisher, 
 Pres. ; C. R. Titcomb, Vice-Pres. ; H. M. Willis, Treas, ; A. J. Savage, Sec. 
 Directors, H. R. Fisher, H. M. Willis, A. J. Savage, G. H. Shultiick. Super- 
 intendent, J. W. Douglass ; has had a long experience in California and 
 Nevada. Office, Portland, Maine. The comxjany's property is located at 
 Isaac's Harbor, Nova Scotia. The company own substantial mill build- 
 ings, boiler houses, mining machinery of the most approved pattern, in- 
 cluding steam drills, air compressor pumps, and hoisting engines, super- 
 intendent's office, with director's parlor, and sleeping rooms. The shaft 
 is 190 feet deep. The company's property promises to be a very produc- 
 tive mine. Eighty-six men are employed at the works. The company 
 exhibit a bar ofgold, weighing 149 ouiices, taken fi:om fifty-one tons quartz, 
 and valued at $2,993. A body of quartz is in sight sufficient to supply mill 
 for twelve months. Stock and l>onds are held principally in the State of 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 Glyn Dale Consolidated Gold Mining Company. Office, 
 115 Broadway, New York. The company's property is located in Bodie 
 district. Mono county, Cal. It is situated on the western side of the cone 
 of Silver Hill, just west of the Oro and Addenda, and is a consolidation 
 of the Glyn and Dale locations. It has steam-hoisting works, the neces- 
 sary buildings, and a shaft down '240 feet, work only having been com- 
 menced in the spring of 1881. The veins cut so far are not of a paying 
 character. 
 
 Gold Alda Mining Company (The). Directors, P. A. Bamev, W. 
 H. Stanley, Joseph Nash, J. C. Plunkett, A. W. Blair. Location of mines, 
 Nevada. Capitalization, $1,000,000. 
 
 Godfrey Gravel Mining Company. The Godfrey Gravel mine 
 is located in Nevada county, Cal. This mine, after making fair returns, 
 has been closed. It has been worked by the drifting method, the gravel 
 having been crushed by mill process. Mr, Godfrey reports that as the 
 gold cannot be increased, nor the expenses, at the present rate of wages, 
 reduced, there are no immediate prospects of the mine being opened. 
 
 Gold ClilT Mining Company. Nathaniel Niles, Pres, and Treas. 
 Transfer office, 61 Broadway, room 42, New York. The company's prop- 
 erty is located in Calaveras county, Cal. They have a capitalization of 
 8250,000, in shares at a par value of 82.50 each. 
 
 Gold Gravel Hydraulic Company (The) has its offices at 155 
 and 157 Broadway, New York. The oflicers are John H. Mortimer, Pres. ; 
 Geo. W. Warner, Treas. ; Monroe E. Babcock, Sec. The properties of the 
 companv, comprising an area of 2,295 acres, are located in Plumas and 
 Sierra counties, Cal. Capitalization, $1,000,000, in 200,000 shares of $5 each. 
 In January last a proposal was made to reorganize on an assessable basis. 
 
 Gold Medal Mining and Milling Company's (The) works 
 are located in Boulder county, CoL They have a capitalization of 81,- 
 000,000. 
 
 Gold Prixe Mining Company (The). This property is located 
 at Silver creek, Col. 1881. Produces a 3,600 gold retort from a recent seven 
 days' run. 
 
 Goltl Stripe Mining Company. L. D. Cartwright, Vice-Pres. 
 Office, 18 Wall Street, New York. The Gold Stripe mine, owned bv this 
 company, is located in Greenville district, Plumas county. Col. The" gold 
 quartz is high grade, easy to mine and mill; it assays from 88 to $10 per 
 ton. Two mills of fifteen and twenty-four stamps, respectively, are run- 
 ning steadily upon the ore. The prospects of the property are constantly 
 improving. The recovery of the Goodwin ledge is an important strike. 
 It was feared the vein was lost, but careful development work has suc- 
 ceeded in recovering it at the greatest depth of working in the mine. This 
 gives 176 feet of unworked reserve of ore to the upper tunnel, where the 
 vein averaged about twelve feet in width. The incline on this ledge has 
 encountered a strong body of ore, eight feet wide, which assays very irni- 
 
1142 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 formly. They have drifted along thus for 130 feet, and the workings 
 through the Kerr tunnel will give them about 200 feet of backs: the grade 
 of ore at this point has always given good returns. The current value of 
 the mine is $4d,000. Forty tons of ore are being crushed per day. The 
 mine has been worked for years, and has never failed in making a 
 monthly shipment ; twenty-two men are employed. The mill had been 
 running six and a half days when the works were visited, June .SO, liJS'i. 
 The plates had hardly got in first-rate order, but on applying the hose 
 with water they appeared to be covered well with amalgam. From the 
 first day the yield from the plates alone would give a profit over all ex- 
 penses. Capitalization, $1,500,000; par value per share, 810. Yield dur- 
 ing 1880, $42,294. Total amount ofdivideuds paid, $76,250. Date of latest 
 dividend, June 30, 1881, fifteen cents per share. Stock quoted July 1, 1882, 
 forty cents per share. 
 
 Oo Slow Company. Their property is located just above the Kan- 
 aka claim, at Virginia Bar, Sierra county, Cal. This is anew organization. 
 They are pro-^specting above the Kanaka claim, for the purpose of finding 
 rich gravel at bed-rock, by sinking a shaft and drifting preparatory to 
 building a wing-dam, and putting up a derrick. 
 
 Uovernor Gron|>Gol(l Miiiiug Company (The) is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of Colorado. The ofiicers are Fred' k M. Adams, 
 Pres. ; J. H. C. Whiting, Vice-Pres. ; H. D. Hughes, See. ; R. M. Blakemore, 
 Treas. Directors, F. M. Adams, J. H. Whiting, E. M. Blakemore, H. D. 
 Hughes, W. H. Drake, J. Warren Coulston, and W. C. Cranmer. The of5- 
 ces are at Jamestown, Boulder county, Col., and at 312 Stock Exchange 
 Place, Philadelphia, Pa. The company owns the following mines : Pres- 
 ident, Governor, Denver Vein, Fannie H. Charter, and Star of the North, 
 all patented except last named. Located in Boulder county. Col. The 
 plant comprises a tirst-class roasting and amalgamation mill, of twenty- 
 tour ions' capacity, now in running order with all neces.sary machinery. 
 There are two shafts, 244 and 262 feet deep respectively. The workings 
 are all well timbered. The capitalization is $2,000,000. in 200.000 shares of 
 $10 each, non-assessable. Bonded indebtedness, $25,000, secured by first 
 mortgage bonds running three years from September 1, 1880, bearing 7 
 per cent, interest. Amount of stock issued, 185,000 shares; amount of 
 stock reserved, 15,000 shares. Stock quoted July, 1882, twenty-five cents. 
 Oraiiville Gold Mining; Company (The) is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of New York. Office, 23 Dey Street, New York. The 
 company's property is located in McDowell county, N. C. The ore yields 
 about $18 per ton. Character of the mines, gravel; hydraulic. There 
 are 1,200 feet in the mine. The company have ditches twenty miles long, 
 with a head of sixty feet of water. Date of organization, November, 1876 ; 
 capitalization, $300,000 ; basis, non-assessable. 
 
 Graphic Mining Company. The officers are Col. Kush H. Field, 
 Pres.; J. J. McRobbin, Treas. Mr. Youman is Supt. The company's mines, 
 the Graphic Group and Champion, are located at French Mountain, Col. 
 They own a number of claims in Little Half-Moon Gulch. The gangue 
 otihe vein is composed of porphyritic quartz, carrying galena sulphurets 
 of iron. There are rich gold-bearing quartz leads. The company have 
 several mills, and they have a tunnel 300 feet in length, which is located 
 at ri^ht angles with the majority of the veins. This company own thirteen 
 locations. Capitalization, $4,000,000 ; par value per share, $10. 
 
 Gravel Minin§r Company. Elisha Riggs, Pres. and Treas. Office, 
 18 Wall Street, New York, rooms 48, 49, and 50. "The company's property 
 is located at Black Hills, Custer county, Dakota. They have a capitaliza- 
 tion of $5,000,000. 
 
 Great Eastern Gold 9f ining Compaaiy is chartered under the 
 laws of the Stale of New York. Ofhce, 31 Broad Street, New York. The 
 Great Eastern, Flora Belle, Golden Rule, Badger, and Elgin are the prop- 
 erty of the Great Eastern Company, located in the Black Hills, Dalcota. 
 The company also own the Exchequer, American No. 2, and several placer 
 claims on Deadwood Gulch. Forty men are employed. The total product 
 since July, 1877, is 50,000 tons of ore, crushed, and the value of the bull- 
 ion, $200,000. The company's twenty-stamp mill, valued at $20,000, was 
 one of the first erected in the Black Hills. The Flora Belle is reported to 
 be of as good quality as the famous Belt mines, and would, with equal 
 mill capacity, make large returns. The character of the ore mined is 
 gold, having a value of $7 per ton. The main lode on which the com- 
 pany depends for its supply of ore is 1,200 feet in length. Current value 
 of mine is 1^^3,000. Date of incorporation, March 26, 1879 ; capitalization, 
 $500,000; par value per share. $1 ; basis, non-assessable. 'Total amount of 
 dividends paid, $24,000. Stock quoted July 10, 1882, five cents. 
 
 Green Mountain Gold Mining Company is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of New York. The officers are H. C. Bidwill, Pres. ; 
 J. Jay Pardee, Sec. Office, 18 Wall Street, New York. The company's 
 mine, the Green Mountain, is located at the north end of Indian Valley, 
 Granville district, Plumas county, Cal. They own three contiguous claims 
 and an extensive timber tract, all held under U. S. patents. The ore is 
 free milling, assaying from $8 to $10 per ton. Vein is increasing in width 
 as depth is attained ; now about 100 feet wide. The company now owns 
 ninety-two stamps, having lately purchased a new starap-mill of sixty 
 stamps, supplied with an ore-breaker and automatic feeders, involving an 
 expenditure of $60,000. The stamps are about 800 pounds' weight witli 
 aprons eight feet long. The plates are all silver, and all silver plates ex- 
 tend down the sluice boxes opened. The company have also extensive 
 water privileges applied through a six-foot Knight water-wheel under 400- 
 foot pressure through eleven-inch iron pipes. The mill dump has a capa- 
 city of 1000 tons ; mine cars, from which cars are loaded, a capacity of 800 
 tons. The current value of mine is $262,000. The mine is situated on the point 
 of a high range of hills which "rise on the southwest side of the valley. 
 The average width of the lode is about fourteen feet, although it widens 
 in places to thirty or forty feet. The country rock is granite, but .at some 
 points on the line of the lode it changes to porphyry, and at others to a 
 stratified slaty material. The main tunnel is in upwards of 3,000 feet, and 
 over 1,000 feet of pay ore have been penetrated. The lode crops at various 
 places along the line, but has not been sloped to the surface. The west 
 hanging-wall of the lode is found carrying a gouge, but the cast foot-wall 
 has not been found. A cross-cut is to be run to cut the same if possible. 
 The ore is free milling and is worked by the ordinary stamp process, no 
 concentrators nor stamps being necessary. The output of the mine is 150 
 tons per twenty-four hours. The mills crush the same. The quality of 
 ore now taken from the shaft that is being sunk on the white ledge is su- 
 perior to any milled for some time, and it is confidently expected that 
 f:ood results will be given. The mine shows a strong and permanent 
 edge, and when the lower Eidwell tunnelreaches the ledge it will give 
 good reserves of ore to last for many years to come. The mine is in fine 
 condition, and the indications in the face of the main drift of number 
 five tunnel continue highly encouraging. Cost of milling is estimated at 
 $2.50, including cost of delivery. The company have let a contract for 
 running the number six tunnel 100 feet, at $6 per foot. The sulphuret 
 ledge, east of the main ledge, has widened out from fifteen inches to 
 thirteen feet, the quartz being of bluish color. Between numbers four 
 and five tunnels two levels have been opened nearly 100 feet apart, and 
 
 run further on the vein, exposing a good grade of ore. Date of organiza- 
 tion, June 2, 1879 ; capitalization, $1,250,000 ; par value, $10 per share j basis, 
 non-assessable; yield during 1880, $159,313; total amount of dividends 
 paid, $212,375 ; date of latest dividend, November 26, 1881, seven and a 
 half cents per share. „ ^ „ . „ _ 
 
 Headlight Alining Company. A. W. Rose, Secretary. Office, 
 302 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal. The company's property is 
 located in California. . ^. , . , - 
 
 Haile Mining Company (The) have two mines, the chiet ot 
 which is the Blauvelt, located in Lancaster county, S. C, about thirty 
 miles south of Monroe, N. C. The ore carries about three per cent, iron 
 pyrites and is somewhat refractory ; assays from $7 to $15. The character 
 of the mine is described as one vast bed of talco-chloritic and micaceous 
 schists, with alternations of siliceous schists. Ore masses, lenticular in 
 shape, and with a width varying from six to sixty feet, and alternating 
 with heavy bodies of nearly pure iron pyrites, sometimes eight feet thick. 
 Mining plant includes a ten-stamp battery with other minor appliances 
 to a more thorough treatment of the ore. An increased plant is contem- 
 plated, the present being adequate only for a production of 1,000 tons per 
 month. The present administration is energetic and apparently supported 
 liberally by capital. 
 
 Harney Hydraulic Company. The property of the company 
 is located in Custer county, Dakota, and consists of^ about six miles of the 
 bed of Battle creek, beginning a short distance below Harney City, and 
 extending to almost the foot of Harney Peak, together with all bar and 
 hill diggings on both sides of the gulch for the same distance ; also, the 
 placer ground of Grizzly Gulch. The claims include Harney, Everly 
 Hills, and the celebrated Mitchell Bar, which are considered the richest 
 portions of the entire possession: Applications for patents upon 400 acres 
 have been made, and, as there are no adverse claims, the company will 
 undoubtedly be successful. The main ditch has a total length of six 
 and three-fourths miles. Three capacious reservoirs insure an abun- 
 dant water suppiv even in the driest season. An average of fifty men 
 have been employed during the season. The estimated total cost of the 
 works is $42,000. Mitchell Bar has yielded $7.50 per cubic yard. The 
 company propose to put in a bed-rock flume, beginning at the lower end 
 of the ground, and wash everything within reach. 
 
 Haverley Golden Gronp Mining Company (The). Officers, 
 J. H. Haverley, Pres. ; Hon. H. H. Walker, Vice-Pres. ; Col. N. P. Richmond, 
 Sec. ; C. N. Pratt, Ass't Sec. ; A. F. Armstrong, Treas. ; Richard Hieucheon, 
 Supt. Head and branch offices, 116 Dearborn Street, Chicago, HI.; Nos. 
 1151 and 57 Broadwav, New York; 205 Washington Street, Boston, Mass. 
 
 Henrietta Gravel Mining Company. Location of works, 
 California. Office, 309 California Street, San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Hitc Gold ituartz Mining Company. J. R. Bothwell, Sec, 
 2 Nassau Street, cor. Wall Street, New York. The company's mine, viz., 
 the Hite, is located at Hite's Cove, Mariposa county, Cal. There are 
 1,000 feet in the mine. The prospects of the property are good. The mine 
 has been worked successfully for the last fifteen years, and is still yielding 
 ore in large quantities. The main shaft is opened into the 900-feet level. 
 The company has completed several important improvements, consisting 
 in putting in one of the largest compressors ever made, rebuilding the 
 dam, repairing the flume, putting in new plates, and reconstructing the 
 machinery of the mill, and other improvements belonging to the mine. 
 A compressor-engine has been placed at the lower dam, and a mile of 
 four-inch pipe has been laid to conduct the air to the pump, hoisting-en- 
 gines, and power-drills in the mine. Shaft is being sunk to 500 feet. 
 Capitalization, $2,000,000 : par value per share, $10 ; basis, non-assessable. 
 Number of dividends paid to August, 1878, thirty-eight ; total amount of 
 dividends paid, $1,370,000 ; date of latest dividend. August, 1878, ten cents 
 per share. Stock and bonds held principally in New York. 
 
 Homer liand. Mill, Water Mining Company (The). The 
 mines belonging to this company are located on Mill creek. Mono county, 
 Cal. These mines embrace the best properties in the county. Tunnel 
 used and shaft. 
 
 Hunters' Flat Gravel Company (The). The property owned 
 by this company is located in Calaveras county, Cal. 
 
 Idaho Gold Mining Company. The officers are E. Coleman, 
 Pres. ; E. C. Creller, Vice-Pres. : J. C. Coleman, Treas. ; Geo. W. Hill, Sec. E. 
 Coleman, Superintendent, Office, 324 Pine Street San Francisco Califor- 
 nia. In Grass Valley district is situated the well known Idaho mine, 
 Nevada county, Cal., which may be considered as one of the representa- 
 tive gold mines in this State. We g;ive some figures concerning this mine 
 from their last annual report, as it will give readers a broad idea of the 
 expense of running such a mine. After an expenditure of about $90,000 
 on the property, the Idaho mine commenced paying dividends in 1869, 
 and with but few Intermissions has paid regular monthly dividends ever 
 since, the total number of such being 136, amounting to $2,830,300 out of 
 a total yield in the twelve years of $6,140,188.02. The yield of the past 
 year has been $140,445.59, out of which dividends to the amount of $127,100 
 nave been paid. There has been paid out in dividends to the stockholders 
 as follows ; 
 
 Year. Dividend. Per Cent Amount. 
 
 1869 11 55 $170,500 
 
 1870 7 12 31,200 
 
 1871 12 75 232,500 
 
 1872 11 &'1}4 162,750 
 
 1873 12 220 683,000 
 
 1874 12 102V^ 317,750 
 
 1875 11 55V| 172,050 
 
 1876 12 82U 255,750 
 
 1877 12 77}| 240,250 
 
 1878 12 85 263,500 
 
 1879 12 54J^ 168,950 • 
 
 1880 12 11 127,100 
 
 Being for twelve years 136 dividends, nggregating 913 per cent, on the 
 capital stock, and amounting to $2,880,300. The ore worked during the 
 year amounted to 28,072 tons. Of this amount 6,270U came from the 800 
 level; 134!^ from the 900 level ; 0,051V:; from the l.OOOlevel ; 14,776U from 
 the 1,100 level; and 739 from the l,'20O level. This gavea yield of 
 
 24,457 ounces of bullion $426,938 46 
 
 Sixty-eight tons of slime sold 1,252 00 
 
 Estimated cost working same 1,005 00 
 
 Tailings worked on shares 5,068 12 
 
 Thirty-six and three quarters tons tailing sulphurets . . 4,580 72 
 
 Fifty tons of huddle siilfihurots 4,317 04 
 
 Sold ten and one-eighth tons sulphurets 689 85 
 
 Estimated cost of working same 202 50 
 
 Specimens sold 65 00 
 
 $444,118 69 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1143 
 
 Yielding an average of S15.82 per ton ; average cost of milling per ton, 
 $9.2% Following is a table of expenses for tfie year : 
 
 Milling, mining, repairing $260,611 43 
 
 Grinding tailing on per cent 1,428 17 
 
 Exhaust fan for air shaft 4l'5 00 
 
 Iron bobs for underground . , . . * . . , . 719 00 
 
 Three plunger poles and castings 1,22S 00 
 
 Steam capstan 1,648 64 
 
 Sinking incline 7,496 00 
 
 Prospecting on 1,000 level and cross-cut 1,578 25 
 
 General account 12,821 62 
 
 Saving sulphurets 2,542 50 
 
 Total expenses $290,795 61 
 
 The Idaho Quartz is the leading mine here. It has been a large gold pro- 
 ducer for many years, and is at the present time one of the Dest in the 
 State. We learn that the product of this mine has shown a marked in- 
 crease in the last three or four months, and the future prospects are most 
 excellent. Recent operations are reported in the Idaho as follows : a new 
 fourteen-inch pump lias been put in the Idaho mine, reaching from the 
 surface to the 700 level, to take the place of the twelve-inch pump hereto- 
 fore in use, which wiU increase the pumping capacity about twenty-five 
 per cent. There are also being set up two steam capstans to aid in setting 
 the pumps and making repairs to them when necessary, and as an aux- 
 iliary to the big pumping engine when extra power is required. During 
 the extraordinary rains of last April a large amount of surface water had 
 to be contended against, which found its way into the Idaho from the old 
 workings of the Eureka mine, and it was all the Idaho pumps could do 
 to hold the water. In fact, for several days they could not do so, as the 
 pump tanks on the seventh and eighth levels were filled beyond their 
 capacity, and the surplus water that escaped and fell below filled the 
 workings of the mine up to the number ten level and interfered with 
 work for some days. By putting in a pump of increased size all the sur- 
 face water, which is troublesome as far down as the 700 level, can be 
 handled easily and do away with all danger of flooding the mine. From 
 the seventh to the eighth a nine-inch pump will be continued in use, and 
 below the eigthh level a six-inch pump is as large as there is any necessity 
 for. The company's principal mule is the Mayflower. The ore carries 
 considerable quantity of Biilphurets. Three distinct fissure veins present 
 the peculiarity of being opened by levels to a depth of 1,070 feet and a 
 length of 2,000 feet. At a depth of 1,200 feet the lode presents a clean 
 regular face of four feet of quartz. Capitalization, $3,100.000 ; par value per 
 share, $100 ; basis, non-assessable. The mine was opened in 1869, since 
 which time the receipts from aU sources have been 86,780,295.60 ; amount 
 paid in di viden ds, $3,101,550. The success of the mine has been due as much 
 to wise and judicious management as to the quantity and quality of the 
 ore. During the year 1881, 27,915 tons of rock have been crushed, which 
 have yielded an average of $22.95% per ton ; average cost of mining and 
 milling during the year, $9.51J^. 
 
 Idaho Springs Company (The). The mines owned by this com- 
 pany are Althea, Little Etta, Bulger, Manchester, Cleopatra, Garoo, Under- 
 wood, Alma Brooks, Helen Bassett, Winning Horse, and Gilbert. This 
 property is located in Spring Gulch, Idaho. Cleopatra shows about six- 
 teen In. ore, assaying $210. Bulger, eight or ten in. vein, vielded fifty per 
 ton in gold. Shaft on Little Etta, ten feet deep, width of three feet, gives 
 a return fifty-nine per ton, specimens as high as $800 recently reported so. 
 
 Iu(lian:i. Jlill Company. Their property is located in Placer 
 county, Cal. The company have been running a mill for crushing the 
 lower strata of gravel which, while generally very rich, is too hard or 
 too thoroughly cemented to wash to advantage. 
 
 Indian Valley Kilning Cosnpany. The jjroperty consists of 
 
 the Indian Valley and Union mines, located in Plumas county, Cal. 
 The mine is a mile above the town of Greenville, at an elevation of 500 
 feet above the valley from which it takes its name. A well-timbered 
 tunnel has been nin 1,000 feet under the old shaft of the Indian Valley 
 into ore averaging eighteen feet in width. New hoisting and pumping 
 machinery has been put upon the Blood shaft. This shaft is 700 feet 
 deep, being 300 feet deeper than the tunnel leading to the mill. At the 
 point where the tunnel intersects the shaft a level has been run eighty 
 feet to the west and sixty feet to the east, all through low-grade ore. 
 Prom the top of the shaft a way is graded to the upper tunnels ; from 
 these the ore will be run out and dumped down the shaft 400 feet to the 
 inner end of the tunnel. The space left by the old stopes gives room for 
 shutes, at which the cars will be loaded for the mill. The upper tunnels 
 are being cleaned out and timbered so that ore can be taken from them 
 as wanted. In the old condition of the mine no system could be dis- 
 cerned ; now there is a comprehensive plan connecting all these tun- 
 nels and the shaft in one design. The arrangement is so good that aU 
 ore containing over $2 per ton in gold can be worked at a profit. The 
 mill has twenty-four stamps with Hendy automatic feeds. The ore is 
 run through a rock-breaker and then passes directly to the batteries. 
 There are six batteries of four stamps each, fifty-horse-power engine. 
 Water is obtained from the Round Valley Water Company, whose ditch 
 passes around the mountain 1,000 feet above the mill. 
 
 Iowa and Colorado Consolidated Mining Company (The) 
 is chartered under the laws of the State of Colorado. The officers are Ex- 
 Gov. John H. Gear, Pres. ; Geo. Millard, Treas.. both of Burlington, Iowa ; 
 B. S. Ferris, Princeton, 111., Vice-Pres. ; Geo. A. Bailey, Glenwood, Iowa, 
 Asst Sec. ; John H. Shaw. State Agt. for Colorado ; John Gibson, Creston, 
 Iowa. Sec. ; Bancroft, Gulch & McGaughan. attorneys and coun.sel. Direct- 
 ors, Hon. John H. Gear, W. Hale, Geo. Millard, James Callanan, Mr. Me- 
 Arthur, John Gibson, E. S. Jenison, John H. Shaw, B. S. Ferris, R. P. Smith, 
 Geo. A. Bailey, Hon. W. D. Lucas. The company owns numerous claims 
 (seventeen), mostly small ; total area ofsame being about 529 acres. The 
 character of the main lode running through the property is described as 
 a true fissure vein. The ore is mostly free milling ; estimated yield about 
 $12 per ton. The property is located in South Mountain Summit district, 
 Eio Grande county, Col. The mining plant is complete, including thirty 
 stamps. Capitalization, $10,000,000, in 500,000 shares of $20 each ; non-as- 
 sessable ; 40,000 shares of treasury stock now on the market at $1.50 per 
 share. 
 
 Johnson Mine (The). Messrs. Sneden, Spence & Bennell, owners ; 
 D. H. Sullivan, manager and lessee. The Johnson mine is located in Inyo 
 county, Cal., opposite Bishop creek. Mines consist of gold ledges, known 
 as the Golden Era, Tender. Bueua Vista, and Luella. 
 
 Jordan Creek Mining Company (The). This mining prop- 
 erty is located at Yankee Fork, Idaho ; is very rich in gold ; reached bed- 
 rock, twenty- four feet ; drain, 1,600 feet long, with an open cut, 550 feet ; 
 remainder, 1,050 feet. Is under cover and well timbered. Prospects are 
 favorable. 
 
 Julia Gold (Inartz Mine (The). Messrs. Sloan & Dunn, owners. 
 
 The Julia quartz mine is located on Deer creek. Nevada county, Cal,, above 
 the Merrifield and opposite the Providence mine. Incline, sixty feet deep. 
 Tunnel, forty-five feet. Good mill sight north of tunnel. The owners ex- 
 press themselves as satisfied with their claim ; 1880. 
 
 Keystone Hydraulic Mining Comnan jf (The; owns property 
 located in Colorado. The officers are J. A. L. Whittier, Pres. ; C. C. Car- 
 penter, Sec. and Treas. ; D. T. Thompson, Gen. Manager. The annual 
 election is held on January 16. Offices at 306 Pine Street, San Francisco, 
 Cal. Capitalization, $300,000. 
 
 King Bee Alining Company (The) has offices at 115 Broadway, 
 New York city. Mr. T. W. Buzzo is Superintendent. The officers are A. 
 J. Severance, Pres. ; O. F. Collins, Vice-Pres. ; D. C. Ferris, Treas. ; and E. 
 D. Barnes, Sec. The property of the company is located at Bodie. Cal. 
 Capitalization, $5,000,000, in 100,000 shares of $50 each ; non-asse.ssable. 
 
 King Solomon Monntain Tunnel and IMining Company 
 (The). Principal office, Howardsville, Col. The mining property be- 
 longing to this company is located at San Juan, Col. Capitalization, 
 $500,000; shares, 10,000; par value, $10. 
 
 Kind's Mountain Mining Companj^ (The) has property 
 located in Gaston county, N. C. The ore is an impure limestone, with 
 small percentageof galena and blende, iron and copper pyrites, etc. Two 
 veins or ore bodies are being worked at present ; they range from eleven 
 to fifteen feet in thickness^ and have but a trifling proportion of refractory 
 sulphurets to lessen the yield of gold. The mining plant includes double 
 batteries and other machinery capable of treating sixty to eighty tons 
 per day. It is one of the most completely equipped establishmeij,t» of the 
 State. It has been a most productive mine. Depth of shaft, 320 feet. 
 
 I.ady Emma Gold Mining Company (The). Officer, F. R. 
 Bunker, Sec. Principal office, 606 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal, 
 The mining property belonging to this company is located in California. 
 
 Iiilly White Mining Company (The). Officers, George White, 
 President; Mr. G. W. Hodge, Superintendent. The mines owned by this 
 company are Hortense No. 2, Silver Clilf, and others located on Mount 
 Princeton, Colorado. The ore is gold chlorides, ^lena, and lead ; assays 
 $100 per ton. The mineral is deposited in veins. Property owned by 
 company is a mill (Waltz). The properties owned by the Lilly White 
 Company are capitalized as follows : Stock, $1,000,000 ; company has $20,- 
 000 cash ; stock in treasury, $10,000. 
 
 I>ittle Maud Mining Company (The) has offices at Boulder, 
 Colorado, and at 42 S. Third Street, Philadelphia, Pa., Dunn, Smith & Co., 
 bankers. The officers are Edwin Booth, Pres. ; R. M. Townsend, M. D., 
 V.-Pres. ; Chas. D. Powell, Sec. and Treas. Directors, Edwin Booth, R. 
 M. Townsend, M. D., C. C. Dunn, Jr., Sparta Fritz, and F. C. Arnold. The 
 company owns two full claims, the Pickwick and Little Mand, located 
 In Boulder county, Col. One shaft is down 110 feet, with drift 100 feet, 
 to a second shaft of ninety feet. Capitalization, $2,000,000, in 200,000 shares 
 of 110 each; non-assessable. Stock quoted January 1, »1. 
 
 Ijlttle YorU Company (The). The property belonging to this 
 company is located in Placer county, Nev.; running from hydraulic 
 claims, one at Little York, Christmas Hill, Liberty Hill, and one at Rem- 
 ington Hill. 
 
 I.on islana Mine (The). Owned by Mr. Lombards. The Louisi- 
 ana mine is located near Summersville, Tuolumne county, Nev. A new 
 eight-stamp mill, hydraulic ; vein ranging in width from one foot up- 
 wards is anticipated ; will pay $60 per ton ; 250 tons are already on the 
 dump, (1881.) 
 
 Magnolia Gold Company. Location of propertv, California. 
 Total amount of dividends paid to September, 1881, $15,000 ; "date of latest 
 dividend, September, 1881. 
 
 Manhattan Mining Company. The Directors are A. K. P. Har- 
 mon, C. E. Gibbs, E. B. Pond, M. Curtis, R. W. Paxton. Superintendent, 
 Walter Birmingham. Office, 327 Pine Street. San Francisco, Cal. The 
 company's property is located at Austin, Lander county, Nev. The main 
 lode on which the company depends for its supply of ore is 129,810 feet 
 in length. During the year 1881 the company received $2,364,049.52 and 
 disbursed $2,368,892.15. Capitalization, $5,000,000; par value per share, 
 $100; yield during 1880, $997,400; number of dividends paid to February 
 1, 1877, eight; total amount of dividends paid, $400,000; date of latest 
 dividena,Febmary 1, 1877. Number of assessments levied, three ; date of 
 latest assrasment, July 16, 1879 ; cash on hand, February 4, 1882, $4,160,K. 
 
 May Belle Gold Mining Company. W. J. Taylor. Secretary. 
 Office, 310 Pine Street, San Francisco, Cal. Capitalization, 810,000,000; 
 
 §ar value per share, $100; total amount of assessments levied, $84,000; 
 ate of latest assessment, December, 1881, 20 cents per share. 
 
 Mayflower Gravel Company. J. Morizo, Secretary. Office, 328 
 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal. The company's property, cover- 
 ing an area of 450 acres of ground, is located in the State of California. 
 Character of the mine, fissure vein. Sixteen assessments have been 
 levied. Date of latest assessment, May 31, 1882; amoimt per share, ten 
 cents. 
 
 Maxwell Gold Mine (The). The Maxwell mine is located at 
 Stockbridge, Wis. 
 
 Mendocino Flume and Mining Company. The officers are 
 Albert W. Mann, President ; W. A. Travis. Treasurer ; John Chelvet, Sec- 
 retary; W. T. Reily, Superintendent. Office, 79 Milk Street, Boston, 
 Mass. Robert Harrison, attorney for the company on the Pacific coast; 
 office, 430 California Street, San Francisco, Cal. The company's mines 
 comprise 300 acres of valuable placer claims near Capella. Hardly a pan 
 of gravel can betaken up in hundreds of acres atCatalpa, Mendocino 
 county, Cal. (where these mines are located), that has not the color in 
 it. The gravel is calculated for free working, as it is freefrom pipe clay. 
 Mr. John Simpson, mining engineer, made a thorough exaimnation of 
 the property, and says he found gold from top to bottom in the prospect 
 openings, yielding from thirty cents to $1 per cubic yard; Leonard's 
 Lake, owned by this company, has an area of sixty acres and an aver- 
 age depth of ninety-six feet, perfectly land-locked. Smith tract, which 
 is also the property of this company, is covered with a dense growth of 
 Oregon pine and redwood, also oak, alder, and mountain mahogany. 
 This tract comprises 454 acres. The company will erect a saw-mill here. 
 Reeves tract, owned by the company, contains 1,103 acres of the finest 
 timber. This timber the flume brings to market at a cost (including cul^ 
 ting, manufacturing, and delivery) of $6 per thousand, where it will 
 find ready sale on delivery for from $15 to $35 per thousand, cash, accord- 
 ing to kind of lumber. The reports of practical miners who have pros- 
 pected the placer claims, place the receipts of the company from this 
 source at over $500 per day. The machinery, mills, houses, etc., belong- 
 ing to Reeves' tract are valued at $10,000. Date of oiBanizatiou, Novem- 
 ber, 1880; capitalization, $1,000,000; par value per share, $10; stock 
 quoted July 14, 1882, 14 cents per share. 
 
 Menio Gold Quartz Company, of New York. The property is 
 situated between the New York Hill and Allison Ranch mines, Nevada 
 county, Cal. ; consists of seven mines, among which are the Homeward 
 Bound, Wisconsin, Illinois, White Oak. Bowery, and Pennsylvania. The 
 
1144 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 company is running a deep drain tunnel to tap all of these mines. On 
 the Homeward Bound, the main shaft is sunk to the tunnel level 230 feet, 
 and drifts are being driven both ways on the line of the tunnel. Two 
 pumps, one eleven inch and the other eight inch, will be used to drain 
 the lower levels. On the Pennsylvania, work has also commenced. This 
 ledge has been quite extensively worked on the surface, the croppings 
 having been taken out and worked for about 900 feet. The ground, how- 
 ever, was always wet, and as the Pennsylvania company had uo pump- 
 ing machinery, no great depth was ever attained. The Menlo company 
 have purchased for this mine the pumping machinery and hoisting 
 works formerly belonging to the Alaska company, which have sufiicient 
 capacity to sink a shaft at least 800 feet. The new shaft is a double com- 
 partment one, and heavily timbered. 
 
 nierced Hydrati lie Company (The) is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of New York. The offices are at 33 Wall Street, New York. The 
 property of the company is located in Mariposa, Cal. The ore or gravel 
 IS auriferous. In February, the new cut of the company struck the old 
 river bed, which was looked on as a valuable discovery, and from the 
 appearance of the gravel bank, good developments are expected for some 
 time to come. Capitalization, 8300,000, in 120,000 shares of $5 each; non- 
 fl&spss fi!ti 1 p 
 
 Milboiirii Consolidated Company. The property covering an 
 area of 600 acres of ground is located in Sierra county, Cal. Their gravel 
 mine is three miles north of South Forks, at Bassett's, toward Gold Lake, 
 ten miles north of Sierra city. They have been sinking a shaft, having 
 let the contract for 800 feet at 31.99 per foot. The shaft when sunk 140 feet, 
 was in good-looking q^uartz gravel. Many boulders were encountered in 
 sinking the shaft, which impeded its progress. 
 
 Blonte Christo Consolidated Minine Company (The). 
 Butler Burris is Sec. Principal office is at 309 Montgomery Street, San 
 Francisco, Cal. The company's raining property is located at Spanish 
 Peak, Plumas county, Cal. Work is going on satisfactorily. Every cross- 
 cut and shaft more thoroughly proves the value of the property. A build- 
 ing for the engine has been put up, and the engine and air-compressor 
 are being put m place. A large Burleigh drill is also being fitted up. The 
 main tunnel is to be run ahead several hundred feet this winter, and it is 
 calculated that room for a large force of miners will be made by spring. 
 The developments lately made show that the rich blue gravel is plentiful, 
 and all that is necessary is time to open it and put it in a shape to handle 
 rapidly. This winter will be devoted to that purpose. 
 
 Slassachnsetts Sllnlng Company (The). The property is situ- 
 ated in Yuba county, Cal. The company are opening Garden Valley 
 claim, on Willow Creek, between Comptonville and BuUard's bar, which 
 property was mined to some extent in the early days, but the tailings from 
 the mines above drove out the miners, and covered the pay-gravel up 
 from twelve to twenty feet deep. It is now proposed to rework the whole 
 deposit. 
 
 UTevada Mining Company (The). The mines belonging to this 
 company are located at Richland, Nevada. Free gold and sulphurets is 
 the character and quality of the ore. Depth of tunnel is 200 feet ; tunnel 
 drifts. 400 feet ; ledge, eighteen to twenty inches in width — 1881. Very 
 encourag:ing prospects. 
 
 Nevada Reservoir and Ditch Company. The property is lo- 
 cated at Smartsvllle, Yuba county, Cal. The company is associated with 
 the Golden Gate company, and reports the second largest production in 
 the county. The gravel of this mine can all be worked from the bed- 
 rock to the surface, and will pay an average of forty-two cents to the 
 cubic yard. The Golden Gate claim has, during about ten years' work, 
 washed away some seven acres of land, which has produced $1,250,000. 
 
 Dfeir ITork Hydraulic Slinln^ Company. Their property is 
 located at Morristown, Sierra county, Cal. The company have com- 
 menced drifting in one of their claims, which is the first mining done by 
 that process in the camp. Storage dumps have been built, and every- 
 thing is in readiness for operating on an extensive scale. Sixteten men 
 are employed at present, but this force will be increased as soon as a suf- 
 ficient quantity of water can be procured. A large portion of the com- 
 pany's ground can only be worked profitably by the hydraulic process. 
 
 Wew Yorli Hill Gold Mining Company ^Thc) has property 
 located in Grass Valley, Nevada county, Cal. The New York Hill mine 
 has continued successful operations during the past year. In the spring 
 there was some falling off in the receipts, owing to the bad condition ot 
 the roads, caused bystormy weather, which prevented the hauling of ore 
 to the mill; but the quartz crushed yielded an average amount of bullion. 
 The workings of the mine are all in a favorable condition, and the pros- 
 pects are that it will continue to pay its regular dividends. Capitalization, 
 *5,000,000, in 50,000 shares of $100 each ; $195,000, amount of eight dividends 
 paid to September 1, 1881, the date of latest dividend, which was at the 
 rate of twenty cents per share: six assessments; total, $55,000 levied to 
 March 26, 1878, date of latest dividend; treasury reserve, June 10, 1882, 
 $14,539,86 ; no stock in the market. 
 
 IViaijrara Irrig;atlng and Water-Power Dlannfactnrlngf 
 Company (Tlie). The company's property is located in Bent county, 
 Col. The company has a capitalization of $100,000. 
 
 UTorth Carolina Gold niinlne and Reduction Company 
 (The) has offices at 205 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. The officers are 
 Wm. Morris Davis, Pres. ; Henry C. Davis, Sec. and Treaa. Directors, 
 Wm. Morris Davis, Chas. Gibbons, Edward M. Davis, Jr., W. J. Ladd, J. 
 N. A. Griswold, Henry C. Davis, Bern. Jacobs, and Edward M. Davis. 
 The property, comprising an area of 7373^ acres, is located at Salisbury, 
 N. 0. "rhe company was organized at Portland, Maine, February 9, 1881. 
 Capitalization, $1,000,000, in 200,000 shares of $5 each. 
 
 North Hlte and Yosemite Gold StlninK Company (The) 
 has offices at rooms 22 and 23, 58 Broadway, New York. The agents in 
 Boston, Mass., are H. Whitney & Co., 17 Milk Street; agents in Philadel- 
 phia, Pa., Tracey & Vail, 312 Stock Exchange Place. The oiTicers are H, 
 Spooner, Pres. ; L. F. Leaman, Sec. and Treas. ; H. Williams, Gen. Agent ; 
 W. W. Clewell, Financial Agent. The property of the company is located 
 in Mariposa county, Cal., and lies adjacent to the famous Hite mine. It 
 lies between two of the most celebrated and best paying mines, and pos- 
 sesses extraordinary advantages of timber : mill site and water privileges 
 equal to any in the State. Capitalization, $1,000,000, in 500,000 shares of 
 $2 each. 
 
 O^den Gold Minings Company (The). Officers, James E. 
 Thomas, Pres. ; John H. Avery, Sec. and Treas., Chicago, 111. Head- 
 quarters of the company, Chicago, 111. The mining property of this com- 
 pany are located in Ogden, Utah. Eight claims of 600 and 1,500 feet arc 
 owned by the company. Property lies between Taylor and WaterfnU 
 Canyons, and within three miles of the depot of Ogden City. Organized 
 in the year 1880 by Judge Brewster; capitalization, $1,000,000; per share, 
 $10. 
 
 Old Gold Mlnlni; Company (The). Date of organization at 
 Kiltory, October 22, 1881"; capitalization, $500,000. 
 
 Olscn Gold mining; Company (The). Officers, Milton S. 
 
 Latham, Pres. ; A. T. Beach, Sec. Principal office, 18 Wall Street, room 
 23 New York. The mining properties of this company are located in 
 Tuolumne county, Cal. Capitalization, $2,000,000; shares, 200,000; par 
 value, $1 ; stock quoted July 1, $34.75. „ _ ^ ^^ , 
 
 Ontario Mliie (The), owned by Lieutenant-Gov. Tabor. The loca- 
 tion of Ontario mine owned by Gov. Tabor is in Summit county. Col., near 
 French Gulf. The developments are by shafts. The ores met with are 
 of good quality. ,_,_ . . „ 
 
 Oregon Hydraulic Gold Miningr Company (The) has offices 
 at 414 California Street, San Francisco, Cal. 'The property of the company 
 is located in Oregon. Organised with a capitalization of $60,000, in 3,000 
 shares of $20 each ; dividends paid to December 10, 1881 ; aggregate, $2,- 
 250; amount of latest dividend, December 10, 1881; twelve and a half 
 cents per share ; stock quoted: .,',,.. .„ 
 
 Original Gold Hill Gold and Silver mining Company 
 (The)" Officer, J. M: Buffington. Principal office, 309 Canforma Street, 
 San Francisco, Cal. The mining property of this company is located in 
 Nevada. . , ^ ^ ,, ^ i 
 
 Oriental Company (The). The mines are located on what is 
 known as the Canada Hill Channel, Placer county, Cal. They have sunk 
 a prospect shaft in the cement eighty feet to bed-rock, and drifting from 
 it found ground warranting the running of a bed-rock tunnel next sea- 
 son. The Canada Hill Channel is at an elevation of about 7,000 feet, and, 
 contrary to the ordinary course of the buried river channels of the Sier- 
 ras, runs from west to east. The gold is a coarse quartz, very little washed, 
 and often connected with its original quartz matrix. The sources from 
 which this quartz comes are evidently ledges in the immediate vicinity, 
 Several of these ledges have been prospected, and yield well. 
 
 Oriental Mining Company (The) has property located in Ne- 
 vada. The total length of main lode on which the company depends for 
 its supply of ore is 1,.500, the size of the claim being 300 by l,!iOO feet. The 
 company is organized with a capital of $2,000,000, in 200,000 shares of $10 
 each. 
 
 One Thousand and One Gravel Company (The). The prop- 
 erty is located in Sierra county, Cal. The company is steadily driving ita 
 main tunnel, now 960 feet long, and contemplate also sinking for the bed- 
 rock, which is supposed to be about twenty feet below the tunnel-level. 
 A scarcity of water has somewhat retarded their operations. 
 
 Ourang Outang Quartz mining Company (The). The 
 mines owned by this company are located at Shaker Ridge, Amador 
 county, Cal., southeast from the Golden Gate mine. Mr. Heath, from 
 Whitmore's mill, struck some very fine ore and diggings on Mill creek. 
 
 Painsville Company (The). Their mining property is located 
 in Ord district, San Bernardino county, Cal. The ore is of rather low 
 grade for milling, yielding principally gold. The company has spent 
 over $35,000 in developments, and now contemplates building a mill oil 
 the Mohave, twenty miles away, and also a tramway from mines to mill. 
 The chief claims are the Painsville and the Kio Vista, on which shafts 
 have been sunk with communicating tunnels and horizontal drifts. 
 Besides these, there are the Coupon, Last Chance, Central, Modesto, Jo- 
 sephine, etc., all belonging' to the same company, and upon all of which 
 some work has been done. 
 
 Park Range Mining and Prospecting Company (The). 
 Stockholders, A. W. Campbell, George H. Kobinson, W. D. Chapman, 
 James H. Hawley, Wm. M. Glasson, F. B. McNorton, E. N. Fenkell, and 
 others. One hundred and sixty acres owned by the company, mill run 
 two and one-half to 176 ounces in gold. Veins showing 700 feet above 
 the primitive rock. Capitalization, $50,000 ; shares, 5,000 ; par value, $10. 
 
 Phcenlx Company (The). The property is located in Sierra county, 
 Cal. The company have developed a chimney 250 feet long ; the ledge 
 is from three to six feet wide, and the ore averages $30 to the ton. It is 
 reported that the owners lately refused $125,000 for this mine, which 
 speaks well for the confidence they have in its richness and perma- 
 nency. 
 
 Placer mines (The). Quirolo & Co., owners. The Placer mines 
 are located in Amador county, Cal. More work has been done around 
 Pine Grove than for years. Quirolo & Co. have a hydraulic claim in full 
 blast. Grass Valley running a good force under the management of J. 
 Bradshaw. J. L. Wheeler .is operating a claim near the Grove. W. R. 
 Hayes and others have been employed on a placer mine on the Stanley 
 branch. 
 
 Plumas Eureka Gold Mining Company. Office, Merchants' 
 Exchange, San Francisco, Cal. The company's mine, the Plumas Eu- 
 reka, is locatedin the State of California, near Jamison city, Plumas county, 
 on the top of a mountain some 3.000 feet from or above the creek, and is 
 said to be one of the best imbedded quartz tnines in the State. The tun- 
 nel is 3,400 feet in length. The quartz is drawn out in large iron cars by 
 mules, each car containing one and a half tons of quartz, and five cars 
 are taken out each trip. The lode is from four to twenty feet in width. At 
 the mouth of the tunnel is a large steam-boiler; the steam is forced in 
 through iron pipe, driving two engines in the mine used for hoisting ore. 
 There is no waste rock, everything is crushed. Their mills are run by 
 water-power. A lake is located on the top of the mountain from which 
 water is obtained. The company built a new sixty-stamp mill at the foot 
 of the mountain. It has sixty stamps, three ore-breakers, self-feeder, twen- 
 ty-four pans, and all modern Improvements for saving gold. All the ma- 
 chinery is run by a turbine wheel. A tunnel is now running from the 
 mill to the lode, and will tap the lode at least 1,000 feet lower than it has 
 ever been worked before. This mine is systematically worked, and 
 appears to be on a sound financial basis. The mine has a current value 
 of $510,812. Capitahzation, $1,062,600; par value per share, $100. Total 
 amount of assessments levied, $1,599,219. Date of latest dividend April 14, 
 1882, seventy-Hve cents per share. Stock quoted June 10, 1882, $12.50. 
 
 Plumas National (tuartz Mining Company's property is 
 located at Loda creek, Plumas county, Cal. The ore is quartz, rich in sul- 
 phurets. The company's property includes seven fine concentrators, to 
 collect sulphurets, and it is their intention to add a furnace and ciilorl- 
 nation works. Total value of plant, $300,000. Valuable developments are 
 reported in the lower tunnels. Main pay shutc is over 600 feet in length, 
 with rich pay ore still in the face. There is a supply of ore many years 
 ahead of present capacity for crushing. Capitalization, $1,000,000 ; par 
 value per share, $10. Total amount of dividends paid, $141,000. Date of 
 latest dividend, July 22, 1879, eight cents per share. No assessments have 
 been levied. Stock quoted July 1, $1.90. 
 
 Prince Albert Gold Mining Company (Tlie), of which T. B. 
 Donaldson is the Supt., and D.J. H. Eae, Pres. and Man., is organized 
 with a capital of $60,000, in 60,000 shares of $1 each. 
 
 Pigeon Roost Mining Com pany (The). The property belong- 
 ing to this mining company is located in Lumpkin county, Georgia. 
 Machinery operated by a turbine water-wheel. The mine is well dc^•l'l- 
 oped and provided with the host appliances to secure economy and 
 emclency. Considered the richest mine of the section in which it is 
 located. Yield, gross, during 1879, $36,000; probably same for 1880. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1145 
 
 Paradise Mining Company (The). The mining property be- 
 longing to this company is located at Paradise district, Nevada. Very 
 ricli ore ; eighteen tons daily. This company employ forty men. Ships 
 nearly 200,000 tons monthly. Property owned is a twenty-stamp mill ; 
 fifty cents per share. 
 
 Pacific Consolidated Mining Compan}^. The company's 
 property is located in the State of California. Capitalization, $600,000; 
 par value per share, SlOO ; total amount of assessments levied. 8126,000 ; 
 date of latest assessment, January, 1882, twenty cents per share. 
 
 Rappabannocti Miniiis Company is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of New York. Office, 60 Broadway, New York. The com- 
 pany's property is located in Stafford county, Virginia, and covers an area 
 of 34.') acres, including buildings worth 56,500, and machinery valued at 
 SIO.OOO. The ore is free milling and carrying gold, and has a value of 
 $12 per ton. Date of organization, July 22, 1879; capitalization, $260,000; 
 par value per share, $1 ; basis, non-B£sessable. 
 
 Red Hill Hydrauiic ^ilnins and Water Company. This 
 company's property is lp,dted at West Branch, Feather river, near 
 Magalia, California. The Red Hill is one of the oldest claims in the 
 country, its location dating back to 18,')2. Late expenditure of $30,000 has 
 been made in dams, flumes, giants, pipes, buildings, etc. The property 
 is underthedircctionof experienced miners. Six assessments have Deen 
 levied, the latest was levied May 10, 1882, at the rate of ten cents per share. 
 
 Kenfretr Uold IMiining^ Company (The) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of Maine. Dr. Julio H. Itae is General Manager. The 
 company's property is located at Renfrew, Nova Scotia, tovering an area 
 of 134 acres. 'There are ten -good veins of free ^old quartz, 'f he com- 
 
 gany owns one eight stamp mill, hoisting and milling machinery driven 
 y water-power, houses, shops, and tools. Date of organization, October 
 30, 1881 ; number of dividends paid to March 1, 1882, three ; date of first 
 dividend, January, X882; amount, $600,000: date of latest dividend, March 
 20, 1882, paid at the rate of one per cent, of capital stock. 
 
 Ri'sumption mining; and Smelting Company iS' chartered 
 under the laws of the State of New York. Office, 35 Wall Street, rooms 7 
 and 8, New York. The company's mining property consists of the Niwot 
 Gold and Silver mine, located at Ward mining district, Boulder county. 
 Col. The company has a capitalization of $o00,000 ; par value per share, $1. 
 
 Rlccl A Coiiipany's Kline (The), Mr. George Bowen, owner. 
 This property is located at El Dorado, Cal. Remunerative since 1866. 
 
 Rising Sun Golil Hinlug Company is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of New York. X,. D. Cortright is Secretary. Office, 18 
 Wall Street, New York. The company's mine, the Rising Sun, is located 
 in Placer county, Cal. The ore is high grade, free milling quartz, and 
 assays $28 per ton. The ledge is three and a half feet wide. The com- 
 pany owns a new twenty-stamp millj which was reported to be running 
 on full time July 1, 1882. The engine is being replaced by a new and 
 larger one ; self-feeders will be put in ; another pair of Eureka rubbers 
 will be added, and the concentrating machinery will be increased in pro- 
 portion to the increased capacity of the mill. IThe pumping engine is also 
 to be replaced by a larger engine. In order that there may be no doubt 
 about keeping the twenty-stamps employed, a new hoisting shaft is being 
 sunk on the ledge some 800 feet west of the present works. This shaft is 
 now down a little more than 150 feet on a large, well-defined ledge of 
 highly sulphureted ore, showing considerable free gold, which is reported 
 as .surpassmg the best ore ever mined in the eastern part of the mine. It 
 has gradually been improving in condition the past month. The ledge in 
 the 500 level west has also gradually improved since it was struck both in 
 strength and richness, and if it holds out as it gives promise, the produc- 
 tion will be verj[ largely increased. The mine has a current value of $23,- 
 000. Capitalization, $7o0.000 ; par value per share. 9o ; basis, non-assessa- 
 ble; total amount of dividends paid to May 31, 1881, gjl,875; date of latest 
 dividend. May 31, 1881, at the rate of seven and a half cents per share. 
 
 Robinson Oold Mine. The officers are Lewis Robinson, Pres. ; 
 George G. Fryer; Treas. : Daniel Carhart, Sec. The directors are L. W. 
 Robinson, G. G. Fryer, E. P. Roney, Alfred H. Cordey, G. C. Fitzgerald. 
 Ed. P. Roney is Superintendent. 'This property lies in the gold belt in 
 Spottsylvania county, Virginia, about eighty-two miles from Washington, 
 and five miles from the Potoiflac, Fredericksburg, and Piedmont (Narrow 
 Gauge) Railroad. The gold belt in this section of Virginia is from fifteen 
 to twenty iniles in width, running in a nortli-east and south-west direc- 
 tion, and belongs to the Montalban group of tlie Archaen formation, the 
 strata being composed of a series of slates interstratified with trap-dykes, 
 veins of gold-bearing quartz, seams of iron, manganese and copper ores, 
 and overlaid in many places by the debris of the same carrying much 
 free gold forming placers, which have been worked profitably during the 
 
 £ast fifty years with very rude and simple processes. Little prospecting 
 as been "done so far owing to the property being so heavily timbered. 
 No developments except a dam and a few sluices. 
 
 Rocky Point Kliuingr Company. The company's works are 
 located a few miles above Auburn, on the middle fork of the American 
 river. Placer county, Cal, They are putting in full time prospecting their 
 claim, working day and night. Some payiug gravel has been taken out 
 of this mine. 
 
 Sierra Nevada Company (The). Mr. John Steel. Hang. The 
 property belonging to the company is located at Cedar Hill, CaL Rich 
 quartz gr Id. 'The mines are entered by drifts. The whole hill is report- 
 ed to be so rich in gold that, could water be obtained, it would pay to 
 sluice down everything sluicable found on its surface.. 
 
 Sailor Flat Hydraulic Klininsr Company. The property is 
 located at Blue Tent, Nevada county, Cal. They made their first clean 
 up in March, taking out for the season a considerable amount of gold. 
 
 Sacramento llliuing; Company is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of Colorado. The officers are W. B. Ftue, Pres.; J. Hobson, Vice- 
 Pres. ; K G. Lay, Sec. aind Treas. Offices. 62 Broadway, rooms 12 and 13, 
 New York, and Sacramento. Cal. The company's mining property is lo- 
 cated six miles west of Fairplay, at the head of Sacramento Gulch, Park 
 county. Ool. The property embraces seven mining claims, covering sev- 
 enty acres. The ore body varies from one-half foot to nearly six feet in 
 tliicknes.s, mainly argentiferous galena. Value per ton, $'260. Date of 
 organization, December 21, 1878. Capitalization, $2,000,000; par value per 
 share, $10. Basis, non-a-sessahle. Stock, full paid. 
 
 Sam Christian Ool<i Mining; Company. The officers are G. 
 A.Benson, Pres.; C. W. Schwartz, Vice-Pres. ; H. B. Carpenter, Sec. and 
 Treas. Directors, G. A. Benson, C. W. Schwartz, H. B. Carpenter, N. S. Hig- 
 gins. W. R. Stoekham, J. R. Vallance. W. 1. Sharpless. 'The Superintend- 
 ent is N. S. Hi^ins. The company's property is located in Montgomery 
 county, N. C. 'The property embraces the Placer and Creek deposits, on 
 the Wilson Moor and Gains' ti-acts, besides those of the original South 
 Carolina tract. 1,200 acres, on Rock and Clark creeks. The company has 
 a capitalization of $000,000. Par value per share, $10. 
 
 Sampson Flat Mines (The), owned by Little, Beebe & (3o. The 
 Big Sampson mine, belonging to this company, is located in Fre-suo 
 . CO anty, CaL Assays $90 to $100 in gold per ton. Ledge, eight feet wide. 
 
 Seaton Gold Mining; Company. A. Warren Is Treas. Office, 
 528 California Street, San Francisco, Cal. The Seaton mine, owned by 
 the company, is located it Dayton, Aniado county, Cal. Number of as- 
 sessments levied, one ; date of assessment, June 6, 1882. Fifteen cents 
 per share. 
 
 Senate Mine. Owned by Hon. James Moynahan. Location of mine, 
 near Alma county, Mosquito Town, Col. Character of ore, gold. Assays 
 per ton. $.50. Vein is from three to five feet in thickness. 
 
 Sir Roderick I>hu Oold Mining; Company. John McGinnis, 
 Jr., is Pres. The company's property is located at the Black Bills, Da- 
 kota, adjoining the Father De Smet mine. The company have a fine lOO- 
 stamp mill at the works. Capitalization, $2,000,000 ; par value per share, 
 $10. 
 
 South Kite Minings Company (The). Officers. F. A. Berlin, 
 Sec, California; J, T. Fowler. Assist. Sec, New York. Date of meeting, 
 annual election, January 9. General office, 4'29 Montgomery Street, room 
 '29, San Francisco. Cal. Rooms 44 and 45, No. 35 Broadway, New York. 
 The mines are located in Kite's Cove, Mariposa county. Cal. Capitaliza- 
 tion, $2,500,000 ; shares, 100.000; par value, $100. Dale latest as,iessment, 
 May 3, 1882 ; amount per share, 10 cents. Mining Record, June 17. 
 
 South Side Milling and Minins Company Cl'be). Officers, 
 J. F. Tabor, Pres. ; John J. McGowan, Sec. General office, Nos. 4 and 5 
 Boston Block, Leadville, Col. The mining property belonging to this 
 company is located in Lackawana Gulch, Lake county. Col. Gold- 
 bearmg quartz veins. Capitalization, $3,000,000; par value, $10 per-share. 
 
 South Idaho Quartz Mining' Company (The.) Directors. A. 
 Teal, E. E. Webster, W. A, Nygle, C. H. Moore, A. St. Paul. The mining 
 property of this company is located in Nevada county, C^I. Company 
 was organized March 3, 1880; capitalization, $300,000. 
 
 South Zuba Water Mining Company (The) of New York. 
 The mines of this company are located in Nevada and Placer counties. 
 Cal. Medium grade ore ledge, four feet thick. Property owned is Rich- 
 mond power-drills. Fine concentrators in mill, which is kept running 
 night and day. Canals and ditches in thorough repair. The Fordyce 
 and the manyother reservoirs of this company contain 1,800,000,000 cubic 
 feet of water, or capacity for such a quantity. Length of upper level, 
 300 feet ; lower or main, 700 feet. Organized at New York. Amount of 
 dividends paid to October 15, 1881, $82,000; date of latest dividend, Octo- 
 ber 15, 1881, seventy-five cents per share. 
 
 Spring Valley Hydraulic Company (The) is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of New York. Directors, A. K. P Harman. Isaac L. 
 Regna, Thomas H. Williams, C. C. Frank. The mining property, con- 
 sisting of the Cherokee Flat Blue Gravel mine, located in Oreville, Butte 
 county, Cal. ; 1,200 acres of land owned by the company. Ore slightly 
 mixed with platinum of the finest quality, assaying 950 to 985, fine gold. 
 Current value of mine, $580,000. Upwards of a milhon dollars expended 
 in conslrueting ditches and reservoirs, purchasing farms, which were 
 covered with tailings, and for other improvements which are intended 
 to give permanency to the mines. There are eighty miles of dltcJies and 
 several miles of iron pipe, carrying over 2,000 inches of water. A tunnel 
 nine feet by nine feet high is being run, which will open the mine 100 
 feet deeper, so that from fift^ to eighty feet of bottom gravel can be 
 worked ; and, as this is very nch, it is estimated that the production will 
 be increased to $700,000 per annum. A large force of men are employed, 
 and about fifteen hydraulic chiefs are at work. The mines are ligntea 
 by electricity, reports say, with perfect satisfaction. Property owned, 
 100 miles ditches, 400 acresof reservoirs, 3,300 acres of put-up ground for 
 tailings. Date of organization. March, 1879 ; capitalization. $200,000, jar 
 value, $1 each. Yield during 1881 , $74,500. Amount of dividends paid 
 to January 6, 1881. $60,000; date of latest dividend. January 5, 1881; 
 amount, twenty-five cents per share. Stock quotalions, July 1, 1882, 
 $2.75. Maximum yearly capacity of production, January 1, 1882, 8500,000. 
 Wages paid to all classes, $2,500. 
 
 Stanilard Consolidated Mining Company (The) is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of California. The officers are R. Cook. Vice- 
 Pres., and W. \\illis. Sec. Offices at 26 Exchange Place, New York, and 
 room 29, 309 Montgomery Street, Nevada Blocli:, San Francisco, Cil. The 
 companyowns the Standard and Bulwer claims, 1,200 by 1,500, located on 
 Bodie Bluff, Mono county, Cal. The ore is of fair average grade, assaying 
 about $60 per ton. Ledges of this ore vary from five to twenty-five feet 
 in width; the rock is somewhat hard; depth of workings, 2,400 feet; 
 length of drifts and cross-cuts, 1,139 feet. The company has seven mills 
 aggregating 120 stamps, including Bulwer Standard of thirty stamps 
 averaging 120 tons per day ; total capacity of stamps about 400 tons per 
 day ; yet insufficient or inadequate to present requirements, April 26, 1882. 
 During past week the company crushed 1,308 tons of ore, from which 
 was received, crude bullion, 3,265 ounces, worth $15,420. This company 
 has also a foundry and machine-shop, prepared to do all kinds of casting 
 and machine work for mills and mines; the cupola and crane of fuU 
 capacity of heat for all present demands ; two steam hoisting works ; 
 large air-compressors ; Cornish pump, etc.. of capacity to sink 2,000 feet ; 
 150 men are employed; developments were commenced in 1877. The 
 present condition and prospects of this great mine are too well known to 
 need comment. Only in Januarv last (18821 the mine produced in gold, 
 $145,954, and in silver, $14,190. Current value of the mine is $1,725,000. 
 The mine was purchased for a nominal sum a few years ago by the C^ok 
 Bros., who still retain a controlling interest. It was not incorporated 
 until it was sufficiently developed to show a business proposition. In 
 this respect it differs from scores of other mining corporations. LTsually, 
 the incorporation of a claim takes precedence of its development. That 
 is a strong point with a certain class of operators, who think thev have 
 nothing of value until the certificate book is ready. The Standard has 
 never been assessed. The Standard paid fifty-three dividends in fiftv-one 
 consecutive months. Thedividendsof theStandardhavebeen asfoliows: 
 
 September, 1877 $50,000 
 
 October .'. 50,000 
 
 November 50.000 
 
 December 50,000 
 
 January, 1878 50.000 
 
 February 50,000 
 
 March 50,000 
 
 April 50,000 
 
 May 50,000 
 
 June 60.000 
 
 July - 50,000 
 
 August 60.000 
 
 September 60,003 
 
 October 50 000 
 
 November 50,000 
 
 December 50,000 
 
 January, 1879 60,000 
 
 February. «... 50,000 
 
 March $50,000 
 
 April 50.0CO 
 
 May 60,000 
 
 June 60,000 
 
 July. 50,000 
 
 August £0,000 
 
 September 50,000 
 
 October 50,000 
 
 November 5C0.000 
 
 December 50.0OT 
 
 January, 1880 60.CO0 
 
 February tO,000 
 
 March 75.000 
 
 April _ 7.%000 
 
 May T.'),000 
 
 June 7i.000 
 
 July 7.\000 
 
 August 75,000 
 
U46 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 May ■ ?75,000 
 
 June '5,000 
 
 July AOOO 
 
 August 75.000 
 
 September 75,000 
 
 October 75,000 
 
 November 75,000 
 
 December 160,000 
 
 September 875,000 
 
 October 75,000 
 
 November 75,000 
 
 December 150,000 
 
 January, 1881 75,000 
 
 February 75,000 
 
 Marcb 75,000 
 
 April 75,000 
 
 Total 83,300,000 
 
 Organized, April 11, 1877; capitalization, 810,000,000, in 100,000 shares 
 of $100 each ; yield to January, 1880, 51,239 tons of ore ; value in gold, 
 $2,990,000; in sUver, $179,386 ; total, 83,169,386. 
 
 1877 $784,522 80 
 
 1878 1,025,383 35 
 
 1879 1,448,845 47 
 
 1880 1,858,763 46 
 
 Total .... 85,117,515 08 
 
 Total dividends paid, 84,125,000, to June 12, date of latest dividend of 
 seventy -five cents per share ; $50,000 was levied in assessments to July 
 1878, the date of latest assessment; stocli reserved in treasury, $267,494; 
 stock quoted July 1, 818.25. The yield during 1881 is estimated at over 
 82,000,000. 
 
 State I^lne Oold Mliiin§r Company (Tlie) is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of New YorJc. Officers, Lee R. Shyrock, Pres. ; 
 George D. Roberts, Treas. ; D. F. Verdenai, Sec. ; Isaac M. Taylor, Supt. 
 The names of the mines owned by the company are State Line Gold 
 Mining Company, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, located on Gold Mountain district, Es- 
 meralda county, Nevada. The following assays of State Line ores were 
 made at our request by Professor Richards, of tl^e Institute of Technology. 
 These assays are from samples taken at random from a shipment of ore 
 recently received from the mines, represented as the average sample roek 
 in the drifts. Much of the ore runs into the thousands, as reported by 
 Professor Kaufman. The assayer at the mines represents the average 
 ore as considerably over $100. Sample No. 1 assayed 8477.48; No. 2, $409. 
 27 ; No. 3, 831 gold. So far as appearances go, one could not detect any 
 difference in the sample of quartz. The quartz is of peculiar structure, 
 showing no free gold. Capitalization, $o,000,000; shares, 200,000; par 
 value, $25. 
 
 Star Consolidated OoUl Mining Company (Tbe) of Maine. 
 The mines belonging to this company are located in Boulder county. Col. 
 Capitalization, 250,000 shares ; 814,000 paid in. 
 
 Steep Hollow Oold Mining Company. Office. 310 Fine Street, 
 San Francisco, Cal. Location of works, Liberty Hill district, Nevada 
 county, Cal. 
 
 Summit Oold Mining Company (Tlie). Officers, W. H. Lent. 
 Sec. Office, 309 Montgomery Street, San Francisco. Cal. The mines of 
 the Summit Mountain Company are located in California. 
 
 Swamp Angel Oold Mining Company (The). Officer, Charles 
 W. Badger, Sec. Office, 315 California Street, San Francisco, Cal. The 
 mines belonging to this company are located in California. 
 
 Sonora Consolidated Mining Company (The) is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of New York. The officers are 0. G. Dawson, 
 Pres. ; H. K. Adams, Sec, and C. P. Wood, Treas. ; Geo. S. Herrick, Supt. ; 
 Offices, 43 Exchange Place, New York. The company owns seven mines ; 
 the Sonora, Polar Star. War Eagle, Pogonip, Pocosillo, Ontario, and Mar- 
 garita, located in Bodie, Cal. The location is considered most favorable. 
 The developments consist of a double comjartment shaft, timbered to a 
 depth of 107 feet, now cross-cutting on the vein formation. Capitalization, 
 810,000,000, in 100,000 shares of $100 each; non-a-ssessable for ever. Title 
 complete ; 812,000 has been paid in dividends. 
 
 Stein's Pass Mining Company is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of New York. The officers are W. Barker, Pres. ; A. Daprat, 
 Treas.; J. S. Sherburne, Sec. Office, 66 Broadway, room 46, New York. The 
 company's mine, the Alaska, is located in New Mexico. A very rich body 
 of ore has been uncovered in the Alaska mine, situated in the vicinity of 
 Hard Money mine. This is one of the most important strikes made in 
 tliis vicinity for some time. The shaft is 200 feet deep. Capitalization, 
 81,000,000 ; par value per share, 85 ; basis, non-assessable ; full paid. Treas- 
 ury reserve, 80,000 .shares. 
 
 True Mining Company (The). The mines owned by this com- 
 pany are the Young Harman, True, and Halleck, 300 feet. liOcated m 
 Placerville, El Dorado county, Cal. Assays per ton, Y'oung Harman, 86 
 to $8 per ton. True mine, $8 to $15. Property owned, a stamp-mill, wafer- 
 power, 1,000 feet seven-inch pipe, and fall of 500 feet, requiring only 
 thirteen feet of water to run the mill. Cost of milling per ton, $1.25. 
 
 Tnolumne Oold Mining Company (The). Officers, George 
 E. Eager, Pres. ; Charles WendalT, Sec. General office, 69 Milk Street, Bos- 
 ton, and 21 Nassau Street, New York. Located in Tuolumne county, Cal. 
 The company has 125 miles of ditches, six miles of flumes. Grade of 
 ditches, eleven to thirty-two miles ; total cost of plant, 8300,000 ; ditches 
 cost about $4.60 per yard, flumes, 814 per yard, and pipes $6 per yard. Cap- 
 italization, $1,000,000; shares, 200,000; par value, 85. 
 
 Taylor Plnmas Oold Min Ing Company (The) has its office at 
 62 Broadway, (basement,) New York. The ofilcers are O. D. Russell, Pres. ; 
 J. G. Moody, Sec. and Treas. ; W. B. Bransford, General Supt. The com- 
 pany owns the Taylor Plumas mine, located in Greenville district, Plu- 
 mas county, Cal. A tunnel is being driven into (he mountain along the 
 line of the lode, which daily improves bcith in width and richness. The 
 face of the drift now shows five feet of high grade ore. Capitalization,$l,- 
 000.000, in 200,000 shares of $5 each; non -assessable. 
 
 University Oold Mining Company. W.L.Oliver Is Sec. Office, 
 328 Montgomery Street. San Francisco, Cal, The company's property is 
 located in Bodie district, Cal. Extent of claim, 200 by 1,600 feet. The 
 ore is much mixed, and low grade, assaying from nominal sum up to 8900 
 per ton. There are five different veins cut, varying from two to twenty- 
 two feet in width. The quartz from the twenty-two-foot vein averages 
 about 830 per ton, principally gold. The company has machinery for 
 operating the mine to a depth of 1,800 feet. The prospect shaft is 328 feet 
 deep, and the main shaft 670. Capitalization, 810,000,000 ; par value per 
 share, 8100. No dividends paid to June, 1882. Number of assessments 
 levied, ten ; total amount of assessments levied, 8107,600. 
 
 Utah Consoli'lated Mining Company is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of California, "rho directors are J. Meyers, Pres. ; J. 
 Kessayre, Vice-Pres.; C. H. Redmond, J. H. Kavangh, S. B. Hertderreioh. 
 Office, 309 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal. The company's min- 
 ing claims are the La Belle, Bredemyer. Meacnque, Waoht am Rhelm, 
 Ladle Anna, Bonissja. and Cologne, located in Virginia district, Nevada. 
 The character of the ore is carbonate of lead and galena, darrying free gold. 
 The ore assays on an average $67 to the ton. The main tunSel, Queen of the 
 
 West, is 300 feet in length, and there are sixother tunnels, aggregating 1,000 
 feet Depth of workings, 2,500 feet. The main lode on which the company 
 depends for its supply of ore is 1,000 feet in length. Date of organizauon, 
 Anril9 1872; capitalization, $200,000; par value per share, $100; number 
 of assessments levied, thirty-nine ; total amount of assessments levieu, 
 $1 300,000 ; date of latest assessment. May 4, 1882 ; amount per share, »1. 
 Floating indebtedness, April 1, 1882, 84,172. > .r^. . » 
 
 Vallecito Hydranlic Mining Company (Tbe). Directors, A. 
 J Bryant E P Pond, Wm. Dumphy, C. H. Livingston, H. M. Mitchell. 
 The mine's belonging to this company are located in Calaveras county, 
 Cal It was organized April 6, 1880 ; capitalization, 81.000,000. 
 
 Vein Mountain Mining Company's (The) property is located 
 eight miles south of Marion, on West N. C. Railroad, North Carolina, cov- 
 ering an area of 6,800 acres. The character of tbe mine is hydraulic, 
 gravel, auriferous. The ditch is six miles long, and the company has 150 
 feet head of water. c „. 
 
 Whitehall Mining Company (The). William A. Clear, Super- 
 intendent. The Whitehall mine is located in Spottsylvanm county, W. 
 Va. It is announced that the mine has been bought by a company, 
 among the members of which are Senator Call of Florida. Senator Jones 
 of Louisiana, Congressmen Springs and Berry, Delegate Luna of New 
 Mexico, and H. B. Clifibrd, a mining expert of Arizona. Commodore 
 Stockton worked the mine from 1848 imtil just before the war. The mine 
 Is said to have yielded 81,800,000 in pure gold since its discovery, as 
 shown by the books of the Philadelphia Mint. Within a space of three 
 square feet, at aUepth of twenty-eight feet. 8160,000 worth of pure gold 
 was taken out. Yield surprising anything known in the annals of min- 
 ing. Gold was first found there in 1806. 
 
 Wilderness Oold Mining Company (The) is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of New Jersey. Officers, William Reed, President; 
 J. T. Salter, Secretary. Directors, William Reed, S. Lawrence French, J. 
 D. Sargeant, George W. Dyer, C. H. Graham, and J. T. Salter. General 
 office. 333 ChestnutStreet, Philadelphia, Pa. The Belzara and Catharpion 
 mines, belonging to this company, are located in Virginia. The number 
 of acres owned, 1,090, Belzara mine, 374 acres; Catharpion, 716 acres. 
 The ore is very profitable to work. All necessary steam appliances. 
 Capitalization, 100,000 shares; par value, $5; non-assessable; amount of 
 stock issued, 100,000 shares; amount reserved in treasury, 50,000 shares. 
 
 Winona Oold Mining Company (The). Officers, B. Findley 
 Anderson, President; T. A. Koundey, Secretary and Treasurer. General 
 office, 61 Broadway, New York, room 7. The location of the mining 
 property of this company is on Gold Hill. Boulder county, Col. Capitali- 
 zation. $2,000,000 : shares, 200,000 ; par value, $10 ; non-assessable. 
 
 Willshlre Hydraulic Oold Mining Company (The) is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of New Jersey. In 1880, officers J. 
 S. Bailey, President; Thomas L. Watson, Treasurer; Edward F. Bailey, 
 J. S. Bailey, Jr., Treasurer; William Potts, Director. General office, (iO 
 Wall Street, New York. The mining property belonging to this company 
 is located at Cox's Bar, Trinity county, Cal. Own 104 acres. Two-thirds 
 of the mineral lands owned by this company are covered by banks of 
 gold-bearing gravel. A ditch and tunnel with a capacity of conveying 
 2,000 miners^ inches of water; four feet bottom, six feet top. two and a 
 half feet deep ; blacksmith shop, iron pipe giant. The grade of gravel is 
 about thirty cents per cubic yard, though under favorable conditions 
 five cents per cubic yard would leave a margin above expenses. 
 
 Ynba Oold Mining Company (The) has property located in Ne- 
 vada and Placer counties, Cal. 'Phe company has paid 84,000 in dividends 
 to September, 1881, date of latest dividend of $1 per share. The length 
 of the main lode on which the supply of ore depends is 1,200 feet. 
 • Tfreha Creeh Oold Mining Company (The). These mines 
 belonging to the above company are located in Siskiyou county, Cal. 
 The Cranston hydraulic elevator used. It is stated they are going_ to 
 work in earnest, having set aside 15,000 shares of their stock as working 
 capital. Expect to be able to work ground thirty-five or forty feet deep. 
 Capitalization, 50,000 shares ; each share, 8150. 
 
 Annctndale Iron Company is chartered under the laws of the 
 State of New Jersey. The officers are Lewis Barnes, President; E. P. 
 Carpenter, Secretary. Directors, John M. Robbins, E. P. Carpenter, Lewis 
 Barnes, W. J. String, W. A. Wade, and J. M. Halton. Branch office, 113 
 South Fourth Street, Philadelphia. The company own four mines, viz. : 
 The Sharp, Haver, Welsh, and Hoffman. The mines cover an area of 150 
 acres. Depth of shaft, fifty feet. Haver mine is now producing twenty 
 tons of iron ore per day. The company have a capitalization of 810,000,000, 
 in shares of $25 each; non-assessable; amountof shares reserved in treas- 
 ury, 1882, 1,400. 
 
 Argyle Iron Company (The), formerly the Pittsburg and Lake 
 Angeline Company, have their works located at Humboldt, Marquette 
 county, Mich. The officers are Don. M. Dickinson, President; Ligmund 
 Rothschild, Vice-President; Alexander H. Day, Treasurer; D. R. Show, 
 Secretary; W. W. Wheaton, General Manager. There is reported to be a 
 large show of ore on the company's property. Their plant includes one 
 of Merritt's 18 by 30 engines and 4 by 5 feet V-fHction drums. There are 
 about seventy -five hands employed. Stock and bonds are held princi- 
 pally in Detroit. Product has been as below : 
 
 Qross Tons, 
 
 1866 2,843 
 
 1867 4,928 
 
 1868 17,360 
 
 1869 19,151 
 
 1870 24,232 
 
 1871 26,437 
 
 1872 28,380 
 
 1873 38,968 
 
 Gi'oss Ton3. 
 
 1874 2,849 
 
 1875 12,804 
 
 1876 19,830 
 
 1877 10,419 
 
 1878 M^asi 
 
 1879 5,455 
 
 1881 4,684 
 
 Total 228,091 
 
 Battle Mountain Mines (The), viz., the Black Iron, Silverware, 
 Eagle Bird, Kingfisher, and Little Olive mines, are located at Bell's Camp, 
 Col. The ore contains carbonate and sulphate, lead ore, and iron. 
 
 Black Band Iron Ore Compnn.r (The). Officers, John Wool- 
 rldge. President; P. A. Dearborn, Treasurer, and W. S. Denny, all of Bos- 
 ton, Mass; J. H. Huling, of Charlestown. W. Va. Mines are located at 
 Davis Creek, Kanawha county, W. Va. Amount of property in acres, 
 3,500. The ore is compact and resembles in appearance cannel shale. 
 It contains a large percentage of iron which ia in the form of a*arbon- 
 alo. The principal coal is always found at about fifteen feet below the 
 base of the ore, and the thin streak of coal above the deposit seems alwa-\-s 
 to be purest. The ore is always between three and four feet in thick- 
 ness. Interesting &cts relative to the mine are ; Six beds of coal, rang- 
 ing in thickness ttom three feet five inches to ten feet, have been opened 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1147 
 
 on the land of this company. A bed of splint coal three to five feet thick 
 has been found under the blacli flint. Fortv feet below this is a bed of 
 black band iron ore. Twenty feet below this is the ten-foot coal bed. 
 Two coal beds, one of them four feet thick, have been exposed beneath, 
 the last above water level. 
 
 Breecc !Minin$r Company (The) is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of New York. Geo. \V. Dunn, Pres. Head office, 72 Broadway, 
 New York. Location of mines, Colorado. Prospects of the property are 
 good. The mine is looking extremely well, showing an abundance of 
 fine iron ore in nearly all the workings. The face of the incline and the 
 breasts of all the cross-cuts and stopes show magnificent iron ore. Two 
 slopes in mine, one about sixty feet by ninety feet ; the other, forty by ten 
 feet. Depth of shaft. 3-10 feet. Interesting facts ; at this mine there is an 
 excellent hematite of great purity, containing but a trace of silica and 
 other substances mixed through it ; for this reason Breece iron is in great 
 demand, the mine shipping thirty tons per day. Capitalization, 200.000 
 shares ; par value, $25 ; non-assessable. Number of dividends imid to Jan- 
 uary 1, 1882 ; total amount, $2,000. Date of latest dividend, February, X880. 
 ^ Stock quoted July 1, 1882, $1 per share. 
 
 Calumet Iron Company. The officers are W. B. Cornell, Pres.; 
 Geo. H. Cornell, Sec. ; R. McCurdy, Treas. ; John R. Wood is Supt. The 
 company's property is located in Marquette county, Mich., developments 
 of which were commenced July, 1881. The company owns two seven by 
 ten duplex Rochester engines, with three foot drums, to which will be 
 added Lane plant, with two drums of larger size. The Calumet, on the 
 Fitch tlountain range, is proving a veritable bonanza. The cross from 
 foot-wall of No. 2 shaft was fifty-four feet in ore on the 13th of July, 1882. 
 with no signs of the hanging-wall being near. Sixty-five men are em- 
 ployed, and more are added daily, and the force will be considerably 
 augmented as soon as the railroad reaches the mine, which is expected 
 in a month or two. The management expect to ship 20,000 tons of ore 
 this season. 
 
 Cambria Iron Company (The). This company's property is lo- 
 cated in Cambria county. Pa. Yearly amount of coal, 260.142 tons. 
 
 Champion Iron Company (The) is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of Michigan. Capt. James Pasco is the mining Supt The com- 
 pany owns the Northampton and the Champion mines, located in Mar- 
 quette county, Mich. The walls of the belt are quite regular. The ma- 
 cliinery and other plant is of the most improved pattern and of ample 
 capacitj'. There are machine, carpenter, and other shops and buildings. 
 A Rand twenty by forty-eight duplex compressor now being added to 
 present plant. The prospect of the mine, under tlie supervision of Capt. 
 Pasco, exceedingly promising; ore showing in abundance. This mine 
 stands fourth on the list in regard to its productive capacity. Scenery in 
 neighborhood of mine highly picturesque. The miue was discovered in 
 1867. Drill explorations are in continual progress. 450 men employed. 
 Or^nized, 1869 ; capitalization, $.300,000 ; shares, each, $26. Since 1867, in 
 which year the Champion deposit was first discovered, the annual product 
 of the mine has been as follows : 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 18fi8 6,255 
 
 1869 21,535 
 
 1870 73,161 
 
 1871 67,588 
 
 1872 68,408 
 
 1873 "72,782 
 
 1874 47,097 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 1875 ; 56,877 
 
 1876 66,002 
 
 1877 70,883 
 
 1878 73 464 
 
 1879 94,027 
 
 1880 112,401 
 
 1881 146,427 
 
 Total 957,907 
 
 Total yield to 1881, $1,454,270. 
 
 Cherry Vsilley Iron Company (The). Works located at Lec- 
 tonia, Ohio. Employ 6,000 workmen, use 6,000 tons of coal per month. 
 
 Claney Iron Company. The officers are John Clancy, Pres.; M. 
 W. Bates, Sec. ; J. M. Watson, Treas. The company's properfy is located 
 at Marquette, Mich. A force of men are employed in prospecting in 
 search of the wheat vein. 
 
 Cleveland Iron Company (The). J. C. Morse, Agent, Marquette, 
 Mich. ; D. H. Bacon, Superintendent, Ishpeming, Mich. Name of mines 
 owned. New Y'ork mine, and South Sunday. Location of mines, Mar- 
 quette county, Mich. Character and quality of ore, iron, firstclass. Pro- 
 perty owned by the company, mining plant, machine shop, carpenter 
 shop, two locomotive engines, new stone engine house with new pumping 
 plant. Date of commencing developments, 18f)4. Date of organization, 
 18^)3 ; yield net to January 1, 1882, $2,067,197. The following table shows 
 the annual production of the Cleveland during a period of thirty years : 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 1868 102,112 
 
 1869 106,133 
 
 1870 132,884 
 
 1871 142,658 
 
 1872 151,724 
 
 1873 133,265 
 
 1874 10.5,8.58 
 
 1875 129 881 
 
 1876 146,393 
 
 1877 152,188 
 
 1878 152,737 
 
 1879 131,167 
 
 1880 212,748 
 
 1881 198,569 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 1852-1854 3,000 
 
 1855 1,449 
 
 1856 '6,343 
 
 1857 13,204 
 
 laT8 909 
 
 1869 15,787 
 
 1860 40,091 
 
 1861 11,793 
 
 1862 40,364 
 
 1863 46.842 
 
 1864 44,959 
 
 1866 33,355 
 
 1866 42,680 
 
 1867 75,864 
 
 Total. 2,381,959 
 
 Columbia Iron Company (The). Officens, P. B. Shumay, Pres. ; 
 B. H. Jones. Sec. and Treas. ; C. M. Nicker, Gen. Maug. ; A. B. Meeker & 
 Co., Sales Agents. Name of mine owned, Kloman. Location of mine, 
 Marquette county, Mich. Character of the mine, vein of ore said to vary 
 from five to thirteen feet In thickness. Yield, net, to January 1, 1882, 70,- 
 311 tons; yield, gross tons, during 1881, 11,158. The Columbia mine pro- 
 duced in 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 1873 21,065 
 
 1874 35,088 
 
 1875 8,0.i9 
 
 1880 6.663 
 
 1S81 11,158 
 
 Total .... 82,033 
 
 Commonwealtb Iron Company (The). Officers, Alexander 
 Nlmick, Pres. ; W. W. Masters, Vlce-Pres. ; w. H. Harvey, Sec. and Treas. ; 
 
 H. A, Tuttle, Gen. Mang. Agent, W. E. Dickinson. Annual election. 
 May 3. Captain Dickinson, Sunt. Head and branch office, Cleveland, 
 O. The mines are located in Menominee county, Mich. Amount of 
 property in acres, 3,000. Quality and character of ore improving. In 
 progress of shaft downwards, hard, bluish-black color, velvety texture, 
 and conchoidal, splinting fracture. Property owned by the company. 
 Machinery consists of four drums— Frazer and Chalmers. Expect to use 
 power-drills soon. The property is yet in a crude state of development. 
 17,200 tons of ore ready for shipping May 1, 1881 , Yield (gross) to January 
 1, 1882 $608,812,50; yield (gross tons) during 1881, 97,910, 
 
 Conrad Iron Company (The). Officer, J, C, Morse. Pres. Oper- 
 ated by the Davids Brothers. Alexander Grant, Supt. Name of mines 
 owned, Two North Range, and another, probably the Sterling mine, lo- 
 cated at Marquette, Mich. Property owned by the company. Consider- 
 able surface improvements, chiefly at North Range. Prospects of the 
 property are considered promising, June, 1882. After having been idle 
 for some time, operations at this mine are about to be renewed. 
 
 Cranberry Iron Compan.y (The). Mines located in Mitchell 
 county, N. C. Cranberry company have discovered on their property in 
 Mitchell county, N. C, two veins of the finest magnetic ore, one eighteen 
 feet, the other thirty-four feet. They have tunnelled through the veins 
 in building a railroad. 
 
 Crystal Falls Iifinn Company (The). Officers, N. K. Fairbanks, 
 Pres. ; J. H. Howe, Vlce-Pres, ; F. H. Head, Sec. and Treas. Superintend- 
 ents, E. P. Mills (of Crystal Falls mine) and J. H. EUinore (of the Fair- 
 banks mine). The company owns (he Crystal Falls and the Fairbanks 
 mines, located at Crystal Falls, on Paint River, southwest of Marquette 
 county, Mich. The character of the mine Is somewhat peculiar, the vein 
 being twisted and distorted. There are railway facilities to the mine, but 
 no shipments of ore have been made. 
 
 nalliba Iron Mining Company (The). Officers, James H. 
 Dalliba, Pres.; W. S. Pollock. Sec; D. Z. Morton, Treas.; E. D. A. Skin- 
 ner and Walter Fitch. Local Agents. Mr. John Foley is Supt. The com- 
 pany own the Dalliba or North Dalliba mine, located in Marquette 
 county, Mich. The mine possesses the ordinary plant of an iron 
 mine.' There are about ninety men employed. Gross yield during 1881, 
 10,986 tons ; value, 860,423 ; all of whic^ was mined from a single pit, the 
 hanging wall of which has not yet been found. The daily yield at pres- 
 ent, December, 1881, is at the rate of 130 tons per day of twenty-four hours. 
 There is now on the ground, and ready for erection, a hoisting-plant, con- 
 sisting of engine and two thirty-inch drums. 
 
 £ast Champion Mining Company's works are located in Mar- 
 quette county, Mich, 'The directors are A. Kidder, Jas. Pascoe. J. R. Case, 
 F. B. Spear, and R. V. Travus ; Superintendent, Capt. Edwards. The Ea^t 
 Champion shipped her first cargo of the season the 1st of July, and will 
 send more after it in the near future, though no more work is being done 
 at present than is necessary to put the mine in good shape for future op- 
 erations. They are now raising thirty tons of ore per day, with a force of 
 less than twenty-five men. Property is fully equipped ; notwithstanding 
 its past vicissitudes, the property nowpromises to become one of the best 
 of the smaller mines of the district. There are 5.000 shares of stock, 2,000 
 to be sold at once to supply working capital, and balance as necessities of 
 company demanded. Product has heen as below : 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 1873 10,426 
 
 1874 227 
 
 1875 3,346 
 
 1876 7,716 
 
 1877 14,495 
 
 1878 . . .... 5.401 
 
 1879 .... 4,029 
 
 1880 . . ... . . 10,217 
 
 1881 . . 3,408 
 
 Total 64,264 
 
 Emmett Jllnlng Company (The). Officers are S. Kimberley, 
 Pres. ; Geo. Boyce. Vice-Pres. ; R. Williamson, Sec. and Trea«i. ; E. P. Fos- 
 ter, Agent. ; M. Harrington, Supt. The Keel Ridge Mine is owned by this 
 company. Located in Menominee county, Mich. Very fine situation for 
 mimng purposes. The yield net during 1881 consisted of 66,007 tons ore. 
 The gross tons for 1881 was 618 ; value, $3,564. 
 
 Erie Iron Company's (The) officers are E. H. Wright. Pres. ; Peter 
 Pascoe, Vice-Pres. ; W. A. Wright, Sec. and Trees. Directors. E. H. Wright, 
 W. W. Wright, Peter Pascoe, Byron H. Andrews.and F. H. Kearney. Su- 
 
 Eeriiitendents, Messrs. Wright, Martin, and Welch. The Erie mine, owned 
 y this company, is situated on the west side of the Michigan river, Mar- 
 quette county, Mich. Property on lease. The character of the ore is slate, 
 magnetic, martite, quartz, etc. The ore body is large, but is cut up with 
 alternate stratification^ of soap-stoue. Yield to July, 1882, under present 
 company, 3,000 tons. 
 
 Florence Minings Company. Mr. Alex. Kempt is General Man- 
 ager and Superintendent, with Capt. Budder, an experienced miner, in 
 charge of the underground work. The company's property is located in 
 Wisconsin. The mine is worked on the underground plan ; 350 men are 
 employed, fifty of them on the surface. Since the first shipment was 
 made, less than two years ago, the output has been as follows : gross tons, 
 1880, 14,143; 1881, 100,501; total, 114.644. 
 
 Forest City Iron ilinins Company. The officers are C. A. Otis, 
 Pres. ; T. H. Brooks, Treas. ; F. A. Bates, Sec. ; G. R. Tuttle, General Agent 
 and Supt. The company's property is located in Marquette county. Mich. 
 They own sixty acres of land. The ore is hard and soft hematite. 60 per 
 cent, metal. 'The company's surface plant is small, consisting of small 
 engine and larger engine in course of erection. The mine is now shut 
 down, supposed to be worked out. Development of the property was 
 commenced in 1880, Yield during 1881, ],895gross tons; value, $10,422. 
 
 Oleneary Consolidation 91inin^ Company (The). Officers, 
 Albert Sherwin, Pres, ; W, K. Clay, Vice-Pres. ; S. D. Wilder, Sec. and 
 Treas. J. W. Kennedy, Manager. Directors. Albert Sherwin, S. D. Wil- 
 der, Max Boehmer, J. W. Kennedy, W. K. Clay. J. G. Bedford, Leadville,' 
 Col.; M. B. Newoombe, Brecfcenridge, Col.; J. M. McCutcheoson, Mon- 
 mouth, 111. The company own the Glengary, Eclipse, Yates, portion of 
 Hidden Treasure, Little Vinnie. and Fulton lodes. The location of these 
 mines is on Breece Hill, Colorado ; twenty acres owned. Very promising 
 specimens of mineral have been obtained. Depth of shaft, ninety to 110 
 feet, showing from three to five feet of auriferous iron, 1881. Several 
 deep shafts have been sunk on the property. 
 
 Goodrich Dline (The), is owned and operated by Capt. Goodrich of 
 Chicago, is located in Marquette county, Chicago. Capt. H. Davis is the 
 Mining Superintendent. "The ore Is of a peculiar character and the form- 
 ation IS very irregular. A new three-foot Lane drum has lately been 
 added to the plant. The staff of men is about forty-five. The prospects 
 are good under the able superintendence of present Capt Da^is. To 
 
1148 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 January 1. 1851, the yield was 31,361 tons ; during 1861 the yield was 10,245 
 tons ; total, 41,606 tons. Below is given the annual yield since 1873 : 
 
 THE GOODRICH YIELD. 
 
 1873 
 1874 
 1875 
 
 Gross Tons, 
 . 3,258 
 . 1,300 
 . 1,780 
 
 1877 
 
 1878 7,547 
 
 1879 3,992 
 
 1880 ... 11,181 
 
 1881 10,245 
 
 Total 
 
 41,606 
 
 An observer has suggested with much earnestness the use of Bullock's 
 diamond drills on this tract as a most protitable iield, believing that a 
 rich slate will be revealed. 
 
 Grand Rapiiis Iron mining Company. The officers are I. J. 
 ■Whitfield, Pres. ; Marcus W. Bates, Bee. ; Isaac Philips. Treas. The com- 
 pany's works are located at Marquette, Mich.; they have forty acres on 
 lease. The ore is second-class silicious ore, and is found in deposits. 
 The use of the diamond drill is suggested as the easiest and most eco- 
 nomical means of discovering good ore. 
 
 Great Western Minlns; Company. The oiBcers are Sam'l C. 
 Hall, Pres. ; J. M. Case, Vice-Pres. ; S. D. HoUister. Sec. ; Geo. Kunkle, 
 Treas. and Gen'l Supt. This company was organized this year (1882). 
 Their property is located in Marquette county, Mich. 
 
 Halston Iron and Steel Company (Tlie.) The property of 
 this company is located in Virginia. Capitalization, $500,000. 
 
 If eela Iron Coanpany. The officers are E. Breitung, Pres. and 
 Treas. ; B. D. Jones, Sec. Location of works, Marquette county, Mich. 
 Tlie character of the ore is given as very fine, soft, blue specular, high in 
 metallic iron, and low in silica and phosphorus. Character of the mine ; 
 trend of formation from north-east to south-west, and the dip to tlie 
 south-east. Diamond drill employed in searching for and determining 
 the character of the veins. 
 
 Hematite 9Iinin§r Company (The). The officers are S. F. Jo- 
 seph, Pres. ; Rich. S. Fay, Treas. ; A. C. Towns. Sec. ; C. H. Hall, Agt. The 
 company's works are located in Marquette county, Mich.; 500 sixteeu- 
 power drills are employed. Maxuuum yearly capacity of production, 
 1881, 40.000 tons. 
 
 Humboldt Iron Company. General Manager, John B. Maas; 
 Superintendent, John Hosking. The company owns the Washington 
 mine, located at Marquette, Mich. The ore is rich specular schistose in 
 structure, often friable, and sounds leaden when struck with a hammer ; 
 other portions magnetic. The ore is between conglomerate and jasper 
 walls. Plant of nxachinery embraces one 16x24 engine, two four-foot 
 clutch drums, etc. Ingersoll's power drills are extensively used. The 
 prospects of the property are most promising ; mining force about 160. 
 Since the commencement of operations in 1864, the annual product of 
 the Humboldt has been as follows : 
 
 Oross Tovs. 
 
 1865 4,782 
 
 18C6 15,160 
 
 1867 25,440 
 
 1868 35,7i>7 
 
 1869 58,462 
 
 1870 79,763 
 
 1871 48,726 
 
 1872 38,841 
 
 Oross Tons. 
 
 1873 38,014 
 
 1874 27,890 
 
 1875 9,642 
 
 1876 3,333 
 
 1877 16,,545 
 
 1878 23,920 
 
 1879 18,204 
 
 1880 14,726 
 
 1881 26,302 
 
 Total 485,496 
 
 Indiana Iron Company (The). John A. Kruse, Pres.; D. W. 
 Irwin, Treas. ; K. C. Flannigan, Sec. ; E. P. Travers, Gen. Mang. The 
 property of the company is located in Menominee county, Mich., and 
 comprises an area of eighty acres. The ore is of uniform good quality, 
 average analyses giving 69.3 per cent, of metallic iron ; silica, forty-five per 
 cent., and barely a trace of phosphoru.=i. The first cargo of ore is reported 
 ready for shipment. The face of the vein shows rich ore. The weekly 
 output July, 1882, 600 tons. Developments weretfommenced on the west 
 40 in 1880. During 1880 the yield was 14,000 tons of rather inferior quality. 
 Yield during 1881. 683 tons; value, 83,166.60. 
 
 Iron l>nke Mine (The), owned by Messrs. Wylie & Hall, is 
 located in the township of Darling, Lanark county, Ontario. These 
 parties control about 1,200 acres of iron lands on which timber is plenti- 
 ful, both pine and hard wood. Main roads are good, though hilly, and 
 good winter roads can be got between the hills in any direction. The 
 ore is said to be of good quality, magnetic, free from titanic acid and 
 other injurious substances. Surface sample assays per ton 62.90 per cent. 
 Iron Cliflfs Mining Company (The) is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of Michigan. Capt. Sedgwick is the superintendent of one of 
 the chief mines, the Barnum. Tlie company owns four mines ; the 
 Barnum, Salisbury, Foster, and Section Twelve, all located in Marquette 
 county. Mich. The ore is high grade, especially that of the Barnum, 
 which has an extensive plant and employs about ninety men. The tun- 
 nel is 376 feet. Below is given the yield of the four mines during the 
 various periods of their existence, to the end of 1881. During the past 
 fourteen years the annual product of the Barnum has been as follows ; 
 
 Oross Tons. 
 
 1875 ;.. 48,209 
 
 1876 37.632 
 
 1877 37,609 
 
 1878 26,680 
 
 1879 24,015 
 
 1S80 24.5'22 
 
 1881 27,883 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 1868 14,380 
 
 1869 33,484 
 
 1870 44,798 
 
 1871 45,939 
 
 1872 38.381 
 
 1873 48.076 
 
 1874 41,403 
 
 Total 487,900 
 
 Since the mine was opened in 1872, the Salisbury yield has been as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 Oross Tons. 
 
 ]87'2 545 
 
 1873 U.023 
 
 1874 6,370 
 
 1875 4,571 
 
 1876 20,510 
 
 Oross Tons. 
 
 1877 37,869 
 
 1878 52,l.'i5 
 
 1879 39,293 
 
 1880 21,467 
 
 1881 43,690 
 
 Totai'..; ; 237,813 
 
 Product of Foster mine : 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 1865-8 6.000 
 
 1869 14,540 
 
 1870 23,458 
 
 1871 13;532 
 
 1872 18,684 
 
 1873 18,107 
 
 1874 
 
 1875 
 
 1876 
 
 1879 
 
 1880 
 
 1881 3,011 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 4,719 
 
 847 
 
 125 
 
 4,804 
 
 1,122 
 
 Total 108.9*9 
 
 The output of Section Twelve mine has been as follows; 
 
 Oross Tons. 
 5,027 
 
 1881. 
 
 13,243 
 
 Total 18,600 
 
 Iron Duke Mine (The). Owned by Messrs. Tingley and others. 
 The Iron Duke mine is located in Colorado. 
 
 Iron Mine (The). Owned and operated by Messrs. C. M. 'Wheeler 
 and J. H. King, the former residing in Marquette county. Mich., Mr. 
 King in Ohio. The mining property is located in Marquette county, 
 Mich. Soft hematite ore ; deposit all fifty feet wide. Yield net to Jan- 
 uary 1. 1881, 65,606 tons ore. 
 
 Iron Mining and Smelting Company (The), of which H. F. 
 Smith is Superintendent, has property located at Crested Butte, Gunnison 
 county. Col. The surface property comprises the smelting works, etc. 
 The company has a treasury reserve of 40,000 shares of the company's 
 
 Iron Mountain Pig Iron Company (The). Incorporated by 
 G. W. Applegate, B. F. Ruyers, A. C. Neall, John K. Brown. The mines 
 belonging to this company are located in Como district, Clipper Clap 
 Station, Nevada. (1880). This property was recently purchased by J. E. 
 Judson. " Giant Powder Man " works will be put up at once for making 
 pig iron. The company was organized in the year 1864. Capitalization, 
 600,000 shares. 
 
 Iron Kiver Mining Company (Tlie) has of&ces located in 
 Florence. Officers, John Stambaugh, Pres.; Geo. Boyce, Vice-Pres.; R. 
 MeCurdy, Sec. and Treas. ; J. P. Jones, Gen. Agent. Jas. N. Porter is the 
 Superintendent. The property, held on lease, is located in Marquette 
 county, Mich. The ore is a hard hematite, rich in metallic iron (about 
 sixty-two per cent.), and low in silica. The mine has a belt of clean ore 
 (mostly), averaging 100 feet in width by half a mile in length. 200 men 
 are employed, mostly in grading on the railroad, for which the company 
 has the contract. To Februarv last, date of latest dividend, the mine has 
 paid $1,660,000 in dividends. 
 
 Jackson Iron Company (The) has for its officers Abm. V. Berry, 
 I: M. Everett, S. T., G. W.,and F. W. Carr, E. M. Rockwell, F. W. Kirtland, 
 W. H. Munroe, A. W. Ernst, and F. Farrand. The mines are under the 
 able, supervision of Capt. H. Merry, who has had an experience of twenty 
 years or more. The company owns three mines, the Pioneer, the North 
 Jackson, and South Jackson, located in Marquette county, Mich. The 
 quality of the ore is superior. The formation of the vein or deposit is 
 much contorted. There is a new skiproafl at an angle of 66^ to the per- 
 pendicular. Developments were commenced in 1850. The men are 
 working in all directions wherever the ore leads them. The North mine 
 was surrendered to the Iron Cliffs Company at end of year 1881, in ex- 
 change for the Pioneer, opening of whicli that company held a lease, in 
 which the ore is reported to have been exhausted. The company was 
 organized in 1848; in 1881 the gross yield was 118,989 tons; \'alue, 
 S1.024,.500..60. Since tlie commencement, the annual production of the 
 Jackson has been as follows : 
 
 Oross Tons. 
 
 1869 125,908 
 
 1870 127,642 
 
 1871 132,297 
 
 1872 119,910 
 
 1873 130,131 
 
 1874 105,600 
 
 1875 90,.568 
 
 1876 98,480 
 
 1877 80,340 
 
 1878 83,121 
 
 1879 103,219 
 
 1880 120,620 
 
 1881 118.939 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 1856 and previous 30,000 
 
 1867 12.442 
 
 1858 10,309 
 
 1859 28,377 
 
 1860 41,295 
 
 1861 12.919 
 
 1862 46,096 
 
 1863 77,237 
 
 1864 83,905 
 
 1865 65,505 
 
 1866 92,287 
 
 1867 127,491 
 
 1868 130,524 
 
 Total 2,196,162 
 
 Jim Pascoe Mining Company (The). Walter Fitch, AgL Capt. 
 Foley is Superintendent. The company's mine, Jim Pascoe, is located in 
 Marquette county, Mich. The character of the ore is hematite. The 
 average width of slope is nearly fifty feet by thirty feet, and is one of the 
 largest deposits of hematite ore in the country, w'ith perhaps one or two 
 exceptions. The workings are chiefly on the surface. 'The company's 
 property includes largo mining plant, Merritt's hoisting engine'. About 
 fifty men employed. Jiily 1, 1882. 
 
 Keystone Iron Company (The) owns property in Marquette 
 county, Michigan. The ore contains a rather large proportion of phos- 
 phorus. The formation of the deposit is somewhat irregular. Develop- 
 ments were commenced about 1873. In the spring of last year the 
 prospects of the mine were not promising. During isisi the yield was 
 3,408 tons ; value. $27,261. 
 
 I>axey Mining <'ompan.y (The). The officers are J. Q. Adams, 
 Pres.; P. B. Kirkwoocl, Sec. and Treas.; H. M. Atkinson, Gen. Manager. 
 The company's works are located at Marquette, Mich. The ore is the 
 best quality of hematite, and assays per ton 61.70 per cent, metallic iron, 
 and only .(123 per cent, phosphorus. The extent of the deposit is not yet 
 known. Property owned consists in a small hoisting plant. The shaft 
 is seventy feet deep, and drift of thirty feet IVom the same is all the way 
 in ore. A fine shOw of ore is reported. Stock quoted June 17, 1882, thirty- 
 five cents per share. 
 
 l,ake Nnperlor Mining Company (The) has property located 
 in Marquette county, Michigan. The mines nrcLakeSuperior. .Lothian, 
 and Now England mines. Mr. C. H. Hall is the General Agent, and Mr. 
 John McEnroe the Underground Captain. The ore is a hematite. The 
 adits are 560 feet in length ; width of vein, about twenty feet. The min- 
 ing plant and other property consist of new stone enginchouse and a 
 hoisting apparatus second only to Calumet and Hecla. Ore Is 'abi(ndant 
 and prospest^ continue to improve. The principal pits aciHghted by 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 1149 
 
 Qrost Tans. 
 
 1870 166,582 
 
 1871 1S8,047 
 
 1872 185,070 
 
 1873 158,078 
 
 1874 114,070 
 
 1876 129,339 
 
 1876 111.766 
 
 1877 127,349 
 
 1878 109,674 
 
 1879 173,938 
 
 1880 204,094 
 
 1881 262,235 
 
 electricity. Maximum yearly capacity of production. 300,000 tons. Or- 
 ganized, 1853; capitalization, 8600,000, in 200,000 shares of $2.50 each. 
 G;oss yield during 1881 was 262,2iio tons; value of same $2,185,576.50. 
 Yield since 1858, when shipments first commenced : 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 1858 4,658 
 
 1859 24,668 
 
 1860 33,015 
 
 1861 25,195 
 
 1862 37,709 
 
 1S63 78,976 
 
 1864 86.763 
 
 1865 60,201 
 
 1866 68,002 
 
 1S67 119,935 
 
 1868 105,745 
 
 1869 131,343 
 
 Total 2,666,456 
 
 Number of dividends paid to August, 1881, $100,000 ; date of latest divi- 
 dend, August, 1881; amount per share, fifty cents. 
 
 Ijlcking; Iron Company (The). Jacob Opperman, Supervisor. 
 These mines are located in Shawnee, Ohio. Two furnaces, one in full 
 blast, under Mr. Opperman's supervision; No. 1 has a forty-eight-foot 
 stack, twelve and a half foot bosh, and six tuyeres ; No. 2, in blast, is av- 
 eraging twenty-five tons daily on all native ores. Their mine, in charge 
 of Wm. Richards, employs twenty-five men. 
 
 IiOiig;<laIe Iron Company. The Manager is John McGuffin. The 
 conip,aiiy's mine, the Sewell, is located in Alleghany county, Va. The 
 vein is three to four feet thick, and has a capacity of 160 tons per day. 
 Maximum yearly capacity of production, 1880, nearly 13,000 tons of coal. 
 The company has been mining the Sewell seam, the bottom one of the 
 middle measures, but it has recently been opening one of the lower 
 measures beds, probably the Fire Creek, which it will mine before long. 
 
 liOwmoor Iron Company (The), of which Mr W. H. Sadler js 
 Superintendent, has the following officers : Col. H. W. Goodwin, General 
 Manager; C. F. Conrad, Resident Engineer. The company owns the Stack 
 mine, located at Dunlap creek, Alleghany county, Va., the property cov- 
 ering an extent of 1,000 acres. 
 
 I,iinilierman's Minings Company (The) owns the Ludington 
 and the Stephenson mines. Mr. Geo. E. Stockbridge is the General Man- 
 ager and Superintendent; M. W. Brise, Mining Capt. The officers are 
 Hon. H. Ludington, Pres. ; S. M. Stephenson, V.-Pres. ; Isaac Stephenson, 
 Treas. ; Jos. Flesheim, Sec, and Geo. E. Stockbridge, General Manager. 
 The property is located in Menominee county, Mich. The ore of the 
 Ludington mine is soft, blue specular. A new plant is being erected with 
 a view to work the mine on a large scale, and a large body of ore is now 
 being operated on. The gross yield of ore to January 1, 1881, was 33,000 
 tons. In 1880, the Ludington produced 8,816 tons ; in 1881, the Ludington 
 produced 3,374 tons. 
 
 Magnetic Consolidated Iron Company (The) of New Jer- 
 sey is chartered under the laws of the State of^New Jersev. Officers, D. L. 
 Wood, Pres. ; E. P. Carpenter, Treas. Directors, David" L. Wood. J. M. 
 Richmond, H. B. Fowler, E. P. Carpenter, J. 0. Marshall. Principal office. 
 134 South Fourth Street, Philadelphia, Pa. The Hazen. Duckworth, and 
 Eckel ; 160 acres is the extent of property owned. Four shafts from forty 
 to seventy-five feet. Tunnel seventy feet ; 1,000 tons of ore on the dump. 
 Capitalization, 30,000 shares ; par value, $5 ; non-assessable. 
 
 Manhattan Iron Company (The) has property located in Mar- 
 quette county, Mich. The officers are E. Breitung, Pres. ; J. H. Outhwaite, 
 Sec. and Treas. 
 
 Marine Iron Company (The) has property located in Marquette 
 county, Mich. The mine has an ore depo.sit about eighty feet wide by 350 
 feet long, and lies at the mouth of a deep ravine ; trend nearly east and 
 west. Skip-roads are now being constructed. The plant includes an en- 
 
 fineand two Merritt's thirty-inch interior gear drums but recently added, 
 line possesses important facilities for shipping both by water and rail, 
 and promises to develop into a paying mine. 
 
 Masto<lon Mlning^Coinpany (The) has property located in Mar- 
 quette county, Mich. The officers are E. Breitung, Pres. ; Joseph Aus- 
 trian, Sec. and Treas. The Superintendent, Mr. Richard Polkinghom, has 
 had considerable experience. The outcrop was discovered by Jack Arm- 
 strong, about 1879, Developments are proceeding, and although there are 
 no shipping facilities at present time, the mine promises to grow into a 
 profitable undertaking. 
 
 McComber Iron Company (The) has property located in Mar- 
 quette county, Mich. The officers are S. L. Mather. Pres. and Treas.; 
 Fred. A. Morse, Sec; J. C. Morse, Gen. Agent; Capt. H. Merry, Local 
 Agent; Capt. Charles. Fox, with fourteen years' experience as a foreman 
 in the Jackson mine, is the Mining Superintendent. There are seventy- 
 five men employed. The plant is simple and inexpensive but sufficient 
 for present requirements. The ore is a soft hematite of superior quality. 
 The prospects of the property are promising, as ore is revealed at various 
 points. Product for 1882 estimated at from 35,000 to 40,000 tons. The 
 workings are only on the surface at present, but preparing for under- 
 ground working in the near future. Organized, 1872; capitalization, 
 feO0,OOO,' in 20,000 shares of $25 each. Yield to January, 1882, 224,312 tons 
 of ore: yield during 1881, 23,051 tons of ore; value of same, $154,280.50. 
 
 McCnIIoch Iron Company (The). Delaplaine McDaniel, Pres. 
 The mining property belonging to this company is located in Delaware. 
 
 Menominee Miningr Company (The) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of Michigan. The officers in 1880 were J. J. Hagerman, 
 Pres. ; J. H. Van Dyke, Sec. and Treas; A. C. Brown, Gen. Agent; N. P. 
 Hulst, Superintendent ; .lefT. D. Day, Asst. Superintendent. The com- 
 pany owns, or owned, seven mines, viz., the Florence, Chapin, Quinnesec, 
 Cyclops. Norway, Vulcan, and Lowell, located in Menominee county, 
 Mich. These mines or claims are the choice of the range. The com- 
 pany is considered the wealthiest in the world, although it has only been 
 organized about four years. It was during the summer of 1873 that H/D. 
 Fisher, one of a party of three, rested himself on a robust hill less than 
 half a mile from the present village of Florence. He was looking for 
 iron, and was wellnigh despairing of success in the search, when he 
 stumbled against a substance which attracted his attention ; this proved 
 to be iron ore, atid further prospecting showed the existence of a rich 
 deposit.- This was subsequently developed, and is now known- -as the 
 Florence mine. Jlr. Fisher may be said to be the founder of Florence. 
 The excellent quality of the ore is well known. All the different mines 
 are amply furnished' with the most improved mining apparatus. Some 
 ■' of them are lighted with the Brush electric light. A new saw-mill is 
 being constructed. There are 500 men employed in the Vulcan and 
 ■ about SOO^la- the' CliapjaiWliictt has now, -July, 1882, a capacity for pro- 
 
 ducing at the rate of about 50,000 tons per month. Here is the largest 
 single deposit of iron ore in the upper peninsula, barring none of the 
 
 great mines of Marquette county. The total yield of all the mines to 
 the first January, 1881, was 707,000 tons of ore. 
 
 1880. 1881. 
 
 Tcme. Tons. 
 
 Yield of Florence 13,936 100,501 
 
 Yield of Chapin 34,650 * 
 
 Yield of Quinnesec 62,237 43,711 
 
 Yield of Cyclops 14,S68 12,644 
 
 Yield of Norway 198,165 137,077 
 
 Y'ield of Vulcan 72,571 * 
 
 Yield of Lowell 14,571 • 
 
 * Returns not obtained. 
 
 The annual output of the Vulcan, of which Curnow is Captain, since 
 the beginning, has been as follows : 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 1877 4,.593 
 
 1878 38,799 
 
 1879 66.975 
 
 If 80 
 1881 
 
 86,976 
 85,274 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 1877 28,238 
 
 1878 68,622 
 
 1879 66,970 
 
 1880 52,766 
 
 1881. 67,272 
 
 Total 272,617 
 
 Mexican Iron Company (The). Officers, W. F. Swift, Pres.; 
 Geo. W. Hayden, Sec. and Treas.; Geo. Berringer. Superintendent. The 
 Old Carr mine belongs to this company on lease, with option of purchase. 
 This company was organized in the fall of 1881. ^'ot working at present. 
 Yield net during 1872, 2,380 tons ; second-class ore. 
 
 Michigranieme Iron Company (The) is under the superin- 
 tendence of Mr. J. C. Fowle, of Michigamme, Mich. Hon. W. H. Bamum, 
 Pres. ; John Rood, Sec and Treas. The property of the compony is lo- 
 cated in Marquette county, Mich. The ore is specular and magnetic. 
 The mine is furnished with a superior plant in excellent condition. 
 There were about 200 men employed in January last (1882). Since 1872 
 the annual product has been as follows; 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 1872 141 
 
 1873 29,107 
 
 1874., 46,294 
 
 1875 44,763 
 
 1876 70,074 
 
 Total 443,247 
 
 The value of the yield for the last year was 8544,084. 
 
 Mikeand Starr Company. The directors are W. D. Lewis, Pres.; 
 Geo. C. Harrington, Treas.; C. F. Mackenzie, W.J. Mann, Geo. West, H. 
 R. Gardner, and Geo. F. Ropes ; Horace T. Starr, Sec. ; John Shoenbar, 
 Superintendent. Office, 4 Sear's Building, Boston, Mass. The company's 
 mine, the Mike and Starr, is located at Leadville district. Col. The ore 
 carries galena, copper, iron, and pyrites, all rich in silver. Fine hematite 
 samples show sixty-seven and one-half per cent, metallic iron. Three 
 samples assayed 387 ounces, 422 ounces, and 458 ounces to ton silver, and 
 twenty to thirty per cent, in lead. It is said that only four men working 
 on ore body broke and sent to the surface in twenty-four hours about six- 
 teen tons of ore. Twelve tons have been shipped and results are awaited. 
 The company has a capitalization of $1,000,000 ; 200,000 shares ; par value 
 per share, $5. 
 
 Milwaukee Iron Company (The) has property located in Mar- 
 
 ?uette county, Mich. James A. Foley is Superintendent; R. S. Fary, 
 res. and Treas.; A. Kidder, General Agent. Analysis of ore shows 
 sixty-one per cent, metallic iron ; one per cent, phosphorus, and five per 
 cent, silica. The deposit is irregular. The plant includes two double 
 engines, one fifty and one seventy^ horse-power ; also a small portable 
 hoisting engine. The main shaft is now Being cribbed out. The pros- 
 pects of the mine are reported good and ore abundant. Mining can be 
 carried on cheaply. The company was organized in 1878. and develop- 
 ments were commenced same time. To January, 1881, 14,083 tons of ore 
 were extracted; in 1881, the yield was 31,635 tons; value, »173,992.50. 
 
 Mit«bell Iron Company (The), of which Capt.Thos. Walker is 
 the Superintendent; S. Mitchell, Pres.; Chas. Merryweather, Sec. and 
 Treas. The property of the company is located in Marquette county, 
 Mich. The ore is of a fine quality, remarkably clean, soft, blue hematite, 
 high in metallic iron and low in phosphorus and silica. Veins in con- 
 tact with drift overlying, to a depth of from seventy to eighty feet. The 
 mining plant includes a new steam-engine. Ninety men are employed. 
 The following is the yield since 1872 : 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 1872 197 
 
 1873 8,658 
 
 1874 7,549 
 
 1876 5,696 
 
 1877 3,989 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 1878 4,259 
 
 1879 11.131 
 
 1880 13,297 
 
 1881 21,146 
 
 Total ".■:;"":".■. '. 75,731 
 
 The company was organized in 1877. Value of product in 1881, $116,303. 
 
 Monnt Lincoln ConRoiidated Mtninsr Company (The). 
 The Kingfisher and Little OUie mines belong to this company. Located 
 on Battle Mountain, Colorado. The ore is exceedingly pure carbonate, 
 and sulphate, and oxides of lead ore, mixed with oxides of iron and 
 manganese. The mines are worked bv a shaft and drifts. The shaft is 
 sixty-five feet deep. Capitalization, $1^000,000 ; shares. 6,000. 
 
 Nanaimo Iron Company (The). Officers, John S. McDonald, 
 Pres. and Treas. ; John Spence, Sec. ; Thomas Luxmore, Supt. The mines 
 of the Nanaimo Iron Company are located in Marquette county, Mich. 
 There is a leasehold on the property. Small plant of machinery is owned 
 by the company. 
 
 National Minins Compan.y (The). Captain Samuel Mitchell is 
 Superintendent, and Captain Williams, Local Superintendent. The Na- 
 tional Mine, owned by this company, and located in Marquette county 
 Mich., is leased from the Lake Superior Iron Company The company 
 have 240 acres of land. The ore is hard, granular and very pure The 
 deposit IS fifty feet thick. The company's property includes twenty good 
 dweUings, hoisting, pumping, and other machinery plant. Developments 
 were commenced in 1878. 100 miners are employed. The annual nro- 
 ductoftheNaUonal has beett as follows: • ■ - "»^ J""- 
 
1150 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 1878 .... ... I 4,191 
 
 1879 33,310 
 
 1S80 29,351 
 
 1881 24,833 
 
 Total 
 
 91,685 
 
 Stock quoted July 1, 1882. 82.00 asked, $1.38 bid. 
 
 New York Sllnlnar Company. John C. Cutter, Sec. and Treas. 
 Lawrence MoClosky is Superintendent, and Augustus Burling, Assistant 
 Superintendent. The company's property is located in Marquette county, 
 Mich. Mr. Samuel J. Tilden, is chief owner. The property covers forty 
 acres of land. Character of ore, rich specular. Formation of the mine is 
 considerably contorted, but all the workings are in admiable condition. 
 The past gratifying history of the mine may be expected to be repeated 
 for twelve years to come. Mining force, 200 men. Date of organization, 
 1865. Annual yield since 1864 : 
 
 Gross 
 
 1864.. 
 1865.. 
 1866.. 
 1867.. 
 1868.. 
 3869.. 
 1870.. 
 1871.. 
 1872.. 
 1873.. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 8,000 
 
 1874 
 
 12,214 
 
 1875 
 
 33,761 
 
 1W6 
 
 43,302 
 
 1877 
 
 45,665 
 
 1878 
 
 71,466 
 
 1K79 
 
 94,809 
 
 1880 
 
 76381 
 
 1881 
 
 68,960 
 
 
 70,882 
 
 To 
 
 Gross 
 
 .... 17, 
 
 .... 70, 
 
 .... Ii8, 
 
 .... .55, 
 
 .... 21, 
 
 .... 57, 
 
 .... 58, 
 
 .... 60, 
 
 Tons. 
 
 ,017 
 
 103 
 
 ,863 
 
 ,581 
 
 ,903 
 
 ,528 
 
 ,000 
 
 Total 974,489 
 
 Stock and bonds are held principally by Mr. Samuel J. Tilden, New York. 
 
 North Stale Blinina Company (Tin") is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of North Carolina. Edwin Mulford is Secretary. The 
 head offices are at Salisbury, N. C. ; branch offices at 52 Broadway, New 
 York city, and at 115 Broadway, New York, in office of the Mutual Trust 
 Company. The property of the company is located in Aske county. N. C. 
 The ore is a pure magnetic, free from sulphur, phosphorus, and titanic 
 acid, assaying 860 and twenty per cent, copper. The deposits are of 
 immense extent, the veins vary from four to sixteen feet wide on the 
 surface, and their elevation above the level of the watercourse varies 
 from 20O to 400 feet. The mine is equipped with the most improved 
 machinery. Furnaces are now being erected for the manufacture of 
 charcoal blooms and loop iron, upon which a profit of at least 820 a ton 
 can be made. Special furnaces are building for the manufacture of steel 
 directly from the ore by the new process owned by this company. Cap- 
 italization, 810,000,000. in 400,000 shares of $25 each ; the latest dividend 
 was on May 9. 1882, 81 per share. 
 
 North Western Iron Company (The) has property located 
 in Marquette county, Mich. The officers are S. D. Bees, Pros. ; Ed. 
 Breitung, Vice-Pres. ; J. N. Glidden, Sec. and Treas. The tract is held in 
 lease from the Beaver Iron Co. A number of charcoal kilns are being 
 erected, with a view of treating the low grade ores on the spot. The 
 mining ^lant comprises a twelve-stamp mill, hoisting machinery, stamp 
 mill engines with capacity of 9< stamps, with surplus for saw mill, a 
 
 f:reat convenience to the neig;hboring counties, four more stamps recent- 
 y added, dwelling-houses increased to twenty-four. Iiater accounts 
 report the property in a dilapidated condition. Capitalization, $300,000. 
 
 Nor^ch Iron Company (The) is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of Michigan. C. E. Roberts is Superintendent. The company's 
 property is located in Ontonagon county, Mich., where they own forty 
 acres of land in fee. The character of the ore is hematite. The com- 
 pany owns stamp mill, hoisting engine, portable saw mill, agent's house 
 and office, warehouse, shops, and seventy miners' houses. Developments 
 were commenced during the year 1850, and 8230,000 have been expended 
 in developing the property to January 1, 1882. Yield to January 1, 1882, 
 1,496 tons, 1,360 lbs. 
 
 Ohio Valley Iron Minlns Company (The). Officers, Thomas 
 Axworthy, Pres. ; D. McGarry, Vice-Pres. ; John T. Hayes, F. W. Judd, 
 Superintendents. The location of the mines belonging to the above 
 company is near Crystal Falls, Marquette county, Mich. The company 
 was organized 19th of May, 1882, in Cleveland. 
 
 Paint River Minings Company. The Directors are Max Wine- 
 man, Pres. ; Jos. Austriana, Sec. and Treas. : E. Breitung, John McKenna, 
 and Dr. Bond. C. Y. Roberts, Superintendent. Mines worked by the 
 company are leased from Hon. E. Breitung. The property is located at 
 Crystal Falls, Marquette county, Mich. 
 
 Pennsylvania and \Ir§^inia Iron and Coal Company. 
 The mines belonging to this company are located in Fayette county. 
 West Virginia. Quinnimant furnace used in 1880. 
 
 Penii Iron Dlinine Company (IThc). Officers, W. H. Bar- 
 num. President; James Rood, Jr.. Treasurer; John Q. Adams, Sec- 
 retary; A. W. Maitland, General Manager. Directors, W. H. Barnum, 
 James Rood, A. W. Maitland and Joseph Winter; Superintendent, A. W. 
 Maitland. Mr. A. Bristow, of Philapelphia, acts as Resident Manager ; 
 Mr. Powell Stackhouse as General Superintendent. Lake Superior mines. 
 This company was originally called the Cambria Iron Company : changed 
 to its present name July 1, 1882. The names of mines owned are Quin- 
 nesec, Cyclops, Norman, Vulcan, Lowell, (formerly owned by the Menom- 
 inee company,) all located in Marquette county, Michigan. 50,000 acres 
 of land owned by the company. Fine quality of ore, consisting of soft 
 hematite, 66 per cent, metallic iron. Property owned is an engine house, 
 engine and boiler, two three-foot and friction drums. Yield (net) to Jan- 
 uary 1, 1881, 34,267 tons. Yield of the Cambria since 
 
 1874 2,610 tons. 
 
 1876 6,;«9 " 
 
 1877 10,083 " 
 
 1S78 3,754 " 
 
 1879 6,724 " 
 
 1880 6,958 " 
 
 1881 19,245 " 
 
 Philadelphia and Reading: Coal and Iron Company 
 
 Srhe). General offices, 227 South Fourth Street, Philadelphia. Thomas 
 . Richards, Philadelphia, general coal agent. New York office, 7 Court- 
 land Street; Buffalo, 14 Main ; Providence, 6 Customhouse. 
 
 Picton Iron Drill Company (The). This company own the 
 Spring Hill mines, located in Nova Scolia. 
 
 Pilot Knob Iron Company (The). The mines belonging to 
 this company are the Pilot Knob, Shepherd Mountain, Cedar Hill, Rus- 
 sell Mountain, Buford Mountain, Shuton Mountain, etc, located in the 
 State of Missouri. Ore formed in the mines Is very valuable in the man- 
 ufacture of steel. Capitalization. $2,000,000. 
 
 Piltsbnrsand I.ake Superior Iron Company (The). Of- 
 ficers, James Laughlifls, Pres. ; J. H. Outwaite, Sec. and Treas. ; Harvey 
 Diamond, Supt. Principal oifice. Cascade. The Dalma mine is owned 
 by the company, located in M arquette county, Mich. Quality and char- 
 acter of ore, superior specular slate and granular specular, latterly ore 
 changing to soft hematite of excellent quality. Lens trending E. W. ; 
 walls, hard and firm, dipping to N. ; vein, uniform. The length of work- 
 ings about 1,000 feet. Mining plant has been recently increased by a new 
 boiler and a Bullock diamond drill, also a new steam saw-mill and shingle- 
 mill, lathe machine, and planer. Developments commenced 1863. Yield 
 (net) to January 1, 1882, 525,637 tons. Yield of Pittsburg and Lake Superior 
 during the following years, viz. : 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 1871 4,171 
 
 1872 40,655 
 
 1873 60,418 
 
 1874 19,660 
 
 187.5 4,071 
 
 1876 16,324 
 
 Total 263,129 
 
 G'ross Tons. 
 
 1877 20,211 
 
 1878 5,929 
 
 1879 24,6.13 
 
 1880 28,881 
 
 1881 39,278 
 
 Average daily output, 160 tons of ore. Diamond drill in use. 
 
 Repnblic Iron Company. The directors or trustees are S. O. B. 
 Ely, E. Breitung, E. D. Parsons. Capt. Peter Pascoe is Supt. The com- 
 pany's property is located in Marquette county, Mich. The ore mined is 
 very rich. The ore stratum sharply folded by latteral pressure from N. W. 
 to S. E. Massive gray quartzite, similar to that in all hard ore mines. 
 The company's plant, complete in every particular, was built in the Iron 
 Bay foundry, Marquette. Ore of good quality is abundant. The mine is 
 in the best possible condition for rapid and economical working. Date 
 of organization, October 20, 1870; capitalization, 8500,000; par value per 
 share, $25. The mine has produced as follows : 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 1877 165,839 
 
 1878 176,221 
 
 1879 135,231 
 
 1880 , 235,387 
 
 1881 233,786 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 1872 11,025 
 
 1873 105,453 
 
 1874 122,639 
 
 1875 119,726 
 
 1876 120,095 
 
 Total 1,425,399 
 
 Rocky Monntaln Coal and Iron Company (The). Tbe 
 
 mines of this company are located at Alma Station, Wyoming Ter. 
 
 Rossett mine (The), owned by T. B. Clare, and operated by C. S. 
 Hurd, is located at Ironton, Taylor county, W. Va. The mine is worked 
 by drift, and furnishes hard and still ore from the same stratum. It is 
 not worked to more than half its capacity. JIaximum yearly capacity 
 of production, February 1, 1881, 12,000 tons. 
 
 Saint Clalr Mlnlne Company (The). Officers, John Brooks, 
 Mr. Delano, Sup't Gen'l. Office, Boston, JSlassachusetts. The mines be- 
 longing to this company are located in ^jeweenaw county, Mich, Date 
 of re-organization, 1879-1880. Property owned; fifteen houses, hoisting 
 engines and rock crusher, twelve he$!.d stamp-mill, and wash house. 
 Depth of shaft, 300 feet: yield, net, during 1881, 822,902.59 ; yield, gross tons 
 refined copper during 1881, sixty-two tons, 1.493 pounds; date latest 
 assessment, 1880 ; amount per share, thirty-seven and one-half cents. 
 
 Saginaw Mining Company. The officers are Henry (^hiaholm, 
 Pres. ; S. H. Chisholm, Sec. and l^eas. ; S. Mitchell is Superintendent. 
 The mines held on lease by this company were bought from Messrs. Maas 
 & Co. for $300,000. The company also holds a section of the Nineteen 
 mine. 'The property is located three and a half miles south of Ishpeming, 
 Marquette county, Mich. The character of the ore is specular, contain- 
 ing some magnesia. "The vein was pinched in old workings. New dis- 
 covery at depth of eighty-fiye feet, promises compensation for loss of old 
 deposit. Shaft is now being sunk. The company's property includes 110 
 dwellings, several stored, saw-mill, etc. About 10() men are employed. 
 The development of the property ivas commenced during the year 1879. 
 The shov,' of ore by dri,ll is said to warrant high expectations. The Sag- 
 inaw has produced as follows, annually : 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 1872 18,603 
 
 1873 37,138 
 
 1874 46,486 
 
 1875 55,318 
 
 1876 56,979 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 1877 44,005 
 
 1878 54,097 
 
 1879 43,396 
 
 1880 35,059 
 
 1881 30,793 
 
 Total 420,774 
 
 Sierra Iron Company (The). Officers, F. McKnight. Pres.; P. 
 N. Lilienthal, Sec. ; Charles Kohler, Treas. Trustees, P. N. Lllienthal, 
 J. Benjamin, H. P. Bush. 
 
 Shenandoah Iron, I.nmber, MlnlnsT, and Manufac- 
 turing Company (The) is chartered under the laws of the State of 
 Virginia. The officers are Alfred Creveling, Pres. ; John Milnes. Treas.; 
 Wm. Milnes, Jr., Gen. Mang.j L. S. Boyer, Sec. The property of the com- 
 pany held in fee-simple and being 81,483 acres in extent, or forty -nine 
 square niiles, is located on the Shenandoah Valley Railroad, Page county, 
 Va. The real estate on the property consists of dwelling-houses for offi- 
 cers and employees of company, carpenter and smiths' shops, forty-horse 
 stable, forge, refinery, coal-house, reservoirs, stores, ofBces, and ware- 
 houses, etc. Mining operations are now in progress at each of the mines, 
 there being about eighty men employed. The original incorporators 
 were Wm. Milnes, John Fields, Thos. Johnson, and Wm. Milnes, Jr. Or- 
 ganized June 30. 1880; par value of shares, 810O. 
 
 Sleepy-Hollow Iron Mines (The) are owned by A. S. Burford, 
 President, Richmond and Danville R. R.; John P.Branch. Thos. Branch, 
 and others. Attorney for owners, Richard Irley, of 1214 Main Street, 
 Richmond, Virginia. The property is located on a small stream running 
 down to James river, two miles from Richmond and Alleghany R. R., 
 105 miles off Richmond, and thirty-six flrom Lynchburg; total extent 
 of same, 1,800 acres. The ores are hematite, specular, and magnetic. The 
 quality Is sesqui-oxide 73.58 per cent. — 51.4'f metallic iron. The main 
 vein of hematite widens with depth. Magnesia supposed to exist on the 
 property. There are on the property one and two story dwelling-houses, 
 and water-power can be had on liberal terms. Limestone for flux, and 
 timber in immediate locality. Coke for smelting by rail. 
 
 Spur Iron MInlncr Company (The). W. B. Davis, Agent and 
 Superintendent. The mines belonging to this company are located In 
 Baraga county, Mich. Property owned, new boiler, a compressor ; six 
 power drills have recently been added to the plant, diamond drills not in 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1151 
 
 Tise. Company organized. May 12, 1881 ; gross net to January, 1882, 146,- 
 612 tons. The annual product of the Spur has been as follows : 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 1873 31,933 
 
 1874 42,068 
 
 1875 23,094 
 
 1876 20,276 
 
 1877 22,801 
 
 1878 2,225 
 
 1879 1,409 
 
 1881 2,746 
 
 Total 146,612 
 
 Stnrgreon River IWlnlng Company (The). John M. Douglas 
 Pres. ; G. C. Benton, Sec. and Tres. The mines belonging to this company 
 are located in Menominee county, Michigan. Amount of property in 
 leasehold. Trends of the formation is nearly east and west, dip supposed 
 to be high to the north. About 8,000 tons of ore in sight. Developments 
 were commenced in 1881. Shaft, fifty feet ; drifts, 100 feet ; length of levels, 
 fifty feet ; all in ore. 
 
 Titan Iron Company. The officers are H. C. Young, Pres. ; W. F. 
 Swift 8ec. The company's mines are leased from the Michigan Land 
 and Iron Company, and adjoin the Beauport, Michigan. The company 
 was organized at Ishpeming, May, 1882. 
 
 Thomas Coal and Iron Com|>any (The). Mr. Wm. lot. Man- 
 ager. The Troy mine is owned by this company, location at Straitaville, 
 Ohio. Mr. Joseph Mitchell has the underground work in charge, also 
 charge of the business and financial departments for the company, em- 
 ploymg 200 men ; expect to start forty men in the new mine at an early 
 day. 
 
 Virginia Iron and Goal Company (The). Officers, Ex-Gov. 
 Hartrantt, of Penna., Pres. ; Mayor James F. Lewis, New York, Vice-Pres., 
 and Gen'l Manager of the works. This company own a number of mines 
 located at Ferrol, Virginia. They own the Quinimont furnace, cake 
 works, and 1,000 acres of land. They also own the Grace furnace, with 
 7,000 acres of fine ore land ; have an average of twenty-eight tons of good 
 iron daily. The company has a capitalization of $1,500,0(10. 
 
 Vnlcan Iron and $iteel Company (The). This company is 
 capitalized with 81,000,000: sustained with a bonded indebtedness of 
 81 ,000,000 ; formerly yielded, ten per cent. ; now pays to the bondholders 
 seven per cent, on their investment. 
 
 IVampuin Iron Company (The). These works are located in 
 Lawrence county. Pa. Yearly number of tons, 14,118. 
 
 Wellston Coal and Iron Company (The). The mines helong- 
 ing to this company are located at Jackson, O., discovered by Hon. H. .S. 
 Bundy. Shaft sunk and two furnaces built. Wellston, which had no 
 existence in 1873, contained a population of 1,200 souls m the year 1875. 
 The two furnaces were built on the Bundy territory in 1874. 
 
 Wenona Iron Company (The). E. R. Green, Supt. Location, 
 Ohio. Has a good record since lighting up, producing an average of 
 twenty-seven tons daily, using native and lake ores and mill cmder. 
 Stack fifty feet high. 
 
 West Republic lllinins Company (The) has property located 
 in Marquette eountv, Mich. The officers are J. N. St. Clair, Pres. ; E. G. 
 St. Clair, .Sec. and Treas. ; Captain George Mitchell, Supt. The ore is 
 specular; the rock hard and difficult to work. Yellow ochre is sometimes 
 met with. • The mining-plant includes the shaft-house and contents. 
 Diamond drills are in operation here. About eighty men are engaged. 
 Prospects at present are considered hopeful. The company was organ- 
 ized in October, 1880. Yield during flret half of current year, 11,000 tons ; 
 25,000 expected by end of year; yield during 1881,7,3.54 tons; value. $69,863. 
 
 Wheat Iron Mtnlni; Comitany (Tifie). Officers, Daniel McGarry, 
 Pres.; T. Axworthy, Sec. and Treas. ; Captain Pram, Supt. The mining 
 property of this company is located in Marquette county, Mich. The ore 
 consists of metallic iron, sixty-five per cent, by analysis. Property owned, 
 a dwelling-house and plant. A new and important discovery has recently 
 been made of a large deposit of hard, blue hematite, of sixty-two to sixty- 
 three per cent, of metallic iron. The location is convenient for approach. 
 Yield (net) to January 1, 1882; yield (gross tons) during 1881, 17,000 tons 
 of ore; actual, 9,040; expected, 10,000; value, 876,840. Thirty-five men 
 employed. 
 
 Winttarop Hematite Company (The) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of Michigan. Officers, J. O. St. Clair, Pres. ; E. G. St. Clair, 
 Sec. and Treas. ; G. A. St. Clair, Supt. The mines belonging to this com- 
 pany are located in Marquette county, Mich. The ore is soft hematite. 
 Property owned, two engines, thirteen boilers, thirty-five houses. Devel- 
 opments commenced 1870. Date of organization. 1870. The mine fell in 
 fall of 1881, owing to the heavy rains causing the supporting pillars to 
 give way, a body of 160,(.fl0 tons of rock being thus let down into the work 
 ings, burying the pumps and blocking the skip-roads. A large portion ol 
 
 of 
 
 "Theaunual product of the Winthrop during 'the past twelve years has 
 been as follows : 
 
 ings, — .,--,, — . r- - .^ 
 
 this rock is yet to be removed ; 150 men employed. 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 1876 27,236 
 
 1877 12,549 
 
 1878 23,740 
 
 1879 - 26,595 
 
 1880 45,247 
 
 1881 43,630 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 1870 3,469 
 
 1871 11,088 
 
 1872 14,239 
 
 1873 33,456 
 
 1874 7,549 
 
 1875 7,502 
 
 Total 256,300 
 
 Tonnttstown Iron Mining Company (The), of which Mr. F. P. 
 Mills, Jr., formerly Mining Engineer and Assistant Supt. of the Cleveland 
 mine is the Superintendent. Owns the Youngstown mine, located in Mar- 
 quette county, Mich. The ore is a hard hematite, averaging well in metallic 
 iron, but too high in phosphorus for Bessemer purposes. The character of 
 the mine is not correctly ascertained ; surfaceindicationsshow vein ex- 
 tending 1.200 feet by forty-five feet in width, trend east and west. Prospects 
 are promising, and a great mine is looked for. The ground is very wet, 
 being recently covered with a dense growth of timber. It may be men- 
 tioned that explorations are conducted by drill, and are progressing favor- 
 ably. Organized in June of the current year (1882). 
 
 EC .la. C» Xj X a? SB . 
 
 W. Robinson «fc Co. This coinpany's property Is located in the 
 bluff on the east bank of the Qntopagon river, Mich. The quality of the 
 mineral » superior, and Is excellent for poli^ and for the manufacture 
 
 of fine earthenware. Maximum yearly capacity of production, one veFsel 
 load. There is an extensive deposit on the property. The prospects are 
 promising. The company was organized during the year 1S75. 
 
 Amador Gravel Mining Company (The). Located in Amador 
 county, Cal. Lead of blue gravel. Prospects, excellent drifting. 
 
 Arizona Mining Company (The) is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of New York. The officers are, viz. : Edward K. Moulton, 
 .Tames H. Kidder, Fred. G. Swazey, Trustees. There is found a very wide 
 ledge of lime-rock, near the center of which is a vein, fully fifteen feet 
 wide, carrying iron spar, carbonate of lead. Work is being carried stead- 
 ily forward, the ore being left on the dumps until the smelter starts up 
 in summer. Capitalization, 8100,000. 
 
 Beldcn Mining Company (The). C. H. Thompson, Manager. 
 Names of mines owned, Mamie and Cora ; located on Battle Mountain, 
 CoL Extent of claim, twenty-seven acres. (31) Beckett & McDonald, of 
 New York, are building a forty-horse-power engine for the purpose of the 
 present bolster at the mine, just completed, and a cast-iron pipe, two and 
 a half feet in diameter, sunk in the ground. There will be but little fear 
 that work will stop during the winter for want of water. (31) Where the 
 Battle Mountain formations are exposed, showing the granite quartzites, 
 shales limestone, ore deposit, and porphyry, ana limestone has been fol- 
 lowed in a northeasterly direction into the mountain foradistance of 540 
 feet. The dimensions of workings, Cora shaft down at 145 feet. The 
 general appearance of the mine is very satisfactory, the ore deposits being 
 large and continuous, though there is considerable change throughout 
 in the actual masses of ore. Billings & Eiler have contracted for 10,000 
 tons of ore from this property, which is thirty per cent, of lead. Inter- 
 esting parts of this mine, are the ground between the levels No. 1 and 
 No. 2, cross-cuts from the main incline, shows ore, which for the main 
 part is made up of iron and manganese oxides mixed throughout with 
 galena and carbonate of lead ore. Company was organized at Portland, 
 February 15, 1881; capitalization, 60,000 shares; par value, 810. Thirty 
 men employed ; monthly expense, 86,000. 
 
 Black Mountain Mine (The) is owned by D. B. Belden, Esq. 
 Mines owned are Silver Wave. Eagle Bird ; located on Battle Mountain, 
 Col. Quality aud character of ore, very fair mineral; character of mine, 
 veins consisting of carbonate, sulphate, and oxides of lead. Very fine 
 prospects of the property. Steel rails are laid, and an iron car is in use. 
 The breast of this incline shows a solid ma.'is of ore, the thicknes of which 
 is not yet known with certainty. Length of tunnel, 130 feet. 
 
 Consolidated Paciflc Mining Company (The). Capt. Isaac 
 Cooper, owner, Denver, Col. Names of mines owned by the company. 
 Yellow Boy, Unicom, Sedalia: location, Colorado. Quality and charac- 
 ter of the ore, leads of remarkable promise. 
 
 Fisher Mining Company (The). The mines of this company 
 are located in May Flower Gulch, Col. Four hundred tons of fine lead 
 ore have been received, 
 
 I.ead Mine, owned by Wylie & Cram, is located in the township of 
 Ramsay, county of Lanark, Ontario, Canada. The company owns 100 
 acres of fe-rming land. The gangue calc spar, a very pure dense sulphate 
 of baryta, three assays, raaae by Dr. Girard Wood, were as follows ; 1st, 
 seventeen ounces silver, three-fourths ounces gold ; 2d, four ounces silver ; 
 3d, one ounce silver. There are about forty tons of ore on the dump. 
 The owners are not in position to work the property extensively them- 
 selves, but will probably develop it further during the summer. 1882. 
 
 STew River Mineral Company have their property located in 
 Wythe county, Va. The company, working six men for lour months, 
 raided twenty-five tons of lead ore and fifty tons of zinc ore, the latter 
 carbonates and sulphurets. 
 
 St. Josc|>h liCad Company. The officers are J. W. Jones, Pres. ; 
 H, N. Camp, See. C. B. Parsons is Superintendent. Office, 152 Broadway, 
 New York. The company's mine, the Gem Silver Prize, is located in St. 
 Francis county, .seventy miles south of St. Louis, Mo. The ore has a high 
 percentage of nickel and cobalt, combined witli native silver, contained 
 in the ores. The nickel is in black and greeu oxides, mixed with feld- 
 spar and silica. Horizontal disseminated vein in limestone. The ore is 
 under eighty feet of cap rock. The rock runs from five to fifteen per cent, 
 ore, and is cut out twen^-five feet deep, and the roof supported by pil- 
 lars left standing ; 200 tons of rock are excavated daily ; thirty acres have 
 been bored through, equally rich. There are twelve stockholders. This 
 is said to be the largest lead mine found yet in Europe or America. The 
 mine has a current value of 8750,000. The property includes fire-hose and 
 apparatus and new crushers. St. Louis is the principal market for the 
 ore. Date of organization, at St. Joseph, February. 1882. Capitalization, 
 81,000,000; par value per share, 810; total amount of dividends paid to 
 June 12,1882,8350,000; dateof latest dividend, June 12, 1882; twenty cents 
 per share ; stock quoted, June 17, 1882, 97.60 per share. 
 
 Crtmora Manganese Mine (The). Leased by Messrs. Davis & 
 White, of Pittsburg, Pa. S. M. Donald, Jr., Superintendent. TheCrimora 
 mine, located in Shenandoah Valley, Augusta county, Va., is considered 
 to be one of the most productive mines in the country. 
 
 Hopewell Manganese Company is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of Maine. The Directors are S. W. Pollard, Pres. ; F. W. Pres- 
 cot. Sec; E. H. Hastings, Ambrose Leed, E. F. Dole, E. H. Peck, W. A. 
 Travis. The company's property is located at the Parish of Harvey, 
 Albert county. New Brunswick. Amount of property in acres, 2.50. The 
 character of the ore is said to be compact black oxide, as high as ninety 
 per cent. Capitalization. 840,000 ; par value per share, 86 ; stock and bonds 
 are held principally in Mas.sachusetts. 
 
 IWXXCA.. 
 
 AnglO'American Mica Company (The). Officers, Mr. Palmer, 
 Pres, ; Col. H. L. Dunkle, Superintendent and Gen. Manager. Name of 
 mine owned. Bald Eagle. Location of mine. Black Hills, Dakota. 
 
 Black Hills Mica Mines, owned by H. C. McMackin, Esq., are 
 located at Custer. The mineral is of superior quality ; the largest sheets, 
 eight by sixteen inches; average, five and one-half bv six inches. The 
 weekly output at June, 1881, was 600 pounds. Cleveland, O., constitutes 
 the chief market for the product. 
 
 Crystal Mica Mining Company. The officers are Earl A. Shis- 
 sell, Pres. ; A. T. Atherton, Treas. ; J. Y. Bradbury. Sec. Office, Lowell, 
 Mass. This company's property is located in the town of Groton, N. H., 
 and is but a short distance ^om the town of Rumney, on the B. C. & M. 
 
1152 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 R. B. ; and is but a short distance from the, Euggles mine, which has for 
 a number of years furnished a large portion uf the mica, used in this 
 country. 
 
 Mica Mine (The). Owned by prominent officials of the Atchison, 
 Topeka, and Santa Fe. Mr. Solomon Teal, Superintendent. The Mica 
 mine is located near Currant Creek, Colorado. 
 
 ooxjIS .A-jsriy 
 
 iiijXraBH.. 
 
 Ada Elmore Oold and Silver Mining; Company owns the 
 Ada Elmore mine, located on Bear creek, Idaho. 
 Alpha Consolidated OoUl and Sliver Mining' Company 
 
 (The). The names of ofiBcers (Directors) are John W. Coleman, J. S. 
 Wall, J. B. Russell, Joseph Clark. 0. L. Weller, William Willis, Secretary 
 and Treasurer. Head office, 309 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal- 
 ifornia. Date annual election, June 16. The company own the Alpha 
 mine, located at Gold Hill district, Comstock Lode, Nevada (ore looking 
 well), composed of fine gold and sulphurets. The mine continues to look 
 well. Vein about two feet in width ; linear feet in mine, 306 ; capitaliza- 
 tion, S3,000,000 ; shares, 30,000 ; par value. $100 ; number of assessments 
 levied, sixteen ; total amount of same, 8420,000; date of latest assessment, 
 March 20, 1882 ; cash on hand April 1, 1882, $523 ; company in debt Feb- 
 ruary 1, 1882, $6,459. 
 
 Alta Montana Company (The). The oflcers were in 1880 W. W. 
 Wickes, President ; Michael Snow, Vice-President ; Cole Saunders, Assistant 
 Manager; R. F. Brooke, Secretary. Directors, A. S. Barnes, Alanson 
 Trask, L. M. Sheldon, Michael Snow, New York. Head oflace, 35 Broad 
 Street, New York.- The company own eleven mines, located at Wickes, 
 Montana. Ten of these extend on the Alta vein two miles. Four are 
 developed from both sides of the mountain by the silver tunnel 1,700 
 feet. Width of vein, five feet; latest assays average 140 to 240 ounces per 
 ton. The company have also purchased the Comet mine, and erected 
 concentrating works upon it. The product of this mine is a heavy 
 galena, intermixed with sulphides of iron and zinc and mispickel. The 
 vein is wide and regular, and has produced largely. Capitalization, 
 $5,000,000; shares, $10; par value, $10() ; yield (net) to January 1. 1880, 
 $435,980. ' . < 
 
 American Flag Minin)? Company is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of New York. Ofttce, 69 William Street, New York. The 
 company's works are located at Ely district, Lincoln county, Colorado 
 and Arizona. The ore found contains gold, silver, and copper, assaying 
 $30 per ton, average width of vein being seven feet, and length of main 
 lode 6,300 feet. The width of the pay streak is two feet, the ore giving an 
 assay of $100 to the ton. It has been opened by shafts and drafts to the 
 extent of 2,000 feet or more, and has produced a large amount of the 
 richest ore ever mined in the country, most of which has been sent to San 
 Francisco for reduction. Date of organization, February 17,1864 ; capitali- 
 zation, $4,000,000: par value perphare,$100; number of assessments levied, 
 ten ; total amount of same, $280,000 ; date of latest assessment, April, 
 1882, ten cents per share. 
 
 .American Mining Company (The). Themines arelocatedin 
 Nevada county, California., Quality of ore, copper high grade ore. Ledge 
 two feet wide. Rich in gold and silver, which a.«!says per ton, $100. 
 
 American Gold and Silver Mining Company (The). Lo- 
 cation of mines, Colorado. Number of dividends paid June 24, 1882, total 
 amount, $90,000. 
 
 - Anglo-American Company (The). Location of mines, Horn 
 Silver Mountain, near Red Cliff, Col. A mill is owned by the company. 
 The character of the ore is very fair, consisting of quartz and clay. Fair 
 assays silver and gold; assays per ton, 816,22 ; 119,118 ounces gold per ton. 
 Prospects of the property are very good. The assays have given resists 
 far beyond the most sanguine expectations. 
 
 Anelo-Celt Silver Mining Company is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of Iowa. The officers are Hon. Jas, Harlan; B. N. Cur- 
 tis, Sec. Main office. Mount Pleasant, Iowa. The Anglo-Celt and Em- 
 peror mines, owned by this company, are full claims, and located in Oro 
 Blanco district;, Peria county, Anz. The Emperor ore is yellow and blue 
 chlorides of silver, bearing both gold and silver, and is about eighty 
 per cent, free milling. The Anglo-Celt ore is mostly gold and silver- 
 bearing (juartz, with an unsually large percentage of the former. Em- 
 peror mine shows a true fissure vein as does also the Anglo-Celt. 
 Capitalization, $2,000,000; par value per share, $20. 
 
 Antelope Oold and Silver Mining Company (The). This 
 company owns t«n claims on two groups, viz. : Wild Horse, Belle, Texas 
 Ranger, Point, Tenderfoot, Time, Francis Fisher, Atlantic, and Grand 
 Army. They are located near the base of Red Mountain, Aspen city, 
 Roaring Forks district, Gunnison county. Col. 
 
 Argenta Mining Company. The directors are J. L. Brown, J. 
 E. Dixon, Thomas Cole, Geo. Congdon, W. H. King; E. M. Hall, Sec. 
 Branch office, 327 Pine Street, San Francisco, Cal. ,The company mines 
 are located at Tuscarora, Elko county, Nev. The length in feet of the 
 main lode, on which the company depends for its supply of ore, is 1,500. 
 The Argenta mine has been working on its 600-foot' level, where rich ore 
 has been found, the vein being ten inches wide at the bottom. Free gold 
 is plainly discernible in a considerable portion of the, quartz. The sflver 
 ore on either side of the gold streak is of a good quality, and will pcy 
 handsomelj' for mining and milling. Capitalization, $10,000,000; par 
 value per share, $100; yield during 1880, S118,870 ; total amount of divi- 
 dends paid to February, 1880, $10 000; date of latest dividend, Feljruary, 
 1880, twenty cents per share; number of assessments levied, five; total 
 amount of .same to November, 1880, $110,000 ; date of latest assessment, 
 April 12, 1882, at the rale of ten cents per share : stock in the treasury, 
 April, 1882, $485 ; stock quoted, July 1, 1882, twenty-five cents. 
 
 Arizona Oold and Silver Mining Compnny is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of New York. They have nn office located 
 at 61 Broadway, New York. The company's mines are located in Mo- 
 have county, Ariz. The ore is both auriferous and argentiferous, assay- 
 ing 867.60 per ton. Organization of company. May, 1879; capitalization 
 $2,500,000; par value per share, $25; non-assessable. 
 
 Arizona and JTcw Mexico Prospecting, Developing, and 
 Mining Company is chartered .under the laws of the State of fTew 
 Jersey. The officers are E. Joy Morris, Pres,; J. W. Brown, Treas • 
 George 0. Barber. Sec. Main, ofSoe, 407 Linden Street, Camden, N. J.; 
 local office, S1J}4 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. The company is not 
 confined to the mining of precious metals alone, but extends to opera- 
 tions in pre-emptionsoflands, towns, mill and water sites. The company 
 has for sale gold, silver„copper, coal, iron, and other valuable metals 
 and mineral bearing veins, singly or in groups. This company have a 
 capitalization of $1,000,000, in 200,000 shares of $5 each. Non-assessable 
 Stock reserved in treasury. 77,000 shares. 
 
 Arizona Southern Mining and Milling Company (Thcl 
 IS chartered under the laws of the State of New Jersey. The officers are 
 
 James W. Kems, Pres.; George B. Dresher, Vice-Pres.; W. H. Dresher, 
 Treas. ; James Cohoun, Sec, ; H. B, Ring, Asst Sec. The Superintendent 
 is H. S. Searle, of six years' experience. Annual election is held first 
 Monday in March. The principal offices are at 106 Market Street, Cam- 
 den, New Jersey ; branch offloe, 174 South Fourth Street.|Oro Blanco,- Ari- 
 zona. Transfer offices, Camden, N. J. Transfer days, every week day. 
 The company owns five mines, the Searle, Pilot, Herman, Arizona South- 
 ern, and Silver .Wing, located in Oro Blanco, Pima county, Ariz.,uoverine 
 an area of ninety-six acres. The ore gives a silver assay of $74.21, ana 
 gold $19.25, and yields a net profit of about $54 per ton. Developments 
 were commenced in June, 1881, and are consequently not far advanced, 
 $3,100 having so far (to June, 1882) been expended. Experts pronounce 
 property valuable and prospects excellent ; cost of mining and milling is 
 g27perton. Thecompany will mill its own ore. Experts who have made 
 careful examination of the mines suggest that no time should be lost in 
 prosecuting the developments, suggesting a beginning on the Silver Wing, 
 the ore of this mine being of the highest grade ; its productions would not 
 only develop the others, but would probably leave a margin from which 
 to pay a dividend, and the development of the group would no doubt 
 witiiin a short time increase the dividends very largely. Organized, 26th 
 February, 1881; capitalization, $300,000 ; shares each, $1; unassessable; 
 bonded indebtedness, June, 1882, nil ; stock indebtedness June, 1882, $179,- 
 915; floating indebtedness June, 1882, nil ; stock in treasury June, 1882, 
 $120,085 ; stock qutoations, 271^ cents ; stock held principally in Pennsylva- 
 iiiaand Arizona ; stock listed at Mining Annex, Philadelphia ; wages paid 
 to all classes of labor per day range from fifty cents to $,5; work is done 
 by contract. 
 
 Associate Mining and Investment Company is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of New York. The officers are William Guild, 
 Pres.; Edward M. Parker, Vice-Pres.; Henry E. Maline. Sec; Samuel 
 Thompson, Treas, Office, 40 Broadway, New York. This company has 
 been organized for the purpose of not only transacting a general mining 
 business, but more especially for organizing, developing, and negotiating 
 the sale of minesand mining claims. Capitalization, $1,000,000 ; par value 
 per share, $1. 
 
 Addenda Gold and Silver Mining Company. T. H. Dixon, 
 Sec. Head and branch office is located at 328 Montgomery Street, San 
 Francisco, California. The mine is located on the very crest of Silver 
 IliU, Bodie district, Cal. Amount of property owned by the company in 
 acres are 200 and 1,500, generally of a low grade, too low to pay, but oc- 
 casionally developing quick, rich spots and streaks. The property owned 
 by the company, steam hoisting, costing $6,000. Depth of shaft, 500 feet ; 
 total length of level, 1,000 feet; ledge, fifteen to twenty-five feet in width ; 
 blue clay wall in places one footthick ; also strata of pure,white granulated 
 quartz, carrying traces of gold and silver. The shaft has recently been 
 repaired and work actively resumed. Capitalization, $10,000,000 ; par val- 
 ue, $100 ; five assessments levied, total amount of the same, $90,()00 ; com- 
 menced by sale of $2,000 stock, and twenty cents assessment applied. 
 Date of annual election, September 7, 1881. 
 
 .>S:tna Mining Company CThe) are the owners of the JEtna 
 mine, located at Carbonate Hill, Colorado. The Manager, Mr. J. R. 
 Loker. has been employing fifty-three meT; and taking out about forty 
 tons of ore per week. The company's property covers ten acres of land. 
 The character of the ore may be described as lead carbonate. It is very 
 rich, giving a silver a.ssay of from one to twelve ounces per ton, and n 
 gold assay of from six-tenths to 176 ounces per ton. The total profits of 
 minesince discovery have been $161,666. Capitalization, $2,200; par value 
 per share, $1 ; date of latest dividend, January, 1881 : surplus on hand, 
 $60,000. 
 
 Alasha Gold and Sliver Mining, Milling, and Trading 
 Compai^. The company's claims, the Pioneer and Omiluk. are lo- 
 cated in Fish River mining district, situated in the Omiluk range of 
 mountains, Alaska. They are 1,500 feet in length, each, by 600 feet in 
 width, and join on the summit of the ridge. On the Pioneer, a shaft was 
 put down twenty-two and a half feet in ore. On the Omiluk, a shaft 
 was put down twelve feet in ore, also, and of the same general character 
 as that in the first shaft. The ore is argentiferous galena, with some iron 
 croppings. Limestone forms one wall and micaceous slate the other. 
 These walls seem to be separated about 200 feet where the ore body 
 crosses the mountains. Some fifteen tons of ore are now on the dump 
 of the shafts. The ore carries a very high percentage in lead, and gives 
 an average of $140.16 in silver per ton , The percentage of lead is so great 
 that no reduction works will be required at the mine ; howe\eT, there is 
 an abundance of timber near the mine for all practical purposes. To 
 mine and deliver this ore in San Francisco, it is estimated to cost from 
 $50 to $55 per ton. After the first year, the ore will be hauled and deliv- 
 ered for much less than the above amount. 
 
 Alder Gulch Placer Mining and Water Company. The 
 Directors are Edward W, Knight, Alex. A. Beattie, Joseph- K. Toole, 
 Theodore H. Kleinschmidt, E. W. Toole, Chas, Rinda, James McE\'ily. 
 This is a new company, the object of which is to construct a water ditch 
 from Wigwam Gulch, in Madison county, Montana, to cover the mineral 
 bars and gulches in and about Alder Gulch, in said county, to work 
 placer and lode claims, etc. The mines covered by the proposed ditch, 
 the right to which has been secured by the company, have been long 
 known to be very valuable, and nothing but the want of water has left 
 them undeveloped so long. Capitalization, $100,000. Par value per share, 
 $1.00. 
 
 Alice Gold and Silver Mining Company. The officers are 
 Joseph R. Walker, Pres. ; Benjamin C. Raymond, Sec. ; and W. E. Hall has 
 the genqral superintendence of affiiirs, having had thirty-four vears' ex- 
 
 Eerience in Europe and America. They have a branch office located at Salt 
 ake City, Utah, and transfer office at 47 Broadway, New York, The com- 
 pany's chief mines are the Magna Charta, Valdemcre, and Alice. Thev 
 own eight other claims, which are as yet undeveloped. The mines nrb 
 located at Waterville, Butte district, Montana, covering an area of ninety 
 acres. The ore gives a silver assay of 46 oz. per ton. and of gold 30 oz. per 
 ton. The gangue of the ore is white quartz, containing gold and silver, 
 silver glance, argentiferous gray copper, native silver in Qiin plates and 
 wire form, and zinc blende. Dip 68° to 70°. True and well defined 
 fissures in granite. Rock very hard, rendering progress in drilling slow. 
 The richest thing known now in Butte is the ore body on the second 
 level of the Magna Charta, North of the .shaft a ton-inch bodyaverages 
 $1,000 to the ton. On the first level of the Alice mine are immense re- 
 serves of Irce ore, some of it low grade, but assays show it to be of good 
 working quality. Ledge wide and ore clean and compact. On the 
 second level an abundance of ore is in .sight, somewhat more base than 
 that of the first level, but su.sceptible of profitable reduction. On the 
 third level, a big winze has been started on a body of base ore, measuring 
 lully seven f'-et across, and assays from 60 to 700 oz, per ton. Further east, 
 stupe shows nine feet of ore, some assaying $33, but all rich enough to pay 
 a handsome profit. The company owns two stamp mills, one twenty- 
 stamp and one sijsty-stamp. Also plant of sufficient capacity to sink to 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1153 
 
 the depth of 2,000 feet, together with Cornish pumps, Rower drills, hoist- 
 ing engine, heavy boilers, and other machinery, buildings etc., including 
 shaft houses. The depth of shaft in the Magna Charta is 400 feet, while 
 that in the Alice has reached a depth of over 700 feet. Since commencing 
 operations, the company have expended about $200,000 in developing 
 their property. Prospects of the property are excellent. The company is 
 free from debt, and facilities will be greatly extended, and double the 
 present income is predicted. Cost of mining and milling perton is 820.25. 
 Capitalization, (flO.OOO.OOO ; par value per share $25 ; non-assessable. Ylel d 
 to January 1881, $1,120,937.30. Yield (gross tons) 2,040,780 ^jV. Num- 
 ber of dividends paid to December 15, 188L, ten. Total assessment of 
 same, $100,000. Stock quoted July 6, 1882, $2.85 per share. 
 
 Boolo'r Consolidated Sllnln;; Company (The). J. M. Bra- 
 sell. Sec. Principal office, 203 Bush Street, San Frauolaco. Mines located 
 in California. 
 
 ginoston Consolidated Mining Company is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of California, F. F. Luty, Sec. Office, 830 Pine Street, 
 San Francisco, Cal. The company's works are located in Mono county, 
 Cal. The ore found gives an assay of both gold and silver, and averages 
 about $60 per ton. Formation, chiefly porphyry rock, firm, and filled 
 with iron pyrites. Ledge shows clearage at 300-feet level. Average width 
 of vein in 1881, four feet. Ore from 200-Toot level assays from a few dollars 
 to $1,500 per ton. Other ores of high, uuiform grade. Value of property 
 owned, viz., large, whim, w. h. shops, etc., $4,000. Date of incorporation. 
 July 14, 1879 ; capitalization, $10,000,000 ; par value per share, $100. Num- 
 ber of assessments levied, three ; total amount of two assessments, $50,000 ; 
 date of latest assessment, May 23, 1882. twenty cents per share. 
 
 Boston Grold and Silver minings Com|>an,y is chartered un- 
 der the laws of the State of Colorado. The officers are E. H. Goff, Pres. ; 
 Col. R. W. Thyng, Vice-Pres. ; H. E. Irvine, Sec. ; James B. Potter, Treas. 
 Superintendent. Col. A. J. Ware. Head office, Goff, Hastings & Co., Bank- 
 ers and Financial Agts., 292 Washington Street, Boston. The company 
 own the Dolly Varden mine, located on the southern slope of Mount 
 Brass, Park county, Col. Property covers some 800 acres of laud ; ore as- 
 says about thirty ounces per ton. Property owned, boarding-houses, 
 smith-shops, ore-houses, stable, and office. There are two cross-cut adits, 
 one 320, and one 100. feet. The Dollv Varden mining estate was purchased 
 for $400,000. Date of organization, July 23, 1880 : capitalization, $2,000,000 ; 
 par value per share, $10; non-assessable; full paid. Bonds issued for 
 teiO.OOO, and placed on London market, ninety-seven per cent. 
 
 Boulder mountain Minings Comnany, President, C, S. O. 
 Tintsman, Pittsburg, Pa. The Salem, Brooklyn, and North Star mines, 
 belonging to this company, are located at Tower Mountain, Col. The 
 Brooklyn lode has a drift on the vein of eighty feet, showing a pay-streak 
 of spar and telluride ore of about three feet in width, and assaying high 
 in silver and gold. The Salem mine has a fifty-foot drift on the vein, and 
 now shows a pay-streak of eight inches of galena, carrying silver and a 
 large per cent, of lead. Number of Eissessments levied, twelve; date of 
 latest assessment. May, 1882, ten cents per share. 
 
 Boulder Minins Company (The). E. S. Rice, Pres. ; Dr. J. C. 
 Shultz, Vice-Pres.; i. K. Waltz, Sec; A. R. Sohroyer, Logansport. 
 Directors, E. S. Rice, Dr. J. C. Shultz, S. A. Vaughn, A. R. Shroyer, John 
 Brown, J. K. Waltz, W. H. Snyder, Dr. J. H. Shultz, Logansport; C. C. 
 Clements, New Castle, Ind. ; Joseph V. Lawson. Salt Lake City ; Sheridan 
 Cox, Kokomo. Head office, Logansport, Indiana. Name of mine owned 
 is the Boulder, located in Cataract district. Jefferson county,- Montana 
 (near Butte City). A ten-stamp mill on Basin Creek is the property of 
 the company. Developments commenced February, 1880. Prospects of 
 the company are very good. Many thousand tons of ore are now in sight, 
 carrying both gold and silver, some assaying as high as $1,200 to $1,500 in 
 gold per ton, and from eighty to 150 ounces in silver. The average assay 
 value $25 per ton. Interesting facts of the mine; there are six shafts 
 varying from twenty-five to 1.50 feet in depth, levels are run to the bottom 
 of these shafts, and by a tunnel 260 feet in length along the vein. 
 
 Brook Snider Consolidated Gold and Silver Mining 
 Company (The) is chartered under the laws oftheStateof New Jersey. 
 John Crump, Pres. ; Geo. W. Brattan, Vice-Pres.; Henry J. Crump, Sec. 
 and Treas. Directors, John Crump, Geo. W. Brattan, S. P. Grifflts, Albert 
 Foster, Ephraim Young, Col. T. W. Brooks. Alex. Muckle. Superintendent, 
 Rufus H. Snider. Office, Breckenridge. Col. Transfer office, 711 Walnut 
 Street, Philada. Mines owned by this company are the Illinois, Fannie 
 Barrett, and Peerless, located at Schock Hill, Spaulding district, Summit 
 county. Col. Amount of property in acres, thirty-two and one-half. The 
 company owns a twenty-ton stamp-mill, which will soon be increased to 
 forty-stamp. There over 1,300 tons of ore on the dump. Capitalization, 
 $2.000,000 ; par value per share, $5 ; non-assessable. 
 
 Buckeye IWinlnsr and Tunnel Company is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of Colorado. The company's mines are located at 
 Silver Cliff, etc., Colorado. Ore contains gold, silver, lead, and coal, and 
 assays from $20 to $75 per ton. Company owns hoisting works, machinery, 
 etc. ; value, $10,000. Date of organization, February 5, 1876; capitalization, 
 $2,000,000; par value per share, $5; non-assessable; stock quoted July 14, 
 at three cents. 
 
 Buffalo and Hamburg Mining Companjr is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of New York. Trustees are Simon P. Swift, Pres. ; 
 Joel P. Lewis, Vice-Pres. ; F. F. Fargo, Sec. ; Jos. Maycock, Treas. Zeneas 
 M. Swift, Attorney ; Herman Poole, Assayer. The company's property is 
 located at Hamburg, Erie county, N. Y., in the centre of what is known 
 as Potter's Farm, on Wolf Creek, covering an area of twenty acres. The 
 character of the ore may be described as slate rock, yielding a gold assay 
 of $31.83, and silver, $110.32, which makes the total value per ton, $142.15. 
 The mine shows dark slate interspersed with crystals of iron. Pyrites 
 holding the precious metals, generally distributed in very fine particles. 
 "The cost of extraction per ton is estimated at $5. Date of organization, 
 October 13, 1881 ; capitalization, $100,000 ; par value per share, $10; non- 
 assessable ; paid up. 
 
 Bangor Oold and Silver Company is chartered under the laws 
 of the state of New York, Office, 60 Liberty Street, New York. The 
 company's works are located at Nevada City, Col. The company have a 
 capitalization of $2,000,000, in 200.000 shares, with a par value of $10 each. 
 The company was incorporated October, 1879 ; basis, non-assessable. 
 
 Barcelona Mining Company is chartered under the laws of the 
 State of New York. Ofnce, 115 Broadway, New York. The company's 
 mines are located at Spanish Belt, Nev. The ore contains silver, gold, 
 and cinnabar, and assavs $8.iper ton. Property owned, diamond drills, 
 hoisting works, etc. Date of incorporation, June 30, 1880; capitalization, 
 $5,000,000 ; par value per share, $25 ; non-assessable ; stpck quoted July 
 13, 1882, eight cents. 
 
 Basslck Mining Company is chartered under the laws of the 
 State of New York. The officers are F. G. Brown, Pres. ; Dennis Ryan, 
 Vice-Pres. ; W. S. Hoyt, Sec. ; W. F. Van Pelt, Treas. Office, 44 Wall 
 Street, New York, 'fhe company's mine, the Basslck, is located at Roslta, 
 Custer county. Col., being the most Important In the district. The ore 
 
 73 
 
 contains tellurides of gold and silver, and assays $200 per ton. Property 
 owned, hoisting works, engine, and boiler-house, ore-house, etc. Crush- 
 ing capacity, seventy tons per day, fully kept going by the output of the 
 mine. The mill and mine are lighted by the Brush electric lights, and 
 work proceeds uninterruptedly week in and week out. Little informa- 
 tion of a definite character can be obtained respecting the productive 
 capacity of this mine. It is believed to be close upon $400,000 for the past 
 year. Date of organization, July 15, 1879; capitalization, $10,000,000 ; par 
 value per share, $100; ba-sts, non-assessable ; total amount of dividends 
 paid to February, 1880, $25,000; date of latest dividend, February, 1880, 
 twentv-five cents per share; stock quoted July, 1882, $18. 
 
 Belcher Uold and Silver Mining Company is chartered un- 
 der the laws of the State of California. J. Creackett, Sec. Office, 327 
 Pine Street, San Francisco, Cal. The company's works are located at 
 Gold Hill district, Nov. The ore is both auriferous and argentiferous, 
 the former predominating. LenEth in feet of the main lode, 1,040. Date 
 of organization, November 2, 1868; capitalization. $10,400,000; par value 
 per share, $100; number of dividends paid to April 10, 1876, thirty-eight; 
 total amount of same, $15.397.200 ; date of latest dividend, April 10, 1876, $1 
 per share ; number of assessments levied, thirty ; total amount of same, 
 fc,5S0,00O ; date of latest assessment, April. 1882, twenty-five cents per 
 share. Floating indebtedness, April, 1882, $26,000. 
 
 Belle Isle Mining Company (The). Office, 327 Pine Street, San 
 Francisco, Cal. The Belle Isle mine is situated In Elko county, Nevada. 
 The company has been working in the 250-foot level. An open-cut shaft 
 has been completed, which exposed a well-defined ledge of green carbon- 
 ates, intermixed with black oxide. Green copper is found in a prospect 
 shall, 200 feet to the left of the cut, which is considered favorable to the 
 permanency of the deposit, and being found on the summit of the moun- 
 tain, indicates that the ore body extends through the entire mountain. 
 The vein at the 240-foot level averages five Inches in width of high-grade 
 ore. The 250-foot level shovre a vein about six Inches wide, of low-grade 
 ore. Capitalization, $10,000 000 ; par value per share, $100. Yield during 
 1880, 821,669. Number of dividends paid to December 6, 1879, six ; total 
 amount of dividends, $300,000 ; date oT latest dividend, December 5, 1879. 
 Total amount of assessments levied, $65,000; date of latest assessment. 
 May 2.3, 1882. Stock quoted July 14, 1882. forty-eight cents. Cash on hand 
 April 1, 1882. $1,345 ; company in debt, March 1, 1882, $146. 
 
 Belviderc Mining Company is chartered under the laws of the 
 State of California. C. D. V. Hubbard is Secretary, and has his office at 
 No. 310 Pine Street, San Francisco. This company owns the Belvidere 
 mine, which is located In Bodie district. Mono county, Cal. Extent of 
 claim, 200 feet by 1,,'iOO feet. The ore found assays both gold and silver. 
 The mine shows four well-defined ledges, four feet wide in some parts. 
 The company are the owners of a whim. The main lode on which the 
 company depends for its supply of ore is 1,600 feet in length. There are 
 4,000 feet of exrjivations. Sbait is down 660 feet. Date of incorporation, 
 November 1. 1877 ; capitalization, $8,000,000 ; par value per share, $100. 
 Y'ield durlnk 1880, $25,901.26. Total amount of assessments levied, $282.- 
 000 ; date of latest assessment, February, 1882, twenty-five cents per share. 
 Working expenses about $2,0(30 per month, 
 
 Berkshire Consolidated Gold and Silver Mining Com- 
 pany. The officers are K, B. Cheeney, of Lee, Mass., Pres. ; Henry Pike. 
 V.-Pres. ; Wellington Smith, Treas. ; J. B. Crosby, Sec. ; Asst. Supt.. M. P. 
 McNamce. This company owns the Hailstorm, Homeward Bound; and 
 Sliver Bell mines, located at Black Hills, Dakota. A rich strike b re- 
 ported in one of the mines, at Bald Mountain; the ore assaying $8,000 in 
 told and silver, principally the latter. Three hundred tons of ore on the 
 ump will assay from $60 to $160 per ton. Capitalization, $2,500,000; par 
 value per share, $5. 
 
 Best and Belcher Mining Company (The). Officer, W. Willis, 
 Secretary. Principal oiRce, 309 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal. 
 The mines are located in Virginia district, Comstock Lode, Nev. Char- 
 acter of ore, gold and silver. Depth of workings is by tunnel, 2,220 feet. 
 Length in feet of main lode, on wnich the company depends for its sup- 
 ply of ore, 545 feet. CapltaUzation, $10,080,000; shares, 100,000 ; par value, 
 $100. Dividends, none. Number of assessments levied, twenty-three ; 
 total amount, $1.243,390 ; first assessment, amount per share, fifty cents ; 
 date of latest assessment, April, 1882; amount, fifty cents. Floating in- 
 debtedness, $7,629. Cash on hand, March, 1882, $4,629,— Jlfmiiifl' Record, 
 June 17. 
 
 Black Range Company (The), of Carrollton, 111. Officers, David 
 Dodgson, Pres. : Win. M. Fry, V.-Pres, ; Viva. L. Orr, Sec. ; John J. Sharon, 
 Treas. Directors, J. K. Sharon, L. R. Lakln, Adam Gimmy, David Dodg- 
 son, Wm. M. Fry, H. C. Sleverllng, Lewis F. Gimmy, ,S. A. Vedder, John 
 J.Sharon. J. B. Nulton, Superintendent. Names of mines owned. Dread- 
 naught, Ivanhoe, BufTom, Colossal, Mail Line. Location of mines. Dry 
 creek, Socori'o county, N. M. Bufrom has a shaft 184 feet, Colossal shaft, 
 100 feet ; Dreadnaught shaft.twenty-five feet ; Mail Line, thirty feet. The 
 Colossal property isbeing worked under bond ; It shows four feet of min- 
 eral, sampling $300 in silver, and some gold. Some assays give a result 
 of 1,200 ounces in silver. The Dreadnaught shows a five-loot vein of ore, 
 assaying 200 ounces of silver to the ton, and forty per cent, copper. 'The 
 ore in the Mail Line assays high. 
 
 Black Horse Gold and Silver Mining Company (The). 
 Location of mines, Portland, Me. Date of organisation, May 5, 1881. 
 Capitalization, $200,000, 
 
 Bloomer Gold and Silver Mining Company. The Trustees 
 are J. E. Bloomer, W. J. Bloomer, E. W. Wallace, E? H. Coffin. E. L. Hall, 
 A. W. Bliss, and F. Wooster. The company's mines are located in Ver- 
 mont. They have a capitalization of $1,000,000. 
 
 Bodie 4lueen Oold and Silver Mining Coinpany (Thel. 
 Officers are William H. H. Hart, Leander Shores. George S7 Carrier, A. H. 
 •Todd, and J. L. Armstrong, Directore. The mine is located in Bodie, 
 Mono county, Cal. This company was organized March 5, 18K). 
 
 Bonanza Gold and Silver Mining Company. The organ- 
 izers were James C. Cline, E. W. Banker, C. S. Jennings, G. L. McCuen, and 
 F. J. Sweeney. The company's properw is located In Lake, Pitkin, and 
 Summit counties. Col. 'The company has a capitalization of $2,600,000. 
 The mining property of this company is located in Colorado. The ore 
 body is said to be in splendid condition, and the mine, the Empress 
 Josephine, well developed. The depth of shaft is 186 feet. Length of 
 levels, 208 feet. 
 
 Bonanza and Union Tunnel Company (The) is driving the 
 Bonanza tunnel, which penetrates Maryland or Bonanza Mountain in 
 Gilpin county. Col., its entrance being from Chase Gulch and its course 
 nearly due north. The Union tunnel is heading toward Central under 
 Castro Mountains from the opposite site of Chase Gulch. So far twelve 
 well-defined gold and silver veins have been cut and crossed by the tun- 
 nels. The Maryland, the Bonnell, and the Henry B. Hyde veins each 
 showing remarkably large, true fissures from which l.cioo tons of ore were 
 taken. The company purposes developing each of these veins so as to 
 increase the output to the greatest possible extent. 
 
1154 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 California Water and IHinins Company (The) is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of New York. Office, 115 Broadway, New 
 York. The French mine, owned by this company, is located at Oeorge- 
 town Divide, El Dorado county, Cal. The reservoir has a capacity of 
 600 000 000 cubic feet. Pilot Creek and Leon I^ake are the sources of sup- 
 ply. The company have 250 miles of ditches; grade, six to sixteen feet 
 pe"r mile; 1,200 inches; flumes, two and a half miles; total cost of plant, 
 WJOO.OOO; dateofincorporation, May, 1860; capitalization, 810,000,000 ; par 
 value per share, $20. _ . ,. . j 
 
 California Golit and Silver Mining Company is chartered 
 under the laws of the Slate of CaUfomia. The company's Secretary is C. 
 P.Gordon. Office, 309 Montgomery Street, San Francisco. The company s 
 property is located in Virginia mining district. Storey county, Nevada. 
 There are 600 linear feet in the mine on Comstook lode. The ore contains 
 gold and silver in about equal parts, and assays $23.21 per ton. The cost 
 of working mine per ton is thought to be about $17.60. The production 
 of ore for 1880 was 37,454 tons, which amounted to about 890,516 ounces of 
 fine silver. Date of Incorporation, December 31, 1873. Capitalization, 
 $54,000,000; par value per share, $100; ounces of fine .silver to date (Janu- 
 ary, 1881), 1,812,237,340, equal to 664 tons 450 pounds; number of bars to 
 date (January, 1881), 11,020; total production of gold to January 1, 1881, 
 $23,310,281.98; total production of silver to January 1, 1881, $23,432,490.12; 
 yield during 1880, 26,475,790 ounces of fine silver; number of dividends 
 paid to December 16, 1879, thirty-four; total amount of same, $31,320,000; 
 date of first dividend. May, 1876 ; date of latest dividend, December 16, 
 
 1879, fifty cents per share; number of assessments levied, four; total 
 amount of same, $432.00; date of latest assessment, June 10, 1882, ten cents 
 per share ; indebtedness March 1, 1882, $3,549; Stock quoted July 7, fifty 
 cents ; wages paid to all classes of labor per week averages $24. 
 
 Candalaria Mining Company (The). Trustees, J. B. Russell, 
 Oscar R. Jones, \Vm. E. Norwood,t:tomeIius Reilly, S. Igland. Directors, 
 S. Reinhart, H. M. Levy, R. P. Keating. T. M. Luce, P. J. White. Mines 
 located in Esmeralda county, Nevada, X)rganized, March 17, 1880. Prop- 
 erty owned, mill. Capitalization, $KI(t)00(000. 
 
 Carmine Mill UolA aiiU Silver Minins Company (The). 
 Officers, Saml S. Campbell, Pres. ; Charles M. Campbell, Treas. Directors, 
 S. S. Campbell and Charles M. Campbell, Otto F. Gehricke. Head and 
 branch offices, Portland. Me. Capitalization, $500,000; shares, 100,000; 
 par value, $5 ; total amount of assessments levied, $15,000. 
 
 Central Arizona Mining Company (Tlie) is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of New York. The ottices are at 30 Broad Street, 
 New York city. The properties of the company are located in Maricopa 
 county, Arizona. The Vulture mine, owned by the company, is the old- 
 est and most important in the county. It was discovered m 1863, and 
 steadily operated for about ten years, when it was abandoned on account 
 of the expense attending the hauling of the ore to the mill, a distance of 
 ten miles. In 1878, it came into the hands of the Central Arizona, under 
 whose management it has been systematically opened and worked. The 
 main shaft iias attained a depth of nearly 400 feet, and is otherwise opened 
 by working levels and cross-cuts. The ledge is gold quartz, from fifty to 
 100 feet in width, between well-defined walls of porphyry and talcose 
 slate. The ores are low grade, assaying from $10 to $12 per ton, but can 
 be worked for about $2.25 per ton. An eighty-stamp mill has been erected, 
 and the necessary water is piped from the Hassayampa, a distance of 
 some fifteen miles. The product amounts to about $20,000 monthly, ac- 
 cording to official statement of company. The average product of ore 
 and waste milled was S269>4 per ton; average cost of operating, $241% 
 per ton ; average total expenses, $2bl-^J^ per ton. The ore is argentiferous 
 and free milling, assaying from $12 to $15 per ton. The buildings con- 
 nected with the mine are of stone and are in excellent condition. Or- 
 ganized, November, 1878; capitalization, $10,000,000; shares, $100 each; 
 non-assessable; full paid; stock quoted July 14, 18a2, seventy-seven cents. 
 The product for the fiscal year 1879-80 was as follows: gold, $90,072; 
 silver, $238,119; total, $328,191. 
 
 Central Cit^ CloUl and Silver Mining Company (Tbe) 
 owns the Scandia mine, located in Gilpin county, Col. The shaft is 
 double compartment four by nine, and 300 feet deep. Considerable exca- 
 vations have been made, but no ore bodies of consequence have been 
 met with. The mine is, however, in good condition for the prosecution 
 of further developments. 
 
 Certat Mill and Mining Company (Tbe), owned by John 
 Barry. Location of mines, Certat, Mohave county. Arizona. A mill is 
 owned, doing excellent work from the mine, which is one of the best in 
 the country. 
 
 Champion Mining Company (The), of which M. B. Burris is 
 Secretary, has its offices at 827 Pine Street, San Francisco, Cal. The com- 
 pany owns the Champion mine, located at Bodie, Nevada county, Cal., 
 the extent of claim being 200 feet by 1,500 feet. In a winze sunk eighty- 
 seven feet below the 400-foot level, vein matter was encountered which 
 gives promise of much more than average value, doubtless ledge forma- 
 tion, including clean quartz dipping under the cap from the direction of 
 the Bodie and Mono. The main shaft is 600 feet deep. Total extent of 
 excavation, about 1,500 feet. The mine is fitted with a Cornish pump of 
 twelve-inch column, of sufficient capacity to carry the workings to the 
 depth of 1,500 feet. The length of the main lode on which the company 
 depends for its supply of ore is 1,500 feet. For six months in the year 
 
 1880, the mine was water-logged on 50p-foot level. The Champion has 
 been doing prospecting and development work in the mine ; the produc- 
 tion has consequently been small for past six months. Two cross-cuts 
 have been driven from the main tunnel, one east and the other west. 
 These cross-cuts are 300 feet below the surface, and 1,6!53 feet from the 
 mouth of the tunnel, and will give excellent drainage. Five quartz 
 ledges will be cut. three of which have been satisfactorily prospected by 
 shafts. The work in the tunnel was commenced five years ago, and has 
 continued ever since without intermission. It is mostly through hard 
 rock, which requires constant blasting, and timbers arc only requ-.rcd in a 
 few places. The formation previously was granite, but at the face of the 
 tunnel it is in slate, which is considered an indication of permanency. 
 Capitalization, $10,000,000, in 100,000 shares of JlOO each ; number of assess- 
 ments levied, ten; total, $245,000; date of latest assessment, January 12, 
 1882, twenty-five cents per share ; no dividends have been paid. 
 
 Charles Dickens Mining Company. The owners are W. A. 
 Norton and John Rohrer, of Yankee Fork, and Fred. Phillips, of Salmon 
 city, Idaho. The Charles Dickens mine is located in Vanllcc Pork dis- 
 trict, Lemhi county, Idaho, and is the first ledge of note discovered in the 
 district, and probably the most extensively developed in Yankee Fork 
 country. It nas been worked steadily for a period of five years, and has 
 paid from the date of its discovery. The ore is free-milling. The shipping 
 class sampled from $1,000 to $3,70tj. At the depth of SOO feet the vein car- 
 ries gold and silver in nearly equal proportions, but nearer the surface 
 gold greatly predominates. The ledge is opened at differeutpoints on the 
 surface, covering nearly the entire length of the location. The character 
 of the mine is true fissure. The main Dickens vein is from two to twelve 
 
 feet in width, and a new vein has been encountered, which in point of 
 quality and quantity of the ore, is fully as important as the original Dick- 
 ens vein. The quartz shows much free-gold and silver. The first-class Ore 
 in the new vein, as sampled a few days previous to the closing of the re- 
 port on the mines of the Yankee Fork district, gave $3,681.48 ; second-class, 
 $1,972.54. The ore is free-milling. The value of the ore now in sight in 
 the mine above the lower tunnel is estimated at $1,500,000. The.company 
 has a large two-bed arrastra, with a crushing capacity of two to two and 
 a half tons of quartz per day, A pan and settler are attached. The ma- 
 chinery is propelled by water-power. The company employs ten to twelve 
 men in the mine. 
 
 Cherry Creeh Mining Company (The). The mmes are loca- 
 ted at Cherry creek. White Pine county, Nev. 1,000 linear feet in mine. 
 Capitalization, $3,000,000 ; shares, 30,000; par value, $100; no dividends. 
 Number of assessments levied, eight. Total amount of same, $63,000. Date 
 of latest assessment, January 10, 1877. 
 
 Cheyenne Mining Company (The). OfEcers, Col. G. M. Totton, 
 Pres.; A. C. Edgerton, Vice-Pres. ; R. McNaught, Sec. and Treas. Prin-, 
 cipal office, 55 Broadway, New York city. Mines located at Dakota Terri- 
 tory, situated on Black Hills. 
 
 Chicago Enterprise Gold and Silver Mining; Company 
 (The). Officers, F. A. Griswold, Pres. ; E. S. Hunt, Sec. Office, 110 Dear- 
 born Street, Chicago, 111. The company's works are located in San Juan, 
 Col. They have a capitalization of $120,000, in shares at a par value of 
 $25 each. 
 
 Chollar Gold and Silver Mining Company (The). Location 
 of mines, Nevada. Capitalization, $11,000,000 ; shares, 110,000 ; par value, 
 $100. Number of dividends paid to Julv 19. 1880, $224,000. Date of latest 
 dividend, July 19, 1880, Amount, $50 per share. Number of assessments 
 levied, eight. Date of latest assessment. May 9, 1882 ; amount per share, 
 twenty-five cents. Stock and bonds in treasury, April, 1882, $14,378. 
 
 Chicago Enterprise Gold and Silver Mining Company 
 (The). Officers, Francis A. Griswold, Chicago, Pre-s. ; N. N. Hurst, M. 
 D., Vice-Pres., Chicago; Charles H. Lawrence, 2d Vice-PreSy New Or- 
 leans, La. ; Edward S. Hunt, Sec„ Chicago ; Oliver H. Perry, Treas., Chi- 
 cago. Principal office. No. 110 Dearborn Street, Chicago. Location of 
 mines, Animas Forks, San Juan, Colorado. 40,000 shares reserved in 
 treasury for developing fund. Balance of the block of treasury stock 
 ordered to be sold at $2.50 per share. Capitalization, 120,000 shares ; par 
 value, $25, full paid; non-assessable. 
 
 Cincinnati Gold and Silver Mining Company (The) is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of New Jersey. OfBcers, Wm. H. 
 Wright, Pres. ; Wilson Lloyd, Treas. ; 0. J. Rinyley, Sec. Principal office, 
 138 South Fourth Street, Philadelphia, Pa. Capitalization, 200,000 shares ; 
 par value, $10 ; non-assessable. 
 
 Cleora Mine ('I'he) is located in Chaffer county, Col. The tunnel 
 in mine has been pushed to a depth of 230 feet, and is under contract for 
 a farther advance of 50 feet. The ore in this lode, which is about three feet 
 wide between walls at the outcrop, is a white quartz carrying gold, silver, 
 and copper. The ore is free milling. This mine contains numerous 
 lodes of copper. 
 
 Columbia Gold and Silver Mining Company (The). Prin- 
 cipal office, Indianola. Mines located in Iowa. Capitalization, 
 $1,000,000; shares, 100,000; par value, $10. 
 
 Columbia Consolidated Gold and Silver Mining Com- 
 pany (The) is chartered under the laws of the State of California. 
 The officers are A. G. Gamett, Pres. ; J. D. Coughlin, Vice-Pres. ; J. M. 
 Bufflngton, Sec ; Wells, Fargo & Co.'s Bank, Treas. ; Estee & Boalt, At 
 torneys; Trustees, A. G. Garnett, J. D. Coughlin, H. B. Wright, Jas. 
 McCord, and .John R. McKenzie. The head offices are at 309 California 
 Street, San Francisco, California. The property is located in the Colum- 
 bus mining district, and comprises four claims, viz. : the Leo, Mountain 
 Queen, Mr. Castle, and Secretary, in Esmeralda county, Nev., at an eleva- 
 tion of about 6,400 feet. The ore is free milling. The lode has an east 
 and west course, the general trend of all the paying mines of this district, 
 and has a northerly dip or inclination of about 45° ; walls of slate form- 
 ation, of light gray color, impregnated with lime. There are four distinct 
 ledges or veins running parallel, two and a half to fourteen feet in 
 width. The mining plant includes a quartz mill, costing $116,000, in 
 course of erection for custom work, (organized July, 1880. Capital, 
 $5,000,000 ; shares, each, $50 ; non-assessable. 20,000 shares in treasury ; 
 when sold, work will commence active operations. 
 
 Colorado Springs Silver Company (The). Name of mines 
 owned. Crystalline mme, only one developed. Location, Gunnison 
 county. Col. Quality and character of ore, gangue of white quartz, ruby- 
 wire and native silver, in connection with zinc, iron pyrites, and white 
 iron; assays 123 to 2,023 ounces per ton, with a heavy trace of gold. 
 Character of mine, vein nine feet wide, with a pay streak from five to eight- 
 een inches wide, surrounding rock of slate lime; streak grows richer 
 and wider with depth. Dimensions of workings, three shafts aggregating 
 eighty-three feet. Date of commencing developments, June, 1879. 
 
 Consolidated Imperial Mining Company, W. B. Dean, Sec. 
 Office, 309 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, California. This company 
 are the owners of the Consolidated Imperial mine, located in Virginia dis- 
 trict, Comstock lode, Nev. The main lode, on which the company depends 
 for its supply of ore, is 468 feet in length. Capitalization, $50,000,000; 
 par VElue per share, $100. Y^ield (gross tons), 1881, 25,484 pig. Number of 
 assessments levied, seventeen ; total amount of assessments levied, 
 $1,377,000; date of first assessment, July, 1880, ten cents per share; 
 date of latest assessment, January 4, 1S82, ten cents per share. Stock 
 quoted, July, 1882, at five cents, 
 
 t:onsoIidated Imperial Company (The). Names of mines 
 owned, Alpha. Location, Washoe district, Nev. Character of ore, 
 quartz and porphyry. Length of levels, 2.800 feet; total length, 260 feet. 
 
 Consolidated Treasure Company (The). The nunes owned 
 ore the Central Treasure and Bay mines, located at Treasure Hifl, White 
 Pine district, Nev. The mines are worked by drifts. 
 
 Consolidated Pay Rock Mining Company. Theofficers axe 
 W. G. Steinmetz, Pros. ; Capt. J. R. Riley, Vice-Pres. ; A. B. MuUett, Sec. 
 Office, 30 Broad Street corner Exchange Place, New York. The compa- 
 ny's property, the Pay Rock mine, is located in Griffith district. Clear 
 Creek county, Col. The ore is of very high grade, assaying $26.70 per 
 ton. The ore vein in the north wall is lour inches wide, running 800 
 ounces, and indications excellent for catching the same vein in the east 
 drift of the north wall, A party visiting the mine says ; " We found In the 
 different levels no rocks or piles of debris to impede work ; all is kept 
 clean.' Some 300 sacks of ore were shipped November, ISSl, amounting 
 to $7,000. A force of forty-two men are employed at Pay Rock mine, 
 thirty being lessees. Lode No. 5, which was cut February, 1881, has been 
 opened by a level that has been driven sixtv-flvo feet eastward and forty 
 feet westerly. This lode shows large quanlltles of ore of good grade in 
 the level, and along the back level solid ore is found in a gorge vein, 
 which shows the best pay is above the level. The winze shows a three- 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1155 
 
 incb vein of smelting ore. Capitallaaition, $2,500,000 ; par value per share, 
 
 Consolidated Virginia Mining: Company (The), of wliich 
 Charles H. Fish is Pre.s., and A. W. Havens, Sec, has its offices at room 
 26, 309 Montgomery Street, (Nevada Block,) San Francisco, Cal. The date 
 of annual clefltion is 12th January every year. The Consolidated Vir- 
 ginia mine is on the Rreat Comstock lode, Nevada. The ore is argentif- 
 erous and auriferous and mills freely. Assay value 831.76. There is a 
 blast furnace provided for reducing the ores. Aggregate depth of work- 
 ings. 2,600 feet. The length of the main lode on which the company de- 
 pends for its supply of ore is 710 feet. The cost of working mine for 
 twelve months from January to December, 18«0, was 8MC,769.u2 ; cost of 
 extraction and reduction about 817.04 per ton ; maximum yearly capac- 
 ity of production on January 1, 1880, $1,756,536 ; current value of the mine, 
 »199,8()0. Organized 7th June, 1867 ; capitalization. 854,000,000 ; shares, 8100 
 each. The net yield for the seven years preceding June, 1879, v/as, gold, 
 828.029,92.3; silver, $36,184,316 ; total, 863,214,241; yield during 1880, finesilver, 
 54,977,650, $1,7.55.020; the total product to 5th March, 1880, was 2,768,356,030 
 ounces fine silver; number of dividends paid to date, fifty-one; total of 
 same, $42,930,000 ; ten of the.se were at the rate of $3 per share ; thirteen of 
 these were at the rate of $10 per share; date of first dividend May, 1874 ; 
 date of latest dividend, August 16, 1880; amount, fifty cents per share; 
 number of assessments levied to June, 1875, seventeen ; total amount of 
 same, $411,200 ; date of latest assessment. January 31,1882; amount per 
 share, thirty cents; floating indebtedness, $17,600 ; stock and bonds re- 
 served in treasury, April, 1882, $106,762; from this has since been paid an 
 indebtedness of $25,883, for a j udgment of Supreme Court of Nevada. 
 Stock quoted July 1, forty-five cents. 
 
 Vonsolldatod Amiidor Hilling; Company. The Amador 
 Consolidated mine owned by this company, is located m Amador county, 
 California, 
 
 (!onsolldat<-d Pacific Hininc Company. F. E. Luty is Sec- 
 retary. Office, 330 Pine Street, San Francisco, California. The Pacific 
 mine, owned by this company, is located in Bodie district, California. 
 Eighty-one tons yielded $1,137.60. or a little over 851 per ton, and mill 
 test of 301 tons assayed $16 per ton. There are five ledges about five feet 
 wide at 400 feet depth. Tlie company have on their property very fine 
 hoisting works, costing 818.000. Working expenses are about 82.000 per 
 month. Extent of claim, 438x1,400 feet Capitalization, $6,000,000 ; par 
 value per share, $100; total amount of dividends paid, $47,000 ; number 
 of a.ssessment£ levied, four ; total amount of assessments, $126,000 ; date of 
 latest assessment. January 28. 1882 ; amount per share, twenty-five cents. 
 
 Copper Kiiob IMliiins Company is cliartered under the laws 
 of the State of New York. The officers are G. B. FUut, President ; Wm. 
 Brandreth, Vice-President and Treasurer; Edwin H.Mulford, Secretary. 
 The Superintendent of the works is K. M. Evans, M. E. Branch office, 
 52 Broadway, New York. The company's property is located in Ashe 
 county. North Carolina. They own 366 acres of land. The ore found 
 assays copper, gold, and silver. The average value per ton is 870. 600 
 pounds of ore of tliis company were found to produce by working test of 
 100 pounds, gold, 465 cwt. ; copper, 47^ per cent. ; silver, nineteen ounces 
 per ton. Date of organization, 1879 ; capitalization, $500,000 ; par v.alue 
 per share, $2 ; basis, non-assessable ; number of dividends paid to No- 
 vember, 1880, two ; total amount, $15,000 ; date of latest dividend, Novem- 
 her, 1880 ; two cents per share. 
 
 Criterion Mine (Tile), owned by W. H. Kingsbury and others, is 
 located in Colorado. The quality of the ore is high grade. A mill run 
 of eighteen to twenty tons gave twenty-four ounces silver, $5 gold, and 
 50 per cent. iron. Estimating a profit of $10 per ton, there are several 
 hundred thousand dollars in sight. The tunnel is 150 feet in length. 
 Length of adits (that is, levels), from 125 to i:iO feet. 
 
 Crown Poinl fiiilver and Oold Sliuing Company. The of- 
 ficers are C. L. Wilier. President ; A. K. P. Harmon, Vice-President ; James 
 Newlands, Secretary; J. H. Dobinson. J. P. Jackson, R. F. Morrow. 
 Appointed Superintendent, Sam. I. Jones. This company are the owners 
 of^ the Crown Point mine, located in Gold Hill district, Comstock 
 Lode, Nevada. Length of the main lode upon which the company de- 
 pends for its supply of ore, 600 feet. Capitalization, $10,000 000; par 
 value per share. $25 : number of dividends paid to January 12, 1875, fifty : 
 total amount of dividends paid to January 12, 1875, $11,688,000; date of 
 latest dividend, January 12, IS^, 82 per share : number of assessments 
 levied, forty-seven ; total amount of same. $2.673.370 ; date of latest as- 
 sessment, Februarv 16, 1882 ; companv in debt, March 1, 1882, $544 ; cash 
 on hand, April 1, 1882, $18 270. 
 
 Dalilg:ren jlljnin^ Company. Tbeofficers are G. E. Hutchinson, 
 Pres.; A. W. Mastereon, Sec. and Treas. Office, 63 Broadway, room 31, 
 New York. The Morning Star mine is the property of the Dahlgren 
 Mining Company, and is located in Pittsbur/; district. Lander county, 
 Nev. Itis worked by means of a tunnel and incline shaft. The tunnel 
 level is forty-eight feet in length where it strikes the ledge. All of the 
 workings are in ore from two and a half to five feet in width. The ledge 
 Increases as depth is attained, is well-defined, and lies between the two 
 walls in an unbroken mass, rich in both silver and gold. Seventeen 
 miners are employed. Considerable good ore has been taken out and 
 piled up on the flat above the mine. Capitalization, $2,000,000 ; par value 
 per share, $10 : basis, full paid ; non-assessable. 
 
 Davenport Consolidated Mining; and Smelting; Com- 
 |>an,y (Xne) is chartered under the laws of the State of New Jersey. 
 The officers in 1880 were E. S. Douglas, Pres. ; R. Da Parrott. Vice-Pres. ; 
 J. C. Todd, Treas. ; Superintendent, Nathan Cornish. The offices are at 
 229 Broadway, New York, room No. 18 ; 203 Pine Street, St. Louis, Mo. 
 The company owns the four mines or claims, the Davenport, Wicker, 
 Ashtabula, and Palermo, located in San Juan county. Col. The ore con- 
 tains galena, gold, and silver, and gives an average assay of $60. Organ- 
 ized, Januarv6. 18S0 ; capitalization. $1,000,000, in 200.000 shares of $5 each. 
 
 nayton bold and Silver 9Ii:iinsCompany's(The) property 
 is located at Devil's Gate, Lyon county, Nev. The main lode, on which 
 the company depends for its supply of ore, is 1,600 linear feet in length. 
 Capitalization. $10,000,000 ; par value per share, $100 ; no dividends paid 
 to June. 1882. Number of assessments levied, ten; total amount of assess- 
 ments levied, $750,000 ; date of latest assessment, April 2, 1878. 
 
 Decatur Silver lUinini^ Company is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of New Y'ork. The officers are Walter K. Marvin. Pres. ; 
 Horace Winans, Sec; R. H. Gordon, Treas.; Superintendent, Jas. H. 
 Pomeroy. Branch offices, 64 and 66 Broadway, and No. 19 New Street, New 
 York ; transfer office, 66 Broadway, r 3om 43, New Y'ork. The company 
 owns 1,600 feet on the Decatur. 1 .500 feet on the Paul, and 3.000 feet on the 
 Hclmer, in Willis Gulch, located in Gilpin county, Col. The ore assays 
 about two-fifths gold and three-fifths silver. Valueper ton, 8104.42. Work 
 has been prosecuted only on the Decatur and Helmer. On the former, a 
 depth of llCfeet has been attained. The Helmer workings are 185 feet 
 down, at which point levels are being driven east and %vest. The ore is 
 first concentrated and then sold, bringing $45 per ton of concentrates. A 
 
 Cornish pump controls the water Inflow. Date of organization, March 5, 
 1880; capitalization, $1,000,000; par value per share, iM. Basis, non- 
 assessable. 
 Delano Gold and Silver Mining Company (The). Their 
 
 Property is located at Deer Creek, Tulare county, Cal. The company 
 ave been successfnlly developing their mine, and putting it in a condi- 
 tion for extracting a large quantity of ore. Originally an incline was sunk 
 on the ledge to a depth of forty-three feet, showing the presence of ore 
 the entire di.stance, varying in width from four inches to eighteen inche.s. 
 A vertical shaft v/as afterwards smik to the west of the ledge to a depth 
 of seventy-five feet, when a cross-cut was run east, and to the ledge, eight- 
 teen feet, when drifts were run north and south on the vein, aggregating 
 forty-five feet, and were only discontinued for the purpose of concentrat- 
 ing the labor at the straight shaft, the extremes of the drift showing the 
 same character and quality of ore as is exposed in the incline. In the 
 meantime, the incline was sunk to a depth of seventy-five feet from the 
 surface, showing an unmistakable ledge formation, carrying quartz the 
 entire distance. The extent of the ore-body, laterally, has never been de- 
 termined, as only forty-five feet (in the drifts) have ever been explored, 
 but the samples ha.ve been assayed, and show that they are as ricli as i ii 
 the upper drift No difficulties are encountered in mining, as the mine 
 has ample machinery, pumps, etc., to keep it dry, and extract ore at mini- 
 mum figures. The ledge matter is soft and yielding, and rapid progress 
 can be made in drifting and stoping. 
 
 Del Monte Gold and Silver Mining Company is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of Colorado. The officers are V. G. Edwanls, 
 Pres. ; J. C. Turner, Vice-Pres. ; C. P. Johnson, Treas. Directors, V. G. Ed- 
 wards, F. Sheip, J. C. Turner, A. Hallowell, H. W. Peters, Wm. Cheattey, 
 Wm. Spotts, Robert Storey. Office, 136 South Fourth Street, Philadelph la. 
 The character of the mines are true fissure vein. The vein three and a 
 half feet wide, which indicates most promisingly the existence of gold 
 and silver, with copper tracing at 110 feet Depthof shaft, 130 feet Capi- 
 talization, $2,000,000 ; par value per share, $10 ; basis, non- assessable. 
 
 Devil's RapidM' Ciold Mining Company is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of Maine. The officers are Geo. Ames, Pres. ; H. K. Flag- 
 ler, Treas. ; E. C. Spinner, Sec. Directors, Geo. Ames, H. K. Hagler, Thco. 
 S. Very. Chas. F. D. Vabasco, H. R. Gardner. Andrew Telfer, and W. Home. 
 The company's property is located at St Francis, Bence county. The ore 
 is both aurit^rous and argentiferous. Date of organization, June, 1881; 
 capitalization, $500,000 ; par value per share, $5. 
 
 Dominion Mining and Silver Company (The). Location of 
 mines, Hukill Gulch, Col. (iuality and character of ore, $387 per ton in 
 gold, silver, and lead, latter running $35. Specimens assay 8600. Charac- 
 ter of mines show a pay. vein eighteen inches in width, consisting of iron 
 pyrites, copper pyrites, and galena. Dimensions of workings opened by 
 four shafts aggregating 165 feet in depth. 
 
 Dragoon Golil and Silver Mining Company is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of Pennsylvania. The officers are Charles 
 Mathews, Pres. ; John H. Schreiner, 'I'reas. ; Jos. R. Black, Sec. Office, 
 430 Walnut Street, rooms 5 and 6, Philadelphia, Pa. The company's mines 
 are the Paymaster. Osceola, Pysche, Mazeppa, and Southern. Capitaliza- 
 tion, $5,000,000 ; parvaluepershare,$50; non-assessable; amount of stock, 
 issued, 80,000 shares ; reserved in treasury, 20.000 shares. 
 
 Eastern Oregon Gold and Silver Mining Company (The) 
 is chartered under the laws of the State of New York. The officers are 
 T. E. Farrish, Pres. ; A. B. Stanton, Sec. Directors, T. E. Farrish, Willard 
 Brown, I. Van Ordeu, G. F. Geise, of Philadelphia ; E. M. Zulick, Gen. R. 
 V. Aukeny, and, P. H. Cummings. The company own two claims on the 
 Monumental lode and seven on lodes struck in the tunnel, all located in 
 the Granite creek mining district. Grant county, Oregon, on the Blue 
 Mountains, forty miles from Baker City. The ore is chiefly a ruby and 
 antimonial silver, and contains auriferous iron pyrit«. The actual av- 
 erage assays are from $70 to $80, about one-fourth being gold. The veins 
 are characterized as true fissure, varying from one to forty feet in width, 
 and from forty-five to eighty-five degrees in dip. Strike being nearly due 
 north and south. The principal vein is the Monumental, with a ledge 
 from two to three feet 'The various workings are of considerable extent 
 The length of lode on which the company depends for its supply of ore is 
 3,000 ffeet. The plant includes a ten-stamp mill, fitted with Thompson's 
 chloridizing roasting furnace, and driven by eighty-horse-power engine, 
 fed by two sixteen-foot tubular boilers. It is claimed that ore, of quality 
 specified, in sight will suffice to keep a twenty-stamp mill going for two 
 years. Present cost of mining and milling is 824 per ton, but this is ex- 
 pected to be reduced by $5 upon completion of the Monumental Railroad 
 to Baker City. The prospective weekly output is calculated at $25,000. 
 Capitalization, $2,500,000. 
 
 Echo ConsoIi<iated Gol<I and Silver Mining Company 
 (The). Incorporators, 1880, James L. Grub, Wm. Flint, A. M. Peel, J. J. 
 Wilbraham, James G. Peel. The property belonging to this company is 
 located in Colorado. Capitalization, $400,000. 
 
 Edgar GoUl and Silver Mining Company (The), of Ken- 
 tucky. Principal office, Denver, CoL Wm. S. Marshall, Pres. and Agt. 
 
 Eldorado Gold and Silver Mining Company (The). 
 Officer, A. C. Hammond, Sec. Principal office, 401 California Street, San 
 Francisco. Mines are located in Nevada. 
 
 Elko Consolidated Milling and Smelting Company is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of New York: Tne officers are W. 
 W. Wakeman, Pres. ; M. A. MiUer, Vice-Pres. ; Geo. H. Everett, Sec. and 
 Treas. Office, 152 Broadway, room 2, second floor. The company's prop- 
 erty is located in Elko county, Nev. The ore contains silver, gold, and 
 lead; value per ton, $75. The vein is 2,200 feet in length, tested by ten 
 shafts and five tunnels. The company have furnace, etc., complete ready 
 for active operations. Date of organization. November 19, 1879: capitali- 
 zation, $1,000,000; par value per share, $10; basis, non-assessable; no 
 incumbrances. 
 
 Elmira Company own the following mines. Crown Point, Wolver- 
 ine, Banner, Idaho, Star of the West, and Washoe, located in Bosie 
 county, Idaho. The ore from these ledges is found in pockets and con- 
 tains chloride and ruby silver. The company have a fine twenty-stamp 
 mill, rock breaker, roasting fumaces,'and other appliances for working 
 their ores, all in excellent condition of equipment. In the Crown Point 
 a shaft was sunk to the depth of thir^ feet, and drift run east from the 
 bottom of it The face of the drift is in a body of ore seven feet wide, 
 the battery assays of which give 890 per ton. Four men are kept at work 
 taking out rock, ten or twelve tons per day are being extracted. 100 tons 
 are on the dump at the Crown Point, and thnty at the Banner. The com- 
 pany have thirty-eight men employed in all. 
 
 Emerson Gold and Silver Mining Company (The) is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of New York. Officers. Charles H. 
 Emerson, Pres. ; John S. Hulin, Treas. ; Charles A. Burgess, Sec. Princi- 
 pal offices, 115 Broadway, New York, and 31 Milk Street, Boston, Mass. 
 Location of mines, Clear Creek, Colorado. Capitalization, 200,000 shares : 
 par value, $10. ' 
 
1156 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Escondldo Mining Company. The property consists of the Es- 
 condido, Comet, Lyou, Moses, and Wral mines, located in Lawrence 
 county, Dakota. The company are driving a tunnel to strilte the mother 
 ledge of the district. The tunnel is already in 650 feet, and has en- 
 countered many rich seams, some of which are reported as high as 800 
 ounces to the ton. 
 
 Earefca Cionsolidateil Silver Mining Company (The). 
 W. W. Taylor, Sec. Head offices, Laidlow & Co., 14 Wall Street, New 
 York, and 309 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal. Thos. J. Read, 
 Superintendent. Annual election, October 17. The Eureka Consolidated 
 mine belongs (1882) to this company, located in Eureka county, Nev. 
 The ore is about 65 per cent, gold, and from i;o to 30 per cent. lead. The 
 assays are various ; some give from WO to $120. The property consists 
 of two new hoistiug engines, two pumping engines, six large boilers, 
 and other appliances connected with the hydraulic work. The pump- 
 ing capacity is estimated at 30,000 gallons per minute on a rise of 3,000 
 feet. Besides the company's regular Ibrces, considerable work has been 
 done by tributers, and ore taken out from the twelfth level up. The 
 mine is explored to the fourteenth level, but the waier will not allow 
 much work to be done until after the new pumping machinery is in 
 operation. The principal extraction of ore was from the eighth and 
 ninth levels. The financial statement for the month of May shows that 
 the base bullion out-turn was nearly b'2i]4 tons, yielding $176,985.17. 
 Among the expenditures were, for mining, ?i4,895.48 ; smelting, 834,368.32 ; 
 freight, refining, etc., 8ii,598.68; construction oi new shaft, $10,140.27. The 
 report of the Secretary contains some interesting facts. The out-turn of 
 base bullion for the month vielded $79,324 ; the expenses amounted to 
 $33,154. The cost of construction of a new shaft was $10,455. The re- 
 sources are, estimated value of base bullion on hand, $41,364; cash, 
 $111,274. The liabilities are $8,51a'; the approximate net resources, Jan- 
 uary, 1882, were $144,123; net earnings for December were $7,335. The 
 mine looks better now than at any time for several years. Plenty of ore 
 in sight to continue two furnaces running. Two men working on fourth 
 level cleaned up each between 2,000 and 3,000 tons within eight months. 
 March IS, 1882. Eureka Consolidated sold on Monday an advance of $14 
 per share, witliin a few weeks having sold as low as$9.00. Capitalization, 
 $5,000,000; shares, 50.000; par value, «100; yield during 1880, $1553,394; 
 number of dividends paid to July, 1882, 73 ; total amount of dividends to 
 July, 1882 $4,780,000; cvnrent value of mine, $800,000; latest dividend, 
 July, 1882 ; assessments levied, 2 ; total amount, $100,000 ; latest assess- 
 ment. May 26, 1877, $1.00; cash on hand. May 12, 1882, $191,504.63; floating 
 indebtedness, $16,038.20; stock quoted July 1, 1882, $15.25; stock quoted 
 July 16, 1882, $16.50; yearly capacity of production, about 36,634 tons. 
 
 Excelsior Company (Tlie). The company owns the llussler and 
 Excelsior mines. The property owned by this company is situated on 
 American Fork, Utah. The company employs eight men. The ore is 
 free gold, carbonate of lead, and galena ; average value, $87 per ton. The 
 property is developed by two shafts, and levels, and drifts. There are 
 three lodes on the property. 
 
 Exchequer Gold and Silver Mining Company's Mine 
 (The), the Exchequer, is located on Comstock Lode, Nevada. The main 
 lode on which the company depends for its supply of ore is 400 feet in 
 length. Property in acres, 400. Capitalization, $10,000,000 ; par value per 
 share, $100 ; no dividends have yet been paid ; number oi assessments 
 levied, eighteen ; total amount of assessments levied, $680,000 ; date of 
 latest assessment, January 12, 1882 ; indebtedness, February 1, 1882, $4,- 
 572.22; cash on hand April 1, 1882, $10,558. 
 
 Eureka-Slevada Miiitnif Company. This is an English or- 
 ganization that has secured the Eiigle series, comprising the War Eagle, 
 Spread Eagle, White Eagle, Bald Eagle, Gray Eagle, Black Eagle, Golden 
 iiagle, Silver Eagle, Double Eagle, Eagle Bird, Eaglet, and Eagle's Nest, 
 all on the east slope of Prospect Mountain, in Eureka county, Nevada. 
 They have commenced to develop the property with energy. These 
 mines have all yielded well, considering the desultory manner in which 
 they have been operated. The company have also secured the Williams- 
 burg mine on Adams Hill which is being systematically exploited. 
 
 Frisco Company (The). Their property in Utah consists of the 
 carbonate mine, concentrating W(jrks, and a fifty-ton smelter at Frisco, 
 Beaver county, the Cave mine in Bradshaw district, the Bigelow in Lin- 
 coln district, and several undeveloped mines near Marysville, Piute 
 county. The carbonate mine has attained a vertical depth of over 500 
 feet. The company produced during the fiscal year, $14,866 of gold and 
 $297,921 of silver, and during the calendar year $8,785 of gold and $286,831 
 of silver. The mill was idle four out of the last six months of tlie year. 
 
 I'^idelity Gold and Sliver Mining Company is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of New Jersey. C. G. btoddart. Sec. Office, 
 201 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. This company own the New York 
 and Clara mines { full claims), located at Los Cerillos district, New Mexico. 
 Assays from the Clara show sixty-three ounces silver, with trace of gold ; 
 depth ten feet. Quartz taken from the surface show 132 ounces of silver, 
 one-half ounce gold. From the New York, assays show at ten feet deep, 
 thirteen ounces gold, ten ounces silver ; surface quartz has run as high 
 as thirty ounces gold and thirty-seven ounces silver. The company was 
 organized. November 3, 1881, and is free from debt of every kind, 'jhere 
 are 80,000 shares reserved in the treasury. 
 
 First National Mine (Tlie) is located at Iowa Gulch, Colorado. 
 The character of the ore is black galena. It gives assays of forty-five 
 ounces of silver per ton, four-tenths of an ounce of gold, and forty-seven 
 per cent. lead. There is a mill engine and shaft house on the property. 
 The shaft is 165 feet deep. 
 
 Flora Morrison Gold and Silver Mining Company (The) 
 is chartered under the laws of tlie State of New Jersey. .losepb F. Bai- 
 ley, President: Hamilton Disston, Treasurer ; II. B. Ring, Secretary. 
 Principal office. 105 Market Street, Camden, N. J. These mines are located 
 In Arizona. Gold and silver ore. Capitalization, 250,000 shares; par 
 value, $2; non-assessable. 
 
 Freeland Mining Company (The) is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of New York. The officers are R. C. McConnick, President ; 
 Theo. M. Lilienthal, Vice-President; Bank of Nevada, Treasurer; Edw. 
 W. Willett, Secretary. Trustees, J. P. Jones, R. C. McCormlok, Henry 
 Rosener. Office, 115 Broadway, New York. The company's property is 
 located at Idaho Springs, Clear Creek county, Col. The ore is free mill- 
 ing and carries gold, silver, and copper assaying $60 per ton. There are 
 6,000 feet in mine. The company have a concentrating mill; cai)acity, 
 100 tons daily. The output of the Freeland for one month in Juno, 1881, 
 was 60O tons of ore; 100 men are employed about the mine. Twenty 
 stamps and four circular buddies are employed nnd eight to ten men are 
 required to run the mill. The mine yields a profit of between $2,000 and 
 $3,000 per month. A powerful hoisting engine has been supplied to this 
 mine, it being found that the supply of water was insufficient to run tlie 
 dressing works of the company to their full capacity. Date of organiza- 
 tion, June 13, 1879 ; capitalization, $6,000,000 ; par value per share, $25 ; 
 basis, non-assessable; total amount of dividends paid to May 20, 1880, 
 
 $50,000 ; date of latest dividend. May 20, 1880 ; amount per share, twenty- 
 
 Glensarv Mines (The), owned by Messrs. Clint Rondebush, James 
 Campbell, H. A. Butters, an«3 0. K. King. The Glengary mines are 
 located oii Cross Creek, Col. The ore is gold and silver. Highest assay, 
 188ounces silver ; gold, six and one-half ounce.s to the ton ; copper six per 
 cent. Lowest assays, silver, twenty-two ounces;, gold, one and nine- 
 tenth ounces to the ton; copper, six per cent.; lead twenty-three per 
 cent. Fissure veins, eighteen inches is the length of levels, 1880. Inese 
 mines have been worked with vigor all summer, showing up splendidly. 
 The developments consist of an adit driven in on the vein for a dis- 
 tance of 100 feet. At the entrance of the adit the pay streak shows to 
 a width of eighteen inches, widens gradually until at the face it discloses 
 three feet nine Inches of pay mineral in over twelve feet of quartz, which 
 constitutes the gangue. . „._ .„. , ^, 
 
 Gulden Age and Gronp Gold and Silver Mining Com- 
 pany (The) is chartered under the laws of the State of New Jersey. The 
 officers are Richard F. Donovan, Fre.s. ; B. Trautman, M. D., Vice-Pres. ; 
 O J ICuisley, Sec. ; C. B. McKean, Treas. Directors, R. F. Donovan, B. 
 Trautman, M. D., Wm. Maybaum, T. Henry Asbury, C. B. McKeon, John 
 Muldoon, and H. K. Whituer, M. D. The offices are at 140 South Third 
 Street, Philadelphia, Pa. The company owns the following mines or 
 claims : the Orlando, Saginaw, and Bay City, located. Capitalization, $600,- 
 000, in 300,000 shares of $2 each ; non-assessable. 
 
 Gold Mill Mining and Smelting Company. Office, 292 
 Washington Street, Boston, Mass. The company owns twenty-one claims. 
 Their property is located at Ten Mile district, Colorado, adjoining the 
 famous Robinson company mines. They have a capitalization of $3,000,- 
 000. The company have a small amount of treasury stock for sale to meet 
 current expenses. 
 
 Gold I'ark Mining Company's mine, the Little Mollie, is loca- 
 ted in Colorado. The quality of the ore is good. The shaft is eighty feet 
 deep. , , 
 
 Gazelle Mining Company (The). The mines belonging to this 
 company are located near Meadow Lake district, Nevada county, Cal. 
 Ledge thirty feet wide. Good assays. 
 
 Gila Mining Company (The) has property located in ReveUe, 
 Nye county, Nev. The officers are G. \V. Handy, Pres. ; John Hammond, 
 Vice-Pres., and J. J. McGeoghegan, Sec. The length of the main lode on 
 which the company depends for its supply of ore is 1,500 feet. Capitali- 
 zation, $10,000,000, in 100,000 shares of $100 each. The .yield during the fis- 
 cal year of 1879-80 was $12 413. Total of dividends paid to August, 1875, 
 $jO,000. Date of latest dividend, August 16, 1875. Eight assessments have 
 been made, aggregating $195,000. Date of latest assessment. July, 1881. 
 
 Great Mountain Mining Company's works are located in Cal- 
 ifornia. Capitalization, $1,260,000; parvalue pershare,$10. Totalamount 
 of dividends paid, $212,000 ; date of latest dividend, November, 1881. Stock 
 quoted July 1, 1882, $2.30. 
 
 Gould and Curry Mining Company (The), of which Mr. Al- 
 fred Durbrowis Secretary, has its offices at 69 Nevada Block, and 309 
 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, CaL The date of annual election is 
 December 19. The property is located in the State of Nevada. The work- 
 ings of the mine are 1,900 feet deep. The length of the main lode on 
 which the company depends lor its supply of ore is 612 feet. The capital 
 of the company is $10,800,000, in 108,000 shares of $100 each. Total divi- 
 dends paid to January, 1881, $3,826,800; date of last dividend, August 4, 
 1880; amount of same, $1.60 per share. Number of assessments levied, 
 forty-two; total amount of same, $3,206,000 ; date of last assessment. May 
 23, 1882; amount of same, fifty cents per share. Floating debt, February, 
 1882, $22,594. Stock in treasury, April 1, 1882, $21,199. 
 
 Golden Development Company ('JThe) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of Maine. The officers are C. D. Jenkins, Pres. ; C. A. 
 Homans, Treas. ; J. F. Coles, Sec. Directors, B. E. Perry, John G. Phillips, 
 Geo. P. Field and C. D. Jenkins. The offices are at 40 Water Street, rooms 
 .52 and 53, Boston, Mass. The company owns four mines, three gold and 
 one silver; the former, viz.. the Pinafore, Colchis, and Jason, are located 
 at Clifton, Ariz., and the latter, the Jenkins, at silver City, N. M. The 
 ore is a carbonate, free milling, and assaying $116.54j viz., gold $104 and 
 silver $12.54. At some depth, the lode is eight feet thick. The rocks are 
 chiefly feldspar and porphyry. The plant, comprising a water-wheel and 
 mill-machinery, is now in course of construction, and will soon be ready 
 for operation. 'There is enough free-milling ore to keep a ten-stamp miU 
 running for one year. Date of organization. May, 1881 ; capitalization, 
 $400,000, in 200.000 shares of $2 each. $20,000 reserved in treasury. 
 
 Goodshaw Mining Company's (The) mine, the Goodshaw, is 
 located in Bodie district, Cal. Extent of claim, 300 feet by 1,600 feet. The 
 ore is high average grade, averaging $41.50, with streaks ranging fl*cni 
 $200 to $5;000 per ton. The ledge is about four feet wide. Ledges of this 
 district show a tendency to unite by depth. Depth of shaft is 500 feet; 
 stopped by water. Total excavations, January 1, 1882, 2,000 feet. The 
 company have new hoisting works in course of erection ; original, de- 
 stroyed Dy fire ; pump costing $20,000. The water having disappeared 
 from the mine, it has Deen started up again. Shaft is now down 695 feet, 
 and sixty or seventy-five feet more are expected to bring the sinkings to 
 the ledge. The work is progressing rapidly. The formation in the Bot- 
 tom of the shaft being blue porphyry, seamed with quartz and of a hard 
 character, with an occasional stratum of clay running through it; all the 
 material carrying a large percentage of iron ; a very desirable formation 
 for gold-bearing ledges. Capitalization, $10,000,000. No dividends paid 
 to June, 1882. Number of assessments levied, eleven; total amount of 
 assessments levied, $130,000 ; date of latest assessment, June 1, 1882, ten 
 cents per share. Working expenses per month, $2,600. 
 
 Grand Union Gold and Silver Mining Company (The) is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of Colorado. The officers are W 
 Dunlap, Pres.; J. J. Wilbraham, V.-Pres.; J. V. Tullaway, Treas.; Enon 
 M. Harris, Sec. Directors, W. Dunlap, J. J. Wilbraham, W. H. Wade, Jos. 
 Pettit, Ohas. Lockrey, Jr., J. V. Tullaway and J. W. Anthony. The com- 
 pany owns the Grand Union, Monroe, Adams, Gov. Curtin, Madison, and 
 Washington, located at Cottonwood district, Chaffee county. Col. The 
 tunnel of the Monroe l8 7.'i0 feet long, and of the Adams, fifty feet long, 
 and developments are rapidly progressing. Capitalization, $2,500,000, in 
 250.000 shares of $10 each. i> f . . , , 
 
 Granite State Gold and Silver Mining Company. The 
 officers are Wm. C. Tallman Pres. ; H. L. White, Treas. ; James Ander- 
 son, Sec; Superintendent, M. Mllleson, M. E. Office, 31 Milk Street, Bos- 
 ton, Mass. The company's property is located in Cheshire county. New 
 Hampshire. They have a capitaliziitlon of $2,500,000, in shares at a par 
 value of S25 each ; basis, non-assessable. 
 
 Gunnison Exchange and Silver Mining Company. The 
 officers are Seth P. Bryaiit, I'res. ; W. D. Middleton, Vicel-^s. ; E. S. 
 Cari, Treas. ; H, M. Martin, Sec. ; A. P. Doe, Genl. Mang. Birectors, A. 
 P. Doe, J. H. Murphy, A. Moritz, S. P. Hobson, and Geo. Paul. Superin- 
 tendent, P. G. Gates, Office, Davenport, Iowa. This company control a 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1157 
 
 number of mining properties in Gunnison county. Col., three on Treas- 
 ury Mountain being best Itnown, the Eurelia. Garfield, and Hancock. The 
 group is known as the Eureka mine. They control all of the Bryant 
 mine at the foot of Crystal Mountain, parts of Friendship and 15outon 
 min^s on Galena Mouutain, in Rock district, parts of the Gunnison Ex- 
 change, Silver Beauty, and Adamines in Ruby district, parts of the Black 
 Jack and Iron mines on Crystal Mountain, a placer claim of twenty 
 acres, suitable for a town site, near Sooiield, which is to be called Silver 
 Center, a one-half interest in a coal iield of 160 acres in size near the town 
 of Crested Butte. The properties are not in the market, and facts con- 
 cerning them are obtained with difficultv. Date of organization, 1880 ; 
 capitalization, $600,000; par value per share, SJffi. 
 
 (Siinnlson Improvement Company is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of Colorado. The officers are August Moore, Pres. ; J. 
 L. M. Duffleld, Sec. Transfer ofice, 203 Walnut Place. Philadelphia, Pa. 
 The company's property is located in Coohetopa and Spring creek dis- 
 tricts, Colorado. The value of this company's property consists in coal 
 lands, gold and silver mines, buildings, town sites, toll roads, and water 
 powers. They are now pushing developments on coal property. The 
 company is interested in the following properties in the Cocnetop a dis- 
 trict; The Maple Leaf, gold lode, Little Nellie, gold lode: Accidental, 
 Sold lode ; John Harley, (placer claim and tgwn site) John V. Gault, 
 >lacer claim and town site,) the water claim of the Cochetopa creek, 
 he first three are well-defined gold bearing veins, and the first men- 
 tioned a well known and very valuable lode. The propertjrjs now bemg 
 developed. In the Spring creek district are the followmg carbonate 
 claims; The King, the Princeton, the Capital. Amount of stock issued, 
 70,000 shares ; capitalization, Sl.OOO.OOO ; par value per share, 810 ; basis, 
 non-assessable ; stock reserved in the treasury, 1882, as working capital, 
 30,000 shares. 
 
 Giant and Old Abe Mining Company (The) is located at 
 Whitewood, LavvT2nce county, Dakota. Capitalization, 510,000,000, in 100.- 
 000 shares, of Sim) each ; the mine produced during the fiscal year of 
 1879 and 1880, $2,760; no dividends have been paid ; six assessments have 
 been made aggregating 8300.000 ; date of last assessment, September 3, 1881. 
 
 Girard Gold and Silver 9Ilning Company (The) is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of New Jersey. The ofiScers are W. H. 
 Wright, Pres.; Wilson Lloyd, Treas. ; and A. J. Kimsley, Sec; Messrs. 
 Hamilton Disston, W. H. Wright. W. H. Tabor, Wilson Lloyd, J. F. Bailey, 
 W. Cochrane, and Chas. Disston being the chief stockholders. The ofil- 
 ces are at 138 South Fourth Street, Philadelphia, Pa. The property is 
 located in the Tombstone district, Ariz., and has an area of about eleven 
 acres. The claim being contiguous to the Tranquillity. Good Enough, 
 Tough Nut, etc., the mine should, with proper development, become a 
 good producer. It is opened by a shaft to a depth of about 450 feet. The 
 main working-shaft is double" compartment and supplied with steam 
 hoisting works of improved pattern. The ore is taken chiefly from the 
 S50-feet level and below. Vein, four to eight feet wide. From 3,000 to 
 4,000 tons of ore on dump ready for twenty-stamp mill in course of erec- 
 tion. About twenty-five men are employed. The company also owns the 
 water-power in the Tombstone district, and report says that it will prove 
 a considerable source of profit. The quality of the ore increases as depth 
 is obtained. Capitalization, 82,000.000, in 200,000 shares of 810 each ; non- 
 assessable, full paid. The receipts of the company last year were 
 8171,478.92, and there is now a balance of 8154.86 in the treasury. AH the 
 shares have been disposed of 
 
 Gi vin Minins Company (The). The Givin mine is located near 
 Mokelumne Hill, Calevaras county, Cal. It is one of the finest pieces of 
 mining property in the State, and one which for many years past has 
 been yielding its wealth of precious metal. There are complete noisting 
 works on the mine, and two quartz-mills, the upper mill having thirty- 
 two stamps, and the lower one twenty-four. Also sulphuret works, and 
 in fact everything that is necessary for working their ore. The pumps 
 are in excellent order, and running regularly, no trouble being experi- 
 enced from the water. The work of retimbering the old shaft is now 
 completed down to the 600-foot level, the tunnel repaired, and everything 
 is about ready to commence hoisting ore. There is a large reserA'e of good 
 quality ore in the level, which will supply 100 tons of rock a day for a 
 year. Work is still being done in the 4d0-foot level, showing very rich 
 rock in the upper slopes of the level. Some difficulty is experienced in 
 
 fetting it, owing to the heavy caves in the lower slopes. Work is also 
 eing done in the 400-foot level in the north shaft. A large body of ore 
 was tapped in the Smith ground, recently purchased by the company. A 
 tunnel on the surface of the Smith ground was run about fifty feet on 
 the ledge, which is from six to eight feet in width and fiir grade ore. 
 The prospects of the mine are very favorable. 
 
 Glasgow Gold and Sliver Mlninsr Company's (The) prop- 
 erty is located at Devil's Gate, Lyon countjr, Nev. The main lode, on 
 which the company depends for its supply of ore, is l,.5O0 feet in length. 
 Capitalization, 89,000,000 ; par value per share, 8100 ; number of assesj!- 
 ments levied, five; total amount of assessments levied. $45,000; date of 
 latest assessment, February 11. 1878. 
 
 Glass Pcndery Consolidated mining Company (The), of 
 which R. Vogel is Vice-Pres. and C. A. Manners, Sec. and J. W. Wallace, 
 Manager, has its offices at 55 and 57 Boreel Building, Broadway, New 
 York. "The company owns two mines, the Glass Pendery and the Rough 
 and Ready, located at Carbonate Hill, Leadville, Lake county, Col. Ex- 
 tent of property about sixteen acres. In the old Pendery a new strike of 
 great richness has been made ; a vein of eighteen inches in thickness of 
 rich chloride ore was struck, which will run as high as 3,000 to 6,000 ounces 
 of silver to the ton ; the main ore body showing a thickness of four to six 
 feet. Sufficient ore has been taken out to pay all current expenses of the 
 mine, including development work. The ore-bins at both shaft-houses 
 are well filled, and shipments are being regularly made. The ore is a 
 carbonate of lead of high grade, assaying from sixty to 150 ounces per ton. 
 Recent developments show large quantities of ore to the north in the Pen- 
 dery claim. Besides the ore bodies an immense amountof iron and lime 
 exists, both of which carry some silver, and are valuable as a fluxe for 
 smelting. The shipment of these alone returns a large profit to the com- 
 pany, and leaves the entire product from the ore a profit. A special 
 engine is employed in hoisting the product from this rich vein. The 
 weekly output is about 180 tons. Capital stock, $5,000,000, in 250,000 shares 
 of $25 each; dividends paid to April, 1881, $25,000; date of last dividend, 
 April 8, 1881, ten cents per share ; stock quoted July 1, $2.15 per share ; 
 surplus fund on hand, $70,000; total profits of mine since discovery, about 
 89,000 ; twenty men employed. 
 
 Hailstone Gold and Silver Mining Company (The) is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of Colorado. The officers are Jas. 
 S. Lever. Pres.; Wm. Flint, Treas.; H. W. Kelly, Sec. Directors, Jas. S. 
 Lever. Wm. Flint, H. W. Kelly, H. Fricke, J. C. Barnitz. Geo. V. Magee, 
 and H. Bea. The offices are at 14 S. Third Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 Organized on a non-assessable basis; capitalization, $2,500,000, in 250,000 
 shares of 810 each. 
 
 Hale and Norcross Silver Mining Company (The) has 
 offices at 3(I9 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal. The officers are Geo. 
 Congdon, Pres. ; Walter E. Sell, Vice-I'rea. ; Nevada Bank, Treas. ; Joel F. 
 Lightner, Sec. The property of the company is located in the Virginia 
 district, Comstock lode, Nevada. Depth of workings, 2,400 feet, 'total 
 length of main lode (Comstock), on which the company depends for its 
 supply of ore, is 400 feet. To January 1, 1882, the sum of 890,000 has been 
 expended in developments. Fifty-nine men are employed at the Hale 
 and Norcross mine. Capitalization, 811,200,nOO, in 112,000 shares of $100 
 each ; number of dividends paid to April, 1871, thirty-six; total amount 
 of same, 8698,000 ; latest dividend, April 10, 1871, 85 per share ; seventy-four 
 assessments levied; total, 83,950,000; latest assessment. May 16, 1882, fifty 
 cents per share ; floating indebtedness, $18,962, April 1, 1882 ; cash on hand 
 March 1, 1882, $2,164 ; preferred stock reserved in treasury. 
 
 Happy Camp Hydraulic Mining Company. The prop- 
 erty is located in Del Norte county, Cal. The company are running their 
 mine night and day with two pipes. Considerable river-bed mining has 
 been done with profit during the past season along both thcKalmath and 
 Smith rivers by means of wing damming. A dam Is constructed half-way 
 across the river and then continued down the stream to any desired dis- 
 tance, thus turning the whole body of water Into one-half of its channel. 
 The water enclosed by the dam is then pumped out by the force of the 
 current acting on wheels attached to shafts projecting beyond the dam, 
 and the gravel on the portion of the river bed laid bare is raised with 
 derricks and emptied into sluice-boxes for washing. 
 
 Harper Gold and Silver Mining Company (The) is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of New York. The officers are Lewis 
 Jones, Pres. ; Geo. G. Terry, V.-Pres. ; Rollin M. Morgan, See. : Giles Blagan, 
 Treas. The Trustees are Lewis Jones, Egbert Guernsey, M. D. ; R. M. Mor- 
 gan, Geo, H. Burrows, G. S. Terry, Giles Blagen, and Thos. H. Cathart. 
 The annual election is held in May. Geo. "tV. Burrows is the Superin- 
 tendent. The offices are at 120 Broadway, New York city. The prop- 
 erty of the company, comprising the Imperial Bower mine, is located at 
 San Juan, Hinsdale county. Col., on the southeast slope of Ida Mountain, 
 head of American Basin, Park Mining district, ten miles northeast from 
 Silvertnn. The area of the claim is 300x1,600 on the Imperial lode. The 
 ore is argentiferous galena, containing much brittle sliver, sulphurets, 
 and gray copper ; yields from thirty-four to 100 ounces silver and thirteen 
 ounces gold per ton. It is said that the ore of the adjoining mine, at a 
 depth of thirty-five feet, averages nearly $200 per ton, and, as the ore of 
 the two mines is the same in character, it is reasonable to suppose that 
 the Bower will prove equally rich at an equal depth of development. 
 The vein is described as a true fissure from eight to twelve feet thick, 
 and exceptionally rich, chiefly with silver. It extends downwards nearly 
 vertically, its trend being west about ten degrees south. The extension 
 of the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad runs within about three miles 
 of the mine at Eureka, in San Juan county. Capitalization, 8400,000, in 
 40,000 shares of 810 each ; fully paid ; non-assessable ; treasury reserves 
 con.sist of 11,500 shares. 
 
 Hastings Consollfli 'od Gold and Silver Mining Com- 
 pany.. Messrs. C. C. Hastings and G. Newton are the directors. The 
 Surpriser mine, owned by this' company, is located at Hastings, Ari- 
 zona. Property owned, extra fine twenty-stamp mill. 
 
 Haverley Golden Group Mining Company (The) is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of Colorado. Oiticers, J. H. Haverley, 
 Pres.; Hon. H. H. Walker, V.-Pres. ; Col. N. P. Richmond, Sec; C. N. 
 Pratt, Asst. Sec; A. F. Armstrong, Treas.; Richard Hienoheon, Supt. 
 Principal offices, 116 Dearborn Street, Chicago ; 1151 and 1167 Broadway, 
 New York; 208 Washington Street, Boston, Mass. The mining property 
 belonging to this company is located on Bear creek, head of San Miguel 
 river, Ouray county. Southwestern Colorado. Gold and silver ore ; assays 
 per t»n, 8145.88 upwards. Have large bodies of high-grade, free-milling 
 ore. The property owned by the company consists of a first-class twenty- 
 stamp mill. This mine has adopted the plan of placing their treasury 
 stock at 82,50 per share, and guaranteeing seven per cent, par value of 
 $10 each, which dividend takes precedence overthe ordinary or common 
 stock of the company. At a meeting of Directors held at office of said 
 company in city of Chicago, 8th December, 1880, the following resolution 
 was passed and unanimously adopted : " Resolved, That the 160,000 shares 
 of the company set aside as development stock, upon which a dividend 
 ofseven per cent, per annum shall be paid annually out of the net earn- 
 ings of the mine of the said company, before any dividends shall be de- 
 clared on the common stock, and that 20,000 shares of the preferred 
 stock be placed on the market at the price of 82.,'>0 per share." Incorpo- 
 rated, February 11, 1880; capitalization, $6,000,000; shares, 600,000; par 
 value $10; non-assessable forever ; owenodebts; dividend-paying mine. 
 Hawkeye Consolidated Mining and Milling Company. 
 The officers are Robert Law, Pres. ; O. P. Gibbs, Vice-Pres. ; Robert H. 
 Law, Sec, and Treas . all of Chicago, 111. S. C. Robinson, the discoverer, 
 is Superintendent. This company owns five claims, viz., the North, East, 
 West, and North-West Hawkeye. and Alpha, located in Colorado. The 
 character of the ore is black tellurium sulphide, antimonial and ruby 
 silver, galena and gold. Mill runs give lOU to 250 ounces to ton. The 
 ore vein stripped on the surface for over 200 feet, and it can be traced 
 3,000 feet. The pay streak is about eighteen inches. The property is de- 
 veloped by tunnels. Date of organization, 1882 ; capitalization, $600,000 ; 
 par value per share, 850. 
 
 Hidden Treasure Mining Company. H. H. Power, Sec. The 
 company's mine. Hidden Treasure', is located at Sunny South. Placer 
 county, Cal. The company has laid a new track through the entire 
 length of the tunnel in the mine, and work has been renewed with a 
 great display of activity. 
 
 Hontestafee Mining Company (Tbe) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of California. H. B. Parsons, Esq., is Secretary. The 
 offices are at San Francisco, Cal.. and at 18 Wall Streets, New York, the 
 latter being an office for effecting transfers. The property of the company, 
 including the Homestake mines, is located in the Black Hills, Deadwood, 
 Dakota. The ore is a ferruginous (quartz, intermixed wifh chloritic 
 slate and small quafitities of iron pyrites, low grade, but sof^ and easy 
 milling, each stamp is capable of crushing three and one-half tons per 
 day at an average cost of 81 per ton. Assay value, 87 to 810 per ton. The 
 mine is a true fissure. The chief vein, called the Golden Star, has large 
 bodies of low grade ore, varying in width from five to 150 feet, and of 
 great depth. "The mining plant comprises two stamp-mills aggregating 
 200 stamps, costing 8503,475 ; a 300-horse-power Corliss engine, fly-wheel 
 of which weighs 26,000 pounds, 4-54. in. boilers sixteen feet long in each 
 mill. Steam drum heaters, with six Ludlow hydrants for protection 
 against fire. The hoisting machinery is supplied with all the latest im- 
 provements. Gold is smelted in laboratory connected with the mill. 
 When its appointments are completed, the metal will leave the mill in 
 bars ready for the mint. The length of the main lode on which the com- 
 
 Eany depends for its supply of ore is 2,850 feet. Nearly 81,000,000 has 
 een expended in developments to January, 1881. Present prospects are 
 
1158 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 excellent, a large amount of high grade ore being exposed. A monthly 
 clean-up of the six mills was made recently, ana the resulting bullion, 
 $123,000, was shipped to New York. The current value of mine is *1,738,- 
 000. The mine is well Umbered, no caves or movements of the hanging- 
 wall having taken place. The cost of mining is $2.48 per ton. The fact 
 of the mines being surrounded by forests necessitates great precaution 
 against fire, for which the company is well provided in the possession of 
 six hvdranlB, an ample supply of water, and aproperly organized brigade 
 of volunteer firemen, all employees of the company. Organized, Novem- 
 ber 6, 1877 ; capitalization, *10,000,000. in 100,000 shares of $100 each ; yield 
 during fiscal year 1S79-80. $1,03:3,272 ; yield during 1881, $1,239,600 ; divi- 
 dends paid to June, 1882, $1,420,000 ; (No. 46) last dividend paid June 26, 
 1882 ; forty cents per share ; another dividend (No. 47) is declared for 
 July 25, of the same amount ; two assessments have been levied, total, 
 $20,000; latest assessment, April 8, 1878, $1 per share. The stock, held 
 principally in San Francisco, is quoted at $17.38 per share. 
 
 Home TicRet and TwO' Jack Mines (Tbe). Messrs. Frost & 
 Palmer, owners. The mines Home Ticket and Two Jack mines are 
 located in Lone Mountain district. New Mexico. Splendid ore taken in 
 large quantities. Give returns of forty ounces in silver, seven-tenths of 
 an ounce in gold, and twenty-four per cent, in lead. Netting $5,444 per 
 ton over smelting charges. Mill four tons. These two mines show a 
 batch of three tons, worked by J. W. Holson, returned over 600 ounces to 
 the ton. 
 
 Hopewell Company. M. J. Hudmett, Manager. The Michigan 
 mine owned by this company is located at Sheep Mountain, Col., from 
 which report says there have been taken some handsome specimens of 
 copper. The ore assays nineteen ounces in silver, seventy per cent, lead, 
 and some gold and iron. The company have hoisting machinery and 
 shaft house at the works. The shaft is 120 feet deep. During March, 
 1882, it was reported a level had been started from the drift to avoid the 
 Inconvenience of working through the uprise, and faciUtate the extrac- 
 tion of ore. Shipments wereexpected to be made at an early date. The 
 ore is said to difi'er from most of the Sheep Mountain ores inasmuch as 
 it is not refractory— analysis showing no zinc, antimony, or arsenic. 
 
 Hukill Oold and Silver Alining: Company is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of New York. The officers are J. L. Brownell, Fres. ; 
 S. V. White, Treas. ; E. W. WiUett, Sec. Trustees, Nath'l A. Boynton, 
 Geo. H. Seeley, Benjamin Blair. Superintendent, F. F. Osbiston. OSice, 
 115 Broadway, Boreel Building, rooms 58 and 60, New York. The com- 
 pany's property, the HukiU mine, is located inS. Bar district. Clear Creek 
 county, Col. The character of the ore is gold, silver, and copper, in 
 quality first class. Value per ton, $80. The mine is shipping twenty tons 
 of ore daily to the concentrator. Sending out one car-load of smelting 
 ore per week (worth $80 a ton), and two car-loads of concentrated ore 
 (worth about $40 a ton). Some fine bodies of mineral have been struck 
 in this mine. The company own mill and hoisting works. The main 
 lode is 3,288 feet in length. Capitalization, $1,000,000 ; par value per share, 
 $10; basis, non-assessable; yield during 1880, 8133,000; total amount 
 of dividends paid, $210,000 ; date of latest dividend, December 10, 1878, 
 ten cents per share; stock quoted July 7, 1882, thirty-five cents. 
 
 I. X. Sj. District Haylield Company (Tlie). The mining pro- 
 perty of this district are located in Nevada. Extraordinary high grade 
 ore. Mr. Bayfield has just reeived the results of three assays made by 
 Mr. R, S. Day, of Oreana. Highest, $1,700 in silver, $3,300 in gold, making 
 a total of 85,000 per ton. 
 
 I. X. li. Mine (Tlie). Owned by Messrs. Casey & McLain. The I. X. 
 L. mine is located in Laurel district. Mono county, Cal. Large quantities 
 of ore taken from a shaft only sixteen to eighteen feet deep. Free gold 
 in quantities, and seam also shows chlorides of silver. 
 
 Isabella Gold and Silver JKinin^ Company (The), of which 
 Lewis Chalmers, Esq., is Superintendent, owns the Stella mine located in 
 Inyo county, Cal. Extent, 1,019 acres. The company are now operating 
 at Silver Mountain , They are driving a tunnel upwards of 8,000 feet, for 
 the purpose of developing three ledges, the Isabella, I. X. L., and Exche- 
 quer. A new mill has been built and is crushing ore, of which there is 
 sufficient to keep it running to its full capacity. The company is Eng- 
 lish. 
 
 Iron Hill Company. The company own a group of mines located 
 in Lawrence county, Dakota. They have sunk shafts to the depth of fifty, 
 thirty-one, and twelve feet in the Utica and Ultimo. Rich ore, consisting 
 of gray carbonate, containing horn silver, is said to have been struck, but 
 the ext«nt of the deposit had not been determined. To the east of this 
 carbonate belt is a wide and rich vein of gold-bearing ore, from which 
 assays have run as high as $2 to the ton. 
 
 Ida li (The), Queen of the West. Ofiicere. J. B. Bissell, Pres. ; J. M. 
 Wallace, Vloe-Pres. ; R. H. Buck, Sec. ; L. M. Dwight, Treas. The May- 
 flower mines are owned by this company. Located in the Ten Mile dis- 
 trict. Col. The ore consists of gold and copper. A tunnel cross-cutting the 
 vein, at a distance of 130 feet,*at which point a winze was sunk in the 
 vein to a depth of twenty feet, and then drifts run east and west along tlie 
 vein, a distance of seventy feet in all, 1881. Arrangements have now been 
 made to prosecute vigorously the works of opening the mine. Mill four 
 tons. Gave returns of forty ounces in silver, seven-tenths of an ounce in 
 gold, and 24 per cent, in lead, netting $5,444 per ton over smelting charges. 
 Capitalization, 150,000 shares : value, $10 each ; working capital, $30,000. 
 
 Ileslte Mine (The), owned by F. T. Hughes and others. The Ilesite 
 mine is located at Middle Swan creek, Summit county, Col. Gold and 
 silver ore, assaying per ton $10 to $20'in gold and silver. Drifts and veins 
 are the character of the mine. Vein over thirty feet wide. 
 
 Intervener Gold and Silver Mining; Company (The) is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of New Jersev. The officers are T. 
 Henry Ashbury, Pres. ; Wilson Lloyd, Treas. ; L. W. Klahr, Sec. Olfices 
 are at 138 South Fourth Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Jackson Mining; Company (The) owns property located in Eu- 
 reka, Nev. Capitalization, $5,000,000, in 6(10,000 shares of $100 each. No 
 dividends have been paid; thirteen assessments have been levied ; total 
 amount of same, $262,500; latest, November 23, 1880. Cash on hand, Feb- 
 ruary L 1882, $5,330.43. 
 
 Juniper Mining Company (The). E. C. Master, Sec. Principal 
 office, 309 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal. The mines belonging 
 to this company are located in California. 
 
 Julian Mine (The). Mr. Dubois, Supt. This mine is located near 
 New Castle, Placer county, Cal. The company own one twenty-stamp mill. 
 The Superintendent was formally in charge of the Extra mine, Copper 
 City, Shasta county. The mine cost $200,000. The mill run by a hurdv- 
 
 §urdy wheel, with 140 feet of water from the Bear River ditch. Shaft is 
 own 700 feet. 
 
 Justice Mining; Company (The) has offices at 419 California 
 Street, San Francisco, Cal. The officers are J. P. Cavallier. Pres. ; H. M. 
 Levy, Vice-Pres. ; R. E. Kelly, Sec; Bank of California, Treas. OlHce, 
 419 California Street, San Francisco. The property is located on the Gold 
 Hill district, Nevada. The length of the main lode on which tlie com- 
 
 pany depends for its supply of ore is 2,100 feet. Capitalization, $10,600,000, 
 in 106,000 shares of $100 each. Yield during fiscal years 1879. 1880, was 
 $6,300; no dividends have been paid; thirty-six assessments have been 
 levied; total amount of same, $3,206,600; date of last assessment. May 22, 
 1882 ; amount per share, twenty cents ; cash on hand, February 1, 1882, 
 $21,056.99; cash on hand, March, 1882, $15,564. • 
 
 Julia Consolidated Mining Company (The) has its offices at 
 419 California Street, San Francisco, Cal. H. A. Charles, Secretary. The 
 annual election is held August 10. The property is located on the Com- 
 stock lode, in the Virginia district. Nev. The depth attained on the 
 workings is 2,450 feet. The length of the main lode, on which the com- 
 pany depends for its supply of ore, is 3,000 feet. Capitalization, $11,000,000, 
 in 110,000 shares of $100 each; no dividends have been paid; seventeen 
 assesments have been levied; total amount of same, $1,467,600 ; latest 
 assessment, twenty cents per share, January, 1882 ; cash on hand, March 
 1, 1882, $1,066. , „ ^. 
 
 Jupiter Mining Company (The) owns property m the Bodie 
 district, Cal. Extent of claim, 200 by 1,500 feet. The ore is rather low 
 grade, but possesses good milling qualities. The mine has a vein forma- 
 tion over forty feet in width, assaying strong in gold and silver, which 
 has been exciting much curiosity. The shaft is 600 feet deep. The length 
 of the main lode on which the company depends for its supply of ore is 
 1,500 feet. There are in the mine nearly 2,000 linear feet of excavation, 
 including shafts. The mining plant Includes a new hoisting apparatus 
 of 1,200 feet capacity and costing $20,000. Capitalization, 64,000 shares; 
 no dividends paid ;' twelve assessments levied ; total amount of same, 
 $216,000. 
 
 Kansas Mining Company (The). Mr. J. W. Whitlatch, Super- 
 intendent. The Catalpa and Crescent mines are owned by this company 
 and located in Park county, Col. Quality and character of ore are gold 
 and silver, 1880. There is but little doubt (so reported) that it will soon 
 rank among the foremost producers of gold and silver in Park county. 
 The depth of shaft is thirty feet. Averaging the depths of the shaft, cuts, 
 and levels on the mine at thirty feet, and the ore streak at only two feet 
 in width, there are now In sight 4,125 tons of ore, having a value of $32,000, 
 after deducting the percentage ol^loss in treatment. A mill is owned by 
 the company, California pattern. Will run ten 750-pound stamps, having 
 engine and boiler capacity sufficient to use twenty. The mill will run 
 almost automatically, being supplied with self-feeders and other im- 
 
 firoved labor-saving appliances. The mines are located upon one of the 
 argest and best-filled fissures of the district, and are opened from the sur- 
 face by means of fifteen difi'erent shafts, cuts, and levels in the vein. In 
 addition to the fine location, there are two cross-cut tunnels run in to tap 
 the vein lower down ; one at seventy-seven, the other 150 leet. Through- 
 out the workings of the mines there is not a pinch or barren spot shown, 
 and the full meaning of this statement (?an be better- understood when we 
 say that the surface openings given are extended to a total length, along 
 the vein, of 826 feet, several of them being long open cuts, or rather 
 trenches, exposing ore for their entire length. At eacli of these openings 
 there are many tons of ore, and a close estimate of the total amount upon 
 the different dumps places it at 300 tons. Mining and milling cost $12 per 
 ton. The ore will be found equally as plentiful and rich in the lower 
 levels, as is shown in the working of the well-known Nova Zembla mine, 
 which joins the Kansas upon the same vein, and which has been exploited 
 to a depth of over 200 feet. At that distance from the surface the Nova 
 Zembla is productive of ore, having a value or$200 per ton in gold and 
 carrying some silver. Yield, net, to January 1, 1882, $12 per ton ; yield, 
 net, during 1881, $82,600. 
 
 Keystone Mining Company's Mine (The), the Keystone, is 
 located in Amador county, Cal., and appears to be a valuable and profita- 
 ble property. The mill has been recently rebuilt ; it has forty stamps, 
 self-feeding, rock-breaker, large ore-bin, with a capacity of 3,000 tons, to 
 hold in reserve in case of accident in the mine, and Hendy concentrators 
 giving satisfactory results. 
 
 Kearsarge Silver Mining' Company (The) is chartered un- 
 der the laws of the State of New York. The offices are at 54 Wall Street, 
 New York. The property of the company is located near Salt Lake City. 
 The ore is gold, silver, and lead. Organized in 1877; capitalization, 
 $2,000,000, in 200,000 shares of $10 each ; non-assessable. Yield during fis- 
 cal year 1879 80, $2,150. 
 
 Kentnck Mining Company (The) has offices at 234 Montgom- 
 ery Street, San Francisco, California. J. W. Pew, Esq., is Secreiary. 
 The property is located on the Comstock lode, Nevada. The length of 
 the main lode or which the company depends for its supply of ore is 
 ninety-five feet. Fifteen men are employed at the Kentuck mine. Cap- 
 italization, $3,000,000, in 30,000 shares of $100 each ; thirty-two dividends 
 were paid up to March 10, 1870, date of last dividend ; total amount of 
 same, $1.252,000 ; amount of last dividend, $5 per share ; seventeen assess- 
 ments have been levied ; total amount of same, $342,000 ; date of last 
 assessment, November 23, 1881, at thirty cents per share. 
 
 King's Mountain Mining Conrpany (The) is chartered un- 
 der the laws of the State of New York, Tlie offices are at 52 Broadway, 
 New York city. The property of the company, consisting of 500 acres, is 
 located in Gaston county, N. C. The ore is auriferous witli some silver. 
 Organized September 10, 1877 ; capitalization. $1,200,000, in shares of $10 
 equals 120,000 shares ; non-assessable. To May of the current year, no div- 
 idends had been paid. 
 
 I.acrosse Gold and Silver Mining Company is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of New York. Office, 59 Williams Street, 
 New Y'ork. The company's property is located in Colorado. Character 
 of the ore is gold and silver, and has a value of $10 per ton. Date of in- 
 corporation, June 10, 1863; capitalization, $1,000,(500; par value per 
 share, $10. . . . . r f 
 
 liast Chance Mining Company is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of California. Office, San Francisco, Cal. The company's prop- 
 erty is located at Bodie, Mono county. Col. The ore carries both gold and 
 silver, and has a value of $30 per ton. The company owns whim, hoist- 
 ing works, etc. Date of organization, July 8, 1879. Capitalization, $2,000,- 
 000; par value per .share, $10; basis, non-assessable. 
 
 I.ady Helen Gold and Silver Mining Company (The) has 
 its olhcesat No. 29 Broad Street, New York. The officers are Paul 0. d'Ester- 
 hazer, Pres.- Robt. Kayner, Sec; R. G. Anderson, Supt. The company 
 owns the Lady Helen mine, located near the Senate mine, Colorado, and 
 employs in it a considerable staff' of men. The prospects of success 
 are at present pronn.sing. Capitalization, $500,000, in 100,000 shares of 
 $5 each. 
 
 lawler Gold and Silver Kilning Company (The). Principal 
 office, Leadville, Colorado. The mining property belonging to this com- 
 pany IS located in Park county, Colorado. Capitalization, $6,000,000; 
 shares, 600,000; par value, $10. .««... 
 
 I/ceds Mountain Gold and Silver Mining Company (The) 
 IS chartered under the laws of the State of Colorado. The offices are at 
 Topeka, Kansas, aud Maysville, Colorado. The directore and officers are 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1159 
 
 Gov. John P. St. John, Pres.; Hon. A. H. Horton, Vice-Pres.; A. B. Jet 
 more, Gen. Mang.; Owen T. Welch, Treas.; W. II. Ward, Sec; Col. P. S. 
 Noble, Hon. Ed. Knowles, Hon. J. O. Pickering, and C. M. Johnson. The 
 Executive Committee consists of Hon. A. B.Jetmore, Hon. G. B. Johnston, 
 and W. C. Edwards. Organized April 21, 1881; capitalization, *2,000,000, 
 in 200.000 shares of $10 each ; non-assessable. Stockholders not individu- 
 ally liable. 
 
 Lltla Gold and Silver mining Company (The). OfRcer, A. 
 C. Hammond, Sec. Principal ottice, 401 California Street, San Francisco. 
 The above mines are located in Nevada. 
 
 L,ittle Bobtail Oold and ISilver Dlinlnir Company (Ttae) 
 own a group of mines comprising the Little Bobtail, Salt Lake, Dovetail, 
 Little Chance, Mary, Flint, Railroad, Baltic, Juanita, and Marion, all lo- 
 cated in Gilpin county, Col. The Baltic at a deptli of sixty feet has a 
 sixteen-inch pay streak. The Railroad mine at its junction with the 
 Baltic has a snaft 230 feet in depth, also a sixty-foot shaft. On the Flint, 
 the shaft is down 130 feet, with ten inches of vein matter at the bottom. 
 TMs mine produces a good smelting ore from the ninety-foot level. The 
 incorporators were John H. Boen, John H. Matthews, M. G. Ferguson. 
 The company has a capitalization of 81,000,000. 
 
 litttle Piney G«l<l and JSilver Mining: Company is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of Colorado. The officers are Edwin G. Fay, 
 Pres. ; Geo. G. Magee; Vice-Pres. ; E. P. Graves, Sec. and Treas. Superin- 
 tendent, F. C. Fajf. Office, Corning, New York. The company's property 
 is located in California mining districts. Col. Amount of property in 
 acres. 320. The company's property consists of Placer and Lode mining 
 claims. They have a capitalization of $1,000,000. Par value per share, 810. 
 Basis, non-assessable. 
 
 lilttle Rapid Placer liflnin^ Company (The) is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of New York. The President of the company 
 is Benjamin Homans. Office, 251 Broadway, New York. The property 
 of the company is located in the Black Hills, Dakota. The ore is free 
 smelting. A rich pay streak shows in the breasts of all the drifts and 
 levels in the mines, generally about two feet in width. It consists of a 
 fine-looking brown and gray quartz ore, containing much copper in a 
 carbonized condition. Capitalization, 81,000,000, in 200,000 shares of $5 
 each. 
 
 luong and Derry Hill mining: Company (The) is chartered 
 under the laws of the .State of New York. Officers are Hon. Wm. Fuller- 
 ton, President ; Wm. E. Redding, Vice-President ; Gen. John A. Anderson, 
 Treasurer ; D. Olyphant Talbot, Secretary. Mr. J. L. Sprogeli, Jr., is Su- 
 perintendent. Offices are at 145 Broadway, New York, and 310 Chestnut 
 Street, Philadelphia, Pa. The company owns two mines, Little Canada 
 and Mount Carbon, located in Colorado. The mineral ranges in value 
 from 81 to $500 per ton. Seams of carbonate are reported to have been 
 met with. After standing idle for some time, operations in the mine were 
 recommenced May 1, under most favorable circumstances. About forty 
 men are now employed, and regular shipments of about eighteen tons of 
 ore per week are being made. Organized March, 1880 ; capitalization, 
 85,000,000, in shares of 810 each, ,^00,000 shares ; floating debt, March 1, 
 $13,110 ; 300,000 shares issued, 200,000 reserved in treasury. 
 
 I<yon (or Robinson) Alining Company (The). The Lyon 
 or Robinson mine is located near Placerville, El Dorado county, Califor- 
 nia, and has been worked for a number of years with great success. The 
 mine consi.sts of an immense gravel deposit, and the principal work has 
 thus far been done upon what appears to have been an old channel run- 
 ning from northeast to southwest, and varies from r.O to 250 feet in 
 width. Heretofore operations have been conlined to the eastern portion 
 of the claim, and to the flat in the immediate vicinity of the mill, until 
 within the past year, since the property came into the hands of the pres- 
 ent company, who built new hoisting works. The gravel bed, inter- 
 spersed with large, smoothly washed boulders, is about four feet in 
 depth, all of which, save the boulders, is milled. The mill consists of 
 twenty stamps, with a capacity of fifty tons of gravel every twenty-four 
 hours. Good gravel also exists in the Cedar Spring mines, formerly the 
 DickerhofT and Goyan claim, the property of the same company. 
 
 Iievlatban Mining Company. The officers are H. A, Deming. 
 President; L. W. Boyer, Vice-President; B. B. Smith, Secretary ; R. W. 
 Hent, C. F. Tolford, G. P. Theller. The company's property is located at 
 Gold Hill district, Comstock lode, Nevada. There are 2,000 linear feet in 
 their mine. Capitalization, 810,000,000 ; par value per share, $100; number 
 of assessments levied, twelve; total amount of assessments levied, $355,- 
 000; date of latest assessihent, March 23, 1881. 
 
 I.eopard Mining Company. Location of the property. Cornu- 
 copia, Elks county, Nevada. The main lode is 1,500 linear feet in the 
 company's mine. Capitalization, $5,000,000; par value per share, $100 ; 
 yield during 1880, $10,178: number of dividends paid to December 11, 1876, 
 six ; total amount of dividends paid, $162.50 ; date of latest dividend, De- 
 cember 11, 1876; number of assessments levied, thirteen; total amount 
 of assessments levied, 8.S47,500 ; date of latest assessment, April 6, 1880. 
 
 I,e viathan Mining Company (The). F. A. Frisus, Sec. ; princi- 
 pal office at San Francisco, Cal. The mines belonging to this company 
 are located in Nevada. 
 
 'Tom Moore Mining Company. R. S. Cross is Superintendent. 
 This company own the Tom Moore and Byron lodes, and also others on 
 Jones Mountains, San Juan county, Colorado. They are on a large vein 
 whose general bend is northeast and southwest. This vein is about sev- 
 enty-five feet wide. There are several pay streaks ; one near the hang- 
 ing wall is fourteen inches wide, carrying a solid body of galena and 
 gray copper ore, which will run 251 ounces of .silver per ton. The pay 
 streak near the foot wall is nine inches thick, carrying galena which mills 
 sixty-eight ounces of silver jier ton. The main or centre pay streak is 
 three to seven feet wide, carrying galena, gray copper, native copper, and 
 gold quartz ; assays $100 gold, from 700 to 800 ounces in silver, and about 
 twenty-five per cent, copper. This vein has been opened at short inter- 
 vals by cross-cuts throughout its whole length, showing good mineral in 
 each opening. There is also a tunnel 165 feet in length on the Tom 
 Moore, from which a drift has been run sixty feet on the hanging wall. 
 
 Melvina Mining Company (The). Officer, T. A. Bryant, Asst. 
 Sec. ; principal office, 108 Washington Street, Chicago, 111. The locality 
 of the mines of this company is at Salina, in Boulder county, Col. 
 
 Mt. Potosi Consolidated Mining Company (The). Officer, 
 E. A. Holmes, Secretary. Principal office, 318 Pine Street, San Francisco, 
 Cal The mining property belonging to this company is located in Ne- 
 vada. Capitalization, $10,000,000; shares, 100,000; par value, $100. Yield 
 during 1880, $21,900. Number of dividends, none ; number of assessments 
 levied, eight; total amount of same, $175,000 ; latest assessment, October 
 20, 1881. 
 
 Macfeey Cold anti Silver Mining Company (The). Officer, 
 J. M. Bufflngton, Secretary. Principal office, 309 California Street, San 
 Francisco, Cal. The location of the mines belonging to this company is 
 
 Manhattan Gold and Sliver Mining Company (The) has 
 
 property located in Clear Creek county. Col. The company owns the fol- 
 lowing lodes : Thompson, Sterling, Ringgold, Thunderbolt, Beaver, Len- 
 nox, Kenton, Lamar, and Melveme ; located on the junction of L'te creek. 
 They will be worked through the Manhattan tunnel, which is now in a 
 distance of eighty-seven feet. The company are working the group very 
 systematically, snowing excellent management, with good prospects of 
 success. The tunnel will cut the whole of the lodes and at a depth where 
 the best ore is to he found. The Thunderbolt is considered the best of 
 the group, and is developed by a shaft which is now down ninety-six 
 feet; this exposes a true fissure vein, nine feet between the walls, which 
 is producing very fine mineral. 
 
 Mariposa Gold and Silver Mining Company (The). Direc- 
 tors, Mr. H. H. White, J. F. Brown, W. E. Brown, J. W. Snyder, E. S. Utter. 
 D. Walton Birmingham, Superintendent. The mines belonging to this 
 company, the Succedo mine, the Pine Tree. Josephine, Princeton, Green 
 Gulch, Mexican, Oro, Mount Ophir, Linn, Mariposa, New Britain or Mar- 
 iposa, are located in Mariposa county. Cal Very little has been done at 
 them lately, but preparations are being made for active work. Reports 
 say that the fresh developments will commence at the north end of the 
 estate, in the river tunnel, in the vein known as the Succedo mine. An 
 immense vein of quartz, some thirty feet in thickness, has been struck. 
 The quartz is irregularly stratified, but resembles in a measure that of 
 the Josephine mine, breaking apart without difficulty at the points of 
 stratiiication, which are more or less charged with fine sulphurets con- 
 taining gold, and showing a strong presence of auriferous lead. The ore 
 is refractory to work by the ordinary procet^s, and the company propose 
 to introduce other methods by which low grade and rebellions ores are 
 rendered profitable to work, and it is hoped that this large body of ore 
 will not have to be pa3.sed by as worthless. The company have levied 
 twenty-two assessments. Date of latest assesmeent, December 23, 1881, 
 being levied at the rate of twenty-five cents per share. Capitalization, 
 $2,500,0000. 
 
 Maryland Consolidated Gold Mining Company (The). 
 Principal office, 219 Sansome Street, San Francisco, California. Annual 
 election, December 23. The mines belonging to this company are located 
 in Brodie district, Cal. They are immediateljrsonth of and adjoining the 
 Noondays. Amountofpropertyin acres consistsof 400 by l,500feet. This 
 is a property of great value. Fair grade of ore, assaying $30 to 8150 gold 
 and silver. There are five ledges, varying from one to three feet in thick- 
 ness, containing very fine ore. Shaft is double compartment, 550 feet 
 deep ; 5,000 feet in mine. An engine cabling of best steel, guaranteed to 
 sink 1,500 feet, using cars and cages; 6 000 feet in mine. The ores are 
 chiefly decompo.sed quartz mixed with clay, carrying about three-quar- 
 ters gold and one-quarter silver. Capitalization, 812,000,000; shares, 
 120,000 ; par value, 8100; shares sold for working capital, 20,000. No divi- 
 dends paid to January 1, 1882. Number of assessments levied, two ; total 
 amount of same, 860,000. Not listed. 
 
 Mayflower Consolidated Gold and Silver Mining Com- 
 pany is chartered under the laws of the State of New York. The offi- 
 cers are G. Burt, Pres. and Robert White, Sec. Office. 161 Broadway,New 
 York. The company's property is located at Idaho Springs, Clear Creek 
 county. Col. The ore cames gold and silver. It is claimed by parties in- 
 terested that 8,000 tons are practically developed. Date of incorporation. 
 May, 1879. Capitalization. 81,000,000: par value per share, $10. Basis, 
 non-assessable ; full paid. There is a limited number of shares for sale at 
 84 per share. Stock quoted July 12, 1882, twenty cents per share. 
 
 McElroy Gravel Mining Company (The) is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of Cahfomia. The officers or directors are Southard 
 Hoffman, Clerk U. S. District Court; James Phelan, capitalist: Geo. 
 Schultz, merchant ; W. R. Sloan, real estate ; D. V. B. Henarie, merchant. 
 President, Southard Hoffman ; Secretarj', I^wis Lilhe. Date of annual 
 election, first Tuesday in June. The present Superintendent is Jos. Ead- 
 ley. The offices are at 607 Washington Street, San Francisco. The prop- 
 erty of the company is at Altarvile, Calaveras county, Cal., and has an 
 extent of 440 acres. The ore is found in the deep gravel of a river drift 
 or bed. The sliaft is 210 feet down. Tunnel for drainage, abont 600 feet. 
 The length of the depo.sit on which the supply of ore depends is 3,000 
 feet. Developments were commenced in 1874, 830,000 having been ex- 
 pended on the same, and the prospects of the property are favorable. Or- 
 ranized December 18. 1872. Capitalization, $5,000,000, in 500,000 shares of 
 $10 each. Stock assessable. Balance stock of the corporation, 14.683 
 shares. Five assessments have been levied, aggregating 812,543.19 ; date 
 of first assessment, July 23, 1878; amount per share, ten cents; date of 
 latest assessment, January 24, 1882 ; amount per share, ten cents. 
 
 Michoacan Syndicate Mining Company. The officers are 
 H. A. W. Tabor, Pres.; Alex. McDonald, Vice-Pres.; Bernard Whitman, 
 See. ; all of New York. Morelia committee, Senor Don Gustavo J. Gra- 
 venhorst, Pres. ; Senor Don J. M. Sorlozauo, Vice-Pres. General Agent, 
 Senor Don Pedro Gutierrez. David Ferguson, Esq., Agent in City of 
 Mexico. Offices, Morelia. State of Michoacan, Mexico, and 115 Broadway 
 (rooms 53 to 61), New York. The company's property consists of a group 
 of developed and producing gold and silver mines in district of Chapa- 
 tuato : group of developed and producing silver mines in district of Ozn- 
 matlan ; group of undeveloped working gold mines in district of Sinda ; 
 and group of gold prospects in the district of Tiquio. The company's 
 capitalization is divided into 300,000 shares. Full paid and non-assess- 
 able. 
 
 Midland Mining Company. The property of this company, the 
 John Lee, Little Johnny, Cimarron, Niegold, Begole, Ashurst, Thoran, 
 Grace Clifford, Pemberton, and Roedel mines, is located in San Juan 
 county. Col. "They also own the Roedel tunnel site, which was located in 
 1876, which has already been driven in over 450 feet, and wiU cut the 
 Little Johnny at a depth of 500 feet from the surface. Veins are strong 
 and well defined, and enclosed between granite walls. The vein material 
 is galena copper pyrites, and carbonate, carrying gold, silver, and lead, 
 varying from thirty to sixty per cent, lead, and from ten to 100 ounces 
 silver. 
 
 Mexican Gold and Silver Mining Company (Ttae) is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of California, C. L. McCoy, Esq., is the 
 Secretary. The offices are at 309 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal. 
 The property of the company is located in the Virginia district, Comstock 
 lode, Nevada. The ore is gold and silver, low grade. The workings are 
 2.(500 feet down. The length of the main lode (Comstock) on which the 
 company depends for its supply of ore is 600 linear feet. Sixty-three 
 miners are employed at the Mexican mine. Organized, December 8, 1874- 
 capitalization, 810,800,000, in 108,000 shares of $100 each. No dividends 
 have been paid. Nineteen assessments have been levied ; latest, June 6 
 1882, of fifty cents per share. Indebtedness, April 1, 1882, 843,590 ; cash on 
 hand, February 1, 81,809.82. 
 
 Minerva Gold and Silver Mining Company owns the Mi- 
 nerva mine located in Butler county, north-west of Orrvflle, Cal. The 
 company's property consists of 150 acres lode claims, and 320 placer. The 
 ore is mostly of a snlphuret nature, and pays about $16 per ton. Length 
 
1160 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the main tunnel is 600 feet, or SOD feet from the mouth of the tunnel of 
 the mine. The main lode is 39,000 fjet in length. 
 
 Minnie I.ee Gold and Silver mining Conipan;f (The). The 
 property belonging to this company is located in Summit county, Col. 
 Capitalization, fc,000,000 ; par value, $10. 
 
 mint Gold and Silver Mining: Coni|>an;)r (Tiie). The mining 
 works of this company are located in Virginia district, Comstock lode, 
 Nevada. 6,200 linear feet iu mine. Qapitallzation, 85,000,000; shares, 50,- 
 000 ; par value, $100 ; number of assessments levied, twenty -four ; total 
 amount of same, $165,000 ; date of latest assessment, July 28, 1880. 
 
 Mohave Mining' and Millini^Conipany is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of New York. The officers are Kdward M. Clark, Pres. ; 
 W. D. Crapin, Treas. ; E. W. C. Merington, Sec. ; Superintendent, Major 
 George Clendon. Office, 120 Broadway, New York. The company's prop- 
 erty IS located at Mineral Parts, Mohave county, Ariz. The ore carries 
 gold and silver ; value per ton, from TO to $150. Date of organization, 
 November, 1879 ; capitalization. $1,000,000 ; par value per share, $10 ; basis, 
 non-assessable. 
 
 Morning: Star Consolldateil Mining Company. W. L. Ward 
 is Manager. Oflce, 331 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal. The com- 
 pany's mine, the Morning Star, is located at Carbonate Hill, Mosquito 
 Gulch, I.«adville, Col. It is the first southern extension of the Gunsight 
 Mining Claim. Amount of property (in acres) twenty-six. It is opened 
 by a shaft sixty feet in depth, all in good ore. Assays give $101 to the ton ; 
 100 tons now on the dump. The ore carries silver, gold, lead, and sand 
 carbonate, assaying eleven ounces of silver, and one and a half ounces of 
 gold per ton. The mines are worked by drilt and level. The ore (body) 
 is reported to be twenty feet in thickness. The company is shipping reg- 
 ularly, and paying regular monthly dividends. Plenty of ore is said to be 
 in sight. Output weekly Januarj^, 1882, 100 tons. The current value of 
 the mine is $2,200,000. A rich strike is reported to have been recently 
 made in the lower workings of the mine. About 100 men are employed. 
 Organized December, 1881 ; capitalization, $1,000,000 ; par value per share, 
 $10 ; basis, non-assessable. Number of dividends paid to July 6, 1882, ten. 
 Total amount of dividends paid, $490,000. Date of latest dividend, July 6, 
 1882; amount, $25,000. Surplus May 20, 1882, $80,000. Stock quoted June 
 10, 1882, $22. Weekly output of ore, 700 tons. Monthly expenses about 
 $10,000. 
 
 Mountain MonarcBi Silver Mining Company (The) is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of Iowa. Officers, Hon, James Harlan, 
 Pres., Mt. Pleasant, Iowa ; Wm. E. Mason, Chicago, 111.. Sec. ; J. B. Coate, 
 Mt. Pleasant, Iowa, Treas. ; A. S. Hunter, Mt. Pleasant, Iowa. Directors, 
 James Harlan, W. M. Stone, E. H. Winans, Hamilton White, W. H. Mason, 
 J. B. Coate, 8. F. Bangham. Ex-Gov. J. G. Newbold, A. S. Hunter. E. H. 
 Winans, Gen. Agent. Principal office, Mt. Pleasant, Iowa. The mines 
 belonging to this company are the Mountain Monarch, Island Lode, (each 
 1..".00 feet long by 300 feet wide.) Located at Spanish Peaks, La Vela, 
 Huerfano county. Col. True fi.ssure veins, nine feet wide, filled with de- 
 composed vein matter, withstreaksof mineral, which assays $66 in silver, 
 and $20 in gold. The ore, galena and pyrites, grows richer at every foot 
 advancement, and the chimney widens with depth. Stock has advanced 
 to $10. All necessary buildings and tools for the proper development of 
 the property. Specimens of ore from the lower drift assayed 59i^o ounces 
 of silver, or $66.41. This assay does not include the gold, of which there 
 is a considerable quantity, amounting to about $90 per ton in toio. Four 
 tunnels on different levels have been driven into the distance of about 
 130 to 200 feet each. The private property of stockholders is exempt from 
 liability for corporate obligations, and the company has no power to con- 
 tract debts in excess of the money unappropriated in the treasury, nor to 
 water its stock ; 25,000 shares of the stock, of the denomination of $20 each, 
 aggregating the par value of $600,000, have been placed in the treasury of 
 the company as working capital stock for the common benefit of private 
 stockholders, to be disposed of and the proceeds applied to the develop- 
 ment of the mines until they shall be^on a dividend paying basis, when 
 the residue of said working capital stock will be distributed pro rata to 
 all individual stockholders. The articles of incorporation are iron-clad. 
 The stock can never be assessed, and under no consideration any in- 
 debtedness in excess of each in the treasury. Individual property of stock- 
 holders can never be held liable for any action of the company. Amount 
 expended developing property, January 1, 1882, $20,000 ; capitalization, 
 $2,000,000 ; shares, 100,000 ; par value, $20 ; non-assessable. Number of as- 
 sessments levied, no account. 
 
 Mount Diablo Mining Company (The) has offices at 318 Pine 
 Street, San Francisco, Cal. Date of annual meeting, December 19. The 
 company's property consists of the Mount Diablo claim, located in Can- 
 delaria district, Nev. The ore is a rotten quartz mixed with chlorides, 
 the ore from drift assaying from $60 to $98 per ton. The present prospects 
 of the mine are promising, the vein having a pay streak of about six 
 inches wide. Length of main lode on which the supply of ore depends. 
 1,400 feet. Capitalization, $5^000,000, in 50,000 shares of $100 each ; yield 
 during 1880, $126,000 ; no dividends paid ; three assessments levied, total, 
 $137,500 ; latest assessment, June 22, 1880 ; floating indebtedness, $10,120, 
 March 1, 1882. 
 
 Mnrchie Gold and Silver Company (The). Officer, S. D. 
 Roger, Sec. Principal office, 328 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal. 
 The mines belonging to this company are located in California. 
 
 Nevada Chief Gold and Silver Mining Company (The). 
 A. C. Hammond, Sec. Principal office, 401 San Francisco. Cal. 
 
 Ifew Torh and Id.-)ho Gold and Silver Mining Company 
 (The) is chartered under the laws of the State of New York. The officers 
 are Hon. Ed. J. Curtis, Pres. ; Jas. Turner, Vice-Pres. ; Richard Sterling, 
 Treas. The offices are at 42 Pine Street, New York. The company owns 
 one mine, the Pacific, located at Atlanta Hill, Alturas county, Idaho Ter- 
 ritory. The claim is 2,300 feet in length by 600 feet in width, and the pro- 
 perty also embraces a fine mill-site, with wood and water in abundance. 
 Organized on a non-assessable basis ; capitalization, $1,000,000, in 200,000 
 shares of $5 each. A limited amount of stock for sale at $2 per share. 
 
 Northern I^ight Gold and Silver Mining Company 
 (The). F. 8. Monroe, Sec. Principal office, 310 Pino Street, San Fran- 
 cisco, Cal. 
 
 North State Mining Company (The) is incorporated under 
 the laws of North Carolina. The principal mine appears to be the Copper 
 Knob mine, located in North Carolina. This is a copper mine carrying 
 gold and silver, and is a property of 350 acres, covered with heavy timber. 
 The vein is a fissure, and varies from fifteen inches to four feet in width. 
 The mine is opened to a depth of 157 feet on the incline, and has already- 
 produced a large quantity of rich and valuable ore. The vein, at a width 
 of four feet, carries an average of 20 percent, of copper, and $40 in gold and 
 silver per ton. This mine is fully equipped with modern machinery, 
 steam-hoisting engine, air-compressor, air-drills, 60-horsc-power boilci-K, 
 25-hor.se-power engine, and two smelting furnaces of twenty tons capacll y 
 are being constructed. In the ore liouse thi're are about 300 Ions of flrst- 
 class ore, and not less than 600 tons standing in the incline and drifts on 
 
 the foot-wall in the mine. The company has a capitalization of $10,000,000 ; 
 par value per share, 825. . ^ ^ „,^ ^. 
 
 Noonday Mining Compan.y (The) has its offices at 310 Pine 
 Street, San Francisco. California. The annual meeting is held on August 
 25. The company's property comprises the Noonday mine, located in the 
 Bodie district, California. Extentof claim, 600x1600 feet. The ore assays $24 
 per ton, gold and silver. The mine has two, well-defined fissures, one 
 averaging two feet, and the other five to eight feet in width. Ledges run 
 in the main ridge and dip to the east. The mining plant includes hoisting 
 works, air-compressor, patent drills, etc., costing $30,000, with capacity for 
 sinking probably 1,500 feet, thirty-stamp mill, costing $100,000. Main shaft 
 is joint, three-compartment, 600 feet in depth. The length of the main 
 lode on which the company depends for its supply of ore is 1,600 feet. 
 Powerful pumping apparatus is required to contend with the water, which 
 accumulates rapidly at 600 feet depth. A 350-horse-power engine has 
 been introduced, and ten stamps have been added, making forty in all, 
 and as the water prevents the extraction of the ore, they are running on 
 Bechtel Consolidated ore. A rich vein of ore has recently been struck in 
 this mine, with a ledge of five feet of clean ore, three assays from which 
 give the following results : 
 
 No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. 
 
 Gold $50.23 $46.44 $46.44 
 
 Silver 348.73 659.78 342.43 
 
 $398.96 
 
 $706.22 
 
 $388.87 
 
 Outside of this vein, the walls of which are of clay, there is a harder 
 quality of quartz of lower grade, so that really the width of this vein is 
 unknown. Capitalization, $10,000,000, in 100,000 shares of $100 each ; no 
 dividends have been paid ; five assessments levied, $118,000 ; yield during 
 fiscal year 1879-80, $12,360 ; stock has been quoted at $5. 
 
 Niagara Gold and Silver Mining Companjr (The) has 
 offices at 409 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, California. Mr. O. C. 
 Miller is one of the officers. The company owns property in the Gold 
 Hill district, Nevada. The length of the main lode on which the supply 
 of ore depends is 1,500 feet. Capitalization, $6,000,000, in 60,000 shares of 
 $100 each ; no dividends have been paid ; six assessments have been levied ; 
 total amount of same, $117,000. 
 
 Norwich Gol«l and Silver Mining Company (The) has 
 offices at 310 Pine Street, room 15, San Francisco, Calitornia. The secre- 
 tary is W. L, Perkins, Esq. The mines and property are located in the 
 Glencoe mining district, Calaveras county, Cal. 
 
 North Noonday .Mining Company (The) has its offices at 316 
 California Street, San Francisco, Cal. ITie company own two claims, the 
 North Noonday and Orient, comprising an area of 600x1,600 feet, 900,000 
 square feet, located in the Bodie district, California. The North Noon- 
 day Company seems to be working in conjunction with the Noonday, as 
 the working-plant of the latter company is used in common. The length 
 of the main lode on which the company depends for its supply of ore 
 is 1,500 feet. Capitalization, $10,000,000, in 100,000 shares of $100 each. No 
 dividends have been paid. Five assessments have been levied ; total 
 amount of same. Yield during 1880, $293,385. 
 
 North Bloomlield Gold Gravel Mining Company (The) 
 has property located at North Bloomfleld, Nevada county, Cal. The com- 
 pany owns two claims, the Omega and the Extension, located on the 
 western slope of the Santa Reita mountains, twenty-five miles from Tuc- 
 son. They were located some six years ago, and have been recently pat- 
 ented. Several thousand dollars have been expended in developments 
 which show up a vast deposit or vein of high-grade copper ore. A large 
 cross-cut into the vein, twenty-five feet, shows a solid body of ore, and the 
 foot wall has not yet been reached. Tlie average assay for all ore is from 
 thirty to forty per cent, on copper, free smelting carrying its own flux. 
 Facilities for taking and smelting ore are all favorable. Smelter will be 
 located in the valley about one mile from the mines, where a good water 
 supply is available. It is hoped to have the smelters in working order 
 by 1st October, 1882. The mines present the largest body of high-grade 
 ore in the Territory. One hundred men are employed at present. The 
 company have 157 miles of ditches, including reservoirs. Capacity, 3,'JOO 
 inches ; grade, twelve to sixteen feet per mile. Cost of plant, $708,841. It 
 costs $13,463 per year to keep the reservoirs and ditches in repair. This 
 company light their mines and mills by electricity, having 12,000 candle- 
 power in use. It is found to be both efTective and economical. The 
 company recently shipped the largest bar of gol<i ever sent through Wells, 
 Fargo & Co.'s office at North Bloomfleld. Over 4,000 inches of water are 
 used in daily washings. Thelength of the deposit is 1,800 feet. Capital- 
 ization, $4,500,000, in 45,000 shares of $100 each. Yield during 18S0, $275,- 
 766. Total dividends to November 5, 1880, $225,000; latest dividend to 
 November 5, 1880, $1 per share. Forty-four assessments levied ; total, $1,- 
 690,000 ; last assessment levied, January 23, 1877, $33.33}^ per share. No 
 stock in the market. 
 
 Newcastle Mining Conipany. The property is located east of 
 Pino, Placer county, Cal., and has been put in good shape. 
 
 Ochoco Gold and Sliver Mining Company. The property 
 is located in the Ochoco Mountains, Wasco county, Oregon. A tunnel is 
 being run to strike the ledge which is in a distance of '200 feet. 
 
 Organ Mountain Mining and Smelting Association 
 (The). The officers are Isaac W. Hevsunger, M. D., Chairman; Ellis 
 Branson, Vice-Pres. ; William Brice, Treas. ; W. C. Carrick, Trustee. W. 
 H. Skidmore. of Las Cruces, New Mexico, is Superintendent. Office, ISIX 
 Cherry Street, Philadelphia, Pa. The company's mining property is 
 known as the Organ mines, (some fifty or sixty in number,) and is located 
 twelve and one-half miles east of Las Cruces. The names of the mines 
 of the different groups are as follows : Cueva Group. Lipan and Apache; 
 Fillmore Pass Group, Excelsior, Dos Arroyos (mill site) ; Colorado Group, 
 Colorado Grande, Plata Verde, Plata Grande, Colorado Chiquito, Mina 
 del Ray, Mesa Colorado, Empire, Pennsylvania, Jersey Blue; Alto Group, 
 Fulton, Alto, Basso, Eagle; Stephenson Group, McClellan, Leadland, 
 Stephenson East, Dora Ann, Panther, Alamo, Regina ; Memphis Group, 
 Mill Site, Memphis East. Mexican Girl; Black Quartz Group, Valley 
 Green, Tremont, Continental, Short Cut, Black Quartz. Girard, Keystone, 
 Quaker City, West Philadelphia, Schuylkill, Lehigh ; Rio Grande "Group, 
 Acejarah, two-thirds interest, Rio Grande, one-half interest. Southern 
 Cross, two-thirds interest. North Star, two-thirds interest; Chippewa 
 Group^ Comanche, Chippewa Copper Belt, Copper King; East Side Group, 
 Philadelphia, Washington, Silver Belt. Black Diamond. The Cueva 
 Group comprises forty-one and one-third acres. The mines each meas- 
 ure 1,600 by 600. The central mineral-bearing ledge is exposed from 
 four to eight feet wide for nearly the entire 8,000 feet. Specimens taken 
 from various points all gave silver in the assays. No work has been done 
 upon these properties except with the hammers. The Fillmore Pass 
 (Troup comprises over eighty acres in the well-known Fillmore Pass, from 
 the western entrance of which it is distant something over one mile. The 
 properties here show immense masses of silver ore iii limestone. Pieces 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1161 
 
 kicked off with the boot-heel assayed $25 per ton in silver, and the supply 
 upon at least three of the properties is said to be inexhaustible. In the 
 Colorado (Jroup each property is l,fiOO by 600 feet, and they comprise in all 
 1.86 acres of ground. From a pinnacle of rock upon the Colorado Chi- 
 quito immense ledges of metamorphic limestone, seamed with red hema- 
 tite and copper oxides, extend down across the Colorado Grande and the 
 Mesa Colorado. Upon the Plata Verde and the Plata Grande the lime- 
 stone carries the yellow varnish caused by the action of subterranean 
 heat upon deposits of zinc ore beneath. The Pennsylvania and Jersey 
 Blue snow large and fine silver-bearing ledges at the surface. The Alto 
 Group comprise over eighty acres of ground and Is believed to be of very 
 great value by the Association. The Fulton and Alto cover 3,000 linear 
 feet lying upon and including the great mother lode uf the district, where 
 developed to its greatest extent. The vein matter at the surface is more 
 than thirty feet wide, and extends for iJ,000 feet upon this Association's 
 grounds without a break. A blue rock, which does not show up especially 
 well, runs ttfty-six ounces in silver. The Stephenson Group comprise an 
 area of more than 140 acres. These properties lie about two and a half 
 miles south of San Augustine Pass, and immediately alongside ot and 
 all around the celebrated Stephenson mine, which has been fully recog- 
 nized for nearly thirty years. As will be seen, the Stephenson East lies 
 iin mediately east of and against the Stephenson mine, taking the southern 
 part of the formation upon which the principal shafts are sunk, further 
 to the east, on the same property, appears an enormous vein which has 
 been pronounced by good judges to be the true mothervein of the forma- 
 tion. It lies between granite and limestone, and at the surface is more 
 than twenty feet in width. The Association propose to push the work 
 upon these mines energetically, and instructions have been given to that 
 eliect. The Memphis Group comprise an area of sixty -two acres, and are 
 situated to the east of the Memphis mine. The mineral outcrop on the 
 Mill Site property extends along the edge of a great syenite precipice, and 
 reveals several outcrops of argentiferous galena in a gangue of limestone 
 and porphyry, and will doubtless develop into a valuable mining pro- 
 perty, the veins being large and well defined and crossing each other at 
 various angles. There are four fine springs on the property, hence Its 
 name. The Memphis East adjoins the celebrated MTemphis mine in its 
 whole extent, lying parallel with and against it on the eastern side. Ad- 
 vices received announce that the main shaft of the Memphis is down 
 over 100 feet, and that at this depth a rich strike has been made in car- 
 bonates and sulphurets. It is said that the ores now assay in the mass 
 from $32 to $160 per ton in silver, and that the entire mass of ore. which 
 apparently covers a surface of 200 feet inwidth by 1,000 in length, will 
 average over $50 per ton in this metal alone. The Association think there 
 is little doubt they can, by sinking, strike the Memphis mineral in this 
 property, the Memphis East, and will open this property shortly by a shaft 
 nearly opposite the main outcrop of the neighboring mine. The Black 
 Quartz Group comprise an area of 222 acres, all tlie mines being full-sized 
 except the Black Quartz, which measures 1,050 by 600 feet. This group is 
 the centre of the Association's mining operations. The Superintendent 
 lives here. The Black Quartz was opened July 12, 1881, and work has 
 been going on vigorously ever since, and the Kliort Cut was opened early 
 In August, and the Girard in September. There are three shafts down 
 upon the Short Cut, one to a depth of seven feet, another twelve, and the 
 third twenty feet, with a twenty-foot drift from that depth along a nine- 
 foot vein of excellent white quartz which assays $10 per ton in gold from 
 unselected specimens, and shows up well in argentiferous galena. It 
 bears every appearance of running into native silver at no great depth. 
 The veins in this district constantly enlarge as depth is gained. A fine 
 vein has been opened on the Short Cut. There are four shafts down on 
 the Black Quartz ; one of these, a prospect shaft, only uncovered a two- 
 feet vein of iron at a depth of four feet, which grows wider as it 
 descends. Another opening shows up ferruginous vein matter and ar- 
 gentiferous galena. Upon the west slope of the eastern hill a shaft was 
 put down in close-grained porphyry, and a fine vein was struck which 
 the Association propose to connect with their main shaft on the opposite 
 hill by a drift already commenced, and to work both from a central shaft 
 upon the neck of the two hills. The main Black Quartz shaft is down 
 liftv feet, 'rtie ore is nearly a pure argentiferous and auriferous galena, 
 much of it in masses weighing from fifty to 200 pounds apiece. In open- 
 ing the mine this silver-bearing lead ore lay just beneath the surface in an 
 almost solid bed. A new vein has been discovered on the Girard property. 
 The lode is rapidly widening, being at last advices a vein of sohd ore six 
 feet thick, and specimens consist of ma.sses of gold- and silver-bearing 
 galena. The Rio Grande Group. The properties are all full sized except- 
 ing the Southern Cross, which is 1,100 by 600 feet. The most important 
 mine of this group is the Rio Grande. The shaft is now down to a depth 
 of fifteen feet, and at this depth the vein is now fuel five feet wide, and 
 the pay streak of gold- and silver-bearing lead and copper ore is over two 
 feet wide. It is a true fissure vein in sohd granite. The Chippewa Group 
 comprises ninetv-three acres in extent. There are three prominent north 
 and south parallel outcrops exposed along the greater part of the Chip- 
 pewa. All these are exceedingly fine and large copper- and silver-bearing 
 ledges. The East Side compnses an area of eighty-two acres. The cross 
 ledge is a black iron outcrop, and pieces knocked off resemble freshly 
 broken cast iron. The shares of the Association are 1,000 in all. 
 
 Oriental Consolidated Oold and Silver iHinlni^ l'«nipan.v 
 (The). Officer, H. C. Hinman, Sec. General office, 411 California Street, 
 San Francisco. The mines belonging to this company are located in Cal- 
 ifornia. 
 
 Original SammitlHill and Mining: Company (Tlielis char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of New York. Oflioers. J. S. Ellis, Pres. ; 
 J. G. Holbrook, J. J. Kellv, Vice-Pres. ; J. S. Ellis, Treas. ; A. M. Ellsworth, 
 Supt. Principal office, il, 22, 23 Mutual Building, 95 Mill Street, Boston, 
 Ma.'iS. The location of the mines belonging to this company are in Bodie, 
 California. Capitalization, $10,000,000 ; shares. 100.000 ; par value, $100. 
 
 Ornaments. S. Jliiiins Company (The). Fulton Hai^ht. Esq.. 
 Supt. The names of mines belonging to this company are the Ohio. Orna- 
 ment, and Group, located on Rock creek, eight miles west of Hailey, Idaho. 
 One shipment of fifteen tons returned 800 ounces of silver to the ton. Ore 
 carries rubv sulphates and native silver. Main shaft down 1'20 feet. The 
 most extensive hoisting works on the river were put up on these mines 
 last fall, and twelve men have been steadily at work during the winter. 
 One tunnel is 180 feet, with an incline down eighty feet on the ledge. 
 
 Overman •Vinins' Conapany ( Thei. Officer, G. D. Edwards, Sec. 
 Principal office, 414 CaUfomia Street, San Francisco, Cal. The Overman 
 mine belongs to the company ; is located on Gold Hill district, Comstock 
 Lode Nev. Capitalization, $11,520,000 ; shares, 115,200 ; number of assess- 
 ments levied, fifty-three ; total amount of same, $3,604,700 ; date of latest 
 assessment, May 1, 1882; amount per share, twenty-five cents. Depth of 
 workings by tunnel, 2,275 feet : length in feet on which the company de- 
 pends for its supply of ore, 1,200 feet; company in debt, February 1, 1882, 
 81,5,624. Mining Record, June 17. 
 
 Panther Consolidated Gold and Silver Alining: Com- 
 
 pany (The) is chartered under the laws of the State of New York. The 
 officers are J. R. F. Bell, Pres. ; T. J. W. Cooper, Vice-Pres.i Charles G. 
 Walstrom, Sec. and Treas. Directors, Dr. J. K. F. Bell, T. J. W. Cooper, 
 Chas. G. Walstrom, Gen. Geo. li. Vernon, Albert Gaw, C. VV. Cunning- 
 ham, Alex. T. Wilson. The offices are at 133 Bank Avenue, Philadelphia, 
 Pa. The property of the company comprises two full claims. Panther 
 No. 1. and Panther No. 2, located in MTaricopa county, Arizona. The 
 shaft is down 100 feet on the ledge. Capitalization of conrpany, 8600,000, 
 in 200,000 shares of $2.50 each; non-assessable: amount of stock issued, 
 200,000 shares ; amount resen'ed in treasury, 50,000 shares. 
 
 Permanent Gold and Silver Alining: Company is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of Colorado. 'The officers are J. J. 
 Wilbraham, Pres.; William Flint, Secretary; H. F. Smith, Treasurer. 
 Directors, J. J. Wilbraham, WUliam Flint, H. F. Smith. John Cochran, E. 
 Clinton, A. M. Peel. Office, 14 South Third Street, Philadelphia, Pa. The 
 
 Eroperty of the company isthe Up Hill mine, in the Lackawanna district, 
 ake county, Colorado. Operations have been commenced, and will be 
 pushed vigorously. Capitalization, $2,000,000 ; par value per share, 810 ; 
 basis, non-assessable. 
 
 Pine Tree Gold aiKl Silver Alinins: Company (The.) Offi- 
 cers, Peter Fish. Pres. ; J. Edward Fay, Treas.; E. P. Reed, Sec. Princi- 
 pal office. No. 162 Washington Street, Chicago, 111., rooms 49 and 60. 
 Capitalization, $150,000; par value,$10; flock full paid ; non-assessable: 
 30,000 shares reserved for working capital by order of the board of direct- 
 ors; the first 5.000 of working capital will be .sold at fifty cents per share. 
 
 Pittsburg Gold and Silver Mining Company (The). ( ITi- 
 cers, A. Martin, Pres. ; J. W. Dale, Sec. ; J. Murphy, Canon City, Col., 
 M. D. Patton of Pueblo. Col., SuperirtendenL The principal claims 
 belonging to the company are the Delia May, the Emma, Decomplay, 
 Neptune, Austin, and William Lee, all located on Slak river, Colorado. 
 The ore is various, both silver and gold, the former predominating. The 
 company was organized in Danville. III. 
 
 Pizarro Gold and Silver Mining Conii>any is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of Colorado. The officers are V. G. Edwards, 
 Pres.; Alfred Hallowell. Vice-Pres.; Charles P. Johnson, Treas.; ."eth 
 Smith. s:ec. ; Gen. Manager, A. A. Freeman. Directors, V. G. Edwards, 
 Alfred Hallowell.C. P. Jolinson.W.Klemm. Jesse Tomlinson.Selh Smith, 
 John C. Turner, W. Cohlman. W. H. Cheatley. Office. 136 South Fourth 
 street Philadelphia, Pa. The company's property is located at Central 
 City, Gilpin county. Col. The company has a capitalization of $2,000,- 
 000 in 200,000 shares ; par value per share, ¥10 ; basis, non-as-sessable. 
 
 Plnmas milling' and water Company (The) has property 
 located in Plumas county, Cal. The company was organized with a 
 capital of $150,000 in 1 .500 shares of $100 each ; yield during 1880. $5.592 ; 
 dividends paid, S41.300 to July 8. 1881, date of latest dividend of $5 per 
 share ; total as.se.«Eroent to date. $30.000 ; latest assessment, October 4. 1875. 
 Stock quoted July 17, five cents per share ; current value of mine. $750. 
 
 Potosi JHining: Company is chartered under the laws of the 
 State of California. W. E. Dean, Sec, 309 Montgomery Street, San Fran- 
 cisco, Cal. The company's property is located in Vii^inia district. Corn- 
 stock lode, Nevada. The ore carries gold and silver assaying $28 per ton. 
 The main lode is 700 feet in length. Date of organization, JIarch 31, 
 1879; capitalization, $11,200,000 ; par value per share, $100. No dividends 
 paid to April, 1882 ; number of a.ssessments levied, eight; total amount 
 of assessments levied, $448,000; date of latest assessment, April 12, 1882, 
 at the rate of fifty cents per share. Treasury reserve, April 1, lb82, 
 $14,417; stock quoted June 15, 1882, $5. 
 
 Plumas Winine and Water Company (The) is 6rganized 
 with a capital of $1,0(M,000 in 100,000 shares of $10 each. The property is 
 located in California. Total amount of dividends paid, $151,000 ; date of 
 last dividend, July, 1879, eight cents per share. 
 
 Providence Mining: Contpany. The Providence mine is lo- 
 cated in Nevada City district, Nevada county, Cal. After having been 
 for a long time retarded in its operations by experimenting with various 
 reduction processes, and by the destruction of its hoisting works by fire, 
 it has recommenced operations with new and efficient mine machinery, 
 and a new mill and chlorination works. The mine presents .he peculiar- 
 ity of being opened by levels to a depth of 1,070 feet, and a len^h of 
 over 2,000 feet, while very little ore has been extracted, except between 
 the 600 and 700 foot levels ; and now the mill is supplied entirely from 
 the 100-foot level, which, opening on the steep banks of Deer creek, is 
 also the drainage tunnel. The several levels were driven through 
 ground which supplied the old mill of twenty stamps with profitable 
 ore, and encouraged the prosecution of work ; but the true character and 
 size of the lode were probably not suspected ; for it is now known that 
 large bodies of ore lie to the ri^ht and left of the levels, imbedded in a 
 decomposed granite, the ore bodies themselves being quartzose, lenticu- 
 lar in shape and interlocking. From such lenticular mas.ses, attaining 
 (though rarely) twenty feet m thickness from the 100-foot level, eighty 
 tons of ore are daily extracted. The width of the lode, assuming it to 
 consist of this decomposed granite carrying these isolated quartz masses, 
 is supposed to be loO feet The new mill of the company is of forty 
 stamps, fed by Hendy feeders, the rock having previously been broken 
 by a Blake rock-breaker. The mill is large, well-lighted, and com- 
 modious. This company has effected an arrangement for obtaining its 
 motive-power from the Snow Mountain ditch, which carries a full head 
 summer as well as winter. By the arrangement, the owner of the Snow 
 Mountain will make a branch ditch leading from their main one. a 
 distance of a mile to the edge of the Champion ground, where a tank 
 will be constructed. From this tank, the Providence company will lav 
 about 3,500 feet of pipe across the Champion and over Deer creek to their 
 forty-stamp mill. The Champion company have given the right of way 
 for a period of fifteen years, and it will result advantageously to both 
 companies. It is reported that a large portion of the stock of this com- 
 pany is held in London. 
 
 <^aartz Hill Consolidated Mining? C.ompany (The), of 
 which William Hanson, Jr., Esq., is the Agent, is an English company, 
 which purchased the mines formerly worked by the Monmouth, Kan., 
 company, consisting ot a portion of the Kansas, Kansas Extension, Irish 
 Flag, and Camp Grove. The principal work consists in developments. 
 The shaft is down 1,280 feet, and an aggregate of 9,800 feet of excavations 
 have been made. The mineral from a sixteen-inch vein in the 1,275-feet 
 level is entirely smelting. An average sample treated at the Boston and 
 Colorado Smelting Works gave an average of S102 per ton. A lack of 
 water for battery purposes has been experienced. The ore is conveyed 
 by tramway from the mine to the mill, which numbers fiftv-two stamps. 
 
 ^nerida Gold and .Silver Miuins Company (The). Incor- 
 porators, J. H. Kerr, Henry Kellogg, and F. L. Martin. The location of 
 the mining property of this company is in Custer county, Col. Capitali- 
 zation, $1,000,000; shares, 10,000. 
 
 Queen Bee Mining Company (The). Officers, G. W. Fisher, 
 324 Pine Street Principal office. San Francisco, Cal. The location of 
 the mining property of this company is at California. 
 
1162 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Phil. Sheridan Mining: Company's property is located in Vir 
 pula District, Nev. Ttie main lode is 1,200 feet m length. Capitaliza- 
 tion. 810,000,000; par value per share, SlOO; no dividends paid to April, 
 1882; number of assessments levied, ten; total' amount of assessments 
 levied. S170,000 ; date of latest assessment, June 22, 1880. 
 
 Rc«l Cross Mining Company. The company's property is located 
 in Storey county, Nev. There are 1,300 linear feet m the mine. No 
 dividends have been paid, nor assessments levied, to April, 1882. Capi- 
 talization, 810,000,000; par value per share, $100. 
 
 Kara Avis Gold and Silver Minin;; Company. The officers 
 are J. Stewart, Jr., Pres. ; A. G. Postlethwaite, Vice-Pres. ; J. C. McNaugh- 
 ton, Treas. ; G. Start, Sec. Directors, J. M. Taylor, E. Young, A. Warth- 
 man, C. H. Jordan, L. Conwell, G. Stark. J. Stewart, Jr., A. G. Postlethwaite, 
 J. C. McNaughtou. H. H. Bucher, Mining Engineer. Office, room 30, No. 
 806, Stock Exchange Place, Philadelphia, Pa. The company's mines are 
 at Kara Avis, the J. P. Whitney, and the Little Mac mines, located on 
 Prosser Mountain^ in Gilpin county, Col. The company's property in- 
 cludes steam hoisting works, and they are about to erect reduction works, 
 the machinery being already on the ground. There are three shafts ; No. 
 1 is down 320 feet. Levels have been run at 40, 100, 150, and 300 feet. With 
 present openings from thirty to forty tons of ore a day can be .sloped out. 
 Capitalization, $2,000.000 ; par value, $10 per share; basis, non-asses.sable; 
 treasury reserve. $75,200 ; amount of stock issued, 124,800 shares. 
 
 Red Cloud Minine Company. OiBce, 310 Pine Street, .San Fran- 
 cisco, Cal. The company's property is located in Bodie district, California. 
 The company's claim, patented, is 600 by 1,600 feet. There are five ledges, 
 varying in width from eighteen inches to nine feet: have been drifted on 
 In the 250 and 400 levels. Total excavations, 4,000 feet. The company owns 
 steam works costing $30,000, 1,600 feet sinking capacity. The prospects of 
 the properly are favorable. Capitalization. $15.000,000 ; par value per share, 
 $100 ; no dividends paid to April, 1882 ; number of assessments levied, ten ; 
 total amount of assessments levied, $165,000. 
 
 Red Jacket dold and Silver Miniiis Company (The). 
 Directors, J. M. Tash, P. G. Vibbard, C. H. Wakelee, G. W. Spencer, S. C. 
 Curtis. This company was organized March 24, 1880. Capitalization, 
 $1,000,000. 
 
 Rex Gold and Silver Mining: Company is chartered under 
 the laws of Arizona. The officers are S. S. Campbell, Pres. ; John H. Shrei, 
 Treas.; Wm. Gladding. Sec. Office, 430 Walnut Street. Philadelphia, Pa., 
 rooms 5 and 6. The company owns five mines, viz. : the Golden Shield, 
 Republic, Tycoon, Mansworth, and San Jacinto. Mineslocated in Arizona. 
 Capitalization, $5,000,000 ; par value per share, $5; basis, non-assessable; 
 treasury reserve, 20.000 shares ; amount of stock issued, 80,000 shares. 
 
 Richardson Gold and Silver Mining: Compan.y (The) is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of New York. The Directors are 
 D. D. Baldwin, Pres.; T. J. Barbour, Sec. and Treas.; L. Jones, Vice- 
 Pres. ; E. Guernsey, M. L. Jones ; E. E. Prav, Supt. Office, Financial 
 agents. Gold, Barbour & Swords, Bankers, 92 Broadway, New York. The 
 company's property is located in the heart of Gilpin county, on the Gold 
 belt. Col. There are 3,900 feet in the property. The ore is rich smelting 
 ore, and assays without concentration $23 per ton. The price ranges 
 from $20 to $80. It is doubled by concentration. The vein is five feet in 
 width, and all mineralized, nearly ready to commence sloping. The 
 management expresses a sure expectation of paying back to the stock- 
 holders in one year every dollar of their investments. The cost of min- 
 ing and milling per ton is estimated at 85. Date of organization, October, 
 1879; capitalization, $500,000; par value per share, $10; basis, non-asses- 
 sable ; fully paid ; yield to June 1, 1882, $8,000. 
 
 Rock Island Gold and Silver Mining- Company. The 
 company's property is located in Gold Hill district, Comstock Lode, Nev. 
 There are 1.200 linear feet in the mine. Capitalization, 810,000,000; par 
 value per share, 8100: no dividends paid to June, 1882; number of 
 assessments levied, thirteen: total amount of as-sessments levied, 
 $365.000 ; date of latest assessment, January 9, 1878. 
 
 Rollins Gold and Silver Mining Company is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of New York. G. W. Barrett is Supt. Office, 
 137 Broadway, New York. The company's mining property is located in 
 Gilpm county. Col. The company controls a large area of mining 
 ground. Their lines extend from Gold district and Perigo Mountains on 
 the south to the South Boulder on the north. A large amount has been 
 expended in the construction of a ditch and flume, for the conveyance 
 of water to their placer claims in the South Boulder valley. The piping 
 elevators, and giant hydraulics have now been placed in position. The 
 product of the Perigo mine from July 1, 1881, to December 31. 1881, was 
 $30,000. A mill of from forty to sixty stamps is proposed for Eollin-sville 
 ■where an eighty-foot fall of water is available. The ore has a value of 
 $1.37 to 86.93. The fi.ssure vein is from four to seven feet wide. The com- 
 pany owns large mill, machinery, hotel, houses, etc. Date of incorpora- 
 tion, August 8, 1879; capitalization, $5,000,000; par value per share, $25; 
 basis, non-assessable ; total amount of dividencfi paid to January 1 1881 
 $1,000,000. •' ' ' 
 
 Ruelana Consolidateil Compan.y (The). The officers are J 
 Thompson, Pres.; Fred. H. Hancock, V.-Pres.; J. D. Fidlar, Sec; E C 
 Chapin, Treas. Directors, or Trustees, E. C. Chapin, F. H. Griggs H Eg- 
 bert, A. J. Holmes, W. S. Hobart, W. E. Sell, K. E. Wilson, J. E.Dixon. 
 Henry Cooper, of Leadville, Superintendent Office. Davenport Iowa 
 This company owns the Nick-of-'Timemine and part of seven claims, one 
 mile south of it, located in Los C'erillos district, N. M. The ore carries 
 
 zmc, galena, blende copper, green and blue carbonates of copper, chlo- 
 rides of silver, iron pyrites, native silver, sulphides and gold. The com- 
 pany has a forty-horsc-power hoisting works on the ground. The mine 
 shows about three feet of galena ore. The shaft is 250 feet deep. The 
 pay-streak in level running south, sixty feet down, is eighteen inches 
 wide. At a depth of 200 feet is an important level with improved ore 
 showing galena and sulphurets of silver. This company is a close cor- 
 poration, comprising many wealthy citizens of Davenport, Iowa. 
 
 Rnssell Gold and Silver Mining Company is chartered un- 
 der the laws of Anzona. The officers are A. C. Harmer, Pres. ; John H. 
 Schremer, Sec; J. E. Black, Treas. Directors, A. C. Harmer G P Wig- 
 gan, L. K. Rishel J-.Grove, J. H. Schreiner. C. F. Matthews, J. E. Black, 
 S. S. CampbeU W. Gladmg. Office, 430 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa 
 The company s tnining property includes the Peabody.the Dona Ana, 
 the Copper King, the Highland Mary, and the Tarn O'Shanter mines lo- 
 cated in Pima county, Ariz. Some of the ores smelted give sixtv-onc per 
 cent, of copper. A concentrator is being erected. Capitalization, $5,000,000 ; 
 par value per share, $50 ; basis, non-assessable. 
 
 Rara Avis Extension Gold and Silver Hlnlng Company 
 is chartered under the laws of the State of Colorado. The officers arc A 
 Warthman, Pres.; H. K. Schoch. Treas.; G. Stark, Sec. Directors, a' 
 Wart;hman, H.E. Shoch G. M Wright, C. H. .Tordan, J.C Shoch Of^ 
 fice, room 30, No. 306 Stock Exchange Place, Philadelphia, Pa. The com- 
 
 Sany 3 property is located in the State of Colorado. The tunnel run in 
 16 Rai'a Avis to lap the shaft at a depth of 300 feet, was completed the 
 
 21st of June. This puts the property in shape for ready and economical 
 working. The shall is sixty feet deep ; pay-ore in sight. Capitalization, 
 8100,000 ; par value per share, 81 ; basis, non-assessable. Treasury reserve, 
 35,000 shares. Stock issued, 100,000 shares ; stock quoted July, 1882, $1.25. 
 
 San Jnan di Uias and Refagio Mines (Tiie). Owned by E. 
 H. Chase. H. M. Atkinson, Surveyor-General of New Mexico; S. H. Lucas, 
 C. E. Pearson, A. Scott, J. B. Gilford and S. A. Chaboyga, are located near 
 Hermosillo, capital of Sonora, Mexico. The property owned covers 44,000 
 acres. The ore is one-half smelting and one-half free-milling. It is said 
 specimens valued at several hundred dollars run upward of $10,000 to the 
 ton. The San Juan di Dias has an ore body, at a depth of 140 feet, ten feet 
 wide. The Kefugio mine is a true Assure vein, with an ore body varying 
 from seventy-five to 100 feet in width, and can be traced with the eye for 
 over 400 yards. From the surface, it runs from twenty-five to seventy-five 
 per cent, in lead, from forty to 300 ounces in silver, and as high as 845 per 
 ton of gold. The ore is a carbonate. The company have every conven- 
 ience of mining import. 
 
 Steel Gold and Silver Mining Company (The) has property 
 located in Clear Creek county. Col. The company owns the Daybreak 
 and Sterling mines, situated in the Columbia Mountain. 
 
 Santiago Gold and Silver Mining Company. The property 
 is located in Los Angeles county, Cal. The company have displayed con- 
 siderable energy and enterprise in developing their mine m Santiago 
 Canon. The ore extracted is argentiferous galena and chloride. The 
 company erected a Mexican roasting furnace, and the lead bullion pro- 
 duced yielded $500 to the ton. Arrangements have been made for a more 
 extensive working of the mine. 
 
 Savage Mining Company. E. B. Holmes is Secretary. Date of 
 annual election, July 21. Superintendent, M. Ball. Office, 3 Montgomery 
 Street, San Francisco, Cal. The company's property is located in Virginia 
 district, Comstock Lode, Nev. The character of the ore is horn silver, 
 chlorides, and magnesia. The country rock carries silver. The main 
 lode is 800 feet in length. Pay-streak, eighteen inches ; the ore being worth 
 about $200 per ton. Two shafts, one forty and one fifty feet. Capitaliza- 
 tion, $11,200.00; par value per share, 8100; total amount of dividends paid, 
 $4,460,000; dateof latest dividend. June 11, 1879; 83 per share; number of 
 assessments levied, fifty-one; total amount of assessments levied. 85.608.- 
 000 ; date of latest assessment. May 4, 1882 ; fifty cents per share ; stock 
 quoted, July 1, 1882, $7.88 per share. 
 
 Shakespeare and Quaker Mines (The), owned by Messrs. 
 Keeler, Read, and others. The Quaker mine is ten feet wide, showing at 
 the depth of ten feet, where the vein is cut, a pav streak of from five to 
 six feet, carrying both gold and silver, which collectively averages about 
 870 per ton. The Shakespeare is also the large vein, showing an average 
 cropping from three to eight feet wide. 
 
 Sierra ITevada Mining Company. E. L. Parker is Secretary. 
 Office. 309 Montgomery Street, San Francisco. Citl. The company's mine, 
 the Sierra Nevada, is located in Virginia district, Comstock Lode, Nev. 
 Depth of workings, 2,700 feet. The main lode is 3,660 feet in length. Sev- 
 enty-six miners and fourteen surface men are eniploved at this mine 
 Capitalization, $10,000,000; par value per share, $100; yield duriiiR 1880 
 $46,422; yield during 1881, 6,077 tons, 8195.213.53: total amount of divi- 
 dends paid, $102,000; date of latest dividend, January, 1871, 81 per share; 
 number of assessments levied, seventy-three; amount, 84,.S50.000; date of 
 latest assessment. May 17, 1882, 81 per share ; floating indebtedness, April 
 1, 1S82, $27,600; cash on hand, February 1, 1882, 816,,534.63; stock quoted, 
 July 14, 1882, $5. 
 
 Silver Bow Mining and Milling Company. James A. Tal- 
 bot is Business Manager. The property is located in Silver Bow county, 
 Montana. Their twenty-stamp mill was enlarged to thirty stamps during 
 the latter part of 1881. Yield during 1881, $600,000. 
 
 Sonth Comstock Gold and Silver Mining Company (The). 
 Princip.^ office, 309 Montgomery Street, San Franci.sco. California. Date 
 of anni""! election or meeting, November 23. The mines belonging to 
 this company are located in Gold Hill district, Comstock lode, Nev.; 6,% 
 linear feet in mine. Capitalization, $10;000,000 ; shares, 100,000 ; par value, 
 $100. Dividends, none. Number of assessments levied, six; whole 
 amount, $79,000; date of latest a.«sessment, September 9. 1879. 
 
 Sonthern Kevada Gold and Silver Mining Company 
 (The). Directors, H. L. Coye, J. G. Lavery, H. L. Fox, E. E. Elliott. J. J. 
 More. The location of the mines belonging to this company is in Esme- 
 ralda county, Nev. Capitalization, $10,000,000. 
 
 Sonth Star Gold and Silver Mining Company (The). Offi- 
 cer, J. F. Atwell, Sec. General office, 606 Montgomery Street, San Fran- 
 cisco, California. The mining property belonging to this company is 
 located in Nevada. 
 
 Specie Paying Gold and Silver Mining Company (The) 
 has offices at La Porte, Indiana. The directora of the company are J N 
 Whitehead, John J. Steadman, Ed. Geo. M. Dakin, and A. G. Stevenson 
 The property of the company is located in Pinal county, Ariz,, being the 
 first southern extension of the Alice claim. The mine has been opened 
 by several shafts, and gives promise of developing into a valuable miiiS 
 One of the openings has exposed a fine body of galena ore. carrying $30 
 silver to the ton. One shaft and cros.=;-cut at a depth of 140 feet shows 
 fourteen feet of ore, assaying from $700 to $800 per ton. Work is beina- 
 pushed with vigor. *" 
 
 Spauldlng Gold and Silver Mining Company (The) has 
 property located in the Bodie district, Cal., consisting of two claims, one 
 
 400 by 1,500 feet; total aroa^ '7flb.000 feet 
 The' ■■ - ■• ... - 
 
 100 by 1,500 feet, the other, 
 
 (square). The ore is fair grade. The length of the main ioije.oii which 
 the company depends for its supply of ore. is 8,000 feet. The ore-vein in 
 the north drift, first level, has widened to five feet, and the south dri a is 
 also showing improvement. The mill wa,'< started, and the pipes, pumps 
 and everything found to work well. There is a large supply of ore at the 
 batterie-s and considerable quantifies broken down in the mine ready 
 for hoLsting. Capitalization, $10,(00,000, in 100,000 shares of$100 each 
 S°^'^"lf"3s^''J<J. Two a5.sessments levied; total amount of same, 
 $10,000. Dateoflatestassessment, June 28, 1882; amountofsame, ten cents 
 
 p6F 3fl£LrG« 
 
 t.^^^m!f}'lt!^^ Company (The). Officers, William Stuart, Secre- 
 iS.'»S^^^(iJ?u^°S.™"®®'''f^''5''" Francisco, Cal. The Star Aiine is 
 ^?ni^ TSf}!5."® F'5® r-''"'i'y' J^^"*'- ^here are 1,500 linear feet in the 
 «i f;, Tr„,i ~'5® is destined to become one of the most valuable proper- 
 T^. ^nf^i^™ Nevada During the year 1881 it was a regular producer. 
 «m f^^svo''^^ r;?" "^^'^Kf '^^ '""^ •^"^ month, the ore yielding 
 fh» p«^wl^' '""'w Tr °- *"'?' "I'lpnients of this mine, as reported by 
 the Unffinemng and Minwir JmimxH for 1881, were 8291,743. The monthly 
 ^^®^if oi '^° '""i ""''.n;!"® nveraged $20,000. Capitalization, $10,000,- 
 ^,;fJS7iii"onR''''i'\*''*i.^"l'' • ""™ber of a.ssessments leaned, ten ; amount 
 or nine, 8190,000; dateoflatestassessment, March 22, 1882, ten cents per 
 share: indebtedness February 1, 1882, 88 90165 
 
 i.!?*<!Tr"' ®"*Su"^? Silver Mining Comnnny. A. Wartenur- 
 len js Manager. The Stevens mine is located in Silver Bow county, Cal. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 11G3 
 
 Over 1 ,500 feet of levels have been opened. Fine specimens of wire gold 
 and native silver are found in this mine. The first work done on tliis 
 property was for the gold. The mine is equipped with a steam hoist, a 
 double plunger. Knowles' pumps, and a smiling pump. The company 
 is capitalizedat $1,000,000. 
 
 Hnccor Mine iind Slillin;; Company (Tlie) has property 
 located in the Cold Hill district, Nev. Capitalization, if8,840,000, in 68,4()0 
 shares of 8100 each ; two dividends, amounting to *22,800, paid to October 
 16, 1871, date of latest dividend. Twenty-four assessments have been 
 levied; total amount of same, ?763,800 ; date of latest assessment, August 
 SO, 1879. 
 
 The Swansea L.ocle. owned by Messrs. V. Shaw, Kennedy, and 
 Charles EUethorpe. The Swansea Lode is located on Ewing Mountain, 
 Colorado. Silver and gold ore assaying per ton, eleven ouuces of gold, 
 fifty-two ounces of silver, and five per cent. lead. 
 
 Tlltlen Blinin^ Company. Office, 43 Exchange Place, New York. 
 The company's property is located in Clear Creek mining district, Chaffee 
 county. Col. 
 
 Tellurium Gold and Silver Slinins Company. J. M. Litch- 
 field, Sec. Principal ofiice, 415 Montgomery Street, San Francisco. The 
 mines belonging to this company are located in California. 
 
 Town Talk Grand Mining; Company (The) have been pros- 
 pecting in the gravel ridge running through Sutton's ranch, west of 'Town 
 Talk House, Nevada county, Cal., for the last year, and the prospects for 
 opening a good mine there are considered excellent. A tunnel was run 
 into the ridge on the south side a distance of 650 feet, and a bed of blue 
 gravel struck which prospered well : but, owing to the pitch of the bed 
 rock for the last fifty or sixty feet that the tunnel was run, it was found 
 that the mine could not be worked to advantage on account of the water. 
 The company then commenced running a new tunnel on the lower grade 
 to bottom the channel, and this tunnel is now in a distance of nearly 5.''.0 
 feet, and with a further extension of fifty feet it will be in the blue gravel, 
 and the channel can be completely drained. Six men have been con- 
 stantly engaged in draining the channel, working on regular shifts. 
 
 Tuscarora Blinine and Mlllins: Company (The). Office, 
 309 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal. The property of the com- 
 pany consists of five claims, the Raven, Atlas, Castle No. 1, Castle No. 2, 
 and the Whale, situated a short di.stance west of the town of Tuscarora, 
 in Elko county, Nevada. A large amount of work has been done upon 
 these locations during the years 1880 and 1881, but as yet but little bullion 
 has been produced. The Raven has a shaft down 100 feet, and at the 
 bottom a drift runs forty feet to the north, encountering considerable 
 water. So far the ore found has been of low grade, with here and there 
 high-grade ore, but not in sufficient quantity to pay for extracting. The 
 shaft on the Whale has been sunk ninety feet, finding upon drifting 200 
 feet only low-grade ores. Capitalization, 810,000,000 ; par value per share, 
 SIOO. 
 
 T.ybo Consolidated Mining Company (The) has its offices at 
 318 Pine Street, San Francisco, CaE The property of the company is 
 located in the Tybo district, Nye county, Nevada. The length of the 
 lode on which the company depends for its supply of ore is 6.27o feet long. 
 Capitalization, 815,000,000, in 150,000 shares of 8100 each. No dividends 
 have been paid ; no assessments been levied. 
 
 Tyrone Oolfl and Silver Minins Company (The) is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of New York. Omcers, John H. Strick- 
 ler, Pres. ; P. M. Stackhouse, Sec. and Treas. Directors, John H. Strickler, 
 David Hardie, James F. Kennedy, Amos Burton, P. M. Stackhouse. 
 Principal office. 303 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. The location of 
 the mining property of this company is in Arizona. Capitalization, 200,- 
 000 shares; par value, 85; non-assessable. 
 
 Union Consolidated Miningr Company;. A. B. Walker, Sec. 
 Office, Council Bluff's, Iowa. The company's mining property consists 
 of the Cross, Seaman. Ewing. Convict, Walker, Garfield, Gleason, Butte, 
 General Grant. Hero, Little Harry, Hattie, Little Pet, and Bullion claims, 
 located in Carbonate mining district, Minta county, Utah. Report says 
 the (]lross lode has heavy iron and copper croppings. It can be traced the 
 entire length, 1,500 feet, of the claim. It is from three to six feet in width, 
 and the ore assays from ten to eighty ounces in silver and from thirty to 
 sixty per cent, copper. Therearetwoshafts ten feet deep. The character 
 of the ore is improving rapidly and the vein is increasing in width. 
 The Clonvict embraces two ledges, one a vein of copper glance two and 
 one-half feet in width, carrying from thirty to eighty ounces of silver; 
 ' the other an eight-foot vein of feldspar and quartz carrying gray copper, 
 and contains both gold and silver. On the first ledge there are two shafts, 
 one twenty and the other sixty feet deep. The Ewing has two good veins 
 running the entire length of the claim. On one there is a shaft forty feet 
 deep, the ore assaying forty per cent, copper and fourteen ounces in silver. 
 •The ledge in the" bottom of the shaft is about three feet wide and still 
 increasing in width. On the other ledge is a shaft twenty feet deep. 
 Surface croppings about ten feet wide, consisting of copper and iron; 
 and the amount of silver contained in the ore is increasing with depth. 
 Average of ore from bottom of shaft assayed 86.25 in silver. The com- 
 pany have acquired by location the Walker, Garfield, Gleason, and 
 Butte lodes. The Garfield is from fifty to 150 feet in width, the Butte 
 from ten to twenty fftet, and the Gleason two feet. The Butte assays $1.66 
 in silver and 9S in gold. They also own one-half of the Bonanza, and 
 three-fourths of the Leonore. The Bonanza croppings are chiefly galena, 
 and an average of the ore assayed 85 in silver and twenty-four per cent, 
 lead. 'The I^onore assays at three feet $3 in silver, and at five feet, 
 8n.:^0. It shows fifteen per cent, galena and a small amount of gold ; 
 shaft is eight feet deep. The General Grant has a shaft seven feet deep. 
 The Little Harry has a shaft ten feet, with considerable amount of feld- 
 spar. Surface assays gave 85 in silver. Walker samples a.'sayed 87.54 
 Sliver and $3 gold. The Bonanza, on assay test, gives lead, twenty-four, 
 $7.54 silver, and 83 gold. Some of the ore of the Convict ledge runs 
 ninety high in silver, and .some at least thirty per cent. The company's 
 property includes water privileges, mill sites, town sites, and placer 
 claims. 
 
 United States Gold and Silver Minin;; Company of Colo- 
 rado is chartered under the laws of the State of Illinois. The olRcers 
 are H. Kaerben, Pres. ; J. C. Meyer, Vice-Pres. ; W. E. Johnson, .second 
 Viee-Pres. ; W. P. Nixon, Sec. ; Henry Furst, Treas. Date of annual 
 election, January 7, 1882. J. W. Warren is Superintendent. Office, 3.o5 
 Clark Street, room 10, Chicago, 111. The company's mines are the Little 
 Winnie, the Virginius, and the Free American, located at Little Ella 
 Hill, South Evans, three and one-half miles from Leadville, Col, Extent 
 of claim is about 600 by 2,500 feet. The property covers an area of eigh- 
 teen acres. The ore is lead carbonate, and assays twenty ounces silver, 
 and thirty-seven per cent. lead. Cost of mining and milling per ton, 817. 
 The character of; the mine is contact vein. Date of commencing de- 
 velopments, AuiSist. 1879. Amount expended in developing property to 
 April 1, 1882, about 825,000. No machinery or mills owned. Date of or- 
 ganization, June 5, 1S79 ; capitalization, 82,000,0(10; par value per share, 
 
 810; basi.s non-assessable; vield to April 1,1882. 29,896 pounds; mine was 
 not worked during 1881 ; 'bonded indebtedness May 15, 1882, $jO,000 ; 
 treasury reserve, $750,000. 
 
 Vulcan Gold and Silver Minins Company (The) is char- 
 tered under the laws of the .State of New York. The officers are Hon. 
 Lewis Jones, Pres. ; Meredith L.Jones, Sec. and Treas. The above named 
 and Egbert Guernsey, M. D., constitute the board of directors. The offi- 
 ces are at 120 Broadway, New York. The property of the company is 
 located on Mt. Sneftelz. Ouray county. (Colorado ; extent of claim. 1,500 
 feet by 300. The ore is ruby and brittle silver, and fine galena full of 
 gray copper. The low grades show more or less zinc, but mineral in rock 
 IS high grade, gangue is light calc spar and quartz. An excellent aver- 
 age of fourteen samples taken from dump as.sayed $184. The lode runs 
 east and west across the mountain, dips south into mountain, varies in 
 width from eight to twelve feet. Pay-streak is from one foot to two feet six 
 inches wide, carrying the following kind of ores— ruby and brittle silver, 
 fine galena, full and gray copper. The tunnel is five feet six by six feet 
 seven high, and sixty-six feet long. The expenditure of a small amount 
 of capital will provide all necessary storehouses, etc. Capitalization, 
 $300,000, in 30,0Ci0 shares of $10 each ; non-assessable ; full paid. 
 
 Wales Consolidated Company. They.own eleven claims, em- 
 bracing about 4,200 feet, located in Eureka county, Nevada, between the 
 end lines of the Albion and Richmond properties, and that of the Silver 
 Lick company. This company, which lost their works by fire, have 
 erected new hoisting works with a capacity for sinking 2,000 feet. A large 
 amount of work has been done during the year. 
 
 West Comstock Gold andSilVer Mining; Company (The) 
 is chartered under the laws of the State of California. Tlie officers are 
 W. A. H. Hart, Pres. ; J. C. Beatty, Sec. ; trustees, Cha.s. Moss and Lean- 
 der Shires. Annual election, 23d December. Transfer office, 230 Mont- 
 gomery Street, (room 24) San Francisco. Head office, 250 Montgomery 
 Street, (room 23.) Property located in Storey county, Nevada. Extent 
 of claim, 3,000 feet. The ore is argentiferous, and assays from 820 to ».'jO 
 per ton. The veins are quartz, running about four feet in width. There 
 are 3,000 feet of tunnel : lead is struck at about 400 feet deep. The vein 
 averages about three feet in thickness. Drifts run on ledge about 2('0 
 feet each way from the tunnel. The mines were originally located and 
 developed about twenty years ago, having been recently reorganized. 
 The mine is networked at present. Organized 1873 (June); capitaliza- 
 tion, 81,000,000, in 100,000 shares of 810 each ; a'.sessable ; latest assessment 
 levied, December, 1880, twenty-five cents per share ; stock listed on Pa- 
 cific Stock Board, San Francisco, Cal. ; stock quoted twenty-five cents 
 per share. The information was furnished by J. C. Beatty, Secretary of 
 the West Comstock Gold and Silver Mining Company. 
 
 The Ward Gold and Silver Mining Company. Officer, 
 Jacob Stadfeld, Sec: general office. 419 California Street. San Francisco. 
 Cal. The names of the mines belonging to this company are not known. 
 The location is in Nevada. 
 
 West Camden Gold and Silver Mining; Company (The) 
 has property located at West Camden, Me. The officers are G. E. ^\'il- 
 liams, Pres. ; J. A. Clark. Sec. and Treas. Directors, G. E. Williams, T. 
 Lord, Jr.. A. R. Soloman, Jas. Walden. J. H. Williams, I. B. Pratt, and F. 
 F. Phillips. Acting Supt., G. E. Williams. Organized, May, 1880 ; capi- 
 talization, $500,000, in 100,000 shares of $5 each; 36,000 shares consti- 
 tute the treasury reserve. 
 
 Western Union Gold and Silver Mining Company (The). 
 The mines belonging to this company arc located in Clear Creek county, 
 Col. Capitalization. 20,000,000 shares ; par value, $10. 
 
 Western World Mine (The). Owned by Mes.srs. Owsley, Allport, 
 Ransome, and Frank. The Western World mine is situated directly west 
 of the Andy Johnson mine. Fine shafts have been sunk to water level. 
 Ore assayed 45 ounces in silver, $7 in gold. 
 
 West Virginia Mining Company (The). Mr. Otto Linzoos, 
 Manager. The mining property owned by this company is located in 
 Colorado, viz., Berkeley, Danuba, Ironi, and Alice mines. Beautiful 
 specimens of silver and gold ore. 
 
 Whale Consolidated Gold and Silver Mining Company 
 (The) is chartered under the laws of the State of Colorado. The officers 
 are Senator Jas. Harlan, Pres. ; D. D. Ryus, Sec. The original incorpo- 
 rators were F. L. Martin, D. D. Ryus, Jas. A. Maynard, G. W. Frederick, 
 and Jas. Harlan. The head offices are at La Veta, Col. The nroperty of 
 the company, located in West Spanish Peak, La Veta. Col.^ comprises 
 the \Vhales Nos. 1, 2, and 3, and the Iowa, in all 5,250 feet long and 3()0 feet 
 wide. The company also owns the lodes Nonpareil. Goss. Jeffries. West- 
 ern Queen, Treasure, Monitor, Highland Lass, and Lincoln, all true fis- 
 sure veins, containing carbonate and galena ores assaying from 100 to 
 200 ounces of silver to the ton, and a fair percentage of lead ; also an 
 interest in several other claims. The main lode is a true fissure from four 
 to twelve feet wide, with perfect wall rocks on each side {in Whale No. 1). 
 The shaft on this lode uncovers a large body of " lead carbonates," and 
 argentiferous galena ore, assaying from twenty to sixty ounces of silver 
 and from forfy to sixty per cent, of lead per ton. A tunnel driven in 
 twenty feet and a shaft sunk thirty feet at inner end of tunnel on Whale 
 No. 2, uncovers mineral from wall to wall a width of five feet, which 
 assays fifty-five ounces of silver and forty-six per cent, of lead per ton. A 
 cut thirty feet long and twenU'-five feet deep on the Iowa section of 
 Whale lode reveals solid vein of^mineral assaying from 103 to 22.5. ounces 
 of silver, and a little gold, some copper, and fifty-five per cent, of lead per 
 ton. Capitalization, 82,000,000, in 100,000 shares of $20 each; non-asses- 
 sable ; 3(),000 shares constitute the working capital. 
 
 White Mountain Water Company. The property, the Prin- 
 cess mine, is located in Esmeralda count}', Nev. Only development work 
 was done during the year, the mine being opened to the depth of 300 
 feet, and a large amount of ore exposed. A new sixty-stamp-mill has 
 been under course of construction, and a steam hoist erected. After the 
 surface improvements are completed, the work of extracting and milling 
 the ore will commence, and, from all appearance, it will not be without 
 profit. 
 
 Wood River Smelting Company (The) has Its offices at 61 
 Broadway, New York. The property comprises the Keystone inine. May 
 Queen, Evergreen, Highland Chief, Scorpion, Julia, Red Bird,and Emma, 
 all located at Bellevue, Wood river, Alturas county, Idaho. The ore is 
 high grade, assaying $150 per ton. Owing to the inconvenience of having 
 to ship the ores to Salt Lake City to be smelted, several smelters are now 
 being put up for treatment of ores from the surrounding mines. . The mine 
 was visited by the owners (cMefly of Philadelphia) in May last (1882). 
 Notwithstanding the cost of 850 per ton incurred previously to the smelters 
 being erected, by sending to Salt Lake City, a handsome profit was ob- 
 tained. The bullion will be refined at Tatham's works, on Windmill 
 island, on the Delaware. The Keystone mine (upon condition of the net 
 
 {iroflts over the costof mining andsmelting),hasbeen let onalease. Cap- 
 talization, $100,000, in 4.000 shares of $25 each. 
 Winnebago and O. K. Mining Company (The) is chartered 
 
1164 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Li 
 
 under the laws of the State of New York. Officers (1880). Win. F. Buckley, 
 Pres. ; Thomas J. Buckley, V.-Pres. ; Henry W. Ford, Treas. ; Drake De 
 Kav, Sec. J. W. Davis, Superintendent. General office, 115 Broadway, 
 New York, and 51 to 67 Boreel Buildings. The mines belonging to this 
 company are located in Central City, Gilpin county, Col. The ore is com- 
 
 Sosed of gold and silver and copper, smelting and milUng. Organized, 
 [ovember, 1879 ; capitaUzation, 82,000,000 ; shares, 100,000 ; par value, $20 ; 
 non-assessable. _^. . ^ 
 
 Wyandotte Consolidated Gold and Silver Mining ( om- 
 i»any (Tlie). Officers, Hon. Lewi.s Jones, Pres. ; E. C. Pray, Treas. ; Dr. 
 ^evi Hai-sh, Supt. General office, 16 Broad Street, New York. The com- 
 pany owns a group of mines, of which the Wyandotte is the principal ; 
 koated in Gilpin County, Col. Extent of claim, 12,270 feet. Amount of 
 property in acres, forty. Veins approach each other at an acute angle, 
 and can be mined and operated through main shaft; sunk at focal point 
 of all ; elevation above sea level 9,600 feet. The management are prose- 
 cuting developments without attempting to make dividends, which will 
 not be done mitil the mine is thoroughly opened. Twenty-one men are 
 employed, taking out about 600 tons of Iron ore per month. The working 
 shaft of tlie Wyandotte is 400 feet deep. West of this, the company has a 
 working shaft on another claim, the Crawford County, 265 feet deep, both 
 being connected by a level 245 feet in length, and a cross-cut north from 
 tlie tormcr vein 140 feet in length. Some developments have also been 
 made on the Leavenworth lode and others. The average of the smelting 
 oru raised is fSO per ton net. The mines generally are in good working 
 condition. The average output is about 100 tons of ore per month. Aur- 
 iferous banks of gravel to washing out the free gold. It requires no 
 cliemical or mechanical process, no stamp-mills or furnaces, 'ihe mine 
 is in active operation and under the local management of Mr. F. T. Haw- 
 ley, of Brooklyn, New York. Capitalization, 850,000 ; par value, $1 ; non- 
 assessable. Stock registered with the Mercantile Trust Company, 120 
 Broadway, New York. 
 
 Yellow JaeUet Gold and Silver Mining Company (The) 
 is chartered under the laws of the State of Nevada. The offices are at 
 Gold Hill, Nevada. The property of the company Includes the Yellow 
 Jacket mine, located in the Gold Hill district, Comstock Lode, Nev. The 
 ore is auriferous and argentiferous, In the proportion of thirty-three per 
 cent, and sixty-seven per cent. The length of the main lode on which 
 the company depends for its supply of ore is 957 feet. The main shaft was 
 down, March 18, 1882, 3,000 feet, and is the deepest of all the deep mines 
 on the lode, and, indeed, in the United States. Organized, February 17, 
 1863; capitalization, 812,000,000, in 120,000 shares of SlOO each. Twenty-five 
 dividends have been paid ; total, $2,181,000 ; to August 10, 1871, the date of 
 latest dividend, which was at the rate of $3 per share. Forty-three assess- 
 ments liave been levied ; total $5,358,000 ; to February 7, 1882, date of latest 
 assessment, of $1 per share. No indebtedness. 
 
 Young America Mining Company (Tlie) has property loca- 
 ted in Tuscarora, Elko county, Nev. The length of the main lode on which 
 the company depends for its supply of ore is 1,000 feet. Capitalization,$3,- 
 000.000, in 30,000 shares of $100 each. No dividends paid. Ten assessments 
 levied ; total, $57,000 ; last assessment, June 27,1878. 
 
 Abbott Mining Company is chartered under the laws of the State 
 of New York. Branch office, 48 John Street, New York. The company's 
 works are located in Ouray county. Col. Extent of claim being ten lodes 
 and mill sites. The property is undeveloped,- Date of organization. May 
 12, 1879 ; capitalization, $2,000,000 ; par value per share, $10 ; basis, non- 
 
 Abbott Mining and Milling Company's (The) property is 
 located at Chaffee county. Col. Capitalizatiou, $150,000 ; par, per share, $10. 
 
 Afoington Mining and Milling Company (The). Branch 
 office, Leadville, Col. Location of mines, Boulder county. Col. Capitaliza- 
 tion, $1,000,000, divided into 100.000 shares ; par value,, $10 each. 
 
 Acme Mining Company (The) is chartered under thelaws of the 
 State of Colorado. Officers and directors are G. P. Smith, F. M. Hibbard, 
 Dr. T. Cummings, Geo. W. Stoiicr, R. Mickle. Principal office at Denver, 
 Col. The mines are located in Colorado. Capitalization, 100,000, shares ; 
 par value, SIO each, 
 
 Alaskan Mining Company (The). Name of mine owned by 
 the company is the Alaskan, located at Alaska, Col. Quality and character 
 of ore eighty-three and eighty-five per cent, lead, and $121 and $161 silver ; 
 almost pure galena, which contains eighty-six per cent. lead. The coun- 
 try rock is mainly a micaceous slate; no gold found. The mountain 
 seems to be composed of a white spar, which some supposed to be lime. 
 There are great dikes of granite extending for miles. No sulphurets of 
 iron were found ; plenty of mica in great scales and sheets. 
 
 Albion Mining Company. The officers are L. L. Robinson Pres. ; 
 Clinton Gumee, Vice-Pres. ; D. B. Chrisholm, Sec. ; California Bank, Treas. ; 
 X. W. Robinson, Supt. The company's mines are located in Eureka dis- 
 trict, Nevada. Aggregate of drifts, shafts, levels, etc., 6,000 feet Capital- 
 ization, $1,000,000 ; par value per share, $10 ; number of assessments levied, 
 ten ; total amount of same, $397,600 ; date of latest assessment. March 6, 
 1882. Indebtedness March 1, 1882, $19,276 ; funds reserved in the treasury 
 April 1, 1882, $1,789. 
 
 Algonquin Mining and Milling Company (The) is chartered 
 under the laws of the Territory of Montana. The officers are H. A. Stiles, 
 Pres. ; F. H. Williams, See. and Treas. Directors, H. A. Stiles, John F. 
 Smith, E. C. Markley, James Fuller, M.D., D. C. Spooner. Name of mines 
 owned are Algonquin, Salmon, Belle, Estelle. Amount expended in 
 developing property to January 1, 1882, $200,000. Property owned by 
 company, one 24-stamp mill, steam-hoist on two lodes, pumps, etc. 
 Capitalization, 200,000 shares; par value, $10 ; assessable. 
 
 Alice Mining Company (The', whose property is situated in Utah, 
 have a promising mine ; the vein of which is over forty feet in width. 
 The ore is good milling but hard, being rich in silver, yielding per ton as 
 follows : First grade, sixty -five ounces ; second grade, lorty ounces ; third 
 grade, thirty ounces ; fourth grade, twenty ounces, The property consists 
 of two engines and tubular boilers ; twenty-stamp dry crusher (Blake's) ; 
 forty othere, making a total of sixty stamps. The mine has a vertical 
 three-compartment shaft, 712 feet down. The staff of hands employed 
 aggregates 100. 
 
 Allied Mines (The). The company Is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of New York. The Directors are Gen. Thomas Ewing and Geo. 
 Bi.'^selt ; General Manager and Mining Engineer, W. M. Weston. OfBce, 
 63 Broadway, New York. Their mines are the Gertrude, Yellow Norma, 
 Hidden Treasure, Rose, Talisman, Crusader, Emily, Located at Imogen 
 Basin; Ouray county, Colorado, covering an ^rea of seventy jicres. The 
 
 Sropertifis are all true fissure veins, which cannot be exhausted in depth,- 
 apitalization, $10,000,000 ; par value per share, JIO ; non-assessable (no 
 personal liabilities). 
 
 Alpine Silver Mining Company is chartered under the laws 
 ' the State of New York. Office, 61 Broadway, New York. The com- 
 
 Alturas Gold Hill Mining Company. The officers are W M. 
 Little, Pres.; L. A. Richter, Vice-Pres. ;E. Webb, Sec; L. A. Richter, 
 Treas. Office, 63 Broadway, New York. This company owns the Altu- 
 ras Bonanza, Buffalo, and Bullion mines, located at Kocky Bar, Alturas 
 county, 'Idaho. The properly is in first-rate condition in every way. 
 Capitalization, $l,000,0(jO ; par value per share, $5. ; non-assessable. 
 
 Alonza Mining Company (The) is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of California. Tlie officers are A. D. Oakley, Pres.; A. *. 
 MoGrew, Vice-Pres. ; F. M. Blackstone, Sec. ; and A. F. McGrew, Treas. 
 The transfer office is at room 6, No. 140 S. Fourth Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 The company owns the Mammoth mine, located at West Tintic mining 
 district. Juab county, Utah. Organized, March, 1880. Capitalization, 
 $10,000,000 ; shares each, $100 ; assessable. Stock reserve, 10,000 shares ; 
 stock has been quoted as high as $2.50 ; stock listed, Philadelphia Mining 
 Annex. 
 
 pane's -wOTks^are located at "Chalk Creek, Col.,'coveriiig an area of 115 
 acres. Date of incorporation, January 6, 1879. Capitalization, $2,000,000 ; 
 par value per share, $10; non-assessable. , , , , .„ 
 
 Alta Montana Mining Com pany is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of New York. Office, 76 Wall Street, New York. This company 
 owns eleven mines (two of which are the Alta and Comet) ; ten of them 
 extend on the Alta vein two miles, and four are developed from both 
 sides of the mountain by seven tunnels aggregating 1,700 feet. This prop- 
 erty is located in Jefferson county, Montana. The ore gives asilver assay 
 ofijaoperton. The average width of vein is two feet. Company own ex- 
 tensive reduction works, which they value at $500,000, al.so stamp-mill, 
 railroad, etc., valued at $350,000. Aggregate of tunnels and levels up to 
 1882. 3,000 feet. Shafts down from sixty feet to 300 feet. Date of incor- 
 poration, July 16, 1879. Capitalization, $15,000,000; par value per .share, 
 810; non-assessable. _ 
 
 Alta Silver Mining Company. W. H. Watson, Sec. ; office, 302 
 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, California. This company owns the 
 Alta mine, located in Gold Hill district, Comstock lode, Nev., in which 
 the workings have attained the depth of 2,250 feet. Amount expended m 
 developing property has probably been about $150,000. Seventy-four 
 miners are employed in the Alta mine. Capitalization, $10,800,000; par 
 value per share, $100. No dividends iiaid up to 1882. Number of assess- 
 ments levied, twenty-four ; total amount of same, $1,641,600. Date of first 
 assessment, August, 1880, fifty cents per share ; date of latest assessment, 
 Mav 2, 1882, fifty cents per share. Bonds reserved in the treasury, April 
 1,1882, $16,486. 
 
 American Mining and Smelting Company (The), Andrew 
 Wallace, Supt. Name of mine owned. Little Ellen, located in South 
 Evans gulch, Col. Dimension of workings— line shaft, 180 feet, the wheel, 
 sixteen feet m diameter (1881). The works are undoubtedly the largest of 
 the kind in Colorado. 
 
 Amie Consolidated MlningCoinpany (The) is chartered un- 
 der thfe laws of the State of New York. The offices are 57 Broadway, New 
 York. The company owns three mines, the Amie, the Climax, and the 
 Deer Lodge. Located at Leadville, Freyer Hill, Col. The ore is very rich, 
 containing iron and more or less chloride of silver, an assay in 1881 giv- 
 ing $78 per ton. Property owned bv the company is $liO,00O worth of ma- 
 cliinery, all first-class (vear 1881). Depth of shaft, 180 feet. East of the 
 Amie mine is the Deer Lodge, showing a few little stopes from which the 
 lessees have just taken March, 1881, $18,000 within the past few weeks. The 
 ore has been followed west and south until the Amie and Climax were 
 reached, and the lessees are now engaging in working toward the north 
 with almost encouraging prospects. The interesting facts of the mines . 
 are, that the ore from the Deer Lodge, or Amie shaft. No. 5, is still holding 
 out remarkably well, and the general prospect is that it will continue 
 mineral, increasing in size. The drift running east sixty feet from No. 5, 
 north shaft, shows a vein of very high grade ore six inches to two feet'in 
 thickness. This vein averages 400 ounces of silver to the ton. Outside of 
 this is a large body of iron, impregnated with mineral, that yields $30 to 
 $40 a ton net; eighty men employed, and ships some sixty tons of carbo- 
 nates daily. Product will soon exceed 200. 
 
 Amie and Climax Mines. Rich pockets have been found in both, 
 which have been succeeded by vein streaks ; its output reached fifty tons 
 of ore per day, and a very good grade. Climax has been very erratic in 
 its performance, sometimes outputting considerable quantities of fine ore, 
 and then again running into almost barren iron. This company was or- 
 
 fanized June 30, 1S79 ; capitalization, $5,000,000 ; shares, 50,000 ; par value, 
 10; non-assessable. Totalamount of dividends, July 15, 1881, $305,000; 
 latest dividend May 17, 1880 ; amount, $10. Current value of niine,$115,000. 
 Stock quoted, twenty-eight cents per share, March, 1882. 
 
 Andes Silver Mining Company. Officer, Butler Berris, Sec. 309 
 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal., is the location of principal office. 
 The mines are located in Virginia district, Comstock Lode. Nev. Capital- 
 ization, $10,000,000 ; 100,000 shares; par value, $100 ; assessable. Number of 
 assessments levied, nineteen; date of latest assessment, June 14, 1882; 
 amount pershare, twenty-five cents; linear feet in mine, 2,000 ; cash on hand 
 February 1, 1882, $'2,991.37; April 1, 1882. $11,640. Eighteen assessments. 
 Mining Record, June 17. Stock and bonds reserved in the treasury April 
 1,1881. $11,640. 
 
 Anglo-American Mining Company (The), of Chicago, has 
 property in Chaffee county, Col. The company o-wns the following mines 
 or claims, viz. : Ocean Wave, Dolly Varden, and Eight Wonder, all of 
 which are opened by shafts from twenty to forty feet deep, showing good 
 veins of mineral. 
 
 Argent Mining Company (The) are the owners of the Iron Hill, 
 Leadville Consolidated, La Plata, Silver Cord, Iron Group, Gilt Edge 
 Strike mines. Located at Yankee Hill, Col., covering an area of thirty-five 
 acres. Ore assays filly-one ounces of silver to the ton. The iron mines 
 are .shipping fine carbonate ores. La Plata mine shows large stopes of 
 lead ore, and has yielded sixty tons of ore per day. Capitalization, $6,000,- 
 000 ; par value per share, $10. 
 
 Argent Mining Company is chartered under the laws of the 
 State of Colorado. The officers are A. G.B. Hinkle. Pres.; M.T. Vandcver, 
 Vice-Pres. ; Chas. H. Graham, Treas. ; B. Huckle, Sec. Directors, A G B 
 Hinkle, M. T. Vnndcvcr, Chas, H. Graham, J. B. Wilson, J. T. Hampton 
 Henry Leipman, Jas. Fuller, Wm. Carp, and Chas. Kleinirt. Office. ;!60 
 Stock Exchange Place, rooms 27 and 28. The Vining, Chieftain. Balti- 
 more, and Frank C. Shipman mines, located at Leadville, Colorado, are 
 owned by this company. Capitalization, $400,000; value tier share, $10; 
 non-assessable, Bonded indebtedness January 1 , 1882, $21 000. 
 
 Argentine Mining and Smelting Company (The) is char- 
 tered under the laws of Colorado. Officers .are M. J. Dunne, Pres. ; J. A. 
 Roach, Treas. ; J, A.Roche. Sec. Hend office, room 1, No. 78 Dearborn 
 Street, Chicago. Name of mine owned is Garii&Id. Location, Sheep 
 Mountain, Summit county. Col. The Garfield is surrounded on all sides 
 by paying mines In close proximity thereto. All the veins on the eastern 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 116£ 
 
 Blope of Sheep Mountain are Blanket contact veina, and the probability 
 of the Garlield becoming a large paying vein is very strong. A few share.s 
 of the Working-Fund Stock remain to be sold, and are preferred. The 
 length of shaft is 115 feet. Capitalization, 30,U00 shares ; par value, $10, 
 full paid ; non-assessable. 
 
 Arizona Southern mining: and Milling Company (The) is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of New Jersey. Oflicers are Samuel 
 White, Jr., Pres. ; Wm. H. Dresher, Vice-Pres. ; Geo. B. Dresher. Treas. ; 
 Edw. B. Williams, Sec. Solicitor, E. A. Armstrong. Head oSftce, 106 
 M.irket Street, Camden, N. J. Branch office, 407 Locust Street, Philadel- 
 phia, Pa. H. S. Searle, Supt. Names of mines owned are Silver Wing, 
 Herman, Searle, Pilot, Arizona Southern. All full claims. Located at 
 Oro Blanco mining district, of Pima county, Arizona. The amount of 
 property consists of ninety-six acres. Character of ore. Silver Wing, sul- 
 phuret of silver, carrving silver glance, or argentite, stephanite, black 
 sulphuret, chloride or silver, and gray carbon. Herman, gray and yellow 
 carbonates. Searle, antimonial sulphurets of lead and gray. Assays per 
 ton, $93.46. Average samples, $186.91. Character of mines are lenticular 
 masses of quartz. The veins are strong, large, well-defined lodes, formed 
 t»y ore. Waters entering from below give every indication of permanence 
 of deptli. Pilot, yellow carbonates, sulphuret of silver, containing anti- 
 monial sulphuret of lead and gray copper and carbonate of copper, with 
 a gangue of quartz. A mill site is owned by the company. Date of com- 
 mencing developments, June 8, 1881. Cost of mining, $400 per ton ; mill- 
 ing, $23.00 per ton. There is a development of shaft of over fifty-flve feet 
 on tiilver Wing claim. Company organized March, 1881. Capitalization, 
 $300,000 ; par value, $5 ; non-assessable. Amount of shares Issued, 240,000 ; 
 reserved in treasury, 60,000 shares ; capital stock now reduced to one dol- 
 lar, par value. Amount of stocks and bonds reserved in the treasury 
 January 1, 1882, $300,000. Stock indebtedness, $1,200,000. Wages paid for 
 labor, 1882, from $1 to $4 per day. 
 
 Armstrong' (iuIcJn Consolitlated Silver ]>IIniiig Com- 
 pany's works are located in Colorado. Company have a capitalization 
 of *l,2r)0,000, in shares of $25 each. 
 
 ^Atlantic and Pacific TnnncI Company (Tlie). Mr. Brick 
 Pomeroy, of Denver, Pros, and Treas. The company's property is located 
 at Clear Creek, Clear Creek county. Col., and contains numerous rich 
 veins of minerals, the product of which is expected to pay cost of driv- 
 ing the tunnel 4,000 feet. The tunnel is being driven from the base of 
 Kelso Mountain on Quail Creek to a point near Decatur, on the western 
 slope, a distance of four miles. Operation.s are progressing at both ends. 
 They will open a very large number of fine lodes at great depth, and 
 measurably solve the yet unsolved problem of the downward tendency 
 of these silver fissures. Commenced development of property during the 
 year of 1880. Capitalization, $7,000,000 : par value per share, $10 ; stock 
 reserved in the treasury, October. 1881, 300,000 shares, at $2.60 per share ; 
 bonds reserved in the treasury, October, 1881, $300,000. 
 
 Atlanta Mining <;ompany is chartered under the laws of the 
 State of California. The othcers are John Oppenheim, Pres. ; A. F. 
 McGrue, Vice-Pres.; P. M. Blackstone, Sec: 0. W. Thompson, Treas. 
 Transfer office, 140 South Fourth Street, room 6, Philadelphia. The com- 
 pany owns the Noon lode, which is located at West Thitic, Juab county, 
 Utah. The ore found resembles that of the celebrated Ontario mine in 
 Utah. Character of the mine is described as showing a tnie fissure vein. 
 Company own one mill-site and water-power. Capitalization, $10,000,- 
 000 ; par value per share, $100 ; assessable ; stock reserved in the treas- 
 ury, 20,000 ; stock listed on the Mining Exchange of California and Phil- 
 adelphia. 
 
 A. Y. Inline (The), located at Iron Hill, Leadville, Col., is the pro- 
 perty of Graham & Co., and is one of the recent accessories to the list of 
 the producing mines of Leadville. The character of the ore is lead car- 
 bonate, grade in silver low. The mine is now yielding from fifty to 
 seventy tons of ore per day. The average value is low, and nets from $3 
 to $30 per ton. The company own four oil Greek pumps. The mine shows 
 good surface improvements and extensive underground developments, 
 disclosing considerable quantities of ore. Mine well timbered. 
 
 Bay Horse Mining and Smelting Company. Location, 
 Lemhi county, Idaho. Tnls company have now in operation smelting 
 works which are manipulating the ores of fifteen mines in neighboring 
 districts, thus afibrding an important facility to mining speculations in 
 that locality. 
 
 Belding Mining Company (The) own property in Esmeralda 
 county, Nev. Stock and bonds reserved in the treasury, April, 1882, $523 ; 
 cash on hand, April 1, 1882, fi23. 
 
 Bald Mountain Mining Company (The) is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of New York. The offices of the company are at 21 
 Nassau Street, New York. The company owns the Gold Cup group of 
 mines, located in the Tin Cup district, Gunnison county, Col. Owing to 
 some misunderstanding among the stockholders, these mines have been 
 idle for a while, but are expected to be opened a^ain shortly. They are 
 said to contain a fine body of high-grade ore, characteristic of the dis- 
 trict, which has a porphyritic and calcareous formation, and the veins 
 carrying sulphides of silver, lead, and copper carbonates. The mineral 
 of these mines is said to run from 240 to 1,800 ounces per ton (silver). 
 They have been large producers in the past, and there is little doubt that 
 with judicious management they will again be made to pav handsome 
 dividends. Capitalization, $10,000,000, in 100,000 shares of $10 each. ' 
 
 Banker liOde (The), on Breece Hill, Col. has been working inces- 
 santly for the past year. The lower workings show a vein of quartz 
 opened to a width of four and a half feet, without disclosing the foot-wall 
 (81). The ore gives a silver assay of forty-seven ounces per ton. The 
 company have a five-horse-power engine, ten-inch pump, and baby 
 hoister ; shaft, 208 feet in depth. 
 
 Barbee A Walker Silver Mining Company is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of New York. Office, 59 Drexel Buildings, 
 New York- This company own the Barbee & Walker mines, located at 
 Silver Reef, Utah. The mine is situated on the margin of the camp, and 
 has the advantage of receiving its ores directly from the hoisting works. 
 The ore is argentiferous and very fine, assaying $32 per ton. The aver- 
 age width of vein is eight feet. A -body of ore lately opened up in the 
 north and south drifts gives promise of a most satisfactory product The 
 face is in a strong four-foot ledge of $50 ore. The company own a five- 
 stamp mill, two pans, and one settler, hoisting machinery, and other 
 bulwings. The lode on which the company depends for its supply of 
 ore is 2.817 feet. The main incline has attained a depth of 303 feet, and 
 at the bottom the ledge continues intact. Contracts have just been let to 
 develop both the front and back ledges on the fifth levels north and 
 south. The lower workings show to good advantage, and the prospects 
 are very fayorable. The monthly output of bullion has averaged $100,- 
 000, and is increasing. The drift from the bottom of the 100-foot winze has 
 been advanced 110 feet in excellent ground, and now shows a four-foot 
 
 '■ ^ Practically, a temperance- organization. 
 
 facing of ore that samples from $100 to $700. Date of organization, 1879 ; 
 capitalization, $1,000,000 ; par value per share, $10 ; basis, non-assessable ; 
 yield during fiscal year 1881, $170,1.'>4; calendar year, $205,624; total 
 amount of dividends paid to November, 1880, $60,000; (six yearly divi- 
 dends of $10,000 each, equal to twenty-four per cent, per annum on capi- 
 tal); date of latest dividend, November, 1880; amount per share, ten 
 cents; slock quoted Julyl, 1882, ten cents per share; stock and bonds 
 held principally in New York. 
 
 Ben Franklin Silver Mining Company The officers are 
 Robert Crane, Pres; Wm. Curtiss, Vice-Pres.; Dr. Henry Carpenter, 
 Treas. ; F. X. Kelley, Sec. Directors, Robert Crane, F. X. Kelly, Jr., Wm. 
 Curtiss, Henry Carpenter, C. S. Kaulfman, J. F. Frueauff J. W. Anthony, 
 J. H. Stelle, A. W. Stone. Main office, Leadville, Col. Branch office, 319 
 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. The property is located in Custer 
 county, CoL One month's working shows a production of t2.50O. Dale 
 of organization, November, 1881; capitalization, $600,000; par value per 
 share, $25. There will be an assessment of five cents levied quarterly 
 until fifty cents have been levied on each share. 
 
 Battle Mountain Silver Mining Company is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of Colorado. The officers are D. J. Chapman. Pres, ; 
 J. H. Hunter, Vice-Pres. ; P. J. L. Carberry, Treas. ; Chas. N. G. Felten, Sec. 
 Office, 218>^ Walnut Street, room 23, Philadelphia, Pa. The company's 
 mines are the Grief and Evening Star. 
 
 Bay State Silver Mining Company's works are located in Ne- 
 vada. J. W. Pew, Sec. Office, 310 Pine Street, San Francisco. 
 
 Bay View Silver and Copper Mining Company. The of- 
 ficers are W. T. Rearson, Pres. ; R. W. Kimball. Sec. and Treas. Directors, 
 E. C. Hincks, W. T. Rearson. J. W. Milliken, R. W. Kimball. Date of or- 
 ganization, at Bangor, February 7, 1881 ; 370,302 shares of stock reserved in 
 the treasury. 
 
 Belcher Silver Mining Company (The). Officer, John Crock- 
 ett, Sec. Principal office, 203 Bush Street. San Francisco. Location of 
 mines, Nevada, Washoe district. South drift ore vein, 115 feet ; excellent 
 vein material ; 3,000 feet level ; the south drift, east crescent, on this level, 
 was pushed eighty feet into a fine vein formation carrying bunches of 
 good quartz. 
 
 Bellevue Mining Company (The). Officers are O. B, Johnston. 
 Pres.; O. M. Copeland, Treas.; D. C. Butterfield, Sec. John Horton, Supt 
 Names of mines owned. Dead Shot, Noonday. Chicago, and Eadie. Loca- 
 tion of mines. Mineral Hill district. Wood River, Idaho. Character of ore, 
 dry carbonate ; assays as higli as 600 ounces in silver, and running heavy 
 in lead. Three tunnels and shaft used. Character of mines : ledge, five 
 feet wide ; pay streak, two feet wide at top of tunnel, and two and a half 
 feet on the floor ; mineral is easily worked, one shot loosening tons, which 
 can be taken out with the pick and shovel; walls solid, requiring little 
 timbering. The claim known as the Dead Shot, was discovered in 1880, 
 by S. A. James, now foreman of the company. The Noonday is thought 
 to be the richest mine on the river, according to Mr. Horton's statement, 
 March 25, 1882. Capitalization, $1,000,000 ; shares, 200,000; par value, $5. 
 
 Belmont Consolidated mining Company (The). Oflicers, 
 B. W. Lewis, Pres. : J. W. Harrison, Sec. Local Representative. J. M. Mc- 
 Dougal, Attorney for the company. Names of mines owned. Black King 
 Mountain and Lyon's Lode, located in Gunnison county. Col. There is 
 a vein on Lyon's Lode some fourteen feet in width. This and the other 
 two veins are cut by Belmont Consolidated Mining Company's tunnel. 
 The properties are being worked energetically, with prospect of certain 
 yield. Date of latest assessment. May 20, 1882, ten cents. Yield during 
 1880, $26,419. 
 
 Belmont (Monitor) Mining Company. J. W. Few is Secre- 
 tary. Office, 310 Pine Street, San Francisco, California. This company's 
 property is located at Philadelphia, Nye county, Nev. There are 3,.50O 
 linear feet in mine. Capitalization, $5,000,000 ; par value per share, $100 ; 
 number of assessments levied, thirty-two ; total amount of thirty-one, 
 $707,500 ; date of latest assessment. May 20, 1882, ten cents per share. 
 
 Betty O'Keal Mining Company (The). D. P. Fierce is Su- 
 perintendent The Betty O'Neal property is about half a mile from Lewis, 
 Lander county, Nev. The main working-shaft is down about 160 feet, from 
 which the lower level has been run on good ore some 200 feet. A body of 
 ruby and wire silver has been struck, portions of it assaying as high as 
 $1,000 per ton. A new pump has been put in which has a capacity for 
 raising water from 450 feet. Yield during 1880, $31,474 ; bonded indebted- 
 ness, March, $6,329.54 ; floating indebtedness, April 1, 1882, $9,953 ; company 
 in debt, April 1, 1882, $9,963. 
 
 Big Half-Moon Mining Company's works are located near 
 Leadville, Colorado. The ore assays from five to fourteen ounces in sil- 
 ver and half an ounce in gold. The veins in the Big Half-Moon vary 
 from one to twenty feet in width. 
 
 Big Chief Mine (The), Neils, Larsen, McComte & Co., owners. 
 Name of mine owned. Big Chief: located in Carbonate Hill, Colorado. 
 This mine is located just above the Morning and Evening Stars, and has 
 proved one of the most valuable developments made about Leadville in 
 the past year. Much of the owners' attention has been devoted to the 
 erection of buildings and machinery, also to preliminary developments ; 
 and although an inroad on the ore has only just commenced, a consider- 
 able quantity has been shipped. Amount of property, ten acres, tiual- 
 ity and character of ore, very fair— lead carbonate. Character of mine, 
 drifts twenty to twenty-five feet in width ; depth of shaft, 500 feet. 'The 
 indications, 1880, as far as the developments in the Big Chief mine admit 
 of judging from appearances, are certainly very favorable. Passing 
 along to the north-east portion of the workings, u rather chaotic mass 
 of carbonates, sand, iron, and porphyry was disclosed to view. Sveekly 
 output, seventy-eight tons. 
 
 Big Pittsburg Mining Company (The). Mines located in 
 Lake county. Col. CapitaUzatidn, 200,000 shares; par value, $100. 
 
 Black Jack Mining Company (The). Mines located in Cal- 
 ifornia. CapitaUzation ; 1()D,000 shares ; par value, $2.60. 
 
 Black Metal Mine (The), owned by Mr. Blake and others. Name 
 of mine, Linda; mines located at Tucson, Ariz. Character of ore, silver 
 and copper ; assays 400 in silver, and 312, At the bottom of the shaft, at 
 the depth of twenty-two feet of metal, has widened to eighteen-inch assay 
 from the top. Linda mine has two pieces of ore ; one assayed $300, the 
 other $600. 
 
 Bear Creek Mining Company is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of New York. The officers are Hon. Abram Wakeman, Pres. ; 
 Hon. John Cummins, Vice-Pres. ; R. D. Wood. Sec. ; Chas. S. Bunn, Treas. 
 Office, 145 Broadway, room 11, New York. The company's works are lo- 
 cated in San Juan district. Col. They have a capitabzation of $300,000. 
 
 Brockman and Black Rock Mines. (The) owned bv C, Leavitt, 
 T. Pendergast, and other residents of San Francisco. The" Brockman 
 mine is located near Greenwood, El Dorado, Cal. The company owns a 
 five-stamp mill. 
 
 Black Rock Mining Company (The) has property- located in 
 Yuma county, Ariz. The company owns two mines, which adjoin each 
 
1166 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 other, the Black Rock and Pacific, the purchase-price of which was 
 $175,000. By a cross-cut through the ledge, the ore of the latter was proved 
 similar in quality to the Black Rock, which is a rich, black galena. It is 
 claimed, on behalf of the Black liock, tliat it has developed a richer and 
 larger body of ore than was ever shown by any of the best Nevada mines. 
 Work is carried on in shifts by night and day. The erection of steam- 
 hoisting worlis and additional reduction worlis is contemplated. A new 
 wagon-road is being constructed for the conveyance of the ore to the mill 
 on the river. In a cross-out of the Pacific, at a depth of thirty-three feet, 
 a four-foot vein, containing four inches of ore, assaying $300 per ton, was 
 encountered. 
 
 Boar Klining Company. The officers are J. A. Greenlaw, Pres. ; 
 H. R. Calkins, Vice-Pres. ; and H. F. Smith, Sec. H. M. Danielson, Su- 
 perintendent. The Mountain Star, Charles 12th, Centennial, Little Stella, 
 and Louisiana mines, owned by this company, are located at Looland 
 Hill, near Leadville, Col. The character of the ore found is very rich 
 sulphuret, mill-run showing from 200 to 260 ounces to the ton. A vertical 
 vein of galena has been opened up that mills forty-flve per cent, in lead. 
 A shipment of ore to the Alta Smelting Company gave a return of $274 to 
 the ton. Length of adits in the Charles 12th mine, 125 feet. 
 
 Bob Ineersoll ]»Iinins Company owns the Bob IngersoU mine, 
 located in Arizona. The claim lies near to and west of the Survey and 
 Tribute claims. During the year, some $15,000 worth of bullion was pro- 
 duced by the Boston mul from ores of this mine ; this constituting its en- 
 tire production to the present time. The dump, however, contains over 
 3,000 tons of ore, that are expected to average about $80 to the ton. The 
 shaft is down 250 feet, and is opened by the necessary levels, drifts, etc. 
 The hoisting apparatus consi-sts of a whim, which at present depth an- 
 swers every purpose. After the construction of the mul proposed by the 
 company, the hoisting facilities will be proportionately increased.. The 
 ore shows gray and yellow carbonates and green chlorides, with some 
 bunches of rich galena. The reports of this mine are of a very satisfac- 
 tory nature. A good body of very high-grade ore is reported to have been 
 disclosed. There are 2,200 to 2,300 tons of ore on the dump. The richest 
 ore extracted from the IngersoU was discovered accidentally, in an ore- 
 body on the eighty-foot level, by the side of an old stope. About ten tons 
 of ore are hoisted daily. 
 
 Bonanza Company's Ifline (The), the Belmonico, is located at 
 Jack Mountain, Ten Mile district. Col. The ore found may be termed 
 both sulphuret and carbonate. Mill run of 700 pounds asiiayed 136 oimces 
 in silver per ton. Tunnel, 160 feet deep. 
 
 Bonanza Kin;; Consolldateu Mining: Company's works, 
 of which Mr. Gillette is manager, are located in California. The charac- 
 ter of the ore is high grade. The average, which seems almost incredible, 
 for the month of June being about S400 per ton for all the ore extracted. 
 The company own a len-stamp mill. 
 
 Bonanza Queen Silver Itlinlng Company's (The) works are 
 located in Chatfee and Pitkin counties. Col. Capitalization, $50,000 ; par 
 value per share, $100. 
 
 Boston, Burning: Moscow, Hickory, Cortex, and Esmer- 
 alda Mines (Tliej, owned by Messr.s. W. L. Searles and C. C. Wood- 
 house, of Beaver, Pa. These mines are located in Star district, Utah. Ore 
 body at a great depth. Burning Moscow presents an immense body of 
 low-grade ore. The Boston, owned by W. L. Searles (1880), has been sur- 
 veyed and patent granted. The Rebel mine, perpendicular shaft, 200 feet 
 down, and a drift produced $120,000 in ore (recently reported). Hickory 
 is one of the first patented mines in Star district, once sold for $80,000. 
 Mill used. The Cortez and Esmeralda mines, owned by C. C. Woodhouse, 
 have been patented, and are true fissure veins. The Chief of the Hill has 
 been sold. Mammoth mine also in the district ; tunnel used ; worked by 
 Matthew CuUen. 
 
 Boston and Sheep Mountain Mining: Company. The 
 officers are Edward H, Goff, Pres ; Silas Gurney, Vice-Pres. ; H. K Irvine, 
 Sec. and Treas. ; Superintendent, Thomas Gowenloch. Office, 131 Devon- 
 shire Street, Boston , Mass. This company owns eight full claims immedi- 
 ately adjoining the famous Robinson Consolidated minesof Leadville,Col., 
 a large portion being located on the same ore chute. The development 
 work ofthis property is being pushed with all possible rapidity, with the 
 expectation of soon striking the extensions of the rich ore bodies now 
 benig worked in the Smuggler and the Checkmate claims of the Robin- 
 son Consolidated. Capitalization, $2,000,000; non-assessable. 
 
 Bowman Silver Minin;; Company's (The) works are located 
 in Nevada. The company was organized March 1, 1881, having a capitali- 
 zation of $100,000. Property not yet developed. 
 
 Bradshaw Silver Mining Company (The) has properties lo- 
 cated in Arizona, in the Tombstone district (western portion), near the San 
 Pedro. It is opened by a shaft to the depth of about 400 feet. The vein 
 is from two to six feet in width. The ore is rich chloride, and carries 
 horn silver assaying from $80 to $100 per ton. The mine is fitted with im- 
 proved hoisting machinery and all necessary appliances. A ten-stamp 
 mill has been erected. The mine has produced about $50,000 worth of 
 bullion since first opened. Capitalization, $2,250,000, in 225,000 shares of 
 $10 each. 
 
 Bri.>itol Silver Mining Company. The officers are Geo. H. 
 Keith, Pres.; F. A. Lewis, Vice-Pres.; T. E. Hughes, Sec; Mark W. 
 Lewis, Treas. ; General Manager, H. M. Goodhue. The company owns 
 the Mayflower mine, located in Nevada. Ore in bottom of winze turning 
 from milling into heavy gray carbonate, averaging three per cent, in 
 lead, and running all the way from $65 to $2,400 in silver. Capitalization, 
 $17.3,134 : value per share, $25 ; non-assessable ; total amount of dividends 
 paid to July, 1882, $28, 824 ; date of latest dividend, July, 1882, at the rate 
 of $2 per share. 
 
 Brittle Silver Mining: Company. The ofBcers are H. O'Neil, 
 Pres.; Archilles Falco; General Manager; W. A. Hall, Sec. Office, 8 
 Broad Street, New York. This company owns eight mines, viz.; Iowa, 
 Isabel, Brittle Silver, Good Hope, Marmgo, Alvaredo, Ontario, and Atlan- 
 tic, located at the head of Quartz creek, Gunnison county. Col. Amount 
 of property in land, thirty-eight acres. The mines show true fissure in 
 porphyry. The Brittle Silver mine has a vein of eighteen inches of sul- 
 phide of silver, running from $150 to $1,200. Prospects of the property are 
 good. . Rich sliAwings of minerals are to be seen in all the workings. The 
 company is assured of dividends by August, 1882. A force of sixteen men 
 is working on the property. Capitalization, $500,000 ; par value per share, 
 $1.25. 
 
 Buckeye Mining Company (The). OfBoers are J. K. Holman, 
 Pres,; Wm. A. Stephens, Vice-Pres. ; W. Bayard Cutting, James Heron, 
 Henry Wadsworth. TJiemines arelocated at DeviKs Gate, Lyon county, 
 Nev. 3,000 linear feet in mine. Capitalization, $4,800,000 : shares, 48,000 ; 
 par value, $1.00 ; number of assessments levied, nineteen ; total amount of 
 same, $332.000 ; date of latest assessment. November 25, 1878. 
 
 Bull KomiuKO Consolidated Mining: Company (The) is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of New York. The officers are W. 
 S. Bamum, Pres.; D. S. Draper, Vice-Pres., and N. B. Stevens, Sec. and 
 
 Treas. The head and transfer offices are at 115 Broadway, New York. 
 Branch office at mines. Silver ClilT. Col. The books are always open. Date 
 of annual election, 3d Monday in November. The company owns ..he fol- 
 lowing mines; the Domingo, Johnnie Bull, Little Dorritt, Little Dorritt 
 No 2, and Thomas Paine, located in the Hardscrabble district, about 
 three miles from Silver Cliff, in Custer county. Col,, covering an area of 
 about flftyacres. The ore isagalena,thirtyper cent. lead.and fifteen ounces 
 silver to the ton. The character of the mines are described as true fissure, 
 wide, filled with conglomerate of boulders. The ore adheres to the boul- 
 ders, or rather is in the space between the boulders, and is mainly con- 
 fined to the hanging wall running from it into the fissure about thirty 
 feet, and in it about sixty feet. The property consists of hoisting works, 
 concentrating mill, saw-mill, black.smith and machine shop, ore house, 
 office, and several dwellings. A depth (sinking) of 360 feet has been 
 reached ; length of adits, 121) to 225 feet. There are two shafts or tunnels. 
 The vein varies considerably in width at different points. The three 
 levels and a number of drifts aggregate 1,000 linear feet or more. Devel- 
 opments were commenced 1st ofjanuary, 1880, since which about $415,000 
 has been expended. Although the ore body is lost for the present, the 
 prospect of finding it again is favorable. The cost per ton for mining and 
 milling is $S. Organized November 17, 1879; capitalization, $10,000,000; 
 shares, $50; non-assessable. Yield, net, to April, 1882, $275,000; Yield, net, 
 during 1881, $275,000; no dividends have beenjjaid. Bonded indebted- 
 ness, $300,000 : stock indebtedness, $10,000,000 ; floating indebtedness, $20,- 
 000 ; stock in treasury, 8135,000, April 1, 1882. 
 
 Bnlwer Consolidated Mining Company (The). The Ralston 
 and Stonewall mines are owned by the company. Located in Mono county, 
 Cal. Vein, 125 feet. Ledge, Ralston vein, two feet wide. One Stonewall 
 ledge, two feet ; one Ralston ledge, four feet. Entrance is by tunnel, 119 feet 
 in length. The chief source of revenue ofthis company is from its fine 
 mill. Capitalization, 810 000,000; par value per-share. 8100. Yield during 
 1880, 8101,736. Total amount of dividends paid to June 12. 1882. 870,000 : 
 date of latest dividend, June 12, 1882, ten cents per share. Total amount 
 of assessments levied to December, 1880, $352,000 ; date of latest assess- 
 ment, December, 1880, SI per share. Bonds reserved in the treasury April, 
 1882, $82,247; stock quoted July 1, 1882, $2 per share. Current value of the 
 mine, 8195,000. On the 1st of December, 1881, a cash balance of $100,000 
 was reported. 
 
 Colorado Consolidated Mining Company. Incorporators, 
 W. R. Hunt, C. C. Hughe's, and John .lennings. The company's works arc 
 located in Georgetown district, Clear Creek county. Col. Capitalization. 
 81,625,000 ; par value per share, $25 ; basis, non-assessable. Total amount 
 of dividends paid to July, 1875, $251,875 : date of latest dividend, July, 1875. 
 
 Climax Mining Company's (The) works are located at Lead- 
 ville, Col. Current value of mine, $44,000. Capitalization, $2,000,0(10; par 
 value per share, $10: total amount of dividends, $180,000 ; d«te of latest 
 dividend, August 20, 1880, thirty cents per share ; date of latest assessment, 
 December 12, 1877. 
 
 Chicago Consolidated Silver Mining Company (The). 
 Direotore, F. H. Wells, E. C. Freeland, Wm. Irelan, John Nutall, P. B. 
 Bowles. Mines located in South Fork, district Shasta, Cal. Atlgo, the 
 company completed its mill and reduction works. The machinery was 
 put into successful operation and ore worked ever since, yielding from 
 $30 to $500 per ton. About 200 tons of ore were taken out last summer 
 and fall, which will be sufficient to keep the mill and reduction works 
 running for several weeks, and until the company takes out more 
 ore. The shaft is down twenty feet, and a tunnel run in about 400 feet, 
 which taps the ore body near the bottom of the shaft. The ore now being 
 worked yields about eighty-five per cent, of silver, and continues to 
 be of a superior quality. 
 
 Caledonia Silver Milling Company. R. Wagner, Sec. Office, 
 414 California Street. San Francisco, Cal. The company's works are lo- 
 cated in Gold Hill district, Nev. There are 2,188 linear feet in mine. 
 Capitalization, $10,000,000 ; par value per share, $100 ; number of assess- 
 ments levied, 38 ; total amount of same, $2,710,000; date of latest assess- 
 ment. December 6, 1881. 
 
 Catalpa Mining Company. H. W. Wesson, Treas. Office. 66 
 Broad Street, New York. This company owns the Crescent and Catalpa 
 mines, located in Lake county, Col. The ore is very fine. The Crescent 
 will be connected with the w'orkings of the Catalpa mines by a series of 
 cross-cuts from the main incline, and all the hoisting will be done 
 through shafts. To the northwest, where the bulk of the company'.? pro- 
 perty extends, a level is running through this portion of the mine, from 
 which great results are confidently expected. 'The mine is keeping up 
 its shipments, shipping ifrom twelve to fifteen tons of ore per day, and 
 is reported as in fine condition and outlook encouraging, there being 
 considerable territory yet to be explored. A tour through the under- 
 
 f round workings of the mine is said to reveal considerable fine sand-car- 
 onates, especially in west or lower shaft. A fine body of iron was brought 
 to light running well in silver, some carrying as much as 100 ounces. 
 The vein has an average width of from four to six feet, and the ore is 
 said to have a value of $100 per ton. Date of organization, February, 
 1880; capitalization, $3,000,000; par value per Share, 810; basis, non- 
 assessable. Number of dividends paid to June 15, 1881, 3; total amount 
 of dividends paid, $180,000 ; date of latest dividend, June 15, 1881, twenty 
 cents per share ; stock quoted July 1, 1882, fifty cents. Stock held chiefly 
 in Boston, Mass. About seventy men are being worked. From 250 to 300 
 tons per week are being shipped. In 1881 the production was 3,866 tons, 
 and 1,888 lbs. of ore averaging $56.44 per ton over smelting expenses, or 
 $217,823.92. The running expenses were $83,531.69. From the net amount, 
 8120.000 has been paid on dividends. After payment of every expense, 
 the company had January 1, 18S2, cash on hand, $,'i5,161.45. 
 
 Caribou Mining Ciampnny is chartered under the laws of the 
 State of New York. Office, 18 Wall Street, New York. The company's 
 property is located in Boulder county. Col. The ore gives a silver assay 
 of $75 per ton. The vein is from two to eight feet wide. Property owned 
 (building, machinery, etc.), all first class ; value over $150,0(10. The length 
 of the main lode is 1 ,400 feet. Date of organization, April 23, 1879 ; capi- 
 talization, $1,000,000; par value per share, $10; basis, non-assessable. 
 Number of dividends paid to February 20, 1880, 6; total amount of divi- 
 dends paid to February 20, 188P, $60,000 ; date of latest dividend, March 
 20, 1880, at the rate often cents per share. Stock quoted July 1882, $2.50. 
 Carbonate Hill Mining «'ompany (The) is chartered under 
 tlie laws of the State of New York. Mr. Geo. Summers is the Manager. 
 Office, 115 Broadway, New York. This company are the owners of the 
 Brooklanrt, Catalpa, Crescent, Wolf Tone, Modoc, and the Glass Pendery 
 mines, all of which, are- located.iu Colorado, Amount of property, ten 
 acres. The ore gives a silver assay of from ninetv to 150 ounces per ton. 
 Weekly output of ore about seven tons, and monthly expense account is 
 estimated at $1,000 ; six men have been employed. Date of incorporation. 
 1879 ; capitalization, $4,000,000 ; par value per share, $10. 
 ,,*'!,'i^*""'®„'"'*".*"S <'ompany. Jacob Hoopes, Pres., and Thomas 
 M. Skinner, Superintendent. Office, Crested Butte, Qol. The company's 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1167 
 
 mines, viz., the Beaconsfleld, Big Elepliant, and Big Strilse, all adjoining 
 each other, are located in Gunnison county, Col. The character of the 
 ore may be described as bromide of silver ; mill tests giving seventy to 
 150 ounces of stiver and sixty per cent. lead. The Beaconsfleld vein is six 
 feet wide; that of the Big Elephant, twenty feet, and the Big Strikemine 
 shows a nine-foot vein. Prospects are good. Recent work exposed a large 
 body of bromide of silver. Capitalization, )f500,000 ; par value per share, 
 S25. 
 
 C'astlne Copper and Sil ver IHlning Company (The). Head 
 office, Castiue, Me. Mines located in Bagadirce mining district. New 
 England. Stock and bonds held in Castine. 
 
 Castle Dome Silver and JHiiiin^ Company (The). Trustees, 
 John M. Wells, Henry K. Southwick, John W. King, Wm. Bond, James 
 E. Hayes, Geo. A. Miner, Andrew H. Carghill. The company owns the 
 following mines, which are the most prolitable in the district : the Rail- 
 road, Flora Temple, William Penn, Pocahontas, and Caledonia, all lo- 
 cated in Yuma county, Ariz. Tile William Penn has a strong vein of 
 food ore. It is opened by two shafts, each of which is over 200 feet in 
 epth ; these shafts being connected by a tunnel 400 feet in length. The 
 Flora Temple is well opened, and has a main shaft of 300 feet in depth ; 
 Its ledge shows a four-foot vein of good ore, which yields an average of 
 thirty ounces of silver and seventy-eight per cent, of lead per ton. The 
 Pocahontas and Railroad are connected by a drift of 200 feet, and their 
 shafts are about 250 feet each in depth. The total production of these 
 mines is given as $2,000,000. Capitalization, 81,000,000. 
 
 Catskill Silver Mining Company (The) have properties in 
 Nevada. Share capital, 81,600,0(10 ; shares. 300,000 ; shares, So each. 
 
 Centennial Mining and milling; Company (Xlie) is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of Connecticut. Tlie officers are Wm. 
 A. Simmons, Pres. ; M. S. Pollard, Yice-Pres.; Nelson C. Parker, Sec; 
 Jas. M. Shute, Jr., Treas. OiBce, 31 Milk Street, Boston, Mass. The com- 
 pany's works are located in Tombstone district, Arizona. They have a 
 capitalization of 85,000,000 in 200.000 shares, at a par value of 825 each. 
 
 Centennial Silver ailnine Company is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of New York. Office, 115 Broadway, New York. The 
 company's works are located in Pinal county, Arizona. The ore gives a 
 silver assay, with some gold and copper; value per ton, 8125. Date of in- 
 corporation, July, 1880; capitalization, 82,500,0(X); par value per share, 
 810 ; basis, non-assessable. 
 
 Cliamplou Slinins and Milling Company (The) have 
 property located near Pitkin, in Gunnison county. Col. Capitalization, 
 $5,000.000 ; shares, 50,000, each $100. 
 
 Clierrylleld Silver mining; Company (The). Officers, Sam. 
 M. Campbell, Pres.; W. Freeman, Sec, Treas., and Man. Directors, J. A. 
 Milliken, S. M. Campbell, Wm. Freeman of Cherryfleld, Thos. Dolby, F. 
 H. Williams of Boston Head. OfBce, Cherryfield, Maine. W.A.Leonard, 
 Supt. Names of mines owned, Cherryfield, locatedat Cherryfield, Maine. 
 Property owned, concentrating mill. Dimensions of workings ; tunnel, 
 175 feet ; length of levels, 200 feet. Principal market for the ore, Newark, 
 N. J. Capitalization, $jOO,000, divided in 100,000 shares ; par value, 85 ; 
 non-assessable. Stock quoted Jan. 1, 1882, $1. 
 
 Chlhualina Silver mining Company (The). Officer. W. 
 H. Snyder, Sec, Indiana. Principal office, Logansport, Indiana. The 
 mines are located in Chihuahua, Mexico. Par value shares, 8100. 
 
 Christy mining^ Company (Tiie). Name of mines owned; 
 Maggie, Uncle Sam, Silver Point, Silver Crown, Hillside, Great Western, 
 and Northern Light. Location, Silver Reef, Utah. Length in feet of the 
 main lode on which the company depends for its supply of ore, 10.000 
 feet; 10,000 feet in mine. Capitalization, $6,000,000; shares, 60,000; par 
 value, 8100 ; non-assessable. Yield during 1880, $272,100 ; number of div- 
 idends paid January, 1882, ten ; number of dividends paid Dec. 9, 1881, 
 nine; total amount, 854,000; up to Jan. 12, $6,00D; amount. $60,000; date 
 of latest dividend, Jan. 7, 1882 ; amount per share, ten cents. 
 
 Chrysolite Sliver minln;^ Company is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of New York. Mr. R. Neilson Clark is the present Super- 
 intendent, and Mr. Robinson, Engineer. Secretary, Henry C. Cooper. 
 Offices, 18 Wall Street, and 115 Broadway. New Y'ork. The company's 
 mines, viz.. the Old Vulture, Vulture, Kit Carson, Fairview, Colorado, 
 Chief, Muldoon, Chrysolite, and Chrysopolis, are located at Fryer Hill, 
 Lake county, Col. The company have a property of sixty-six acres. The 
 Iron ore is showing noticeable improvement in gravel. Ore assays per 
 ton, 64.88 per cent. Company owns fine and complete saw-mill, ore-house, 
 shafting, etc; value, 8150,978.39. Developments disclose a large number 
 of fine ore faces. A handful of the sand is nearly as heavy as so much 
 bird-shot. The cost of mining and milling per ton is estimated at 864. 
 The Chrysolite mine, since its first discovery m the fall of 1878 to the pre- 
 sent time, has produced 50,270 tons of ore. Of this amount, 12,806 tons 
 were produced before the Chrysolite company obtained a control, cover- 
 ing a period of one year ending October 9, 1879. Nearly two miles of 
 shafts and cross-cuts have been made underground. Ore in some places, 
 thirty to forty feet in thickne.'is. The telegrams from the Superintendent 
 have been, April 8, 1882, shipped fifty-two tons, remitted 81,000 ; April 4, 
 shipped fifty tons : April 5, fifty tons, remitted 85,000 ; April 7, shipped 
 last two days, seventy-seven tons, remitted $8,600 ; April 9. twenty-one tons 
 shipped ; April 10, twenty -six tons ; April 11, shipped forty-five tons ; av- 
 erage output being about forty-seven tons jier day. The receipts of the 
 mine per month a little over $50,000. The Chrysolite mine contained 
 some time since over 31,000 linear feet of drifts and levels, or about six 
 miles. The two levels of the raiues are fifty feet apart, one at the depth 
 of 100 feet, and the other, 150 feet. Altogether, in the mine, there are 
 52,000 to 53,000 feet of drifts. Current value of mine is $700,000. There are 
 53-1 men employed at the mine. Date of organization. December, 1879. 
 Capitalization, 810,000,000 ; parvalue per share. 850. Numberof dividends 
 
 B aid to December 10, 1881, eleven; total amount of dividends, 81,600,000. 
 late of latest dividend, December 10, 1881, fifty cents per share ; date of 
 latest assessment, December 12, 1877. 
 
 Climax Silver minlnsp Company is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of New York. Office. 62 Broadway, New York. The com- 
 pany's mines are located at Leadville, Col., and cover an area of six and 
 a quarter acres. The ore gives a silver assay ; value per ton, $200. The 
 current value of the mine is $66,000. Date of organization, September 22, 
 '1879. Capitalization, 82,000,000 ; par value per share, 810 ; basis, non- 
 assessable. Number of dividends to date, five : total amount of same, 
 $180,000. Date of latest dividend, August 20, 1880, thirty cents per share. 
 Stock quoted June 10, 1882, twenty-nine cents. . 
 
 Collateral mine (The). Owned by Messrs. Bedell, Witherell, 
 Smith, and others. Name of mine. Collateral. Located on Iron Hill, Col. 
 The indication of the mine is most flattering. Shaft. 145 feet deep ; drift, 
 112 feet. Best kind of ore ; sixtv ounces in silver, fifty per cent, in lead. 
 
 Colorado Central ConsblidatedHlning' Company is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of New York. The officers are Paul 
 tichtenstein. Pres.; Herm. E. Battzer. Vice-Pres. ; Paul O. d'Esterhazy, 
 Sec: Alb. Krohn, Treas. Office, 29 Broad Street, New York. The com- 
 
 pany's works are located in Georgetown, Clear Creek county. Col. The 
 character of the ore is silver ; value per ton, $150. The company own two 
 engines, pumps, and buildings, valued at (H6.200. They have five tun- 
 nels, which range all the way from 200 feet to 1,500 feet in length. Date 
 of organization, November, 1879. Capitalization, 83,000,000 ; par value per 
 share, 810 ; basis, non-assessable. 
 
 Colorado and New Haven mining; Company (The). Mr. 
 H. Remington, Manager, one of the stockholders. Name of mine owned. 
 Bullion. Location of mine, situated on the north spurof Lincoln, beyond 
 the Russia mine. December, 1881. The Bullion is a new mine, having 
 been opeued up during the last sea-son. This mine Is now listed as one 
 of the steady producers of this district. It is shipping from ten to thirty 
 tons per month of ore that mills 160 ounces. 
 
 ConUdence Silver mining t^ompany (The). Location of 
 mines. Gold Hill district, Nevada. 130 linear feet in mine. Capitalization, 
 82,496,000; shares, 24,960; par value, 8100. Number of dividends paid to 
 May 1, 1866, six ; total amount, 878,000 ; date of latest dividend, May 1, 
 1865 ; number of assessments levied, twelve ; total amount of same, $268,- 
 800. Date of latest assessment, February 12, 1881. 
 
 Continental Divide mining Company (The). Officers, Trus- 
 tees, 1881, B. Mark Wheeler, Davis H. Waite, Arthur R. Waite. Head 
 office. Aspen, Pitkin county, Col. Capitalization, $10,000,(00; shares, 1,- 
 000.000; par value. $10. 
 
 Connell mining Company (The). Avery rough country, covered 
 with snow, and impassable for six months in the year. Throughout the 
 region are found fissure veins of silver-bearing rock and beds of an- 
 thracite coal of good quality. Capitalization, $500,000. Date of organiza- 
 tion, May 9, 1881. 
 
 Columbia Consolidated mining, mitlling. and Smelting 
 Coinpimy (The). Directors, E. H. Mack, Jacob Fleischer, Simon Do- 
 ran, Wm. Franklin, and Jacob A. Fischer. Offices at Denver, Col. The 
 property of the company is located In Summit county, Colorado. The 
 capital stock is $5,000 000; number of shares, 500,000 ; shares each, $10. 
 
 Consolidated Rico mining and milling Company (The) 
 owns the Cleveland and Dolores lodes on Expectation Mountain, and the 
 Elgin Boy and Lady Elgin on Horn Gulcn. all of which have been 
 worked during the past year with satisfactory result. 
 
 Contention Consolidated mining Company (The). Vice- 
 President, W. Hart Smith. This company owns the C(mtention(formerly 
 the Western), the Flora Morrison, and the south-east half of the Snl- 
 phuret. The consolidation of these properties was effected during the 
 past summer. The Contention, the most important of these mines, has 
 long been known as one of the principal mines of tlie district. It was 
 opened by several shafts, the deepest being 700 feet, and by levels, drifts, 
 winzes, cross-cuts, etc., aggregating many thousands of feet. Ore is being 
 extracted from various parts of the mine, and gives various assays rang- 
 ing from 8100 to $200 per ton. Total production for year 1881^ 81,600.000, as 
 per statement in ToTnbstone £piliph. The Flora Morrison is a valuable 
 property. The working shaft is down more than 500 feet. The yield of 
 this mine and the Sulphuret is included in the general yield of the com- 
 pany's property. Ore has been traced to water level, and galenites and 
 pyrites begin to appear in quantity. The dike itself is now solid and 
 dioritic, and is accompanied with ore of a high grade, giving promise of 
 continuance downward with the dike. This company, known as Ihe 
 Western, up to December 10, 1881, paid 81,475.000. Capitalization. $12,600,- 
 000 ; shares each. 8.60. In the year 1880 the mine yielded 81,214 055 : gold, 
 $224,448; silver, 8989,607. Amount of dividends paid to July, 1882, $562,600; 
 date of latest dividend. May 27, 1882. Amount per share. 25 cents. The 
 Fanners' Loan and Trust Company are their agents in the city of New 
 York for the transfer and registration of stock certificates at the office, 
 No. 26 Exchange Place. 
 
 Continental mine (The). George Clark, owner. This mine is lo- 
 cated on Finkey creek, Arizona. Quality and character of ore. very fine 
 silver ; some very fine specimens have lately been discovered, 1880. 
 
 4'ontra Casta Silver mining Company (Tlie). Date of or- 
 ganization, October 24, 1881, at Portland, Me. ; capitalization. 850,000. 
 
 4'ora silver mining and Smelting Company (The) is char- 
 tered under the laws of the .State of New York. The officers are AV. Hen- 
 derson, Pres. ; H. H. Marks, Vice-Pre.'i. ; R. S. Yardley. Sec. ; R. B.;Leake, 
 Treas. Trustees. W. Henderson, W. H. Marks, B. T. Yardley, R. B.Leake, 
 and J. Leake. Supt. of mine. Nathaniel Primrose. The offices are at 63 
 Broadway, (room 14) New York. The properties of the company are lo- 
 cated in Dakota. Capitalization, 81,000,000, in 200?000 shares of $5 each ; 
 a limited number of shares offered at fifty cents per share. 
 
 Corihnirachie Silver mountain Company (The). Location 
 of mines, at the foot of Silver Mountain, Mexico. Character of ore, sil- 
 ver. Oreyieldsabout $60tothe ton ofsilver. Two mills turn out about 
 84.000 per week silver bullion. Property owned by the company, two 
 mills and two smelters, one a fifteen-stamp mill, the other a twenty-stamp 
 mill. Company employ about 420men. 
 
 Crooke mining and Smelting Company (The) has property 
 located in Hinsdale county. Col. The company Owns the chief smelting 
 works in the district, which are situated three-quarters of a mile south of 
 Lake City. The machinery is propelled by water-power derived from 
 Granite Falls in the channel of Lake Fork. Production for 1881, 600 tons 
 lead and 75,000 ounces ofsilver. 
 
 "Crown mining Company (The) is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of New Jersey. Officers, J. L. Sprogle, Pres. : Jos. L. Fryer, Sec, 
 and Treas. Directors, J. L. Sprogle, Jas. L. Fryer, A. M. Peel, M. Cullis, 
 Charles De Haven. Principal office, 310 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, 
 Pa. The property owned is the Charlotte and Judson lodes ; location on 
 Prospect Mountain, Little Evans Gulch, Lake county, Col. Capitaliza- 
 tion, 200,000 shares ; par value, $5 ; non-assessable. 
 
 Cnnard mining Company (The) owns the Lucky Mine, located 
 near Breckenridge, Col., about one mile northwest of Lincoln. About 
 810,000 has been spent in developments, and there are on the dumps at 
 the present time about 400 tons of galena ore, valued at sixty dollars per 
 ton. The mine is located at an altitude of 11,000 feet. The vein is a 
 fissure, the ore soft and good for milling, assaying forty-five ounces of 
 silver, at the rate of sixty-five per cent. lead. The stock is held by 
 three Chicago parties, who bought it for 85,000 in October last. 
 
 Cashing mine CEhe) Is located on Yankee Hill, Dake county, CoL, 
 the owners being J. M. Dougherty, Lucius Cushing, Simon Wheatley, 
 and W, R. Holly. A strike of good ore has been made. It is said to be 
 of higher grade than any yet found on the property, running about ^0 
 to the ton, sixty-eight;per cent, of lead and twenty-one ounces of silver. 
 The vein showB an irregular streak from two to five feet in thickness. 
 Twenty tons of ore have been shipped to Mover's Reduction Works. 
 Developments are being energetically prosecuted. 
 
 Day Silver mining Company. The officers are H. A. W. Tabor, 
 Pres. ; Dennis Sullivan, Vice-Pres. ; Geo. R. Fisher, Treas. ; J. F. Wellborn, 
 Sec. ; T. Foley, Gen. Hang. Directors, N. H. Bush. Chas. L. Hall, Thos. (i. 
 Gibson, and J. W.Gaynor. Dateofanhualelection,September20. Office, 
 
1168 
 
 THE MINES, MINEKS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 310 Pine Street, San Francisco. The company's property is located in 
 Jack Rabbit district, Lincoln county, Nev. Capitalization, 810,000.000 ; 
 par value per share, $100. No dividends paid to date (June, 1882.) Number 
 of asi?essments levied, 10; total amount of same, $180,000; date of latest 
 assessment, January 28, 1882 ; amount per share, 60 cents. Floating 
 indebtedness. April 1, 1882, 885,000. 
 
 Decker Dline (The). Owned by Messrs. J. S. Morris, G. S. Price, 
 and J. M. Broolrs. The Decker Mine is located in Placer county, Cal., 
 near Bloomer. Old shaft down sixty-five feet. Thirty tons of rock have 
 recentiv (September, 1880) been sent to Pugh's Mill to be crushed. The 
 claim is 1,500 feet in length and 100 feet on each side of the ledge.> Have 
 taken up the eastern extension of 1,500 feet and are sinldng a second 
 shaft. Fifteen men employed. 
 
 Ueflance Mining Company (The) has property located in Chaf- 
 fee county, consisting of twenty-four claims in a group, nearly all of 
 which are worked by three cross-cut tunne.^, named respectively the 
 Whale, Victoria, and Arkansas. The Whale is m forty feet, the Arkansas 
 fifty feet, and the Victoria 150 feet. The lodes to be cut all show the 
 mineral characteristic of the section, and the veins are usually strong 
 and well defined. 
 
 De Trees Mill and Mining Company's (The) property is lo- 
 cated at Tuscarora, Elko county, Nev. There are 1,300 linear feet in 
 mine. Capitalization, $5,000,000 ; par value per share, $100 ; number of 
 assessments levied, eleven ; total amount of assessments levied, $162,500 ; 
 date of latest assessment, July 21, 1881. 
 
 Denver City Consolidated Silver Mining Company is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of Colorado. The officers are J. 
 Whltake Wright, Pres. ; C. E. Johnson, Vice-Pres. ; Edward D. Cope, 
 Treas. ; Geo. L. Smedley. Sec. ; Superintendent, Robert Bunson. OiBces, 
 Third and Walnut Streets, Exchange Building, Philadelphia, Pa., and 
 Post-OfRce Building, Leadville, Col. Transfer offtce. Exchange Building, 
 Philadelphia. The company's mines are the Denver City, Shamus, 
 O'Brien, and Quadrilateral, located at Fryer Hill, Leadville, Lake county. 
 Col. Depth of shaft, 260 feet. Amount expended in developing property 
 to January, 1882, $200,000. Capital stock all issued. The Denver City 
 ships about fifteen tons of ore per day ; eighty men employed in mine, 
 and two shafts worked. Capitalization, $5,000,000; par value per share, 
 810 ; basis, non-assessable, full paid ; stock quoted July 1, 1882, thirty-two 
 and a half cents to thirtv-five cents. 
 
 Denver and Rainbow Mining Company (The) has property 
 located in Chaffee county. Col. The company owns the Denver and Rain- 
 bow mines, situated at head of Taylor Gulch. The developments on Den- 
 ver consist of a sixty-eight-foot shaft, and tunnel 34i feet, showing a fif- 
 teen-inch streak on the Denver vein, which assays seventy-eight ounces 
 of silver. A drift has been run from this tunnel to the Rainbow vein, 
 a distance of 156 feet, exposing twenty-six inches of mineral galena and 
 carbonates, assaving seventy ounces of silver and thirty-two ounces of 
 gold. Assays from the mineral in the Rainbow shaft range from 225 to 
 1,420 ounces. 
 
 Derby Mine fThe). Owned by Willey, Shane, Lowell, Adams, 
 Bard well, and others. The Derby mine is located one mile above Sunny 
 South, Placer county, Cal. Is being prospected. 
 
 Diamond 4lueen MiningCompany(Tlie)has property located 
 in Chafl'ee county. Col. The company owns the Diamond Queen mine, 
 on Boulder Mountain, and the Alpine and Betsy Link mines, on the 
 same mountain (Boulder). The incline shaft of 135 feet and two levels 
 are all in heavy galena ore with eight feet of vein matter, and neither 
 ■wall developed. The workings show about ten inches of pyrites, coarse 
 galena, oxide of copper and carbonate of iron. Other streaks carry fine 
 galena and copper, making a total pay-streak of four feet; the average 
 value of which is twenty ounces of silver, and in some instances as high 
 as .seventy-two per cent, of lead, and in otheis as high as thirty-seven per 
 cent, copper. 
 
 Dolores Valley Mining Compan.y (The) is one of the Pioneer 
 enterprises of Dolores county. The property comprises numerous groups 
 of mines scattered over the entire mining district of Rico. The Dead- 
 wood Gulch group contains fifteen mines; the Brunette Gulch group, ten 
 mines; Expectation Mountain ^roup, eleven mines; Silver Creek group, 
 nine mines; Telescope Mountain group, nine mines; Dolores Mountain 
 group, three mines ; Concord group, eleven mines ; C. B. & Q. group, four 
 mines, and several others situated in various parts of the district. The 
 Dolores group is being developed by a large cross-cut tunnel about 800 
 feet in length. It is proposed to operate the Silver Creek ^oup also by a 
 tunnel (cross-cut), running north into Telescope Mountain to cut some 
 of the veins, hundreds of feet below the outcrop. 
 
 Dolly Varden Mine (The) is located in Pitkin county. Col. Mr. 
 Geo. \V. Brunt is General Manager and Capt. Andrew Gallagher, Super- 
 intendent. The property is looking well. Ore assays from 100 to 700 ounces 
 per ton. The Dolly Varden is employing a force of about twenty-five 
 men, and is shipping from thirty to forty tons of ore per month. 
 
 Dolphin Mining Company (The). Dennis Sullivan, Manager. 
 The Dolphin mine, owned by this company, is located on Fryer Hill, Col. 
 About six acres of property owned. Dry silver ore. (1880.) This mine, ad- 
 joining the Matchless on the west, under Mr. Sullivan's management, is 
 rapidly gaining prominence as a productive and profitable property. At 
 present the mine is yielding, from accounts, about seventy-five tons of 
 ore per week; low in lead, but of very high grade in silver. 'There is 
 quite a pile of medium grade ore on the dump, or in the shaft-house, 
 running from $80 to $100 to the ton. The mine has done a creditable 
 amount of work, considering the time it has been in operation. Thirty 
 men are employed. Capitalization, $2,.'j00.000; shares. 2'50.000 ; par value, 
 $20. Total profits of mine since discovery, $75,000. Weekly output of ore, 
 tons. 200. Monthly expense account, $4,500. 
 
 Dry Mountain Silver Mining <;ompany, of Terre Haute, Ind., 
 is chartered under the laws of the State of Indiana. The officers are J. 
 B. Schultz, Pres. ; David Kern, V.-Pres. ; D. N. Taylor, Sec, ; J. P. Lyman, 
 Treas. Superintendent, Dr. James Wright. Oflice. 302V< Main Street, 'Terre 
 Haute, Ind. This company are the owners of the La Luz and Prieta 
 mines, located at Parral, State of Chihuahua. Mexico. The ore assays 
 from $30 to $80 per ton. Capitalization, $1,000,000; par value per share, 
 $100. 
 
 Dniicaii Silver Mining Conapany is chartered under the laws of 
 Canada. The officers are Thos. Appleton, Pres. ; L. B. Stone, Treas. 'Trans- 
 fer office, 79 Water Street, Boston, Mass. Transfer days, any, 
 
 Dunderbnrg Silver Mining Company is chartered under the 
 lawsof the State of New York, Office, 62 Broadway, New York. Tlio 
 company's property is located at Georgetown, Clear Creek county. Col. The 
 ore assays both .silver and lead ; value per ton, $200. Total extent of claim, 
 six lodes, 7,900 feet. The company's buildings are first-class; value, $100,- 
 000. Date of organization, May. 1879; capitalizotion, $1,.500.000; par value 
 per share, $10; basis, non-assessable; stock held principally in New 
 York. 
 Donkln Mining Conipany is chartered under the laws of .Oie 
 
 State of Colorado. Office, 60 Broadway, New York. The Dunkin mine, 
 owned by this company, is located at Leadville, Col. ; extent of claim 
 being about nine acres. The ore contains silver with lead. The Dunkin 
 mine was purchased in April, 1879 ; mining operations were commenced 
 at once, and mineral was soon struck. A report under date of May 28, 
 1881, says of this mine, since August the Dunkin mine has been turning 
 out from $21,000 to $33,700 per month, while the expenses for the same 
 time have averaged only $6,500 per month. Ore now -worked nets from 
 $22 to $35 per ton, and there is said to be considerable ore in sight. The 
 company have on their property, engine, ore house, and shaft house. The 
 current value of the mine is $70,000. At a comparatively short distance 
 from the surface, the company has recently found a deposit of extremely 
 high-grade ore (chloride), a ton of which, selected, assayed 4,673 ounces 
 of silver to the ton. Four tons more, not so carefully selected, have been 
 shipped, and there are several more tons in the ore house. The streak of 
 verv rich chloride is carefully sacked and kept separate. The iron ore 
 outside the pay-streak is broken up into fine pieces and selected. There 
 are thus three grades of ore produced. The first-class will run 4,000 to 
 5,000 ounces; the second cla.ss, 500 to 1,000 ounces, and the third class 
 about 100 ounces to the ton. There are also other deposits which will 
 pay handsomely for shipping. Date of organization, 1879; capitalization, 
 $5,000,000 ; par value per share, $25 ; basis, non-assessable ; yield during 
 
 1880, $179,278 ; number of dividends paid to June 2, 1881, fifteen ; total 
 amount of dividends paid, $200,000; date of latest dividend, June 2, 1881, 
 seven and a half cents per share ; stock quoted July, 1882, fifty cents. 
 
 I>nrango Parrott City and FortXewis Toll Roll Company 
 (Tlie). Trustees, A. P. Camp, Charles Merrin, Otto Mears. Mines loca- 
 ted in Colorado. Capitalization, $15,000, sliares. 150; par value, $100. 
 
 Eagle Smelting and Silver Mining Company is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of Colorado. The officers are P. P. Gustine, 
 Pres. : A. H. Woodward, Sec. ; Dr. E. S. Perkins, Treas. Office, 125 South 
 Fourth Street, Philadelphia. Pa. Capitalization, $3,000,000. 
 
 Eagle Mine (The), owned by Messrs. George Desalier and Philip 
 Carter. The location of this mine is in Canyon, California. Ore, smelting 
 character; assays over 100 ounces of silver per ton. Shaft sunk on a fine 
 vein of ore two feet in width, traced several hundred feet on the surface. 
 
 Eagle Consolitlated and Silver Mining Company (The). 
 Officer, F. W. Ulter, Sec. Principal ofHce, No. 112 LeidesdorfT Street, San 
 Francisco, Cal. Location of mines, California. 
 
 Eagle Rock Silver Mining Company (The). Oflicers, 8. N. 
 Doten, Pres. ; A. N. Hawls, Treas. ; Dr. S. A. Packard, Sec. Location of 
 mines, Sedgewick, Maine. Capitalization, $500,000; shares, 100,000; par 
 value, $5. 
 
 Eagle Silver Mining Company (The) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of New York. The officers are William S. Clark, Pres. ; 
 John R. Btrthwell. Sec. and Treas. Superintendent, G. W. Bothwell. Office, 
 2 Nassau Street, New York. 'This company's property is located at Lewis 
 Camp, Lander county, Nev. Capitalization of $2,000,000, in shares at a par 
 value of $10 each. 
 
 El Gncliie Mining Company (The). Officers, R. W. Thyng, 
 Pres.; S. P. Wardell, and H. E. Irvine, Sec. and Treas. Directors, the 
 above officers and Geo. A. Wadley. J, Y. Mainland, Geo. J. Wilder, A. B. 
 Foster, J. W. Smith. Financial Agents' office. Goff, Hastings & Co., No. 
 292 Washington Street, Boston. The mines of this company are located 
 in the State of Sonora, Mexico. It was organized at Saco, iVIaine, May 7, 
 
 1881. Capitalization, $500,000. 
 
 Elk Monntain Mining Company. Offices, Central City and 
 Leadville, Col. This company owns the Nevada mine and half of the 
 Last Chance. Their works are located above timber line, six and a half 
 miles from Gothic, between Eureka and Cliff mines, Gunnison county. Col. 
 The company has good water-power, suflicieiit to run largest class of con- 
 centration works. They have a capitalization of $1,000,000, in 100,000 
 shares at a par value of $10 each. 
 
 Elm Tree Silver Mining Company (The). Officers are R. E. 
 Call, Pres. ; W. Muirhead, Jr., Treas. ; W. A. Hickson. Sec. Directors, R. 
 E. Call, W. Muirhead, Jr., John Sadler, John Ellis, W. R. Payne, John J. 
 Adams,New York; W. A. Hickson. Principal office. Chatham, N.B. These 
 mines are located on branch of Elm Tree river, Gloucester county. The 
 ore is chiefly galena, associated with zinc blende ; it assays $100 to $250 in 
 silver and lead. The character is gangue of quartz ; to wall of slate ; no 
 wall of white stone, apparently. Extent of deposit, unknown. Capital- 
 ization, $500,000; shares, 100,000; par value, $5. 
 
 Empire Mining Company (The). This company owns the Em- 
 pire mine, located in the Tombstone district, Arizona. This mine is in 
 the same group with the Girard and Tranquillity, both productive mines. 
 It is opened by a double compartment shaft to a depth of 450 feet, and 
 by working levels, drifts, winzes, etc., to a considerable extent. On the 
 200-foot level the vein has been intersected by a cross-cut, and a drift has 
 been driven along it several hundred feet. The mining plant consists 
 of ^ood buildings and excellent steam hoisting words of sufficient ca- 
 pacity to sink 1,200 feet. The ore is very fine. A large body on the 460- 
 foot level is steadUy enlarging. No stoping is at present done, all work 
 being in way of development. As far as explored, the ore body on the 
 forty-five level is from twenty-five to thirty feet in width. About seven 
 tons of ore are hoisted daily. 
 
 Endomile (The) is located in Grand county, Colorado, and pros- 
 pects of the property are favorable ; the ore body increasing in size aii 
 development progresses. Depth of shaft, 300 feet; length of adits, that 
 is levels, 168 feet. 
 
 Engineer Mountain Silver Mining and Smelting Com- 
 pany. Mr. Charles L. Hill, Manager. Location of mines, Hinsdale, Col 
 Capitalization, $200,000. 
 
 Exchange Silver Mining Company is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of New York. The officers are W. H. Jarvis, ftes • W 
 H. Howell, Treas. Oifice, 34 Broad Street, New Y'ork. The company's 
 property is located in Nevada. Capitalization, $1 .000,000 ; par value per 
 share, $10. Total amount of dividends paid to July, 1882, $18,000. Date 
 oflalest dividend, Julv, 1882. J. ,« ."v". 
 
 Evening Star Mining Company (The), under the supervision 
 of Mr. W. S. ward, is one of the most valuable properties on Carbonate 
 Hill. The mines owned by this company are located in Leadville, Lake 
 county. Col, The property has an extent of five acres, only two of which' 
 have been developed, and this chiefly by drifts, the manager stating that 
 it is his intention to continue drifting while the entire property is being 
 developed. The output is about ei.ghty tons per dav, netting $42 a ton, or 
 a total of $100,000 per 'month. Developments were commenced 1879. 
 $400,000 were expended May 20, 1882. During 1880. the performance of the 
 mine was very erratic. 1,W men employed. Capitalization, KiOO.OOO, in 
 50,000 shares; par value, $10; non-assessable. There were fortv-three 
 divKlcnils paid to June 17, 1882; total amount. $1,175,000. Latest divi- 
 dend, June 9, 1882, $1 per share. Stock quoted July 1, 1882, $50. Working 
 expenses per month, $15,000. 
 
 Empire Mine, owned by W. H. S. Wright. The Empire is located 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1169 
 
 In Los Currillon district, about one mile from Botiduza city, New Mexico. 
 Gray ore, sixty-five per cent, copper, assaying; per ton, £200. 
 
 Faico Silver Minings t;oin|>any (The) hats property located 
 In Chaffee county, Golorado. Tlie company owns tlie Blacif Crook, in the 
 Challt; Creek district. The mai 1 1 shaft Is dow n 150 feet, an d a drift has been 
 run at the 100-foot level. The vein is a strong one, being ftom four to ten 
 feet in width, and though the ore Is low grade, it improvas with depth ; 
 and where so large a body of ore is found, there Is little doubt that, with 
 proper development, it will become a dividend-paying mine, or at least 
 self-sustaining, 
 
 Falcou Silver Mintns Compan.y's (The) property is located at 
 Alpine district, Colorado. The company's mine is an auxiliary of the 
 Brittle Stiver. They have a capitalization of 81,000,000. 
 
 Forest Qiteeii ninlii^ Coiiijpany (The). The officers are Qen. 
 Palmer, Pres. ; R. W. Woodbury, Vice-Pres. ; K. F. Woodward, Sec. ; B. 
 C. Dodge, Treas. Superintendent, Ira Brown. The company's mine is 
 located in Ruby district, Gouuison county, Col. In the early history of 
 the mine the ore hod to be packed and hauled to Alamosa, 175 miles dis- 
 tant, then shipped to Pueblo and Denver for treatment, incurring a total 
 cost of transport of $100 per ton, and even then a heavy margin was left 
 the company. On the dumps of 1879 and 1880 large quantities of 100 and 
 130 ounce ore can be selected, while that mined to-day by rough sorting 
 will easily produce 200 to 500 ounces per ton. Tlie mine is now in a con- 
 dition to stope out and suck up from the surface from fifty to sixty tons 
 per day. There is no stock in the market. 
 
 Fort Meade Sliver Min lii^ Company. The property is located 
 in Lawrence county, Dakota, and consists of the Fort Meade, San 
 Joaquin, San Jacinto, Red Cloud, and a portion of the Mammoth mines, 
 and operations upon the same are being energetically conducted. The 
 Supermtendent, in his report of the operations in the Red Cloud for No- 
 vember, says, a large body of non-mineral-bearing rock has been re- 
 moved from the tunnel, and the vein uncovered, exposing ore 180 feet in 
 length, and from four to nine feet in width, and of unknown depth. The 
 rich brown sulphurets found about seventy feet from the mouth of the 
 tunnel are still found in wide strata as far as new work has progressed, 
 and the gray carbonates so noticeable on the west side of the vein are 
 still present in about the same proportion as when first discovered. More 
 chloride and native silver appears as the work proceeds under the 
 • heavier portion of the hill, while the oxides and sulphurets of iron are 
 found in all parts of the vein. Galena of a high grade in silver is now 
 present in larger proportions than at any previous time, and from the 
 oxide of iron present larger bodies of the lead ores are looked for as 
 depth is attained. Beyond the 180-foot station, a drift is being driven to the 
 east. This has already progressed some fourteen feet, and Is In a fine 
 body of ore. This, with the exception of a very large proportion of oxide 
 of iron, closely resembles the other ores ; but where the oxide occurs, the 
 ore by assay shows $100 in gold per ton, and 104 ounces, $116.48, in silver. 
 This drift is about four feet in ore, and will be continued until a wall is 
 reached upon the east side. During the month of November, 21,150 
 pounds of ore were shipped to Omaha from this mine, yielding on an 
 average $205 per ton. The freight on the same was about $30 per ton ; re- 
 duction, $25 per ton, less 85 per cent, of the value of lead, reducing smelt- 
 ing charges to about $15 per ton, and making the total cost, delivered in 
 Omaha and reduced to bullion, about $45 per ton, and leaving a net 
 profit over mining, freighting, and reduction of over $150 per ton, 
 
 Frank Ilongrh mines (The), owned by J, W, Watson, J, H. Dud- 
 ley, J. F, Sanders, Col. Hall, Wm, Parker, and Phil. Golding are looat«d 
 in Engineer Mountain, Hinsdale county. Col, Mr, Blaisdell was ap- 
 pointed Superintendent in 1881. The ore is extremely solid and heavy 
 mineralized. Its great uniformity of value is very remarkable, for the 
 nets all show very near the same results. Hundreds of tons of ore are 
 now out on the dump of the mine, and an almost unlimited amount can 
 be mined from developments already made. The ore from the mine is 
 of a very peculiar character. It much resembles the copper matter pro- 
 duced at the Argo smelting works, and has the appearance of having been 
 already smelted. It is very solid ore. Numerous tests made show its 
 value to be about thirty per cent. In copper and carrying about eighty 
 ounces in silver to a ton. 
 
 Oalt mining; Company (The) has property located in Chafiee 
 county, Col. The company owns the Cache' Creek, which is the prin- 
 cipal of the rich placer mines of the Hope district which lies west of 
 Granite and extends from the Arkansas river to Lost Oaiion Mountain. 
 The property comprises about 1,000 acres. The mine is worked by a bed- 
 rock flume nearly two miles in length. 
 
 Galena Onlch Mining Company (The) owns the following 
 mines : the North Star, Narrow Gauge, Muldoon, and No. 3, which to- 
 gether constitute a fine block of property located in Galena Gulch, Gun- 
 nison county, CoL The North Star is a granite and lime contact on 
 which three shafts have been sunk to pay material. The character and 
 quality of mineral varies in the different workings. The Muldoon is a 
 granite and lime contact, at fifty feet down, all In vein matter, mostly 
 iron with manganese and some copper. No, 3 is a lime contact, showing 
 eighteen feet by three and one-half feet of soft carbonates, with a six-inch 
 streak carrying galena. The company have shi[)ped from 50 to 60 tons of 
 mineral during the season of 1881, giving mill returns ranging from 
 $30 to $70 per ton, and have built a good wagon-way from the town of 
 White Pine to the mines, 
 
 Qeneva Consoliflateil Silver Mining Conipany (The). 
 The company's works are located at Cherry Creek, White Pine county, 
 Nevada, There are 3,000 linear feet in the company's mine. Capitaliza- 
 tion, $5,000,000 ; par value per share, $100 ; numoer of assessments levied, 
 seven'; total amount of assessments levied, $82,500 ; date of latest assess- 
 ment, March 6, 1876. 
 
 eilpin Connty Mining: Company (The) owns 550 feet of the 
 valuable property situated in Lake Gulch, Gilpin county, Col. The mine 
 has been worked with a small force during the last two and a half years. 
 The improvements are of a substantial character. The mine was dis- 
 covered in the early mining days of the county, and produced large 
 quantities of free milling ores before the smelting facilities were intro- 
 duced. From July, 1877, to December 31, 1881, the production was about 
 $140,000, and the company have at the present time a reserve of about 
 $150,000 in the treasury. The discovery shaft is 568 feet deep and has 
 never been out of pay, there being at the bottom at the present time 
 thirty-five Inches ofgood ore ; over 1,500 feet of excavations, chiefly levels, 
 have" been worked, all in good ore. The average value of the smelting 
 ore is $75 per ton. 
 
 Glascow Sliver Mining' Company (The). This company owns 
 the Iron mine, located in Buckskin Gulch. Loreland Hill, Col. The 
 character of the ore is iron, 262 ounces in silver per ton, mill run, six 
 tons. The character of mines consi.st of veins, 1881. The company in- 
 tends to commence work on this property and to prosecute the same at 
 once. 
 
 Glasgow Silver Mining Company. Principal oflttce, Lead- 
 
 74 
 
 vlUe, Col. Branch office, Boston, Mass. The company's works are lo- 
 cated In Colorado. They have a capitalization of 81,000,000. 
 
 Golconda Sliver Mining; Company is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of Colorado. They have a capitallBation of $600,000. 
 
 Golden Fleece (The). Mine located on the Bobtail Hill, 1b owned 
 by A. G. Elliott The mine has been a large producer, and is well opened 
 by a 400-foot shaft, and levels to an extent of 650 feet The vein is four 
 feet wide, carrying both milling and smelting ore ; the latter averaging 
 $140 to the ton. 
 
 Gold Field Consolidated Mining Company. Mr. B. Vogel is 
 VIce-Pres. and Mang. The company was organiised in 1880. Their prop- 
 erty is located in Colorado, The ore is amlxture of gray copper, galena, 
 and sulphide of silver. Sometime since the company developed a streak 
 of ore tliree feet in thickness, mill run giving returns of 118, seventy, and 
 fifty-five ounces in silver. Cnaranter of the mines; veins and drifts, Tha 
 company have hoisting machineiy and machine drill at their works, 
 
 Gold and Silver Mining Company (Tile). Incorporators, E, 
 H, Wiley, W. S. Edwards, J. C, Chalmers, Frederick Frank, H. P. Wood. 
 The Virginia mine Is owned by this company, located on Little Ellen 
 Hill, Col. FIrat-class ore, silver and lead, twenty-two and a half ounces 
 silver, 46 per cent. load. Assays, seventeen and a half ounces silver, 30 
 per cent lead (second class). This company is owned by the United 
 States. 
 
 Good Hope Sliver Mining Company. Office, Leadville, Col. 
 The company^s property is located in Park and Lake countie.s. Col. The 
 company has a capitalisation of $300,000, in shares at a par value of $10 
 each. 
 
 Grand Central Silver Mining Company (The) i,s chartered 
 under the laws of the State of Ohio, 'The Grand Central mine, one of the 
 most important properties in the district, is located in the Tombstone dis- 
 trict, Cachise county, Ariz. The mining plant Comprises all known Im- 
 provements, including thirty stamps, sixteen pans, eight settlers, and ore 
 agitator, through which comes all pulp that comes from the batteries. 
 ITie main shaft Is 600 feet deep, and a new working shaft 600 fteet deep. 
 The workings are in excellent condition, ninety tons of ore are shipped 
 daily, the mill being gained on at the rate of ten tons per day. There are 
 185 men employed. The mill Is driven by a 140-horse-power engine, fed 
 by four large boilers. On the 300-feet level, there Is a continuous body of 
 ore several hundred feet long, widening from ten to forty feet, all good 
 milling ore. Up to November, 1881, there were mined 20,000 tons of ore, 
 18,000 of which, when milled, yielded $848,176.46. Capitalization, $10,000,- 
 000 ; to July 1, 1882, ten dividends paid , total amount of same, ^0,000 ; 
 amount of last dividend, $1 per share. The weekly yield of ore Is about 
 500 tons. Production for the nine months prior to December 31, 18<il, 
 1,061,520. 
 
 Grand Prize Mining Company (The), of which R. M, Hall is 
 Sec, has its offices at 827 Pine Street, San Francisco, Cal. The annual 
 election is held on September 20, "The property is located at Tuscarora, 
 Elko county, Nevada, The mine is filled with the usual plant of machinery, 
 etc. The length of lode on which the company depends for Its supply of 
 ore Is 1,500 feet. Capitalization, $10,000,000, in 100,000 shares of 8100 each. 
 The yield during 1880 was $281,604. Amount of dividends, $450,000, to 
 ."eptember, 1880, date of last dividend, September, 1880; amount per 
 share, twenty-five cents ; eight asses.sments levied ; total, $815,000; last as- 
 sessment. May 2, 1882, ten cents per share. Floating indebtedness, $32,872 ; 
 stock and bonds reserved in treasury, $146,501. Since October, 1881, the 
 mine has been shut down, and is now In the hands of the creditors. 
 Preparations are now being made to resume work, as there is rock- 
 milling ore below the 600-foot line. Stock was quoted at eighteen cents, 
 July 14, 1882, 
 
 GrnntI Victory Mining Company (The), formerly known as 
 the Grose, has property located at Diamond Springs, El Dorado county, 
 Cal, The ore is low grade, containing sulphurets and a low percentage 
 of silver, making the amalgam worth from $3 to $5 per ounce. Average 
 as,«;ay value from $3 to $8 per ton. Single specimens of bunchy ore assay- 
 ing as high as $700 per ton. The lode is from twenty to thirty feet wide. 
 The quartz being frozen to the side walls of hard porphyry rock. 'The 
 mining plant comprises a fine fifty-stamp mill, with all modem Improve- 
 ments, run by cheap water-power. The main shaft is down 100 feet. 
 There is considerable ore in sight that will keep the stamp-mill going for 
 a long time to come. 
 
 Grand Central Mine (The). Owned by Messrs. Marks, Goldtree & 
 Co. The Grand Central Mine is located in Arizona. Deptli of shaft, 175 
 feet; has some very rich ore. Assays run very high. Contention taking 
 out chlorides, and getting ready for the mUl. The Rattlesnake and Em- 
 erald located near the property of the above owners, 1880. Shaft will be 
 sunk. Same party have begun work on the Blue Jacket, which shows a 
 fine ledge of ore, averaging about $125 per ton. Own an interest in the 
 War Up mine, on which they will sink a fifty-foot shaft. 
 
 Granby Mining Company (The). Offices, .Silverton and Den- 
 ver, Col. The mining property owned by this company consists of the 
 Granby, Mountain Rain, Rough and Ready Basin, and Little Albert lodes. 
 The property is located in Needle Mountain mining district, 'La Plata 
 county. Col, The company has a capitalization of $1,000,000. 
 
 Grand Vieiv Mining and Smelting Company (The) own 
 the Grand View mine, situated on Nigger Baby Hill, Dolores county. 
 Col., which is developed by an incline shaft 160 feet in two drifts, 153 feet 
 and eighty feet, respectively. The pay-streak gives iron and manganese, 
 and isirom two to three feet in width, and mills from fifty to 500 ounces 
 per ton in silver, with traces of gold. About 300 tons of tliis ore have 
 been treated at the company's smelter with good results, the Iron In it 
 forming a good flux. 
 
 Granger Mining Company (The). The officers are Albert E. 
 Clary. Pres. ; Dexter H. Follett, Treas. Col. Granges and Mr. Nahum 
 Hinkley, Superintendents, The company's works are located at Blue 
 Hill, Maine. They own about seventy acres of land. The ore assays 100 
 
 Eounds of copper, and nine ounces silver to the ton. They own shaft 
 ouse, engine house, ore house, and smith'sshop. Depth of shaft, 150 feet. 
 The main lode is 2,640 feet In length. Date of organization, December, 
 1881 ; capitalization, $100,000 ; par vftlue per sha.re, $1 ; stocklioldere are 
 subject to an assessment of five cents quarterly till fifty cents have been 
 paid; stock reserved in the treasury, April, 1882, 25,000 shares; stock 
 quoted, November, 1881 , six cents per share. 
 
 Great Basin Mining and Smelting Company. Gen'l P. E. 
 Connor, Mining Director. The Great Basin mine, owned by this com- 
 pany, is located at Mineral Hill, Utah. The ore assavs 100 ounces per ton. 
 The company has a smelter at Stockton ; concentrating works lighted by 
 electricity and best appliances are being Introduced. The main lode is 
 2,100 feet in length. In 1881 the average vield of this mine per dav was 
 reported to be about twenty-flve tons of good merchantable ore, besides 
 forty tons of .iigging ore. with present facilities for hoisting. Supply of 
 water is furnished by a four-inch galvanized pipe which is laid for a dis- 
 tance of about six miles. They liave one stack in operation reducing 
 
1170 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 about twenty -five tons of ore per day, turning out about five and one-half 
 tons of bullion, which runs 100 ounces per ton. The company's concen- 
 trating works reduce about 100 tons of ore per day to twenty tons of con- 
 centration by the web process. The yield of mine, at present about 
 twenty-live tons, will be considerjibly increased on completion ol large 
 combination shaft, now eighty feet down. Stock and bonds are held 
 principally in Boston, Mass. 
 
 Great Baltic Silver Alining Company (The) is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of New Yorlt. Oflice, 17 Dey Street, New 
 York. The company own three full claims, (total extent of claims, 1,800 
 by 1,500 feet,) and a mill site, located at Reece River Ditch, Lander 
 county, Nev. The ore has a value of from $60 to 880 per ton. Capitaliza- 
 tion, $2,000,000 ; par value per .'fhare, $10 ; basis, non-awsessable ; full paid. 
 
 Great Sierra mining Conipan,v is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of New York. The company's property is located in Tuo- 
 lumne and Mono Qounties, Cal. They are the owners of the Mt. Dana 
 mine. The ore is nigh grade, running from $40 per ton up into the hun- 
 dreds, witli a touch of refractory elements that prevent free milling, but 
 these are readily expelled by the Frue concentrator The Mount Dana is 
 one of the largest silver-bearing ledges in the country, carrj'ing an ore 
 vein sixty-two feet in width and vein matter to a width of nearly 200 feet. 
 The company own a twenty-four-stamp mill. Date of organization, June 
 26, 1881 ; capitalization, $10,000,000 ; par value per share, $10; basis, non- 
 assessable. 
 
 Great Vein Sliver Mining Company (The). Incorporators, 
 Frank J. Moody, A. K. Bonta, A. J. Strand. The location of the mines of 
 this company is in Summit county, Col. Capitalization, $5,000,000. 
 
 Great IVcst Mining Company (The). G. W. Kellogg, Gen. 
 Manager. The location of the mining property belonging to this com- 
 pany IS on Mount Bross, Col. 
 
 Gna4lalnpe Silver Mining Company (The) have their works 
 located at Urique. .State of Chihuahua, Mexico. Wm. Rockwood is Sec. 
 Office, 109 California Street, San Francisco, Cal. The company have lev- 
 ied twenty-eight assessments ; date of latest, April 28, 1882. 
 
 Gunnison Mining, Milling:, and Smelting Company. 
 Location of property, Colorado. Capitalization, $2,000,000. 
 
 Gnnslght Consolidated Silver 9Iiniiig Company Is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of New Jersey. The onicers are S. T. 
 Latham, Pres. ; G. P. Matthews, Treas. ; W. H. H. Graham, Sec. Directors, 
 S. T. Latham, B. F. Bivius, W. R. Warner, W. H. Graham, G. P. Matthews, 
 H. A. Colburn. Oflice, N. E. cor. Broad and Chestnut Ktreets, Philadel- 
 pljia, Pa. This company owns the Gunsight, Silver Girt, and Eastern 
 mines, located in Myers district, Pima county, Arizona. All fall claims. 
 The property is situated on the slopes of the Sierra de la Esperanza. the 
 ledge dipping into the mountain at an angle of 45°. An inclined shaft, 
 snnK on the ledge, has reached a depth of 200 feet, where an abundance 
 of low or medium ore is available. The assay is about $40 per ton. Im- 
 proved steam-hoisting machinery is now being erected over the main 
 shaft, which is triple compartment. A forty-stamp mill is proposed as 
 soon as circumstances will permit, and it is estimated there is sufficient 
 ore in sight to keep this number of stamps in operation for a year. Cap- 
 italization, $2,000,000 ; par value per share, $10 ; oasis, non assessable. 
 
 Gnnnel Consolidated Mining Company (The) owns an area 
 of 7,055 feet on the Gunnel, Gunnel No. 2, Wheeler, Marine, and Hattie, 
 located on Prosser Mountain, Gilpin county. Col. The improvements 
 •elTected during the past year in the mine consisted of sinkings in the 
 main shaft to the extent of 228 feet, giving a total pumping depth of 1,228 
 feet. A new counter-balance bob has been put in at the 700-foot station, 
 and the eight-inch Cornish-pump carried down 200 feet, the sinking of 
 the main shaft still being continued. The total development work was 
 1,550 feet. The ore on an average has been low grade. 'The Marine lode, 
 on the south slope of the mountain, has a main shaft down 220 feet, which 
 has been sunk under contract. At 100 feet a level is driven west sixty-five 
 feet, striking a mineral vein of ore similar in character to that of the 
 Whitney. 
 
 Hall and Brink Silver Mining Company (The) own the 
 Dolly Varden mine, located on Mount Bross (eastern slope). Park county. 
 Col., and adjoining the Moose ; the property comprising eighteen claims. 
 The ore body varies from one foot to twenty'feet in th ickness, and is found 
 for a distance of 150 feet below the surface. 'The country rock on this 
 mountain is a hard, blue limestone, and carries a baryta gangue with ga- 
 lena and antimony, though the ore is principally sulphuret. The devel- 
 opments are by tunnels, shafts, and inclines. The greatest vertical depth 
 is 200 feet, and the greatest horizontal length is 350 feet. Total depth of 
 .shafts, 350 feet; total length of tunnels, etc., 2,800 feet. A tunnel run 200 
 feet below the main workings' has opened a fine body of ore, and the 
 mine is in a good condition for producing largely. The total yield to date 
 is $1,300,000. 
 
 Hainbleton Silver Mining Company (The). The mines of 
 this company are located in Mariposa county. Cal. Messrs. John Ham- 
 bleton, James Hambleton (his son), and Capt. E. T. Cady. owners. Incor- 
 porated in 18S0. Each have a claim of 1,600 feet, consolidated into one 
 vjymp&ny. One of these claims was discovered twelve or fifteen years ago. 
 A shaft was sunk to a depth of 125 feet by J. H. Neal and A. W. Jee, known 
 as the Rockwell shaft. 
 
 Hancock Silver Mining Company (The) is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of New Jersey. The directors are E. Silverstein. A. 
 S. Carter, Aaron Teller. David Loewen, Sec. and Treas. The olBoes are 
 at Camden, N. J., and at 23 S. Third Street and 310 Chestnut Street Phil- 
 adelphia, Pa. The company owns the Hancock lode, located in Colorado. 
 Character of mine, a true fissure vein, increasing in width as depth is 
 attained. The shaft is down only twenty-five feet. Organized on a non- 
 assessable basis; capitalization, $2,500,000, in 250,000 shares of $10 each. 
 
 Harshaw Silver Mining Company (The) has property located 
 in Arizona. Capitalization, $10,000,000. in 100,000 shares of $100 each. 
 
 Head Centre Mining Company. J. W. Pew, Secretary. Offii'e, 
 310 Pine Street, San Francisco, Cal. The company's property is- locntiTl 
 at Tombstone, Ariz. The mine is very thoroughly developed to a depth 
 exceeding 600 feet. The weekly output is about 200 tf)ns per week, which 
 is about me capacity of the ten-stamp mill. The mine is being worked 
 with vigor and energy, and promises to become at an early day one of 
 the dividend-paying mines of the district. Average width of vein from 
 four feet to eight feet. Ore, free-milling and containing a heavy per- 
 centage of gold. The mining plant is complete and first class in its ap- 
 pointments. The company has a capitalization of 85,000,000, in 200,000 
 shares, with a par value of $25 each. Yield during 1880, $17,000. Number 
 of assessments levied, three ; amount of two assessment's, $120,000; date 
 of latest assessment. May 25, 1882 ; amount per share, twenty cents. The 
 production averages abont $25,000 per montn . 
 
 Hecia Mining Compan.y (The). Their miningproperty, of twenty 
 claims, IS located in Trapper district. Beaver Head countv, Montana 
 Among the most important of their mines are the Cleopatra, Atlantics 
 True Fissure, Mountain Sheep, and Silver Quartz; the others, however 
 
 all give promise of becoming equally as good as any of the named prop- 
 erties Besides the supply of ore in th e mines, it is estimated that at least 
 50 000 tons of second-class ores are now on their various dumps waiting 
 to 'be concentrated ; this carries from twenty to forty ounces ol silver per 
 ton The mines are all worked through adit levels, and the cost of ex- 
 tracting the product is comparatively small. Ten miles below the mines, 
 on Trapper creek, are the reduction works of the company. A water- 
 power under a pressure of 140 feet, equivalent to 125 horsepower, and 
 two water-jacket furnaces, each rated at thirty tons per day, with all ne- 
 cessary auxiliaries, constitute the principal features of the plant. About 
 300 men are employed. The company also owns the iron mines, twelve 
 miles distant, from which fluxing ore is taken. In the vicinity of the 
 works lime is found in abundance. Capitalization, $1,600,000 ; par value 
 per share, $30. Total amount of dividends paid to July, 1882, $402,000 ; 
 date of latest dividend, July 1,1882. 
 
 Hibernla Mining Company. A. T. Gorman, Sec. Office, 115 
 Broadway, rooms 51 to 61, New York. The company's mine is located at 
 Leadville, Col. The ore is high grade, mineral, chloride of .silver. The 
 ore has a value of $50 per ton. The amount of mineral in sight is quite 
 considerable and very rich, much of it showing a great deal of chloride 
 of silver. The company has two shaf^houses and machinery, valued at 
 $20,000. The shaft is 200 feet deep. At the May Qneen shaft on this mine 
 there is a forty-horse-power boiler and a twenty-horse-power boiler. At 
 the bottom of the shaft a steam-pump is placed, and drains shaft from 
 water. All along the line bordering the property a continuous breast of 
 ore is exposed, averaging about ten feet in thickness. About one-half of 
 the ore is first class, running from 500 to 1,000 ounces in silver to the ton ; 
 the remainder contains from 200 to 300 ounces to the ton. A prospect 
 shaft hiis been driven southward, which shows ore the entire length. 
 Mr. Cone has leased this mine, and has quite a number of miners and 
 mechanics at work putting the machinery in repair and retimbering and 
 clearing out some of the more important of the old workings. The mine 
 having been lying idle for a considerable time, the workings have fallen 
 into bad repair, and cannot be worked with safety till the work in ques- 
 tion'is accomplished. The current value of the mine is $24,000. Output 
 weekly at January, 1882, about sixty tons. Date of organization, April, 
 1880. Capitalization, $7,500,000. Yield (net) during 1881, $33,464. Par 
 value, $25 per share ; number of dividends paid to July, 1881, six ; total , 
 amount ofdividends paid, $200,000 ; date of latest dividend, July, 1881, ten 
 cents per share. Stock quoted, July, 1882, eleven cents. 
 
 Highbridge Silver Mining Company. The company's prop- 
 erty is located m Philadelphia district, Nye county, Nev. The main lode 
 on which the company depends for its supply of ore is 6,000 feet 
 in length. Capitalization. $10,000,000 : par value per share, $100. Yield 
 during 1879-80, $65,550, fiscal year. Number of assessments levied, one; 
 amount of same, $30.000 ; date of latest assessment, June 23, 1880. 
 
 I-Iigh Ijine Silver Mliaing Company (The). Incorporators, 
 A. H. Bonta, A. J. Strand, Frank J. Moody. The company has property 
 located in Lake and Summit counties. Col. Capitalization, $6,000,000. 
 
 Hooker Silver Mining Company. 'The officers are T. J. Fitz- 
 gerald, Pres. ; Robert Hook, Sec. ; W. L. Henry, Treas. Office, room 53, 
 Reaper Block, Chicago, 111. The company's mines are the Hooker 
 and Solomon, located at San Juan, Ool. The company has a capital- 
 ization of $1,500,000, in 75,000 shares, at a par value of twenty dollars each. 
 
 Hnmholdt Mining Company (The) has its offices at Engle Sta- 
 tion, Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad, New Mexico. Office of 
 the financial agents, 330 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. The officers 
 are David Branson, Pres.; Edmund Webster, Vice-Pres. ; Edward S. 
 Lowry, Treas. ; John H. Edwards, Asst. Sec. ; A. Evans Peter.son, Secretary 
 and Financial Agent. Tlic company owns a large amount of excellent 
 and favorably situated mining property in various stages of development, 
 which, it is claimed, are now being worked on sound business principles. 
 These properties are located in Socorro and Dona Ana counties. New 
 Mexico. Capitalization, $6,000,000, in 240,000 shares of $25 each ; non- 
 assessable ; fully paid. Yield during 1881, $35,000. 
 
 Hidden Treasure Mining Company (The) has its offices at 
 40 Congress Street, Boston. The property is located in San Juan county, 
 Col. Capitalization, $500,000. in 200,000 shares of $2.60 each. 
 
 Hidden Treasure Mining Company (The) has its main of- 
 fice at Armenia, N. Y. The mines owned by the company. Big Chief and 
 Quick Relief, are located in Yavapai county, Arizona. The company has 
 had a mill run of 450 pounds of selected ore, from which they nave de- 
 rived a silver brick worth $242.88. The mine is opened by a shaft of 
 about fifty feet in depth on a ledge of twelve feet in depth, which assays 
 from $27 to $200 per ton, gold and silver. 
 
 Highland Chief Consolidated Mining Company (The) 
 owns a group of mines situated on the summit of Breece Hill, three and 
 a half miles from Ijcadville, the property having an extent of thirty- 
 three and a half acres, only about one-fourth of an acre of which has 
 been explored around the Highland Chief .shaft. A more thorough de- 
 velopment recently commenced, by sinking a new .shaft (Central), will 
 connect the Robert Burns and Highland Mary shafts, 900 feet apart, with 
 the present workings and tunnel outlet. Considering the immense ore 
 bodies discovered in its limited development, this property is justly re- 
 garded as one of the most promising on the hill. 
 
 Henrlette Mine (The), owned by Mott'at, Tabor & Co., is located 
 at Carbonate Hill, Leadville, Col. The company's property covers ten 
 acres of land. Thirty-eight workmen have been employed at the works 
 
 Hillside Mining and Milling Company. E. Frankenthral, 
 Sec. Office, 380 Pine Street, San Francisco, Cal. The mines owned are 
 the Can, Mayflower, Hillside, and Mendha, located at Bristol, Lincoln 
 county, Nev. The ore assays $50 per ton. The company owns a ten- 
 stamp mill, artesian well apparatus, capable of sinking to depth of 3000 
 feet, and a flfty-five-ton water-jacket furnace. The shaft is 120 feet deep, 
 all in ore. Length of adits, 100 feet. The main lode is 5,000 feet m 
 length. The company has expended $26,000 fitting the property up for 
 operations. The weekly output at January, 1882, was about 150 tons. 
 The ore is sent direct to the smelter. Date of organization, 1881 • capital- 
 ization, $10,000,000 ; par value per share, $100; yield during 1880 $139,892- 
 number of assessments levied, five; total amount of assessments levied' 
 $310,000; date of latest assessment, July 20, 1881. 
 
 Holland Mining and Milling Company (The) has property 
 located in Yuma county, Arizona. The company have a smelter located 
 at Lower Nona. Much difficulty has been experienced in handling tlie 
 ores, but since those that are especially refractory have been subjected to 
 the roasting process, success has been complete. Late reports from the 
 works show that they are producing fl-om two to two and a half tons base 
 bullion per day. 
 
 Homer Mining Company. Hon. James D. Minor, Supt. Loca- 
 tion of works, Bortie district, Cal. Number of as.sessmcnts levied, two. 
 Date of latest asse.<isnicnl,, June 1, 1882. twenty cents per share. 
 ,1 o.'V-^V'i"' "■"•"«; Company is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of New Jersey. The officers are E. Klautschock, Pres.; W. J 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1171 
 
 Radeliff, Sec. ; Thos. J. Stewart, Treas. Directors, Thomas Earuett, Wm. 
 Torry, W. J. lladcliH', H. P. Nulter, Jr., Elvin Klautaeheek, T. J. Stewart, 
 A. Wasserman, C. I. Fireng, J. L. Fryer. Offices, Leadvlllc, Col., and 810 
 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa, This company owns the Horaestake 
 mine, located at HomesCake Mountain, Col. The mineral improves as 
 developments are made. There are well defined fissure veins sixteen feet 
 111 widtli on the property. Capitalization, $1,000,000; par value per share, 
 95; basis, non-assessable. 
 
 Honora Consolidated mining^ Company. The company's 
 mines, viz.: Iron Rod, Warriors' Mark, and Silver King, are' located at 
 Breckenridge, Col. The company has a capitalization cfSl.SOO.OOO. 
 
 Iloosier Oirl mining; anu Milling: Company (The). Office, 
 Leadville, CoL Location of works. Lake county. Col. Capitalization, 91,- 
 000,000. 
 
 Horn Silver mining Company (The) is chartered under the 
 laws of the Territory of Utah. The oihcers areC. G. Francklyn, Pres. ; 
 F. G. Brown, Vice- Pres.; \V. S. Hoyt, Sec; W. F. Van Pelt, Treas. Di- 
 rectors, A. G. Campbell, M. Cullen, D. Eyan, and A. Bryaln. The offices 
 are at 44 Wall Street, New York city. The company owns the Horn 
 Silver mine, located in Frisco, Beaver county, Utah. The ore is a high- 
 grade carbonate of lead with silver.givine about seventy ounces of silver 
 per ton. The miuins plant Includes smelting and refining works. The 
 amount of ore iu sight has been reported at 450,000,000. The length of 
 the main lode on which the company depends for its supply of ore is 
 1,400 feet Current value of mine is given as 84,000,000. Cost of reduction, 
 828 per ton. Pro£ J. S. Newbury, of the Columbia School of Mines says, 
 •' The mine contains the most valuable body of silver ore known to exist 
 In any mine in the world. It stands, to-day, as having a greater ascer- 
 tained value than any other silver mine known." As an indication of the 
 richness of the ledge, it may be mentioned that it produced in the first 
 nine months of the year 1881 nearly 81,000,000, the quarterly dividends 
 amounting to 8300,000. Organized February 7, 1879, Capitalization, 810,- 
 OOO.OOO, in 400,000 shares of 825 each. Yield during 1881, 16,341,995 pounds 
 of lead, and 1,259,903 ounces of silver. Total amount of dividends paid 
 to July, 1882, 81,700,000. Date of last dividend, July, 1882. 
 
 Iron Silver Minine Coinpnaiy is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of New York. Mr. James McKenn, Captain of the Iron mine ; 
 Mr. Huber, Engineer. Office, 11 Broadway, New York. The company's 
 mines, the Iron mine and Rock and Stone, are located at California 
 Gulch, Leadville, Col. The company's property covers seventy acres of 
 land. Character of the ore, good grade, lead, carbonate, and galena, 
 with a streak of iron. Tlie ore yield on an average was 20.34 ounces of 
 silver per ton, and 31.1 per cent, lead, or in the aggregate, 1,169,495 ounces 
 of silver, and 17,628 tons of lead. In one year 11,600 feet of drifting and 
 2,065 feet of sinking was done, and the sloping is estimated at 1,089,000 
 cubic feet. Amount expended in developing property to 1880 is reported 
 to have been 8754,728. This company is reported to be reliable and per- 
 manent, and it is said that since the advent of new machinery and a 
 good ore market, the company's mines have produced with remarkable 
 regularity. Considerable ore is said to be in sight The current value of 
 mine is 81,075 000. Several Important developments have been made 
 under many of the old stopes ; large bodies of mineral, report says, were 
 uncovered, and the indications are that the lime rock will he found 
 gashed with veins of rich carbonate ore. 200 tons of ore are being ship- 
 ped per day, and 510 men are employed. Monthly expenses, 837,000. 
 Date of organization, March, 1880. (Capitalization, 810,000,000 ; par value 
 per share, 820 ; basis, non-assessable. Yield (net) during 1880, 8729,525 ; 
 yield during 1881, 63,583 tons, 81,241,014.98. Number of dividends paid to 
 June 26, 1882, seven. Total amount of dividends paid, 8700,000. Date of 
 latest dividend June 26, 1882, twenty cents per share. Stock and bonds 
 reserved in the treasury April 1, 1882, 8183,001.04. Stock quoted June 17, 
 1882, 82.15 
 
 Income mining: Company is chartered under the laws of the 
 State of Maine. The officers are Levi Newcomb, Pres. ; C. J. Rich, Treas. ; 
 Hon. W. A. Simmons, Sec. Office, 40 Water Street rooms 51 and .52, Bos- 
 ton, Mass. The company's property is located at Silver City, New Mexico. 
 They have a capitalization of (foOO.OOO. Treasury stock for sale at 82. No 
 shares in market 
 
 Independent mining Company (The), of which E. M. Hall, 
 Esq., is Sec, has its annual election on the 15th of August. The offices 
 are at 327 Pine Street, San Francisco, Cal. The property of the company 
 Is located at Tuscarora, Elko county, Nevada. Total length of lode on 
 which the company depends for its supply of ore isl.oOOfeet Capitaliza- 
 tion, 810,000,000, in 100,000 shares of 8100 each. In 1880 the yield was 823,330. 
 Total amount of dividends paid, 8225,000, since September, 1879, which 
 was the date of the first dividend of twentv-five cents per share. Nine 
 assessments have been levied, aggregating $185,000. Date of latest assess- 
 ment, February 24, 1882 ; amount of same, fifteen cents per share. Float- 
 ing indebtedness to April, 1882, 86,697. Stock quoted at thirty-eight cents 
 per .share. 
 
 Iron Bonnett Silver Mining Company (The) is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of New York. The officers are A. C. Brownell, 
 Pres. ; A. G. Hutcheson, Sec. ; Apollos Smith, Treas. ; H. M. Beaver, 
 Manager. The offices are at 21 Nassau Street, New York city. The com- 
 pany own three mines. Iron Bonnett Excelsior, and Albino, all located 
 in the 'Tin Cup dLstrict Gunnison county CoL Each of them is a full 
 claim of 300 feet by 1,500 feet The company also owns in the same dis- 
 trict, a mill site of five acres, making a consolidated interest of thirty 
 acres of land. 'The ore is high grade, containing chlorides and sulphurets, 
 and giving assays of $145 per ton. Some five-ton parcels unearthed have 
 yielded as higli as 146 ounces to the ton. General H. B. Bearce, speaking 
 of the Iron Bonnett mine, says : " The present developments show a very 
 strong vein of from twelve to thirty inches in thickness, regular in its 
 course and dip, and of extraordinary richness, considering the depth at- 
 tained, the incline being in but twenty-five feet An average of twenty- 
 four assays made from time to time under my (Gen. Bearce's) direction 
 gave 391 ounces per ton silver and one-fourth of an ounce of gold." In Aug., 
 1881, the manager writes : " We have a splendid vein of rich ore on num- 
 ber three incline over four feet in thicKhess." The working expenses are 
 small, and can be provided for by sale of treasury stock. Organized on 
 non-assessable basis. Capitalization, 81,000,0005 in 200,000 shares of 85 
 each ; one assessment levied of twenty cents per share, April 28, 1882; no 
 floating indebtedness. 
 
 Jocuista Mining: Company (The) have offices at 18 Wall Street, 
 New York. R. P. Loundbery, Treas. The property of the company is 
 located in Mexico. The cost of mining and milling is 821.22, and average 
 co.st of smelting, 818.13 per ton, Current value of mine is 81,800.000. Op- 
 italization 810,000,000, in 100,000 shares of 8100 each ; yield to January 1, 
 1881 7 581 tons ; 188,481/,% pounds of ore sent to smelter produced 87,967 flfe 
 ounces of silver, which sold for 899,489.53, the principal buyer being the 
 Castle Dome Company; $500,000 has been paid in dividends up to date 
 oflastdividend. May '31, 1882, which was one dollar and fifty cents per 
 share. 
 
 Jack of Clubs Mine (The), owned by McGowan, Reynolds & Co., 
 is located in Chaftce county, Colorado. An incline has been run sixty 
 feet showing a well-defined vein, and about twelve inches of flesh-col- 
 ored quartz, assaying over 2,000 ounces. Mill runs have been obtained 
 from picked lots. 
 
 Kansas City (The). Owned by 9. L. Lightbum, and others. Kan- 
 sas City mine, the property of Mr. Lightbum, Is located on Democrat 
 Mountain, Alma, Col. The mineral has a mill return of 160 to 1,000 
 ounces per ton. Tunnel, 500 feet in length. This is a strong fissure vein, 
 and tlie mineral, of which there is a large amount runs from 150 to 1,000 
 ounces per ton by miU returns. Eight workmen employed. 
 
 Keyst4>ne Consolidated Mlnlngr Company ('The) is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of Wisconsin. The officers are Nath'I 
 McBride, Pres.; C. D. Hooker, Vice- Pres., H. H. Armstead, Sec; B, F. 
 Newcomb, Treas., and C. F. Brewster, Supt, with an experience of four 
 years. Annual election is held January 11. Transfer and main business 
 office, 155 Washington Street Chicago, 111. General office at Madison, 
 Wis. Transfers can be efteeted at all business hours. The company 
 owns thirteen claims— the Keystone, Governor Tabor. Allegheny City, 
 Mt. Vesuvius, Tabor Mount, B. F. S-mith, J. B. McDonald. C. G. McDonald, 
 Consolidated, General Custer, Fleur de lis. Rosebud, and the Keystone 
 Consolidaled lodes, located at Red Cliflfc, Summit county. Col., in the Bat- 
 tle Mountain mining district The thirteen claims in contact cover an 
 area of seventy-nine and three-quarters acres The ore is a sandy car- 
 bonate, average assay of which is $110 per ton. The mine has horizontal 
 contact veins. The shaft is 165 feet deep. The length of the main lode 
 on which the company depends for its supply of ore is 18,000 feet Aver- 
 age width of vein, twenty-four feet Number of shafts and tunnels, 
 thirteen. The underground workings consist of inclines, cross-cuts, and 
 tunnels. To April 1 , 1882, the sum of 825,000 had been expended in de- 
 velopments which were commenced June 20, 1881 The prospects of the 
 property are reported as A 1, and the amount of ore in sight as 83,000,000. 
 Cost of mining and milling is about 86 per ton. The ore Ls shipped to 
 Red Cliff and to Leadville, (Colorado. The company claims to have a 
 blanket vein which they think will average twenty feet in thickness, and 
 the value of such a vein of sand carlxinates covering eighty acres in ex- 
 tent must be considerable. Organized, January 17, 1881; capitalization, 
 $3,000,000, in 300,000 shares of $10 each ; non-assessable ; yield to April 1, 
 1882, 200 tons; yield during 1881, 200 tons; no assessments levied; no 
 bonded or other indebtedness , 160,000 shares of stock reserved and now 
 in company's hands , stock quoted S3, April 1, 1882 ; stock held principally 
 in Illinois ; wages paid to all clas,ses of labor per week, 8176. 
 
 Kins Bullion Silver Mining Company (The) is chartered 
 under Qie laws of the State of New Jersey. 1 he officers are Scott A. 
 McKenzie, Pres. ; Chas. Benson, Treas. , M M. Swaab, Sec. The offices 
 are at 117 Market Street, Camden, N. J., and 402 Walnut Street, Philadel- 
 phia, Pa. (room 6). The property of the company is located in the Ten 
 Mile district. Summit county. Col., having an extent of ten acres. Cap- 
 italization, $'2,000,000, In 200,000 shares of 810 each ; non-assessable. Stock 
 reserved in treasury, 50,000 shares. 
 
 Kins of tlie Valley Mining Company (The) is incorporated 
 under flie laws of the State of New York. The officers are Martin B. 
 Brown, Pres. ; Geo. H. Moller, Vice-Pres. ; R. H. Rochester, Treas. ; Oliver 
 W. West, Sec; Hon. S. W. Fnllerton, Counsel. The Trustees are Gen. 
 L. B. Faulkner, M.B. Brown, G. H. Moller, Hon. R. H. Strahan, R. W. 
 Rochester, Oliver W. West The offices are at the Equitable Building, 
 (28 and 29, 7th floor,) 120 Broadway, New York city. "The company owns 
 one mine located at Silver Cliffs. Custer county. CoL, 8.000 feet above 
 sea-level. Extent of claim, 1,500 by 300 feet or about ten acres. The ore 
 is low grade, free milling chloride of silver and oxide of iron, assaying 
 fifty-three ounces per ton. There are no fissure veins on this formation, 
 the deposit being tlie result of volcanic action. There are two shafts, 
 forty feet and 163 feet deep respectively. Developments were commenced 
 in July, 1878. The mining plant includes steam-hoisting works, valued 
 at from 85,000 to $6,000, shaft-house, smith's shop, and all conveniences 
 for pro.specting the claim. It is estimated that there are in sight at pres- 
 ent $2,300,000 worth of free milling ore. The cost of mining and milling 
 is 85 per ton. This mine being only in a partly developed condition, the 
 information regarding it is necessarily of a speculative character. A 
 forty-stamp mill is suggested, built on the latest California style. Mining 
 is suggested by means of open cuts about 200 feet in width. Organized 
 April 20, 1880. Capitalization, 82,000,000, in 200,000 shares of 810 each ; 
 non-assessable. 
 
 Kohinoor Silver Mining Company (The) is organized with a 
 capital of 8200,000, in 200,000 shares of $1 each. 
 
 Little Silver Mine (The). Owned by Mr. Kearney and others. 
 The Little Silver mine is the property of the above company. The ore is 
 of medium grade and chluride-bearing. Shafts have been sunk — 1881. 
 Mr. Kearney, of the LeadviUe Gold and Silver Milling Company, with a 
 number of other gentlemen, have secured a lease on the Little Silver 
 property. It is thought they would do well in working the silver. 
 
 lilnK Silver Mining Company (The). Officers, Gov. Richard 
 J. Oglesby, Pres. : Judge Hanna, Vice-Pres. ; J. B. Grant. Sec. ; Wm. Ting- 
 ley S. Wood, Gen'l Man. Principal office, Leadville, Col. The mining 
 Sroperty of this company is located in Lake county. Col. Capitalization, 
 24)0.000 ; shares, 250,000 ; par value, $10. 
 
 Iia Consolidated Silver Mining Company. Agent, Charles A. 
 Porter, 201 Walnut Place, Philadelphia, Pa. The company's property is 
 located in Batopolis district, Mexico. The capital is divided into 500,000 
 shares ; basis non-assessable. 
 
 Iia Plata Mining and Smelting Company (The) is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of New York. The officers are Nathaniel 
 Wetherill, Pres ; Theodore Berdell, Vice-Pres. ; A. Landon, Sec ; M. G. 
 Smith, Mang Mr. F. W. Day is Supt. The offices are at rooms 12 and 13, 
 No. 58 Broadway. New Y'ork. The company owns one mine, the Ora La 
 Plata, located at Leadville, Lake county. Col., the property having an 
 extent of twenty-seven acres. The ore is silver and lead, assaying 830 per 
 ton. There is a tunnel 840 feet in, and shaft 155 feet down. The company 
 have six furnaces in blast with capacity for smelting 150 tons per day. 
 Main works consist of ore houses, and outlaying buildings, and have 
 a frontage 2.650 feet, and occupy thirty-two acres. The resources of the 
 mine are sufficient to admit of continuous shipments for some time. Cur- 
 rent value of the mine is given as 81,600,000 ; sixty men are employed. (Or- 
 ganized, June 13, 1879; capital, 82,000,000, In 200,000 shares of $10 each; 
 non-assessable. Y^ield during 1881, 82,320.183; thirty-three dividends hav^ 
 been paid to .luly, 1882 ; total amount of same, $550,000. Date of latest 
 dividend, June 1, 1882; amount per share, ten cents. Stock is quoted af 
 89JJuly, 1882),1 
 
 I.a Providence Mining Company. The officer? are A. L. Snow- 
 don, Pres. ; Thos. Cochran, Vice-Pres. ; M. H. Hoffman. Sep. 'Bfirector^ 
 Henry Lewis, D. Haddock, Jr., Rich. Wood (all of Philadelphia), Dr. I; 
 Morrell, of Johnstown, Pa., and Jules A. Rice, of Parral, Mei. The com- 
 pany's mines are located at El Oro, State of Durango, Mex.' Jn the Mui- 
 
1172 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 culago, there is a six-foot vein of smelting ore ; paying-streak mns thirtj;- 
 two ounces of silver, sorted ore going up to iifty-one ounces per ton. Esti- 
 mated amount of ore in sight, 6,666 tons, valued at $222,200. The old 
 workings are partly under water, and the estimated cost of reopening and 
 developing the same is 5100,000. 
 
 lyawrence Sliver Mining Comiiany. The officers are John S, 
 Jenness, Pres. ; Jacob Stern, Vice-Pres. ; w. E. Brown, Sec. Directors, W. 
 D. Swazey, John S. Jenness, Hiram B. Williams, W. Oscar Arnold, Jacob 
 Stem, Manley G. Trask, and Geo. W. Sweetser. The company's property 
 is located at Hampden, Maine. The company was organized in the year 
 1880, with a capitalization of *500,000 ; par value per share, 86 ; yield (net) 
 during 1881, 839,955.87 ; yield (gross tons) during 1881. 8193,989.12 ; stock re- 
 served in the treasury, 20,000 shares ; wages paid to all classes of labor 
 during 1881, 8336,043.89. 
 
 lieadvllle Consolidated Mining; Company (Tbe) is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of New York. The ofttcers are L. M. 
 Lawson, Pres. j T. W. Shannon, Vice-Prea. ; A. Ebert, Sec. and Treas. 
 Trustees, L. B. Elkins, J. B. Chattfee, L. M. Lawson, Y. W, Shannon, E. C. 
 Shannon, H. B. Bacon, P. A. Heyeman. Mr. J. W. Plummer, Superin- 
 tendent. The offices are at 115 Broadway, New York. The property of 
 the company is located in the California district. Lake county. Col. The 
 ore is silver and lead of high grade. The total length of the lode on 
 which the company depends for its supply of ore is 1,800 feet. Length of 
 north or main level is 600 feet, south Incline 200 feet, and combination 
 235 feet down ; all three levels are worked by one engine. Current value 
 of mine is given at 8260,000. Organized, 1880 ; capitalization, 84,000,000, in 
 400,000 shares of 810 each ; non-assessable. The total output for the first 
 half of 1881 was 164,700 tons, taking eleven per cent, of this, the actual 
 lead yield would be 18.100 tons. The total amount of dividends paid to 
 June 15 is 8210.000 ; last dividend, June 15, 1882, ten cents per share ; stock 
 quoted June 17, 1882, sixty-flve cents per share. 
 
 I^eatlvlIIe and Onnnlson Minlns; Company (The). 1881, Mr. 
 O. S. Strothera, Superintendent ; Mr. E. Lewis, Financial Agent. The 
 Seguin mine is located on Rock Hill back of the Dome mine, Leadville, 
 Colorado. Very fine ore, composed of carbonates of lead. Depth of shaft, 
 425 feet, 1881. Fine prospects for a productive and prosperous future. 
 At 375 feet the shaft struck a large bodyof carbonates of lead, from which 
 shipments have been made with considerable regulariur for some time. 
 
 Lee Basin Mlnlns Company (Tbe). The officers are Edward 
 D. Cope, Pres. ; Charles E. Johnson, Treas. ; Geo. L. Smedley, Sec. Mining 
 Engineer, Robert Bunson. Head office, Leadville. Lake county. Col. 
 Transfer office. Exchange Building, Fliiladelphia, Pa. The company's 
 property is located at Fryer Hill, Lake county. Col. Report says the 
 right shaft has encountered quite a body of fine-grained carbonate ore 
 similar in appearance to that usually found overlying the richer deposits 
 in the Robert E. Lee mine. Late developments in this shaft are very 
 favorable; a depth of 325 feethas been attained. Capitalization, 86,000,000 ; 
 par value per share, 810 ; basis, non-assessable. 
 
 Victor waning Company (Tlie) is chartered under the IJtws of 
 the State of New Jersey. Officers by last election. President, J. L. Sproele ; 
 Secretary and Treasurer, Joseph L. Fryer. Directors, J. L. Sprogle. Jos. 
 L. Fryer, George Y. Magee, A. M. Peel, M. Cullis, J. J. Wilbinham, John 
 L. Smith, Head office. 5 Boston Block, and 310 Chestnut Street, Phila- 
 delphia, Pa. The location of the mines belonging to this company are 
 in "Texas Creek, Col. Galena ore, containing antimonial silver, assaying 
 860 ounces of silver to the ton, 1881. They own twelve claims. Capitali- 
 zation, 200.000 shares of 85 each = 81,000,000 ; non-assessable ; 175,000 shares 
 issued ; 25,000 reserved. 
 
 Ijeeds Silver ffllnlns: Company (Tbe) owns mining property 
 at Silver Reef, Utah. The length of the main lode on which the com- 
 pany depends for its supply oi ore is 3,000 feet. The company is organ- 
 ized on an unassessable ba^is. Capitalization, 86,000,000, in 60,000 shares of 
 8100 each. The mines yielded in 1880, 829,255. Dividends to amount of 
 878,000 have been paid to October 10. 1878, date of last dividend of fifteen 
 cents per share. Six assessments have been levied ; total amount of same, 
 857,000. Date of first assessment, January 17, 1880 ; amount of same, ten 
 cents per share. Date of latest a.ssessment, February 23, 1882 : amount of 
 same, thirty cents per share. About 5,000 shares of treasury stock are in 
 the market at 82 per share : proceeds of sale are to be devoted to the pur- 
 chase of additional machinery 
 
 I.etaig'h Valley Mining: and Smelting; Company. The 
 officers are T. H. Freeland. Pres. ; John T. Giviner, Sen. andTreas. ; R. E. 
 James, Atty. : W. H. Kinney. Supt. and Mang. The company owns ten 
 claims located at the upper part of be Joytul Gulch, Col. A tunnel of 
 500 feet is now being driven. 
 
 I,ittle Cbief Sllninsr Company (The) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of New York. Tingley S. Wood. Manager; S. C. Dean, 
 See. Principal offices. 22 California Street. San Francisco, Cal. The Lit- 
 tle Chief mine, owned by the company, is located on Fryer Hill, Col. At 
 Leadville, ten acres of land are owned by the company. A tour through 
 workings shows numerous fine streaks of ore, silver arid lead carbonates. 
 First-class ore gives 200 ounces silver to ton; second-class, fifty to sixty. 
 Lead, from ten to forty-flve per cent. Great probabilities of a prosperous 
 and productive future. The ore face on some parts twelve feet high ; the 
 richest points being near No. 2 shaft. Property owned by the company, 
 shaft houses, smelter, etc. (value, 845,000). hoisting works. Shaft used ; 
 ninety men employed. The Little Chief mining company was organized 
 December 16, 1879. Current value of mine, 8130,000, Capitalization, 810,- 
 000,000; shares, 200.000; par value, 850; non-assessable; yield net during 
 1881, 81,103,311 ; number of dividends paid August 24, seven ; total amount, 
 8700,000 ; number of assessments levied, one ; total amount of same, 850,- 
 000 ; amount per share first assessment, 85 ; date of latest assessment, Jan- 
 uary 13, 1882 ; amount per share, 85 ; quotations. June 16, sixty-five cents ; 
 July 14, fifty-one cents. Total profit of mine since discovery, 82.200,000; 
 net profit for 1881, 8135.000; surplus on hand, 8120,000. 
 
 liittle Plttsbar^^h Silver mining Company (Tbe) is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of New York. The officers are David S. 
 Draper, Vice-Pres. ; H. A. Kirkham, Sec. Mr. E. C. Gilman is the Super- 
 intendent. The company owns one mine, the Little Pittsburgh, located 
 at Leadville, Col. ; extent of claim, thirty acres. The ore is silver and 
 lead of high grade, assaying from 835 to 850 per ton. There are six shafts 
 in the mine. The trend of the ore is to the east, slightly pitching to the 
 north. The vein varies from eighteen inches to tliree feet in thickness ■ 
 No. 6 shaft has a depth of 275 feet. The plant includes two ICnowles' 
 pumps. There are 125 men employed ; the average amount of wages paid 
 per month is $17,540. Work is now progressing rapidly in No. 6 shaft, 
 where the hopes of the management are centred for the present. From 
 this shaft, No. 6 or the new discovery, the company is shipping about 
 thirty tons of ore a day, which runs from 8iW to fifty ounces. The output 
 at Jan., 1882, was about 100 tons. Organized, Apiil 25, 1879. Capitalization 
 820.000.000. in 200.000 shares of 8100 each : non-asse.«sable ; net yield during 
 1880 was 8377.428; total amount of dividends paid, 81,360. to Mardi 1 1880 
 the date of hist dividend of fifty cents per share. On April 2', 1882 the 
 
 company had a cash surplus of 888,893.60. Total profit of mine slnc^^ 
 covery 82,467,321. Monthly expense account, about 89.000. Weekly out- 
 put of ore, 150 tons; seventy-five workmen employed. 
 
 '^I.ittle Sue Silver Mining *^"U«'"»''n^n^rn«ff t^h s.vk^' 
 Mason, Pres. j L. W. Hodgkins, Sec, and Treas. ; B O. Cutter, K. H. Siyett, 
 jIs. W Davis. The company's property is located atLamoiue Me Ihe 
 company was organized January, 1880, with a capitalization of 8600,000. 
 
 ^li^utintonTknveT Mining Company (Tbe) is chartered 
 under th? laws of the State of Colorado. The officers are Jas. W. Latte, 
 Pres. ; Thos. V. McCurdy, Vice-Pres. ; Lewis C. Green, Sec. ; Chas. «• Gjeen, 
 Treas^ Directora, J. W. Latta, D H. Kochesberger. E. Irwm Scott, Thos 
 V McC!urdy, F. S. Christian, P. A. Snell, and C. G. Greene^ Prince A. Snell 
 is the Superintendent. Offices at 164 S. Fourth Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 The company owns one mine, the Livingstone, located at Alpine, col. 
 There are four chief veins; the shaft is down 196 feet; from it run two 
 crosscuts, which are developing a vein, some fifty feet wide, ot rich 
 material. Capitalization, 86.000,0)0, in 600,000 shares of 810 each ; non- 
 assessable ; 300,000 shares issued ; 300,000 shares reserved In treasury. 
 
 liOwland Cteief Consolidated Silver Mining Company 
 (Tbe). Officers, S. W. Dorsey. Pres. ; John Stanton, Vice-Pres. ; T. W. 
 Torrey, Sec. and Treas. Gen. office, 115 Broadway, New York. Capital- 
 ization, 81,000,000 ; shares, 200,000 ; par value, 860. 
 
 Lrucerne Mining Company (The) is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of New York. The offices are at 60 Broadway, New York. 
 The property is located in Clear Creek and Gilpin counties, Col. The ore 
 is auriferous and argentiferous. Incorporated October 20. 1880. Capital- 
 ization, 85,000,000, in 500.000 shares of 810 each ; non-assessable. 
 
 I.uona Mining Company (Tbe). of which C. H. Garstin is Super- 
 intendent, has the following offlcere : A. B. Hough, of Cleveland, O., Pres. ; 
 F. Oscar Renter, of Denver, Sec. The company owns the Luona mine and 
 one-third interest in the Hancock, an adjoining claim, the property being 
 located in Tescolli mountain, near the liuad of Brush creek, six miles 
 east of Gothic, Col. The ore Is a silver glance, carrying native silver in 
 large quantities and smelting freely, and assaying from 90 to 4,000 ounces 
 per ton. Mill runs range from 400 ounces to 800 ounces. The veins have 
 an average width of from four to five feet, with a two-foot pay-streak of 
 ore in each. The ore of the Hancock is of the same character as that of 
 the Luona. One shaft is down forty feet ; two tunnels driven , one fifty feet 
 and the other 100 feet. The property in connection with mine consists of 
 ore-house, boarding-house, smith's shop, etc. It is expected that when 
 this district is fully supplied with concentrating facilities, the Luona mine 
 will stand among the first of the Gunnison producers. 
 
 Macbey Mining Company (The) has property located In Storey 
 county, Nev. Length of main lode on which the company depends for 
 its supply of ore, 2,400 feet. The company is organized with a capital of 
 810,000,000, in 100,000 shares of 8100 each. No dividends paid ; five assess- 
 ments levied, aggregating 870,000 ; latest assessment, November 23, 1880. 
 
 McCIintocK Mining Company (The). Wm. Lent. Secretary. 
 Office, 309 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal. The location of these 
 mines are in Bodie district, California. The amount of property. 300 and 
 1,500 feet Well-defined ledge of fair grade ore two to three feet wide. 
 Hoistingworksareownedbythe company. Tunnel is 600 feet In length. 
 Length of levels are 3,000 feet of excavations. Length on which the com- 
 pany depends for its supply of ore, 1,000 feet. 81,500 expended in devel- 
 oplngproperty 1,000 feet In mine. Capitalization, 86,000 UOO ; shares, 65,000 ; 
 par value, 8100. No dividends paid to January 1, 1882. Number of as- 
 sessments levied, seven ; total amount of same, 8123.000 ; date of latest 
 assessment, October. 1880; amount per share, five cents. Stock quoted 
 January 1, 1880, 82.50, highest point reached. 
 
 Madre Silver Mining Company (The) has its offices at 61 
 Broadway, New York (rooms 41 and 42). The officers are J. H. Williams, 
 Pres. : J. B. Barnes, Vice-Pres. ; W. M. 'Tlleston, Sec. . The National Park 
 Bank, Treas. The property is located in the Ward district. White Pine 
 county, Nov.. right In the great ore channel of the district, and .such de- 
 velopments as have been already made expose a deposit of unusual 
 quantity of carbonate ore. The company is a consolidation of the Ready 
 Ca.sh and Jew Peter mines. Capitahzatlon, 81,000,000, in 100,000 shares of 
 810 each ; non-assessahle. 
 
 Magnet Mining and Milling Company (The)* Officers, 
 Charles Tate, Pres.; A. G. Woodward, Vice-Pres. ; Edgar H. Peck, Sec. 
 and Treas. Directors, Charles Tate, Edgar H. Peck, O. C. Hainsbrougb, 
 and General Manager; Attorneys-at-Law, Ingersoll & V^ Crates. Princi- 
 pal offices. Denver, Colorado. Sims' Block ; Boulder office, Hainsbrough 
 Block. The mining property owned by this company is located in Col- 
 orado. This company was reorganized January 18. 18S2. 
 
 Marion Mining Conipany (The) owns' the Cyelope mine located 
 on the south side of Shay Horse Gulch. Work has been prosecuted on 
 this property almost incessantly since its first discovery, and, although 
 not always productive, there has been some valuable ore mined. It is 
 now being worked on base with fair results. 
 
 Matchless Mine (The), owned by (3ov. Tabor, is located on Fryer 
 Hill, Lake county. Col., adjoining the well-known Robert E. Lee. The 
 ore consists of hard and sand carbonates. The principal workings are in 
 shafts Nos. 2 and 3. In branches of the former, the mineiiil matter, while 
 not showing any chloride, is remarkably rich, and gives returns of from 
 400 to 600 ounces to the ton. Outside of this streak, which is quite narrow, 
 are also a large amount of iron which runs high, and occasional deposits 
 of hard carbonates that are very rich. The Leonard shaft has been closed 
 down and its machinery and shaft-house taken to No. 3, which is near 
 the Hue of the R. E. Lee. Connection is here made with the Lee work- 
 ings, and along the line fine ore is exposed which runs fi-om 200 to 600 
 ounces of silver to the ton. The ore-body is very strong to the north, and 
 has been worked out but little. Altogether, the developments show Im- 
 mense deposits of high-grade ore that must prove a source of revenue for 
 some time to come. The property has an extent of four and one-half 
 «?n')fmr> '• ^' *^' Leonard is Manager. Total production from discovery, 
 
 Mayflower Mine (Tbe), on Anna Mountain, Is the property of 
 Messrs. Hanshng & Co. The property Is located In Gunnison county. Col. 
 The vein is two and a half feet in width, with a pay-streak of twelve 
 Inches carrying black sulphurets, brittle silver, and galena. There are 
 two shafts,, 102 and seventy-two feet respectively. The vein Is exposed at 
 several points on the surface. Four mill-runs gave as follows: first, l'>7 
 ounces slver and ^ ounce gold ; second, 190 ounces silver and IV ounces 
 gold ; third, 1 84 ounces silver and 2 ounces gold ; fourth, 3'21 ounces silver 
 and 3j40unoes gold. 
 
 Mercantile Mining Company (The). Mr. Adams, Manager, 
 iii °'},X?S.'>, ,^ ."'^ is owned by the company. Located near Komoko, 
 Sliver Cliff, Colorado. The ore consists of solid galena and carbonates 
 of silver. Entrance to mine Is by tunnel ; shaft, 100 feet. The opinion 
 of the men at work in the shaft is that the ore body discovered is of 
 considerable extent. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1173 
 
 Mexican Onadalnpe Minliis Coins>aii.y (The). Henry G. 
 Fox, Pros. ; H. H. Reed, Treas. ; A. C. MeCurrty, Sec. ; E. S. Butcher, Supt. 
 Principal office, 427 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. The mines belong- 
 ing to this company are located in Nueva Leon, Mexico. Character of 
 ore is silver, assaying ¥200 iier ton. 
 
 DIexican National I':xpl<>rin^ and Itliniiisr tlonipany 
 (The) is chartered under the laws of Ihe State of New Jersey. The 
 officers are Henry J. Fox, Pre.s. ; W. D. Frismuth, Jr., Treas. ; Joseph R. 
 Livezey, Sec. Directors, Henry J. Fox, W. D. Frismuth, Jr., Henry H. 
 Reed, Evan Morris, B. Frishmnth, Jos. R, Livezey; all of Philadelphia, Pa., 
 and Casper B. Butcher, of Candela, Mexico. The General Manager in 
 Mexico, Frederick Russell, Lampazos, Mexico. Financial Agents, Daniel 
 Milmo Bros. & Co.. banliers, Lareda, Texas. The ofBces are at 427 Walnut 
 Street, Philadelphia, Pa., also at Camden, N. J., and at the cities of Lam- 
 pazos, Candela, vlllaldama, and Monterey, in the StatesofCohahuilaand 
 Nnevo Leon. Republic of Mexico. The company owns the following 
 claims: The San Juan Chico, a silver claim known as the Philadelphia; 
 the Pedro Yman mine, the Boludo Mountain, a copper claim; the Gua- 
 dalupi silver claim, the Bolsa de Judes silver claim, the Yguana silver 
 mines, the Panuco claims, the Minas Vejos silver claim, the Rasariq, 
 and others, making a total of sixteen claims, all located in the States of 
 Nuevo Leon and Cohahuila, In the Republic of Mexico. Each claim con- 
 tains from four to six pertinencias, each pertinencia being 200 yards 
 square. Several of the claims have from one to four mines each. 820,000 
 has been expended in developments which were commenced in June, 
 1881. Two dividends have been paid: one July 1, 1882. $88,000; one 
 August 1, 1882, S6(i,000 : total, 8154,000. No a.>!sessmcnts levied. No bonded 
 or other indebtedness. 20,000 shares of Mexican Guadalupe company 
 stock reserved in treasury. 
 
 Dlicawber Silver mining Company (The) is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of Colorado. Officers, O. L. Garver. Prcs. ; J. W. Mul- 
 ford, Vice-Pres. ; William Dunlap, Treas.; Enon M. HarrL-i, Sec. Direct- 
 ors, A. L. Garver, J. W. Mulford, S. H. Crawford, A. Hazlet, W. P. Hill, 
 J. V. Fuliaway, Joseph Petti t. W. H. Wade, Charles G. Weller, R.Robbins, 
 Charles Klein, Wm. Charleton. Principal office, 113 S. Fourth Street, 
 Philadelphia, Pa. The Micawber mine is owned by this company, lo- 
 cated in Colorado. The ore is silver. Two shafts about 100 feet each in 
 depth. Capitalization, 175,000 shares ; par value, $10 ; non-assessable. 
 
 Miller and Alormon Canyon Mine (The). Owned by Marks 
 & Co. The mines owned by Marks* Co. are located in Huachuca Moun- 
 tains. Ariz. The ore gives an assay of forty per cent, copper, and from 
 $230 to $250 per ton in silver. Valuable copper leads. The W. C. Davis 
 mine has been sold to California parties for $4.'i,000. Some verv rich dis- 
 coveries, showing very fine ore, on the north side of Mowery Hill. 
 
 Miner Boy Miner Company (The). Principal office, 63 Broad- 
 way, New York. The location of the mines belonging to this company 
 are located in Colorado. Entrance to the mines is by tunnel, 270 feet in 
 length. 
 
 Mineral Creek MInine Company (The). Officers, Charles G. 
 Rodgers, Pres. ; Alvin S. Hill, Sec. Principal office, 202 Broadway, rooms 
 50 and 52, New York. The mining property of this company is located 
 in Arizona. The company has a five-stamp mill. Capitalization, 42,000,- 
 000; shares, 200,000 ; par value, $10. 
 
 Monitor (Silver Mining; Company owns the Galena, Regatta, 
 and Bonanza mines. They are situated between the Robinson Consoli- 
 dated and the Gray Eagle mines. Col., and their location and promise, it 
 is reported, are among the best undeveloped properties in tlie Ten Mile 
 district. All the lodes have abundant timber, and tlie claims have pros- 
 pect shafts upon them, ranging from forty to 200 feet in depth. 
 
 Monitor CoiiNolidated Minings and .Milling C'ompany 
 (The). Officers, Thomas M. Patterson, Pres., Denver, Col.; J. Keating, 
 Denver, Col., Sec. and Treas. H. F. Richardson, Crested Butte. Superin- 
 tendent. The Monitor Chief, Neptune, Reality, Be Joyful. Richardson, 
 Hercutez. are the mines' names belonging to the company. The ore is ga- 
 lena, gray cooper, and iron pyrites, assaying fifty ounces silver tothe ton. 
 The vein of twelve feet, with a spar gangue rock — rock bearing galena. 
 
 Montana Copper Company. The property is located in Silver 
 Bow county, Montana. Their principal mine is the Colusa, which aver- 
 ages fifteen to eighteen feet of width of pay, and is developed to the depth 
 of about 300 feet. Recently, samples have been fomid carrying as high as 
 seventy ounces of silver per ton, and sixty-five per cent, copper. Besides 
 the Colusa, the company owns the Harvey, Green Mountain, Parrott, and 
 four other locations. Capitalization, $200,000. This property produced 
 during 1881, $1,042,640. 
 
 Montana Silver Minins; Company (The). This company is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of New Jersey. Officers, L. W. 
 Klahr, Pres.; W. L. Barnum, Vice-Pres,; Anson Gorton, Treas.: Amos 
 T. Hall, Sec. ; F. E. Morse, Gen, Maiig. ; George W. Huddleson, Asst. Sec. 
 Directors, W. L. Barnum, W. N. Hibbard, Amos T. Hall, Anson Gorton, 
 F. E. Morse, Major S. M. Whiteside. John R. Hoxie. Principal office, 138 
 S. Fourth Street, Philadelphia. Tliis company's mining property is loca- 
 ted in Arizona. Capitalization, 200,000 shares; par value, $10; non- 
 
 Montezuma Mine (The). Owned by Tabor & Co. The location 
 of the Montezuma mine is in Ashcroft, Pitkin county. Col. The ore con- 
 sists of rich veins of minerals. Vein forty feet wide, with a large rich 
 pay-streak. 
 
 Mont«znma Mine and Milliner Company (The) is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of New Jersey. Officers, Ephraim Young, 
 Pres.; Joseph E. Tate, Vice-Pres. ; Gen. James Stewart, Jr., Sec. Direct- 
 ors, Ephraim Young, Joseph G. Tate, Gen. James Stewart, Joseph E. W. 
 Mathews, Dr. H. Graham Reed, Dr. J. Lehman Eisenbrey, Edward P. 
 Borden, Lewis A. Connell, AUen Middlebrook. Principal office, Camden, 
 New Jersey. Inquiries made at 312 Stock Exchange Place, Philadelphia, 
 Pa., room 15. The names of the mines owned by the company are Mon- 
 tezuma and McClelland, both full claims, located in Arizona. The Mon- 
 tezuma mine is opened by a shaft of fifty feet in depth, along the incline 
 of the ledge. The vein is ten feet in width, between fine, smooth walls. 
 There is a second ledge, but its size and value have not yet been deter- 
 mined. The Silver Girt lode is said to pass through this claim. The ore 
 from the McClelland will assay $60 per ton. There are about fifty tons of 
 this ore on the dump. Shaft on the McClelland, fifty-four feet down, with 
 cross-cut thirteen feet. Capitalization, 300.000 shares; par value, $10; 
 non-assessable. Amount of stock in treasury. 93,000 shares. 
 
 Montgomery Connty Smeltinjs Company (The). These 
 mines are located in Mono county, Cal. Bish & Co. are erscting smelting 
 and other works on the Walnut mine. 
 
 Moore Mining and Smelting Company. The company's 
 property is located in California. The company has paid in dividends 
 $72,000; date of latest dividend, January 6, 1882. 
 
 Moose Mining Conip»n.y is chartered under the laws of the State 
 of Colorado. Office, Dudley, Col. The company have a group of mines 
 located at Mount Bross, Park county, Col., chief among which is the 
 
 Moose mine. The ore has a value of $93.58 per ton. The company owns 
 160 acres of mineral ground. The main lode is 2,025 feet in length. The 
 Moose mine has been very extensively worked from the north face of the 
 mountain, and has furnished extraordinarily large chambers of ore, one 
 single slope having produced about $150,000, The formation is lime and 
 porphyry, and the mineral lies in deposits and not in veins. The total 
 extent of excavations will probably aggregate five miles, and the product 
 has been considerably over $3,000,000. A smelter erected by the company 
 at Dudley has proved a failure, owing to mismanagement, and has been 
 closed down. Date of organization, 1872. Capitalization, $2,000,000; par 
 value per share, $10; basis, non-assessable. Yield to January 1, 1881, 
 $3,000,000. Total amount of dividends paid, $550,000; date of latest divi- 
 dend, March 5, 1881, twenty cents per share. Total amount of assess- 
 ments levied, $1,000. Stock quoted July 1, 1882, twenty cents per share. 
 
 Mon>ie Mining Company (The). Officers ; Directors, J. Whita^ 
 ker Wright, Charles L. Hall, J. A. Rosecrans, C. C. Kellogg, Charles I. 
 Thomas, J. L. Loomis, John Q. Savage, L. G. Kent, Wm. McCafferty. 
 Moose mine is located in Alma, Colorado, 1881, shipping from fifteen to 
 twenty tons of ore per month. Fifteen men employed. The Russia 
 mine, located near, has about ten men employed, shipping about ten 
 tons per month. C. W. Bailey has the management of the mine. 
 
 Native Silver Mining Coinpaiiy (The) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of New York. The otnces are at 31 Broad Street, and 
 18 Wall Street, New York. The property of the company is located in 
 the Grand Island mining district, Boulder county. Col. The ore is ar- 
 gentiferous, assaying about 188 ounces to the ton. The mine is well 
 furnished with complete mill and other necessiary buildings. Organized, 
 November 15, 1879 ; capitalization, $1,000,000, in 200,000 shares of $5 each ; 
 non-asses.sable. 
 
 UTavaJo Mining Company (The) has its offices at 310 Pine Street, 
 San Francisco. i;al. J. W. Pew is Secretary The property of the com- 
 pany is located in Tuscarora, Nev. The ore is high grade, consisting 
 mostly of chloride. Length of main lode, 500 feet on claim.- The com- 
 pany was organized with a capital of $10,000,000, in 100,000 shares of SlOO 
 each. Y'ield during 1880, $30,420. Total of dividends, $25,750, paid to 
 March 25, 1881, date of latest dividend of twenty-five cents per share. 
 Thirteen assessments have been levied, aggregating$235,000; latest assess- 
 ment, "/th March, 1882, twenty cents per share. Stock quoted 14th July, 
 1882. $4.50. Current value of mine, $270,000. 
 
 Nevada Mining and Milling t:onipany (The), of Chicago, has 
 offices at 153 La Salle Street, Chicago, Ul. Mr. W. Orledge is Superin- 
 tendent. The annual meeting is June 21. The officers are B. W. Goodhue, 
 Pres.; Gen. G. N. Reece, Vice-Pres.; A. LaiTabee, Sec; F. H. Brown, 
 Treas. Directors, B. W. Goodhue, J. K. Moore, Wm. Orledge, Joseph 
 Schweder, R. Nevers. J. H. Roberts, R. W. Dunston. The company has 
 levied five assessments. The last assessment of four cents per share was 
 levied on May 6, 1882. 
 
 Newton Connty Mining and Smeltiiig Company is char- 
 tered under the laws of the Stale of Illinois. The officers are E. W. 
 Strout, Pres. ; W. H. Yeaton, Sec. ; F. C. Hoyt, lYeas. Directors, F. W. 
 Strout, G. A. Purdy, R. I. Henderson, J. M. Purdy, F. C. Hoyt, W. H. 
 Yeaton. Superintendent, F. W. Strout. This company has leased 1.160 
 acres of land from the St. Louis and San Francisco Railroad, lying in the 
 mineral belt, almost on a direct line between Granby and Joplin. Newton 
 county. Mo. The principal deposits are at a depth of seventy-five feet. 
 The mines have been examined and pronounced equal to those at Jop- 
 lin. Date of organization, May 8, 1882 ; capitalization, $500,000; par value 
 per share, $10. 
 
 New Cork and Colorado Mining Company. Location of 
 property, Colorado. Amount of dividends paid to July, 1879, 525,000. The 
 last dividend was paid July, 1879. at the rate of ten cents per share. 
 
 Niagara Consoli4iated Mining and Kedneing Company 
 (The) has offices at 356 Superior Street, Cleveland, Ohio. C. E. Stanley 
 is the Secretary. The company is organized with a capital of $1,000,000, 
 in 100,000 shares of $10 each ; non-assessable ; full paid. Treasury reserve, 
 06,400 shares, for a working capital. 
 
 Northern Itelle Mining Company (The). Officers, W. Willis, 
 Secretary. Office, 309 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal. The mining 
 property of this company is located in Nevada. 
 
 Northern Belle Silver Mining Company (The) has property 
 in Columbus district, Esmeralda county. Nev. The mine operated is 
 the Northern Belle, the ore of which is high grade, assaying from $100 
 to $200 per ton. The vein increased in width to about seven feet. 'The 
 main shaft is down to 1,300 feet. The length of the main lode on which 
 the company depends for its supply of ore is 1,600 feet. Weekly out-put, 
 April, 1882, from four to five hundred tons. Weekly bullion shipment, 
 June 22, 1882, $18,569.68. Current value of mine, $375,000. Capitalization, 
 $5,000,000, in 50,000 shares of $100 each. Yield during 1880, $1,314,367; 
 $2,188,500 paid in dividends to April 15, 1882, the date of latest dividend, 
 which was at the rate of fifty cents per share. The first assessment levied 
 June 5, 1882 ; amount per share, twenty cents. No indebtedness. Stock 
 in treasury, $87,074. Dividends paid during 1881, $400,000; equal to $8 per 
 share. 
 
 North Horn Silver Mining Company (The) is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of New York. The Trustees are Thos. J. 
 Hurley, of Bamburgher, Hurley & Co., Salt Lake City, Utah, and J. T. 
 Hurley & Co.. 18 Wall Street, New York city; Chas. L. Wright, shipping 
 merchant, 56 South Street, New York city; Wm. Smedley, Exchange 
 Buildings, Philadelphia, Pa. Offices at 115 Broadway, New York (the 
 offices of the Mutual Trust Company), and at 18 Wall Street, New York 
 (the offices of J. T. Hurley). The company owns six mines or claims, 
 Gt. Republic, Spanish, Wolcott, Rosa, Comstock, and Vanderbilt, located 
 in Fisco, Utah, being an extension of the famous Horn silver, which is 
 reported having a splendid show of ore at a distance of only about 1,500 
 feet. The workings consist of four tunnels and two shafts, now in min- 
 eral. The Republic and Wolcott veins are from 150 to 200 feet wide. In 
 the tuuiiel of the Spanish there is a fine showing of low-grade galena ore. 
 A rich strike has been made on an uprise from 130-feet level, a six-inch 
 vein being encountered, assaying $260.91 of silver, with a trace of gold. 
 The average of assays taken from a four-foot ledge was $81. Capitaliza- 
 tion, $1,000,000, in 400,000 shares of 810 each; nou-asscssable, full paid; 
 treasury stock, 100.000 shares. 
 
 Oak Silver Mining Company (The). These mines are located 
 in Gunnison county. Col. Capitalization, 60(1,000 shares. 
 
 Occidental Mining Company (The) has property located on the 
 Comstock lode, Nevada. Length of main lode on which the company de- 
 pends for its supply of ore 1,706 feet. Capitalization, 84.000,000, m 40,000 
 shares of $100 each. Six assessments levied, abrogating $112,500; date of 
 latest assessment, March 9. 1879 ; cash on hand; March 1, 1882, 87,064. 
 
 Occidentine Mine (The). Owned by the Hon. Nelson Halleck and 
 J. W. Happy. The Occidentine mine is the property owned. Located on 
 Mount Lincoln, Col. The character of the ore is porphyry, dike, and 
 lime. Mill run, assays per ton seventy-five to 500 ounces. Three drifts 
 
1174 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITEDCTATES. ^ 
 
 are run. Depth of shaft, eighty feet, 1882. The owners have shown re- 
 markable grit and perseverance in working this property. Some time 
 ago they worked with discouraging results. All mines that have been 
 worked during the past winter have been looking well. They must have 
 now in sight over S5,000 worth of ore. 
 
 OW Colony Sliver JXiningr Compnny (The). The names of 
 mines owned by this company are the Golding Group. Located in Mos- 
 quito Gulch, Col. 
 
 Ouelda Mine (The). Owned bv Nabob & Peterson. The company's 
 claims are the Northern Light, Silver Star, Orphan Boy, Paymaster, and 
 Virginia. These mines are located in Caribou district, Idaho Ter., south 
 side of the mountain. Rich tractable ore claims located on the north 
 side of the mountain. Mines are opened by a tunnel driven on the 
 course of the vein. 
 
 Ontario Consolidated Hinlns Company (The) ha^ offices at 
 Denver. Col. The officers are H. A. W. Tabor, Pres. ; Dennis Sullivan, Vice- 
 Pres.; Geo. R. Fisher, Treas.; J. T. Wellborn, Sec; Timothy Foley, Gen. 
 Mang. Directors, W. H. Bush, Chas. H. Hall, Thos. G. Gibson, and J. W. 
 Gaynor. Superintendent, S. S. Austin. The company owns two mines, 
 Ontario and Capitol, located at Breece Hill. Lake county, Col. 
 
 Ontario Mining Company (The) is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of California. Offloers, J. B. Haggin, Pres. ; Jos. Clark, Vice- 
 Pres. ; H. B. Parsons, Asst. Sec. Transfer office, 65 Broadway, New York ; 
 San Francisco, and 18 Wall Street, New York, are the general offices. The 
 mines owned by the company are the Last Chance, Ontario, and Swit- 
 zerland, Mintah, Summit|county, Col. There are sixty -three acres of prop- 
 erty owned by the company. The ore Is silver, soft, pliable, and easily 
 mined, it cleaves readily from the walls, is separated from gangue with- 
 out diflcalty. Assays $70 to 880 per ton. Vein fills a strong, well defined 
 fissure, having a course nearly east and west, the dip being northerly, 
 varying from 79° to vertical. The fissure traverses the belt of quartz, cut- 
 ting through the layers of the formation. The mine is worked through 
 two vertical shafts, sunk in the hanging wall connecting. The mill is 
 provided with a steam-engine of 260-horse-power, forty stamps, arranged 
 for dry cru.shing. Two Stetefeldt furnaces, each with a capacity of chlor- 
 idizing twenty-five to thirty tons of ore daily. From measurement of the 
 stope, the amount of ore in sight between the second and fourth levels in 
 Last Chance ground, and between the fourth and sixth levels in Ontario, 
 Last Chance, we estimate at 33,964 tons, in addition to which there are 
 2,050 tons in the ore-bins, making in all, 36.0U tons, safflcient to supply 
 well for two years. Current value of mine, 94,325,000, 3.000 feet in mines, 
 3,800 feet on Comstock lode. Lastcurrentvalue of mine, $5,062,000. The 
 Ontario mine has yielded nearly ¥2,000,000 per annum since work fairly 
 began for the year 1880. This company was organized on September 16, 
 1876. Capitalization, 815,000,000; shares, 150,000; par value, $100. It is 
 announced that the sixty-third successive monthly dividend of 50 cents a 
 share aggregates $30,000. Total dividends to date, January, 1881, $3,150,000. 
 Number of dividends to July 15, 1881, total amount, $4,475,000. Date of 
 latest dividend, June 15, 1882. Amount per share, fifty cents, 
 
 Ophir Silver Blinins; Company (The). Officers, C. L. Wel- 
 ler, Pres. ; A. K. P. Harmon, Vice-Pres. ; C. A. Fish, J. H. Robinson, C. 
 L. McCoy, Sec. ; W. H. Patton, Supt. Annual election, December 21. 
 Principal office, 309 Montgomerjr Street, San Francisco, Cal. The loca- 
 tion of the mines belonging to this company is in Virginia district, Com- 
 stock lode, Nevada. Depth of sliaft, 2,600 feet. Length of the main lode 
 on which the company depends for its supply of ore is 675 feet. Seventy 
 miners and 19 surface men are employed at the Utah mine. This company 
 was organized December, 1879. Capitalization, $10,000,000; shares, 100,000 ; 
 par value, $100 ; iiumbei of dividends paid to January 17, 1880, twenty- 
 three; total amount, $1,596,400 ; date of latest dividend January 17, 1880 ; 
 amount. $1 ; number of assessments levied, forty-one ; latest assess- 
 ment, November 5, 1880; amount per share, $1 ; total amount of same, 
 $3,294,200 ; yield, net, during 1880, $?5,948 ; cash on hand February 1 , 1882, 
 81,661.09 ; stock quoted July 1, 88.50 ; floating indebtedness, April, 840,960. 
 Oris^inal Keystone Silver Mining: Company (The). F. E. 
 Lutz, Sec. Principal office, 530 Pine Street, San Francisco, Cal. The lo- 
 cation of this mining company's works is in Nevada. 
 
 Orion Mining Company^ (The) is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of Pennsylvania. H. Disstou, Pres. ; J. H. Asbury, Treas. ; B. F. 
 Hart, Sec. General office, 138 S. Fourth Street, Philadelphia. The com- 
 pany has property located in Pima county, Arizona. The property com- 
 § rises the Warsaw mine, the most exter^ively developed of any in the 
 istrict, one of the shafts being down 212 feet, besides an incline of-100 
 feet, and drifts that will aggregate 400 feet more. The ore on the dump, 
 about 1,400 tons, is principally sulphides and chlorides of silver in char- 
 acter and of good grade. The vein is from three to five feet in width. At 
 a depth of seventy-five feet in another shaft a ledge of five feet in width 
 was struck which proved to be rich ore, giving an average assay of $600 
 per ton. The ledge proved to be all ore between smooth walls of porphyry 
 and sienite. The ore is a black sulphuret with ruby, native brittle and 
 wire silver, besides chloride and gray copper. The mill of the company 
 has been closed part of the year owing to a scarcity of water. It is 
 claimed that mill runs of 8300 to the ton have been had from the ores ob- 
 tained. The company has a capitalization of 82,000,000 ; par value per 
 share, $10; basis, non-as.sessable. 
 
 Ontario Bllnin;; Company (The). The property belonging to 
 this company is located in Utah. Production for year 1880, 1,439,642 
 ounces silver. 
 
 Oro Blanco Silver Minins Compan,y (The) is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of Iowa. Officers, Ex-Gov. W. M. Stone, Pres. ; P. 
 K. Bone, Vice-Pres,; J. D. Gamble, Sec. Knoxville, Iowa. Principal of- 
 fice, Knoxville, Iowa. The mines belonging to this company are located 
 in the Oro Blanco mining district, Arizona. Capitalization, $2,000,000; 
 par value, $20. 
 
 Overman Silver Mining Company (The). Officer. George D. 
 Edwards, Secretary. General office, 414 California Street, San Francisco. 
 The mines of this company are located on Comstock lode, Nevada. 
 
 Palmetto Minins Company (The) has property located in 
 Hinsdale county. Col. The company owns the Paunetto, Ruby Queen, 
 and Miner's Bank, mines which are all on one vein, measuring-3,123 feet 
 in length. Forty men have been employed at the mines. The develop- 
 ments now show 430 feet of shafting, the main vertical shafl^ being 230 
 feet, with about 1,600 feet of drifting. From that part of the work done 
 on the vein there have been sent to the mill 400 tons of ore, yielding $28,000 
 worth of silver. The ore ran to eighty-six per cent, of the assays. 
 
 Paramint Mine (The). Messrs, .Fames Irvin and Benjamin Miller 
 owners. The Paramint mine, owned by Messrs. Irvin and Miller, is located 
 near Banner, Idaho. Quartz mill struck seventy or eighty feet. Tunnel 
 is in 110 feet, vein two feet wide. Immensely rich in silver. 
 
 Peabody Silver Minlnj; Company (The) has its offices at 386 
 Washington Street, Boston. The officers are J. W, Johnson, Pros • E C 
 Nichols, Vice-Pres. ; L. P. Johnson, Sec, ; E, R, Walker, Treas, Directors' 
 J. W. Johnson, S. C, Hursh, W, C. Bradley, N. W. Gaunet, C. T. Plumpton,' 
 
 -^S^^k^li^'n^rd'aHlkfir^^^^ 
 
 5S^i:^V^;«|ef5|SlSul^7«r 
 W. Latta, N. F. Lightner, D. H. Kochesberger, John Buhl, J- M vanjier 
 
 g'"G^rei°n''"j Wa^d^e l'°"princri'ln"e&.Xrerinte"^^^^ 
 q ■ Fnnrth Street Phihidephia Pa. The mines owned are the Moccasin, the 
 Ld Rover the PeSia, and the Monroe, located in Chaffee county, m 
 t^ie Steteot Colorado' The company's property includes one concentrat- 
 in.' mill kept constantly employed on custom work and ore from their 
 own properties. The Clifton mine is also owned by this company. It 
 h^four well dkned veins from four to six feet ^'de, extending the en- 
 tire length of the claim. Assays of the diff-erent specimens of ore show 
 from twenty to 280 ounces of silver, and one-half ounce to one ounce ot 
 gold. Drifte are being made with a view of cutlingall the veins and then 
 working them by levels. A tramway is being constructed 1,750 feet long, 
 to carry the ore from the tunnel to the foot of the hill, where there is a 
 good road to haul to any place desired. . „„„„„„„„ 
 
 Pennsylvania Consolidated Silver Mining < ompan.r 
 (The). D. F. Hoag, Manager, one of the owners. Principal oflice uu 
 City. The Excelsior mine is owned by the company, located at Alma, 
 Colbrado, 1881. The past summer has been spent in retimbering and 
 improving this property, to put; it in shape to commence shipping ore. 
 Ten workmen employed. „ ,_,_ , „™. 
 
 Pentagost Mininsr and Smelting Company (The). Ofh- 
 cers; Directors, John L.llodsdon, G, H. Emerson, W. E Carleton, Philip 
 Evans E. C. Smart, F. H, Clerque, and J. W. Leavitt. Date of organiza- 
 tion, June 28, 1881 ; capitalization, 600,000 shares. , . „ , T ■ ,,,. 
 
 Perry and ParU Mines. Owned by Messrs J. A. Park, Leighton, 
 and T. Otto. The Perry & Park mines are located in Hassayampa district, 
 ten miles south of Prescott. Extent of claim isl,500 feet each. Sulphuretand 
 antimonial ore, assays 8375.90 per ton, as sold in San Francisco, Cal. Char- 
 acter of mines are fissure, sienite, and granite. Depth of shatt, 17oleet; 
 average width of vein, eighteen inches to twelve feet. Two tunnels and 
 one shaft used. Property deemed very good ; valued at about $6,000. 
 Bonded indebtedness, none. . 
 
 Philadelphia Mining and Milling Company (The) is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of New Jersey. Officers, E. J. 
 Mathews, Pres. : E. F. Green. Sec. Directors, Henry Whelan, J. F. Bailey, 
 J. T. Owen, P. A. B. Widener, Hamilton Disston, H. A. During, and E. J. 
 Mathews. Main office, Camden, N.J. ; branch office, north-east comer 
 ThirdandChestnutStreets, Philadelphia. Pa. The names of the mines 
 belonging to this company are West Fork No. 1, West Pork No. 2, Satel- 
 lite, Black Hawk. Yellow Jacket, and Ten Broeck, all located in Alluras 
 county, Idaho. The Black Hawk is the company's chief mine. It was 
 undeveloped in ,lune, 1881, but up to November of that year produced 
 600 tons of ore yielding 200 ounces of silver to the ton. The company's 
 capitalization is divided into 200,000 shares ; non-assessable. 
 
 Pizarro Extension Silver Milling Company is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of Colorado. The officers are J. O. Eberhard, 
 Pres. ; Seth Smith, Vice-Pres. ; Robert Storey, Treas. Directors. J. O. 
 Eberhard, V. G. Edwards, C. P. Johnson. H. W. Peters, D. B. Herbine, 
 Wm. Tweed, Seth Smith, Wm. Cheatley, and Wm. Spotts. The com- 
 pany's mining property consists of one claim, 150 by 1,1)00 feet, located in 
 Colorado. The shaft is eighty-five feet deep. Capitalization, $2,000,000; 
 par value per share, $10 ; basis, non-assessable ; stock reserved in treas- 
 ury, 90.000 shares ; amount of stock issued, 110,000 shares. 
 
 Plata Pedra Mining Company (The). The Plata Pedra 
 mine is owned by this company. Located at Silver Cliff district, Col. 
 A force of men has been put on for the purpose of getting out a mill run 
 of ore. Mill owned by the company. 
 
 Plata Verde Mining Company (The) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of New York. The officers are J. R. Bartlett, Pres. : Geo. 
 E. Cole, Vice-Pres. ; Geo. H. Stayner, Treas. ; Andrew W. Kent. Sec. Of- 
 fice, 25 Nassau Street, New York. The company's property is located at 
 Silver Cliff, Custer county. Col. The company has a capitalization of 
 $1,000.000 ; par value per share, $100. 
 
 Plymoalh Rock M'lning Company (Tl>e) has offices at 7 
 Exchange Place, Boston. Officers are Isaac B. Rich, Prei. ; Geo. Haskell, 
 Sec. ; J. E. Abbott, Treas.; W. H. Newcomb, Gen. Mang. The property of 
 the company is located in Silver City, New Mexico. Prospecting is con- 
 ducted by means of a diamond drill and complete outfit with which they 
 can reach a depth of 1,000 feet. Capitalization, $2,000,(KX), in 100,000 
 shares of $25 each. 
 
 Polonia Mining Company. The company's property is located 
 at Silver Cliff, Colorado. Capitalization, $200 (KJO; par value per share, 
 826 ; total amount of dividends paid to June 17, 1882, $12,000 ; date of lat- 
 est dividend, June 17, 1882, $1.50 per share ; production for four months 
 in 1880 was $26,000. 
 
 Ctueen of the West Company (Tho). The Russler and Pitts- 
 burgh mines are owned by this company. Located in Utah, under the 
 negotiations to the old telegraph company. 
 
 Randolph Mining Company. Location of property , Tombstone 
 district, Ariz. Twenty-flve miners are employed, and about seven tons 
 are being hoisted per day. and developments lire under way. 
 
 Red KI<-phnnt Sllning Company is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of New York. Office, ;« Broad Street, New York. The com- 
 pany's mining property includes the White, Boulder Nest. Free America 
 and Free America Extension Lodes. Located at Red Elephant Mountain 
 Clear Creek county. Col. The ore gives a silver assay. The company owns 
 engine and shaft houses. Reports savs heavv shipnienls are made daily 
 varying from eighty to 100 tons per day. High-grade ore is .shipped to the 
 reduction works at Golden. The mines hnve been worked during the 
 year in a very satisfactory manner. A forty-hofto-powcr engine and a 
 sixty-horse-power boilfer have been placed at the Schwarz shaft on the 
 White. The shaft has been retimbered and connected with Clcry adits 
 A new flftcen-horse-power engine has been put up at the Free America 
 shaft, and at the Barrett shaft a new large and more convenient ore- 
 house has been built on the site of one destroyed by fire. The Bush Wil- 
 lis shaft on the Boulder Nest has been successfully worked since the early 
 spring, and the Wheeler shaft on the White extension has also yielded 
 good ore. The Free America extension east has been worked extensively 
 lor development during the year, a force averaging about thirty men hav- 
 ing been employed. A new flftecn-horse-power engine and tliirtv-horse- 
 power boiler have been placed at the gulch shaft. The mine has been 
 opened systematically, and large reserves of ore are exposed. Capitali- 
 zation, $6,000,000; par value per share, $l5. 
 
 .-"Jv^L''?* "'*?',*,?_'"'■""» Company Is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of C'alilbrnia. C, V. D. Hubbard is Secretary. Office, 20S 
 Bush Streef;, ban Francisco, Cal. The company's property Is located in 
 
THE MINES, MINEKS AND MINING INTEHESTS 01* THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1175 
 
 Esmeralda county, Nevada. The ore mined carries silver. The main 
 lode is 3,000 feet in length. The company owns hoisting works, etc. 
 Date of incorporation, October 15, 1877. Capitalization, SIO.OOO.OOO ; par 
 value per share, tlOO. ^ umber of assessments levied, fifteen ; total amount 
 of assessments levied, 8505,000 ; date of latest assessment, March 28, 1881. 
 
 Rlcliiiiontl Silver Mlnlngr Company. The company's mine, 
 the Richmond, is located in Eureka county, Nevada, and has a current 
 value of $3,172,500. Capitalization, $1,350,000; par value per share, $25. 
 Yield during 1881, $109,131.42. Yield (tons) during 1880, 39,634— $1,582,214. 
 Amount of dividends paid to February 9, 1882, $3,907,687 ; date of latest 
 dividend, February 9, 1882, $2.50 per share. Stock quoted June 17, 1882, 
 $58.75. 
 
 Rico mountain Mining; Company (The) owns ten mines, one 
 of which, the Sixty-six lode, adjoins the Puzzle on the east. The others 
 are the Broadway Broker, Ruby Crown, Crystal Crown, Herrick, Lowell, 
 Dyke, Dunn, Triangle, Comet, and Carbonate. 
 
 Robert E. tee itiining: Company is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of New York. J. G. Marshall is Manager. The company's mine, 
 viz., the Robert E. Lee, is located at Fryer Hill, Lake county. Col. The 
 company's property covers thirteen acres of land. Developments were 
 commenced in March, 1879, since which time the yield has been contin- 
 uous. The ore is unusually high grade. At one time, in 1881, there was 
 a mill-test made of the ore that was extracted by thirtymen in seventeen 
 hours, which gave $118,.500 as the result, which is unparalleled in tlie 
 history of American mining. An excessive inflow of water necessitated 
 the introduction of new and powerful pumping apparatus, viz., 105 horse- 
 power engine, since which the workings have been conducted in new 
 ■and unexplored ground. The ore carries dry silver ; mill returns, 9U0 
 ounces to the ton. The mine is worked by drifts. The company's works 
 are thoroughly equipped with ample machinery and sampling works. 
 The shaft is 269 feet deep. Large ore reserves arc developing in this mine. 
 The mine is producing twenty-five tons daily of very high-grade ore, and 
 Is shipping eighty to 100 tons high-grade ore per day to the reduction 
 works at Golden. Assays made on the sand have returned from twelve 
 to fourteen ounces in silver. About 150 men are listed on pay-roll. The 
 pay-roll of the Robert E. Lee for month of January. 1882, amounted to 
 $8,600, while the receipts of the mine aggregated about $75,000. Shipments 
 of 1,000 tons of ore were made. Capitalization, $5,000,000 ; par value per 
 share, $,"). Yield (net) to January 1, 1882, $1,867,855. 
 
 Robinson Con»ioll(latc*i Niiiins^ Company is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of New York. The officers are Hiram A. 
 Johnston, Pres. ; W. M. K. Lathrop, Vice-Pres. ; James K. Shilleck, Sec. ; 
 Geo. J. Gordon, Treas. ; J. B. Stevens, Manager. Trustees. H. A. Johnston, 
 T. J. Richmar, E. C. Hine, W. W. Harris, G. E. Hutchinson, G. J. Gordon, 
 Wm. K. Lathrop. Office, 115 Broadway, New York. The company's 
 mines are the Smuggler and Checkmate, located at Ijcadville, Col. 
 The ore carries silver and lead, iron pyrites associated with blende, and 
 a small portion of galena. Assays ninety ounces per ton. The compa- 
 ny's property includes shaft and engine-house. The prospects of the 
 property are very encouraging. New ore body in the mam tunnel is 
 opening well and is twelve feet thick. Five dollars and three cents are 
 the estimated cost of mining and milling, "rhe Robinson mine is one of 
 great promise. The ore was firet encountered sixty-eight feet from the 
 incline, and consists of white iron pyrites. From the first it was of a fair 
 grade, assaying from twenty to thirty ounces in silver. The most encour- 
 aging feature m the ninth level is a seam of galena ore, which may be of 
 great value and importance. The total expenses of the Robinson mine 
 are from $8,000 to $9,000 per month. The current value of the mine is 
 $200,000. Output daily to December, 1881, about 115 tons, averaging $25 
 per ton. Date of organization, March 5, 1880. Capitalization, $10,000,000; 
 par value per share, $)0; basis, non-assessable. ■ Yield during 1881, $353,- 
 558. Number of dividends paid to November 15, 1881, eleven; total 
 amount of dividends paid, $700.000 ; date of latest dividend, December 15, 
 1881. Stock quoted June 17, 1882, $1 per share. 
 
 Royal Silver Minine Company is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of New Jersey. The oflicers are E. P. Carpenter, Pres. ; J. M. 
 Richmond, Secretary. Directors, E. P. Carpenter, H. B. Fowler, J. M. 
 Richmond, S. Schofield. Offices, VU South Fourth Street, Philadelphia, 
 Pa., and 33 Market Street, Camden, N. J. The company owns one claim, 
 300x1,500 feet, located in California district. Lake county. Col. The 
 shaft is forty feet deep and timbered. Capitalization, $1.000,000 ; par value 
 per share, $5; basis, non-assessable; treasury reserve, 50,000 shares; 
 amount of stock is.'^ued, 200,000 shares. 
 
 Ruby Ciller and Bine Bird liOde (The). Owned by Messrs De 
 Jjaverne and others. These mines are located near Venango and Blind 
 King Tunnels, Col. Qualitv and character of ore. solid body of mineral, 
 eighteen inches in width, rich ore. Mill returns 291 ounces to the ton. 
 Character of mines, veins and drifts. Prospects very fair, indeed,regard- 
 ing the property, 1881. The ore sent to the smelting works has averaged 
 higher than any other mine in the camp. The quantity of ore will run 
 500 or 600 ounces to the ton. The principal work at present is on the west 
 drift, which has reached a length of 125 feet. ^^ 
 
 Rnby Silver Jlinlns and Smelting Company (The). These 
 mines are located in Boulder county. Col. (Japital stock, $200,080. 
 
 Rndesle mining Company's property is located m the county of 
 Mecklenburg. N. C. The ore mined i= suitable for milling and smelting. 
 Repeated visits to the lower level, and a careful examination of the forma- 
 tion of the mine, leads to a confident expectation that several chimneys 
 of shoots of good ore will be found. The company owns a ten-stamp 
 
 Itiissia Silver MIningCompany (The) owns the Pagne, Ru^ia, 
 Hoosier, and Buckingham mines, on Mount Lincoln. Park county. Col. 
 On the Russia, work has been conducted systematically since it was first 
 opened, principally for development. Tlie ores, galena and gray copjier, 
 carrying copper pvrites, brittle silver, and sulphurets, 2,000 tons of which 
 have been sold to "the smelters, whilst an equal quantity of ore of a lower 
 grade remains on the dum-ps. The mine is opened by a main tunnel 620 
 feet in length, and numerous lateral drifts. 
 
 Raymond * Ely Mining Company. The company s property 
 is located in Meadow Valley, Lincoln county, Nevada. There are 5,000 
 linear feet in the mine. Capitalization, $11,200,000; par value per share, 
 $100- yield during fiscal vear, 1879 and 1880, $98,669. Number of divi- 
 dencis paid to September" 10, 1873, twenty-three; total amount of divi- 
 dends paid $3,075,000; date oflatest dividend, September 10, 1873. Num- 
 ber of assessments levied, sixteen; total amount of assessments levied, 
 $955 000; date of latest assessment, August 27, 1880 ; amount per share, $2. 
 
 Smaea-ler Monntain Kilning Company (The). Officers, 
 John waron, Pres. ; Dr. A. A. Smith,. Treas (^1.; John L Bartow, Vice- 
 Pres -B E Shear, Superintendent. Principal office, Leadville, Col. The lo- 
 cation of the mines belonging to this company is on Smuggler Monntain, 
 Aspen, Col. Company organized March 24, 1880; capitalization, $1,000,- 
 000 ; par value, $10. , „. . „ • x, » j 
 
 Snow-Drilt Consolidated aiming Company is chartered 
 
 under the laws of the State of New York. OBSces, 30 Broad Street, rooms 
 77 and 78, New York, and 57 S. Third Street, Philadelphia, Pa. The com- 
 pany's claims, the Siiow-Drift and Daniel Peters, are located in Griffith 
 district. Clear Creek county. Col. Ten shafts have been sunk on the 
 Snow-Drift lode at various points. There is said to be a large ore body in 
 sight. Tunnel is 150 feet in length. Capitalization, $2,500,000 ; par value 
 per share. $10. 
 
 St. Lawrence Mining and milling Company (The) owns 
 the Brooklyn Girl and the St. Lawrence mines, located in Gunnison 
 county. Col. 
 
 San Juan and IVew York mining and Smelting Company 
 owns the Aspen, Susquehanna, Mammoth, and Victor mines, located in 
 San Juan county. Col. The Aspen is said to be one of the best developed 
 mines in San Juan county ; some 2,000 feet of tramling and drilling hav- 
 ing been run on it. The vein, although not very wide, is very regular in 
 character, the pay-streak averaging about one foot in width. One of the 
 chief features oi this vein is the presence of a streak of fluor-spar, a 
 mineral only rarely associated with San Juan ores. 
 
 Santa Rita Silver mining Company's mines, the Expert 
 and the Merrimac, are located in Tyndall district, Peoria county, Ari- 
 zona. The Expert is an extension of the Laura, and report says, as far 
 as it has been opened, shows rich chloride ore, carrying considerable 
 horn silver. Four hundred pounds of this ore recentry gave an average 
 of $332 per ton. Several assays have been made running from $700 to 
 $4,300 per ton. Stock in this company recently sold at an advance of 100 
 per cent. 
 
 San Xavier mining and Silver Company (The). Officer. F. 
 A. McGee, Secretary. Office, 32 Merchants' Exchange, San Francisco, 
 California. The mining properties owned by this company are located 
 in Arizona. 
 
 Segregated Silver mining Company. Office, 419 California 
 Street, San Francisco, Cal. The company's property is located in Gold 
 Hill district, Nev. Capitalization, $010,000; par value per share, $100; no 
 dividends paid to April, 1882; number of assessments levied, twenty-one; 
 total amount of assessments levied, $289,600; date of latest assessment, 
 February 15, 1882. $1 per share. 
 
 Sierra Apiichc mining Conspany (The). The officers are E. 
 D Cope, Pres. ; S. L. Smedley, Treas. ; G. L. Smedley. Sec. Directors, E. 
 D. Cope, S. Smedley, J. Haines, C. Middleton. J. Wright. P. Garrett, J. W. 
 Wright. D. H. Jackson, M. E., is Supt. Office. Sierra City, New Mexico. 
 Transfer office. Exchange Building, Philadelphia, Pa. The company's 
 claims are the Kohinoor, Surprise, Crescent, and Grace Darling. Located 
 at Lake city. Dona Ana county. New Mex. The property covers an area 
 of ninety acres. Report says the outcrop of ore on the Sierra Apache 
 property is more extensive than on any of the others. It extends east and 
 west across the Kohinoor to the centre of the Crescent 900 feet, and north 
 and south on the Kohinoor and Surprise, at one point 900 feet. On the 
 Kohinoor a more silicious and probably less valuable outcrop extends 
 300 feet further north along the middle of the claim. On the Crescent ir- 
 regular outcrops appear at many points over a tract 600 feet in a north 
 and south direction. The above mass of ore has been merely prospected, 
 and no shafts have been sunk to more than twelve feetin depth on it. The 
 probability is that the ore body is larger on the Sierra Apache property 
 than on either of the three others. Assays from the surface of the Kohi- 
 noor run to 190 ounces. On the Crescent are found the high-grade ores of 
 the Plata and Grande. At other points on the Crescent, there are rich veins 
 of galena. Capitalization, $5,000,000 ; par value per share, S25; basis, non- 
 assessable; fully paid. 
 
 Sierra Bella mining Company (The). The officers are W. H. 
 Miller, Pres. ; P. C. Garrett, Treasi. ; J. L. Smedley, Sec. D. H. Jackson, M. 
 E., is Supt. Office. Sierra City, Dona Ana county. New Mex. Transfer 
 office. Exchange Building, Philadelphia, Pa. The company's mining 
 property includes the Columbia, the Emporia No. 2, and the Struby mines. 
 Located at Sierra City, New Mex. The ore body is thirty-five feet deep, 
 and includes portions of extraordinary richness. An average sample 
 taken by the manager from one of the faces is said to have assayed 445 
 ounces to the ton. An average of fourteen assays of samples taien from 
 the Sierra Bell property averages 601 ounces per ton. 1 his is raised by 
 the rich ores of the Columbia shaft, which is said to be so impregnated 
 with chloride of silvcras to be best cut with a saw. Capitalization, $5,000,- 
 000; par value per share. $25 ; basis, non-assessable; fully paid. 
 
 Shawnee Silver mining Coinpan.y (The). Officers, George H. 
 Long, Pres. ; Mr. Fox, Treas. Principal office. Equitable Building, comer 
 of Milk and Devonshire Streets, Boston. The mines owned by this com- 
 pany are located in Egypt, Southern HI. Capilalizatiim, $250,000; par 
 value per share, $10 ; non -assessable ; 3,000 shaves of treasury stock for 
 sale at $3 per share. Land, buildings, machinery, tools, and mining 
 labor paid for to date. 
 
 Sierra Grande mining Company (The). The officers are B. 
 A. Shoemaker, Pres. ; J. C. Sinclair, 'Treas. ; G. A. Smedley. Sec. D. H. 
 Jackson is Mining Engineer. Head office. Sierra (3ity, Dona Ana county, N. 
 M.; transferoffice,ExchangeBuilding,Philadelphia, Pa. Thecompany's 
 mining property includes the Sumpter. Lincoln, and Emporia No. 1 claims, 
 located at Sierra Citj', Dona Ana county, N. M. The Lincoln and Emporia 
 No. 1 claims may be considered together, as they are identical in charac- 
 ter. The ore outcrop here is 200, 100, and fifty feet in vridth. Fifty feet 
 south of the main outcrop a series of shafts have been sunk across the 
 two claims in which the ore was reached at the following depth, passing 
 from ea.st to west, two and one-half feet, sixteen feet surface, eighteen 
 feet. The assay value of the ore is very good. An average sample taken 
 from one side assayed 440 ounces, and an average piece from a hole near 
 the foot of the southern end assayed 7-50 ounces. It is estimated that the 
 ore-body in the Sierra Grande is of at least as large dimensions as that of 
 the Stanton claim of the Sierra Plata, and of high grade. The company's 
 mill has a capacity of sixty tons per day, and it is running day and night. 
 Enough ore is stacked to keei> the mill busy for eight months, exclusive 
 of the large amount of the highest grade of smelting ore, running from 
 $10,000 to ^,000 per ton, housed under guard. Competent engineers state 
 that the works should be trebled, in order to meet the capital output. 
 Capitalization, $5,000,000; par value per share, $25 ; basis, non-assessable. 
 
 Sierra Plata Mining Company (The). The officers are P. C. 
 Garrett, Pres. ; H. A. Duhrig, Treas. ; G. L. Smedley, Sec. D. H. Jackson 
 is Superintendent. Office, Sierra City, N. M.; transfer office. Exchange 
 Building, Philadelphia, Pa. The company's mines are the Golden Gate, 
 the Crown Point, the Stanton, the Silver Reef, the Eureka, and the Plata 
 mines, located at Sierra City, N. M. The property covers an area of 100 
 acres. Report says: "The ore of the Stanton is of the highest quality, 
 and that already taken out will average, according to the assays of Mr. 
 Kadlsh, 200 ounces to the ton. Not a Tittle of it assays over 500 ounces, 
 and it is easy to select specimens which yield l,000onnces, and even larger 
 percentages of silver. This body has been opened to a depth often feet. 
 Supposing, what is really inadmissibly small, that its depth is only ten 
 feet, there is an ore body measuring 600 feet by 300 feet by ten feet, and 
 
1176 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 averaging 200 ounces per ton." Capitalization, $5,000,000; par value per 
 share, $25. Basis, non-assessable : full paid. 
 
 iSilver GIlfTHinin;:' and Slilling Company (The). The loca- 
 tion of the mines belonging to this company is at Suver Cliff district, 
 Utah. Sixty tons of ore conveyed to the mill daily averages 860 in silver 
 to the ton. Tramway and mill are owned by the company. 
 
 Silver Cord Combination Blinine Company is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of Colorado. The ofHcers are J. B. Grant, 
 Pres. ; W. W. Weigley, Vice-Pres. ; C. H. Gross, Treas. ; David Conrade, 
 Sec; A. J. Volrath, Asst. Sec. Directors, J. B. Grant, D. Conrade, B. 
 Burchard. W. W. Weigley, T. s. Wood, R. C. Broadbent, C. H. Gross, J. C. 
 Bissell, J. H. Hasseiiblug. The Superintendent is T. S. Wood. Main 
 office. Iron Hill, Leadvifle, Col. Transfer cilice, room D, 305 Walnut 
 Street, Philadelphia. The company's mine, the Silver Cord, is located 
 at Iron Hill, Leadville, Col. The company's property, including eight 
 locations, covers sixty acres. The ore is high grade 'in lead carbonate, 
 assaying $'28 to $30 per ton, with considerable gold. The mine possesses 
 a vein of rich auriferous quartz. The company has a hoisting apparatus 
 over No. 3 shaft. Mr. Wood, the Superintendent, reports the prospects 
 of the property good and improving. The earnings are from thirty to 
 thirty-five thousand dollars over expenses, the ore yielding $20 to $30 a 
 ton net over expenses of smelting. The mine has produced some re- 
 markable specimens, it is said, of chlor-bromide of silver (embolite) in a 
 variety of silicious oxide of iron. The out-put weekly at January, 1882, 
 was 350 tons. Some 225 men are employed. Length of lode on which 
 the company depends for ore supply, 900 feet. It would be difficult to 
 make any estimate of the resources of this mine. Date of organization, 
 July, 1881 ; capitalization, 85,000,000 ; par value per share, $10 ; basis, non- 
 assessable, full paid. Ore shipments 1,200 tons a month, yielding a net 
 Product of $30,000. Bonded indebtedness, January 1, 1882, $150,000. 
 reasury reserve, 50.000 shares ; monthly expenses, $22,000 ; stock quoted 
 January 1, 1882, sixty-five cents. 
 
 Silver Cltjr Mininsr Company (The) has property located in the 
 Gold Hill district, Comstock lode, Nev. The ore is fair grade. There is 
 an incline shaft on the ledge 35U feet, with fair grade ore. The mining 
 plant includes hoisting works, costing $5,000, with 700 feet capacity ; a 
 ten-stamp mill, costing $30,000. About $40,000 have been expended on 
 developments. The total length of the main lode on which the company 
 depends for its supply of ore is 3,800 feet. Capitalization, $6,310,000, in 
 63,100 shares of $100 each. Stock not listed ; held partly in Boston. Two 
 assessments levied; total amount of same, $6,310. Latest assessment, 
 May 2, 1881 ; amount of same, ten cents per share. 
 
 Silver Cluster illinin? Compan.y (The). Location of mines in 
 Summit and Lake counties, Colorado. Capitalization, $2,OJO,000 ; shares, 
 200,000. 
 
 Silver Crescent minings Company (The) is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of Indiana. The officers are Joseph R. Hale, Pres. ; 
 J. Bodenour, Vice-Pres. ; M. Hatfield. Sec. ; J. Elliott, Treas. and Resi- 
 dent Manager. The offices are at Indianapolis, Ind. The company 
 owns a group of mines, the Monday being most developed. The ore is 
 very high grade ; dry carbonate, seventy per cent, lead of a superior 
 quality. Formation in shale. The shaft is down sixty-five feet, and has 
 a cross-cut ninety-five feet on the vein. Considering amount of work 
 done, the prospects are very flattering. The location is advantageous for 
 successful worKing of mine. 
 
 Silver Dollar Mining Company (The) owns the Silver Dollar 
 and Piper Heidseick mines, located in Gilpin county. Col. A double 
 compartment sha^ has been sunk on the Silver Dollar 205 feet deep, and 
 the 150 -feet level has been driven 235 feet, at which point it intersects the 
 Piper Heidseick 175 feet from the surface. The ore is rich in silver, and 
 carries about twenty-seven per cent, copper. A strong inflow of water 
 necessitated the introduction of two new engines for pumping, and 
 which also a.ssist in the hoisting, and the mine is now in good working 
 condition. It is well timbered and ventilated, and all the work done is 
 with a view to permanency. 
 
 Silver Era Slinliie Company is chartered under the laws of the 
 State of New York. Office, 3 Broad Street, New York. The company's 
 claims are the Silver Era, the Etna, and the Caledonia, located in Globe 
 district, Pinal county, Arizona. Extent of claims, 1,600 by 1,500 feet. The 
 ore carries silver, value per ton, $150. Date of organization February 
 12, 1880. Capitalization $10,000,000 ; par value per share, $100 ; basis, non- 
 
 Silver Olance Blinins Company (The) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of Colorado. E. S. Perkins, Pres. ; A. H. Woodward, 
 Sec. and Treas. The company's property is located in Graham county, 
 Arizona. The mine carries a two-foot vein that gives assays of $80 to the 
 ton in silver. Capitalization, 85,000,000; par value per share, $10. 
 
 Silver Hill Mining Company's (The) property is located in 
 Gold Hill district, Comstock lode, Nevada. There are 4,000 linear feet in 
 mine. Aggregate of workings, 1,500 feet. Capitalization, $10,800,000; par 
 value per share, $100 ; numner of assessments levied, seventeen ; total 
 amount of assessments levied. $1,809,000. Date of latest assessment, Feb- 
 ruary 2, 1882. Treasury reserve April 1, 1882, $5,989. Cash on hand April 
 1, 1882, $5,989. 
 
 Silver Key Mining: Company is chartered under the laws of 
 Utah Territory. W. J. wenner, Pres. ; Mandus Thomas, Sec. The com- 
 pany's claims are the Tigur, the Silver Key, and the Old Judge, located 
 in Utah. The Tigur is the principal claim. It was located in June, 
 1879. It is situated on Penyon Hill, just south of Walker and Buckeye 
 mines. Several very prominent mining men and good judges of ore 
 have examined underground workings of the Tigur, and pronounce the 
 ore to be of the same grade and character as the Penyon mine, and are 
 unanimous in their opinion of its being a continuation of the vein of 
 this mine. Date of organization, January, 1882. Capitalization, $2,000,000 ; 
 par value per share, $10. Basis, non-assessable for three years from date 
 of organization. 
 
 Silver King Mining Company is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of New York. Office. 60 Broadway, New York. The company's 
 mine, the Silver King, is located one-third of a mile from Montezuma, 
 Col. The ore is silver minute, ruby silver, and gray copper, and assays 
 from four ounces to 500 ounces to the ton. The mine shows a fine vein 
 of quartz, fourteen inches in width, inclosed in solid walls. This mine is 
 turning out the usual quantity of concentrations and bullion. The com- 
 pany has a furnace: also, lixiviation worlds and one ten-stamp mill. 
 About seventy tons of ore are reduced every twenty-four hours. The shaft 
 is about 730 feet deep. The principal mining is being done on the 700-foot 
 level. Work is also being done on the Tilden and Mowev Consolidated. 
 On the latter^ steam hoisting works are being erected. Current value of 
 the Silver King, $1,000,000. The mine was discovered in 1867, and came 
 into possession of above company in 1880. Date of organization, Decem- 
 ber, 1880; capitalization, $1,000,000 ; par value per share. $2; basis, non- 
 assessable ; total amount of dividends paid, $50,000 ; date of la tesi dividend 
 August 19, 1881, ten cents per share ; stock quoted June 17, $2 per share ' 
 
 Silver Kins Mining Company is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of CaliTornia. The officers are B. W. Barney Pres; J. L. Jones 
 Vice-Pres ; J. M. Barney, Treas. and Gen. Manager ; J. Nash, Sec. Date 
 of annual election January 11. Office, 328 Montgomery Street, San Fran- 
 cfs?S Cal. The cSmmny's mine, the Silver KingTis located in Tombstone 
 district, Arizona, ft wis discovered in 1874, and is by far the richest 
 mining property of this district^in fact, it is generally regarded as one of 
 the most valuable discoveries of the Pacific slope. The ore is very rich, 
 yielding an average silver assay of $100 to the ton ; and some of the ore is 
 said to Iverage $17000 per ton by assay. The 510-foot level is regarded as 
 the richest, native and antimonial silver and zinc blende being predomi- 
 nant At the extreme depth reached (730 feet), the ledge is found to be 
 an enormous mass of ore, indicating increasing richness as depth is 
 attained. New workings have been started 200 ffeet west and below the 
 old ones. A two-compartment vertical shaft has been sunk to a depth ot 
 nearly 200 feet, and still sinking; splendidly timbered. The company 
 owns a twenty-stamp mill, three lix roasters. These roasters or turnaces 
 are on a much improved principle, consisting of a revolving cylinder. 
 Two fires are used, each alternately, with a gratifying result, the ore re- 
 ceiving a uniform heat, and the chlorination being effected with a loss 
 of from two to three per cent. only. This furnace is the work of Mr. 
 Ottakar Hoffman. After a permanent run of three and one-half months, 
 not the slightest repairs were required ; and two more of similar construc- 
 tion have been built. The mill is situated about five miles from the mine, 
 near Pinal city, as are also all the other accessory works. The battery of 
 stamps (twenty) is kept constantly in operation, and it is claimed that the 
 producing capacity of the mine is sufficient to keep 100 stamps going. 
 Wood and water are abundant ; and when these are exhausted, recourse 
 can be had to a reserve of coal lying imbedded in the immediate locality. 
 Extensive improvements have been made in the mine and above ground. 
 The mill is kept running to its full capacity. At the 400-foot level a cham- 
 ber has been opened over 100 feet in width. Virgin silver everywhere 
 protrudes or lies Imbedded in the walls in curls, twists, and flakes, while 
 here and there large pockets of polybasite, which is eight to eighty-five 
 per cent, silver, are uncovered. "I'he prospects of the mine are said to be 
 most favorable. Current value of the mine is $1,650,000. Capitalization, 
 $10,000,000 ; par value per share, $100 ; total amount of dividends paid to 
 Julyl, 1882, $1,100,000; date of latest dividend, Julyl, 1882, twenty-flve 
 cents per share ; number of assessments levied, four ; date of latest assess- 
 ment, January 10, 1880, ten cents per share ; stock quoted June 17, 1882, 
 $16.50. A correspondent of the Arizona Star at Casa Gran de says (December 
 31, 1881) the bullion shipment from this mine during 1881 was $1,800,000. 
 
 Silver Mountain Mining Company. The officers are H. E. 
 Townsend, Pres., Boston, Mass.; G. S. Firnald, Sec, Portland, Maine; G. 
 A. Bruce, Treas., Somerville, Mass. E. Copley is Superintendent. The 
 company owns four claims — the Zuma, the Anilgo, the Chicomo, and 
 Tacomo— located in Summit county, Colorado. Shaft is 230 feet deep. 
 The Chicomo vein can be traced three miles. 
 
 Silver Mining Company (The). Officer, W. F. Dana. Sec. Gen'l 
 office, 60 Broadway, New York. The property belonging to this mining 
 company is located in Montezuma, Summitcounty, Colorado. Capitaliza- 
 tion, 81,000,000 ; shares, 500,000 ; par value, $2. 
 
 Silver Plume Mine (The). Owned by Wm. H. Bull & Co. This 
 mine is located on Bald Mountain, Dakota. Tunnel over 100 feet. The 
 Trojan mine, higher up the mountain, shows up richer ore and more of 
 it than any other mine. 
 
 Silver Flnine Mining Company. The officers are S. A. Mac- 
 Kenzie, Pres.; M. M. Swab, Sec; C. Benson, Treas. Offices, 33 Market 
 Street, and 117 Market Street, Camden, N. J. The company's property is 
 located in Central mining district, Boulder county, Colorado. Ihe ore 
 gives a silver assay of 150 ounces to the ton. The character of the vein 
 IS true fissure, four feet in width, with pay-streak two feet in width. The 
 shaft is forty-five feet deep. Capitalization, $3,000,000 ; par value per 
 share, $10 ; basis, non-assessable ; treasury reserve, 50.000 shares. 
 
 Silver <|uecn Consolidaled Mining Company (The), In- 
 corporators, B. F. Fields, Charles Bobb, J. A. Goodwin, O. Sands, H. F. 
 Smith, Marshall D. Lyle, Levi L. Ashbrook. Gen'l office. Gothic City. 
 The location of the mines owned by this company is in Gunnison county, 
 Colorado. Clay and quartz ore. Capitalization. $1,000 000. 
 
 Silver Roefe Mining Company (The) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of Colorado. The officers are Geo. O. Magee, Pres. ; A. 
 M. Peel, Vice-Pres. ; W.J. Kadcliffe, Sec and Treas. Directors, W. J. 
 Radoliffe, Geo. O. Magee, A. M. Peel, J. J. Wilbraham, J. C. Barnitz, H. J. 
 Paterson, and H. T. Smith. The offices are at 310 Chestnut Street, Phila- 
 delphia, Pa. The company owns the Texas Hanger, located in Colorado. 
 Capitalization, $1,260,000, m 260,000 shares of $5 each; non-assessable; 
 treasury reserve. 64.000 shares. 
 
 Sllverton Mining Company. The officers are W. R. Walkley, 
 Pres. ; M. C. Ogden, Vice-Pres. ; S. H. Wilcox, Treas. ; W. E. Warkley, Sec. 
 The Superintendent is Mr. O. P. Posey. The company's property is located 
 in the State of Colorado. In debt, April 1, 1882, to the amount of 827,600. 
 
 Silver Wave Mine is owned by Messrs. George W. Lull, Thomas 
 Woods, and others. The Silver Wave mine is located in Alma, Colorado. 
 Veins opened on the mine for forty feet or more. 
 
 . Silver Wing Mining Company (The) is a chartered organiza- 
 tion. The company owns the Silver Wing mine and ten additional 
 claims, located in the Eurekas district. Animas river, San Juan countv, 
 Col. The property is an aggregation and contiguity of thirty to fortv 
 large true fissure veins of silver-bearing ore, all of which can'be out by- 
 one tunnel located at the base of the mountain, and 1,100 feet in length 
 The Silver Wing has been developed to the extent of over 400 feet The 
 ore IS of an average grade, with a gangue of quartz and iron pyrites • is 
 an arsenical, argentiferous, gray copper, occurring in small crystals gran - 
 ulated and compact galena, sulphurets of copper, copper pyrites, and sul- 
 phurets of zinc assaying $300 gold and 8500 diver ; width of lode, two to 
 twenty feet. The pay-streak is from eighteen to twenty-four inches wide 
 greenish hard rock, being compact and tough mixture of Labrador and 
 orthoclase feldspar with angile and chlorite, containing, besides, very 
 finely divided lime, and principally, where veins occur, much magnetic 
 and common iron pyrites. It is, in fact, an immense conglomeration or 
 ganglion of veins of silver ore. 
 
 Small Hopes Mining Company (The1 has property located in 
 Lake county, C9I The company owns the Robert Ernmett and other 
 £inl ',fiT '^''if ^' ""'^f' ^y direction of Col. Bohn, considerable ore is 
 n?lh?,it d ^^"^' sfXenty-flve tons per week being shipped, and a force 
 nri wlf™ men being employed. A large chute of cSiloride-bearing 
 ?,?=H?^ '"'"' *?"'?''^- ^''°"' "? ^^^ '^'•"■n *e shaft. The Robert Emmett 
 n^Jf T^^n!';,'!, V"'^'"'""=i f""^ ^'"''^ '■'^''■•^ Pi^t. "i-'a has produced 
 largely. It has an immense deposit of iron ore, some of which carries 
 enougli silver to make it profitable to work. On the Forest City nnothe? 
 Snln ^".W"? ".'"'"'2S. work is proceeding under the direction of Col. 
 Bohn astaftof three men being employed in development, only occa- 
 sional pockets of good chlorides being encountered. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1177 
 
 Solomon Silver Mliilnis' Company (The) has its offices at 
 room :«, No. 157 Washington Street, Chicago, III. Tlie officers are Adolph 
 Berend, Pres. ; Kugene J. FeUowes, Sec. Directors, Adolph Berend, C. 
 O. Born, T. M. Atkinson, Eugene J. Kellowes, and Sylvester Linn. The 
 property is located in San Juan county, Col. Capitalization, $1,000,000, 
 In 50,000 shares of S20 each; non-aisessable. 
 
 South Cidil'oriiia Silver Mining: Company. The company's 
 property is located in Gold Hill district, Comsiock lode, Nevada. There 
 are 1,500 linear feet in the mine. Capitalization, $5,000,000; par value per 
 sliare, 8100. No dividends paid to June, 1882. Number of assessments 
 levied, one ; total amount of assessments levied, $10,000 ; date of latest 
 assessment, February 16, 1877. 
 
 Sonth Half-nioon Ittinlng Company (The). Owned by W. S. 
 Ward, T. S. Wood, G. E. Fisher, O. H. Haiker, Thomas Lyles. The names 
 of the mines belonging to this company are the Susquehanna, Monarch, 
 Iron Duke, located ou Red Mountain, Col. yielded about iifteen tons 
 of ore, averaging over 100 ounces in silver. A three-foot quartz vein was 
 found at twenty feet in. Tunnel, 100 feet. Two tunnels are being built, 
 driven one about 160 feet above the other. Quartz rose porphyry and 
 white quartz, sienite gangue, or gouge, iron-stained porphyry and white 
 quartz. The ore, black sulphurets, in honey-combed quartz, with some 
 specks of galena, very little copper, and iron pyrites. Fissure veins. The 
 mine is worked day and night. The upper one is about seventv-five feet 
 in length, has produced ore enough to more than cover the expenses of 
 running it; the lower, also on the vein, has not reached pay-ore, 1881. J. 
 T. Needles, Barnes & Co. are working on a tunnel intended to cross-cut 
 several veins belonging to that firm. Developments were commenced in 
 1880. Yielded about fifteen tons of ore during the vear. The South Half- 
 Moon district was prospected by Southwest Missouri miners. Specimen 
 assays ran very high from the start. Developments, however, remained 
 for a long time so insignificant that no energetic parties could be found 
 to push the matter, December, 1880. When Mr. Bauman left the mine 
 last week, the breast of the upper tunnel showed sixteen inches 
 of No. 1 ore, which runs 250 ounces in silver, and only a trace of gold. 
 Occasionally, the white quartz is well sprinkled with sulphurets, making 
 it an ore, but, on the whole, the honeycombed quartz contains the best 
 mineral. In July, 1881, Mr. Bauman examined tlie district, and induced 
 Messrs. T. S. Wood, and W. S. Ward to try their chances there. On ac- 
 count of the failure of other parties interested in the claim, by direct pur- 
 chase, to come down with the money for their share of thie work, the 
 mine will be idle this winter. 
 
 South Horn Silver Mining Company (The). Officers, R. C. 
 McCormick, Pres.; R. G. Morrison, Vice-Pres. ; A. V. K. Stafford, Treas. ; 
 H. Bradstreat, Sec. Principal office, IW Broadway, New York city. The 
 location of the mining propertv belonging to this company is in Frisco, 
 Utah. Capitalization, $2,000.000 ; shares, 200,000 ; par value, $10. 
 
 Sovereigrn Silver Mining Company (The) is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of Colorado. The oflicers are S. L. Smedley, Pres. ; 
 E. D. Cope, Vice-Pres.; W. Smedley, Treas.: G. L. Smedley Sec. Robert 
 Baiisen is Mining Engineer. Offlce.s, Post-office Building, Fifth and Har- 
 rison Avenues, Leadville, Col., and Exchange Building, Third and Wal- 
 nut. Philadelphia, Pa. The company's property is located at Leadville, 
 Lake county. Col. Capitalization, $5,000,000; par value per share, $10; 
 basis, non-as.sessable ; full paid. 
 
 Spar mine Cl'lie). Owned by Messrs. Gillespie & Reed. Mr. Thomas, 
 Mang. The Spar mine is located one mile from Aspen, Col. Fine silver 
 ore ; 'richest mineral yet discovered, 620 ounces to the ton ; seventy-five 
 feet incline sunk on the vein; drift, sixty feet; shaft, seventy feet; 
 twenty-five-foot tunnel (1881). Work has been suspended a short time. 
 The efficient efforts of Mr. Thomas have increased the value of the mines 
 fully S40.000. It will soon be worked to its fullest capacity. There is 
 now on this tunnel filly tons of ore for shipment. 
 
 St. Elmo Mine (The). Owned by Colonel Burichinell, of Lead- 
 ville, Col.; Messra. Frank Ganson. Charles L. Clare, M. J. Y. Marshall, 
 Captain Jacque. The St. Elmo mine, owned by the above gentlemen, is 
 located in Colorado. Very rich; mineral, silver glance; assayed 600 to 
 16,000 ounces to the ton. Vein seventeen feet four inches in width, sev- 
 enty feet deep. Shaft seventy feet deep. Cost $33 per ton for mining and 
 milling; $9 per ton to mill it (1880). It was stated some time ago that 
 $50,000 had been offered and refused for the St. Elmo mine. 
 
 .Starr Crrovc Silver Minini^ Company is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of New York. The officers are W. S. Clark, Pres. ; J. B. 
 Bothwell. Secretary. G. W. Bothwell is Superintendent. Office, No. 2 
 Nassau Street, New York. The company's mining property includes the 
 Henry Logan and Duasang lodes, located at Lewis Mountain, Nev. The 
 character of the ore is silver. Assay value per ton, $65. The mine is a 
 large fissure vein or ledge, some fitly or sixty feet between the walls, 
 with about three feet of clay gangue on the hanging wall, next to which 
 is the pay-streak or pay-ledge, which Is five feet thick and of a very uni- 
 form grade. From the pay-ledge to the foot of the wall, about forty feet, 
 is the gangue or white quartz, which will carry about ten ounces m 
 silver to the ton, being, of course, practically worthless. The mam incline 
 has reached the depth of 180 feet, and is in good ore. The company s 
 property includes ore house, boarding house, engine house, shaft house, 
 blacksmith shop, boiler and engine for condensing air an air tank, and 
 an air hoister. The company's fifteen-stamp mill, and furnished with 
 three Bruckner roasters, is located at the foot of the mountain on Lewis 
 creek The mine is some two miles up the creek, on the side of the 
 mountain, about 500 feet higher than tfie creek T^e climate is mild 
 free from snow all the year. The Henry Logan ode is 1,600 feet in length 
 by 600 feet in width; the Duasang lode, 3o0 feet in length by 600 feet m 
 width, both located in the Starr and Grove vein. Current value of mme 
 Is $100 000 Date of organization, October, 1880. Capitahzation S2,«M,- 
 OTO; Bar value per share, $10; basis non-assei«able. Total a,mount of div- 
 idends paid, $160,000 ; date of latest dividend, January 12, 1882, ten cents 
 
 ^ SteriiiiB Silver Mining Company (The) is chartered under 
 
 -thf llws ofthe State of New fersey. Toffi^l-^^G^'ll/rslfc^ SectoS' 
 Pres ; Barclay J. Woodward, Treas. ; John S. Worman, Sec- Directors, 
 Gen James Stewart, Jr. ; Barclay J. Woodward, John S Worman David 
 W Davis Lewis A Conwell. Principal offices, 110 Market Street, Cam- 
 den KJ! and Ge(7rkeMwn, Col. Capitalization, 200,000 shares ; par value, 
 
 ^'sterlinsXlver Company (The) is chartered under the laws of 
 thf*Sta?e ofN^V^Jmey. Sfficers! John Daney.Presfrden Grove. 
 Tnwa ■ A R Pa2-e Vice-Pres., Ottumwa, Iowa. Directors, ri' . creese, 
 Coancil^Blufffr.f kniltefMurray, Iowa ;' J T Walker, Great Bena,K 
 sas ; Hon. Joseph Knotts, Council Bluffs ; J. B K"o"^' ^"?!^^?J^ •.^"'iS 
 Dai v,, Lucas. Iowa. Date of annual election, September 21 1 he names 
 of the mines owned by the company are viz Nogalito SaTitiago, Los Mu 
 ertos,San Juan, and Quebradillas, ^H located^ in Hidalgo distort On 
 huahna Mexico. True fissure veins, with a dip of forty-flve degrees inro 
 the hill.' Deptli of shaft, 650 feet. The mines were' consolidated under 
 
 the name Quebradillas mines. Situated on the Minas Mueras lode, they 
 are, perhaps, the oldest of North America, and were uniformly the best 
 paying in the world. They yielded as high as $60 per ton to the Mex- 
 icans under their rude methods, have been mined for several centuries, 
 and the lode h&H been worked to depths varying from seventy-five to 1,000 
 feet. The shaft of the San Juan is about 110 feet deep, at the bottom of 
 which the lower vein is over thirteen and a lialf feet wide, and in the 
 Santiago, at the depth of 190 feet, the upper vein is tweiitjr-two feet nine 
 inches wide. Milling ore is found on these mines, carrying on an aver- 
 age forty ounces per ton, and smelting ore carrying 100 ounces. 
 
 Stormont Silver IHlnint; Compan.y is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of New York. Tlie officers are W. .S. Clark, Pres. ; J. R. 
 Bothwell, Sec. Office, 2 Nassau Street, New York. The company's mines 
 are the Savage, the Buckeye, Last Chance, Thompson, and McNnlly, lo- 
 cated at Silver Reef. Utah. The character of the ore is argentiferous 
 sandstone, assaying $32 to the ton. The Savage shaft is being lowered 
 another 100 feet on the ledge, from which depth levels will be driven 
 north and south. A uniform output, it is said, of about fifty tons per day, 
 is maintained, which is raised principally through theSavageshaft. The 
 lower workings in the Buckeye, report says, continue in excellent ore. As 
 the fourth south level from the Savage shaft has advanced, the ore has im- 
 proved very considerably, and shows a strong four-foot vein of character- 
 istic Buckeye ore in the faces. This is considered of more than ordinary 
 importance from the fact that the .same ki tid of ore wiisencountered above, 
 and in each of Which the grade improved with depth. In Last Chance 
 mine $150,000 was received up to 1880. Haifa million dollars' worth of sil- 
 ver was taken from a single bed in the Buckeye mine. Prospects are en- 
 couraging, ore being abundant. The cost of miningand milling perton is 
 small, say $5. Output weekly at Jannarj-, 1882, 300 tons. The company 
 owns a ten-stamp mill. Date of organization, July, 1879. Capitalization, 
 $1,500,000; par value per share. $10; ba.sis, non-assessable, 'iield during 
 
 1880, $484,110. Total amount of dividends paid. $155,000; date of latest 
 dividend, November 1, 1881, five cents per share. Stock quoted July 1, 
 1882, fifty cents. 
 
 Surprise Silver Minins; Company (The) is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of Iowa. The officers are Hon. Geo. T. Wright, Pres. ; 
 J. B. Gregg. Red Oak, Iowa. The offices are at Red Oak, Iowa. Mr. Casey 
 is Superintendent. 'The company owns the Laura, Surprise, and Arnold 
 mines, located in Tyndall district, Pima county, south-easteni Arizona. 
 From the Laura mine the ore is cliloride. and contains considerable 
 horn silver. Selected ore assays from $600 to $2,500 per ton. Unassorted 
 ore gave $266 per ton. At adepthofthirty feetthe nch ore is about three 
 feet wide, and carries chlorides, platinum, horn silver and native silver. 
 Little progress has as yet been made with developments, the B shaft of 
 the Laura beftig down eighteeh feet and six feet in the vein. This mine, 
 the Laura, is probably the richest mine in south-easiern Arizona. 'I he 
 Superintendent reports taking $3,000 in ore from the mine in one day. 
 Capitalization, $2,000,000. in 100,000 shares of $20 each. 
 
 Sylvanlte MInin;;: Company ('I'he). The property of the com- 
 pany, the Sylvanite mine, is rallier inconveniently located near the top 
 of Elk Mountain, Lake county, C"l. Twenty tons of the ore milled 775 
 ounces per ton. The vein is from two and a half to four feet in width, 
 with a rich pay-streak of from eight inches to two feet, containing con- 
 siderable ruby and native silver. The developments of the company 
 were commenced in 1879. Total exteiitof excavations. 1.000 feet. Owing 
 to some difficulty with the stockholders, the mine is now standing idle. , 
 Yield (net) to July 1, 1882, $50,000. 
 
 Syndicate Mining; Company')! property is located in Bodie dis- 
 trict. Mono county, Cal. The extent of property is 1,200 by 1,500 feet, cov- 
 ered by United States patent. The ore is low grade, free milling, assay- 
 ing from $20 to $25 per ton. It is estimated that 26,000 tons can be ex- 
 tracted right along, and milled at a profit of $15 per ton. Expenses of 
 running the mine nave averaged $11,000 per month. The vein is well- 
 defined, from two to six feet thick, and very hard, requiring powder for 
 breaking it down. The company has one twenty-stamp mill valued at 
 $100,000, with a capacity of forty tons per day, of twenty-four hours Com- 
 menced crushing ore, December, 1879. Monthly shipments are from $25,000 
 to $80,000. Length of adits, 2,500 feet. Date of organization, 1876; capi- 
 talization, $10,000,000; par value per share, $100. Yield during 1880, $24,- 
 800. No dividends paid to June. 1882. Total amount of assessments 
 levied, $25,000. Stock quoted January 1, 1879, $10 ; highest point reached. 
 
 Tiog;a Consolidated Mining Company (The). W. H. Lent, 
 Secretary. General office, 309. Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal. 
 Trustees, A. J. Ralston, Wm. M. Stewart, R. N. Graves, John F. Boyd, J. 
 M. Quay. Annual election, September 14. The Tioga mine is located in 
 California (Bodie district), the property having an extent of 600 by 862 
 feet. The ore is quite free of waste, and will probably mill $25 per ton. 
 Ledge varies from four to six feet in thickness. The main shaft is 720 
 feet down. The length of the main lode on which the company depends 
 for its supply of ore is 1,500 feet. The mine is furnished with a hoisting, 
 capacitv to sink 1.500 feet (barring water), costing $20,000. It is expected 
 the Standard pumping apparatus will draw the mine, and save the Tioga 
 company the expense of erecting a pumping apparatus. Capitalization, 
 $10,000,000, in 100,000 shares of $100 each. No dividends have been paid. . 
 Fifteen assessments, aggregating $290,000, have been levied. Date of latest 
 assessment, November. 1880 ; fifteen cents per share. Cash on hand April 
 10, 1882, $8,065.21. Stock quoted as high as $12. Receipts during the year 
 
 1881, $58,2'24.74 ; disbursements during the year 1881, $42,218.32. The finan- 
 cial arrangements are said to be good. 
 
 Tip- Top Silver Miuin^' Company. Thomas Brown is Super- 
 intendent. The company's property is located at Black Canyon, Yavapai 
 county, Ariz., being situated on one of the outlying spurs of the Brad- 
 shaw Mountains. The ore is reported to assay $215.34 to the ton. The 
 prospects of the property are favorable. There is said to be a good face 
 of ore on the north drift. The mine has a current value of $250,000. The 
 main lode is 1,500 feet in length. It is developed by a shaft upwards of 
 600 feet deep, and thoroughly opened by levels, tunnels, drifts, winzes, 
 and showing a pay-streak of from one foot to eighteeh inches in width. 
 The ore is bigh-grade sulphuret and ruby silver assaying about $300 to 
 the ton, and improves as depth is attained. The mine has been a con- 
 stant producer since its discovery. The output for the calendar year will 
 be little.short of $300,000, and the total production will exceed $1,200,000 
 in value. A ten-stamp-mill and roaster at Agua Fria have reduced the 
 greater portion of the ores produced by this and the neighboring mines. 
 Capitalization. $10,000,000; par value per share, $100 ; yield during 1881, 
 $238,312, all in silver. Number of dividends paid to November 26, 1881, 
 five; total amount of dividends paid, $100,000 ; date of latest dividend, 
 November 27, 1881, twenty-five cents per share. Total amount of assess- 
 ments levied, $170,000 ; date of latest assessment, March, 1880 ; amount per , 
 share, fifty cents. Stock quoted .Tune 17, 1S.S2, $2.50 per share, 
 
 Toltec Silver Mining Company (The) is .chartered under the 
 laws of the State of New Jersey. Officers, Watson Twining, Pres. ;. 'M.. M. 
 Gillan, Vice-Pres. ; Edward S. Sears, Sec. and Treas. Directors, Charles 
 
1178 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 f 
 
 C. Colby, Guy C. Noble. General office, 163 Market Street, Camden, New 
 Jersey. Transfer office, 431 Walnut Street, room 131, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 The Vermont, Canada, and Viga mhies are the property of this company, 
 located on Mineral Point, San Juan county. Col. The Canada and Ver- 
 mont are producing rich ore. Capitalization, 300,000 shares ; par value, 83. 
 Amount of stock i-ssued. 90,000 shares; amount in treasury, 60,000 shares. 
 
 Tombstone Illill and Mining Company is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of Connecticut and Arizona Territory. The officers 
 are G. Burnham, Pres. ; W. J. Cheney, Sec. Directors, G. Bumham, T. 
 Cochran, G. J. Corbin, J. R. Bothwell, W. J. Cheney, B. JF. Hart, P. Corbin, 
 C. T. Parry, W. J. Neilson, HI. HulUngs, W. J. Hulings. Offices, 39 Wall 
 Street, New York ; 432 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa., and 309 California 
 Street, San Francisco. Prof. John A. Church is the Treasurer. The pro- 
 perty of the company, comprising the following mines, eleven in all, 
 viz. : Tough Nut, Lucky Cuss, Good Enough, Survey, Defence, West Side, 
 Tribute, East Side, Owl's Nest, East Side No. 2, and Owl's Last Hoot, cover- 
 ing an area of about 169 acres, is located in the Tombstone district, 
 Cachise county, Ariz. The company works five perpendicular shafts and 
 two inclines on two of their principal mines. The ores lie in blanket 
 ledges at comparatively moderate depths. The system of levels, drifts, 
 winzes, and cross-outs is complete in all their properties. This is specially 
 true of the Tough Nut and Good Enough, the principal mines. The 
 main shafts are titted with steam-hoisting machinery and improved ap- 
 pliances of all kinds. The two mills, twenty and fifteen stamps respect- 
 ively, are located at Charlestown. on the San Pedro, nine miles from the 
 mines. The production of the fiscal year, 1880-1881, as reported by the 
 Tombstone EpUaph, was $1,586,000. The weekly production is about 300 
 tons of ore. The company owns two stamp-mills, thirty-horse-power en- 
 ine, buildings, etc. Mills working well, and up to their full capacity, 
 'his mining property has an enviable reputation, good climate, tractable 
 formations, and ore, the latter on or uear the surface, while water and 
 timber have offered no great obstacles. Cost per ton of mining and mill- 
 ing is about S23.43. Current value of mine, $500,000. The main lode is 
 4,.'j00 feet in length. Date of organization, 1879-1880. Capitalization, $12,- 
 500,000 ; par value per share, $25 ; basis, non-assessable. Total yield dur- 
 ing 1881, $1,376,047.13, 29,211.66 tons ; expenses during the year 1881, $794,- 
 170 90. Total amount of dividends paid, $1,250,000; date of latest divi- 
 dend, April 15, 1882 ; number of assessments levied, one ; amount, 
 $10,000 ; date of latest assessment, January 9, 1882. Stock quoted June 17, 
 1882, $1 per share. 
 
 Tranqnillltjr Minings Company (The) has property located in 
 the Tombstone district, Cachise county, Arizona. The company owns 
 the Tranquillity mine, which is one of the celebrated mines of the dis- 
 trict, although it has not yet been much of a bullion producer. It is 
 opened by two shafts ; one, the old, is 300 feet deep ; the other, which is 
 new and the main working shaft of the mine, has attained a depth of 
 over 500 feet. The shaft is double compartment, thoroughly timbered to 
 the 500-teet level, and is furnished with the best steam-hoisting ma- 
 chinery. The ore bodies are not remarkably large, but the quality of the 
 ore is superior. Some two hundred tons are now on the dump. The loca- 
 tion of the claim is a guarantee of its value, as the north extension of the 
 great ore body of the Contention must pass through it. Drifting, to strike 
 this ledge, is now being done. This ledge, with two already uncovered, 
 will make this mine one of the largest producers. The company is salcl 
 to be rich, and the management in capable hands. About twenty men 
 are constanly employed. 
 
 'I'remoHt Silver mining Company (The). Date of organiza- 
 tion, March 22. 1881. Capitalization, $500,000. 
 
 Trinity Minings Company (The) has its offices at 61 (room 42) 
 Broadway, New York. The officers are J. G. Cooper. Pres. ; B. A. Oxnard, 
 Vice-Pres. ; D. B. Horton, Sec. H. M. Francis, Treas. (cashier of Wells, 
 Fargo & Co.). The property of the company is located at Galena, Nevada. 
 Capitalization, $12,000,000, in 120,000 shares of $100 ; a limited number of 
 shares on the market. 
 
 Tucker Group (The). Owned hy Messrs. Tucker and Makin, of 
 Irvin, and W. H. Kirlgsberry, of Leadville, Col. The mining property of 
 this company consists of the Lost Treasure mhie. Tucker, Smuggler, White 
 Quartz, and Horse-Shoe lodes, located on Pine Gulch, above Crystal lake, 
 Slate Mountain Range, A.shcroft, Col. Gray copper and galena silver as- 
 saying 125 to 200 ounces in silver. The Lost Treasure, with a fifteen-foot 
 shaft, shows gray copper and galena, assaying from 100 to 1,500 in silver. 
 Entrance by tunnel, sixty feet deep. A sixty-toot tunnel has been run on 
 the Smuggler, cutting the vein at a depth of sixty feet, following the vein 
 fifteen feet. A shaft has been sunk ten feet. The vein, which averages 
 two feet in width, assays from forty to 100 ounces, and gains in richness 
 as depth is obtained in the shaft. 
 
 United States Oold and Silver mining Company (The). 
 Mr. J. W. Warren, Manager. The Virginus mine is owned by the com- 
 pany. Second-class ore, assaying per ton seventeen and a half ounces 
 silver and thirty per cent, lead, 1881. The first-class ore of the United 
 States Gold and Silver Mining Company has settled for on a basis of 
 twenty-two and a half silver and forty-six per cent. lead. 
 
 Onion Consolidated Sliver Mining Company (The) holds 
 its annual meeting on May 1. J. M. Buffington, Esq., is Secretary. The 
 offices are at 309 California Street, San Francisco, Cal. The property of the 
 company comprises the Union Consolidated mine, located in the Virginia 
 district, Comstock lode, Nevada. The ore assays $47 per ton from car 
 samples. The depth of the workings is about 2,600 feet; the length of 
 the main lode on which the company depends for its supply of ore is 
 800 feet. The ore now obtained is chiefly from the 2,500-feet level, where 
 the developments are now being prosecuted with success, the ore there 
 found being of superior quality. 'The mine is now self-sustaining. The 
 weekly out-put is fiom 350 to 400 tons. Capitalization, $10,000,000, in 
 100,000 shares of $100 each. Yield during 1881, $905,924. No dividends 
 yet paid ; nineteen assessments, aggregating $1,360,000, have been levied; 
 latest asse.ssment, March 21, 1882, $1 per share. Cash in hand February 1, 
 1882, $1,380. 
 
 Union I^easne Silver Mining: Company (The). George W, 
 Dickson, Sec. Office, 90 William Street, New York. The company's 
 property lies 800 feet north-west of Mack Morris mine, Richmond Dasm, 
 Globe mining district, Arizona. Capitalization, $1,000,000; par value per 
 share, $10. Basis, non-assessable. 
 
 Union Mountain Silver Company. The officers are I. May 
 Pres, ; E. Shepard. Vice-Pres. ; J. K. Hornish, Sec. and Treas. Directors, 
 I. May, E. Shepard, J. K. Hornish, E. La Fouutaine. Carl Anderson is 
 Superintendent. Office, Denver, Col. The company's mining property 
 consists of six claims, located at Union Mountain, consolidated, Ten 
 Mile district, Summit county, Colorado. 
 
 Utah .Silver Mining' Company (The). Officer, A. G. Pratt, Sec. 
 General office, 309 Mbntgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal. The mines 
 owned by this company are located on Oomstock lode, in Nevada. Twenty- 
 four miners and eighteen surface men are employed at the Utah mine 
 Tanderbllt Silver Mining; Companyof Utah. Theofficersare 
 
 F H Mvers, Pres.; E. H. H. Murry, Vice-Pres. ; A. Morris, Treas.; L. L. 
 Davis Sec The company's claims, the Vanderbilt and Jenny Lind, are 
 located at East Fork, Warm Spring mining district, Alturas county, laaho. 
 Capitalization, $2,500,000; par value per share, ^. - „„..„„., T,„„t„, 
 
 Venanso Silver Mining Company (The . Nathaniel Tooker, 
 Pres ; * F Seldomridge, Sec? Ed. Copley, Superintendent, of .twenty- 
 three years' experience. The property of the company comprises five 
 claims, the Venango, South-west Sxtenison, Tioga, Souri and Siskiyou, 
 located at Irwin, fn Gunnison county. Col. Seventy-five tons of roughly 
 sorted ore assayed 175 ounces per ton. The mine consists of leads of ruby, 
 brittle and native silver, zinc, and galena ore. DevelopmeiitB were com- 
 menced in 1881. A tunnel of about 600 feet is now being driven, and. a 
 shaft at its termination will afi'ord excellent ventilation. Cross-cuts are 
 being run to cut the veins, and the workings are kept free from water; 
 this work is now close upon completion. . 
 
 Vermont and Coforado Minme Company (The) is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of Colorado. Directors, Edward H. 
 Goflf (of GofT, Hastings & Co.), Boston ; Hon. H. A. Tabor (late Governor of 
 Colorado), Denver, Col. ; Hon. Alex. McDonald (Pres.Wabash Mining Co.), 
 New York : Chas. E. Folsom (Chas. E. Folsom & Co.), Boston ; J. B. Rhodes, 
 Banker and Broker, Boston ; Silas Gumey, Tremont House, Boston ; Col. 
 A. J. Ware (Supt. B. B. Smelting Works), Bxeckenridge, Col.;; B. F. Stick- 
 ley (Pres. Mt. Royal Mining Co.), Leadville, Col. ; Col. H. M. French, 
 Breckenridge, Col. Pres., G. E. GofT; Sec. and Treas., H. E. Irving ; Vice- 
 Pres., Hon. H. A. W. Tabor ; Supt., Thomas Gowanlock. The offices are 
 at Denver, Colorado, and at 292 Washington Street, Boston, Mass. The 
 property of the company is located in the Consolidated Mining district, 
 Col., having an extent of 100 acres. Quality of ore very fine, and supply 
 abundant. Capitalization, $2,000,000, in 200,000 shares of $10 each; non- 
 
 Tizina Consolidated Mining: Company (The) has offices 
 at 30 Pine Street, New York. The officers are J. E. Haskell, Vice-Pres.; 
 James Amm, Sec. The company owns the Vizina mine, located in the 
 Tombstone district, Cachise county, Arizona. The mine has been a very 
 considerable producer, but until the past year its development has been 
 by no means systematic. 'The ores m the shallower workings occur in 
 horizontal or blanket veins; but as depth is gained, they become more 
 vertical and the ore bodies are larger. The developments consist of 
 three shafts, the deepest or main working shaft having attained to a 
 depth of nearly 500 feet. During the month of October, only 300 tons of 
 ore were treated, eighty of which yielded an average of $454 to the ton, 
 and the remainder, $107, making the bullion production for the month, 
 $60,000. The average of the entirt output operated to December 31, 1881, 
 aggregating 5,887 tons, is at the rate of $93 to the ton. The main working 
 shaft IS furnished with the latest improved hoisting apparatus, all pro- 
 tected by a substantial building. Carpenters' and black.smiths' shops are 
 also comfortable buildings, conveniently located. Everything about the 
 mine is done in a thorough and permanent manner, which is warranted 
 by the rich developments of mineral. It is proposed to build a mill, 
 the ore having hitherto been operated by the Boston twenty-five-stamp 
 mill, located at Emery, on the San Pedro, the item of transportation of 
 the ore being, as usual, a considerable drawback. For the fifteen months 
 ending December 31, 1881, the production of the Vizina company's prop- 
 erty is reported by the Tombdone Epitaph of December 4, 1881, to be 
 $526,717 in value. In addition to the Vizina mine, the company also 
 owns the Yreka, Poor X, and other mines, besides some 400 lots in the 
 town of Tombstone, which are rapidly increasing in value. The ■ above 
 would indicate an excellent financial standing of the company, espec- 
 ially considering that it has only been actively at work for fifteen 
 months. The ore assays, on an average of 675 tons, $92.07 per ton. IThe 
 shaft Is down 231 feet. Ore is beiug got from the lowest workings, and 
 matters are progressing satisfactorily. The mine has paid its expenses 
 from the grass roots, having produced in three months, $211,216, and 
 since its first shipment of bullion, $42,500 from 4.595 tons of ore, an aver- 
 age of $92.60 per ton. There are sixty men employed. The current val- 
 ue of the mine is $230,000 ; capitalization, $6,000,000, in 200,000 shares of 
 $26 each; total dividends, $14O,0OO, paid to April 1, 1882, the date of latest 
 dividend of ten cents per share ; treasury reserve, December 31, $106,000 ; 
 stock quoted, June 17, $1.16 per share. 
 
 Voltaire Silver Mining; Company is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of Nevada. The directors are A. H. Frank, H. H. Bend, T. 
 Coffin, R. L. Shepard, J. G, Cohoe. Date of annual election, 3d Tuesday 
 in July. Superintendent, J. G. Cohoe. Number of years' experience of 
 the same, three. Transfer office, Carson City. The company's mine, the 
 Voltaire Silver mine, is located in Ormsby county, Nev. The ore is silver- 
 bearing based with copper. Average frorr, battery, $56. The character 
 of the mine is fissure vein. The company owns a. ten-stamp mill, com- 
 plete with O'Harra roasting furnace. The shaft is 300 feet deep ; length 
 of adits, that is levels, 600 feet. The main lode on which the company 
 depends for its supply of ore is 1,000 feet in length. Developments were 
 commenced July 1, 1880, and $40,000 has been expended to April 1, 1882 
 in developing the property. The stock is not for sale ; it is held by a few 
 individuals, who have confidence in the mine and work it on its merits. 
 The mill is running now with good results, but it is too early to report defi- 
 nite figures. Date of organization, July 7, 1880; capitalization, $10,000,000- 
 par value per share. $100; basis, non-assessable. Yield (gross tons) during 
 1881, 700. No dividends paid or assessments levied as yet ; company 
 free from indebtedness ; stock held principally in New York ; wages paid 
 to all classes of labor per week, $500. This information was furnished by 
 J. G. Cohoe, Superintendent and Secretary of the Voltaire Silver Minini 
 Company. * 
 
 Western Star Mining: Company (The) is chartered under the 
 te? °I^?-^ .^'"i^ of Pennsylvania. The offices are at 109 S. Front Street 
 Philadelphia, Pa. The property of the company, comprising the follow- 
 ing clauns, Croesus, Exchange, Golconda, Western Star, Rothschilds and 
 Fortunatus, is located in Montana Gulch, near Diamond City, Montana 
 and has an extent of ten acres. The veins are true fissure, widening as 
 the shafts descend. A part of the company's claims is patented. A shaft 
 has been sunk on one fifty feet, and another fifty-five leet lu ore. Two 
 tunnels are also driven, and considerable money has been expended in 
 general developments. In the opinion of experts, the property contains 
 the mother vein that supplied Montana and Confederate Gulches with 
 their rich placer diggings from which millions have been taken, and the 
 yield still continues. The com)mnyhas a ten-.starap mill and necessary 
 buildings erected and in operation, The company mav be described as a 
 dose corporation the greater portion of the stock beiiig owned by a few 
 mercaantile gentiemen of Philadelphia, The mill proplrly and iinprovfr- 
 
 ?„M?Hni^^"£^l^?'■■.^°'^ **f '=»"y '« free of all Oed or X? ^- 
 debtedne.ss. Stock listed on the .Philadelphia Stock Exchanee CaDital- 
 ization , $1,000 000, in 200,000 shares of $,% each. J^-^^nange. Capital- 
 
 White •KShlloh Company (The). The property owned bv this 
 i°i?Pf ?'' *' i^,^ Trinity mine, located in Gklena dKtLv Veins foiS 
 feet of argentiferous galena on the 530-feet level of the mine. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1179 
 
 White ftnail Slininsr and Sineltine Comitany (Thei. Mr. 
 
 H. E. Austin, Pres. of the company. The White Quail mine, owned by 
 the company, is located on Ellc Mountain, Kokoma, Col. Beat quality for 
 smelting. Company own a mill, liJSl. Mr. Austin has returned east much 
 pleased with the result of his examination. He states that the body of 
 carbonates recently developed in the incline has been cross-cut above 
 tlie point where it was cut by the incline, and shown to be continuous for 
 ft distance of 100 feet in this direction. The ore will enable the smelter to 
 draw upon the company's mine for the bulk of its supply. The smelter 
 ■will be started up as soon as the condition of the roads permits ore haul- 
 ing, and will henceforth be kept steadily in operation. It is probable that 
 it will also be enlarged and otherwise altered and improved. 
 
 Woronoco IHlniiiis Company (The) has property located in the 
 Tombstone district, Cachise county, Arizona. The company owns the 
 San Diego mine, which is being developed with considerable energy. 
 The main shaft is down 847 feet. On the 266-foot level, and about ninety 
 feet north from the shaft, a three-foot vein of carbonates was struck, and 
 found to be very rich. Drifting along this ledge about thirty feet shows 
 gradual improvement of the vein, which in places is partially capped by 
 a quartz ledge which shows chloride stains and copper. In the south 
 drift on the same level, and about sixty feet distant from shaft, rich 
 deposits of galena and gray carbonate ores were also struck, which gave 
 an assay of 1(180 in silver to the ton. The work is being prosecuted by 
 double shifts of men. 
 
 Woo<lst»ck Consolidated Sliver Dlining Company (The) 
 is chartered under the laws of the State of Nevada. Directors, E. B. 
 Dickinson. Shelbourne; Frank B. Dole, John J. Hayes, John D. Morton, 
 Monroe T. Quimby, Jonathan E. Gray, Edward F. Hager, Boston, Mass. 
 Principal ofhce, Shelbourne, White Pine county, Nevada. The mining 
 property of this company is located at Shell Creek mining district, Nevada, 
 and will soon commence work on them. White Pine seems to be attract- 
 ing attention. Capitalization, $1,000,000 ; par value, $10. 
 
 Great Western Qnlchsilver Mining Company (The) has 
 property located in Lake county, California. The length of the main 
 lode on which the company depends for its supply of ore is 3,000 feet. 
 Capitalization, $5,000,000, in shares of $100 each; total amount of divi- 
 dends paid to September 4, 1881, $250,000; date of latest dividend, Sep- 
 tember 4, 1881 ; amount per share, twenty-flve cents ; $36,600 has been 
 levied in assessments ; date of latest assessment, August 25, 1873 ; amount 
 of same, fifteen cents. 
 
 Napa Consolidated <tnicksllver mining Company (The) 
 has property located in the Hill district, Napa county, California. Office. 
 330 Pine Street, San Francisco. The length of the main lode on which 
 the company depend for its supply of ore is 28,500 feet. Capitalization, 
 $10,000,000, in 100.000 shares of^ $100 each; paid on capital, $69,882.88; 
 twenty-four dividends paid, total $250,000, to May, 1882, date of latest 
 dividend, which was ten cents per share; total assessments levied, $69.88; 
 stock quoted July, 1882, $5.25. 
 
 Quicksilver Mining Company (Preferred). The company's 
 property, which covers 8,500 acres, is located in the State of California. 
 Capitalization, $4 ,300,000 ; par value per share, $100 ; total amount of divi- 
 dends paid to August, 1868, $535,391 ; date of latest dividend, June, 1882, 
 at the rate of $6 per share ; stock qifoted June 16, $47. 
 
 Rc-<ldington Quiclisilver Mining Company. The company s 
 property is located In the State of California. Capitalization, $31,600 ; 
 par value per share, $25 ; total amount of dividends paid to July, 1878, 
 $1,052,100; date of latest dividend, July, 1878. 
 
 UNCLASSIFIED MINES. 
 
 WE have collected the following as a basis for 
 future lists ; but as the information when ob- 
 tained failed to give us officially the mineral, 
 we have put them together, rather than run 
 the risk of wrongly classifying the product of some company. 
 
 Alpha Mining Company's (Thel works are located in Slichigan. 
 Total amount of assessments levied, $420,000. Last assessment levied, 
 March, 1882, at the rate of fifty cents per share. , . ■ 
 
 Ancient Mine. W. A. & Joseph K. Clark, owners. Name of mine is 
 the Ancient mine, located at Black Chief lode, Montana Considerable 
 ore extracted ; mill owned by the company. Depth of shaft, forty feet. 
 
 ''^ArgonaiiTMining Company (The). . Officer, J. Pentecost, Sec. 
 Principal office, 702 Market Street, Philadelphia. Mines located in An- 
 
 ™Arivaca Mill Company's works are located in Pima county, Ari- 
 zona. Officers, Hon. H. N. Hibbard. Pres. ; T. H. Bryant, Asst. Sec. Office, 
 108 Washington Street, Chicago, 111. Amount of property m acres, 160 , 
 capitalization, $300,000; par value per share, $10. „i,=,to™rt 
 
 Arkansas \alley Smelting. Company (^he) is chartered 
 under the laws ofthe State of Missouri. 'The names of the officers are F 
 L. Underwood, Pres. ; August E. Myer, Vice-Pres ; E.E. Wilson Sec , 
 Louis Virdin, Asst. Sec; fustice Tungk, Treas. ; Chas. T. Limburg, Gen 
 Mang. The mines are located in Colorado. Property owned ,is BiU™gs 
 Smefe, Arkansas Valley Smelting Company formerly Billing's Smelting 
 works. Capitalization,$500,000; shares, 60,000; par value $10. 
 
 *#iao IWiw.ii.H' Comnanv (Thel is chartered under the laws of 
 th^St*e ^ Califfrni? 5fficfrsare M. Goldman, Pres.; John Oppen- 
 heim.Tce-Pres F M. Blackstone, Treas, ; A. F McGrew Sec W 
 office is 316 Moni^omery Street. San Franci.seo, Cal.; branch ofSce 140 S. 
 Fourth Street, room 6, Philadelphia, Pa. 'The mines are located at West 
 Tintic Utah Assays per ton from $35 to $65. Capitalization, $100,000, 
 pafvaluTtlbo; nS^^essable; stock listed on the Mining Exchangeat 
 Ian Francisco, CaL, at a cost of $1,000; amount of shares issued, 100,000, 
 
 ''AiiantV^nningSil Milling Company. A. F. McGrew. Sec- 
 retoJy PriilSp" "See of business.l20 Montgomery Street, San Fran-.- 
 efica Cal The mines are located at West Tintic mining district. Juab, 
 county, Utah. 
 
 Anro- a Tnnnel and Mining Company. C. V. Hubbard, Sec- 
 retary. Principal office, 203 Bush l^treet, San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Azora Mining Company (The) is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of New Jersey. Lewis Barnes, Pres. , J. V. Fullaway, Vice-Pres. ; 
 Milton T. Bailey, Sec. and Treas. Directors, Lewis Barnes, J. V. Fulla- 
 way, Edward A. Carpenter, Milton T. Bailey, Geo. W. Bratton. Transfer 
 office located at 113 S. Fourth Street, Philadelphia, Pa. Names of mines 
 owned by the company are the Azora and Commodore B., located at 
 Central mining district, three-quarters of a mile from Jamestown, Boulder 
 county. Col. J. B. H. Janeway, Superintendent Capitalization, $750,000 ; 
 shares, 150,000 ; par value, $5 ; non-assessable. 
 
 Bakeman Mining Company. The officers are Hannah M. Mayo, 
 Pres. ; S. M. Bakeman, Treas. ; Alice E. Johnson, Sec. Directors, H. M. 
 Mayo, S. M. Bakeman, A. E. Johnson, Mre. A. Smith. Agent, Geo. H. 
 Blake. Office of agent, 93 Exchange Street. Portland, Me. The com- 
 pany's works are located at Cape Eosier. They own 300 acres of land, 
 and have a capitalization of $600,000 in shares, with apar value of $5 each. 
 Ballarat Mining Company's (The) property is located In Lake 
 and Summit counties. Col. They have a capitalization of $2,000,000. 
 This company's incorporators were H. A. W. Tabor, J. W. Chipley, John 
 Law, and J. A. Cooper. 
 
 Baltimore Consolidated Mining Company's Works(The) 
 are located in Gold Hill district, Comstock lode, Nevada. There are 1 .0.'iO 
 linear feet in the company's claim. This company has a capitalization 
 of $8,400,000, in 84,000 shares, with a par value of $100 each ; nineteen 
 assessments were levied up to April 30, 1879 ; total amount of same being 
 $1,037,600. 
 
 Beehive Mining Company's in corporators were Joseph Bardine, 
 G. H. Plumwell, and G. W. Meyers. This company's property is located 
 in Fremont and Pueblo counties. Col. They have a capitalization of 
 $1,000,000. 
 
 Belle Mining and Milling Company (The). Mines located 
 in Custer county, Colorado Capitalization, $100,000 ; shares, 10,000 ; par 
 value, $10. 
 
 Bertrand Mining Company (The). Names of mines owned ; 
 Hudson, Geddes, Nos. 2-34, Bertrand, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, Calico, Stockton, 
 Secret Valley, Eliza, and Ostome. Location of mines. Secret Canyon, 
 Nevada. Capitalization, $10,000,000 ; par value, $25. - 
 
 Big Foar Mining Company (TheV The mines belonging to 
 this company are located in Colorado. Capital stock, $1,200,000. 
 
 Bismarck Mine (The). Vaughn & Co. The mining property of 
 this company is located on Hunt's Gulch, between Jackson and Mo- 
 kelumne river, California. 
 
 Black Range Mining Company (The). Incorporators, C. E. 
 Johnson, J, C. Sinclair, J. MTChadsey, W. H. Chadsey, A. F. Childs, Geo. 
 C. Garrison, W. S. Hoge, Thomas J. Gardner, Edwin S. Holmes, S. L. 
 Stephenson, H. C. Stein. N. Peters, T. Luna. Location of mines, Colorado. 
 Capitalization, $6,000,000. 
 
 Black Rock Mining Company (The), California. N. T. Eoot, 
 Sec, 225 Beale Street, principal office. 
 
 Black Warrior Mining Company is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of New York. Office, 24 Clifif Street, New York. J. S. Alex- 
 ander, Pres. Superintendent, A. A. Alexander. This gentleman has had 
 four yeara' experience in this line of work. The Black Warrior mine, the 
 property of this company, is located in Peck district, Yavapai county, 
 Arizona. There are 1,600'feet in the company's claim. They own twenty- 
 one acres of land. 
 
 Bobtail Tunnel Company's (The) works are located m Gilpin 
 county. Col. The main lode, on which the company depends for its sup- 
 ply of^ore, is 2.600 feet in length. Capitalization, $100,000; par value per 
 share, $5; number of dividends paid up to December, 1879, four; total 
 amount of dividends paid up to December. 1879, $72,000; date of latest 
 dividend, December, 1879 ; amount per share, fifteen cents ; total amount 
 of assessments, $52,000 ; date of latest assessment, July, 1873, at the rate of 
 thirty cents per share. 
 
 Bonanza Consolidated Mining Company (The), Eureka 
 district, Nevada. Names of mines owned. Star of the West Nos. 1 and 2, 
 Pride of the West Nos. 1 and 2. Main shaft is down 150 feet, from which 
 point 300 feet drift has been run, encountering the most encouraging 
 prospects. 
 
 Bosco Mining Company is chartered under the laws of the State 
 of New York. The officers in 1880 were Gen. Egbert L. Ville, Pres. ; E. W. 
 Andrews, Vice-Pres.; Wm. H. Franklin. Treas.; John T. Banker, Sec 
 Superintendent, H. K. ViUe. The company's property is located in Colo- 
 rado. They own the Bosco, William, Rome, and Elizabeth mines; and 
 developments have been pushed to the extent of determining beyond 
 question the great value of this property. 
 
 Boston and Sonora Mining Company (The) is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of Iowa. Officers, H. G. Ortis, Pres. ; P. E. 
 Johnson, Vice-Pres. ; J. S. GUI, Treas.; W. E. Wood, Sec. Superintendent 
 of the works, E. G. Barker. Office, 31 Milk Street, Boston, Mass. The 
 mine owned is the Mena Grande, located at Alter district, Sonera, Sexico. 
 This property is an extensive one and makes a very rich showing. The 
 company proposes to raise $26,000 additional working capital, that the 
 work of putting the mine upon a productive, dividend-paying basis may 
 be vigorously pushed. Date of commencing developments, February, 
 1881 ; date of organization, December, '1880 ; capitalization, $2,600,000 ; par 
 value per share, $25 ; non-assessable. 
 
 Boalder Mining and Developing Company. Directors, 0. 
 C. Hainsburgh, Chas. Tate, A. Peck, A. G. Peck. Chas. Tate, Pres. ; A. G. 
 Woodard, Vice-Pres.; Edgar A. Peck, Treas. and Gen. Manager. Office, 
 Lymes Block, Denver, Col. The company's works are located in Boulder 
 and Gilpin counties. Col. Date of organization, January 18, 1882 ; capital- 
 ization, ^00.000; par value per share, $10. 
 
 Bristol Mining Company (The), Minneapolis, Minn. Mines 
 owned, Mayflower and Cave. Located at Bristol district, Nevada. 
 
 Brothers' Mine (Tlje) is owned by Messrs. B. N. Brajevich and 
 Joseph Sresovich. The Brothers' mine is located in Calavaras district, 
 Arizona. This mine is near the Gold Hill mine, situated in the Mohave 
 Mountains, near Santa Cruz river. Bock is rich, and constantly improv- 
 ing in quality. 
 
 Brown & Urton. Property located in Nevada. Stock, 100,000 shares. 
 Total amount of dividends paid up to July, 1881, $8,350; latest dividend, 
 July, 1881, eight and one-half cents per share. 
 
 Bine-Bird Mill and Mining Company. Office. No. 10 Market 
 Street, San Francisco, Cal. Location of works. Globe district, Pinal county, 
 Arizona. 
 
 Bine Top Mine (The) is owned by Messrs. Williams & Topliff. The 
 location of this mining property is in Arizona. 
 
 Brookland Mining Company (The) are the owners of the 
 Brookland mine, which is located at Carbonate Hill. Col. Property owned, 
 tenrjnch Cornish pump and engine, etc Main shaft is 480 feet deep. 
 Cabinet Mining Cktmpany's (The) property is located in Gold 
 
1180 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Hill district, Nevada. Total amount of assessments levied, $4,000; latest 
 assessment levied, October 8. 1877. . 
 
 Cadillac ailniii^ Company (The). The mines belonging to this 
 company are located on Ball Mountain. Col. 
 
 Capps Mine (Tiie). Owned by John Wilkes, of Charlotte, N. C. The 
 name of mine, Capps, located five miles north-west of Charlotte, N. C. 
 Amount of property in acres, 125; two veins, 1,200 feet; now developing 
 on the 145-feet level; production large; when last worked, as low as 
 seventy-live feet. Other statistics of little value. Not being worked at 
 present, July 17, 1882. Mr. Wilkes is also proprietor of the Mecklenburg 
 Iron Works. Production large when last worked. 
 
 Caledonia Consolidated Company, of Nevada, embraces the 
 Holmes, Baker, Ashbum, and other companies. It is on the same range 
 of gravel as Blue Tent, Quaker Hill, and Little York. 
 
 Carboca Mining Company CMie). Directors, S. F. Gashwiler, 
 J. \v . Koberts. C. A. Burgess, C. F. McDermott, G. W. Grayson. Location 
 of mine, Sonora, Mexico. 
 
 Carbonate mining Company (The). Name of mines owned, 
 Yankee Doodle, located on Cai-bonate Hill, Col. This mine was recently 
 transferred to the above company for the sum of $300,000. 
 
 Carolina <tncen Ilinins Company's (Tlic) properties are 
 located in North Carolina. Capitalization, S2U0,000, in 100,000 shares of 
 S-J each. Amount jiaid in dividends January 1, 1882, 52,000. Date of latest 
 dividend. June, 1882: amount per share, one cent. Stock quoted July 14, 
 eighteen cents per share. 
 
 Cataract and Wide West H. Kilning Company (Tlie). 
 Officer, Wm, B. Lake, Sec. Principal office, 26 V$ Kearney Street, San Fran- 
 cisco, Cal. Location of mines. Nevada. 
 
 Champion jtlining Company (The). OfBcer, J. Crockett, Sec. 
 Office of company, 302 Bush Street, San Francisco, Cal. Mines located 
 in Nevada. 
 
 Chip]>ewa Consolidated Mining Company (The). Officers, 
 Directors, John J. Savage, J. Whitaker Wright, Chas. L. Hall, L. G. Kent, 
 J. A. Hosecrans, C. C. Kellogg, Chas. J. Thomas, W. McCafferty, J. L. 
 Loomis. Location of mines, Colorado. Twenty-five men emplojred. 
 
 Clifton Cousoliflated niining Company (The). Directors, 
 1880, Geo. A. Leaverns, A. A. Hunger, Jacob Weil, A. L. Weston, J. Henry 
 W'eil, J. A. Stanton, Geo. W. Bittenger. Location of mines, Colorado. 
 Capitalization, 4600,000; shares,, 60,000; par value. SHO. 
 
 Colorado and New Mexico Company (The). Name of mine 
 owned. Rose of Breck-inridge. Located on Mineral Hill. Colorado. Char- 
 acter of the ore, galena. Character of mine, veins. Depth, .^00 feet. Tun- 
 nel used, 1881. Will begin shipments to Leadville as soon as the railroad 
 reaches IBreckenridge. ^ 
 
 Columbus Consolidated Mining Company's property is lo- 
 cated in Esmeralda county, Nev. The directors are Simon Reinhart, H. 
 M. Levy, F. M. Luce, R. P. Keating, P. I. White. The company has a cap- 
 italization of $10,000,000. 
 
 Combination Mining Company (The). Location of mines, 
 Black Mountain, Esmeralda county, Nev. Date of first dividend, none. 
 Number of assessments levied, two; total amount of same, S20,000 : date 
 of latest assessment, May 18, 1878. 
 
 Comprise Minlnijr Company (The), of Philadelphia. Location 
 of mines, on Yankee Hill, Col. Amount of property, five acres. Prospects 
 of property very favorable. 
 
 Conquest Mill and Mining Company is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of New York. The officers are Sheridan Shock, Pres. ; 
 A.J. Dittenhoefer. V.-Pres. ; Wm. A. Darling, Treas. ; James B. Morey, 
 Sec; A. H. Kidney, Financial Agent. Office, 115 Broadway, New York. 
 The company's property is located in Nevada. Capitalization, 51,000,000 ; 
 par value per share, $5; basis, non-assessable. 
 
 Consolidated Yankee anal Breeee Hill Company (The). 
 Officers, J. A. Rosecrans, Pros. ; C. C. Kellogg. Sec. and Treas. ; John Mea- 
 gher, Superintendent. Principal office. 607 Harrison Avenue. Leadville, 
 Col. The mines are located in Colorado, on Yankee and Breece Hills. 
 The mines are worked by drifts. The shaft is 270 feet deep. This prop- 
 erty consists of el^ht promising locations situated on Yankee and Breece 
 Hills. Capitalization. 300,000 shares ; par value, SIO. 
 
 Coriiorvan Mine (The). Messrs. Hustin & Cornorvan. Names of 
 mine owned, Cornorvan ; location of mine, Cooper Gulch, Alma county, 
 Col. Most valuable mines; assays per ton (mill-run), $108.50; character 
 of the mines, on the vein, about twentj'"-five feet, and now a vein three 
 feet in width. Date of organization, September, 1881. 
 
 Cosmopolitan .Mining Company (The). Location of mines. 
 Gold Hill di.strict, Nevada, 1,800 linear feet in mine. Capitalization, 
 $10,000,000; shares, 100,000 ; par value, $100. Number of dividends to Jan- 
 uary 1, 1882, none. Number of assessments levied, five; total amount of 
 same, $126,000 ; date of latest assessment, October 11, 1877. 
 
 Curtis Consolidated Mining Company (The). H. P. Stone, 
 Sec. Principal office, No. 419 California Street, San Francisco, Cal. Mines 
 located in Nevada. 
 
 Dauntless Mining Company is chartered under the laws of the 
 State of Colorado. The officers are Wm. R. Thompson, Pres. ; Geo. W. 
 Turner, Treas. ; W. D. Huntly, Sec. Directors, John S. Doughty, Wm. R. 
 Thompson. Geo. W. Turner. Isaac Bennett, Geo. S. Adams. John D, RuofT, 
 N. H. Anders, H.C. Off. Superintendent, S. S. Campbell. Office, S33 Chest- 
 nut Street, Philadelphia. The Dauntless mine, owned by this company, is 
 located in Colarado. Depth of shaft, 100 feet. Length of tunnel, 110 leet. 
 Capitalization. $5,000,000 ; par value per share, $10 ; basis, non-assessable. 
 Bonded indebtedness, January 1882, $10,000. Amount of stock reserved 
 in treasury, 2.500 shares. 
 
 Devonshire Mining Coin]>any. Office of company. Boston, 
 Mass. This company has a capitalization of $1,000,000, in 100,000 shares, 
 with a par value of $10 each. 
 
 Diamond State Mining Company. The officers are Henry C. 
 Conrad, Pres.; Joshua Maris. Sec. ; J. W. Allen, Supt. Offices, Wilming- 
 ton, Del. The company's works are located near Breckenridge, Col. 
 They have a capitalization of $1,000,000. 
 
 Devllle Mining Company's (The) works are located in Esme- 
 ralda county, Nevada. The company was organized March 21, 1880. The 
 Directors are R. N. Graves, A. Hayward, W, H. Sheriden, W. Kohl, and 
 J. Epstein. The company has a capitalization of $10,000,000. 
 
 Eagle Mining Company's (The) property is located in Saguache 
 county. Col. The company was incorporated in 1880. The incorporators 
 were Geo. B. Nevins, J. C. Loomis, M. E. Kincaid, J, C. Goodwin, and C. 
 L. Gillingham. The company has a capitalization of $150,000. 
 
 Eberhardt and Aurora Mining Company's (the) works are 
 located in White Pine county, Nevada. Capitalization, $1,175,000; par 
 value per .«hare. $50 ; total amount of dividends paid to December, 1877, 
 $174,500; date of latest dividend, December, 1877, seventy-five cents per 
 share. 
 
 Eclipse Mining Company (The). Incorporators, S. D. Prescott, 
 A. M. Barnhart, S. G. Stein, Warren Bamhart, G. W. Barnhart. The 
 
 company own mines located in Chaffee county. Col. Capitalization, 
 $32,000. The capital stock is named at 832,000, with the privilege of in- 
 creasing it to $500,000 by a two-thirds vote of the stockholders. 
 
 EI Carmen Mining Company is chartered under the laws of the 
 State of New York. The officers are E. A. Schroeder, Vice- Pres ; Edgar 
 E Salters, Treas. Office, 125 Broadway, New York, rooms 6, 7. and 8. 
 The company's works are located at Michoacan, Mexico. Date of organ- 
 ization, June, 1877. Capitalization, $6,000,000; par value per share, $20; 
 basis, non-assessable; full paid. 
 
 El Dorado South Consolidation Company (The). The 
 mines of this company are located in Philadelphia dis1;rict, Nye 
 county, Nevada. 2,600 linear feet in mine. CapitalizaUon, $4,000,000; 
 shares, 40,000; par value, $100. No dividends. Thirteen assessments 
 levied, with a total amount of $567,000 ; the .latest assessment, July 27, 
 1878. 
 
 Electro -Magnetic Mining and Developing Company 
 (The). Incorporators, Robert Brown, Edgar A. Peck, Mills H. Smith. 
 The mines are located in Colorado. Capitalization, $1,000,000. 
 
 Emmett Mining Company (The). This company's mine is lo- 
 cated in Colorado. Capitalization, $5,000,000; shares, 600,000; par value, 
 $10. 
 
 Empress Mining Company (The). Name of mines owned, Em- 
 press. Location. Gilpin county, Col. Depth of shaft, 475 feet. Prospects 
 of property encouraging. . 
 
 Euter|>rise Mining anfl Developing Company (Tlie) is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of Pennsylvania. Wni. H. Wade, 
 Pres. ; Enon M. Harris, Sec. and Treas. Directors, Wm. H. Wade, A. J. 
 String, T. A. D. Forster, M. D. ; Wm. Dunlap, E. P. Carpenter. Principal of- 
 fice 113 South Fourth Street, Philadelphia, Pa. Location of mines, Nash 
 county, N, C. Amount of property in acres, 1,000. Capitalization, 320 
 shares ; par value. $2,500 ; full paid. 
 
 Enterprise Mining Company (The). Mines located in Col- 
 orado. StocI<s quoted, July 13, 1882. sixty-five cents. 
 
 Evergreen Eakes and Mineral Springs Company (The). 
 Simon Desmarchais. Principal office, Leadville, Col. Location of mines, 
 Lake county, Col. Capitalization, $100,000; shares, 2,000 ; par value, $50. 
 
 Farland Mine (The) is the property of D. J. Adams, and is located 
 at Clarksburg, Harrison county, W. Va. The mine is now leased by J. T. 
 Farland. It is in the nine-foot seam. Some forty men are employed. 
 Maximum yearly capacity, February 1, 1881, 12,000 tons. The West is the 
 principal market for the ore. 
 
 Earwell Consolidated Mining Company. The property Is 
 located in Independence district, Pitkin county, Col., and includes the 
 Independence, Nos. 1. 2, 3, and 4, Last Dollar. Last Dime, Legal Tender, 
 Bennington, Choler, Sheba, Friday, Mammoth, Dolly Varden, Gallon, 
 Minnie, jVIount Hope, and Golden Champion mines. The company pur- 
 chased a fifteen-stamp mill, which has been running since January, 1881, 
 and have recently built a tliirty-stamp mill. 
 
 Fairfax Mining Company's (The) works are located in Ne- 
 vada, Comstock lode. There are 8,000 linear feet in the company's mine. 
 Capitalization, $10,000,000 ; par value per share, $100. No dividends as yet 
 paid. Number of assessments levied, April 1, 1880, two; total amount of 
 same, $35,000; date of latest assessment, April 1, 1880. 
 
 Flora Morrison Mine (The) is located in Tombstone district. Ari- 
 zona. Shaft is 632 feet deep. 
 
 Florida Mining Conipany's^The) property is located at Ameri- 
 can Flat, Nevada. There are 1.200 Iniear feet in the mine. Capitaliza- 
 tion, $5,000,000; par value per share, $100. No dividends paid yet. Num- 
 ber of assessments levied, eight; total amount of assessments levied, 
 $225,000 ; date of latest assessment, February 14, 1877. 
 
 Garfield Mining and Milling Compan.y (The). Incorpora- 
 tors, Daniel C. Coffman, James N. Croft, E. P. Martin, Louis K. Heker, 
 Wm. La Shell. The company's property is located in Boulder county, 
 Col. They have a capitalization of $100,000. 
 
 Oein MiniiBg I'ompany. The company's works are located in 
 Colorado. They have a ten-stamp mill on their property. The company 
 has expended $10,000 in developments to January 1, 1882. They have 
 125,000 shares; basis, non-assessable; fully paid; total amount of divi- 
 dends paid to July, 1882, $7,460 ; date of latest dividend, July, 1882, which 
 was at the rate of one cent per share. 
 
 Genera] Jourdan Mining C-ompany. Directors, W. B. Meeker, 
 Chas, C. Fester, R. Lindsay, W. A. Allen, Harman Schiltz, J. Shepherd. 
 The company's property is located in Colorado. They have a capitaliza- 
 tion of $10,000,000. 
 
 General I^ee Mining Company. Location of mines, White 
 Pine county, Nev. Length of mam lode. 1,000 feet. Capitalization, 
 $1,000,000; par value per share, $100 ; total amount of assessments levied, 
 $307,000. 
 
 General Thomas Mining Company's works are located at 
 Columbus, Esmeralda county, Nev. Capitalization, $5,000,000 ; par value 
 per share, 6100; number of assessments levied, six; total amount of as- 
 sessments levied. $125,000; date of latest assessment, July 20, 1880, 
 
 Gerniania Mining and Smelting Company (The). Loca- 
 tion of works, Gunnison county, Col. The company have a capitalization 
 of $325,000 ; par value per share, $50. 
 
 Gertrude Mine (The), owned by E. W. Bush and Henry Friends, 
 of Chicago, and Mr. Houghton, of Boston, is located at the head of the 
 Platte, Alma, Colorado. 
 
 Globe Mining Company. Main office, Leadville, Col. Transfer 
 office, 310 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Globe Consoll<lated Mining Company's (The) property is lo- 
 cated in Storey county, Nev. 1,500 linear feet in the company's mine 
 Capitalization, $3,800,000; par value per share, $100; number of assess- 
 ments levied, eleven ; total amount of assessments, $222,800 ; date of latest 
 assessment, March 29, 1879. 
 
 Gray Eagle Mining Company's (The) works are located in 
 Chester county, Col. Two veins on the company's property have been 
 cut about fifteen feet apart, but tend towards each other ; one of which 
 yields ore worth $75 to tlie ton, and is only about one foot in width 
 
 Grayson Mining Company have their works located in McDowell 
 county, N. C, where tliey own 240 acres of land. Mr. Kidiiev is the Su- 
 perintendent. The ore assays $25 per ton. Stock ond bonds field princi- 
 pally in Meridian, Connecticut. 
 
 Green Moiister and Aznrlte Company (The). Officers, 
 Judge George Hibben, Pres., Chicago ; J. W. Virgin, Vice-Pres Leadville ' 
 James Streeter, Treas., Leadville. Directors, George Hibben J W Vir- 
 gin, James Streeter, Captain W. H. Kingsbury, R. C. Hutchinson, Lcad- 
 ^'Pjf'„'^T®l^ff'^?l •'"i'^^ Kespohl, Quincy, 111.; Col. Henry King, 
 Kansas ; T. B. Moody. New York, The location of mines is on L-me 
 creek, Colorado. Capitalization, $3,000,000; shares, 300,000; par value $10 
 c. '■/*y*'^T.?**".'"8' »««> Milling Company. Office, 402 I'ront 
 Street, ban J'raneisco, Cal. Theoompauy'a urooertv is located in Amadftr 
 
 county, near Drytowu, Cal, 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1181 
 
 Golgandii Mliiins Company (The). The mines belonging to 
 tins company are located in Lake county, Col. 
 
 Uoo<l Vaith Mining Company. The Directors are John S. Kae, 
 Joseph Clark, WilliamDutoh. G.J. Funlj, Charles Warren. The company's 
 property is located in Columbus district, Nev. The company was organ- 
 ized March 3. 1880. They have a capitalization of $10,000,000. 
 
 Good liUCk Mining ana Milling Company (The) has prop- 
 
 <>)oo<lwln Mining Company's property is located at Baltimore 
 City, Va. The company own two seventy-norse-power boilers, seventy- 
 five-horae-power engine, Howland pulverizer, rock-breaker, two Imlay 
 concentrators, and Bacon hoisting-machine. 
 
 Hamburg Mining Company (Tlie) has property located in the 
 Eureka district. Nev. Length of main lode, 2,000 feet. Capitalization, 
 $10,000,000, in 100,000 shares of SlOO each. No dividends paid. Seven as- 
 sessments levied; amount of same, $305,000; date of latest assessment, 
 September 19, 1879. 
 
 Hamilton Mining Company's property is located at Pitkin 
 county. Col. Oflce, Denver, Col. The company has a capitalization of 
 82,000,000, in shares vpith a par value of tlO each. 
 
 Hard Money Consolidated Company. The company's works 
 are located at Columbus, Esmeralda county, Nev. 
 
 Hazeltlne Mining Company's ('I'lie) property is located in Col- 
 orado. They have quite recently (according to report) uncovered a large 
 body of pay ore in both the east and west 100-foot levels. First quality 
 of ore mined is reported to assay $700 per ton. 
 
 Hecia Mining Company's works are located in Idaho. Thecom- 
 pany is taking out sixty tons of ore per day, and improvements are in 
 progress, and expected to be completed about July 1, 1882, which will give 
 them concentrating capacity for 100 tons per day. The company has a 
 capitalization of $1,500,000. Date of latest dividend, March, 1882, paying 
 one per cent, per month. 
 
 Hock Hocking Mine (The), owned by Mr. H. D. Howe, Superin- 
 tendent, is located at Pennsylvania Gulch, Alma county. Col. It is a new 
 property. The ore Is reported as high grade. A force of six men is 
 employed. 
 
 Hornet Mining Company (The) has property located at Tus- 
 carora, Nev. The total length of the main lode on which the company 
 depends for its supply of ore is 1,500 feet. Capitalization. $10,000,000, in 
 100,000 shares of $100 each. No dividends paid. Three assessments levied, 
 aggregating $30,000 ; last assessment in January, 1878. 
 
 Horseshoe and Sheep Mountain Mining Company. Office, 
 Leadville, Col. The company's property is located in Lake county. Col. 
 Capitalization, $1,000,000 ; par value per share, $10. 
 
 Horseshoe Mining Company is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of New Jersey. The officers are S. S. Hammond, Pres. ; C. H. 
 Woodruff. Vice-Pres. ; E. M. Harris, Sec. ; A. J. String. S. G. Ford. Direct- 
 ors, 8. S. Hammond, A. J. String, 8. G. Ford, D. K. Joslin, E. P. Carpen- 
 ter, G. W. Bratton, C. H. Woodruff. Transfer office, 113 South Fourth 
 Street. Philadelphia, Pa. This company owns the Franklin mine, located 
 in Independence mining district. Lake county. Col. Capitalization, 
 $500,000 ; par value per share, $5 ; basis, non-assessable. 
 
 Hussey Mining Companj^'s (The) property is located at Cornu- 
 copia, Elko county, Nev. The main lode is 4.500 feet in length. Capitali- 
 zation, $10,000,000; par value per share, $100. Number of assessments 
 levied, nine; total amount of assessments levied, $121,000 ; date of latest 
 assessment, August 25, 1879. 
 
 Ida Elmore Mining Company. Location of property. Silver 
 City, Idaho. Capitalization, $200,000 ; par value per share, $1. Number 
 of dividends paid to February 8, 1877, thirteen ; total amount of dividends 
 paid, $60,000 : date of latest dividend, February 8, 1877. Number of assess • 
 ments levied, twenty-two ; total amount of assessments levied, $760,000 ; 
 date of latest assessment, June 26, 1876. 
 
 International Vacuum Mining and Dredging Company. 
 The officers are H. A. Cashman, Pres. ; B. Hedge, Vice-Pres. ; A. C. Whit- 
 tier, Jessie E. Dewey, Secretary and Treasurer. Superintendent, D, F. 
 Page. .Office, 69 Devonshire Street, Boston, Mass. Location of works, 
 Massachusetts. Capitalization, $2,600,000. 
 
 Inyoreka Mining Company (The). Officers. Directors, H. T. 
 Graves, F. B. Wilde, J. W. Shaeffer, W. D. Johnson. Location of mines, 
 Inyo county. Cal. Capitalization, $10,000,000. 
 
 Inyo <;onsolid!ited Mining and Milling Company is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of New York. Office, 68 Broadway, 
 New York. The company's mines are the Little Chief, Wyoming, Eureka, 
 and Independence, located in Inyo county, Cal. Total amount of divi- 
 dends paid, $46,000 ; date of latest dividend, April 30, 1882, five cents per 
 share. Stock quoted July 1, 1882, $5. 
 
 Iowa Gulch Mining Comitany is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of California, A. G. Cattell. Pres.; S. Cresswell. Vice-Pres.; W. 
 T Vanderber. Treaa. Directors, J. C.Wyman, Dr. H.Bergen, H. Stanton, 
 J. W. Jennings, Dell Noble. Office, 306 Stock Exchange Place, Philadel- 
 phia Pa The company's mines, the Scooper and Marietta, are located 
 at Yankee Hill, Col. 'their property covers eight acres of land. The 
 character of the ore is hard carbonate ; assays about $25 per ton. Accord- 
 ing to report, the Scooper mine has lately encountered several pockets of 
 fine ore The company has a capitalization of $5,000,000, in shares at a 
 par value of $10 each. Stock all issued. 
 
 Iron Mountain Mining Company (The) hasits office atl28 La 
 Salle Street, Chicago, 111. The officers are W. L. Helfenstein, New York 
 city Pres. ; Stewart Spaulding, of Chicago. 111., Sec. The property of the 
 company is located In Mexico. Capitalization, $10,000,000, in 100,000 shares 
 
 Julia Consolidated Mining Company (The). E. M. Hall, Sec. 
 General office, 327 Pine Street, San Francisco, Cal. The property belonging 
 to this company is located on the Comstock lode. Storey county, Nevada. 
 
 JTefTerson Mining Company(The). Owns property in Jefferson, 
 Nve county, Nev. The total length of the main lode on which the com- 
 nan V depends for its supply of ore is 8,182 feet. Capitalization, $6,000,000, 
 in 50 000 shares of $100 each ; $50 is total of dividends paid to 15th of May, 
 1875 'date of latest dividend. $112,000 has been levied on assessments 
 (four). Latest assessment, April 13, 1877. v v ^ ^ -c r. 
 
 John A. IiOgan Mining Company (The), of which Capt. H. D. 
 Baker is Supt owns the John A. Logan mine, located about two and a 
 half miles below Sedgwick, in the Kerber Creek district. Col. Capt. H. D. 
 
 ^'¥^&K"G"»Iinins Company (The). W. W. Lent, Sec. General 
 ofRoe, 309 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal. These mines are loca- 
 
 '^Kl'rkwooTlilining Company (The). The location of this min- 
 ing prop^ty""ia Custer county "col. Capitalization, $5,000; shares, 200; 
 
 par valuS, $2b. 
 
 Knickerbocker Mining Company (The). Owns mining 
 property located at American Fmt, Nev. The length of the main lode on 
 which the company depends for its supply of ore is 2,200 feet. Capitaliza- 
 tion, $10,000,000, in 100.000 shares ofSlOiJ each. No dividends have been 
 paid; nineteen assessments have been levied; total amount, $511,000; 
 date of latest assessment, 27th of September, 1877. 
 
 HosKiith Mining Company ('I'lic). Owns property located at 
 Devil s Gate, Lyon county, Nev. The length of main lode on wiiich the 
 company depends for its supply of ore is 2,700 feet. Capitalization, $6,400,- 
 000, in 108,000 shares of $50 each. No dividends have been paid; eight 
 assessments, aggregating $^7,400, have been levied since August 31, 1877, 
 the date of the nrat assessment, which was fifteen cents per share. 
 
 liady Bryan Mining Company (The). Office, 203 Bush Street, 
 San Francisco, Cal. These mines are located In Nevada. 
 
 Iiady Washington Consolidated Mining Company (The). 
 Officer, W. H. Watson. Principal office, 302 Montgomery Street, San 
 Francisco, Cal. The mining property is located in Nevada. 
 
 liake Valley Mining Company (The). The Lake Valley mines 
 owned by this company are located in New Mexico. Col. Very rich ore. 
 Property owned is a quartz mill, Mr. W. L. Davis (1882), of Leadville, 
 who visited the mines recently, reports in the highest terms of the prop- 
 erties. In his opinion, over a miiiion dollars' worth of ore is already de- 
 veloped and waiting treatment. 
 
 liancaster Mining Companj^ (The). Principal office, Lead- 
 ville, Col. The mines belonging to this comljany are located in Park and 
 Lake counties. Col. Capitalization $1,000,000; shares, 100,000; par value, 
 $10. 
 
 Leopold Mining and Milling Company (The). Principal 
 office, Leadville, Col. The mines belonging to this company's claims are 
 located in Lake county. Col. Capitalization, $600,000 ; shares, 50,000 ; par 
 value, $10. 
 
 I^iberty Hill Consolidated Mining and Water Company 
 (The). Officer, J. W. Pew, Sec. Principal office. 310 Pine Street, San 
 Francisco, Cal. The mines belonging to this company are located in 
 California. 
 
 lilme Creek Mining Company. The officers are J. Y. Marshall, 
 Pres.; J. W. Jacques, Vice-Pres. ; J. R. Hammond, Sec: C. C. Parsons, 
 Treas. Directors, J. Y. Marshall, J. W. Jacques, Samuel McMiHen, C. C. 
 Parsons, J. K. Hammond, H. T. Sale, and J. P. O'Brien. Office, Leadville, 
 Col. The company own nineteen claims, located at Holy Cross mining 
 district. Pitkin county. Col. Amount of property in acres, 190. 
 
 Lincoln Mining Company (The) is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of Colorado. The officers are W. J. Troth, Pres. ; Wm. Robb, 
 Vice-Pres.; J. Morton Rigg, Sec. and Treas. Directors, W.J. Troth, J. 
 Morton Rigg, J. I. Wriglit, M. D., Geo. R. Stansberry. The offices are 430 
 Walnut Street, Philadelphia. Pa. The company owns five claims, Rev. 
 Samuel Durborow, Mary Daniels, Little Mary Ann, Lincoln, and Wm. 
 Penn . located at or on Long and Derry Hill, Thompson's Gulcli. Cal. Min- 
 ing district. Lake county, Col., and liaving an area of fifty-one acres. The 
 shaft is down 225 feet. The mining plant and other property connected 
 with the mine includes good buildings and hoisting machinery. Capi- 
 talization, $2,000,000, in 200.000 shares of $10 each ; non-assessable ; stock 
 issued, 120,000 shares ; stock reserved in treasury, 80,000 shares. 
 
 liittlc Bear Mining and Milling Company (The). Incor- 
 
 E orators. B. F. Grafton, H. E. Paine, N. W. Fitzgerald, J. B. Alley. H. B. 
 lenman. Robert G. Ingersoll, C. P. Farrell, Wm. S. Bush, D. W. Middle- 
 ton. Principal office, Washington, D. C. The mines belonging to this 
 company are located at New Mexico, Col. Capitalization, $5,000,000 ; 
 shares, 200,000 ; par value, $26. 
 
 Little Diamond Consolidated Mining Company is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of Colorado. The company has a capi- 
 talization of $6,000,000. Par value per share, $10. 
 
 liittle Delaware Mining Company (The). Themining prop- 
 erty of this company is located m California Gulch, Col. Shaft used. 
 
 Little Keystone MiniiigCompany is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of New York. Theofficers are Chas. F. Bussing, Pres. ; T. E. 
 Harrison. Vice-Pres. ; Benjamin Stearns. Sec. ; Albert Alsberg, Treas. Of- 
 fices, 68 Broadway, New York, and 310 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 The company's property is located at Carbonate Hill. Leadville, Col. 
 The company has a capitalization of $300,000, in 20,000 shares ; par value, 
 $1.60 ; basis, non-assessable. 
 
 London Mining Company (The). Principal place of business, 
 Fairplay. John T. Herrick, Agent. The mining property owned by this 
 company is located in Colorado. 
 
 Longfellow Mining Company (The.) Location of works, Clif- 
 ton, Apache county. Arizona. Report says the property of this company 
 has developed jjuietly into a colossal enterprise. Over 600 men are en- 
 gaged at the mines. Several miles of tramway have been built, and a 
 small army of teamsters is engaged in hauling away the bullion and 
 bringing fhel and supplies to the mines. The company is working the 
 mines at a profit. 
 
 Lnveland Pass Mining and Railroad Tunnel Company 
 is chartered under the laws of the State of Colorado. The officers are 
 W. A. D. Loveland, Pres. ; Ex-Govemor W. M. Stone, Vice-Pres. : Edward 
 Reed, Treas. ; A. D. Clements, .Sec. ; Frank W. Loveland. Office, Denver, 
 Colorado. The company's property is located in Colorado. Date of or- 
 ganization, July 13, 1881 ; capitalization, $5,000.000 ; par value per share, 
 $20. Preferred stock, 62,260 shares ; basis, non-assessable. 
 
 Lucky Hill Consolidated Mining (Company (The) has 
 property in Durango, Mexico. One assessment levied April 25, 1882, at 
 ten cents per share. 
 
 Luna Chihuahua Mining Company (The). The mines 
 belonging to this company are located in Chihuahua, Summit county, 
 Colorado. Capitalization, $2,000,000. 
 
 Monarch Mine (The). Owned by Hodges & Company. The loca- 
 tion of this mining property Is near the Susquehanna, South Half-Moon 
 mining district, on French Mountain, Ijtke county. Col. The character 
 of the mines consists of veins. Entrance to mine is by tunnel. The 
 company has made no preparations for winter quarters and work. 
 
 Machinist Mining Company (The). The mines belonging to 
 this company are located in Nevada. Capitalization, $1,000,000; shares 
 100,000 ; par value. $10; number of dividends, February 1, 1877, amount, 
 $400,000 ; date of latest dividend, February 1, 1877 : per share, $1. 
 
 Madonna Mine (The) is situated about one mile south of Chaffee 
 city, Colorado. This mine is owned by a close corporation composed of 
 General W. Tuttle, of Des Moines, Iowa; General Davis, of Chicago- 
 Judge Richards, of Fort Dodge, Iowa; and Messrs. McDonald, Paine 
 and Pomeroy, of New York city. Two shafts have been sunk ; one to a 
 depth of 115 feet, and the other eighty feet; the former of which is re- 
 ported to have cut a large body of mineral. 
 
 Magnolia Mining Company (The). Principal office. Denver, 
 Colorado. The mining property of this company is located in Pitkin 
 county. Col. Capital stock, $1,000,000; shares, 100,0iX); par value $10 
 
1182 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Kammotli ConsolMlated mining Company. The officers are 
 J. G. Jones, Pres. ; H. Davis, See. Directors, J. I. Meek, A. P. Tritgin, and 
 John Lunday. This company's property is located in Nevada county, 
 Cal. 
 
 Alammotli Mining and Millinsr Company. The company's 
 mine is located at Breece Hill, Col. The ore is of a porphyritic for- 
 mation of very promising character. The shaft is 200 feet deep. The 
 company owns steam-hoisting engine, and other machinery. 
 
 Mark Twain Mining Company (The). This mining pro- 
 perty is located In Summit county. Col. Capitalization, 100 shares. 
 
 9Iarrs Consolidated Mining Company (The). This mining 
 property is located in Dolores county. Col. Capitalization, 8600,000 ; shares, 
 
 SIcSIllIen Alining; Company. Location of property, Arizona. 
 The company has a capitalization of $10,000,000; par value per share, 
 8100. Total amount of dividends paid, 890,000; date of latest dividend, 
 June 20, 1881, being paid at the rate of fifteen cents per share. 
 
 Aiassacliusetts and Neiv Mexico Consolidated Mining 
 Company (The) was organized at Portland, Maine, on January 6, 1881. 
 The property is located m the Eureka district, New Mexico. There 
 are from sixty to seventy men employed in the mines. Capitalization, 
 8300,000. 
 
 McCuIIock Klinins' Company (The). This company was char- 
 tered under the laws of The State of Colorado. S. Janney, Pres. ; Shreve 
 Aekley, Treas.; Wm. L. Lisfcm, Sec. Principal office. 306 Stock Exchange 
 Place, Philadelphia, Pa. Capitalization, 200,000 shares ; par value, 810 ; 
 non-assessable. Amount of stock issued, 160,000 shares ; reserved in treas- 
 ury, 40,000 shares. 
 
 Mea<low Valley Mining' Company (The). The location ot 
 the property of this mining company is in Ely district, Lincoln county, 
 Nev. Number of dividends paid to June 16, 1873, 17; total amount, 
 81 ,260,000 ; latest dividend, June 16, 1873. Number of assessments levied ; 
 total amount of same, 8528,000; date of latest assessment, August 1, 1881. 
 Capitalization, 86,000,000 ; shares, 60,000 ; par value, 8100. 
 
 Metallic Mining; Company. OfSce, 309 Montgomery Street, Sau 
 Francisco, California. 
 
 Mexican Union Mining Company (The). Directors, George 
 Story, Victor Fernbaoh, D. Fay, Frank Tagllabue, U. Mayers. The mines 
 ol tins company are in Columbus district, Esmeralda county, Nevada. 
 Capitalization, 810,000,000. 
 
 Miller Mining Company (The). The mines belonging to this 
 company are located in Nevada. Capitalization, 200,000 shares: par 
 value, 825. '^ 
 
 Mineral Hill Mining Company owns the Keystone mine 
 located near Bellevne, Wood river, Idaho. The company has a capitali- 
 zation of 8600,000 ; par value per share, 85. 
 
 Mineral Hill Mining and Smelting Company is chartered 
 under the lawsof the State of Colorado. Office, 132S. Third Street, room 8, 
 Ph'Iadelphia, Pa. The company's mines are the Dandy, the Boss, the 
 Little Dandjj. the Little Daisy, and the Damascus, located in the State of 
 Colorado. Title unencumbered. Capitalization, 82,000,000 ; par value 
 per share, 810 ; basis, non-assessable. 
 
 Minerva Mining Company. Office, 506 Walnut Street, Philadel- 
 phia. The company's mines are located in Gregory mining district 
 Gilpin county, Colorado. ' 
 
 Mineral Mountain Mining Company (The) has property 
 located at Mineral Point, Colorado. The length of the main lode oil 
 which the company depends for its supply of ore is 750 feet. The stock 
 of the company has been quoted at 811. 
 
 Mineral Bed Consolidated Mining Company (The) is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of New Jersey. Officers J J 
 Hitchler, Pres.; Isaac H. Tillyer, Vice-Pres.; Wm. J Turner Treas' 
 George R. Lynn, B. F. Bivins. Main office, Camden, New Jersey. Branch 
 office, 9 S Water Street, Philadelphia, Pa. The mines are the Mineral 
 Bed and Esperanza. Shaft on principal mine is 100 feet, contract for an 
 additional 100 feet. Capitalization, 300,000 shares; par value 810- non- 
 assessable; stock all issued in payment for property ' 
 
 Mineral Railroad and Mining Company (The). Officers, 
 S?°f8® Si Roberts, Pres; Isaac J. Wistar, Vice-Pres. Directors, Isaac j! 
 W istar, Edmund Smith, Wistar Morris, George B. Roberts. N. Parker Short- 
 ridge, A. .). Cassatt, S Kneass, J. N. DuBarry, John P. Green, Alfred 
 Morfecai, Sec, H. S. P. Haviland, Treas, This mining property is located 
 i?c^2J r^"™^®/J^J"* county Pennsylvania. Yield d urfng 1881, net profit, 
 858,0/6.61 ; yield (gross tons) during 1881, 8439,077.18. Date of latest div- 
 idend, numbers two and three (for 1881); amoimt, 810,000 each; total 
 amount, 820,000. Wages paid to all classes of labor for 1881, 8463 262 91 
 Number of persons employed, 1,269. Five men were killed in one year ' 
 Monitor Belmont Mining Company (The). The location 
 oi mines belOTgmg to this company is at Belmont,. Nye county Ne- 
 vada. 1,400 linear feet in mine. Capitalization, 83,000,000; shares, 30,- 
 000: par value, 8100. Number of dividends paid to December 5, 1873 
 three; total amount, 875,000; latest dividend, December 6 1873 Total 
 ammnt of assessments levied, 8162,500. Date of latest assessment, August 
 
 Monitor Consolidated Company (The). The mines belonging 
 to ttiis company are located in Colorado. Capitalization, 82,000,000 
 
 /""^fo*,? '""I5B Company (The). J. J. Raphael, Sec. Principal 
 office, 533 Kearney Street, San Francisco, Cal. The location of this com- 
 pany's mines is in California. 
 
 „!,?"",* ^'i®""*.?"", "'"i"!? Company (The). This company is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of (Jolorado. Officers, Jbhn S 
 ?h?^»I''H^S^1- ■ '^i°W^ W. Turner, Treas.; W. D. Huntly, Sec. birectors! 
 Chafles H Selser, John S. Doughty, Geo. W. Turner, John M. Schreiner 
 
 S??- ?-,'^t9™R^°"'^- ^- -^dams.' Principal office,' 310 'Chestnut' Street' 
 f^^lt ?,^ P^i'"-' ■ ^^^ property belonging to this company consists of' 
 eight full claims, one patented. Shaft sunk seventy-five feet. Pay mineral 
 struck. Capitahzation, 250,000 shares; par value, 810; non-i^essable 
 shar"™ ° ^ ' '^■°°° '''"""^^' Reserved in treasury, 20,000 
 
 Mount Hope and Independence <;onsolidated Minluir 
 &o'?5""f r"V^ll • I'""cipal office, LeadviUe, Col. These mines arl 
 I?''*'!? }SJ^'^^^' P'*'"' Gunnison, and Summit counties. Col Canitoliza- 
 tion, 81,000,000; shares, 100,000 ; par value, $10 each "''"''""'• ^aP'«i"2a 
 
 Mount Princeton Irish-American Company (The) Prin- 
 ?J?^i„f'!?^' If "Seville, Col. The mining property owned by this company 
 par rafne %0^ ''•°"" ?"' Capitali^atfon, fe,000,000 ; shares, 30o"oo0; 
 
 Mount Lincoln Consolidated Mining Company (The) is 
 chartered under the laws of the State of Colorado. Officers H V Reed 
 Pres. ; David Conrade, Vice-Pres. ; George F. Work Sec Directoi^ T t' 
 Hampton, Wm. B. Dalton, Samuel Work, Wilmer A Walter Samii6?Tn' J' 
 Shreve Aekley, H. V. Reed, David Conrade George F Work '^PrindDaf 
 office, SOO Stock Exchange tlace, Philadelphia, pl Th™names ofSs 
 
 owned by the company are Mount Lincoln, Main mine. Main No. 1 mine, 
 Rogers, Huron, Dublin, and Monster. Capitalization, 600,000 shares ; par 
 value, $10 ; non-assessable ; stock issued, 600,000 shares ; stock in treasury, 
 100,000 shares ; stock in bonds, 100,000 shares. 
 
 Murphy Mining Company (The). The mines owned by this 
 company are the Mary and Pat Murphy, located in Colorado, in the 
 vicinity of St. Elmo. The system of levels run on the Mary Murphy has 
 exposed a body of high-grade ore. A similar work on the Pat Murphy 
 has lately opened a vein, seven feet wide, of the same character of ore as 
 found in the Mary Murphy. 
 
 Murphy Mining' and Prospecting Company ('fhe). The 
 mines belonging to this company are located in Lake, Gunnison, Pitkin, 
 and Saguache counties, Col. Capitalization, $1,600,000; shares, 150,000; 
 par value, $10. 
 
 National Mine and Tunnel Compaiiy (The) is chartered un- 
 der the laws of the State of New Jersey. The officers are Thos. S. Disston, 
 Pres. ; V. G, Edwards, Vice-Pres. ; John A. Currier, Treas. ; Wm. Tweed, 
 Sec. Directors, Thos. S. Disston, V. G. Edwards, J. H. Currier. D. B. Her- 
 bine, G. Hang.stefer, Wm. Tweed, and T. W. South. Mr. P. A. Snell is Su- 
 perintendent. The main office is at 117 Market Street, Camden, N. J. The 
 branch office is at 140 S. Third Street, Philadelphia. Pa. The company 
 owns the Norma mine, located in Chaffee county, Col. The tunnel is in 
 seventy-two feet. The main lode, on which the company depends for its 
 supply of ore, is 1,600 feet. Area of property, 1,600 by 300 feet. Capi- 
 tahzation, $2,000,000, in 200,000 shares of $10 each ; non-assessable. Half 
 the stock is reserved in treasury. 
 
 Siatona Water and Mining Company (The). The mines be- 
 longing to this company are located in California. 
 
 New Discovery Mining and Milling Company. The com- 
 pany's property is located in Jefferson county, Col. They have a capital- 
 ization of 8600,000. 
 
 New Basel Consolidated Mining Company (The). The 
 property is situated in Black Canon, Placer county, (jalifornia. During 
 the past two years two shafts have been sunk, each about eighty-five feet 
 deep. The shafts are some 300 yards apart, and the rock in each pitches 
 towards the other. The company propose to sink the northern shaft in 
 the bed-rook as soon as possi'ole, and then drift to the channel. They 
 confidently expect to strike what is called the Greek channel. The mine 
 is equipped with a steam engine and hoisting works. 
 
 New Mexican Nestor Mining Company (The). Principal 
 office in Denver, Colorado, and New Mexico. The mines are located in 
 Missouri. Capitalization, $1,600,000 ; shares, 150,000 ; par value $10 
 
 New York Mining Company (The) has offices at 8 San Fran- 
 cisco Exchange Building, San Francisco, Cal. Officers, Guslave Frank 
 Pros. ; L. T. Lazure, Vice-Pres. ; F. E. Dietz, Sec. ; Nevada Bank Treas' 
 Matt. Canavan, Superintendent. The company owns the Sophia mine 
 located in Mono county, California, on the Comstock lode, in the Gold 
 HUl district. Capitalization. 810,000,000, in 100,000 shares of $100 each No 
 dividends have been paid. Twenty-seven assessments have been levied ■ 
 total amount of same, $966,000; date of latest assessment, January 18 18S2 
 New York and Palmetto Mining Company is chartered un- 
 der the laws of the State of New York. Office, 40 Broadway, room 52 New 
 York. The company has a capitalization of 82,000,000 in shares with a 
 par value of 8100 each. 
 
 Niagara Consolidated Mining Company (The) own a fine 
 group of mines in Niagara Gulch, San Juan countv. Col., comprising the 
 Cuba, McAlpine, McKenney, Alta, Money Musk, American, Outlook 
 Junction, Tyrol, Pride of San Juan, Tabor, Cleveland Central Cross, and 
 Boomerang. Over 1 000 feet of development have been made Prof T B 
 Comstock IS Manager. ' ' ' 
 
 „?""■']''*•■"'*'"& Mining and Milling Company (The). 
 Officer, E. A. Holmes, 310 Pine Street, San Francisco, Cal. The minine 
 property of this company is located in Arizona. 
 
 North Snlphnrets Mining Company (The) is chartered un- 
 der the laws of the btate of New Jersey. Officers are Hamilton Disston, 
 Pres. ; Wm. Kohl Vice-Pres. ; H. B. King. See. ; Jesse W. Neal, Treas. Cap- 
 italization, $200,000, in 200,000 shares of ll each ; non-assessable 
 
 North Belle Isle Mining Company (The), of which E. M. 
 Chapin IS Supenntendent, holds its annual meeting on the 28th of June 
 The officers are T. B. Dayton, Pres, ; T. L. Brown, Vice-Pre.«. ; E M Hall 
 * '^'^i 5, , property of the company is located in Nevada, Tuscarora dis- 
 trict, Elko county. Current value of mine is $20,000. The North Belle I'ile 
 sent to the mill considerable ore of good quality extracted from the up- 
 -on ? ? the 150-foot level. The vein has been followed on this level over 
 /OO feet, finding ore of good quality, and the vein averaging about ten 
 inches 111 width. Capitalization, 810,000,000, in 100,000 shares If $100 each 
 Yield net during 1^0, $51,720. Dividends paid to August 19, 1881 two 
 ^hLi°*ilT„?"i"'' ^^^•'^' a'est.aividend, August 19, 1881 ; amount jct 
 ffS?,^,^™,*^ assessments levied, $25,000; latest assessment, Februarj^ 
 5 1880; amount per share, 15 cents; cash on hand, April 1, ISS' $1476- 
 stock quoted June 10, 820 per share. ' ' ' 
 
 T JS,?/'"Th*/M^ ?I'?** '"'''*'• ■ °,''™^^ ''y Fenwiok, Rape, Converse, and 
 Lewis. The North Star mine is located in Fresno countv Cal Ai.™,-; 
 from 8150 to 8200 per ton. Three feet in width county, cal. Assaj s 
 
 North-Westerii Mining and Exchange Comnan-v fTi.o\ 
 The location of these mines it in Elk count" "T P?o^e'rtv 6wLId bv 
 ii®„,^TP-nl '=™'"''' "L^"^ Harrison's machines; ""soO tons daily'^ 
 amount will be increased to about 3,000 tons per dav uaiiy. 
 
 North Standard Mine (The) is located in California The com- 
 pany has a capitalization of 810,000,000, and No. 11 dividend of $ln?r 
 
 m^'teHfvied is m'So'' ^7etV"'^ 
 
 SThe raS rf tefcS pl^Va^fe' ''^^^^■"«'>' ^"^ ^^^^l November, 1881, 
 
 nn«?twTrtre'IS?e*M.;i'"^.4™''.-A^^^^^ 
 
 Bullion pwdu«ed,Wo;ood operation six months: 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1183 
 
 Oriental Company (The). J. T. Bradbury, Superintendent. These 
 mines are located in Alleghany, Sierra county, Cal. 
 
 Oro Blanco Mining Comitsiny. W. O. Gould, Sec. General 
 o£fioe, 214 Sansome Street, San Francisco, Cal. The location of these 
 mines is in Arizona. 
 
 Osceola nining: Company (The). The Osceola and Peelstick 
 mines are located in Arizona. 1880. They are now working the Peelstick, 
 which has a 115-feet shaft, from which a seventy-flve feet cross-cut has 
 been run. The cross-cut has reached a body of ore five feet in width. 
 Same company are commencing a shaft on the Osceola mine. 
 
 Providence Consolldateil mining Company (The). The 
 names of mines are Rose and Providence, located near Volcano, Amador 
 county, Cal. Amount of property in acres, 2,010. 
 
 Pnlmetfo ISxtension mining Company is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of New Jersey. The Directors are Judah Isaacs, 
 Henry Mitchell, David Mitchell, David Loewen. Office, 105 Market 
 Street, Camden, N. J. Transfer office, 23 South Third Street, Philadelphia, 
 Pa. The company's mine, the Lillian, is located in Colorado. Shaft is 
 down fiftv feet. Capitalization, $a30,000; par value per share, SI ; basis, 
 non-assessable. Treasury reserve, 60,000 shares ; stock Issued, 300,000 
 shares. 
 
 Paris Minings Company (The). Principal offices, 310 Pine 
 Street, San Francisco, Cal. The mines of this company are located in 
 California, The company has a capitalization of $10,000,000. 
 
 Pcnasqaito mining Company (The) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of New Jersey. Officers, L. D. Filbert, M. D., Pres. ; Gen. 
 K, Thayer, Vioe-Pres. and General Manager; A. R. Shepherd, Treas. ; 
 Joseph J. Martin, Sec. Directors, John A. Bell, L. S. Filbert, M. D., Charles 
 A. Porter, Gen. Russell Thayer, Ex-Gov. Alexander R. Shepherd. Sam- 
 uel L. Smedley, R. Stewart, M. D., Joseph J. Martin, J. E. Kingslcy, L. 
 H. Stevens. Principal office, Camden, New Jersey. Address, care of 
 
 C. A. Porter, room 6, No. 201 Wiilnut Place, Philadelphia, Pa. Mines 
 owned by tile company are El Sacramento, La Pieto, Veta PlOmosa, 
 Todos Santos, La Bonita, La Hermasa, Santo Domingo, Penasquito, Veta 
 Grande, La Llbertad, all located at Batopilas, Mexico. Length of tunnel, 
 169 feel. Capitalization, 200,000 shares ; par value, $5 ; non-assessable. 
 Amount of stock issued, 200,000 shares. Stock issued in payment of com- 
 pany's property. 
 
 Pcnn-Breckenrld^fe Consolidated Minings Company 
 (The) is chartered under the laws of the State of Colorado. Herman 
 Burgin, M. D., Pres. ; John M. Taylor, Treas. ; Charles B. Miller, Supt. 
 Directors, Herman Burgin, M. D„ Charles B. Miller, James Thatcher, 
 Stephen D. Harris. J. Thomas Harrop, John M. Taylor, John J. Ziegler, 
 
 D. P. Ladd, Thomas M. Longcope. Price W. Janeway, Sec. The pro- 
 perty belonging to this company consists of nine full claims, all located 
 fn Colorado. Capitalization, 400,000 shares ; par value, $10 ; non-assessable. 
 
 Penry mining Company (Tlie) is chartered under the laws of 
 the State of New Jersey. Geoise W. Gambles, Pres. ; E. B. McKeon, Vice- 
 Pres. ; Isaac A. Lee, Treas. ; H. K. Whitner, M. D., Sec. Directors, F. A. 
 Rosengarten, George W. Gambles, C. B. McKeon. Isaac A. Lee. H. K. 
 Whitner, M. D. Transfer office, 131 South Fourth Street, Philadelphia. 
 Pa. The name of the mine owned by the company is the Crystal Lake 
 lode, located in Colorado, Horse-Shoe, Peru di.strict. Summit county. 
 Capitalization, 400,000 shares ; par value. $1 ; non-assessable. Amount of 
 stock issued, 3)0,000 shares; reserved in treasury, 60,000 shares. 
 
 Pinal Consolidated mining Company (Tlie). Officer, J. W. 
 Taylor. Sec. General office, 309 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal. 
 The mining property of this company is located m Arizona. Date of 
 latest assessment, April 3, 1882 ; amount of same, $30. 
 
 Pine Forrest Mining Company (The). Leadville, Col., is the 
 general office. The mining property of this company is located in Park, 
 Lake, and Summit counties, Col. Capitalization, $300,000 ; shares, 30,000 ; 
 par velue, $10. . „ , t« ■. i . i 
 
 Pioche mining Company. Location of works, Pioche, Lincoln 
 county, Nev. There are 1,000 linear feet in the company's mine. Cap- 
 italization, $2,000,000; par value per share, $100. Number of dividends 
 paid to Augusts, 1872, three; total amount of dividends paid, $60,000; 
 Sate of latest dividend, August 5, 1872. Number of assessments levied, 
 fourteen ; total amount of assessments levied, $260,000 ; date of latest as- 
 sessment, October 6, 1876. 
 
 Plymonth mines. Empire, and Baldwin (The). Owned by 
 E J Baldwin and others, 'fhe above mines are located m Amador 
 county, Cal. There is a sixty-foot ledge of $17 ore-assays $11.25 per ton. 
 The sliaft is eighteen feet wide. (1880.) Work on the Baldwin mine is going 
 ahead; located near Nashville ; present shaft 300 feet, cross-cutting. The 
 cost of mining and milling per ton is $3. r i? n 
 
 Pocumtuck mining Company (The). Incorporators, J. E. Al- 
 len, John E. Allen, Joseph Beats, f. C. Hawks, D, A. Hoflman, J. J. Dough- 
 erty. The location of the mining property of this company is m Summit 
 county, Col. The company was organized in 1862. Capitalization, $1,- 
 
 ""pl^eston Tnnnel and mining Company (The). Thelpcation 
 of the mines of this company is in Summit county. Col. Capitalization, 
 SRI non 000 
 
 Presoue Isle Consolidated Company (The). Incorporators, 
 S H EllTs W. R. Smith, J. R. Rockwell, D. Cook, i. P. Webb, Wellingtoii 
 Downing, E. A. Rockwell. The location of the mines belonging to this 
 compan? is in Summit county. Col. Capitalization. $1,000,000. 
 
 Prospect mining Company. The company's property is located 
 in Store^counu' Nev There are 1,000 linear feet in mine. Capitaliza- 
 tion $10 000 000 i par value pershare, $100. Number of assessments levied, 
 Sghtftotaj' amoSnt of ass^essments, $290,000 ; date of latest assessment, 
 
 ■* Pra8s"ian Mining Company. The company's property is located 
 in^eftrfon " u"y, Nfv. Ther'e are^l,000 linear feet ^ the "r'ne-^t^SS 
 ments have beefl. levied to the amount of $150,000 ; date ol latest assess 
 mpnt Mav 12 1877 No dividends have been paid. . . 
 
 Oiiebec Mine CThe), owned by Mr. P. it. Hilton. This mine is lo- 
 cated in Arizona He has recently (1881) shhiped twotonsof ore frorn 
 Snnthor of his claims The Yuba has rewarded him by the handsome 
 returrof i78!96 p™ton. on this claim he has sunk about ten feet, and 
 
 Des Plantes, St. Francis, and Boyer rivers, Capitalization, $500,000, par 
 
 ™«Heln Bee Mining Company (The). Incorporators, Hon. IL W. 
 Unn^vralVer William HSlawson, Giorge W. Hinikle. Principal office 
 Leadvlue CoL Th^looation of the mines belonging to this company is 
 atlilverClifr, Col. Capitalization $1000,000 ; E,ar val^e.m 
 Queen Mining Company (The). B. F. Smith, pres. , o. u. 
 
 der. Sec. and Treas. The company's property is located in Lake county, 
 Col. Capitalization, $1,000,000. 
 
 <lneeii ol' the mountain mining Company (The). Incorpo- 
 rators, B. D. Wallis, Wm. Faxon, J. C. Elms, Benjamin Dore. E. P. Brown, 
 E. F. Pierce. The mines are located near Silverton, Col. CapitaUzation, 
 $2,000,000. 
 
 Bed mountain Mining and milling Company (The). Offi- 
 cers, Charles C. Parsons, Herbert Gaston, John H. McArdle, Luther M. 
 Weiley, James R. Hammond. Principal office, Leadville, Col. 
 
 Record mining Company is chartered under the laws of the 
 State of Colorado. The officers are R. J. Dodd, Pres. ; W. Culbertson, Treas. ; 
 A.C. McCurdy.Sec. Directors, F. H.Myers, R.J. Dodd, E. E.Barclay, A. C. 
 McCurdy, W. Culbertson. Main office, Boulder City, Col. Branch and 
 transfer office. Merchants' Exchange Building, room 19, Pbiladelphia, 
 Pa. The company's property is located at Sugar Loaf Mountain. Boulder 
 county, Col. Capitalization, $1,000,000; par value per .share, $10; basis, 
 non-assessable. Treasury reserve, 40,000 shares. Amount of stock issued, 
 60,000 shares. 
 
 Bed Deer Consolidated Mining Company is chartered under 
 the laws of the State of New Jersey. The officers are L. A. Cunwell, Pres.; 
 G. S. Dow, Vice-Pres. ; C. H. Dow, Sec. and Trea.«. ; F Homer, Gen. Mang. 
 Trustees, L. A. Ctonwell, G. S. Dow, J. C. McNaughton, C. H. Dow. P M. 
 Penrose. Offices, Federal Street, Camden, N. J., and 110 South Third St., 
 Philadelphia, Pa. Capitalization, $250,000 ; par value per share, 81 ; basis, 
 non-assessable. 
 
 Red Oak Iowa Company (The). The California and Austerlitz 
 are the mines owned by this company, located in Arizona. The mine is 
 worked chiefly by drifts. Depth of shaft, fifty feet, 1880. The California 
 mine is sliowing up splendidly. The Austerlitz has two fifty-feet shafts at 
 the bottom of which drifts have been started. Capitalization, $150,000 ; 
 shares, 15,000. 
 
 Begent Mining Company. The directors are M. C. HiUvcr, Pres. ; 
 C. L. Weller, Vice-Pres. ; T. W. Hubbard, Sec. ; L. D. Folsom, Joseph An- 
 gel. Charles Elliott, Transfer Sec; Geo. B. Hillyer. Supt. The Regent com- 
 pany have 1,500 feet of ground at Silver City, Lyon county. Nev., adjoin- 
 ing the Lower Comstock, and absorb ail the leases, etc., from the Royal 
 and Lower Comstock to the Emigrant Prospecting Company. Thus, all 
 these different claims will hereafter disappear, and all the ground will 
 be known as the Regent, (November 26, 1881.) 
 
 Richmond Mining and Reduction Company is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of Colorado. The officers are Dean Richmond, 
 Pres.; G. W. E. Griffith, Vice-Pres.; W. Barth, Treas.; C. F. Leimer, Sec. 
 Branch office, 407 Locust Street, Philadelphia, Pa. This compiiny's min- 
 ing property consists of the Little Eagle, the 'Tennes.see, the Jack Bull, the 
 Legal lender, and Legal Tender Tunnel mines, located at Sheep's Moun- 
 tain, Summit county, Col. Date of organization, 1881; capitalization, 
 85,000,000 ; par value per share, $10. 
 
 Rlcco Mining Company (The), of New York. Amos Lane, Super- 
 intendent, and J. Coy of the Bon Ton. The location of the property be- 
 longing to this company is in Ouray county. Col. 
 
 Rico Pioneer Mining Company )S chartered under the laws of 
 the State of Colorado. The officers are W. L. Boswell, Pres. ; Sparta Fritz, 
 Vice-Pres. ; S. H. Alleman, Sec. and Treas. Directors, W. L. Boswell. Sparta 
 Fritz, S. H. Alleman, E. H. Green, E. C. Irvin. Office, 37 Soutli Third Street, 
 I'hiladelphia, Pa. The company owns the Philadelphia, Marguerite, 
 Kirke M. Keim, and Harcourt mines, located in Colorado. The company 
 has forty-one acres of land. 3:1,000 shares are reserved in the hands of 
 trustees as working capital. Entire capita) stock has been used in pay- 
 ment for property. Capitalization, $1,000,000; par value per share, iW; 
 basis, non-assessable. 
 
 Ruby liOele (The). Owned by Judge Pendery and others. The lo- 
 cation of the Ruby lode is Iron HUl, Colorado. The character of the ore 
 is similar to the sulphurous ores in the A. Y. & Gilt Edge lodes in Cali- 
 fornia Gulch, 1881, while the mineral in the shaft is of a refractory na- 
 ture. Shaft, 470 feet deep. Small bolster machinery. Mine located, 1878. 
 
 Boyal Arch Mining Company. The officers are L. H. Simpson, 
 Jr., Pres. ; R. C. Combs, Treas. ; E. P. Moore, Sec. Office, 137 Broadway, 
 New York. The company's property is located at the Black Hills, Dakota. 
 Average of ten assays from promiscuous ore, per ton. $47.94 ; average of 
 four assays from selected ore, $268 per ton. Yield of Portland Mill, ad- 
 joining property, $50,000. The company has a capitalization of 81,,'jO0,000 ; 
 par value per share, $5. 
 
 Rye Patch mining Company's property is located in Nevada. 
 The company has a capitalization of $5,000,000 in shares, with a par value 
 of 8100 each. Totalamountof dividends paid, 887,600. The last dividend 
 was paid December 31, 1877, at the rate of twenty-five cents per share. 
 
 St. Paul Sulphnret Consolidated mining Company 
 (The). Location of mines, Colorado. Capitalization, $2,000,000 ; shares, 
 200,000; par value. $10. 
 
 Salida mining and Milling Company (The). Gcn'l office 
 at Salida, Colorado. The location of the mines owned by the company 
 is in Chaffee county, Colorado. Capitalization, $100,000; shares, 10,000 ; 
 par value, $10. . „ ,. 
 
 Saltmarsh Mining Company. Location of mines. Sterling 
 Creek, Oregon. 
 
 Sappho mining Company (The). J. L. Emerson, Manager. 
 The miningproperty of this company is located on Yankee Hill, Colorado. 
 
 San Pedro Consolidated Mining and Milling Company 
 is chartered under the laws of the State of New Jersey. The officers are 
 J. Groesbeck. Pres. ; C. A. Brady, Vioe-Pres. ; F. T. Weldon, Sec. ; J. Becker, 
 Treas. Directors, J. Groesbeck, C. A. Brady, J. Becker, J. W. Kerlin, F. 
 L Welden, J. L. Borsh, R. T. Donovan. "Transfer office, 148 S, Fourth 
 Street, Philadelphia, Pa. The company's property is located in Saddle 
 Mountain district, Pinal county, Arizona. The shaft is 364 feet deep. 
 Capitalization , ^,000,000 ; par value per share, $10 ; basis, non-asses.siible ; 
 number of assessments levied, five ; date of latest assessment. May 17, 18,S2. 
 
 Santa Fe Bonanza Mining and Tunnel Company. The 
 officers are S. T. Reed, Pres. ; G. Gordon Pasey, Sec. ; W. C. Rogers, Treas. 
 C. Wells, General Manager. The company's mining property consists of 
 the Bottom Dollar mine, together with eighteen good claims and one 
 tunnel location. The property is located in Santa Fe county. Las Callas 
 mining district. New Mexico. The shaft is 110 feet deep. At a depth of 
 seventy feet a level has been run a distance of fifty feet, with a lace of 
 twenty-five feet. "The distance between walls is seven and one-half feet, 
 over five feet being solid galena ore. There are over 600 tons of ore on 
 the dump and in sight. 
 
 Sanllago Mining Company. The company's property is located 
 at Devil's Gate, Lyon county, Nevada. There are two thousand linear 
 feet in the mine. Capitalization, $11.200,000 ; par value per share, $100; 
 no dividends paid to April 1, 1882 ; date of latest asses.sment, June 11 . 186S. 
 
 Savage Mining Company (The). Officer, E. B. Holmes, Secre- 
 tary. Gen'l office, 309 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, California. 
 
 Silver Islet Mining Company have their property located at 
 
1181 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Thunder Bay, Lake Superior, Mich. Capitalization, ?1,000,000 ; par value 
 por share. S2o ; ba-sis, nou assessable ; number of dividends paid to Jan- 
 uary 26, ISSO, twenty-three ; date of latest dividend January 26, 1880. 
 
 Senator itiisiingr Company (The). Officer, L. Keynolds, Secre- 
 tary. Principal office, 309 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, California. 
 The mines belonging to this company'are located in Nevada 
 
 Scorpion Illnin;; Company (The). Officer. K. Spinney, Secre- 
 tary. Gen'l office, 310 Hue Street, Ban Francisco, California. The mines 
 belonging to this company are located in Nevada. 
 
 Shields mine (The). Mr. C. F. Barber, stockholder of the company. 
 Mr. G. M. Seymour. Manager. The above mine Is located in Colorado 
 Gulch, Colorado. The quality and character of the ore is silver, gold, 
 and carbonate quartz. Fissure veins. New incline shaft sunk on the 
 pitch of the vein over 100 fset. Entrance to the mine by tunnel. Prop- 
 erty owned, engine and shaft. 1881, the Shields mine is doing effective 
 development work, the fruits of which will soon be apparent, October 22, 
 1881. Last week the shaft-house and engine were removed from the old 
 to thj new shaft, and hereafter much more headway may be expected. 
 Weekly output, seventy tons. Capitalization, $aOO,000; shares, 6,000; par 
 value. SIOO. 
 
 Snake River Consolidated Mlnins Company (The). In- 
 corporators, C. E. Fish, L. W. Aldridge, G. Drown, C. E. Clark, L. R. 
 Vredenbery, Jr.. Fred. C. L. Buck, Thomas A. Tobs. The location of the 
 mining property owned by this company is in Fremont and Pueblo 
 counties, Colorado. Capitalization, Sl,()00,000. 
 
 Sombretillo mining; Company. Their works are located at 
 Altar, State of Sonora, Mexico. The company has large quantities of 
 mining machinery. Capitalization, 85,000.000 ; non-assessable ; fully paid. 
 Socorra minings and millings Company's property is located in 
 New Mexico. The company has a capitalization of $2-50.000 ; par value 
 per share, $100. Amount of dividends paid to July, 1882, 88,375. Date of 
 latest dividend, July, 1882. 
 
 Son til Barcelona fllinins Company (The). The company's 
 property is located in Nevada. There are 1 ,.W0 linear feet in the mine. 
 Capitalization, 8600,000 ; par value per share. 8100. No dividends have been 
 paid, June 30, 1882. Number of assessments levied, five ; total amount of 
 as.sessraents levied. 8114.000. Date of latest assessment, August 15, 1879. 
 
 Southern Belle Alining; Company. The officers are H. F. 
 Hawkes, Pres. ;D. A. Lighthill, Vice-Pres. ; A. W. Mann, Treas. Office, 
 79 Milk Street, Boston, Mass. The company's property is located in 
 Rowan county, North Carolina. Capitalization, ?jl20,000 ; par value per 
 share. $1 ; basis, non-assessable. 
 
 South Evans (itulcli mining and Jllilling: Company (The) 
 is chartered under the laws of the State of Colorado. Officers, H. Gra- 
 ham, Pres.; A. Coates, Vice-Pres. ; A. Coates, Sec; Isaac Warner, Treas. ; 
 A. Gu.ggenhcira. General office, 237 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 Little Lille mine is owned by the company. Shaft, eighty-five feet deep. 
 Property owned, necessary machinery and houses. Capitalization, 200,- 
 000 shares; par value, 810. Amount of stock issued, 180,000 shares; 
 amount reserved in treasury, 20,000 shares ; non-assessable. 
 
 South Standard Mining Company (The). Officer, C. A. San 
 key, Sec. General office, 331 Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal. The 
 m'pes belonging to this company are located in California. 
 
 South Utah Mining: Company (The). W. S. Hinkle, Sec. Gen 
 eral office, 207 Sansome Street, San Francisco, Cal. The location of the 
 mines belonging to this company' is in Nevada. 
 
 Seven-Tliirty Consolidated mining Company. J. H. Hos- 
 mer. Treas. Offices, 64 and 40 Water Street, Boston, and 115 Broadway, 
 New York. The company has a capitalization of 85,000,000 ; par value 
 per share, 810. The property of the company is located at Poughkeepsie 
 {iulch, San Juan county. Col. Ore assays per ton, 8418 and 815. 
 
 Spanish Peaks Slining^ Company (The) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of Colorado. Officers, Hon. E. W. Keys, Madison, Wis., 
 Pres. ; Dr. C. T. Miller. Sec. The names of the mines owned by the com- 
 laiiy are Grand Reserve. Aztec, Rising Sun, and Bonanza. Located on 
 *Ves"t Spanish Peak, Huerfano county, Col. The mines are situated in the 
 close vicinity of some of the best-paying developed mines in the State. 
 The lodes are continuations of veins which have been greatly developed. 
 TJiey are about ten miles from La Veta. 
 
 Specie Payment Iflaning; an<l Milling; Company (The). 
 Incorporators, Messrs, M. A. Lathrop and Almon P. Newton. The mining 
 property of this company is located in Gilpin and Clear counties. Col. 
 Rich, good milling ore. Capitalization, 60,000 shares ; par value, 810 each ; 
 non-assessable. 
 
 Squaw Lake Company (The). Officer, Wm. Hippel, Superin- 
 tendent. The location of the mine belonging to this company is in 
 Oregon. 
 
 Standard Mining; Company (The) is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of New Jersey. Officers, A. Wasserman, Pres. ; H. P. Nutter, 
 Jr., Vice-Pres. ; W. J. Eadcliffe. Treas. ; Thomas J. Stewart, W. J. Radclifle, 
 Edwin Klautsheck. H. P. Nutter, Jr., C. J. Fireng, J. L. Sprogle, Joseph L. 
 Fryer. George H.Van Dyke. Gen. office. 310 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, 
 Pa. Company owns the Beltevue mine. Capitalization, 200.000 shares; 
 par value, ^t; non-assessable: amount of stock issued, 200,000 shares; 
 amount reserved in treasury. 30,000 shares. 
 
 Star of the West Itllning Company, The mines belonging to 
 this company are located near Monarch mine, Col. It is claimed the 
 prospects of the Star of the West Mining Company are verv good (1881), 
 
 P' 
 
 Stevens Consolidated Mining: Company (The). Directors, 
 Ion. Lewellyn Morse. Pres.; W, B. Hayford. C. F. Bragg, E. B. Nealley, B, 
 B. Thacher, J. J, Stevens, and another. The location of this mining prop- 
 
 erty is in Clifton, Arizona. Date of organization, March, 1881 ; stock and 
 bonds reserved in treasury. 1881. 825,000 ; non-assessable. 
 
 Sulphuret Mining; Compjiuy (The) is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of New Jersey. The officers are Hamilton Disston, Pres. ; Wm. 
 Kohl, San Francisco, Vice-Pres.; H. B. King, Sec: Jesse W. Neal, Treas. 
 The offices are at 105 Market Street, Camden, N. J. Capitalization, 
 85,000,000, in 200,000 shares of 825 each ; non-assessable. 
 
 Sultan Mining Company is chartered under the laws of the State 
 of New Jersey. Office. 30 Broad Street, New York. The company's prop- 
 erty is located in Sugar Loaf district, Boulder county. Col. Capitalization 
 81,500,000; par value per share, 85. 
 
 .Sultan Mining; Company (The). Location of mining property 
 owned by the company is in San Juan county, near Silverton, Col. Capi- 
 talization, 8-',600.0l10. 
 
 Summit Mining; Compan.y (The). The mines belonging to this 
 company are located in Ouray county. Col. Capitalization, 81,000,000. 
 Shares. 100.000, 
 
 Sweet Home Mine (The). Owner, Mr. Findlev Anderson, New 
 York. W. J. Mullen, Manager. This mine is located on'Buckskln Gulch 
 Col. This property will be opened in a systematic manner, so as to be 
 able to place the mine on a paying basis. 1881. With a small outlay the 
 Sweet Home mine can be made one of the best paying mines in Colorado 
 
 Tal.or Sheep Mlnins Company (yhe). Officers, John F.Tabor, 
 Pres • Dr J M fJewcU Treas.; John J. McGorman. Sec; J.A.Stanton, 
 Sunt ' Gehe'raroffice, No. 5 Boston Block, Leadville, Col. The mines be- 
 longing to this company are located on Sheep Mountain.Ten-mile mining 
 district, Col. Capitalization, 3,000-000 shares ; par value, 810. 
 
 TelcWraph Consolidated Mining Company (TheJ has prop- 
 erty located in the Pioneer district, Pmal county, Arizona. The officers 
 Ire Ernst A. Des Maretz, Pres. ; C. C. Murphy, Vice-Pres. ; Lmdley F. Lea- 
 man, Sec. and Treas. Board of Trustees, I'heo. Williams, Vernon Seaman, 
 Sc. Thompson, Hon. A. W. Blair. F. C Benton Sunt. The transfer of 
 shares can be effected at 198 Broadway, New York, the office ot the New 
 York Union Trust Company. Coun.sel, Remington Vernan. Capitaliza- 
 tion, 82,500,000, in 100,000 shares of 825 each. -D ■ • „i 
 
 Telfair Mining' Company (The). J. Pentecost, Sec. . Pnncipal 
 office, 702 Market Street, San Francisco. The mines belonging to this 
 company are located in Arizona. . „ mi. _ 
 
 rennessee and I-os Ccrrillos Mining; Company. The com- 
 pany's claims, the Bonanza, No. 3, and a number of other claims, are lo- 
 cated in the State of Tennessee, near Nashville. The ore is a fine-grained 
 galena and copper, assaying quite high. The shaft is 300 feet deep, at 
 which depth water was reacned ; a cross-cut was then run, showing forty- 
 two feet of mineral between walls. There is a fine hoisting-plant of forty- 
 horse-power on the gi'ound. 
 
 Thor and Brig^ht Point Minings Company (The). Direct- 
 ors, George W. Deltzler, Wm. C. Pease, P. Franklin, Wm. S. Campbell, 
 Samuel Purdv, J. D. Lomax. The mines belonging to this company are 
 located in Utah. Company organized March 16, 1880; capitalization, 
 $3,000,000. . , ^ . 
 
 Trenton Mining Company. This company's property is located 
 at Devil's Gate, Lvon county, Nev. There are 1,200 linear feet in compa- 
 ny's mine. Capitalization, 810,000,000 ; par value per share, 8100. 
 
 Tranqnillity Mining; Conutany is chartered under the law.s 
 of the State of New Jersey. The officers are J. W. Neal, Pres. ; W. Kohl, 
 Vice-Pres. ; Hamilton Disston, Treas. ; H. B. Ring, Sec. Office, 106 Market 
 Street, Camden, New Jersey, "fhe company's property is located in Ari- 
 zona. Capitalization, 86,000,000 ; par value per share, $25 ; basis, non- 
 assessable. 
 
 Twin I^akes Consolidated Mining; and Milling; Com- 
 pany (The). Directors, Col. A. J. Sterling, Warren Cutler, Moses L. 
 Bruner, John Steel, F. S. Schrapp. This company owns seven claims, 
 viz. : the Major, Steamboat, Mandana, Little Major, Clarison, Little Dan- 
 iel, Little Kate, and othere, all located in Colorado. Capitalization, $1,- 
 000,000; shares, 100,000 ; par value, 810 each. 
 
 U. S. Orant Tunnel Company (The). Trustees, William B. 
 Stone, Edward F. Browne, John Sawyer, R. E- Dremon. C. M. Osburn. 
 Principal office, Denver, Col. The location of these mines is in Colorado 
 Capitalization, 81,600.000 ; shares. 160,000; par value, 810 each. 
 
 Valley Forge Consolidated Mining Company. The offi- 
 cers are H. Booth, Pres. ; G. Anderson, Vice-Pres. ; J. .M. Eddy, Second 
 Vice-Pres. ; J. H. Hamilton, Treas. ; D. W. Gale, Sec. Office, 108 Wash- 
 ington Street, Chicago. 111. "The company's mining property, the Bed 
 Rock, is located in Big Bug mining district, Arizona. The property cov- 
 ers an area of 240 acres. Capitalization, 81,600,000 ; par value per share, 
 $10. 
 
 Vizina Mining Company (The). The company owns the 
 Vizina, Ureka Poor, and other mines. They are located m Colorado. 
 
 Ventura Mining Company (The). The mines belonging to 
 this company are located in Marion county, Cal. The company was or- 
 ganized, March 4, 1880; capitalization, 810,000,000. 
 
 Venture Series of Mines (The). Owned by Captain Potter, 
 Superintendent of the British Mining and Milling Company. The Ven- 
 ture Series, consisting of tliree claims, are located on Adams Hill, Eureka 
 district, Nev. 
 
 Wade Mining Company (The). Directors, G. D. Keeney, U. T 
 Smith, Oliver Merrill, H. T. Fairbanks, W. W. Myers. The location of the 
 mines belonging to this company is in Fresno county, Cal. Date of 
 organization, March 23. 1880. Capitalization. 85,000,000. 
 
 Wappello Mining Company ('i'he). The mines belonging to 
 this company are located in Agency City, Iowa. Capitalization, $500,000; 
 shares, 50,000 ; par value, 810. 
 
 Wacomah Mining Company (The). Officer, L. Ij. Conrad, 
 Pres. The principal office if located at 15 Lexington Street, Baltimore, 
 Md. The mines belonging to this company are located at Kanawha 
 county. W. Va. They own 4,700 acres of land. 
 
 Wall Street MiningCompany (The), of Washington. Col. Rob- 
 ert IngersoU one of the incorporators. The location of tlie property of 
 the Wall Street Mining Company is in Colorado and New Mexico. Capi- 
 talisation, 82,000,000 ; par value. 810. 
 
 Ward Beecher Mine (Thel. Owned by Mr. B. Work. Mr. Work 
 owns the following mines, viz. : Ward Beecher, Hidden Treasure, Mam- 
 moth, Manhattan, and Big Smoky Mills. Located in White Pine district, 
 Nev. Good milling ore. The Mammoth mine is said to contain, already 
 exposed, a vast amount of thirty and thirty-five ore, which will pay a 
 mill. 
 
 Washington and Virginia Mining Company (The) has 
 property at Madison Run, on the Virginia Midland Railway, in Orange 
 county. Va. Stock in treasury, April 1, 1882, $523. 
 
 Wells f'argo Mining Company (The) has property located at 
 North Virginia, Nev. The length of the main lode on which the com- 
 pany's supply of ore depends is 1,600 feet. Capitalization, SlO.SOO 000 in 
 108,000 sliares of 8100 each. No dividends paid. Fourteen assessments 
 levied; total amount of same, $228,600; date of latest assessment, 2Cth May, 
 
 Western Mining Company (The) has propertv located in Ari- 
 zona. Capitalization, 810,000,000, in 100,000 shares of 8100 each- total 
 dividends, SI ,475,000 paid to December 22, 1881; date of latest dividend 
 of 81 per share ; total assessments levied. 100,000 ; date of latest assessment 
 January 28, 1880 ; amount of same per share, 81. ' 
 
 onoY?** ""*?.'■'*. 'iJ',?''?*? *^»n»l»»"y (The) has its transfer office at 
 309 Harmony Street. Philadclnhia, Pa. The offlcei-s are W. H. Dole Pres • 
 Geo. R. Stansberry, Sec. and Treas. The propertv of the company is lo- 
 cated in the Unitah dL-^trict, Summit county, Utah, and comprises three 
 "i ^^^oT;^ f*^' •5"'5'''°> Engineer, and St. Julian. Capitalization, $200,000, 
 of 200,000 shares of 81 each; non-asses!iable. iv , , 
 
 Western Iteserye Mining 4'ompnny (The). Principal office, 
 Jefferson county. 'The location of the mines belonging to this company 
 IS 111 Colorado. Capitalization, 50,000 shares, divided into shares of $100 
 each. 
 
 Wheeler and Extension Mining Company (The). Incor- 
 irators, Derrick F. Hamliiik, Charles Fulton, Atvin H. Roudebush. 
 
 Capitalization, $1,000,000; .shares, 200,000; par value S.'"' each 
 While Cross Mining Company (The). The location of the 
 
 mining claims of this company is in Storey county, Nev. Capitalization 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1185 
 
 $10,000,000 ; shares, 100,000 ; 
 inent£. 
 
 par value, $100 ; no dlYidonfls paid ; no assess- 
 (The). Principal office, 
 
 Wblte Oiilcbes Mining Coinn»iiy 
 
 Leadville, Col. The mining property Belonging to this company is lo- 
 cated in Colorado. 
 
 Whitlock Consolidated mining Company (Tbe). The 
 mines are Miir^rittia, Golden Fleece, Berrin, Collins, Fortuna, and Good- 
 man, located hve miles north of Mariposa, near head of Whitlock creek, 
 California. The mines have recently been surveyed by R. B. Thomas, 
 Deputy to W. S., mineral surveyor, and re-located by Higman Schofield, 
 etc., with a view to further developing said mines, which have lain idle 
 for the past eighteen years. 
 
 Wide Awake Mining Company (The). Officer, C. Hildebrandt, 
 Secretary. Principal oflice, 232 Sutter Street, San Francisco, Cal. The 
 mines of the Wide Awake Company are located in Arizona. 
 
 Willis Creek Bllnliigr Company (The). Officers, Philip L. Fox, 
 Pres. ; Joseph K. T. Coates, Vice-Pres. ; Samuel Schofield, Treas. ; J. D. 
 Wood, Sec. Directors, Philip L. Fox, C. E., D. J. Wood, Samuel Schofield, 
 Edward P. Carpenter, D. F Evans, R. Evans Peterson, Joseph A, T. Coates, 
 George V. Case, Theodore Bumliam. Main office, 420 Library Street, Phil- 
 adelphia, Pa. Branch office, 117 Market Street, Camden, N. J. The Wil- 
 lis (Jreek mine is owned by the company, located in Buckingham county, 
 Va., 100 acres. The property of the company, buildings, 25 horse-power 
 engine and boiler, pumps, concentrators, steam holster, tools, etc., four 
 shafts, viz. ; thirty-seven, twenty-five, sixty-three, and fifty-six feet. Drifts 
 or tunnels connecting shafts, three and four. Drifts are all timbered. 
 Capitalization, 60.000 shares', par value, $5 ; non-assessable. Total capital 
 slock issued for property purchased. 30,000 shares reserved in treaiiury. 
 
 Win<lsor Itllninr Company iTI>e). Officers, directors, T. L. Stan- 
 ley, O. W. Randolph, Horace Webster, John Spruance, W. E. Norwood. 
 The location of the mining property belonging to this company is in Col- 
 umbus, Nev. Date of organization, March 22, 1880; capitalization, $10,- 
 000,000. 
 
 Woodville Mining Company (The) has property located in the 
 Gold Hill district, Comstock Lode, Nev. Length of lode or claim, 700 feet. 
 The officers are T. P. Cavallier, Pres. ; H. M. Levy, Vice-Pres. ; R. E. Kelly, 
 Sec; Bank of California, Treas. Capitalization, $12,00o,000, in 120,000 
 shares of $100 each. No dividends paid. Six assessments levied; total, 
 $3,030,000. Last assessment levied, January 23, 1878. 
 
 Woodstock Consolidated SIluinKr Company (The) is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of Michigan. Incorporators, Joel H. 
 Smith, Joseph P. Steele, William M. Heazlit. The mines belonging to 
 this company are located in Buckskin district. Park county, Col. Capi- 
 tal stock, $1 000,000. 
 
 Ypsilanti Mine (The). Owned by Colonel J. B, Stone. The Ypsi- 
 lanti mine is located In Hall's Gulch, Park county, Col. Extremely rich 
 ore, wire and leaf-silver ; some of the finest specimens of native silver ore 
 exhibited ever seen. 
 
 MINING COMPANIES OF MAINE, NEW 
 HAMPSHIRE, AND THE PROVINCES. 
 
 THESE we have separated from the others because the 
 Maine raining industry has in a measure been "a 
 thing apart." When it is remembered that two 
 years ago there were 124 companies organized to do 
 business in Maine mining— each company being organized 
 with a nominal capital of from $100,000 to $300,000 (the 
 limit by law is $300,000), and that there are now only seven- 
 teen in operation— the reader may well pause for reflection. 
 Upon this subject of Maine mining, Mr. F. L. Bartlett, State 
 Assayer for Maine, writes as follows : ■ ■• a t e 
 
 Mining is a comparatively recent business in the State of 
 Maine scarcely five years having elapsed since its first blow 
 was struck. Out of 102 mining companies incorporated in 
 the State, only seventeen are now in active operation. .Of 
 this number, ten are producing considerable quantities ot 
 merchantable ore, some are shipping regularly, others irregu- 
 larly. Of the ores produced, copper ranks first, zinc second, 
 silver tuird, lead fourth, gold fifth. , , . ^ „ 
 
 Little confidence has been felt in the ultimate success ot 
 the mines, consequently capital has been exceedingly diffi- 
 cult to obtain. As a result, progress in development has been 
 intermittent and slow, characterized by extreme caution, and 
 carried on by men possessing little knowledge of the busines^. 
 Nothing but its very surprising and encouraging resu ts ob- 
 tained by development could have kept the business ahve. 
 
 The total amount of money expended in Maine mines for 
 lands buildings, machinery, labor, and other things connected 
 S i£ mlnef, 'will not exceed $1,200,000. The amount re- 
 alized for ores and bullion sold thus far is not far f;riI2'SSg- 
 The value of ores on hand and unsold is about $120 000 
 There are four sets of dressing works, and tb/ee sete ot 
 smelting works in the State. It will be noticed that, com- 
 
 dend navine Many exceedingly promising mines have been 
 abandS^for wan't of capital to work, mines which m-e 
 worthy of exploitation, and which warrant the output ot 
 capital. 
 
 75 
 
 The exploitations thus far have developed several large 
 beds of copper ore, at least one true silver-bearing lode of large 
 dimensions, several good silver, lead, and zinc lodes, and one 
 gold lode. Large tracts of land exist in the State which have 
 never been explored at all, indeed, but a comparatively small 
 portion has been explored as yet for minerals, probably not 
 more than one-seventh of the 37,000 square miles of terri- 
 tory included in the State. The cost of mining in this 
 State is small compared with that of the Western States, 
 certainly not more than one-half. Low grade copper ore ex- 
 ists in the greatest abundance, and offers especial induce- 
 ments to the mine adventurer. Of the future of the Maine 
 mining industry, it may now be said with. certainty that the 
 copper and zinc production will be steady and increasing. 
 Silver seems likely to be steady, but small; lead and gold 
 do not promise to amount to anything. 
 
 Only one mine in the State has reached a depth of 500 
 feet, nearly all the others are yet inside of 200 feet in depth. 
 The mines generally are well equipped with modern and ef- 
 fective machinery. All employ steam-power, and in good 
 part use steam-drills. The ore thus far treated has not, con- 
 trary to expectations, proved very refractory. On the whole, 
 the industry may be said to be finally established, and in a 
 very satisfactorv condition. 
 
 Portland. July 11, 1882. 
 
 Acton Consolidated Silver Mining and Milling *'">"- 
 
 Sany. The company's officers are Hon. George Walker, Pres. ; John S. 
 orris, Vice-Pres. ; S. Jennings, Treas. ; Charle'* D. Clark. Sec. Directors, 
 G. R. Wescott, J. S. MoiTis, W. F. Jlilliken, B. Barnes Jr., Jas. Baily, 
 C. McCarthy, F. Haines, H. Gregory Jr., F. B. Blackett, George Walker, 
 S. Jennings. Office, located at 22 Exchange- Place, Portland, Maine. 
 The company's mines are located at Acton, Yorks comity. Maine, con- 
 taining yellow-like Nevada ore, assaying $330 per ton, and shows a 
 thie fissure stronglv mineralized from wall to wall with argentiferous 
 galena, sulphuret o"f antimony, copper pyrites, zinc blende, and other 
 elements peculiar to the ore deposits of the local .system. The length 
 of the main lode on which the company depends for its supply of ore is 
 2,000 feet. Pi-operty owned consists of frame ore house, water-power, 
 black,smith shop, etc. The property has been idle nearly two yeara, 
 owing to the general depression in Maine mining matter-s, and the diffi- 
 culty of obtaining saies of treasury .stock. The nonassessable principle 
 ot organizing companies is a mistake. This system having proved a 
 financial failure, the assessable plan is being generally adopted, and Ihe 
 companies are obtaining funds for development. Capitalization, $1,200.- 
 000: par value per share, S5; floating indebtedness, $800,000. Supplies 
 can be procured at merely nominal prices. Laborers at SL25 per day ; 
 wood, delivered at $2 per cord; coal, delivered at $3 per ton; building 
 lumber, $13 per M ; shaft lumber, $6 per M ; July 1, 1882, not iu operation 
 for want of funds. , „_ ,-0 
 
 Ashley Silver Mining Company (The). Officer are J. E. 
 Grose, of Boston, Pres. ; T. Dalby, of Boston , Treas. ; Wendell Home, of 
 Sullivan, Sec. Directors, J. R. Grose, T. Dalby, W. Home, J. W. Tuttle, 
 and J. Farwell, Jr. W. Home, Superintendent. The company s pro- 
 perty is located at Sullivan, Maine. Date of organization, July, 18(9; 
 capitalization, $400,000; shares, each, $10; July 1, 1882, not m operation 
 for want of funds. ■ , „ • t. 
 
 Bine mil Copper Mining and Smelting Company is char- 
 tered under the laws of the State of Maine. Officers, S. C. Blanchard, 
 Pres • W M. Jewett, Treas. ; Jbhn M. Merrill, Sec. Supermtendent, J. H. 
 Moyie Offices, rooms 14 and 15, Simmons' Building, and 17 State Street 
 Boston Mass. This company owns the Blue Hill mine, which is located 
 at Blue Hill, Maine. Sixty men are now employed (July 14, 1882), and 
 the probability is the force will soon be increased. There are over 300 
 tons of ore roasted, which will keep smelters going for some time. Com- 
 pany have lately purchased new boiler for shaft house. Capitalization, 
 8500000- par value per share, $5; number of assessments levied, three; 
 date of latest assessment, June, 1882, twenty-five cents per share ; stock 
 quoted July, twenty-five cemta. 
 
 Cherrvfleld Silver Mining Company. Office, Cherryfield, 
 Me Mines Cherryfield Me. Capital, $600,000; 100,000 shares; par va^ue, 
 $5- 'unassessable. Samuel N. Campbell, Pres.; Wm. Freeman, Treas.; 
 win Freeman Sec. and Gen'l Manager. Directors, James A. Milliken, 
 Samuel N Campbell and Wm. Freeman, of Cherryfield; Thomas Dalby 
 and F. H. Williams, of Boston. Wm. A.Lepnard, Supt. 
 
 Consolidated Hampden Silver Mining Company. The 
 officers are Hon. F. M. Loughton, Pres. ; W. H. Strickland, Vice-Pres ; E. 
 C Hill Treas - C F. Bragg, Sec. Charles H. Dunton is Superintendent. 
 The company's property is located in Hampden, Maine. Capitalization, 
 81,000,000 ; par value per share, $5 ; July 1, 1882, not in operation for want 
 
 ** Coxlieath Mining Company (The.) The location of mines is 
 In Coxheath, near Sydney, Cape Breton. Amount of property iti acres, 
 '640 Characterofore, eight to sixteen percent, copiier. Dimensions ot 
 working 1,000 feet. Prospects of property, etc., favorable ; labor cheap, 
 coal procurable within five miles, at about $2 per ton. Date of organiza- 
 tion at PorUand, Me., October -24, 1881. Capitalization, $500,000, 
 
 Deer Isle Sliver Mining Company (The), the officers of which 
 are A H. Harris, Pres. ; G. F. Gould, Treas. and Sec. Directors, A. H. 
 Harris N. Y. ; Nathan Cleaves and F. C. Crocker, Portland ; C. W. Brj'ant, 
 of Deer Isle, and Geo. D. Greelv, of Boston. Mr. S. Z. Dickson is Superin- 
 tendent. The offices are at 6S Broadway, New York. The mine is loca- 
 ted at Deer Isle, Me., and is fitted with a shaft-house and an assay office. 
 The ore is shipped to England. There are at present about .sixteen men cm- 
 nloved CapiWlization. $500,000, in 100.000 shares of $5 each. Treasury 
 fund of 52.000 shares. Stock quoted May, 1882, twenty cents ; stock quoted 
 July,1882,twentv-four bid, thirty asked. , ,,_ , 
 
 Douglass C'opper Compsiny (The) is chartered under the laws 
 of the State of Maine. The officers are Hon. Liverns Hull, Pres ; F. H. 
 Williams, Sec. and Treas. Directors. Hon. Liverus Hull, Stephen Jennings, 
 W D Swazey,, Hansen Gregory, Jr., Gen. Chas. Hamlin, J. S. Johnson, 
 and John C. Watson. The offices are at Blue Hill, Maine, and at 2S Ftaie 
 Street Boston. ■ Mr. Thompson is the Superintendent. The mines are 
 
1186 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 located at Blue Hill, Maine. The company has 800 tons of ore roasted and 
 waiting for new furnace smelting works. Incline tunnel, 252 feet. Main 
 shaft sinking al rate of eighteen feet per month. About $133,066.87 has 
 been expended on developments. A new opening has recently been made 
 to the west of the shaft, and about forty feet from the surface, and a fine 
 large body of high-grade copper has been encountered. If same contin- 
 ues west to any distance, capacity of mine will be doubled. A concen- 
 trating mill is being prepared for work. A cargo of 300 tons of roasted 
 ore shipped to Orford Jfickel and Copper Company, at Bergen Point.N. J., 
 and another cargo of 230 tons now loading for same place, There are at 
 present time, June, 1882. about 100 men and boys working in the shaft. 
 Weekly product 1st of July, 1882, $5,216.77. A cargo of desulphurized ore 
 from Acid Works of Boston, for use as fiux in smelting Douglass ore. The 
 ore is a mixture of the Milan mines. New Hampshire, and the Orford mine 
 in Canada, and is found to be just what is required for the purpose. Two 
 tons are used to ten of Douglass ore. This company was the result of a 
 reorganization in November, 1881. Capitalization, $500,000, in shares of 
 $0 each ; assessable. The latest assessment was made 15th of July, 1882, of 
 fifty cents per share, payable by instalments. Stock quoted July 1882, 
 fifty cents. 
 
 Kdgemai^giii Silver Mining Company (Tbe). OfBcers, S. Z. 
 Dickson, Pres. ; Mr. Libbey, Treas. ; John S. Morris, Sec. Directors, S. Z. 
 Dickson, A. H. Harris, F. H. Williams, F. F. Hale, H. W. Sargent, W. H. 
 Miller, Superintendent. Principal office, 7 Exchange Place, Boston, Mass. 
 Location of mines, in Sedgwick, Me. The company was organized Octo- 
 ber, 1879. Floating indebtedness, none. Capitalization, $500,000; par 
 value, 810. Stock and bonds reserved in treasury, January 1, 1882, $3,000. 
 Stock quoted July 1, 1882, three cents asked. July, 1882, not in operation 
 for want of funds. 
 
 FaiieuilHall and Sallivan Sllnlna Company is chartered 
 under the laws of the State of Maine. The officers are Charles H. North, 
 Pres. ; F. W. Morrill, Sec. ; L. A. Emery, Treas. Directors, C. H. North, 
 M. B. Boynton, Henry Farnum, F. A. Morrill, F. S. Tuttle, and A, A. Hay- 
 ward. Superintendent, A. A. Hayward. OfSce, 107 Faneuil Hall Market, 
 Boston, Mass. The company's property adjoins the Waukeag, at West 
 Sullivan, Me. The stock is all owned by seven men, and the business 
 conducted strictly as a private enterprise. About the end of May last, 
 this mine was flooded by the minerscutting into the vein, fromwhich the 
 water came with a gush and a roar, so rapidly as to scarcely give the men 
 time to be drawn safely to the surface. Attempts to free the mine from 
 water have been made, but it has been found that the mine cannot be 
 pumped without tbe aid of machinery of almost Herculean magnitude, 
 and operations at the mine have been discontinued. The shaft has reached 
 the depth of 160 feet The company had recently introduced a new air- 
 compressor, and have a flfty-horse-power boiler, and Kendall & Roberts' 
 double hoisting engine. Capitalization, $500,000 ; par value per share, $5 : 
 basis, non-assessable forever. July 1, 1882, not in operation for want of 
 funds. 
 
 eien Ellis Mining Company. The directors are Samuel W. 
 Thompson, Pres. ; S. Pitman, V.-Pres. ; F. Osgood, Sec. ; L. Julian Eicker. 
 Treas. The company's works are located at Pinkham Grant, near the 
 Jackson Line, and Glen Ellis Falls, N. H. The ore is argentiferous. The 
 company was organized at North Conway, N. H., February, 1881. 
 
 Clobe Mica Mining: Company (The) is chartered under the 
 laws of the State of New Hampshire. The officers are Charles A. Taylor, 
 President, and F. H. Raymond, Treasurer. The ofiBces are at 103 Milk 
 Street, Boston. The property of the company is located at Springfield, 
 N. H., and has an area of 123 acres, as yet undeveloped. The company 
 was organized June 4, 1880 ; capital, $126,000, in 25,000 shares of $5 each. 
 
 Gold Mining Association of Canada (The) Is chartered 
 under the English Joint Stock Company's Act. The Hon. J. A. Chaplean 
 is local Director, and Mr. A. A. Humphrey, of Quebec, is the Treasurer. 
 The property of the company is located at Riviere de Loup, Bence county, 
 Can. The mine is of both characters, gravel and quartz, latter in fissure 
 veins. Organized in London, England, January, 1881: capitalization, 
 $250,000. 
 
 CrOlden Circle Mining and Milling Company (The), of 
 which the Directors are Geo. Oilman, Pres. ; Amos S. King, Sec. and 
 Treas. T. O. Winslow, John M. Mitchell, Chas. S. Bickford, Elias Chase, 
 Foster E. Swift. Superintendent, R. B. King. The oflaces are at Port- 
 land, and the American Mining Bureau, 63 Broadway, New York. The 
 property of the company is located- at Steward's Island, Handcock 
 county, Maine. The ore is mainly a rich telluride (sylvanite and foli- 
 ated tellurium a.ssaying 18.81 to 163.16). The mining plant and surface 
 property comprises good boarding house, assay ofBce and outfit, powder 
 house, smith shop, shaft house, and wharf. Ore extracted during the 
 prospecting work of 1880 and 1881, yielded by simple battery amalgama- 
 tion over $800 in bullion, and fifty tons of ore remain on the dump De- 
 velopments now show free gold the entire depth of shaft. An incline has 
 been driven from the bottom eighty-three feet, at an angle of 25° follow- 
 ing dip of ore body. During past month ore has steadily improved in 
 richness, numerous small veins uniting with main vein. The stock is 
 held principally by residents of Portland, Me. 
 
 Goiildsboro Silver Mining Company (The), of which the 
 following are the oflicers. Judge A. P. Wiswell, Pres.; C. C. Burrill 
 Treas. ; J. B. Redman, Sec. ; Frank Worcester, Manager. Directors, A P 
 Wiswell, C. C. Burrill, Eugene Hale; all of Ellsworth. Mr. W. A. Leon- 
 ard IS the Superintendent. Head and transfer offices at Ellsworth, Me 
 The property is located at Gouldsboro, Me. There are now about fifteen 
 men employed. The company is organized with a capital of $500,000, in 
 100,000 shares of $5 each. Stock quoted January 1, mi, $1 ; stock held 
 principally in Maine. 
 
 Haviland Copper MiningCompany. The oflicers are G. Bum- 
 ham, Jr., Pres. ; R. 0. Conant, Treaa. ; Geo. S. Winn, Sec. OfHce, 28 Con- 
 gress Street, Boston, Mass., and 22 Exchange Street, Portland, Maine The 
 company's property is situated at Lyman, N. H. They have a capitaliza- 
 tion of SdOO.OOO in shares, at a par value of 810 per share. 
 ■ „"'"' ^"•'?,'«»"«»W MiningCompany (The) has ofllces at 
 43 Exchange Place, New York. The property of the company is located 
 at Fifteen-inile Stream, Nova Scotia, and covers an extent of 600 acres 
 The ore assays $60 per ton. The property is intersected with auriferous 
 veins varying in width from four to forty-eight inches. The shafts have 
 a total depth of 210 feet. Length of adits, 200 feet. The plant includes 
 steam pumping and hoisting works in course of erection, ten-stamp gold 
 mill running, water power in abundance. Regular shipments of bullion 
 are being made Capitalization, $150,000, in 150,000 shares of $1 each 
 Total amount of dividends paid to July, 1882, $14,600; latest dividend, 
 January, 1882, five cents per share. ->."", 
 
 (cSS'"'f'*"5^*1"^S"?" M'!>lns Company (The), of Nova Scotia, 
 is chartered under the laws of theltate of>few Hampshire. The officers 
 are. Directors, E. S. Bliss, J. W. Condon, P. E. Brvant, C. H HuddlSton 
 O, F. Winslow, J. W Saver, T. W. GraftoA, G. W, Sinith', all of B^ton and 
 H. T. Bowman, Bedford, and C. Richardson, of Nashuk. E. S S is the 
 
 Superintendent. The property of the company is located in Neva Scotia, 
 Canada. The company was organized at Nashua in January, 1881. 
 
 Hercnles Mining Company (The) has offices at Portland. Me. 
 The officers are E. Dana, Jr„ Pres. ; J. N. Lord, Treas. ; B. Barnes, Jr., Sec. 
 Directors, E. Dana, Jr., J. N. Lord, John M. Peck, J. R. Bodwell, Hanson 
 Gregory, Jr., E. P. Havilland, and H. H. Emmerson. who is also the Supt. 
 The company owns mining property, 1,805 acres in extent. Date of organ- 
 ization, 1882. 
 
 Hlbhard Antimony Mining Companj^. The officers are How- 
 ard F. Smith and Dr. Bell, of Manitoa. Superintendent, W. J. Smart. 
 The mines owned are the Hibbard, Prince William, and Brunswick. The 
 company's property covers 800 acres of land. The quality of the ore is 
 reported to be A 1, and improving. Assays per ton about fifty per cent. 
 The vein is five feet wide at present depfn of 240 feet, and enlarging 
 downwards. Total sinking, 400 feet. Length of adits, that is levels, 800 
 feet. Property owned, Bradford's jigs, concentrating machinery, and ore- 
 crusher. Boston, Mass., is the principal market for the ore. Eighty men 
 are employed at the works. 
 
 Liawrence Antimony Mining Compnay (The) has offices at 
 St. John, Nova Scotia. The officers or originators are Isaac P. Gray, R. C. 
 Nichols, H. S. Loring, Jas. A. L. Whittier, of Boston ; David W. Child, of 
 West Newton ; Elias Garritt, of Ashland, and Geo. W. Young, of Lowell, 
 Mass. The property of the company is located at fifteen-mile stream. 
 Nova Scotia. Capitalization, $",00,000, in 100,000 shares of $5 each. 
 
 Mascot Mining Company (The) has offices at Bangor, Maine. 
 The officers being Hon. F. M7 Laugh ton, Pres. ; M. S. Gibson, Vice-Pres. ; 
 F. H. Williams, 'Treas. ; C. W. Hobbs, Sec. Directors, Hon. P. M. Laughton, 
 M. S. Gibson, T. H. Williams, John S. Jenness, and E. H. Osborne. F. H. 
 Williams & Co., Financial Agents. Superintendent, J. M. .Johnson. The 
 company own three mines, the Galena King, Galena Queen, and the 
 Mascot, located near Mascot, Lake Gorham, New Hampshire. The ore is 
 an argentiferous galena and copper, rich in silver. It is susceptible of 
 oxidization, rendering it applicable to the manufacture of white lead. 
 Assay value, $75 per ton. The mine has 800 feet of tunneling. The min- 
 ing plant and other propertjf includes ore-house, office, .smiths' shop, 
 stable, hotel, machinery buildings, thoroughly equipped with all neces- 
 sary pumping and hoisting apparatus, tools, etc. Forty miners are em- 
 ployed. Developments commenced in August, 1881. Work progressing 
 vigorously. The weekly output at January, 1882, was thirty to forty tons. 
 The cost of reducing ore is $27 per ton. Capitalization, $500,000, in 100,000 
 shares of $5 each ; forever unassessable. 
 
 Mammoth Copper Mining Company (The) has its offices at 
 Bangor, Me. Tho oflftcers are Eugene M. Hersey, Pres.; John R. Mason, 
 Sec. ; G. W. Pickering, Treas. and Transfer Agent; W. D. Lewis, Asst. Sec. 
 and Treas. Directors, E. M. Hersey, T. N. Egery, and Sam'l Stevens, all 
 of Bangor ; W. Lewis, of Boston ; and Chas. Duflf, of Blue Hill, who also 
 acts as Superintendent. The property of the company is located at Blue 
 Hill, Me. The quality of the ore may be described as twenty-eight to 
 thirty per cent, metallic copper. Capitalization, $500,000, in 250,000 shares 
 of $2 each. Treasury stock consists of 100,000 shares, July, 1882 ; stock 
 quoted at five cents per share, July 1, 1882 ; not in operation for want of 
 funds. 
 
 Mascomo Mining Company (The) has property located at Con- 
 cord, N. H. The officers or Directors of the company are Sylvester Maish, 
 Geo. E. Jencks, Geo. H. Emery, J. D. Prescott, Jas. R. Hill, of Concord, and 
 Thos. Binns, of Boston. Total extent of property is 210 acres, there being 
 three chief veins on it. The main shaft is down about 100 feet ; and pros- 
 pects at present are said to be brilliant. The company was organized in 
 the beginning of the year, and developments are in progress. 
 
 Milton Mining Company, Wm. D. Lewis, Pres. ; Geo. E. Har- 
 rington, Treas. : Horace T. Starr, Sec. Directors, Wm. D. Lewis, Geo. E. 
 Harrington, C. F. Mackenzie, Wm. J. Mann, Geo. West, Henry R. Gardner, 
 and Geo. F. Ropes. John Shoenbar, Superintendent. Office, 4 Sears' 
 Building, Boston, Mass. Mines, West SulUvan, Me. Capitalization 
 $1^0,000; shares, 200,000; par value. $5. 
 
 ^rational Mining and Investment Company. The officers 
 are M. G. Palmer, Pres. : B. Barnes, Jr., Sec. ; M. E. Moore, Treas. Direc- 
 tors, M. G. Palmer, B. Barnes, Jr., M. E. Moore, J. A. Strout, E. D. Bastinan. 
 This company owns the Alton Lode mine, located in Yorks county. Me. 
 The character of the ore is low grade. Galena largely mixed with iron 
 and considerable silica, and contains refractory elements. The character 
 of the mine is true fissure. The veins are ten to twelve feet wide at junc- 
 tion. The shaft is over thirty feet deep. The main lode, on which the 
 company depends for its supply of ore, is 2,400 feet in length. Two veins 
 unite on this location ; the fact is regarded as a favorable indication ■ and 
 the property is spoken of in the highest terms by Col. Thyng, a successful 
 and practical engineer. The p. operty should be developed to a depth of 
 200 or 300 feet, where the ore-body will evidently be found very extensi ve 
 and will improve as depth is attained. Date of organization, Julv 5 1881 ■' 
 capitalization, $500,000; par value per share, $5; company free "from in- 
 debtedness, January 1, 1882 ; treasury reserve, 42,084 shares 
 J*"«"^1„"".'""e t'omP^ny (*••«) of Newburyport, has its 
 offices at 23o Washington Street, Boston. The officers are Ch^ter Downer 
 Pres. ; and W. H. Harrington, Treas. Directors, Chester Downer W h' 
 Harangton, D. Gilbert Dexter, A. Gould, Prof. T. Binns, John G Pratt' 
 and E. S. Towne. Prof. A H. Kidney. Snp't, The property of the c™i- 
 pany is located near Newburyport, Mass., and covers an area of thirteen 
 acres. The ore is a rich, argentiferous galena, assaying from $93 to $132 
 The mine has two shafts, eighty-five and sixty-five feet, respectively 
 Capitalization, $2,500,000, in 125,000 shares of $2 each. ^''pccin eiy. 
 
 Pine Tree Mining Comp.-my (The). Directors Ren Tniin 
 M. Corse, Pres. ; Robert 1 Cuttin'g, Jr.V New^'ork^Tre^';' Col. Charge 
 H. Lewis. Sec. ; W. Oscar Arnold. A. A. Messer, Sunt. Princinal office 
 24.Broad Street, New York The location of the property^?the?'hie Tree 
 &r^n^,T?,ffiy'\'"^.V'U'van, Maine. Property owned, shaft house, 
 ?„°i-? J^T' °^'^: hoisting ftame, reservoir, wharfage. Preparing for 
 rapid development. Capitahzation, $500,000; shares, 100,000 ; par vilue 
 $5 : non-assessable. July 1. 1882, not in operation for wan of ibnds ' 
 
 "T?.?lSL^"S»?"^»i«\^««'I'«'; ««""P"»y- The offieers'Are R. 
 Kervey, Vice-Pres. ; Ernest Grosbeck, Treas. ; 
 
 G. Beardslee. Pres.: E. H. 
 
 J. B. Miller, Sec. Trustels, Coi. KW Carr E G^oSeck E H Kerve^' 
 Grant B. Schley W.S. Poor, E. C. Preiss, C. C. Dodgei G d'. Sch"flild"nd 
 f; 1^- S"^"^™?}"^- Superintendent, T. Pollard. Tie company's property 
 IS located in Hancock county, Maine, covering fifty acres of fanaThl 
 ^^To/int^il\f^L''"\r ^bqut.88 pe"r toil and yields a copper 
 S? °mr^ *° '^^ P?' 'on. The vein is of^good copper ore twelve frpt 
 
 house machine and carpenter shop, dressing-house, two large boilera 
 ^IT?:^"^ horse-power Wizontal engine, flake cnisher,a^ Cornl^i 
 rolls, Jigs; number two shaft house, (Mbbing house, sheds "to fifleln 
 horse-power engine for hoisting, office, powder magazine three em 5 
 ITw.^^^ camps for miners. TS'e main lode is 2,7rSn length ^The 
 weekly output a{ January, 1882, selected ore, 150 tins. New York is thi 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1187 
 
 principal market for the ore. 105 men are employed. Capitalization, 
 S2,0O0,O0O ; par value per share, $10 ; treasury reserve, 75,000 snares. 
 
 8»n Marclal SUnlng Company was organized at Portland, 
 Maine, June 28, 1882, with a capitalization of $500,000. 
 
 Silver I/HKe Mining: Company (The) is a chartered organiza- 
 tion. The owners are (or were in 1880) Wm. Murdoch, Pres. ; E. D. Good- 
 rich, Vice-Pres. ; D. L. Dodge, Treas. ; E. H. Hastings, Sec. The property 
 is located at Madison, New Hampshire. Capitalization, $1,000,000, in shares 
 of 810 each; non-assessable; fully paid. 
 
 Steirart Copper Mining Company. Office, Bangor, Maine. 
 Mines, Blue Hill, Maine. Capital, $500,000. Shares, 100,000. Par value, $5. 
 Hon. Frederick M. Lauehton, Pres. : C. F. Bragg, Sec. and Treas. Direc- 
 tors, Frederick M. Laughton, F. W. Hill, C. P. Bragg, and Thomas White, 
 of Bangor ; S. N. Stockwell and U. B. Putnam, of Boston. Daniel Dunn, 
 Superintendent. 
 
 Sullivan Mining Company. The Directors are G.B.Brown, 
 Pres. ; B. S. Grant, C. F. Farrington, J. G. Russell, Dudley R. Child, E. A. 
 Birchard, Fred. R. Nourse, Treas. ; Charles L. Perrin, Sec. Mr. Stephens 
 is Superintendent. Office, 17 Tremont Bank building, Boston, Mass. The 
 company's mine, the Blue Ridge, is located at Sullivan, Maine. The ore 
 is good grade, and character excellent. Assay taken February, 1882, 
 showed $16 gold to the ton. Recent developments have given an ore as- 
 saying from $25 to $200 per ton, silver. Character of the mine, true Assure, 
 carrying a well-deiined clay seam under hanging wall; continues strong 
 in lower levels ; pay -streak preserving a width of from one and a half to 
 four feet. Dipof theveiniscnangeable. The company's property includes 
 a large Cornish pump, being put in vertical shaft for pumping (water hith- 
 erto a source of annoyance), boarding-house, superintendent's and engi- 
 neer's house, wharf, coal-shed, carpenter shop, and powder-house, all built 
 during the pa.st year (1881), hoisting-engines, and air-compressor, sufficient 
 for present needs. It is estimated that the surplus from the bullion prod- 
 uct of the mill will be from $2,000 to $3,000. After paying all expenses of 
 mining and milling, a final dividend of twenty-five cents proposed. AU 
 parts of the mines are well timbered, and said to be absolutely safe; and 
 the appliances for raising and handling the ore are simple and of great 
 capacity. Winzes and shaft are 791 feet. Length of adits, 2,400 feet. Cap- 
 ItEuization, $500,000. Par value per share, $5. Ntimber of assessments lev- 
 
 ied, three ; twenty-five cents each. Total amount of assessments levied, 
 $74,995.50. l>ate of latest assessment, July, 1882. Treasury reserve, July 1, 
 1882, $224,986. Stock quoted, July 1882, $2. 
 
 Sunburst Copper and Silver Hinlng Company (The). 
 Directors, J. W. Davis, Pres. ; M. Donelan, Sec. ; Dr. S. W. Hodgkms, Major- 
 Gen. Conyers Tower, Esq., James F. Davis, W. W. Clark, H. B. Mason. M. 
 Donelan,. Superintendent. Gen. office, Ellsworth, Me. The location of 
 the mining property belonging to this company is located in East Surrey, 
 Me., near Ellsworth. Assay of cobbed ore, 100 pounds, by W. W. Fisk, B. S. ; 
 gold, $5.31; silver, $15.41; copper, $67.32; total, 888.04; eleven ounces iu 
 gold ; assays per ton in gold, $43.96. Depth of shaft, sixty-five feet. Prop- 
 erty owned, a pump to raise water 200 feet. Recent test of Sunburst ore 
 for copper gave 150 pounds pure copper jper ton of 2,000 pounds. Five men 
 employed ; and house for hoisting, equipped with aU necessary tools, etc. 
 Propose cutting the work. Buildings erected plain but strong. Facilities 
 for loading and unloading very good. Not troubled with water. Capital- 
 ization, 500,000 shares; par value, $1 each; non-assessable; stock and 
 bonds reserved in treasury, 368,500 shares. 
 
 Twin Iiead Mitaing and Smelling Company (Tbe). Direc- 
 tors, E. M. Hersey, Pres. ; S. Stem, Vice-Pres. ; John S. Jenness, Jacob Stern, 
 T. H. Williams, Thomas N. Egery, of Bangor, Charles DuiE of Blue Hill. 
 The latter Superintendent also. Principal office, Bangor, Me. The mines 
 are located on Blue Hill, Me. Capitalization, $500.000 : shares, 125,000 ; par 
 value, $4 ; date of latest assessment, January, 1882 ; amount per share, 
 five cents; stock quoted January 1, 1882, five cents; seven cents asked. 
 July 1, 1882, not in operation for want of funds. 
 
 Young Ilecia Mining and Smelting Company (The) has 
 offices at Bangor, Me. The officers are John S. Jenness, Pres.; Chas. 
 Hamlin, Vice-Pres. ; C. B. Wiggin, Sec. and Treas. Directors, John S. 
 Jenness, Chas, Hamlin, W. D. Swazey, F. M. Laughton, Buel Smith, Hor- 
 ace P. Tobey, Frank H. Williams. The property of the company is located 
 at Blue Hill, Me. Tbe ore is high grade. The ore in the bottom of the 
 shaft continues to Improve with increasing depth ; and ore is becoming 
 richer and more massive. Capitalization, $500,000, in 100,000 shares of 
 $5 each. Reserve of stock in treasury, 20,000 shares. Stock has been 
 quoted at seventy-one cents, but has depreciated considerably. July 1, 
 fe82, not in operation for want of funds. 
 
1188 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 P A R T XII. 
 
 EXPLOSIVES— THE USE OF POWDER— TEE MANUFACTURE 
 IN THE UNITED STA TES—A GRO UP OF MINES— INS TR U- 
 MENTS OF PRECISION IN ENGINEERING 
 
 AST but not least of all this volume concerning 
 The Mines, Miners and Min- 
 ing Inteeests of the United 
 States is PAKT XII. In the 
 opening of this part we present 
 some matters to which our pub- 
 lishers desire to draw the reader's 
 attention, matters that pertain 
 to the publisher's, not the com- 
 piler's department. The matter 
 of explosives is a very important 
 one and deserves the closest attention. The very interesting 
 account of the Humboldt Mines will be read with profit. 
 The question of engineering instruments of precision is of 
 the highest value, and in the article under that title, the 
 reader will find that information that will pay for perusal. 
 
 The Part closes with a fine Index to this volume. 
 This index is in and of itself a reference volume on 
 American Mining. It has been compiled under the compi- 
 ler's supervision, and is elaborate, thorough and complete. 
 All matters worthy of note will be found therein. 
 
 EXPLOSIVES. 
 
 THE actual discovery of Gun- powder is lost in obscu- 
 rity. The Chinese claim to have used it long before 
 it was known in western Europe, where its discovery 
 was made by Berthold Schwartz. An explosive 
 powder was known in Europe for use in heavy cannon in the 
 10th century, but its composition was not accurately defined 
 and its power understood until the 13th century. It was 
 not until three centuries later when Martin Weigel first pro- 
 posed its application in the Mines of Freiburg in the year 
 1613, that powder was used in mines as an explosive. In 1630 
 its use became general in the Hartz and Erzgeberge Mines. 
 Forty years later, or about 1670, it was first used in England 
 at the Ecton Mines, on the borders of Stafford and Derby, 
 where it was employed, not so much to break down the rock 
 under ground, as to split the great blocks of stone that had 
 been brought down by the old method of fire and wedges. 
 Early in the 18th century it was introduced in the Mines of 
 western Cornwall by two men. Bell and Case, who came 
 from the western coast and who had learned the secret from 
 the Germans. Since then the use of gun-powder became 
 almost universal in Mines, and until recently was the only 
 explosive ordinarily employed. It was used in the United 
 States very early in the development of its Mining industry 
 
 but gave place, quite as promptly as it did in Europe, to the 
 various compounds of Nitro-glycerine, its immediate sue- 
 cGssor ' 
 
 The discovery of nitro-glycerine by M. Sobrero in 1847, 
 led almost immediately to a new group of mining explosives 
 of the most wonderful force. The power of powder and, 
 indeed, of all explosives, to rend asunder the substance 
 within, or upon which they are placed, depends on the 
 ignition, the moment they are liberated, of those enclosed 
 gases which are multiplied many times their bulk, as they 
 exist in the constituent parts of the powder. The more in- 
 stantaneous the ignition of the whole mass, the greater the 
 rending force — hence, the superiority of an explosion by 
 detonation over one by simple ignition. M. Berthold, a 
 French chemist, estimated the relative explosive force of the 
 different kinds of powder, and substances which form the 
 base of other explosive compounds as follows : 
 
 Blasting Powder 88 
 
 Artillery Powder 137 
 
 Powder, with base of Nitrate of Soda . . . 190 
 
 Powder, with base of Chlorate of Potash . . ... 309 
 
 Gun Cotton im 
 
 Gun Cotton, with Chlorate of Potash . . . . . 680 
 
 Nitro-Glycerine ... 939 
 
 M. Berthollet, a French experimenter, endeavored, to- 
 wards the close of the last century, to increase the force of 
 blasting powder by the use of chlorate of potash as a base, 
 but the destruction of his workmen and part of his family, 
 with the miraculous escape of himself, by an explosion 
 caused by striking his rane on a grain of powder lying on the 
 floor, put a stop to his experiments. Since that time various 
 efforts have been made in the same direction, and compounds 
 have been introduced as being both safe and powerful, 
 but the extreme danger attending the manufacture, carriage 
 and storage of such compounds have thus far prevented 
 chloratic powders from coming into general use. Nitro- 
 glycerine is formed by the chemical action of certain pro- 
 portions of nitric and sulphuric acids in combination, on 
 glycerine. The latter is a thick syrup-like looking com- 
 pound, rather sweet to the taste, obtained chiefly from the 
 fatty substance used in the manufacture of candles and soap. 
 When by the action of the acids named it becomes nitro- 
 glycerine, it is an oily liquid, resembling olive oil with a 
 sweet and rather aromatic taste, but almost inodorous. It 
 is poisonous when taken into the human system, whether by 
 the stomach or absorbed through the pores of the skin Its 
 vapors, when liberated by an explosion, cause violent head- 
 ache and nausea, if inhaled. It explodes spontane- 
 ously if exposed to a temperature of 368° F., and 
 at a lower temperature even, if the heat is applied 
 suddenly. In exploding, nitro-glycerine gives out double 
 the amount of heat generated by ordinarv gun pow- 
 der. It has, therefore, been estimated that, "if a volume 
 of powder will give 200 volumes of cold gas, expanded 
 by heat say to four times its original volume, or 800— 
 a volume of nitro-glycerine, giving 1,300 volumes of cold 
 gas, will, when expanded by heat, yield 10,400 volumes. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1189 
 
 Its explosive power, therefore, is consequently about 13 
 times greater than that of ordinary ^un powder. Practically, 
 it has been found that the use of nitro-glycerine in its un- 
 mixed and liquid state was attended with such extreme 
 danger that a substitute combining the nitro-glycerine with 
 a comparatively safe absorbent has been generally adopted 
 in all countries where its manufacture has been carried on. 
 
 The advantages of nitro-glycerine-powderover that of or- 
 dinary blasting powder are as follows : 
 
 1st. The amount of work which can be performed in a 
 given space in a Mine is quite double. 
 
 2d. The consumption of steel in the use of the tools em- 
 ployed to drill the holes is about one-half. 
 
 8d. The consumption of hammers for the same reasons is 
 also about one-half less. 
 
 4th. The consumption of candles in the time taken to 
 drill the holes is about one-half. 
 
 5th. The width of drifts or slopes is about one-half and 
 consequently requires a much less quantity of material to be 
 hoisted from the Mines. 
 
 • 6th. The mine timbers required are much shorter. 
 
 7th. The ore is broken much finer by the force of the pow- 
 der and requires less work at the mill. 
 
 8th. Progress of the work in the mine is expedited at least 
 forty per cent, and in wet mines the progress of the work is 
 increased fully fifty per cent, if not more. 
 
 The amount of high explosives manufactured in the 
 United States, east of the Rocky Mouniains, during the 
 year ending July 1st, 1882 was fully 10,000,000 pounds. 
 
 _ The Repauno Chemical Co., whose extensive works are 
 situated at Thompson's Point, New Jersey and main office 
 at 305 Walnut st. Philadelphia, manufactured of this large 
 total during the above year, nearly three and one-half mil- 
 lions of pounds. 
 
 This enormous consumption of high explosives is indi- 
 cative not only of growth in our mining industries but an 
 appreciable progress in the methods and systems of Amer- 
 ican mining. 
 
 The operations of the Repauno Chemical Co., are illus- 
 trative of this growth and progress. The company began 
 active operations in June 1880. From June 1881 to June 
 1882 they doubled theirfirst year's output, and there is every 
 prospect of their doubling the amount of their present busi- 
 ness' in the year to come, as the sale of high-explosive com- 
 pounds is increasing with marvelous rapidity. For instance, 
 a half dozen years ago the construction of a railroad requir- 
 ed an army of workmen equipped with picks and shovels ; to- 
 day the men with picks have almost disappeared as the 
 work they performed is now accomplished in a great meas- 
 ure by the use of a low grade of high-explosive. If there is 
 an embankment to remove it is blasted out and the dirt is 
 afterward handled with shovels. In this way it is done much 
 more cheaply and rapidly. 
 
 Blasting with a low grade of high explosives does not 
 throw the dirt out but seems to disintregate the entire 
 mass and render the removal of it an easy operation. The sim- 
 plicity with which " Atlas" powder can be used under such 
 circumstances requires nothing better in the workmen than 
 ordinary intelligence, with that, any embankment or rock- 
 work can be removed with comparative ease and without the 
 slightest danger. 
 
 One valuable feature to be considered in connection with 
 a high explosive is its safety in transportation. 
 
 "Atlas" powder unlike other compounds of a similar class, 
 seems to unite the qualities of strength and safety in a very 
 great degree. Its composition is made up of certain propor- 
 tions of nitro-glycerine, nitrate of soda, wood pulp and mag- 
 nesia. The last named ingredient is used to neutralize any 
 free acid which may possibly exist in the nitro-glycerine 
 after washing and which renders compounds of this class 
 quite dangerous. 
 
 The nitrate of soda is received by the Repauno Chemical 
 Co. by the cargo from South America, and delivered at their 
 wharf on the Delaware River in its crude form, where it is 
 stored in commodious buildings prepared for that purpose. 
 
 In the process of making powder, it is taken to the drying 
 house where it is placed on large iron pans and subjected to 
 
 a high degree of heat for the purpose of evaporating the moist- 
 ure which it may contain. It is then conveyed to large pul- 
 verizing mills where it is ground nearly as fine as flour. 
 Then certain proportions of nitrate of soda are combined 
 with sulphuric acid, and upon being exposed to great heat 
 in retorts made for that purpose give forth dense fiimes which 
 are condensed in specially adapted receivers, and when so 
 condensed the result is the well known article of commerce 
 called nitric acid. 
 
 The nitric acid is then sent to the nitro-glycerine house, 
 where it is combined in certain proportions with sulphuric 
 acid and glycerine, and the chemical combination produced 
 is nitro-glycerine. 
 
 At another house wood-pulp, which this Company re- 
 ceives in very large quantities, is thoroughly dried, 
 and that with the nitrate of soda and nitro-glycerine 
 is taken to a building where they are mixed together 
 in certain proportions, and the final result is the 
 high explosive known as " Atlas powder." As a meas- 
 ure of .safety as before mentioned a certain proportion of 
 magnesia is added. The reason of this admixture of mag- 
 nesia is found in the fact that nitro-glycerine even after a 
 thorough washing will at times attach to itself small mole- 
 cules of what is known as weak acid, and the tendency of 
 magnesia is to neutralize this weak acid and thus prevent 
 decomposition, and thereby remove in a measure a not un- 
 usual cause of danger. 
 
 In this chemical fact, the presence of free acid in nitro- 
 glycerine compounds, will be found, very frequently, the ex- 
 planation for so many serious and otherwise unaccountable 
 explosions. 
 
 If is manufactured of different degrees of strength which 
 are indicated, as mentioned in the following table : 
 
 15 per cent, nitro-glycerine. 
 
 F + conta 
 
 ming 15 i 
 
 E 
 
 20 
 
 E-1- 
 
 25 
 
 D 
 
 30 
 
 D + 
 
 35 
 
 C 
 
 40 
 
 c + 
 
 45 
 
 B 
 
 50 
 
 B4- 
 
 60 
 
 A 
 
 75 
 
 The powder is made into cartridges, either six or eight 
 inches in length, and from J to 2 inches in diameter, and is 
 packed in either 25, 50 lb. short and 50 lb. long boxes, the 
 last for convenience in handling, containing the powder in 5 
 and 10 lb. cartoons placed inside of the wooden boxes. 
 
 Of these many grades the greatest demand is for the "C" 
 grade, which is used extensively in the mines of Colorado 
 and New Mexico and in heavy rock-work incident to rail- 
 road construction. The lowest grade, " F," can be used to the 
 best advantage in dirt blasting and gravel pits. For sub- 
 marine work and harbor improvements " A " powder is the 
 most suitable. " Atlas "powder and compounds of this class 
 have entirely superseded what is technically known as Dyna- 
 mite. The former contains nitrate of soda as an absorbent, 
 which gives it an additional explosive force, while in the 
 latter the absorbent is composed of an inert matter, and 
 the force exerted is simply that of the nitro-glycerine. To 
 the ordinary reader it may seem strange to say that soda 
 possesses inherent explosive power, but he may realize that 
 such is the fact, when it is remembered that that chemical 
 enters largely into the composition of ordinary gunpowder. 
 Table sugar also contains a strong explosive force which is 
 nearly as great as that of gunpowder, if confined and ex- 
 ploded by a detonating cap. As we have had occasion to 
 before remark, the extreme care taken in the manufacture 
 of "Atlas " powder by the Repauno Chemical Co., has been so 
 marked and the adherence to the standard adopted by them 
 so absolute, that the railroad companies have granted them 
 special privileges in the way of transportation. 
 
 Their compound is so prepared, that it can be transported 
 and stored in almost any climate without danger of pre- 
 mature explosion or deterioration in strength. 
 
 Some of the powder which they manufactured when their 
 works were first started, is now stored in one of their maga- 
 zines, and upon recent examination was found to be in its 
 
1190 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 original state and fully as effective when used in blasting, as 
 when it was first compounded. 
 
 Above we have called attention to the important interest 
 so closely allied with the mining industries of this country, 
 as exemplified in the product of the Repauno Chemical 
 Co. There is no doubt that "Atlas" powder is as 
 safe as ordinary blasting powder, and if the holes are 
 placed with judgment, it will do several times the work of or- 
 dinary powder. But in a great many mines, almost a new gen- 
 eration of miners will be needed before " Atlas " powder will 
 be able to perform all the work of which it is capable. It has 
 often been found, that men if not watched, will persist in 
 drilling holes just as they did before high explosives were 
 used, and consequently bring no more rock down with a 
 charge than they did with the ordinary system of powder 
 blasting. 
 
 This is particularly the case in English mines. To obvi- 
 ate it, the plan, has been adopted in many American mines, 
 of appointing one or more intelligent foremen to direct where 
 the holes are to be drilled and to explode them. When 
 the holes are deep enough the drills are removed to another 
 part of the mine for similar work; the drillers being paid 
 per foot for drilling. The foreman then charges the holes 
 and fires the blast. Then the drillers return and remove the 
 debris, and the process is repeated. 
 
 In addition, we desire to briefly call the reader's attention 
 to some of the apparatus furnished by the same company, 
 for the proper and successful explosion of their compound. 
 Of the utmost importance to the miner and operator, is the 
 necessity of being provided with the best electrical goods 
 which the market will produce. Unlike ordinary gun- 
 powder, nitro-glycerine compounds can only be exploded oy a 
 a detonating cap, fired either by the insertion in it of a piece of 
 safety fuse, or by an electrical current generated by machines 
 constructed for that purpose. This company sells a 
 blasting machine eminently adapted for that purpose. It is 
 light in weight, consequently portable, and certain in its 
 results. For use with this, magneto-battery, as it is called, 
 are platinum fuses, which are constructed with great care 
 and sold in enormous quantities for that purpose. 
 
 Many miners still adhere to the old custom of firing by 
 fuse and blasting caps. These goods are also kept in stock 
 by the Repauno Chemical Co. The success attending the 
 use of platinum fuses, and Magneto blasting machines is 
 very marked, and their use has rendered the operation of 
 sinking a shaft, tunnelling a hill, and removing obstruc- 
 tions under water an exceedingly simple and safe task. 
 
 One great advantage in having a bi:siness connection with 
 this company is that its product and accessories can be ob- 
 tained of responsible agents in all sections of the country. To 
 all of our readers, therefore ,in view of the foregoing facts, we 
 can conscientiously and cordially recommend " Atlas " pow- 
 der for all mining purposes where an explosive of that 
 character is needed. 
 
 A MINING PROPERTY. 
 
 THE mining property and mines owned and operated by 
 the Humboldt Mining Co., of Engle, Socorro County, 
 New Mexico, are the most prominent in the several 
 localities in which they are situated. They were se- 
 cured at a period in the history of that territory when choice 
 of localities was to be had. Col. Branson, now President 
 of the Company, and his associates took advantage of the 
 scare that was occasioned by the Apache raid in the sum- 
 mer of 1881, when almost everyone was fleeing from the 
 mining districts, visited the most important points and 
 secured those properties they thought desirable, in the Cu- 
 chillo Negro, upper Caballo, lower Caballo, and San Andreas 
 Mountains. 
 
 The three first named are located west of the Atchi- 
 son, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad in Socorro County and the 
 latter about twenty miles east in latitude 33° on the line 
 dividing Socorro and Dona Ana counties. 
 What is popularly known as the Black Range, are really 
 
 the Miembres, the real Black Range or Negreta Mountain 
 being known as the Cuchillo Negro, after a chief of that 
 name, signifying Black Knife. On leaving the railroad at 
 Engle, and facing west, one cannot see the Cuchillo Negro 
 Mountains through the space between the southern end of 
 the San Christobals and the northern end of the Caballos, 
 but the Miembres looms up 40 miles away, black with its cov- 
 ering of evergreens, hence the misnomer by the rush of new 
 prospectors in 1881. The company's mines are located as 
 follows: Two on Mount Hancock called, "Gift" and " Gar- 
 field," four on Mt. Garfield called "Little Luella," "John 
 G. B.," " Providence," and " Sunny Side," two in Mount 
 Arthur called "Little Hope," and "Reward," and two on 
 the foot hills east of Mt. Garfield called Lookout and Tele- 
 graph, at an altitude of about 6,500 feet above sea level. 
 These are all within a few miles of the towns of Grafton, 
 Chloride, Robinson and Fairview. 
 
 Shafts have been sunk on all these properties from ten to 
 fifty feet in depth and a tunnel in the " Little Luella " 140 
 feet that will cross cut when extended all the veins and car- 
 bonate deposits in Mount Garfield. The character of the 
 ores in this region are argentiferous galena, lead carbonates 
 carryingsilver,goldbearing quartz, and carbonates of copper, 
 A sufficient quantity of fluor spar and limestone is found in 
 combination to make flux for such of these ores as require 
 smelting. Many of them are free milling ores, and can be 
 worked very cheaply, there being abundance of fine timber 
 and water in the immediate vicinity. The ores of this 
 re^on are mostly high grade. 
 
 The developments made are with a view to permanent 
 work in the most economical and productive manner. It is 
 confidently believed by all those capable of forming an 
 opinion that at about two hundred feet the ores in this dis- 
 trict will prove to be very rich ; assays of $126 to the ton 
 were made of ores taken a few feet from the surface, and it 
 is expected when the tunnel now being driven reaches the 
 same vein that they will be of greatly increased value. 
 
 A branch railroad has been twice surveyed, and is about 
 to be built, that will connect this region with the A. T. & S. 
 F. R. R. at Engle. 
 
 The Caballo Mountains are east of the Rio Grande, which 
 flows at their base. 
 
 In the Upper Caballo near Palomas Gap are located five 
 claims called California, Nevada, Gift, Grammis and Terry, 
 
 Shafts have been sunk in all these claims, and the Gram- 
 mis has been developed by a tunnel of about ninety feet, 
 the entire distance in mineral of varying richness. A great- 
 variety of ores are found in these properties, which are only 
 fifteen miles distant from Engle. Veins of good coal have 
 been found within a few miles of this camp. In the Grammis 
 tunnel, gold, silver, copper carbonates, free copper and lead 
 have been found. 
 
 In the Lower Caballo the Company own five claims, 
 called" Golden Fleece," " First Extension North," "First 
 Extension South," " Ella," and " Frank W." These claims 
 are all continuous and are located about one mile from the 
 river. The Golden Fleece lode is remarkable for its pro- 
 minence; it can be clearly traced for miles as a prominent 
 feature in the landscape as it crops from two to thirty feet 
 above the surface, varying in width from four to seven feet, 
 the vein matter is fluor spar and quartz filled through with 
 argentiferous galena. It resembles the celebrated Comstock, 
 and is most favorably located, with plenty of timber and 
 only one mile from the river, with a ranche adjoining that 
 is capable of raising all necessary provisions, and is fifteen 
 miles distant from the A. T. & S. F. R. R. Several shafts 
 have been sunk, the deepest ninety feet, on this vein, which 
 is nearly perpendicular, the mineral increasing in richness 
 as depth is attained. It ia the purpose of the Company to 
 drive this shaft to a depth of 300 feet. 
 
 The Rio Grande is here about 4,500 feet above sea level 
 and has an average descent of five feet per mile, rendering 
 easy the construction of irrigating ditches, a pipe lino or 
 other water power. These mines are from 200 to 700 feet 
 above the river. 
 
 In tlie San Andreas Mountain 25 miles east of the A. T. 
 
 f'lS; 5- -^'^'^ i?^^®^ ^^°^ the proposed line of El Paso 
 and White Oaks R. R., soon to be constructed along the 
 eastern slope of this range, the Company secured twelve very 
 desirable claims named Leviathan, Kahler, Cincinnati, 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1191 
 
 Chrysolite, Chloride, Adriatic, Corbit, Hembrillo No. 1, 
 Hembrillo No. 3, Timbuctoo No. 1, Timbuctoo Discovery, 
 Morocco, and four mill sites at Hembrillo, " Cottonwood," 
 Sulphur and Cincinnati Springs, the latter in a secluded 
 gorge near the claim in connection with which it is located, 
 and also within one-half mile of the Kahler mine, which 
 mine has been opened to a depth of 70 feet, and shows large 
 amounts of pay ore. The Adriatic at a depth of only 10 feet 
 assays well in silver, gold and lead. The Chrysolite shows 
 higher grade carbonates and quantities of beautiful Fluor 
 Spar filled with galena but the lead on which the Morocco, 
 Timbuctoo and Hembrillo claims are continuous is evidently 
 the one that is destined to make the greatest return in that 
 locality. It is clearly defined two feet wide at the surface, 
 five feet at 15 feet deep, and steadily increasing in width and 
 richness. A large per centag,e of lead, fair return of silver, 
 and with every necessary flux, water, timber, and coal not 
 far ofi^ makes it a very cheap mineral district to work. 
 
 Between these mountains and the Organs on the east, 
 and the San Christobals and Caballos on the west, 5,000 feet 
 above the level of the sea, lies the Jornada del Muerto, or 
 Journey of Death, an apparently barren plain 100 miles 
 from north to south and 40 miles from east to west, which, 
 on examination, proves to have several lakes in it, except 
 in very dry seasons, and many thousands of acres of good 
 pasturage, over which range herds of antelope and other 
 deer, and now the cattle of the enterprising herdsmen. It 
 is much cut up by ravines, and while in some portions large 
 marine deposits are found, on others beds of lava cover the 
 ground. 
 
 The A. T. & S. F. E. E. traverses its entire length, and at 
 Engle station, near its centre, is the head-quarters of the 
 Humboldt and other mining companies, only four days' ride 
 from Philadelphia, and one day's drive from any of their 
 mines. 
 
 The general development of this country has been very 
 rapid since the advent of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa 
 F4 R. R., which will soon be the direct route fi:om London 
 to Australia, via steamer from Guaymas, Mexico, to Sidney, 
 thus avoiding the Suez Canal and "Arabi," and saving 
 several days in the trip. 
 
 New Mexico contains more miles of E, R. than any one 
 of the New England States, all built during the past three 
 years, with many hundred more miles projected. 
 
 The mineral veins of this territory are much nearer the 
 surface and its mountain ranges not so high as in other 
 mining regions, hence pay ore is much easier reached. 
 
 The climate is dry and healthy, warm days and cool 
 nights the seldom varying rule. Work out doors is carried 
 on every day in the year. 
 
 No Spanish, Mexican or other land grants mar the titles 
 or embarrass the work of this company as is unfortunately 
 the case in so great a portion of this rich territory. 
 
 The policy of the company is to concentrate most of their 
 efforts and expenditures on one of the groups which is most 
 likely to prove speedily remunerative, and as soon a* it 
 becomes so, then to push developments on another, and so 
 continue until as many as can be profitably worked under 
 one management are in full production ; the surplus prop- 
 erty to be partially developed from time to time, and sold 
 for the benefit of the Company treasury. 
 
 ENGINEERING AND OTHER INSTRUMENTS 
 OF PRECISION. 
 
 THE instrumental work required by engineers, more 
 especially for use in mining interests, where the 
 results of scientific knowledge and skill must be 
 accurate underground, as well as on the surface, is 
 more varied and numerous to-day, than a few years ago 
 Now, the question of transportation must be considered as 
 well as the question of precise resuto, and t^em^st Perfect 
 and delicate instruments are necessitated; from this neces- 
 sity has arisen the extraordinary progress made in this 
 country in the production of the various scientific applian- 
 
 ces, and we are now in advance of Europe in perfection of 
 instruments of precision. In the early history of Philadel- 
 phia are found the names of Godfrey, inventor of the quad- 
 rant ; Franklin, Fitch, Evans, and other skillful mechanics, 
 engaged in the invention and construction of scientific in- 
 struments; Rittenhouse made the first telescope in this 
 country, and in the museums of the American Philosophi- 
 cal Society and Franklin Institute may be seen models of 
 works showing the highest mechanical and mathematical 
 genius, serving as incentives in improvements by the later 
 generations. That worthy successors of those time-honored 
 mechanics continued among us, to add to the scientific 
 wealth and reputation of Philadelphia and this country, by 
 their constructive skill, has an interesting and valuable 
 illustration in the productions of the house of Young and 
 Sons, 43 North Seventh St. This firm is the oldest, largest, 
 and most widely-known manufacturers of the finer kinds ot 
 mathematical, astronomical, and civil-engineering instru- 
 ments in the United States. The business has continued in 
 the same family for three generations, the founder being the 
 late William J. Young, who established the works in 1820, 
 and carried it on for 50 years, when at his death in 1870, 
 the business passed to his son, Alfred Young, the latter 
 being succeeded at his death in March, 1882, by his son, 
 Alfred C. Young, who now conducts it, assisted by valuable 
 skilled mechanics, one of whom has been connected with 
 the house for forty-three years. William J. Young invented 
 the transit instrument in 1831, a long stride in the improve- 
 ment of engineering appliances, and that it retains to-day 
 its almost identical first form, proves the value of its intro- 
 duction and the good judgment of the inventor. The Eng- 
 lish Theodolite, capable of performing the same work, was not 
 in favor with the earlier American engineers, its workings 
 being slow and inconvenient, and its use attended with 
 many discomforts, although many English engineers cling 
 to it to this day. From the theodolite the change was to the 
 magnetic compass, made to read full circle angles, indepen- 
 dent of needle ; it did close work, and while valuable for 
 speed in preliminary " runs " of railroads and surveying, it 
 was too uncertain for location, the needle producing too 
 much trouble by " playing." The transit made by Mr. 
 Young was graduated to read by vernier to three minutes, 
 it being a favorite idea of the inventor that graduations of 
 three minutes could be easily read to one minute, and be 
 less perplexing to use ; the needle was about five inches, 
 the telescope nine inches, of low power; the standards of 
 almost the identical pattern now used by some makers. For 
 whom the first transit was made is not positively known, 
 engineers claiming its use on the State works of Penn- 
 sylvania, as also on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. 
 About one year ago, one of Mr. Young's transits was 
 sent into his factory for repairs, having been forty years 
 in service, a greater part of the time in the hands of assist- 
 ants and in rough wooded country. Messrs. Youngs' Mining 
 Transits differ from ordinary ones, principally in being of 
 smaller size for greater portability, in having telescopes 
 admitting more light and comjjletely enclosed, having a 
 greater range of vertical angle, in the vernier and needle 
 being more accessible to read, improved vernier, giving 
 greater accuracy of readings, and its position to one side of 
 the standards very preferable where the engineer is work- 
 ing in confined situations; a Gkadentier attachment 
 measures (where the grade is not too steep) the inclination 
 with accuracy and speed, besides distances and differences of 
 level. Messrs. Youngs lately built a graduating engine 
 costing $7,000, and four years were occupied bj; three of 
 their best workmen in testing and correcting it, that it 
 might be, as intended, a manual of precise scientific 
 mechanism, and enable them to guarantee their astronomi- 
 cal instruments as the finest work of the class produced in 
 this country, and equal to the best European work ; instru- 
 ments with circles as large as forty-four inches can be grad- 
 uated on their engines. In their line of manufactures 
 Young & Sons admittedly lead the trade in the United 
 States, and with confidence in their superiority, can request 
 the attention of colleges, institutions of leaming,_ civil and 
 mining engineers, and private parties to their facilities and 
 ability to produce perfect work in their specialties. They 
 solicit correspondence and will be pleased to mail their 
 manual and catalogue on application. 
 
THE MINES, MINEKS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATEg. 
 
 ABBBEVIATIONS, Metrical, 765. 
 Absence of sunlight in mining, 
 225. 
 Abstract, General, showing the notes 
 and specie of the banlis of British 
 Columbia, 393. 
 Academy, Freiburg, Germany, 844. 
 Accidents and deaths in English coal 
 
 mines, statistics of, 817. 
 Accidents, fatal, and deaths in English 
 
 coal mines, comparison of, 817. 
 Accidents, fatal, in Prussian mines, sta- 
 tistics of, 816. 
 
 Accidents in mines, 816. 
 
 Accidents in Prussian mines, nature of, 
 816. 
 
 Accidents in the Oomstock mines, and 
 their relation to deep mining, 798 
 to 802. 
 
 Accidents, mine, mechanical appliances 
 for, 826. 
 
 Accidents, mine, 769. 
 
 Accidents, Mining, 824. 
 
 Accumulations of water in the Corn- 
 stock lode, 187. 
 
 Acid, sulphuric, and sulphur from iron 
 pyrites, the manufacture of, 136. 
 
 Act of creating the California Mining 
 Bureau, 356. 
 
 Action, Congressional, as to metals on 
 the Pacific Coast, 615. 
 
 Action, Congressional, relative to the 
 Eeservation of Lands, 613._ 
 
 Action, executive, relative to mines, 613. 
 
 Action, solfataric, on the Comstock, 
 194. 
 
 Active prospecting in Leadville, com- 
 mencement of, 163. 
 
 Activity, electrical, of ore bodies, 196. 
 
 Act, mining, of July 26, 1866, 620. 
 
 Act; mining, of May 10, 1872, 620. 
 
 Acton mining belt, the, 185. 
 
 Act. Placer-Mining, July 9, 1870, 620. 
 
 Acts, Coal Land, Table of Entries under 
 the, 610. ^ . „ 
 
 Acts of Parliament in the Eeign ot 
 Henry VIII and Edward VI, 14. 
 
 Acts, United States Loan, Table of the 
 Average Price of Silver in Eelation 
 to the, 459. 
 
 Actual Circulation of Bullion as com- 
 pared with Population, 451. 
 
 Adit Levels in Drainage of Mines, 905. 
 A 
 
 Administration and Method of Surveys, 
 
 573. 
 Administration of the Athenian and 
 
 Egyptian Mines, 545. 
 Administration of the Land Office, 567. 
 Adobes, cost of Making, 148. 
 Advanced Degrees in Cornell Univer- 
 sity, 825, 
 Adverse Claim, Form of Protest and, 
 
 725. 
 Adverse Claims, Eulings of the General 
 
 Land Office relative to, 626. 
 Affidavit of Citizenship, form of, 722. 
 Affidavit of failure to contribute toward 
 
 developing a claim, form of, 720. 
 Affidavit of $500 improvement, form of, 
 
 722. 
 Africa as the country of gold, 430. 
 Africa, iron ores of, 208. 
 Ages, Middle, Mining law in the, 546. 
 Age of porphynr, relative, 168. 
 Ages, Middle, Table of the relative val- 
 ues of gold and silver in the, 411. 
 Aggregate production of the Lake Su- 
 perior iron ore mines, 66. 
 Agreement, Escrow, form of, 727. 
 Air, Atmospheric, facts relative to, 764. 
 Air Compresser, Boiler, and Engine, 
 
 Combined, 828. 
 Air, Compressed, in Mines, 811. 
 Air-currents in mines, importance of, 
 
 185. 
 Air Currents of Mines, Measuring, 810. 
 Air in Metal Mines, reports of Dr. 
 
 Smith on the, 231. 
 Air Lock for Mines, 828. 
 Air, nature of, 806. 
 Air SoUars, 807. 
 A. Kerman, Prof., views of, on the iron 
 
 and steel product of Sweden, 258. 
 Alabama Coal and Iron, 116. 
 Alabama, early iron industries of, 61. 
 Alabama, measures in "Four Mile 
 
 Creek " section, 117. 
 Alabama, number and thickness of the 
 
 coal-beds of, 117. 
 Alabama, South and North, Eailroad, 
 
 workable beds adjoining, 117. 
 Alabama, The Cahaba field, 116. 
 Alabama, The Coosa field, 116. 
 Alabama, The Warrior field, 116. 
 Alaska, report of the director of the 
 mint for 1881, 1079. 
 
 Alaska, report relative to, tenth census, 
 971. 
 
 Albert Gallatin, extract from the views 
 of, on monetary crises, 417. 
 
 Alexander County, N. C, 124. 
 
 Alex. Mardle, Mr., table of the produc- 
 tion of gold and silver from 1492 
 to 1878, according to, 457. 
 
 Alienation, the right of mining prop- 
 erty vested by, 553. 
 
 Alkaline salts and gold, 221. 
 
 Alleghenies, first rolling mill west of 
 the, 57. 
 
 Alleghenies, BOUthem, 212. 
 
 Allegheny, coal-basin, 209. 
 
 Allegheny coal field, 98. 
 
 Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, iron 
 and steel production of, report in 
 tenth census, 1028. 
 
 Alleghanies, the, 223. 
 
 Alloys and their melting heats, 762. 
 
 Alloys, average composition of, 763. 
 
 Alloy, silver -lead, 888. 
 
 Alloys of a given fineness, rules for 
 preparation of, 765. 
 
 Alluvia, gold, washing 200 years ago, 901. 
 
 Alluvium, 2. 
 
 Alluvium, auriferous, 429. 
 
 Almaden quicksilver mine, New, com- 
 mencement of the, 89. 
 
 "Alternation, The Law of." 424. 
 
 Alternation of sandstone layers, 225. 
 
 Alums from Maine shales, 137. 
 
 Amalgamation process for the extraction 
 of silver, 890. 
 
 Amalgamation and stamp mill process 
 for gold, California, 90. 
 
 Amendment of '' Chapter Fifty " of the 
 Howell lode, 669. 
 
 America, erection of the first steam- 
 engine in, 89. 
 
 America, the first discovery of coal in, 
 101. 
 
 American and Yuba Elvers, table of 
 reservoirs constructed for mining 
 purposes on the, 695. 
 
 American blast-flirnaces, introduction 
 of bituminous coal as a fuel in, 72. 
 
 American coinage, statistics of, 359. 
 American Institute of Mining Engi- 
 neers, 347. 
 
 I American Institute of Mining Engi- 
 neers, officers of the, 349. 
 
11 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 American Institute of Mining Engi- 
 neers, rules of the, 348. 
 
 American miners, average annnal pro- 
 duction- of gold and silver by, 397. 
 
 American Mining Stock Exchange, by- 
 laws of the, 482 to 484. 
 
 American Mining Stock Exchange, the, 
 482. 
 
 American Mining Stock Exchange, rules 
 and regulations of the, 484 to 487. 
 
 American Mining Stock Exchange, 
 stocks listed and called at the, 
 487. 
 
 American River, California, general 
 features of, presented by Mr. Man- 
 son, 702. 
 
 American River, table relative to struc- 
 tures on, 707. 
 
 American silver coin, statement of coun- 
 tries of the net imports of, 372, 
 
 American students of mining in Ger- 
 many, 344. 
 
 Amount and character of deposits at 
 the mint, 359. 
 
 Amount of capital in mining industries, 
 increase in the, 289. 
 
 Amount of coin issued since 1848, table 
 showing the, 457. 
 
 Amount of gold and silver coined in 
 Lisbon, Portugal, tables showing 
 the, 388. 
 
 Amount of gold and silver coined under 
 the metric decimal system in Italy, 
 table showing the, 389. 
 
 Amount of gold and silver coin and 
 bullion in the government treasu- 
 ries of British India, table showing, 
 390. 
 
 Amount of gold, total, produced since 
 1492, 433. 
 
 Amount of precious metals in the west, 
 statement of the, 507. 
 
 Amphibolites, 164. 
 
 Analytical and applied chemistry and 
 mineralogy, course in, in the Penn- 
 sylvania University, 270. 
 
 Analyses of " fossil ore," 210. 
 
 Analysis of limestone, 126. 
 
 Analysis of magnetic iron ores, 209. 
 
 Analysis of Mexican limonites, 215. 
 
 Analysis of Michigan iron ore, 209. 
 
 Analysis of Missouri iron ore, 209. 
 
 Analysis of nickel vein at Orford, 142. 
 
 Analysis on 100 parts of tin, 15. 
 
 Analysis of Portsmouth coal, 131. 
 
 Analysis of pyroxene, 142. 
 
 Analysis of Temescal tin ore, 158. 
 
 Analysis of Yorkshire coals, 244. 
 
 Analysis of Ancient Arms and Cutting 
 Instruments, 11. 
 
 Analysis of Blue Hill ore, 135. 
 
 Analysis of Cahaba coals, 118. 
 
 Analysis of Chestnut Flat iron, 125. 
 
 Analysis of Chrysolite, 122. 
 
 Analysis of Cranston Coal, 131. 
 
 Analysis of difterent varieties of coal, 
 243. 
 
 Analysis of hemitite deposits at Crans- 
 ton, 132. 
 
 Analysis of Iron, 131. 
 
 Ancient arms and cutting instruments, 
 
 analyses of, 11. 
 Ancient authors, first mention of coal 
 
 by, 99. 
 Ancient drainage, 694. 
 Ancient excavations in Michigan, 75. 
 Ancient mining in Siberia and Europe, 
 
 645. 
 Ancient mining in western Europe, 
 645. 
 
 Ancients, mining and metallurgy among 
 the, 8. 
 
 Ancients, copper as used by the, 10. 
 
 Ancients, mining and mining law among 
 the, 542. 
 
 Ancient Period, Table illustrating the 
 History of the Relative Values of 
 Gold and Silver in the, 410. 
 
 Ancient Times, Gold and Silver of. The 
 Ratio between, 402. 
 
 Ann Arbor, School of Mines of Michi- 
 gan University, at, 92. 
 
 Ann Arbor, University of Michigan, 
 327. 
 
 Annals of the New York Stock Ex- 
 change, 470. 
 
 Annex, The Mining, 496. 
 
 Annex, the mining, by-laws for the, 496 
 to 499. 
 
 Annual assay, laws relating to the re- 
 servation of coins for the, 466, 467. 
 
 Annual average gold and currency 
 prices of staple articles in the New 
 York market, table showing the, 
 374 to 379. 
 
 Annual products of gold in British Col- 
 umbia, 396. 
 
 Annual production of leading mining 
 and metallurgical products, during 
 the ten years 1871-80, statement 
 of, 96. 
 
 Annual products of lead, copper, silver 
 and gold in the West, 1870-81, 
 table of the, 507. 
 
 Annual report for 1881 of the general 
 land office, summary of the, 655. 
 
 Annual consumption of coal in India, 
 260. 
 
 Annual consumption of gold in the arts, 
 table showing the, 380. 
 
 Annual consumption of silver in the 
 arts, table sliowing the, 381. 
 
 Annual market ratio, average, between 
 gold and silver, tables of the, 409. 
 
 Annual product of the Comstock lode 
 from 1860 to 1878, table of the, 
 181. 
 
 Annual production, average, of German 
 marks, tables of the, 423. 
 
 Annual production in the United States 
 of gold and silver, 395. 
 
 Annual production, average, of gold and 
 silver by American mines, 397. 
 
 Annual producti(>n of gold in Australia, 
 table of the, 396. 
 
 Anthracite, 7. 
 
 Anthracite, from peat to, 98. 
 
 Anthracite coal ores in Pennsylvania, 
 ownership of, 934. 
 
 Anthracite in the blast furnace, the use 
 of, and opening of the anthracite 
 coal fields, 89. 
 
 Anthracite coal, calculation regarding, 
 933. 
 
 Anthracite coal, capital invested in the 
 production of, statistics of tenth 
 census, 1009. 
 
 Anthracite collieries, cost of wire rope, 
 942. 
 
 Anthracite coal, consumption of mater- 
 ial in production of, statistics of 
 tenth census, 1009. 
 Anthracite coal, table showing the dis- 
 tribution of, in 1881, 534. 
 Anthracite for the generation of steam, 
 
 first use of, 71. 
 Anthracite coal, geological position of, 
 
 7. 
 Anthracite coal fields of Pennsylvania, 
 facts relative to the, 534. 
 
 Anthracite coal fields and the use of an- 
 thracite in the blast furnace, open- 
 ing of the, 89. 
 
 Anthracite coal and iron ore of Rhode 
 Island and Massachusetts, 131. 
 
 Anthracite and magnetic iron ore dis- 
 tricts of New York, New Jersey, 
 Pennsylvania and Eastern Mary- 
 land, the, 210. 
 
 Anthracite coal, the manufacture of iron 
 with, 69. 
 
 Anthracite coal, output of, in Pennsyl- 
 vania, 934. 
 
 Anthracite coal, Pennsylvania, exhaus- 
 tion of, 930. 
 
 Anthracite pig iron, 69. 
 
 Anthracite coal, prices of, in dollars, 
 from 1826 to 1882, 1035. 
 
 Anthracite coal production, compara- 
 tive statement of the, 533. 
 
 Anthracite coal, production of, statistics 
 of tenth census, 1008. 
 
 Anthracite coal, production of, by coun- 
 ties, statistics of tenth census, 1009. 
 
 Anthracite coal, production of, in Penn- 
 sylvania, 1033. 
 
 Anthracite coal, production of Pennsyl- 
 vania, 1820-1881, by years, 1034. 
 
 Anthracite, for puddling use of, 71. 
 
 Anthracite coal trade, 532. 
 
 Anthracite coal, weight and volume of, 
 761. 
 
 Antimonial silver, 6. 
 
 Antimonial Sulphuret of Silver, 6. 
 
 Antimony in Maine, 137. 
 
 Appalachian coalfield, 239. 
 
 Appalachian mountains, 208. 
 
 Appalachian range, mines of, report of 
 the directors of the mint for 1881, 
 1101-1107. 
 
 Appliances, mechanical, for mine acci- 
 dents, 826. 
 
 Application of electricity to the Preven- 
 tion of fire-damp explosions, 815. 
 
 Application, industrial, of metals, 874. 
 
 Application for patent, form of power, 
 of attorney for, 725. 
 
 Application for patent for mining claim, 
 form of, 721. 
 
 Application for surveying a mining 
 claim, form of, 721. 
 
 Applied and analytical-chemistry and 
 mineralogy, course in, in the Penn- 
 sylvania University, 270. 
 
 Appointment of deputy surveyors, of 
 mining claims, 628. 
 
 Arbitrary decree, efiect of, in determin- 
 ing the ratio of value between pre- 
 cious metals, 404. 
 
 Archaean exposures of the Sawatch 
 range, 163. 
 
 Archfean rocks, 164. 
 
 ArcliEean ores, 127. 
 
 Area of the coal-fields of the United 
 kingdom, 242. 
 
 Area, estimate of, western precious-me- 
 tal regions, 621. 
 
 Area, estimated, of coal lands on the 
 public domain, 610. 
 
 Areas of coal measures, bituminous, in 
 Pennsylvania, 935 to 939. 
 
 Argillaceous ore, 4. 
 
 Arizona, bullion product of, 511. 
 
 Arizona castle dome district, 257. 
 
 Arizona, geology and veins of tomb- 
 stone, 159. 
 
 Arizona, mining laws of, 667 to 680. 
 
 Arizona, pioneer district, 612. 
 
 Arizona, productions of deep mines, 
 statistics of tenth census, 968. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Arizona, production of Placer mines, 
 Statistica of tenth census, 967. 
 
 Arizona, report of director of mint for 
 1881, 1048-1053. 
 
 Arizona, silver district, 25l. 
 
 Arizona, table of the bullion yield of 
 511. 
 
 Arkansas, the mines and minerals of, 
 108. 
 
 Arkansas, Carroll County, 109. 
 
 Arkansas, the oldest mine in, 108. 
 
 Arkansas, Polk County, 108. 
 
 Arkansas River, 109. 
 
 Arkansas River, 162. 
 
 Arkansas Valley, 162. 
 
 Arkansas, White County, 109. 
 
 Armor, defensive, art of making, 22. 
 
 Arsenic and sulphur, roasting copper to 
 expel, 883. 
 
 Arsenical iron in Maine, 137. 
 
 Art of making defensive armor, 22. 
 
 Art of tinning iron, 24. 
 
 Art science and industry, raining and 
 metallurgical, Progress in from 
 1875 to 1881, 95. 
 
 Articles of gold manufactured in or im- 
 ported into Sweden, table of, 385. 
 
 Articles of silver manufactured in or 
 imported into Sweden, table of, 
 385. 
 
 Articles, staple, in the New York mar- 
 ket, table showing the annual aver- 
 age gold and currency prices of, 
 374 to 379. 
 
 Artificial fuel for quicksilver furnaces, 
 156. 
 
 Arts, annual consumption of gold in the, 
 table showing the, 380. 
 
 Arts, annual consumption of silver in 
 the, table showing the, 381. 
 
 Arts, gold in the, in Great Britain, 380. 
 
 Arts and manufactures in the United 
 States, table of the value and char- 
 acter of the gold and silver used in, 
 372, 375. 
 
 Arts, mechanic, course in, in Cornell 
 University, 322. 
 
 Articles, staple, gold prices of, and cur- 
 rency in the New York market com- 
 pared with the ratio of circulation 
 to population and wealth, 380. 
 Articles, staple, prices of in the New 
 York market from 1825 to 1880, 
 380. 
 Ascertaining the eflfect of different soils 
 
 on weak gold solutions, 220. 
 Ascertaining the solubility.of gold, me- 
 thod of, 219, 220. 
 
 Ash bed, Michigan, the, 76 
 
 Ashe County, N. C, 125, 126. 
 
 Aspect, economic, of mining, the, 696. 
 
 Assay, annual, laws relating to the re- 
 servation of coins for the, 466, 467. 
 
 Assays, average, for Maine minerals, 
 table of, 138. 
 
 Assays of Canada gold mining com- 
 pany's ores, mostly from the Gat- 
 ling mine, 145. 
 
 Assay Commission of 1882, proceedings 
 ofthe, 462to468. 
 
 Assay of the Giles and Bland fossil ores, 
 125. 
 
 Assay Commissioners, rules of, the 
 Board of, 467. 
 
 Assay Office, New York, and coming 
 mints, statement showing the pur- 
 chases at the, 360. 
 
 Assay Office, New York, value of de- 
 posits and bars manufactured dur- 
 ing 1880 and 1881 at the, 363. 
 
 Assay Office, New York, 363. 
 
 Assay officers at Charlotte, Helena, 
 Boise City, and St. Louis, and the 
 Denver Mint, work done at the, 
 363. 
 
 Assay officers and mints. United States, 
 deposit of gold and silver, at the, 
 from their organization to June 30, 
 1881, 367. 
 
 Assay officers and mints. United States, 
 statement of earnings and expendi- 
 tures of the, 366. 
 
 Assay officers and mints. United States, 
 wastages and loss on sale of sweeps 
 at the, 367. 
 
 Assay of ore at Newburyport, 132. 
 
 Assay of gray copper atNewburyport,132 
 
 Assays of Nova Scotia ores, 247. 
 
 Assays of samples from the Marmora 
 mines, 143,144. 
 
 Assessments and dividends of mining 
 companies, table relative to the, 
 492. 
 
 Assessments and dividends, tables rela- 
 tive to, 514. 
 
 Asylums, California, tables relative to 
 commitments in, 795. 
 
 Athenian and Egyptian mines, adminis- 
 tration of the, 545. 
 
 Atmospheric air, facts relative to, 764. 
 
 Attempt, first, by Europeans to manu- 
 facture iron in the United States, 
 32. 
 
 Attempt to secure a discoverer's rights, 
 the earliest, 102. 
 
 Augustus, time of, iron mines in, 11. 
 
 Auricalcum, 10. 
 
 Auriferous alluvium, 429. 
 
 Auriferous gravel, tabular statement of 
 the average yield of, 698. 
 
 Auriferous rocks, 429. 
 
 Auriferous sands, manner of collecting, 
 157. 
 
 Auriferous slate deposits of the southern 
 mining region, 119. 
 
 Auriferous veins, 429. 
 
 Auriferous veins in the slate bands of 
 Nova Scotia, 246. 
 
 Austria-Hungary, the industries of, 264. 
 
 Austria and Hungary, 258. 
 
 Austria, precious metals used in, from 
 1867 to 1880, statement of the, 382. 
 
 Austrian currency, 452. 
 
 Authorities on mining jurisprudence, 
 542. 
 
 Authors, ancient, first mention of coal 
 by, 99. 
 
 Australasia, gold and silver coin bullion 
 and paper currency in the banks of 
 Australasia, 391. 
 
 Australia, the discovery of gold in, 82. 
 
 Australia, discovery of gold in, 396. 
 
 Australia, the gold production in, table 
 showing the decline of, 433. 
 
 Australia, gold yield in, 396. 
 
 Australia, table of the annual produc- 
 tion of gold in, 396. 
 
 Australian gold production for 24 years, 
 table showing the, 392. 
 
 Austria, iron ores of, 207. 
 
 Average annual market ratio between 
 gold and silver, tables of the, 409. 
 
 Average annual production of German 
 marks, tables of the, 423. 
 
 Average annual production of gold and 
 silver by American mines, 397. 
 
 Average assays for Maine minerals, 
 table of, 138. 
 
 Average coined gold, silver and copper 
 held by banks of Victoria, 391. 
 
 Average and comparative prices of the 
 principal domestic commodities 
 exported from the United States, 
 373. 
 
 Average composition of alloys, 763. 
 
 Average gold and currency prices, 
 annual, of the staple articles in the 
 New York Market, table showing 
 the, 374 to 379. 
 
 Average monthly price of fine silver 
 bars at London, 370. 
 
 Average price of domestic lead in New 
 York, 538. 
 
 Average price of silver in relation to the 
 United States Loan Acts, table of 
 the, 459. 
 
 Average section in Mosquito Range, 
 table of, 164. 
 
 Average yield of auriferous gravel, tabu- 
 lar statement of, 698. 
 
 Azoic formation, 127. 
 
 BALANCE bobs in drainage of mines, 
 907. 
 Banca, the tin mines of, 157. 
 Banca tin, prices of) in Holland, 537. 
 Bands, slate, of Nova Scotia, auriferous 
 
 veins in the, 246. 
 Bank of Emission, the first regulars, 
 
 454. 
 Bank reserve and paper circulation in 
 
 the Cape of Good Hope, 390. 
 Banks of Australasia, gold and silver 
 
 coin, Bullion and paper currency in 
 
 the, 391. 
 Banks of Bengal, Madras and Bombay, 
 
 showing the coin and bullion in the, 
 
 390. 
 Banks of British Columbia, general ab- 
 stract showing the notes and specie 
 
 ofths, 393, 
 Banks and paper money, 452. 
 Banks of Victoria, average of coined 
 
 gold, silver and copper held by the, 
 
 391. 
 Bar iron, 48. 
 Bar iron, conversion of, into steel by 
 
 cementation, 878. 
 Bar iron as currency, 61. 
 Bar iron in Mexico, estimated cost of 
 
 working, 216. 
 Baron von Richthofen's papers relating 
 
 to the geology of the Washoe dis- 
 trict, 188. 
 Bars, fine silver, average monthly price 
 
 of, at Lpudoii, 370. 
 Bars manufactured and deposits during 
 
 1880 and 1881 at the New York 
 
 assay office, value of, 363. 
 Bars manufactured during the year 
 
 ended June 30, 1881, 366. 
 Bars, method calculating of value of 
 
 764. 
 Bases and mgridiaiis inland surveying, 
 
 572. 
 Bases of operation on the Oomstook lode, 
 
 three, 1§3. 
 Basin, Giles county, V^,, 125, 
 Basin, Great Kanawha coal, 126. 
 Basin, the Heraclea, 260. 
 Basin, {he Missourian, fourth, or Wes- 
 tern bituminous coal, 112. 
 Bassenheim fiu-nace, 52, 
 Bay dg Grase, 141. 
 Bay, Frenchman's, 138. 
 Beaches and gold bluffs on the North 
 
 Pacific Qoast, the gold, 156. 
 Bear river, table relative to structures 
 
 on, 707. 
 Bed, the ash, Michigan, 76. 
 
IV 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Bed, the Belknap, 113. 
 
 Bed, the Brazos, 113. 
 
 Bedded ore deposits, 162. 
 
 Beds, chrysolite, 122. 
 
 Beds^ Essential features of New Jersey 
 iron ore, 129. 
 
 Beds, capacity of original corundum, 123. 
 
 Beds of treasure, minor, 108. 
 
 Beds, workable, adjoining the south and 
 north Alabama railroad, 117. 
 
 Beginning of the iron industry at Pitts- 
 burg, 57. 
 
 Beginning of mining in the Comstock 
 region, 181. 
 
 Beginning of the seventeenth century 
 100. 
 
 Belgian miners, tradition of, 101. 
 
 Belguim, exports and imports of iron 
 by, 257. 
 
 Belgium, iron ores of, 207. 
 
 Belgium, minerals and manufactures of, 
 263. 
 
 Belgium, production of pig iron in, 257. 
 
 Belgium Spelter, 1031. 
 
 Belknap bed, the, 113. 
 
 Bell Tunnel— Ben Harding case, decis- 
 ion relative to the, 651. 
 
 Belt, the Acton mining, 135. 
 
 Belt, the Blue Hill copper, 134. 
 
 Belt, the chrysolite N. 0., original dis- 
 coverer and tracer of, 124. 
 
 Belt, gold bearing, 6. 
 
 Belt, the Gouldsboro and Sullivan min- 
 ing, 133. 
 
 Belt, of Keweenaw county, the great 
 copper-bearing, 76. 
 
 Belt, the Lubec mining, 133. 
 
 Belt, of Penobscot and Piscataquis 
 counties, the metalliferous slate,135. 
 
 Belt, the Sedgwick and Deer Isle, 135. 
 
 Belt, the Wakefield and Parsonfleld,136. 
 
 Belts, prominent mining, in Maine, 133. 
 
 Belvidere division of Pennsylvania rail- 
 road, tonnage of coal on, 1037. 
 
 Benificient results of the process of vein 
 making, 204. 
 
 Benefit of labor, physical, 268. 
 
 Benefit of the present system of land 
 parceling, 475. 
 
 Bengal, Madras and Bombay, table 
 showing the coin and bullion in the 
 banks of, 390. 
 
 Bengal, Madras and Bombay presiden- 
 cies, government paper circulation 
 issued by, table relative to, 390. 
 
 Berkeley, Cal., University of California, 
 338. 
 
 Berkshire Hills, 36. 
 
 Bessemer steel, 89. 
 
 Bessemer steel industry of Great Britain, 
 the, 254. 
 
 Bessemer steel, production of, 879. 
 
 Bessemer steel, production of, in 1881, 
 report in tenth census, 1025. 
 
 Bessemer steel, production of report in 
 tenth census, 1016. 
 
 Bessemer steel rails, prices of, at the 
 works in Wales, 255. 
 
 Bessemer steel works of the United 
 States, statement of the, 530. 
 
 Bessemer steel works, the first, in Aus- 
 tro Hungary, 258. 
 
 Bethlehem, school of mining and metal- 
 lurgy of Lehigh University at, 92. 
 
 Big Elk Elver, 55 
 
 Big Oak Flat and Ooulterville to Mer- 
 ced, mineral section from, 249. 
 
 Big Muddy coal fields, 65. 
 
 Bilharz, Herr, estimate of the spelter 
 production of Europe, by, 240. 
 
 Bi-metallic law in France, the, 427. 
 
 Bi-metalism and money, 359. 
 
 Bi-metalism : single and double stand- 
 ards, 436. 
 
 Bi-metalism, universal, the Newton law 
 of, 426. 
 
 Biology, course in, in the Lawrence Sci- 
 entific School, 309. 
 
 Biscay iron, 265. 
 
 Bituminous coal, 7. 
 
 Bituminous coal basin, the Missourian, 
 fourth, or western, 112. 
 
 Bituminous coal, changes in production 
 of, decade ending June 1st, 1880, 
 statistics of tenth census, 1005. 
 
 Bituminous coal fields of Pennsylvania, 
 facts relative to the, 634. 
 
 Bituminous coal as a fuel in American 
 blast fiirnaces, introduction of, 72. 
 
 Bituminous coal, general averages by 
 States, statistics of tenth census, 
 1004. 
 
 Bituminous coal, manufacture of iron 
 with, 72. 
 
 Bituminous coal of Pennsylvania, availa- 
 ble amount of, 935. 
 
 Bituminous coal in Pennsylvania, esti- 
 mates of areas and tonnage, by 
 counties, 937-939. 
 
 Bituminous coal, production by counties, 
 east of 100th meridian, statistics of 
 tenth census, 1005. 
 
 Bituminous coal, production by States, 
 east of 100th meridian, statistics of 
 tenth census, 1003. 
 
 Bituminous coal, production of, west of 
 100th meridian, statistics of tenth 
 census, 1006. 
 
 Bituminous coal, raw, use of, in the 
 blast furnace, 89. 
 
 Bituminous coal, States east of 100th 
 meridian, in order of their produc- 
 tion, statistics of tenth census, 1006. 
 
 Bituminous sulphuret of mercury, 7. 
 
 Black-band iron ores, 210. 
 
 Black-band ore, the, 119. 
 
 Black dike in the Comstock lode, 192. 
 
 Black lead, 9, 10. 
 
 Black oxide of copper, 5. 
 
 Black oxide of iron, 3. 
 
 Blake, Prof., paper of, on the rare mine- 
 rals of California, 248. 
 
 Blake, Prof., on the zonal parallelism of 
 mining districts, 222. 
 
 Bland and Giles fossil ores, assay of the, 
 125. 
 
 Blanket veins or deposits, 169. 
 
 Blast furnace, first use of Lake Superior 
 ore in a, 66. 
 
 Blast furnace, use of anthracite in the, 
 and opening of the anthracite coal 
 fields, 89. 
 
 Blast furnace, in Connecticut, first, 130. 
 
 Blast furnace, use of raw bituminous coal 
 in the, 89. 
 
 Blast furnaces, American, introduction 
 of bituminous coal as a fuel in, 72. 
 
 Blast furnaces, tables relative to, 531. 
 
 Blasting, effects in, 756. 
 
 Blasting, mode of, 907. 
 
 Blasting powder, consumption of, in 1881, 
 1043. 
 
 Blasts, introduction of steam for drivina:, 
 47. 
 
 Blende, 7. 
 
 Blende deposits, 110. 
 
 Blister steel, conversion of, into cast steel. 
 _ 878. 
 
 Blistered copper, roasting the fine metal 
 886. 
 
 Block-coal iron region of Indiana, 212. 
 
 Block, or splint coal, 63. 
 
 "Blocking-bed" coal, 244. 
 
 Blood, human, comparison of, with 
 waters chemically impregnated, 201. 
 
 Blooms, iron production of) report in 
 Tenth Census, 1017. 
 
 Blue Hill Copper Belt, the, 134. 
 
 Blue Hill ore, analysis of, 135. 
 
 Blue Hill ores, list of, 135. 
 
 Blue limestone, 165. 
 
 Blue Eidge, the, 122. 
 
 Blue Eidge, the, 127. 
 
 Blue limestone horizon at Fryer Hill, 
 175. 
 
 Blufls and gold beaches on the North 
 Pacific Coast, the gold. 156, 
 
 Board of Assay Commissioners, rules of, 
 467. 
 
 Board, San Francisco Stock and Ex- 
 change, Constitution of the, 516. 
 
 Board, San Francisco Stock and Ex- 
 change, By-laws of the, 517 to 520. 
 
 Board, San Francisco Stock and Ex- 
 change, Officers of the, 515. 
 
 Board of Trade, the Philadelphia Min- 
 ing, 499. 
 
 Bobs, balance, in drainage of mines, 
 907. 
 
 Bodies, white porphyry, at Fryer Hill, 
 175. 
 
 Bog ore, 3. 
 
 Bog ore, 53. 
 
 Bohemian or Southern Eange, 76. 
 
 Boiler, engine and air compressor, com- 
 bined, 828.. 
 
 Boiler, mounted high pressure, 828. 
 
 Boise City, St. Louis, Charlotte and 
 Helena, Assay Offices at, and Den- 
 ver Mint, work done at the, 363. 
 
 Bombay, Bengal and Madras, table 
 showing the coin and bullion in 
 the banks of, 390. 
 
 Bombay, Madras and Bengal presiden- 
 cies. Government paper circulation 
 issued by, table relative to, 390. 
 
 Bonamy Price, Mr., on the value of 
 money, views of, 415. 
 
 Bonanza of Gold Hill, the, 432. 
 
 Bonanzas in the Comstock mines, 182. 
 
 Bonanzas at Fryer Hill, distribution 
 of, 176. 
 
 Bond, title, form of, 726. 
 
 Book of Job, references to iron in, 17. 
 
 Bornite, 249. 
 
 Boss, M. P., paper on the silver mill 
 and its worsidgs, 922 to 927. 
 
 Boston, Massachusetts Institute of Tech- 
 nology, 311. 
 
 Boston Mining and Stock Exchange, 
 Constitution of the, 502 and 503. 
 
 Boston Mining and Stock Exchange, 
 By-laws of the, 504 and 505. 
 
 Botany, zoology and geology, courses 
 in, in Lafayette College, 279. 
 
 Bottom-rock, 129. 
 
 Bourbon Furnace, 59. 
 
 Brain's Eadial System in rock-drilling, 
 
 Branson and Nutt, enterprises of, 44. 
 
 Brass, 10. 
 
 Brass, copper, steel and weight iron, 
 
 table relative to weight of, 757. 
 BrasSj yellow, 12. 
 Brattice, the, 228. 
 Brazil, the gold mines of, 430. 
 Brazil, gold product and coinage of, 
 
 1878-1881, 1046. 
 Brazos bed, the, 113. 
 Brazos coal-seam, the, 115. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Brazos coal field of Texas, 112. 
 
 Brazos River, 112. 
 
 Breaking rock, tools used in, 912. 
 
 Breaking strains of wire, tables of, 898. 
 
 Brierfield rolling-mill, 61. 
 
 Briar Hill coal, 63. 
 
 Brigus Lookout, 140. 
 
 Britain, silver mines in, 13. 
 
 British Columbia, annual production of 
 gold in, 396. 
 
 British Columbia, banks of, general ab- 
 stract, showing the notes and spe- 
 cie of the, 393. 
 
 British Commission, recommendations 
 ofihe, relative to mines, 233. 
 
 British India, Government Treasuries 
 of, table showing amount of gold 
 and silver coin and bullion in, 390. 
 
 British India, table of the imports, 
 exports and coinage of gold and 
 silver of, 390. 
 
 British Iron Industry, growth of, 21. 
 
 Broker, ordinary, distinction between a 
 Btock-broker and an, 472. 
 
 Brokerage, stock, the laws of, 468. 
 
 Brokers, mining stock, and mining 
 stock exchanges, laws of, 468. 
 
 Brompton Lake, 142. 
 
 Bronze for machinery, composition of, 
 764. 
 
 Brown coal, 8. 
 
 Brown coal (alluvium), 2, 
 
 Brown hematite, 3. 
 
 Brown ironstone, 3. 
 
 Building a Knox & Osborne quicksilver 
 furnace, estimated cost of, 155. 
 
 Bull of the Woods — American Case, 
 decision relative to the, 650. 
 
 Bullion, actual circulation of, as com- 
 pared with population, 451. 
 
 Bullion Club, New York, address be- 
 fore, by Adolph Sutro, 943 to 953. 
 
 Bullion ani coin in the banks of Ben- 
 gal, Madras and Bombay, table 
 showing the, 390. 
 
 Bullion and coin, gold and silver in the 
 Government Treasuries of British 
 India, table showing amount of, 390. 
 
 Bullion and coin, gold and silver in the 
 Russian Government, tables rela- 
 tive to the, 387, 388. 
 
 Bullion, gold and silver, table of the 
 deposits and purchases of, during 
 the year ending June 30, 1881, 364. 
 
 Bullion, gold and silver coin and paper 
 currency in the banks of Australa- 
 sia, 391. 
 
 Bullion, gold and silver at Helena, 
 Montana, table showing the value 
 
 of, 513. „ , J 
 
 Bullion handled by banks m Colorado, 
 1881, report of the Director of the 
 mint, 1100. • 
 
 Bullion and ores, shipments of over Cen- 
 tral and Southern Pacific R. R. to 
 June 30, 1881. Report of the Di- 
 rector of the Mint, 1110. 
 
 Bullion (and locality of production) 
 produced east of Rocky Mountains 
 in year 1881. Report of Director of 
 the Mint, 1107. 
 
 Bullion product, annual, of the world, 
 report of tenth census, 997. 
 
 Bullion product of Colorado, 509. 
 
 Bullion product for the fiscal year end- 
 ing Juue 30, 1881, table showing 
 the, 506. ^ , .,, . ._, 
 
 Bullion product of Leadville in 1881, 
 report of the Director of the Mint, 
 1096. 
 
 Bullion product of the United States, 
 statistics of tenth census, 987. 
 
 Bullion production for 1882, table ex- 
 hibiting the, 491. 
 
 Bullion (case) shipments of, over A. T. 
 & S. F. R. R. to June 30, 1881, re- 
 port of the Director of the Mint. 
 1109. 
 
 Bullion (case) shipments of, over the 
 Union Pacific R. R. to June 30, 
 1881. Report of Director of the 
 Mint, 1108. 
 
 Bullion and specie, imports and exports 
 of, into and fi-om Japan, table 
 showing the, 393. 
 
 Bullion yield of Arizona, table of the, 
 511. 
 
 Burchard, Hon. H. C, Director of the 
 Mint, report of the precious metals 
 in the United States in 1881, 1047. 
 
 Bureau, the California Mining, 356. 
 
 Bureau, the California Mining, act cre- 
 ating, 356. 
 
 Bush furnace, 55. 
 
 Butte district, Montana, statistics rela- 
 tive to the ore yield of, 513. 
 
 Buttermilk ore, 6. 
 
 Byard's Point, Maine, 135. 
 
 By-laws of the American Mining Stock 
 Exchange, 482 to 484. 
 
 By-laws of the Boston Mining and Stock 
 Exchange, 504 to 505. 
 
 By-Laws and Constitution of the New 
 York Mining Stock Exchange, 476 
 to 482. 
 
 By-Laws of the Iron and Metal Ex- 
 change Company, limited, 529. 
 
 By-Laws for the mining annex, 496 to 
 499. 
 
 By-Laws of the New York Iron and 
 Metal Exchange, 524 to 526. 
 
 By-Laws of the San Francisco Stock 
 and Exchange Board, 517 to 520. 
 
 CABLE, hawser or white rope, rule 
 computing the circumference of, 
 with one of tarred hemp, 759. 
 
 Cable, rope or hawser, computations 
 relative to, for a given strain, 758. 
 
 Cables, hawsers, ropes and wire ropes, 
 table of relative dimensions of, with 
 their breaking strain, 759. 
 
 Cables, ropes, and hawsers, rule for 
 computing the weight of, 759. 
 
 Cahaba coals, analysis of, 118. 
 
 Cahaba field, Alabama, the, 116. 
 
 Cahaba and Warrior fields, the cost of 
 mining in the, 119. 
 
 Calamine, 7. 
 
 Calamine, exports of, fi-om Spain, 539. 
 
 Calcination of copper for converting 
 sulphuret of iron into oxide, 
 885. 
 
 Calculation, short methods of, 766. 
 
 Calculating the value of bars, the meth- 
 od of, 764. 
 
 Calender for 1882-3, 768. 
 
 California, 68. 
 
 California, American river, general fea- 
 tures of, presented by Mr. Manson, 
 702. 
 
 California asylums, table relative to 
 commitments in, 795. 
 
 California, Prof Blake's paper on the 
 Rare Minerals of, 248. 
 
 California; Chinese camp to Sonora, 
 250. 
 
 California, Coloma, 79. 
 
 California; Coulterville to Chinese 
 camp, 249. 
 
 California, condition of mining in, tab- 
 ular statement showing the, 697. 
 
 California, Coyote hill, 80. 
 
 California in 1848, the discovery of gold 
 in, 89. 
 
 California, Gold Bluff, 80. 
 
 California, first mention of gold in, 78. 
 
 California, Gold Canon, 84. 
 
 California, the gold discovery in, affect- 
 ing the mineral laws of the United 
 States, 614. 
 
 California, the gold field of, report of 
 Col. R. A. Mason on, 615, 616, 617. 
 
 California, gravel mi'nes in, profile of 
 wrought iron pipe for, 902. 
 
 California Gulch, 171, 172. 
 
 California, hydraulic mining in, 902. 
 
 California, Knoxville, 152, 154. 
 
 California, Lake county, 226. 
 
 California, local mining laws in, 615. 
 
 California, Manhattan works, 153. 
 
 California, Mariposa county, 249. 
 
 California, Mexicans the first quartz 
 miners in, 82. 
 
 California mine, table showing the re- 
 ceipts and expenditures of the, 508. 
 
 California, mineral production of, report 
 of the Surveyor-General on the, 659 
 & 660. 
 
 California, mineral section from Merced 
 to Coulterville, and Big Oak Flat, 
 249. 
 
 California mines, table of the produc- 
 tion of quicksilver from the, in 
 1881, 540. 
 
 California Mining Bureau, the, 356. 
 
 California Mining Bureau, act creating 
 the, 356. 
 
 California, mining camp at, organization 
 and rules of, 618. 
 
 California, mining laws of, 674. 
 
 California, precious metals in, table of 
 the total yield of, fi-om 1848 to 1882, 
 507. 
 
 California, New AlmaJen, 147. 
 
 California, new mineral localities in, 248. 
 
 California, North, notes on the treatment 
 of mercury in, 146. 
 
 California ores of tin and tin mining, 
 157. 
 
 California, Pine Flat, 147. 
 
 California, products of precious met- 
 als in, from 1848 to the close of 
 1881, 697 & 698. 
 
 California, production of deep mines, 
 statistics of tenth census, 956. 
 
 California, production of surface min- 
 ing, statistics of tenth census, 958. 
 
 California, proper, production of gold 
 in, table of the, 395. 
 
 California, report of the director of the 
 mint, 1054-1060. 
 
 California, Sonoma county, 146. 
 
 California, stamp mill and amalgama- 
 tion process for gold, 90. 
 
 California, State geological society, the, 
 357. 
 
 California, statistics of mining, ditches 
 in, 695. 
 
 California stock exchange, 520. 
 
 California, table of the yield of hydrau- 
 lic mining in, 699. 
 
 California, Tuolumne county, 249. 
 
 California, Tuolumne county, 83. 
 
 California, university of, Berkley, Cal. 
 338. 
 
 California, univeristy of, course in 
 chemistry in the, 343. 
 
 California, university of, curriculum of 
 the, 340 to 344. 
 
VI 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 California, university of, course in civil 
 
 engineering in the, 343. 
 California, university of, course in min- 
 ing in the, 342. 
 California, university of, course in Pe- 
 trography in the, 344. 
 California, university of, faculty of the, 
 
 339. 
 Cambrian formations, 165. 
 Cambridge, school of mining and prac- 
 tical geology of Harvard Univer- 
 sity, at, 92. 
 Cambridge, Mass., Lawrence scientific 
 
 school. Harvard university, 308. 
 Campobello Island, 133. 
 Camps, prominent mining, geology of, 
 
 159. 
 Canada, coal production in, 1042. 
 Canada, the Chrome-garnet of Orford, 
 
 142. 
 Canada, first discovery of gold in Mar- 
 mora, 143. 
 Canada, the first iron works in, 68. 
 Canada, the gold-bearing mispickel 
 
 veins of Marmora, Ontario, 143. 
 Canada gold mining company's ores, 
 mostly from the Gatling mine, 
 assays of, 145. 
 Canada, the Laurentian rocks of, 210. 
 Canada, laws relative to public lands in, 
 
 683 to 685. 
 Canada, the nickel ores of Orford, Que- 
 bec, 142. 
 Canal, Suez, opening of the, 441. 
 Cannel coal, 98. 
 Cannon, cast iron, 24. 
 Canon, gold, California, 84. 
 Canyons of the Colorado, Elfin water 
 
 pocket, 775. 
 Cape of Good Hope, bank reserve and 
 
 paper circulation in the, 390. 
 Cape of Good Hope, imports and ex- 
 ports of specie into and from the 
 Cape of Good Hope, 390. 
 Capital invested in the production of 
 anthracite coal, statistics of tenth 
 census, 1009. 
 Capital value, estimated, of each coun- 
 try, table expressing the ratio for, 
 and for population, 453. 
 Capitalist, the, and the miner, 848 to 853. 
 Cap rock, 129. 
 Carbonate of copper, 5. 
 Carbonate fault at Carbonate Hill, 174. 
 Carbonate Hill, Carbonate fault at, 174. 
 Carbonate hill, geological structure un- 
 derlying, 178. 
 Carbonate hill formations, 173. 
 Carbonate hill, mine workings at, 173. 
 Carbonate hill mines, 173. 
 Carbonate hill, Pendery fault at, 174. 
 Carbonate hill material, 173. 
 Carbonate of iron, composition of, 4. 
 Carbonate of lead, 5. 
 Carbonate, sparry, 4. 
 Carboniferous era, the, 97. 
 Carbonic acid gas, facts relative to, 765. 
 Carbonic acid gas in mines, 229. 
 Carolinas, the, Virginia and Georgia, 
 
 early, iron industries in, 56. 
 Carpenter's mining code, decisions from, 
 
 650. 
 Carroll County, Arkansas, 109. 
 Carroll County, Va., 126. 
 Carronades, manufacture of, 26. 
 Carson Mint, 363. 
 
 Carson Mint, comparison of the opera- 
 tions of 1880 and 1881 at the, 363. 
 Case, Bell Tunnel — Ben Harding, de- 
 cision relative to the, 651. 
 
 Case, Bull of the Woods — American, 
 
 decision relative to, 650. 
 Case, Colorado Central — Equator, de- 
 cision relative to the, 651. 
 Case, Iron — Grand View, decision re- 
 garding the, 652 to 654. 
 Case, New Discovery — Little Chief, de- 
 cision relative to the, 654. 
 Cash, effects of a scarcity of, 416. 
 Cash sales of coal lands by fiscal years 
 
 to June 30, 1880, 610. 
 Cash sales of mineral lands ordered by 
 
 Congress, 613. 
 Cassiterite, 248. 
 Cast-iron Cannon, 24. 
 Cast-iron, tables relative to weight and 
 
 volume of, 757. 
 Cast-steel, conversion of Blicker steel 
 
 into, 878. 
 Castings for Eastern Penitentiary, 53. 
 Castings for Moyamensing Prison, 53. 
 Castings, shrinkage of, 762. 
 Castle Dome district, Arizona, 251. 
 Castle Dome mines, occurrence of vana- 
 dates of lead at the, 251. 
 Catalan Forge, the, 20. 
 Catawaba River, 121. 
 Cause of the depreciation of silver, 435 
 
 to 440. 
 Cause, true, of the depreciation of sil- 
 ver, 441. 
 Causes of the crises from 1816 — 40 and 
 
 from 1873 to 1881, 417. 
 Causes of the depreciation of silver, 
 
 412, 413. 
 Causes of fires in mines, 818. 
 Causes of the high temperature of the 
 
 Comstock, 194. 
 Causes of irregular work upon the Com- 
 stock mines, 184. 
 Causes, principal, of National debts, 
 
 table showing the, 453. 
 Cave openings. 111. 
 Celebrated Iron Works, Leonards', 34 
 Cementation, conversion of bar iron 
 
 into steel by, 878. 
 Census, tenth, manufacture of chem- 
 icals, 1012. 
 Census, tenth, manufacture of iron and 
 
 steel, 1012. 
 Census, tenth, production of anthracite 
 
 coal, 1008. 
 Census, tenth, production of California, 
 
 956. 
 Census, tenth, production of copper east 
 
 of 100th meridian, 1009. 
 Census, tenth, production of precious 
 metals, reportof Clarence King, 955. 
 Central Pennsylvania, the mountain 
 
 region of, 211. 
 Central Railroad of New Jersey, ton- 
 nage of coal on, 1037. 
 Centres, gold production, three impor- 
 tant, 431. ^ 
 Century, beginning of the seventeenth, 
 
 Century, first, of National Indepen- 
 dence, table of production of lead- 
 ing metals and minerals in the 
 United States during the, 94. 
 
 Century, middle of the nineteenth, 89. 
 
 Century of mining and metallurfv in 
 the United States, 86. 
 
 Century, nineteenth, the most notable 
 mining districts opened in the, 435 
 
 Centrifugal pump, the, 826. 
 
 Certificate relative to mining suits, form 
 of, 722. 
 
 Certificate of posting notice, Register's 
 form of, 722. 
 
 Certificate, stock, model of a, 723. 
 Chance, Dr. H. M., on the bituminous 
 
 coal of Pennsylvania, 935. 
 Changes in iron ore mining in the 
 United States, decade ending June 
 1st, 1880, statistics of tenth census, 
 1001. 
 Change in saline laws, 597. 
 Changes in navigable waters by hydrau- 
 lic mining, 700 and 701. 
 Character and amount of deposit at the 
 
 mint, 359. 
 Character of the gangue on the Com- 
 stock, 193. 
 Character of lands, hearings -by the 
 General Land Office to establish the, 
 629. 
 Character, primitive, of the iron works 
 of North Carolina and Tennessee, 
 61. 
 Character and value of the gold and 
 silver used in manufactures and 
 arts in the United States, table of 
 the, 372 to 375. 
 Characteristics of eastern metalliferous 
 
 slate, 135. 
 Charcoal iron, the manufacture of in 
 Eastern Pennsylvaniaafter the Rev- 
 olution, 46. 
 Charcoal iron, the manufacture of in 
 
 the Juniata valley, 48. 
 Charcoal iron, the manufacture of in 
 
 Western Pennsylvania, 50. 
 Charcoal mineral, 7. 
 Charcoal pig iron, 60. 
 Charcoal pig iron, 69. 
 Charges and fees, form of statement of, 
 
 722. 
 Charges for mining surveys and publi- 
 cations, 628. 
 Charlotte, Helena, Boise City and St. 
 Louis assay offices at, Denver mint, 
 work done at the, 363. 
 Charter, Eastern Mining Company, il- 
 lustration of a, 717 and 718. 
 Charter, Western Mining Company, il- 
 lustration of a, 715 and 716. 
 "Chapter Fifty" of the Howell code 
 amendments of, 609. ' 
 
 Chattanooga, 60. 
 Chemical composition of red hematite, 
 
 Charcoal composition of red iron ore, 3. 
 Chemical history of the Comstock, 193] 
 Chemical history of iron, the, 203. 
 Chemicals, manufacture of, statistics of 
 
 tenth census, 1012. 
 Chemistry, analytical and applied, and 
 mineralogy, course in, in the Penn- 
 sylvania University, 270. 
 Chemistry, course in, in the Colorado 
 
 State School of Mines, 337. 
 Chemistry, course in, in the Lawrence 
 
 Scientific School, 309. 
 Chemistry, course in, in the Lehigh 
 
 University, 276. 
 Chemistry, cour.se in, in the Massachu- 
 setts Institute of Technology, 314 
 Chemistry course in, in the University 
 
 of California, 343. 
 Chemistry, department of, in Lafayette 
 
 College, 279. ' 
 
 Chemistry, departmentof in theStevens 
 
 Institute of Technology, 304 
 Chemistry, general course in, in the 
 
 school of Mines, 289. 
 Chemistry and physics, course in, in 
 
 Cornell University, 324. 
 Cherryfield, Maine, 134. 
 Chestnut flat iron, analysis of, 125. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 vu 
 
 Chicago Mining Exchange, 506. 
 Chief products, table showing the in- 
 crease in the, 454. 
 Chinese camp to Sonora, Cal. 250. 
 Chiquilistlan, the mineral district of, 
 
 215 
 Chloride of gold, 219. 
 Chloride of silver, 6 
 Chlorides of copper, 5. 
 Chlorite veins at the Jenks mine, 123. 
 Christendom, stock of precious metals 
 in during and since 1492, table of 
 the, 435. 
 Chrome-garnet of Orford, Canada, 142. 
 Chronological eras and cycles for 1882, 
 
 753. 
 Chrysolite, analysis of, 122. 
 Chrysolite beds, 122. 
 Chrysolite belt, N. C, original discover- 
 er and tracer of the, 124. 
 Cinder, or iron scoria, 21. 
 Cinnabar, 7. 
 
 Circulation, actual, of bullion as compar- 
 ed with population, 451. 
 Circulation, coin, of the United States, 
 
 364. 
 Circulation, the ratio of, to population 
 and wealth compared with the cur- 
 rency and gold prices of staple arti- 
 cles in the New York market, 380. 
 Circulation specie and paper, in France 
 from 1850 to 1878, table showing 
 the, 382. 
 Circumference of white rope, hawser or 
 cable, rules for computing, com- 
 pared with one of tarred hemp, 759. 
 Citizenship, form of affidavit of, 722. 
 Citizenship of mining claimants, proof 
 
 of, 628. 
 City, Virginia, 85. 
 
 Civil Engineering, courses in, in the 
 
 Colorado State School of Mines, 336. 
 
 Civil Engineering, course in, in Cornell 
 
 University, 322. 
 Civil Engineering, courses in, in the 
 
 Lehigh University, 273. 
 Cidl Engineering, course in, in the 
 
 Pennsylvania University, 272. 
 Civil Engineering, course in, in the 
 
 School of Mines, 292, 294. 
 Civil Engineering, course in, in the 
 
 Sheffield Scientific School, 306. 
 Civil Engineering, course in, in the 
 
 University of California, 343. 
 Civil Engineering, course in, in the 
 
 University of Michigan, 330, 332. 
 Civil and Topographical Engineering, 
 courses in, in the Massachusetts 
 Institute of Technology, 314. 
 Claim, failure to contribute toward de- 
 veloping a, form of affidavit of, 720. 
 Claim, forfeiture of a, form of notice of, 
 
 720. 
 Claim, locating, form of notice of, 720. 
 Claim, mining, form of application for 
 
 patent for, 721. 
 Claim, mining, form of application for 
 
 surveying a, 721. 
 Claim, ownership of, form of proof of, 
 in absence of mining records, 722. 
 Claim, placer, form of patent for, 718. 
 Claim, posting notice and diagram on a, 
 
 form of proof of, 721. 
 Claim, posting plat and notice on, form 
 
 of proof relative to, 721. 
 Claim, proof of labor on a, form of, 720. 
 Claim Tunnel, location certificate, form 
 
 of, 726. 
 Claim, vein or lode, form of patent for, 
 719. 
 
 Claimants and the United States, cost 
 of patents to, 620. 
 
 Claimants, mining, proof of citizenship 
 of, 628. 
 
 Claims, adverse, rulings of the general 
 land office relative to, 626. 
 
 Claims, Comstock, 85. 
 
 Claims, form of power of attorney to 
 locate and sell, 726. 
 
 Claim, Lizzie Bullock, decisions regard- 
 ing the, 633. 
 
 Claims, manner of locating, on veins or 
 lodes after May 10, 1872, 624. 
 
 Claims, mineral, method of surveying, 
 574. 
 
 Claims, mining in Colorado, surveying 
 _ of, 582 to 585. 
 
 Claims, mining, decisions regarding ex- 
 penditures on, 638. 
 
 Claims, mining, in town-sites decisions 
 regarding, 635. 
 
 Claims, Placer mining, form of proof re- 
 lative to veins in, 725. 
 
 Claims, Placer-mining, statement rela- 
 tive to patents for, 621 and 622. 
 
 Claims, vein or lode, method of obtain- 
 ing Government title to, 625. 
 
 Classification of mineral land, 574. 
 
 Classification, scientific, of ore deposits, 
 by Von Cotta, 169. 
 
 Classified mines of France, 553. 
 
 Clay county, Indiana, 64. 
 
 Clay iron-stone (carbonate of iron), 4. 
 
 Clay, micaceous fire, 109. 
 
 Clay-veins, 99. 
 
 Cleveland, iron industry of, 64. 
 
 Cleveland and Lake Superior mines, 65. 
 
 Client, legal relation of stock-broker to 
 his, 470. 
 
 aifi' mine, 76-77. 
 
 Clinch mountain, southwestern Virginia, 
 125 
 
 "Clinton" ore, 209. 
 
 Coal, 7. 
 
 Coal, 15-16. 
 
 Coal, 95. 
 
 Coal, 126. 
 
 Coal, analyses of difierent varieties of, 
 243. 
 
 Coal, the annual consumption of, in In- 
 dia, 260. 
 
 Coal, anthracite, 98. 
 
 Coal, anthracite, calculation regarding, 
 933. 
 
 Coal, anthracite, capital invested in the 
 production of, statistics of tenth cen- 
 sus, 1009. 
 
 Coal, anthracite, geological position of, 
 7. 
 
 Coal, anthracite, and iron ore of Ehode 
 Island and Massachusetts, 131. 
 
 Coal, anthracite, the manufacture of iron 
 with, 69. 
 
 Coal, anthracite, production of, statistics 
 of tenth census, 1008. 
 
 Coal, anthracite, table showing the dis- 
 tribution of, in 1881, 534. 
 
 Coal, anthracite, weight and volume of, 
 761. 
 
 Coal areas, anthracite, in Pennsylvania, 
 934. 
 
 Coal-basin, Allegheny, 209. 
 
 Coal-basin, Great Kanawha, 126. 
 
 Coal-basin, the Missourian, fourth, or 
 western bituminous, 112. 
 
 Coal-beds of Alabama, number and 
 thickness of the, 117. 
 
 Coal, bituminous, changes in production 
 of, decade ending Juiie 1st, 1880, 
 statistics of tenth census, 1005. 
 
 Coal, bituminous, 7. 
 Coal, bituminous, as a fliel in American 
 blast furnaces, introduction of, 72. 
 
 Coal, bituminous, general averages of 
 States, statistics of tenth census, 
 1004. 
 
 Coal, bituminous, manufacture of iron 
 with, 72. 
 
 Coal, bituminous, of Pennsylvania, 
 available tonnage of, 936. 
 
 Coal, bituminous, production by coun- 
 ties east of 100th meridian, statistics 
 of tenth census, 1005. 
 
 Coal, bituminous, production by States 
 east of 100th meridian, statistics of 
 tenth census, 1003. 
 
 Coal, bituminous, production of, west of 
 100th meridian, statistics of tenth 
 census, 1006. 
 
 Coal, bituminous, States east of 100th 
 meridian, in order of their produc- 
 tion, statistics of tenth census, 1006. 
 
 Coal, brown, 8. 
 
 Coal, "blocking bed," 244. 
 
 Coal, Brier Hill, 63. 
 
 Coal, cannel, 98. 
 
 Coal, combustion of, 765. 
 
 Coal-miners' consumption, 229. 
 
 Coal, consumption of, in France, 266. 
 
 Coal, Cranston, analysis of, 131. 
 
 Coal creek, Texas, 114. 
 
 Coal dirt, or culm, utilizing, 932. 
 
 Coal in different States, 1039. 
 
 Coal exports from United States to for- 
 eign countries, 934. 
 
 Coal in Great Britain, production of, 253. 
 
 Coal imported into the United States 
 from Nova Scotia, 1042. 
 
 Coal imports into San Francisco, 1041. 
 
 Coal fields, bituminous, of Pennsylva- 
 nia, facts relative to the, 554. 
 
 Coal fields of Great Britain, the, 242. 
 
 Coal fields, production of in the United 
 States, year ending June 1st, 1880, 
 statistics of the tenth census, 1007. 
 
 Coal fields, Scottish, 99. 
 
 Coal fields, shape of, 99. 
 
 Coal fields, of the United Kingdom, area 
 of the, 242. 
 
 Coal fields, various of Great Britain, 
 product of the, in 1860, 1870, 1881, 
 242. 
 
 Coal, first mention of, by ancient au- 
 thors, 99. 
 
 Coal, the first discovery of, in America, 
 101. 
 
 Coal, first mention of, in English his- 
 try, 100. 
 
 Coal land Acts, table of entries under 
 the, 610. 
 
 Coal lands, 609. 
 
 Coal lands, cash sales of, by fiscal years 
 to June 30, 1880, 610. 
 
 Coal lands, decisions regarding price of, 
 635. 
 
 Coal lands, estimated area of, on the 
 public domain, 610. 
 
 Coal lands, Government, laws govern- 
 ing the sale of, 610, 611, 612. 
 
 Coal and Iron, Alabama, 116. 
 
 Coal and Iron interests, developement 
 of in Colorado, 1041. 
 
 Coal and Iron output in 1881, Great 
 Britain's, 265. 
 
 Coal-bearers, female, 101. 
 
 Coal field, Alleghany, 98. 
 
 Coal field, Appalachian, 237. 
 
 Coal field, southern anthracite, of Penn- 
 svlvania, 931. 
 
 Coal field,the Great Northern, 243. 
 
vm 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Coal field, Cumberland, 244. 
 Coal field, the Leicestersliire, 244. 
 Coal field, the Lancashire, 244. 
 Coal field, the Midland, 243. 
 Coal field of Saarbrucken, Prussia, 97. 
 Coal field of Texas, the Brazos, 112. 
 Coal fields, anthracite, and the use of 
 anthracite in the blast furnace, open- 
 ing of the, 89. 
 Coal fields, anthracite, of Pennsylvania, 
 
 exhaustion of, 930. 
 Coal fields, anthracite, of Pennsylvania, 
 
 facts relative to the, 534. 
 Coal fields. Big Muddy, 65. 
 Coal fields, of Great Britain, 100. 
 Coal market, review of the, to June 1882, 
 
 532. 
 Coal measure limestone, 532, upper, 165. 
 Coal in Mexico, 216. 
 Coal mine explosions and their preven- 
 tion, 824. 
 Coal mineral, 7. 
 Coal mines of Ohio classified, statistics 
 
 of tenth census, 1007. 
 Coal miner's wages in Pennsylvania in 
 
 1881, 1040. 
 Coal miners, deep workings in, 802. 
 Coal mines, English, comparison of fa- 
 tal accidents and deaths in, 817. 
 Coal mines, English statistics of acci- 
 dents and deaths in, 817. 
 Coal miners of Indiana classified, sta- 
 tistics of tenth census, 1007. 
 Coal mines and metal mines, differences 
 between the sanitary conditions of, 
 230. 
 Coal mining, deep, in Wales, 805. 
 Coal, the origin and history of, 97. 
 Coal in place, method of reckoning 
 
 quantity of, 765. 
 Coal, poetry of, 99. 
 Coal, Portsmouth, analysis of, 131. 
 Coal, product of in Great Britain, 933. 
 Coal, product of United States, 934. 
 Coal, production, anthracite, compara- 
 tive statement of the, 5.33. 
 Coal production in the Dominion of 
 
 Canada, 1042. 
 Coal production in France, 257. 
 Coal production of, in Great Britain, 261 
 Coal production of New Zealand, the, 260 
 Coal production in Nova Scotia in 1881 
 
 1042. 
 Coal production of, in the United States 
 for year ending June 1st, 1880, by 
 coal fields, statistics of tenth census, 
 1007. 
 Coal, raw bituminous, use of in the 
 
 blast furnace, 89. 
 Coal seam, the Brazos, 115. 
 Coal splint, or block, 63. 
 Coal, spontaneous combustion and 
 
 weather waste of, 820. 
 Coal statistics, 88. 
 Coal statistics, general, 260. 
 Coal statistics, Russian, 266. 
 Coal strata at Lundley, Wales, 97. 
 Coal strata of Nova Scotia, 97. 
 Coal, theory of origin of, 931. 
 Coal trade. Anthracite, 532. 
 Coal trade of Clearfield in 1881, 1038. 
 Coal trade of Cumberland in 1881, 1038. 
 Coal trade, review of, in 1881, by Mr. 
 
 Frederick E. Saward, 1035. 
 Coal trade in the United States in 1881, 
 
 1032. 
 Coal, weather waste of, 118. 
 Coal, weights and measures of, 762. 
 Coals, Yorkshire, analysis of, 244. 
 Coals, Cahaba, analysis of, 118. 
 
 Coals, various destructive distillations of, 
 
 768. 
 Coast, North Pacific, the gold bluflfs and 
 
 gold beaches on the, 156 
 Cobalt bloom, 248. 
 Cobalt and Nickel, 87. 
 Code, Carpenter's mining, decision from, 
 
 650. 
 Code of France, the, 552. 
 Code, Howell, amendment of " Chapter 
 
 Fifty"of the, 669. 
 Code of rules of the New York Iron 
 
 and Metal Exchange, 527, 528. 
 Codes, German mining, of the Sixteenth 
 
 and Seventeenth centuries, 547. 
 Codes, modern German, 550. 
 Coin, American silver statement by 
 countries of the net imports of, 372. 
 Coin and bullion in the banks of Ben- 
 gal, Madras and Bombay, table 
 showing the, 390. 
 Coin and bullion, gold and silver, in 
 the Government Treasuries of 
 British India, table showing amount 
 of, 390. 
 Coin and bullion, gold and silver, in 
 the Russian Government, tables 
 relative to the, 387, 388. 
 Coin circulation of theUnited States, 364. 
 Coin, estimated stock of gold and sil- 
 ver, and the population of the 
 European World, table showing 
 the, 401. 
 Coin, gold, exports and imports of, from 
 
 and into New Zealand, 392. 
 Coin, gold and silver, bullion and paper 
 currency in the banks of Australa- 
 sia, 391. 
 Coin, gold and silver, percentage of, 
 operated upon by the coiners of the 
 Mints, 1874 to 1881, 367. 
 Coin issued since 1848, table showing 
 
 the amount of, .451. 
 Coin, local monetary functions of, 447. 
 Coin, United States gold, value of the 
 standard silver dollar in, table 
 showing the, 459. 
 Coinage, American, statistics of, 359. 
 Coinage of Brazil, 1878 to 1881, 1046. 
 Coinage and distribution at the Mints, 
 
 361. 
 Coinage executed during the calendar 
 year ended December 31, 1880, 
 table of the, 366. 
 Coinage executed during the fiscal year 
 ended June 30, 1881, table of the, 
 365. 
 Coinage, free, at the Mint, 421. 
 Coinage, imports and exports of gold 
 and silver of British India, table of 
 the, 390. 
 Coinage, Italian, from 1862 to 1878, 
 
 table showing, 389. 
 Coinage of the Mints of Mexico by fis- 
 cal years, table of the, 394. 
 Coinage of silver by the German Em- 
 pire, 438. 
 Coinage, statement of, from the organi- 
 zation of the Mint to June 30, 
 1880, 367 to 370. 
 Coinage of the Swiss Mints from 1850 to 
 the end ofl879, summary of the, 390. 
 Coinage, total, now in use in the world 
 
 451. 
 Coinage, token, 410. 
 Coinage, total, of the Mints of Mexico 
 from their establishment to June 30, 
 _ 1879, table of the, 394. 
 Coined gold, silver and copper, average 
 of, held by the banks of Victoria, 391. 
 
 Coinage, gold, 440. 
 
 Coining mints and New York assay 
 office, statement showing the pur- 
 chases at the, 360. 
 Coins, foreign, estimate of values of, 370. 
 Coins, foreign, estimation of the values 
 
 of, 361. 
 Coins, laws relating to the reservation 
 
 of for the annual assay, 466, 467. 
 Coins, United States, unit of valuation 
 of, ratio of wearing surfaces to, 445. 
 Coke, 7. 
 
 Coke, Counellsville, 50. 
 Coke region, Connellsville, 534. 
 Colebrookdale furnace, 42. 
 Collecting auriferous sands, manner of, 
 
 157. 
 Colorado, bullion handled by banks of, 
 in 1881, report of the director of the 
 mint, 1100. 
 Colorado, bullion product of, 509. 
 Colorado, crude bullion and mill pro- 
 duct, statistics of tenth census, 974. 
 Colorado, central — equator case, decis- 
 ion relative to the, 651. 
 Colorado, De Motte Park, 780. 
 Colorado, Denver, the national mining 
 
 exhibition at, 350. 
 Colorado, geology and mining industry 
 
 of Leadville, 162. 
 Colorado iron and coal fields, 1041. 
 Colorado, Kaibab, the, 779. 
 Colorado, Lake county product of gold 
 
 and silver 1860-82, 1045. 
 Colorado, lower, table of section in the 
 
 region of the, 164. 
 Colorado, mining laws of, 670 to 674. 
 Colorado and Nova Scotia, cost of min- 
 ing in, 761. 
 Colorado, Plateau Province, 770. 
 Colorado, production of deep mines, 
 
 statistics of tenth census, 971. 
 Colorado, production of placer mining, 
 
 statistics of tenth census, 973. 
 Colorado, report of the Director of the 
 
 Mint for 1881, 1090 to 1100. 
 Colorado River, Island Monument in 
 
 Glen Canyon, 777. 
 Colorado River, the Parunumcap, 772. 
 Colorado River, Summer's Amphithe- 
 atre, 781. 
 Colorado, the San Rafaels Well, 771. 
 Colorado, smelting works of, output of 
 bullion in 1881, report of the direc- 
 tor of the mint, 1099. 
 Colorado Smelting works, statement re- 
 lative to, 509 and 510. 
 Colorado State School of Mines, course 
 
 in Chemistry in the, 337. 
 Colorado State School of Mines, course 
 
 in civil engineering in the, 336. 
 Colorado State School of Mines, course 
 
 in Geology in the, 337. 
 Colorado State School of Mines, course 
 in mining engineering in the, 336. 
 Colorado State School of Mines curric- 
 ulum of the, 336 to 388. ' 
 Colorado State School of Mines, faculty 
 of, 334. ' ' 
 
 Colorado State School of Mines, Golden 
 
 Colorado, 334. 
 Colorado, surveying mining claims in 
 582 to 585. ' 
 
 Colorado, Toroweap and Uinkaret, 773 
 
 to 779.- 
 Colliery, Parkfield, England, 97. 
 College, Columbia, New York city- 
 school of mines at, 282. 
 College, Lafayette, courses of botany, 
 zoology and geology in, 279. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 IX 
 
 College, Lafiiyette, curriculum of, 278, 
 
 279, 280. 
 College, Lafayette, department of chem- 
 istry in, 279. 
 College, Lafayette, Easton, Pa,, 277, 
 College, Lafayette, Faculty of, 277, 
 College, Lafayette, technical studies in, 
 
 278, 
 College, Yale, New Haven, Sheffield 
 
 scientific school, 305, 
 Coloma, California, 79. 
 Colonies, New England, iron manufac- 
 ture in the, 33,- 
 Color relations of metals, 797, 
 Colorado, 68, 
 Columbia college. New York city — 
 
 school of mines at, 282, 
 Columbia college, at New York, the 
 
 school of mines of, 92. 
 Combined engine, boiler, and air com- 
 
 presser, 828, 
 " Comb-structure " of the Comstock, 195. 
 Combustion of coal, 765. 
 Combustion, spontaneous, and weather 
 
 waste of coal, 820. 
 Comfort and health of miners, provision 
 
 for the, 234. 
 Commencement of active prospecting in 
 
 Leadville, 163. 
 Commencement of the hydraulic mining 
 
 industry, 89. 
 Commencement of iron mining at Lake 
 
 Superior, 89. 
 Commencement of the New Almaden 
 
 quicksilver mine, 89. 
 Commission, assay, of 1882, proceedings 
 
 ofthe, 462to468. 
 Commission, the British, recommenda- 
 tions of, relative to mines, 238. 
 Commission of stock brokers, 474. 
 Commissioner of the general land office, 
 
 duties of the, 663 to 567. 
 Commissioners, assay, rules ofthe board 
 
 of, 467. 
 Commissioners of the general land ser- 
 vice, 567. 
 Commitments in California asylums, 
 
 tables relative to, 795. 
 Commodities, the difference in the 
 
 prices of, 420. 
 Commodities, the principal domestic, 
 
 exported from the United States, 
 
 average and comparative prices of, 
 
 373. 
 Commercial value of North Carolina 
 
 emeralds, 125. 
 Common lead, 9. 
 
 Commonplace fallacies concerning mo- 
 ney, 414. 
 Common spelter, prices of at New York, 
 
 539. 
 Communication of Mr. J, "VanOleve 
 
 Phillips on sex in mineral veins, 
 
 797. 
 Communication of Mr, J. Williams on 
 
 sex in mineral veins, 797. 
 Compact ore of Lake Champlain, 4. 
 Companies and officers, mining forms 
 
 for, 715, 
 Companies mining ofthe United States, 
 
 fist of, 1114. 
 Company, the earliest copper mmmg, 
 
 87. ^ . . 
 
 Company, Richmond Mining, decision 
 
 relative to the, 640 to 644. 
 Company, Tula Iron, Mexico, works of 
 
 the," 213. . . 
 
 Company's ores, Canada gold mining, 
 mostly from the Gatling mine, 
 assays of, 145. 
 
 Comparative and average prices of the 
 principal Domestic commodities 
 exported from the UnitedStatea, 373. 
 
 Comparative statement of the anthracite 
 coal production, 583, 
 
 Comparative value of deposits, etc., in 
 the San Francisco mint, 362, 
 
 Comparative view of the non-precious 
 mineral industries, 239. 
 
 Comparative yield of the great gold 
 • fields of the modern world, 397, 
 
 Comparison of fatal accidents and 
 deaths in the English coal mines, 
 817, 
 
 Comparison of fissure veins and depo- 
 sits, 177. 
 
 Comparison of human blood with waters 
 chemically impregnated, 201, 
 
 Comparison of the operations of 1880 
 and 1881 at the Carson mint, 363, 
 
 Comparison of the operations of 1880 
 and 1881 at the Philadelphia mint, 
 862, 
 
 Comparison ofthe purchases and depo- 
 sits for 1880 and 1881 at the New 
 Orleans mint, 363, 
 
 Composition, average, of alloys, 763. 
 
 Composition of bronze for machinery, 
 764. 
 
 Composition of Carbonate of iron, 4, 
 
 Composition of Leadville deposits, 170. 
 
 Compressed air in mines, 811. 
 
 Computing the circumference of white 
 rope, hawser or cable, compared 
 with one of tarred hemp, rule for, 
 759. 
 
 Computing the weight of ropes, haw- 
 sers and cables, rule for, 759. 
 
 Computations relative to rope, hawser 
 or cable for a given strain, 758. 
 
 Comstock, causes of the high tempera- 
 ture of the, 194. 
 
 Comstock, character of the gangue on 
 the, 193, 
 
 Comstock, chemical history of the, 192. 
 
 Comstock claims, 85. 
 
 Comstock, "comb-structure" of the, 
 195. 
 
 Comstock, heat phenomena of the, 198. 
 
 Comstock, lateral secretion of ore de- 
 posits in the, 193. 
 
 Comstock shares, highe't and lowest 
 prices of in four years, tables of 
 the, 522. 
 
 Comstock shares in 1881, number and 
 value of the, 522. 
 
 Comstock, strata of the, 186, 
 
 Comstock lode, 86. 
 
 Comstock lode, 232. 
 
 Comstock lode, assessments on mines 
 in 1044. 
 
 Comstock lode, black dike in the, 192. 
 
 Comstock lode, description of, by Adolph 
 Sutro, 943 to 953. 
 
 Comstock lode, discovery of silver in 
 the, 90. 
 
 Comstock lode, physical investigations 
 respecting the, 196. 
 
 Comstock lode, product of mines quarter 
 ending June 30, 1882, 1045. 
 
 Comstock lode, production of, 95. 
 
 Comstock lode, structural results of 
 faulting on the, 190. 
 
 Comstock lode and Sutro tunnel, 159. 
 
 Comstock lode from 1860 to 1878, table 
 of the annual product ofthe, 181. 
 
 Comstock lode, the thermal effects of 
 kaolinization on the, 199. 
 
 Comstock lode, three bases of operation 
 on the, 183. 
 
 Comstock lode, the Virginia vein on 
 
 the, 195, 
 Comstock lode and the Washoe district, 
 
 the Geology of the, 188, 
 Comstock lode and Washoe fever, the, 
 
 84, 
 Comstock lode, yield of the, 432. 
 Oomstook, mean data for rock and water 
 
 on the, 194. 
 Comstock mines, the, 180, 
 Comstock mines, accidents in the ; and 
 
 their relation to deep mining, 798 
 
 to 802. 
 Comstock mines, bonanzas in the, 182. 
 Comstock mines, causes of irregular 
 
 work upon the, 184, 
 Comstock mines, table of information 
 
 regarding the, 183, 
 Comstock mines, ventilation in the, 185. 
 Comstock mines, water supply in the, 
 
 186. 
 Comstock, occurrence and succession of 
 
 rocks in the, 191,_ 
 Comstock region, beginning of mining 
 
 in the, 181. 
 Comstock shares, dealings in the, 521. 
 Conclusions respecting the geological 
 
 formation of the Leadville region, 
 
 177. 
 Condensers, masonry, objections to, 155. 
 Condition of the British iron trade, the, 
 
 253. 
 Condition of minine in California, tabu- 
 lar statement showing the, 697. 
 Condition of the precious metal bearing 
 
 regions prior to 1866, 619. 
 Conditions, sanitary, of coal mines and 
 
 metal mines, difierences between 
 
 the, 230. 
 Conducting power of metals for electri- 
 city, table of, 752, 
 Conducting power of metals for heat, 
 
 table of, 752. 
 Congress, cash sales of mineral lands 
 
 ordered by, 613, 
 Congressional action as to metals on the 
 
 Pacific slope, 615. 
 Congressional action relative to the re- 
 servation of lands, 613. 
 Connecticut iron mines and works, the 
 
 Salisbury, 130. 
 Connecticut, Lime Rock, 130. 
 Connecticut, Litchfield county, 130. 
 Connecticut, Middletown, 87. 
 Connecticut, Mount Riga, 130. 
 Connellsville coke, 50. 
 Connecticut, the first blast furnace in,130. 
 Connellsville coke region, 534. 
 Consolidated Virginia Mine, table of the 
 
 receipts and expenses of the, 509. 
 Constant currents in a region of ore de- 
 posits, 197. 
 Constitution of the Boston Mining and 
 
 Stock Exchange, 502, 503, 
 Constitution and By-laws of the New 
 
 York Mining Stock Exchange, 476- 
 
 482. 
 Constitution ofthe San Francisco Stock 
 
 and Exchange Board, 516. 
 Construction of wrought iron pipe for 
 
 hydraulic mining, table showing, 
 
 902. 
 Consumption, annual, of gold in the arts, 
 
 table showing the, 380. 
 Consumption, annual, of silver in the 
 
 arts, table showing the, 381. 
 Consumption of coal in France, 266. 
 Consumption, coal-miners', 229. 
 Consumption of copper in the United 
 States, 238. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Consumption and distribution of pre- 
 cious metals, figures and facts in, 454 
 
 Consumption of gold and silver by In- 
 dia and the East, table relative to 
 the, 457. 
 
 Consumption, the proportion of, to pro- 
 duction of precious metals, table 
 showing, 399. 
 
 Consumption of silver as aifecting Ori- 
 ental Exchanges, 441. 
 
 Contact phenomena, 168. 
 
 Contraction crises, slow monetary, effects 
 of, 418. 
 
 Contracts, form of prospecting, 727. 
 
 Contention mine, 160. 
 
 Contents, possible, of Leadville pyriti- 
 ferous porphyry, estimate of, 171. 
 
 Continuous furnaces, 151. 
 
 Continuous operations, insuring, 93. 
 
 Conversion of bar iron into steel by ce- 
 mentation, 878. 
 
 Conversion of blister steel into cast steel, 
 878. 
 
 Convertible paper money, table showing 
 the ratio of, to population, 452. 
 
 Converting sulphuret of iron into oxide, 
 calcination of copper for, 885. 
 
 Conveyance and raising of ore, 915. 
 
 Conveyances, surplus monetary, 422. 
 
 Coosa field, Alabama, the, 116. 
 
 Co-owner, decisions regarding re-loca- 
 tions bv a, 630. 
 
 Copper, 14, "126, 883. 
 
 Copper, as used by the ancients, 10. 
 
 Copper-bearing belt of Keweenaw coun- 
 ty, the great, 76. 
 
 Copper belt. Blue Hill, 134. 
 
 Copper, black ox'.de of, 5. 
 
 Copper, blistered ; roasting the fine me- 
 tal, 886. 
 
 Copper, calcination of, for converting 
 sulphuret of iron into oxide, 885. 
 
 Copper, carbonate of, 5. 
 
 Copper, chlorides of, 5. 
 
 Copper, consumption of, in the United 
 States, 238. 
 
 Copper-cutting, 146. 
 
 Copper desilverized by the Ziervogel 
 process, 242. 
 
 Copper, distribution of, throughout the 
 world, estimate of Prof. Davies on 
 the, 534. 
 
 Copper district, Michigan, the early his- 
 tory of the, 74. 
 
 Copper, extraction of, from its ore, 883. 
 
 Copper, gold and silver, coined, average 
 of, held by the Banks of Victoria, 
 391. 
 
 Copper, gray, at Newburyport, assay of, 
 132. 
 
 Copper, historical sketch of, 30. 
 
 Copper, hydrosilicate of, 5. 
 
 Copper, ingot, value of, in currency, at 
 New York, table shov/ing the, 536. 
 
 Copper of the Lake Superior Mines, and 
 the method of mining it, the mass, 
 146. 
 
 Copper, Lake Superior, price for at New 
 York, 536. 
 
 Copper, lead, silver and gold, table of 
 the annual products of in the west, 
 1870-81, 507. 
 
 Copper market in 1881, 535. 
 
 Copper Market, review of the, to June 
 1882, 534. 
 
 Copper Mines of Eastern Russia, 227. 
 
 Copper mines of Lake Superior, devel- 
 opment of, 89. 
 
 Copper mines, Lake Superior, product 
 of, from 1854, 1031. 
 
 Copper mines. Lake Superior, table of 
 the product and value of the, 535. 
 
 Copper-mining Company, the earliest, 
 87. 
 
 Copper-mining record. New Jerseys, 
 87. 
 
 Copper, native, 4. 
 
 Copper, ore, Fusion of, for removal of 
 iron, 885. 
 
 Copper, ore, variegated, 249. 
 
 Copper, phosphate of, 5. 
 
 Copper, production east of 100th meri- 
 dian, statistics of tenth census, 1009. 
 
 Copper, purifying, refining process for, 
 886. 
 
 Copper, pyrites, 5. 
 
 Copper pyrites, extraction of silver from, 
 890. 
 
 Copper pyrites, yellow, 31. 
 
 Copper, quality of, effect of the presence 
 of foreign matters on the, 887. 
 
 Copper, red oxide of, 5. 
 
 Copper region, Michigan, first perma- 
 nent residence in the, 76. 
 
 Copper, roasting, to expel arsenic and 
 sulphur, 883. 
 
 Copper, siliceous oxide of, 5. 
 
 Copper smelting in the Mansfield dis- 
 trict, 241. 
 
 Copper smelting : removing the oxide 
 of iron as a silicate, 884. 
 
 Copper, sulphuret of, 4. 
 
 Copper, table of the domestic product 
 of, 535. 
 
 Copper tools of primitive miners, 75. 
 
 Copper in the United States, 32. 
 
 Copper, wrought iron, steel and brass, 
 table relative to weight of, 757. 
 
 Copper yield. Lake Superior, in 1881, 
 table of the distribution of the, 535. 
 
 Copper yield of New Mexico, 512. 
 
 Cornell University, advanced degrees 
 in, 325. 
 
 Cornell University, course in chemis- 
 try and physics in the, 324. 
 
 Cornell University, course in civil en- 
 gineering in the, 322. 
 
 Cornell University, course in mathemat- 
 ics, 323. 
 
 Cornell University, course in mechanic 
 arts in the, 322. 
 
 Cornell University, curriculum of, 321 
 to 327. 
 
 Cornell University, faculty of, 320. 
 
 Cornell University, Ithica, N. Y., 320. 
 
 Cornwall, furnace, 46. 
 
 Cornwall, or Grubb's iron works, 45. 
 
 Cornwall, the hottest mine in, 232. 
 
 Cornwall, the tin mines of, 157. 
 
 Goronarium, 10. 
 
 Corporate system of managing industrial 
 enterprise, 92. 
 
 Corsican forge, the, 19. 
 
 Corundum beds, original capacity of, 
 
 1^0. 
 
 Corundum, Culsagee, mechanical dres- 
 sing of, 123. 
 
 Corundum mine, the Jenks, Macon 
 county, N. C, 121. 
 
 Cost, estimated, of building a Knox and 
 Osborne quicksilver furnace, 155. 
 
 Cost, estimated, of crushing Nova Scotia 
 ores, 247. 
 
 Cost, estimated, of running a Knox and 
 Osborne furnace, 155. 
 
 Cost, estimated, of working bar iron in 
 Mexico, 216. 
 
 Cost of making adobes, 148. 
 
 Cost of mining in the Cahaba and War- 
 rior fields, 119. 
 
 Cost of mining in Colorado and Nova 
 Scotia, 761. 
 
 Cost of mining and milling Marmora 
 ore, 145. 
 
 Cost of the Modified Idria furnace, 150. 
 
 Cost of patents to the United States and 
 claimants, 620. 
 
 Cost of reduction by the Knox furnace, 
 155. 
 
 Cost of reduction by the Modified Idria 
 furnace, 150. 
 
 Cost of roasting pig iron in Mexico, 
 216. 
 
 Cost of surveying under the rectangular 
 system, 576. 
 
 Cost of treating ore at Luckhart furnace, 
 151. 
 
 Cost of wire rope in anthracite colleries, 
 942. 
 
 Coulterville and Big Oak Flat to Mer- 
 ced, mineral section from, 249. 
 
 Coulterville to Chinese camp, Cal. 249. 
 
 Counties, Penobscot and Piscataquis, 
 the metalliferous slate belt of, 135. 
 
 Counties, Stephens and Young, Texas, 
 section of strata compiled from 
 measurements in, 113. 
 
 County seats and town sites, laws re- 
 specting, 601. 
 
 County, Carroll, Arkansas, 109. 
 
 County, Polk, Arkansas, 108. 
 
 County, White, Arkansas, 109. 
 
 County, Lake, California, 226. 
 
 County, Mariposa, Cal. 249. 
 
 County, Sonoma, Cal. 146. 
 
 County, Tuolumne, California, 83. 
 
 County, Tuolumne, Cal. 249. 
 
 County, Litchfield, Conn., 130. 
 
 County Lumpkin, Georgia, 120. • 
 
 County Clay, Indiana, 64. 
 
 County, Hancock, Maine, 133. 
 
 County, Oxford, Maine, 136. 
 
 County, Washington, Me., 136. 
 
 County, York, Maine, 135. 
 
 County, St. Francois, Missouri, 111. 
 
 County, Washington, Missouri, 110. 
 
 County, Alexander, N. C, 124. 
 
 County, Ashe, N. C, 125, 126. 
 
 County, Macon, N. C, the Jenks Corun- 
 dum mine, 121. 
 
 County, Morris, N. J., 127, 128. 
 
 County, Sussex, N. J., 128. 
 
 County, Warren, N. J., 127, 128. 
 
 County, Orange, N. Y., 38. 
 
 County, Mercer, Pennsylvania, 73. 
 
 County, Montour, Pennsylvania, 71. 
 
 County, Schuylkill, Pa., 47. 
 
 County, Carroll, Va., 126. 
 
 County, Floyd, Va., 125. 
 
 County, Giles, basin, Va., 125. 
 
 County, Keweenaw, the great copper- 
 bearing belt of, 76. 
 
 County, Wythe, Va., 125. 
 
 Countries, foreign, interesting statistics 
 from, 252. 
 
 Countries having double standard, table 
 showing, 455. 
 
 Countries, gold standard, table showing, 
 455. *' 
 
 Countries having silver standard, table 
 showing, 455. 
 
 Country rocks, lateral impregnation of, 
 224. 
 
 Course in analytical and applied chem- 
 istry and minerology in the Penn- 
 sylvania university, 270. 
 
 Course in biology in the Lawrence sci- 
 entific school, 309. 
 
 Course in chemistrv in the Colorado 
 state school of mines, 337. 
 
THE MINES; MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 XI 
 
 Course in chemistry and physics in 
 Cornell university, 324. 
 
 Course in chemistry in the Massachu- 
 setts institute of technology, 314. 
 
 Course in chemistry in the Lawrence 
 scientific school, 309. 
 
 Course in chemistry in the Lehigh uni- 
 versity, 273, 276. 
 
 Course in chemistry in the university of 
 California, 343. 
 
 Course in civil engineering in the Colo- 
 rado state school of mines, 336. 
 
 Course in civil engineering in Cornell 
 university, 322. 
 
 Course of civil engineering at Lehigh 
 university, 273. 
 
 Course in civil engineering in the Penn- 
 sylvania university, 272. 
 
 Course in civil engineering in the school 
 of mines, 292, 294. 
 
 Course in civil engineering in the Shef- 
 field scientific school, 306. 
 
 Course in civil engineering in the uni- 
 versity of California, 343. 
 
 Course in civil engineering in the uni- 
 versity of Michigan, 330, 832. 
 
 Course in civil and topographical engi- 
 neering in the Massachusetts insti- 
 tute of technology, 314. 
 
 Course in drawing and architecture in 
 the Pennsylvania university, 272. 
 
 Course in drawing in the university of 
 Michigan, 332. 
 
 Course in dynamic engineering in the 
 Sheffield scientific school, 306. 
 
 Course in engineering in the school of 
 mines, 292. 
 
 Course in experimental mechanics in 
 the Stevens institute of technology, 
 304. 
 
 Course in general chemistry in the 
 school of mines, 289. 
 
 Course in general science in the univer- 
 sity of Michigan, 329. 
 
 Course in geology in the Colorado state 
 school of mines, 337. 
 
 Course in geology and mining in the 
 Pennsylvania university, 272. 
 
 Course in geology and physical geogra- 
 phy, in the Massachusetts institute 
 of technology, 315. 
 
 Course in mathematics in Cornell uni- 
 versity, 323. 
 
 Course in mechanic arts in Cornell Uni- 
 versity, 322. 
 
 Course in mechanical engineering in 
 the Lehigh University, 274. 
 
 Course in mechanical engineering in 
 the Pennsylvania University, 272. 
 
 Course in mechanical engineering in the 
 Massachusetts Institute of Techno- 
 logy, 314 _ . 
 
 Course xn mechanical engineering in the 
 University of Michigan, 331. 
 
 Course in Metallurgy in the Colorado 
 State School of Mines, 336, 337. 
 
 Course in Mineralogy and geology in the 
 University of Michigan, 380. 
 
 Course in Mineralogy and Metallurgy 
 in the School of Mines, 290. 
 
 Course in mining engineering in the 
 Colorado State School of Mines, 
 336. . 
 
 Course in mining engineering in the 
 School of Mines, 293, 294. 
 
 Course in mining and metallurgy in the 
 Lehigh University, 275. 
 
 Course in mining and metallurgy in the 
 Massachusetts Institute of Techno- 
 logy, 315. 
 
 Course in mining in the University of 
 California, 342. 
 
 Course in Natural History in the Law 
 rence Scientific School, 309. 
 
 Course in Petrography in University of 
 California, 344. 
 
 Course of prices for the most active min- 
 ing stocks, 492 and 493. 
 
 Course of studies at the Lehigh Univer- 
 sity, 274 to 277. 
 
 Course of studies at the Lehigh Univer- 
 sity, 273. 
 
 Course in surveying in the University 
 of Michigan, 330. 
 
 Courses in botany, zoology and geology, 
 in Lafayette College, 279. 
 
 Courses of engineering, 267. 
 
 Courses, free, of instruction in the Mas- 
 sachusetts Institute of Technology, 
 317. 
 
 Courses in professional studies in the 
 University of Michigan, 331. 
 
 Courses, special, in the Sheffield Scien- 
 tific School, 307. 
 
 Coyote Hill, California, 80. 
 
 Cranston, analysis of hematite deposits 
 at, 132. 
 
 Cranston coal, analysis of, 131. 
 
 Creek coal, Texas, 114. 
 
 Creek, Falling, James River, 33. 
 
 Creek, Spruce, in Pennsylvania, 49. 
 
 Crime, mining as a promoter of, 794. 
 
 Crises from 1816-40, and from 1873 to 
 1881, causes of the, 417. 
 
 Crises, monetary, extract from the views 
 of Albert Gallatin on, 417. 
 
 Crises, slow monetary contraction, ef- 
 fects of, 418. 
 
 Cross-slides, 129. 
 
 Crucible, open-hearth and blister-steel, 
 production of, in 1881, report in 
 tenth census, 1026. 
 
 Crucible steel in Great Britain, 255. 
 
 Crucible steel, production of, report in 
 tenth census, 1016. 
 
 Crushing Nova Scotia ores, estimated 
 cost of 247. 
 
 Crystal Falls, Texas, 113. 
 
 Culm, or waste coal dirt, utilizing, 932. 
 
 Culsagee, or Sugartown fork of the 
 Tennessee, 122. 
 
 Culsagee corundum, mechanical dress- 
 ing of, 123. 
 
 Cumberland coal trade in 1881, 1038. 
 
 Cumberland coal-field, 244. 
 
 Cumberland county, 47. 
 
 Cumberland Iron Hill, 131. 
 
 Curiosities of metals, 797. 
 
 Curious names of minerals, 124. 
 
 Currency, Austrian, 452. 
 
 Currency, bad iron as, 61. 
 
 Currency in circulation in Russia, 387. 
 
 Currency and gold prices. Annual 
 average, of staple articles in the 
 New York market, table showing 
 the, 374 to 379. 
 
 Currency and gold prices of staple arti- 
 cles in the New York market com- 
 pared with the ratio of circulation 
 to population and wealth, 380. 
 
 Currency, paper, gold and silver coin 
 and bullion in the banks of Austra- 
 lasia, 391. 
 
 Currency, value of gold consumed in, 433. 
 
 "Current money," precious metals as, 
 earliest mentioned of, 437. 
 
 Currents, constant, in a region of ore 
 deposits, 197. 
 
 Curriculum of the Colorado Slate School 
 ofMines, 336to338. 
 
 Curriculum of Cornell University, 321 
 to 327. 
 
 Curriculum of Lafayette college, 278, 
 279, 280. 
 
 Curriculum of the Lawrence Scientific 
 School, 308 to 311. 
 
 Curriculum of the Massachusetts Insti- 
 tute of Technology, 311 to 320. 
 
 Curriculum of the School of Mines, 283 
 to 296. 
 
 Curriculum of the Sheffield Scientific 
 School, 305 to 308. 
 
 Curriculum of the Stevens Institute of 
 Technology, 301 to 305. 
 
 Curriculum of the University of Cali- 
 fornia, 340 to 344. 
 
 Curriculum of the University of Penn- 
 sylvania, 270, 271, 272. 
 
 Custom, the right of mining property 
 vested by, 554. 
 
 Cutting instruments and ancient arms, 
 analysis of, 11. 
 
 Cycles and Eras, chronological, for 
 1882,753 
 
 DADDOW, 126. 
 Dakota, 514. 
 
 Dakota, mining laws of, 666. 
 
 Dakota, production of deep mines, sta- 
 tistics of tenth census, 975. 
 
 Dakota, report of the director of the 
 mint, 1100. 
 
 Dakota, production of surface mining, 
 statistics of tenth census, 975. 
 
 Dana, Horton, Mr., on the subject of 
 free trade, 420. 
 
 Dana, Prof., table of geological for- 
 mations of, 7.38. 
 
 Data, mean, for rock and water on the 
 Comstock, 194. 
 
 Data relative to pulse-beats per minute 
 in the Julia mine, 233. 
 
 Date and progress of Russian paper 
 money, 452. 
 
 Davies, Prof., estimate of, on the distri- 
 bution of copper throughout the 
 world, 534. 
 
 Dawson, Dr., views of, on the Nova 
 Scotia granites, 245. 
 
 Dayg of mining, on the Pacific slope, 
 early, 78. 
 
 Dead work in shafts, 914. 
 
 Dealings in, the Comstock shares, 521. 
 
 Deaths and accidents in English coal 
 mines, statistics of, 817. 
 
 Deaths and fatal accidents in English 
 coal mines, comparison of, 817. 
 
 Debris question, the, 542. 
 
 Debris question, the, in relation to min- 
 ing, 687. 
 
 Debts, National, table showing the prin- 
 cipal causes of, 453. 
 
 Decimal system, metric, in Italy, gold 
 and silver coined undgr the. Table 
 showing the amount of, 389. 
 
 Decision, important stock, 654. 
 
 Decision of Judge Temple, in the Gold 
 Run suit, 714. 
 
 Decision relative to the BelltunneL-Ben 
 Harding case, 651. 
 
 Decision relative to the Bull of the 
 woods — American case, 650. 
 
 Decision relative to the Colorado Cep^ 
 tral — Equator case, 651. 
 
 Decision relative to the iron — Grand 
 View case, 652 to 654. 
 
 Decision relative to mining stocks, 728. 
 
 Decision relative to the New Discovery 
 — Little Chief case, 654. 
 
Xll 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Decision relative to the Bichmond min- 
 ing company, 640 to 644. 
 
 Decision regarding timber on mineral 
 ■ lands, 655. 
 
 Decision as to the validity of the Shark 
 paymaster case, 644 to 650. 
 
 Decisions from Carpenter's mining code, 
 650. 
 
 Decisions regarding expenditures on 
 mining claims, 638. 
 
 Decisions regarding the Lizzie Bullock 
 mining claims, 633. 
 
 Decisions regarding the locating of min- 
 eral veins, 639. 
 
 Decisions regarding the Mark Twain 
 Lode, 637. 
 
 Decision regarding mining claims in 
 town-sites, 635. 
 
 Decisions regarding price of coal lands, 
 635. 
 
 Decisions, recent, aflP&cting rights un- 
 der the mining laws of the United 
 States, 633. 
 
 Decisions regarding relocation by a co- 
 owner, 636. 
 
 Decisions regarding the Sutro Tunnel, 
 636. 
 
 Decisions regarding the township-site 
 of Eureka Springs, 634. 
 
 Decline of the gold production in Aus- 
 tralia, table showing the, 433. 
 
 Decline of river mining, 82. 
 
 Decomposition of the Feldspars, first 
 stage in the, 189. 
 
 Decomposition of rocks, 188. 
 
 Decomposition of the Washoe rocks, 
 results concerning the, 188. 
 
 Decree, arbitrary, effect of, in determin- 
 ing the ratio of value between 
 precious metals, 404. 
 
 Deed, mining, form of, 726. 
 
 Deep coal mining in Wales, 805. 
 
 Deep mines, heat of, 808. 
 
 Deep mining, accidents in the Comstock 
 mines and their relation to, 798 to 
 802. 
 
 Deep mining, English, expense of, 238. 
 
 Deep mining, physical limits of, 805. 
 
 Deep workings in coal mines, 802. 
 
 Deer Isle and Sedwick belt, the, 135. 
 
 Defensive armor, art of making, 22. 
 
 Definition of Wall street terms, 474. 
 
 Degrees, advanced, in Cornell Univer- 
 sity, 325. 
 
 Delaware, Lackawanna and Western 
 Eailroad, tonnage of coal on, 1037. 
 
 Delaware and Maryland, early iron en- 
 terprises in, 53. 
 
 Delaware river, Durham furnace on, 42. 
 
 Demonetization, depreciation of silver 
 but slightly affected by, 444. 
 
 Demonetization in the Scandinavian 
 kingdoms, 384. 
 
 Demonetization of silver, 439. 
 
 De Motte park, Colorado, 780. 
 
 Denman, Lord, views of, on the right to 
 mining property in England, 555. 
 
 Denudation, natural in mining, 699. 
 
 Denver, Colorado, the National Mining 
 Exhibition at, 350. 
 
 Denver mint and assay offices at Char- 
 lotte, Helena, Boise City and St. 
 Louis, work done by, 863. 
 
 Denver Stock Exchange, 506. 
 
 Department of Chemistry in Lafayette 
 College, 279. 
 
 Department of Chemistry in Stevens 
 Institute of Technology, 304. 
 
 Departments of instruction in the 
 schools of mines, 289. 
 
 Departmental and executive recommen- 
 dations relative to mineral lands, 
 618. 
 
 Department of the Interior, the Gen- 
 eral Land Office and land officers, 
 rules of practice before the, 630 to 
 633. 
 
 Department of mechanical drawing in 
 the Stevens Institute of Techno- 
 logy, 302 ^ . ^ . . 
 
 Department of mechanical engineering 
 in the Stevens Institute of Techno- 
 logy, 301. 
 
 Department of Physics in the Stevens 
 Institute of Technology, 304. 
 
 Depositors, and savings banks in Eu- 
 rope, number of, 453. 
 
 Deposit, sulphur bank quicksilver, 226. 
 
 Deposits, auriferous slate, of the South- 
 ern Mining Region, 119. 
 
 Deposits, blende, 110. 
 
 Deposits and bars manufactured during 
 
 1880 and 1881 at the New York 
 Assay Office, value of, 363. 
 
 Deposits, bedded ore, 162. 
 
 Deposits, classification of ore, S. S. New- 
 berry, 927. 
 
 Deposits of detritus in tributaries of 
 navigable waters, 702. 
 
 Deposits as compared with fissure veins, 
 177. 
 
 Deposits of gold of domestic produc- 
 tion during the year ending June 
 30, 1881, table of the, 365. 
 
 Deposits of gold and silver at the Mints 
 of Mexico, tables showing the, 393. 
 
 Deposits of gold and silver at the United 
 States Mints and Assay Offices 
 from their organization to June 30, 
 1881, 367. 
 
 Deposits, hematite, at Cranston, analysis 
 of, 132. 
 
 Deposits, Leadville, 169. 
 
 Deposits, Leadville, composition of, 170. 
 
 Deposits, Leadville, gangue, 170 
 
 Deposits, Leadville, paragenesis, 170. 
 
 Deposits, metalliferous, the origin of, 
 201. 
 
 Deposits, mineral, east of the Rocky 
 Mountains, 823. 
 
 Deposits, mineral, at Iron Hill, 172. 
 
 Deposits, mineral. Van Groddeck's 
 division of, 169. 
 
 Deposits at the Mint, amount and 
 character of, 359. 
 
 Deposits, ore, Pumpelly's division of, 
 169. 
 
 Deposits, ore, in the Comstock, lateral 
 secretion of, 193. 
 
 Deposits, ore, scientific classification of, 
 by Von Cotta, 169. 
 
 Deposits, placers and gold nuggets, the 
 formation of, 218. 
 
 Deposits and purchases of gold and sil- 
 ver bullion during the year ending 
 June 30, 1881, table of the, 364. 
 
 Deposits and purchases of silver of 
 domestic production during the 
 year ending June 30, 1881, table of 
 the, 365. 
 
 Deposits and purchases for 1880 and 
 
 1881 at the New Orleans Mint, 
 comparison of the, 363. 
 
 Deposits, etc., in the San Francisco 
 Mint, comparative value of, 362. 
 
 Deposits, silver sandstone, Prof. New- 
 berry on the formation of, 224. 
 
 Deposits, silver standstone. Prof. Rolker 
 on the formation of, 225, 226. 
 
 Deposits or veins, blanket, 169. 
 
 Deposits of Southern Missouri, the zinc, 
 
 109. 
 Depreciation of silver, causes of the, 
 
 489, 440. 
 Depreciation of silver, causes of the, 
 
 408, 413. 
 Depreciation of silver but slightly af- 
 fected by its demonetization, 444. 
 Depreciation of silver, true cause of the, 
 
 441. 
 Depth and length of ore veins, Von 
 
 Cotta on the, 137. 
 Depths and rock temperatures, a scale 
 
 of, 232. 
 Deputy Surveyors of raining claims, 
 
 appointment of, 628. 
 Description of minerals, 3. 
 Description of the working miner, 227. 
 Deslodge shaft, the, 111. 
 Destructive distillation of various coals, 
 
 768. 
 Determining faults in mineral veins, 
 
 note on Hoefer's method of, 919. 
 Detritus, deposits of, in tributaries of 
 
 navigable waters, 702. 
 Development of the copper mines of 
 
 Lake Superior, 89. 
 Development of English iron by the 
 
 Normans, 22. 
 Development of Silesian zinc industry 
 
 since 1810, table showing the, 241. 
 Developments, new, 85. 
 Diasore, 122 
 
 Diet and Privation among miners, 791. 
 Difierencein the prices of commodities, 
 
 420. 
 Differences between the sanitary condi- 
 tions of coal-mines and metal-min- 
 ers, 230. 
 Different soils, ascertaining the effect of, 
 
 on weak gold solutions, 220. 
 Dike, black, in the Comstock lode, 192. 
 Dike, gray porphyry, at Fryer Hill, 176. 
 Dike, metallization of<the, 161. 
 Dikes, 168. 
 Dimensions, relative, of wire rope, ropes. 
 
 Hawsers and cables with their 
 
 breaking strain, tables, 759. 
 Dioritic rocks, 167. 
 Dip of ore beds, the, 128. 
 Direct acting steam pump, 826. 
 Director of the mint, report of the, 359. 
 Discharges and velocities in hydraulic 
 
 mining, table of, 761. 
 Discharging retorts, 147. 
 Discoverer and tracer, original, of the 
 
 Chrysolite Belt, N. C, 124. 
 Discoverer's rights, the earliest attempt 
 
 to secure a, 102. 
 Discoveries, latest, 874. 
 Discoveries, new, 83. 
 Discovery of the amalgamation process, 
 
 434. 
 Discovery of coal in America first, 101. 
 Discovery of emeralds in North Caro- 
 lina, 124. 
 Discovery of gold in Australia, 82. 
 Discovery of gold in Australia, 396. 
 Discovery of gold in California, in 1848, 
 
 89. 
 Discovery of gold in California, affecting 
 
 the mineral laws of the United 
 
 States, 614. 
 Discovery of gold in Leadville, first, 
 
 163. 
 Discovery of gold in Marmora, Canada, 
 
 first, 143. 
 Discovery, Marshall's, 79. 
 Discovery of silver in the Comstock 
 
 lode, 90. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Xlll 
 
 Discovery of silver, ores in Maine, the 
 first, 129. 
 
 Dislocations, 99. 
 
 Disposal of public lands by public offer- 
 ing and sale, 595. 
 
 Disposition and sale of public lands, 
 595. 
 
 Disposition and sale of public lands. 
 622. 
 
 Dissemination of knowledge, concerning 
 mining interests, 267. 
 
 Distances and measures, geographical, 
 754. 
 
 Distillation, destructive, of various coals, 
 768. 
 
 Distillation, method of, 147. 
 
 Distinction between a stock broker and 
 an ordinary broker, 472. 
 
 Distribution of anthracite coal in 1881, 
 table showing the, 534. 
 
 Distribution of bonanzas at Fryer Hill, 
 176. 
 
 Distribution and coinage at the mints, 
 361. 
 
 Distribution and consumption of pre- 
 cious metals, figures and facts in, 
 454. 
 
 Distribution of copper throughout the 
 world, estimate of Prof. Davies on 
 the, 534. 
 
 Distribution, geographical, of the ores 
 of iron, 204. 
 
 Distribution of iron ores, 159. 
 
 Distribution of the Lase Superior cop- 
 per yield in 1881, table of the, 535. 
 
 Distribution of Leadville ore deposits, 
 171. 
 
 Distribution of minerals, 1. 
 
 Distribution of mining districts in the 
 United States, the geographical, 222. 
 
 District, Butte, Montana, statistics rela- 
 tive to the ore yield of, 513. 
 
 District, Hanging Rock, Ky., 59-60. 
 
 District, lead mlhing, the most import- 
 ant, 30. 
 
 District, lead, southeast Missouri, 110. 
 
 District, Leadville, 509. 
 
 District, Mansfield, copper smelting in 
 the, 241. 
 
 District, Michigan, the early history of 
 the, 74 
 
 District, mineral, of Chiquilistlan, 215. 
 
 District, mining, present method of or- 
 ganizing a, 618. 
 
 District, mining, rules for forming, a, 
 720. 
 
 District, mining, at Sullivan, Me., 138. 
 
 District, Pioneer, Arizona, 512. 
 
 District, Rhenish, the works of, 240. 
 
 District, Silesian, 240. 
 
 District, Washoe, Baron von Richthof- 
 en's papers relating to the geology 
 of, 188. 
 
 District, the Washoe, and the Comstock 
 lode, the geology of, 188. 
 
 District, Washoe, rocks of the, 189. 
 
 Districts, Favorite silver mining, 90. 
 
 Districts, Land, and Officers', 585-595. 
 
 Districts, mining, Mr. Clarence King on 
 the zonal parallelism of, 222-223. 
 
 Districts, mining, Prof. Blake on the 
 zonal parallelism of, 222. 
 
 Districts, mining in the United States, 
 geographical distribution of, 222. 
 
 Districts, surveying, and offices of sur- 
 veyors-general, table of, 577. 
 
 Ditches, mining, in California, statis- 
 tics of, 695. 
 
 Dividends and assessments, tables rela- 
 tive to, 514. 
 
 Dividends and assessments of mining 
 companies, table relative to the, 
 
 . ^^^■ 
 
 Dividends of powder manufacturing 
 
 companies in 1881. 
 Divining rod, the, 784. 
 Division of mineral deposits, Von Grod- 
 
 deck's, 169. 
 Division of ore deposits, Pumpelly's, 169. 
 Dollar, standard silver, table showing 
 
 the value of the, in the United 
 
 States coin, 459. 
 Domain, public, estimated area of coal 
 
 lands on the, 610. 
 Domain, public, geological surveys of, 
 
 under General Land Office, 574. 
 Domain, public, mineral lands as a part 
 
 of the, letter of R. W. Raymond 
 
 relative to, 556 to 562. 
 Domain, public, mines on the, 613. 
 Domain, public, the precious-metal bear- 
 ing States and Territories of the, 
 
 613. 
 Dome Hill, at Iron Hill, 171. 
 Domestic commodities, the principal, 
 
 exported from the United States, 
 
 average and comparative prices of, 
 
 373. 
 Domestic lead, average price of, at New 
 
 York, 538. 
 Domestic product of copper, table of 
 
 the, 535. 
 Dominion of Canada, coal production 
 
 in, 1042. 
 Double acting hydraulic pump, 826. 
 Double and single standards, bi-metal- 
 
 ism, 436. 
 Double standard, conducting to stability 
 
 in the legal tender, 425. 
 Double standards; why they have al- 
 ways failed arid must continue to 
 
 do so, 444. 
 Double standard, table showing coun- 
 tries having, 455. 
 Down in a Utah mine, 787. 
 Drainage, ancient, 694. 
 Drainage of mines, 905. 
 Drainage of mines, adit levels in, 905. 
 Drainage of mines, balance bobs in, 907. 
 Drainage of mines, pumps and pit-work 
 
 in, 905. 
 Drainage and ventilation, mechanical, 
 
 in Indiana mines, 810. 
 Drawing and architecture, course in, in 
 
 the Pennsylvania University, 272. 
 Drawing, course in, in the University 
 
 of Michigan, 332. 
 Drawing, mechanical, department of, 
 
 in the Stevens Institute of Tech- 
 nology, 302. 
 Drawing school, Franklin Institute, 268. 
 Dressing, mechanical, of culsagee corun- 
 dum, 123. 
 Drift, frost, 121. 
 Drifton, Luzerne Co., Pa., the Industrial 
 
 School for miners and mechanics 
 
 at, 280. 
 Drifts, gold, in North Carolina, 121. 
 Dr. Smith's report on the air in metal 
 
 mines, 231. 
 Dr. Soetbeer, table of the production of 
 
 gold and silver from 1492 to 1879, 
 
 according to, 456. 
 Dr. Suess, views of, on the precious 
 
 metals, 428. 
 Ductility of metals, 752. 
 Dunham's Point, Maine, 135. 
 Durango, Mexico, the Iron Mountains 
 
 of, 260. 
 Durham Furnace on Delaware River, 42. 
 
 Duties of the Commissioner of the 
 
 General Land Office, 563 to 567. 
 Duties on the French iron and steel, 
 
 252. 
 Duties, productive, in Germany, 252. 
 Duties of the Secretary of the Interior 
 
 relative to mines and public lands, 
 
 562. 
 " Dyestone " ore, 209. 
 Dynamic engineering, course in, in the 
 
 Sheffield Scientific School, 306. 
 
 EAGLE river, 76, 77. 
 Early days of the iron industry in 
 Kentucky and Tennessee, 59. 
 
 Early days of mining, on the Pacific 
 slope, 78. 
 
 Early history of the Michigan copper 
 district, 74. 
 
 Early iron enterprises in Delaware and 
 Marj'land, 53. 
 
 Early iron enterprises in the middle 
 southern and western states, 38. 
 
 Early iron industries of Alabama, 61. 
 
 Early iron industries in Virginia, the 
 Carolinas and Georgia, 56. 
 
 Early use of iron in Europe, 18. 
 
 Earliest copper mining company, 87. 
 
 Earliest mention of a steam engine for 
 mining purposes, 16. 
 
 Earliest attempt to secure a discoverer's 
 rights, 102. 
 
 Earliest mention of precious metals as 
 " current money," 437. 
 
 Earliest mention of lead, 29. 
 
 Earth digging, 756. 
 
 Earnings and expenditures of the 
 United States mints and assay of- 
 fices, statement of, 366. 
 
 East, exports of silver to the, from Great 
 Britain and Mediterranean ports, 
 440. 
 
 East, the, and India ; consumption of 
 gold and silver by table relative 
 to the, 457. 
 
 East, the, metallic treasures of, 27. 
 
 East, south and north, mineral lands of 
 the, 108. 
 
 Eastern metalliferous state, characteris- 
 tics of, 135. 
 
 Eastern Maryland, the anthracite and 
 magnetic iron ore district of, 210. 
 
 Eastern states, production, by states of 
 surface mining statistics of tenth 
 census, 981. 
 
 Eastern states, production by states and 
 counties, of deep mines statistics of 
 tenth census, 978 to 981. 
 
 Eastern mining company charter, illus- 
 tration of an, 717 to 718. 
 
 Eastern origin of gold, 430. 
 
 Eastern Pennsylvania, manufactures of 
 charcoal iron in, after the revolu- 
 tion, 46. 
 
 Eastern penitentiary, castings for, 53. 
 
 Eastern Russia, copper mines of, 227. 
 
 Eastern and western worlds, tables of 
 the ratio of value between gold and 
 silver in the, 406. 
 
 Eastern and western worlds, table of the 
 production of the precious metals 
 in the, from 1493 to 1872, 4481. 
 
 Easton, Pa., Lafayette college at, 277. 
 
 Economic aspect of mining, the, 696. 
 
 Economy and finance, the Wharton 
 school of, 269. 
 
 Education, technical, 267. 
 
 Efiect of arbitrary decree in determin- 
 ing the ratio of value between pre- 
 cious metals, 404. 
 
XIV 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Effect of different soils on wealt gold so- 
 lutions, ascertaining the, 202. 
 Effect of an influx of gold, the first, 416. 
 Effect of kaolinization, the thermal, on 
 
 theComstock lode, 199. 
 Effect of mint charges upon the ratio of 
 value between precious metals, 404. 
 Effect of organic life in gold solutions, 
 
 220. 
 Effect of the presence of foreign matters 
 
 on the quality of copper, 887. 
 Effects iu blasting, 756. 
 Effects of heat on various bodies, 762. 
 Effects of prosperous mining, 436. 
 Effects of a scarcity of cash, 416. 
 Effects of slow monetary contraction 
 
 crises, 418. 
 Egleston, Prof., on miners' homes, 235. 
 Egyptian and Athenian mines, admin- 
 istration of the, 545. 
 Egyptians, gold among the, 431. 
 Egyptians and Persians, mines of the, 
 
 543. 
 Eisen Hammer, Tulpehocken, 44. 
 Elastic fluids, 760. 
 Electrical activity of ore bodies, 196. 
 Electricity, application of to the pre- 
 vention of damp explosions, 815. 
 Electricity, conducting power of metals 
 
 for, table of, 752. 
 Electricity, lighting mines by, 816. 
 Electricity in mining work, 813. 
 Electricity, transmission of power by, 
 
 in mining, 814. 
 Electrum, 8. 
 Elementary bodies, with their symbols 
 
 and equivalents, 758. 
 Elements that determine the value of 
 
 money, 403. 
 Elfin. Water Pocket, canyons of the 
 
 Colorado, 775. 
 Elutia, (stream tin), 9. 
 Emeralds, North Carolina, commercial 
 
 value of, 125. 
 Emeralds in North Carolina, the dis- 
 covery of, 124. 
 Emeralds, North Carolina, peculiar fea- 
 tures of, 124. 
 Emery in Maine, 137. 
 Employment, industrial, of silver and 
 
 gold in Norway and Sweden, 383. 
 Engineer, miner and mine — owner, ta- 
 bles of reference for the, 762. 
 Engine, boiler and air compressor, com- 
 bined, 828. 
 Engineering, civil, course in, in the 
 
 University of California, 343. 
 Engineering, civil, course in, in the 
 Colorado State School of mines, 336. 
 Engineering, civil, course in, in Cornell 
 
 University, 322. 
 Engineering, civil, course in, in the Le- 
 high University, 273. 
 Engineering, civil course in, in the 
 
 school of mines, 292, 294. 
 Engineering, civil, course in, in the 
 
 University of Michigan, 330, 332. 
 Engineering, civil, course in, in the 
 
 Pennsylvania University, 272. 
 Engineering, civil, course in, in the 
 
 Sheffield scientific school, 306. 
 Engineering, civil and topographical, 
 course in, in the Massachusetts In- 
 stitute of Technology, 314. 
 Engineering, course in, in the School 
 
 of Mines, 292. 
 Engineering, courses of, 267. 
 Engineering, dynamic course in, in the 
 
 SheflSeld Scientific School, 806. 
 Engineering, mechanical, course in, in 
 
 the Massachusetts Institute of 
 Technology, 314. 
 Engineering, mechanical, department 
 of, in the Stevens Institute of Tech- 
 nology, 301. 
 Engineering, mechanical, course in, in 
 
 the Lehigh University, 274. 
 Engineering, mechanical, course in, in 
 the Pennsylvania University, 272. 
 Engineering, mechanical, course in, in 
 
 the University of Michigan, 331. 
 Engineering, mining, course in, in the 
 Colorado State School of Mines, 
 336. 
 Engineering, mining, course in, in the 
 
 School of Mines, 293, 294. 
 Engineers, Institute of mining, 92. 
 Engineers, mining. The American Insti- 
 tute of, 347. 
 Engineers, mining, American Institute 
 
 of, officers of the, 349. 
 Engineers, mining, American Institute 
 
 of, rules of the, 348. 
 England's imports and exports, 417. 
 England, iron industries in, 206. 
 England, mining law of, 653. 
 England, mining property in, views of 
 Lord Denman on the right to, 655. 
 England, the Parkfield colliery, 97. 
 England's production of zinc ore in 
 
 1881, 539. 
 England, table of imports and exports 
 
 into and from, 536. 
 English coal mines, accidents and 
 
 deaths in, statistics of, 817. 
 English coal mines, comparison of fatal 
 
 accidents and deaths in, 817. 
 English deep mining, expense of, 238. 
 English history, first mention of coal 
 
 in, 100. 
 English iron, development of, by the 
 
 Normans, 22. 
 Enterprises, earlv iron, in Delaware and 
 
 Maryland, 53. 
 Enterprises, industrial, corporate sys- 
 tem of managing, 92. 
 Enterprises, iron, and iron ores of Ply- 
 mouth county, Mass., 86. 
 Enterprises, iron, in the Lehigh valley, 
 
 the first, 47. 
 Enterprises of Nutt and Branson, 44. 
 Entries, table of, under the coal land 
 
 acts, 610. 
 Epochs, principal, in the modern pro- 
 duction of the precious metals, 434 
 Epsomite, 148. 
 Equivaducts and symbols of elementary 
 
 bodies, 758. 
 Era, the Carboniferous, 97. 
 Eras and Cycles, Chronological, for 
 
 1882, 753. 
 Erection of the first steam engine in 
 
 America, 89. 
 Erie. Lake, 65. 
 Erosion, valleys of, 168. 
 Eruptive or igneous rocks, 166,167. 
 Erythyrite, 248. 
 
 Escrow agreement, form of, 727. 
 Essential features of New Jersey iron- 
 ore beds, 129. 
 Estimate of area of Western precious 
 
 metalregions, 621. 
 Estimates upon gold and silver, Mr 
 
 Mulhall's, 451. 
 Estimate of the gold and silver produc- 
 tion, Whitney's, 436. 
 Estimate of gold and silver wares man- 
 
 ufactured in Hungary, 883 
 Estimate of hydraulic mining material 
 moved annually, 696. 
 
 Estimate of Prof. Davies on the distri- 
 bution of copper throughout the 
 world, 634. 
 Estimate of the population and volume 
 of money of Western Nations, 442. 
 Estimate of the possible contents of 
 Leadville pyritiferous porphyry, 
 171. 
 Estimate of the production of precious 
 metals from 1862 to 1875, Sir Hec- 
 tor Hay's, 454. 
 Estimate of the spelter production of 
 
 Europe by Herr Bilharz, 240. 
 Estimate of values of foreign coins, 370. 
 Estimated area of coal lands on the 
 
 Public Domain, 610. 
 Estimated capital value of each country, 
 table expressing the ratio for, and 
 for population, 463. 
 Estimated cost of building a Knox & Os- 
 borne quicksilver furnace, 156. 
 Estimated cost of crushing Nova Scotia 
 
 _ ores, 247. 
 Estimated cost of running a Knox & Os- 
 borne furnace, 155. 
 Estimated cost of working bar iron in 
 
 _ Mexico, 216. 
 Estimated production of gold in the 
 
 western world, 402. 
 Estimated production of Mexican iron 
 
 works, when completed, 217. 
 Estimated production of precious metals 
 in the United States from 1848 to 
 1880, 619. 
 Estimated production of silver in the 
 
 _ western world, 397. 
 Estimated stock of gold and silver coin 
 and the population of the European 
 world, table showing the, 401. 
 Estimate and order of structure upon 
 
 Yuba river, table showing, 706. 
 Estimation of the values of foreign coins, 
 
 361. 
 Estimations of silver, 12. 
 Etowah rolling mill, 59. 
 Etowah river, 59. 
 Eureka Springs, decisions regarding the 
 
 town-site of, 634. 
 Europe, early use of iron in, 18. 
 Europe, estimate of the spelter produc- 
 tion of, by Herr Bilharz, 240. 
 Europe, number of savings banks and 
 
 depositors in, 453. 
 Europe and Siberia, ancient mining in 
 644. ° ' 
 
 Europe, western, ancient mining in, 545 
 European World, population of the, and 
 the estimated stock of gold and sil- 
 ver coin, table showing the, 401 
 Evaporating power of different fuels 
 mean relative, 768. ' 
 
 Evils of hydraulic mining, a govern- 
 mental report on the, 693. 
 
 ^'"'^esft^egr"'"'' ™'°'"^' ^^^ ^'^^*' 
 
 Examination of surveys in the field 658 
 Excavations in Michigan, ancient, 75. 
 Exchange, The American Mining Stock, 
 
 Exchange, Pacific, 621. 
 Exchange, Pacific Stock, 621. 
 Exchange, The Philadelphia Mining and 
 
 btock, 496. 
 Exchange, The Rico Mining, 506. 
 Exchange, The San Francisco Mining 
 
 Stock Market and, 516 
 Exchange and Stock Board, The San 
 
 I'rancisco, constitution of, 516. 
 Excliange and Stock Board, The San 
 
 In-ancisco, by-laws of, 517 to 620. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 XV 
 
 Exchange, stock, rules of the, 471. 
 Exchange and Stock Board, The San 
 
 Francisco, officers of, 515. 
 Exchange, St. Louis Mining and Stock, 
 
 506. 
 Exchanges, mining stock, 475. 
 Exchanges, mining stock, and mining 
 
 stock brokers, law of, 468. 
 Exchange, Denver stock, 506. 
 Exchange, the National Mining and 
 
 Stock, 496. 
 Exchange, a new Mining Stock, 482. 
 Exchange, New York Iron and Metal, 
 
 by-laws of the, 524 to 526. 
 Exchange, New York Iron and Metal, 
 
 code of rules of the, 527 and 528. 
 Exchange, New York Mining, Stock, 
 constitution and by-laws of the, 
 476 to 482. 
 Exchange, The New York Mining Stock, 
 names of the stocks listed at the, 
 481. 
 Exchange, New York Stock, annals of 
 
 the, 470. 
 Exchange, New York Stock, govern- 
 ment of the, 490. 
 Exchange, New York Stock, table, ex- 
 hibiting the prices of stocks and 
 number of shares sold at the, 489. 
 Exchange, The American Mining Stock, 
 
 by-laws of, 482 to 484. 
 
 Exchange, American Mining Stock, 
 
 rules and regulations of the, 484 to 
 
 487. 
 
 Exchange, American Mining Stock, 
 
 stocks listed and called at the, 487. 
 
 Exchange, Boston Mining and Stock, 
 
 502. 
 Exchange, Boston Mining and Stock, 
 
 by-laws of the, 504 and 505. 
 Exchange, Boston Mining and Stock, 
 
 constitution of the, 502 and 503. 
 Exchange, California Stock, 520. 
 Exchange, Chicago Mining, 506. 
 Exchange Company,- limited, The Iron 
 
 and Metal, officers of, 529. 
 Exchange Company, limited. The Iron 
 
 and Metal, by -Laws of, 529. 
 Exchange Company, limited. The Iron 
 
 and Metal, 529. 
 Exchanges, New York Iron and Metal, 
 
 524. 
 Exchanges, New York Mining, tables 
 exhibiting the prices of stocks and 
 number of shares sold at the, 488. 
 Exchanges, The Philadelphia Mining 
 Stock, and the Philadelphia Mar- 
 ket, 494. 
 Exchanges, Oriental, Consumption of 
 
 silver as affecting, 441. 
 Exchanges, Stock, 468. , . , , 
 
 Exchanges, stock, forms used in deal- 
 ing in, 491.' 
 Execution of surveys, 573. 
 Execution, relative to mines, 613. 
 Executive and departmental recommen- 
 dations relative to mineral lands, 
 618. 
 Exhibition, The National Mining at 
 
 Denver, Colorado, 350. 
 Exhibition, Tht, National Mining, at 
 Denver, Col., departments of, 353. 
 Exhibition, The National Mining, at 
 
 Denver Col., officers of, 351. 
 Exhaustion oi anthracite coal of Penn- 
 sylvania, 930. 
 Expenditures of all nations, table show- 
 ing the, 453. , . 
 Expenditures on mining claims, deci- 
 sions regarding, 638. 
 
 Expenditures and receipts of the Cali- 
 fornia mine, table showing the, 508. 
 Expenditures and receipts ot the con- 
 solidated Virginia mine, table of 
 the, 509. 
 Expenditures of the United States 
 
 geological survey, 354. 
 
 Expense of English deep mining, 238. 
 
 Experimental mechanics, course in, in 
 
 the Stevens Institute of Technology, 
 
 304. _ 
 
 Explorations, ftiture, and ore prospects 
 
 at Fryer Hill, 177. 
 Explosions, coal mine, and their pre- 
 vention, 824. 
 Explosions of fire damp, 819. 
 Explosions, fire-damp, application of 
 electricity to the prevention of, 815. 
 Explorations, future at Iron Hill, 172. 
 Explosions, mining, and mining warn- 
 ings, 825. 
 Explosive force of substances used for 
 
 firm-arms, 762. 
 Export of silver to the East, 441. 
 Exports of calamine from Spain, 539. 
 Exports (domestic) gold and silver, 371. 
 Exports (foreign) gold and silver, 371. 
 Exports, imports and coinage of gold 
 and silver of British India, table of 
 the, 390. 
 Exports and imports German, of spelter 
 
 and sheet-zinc during 1880, 241. 
 Exports and imports of iron by Belgium, 
 
 257. 
 Exports and imports of iron and steel 
 
 by France in 1880 and 1881, 256. 
 Exports and imports, England's, 417. 
 Exports and imports from and into 
 
 England, table of the, 536. 
 Exports and imports of gold and silver 
 during the year ended June 30, 
 1881, statement of, 371. 
 Exports and imports of iron and steel 
 
 by Russia, 259. 
 Exports and imports of specie and bul- 
 lion from and into Japan, table 
 showing the, 393. 
 Exports and imports of gold by sea and 
 land from and into New South 
 Wales, 391. 
 Exports and imports of gold coin from 
 
 and into New Zealand, 392. 
 Exports and imports of specie from and 
 
 into the Cape of Good Hope, 390. 
 Exports, total, of iron and steel from 
 Great Britain from 1871 to 4881, 
 255. 
 Exports of gold and silver from Portu- 
 gal, statement shovring, 388. 
 Exports of 8il"er to the East from Great 
 Britain and Mediterranean Ports, 
 440. 
 Exports, iron ore, of Spain, 258. 
 Exposures, Archaean, of the Sawatch 
 
 Range, 163. 
 Exports of gold from San Francisco 
 from 1848 to 1863, report of the 
 Tenth Census, 996. 
 Exports and imports of gold and silver 
 in 1881, report of the Director of 
 the Mint, 1107. 
 Exports of iron and steel, domestic, 
 1871 to 1881, report in Tenth Cen- 
 sus, 1021. . . 
 Exports of coal from Nova Scotia into 
 
 the United States, 1042. 
 Extinguishing fires in mines, means of, 
 
 818. 
 Extract from the views of Albert Gal- 
 latin on Monetary Crisis, 417. 
 
 Extraction of silver, amalgamation pro- 
 cess for, 890. 
 
 Extraction of copper from its ores, 883. 
 
 Extraction of malleable iron from its 
 ore, 882. 
 
 Extraction of silver from copper py- 
 rites, 990. 
 
 FACT, findings of, in the Gold Run 
 suit, 708 to 710. 
 Facts relative to the anthracite coal 
 
 fields of Pennsylvania, 534. 
 Facts relative to atmospheric air, 764. 
 Facts relative to the bituminous coal 
 
 fields of Pennsylvania, 534. 
 
 Facts relative to carbonic acid gas, 765. 
 
 Facts and figures in consumption and 
 
 distribution of precious metals, 454. 
 
 Facts, relative to glacial phenomena, 
 
 168. 
 Facts for mine owners, 1. 
 Facts of mining interest, foreign, 159. 
 Facta relative to water, 765. 
 Faculty of the Colorado state school of 
 
 mines, 334. 
 Faculty of Cornell university, 320. 
 Faculty of Lafayette College, 277. 
 Faculty of the Lawrence scientific 
 
 school, 308. 
 Faculty of the Leh'gh university, 273. 
 Faculty of the Massachusetts institute 
 
 of technology, 317. 
 Faculty of the school of mines, 282. 
 Faculty of the Stephens institute of 
 
 technology, 299. 
 Faculty of the university of California, 
 
 339. 
 Faculty of the university of Michigan, 
 
 327. 
 Faculty of the university of Pennsylva- 
 nia, 269. 
 Failure to contribute toward developing 
 
 a claim, form of affidavit of, 720. 
 Fallacies, commonplace, concerning 
 
 money, 414. 
 Falling creek, James river, 33. 
 Fall and rise of tides in the Gulf of 
 
 Mexico, 755. 
 Falls, Crystal, Texas, 113. 
 Falls of Licking, the, 62. 
 Fatal accidents and deaths in English 
 
 coal mines, comparison of, 817. 
 Fatal accidents in Prussian mines, sta- 
 tistics of, 816. 
 Fault, carbonate, at Carbonate hill, 174. 
 Fault, iron, at Iron Hill, 171. 
 Fault, Pendery, at Carbonate hill, 174. 
 Faults in mineral veins, note on Hoo- 
 fer's method of determining, 919. 
 Favorite silver mining districts, 90. 
 Feature, peculiar, of the North Caro- 
 lina emeralds, 124. 
 Features, essential, of New Jersey iron 
 
 ore beds, 129. 
 Features, general, of the American river, 
 California, presented by Mr. Man- 
 son, 702. 
 Federal fnmace, 36. 
 Fees and charges, form of statement of, 
 
 722. 
 Fees of Registers and Receivers, 628. 
 Feldspars, first stage in the decomposi- 
 tion of, 189. 
 Female coal-bearers, 101. 
 Fiat money, the theory of, 421. 
 Field, Allegheny coal, 98. 
 Field, the Cahaba, Alabama, 116. 
 Field, the Coosa, Alabama, 116. 
 Field-notes, form of, in present use, 584. 
 Field, the Warrior, Alabama, 116. 
 
XVI 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Fields, Cahaba and Warrior, cost of 
 
 miniag in the, 119. 
 Fields, coal, of Great Britain, 100. 
 Fields, great gold, of the modern world, 
 
 comparative yield of the, 397. 
 Fields, coal, the shape of, 99. 
 Fields of Maine, the gold, 136. 
 Fields, Scottish coal, 99. 
 Fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, man- 
 ufacture of iron in the, 23. 
 Figures and facts in consumption and 
 distribution of precious metals, 454 
 File steel, 4. 
 Finance and economy, the Wharton 
 
 school of, 269. 
 Finances and wealth, 453. 
 Findings of fact in the Gold run suit, 
 
 708 to 710. 
 Fine gold, preventing a loss of, 145. 
 Fire arms, explosive force of substan- 
 ces used lor, 762. 
 Fire clay (alluvium) 2. 
 Fire clay, micaceous, 109. 
 Fire-damp explosions, application of 
 electricity to the prevention of, 
 815. 
 Fires, mine, means adopted for extin- 
 guishing, 822. 
 Fires, mine, means ■ adopted for pre- 
 venting, 821. 
 Fires in mines; their causes and the 
 means of extinguishing them, 818. 
 First attempt by Europeans to manu- 
 facture iron in the United States, 
 32. 
 First Bessemer steel works in Austro- 
 
 Hungary, 258. 
 First blast furnace in Connecticut, 130. 
 First century of National Independ- 
 ence, table of production of lead- 
 ing metals and minerals in the 
 United States during the, 94 
 First discovery of coal in America 
 
 101. 
 First discovery of gold in Leadville. 
 
 163. 
 First discovery of gold in Marmorj, 
 
 Canada, 143. 
 First discovery of silver ores in Maine, 
 
 139. 
 First effect of an influx of gold, 416. 
 First iron enterprises in Ohio, 62. 
 First iron woTks in Canada, 68. 
 First iron works in Maryland, 54. 
 First iron works in Pennsylvania, 42. 
 First mention of coal by ancient au- 
 thors, 99. 
 First mention of coal in English history. 
 
 First mention of gold in California, 78. 
 
 First prominent resident in the Michi- 
 gan copper region, 76. 
 
 First quartz miners in California, the 
 Mexicans, 82. 
 
 First recorded mining operations of 
 white men, 87. 
 
 First regular bank of emission, 454. 
 
 First rolling mill west of the Alleghen- 
 ies, 57. 
 
 First rolling mill in Kentucky, 60. 
 
 First rolling mill in the United States, 
 60. 
 
 First silver pieces coined in New Eng- 
 land, 34. 
 
 First stages in the decomposition of the 
 Feldspars, 189. 
 
 First stamp mill at Lake Superior, 78. 
 
 First steam engine in America, erection 
 
 of the, 89. 
 'First steel making, the, 37. | 
 
 First surveyor-general of public lands, 
 
 568. 
 First systems of mining, 100. 
 First use of anthracite for the genera- 
 tion of steam, 71. 
 First use of gas from the tunnel-head 
 
 for the production of steam, 49. 
 First use of Lake Superior ore in a blast 
 
 furnace, 66. 
 First use of paper money in the United 
 
 States, 452. 
 " Fissure vein," "true," 224. 
 Fissure veins and deposits, comparison 
 
 of, 177. 
 Fissure veins, legal ownership of, 178 
 Fissure veins, theories as to origin of, 
 
 by S. S. Newberry, 929. 
 Form of affidavit of citizenship, 722. 
 Form of affidavit of failure to contribute 
 
 toward developing a claim, 720. 
 Form of affidavit of $500 improvement, 
 
 722. 
 Form of application, for patent for min- 
 ing claim, 721. 
 Form of application for siuveying a 
 
 mining claim, 721. 
 Form of certificate relative to mining 
 
 suits, 722. 
 Form of escrow agreement, 727. 
 Form of field-notes in present use, 584. 
 Form of miners' lien, 721. 
 Form of mining deed, 726. 
 Form of mining lease, 727. 
 Form of notice of forfeiture of a claim. 
 720. ' 
 
 Form of notice of locating a claim, 720. 
 Form of notice for newspaper publica- 
 tion, 722. 
 Form of patent for placer claim, 718. 
 Form of patent for vein or lode claim 
 
 719. 
 Form of pre-emption of right of way for 
 
 ditch and location of water, 726. 
 Form, printed, for proclamation of sales, 
 by the President of the United 
 States, 596. 
 Form of power of Attorney to applv 
 
 for patent, 725. 
 Form of power of Attorney to sell and 
 
 locate claims, 726. 
 
 Form of proof of labor on a claim, 720. 
 
 Form of proof of ownership of a claim 
 
 in absence of mining records, 722. 
 
 Form of proof of posting notice and 
 
 diagram on claim, 721. 
 Form of proof relative to posting plat 
 
 and notice on claim, 721. 
 Form of proof of relative to veins in 
 
 placer mining claims, 725. 
 Form of prospecting contracts, 727. 
 Form of protest and adverse claim, 725. 
 Form of register's certificates of postine 
 notice, 722. ^ 
 
 Form of statement of fees and charges, 
 
 Form of title bond, 726. 
 
 Forna of transfer of stocks,724. 
 
 Form of tunnel claim location certifi- 
 cate, 726. 
 
 Formal], 10. 
 
 Formation, azoic, 127. 
 
 Formation of gold nuggets and placer 
 deposits, the, 218. 
 
 Formation, greenstone, 76, 77. 
 
 Formation, secondary, 2. 
 
 Formation of silver sandstone deposits 
 Prof. Newberry on the, 224. ' 
 
 Formation of silver sandstone deposits 
 Mr. Eolker on the, 225, 226 ' 
 
 Formation, tertiary 2. 
 
 Formations, Cambrian, 165. 
 Formations, carbonate hill, 173. 
 Formations, geological, Prof. Dana's 
 
 table of, 738. 
 Formations, geological, Prof. Hunt's 
 
 table of, 738. 
 Formations, geological, of the Leadville 
 
 region, conclusions respecting the, 
 
 177. 
 Formations of Maine, the rock, 133. 
 Formations, paleozoic, 164. 
 Formations, quaternary, 166. 
 Formations, rock, 167. 
 Formations, Silurian 165. 
 Formations, silver, in Maine, geological 
 
 sequence of, 139. 
 Formations, slate, working, by water. 
 
 Forms used in dealing in stock ex- 
 changes, 491. 
 
 Forms of minerals, 798. 
 
 Forms for mining companies and offi- 
 cers, 715. 
 
 "Fossil" ore, 209. 
 
 " Fossil " ore, analyses of, 210. 
 
 Fossil ores, assay of the giles and bland, 
 
 Fossil ores of southwestern Virginia 
 
 strictly, 125. 
 " Four mile creek," section, Alabama, 
 
 measures in, 117. 
 Fourche mountain, 109. 
 Fourteenth century, iron work at the 
 
 close of the, 23. 
 Fourth, Missourian or western bitumi- 
 nous coal basin, 112. 
 Fox hill, 140, 141. 
 Flat veins, 169. 
 " Flaxseed " ore, 209. 
 Floyd county, Va., 125. 
 Fluctuations of each decade since 1760 
 table showing the, 444. ' 
 
 Fluctuations in the production of gold 
 
 and silver, table showing the, 425 
 Fluids, elastic, 760. 
 Force, explosive, of substances used for 
 
 fire arms, 762. 
 Foreign coins, estimation of the values 
 
 of, 361, 370. 
 Foreign countries, interesting statistics 
 
 from, 252. 
 Foreign facts of mining interest, 159 
 Foreign geologist, a novel feature to, 1 24 
 foreign matters, effect of the presence 
 
 of, on the quality of copper, 887 
 foreign tables, lead production in Ger- 
 many, 1031. 
 ^"'■fejture of a claim, form of notice of, 
 
 Forge, the Catalan, 20. 
 
 Forge, the Corsican, 19. 
 
 Forges of the St. Maurice, 68 69 
 
 Fork of the Tennessee, the culsagee or 
 
 Sugartown, 122. ^ 
 
 Fortune, the whims of, 785. 
 France, Bimetallic law in, 427 
 France, classified mines of, 553. 
 France, coal production in 257* 
 France, code of, 552. 
 France, consumption of coal in, 266 
 France, the hospital system in, for min- 
 
 France, imports and exports of iron and 
 
 steel in 1880 & 1881 by, 256 
 1' ranee, iron ores of, 206. 
 France, minerals and metals of 262 
 France, production of pig iron in, 26i;. 
 1< ranee, specie and paper circulation in, 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 xvu 
 
 France, statement of the total produc- 
 tion of precioua metals in, from 
 1493 to 1875, 381. 
 
 France, table showing the movement of 
 specie in, from 1850 to 1878, 381. 
 
 Franklin Institute Drawing School, 
 268. 
 
 Fraudulent surveys, instructions to sur- 
 ve;^ors, general regarding, 657. 
 
 Fredericksburg, Va., 56. 
 
 Free coinage at the mint, 421. 
 
 Free courses of instruction in the Mas- 
 sachusetts Institute of Technology, 
 317. 
 
 Freedom of prospecting in Germany, 
 548. 
 
 Free trade, Mr. Dana Horton on the 
 subject of, 420. 
 
 French iron and steel, duties on the, 252. 
 
 Frenchman's Bay, 138. 
 
 French tariff, the new, 257. 
 
 Frieburg Academy, Germany, 344. 
 
 Frieburg German barrel process, 85, 
 
 From peat to anthracite, 98. 
 
 Frost drift, 121. 
 
 Fryer Hill, Blue Limestone horizon at, 
 176. 
 
 Fryer Hill, distribution of bonanzas at, 
 176. 
 
 Fryer Hill, future explorations and ore 
 prospects at, 177. 
 
 Fryer Hill, geological structure under- 
 lying, 179. 
 
 Fryer Hill, Gray porphyry dike at, 
 176. 
 
 Fryer Hill mines, 175. 
 
 Fryer Hill, ore in lower horizons at, 
 175. 
 
 Fryer Hill, vein material at, 176. 
 
 Fryer Hill, white limestone at, 175. 
 
 Fryer Hill, white porphyry bodies at, 
 175. 
 
 Fuel, artificial, for quicksilver furnaces, 
 156. 
 
 Fuels, different, mean relative evapora- 
 ting power of, 768. 
 
 Fuels, different relative values of, 768. 
 
 Functions, local monetary, of coin, 447. 
 
 Functions and nature of money, views 
 of Locke on the, 437. 
 
 Furnace, Bassenheim, 52. 
 
 Furnace, blast, use of anthracite in the, 
 and opening of the anthracite coal 
 fields, 89. 
 
 Furnace, blast, use of raw bituminous 
 coal in the, 89. 
 
 Furnace, Bourbon, 59. 
 
 Furnace, Bush, 55. 
 
 Furnace, Coalbrookdale, 42. 
 
 Furnace, Cornwall, 46. 
 
 Furnace, Durham, on Delaware Eiver, 
 42. 
 
 Furnace, Federal, 36. 
 
 Furnace the first blast, in Connecticut, 
 131. 
 
 Furnace, Ironton, 66 and 67. 
 
 Furnace, Knox, 152. 
 
 Furnace, Knox, cost of reduction by, 155. 
 
 Furnace, Knox and Osborne, estimated 
 cost of running a, 155. 
 
 Furnace, Knox and Osborne quicksilver, 
 estimated cost of building a, 155. 
 
 Furnace, Luckhart, 151. 
 
 Furnace, Luckhart, cost of treating ore 
 at, 151. 
 
 Furnace, Lonaconing, 72. 
 
 Furnace, Manheim, 70. 
 
 Furnace, Miilborough, 53. 
 
 Furnace, Modified Idria, 148. 
 
 Furnace, Modified Idria, cost of, 150. 
 B 
 
 Furnace, Modified Idria, cost of, reduc- 
 tion by the, 150, 
 
 Furnace, Pine Grove, 63. 
 
 Furnace, Eeading, 46. 
 
 Furnace, State, 59. 
 
 Furnace, Warwick, 43. 
 
 Furnace, Warwick, 46. 
 
 Furnace, Wolf, 20. 
 
 Furnace, Valley, Pa., 70. 
 
 Furnaces, American blast, introduction 
 of bituminous coal as a fuel in, 72. 
 
 Furnaces, blast, tables relative to, 631. 
 
 Furnaces, continuous, 151. 
 
 Furnaces, non-continuous, 147. 
 
 Furnaces, quicksilver, artificial fuel for, 
 156. 
 
 Fusibility of metals, table of, 752. 
 
 Fusion of copper ore for removal of 
 iron, 885. 
 
 Future explorations and ore prospects 
 at Fryer Hill, 177. 
 
 Future explorations at Iron Hill, 172. 
 
 Future of gold, the, 428. 
 
 Future for mining shares, the, 523. 
 
 GALENA, 5. 
 Gallatin, Albert, extract from the 
 views of,-on monetary crisis, 417. 
 
 Gangue, character of the, on the Com- 
 stock, 193. 
 
 Gangue at Iron Hill, 172. 
 
 Gangue, Leadville deposits, 170. 
 
 Gas, carbonic acid, in mines, 229. 
 
 Gas from the tunnel-head for the pro- 
 duction of steam, first use of, 49. 
 
 Gash veins, 169. 
 
 Gatling mine, assays of Canada gold 
 mining company's ores, mostly 
 from the, 145. 
 
 Gear, winding, for mines, 939. 
 
 Gems, at the Jenks mines, 1^'3. 
 
 Gems, precious, in Maine, 137. 
 
 General abstract showing the notes 
 and specie of the banks of Brit- 
 ish Columbia, 393. 
 
 General chemical course in, in the 
 school of mines, 289. 
 
 General features of the American river, 
 California, presented by Mr. Man- 
 son, 702. 
 
 General geology of the Mosquito range, 
 163. 
 
 General Land Office, The, 563. 
 
 General Land Office, annual report for 
 1882, summary of the, 655. 
 
 General Land Office, duties of the 
 commissioners of the, 563 to 567. 
 
 General Land office, geological sur- 
 veys of public domain under, 574. 
 
 General Land Office, hearings, of the 
 to establish the character of lands, 
 629. 
 
 General Land Office, importance of the, 
 567. 
 
 General Land Office, land officers, and 
 the department of the interior, 
 rules of practice before the, 630 
 to 633. 
 
 General Land Office, present organiza- 
 tion of the, 567. 
 
 General Land Office, rulings of the, 
 relative to adverse claims, 626. 
 
 General Land Office, rulings of the, 
 relative to tunnel rights, 625. 
 
 General Land Office, rulings of the, 
 623. , , 
 
 General Land Office, rulings of the, 
 relative to mill sites, 628. 
 
 General Land Office, subdivisions of 
 the, 567. 
 
 General Land service, commissioners 
 of the, 567. 
 
 General mineral statistics, 88. 
 
 General scheme of the United States 
 geological survey, 354. 
 
 Greneral science, course in, in the Uni- 
 versity of Michigan, 329. 
 
 Generation of steam, first use of anthra- 
 cite for, 71. 
 
 Geological formation of the Leadville 
 region, conclusions respecting, 177. 
 
 Geological formations, Pro£ Dana's ta- 
 ble of, 638. 
 
 Geological formations, Prof. Hunt's ta- 
 ble of, 788. 
 
 Geological position of anthracite coal, 
 7. 
 
 Geological position of quicksilver ores, 
 7. 
 
 Geological relations of ore deposits, 203. 
 
 Geological sequence of the silver forma- 
 tions in Maine, 139. 
 
 Geological society. The California State, 
 357. 
 
 Geological structure underlying Carbon- 
 ate Hill, 178. 
 
 Geological structure underlying Fryer 
 Hill, 179. 
 
 Geological structure underlying Lead- 
 ville, 178. 
 
 Geological survey of Penna., second. 
 Prof. Lesley's provisional nomen- 
 clature of, 738. 
 
 Geological survey, United States, 267. 
 
 Geological survey, United States, ex- 
 penditures of the, 854. 
 
 Geological survey. United States, gene- 
 ral scheme of the, 354. 
 
 Geological survey and its work, the 
 United States, 353. 
 
 Geological surveys of public domain 
 under general land office, 574. 
 
 Geologist, foreign, a novel feature to, 
 124. 
 
 Geology, botany and zoology, courses in, 
 in Lafayette college, 279. 
 
 Geology of the Comstock lode, and the 
 Washoe district, 188. 
 
 Geology, course in, in the Colorado State 
 school of mines, 337. 
 
 Geology and mineralogy, course in, in 
 the University of Michigan, 330. 
 
 Geology and mining course in, in the 
 Pennsylvania University, 272. 
 
 Geology and mining industry of Lead- 
 ville, Colorado, 162. 
 
 Geology of the Mosquito range, general, 
 163. 
 
 Geology and physical geography, course 
 in, in the Massachusetts institute of 
 technology, 315. 
 
 Geology, physical, of the Grand Can- 
 yon district, 769 to 782. 
 
 Geology, practical, and mining, of Har- 
 vard University, at Cambridge, 
 school of, 92. 
 
 Geology of prominent mining camps, 
 159. 
 
 Geology and veins of Tombstone, Ari- 
 zona, 159. 
 
 Geographical distribution, 2. 
 
 Geographical distribution of the ores of 
 iron, 204. 
 
 Geographical distribution of mining 
 districts in the United States, 222. 
 
 Geographical measures and distances, 
 754. 
 
 Geography, physical and geology, 
 courses in, in the Massachusetts 
 I Institute of Technology, 315. 
 
XVlll 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEKESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 General coal statistics, 260. 
 Georgia, Lumpkin County, 120. 
 Georgia, Virginia and the Carolinas, 
 
 early iron industries in, 56. 
 Georgia, 58. 
 
 Georgia, water supply of, 120. 
 Georg-Marien Hiitte, Hanover, 235. 
 German barrel process, Frieberg, 85. 
 German codes, modern, 550. 
 German Empire, coinage of silver by 
 
 the, 438. 
 German Empire, iron ores of the, 207. 
 German imports and exports of spelter 
 
 and sheet-zinc during 1880, 241. 
 German marks, tables of the average 
 
 annual production of, 423. 
 German mining codes of the Sixteenth 
 
 and Seventeenth Centuries, 547. 
 German mining laws, 546, 547. 
 German spelter industry, 240. 
 Germany, 255. 
 Germany, American students of mining 
 
 in, 344. 
 Germany, Freiberg Academy, 344. 
 Germanv, freedom of prospecting in, 
 
 548." 
 Germany, dead production in, 1031. 
 Germany, minerals and metals of, 263. 
 Germany, mining leases in, 549. 
 Germany, mining in; system of ad- 
 ministration, 548. 
 Germany, production of iron and steel 
 
 in, 256. 
 Germany, production of gold and silver 
 
 in, 382. 
 Germany, protective duties in, 252. 
 Germany, scheme of organizing mining 
 
 in, 548. 
 Giles and Bland fossil ores, assay of the, 
 
 125. 
 Giles County basin, Va., 125. 
 Glacial phenomena, 168. 
 Glacial phenomena, important facts 
 
 relative to, 168. 
 Glacial valleys, 168. 
 Glen Canyon, Colorado River, Island 
 
 Monument in, 777. 
 Glossary of mining and metallurgical 
 
 terms, a, 729 to 750. 
 Gneiss, 164. 
 Gneiss, 128. 
 Gold, 5. 
 Gold, 887. 
 
 Gold, vfhere found, 6. 
 Gold, Africa as the country of, 430. 
 Gold and alkaline salts, 221. 
 Gold alluvia, washing, 200 years ago, 
 
 901. 
 Gold among the Egyptians, 431. 
 Gold, annual production of, in British 
 
 Columbia, 396. 
 Gold, articles of, manufactured in or 
 
 imported into Sweden, table of, 385. 
 Gold in the arts in Great Britain, 380. 
 Gold in Australia, the discovery of, 82. 
 Gold in Australia, table showing the 
 
 annual production of, 396. 
 Gold-bearing belt, 6. 
 Gold-bearing mispickel veins of Mar- 
 mora, Ontario, Canada, 143. 
 Gold bluff, California, 80. 
 Gold bluffs and gold beaches on the 
 
 North Pacific Coast, 156. 
 Gold in California, first mention of, 78. 
 Gold in California, in 1848, the discovery 
 
 of, 89. 
 Gold discovery in California, mineral 
 
 laws of the United States affected 
 
 by the, 614. 
 Gold Canyon, California, 84. 
 
 Gold in California proper, table of the 
 jproduction of, 395. 
 
 Gold, California stamp mill and amal- 
 gamation process for, 90. 
 
 Gold, chloride of, 219. 
 
 Gold coin, exports and imports of, from 
 and into New Zealand, 392. 
 
 Gold coin, United States, value of the 
 standard silver dollar in, table show- 
 ing the, 459. 
 
 Gold coinage, 440. 
 
 Gold consumed in currency, value of, 
 433. 
 
 Gold and currency prices, annual aver- 
 age, of staple articles in the New 
 York market, table showing the, 
 374 to 379. 
 
 Gold, discovery of, in Australia, 396. 
 
 Gold of domestic production, deposits 
 of, during the year ending June 30, 
 1881, table of the, 365. 
 
 Gold, domestic production of, in 1881, 
 report of director of the mint, 1047. 
 
 Gsld drifts in North Carolina, 121. 
 
 Gold, the eastern origin of, 430. 
 
 Gold, estimated production of, in the 
 western world, 398. 
 
 Gold, exports of, from San Francisco 
 from 1848 to 1863, report of tenth 
 census, 996. 
 
 Gold fields of California, report of Col. 
 R. B. Mason on the, 615, 616, 617. 
 
 Gold fields, great, of the modern world, 
 comparative yield of the, 397. 
 
 Gold in Colorado : Colorado State School 
 of Mines, 334. 
 
 Gouldsboro and Sullivan mining belt, 
 133. 
 
 Grovernment of the New York Stock Ex- 
 change, 490. 
 
 Government organization, the, 562. 
 
 Government paper circulation issued by 
 Bengal, Madras and Bombay presi- 
 dencies, table relative to, 390. 
 
 Government title to vein or lode claims, 
 method of obtaining, 625. 
 
 Government treasuries of British India, 
 table showing amount of gold and 
 silver coin and bullion in the, 390. 
 
 Governmental report on the evils of hy- 
 draulic mining, a, 693. 
 
 Grades of tunnels on the Yuba river, 
 table relative to the, 695. 
 
 Grand Canyon district, physical geology 
 of, 769 to 782. 
 
 Grand Manan, 133. 
 
 Granite, 1. 
 
 Granites, 164. 
 
 Granites, Nova Scotia, views of Dr. Daw- 
 son on the, 245. 
 
 Grants of salines by Congress, table rela- 
 tive to, 597. 
 
 Graphites in Maine, 137. 
 
 Gold fields of Maine, 136. 
 
 Gold fields of Nova Scotia, 245. 
 
 Gold fields. Nova Scotia, — ^general an- 
 nual summary, 248. 
 
 Gold fields. Nova Scotia, method of min- 
 ing in, 246. 
 
 Gold fields of Victoria, 262. 
 
 Gold, first discovery of, in Marmora, 
 Canada, 143. 
 
 Gold, the first effect of an influx of, 416. 
 
 Gold found in the States of Virginia 
 and North Carolina, 6. 
 
 Gold, the fliture of, 428. 
 
 Gold gravels of North Carolina,— their 
 structure and origin, 120. 
 
 Gold, growth of, tradition relating to the. 
 
 Gold Hill, the bonanza of, 432. 
 
 Gold, imports and exports of. by sea and 
 land into and from New South 
 Wales, 391. 
 
 Gold in Leadville, first discovery of, 163. 
 
 " Gold, the " market price of," 422. 
 
 Gold mines of Brazil, 430. 
 
 Gold mines, society near the, 790. 
 
 Gold mining from the investor's point 
 of view, 865 to 867. 
 
 Gold mining company's ores, Canada, 
 assays of, mostly &om the Gatling 
 mine, 145. 
 
 Gold mining in the south, 89. 
 
 Gold, native, 5. 
 
 Gold in Newfoundland, 140. 
 
 Gold nuggets and placer deposits, the 
 formation of, 218. 
 
 Gold in ocean-waters, 204. 
 
 Gold, placer, average fineness of, report 
 of tenth census, 984. 
 
 Gold in porphyry, 161. 
 
 Gold, preventing a loss of extremely fine, 
 145. 
 
 Gold prices of staple articles, and the 
 
 * currency in the New York market 
 compared with the ratio of circula- 
 tion to population and wealth, 380. 
 
 Gold, product of Brazil 1878-1881, 1046. 
 
 Gold-producing centres, three important, 
 431. 
 
 Gold production, 359. 
 
 Gold production in Australia, table 
 showing the decline of, 433. 
 
 Gold production, Australian, for 24 
 years, table showing the, 392. 
 
 Gold, production of, in North America, 
 431. 
 
 Gold production of the southern States 
 from 1804 to 1850, by States, report 
 of tenth census, 996. 
 
 Gold production of Victoria, table of 
 the, 392. 
 
 Gold receipts from New South Wales, 
 432. 
 
 Gold, registering manufactured, 382. 
 
 Gold, relative value of, to silver accord- 
 ing to the London market, 459. 
 
 Gold, relative value of, to silver, from 
 ancient times to the present, 458. 
 
 Gold Run suit, the, 707 to 715. 
 
 Gold run suit, decision of Judge Tem- 
 ple in the, 714. 
 
 Gold run suit, the findings of fact in the, 
 708 to 710. 
 
 Gold in Siberia, 431. 
 
 Gold, solubility of, 218. 
 
 Gold, solubility of, method of ascertain- 
 ing, 219, 220. 
 
 Gold solutions, effect of organic life in. 
 220. 
 
 Gold solutions, weak, ascertaining the 
 effect of different soils on, 220. 
 
 Gold standard countries, table showine 
 
 the, 455. * 
 
 Gold, total amount of, produced since 
 
 1492, 433. 
 Gold, table showing the annual con- 
 sumption of, in the arts, 380. 
 Golden treasury, the, 102. 
 Gold yield of New Zealand, the, 433. 
 Gold yield of the Marmora ore, unifor- 
 mity of the, 145. 
 Q«ld yield in Australia, 262. 
 Gold and silver, 95. 
 
 Gold and silver in the ancient period, 
 table illustrating the history of the 
 relative values of, 410. 
 Gold and silver of ancient times, the 
 ratio between, 402. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 XIX 
 
 Gold silver, 1044. 
 
 Gold and silver, annual production of, 
 
 in the United States, 395. 
 Gold and silver, average annual market 
 
 ratio between, tables ofrthe, 409. 
 Gold and silver, average annual pro- 
 duction of, by American mines, 
 397. 
 Gold and silver of British India, table 
 of the imports, exports and coinage 
 of, 390. 
 Gold and silver bullion, deposits and 
 purchases of, during the year end- 
 ing June 30, 1881, table of the, 364. 
 Gold and silver bullion at Helena, 
 Montana, table showing the value 
 of, 513. 
 Gold and silver coin, bullion and paper 
 currency in the banks of Austral- 
 asia, 391. 
 Gold and silver coin and bullion in the 
 Russian government, tables relative 
 to the, 387, 388. 
 Gold and silver coin and bullion in the 
 Government Treasury of British 
 India, table showing amount of, 
 390. 
 Gold and silver coin and the population 
 of the European world, table show- 
 ing the estimated stock of, 401. 
 Gold and silver coined in Lisbon, Por- 
 tugal, tables showing the amount 
 of, 388. 
 Gold and silver coined under the metric 
 decimal system in Italy, table 
 showing the amount of, 389. 
 Gold and silver in modem times, tables 
 
 of the ratio between, 409. 
 Gold and silver of modern times, the 
 
 ratio between, 406. 
 Gold and silver, Mr. Mulhall's esti- 
 mates upon, 451. 
 Gold, silver and paper money in Nor- 
 way, 385, 386. 
 Gold and silver, percentageof coin from, 
 operated upon by the coiners of the 
 mints, 1874 to 1881, 367. 
 Gold and silver production, Whitney's 
 
 estimate of the, 436. 
 Gold and silver, production of, from 
 1492 to 1878, according to Mr. 
 Alex. Mardle, table of the, 457. 
 Gold and silver, production of by coun- 
 ties in Nevada, in 1881, reportof the 
 director of the mint, 1078. 
 Gold and silver, production of by coun- 
 ties in California, report of the 
 director of the mint, for 1881, 
 1069. ^ . ^ 
 
 Gold and silver, productions of, in the 
 United States, according to the 
 mint reports of 1874 and 1881, 
 table of the, 457. 
 Gold and silver, productions of, from 
 1492 to 1879, according to Dr. 
 Soetbeer, table of the, 456. 
 Gold and silver production, the western 
 
 worlds, statistics^ of, 397. 
 Gold and silver coined in the St. 
 Petersburg mint, table of the, 387. 
 Gold, silver and copper, coined, average 
 of, held by the banks of Victoria, 
 391. 
 Gold and silver, deposit of, at the 
 United States mints and _ assay 
 offices from their organization to 
 June 30, 1881, 367. 
 Gold and silver in the eastern and west- 
 ern worlds, tables of the ratio of 
 value between, 406. 
 
 Gold and silver, deposits of, at the mints 
 
 of Mexico, table showing the, 393. 
 Gold and silver exports, (domestic), 
 
 371. 
 Gold and silver exports, (foreign), 371. 
 Gold and silver, fluctuations in the pro- 
 duction of, table showing the, 425. 
 Gold and silver in Germany, produc- 
 tion of, 382. 
 Gold and silver, historical memoranda 
 
 concerning, 395. 
 Gold and silver, history of the relative 
 
 values of, 409. 
 Gold and silver, imports and exports of, 
 in 1881, report of the director of 
 the mint, 1107. 
 Gold and silver, industrial employment 
 
 of, in Norway and Sweden, 383. 
 Gold, silver, lead and copper, table of 
 the annual products o^ in the west, 
 1870-81, 507. 
 Gold and silver in the middle ages, ta- 
 ble, relative values of, 411. 
 Gold to silver, relative market value of, 
 
 total showing the, 370. 
 Gold and silver, relative produce of, at 
 
 different periods, 439. 
 Gold and silver, relative values of, 359. 
 Gold and silver, statement of imports 
 and exports of, during the year 
 ended June 30, 1831, 371. 
 Gold and silver, statement showing ex- 
 ports of, from Portugal, 388. 
 Gold and silver, statement showing im- 
 ports of, into Portugal, 388. 
 GoM and silver in Sweden, quantity 
 
 of, 386. 
 Gold and silver, table of the proportion 
 of production of fix)m 1493 to 1880, 
 381. 
 Gold and silver, stock of, now in the 
 
 world, 458. 
 Gold and silver, table relative to the 
 production of, by India and the 
 East, 457. 
 Gold and silver, table showing the pro- 
 gress of, since the time of Colum- 
 bus, 451. 
 Gold and silver, table of the relative 
 
 values of, from 1492 to 1850, 411. 
 Gold and silver, table of the relative 
 values of, from 1851 to 1874, inclu- 
 sive, 412. 
 Gold and silver used in manufactures 
 and arts in the United States, table 
 of the value and character of the, 
 372, 375. 
 Gold and silver wares manufactured in 
 
 Hungary, estimate of, 383. 
 Gold and silver : why used for money, 
 
 434. 
 Gravel, auriferous, tabular statement 
 
 of the average yield of, 698. 
 Gravel, (alluvium), 2. 
 Gravel mines in California, profile of 
 
 wrought iron pipe for, 902. 
 Gravel workable by hydraulic process, 
 703. , . 
 
 Gravels, gold, of North Carolina— their 
 
 structure and origin, 120. 
 Gray copper at Newburyport, assay of, 
 
 132. 
 Gray porphyry, 166. 
 Gray porphyry dike at Fryer Hill, 176. 
 Gray sulphuret, 4. 
 Great Britain, 253. _ 
 
 Great Britain, the Bessemer steel indus- 
 try of, 254. 
 Great Britain, the coal fields of, 100. 
 Great Britain, the coal fields of, 242. 
 
 Great Britain, crucible steel in, 255. 
 Great Britain, gold in the arts in, 380. 
 Great Britain, the hardware industry 
 
 of, 261. 
 Great Britain, iron and steel shipbuild- 
 ing, Mr. Jean's report ouj 255. 
 Great Britain, manufactured iron in, 
 
 254. 
 Great Britain and Mediterranean ports, 
 
 exports of silver from, to the east, 
 
 440. 
 Great Britain, minerals of, 261. 
 Great Britain, open-hearth steel in, 255. 
 Great Britain, prices of pig iron in, 254. 
 Great Britain, product of the various 
 
 coal fields in,— in 1860, 1870, and 
 
 1881, 242. 
 Great Britain, production of coal in, 
 
 253. 
 Great Britain, production of the mines 
 
 of, in 1881, 1031, 
 Great Britain, production of pig iron 
 
 in, 253. 
 Great Britain, production of coal in, 
 
 261. 
 Great Britain, production of pig iron 
 
 in, 262. 
 Great Britain, pig iron in, statistics of, 26. 
 Great Britain, statistics regarding coal, 
 
 933. 
 Great Britain, tin plate in, 255. 
 Great Britain, total exports of iron and 
 
 steel from, from 1871 to 1881, 255. 
 Great Britain's coal and iron output, 
 
 in 1881, 265. 
 Great evils of hydraulic mining, the, 688 
 
 to 693. 
 Great gold fields of the modem world, 
 
 comparative yield of the, 397. 
 Great Kanawha coal basin, 126. 
 Great Northern coal field, 243. 
 Greece, mining in, 544. 
 Greece and Rome, the quantity of pre- 
 cious metals in, 434. 
 Greek mining, the three periods of, 544. 
 Greeks and Romans, workers of metal, 
 
 among the, 8, 
 Green porphyry, 167. 
 Greenstone formation, 76, 77. 
 Gresham " Law," the, 424. 
 Grits, W^er, 165, 
 Gross and net imports of silver into this 
 
 country from 1835 to 1849, 440. 
 Ground, placer, quantity of, subject to 
 
 location, 627. 
 Growth of the British iron industry, 21. 
 Growth of the gold, tradition relating 
 
 to the, 219. 
 Grubb's iron works, or Cornwall, 45. 
 Gulch, California, 171, 172, 
 Gulch, Iowa, 172. 
 Gulf of Mexico, rise and fall of tides 
 
 in the, 755. 
 
 HANCOCK county, Maine, 133. 
 Hand, manufacture of tacks by, 
 38. 
 
 Hanging rock, 63, 
 
 Hanging Rock distriet, Ky., 59, 60. 
 
 Hanover, George^Mareen Hfitte, 235. 
 
 Hard stone-coal, ?. 
 
 Hardware industry of Great Britain, 
 261. 
 
 Harvard university, Cambridge, Mass., 
 Lawrence scientific school, 308. 
 
 Harvard university, at Cambridge, school 
 of mining and practical geology of, 
 92. 
 
 Hawsers, cables and ropes, rule for com- 
 puting the weight of, 759. 
 
XX 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Hawser, rope or cable, computations 
 
 relative to, for a given strain, 758. 
 Haut, the Isle of, Maine, 135. 
 Hay, Sir Hector, the estimate of, of the 
 
 production of precious metals from 
 
 1852 to 1875, 454. 
 Health and comfort of miners, provision 
 
 for the, 234. 
 Hearings by the General Land Office to 
 
 establish the character of lands, 
 
 629. 
 Heat, conducting power of metals for, 
 
 table of, 752. 
 Heat of deep mines, 808. 
 Heat, effects of, on various bodies, 762. 
 Heat phenomena of the Comstock, 193. 
 Helena, Boise City, St. Louis and Char- 
 lotte, Assay Offices at, and Denver 
 
 Mint, work done at the, 363. 
 Helena, Montana, table showing the 
 
 value of gold and silver bullion at, 
 
 513. 
 Hematite, brown, 3. 
 Hematite deposits at Cranston, analysis 
 
 of, 132. 
 Hematite, red, 3. 
 Hematite, red, chemical composition of, 
 
 3. 
 Henry VIII and Edward VI, reigns of. 
 
 Acts of Parliament in, 14. 
 Herecta Basin, 260. 
 Herr Bilharz, estimate of the spelter 
 
 production of Europe by, 240. 
 Hewitt, Abram S., review of the iron 
 
 and steel industry of the world, 223. 
 Hiddenite, or spondumene-emerald, 124. 
 High pressure (boiler), mounted, 828. 
 High temperature of the Comstock, 
 
 causes of the, 194. 
 Highest and lowest prices of the Com- 
 stock shares in four years, tables of 
 
 the, 522. 
 Hills, Berkshire, 36. 
 Hill, Coyote, California, 80. 
 Hill, Cumberland Iron, 131. 
 Hill, Dome, at Iron Hill, 171. 
 Hill, Fox, 140. 
 Historical memoranda concerning gold 
 
 and silver, 395. 
 Historical notices and memoranda, 1. 
 Historical sketch of copper, 30. 
 Historical sketch of lead, 28. 
 Historical sketch of silver, 26. 
 History, chemical, of the Comstock, 192. 
 History, English, first mention of coal 
 
 in, 100. 
 History of iron, the chemical, 203. 
 History, mechanical and legal, of 
 
 hydraulic nozzles. 904. 
 History of the Michigan copper dis- 
 trict, the early, 74. 
 History and origin of coal, 97. 
 History of the relative values of gold 
 
 and silver, the, 409. 
 History of the relative values of gold 
 
 and silver in the Ancient Period, 
 
 table illustrating the, 410. 
 Hoboken, N. J., the Stevens Institute of 
 
 Technology, 299. 
 Hocking Valley, 212. 
 Hocking Valley iron district, 63. 
 Hoefer's method of determining faults 
 
 in mineral veins, 919. 
 Holland, prices of Banca tin in, 537. 
 Holston Eiver, 60. 
 Homes, miners', 234. 
 Homes, miners'. Prof. Egleston on, 235. 
 Horizon, blue limestone, at Fryer Hill, 
 
 175. 
 Horn-silver, 6. 
 
 Horizons, lower, at Fryer Hill, ore in, 
 175. 
 
 Horological productions of various 
 countries, 373. 
 
 Horsebacks, 99. 
 
 Horse powers, various miners' inches 
 for, 766. 
 
 Borton, Mr. Dana, on the subject of 
 free trade, 420. 
 
 Hospital system in France, for miners, 
 236. 
 
 Hotel Louise, 234. 
 
 Hottest mine in Cornwall, 232. 
 
 Housatonic Eiver, 130. 
 
 How money is made, 359. 
 
 How money is made, 460, 461, 462. 
 
 Howell code, amendment of " chapter 
 fifty " of the, 669. 
 
 Human blood, comparison of, with 
 waters chemically impregnated, 201. 
 
 Hungary and Austria, 258. 
 
 Hungary, gold and silverwares manu- 
 fectured in, estimate of, 383. 
 
 Hunt, Prof, table of geological forma- 
 mations of, 738. 
 
 Huntingdon and Broad Top Mountain 
 railroad, tonnage of coal on, 1038. 
 
 Hiitte, Georg-Marien, Hanover, 235. 
 
 Hydrated oxide of iron, 3. 
 
 Hydraulic mining in California, 902. 
 
 Hydraulic mining in California, table 
 of the yield of, 699. 
 
 Hydraulic mining, changes in navigable 
 waters by, 700 and 701. 
 
 Hydraulic mining, a governmental re- 
 port on the evils of, 693. 
 
 Hydraulic mining, the great evils of, 
 688 to 693. 
 
 Hydraulic mining industry, the, 694. 
 
 Hydraulic mining industry commence- 
 ment of the, 89. 
 
 Hydraulic mining material moved an- 
 nually, estimate of, 696. 
 
 Hydraulic mining, table of velocities and 
 discharges in, 761. 
 
 Hydraulic mining, wrought iron pipe 
 for, table showing the construction 
 of, 902. 
 
 Hydraulic nozzles, mechanical and le- 
 gal history of, 904. 
 
 Hydraulic process, gravel workable by, 
 703. 
 
 Hydraulic pump, double acting, 826. 
 
 Hydrosilicate of Copper, 5. 
 
 Hygiene of mines, 227. 
 
 T GNEOUS or eruptive rocks, 166-167. 
 
 1 Idaho, mining laws of, 665. 
 
 Idaho, the ores of, 514. 
 
 Idaho, production of deep mines, statis- 
 tics of Tenth Census, 968. 
 
 Idaho, report of the Director of the 
 Mint for 1881, 1081-1084. 
 
 Idria Furnace, modified, 148. 
 
 Idria Furnace, modified, cost of reduc- 
 tion by, 150. 
 
 Illinois, 64. 
 
 Illinois Central railroad, tonnage of coal 
 on, 1039. 
 
 Illinois, Northern, iron region, 213. 
 
 Illinois, mining laws of, 677. 
 
 Illustration of an Eastern Mining Com- 
 pany Charter, 715 and 716. 
 
 Importance of air-currents in mines. 
 185. ' 
 
 Importance of the General Land Office, 
 567. ' 
 
 Important facts relative to glacial phe- 
 nomena, 168. 
 
 Important gold-producing centres, three, 
 
 431. 
 Important lead mining district, the 
 
 most, 30. 
 Important stock decision, 654. 
 Imports, net, of American silver coin, 
 
 statement of by countries, 372. 
 Imports of coal into San Francisco, 1041. 
 Imports of coal into United States from 
 
 Nova Scotia, 1042. 
 Imports of gold and silver into Portu- 
 gal, statement showing, 388. 
 Imports of iron and steel, 1871 to 1881, 
 
 report in Tenth Census, 1020. 
 Imports of silver, gross and net, into 
 
 this country from 1835 to 1849, 440. 
 Imports, net, of tin in the United States, 
 
 538. 
 Imports, exports and coinage of gold 
 
 and silver of British India, table of 
 
 the, 390. 
 Imports and exports, England's, 417. 
 Imports and exports into and from Eng- 
 land, table of, 536. 
 Imports and exports of gold by sea and 
 
 land into and from New Soutn 
 
 Wales, 391. 
 Imports and exports of gold coin into 
 
 and from New Zealand, 392. 
 Imports and exports of gold and silver 
 
 during the year ended June 30, 
 
 1881, statement of, 371. 
 Imports and exports of iron by Belgium, 
 
 257. 
 Imports and exports of iron and steel 
 
 by France in 1880 and 1881, 256. 
 Imports and exports of gold and silver 
 
 in 1881, report of the Director of 
 
 the Mint, 1107. 
 Imports and exports of iron and steel 
 
 by Russia, 259. 
 Imports and exports of specie and bul- 
 lion into and from Japan, table 
 
 showing the, 393. 
 Imports and exports of specie into and 
 
 from the Cape of Good Hope, 390. 
 Imports and exports, German, of spelter 
 
 and sheet-zinc during 1880, 241. 
 Impregnation, lateral, of country rocks, 
 
 224. 
 Improvement, $500, form of affidavit, 
 
 722. 
 Improvement in mining, 82. 
 Improvidence in miners, a remedy for, 
 
 236. 
 Inch of water, a miner's, 766 and 767. 
 Inches, miners', for various horse powers, 
 
 766. 
 Increase in the amount of capital in 
 
 mining industries, 239. 
 Increase in the chief products, table 
 
 showing, 454. 
 Increase of iron production since 1870. 
 
 238. 
 Increase of money needed, 442. 
 Independence, National, table of pro- 
 duction of leading metals and 
 
 minerals in the United States du- 
 ring the First 'Century of, 94. 
 Independence Square, railings of, 53. 
 India, the annual consumption of coal 
 
 in, 260. 
 India and the East, consumption of gold 
 
 and silver by, table relative to the, 
 
 457. 
 India, silver in, 419. 
 Indian steel, 17. 
 Indiana, 64. 
 
 Indiana, block-coal iron region of, 212. 
 Indiana, Clay County, 64. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 XXI 
 
 Indiana coal mines classified, statistics 
 
 of Tenth Census, 1007. 
 Indiana mines, mechanical ventilation 
 
 and drainage in, 810. 
 Industrial application of metals, 874. 
 Industrial employment of silver and 
 
 gold in Norway and Sweden, 383. 
 Industrial enterprises, corporate system 
 
 of managing, 92. 
 Industrial School for Miners and Me- 
 chanics at Drifton, Luzerne Co., 
 Pa., 280. 
 Industrial School for Miners and Me- 
 chanics, plan of instruction in the, 
 281. 
 Induitries of Austria-Hungary, the, 264. 
 Industries, iron, in England, 205. 
 Industries, mining, increase in the 
 
 amount of capital in, 239. 
 Industries, our non-precious mineral, 237. 
 Industries, our non-precious mineral, 
 
 comparative view of, 239. 
 Industries of Spain, the, 265. 
 Industry, art and science, mining and 
 metallurgical, progress in, from 1875 
 to 1881, 95. 
 Industry, commencement of the hydrau- 
 lic mining, 89. 
 Industry, of Great Britain, the hardware, 
 
 261. 
 Industry, the German spelter, 240. 
 Industry, the hydraulic mining, 694. 
 Industry, iron, of Italy, the, 259. 
 Industry, iron, of Luxemburg, the, 256. 
 Industry, iron and steel, review of the ; 
 
 Abram S. Hewitt, 223. 
 Industry, mining, and geology of Lead- 
 
 ville, Colorado, 162. 
 Industry, Silesian zinc, table showing 
 the development of, since 1810, 241. 
 Information regarding the Comstock 
 
 mines, table of, 183. 
 Influx of gold, the first effect of an, 412. 
 Ingot copper, value of, in currency at 
 New York, table showing the, 536. 
 Ingots, melts of, at the United States 
 mints, statement relative to the, 367. 
 Injuries in Prussian mines in 1881, 817. 
 Innovations in mine machinery since 
 
 1871, principal, 184. 
 Institute of Mining Engineers, 92, 
 Institute of Mining Engineers, The 
 
 American, officers of, 349. 
 Institute of Mining Engineers, The 
 
 American, rules of, 347. 
 Institute of Technology, Massachusetts, 
 
 Boston, 311. 
 Institute of Technology, Massachusetts, 
 
 course in chemistry in the, 314. 
 Institute of Technology, Massachusetts, 
 course in civil and topographical 
 engineering in the, 314. 
 Institute of Technology, Massachusetts, 
 
 curriculum of the, 311 to 320. 
 Institute of Technology, Massachusetts, 
 
 faculty of, 317. 
 Institute of Technology, Massachusetts, 
 free courses of instruction in the, 
 317. 
 Institute of Technology, Massachusetts, 
 course in geolngy and physical ge- 
 ography in the, 315. 
 Institute of Technology, Massachusetts, 
 
 mining laboratory of, 318. 
 Institute of Technology, The Stevens, 
 
 Hoboken, N. J., 299. 
 Institute of Technology, Stevens, de- 
 partment of chemistry in the, 304. 
 Institute of Technology, Stevens, curri- 
 culum of, 301 to 305. 
 
 Institute of Technology, Massachusetts, 
 course in mining and metallurgy in 
 the, 315. 
 
 Institute of Technology, Stevens, course 
 in experimental mechanics in the, 
 304. 
 
 Institute of Technology, Stevens, facul- 
 ty of, 299. 
 
 Institute of Technology, Stevens, de- 
 partment of mechanical drawing in 
 the, 302. 
 
 Institute of Technology, Stevens, de- 
 partment of mechanical Engineer- 
 ing in the, 301. 
 
 Institute of Technology, Stevens, de- 
 partment of physics in the, 304. 
 
 Institute of Technology, Stevens, plan 
 of conducting the, 299, 300. 
 
 Instruction, departments of, in the 
 School of Mines, 289. 
 
 Instruction, plan of, in the Industrial 
 School for Miners and Mechanics, 
 281. 
 
 Instructions to Surveyors-General rela- 
 tive to fraudulent surveys, 657. 
 
 Insuring continuous operations, 93. 
 
 Interest laws of the different States, ta- 
 ble showing the, 683. 
 
 Interest, mining, foreign facts of, 159. 
 
 Interesting statistics from foreign coun- 
 tries, 252. 
 
 Interests, mining, of the west, 506. 
 
 Introduction of bituminous coal as a 
 fuel in American blast furnaces, 72. 
 
 Introduction of steam for driving blasts, 
 47. 
 
 Intrusive masses, 167. 
 
 Investigations, physical, respecting the 
 Comstock lode, 196. 
 
 Investor's view of gold mining, 865 to 
 867. 
 
 Iodine in sea-water, Sonstadt's research- 
 es on the, 204. 
 
 Iowa Gulch, 172. 
 
 Iridium, 6. 
 
 Iron, 10, 11. 
 
 Iron, 874. 
 
 Iron, analysis of, 131. 
 
 Iron, anthracite pig, 69. 
 
 Iron, arsenical, in Maine, 137. 
 
 Iron, art of tinning, 24. 
 
 Iron, bar, 48. 
 
 Iron, bar, as currency, 61. 
 
 Iron, bar, in Mexico, estimated cost of 
 working, 216. 
 
 Iron, Biscay, 265. 
 
 Iron, black oxide of, 3. 
 
 Iron, carbonate of, 4. 
 
 Iron, cast, tables relative to weight and 
 volume of, 757. 
 
 Iron, charcoal, the manufacture of, in 
 Eastern Pennsylvania after the 
 Revolution, 46. 
 
 Iron, charcoal, the manufacture of, in 
 the Juniata Valley, 48. 
 
 Iron, charcoal pig, 60 to 69. 
 
 Iron, chemical history of, 203. 
 
 Iron, chestnut flat, analysis of, 125. 
 
 Iron company, Tula, Mexico, works of 
 the, 213. 
 
 Iron district, Hocking Valley, 63. 
 
 Iron, early use of, in Europe, 18. 
 
 Iron, English development of by the 
 Normans, 22. 
 
 Iron enterprises, early, in Delaware and 
 Maryland, 53. 
 
 Iron enterprises, early, in the middle, 
 Southern and Western States, 38. 
 
 Iron enterprises in the Lehigh Valley, 
 the first, 47. 
 
 Iron enterprises, first in Ohio, 62. 
 
 Iron fault at Iron Eill, 171. 
 
 Iron, fusion of copper ore for removal 
 of, 885. 
 
 Iron — Glance, 3. 
 
 Iron — ^grand view case, description rela- 
 tive to the, 652 to 654. 
 
 Iron Hill, Cumberland, 131. 
 
 Iron Hill, future exportations at, 172. 
 
 Iron Hill, gangue at, 172. 
 
 [ron Hill, iron fault at, 171. 
 
 Iron Hill, mineral deposits at, 172. 
 
 Iron Hill, mine workings at, 172. 
 
 Iron Hill, North, 173. 
 
 Iron Hill, ore at, 172. 
 
 Iron ; historically considered, 16. 
 
 Iron, hydrated oxide of, 3. 
 
 Iron, imports and exports of, by Belgium, 
 257. 
 
 Iron industries of Alabama, early, 61. 
 
 Iron industries, early, in Virginia, the 
 Carolinas and Georgia, 56. 
 
 Iron industries in England, 205. 
 
 Iron industries in the Western and 
 South- Western States, 62. 
 
 Iron industry, British growth of, 21. 
 
 Iron industry of Cleveland, 64. 
 
 Iron industry of Italy, the, 259. 
 
 Iron industry in Kentucky and Tennes- 
 see, early days of the, 59. 
 
 Iron industry of Luxenburg, the, 256. 
 
 Iron industry at Pittsburg, beginning of 
 the, 51. 
 
 Iron industry at Youngstown, 63, 64. 
 
 Iron, Lake Superior, in 1882, 1030. 
 
 Iron, malleable, extraction of, from the 
 ore, 882. 
 
 Iron, the manufacture of, with anthra- 
 cite coal, 69. 
 
 Iron, manufacture of, with bituminous 
 coal, 72. 
 
 Iron, manufacture of, in the fifteenth and 
 sixteenth centuries, 23. 
 
 Iron manufacture in Mexico, 213. 
 
 Iron manufacture in the New England 
 Colonies, 33. 
 
 Iron market, review of the, to June 
 1882, 530. 
 
 Iron market. Western, 531. 
 
 Iron mines in New York and New Jer- 
 sev, valuations of. Prof. J. C. 
 Smock, 942. 
 
 Iron mines in tune of Augustus, 11. 
 
 Iron mines and works, Salisbury (Conn.), 
 130. 
 
 Iron mining at Lake Superior, the com- 
 mencement of, 89. 
 
 Iron Mountain of Durango, Mexico, 
 the, 260. 
 
 Iron Mountain, Jackson, 65. 
 
 Iron, Native, 3. 
 
 Iron, Normon, 23. 
 
 Iron in New York, table of prices for, 
 530. 
 
 Iron ore, 95. 
 
 Iron ore and anthracite coal of Rhode 
 Island and Massachusetts, 131. 
 
 Iron ore beds. New Jersey, essential 
 features of, 129. 
 
 Iron ore, changes in mining, in the 
 United States, decade ending June 
 1st 1880, statistics of tenth census, 
 1001. 
 
 Iron ore exports of Spain, 258. 
 
 Iron ore in Great Britain, production of, 
 
 253. 
 Iron ore, magnetic, and anthracite dis- 
 tricts of New York, New Jersey, 
 Pennsylvania and Eastern Mary- 
 land, 210. 
 
xxu 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Iron ore, magnetic, 3. 
 
 Iron ore, magnetic, in Northern New 
 Jersey, 39. 
 
 Iron^ore mines, aggregate production 
 of the Lake Superior, 66. 
 
 Iron ore, Missouri, analysis of, 209. 
 
 Iron ore in North Carolina, 32. 
 
 Iron ore and pig iron at Lake Superior, 
 production of, 95. 
 
 Iron ore, production of, average, by 
 States, statistics of tenth census, 999. 
 
 Iron ore, production by counties, sta- 
 tistics of tenth census, 1002. 
 
 Iron ore, production of, by States, sta- 
 tistics of tenth census, 998. 
 
 Iron ore, quantity and value of, import- 
 ed into the United States in 1881, 
 532. 
 
 Iron ore, red, 3. 
 
 Iron ore region, Lake Superior, 65. 
 
 Iron ore, smelting of, 874. 
 
 Iron ores, 125. 
 
 Iron ores of Africa, 208. 
 
 Iron ores of Austria, 207. 
 
 Iron ores of Belgium, 207. 
 
 Iron ores, black band, 210. 
 
 Iron ores, distribution of, 159. 
 
 Iron ores of France, 206. 
 
 Iron, the ores of: geographical distri- 
 bution, 204. 
 
 Iron ores of the German Empire, 207. 
 
 Iron ores and iron enterprises in Ply- 
 mouth county, Mass., 35. 
 
 Iron ores, magnetic, analyses of, 209. 
 
 Iron ores, magnetic, of New Jersey, 127. 
 
 Iron ores of North America, 208. 
 
 Iron ores of Russia, 206. 
 
 Iron ores of Spain, 208. 
 
 Iron ores of Sweden, 206. 
 
 Iron, organic life in the production of, 
 202. 
 
 Iron, osemond, 23. 
 
 Iron, oxide of, removing, as a silicate in 
 copper smelting, 884. 
 
 Iron, pig, 25, 26, 95. 
 
 Iron, pig, cost of roa3ting in Mexico, 216. 
 
 Iron, pig, and direct castings, produc- 
 tion of, report in tenth census, 1016. 
 
 Iron, pig, prices of, in Great Britain, 254. 
 
 Iron, pig, production of, year 1881, re- 
 port in tenth census, 1022. 
 
 Iron,pig,'production of, in Belgium, 257. 
 
 Iron, pig, production of, in France, 256. 
 
 Iron, pig, production of, in Great Bri- 
 tain, 253, 262. 
 
 Iron, pig, statistics of, in Great Britain, 
 26. 
 
 Iron pipe, wrought, for gravel mining in 
 California, profile of, 902. 
 
 Iron pipe, wrought, for hydraulic min- 
 ing, table showing the construction 
 of, 902. 
 
 Iron pipe, wrought, table of rivets in, 
 904. 
 
 Iron pipes, table of strain, per sectional 
 inch of, 903. 
 
 Iron, prices of, at Pittsburg, table show- 
 ing, 531. 
 
 Iron-producing States in order of the 
 production of 1880, statistics of 
 tenth census, 1001. 
 
 Iron product since 1870, increase of, 238. 
 
 Iron production in this country from 
 1854 to 1880, statistics of, 73. 
 
 Iron, production of, in Sweden, 263. 
 
 Iron pyrite, in Great Britain, 254. 
 
 Iron, reference to in the Book of Job, 17. 
 
 Iron region of Indiana, block-coal, 212. 
 Iron region, Lake Superior, 213. 
 Iron region, Missouri, 213. 
 
 Iron region, northern Illinois, 213. 
 
 Iron region, Pittsburg, 211. 
 
 Iron region of western Kentucky and 
 Tennessee, 212. 
 
 Iron, rolled, production of, report in 
 tenth census, 1016. 
 
 Iron, Salisbury, 37. 
 
 Iron, Salisbury pig, 131. 
 
 Iron scoria or cinder, 21. 
 
 Iron statistics, 88. 
 
 Iron, sulphuret of, 4, 1 37. 
 
 Iron, sulphuret of, into oxide, calcina- 
 tion of copper for converting, 885. 
 
 Iron trade, American, in 1881, statistics 
 of, 1019. 
 
 Iron trade, British, the condition of the, 
 253. 
 
 Iron as tribute in the reign of William 
 the Conqueror, 22. 
 
 Iron in the United States, first attempt 
 by the Europeans to manufacture, 
 32. 
 
 Iron in Virginia, 33. 
 
 Iron works in Canada, the first, 68. 
 
 Iron work at the close of the fourteenth 
 century, 23. 
 
 Iron works, first iu Pennsylvania, 42. 
 
 Iron works, Grubb's, or Cornwall, 45. 
 
 Iron works, Leonard's celebrated, 34. 
 
 Iron works in Maryland, first, 54. 
 
 Iron works, Mexican, estimatedproduc- 
 tion of when completed, 217. 
 
 Iron works, Mexican, present produc- 
 tion of; 217. 
 
 Iron works in New South Wales, 260. 
 
 Iron works of North Carolina and Ten- 
 nessee, primitive character of the, 
 61. 
 
 Iron works, the Principio, 54. 
 
 Iron works, Yohogany, 55. 
 
 Iron, wrought, 96. 
 
 Iron, wrought, steel, copper and brass, 
 table relative to weight of, 757. 
 
 Iron and coal, Alabama, 116. 
 
 Iron and coal interests, development of 
 in Colorado, 1041. 
 
 Iron and coal output in 1881, Great 
 Britain's, 265. 
 
 Iron and copper, Michigan, A. P. Swine- 
 ford's statistics of, 1029. 
 
 Iron and iron ores, 3. 
 
 Iron and metal exchange company, li- 
 mited, by-laws of the, 529. 
 
 Iron and metal exchange company, li- 
 mited, oflicers of the, 529. 
 
 Iron and metal exchange, New York, 
 by-laws of the, 524 to 526. 
 
 Iron and metal exchange, New York, 
 code of rules of the, 527 and 528. 
 
 Iron and steel, centre of total produc- 
 tion, report of tenth census, 1015. 
 
 Iron and steel, domestic, exports of, 1871 
 to 1881, report in tenth census, 
 1021. 
 
 Iron and steel, French duties on the, 
 252. 
 
 Iron and steel, geographical develop- 
 ment of manufacture, statistics of 
 tenth census, 1015. 
 
 Iron and steel, geographical distribu- 
 tion of special products, report in 
 tenth census, 1016. 
 
 Iron and steel, imports of, from 1871 to 
 1881, report in tenth census, 1020. 
 
 Iron and steel, imports and exports of, 
 by France in 1880 and 1881, 256. 
 
 Iron and steel, imports and exports of, 
 
 by Russia, 259. 
 Iron and steel manufacture of, report of 
 J. M. Swank, in tenth census, 1012, | 
 
 Iron and steel industry of the world, 
 review of the, Abram S. Hewitt, 
 223. 
 
 Iron and steel production of Allegheny 
 county, Pennsylvania, report in 
 tenth census, 1028. 
 
 Iron and steel, production of, by coun- 
 ties, statistics of tenth census, 1015. 
 
 Iron and steel, production of, in Ger- 
 many, 256, 
 
 Iron and steel, production of, by States, 
 statistics of tenth census, 1015. 
 
 Iron and steel, production of in Sweden 
 during 1879 and 1880, 268. 
 
 Iron and steel productions of Sweden, 
 views of Prof. Akerman on the, 
 258. 
 
 Iron and steel, production of in United 
 States, 1872 to 1881, report in tenth 
 census, 1028. 
 
 Iron and steel rails, production of, 
 in 1881, report in tenth census, 
 1024. 
 
 Iron and steel shipbuilding in Great 
 Britain, report of Mr. Jean on, 255. 
 
 Iron and steel statistics for 1880, sum- 
 mary of, 1018. 
 
 Iron and steel, total exports of, from 
 Great Britain, fi:om 1871 to 1881, 
 255. 
 
 Ironmaster, oldest in the United States, 
 71. 
 
 Ironstone, brown, 3. 
 
 Ironstone, clay, 4. 
 
 Ironton fiirhace, 66, 67. 
 
 Irregular work upon the Comstock 
 mines, causes of, 184. 
 
 Island, Campobello, 133. 
 
 Island monument. Glen Canyon, Colo- 
 rado river, 777. 
 
 IsleofHaut, Me., 135. 
 
 Isle royal, 74. 
 
 Isle of shoals, 133. 
 
 Italy, table showing the amount of gold 
 and silver coined under the Metric 
 Decimal system in, 389. 
 
 Italy, the iron industry of, 259. 
 
 Italy, the mineral production of, 265. 
 
 Italian coinage from 1862 till 1878, ta- 
 ble showing, 389. 
 
 Ithaca, N. Y., Cornell University, 320. 
 
 JACKSONVILLE, California, organi- 
 zation and rules of mining camp 
 
 at, 618. 
 James rirer, 8. 
 James river, 32. 
 James river, 127. 
 Japan, table showing the imports and 
 
 exports of specie and bullion into 
 
 and from, 393. 
 Jean, Mr., report of, on iron and steel 
 
 shipbuilding in Great Britain, 255. 
 Jenks mine, chlorite veins at the, 123. 
 Jenks, corundum mine, Macon county 
 
 N. C, 121. ^' 
 
 Jenks mine, gems at the, 123. 
 Jevons, Mr. views of, on the monetary 
 
 question, 425. 
 Job, book of references to iron in 17. 
 Johnstown, Pa., 52. ' 
 
 Joplin, Mo., 110. 
 Journals, mining, 267. 
 Judge Temple, decision of, in the gold 
 
 run suit. 714. 
 Julia mine, data relative to pulse beats 
 
 per minute in the, 233. 
 Juniata Valley, the manufacture of 
 
 charcoal iron in the, 48. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 XXUl 
 
 Jurassic period, 222. 
 Jurisprudence, mining authorities on, 
 542. 
 
 KAIBAB, the, Colorado, 779. 
 Kanawha coal basin, great, 126. 
 
 Kansas, 68. 
 
 Kaolinization, report of United States 
 geological survey, 1881, 200. 
 
 Kaolinization, the thermal effect of, on 
 the Comstoek lode, 199. 
 
 Kennebec river, 137. 
 
 Kentucky, first rolling mill in, 60. 
 
 Kentucky, Hanging rock district, 59- 
 60. 
 
 Kentucky and Tennessee, early days of 
 the iron industry in, 59. 
 
 Kentucky, western, and Tennessee, Iron 
 region of, 212. 
 
 Keweenaw county, the great copper 
 bearing belt of, 76. 
 
 Keweenaw points, 76. 
 
 King, Clarence, report of production of 
 precious metals, tenth census, 955. 
 
 King, Clarence, on the zonal parallel- 
 ism of mining districts, 222, 223. 
 
 Kingdom, of Norway, the monetary 
 situation of the, 383. 
 
 Kingdoms, Scandinavian, demonetiza- 
 tion in the, 384. 
 
 KingNuma, 8. 
 
 Klamath river, 157. 
 
 Knowledge, the dissemination of con- 
 cerning mining interests, 267. 
 
 Knowledge and uses of metals by the 
 Romans, 8. 
 
 KnoTirn localities in southwestern Vir- 
 ginia, 125. 
 
 Knox furnace, 152. 
 
 Knox Furnace, cost of redurition by 
 155. 
 
 Knox and Osborn furnace, estimated 
 cost of running a, 155. 
 
 Knox and Osborn quicksilver furnace, 
 estimated cost of building a, 155. 
 
 Knoxville, Cal., 152, 154. 
 
 LABOR, physical benefit of, 268. 
 Labor on a claim, form of proof of, 
 720. 
 
 Labor, the problems of, 867 to 878. 
 
 Laboratory, mining, of the Massachu- 
 setts Institute of Technology, 318. 
 
 Lackawanna coal, circular price of in 
 1881, 1034. 
 
 Lafayette College, courses in botany, 
 zoology and geology in, 279. 
 
 Lafayette College, curriculum of, 278 to 
 280. 
 
 Lafayette College, department of chem- 
 istry in, 279. 
 
 Lafayette College, Easton Pa., 277. 
 
 Lafayette College, Faculty of, 277. 
 
 Lafayette College, technical studies in, 
 278. 
 
 Lake, Brompton, 142. 
 
 Lake Champlain, compact ore of, 4. 
 
 Lake County, California, 226. 
 
 Lake County, Colorado, product of gold 
 and silver, 1860 to 1882, 1045. 
 
 Lake Erie, 65. 
 
 Lake Erie shore, 62. 
 
 Lake, Moosehead, 135. 
 
 Lake, Portage, 74. 
 
 Lakes, Rangely, 136. 
 
 Lake Superior, commencement of iron 
 mining at, 89. 
 
 Lake Superior copper mines, product of, 
 from 1854, 1031. 
 
 Lake Superior copper mines, table of 
 the product and value of the, 535. 
 
 Lake Superior copper at New York, 
 price for, 536. 
 
 Lake Superior copper yield in 1881, 
 table of the distribution of the, 535. 
 
 Lake Superior, development of the 
 copper mines of, 89. 
 
 Lake Superior, first stamp mill at, 78. 
 
 Lake Superior iron in 1882, 1030. 
 
 Lake Superior iron-ore mines, aggregate 
 production of the, 66. 
 
 Lake Superior iron-ore region, 65. 
 
 Lake Superior iron region, 213. 
 
 Lake Superior mines, the mass copper of 
 the, and the method of mining it, 
 146. 
 
 Lake Superior ore in a blast-furnace, 
 first use of, 66. 
 
 Lake Superior, production of iron ore 
 and pig-iron at, 95. 
 
 Lake Superior region, 4. 
 
 Lake Superior region, 74. 
 
 La Motte mine, 88. 
 
 Lancashire coal-field, the, 244. 
 
 Land districts, registers and receivers 
 in, 568. 
 
 Land districts and oflicers, 585 to 595. 
 
 Land laws of Mexico, 685. 
 
 Land, mineral, classification of, 574. 
 
 Land Office, the General, 563. 
 
 Land Office, General, annual report for 
 1881, summary of the, 655. 
 
 Land Office, General, the Department 
 of the Interior, and land officers, 
 rules of practice before the, 630 to 
 633. 
 
 Land Office, General, duties of the 
 Commissioners of the, 563 to 567. 
 
 Land Office, General, geological surveys 
 of public domain under, 574. 
 
 Land Office, General, hearings by the, 
 to establish the character of lands, 
 629. 
 
 Land Office, General, importance of 
 the, 567. 
 
 Land officers, the General Land Office 
 and the Department of the Interior, 
 rules of practice before, 630 to 633. 
 
 Land Office, General, present organiza- 
 tion of the, 567. 
 
 Land Office, General, rulings of the, 623. 
 
 Land office, general, rulings of the rela- 
 tive to adverse claims, 626. 
 
 Land office, general, rulings of the, rela- 
 tive to mill sites, 628. 
 
 Land office, general, rulings of the, rela- 
 tive to tunnel rights, 625. 
 
 Land office, general, subdivisions of the, 
 567. 
 
 Land offices, local, list of under the 
 laws of the United States, 569 to 
 571. 
 
 Land office, the, and its prerogatives, 
 542. 
 
 Land parceling surveys, methods and 
 system of, 572. 
 
 Land service, administration of the,567. 
 
 Land service, general, commissioners of 
 the, 567. 
 
 Land surveying, meridians and bases 
 in, 572. ^ , 
 
 Land character of, hearings by the gen- 
 eral land office to establish the, 629. 
 
 Lands.coal, cash sales of, by fiscal years 
 to June30, 1880, 610. 
 
 Lands, coal, decisions regarding price 
 of, 635. 
 
 Lands, coal, estimated area of, on the 
 public dominion, 610. 
 
 Lands, coal, 609. 
 
 Lands, government coal, laws govern- 
 ing the sale of, 610, 611 and 612. 
 Lands, mineral, decision relative to 
 
 timber on, 655. 
 Lands, mineral, executive and depart- 
 mental recomendations relative to, 
 618. 
 Lands, mineral, laws respecting, 602 to 
 
 608. 
 Lands, mineral, policy of the United 
 
 States in relation to, 621. 
 Land, mineral, as a part of the public 
 domain ; letter of R. W- Raymond 
 relative to, 556 to 562. 
 Lands, mineral, of the South East and 
 North, 108. 
 
 Lands, mineral, in charge of the War 
 Department, 614. 
 
 Lands, public, in Canada, law relating 
 to, 683 to 685. 
 
 Lands public, disposal of, by public 
 offering and sale, 595. 
 
 Lands, public, the first Surveyor-gener- 
 al of the, 568. 
 
 Lands, public, and mines, duties of the 
 Secretary of the Interior relative 
 to, 552. 
 
 Lands, public, miscellaneous provisions 
 relating to, 608. 
 
 Lands, public, prices of at various peri- 
 ods, 596. 
 
 Lands, public, sale and disposition of, 
 595. 
 
 Lands, public, sale and disposition of, 
 622. 
 
 Lands, public, survevors of, prior to 
 1825, 668. 
 
 Lands, public, surveys of the, 571. 
 
 Lands, public, tabular statement rela- 
 tive to, 575. 
 
 Lands, the reservation of. Congressional 
 action relative to, 613. 
 
 Lands, Saline, 597. 
 
 Lands, United States public, table rela- 
 tive to, 659. 
 
 Lateral impregnation of country rocks, 
 224 
 
 Lateral secretion of ore deposits in the 
 Comstoek, 193. 
 
 Latest discoveries, the, 874. 
 
 Laurentian rocks of Canada, the, 210. 
 
 Lanrentean rocks, mountain tract oi, 
 122. 
 
 " Law of alteration," the, 424. 
 
 Law, the bimetallic, in France, 427. 
 
 " Law, the Gresham," 424. 
 
 Law, Mexican mining, based on Span- 
 ish law ; J. A. Rockwell, 549. 
 
 Law, mining, of England, 553. 
 
 Law, mining, in the middle ages, 546. 
 
 Law, mining,— and mining among the 
 Anciente, 542. 
 
 Law, mining, provisions of theexisting, 
 620. 
 
 Law, mining of the States and Territo- 
 ries, 664. 
 
 Law of Mining Stock Brokers and Min- 
 ing Stock Exchanges, 468. 
 
 Law, New Prussian mining, review of 
 the, 550, to 552. 
 
 Law, power of the, with regard to 
 money, 421. 
 
 Law, relating to public lands in Cana- 
 da, 683, to 685. 
 
 Law of Stock Brokerage, the, 468. 
 
 Law Spanish mining, the basis of Mexi- 
 can law ; J. A. Rockwell, 549. 
 
 Law of universal bimetallism, the New- 
 ton, 426. 
 
XXIV 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Lawrence Scientific School, course in 
 
 Biology in the, 309. 
 Lawrence Scientific School, course in 
 
 Chemistry in the, 309. 
 Lawrence Scientific School, Curriculum 
 
 of the, 308 to 311. 
 Lawrence Scientific School, Faculty of 
 
 the, 308. 
 Lawrence Scientific School, Harvard 
 
 University, Cambridge., Mass, 308. 
 Lawrence Scientific School, course in 
 
 Natural History in the, 309. 
 Laws, German mining, 546 and 547. 
 Laws governing the sale of Government 
 
 coal lands, 610, 611, and 612. 
 Laws, interest, of the different states, 
 
 table showing the, 683. 
 Laws, land of Mexico, 
 Laws, local mining, in California, 615. 
 Law.5, mineral, of the United States af- 
 fected by the gold discovery in Cali- 
 fornia, 614. 
 Laws, mining, of Arizona, 667 to 670. 
 Laws, mining, of California, 674. 
 Laws, mining, of Colorado, 670 to 674. 
 Laws, mining, of Dakota, 666. 
 Laws, mining, of Idaho, 665. 
 Laws, mining, of Illinois, 677. 
 Laws, mining, of Massachusetts, 682. 
 Laws, mining, of Montana, 676. 
 Laws, mining, of Nevada, 654. 
 Laws, mining, of New Mexico, 674. 
 Laws, mining, of Ohio, 678 to 679. 
 Laws, mining, of Oregon, 665. 
 Laws, mining, of Pennsylvania, 680 to 
 - 682. 
 Laws, mining, of the United States, 
 
 rights under the, recent decisions 
 
 afiecting, 633. 
 Laws, mining, of Utah, 675. 
 Laws, mining, of Wyoming, 676. 
 Laws and regulations, mining, 642. 
 Laws relating to the reservation of coins 
 
 for the annual assay, 466. 
 Laws respecting mineral lands, 602 to 
 
 608. 
 Laws respecting town sites and county 
 
 seats, 601. 
 Laws, Saline, change in, 597. 
 Laws, State, 542. 
 Laws, United States, relating to surveys 
 
 and surveyors, 577 to 582. 
 Layers, sandstone, alteration of, 225. 
 Lead, black, 9, 10. 
 Lead, carbonate of, 5. 
 Lead, Copper, Silver and Gold, table of 
 
 the annual products of, in the West, 
 
 1870-81, 607. 
 Lead district, the Southeast Missouri, 
 
 110. 
 Lead, domestic, average price of at New 
 
 York, 538. 
 Lead, earliest mention of, 29. 
 Lead, historical sketch of, 28. 
 Lead market, review of the, to June 
 
 30, 1882, 538. 
 Lead mining, 87, 88. 
 Lead mining district, the most impor- 
 tant, 30. 
 Lead, native, 5. 
 Lead, phosphate of, 5. 
 Lead, pig, 126. 
 
 Lead production in Germany, 1031. 
 Lead ores of siliceous formations, 5. 
 Lead and silver mines of Sierra de Al- 
 
 magrera, 30. 
 Lead-stones, 13. 
 Lead, sulphuret of, 5. 
 Lead, vanadates of, at the Castle Dome 
 
 mines, occurrence of, 251. 
 
 Lead, white, 9. 
 
 Lead, white, 29. 
 
 Lead and zinc ores, 125. 
 
 Leads, placer, traced to quartz, 81. 
 
 Leadville bullion, output of, in 1881, 
 report of the Director of the mint, 
 1096. 
 
 Leadville, bullion, product of smelters 
 of, report of the Director of the 
 mint for 1881, 1095. 
 
 Leadville, Colorado, geology and mining 
 industry of, 162. 
 
 Leadville, commencement of active 
 prospecting in, 163. 
 
 Leadville deposits, 169. 
 
 Leadville deposits, composition of, 170. 
 
 Leadville deposits; Gangue, 170. 
 
 Leadville deposits ; Paragenesis, 170. 
 
 Leadville district, 509. 
 
 Leadville, first discovery of gold in, 163. 
 
 Leadville, geological structure underly- 
 ing, 178. 
 
 Leadville ore-deposits, distribution of, 
 171. 
 
 Leadville Pyritiferous porphyry, esti- 
 mates of the possible contents of, 
 171. 
 
 Leadville region, conclusions respect- 
 ing the geological formation of, 177. 
 
 Leadville; secondary depositions, 170. 
 
 Leadville or white porphyry. 166. 
 
 Lease, mining, 727. 
 
 Leases, mining, in Germany, 549. 
 
 Ledges, salted, and Wildcat Mines, 
 859 to 864. 
 
 Legal Decision relative to mining stocks, 
 728. 
 
 Legal and mechanical history of hy- 
 draulic nozzles, 904. 
 
 Legal ownership of fissure veins, 178. 
 
 Legal regulations in determining the 
 ratio of value between precious me- 
 tals, 403. 
 
 Legal relation of stock-broker to his 
 client, 470 to 474. 
 
 Legal tender, stability in the, a double 
 standard conducing to, 425. 
 
 Legislation, mining, prior to 1866, re- 
 trospect of, 619. 
 
 Legislation, mining, of the United States, 
 90. 
 
 Legislation, United States Mining, 542. 
 
 Lehigh coal, circular prices of, 1034. 
 
 Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company, 
 tonnage from 1872 to 1881, 1036. 
 
 Lehigh region, 101. 
 
 Lehigh University, the, 272. 
 
 Lehigh University, at Bethehem, School 
 of Mining and Metallurgy of, 92. 
 
 Lehigh University, course in chemistry 
 in the, 276. 
 
 Lehigh University, course in civil en- 
 gineering in the, 273. 
 
 Lehigh University, course in mechani- 
 cal engineering in the, 274. 
 
 Lehigh University, course in mining 
 and metallurgy in the, 275. 
 
 Lehigh University, course of studies at 
 the, 273 to 277. 
 
 Lehigh University, Faculty of the, 273. 
 
 Lehigh Valley, the first iron enterprises 
 in the, 37. 
 
 Lehigh Valley Railroad Company, 1036. 
 
 Leicestershire Coal Field, the, 244. 
 
 Length and depth of ore veins. Von 
 Cotta on the, 137. 
 
 Lengths and measures. United States, 
 753. 
 
 Leonard's celebrated iron works, 34. 
 
 Lepidolite, 248. 
 
 Lesley, Prof., provisional nomenclature 
 
 of the second geological survey of, 
 
 738. 
 Letter, open, of E. W. Eaymond, rela- 
 tive to mineral lands, 556 to 562. 
 Levels, Adit, in drainage of mines, 905. 
 Life, organic, effect of in gold solutions, 
 
 220. 
 Life, organic, in the production of iron, 
 
 202. 
 Life, social, in the mines and the sur- 
 rounding influences, 789. 
 Lien, Miner's form of, 721. 
 Licking, the Falls of, 62. 
 Lighting of mine workings, 808. 
 Lighting mines by electricity, 815. 
 Lighting and ventilation of underground 
 
 workings, 806. 
 Lignite, 8. 
 Lignite, production of, west of 100th 
 
 meridian, statistics of tenth census, 
 
 1006. 
 Lignites, tertiary, 116. 
 Lime Rock, Conn., 130. 
 Limestone, analysis of, 126. 
 Limestone, blue, 165. 
 Limestone horizon, blue, at Fryer Hill, 
 
 175. 
 Limestone in Mexico, 216. 
 Limestone, Robinson, 165. 
 Limestones at Sonora, 250. 
 Limestone, the third magnesian, ores in, 
 
 111. 
 Limestone, upper coal measure, 166. 
 Limestone, white, 165. 
 Limestone, white, at Fryer Hill, 175. 
 Limits, physical, of deep mining, 806. 
 Limonite, 205. 
 
 Limonites, Mexican, analysis of, 215. 
 Lincoln porphyry, 166. 
 Lisbon, Portugal, tables showing the 
 
 amount of gold and silver coined 
 
 in, 388. 
 List of Blue Hill ores, 135. 
 List of local land oflSces under the laws 
 
 of the United States. 569 to 571. 
 List of mining companies of the United 
 
 States, 1114. 
 List of offices of surveyor, general, from 
 
 May 10, 1800. to June 30, 1880, 569. 
 List surveying districts and surveyors 
 
 general to June 30, 1880, 569. 
 Litharge, 29. 
 
 Litchfield County, Conn., 130. 
 Lizzie Bullock mining claims, decisions 
 
 regarding, 633. 
 Loadstone, 3. 
 Loan Acts, United States, table of the 
 
 average price of silver in relation 
 
 to the, 469. 
 Local land offices, list of, under the 
 
 laws of the United States, 669-571. 
 Local mining laws in California, 615. 
 Local monetary functions of coin, 447. 
 Localities, New Mineral, in California. 
 
 248. 
 Localities in Southwestern Virginia, 
 
 known, 125. 
 Locating a claim, form of notice of, 720. 
 Locating claims on veins or lodes after 
 
 May 10, 1872, manner of, 624. 
 Locating a mine, 836 to 840. 
 Locating mineral veins, decisions re- 
 garding, 689. 
 Location, quantity of placer ground 
 
 subject to, 627. 
 Location and sale of claims, form of 
 
 power of attorney to, 726. 
 Locations and patents mininff, number 
 
 of, 621. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 XXV 
 
 Locke, views of, on the nature and 
 
 functions of money, 437. 
 Lode-claims, status of, located prior to 
 
 May 10, 1872, 623. 
 Lode, the Comstock, 86. 
 Lode, Comstock, 232. 
 Lode, Comstock, accumulations of water 
 
 in the, 187. 
 Lode, Comstock, black dike in the, 
 192. 
 
 Lode, Comstock, discovery of silver in 
 the, 90. 
 
 Lode, Comstock, physical investigation 
 respecting the, 196. 
 
 Lode, Comstock, production of, 95. 
 
 Lode, Comstock, structural results of 
 faulting on the, 190. 
 
 Lode, the Comstock, and the Sutro tun- 
 nel, 159. 
 
 Lode, Comstock, from 1860 to 1878, 
 table of the annual product of the, 
 181. 
 
 Lode, the Comstock, three bases of op- 
 eration on, 183. 
 
 Lode, Comstock, the Virginia vein on 
 the, 195. 
 
 Lode, the Comstock, and the Washoe 
 district, the geology of the, 188 
 
 Lode , the Comstock. and the Washoe 
 fever, 84. 
 
 Lode, Comstock, yield of the, 432.. 
 
 Lode, Mark Twain, decisions regarding 
 the, 637. 
 
 Lode, Sullivan, 134. 
 
 Lode or vein claim, form of patent for, 
 719. 
 
 Lode or vein claims, method of ob- 
 taining government title to, 625. 
 
 Lodes or veins heretofore issued, rights 
 under patents for, 624. 
 
 Lodes or veins, manner of locating 
 claims on, after May 10, 1872, 
 624. 
 
 London, average monthly price of silver 
 bars at, 370. 
 
 London tin market, the, 536, 537. 
 
 London market, relative value of gold 
 to silver according to the, 459. 
 
 Lonaconing furnace, 72. 
 
 Lookout Brigus, 140. 
 
 Lord Denman, views of, on the right to 
 mining property in England, 555. 
 
 Loss of extremely fine gold, prevent- 
 ing, 145. 
 
 Loss and wastages on sale of sweeps at 
 the United States mints and assay 
 offices, 367. 
 
 Louise Hotel, 234. 
 
 Lower Colorado, table of section in the 
 region of the, 165. 
 
 Lower horizons at Fryer Hill, ore in, 
 175. 
 
 Lower quartzites, 165. 
 
 Lowest and highest prices of the Com- 
 stock shares in four years, tables of 
 the, 522. 
 
 Lubec mining belt, 133. 
 
 Luckhart furnace, 151. 
 
 Luckhart furnace, cost of treating ore 
 at, 151. 
 
 Lumpkin county, Georgia, 120. 
 
 Lundly, Wales, coal strata at, 97. 
 
 Luxemburg, the iron industries o 256. 
 
 MACHINEKY, 96. 
 Machinery, mine, principal inno- 
 vations in, since 1871, 184. 
 Machinery, rock-boring, 909. 
 Machinery, rock-drilling, 910. 
 Mackinaw, Michigan, 75. 
 
 Macon county, N. C, The Jenks Cor- 
 undum Mine, 121. 
 Madness, the miners', 82. 
 Madras, Bombay and Bengal, table 
 showing the coin and bullion in the 
 banks of, 390. 
 Madras, Bombay and Bengal presiden- 
 cies, government paper circulation 
 issued by, table relative to, 390. 
 Madre D'Oro, The, 782. 
 Magnesian limestone, the third, ores in, 
 
 111. ' 
 Magnetic iron ore, 8. 
 Magnetic iron ores, analyses of, 209. 
 Magnetic iron ores of New Jersey, 127. 
 Magnetic iron ore in northern New 
 
 Jersey, 39. 
 Magnetic iron ore, and anthracite dis- 
 tricts of New York, New Jersey, 
 Pennsylvania and eastern Mary- 
 land; 210. 
 Magnetite, 128. 
 Maine, antimony in, 137. 
 Maine, arsenical iron in, 137. 
 Maine, emery in, 137. 
 Maine, the first discovery of silver ores 
 
 .in, 139. 
 Maine, geological sequence of silver 
 
 formations in, 139. 
 Maine, the gold fields of, 136. 
 Maine, graphites in, 137. 
 Maine, metals and minerals found in, 
 
 136. 
 Maine minerals, table of average assays 
 
 for, 188. 
 Maine, the mining district at Sullivan, 
 
 138. 
 Maine ores, 137. 
 Maine, precious gems in, 137. 
 Maine, prominent mining belts in, 133. 
 Maine, the rock formations of, 133. 
 Maine shales, alums from, 137. 
 Making adobes, cost of, 148. 
 Malachite, (carbonate of copper), 5. 
 Malleability of metals, 751. 
 Malleable iron, extraction of, from the 
 
 ore, 882. 
 Managing industrial enterprises, cor- 
 porate system of, 92. 
 Man-engine, Cornish mines, 915. 
 Manhattan Works, California, 153. 
 Manheim furnace, 70. 
 Manipulation troubles, 84. 
 Manner of locating claims on lodes or 
 
 veins after May 10, 1872, 624. 
 Mansfield, Massachusetts, 131. 
 Mansfield district, copper smelting in 
 
 the, 241. 
 Manson, Mr., general features of the 
 American river, California, present- 
 ed by, 702. 
 Manufacture of carronades, 26. 
 Manufacture of charcoal iron in the Ju- 
 niata Valley, 48. 
 Manufacture of charcoal iron in eastern 
 Pennsylvania after the Revolution, 
 46. 
 Manufacture of charcoal iron in western 
 
 Pennsylvania, 50. 
 Manufacture of iron with anthracite 
 
 coal, 69. 
 Manufacture of iron with bituminous 
 
 coal, 72. 
 Manufacture of iron in the fifteenth and 
 
 • sixteenth centuries, 23. 
 Manufacture, iron, in Mexico, 213. 
 Manufacture of open-hearth steel, Mar- 
 tin process for, 90. 
 Manufacture of sulphur and sulphuric 
 acid from iron pyrites, 136. 
 
 Manufacture of tacks by hand, 38. 
 Manufactured gold, registering, 382. 
 Manufactured iron in Great Britain, 254, 
 Manufactures and arts in the United 
 
 States, table of the value and char- 
 acter of the gold and silver used in, 
 
 372, 376. 
 Manufactures and minerals of Belgium, 
 
 263. 
 Manufactures and minerals of Russia, 
 
 264 
 Marine vegetation, 202. 
 Mariposa county, California, 249. 
 " Mariposite," 249. 
 Market, coal, review of the, to June 
 
 1882, 532. 
 Market, the copper, in 1881, 535. 
 Market, copper, review of the, to June 
 
 1882, 584. 
 Market, iron, a review of the, to June 
 
 1882, 530. 
 Market, iron, the Western, 531, 
 Market price of gold, the, 422. 
 Market ratio, average annual, between 
 
 gold and silver, tables of the, 409. 
 Market value, relative, of gold to silver, 
 
 tables showing the, 370. 
 Market, lead, review of the, to June 30, 
 
 1882, 538. 
 Markets, metal and stock reviews of the, 
 
 468. 
 Market, the mining stock, 487. 
 Market, the New York mining stock, 
 
 •475. 
 Market, New York, staple articles in 
 
 the, table showing the annual aver- 
 age gold and currency prices of, 
 
 371 to 379. 
 Market, New York, prices of staple 
 
 articles in the, from 1825 to 1880, 
 
 380. 
 Market, the Philadelphia stock, 500. 
 Market, quicksilver, review of the to 
 
 June 30, 1882, 540. 
 Market, the San Francisco mining stock, 
 
 and exchange, 515. 
 Market, the San Francisco share, in 
 
 1882 522 
 Market, the share, for 1881, 500. 
 Market, the share, in 1882, 501. 
 Market, spelter, review of the, to June 
 
 30, 1882, 538. 
 Market, the London tin, 536, 537. 
 Market, tin, review of the, to June 18'82, 
 
 536. 
 Marks, German, tables of the average 
 
 annual production of, 423. 
 Mark Twain Lode, decisions regarding 
 
 the, 637. 
 Marmora, Canada, first discovery of 
 
 gold in, 143. 
 Marmora mines, assays of samples from, 
 
 143, 144. 
 Marmora, Ontario, Canada, the gold- 
 bearing mispickel veins of, 143. 
 Marmora ore, the cost of mining and 
 
 milling, 145. 
 Marmora ore, uniformity of the gold 
 
 yield of, 145. 
 Marshall's discovery, 79. 
 Martin process for the manufacture of 
 
 open-hearth steel, 90. 
 Maryland, 63. 
 
 Maryland, Alleghany county, 55. 
 Maryland and Delaware, early iron en- 
 terprises in, 63, 
 Maryland, Eastern, the anthracite and 
 magnetic iron ore, districts of, 210, 
 Maryland, first iron works in, 64. 
 Mason, Col. R. B., report of, on the gold 
 
XXVI 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 fields of California, 615, 616 aud 
 617. 
 
 Masonry condensers, objections to, 155. 
 
 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
 Boston, 311. 
 
 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
 course of Chemistry in the, 314. 
 
 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
 course in Civil and Topographical 
 Engineering in the, 314. 
 
 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
 course in Geology and Physical 
 Geography in the, 315. 
 
 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
 course in Mining and Metallurgy 
 in the, 315. 
 
 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
 curriculum of the, 311 to 320. 
 
 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
 Faculty of the, 317. 
 
 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
 Mining Laboratory of, 318. 
 
 Massachusetts, iron ores and iron enter- 
 prises of Plymouth county, 35. 
 
 Massachusetts, Lawrence Scientiiic 
 School, Harvard University, Cam- 
 bridge, 308. 
 
 Massachusetts, Mansfield, 131. 
 
 Massachusetts, mining laws of, 682. 
 
 Massachusetts and Ehode Island, the 
 iron ore and anthracite coal of, 131. 
 
 Mass copper of the Lake Superior 
 mines, and the method of mining 
 it, 146. 
 
 Masses, intrusive, 167. 
 
 Material, vein Carbonate Hill, 173. 
 
 Material, vein, at Fryer Hill, 176. 
 
 Mathematics, course in, in Cornell Uni- 
 versity, 323. 
 
 Mauch Chunk, 71. 
 
 Mean compositions of specimens exam- 
 ined, table showing the, 12. 
 
 Mean data for rock and water on the 
 Comstock, 194. 
 
 Mean relative evaporating power of dif- 
 ferent fuels, 768. 
 
 Means of extinguishing fires in mines, 
 818. 
 
 Means adopted for extinguishing mine 
 fires, 822. 
 
 Means adopted for preventing mine 
 fires, 821. 
 
 Measure of value, standard, 437. 
 
 Measurements in Stephens and Young 
 counties, Texas, section of strata 
 compiled from, 113. 
 
 Measures in ',' Four Mile creek " section, 
 Alabama, 117. 
 
 Measures and distances, geographical, 
 754. 
 
 Measures and lengths. United States, 
 753. 
 
 Measures and weights, 729. 
 
 Measures and weights of coal, 762. 
 
 Measures, remedial, in mining, 704 to 
 
 706. 
 Measuring the air currents of mines, 
 
 810. 
 Mechanic arts, course in, in Cornell 
 
 university, 322. 
 Mechanical appliances for mine acci- 
 dents, 826. 
 Mechanical dressing of culsagee corun- 
 dum, 123. 
 Mechanical engineering, course in, in 
 
 the Lehigh university, 274. 
 Mechanical engineering, course in, in 
 
 the university of Michigan, 331. 
 Mechanical engineering, course in, in 
 the Pennsylvania university, 272. 
 
 Mechanical engineering, course in, in 
 the Massachusetts institute of tech- 
 nology, 314. 
 
 Mechanical drawing, department of in 
 the Stephens institute of technol- 
 ogy,, 302. 
 
 Mechanical engineering, department of, 
 in the Stephens institute of tech- 
 nology, 301. 
 
 Mechanical and legal history of hydrau- 
 lic nozzles, 904. 
 
 Mechanical ventilation and dsainage in 
 Indiana mines, 810. 
 
 Mechanics, experimental, course in, in 
 the Stephens institute of technol- 
 ogy, 304. 
 
 Mechanics and miners, the industrial 
 school for, at Drifton, Luzerne Co., 
 Pa., 280. 
 
 Mechanics and miners, the industrial 
 school for, plan of instruction in, 
 281. 
 
 Mediterranean ports and Great Britain, 
 exports of silver from, to the east, 
 440. 
 
 Melting heats of alloys, 762. 
 
 Melts of ingots at the United States 
 mints, statement relative to the, 
 367. 
 
 Memoranda and historical notices, 1. 
 
 Memoranda, historical, concerning gold 
 and silver, 395. 
 
 Memoranda, metallurgical, 874. 
 
 Merced to Coulterville and Big Oak 
 Flat, mineral section from, 249. 
 
 Meridians and bases in land surveying, 
 572. 
 
 Mercury, 6. 
 
 Mercury, bituminous sulphuret of, 7. 
 
 Mercury, native, 6. 
 
 Mercury in North California, notes 
 on the treatment of, 146. 
 
 Metacinnabarite,- 148. 
 
 Metamorphic rock, 1. 
 
 Metal and iron exchanges. New York, 
 624. 
 
 Metal and iron exchange, New York, 
 by-laws of the, 524 to 526. 
 
 Metal and iron exchange, New York, 
 code of laws of the, 527, 628. 
 
 Metal and iron exchange company, 
 limited, by-laws of the, 529. 
 
 Metal and iron exchange company, 
 limited, officers of the, 529. 
 
 Metal mines, report of Dr. Smith on 
 the air in, 231. 
 
 Metal and stock markets, reviews of the, 
 468. 
 
 Metal, workers of, among the Greeks 
 and Romans, 8. 
 
 Metallic treasures of the east, 27. 
 
 Metalliferous deposits, the origin of, 
 201. 
 
 Metalliferous State Belt of Penobscot 
 and Piscataquis counties, 135. 
 
 Metalliferous state, eastern, character- 
 istics of, 135. 
 
 Metallization of the dike, 161. 
 
 Metallurgical memoranda, 874. 
 
 Metallurgical and mining art, science 
 and industry from 1875 to 1881, 
 progress in, 95. 
 
 Metallurgical and mining products, 
 
 leading, during the ten years 1871- 
 
 80, statement of annual productfbn 
 
 of, 96. 
 
 Metallurgy, course in, in the Colorado 
 
 State School of mines, 336, 337. 
 Metallurgy and mining, course in, in 
 the Lehigh university, 275. 
 
 Metallurgical notes, 179, 180. 
 
 Metallurgy and mining, course in, in 
 the Massachusetts institute of tech- 
 nology, 315. 
 
 Metallurgy and metallurgical process, 
 874. 
 
 Metallurgy and mineralogy, course in, 
 in the school of mines, 290. 
 
 Metallurgy and mines, the Missouri 
 school of, at Rolla, 92. 
 
 Metallurgy of the precious or noble 
 metals, 887. 
 
 Metals, color, relations of, 797. 
 
 Metals, conducting power of, for elec- 
 tricity, table of, 752. 
 
 Metals, conducting power of for heat, 
 table of, 752. 
 
 Metals, curiosities of, 797. 
 
 Metals, the industrial application of, 
 874. 
 
 Metals, knowledge and uses of, by the 
 Romans, 8. 
 
 Metals and minerals of France, 262. 
 
 Metals and minerals of Germany, 263. 
 
 Metals and minerals found in Maine, 
 136. 
 
 Metals and minerals in the United 
 States during the first century of 
 national independence, table of pro- 
 duction of leading, 94. 
 
 Metals, monetary, value of the, 422. 
 
 Metals, on the Pacific slope, congress- 
 ional action as to, 615. 
 
 Metals physical properties of, 893 to 900. 
 
 Metals, precious, used in Austria from 
 1867 to 1880, statement of the, 382. 
 
 Metals, precious, in California, products 
 of, from 1848 to the close of 1881, 
 697 and 698. 
 
 Metals, precious, total yield of, in Cali- 
 fornia from 1848 to 1882, table of 
 the, 607. 
 
 Metals, precious, as "current money," 
 earliest mention of, 437. 
 
 Metals, precious, effect of arbitrary de- 
 cree in determining the ratio of 
 value between, 404. 
 
 Metals, precious, efiect of mint charges 
 upon the ratio of value between, 
 404. 
 
 Metals, precious, figures and facts in 
 consumption and distribution of, 
 454. 
 
 Metals, precious, in Greece and Rome, 
 the quantity of, 434. 
 
 Metals, jjrecious, legal regulations de- 
 termining the ratio of value be- 
 tween, 403. 
 
 Metals, precious or noble, metallurgy of 
 the, 887. 
 
 Metals, precious, the movements of the, 
 419.^ 
 
 Metals, precious, principal epochs in 
 the modern production of, 434. 
 
 Metals, precious. Sir Hector Hay's es- 
 timate of the production of, from 
 1852 to 1875, 464. 
 
 Metals, precious, table of the production 
 of, in the eastern and western worlds 
 from 1493 to 1872, 443. 
 
 Metals, precious, table of the production 
 
 of, from 1800 to 1879, 440. 
 Metals, precious, table showing the pro- 
 portion of consu mption to produc- 
 tion of, 399. 
 Metals, precious, statement of the total 
 production of, in France from 1493 
 to 1875, 381. 
 Metals, precious, quantity determining 
 the ratio of value between, 403. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 xxvu 
 
 Metals, precious, estimated production 
 of in the United States from 1848 
 to 1880, 619. 
 Metals, precious, in the West, statement 
 
 of the amount of, 507. 
 Metals, precious, stock of in Christen- 
 dom, during and since 1492, table of 
 the, 435. 
 IV^etals, precious, value of, — ^upon what 
 
 it depends, 423. 
 Metals, precious, the value of, but slight- 
 ly affected by their employment as 
 money, 438. 
 Metals, precious, views of Dr. Suess on 
 
 the, 428. 
 Metals, precious, world's stock of, 400. 
 Metals, welding of, 899. 
 Metals, what they are, 1. 
 Metals, the properties of, 729. 
 Metals, the properties of, 750. 
 Metals, relative tenacity of, 751. 
 Metals, table of ductility of, 752. 
 Metals, table of fusibility of, 751. 
 Metals, table of malleability of, 751. 
 Metals, table of specific gravities of, 
 
 752. 
 Method and administration of surveys, 
 
 573. 
 Method of ascertaining the solubility of 
 
 gold, 219. 
 Method of calculating the value of 
 
 bars, 764. 
 Method of mining the mass copper of 
 
 the Lake Superior mines, 146. 
 Method of mining in Nova Scotia gold- 
 fields, 246. 
 Method of obtaining government title 
 
 to vein or lode claims, 625. 
 Method, present, of organizing a min- 
 ing district, 618. 
 Method of prospecting for tin, 158. 
 Method of reckoning quantity of coal 
 
 in place, 765. 
 Method of raising ore, Cornwall, 916. 
 Method of surveying mineral claims, 
 
 574. 
 Methods of calculation, short, 766. 
 Methods, primitive mining, 80. 
 Methods and system of land parceling 
 
 surveys, 572. 
 Methods of treating ores in 1778, 15. 
 Metric decimal system in Italy, gold and 
 silver coined under the table show- 
 ing the amount of, 889. 
 Metrical abbreviations, 765. 
 Mexican iron works, estimated produc- 
 tion of, when completed, 217. 
 Mexican iron works, present production 
 
 of, 217. 
 Mexican limonites, analysis of, 215. 
 Mexican mining law based on Spanish 
 
 law : J. A. Rockwell, .'549. 
 Mexicans, the first quartz miners in Cal- 
 ifornia, 82. 
 Mexico, coal in, 216. 
 Mexico, cost of roasting pig iron in, 
 
 216. . , 
 
 Mexico, estimated cost of working bar 
 
 iron in, 216. 
 Mexico, iron manufacture in, 213. 
 Mexico, the iron mountain of Durango, 
 
 260. 
 Mexico, land laws of, 685. 
 Mexico, limestone in, 216. 
 Mexico, mines of, 28. 
 Mexico, the mines of, 435. 
 Mexico, mints of, table showing the de- 
 posits of gold and silver at the, 393. 
 Mexico, mints of, table of the coinage 
 of, by fiscal years, 394. 
 
 Mexico, mints of, total coinage of the, 
 from their establishment to June 
 30, 1860, total of the, 394. 
 Mexico, works of the Tula Iron Co., 
 
 213. 
 Micaceous fire clay, 109. 
 Michigan, 65. 
 
 Michigan, ancient excavations in, 75. 
 Michigan, the ash bed, 76. 
 Michigan copper district, early history 
 
 of the, 74. 
 Michigan copper region, first perma- 
 nent resident in the, 76. 
 Michigan iron and copper statistics, A. 
 
 P. Swineford's, 1029. 
 Michigan iron ore, analysis of, 209. 
 Michigan, Mackinaw, 75. 
 Michigan, University of, Ann Arbor, 327. 
 Michigan University, at Ann Arbor, 
 
 school of mines of, 92. 
 Michigan, University, of course in civil 
 
 engineering in the, 330, 332. 
 Michigan, University of, course in draw- 
 ing in the, 332. 
 Michigan University of, course in me- 
 chanical engineering in the, 331. 
 Michigan University, course in general 
 
 science in the, 329. 
 Michigan, University, course in minera- 
 logy and geology in the, 330. 
 Michigan University of, courses in pro- 
 fessional studies in the, 331. 
 Michigan University of, course in sur- 
 veying in the, 330. 
 Michigan, University of, curriculum of 
 
 the, 329 to 334. 
 Michigan, Universitv of, faculty of the, 
 
 327. ■ 
 Middle ages, mining law in the, 546. 
 Middle ages, table of the relative values 
 
 of gold and silver in the, 411. 
 Middle of the nineteenth century ,the 89. 
 Middle, southern and western states, 
 
 early iron enterprises in the, 38. 
 Middletown, Conn., 87. 
 Midland coal field, the, 243. 
 Mill, first stamT at Lake Superior, 78. 
 Mill sites, rulings of the general land 
 
 office relative to, 628. 
 Millerite, 142. 
 Milling and mining Marmora ore, the 
 
 cost of, 145. 
 Millsborough furnace, 53. 
 Mills and mines, production of Tomb- 
 stone, 159. 
 Mills, quartz in Arizona, report of direc- 
 tors of the mint for 1881, 1054. 
 Mills, Union Rolling. 66. 
 Mimetite, 251. 
 Mine accidents, 769. 
 Mine accidents, mechanical appliances 
 
 for, 826. 
 Mine, Andover, N. J., 40. 
 Mine, California, table showing the re- 
 ceipts and expenditures of the, 508. 
 Mine Cliflr, 76, 77. 
 
 Mine, consolidated Virginia, table show- 
 ing the receipts and expenses of 
 the, 509. 
 Mine explosions, coal, and their preven- 
 tion, 824. 
 Mine fires, extinguishing, means adopt- 
 ed for, 822. 
 Mine fires, preventing, means adopted 
 
 *for, 821. 
 Mine, the hottest, in Cornwall, 232. 
 Mine, Jenks, chlorite veins at the, 123. 
 Mine the Jenks corundum, Macon 
 , county, N. C, 121. 
 Mine, Jenks, gems at the, 123. 
 
 Mine, La Motte, 8S. 
 
 Mine La Motte tract, 110, 111. 
 
 Mine, locating a, 8,^55 to 840. 
 
 Mine, Julia, data relative to pulse-beats 
 
 per minute in the, 233. 
 Mine, New Almaden quicksilver, com- 
 mencement of the, 89. 
 Mine machinery, principal innovations 
 
 in, since 1871, 184. 
 Mine, oldest in Arkansas, 108. 
 Mine, the operation of a, 840 to 848. 
 Mine owners, facts for, 1. 
 Mine superstitions, 769. 
 Mine, Utah, down in a, 787. 
 Mine working at Carbonate Hill, 173. 
 Mine working at Iron Hill, 172. 
 Mine workings, lighting of, 808. 
 Miner, the, and the capitalist, 848 to853. 
 Miner, engineer and mine owners, ta- 
 bles of reference for the, 752. 
 Miner, working, description of the, 227. 
 Mineral charcoal, 7. 
 Mineral claims, method of surveying, 
 
 574. 
 Mineral land, classification of, 574. 
 Mineral coal, 7. 
 
 Mineral deposits at Iron Hill, 172. 
 Mineral deposits east of the Rocky 
 
 Mountains, 223. 
 Mineral deposits. Von Groddeck's divi- 
 sion of^ 169. 
 Mineral veins, determining faults in, 
 notes on Hoefer's method of, 919. 
 Mineral district of Chiquilistlan, 215. 
 Mineral lands division, statement rela- 
 tive to the, 659. 
 Mineral industries, our non-precious,237. 
 Mineral industries, non-precious, com- 
 parative view ot the, 239. 
 Mineral lands, cash sales of, order by 
 
 Congress, 613. 
 Mineral lands, executive and depart- 
 mental. Recommendations relative 
 to, 618. 
 Mineral lands, policy of the United 
 
 States in relation to, 621. 
 
 Mineral lands as a part of the Public 
 
 Domain ; letter of R. W. Raymond 
 
 relative to, 556 to 562. 
 
 Mineral lands, open letter of R. W. 
 
 Raymond relative to, 556, to 562. 
 
 Mineral lands of the south, east and 
 
 north, 108. 
 Mineral lands in charge of the War 
 
 Department, 614. 
 Mineral laws of the United States af- 
 fected by the gold discovery in 
 California, 614. 
 Mineral localities, new, in California, 248. 
 Mineral Point, Mo., 112. 
 Mineral production of California, report 
 of the surveyor.-general on the, 
 659 and 660. 
 Mineral production of Montana, report 
 of the surveyor-general on the, 661. 
 Mineral production of Nevada, report 
 of the surveyor-general on the, 661 
 and 662. 
 Mineral production of New Mexico, re- 
 port of the surveyor-general on the, 
 663. 
 Mineral production, statistics of, 260. 
 Mineral productions of Utah, report of 
 
 the surveyor-general on the, 663. 
 Mineral product of Utah for 1881, state- 
 ment of the, 512. 
 Mineral production, yearly per capita 
 
 of population, 238. 
 Mineral reservations in northwest t^rri; 
 tory,613. 
 
xxvni 
 
 THE MIKES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Mineral resources of New Mexico, 512. 
 
 Mineral resources of southwestern Vir- 
 ginia, 125. 
 
 Mineral section from Merced to Ooul- 
 terville and Big Oak Flat, coal, 
 249. 
 
 Mineral statistics, general, 88. 
 
 Mineral lands, timber on, decision re- 
 garding, 655. 
 
 Mineral veins, sex in, communication of 
 Mr. .1. Van Cleve Phillips on, 797. 
 
 Mineral veins, sex in, communication 
 of Mr. J. Williams on, 797. 
 
 Mineral veins, decision regarding locat- 
 ing, 639. 
 
 Mineralogy and analytical and applied 
 chemistry, course in, in the Penn- 
 sylvania University, 270. 
 
 Mineralogy and geology, course in, in 
 the University of Michigan, 330. 
 
 Mineralogy and metallurgy, course in, 
 in the School of Mines, 290. 
 
 Minerals, curious names for, 124. 
 
 Minerals, description of, 3. 
 
 Minerals, distribution of, 1. 
 
 Minerals, forms of, 798. 
 
 Minerals of Great Britain, 261. 
 
 Minerals, Maine, table of average as- 
 says for, 138. 
 
 Minerals and manufactures of Belgium, 
 263. 
 
 Minerals and manufactures of Russia, 
 264. 
 
 Minerals and metals of France, 262. 
 
 Minerals and metals of Germany, 263. 
 
 Minerals and metals found in Maine, 
 136. 
 
 Minerals and metals in the United 
 States during the first century of 
 National Independence, table of 
 production of leading, 94. 
 
 Minerals, non-precious, of the United 
 States, production of, during the 
 year ending June 1st, 1880, 237. 
 
 Minerals, origin of, 3. 
 
 Minerals, rare of California, Prof. 
 Blake's paper on the, 248. 
 
 Minerals of the world, 260. 
 
 Miners, Belgian, tradition of, 101. 
 
 Miners, diet and privation among, 791. 
 
 Miners, the first quartz in California, 
 Mexicans, 82. 
 
 Miners' homes, 234. 
 
 Miners' homes, Prof. Egleston on, 235. 
 
 Miners, the hospital system in France 
 for, 236. 
 
 Miner's inch of water, 766 and 767. 
 
 Miners' inches for various horse powers, 
 766. 
 
 Miners' madness, the, 82. 
 
 Miners and mechanics, the industrial 
 school for, at Drifton, Luzerne Co., 
 Pa., 280. 
 
 Miners and mechanics, the industrial 
 school for, plain instruction in, 281. 
 
 Miner's nationality, the, 228. 
 
 Miners, primitive, copper tools of, 75. 
 
 Miners, provision for the health and 
 comfort of, 234. 
 
 Miners, a remedy for improvidence in, 
 236. 
 
 Miners' " Rushes," 80. 
 
 Mines, accidents in, 816. 
 
 Mines, adit levels in drainage of, 905. 
 
 Mines, American, average annual pro- 
 duction of gold and silver by, 397. 
 
 Mines of the Appalachian Range, re- 
 port of the Director of the mint 
 for 1881, 1101-1107. 
 Mines, balance bobs in drainage of, 907. 
 
 Mines, Athenian and Egyptian, admin- 
 istration of the, 645. 
 
 Mines of Banca, the tin, 157. 
 
 Mines of Brazil, the gold, 450. 
 
 Mines, California, table of the produc- 
 tion of quicksilver from the, in 
 1881, 540. 
 
 Mines, Carbonate Hill, 173. 
 
 Mines, carbonic acid gas in, 229. 
 
 Mines, Castle Dome, occurrence of Vana- 
 dates of lead of the, 251. 
 
 Mines, ClevelandandLakeSupeiior, 65. 
 
 Mines, coal, deep workings in, 802. 
 
 Mines, coal, and metal mines, difference 
 beween the sanitary conditions of, 
 230. 
 
 Mines, compressed air in, 811. 
 
 Mines, Colorado State School of, 
 course in civil engineering in the, 
 336. 
 
 Mines, Colorado State School of, course 
 in Geology in the, 337. 
 
 Mines, Colorado State School of, curri- 
 culum, 386 to 338_. 
 
 Mines, Colorado State School of, facul- 
 ty of the, 334. 
 
 Mines, Colorado State School of. Gold- 
 en, Colorado, 334. 
 
 Mines, Colorado State School of, course 
 in mining engineering in the, 336. 
 
 Mines, the Comstock, 180. 
 
 Mines, Comstock, accidents in, and their 
 relation to deep mining, 798 to 802. 
 
 Mines, Comstock, bonanzas in the, 182. 
 
 Mines, Comstock, causes of irregular 
 work upon, 184. 
 
 Mines, Comstock, table of information 
 regarding the, 183. 
 
 Mines, Comstock, ventilation in the, 
 185. 
 
 Mines, Comstock, water-supply in the, 
 186. 
 
 Mines, copper, of Eastern Russia, 227. 
 
 Mines, copper, of Lake Superior, the 
 development of, 89. 
 
 Mines, of Cornwall, the tin, 157. 
 
 Mines, curriculum of the School of, 283 
 to 296. 
 
 Mines, deep, heat of, 808. 
 
 Mines, drainage of, 905. 
 
 Mines, English coal, comparison of fatal 
 accidents and deaths in, 817. 
 
 Mines, English coal, statistics of acci- 
 dents and deaths in, 817. 
 
 Mines, executive action relative to, 613. 
 
 Mines, fires in ; their causes and the 
 means of extinguishing them, 818. 
 
 Mines, gold, society near the, 790. 
 
 Mines of Great Britain, production of, 
 in 1881, 1031. 
 
 Mines, gravel, in California, profile of 
 wrought iron pipe for, 902. 
 
 Mines, faculty of the School of, 282. 
 
 Mines of France, classified, 653. 
 
 Mines, Fryer Hill, 176. 
 
 Mines, the Hygiene of 227. 
 
 Mines, importance of air-currents in, 
 185. 
 
 Mines, Indiana, mechanical ventilation 
 and drainage in, 810. 
 
 Mines, Iron Hill, 171. 
 
 Mines, iron, in times of Augustus, 11. 
 
 Mines, Lake Superior, copper, table of 
 the product and value of the, 535. 
 
 Mines, lighting by electricity, 815. 
 
 Mines, Marmora, assays of samples from 
 the, 143, 144. 
 
 Mines, mass copper of the Lake Supe- 
 rior, and the method of minine it, 
 146, ' 
 
 Mines, measuring the air currents of, 
 810. 
 
 Mines and metallurgy, the Missouri 
 School of, at Rolla, 92. 
 
 Mines oi' Mexico, 28. 
 
 Mines of Mexico, 435. 
 
 Mines and minerals of Arkansas, 108. 
 
 Mines of Newburyport, the silver, 132. 
 
 Mines, Tombstone, production of, 169. 
 
 Mines of Oregon, the, 510. 
 
 Mines of the Persians and Egyptians, 
 643. 
 
 Mines, Prussian, injuries in, in 1881, 
 817. 
 
 Mines, Prussian, nature of accidents in, 
 816. 
 
 Mines, Prussian, statistics of fatal acci- 
 dents in, 816. 
 
 Mines on the public domain, 613. 
 
 Mines and public lands, duties of the 
 Secretary of the Interior relative to, 
 662. 
 
 Mines, pump and pitchwork in drainage 
 of, 905. 
 
 Mines, the purchase of, 853 to 859. 
 
 Mines, recommendations of the British 
 Commission, relative to, 233. 
 
 Mines, school of, course in civil engi- 
 neering in the, 292, 294. 
 
 Mines, school of, course of engineering 
 in the, 292. 
 
 Mines, school of, course in general chem- 
 istry in the, 289. 
 
 Mines, school of, of Columbia College, 
 at New York, 92. 
 
 Mines, school of, Columbia College, 
 New York City, 282. 
 
 Mines, school of, of Michigan University, 
 at Ann Arbor, 92. 
 
 Mines, school of, course in mining engi- 
 neering in the, 293, 294. 
 
 Mines, school of, course in mineralogy 
 and metallurgy in the, 290. 
 
 Mines, school of, departments of instruc- 
 tion in the, 289. 
 
 Mines, schools of, 267. 
 
 Mines, silver, in Britain, 13. 
 
 Mines, silver, of Pasco, 27. 
 
 Mines, silver, of Saxony, 28. 
 
 Mines, social life in, and surrounding 
 influences, 789. 
 
 Mines, Southern Oregon, 511. 
 
 Mines, State School of, course in metal- 
 lurgy in the, 836, ,S37. 
 
 Mines, tin, a peculiarity of, 158. 
 
 Mines, united, Wales, 232. 
 
 Mines. Wildcat and Salted Ledges, 859 
 to 864. 
 
 Mines and works, the Salisbury (Conn.) 
 iron, 130. 
 
 Mining, absence of sunlight in, 228. 
 
 Mining accidents, 824. 
 
 Mining Act of July 26, 1866, 620. 
 
 Mining Act of May 10, 1872, 620. 
 
 Mining, American students of, in Ger- 
 many, 344. 
 
 Mining, Ancient, in Siberia and Europe. 
 544. ^ ' 
 
 Mining, Ancient, in Western Europe, 
 545. 
 
 Mining Annex, the, 496. 
 
 Mining Annex, by-laws for the, 496 to 
 - 499. 
 
 Mining belt, the Acton, 135. 
 
 Mining belt, the Lubec, 133. 
 
 Mining belt, the Sullivan and Golds- 
 boro, 133. 
 
 Mining belts in Maine, prominent, 133. 
 
 Mining Board of Trade, the Philadel- 
 phia, 499. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 XXLX 
 
 Mining Bureau, the California, act cre- 
 ating the, 356. 
 Mining Bureau, the California, 356. 
 Mining in the Cahaba and Warrior 
 
 fields, the cost of, 119. 
 Mining, camp at Jacksonville, Califor- 
 nia, organization and rules of, 618. 
 Mining camps, prominent, geology of, 
 
 159. 
 Mining claim, patent for, form of appli- 
 cation for, 721. 
 Mining claim, surveying, form of appli- 
 cation for, 721. 
 Mining claimants, proof of citizenship 
 
 of, 628. 
 Mining claims, appointment of deputy 
 
 surveyors of, 628. 
 Mining claims in Colorado, surveying 
 
 of, 582 to 585. 
 Mining claims, decisions regarding ex- 
 penditures on, 638. 
 Mining claims, Lizzie Bullock, decisions 
 
 regarding the, 633. 
 Mining code. Carpenter's, decisionsfrom, 
 
 650. 
 Mining codes, German, of the Sixteenth 
 
 and Seventeenth Centuries, 547. 
 Mining companies, assessments and. di- 
 vidends of, table relative to the, 
 492. 
 Mining companies of the United States, 
 
 list of, 1114. 
 Mining companies and officers, forms 
 
 for, 715. 
 Mining company charter, western illus- 
 tration of a, 715, 716. 
 Mining company's ores, Canada gold, 
 mostly from the Gatling mine, 
 assays of, 145. 
 Mining in the Comstock region, begin- 
 ning of, 181. 
 Mining, condition of, in California, 
 
 tabular statement showing, 697. 
 Mining, cost of, in Colorado and Nova 
 
 Scotia, 761. 
 Mining, course in, in the University of 
 
 California, 342. 
 Mining, decline of river, 82. 
 Mining deed, form of, 726. 
 Mining, deep coal, in Wales, 805. 
 Mining, deep, physical limits of, 805. 
 Mining district, lead, the most impor- 
 tant, 30. 
 Mining district under local usage, how 
 
 organized, 617. 
 Mining district, present method of 
 
 organizing a, 618. 
 Mining district, rules for forming a, 720. 
 Miner's lien, form of, 721. 
 Mining district at Sullivan Maine, 138. 
 Mining districts. Prof. Blake on the 
 
 zonal parallelism of, 222. 
 Mining districts, Mr. Clarence King on 
 
 the zonal parallelism of, 222, 223. 
 Mining districts, favorite silver, 90 
 Mining districts in the nineteenth cen- 
 tury, the most notable, 435. 
 Mining districts in the United States, 
 the geographical distribution of, 222. 
 Mining ditches in California, statistics 
 
 of, 695. 
 Mining, the economic aspect of, 696 
 Mining engineering, course in, in the 
 Colorado State School of Mines, 336. 
 Mining engineering, course in, in the 
 
 School of Mines, 293, 294. i 
 Mining Engineers, The American In- 
 stitute of, 347. 
 Mining Engineers, American Institute 
 of, officers of the, 349. 
 
 Mining Engineers, American Institute 
 
 of, rules of the, 348. 
 Mining, Engineers, Institute of, 92. 
 Mining, English deep, expense of, 238. 
 Mining Exchange, Chicago, 506. 
 Mining Exchange, The Rico, 506. 
 Mining Exchanges, New York, table 
 exhibiting the prices of stocks and 
 number of shares sold at the, 488. 
 Mining Exhibition, The National, at 
 
 Denver, Colorado, 350. 
 Mining Exhibition, The National, at 
 Denver, Colorado, departments of, 
 353. 
 Mining Exhibition, The National, at 
 
 Denver, Colo., officers of the, 351. 
 Mining explosions and mining warnings, 
 
 825. 
 Mining and geology, course in, in the 
 
 Pennsylvania University, 272. 
 Mining in Germany, scheme of organ- 
 izing, 548. 
 Mining in Germany : system of admini- 
 stration, 548. 
 Mining in Greece, 544. 
 Mining, Greek, the three periods of, 544. 
 Mining, hydraulic, in California, 902. 
 Mining, hydraulic, in California, table 
 
 of the yield of, 699. 
 Mining, hydraulic, changes in navigable 
 
 waters by, 700, 701. 
 Mining, hydraulic, a governmental re- 
 port on the evils of, 693. 
 Mining, hydraulic, the great evils of, 
 
 688 to 693. 
 Mining, hydraulic, industry, the, 694. 
 Mining, hydraulic, table of velocities 
 
 and discharges in, 761. 
 Mining, hydraulic, wrought iron pipe 
 for, table of the construction of, 902. 
 Mining, improvement in, 82. 
 Mining industries, increase in the 
 
 amount of capital in, 239. 
 Mining industry, commencement of the 
 
 hydraulic, 89. 
 Mining industry and geology of Lead- 
 
 ville, Colorado, 162. 
 Mining interest, foreign facts of, 159. 
 Mining interests, the dissemination of 
 
 knowledge concerning, 267. 
 Mining interests of the west, the, 506. 
 Mining, iron, at Lake Superior, the 
 
 commencement of, 89. 
 Mining Journals, 267. 
 Miningjurisprudence, authorities on, 542 
 Mining laboratory of the Massachusetts 
 
 Institute of Technology, 318. 
 Mining law of England, 553. 
 Mining law, existing, provisions of the, 
 
 620. 
 Mining law, Mexican, based on Spanish 
 
 law : J. A. Rockwell, 549. 
 Mining law in the Middle Ages, 546. 
 Mining law, new Prussian, review of the, 
 
 550, 551, 552. 
 Mining law, the Spanish, 549. 
 Mining law, Spanish, the basis of Mexi- 
 can law : J. A. Rockwell, 549. 
 Mining law of the States and Territo- 
 ries, 664. 
 Mining laws of Arizona, 667 to 670. 
 Mining laws of California, 674. 
 Mining laws of Colorado, 670 to 674. 
 Mining laws of Dakota, 666. 
 Mining laws, German, 546, 547. 
 Mining laws of Idaho, 665. 
 Mining laws of Illinois, 677. 
 Mining laws, local, in California, 615. 
 Mining laws of Massachusetts, 682. 
 Mining laws of Montana, 676. 
 
 Mining laws of New Mexico, 674. 
 Mining laws of Xevnda, 664. 
 Mining laws of Ohio, 678, 679. 
 Mining laws of Oregon, 665. 
 Mining law.s of Pennsylvania, 680 to 682. 
 Mining laws and regulations, 542. 
 Mining laws of the United States, rights 
 under the, recent decisions affecting, 
 633. 
 Mining laws of Utah, 675. 
 Mining laws of Wyoming, 676. 
 Mining, lead, 87. 
 Mining lease, form of, 727. 
 Mining leases in Germany, 549. 
 Mining legislation prior to 1866, retro- 
 spect of, 619. 
 Mining legislation. United States, 542. 
 Mining legislation of the United States, 
 
 90. 
 Mining locations and patents, number 
 
 of; 621. 
 Mining the mass copper of the Lake 
 
 Superior mines, method of, 146. 
 Mining material, hydraulic, moved an- 
 nually, estimate of, 696. 
 Mining and metallurgical art, science 
 and industry from 1875 to 1881, 
 progress in, 95. 
 Mining and metallurgical products, lead- 
 ing, during the ten years 1871-80, 
 statement of annual production of, 
 96. 
 Mining and metallurgical terms, a glos- 
 sary of, 729 to 750. 
 Mining and metallurgy among the 
 
 ancients, 8. 
 Mining and metallurgy, course in, in 
 
 the Lehigh University, 275. _ 
 Miningand metallurgy, course in, in the 
 Massachusetts Institute of Tech- 
 nology, 315. 
 Mining and metallurgy ot'Lehigh Uni- 
 versity, at Bethlehem, school of, 92. 
 Mining and metallurgy in the Uuited 
 
 States, a century of, 86. 
 Mining methods, primitive, 80. 
 Mining and milling Marmora ore, the 
 
 cost of, 145. 
 Mining and mining law among the an- 
 cients, 542. 
 Mining, natural denudation in, 699. 
 Mining in New Spain, Royal ordinances 
 
 relative to, 686. 
 Mining in Nova Scotia gold fields, 
 
 method of, 246. 
 Mining operations of white men, the 
 
 first recorded, 87. 
 Mining, the origin of, 542. 
 Mining, on the Pacific slope, early days 
 
 of, 78. 
 Mining and practical geology of Har- 
 vard University, at Cambridge, 
 school of, 92. 
 Mining, practical part of, 769. 
 Mining, practical, a summer school of, 
 
 296. 
 Mining as a promoter of crime, 794. 
 Mining property in England, views of 
 
 Lord Denman on right to, 555. 
 Mining property, the right of, vested 
 
 by alienation, 553. 
 Mining property, the right of, vested 
 
 by custom, 554. 
 Mining property, the right of, vested 
 
 by prescription, 554. 
 Mining, prosperous, the effects of, 436. 
 Mining purposes, steam engine for, 
 
 earliest mention of, 16. 
 Mining region. Southern auriferous 
 slate deposits of the, 119. 
 
XXX 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Mining regions, 769. 
 
 Mining regions of the United States, 
 unfamiliar, 108. 
 
 Mining, remedial measures in, 704 to 
 706. 
 
 Mining, the romance of, 769. 
 
 Mining, the romance of, 782. 
 
 Mining of the Romans, 545. 
 
 Mining and scientific press of the 
 United States, the, 355. 
 
 Mining shares, the future for, 523. 
 
 Mining Stock Brokers and mining 
 Stock Exchanges, law of, 468. 
 
 Mining Stock Exchange, the American, 
 482. 
 
 Mining Stock Exchange, the Americcn, 
 by-laws of the, 482 to 484. 
 
 Mining Stock Exchange, the American, 
 rules and regulations of the, 484 to 
 487. 
 
 Mining Stock Exchange, the American, 
 stocks listed and called at, 487- 
 
 Mining Stock Exchange, the New 
 York, constitution and by-laws of, 
 476 to 482. 
 
 Mining Stock Exchange, a new, 482. 
 
 Mining Stock Exchange, the New 
 York, names of the stocks listed at 
 the, 481. 
 
 Mining Stock Exchanges, 475. 
 
 Mining Stock Exchanges the Philadel- 
 phia, and the Philadelphia market, 
 491 
 
 Mining and Stock Exchange, Bos- 
 ton, 502. 
 
 Mining and Stock Exchange, Boston, 
 by-laws of the, 504 and 505. 
 
 Mining and Stock Exchange, Boston, 
 constitution of the, 502 and 503. 
 
 Mining and Stock Exchange, the Na- 
 tioiial, 496. 
 
 Mining and Stock Exchange, the Phila- 
 delphia, 495. 
 
 Mining and Stock Exchange, St. Louis, 
 506. 
 
 Mining stock market, the, 487. 
 
 Mining stock market and Exchange, 
 the San Francisco, 515. 
 
 Mining Stocks, course of prices for the 
 most active, 492 and 493. 
 
 Mining Stocks, legal decision relative 
 to, 728. 
 
 Mining Stocks, prominent, in San Fran- 
 cisco, table of prices of the, 523. 
 
 Mining suits, form of certificate relative 
 to, 722. 
 
 Mining in the South, gold, 89. 
 
 Mining surveys and publications, char- 
 ges for, 628. 
 
 Mining, tin, and the- California ores of 
 tin, 157. 
 
 Mining tools, 874. 
 
 Mining, transmission of power by Elec- 
 tricity in, 814. 
 
 Mining ventilation, 808, 
 
 Mining work. Electricity in, 813. 
 
 Mining, the wreck wrought by, 793. 
 
 Minnesota, 68. 
 
 Minor beds of treasure, 108. 
 
 Minute on the standard of the United 
 States, 459. 
 
 Mint, amount and character of deposits 
 at the, 359. 
 
 Mint, Carson, 363. 
 
 Mint, Carson, comparison of the opera- 
 tions of 1880 and 1881 at the, 363. 
 
 Mint charges, effect of, upon the ratio 
 of value between precious metals, 
 404. 
 Mint, director of the, report of, 359. 
 
 Mint, director of the, report of the 
 
 precious metals, in the United 
 
 States in 1881, 1047. 
 Mint, free coinage at the, 421. 
 Mint, New Orleans, 363. 
 Mint, New Orleans, comparison of the 
 
 purchases and deposits for 1880 
 
 and 1881 at the, 363. 
 Mint, Philadelphia, 362. 
 Mint, Philadelphia, comparison of the 
 
 operations of 1880 and 1881 at the, 
 
 362. 
 Mint, ratios of Spain, 407. 
 Mint, reports of 1874 and 1881 relative 
 
 to the production of gold and sil- 
 ver in the United States, 457. 
 Mint, San Francisco, comparative values 
 
 of deposits, etc., in the, 362. 
 Mint, St. Petersburg, table of the gold 
 
 and silver coined in the, 387. 
 Mints and assay ofBees, United States, 
 
 deposit of gold and silver at the, 
 
 from their organization to June 30, 
 
 1881, 367. 
 Mints and assay offices. United States, 
 
 loss and wastages on sale of sweeps 
 
 at the, 367. 
 Mints and assay offices, United States, 
 
 statement of earnings and expen- 
 ditures of the, 366. 
 Mints, coinage and distribution at the, 
 
 361. 
 Mints, coining, and the Now York as- 
 say office, statement showing the 
 
 purchases at the, 360. 
 Mints of Mexico, coinage of the, by 
 
 fiscal years, table of the, 394. 
 Mints of Mexico, tables showing the 
 
 deposits of gold and silver at the, 
 
 393. 
 Mints of Mexico, total coinage of the, 
 
 from their establishment to June 
 
 30, 1879, table of the, 394. 
 Mint, San Francisco, 362. 
 Mints, Swiss, summary of the coinage 
 
 of the, from 1850 to the end of 1879, 
 
 390. 
 Mints, United States, statement relative 
 
 to the melts of ingots at the, 367. 
 Miscellaneous notes, 755. 
 Miscellaneous provisions relating to the 
 
 {)ublic lands, 608. 
 Mispickel veins of Marmora, Ontario, 
 
 Canada, the gold-bearing, 143. 
 Missouri, 67. 
 
 Missouri iron ore, analysis of, 209. 
 Missouri, iron region, 213. 
 Missouri, Joplin, 110. 
 Missouri, lead district, the southeast, 
 
 110. 
 Missouri, Mineral Point, 112. 
 Missouri, " Old Mines " Tract, 111. 
 Missouri, southeast, the oldest rock of, 
 
 111. 
 Missouri, southern, the" zinc deposits 
 
 of, 109. 
 Missouri, Washington County, 110. 
 Missourian, fourth, or Western bitu- 
 minous coal basin, 112. 
 Mode of blasting, 907. 
 Model of a stock certificate, 723. 
 Modern German Codes, 550. 
 Modern production of the precious 
 
 metals, principal epochs in the, 434. 
 Modern times, the ratio between gold 
 
 and silver of, 409. 
 Modern world, comparative yield of the 
 
 great gold fields of the, 397. 
 Modified Idria furnace, 148. 
 Modified Idria furnace, cost of, 150. 
 
 Modified Idria furnace, cost of reduction 
 
 by the, 150. 
 Monetary contraction crises, slow, efiects 
 
 of, 418. 
 Monetary conveyances, surplus, 422. 
 Monetary crises, extract from the views 
 
 of Albert Gallatin on, 417. 
 Monetary functions, local, of coin, 447. 
 Monetary metals, value of the, 422. 
 Monetary question, views of Mr. Jevons 
 
 on the, 425. 
 Monetary situation of the Kingdom of 
 
 Norway, the, 383. 
 Monetary standards, present, of the 
 
 nations of the world, 455. 
 Money and Bi-metallism, 359. 
 Monev, commonplace fallacies concern- 
 ing, 414. 
 Money, convertible payer, table showing 
 
 the ratio of, to population, 452. 
 Money, current, earliest mention of 
 
 precious metals as, 437. 
 Money, elements that determine the 
 
 value of, 403. 
 Money, fiat, the theory of, 421. 
 Money, how it is made, 359. 
 Money, how it is made, 460, 461, 462. 
 Money, increase of, needed, 442. 
 Money, paper, and banks, 452. 
 Money, paper, first use of, in the United 
 
 States, 452. 
 Money, permatient value of, 424. 
 Money, power of the law with regard 
 
 to, 421. 
 Money, question, the, 359. 
 Money, Russian paper, date and pro- 
 gress of, 452. 
 Money, the value of the precious metals 
 
 but slightly affected by their em- 
 ployment as, 438. 
 Money, views of Locke on the nature 
 
 and functions of, 437. 
 Money, views of Mr. Bonamy Price on 
 
 the value of, 415. 
 Money, volume of, and population of 
 
 Western nations, estimate of the, 
 
 442. 
 Money, what determines the value of, 
 
 420. 
 Money, why gold and silver are used 
 
 for, 434. 
 Montana, crude bullion and mill pro- 
 duct, statistics of tenth census, 977. 
 Montana, mineral production of, report 
 
 of the surveyor-general on the, 661. 
 Montana, mining laws of, 676. 
 Montana, production of deep mines, 
 
 statistics of tenth census, 976. 
 Montana, report of the director of the 
 
 mint for 1881, 1084, 1088. 
 Montana, table relative to the ore field 
 
 of Butte district, 513. 
 Montana, table showing the value of 
 
 gold and silver bullion at Helena 
 
 518. 
 Montour County, Pennsylvania, 71. 
 Moosehead Lake, 135. 
 Morris County, N. J., 127, 128. 
 Most notable mining districts in the 
 
 nineteenth century, the, 435. 
 Mountain, Clinch, southwestern Vir- 
 ginia, 125. 
 Mountain, Fourche, 109. 
 Mountain, Jackson Iron, 65. 
 Mountain region of Central Penns3'lva- 
 
 nia, the, 211. 
 Mountain, South, Pa., 127. 
 Mountain, Table. 250. 
 Mountain tract of laurentian rocks, 122. 
 Mountains, Appalachian, 208. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 XXXI 
 
 Mountains, Naciraiento, New Mexico, 
 
 225. 
 Mountains, Rocky, mineral deposits 
 
 east of the, 224. 
 " Mountain, Table," 83. 
 Mount Desert, 138. 
 Mount Riga, Conn., 130. 
 Mounted high pressure boiler, 828. 
 Mosquito Range, table of average sec- 
 tion in, 164. 
 Mosquito porphyry, 167. 
 Movements of the precious metals, the, 
 
 419. 
 Movement of specie in France from 
 
 1850 to 1878, table showing the, 
 
 381. 
 Mulhall, Mr., estimates of, upon gold 
 
 and silver, 451. 
 
 NACIMIENTO Mountains, New Mex- 
 ico, 225. 
 
 Nail making, 38. 
 
 Nails, 24. 
 
 Names for minerals, curious, 124. 
 
 Names of the stocks tested at the New 
 York Mining Stock Exchange, 481. 
 
 National debts, table showing the prin- 
 cipal causes of, 453. 
 
 National Independence, table of jsro- 
 duction of leading metals and mine- 
 rals in the United States during 
 the first century of, 94. 
 
 National mining exhibition at Denver, 
 Colorado, 350. 
 
 National miuing exhibition at Denver, 
 Colorado, departments of the, 353. 
 
 National mining exhibition at Denver, 
 Colorado, officers of the, 351. 
 
 National mining and stock exchange, 
 496. 
 
 Nationality, the miner's, 228. 
 
 Nations, table showing the expenditure 
 of, 453. 
 
 Nations, western, population and vol- 
 ume of money of, estimate of the, 
 442. 
 
 Nations, western, silver stecked by, 440. 
 
 Nations of the world, present monetary 
 standards of the, 455. 
 
 Native copper, 4. 
 
 Native gold, 5. 
 
 Native iron, 5. 
 
 Native lead, 5. 
 
 Native mercury, 6. 
 
 Native silver, 6. 
 
 Native zinc, 7. 
 
 Natural denudation in mining, 699. 
 
 Natural history, course in, in the Law- 
 rence scientific school, 309. 
 
 Natural ventilation, 809. 
 
 Nature of accidents in Prussian mines, 
 816. 
 
 Nature of air, 806. 
 
 Nature and fiinctions of money, views 
 of Locke on the, 437. 
 
 Navigable waters, changes in, by hy- 
 draulic mining, 700 & 701. 
 
 Navigable waters, deposits of detritus 
 in tributaries of, 702. 
 
 Nebraska, 68. 
 
 Net and gross imports of silver into 
 this country from 1835 to 1849, 
 440. 
 
 Net imports of American silver coin, 
 statement by countries of the, 372. 
 
 Net import of tin in the United States, 
 538. 
 
 Nevada, mineral production of, report 
 of the surveyor-general on the, 
 661 & 662. 
 
 Nevada, bullion product, by counties, 
 tenth census, 960. 
 
 Nevada mines, taxed product of, tenth 
 census, 960. 
 
 Nevada, mining laws of, 664. 
 
 Nevada, report of the, director of the 
 mint for 1881, 1069-1078. 
 
 Nevada, statistics of productions of 
 mines of, tenth census, 959. 
 
 Nevada, table of the ore yield in, by 
 counties, 608. 
 
 New Almaden, California, 147. 
 
 New Almaden works, 150. 
 
 New Almaden, production of quicksilver 
 at, for twenty-three years and three 
 months, 94. 
 
 New Almaden quicksilver mine, com- 
 mencement of the, 89. 
 
 Newberry, Prof., theory of, on the ,for- 
 mation of silver sandstone deposits, 
 224. 
 
 Newberry, S. S., classification of ore de- 
 posits, 927. 
 
 Newburyport,,assay of ore at, 132. 
 
 Newburyport, assay of gray copper at, 
 132. 
 
 Newburyport, the silver mines Oj", 132. 
 
 New developments, 85. 
 
 New discoveries, 83. 
 
 New discovery — Little Chief case, deci- 
 sion relative to the, 654. 
 
 New England colonies, iron manufac- 
 ture in the, 33. 
 
 New England, first silver pieces coined 
 in, 34. 
 
 Newfoundland, gold in, 140. 
 
 New Haven, Yale College; Sheffield 
 Scientific School, 305. 
 
 New Jersey, 39. 
 
 New Jersey, the anthracite and mag- 
 netic iron ore districts of, 210. 
 
 New Jersey Central Railroad, tonnage 
 of coal on, 1037. 
 
 New Jersey, copper mining records, 87. 
 
 New Jersey, Hoboken ; the Stevens In- 
 stitute of Technology, 299. 
 
 New Jersey iron-ore beds, essential feat- 
 ures of 129. 
 
 New Jersey, magnetic iron ores of, 127. 
 
 New Jersey, Morris county, 127 and 128. 
 
 New Jersey, northern magnetic iron ore 
 in, 39. 
 
 New Jersey, Sussex county, 128. 
 
 New Jersey, valuations of mines of iron 
 ore in, 942. 
 
 New Jersey, Warren county, 127 and 
 128. 
 
 Newton, law of universal bimetallism, 
 426. 
 
 New Mexico, the copper yield of, 512. 
 
 New Mexico, production of deep mines, 
 statistics of tenth census, 977. 
 
 New Mexico, mineral production of, re- 
 port of the surveyor-general on the, 
 663. 
 
 New Mexico, mineral resources of, 512. 
 
 New Mexico, mining laws of, 674. 
 
 New Mexico, Nacimiento Mountains, 
 225. 
 
 New mineral localities in California, 
 248. 
 
 New mining stock exchange, 482. 
 
 New Orleans mint, comparison of the 
 purchases and deposits for 1880 and 
 1881 at the, 363. 
 
 Newport, R. I., 131. 
 
 New Prussian mining law, review of the, 
 550, 551 and 552. 
 
 New River, Va., 125 and 126. 
 
 New South Wales, 262. 
 
 New South Wales, gold receipts from, 
 432. 
 
 New South Wales, imports and exports 
 of gold by sea aud land into and 
 from, 391. 
 
 New South Wales, iron works in, 260. 
 
 New South Wales, tin in, 157. 
 
 New Spain, principal ordinances rela- 
 tive to mining in, 686. 
 
 Newspaper publication, form of note for, 
 722. 
 
 New York, 38. 
 
 New York, the anthracite and magnetic 
 iron ore districts of, 210. 
 
 New York assay oflice and coining 
 mints, statement showing the pur- 
 chases at the, 360, 
 
 New York assay office, value of deposits 
 and bars manufactured during 1880 
 and 1881 at the, 363. 
 
 New York, average price of domestic 
 lead of; 538. 
 
 New York, Columbia College — school 
 of mines, 282. 
 
 New York, iron and metal exchanges, 
 524. 
 
 New York iron and metal exchange, by- 
 laws of the, 524 to 526. 
 
 New York iron and metal exchange, 
 code of rules of the, 527 and 528. 
 
 New York, Ithaca ; Cornell University, 
 320. 
 
 New York market, currency and gold 
 prices of staple articles in the, 
 compared with the ratio of circula- 
 tion to population and wealth, 380. 
 
 New York market, prices of staple arti- 
 ■ cles in the, from 1825 to 1880, 380. 
 
 New York market, staple articles in the, 
 table showing the annual average 
 gold and currency prices of, 374 to 
 379. 
 
 New York mining exchanges, tables ex- 
 hibiting the prices or stocks and 
 number of shares sold at the, 488. 
 
 New York mining stock exchange, con- 
 stitution and by-laws of the, 476 to 
 482. 
 
 New York mining stock exchange, 
 namesofthe stocks listed at the, 481. 
 
 New York mining stock market, 475. 
 
 New York, Orange county, 38. 
 
 New York, prices of common spelter at, 
 539. 
 
 New York, prices for Lake Superior 
 copper at, 536. 
 
 New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio rail- 
 road, tonnage of coal on, 1039. 
 
 New York, school of mines of Columbia 
 College at, 92. 
 
 New York stock exchange, annals of 
 the, 470. 
 
 New York stock exchange, government 
 of the, 490. 
 
 New York stock exchange, table exhib- 
 iting the prices of stocks and num- 
 ber of shares sold at the, 489. 
 
 New York, table of prices for iron in, 
 530. 
 
 New York, table of the prices of tin in, 
 537. 
 
 New York, table showing the value, in 
 currency, ingot copper at, 536. 
 
 New York, valuations of mines of iron 
 ore in, 942. 
 
 New Zealand, the coal production o^ 
 260. 
 
 New Zealand, exports and imports of 
 gold coin from and into, 392. 
 
 New Zealand, the gold yield of, 433. 
 
XXXll 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Nickel, 5. 
 
 Nickel and Cobalt, 87. 
 
 Nickel ores of Orford, Quebec, Canada, 
 142. 
 
 Nickel vein at Orford, analysis of, 142. 
 
 Nineteenth century, middle of the, 89. 
 
 Nineteenth century, the most notable 
 mining districts opened in the, 435. 
 
 Nips, 99. 
 
 Nitre, spirits of, 9. 
 
 Nitric Acid, 9. 
 
 Noble, or precious metals, metallurgy of 
 the, 887. 
 
 Nomenclature, provisional, of the sec- 
 ond geological survey of Penna., 
 Prof. Lesley's, 738. 
 
 Non-continuous furnaces, 147. 
 
 Non-precious mineral industries, com- 
 parative view of the, 239. 
 
 Non-precious mineral industries, our, 
 237. 
 
 Non-precious minerals of the United 
 States, production of, during the 
 year ending June 1st, 1880, 237. 
 
 Norman iron, 23. 
 
 North America, iron ores of, 208. 
 
 North America, production of gold in, 
 431. 
 
 North California, notes on the treat- 
 ment of mercury in, 146. 
 
 North Carolina, 57. 
 
 North Carolina, Alexander county, 124. 
 
 North Carolina, Ashe county, 125, 126. 
 
 North Carolina, the discovery of emer- 
 alds in, 124. 
 
 North Carolina emeralds, commercial 
 value of, 125. 
 
 North Carolina emeralds, peculiar fea- 
 tures of, 124. 
 
 North Carolina, gold drifts in, 121. 
 
 North Carolina, the gold gravels of, 
 their structure and origin, 120. 
 
 North Carolina, iron ore in, 32. 
 
 North Carolina, the Jenks Corundum 
 mine, Macon county, 121. 
 
 North Carolina, original discoverer and 
 tracer of the chrysolite belt, 124. 
 
 North Carolina, report of the Director 
 of the mint for 1881, 1102 to 1105. 
 
 North Carolina and Tennessee, primitive 
 character of the iron works of, 61. 
 
 North Carolina, Tom's Creek, 58. 
 
 North Carolina and Va., state of gold 
 found, 6. 
 
 North Iron Hill, 173. 
 
 North Pacific coast, the gold bluffs and 
 gold beaches on the, 156. 
 
 North and South Alabama railroad, 
 workable beds adjoining, 117. 
 
 North, South and East, mineral lands 
 of the, 108. 
 
 Northern coal fields, the great, 243. 
 
 Northern Illinois iron region, 213. 
 
 Norway, gold, silver and paper money 
 in, 385, 386. 
 
 Northwest Territory, mineral reserva- 
 tions in, 613. 
 
 Norway, kingdom of, the monetary sit- 
 uation of the, 383. 
 
 Norway and Sweden, industrial em- 
 ployment of silver and gold in, 383. 
 
 Note on Hoefer's method of determin- 
 ing faults in mineral veins, 919. 
 
 Notes, metallurgical, 179, 180. 
 
 Notes, miscellaneous, 765. 
 
 Notes and specie of the banks of British 
 Columbia, general abstract showing 
 the, 393. 
 
 Notes on the Tseatment of mercury in 
 North California, 146. 
 
 Notice and diagram on claim, posting, 
 form of proof of, 721. 
 
 Notice of forfeiture of a claim, form of, 
 720. 
 
 Notice of locating a claim, form of, 720. 
 
 Notice for newspaper publication, form 
 of, 722. 
 
 Notice, posting, form of register's certi- 
 ficate of, 722. 
 
 Notices, Historical, and memoranda, 1. 
 
 Nova Scotia, auriferous veins in the 
 slate bands of, 246. 
 
 Nova Scotia coal imported into United 
 States, 1042. 
 
 Nova Scotia, coal strata of, 97. 
 
 Nova Scotia and Colorado, cost of min- 
 ing in, 761. 
 
 Nova Scotia gold fields, methods of min- 
 ing in, 246. 
 
 Nova Scotia, the gold fields of, 245. 
 
 Nova Scotia gold fields — general annual 
 summary, 248. 
 
 Nova Scotia granites, views of Dr. 
 Dawson on the, 245. 
 
 Nova Scotia, mineral productions of in 
 1881, 1045. 
 
 Nova Scotia ores, assays of, 247. 
 
 Nova Scotia ores, estimated cost of 
 crushing, 247. 
 
 Nova Scotia strata, 141. 
 
 Novel feature to a foreign geologist, 124. 
 
 Nozzles, hydraulic, mechanical and 
 legal history of, 904. 
 
 Nuggets, gold, and placer deposits, the 
 formation of, 218. 
 
 Number of mining locations and pat- 
 ents, 621. 
 
 Number of savings banks and deposits 
 in Europe, 453. 
 
 Number of shares sold and prices of 
 stocks at the New York Stock Ex- 
 change, table exhibiting the, 489. 
 
 Number of shares sold and prices of 
 stocks at the New York Mining 
 Exchanges, table exhibiting the, 
 488. 
 
 Number and thickness of the coal-beds 
 of Alabama, 117. 
 
 Number and value of the Comstock 
 shares in 1881, 522. 
 
 Number of suicides in San Francisco 
 reported, 796. 
 
 Nutt and Branson, the enterprises of, 
 44. 
 
 OBJECTIONS to masonry conden- 
 sers, 155. 
 
 Obryzum, 9. 
 
 Obtaining government title to vein or 
 lode claims, method of, 625. 
 
 Ocean waters, gold in, 204. 
 
 Occurrence and succession of rocks in 
 the Comstock, 191. 
 
 Occurrence of Vanadates of lea;d at the 
 Castle Dome mines, 251. 
 
 Offering and sale, public, disposal of 
 public lands by, 595. 
 
 Office, general land, 563. 
 
 Office, general land, annual report for 
 1881, summary of the, 655. 
 
 Office, general land, the department of 
 the Interior, and land officers, rules 
 of practice before the, 680 to 633. 
 
 Office, land, general, duties of the com- 
 missioner of the, 563 to 567. 
 
 Office, general lanrl, geological surveys 
 of public domain under, 574. 
 
 Office, general land, hearingsof the, to 
 establish the character of lands 
 629. ' 
 
 Office, general land, importance of the, 
 567. 
 
 Office, general land, rulings of the, rel- 
 ative to adverse claims, 626. 
 
 Office, general land, present organiza- 
 tion of the, 567. 
 
 Office, general land, rulings of the, rel- 
 ative to mill sites, 628. 
 
 Office, general land, rulings of the, rel- 
 ative to tunnel rights, 625. 
 
 Office, general laud, rulings of the, 623. 
 
 Office, general land, subdivision of the, 
 567. 
 
 Office, the land, and its prerogatives, 
 542. 
 
 Office, New York Assay, 363. 
 
 Office, New York assay, and coining 
 mints, statement showing the pur- 
 chases at the, 360. 
 
 Office, New York assay, value of depos- 
 its and bars manufactured during 
 1880 and 1881 at the, 363. 
 
 Offices, assay, at Charlotte, Helena, 
 Boise City and St. Louis, and the 
 Denver mint, work done at the, 
 363. 
 
 Offices, assay, and mints, United States 
 deposit of gold and silver in the, 
 from their organization to June 30, 
 1881, 367. ' 
 
 Offices, assay, and mints, United States, 
 statement of earnings and expend- 
 itures of the, 366. 
 
 Offices, assay, and mints, United States, 
 wastages and loss on sale of sweeps 
 at the, 367. 
 
 Offices of Surveyor General, list of, 
 from May 10, 1800 to June 30, 1880, 
 569. 
 
 Officers of the American Institute of 
 mining engineers, 349. 
 
 Officers of the Iron and Metal Exchange 
 Co., limited, 529. 
 
 Officers, Land and Districts, 585 to 595. 
 
 Offices, Land, the General Land Office 
 and the Department of the Interior, 
 rules of practice before, 630 to 
 633. 
 
 Officers of the National Mining Ex- 
 hibition at Denver, Col., 351. 
 
 Officers of the San Francisco Stock and 
 Exchange Board, 515. 
 
 Offices of Surveyors-General, and sur- 
 _ veying and districts, table of, 577. 
 
 Ohio coal miners, classified, statistics of 
 tenth census, 1007. 
 
 Ohio, first iron enterprises in, 62. 
 
 Ohio, mining laws of, 678, 679. 
 
 Ohio river, 4. 
 
 Ohio river, 8. 
 
 Ohio river, 63. 
 
 Old Boonton, on Eockaway river, 41. 
 
 " Old Mines " tract. Mo., 111. 
 
 Oldest ironmaster in the United States. 
 71. ' 
 
 Oldest mine in Arkansas, 108. 
 
 Oldest rocks of southeast Missouri, 111. 
 
 Oil aria, 10. 
 
 Ontario, Canada, the gold-bearing mis- 
 pickel veins of Marmora, 143. 
 
 Ontonagon river, 75. 
 
 Opacity of original corundum beds, 123. 
 
 Open letter of R. W. Raymond relative 
 to mineral lands, 556 to 562. 
 
 Open-hearth steel, Martin process for 
 the manufacture of, 90. 
 
 Open-hearth steel in Great Britain, 255. 
 
 Opening of the anthracite co.al-fields 
 and the use of anthracite in the 
 blast furnace, 89. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 XXXIU 
 
 Open-hearth steel, productionof, report 
 in tenth census, 1016. 
 
 Opening of the Suez Canal, 441. 
 
 Openings, cave, 111. 
 
 Operations on the Oomstock lode, three 
 hases of, 183. 
 
 Operation of a mine, 840 to 848. 
 
 Operations of 1880 and 1881 at the Car- 
 son mint, comparison of the, 363. 
 
 Operations of 1880 and 1881 at the 
 Philadelphia mint, comparison of, 
 362. 
 
 Operations, insuring continuous, 93. 
 
 Operations, mining, of white men, the 
 first recorded, 87. 
 
 Ore, argillaceous, 4. 
 
 Ore-beds, the dip of, 128. 
 
 Ore bodies, the electrical activity of, 
 196. 
 
 Ore, the blackband, 119. 
 
 Ore, bog, 3, 53. 
 
 Ore, buttermilk, 6. 
 
 Ore, dyestone, 209. 
 
 Orange county, N. Y., 38. 
 
 Order of structure and estimates upon 
 Yuba river, table showing, 706. 
 
 Ordinances, royal, relative to mining in 
 New Spain, 686. 
 
 Ore, conveyance and raising of, 915. 
 
 Ore, "Clinton," 209. 
 
 Ore deposit in Silurian rocks, 110. 
 
 Ore deposits, bedded, 162. 
 
 Ore deposits, constant currents in a 
 region of, 197. 
 
 Ore deposits, geological relation of, 203. 
 
 Ore deposits, lateral secretion of, in the 
 Comstock, 193. 
 
 Ore deposits, Leadville, distribution of, 
 171. 
 
 Ore deposits, origin and classification 
 of, by 8. S. Newberry, 927. 
 
 Ore deposits, Pumpelly's division of, 
 169. 
 
 Ore deposits, scientific classification of, 
 by Von Cotta, 169. 
 
 Ore, " fiaxseed," 209. 
 
 Ore, " fossil," analysis of, 210. 
 
 Ore, "fossil," 209. 
 
 Ore, iron, 95. 
 
 Ore, the iron, and anthracite coal of 
 Rhode Island and Massachusetts, 
 131. 
 
 Ore, iron, in North Carolina, 32. 
 
 Ore at Iron Hill, 172. 
 
 Ore, iron, and pig-iron at Lake Super- 
 ior, production of, 95. 
 
 Ore, iron, imported into the United States 
 in 1881, table of the quantity and 
 value of, 532. 
 
 Ore in lower horizons at Fryer Hill, 
 175. 
 
 Ore at Luckhart furnace, cost of treat- 
 ing, 151. , . 
 
 Ore, magnetic iron, and anthracite dis- 
 tricts of New York, New Jersey, 
 Pennsylvania and eastern Mary- 
 land, 210. 
 
 Ore, magnetic iron, in northern New 
 Jersey, 39. . 
 
 Ore, Marmora, the cost of mining and 
 milling, 145. 
 
 Ore, Marmora, uniformity of the gold 
 yield of, 145. 
 
 Ore, method of raising, Cornwall, 916. 
 
 Ore, Michigan iron, analysis of, 209. 
 
 Ore, Missouri iron, analysis of, 209. 
 
 Ore at Newburyport, assay of, 132. 
 
 Ore prospects and future explorations at 
 Fryer Hill, 177. 
 
 Ore, red iron, 3. 
 C 
 
 Ore, red zinc, 7. 
 
 Ore, sparry, 4. 
 
 Ore, spathic, 4. 
 
 Ore, temescal tin, analysis of, 158. 
 
 Ore, variegated copper, 249. 
 
 Ore veins, 137. 
 
 Ore veins, Von Cotta on the length and 
 depth of, 137. 
 
 Ore yield of Butte district, Montana, 
 Statistics relative to the, 513. 
 
 Ore yield in Nevada by counties, table 
 of the, 508. 
 
 Ore, zinc, 126. 
 
 Ore, zinc, England's production of in 
 1881, 539. 
 
 Oregon, 68. 
 
 Oregon, discovery of deposit of nickel 
 in, 953. 
 
 Oregon, the mines of, 510. 
 
 Oregon mines, southern, 511. 
 
 Oregon, mining laws of, 665. 
 
 Oregon, production of deep mines, sta- 
 tics of tenth census, 969. 
 
 Oregon, production of surface mining, 
 statistics of tenth census, 970. 
 
 Oregon, report of the directors of the 
 mint for 1881, 1078. 
 
 Ores, archsean, 127. 
 
 Ores, black band iron, 210. 
 
 Ores, Blue Hill, list of, 135. 
 
 Ores, Giles and Bland fossil, assay of 
 the, 125. 
 
 Ores, iron, 3. 
 
 Ores, iron, 125. 
 
 Ores, iron, of Austria, 207. 
 
 Ores of Idaho, the, 514. 
 
 Ores, iron of Africa, 208. 
 
 Ores, iron, of Belgium, 207. 
 
 Ores, iron, the distribution of, 159. 
 
 Ores, iron, of France, 206. 
 
 Ores, iron, of the German Empire, 207. 
 
 Ores, iron, and iron enterprises in Ply- 
 mouth county, Mass., 35. 
 
 Ores, iron, of North America, 208. 
 
 Ores, iron, of Russia, 206. 
 
 Ores, iron, of Spain, 208. 
 
 Ores, iron, of Sweden, 206. 
 
 Ores of iron, their geographical distri- 
 bution, 204. 
 
 Ores, lead and zinc, 125. 
 
 Ores, magnetic iron, analysis of, 209. 
 
 Ores, magnetic iron, of New Jersey, 
 127. 
 
 Ores, Maine, 137. 
 
 Ores, methods of treating in 1778, 15. 
 
 Ores, mostly from the Gatling mine, 
 assays of Canada gold mining com- 
 pany's, 145. 
 
 Ores, Nova Scotia, assays of, 247. 
 
 Ores, Nova Scotia, estimated cost of 
 crushing, 247. 
 
 Ores of Orford, Quebec, Canada, the 
 nickel, 142. 
 
 Ores, pond, 36. , . . 
 
 Ores, quicksilver, geographical position 
 
 of, 7. 
 
 Ores (and bullion) shipments of over 
 Central and Southern Pacific R. E. 
 to June 30, 1881— report of the Di- 
 rectors of the Mint, 1110—1114. 
 
 Ores, silver, in Maine, the first discovery 
 of, 139. 
 
 Ores of Southwestern Virginia, the 
 strictly fossil, 125. 
 
 Ores in the third magnesian limestone, 
 111. ^ ^. 
 
 Ores of tin, the California, and Tin 
 mining, 157. 
 
 Orford, Canada, the chrome-garnet 
 of, 142. 
 
 Orford, analysis of Nickel vein at, 142. 
 Orford, Quebec, Canada, the Nickel 
 
 ores of, 142. 
 Organic life in the production of iron, 
 
 202. 
 Organic life, efiect of, in gold solutions, 
 
 220. 
 Organization, the Government, 562. 
 Organization, present, of the general 
 
 land office, 567. 
 Organization and rules of Mining Camp 
 
 at Jacksonville, California, 618. 
 Organizing a mining district, present 
 
 method of, 618. 
 Oriental exchanges, consumption of sil- 
 ver as afiecting, 441. 
 Origin and classification of ore deposits, 
 
 by S. S. Newberry, 927. 
 Origin of coal, theory of, 931. 
 Origin and history oi coal, 97. 
 Origin of mining, 542. 
 Original corundum beds, opacity of, 
 
 123. 
 Original discover and tracer of the 
 
 chrysolite belt, N. C, 124. 
 Origin of gold, the Eastern, 430. 
 Origin of metalliferous deposits, 201. 
 Origin of minerals, 3. 
 Origin and structure of the gold gravels 
 
 of North Carolina, 120. 
 Oriskany sandstone, 127. 
 Osborne and Knox quicksilverfurnace, 
 
 estimated cost of building, 155. 
 Osborne and Knox fiirnace, estimated 
 
 cost of running, 155. 
 Osemond steel, 23. 
 Osemond iron, 23. 
 Osmium, 6. 
 Other minerals and metals found in 
 
 Maine, 136. 
 Our non-precious mineral industries, 
 
 237. 
 Output of anthracite coal in Pennsyl- 
 vania, 934. 
 Output of coal in difierent States, 1039. 
 Ownership of a claim in absence of 
 
 mining records, form of proof of, 
 
 722. 
 Ownership, legal, of fissure veins, 178. 
 Oxford county, Maine, 136. 
 Oxide of copper, black, 5. 
 Oxide of copper, red, 5. 
 Oxide of copper, siliceous, 5. 
 Oxide of iron removing, as a silicate, 
 
 in copper smelting, 884. 
 
 PACIFIC COAST, North, the gold 
 bluffs and gold beaches on the, 156. 
 
 Pacific exchange, 521. 
 
 Pacific Slope, early days of mining on 
 the. 78. 
 
 Pacific Slope, Congressional action as to 
 metals on the, 615. 
 
 Pacific stock exchange, 521. 
 
 Paleozoic formations, 164. 
 
 Palladium, 6. 
 
 Pan process for silver, Washoe, 90. 
 
 Paper circulation and bank reserve in 
 the Cape of Good Hope, 390. 
 
 Paper currency, gold and silver coin 
 and bullion in the banks of Austra- 
 lasia, 391. 
 
 Paper, gold and silver money in Nor- 
 way, 385, 386. 
 
 Paper money, convertible, table show- 
 ing the ratio of, to population, 452. 
 
 Paper money, first use of, in the United 
 States, 452. 
 
 Paper money, Russian, date and pro- 
 gress of, 452. 
 
XXXIV 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Paper money and banks, 425. 
 
 Paper, Prof. Blake's, oa the rare mine- 
 rals of California, 248. 
 
 Paper and specie circulation in France 
 from 1850 to 1878, table stowing 
 the, 382. 
 
 Papers, Baron von Eichthofen's, relating 
 to the geology of the Washoe dis- 
 trict, 188. 
 
 Paragenesis : Leadville deposits, 170. 
 
 Parallelism, zonal, of mining districts, 
 Mr. Clarence King on the, 222, 
 223. 
 
 Parallelism, zonal, of mining districts, 
 Prof. Blake on the, 222. 
 
 Parceling land, benefits of the present 
 system of, 575. 
 
 Parceling surveys, land, methods and 
 system of, 672. 
 
 Park, De Motte, Colorado, 770. 
 
 Parkfield colliery, England, 97. 
 
 Parliament, acts of, in the reign of 
 Henry VIII. and Edward VI, 14. 
 
 Parsonfield and Wakefield Belt, the, 
 136. 
 
 Part eighth, 729. 
 
 Part eleventh, 955. 
 
 Part fifth, 359. 
 
 Part first, 1. 
 
 Part four,th, 267. 
 
 Part ninth, 769. 
 
 Part second, 108. 
 
 Part seventh, 542. 
 
 Part sixth, 468. 
 
 Part tenth, 874. 
 
 Part third, 159. 
 
 Parting quartzite, 165. 
 
 Parunumcap, the, Colorado river, 772. 
 
 Pasco, silver mines of, pyrites, copper, 
 yellow, 31. 
 
 Patents, 91. 
 
 Patent for mining claim, form of appli- 
 cation for, 721. 
 
 Patent for placer claim, form of, 718. 
 
 Patent, power of attorney to apply for, 
 725. 
 
 Patent for vein or lode claim, form of, 
 719. 
 
 Patents, cost of, to the United States 
 and claimants, 620. 
 
 Patents and locations, mining, number 
 of, 621. 
 
 Patents for placer raining claims, state- 
 ment relative to, 621, 622. 
 
 Patents for placer claims, 620. 
 
 Patents for veins or lodes heretofore 
 issued, rights under, 624. 
 
 Patio, or Mexican yard process, 85. 
 
 Peat (alluvium), 2. 
 
 Peat, from, to anthracite, 98. 
 
 Peculiar feature of the North Carolina 
 emeralds, 124. 
 
 Peculiarity of tin mines, a, 158. 
 
 Pendery Fault at Carbonate hill, 174. 
 
 Pennsylvania, 41. 
 
 Pennsylvania, first iron works in, 42. 
 
 Pennsylvania, the anthracite and mag- 
 netic iron ore districts of, 210. 
 
 Pennsylvania, anthracite coal of, 930 to 
 
 934. 
 Pennsylvania, bituminous coal of, 935 
 
 to 939. 
 Pennsylvania coal miners' wages in 
 
 1881, 1040. 
 Pennsylvania, central, the mountain 
 
 region of, 211. 
 Pennsylvania, Easton, Lafayette College 
 
 at, 277. 
 Pennsylvania, facts relative to the an- 
 thracite coal fields of, 534. 
 
 Pennsylvania Coal Co., output of, 1037. 
 
 Pennsylvania, facts relative to the bitu- 
 minous coal fields of, 534. 
 
 Pennsylvania, the industrial school for 
 miners and mechanics at Drifton, 
 Luzerne Co., 280. 
 
 Pennsylvania, iron and steel production 
 of Allegheny County, report in tenth 
 census, 1028. 
 
 Pennsylvania, Johnstown, 52. 
 
 Pennsylvania, Mercer County, 73. 
 
 Pennsylvania, Montour County, 71. 
 
 Pennsylvania, mining laws of, 680 to 
 682. 
 
 Pennsylvania and New York Kailroad, 
 tonnage of coal on, 1036. 
 
 Pennsylvania, production of anthracite 
 coal in, 1033. 
 
 Pennsylvania, production of anthracite 
 Tjoal in, according to Saward's fig- 
 ures, 1035. 
 
 Pennsylvania, production of anthracite 
 coal from 1820 to 1881 — ^by years, 
 1034. 
 
 Pennsylvania, Schuylkill County, 47. 
 
 Pennsylvania, Spruce Creek in, 49. 
 
 Pennsylvania, South Mountain, 127. 
 
 Pennsylvania, the University of, 268, 
 269. 
 
 Pennsylvania University, course in 
 analytical and applied chemistry 
 and mineralogy in the, 270. 
 
 Pennsylvania University, course in civil 
 engineering in the, 272. 
 
 Pennsylvania University, course in 
 drawing and architecture in the, 272. 
 
 Pennsylvania University, course in 
 geology and mining in the, 272. 
 
 Pennsylvania University, course in me- 
 chanical engineering in the, 272. 
 
 Pennsylvania, Valley Furnace, 70. 
 
 Penobscot and Piscataquis counties, the 
 metalliferous slate belt of, 135. 
 
 Percentage of coin from gold and silver 
 operated upon by the coiners of the 
 mints, 1874 to 1881, 367. 
 
 Periods of Greek mining, the three, 544. 
 
 Period, Jurassic, 222. 
 
 Permanent value of money, 424. 
 
 Peroxide of tin, 7. 
 
 Persians and Egyptians, the mines of 
 the, 643. 
 
 Petrography, course in, in the Univer- 
 sity of California, 344. 
 
 Petroleum, 96. 
 
 Phenomena, heat, of the Comstock, 193. 
 
 Phenomena, contact, 168. 
 
 Phenomena, glacial, 168. 
 
 Phenomena, glacial, important facts 
 relative to, 168. 
 
 Philadelphia Market and the Philadel- 
 phia Mining Stock Exchanges, 494. 
 
 Philadelphia Mining Board of Trade, 
 the, 499. 
 
 Philadelphia Mining and Stock Ex- 
 change, the, 495. 
 
 Philadelphia Mining Stock Exchanges 
 and the Philadelphia Market, 494. 
 
 Philadelphia Mint, 362. 
 
 Philadelphia Mint, comparison of the 
 operations of 1880 and 1881 at the. 
 362. 
 
 Philadelphia and Reading Railroad, 
 
 tonnage of coal on, 1036. 
 Philadelphia Stock Market, the, 500. 
 Philips, Mr. J. Van Cleve, communica- 
 tion of, on sex in mineral veins. 
 797. 
 Phosphate of copper, 5. 
 Phosphate of lead, 5. 
 
 Physical benefit of labor, 268. 
 Physics, department of, in the Stevens 
 
 Institute of Technology, 304. 
 Physical geography and geology, course 
 
 in, in the Massachusetts Institute 
 
 of Technology, 315. 
 Physical geography of the Grand Can- 
 yon d'istrict, 769 to 782. 
 Physical investigations respecting the 
 
 Comstock lode, 196. 
 Physical limits of deep mining, £05. 
 Physical properties of metals, 893 to 
 
 900. 
 Physics and chemistry, course in, in 
 
 Cornell University, 324. 
 Pig iron 25, 26. 
 Pig iron, 95. 
 Pig iron, anthracite, 69. 
 Pig iron and direct castings, production 
 
 of, report of in Tenth Census, 1016. 
 Pig iron, production of in Belgium, 
 
 257. 
 Pig iron, production of in Great Britain, 
 
 262. 
 Pig iron production of, year 1881, report 
 
 in Tenth Census, 1022. 
 Pig iron, prices of in Great Britain, 254. 
 Pig iron, charcoal,. 60. 
 Pig iron, charcoal, 69. 
 Pig iron, Salisbury, 131. 
 Pig iron, production of in France, 256. 
 Pig iron and iron ore at Lake Superior, 
 
 production of, 95. 
 Pig iron in Mexico, cost of roasting, 
 
 216. 
 Pig iron, statistics of, in Great Britain, 
 
 26. 
 Pig lead, 126. 
 Pine Flat, California, 147. 
 Pine Grove Furnace, 63. 
 Pioneer district, Arizona, 512. 
 Pipe ore, 3. 
 Pipe, wrought iron, for gravel mines in 
 
 California, profile of, 902. 
 Pipe, wrought iron, for hydraulic min- 
 ing, table showing the construction 
 
 of, 902. 
 Pipe, wrought iron, table of rivets in, 904. 
 Pipes, iron, table of strain per sectional 
 
 inch of, 903. 
 Piscataquis and Penobscot counties, the 
 
 metalliferous slate belt of, 135. 
 Pitch of shoot, 129. 
 Pittsburg, 8. 
 Pittsburg, 101. 
 Pittsburg in 1829, 51. 
 Pittsburg, beginning of the iron indus- 
 try at, 51. 
 Pittsburg, table showing prices of iron 
 
 at, 531. 
 Pittsburg vein, 7, 8. 
 Pittsburg iron region, 211. 
 Pittston coal, circular prices of, in 1881, 
 
 1034. 
 Placer claim, form of patent for, 718. 
 Placer claims, patents for, 620. 
 Placer deposits and gold nuggets, the 
 
 formation of, 218. 
 Placer gold, average fineness of, report 
 
 of tenth census, 984. 
 Placer ground, quantity of, subject to 
 
 location, 627. 
 Placer leads traced to quartz, 81. 
 Placer mining claims, proof relative to 
 
 veins in, form of, 725. 
 Placer mining claims, statement relative 
 
 to patents for, 621, 622. 
 Plan of instruction in the Industrial 
 Schools for miners and mechanics, 
 281. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 XXXV 
 
 Placer mining act, July 9, 1870, 620. 
 
 Plan of conducting the Stevens Insti- 
 tute of Technology. 299, 300. 
 
 Plat and notice on claim, proof relative 
 to, form of, 721. 
 
 Plateau province, Colorado, 770. 
 
 Platinum, 6. 
 
 Platte River, 162. 
 
 Plumbum Candidum, 9. 
 
 Plumbum Nigrum, 10. 
 
 Plymouth county, Mass., iron ores and 
 iron enterprises in, 35. 
 
 Poetry of coal, 99. 
 
 Point, Byard's, Maine, 135. 
 
 Point, Keweenaw, 76. 
 
 Policy of the United States in relation 
 to mineral lands, 621. 
 
 Polk county, Arkansas, 108. 
 
 Pond ores, 36. 
 
 Population, actual circulation of bul- 
 lion as compared with, 451. 
 
 Population of the European world and 
 the estimated stock of gold and sil- 
 ver coin, table showing the, 401. 
 
 Population, table expressing the ratio 
 for, and for the estimated capital 
 value of each country, 453. 
 
 Population, table showing the ratio of 
 convertible paper money to, 452. 
 
 Population and volume of money of 
 western nations, estimate of the, 442. 
 
 Population and wealth, the ratio of cir- 
 culation to, compared with the 
 currency and gold prices of staple 
 articles in the New York market, 
 380. 
 
 Population and wealth of the United 
 States, ratio of, to circulation, 380. 
 
 Porphyrite, 167. 
 
 Porphyry, relative age of, 168. 
 
 Porphyry bodies, white, at Fryer Hill, 
 175. 
 
 Porphyry dike, gray, at Fryer Hill, 176. 
 
 Porphyry, gold in, 161. 
 
 Porphyry, gray, 166. 
 
 Porphyry, green, 167. 
 
 Porphyry, Leadville pyritiferous, esti- 
 mate of possible contents of, 171. 
 
 Porphyry, Leadville or white, 166. 
 
 Porphyry, Lincoln, 166. 
 
 Porphyry, mosquito, 167. 
 
 Porphyry, pyritiferous, 167. 
 
 Porphyry, Sacramento, 166. 
 
 Porphyry, Silverheels, 167. 
 
 Portable winding gear for mines, 829. 
 
 Portage lake, 74. 
 
 Portsmouth coal, analysis of, 131. 
 
 Portugal, statement showing exports of 
 gold and silver from, 388. 
 
 Portugal, statement showing imports of 
 gold and silver into, 388. 
 
 Portugal, tables showing the amount of 
 gold and silver coined in Lisbon, 388. 
 
 Possible contents of Leadville, pyritif- 
 erous porphyry, estimate of, 171. 
 
 Possessory title, the, 91. 
 
 Posting notice and diagram on a claim, 
 form of proof of, 721. 
 
 Posting notice, register's certificate of, 
 form of, 722. 
 
 Posting plat and notice on claim, form 
 of proof relative to, 721. 
 
 Pot-brass, 10. 
 
 Potters'-clay, (alluvium), 2. 
 
 Power of attorney to apply for patent, 
 725. 
 
 Power of attorney to locate and sell 
 claims, form of, 726. 
 
 Power of the law with regard to money, 
 42L 
 
 Power, transmission of, by electricity in 
 mining, 814. 
 
 Practical geology and mining, of Har- 
 vard University, at Cambridge, 
 school of, 92. 
 
 Practical mining a summer school of, 
 296. 
 
 Practical part of mining, 769. 
 
 Practical suggestions to prospectors, 178. 
 
 Precious gems in Maine, 137. 
 
 Precious metal-bearing regions prior to 
 1866, condition of the, 619. 
 
 Precious metal regions, western, esti- 
 mate of area oi, 621. 
 
 Precious metal-bearing States and Ter- 
 ritories of the public domain, the, 
 613. 
 
 Precious metals used in Austria from 
 1867 to 1880, statement of the, 382. 
 
 Precious metals in California, products 
 of, from 1848 to the close of 1881, 
 697, 698. 
 
 Precious metals in Christendom during 
 and since 1492, table of the stock 
 of, 435. 
 
 Precious metals, effect of arbitrary de- 
 cree in determining the ratio of 
 value between, 404. 
 
 Precious metals, effect of mint charges 
 upon the ratio of value between, 
 404. 
 
 Precious metals, estimated production 
 of, in the United States from 1848 
 to 1880, 619. 
 
 Precious metals, figures and facts in 
 consumption and distribution of, 
 454. 
 
 Precious metals, legal regulations de- 
 termining the ratio of value be- 
 tween, 403. 
 
 Precious metals in Greece and Rome, 
 the quantity of, 434. 
 
 Precious metals, movements of the, 419. 
 
 Precious metals produced in Mexico 
 (west coast) and British Columbia, 
 1879, 1880, report of tenth census, 
 995. 
 
 Precious metals, product of, in the Uni- 
 ted States, average per square mile 
 and per capita, statistics of tenth 
 census, 990. 
 
 Precious metal, production of, in the 
 United States, 1848 to 1880, by fis- 
 cal years, report of tenth census, 
 994. 
 
 Precious metals, production of, in the 
 United States, by geographical di- 
 visions, statistics of tenth census, 
 988. 
 
 Precious metals, principal epochs in the 
 modern production of, 434. 
 
 Precious metals, the proportion of con- 
 sumption to production of, table 
 showing, 399. 
 
 Precious metals, quantity determining 
 the ratio of value between, 403. 
 
 Precious metals, rank of the States and 
 Territories in the production of, 
 statistics of tenth census, 990. 
 
 Precious metals, report of the director 
 of the mint for 1881, 1047. 
 
 Precious metals, Sir Hector Hay's esti- 
 mate of the production of, from 
 1852 to 1875, 454. 
 
 Precious metals, shipments of. Wells, 
 Fargo & Go's. Express, statistics of 
 tenth census, 991. 
 
 Precious metals, statement of the total 
 production of, in France from 1493 
 to 1875, 381. 
 
 Precious metals, table of the production 
 of, from 1800 to 1879. 440. 
 
 Precious metals, table of the production 
 of the, in the eastern and western 
 worlds from 1493 to 1872, 443. 
 
 Precious metals, total yield of, in Cali- 
 fornia from 1848 to 1882, table of 
 the, 507. 
 
 Precious metals in the west, statement 
 of the amount of, 507. 
 
 Precious metals, value of, — ^upon what 
 it depends, 423. 
 
 Precious metals, value of, but slightly 
 affected by their employment as 
 money, 438. 
 
 Precious metals, views of Dr. Suess on 
 the, 428. 
 
 Precious metals, world's stock of the, 400. 
 
 Precious or noble metals, metallurgy of, 
 887. 
 
 Pre-emption of right of way for ditch 
 and location of water, form of, 726. 
 
 Preparation of alloys of a given fine- 
 ness, rules for, 765. 
 
 Prescription, the right of mining prop- 
 erty vested by, 554. 
 
 Present method of organizing a mining 
 district, 618. 
 
 Present monetary standards of the na- 
 tions of the world, 455. 
 
 Present organization of the general land 
 office, 567. 
 
 Present production of Mexican iron 
 works, 217. 
 
 Present system of land parceling, bene- 
 fits of the, 675. 
 
 Press, the mining and scientiflc, of the 
 United States, 355. 
 
 Preventinga loss of extremely fine gold, 
 145. 
 
 Preventing mine fires, means adopted 
 for, 821. 
 
 Prevention of coal naine explosions, 
 824. 
 
 Prevention of fire-damp explosions, ap- 
 plication of electricity to the, 815. 
 
 Price, average, of domestic lead at New 
 York, 638. 
 
 Price, average monthly, of fine silver 
 bars at London, 370. 
 
 Price, average, of silver in relation to 
 the United States loan acts, table 
 of the, 469. 
 
 Price of coal lands, decisions regarding, 
 635. 
 
 Price of gold, the market, 422. 
 
 Price, Mr. Bonamy, on the value of 
 money, views of, 415. 
 
 Price of quicksilver in San Francisco, 
 156. 
 
 Prices, annual average gold and cur- 
 rency of staple articles in New 
 York market, table showing the, 
 374 to 379. 
 
 Prices, average and comparative, of the 
 principal domestic commodities ex- 
 ported from the United States, 373. 
 
 Prices of Banca tin in Holland, 537. 
 
 Prices of Bessemer steel rails at the 
 works in Wales, 255. 
 
 Prices of commodities, the difference in, 
 420. 
 
 Prices of common spelter at New York, 
 539. 
 
 Prices, course of, for the most active 
 mining stock, 492 and 493. 
 
 Prices, gold of staple articles, and the 
 currency in the New York market 
 compared with the ratio of circula- 
 tion to population and wealth, 380. 
 
XXXVl 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Prices in dollars in anthracite coal from 
 1826 to 1882, 1035. 
 
 Prices, highest and lowest, of the Com- 
 stock shares in four years, tables of 
 the, 522. 
 
 Prices for iron in New York, table of, 
 530. 
 
 Prices of iron at Pittsburg, table show- 
 ing, 531. 
 
 Prices for Lake Superior copper at New 
 York, 536. 
 
 Prices of the prominent mining stocks 
 in San Francisco, table of the, 523. 
 
 Prices of pig iron in Great Britain, 254. 
 
 Prices of the public lands at the various 
 periods, 596. 
 
 Prices of shares in 1882, table relative 
 to the, 493, 494. 
 
 Prices of staple articles in the New 
 York market from 1825 to 1880, 
 380. 
 
 Prices of stocks and number of shares 
 sold at the New York Mining Ex- 
 changes, tables exhibiting the, 
 488. 
 
 Prices of stocks and number of shares 
 sold at the New York Stock Ex- 
 change, table exhibiting the 489. 
 
 Prices of tin in New York, 537. 
 
 Primitive character of the iron works of 
 North Carolina and Tennessee, 61. 
 
 Primitive miners, copper tools of, 75. 
 
 Primitive mining methods, 80. 
 
 Primitive Rock, 1. 
 
 Principal causes of National Debts, ta- 
 ble showing, 453. 
 
 Principal domestic commodities expor- 
 ted from the United States, average 
 and comparative prices of the, 373. 
 
 Principal epochs in the modern produc- 
 tion of the precious metals, 434. 
 
 Principal innovations in mine machine- 
 ry since 1871, 184. 
 
 Principio Iron Works, the, 94. 
 
 Printed form for proclamation of sales 
 by the President of the United 
 States, 596. 
 
 Privation and diet among miners, 791. 
 
 Proceedings of the Assay Commission 
 of 1882, 462 to 468. 
 
 Process, amalgamation, for extracting 
 silver, 890. 
 
 Process for gold, California stamp mill 
 and amalgamation, 90. 
 
 Process, Frieberg German barrel, 85. 
 
 Problems of Labor, 867 to 873. 
 
 Process, Martin, for the manufacture of 
 open-hearth steel, 90. 
 
 Process, Mexican yard, or patio, 85. 
 
 Process, refining, for purifying copper, 
 886. 
 
 Process of vein-making, beneficent re- 
 sults of the, 204. 
 
 Proclamation of sales by the President 
 of the United States, printed form 
 for, 596. 
 
 Produce, relative, of gold and silver at 
 different periods, 439. 
 
 Products, annual, of lead, copper, sil- 
 ver and gold in the west, 1870-81, 
 table of, 507. 
 
 Product, annual, of the Comstock lode 
 from 1860 to 1878, table of the, 181. 
 
 Product, bullion, of Arizona, 511. 
 
 Product, bullion, of Colorado, 509. 
 
 Product, bullion, forthe fiscal year end- 
 ing June 30, 1881, table showing 
 the, 506. 
 
 Product, domestic, of copper, table of 
 the, 535. 
 
 Product, coal, of United States, 934. 
 
 Product of the various coal fields of 
 Great Britain in 1860, 1870 and 
 1881, 242. 
 
 Product, iron, increase of, since 1870, 
 238. 
 
 Product of gold and silver in the United 
 States, average per square mile and 
 per capita, statistics of tenth cen- 
 sus, 990. 
 
 Product, mineral, of Utah for 1881, 
 statement of the, 512. 
 
 Product, steel and iron, of Sweden, 
 Prof. Akerman's views of the, 258. 
 
 Product, tin, of the world, table showing 
 the, 537. 
 
 Product and value of the Lake Superior 
 copper mines, table of the, 535. 
 
 Production, aggregate, of the Lake Su- 
 perior iron-ore mines, 66. 
 
 Production, annual, of leading mining 
 and metallurgical products, during 
 the nine years 1871-80, statement 
 of, 96. 
 
 Production, annual, of gold in Austra- 
 lia, table of the, 396. 
 
 Production, annual, in the United States 
 of gold and silver, 395. 
 
 Production, anthracite coal, compara- 
 tive statement of the, 533. 
 
 Production, Australian gold, for 24 years, 
 table showing the, 392. 
 
 Production, average annual of German 
 marks, tables of the, 423. 
 
 Production, average annual, of gold and 
 silver by American mines, 397. 
 
 Production of Bessemer steel, 879. 
 
 Production of bullion for 1882, table ex- 
 hibiting the, 491. 
 
 Production of coal in France, 257. 
 
 Production of Comstock lode, 95. 
 
 Production, estimate, of gold in the 
 Western World, 398. 
 
 Production, estimated, of Mexican iron 
 works, when completed, 217. 
 
 Production, estimated, of precious met- 
 als in the United States from 1848 
 to 1880, 619. 
 
 Production, estimated, of silver in the 
 Western World, 397. 
 
 Production of coal in Great Britain, 253 
 
 Production of coal in Great Britain, 261. 
 
 Production of gold in Australia, table 
 showing the decline of the, 433. 
 
 Production of gold in British Columbia, 
 annual, 396. 
 
 Production of gold in California Proper, 
 table of the, 395. 
 
 Production of Gold in North America, 
 431. 
 
 Production'of gold and silver in Ger- 
 many, 382. 
 
 Production of gold and silver from 1492 
 to 1878, according to Mr. Alex. 
 Mardle, table of the, 457. 
 
 Production of gold and silver from 1492 
 to 1879, according to Dr. Soetbeer, 
 table of the, 456. 
 
 Production of gold and silver from 1493 
 to 1880, table of the propoition of. 
 381. 
 
 Production of gold and silver, table 
 showing the fluctuations in the. 
 425. 
 
 Production of iron and steel in Sweden 
 during 1879 and 1880, 258. 
 
 Production of pig iron in Great Britain. 
 253. 
 
 Production of pig iron in Groat Britain, 
 262. 
 
 Production of iron in Sweden, 263. 
 
 Production of gold and silver in the 
 United States according to the mint 
 reports of 1874 and 1881, table of 
 the, 457. 
 
 Production, gold and silver, Whitney's 
 estimate of the, 436. 
 
 Production, gold, of Victoria, table of 
 the, 392. 
 
 Productions, horological, of various 
 countries, 373. 
 
 Production, iron, in this country from 
 1854 to 1880, statistics of, 73. 
 
 Production of iron, organic life in the, 
 202. 
 
 Production of iron ore in Great Britain, 
 253. 
 
 Production of iron ore and pig iron at 
 Lake Superior, 95. 
 
 Production of iron and steel in Ger- 
 many, 256. 
 
 Production of leading metals and min- 
 erals in the United States during 
 the first century of national inde- 
 pendence, table of, 94. 
 
 Production, mineral, of California, re- 
 port of the surveyor-general on 
 the, 659 and 660. 
 
 Production, mineral, of Italy, 266. 
 
 Production, mineral, of Montana, re- 
 port of the surveyor-general on the, 
 661. 
 
 Production, mineral, of Nevada, report 
 of the surveyor-general on the, 661 
 and 662. 
 
 Production, mineral, of New Mexico, 
 report of the surveyor-general on 
 the, 663. 
 
 Production, mineral, of Utah, report 
 of the surveyor-general on the, 663. 
 
 Production, modern, of the precious 
 metals, principal epochs in the, 434. 
 
 Production of the non-precious miner- 
 als of the United States during the 
 year ending June 1st, 1880, 237. 
 
 Production of precious metals from 
 1852 to 1875, Sir Hector Hay's es- 
 timate of, 454. 
 
 Production of precious metals from 
 ■ 1800 to 1879, table of the, 440. 
 
 Production of precious metals, propor- 
 tion of consumption to, table show- 
 ing the, 399. 
 
 Production of the precious metals, re- 
 port of Clarence King, tenth census, 
 955. I 
 
 Production of precious metals in the 
 United States by geographical di- 
 visions, statistics of tenth census,988. 
 
 Production of the precious metals in 
 the eastern and western worlds 
 from 1493 to 1872, table of the, 443. 
 
 Production of pig iron in Belgium, 257. 
 
 Production of pig iron in France, 256. 
 
 Production, present, of Mexican iron 
 works, 217. 
 
 Production of quicksilver from the Cal- 
 ifornia mines in 1881, table of the, 
 540. ' 
 
 Production of quicksilver at New Al- 
 maden for twenty-three years and 
 three mouths, 94. 
 
 Production of quicksilver in Spain, 266. 
 
 Production, spelter, of Europe; esti- 
 mate of, by Herr Bilharz, 240, 
 
 Production, statistics of mineral, 260. 
 
 Production of Tombstone mines and 
 mills, 159. 
 
 Production, yearly mineral, per capita 
 of population, 238. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 xxxvn ■ 
 
 Production, total, of precious metals in 
 France from 1493 to 1875, statement 
 of the, 381. 
 
 Production of zinc ore, England's, in 
 1881, 539. 
 
 Products, chief, table showing the in- 
 crease in, 454. 
 
 Products,' leading mining and metallur- 
 gical, statement of annual produc- 
 tion of, during the ten years 1871- 
 80, 96. 
 
 Products of precious metals in Califor- 
 nia from 1848 to the close of 1881, 
 697 and 698. 
 
 Professional studies, courses in, in the 
 University of Michigan, 331. 
 
 Profile of wrought iron pipe for gravel 
 mines in California, 902. 
 
 Progress of gold and silver since the 
 time of Columbus, table showing 
 the, 451. 
 
 Progress in mining and metallurgical 
 art, science and industry from 1875 
 to 1881, 95. 
 
 Prominent mining belts in Maine, 133. 
 
 Prominent mining camps, geology of, 
 159. 
 
 Prominent mining stocks in San Fran- 
 cisco, table of prices of the, 523. 
 
 Proof of citizenship of mining claimants, 
 628. 
 
 Proof of labor on a claim, form of, 720. 
 
 Proof of ownership of a claim in absence 
 of mining records, 722. 
 
 Proof of posting notice and diagram on 
 a claim, form of, 721. 
 
 Proof relative to posting plat and notice 
 on claim, form of, 721. 
 
 Proof relative to veins in placer mining 
 claims, form of, 725. 
 
 Properties of metals, 750. 
 
 Properties of metals, the, 729. 
 
 Properties, physical, of metals, 893 to 
 900. 
 
 Property, mining, in England, views of 
 Lord Denman on the right to, 655. 
 
 Property, mining, the right of, vested by 
 alienation, 553. 
 
 Property, mining, the right of, vested by 
 custom, 554. 
 
 Property, mining, the right of, vested by 
 prescription, 554. 
 
 Proportion of consumption, to produc- 
 tion of precious metals, table show- 
 ing the, 399. 
 
 Proportion of production of gold and 
 silver from 1493 to 1880, table of 
 the, 381. 
 
 Propylite, 189. 
 
 Prospecting contracts, form of, 727. 
 
 Prospecting in Germany, freedom of, 
 548. 
 
 Prospecting active in Leadville, com- 
 mencement of, 163. 
 
 Prospecting as a profession, 829 to 835. 
 
 Prospecting for tin, method of, 158. 
 
 Prospectors, practical suggestions to, 
 178. , ^ 
 
 Prospects, ore, and future explorations 
 at Fryer's HiU, 177. 
 
 Prosperous mining, the effects of, 436. 
 
 Protective duties in Germany, 252. 
 
 Protest and adverse claim, form of, 725. 
 
 Providence, E. I.. 131. 
 
 Provision for the health and comfort of 
 miners, miners' homes, 234. 
 
 Provisions of the existing mining law, 
 620. 
 
 Provisions, miscellaneous, relating to 
 the public lands, 608. 
 
 Provisional Nomenclature of the second 
 
 feological survey of Penna., Prof 
 lesley's, 738. 
 
 Prnssian mines, injuries in, in 1881,817. 
 
 Prussian mining law, new, review of 
 the, 550, 551 and 552. 
 
 Prussian mines, nature of accidents in, 
 816. 
 
 Prussian mines, statistics of fatal acci- 
 dents in, 816. 
 
 Public domain, estimated area of coal 
 lands on the, 610. 
 
 Public domain, geological surveys of, 
 under general land office, 674. 
 
 Public domain, mineral lands as a part 
 of the, letter of R. W. Raymond 
 relative to, 656 to 562. 
 
 Public domain, the precious metal bear- 
 ing States and Territori esofthe,613. 
 
 Public lands in Ganada, law relating to, 
 683 to 685. 
 
 Public lands, disposal of, by public of- 
 fering and sale, 595. 
 
 Public lands, tabular statement relative 
 to, 575. 
 
 Publiclands, the first Surveyors-general 
 of, 568. 
 
 Public lands, prices oi, at various pe- 
 riods, 596. 
 
 Public lands, sale and disposition of, 
 595. 
 
 Public lands, sale and disposition of, 622. 
 
 Public lands, surveyors of, prior to 1825, 
 668. 
 
 Public lands, surveys of the, 571. 
 
 Public lands, United States, table rela- 
 tive to, 659. 
 
 Public lands and mines, duties of the 
 Secretary of the Interior relative to, 
 662. 
 
 Public .ands, miscellaneous provisions 
 relating to, 608. 
 
 Public offering and sale, disposal of pub- 
 lic lands by, 595. 
 
 Publication, newspaper, form of notice 
 for, 722. 
 
 Publications and mining surveys, charge 
 for, 628. 
 
 Puddling, use of anthracite for, 71. 
 
 Pulse-beats per minute in the Julia 
 mine, data relative to, 233. 
 
 Pulsometer, the, 826. 
 
 Pump, centrifugal, 826. 
 
 Pump, direct-acting steam, 826. 
 
 Pump, double-acting hydraulic, 826. 
 
 Pump and pitwork in the drainage of 
 mines, 905. 
 
 Pump, for quicksilver, 925. 
 
 Pump, water-spear, 826. 
 
 Pumpelly's division of ore deposits, 169. 
 
 Purchase of mines, 853 to 869. 
 
 Purchases at the coining mints and the 
 New York assay office, statement 
 showing the, 360. 
 
 Purchases and deposits for 1880 and 
 1881 at the New Orleans mint, com- 
 parison of the, 363. 
 
 Purchases and deposits of gold and sil- 
 ver bullion during the year ending 
 June 30, 1881, table of the, 364. 
 
 Purchases and deposits of silver of do- 
 mestic production during the year 
 ending June 30, 1881, table of the, 
 365. 
 
 Purifying copper, refining process for, 
 886. 
 
 Pyrites, copper, 5. 
 
 Pyrites, iron, 4. 
 
 Pyrites, tin, 7. 
 
 Pyritiferous porphyry, 167. 
 
 Pyritiferous porphyry, Leadville, esti- 
 mate of possible contents of, 171. 
 Pyroxene, analysis of, 142. 
 
 QUANTITY of coal in place, method 
 of reckoning, 765. 
 Vc^uantity of gold and silver in Sweden, 
 386. 
 
 Quantity of placer ground subject to 
 location, 627. 
 
 Quantity of precious metals in Greece 
 and Rome, 434 
 
 Quantity determining the ratio of value 
 between precious metals, 403. 
 
 Quantity and value of iron ore im- 
 ported into the United States in 
 1881, table of the, 532. 
 
 Quartz mills in Arizona, report of di- 
 rector of the mint for 1881, 1054. 
 
 Quartz miners in California, Mexicans, 
 the first, 82. 
 
 Quartz, placer leads traced to, 81. 
 
 Quartzite parting, 165. 
 
 Quartzit&s, 165. 
 
 Quaternary formations, 166. 
 
 Quebec, Canada, the nickel ores of Or- 
 ford, 142. 
 
 Quebec, Three Rivers, 68. 
 
 Queensland, the richest mine of, 432. 
 
 Quicksilver, 6. 
 
 Quicksilver furnaces, artificial fiiel for, 
 156. 
 
 Quicksilver furnace, estimated cost of 
 building a Knox & Osborne, 155. 
 
 Quicksilver market, review of the, to 
 June 30, 1882, 640. 
 
 Quicksilver mine, New Almaden, com- 
 mencement of the, 89. 
 
 Quicksilver ores, geographical position 
 of, 7. 
 
 Quicksilver, production of, at New Al- 
 maden for twenty-three years and 
 three months, 94. 
 
 Quicksilver, pump system, 925. 
 
 Quicksilver, pressure system, 926. 
 
 Quicksilver, production in Spain, 266. 
 
 Quicksilver, table of the production of, 
 from the California mines in 1881, 
 540. 
 
 Quicksilver, the price of, in San Fran- 
 cisco, 156. 
 
 Quicksilver, use in mills, 925. 
 
 RADICAL system, brains, in rock- 
 driUing, 912. 
 
 Railings of Independence Square, 53. 
 
 Railroads, 96. 
 
 Railroad, workable beds adjoining the 
 South and North Alabama, 117. 
 
 Rails, Bessemer steel, prices of, at the 
 works in Wales, 255. 
 
 Rails, iron and steel production of, re- 
 port in tenth census, 1017. 
 
 Raising and conveyance of ore, 915. 
 
 Rake veins, 169. 
 
 Rangely Lakes, 136. 
 
 Range, Mosquito, table of average sec- 
 tion in the, 164. 
 
 Range, Sawatch, s.rchsean exposures of 
 the, 163. 
 
 Range, Southern or Bohemian, 76. 
 
 Range, Temescal, 158. 
 
 Range, Wasatch, table of section in the, 
 164. 
 
 Rappahannock River, 56. 
 
 Rare minerals of Califomia,Prof Blake's 
 paper on the, 248. 
 
 Ration, average annual market, between 
 gold and silver, tables of the, 409. 
 
xxxvm 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Eatio of circulation to population and 
 wealth compared with the currency 
 and gold prices of staple articles in 
 the New York market, 380. 
 
 Ratio of circulation to population and 
 wealth of the United States, 380. 
 
 Ratio of convertible paper money to 
 population, table showing the, 452. 
 
 Ratio between gold and silver of ancient 
 times, 398. 
 
 Ratio between gold and silver of modern 
 times, 406. 
 
 Ratio between gold and silver in modern 
 times, tables of, 409. 
 
 Eatio for population and for the esti- 
 mated capital value of each country, 
 table expressing the, 453. 
 
 Ratio of value between gold and silver 
 in the Eastern and Western Worlds, 
 tables of the, 406. 
 
 Ratio of value between precious metals, 
 effect of arbitrary decree in deter- 
 mining the, 404. 
 
 Ratio of value between precious metals, 
 effect of mint charges upon the, 
 404. 
 
 Eatio of value between precious metals, 
 legal regulations determining the, 
 403. 
 
 Eatio of value between precious metals, 
 quantity determining the, 403. 
 
 Ratios, mint, of Spain, 407. 
 
 Ratios of wearing surfaces to units of 
 valuation of United States coins, 
 445. 
 
 Raw bituminous coal, use of, in the blast 
 furnace, 89. 
 
 Raymond, R. W., open letters. of rela- 
 tive to mineral lands, 556 to 562. 
 
 Beading Furnace, 46. 
 
 Eeceipts and expenditures of the Cali- 
 fornia mine, table showing the, 508. 
 
 Receipts and expenditures of the con- 
 solidated Virginia mine, table of 
 the, 509. 
 
 Eeceipts, gold, from New South Wales, 
 432. 
 
 Receivers and registers, fees of, 628. 
 
 Receivers and Eegisters' in land dis- 
 tricts, 568. 
 
 Recent decisions affecting rights under 
 the mining laws of the Uuited 
 States, 633. 
 
 Reckoning quantity of coal in place, 
 method Of, 765. 
 
 Recommendations of the British Com- 
 mission relative to mines, 233. 
 
 Eecommendations, Executive and De- 
 partmental, relative to mineral 
 lands, 618. 
 
 Eecord, New Jersey's copper-mining, 
 87. 
 
 Eectangular system, cost of surveying 
 under the, 576. 
 
 Rectangular system of surveys, 571. 
 
 Red Hematite, chemical composition of, 
 3. 
 
 Red iron ore, chemical composition of, 3. 
 
 Red oxide of copper, 5. 
 
 EedEiver, 112. 
 
 Eeduction, cost of, by the modified Idria 
 Furnace, 150. 
 
 Eeduction by the Knox Furnace, cost 
 of, 155. 
 
 Red zinc ore, 7. 
 
 References to iron in the Book of Job, 
 17. 
 
 Reference tables, 729. 
 
 Reference, tables of, for the miner, en- 
 gineer and mine-owner, 752. 
 
 Refining process for purifying copper, 
 886. 
 
 Region, Corastock, beginning of mining 
 in the, 181. 
 
 Region, Connelsville coke, 534. 
 
 Region, Lake Superior, 74- 
 
 Region, Lake Superior Iron, 213. 
 
 Eegion, Lake Superior iron ore, 65. 
 
 Region, Leadville, conclusions respect- 
 ing the geological formation of, 
 177. 
 
 Eegion, Lehigh, 101. 
 
 Region of the lower Colorado, table of 
 section in the, 165. 
 
 Eegion, Michigan copper, first perma- 
 nent resident in, 76. 
 
 Eegion, Missouri iron, 213. 
 
 Eegion, mountain, of central Pennsyl- 
 vania, 211. 
 
 Eegion, North Illinois iron, 213. 
 
 Region of ore deposits, constant cur- 
 rents in, 197. 
 
 Eegion, Pittsburg iron, 211. 
 
 Eegion, southern mining, auriferous 
 slate deposits of the, 119. 
 
 Regions, mining, 769. 
 
 Regions of the United States, unfami- 
 liar mining, 108. 
 
 Regions, western, precious metal, esti- 
 mate of area of, 621. 
 
 Registering manufactured gold, 382. 
 
 Register's certificate of posting notice, 
 form of, 722. 
 
 Eegisters and receivers, fees of, 628. 
 
 Eegisters and receivers in land districts, 
 568. 
 
 Regulaire, 10. 
 
 Regulations and laws, mining, 542. 
 
 Regulations, legal, determining the ra- 
 tio of value between precious 
 metals, 403. 
 
 Eeign of William the Conqueror, iron 
 as tribute in the, 22. 
 
 Eeigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI. 
 acts of Parliament in the, 14. 
 
 Eolation, legal, of stock-broker to his 
 client, 470 to 474. 
 
 Relations, color, of metals, 797. 
 
 Relative age of porphyry, 168. 
 
 Relative dimensions of wire rope, ropes, 
 hawsers, and cables, with their 
 breaking strain, table of, 759. 
 
 Relative evaporating power, mean, of 
 different fuels, 768. 
 
 Relative market value of gold to silver, 
 total showing the, 370. 
 
 Relative produce of gold and silver at 
 different periods, 439. 
 
 Relative tenacity of metals, 751. 
 
 Relative values of different fuels, 768. 
 
 Eelative values of gold and silver, 359. 
 
 Eelative values of gold and silver in 
 the ancient period, tables illustrat- 
 ing the history of the, 410. 
 
 Eelative values of gold to silver from 
 ancient times to the present, 458. 
 
 Eelative values of gold and silver, his- 
 tory of the, 409. 
 
 Eelative value of gold and silver accord- 
 ing to the London market, 459. 
 
 Eelative value of gold and silver in the 
 middle ages, table of the, 411. 
 
 Eelative values of gold and silver from 
 1492 to 1850, table of the, 411. 
 
 Eelative values of gold and silver from 
 1851 to 1874, table of the, 412. 
 
 Re-location of a claim by a co-owner, de- 
 cisions regarding, 636. 
 
 Remedial measures in mining 704 to 
 706. 
 
 Remedy for improvidence in miners, a, 
 
 .236. 
 Eemoving the oxide of iron as a silicate, 
 
 in copper smelting, 884. 
 Eeport, annual, for 1881 of the General 
 
 Land Office, summary of the, 665. 
 Report of Coal, E. B. Mason on the 
 
 gold fields of California, 615 to 
 
 617. 
 Report of the Director of the Mint, 359. 
 Eeport of Dr. Smith on the air in metal 
 
 mines, 231. 
 Eeport, governmental, on tho evils of 
 
 hydraulic mining, 693. 
 Report of Mr. Jean on Iron and Steel 
 
 Shipbuilding in Great Britain, 255. 
 Report of the Surveyor General on the 
 
 mineral production of California, 
 
 659 and 660. 
 Report of the Surveyor General on the 
 
 mineral production of Montana, 
 
 661. 
 Reportof the Surveyor General on the 
 
 mineral productionof Nevada, 661 
 
 and 662. 
 Report of the Surveyor General on the 
 
 mineral production of New Mexico, 
 
 663. 
 Report of the Surveyor General on the 
 
 mineral production of Utah, 663. 
 Reported numbers of suicides in San 
 
 Francisco, 796. 
 Reports, Mint, of 1874 and 1881, rela- 
 tive to the production of gold and 
 
 silver in the United States, 457. 
 Researches, Sonstadt's,on the iodine in 
 
 Sea-water, 204. 
 Reservation of coins for the annual as- 
 say, laws relating to the, 466, 467. 
 Reservation of lands, Congressional ac- 
 tion relative to the, 613. 
 Reservations, mineral, in Northwest 
 
 Territory, 613. 
 Reservoirs constructed for mining pur- 
 poses on the Yuba and American 
 
 rivers, table of 695. 
 Resident, first permanent, in the Michi- 
 gan copper region, 76. 
 Eesources, mineral, of New Mexico, 
 
 512. 
 Eesources of Southwestern Virginia, the 
 
 mineral, 125. 
 Eesults, beneficent, of the process of 
 
 vein making, 204. 
 Eesults concerning the decomposition 
 
 of the Washoe rocks, 188. 
 Eesults, structural, of faulting on the 
 
 Comstock Lode, 190. 
 Eetort system, 155. 
 Eetorts, discharging, 147. 
 Retrospect of mining Legislation prior 
 
 to 1866, 619. 
 Review of the coal market to June 
 
 1882, 532. 
 Review of coal trade in 1881 by Mr. 
 
 Fredk. E. Saward, 1035. 
 Eeview of the copper market to June 
 
 1882, 534. 
 Eeview of the iron market to June 1882, 
 
 530. 
 Eeview of the iron and steel industry 
 
 of the world : Abram S. Hewitt, 
 
 223. 
 Review of the New Prussian mining law, 
 
 550, 551 and 552. 
 Eeview of the quicksilver market to 
 
 June 30, 1882, 540. 
 Review of the spelter market to June 
 
 30, 1882, 538. 
 Ehenish district, works of the 240. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 XXXIX 
 
 Review of the tin market to June 1882) 
 
 536. 
 Revolution, after the, — manufacture of 
 charcoal iron in Eastern Pennsyl- 
 vania, 46. 
 Rhode Island and Massachusetts, the 
 iron ore and anthracite coal of, 131. 
 
 Rhodium; 6. 
 
 Richest mine of Queensland, 432. 
 
 Richmond mining company, decision 
 relative to the, 640 to 644. 
 
 Richthofen, Baron von, papers relating 
 to the geology of the Washoe dis- 
 trict, 188. 
 
 Rico mining exchange, the, 506. 
 
 Ridge, blue, 122 to 127. 
 
 Riga, Mount, Conn., 130. 
 
 Right of mining property vested by 
 alienation, the, 553. 
 
 Right of mining property vested by 
 custom, the, 554. 
 
 Right of mining property vested by pre- 
 scription, the, 554. 
 
 Right of mining property in England, 
 views of Lord Denman on the, 555. 
 
 Right of way for ditch and location of 
 water, form of pre-emption of, 726. 
 
 Rights, a discoverer's, the earliest at- 
 tempt to secure, 102. 
 
 Rights under the mining laws of the 
 United States, recent decisions af- 
 fecting, 633. 
 
 Rights under patents for veins or lodes 
 heretofore issued, 624. 
 
 Rise and fall of tides in the Gulf of 
 Mexico, 755. 
 
 River, Alleghany, 4, 8. 
 
 River, American, California, general 
 features of the, presented by Mr. 
 Manson, 702. 
 
 River, American, table relative to struc- 
 tures upon, 707. 
 
 River, Arkansas, 109, 162. 
 
 River, Bear, table relative to structures 
 on, 707. 
 
 River, Big Elk, 55. 
 
 River, Brazos, 112. 
 
 River, Catawba, 121. 
 
 River, Eagle, 76, 77. 
 
 Eiver, Etowah, 59. 
 
 River, Eraser, 83. 
 
 River, Holston, 60. 
 
 River, Housatonic, 130. 
 
 River, James, 8, 32, & 127. 
 
 River, Kennebec, 137. 
 
 River, Klamath, 157. 
 
 River mining, decline of, 82. 
 
 River, New, Virginia, 125, 126. 
 
 River, Ohio, 4, 8, & 63. 
 
 River, Ontonagon, 75. 
 
 River, Platte, 162. 
 
 River, Rappahannock, 56. 
 
 River, Red, 112. 
 
 River, Sandy, Me., 136. 
 
 River, Stanislaus, 83. 
 
 River, Sullivan, 134. 
 
 River, Trinity, 156. 
 
 River, Tuolumne, 79, 250. 
 
 Eiver, Yadkin, 121. 
 
 River, Yuba, grades of tunnels on the, 
 table relative to, 695. _ 
 
 River, Yuba, table showing estimates 
 and order of structure upon, 706. 
 
 Rivers, Yuba and American, tables of 
 reservoirs constructed for mining 
 purposes on the, 695. _ 
 
 Rivets in wrought-iron pipe, 
 lative to, 904. 
 
 Roasting copper to expel arsenic and 
 sulphur, 883. 
 
 table re- 
 
 Roasting, method of, 147. 
 Roasting pig iron in Mexico, cost of,216. 
 Robinson Limestone, 165. 
 Rockaway Eiver, Old Boonton on, 41. 
 Rock-boring machinery, 909. 
 Rock-drilling, Brain's radical system in, 
 
 912. 
 Eock-drilling machinery, tools in, 910. 
 Eock formations, 167. 
 Rock formations of Maine, the, 133. 
 Rock, lime, Conn., 130. 
 Rock, metamorphic, 1. 
 Rock, primitive, 1. 
 Eock, stratified, 2. 
 Rock temperatures and depths, scale of, 
 
 232. 
 Rock, tools used in breaking, 912. 
 Rock, transition, 1. 
 Rock, trap, 2. 
 Rock, volcanic, 2. 
 Rock and water on the Comstock, mean 
 
 data for, 194. 
 Rocks, archsean, 164. 
 Rocks, auriferous, 429. 
 Eocks of Canada, theLaurentian, 210. 
 Rocks in the Comstock, succession and 
 
 occurrence of, 191. 
 Rocks, country, lateral impregnation of, 
 
 224. 
 Rocks, decomposition of, 188. 
 Rocks, dioritic, 167. 
 Rocks, eruptive or igneous, 166, 167. 
 Rocks, Laurentian, mountain tract of, 
 
 122. 
 Eocks, sedimentary, silver in the, 223. 
 Rocks, sedimentary, where impregnated, 
 
 227. 
 Eocks, southeast Missouri, the oldest. 111. 
 Eocks of the "Washoe district, 189. 
 ^ocks, Washoe, results concerning the 
 
 decomposition of, 188. 
 Eocky mountains, mineral deposits east 
 
 of the, 223. 
 Eockwell, J. A., on the Spanish and 
 
 Mexican laws, 549. 
 Eolker, Mr., on the formation of silver 
 
 sandstone deposits, 225, 226. 
 Eolla, the Missouri school of mines and 
 
 metallurgy at, 92. 
 Eolled iron, production of, report in 
 
 tenth census, 1016. 
 Rolled iron, tables relative to weight of, 
 
 756. 
 Rolling-mill, Brierfleld, 61. 
 Rolling mill, Etowah, 59. 
 Eolling mill, first, in Kentucky, 60. 
 Rolling mill, first in the United States, 
 
 50. 
 Rolling mill, first, west of the AUeghe- 
 
 nies, 57. 
 Eolling mill, union, 64. 
 Eomance of mining, 769, 782. 
 Romans, knowledge and use of metals 
 
 by the, 8. 
 Romans, mining of the, 645. 
 Rome and Greece, the quantity of pre- 
 cious metala in, 434. 
 Rope, hawser or cable, computations 
 
 relative to, for a given strain, 768. 
 Ropes, hawsers and cables, rule for 
 
 computing the weight of, 759. 
 
 Ropes, wire rope, hawsers, and cables, 
 
 table of relative dimensions of, 
 
 with their breaking strain, 759. 
 
 Eose colored tourmaline, 248. 
 
 Eowland, W. L., report in tenth census, 
 
 manufacture of chemicals, 1012. 
 Eoyal, Isle, 74. , . ^ . .' . 
 Royal ordinances relative to mining m 
 New Spain, 686. 
 
 Rubellite, 248. 
 
 Rule for computing the circumference 
 of white rope, hawser or cable, 
 compared with one of tarred hemp, 
 769. 
 
 Rule for computing the weight of ropes, 
 hawsers and cables, 769. 
 
 Rule for obtaining the weight of solids 
 in cubic inches, 759. 
 
 Rules of the American Institute of Min- 
 ing Engineers, 348. 
 
 Rules of the Board of Assay Commis- 
 sioners, 467. 
 
 Rules for forming a mining district, 
 720. 
 
 Rules of the New York iron and metal 
 exchange, 527, 628. 
 
 Rules and organization of mining camp 
 .at Jacksonville, California, 618. 
 
 Rules of practice before land officers, 
 the general land office and the de- 
 partment of the interior, 630 to 
 633. 
 
 Rules for preparation of alloys of a 
 given fineness, 765. 
 
 Rules and regulations of the American 
 mining stock exchange, 484 to 487. 
 
 Rules of the stock exchange, 471. 
 
 Eulings of the general land office, 623. 
 
 Eulings of the general land office rela- 
 tive to adverse claims, 626. 
 
 Rulings of the general land office rela- 
 tive to mill sites, 628. 
 
 Rulings of the general land office rela- 
 tive to tunnel rights, 625. 
 
 Running a Knox and Osborne furnace, 
 estimated cost of, 156. 
 
 Rushes, miners', 80. 
 
 Russia, currency in circulation in, 387. 
 
 Russia, eastern, copper mines of, 227. 
 
 Russia, imports and exports of iron and 
 steel b3', 269. 
 
 Russia, iron ores of, 206. 
 
 Russia, manufactures and minerals of, 
 264. 
 
 Russian coal statistics, 266. 
 
 Eussian government, tables relative to 
 the gold and silver coin and bullion 
 in the, 387, 388. 
 
 Eussian paper money, date and progress 
 of, .452. 
 
 SAEBEUCKEN, Prussia, coalfield, 97. 
 Sacramento Porphyry, 166. 
 Sacramento Valley, 78, 79. 
 St. Louis, iron industry of, 67. _ 
 Sale and disposition of public lands, 
 
 622. 
 Sale of government coal lands, laws 
 
 governing the, 610, 611, 612. 
 Sale and location of claims, form of the 
 
 power of attorney relative to, 726. 
 Sale and offering, public, disposal of 
 
 public lands by, 595. 
 Sale of sweeps at the United States 
 
 mints and assay offices, loss and 
 
 wastages on, 367. 
 Sales, cash, of coal lands by fiscal years, 
 
 to June 30, 1880, 610. 
 Sales, cash, of mineral lands, ordered 
 
 by Congress, 613. 
 Sales, proclamation of, by the Presi- 
 dent of the United States, printed 
 
 form for, 496. 
 Sales, lands, 597. 
 Saline laws, change in, 597. 
 Salines, grants of, table relative to, 
 
 597. 
 Salisbury (Conn.) iron mines and 
 
 works, 130. 
 
xl 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Salisbury iron, 37. 
 
 Salisbury pig iron, 131. 
 
 Salt, alkaline, and gold, 221. 
 
 Salted ledges and wildcat mines, 859 to 
 
 864. 
 Samples from the Marmora mines, as- 
 says of, 143, 144. 
 Sands, auriferous, manner of collect- 
 ing, 157. 
 Sandstone deposits, silver at Silver 
 
 Eeef, 224. 
 Saudstone deposits, silver. Prof. New- 
 berry on tlie formation of, 224. 
 Sandstone deposits, silver, Mr. Eolker 
 
 on the formation of, 225, 226. 
 Sandstone layers, alternations of, 225. 
 Sandstone, oriskany, 127. 
 Sandstone, triassic, 225. 
 Sandy River, Maine, 136. 
 San Francisco Bay, 78. 
 San Francisco, exports of gold from 
 1848 to 1863, report of tenth census. 
 996. ' 
 
 San Francisco, imports of coal into. 
 
 1041. 
 San Francisco mining stock market and 
 
 exchange, 515. 
 San Francisco mint, 362. 
 San Francisco mint, comparative values 
 
 of deposits, etc., in the, 362. 
 San Francisco, the price of quicksilver 
 
 in, 156. 
 San Francisco, reported numbers of 
 
 suicides in, 796. 
 San Francisco share market in 1882 
 
 the, 522. 
 San Francisco stock and exchange 
 
 board, ofiScers of the, 515. 
 San Francisco stock and exchange 
 
 board, by-laws of the, 517 to 520. 
 San Francisco stock and exchange 
 
 board, constitution of the, 516. 
 San Francisco, table of prices of the 
 
 prominent mining stocks in, 523. 
 San Francisco, treasury movement 
 through custom house, statistics of 
 tenth census, 992. 
 Sanitary conditions of coal miners and 
 metal miners, differences between 
 the, 230. 
 San Rafael Swell, Colorado, 771. 
 Sault de St. Marie, 74. 
 Savings Banks and depositors in Eu- 
 rope, number of, 453. 
 Saward, F. E., review of coal trade for 
 
 year 1881, 1035. 
 Sawatch, range, archsean exposures of 
 
 the, 163. 
 Saxony, silver mines of, 28, 
 Scale of depths and rock temperatures, 
 
 2oJ. 
 Scandinavian kingdoms, demonetization 
 
 in the, 384. 
 Scarcity of cash, effects of a, 416. 
 Scheme, general, of the United States 
 
 Geological Survey, 354. 
 Scheme of organizing mining in Ger- 
 many, 548. 
 Scheme, of study used at the summer 
 school of practical mining, 297, 298. 
 Schuylkill county, Pa., 47. 
 Science, art and industry, mining and 
 metallurgical progress in, from 
 1875 to 1881, 95. 
 Science, general, course in, in the Uni- 
 versity of Michigan, 329. 
 Scientific classification of ore deposits 
 
 hy Von Cotta, 169. 
 Scientific mining press of the United 
 States, the, 355. 
 
 School of finance and economy, the 
 
 Wharton, 269. 
 School, the Franklin Institute drawing, 
 
 268. 
 School, the Industrial, for miners and 
 mechanics at Drifton, Luzerne Co., 
 Pa., 280. 
 School, Lawrence Scientific, course in 
 
 biology in the, 309. 
 School, Lawrence Scientific, course in 
 
 chemistry in the, 309. 
 School, Lawrence Scientific, course ia 
 
 natural history in the, 309. 
 School, Lawrence Scientific, curricu- 
 lum of the, 308 to 311. 
 School, Lawrence Scientific, faculty of 
 
 the, 308. 
 School, Lawrence Scientific, Harvard 
 University, Cambridge Mass., 308. 
 School of mines, 267. 
 School of mines, Colorado State, curri- 
 culum of the, 336 to 338. 
 School of mines, Colorado State, course 
 
 in civil engineering in the, 336. 
 School of mines, Colorado State ; Golden, 
 
 Colorado, 334. 
 School of mines, Colorado State, course 
 in mining engineering in the, 336. 
 School of mines Colorado, course in 
 
 chemistry in the, 337. 
 School of mines, Colorado State, faculty 
 
 of the, 334. 
 School of mines, Colorado State, course 
 
 in metallurgy in the, 336, 337. 
 School of mines, Colorado State, course 
 
 in geology in the, 387. 
 School of mines, of Columbia College, 
 
 at New York, 92. 
 School of mines — Columbia College, 
 
 New York, 282. 
 School of mines, course in civil engi- 
 neering in the, 292, 293. 
 School of mines, course in engineerins 
 
 in the, 290. 
 School of mines, course in general 
 
 chemistry in the, 289. 
 School of mines, course in mineralogy 
 
 and metallurgy in the, 290. 
 School of mines, course in mining engi- 
 neering in the, 293, 294. 
 School of mines, curriculum of the, 283 
 
 to 296. 
 School of mines, departments of in- 
 struction in the, 289. 
 School of mines, faculty of the, 282. 
 School of mines and metallurgy, the 
 
 Missouri, at RoUa, 92. 
 School of mines, of Michigan Univer- 
 sity, at Ann Arbor, 92. 
 School of mining and metallurgy of 
 Lehigh University, at Bethlehem, 
 
 School of mining and practical geology 
 of Harvard University, at Cam- 
 bridge, 92. 
 
 School of practical mining, summer 
 
 School, Sheflield Scientific, course in 
 civil engineering in the, 306. 
 
 School, Sheffield Scientific, course in 
 dynamic engineering in the, 306. 
 
 School, Sheffield Scientific, curriculum 
 of the, 305 to 308. 
 
 School, Sheffield Scientific, special 
 courses in the, 307. 
 
 School, Sheffield Scientific, Yale Col- 
 lege, New Haven, 305. 
 
 School, the Towne Scientific, 269. 
 
 bchooJs, technical, 92. 
 
 Schuylkill Valley, 41 
 
 Scottish coal fields, 99. 
 Scranton, 48. 
 
 Sea-water, iodine in, Sonnstadt's re- 
 searches on, 204. 
 Second geological survey of Penn., 
 Prof. Lesley's provisional nomen- 
 clature of, 738. 
 Secondary deposits, Leadville, 170. 
 Secondary formation, 1. 
 Secretary of the Interior, duties of the, 
 relative to mines and public lands, 
 562. 
 Section, " Four Mile Creek," Alabama, 
 
 measures in, 117. 
 Section in Mosquito Range, table of, 
 
 164. 
 Section in the region of the Lower 
 
 Colorado, table of, 165. 
 Section of strata compiled from meas- 
 urements in Stephens and Young 
 counties, Texas, 113. 
 Section in the Wasatch Range, table of, 
 
 164. 
 Sedgwick and Deer Isle Belt, the, 135. 
 Sedimentary rocks, silver in the, 223. 
 Sedimentary rocks : where impregnated, 
 
 227. 
 Sequence, geological, of the silver for- 
 mations in Maine, 139. 
 Seventeenth century, beginning of, 100. 
 Sex in mineral veins, communication of 
 Mr. J. Van Cleve Phillips on, 
 797. _ 
 Sex in mineral veins, communication of 
 
 Mr. J. Williams on, 797. 
 Shaft, the deslodge. 111. 
 Shafts, dead work in, 914. 
 Shales, Maine, alums from, 137. 
 Shape of coal fields, the, 99. 
 Share market in 1881, the, 500. 
 Share market in 1882, the, 501. 
 Share market, the San Francisco, in 
 
 1882, 522. 
 
 Share, Comstock, dealings in the, 521. 
 
 Shares, Comstock, aumber and value of 
 
 in 1881, 522. ' 
 
 Shares, Comstock, tables of the highest 
 
 and lowest prices of, in four years, 
 
 Shares, mining, the future for, 523. 
 Shares, prices of in 1882, table relative 
 
 to the, 493, 494. 
 Shares sold, number of, and prices of 
 stocks at the New York Mining Ex- 
 changes, tables exhibiting the 
 488. ^ ' 
 
 Shares sold, number of, and prices of 
 stocks, at the New York Stock Ex- 
 change, 489. 
 Shark— Paymaster case, decision as to 
 
 the validity of the, 644 to 650. 
 Sheet-zinc and spelter, German imports 
 01. i-''," exports of, during 1880, 241. 
 bheffield scientific school, course iu 
 ai, i'y , engineering in the, 306. 
 bheffield scientific school, course in dy- 
 ai. i"','?"' engineering in the, 306. 
 Sheffield scientific school, curriculum of 
 
 the, 305 to 308. 
 Sheffield scientific school, special courses 
 
 in the, 307. 
 Sheffield scientific school, Yale college 
 New Haven, 306. ^ ' 
 
 Shenandoah Valley, 127. 
 Shipbuilding, iron and steel, in Great 
 Britain, Mr. Jean's report on, 255. 
 bhipments, silver, San Francisco to 
 Hong Kong and China in 1881- 
 report of the director of the mint 
 
 lOuo. 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 xli 
 
 Shenango Valley, 212. 
 
 Shoot, pitch of, 129. 
 
 Short methods of calculation, 766. 
 
 Shrinkage of castings, 762. 
 
 Siberia and Europe, ancient mining in, 
 
 544. 
 Siberia, gold in, 431. 
 Sierra de Almagrera, lead and silver 
 
 mines of, 30. 
 Silesian district, 240. 
 Silesian zinc industry, development of 
 since 1810, table showing the, 241. 
 Silicate of zinc, 7. 
 Siliceous formations, lead ores of, 5. 
 Siliceous oxide of copper, 5. 
 Silurian formations, 165. 
 Silurian rocks, ore depisit in, 110. 
 Silverheels, porphyry, 167. 
 Single and double standards, bimet- 
 allism, 436. 
 Sir Hector Hay's estimate of the pro- 
 duction of precious metals from 
 1852 to 1876, 454. 
 Situation, monetary, of the kingdom of 
 
 Norway, the, 383. 
 Sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, 
 
 German mining codes of the, 547. 
 Silver, 6. 
 Silver, 888. 
 Silver, annual consumption of, in the 
 
 Arts, table showing the, 381. 
 Silver, antimonial, 6. 
 Silver, antimonial, sulphuret of, 6._ 
 Silver, articles of, manufactured in or 
 imported into Sweden, table of, 
 388. 
 Silver bars, fine, average monthly price 
 
 of, at London, 370. 
 Silver, causes of the depreciation of, 
 
 412, 413. 
 Silver, Chloride of, 6. 
 Silver coin, American, statement by 
 countries of the net imports of, 372. 
 Silver, coinage of, by the German Em- 
 pire, 438. 
 Silver in the Comstock lode, discovery 
 of, 90. 
 . Silver, consumption of, as affecting 
 Oriental exchanges, 441. 
 Silver, the demonetization of, 439. 
 Silver, depreciation of, true cause of the, 
 
 441. 
 Silver, depreciation of, but slightly af- 
 fected by demonetization, 444. 
 Silver, depreciation of, cause of the, 
 
 439, 440. 
 Silver district, Arizona, 251. 
 Silver-lead alloy, 888. . 
 
 Silver dollar, standard, table showing 
 the value of the, the United States 
 gold coin, 459. 
 Silver of domestic production, deposits 
 and purchases of during the year 
 ended June 30, 1881, table of the, 
 365 
 Silver, domestic production of in 1881. 
 Eeport of Director of the Mint, 
 1047. „ . ^, 
 
 Silver, estimated production ot, in tne 
 
 western world, 397. 
 Silver, estimations of, 12. 
 Silver, exports of, to the east, from 
 Great Britain and Mediterranean 
 ports, 440. 
 Silver, extracting, amalgamation pro- 
 cess for, 890. 
 Silver, extraction of, from copper py- 
 rites, 890. , . , 
 Silver formations in Maine, geological 
 sequence of, 139. 
 
 Silver Glance, 6. 
 
 Silver, gross and net imports of, into 
 this country from 1835 to 1849, 
 440. 
 Silver, historical sketch of, 26. 
 Silver (and gold) imports and exports 
 of, in 1881. Eeport of the Director 
 of the Mint, 1107. 
 
 Silver and gold, 96. 
 
 Silver and gold in the ancient period, 
 table illustrating the history of the 
 relative values of, 410. 
 
 Silver and gold of ancient times, the 
 ratio between, 401. 
 
 Silver and gold, annual production of, 
 in the United States, 395. 
 
 Silver and gold, average annual produc- 
 tion of, by American miners, 397. 
 
 Silver and gold of British India, table 
 of the imports, exports and coinage 
 of, 390. 
 
 Silver and gold bullion, deposits and 
 purchases of, during the year end- 
 ing June 30, 1881, table of the, 364. 
 
 Silver and gold bullion at Helena, 
 Montana, table showing the value 
 of, 513. 
 
 Silver and gold coin, bullion and paper 
 currency in the banks of Australa- 
 sia, 397. 
 
 Silver and gold coin in bullion in the 
 Government Treasuries of British 
 India, table showing amount of, 
 390. 
 
 Silver and gold coin and bullion in the 
 Eussian Government, tables relative 
 to, 387, 388. 
 
 Silver and gold coin and the population 
 of the European world, table show- 
 ing the estimated stock of, 401. 
 
 Silver and gold coined in Lisbon, Por- 
 tugal, table showing the amount of, 
 388. 
 
 Silver, gold and copper coined, average 
 of, held by the banks of Victoria, 
 391. 
 
 Silver and gold, deposit of, at the 
 United States mint and assay offi- 
 ces from their organization to June 
 30,1881, 367. 
 
 Silver and gold in the eastern and west- 
 ern worlds, tables of the ratio of 
 value between, 406. 
 
 Silver and gold exports (domestic^, 371. 
 
 Silver and gold exports (foreign), 371. 
 
 Silver and gold, fluctuations in the pro- 
 duction of, table showing the, 425. 
 
 Silver and gold in Germany, production 
 of, 382. 
 
 Silver and gold, historical memoranda 
 concerning, 395. 
 
 Silver and gold, industrial employment 
 of in Norway and Sweden, 383. 
 
 Silver, gold, lead and copper, table of 
 the annual products of in the west, 
 1870-81, 507. . , ,, , 
 
 Silver and gold in the Middle Ages, 
 table of the relative values of, 411. 
 
 Silver and gold at the mints of Mexico, 
 tables showing the deposits of, 393. 
 
 Silver and gold, Mr. Mulhall's estimates 
 upon, 451. . 
 
 Silver and gold in modern times, tables 
 of ratio between, 409. 
 
 Silver and gold of modern times, the 
 ratio between, 406. , _ ^ ^ 
 
 Silver and gold coined in the St. Feters- 
 burg mint, table of the, 387. 
 
 Silver, gold and paper money in Nor- 
 way, 385, 386. 
 
 Silver and gold coined under the met- 
 ric decimal system in Italy, table 
 showing the amount of, 389. 
 
 Silver and gold, percentage of coin from, 
 operated upon by the coiners of the 
 mints, 1874 to 1881, 367. 
 
 Silver and gold, production of, from 
 1492 to 1878, according to Mr. 
 Alex. Mardle, table of, 457. 
 
 Silver and gold, production of, in the 
 United States according to the 
 mint reports of 1874 and 1881, 
 table of the, 457. 
 
 Silver and gold production, the western 
 world's, statistics of, 397. 
 
 Silver and gold, production of, from 
 1492 to 1879, according to Dr. 
 Soetbeer, table of the, 456. 
 
 Silver and gold production, Whitney's 
 estimate of tne, 436. 
 
 Silver and gold, quantity of, in Sweden, 
 386. 
 
 Silver and gold, relative values of, his- 
 tory of the, 409. 
 
 Silver and gold, relative produce of at 
 different periods, 489. 
 
 Silver and gold, relative values of, 359. 
 
 Silver and gold, statement showing ex- 
 ports of, from Portugal, 388- _ 
 
 Silver and gold, statement showing im- 
 ports of, into Portugal, 388. 
 
 Silver and gold, statement of imports 
 and exports of during the year 
 ended June 80, 1881, 371. 
 
 Silver and gold, stock of, now in the 
 world, 458. 
 
 Silver and gold, tables of the average 
 annual market ratio between, 409. 
 
 Silver and gold, table relative to the 
 consumption of, by India and the 
 East, 457. 
 
 Silver and gold, table showing the pro- 
 
 fress of, since the time of Colum- 
 ns, 451. 
 
 Silver and gold, table of the proportion 
 of production of, from 1493 to 1880, 
 381. 
 
 Silver to gold, table showing the rela- 
 tive market value of, 370 . 
 
 Silver and gold, table of the relative 
 values of, from 1492 to 1850, 411. 
 
 Silver and gold, table of the relative 
 values of, from 1851 to 1874 inclu- 
 sive, 412. 
 
 Silver and gold used in manufactures and 
 arts in the United States, table of 
 the value and character of the, 372, 
 375. 
 
 Silver and gold wares manufactured in 
 Hungary, estimate of, 383. 
 
 Silver and gold ; why used for money, 
 434. 
 
 Silver in India, 419. 
 
 Silver and lead mines of Sierra de 
 Almagrera, 30. 
 
 Silver mill, deduction by practical ex- 
 perience, 922. 
 
 Silver mines in Britain, 13. 
 
 Silver mines of Newburyport, the, 132. 
 
 Silver mines of Pasco, 27. 
 
 Silver mines of Saxony, 28. 
 
 Silver mining districts, favorite, 90. 
 
 Silver, the true money metal, 433. 
 
 Silver, native, 6. 
 
 Silver ores in Maine, the first discovery 
 of, 139. 
 
 Silver pieces, first coined in New Eng- 
 land, 34. 
 
 Silver Eeef, silver sandstone deposits at, 
 224. 
 
xlii 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Silver, relative value of gold to, from 
 
 ancient times to the present, 458. 
 Silver, relative value of gold to, accord- 
 ing to the London market, 459. 
 Silver sandstone deposits at Silver Reef, 
 
 224. 
 Silver sandstone deposits. Prof. New- 
 berry on the formation of, 224. 
 Silver sandstone deposits, Mr. Rolker 
 
 on the formation of, 225, 226. 
 
 Silver in the sedimentary rocks, 223. 
 
 Silver shipments, San Francisco to Hong 
 
 Kong and China in 1881, report of 
 
 the director of the mint, 1068. 
 
 Silver standard, table showing countries 
 
 having, 455. 
 Silver stocked by Western nations, 440. 
 Silver, sulphuret of, 6. 
 Silver, table of the average price of, in 
 relation to the United States Loan 
 Acts, 459. 
 Silver, Washoe pan-process for, 90. 
 Sketch, historical, of copper, 30. 
 Sketch, historical, of lead, 29. 
 Sketch, historical, of silver, 26. 
 Slate bands of Nova Scotia, auriferous 
 
 veins in the, 246. 
 Slate belt of Penobscot and Piscataquis 
 
 counties, the metalliferous, 135. 
 Slate, characteristics of eastern metal- 
 liferous, 135. 
 Slate deposits, auriferous, of the South- 
 ern mining region, 119. 
 Slate formations, working by water, 120. 
 Slate furnace, 59. 
 Slate of Virginia and N. C. gold found 
 
 in, 6. 
 Slope, early days of mining, on the, 
 
 78. 
 Slow monetary contraction crises, ef- 
 fects of, 418. 
 Smel ters of Colorado, prod not of in 188 1 , 
 report of the Director of the Mint, 
 1099. 
 Smelters of Leadville, product of in 
 1881, report of the Director of the 
 Mint, 1095. 
 Smelting of iron ore, 874. 
 Smelting works, Colorado, statement 
 
 relative to, 509 and 510. 
 Smelting, copper, in the Mansfield dis- 
 
 _ triot, 241. 
 Smith, Dr., report of, on the air in metal- 
 mines, 231. 
 Smock, Prof. John C, statistics of iron 
 mines of New York and New Jer- 
 sey, 942. 
 Social life in the mines, and the sur- 
 rounding influences, 789. 
 Society, the California State Geological, 
 
 ODi, 
 
 Society near the gold mines, 790. 
 
 Soetbeer, Dr., table of the production of 
 gold and silver from 1492 to 1879, 
 according to, 456. 
 
 Soft stone-coal, 7. 
 
 Soil, temperature of the, 804. 
 
 Soils, different, ascertaining the effect 
 of, on weak gold solutions, 220. 
 
 Solfataric action on the Comstock, 194. 
 
 Solids, rule for obtaining the weight of" 
 in cubic inches, 759. ' 
 
 Solubility of gold, 218. 
 
 Solubility of gold, method of ascertain- 
 ing, 219, 220. 
 
 Solutions, gold, effect of organic life in, 
 
 Solutions, weak gold, ascertaining the 
 
 effect of different soils on, 220. 
 Sonoma county, California, 146. 
 
 Sonora to Chinese Camp, Cal., 250. 
 
 Sonora, limestone at, 250. 
 
 Soot, treatment of, 148. 
 
 Sonnstadt's researches on the iodine in 
 
 Sea-water, 204. 
 South Carolina, 58. 
 South Carolina, report of the Director 
 
 of the Mint for 1881, 1105-1107. 
 South, East and North, mineral lands of 
 
 the, 108. 
 South, gold mining in the, 89. 
 South Mountain, Pennsylvania, 127. 
 South and North Alabama Railroad, 
 
 workable beds adjoining, 117. 
 Southeast Missouri lead district, the, 
 
 110. 
 Southeast Missouri, the oldest rocks of, 
 
 111. 
 Southern Alleghanies, 212. 
 Southern anthracite coal field of Penn- 
 sylvania, 931. 
 Southern or Bohemian range, 76. 
 Southern, Middle and Western States, 
 
 early iron enterprises in, 38. 
 Southern mining region, auriferous slate 
 
 deposits of, 119. 
 Southern Missouri, the zinc deposits of, 
 
 109. 
 Southern Oregon mines, 511. 
 Southern States, gold production of, 
 from 1804 to 1850, by States, report 
 of tenth census, 996. 
 Southern Utah, 223, 224. 
 Southwestern Virginia, Clinch moun- 
 tain, 125. 
 Southwestern Virginia, known locali- 
 ties in, 125. 
 Southwestern Virginia, the strictly fos- 
 sil ores of, 125. 
 Southwestern Virginia, the mineral re- 
 sources of, 125. 
 Southwestern and western States, iron 
 
 industries in the, 62. 
 Spain, exports of calamine from, 639. 
 Spain, the industries of, 265. 
 Spain, iron ore exports of, 258. 
 Spain, iron ores of, 208. 
 Spain, mint ratios of, 507. 
 Spain, quicksilver production in, 266. 
 Spanish mining law, the, 549. 
 Spanish mining law, the basis of Mexi- 
 can law : J. A. Rockwell, 549. 
 Sparry carbonate, 4. 
 Sparry ore, 4. 
 Spathic ore, 4. 
 Special course in the Sheffield Scientific 
 
 School, 307. 
 
 Specie and bullion, table showing the 
 
 imports and exports of, into and 
 
 from Japan, 393. 
 
 Specie, imports and exports of, into and 
 
 from the Cape of Good Hope, 390. 
 
 Sqecie and notes of the banks of British 
 
 Columbia, general abstract showing 
 
 the, 393. ^ 
 
 Specie and paper circulation in France 
 
 from 1850 to 1878, table showinsr 
 
 the, 882. ^ 
 
 Specie, table showing the movement of, 
 
 in France, from 1850 to 1878, 381. 
 Specific gravities of metals, table of, 752. 
 Specimens examined, table showing the 
 
 mean compositions of, 12. 
 Specular iron ore, 3. 
 Speigeleisen, production of, in 1881 re- 
 port in tenth census, 1022. ' 
 Spelter, common, prices of, at New York, 
 
 Spelter, Belgium, 1031. 
 
 Spelter industry, the German, 240. 
 
 Spelter market, review of the, to June 
 
 30, 1882, 538. 
 Spelter production of Europe, estimate 
 
 of, by Heir Bilharz, 240. 
 Spelter and sheet zinc, German imports 
 
 and exports of, during 1880, 241. 
 Spinning of utensils, 900. 
 Spirits of nitre, 9. 
 Splint, or block coal, 63. 
 Spodumene-emerald, or hiddenite, 124. 
 Spontaneous combustion and weather 
 
 waste of coal, 820. 
 Spring-steel, 4. 
 
 Spruce creek in Pennsylvania, 49. 
 Stability in the legal tender, a double 
 
 standard conducing to, 425. 
 Stage, first, in the decomposition of the 
 
 feldspars, 189. 
 Stamp-mill and amalgamation process 
 
 for gold, California, 90. 
 Stamp-mill, first at Lake Superior, 78. 
 Standard, a double, conducing to stabili- 
 ty in the legal tender, 425. 
 Standard, a double, table showing coun- 
 tries having, 455. 
 Standard measure of value, 437. 
 Standard silver dollar, table showing the 
 value of the, in United States gold 
 coin, 459. 
 Standard silver, table showing countries 
 
 having, 455. 
 Standard of the United States, minute 
 
 on the, 459. 
 Standards, double : why they have al- 
 ways failed and must continue to do 
 so, 444. 
 Standards, present monetary, of the na- 
 tions of the world, 455. 
 Standards, single and double; bimetal- 
 lism, 436. 
 Stanislaus River, 83. 
 Stannum, 10. 
 
 Staple articles, gold prices of, and cur- 
 rency in the New York market 
 compared with the ratio of circula- 
 tion to population and wealth, 380. 
 Staple articles in the New York mar- 
 ket, prices of, from 1825 to 1880, 
 
 Staple articles in the New York market, 
 table showing the annual average 
 gold and currency prices of, 374 to 
 379. 
 
 State Geological Society, the California, 
 0&7. 
 
 State laws, 542. 
 
 State School of Mines, Colorado, course 
 in chemistry in the, 337. 
 
 State School of Mines, Colorado, course 
 
 a. /^«vil engineering in the, 336. 
 
 btate School of Mines, Colorado, course 
 
 o,. ""Miwng engineering in the, 336. 
 
 btate School of Mines, Colorado, course 
 in geology in the, 337. 
 
 State School of Mines, Colorado, course 
 
 a. . in metaJlurgy in the, 336 and 337. 
 
 btate School of Mines, Colorado cur- 
 nculura of the, 336 to 338. 
 
 State School of Mines, Colorado, faculty 
 of the, 334. 
 
 State School of Mines, Colorado- Gold- 
 en, Colorado, 334. 
 
 Statement of the amount of precious 
 metals in the West, 507. 
 
 Statement of annual production of lead- 
 ing mining and metallurgical pro- 
 ducts, during the ten years 1871-80, 
 
 Statement of the Bessemer steel works 
 of the United States, 530. 
 
THE MINES, MINEKS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 xliii 
 
 Statement, comparative, of the anthra- 
 cite coal production, 532. 
 Statement of coinage from the organiza- 
 tion of the mint to June 30, 1880, 
 367 to 370. 
 
 Statement by countries of the net im- 
 ports of American silver coin, 372. 
 
 Statement of earnings and expenditures 
 of the United States mints and as- 
 say offices, 366. 
 
 Statement of fees and charge?, form of, 
 722. 
 
 Statement of imports and exports of 
 gold and silver during the year end- 
 ed June 30, 1881, 371. 
 
 Statement of the mineral product of 
 Utah for 1881, 512. 
 
 Statement of the precious metals used 
 in Austria from 1867 to 1880, 382. 
 
 Statement relative to Colorado smelting 
 works, 509 and 510. 
 
 Statement relative to the United States 
 mines, 367. 
 
 Statement relative to the mineral lands 
 division, 659. 
 
 Statement showing exports of gold and 
 silver from Portugal, 388. 
 
 Statement showing imports of gold and 
 sUver into Portugal, 388. 
 
 Statement showing the purchases at the 
 coining mints and the New York 
 assay office, 360. 
 
 Statement, tabular, of average yield of 
 auriferous gravel, 698. 
 
 Statement, tabular, relative to public 
 lands, 575. 
 
 Statement, tabular, showing the condi- 
 dition of mining in California, 697. 
 
 Statement of the total production of 
 precious metals in France from 
 1493 to 1875, 381. 
 
 States or Territories, surveyor-general 
 within, 568. 
 
 States and Territories, the precious met- 
 al-bearing, of the public domain, 
 613. 
 
 States and Territories, mining law of 
 the, 664. 
 
 Statistics of accidents and deaths in 
 English coal mines, 817. 
 
 Statistics of American coinage, 359. 
 
 Statistics of the American iron trade in 
 1881, 1019. 
 
 Statistics; coal, 88. 
 
 Statistics of fatal accidents in Prussian 
 mines, 816. 
 
 Statistics, general coal, 260. 
 
 Statistics, general mineral, 88. 
 
 Statistics, interesting, from foreign 
 countries, 252. 
 
 Statistics, iron, 88. 
 
 Statistics for 1880, summary of iron and 
 steel, 1018. 
 
 Statistics of iron raining in New York 
 and New Jersey, 943. 
 
 Statistics of iron production in this 
 country from 1854 to 1880, 73. 
 
 Statistics of mineral production, 260. 
 
 Statistics of mining ditches in Califor- 
 nia, 695. . . 
 
 Statistics of pig iron in Great Britain, 
 
 Statistics relative to the ore yield ot 
 
 Butte district, Montana, 513. 
 Statistics in report of the director of the 
 
 mint for 1881, 1107—1114. 
 Statistics of the Western World's gold 
 
 and silver production, 397. 
 Status of lode claims located prior to 
 
 May 10, 1872, 623. 
 
 Statistics, Russian coal, 266. 
 
 Steam ejector, the, 826. 
 
 Steam engine, first in America, erection 
 of, 89. 
 
 Steam engine for mining purposes, ear- 
 liest mention of, 16. 
 
 Steam, first use of anthracite for the 
 generation of, 71. 
 
 Steam, first use of gas from the tunnel 
 head for the production of, 49. 
 
 Steam, introduction of, for driving 
 blasts, 47. 
 
 Steam pump, direct acting, 826. 
 
 Steel, 96. 
 
 Steel, 875. 
 
 Steel, Bessemer, 89. 
 
 Steel, Bessemer, industry of Great Bri- 
 tain, 254. 
 
 Steel, Bessemer, production of, 879. 
 
 Steel, blister, conversion of, into cast 
 steel, 878. 
 
 Steel, cast, conversion of blister steel 
 into, 878. 
 
 Steel, conversion of bar iron into, by 
 cementation, 878. 
 
 Steel, copper, brass, and wrought iron, 
 table relative to weight of, 757. 
 
 Steel, crucible, in Great Britain, 255. 
 
 Steel, Indian, 17. 
 
 Steel ingots, production of, report in 
 tenth census, 1016. 
 
 Steel and iron, exports and imports of, 
 by Russia, 259. 
 
 Steel and iron, French, duties on the, 
 252. 
 
 Steel and iron, imports and exports of, 
 by France, in 1880 and 1881, 256. 
 
 Steel and iron industry of the world, 
 review of the ; Abram S. Hewitt, 
 223. 
 
 Steel and iron, production of, in Ger- 
 many, 256. 
 
 Steel and iron, production of, in Sweden 
 during 1879 and 1880, 358. 
 
 Steel and iron product of Sweden, views 
 of Prof. Akerman on the, 268. 
 
 Steel and iron shipbuilding in Great 
 Britain, Mr. Jean's report on, 255. 
 
 Steel and iron, total exports of, from 
 Great Britain from 1871 to 1881, 
 255. 
 
 Steel, open-hearth, in Great Britain, 
 255. 
 
 Steel rails, Bessemer, prices of, at the 
 works in Wales, 255. 
 
 Steel wire ropes, recent invention for 
 preservation of, in mining, 940. 
 
 Steel works, the first Bessemer, in Aus- 
 
 tro-Hungary, 258. 
 Stephens and Young counties, Texas, 
 section of strata compiled from 
 measurements in, 113. 
 Stevens institute of technology, course 
 in experimental mechanics in the, 
 304. 
 Stevens institute of technology, curricu- 
 lum of the, 301 to 305. 
 Stevens institute of technology, depart- 
 ment of chemistry in the, 304. 
 Stevens institute of technology, depart- 
 ment of mechanical engineering in 
 the, 301. 
 Stevens institute of technology, depart- 
 ment of mechanical drawing in the, 
 302. 
 Stevens Institute of Technology, de- 
 partment of physics in the, 304. 
 Stevens Institute of Technology, faculty 
 
 of, 299. 
 St. Francois county, Missouri, 111. 
 
 Stevens Institute of Technology, Hobo- 
 ken, N. J., 299. 
 Stevens Institute of Technology, plan 
 
 of conducting the, 299, 300. 
 St. Louis, Boise City, Helena and Char- 
 lotte,assay offices at, and Denver 
 mint, work done at the, 363. 
 St Louis Mining and Stock Exchange, 
 
 506. 
 St. Maurice, forges of the, 68, 69. 
 Stock-broker, distinction between an 
 
 ordinary broker and a, 472. 
 Stock-broker, legal relation of to his 
 
 client, 470 to 474. 
 Stock brokerage, the law of, 468. 
 Stock brokers, commission of, 474. 
 Stock brokers, mining, and mining 
 
 stock exchanges, law of, 468. 
 Stock certificate, model of, 723. 
 Stock decision, important, 654. 
 Stock, estimated, of gold and silver coin 
 and the population of the European 
 world, table showing the, 401. 
 Stock and Exchange Board, San Fran- 
 cisco, by-laws of the, 517 to 520. 
 Stock and Exchange Board, San Fran- 
 cisco, constitution of the, 416. 
 Stock and Exchange Board, San Fran- 
 cisco, officers of the, 515. 
 Stock Exchange, the American mining, 
 
 482. 
 Stock Exchange, the American mining, 
 
 by-laws of the, 482 to 484. 
 Stock Exchange, the American mining, 
 rules and regulations of the, 484 to 
 487. 
 Stock Exchange, the American mining, 
 
 stocks listed and called at, 487, 
 Stock Exchange, California, 520. 
 Stock Exchange, Denver, 506. 
 Stock Exchange, the New York mining, 
 
 names of the stocks listed at, 481. 
 Stock Exchange, New York, annals of 
 
 the, 470. 
 Stock Exchange, Pacific, 521. 
 Stock Exchange, New York, govern- 
 ment of the, 490. 
 Stock Exchange, rules of the, 471. 
 Stock Exchange, New York, table ex- 
 hibiting the prices of stocks and 
 number of shares sold at the 489. 
 Stock Exchange, New York, mining con- 
 stitution and by-laws of, 476 to 482. 
 Stock Exchange, a new mining, 482. 
 Stock Exchanges, 468. 
 Stock Exchanges, forms used in dealing 
 
 in, 491. 
 Stock Exchanges, mining, and mining 
 
 stock brokers, law of, 468. 
 Stock Exchanges, mining, 475. 
 Stock Exchanges, the Philadelphia, and 
 
 the Philadelphia market, 494. 
 Stock, form of transfer of, 724. 
 Stock of Gold and silver now in the 
 
 world, 458. 
 Stock market, the San Francisco mining 
 
 and exchange, 515. 
 Stocks listed and called at the American 
 
 Mining Stock Exchange, 487. 
 Stock market, the mining, 487. 
 Stock market, the New York mining, 474. 
 Stock market, the Philadelphia, 500. 
 Stock and metal markets, review of the, 
 
 468. 
 Stock and mining exchange, the Boston, 
 
 502. 
 Stock and mining exchange, the Boston, 
 
 by-laws of, 504 and 505. 
 Stock and raining exchange, the Boston, 
 I constitution of, 502 and 503, 
 
xliv 
 
 THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Stock and mining exchange, St. Louis, 
 
 506. 
 Stock and mining exchange, the Na- 
 tional, 496. 
 Stock and mining exchange, the Phila- 
 delphia. 495. 
 Stock of precious metals in Christendom 
 during and since 1492, table of the, 
 435. 
 Stock of the precious metals, world's, 
 400. ' ' 
 
 Stocks, mining, course of prices for the 
 
 most active, 492 and 493. 
 Stocks, mining, legal decision relative 
 
 to, 728. 
 Stocks, names of the, listed at the New 
 
 York mining stock exchange, 481. 
 Stocks, prices of, and number of shares 
 sold at the New York Stock Ex- 
 change, table exhibiting the, 489. 
 Stocks, prices of, and number of shares 
 sold at the New York mining Ex- 
 changes, tables exhibiting the, 488. 
 Stocks, prominent mining, in San Fran- 
 cisco, table of prices of the, 623. 
 Stone-coal, hard, 7. 
 Stone-coal, soft, 7. 
 St. Petersburg mint, table of the silver 
 
 and gold coined in the, 387. 
 Strain, per sectional inch, of iron pipes. 
 
 table of, 903. 
 Strata of the Comstocfc, 186. 
 Strata, coal, at Lundly, Wales, 97. 
 Strata, coal, of Nova Scotia, 97. 
 Strata, Nova Scotian, 141. 
 Strata, section of, compiled from mea- 
 surements in Stephens and Young 
 counties, Texas, 113. 
 Stratified deposits of ore, S. S. New- 
 berry, 927. 
 Stratified rock, 2. 
 Strawberry Hill, Tangier, 246. 
 Stream tin, (Elutia), 9. 
 Strictly fossil ores of southwestern Vir- 
 ginia, 125. 
 Structural results of faulting on the 
 
 Comstock Lode, 190. 
 Structure, geological, underlying Car- 
 bonate Hill, 178. 
 Structure, geological, underlying Fryer 
 
 Structure, geological, underlying Lead- 
 
 ville, 178. 
 Structure, order of, and estimates upon 
 
 Yuba river, table showing, 706. 
 Structure and origin of the gold gravels 
 
 of North Carolina, 120. 
 Structures ou American river, table rel- 
 ative to, 707. 
 Structures on Bear river, table relative 
 
 to, 707. 
 Students of mining, American, in Ger- 
 many, 344. 
 Studies, course of, at the Lehigh uni- 
 versity, 273 
 Studies, professional, courses in, in the 
 
 university of Michigan, 331. 
 Studies, technical, Lafayette College, 
 
 ^78. 
 Study, scheme of, used at the summer 
 school of practical mining, 297, 
 298. 
 Subdivisions of the general land office, 
 
 567, 
 Substances used for fire arms, explosive 
 
 force of, 762. 
 Succession, and occurrence of rocks in 
 
 the Comstock, 191. 
 Suess, Dr. views of, on the precious 
 metals; 428. 
 
 Suez canal, opening of the, 441. 
 Sugartown or Culsagee fork of the Ten- 
 nessee, the, 122. 
 Suggestions, practical, to prospectors, 
 
 178. 
 Suicides in San Francisco, reported 
 
 numbers of, 796. 
 Suit, the GoldEuu, 707 to 715. 
 Suit, Gold Eun, decision of Judge Tem- 
 ple in the, 714. 
 Suits, mining, form of certificate, rela- 
 tive to, 722. 
 Sullivan and Goldsboro' mining belt, 
 
 133. 
 Sullivan lode, 134. 
 Sullivan, Me., the mining district at, 
 
 138. 
 Sullivan river, 134. 
 Sulphur, 4. 
 Sulphur and arsenic, roasting copper to 
 
 expel, 883. 
 Sulphur bank, quicksilver deposit, 226. 
 Sulphur and sulphuric acid from iron 
 
 pyrites, the manufacture of, 136. 
 Sulphuret of copper, 4. 
 Sulphuret, gray, 4. 
 Sulphuret of iron, 4. 
 Sulphuret of iron, 137. 
 Sulphuret of iron into oxide, calcina- 
 tion of copper for converting, 885. 
 Sulphuret of lead, 6. 
 Sulphuret of mercury, bituminous, 7. 
 Sulphuret of silver, 6. 
 Sulphuret of silver, antimonial, 6. 
 Sulphuret of tin, 7. 
 
 Summary of the coinage of the Swiss 
 mints from 1850 to the end of 1879, 
 390. 
 Summary of the General Land Office 
 
 annual report for 1881, 655. 
 Summary of iron and steel statistics for 
 
 1880, 1018. 
 Summer school of practical mining, a, 
 
 296. . 
 
 Summer school of practical mining, 
 scheme of study used at the, 297, 
 298. 
 Sumner's Amphitheatre, Colorado Elver 
 
 781. 
 Sunlight, absence of, in mining, 228. 
 Superficial deposits of ore, S. S. New- 
 berry, 927. 
 Superior, Lake, commencement of iron 
 
 mining at, 89. 
 Superior, Lake, development of the 
 
 copper mines of, 89. 
 Superior, Lake, first stamp mill at, 78. 
 Superior, Lake, mines, the mass copper 
 of the, and the method of miuinsr 
 it, 146. ^ 
 
 Superior, Lake, region, 74. 
 Superstitions, Mine, 769. 
 Supply, water, of Georgia, 120. 
 Surface valleys^ 168. 
 Surfaces, wearing, ratios of, to units of 
 valuation of United States coins,445 
 Surinam, gold export, 1046. 
 Surplus monetary conveyances, 422. 
 Survey, United States Geological, 267 
 Survey, the United States Geological 
 and its work, 353. ' 
 
 Survey, United States Geological, ex- 
 penditures of the, 354. 
 Survey,United States Geological, general 
 
 scheme of the, 354. 
 Survey, second geological of Penna 
 Prof. Lesley's provisional nomen- 
 clature of, 738. 
 Surveying, course in, in the University 
 of Michigan, 330. 
 
 Surveying districts and offices of sur- 
 veyors-general, table of, 677. 
 
 Surveying districts and surveyors- 
 general, list of, to June 30, 1880, 
 569. 
 
 Surveying, land, meridians and bases 
 in, 572. 
 
 Surveying mineral claims, method of, 
 574. 
 
 Surveying of mining claims in Colorado, 
 682 to 586. 
 
 Surveying a mining claim, form of ap- 
 plication for, 721. 
 
 Surveying under the rectangular system, 
 cost of, 576. 
 
 Surveyor-general, list of offices of, from 
 May 10, 1800, to June 30, 1880, 
 669. 
 
 Surveyors-general, offices of, and sur- 
 veying districts, 577. 
 
 Surveyor-general of public lands, the 
 first, 568. 
 
 Surveyor-general, report of, on the 
 mineral production of California, 
 659 and 660. 
 
 Surveyor-general, report of, on the min- 
 eral production of Montana, 661. 
 
 Surveyor-general, report of, on the min- 
 eral production of Nevada, 661 and 
 662. 
 
 Survejror-General, report of, on the 
 mineral production of New Mexico, 
 
 Surveyor-general, report of, on the min- 
 eral production of Utah, 663. 
 
 Surveyors, deputy, of mining claims, 
 appointment of, 628. 
 
 Surveyors-general, Instructions to, rela- 
 tive to fraudulent surveys, 657. 
 
 Surveyors-general within States or Ter- 
 ritories, 568. 
 
 Surveyors of public lands prior to 1825, 
 568. 
 
 Surveys, administration and method of, 
 the, 573. 
 
 Surveys, execution of, 573. , 
 
 Surveys, fraudulent, instructions to sur- 
 veyors-general regarding, 657. 
 
 Surveys in the field, examination of, 
 657. 
 
 Surveys, geological, of public domain 
 under general land office, 574. 
 
 Surveys, land parceling, methods and 
 systems of, 572. 
 
 Surveys, mining, and publications, 
 charges for, 628. 
 
 Surveys of the public lands, 571. 
 
 Surveys, the " rectangular system " of. 
 
 Surveys and surveyors. United States 
 Laws relating to, 577 to 582. 
 
 Surveys, tables showing cost of from 
 1860 to 1881, 576. 
 
 Sussex County, N. J., 128. 
 
 Sutro, Adolph, address before Bullion 
 Club, of New York, descriptive of 
 the Comstock Lode, 943 to 953. 
 
 Sutro Tunnel, and the Comstock Lode, 
 169. 
 
 Sutro Tunnel, decisions regarding the, 
 637. 
 
 Sutro Tunnel, description of, in ad- 
 dresses, by Adolph Sutro, 946 to 
 
 oOo, 
 
 Swank, J. M., report in tenth census, 
 manufacturers of iron and steel, 
 
 Sweden, articles of gold manufactured 
 mor imported into, table of, 885. 
 bweden, iron ores of, 206. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 xlv 
 
 Sweden, article? of silver manufactured 
 
 in or imported into, table of, 385. 
 Sweden and Norway, industrial em- 
 ployment of silver and gold in, 
 
 383. 
 Sweden, the production of iron in, 263. 
 Sweden, production of iron and steel in, 
 
 during 1879 and 1880, 258. 
 Sweden, quantity of gold and silver in, 
 
 386. 
 Sweden, steel and iron product of, views 
 
 of Prof. Akerman on the, 258. 
 Sweeps, sale of, at the United States 
 
 mints and assay offices, loss and 
 
 wastages on, 367. 
 Swineford, A. P., statistics of Michigan 
 
 iron and copper, 1029. 
 Swiss mints, summary of the coinage of 
 
 the, from 1850 to the end of 1879, 
 
 390. 
 Symbols and equivalents of elementary 
 
 bodies, 758. 
 System, corporate, of managing indus- 
 trial enterprises, 92. 
 System, hospital, in France for miners, 
 
 236. 
 System and methods of land parceling 
 
 surveys, 572. 
 System, present, of land parceling, 
 
 benefits of the, 575. 
 System, rectangular, cost of surveying 
 
 under the, 576. 
 System, rectangular, of surveys, 571. 
 System, the retort, 155. 
 System of mining, the first, 100. 
 
 TABLE of the annual product of the 
 Comstock lode from 1860 to 1878, 
 181. 
 
 Table of the annual production of gold 
 in Australia, 396. 
 
 Table of the annual products of lead, 
 copper, silver and gold in the West, 
 1870—81, 507. 
 
 Table of the articles of gold manufac- 
 tured in or imported into Sweden, 
 385. 
 
 Table of the articles of silver manufac- 
 tured in or imported into Sweden, 
 385. 
 
 Table of average assays for Maine mine- 
 rals, 138. 
 
 Table of the average price of silver in 
 relation to the United States Loan 
 Acts, 459. 
 
 Table of average section in Mosquito 
 range, 164. 
 
 Table of the bullion yield of Arizona, 
 511. 
 
 Table of the coinage executed during 
 the calendar year ended December 
 31, 1880, 366. 
 
 Table of the coinage executed during 
 the fiscal year ended June 30, 1881, 
 365. 
 
 Table comparing the ratio of circulation 
 to population and wealth with the 
 currency and gold prices of staple 
 articles in the New York market, 
 380. 
 
 Table of conducting power of metals for 
 electricity, 752. 
 
 Table of conducting power of metals for 
 heat, 762. 
 
 Table of the deposits of gold of domestic 
 production during the year ending 
 June 30, 1881, 365. 
 
 Table of the deposits and purchases of 
 gold and silver bullion during the 
 year ending June 30, 1881, 364. 
 
 Table of the deposits and purchases 
 of silver of domestic production 
 during the year ending June 30, 
 1881, 365. 
 Table of the distribution of the Lake 
 Superior copper yields in 1881, 535. 
 Table of the domestic product of cop- 
 per, 535. 
 Table of ductility of metals. 752. 
 Table of entries under the coal land 
 
 acts, 610. 
 Table exhibiting the bullion production 
 
 for 1882, 491. 
 Table exhibiting the prices of stocks 
 and number of shares sold at the 
 New York stock exchange, 489. 
 Table expressing the ratio for popula- 
 tion and for the estimated capital 
 value of each country, 453. 
 Table of fusibility of metals, 752. 
 Table of geological formations. Prof. 
 
 Hunt's, 738. 
 Table of geological formations. Prof. 
 
 Dana's, 738. 
 Table of the gold production of Vic- 
 toria, 392. 
 Table of the gold and silver coined in 
 
 the St. Petersburg mint, 387. 
 Table illustrating the history of the re- 
 lative values of gold and silver in 
 the ancient period, 410. 
 Table of the imports, exports and coin- 
 age of gold and silver of British 
 India, 390. 
 Table of the imports and exports into 
 
 and from England, 536. 
 Table of information regarding the 
 
 Comstock mines, 183. 
 Table of malleability of metals, 751. 
 Table Mountain, 250. 
 " Table Mountains," 83. 
 Table of the ore yield in Nevada by 
 
 counties, 508. 
 Table of prices for iron in New. York, 
 
 530. 
 Table of prices of the prominent mining 
 
 stocks in San Francisco, 523. 
 Table of the grices of tin in New York, 
 
 537. 
 Table of the product and value of the 
 
 Lake Superior oopper mines, 535. 
 Table of the production of gold in Cali- 
 fornia proper, 395. 
 Table of the production of gold and 
 silver from 1492 to 1879, according 
 to Dr. Soetbeer, 456. 
 Table of the production of gold and 
 silver from 1492 to 1878, according 
 to Mr. Alex. Mardle, 457. 
 Table of the production of gold and 
 silver in the United States according 
 to the Mint reports of 1874 and 
 1881, 457. 
 Table of production of leading metals 
 and minerals in the United States 
 during the First Century of 
 National Independence, 94. 
 Table of the proportion of production 
 of gold and silver from 1493 to 
 1880, 381. 
 Table of the production of precious 
 
 metals from 1800 to 1879, 440. 
 Table of the production of the precious 
 metals in the Eastern and Western 
 Worids from 1493 to 1872, 443. 
 Table of the production of quicksilver 
 from the California mines in 1881, 
 540. 
 Tables relative to commitments in Cali- 
 fornia asylums, 794. 
 
 Table of the quantity and value of iron 
 ore imported into the United States 
 in 1881, 532. 
 Table of the receipts and expenses of 
 the Consolidated Virginia Mine, 
 509. 
 Table relative to the assessments and 
 dividends of mining companies, 492. 
 Table relative to blast-furnaces, 531. 
 Table relative to the consumption of 
 gold and silver by India and the 
 East, 457. 
 Table, relative dimension of wire rope, 
 ropes, hawsers and cables with their 
 breaking strain, 759. 
 Tables relative to the gold and silver 
 coin and bullion in the Russian 
 Government, 387, 388. 
 Table relative to government paper cir- 
 culation issued by Bengal, Madras 
 and Bombay presidencies, 390. 
 Table relative to the grades of tunnels 
 
 on the Yuba River, 695. 
 Table relative to grants of salines by 
 
 Congress, 597. 
 Table relative to prices of shares in 
 
 1882, 493, 494. 
 Table relative to structure on American 
 
 River, 707. 
 Table relative to structures on Bear 
 
 River, 707. 
 Table relative to United States public 
 
 lands, 659. 
 Table of the relative value of gold and 
 
 silver from 1492 to 1850, 411. 
 Table of the relative values of gold and 
 silver from 1851 to 1874 inclusive, 
 412. 
 Table of the relative values of gold and 
 
 silver in the Middle Ages, 411. 
 Table relative to weight of wrought iron, 
 
 steel, copper and brass, 757. 
 Table of reservoirs constructed for min- 
 ing purposes on the Yuba and 
 American Rivers, 695. 
 Table of Rivets in wrought iron pipes, 
 
 904. 
 Table showing the Australian gold pro- 
 duction for 24 years, 392. 
 Table showing the bullion product for 
 the fiscal year ending June 30, 1881, 
 506. 
 Table showing the coin and bullion in 
 the banks of Bengal, Madras and 
 Bombay, 390. 
 Table showing the construction of 
 wrought iron pipe for hydraulic 
 mining, 902. 
 Table showing countries having double 
 
 standard, 455. 
 Table showing countries having silver 
 
 standard, 455. 
 Table showing the decline of the gold 
 
 production in Australia, 433. 
 Table showing the development of the 
 Silesian zinc industry since 1810, 
 241. 
 Table showing the distribution of an- 
 thracite coal in 1881, 534. 
 Table showing the estimated stock of 
 gold and silver coin and the popu- 
 lation of the European world, 401. 
 Table showing estimates and order of 
 
 structure upon Tuba River, 706. 
 Table showing the expenditure of all 
 
 nations, 453. 
 Table showing the fluctuations of each 
 
 decade since 1760, 444. 
 Table showing the fluctuations in the 
 production of gold and silver, 425. 
 
xlvi 
 
 THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Table of section in the region of the 
 
 Lower Colorado, 165. 
 Table of section in the Wasatch Range, 
 
 164. 
 Table showing the amount of coin issued 
 
 since 1848, 451. 
 Table showing amount of gold and silver 
 coin and bullion in the Government 
 Treasuries of British India, 390. 
 Table showing the amount of gold and 
 silver coined under the Metric De- 
 cimal System in Italy, 389. 
 Table showing the annual average gold 
 and currency prices of staple arti- 
 cles, in the New York market, 374 
 to 379. 
 Table showing the annual consumption 
 
 of gold in the arts, 380. 
 Table showing the annual consumption 
 
 of silver in the arts, 381. 
 Table showing the gold standard coun- 
 tries, 455. 
 Table showing the imports and exports 
 of specie and bullion into and from 
 Japan, 393. 
 Table showing the increase in the chief 
 
 product, 454. 
 Table showing the Interest Laws of the 
 
 different States, 683. 
 Table showing Italian coinage from 
 
 1862 till 1878, 389. 
 Table showing the mean compositions 
 
 of the specimens examined, 12. 
 Table showing the amount of specie in 
 
 France from 1850 to 1878, 381. 
 Table showing prices of iron at Pitts- 
 burg, 531. 
 Table showing the principal causes of 
 
 National Debts, 453. 
 Table showing the progress of gold and 
 silver since the time of Columbus 
 451. 
 Table showing the proportion of con- 
 sumption to production of precious 
 metals, 399. 
 Table showing the ratio of convertible 
 
 paper money to population, 452. 
 Table showing the receipts and expendi- 
 tures of the California mine, 508. 
 Table showing the relative market value 
 
 of gold to silver, 370. 
 Table showing the specie and paper 
 circulation in France from 1850 to 
 1878, 382. 
 Table showing the tin product of the 
 
 world, 537. 
 Table showing the value of gold and 
 silver bullion at Helena, Montana, 
 513. 
 Table showing the value of ingot cop- 
 per at New York in currency, 536. 
 Table showing the value of the stand- 
 ard silver dollar in United States 
 gold coin, 459. 
 Table of specific gravities of metals, 
 
 752. 
 Table of the stock of precious metals in 
 Christendom during and since 1492, 
 435. 
 Table of strain, per sectional inch, of 
 
 iron pipes, 903. 
 Table of surveying districts and offices 
 
 of surveyor-general, 577. 
 Table of the total coinage of the mints 
 of Mexico from their establishment 
 to June 30, 1879, 394. 
 Table of the value and character of the 
 gold and silver used in manufac- 
 tures and arts in the United States, 
 372, 375. 
 
 Table of the total yield of precious 
 metals in California from 1848 to 
 1882, 507. 
 Table of velocities and discharges in 
 
 hydraulic mining, 761. 
 Table, wages, 760. 
 Table of the yield of hydralic mining 
 
 in California, 699. 
 Tables of the average annual market 
 ratio between gold and silver, 409. 
 Tables of the average annual prodution 
 
 of German marks, 423. 
 Tables of breaking strains of wire, 898. 
 Tables of the coinage of the mints of 
 
 Mexico by fiscal years, 394. 
 Tables showing cost of surveys from 
 
 1860 to 1881, 576. 
 Tables showing the deposits of gold and 
 silver at the mints of Mexico, 393. 
 Tables relative to dividends and assess- 
 ments, 514. 
 Tables of highest and lowest prices of the 
 Comstock shares in four years, 522. 
 Tables showing the amount of gold and 
 silver coined in Lisbon, Portugal,388 
 Tables exhibiting the prices of stocks 
 and number of shares sold at the 
 New York mining exchanges, 488. 
 Tables of the ratio of value between 
 gold and silver in the eastern and 
 western worlds, 406. 
 Tables of the ratio between gold and 
 
 silver in modern times, 409. 
 Tables, reference, 729. 
 Tables of reference for the miner, engi- 
 neer and mine-owner, 752. 
 Tables relative to weight and volume of 
 
 cost iron, 757. 
 Tables relative to weight of rolled iron. 
 
 756. 
 Tabular statement of average yield of 
 
 auriferous gravel, 698. 
 Tabular statement showing the condi- 
 tion of mining in California, 697. 
 Tabular statement relative to public 
 
 lands, 575. 
 Tacks, manufacture of, by hand, 38. 
 Tangier ; Strawberry Hill, 246. 
 Tariff, French, the new, 257. 
 Technical education, 267. 
 Technical schools, 92. 
 Technical studies in Lafayette College, 
 
 278, 
 Technology, Massachusetts Institute of 
 
 Boston, 311. 
 Technology, Massachusetts Institute of, 
 
 course in chemistry in the, 314. 
 Technology, Massachusetts Institute of, 
 course in civil and topographical 
 engineering in the, 314. 
 Technology, Massachusetts Institute of, 
 course in mining and metallurgy in 
 tne, olo. 
 Technology, Massachusetts Institute of 
 curriculum of the, 311 to 320. ' 
 Technology, Massachusetts Institute of 
 
 faculty of the, 817. 
 Technology, Massachusetts Institute of 
 course in geology and physical ge- 
 ography in the, 315. 
 Technology, Massachusetts Institute of 
 mming laboratory of the, 318 ' 
 Technology, the Stevens Institute of 
 
 Hoboken, N. J., 299. 
 Technology, Stevens Institute of, course 
 in experimental mechanics in the, 
 
 Technology, Stevens Institute of, de- 
 partment of mechanical drawinc in 
 the, 302. ^ 
 
 Technology, Stevens Institute of, curric- 
 ulum of, 301 to 305. 
 Technology, Stevens Institute of, de- 
 partment of chemistry in the, 
 804. 
 Technology, Stevens Institute of, de- 
 partment of mechanical engineer- 
 ing in the, 301. 
 Technology, Stevens Institute of, de- 
 partment of physics in the, 304. 
 Technology, Stevens Institute of, faculty 
 
 of, 299. 
 Technology, Stevens Institute of, plan 
 
 of conducting, 299, 300. 
 Temescal Range, the, 158. 
 Temescal tin ore, analysis of, 158. 
 Temperature, high, of the Comstock, 
 
 causes of the, 194. 
 Temperature, rock, and depths, a scale 
 
 Oi, 232. 
 Temperature of the soil, 804. 
 Temple, Judge, decisions of, in the Gold 
 
 Run suit, 714. 
 Tenacity, relative, of metals, 751. 
 Tennessee, 60. 
 Tennessee, the culsagee or Sugartown 
 
 fork of the, 122. 
 Tennessee and Kentucky, early days of 
 
 the iron industry in, 59. 
 Tennessee and North Carolina, primi- 
 tive character of the iron works of, 
 61. 
 Tennessee and Western Kentucky, iron 
 
 region of, 212. 
 Terms, mining and metallurgical, a 
 
 glossary of, 729 to 750. 
 Terms, Wall St., definition of, 474. 
 Territories and States, the precious 
 metal bearing, of the public do- 
 main, 613. 
 Territories and States, mining law of 
 
 the, 664. 
 Territories or States, Surveyors-general 
 
 withtn, 668. 
 Territory, Northwest mineral reserva- 
 tions in, 613. 
 Territory, Washington, 68. 
 Tertiary formation, 2. 
 Tertiary lignites, 116. 
 Texas, 68. 
 
 Texas, the Brazos coal field of, 112. 
 Texas, Coal creek, 114. 
 Texas, Crystal Falls, 113. 
 Texas, section of strata compiled from 
 measurements in Stephens and 
 Young counties, 113. 
 Tin market, review of the, to June 1882. 
 536. ' 
 
 Tin method of prospecting for, 158. 
 Tin mines of Banca, 157. 
 Tin mines of Cornwall, 157. 
 Tin mines, a peculiarity of, 158. 
 Tin mining and the California ores of 
 
 tin, 157. 
 Tin, net import of, in the United States, 
 
 Tin in New South Wales, 157. 
 
 Tin ore, temescal, analysis of, 158. 
 
 Tin, peroxide of, 7. 
 
 Tin, plate in Great Britain, 255. 
 
 Tin, prices of in New York, table of 
 the, 537. 
 
 Tin, product of the world, table show- 
 ing the, 537. 
 
 Tin pyrites, 7. 
 
 Tin stone, 7. 
 
 Tin, stream, (elutia), 9. 
 
 Tin, sulphuret of, 7. 
 
 Tinning, iron, art of, 24. 
 
 Title bond, form of, 726. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 xlvii 
 
 Title, government, to vein or lode 
 claims, method of obtaining, 625. 
 
 Title, the possessory, 91. 
 
 Theory of fiat money, 421. 
 
 Theory of Prof. Newberry on the for- 
 mation of silver sandstone deposits, 
 224. 
 
 Thermal effect of kaolinization on the 
 Comstock lode, 199. 
 
 Thickness and number of the coal beds 
 of Alabama, 117. 
 
 Third magnesian limestone, ores in the, 
 111. 
 
 Three bases of operation on the Com- 
 stock lode, 183. 
 
 Three important gold producing cen- 
 tres, the, 431. 
 
 Three rivers, Quebec, 68. 
 
 Tide table for United States coast, 755. 
 
 Tides, rise and fall of, in the Gulf of 
 Mexico, 755. 
 
 Timber on mineral lands, decision rela- 
 tive to, 655. 
 
 Timber and timber culture, 597 to 601. 
 
 Time of Augustus, iron mines in, 11. 
 
 Tin, 7. 
 
 Tin, 9. 
 
 Tin, analysis on 100 parts of, 15. 
 
 Tin, banca, prices of, in Holland, 537. 
 
 Tin, the California ores of, and tin min- 
 ing, 157. 
 
 Tin market, the London, 536, 537. 
 
 Token coinage, 410. 
 
 Tom's creek, N. C, 58. 
 
 Tombstone, Arizona, the geology and 
 veins of, 159. 
 
 Tonnage of coal on Central Railroad of 
 New Jersey, 1037. 
 
 Tonnage of coal on Delaware, Lacka- 
 wanna and Western Railroad, 1037. 
 
 Tonnage of coal on Huntingdon and 
 Broad Top Mountain Railroad, 
 1038. 
 
 Tonnage of coal on Illinois Central 
 Railroad, 1039. 
 
 Tonnage of coal by Lehigh Coal and 
 Navigation Company from 1872 to 
 1881, 1036. 
 
 Tonnage of coal by Lehigh Valley Rail- 
 road Co., 1036. 
 
 Tonnage of coal on Pennsylvania Rail- 
 road — Belvidere Division, 1037. 
 
 Tonnage of coal on New York, Penn- 
 sylvania and Ohio Railroad, 1039. 
 
 Tonnage of coal on Pennsvlvania and 
 New York Railroad, 1036. 
 
 Tonnage of coal on Philadelphia and 
 Reading Railroad, 1036. 
 
 Tonnage of coal on Union Pacific Rail- 
 road, 1039. 
 
 Tonnages, old and new measurement, 
 756. 
 
 Tools used in breaking rock, 912. 
 
 Tools, copper, of primitive mines, 75. 
 
 Tools, mining, 874. 
 
 Topographical and civil engineenng, 
 course in, in the Massachusetfa In- 
 stitute of Technology, 314. 
 
 Toroweap and Uinkaret, the, Colorado, 
 773 to 779. ^ ,^ . 
 
 Total coinage of the mints of Mexico 
 from their establishment to June 
 30, 1879, table of the, 394. 
 
 Total coinage now in use in the world, 
 451. 
 
 Total amount of gold produced since 
 1492, 433. 
 
 Total exports of iron and steel from 
 Great Britain from 1871 to 1881, 
 255. 
 
 Total production of precious metals in 
 France from 1493 to 1875, state- 
 ment of the, 381. 
 Total yield of precious metals in Cali- 
 fornia from 1848 to 1882, table of 
 the, 507. 
 
 Tourmaline, rose-colored, 248. 
 
 Towne Scientific School, the, 269. 
 
 Tow-n-site of Eureka Springs, decisions 
 regarding, 634. 
 
 Town-sites and county seats, laws re- 
 specting, 601. 
 
 Town-sites, decisions regarding mining 
 claims in, 635. 
 
 Tracer and discoverer, original, of the 
 chrysolite belt, N. C, 124. 
 
 Tract of Laurentian rocks, mountain, 
 122. 
 
 Tract, Mine La Motte, 110, 111. 
 
 Tract, " Old Mines," Mo., 111. 
 
 Trade, British iron, condition of the, 
 253. 
 
 Trade, free, Mr. Dana Horton on the 
 subject of, 420. 
 
 Trade, The Philadelphia Mining Board 
 of, 499. 
 
 Tradition of Belgian miners, 101. 
 
 Tradition relating to the growth of gold, 
 219. 
 
 Tram-wagons, description of, 915. 
 
 Transition rock, 1. 
 
 Transmission of power by electricity in 
 mining, 814. 
 
 Transylvania, the "gold mine of Eu- 
 rope," 264. 
 
 Trap-rock, 2. 
 
 Treasure, minor beds of, 108. 
 
 Treasure, movement through San Fran- 
 cisco Custom House, statistics of 
 tenth census, 992. 
 
 Treasures, metallic, of the East, 27. 
 
 Treasuries, government, of British In- 
 dia, table showing amount of gold 
 and silver coin and bullion in the, 
 390. 
 
 Treasury, the golden, 102. 
 
 Treating ore at Luckhart Furnace, cost 
 of, 151. 
 
 Treating ores in 1778, methods of, 15. 
 
 Treatment of mercury in Noth Califor- 
 nia, notes on the, 146. 
 
 Triassic sandstone, 225. 
 
 Tributaries of navigable waters, deposits 
 of detritus in, 702. 
 
 Tribute, iron as, in the rejgn of William 
 the Conqueror, 22. 
 
 Trinity river, 156. 
 
 Trompe, or water-blast, 58. 
 
 Trojan war, 8. 
 
 Troubles, 99. 
 
 Troubles, manipulation, 84. 
 
 True cause of the depreciation of silver, 
 441. 
 
 " True fissure vein," 224. 
 
 Tula Iron Co., Mexico, works of the, 
 213. 
 
 Tulpehocken Eisen Hammer, 44. 
 
 Tuolumne County, California, 83. 
 
 Tuolumne County, California, 249. 
 
 Tuolumne River, 79. 
 
 Tuolumne River, 250. 
 
 Tunnel, the Sutro, and the Comstock 
 lode, 159. 
 
 Tunnel claim — ^location certificate, form 
 of, 726. 
 
 Tunnel head, first use of gas from the, 
 for the production of steam, 49. 
 
 Tunnel rights, rulings of the General 
 Land Office relative to, 625. 
 
 Turf (alluvium), 2. 
 
 Tunnel, Sutro, description of, by 
 
 Adolph Sutro, 946 to 953. 
 Tunnels, grades of, on the Yuba River, 
 
 table relative to, 695. 
 Tuscarawas Valley, 212. 
 
 UINKARET and Toroweap, the 
 Colorado, 773 to 779. 
 Underground workings, ventilation and 
 
 lighting of, 806. 
 Unfamiliar mining regions of the 
 
 United States, 108. 
 Uniformity of the gold yield of the 
 
 Marmora ore, 145. 
 Union Pacific Railroad, tonnage of coal 
 
 on, 1039. 
 Union Rolling mills, 64. 
 United Kingdom, area of the coal fields 
 
 of the, 242. 
 United mines, Wales, 232. 
 United States, a century of mining and 
 
 metallurgy in the, 86. 
 United States, annual production of 
 
 gold and silver in the, 395. 
 United States, average and comparative 
 
 prices of the principal domestic 
 
 commodities exported from the, 373. 
 United States, Bessemer steel works of 
 
 the, statement of the, 530. 
 United States, bullion product of sta- 
 tistics of tenth census, 987. 
 United States, circulation and its ratio 
 
 to population and wealth of the, 
 
 380. 
 United States, coal product of, 934. 
 United States, coal trade of, in 1881, 
 
 1032. 
 United States Coast, tide table for, 755. 
 United States, coin circulation of the, 
 
 364. 
 United States coins, units of valuation 
 
 of, ratio of wearing surfaces to, 445. 
 United States, consumption of copper 
 
 in the, 238. 
 United States, copper in the, 32. 
 United States, cost of patents to the, 
 
 and claimants, 620. 
 United States, oldest ironmaster in the, 
 
 71. 
 United States, estimated production of 
 
 precious metals in the, from 1848 to 
 
 1880, 619. 
 United States during the First Century 
 
 of National Independence, table of 
 
 production of leading metals and 
 
 minerals in the, 94. 
 United States, first use of paper money 
 
 in the, 452. 
 United States geological survey, 267. 
 United States geological survey, expen- 
 ditures of the, 354. 
 United States geological survey, general 
 
 scheme of the, 354. 
 United States geological survey and its 
 
 work, 353. 
 United States gold "coin, table showing 
 
 the value of the standard silver 
 
 dollar in, 459. 
 United States, the geographical distribu- 
 tion of mining districts in the, 222. 
 United States, iron in the, first attempt 
 
 by Europeans to manufacture, 32. 
 United States laws relating to surveys 
 
 and surveyors, 577 to 582. 
 United States lengths and measures, 
 
 753. 
 United States loan acts, table of the 
 
 average price of silver in relation 
 
 to the, 459. 
 United States mining legislation, 542. 
 
xlviii THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 United States, mineral laws of the, af- 
 fected by the gold discovery in 
 California, 614. 
 
 United States, mining companies of the, 
 list of, 1114. 
 
 United States, mining legislation of the, 
 90. 
 
 United States, mints and assay oflBces, 
 deposits of gold and silver at the, 
 frem their organization to June 30, 
 _ 1881, 367. 
 
 United States mints and assay offices, 
 statement of earnings and expendi" 
 tures of the, 366. 
 
 United States mints and assay offices, 
 wastages and loss on sale of sweeps 
 at the, 367. 
 
 United States mints, statement relative 
 to melts of ingots at the, 367. 
 
 United States, minute on the standard 
 of the, 459. 
 
 United States, net import of tin in the, 
 538. 
 
 United States, policy of, in relation to 
 mineral lands, 621. 
 
 United States, production of coal in, for 
 year ending June 1st, 1880, statis- 
 tics of tenth census, 1007. 
 
 United States production of deep mines, 
 statistics of tenth census, 985 to 987. 
 
 United States, production of gold and 
 silver in the, mint reports relative 
 to the, 457. 
 
 United States, production of iron and 
 steel in, 1872 to 1881, report in 
 tenth census, 1028. 
 
 United States, production of the non- 
 precious minerals of the, during 
 the year ending June 1st, 1880, 
 237. 
 
 United States, production of precious 
 metals in the, for 1881, 1047. 
 
 United States public lands, table re- 
 lative to, 659. 
 
 United States, first rolling mill in the, 
 50. 
 
 United States, recent decisions affecting 
 rights under the mining laws of 
 the, 633. 
 
 United States, the mining and acien- 
 tiiic press of the, 355. 
 
 United States, table of the quantity and 
 value of iron ore imported into 
 the, in 1881, 532. 
 
 United States, table of the value and 
 character of the gold and silver 
 used in manufactures and arts in 
 the, 872, 875. 
 
 United States, unfamiliar mining re- 
 gions of the, 108. 
 
 Units of valuation of United States 
 coins, ratios of wearing surfaces to, 
 445. 
 
 Universal bimetallism, the Newton law 
 of, 426. 
 
 University of California, Berkeley, Cali- 
 fornia, 338. 
 
 University of California, course in 
 chemistry in the, 343. 
 
 University of California, course in civil 
 engineering in the, 343. 
 
 University of California, course in min- 
 ing in the, 342. 
 
 University of California, course in Pet- 
 rographyin the, 344. 
 
 University of California, curriculum of 
 the, 340 to 344. 
 
 University of California, faculty of the, 
 339. 
 
 University, Cornell, faculty of, 320. 
 
 University, Cornell, advanced degrees 
 in the, 325. . 
 
 University, Cornell, courses in chemis- 
 try and phvsics in the, 324. 
 
 University, Cornell, course in civil en- 
 gineering in the, 322. 
 
 University, Cornell, course in math- 
 ematics in the, 323. 
 
 University, Cornell, course in mechanic 
 arts in the, 322. 
 
 University, Cornell, curriculum of, 321 
 to 327. 
 
 University, Cornell, faculty of, 320. 
 
 University, Cornell, Ithaca, N. Y., 320. 
 
 University, Harvard, Cambridge, Mass. 
 Lawrence scientific school, 308. 
 
 University, Harvard, at Cambridge, 
 school of mining and practical 
 geology of, 92. 
 
 University Lehigh, at Bethlehem, school 
 of mining and metallurgy of, 92. 
 
 University, Lehigh, course in civil en- 
 gineering in the, 273. 
 
 University, the Lehigh, 272. 
 
 University, Lehigh, course in chemistry 
 in the, 276. 
 
 University, the Lehigh, course of civil 
 engineering at, 273. 
 
 University, Lehigh, course in mechani- 
 cal engineering in the, 274. 
 
 University, Lehigh, course in mining 
 and metallurgy in the, 275. 
 
 University, the Lehigh, course of stu- 
 dies at, 273, to 277. 
 
 University, the Lehigh, faculty of, 273. 
 
 University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 
 327. 
 
 University, Michigan, at, Ann Arbor, 
 school of mines of, 92. 
 
 University of Michigan, course in civil 
 engineering in the, 330, 332. 
 
 University of Michigan, course in 
 drawing in the, 332. 
 
 University of Michigan, course in gen- 
 eral science in the, 329. 
 
 University of Michigan, course in min- 
 eralogy and geology in the, 330. 
 
 University of Michigan, course in sur- 
 veying in the, 330. 
 
 University of Michigan, curriculum of, 
 329 to 334. 
 
 University of Michigan, faculty of the, 
 327. 
 
 University of Pennsylvania, 268, 269. 
 
 University, Pennsylvania, course in 
 analytical and applied chemistry 
 and mineralogy in the, 270. 
 
 University, Pennsylvania, course in 
 civil engineering in the, 272. 
 
 University, Pennsylvania, course in 
 drawing and architecture in the,272. 
 
 University, Pennsylvania, course in 
 geology and mining in the, 272. 
 
 University, Pennsylvania, course in 
 mechanical engineering in the, 272. 
 
 University of Pennsylvania, curriculum 
 of the, 270, 271, 272. 
 
 University of Pennsylvania, faculty of 
 the, 269. 
 
 Unstratifled deposits of ore, 8. S. New- 
 berry, 927. 
 
 Upper coal-measure limestone, 165. 
 
 Use of anthracite in the blast furnace 
 and opening of anthracite coal 
 fields, 89. 
 
 Use of anthracite in the generation of 
 steam, first, 71. 
 
 Use of Anthracite for puddling, 71. 
 
 Use of Lake Superior ore in a blast fur- 
 nace, first, 66. 
 
 Use of raw bituminous coal in the 
 
 blast furnace, the, 89. 
 Utah, 68. 
 Utah, analysis of product, tenth census, 
 
 963. 
 Utah, bullion product by counties, tenth 
 
 census, 962. 
 Utah, bullion shipments from, through 
 
 Pacific Express Co., statistics of 
 
 tenth census, 992. 
 Utah mine, down in a, 787. 
 Utah, mineral product of, for 1881, 
 
 statement of the, 512. 
 Utah, mineral production of, report of 
 
 the surveyor-general on the, 663. 
 Utah, mining laws of, 675. 
 Utah, report of the director of the 
 
 mint for 1881, 1088-1090. 
 Utah, resume of products of, tenth cen- 
 sus, 965. 
 Utah, southern, 224, 225. 
 Utensils, spinning of, 900. 
 Utah, statistics of bullion product of, 
 
 tenth census, 959. 
 Utah, Wells, Fargo & Co.'s statement 
 
 of product of, 965. 
 
 \7'ALIDITY of the Shark-Paymaster 
 ' case, decisions as to the, 644 to 
 
 650. 
 
 Va:lley, Arkansas, 162. 
 
 Valley Furnace, Pa., 70. 
 
 Valley, Hocking, 212. 
 
 Valley, Sacramento, 78. 
 
 Valley, Schuylkill, 44. 
 
 Valley, Shenandoah, 127. 
 
 Valley, Shenango, 212. 
 
 Valley, Tuscarawas, 212. 
 
 Valley, Wyoming, 101. 
 
 Valleys, glacial, 168. 
 
 Valleys of erosion, 168. 
 
 Valleys, surface, 168. 
 
 Valuation, units of, of United States 
 coins, ratios of wearing surfaces to, 
 445. 
 
 Value of bars, method of calculating, 
 764. 
 
 Value and character of the gold and 
 silver used in manufactures and arts 
 in the United States, table of the, 
 372, 375. 
 
 Value, commercial, of North Carolina 
 emeralds, 125. 
 
 Value, comparative, of deposits, etc., in 
 the San Francisco mint, 362. 
 
 Value of deposits and bars manufac- 
 tured during 1880 and 1881 at the 
 New York assay office, 363. 
 
 Values of foreign coins, estimation of 
 the, 361. 
 
 Vabie, estimated capital, of each coun- 
 try, table expressing the ratio for, 
 and for population, 453. 
 
 Value of ingot copper at New York, in 
 currency, table showing the, 536. 
 
 Value of gold consumed in currency, 
 4ou. 
 
 Value of gold and silver bullion at He- 
 lena, Montana, table showiner the, 
 613. 
 
 Value between gold and silver in the 
 eiistorn and western worlds, tables 
 of the ratio of, 406. 
 
 V.ilue of the monetary metals, 422. 
 
 Value of money, elements that deter- 
 mine the, 403. 
 
 Value of money, what determines the, 
 420. 
 
 Value of money, views of Mr. Bonamy 
 Price on the, 415. 
 
THE 5IINES, MINEES AND MINING INTEEESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 xllx 
 
 Value of money, permanent, 424. 
 
 Value and number of the Comstock 
 shares in 1881, 522. 
 
 Value of precious metals — upon what it 
 depends, 423. 
 
 Value of the precious metals, but slight- 
 ly affected by their employment as 
 money, 438. 
 
 Value and product of the Lake Super- 
 ior copper mines, table of the, 535. 
 
 Value, relative, of gold to silver from 
 ancient times to the present, 458. 
 
 Value, relative, ot- gold to silver accord- 
 ing to the London market, 459. 
 
 Value, relative market, of gold to silver, 
 table showing the, 370. 
 
 Value, ratio of, between precious met- 
 als, effect of arbitrary decree in 
 determining the, 404. 
 
 Value, ratio of, between precions metals, 
 effect of mint charges upon the, 
 404. 
 
 Value, ratio of, between precious metals, 
 legal regulations determining the, 
 403. 
 
 Value, ratio of, between precious metals, 
 quantity determining the, 403. 
 
 Value, standard measure of, 437. 
 
 Value of the standard silver dollar, in 
 United States Gold coin, table show- 
 ing the, 459. 
 
 Value and quantity of iron ore imported 
 into the United States in 1881, table 
 of the, 532. 
 
 Values of foreign coins, estimate of, 370. 
 
 Values of gold and silver, relative, 359. 
 
 Values, relative, of different fuels, 768. 
 
 Values, relative, of gold and silver, his- 
 tory of the, 409. 
 
 Values, relative, of gold and silver in 
 the ancient period, table illustra- 
 ting the history of, 410. 
 
 Values, relative, of gold and silver in 
 the middle ages, table of the, 411. 
 
 Values, relative, of gold and silver from 
 1492 to 1850, table of the, 411. 
 
 Values, relative, of gold and silver from 
 1851 to 1874, inclusive, table of the, 
 412. 
 
 Vanadates of lead at the Castle Dome 
 mines, occurrence of, 251. 
 
 Variegated copper ore, 249. 
 
 Vegetation, marine, 202. 
 
 Vein-making, beneficent results of the 
 process of. 204. 
 
 Vein material,' Carbonate Hill, 173. 
 
 Vein material at Fryer Hill, 176. 
 
 Vein or lode claim, form of patent for, 
 719. 
 
 Vein or lode claims, method of obtain- 
 ing government title to, 625. 
 
 Vein, the "true fissure," 224. 
 
 Vein, at Orford, analysis of nickels, 142. 
 
 Vein the Virginia, on the Comstock 
 lode, 195. 
 
 Veins, auriferous, 129. , , , j, 
 
 Veins auriferous, in the slate bands ot 
 Nova Scotia, 246. . 
 
 Veins, chlorite, at the Jenks mine, 123. 
 
 Veins or deposits, blanket, 169. 
 
 Veins, flat, 169. 
 
 Veins, fissure, and deposits, comparison 
 of, 177. 
 
 Veins, fissure, legal ownership of, 178. 
 
 Veins, gash, segregated and fissure, 
 paper by S. S. Newberry, 928. 
 
 Veins and geology of Tombstone, Ari- 
 zona, 159. 
 
 Veins or lodes, manner of locating 
 claims on, after May 10, 1872, 624. 
 D 
 
 Veins, gash, 169. 
 
 Veins or lodes heretofore issued, rights 
 under patents for, 624. 
 
 Veins of Marmora, Ontario, Canada, 
 the gold-bearing Mispickel, 143. 
 
 Veins, mineral, communication of Mr. 
 J. Van Cleve Phillips on sex in, 
 797. 
 
 Veins, mineral, communication of Mr. 
 J. Williams on sex in, 797. 
 
 Veins, ore, 137. 
 
 Veins, ore, Von Cotta on the length and 
 depth of, 137. 
 
 Veins in placer mining claims, form of 
 proof relative to, 725. 
 
 Veins, rake, 169. 
 
 Velocities and discharges in hydraulic 
 mining, table of, 761. 
 
 Ventilation in the Comstock mines, 185. 
 
 Ventilation and drainage, mechanical, 
 in Indiana mines, 810. 
 
 Ventilation and lighting of under- 
 ground workings, 806. 
 
 Ventilation, mining, 808. 
 
 Ventilation, natural, 807. 
 
 Vezin, H. A., paper on methods of haul- 
 ing in Prussian mines, 939. 
 
 Victoria, banks of, average of coined 
 gold, silver and copper held by the, 
 391. 
 
 Victoria, the gold fields of, 262. 
 
 Victoria, table of the gold production 
 of, 392. 
 
 View, comparative, of the non-precious 
 mineral industries, 239. 
 
 Views of Prof. Akerman on the steel 
 and iron product of Sweden, 258. 
 
 Views of Dr. Dawson on the Nova 
 Scotia granites, 245. 
 
 Views of Lord Dunmore on the rights to 
 mining property in England, 555. 
 
 Views of Albert Gallatin on monetary 
 crises, extract from the, 417. 
 
 Views of Mr Jevons on the monetary 
 question, 425. 
 
 Views of Locke on the nature and func- 
 tions of money, 437. 
 
 Views of Mr. Bonamy Price on the value 
 of money, 415. 
 
 Views of Dr. Suess on the precious 
 metals, 428. 
 
 Vinal Haven, Me., 135. 
 
 Virginia, 8. 
 
 Virginia, the Carolinas and Georgia, 
 early industries in, 56. 
 
 Virginia City, 85. 
 
 Virginia, Giles county basin, 125. 
 
 Virginia, iron in, 33. 
 
 Virginia, New river, 125, 126. 
 
 Virginia, N. C, state of gold found in, 6. 
 
 Virginia, Southwestern, Clinch Moun- 
 tain, 125. 
 
 Virginia, Southwestern, the strictly fos- 
 sil ores of, 125. 
 
 Virginia, Southwestern, known locali- 
 ties in, 125. 
 
 Virginia, Southwestern, the mineral re- 
 sources of, 125. 
 
 Virginia, western old, 212. 
 
 Virginia, Wythe county, 125. 
 
 Volcanic overflows, 223. 
 
 Volume of money and population of 
 western nations, estimate of the, 
 448. 
 
 Volume and weight of anthracite coal, 
 
 761. 
 
 Volume and weight of cast iron, tables 
 relative to, 757. 
 
 Volumes and weights of various sub- 
 stances, 760. 
 
 Volcanic rock, 2. 
 
 Von Cotta on the length and depth of 
 
 ore veins, 137. 
 Von Cotta, scientific classification of ore 
 
 deposits by, 169. 
 Von Groddeck's divisions of mineral 
 
 deposits, 169. 
 
 WAGES of coal miners in Pennsvl- 
 vania in 1881, 104O. 
 
 Wages table, 760. 
 
 Wakefield and Parsonfleld belt, the, 136. 
 
 Wales, coal strata at Lundly, 97. 
 
 Wales, deep coal mining in, 805. 
 
 Wales, united mines, 232. 
 
 Wales, prices of Bessemer steel rails at 
 the works in, 255. 
 
 Wall St. terms, definition of, 474. 
 
 War department, mineral lands in 
 charge of the, 614. 
 
 Wares, gold and silver, manufactured 
 in Hungary, estimate of, 383. 
 
 Warnings, mining, and mining explo- 
 sions, 825. 
 
 Warren county, N. J., 127, 128. 
 
 Warrior field, Alabama, the, 116. 
 
 Warrior and Cahaba fields, the cost of 
 mining in the, 119. 
 
 Warwick Furnace, 43. 
 
 Warwick Furnace, 46. 
 
 Wasatch range, table of section in the, 
 164. 
 
 Washing gold alluvia 200 years ago, 
 901. 
 
 Washington Territory, 68. 
 
 Washington Territory, production of 
 deep mines, statistics of tenth cen- 
 sus, 970. 
 
 Washington Territory, production of 
 surfece mining, statistics of tenth 
 census, 971. 
 
 Washington Territory, report of the di- 
 rector of the Mint for 1881, 1019. 
 
 Washoe district and the Comstock lode, 
 the geology of, 188. 
 
 Washington district. Baron von Eich- 
 thofen's papers relating to the ge- 
 ology of the, 188. 
 
 Washoe fever and Comstock lode, 84. 
 
 Washoe rocks, results concerning the 
 decomposition of the, 188. 
 
 Wastages and loss on sale of sweep, at 
 the United States Mints and Assay 
 Offices, 367. 
 
 Water, accumulations of, in the Com- 
 stock lode, 187. 
 
 Water balance, machine for widening 
 purposes in English mines, 918. 
 
 Water blast, or trompe, 58. 
 
 Water chemically impregnated, com- 
 parison of, with the human blood, 
 201. 
 
 Water, facts relative to, 765. 
 
 Water, a miner's inch of, 766, 767. 
 
 Waters, navigable, change in by hydrau- 
 lic mining, 700, 701. 
 
 Waters, navigable, deposits of detritus 
 in tributaries of, 702. 
 
 Water and rock on the Comstock, mean 
 data for, 194. 
 
 Water spear pump, the, 826. 
 
 Water supply in the Comstock mines, 
 186. 
 
 Water supply of Georgia, 120. 
 
 Water trompe, the, 807. 
 
 Water-ways, 226. 
 
 Water, working slate formations by, 
 120. 
 
 Wealth and finances, 453. 
 
 Wealth and population, the ratio of cir- 
 
1 
 
 THE MINES, MINEKS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 culation to, compared with the 
 currency and gold prices of staple 
 articles in the New York market, 
 380. 
 
 Wealth and population of the United 
 States, ratio of, to circulation, 380. 
 
 Wearing surfaces, ratios of, to units of 
 valuation of United States coius, 
 445. 
 
 Weather waste of coal, 118. 
 
 Weather waste and spontaneous com- 
 bustion of coal, 820. 
 
 Weight of rolled iron, table relative to, 
 756. 
 
 Weight of ropes, hawsers and cables, 
 rule for computing, 759. 
 
 Weight of solids in cubic inches, rule 
 for obtaining, 759. 
 
 Weight and volume of anthracite coal, 
 761. 
 
 Weight and volume of cast iron, table 
 relative to, 757. 
 
 Weight of wrought iron, steel, copper 
 and brass, table relative to, 757. 
 
 Weights and measures, 729. 
 
 Weights and measures of coal, 762. 
 
 Weights and volumes of various sub- 
 stances, 760. 
 
 Welding of metal, 899. 
 
 West, lead, copper, silver and gold in 
 the, table of the annual products 
 of, 1880-81, 507. 
 
 West, mining enterprises of the, 506. 
 
 West, precious metals in the, statement 
 of the amount of, 507. 
 
 Western and Eastern world, table of 
 the production of the precious me- 
 tals in the, from 1493 to 1872, 443. 
 
 Western and Eastern worlds, tables of 
 the ratio of value between gold and 
 silver in the, 406. 
 
 Western Europe, ancient mining in, 
 545. 
 
 Western Iron Market, the, 531. 
 
 Western, Middle and Southern States, 
 early iron enterprises in the, 88. 
 
 Western Mining Company Charter, 
 illustration of a, 715 and 716. 
 
 Western, Missourian, or fourth bitumin- 
 ous coal basin, 112. 
 
 Western nations, silver stocked by, 440. 
 
 Western nations, population and volume 
 of money of, estimate of the, 442. 
 
 Western precious-metal regions, esti-. 
 mate of area of, 621 . 
 
 Western world, estimated production of 
 gold in the, 398. 
 
 Western world, estimated production of 
 silver in the, 397. 
 
 Western world, gold and silver produc- 
 tion, statistics of the, 397. 
 
 Western and Southwestern States, iron 
 industries in the, 62. 
 
 Western Old Virginia, 212. 
 
 Wharton School of Finance and Econo- 
 my, the 269. 
 
 What determines the value of money, 
 420. ^ 
 
 What metals are, 1. 
 
 Whims of fortune, the, 785. 
 
 White lead, 9. 
 
 White lead, 29. 
 
 White or Leadville porphyry, 166. 
 
 White limestone, 165. 
 
 White men, the first recorded mining 
 operations of, 87. 
 
 White porphyry bodies at Fryer Hill, 
 175. 
 
 Whitney's estimate of the gold and 
 silver production, 436. 
 
 White rope, hawser or cable, rule for 
 computing the circumference of, 
 compared with one of tarred hemp, 
 759. 
 
 Why double standards have always fail- 
 ed and must continue to do so, 444. 
 
 Why gold and silver are used for money, 
 434. 
 
 Wild cat mines and salted ledges, 853 to 
 867. 
 
 Wilkesbarre coal, circular price of, 1034. 
 
 Williams, Mr. J., communication of, on 
 sex in mineral veins, 797. 
 
 Winding gear for mines, 940. 
 
 Winding gear, portable, for mines, 829. 
 
 Wire rope, ropes, hawsers and cables, 
 table of relative dimensions of, with 
 their breaking strain, 759. 
 
 Wire ropes, steel, for mining, 940. 
 
 Wire ropes, testing and strength of, 941. 
 
 Wire, tables of breaking strains of, 898. 
 
 Wolf flirnaces, 20. 
 
 Wood, tin, 248. 
 
 Work done by Denver mint and assay 
 offices at Charlotte, Helena, Boise 
 City and St. Louis, 363. 
 
 Work, irregular, upon the Comstock 
 mines, cases of, 184. 
 
 Workable beds adjoining the South and 
 North Alabama railroad, 117. 
 
 Working miner, description of the, 227. 
 
 Working slate formations by water, 120. 
 
 Workings, deep, in coal mines, 802. 
 
 Workings, mine at Carbonate Hill, 173. 
 
 Workings, mine, at Iron Hill, 172. 
 
 Workings, mine, lighting of, 808. 
 
 Workings, underground, ventilation and 
 lighting of, 806. 
 
 Works, Bessemer steel, of the United 
 States, statement of the, 530. 
 
 Works, Colorado smelting, statement 
 relative to, 509 and 510. 
 
 Works, Grubb's iron, or Cornwall, 45. 
 
 Works, iron, the first, in Canada, 68. 
 
 Works, iron, of North Carolina and 
 Tennessee, primitive character of 
 the, 61. 
 
 Works, iron, the Principio, 54. 
 
 Works, Mexican iron, estimated pro- 
 duction of, when completed, 217. 
 
 Works, Mexican iron, present produc- 
 tion of, 217. 
 
 Works of the Rhenish district, 240. 
 
 Works, the Salisbury, Conn., iron mines 
 and, 130. 
 
 Works of the Tula Iron Co.,Mexico, 213. 
 
 World, western, estimated production 
 of silver in the, 397. 
 
 Works, Yohogany Iron, 55. 
 
 World, annual bullion product of, re- 
 port of tenth census, 997. 
 
 World, western estimated production of 
 gold in the, 898. 
 
 World, European, population of the, 
 and the estimated stock of gold and 
 silver coin, table showing the, 401. 
 
 World, minerals of the, 260. 
 
 Worlds, eastern and western, table of 
 the production of the precious metals 
 in the, from 1498 to 1872, 443. 
 
 Worlds, eastern and western, tables of 
 the ratio of value between gold and 
 silver in the, 406. 
 
 Worlds, stock of precious metals, 400. 
 
 Wreck wrought by mining, the, 793. 
 
 Wrought iron pipe for hydraulic mining 
 table showing the construction of. 
 902. 
 
 Wrought iron pipe for gravel mines in 
 California, profile ol, 902. 
 
 Wrought iron, steel, copper and brass, 
 table-relative to weight of, 757. 
 
 Wulfenite, 251. 
 
 Wyoming, 68. 
 
 Wyoming, mining laws of, 676. 
 
 Wyoming, production of deep mines, 
 statistics of tenth census, 978. 
 
 YADKIN River, 121. 
 Yale College, New Haven ; Shef- 
 field Scientific School, 305. 
 Yard, or patio process, the Mexican, 
 
 85- . , 
 
 Yearly mineral production per capita of 
 
 population, 238. 
 Yellow brass, 12. 
 Yellow copper pyrites, 31. 
 Yield, average, of auriferous gravel, 
 
 tabular statement of the, 698. 
 Yield, bullion, of Arizona, table of the, 
 
 511. 
 Yield, comparative, of the great gold 
 
 fields of the Modern "World, 397 
 Yield of the Comstock lode, 432. 
 Yield, copper, of New Mexico, 512. 
 Yield, gold, of the Marmora ore, uni- 
 formity of the, 145. 
 Yield, the gold, of New Zealand, 433. 
 Yield of hydraulic mining in California, 
 
 table of the, 699. 
 Yield, Lake Superior copper, in 1881, 
 
 table of the distribution of the, 
 
 535. 
 Yield, ore, of the Butte District, Mon- 
 tana, statistics relative to the, 
 
 513. 
 Yield, ore, in Nevada by counties, table 
 
 of the, 508. 
 Yield, total, of the precious metals in 
 
 California from 1848 to 1882, table 
 
 of the, 508. 
 Yohogany Iron Works, 55. 
 Yorkshire coals, analyses of, 244. 
 Young and Stephens counties, Texas, 
 
 section of the strata compiled from 
 
 measurements in, 113. 
 Youngstown, iron industry at, 63, 64. 
 Yuba and American Rivers, table of 
 
 reservoir constructed for mining 
 
 purposes, on the, 695. 
 Yuba River, grades of tunnels on the, 
 
 table relative to, 695. 
 Yuba River, table, showing estimates 
 
 and order of structure upon, 706. 
 
 ZIERVOGEL process, copper desil- 
 verized by, 242. 
 Zinc, 7. 
 Zinc, 10. 
 Zinc, 893. 
 Zinc-brass, 10. 
 
 Zinc deposits of Southern Missouri, 109. 
 Zinc-blende, 7. 
 Zinc industrv, Silesian, table showing 
 
 the development of since 1810, 241. 
 Zinc and lead ores, 125. 
 Zinc, native, 7. 
 Zinc ore, 126. 
 Zinc ore, England's production of in 
 
 1881, 539. 
 Zinc ore, red, 7. 
 Zinc, silicate of, 7. 
 Zonal parallelism of mining districts. 
 
 Prof. Blake on the, 222. 
 Zonal parallelism of mining districts, 
 
 Mr. Clarence King on the, 222, 223. 
 Zoology, geology and botany, courses 
 
 in, in Lafayette College, 279. 
 
 Finis. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 
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THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 OTIS BROTHERS & CO/S 
 Patent Safety Hoisting Machinery, 
 
 (C017'TX3:TTTX:33-) 
 
 NEW UNION STEAM SAFETY ELEVATOR. 
 
 This elevator is expressly adapted for continuous use, and has all the parts liable to injury by constant wear so 
 arranged as to be easily and quickly replaced, and so can be continuously run any required period without stopping 
 more than an hour at any one time, and that very rarely, for such renewal. 
 
 The "New Union Engine" employed is double cylindered — reversible — positive motioned, — has our pat- 
 ent Reversing Valve Gear, and runs in either direction at equal speed. It has balanced Valves, steel Piston Rods 
 with solid heads, metallic ring Pistons, Boxes of brass and best babbit metal, and all steam joints have ground or 
 scraped surfaces, requiring no rubber or other packing. The reversing valve face is made movable and both 
 Valve and Seat can be changed, when necessary, in less than an hour. It has all the merits of our best Engines, 
 being compact, easily taken care of, economical of steam, and thoroughly reliable. 
 
 The Winding Drum, made of large size, and turned and grooved to receive and deliver -two Wire Ropes 
 of suitable strength, is made a part of the Engine, and driven by it without belt, by gearing alone — this being ma- 
 chine cut on the quick motion. By these Wire Ropes, one being wound on while the other is paid off the Wind- 
 ing Drum, two platforms are alternately raised and lowered, one ascending vvhile the other descends. Platforms 
 are 4 inches smaller than the Hatchways — 2 inches on all sides. 
 
 The Engine runs only when the platforms are in use, and is started at Fnrhaces by the "Top Man " or 
 "Filler," by means of a wire Hand-Rope within his easy reach, and requires only occasional attention from the 
 Engineer to keep it cleaned and oiled up. It is stopped automatically at upper and lower landings by suitable 
 attachments upon the Hand-Ropes and platforms. Where an extra safe arrangement is desired, we attach our 
 "Automatic Stop Motion " to the Engine. Like our other safety fixtures, this is unnecessary to the ordinary and 
 proper working of the Elevator, but is superadded to the ordinary stop fixtures, and shuts off steam from the En- 
 gine at the moment the platforms should stop, even if by wear or accident the ordinary stopping connections 
 were destroyed 
 
 Our Patent Automatic Brake is also added to all Hoisting Engines built by us, and is so arranged as to be 
 applied automatically by the act of shutting off steam to stop the machine, and released in like manner when the 
 Engine is started. This Brake is a very powerful and perfectly reliable device to prevent the- settling of the 
 loaded platform after it has been brought to the landing. 
 
 Our improved Safety Appliances provide against all known forms of .".ccident to such machinery, and have 
 been proven in hundreds of instances, perfectly reliable, efficient safe-guards against casualties. Their size and 
 strength are graduated to the load they have to bear, and they have never failed. 
 
 For Mines the Engines are located near the Shaft, and the Drums are made double. The speed at which 
 the various weights are moved may be varied from a maximum of 200 to 500 feet per minute, and may be re- 
 duced at will of Engineer to any slower speed. 
 
 The Engine and Winding Drum will be furnished separately if desired, and special estiniates given upon 
 application, personally or by letter. 
 
 In all cases we furnish drawings and sketches needed for the proper erection of the machine ; and, when 
 requisite, will send a competent man to superintend and assist in the work, at a reasonable charge for his time, 
 
 and board and fares at cost. 
 
 We do not expect to compete in prices with the Hoisting Machinery hitherto employed at mines and fur- 
 naces. Our object is to make available to those who want it, a Very Superior class of Hoisting Machinery, pe- 
 culiarly our own, the out -growth of over 20 years' experience in building such machinery ; combining economy of 
 maintenance, highest efficiency and durability, with absolute safety. 
 
 Send for Circular. 
 
 Manufactured solely by the Patentees, 
 
 OTIS BROTHERS & CO., 
 
 348 Broadway, ^ew York. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINim_INT^ESTS_OFTH^^ 
 
 oooooooooooooo 
 
 oooooooo o o o o o 
 
 o o o o oooooooo 
 
 THE ECONOMIST, 
 
 oooooooooooooooooo o o o o o o 
 
 o o o o o o o o o 
 
 o o o o 000000°°° 
 
 1 DEVOTED TO I , 
 
 The Financial, Commercial, Railroad an d Mining | 
 
 Interests of the United States. 
 
 1 Ts 95rL e/' 
 
 liTE^W YOR-KI. 
 
 PUBLISHED EVERY SATURDAY. 
 
 R. F. STRAINE, Publisher. BOSTOlsT. 
 
 Subscription price, postage paid: The United States and Canada, $3 per annum; 
 six months, $1.75; all other countries, $4=16s.=20 francs=16 marks. 
 
 A Weekly Review and Manual of the Leading Stock 
 Exchanges of the United States. 
 
 Tabulated reports of the Railroad, Mining, Cotton and Produce Exchanges. 
 
 The information contained in its various depart- 
 ments presents a valuable epitome of the movements 
 in the money and stock markets, and of Railroads and 
 Mining operations. 
 
 A Journal for Investors. 
 
 Independent, Progressive, Liberal and Comprehen- 
 sive in its policy, it conserves the interests of the 
 investment classes, in the information it presents for the 
 benefit of its readers. 
 
 Contiibutions by leading specialists upon topics of 
 vital interest, appear regularly in its columns. 
 
 It has a Large and Influential Circulation, and 
 reaches the wealthy investment classes of the east. 
 
 The Mining Interests. 
 
 The Economist is the only financial journal in this 
 country which has recognized the importance and value 
 
 of the mining business as a leading industrial interest, 
 and attempted to properly represent the mining inter- 
 ests of the United States, by making its 
 
 Mining Department 
 
 an especial feature and giving it distinctive prominence. 
 It is now regarded as the leading authority in the East 
 on all matters relating to the mining business. It has 
 a large circulation in mining circles, and keeps fully 
 informed respecting the operations of mining corpora- 
 tions and the mining business generally. Every mining 
 man will find it to his interest to become a subscriber. 
 Bankers, Brokers, Business Men, Investors, Railroad 
 Men, Mining Men and others read The EcoTiomist for 
 
 General Investment News. 
 
 As an advertising medium The Economist offers 
 exceptional inducements. Advertising rates reasonable. 
 All inquiries promptly answered. 
 
 SUBSCRIBE FOR "THE ECONOMIST." 
 
 Send for Specimen Copy, 
 
 Address 
 
 THE ECONOMIST. 
 
 No. 31 Milk Street, Boston, Mass. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 e 
 
 ■6-I- 
 
 0^ 
 
 -Hr 
 
 ******************** 
 
 J 
 
 "^3|C 
 
 Humboldt Mining Co. 
 
 
 * * * * 
 
 r 
 
 -&^ 
 
 Incorporated under the Laws of New Mexico. 
 
 ^-^ 
 
 ) 
 
 CAPITAL, $6,000,000. 240,000 Shares, Par Value, $25.00. 
 
 Gold, Silver, Copper and Lead Mines, located in Socorro and Dona Ana Counties, 
 
 New Mexico. 
 
 Principal Office: ENGLE, SOCORRO COUNTY, NEW MEXICO . 
 
 Transfer Office : 330 WALNUT STREET, PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 President and General Manager, Vice-President, 
 
 coil. DAVID BRANSON. EDMUND -WEBSTER. 
 
 Secretary and Financial Agent of the Company, 
 
 R. EVANS PETERSON, 
 
 No. 330 Wabint Street, Phlladelpliia. 
 
 Treasnrer, 
 
 EDWARD S. liOWRY. 
 
 MGISTBAKS OP STOCK, GUABANTEE TKUST AND SAFE DEPOSIT COMPANT, P WTT . ADET . PHTA . 
 
 A DAILY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE FINANCIAL AND MINING INTERESTS. 
 
 The Fi nancial and Mining News is indispensable 
 to Brokers, Bankers and Investors. 
 
 -^ «►! 
 
 PRICE, TWO CENTS. 
 
 ,A fl 
 
 $6.00 PER YEAR. 
 
 SECURITY PUBLISHING CO., PubUshers, 63 Broadway, N. Y. 
 
 INVESTORS IN MINING STOCKS SHOULD SEND ORDERS TO 
 
 H. H. MARKS & CO., 63 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 THE LEADING MAGAZINE FOR PRACTICAL MEN. 
 
 -,s,-i^^^^-i-ir 
 
 THE INDUSTRIAL REVIEW 
 
 **^G^ ATLANTA, GEORGIA. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, PA. 
 BOSTON, MASS. 
 
 A Monthly Journal Devoted to Progress and the Material Interests of the United States. 
 
 Its contributors are the most distinguished special writers in America and its monthly discussions are 
 
 upon living topics. It covers intelligently the great industrial revolution that is now going 
 
 on in the Southern States. Each number contains many important papers 
 
 imparting valuable information for all classes of practical men. 
 
 It is handsomely printed and illustrated. Conducted by 
 
 ROBERT P. PORTER. MOSES P. HANDY, 
 
 (Editor Internalional Review.) (Managing Editor Phila. Tress.) 
 
 HENRY W. GRADY, JOHN W. RYCKMAN, 
 
 (Editor Atlanta Constitution.) (Sec'y Atlanta Exposition.) 
 
 CHARLES R. MILLER, PETER M. WILSON, 
 
 (Editorial Staff New York Times-.)- (Sec'y Dept. of Agriculture, North Carolina.) 
 
 WILLIAM R. BALCH, ROBERT F. STRAINE,' 
 
 (Compiler of The Mines, Miners and Mining Interests of the United States.) (Editor Economist, Boston.) 
 
 SUBSCRIPTION ONLY $3.00 PER ANNUM. 
 NO CLUB RATES. ADVERTISING RATES REASONABLE. NO PREMIUMS. 
 
 Address, JOHN W. RYCKMAN, Business Manager, 
 
 No. 806 WALNUT STREET, PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 coooooooooooooooooooooonooooooooopoooooo o o o o o o o o 
 
 THE MINING lOURNA 
 
 ooooocoocooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 
 
 MARQUETTE, MICHIGAN. 
 
 A. p. STVINEF OHD & C O., Publishers. 
 
 Is the Largest, Best and most Reliable Newspaper on the Upper Peninsula, and the only one that makes Iron Mining and Manu- 
 facturing interests a specialty. Non-residents who want information regarding Lake Superior Mining affairs will find it in this paper. 
 People interested in Mining will find it to their benefit to subscribe for and advertise in 
 
 oTHE MINING JOURNAL, o — ^ 
 
 Subscription Price, $3.00 ^"^^^S" 
 
 Invariably in Advance. 
 
 ADVERTISING RATES REASONABLE AND SENT UPON APPLICATION. SEND FOR SPECIMEN COPY. 
 
 JTTST OTTT' ANNUAL REVIEW OF THE IRON MINING AND OTHER INDUS- 
 ** '-'•^"■" V/W X . TRIES OF LAKE SUPERIOR. By A. P. SWINEFORD. 
 
 It contains liill descriptions of all the working Mines of the great Michigan Iron Districts, together with a brief history of the 
 region and accurate tables of .shipments of Iron Ore and Copper, and their values, from the earliest times to December 31st 1881 
 making about 200 pages of valuable statistics and information. PAPER, PRICE 75 CTS. Sent post'paid on receipt of Price. 
 
 Address, MINING JOURNAL, Marquette, Michigan. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 REPAUNO CHEMICAL CO. 
 
 -MANUFA( TURERS OF- 
 
 ATLAS POWDER, 
 
 (A Xitro-Glycerine Coxuponnd.) 
 
 -AND DEALERS IN- 
 
 Electric Blasting Apparatus, Blasting Caps and Safety Fuse. 
 
 ATI AC POWnfR ^^^^^ strongest and most reliable of the many compounds generally 
 1-1 I kl-IW I V ¥f Ul.ll termed high explosives, and is conceded by every one of experience 
 to be the Safest to handle and transport under all conditions. 
 
 Put up in oartndgea of either 6 or 8 inches in length, and from }i of an inch to 2 inches in diameter, 
 and packed in 25 lb., 50 lb. short, and 50 lb. long boxes (the last for convenience in hand- 
 ling, contains the powder in five lO lb. paper boxes placed inside of the wood box.) 
 
 Bosses marked F-f, contains 15 per cent. Nitro-Glycerine Powder. 
 
 E. 
 
 E+, 
 D, 
 D+, 
 C, 
 
 C + , 
 B, 
 
 B + , 
 A, 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 30 
 
 35 
 40 
 
 45 
 50 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 ELECTRIC B LASTING A PPARATUS. 
 
 MAGNETO-ELECTRIC BLASTING MACHINE, 
 
 FRICTIONAL ELECTRIC BLASTING MACHINE, 
 
 PLATINUM FUSES, (For use with Magneto-Electric Machine.) 
 GOLD LEAF FUSES, (For use with Frictional-Electric Machine.) 
 
 LEADING AND CONNECTING WIRE. 
 
 SAFETY FUSE, BLASTING CAPS. 
 
 FOR SALE IN ALL SECTI0X3 OF THE COUNTRY BY THE AUTHORIZED AGENTS OF 
 
 E. I. Oflpnt, De NeiDrs k Go, Lai k Mi Powier Co. Hazuril PowHor Go. 
 
 WILMINGTON, DEL, 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 Portland, Me. 
 Boston, Mass. 
 New York, N. Y. 
 Buffalo, N. Y. 
 Corning, N. Y. 
 Philadelphia, Pa: 
 
 
 ASENCIES IN THE FOLLOWING CITIES. 
 
 
 
 Scranton, Pa. 
 
 Lynchburg, Va. 
 
 Greensboro', N. C. 
 
 Mobile, Ala. 
 
 SL Lou-s, Mo. 
 
 Harrisburg, Pa. 
 
 Fredericksburg, Va. 
 
 Greenville, S. C. 
 
 New Orleans, La. 
 
 Denver, Col. 
 
 Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Charleston, S. C. 
 Atlanta, f5a. 
 
 Louisville. Ky. 
 
 Leadviile, Col. 
 
 Wilcox, Pa, . 
 
 Chattanooga, Tenn. 
 
 Galveston, Tex. 
 
 Deadwood, Dak. 
 
 Mount Unirn, Pa. 
 
 Knoxville, Tenn. 
 
 Augusta, Ga. 
 
 Toledo, Ohio. 
 
 Dubuque, Iowa. 
 
 Staunton, Va. 
 
 Salisbury, N. C. 
 
 And in over 
 
 Macon, Ga. 
 500 other places. 
 
 Chicago, 111. 
 
 
 WORKS: 
 
 
 
 OFFICE: 
 
 
 Thompson's Point, N. J. 305 Walnut St., Phila., Room G. 
 
 p. O. BOX, 2472. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 THE 
 
 COAL TRADE JOURNAL 
 
 PUBLISHED EVERY WEDNESDAY. 
 
 $3.00 per annum (payable in advance), for 
 
 ••l-E^tallli^hBd i^pPil 21^t, IBBg.-n- deUvepy in the UnUed states or the Canadas 
 
 To all foreign States, $4.00 a year, or Six- 
 teen Shillings Sterling. 
 
 Is the only Newspaper in the United States exclusively 
 devoted to the interests of the Coal Trade. 
 
 PUBLISHED FOR THE BENEFIT OP EVERY ONE INTERESTED IN, OR CONNECTED WITH COAL. 
 NO CLIQUE OR CLASS OF TRADE OR DEALERS CONTROLS ITS COLUMNS. 
 
 FREDERICK E. SAWARD,) 111 BROADWAY, 
 
 EDITOR AND PUBLISHER. j NEW VORK 
 
 "THE COAL trade; 
 
 Issued Annually from the Office of " The Coal Trade Journal." 
 
 A compendium of valuable information relative to Coal Production, 
 Prices, Transportation, etc., etc., at home and abroad. With 
 many facts worthy of preservation for future reference. 
 
 SENT BY MAIL OIV RECEIPT OF FIFTY CENTS. 
 
 ADDRESS THE COAL TRADE JOURNAL, 
 
 No. Ill Broadway, NeW York. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 WATCHMAN'S NEW IMPROVED TIME DETECTOR. 
 
 No Watclintan's Clocks are guaran- 
 teed without the Lock Attachment, be- 
 cause it is a provision against the acts 
 of dishonest watchmen, who open ihe 
 watch hy false keys and mark the pa- 
 per dial, without going their rounds. 
 
 -Cgo^— 
 
 — ^oS>- 
 
 ^A^ITH SAFETY. LOCK 
 ATTACHMENT. 
 
 New Inventions and New Improve- 
 ments Patented November 30th, 1876; 
 January SSth, 1870; December 5tli, 
 1876; June 86th, 1877; September asth, 
 f880; August 30th. 1881; March 17th, 
 1883. 
 
 W' 
 
 /jr ENTENNIAL EXHIBITION, 1876-HigIieBt Award and 
 \ll/ Medalof Honor for Portability, SECDRITY and gene- 
 ral adnptation to the purposes intended. 
 
 AMERICAN INSTITUTE EXHIBITION, 1878— Medal df 
 Superiority. 1879 —Medal of Bxcellenoe. 1880— Diploma. 
 
 ATLANTA GA., COTTON EXPOSITION, 1881— Diploma. 
 
 P.O. BOX 2875. 
 
 ITH a faithful watchman, the risk of loss, cither by 
 
 robbery or fire, is reduced to the minimum , but 
 
 how to know that the watchman is faithful is the 
 
 question ; for a watchman who deserts his post, or "sleeps on 
 
 guard," is worse than none at all. 
 
 Ti;e Watchman's Ti^ie Detectors are invaluable for all 
 establishments that employ watchmen, as it enables them to 
 check and control all their movements. No person employ- 
 ing a night watchman, aft"r examining this Watchman's Time 
 Detector, will do without it for a day. Th;s instrument is 
 supplied with twelve different keys for twelve stations, in or 
 outside of the buildings. The marking apparatus is In the 
 cover of the case ; the watch-movement is separate, and. 
 therefore, secured against repair, expense and trouble. These 
 Detectors are the Istest and most complete invented, are 
 portable and reliable time-pieces, and gnarauteed in every 
 case as perfect. 
 
 SEND FOR CIRCULAR TO 
 
 E. IMHAUSER, 
 
 212 Broadway, New York. 
 
 When writing, mention this book. 
 
 HOW TO GET TO THE MINES. 
 
 taxee: the 
 
 ATCHISON, TOPEKA^SANTA FE 
 
 V 
 
 THIS Great Trans-Continental Line connects at Atchison and Kansas City, on the Missouri River, with all lines from 
 the East. This route is' TWELVE HOURS SHORTER than rival lines from the Missouri River to all the Mining 
 Camps of Central and Southern Colorado, and is the Only Rail Route to New Mexico, Arizona, and the Northern 
 States of Old Mexico. The following through trains leave the Union Depot at Kansas City daily : 
 
 3 Express Trains 
 
 Rocky Mountains. Two Express Trains connecting at Pueblo with the Denver and Rio Grande Railway for all pointe 
 
 in Colorado. 
 
 . _ . . Ti»oin daily for Pueblo, composed of Emigrant Sleeping Cars, and connecting with the Denver & Rio Grande for all the 
 
 I Lffligrant l rain mining camps of Colorado. 
 
 I _ '.{! C aoo Ti»»i in daily for New Mexico, and connecting with the Atlantic & Pacific for all points in Northern Arizona, and 
 
 I raCltlC express l ram ^ ^^^ ^^^ southern pacific for Southern Arizona, California, and all points on the Pacific Coast; connecting 
 al'o at Benson. Arizona, with the Sonora Railroad for Northwestern Mexico, and at El Paso with the Mexican Central for Chihuahua and the 
 interior of Mexico. THE ONLY BAIt ROUTE from the Missouri River to the rich mining camps of the Southwest. 
 
 I _ , , _ . daily, composed of Emigrant Sleeping Cars, for New Mexico, making the same CDnnectlons as the Pacific Express. 
 
 I Emigrant Train ^^ g^j^^ charge for Emigrant Sleeping Cars. 
 
 For further information, rates, maps, time-tables, etc., apply to 
 S. W. MANNING, New England Agent, W. L. MALCOLM, General Eastern Agent, 
 
 197 Washington Street, Boston, Mass. 419 Broadway, New York. 
 
 ■W. F. WHITE, General Passenger and Ticket Agent, Topeka, Kansas. 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Narr & Gerlach, 
 
 322 OHIESTIsrXJT STJE^yEET, 
 PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 Branch House— No. 3 Kcenigsstrasse, Stut'gart. 
 
 And other Securities. FOREIGN AND DO- 
 MESTIC EXCHANGE bought and sold. 
 
 PRIVATE WrKES TO 
 
 New York, Boston, Baltimore, Washington, Harrisburg, Lancaster, 
 
 WiUiamsport, Scranton, Wilkesbarre, Maucli Chunk, 
 
 Kttston, Bethlehem, Allentown, Easton, 
 
 Trenton, Pottsville and Reading. 
 
 BROWN'S 
 
 ESSENCE OF 
 
 The Great Stimulant ■without 
 Reaction for 
 
 In Use for Upwards of Half a CENTURY. 
 
 Price, 50 cts. a Bottle. 
 
 If you cannot OBTAIN the GENUINE, One Dozen Bottles will be sent 
 pre-paid, to any address in the United States, on receipt of Five Dollars. 
 Address plainly, 
 
 FREDERICK BROWN, 5th and Chestnut Sts. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 ■ Cramps anfl Colics, 
 Stomacli-Aclie, 
 Snflileii CMlls, 
 iDfligestion, 
 Flalnlence, 
 Sleeplessness, 
 
 And all other Stomach 
 Disorders, 
 
 WOOD & RICHMOND, 
 
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, 
 Draughtsmen and Contractors for Mach.nery 
 
 inery. 
 
 Hoiatlng-EngiacB, double and sloftle; Tubular Boilers; ' 
 Portable Engines and Boilers; Travelling Cranea for Docks 
 
 or iiailroads. 
 
 176 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. 
 
 MINING AND MILLING. 
 
 Stamping Machinery compl te for -met or dry crushing 
 Cock-Brealcers and Goraish Kolls; Aqialgamating Fana 
 and Settlers ; RevoWlng Boasting and Drying Furnaces; 
 Conveyors and Elevators; Gonoentrator» and Eevolving 
 Screens; Improved Rittlnger Table; Wire Tramways; 
 General Mining and Eailroad Plant. 
 
 CHAELETON'S IMPROVED PATENT CONOENTRA- 
 TOR(Autoniatic) Hydraulic PrincipliJK ; can be regulated 
 to the utmost nicety ; pcrf'cctcoucentratlDn ; will take 8}^ 
 tons per day, witli II cubic feet of water per min. PrtoO) 
 fSQO. 
 
 B. K. JAMISON, President. JNO. A. WILSON, Vice-President. 
 
 G. H. MILLETT, Treasurer. 
 
 
 MINERS AND SHIPPERS OF 
 
 FAIRMOUNT" GAS, STEAM, BLACKSMITH AND 
 CANNEL 
 
 j^ 
 
 :^ COALS.^^ 
 
 Mines Located on the Allegheny Valley Railroad, 
 Low Grade Divi-sion. 
 
 (^ X X X X X X ' 
 
 ^^„^ THE ^ 
 
 5) 
 
 Maine Mining 
 
 ournal,' 
 
 «-^©^. Established January 
 
 xxxxxxxxxxx 
 
 \ 1880. i^iN^'^ 
 
 A WEEKLY NEWSPAPER DEVOTED 
 TO THE 
 
 Mining, Manufacturing and Com- 
 mercial Interests of 
 
 EASTERN NEW ENGLAND, AND THE 
 BRITISH PROVINCES. 
 
 Terms, $2.00 per year, in advance ; $1.2^ for 
 six months. 
 
 Address The Maine Mining Journal, 
 
 BANGOR, MAINE. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 MmkmwMmm Wateto ^mw^pmmjj) 
 
 MA.NUFACTUEEES OF THE CELEBRATED 
 
 PATENT DUST-PROOF WATCH CASES, V^ 
 
 OPEZm^.F^ALCE:, 
 
 5 
 
 Especially adapted for use in MINES 
 
 where Dust-Proof Oases are 
 
 required. 
 
 y.- 
 
 
 <i^HE continuous construction of the body of this case avoids the opening of the watch m the back, does 
 ^D^ away with the interior cap, and greatly conduces to the strength of the case. 
 
 The movement is hinged to the case in a dust-proof ring of great strength. a- ^x. 
 
 The watch w^nds by the crown which must be screwed back upon the pendant socket, thus guarding the 
 watch against dust at this part 
 
 The Bezel into which the crystal is cemented, 
 is attached to the case by screwing it thereon ; the 
 ring of the bezel is formed with an internal 
 screw-thread which meshes with a corresponding 
 thread on the shouldered rim on the face of the case; 
 and as the fiezel is thus tightly screwed down the 
 level-edge of the rim, forms the airtight joint with the 
 shouldered rim of the case, which is thus proof 
 against the entrance of dust. _ 
 
 These combined features of construction form a 
 watch which, while being simple and complete, has the great advantage of being 
 
 IMPERVIOUS TO THE ENTRANCE OF DUST, 
 
 which quality will be found of great importance to those persons who most use this class of watches. 
 
 ROBBINS & APPLETON, general agents, 
 
 Waltham BuUdings, No. 5 BOND STREET, NEW YORK. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITE D STATES. 
 
 
 An Illustrated Weekly Journal, 
 
 ■- DEVOTED TO 
 
 MINING,METALLURGY#ENGINEERING 
 
 32 PAGES AND NUMEROUS SUPPLEMENTS. 
 
 RICHARD P. ROTHWELL, C.E., M.E. ) Friitnr«s 
 ROSSITER W. RAYMOND, Ph.D., j """"^s. 
 
 CHARLES KIRCHHOFF, Jr., M.E., Assistant-Editor. 
 
 THE ENGINEERING AND MINING JOURNAL 
 
 is the recognized highest authority in A.merica on all questions of Min- 
 ing, MetaUurgy and Engineering, and has Ihe largest circulation and 
 greatest influence of any newspaper in the United States deyoted to 
 these subjects. Its statistics of Coal production are accepted by the 
 United States government as the only accurate reports published 
 
 The Gold and Silver mining interests of ihe West are fully represented, 
 the Journal haviug the ablest engineers throughout the country for 
 special correspondents. 
 
 THE ENGINEERING AND MINING JOURNAL 
 
 alEO publishes full and accurate trade reports on Iron and Metals ; and 
 gives an accurate reporteach week of theprices andsales of MiningStocks 
 sold on the New York, ,°an Francisco, Boston and Philadelphia markets. 
 The absolute independence of its financial and other reports, and the ac- 
 curacy of its statements, make it of ^reat value to those who are or pur- 
 pose becomins interested in Mining Investments of any kindinAmerica. 
 Subscription price, including postage, S4. Foreign countries, S5 — f 1 
 —25 francs— 20 marks. Should be sent by Post-office or Bank Order on 
 New York, payable to the order of 
 
 P. 0. Box, 1833. 
 
 THE SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING CO.. 
 
 27 PARK VImH.O'E, IVXiVir TORK. 
 
 Advertising Rates and Specimen Copies Sent on Application. 
 
 THE I^TJBLXSHIEI^S 
 
 OF THE 
 
 ENGINEERING^MINING JOURNAL 
 
 —^^- ISSUE EACH WEDNESDAY -^^— 
 
 a weekly journal, devoted exclusively to the interests of the coal trade, including— 
 
 1. Tlie Mining and Preparation of Coal for Maricet. 
 
 2. Its Transportation. 
 
 3. The Marketing of Coal. 
 
 4. The Economical Use of Coal. 
 
 RICHARD P. ROTHWEI^L, C.E., M.E., Editor. 
 CHARLES KI RCHHOFF, Jr., BI.E. , Assistant-Editor. 
 
 infr,rmoti„T,*^if'Vn?T'5'J'?^?'i^*75i''''^?K^ t^«f'"f'VM, LohoT e.n& Waqcs questions are treated in a thorough and popular manner. The statistical 
 information of COAL is collected with great labor and care, and cives tlie current production of coal throughout the country Special correspond- 
 ence weekly from Philadelph a, Boston, Chicago and Pittsburg, and letters from alf the prominent cities. i.uuiii,ry. .peoiai correspond 
 
 COAL is conducted by gentlemen of ability and great experience in every department of the coal trade 
 
 Mining Jou^9ll'^rJu^''"'^lfS'''^^'^''- ^"'"'^ countries, 82.50-10 sh.-12 francs-10 marks. To subscrlbei^ to the Engine^ing and 
 
 THE SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING CO., 
 
 P. 0. Box, 1833. 27 PARK PLAGE, ZVTESVir YORK. 
 
 Advertising Bates and Specimen Copies Sent on Application. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 rt:^- 
 
 '^ ' ' ' ' ^^^^'^'^^'^'^'^^'^'^^'^^^^ ^^^-.^^*-^*~»^->^-*^^.^^*-^ 
 
 MMMM^iMMMM^^^MM^^MMMMM^M^^MMMM^MMMMl 
 
 THE DRY PLACER AMALGAMATOR saves gold by gravitation 
 and amalgamation, is thoroughly tested, treats one thousand (1,000) 
 cubic yards of gravel per day, (24 hours,) at a cost of from five to 
 ten cents per cubic yard, using six (6) miner's inches, where water is scarce, 
 or forty (40) where it is abundant ; saving every grade, from nuggets down 
 to and including that which is so fine that it may be used for bronzing. 
 Treats two hundred (200) tons of pulverized, free milling ore per day, 
 (24 hours,) at a cost of ten cents per ton. No gold can be detected in any 
 of its tailings. For further information or rights, address the patentee, 
 E. S. BENNETT. 
 
 Nos. 375 & 377 LA^^^RENCE ST. 
 
 DENVER, COLORADO. 
 
 p. O. BOX 2440. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 THE 
 
 SIERRA APACHE 
 
 Mining Company 
 
 Of New Mexico. 
 
 Mines situate at SIERRA CITY, take Valley Mining District, 
 Dona Ana County. 
 
 o<ITHEI> 
 
 CAPITAL, - - - $5,000,000. 
 
 Shares, 200,000. par Value, S25 Each. 
 
 stock Full Paid and Non-Assessable. 
 
 OKKICUS: 
 
 Sierra Cily, Dona Ana County, New Mexico. 
 
 Teansfee Office: 
 
 18 Exchange Building, Philadelphia. 
 
 Sierra+Bella 
 
 MINING COMPANY 
 
 OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Mines Situate at SIERRA. CITY, Lake Valley Mining 
 District, Dona Ana County. 
 
 CAPITAL, - - $5,000 000. 
 
 SHARES, 200,000. PAR VALUE, $23 EACH. 
 
 Btock Full-Paid and Non-Asseasable. 
 
 OFFICERS: 
 
 Pbesideht: EDWARD D. COPE. Teeasueer : SAMUEL L. SMEDLEY. 
 
 Secbetaey: GEORGE L. SMEDLEY. 
 
 General Manager at Mines : D. H. JACKSON, M. E. 
 
 (:o:) 
 
 Registrars of Transfer and Eastern Bankers: 
 GUARANTEE TRUST AND SAFE DEPOSIT CO. 
 
 THE 
 
 Sierra City, Dona Ana County, New Mexico. 
 
 TRANSFER OFFICE: 
 
 18 Exchange Buiiding, Philadelphia. 
 
 President: WILLIAIVI H. MILLER. 
 
 Treasurer: PHILIP C. GARRETT. 
 
 Secretary: GEORGE L. SMEDLEY. 
 
 General Manager at Mines : D. H. JACKSON, M. E. 
 
 Registrars of Transfer and Eastern Bankers : 
 GUARANTEE TRUST AND SAFE DEPOSIT COMPANY. 
 
 SIERRA 
 
 NEW MEXICO. MlVIggv^! 
 
 Mines Situate at SIERRA CITY, Lake Valley Mining 
 District, Dona Ana County. 
 
 $5,000,000. 
 
 Capital, - - 
 
 Shares, 200,000. Par Value, $25 Each. 
 
 stock Full-Paid and Non-Assessable. 
 
 OFFICES: 
 
 Sierra Cily, Dona Ana County, New IMexico. 
 
 Teansfee Office: 
 
 18 Exchange Building, Philadelphia. 
 
 Utvn C^tandie 
 
 fHintng Compang f 
 
 ^ @f ^eip "Mliixico. p ^ 
 
 Mines Situate at SIERRA CITY, Lake Valley Mining District, 
 Dona Ana County. 
 
 CAPITAI., . . ^5,000,000. 
 
 Shares, 200,000. par Value, ^25 Each. 
 
 BtoclE Full-Paid and Non-AsscG9ablo. 
 
 Officers : 
 
 President: PHILIP C. GARRETT. 
 
 Treasurer: JOHN W. WRIGHT. 
 
 Secretary: GEORGE L. SMEDLEY. 
 
 General Manager at Mines: D. H. JACKSON, M. E. 
 
 Registrars of Transfer and Eastern Bankers : 
 OUABAKTEE TRUST AND SAFE DEPOSIT COMPAN¥. 
 
 OFFICES: 
 
 Sierra City, Dona Ana County, New Mexico. 
 
 TRANSFER OFFICE : 
 
 18 Exchange Building, Philadelphia. 
 
 OFFICERS! 
 President: BENJAMIN H. SHOEMAKER, 
 
 Treasurer: JOHN C. SINCIAIR, 
 
 Secretary: GEORGE L. SMEDLES. 
 
 General Manager at Mines: D. H. JACKSON, M. E. 
 
 Registrars of Transfer and Eastern Bankers: 
 GUARANTEE TRUST AND SAFE DEPOSIT COaiPANT, 
 
THE MINES, MINEKS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 COLOEADO lEON WORKS, 
 
 -OF- 
 
 -4 
 
 DENVER, COLORADO, 
 
 ^ 
 
 THE "DAISY" HPISTEB. 
 
 Manufacturers of Machinery. 
 
 INING MACHINERY 
 
 A SPECIALTY. 
 
 Estimates made upon machinery for delivery at the manufactory, or 
 
 to be set up at any point in the Rocky Mountain region. We 
 
 have had twenty years' experience in the construction 
 
 and operation of Mining Machinery and invite a 
 
 comparison of our prices, facilities and 
 
 results, with those of any other 
 
 . manufactory. East or West. 
 
 For catalogues and prices, address 
 
 p. BOX, 1921, DENVER, COLORADO. 
 
 Our manufactures embrace 
 
 Cornish Pumps, Coniish Rolls, 
 Hoisters, Crushers, 
 
 Stamp Mills, Smelters, 
 Furnaces, Ore Cars, 
 Kibbles, 
 
 and every kind of Machine and 
 
 Appliance for the mining and 
 
 reduction of Ores. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 GEORGE WESTINGHOUSE, JR.. 
 
 RALPH BAQALEY, 
 
 Secretary and Treasarer. 
 
 H. H. WESTINGHOUSE, 
 
 SnperinteDdflnt. 
 
 The Westinghouse J!ngine 
 
 Is superior to all others for Mining purposes from 
 
 LOW COST OP TRANSPORTATION, 
 
 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRS BY INTERCHANGEABLE 
 
 PARTS, 
 
 COICPLETELT PROTECTED PROM THE DUST OP THE 
 STAMP MILL. 
 
 Requires neither Lining, Keyinsr-up, Packing, Adjustiner> Oiling 
 
 nor Wiping, and 
 
 DISPENSES ENTIRELY WITH SKILLED ENGINEERS. 
 
 2 to 250 HORSE POWER. 
 
 THE ALDEN CBUSHEB^ULVEBIZEB 
 
 ^T>iiiT, F^^^^^' SJ?^LEST AND CHEAPEST MACHINE FOR CONCENTRATING ORBS AT ONE 
 OPERATION. Has Greater Capacity than any other. 
 
 SEND FOR ILL USTRATED C IRCULAR. x&B We^tinghoD^B Bjachine CofflpanJ, 
 
 Works at Pittsburg, Pa. 92, & 94 Liberty St., New York. 
 
 -THE- 
 
 Mining Record, 
 
 61 BROADWAY, 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 A. R. Chisolm, Proprietor. Thos. Jordan, Editor. 
 
 A. D. Wagner, Business Manager. 
 
 Bank Note Company, 
 
 No. 61 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, 
 
 Eisra-iBA.'VEias A.i>ri3 i^sxia-TEias 
 
 Subscription, $4.00 a year, $2.50 
 six months. 
 
 A Weekly Newspaper devoted to the 
 Mining Interests of North America. It con- 
 tains the latest reports from the Gold, Sil- 
 ver, Copper, Coal and Iron Mining districts ; 
 able reviews of the Mining Stock, Coal 
 and Iron Markets, and a list of incotporated 
 dividend-paying mines, etc., etc. 
 
 SAMPLE COPY FREE 
 
 mm 
 
 For Governments and Corporations, Certificates of 
 Stock and all kinds of Securities in the Finest 
 and most Artistic Style, with Special 
 Safeguards to PREVENT COUNTERFEITING. 
 
 RAILWAY TICKETS 
 
 In every variety and color, with steel plate combination for security. 
 
 commercial. Rail-way and steamship Forms for 
 
 Advertising, Uy every known process 
 
 of prlntlnsr. 
 
 Bank Notes, Drafts, Checks, Insurance Policies, 
 
 Portraits, Circulars, Labels, Show Cards, 
 
 Postage Stamps, &c., &c. 
 
THE MINES, MINEKS AXD MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 {/. 
 
 €ore-liurreI or Spiral Grooved Guide and Bit. 
 
 IMPROVED 
 
 ProsiiectiDg Diamond Drill, 
 
 
 AMERICAN DIAMOND ROCK BORINfi CO, 
 
 No. 15 Cortlaadt Street, 
 
 ft 
 
 t 
 
 ft 
 
 p. 
 
 F. O. Box, X442. 
 
 NE-W YORK. xo^W 
 
 New Catalogue, with Price-List, famished on application. 
 Core-Barrel or Spiral Grooved Guide and Bit. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 T^mmMM^m imwsmT/Mm 
 
 THOMPSON'S PATENT 
 
 -IFOI?. •\ArEiT OK. DK.ir FUXj-V-:Ei:ElXZJiJTX<Dl<r- 
 
 Of ORES, BOOKS, ROLLING MILL FIX, FIRE-BRICK, PHOSPHATES, CEMENTS and other mate- 
 rials, EITHER COARSE OR TO AN IMPALPABLE POWDER. GREATER PRODUCT OF PUL- 
 VERIZED MATERIAL (wbicli is not flattened, but left in natural crystals) of equal fineness 
 in a given time, with LESS FIRST COST, LESS POWER, LESS SPACE, LESS 
 FOUNDATIONS, LESS LABOR, LESS SLIMES, LESS WATER, and LESS 
 COST FOB REPAIRS THAN STAMPS or any other PULVERIZER. 
 
 THOEOUGHLT PROVEN AT MINES IN COLORADO &c, ON ALL KINDS OP ORE, 
 
 STEPHEN P. M. TASKER, 
 
 CARE OF 
 
 MORRIS, TASKER & CO., LIMITED, PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A. 
 
 Manufacturer of Concentration Works, Gold and Silver Mills, and all kinds of Improved 
 
 Mining Machinery. 
 
 PLANS AND ESTIMATES FURNISHED UPON APPLICATION. COBBESPONDKNCK SOtlCITED. 
 
THE MINES, MINERS AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 THE -ROGERS « 
 
 SWING 
 GATE 
 
 CONCENTRATOR 
 
 FOR THE CONCBNTEATION OF 
 
 Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead, Zinc, Iron and other Ores, from their Gangues, and the Cleaning of Coal from 
 
 Slate, Bone-Coal and Sulphur. 
 
 Concentrates Material from 1 tnch In size dovm to 80 mesh, and able by its adjustability to treat any ores, where there is the 
 slightest difference in gravity from its gangue, using very little power and water, and requiring no 
 
 attention aner once placed in running order ; practical -workings at mines in *' 
 
 Colorado, etc., has fully proven its capacity. 
 
 When desired these Concentrstort can be constructed with 3, 4, 5. 6, or more compartments, instead of 2, where the ore is difficult 
 
 to <:°^™t=;^ concentration can be accomplished on this machine, but also a complete separation of associated ores, such as 
 
 Galena and Zinc, Galena, Zinc and Iron Pyrites, etc., by means of having the heaviest metal separated on the first screen, the next 
 heaviest in the second compartment, and the third heaviest in the third compartment, and so on. j .- , v ■ ■.,„ .1,= »^^<.n 
 
 In custom work, where the ores to be treated are of different characters, the machme can be changed entirely by giving the eccen- 
 trie more or less stroke. If the machine has been concentrating light Sulphurets on X" stroke, the changing of the eccentric to >^" stioke 
 
 "■^^^ThrSTthlSsatSnTe'screenbox produced by the stroke of the gate, enables such a delicate adjustment to the character 
 of the ore to be concentrated that ores which have hitherto de6ed treatment, can be, on this machme, worked as successfully as the 
 
 '"'""""STEPHEN P. M. TASKER, 
 
 SOLE MANUFACTURER, 
 
 CARE OF 
 
 I^OTIT^XS, Tj^SKIEIS; & 00., Llls^ITEID, 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, r. S. A. 
 
THE MINES, MINEES AND MINING INTERESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ■*-^J 
 
 ^-^^^-^ 
 
 THE PHILADELPHIA 
 
 o— oo— « 
 
 MINING JOURNAL 
 
 ' ■ -»«->^-^^^*- 
 
 OFFICES: 
 
 330 Walnut Street, Philadelphia. 
 
 LOUIS B. WEYSSER, Editor. 
 
 THE RECOGNIZED MINING AUTHORITY OF 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 THE ONLY PUBLICATION SOLELY DEVOTED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF 
 
 OUR MINERAL RESOURCES, PUBLISHED IN 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 i®"Correspondence solicited from all the raining camps. Acknowledged by the mining press 
 generally as one of the best mining publications in existence. 
 
 SUBSCRIPTION: 
 
 $2.50 per Annum ; $1.50 for Six Months ; $1.00 for Three Months. 
 
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